Structuri Lemn

SEI Volume 18, Number 2
May 2008
Structural Engineering International
Journal of the International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering (IABSE)
WA
ThIl Timber Buildings: Introduction

qnd code development activities, and present case studies. The pervasive theme within these articles is the need to approach the design and construction of tall timber buildings in an integrated manner that recognizes the need to employ system level optimisation of the structural design. Important structural engineering themes covered in this issue of SEI are seismic design for strength and serviceability, wind design ing regulations directly address performance attributes of with emphasis on serviceability, fire engineering and use of alternativ e combinqtions of mater ials, co nstructio n metho ds innovqtive timber components. Cose studies address regional and building geometry. This proves especially liberating for variations in construction practices with emphasis on Asia, designs employing timber, because engineers are given the Europe, New Zealand and North America. Even in the few freedom to apply and derive benefits .from advanced de- months since the preparation of this issue of SEI began, there sign technologies and to use modern timber construction have been major developments in the construction of tall timproducts. In Britain, Italy and Switzerland, for example, six- ber buildings. For example, a modern seven-storey building storey or taller timber buildings are now accepted. In lVorth has been constructed in Berlin and a nine-storey building is America four-storeys is usual with occasionally five or six being constructed in London; and full-scale shake table tests storeys allowed by authorities with local jurisdiction.With the have been performed by ltalians on a seven-storey timber correct choice of building methods 20 storey or taller timber building using facilities in Japan. It is not fancful to expect buildings are technically possible. Ten storey timber build- thqt timber buildings with more than l0 storeys will be a ings becoming quite common is a practical near term goal. common part of future urban landscapes. Reseqrchers at various institutions in Europe, North America and Asia are perJbrming large scale tests, and developing de- Prof. Ian Smith, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, sign concepts and methods necessary .for that to become a Canada
Timber has been a preferred construction material since the dawn of civilization due to its nuturql abundance, high ratios of stiffness and strength to weight, and the ease with which it can be fashioned to shape. Over about the lsst decade governmentally imposed prescriptive regulations that define how buildings have to be designed and constructed have begun to be replaced by per.formance based codes. New and evolvreality. This issue of SEI is partially dedicated to "TallTimber Buildings" and includes 11 articles that describe the techn_ical issues,
Dr Andrea Frangi, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

Members of IABSE Working Commission 2: Steel,Timber and Composite Structures
establish the historical context, summarize recent research
Urban Timber Houses in Vienna

Martin Teibinger, Dr,
Eng., Holzforschung Austria, Wien, Austria
Introduction
Project "Miihlweg" of more than 250 flats in Vienna with four- and fivestorey timber houses is described in this paper. In 2001, the building code of Viennar was modified to make way for the establishment of multi-storey
in Vienna. The advantases of timber

buildings clarify why timber construction will play a major role in the future: High-grade prefabrication along with shorter construction periods, minor
for these pilot projects. Apart from fire

protection, the weighted impact sound pressure level of the partition ceilings presents a challenge. The measurement results and the construction methods are pointed out in this paper.
construction material moisture and

ecological aspects.
Because there are almost
no
Keywords: multi-storey timber housexpe-
timber houses with up to five storeys, provided that the supporting elements for the ground floor are made of mineral materials. In regard to multi-storey apartment building in Vienna these building methods were innovative. The city of Vienna has initiated a new focal point in public housing by promoting timber construction through advertising a competition amongst property developers. These timber constructions constitute something of an innovation in the area of multi-storev housins
riences available regarding timber construction in urban areas, the city's municipality has assigned the Holzforschung Austria to support the three
ing; sound insulation; wooden facades.
General Construction Methods The three projects are very different in concept (Fig. 1). However, the
staircases and the escape routes of all
winning teams from the-planning to the assembling periods.',' The objective was to become integrated in the
design process as soon as possible and
three projects are made of ieinforced
'of a testing and inspection institute in

case of specific questions regarding the
to provide the long-term
experience
field of timber construction. This suoport assures a high standard of quality
concrete. The supporting elements fulfill a fire resistance of 60 minutes. except the elements of fire compartments, which need a fire resistance of
90 minutes.l
Il4
Structures Worldwide
Structural Engineering International 2l2WB
Building Site A
Figure 2 shows building site A. The sup-
porting components (separating walls and ceilings) from the first storey upwards are carried out in cross-laminated timber elements. The raw elements are
mounted and completed on site. For the first time in multi-storey timber housing the ceilings are done in timber without suspended ceilings. For that
reason the sound insulation of the ceil-
ings and the cutting off of the indirect sound transmission at the ceiling-wall joints needed extraordinary solutions. Some sound level measurements of the ceiling construction were essential
to optimize the construction and to fulfill the strict Austrian requirements of the impact sound. Separating ceilings must have a maximum weighted standard impact sound pressure level L',,,1* of 48 dB. Figure 3 describes the
reahzed ceiling construction
with
90-mm thick unbounded split fill. Furthermore, elastomer strips were placed
between the ceiling construction and the load bearing internal walls to reduce the indirect sound transmission @ig. a). The presented ceiling has a L'n.1.ru of 48 dB.
The external walls were carried out

as prefabricated timber frame components with designed wooden facades.
However, the building regulation of Viennat demands building materials with the combustibility class 81 for the facades of buildings with more than three storeys. As a consequence of this regulation, oak and rhobinia
Fig. 1: Aerial photograph oJ the three building sites during assentbling periotl
are the only European species of wood
i": ri.: :1,'' til lil
--.
'L,-...'...,..
Fig. 2:
Builtling sirt A
212008
Fig. 4: Ceiling-wull joint with elastomere strips
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115
mm nim 90 mm 1;16 mm
60 30
floating lloor scrccd
insulation "Hcralan TPS" lill (split) cross laminatcd timber elcments
This ceiling construction has a weight-
ed standard impact sound
pressure
level L'n.1* of 40 dB.
Building Site C
The flats at building site C (Fqg. 8) are set around a concrete interior staircase. The supporting structure of the ground floor is also made of reinforced concrete. The supporting elements from the second to the fifth floor and the external walls of the ground floor are made of solid wood panels. Two innovations in the field of public housing in Austria were combined in this site:
Fig. 3: Ceiling consttrc'tion
that satisfy this standard. Discolourations caused by tanning agents occur frequently with these species and in addition to that. oak and rhobinia are much more expensive than, for example, larch. Based on the results of a research project* on the fire safety of wooden facades carried out bv Holzforschung Austria. rhe building authority could be persuaded that a ventilated facade made of larch (B2') with fire stops is safer than a facade with 81 products without fire stops.
The fire stops are made of steel sheet
with a thickness of 1.5 mm and bearing-out of 150 mm (Flg. 5).

Building Site B
The architect planned a concrete core to provide space for wet rooms as well as for the staircases and access to the
apartments (Fig. 6). The prefabricated
- For the first time the exterior walls were executed as solid
modular room elements are fixed at the core. Unfortunately the estimates of costs performed during the tendering procedure could not be abided by. The executors were arguing transportation problems - caused by the width
of 4,5 m - as well as assembly problems as reasons against the modules. Hence laminar components were used instead
wood components that are highly prefabricated. The whole timber construction of one house, including the windows and the prefabricated loggias, was erected in 2 weeks.
Moreover the four compact buildings
at building site C were
conceived
to fulfill passive house standards.

The measured air-tightness (blower door) with a n5o-v?lue between
0,2 and 0,3
h I is very good.
of
lar building methods. A constructive
shows the need
three-dimensional modules. That for optimizing modu-
modification into this direction is orofitable. not jusr from a financial poinr of view
A suspended ceiling was also applied at this building site. The ceiling construction (Flg. 9) has a weighted standard impact sound pressure level L'n.L* of
46 dB.
Fig. 5: Detail o.f tlte
fire
sLop
At building site B. rhe requirements on the fire protection were met with a boarding of plaster boards. The construction of the separating ceiling is a more or less "standard" system for multi-storey timber houses in Austria (Fig.7).
Conclusion
The citv municipality of Vienna has put into action an urban timber construction project that is one-of-a-kind in E,urope. In all. 250 flats in 15 highquality multi-storey timber buildings
Fig.6: Building site B

1
Fig. 8: Building site C
16
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mn mm mrn 18 mm 140 rnm 65 mm 1-5 mm

60 30 42
lloating floor screed

insulation Heralan TP 3-5/30
Properties of the building:
lill (split)
orienLecl strand boards (OSB) solid wood elemenLs (dowellcd) suspended ceiling with -50 rnm insulation
triats:
84
Building costs (EURO million): i0,708
plaster board
Building Site B
Property developer:
ARWAG Bautrriger Ges. m. b. H., Wien, Austria

Architect:
Fig.7: Ceiling construction building site B nm mm 70 mn 140 mn 70 mm 15 mm

50 30
Architekturbiiro Riess, Graz, Austria

floating 1'loor screed insulation 35/30
Statics:
fill (split)
cross Ianrinated
RW Tiagwerksplanung. Wien, Austria

mn insulation
tinber
suspended ceiling with ,+0
Building physics:
Vasko + Partner lngenieure, Wien,
plaster board
Austria
Timber constrLrction:
Holzbautechnik Sohm GmbH, Alberschwende, Austria

Properties of the building: Fig.9: Ceiling construction building site C
Flats:
Building costs (EURO
9ll
million):
9,13
have been realized as a result of the coalition of well organized planning teams, professional timber construction companies and the accompanying
support provided by the Holzforschung
SEI Data Block
Building Site C
Property developer:
Building Site A
Property developer: Gemeinntitzige allgemeine Bau-, Wohn und
Siedlungsgenossenschaft reg. Gen. m. b. H. (BWS), Wien, Austria
BAI Bautriiger Austria Immobilien

GmbH, Wien, Austria Architect:
Austria. This project has pioneered multi-storey timber housing in urban areas. Further projects will hopefully
follow.
Architekturbiiro Dietrich Untertrifaller

Architekten, Bregenz, Austria
Statics:
References
http://www.wien. gv.atlrccht/landesrecht-wien/ rechtsvorschrillen/html/b0200000.htm. 2007.
II]
Architects:
Architekturbiiro Proi DI Hermann

Kaufmann, Schwarzach, Austria
JR Consult, Graz, Austria
Architekturbtiro BM Johannes
Kaufmann, Dornbirn, Aust ria
Statics:
Building physics:
[2] Kocher. M.; Teibinger. M. Scientific attendance of the planning process of the timber
construction projects "Miihlweg". Report. Holzforschung. Austria, Wien, 200-5. [3] Teibinger, M.; Dolezzil. F.;Fitl, R. Timber construction project "MiiLhlweg" - scientific monl-
IBO Osterreichisches Institut fiir Baubiologie und -okologie GmbH,

Wien, Austria
Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn, Austna

Building physics: Holzforschung Austria, Wien, Austria Timber construction: Schertler Alge GmbH, Lauterach,
Timber construction:
KLH Massivholz GmbH, Katsch,

Austrra
Properties of the building:
toring of production. Report. Holzforschung.

Austria, Wien,2006.
fzll Holzforschung Austria. Leistungsflihige
Hol-
Flats:
Building costs (EURO
70
zfassadensysteme Endbericht. Holzforschung Austria: Wicn. 2005.
Austria
million):
'7,5
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Case Studies of Multi-Storev Wood-Frame Construction
in USA
Kevin C. K. Cheung, Dr,
PE,,
Director of Technical Services, Western Wood Products Association, Portland, USA
Introduction
Shortage
including a kitchen and dinner facility,

and amenities like a music room. librarv. card and game rooms. a craft shop. an-d an arts centre. Figure 1 shows a selected elevation of this project.The project was completed in 1987 (Fig.2). The budget
of affordable housing is a problem shared by many major cit-
ies in the USA. Three- to five-storey wood-frame buildings offer economical housing through low construction cost and high speed of construction.
for the project was 9,5 million USD,

which included the cost of land and 4,7 million USD for construction.
In the designing of multi-storey woodframe buildings, fire-safety and structural considerations are required by building codes. In addition, shrinkage and sound transmission do require
special attention.
Wood-frame was chosen orimarilv on lhe basis of cost comoaied to sieelframe. Bids for steel-irame came in
75% higher than wood-frame.The ease of wood-frame construction allowed the building to be framed in about five
months.
Fig. 2. Copperfield Hill project completed
Most Americans live in the suburbs in low-rise wood-frame constructions, including single-family detached houses and one- to three-storey apartments and condos. This has resulted in what is known as suburban sprawl-widely spread population, increasing the cost to the local government in providing
streets, water, and sewer services. Plan-
fire-retardant-treated lumber covered by type X fire-resistive rated gypsum wallboard on the interior.
According to the 1985 Uniform Building Code, exterior walls were required to be constructed of non-combustible materials. The architect divided Cooperfield Hill's living area into sl*
Although the exterior brick walls reach 15 m in height in some places,

they were constructed without the use of relieving angles. llowever, numerous vertical expansion joints and flexible brick ties were used to minimize
cracking.
"buildings" using fire-resistive areaseparation walls.
ning for the shifting demographics and rising land cost, US cities are turning to densifying housing development of in-fill projects in the city and new development projects in suburban town
centres.
To minimize shrinkage, the project

architect selected open web parallelchord wood trusses for most floor joist members. Other than shrinkage consideration, this type of truss provides easy access for routing plumbing, mechanical and electrical systems. Solid sawn lumber joists and wood I-joists were also used, but to a lesser extent.
Steel was used to form the large open central atrium and to support the code-
Keywords: multi-storey; wood-frame construction; shrinkage; sound transmission; case study; fire-separation wall; fire-retardant-treated lumber. Case Studies A number of major US cities including its suburbs are building denser developments and taller buildings to provide housing to the increasing population. The popularity of multi-storey woodframe construction is spreading across the USA. Four projects are presented to showcase multi-storev wood-frame
construction.
Wind was the main lateral force design consideration. No uplift problems were encountered in the design. To carry the high gravity loads on the lower floors.64 mm x 90 mm lumber at 406 mm on-centre was typically used for the interior wall studs. and 39 mm x 140 mm lumber at 406 mm on-centre were used for the exterior wall studs. Hem-Fir stud grade solid sawn lumber was specified for wall studs.
Case Study II: Delancey Street Foundeti on Tii ang I e C o mp I ex
required non-combustible metal pan stairs. For aesthetics and to meet the code requirement for non-combustible exterior wall assemblies, a brick facing was chosen. For framing within the exterior walls, the architects specified
The Delance], Street Foundation Tiiangle Complex in San Francisco is owned
I: Copperfield Hill Copperfield Hill is the first five-storey wood-frame building to be built in
Case Study
Minneapolis,_ Minnesota. The building is a 15 328 mz self-contained retirement
community that provides apartmentstyle living spaces and common areas,
Fig. 1: Elevation view of the Copperfielcl Hill project (photocredit: Golpin Ciaccio Klick
Associates)
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by the Delancey Street Foundation, an
innovative and highly successful reha-
bilitation program for drug abusers

and alcoholics.
The complex has seven buildings totalling 30 193 m'of space. The complex contains a central court yard, health club, pool, 500-seat assembly hall,
The project's total cost was 25 million USD, which included land, financing and marketing expenses. Of the total, $2 million was for land and $16 million was for site development, labour and construction materials. The project
took 15 months to construct and was completed in 1988.

The main section and two wings are four stories on top of a poured-in-place parking garage. A four-storey skylight atrium in the centre of the main building serves as a gathering place. Steel components were used for parts of the parking garage and for the open-frame public area which includes the fourstorey atrium structure. Connections of wood floor trusses to steel-frames were made by bolting a continuous
wood plate to the top of the steel beam, thus making a standard wood-to-wood connection possible.
recreation building with a 150-seat screening room, dry cleaner, auto repair shop with an antique car museum, wood shops and a 400-seat restaurant. The four residential buildings provide 177 living units. Areas below the threestorey wood-frame structure provide commercial and retail space. Figure 3 shows an artist's project rendering. The materials for the complex were donated, and the Delancey Street
members did much of the construction themselves and learned valuable con-
Fig. 1: Delancey Street project completed
with 16 mm gypsum board covering one face of the wall, 9,5 mm plywood
with
16 mm gypsum board on the
other
side, and 90 mm acoustic batting woven between the staggered studs in the wall
cavity. The entire assembly provides a
STC rating of approximately 53.

Case Study
struction skills. The project was completed in 1989
III:
The Getesworth
(Fig.4.
Each building has two exterior exit stairways that are constructed of precast concrete treads, risers and landings. The buildings also have one interior exit stairway, which is woodframe. All wood-framing is Douglas Fir-Larch (DF-L) solid sawn lumber. To help reduce shrinkage problems, 38 mm thick lumber with a maximum of 12"/" moisture content was used as floor joists. No shrinkage calculations
were performed.
To reduce sound transmission between units, staggered 2 x 4 wall studs to the
The Gatesworth at One McKnight Place, St. Louis, Missouri, is a fourstorey wood-frame building. It has one five-storey wing. It contains 26 073 m' ol living area plus 6 I l3 m2 of parking
under the building.
The building is a retirement community with shopping area, cultural activities,
The project was designed using three
front and back of the wall cavity on a 38 mm x 140 mm (2 x 6) plate are used
banks and churches. The multi-wins building includes 219 one- and twol bedroom apartments with balconies and full kitchens, a theatre-style auditorium, greenhouse, fitness centre, arts and crafts centre, library and lounge areas, and formal and informal dining rooms. Figure 5 shows a project floor plan and Flg. 6 shows the completed
project.
fire-separation walls to divide the building into four different building sections. A two-hour fire-resistive rating was required for the exit hallways, stairway enclosures and assemblies separating the parking garages from the living areas above. The two-hour fire-resistive rated walls have two layers of 16 mm type X gypsum wallboards on each side.
The two-hour fire-resistive rated floor separated the parking garage from the Iiving areas - 38 mm x 286 mm lumber joist system with double layer of 16 mm type X gypsum wallboard on the garage ceiling and 38 mm of lightweight concrete over 16-mm plywood
on the first storey floor. To maintain the required fire-resistive rating of the exterior walls. exterior balconies
were framed with fire-retardant-treated
lumber.
.!t''
\"{ !"'if at' -\,
Wind was the main lateral force design consideration in lateral force. Basic design wind speed was 113 kmihour, approximately 73 kgf/m' on lhe projected area. To resist the lateral forces,
,
gypsum sheathing was used on all exte-
rior, interior and partition wall faces. Some selected walls were built with plywood as well as gypsum sheathing installed on the exterior faces.
DF-L stud grade 38 mm x 140 mm lumber was doubled at 610 mm oncentre for the first- and second-floor bearing walls to carry loads that were
as high as 2 268 kg. Tiipled 38 mm x
140 mm lumber studs were used for

Fig. 3: An artist's rendering of the Delancey complex (photocredit: Backen,
Arrigoni
Ross)
the lower level walls in the five-storey wing. Loads are carried to the ground
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212008
Nry
rr -2Bedroomunit ... -3Bedroomunil
o -lBedroomunit
The Heathman Lodge was built under
Walkout garden level (5'Stor.v wing)
R-2 Occupancy in residential areas
3 Occupancy in public areas
the 1994 Uniform Building Code. The building is a light wood-framed onehour fire-resistive rated construction for hotel sleeping occupancy and exhibit and lecture halls. The first floor is 3,35 m in height, while the second and third each reach 3,05 m and the fourth at 2,74 m. The building reaches an overall 20 m high. Under the Uniform Building Code, this structure type can stand three stories plus an additional floor when sorinklered. The hotel was designed in seismic zone 3. The City of Vancouver building authorities required the engineer to design the building to withstand 145 km/hour winds with an exoosure D classification. Roof load was ar 122 ksf/m2. iloor Iive load was 19.5 L*;7n-r'. )U2 kgi/m2 for decks, and stairs and corridors were
designed at 488 kgf/m2.
(5-Story sectiol)
Fig. 5: Floor
plan of the Gatesworth proiect (photocredit: Arthur J. SitzwohL & Associates)
The engineer specified all
38 mm
Fig. 6: Gatesworth project completed
through the alignment of the vertical bearing members, on the ends of each floor truss, to the vertical load-carrying studs directly below. This reduced the load on the horizontal members.
The floor members were 610 mm deeo
the surfaces. To prevent this potential problem, four bearing lines through the cross section of the buildins were used. The interior corridor ourtitiotrt were designed as bearing *ails to support the roof and floor trusses. The centre corridors were then bridsed with 38 mfl x 184 mm lumher. Eich half of the roof was trussed seoaratelv r,rith a gap provided at the ,iOg" ro allow for any movement that might take place. This arrangement virtually eliminates the potential for cracks on the interior finishes due to differential
shrinkage.
Case Study
thick S-Dry (maximum 19% moisture content) solid sawn lumber for studs, plates, and sills of No. 2 grade or better DF-L. Larger 90 mm and 140 mm thick lumber used to support loads around windows and balconies called for No.1 grade DF-L. Window headers were 140 mm x 247 mm No. 1 grade Dtr-L, while the plan uses 90 mm x 235 mm No.2 grade DF-L, unless otherwise
noted.
IV: Heathman Lodge
The Heathman Lodge is anAlpine style
Glulam members used were 140 mm x 302 mm 24F-V8. 130 mm x 356 mm 24F-V8, and architectural grade was specified for all exposed uses, and industrial grade when enclosed. Wood I-joists used were 24I mm and 302 mm in depth, and 68 mm x 302 mm paralam members were also used. Pine logs used were 305 mm, 406 mm, 457 mm and 610 mm in diameter.
parallel-chord trusses. except for the joists supporting the first floor. The 38 mm x 286 mm first floor lumber joists were blocked with short vertical
pieces under the bearing walls. This ar-
four-storey wood-frame hotel found in the growing southwest Washington State City of Vancouver (Fig. 7).T\e lodge has 121 oversized guest rooms plus 22 suites, meeting and banquet
rooms spreading almost 11 148 mr.
rangement takes advantage of wood's
negligible longitudinal shrinkage and allows the vertical blocking to carry the load if the 38 mm x 286 mm joists shrink across their width.
In most cases. wood floor trusses were hung from the steel beam to avoid differential shrinkage between wood and steel. Commercial brick anchors were used between the wood-frame and brick veneer, which allowed for a diffcrential movement of 25.4 mm or less.
Movements between the ceiling and
the interior partitions near the middle of the building can result in cracks on
Fig. 7: Heathman Lodge (Vancottver, Washington, USA) - a four-storey wood-frame hotel
has a two-hour fire-separation wall dividing the areas. All corridors are protected with a 1-hour fire-resistive rated assembly. The ceiling is one hour fire-resistive rated using 16 mm thick type X gypsum with RC-1 resilient channel. The wood I-joist floor joists are covered with 25 mm thick gypcrete over 19 mm thick tonguedand-grooved plywood subfloor on the first three floors.
The structure is divided into four areas, sections A through D. Each
Shear walls are found mostly at exterior walls and at the corridors. The roof framing material used prefabricated engineered trusses spaced 610 mm oncentre. Roof trusses are designed for
212008
98 kgf/m2live load plus 59 kgf/mZ deacl load besides the truss svstem weisht aclding 910 kgf/m2 in fire-rated ceiling areas. The architect specified a standing seam green metal roof over other
Conclusion
The popularity of multi-storey woodframe construction is spreading across the USA. Major US cities are planning
SpeciJication writer:
Herman Hoyer, South San Francisco. Calitornia, USA

P
materials.
for to
One oi the most impressive aspects of the Heathman Lodge is the porte cochere (Flg 8). The porte cochere is topped with a metal roof. Under the roof is a layer of felt building paper, 12.1 mm plywood sheathing, and
38 mm x 140 mm (2 x 6) tongued-and-
denser development and taller buildings to provide affordable housing to the increasing population. Three-
roj ect
ordinuto r/co d e
co ns ul tant :
Jack Scott & Associates, San Francisco,
California. USA
Construction Cost:
five-storey wood-frame buildings offer economical housing through low construction cost and hieh speed of
construction.
No cost estimate provided as materials were donated and volunteers did construction
Service Date:
Fall. 1989
grooved decking.
Several balconies
of various
design
SEI Data Block

Case
D eve
Case
III
wner:
and placement surround the building. Most are supported by a foundation footing. They use four 457 mm diameter 1og columns to provide support for six balconies (Flg. 9). two on
D evelctper/O
loper/Owner: Darrel A. Farr
One McKnight Place Development Co., St. Louis, Missouri. USA Architect:
each floor above the second storey.
Development Corp., Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA

Architect:
Horizontal members are 305 mm diameter logs.
Arthur
J. Sitzr,vohl
& Associates, Creve
Coeur. Missouri. USA

StrtLcttLral clesign:
Klick Inter Arch Design, Minneapolis,

Minnesota, USA Structural design: TSP, Minneapolis, Minnesota. USA Contructor: Darrel A. Farr Development Corp.. Minn'eapolis, Minnesota, USA
Fra min g sub
c
Eason, Thompson & Associates, Inc. St.
Louis, Missouri. USA Contractor: One McKnight Place Development Co., St. Louis. Missouri, USA
Fr aming
s
nlr acto r:
ub
contracto r:
Braxton Hancock & Sons, Inc., Edina. Minnesota. USA

Fig. 8: Porte cochere of Heathman LocLge
McBride & Son Companies, St. Louis, Missouri, USA

Project cost (USD
Lumber (excluding
wood trusses) (m3): OSB (m2):
1100 18 100
million):
25
Service Date:
Case
December, 1988
Total construction cost (USD million):

Service Date:
Case
IV
4'7
December. 1987
Owner: Heathman Group, Portland. Oregon,
USA
II
D eveloper/Owner: Delancey Street Foundation, Inc., San
Architect: Fletcher Farr Ayotte, Portland. Oregon,
USA
Structural engineer ( hote I building) Dale Haller Engineers, Portland, Oregon, USA Slructural engineers (porle cochere) Conlee E,ngineers, Inc.. Portland, Oregon, USA Project cost
:
Francisco,
California, USA
Architect:
Backen, Arrigoni & Ross, Inc., San Francisco, California, USA StructtLral design:
R.M.J. & Associates, South San Francisco, California, USA

G
e
(USD million):
Service Date:
20
o t e c hni c al c o ns tr
ltant :
Fig.9: Bulcotties of Heathman Lodge
Harding Lawson Associates, San Francisco, California, USA
November,
1997
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Multi-Storey Timber and Mixed Timber-Rc/Steel Construction in USA

Kevin C. K. Cheung. Dr,
PE, Director of Technical Services, Western Wood Products Association, Portland, USA
Summary
Multi-storey timber-frame construction is used in North America for both residential and commercial structures. Timber is the predominant structural material used in residential construction throughout the uSA. Reinforced concrete and steel assemblies mixed into timber-frame structures provide added performance for fire protection and earthquake resistance. This paper reviews the development of multi-storey timber-frame construction in the USA and the use of timber-frame mixed with concrete and steel elements. Keywords: mixed construction; multi-storey; timber-frame;wood-frame; platform construction; wrap construction; pedestal building.
next storey. Platform framing became
common
in USA in the
1940s. and
became an alternative to the balloon framing concept, which began around
Introduction
Throughout history, timber, as a building material, has been desired for its build apartments, motels and hotels. structural capabilities as well as its senior livine facilities and office build_ aesthetic value. From the earliest log inss. Over two-thirds of the US househomes to today's multi-storey timber- holds own their homes representing frame (called wood-frame in North their largest single asset eabte Z). America) structures, wood has been the common thread as a buildins ma-
wood-frame construction (Table l).In the last 30 years. multi-storev woodframe constiuction has been used to
1840 when milled lumber and iron nails became more readily available. Unlike earlier timber-frame of postand-beam construction of European descent, both balloon and platform framing in USA helped initiate the use of small, uniform, repetitive wood structural members (38 mm thick lumber, e.g. floor joists, roof rafters and wall studs).
USA Building Code

In the USA. the International Building Code (IBC) is the primary building code, providing the minimum standard for life safety and property protection. The IBC recognises combustible (wood-frame) construction and non-
terial, providing shelter for miilions, housing hosts of businesses, and decorating structures both large and small. Solid-sawn lumber and engineered wood products used in conjunction with reinforced concrete and steel provide new and exciting avenues in multi-storey mixed construction
projects.
Platform consfiuction
combustible (concrete
and
steel)
Wood-frame construction is based on the concept of platform framing - a form of construition where the floor
structure of each storey forms the base
construction types, and protected (fireresistive) and unprotected assemblies. Wood-frame construction is considered combustible.
(platform) for building the floor above, which in turn becomei the bat. for the
Fire-retardant-treated (FRT) woodframe construction is permitted in
Wood-Frame Construction
Material
Wood
Steel
System
Floor (%)
64 0,4 36
in USA
Wood has always been the preferred building material for construction of homes in the USA with over 1.5 million new homes built each year.About 80%
of these homes are single-family dwellings, and about 20% are multi-storey multi-family apartment-style units. Approximately 907" of the single-family
Exterior wall (%)

86 0,4
t-)
Interior wall (%)

95
5
Roof (o/")
100
0,1 0
Concrete/masonry
Table
0l
l:
Percentages of construction materials used in new home construction
in the USA in 2003

Total households
105,842,000
detached homes built each vear use

///il/il//
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///[/fl//
Owner occupied units

Sinsle familv detached units
72,238,000 (68%) 67,753,000 (66"/")

41,775
/W\
-, -,
Peer-rpviou'pd by international extbr pubrication bv SET Editorial Board
Household income (median) Value of owner occupied unit (median) Population

Tgble 2: Selected statistics from the 2003 USA Housing Survey
;;;;;;;;"red f'':" :']: :"":r
USD
140,201USD
291 million
Paper received: August 21,,2007 Paper accepted: December 4,2007
122
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212008
some appllcatlons requlrlng noncombustible sonstruction. One construction type provided in the IBC requires that the exterior walls are
of non-combustible materials and the interior building elements are of any
material the IBC permits, including untreated wood. FRT wood is permitted as an alternative to non-combustible
pedestal for a multi-storey wood-frame building atop separated by a three-hour
In order to carry high gravity
loads
fire-resistance rated horizontal barrier. often provided by the non-combustible concrete slab. Pedestal buildings are
on lower floors. lumber studs in sizes of 38 x140 mm. 64 x 89 mm. or 64 x 140 mm are often used singularly or
permitted for assembly, business/office,
mercantile/retail and parking garage uses below the three-hour horizontal fire separation. and residentiai occupancy uses above (Flg. 2).
materials within these exterior wall assemblies of a two-hour fire-resistant rating or less.
The iBC prescribes allowable building height and floor area for different construction types to address fire-safety considerations and fire-fighting strategies. Increases to the allowable height
built-up (fastening together two or more pieces of lumber), or framed with closer than the typical stud spacing of 406 mm. Lumber 64 mm in thickness is often required in cases where close nail spacing is required as in structural shearwalls and diaphragms designed
Design Considerations
When designing multi-storey woodframe structures, there are several key factors unique to wood with respect to structural performance, fire-safety and sound transmission.
S
for high forces.
Compression
and area are permitted where open space is provided for fire-fighting access and the use of automatic fire suopression systcms. such as sprinklers.The IBC permits those portions of a building separated by one or more fire walls
to be considered as separated buildings
tructural
C onsiderations
Wood strength is highest in the direction of the grain and lower across the
grain. Designed and constructed properly, wood has very few structural limitations. Wood-frame assemblies have a higher strength-to-weight ratio over
perpendicular-to-grain may control stud size owing to end-bearing requirements on wall plates, or bearing-plate sizing in beam and column design. Where joists, beams, or studs bear on supports, some fiber deformation develops, requiring the bearing area to be of sufficient size to prevent excessive side grain crushing of the wood members. Shrinkage
C onsideretions
Consideration of wood shrinkage is re-
side-by-side. In this way, wood-frame buildings can be designed as connected
quired by IBC for wood-frame buildings more than three storeys. Using dry lumber will minimise wood shrinkage issues, such as cracking of finish and distress in plumbing systems. The total shrinkage in a wood-trame building can
buildings achieving almost unlimited total building floor area (Fig. l).
The IBC considers buildings with a floor used for human occupancy located more than 23 m above the lowest level of fire department vehicle access as high-rise buildings. Additional code provisions apply to these buildings to accommodate different fire orotection stralegies for human occupanl evacuation and fire-fighting access. Woodframe construction is senerallv built
below this height.
Pedestal Building Design
those built with steel and concrete. and because they are light in weight, they produce a low inertia force during
seismic events.
walls and diaphragms, which
In
wood-frame construction. shear-
be calculated by summing the shrinkage of the horizontal wood members in the walls and floors, such as wall plates and floor joists. The overall shrinkage
are sheathed with wood structural panels. have long been recognised as provid-
The IBC permits a building of noncombustible construction to serve

as
the
ing superior performance against lateral forces caused by high winds and earthquakes. These shearwalls and diaphragms maintain high stiffness and strength in the design range and, if pushed to their ultimate capacity, tend to yield onll,gradually while continuing to carry high loads. Moreover, these assemblies can absorb a great deal of energy before failure.
in multi-storev wood-frame
construc-
tion can be further reduced by placing floor joists in metal joist hangers off the walls instead of on top of the walls.
Particular attention needs to be given in wood-frame construction mixed with concrete and steel elements where differential shrinkage may occur - such as wood-frame structures combined with a brick veneer. a steel-frame atrium
Fig. 1: Meridiatt Apartntent.s (l,as Vegas, Nevadn) ttnder

I
ttn.\lf ll( li(,n
Fig.2: Mixed construction of construction
pedestal building under
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Reports
123
(a)
(b)
Fig.3:Wood ioists floor systems in steel .frame construction (a) wood l-Joist antl (b) wood Jlange metal-tube-web joist
space,
shaft. Fire-
or a
concrete block elevator
with suspended ceilings or open-web

trusses.
joist floor systems are used in the steel

frame construction (Fig. 3).
S afe
ty C onsi derati ons
For fire protection in multi-unit residential structures, the building code uses the concept of fire compartmentation to contain a fire by requiring the use of fire-resistive assemblies for corridor fire separations and for separations between occupancy units. In addition, fire stops and draft stops are required to prevent movements of flame and hot gases (including smoke) to other areas of the building.
Sound Transmission Considerutions
Sound transmission is an importanl non-structural design consideration for multi-storey/multi-family woodframe wall and floor construction that
may control material and construction choices. Wide ranges of wood-frame assemblies have been tested for sound
Fastening wood members to steel members is often a design challenge. Wood blocking serving as nailers are often bolted to the steel beams
making a standard wood-to-wood connection possible (Figs. 4 and 5). The
transmission properties. Light-weight

gypsum concrete tloor topping, soundabsorbing wall boards and acoustic
attachment of wood stud walls to the concrete slabl is accomplished using .l2,5mm anchor bolts spacing 0,6m to 1.2 m on center with mechanical or adhesive anchors drilled in concrete slab, anchor bolts cast in concrete slab,
One-hour fire-resistive construction

is usually the minimum required fireresistance rating for vertical and horizontal fire separations between each
sealers filling the gaps between wall and floor elements are used to reduce sound lransmission.
or steel plates cast into concrete slab with sill anchor bolts field welded on
the steel plates.
dwelling unit. Higher fire-resistance ratings are required for stairway enclosures and hallways to protect the egress for occupants. Fire tests have
been conducted on many wood-frame
A sound transmission
class (STC) rat-
ing of 45 to 55 is commonly required. For improved sound reduction, lightweight concrete toppings are often used on floors - usually 38 mm thick stan-
fire-rated gypsum wallboard to demonstrate their

fire-resistance performance. Using the results of these tests. fire-resistance ratings have been established.
assemblies sheathed
with
dard light-weight concrete, or 19 mm thick gypcrete (at 19 mm, less than 31,8 kg/m,). Light-weight concrete and gypcrete are self-levelling the concrete is poured after framing and sheathing are completed and all electrical and plumbing systems are
installed.
Fire-stops prevent movements of

flame and gas to other areas of a building through relatively small, concealed spaces resulting from construction or penetration of building components such as floors and walls. Wood fireblocking (38 mm thick lumber) is commonly used between joists and along wall plates. Non-combustible flexible material is used around vents, pipes, ducts, chimneys and fireplaces. Draftstops prevent the movements of air, smoke, gas and flame to other areas of a building through large concealed spaces. such as attics and floor assemblies
Bolt blocking 7
Mixed Construction
Reinforced concrete or steel construction is often used to build stairwells
w/ 13 mm dia. bolt 813 mm o.c.
and elevator shafts in wood-frame
Wood blocking
as required
structures. Steel K-frame is used to resist lateral forces when large span of opening is desired and shearwalls are not placed - this is common in hotel lobbies in high-seismic zones. There are also projects where wood
Fig. 4: A floor detail at stair corridor - wood blocking bolted to the steel beam is used as a nailer for fastening standard metal joist hangers
124
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212008
(cl
(d)
Fig.6: The Pine Square/Pacific Court project in Long Beach, California (a), (b) and (c) under construction, (tt) completed used for retail and theater soaces. and
Double 38 mm x
blocking betwcen
four-slorey uood-frame construction

of residential apartment units atop.
lloor
trusses
Wrap Construction
land and construction costs through construction speed and reasonable material costs. The US Building Code system is flexible in giving designers a wide range of options for developing the most cost-effective and safe
multi-storey wood-frame design solution. While multi-storey wood-frame construction has predominantly been used for multi-family residential hous-
In recent years, wrap configuration is gaining popularity as a cost-effective

building type. This type of construction is generally designed and built with a
high density wood-frame apartment

Fig. 5: A wood-to-steel connection conceals the steel beam.Wood floor trusses hang .from the double top chord. The connection o.f wood .floor trusses to steel beam was made by bolting a continuous wood plate to the top o.f the steel beam
building wrapped around a reinforced concrete parking structure. The apartment tenants can park their cars on the same floor level where they live. The wood-frame apartment buildings are built during the same time as the concrete parking structure.
ing in USA, it is also finding its way into new and innovative uses in impressive large-sca1e mixed-use and mixed construction projects.
Acknowledgement
Figure 4 courtesy of Architect Office ol Galpin Ciaccio Klick.
Pine Square/Pacffic Court Building Complex Project One example of a mixed construction project is the Pine Square/Pacific Court building complex (Flg. 6) constructed in 1992.This building is comprised of twolevel underground parking, two-storey
Conclusion
Multi-storey wood-frame construction
References
and
[1] Brian K. High Rise Wootl Frame Constmctictn: ne C o ndo mi ni ums, Structural Magazine (h ttp://www. str ucturemag. org/archive s/2006/ June-2006/D -Fex- Hi-Rise-wood -fram e-const -June-06.pdf). June 2006.
C o rne rs to
is suitable for both residential
structural steel-frame lower floors
commercial structures and provides an economical as well as environmentally sustainable solution to rising
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125
Example of Traditional Tall Timber Buildings in China - the Yingxian Pagoda

Frank Lam, Ph.D., PE, Prof., University of British Columbia, Canada: Minjuan He, Ph.D., Prof., Tongji University, China; and Chichao Yao, Ph.D., PE, Principal, Read Jones Christoffersen Ltd., Canada
Summary
Tall timber Pagoda was very popular at one time in ancient china. The Yingxian Wooden Pagoda is an example of such building which survived close to 1000 years of exposure to the elements and forces of nature, wars, and human usage as well as misuse. This paper discusses many unique structural features of this pagoda building by relating its special structural form and structural elements to its ability to resist large seismic forces. Keywords: wooden pagoda; symmetrical multistory building; dou gong bracket system; earthquake; reinforcement techniques.
Fig.
Introduction
Timber was one of the most imoortant
History of Pagodas
The origin of the elegant Chinese pagoda structures can be traced back to the introduction of Buddhism to China from India during the Han Dynasty (206 B.C-220 A.D.).Theywere
l:Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
building materials in China. It was used as roof, floor, and column members in most buildings including common residences, large villas for the affluent, ancestral halls, temples, and palaces. Nowadays timber is seldom used as prime structural components in modern Chinese construction even
though there is an unprecedented con-
Builders started to exoeriment with

brick and stone
as
pagoda building ma-
struction boom since the late 1980s. The main reason for this dilemma is
that the unsustainable deoletion of domestic r.rood supply in the 1950s-1970s Ied to logging moratorium for several decades. Without domestic wood suo-
originally intended as imporranr religious monuments to enshrine holy documents and sacred relics including small calcified bone or teeth of Buddhist monks. In India, the stupas built with stone were used for this purpose.
From historical writing, murals, and unearthed pottery models from tombs, it is known that construction techniques
terial during the Northern Wei and Sui dynasties (386 A.D.-618 A.D.) even though wood was still officially recognized as the material of choice. Emperor Sui Wen Di (581 A.D.-604 A.D.) decreed standard designs for pagoda using wood. None of these older timber structures is in existence today, likely because of fire and war.
ply. timber engineering education in universities ceased further leading to common misconceptions of wood as
structural material. Nevertheless. there are still many examples of these ancient Chinese timber structures, which have withstood centuries of exoosure to the elements and forces oI naiure, survived many wars, and endued human usage as well as misuse. It is important to study the past and examine some of these structures in detail as we progress into future novel applications of timber systems. Of particular interest
for multistory timber building exisred in China. Chinese architects and craftsmen modified the stone stupa concept into Chinese pagoda to fit Chinese architectural style and existing construction practice. The pagodas were built as tall symmetrical multistory buildings topped with a steeple to symbolize
power of the heaven using the material of choice - timber. They were usually built in odd number layers from a min-
The oldest surviving wooden building in China is the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda, also known as Sakyamuni Pagoda in Yingxian County in the
northwest of Shanxi Province (Fig. 1). It was built in 1056 A.D. during the
second year of the reign of Liao Dynasty
Emperor Dao Zong Di. Its height of 67,31m, including a 10 m tall steeple, made it one of the tallest wooden structures in the world.
The pagoda is octagonal in plan with a width at ground level exceeding 35 m.
imum of three to nine or more tiers. As the pagoda became more popular, some of them were made as secular public buildings.
The wooden Bai Ma Ta (White Horse Pagoda) in Luoyang, built in 67 A.D., was the first Chinese pagoda built by official decree. Emperor Xiao Ming Di of the East Han Dynasty com-
from the outside, the pagoda seems to have five levels. There are a total of six tiers of eaves with the first
Seen
story having a double tier of
eaves.
are the ancient tall timber structures.

the Dasodas.
From the interior. it can be seen that there are actually four concealed floors making the pagoda into a nine-story structure in total.
/////////////
///////fl/
//ffi\ I -,
/////////
Pner-revierr'.,1 hy internaliOnal exror puhricarion
;;,;";;;oted t-:-:;,:--:' bV Stl b.clrtonalBoard
Paper reccived: August 23.200'7 Paper accepted: December 4,2007
to show his devotion to his new found religion, Buddhism. The original pagoda did not survive and the current reolacement pagoda was builr wirh bricks and
missioned the building
stones.
The Structure of Yingxian Wooden Pagoda

The construction method for Yingxian
Wooden Pagoda followed the principle of an official code of building

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method (Yingzao Fashi), published by Li Jie in 1103 A.D. This method strives to take advantage of the compressive strength of wood. Historical records show that the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda experienced over forty seismic events. During the reign of Emperor Shun Di (1333 A.D.-1368 A.D.) of the Yuan Dynasty, the Yingxian County in Shanxi Province experienced a series of major earthquakes that lasted for seven days. Records indicate that this region experienced a magnitude
not touch the ground due to the longitudinal shrinkage of the wood and is essentially suspended as a pendulum in the structure. Some speculated that the pendulum pillar can act as a pseudo tune mass damper reducing the vibration of the pagoda during earthquake. It is doubtful that the ancient builder had this purpose in mind when the central pillar was originally installed.It
is well known that the Japanese temple
apex of the pagoda. These inclines are intended as stated in Yingzao Fashi.The column slope depended on the location of the column as shown in Table l.Compared to vertical columns, the inclined columns could have increased the seismic resistance of the wooden pagoda
considering the transfer shear forces from the top of the column to its base.
Most of the columns have a diameter of 600 mm but with different lengths according to floor heights. The horizontal members have different cross-sections
such as 600 mm x 320 mm.600 mm x 300 mm,370 mmx 170 mm and 500 mm x 300 mm depending on the beam spans and applied loads.
earthquake on the Richter scale
twice and magnitude 6-6,9 earthquake on the Richter scale six times. The Yingxian Wooden Pagoda survived these major seismic events and many
building technology originated from the Chinese during the Thng Dynasty (618 A.D.-907 A.D.); the central pillars were probably used also in many smaller wooden pagodas in China that
did not survive. As the Chinese strived
others.
By studying how the Yingx-
ian Wooden Pagoda was built as a tall structure, one may be able to ascertain some of the reasons behind the welldocumented excellent seismic-resistant capabilities of pagodas.
to build taller and taller pagodas, the central pillars were eliminated from the design whereas Japanese retained
this feature in all their wooden pagoda
structures. Figure J shows a vertical sectional view of the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda. It can be seen that large spaces are available in each main floor of the building where hear,y statues are positioned. The columns have a slieht incline toward the
In each ring, the columns are sequentially connected using a series of tie beams (da tou mu). These beams are
slotted into the top of the columns with a horizontal plate (pu bai fang) laid on top of the tie beams (Fig q. Furthermore, on top of each column assembly
The Yingxian Pagoda was built with Xing'an larch from Northern China, which is rarely available now. In the 1970s, the material test was conducted by taking specimens from secondary timber members. The test result showed that, on average, the compression strength parallel to grain was 42,247,3 N/mm', tension strength parallel to grain was 65,1-77,0 N/mmz, bending strength was 91,8-109,5 N/mm', radial compression strength perpendicular to grain was about 2,8 N/mm/, tangential compression strength perpendicular to grain was about2,4 N/mm'.
sits a complicated bracketing system (dou gong). In total, 54 different types of dou gong brackets were used in the buildins.
T'
I
l@ l6 Ir
-L
U'
t-
l.-i
The building is supported by two octagonal rings of columns (Fag. 2). This tube feature differs from the smaller Japanese wooden pagodas that have a central pillar. The central pillar, called Shinbashira in Japan, sometimes does
l* v T
I
I
l!: t*. tr
It_
,i
lo le-
l@
T T
I I I
In l@
l*
l* IO
I
I
I
-l{_ ),yu_r ),u6J tj,3i4 4,956

6,247
Fig.2: Plan view o.f the layout of columns in Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
.Fig l:Vertical sectional view of the YingxianWooden Pagoda (Units: m)
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121
Column location
Exterior ring Height (m)

Slope (%)
1.90
lnterior ring
Height (m)
9,05
1 '74
Slope (%)
3,09 0
Level
Main
Mezzanine
8.68 1,63 2,86 1,65
Level2 Level2
Level 3
I,98
1,75
Main
Mezzanine
3,15 2,08 3,16 1'7? 2,76
r,75
main beam and girder. They in turn undergo short span bending until the forces are transferred to the column via the bracket in bearing. Depending on the span and load, multilayer dou gong brackets can be made to transfer high loads (Fig.6).
There are four types of dou and five types of gong forming many different combinations of brackets as shown in Frg. 6. Also shown in Fig.6 are some of the dou gong brackets in the exterior of the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda. In all cases fasteners are not used. When the connections were initially made, they were intended to be tight fitting joints. As the timber dried out and deformed
under load, slack and looseness developed in the connections. Since grav-
4?4
/t
5R
7qi
1,27 4,05 0
Level
Main
Mezzanine
)R4
1,62
Level 4 Level Level

4 5
5
3,09 0.71 4,44 2.20
Main
Mezzanine
7Rl
1,35
1?5
Level
Table
Main
)R6
1,05
l:
Column height and slope of the YingxianWooden Pagoda
The dou gong system is one of the most interesting and intricate timber connection systems in the world. Shown in Fig. 5 are the three basic components used in a dou gong bracket: the dou is a block on which the short cross-arm
member (gotrg) and the lever arm (ang) are seated. The dou gong is intended to convert bending forces from beams and girders into vertical forces into the columns. The cross-arm and lever-arm members reduce the clear soan of the
ity load kept the connection in place,

the structure remained sound as there were large degrees of indeterminacy available in each connection.
The ability of the connections to move under lateral load is an important feature that enables pagoda structures to survive large earthquakes, as the energy from the ground can be dissipated via friction during the movements. There are several studies conducted in
Horizontarprate
}-*
.L
rieBeam corumn
----fFl--
---"J';
Fig. 4. Derail near rhe rop ol rhe column ring
sl.l conducted microtremor measurements on each floor of the pagoda and the surrounding ground and built a threeChina on this topic.1,2 Che et
dimensional finite element model of the structure. The predominant frequencies of the ground soil ranged from 2,5 to 3,5 Hz. The natural frequencies of the pagoda for the first three modes of vibration were measured on-site to be 0,6,I,66, and 2,93 Hz, respectively. This
suggests the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda
to be a flexible structure and unlikely to experience resonance under lateral seismic loading. As flexible structure movements are expected to be generated during seismic excitation. The various components in a connecl.ion are allowed to slide over each other creating frictio-n to help damp out the vibration. Hu' suggests damping of pagoda structures to be well above 15 % based on Japanese studies. As the fundamental frequency is low, under seismic excitation the building should vibrate in higher mode. On the basis of
dynamic analysis. Che er aLr predicted
that the second floor would experience the largest drift. An eyewitness
described that pagoda structures dur-
ing an earthquake vibrate in a "snakelike" movement further reducing the

chance of collapse due to second-order
Fig. 5: Components of the dou gong bracket system
P-delta effects. Hur further ooints out Structural Engineering International
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212008
Conclusion
Although the many unique features of the Chinese pagoda building technologies have allowed the Yingxian Wooden Pagoda to survive close to 1000 years,
the building is currently in need of major restoration efforts. In particular, the compressive strength perpendicular to grain of the horizontal plates on top of columns was exceeded from the
heavy dead load and resisting the large earthquakes. This type of damage can also be seen in other ancient wooden structures in China. Studies have been
conducted
to consider reinforcement
techniques that can be used to restore the building.a's One hopes that the final solution will be based on wood enabling the building to retain its original structural concept. t
__!_=J
10
Acknowledgements
We thank Dr Lin'an Wang, China National
Fig.6: Examples of dou gong bracket system
lnstitute
Story
of
Cultural Property and Prof.

Frgs:
Exterior ring
Corner column (MPa)
lnterior ring
South-North
column (MPa)
/ f< 1.72 5,08
s.6
L
Bingjie Lu, Tongji University China for l-2; and Figs. 3-6 respectively.
Mid column
(MPa)
East-West column (MPa)

2,18
References
[1] Che AL, He Y Ge XR, Iwatate T, Oda Y. Study on the dynamic structural characteristics
of an ancient
Level 3, Main
2,02
i5?
?o?
5.03 5.44
Level 3, Mezzanine
Level 2. Main
))a
2,86 3,08 4,04
)41
2.76
3
timber
Yingxian Wooden Pagoda.
Proccedings of the GeoShanghai Conferencc,
Level 2, Mezzanine Level 1. Main
Soil and Rock Behuvior h'lodeling, ISBN: 0784408629. American Society o[ Civil
Shanghai, Engineering: Virginia. 2006.
[2] Li S,WangJ.,4 nti-seismic Research onYittgxiun Wooden Pagoda. TaiYuan Engineering Universitv: TaiYuan, 1996.
7.r9
6,13
Table 2: Colttmn compressive stress perpendicular to grain of Pu bai fang tLnder normal. loads
that the total height of all the main floor columns and the structural floors are 35 and 65"/" of the total height of the pagoda, respectively; that is, the
columns are relatively short compared
the overall stability of the building. In terms of wind load, the heavy dead load of the structure can help to resist the overturning forces induced by heavy wind while the ring of columns
provide compression resistant elements to counter the overturning moment. It
[3] Hu S. The earthquake resistant properties of Chinese traditional architecture. Eurthqttake

Sp
ectra 199\; 7(3): 3-55-389.
to the structural floor height. Within the relatively thick "floor" the diaphragms are many complicated multilayer dou gong brackets, each capable of dissipating energy as the building shakes under seismic events. Also the
and Mechanistic Analysis of Yingxian Wooden Pagoda. Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor'of Philosophy, TaiYuan
Engineering University, TaiYuan, China. 2005.
[4] Li TY CLrrrent State o.f StnrctLLral Damage
was also found that the compressive stress perpendicular to grain of Pu bai fang in the bottom three-floors ranges from 2,02 ro 1,79 N/mm' as shown in
Tsble 2.
relatively short column contributes to
Transfer Compressive Load o.;f lJeam-coluntn Joint in Yingxian Wooden Pagoda. Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Harbin lnstitute of Technologi. Hrrbin. China. 2006
[5] Wang L. Efficiency of
ReinJnrcements to
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129
Building Tall with Timber: A Paean to Wood Construction

Randolph Langenbach, Conservationtech Consulting, California, USA
Summary
It
may seem strange at first to propose that timber be used for the structural system of rnid-rise buildings. Steel and concrete have held that position so long that the question of wood as an alternative for large-scale multi-storey construc-
tion would strike many people as archaic and impractical, but until the modern age, this was the case. The following essay highlights some interesting examples in history, concluding with the 17 blimp hangers constructed in the USA cluiing world war II when steel was in short supply. E,ach of these structures was a third of a kilometer in length and equivalent in height ro a rJ storey building. containing a single, column-free room.
tall wood building; tall timber building; blimp hangar; airdock; Claremont Hotel: Todaiii: fire.
Keywords:
Introduction
This section provides a brief history of tall wood structures and buildings. The 190 m high Mtihlacker Radio Tiansmission Tower in Germany has been identified as the tallest wooden structure ever. It was demolished in 1945.
srructure. I For buildings.it is mclre complicated to say what was or is the tallest, as many stone buildings over the centuries have internal timber structures in
to avoid being used by the Allies at the end of World War II. leavins the Cliuice Radio Tower in Poland. which at 118 m is the tallest extant wooden
until it as well as the Yngxian Pagoda were overtopped in 2003 by a new church in Romania. However. until a fire destroyed the Cathedral in 1995, San Francisco's St. Paulus Lutheran Church. which was modelled on Chartres Cathedral in France when it was constructed entirely of timber in 1893 by German Shipwrights, was of similar overall height (Fig l) 'Ioday, the newly constructed Sapanta-Peri Monastery in Romania is indisputably the tallest church, with a central spire that î soars to lJ m (l-tg. Z).'
Fig.2: The new Sapanta-Peri Monastery in Romonia, completetl in 2003 (I,hotocredit: Luca Florin G heorghe, www.poze-ronraniu.ro; two photos combined into one by
Rontlolph Langenbach)
their towers and spires. For centuries, Christian churches with their tall soires have most likely becn the worlcl's tallest buildings overall. n-rost of which had wooden spires and floors. The 160 m height of the spire of Lincoln Cathedral in England that was constructed in the 14th century and blew off in 1549. was never exceeded by another building until the Washington Monument in the USA wrs completecl in 1884.'
a suburb of London, a British housing developer is currently conney,
It is one thing to measure spires and towers of religious structures, but that gives no sense of possible heights of timber buildings in general. In Hack-
structing a nine-storey block of flats (apartments) to be called the Murray Grove Tower, built entirely out of
massive wood cross-laminated oanels manufaclured in Austria that "ore like giunt pieces rf plywood." In an article in the Timber Building magazine. it
is claimed that the Tower will be the world's tallest residential timber building. Its size was not reported, but nine storeys will approximate 30 m.n
Despite this anticipated claim to fame, another yet-to-be linished structure already exceeds the height of the Murray Grove Tower and is a single family dwelling! lt is a 13 storey,44 m tall house constructed by a post-Soviet era
Among religious structures
made
entirely of wood, those in China were easily the tallest from at least 1056 until 2003. In 1056, the Yngxian Pagoda (also called Sakyamuni Pagoda) was constructed as part of the Fogong Temple in Yingxian County of Shanxi Province. The pagoda is 67,13 m high, and is today both the tallest and oldest fully wooden pagoda in China.r Tall churches built entirely of wood and still extant, include the 43,5 m high St. Georges Anglican Cathedral in Georgetown, Guyana, completed in 1890. This Anglican Cathedral was reported by its congregation to be the lallest wooden church in the worlda
contractor, in Arkhangelsk, Russia. Like Murray Grove, this building has massive wood walls but they consist of sawn logs notched and assembled like log cabins. Reportedly the contractor began the project in 1992, but now.
having lost his money and served time
in prison. he lives in the structure but may never finish it.7 (To see a photo of
this structure, see Ref. [7]).
Fig.
l:
St. PttulLts
Lutheran Church (1893),
San Francisco (tlestroyed by fire
in
1995)
The late-nineteenth and early-twentieth centurv timber frame hotels in

212008
130
Reports
Fig. 4: Typical nineteenth century wooden houses in San Francisco Fig. 3: Claremont Hotel under construction in 1906 (Source: University of California
cores. Even the architecture in Istanbul
Berkeley Library)
North America are likely to be the largest residential wood buildings ever constructed. Before it was torn down, the Yellowstone Canyon Hotel was claimed to be the world's largest wooden hotel. The still extant Claremont Hotel in Oakland, California has 279 rooms plus conference facilities on ten occupied floors that rise approximately 36 m from the foundation to the roof. with a central tower that is approximately 48 m from the foundation to the top (frg 3).
(Fig 5), with its horizontal parapets and square bay windows, resembles San Francisco's ship-lap clad timber framed Victorian buildings. However,
in the twenty-first century, the situation could not be more different. Wooden buildings, as always, continue to be constructed in San Francisco and the surrounding Bay Area, but Istanbul is now lilled with thousands of four- to six-storey apartment blocks of reinforced concrete.
Fig. 5: A typical nineteenth century wooden house in Istanbul
city-wide are so great that there is no way they can even begin to finance
such an undertaking.
In North America, catastrophic

in
fires
destroyed large sections of New York 1835, Montreal in 1852, Chicago in 1871, Boston in 1-872, Seattle in 1892,
fire can be a motivating factor in banning new construction

Thus, while
What About Fire?

The question asked most often about such structures is "what about fires". In fact, the 1981 Oakland Firestorm, which consumed over 3400 homes (including this author's) and killed 25
people, came within 100 meters of the
and both Baltimore and Toronto in 1904. Of all of these fires. the one spawned by the earthquake in San
Francisco in 1906 was arguably the most
Claremont Hotel. Urban history in

many cities has been shaped by conflagrations, but the death toll for all but
devastating, yet unprotected wooden buildings, now banned in almost every other city, continue to be allowed to be constructed in close proximity to each other. Why?
the war-induced firestorms has been significantly less than that resulting
from the earthquake-collapses of reinforced concrete buildings, especially if one looks at the record of the last decade in India, Pakistan, Turkey, and elsewhere. This is not to minimise the concern over fire. but rather to contextualise that risk. Consider the irony of the fact that when much of San Francisco was destroyed by the fire started br the 1906 earthquake, all of the brick, stone. and steel "fireproof" buildings in the downtown business district were
completely burned out, while many neishborhoods consisting of wooden Victorian era houses, for which the city
is now famous, survived intact (Fig. 4).
Istanbul was also famous for frequent fires. In fact, Turkish author Orhan Pamuk has said that there was a "trqdition of watching fires," and that French author Thdophile Gautier (1817-1812) had written "In four months I hsve seen six great fires." In his own life growing up in Istanbul, he reported that he saw "wooden buildings burned by greedy owners who wanted to live in larger modern concrete opartment blocks."8 However. the recent 1999 Marmara earthquakes and 2003 Bingol earthquake have made it clear that most of the reinforced concrete buildings that now fill the city are extremely vulnerable to pancake collapse.
Earthquakes are the one natural disaster, which can strike at any time without warning, adding a level of fear like no other natural hazard.The identified problem is so large in Istanbul that the World Bank determined that the costs and difficulty of fixing the problems
212008
with exterior wood cladding in central city areas, in the case of Istanbul it is clear that it had not been fully realised that the vaunted strong material, reinforced concrete, would actually perform worse in earthquakes than the seemingly l1imsy wooden structures that were replaced. However, experience has shown that in the absence of extensive training of the builders and stringent quality control, they do. Istanbul finds itself, therefore, in a predicament that it did not exoect. with whistles in handbags to enable one lo
be heard if sandwiched between slabs of concrete as the onlv mitisation device at hand.
Although what
is discussed here is
only
one instance of questionable planning
and building regulatory policies, it does point to a systemic irrationality

concerning suitability of timber buildings in urban settings.
The Largest Wooden Buildings

The Daibutsu-den or Great Buddha Hall of the Todaiji Temple in Nara, Japan, is frequently cited as the largest wooden building in the world.'The current structure, constructed in 1709,
is 57 m long by 50,4 m wide by 48,6 m
It is also interesting to notice that both San Francisco and Istanbul. Tirrkev. share a common heritage oi closely spaced timber buildings in their urban
high, which is actually 30% shorter Reports

131
than its short-lived predecessor cons-
tructed in 7692 (reportedly 88 m by 51 m, by 48,5 m high) (Flg. 6).

Despite these claims, the Todaiji Temple has long since been eclipsed in size by 17 lesser known timber structures
world's principal building materials. They all share the important features of abundance and require very little processing energy. Timber is also renewable, and kilogram
for kilogram, it
is
one of the strongest building materials
that are almost 12 times its volume! During World War II, when steel was in short supply, 17 "airdocks," or "blimp hangars", were constructed on both coasts of the USA for helium-filled blimps that were used to
observe submarines in shipping lanes. Those airdocks are the largest clearspan timber buildings ever builr.r0 A number of steel-supported airdocks with a similar configuration had been constructed before the USA entered the war. Each airdock had a total of 51 Douglas Fir heavy-timber trusses resting on concrete frames. Hangars 2 and 3 at Moffet Field near
San Jose, California, are two
available. In much of the world, it has been displaced by reinforced concrete
from historical niches like
housing.
The long-term potential of tree farming has been ignored in favour of strip mining for limestone and coal used to make cement. It now seems time for this practice to change, so that the true potential of a vastly under-appreciated
resource can be more fully realised.
Fig.7: Hangar 2 interior, Moffet Fiekl,
California, USA
References
[1] List of tallest buildings and structures in the world, http://en.wikipedia.org, 2007 (See Wikipedia: Public domain and Wikipedia: Copyrights
-http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CopyrighLs).
of
seven
remaining wooden airdocks, (Figs. 7 and 8). Each of these identical hangars is 340 m long by 115 m wirle by 52 m high. With over 2^x 10n -' of volume and about 40 x 10' m' of floor soace. it is doubtful that any other wood structures have ever been nearly as large.
The engineers considered several framing possibilities for the airdocks before deciding on an inverted catenary arch
l2l
I B I D,
http://en.wikipedia.org, 2007.
[3] Steinhardt NS. Llao Architectttre. University of Hawaii Press: Honolulu, 1997, htlp,,ll
en.wikipedia.org. [4] St. George's Cathedral. The Diocese of Guyana http://www.stgeorges.org. gy/views.html, 2005.
[5] Nichi, Dan. The Tallest Wooden Church in the World Consecrated in SapAnta, Romania,
published on www.sapanta.ro, 10 July 2006.
truss with a Pratt truss configuration. The cords were built of multiple sawn
16l Timber Building Magazine. Sidcup. UK. 16 October, 2007 issue online at www.timberbuilding.com.
boards held together with steel splitring connectors and bolts. Al1 timbers were treated with fire-retardant salts. After the construction of a prototype, it took qnly a year to complete all 17
hangars.' '
[7] Blomficld A. Gangster Who Built World's

Tallest Log Cabin.London Telegraph, T March, 2007, posled on www.telegraph.co.uk. and Apxarrrc,rucrc. lov Cy rrruua ,.lepcnaHHuri
Fig. 8: Htrngar 2 exterior, Moffet Fiekl, Californiu, USA
Thoughts on the Potential of Timber in Modern Construction

This briefsurvey reveals that throughout
or the exigencies of war that have lead
He6ocrpd6> [The "Wooden Skyscraper" House in Arkhangelsk,] posted in "Vaga_land Journal" on http://vaga-land.livejournal.com. A good photo of this structure can be found on
to the creation of most of the world's tallest and largest wooden structures.
The war-time shortage of steel was the stimulus for the vast timber parabolic arched timber trusses of the airdocks. and now the growing depletion of fossil fiels is beginning to be a stimulus to reexamine the potential of using wood for multistorey urban buildings. For example, the wood embodied in the nine-storey residential Murray Grove Tower "stores over lBl tons of carbon, and ... by not using a reinforced concrete frame, a further 125 tons of carbon
are saved
the web at http://www.flickr.com/photos/granvik/47358893/ and others seen by searching the web with words: 'Nikolai Sutyagin, Arkhangelsk',2007. [8j Pamuk. Orhan. public lecture at the San Francisco Jewish Community Center, Oct. fi,2AU.
history,
it
has been religious devotion
l9l
E n cy
c Iop e
ia
B r it annic
O n l in e,
http
I I
www.
britannica.com (2007).
f10] Ebeling CW. The blimp barns. Am. Herit. 2006; 22(1), posted on www.americanheritage.
[1 I ] Page,
-1.
& Tirrnbull. Re- Use Guidelines, Hanger
NASA Ames Research Center, Moffett Field: California, (Technical report) San Francisco,
August 30,2006. [12] Yamada, Takashi, Publisher. "Timber Tower
from entering the atmosphere. This is equivalent to 21 years of carbon
emissions .from a buitding of this size."12
Tallest Timber Residential Building in the World," Yanko Design. www.yankodesign.com.
June 18,2007.
Conclusion
Fig. 6: Daibutsu-tlen (Buddha Hall) of the Todaiii Tcmple in Nara. Japan
Over the past millennia, stone, timber, and unfired earth have been the
212008
132
Reports
TaIl Timber Buildings in The Netherlands

A. J. M. Jorissen, Prof.;and A. J. M. Leijten, Dr, Eindhoven University
of Technology, Eindhoven,The Netherlands
Summary
In the last few decades, structural timber for residential buildings has lost popularity because of problems related to floor vibrations, acoustics and fire resistance. In recent years, however, solutions to these problems have been developed and timber-framed housing is becoming increasingly popular. The best-known platform method of building allows construction up to four storeys due to the anisotropy behaviour of the material. Case studies have shown that other methods of construction allow higher structures but deformations caused by wind and vibration usually set the limit. In this paper, details are given of a five-storey mixed residential and office building called the house "De Wiers" currently the highest multiple-storey timber building in the Netherlands.
Key Words: structures; timber; tall; stories, vibration; acoustics; connections.
storeys due to limited capacity of the
perpendicular to the grain strength of timber,' the effects of shrinkage and

stability.
One of the largest structural challenges
of (multi-storey) timber frame
houses
is maintaining the overall stability and robustness of the building. Since the
ratio of strength and stiffness related

to the specific gravity of timber is high,
a timber-frame building is relatively

light and consequently the weight does
Introduction
In the Netherlands, most of the apartment buildings in residential areas do not exceed ten storeys and are built using concrete and steel. There are a number of advantages and disadvantages using timber. An advantage can be the low self-weight of timber. Timber graded into strength-class C24 (characteristic bending strength = 24 N/mm/) is comparable to the
strength of commonly used concrete while only having 1/5 of its weight. This difference in weight allows a lighter foundation and requires less lift capacity during construction. Although the strength capacity of timber usually does not cause any problems, structures built from limber have to salisfv requiremenls regarding floor vibrations, acoustic transmission and fire resistance. In the Netherlands four different structural systems are used for the erection of multi-storey buildings, which are the traditional timber-frame system, the column-beam system, the portal-frame system and systems that use full-size-glued crosswise-layered wall and floor elements. Pre-fabricated concrete-floor systems gained popularity since the second half of the last centurv over timber floors
with joists. In those days concrete-floor

systems performed better in vibration,
not help much to prevent the building being pushed over when exposed to wind forces. Two case studies have
been carried out,3'4 to find ways to improve the effectiveness of the weight. The studies address two situations. A and B (Flg. 1). A possible and very effective situation is shown in situation A, where the inter-component connections between the shear and transverse wall are especially designed to distribute the uplifting forces among the shear wall and transverse wall. The self-weight of the structure, is trans-
fire resistance and acoustic transmission. Consequently, most Dutch people are no longer used to timber floors that behave differently but not necessarily in[erior. In order to regain acceptance aspects that have
for multi-storey
transmission.l'2
buildings, the three to be addressed are vibration, fire resistance and acoustic
mitted to the transverse wall. which
Timber Frame Multi-Storev Timber Buildings

The common timber-frame buildins
melhod in the Netherlands is rhe wellknown platform method. This method,
reduces the hold-down forces.
however,
is limited to about four
Assuming sufficient stiffness of the transverse wall. it is obvious that in B the hold-down forces are higher than in A. The length L, representative for the weight activated depends on the stiffness of the transversal wall.
F*
-}
<1__
F",
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication
t^.
by SEI Editorial Board Paper received: August 22. 2001 Pape r accepted: December 4,
2007
!ig. l:
212008
Permanent load activation .for stability purpose
Reports
133
Wall openings not exceeding half of the wall height do not cause any problem. In situationA,the structural self-weight
comprise wind, snow, dead and life load and considers aspects like buck-
is more effective than in situation B as the floor load is transferred to the transverse wall. The hold-down force R, in situation B is more than double compared to situation A. Consequently, situation B requires considerably
heavier anchorage devices. The vertical deformation of the transversal wall results in horizontal deformations at the top of the building, the magnitude of which is usually limited by building-law regulations. Full-scale
ling and lateral torsional stability of

the timber elements. Regarding acoustic transmission and floor vibrations, special software was used to evaluate various types of acoustic transmission. It appeared to be very difficult to design a timber floor that satisfies all the acoustic transmission requirements. especially the one dealing with impact sound. Since timber floors are by defi-
experiments
on timber-frame
trans-
veisal walls3 have shown this ohenomenon lo be the limiting design facror
for situation A. Owing to the limited

the top of the building, L has to be reduced resulting in less weight to be
activated and higher hold-down forces. Depending on the maximum deformation requirements and the transversal wall dimensions. it can be concluded that situation A can be ideal for timacceptable horizontal deformation on
ber-frame buildings up to three storeys, whereas for situation B the limit

exceeds three storeys.r
nition light in self-weight, very large cavities between the floor and ceiling are required to obtain an acceptable result. Ultimately, all acoustic-related problems could be solved except for impact sound, which require laboratory tests to find acceptable solutions. Some solutions suggest (a) increasing the cavity height between floor and ceiling or (b) adding more insulation materials between the ceiling and floor. Acoustic lransmission recuirements for the internal walls couicl be satisfied without much oroblem. Regarding vibrations it was concluded that all the design requirements could
be satisfied.
Fig.2: Intersection of column and beams ttsing the reinforced joinr
diameter in oversized holes to remove any clearance. Using oversized holes
allows quick on-site assembly. A case study was performed to investigate the
Column-Beam Portal Frames

While the traditional olatform method limits the construction to four storeys other building systems such as columnbeam systems have the potential to be used for taller buildings. A master's thesis5 at the University ol'Technology Eindhoven was devoted to focus on this topic. The most important aspects such as fire, acoustic transmission and vibrations were considered as well. For
Reinforced Connections in Portal Frames
In many studies of two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D)

column-beam timber systems, diagonal bracing is used for stability purposes if
no other type of stability assurance is available. Diagonal bracing limits the

free use of spaces but with portal frames this drawback can be overcome. llowever, portal frame connections require reliable moment transmission connections preferably of high strength and
limitation in height of a full 3D portal structure applying this connection./ After choosing a particular square grid for a tall building, the structure was checked for the worst load and deformation case, the latter appeared to be the wind-induced sway. Normally, the column orientation lines up with the beam axial direction, but for the reinforced connection, a special columnbeam orientation is required (Fig.2). It shows that compared to traditional beam-columns the column is rotated by 45'. Evaluation of the deformations allowed a building up to 11 storeys.
The outcome depends obviously on the magnitude of the wind loads and the
wall elemenls. these aspects cause no problem but are challenging for floor systems. The study focuses on a tenstorey residential apartmen-t building with 54 apartments of 100 m'each.The building dimensions are 18 m x 48 m with a column grid of 6 m2. The height of the building is 34 m. Diagonal bracing was proposed for stability purposes. The floors are considered rigid and transfer the in-plane loads to the diagonal braced vertical frames. The floor has a hollow structure with a depth of 220 mm. Glued-laminated elements of strength grade GL28 (chara-cteristic bending strength of 28 N/mm') were used for columns, beams and diagonals with cross-sectional dimensions of 440 x 400 mmz, 200 x 500 mm2 and 300 x 400 mmZ, respectively. The actions used in the structural analvses
stiffness capacity to effectively utilise the timber members. Glued connections such as full cross-section finger joints have a high stiffness and strength capacity but lack ductility and are difficult to produce on-site. For this reason, they do not qualify as do connections
deformation limits. This study took the Dutch wind load.code as a starting point with the highest near to sea wind
forces.
with traditional mechanical fasteners

like dowels and bolts because of their low strength and unreliable stiffness. An innovative high-capacity momenttransmitting connection, known as the tube connection, was developed at Delft University a decade ago, which suits this type of structure very well.6 The connection uses densified veneer wood (DVW) as local reinforcement of the connection area and a hollow steel tube. After assembly of the connection, the hollow steel tube expands in
House De Wiers, a Five-Storey Column-Beam Frame Structure
Only a few (mu1ti-storey) timber buildings have been erected in the Netherlands in recent years. The most prominent is the complete reconstruction of a country house in Vreeswijk, near Utrecht, called "De Wiers", originally constructed in the seventeenth century (Fig. 3). Pulled down to give way to shipyard activities in 1947, plans emerged to rebuild the old manor using
the old remains.The architect Jaco D. de
134
Reports
212008
Fig. 3: House De Wiers (photocredit: Pulladium Photudesign-
Fig. 5: Stabilizing out of plane portal
Oliver Schuh)
Msser developed a contemporary design in the shape of the former country house. As he planned to reuse the old seventeenth century timber pile foundation and the masonry vaulted basement (which now houses a restaurant),
the project only allowed light building materials for which timber was perfectly suited. The newly erected building would contain two storeys for offices and another three for residential purposes. The house possesses a large number of facilities that provide modern standard of comfort. The skeleton of the structure consists of a five-floor 2D portal frame in four bays
@ig q.The frames provide maximum flexibility for the use of the floors. For the moment transmission connections. the architect used a traditional carpenter connection. Stability perpendicular to the 2D portal frames is assured by horizontal beams that interconnect the main frames with steel to wood connections (Flg. 5). The fire resistance issue was solved by increasing the dimensions of the cross-sections. which contributed to the impressive and majestic
appearance of the structure. Moreover,
(Fig. 6), and in Almere (Malmo hus), (Fig.7).
Conclusion
Case studies show that several oerlormance problems associated wirh timber floors in residential houses. for example vibration, acoustic transmission and fire resistance, can be solved.
the timber floors were topped with floating concrete to improve the fire resistance and acoustic properties, as well as to conceal electrical and data
communication channels.
Thll timber buildings are feasible with parallel 2D column-beam frames with diagonal bracing or full 3D portal frames with special reinforced connections. The latter allow construction
up to 11 storeys. Currently, the highest multiple storey timber building in the Netherlands is a five-storeyed mixed commercial and residential buildins
Solid Wood Panels During the last decade, large solid timber elements consisting of glued
crosswise-layered panels have become popular. Usually, the panels are produced with three to five layers. Because of their excellent performance in terms of strength and stiffness, acoustic properties, fire resistance and thermal insulation. and the short on-site assembly time, these elements grow in popularity in the Netherlands. The panel dimensions are such that entire walls can be produced in one piece. Whereas higher strength grade material is used for the outer layers, lower grade is al-
lowed for the inner layers. Thus, for a number of reasons. these elements are promising for executing multi-storey timber buildings. Some multi-storey
Fig. 4: Interior of the house "De Wiers
(photocredit: Palladium Photodesign-
Oliver Schuh)
realised in the Netherlands recently; two houses (IJburg) in Amsterdam,

212008
structures with solid panels have been
Fig. 6: A house in lJburg using solid elements
Reports
13-5
[2] Koops L. Design o.f an Industrial, Flerible, Dismountable and Integrated Timber Floor System lbr Residentia.l. and Office Buik.lings (in Dutch). Master thcsis. fJniversity of Technology.
Eindhoven,2005.
f3J
Wittenran C. MttLtiple Storey Timber F'rame
Building. Stttdy into StabiLitl, for the Phtfornt
Method (in Dutch). Master thesis. LJniversity of Technology, Eindhoven, 2006. Stabilizotion o.f Multi-storey Tintlter Frame Building Systems. Division of structural cngineering. Lund Universitl': Lund. 2000. [5] WoudenbergEC.. Lligh Rise Timber BuildApartnlent Building in Timber of at Least I0 Storeys (in Dutch). Master thesis. University of Technology, Eindhoven,
ings. Structttral Design of ttn
in
[,{] Andreasson S. Thre
e -
inte ns io
nal I nter action
2006.
Fig.7: Artist impression MalmA Htts in Almere
[6] Leijten AJM. Densi.fied Veneer Wood Reinfttrced 'fitnber .loints with Expanded Tttbe Fasteners. PhD thesis, Delft LJniversity Press. ISBN
called house De Wiers. Building with solid panels has become increasingly popular as many of the performance requirements are easier to satisfy.
References
[1] Jorissen AJM. The design of timber Iloors Prctceedings o.f World Timber Engineering Confe rence, Portland, 2006.
90-407-
757-5. 1998.
[7] Kuipcrs H. High Rise Tinber BuiLding (in Dutch). Master thesis. University of Technology. Delfi.
1998.
Predvoje 22,162 00 Praha 6, Czech Republic phone: +4202 2061 0018, fax: +42A2zAU 2227 www.eervenka.cz, cervenka@cervenka"cz
CERVENKA CONSULTING
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computer simulation for practice push-over analysis reinforcement detailing crack width, deflections load carrying capacaty structural safety
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136 Reports
Structural Engineering International 212008
Resistittg Earth's Forces: Typologies of Timber Buildings
in History
Randolph Langenbach, Conservationtech Consulting, California. USA
Summary
Despite the fact that timber is perhaps the world's most versatile building material, few engineering students are attracted to make it the subject of their studies or specialization. With growing interest in energy conservation and sustainable construction materials, wood is now gradually gaining greater recognition for use in larger, engineered buildings. This essay explores its historical use, in combination with masonry, in earthquake areas over the past millennium from Roman Herculaneum, to Japan, Turkey and Kashmir. Pre-modern generations of builders have utilized timber to impart tensile strength and earthquake-resistance to masonry buildings over the centuries, and the resilience that these buildings have demonstrated in recent earthquakes that have felled hundreds of much newer reinforced concrete structures provides a good reason to revisit the modern-day potential of this time-honored material.
Keywords: braced frame; balloon frame; stud-frame; infill-frame; half-timber;

timber-laced; Herculaneum; opus craticium; insulae, earthquake; Kashmir; Srinagar; Tirrkey; Armature Crosswalls.
Fig.2: Seventeenth century substructure .for the Kiyomizu Temp[e, Kyoto, Japan
Introduction
Only a small minority of students entering advanced training in architecture or structural engineering choose to specialise in timber structures. This is even true in North America, where over 90% of people live in timber
houses. E,lsewhere, reinforced masonry
this day
(fig
-i).
It
came
to fruition
and reinforced concrete predominate as materials of choice; and students, practicing engineers and government officials usually express surprise at the North American situation. This view is widespread even in parts of Europe.
when sawmill technology had evolved sufficiently to easily convert logs into members with consistent small crosssection dimensions. Another factor. beginning about 1850, was the manufacture of nails from steel wire that replaced hand-forging of iron nails. Prior to wire nails, people sometimes burned old houses simply to recover precious
nails!
One might think that stud-frame structures would be weaker than heavv timber braced frames that precedeA inem. but the opposite is often the case. Even moderately well constructed studframe buildings can be very robust and
The discussion that follows looks at typologies that exist in a historical context. Also, it illustrates that even in countries where wood is not regarded as a structural medium, its use could, in fact, have been a rich part of their
societal history.
Fig. 1: Traditional log houses of recent vintage
have even been found to have maintained recognizable shapes if blown over or swept away by floods.'
in rural Kashmir, India (Photocredit: Hakim Sameer Hamdani)
Typologies
contemporary and historical timber buildingi can be dirid;-i;i""1il;
where the entire structural
sure systems
il "r.l;consisr.i;;J;;;;;;t, and those where ,mrr"r-lr-.i-ti""i with other materials. Most likely, the The development of what became oldestformsof timberconstructionstill ' known as the "balloon frame". which recognizable in modern practice were evolved into the "platform frame', log buildings (Flg. 1). Saws and nails (also called "stud-frame"), originated
were technological tools that
transition from systems of stacked logs to the use of braced timber frames. In chinese and Japanese temples and pagodas bracing was also accomplished using timber beams slotted through columns' thus avoiding visual disruptions by diagonal braces (.Fig' 2)'
allowed in
Chicago, USA, and is pervasive to
Fig. 3: Typical stud-.frame o.f'an early twentieth century house in California
212008
Reports
131
Mixed Construction
Except for wood-abundant countries, buildings made entirely of timber are quite rare. Whether in sixteenth century Elizabethan England, or early twentieth century Turkey and Kashmir, the use of fired or unfired masonry as infill
house, even if three or four storeys high, sways together, whereas more heavy rigid buildings would split and fall. .". Clearly, even before the invention of wire nails. other steel fasteners and plywood, construction that was heavily reliant on wood had distinguished
to timber frame (timber infill-frame) demonstrates what has often been a practical way of combining the assets of different materials. Some such buildings are quite tall. For example,
few people may realise that many of the masonry facades of six- and sevenstorey buildings of the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries in great cities like Madrid were in fact constructed on structural frames of timber (a fact only made visible after demolition of neishbouring buildings).2
Before modern saws and nails became available, wood could only be added to what were primarily masonry buildings. Timber was embedded in load-bearing
walls of masonry (timber-1aced masonry) many centuries ago and has been found in ancient Knossos. An example of the timber infill-frame was unearthed from
itself for its earthquake
resistance, even when buildings were tall.
Forthe past two millennia,during which evolution of effective earthquakeresistant multi-storey building systems
ferent from those in common
evolved, people have relied on construction methods that are very difuse
Fig. 4: Infill-frame house unearthed in the archaeological site of Herculaneum, Italy after being buried in the eruption of
Vesuvius in 79 A.D.
today. Modern-day engineers often neither understand nor can easily justify by calculations how these systems worked. Interestingly, the 2005 Kashmir earthquake left some buildings with infill-frames above unreinforced masonry walls suspended in the air, high above the collapsed walls below. Many masonry structures that lacked the timber lacins or frames collapsed completely. In Turkey, the 1999 Kocaeli and Duzce earthquakes killed at least 20,000, and maybe as many as 45,000 people in re-
the volcanic debris in Herculaneum
buildings constructed of fresh cut pine. Most of these are at least five storeys high. . [causing viewers toJ bite the fingers o.f astonishment with the teeth
(Flg. 4), and holds clues as to how seven-
and eight-storey tenements, known as insulae, were constructed in ancient Rome. Masonry-bearing walls would have been too thick at the base to fit
on their known footprints, implying use of timber frames with infill walls of masonry. Those walls would have resisted seismic forces known to have affected both Rome and Herculaneum.
of adiniration." In 1885, the city was struck by a large earthquake, and British writer Arthur Neve reported that " Srinagar ... the general construction...is suitable for an earthquake country; wood is freely used, and well jointed; clay is employed instead of mortar, and gives a somewhat elastic bonding to the bricks,.... The whole
inforced concrete buildings;' but left standing most of the timber infill-frame buildings that were near them, even if the timbers were in an advanced state of decay. In the city of Adapazari, for example, out of 930 reinforced concrete structures in total,257 collapsed or were severely damaged, and 558 were moderately damaged. None of
Both timber-laced bearing walls and timber infill-frame construction existed during the eighth-century Byzantine Empire, and then continued to spread throughout what later became the Otloman Empire and beyond.3 In
the late eighteenth century, after earth-
in Portugal and Sicily, timber infill-frames were even specifically proquakes mulgated and patented for earthquake
resistance."
Long-term use of timber-laced bearing walls and timber infill-frame construc-
tion is evident in Kashmir (Flg.
5).
In 1148. Kalhana noted the use of timber in his Rajtarangani ("Chronicle of Kings"), which stated "Srinagar in the l2th Century Hindu Period: The
mansions of the city, which reqched the clouds and were mostly built of wood."
In the sixteenth
century, Muhammad
Fig. 5: Srinagar Kashmir (a):timber-laced bearing wall house, referred locally as taq (b) timber infill-frame house, locally known as Dhajji dewari
Haidar Dughldt in his Tarikh-i-Rashidi (A History of the Moghuls in Central Asia) said "In the town are many lofty
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400 traditional infill-frame buildings collapsed or were badly damaged.6

Because of this striking performance,
sudden collapse of the fully occupied building.
and also inspired by eighteenth and nineteenth century timber infill-frame systems in Portugal and Italy, the author, together with research engineers in Italy, Tfrkey and the USA has proposed a modern adaptation of traditional systems. The new system is called 'Armature Crosswalls" and is intended as a means of preventing modern reinforced concrete buildings from collapsing. Under the Armature Crosswalls concept, instead of having a weak infill-masonry wall, the infill panels are constructed with a subframe, and then the gaps are filled with masonr,v. Thus, the infill walls can are converted from a liability to an asset. If timber is used for the subframe. risk
of fire-spread is extremely low because the wood is imbedded in masonry and hidden behind plaster./
With the advent of electricity and modern modes of transportation, multistorey factories ceased to be common because industrial practices adapted to take advantage of changed conditions. However, mainly in North America, construction of multiple-storey timber
buildings has continued for housing, and
eight storeys, because at about that height reusin^g the formwork becomes economical.t" As steel reinforcing bars
and concrete both require a large quan-
tity of energy to make, the cost differential of these, relative to alternatives, has recently become greater. In other
countries, lower labour costs together with higher costs of wood products may well favour concrete. In California, and other seismic regions, concrete is often avoided because of its greater seismic mass, a problem that has had devastat-
it
remains common today in countries where timber and carpenters are available and thus competitively priced.
Trends
Five-storey housing projects are highly
ing results in a number of countries. One would think these repeated calamities would lead to greater use of
as timber, but to-date this has been rare. In time. this may change.
alternative systems such
reflective of modern construction for which timber options can be competitive (Flg. 6). Such buildings are constructed with lightweight materials with steel and timber usuallv most comoetitive. Taking Oakland, California, as an example, a prominent quantity surveyor made the observations that: "1n
recent years, light steel and stud-framecl
Using Timber for Mid-Rise Buildings

Employing wood within infill panels in tall framed buildings is an idea ture might. In the USA, stud-frame construction is generally limited by building codes to either three or four storeys with local relaxations of regulations often needing to be carefully justified. If sprinklers are installed, a prescriptive allowance of one extra storey is common. Such restrictions are mostly artifacts of quite recent
history.
that might nol concern engineers very much. but using it in the primary struc-
wood have been of roughly equal cost, but with the recent increases in the nrice of sreel (43"h in 2004 alonel, the cost atlvantage now has shifted to wood. And, because of the heavy use of energy to make steel compared to wood, the cost of steel has increased along with the rise in price of fuel, and is expected to continue to rise." As of late 2007, "steel is approximately 20"/o to 407o more expensive in residential construction than wood" for comparable five-storey
structures.o
Obviously, the specifics of choosing between materials and construction methods change from region to region, or even from city to city. Nevertheless, a clear overall global trend is developing, especially as commodity prices continue towards global equalization. There clearly are sound business reasons why "the timber option" is likely to begin to appeal to developers and other building owners over the long term, especially for mid-rise building projects of about six-ten storeys. If timber solutions are technically feasible, and performance, particularly fire protection, is comparable and pricing is competitive in construction and operation phases, they will be selected.
In contrast with much of the rest of the world, concrete construction is

ing structures in the USA until, as Oakland's Principal Civil Engineer
much less common for mid-rise dwell-
In the nineteenth century, large woodballoon frame hotels were constructed in the USA.S Heavy timber construction has been permitted in modern building codes from its origins in early nineteenth century New England factories when it was referred to as "slowburning construction". The tallest of these brick and heavy timber factories rose as high as nine storeys filled with vibrating heavy machinery. Many were
six or seven storeys in height. Sprinklers
observed, they typically exceed about
To illustrate, the nine-storey Murray Grove Tower is now under construction in London" UK. It is built from solid cross-laminated timber walls and floors that are like large sheets of plywood. It can be said to be a modern variation of the "slow-burning" construction invented in New England, because of its lack of pocket
were originally invented
to
protect
these buildings. Ironically, the earliest large mills had cast-iron columns, but those constructed after the American Civil War until well into the twentieth century had wooden columns instead. The reason for using timber was that in 1852 a poorly made cast-iron column broke in the Pemberton Mill in Lawrence, Massachusetts, leading to the
Fig.6: Massive multi-block sized five-storey apartment complex under constntction in 2007. Oakland. California
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Reports
139
walls which would allow rapid
spread References
[1] www.conservationtech.com/l889johnstown flood.jpg. (An excellent public domain historical photo can be seen here).
of
fire.11'12
official (approximately 20,000) and unofficial (approximately 45,000) death toll after the
Kocaeli Earthquake. (The Dtizce earthquake
resulted in approximately only 1,000 deaths.) Data on the comparative failure rates of reinforced concrete structures and traditional timber and masonry structures is Gnney,Op Cit).
Conclusion
This paper has not sought to investigate exotic one-off timber structures, but instead has put emphasis on those
typologies suitable for widespread applications. Timber is very versatile as a building material and is readily available in most regions of the world. Its use helps combat global warming by sequestering carbon directly in the fab-
[2] Langenbach R. Survivors amongst the Rubble. Proceetlings of the Internatictnal Congress on Construction History, Madrid, 2003, available at
from Giilhan, and
www.conservationtech.com. [3] Giilhan D, Giiney IO. The behaviour of traditional building syslems against earthquake and its comparison to reinforced concrete frame systems; expefiences of marmara earthquake damage assessment studies in Kocaeli and Sakarya. Proceedings .for Earthquake-Safe: Lessons to Be Learne d fro m Trarlitional Co nstruction,Islanbul, Turkey. 2000, available at www.icomos.org/iiwo/ istanbul2000.htm.
[4] Langenbach R. From "Opus Craticium" to the Frame," earthquake resistant traditional construction, International Journal of Architectural Heritage, Taykrr & Francis, Vol. I:29-59.2001
" Chicago
[6] Giilhan and Giiney, Op Cit.
[7] www.conservationtech.com/ArmatureCrosswalls.html
[8] Langenbach R.'' Building Tall w ith Timb er, A Paean to Wc,tod Construction", StrLtct. Eng. Int.
2008:18(2):22 25. l9l Donley

J.
ric of buildings and supplanting steel

and concrete, both of which require far
Email to R. Langenbach (Author),

.
22 October,21ll
more fuel in their manufacture.
Here, an expansive definition of timber construction is adooted to include

systems where wood elements are con-
[10] Ewigleben J. Phone interview. R. Langenbach (Author). October, 2007.
straining elements within a composite
[11] Yamada Thkashi, Publisher. Timber Tower Tallest Timber Residential Building in the World," Yanko D esign. www.yankodesign.con,
of materials. With that inclusiveness. it is clear that with a little imagination and by learning from literally millennia of experience and past masters of the art. timber can fulfill construction needs beyond what is often the perceived norm.
(link available at: wwwconservationtech.com).
June 18,2007.
[5] Giilhan and Giiney, Op Cit. Vasile Marza, "On the Death Toll of the 1999 Izmit Major Earthquake." Proceedings. ESC General Assembly, European Seismological Commission, Potsdam, 2004 (available at http://www.
esc-web.org/papers/potsdam 2004/ss 1_marza. pdf). Thcrc is a large discrepancy between the
lf2) Betz
Ponels
University of British Columbia, April
in
J. Thick Cross-laminated Solid Wood Europe, Faculty of Fctrestry Report.

15,
2006.
(http://wwwbcfii.calindustry_resources/
mpb/pdf/MPB_2006-06A Development-ofThick MPB Laminate Wood_Plate_ProductsMarket_Research-Yr1.pdf).
Information and Communication Technology (ICT)

for Buildings Bridges and Construction Practice
Organised by the Finnish Group of IABSE A
and
140
Reports
Helqinki University of Technology (TKK) Finnish Association of Givil Engineers (RlL)
212008
Overview of f)esigtt Issues for Talt Timber Buildings
Summary
Timber buildings, like any others, exhibit exemplary performance when materials are used appropriately, when structural forms and construction details address overload and serviceability requirements, and when geometry and interior layouts address fire safety. Many building codes restrict timber buildings to four and six storeys, reflecting iocietal conscio"usness of effects of conflagrations like the Great Fire of London in 7666. However, the regulatory landscafe is changing to recognize contemporary capabilities to detect, suppreis and contain tires wlinln buildings. This is freeing architects and engineers to tutty exploit structural capabilities of timber as a construction materiil. On the Oaiis of the notron that tall modern timber buildings means those of approximately 10 storeys to a maximum of about 20 storeys, this paper is a commentary on the main structural engineering issues and how to address them systemically. Keywords: buildings; composite-construction; design; fire; performance; timber.
Ian Smith
Prof., Dr, University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, Canada
Introduction
No modern buildings are constructed entirely using a single structural material, and therefore the term timber buildings means those in which timber products constitute most of the ensineered parts oi lhe superstructuie. Principles involved in the design of tall buildings are in reality geneial to all large structural systems, and what is written here is a contextual elucidation of appropriate aspects of engineering science. Size and shape, construction details, geographic location, and functional uses of spaces that are enclosed all influence in-service performance characteristics of buildings and expectations of the "quality" of that performance. Therefore, when discussing design oltall buildings.questions aboui their height have to be dealt with in the light of many architect defined variables. Building height itself does not determine the feasibility of arriving at acceptable engineering design solutions. What is critical is that ensineers should be able to anticioale controlling factors in given design siluations. This paper aims to provide advice in
that respect.
in New England up to nine storeys

high and fjlled with vibrating heavy
and pre-American Civil War factories
Andrea Frangi
Dr, Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich. Switzerland
machinery,3 proves that constructing medium-rise timber buildings for nonresidential purposes is also quite practical. The Sakyamuni Pagoda in China was built in 1056 and has a heisht of 67.13 m. Carpentry joinrs and graviryinduced friction have kept timber pagodas intact throughout many seismic events. Invention of cast iron led to declining interest in using timber for edifices reaching towards the sky, but this was not for structural reasons. Rather. it was because cast iron pagodas were
more capable
oI surviving
lightning
fires and arson, and did not rot.a
Here the term tall timber building is taken to mean anything taller than has been constructed accordins to "modern" requirements. the talleit of which
are about nine storeys.rTherefore what
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication by SEI Editorial Board Paper received: August, 23,2007 Paper accepted: December 4,2007
Modern timber buildings up to six storeys and about 20 m high are fairly routinely constructed using light-weight construction systems, with multiple occupancy residential or office buildings being most common.l Normally 'there is much slruclural redundancv and systems have ability to redistributl internal forces if sub-systems fail. Construction of ancient pagodas in Asia,2
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is presented here applies to buildings that are at least 10 storeys tall, with the practicaj upper limit being about 20 storeys.) Rightly of course, given that it has never been done under modern regulatory regimes, architects and structural engineers might query why anybody should believe that it is possible to build modern tall buildinss from limber? The simplest empirical jusrification is that nature intends timber to function as tall structures (Fig. 1). Many Redwood trees (Sequoio sempervirens) in California are estimated to be 3000 years old and still growing vigorously and are as tall as an average 26-storeyed building. According to the "Guinness Book of World Records"
Science and
Technolosv
141
20
10 storey
storcy
-60-70
Great Pyramid of Khufu at Giza 14'+ m Gencral Sherman tree Sakvamuni pagoda (>3000 years old) (circa 1000 years s:.+
Tallest tree ever discovered

150
rr
old)
67
to be used. Thus, designers potentially have much more liberalized ability than before to create solutions specific to client needs and specific situations, and exploit capabilities of materials like timber.
Mechanical Properties and Capabilities
-30
35 m
Fig.
l:
Comparisctn o.f the heights of some man-made and natural structures
a fallen eucalyptus at Watts River, Victoria, Australia was over 150 m long and the tallest specimen know to have been seen by human eyes. Few man-
material.o The main reason why timber buildings have burnt down in the past was absence of effective fire compartments, fire detection and suppression
Superficially, mechanical properties of timber might be thought of as being low relative to those of other common construction materials. In absolute
made materials permit creation of cantilevers up to 150 m long. Discussion and commentary below considers what have been the technical barriers against construction of tall modern timber buildings, and strategies for overcoming them.
and fire-fighting technologies. Historical accidental catastrophic events like The Great Fire of London in 1666 and The Boston Fire in 1872 occurred because the technology "of the day" was
terms, the tensile strengths of sawn timbers are in the order of 10-20"/. of the yield strengths of commonly available grades of structural steel, while in compression sawn timbers are about 5-10% as strong as steel. However, the
strengths of some modern wood-based composites are commonly at least twice those of sawn timber. Compared with plain concrete, sawn timber is vastly suoerior in tension and has about half of the compressive strength of normal weight concrete. In terms of stiffness, steels are in the order of 10 to 20 times stiffer than sawn timber, and plain concrete is about three to five times stiffer than sawn timber. If instead of absolute values comparisons are normalised on the basis of mass per unit volume, very different conclusions emerge regarding the relative mechanical efficiencies of timber, steel and concrete. Timber has about 1/5th the density of concrete and about 1l16th the density of steel. Comparisons just made assume that sawn timbers are preferentially loaded parallel to the grain direction, which is how trees primarily use the material. The qualification also applies to some modern wood-based composites, but not to others.12 Although sawn timbers are normally only readily available with rectangular and other simple, but
incapable of preventing growth and spread of initially small fires. Many
still applicable building regulations
Timber as a Construction Material

Fire Performance and Evolution
of
Building Codes As anybody who has built a campfire

knows, dead twigs and small branches
limiting the heights of timber buildings to about four storeys have their origin in the great urban fires of the old and new worlds of European settlement.' Modern structural systems that are properly protected by the massiveness of timbers themselves, or protected by non-combustible surfacing materials, are able to contain fires and do not
burn down before fire fishters arrive or while they are fighting fires.T This com-
burn intensely. Similarly,
small-sized exposed dry timber structural members
will burn through quickly in building

fires, reflecting that the1, easily ignite and will not develop a protective layer of charcoal before their mechanical capabilities are overwhelmed by grav-
bined with modern technologies for detection and suppression of building fires suggest that there is no continuing reason to prescriptively limit permissible heights of timber buildings.
ity forces. Undeniably, timber buildings with unprotected light-frame

structural systems are highly vulner-
During the last several decades fire

safety has attracted the interest of engineers and scientists all over the world. Fire safety science still includes tradi-
able to fires not quickly detected and suppressed. On the other hand, large dimension timbers do not burn through easily in building fires even if they are very dry, because the material itself is a poor conductor of heat
and protective charcoal layers form on
members.n Charcoal is an elfective inh-
ibitor of the possibility of rapid grav-
ity-induced collapses of systems that rely on large dimension timbers for strength. Metal parts and fasteners are
commonly used to make inter-member connections, and such metal parts are
potentially highly vulnerable links in completed structural systems. Exposed

metal parts soften during fires and lose
tional fire testing, but is now mainly focused on fundamental research into fire action. Technical measures for fire protection have been developed and human behaviour in the case of a fire has been studied.lo On the basis of such fundamental knowledge, new performance-based regulatory paradigms are beginning to emerge that recognize that ensuring satisfactory fire performance of buildings is not achievable through discriminatory blanket prohibitions of certain materials from certain uses.
Performance-based building design codes, of which there are now several examples,'' apply to all aspects of building design. Embodied principles, objectives and absolute performance-
structurally inefficient cross-section

geometries, some modern wood-based
comoosites can be extruded to form highiy structural efficient sectional geometries.t' Overall. timber and woodbased composites can satisfy bulk
filler and compression functions like concrete, ot general structural functions like steel.
Durability
In inappropriate service environments, timber will deteriorate, and in fact, nature designed it to decay once trees die to return minerals and nutrients to
the ground. Scientifically the rule to be followed is that timbers are unlikely to decay if the ambient drying rate exceeds the ambient wettine rate. Insects
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strength and deform excessively to cause systemic collapses.' Therefore it is necessary to insulate metal parts in timber buildings, by embedding them inside members or covering otherwise
exposed surfaces
with incombustible
related limitations are independent of the construction materials that are
142
Science and Technolosv
can be much more insidious enemies
fungi. Termites in particular are often very difficult to combat in warmer climates, and lhey are a spreading menace in some
of timber structures than
design codes.l6 Excluding the question of poor workmanship, which is a prob-
lem that can be the 'Achilles heel" of low-rise construclion.l' the abiliry ol' even non-engineered timber buildings
to withstand exceptional loading events like earthquakes and cyclones has been
colder regions because people have transported them to artificially heated microclimates in which they can thrive.l4 Eflective strategies againsr insect damage exist, with artificial poisoning of timber using various natural and synthetic chemicals being an effective solution, but one often deemed environmentally ulacceptable as a
broadband strategy.l) Physical separation of insects from timber as a food source is the best strategy.
Overall, challenges in using timber in construction are complex, but no more
so than those associated with usins

other materials.
exemplary.'o Good field experience is commonly attributed to the quite high absolute strength of timber; ability of members, sub-systems and mechanical connections to deform substantially prior to failure; and inherent robustness of forms. In the case of seismic events, good historical performance is also attributed to the high strengthto-mass ratio of timber. which means that inertial forces tend to be relativelv small. Inherent high variability in properties of timber facilitates load-sharing and creation of alternative load paths
deliberate counteracting methods of enhancing redistribution of forces if sub=systems fail will be required to avoid occurrence of disproportionate damage to systems. Protecting against disproportionate structural damage can be integrated with strategies for the containment of fires, which also should not be allowed to cause disoroportionate damage.
S erv i ceab
ili ty Limi ting
St at es
Even for low-rise structures, designing against the possibility of infringing various limiting states applicable to their everyday serviceability is a crucial fac-
tor. Ensuring everyday functionality

and occupant comfort can be anticipated to be at least as imoortant for taller
in sub-systems and complete^systems following a localized failure.'" Timber

itself embodies only very modest material damping, but completed buildings can exhibit quite substantial modal damping ratios. Mainly, the extra damping comes from unrecoverable deformations and frictional damping.
Experience with Low Timber Buildings

Many structural forms have been adopted for construction of low- and
medium-rise timber buildings to achieve
sufficient stiffness, strength, stability and robustness for particular purposes. The systems preferred and construction details vary regionally, but those illustrated in Fig.2 are most common.
Ultimate Limiting Stutes
Like low buildings, tall buildings should exploif the inherent high strength-tomass ratio of timber; have ability to
Designing against the possibility of ultimate limiting states like overturning and collapse is in principle no different from designing buildings constructed primarily from other materials. It is incumbent to consider some material behavioural characteristics specific to timber, but those are well understood and are accounted for within contemporary timber
develop alternative load paths and propagation of damage; and absorb energy associated with inertial forces when close to collapse. Need for tight quality control of component manufacture and site construction is apparent from post-mortem observation of why buildings collapsed.rT implying preference for pre-fabricated systems. Because components will undoubtedly be engineered and factory made, it can be expected that mechanical responses of components will be less variable than for low buildinss. Therefore
timber buildings. The mosl. notorious structural serviceability problems in timber buildings are excessive vibration motions caused by activities of people and operation of equipment.20 Normally this reflects that either locally or globally the ratios of modal stiffness to modal mass are insufficiently high, or deformation constraints inadequate. Usually, effective solutions involve combinations of high-frequency tuning and proper selection of construction details. In low-rise timber construction vibration serviceability problems usually manifest themselves as vertical motions. but in medium-rise buildings both vertical and horizontal motions can be problematic. The taller timber buildings are, the more difficult it is to avoid problematic system motions and vibration transmissions between occupancies. Many simplified design practices have been proposed aimed at controlling magnitudes of vibration motions through indirect means, such as limiting static deflections under a concentrated 1oad.21 but
Traditional buildings
. many types of occupancies . composite walls

o
Modern hearl-frame buildings
. mainly non-residential occupancics
Modern platform buildings
. heavy timbcr columns and beams
r mainly residential
. timber upper floors . timber roof framing
walls resist all types of loads
. diagonal bracing added to resist lateral forces . connections designed for axial and shear forccs
occupancies o all timber or cornposite walls o walls resist all types of loads
. 2 or 3 storeys most typical . 5 or 6 storeys examples exist . constructcd based on experience
. tilrrber joisted or composite uppcr floors . timber or compositc roof, typically.ioisted
. engineering
nrore lhan 2 \lorels is Unusua, design is always mandatory
. . . . .
timber joistcd, timber platc or composite floors storeys are likc stacked shoeboxes tied together more than 4 storeys is unusual 6 storey examples cxist in several countries engineering design is not always mandatory
Fig.2: Common structural forms for low- and medium-rise timber buildings
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Science and
Technolosv I43
such approaches are highly unreliable and should be avoided.
In attempting to create structural efficiencies that minimize material utilizalion, it is very common to construct timber buildings with contiguous light-
weight wall and floor
sub-systems.
ures and building fires, respectively." Although it is impossible to actually assure through engineering design that risk levels are as intended, it is perfectly feasible to outline suitable design objectives. One design objective for tall timber buildings should be that
they will not sustain any damage to the primary structural system as a result of design load scenarios specified in app-
Optimization
There is often great attention paid to the notion of structural optimization
Those sub-systems are panelized and often span beyond rooms, and beyond single occupancies, creating ideal transmission paths for vibration and sound waves. Best solutions are those that combine isolation of propagation sites
from receptor sites with bulking of the mass at selected locations. In lowrise construction this is normally not done, but in medium-rise construction it is quite usual. Tall timber buildings must be designed against the potential for vibration and sound transmission. with emphasis on isolation; provision of damping; and appropriate placement of relatively massive elements as key components of good solution
strategies.
licable loading codes. Acceptance of this implies that tall buildings should be designed to recover all deformations in the primary structural system
when temporally varying external forces other than floor loads are removed. The influence of different measures and different types of construction (combustible/incombustible) on fire safety in the Cantons of Berne
and Zurtch. Switzerland has been ana1ysed.23
clear influence of building
use, building age and type of construc-
both in the literature,'* and in design practice. Practically this takes the form of minimizing the mass of construction materials used. However, optimizing the mass of timber buildings on the basis of strength and static deformation responses can cause a number of undesirable performance characteristics. Therefore optimization should not simply be the selection of a system that minimizes the mass (or the summed monetary cost) of alternative solution strategies, wherein the global answer is arrived at through optimized structural design of the components. Optimization in the design of tall timber buildings should be based on multiple objectives related to: ultimate and serviceability structural limiting
states; and non-structural performance
Some Fundamental Precepts for Design of Tall Buildings

Structural Safety
Risks of death that society accepts are estimated to be 0,14 x 10-o and 4 x 10-n per annum for structural building fail-
tion on risk was found. Buildings with incombustible construction had lower fire damage than buildings with a combustible construction. However. for modern timber buildings there was no difference in fire damage compared to incombustible construction. Human behaviour in fire is very important and strongly influences risk, and design for that is arguably more important than accounting for combustibility of
materials.
characteristics. Figure
compares
the internal force flows expected to be of primary importance in low-rise versus tall-and-slender timber buildings based on assumption of so-called platform-type construction and seismic ground shaking. In modern low construction, the key internal actions are horizontal forces between layers through the depth of the system. In tall slender buildings, the important
+\ ry
Low-rise platform construction
. storeys are like stacked shoeboxes . key structural issue is resisting horizontal shear flows
o
horizontal motions are usually not problematic
. modest overturning forces to

o
be resisted between layers shallow foundations are adequate . mode shapes are quite simple . structural detailing requirements are not similar [or wind and seismic design
Tall and slender platfbrm construction are like stacked shoeboxes '. storeys Le) .lructurrl is.uc. lre: - resisting horizontal shear flows, AND resisting uplift in and cornpression in walls . horizontal and possibly vertical motions problematic r orerturning forccs arc largc . shallow foundations are not adequate r mode shapes can be complex . structural detailing not dissimilar for wind and seismic design
Fig.3: E.ffect of buikling height and shape on internal force flows. seismic actions
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Science and Technology
212008
internal actions are horizontal shearing forces and axial forces due to gravity and bending. Even without specific definition of variables or calculations. it is apparent that in design of slender
tween subspaces that are effective fire barriers. The choice and definition of the structural concept should be integrated with design of building services
(e.g. heating, ventilation, air condition-
buildings controlling horizontal drift will be problematic. Particularly in order to control the amolitude of horizontal dril't. it can be aniicipared rhat it will often be impossible even for timber buildings in the region of eight or ten stories high to employ all timber solutions if the building geometry is slender. Buildings taller than is usual will need to be composite strucl ures.5 with timber substructures arranged around a structural steel or reinforced concrete core that adds stiffness for global control of drift.
Perfo rm an
ce-
B us e d D
e s i gn
emergency o['fire engineering as a mature applied science have literally transformed the boundaries of what archilects and engineers can do.25 Eren so. it is unrealistic to suppose that regulatory authorities will do other than take a step by step approach to liberalization of what they allow to be constructed from timber. Also, it can be expected that owners will take a cautious approach. This strongly suggests the need to design tall buildings in such a way that there is well-defined compartmentalization of buildings with separating barriers be-
Twinned development of performancebased building design codes and the
structural actions like earthquakes. accidental events like gas explbsions. and deliberate acts of destruction like bombs.26 If well designecl, the means of providing systems with structural robustness will serve multiple purposes
and not require duplication.
ing), in order to correctly guarantee integrity of the fire compartments. In tall slender buildings robust outcomes can only be provided if fire compartments are small, or if secondary structural systems are provided that give temporary support to other portions of buildings if particular fire compartments are damaged. Secondary structural systems need to be capable of resisting tull effects of permanent gravity forces and some proportion of normal temporally variable design forces (e.g. snow, wind actions). In the modern context, building codes also require effective countermeasures against disproportionate damage resulting from natural
an imprecise delineation of whether or not it is difficult to design and construct them. Adding the dimensions of geometric proportioning and structural form to delineations enables some generalized statements about design complexity. The simplest buildings to design and construct are those having squat shapes (i.e. modest ratio of height to footprint dimensions) and
containing many internal divisions. This is true irrespective of the absolute height.
Irrespective of the absolute dimensions, geometric shape and the structural form involved, what is pervasive in the design of tall timber buildings is the need to think in terms of how the system will behave in service. Why systemic approaches are necessary is illustrated by a simple strength-related example concerning mechanical connections. Suppose that connections have an elaslo-plastic response in which yielding of metal parts,like fasteners, results in large ductility prior to
sudden loss of strength. Standard practice in such instances is to base design capacity on the yield load attained at a deformation level r/y.)- However. because of compatibility constraints, the system will fail if the connection deforms an amount dcthat is less than dy. In that circumstance designing connections based on the yield capacity would
Importance of Geometry, Structural Form and Svstemic Thinking

Geometry and Stractural Form
As indicated in the introduction" discussion of the heights of buildings is
mean they were too weak and flexible and promote instability in the system.
Such situations occur,
for
example,
Sec, 'nilxry stt ucttrrat svstem: o prcventing disproportionatc collapse
Ilre protected
Ihermaljackel
Subspace:
,F
Cladding *
single occupancy Isolated
o isolated from neigbours
. internal .
isolations possible
timbcr
compartmcnts
3
modular prefab timber o internally subdivided
c U
a
f,
1,
-:
a
Superstruclure 1 to foundation isolation laver
Compositc isolating layers for: . fire separation

o
vibration & souncl separaLion

structural clamping
Fig. 4: Conceptual high-performance compc.tsite.-construction system
for
tatt buildings with timber as the bulk material Science andTechnology 145
212008
around perimeters of shear walls. It

is to be expected that in large and tall buildings there will be many local-
Micro-reinforced concrete floating floor

Sand layer
ized "geometric
es
fit"
constraints and
Structural timber (plate or joisted) Plasterboard on resilient supports
"flexible-to-rigid component" interfaclimiting the ability of connections to

Fig. 5: High-performance timber
deform substantially. Consequently, it is not reliable to think of post-yield-point inelastic deformations in connections as a source of energy dissipation when tall buildings must resist seismic actions. More generally, systemic thinking
floor lay-up
per la valorizzazione del legno e delle specie arboree, Italia; Professor Mario Fontana of the Institute of Structural Engineering, F'TF{ Ztrich, Switzerland; and their stafl are thanked for engaging in a number of reflective conversations that helped shape this paper.
result in buildings with disappointing

performance characteristics.
Returning to the conceptual-construction system illustrated in Flg. 4, it will be noticed that strong emphasis is placed
involves issues such as identification of possible mechanisms for global inpossible serviceability problems; and optimization of fire performance. Symbiotic Solutions
stability; optimization of flow paths for transfer of forces; identification of
on vibration and sound separation and provision of structural damping.

Creation of effective multi-functional
References
V Timber frame
253-262.
"isolating layers" within buildings is

not easy and much attention has to be
Systemic thinking is the only way to achieve symbiotic solutions for multi-
ple objectives. As an illustration, Flg. 4 shows a hypothetical systemic design solution for tall timber buildings. The specifics of the scheme shown are not imoortant but examination of the diagram rvill reveal that it is an attempt to implement a total solution of various factors discussed here. Many other possible approaches exist and what is
most appropriate can vary greatly between design projects.
paid to the proper selection of structural details. The detailing need not however be complex. To illustrate, the simple floor design in Fig.5 is multifunctional. Such floors do not need to be expensive to construct and can be expected to perform well in fire, dampen annoying floor vibrations, provide substantial acoustic and thermal insuIation, and contribute to overall system damping needed to attenuate horizontal drift during normal or extreme winds or seismic events.
construction for medium-rise buildings. Prog. Struct. Eng Mater. 1998; 1(3):
[1] Mettem CJ, Bainbridge RJ, Pitts GC, Enjily
[2] Masaru A, Mamoru K. Structural development of the Japanese timber pagoda. Struct. Eng. I nt. 199 5 ; 5 (4): 241 243.
logies
[3] Langenbach R. Resisting Earth's Forces:Typoof Timber Buildings in History, Struct'
Eng. \nt.2008; 18(2): l37-f10. [4] Fux X, Guo D. Liu X, Pan G, Qian Y Sun D, Steinhardt N.S. (Editor). Chinese Architecttrre. Yale University Press: New Haven, xii,2002; 366.
[-5] Smith I. Reaching for the limits with timber construction. Proceedings of IABSE Symposium Responding to Tomorrow's Chullenges in Structural Engineering, Budapest, September 13 15, 2006,384 3Bs.
It is undeniable that
much of what
There are very compelling fracture mechanics-based reasons why design of large-building systems should be based on elastic analyses. Irrespective of the size of an obiect, once initiated damage will continue to propagate if the increase in the work to the system since the last increment of damage exceeds the sum of energy losses in the system caused by the last increment of damage.12'26 1n general it should not be expected that keeping the structural response of tall buildings in the elastic range (and designing them on the assumption of a brittle
response) grossly increase costs of construction. The reason is that the dominant factors affecting the sizing of structural members will be serviceability considerations. Building on lessons from performance of low-rise timber construction, avoiding the need to employ massive amounts of timber to overcome serviceability problems in tall buildings is a matter of proper selection of a structural form and construction details. There is nothing more certain than that those designs, where choice of structural form and construction details are uncoupled steps in the design process, will be highly likely to
is suggested here as being necessary

parts of systemic design of tall timber buildings is far from being common practices for the design of lower rise timber buildings. However, if the issues that require the emphasis in design are
[6] Frangi A, Fontana M. Charring rates and iem-
perature profiles of wood sections. Fire Mater. 2003;27(2):97-102.

Sa/ety. John Wiley
different, employing different design approaches is part and parcel of good

engineering practice.
[7] Buchanan A}l. Structural Design for Fire & Sons: New York ,2001',444.
[8] Erchinger C, Frangi A, Mischler A. Fire behaviour of multiple shear steel-to-timber connections with dowels. Proceedings of the 38th
Conclusion
CIB-W18 Meeting. University

Germany,2005.
of
Karlsruhe:
It
has been widely regarded as ac-
will
ceptable to design timber buildings of moderate height, based on simplified structural engineering methods. However, to create high-performance buildings in the order of 10-20 storeys high, it will be essential to employ the most
[9] Canadian Wood Council. Fire SaJety Design
in Buildings. Canadian Wood Council: Ottawa.

358; 1996.
[10] Fontana M. Fires in buildings. Proceedings IABSE Symposium on "Structures and Extreme
Events",Lisbon, September 14-17. 2005. Ii 1] Foliente GC. Developments in perfbrmancebased building codes and standards. Fot. Prod. J. 2000; 50(7/8): 12-21. [12] Smith I, Snow M, Asiz A. Vasic S. Failure mechanisms in wood-based materials: discrete, continuum, and hybrid finite element represenrevrew. HolTforschung 2001 6l(4): tations. 352-359.
advanced analysis and design techniques. Striving for this will undoubtedly require elevation of the technical level of the timber engineering discipline in general, and benefits can be expected to accrue to other types of structures where timber is the primary
construction material.
Acknowledgements
Professor
Ario Ceccotti. the director of the Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, Istituto
[13] Bengtsson M, Le Baillif M, Oksman K. Extrusion and mechanical properties of highly filled cellulose tibre-polypropylene composites. Comp. Part A: Appl. Sci. Manuf. 2007; 38(B):
1922-1937.
146
212008
[14] Urban Entomology Program. How Far North? Termite Newsletter, No. 6. University of
Toronto: Toronto,
[19] Smith I, Landis E, Gong M. Fracture anrl

Fatigue inWood.JohnWlley 2003;242.
& Sons: Chichester,
Elements for Buildings, COST Action E-29,Florence, October 21 29,2004. [24] Venkayya VB. Structural optimization: a review and some recommendations. Int. ,L Nunter. M etho ds. Eng. 2005; l3(2): 203-228.
April
1991.
[15] Guo A, Cooper PA, Ung T. Fixation and

leaching characteristics of acid copper chromate (ACC) compared to other chromium based preservatives. For. Prod. J. 2005; 55(7 18): 72J 5. [16] Thelandersson S, Larsen HJ (eds). Timber Engineering. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester,
2003;446.
[20] Smith I. Vibration of timber floors - serviceability aspects. Timber Engineerfug. John Wiley & Sons: Chichester, 2003 ; 241 -266.
[21] Hu L-J, Chui YH, Onysko DM. Vibration

serviceability of timber floors in residential construction. Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater. 2001; 3(3):
[25] Frangi A. Fontana M. Fire performance based design of multi-storey timber buildings. Prctceedings o.f the IABSE Symposium on
"Structures and Extreme Events", Lisbon, September '14-17, 2005.
228 231.
[17] Foliente GC. Design of timber structures subjected to extreme loads. Prog. Struct. Eng.
M ater. 7998;
[22] Reid SG. Acceptable risk criteria.

St ruct.
Prog.
[26] Smith JW Structural robustness analysis

and the fast fracture analogy. Struct. Eng. Int.
2006;16(2): 118-223. [27] Smith I, Foliente G. LRFD of timber joints:
l(3): 236-244
Eng. M ater. 2000; 2(2): 254-262.
[18] Ellingwood B. Probability-based LRFD for engineered wood construclion. Struct. Saf. L9971. 19(1):53 65.
[23] Fontana M. Fire safety concepts of buiidings. Proceedings oJ the lst International Symposium on Advanced Timber and Timber-Composite
international practice and future direction.

I. Struct. Eng. 2002;128(1): 48-59.
Creating and Renewing Urban Structures

Tall Builditrgs, Bridges and Infrastructure
Organised by the USA Group of IABSE

Go-sponsors:
^fr,
ASCE/SEI
- CTBUH. SEAOI
Science and
212008
Technolosv
147
Fire Design Concepts for Tall Timber Buildings
Summary
Based on the current knowledge in the area of fire design of timber structures this paper presents a generic fire safety concept for tall timber buildings. The first part of the paper gives an overview of fire action and fire safety concepts and presents the main differences between medium-rise and tall buildings with regard to fire safety. The analysis enables the formulation of a generic fire safety concept for tall timber buildings. In the second part of the paper some experimental results on the fire performance of timber structures under natural fire conditions relevant for tall timber buildings are presented.
Andrea Frangi
Dr, Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich,
Switzerland
Keywords: tall timber buildings; fire behaviour of timber, full-scale fire tests; sprinkler system; fire safety concept; fire regulations; fire performance-based
design.
Introduction
Combustible building materials like timber burn on their surface. release energy and thus contribute to fire propagation and the development of smoke in case of fire. The combustibility of wood is one of the main reasons that led most building codes to include strong limitations to the use of timber as a building material and in particular the number of storevs of timber build.lings.' For example. until 2005. new timber structures in Switzerland were mostly limited to low-rise buildings with not more than two storeys. The main precondition for the use of wood for tall timber buildings is adequate fire safety. Fire safety is an important contribution to feeling comfortable and an important criterion for the choice of material for residential buildings.
Since the mid-1990s, many research
projects have focused on the fire behavResearch project
iour of timber structures worldwide.' "

Some projects have been conducted at the Institute of Structural E,ngineering of ETH Zurich sponsored by the
Mario Fontana
Prof., Dr,
Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich.

Switzerland
Swiss Agency for the Environment, Forests and Landscape (BAFU) and in collaboration with the Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Testing and Research (EMPA) and different industrial partners (see Table 1). The research projects aimed at supplying basic data and information on the safe use of timber. in oarticular for multistorey buildings. Further novel fire design concepts and modelss 6 have been developed based on extensive element and full-scale testing as well as a large statistical data base on fires in timber and concrete/brick bui ldings.T
Currently better knowledge in the area of fire design of timber structures

combined with technical measures, especially sprinkler and smoke detection systems, and nearby well equipped fire
Duration of fire tests
60 to 90 minutes
60
Testing type
Fire resistance of timberconcrete composite slabs
Element tests under ISO-fire exposure

Element tests under
Markus Knobloch
Dr, Institute of Structural Engineering, ETH Zurich,
Switzerland
Fire resistance of timber slabs made of hollow core elements Fire resistance of light timber frame wall assemblies Fire resistance of timber block walls Fire resistance of multiple shear steel-to-timber connections
to 105 minutes
ISO-fire exposure Element tests under ISO-fire exposure

Element tests under
60 minutes
30
to 90 minutes
ISO-fire exposure
Element tests under ISO-fire exposure Full-scale tests under natural fire conditions
30 to 70 minutes 4 minutes to burn-out
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication
by SEI Editorial Board

Paper received: September 6,2007 Paper accepted: December 4.2007
Fire performance of wooden hotel modules
Table l: Overview of some recent research projects on the fire behaviour of timber structures conducted at the Institute of Structttral Engineering of ETH Zurich
148
Science andTechnology
212008
brigades allow safe use of timber in a wider field of application. As a result of the research projects, the Swiss fire regulationsn now allow the use of timber structures in multi-storey medium-rise residential buildings up
The combustion process releases heat

energy, gases and smoke. While the gases and the smoke are the main killers in a fire (approximately 80% of fire
limited boundary conditions, as given for example in Ref. [12]. For a more comprehensive and more detailed
analysis, computer simulations may be used, e.g. multi-room zone models or computational fluid dynamics models. With such simulations more comolicated environments and more detailed paramelers can be taken into account than with the simplified parametrical fire curves. However, employing computer simulations with fluid dynamics
to six storeys. Many other countries
fatalities are due to smoke), heat is the primary reason for the damage to the
structure of a building. As the mechanical and thermal properties of building materials change with increasing temperatures, the knowledge of the timetemperature development during a fire in a building is therefore important for the structural fire analysis. To describe
have also liberalized the use of timber for buildings or introduced fire regula-
tions that permit the use of timber on the basis oI performance.q

Even with the progresses of fire safety engineering as a new discipline integrating all aspects of fire safety (structural, technical, organizational) and its combination into the design of buildings, it is however unrealistic to suppose that
fire authorities will permit the unlimited use of timber for tall buildinss
worldwide in lhe near fulure. Based on the current knowledge in the area of fire design of timber structures, the paper
presents a generic fire safety concept for "future" tall timber buildings. As no modern buildings are constructed entirely using a single structural material, the term timber building concerns mixed constructions in which different materials are used, however with most of the volume and mass of the structure (wall and floors) constructed using timber or composite products.
the fire action with simplified models, several nominal fire curves have been proposed in codes to be used in the design process. The mosl frequently applied fire curves are the ISO 834r" curve
and the ASTM E11911 curve. which are
bilistic approach to fire simulation, it is possible to incorporate the input parameters as variables to deal with uncertainties relevant to the analysis. ll
However, for practical design such an
models may be time consuming and costly. In addition by using a proba-
almost identical. For special fire situations olher curves like the hydrocarbon and external fire curves have been developed. Nominal fire curves provide a simple relationship for the temperature of the gases in a compartment as a function of time. They represent the phase of the fully developed fire.
approach is still restricted to special applications due to its complexity and

expense.
Fire Safety Objectives and

Strategy
The knowledge of the basic behaviour of fire, occupants and buildings during a fire is an important precondition for the development of successful fire safety strategy. Fire safety has to
The significant amount of time that sometimes elapses from the beginning of the fire to the fully developed fire
is neglected. Further. the cooling phase of the fire is not taken into account and lhe nominal fire curves increase mono-
tonically with time.
Fire Action
Figure 1 shows the development of a fire in a typical room." After ignition,
fires can grow very rapidly, very slowly
More realistic models of fires are siven
by the parametric lire curves. which

take into account the most important parameters for temperature development, namely:
(as
in a smouldering fire) or
extin-
guish, depending on the arrangement of combustible materials in the vicinity of the ignition source, on the type of combustible as well as on the geometry, dimensions and ventilation of the room. Growing fires not controlled by fire-fighting actions may lead to rapidly rising temperatures and to flashover, where all unprotected combustible
- the fire load (amount, type and arrangement of combustible

material);
- the ventilation
room:
enclosures and;
conditions
in
the
the
- the thermal properties of the fire-fighting action.
fire safety strategy with adequate combination of measures to fulfill the fire safety objectives.1a,l5 Depending on the type of structure various combinations of technical and organizational measures are needed besides the traditional structural fire
prehensive
safety measures.
be regarded as a basic requirement for buildings equal in importance to the load-bearing behaviour of the structure under normal conditions. The most efficient way to control the effects of fire is to establish a com-
material burns.
Parametrical fire curves are calculated with simplified formulas developed for
The starting point of any efficient fire safety concept is given by the following general fire sa[ety ohjectives:
- safety of occupants and fire brigade; - safety of neighbours and their

property;
limitation of financial loss (building

and contents);
protection
case of fire.
of the environment in
Since achieving absolute safety is imof acceptance must be quantified by the authorities or with regard to financial losses with
possible, the level
the owner or the insurance
Ignition
Fiq.
Flashover
comDanies. These objectives can be reached
l:
Typical stages of fire dcvelopmcnro 212008
with different fire safety concepts taking into account the type of structure
Science and
Technolosv I49
and occupancy. Prescriptive fire regulations give detailed rules leading to standard concepts. Standard concepts are considered to give an acceptable level of fire safety. The use of standard fire safety concepts does not require any further verification of the fire risk and guarantees acceptance by the fire
Cladding E130(nbb)
Cladding EI60
R60/EI3u(nbb)
E160/E'130(nbb)
REI60/E130(nbb)
authorities. However, performancebased design concepts using detailed probabilistic and engineering based analysis can be used to optimize the fire safety measures,6'16 especially for uncommon buildings where no long
experience exists.
Cladding EI30(nbb)
Cladding EI60
Cladding E130(nbb)
Insulation, melt point > 1000'C
R60/EI30(nbb) EI60lEI30(nbb)
RE160/EI30(nbb)
Fire Design Concept of Residential Timber Buildings

As an example for standard fire safety concepts (structural concept) the fire requirements according to the Swiss fire regulations for load-bearing as well as separating elements in residential buildings depending on the number of storeys are given in Table 2. If sprinklers are present, the fire resistance requirements given in Table 2 are reduced. The use of timber structures is allowed in residential buildings up to six storeys. The requirement R60/ El3O(nbb) or El60/EI30(nbb) means that the load-bearing and separating
Cladding E130(nbb) Cladding EI30(nbb)
R60/EI30(nbb)
E160/EI30(nbb)
(cl
REI60/EI30(nbb)
Cladding EI30(nbb)
Fig.2: Examples of cross-sections with fire resistance REI60/E130(nbb)
building elements shall have
a fire protective non-combustible cladding with a fire resistance of 30 minutes of the cladding itself.
Figure 2 shows examples of crosssections with fire resistance REI60/ El30(nbb). In Fig. 2(a) the claddings on both sides of the timber structure are EI60. It means that the inside timber structure need not be designed to a specific fire resistance, as the fire resistance is guaranteed by the claddings alone (the solution proposed in Fig. 2(a) can therefore ensure a fire resistance longer than 60 minutes).
In Fig. 2(b) and (c) Ihe claddings on both sides of the timber structure are EI30 (in this case the fire resistance of the timber structure shall be at least R30). It is important to note that the presence of insulation with melt point > 1000'C inside the wall (see Fig.2(b)) can improve the fire resistance time of the wall, only if the insulation remains in place after the failure of the fire side
cladding.
detectors and alarm systems, sprinkler
All
systems, smoke exhaust systems, etc.
these measures are required independent of the type of construction
material used.
The basic safety objective for the standard requirements given in Table 2 tor
Besides requirements on the use of combustible material and fire resistance of building elements the fire regulations give mandatory rules for the design of escape routes consisting of corridors and staircases, emergency exits, and necessary organizational and technical measures like smoke
medium-rise residential buildings is that the occupants can leave the building or can be evacuated by the fire brigades in case of fire. The limited height of the building plays an important role for fire brigade action. The regulations recognize that the fire safety objectives adopted for medium-rise residential buildings can be achieved with the given requirements despite the combustibility of the structural material used.
Storeys
One
Two Design for
Three
Four
Five-six
R60/
E130(nbb)b
Seven-eight
Tall buildings'
R90(nbb)b
Load-bearing elements Separating

elements
E13O
normal
temperatLlre
EI3O
R30
R60
R60(nbb)b
Er30
EI6O
EI60/
El30(nbb)b
E160(nbb)b
EI90(nbb)b
Table 2: Fire requirements fctr load-bearing and separating eLements in residential buildings btrsed on the strttctural concept depending
on the number of storeys"

Tall buildings (high rise) are defined as buildings with a total height of more than 25 m or with the top floor located at the height of more than 22 m above the level of the terrain used by the fire brigades.
u b
nbb, non-combustible material.
150
212008
Type of
building
Medium-rise buildings Tall buildings
Eyacuation of people during fire

Feasible
Fire spread to other parts of building

Accepted after defined period of time
Building
collapse
Example of Tall Building Project

For the project "Dock Tower"l- the technical feasibility of a tall timber building of 120 m has been studied. The result of the study was a tall timber building with a mixed construction as shown in Fig.3. The fire safety concept is based on a primary fire compartment with the central core and the four external staircases in reinforced concrete and projecting concrete slabs after every three storeys.The projecting
concrete slabs shall effectivelv Drevent
Accepted after defined period of
time Not accepted
Aggravated, stay in safe place until burn-out
Not accepted
Table 3: Main di.fferences in acceptable behaviour between medium-rise buildings and tall
buildings in case
oJ
fire
Fire Design Concept of
rimber
Buildings
safety?
Tall
the building. Based on this scenario
x:3",H:i,T::i,
What are the main differences belween ing codes -do not.plrmit lhe use of medium_rise and tall fr"liai"n, *itn,o combustible materials in tall buildings '---------o" gard to fire
Jlii-lllfl#'i"ii::
the fire propagation on the building facade (see Flg. -3). Further, the residential apartments are divided into
secondary fire compartments made of
neither for the structure nor for the room linings.
buildings. ,^ Is it still possible to design a tall the occupants loc;teJ;; ih. ;;?; part of the building ,i;"";; building using timber as structural
Because of the height of tall
lained is to protect structural fimU", and the evacuation of the occupants elements frorn fire for the whole time by the alternative routes or by rescue of fire duration bv non_combustible teams is not possible. For these reasons, matedal. This means that in the room ln9 r11e safety concept-adopted for tall of fire origin a complete burn-out buildings is based on the scenario that may occur li.e. all combustible con_ a number of occupants located in the teni has completely burned), however upper part of the building can not leave the structural and separating timber the building. Further- it is assumed elements shall not start charring. . that the fire can not b_e extinguished This can be achieved by protecting and continues until all combustible the timber structure with a sufficient material in the fire compartment has number of non_combustible claddings burned. Based on this scenario tall for example made of gypsum plas_ buildings shall comply with fire req- terboards. As the timber structure rs uirements that are more rigorous than enclosed by non-combustible cladformedium-risebuildings.Therequire- dings the term,,building encapsula_ ments on building elements can be fortion,,can be used in order to describe mulated as following: this requirement. Building elements with fire resistance R60/EI30(nbb) - Separating building elements shall or EI60iEI30(nbb) as required in be- designLd n u i,uy ; ,*r"- ; Switzerland for residential timber full buin-out, thus ir.;"il;; buildings of five and six storeys can "; uncontrolled flre soiead ; ;h". be considered partial as a building parts of the building auti"g - - encapsulation as the timber elements "fire. o ih; whole duration of the have fire protective non-combustible - Load-bearing builiin; elements claddings with a fire resistance of 30 shall be desi{ned in a *iy to pi"u"nt minutes (see Flg' 2) which are not sufthe structuial collapse'to.' u fuff ficient prevent to the start of charring burn_out without anv intervention ' of the timber structure during a comof the fire brigade. plete burn-out. Another possibility to Table 3 summarizes the main differ_ guarantee the compartmentation may ences between medium-rise and tall be the use of composite elements. For buildings with regard to evacuation example timber-concrete composite of people, fire spread and structural slabs can be designed in a way that behaviour. It can be concluded that the reduced loads for the fire situatall buildings should be designed in a ' tion (self weight, permanent loads way that the occupants can survive a and reduced live loads) can be carfull burn-out of the fire compartment ried by the reinforced concrete slab while remaining in another part of alone.
212008
"*J-o." ieave the buitding"in .;;" ;i;;;.-Th; fire brigade also needs more time to reach and fight the fire. It may occur that some escape routes are blocked
material?
Apossibilitytofulfilltherequirements
on bultdirrg elements previ,ously exp_
ing to the requirement of burn-out. The building has five staircases placed as far away from each other as possible. Four of the staircases are designed as escape routes and each apartment
has direct access to two escaDe routes. Two of lhe staircases are open lo the
timber-concrete composite slabs and timber walls that are designed accord-
outside; two are pressurized
to avoid
smoke to enter. In order to control and
extinguish the fire in an early stage, the building rooms are equipped with
a high-pressure water mist system. The activation of the water mist system is
temperature-actuating or controlled by a fire alarm system. The high-pressure and special nozzles break the water down into very small drops leading to a cooling and smothering water fog in a way that the fire can not persist. Further, the building has two high-pressure water mist fire hydrants placed on each floor of the central core. The fire hydrants can be used to extinguish the fire on the facade. The structural measures in combination with the technical (highpressure water mist system, alarm sig-
nal, etc) and organizational measures
will enable the tall timber building to reach a fire safety level higher than
that in tall buildings designed based on the standard measures.
Experimental Studies
Fire Performance of Timber Stractures under Natural Fire Conditions
The fire performance of timber structures under natural fire conditions was experimentally studied by a series of
full-scale tests on wooden modular hotel units.ls The objectives of the experimental tests were to verify the
Science and
Technolosv
151
Staircase with controlled ventilation
ator- EzlHDf
^C
Projecting concrete
DeJinition of use oI rooms
Definition of fire safety measures
F'ig. -1: Sturly
on technictt! feasibility of a tall tinfter building o.f l20
n't
efficiency of different fire safety concepts for multi-storey timber buildings and to find possible vulnerabilities in the fire safety of the modular room units. ln a first series (series BE with activated sprinkler system), the effi-
On the other hand. the linings of the modules G1 and G2 consisted of one
to three layers of non-combustible gypsum plasterboards. The combustible floor was made of light timber frame
systems varied between two and three minutes after ignition. Further the tests showed that the ventilation conditions
(window opened or closed) did not substantially influence theactivation of

the sprinklers. Al1 detection algorithms of the automatic fire detection system discovered the fire within two minutes, i.e. about one minute earlier than the
ciency
cialiy automatic fire detection and fast response sprinkler systems, was
studied. The second series (series BU with deactivated sprinkler system) of full-scale tests was carried out to look
of
technical measures, espe-
measures
at the ability of structural fire safety to lirnit fire spread even until burn-out. In this second series, the sprinkler system was turned off and the window was opened so that the fire was able to grow quickly supported by the large air supply. Special attention was given to the fire propagation across the facade and the influence of combustible surfaces on the fire severity. Four room modules (H1,H2 and G1, G2) were manufactured in shoP as light timber frame construction and transported by means of trucks to the
testing site. E,ach module was 6,6 m long, 3,1 m wide and 2.8 m high and had a window opening (1,5 m x 1,7 m) made of standard double layer insulation glass. The modules were identical in their basic construction, differed however in the choice of the wall and
ceiling linings.
construction or timber hollow core elements and was covered by a thin layer of linoleum. All modules were equipped with an automatic fire detection system with four different sensors as well as two sprinkler systems. In building fires, the contents (rnobile fire load) as well as sclmbustible construction materials contribute to the total fire load. Each module was equipped with a typical mattress made of PUfoam material. As additional mobile
frre load, 11 wooden pallets were located in the module. The total fire load delsity (calculated over the lloor area) for the modules with non-combustible wall and ceiling linings varied between 363 and 366 MJ/m', and for the module with combustible wall and ceiling
sprinklcr systems.
In all experiments, at the time of sprinkler activation the room temperatures measured at different locations varied between 50'C and 200'C. Sinse flashover would only occur at higher temperatures, the combustible room linings during the early stage of the fire develooment had no influence on the severity of the fire. In all experiments, the sprinkler systern was able to extinguish the fire before it could spread within
linings the total fire load density was approximately 855 MJ/m'.
Results of Fire Tests with Activated Sprinkler

The first series BE of full-scale tests was performed with activated detection and sprinkler systems. The tests showed that the sprinkler system was able to control the fire within shortest
time, although the mattress was ignited from below. ln all experiments, the mea-
For the modules H1 and H2,
com-
bustible wood-based panels (oriented strand boards [OSB]) were used. 152
Scicnce and Tecbr.rologv
sured activating time of the sprinkler
the compartment and to the combustible linings. On the other hand, for the second series of tests with deactivated sprinkler systems. [lashover occurred 4 to 7 minutes after ignition after theoretical activation of the sprinkler systems. Figure 4 shows the damages on the mattress as well as on the wall and the floor. It can be seen, that because of the fast activation of the sprinkler system, the damages were very small' Even the mattress was not completely burnt. The tests confirmed that with fast rcsponse sprinkler systcms lhe influence of a combustible structure on thc f ire safcty n as compensated and the fire safety objectives can be
212008
observed after flashover occurred. For the module with combustible wall and ceiling linings the external burning out of the window was much more severe
than for the modules with non-combustible wall and ceiling linings (see Frg. 5). The temperatures measured with the intiared camera on the facade confirmed the visual observations.
In lhe lests BU nbb and BU nbb demo, the interior glass layer of the window of the upper module failed only after about 40 and 42 minutes. In the case
of the test BU bb with combustible Iinings, the heat flux from the flames emerging from the window opening
on the facade was much higher and therefore fire spread could not be significantly delayed by the ledge. In this test, the interior glass layer of the window of the upper module already failed about seven minutes after fire ignition. Because of excessive flaming, the fire test BU bb with combustible
linings was stopped after about 20 minutes. The
iire test BU nbb r.rith non-
combustible linings made of one layer gypsum plasterboard was stopped after
about 45 minutes after the interior

glass layer of the window of the upper
module failed. At that time all mobile combustible material was burnt out. however the fire was continuing due to charring of the wood-based fibreboards placed behind the gypsum plas-
Fig. 1: (a) Damages on Ihe muttress (b) and on the wall antl the fl.oor
fulfilled by combustible timber structures. Despite a fast fire development,

the structure was undamaged because the sprinkler system extinguished the fire in an early stage.
After ignition, in all experiments fire

grew very rapidly and the temperatures
terboard that started falling off after about 30 minules.The fire test BU nbb demo with non-combustible linings made of two or three layers of gypsum plasterboards was stopped after about 60 minutes when no more flaming was observed emerging from the window opening and the fire inside the lower module was in a very late decay phase. Because of the fire protection of the gypsum plasterboards, the light timber
frame structure of the walls and ceiling was not damaged, i.e. a complete burnout was achieved. The timber structure did not start charring. Figure 6 shows the room temperatures measured on the ceiling in the front as well as in the rear of the module. It can be seen that due to the limited amount
rose within few minutes to flashover condition. For the module with combustible wall and ceiling linings flashover occurred after about four minutes.
For the modules with non-combustible wall and ceiling linings flashover occur-
Results of Fire Tests with Deactivated Sprinkler
The second series BU of full-scale

tests was performed with deactivated sprinkler systems. Each test was per-
formed using two modules, i.e. one module was placed above another module (in Table 4 the modules used are indicated as "lower" and "upper"). Tsble 4 gives an overview of the most relevant results of these fire tests.
.
red after approximately six to seven minutes. In full-scale fire tests recently performed by VTT (Technical Research Centre of Finland) using different timber compartments with and without
'
protection of the wood structure by gypsum plasterboard,le flashover occurred between 4 and 6 minutes, confirming the results of our fire tests. The influ.ence of combustible linings was clearly
of oxygen the temperature in the rear of the module was lower than in the front close to the ooened window. Further, no significant diff'erences were observed in the temperature curves for the module with and without combustible wall and ceiling linings. This confirms that only a part of the pyrolysis
gases released by the combustible wall
and ceiling linings burnt inside the

Science and
Structural Engineering International 2t2008
Technolosv
153
Fire test
Modules
BU nbb
Lower: G1 Opeired
ca.01'30" ca.06'00" 13'57" 42'35" 02'1-5" (air)
BU bb
Lower: H1 Opened ca.01'40" 04'27" 06'09" 07'28" 03'20" (air) 03'27" (air)
18'53"
BU nbb demo Lower: G2

Opened
ca.01'40"
Upper: H2
Closed
Upper: H2
Closed
Upper: H2
Closed
Window Ignition time of mattress

Flashover Failure time of exterior glass layer of the window in the upper module Failure time of interior glass layer of the window in the upper module
06'58" 11'25" 40'16" 02'35" (air) 07'30" 07'30" 02'44" (air)

59',01
Sprinkler activation time on the

ceiling
42'40"
42',41"
12'30" (air)
Sprinkler activation time on the wall

End of fire test (sprinkler activation)
02'20" (air)
44',15"
4l'21" (air)
5L)'37"
12'10"
Table 1: Muin results of the.fire tests BU with sprinkler system turned off (Units:minutes and seconds)
Fig. 5: Fire tlevelopntent seven minutes after Linings
fire ignition; (a) lower moclule with combustible linings (b) kner module with non-combLtstible
room. The unburnt gases flowed out of the window opening, causing intense combustion outside the module where oxygen was available in large quantities. Similar results have also been obtained in Ref. [19].
The tests contirmed that with pure passive measures it is possible to limit the
on the ceiling and two layers of gypsum
fire spread to one room even for timber structures. In the test BU nbb demo with the timber structure protected by three layers of gypsum plasterboards
plasterboards on the walls a complete burn-out of the lower module without significant damages of the timber structure and fire propagation to the upper module was achieved. In the room
212008
I54
1400 1200
5th Internatiortal
o'
E a
u
1[,oo 800
Con.lerence on Performance baseri Codes und Fire Safety Design Methods, LuxemhotLrg. Society of Fire Protcction Engineers: Bethesda,6-8 October 2004.
F ooo 8 +oo
40,000 building fires 1999; 32: 137-l -58.
f7l Fontana M, Favre JP Fetz C. A survey of in Switzerland. Fira Saf. .1.
---r-
l8l SchweiTerische Bruntlschttz.vorschri.fie n V K F,

test BU fcst lJL.l test BU test BU
***
..'s*
nbb front nbh rear bb front bb rear
Vereinigung Kantontl.er Feuerversicherungen

VKF. Bern,2003.
[9] Buchanan AH. Fire perfornance of timber construction. Prog. Struct. Eng. Mater. 2000;2:
218-289. [10] ISO 834-1. Fire-Resistance Tests Elements of Buikling Construction - Part l: (}eneral Requirements. International Organization for Stan-
Time [min]
Fig. 6: Room temperatures measu.red on the ceiling in the front os t4)ell as in the rear of the lower modules for the firt' tesr BU nbb with non-combustible linings as well as the Jiri test BU bb -'ith combustible linings (the temperature of the test B U bi front are not complete due to a loss ofelectrical power that occurred during the fire test aJter abouL l0 minLt'.tes)
dardization, Gendvc, 1999.
above the fire compartment no elevated temperatures were measured and even the smoke concentration was at normal level until the breaking of the windows.
[11] ASTM E199. Standard Tbst Methods .for Fire Tbsts o.f Buildi.ng Construction und Materia/s. American Society for Testing and Materials:
Philadelphia. 1988.
f 12] EN L99l-l-2. Eurocode l: Action on Strttctures Part I -2: General Action - Actions on Structures Expo.secl /o Flre. CEN: Brusscls,2002.
measures can be built to be as safe as
typical traditional
non-combustible
tall buildings.
References
Conclusion
[ 3] Hietanicmi J. Probabilistic simuiation of firc endurance of a wooden beam. Slrrlct Saf. 2007;
29(4):322 336.
tror tall buildings fire safety is
an
important design aspect. The use of combustible materials is restricted or not permitted in most fire regulations. There is a fundamental difference between tall buildings and medium-rise buildings with regard to evacuation and fire resistance criteria as people in tall buildings can often not be evacuated by the fire brigade using external equipment. A total burn-out without loss of structural stability and some main compartmentation must be guaranteed by the building structure. For the use of timber this often leads to the protection of the timber by noncombustible material (encapsulation) or to mixed construction. A feasibility study showed that mixed timberconcrete tall buildings in combination with technical and organizational
fll Ostman B. Rydholm D. National Fire ReguLr tions in Relation to the Use of Wood in European and Sone Other Countries. Report P0212044, Triitek - Swedish Institute for Wood Technology Research, Stockholm. 2002.
[2] Mikkcrla E. Charring of Wood. VTT Rescarch Notes 689, Espoo, 1990.
[14] Buchanan A. Stntctural Design for Fire

Saf!t_r'. John
Wilcy & Sons: New York.2001.
[15] Fontana M. Fires in buildings. Proceedin.gs IABSE Symposium on "Structures und Ertreme Events",Lisbon, Septcmber 14
'17,
2005.
[3] Kiinig J. Wallelj L.'fimb er I'-rante A ss em bl ies E.rposed to Standord and Parttmetric Fires, Part 2:A Design Model Jbr Standard Fire Exposure.
J. Korhonen T. Risk-based fire safety engineering approach applicd to a public building. Proceetlings o.f the
[16] Joyeux D. Bonnot S, Hietaniemi
Report I 0001001. Tiiitek - Swedish Institule for Wood Technology Rcsearch. Stockholm.
2000.
5th International Conference on Performance baserl Codes and Fire Sa.fety Design Methods. Luxeniltourg. Society of Fire Protection Engineers: Bethescla, 6-8 October 2004.
[,1] Young SA, Clancl' P. Structural modelling of light-timbcr framed walls inffte. Fire SaJ. J.2001:
ll7l Dock Tower, IJrbane Visionen on der Swissbau 02. Architcktur & Technik. B+L Verlags AG:
Schlieren. Switzerland. 2002
f 18] Maag T, Fontana M. Brrtnclversuche an mod.ulhotels in holz.bauweise. IBK Report No. 250. Institute of Slructural Engincering. ETH Zurich. August 2000.
36:241-268.
15] Frangi A. Fontana M. Fire perforn.rancc based clesign ol multi-storey tirnber builclings. Proceedings of the IABSE Symposittnt ctn "structtLres anrl Extreme EvenLs", Lisbon. September 14-11, 200.5.
assessment based on Bayesian networks. Proceedings o.f the
[6] Fontana M, Maag T. Fire risk
ar.rd hcavy
.1.
[19] Hakkarainen T. Post-flashover fires in light timber construction compartments.
Firt Sci.2()02;20 l.l.r
175.
Science and Technology 155
New Technologies for Construction of Medium-Rise Buildings in Seismic Regions: The XLAM Case
Summary
This paper reports on the outcomes of an experimental test performed on a fullscale building constructed using innovative technology. The experimental results are compared with the outcomes of a numerical analysis with the aim to derive the behaviour factor q used in a simplified elastic design of the building under
seismic actions.
Keywords: Seismic design; wood buildings; cross-lam; shaking table tests; fullscale tests.
Ario Ceccotti
ProL. University of Venice, IUAV Italy, Director, CNR-IVALSA Tiees and Timber Inst.,
Introduction
This paper deals with the new product currently called "cross-laminated timber" or XLAM (Cross-Lam), or CLI (Cross laminated Timber) or BSP (Brettsperrholz) and its behaviour under seismic actions when used in
buildings.
Italy
the quick erection of solid and durable structures - even in seismic areas - is possible even for non-highly skilled manpower. The good thermal insulation and a fairly good behaviour in case of fire are added benefits deriving from the massive wood structure (Figs. /-2).
Hence,
The XLAM is made of solid timber boards glued together in a cross way to obtain both wall panels and floors.
XLAM opens a growing market for residential and non-residential construction based on a local, renewable natural resource, with a positive
impact on the socio-economical situation of large European areas where Spruce forests are spread, but "traditional" timber buildings are considered only for cottages, temporary housing, and similar small, "lightweight" constructions.
XLAM was born
a decade ago in Germany and Austria; XLAM panels can
reach dimensions suitable for the prefabrication of one-piece storey walls, in which joint surfaces and openings for windows and doors are made by the use of dedicated CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machinery.
Research laboratories in several European countries, recently, have

been working on nationally funded research projects on XLAM buildings. Therefore, day by day, multi-storey buildings made of XLAM are becoming a
XLAM
panels are extremely strong and stiff. considering their low density; they are also quite easy to process
and to assemble with ordinarv tools:
/////
//////L, ;io'i"a ;;ted
/////////
D^^* -^.,;^,,,^,1 by internatiOnal eX-
l^
t"'iEi ilai*ii' o *'o
ror pubrication
Paper rcceived: November 5.2007 Paper accepted: Januzrry 11.2008
Fig. 1:FotLr-storey
XLAM building in ltoly (Photocredit: RASOM Holz&Ko, Italy) Structural Engineering International
212008
l-56
the forces to be accounted for when designing the structure using a sirnple elastic global analysis. The ARF reflects the capability of a structure to dissipate energy through inelastic behaviour such that the structure can survive even exceptional earthquakes without complete collapse, i.e. reaching the near-collapse ultimate limit state. This philosophy is the same of Eurocode 8 in which the ARF is called "seismic behaviour factor q" which is defined as the factor used for design
purposes to reduce the forces obtained from a linear analysis, in order to account for the non-linear response of a structure, associated with the material, the structural system and the design procedures.
Fig.2: Exterior wuil-.floor corner detuil in a
XLAM building
stronger and economically valid alternative even to their counteroarts built with concrete and masonrv throushour
E,urope (.Fig. 3).
(National Institute for Earth Science

and Disaster Prevention, Japan), BRI
ln order to assess the correct q value for a given structural system, a fully experimental procedur:e is presented in Ceccotti et al.t The most straight
forward method is, however, a hybrid one experimental and theoretical at the same time. where testing is done the closer to reality the better - as well as it is an appropriate computer model.
This model - calibrated on test results must be capable of predicting the nonIinear response of the structure under
However, until now, design of XLAM system buildings is not yet covered by European standards. For example in
(Building Research Institute, Japan) and Shizuoka University. Japan, consisted of the follor,ving stages:
tests on basic connections;
in-plane cyclic tests on wall panels
Eurocode 8,t this construction svstem is not yet inclucled and no recomntendations are given regarding its seismic
with different connections and
opening layouts and with different dimensions and amounts of vertical

loadl
behaviour. Especially regarding the value of the seismic behaviour factor to be used in seismic design of this new type of wooden buildings, where
no provisions are given. In this paper, results from shaking table tests on a three-storey cross-laminated
pseudo-dynamic tests on a onestorey specimen with three different

opening layouts in the external walls
wooden building are presented and the value of the seismic behaviour factor is calculated for imolementation of XLAM system in Eurococle 8.
Testing Programme The testing programme undertaken jointly by CNR-IVALSA and NIED
shaking table tests on a threestorey building of about J m x 7 m in plan and 10 m in height with a pitched roof in three dilferent conligurations (three different opening layouts, A, B and C; see Fig. q and with three different earthquakes (Kobe, El Centro and Nocera Umbra) at two growing levels of peak ground acceleration (PCA.0.l5 and 0.5 g): Iinally, tests on conflguration C of the building with Kobe and Nocera Umbra at growing Ievels of excitation until the so-called "nearcollapse" status was reached.
parallel to the shaking direction and without vertical load;
a certain number of real earthouake excilalions. To cvaluale q. only the definition of the near-collapse status is needed. i.e. no definition of ductility is required, which is cumbersome for timber structures where a precise yielding point is in most cases difficult
to define accurately.
The above procedure can be used both with a orobabilislicr or a semi-
in the semi-probabilistic
probabilistic approach." For example.

approach.
appropriate safety coefficients are considered in the codes both for the design action and the design resistance to take into account the relevant uncertainties.
been followed and adooted:
In this paper, the following procedure, similar to that given in Ref. [4], has
- The building's
structure has been designed for value q = 1 according to
In this paper. reference will be made

only to this last phase.
Action Reduction Factor Evaluation

Fig.3: Seven-storey XLAM building in Castelrotto ( B Z), Ital
y-
Most seismic design codes use action
reduction factors (ARFs) to evaluate
the relevant design codes ("static" and "seismic" codes" i.e. E,urocode 5 -Timber structures5 and Eurocode 8r) and the design PGA. prescribed by the code (PGAu..oo").i.e. 0.35 g for the highest seismic zones in Italy. At the end of this step. the resistant system is completely determined (e.g. walls thickness. connectors
Science and Technoiosr, 157
2t2008
types, number of screws and nails and so on). The building's mechanicalbehaviour
)
..,.:l
has been modelled on the basis of its mechanical characteristics (obtained by cyclic tests on walls eventually calibrated using results of full-scale testing on a shaking table) using a suitable computer analysis programme (DRAIN3DX, developed at the University of Berkeley, California) capable of calculating the non-linear response
of the structure under a quake in the
time domain.
- Using shaking table

\-11-.-J-.$'
tests results,
the near-collapse criterion has been deflned, i.e.25,5 mm uplifting deformation of hold-downs. In fact at this deformation (see Flgs'. 9 and 12) the
c".i;"(b)
hold-down is broken (even
if
the
''==
structure was still standing perfectly straight and vertical). Using the computer programme for a given earthquake ground motion and increasing step by step the quake's intensity, the quake's
PGA,,..11 Ieading
7;d|
the building to the attainment of the previously

determined near-collaose state is
suitable for the building site, in order to draw a global picture of the building behaviour under ditferent
determined.This procedure must be repeated for a series of earthquakes
..-
t'
'-i}
ô\
- q is then
possible inputs.
calculated as the ratio between the PGA,."1 values producing the near-collapse status
and the PG{..u6" value.
\_---.
""..Ss"
Design of the Test Building

The ref'erence building considered is the one shown in Flgs 4 and 5, which
has been tested in June and July 2006 at
. /..:
t.,,
the NIED shaking table facility in Tsukuba, Japan. As explained above, the
Fig. 4: Three different utnfigurations in which the builclinSg has been tested. While corfigtr- Fig. 5: Three-storey test bui.Lding on the rotions A and B ure syrnmetric, configuration C is asymmetric as the opening of the other shaking table at NIED Laboratory in external wall parallel lo the shuking direction is the sume as tct the one in con.figuration B Tsukuba, Japan (configuration C)
158
Sciencc and Technology
212008
First floor plan
Znd - 3rcl Floor plan
I
Exl!rndl wall tbickness
r)
:
North wall elevation
4n l.l0 -._-
'.a4
{\
l.t0
u.
ui5
1.123
East and wesl wall elevation
r _:4, ,
; ,rFloor
1' 85 mm Roof thickness
. r*,i=-r
South wall elevation
Roof thickness ness d) 85 rlm nm
hickness 1,1,
u
1.10
[] il
aFloor
thickness l4;
fl
-"4-=1 tl I f rl
]
T-======-
T
thickncss
2.255
|
f
42
] l .i
I
t-l
-FLoor
thickness
4.1]0(l
1,12
ll
l
t.10
nm
mm
;
1.2t)
* r--l
2.3,10
î !
6.935
+l TT-: f
_
tl
l
[.]
l
F+
t f
6,935
Fig. 6: Plans and elevation of the test building (lJnits: m)
procedure to follow in order to
assess
the 4 value starting from test results needs, by definition, the attainment of
a near-collapse status.Therefore, as this
where Sa (Zr) is the ordinate of the design spectrum at period 71 and ]4/ is the lotal mass of the building.
corresponding to the most hazardous value in the Italian territory
condition has been fulfilled only for configuration C, plans and elevations of the building are referred only to this configuration and are shown in Fig. 6.
The distribution of dead and additional loads at each floor in the test building is given in Table l.
From the outcomes of the tests, the period Z1 of the building is 0,20 s, therefore the ordinate of the design
spectrum is
S is the soil factor assumed 1,25 for type B soil, for example deposits of very dense sand, gravel, or very stiff
clay.
SJ(I):a.xSx1jl-
)5
Q)
4 is the behaviour factor

be
1.
assumed to
"q
According to Eurocode 8, the base shear force is calculated usins the following equation:
where:
The calculation of the seismic forces and the shear at each floor are given in Table 2.
Design of Hold-Down Anchors at
Fu(7,)=So(1,)xW
Floor
1r'
2n.1
(1)
is the design ground acceleration corresponding to lhe seismic zone. According to the Italian Seismic Building Code, a* is taken equal to 0,35 g,
an
Ground Level To resist the shear forces, steel angles have been used. To resist the uplifting forces, hold-down anchors have been
used.
Dead (kN)
60 60
15
Additional ftN)
150 15i)
Total (kN)
2r0
210
45 465
Roof
Total
Tuble
0 300
165
l: Load distribtttion at each flctor
The hold-down anchors used to connect the building at ground floor are hold-down anchors HTT22, connected to the basement by means of 8,8 Class M16 anchor bolts and to the crosslaminated walls with Q 4160 annular ringed nalls (Fig.7).
Total weight
Roof
Second floor
45 kN 210 kN 210 kN 465 kN
First floor
Total
Seismic action Base shear
zone l; a"
0,35 0.20
Tt
soil B
q
S
?r
90x48x3.0r
kN
Fu
2,5*(W*S*a*)/4
509
Distribution on storeys
height
Hr (roof)
H2 (2nd floor) H1 (1st floor) Horizontal forces at each
9.40 m 6,18 m
3,09 m
floor
Fr (roof)
F2 (2nd floor)
91
tu
E-t-tT22
KN
279 kN
139
F1 (1st floor)
shear at each floor
kN
Fig. 7: Steel angles BMF 90 x 18 x 3,0 x 116, hold-down anchors HTT22 and nular ringed nails used to fasten both connectc,trs to the cross-laminated walls (.)
(b)
1/60 an-
Ti (roof)
T2 (2nd floor)
T1 (1st floor)
91
KN
370 kN
509
-," >=--l=-./
.'/ a'
.,/
kN
Table 2: The calculation of the seismic fbrces and the shear at each.floor
u<<,'zz4
,/
'-'-o-===:-=
The distribution of hold-down anchors at the ground floor and of the seismic forces at each floor is shown in Flg. 8. Considering only the design of the holddown anchors at the ground floor and considering also the contribution of the hold-downs in the walls perpendicular to the shaking direction (hold-down marked with "H" in Flg. 8) - in fact the
s*y+4
V
:,57
\\.\,/2
load-bearing capacity of screws is sufficient to transfer the load between two perpendicular walls and assure the anticipated cooperation - the calculation gives the following result (moment equilibrium around the A line):
F, x
Fig. 8: DistribtLtion of hold-down anchors and steel angles at ground floor and distribtttion of seismic forces at each floor. In the left figure, the hold-down anchors marked with H are those taken into accoLtnt in the desisn
From the experimental tests on the

steel-to-timber connections using annular ringed nails, it was found that each nail has an ultimate shear resistance of 4 kN. which is taken as the 5th
Hence to resist the uplift force, each hold-down anchor is connected using
12 nails.
h,+
Frx h, +
F, 4 -* r1'2-t /
/3)
H, = 72 x 3,38 = 40,56 kN > H =

= 40,34
-5xHx6,93:0
97x9,40
+ 279 x 6,18 + 139 x 3,09
percentile value of strength. Therefore, according to Eurocode 5 and 8, the strength design value of each nail is:
kN
(6)
Note that the design tensile strength of the Class 8,8 016 anchoring bolt, considering the effective cross section is:
tv.
_ -5xHx6,93:0 -465x 2 H = 40,34 kN (4) =>

160
6q1
^ R,xkRn = " Tv -u:
4xl.l : :' 1,3
= 3.39
kN
(5)
':
A,.-r L _
x64o:91.35
T,
1000 x 1,1
kN (7)
which is greater than
H.
212008
Tests The test building - in configurations A and B has been shaken 14 times in a row using three real accelerograms (Kobe, El Centro, Nocera Umbra) (Fig 9) scaled to different levels of PGA - ranging from 0,15 to 0,6 g.Then configuration C was shaken 12 times as
shown rn Table 3.
l.,
"
,ffi:
.i ffi
N'
15
1,6
-';
The main test results are summarized
in
:,.i.:l
Table 4.
k
Fig.9: Hold-down fuilure a,fier Kobe quake scaled up to 0,9 g Date
05t07 t2006
Numerical Modelling Numerical simulations have been performed using a commercial finite elements non-linear dynamic in
the lime domain analysis programme (DRAIN-3DX, developed at the University of Berkeley, California). The
PGA (g)
0,15 0,15 0,15 0,50 0,50 0,50
Configuration
C
Accelerogram Kobe
05t01t2006
0510712006
(-
El Centro
Nocera Umbra Nocera Umbra
I7
18 19
t(-
original programme has been modified by implementing specific subroutines accounting for the non-linear behaviour of mechanical joints of timber structures developed at the University of Florence, Italy.o
05107t2006
05t07t2006
07107 t2006 L-
El Centro
Kobe Kobe Kobe Kobe Kobe Nocera Umbra Kobe
20
2I
22
L-)
0710712006 01107 t2006 0710712006
t. L
C
0,82
0,50 0,50 0,82
1.20
For the dynamic analysis in the time domain, the time interval At has been taken as 0,00 I s. Seismic masses are concentrated in the nodes. A Zoh nominal equivalent viscous damping on
stiffness has been assumed.
)A
25
10t07 t2006 t0107 t2006
(C C
26
10t07t2006
0,90
The model (Fig. 10) consists of rigid wall panels - made by braced frames with very stiff truss elements - with the following configurations:
Table 3:Tests list
Record Nocera Umbra
PGA (e)
0.50 0,50
Restoring intervention (before the test) Tightening of hold-down anchor bolls Tightening of hold-down anchor bolts Replacing of screws in vertical joints between panel Idem ldem Idem Tightening of hold-down anchor bolts
Observed damage (after the test) None None
El Centro
Kobe Kobe Kobe Kobe Kobe
0,50
0,80 0,50 0,50 0,82
None Slight deformation of screws in vertical joints between panels None None
Replacing hold-down anchors and tightening Slight deformation of screws in vertical joints of bolts between panels Replacing screws in vertical joints between panel Tightening of hold-down anchor bolts Replacing screws in vertical joints between panel None
Nocera Umbra
I.20
Deformation of screws in vertical joints between

panels
Kobe
0,90
Hold-down failure: 25.5 mm uplilting Significant deformation of screws in vertical ioints between oanels
terms of observed damage Science and Technology 161
Table 1: Results of shaking table tests
for configuration c in
212008
Structural Engineeringlnternational
Slnmetrical hodzonlal sprirg

Gteel aogies)
:)
Non symmelrjcal verlical spring (hold-down)
":zi:
Non-svmmetrical vcrtical spriis (hold down)
Symnetrical !er lic:]l spring (vcrtical conneciion between two adjacenl wall pancls)
Fig. 10: Numerical model of the tested building
Fig. 11: (a) Non-symmetric model for holddown connections; (b) symmetric model for steel angles connection
z
o L
connected together by symmetric springs
non-linear
simulating
vertical connection between two

adjacent panels; connected to the upper and lower floors by non-linear non-symmelric
springs simulating
vertical connections;
hold-down
connected
to the upper and lower floors by non-linear symmetric springs simulating steel angle
horizontal connections. Floors have been schematized as rigid panels made by braced frames with very stiff truss elements. Flexibility of the connection between adjacent floor panels has been neglected due to the purposely redundant number of
screws.
Displacement lmm]
ffi
l ---
Hoto oown ancnor
--- uraln
.1u mooel
The comparison between model and tests has been made for the configuration C of the building, where the input quakes have been the strongest
ones.
The hysteresis model for non-symmetric connection behaviour is shown in

Fig.11.
Springs behaviour has been determined from cyclic test results carried on a series of full-scale wall panels.2
DisplacerneDt Imm]
@
Fig. 12: Model behaviour versus cyclic test results. (a) difference in dissipated energy is 9o/" for hold-down connections and (b) 5% for steel angles
In Fig. 12 model fitting for hold-down

and steel angles connections is shown. Fig. 73 the comparison between model and test results is shown.
In
162
212008
\t'-.-
{
1
Y///
F.-
\:r
Fig. 13: Comparison between model and test results at chosen reference points
-;,$
O"t""*O+*
The numerical model of walls has been further checked on shaking table test results of the entire building in configuration C under Kobe 0,82 g and Nocera Umbra scaled up to 7,2 g.
and PG\..o4" where PG{..6 is the PGA that induces the near-collapse
state (i.e. the uplift of 25,5 mm at one
or more hold-down positions) for each quake while PGAr..ud" iS taken equal to 0"35 s.
In
Table 5. drfferences between model
100
Nocera Umbrr 1.2g Point 3NE
and test results are reported. Differences are quite small from an engineering point of view.
ilTes1
= 71,7
Modcl = 73.9
In Fig.14, comparison between the top

displacement history during the Nocera Umbra 1,2 g quake as predicted by the model and those from experiment is given.In Fig.15 the model deformed shape at the maximum top displacement is shown.
E
Fln E
illl
'-''t[\{ ',
il t
4t)
trU Ai') o
ril^
llil
tl
M
\l
Evaluation of 4 Factor
Eight recorded quakes irave been chosen for the 4 factor evaluation in order
to give a wider spectrum to the obtained results. They are reported in Table 6.
Tcst = 69.1
rl
Iime lsl
N,Iodel = 75,6
Table 7, the calculated q value for each quake is given. Factor q is calculated as the ratio between PG\""x
ln
Test results
Drain model
Fig. 14: Test results versus model prediction at point 3NE under Nocera {Jntbra qttake scaled up to 1,2 g Science and Technology 163
Kobe 0,82 g Period (s) Max. displacement (mm)
lNE
Test
0.21
lSE
2NE
51
5
2SE
56.1
3NE
5Rq
3SE
62,2 59.9
4o/o
26.0 28,0 ao/
)q5
30,6 10/ llo
Model
0,16
1/O/ L+ /O
51,0 7% 4%
57i
3o/"
Difi
The fact that the PGAu."rr for Kobe is 1,15 g instead of 0,90 g (which actually caused the hold-down failure) may be explained by the fact that the actual test was performed on an already weakened building by the previous Nocera Umbra 1,2 g quake since no reparation was made.
Max. uplifting (mm)

ONE
OSE
Conclusion
From Table 7, it is possible to draw the conclusion tbat a q factor value of 3 is
acceptable.
Test
10,65 11,31
7,39 7,00
Model Diff. (%)

Nocera Umbra 1,2 g Period (s) 1NE
Tesl
0,23 0,16
In fact for
seven
of eight
or
6%
5%
cases the calculated q factor is equal
Max. displacement (mm) ISE
larger than 3 and in two cases is even larger than a @ig. 16).To generalize this conclusion, a wider set of quake
3NE
71,7 75.6 67o
2NE
61.5 64,2 /o/ +/o
2SE
3SE
78,7 77,1
2"/o
37.l
345 3%
17R ao/
65)
66.6 ao/
Model
records and different building shapes should be evaluated, but from a design point of view, a value of q = 3 is reasonable for such type of buildings in the
author's opinion.
Diff.
30%
Max. uplifting (mm)

ONE
Test 10.5
17.4 OSE
It must not be forgotten, in fact, that

q5q
t0,65
Model
Diff. ("/o)
40%
rc%
Table 5: Comparison between test and model results in terms of maximum horizontal displacements and uplifting displacements
the test building has been shaken at least with 15 "destructive" quakes in a row without any significant repairs. In addition, even the quake producing the near-collapse state was not able to permanently deform the building as it was still standing straight and vertical at the end of the entire set of shakes.
71)
I l
iVr o*
S=:,
,
Xr,
),',.'
(4,
(b)
Fig.
15:
Model deformed shape at top maximum displacement (77,1 mm, at point 3SE) under Nocera Umbra 1,2 g quake
164
Earthquake Kobe
Date
Station
Component
N-S N-S
Duration (s)
48,0 40.0
Earthquake Kobe
PGA,,"n (g)
1,15
Calculated 4 factor
3.28
rctrtr995
1-9t5t1910
27 t'7
JMA
lmperial Vallcy
Nocera Newhall Landers
El Centro
Nocera
El Centro
Nocera
t,20
1,60
t1997
E-W
E-W
N-S
1?'7
4,57
Umbra Northridge
Joshua
l1 t1 t1994
Umbra
19.98 29.00 39,98
Northridge
Joshua
0,88
1.09 1,05
2,51
2214t1992 18/10/1989
1
3,11 3,00
3,51
Loma Prieta Mexico City Kocaeli

Tabl.e 6:
Corralitos
E-W
Loma Prieta
9/9/1 985
E-W
Yapi Kredi
N-S
{l
50
Mexico City
Kocaeli
1,,13
l7t8t1999
85.80
4,09
Accelerogroms used Jor q factor calctLlation
Table 7: Calailated q factors
17
factor for
Xlarn buildings
References
[1] EN 1998-1:2001. Eurocode 8: Design o.f StrtLcfor Eurthquake Resisttrnce - Purt l: General Rules, Seismic Actiotts und Rules for Buiklings,
Ittres
3..5
CEN Brussels,200u1. l2l Ceccotti A. Follesa M, Kawai N, Lauriola MP,
2.5 2 1,5
1
Minowa C. Sandhaas C. Yasumura M. Which seismic behaviour factor for multi-storey buildings made of cross-laminated wooden panels? Proceedings of 39th CIB Wl8 Meeting,paper no.
39-15-4, Firenze, 2006.
0.5
13l Ceccotti A. Foschi RO. Reliability assess-
Kobe
El
Ccntro Nocera Northridge Joshua Umbra
Loma
Prieta
Mencct
Kocaeli
Cit.
menL of wood shear walls under earthquake excitatior.r. Proceedings o.[ Santorini ConJerence on Stochastic Mechanics. Greeoe, 1998.
Fig. 16: RestLlts o.f q factor calculation
[4] Ceccotti A, Karacabeyli E,. Validation of seisnric design parame tcrs for wood-frame CNR-IVALSA (ltalian National Research Council - Trees and Timber Institute). The author acknowledges the fundamental contribution to this paper given by Prof.
shearwall system. Can. 484-498. L5l
.1.
That means that the XLAM typology is a self-centering construction system and it seems very promising especially if the design philosophy in seismic
areas will be converted to the NDD no damage design - approach.T
Civ. Eng.20021.29(3):
EN
1995-1-7:2005. Eurocode
Acknowledgements
This paper is published in the frame-work of the SOFIE project on XLAM buildings. The
Dr Chikahiro Minowa of National Institute for Earth Science and Disaster Prevention (NIED) in Tsukuba. Dr Naohito Kawai of Building Research Institute and Dr Minoru
Okabe of Center for Better Living, Tsukuba. Special thanks go to Carmen Sandhaas, Ga-
Motoi Yasumura of Shizuoka
University,
'l'inber Strttctures - Part

Rules anrl Rules
5 - Design of l-l: General Common
for Buildings.
[6] Ceccotti A. Vignoli A. A hysteretic behavioural model for semirigid joint. Eur. Earthquake Eng. 1989: Vol. III, (3/89):3-9.
briele Bonamini. Mario Moschi and Mario Pinna of CNR-IVALSA.

Last but not least. special thanks to the CNRIVALSA former research associates Maurlzio Follesa and Marco P Lauriola.
[7] Palermo A" Pampanin S, Buchanan A,

Fragiacomo M, Deam B. Code provisions seismic design of multi-storey post-tensioned buildings. Proceedings of j9th CIB W18 Meeting,paper no.
39-15-6, Firenze. 2006.
SOFIE Project is a co-operative research project supported by the Tiento Province, Italy and coordinated and conducted by the
Multi-Storev Prestressed Timber Buildings in New Zealand
Andy Buchanan'r'
ProL Timbcr Desisn
Summary
This paper describes recent research and development of a new system for multi-storey prestressed timber buildings in New Zealand.The new system gives opportunities for much greater use of timber and engineered wood products in large buildings, using innovative technologies for creating high-quality buildings with large open spaces, excellent living and working environments, and resistance to hazards such as earthquakes, fires and extreme weather events.
Keywords: buildings; construction; design; multi-storey; prestressed; seismic;
timber.
&' o.$f
Bruce Deam*
Scnior Lecturer Civil Eng
Introduction
There is a long history of timber build-
Massimo Fragiacomol':,' x
Assoc. Prof.
Zealand, largely because of the wide availability of timber and the perceived good earthquake resistance of timber buildings. The very large four-storey government building built in Wellington in the 1870s was restored in the 1980s and converted into a Universitv Law School. Sorne three- ancl lour-itorey glulam office buildings were built in the 1970s and 1980s, but very few were built since then. Multi-storey "stick frame" construction became popular for two- to six-storey apartment buildings in the 1990s, although there have
ing construction in New
removable partitions and cladding; composite T-beam floors with concrete topping on timber joists.
e
Pe $b rm an c e R
quir em en t s
The performance requirements for

these buildings will be as follows:
- wide open spaces, with maximum - residential. educational or

mercial
uses,
flexibility of use,
over time:
com-
which can be changed
been some problems with weatherproofing and durability.

Stefano Pampanin'k
Senior Lecturcr Civil Eng.
- excellent thermal behaviour: - durability for hundreds of years; - low levels of life-cycle energy use,
hence low CO2 emissions during construction, Iong-term use, and demolition.
safety in fire, earthquakes, or extreme weather events: excellent acoustic performance;
Multi-Storey Timber Buildings in New Zealand

New Forms of Timber Construction
New forms of
Alessandro Palermox'k
Assist. Prol. i' Unir'. of Cantcrbury, Christchurch, Ncrv Zealand: 'i'r' Dcpnrtment of Struct. Eng.. Politecnico di Milano. Italy: **:r Dept. of Archi. ancl Planning. Univ. of Sassari, Italy
prestressed timber construction being developed at the University of Canterbury have the potential to revolutionise large scale timber buildings. The new technology can be used for multi-storey timber buildings up to 10 storeys or more. These buildings will have the following:
Development of SeismicResistant PostlTensioned Timber Systems

Advanced Precast Concrete Technology
During the 1990s, numerical and experimental investigations in precast

concrete moment-resisting frames or interconnected shear walls under the
US PREcast Seismic Structural System
heavy timber beams, columns, or

walls: prefabricated off-site:
- large structural members
in the revolutionary
(PRESSS) programr2 have reiulted development of

high-performance, cost-effective, seis-
////////////
/////////////
/,wL
-, -,
main timber structure of glulam or
T;f ;.'.1 5::: t'' :1:'1: :.^:rJ,l."liiT,lil*, lJ; hv

SET
laminated veneer lumber (LVL)

members:
mic-resisting systems; these solutions
Edirorirl Board
Paper received: Septcmbcr 20,2007 Paper accepted: Dccember 5,2007
post-tensioned connections for easy
building and high-seismic resistance;
can undergo inelastic displacements similar to their traditional counterparts, while limiting the structural damage and assuring full re-centering
212008
166
Science and Technologv
for Timber These innovative solutions. typically referred to as jointed ductile connec- In recent contributions from the autions or PRESSS-technology, differ 16ott8-10 the concept of hybrid multifrom monolithic solutions (i.e. cast-in- storey systems has been extended place reinforced or precast concrete, Irom precast concrete to timber frame and wall systems. Owing to its high welded or bolted connections in steel) homogeneity and good mechanical in that: properties," LVL has been selected
residual/permanent deformations).
capability after the seismic event (no
Precust Concrete Technology Adapted
alternative arrangements have been

investigated using different types, size, location and design details for the nonprestressed reinforcement (dissipaters) and the post-tensioning, in order to guarantee different target levels of re-centering vs. dissipating contribution
(Flgs.J and 4). particular, several different solutions have been developed for energy dissipation devices. One of the most efficient and flexible devices is a simple axial yielding steel dissipater, made from a mild steel bar machined down to guarantee fuse action. Dissipaters can either be deformed bars epoxied
Prefabricated structural elements

are connected using unbonded post-
as the
terial. However, since the proposed
preferred engineered wood ma-
In
tensioning.
- The inelastic seismic demand is accommodated within the connection through the opening and
closing of an existing gap. The structural elements are kept in the elastic range with a very limited level of damage.
is
post-tensioned solutions are not sisnilicantly alfecred by the srrengrh ;[ the material, provided that proper confinement is given to the compression area to avoid crushing ol the edge layers, similar systems can be based on other wood-based materials. such as glue-laminated timber (glulam).
Figure 1 shows the conceptual solution l"or a hybrid beam-column timber connection, based on the combination of
A particularly efficient solution an

adequate combination
provided by the hybrid system where
of
self-
centering capacity (unbonded tendons
plus axial load) and energy dissipation (mild steel or other dissipation devices) leads to a conlrolled rocking motion. which consists of a peculiai " a g-s h a pe d" ( d issipa t ive-recen Iering) lt
hysteresis loop.
post-tensioning and internal dissipaters (e.g. epoxied mild steel bars). In the following paragraphs, a brief over-
inside the main structural elements (internal dissipaters) or threaded bars located externally, encased in a steel tube injected with epoxy to prevent buckling. The latter solution represents a particularly attractive solution for easy replacement after a seismic
event.
Extensive numerical and analytical studies have recently focused on the refinement of the system technology and development of simple and reliable modelling and design procedures. In the last few years, several buildings have been constructed adopting these innovative solutions in seismic countries, like USA, Japan, New Zealand, Italy, Chile etc. Major seismic codes or design guiclelineir n have incorporated the possibility of using jointed ductile connections. An overview of recent developments of hybrid solutions in precast concrete construction including research outcomes, modelling and design aspects, code provisions and guidelines as well as practical applications can be found in Pampanin./
Internal or external
dissipation dcvices
different arrangements of prototype connections for timber beam-column joints 4nd single or coupled timber walls. Patent protection has been sought for some aspects of these new
design and construction techniques.
Exp erim ent al I nv
view will be given of the experimental testing carried out so far to validate
Because the dissipaters are the only damageable part of the connection system, the improved post-earthquake reparability leads to significant reductions in repair costs and business downtime compared to traditional solutions in timber construction (e.g. nailed, bolted, or steel dowel connections).
es
tigati on
In general terms, the experimental results on different frame or wall systems and subassemblies confirmed the hishseismic perlormance of lhese innovative jointed ductile timber connections
out on timber exterior beam-column subassemblies, cantilever columns. single walls and coupled walls. Typical test setups are shown
Both quasi-static cyclic tests and pseudo-dynamic tesls have been carriecl
the displacement-conlrolled loading protocol followed the recommendations included in the Ref. [12] documents. A series of three cycles ai increasing level of inrer-storev drift were applied through the horlzonral hydraulic actuator.
cases.
all
in
Fig.
2.In
based on post-tensioning techniques. In all cases, considering different simulations of seismic loading, the tested systems demonstrated large inelastic displacements (high-ducriliry demand) with no significant damage of the structural elements and negligible residual
deformations.s
1o
Design Flexibility
As part of the validation process for the design and modelling methods,l3
The hybrid systems described above allow for great flexibility in the seismic design of multi-storey timber buildings,
Self-centering Rocking motion
Unbonded
post- Mild steel or tensioned dissipativedevrces
,::< l; Basic concept of hybrid jointed ductile connections for LV L timber frame systemss and flag-shape hysteresis behav.iotu
Structural Engineering International ZI200g
Science and
Technology
167
Fig. 2: Test set-up of exterior beant-colttmn joint, (single) cantilever wall, cantilever cttlumn sytecintens"
(Beam contact section)

Internal dissipaters
loacl cell (cyclic force)
External dissipaters
2001
''t l'I|"l lrio | E l+

sot
'F
Hybrid specinten
Hybrid specimen 3
-s(rtr
000
ll I 134:J
Illso
50tr il1ft I IIf 200 1 | lol | llnlltsrr .,r+ d | | lq

-"'+ .-.-_ H.H
105
+ +
I
tr50
*--.i.+=_+
105 15 105 = 2 q,8 (top and bottom) '^p = 1 strand (7 wircs.99 mrn')
45
105
llnbondcd
PT tenc'lon
2 08 (top and bottom) . Ap = I strand (7 rvires. 99 mm')

As =
"Tl I tI'sn 2o0l fl 6 |+

5rl-
Hybrid specirnen 2
Hybrid specimen 4
|| irr+ | .+-+
1
tl I lol I
lr.o
I
2r)(rl I d | + I 'luL rgrJIJE Ilrs.' sOt

*--.icH105 As
su{ #tft IIItt1s0

45
l-_.{-*=_+
105
45
10s
105
)
,'p
Qlt) (top and boLtom) " 1 strand (7 wircs. 99 mm')
Ao
2 <f9 (top ancl bottom) I .lrrtld (- u itgs. 0Q P5
Fig. 3:Test-set up, geometry
for exterior beam-column joint specimens including alternative
arrongements
for
dissipaters (Units: mm)
Internal dissipaters: epoxied mild steel bars with unbondcd length
External dissjpatcrs: mild steel rods with epoxicd encased Steel tubes
Fig. 4: ConstrLtction details
of beam-column subasse.mblies with internal und external dissipaters"
168
212008
as confirmed by the different arrangements investigated, with different types
of dissipaters combined with different initial post-tensioning of the tendons.

Figure 5 shows the force-displacement (hysteresis) response of different arr-
precast concrete structures such as that suggested by the Eurocode 2ra will be
beam-column subassemblies consisting of post-tensioning only (with two different levels of initial prestressing) or a hybrid solution with internal or external dissipaters. The shape of the hysteresis loop can be controlled in the design phase by selecting appropriate moment contributions from the prestressing (rocking
or re-centering characteristics) and the non-prestressed reinforcement (energy dissipation characteristics).
angements
of
sought. However, possible remedies to reduce the losses, especially for beam-to-column connections. include the use of steel plates and epoxied bars to transfer the prestressing force across the columns, which are loaded perpendicular to the grain due to the
prestressing tendons.
column connection. to reduce the mid-span positive moment and the deflections, thus allowing longer
spans and shallower beam depths.
Coupled Rocking Walls
The results of a series of

dynamic tests on single
well
as wa1ls10 as
or
pseudocoupled
When focusing on prefabricated wall systems, further improvements to the response of a single walllO can be achieved by coupling the walls using
on caniilever columnse
under different levels of seismic intensity, confirmed the reliability of the

propg:ed design and modelling assumptions'' in predicting and controlling the target displacement, thus the overall seismic performance, of these systems.
various energy dissipation devices similar to those suggested for precast concrete systems.l Several options
have been suggested, including welded loose plates and bolted ductile connections, incorporating flexural yield, tension/compression yield (TCY), shear yield (SY) and friction sliding/coulomb friction (CF) concepts. These dissipa-
Research
to
evaluate the losses of
time due to creep of the timber is ongoing. The first outcomes are reported in the section on Long-Term
Effects. From the preliminary results of the experimental tests, a reduction of 10-15% of initial prestressing has to be expected. Hence, during the design process a 10-75% overestimation of the self-centering capacity given by the tendons has to be considered. An extension of the formulas used for
prestressing force in the tendons over
Further efficiency can be obtained for frame systems with alternative configurations of the tendon profiles, namely straight or draped, depending on the
tive mechanisms are activated by the relative vertical displacement of the adjacent walls during rocking motion
(Fig. 6).
following:
- the -
structural role of the frame within the building (gravity only,

seismic-resistant, or a combination); the seismicity of the area and targeted seismic demand for each frame;
A particularly efficient solution
is
- the'need to increase the negative moment capacitv at the beamHybrid specimen with internal clissipaters
provided by U-shaped flexural plates (UFP device) shown in Fig. 6, _originally proposed by Kelly er a/.') and selected for testing in the five-storey IRFSSS building at the University of California, San Dieso.
Purc unhondcd fust-len\ionE(l specinten.
Hybrid specimen with external dissipaters
=,
,l
,I
tno
z
10
Z
c
.o
U
= 0,4f0,
l! ?
f*
-I
t)
:L
0.0 3
0 Drift
-0,015
-0,03
a 20
-0.05
-0.025
T a o F
0 0.025
-0.025
(c)
0
Drilt
0.025
(b)
Drift
Fig- 5: Lateral
force-drift curve: (a) pure unbonded post-tensioned solution; (b) hybrid solution with inrernal dissiparers: tc) hybrid solution with external dissipaters (ntodified from Ref.t t9,l0l)
Seismic action
<+
Coupling device
j
Partially unbonded
tcndons
Wall panel
Stainless steel bent
plate
Site weld
Embedded steel plate
!t'<. 6: Mechanism of coupled hybrid walls and set-up using [J-shape /Texural plate dissipaters]b
Science and
Technology
I69
Because of the particularly stable hysteretic behaviour at large deformations, and very low cost, the UFP devices with
mild steel strips have been selected as a primary candidate for the development of coupled LVL post-tensioned wall systems. Experimental tests with
quasi-slatic cyclic and pseudo-dynamic
systems. Stressed skin panels were recently investîgated in Australia2r) and in Europe." These floors exhibit improved structural performance, however they still suffer from the problem of vibrations for long-span floors and cannot provide adequate acoustic separation.
testing'"'' have confirmed the
easy
implementation and high performance of such solutions.
Another option currently under research in burooe22'23 is'the use of

solid slabs made from cross-laminated timber. Problems such as insufficient
Floor Solutions
The floor system is a key component of the multi-storey timber building. There are a number o[ performance requirements that must be satisfied:
acoustic separation and excessive vibrations can be overcome by using slabs of adequate thickness; however a relatively high volume of wood is
required. Concrete-Timber Composite Floor
Systems
Fig.7: Notched connection detail for

concrete- LV L comp osite
floor
the
additional benefit
of improving
Sy s t ems
post-peak behaviour.
Prefab ri cat e d F I o or
to gravity load (strength limit state for out-of-plane loading); control of vibration and deflection due to gravity load (serviceability limit state); resistance to lateral load (strength limit state for in-plane loading); control of deflection due to lateral
resistance load on the diaphragm (strength and serviceability limit state) ;
Concrete-timber composite systems

were initially proposed in Europe for strength and stiffness upgrading of existing timber floors.'* Owing to several advantages, such as lower weight than traditional reinforced concrete floors. and better acoustic performance than timber-only floors, the composite systems are now being used for new construction. The larger stiffness of the concrete topping markedly increases the flexural stiffness of the comoosite
system. which reduces the deflection
feature of the multi-storey building under development in New Zealand is prefabrication. The floors could be constructed from composite panels entirely prefabricated off-site is proposed by Bathon er a1..27 or by connecting concrete slabs prefabricated off-site onto the timber joists
and the adjacent shbs as proposed by Lukaszewska et al."
lire resistance;
acoustic separalion: thermal insulation.
Timber Joist Floors qnd Solid Timber Floors
Tiaditional joist floors are extensively used lor single- or two-storey houses.'" In this system. the flooring
is constructed from wood-based oanels such as particleboard or plywood nailed on timber joists and blocking. The system is light, easy to construct and therefore inexpensive, however it meets few of the above performance requirements. The inherent flexibility of timber leads to excessive deflection and vibration if medium to large spans (5 to 10 m) are used. An effective acoustic separation, which is highly desirable in inter-tenancy residential buildings, cannot be easily achieved using only wood-based flooring panels. Possible remediesle include the use of layers of sand above the flooring and expensive proprietary panels suspended under the floor.
Stressed Skin and
and the sensitivity to vibrations.
It is
possible to construct medium to long-
span (6 to 10 m) floors significantly lighter than precast concrete counterparts with similar performance. Particularly important is the increase in acoustic separation over traditional timber-only floor, which is a crucial requirement for inter-tenancy floors. This composite system has been selected for the floors of the innovative multi-storey buildings under development in New Zealand.
The crucial component of the composite system is the connections system,
semi-prefabricated solution is currently under development in New Zealand (see Fig 8) where only the timber part will be prefabricated off-site, with the concrete slab cast lnsltu.A2400-mm wide prefabricated timber panel will be made from four 63 mm x 400 mm LVL joists supporting 17-mm thick plywood flooring. The 1200 mm x 2400 mm
plywood panels will be nailed onto the
joists with the face grain perpendicular to the joists. The notched connec-
tion detail will be cut from the LVL

joists and the lag screws inserted in the
Solid Timber
Floors
Owing to these drawbacks, attention has been paid to innovative systems' such as stressed skin oanels. solid slabs made from cross-laminated tim-
ber, and concrete-timber composite

170
which must be strong, stiff and economical. Several types of connectors have been developed^to date, from mechanical fasteners2s'26 to slued steel plates2T and notched connictors.2s 2o On the basis of a pilot study,3o the notched connection detail was selected as the strongest and stiffest type of connection for concrete-LVl composite floors (Flg. 7). In this type of connection, the shear forces are transferred from concrete to LVL through bearing at the interface between the two materials in the notch. The use of a lag screw in the notch has the
joists before the connection with the plywood. The top surface of the panels will be coated with waterproof paint to minimise warping and moisture-induced dislorlions. After construction. the panels will be delivered to the site and either placed directly onto the beams of the gravity-resisting system or hung from them using proprietary steel hangers. The prefabricated panels will be placed side by side and connected using screws. A steel mesh and concrete topping will be poured on top of the panels on site. Advantages of this solution include:
ease of transport and lifting panels due to low weight;
of the
of a monolithic concrete slab with better in-plane

construction strength and stiffness, and no need
212008
D10-200 mm c/c both ways

17x1200x2400 mm Plywood sheets
nT, ot
J3.3 x 95 mm Nail Gang
x80 x 250 mm
16 mm
Diamcter
coach screw
l
for additional connections between
adjacent panels;
LVL HySpan
Flg. B.'Cross-section of concrete-LVL composite
floor under development in New Zealand (dimensions in mm)

subjected to gravity load. Preliminary results have shown a moderate (about 10%) reduction of prestressing force due to time-dependent phenomena over one year. These results will be
not expected to be a problem in the

new commercial buildings using large scale beams, columns and walls, provided that attention is paid to weatherproof cladding materials and the main
high strength and stiffness achievable with reduced number of connectors, thanks to the effectiveness of the
notched connection detail; medium to long-span floors,

range 6 Io 72 m;
structural elements are visible for
reported soon.
in the
inspection.
possibility of competing with traditional precast concrete solutions.
Case Study Building

Creep Tests
A six-storey reinforced
concrete
One disadvantage is the need to introduce a "wet" component (the fresh concrete) on the building site, where all other components are "dry".
An extensive experimental programme is currently ongoing at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, including tests to failure and long-term tests
An extensive experimental programme aimed to investigate the long,term be-
of full scale concrete-LVl composite

beams and different connection details.
dynamic vibration tests of composite beams, and tests under repeated loads of composite beams and different connection details.
The possibility of using prestressed
haviour of prestressed LVL beams is currehtly in progress. The programme includes creep tests of small LVL blocks, loaded in compression parallel and perpendicular to grain, creep tests of portions of two-bay LVL frames, where the beams are prestressed with unbonded tendons, and creep tests of LVL beams, with and without prestressing,
building is under construction at the University of Canterbury (Fig. 9). A comparative-virtual design in timber is being carried out to make a number of comparisons between timber and concrete construction. The building is approximately 40 m x 20 m in plan with
one stair and one elevator. The beams, columns and walls are to be fabricated
from multiple layers of 63-mm LVL

glued together into large prefabricated
LVL
beams with composite connections to the concrete topping will also be investigated aftej good results of a preliminary study."
Long-Term Effects
Durability
Durability has been a problem in multi-storey stick-frame buildings in New Zealand, with inadequate weather-proofing details leading to
rapid decay of untreated timber studs in concealed wall cavities. This oroblem is being solved with stringent new
design and inspection procedures.

There are also new requirements for' using chemical treated timber in structural elements that may become wet due to weather exposure. Durability is .Fig.9: Architect's
sketch of Jinished buitding Science and Technology 771
components. Most beams and columns are approximately 400 mm x 600 mm in cross-section.
be analysed in detail, and compared with reinforced concrete and steel

alternatives.
seismic performance
TechnoL.
[7] Pampanin S. Emerging solutions for high
of precast -prestressed
J.
concrcte buildings (invited paper).
Adv. Concr.
(ACT) 2005; 3(Z): 2rJ2-222.
Seismic Design
Earthquake resistance is provided by moment-resisting frames in the longitudinal direction and cantilever shear walls in the transverse direction. The seismic elements have been designed using displacement-based design principles. The moment-resisting frames
have post-tensioned beams supported between continuous solid timber columns that are not post-tensioned. The cantilever shear walls have vertical post-tensioning tendons and some yielding steel bars as energy dissipaters at the base.
Conclusion
This paper has described new developments in multi-storey timber buildings in New Zealand. None of these buildings have yet been constructed, but the research programme is proceeding rapidly, in collaboration with
industry.
[8] Palcrmo A, Pampanin S. Buchanan AH. Ncwcombe M. Seismic design of multi-storey buildings using laminated veneer lumber. Proceedings ol the 2005 New Zealand Society o.f Earthquake Engineering Conference, Wairakei, New Zealand, CD-ROM,2005.
[9] Palermo A, Pampanin S. Fragiacomo M. Buchanan AH. Deam BL. Innovative seismic
solutions for multi-storey LVL timber buildings. WCTE 2006 - 9th World Conference on Timber E n gine e r ing. Portland. August 2006.
Floor Design
Upper floors are the prefabricated

timber floor panels with cast in situ reinforced concrete topping as described
above.
of design and speed of construction of the LVL components, combined with the enhanced seismic performance of the hybrid solutions, will create unique potential for future development and increased use of this type of construction in low-rise and medium-rise multistorey timber buildings world wide.
It is envisaged that the flexibility
[10] Palermo A, Pampanin S, Buchanan AH. Experimental investigations on LVL seismic resistant wall and frame subassemblics. Proceedings o.f l st European Conlerence on Earthqua.ke Engi-
neering and Seismology, Gcneva, Switzcrlancl, September 2006.
[11] Ranta Maunus A. In Laminuted Veneer Lumber and other Structurol Sectir.tns, 'fimber Engineering Step I. lst edn. Blass H, et a/. (eds). Centrum Hout: The Netherlands, 19951
A^9ft-1'9t7.
[2] ACI T1.1-01 & ACI TL.1R-01. Acceptance criteria ior moment frames based on structural
Acknowledgements
We wish to acknowledge contributions dur-
testing (T1.1-01) and commentary (T1.1R-0i).
ACI Innovation Task Group I and Collabora/ors. American Concrete Institute Farmington Hills: Farmington Hills. 200 l.
Life-Cycle Assessment
The wood quantities and all the energy
ing the design, construction and
benefits of these new types of buildings have yet to be analysed in detail."
The buildings will be attractive and functional as well as being low energy
and more sustainable than traditional building construction. We are investigating life-time energy use for heating
testing phases by a number of undergraduates, postgraduates and international exchange students, and technical staff, at the University of Canterbury. We acknowledge the financial support and technical assistance from Carter Holt Harvey Ltd, especially Hank Bier and Warwick
Banks.
[13] Pampanin S, Palermo A, Buchanan AH, Fragiacomo M. Deam BL. Code Provisions Jor Seismic Design o.f Multi-storey Postlensioned Timber Buildings. CIB Workshop, Florence, August 2006.
Strtrctures
and cooling, also calculating embodied energy and stored carbon in the construction materials and resulting COz emissions. The design will be assessed
Buildings, prEN 1992-1-1:2003. CEN, European Committee for Standar-dization: Brussels, 2003.
[14] Eurocode 2, ECz. Design o.f Concrete - Part l-I: Gen.eral Rules and Rules for
References
[1] Priestley MJN. The PRESSS program current status and proposed plans for phase Ill.
P
[1-5] Kelly JM, Skinner RI, Heine AJ. Mechanisms of energy absorption in special devices for use in earthquake resistant structures. Bull. N. Z.
Soc. Earthquake Eng. 1972; 5(3): 63-t3t3.
using the latest sustainability

ment tools.
assess-
CI .1 1996; 4l(2): 22-40.
[16] Iqbal A, Pampanin S, Buchanan AH,

Palermo A. Improved seismic performance of
Fire Safety
The fire safety of the building is being assessed in accordance with New Zealand and international codes. considering both internal and external growth and spread of fire, also structural fire resistance of the floors and main structural members.l8 Since 1992 the New Zealand Building Code has allowed timber buildings of unlimited height provided that performance requirements are met. whereas earlier codes limited height to only three storeys. Cost and Time of Construction
JR, Parnpanin S. Preliminary results and conclusions from the PRESSS five-story precast concrete testbuilding. PCI J. 1999;44(6): 12-61 .
[2] Priestley MJN, Sritharan S, Conley
LVL
post-tensioned walls coupled with UFP devices. Proceedings Bth PaciJic ConJbrence on Earthquake
Engine ering,Sineapore, Decemb er 2001
.
[3] Fib, International Federatiolr for Structural Concrete. Seismic Design of Precast Concrete Building Structures. Bulletin 27, Latsanne,
2003,254.
[17] Smith T. Ludwig F, Pampanin S, Fragiacomo M. Buchanan AH, Deam BL, Palermo A. Seismic response of hybrid-LVl coupled walls under <1uasi-static and pseudo-dynamic testing. Proceedings of the 2007 New Zealand Society of
E a rthqua ke En
[4] Eurocode 8, ECS. Design of Structtres for

Earthquake Resistance.prEN 1998-1:2003. CEN, European Committee for Standardization: Brussels.2003.
gineering
C o n.fe re nce,P
almerston
North, New Zealand, March 2007. [18] Buchanan AH. Timber Design Guide.3rd
edn. New Zealand Timber Industry Federation: Wellington. 2007.
f 19l Chung H, Dodd G, Emms G, McGunnigle K. Schmid G. Maximising Impact Sound Resistance oJ Timber Framed Floor/Ceiling Systazs. Report PN04.2005, Forest and Wood Products Research and Development Corporation. Australia, 2005.
The design will allow all major construction components to be prefabricated off-site for rapid construction. The cost and time of construction will
[5] ACI T1.2-03. Special hybrid moment frames composed of discretely jointed precast and posttensioned concrete members (ACI Tl.2-03) and commentary (ACI T1.2R-03). ACI Innovation Task Group I ancl Cctllaborators. American Concrete Institute Farmington Hills: Farmington Hills,2U03.
sions for the seismic design of ductiie jointed precast concrete structural systems. Concrete Design Code. Standards New Zealand: Wellington, 2006.
[6] NZS 3101:2006. Appendix B: special provi-
[20] Gerber C, Crews K, Sigrist C. Predicting performance and designing strcssed-skin panels - an Australian perspective. I9th Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and Materials, Christchurch. 2006, 1023.
172
121] Raadscheldcrs JGM. Blass
H.
Strcssecl
skin parrels. Timber Engineering Stelt 1, 1st edn. Certrum Hout: The Netherlands. 19951 B10/j
B 1 0/10.
L25l Stcinberg E, Selle R. Faust T. Connectors for timberJightweishL concrcte composiLc struc tures.
"/.
rence
on'limber Enghteering WCTE 20()1,Yol. l.
Lahti,Finland.2004.14 17.lLrne 2004.30I 306.
Sr/acl. Eng. 2003: 129(11): 1538-154-5.
[22] Ceccotti A. Follcsa M. Lauriola MP Sanclhaas C. Which seismic behaviour facLor for rlulti-storelr buildings made of cross-lamin:rted rvcroclen panels'i Proceedings, CIB Working
C o n t.nt
i.s.s
naria'' stud connector fctr

40(10):1013
t{J26.
[26] Fragiacomo M. Anradio C. Macorini L. Short and long-term performance ol'the',Tec-
(20()rl). Conrt.cliorrs lirl

slab ancl 9261-x.
M ute r. Struc t., R I L E M. DO
[30] Deam BL. Fragiacomo M, Buchanan AH.

c()tnlros
te
cr)ncl.etc
-007 -
LVL tlooring systems. Published onlinc.
limber-concrete compcrsite bcanls Mtiler. StnLct.. RILEM 2006..
0. 1 617ls
I 1 527
io
WI
8 -
Tint
er
S t ru c
1
tur
s.
Fl orencc. 8.
Ital1,, 2006. Papcr No.
CIB-W 8/39-15-4.
l27l BaLhon L. Bletz O. Schrnidt J. Hurricane

proof builclings-an innovaLive solution using pre-
[23] Jobstl RA. Moosbrugger T. Bogensperger T. Schickhofer GA. Clontribution to the design and system effect of cross laminatecl tirnber. Proceed.ing.s:, CIB Working Contmission Wl8'l'in'rber Structttre,r. Florcnce. Italy, 2006. paper
crB-w18/39-12--s, r7.
fabricated modular wood-concrete-composite

elcments. Proceedings:, 9th World Con.feren.ce on Tinber Engineerlng. Portlancl. 2006.
[31] Lukaszewska E, Johnsson H, Fragiacono M. (2007b). Perlormance of connections for prcfabricatcd timber,concrete composiLe floors. Publishecl online. Mater. Struct., RILEM, DOI
l(J. | 6 | I I s1 | 521 -007 -93 46 -6.
[28] Gutkowski RM. Brown K. Shigitli A. Narterer J. Investigation of notchecl composite wocrd-concrete connections. .1. ,\tnrct. Eng. 2004:
[32] Deam BL, Fr-agiacomo M. Gross LS. (2U07c). Expcrimental behaviour of prestressecl LVl-concretc composite beams. ./. Strut:t. Eng. 134(5): 2007.
[33] Bucharian AH. Can tirnber buildings help rcduce global COz emission s'! Proceedings, 9th World Con.ference on Timber Lngirteeri.ng,
Portlancl. 2006.
l2zl] Ceccotti A. Timbcr-concrcte composite

sLructurcs. In Timber Engineering Step 2,1st ecln. Blass H. er n/. (eds). CenLrum Hout: The Netherlands, I 99-5: El 3 I 1 -E13 I 1 2.
r30(r0):
15-53 1561.
:Ls
shc:rr-connectors in timber-concrete composite structures. Proceedings of the Sth World Cctnfe-
[29] Kuhlmann U. Michclfelcler B. Grooves
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Science and
Technolosr'
73
A Timber-Concrete Composite Slab System for Use

in Tall Buildings
Summary
The increasing demand for fire resistance and sound insulation in multi-storey buildings has made composite slabs of board stacks (side by side timber members) and concrete a desirable structural system. While it has been implemented in several cases, the floor plan is restricted because the anisotropy of timber requires continuous support of the board stacks.
Steel slim-floor proflles can be integrated into the timber-concrete composite slab, acting as a continuous support. In comparison to usual reinforced concrete slabs, the reduced dead load allows larger spans with the same thickness, which requires fewer columns and extends the range of the application for the struc-
Ulrike Kuhlmann
Prof. Dr-Ing.,
tural system. Keywords: timber-concrete composite; slim-floor; steel-timber-concrete

composite.
lnstitute of Structural Design, University of Stuttgart, Germany
Introduction
The combination of timber and concrete provides two substantial advantages. First and foremost, the reduced dead load allows larger spans to be achieved. Additionally, the composite slab can be quickly erected in the field. These can be accomplished without compromising the sound insulation and the flre resistance provided bv
concrete.
(
Jiirg Schfrnzlin
Dr-Ing., Institute of Structural Design, University of Stuttgart, Germany
1.1/
I est speclmen
By installing a thin layer of concrete

on the timber elements, the tensile resistance of the timber can be used in a
similar fashion as reinforcing steel in conventional concrete construction. Timber elements can be simple beams or board stack elements composed of planks
dowels. The simplest manner to achieve this is to design the cross-section so that
Purc concrctc
Composite slab
ln v1414gLA l" '

TIZVTVTZ
slab
Md=
""
fzzrztz1
h,,.t3
--] *]"
4
TRRRGRIJ h.ll ll ll ll ll ln.-
F,. = F FI 1)M,
(b) Load transfer

Fig. 1: Comparison of the load transfer between a reinforced concrete slab and a timber concrete composite sl.ab
joined together with nails or timber
the concrete is in compression and the

area that would normally be cracked is replaced with timber (see Frg. 1). slab with a flat ceiling despite the necessary continuous support is the inte-
The transfer of the shear force across the concrete-timber interface is critical to the design of the system. Several methods such as srooves' 'or steel flat barsa's can be used.
gration of a steel-concrete composite beam within the timber-concrete composite slab.
Peer-reviewed by intemational experts and accepted for publication by SEI Editorial Board Paper reccived: August 23,2007 Paper accepted: December 4,2007
One drawback to the system is the inherent weakness of the timber elements perpendicular to the grain. As such, a continuous support is always necessary. An excellent remedy for these cases is a steel-concrete composite beam within the timber-concrete composite slab.
One possibility to create
a
Composite Slabs of Board Stacks and Concrete with Integrated Slim-Floor Profiles
System In order to provide the required continuous support for the composite elements of board stacks and concrete, a shallow
concentrated
supported timber-concrete composite
steel supporting beam can be added.

212008
I74
Slructural Engineering International
Slim-floor-protile
(a) Slim-floor-profile
Component
/l^: r
rrtimhrr. L,,mtk$inn "concrclc. conrpression
50urce ModilicaLion ot [12]

[1
Board st. slim floor-profile
re.
(b)
Concrete
Boarcl stacks
Composite section
(c) isometry
Reinforced concrete under tenslon Timber undcr compression Concrete undcr compression Steel under compression
3]
lr2l
l12l
Fig.2: Composite of board stacks and concrete with integrated s lim-floor profiles
Fig. 3: Components
60
These systems are called steel slim-floor
profiles (see Frg. 2). Several different

steel cross-sections have been studied.
For this discussion, however, the slimfloor profile is composed of a flat steel bar and a welded on U-profile with parallel flanges (UPE,-profile, see
Fig. 2a). Headed studs are installed on the UPE-profile to facilitate shear transfer. In summary, two composite systems will be examined - one with timber and concrete and one with steel as well.
L o ad- D eJbrmati on B eh av i o ur
the design, the question is how to idealize the system since the loading of the integrated steel-concrete composite beam is loaded at the maximum capacity, when the composite slab of
board stacks and concrete is a continuous system. If the concrete cracks, the stresses increase and the joint at the
tr50
zto I:n 2-"

y20
tr
Ero
0 0 .0
integrated slim-floor profile turns into a hinge. In contrast to pure reinforced concrete elements, the timber is rather brittle. Therefore this increased stress cannot be redistributed in the system.
2,5
5,0
7,5
10,0
Rotation d in mrad
profile Concrete Timber

Steel
5235, UPE.270 & ca 400 x 10 mm C20lZ5. d - 80 mm C24. d - 160 mm BSt -s00.44S mmz,m
Rsinlbrcenrcnt
of the Composite Sleb of Board Stucks und Concrete with Integrated Slim-Floor ProfiIes
General
tror this reason, a numerical study using the Finite-Element program MaSA'u is performed. Within this
study the load-deformation behaviour of the joint is determined with respect to the average values. However, limi-
Fig. 4: Comparison of the moment-rotation relation evaluated with the Finite-Element model MaSA and the component method
Both subsystems "composite slab of board stack and concrete" and "concrete slab with integrated slim-floor q profile" are well known.6 Numerical and experimental studies have been performed, since the following uncertainties concerning the interaction of
both composite systems arose:
power prevented a study of the influence of the variability of the mechanical properties on the properties of the joint. Therefore the joint is re-modelled as
springs using the component method.11
ted available computational
M-o-relation of a joint is shown. As shown, the moment-rotation relations evaluated by both methods match quite well. The main differences in the results of the two calculation methods are the peaks. These peaks are caused by the development of single cracks in
the concrete slab. Since the component method smears the cracks. these peaks do not appear.
effective structural system of the timber-concrete composite beam; shear transfer from the timberconcrete composite slab to the
integrated steel-concrete composite
Within the component method, single load transfers are split up into single components. Their load-deformation behaviour is considered as non-linear
beam; general load-deformation behaviour of the complete system; effective width of the concrete slab
a. Ir t-l spnngs (see f'19. -J.)."'' In order to verify the component method, several configurations.of the joint are evaluated by using the Finite-Element program as well as by using the component method. In Fig. 4 a typical
A Monte-Carlo simulation using the component method is performed in order to determine the variability of the properties of the joint (see Table l). As may be recognized in Fig. 5 large differences between the
stiffness values of the joint, especially CoV'
13,3%
in the range of the steel-concrete

composite beam; load capacity of the headed studs.
Source Distribution
MoE(timber)o Ittl log-tto.-. MoE(reinforcement)b

fr,(reinforcement)c MoE(concrete)b
[15]
It-t]
1og-ttor-.
3% 67"
Structural System of the Composite Slab of Board Stacks and Concrete
normal
ItoJ
The composite slab of board stacks and concrete as well as the integrated steel-concrete composite beam are produced in one casting procedure.'
The concrete is therefore a continuous slab, whereas the board stack elements
lot-ttot-.
t5%
L5%
fr{concrete lr | "l log-norr.

Table
l: Variability
oJ the material properties
are single-span elements. Concerning
" Coefticient of variation b Modulus of elasticity 'Yield strength d Compression strength
Science and
Technologv
175
100
Minimum 5%-fractile
Average
tr
Shear Transfer from the Composite Slab into the Integrated Steel-Concrete Composite Beam
;
o
E
95%-fractile Maximum
The shear forces in the composite

slab can be transferred into the steelconcrete composite beam either by the concrete slab or the timber element by contact on the steel flanges. Concerning the ultimate load, the load transfer of the concrete is preferred, since the bending of the steel flange due to the shear transfer would reduce the bending capacity of the whole steel element. In the case of flre, the flange heats up rapidly, the resistance of the steel flange is reduced and pyrolysis of the timber in the contact area may take place.
0,0 profile Concrete Tinber

Steel
z,s
5,0
7,5
x
10,0
Rotation $ in mrad
5235, UPE 270 & a 400 C20lZ5-d = 80 mm C24. d - 160 mm BSt 5{tll.5l
10 mm
(a) Full
scale lest (sfan
h m)
Rcinfurccment
mm2tm
Fig. 5: M-q-relation of the joint evaluated by the component method, considering the variability o.f the material according to Table I
z :
150
roo
50
depending on the cracking of concrete,

are obvious.
For the structural design, the continuity of the system does not depend on the absolute stiffness but the relation between the stiffness of the ioint and the stiffness of the slab.Therefore, the support reaction of a two-span system with respect to the 57o-fractile value and the 95 % -fractile value of the stiffness of the joint are shown in Fig. 6. This illustrates that the 95%-fractile
value of the joint stiffness leads almost to a continuous slab system, whereas the 5%-fractile value causes a chain of single-span girders. It is therefore recommended to assume a single-span system for the determination of the internal forces of the comDosite slab oI board slacks ancl concreie since the concrete may be subjected to cracking. To determine the loading of the integrated steel-concrete beam a continuous system should be used, since it cannot be ensured that the concrete above the steel profile is cracking.
For this reason, the load-deformation of this detail is modelled by means of the Finite-element model (FE) and the component method comparable to the procedure described in the section on Structural System of the Composite Slab of Board Stacks and Concrete, in order to study whether a sufficient shear transfer by the concrete slab is possible. However, the simulations show that due to the reduced rigidity of timber perpendicular to the grain,
the concrete starts cracking before the timber has reached less than 40% of its load capacity. Since the transfer of the shear forces by timber is only activated at a stage of high deformations (see Flg. 7), both Ioad transfers should not be superposed. As a consequence the shear transfer by the thin concrete slab is neglected and the transfer by timber contact at the steel flange assumed, although disadvantages concerning the fire resistance and the load capacity of the integrated steel element exist.
Mid span dcflection

0
Vidspan deflcction in mrn

t'b ) Load-deformatron curve
50 -
100
150
200
Fig. 8: Full scale test of a cctmposite system of board stacks and concrete with integrated s lim-floo r pro.file
concrete composite system has proved to be rather ductile due to the vieldins of the steel.
In order to achieve the ultimate load capacity of the system, a sufficient shear transfer in the joint between steel and concrete has to be provided.
For this load transfer between steel and
concrete, headed studs are installed. However in contrast to the expected full shear resistancelT an early splitting failure occurred (see Fig.9).
This type of failure has been observed before when headed studs were placed
Load-Deformation Behaviour of the Integrated Steel-Concrete Beam

In order to determine the general load-
5%-fractile
---- Hinge .-" "- Rigid ^ E
es%-fractile
Fry:ry
t/
I.L ffiq
horizonlally in thin concrete slabs.'n Obviously the limited concrete coverage of the headed studs in the concrete core due to the timber elements induced splitting failure. Therefore the
reduced shear resistance of the headed studs has to be considered accordins to
deformation behaviour of the timberconcrete-steel composite system, three full scale tests have been performed. As shown in Fie. B. the steel-timber0.01
Annex C.le
p f; J
0,625 o,ooo o,s7s
By means of numerical studies
o,sso O5r5
0,500
and measurements of the strains at the surface of the concrete slab, an effective
ts
1500
width of the integrated steel-concrete

composite beam has been determined. As a result. the effective width is not influenced by the timber elements, and the values for common steel-concrete
0.00667 0.0i]5 0.00133

u,lJ0.! 67
Span in m
Prollle Concrete Timber
5235, UPE 270 & E 400 C.20125.d = u0 mm C2,1. d l6u mm
x l0 mm
Reinforcement BSt 500,221
mm2/m
in Ref. [17] should be used. However. the enlargement of the effective width for
composite beams given steel-concrete composite beams with integrated slim-floor profiles according to Ref. [20] may not be considered,
Fig. 6: Influence of the stiffness of the
joinr on thc .suppt,rt reoction assuming
Fig.7: Principal strain
qt
at calculated
rein.forcement of Q221 over the support
failure
176
uPEZlj &Vr
E
400 x 15 mm, 5355 concrete: C20 125, timb er : C24 r/,o,.,, = 320 mnt
3lo
o o
tr
E, a
Z
Timber-concrete composite slab (ULS) Timber-concrete composite slab (SLS)
Rciniorced concretc siab (ULS)

4
Span of the slab in m
Fig. a: $p11111rg of the con( retc core
Fig. 10: Possible spans of a slab with integrated slim-Jlctor-profiles built up as timber-concrete composite slab of reinforced concrete slabs for the ultimate limit state (ULS) and the serviceability timit stare (SLS)
since the concrete slab in the timber-
concrete-steel composite system is more slender than the slab in the normal sleel-concrete composite sysl.ems with integrated slim-floor profiles.
Potentiul of the Timber-ConcreteSteel Composite System
the timber-concrete composite slab to the integrated steel-concrete compos-
Acknowledgement
Gesellschaft fiir Holzforschung (DGfH), Munich, the Bundesamt fiir Bauwesen und Raumordnung (BBR), Bonn, the Arbeitsgemeinschaft industrieller Forschungsvereinigungen "Otto von Guericke" (AiF) and the Deutsche Bundesstiftung Umweit (DBU), Osnabriick for their kind and active support in the studies about the composite of board stacks and concrete, and the composite slab
of board stacks and concrete with integrated slim-floor profiles.
ite beam, which finally transfers

forces to the support.
the
We gratefully acknowledge the
Deutsche
In comparison to usual reinforced concrete slabs a substantial amount of concrete weight is replaced by light timber elements in the timber-concrete comoosite syslem (see Frg. /).This reduced dead load leads to larger spans and a columntree area than for normal reinforced
concrete slabs with integrated slim-floor profiles (see Flg. 10). Catalogues of the joint between the slim-floor proflle and ihe column of a concentrated supported slab have already been developed,z1 so a rapid design of timber-concrete-steel composite system is possible.
For the design of this type of timberconcrete-steel composite system, the effective width of the integrated steelconcrete beam can be determined according to the regulations for normal
steel-concrete beams.
1
Owing to the possible splitting of the concrete core, the headed studs in the joint of this integrated steel-concrete composite beam has to be designed as studs near to the edge.le ,.Concerning the determination of the internal forces in the timber-concretesteel system, the scattering of the material leads to different stiffness values at the support of the timber-concrete composite slabs. For the design of the
References
timber-concrete structures. In
Construction-Conventional
C o n.fer en ce R ep o
[1] Natterer J. Concepts and details of mixed
and
1
Composite Innovative,
rt, Innsbruck,
997, 175 1 80.
Hoeft M. Zum Tragverhalten von Holz-Beton-Verbundkonstruktionen. Number CERS Nr. 1345,1987.

J,
[2] Natterer
Additionally, studies2Z show that the erection costs of the timber-concrete composite slab with board stacks in non-visible quality is comparable to the costs of a reinforced concrete slab ri'ith integrated slim-floor profiles.
Therefore, composite slabs of board stacks and concrete with integrated steel slim-floor profiles are an alternative to common slab systems in multi-storey buildings not solely due to sustainability reasons but also for
economic reasons.
timber-concrete composite slabs,
whereas for the design of the integrated steel-concrete composite beam, a continuous timber-concrete comDosite slab should be considered. For the transfer of the shear forces it is recommended, only to consider the shear transfer by the timber contact to the steel flange, since the deformations at the ultimate load of the concrete slab and the timber elements differ significantly, so a superposition of both load transfers should not be considered.
hinge has to be assumed at the ioint.
[3] Michelfelder B. Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Kerven als Schubverhindung bei Brettstapel-Beton-Verbunddecken. PhD thesis,
Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf, Universitat Stuttgart,2006.
[4] DIBI. Allgemeine bauattfsichtliche Zulassung mit Flachstahlschlossern. Deutsches Institut fiir Bautechnik. Berlin, 2002.
Z-9.1 -473: Brettstapel-Beton-Verbunddecken
15l Dieter Rommelt GmbHCo. KG. Holz-Systeme-Elemente. Produkte, wwwholzbetonverbund.de/produkteintb/produkte 2004.
[6] SchanzHn J. Zum Langzeitverhalten von Brettstapel-Beton-Verbunddecken. PhD thesis,

Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf, Universitat Sruttgart,2003.
Conclusion
Concentrated supported slabs can be ,-onstructed of timber-concrete composite slabs and steel slim-floor pro{ile
.is integrated supporting beams.
Owing to the minimized dead load, the timber-concrete-steel composite
. a larger column-free area than pure reinforced concrete slabs with integrated slim-floor profiles for the same
thickness.
system can support larger spans and
[7] Fragiacomo M. Comportamento alungo termine di travi composte legno-calcestruTzo. PhD thesis, University of Tiieste, 2000.
[B] Bou Said E. Contribution dla modelisotion des effets diffdres du bois et du bdton sous conditions climatiq ues v ariab les. Ap plication oux structures mixtes bois-b6ton. PhD thesis, INSA Lyon.2003.
In this
:\'stem, the forces are transferred by
Science and Technology 1i7
[9] Frics J. Tragverholten von F'lachtlecken nit Hutpro.filen. PhD thesis, Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf, Univcrsitiit Sluttgart, 2001.
Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf. UniversitAt Stuttgart,2006.
hung. PhD thesis, Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf, Univcrsitiit Stuttgart, 2000.
[10] OZbolt J. MaSA-Macroscopic Spar:e Anall,sis Bericht zur Beschreibung tles FEProgramnts MASA.lnstitut ftir Wcrksloffe im Bauwesen. f.lnivcrsitiit Stuttgart. 1999.
[14] Bccker P. Modellienmg des zeit-untl feuchteabhiingigen Materialverhaltens zur Untersur:-
httng des Langzeitverhuhens von Drttcksttiben utts IIolz.. PhD thesis. Bauhaus-Universitiit
Weirnar.2002.
[9] Eurocode 4. DIN EN 1991: Design of Contposite Steel ond Concrete Strttcttrres, Port 2: Generol Rules und Rules .for Bridges; German
Version.2006.
lragfiihiger Verbttndlrnoten in verschieblichen Verbundrahmen PhD thesis. Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf. Univcrsitiit Stuttgart,
2005.
[11] Schiifcr M. Zum Rotationsnachweis teil-
[1-5] Kleinschmit J. Probabilistisch fundierte Bewertttrtg nichtlineurer Berechnungskonzepte .fiir die Traglastermittlung von Verburulstiltzen atts einbetonierten I-Profilen, vol.69. Institut fiir Stahlbau und Werkstoffmechanik, Technische Universitat Darmstadt. 2003.
bal t il
[20] Rieg A. Ver.formungsbe4tgene mittrugende Breite nietlriger Verbundtrtiger. PhD thesis. Institut ftir Konstruktion und Entwurf. Universitiit Stuttgart, 2006. Kuhlmann U, Rieg A. I{onstruktionsurlas r Trti ger mit U P E- P rofi Len. Technical report 2005-28X. Institut fiir Konstruktion und Entwurf, Universitat Stuttgart. funded by Peincr-Tiziger GmbH, 2005.
[21
Slint- Floo
[12] Anderson D. Aribert J-M. Bode H, Huber G. Jaspart J-P Kronenberger H-J. Tschernmernegg
F. Design of Composite Ioints .for BtLil.ding,s, volumc 109. ECCS Technical Committcc 1l
Composite Structures. I 999. [13] Kuhlmann U. SchAnzlin
B r ett s tup
eI-
[16] Joinl Committee on Structural Safety. Prois tic M o del C o de. www.jcss.ethz.ch, 2001.
J.
Merkle R, Bux H.
mit inte gr
ie r
te
[17] Eurocode 1. DIN EN 1994: Design of Composite Steel and Concrete Structures Part l-l: General Rules and Rttles .for Buildings; Gennnn
Version, July 2006.
[22] Kuhlmann U, Sauerborn N, Hauf G. Sttrdie
z.um technisch-wirtscha.ftlichen Vergleich

Slim-Floor-Decken und konventictnellen
w eis
von
Bur
uncl
B eto n - Ve r b untlde cken
en v on F I cr c hdec kenko ns trtt ktio nen. Research
Slim-Floor-Pro.fi/eri. Research report funded by
Deutsche Bundesstiftung flmwelt
AZ
[18] Breuninger U. Zum Tragverhalten liegender

Ko p fb
o
report 2007-28X, Institut fiir Konstruktion

Entwurf, Universiti,it Stuttgart. 2007.
21168.
lzendiib
el unter
Ltingss chubb eanspru c-
ffil
(Successor to Prof. Dr.-lng. Rolf Eligehausen)
Universitdt Stuttsart
a
The Faculty of Civil and Environmental Engineering at the Universitdt Stuttgart invites applications for the position of
Professor (W3) in "Fastening Technology and Structural Strengthening"

to commence on October 1st,2009. Applicants should be internationally recognized experts in the field of connection of building materials and structural components with a strong publication record. Areas of particular interest include connection and structural strengthening using cast-in parts, post-installed systems, adhesives or materials glued to reinforced con" crete and masonry construction. Core competences should include in-depth knowledge of material science as well as reinforced concrete and masonry design. The applicant must demonstrate outstanding potential to establish future research. We seek a candidate who is also committed to excellence in teaching and mentoring of students. The position involves teaching in the study courses "Civil Engineering", "Real Estate Engineering and Management" and "Environmental Engineering" (in German) aswell as in the international Master programmes "Computational Mechanics of Materials and Structures" (in English). The candidate is expected to manage the Institut fur Werkstoffe im Bauwesen (lnstitute of Construction Materials) of the Universitiit Stuttgart in close collaboration with the Professor for 'Werkstoffe im Bauwesen' as well as the research unit 'Befestigungstechnik' (Fastening Technology). We give high priority to applicants from research and practice with extensi" ve background in the desired fields and demonstrated experience in the leading of teams. The requirements for employment listed in 5 47 and 5 50 Baden-Wiirttemberg university law apply.
Please submit your application with the usual documents (CV degree certificates, references, publication list, selected offprints, list of projects, short overview of the research interests) to the chair of the committee, Prof. Dr.-lng. C. Miehe, Institute
of Applied Mechanics (CE), Pfaffenwaldring 7,70569 Stuttgart, Germany, to arrive no laterthan June 15th,2008.
Universitiit Stuttgart wishes to increase the proportion of female academic staff and, for this reason, especially welcomes applications from women. Severely challenged persons will be given preference in case of equal qualifications.
178
Performance-Based Seismic Design of Six-Story Woodframe Structure
Summary
This paper presents a performance-based seismic design of a six-story lightframe wood building using a new direct displacement design (DDD) procedure specifically developed for mid-rise wood buildings. The proposed displacementbased design procedure uses normalized modal analysis and equivalent linearization techniques, along with segmented shearwall concepts, and allows engineers to select shearwalls from a database of backbone curves. The multistory direct displacement-based procedure is a promising design tool for performance-based seismic design of mid-rise wood buildings because it allows consideration of multiple performance objectives and does not require nonlinear time-history analysis of the complete structure. The proposed procedure further does not require the engineer to provide an estimate of equivalent damping. The proposed procedure is illustrated on a six-story building and is validated using nonlinear time-history analysis results.
Weichiang Pang
Post-doc. Res. Assoc.
Texas Texas,
A&M University,
USA
Keywords: performance-based seismic design; direct displacement design; wood building; shearwall; interstory drift; multistory construction.
Introduction
North American style stick-frame or light-frame wood construction is also known as the woodframe construction. Seismic design of woodframe buildings in North America generally
David Rosowsky
AP and Florence Wiley Chair Prof.,
Dept. Head, Zachry Dept. of Civ. Eng., Texas A&M University,
Texas,
follows force-based procedures. There are problems. however. that have been
identified with applying force-based

design procedures to woodframe buil-
USA
dings (see Refs, [1, 2]). Past earthquakes of moderate intensity have revealed that wood buildings are relatively effective in terms of protecting human life; however, they are much less effective in limiting property damage or financial loss. Damage to wood buildings alone has been estimated at 20 billion US dollars due to the 1994 Northridge earthquake.
force-based design, inelastic response is assumed and the design process is carried out in terms of the required strengthiforce. There is no
are stated in terms of displacements (e.g. drift) since there is believed to be a direct relationship between damage and displacement demand. Direct displacement design (PDD) was first proposed by Priestley' in the 1990s for concrete structures. The method utilized secant stiffness and an equivalent damping at a target displacement to characterize the actual nonlinear response of the design structure as a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system. ln 2002. Filiatrault and Folzl adapted the displacement-based design procedure for wood buildings. The same design approach was later applied to a two-story woodframe building.* Their procedure requires preselection of a list of possible lateral
force-resisting systems (i.e. shearwalls
with different nailing patterns)
as
In
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication by SEI Editorial Board
Paper received: August, 14,2007 P:iper accepted: December 4,2007
-
direct relationship between damage and force for buildings that respond inelastically during earthquakes, and hence it is not possible to estimate expected damage. In recent years, performance-based seismic design
(PBSD) concepts have been proposed allowing the engineer to consider multiple design objectives (e.g. life safety
tions). In general. design requirements
[LS], occupancy and damage limita-
well as a nonlinear pushover analysis of the complete building and an estimate of equivalent viscous damping ratio at a target drift limit. Acceptability of the design is based on the ratio of the global required equivalent lateral secant stiffness to the actual secant stiffness of the preselected trial systems/buildings. While an improvement over force-based design. their procedure does not provide a means to vertically distribute the required global secant stiffness to each floor. and thus requires a trial-and-error approach in selecting shearwalls.
-9
Direct Displacement Design of Multistory Buildings

Building on the SDOF displacement-based design framework, a
multiple-degree-of-freedom (MDOF)
displacement-based design procedure
6. Check interstory drifts of the design using direct displacement assessment (DDA) procedure. 7. Repeat step 6 for all performance
levels.
Description of Six-Story Woodframe Building

An initial design of the six-story building was created using the force-based proceduren in the 2006 International Building Code (lBC).- The architectural layout (Fig. 2) and building design parameters determined using the 2006 IBC served as the starting point
for mid-rise woodframe buildings was develop-ed as part of the NEESWood project.r The multistory DDD procedure is described below:
1. Define
8. Compute design interstory shears and uplift forces for sizing anchor bolts and hold-downs. NEESWood project was to develop a PBSD meth-
One objective of the
multiple design objectives/ performance levels in terms of interstory drift limit and seismic
hazard pairs.
odology that will enable safe design of mid-rise woodframe buildings and,
thereby, increase the competitiveness and the use of woodframe buildings in seismic regions. A six-story multifamily woodframe apartment building will be built and a series of full-scale shake
for the PBSD of the building.
The
2. Assume that the seismic weights are known from structural geometry and framing materials designed for nonseismic loads (e.g. gravity load).
Calculate
or estimate the
mass
and stiffness ratios (relative to first
floor). 3. Perform normalized modal analysis on the MDOF system to obtain interstory drift factors and natural
frequency parameters. 4. Construct interstory drift spectra (for the most severe hazard level) and determine the required equivalent stiffness for each floor. 5. Select shearwalls (nailing patterns) from shearwall database.
table tests will be conducted on the E-defense (Miki) shake table in Japan in 2009. The proposed DDD procedure was applied to the seismic design of this six-story woodframe building and the results were compared to those
obtained using current force-based design procedures. Input required by the DDD procedure, such as linearization
building is designed for a site located in Southern California and founded on stiff soil (Site Class D per FEMA 356"). The dimensions of the building are approximately 18 m x 13 m. The height of the building from the base to the top of the roof parapet is 20,7 m, with a story clear height of 3,35 m for first and sixth floors and a story clear height of 2,14 m for second to fifth
floors. The shearwalls are assumed to be con-
of nonlinear backbone curves. normalized modal analysis, generation of interstory drift spectra and the shearwall database, was developed using a Matlab version of the SAWS prosram' (Fig.1).
structed using nominal 5l mm thick framing members (studs) spaced at 400 mm on-center at all locations except for studs at adjoining panel edges where the denser perimeter nail spacing of 100 mm or less required the use
of nominal 76 mm or thicker studs. The shearwalls are sheathed with 12 mm thick 1,22 m x 2,44 m oriented strand
Fig.
I:
Screenshot of the Matlab version
ofthe
SAWS program
180
Science andTechnology
212008
]l--H
]EE]
tElfl
IFFFFiI
t|...]...ITl
tffil
lHl
l-t
m lilrl:l
Ft
tffiL
mt ffil
ffiffi
F.-:J L-
,,.,
Beclroom
-t
I
L--l
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-I
IEEI
ffi
mt tffil
tffi] IEEEE
]EE tE=l
Hffi Hffi Hffi Hffi
l-/
r
E-l ltrl
Living room Living roon
n--.'
Y
+[ |:""'L
|
\
Srairs
Bedroom
-l
(a) Elevation vtew

Fig. 2:
Architectural layout of the six-story woodframe building
board (OSB) panels placed vertically and connected to the framing mem-
s".
r.+
s]
Sl
x 3,8 mm diameter) nails. Gypsum wallboard (GWB) panels, 12,7 mm thick, are installed horizontally using 32 mm long x 3,6 mm diameter drywall screws. The effective seismic rveights for the second floor to the roof diaphragm, based on tributary area of the shearwalls. were estimated to be )45, 507, 507, 501, 567, and 354 kN
respectively.
bers using 10 d common (76,2 mm long
(g) (s)
To
T. (s)
0,55
0,-56
^ tt
11
50%,/50yr 0,-57 0.31 10%/501'1 1,00 0,-56
'E
i C
0,11 0.1 I 2%l50yr 1.40 0.76 0,1 I
0.54
1.0
0.8
/ f\
LS
(l0o/o/5tty.)
E 06 a q
0.4
'l
-0.5-g /'lt\ IO (5U".'5ftrr) ' \S.
':
|
|
|
----_|1=uJre
*-"-i--+--
|iIli+l
0
Design Performance Levels

building will meet multiple objectives or performance requirements. In most
emerging PBSD frameworks, specified
seismic hazards (related to ground mo-
lTo 0,2
ITt
0,,1
0.6
0,8
PBSD implies that the engineered
Period, T (s)
Fig. 3: The 5ok-damped design crcceleration response spectra
tion intensity) are coupled with target interstory drift limits to form these performance requirements. The Natronal Earthquake Hazard Reduction Program (NEHRP) specifies hazard level/drift limit pairs for three different performance levels, immediate occupancy (IO), LS, and collapse prevention (CP).6 The IO, LS and CP hazard Levels are associated with earthouake c\ enls having 50. l0 and 2olo probabilities of exceedence in 50 years, respectively. For wood buildings, the transient interstory drift limits for IO, LS and CP limit states are I.2 and3"/" r)f the interstory height. These three performance requirements are used rn the design of the six-story woodrame building herein. Figure 3 shows
the 5%-damped design acceleration response spectra for IO, LS and CP hazard levels for the six-story building on stiff soil (Site Class D) located in Southern California. Load-Displacement Response of Wood Shearwalls
Light-frame wood buildings rely primarily on engineered shearwalls (with hold-downs) to resist seismic loading. Unlike steel buildings, monotonic
pushover and cyclic tests of engineered
curve since there is no clear indication of a definable yield point for wood
shearwalls.
The program CASHEWI2 was used to
model the nonlinear backbone curve and hysteretic properties of wood shearwalls of various configurations. The backbone curve is defined using the following five-parameter nonlinear
equation:
ff
Kuo'l
t
4rar=l]'-'' ll''r'a-r
for
d<
d,,
wood shearwalls (e.g. Refs. [9-11]) have shown that the top of the wall load versus displacement response is highly nonlinear and its envelope response cannot be adequately modeled using an elastic-plastic backbone
4,
+,;r,,14-q,;
for d>6,
(1)
and is illustrated in Fig. 1 The detailed formulation of the hvsteretic model can be found elsewhere.'Science and Technologv 181
wall-level. A substitute linear system is determined such that the linear elastic model with an equivalent stiffness, k"o, can be used to approximate the energy stored in an actual nonlinear wood shearwall at a target displacement, d (Fig. 4).T\e strain energy, E1, of a sub-
floors one to six are 1,00, 0,93, 0,93, 0,93, 7,04 and 0,65, respectively. The
stiffness ratios, however, are variables. As an initial estimate, the designers can first assume stiffness ratios equal to 1,0 for all floors and modify the stiffness ratios in a later part of the design process. Once the mass and initial stiffness matrices are defined, the solutions (a, and Qi) to the eigenvalue problem can be easily obtained using commonly available numerical analvsis software
packages.
Fig. 4: Equivalent linearization of nonlinear backbone curve
Woodframe Shearwall Database

The segmented shearwall approach is used in the proposed displacementbased design procedure, where only the
full-height segments in a wall line are considered and the sheathing panels above or below openings are ignored. Under the segmented shearwall assumption, the backbone response of a wall line can be approximated by summing the backbone curves of the fullheight shearwall segments. To assist with the displacement-based design of
the six-story building, a shearwall database (Flg. 1) that contains the backbone
stitute linear system and the energy stored in an actual wood shearwall. .8ry1, at d are equal to the area under the linear and nonlinear backbone curves, respectively. This linearization approach can be applied to any preengineered or preassembled shearwall system as long as the envelope response is established analytically or experimentally through either monotonic or cyclic test. This method not only eliminates the need for estimating an equivalent damping but also eliminates the need for determining an Rfactor (also known as a force reduction factor) used in force-based design.
Design Interstory Drift Spectra As part of the DDD procedure, the interstory drift demand is estimated
from the design acceleration response spectrum. The interstory drift factor (obtained from the normalized modal analysis) determines the contribution of each mode to the total interstory drift and it is used to perform modal expansion of the 5%-damped acceleration response spectrum for the overall building modeled as a SDOF system. The
square-root-of-sum-of-squares (SRSS)
Normalized Modal Analysis
The proposed
displacement-based
and hysteretic parameters was developed using the CASHEW model for shearwalls sheathed with 12 mm thick OSB using 10 d common (76,2 mm
procedure uses a basic modal analysis approach to determine vibration properties of the building. The structural model is based on eauivalent linearization of a nonlinear multidegree of freedom system in which the story stiffness of the linear elastic MDOF system is estimated with equivalent stifJness at the target interstory drift.
modal combination rule is then used to obtain the total interstory drift, A7 (% of story height). Complete details can be found and downloaded from the website provided in Ref. [2].
long x 3,8 mm diameter) nails and I2,7 mm thick GWB using 32 mm
Multistory buildings with rigid floor

diaphragms and symmetric plan about
Selection of Shearwalls
The six-story building was designed using the new DDD procedure for the three target performance levels (i.e. IO, LS and CP). The design process is started by considering the most severe hazard level (i.e. CP). As previously mentioned, the mass ratios, B-, are known quantities, however, the stiffness ratios, Bp, can be assigned.
long x 3,6 mm diameter drywall screws. The shearwall database contains two different wall heights (2,74 and 3,35 m), three different panel widths (0,76,0,97 and 7,22 m) and four different nailing patterns (50,75, 100 and 150 mm perimeter nail spacing). The intermediate/ field spacing for the 16,2 mm long x 3,8 mm diameter nails is 300 mm oncenter. Dry wall screws are used on the vertical studs only at 400mm oncenter. For the purposes of this study, a preliminary set of hysteretic parameters for the 76,2 mm long x 3,8 mm diameter nails was extracted from results of a limited number of sheathingto-framing connection tests.
the two horizontal directions (i.e. no significant torsional effects) can be analyzed independently in the two lateral directions. The vibration properties of a building are governed by the following eigenvalue equation:
W(n-a,'MlBr)1Q,,=o
(2)
where K(.) and M(.) are the normalized stiffness and mass matrices defined in terms of the stiffness ratio, 4r,1, and mass ratios B,,,, (relative to
the first floor). respeclively. The normalized frequencies, a,,, and mode shapes, Qin, lre the solutions to the
eigenvalue problem.
Equivalent Linearization of Nonlinear Backbone CurYe

The proposed displacement-based de-
For the proposed design procedure, it is assumed that the selection of the
framing members (e.g. floor joists and studs) has been made to meet the re-
One can conveniently design a building with equal interstory stiffness (i.e. Bp equal to 1 for all six floors), resulting in the interstory drift spectra (for CP) with Bp eeual to 1 for all six stories shown in Fig.5(a). However, this is not an "optimal" building since when the controlling floor (second floor) reaches the design drift limit (3%), the interstory drifts at the fifth and sixth floors are considerably below the allowable 3"/" drift limit (1,74 and 0,68%, respec-
quirements
of gravity
loading, and
sign procedure eliminates the needs for estimating hysteretic damping by performing linearization of the actual nonlinear backbone curve at the
hence the total lumped mass or weight for each floor is known. For the sixstory test building, the floor mass ra-
tios (relative to the first floor) from
tively). Through an iterative process, a more uniform or "optimized" drift profile (Fig. 5(b)) was established by assigning target stiffness ratios for floors one to six at 1,0,0,9,0,9,0,7,0,7 and 0,3, respectively. From Fig 5(b), the required first-floor period, 7."q, is
182
lt.,'l
'6
lr.ul
l1.n
f,,u,,l ltr.,)il
'6
-l
Z 1\
l 'E ,! l,)
s.
-,.llll,l3til |
11.0J
11.(41
L0,h5J
-- )5
l
f.ll
luJ
*** Floor ----- Floor2 ----- Floor 3 --- Floor4
1
-9r
E U.l
rii I *1P'-v1
aL
. z'
'-";' /
:9r
./" ,.
f't.74% 'v/
-9r
_.. ,ii'
U.)
r-'
(o)
o o'I
0,413s
l,io,"",li,-0,.!"1
o'-5
0'6
0 (b)
0.1
0.2
0.3
''''" " 0,4
Floor Floor
lst Floor period
(scc)
Fig. 5: (a) Equal-stiffness
(b) "ctptimized" interstory drift spectra for CP hazard level

c
iz 30
F tr
t).413 s and the required story stiffness
determined using the following equation:
ior the 7-th floor can be
(k"o
0.E
),
=(*)'*u,
(3)
6
'5
0.6
:
----F--'.".-
:,
a
tJ
1tl
{14
n'here n is the first-floor mass (55 575 kg).Table I shows the minimum equivalent story stiffness needed for each clrift limit of 3% for the CP limit state.
Iarg(t r _ {)..r arg(t lô {,..r f,. ---'-i'---:----------f ----i----r--'--
_1
:
4
't
tr
E .E
0
rrl
T
o
lloor in order to meet the interstory
0 0.5 I
1,5 2 2.5 3 3,5

lntcr-story drift ('/.)
(a)
0 {r.i I
1.5 2 2.: .1 .r,5

Inter-story drift ('X,)
(b)
The solid lines in Fig.2(b) indicate rhe x!;,fr""i1"t'x"ess location of stud walls desisned to carrv uravity loads. Usine the backb:l::i:".:
ratios and (b) equivalent story sti.ffness oJ'shearwalls paralLeL to the
Jrtabase ( Fig.l). shearwall segmenrs *ere selectecl tc, be olaced in'these locrlions. The target stiiiness ratios .rnd the required rtory"tiiiii";t l;;;; ut Tabte 1 were "r"d;r;;il;;"*';; :ciect naiting patterns;;J; ,h" ;;
Direct Displacement
:' Assessment
;;;;";;r;b i u-, ,h";i;; \ummation of the "q"i""r"ti'ritff;;;t Lrf all the shearwalls;r;r"ki';;;; loading direction) it;i ;"';;;;. tigtre6 shows that"" th;-;;;"i'rriffr"""| :'airos match the targei;;ilt,;;;; :quivalent story stiffness meet or exed the required stiffness (Table l) .rrr shearwalls in the X-direction.
ri
*altdarabase.Notetnu,;;;;;id;
ith rittre or no torsio;.
:tiffness can be ,ut.utat
n- the shearwalls are selected' the once interstory drifts at the three design performance levels (Io, LS and cP) must be checked to ensure that the design drift limits are met' A DDA procedure is used to determine the mterstory drift at a given hazard level (Figt 7 illustrates the process of estiinterstorv drifts parallel to the Tul-g X_-direction for the 10o/o per 50 year hazatd level)'
The DDA procedure begins with a response spectrum analysis using the ini-
modal analysis is performed by substituting the actual floor mass and the initial story stiffness into Eq. (2) and solving for the vibration properties.The SRSS modal combination rule is then used to obtain an initial estimate of the interstory drift profile, A'. An iterative procedure is performed by updating
the equivalent story stiffness using the preceding interstory drift values until
--e
tial story stiffness, k' (Fig 7(a)).First,
the interstory drift profile converges. In this study, the convergence criterion is satisfied when the error measurement between the two successive drift profiles is less than 5%. As shown in (Fig. 81 (DDA results shown as blue Iines), the six-story building meets the 1,2 and 3% design drift limits for IO, LS and CP, respectively. The controlling floors, based on the DDA, are the second and the fourth floors.
Floor
Target Fr
1.0
Target
Required
stiffness
Actual
X-stiffness
Actual
Y-stiffness
drift (%)
)41
3,00
(kN/mm)
12,8
L
(kN/mm)
1-5.4 I 1.6
(kN/mm) 145
11,7 12,6 10,0
1,00 0.93 0,93 0.93 1,04 0,65
Design Base Shear, Interstory Shear and Uplift Force

Once the performance-based design considering lateral drift is complete. the base shears, interstory shears and uplift forces can be determined from the actual nonlinear backbone curr.e (Eq.( l)). The melhod for comput-
0,9 0,9
Q,1
1.6
1,6
r),(J
)61
2,81 2.22
12,1
9,0 10,0
0.7 0,3
9,0
2,5r
3q
4'7
4q
.le l; Required equivalent storv stiffness for C! hazard level
ing these design forces is

Sciencc rnd
described
elsewhere.'The ston, shear forces can
rtructural Engineering International 212008
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23
Inter-st0ry drift. A (%)
Inter storv drift. A (%)
(c) CP 2%/50yr Fig.8: Comparisons of DDA and NLTIIA interstctry drift pro.t'iles (in the X-direction) fttr (a) IO, (b) LS antl (c) CP hazard tevels
(a) IO 50%/50yr
(b) LS 10%/50yr
be used to design the anchor bolts at the foundation as well as the interstory shear connections, and the uplift force can be used to select hold-down
systems.
diaphragms connec,ted by nonlinear shearwall elements.) Three sets of biaxial ground motions, selected to be representative of the design iO, LS and CP hazard levels. were selected from the PEER Strong Motion Data-
with respect to the axes of the building and a time-history analysis was performed for each orientation. The results of NLTHA are presented in Flg. 8.
Design Verification Using Nonlinear Dynamic TimeHistory Analyses

The proposed multistory DDD procedure is validated using results from nonlinear time-history analyses (NLIHA) in which the six-story building is modeled using a zero-height "pancake" model, with layers of rigid 184
base.ll For each hazard-level, a set o[ 20 earthquakes was selected such that the SRSS (for the two horizontal components) of the 5%-damped acceleration
Points shown in (Flg. B) are the peak interstory drifts (in the X-direction) of an earthquake event (maximum of all rotations). Also shown in Flg. 8 are lognormal probability distribution functions fitted to the peak interstory drifts. Each shaded area represents the
spectrum matched the design acceleration response spectrum (shown in Fig. 3) for periods between 0 and 1 s.
probability that the interstory drift obtained by NLTHA exceeds the DDA
The two horizontal ground acceleration components of each earthquake event were then rotated from 0 to 90 degrees (aI a 22j degree increment)
prediction, Pe(A>DDA). In general, the Pe(A>DDA) value decreases as the seismic intensity increases. In other words, the DDA prediction becomes
more conservative at hisher seismic

demands.
According lo the FEMA 356.x the acceptability of a design can be based on an evaluation of the median resDonse if more than seven ground motions are used in the time-history analysis. Based on the NLTHA results. the controllins
Pre-engineered shearwall systems also can be included in the database if the envelope response/backbone curve of the systems are determined through
[4] Filiatrault A, Christovasilis I. Wanitkorkul A, trolz B. Displacement-based seismic design of light-frame wood buildings. Proceedings of the 9th World Conference on Timber Engineering, Portland,2006.
floor is the fourth floor. The
prob--
abilities that the design interstory drift limits (1, 2 and 3"/o) will be exceeded under earthquake events having 50,10 and 2"/" probabilities of exceedence in 50 years arc 28,50 and 467o, respectively. While the second floor controls
full-scale testing. The application of the proposed procedure is illustrated on a six-story woodframe building of regular plan. The validity of the design procedure is confirmed through nonlinear dynamic time-history analyses using sets of earthquake records representative of the design hazard levels. Good agreement is found, with the DDD procedure becoming increasingly conservative at higher levels of
seismic demand.
[5] Folz B, Filiatrault A. A Contputer Program Jbr Seismic Analysis of Woodframe Structures. CUREE Report W-21, Task 1.5.1. Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering, Richmond, 2001.
[6] van de Lindt JW Cobeen K, Cronin K, Park S. Perfbrmance of a Six-story Woodframe Building Designed trsing the 2006 IBC Methodology.
NEESWood Report NW-03, Colorado State University. Forl Collins. 2008, <http://www.engr
.colostate.edu/NEE,SWood/publications.html>
the design at the IO and LS levels based on DDA, and the fourth floor
is the "weakest" story according to the results of the NLTHA. both DDA and NLTHA indicate that floors two and four are the two most critical floors.
[7] International Code Councll (lCC).

Club Hills,2006.
Inter-
national Building Corle. Building Ofticials and Code International Code Council Inc.: Country
Acknowledgements
lltre material reported in this paper is based
upon work supported by the National Science Foundation under Grant No. CMI-0529903
f8] FEMA. Prestandard and Commentary lbr the Seismic Rehabilitation of Buiklings, FEMA 356. Federal Emergency Management Agency: Washington, DC,2000.
Conclusion
(NEES Research) and
CMMI-0402490
ex-
A direct displacement-based
seismic
and conclusions or recommendations
(NEES Operations). Any opinions, findings,
tgl Structural Engineers Association of

Southern California (SEAOSC) - Univcrsity of California-Irvine (UCI). Report of aTesting Progr am o.f L ight- Fa.rme d Walls w ith Wo o d- S heathe d Shear Panels (http://www.icbolabc.org/graphics/ pdfTcola-rpt.pdf), Final Report to the City o.f Los Angeles Department of Building and Sa.f'ety,International Code Council Los Angeles Basin Chapter, Los Angeles, December 2001.
[10] Gatto K, Uang C. Effects of loading protocol on the cyclic response of woodframe shearwall.
design procedure developed specifically for multistory woodframe buildings is presented. The proposed design procedure has several advantages over existing force-based procedures.
pressed in this material are those of the investigators and do not necessarily reflect the views of the National Science Foundation.
The
displacement-based procedure does not require the determination of a force reduction factor (R-factor) and it further allows consideration of multiple performance objectives. In
displacement-based design, the engineer selects shearwalls based on stiffness instead of strength/force. The interstory drift spectra are used to determine the required stiffness for each story and shearwalls are selected from a database of shearwall backbone curves (with equivalent stiffness information) to meet specified performance requirements at defined hazard levels.
References
[1] Filiatrault A. Folz B. Performance-basecl seis-
mic design of wood fiamed buildings. ASCE

Struc t. E n g. 2002; 128(7 ): 39-47
.
J.
ASCE J. Struct. Eng. 2003; 129(10): 1384 1393.

II
1l Pardoen G,Waltman A, Kazanjv R, Freund E,,
[2] Pang WC, Rosowsky DY. Direct Displacement Procedure for Performance-based Seismic Design
Hamilton C. Testing and Analysis o.f One-story

and Two-story Shearwalls Untler Cyclic Loading. CUREE ReportW-25,Task 1.4.4, Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering, Richmond, 2003.
of Multistory
Wood.frame Structures.
NEESWood Report NW-02, Texas A&M University, College Station, 2007, <http://www.engr .colostate.edu/NEESWood/publications.html>.
November 14.2007. roaches to rational limit states design of new structures, Keynote Address. Proceedings of the I lth European Conference on Earthquake Engineering,Paris, 1998.
[3] Priestley MJN.
Displacernent-based app-
! 2] Folz B, Filiatrault A. Cyclic analysis of wood shear walls. ASCE J. Stuct. Eng. 2007;127(4): 433-44\.
[13] Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research Ccnter (PEER). PEER Strong Motion Database, 2000, <http://peer.berkeley.edu/smcat/>, January
10.2006.
Science and
Technology
35
Performance and Drift Levels of Tall Timber Frame Buildings under Seismic and Wind Loads
Summary
This paper discusses the potential for use of multi-story timber frames when subjected to earthquake and wind loadings. With the advent of new technologies and materials, such as laminating and composite-fibre reinforcement, the performance of tall spatial timber frames can be significantly enhanced. Two issues are of concern when designing tall timber frames: flexibility that translates into relatively large drifts and non-linearity that represents uncertainty in estimating fundamental periods. This article focuses on the potentials and limitations in designing tall timber frames from serviceability and safety points of view.
Andreas Heiduschke
Ph.D., Dept. of Civil Eng., Technische Universitiit Dresden.
Keywords: laminated timber; moment-resisting frames; semi-rigid connections; dynamic behaviour; seismic design; wind loads.
Dresden, Germany
Introduction
This paper discusses the performance of multi-story laminated timber frames subjected to dynamic loadings and regulations that apply to their design. Timber structures perform well in seismic prone areas due to low mass/ strength ratio and dissipative capacities of connections. The high fire resisBo Kasal
Prof., Dept. of Civil and Environmental Eng.,
dynamic performance of a system con-
sisting of a reinforced concrete core surrounded by a timber frame was investigated. A series of shake table
tests
of full-scale dual systems was executed to investigate the behaviour

under strong ground motions.
The
Pennsylvania State University,

Pennsylvania, USA
tance of large cross-sections makes laminated wood structures good candidates for commercial and oublic buildings. While light-frame structures perform poorly under fire conditions, the excellent fire resistance of heavy laminated timber, far exceeding steel, is generally accepted and standard procedures to calculate fire resistance
are available.r
focus of interest was the distribution of the seismic forces in dual structural systems. The goal of the project was to prepare guidelines for a structural and fireproof design and to develop design methods for typical timber-based hybrid structures.
Hybrid or dual systems with different horizontal deformability characteristics require floors with sufficient
in-plane stiflness to ensure composite action needed to resist horizontal forces. An appropriate solution, for exam-
Examples
of medium- and
high-rise
timber structures are rare mainly due to fire-safety regulations and the incorrect perception of wood being a low-strength material. Recently, a discussion about design of very tall timber structures became relevant. A high-rise building oi 120 m height (40 floors)
Peer Haller Prof., Dept. of Civ. Eng., Technische Universitiit Dresden,
Dresden, Germany
ple, would be a wood-light-weight concrete composite floor system that

meets the stiffness and fire-resistance requirements.
In this paper, we will focus on laminated timber structures with ductile moment connections. In general,
laminated wood frames are relatively flexible and prone to large horizontal drifts. This is due to their topology and low rotational stiffness of the beam-tocolumn connections.
Buildings of this size will require a multitude of materials: a hybrid/dual system. While constructing tall buildings entirely from wood is theoretically possible, most systems are likely to use multiple materials. A volume of experimental work on hybrid systems was performed in Japan.r 'The objective of this project was to develop high-performance timber-based hybrid structures, consisting of timber and other materials. For instance the
is being planned in
Switzerland.r
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication by SEI Editorial Board
Paper received: August 23.2001 Paper accepted: November 5,2007
To prevent excessive drifts, momentresisting (MR) frames require nearly rigid connections and/or additional stiffening devices. Producing rigid moment connections between beams and columns of timber structures is nearly impossible due to the anisotropy of wood and need for mechanical fasteners. Some systems such as glued-in
186
rods can provide high rotational stiffness, but wood anisotropy with low strength perpendicular to the fibres limits the capacitv of such connections. Palermo et il.a investigated the performance of connectors for application in multi-story laminated veneer lumber frames. Glued-in mild-steel rods designed to yield under tension and compression were responsible for rigidity and dissipation of energy. The cyclic
experiments showed significant energy dissipation, good self-centering capacity, and no damage of beam-to-column
connections.
of inertia, the rotational stiffness increases proportionally
with the mem-
ber depth. consequence of the difficulties with designing efficient moment connections, alternative strategies might be considered to mitigate large drifts.It is advantageous to choose hybrididual
systems by strengthening MR frames with additional stiffening devices for lateral load transfer. A number of solutions exist, for example: shear wall systems, steel x-bracings, passive dampers
As a
factor reflects the ability of a structure to sustain a design earthquake without collapse by exceeding the elastic limit. It accounts for the influence of damping different from a standard damping of 57o. Hence, the selection of the correct value of damping is needed in order to obtain an acceptable design.
A number of methods for the evaluation of a q-factor were proposed and

this process is still developing. The gen-
Tiaditionally, structural members of timber buildings are connected with dowel-type fasteners resulting in pinned or semi-rigid connections. Kasal e/ a/.-5 performedihake table tests of twostory MR timber frames with glassfibre composite reinforced dowel-type
connections (see F4g. 1).
and/or stiffness links and a combination thereof.
by the ratio between peak
eral definition of the q-factor is given

ground
acceleration (PGA"), producing the ultimate rotation (global plastic mechanism), and the PGA', which produces
Design Philosophy: Forceand Performance-Based Design
the first yielding in j6ints or members (first plastic hinge).5
Recent earthquakes
that, in most cases. modern seismic codes are relatively reliable in avoiding structural collapse. The seismic action caused a small number of deaths but resulted in unacceptably high economic losses.6 As a result, the diift demands assume higher importance in order to limit the damage and repair
costs in future earthquakes.
demonstrated
The primary problem faced is the definition of the collaose and/or admissible structural damage. Therefore. issues such as inter-story drift limitations and early brittle failures of struc-
The seismic tests demonstrated that

timber frames perform well under dynamic loads due to their flexibility and the high damping capabilities of the mechanical connectors. The structures
showed relatively large drifts but no brittle-type failure even when subjected to strong ground motions.
Moment connections require a relatirely large number of fasteners including the corresponding dowel spacing to obtain suitable strength and stiffness. This makes it difficult to form an acceptable balance between connection capacity and capacity of the structural members. The key issue in designing and detailing of moment connections rs the distance of the fasteners to the centre of rotation (e.g. radius of the dowel circle). Hence. massive crosssections with large member depths rre required. Similar to the moment
Force-Based Seismic Design Currently, modern seismic design codes
follow the equivalent static-force procedure where the inertial forces are specified as equivalent static forces
calculated by empirical formulas.
In the force-based seismic
code, the elastic response spectrum is modified
with a behaviour factor to obtain an inelastic design spectrum that is used to determine equivalent static forces. In case of the Eurocode 8 (ECSt' the
behaviour lactor is called q-factor.This
tural members have to be considered. Ceccotti and Karacabeyli" performed non-linear time-history analyses to determine q-factor for a heavy laminated timber frame with semi-risid connections. They conclucled thai a q-factor of 2 was appropriate for one-story frames. They reported that the q-factor for multi-story frames should be larger than the one for one-story buildings. A factor of 3 to 4 might be possible for multi-story frame buildings, provided the stiffness of the members is significantly larger than the stiffness of the joints. Compared to single-story ftames, the dissipation of energy in multi-story frames is distributed to a larger number of less stressed joints. In the EC8.7 a q-factor of 4 ii recommended for hyperstatic (statically indertermined) portal frames with a high capacity to dissipate energy. The
16
Dowel A 20
oi
60
I
l60
*+---_j_---+F+
L.
/ /
Beam
48'
60l
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i
Composite reinfo reinforcement
Column
I
)90
View
Clross scction
t": l: Fttll-scale
frame at the shake table and dimensions of the composite reinforced beam-to-column connecsotl
Science and Technologr' 187
seismic code uses static ductility as a criterion for the energy dissipation
presented
structure. Therefore, suggested q-factors must be critically reviewed since high ductility does not necessarily mean large energy dissipation capacity. Hysteretic loops of cyclically loaded semi-rigid joints may vary substantially depending on the present/ occurring failure modes (e.g. plastic hinges in the dowels or dowel bearing failure of wood).
of a
that Eq. (1) poorly approximates the fundamental period of MR frames with semi-rigid connections since it does not consider the ioint behaviour. A better estimate was achieved using Eq. (2), which accounts for the semirigid behaviour of the joints.
The use of long periods presents a problem because it may result in unrealistically low base shear forces resulting in
in Ref. [5] demonstrated
tions in MR steel frames also reoresents some level oI controversy. lu According to the European seismic code,' rigid full-strength steel joints are more reliable and better for seismic applications when compared to semi-rigid joints. MR steel structures require joints with sufficient overstrength to allow yielding of the members. The application of semi-rigid joints is not explicitly prohibited but
is in practice limited to-experimentally evaluated connections. "
The application of semi-rigid connec-
an under-designed structure. The only restriction stated in the code is that the standard design procedure applies for buildings with natural periods smaller Ihan 2 sec. For the design process, it is recommended using Eq. (1) that yields shorter periods and consequently largest base shear forces. To account for the l'lexibility of the frames it is common practice to reduce the base shear.
study of multi-story structures subjected to various seismic excitations was performed by the authors. A nonlinear response of laminated frames5 was simulated by a time-history analysis. The numerical model. oresented in Ref. [14] was capable oi simulating hysteretic behaviour of cyclically loaded connections and time-history response of two-story frames subjected to seismic excitations. This analysis was extended to four-story frames with a total height of 12 m.'' Dimensions of
frame members and connection design
were identical to those of the twostory frames.5 This was done to use the known moment-rotation behaviour obtained from experiments. Figure 2(a)
shows the moment-rotation hysteresis of a reinforced beam-to-column con-
maximum reduction
of the
base
shear by 20oa is recommended.l'
nection obtained from the quasi-static cyclic tests and the corresponding results of the numerical simulation.'u
From the shape of the response spectra one can expect that flexible structures
of the differences in material properties for steel and timber, it is evident that timber structures require different design or detailing
Because approaches. Laminated wood frame
with long natural periods will attract

smaller seismic forces as compared to stiff structures. This behaviour was not shown in time-history analysis of multistory MR steel frames conducted by
From the results of the time-history analysis the authors concluded that a q-factor of 2,5 is acceptable for ductile moment frames. Figure 2(b) shows the displacement response of a reinforced frame subiected to the Vrancea record
(Vrancea ilomania, tic for regions with
1977
;PG A0,1 99 g).
members (beams and columns) are
linearly elastic and brittle (except compression perpendicular to fibres),

which requires careful strength design and shifting of the failure modes to the
connections.
Dubina et al.rO Both frame types, flexible and rigid, attracted equal seismic forces. Nevertheless, the results of the numerical analyses revealed that
semi-rigid steel frames can be used effeclively in moderate seismic zones. The design procedure discussed above is a check at the ultimate limit state to prevent the collapse of the structure under the most severe design earthquakes. In order to avoid the damage of structural and non-structural elements under minor frequent earthquakes, the EC8 provides damage limitation requirements. The inter-story drift Mh at the serviceability limit state is limited Io 71200 or 11133 of the story height
The Vrancea earthouake is characteris-
As shown in Fig. 2(b), the influence of this record on the resDonse of the frames was significant because of the
high spectral amplitude in its response
ioft soil conditions.
The empirical formulas of the forcebased design approach do not explicitly account for the dynamic characteristic of the analysed structure. It is assumed that minimum rigidity requirements defined by codes (both for wind and earthquake loadings) are met. This is also the meaning of the sjmplified formulas suggested by ECS' for estimating the fundamental period, l, of a
structure:
2 sec. The reiatively low rotational
spectrum for periods between 1 and
stiffness of the connections resulted in a frame design with a fundamental period of about 2 sec. The peak displacement at the top of the frame was 538 mm.The maximum inter-story drift of 7123 was evaluated for the first story. Due to unacceptable large drifts, it was concluded that the use of stiffer connections is necessary in order to provide a desired lateral stiffness and to keep the drift within the given limits.
for buildings having attached brittle
4 : o,o5.H",tt
Tt
or ductile non-structural elements. For

11)
=z.,[LH
e)
where: 11= height of the building lm] An = relative drift of the building [m] due to the gravity loads applied in horizontal direction
The periods estimated by Eq. (1) may differ substantially from the true building period. Flexible MR frames are in
buildings having non-structural elements fixed in a way so as not to interfere with structural deformations. an inter-story drift of 1/100 is acceptable. Other international building codes such as the Japanese code (A.I.J.)'' also stipulate similar drift limits. The inter-story drift is limited to 11200, whereas in exceptional cases, where seismic loading does not lead to considerable damage, a drift limit of 1/120
is acceptable.
The serviceability limit state requirements usually limit the applicability and efficiency of MR frames with semirigid joints. The topology of the system usually determines the requirements on connection oerformance. A number of researcherss;I6 pointed out that even the desisn of MR steel frames according to thl EC87 leads to over-resistant structures with excessive member strengths, due to the insufficient lateral stiffness of these frames. Similarly
general'characterised by relatively large fundamental periods. The experimental results of two-story frames
To demonstrate the difficulties resulting from excessive flexibility and large drifts of ductile moment frames. a case
for timber frames, the drift limitations imposed by seismic codes will result in significantly over-designed members. This negatively affects the efficiency of
212008
188
40h 1n
trU
39^
.2
200
_:o
60 0 16
-200
_,+00
-0.08
0,00 0,08 Rotation lradl
0,16
-60t)
0246810121416
Time [s]
(b)
Fig. 2: (a) Moment-rotation-relationship
of a reinforcetl beam-tc.t-column connection-simulation versus experimentia an4 (b) time-history response of the reinforced frame subjected to the vrctncea sipnal
the structure but over-designed
due to over-designed connections of a irame, brittle UenOing failure occurred in the first-story column before the de:ired ductile failure of the ioints. The loss of the columns will lead to a cata_ strophic failure of the entire building.
ements. Various coniection desisns including drift pins, bolts and nailEdon-platJjoints were investigated. The lrames with a span of g m arid a height of 6,8 m failed bwing to splitting of ihe "n.ur lirst-story columns i1" bJam-tocolumn connection. Mivazawals oer_ formed cyclic tests of two-story frames using steel plates and bolts to connect beams and columns. He reported that
of multi-story buildings is avoidiin column failurL. Komatsir er a/.17 testei two-story glulam portal tru-"" riift only stightly over-designed timber el-
evant for the sizing of columns, since one of the main cr]teria in the desis.,
bers will ensure that they do not fail in building damage and to minimise the a brittle manner. This is especially rel- cost of ieconstiuction.
mem- introduced to avoid
life-threatening
A relatively well_documented
hod- proposed by Priestley-1e This method requires the detailed knowledge of the behaviour of a non-linear system. A full structure is reduced to a.single-degree-of-freedom oscillator with an equivalent effective stiffness 9{ an equivalent viscous damping defined at target displacement. This data can be extracted from the global load-displacement relationship of the building. Non-linear static- or cyclicpushover analyses provide an estimate for stiffness and viscous damping. Because of the difficulties in predicting the responseof highlynon-linearsystems,it rs recommended to evaluate hysteretic behaviour of the joints in cyclic tests.
perfor_ mance-based seismic design approach is the direct displacement_based met_
proposed the following levels of structural damage: (a) fully operational, (b) damage control, (c) life safety and (d) collapse prevention. These performance levels are related to four seismic hazard levels and the importance given to the structural facilities. Seismic hazards are described in terms of the mean return period of a defined magnitude of seismic-induced ground motion in defined geographic areas.
As opposed to the force-based method,
In the NEHRP Guidelines.2l three performance levels were defined. For a moderate earthquake with a return period of 72 years, the inter-story drift is limited ro lo/o transient and b.25ozo permanent deformations for immediate occupancy. Note that the additional definition of permanent/residual drifts is important with respect to the level of damage and costs for reconstruction. For life safety the limits are 2"/" Iransient and 17o permanent for a basic safety earthquake with a return period
of 414 years. For collapse prevention both transient and permanent drifts are limited to 3"h. This limit applies to a hazard with a 2"/" probabllitv of
rf reinforced timber ira_es result in that the performance_based design r.iore energy dissipation, thus lower- approach might be suitable for flex:rs the seismic forces and generallv ible structural systems that are prone -,llowing for more load redislibution. to large deformations during a seismic .\s long as non-structural elements event' This design approach offers the .,re designed in such a way that they possibility to design structures that fall jtr not Juffer any/significant damage, outside of code limits (e.g. with regard ,:n inter-story drift of tlfOO would f,e to long fundamentai periods) and to .:'-ceptable. However, in regard to un- meet performance levels intended by -:rtainties about the damage to non- present building codes. 'iructural elements it is recommended perf61m21ss_based seismic design pro_ -,1t slricler drift limirs should be met. ui-Jer.rit"ria [or selecling an appropri_ ate structural system and for designing the structural elements such that for Performance-Based Seismic " - Design - ---o" . specified levels of earthquake intensitv \s a consequence of unacceptably the structural damage will be wlttrln -rf9e ecoroffiic losses in recent earth- givenlimits.TheStructuralEngineering -:akes, new performance criteria were Association of california lsEeoc)2r
itructural Engineering International 2lZ00B
inforced connections demonstrated.5 tor. Difficulties with large fundamental ihe structure did not show damaqe even periods and uncertainties in the evalu_ rnder large drifts. Large deformation, ation of the behaviour factor indicate
:e
Liniting the story drifts is important the performance-based design is driv:or reinforced concrete builctinei to mi- en by displacements. This procedure rimise damage, but as the shale table does not require an estimate of the i.-sts of laminated timber frames with fundamentalperiodorabehaviourfac_
to an
being exceeded in 50 years. equivaienr approximate mean recurrence
if those values can be adopted foJ the design of laminated frames. However, one can expect that the ddft limits will be in the range of the presented valThe authors would like to ooint out that even the performance-based criteria are based on somewhat arbitrary selection of drift limits and damues.
interval of 2475 years. The drift limits given above were proposed for lightframe shear wall systems.22 In fuiure research work it has to be investisated
age definitions.
The performance code gives the designer more flexibility in prescribing the performance level of a building in relation to a hazard level of a soecific
er ent such as an earlhquake andror tornado. The performance code (ICC)23 proposes to use a combination of the Science andTechnolosv i89
SEAOCZO and NEHRPZI data
to clas-
A simplified procedure
can be applied
sify the seismic event (Table 1).
This code includes all the expected forces that the structure will be subjected to throughout its lifetime and the same classification is available for
fire. snow. wind. and other hazards.The latter is described in terms of the mean return period of a defined magnitude of wind speed (3 sec gust) in defined geographic areas at 10 m elevation in an assumed open terrain.
to determine the design wind loads for rigid structures. The structure can be classified as rigid if the building height
is less than 25 m.
the maximum drift of steel frames under wind action must be within
H1400 and 111500, while the inter-story
In such a case. the average wind speed of a 3 sec gust with a recurrence interval of 50 years is used.
In addition to the calculation of natural frequencies, the German design code for wind loadsza provides the following
equation which can be used to separate
drift is limited to H1200. Herewith the inter-story drift limit is the same as the one given in the seismic code EC87 lor serviceability limit state. In the design
process, the semi-rigid behaviour of the
connection's inclusive plastic deformations should be taken into account.
Wind-Induced Loadings
For very tall buildings, wind loadings, in general, assume higher importance as compared to earthquake-induced loadings. This is because of the lower natural frequency of tall structures that are prone to wind-induced vibrations. The wind speed has an unsteady nature with a random distribution of gusts over a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes. Certain periodic gusts may find resonance with the natural frequency of a building and lead to dangerous sways. The system's response depends on the dynamic properties of the structure, on wind loading pressures, and on the gust structure, which has a non-Gaussian distribution in both time and space. In general, the gust energy in wind at frequencies above 1 Hz is small. so resonant response is unlikely for rigid structures. A general guidance is that buildings with a heisht of less than 40 m can be assumed t6 be rigid.Za
Due to fire-safety regulations, timber buildings are often limited to four stories. Hence it could be expected that wind dynamic effects can be neglected for low- or medium-rise buildings with heights of less than 22 m. However, the presence of semi-rigid connections may result in very flexible and dynamically sensitive structures
rigid and flexible structures. Similar to Eq.(2), this formula takes into account the system's stiffness (deformations) due to the semi-rigid behaviour of the joints. However, natural frequencies
and damping must be known.
Conclusion Modern technologies of lamination

and composite reinforcement allow for the mitigation of brittle-type failures of timber frame members in highly
stressed connection zones.An inherent-
Ata
H-(
F"3*+o r){ ;nl' [Vs b ""'-"\u,",)
(3)
where: Hr.t = 25 m 11= height of the building [m] b = width of the building [m]
A = logarithmic decrement An = relative drift of the building [m] due to the gravity loads applied in a horizontal direction
ly low stiffness of the material results in a relatively low stiffness of the timber frames (stiffness/mass or capacity/ mass ratios. however. are high). I n case of tall frames this may lead to a dynamic response induced by wind loads due to the relatively low fundamental frequency of the frames. In addition, the flexibility of the frames results in large drifts that do not necessarily yield frame failure since structural elements are able to accommodate significantly larger deformations compared to other materials, e.g.
reinforced concrete or steel. l{owever. the drift criteria proposed in the standards, result in over-designed frames, since massive cross-sections must be used to provide space for fastener placement. Over-designed members do negatively affect the efficiency of the structure from economical point
If
a structure satisfies the above criteria, it is assumed to be rigid. If

Eq. (3) is not satisfied, a gust effect factor has to be evaluated to account for possible resonant effects. Most of the
modern international wind codes24'25 use the gust effect factor to determine equivalent static wind loads for structures and structural elements prone to wind-induced vibration. Again, Eq. (3) is empirical in nature and hinges on correct estimate of the losarithmic
decrement. A.
of view, but this does not necessarily mean that MR frames are a non-practical building solution. The application of space frames is realistic since laminated timber frames can function as self-correcting systems, provide high
with natural frequencies less
than
1 Hz. Therefore, a possible dynamic response needs to be considered, for example, through the increase of the
desisn loads.
Since design codes for timber structures do not provide any drift criteria for multi-story timber buildings, the drift limits proposed for steel structures (EC3)'n can potentially be used.
For the serviceability limit state check,
fire
Event
Small
25
Mean return period in years

Seismic
Wind
50 75
100
resistance, ensure the developments of plastic hinges in the connections and can be classified as safe and reliable structures going through large drifts without failure. The beam-to-column connections are always non-linear and cannot be designed as rigid. However, they can transfer significant moments and can therefore be designed as moment connections. In case of insufficient lateral resistance additional stiffening devices can be installed for further reduction of deformations.
Medium Large Very lat'ge

Table
72 474 2475
References
Structures Part
125
l: Mean return period of a specific event proposed by the ICC23

f1l ENV EUROCODE 5- Design of
l-l:
Timber General Rules and Rules
190
.fbr Buildirtgs; Part Design.1995.
2;
General Structural Fire

ln.ftige H6hen,
19.
Proceerlings of 5th World Conferen.ce on Timber Engineering. Montrcux. 199,S1 540 547.
lianres with low-yield shear panels. Eng. Strurt.

2003; 25: 1-55 168. [17J Komatsu K. Kamiya F. Hirashima Y Full-size Lest and analysis on glulam two-storied portal fr-ames. In Pntceedings ol lstWorld Conference
f2] Blumer H. Mit Holz. in
mikaclo 7/2007. ISSN tJ944-5749. 16
[10] Dubina D, Stratan A. Dinu F. Arc multistorel' buildings with semi-rigid connections
suitable for buildings in seismic rcgions? COST C1 - control of the semi-rigid behaviour of civil engineering structural connections. In Proceetlings o.f the Internationul COST Cl Conference. Maquoi R (ed). Liege, 1998;455 464.
l3l Sakamoto I. Kawai N, Okada H. Yusa S. Final rcport of a research ancl development project on Limber-based hybrid building structurcs. Proteedings o f Sth World Conference on Titnber Eneineering.Yol. 2. Lahti. 2004, -53 64.
Fragiacomo M. Deam B. Code provisions for sersmic design of rnulti-storev post-tensioncd timber buildings. Proceedings of CIB Wl8 Meetlrig. Florence, CIB-WI 8/39-15 -6, 2006. l.rl Kasal B. Pospisil
S,
on Tintber Engineering. Seattlc, 1988:205 220. Miyazawa K. Timber shear wa]ls ancl skelanal_vses and experiments. In Proceetlings .[rorn Par:i.fir: Timber Engineering Conference. Gold Coast. Vol. 1 . 994; 211 250.
eton structures
Il8l
f:ll Palcrmo A.
Pampanin S. Buchanan A,
[11] Mazzolani FM, Gioncu

2000.
.lelsrzic Resls-
tant Steel Structures. Springer: Wien. Neu'York.

112] Di Julio RM Jr. Static-lateral-force procedures.In The Seismic Design Hantl.book Naeim F (ed). Van Nostrand Reinhold: New York, l9u9l
l19l PriesLley MJN. Pcrformance based seismic design. Br.r1l. N. Z. Soc. F)arthquake Eng. 2000: 33(3):32-5 3,16. [20] SEAOCI Vision 2000. Committec rcporL. I'e r fo r ma nce B as e tl S e i s mi c E n g ine e rin g. Slr ucLural Engineers Association ramcnto. 1!19-5.
121)
Drclacky M. Haller laminated timbcr frames with fiber rcinforced

connections. Earthqttake Engineering and Structurrol Dl,namics, Vol. 33(5). John Wile-v & Sons: I. K. 2004: 633-646.
Jirovskv I, Heiduschkc A. P Seismic performance of
119 141.
Japan. Ultimate ,Strength and Deformation Capacit,v o.f' B uildings in S e isntic D es ign. 1 990.
of California:
Sac-
[13] A.I.J. Architectural Instilute of
tion
oJ
nic
16l Pinto A. Achievements of the COST C1 seis-
ol civil
group. Control of the semi-rigid behaviour enginccring structural connections. In ['ntteedings of the Intenrutionnl. COST Cl Conrelarrcc,. Maquoi R (cd). Licgc. 1998; 349-358.
[14] Heiduschke A, Kasal B. Haller P. Analvsis wood contpositc lanrir.rated frames undcr d1'namic loads - analvtical modcls and model validation. Part I: connection modcl and part It:
oI
Federal Emergency Management Ager.rcy FEMA. 1997.
NEHRI' Guidelines .t'rtr Seismic tlehubilitaBttildings - C omnrc nto r\,' on the (lLLid.elines.
-
{ramc rnodel. Prog. Strutt. Eng. Mater.
[22] Filiatrault A. Folz B. Performancc-bascd seismic design of woocl framed builclings.

.1.
20061 8(3):
103
Strttct. F)ng. 2002: l2tl(1): 39 47.
19.
rl EUROCODE E - EN 199,3-1:2005. Deslgn ,,f Structures Jor Eartltqu.ake Resistance. Part l:

(
Il5l Heiduschkc A.
M oment
-
Sel,irn
e
lt' Behaviour o.[

nt
e
[23]
ICC
International Codc Council. l'er/br-
ieneral
litles. CEN. Brussels.
r e s is t i n
2005.
g' I'i nt b r
mance Cocle
Fr
itlt
e ns
i.f i e d
fttr Bu.ildings und
FnciLi.tie.s.2006.
Mazzolani FM. Prluso Y. Theory arttl Design ,,1 Seisntic Resi.stont Steel Frantes. E & FN Spon:
Lonclon.1996.
'll
und Textile Rein.forced Connections. PhD thesis. lJniversity oI Tcchnologv Dresdcn. Schri{tcn-
1055 4:200-s. DIN 1055 Structttres - Part 1:Wind Loads.2005.
[24] DIN
Action
ort
reihe Konstruktiver Ingcnieurbau

Issue 7, ISSN 1613-6934,20tro.
Dresden.
f2-51 ASCE/SE,I l-05. ASCET - Minimunt Design Loads for buiklings und Other Structures.2006.
:91 Cleccotti A. Karacabcvli E. Seisn'ric perl')rmilnce of moment rcsisting timber frames.
Seismic response
[16] De Matteis G. Landolfo R. Mazzolani FM. of moment-resisting stecl
[2rr] CEN, ENV 1993-1-1. EUROCODE Design oI steel structures. 993.

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Screncc and TechnoLog\
191
Alinghi Base for the 32nd America's Crp, Valencia, Spain

Peter Tanner, Civil Eng.; and Juan Luis Bellod, Civil Eng.; Cesma Ingenieros, Madrid, Spain
Introduction
On 2 March 2003, Team Alinghi went down in history for defeating Team New Zealand to bring the America's Cup (AC) to Europe for the first time
bases were unknown during the design stage, the organization decided to pro-
lounge. The roof is also fitted with a

bar.
vide the shell only, leaving the outfitting to each individual team. Further
to Team Alinghi's service criteria, its

base is double the size of the standard base defined by the AC organizers.
Conceptual Design
Overull System
The framework envisaged for the Alinghi Base was fairly conventional, with steel columns. comoosite beams and composite slabs (Frg. 1). The design
in over
150 years. After that victory, the Soci6t6 Nautique de Genbve, Switzerland, on whose behalf Team Alinghi competed, together with the Challenger of Record, the Golden Gate Yacht Club, announced the creation of
America's Cup Management (ACM), an independent company mandated to organize the 32nd AC. On 26 November 2003, ACM announced that Valencia, Spain, would host the 32nd AC. The programme for this edition of the AC included an ambitious 4-year schedule of regattas starting in 2004 and culminating in the AC Match, to be held between 23 June and 7 luly 2007. As a result and within the framework of a more ambitious urban development project, the Inner Harbour of the Port ofValencia has been reconditioned for the AC event. The infrastructure works included, among others, 12 bases that would serve as homes before and during the regattas for the defender,Team Alinghi, and each of the 11 challengers from all over the world. In an environ-
From lhe outside, the viewer sees a prism-shaped building, 68 m long, 39 m wide and 13,5 m high (Flg. 1). The sea-side south facade has two large entrances to the boatshed, positioned between axes 2'and 4'and 5'and 8.A
third opening (between axes 12 and 13) corresponds to a corridor that crosses the entire building to provide access to the jetty from the building's street-side facade. The rest of the south facade is panelled or glazed, the latter particularly on the second storey, where the
4,5 m wide balcony
called for continuous columns, from the foundations to the roof (Fig. 2).
Longitudinall"v, they were spaced from
5 to 18 m, whereas transversally the standard spacing was 5 m, except in the corridor between axes B and C
(Fig 1(c)),where columns were spaced at 5.5 m for architectural reasons. Finally, the corridor running from axis A' to axis B was to be bounded by the slanted glass facade, varying in width from 0,7 m on the ground to 2,9 m on the second storey. On all storeys, the main beams were to run oarallel to the longitudinal facades of the building. The distance between these beams was to be spanned by a composite slab
is
off the VIP lounge accessed through glass doors. This
balcony also stretches around half of the length of the east facade, likewise windowed at this level. The street-side
facade consists in a slanted glass wall. The total usable area, nearly 7000 m'
ment in which the most recent scien-
counting the four storeys (including the accessible roof) into which the building is divided, is occupied by offices. meeting rooms. a gymnasium. a restaurant and a shop, in addition to the aforementioned boatshed and VIP
tific and technological
with shaped steel sheeting to avoid the need for any transverse beams, except around the edges to tie the structure together during construction. This layout, free of any secondary steel girders,
innovations
(n)
are put immediately into practice in pursuit of lighter and faster boats, the challenge was to deliver sound buildings based on modern structural solutions, in which the design objectives of safety, serviceability, economy and elegance were to be achieved mainly by means of coherent conceptual design, efficient use of materials and good detailing. This paper describes the structural concept underlying the Alinghi Base, along with the solutions for a number of structural details and
certain constructional considerations.
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Keywords: Alinghi Base; composite structure; hollow section: bolted connection; composite joint; glass facade.
(b)
_'__-'
13.,1
+:>
++
AA'B C D E F G H I
L-
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v______
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Street..-,Sea
Architectural Design
Inasmuch as the various AC oarticipants' needs and preferences for their
3.65rr5.5r
ltl #
6x5
14.51
Fig. 1:Alinghi Base structure (a) plan view at first storey level; (b) longitudinal section; (c) cross-section (Units: m)
HEA 360 sections (Fig. 1(b)). For

the composite roof beams with span Iengths of 18 m, however, the design specified 1005 mm high steel I girders to withstand the loads senerated by the accessible roof and suspended
second storey. These beams would also have to accommodate large web perforations for mechanical and electrical services, with heights of up to 50% of the girder height. As the first storey beams between axes 8 and 12 were to
be exposed, composite truss girders were to be used in this area for reasons of aesthetics. With a total heisht
of 1270 mm,
lhese trusses would con-
HEB 180 shapes on the top and bottom chords and HEB 120 sections for the diagonals.
sist in
Fig.
2:Alinghi
Base
dnring construction, view from the jetty
In each composite beam, the composite slab would constitute the top flange, to
allows to minimize the number of ele- impact, using the adjacent columns nrents and on-site connections. as chords. On the sides of the build-
640 m2 corumn-free area was
.rsed
Orving to spatial limitations in the sec.rnd storey that affected the compos:te system, the longitudinal.beams had
lnd first storeys, between axes 8 and 12 and B and I,respectively (Fig.1).
envis- il?; l,lx,lii?l?jJj::T:J:t for sail drying on the ground while on the slanted facade they
jli'fi
which the respective steel girder was to be connected. The total slab deoth envisaged was either 0. l2 m 1l'irst storey between axes 1 and 8) or 0,18 m
:he strength and stiffness of which ,\ ere to be enhanced accordingly. By Structural Members --crntrast, the height available in the The ensineer's desisn called for col_ -rrst storey system sufficed to solve u-rr, -ld" of squar;. g mm steel hol_
.ntermediate supports in the form of lrngers connecled to the rooi beams,
were set between axes 1 and 2, for heie only the area bounded by axes 4'and 15 was to be glazed. The composite slabs would act is diaphragms, transmitting any horizontal forcei to the bracing
(all other areas), depending primarily on the magnitude of the live loads. The viability of the composite slabs, with
slenderness ratios o[ 46 and 30. resoectively would be dependent upon the use of lightweight aggregate co-ncrete, LC, with a density of 1800 kg/mr and a
of up to 5,5 m and the aforementioned overall deoths - for

span lengths
,yrt"-r.
.he 18 m span length between the col- low sections meaiurins 300 mm on each -Lnrns at axes 8 and 12 with simply sup- side, which up to the f-irst storev would '',,rted composite lruss girders spaced be lilled with concrete. The laiter was ,rl -i m centres. a safety measure adopted to increase
characteristic compressive strength of 40 N/mmz. Given the seaside location and the presence oi large openings in the south facade of the building, the
', ro accommoaute uerti.;ii;;i;; .-: foundations, to which no bending - rments were to be transmitted. The. - .,cinq'systems were to be built into .,,rdes in the form of diagonals in the ..Jou,less areas to minimize visual
\lthough valencia is not a seismic re- the fire resistance of the columns' in liglit of the type of work conducted in .ion. the building *"t i"'0" fii"A *iifr boatshed' Wherever possible, stan. bracing system*to tr""r-li-iillfr".i- lhe dard rolled steel I sections were used .rnral forces due to ;i;; ;.','ô-,'';;; for the composite beams' with a stan-'r ai, lmperfections ," ,rr.l"r-"J"ii""i dard spacing between beams of 5 m, ., :otution thar entails IP 400 shapes were used in the lirst "-;;;i"*r-;f;;;;: .lgesovertheswayft;;J;'d.;;;'h ";' "-",""';""' areas suhject to small live loads 'rflzontal otsptacements and column storey / -r(cnaracterlsllc value = I Kl\/m- ) ancl - llkling lengihs can be reduced. the a maximum span length of 7 m ,rmer being particri-rv i-p""""i lflt"t ou' I(a))' rn : r e nsure trre appropria;; rrom . rhe brirrte gtass facacil. oiprr.,i."- l?,":Y:^":..L1:',,1.:l:^1", i'l^":",1: |]:'^ll]]::q:-ranging 3^to 5 kN/m'and span lengths o[ up to -crevance : in rhis .;* *;; il. i;;, t (between axes 5'and 8 at roof '-.rr rhe bracing sysle; t"ir,i"r ]l:u "i- ]11et' ns' 1(b))'IIEA 240'360 or 450 :red impriecl shapes wgre u;9.d' depending on the -:. beam-to-column ";;;rii" l.i;;;. combrnation ol live load intensity and - Jrcbv freeing rhe futi;;ri";
;$;;il"";
J'i'i'priii."ti;;';h;;
;;p;.:
admissible chloride content established was 0,1% of the bulk weight of the binder. While there are mandatory standards in prestressed concrete, such a requirement is not normally applied in composite structures. The overall depth of the steel sheeting to be used in the composite slabs positioned transversally to the beams was 75 mm. With the span lengths adopted, the steel sheeting available would have been unable to transmit the horizontal shear at the interface between the sheet and the concrete by means of mechanical and frictional interlocking alone. Consequently, the composite beam stud connectors were to be welded through the sheeting as end anchorage to ensure the composite
behaviour of the steel sheeting and the
concrete.
span length'
Thanks to the use of intermediate hanger supports, the second storey composite beams that were to span the 18 m between the columns at axes 8 and 12 could be designed to take
Joints
Along with shear. negative bending moments due to predominantlv static loads constitute the main action effects
Structures Worldrr
rtructural Engineering International
212008
rdc
193
at the beam-to-column connections; this led to the adoption in the design of a semi-rigid, partial-strength composite joint (Flg. 3) that attained both design goals, structural robustness and the efficient use of materials. Shear was to be transmitted across a bolted
double lap joint connecting the web of the steel shapes to a gusset welded in an insert cut into the hollow section steel column. Connections between steel girders and columns were to be
the only loads to be transmitted to

these members, other than wind pressure. were the vertical loads from the roof. The corridors running from axes A to B on the first and second storey slabs were conceived as cantilevers. At the same time. these slabs were to act
a fundamental change in the original detailing. To shorten construction times, the design beam-tocolumn joint configuration (Fig. 3) was replaced by a welded solution. Welded
suggested
connections between steel I girders and hollow section steel columns. however,
as lateral restraints for the columns. Therefore. the connections between

the slanted columns and the slabs were designed as pins in long slotted holes, with the axes of the slots perpendicular to the direction of the transfer of wind loads (F49. 4). With this scheme, the span length for transmitting wind loads would be equal to the storey height. The foregoing would also be applicable to both the in- and out-of-plane buck-
bolted to shorten structural assembly times. During the final stage, the reinforcement in the composite slab, in turn, would transmit the tensile forces generated by the negative bending moments. The compression forces arising from those moments would be transmitted by contact pressure across a contact plate between the bottom flange of the steel profile and a horizontal stiffener welded to the outside of the hollow steel column.
The cladding on the glass facade was to
may lead to failure of the thin column face due to the appearance of plastic hinge lines, both during the intermediate (joint between steel members) and final (composite joint) stages of the works. Moreover, when this modification was introduced. it was too late to
change the column cross-sections (e.g. open instead of hollow). Measures had
therefore to be adopted to prevent

column-face-failure during the intermediate and final stages of construction:
ling lengths for the slanted columns. With such arrangements, the slanted columns could be built with rectangular hollow sections measuring 150 mm x 250 mm, with the strong axis oriented to resist the wind pressure; the design slenderness ratio was 80.
- The hollow section steel columns were converted to comoosite columns in which the concrete
infill would stiffen the slender steel
constituent plates.This wouldprevent plastic failure due to concentrated
be attached directly to the slanted columns rising from the foundation to the
roof (Flg. 1(c)).The objective sought in the design of these columns was
maximum slenderness. Consequently,
Construction
In light of the tight construction schedule, the steel structure subcontractor
compression forces induced by hogging bending moments and transmitted across the steel shapes. This measure would also enhance column fire resistance.
Elevation
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++
1
LC
Steel sheeting Pin Lonq slotled hole Lateral restraint for the column
-A
Stiffener
a^nfc^f nlof^
4
5
Composite slab Stud connectors
.,
Fig. 3: Four-sided, semi-rigid composite joint connecttons
for beam-to-column
Fig. 4: Slanted facade column-to-slab connection via pins in long slotted holes, in which the slab restrains the column laterallv
212008
In the final stage, the reinforcement in the composite slab would transmit the tensile forces generated by the negative bending moments. Owing
aforementioned ring stiffeners slowed

erection of the steel structure. Nonetheless, except the change in the original beam-to-column connection detailine and the follow-up changes described above, the structure was built to desisn and completecl within the demanding construction deadlines.
to welded connection
stiffness,
however, bending moments would
* of a structure,
have detrimental side effects. Given the interaction between the design, construction, technical and aesthetic quality - not to mention the economics
designers must take an active role in construcLion.
also appear during construction,
before the reinforcement would be
operational. The moment-induced tensile forces might therefore lead
would act as a stiffener for the

compression forces only. An external ring stiffener positioned on the same level as the top flange of the steel shape had therefore to be devised to prevent the appearance of plastic hinge lines (FrC.5).
to plastic deformation on the column face, inasmuch as the concrete infill
Conclusion
The above description of the run-up to
the construction of the Alinghi Base exemplifies the importance of conceptual design. for
a
structure's serviceabil-
This example shows how last-minute changes to the original design, introduced during construction to accommodate contractor preference, may have consequences that tend to cancel out the presumed advantages of the r-hange. Indeed, self-compacting concrete (SCC), was required to convert the hollow section steel columns into ,-omposite members. The determination of the appropriate concrete mix rnd procedures for placing the con.-rete called for preliminary testing ,hat took up a certain amount of the -ilready limited time available for con)truction. Similarly, installation of the
ity, reliability and economics depend on the solutions adopted at that stage. When the conceptual approach is well thought out, the design will undergo only minor changes in subsequent stages. The success of a structural design depends on close three-way cooperation between owner, architect and
engineer throughout, starting with the definition of the service criteria.
Close co-operation among all stakeholders is also of cardinal importance during construction, to ensure that structures are built to desisn. Changes made during the constriction stage are usually more a reflection of contractor preference or other circumstantial factors than of actual technical or practical needs, and may
In the case of the Alinghi Base a sound solution was designed, thanks to the adoption of a coherent and modern structural approach that ensured the efficient use of materials. The decision to integrate all members into the overall structural system entailed an economic quantity of structural steel required. on the order of 40 kg/m2 (referred to the total usable area). Compared to the structural steel deployed in the standard bases defined by the AC organizers, a reduction on the order of 45o/" has been achieved. The resulting savings may have been invested in the development of the Alinghi Team's new boat, SUI 100, thereby contributing to its successful defence of the America's Cup against the winner of the challenger races, Emirates Team New Zealand.
SEI Data Block

Owner: Structure City of Valencia
Facades,
Elcvation
M&E, Finishes
Team Alinghi
ai --.1
CI
t tt, 't
&
Architect: Areas Ingenieria y Arquitectura, Valencia, Spain Structural Engineers: Tanner and J. L. Bellod, Cesma Ingenieros, Madrid, Spain
P.
Main Contractors:
,
I\ I( ltternal forces
an{l monents
,l f T I
Section C
Structure; Joint Venture Dragados-Sedesa-Drace, Spain

Facades,
lt
M&8,
Finishes
Niissli, Switzerland
S ubcontractor:
++
Tic final stage

(
Reinforcemcn t)
Steel Structure
Compression strut
Lems, Valencia, Spain
-i
.
final stage
lrl . +tL
:
i_
L
l
:
f,
1 2 3 4 5
Structural steel
Concretc infill External ring stiffcner On-site welds Composite slab Stud connectors
[t] slabs columns
280
In situ concrete [m3] - LC in composite
783 76
SCC in composite
.'1 't,Ll
L
I
I
Usable area
[m2]
7 000
2.1
Total cost of structure
[EUR
millions]
' :
1\'elded beam-to-composite column connection with external ring stiffener
Service Date
October. 2005
rtructural Engineering International 2lZ00B
Struciures
\\'orldrvide
195
Pre-cast Concrete Slab/Column Joints: Experiments and Design Models

Fathy Saadr Assoc. Prof.; Aly Sherif, Prof.; Hany M. Hamad, Researcher; Dept. of Structural Engineering, Ain Shams University,
Cairo, Egypt
Summary
The applications of pre-cast concrete in flat-slabs are mainly controlled by the construction joint between the slab elements and columns in order to satisfy monolithic action. This paper introduces a conceptual approach for the construction detail of such joints. An experimental program was conducted for testing the joints between two pre-cast cantilever slabs and a rectangular column. At the cast-in-situ joints, the slabs' and columns' loop reinforcement were arranged in a
staggered overlapped manner. The tested specimens were loaded asymmetrically
reinforcement, see Flg. 2. Based on an experimental/analytical study. Saad6 7

introduced design guidelines staggered loop reinforcement at slab/slab joint. In Ref. [6] the following were concluded;
- The loop
reinforcement
joint
is
more efficient than straight

reinforcement joint.
bar
under bending, in order to study the moment transfer efficiency and the rotational stiffness of the joint from zero load up to failure. Several variables were studied; the slab reinforcement ratio and distribution, the curvature shape of the column loop reinforcement and the arrangement of shear studs. The behaviour of those construction joints was compared to that of ordinary monolithic flat slab/column joint to evaluate cracking and deformational behaviour at service as well as their ultimate capacities. Additionally, the structural behaviour of those joints was discussed using Strut and Tie Method (STM). Design Models using STM are introduced, which can be adopted in the design of such joints.
Keywords: Design;Experimental; Pre-cast concrete; Slab/Columns Joints; STM.
- The overlap length of the loop

reinforcement and hence the width of the casting joint are functions of the bar diameter and their
bending curvature. Therefore it was recommended to use small bar diameters and small spacing
between staggered reinforcing bars. The recommended width of casting joint is nearly twice the slab depth for loop reinforcement .ioi nl.
Introduction
Pre-cast concrete flat-slab as a structural system has many features such as speed of construction, formwork and
slab/slab and slab/column ioints is believed to be technically and economically better than other mechanical and
Scope of Work
The current research introduces and examines a concept for the reinforcement details at the castins ioint slab/
Sheathing at
cast rn sltu lolnts
welded splices for connecting steel
shuttering saving, and good quality control and labor minimization.

The most critical aspect of this application is how to achieve rigid joints be-
tween pre-cast slab elements in order to resist bending moment under different loading cases. In the lilerature.2's the connection of the beam/column joint is carried out using post bonded and/or unbonded pre-tensioned tendons. which is for flat slab/column connections technically and economically complicated. Figure 1 shows a
(t7.) Elevation
z'-'- /
Support column
,:
,; r!:ll
.-
II
Temporar; shores
I
:.
l
i
proposal for the joint arrangement of pre-cast concrete in flat-slabs, in

which the pre-cast units are supported
a3.a I
stutlslabjoint
,,
'rrl
'r.,(
I
Field strip
by vertical columns and the need of shuttering is limited to the indicated casting joints. The application of staggered overlapped reinforcement at the
Peer-reviewed by international experts and accepted for publication by SEI Editorial Board Paper received: October 21,2001 Paper accepted: March 14,2008
lsaE
ll
9-
Column strip Slab column joint
t
tr
x ,.{
(b)
etan
Fig. l:Arrangement of Pre-cast Ltnits .for flat slabs
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Casr in situ
joinl
Staggered loop RtrT
and ultimate capacity; steel

concrete strains
and
- Examining the ability of each adopted construction detail to transfer flexural moment/shear
force between the slab elements and the column.
(ll)
SEC. elevation
lntroducing practical models using Strut and Tie Method for designing
the reinforcement details at pre-cast concrete slab/column joints.
Experimental Work
Test Specimens
(b) sec.
Fig.2: Detailing o.f Pre-cast r/c elements'
ptan
(.7) RFT in ctq. 3:
elevation
511
(lr) nff
(Units: mm)
tn ptan
Reinforcement (RFT) details of specimen
-'olumn
for the proposed
application
.n flat slabs. The scope of work can be
-ummarized as follows:
Introducing a design concept of the detailing of the pre-cast concrete

slab/column ioints.
Specimen
iour of the adopted construction joint experimentally up to failure, by studying the following: loaddeformational behaviour; cracking load and crack pattern; failure mode
Main column
RFT/side
Secondary total slab RFT top or
Investigating the structural behav-
Six test specimens were divided into two groups (A and B);five of them with a casting joint, and the sixth was tested as a control specimen with monolithically cast joint. Figures 3 and 4 show the details of reinforcement of all tested specimens. For Group (A), termed "flexural group", the effect of the ratio and the distribution of flexural reinforcement of the cantilever slabs and the bending curvature of the loop reinforcement of column were studied. Group (B), termed "flexural/ shear group", considers the presence and the arrangement of shear studs, to study their effects on the structural behaviour of the joints.u Table 1 shows a summary of specimens reinforcement and studied variables for each tested specimen. Figures 3 and 4 show reinforcing details of the test specimens, while Fqg. 5 shows a picture of the reinforcement cage before casting.
Figures 5, and 6 show the test results of the stress-strain diagrams for one specimen with (f.u = 2J,5 Mpa) and
the reinforcing bars of all specimens.

Remarks
Main slab
RFT/side
Total studs rails
bottom
Reference 56
Croup A
s^
11 12 712 772 11
12
612 612 612 672 612 612

tested specimens
11 11 11 11 Ll 11
10 10
RFT is less than So with Rounded loop RFT at joint.

The same RFT as 51 but the loop RFT of column is flat.
i.e.
10
parallel to slab top.
10
The same RFT shape as S2 but slab RFT more than 51. 52 and equals 56.
4
itr
I-lP
s4
772 712
10
The same RFT as S1 but using studs in main load direction. The same RFT as direction.
S1 but tr.r'o additional studs in transverse
s-
10
- , l: Slab and coluntn reinJ'orcement (RFT) for
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Flat column's RFT
(a) RFT in elevation

i fir.r:l
(a,) RFT in elevation

iat)t)
sr.
S,
sl
A
T
I
s.
t t
s5
(b) nn'r (Units: mm)

Stress
in ptan
(b) nrr
in ptan
Fig. 4a: Reinforcement (RFT) details of specimens "group
A"
Fig. 4b: Reinforcement (RFT) details of specimens "group
B"
(Units: mm)
N/mm2
Stress
N/mm2 ft = 69!
F4g.
5.'Srress-strain curve of concrete
(f* -
27,5 N/mm2)
Fig.6: Stress-strain curve of steel Grade (40/60)
The reinforcement were fabricated and assembled outside formworks to facilitate the installation of steel strain gauges (SGs). The locations of steel strain gauges were sanded and cleaned. The SGs were carefully placed then tested using an Ohmmeter. For specimens of Groups A and B, the reinforcement of
were prepared separately and then assembled together in the formwork.

Three transverse bars, top and bottom were added at slabsicolumn joint. For Reference Specimen (Ss), the slabs and 'the columns were cast in one phase monolithically. Specimens of Groups A and B were cast in two phases. In the first phase. the column and the
cantilever slabs were cast, first under

consideration of having a side surface roughness of not less than 5 mml. In the second phase the construction joint was cast, however an additional
the cantilever slabs and the column

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special bonding material (Add-bond 165 from CBM, Epoxy-based resin) was applied to improve the bond between the old and new cast concrete.
Experimental Results
Cracking and Ultimate Louds
Table 2 shows the cracking and ultimate loads of all tested soecimens including concrete cube characleristic strengths (f.u), which vary between 23 and 28,5 MPa. For Group A, specimen 51 has lower ultimate load than 52 (with the same reinforcement) due to the shape of the column loop reinforcement. Specimen Sj (with the same reinforcement as 56) has about 83% of the ultimate load of S^. This can be attributed to the smaller effective width (around the casting joint and reinforcement) of the slab for 53 compared to S0. It is obvious that Group B has in general higher ultimate loads than Group A. This is due to the arrangement of the shear studs, which improves the load transfer at the joint in terms of increasing the effective width in the secondary direction. On the contrary, the anangement of shear studs perpendicular to the load direction in the casting joint (S5) has nearly no influence on the load carrying capacity. It is important to indicate that the impact of the lower concrete strength of 55 on the cracking and ultimate loads, i.e. for the same concrete strength of Sa, the ultimate load of Ss could be nearly the same as that of Sa. Finally, it can be concluded that the efficiency of the introduced reinforcement details at the cast-in-situ joint between precast concrete elements is about 80-90% of the monolithic joint as long as the moment transferred to the columns is uo to 50% of the total moment on the cantilever slab, which is the subject being studied in this research work. Crack Pattern und Fuilure Modes
Fiq.7a: Test set-up (specimen is ready Jbr test) & LVDT Locations and structural system
Slump tests (with an average value of 'i-) mm) and compression tests on con--re te cubes were carried out according 'r the Egyptian Code of Practicel for r--rch concrete pour.
7 (Transverse steel)
Test Set-up and Instrumentations

specimens were tested under two -:svmmetrical static line loads, to sen-
rrl
Fig.7b: Steel reinfctrcement strain gauges
-:-ilrS. which transfers the unequal .: loads to the cantilevers slabs (can-\ er length = 760 mm from columns -:rter line). Figures 7a and b show ': = adopted instruments for measur:. crack widths, deflections, concrete
hvdraulic jack (Capacity 500 kN) '-,s applied on a 360 mm height steel : F.l -beam at third point of its span. -..is beam is supported on two steel
rtc bending moment on lhe column.
(LVDTs) with precision
of
1*10E-5 units,
m, strain gauges (SGs) with precision
of 1x10E-6, switching-balancing
electrical data acquisition system and load dial (DG) gauges to indicate the applied load from the hydraulic jack
were used.The crack widths were measured using a special lens and crack
Table 3 shows the crack width and failure modes of the tested soecimens. The failure mechanism oi S^ is
a combined flexural and shear failure mode. similarlv for S. (with the same flexural reinforcement ratio). Figures
width ruler.
Specimen
B and 9 show the crack pattern and

f.u (N/mm2)
Cracking Load
Ultimate Load
-* steel strains. The instruments uti-.j during testing included linear

, :.ible displacement transducers to
:-rSUre
(kN)
Reference
Sx
(kN)
230
150
28
50
Group A
s,
S,
27 28
the deformations of the test .::Jimens.
40 40
45
170
190
t -.,,'e 70 shows also the test setup

-r specimen under unsymmetrical ,,::. th specimen fixation base, the -...rs frame and the loading system.
s"
)7\
23
Group B
Jr
50
3-5
220
180
q,
Table 2: Cracking and ultimate loads
of
test specimens
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! E !
E '6 ! !
!
E
Fig.8: Cracking pottern of Specimen
Ss on top surface) (Numbers indicate the cracking load level in ton)
Fig. 10: Cracking pattern of Specimen 52 on top sttrfuce (Numbers indicate the cracking loacJ level in ton)
Fig.9a: Faibtre mode o.f Specimen
S0
Fig. I la: Failure mode of Specimen 53 ftigher moment sitle)
flexural reinforcement comDared to Su. ll can be also observed lhat the arrangement of higher flexural reinforcement in slabs (Sj compared to 51 and 52) reduced the crack widths
up to a working load of about 100 kN. The rounded form of the column looo reinforcemenl in S1 resulted in higher crack widths, and therefore less working load (about 30% of the ultimate load). The application of shear studs improved the load distribution in two directions around the ioint and hence
Failure Mechanism
failure at P = 150 kN 52 failure at P - 170 kN
S1
Fig.9b: STM-50 (higher moment side)
Fig.
I1b: STM-S I &
S2
ftigher ntoment side)
failure mode of
S0. All other specimens failed under pure bending, even those with shear studs, due to the low
reduced the width
Specimen
Cracking Width (mm)
Working Stage
50 kN
70
Ultimate Stage
140
kN
r00 kN
0,40
0,8 "'
kN
180
kN
combined
fl
Reference
Si)
0,08
0,1 5
0,20 0,40 0,35 0,24 0,20 0.22
0,96 12.15"
exural/shear
Group
s, s"
pure flexural pure flexural

1.90 1,10
fore, for serviceability requirements, it can be stated that the use of shear studs is essential. Figures I 0 and I I show the crack pattern, failure mode, and schematic Strut and Tie Model of specimen 52 and failure mechanism respectively. 52 has a parallel crack pattern in plan, which indicates one way load distribution.
Similarly, Figures 12 and 73 show the crack pattern and failure mechanism for 53 which shows more crack propa-
of
cracks. There-
0.r2
0,10
0,0E
0,7""
77?
s. Group
B
ss
0,45"'
0,30 0,35
7.,72
combined flexural/shear pure flexural pure flexural
0,12
(-rrck uidth rrt failure load "'higher than allowed in codes undcr SLS Table 3: Crack width at different load levels and fail.ure mechonism
gation in plan than that for 52. This indicates that the load is distributed better in transverse direction for Sj than 52. Figure -14a shows the cracking pattern for Sa. It is obvious, that
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21
p E
o
22
E F !
r
13
19.
19'
4.5
12
18
22
...
t2
15
19 21
22'
22
Iig. I2: Cracking puttern
o.f Specinten S j on top surface t."/tmtbers indicate the cracking l.oud level in ton)
Fig. 14a: Cracking pattern ct.f Specimen S4 on top surface (Nurnbers indicate the cracking load level in ton)
'iq. 13u: Failure Mode of
S1
Fig. 14b: Failure mode of Specimen
Sa
230
230
220
210 200
220
210 200
190 130 170
t90
IE0
t70
'
Failure at P = 230 kN
r60
150
1d)
150 t.l{)
l,l0
'
:. l3b: STM-93 (Higher moment
side)
^ z
13t)
t1
z"- l3{l
t2o
110 100 90 30 70
:.J crack pattern of Sa shows some di-
c J
t1 rzo : 110 ! too

30 70
OU
r-rt the load distribution is carried .-r ,
,.tro&l cracks in plan, which indicates
.,..rr in transverse direction similar to ,--it of Ss. It is also remarkable, that
50
,10
50
4U
arrangement of the shear studs :-:roved the serviceability limit state .. i.rms of reducing the crack widths
30 20
30
l0
IU
.ervice load level and simultane-:l\ increased the ultimate capacity . the joint.
Fig. 15a: Slab deflection trnder higher load side (Position A)
I0rl:
Deflection (mtr)
Deformations
Fig. 15b: Slab deJlection ttnder loy er load side (Position D)
' .'irl.r 15a and b show the load-de- : --rion diagrams of the cantilever - .:r: for all tested specimens at indi-.,.r.J locations A and D respectively.
rt ructural Engineering International
It can be observed, that the higher (S0), especially at the u.orkine stage loaded side (at position A), specimens zone and up to 85 % of the ultimate 53 and Sa have similar bending stiffness load. The lower stiffness of the Specias that of the monolithically cast joint men 51 can be attributed to the lower
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1,00
0,50
Steel und Concrete Strains
tr
.9
0.00
-0.50
1,00 1.50
-2.00
-2.-50
Load lcvel P = 30 kN (Before cracking): tull rotational capacity is observed

5.00
E E 0,01)
The steel strains for the high load slab side (near jack), rebar #1 and #2, (see Fig. 7b) or the low load slab side (far from jack), rebar #3 and #4 are shown in Figures l7a and b respectively. It can be noticed that for specimens Se, 52, Sj and 54 the steel had reached the nomi-
c ';
-5.00
; -L--+--;
100
o\
_-r
--
10.0t)
.15,0t)
nal yield strain (0,2o/o). For the other Specimens 51 and 55, the steel strains are slightly beyond the nominal yield value. It is also remarked, that in the
linear zone (before cracking), the steel
Load levcl P
10,00
E E
kN (Working
sLaee): Partial
full rotational ctrpacity is observed
stralns were very small for all specimens, while after cracking
the
steel
0.00
10,00
strains of 53 and 54 were about 15%

higher than that ofSs. Figures l8a and b show the average concrete strains at location R (near jack), and location L (far from jack), respectively. The results of the concrete and steel strains indicated that specimen 53 (with the same reinforcement ratio as Se) and Sa (with shear dowels) have higher stiffness at working and ultimate stages
tr
-20,00
30,00 40.00
Load level P -
140
kN (Ultirnate
stage): loss in the rolational capacity is observed
Fig. 16: Slab deflection distribution at different load levels
reinforcement amount compared to
Se
and the lower efficiency of the rounded
loop reinforcement of the column. 52 has higher stiffness and higher ductility than 51. This shows the effect of the higher efficiency of the flat rounded
columns reinforcement of Sj compared
inforcement details on the rotational stiffness of the tested joint, the deflection distributions over the slab lensth and the column height at working and ultimate stages are illustrated in Fig. 16.
and higher strength than other specimens with casting joints.
230
22.0
to rounded loop reinforcement of
S1.
Although the number of shear studs

was increased in Ss compared to 54, the
Additionally, the rotational stiffness of each specimen was calculated and summarized in Table 4.T]ne values of the rotational stiffness for all soecimens before cracking were almost the same. After cracking and at working stage, the rotational stiffness was re-
210 200
190 180
170
curves show that 55 has lower stiffness and lower strength than Sa. This can be due to the lower concrete strength of S-5,
t6()
150 140
in addition to the fact that positioning of the shear dowels in the casting joint perpendicular to the main load direction has no effect on the load transfer at this joint. llowever, the last observation should be confirmed through more experimental investigations. From Fig. 15b, it can also be observed, that 53 (with the same reinforcement as that
of Ss) and 54 (with shear studs and less reinforcement than Ss) show the highest rotational stiffness compared to Ss. In order to study the effect of the re-
duced especially for 51. This is due to the reduction of the flexural reinforcement ratio in the slabs and the ineffective rounded loop reinforcement of the column at the joint. Again, Specimens 53 and Sa have high rotational stiffness values in the working stage (nearly 90o/" of that of Ss);while in the ultimate stage Sa had higher rotational stiffness than Sj. The last observation can be attributed to the dowel action of the shear studs. The lower concrete
: r
130
l2o
100
90 80
1A
60 50
3l-)
20
t0
(l
strength of Sr resulted in lower stiffness compared to So.
50r.) 000 1500 2000 2500

|
3000
Micro
'tr1in
Fig. 17a: Steel Strain for side near jack load
Jack Load/Specimen Reference Group A

56
K.O3o KN.n/rad
K.0166 KN.m/rad
6722 3955 5758 6586 6372 4495
K.O1a11
KN.m./rad
7r01
sr
s2 s3
6758
7217
1962
2460 5944 6472 3363
7r01
7737 7000 6504
Group B
Table 4: Slab rotational stiffness for all specimens
Sa
q-
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230
(A\crrg( !xlur ol
230 220 210 200 190 180
170 160
rcb.rr #1
rltl
#21
(Avcraec valuc of rcbar #3 a[d #4)

230
220
210 2t)0
190
I
2)t)
210
200
190
I
8i)
170
8t)
160
150 140
170
I
6i)
150
150
:1
ll0
r2o
I40
I40
.i
too
^ = J
130
1:r0
i"n
120
i,,u
J
too
80 10
loo
!/(l
EO
iJ0
10
10 50
.10
50 40 30 20
IO
50 40 30 20
i0
20
t0
t)
o
load
5oo
,,,,'.1:]1i;","
rsoo
2ooo
s00
-'*.
Fig. 17b: Steel Strain
for
side
fur from jack
#::"
#:,
2s00 3000 -3s()')
-200 -4i)0
rlil",;lT
1000 1200
1400
Fig. 18a: Concrete Strain for side near jack load (Position R)
Fig. 18b: Concrete Strain for side Jar from jack load (Position L)
Analytical Modeling using Strut and Tie Method

The following presents the analysis of the proposed slab/column joints using
ure of the Tie (T1) or due to combined flexure and shear due to failure of diagonal Tie (T2). Eq. (1) and (2) show
T1 and T2, respectively.
ing to Eq. (3), the ultimate moment

and hence the ultimate load (P,1,) was predicted according to Eq. (4). The effect of the secondary moment about y-axis (My) was implemented in the calculation of the internal forces, as shown (Fig.20). Figure 19b shows the considered STM
ihe Strut and Tie Method to predict

iheir structural behaviour and the load
the strength calculation of both ties In the calculation of the strength of the Tie T1, the
effect of the reinforcement in the y-direction (perpendicular to the loading direction) was also taken into consideration, as shown in Eq. (1). Using the stress compatibility principle, accord-
;arrying capacity under
combined rending and shear forces. The strut -rnd tie modeling is carried out under ;onsideration of the followins two reJIONS:
for specimens of Group B with shear studs. Due to their sufficient height
joint "the cantilever slab action". This will be used to estimate the ultimate capacity of the cantilever
slabs.
For Region I: General Strut and Tie Modeling are developed in order to simulate the load path outside the
Pt3
Flexural rie (T1)
For Region II: Strut and Tie Models at the joint are introduced in order to simulate "the interaction of the slab/ column joint". These models clarify the load transfer of the overlapped loop reinforcement and can be used
--Zf'.
(o)
(c')
tl
to
design the required transverse
rcinforcement in the joint. For Region I: General Strut snd Tie rlodeling Outside the Joint
:-,sed on the results of the experi:'.;nt?l work of the proposed pre-cast , :lcrete slab/column joints, design
:-...dels are developed using Strut and ..- \lethod. Figure 19 shows 2D-Strut
(b)
,l r:
Tie Models for the unsymmetrical -.ded slab/column joint, which can be noted. the failure mechanism is eiFig. 19: Strut and Tie Models (STM) a) STM for specimens without headed shear studs (So Sr, S: b) STM for specimens with headed shear studs (S4 & S,
,::lied for all specimens. -:-i due to pure flexural due to fail-
&
Srl
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Condition of Vertical Force equilibrium accordinglo Fig.20

:
T2 = =
r,P
]0
l l
z/zPurlsin (61u) = 0,76 Pu1, (diagonal tie Model Tz) Q)

2/z
P,nlsin (900) = 0,67Purt
0.24P
(vertical tie model for specimens with shear studs)
Where,
]0,11P
1a
All dimensions in mm
:.!i:
l-#
of
-r
Pult i Calculated ultimate Load h : Lever arm between T1 and C M" : Bending Moment in main M_,
: Bending Moment in
direction
seco-
Fig.20: Assunted line loads distribution
and heads, the shear studs have an eflicient Ioad transfer model between
the slab and the joint. This increases the shear stiffness and strength of the casting joint.
FLexturul Tie Strength (Z'1) and StrtLt Strength (C) (see Fig.20) Reinforced Tie Strength: Tt = Ar.r " f.., * cx,A..y * fs.y Resultant Strut Strength:
Equivalent height stress block
concrete
M"q:
ndary direction (orthogonal to x-direction) Resultant Bending Moment
B.i
the width of Discontinuity Region
B,=3x440mm=1320mm, therefore a full slab width of

1220 mm was considered.
around the column = 2-3 times the dimension of the column in the direction considered. here
Table 5 summarizes the strength of the Ties T1 (for cr-ratios of 1/3 and 213) according to Eq. (6) , the strength of Tie T2
(according to Eq. (7)) and the predicted ultimate load (Pu1,) of all specimens. From comparisons with the test results, the lbllowing can be concluded:
in
(1) (2)
Diagonal Tie Strength (T )

Concrete Tie T2 = f.1, '. K 'r B, 't t.l2 (4) Where,
The adopted strut and tie model can predict the two failure modes of the
tested specimens.
C=0,70f.u x (213)
*8, * a
Compatability condition Tr =
Where,
(3)
t.r, i
Tensile Strength of concrete
A..*: Area of steel in X-direction

f 'S.X
at
t, I Thickness of slab K : slab effective width ratio

Ultimate Load Calculstions
tensioin side Steel tensile stress in X-direction > f1,.ck (cherecteristic yield strength) Factor for slab effective width in
X-direction (recommend ed 213) M*

My
142"c
0,66 P, x 0,56 = 0,37P., (5a)

0,32 Pu 'k (0,195 + 0,22)
Y-direction (recommend ed 213) A.., Area of steel in X-direction at

f,,,
f.u
tensioin side Steel tensile stress in Y-direction
M2" +
0,13Pu11 M2,
(5b)
(5c)
q f".t
Compressive Characteristic Strength of concrete
Condition oI Bending Moment equilibrium:
= M /h
gL|
(6)
There is good agreement between the predicted ultimate loads and experimental failure loads. By comparing the calculated/tested ultimate loads, it is considered that the assumed effective width in Ydirection (a) of I13-213 is reasonable. For Group B (with shear studs) the minimum effective ratio q, is 2/3.This can be attributed to the higher shear stiffness of the specimens of Group B, which allows larger effective width of the slabs in the Y-direction. For all specimens with flexural failure and flat loop columns reinforcement (Sz, 53), the calculated ultimate flexural loads were higher than the actual ultimate loads from tests by a percentage up to 15%. This can
Test P,x (kN) Shear
Pu11.1nr1',",'
Specimen
Strength (kN) Flexural tie (T1)
Predicted P,rr (kN) Diagonal tie (Tz)

160 160
Pult.predict
Flexural
A.,, + A..n/3
Reference 56
'735
Ar," + 2Ar,r/3
85i)
A.." + Ar.n/3
208
148 150
A.,, + 2A".,/3
240 r78
180
215
208
230 r50
0,94 0,99 0,91 1,10

{).9
1
Group
s1
525 525
640 640
850
s.
q-
160 160
215
r70
190 220
180
735
525 525
205 r65 143
235 200 175
2r0
390r,
s4 ss
640 640
255 230
350x
0,91
Vertical ties wcre considered in STM and shear studs werc considered in ultimatc shear strength calculations "" Predicted ultimate loacl is the mininrum of the flextural strength with A... + 2A'u/.j and shear strength (indicated
Table 5: Comparison between calculated and experimental tLltimate loatls
wilh grey color).
201
Reports
212008
T,, <-
----)
TL
joint, see the lower plan of Fig.21.Tltis model is valid for flat looped column reinforcement, as the case for Sz, S:,
Sa
and
55.
Those specimens showed an
14odcl
L4
optimum load transfer due to compatible curvature of the loop reinforcement of slabs with that of the column. On the contrary, the curvature of the
To +
R:13_
Fllcration
*To
loop reinforcement of column of speci-
men 51 shows poor load transfer due to the non-conformable curvature of the loop reinforcement of the slab and
the column. This is explained in Fig. 22 that shows that the deviated tension force (T1-Ts) is not oriented with the resultant of force in the loop reinforcement R. This explains the lower stiffness and strength of S1 compared with those of 52.
rl2
To/2
<<-Unioadcd slab
\lodel tr'{l
RFf
--_>
l1- ro
t =,t,
ro)*d"/d.
-[
tanslel:r] ttn:inl
1,.
_____>
Tr-To
For verification of the shown models Ml and M2. the tension forces in the top transverse reinforcement (3 bars within the joint) were calculated using the upper shown analytical models and then they were compared with the experimental values based on strain measurements of those reinforcement. Table 6 summarizes the results of this comparison at load level of 100 kN, which shows a good agreement, especially for those specimens with flat column reinforcement.
tiq.21. Load transfer Model and STM for Coluntn JIat lood Rein.forcement (RFT)
Conclusion
be attributed to the slippage of the
lapped loop reinforcement within the cast joint.

For Region ar the Joint
shown in Fig. 21.The load path is not
only a direct load path from the loop reinforcement of the loaded cantile-
II:
Strut qnd Tie Model
ltqLtre 21 shows a design strut and tie :rodel (STM) for the load transfer .:om the cantilever slabs to the column .rt casting joint). As shown, the load :ansfer model will be divided into two
:'.odels:
Ml: Slab Moment lac equilibrium model constitutes :*ual moments in the cantilever slabs,
''!,tdel
ver slab to the columns. but the load is transferred through an intermediate position due to the effect of the loop reinforcement of the unloaded slab and/or the opposite side of the loop column reinforcement. This intermediate position helps to transfer the deviated forces (Tr-To) from the loaded slab to the loop reinforcement of the unloaded slab or opposite side of column. This dowel action produces also
transverse tension forces (T,,.1). There-
This paper introduces the conceptual design of pre-cast concrete slabs/column joints. Several reinforcement details were investigated. Experimental tests were carried out to investigate the structural behaviour of the introduced detailing of this cast-in-situ joint in ULS and SLS. Strut and Tie Models for the design of those joints were developed. For the previous research, the following conclusions can be drawn:
fore top and bottom transverse reinforcement should be arranged in this

Lrnlordetl sltb RI'T
- The introduced staggered loop reinforcement of slabs and columns results in an ultimate capacity of
about 90% of the monolithic ioint.
-.h the lapped loop slab reinforcement ., ::h equalized tie forces of To. This :r rdel is equal to the design model - .1 construction slab/slab joint'. This r-.:;l[s. that transverse reinforcement - :eeded to resist the indicated transr:ie ties (T,,), see in plan Fig 21.
,iel M2: Trans.fer Moment from
tilUt to SlLb
- n hich the load path will function
throLoaded slab
RFT
T,
-T.
Column RFT
model simulates the load transfrom the slab to the column, as
VI
t_
Reports
205
Fig.22: Poor loud transfer .for rouruled Reinforcement

212008
Specimen
Experimental Results
Average Measured Strain (Y")
Force in top three bars
STM Results
Force in Model M1 Tt.
Force in Model M2 Sum Tr. + T,.1
Comparison*
T,.t
(kN)
19,18 19,26
(kN)
10,16
(kN)
12.19
10,13
(kN)
22.35 20,29 10,17 20,93 ?o q1
("/")
88
95
Group A
sl
s2
o4)
0,41 0.25 0.43 0,44
10.16 6..r5 10,48 10,48
S.
il57
20,47 20.59
3,82 10,45 10.45
II4
98 98
Group B
s4
sTest results/ STM rcsults x 100
Table 6: Comparison between test and STM results according to Fig.21 at load Level = 100 kN
The crack width can be limited using the arrangement of headed shear
studs.
reduces the slab deformations. and
having a uniform
joint.
Increasing the staggered slab reinforcement ratio at the slab/ column joint position instead of
arrangement increases the flexural strength of the
Loop reinforcement of column with corner curvature (flat

reinforcement), which is compatible
also reduces drastically the crack widths at the casting joint. The structural behaviour of the joints were analyzed :using strut and the tie method, to understand the load transfer within the joint. Strut and Tie Models (STM) were developed to predict the ultimate
[3] Hamad; H. "Anatysis ancl Behaviour of Precast Flat Slab/Column Joints", M. Sc. Thesis, Structural Engineering Department, Ain Shams University, under preparation (to be submitted in Spring 2008).
[4] Ollgard
.1.G.;
Sluttcr R.G.; and Fisher
J.W.
"Shear Strength
of Stutls Connectors in Light-
weight anrl Nctrmal-weigh Concrete." AISC Engineering Journal, April 197 I . pp.ss-64.
[5] Priestlcy, M. J. N.; and MacRae (1996), R. G. " S e is m ic Tes ts o.f P r e- cas t B eam- to - C o lumn .lo int Subassemblages with Unboruled Tendons," PCI JOURNAL, V 41. No. 1, January-February.l996,
pp. 6,1 81.
loads taking into
consideration
to the curvature of slab
failure modes. The proposed STMs were compared to the test results
and good results were obtained.
looo reiniorcement permits an effective load transfer, reduces the cracking
load and the crack widths
and
References
[1] Egyptian Code of Practicc for Design and Construclion of R/C Structurcs (2007), Ministry of Housing and Infrastructures, HBRC, August
2007.
load capacity. On the
simultaneouslyincreases the ultimate
contrary,
is
rounded column reinforcement not recommended.
[6] Saad, F. "Construction Detailing of Joints o.f Pre-cast Concrete Slabs for Bridge Decks" the 1Oth Structural and Geotechnical Engineering Conference, Ain Shams University, Cairo, April
2003.
The presence of shear studs enhances
the framing action between column
[2] El-Sheikh; M. T.; Sause, R.; Pessiki, S.; and

Lu, L. W "Seisnic Behavior of Unbonded Post'lbnsioned Pre-cdst Concrete Froze.r " PCIJOURNAL, V 44, No. 3, May-June 1999, pp.54 71
.
f7] Saad, F. "Design of' Rein./orced Concrete StrLrctules Using StrtLt and Tie Method.", Text-
and flat-slab units and therefore increases the shear resistance.
book, Structural Engineering Department, Faculty of Engincering, Ain Shams University,

second edition,2006.
206
Reports
212008
Eminent Structural Engineer: Julius Natterer

Peer Haller, Prof., Dr-Ing., Institut fiir Stahl- und Holzbau, Technische Universitat, Dresden, Germany
Brief CV
design means half the calculations"; or
5.12.39: Born in Haggn, Lower

Bavaria (D)
for students of architecture "gut konstruiert ist halb gestaltet - a good design means half the work of creation". Thus he imparted structural engineering to his students and attempted to guide the two professions towards working
together.
1965: 1918:
1
Diploma in Civil Engineering, Technical University Munich
Appointed Professor
ETH Lausanne (CH)
at
980-1993: Founded several structural engineering offices

Suspended shell, Wien
This didactic concept also formed the basis of the postgraduate course,
"Building with wood" which has been run regularly since 1988. The course
brought engineers and architects from the most diverse nations to IBOIS. which in the early nineties developed into a port of call for design engineers. scientists and industrialists. On countless tours Natterer presented his knowledge to the general public; his lively lectures filled halls, had an enthusiastic reception but were also thought
1981:
I
(A)
the
989:
Tiuss bridge over

Holzbau Atlas Zwei
Simme in Wimmis (CH)

1990:
1991
:
Polyd6me, Ecublens (CH)
r000:
Roof structure for

Hanover (D)
the Expo World Exhibition in
Fig.
I:
Jnlitts Natterer
1006 1007 ll)07
Professeur honoraire at ETH Lausanne Zdnith at Limoges (F)
Seven story residential

building at Berlin (D)
llermany; F: France)
\: Austria; CH:
Switzerland; D:
Kevwords: Julius Natterer; Timber : n gineering; Timber Structures.
took up the position of assistant in the department of structural design and wood design where he stayed for nine years, and where Professors Rucker, Gattnar, Kupfer and Heimeshoff exercised a formative influence on him. At this time he already opened his first structural engineering office.
provoking and awakened interest in wood as a building material. He was a permanent speaker at international conferences. In 1998, he himself together with his staff staged the World Conference in Timber Engineering in Montreux.
In
1978, he was appointed professor at the ETH, Lausanne and entrusted with
Introduction
3ard1y anyone over the past few years
--rs had such a formative influence r the development of timber engi:ering as Julius Natterer (Fig. l).He '.:trngly promoted the use of wood in ,,::hitecture and applied it in widely structural systems (.Fig 2). -.-iering :'.e n today, after he relinquished his :,r;hing activities in Lausanne; work .. development, experimentation and
-:>rgn
the management of IBOIS, the Institute for Wood Structures. The President of the ETH Lausanne. Maurice Cossandey, expected this institute to play a driving force in the use of wood in conslruction and 1o give impetus to the Swiss timber industry. Under the management of Natterer, who taught and performed research here until he acquired emeritus status, its influence and sphere of attraction were extended across regional boundaries.
In his most important publication, the Holzbau Atlas,"''' which is translated into many languages, Natterer makes his idea of struclural engineering very clear to the reader. He was himself the structural engineer of a good third of the examples quoted there. The joint authorship with colleagues from architecture, such as Thomas Herzog and Michael Volz. later also with Wolfgang Winter and Roland Schweitzer, is significant. In the course of this work the Atlas underwent continuous development; today it is considered to be standard reading for study and
practice.
Transt'er of Knowledge *ould seem that his origins deter^:,:e d his future profession. As the His preference for structural design and - : ol a forester's family he was born constructiondeterminedthecontentsof - -< December 1938 in Haggn, Lower. his teaching and research. He attached :.,'..rria.Germany.Afterhis Abiturhe special value to promoting the con-,--iied civil engineering at the Tech- ceptual and design skills of students in - -,,. L-niversity in Munich, and when civil engineeringandadvisedthem"grzf -: r.rd obtained his Diplom in 1965 he . konstruiert ist halb gerechnel - a good
212008
contlnues'
Way of Thinking
Natterer's constructive handwriting can be followed down the years; the struc-
tures are functional, and at the same time simplified. Whilst an assistant in
Munich, he had already worked on wooden plane load-bearing structures. He got involved in static sl,stems such
Eminent Structural Engineer 201
grid and space frame structures, hypar shells and the resulting details, such as pin-jointed connections. It seems to me that there is no kind of load bearing system which he never realized some time. somewhere.
as trussed beams,
the 20 x 20 m, curved, stacked plank shells which were suspended between the cantilevered trusses. The structural analysis was performed by Natterer's
son. Johannes.
If at all possible he refrained from

using expensive wood materials and
technologies or heavy connectors. His
For his work Julius Natterer received
first choice was round timber - for, says Natterer "timber grows round in the
numerous national and international prizes and decorations, such as the Mies van der Rohe Prize rn
forest" - followed by squared timber, including together with mechanical fasteners and finally glued laminated timber and composite wood products. Frequently the purpose was met by simple boards which were fitted together with mechanical fasteners to
become stacked ceilings and domes.a
1981. the M6daille de l'Acaddmie de l'Architecture in 1986, the Ernst Pelz Prize and the Merit Award in the USA in 1995 or the World Award for Timber Structures in Malaysia in 2002, as well as the German Structural Steel Prize in 1976. Since 1992 he has been a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences. In 2005, he was awarded the main orize of the
Schweighofer Foundation.
Projects
Natterer's constructions range from the most diverse kinds of structures for building projects such as the pavilion in Dortmund for the 1969 Garden Show. the trade fair halls in Nurembers in 1974. and the Ministry of Agriculiure in ChAlons-sur-Marne in I989, to a recycling hall in Vienna in 1981 (Flg. 3), or bridges such as the wide span truss bridge across the Simme in Switzerland in 1989 (Fig. a).
Fig.2: Timber Tower in Sauvubelin
Research
In the course of
Switzerland's 700th
anniversary celebrations in 1991, Natterer was awarded the contract to build the Polyddmes on the ETH Lausanne campus. After a short period of design
and construction there appeared
spherical stacked plank dome made of simple planks, the 25 x 25 m plan being laid out with a network of intersecting board lamellae.
One peak of his practical career is to be found in the construction of the roof for the Expo World Exhibition in 2000 in Hanover (Fig 5) 6. The elegance of the pre-constructed shells must have been the deciding factor when the roof defeated other proposals. Due to its novelty and size this structure represented a challenge to structural engineering and everyone involved in the construction. The columns of the ten canopies consisted of round timbel in each case four silver firs from the Black Forest which had been planted over 200 years before and were originally intended to serve as masts on Dutch sailing ships. To
prevent drying checks the trunks were split down in the middle. The heart of the whole project was formed by
His research represents a vital link

between teaching and practice. Julius Natterer worked for over twenty years
on new technologies, the development of building materials, connections, and construction methods utilizing wood and composite structures.
For many years work at IBOIS
was
concerned with grading of sawn timber by ultrasonics. These investigations led to a portable instrument which can be
used to grade heavily stressed loadbearing elements as well as in renovation work. and which also serves to improve quality in production plants. Connection technioues are central to timber technology. Right at the beginning of his career Natterer developed a pinned joint which ensures
in
Fig. 3: Suspended construction oJ a recvcling hall inVienna built 1981, shortly a.fter Natterer was appo,inted as Professor at ETH
Fig. 4: The bridge over the Simme in Wimntis, Switzerlund built in 1989 consists o.f u trtt.ss stnrcture
Lausanne in Switzerland
208
Eminent Structural E,ngineer
Fig. 5: Roof stnrcture
for Expo World Exhibition in 2000 in Hanover constructed with stacked planks
Fig. 6: Timber-concrete composite slabs Triesenberg
for
a buittling in
that loads are transferred as intended into the member and at the same time distributes the shearing forces in the cross section of the timber via a steel sheet which has been nailed on. Extensive trials were also carried out on nail connections with smaller nail spacings
than foreseen by standards.
theoretical and experimental bases also found expression in one of the

numerous dissertations which Natterer
oversaw.
beer drinker into a wine enthusiast. On all sides of the house there are the remains of numerous experiments in
solid timber, testifying to technological
Further Improvements
The processing of rar'v timber incurs a large number of by-products such as side boards, wood chips, as well as sawdust and wood shavings which realize
In the middle of the eighties IBOIS

iocussed on wood-concrete comoosite :'rcmbers. The topic lecl to a disserra:ion with theoretical and exoerimental
,.i
problems in past years and which are still of value today, awaiting their last destination in the dining-room stove. Perhaps this is how his dedication to solid timber originated.
on the compliant composite hich was followed by many more .nvestigations. The research at IBOIS r'd to several practical applications Fig. 6) and further, complementary .rrestigations in this field all over the
:irrdings
,r
only a low price and thus present a financial burden on the sawn timber.
Natterer therefore thought about how
References
[1] Gotz K-H.: Hoor D.l Mohlcr H.i Natterer
J.:
to utilize any side boards and worked on using them in stacked plank structures and for load bearing in housing
construction. Nails connect the boards to level elements which are emoloved universally in u alls. ceilings anci roofs. In combination with concrete thev guaranlee the span and the requisite period of fire resistance. Today the stacked plank method of construction has developed into an alternative to wood lrame structures.
Holzbau Atlas, Institutc for International Architecture Documcntation Munich. 1978.

[2] Natterer Julius: HerzogThomas;Volz Michaelr HolzbauaLlas Zwei. Institute for International Architecture Documentation. Munich/Basle.
1990.
orld, which continue to this day.
ilr er the past few years the chair has .'. urked on the increasing importrnce
i qlass as a load-bearing building mat;:ia1 and its combination with wood. ,iis was first used in ioists of wood-1:1ss
[3] Natterer Julius, et al.. Holzbauatlas Drei, Institute for International Architecturc Docu,
mcntation. Munich, 2003.
composite construction
for
'tel on Lake Neuenburg- 1Frg. 7).The
[4] Natterer Julius, "llglrrrueight stnrctures in timber: a chance to tLse wood in the constructiott lield", IABSE, Confercncc on Innovative Wooden Structurcs and Bridges. Lahti.2001.
rl6rne:
1
is not easy to judge which qualities have enabled Julius Natterer to achieve such success in his work. I believe they are his eye for the essential and a good mixture of creativity, readiness to commit himself. communicative talents and
courage to put into practice. He has now been retired for some years, but this is not to be taken too literally. He is still in charge of his Bois Consult office at home in a time-honoured house on the outskirts of Etoy. Surrounded by vines it has changed the Bavarian
It
[5] Nattcrer Juliusl Maclntl'rc John, "PolyA Timher Shell, Switzerluntl". Structural
3,
Engineering International. Volume
Number 2,
May
1993. pp.
82 83.
f6] Nattercr Julius; Burgcr NorbertlMiiller Alan; Natterer Joharrnes. ''Roo.f o.f the Main Hnll at
F:XPO 20t10 in Hanover, Germany", Structural Engineering International.Volume 10. Number 3. 1 August 2000. pp. 761-169.
[7] Krcher Klaus; Natterer Julius;

Johanncs. " Tirnber-GLass-Composite
Nattercr
Girder.s
1
-. IVoocl-glass composite construction

r
a l]otel in Switzerland", Structural Engineering

International, Volume
pp.
14,
for
ltotel on Lake Netrenbttrg
Number 2,
Mav
2002t,
i49
151.
:tructural Engineering International
212008
Eminent Structural Engineer 209

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SEI Volume 18, Number 2

Structural Engineering International

ThIl Timber Buildings: Introduction

Dr Andrea Frangi, ETH Zurich, Switzerland

establish the historical context, summarize recent research

Urban Timber Houses in Vienna

in Vienna. The advantases of timber

for these pilot projects. Apart from fire

construction material moisture and

Because there are almost

Keywords: multi-storey timber housexpe-

ing; sound insulation; wooden facades.

three projects are made of ieinforced

'of a testing and inspection institute in

to provide the long-term

field of timber construction. This suoport assures a high standard of quality

Structural Engineering International 2l2WB

reahzed ceiling construction

The external walls were carried out

are the only European species of wood

i": ri.: :1,'' til lil

Fig. 4: Ceiling-wull joint with elastomere strips

Structural Engineering International

floating lloor scrccd

insulation "Hcralan TPS" lill (split) cross laminatcd timber elcments

This ceiling construction has a weight-

ed standard impact sound

level L'n.1* of 40 dB.

Fig. 3: Ceiling consttrc'tion

The fire stops are made of steel sheet

with a thickness of 1.5 mm and bearing-out of 150 mm (Flg. 5).

at building site C were

to fulfill passive house standards.

lar building methods. A constructive

shows the need

three-dimensional modules. That for optimizing modu-

Fig. 5: Detail o.f tlte

Fig.6: Building site B

Fig. 8: Building site C

Structural Engineering International

mn mm mrn 18 mm 140 rnm 65 mm 1-5 mm

lloating floor screed

Properties of the building:

Building costs (EURO million): i0,708

ARWAG Bautrriger Ges. m. b. H., Wien, Austria

Fig.7: Ceiling construction building site B nm mm 70 mn 140 mn 70 mm 15 mm

Architekturbiiro Riess, Graz, Austria

RW Tiagwerksplanung. Wien, Austria

suspended ceiling with ,+0

Holzbautechnik Sohm GmbH, Alberschwende, Austria

SEI Data Block

BAI Bautriiger Austria Immobilien

Architekturbiiro Dietrich Untertrifaller

Architekturbiiro Proi DI Hermann

JR Consult, Graz, Austria

IBO Osterreichisches Institut fiir Baubiologie und -okologie GmbH,

Merz Kaufmann Partner, Dornbirn, Austna

KLH Massivholz GmbH, Katsch,

toring of production. Report. Holzforschung.

zfassadensysteme Endbericht. Holzforschung Austria: Wicn. 2005.

Structural Engineering International

Case Studies of Multi-Storev Wood-Frame Construction

Director of Technical Services, Western Wood Products Association, Portland, USA

including a kitchen and dinner facility,