Biology 223 Human Anatomy and Physiology Lecture 2 Mr.

Ken Noriega

Tissues & Tissue Types & Human Embryology

Tissues & Tissue Types

Human Body
Trillions(?) of cells
But only 200 different types of cells

Cells join together to form tissues

Tissues perform similar functions Tissues are the building blocks of organs There are 4 basic tissue types

4 Basic Tissue Types

1. Epithelial tissues: cover surfaces, form glands 2. Connective tissues: fill spaces, provide support, transport materials, store energy 3. Muscle tissues: specialized for contraction 4. Neural tissues: carry information via electrical signals

Embryonic Basis of Tissue Types

Tissue types can be traced to early embryology Epithelial type tissues
Organized cellular structure Mostly ectoderm and endoderm derived

Mesenchymal type tissues

Disorderly, loosely arranged cellular structure Mostly from mesoderm

Epithelia vs. Mesenchyme

Epithelia vs. Mesenchyme

1. Epithelial Tissues
Epithelia (epithelium/epithelia)
A layer or multiple layers of cells that cover surfaces (internal or external)

Glands (well skip most of the details of these)

Secretory tissues attached to or derived from epithelia

Features of Epithelia
Cellularity: cells bound to one another Polarity: an exposed outer surface and bottom surface of the other side Attachment: a basal lamina attaches them to underlying connective tissue Avascularity: no blood vessels Regeneration: cells can be replaced

Functions of Epithelia
Protection: from abrasion & dehydration Control permeability: keep substances (usually fluids) in or out Sensation: richly innervated Secretion: from specialized gland cells

To maintain a barrier, cells need to be interconnected

Tight Junctions: Prevent the passage of water

Gap Junctions: Allow rapid communication between cells

(also found in cardiac muscle cells)

Varieties of Epithelia

General Characteristics
Simple Epithelia
Thin & fragile Found in areas of secretion or absorption (e.g., digestive system, lungs)

Stratified Epithelia
Found in harsh environments (skin, inside of mouth)

Simple Squamous
Peritoneal lining

Found in: alveoli, lining of heart and blood vessels, pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Stratified Squamous
Interior of the Oral Cavity

Found in: surface of the skin (with keratin), lining of the mouth, esophagus, and anus

Simple Cuboidal

Kidney tubule

Found in: areas of secretion (glands) and absorption (kidney)

Simple Columnar
Intestinal lining Villi

Found in: Lining of intestine, stomach, gall bladder, uterine (Fallopian) tube

Pseudostratified Columnar
Lining of the Trachea

Cilia

Found in: Lining of trachea, nasal cavity Each cell contacts the basal lamina

Transitional Epithelium
Urinary Bladder

Found in: Urinary bladder, ureters, renal pelvis Areas that stretch and recoil

Glandular Epithelia

2. Connective Tissues
Proper Connective Tissues Fluid Connective Tissues Supporting Connective Tissues

Mesenchyme: Embryonic Connective Tissue

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Connective Tissue Proper

Cells + Extracellular fibers in a fluid Ground Substance Divided into Loose and Dense Connective Tissues

Cells in Connective Tissue Proper

Fibroblasts: secrete hyaluronan, which makes the ground substance viscous Macrophages: clean up debris, stimulate immune system Adipocytes: contain a single lipid droplet Mast cells: house histamine and heparin; part of inflammatory response Lymphocytes: immune cells

Connective Tissue Proper

Extracellular Fibers in Connective Tissues

Collagen Fibers: long, straight fibers composed of the protein collagen; abundant in tendons and ligaments Reticular Fibers: branching & interwoven Elastic Fibers: wavy fibers composed of the protein elastin

Loose Connective Tissues: Areolar Tissue

Resilient to distortion, very elastic Found: between skin and deeper muscle tissues

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Loose Connective Tissues: Adipose (Fat) Tissue

Found: Everywhere (particularly surrounding organs and in joints)

Loose Connective Tissues: Reticular Tissue

Found in: Supporting tissues in the liver, kidney, spleen, lymph nodes

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Dense Regular Connective Tissue

Found in: Tendons, ligaments

Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

Found in: skin, perichondrium (surrounding cartilage), periosteum (surrounding bones)

Elastic Connective Tissue

Found in: blood vessel walls, between vertebrae

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Connective Tissues can be Fluids

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Supporting Connective Tissues

Cartilage
Hyaline Elastic Fibrocartilage

Bone

Hyaline Cartilage

Found: covering the ends of bones (articular), supporting the trachea & larynx

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Elastic Cartilage

Found: ears, nose, epiglottis

Fibrocartilage

Found: intervertebral disks, menisci in the knee joint

Bone

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Cartilage
Lots of fluid Avascular Flexible and tough Low energy demands Nutrients delivered by diffusion

Bone
Little fluid, much mineral Highly vascular Inflexible and stiff High energy demands Nutrients delivered via canaliculi

3. Muscle Tissue
Skeletal Muscle Cardiac Muscle Smooth Muscle

Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Long slender multinucleated cells (muscle fibers) Contain actin and myosin proteins for contraction Voluntary skeletal muscles

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Cardiac Muscle Tissue

Cardiocytes superficially resemble skeletal muscle Fewer nuclei (usually 1) Interconnected by special Gap Junctions called Intercalated Discs

Smooth Muscle Tissue

Smaller fibers with tapering ends Only 1 nucleus Found in GI tract, blood vessel walls, urinary bladder Usually under autonomic nervous system control (involuntary)

4. Neural Tissue
Glial Cells

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Anatomy of a Neuron

Axons can be >3 Feet long

Human Embryology

Fertilization and Oocyte Activation

Fusion of oocyte and sperm (2,000:1 volume ratio) Oocyte: provides DNA, organelles, nourishment Sperm: provides little more than DNA Zona reaction prevents fertilization by multiple sperm 23 chromosomes each from oocyte & sperm makes 46 total Fertilized egg is called a zygote, oocyte metabolic activity increases, and cleavage begins

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General Timetable for Gestation

First Trimester
Early cell divisions, establishment of germ layers (germinate), beginning of organogenesis

Second Trimester
Organogenesis completes

Third Trimester
Fetal growth, organ systems functional

Cleavage: Zygote to Blastocyst

Blastocyst Formation
Cleavage continues at the morula stage A hollow forms - Blastocoele Cells amass at one end of the Blastocyst - Inner Cell Mass
Also called Embryoblast

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Blastocyst Formation
Inner Cell Mass (Embryoblast)
Forms Embryo

Outer Cell Mass (Trophoblast)

Forms extra-embryonic tissues Primarily placenta

Amniotic Cavity

Amniotic Cavity Formation

Inner Cell Mass (ICM) pulls away from the Trophoblast forming a hollow Amniotic Cavity ICM forms a flat disc with two layers Bilaminar germ disc
Epiblast - dorsal, exposed to amniotic cavity Hypoblast - ventral, facing the yoke sac

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Bilaminar Germ Disc

Epiblast Hypoblast

Anatomical Axes Defined

Dorsal Left

Caudal

Cranial

Right

Ventral

Three Embryonic Layers

All adult tissues are derived from one of 3 layers
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Where do these come from?

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Epiblast & Hypoblast

Epiblast (dorsal)
Primitive ectoderm

Hypoblast (ventral)
Primitive endoderm (but not true endoderm)

Gastrulation: Formation of Three Embryonic Layers

Epiblast cells begin to migrate medially toward the primitive streak Then they move ventrally toward the hypoblast. The intermediate layer becomes Mesoderm. This invagination progresses caudal to cranial
Textbook Depiction

More Accurate Depiction

Epiblast Hypoblast

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Gastrulation
Ectoderm forms from Epiblast Epiblast cells migrate medially to the primitive streak Then they move ventrally, creating a space between the epiblast and hypoblast (Mesoderm) Hypoblast cells are displaced laterally by true Endoderm cells (derived from Epiblast). Hypoblast cells will line the yolk sac.

Gastrulation forms a tube within a Tube

Mouth

Anus

Outer tube vs. Inner tube Somatic vs. Visceral

Soma

Viscera Gut Coelom

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Neurulation
Ectoderm thickens just lateral to the primitive streak
Neural plate ectoderm

Neural folds form and roll up to form a hollow tube

Dorsal hollow nerve tube

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Epithelial vs. Mesenchymal Tissues

Epithelial
Orderly, closely packed

Mesenchymal
Disorderly, much extracellular fluid

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Formation of the Notochord

As mesodermal formation moves cranially, a dense aggregation of cells forms
This will form the notochord

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Germ Layer Derivatives

We can categorize adult tissues and organs by their germ layer of origin:
Ectoderm Mesoderm Endoderm

Ectoderm (pt. 1)
Epidermal Ectoderm
Epidermis - skin, hair follicles & hair, nails Anterior mouth Terminal GI system

Neural Plate Ectoderm

Central Nervous System - brain & spinal cord

Ectoderm (pt. 2)
Neural Crest Ectoderm
Peripheral nervous system - nerves outside CNS Ganglia of nervous system (cranial, spinal, autonomic) Dentine of teeth Head skeleton Pigment cells Covering of the brain (meninges)

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Mesoderm
Three divisions:
Epimere Mesomere Hypomere

Dont confuse epimere with epiblast

Mesoderm: Epimere
Epimere forms Somites (balls of tissue):
Dermatome - Dermis of skin Myotome - Axial, limb, and body wall musculature Sclerotome - Vertebral column & ribs

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Mesoderm: Mesomere
Also called Intermediate Mesoderm Forms urogenital system:
Kidneys and urogenital ducts

Mesoderm: Hypomere
Somatic (body) - Somatic Lateral Plate Mesoderm
Limb skeletons

Splanchnic (gut) - Splanchnic Lateral Plate Mesoderm

Heart, blood vessels Smooth muscle of the digestive system

Endoderm
Lining of the digestive tube
Mouth & pharynx Abdominal Foregut: Stomach, liver, pancreas, beginning of small intestine. Abdominal Midgut: most of small intestine, beginning of large intestine. Abdominal Hindgut: Terminal intestines, urinary bladder

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Embryonic Cross-Section

Time to Draw!
You must be familiar with the embryonic cross-section. You will learn the derivatives of the embryonic cross-section and the adult structures derived from the embryonic precursors.

A few words about Segmentation

Humans are segmented animals
Vertebrae, ribs, body wall musculature

Segmentation is most obvious in Mesoderm derivatives

Somites Dermatome, Myotome, Sclerotome

Segmented Dermatome

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Segmented Sclerotome

Segmented Myotome

Trans-segmental structures versus Segmental structures

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Mesodermal structures
Lateral mesoderm Intermediate mesoderm Paraxial mesoderm Somites Segmental structures

Early Development Continued: Dorsal hollow nerve tube Neural crest Further differentiation of the mesoderm

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Neural Crest Development

Structures Visible in the Basic Cross-Section of the Body (Embryo or Adult!)

Coelom Somatopleure Splanchnopleure Parietal Peritoneum Visceral Peritoneum Dorsal mesentery Ventral mesentery

Further endodermal development:

Lateral folds Oropharyngeal membrane Embryonic foregut Embryonic midgut Embryonic hindgut

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