Reference Textbooks

Cell Biology 2002

by Thomas D. Pollard and William C. Earnshaw
4th Ed.

Molecular Biology of The Cell

by Bruce Alberts, Dennis Bray, Julian Lewis Martin Raff, Keith Roberts, James D. Watson
6th Ed. 2008

2002

Molecular Cell Biology

by Harvey Lodish, Arnikd Berk, Paul Matsudaira, Chris A. Kaiser, Monty Krieger, Matthew P. Scott, Lawrence Zipursky, James Darnell

Biology 6th Ed. 2002

by George B. Johnson and Peter H. Raven

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Biology
chemistry physics

Origin and evolution of life on earth

Historical event
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The Central dogma of living Cells-1

d
(c) Blood cells; (d) Fossilized dinosaur eggs.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

Cells come in an astounding assortment of shapes and sizes.

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A single cell, the human egg (~200 m), with sperm, which are also single cells. From the union of an egg and sperm will arise the 10 trillion cells of a human body.

Basic cellular architecture. A. A section through a eukaryotic cell showing the internal components. B and C. Comparing cells from the major branches of the phylogenetic tree with colorcoded components. Cell Biology, Ch 1, by Pollard and Earnshaw, 2002

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The biological universe consists of two types of cells:

prokaryotic cells eukaryotic cells

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Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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many proteins are precisely localized in their aqueous interior, or cytosol, indicating the presence of internal organization.

Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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cytoplasm, comprising the cytosol (aqueous phase) and the organelles.

Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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Prokaryotic cells consist of a single closed compartment that is surrounded by the plasma membrane, lacks a defined nucleus, and has a relatively simple internal organization. Eukaryotic cells contain a defined membrane-bound nucleus and extensive internal membranes that enclose other compartments, the organelles. Prokaryotic cells have a simpler internal organization than eukaryotic cells.
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Cell
Eukaryotic cells Prokaryotic cells
Compartmentalized

YES YES

NO NO

Cytoskeleton

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Electron micrograph of a liver cell showing organelles.

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Cell Biology, Ch 1, by Pollard and Earnshaw, 2002

Nuclear envelope

Nucleoplasm and cytoplasm The site of protein and phospholipid synthesis An organelle that adds sugars to proteins
(membrane, lysosomal and secretory proteins)

Endoplasmic reticulum Golgi apparatus Lysosomes

A compartment for digestive enzymes Containers for enzymes involved in oxidative reaction

Peroxisomes

Mitochondria

Structures that convert energy stored in the chemical bonds of nutrients into ATP

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Membranes
Allow cells to create an internal environment Divide into compartments-organelles

Biological membranes are generally:

Impermeable to macromolecules and selectively permeable to ions

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Biological Membranes
A bilayer of lipids Integral proteins crossing the bilayer Peripheral proteins associated with the surfaces

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Development of ideas about membrane structure

1920s Cellular membranes consist of lipid bilayers 1930s A surface coating of proteins to reinforce the bilayer
Electron micrographs: a pair of dark lines separated by a lucent area

1970s Proteins cross the lipid bilayer

Electron micrographs with freeze-fracturing technique: protein particles embedded in the lipid
bilayer

Chemical labeling of membrane proteins:

proteins traverse the bilayer
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Development of concepts in membrane structure.

A. Gorder and Grendel model from 1926. B. Davson and Danielli model from 1943. C. Singer and Nicholson fluid

mosaic model from

1972.

Cell Biology, Ch 6, by Pollard and Earnshaw, 2002

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Development of concepts in membrane structure.

D. Contemporary model with peripheral and integral membrane proteins.
Cell Biology, Ch 6, by Pollard and Earnshaw, 2002

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* Dissociated from the membrane following treatments with polar reagents; * Soluble in aqueous buffers; * Not inserted into the hydrophobic interior of the lipid bilayer

* Released by treatments that disrupt the phospholipid bilayer; * Inserted into the lipid bilayer

Fluid mosaic model of the plasma membrane.

Most membrane: 50% protein : 50% lipid (5-10% of mass is glycoproteins
and glycopeptides)

1 molecule of protein v.s. 50-100 molecules

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Mobility of membrane proteins

Not all proteins are able to diffuse freely through the membrane; restricted by * association with the cytoskeleton; * other membrane proteins; * proteins on the surface of adjacent cells * proteins on the extracellular matrix
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Drawing of the lipid composition of a plasma membrane illustrating the heterogeneity of the lipids and the asymmetrical distribution of the lipids between the two halves of the bilayer.
SM: sphingomyelin; GS: glycosphingolipid; PC: phosphatidylcholine; PE: phosphatidylethanolamine; PS: phosphatidylserine.
Cell Biology, Ch 6, by Pollard and Earnshaw, 2002

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Some membrane lipids and proteins colocalize in lipid rafts.

Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 5, 2004

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Membrane Proteins
Integral membrane proteins
cross the lipid bilayer

Lipid anchored membrane proteins

bound covalently to one or more lipid molecules.

Peripheral membrane proteins

associate with the inside or outside surface of the bilayer
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Diagram of how various classes of proteins associate with the lipid bilayer.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 5, 2004

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Signals
Receive

Gases to proteins

Respond

All Cells
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Environmental conditions
Temperature, Osmotic stress, Light, Mechanical force, Gases, Nutrients, Attractants, Hormones, Cells, ECM
ECM: extracellular matrix

Cellular activities
Protein synthesis, Mobility, Proliferation, Energy metabolism...
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An inducing signal can be transmitted from one cell to another in three main ways

(Wolpert, Ch1, 2002)

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Cell communication.
Ligands and receptors.
(Wilt and Hake, Ch 1, 2004) 34

External signals commonly cause a change in the activity of preexisting proteins or in the amounts and types of proteins that cells produce.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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External signals commonly cause a change in the activity of preexisting proteins or in the amounts and types of proteins that cells produce.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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During growth, eukaryotic cells continually progress through the four stages of the cell cycle, generating new daughter cells.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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Dad made you a boy or girl.

Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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Apoptotic cells break apart without spewing forth cell constituents that might harm neighboring cells.
Molecular Cell Biology, Ch 1, 2004

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Definitions and General Concepts About Stem Cells

Totipotent: Able to give rise to all embryonic and extra-

embryonic cell types, i.e. a cell that can produce an entire organism.
In the mouse, only a zygote and a blastomere from a 2-cell stage embryo would be considered totipotent.

Pluripotent: Able to give rise to all cell types of the embryo

proper, i.e. the derivatives of all three germ layers; that is, essentially
all cell types that are found in the adult organism. An embryonic stem cell would be a typical example of a pluripotent cell and it is not the the only pluripotent cell type.

Cell 116:639-648, 2004.

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Definitions and General Concepts About Stem Cells

Multipotent: Able to give rise to a subset of cell lineages, i.e. an
give rise to multiple cell types, but these would nevertheless be restricted to derivatives of a single germ layer (for example, a
mesenchymal cell that is able to differentiate into fibroblasts, adipocytes, chondrocytes, muscle cells and so on) or to a specific sublineage (for example, haematopoietic stem cells that give rise to erythrocytes, leucocytes and lymphocytes).

Oligopotent: Able to give rise to a more restricted subset of cell

lineages than multipotent stem cells.

Unipotent: Able to contribute to only one mature cell type.

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It might one day be possible to manipulate ES cells so that they and their derivatives form a complete conceptus without any contribution from an embryo. At that point ES cells could be called totipotent, but until then this term is best avoided when describing ES cells.

Nullipotent:
Mouse embryonal carcinoma cells are usually able to differentiate into several cell types. However, some embryonal carcinoma cell lines lose the capacity for differentiation on prolonged in vitro culture and are then termed as nullipotent.

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