avtorTa stili daculia


 
 



 "!$#&%'

()*#+'%

, -.%$%

02143657398:3

Tbilisi

;=<><>?



 
 

 !"
# %#$
&
 '()*+,-.
+"
$
/#
021,4356  )*!6
87/29;:<7)*!7==' "
>
 ?@ "A(#$
CB59
70D FEG H
21I C35+JAK',-+)*
ML 
N
@
21M@.
<,O72135;#$
 P215
4,IQ 21R"

S,IN  21@
,-
35;#$"
(729  .

H.
D+@H& ."

T ?UV W#$XN Y35

CB5< ,-;Z9


 
   
 

  



 
!"#X35M9!$%Y35XWXX7G35"
#$S
 29&!$?
' 35 C35 .
R)*  7."
35#$&
 )*21,(.
R)*D- "A 
T;#$.(
9 !'T35S,-  1X7"
)
 %##35<@=,-<
RWXP,-"
>  ;#$>> .
)*295P  #$"
>
 *# "AN,-  )*?>:<
#- 
Q   .
4)*29


,.-/
0!*' 35M91!"2S35
+

W
S7."

3 #$
  UV@9Z9(!"2 35SC35 .
R"
5
)*
43;)*X,- NX,-Y  "
#$!! .
)* UV7/
RW!,- 
Z1,4D(.
R)*  6  ;#$! ."

9 !"5N35,-; 1 76
 !5'35@"
!
R,-2
9 %##'<35<8
 7.

RW<<35"
.  /
9 !"5?35 D<)*W .
R)*( "
7G35#$%
 )*29: 9 /@ "A"
Y#$
Y  Y<  2
9 %## "
B5,- = )*X:<
#-<<"
  .
4)*29



  
 
 
 -/  -/+ -/ 

)*.2L2 
N,-21  


@
21 CB5"
;#$CB521* 

X,O729 
X 
@,- "
,-21; 6 29
 ! 

'7"
729 

1NW 1
,- 
 /  ,O7')*."
   ,-T29X:<
#$21X "
21$2L$@.21I 21I@G:<
#$21$@ 21$@."
29 ) >  29  .
? ;#$29
729R X <
 ;#$CB529 @."

 ,O7>2L  .CB5D21357 ;.
M1"
@.
<,O7Y Y357X C35M1M
R"
Y
 X29*@.
<,O7X ."
!  
 #$N9N.
 #$.
6@.

,O7()* xn  %7 M9@.

W#$,-  >
  29

   
 


   
"!
#
 -/

 $%
& 
35;#$  = S;N9S"
7 29<,-
; #$;
,-29 35;#$
 ."
N@ 29 35;#$  ."
 UV,I(@  Z  
H @ 29835"
#$?  ?6UV #$;
(,- ZY"
@ WY 
X @  UVW
Z#$.7
 ;7."
B5/ 29<#$.7
  35;#$   T "
29/B5 H 7 29; 
R/W%B5 ;
)* 29 
R W?    29O,I>)*"
21   ,- B5 29O

,I <;NL2@.N)*3529 ,I
 . 29 
> @  ,-29

'


? 



!
#
 -/


 $%
#     !
 



 < ?  29 n"
> (721Q35"

29I
 (n n) ,I(  29I."
  S2L<CB5 
 *  =6)* 29
  ;X ;29   >#
 @,-XCB5T"
 729  ! ;! %
#$
;   N ;CB59  N"
  29 ,I <  29   ;
B5"
;  2L<35.212)*
 
<,-21"
,O
Q  29
 

 + -/ &$  



@
+,- ';NL@.21 29."

@ 
 ,-H ,  
!
@
29@;
!35;#$  ,-!/35;#$ 21@;'"
+35;#$( 7218@ 
 2L8>,- 
)* )*21  
= @ 29<@"
; /CB5H&  29,-%W+#$.7
 
7S;;29
  GB5 S@
="
,-LCB521  @ 21 &,-/CB5"
;#$CB5@ W;,-.  92@.,-L @.,-<CB5
7;%,-6CB5)*21@.,-W! W %:<21
 GB5')*/)*29;,-    @ 
R"

 .CB5D35;#$ 
YCB56 "
  )*29O,I +  2935;#$  ."
?2L%
21IB5 ( 7 
 .CB5DQQ 215 P )*Q; "
 W 9 ;  X2L5 7 WX,-1  7 W
#
  
&29@ WH,- '@."
,-/,-&35;#$';  (  H "
7 WH,-'7N1;@.,-W%:</' W!"
B5  ?  29(35;#$Q7HUVZL
 .CB5D21< 721Y;21<  6!W#$@21 )*
)*2935;#$ 7(:<  21$7?B5

9D Q29;CB


2LN&,- 2935;#$ 7 ,-29
35;#$X  YX35;#$X7 CB5N9
#$  29

 

  
&  



  <;N92 W 292 ) ! "

#$295 ? ;#$29> 
. ; ."
;#$2LI&( ;!UV.% Z9 "
N 29M
  21 X)*N"

 T95 )* Q #$.29RGB
R 29
35
& :<&#$.298'#$.
298  ."
9 PY  9 M.P ,-T#$.
29*"
 #$. > #$;)*29 ?)*
29*  )*<35;#$Y9  #$.
29
 
,- % 21I
  W+ 29

/ 6 7/0'
/"
 <)
N9M@.
 ,O7X 

729*@.
 <  ,O7<NB5;
 
 29,- 
 ,O7;NB5-;W=,O7; "
NB5' S  )* )*29XW W#$"
,-  X   Q .
P7 "
292W W#$,-   Y X

UVCB5 .)* >
Z9 W>Q)* 7 29 ,-"
 
T35;>29

  + -/ &$  

   
&#
+   


3 ;#$< @ X  .CB5DY< 29M35;#$ "
5
@ Q,-29 @Q 7  29 35;#$X "
@ %%,I' ')* )*2935;#$% "
@ ?,-?)*()* 77+CB5)*29-"
,IP. 29R35;#$ @   7Q ;215   
W#$@29 
 = @ 29N  
=@."
,- +35;#$H @ H)*GB5D
H  
 @.,-GB59

(@21O
( )* 21I7


? 
#$.29; 6 )* /,$B5(%35;#$' "
@  CB59   Q292;
Y )*29M#$.
@."
,-21 ,- )*>#$.
 @.,-  :<"
9  
P35;#$P @ 21*,-Q )*P,-

@.,-+ :<9O,-1
 9  +CB529-"
,- 9  .
 #$29N,-  35;#$6 @."
 #
 @,-21% )*  35  % 
 )* N9

  ! # -/ #
-  
 /

-  
&$  
 #

 
 
  
 
&
 #
+   


 
&?
 
(,-2L@.218 29

;  CB5,-H,-.21I; 
+CB521I"
,-Y;  
292)*.
D
< @ 2L"
,-N)*<)*21 
 @ 21


@ 21R 
 @ >,->  "

79
 
21 ;  


 @."
QQ,-295
 )*29R 

 ,O729

 !
#
 -/   




Q#$ ,-21 P,-Y
,- Y35;#$"

 @ ;)* R9  
%7GB5I   :9 N"
29 ,-?  29
 #$>#$,-29
  .CB5D
X
 #$29*W D0."
CB5< 29Q#$ ;
>  CB5,-29

  

 -  
   
  



:<
#-<)* X 29 7X:<
#$2L ,-21 "

 ,-21 7S)* 
 ,-1
7P 21 7X35217 )*Y .B5"
,- 
1 735  ;)*217< )* 21
S.
,-
21 7  29P:<
#$S )*

9D Q29;CB


&#$CB5)*29I/435@ H@G:<
#$298CB5D"
 ;#$215 29 : 9  29#$@"
:<
#$21 29 ;#$CB52L< 21Y0
 ;#$CB5Q)*.729#$@" :<
#-P ;
 29



 
  
#  -/+ -/ 

:
#$Q@YGB51R@Q 29 
R"
<
;:<
#$ 7  7
:<
#)*29!7;)*.
D
<"

29:<
#- ;#$CB5;)*.72L)*."
M1NCB5;#$CB5 =!H29N:<
#-!"
6 29N
    @ %
#$=
R"
 :<
#$QQ>@G:<
#$29 
 35@ >

:<
#$( 
29O&29 pq   :<
#$(D"
3529 .
N.
 212
 #$@" :<
#$
)*297 &:<
#$29I
 7  :<
#)*+"
& ',-
 #$@ +
 
%G35/."
29 S :<
#$?.
 ; G3529 S :<
#$?
R7 "
4
n
21,- n 5 98,- 298  
&:<
#$29I
 p"
:<
#$N  
292 212 292 "
)*21#$@"A 29 <  :<29 )  
 +
( & :< )*29I ) 
? >)*
 > 215?#
 @,-295."
218 29<& #$;218 #$;&7721
#$; )* 7729Q 
S #$;29P"
( #$;(
@
298)*&CB5 CB5;#$CB5
 029XS 
6
 729P 
 #$;"
// 29

! #$;29N."
 
& ()*.729$
&2LI21
;;21 ;#$CB521 @29 
 #$;21

<:<
#$292 
XY0<292 P."

0 @ )*.729$ ,-
 #$;
)*.729  !)*!7 =
29


? 
#$  %7CB5 
 21
  
 @ 29
35 
21
 
,-215
87 @,-29

 
 -/

90< R95@,-P
D.  )*2921 %##" 9
% 
9 @.70N)9
D.  2921&!5% 9

' 9

  
 

"!
#%$'& ()*+#,-. /$012 /$4356!# /7
8 ,-901:;101=<*>9?#;
@A$CBDDEF
*R9HG-C"IJ
= #>%K#L#+#+NMO "!
$CB)*+#,-. /$012 /$356!# /7 8 ,)
-901:;101<*>9?#;
@A$BDDEF
2 9PH9?J-CNPH91-C?NQ  F "!
CF$R)*S+#,-. /$#012 /$356!# /7 8 ,-)
01:;101<*>9?#;
@A$CBDDEF
" 9
60#+#K#+#?T 8 2P1:-C?#+OU "!
#WVXN0:YZC
0[YC\: .]^ /7
G+#, _`90 +#09$aBDDF&
5 9b>%?#3S  "!
CF ]^ /7#]c+#2$2& dEeF
$ 9
%9#9M9C
=]^ 8 /$1]U#,[FK
fg 8 hS?
i01"
#+#+j"#M#M2$
k )*6+#,-. /$#M2 /$]^ /7CG+#, _`90 +#09$l& ddEF
9]m;L 8 nhS?
o+#?#?
J "!
#% 1]^ /7p%"KFF$& d1q
DF
!# 9br6C_s
t5= 
6
?Z#?_s#?#=1K#01
#?#M#0C9?0nF 4]^ /7
G+#, _`90"+#,1$.& dERF
9uv
w9+#Z 8 x' ahS?
?#M
?#[F0+#[c "!
#% C]^ /7P 8 p 8 )
yH8 $2& deEFzxsrIJ$2& ddRF
 % 9{#K#+#?|P  2}
1-9?
n~KF
"+w6+#KF9L#+#[K
?Z#?_s#?#Y
+#?#?#Y
MC901

 p6
1+!#   ?F)09$6p6
1+!
+#K2$
& ddF&
!' 9
60#+#K#+#?O 8 VX:-. \l3!
#?#+#K,-"ZM "!

]^ /7
G+#,)
_`90 +#09$aBDD1q
*R9HG-#-C"IJ
= /$3_l+#?K#+# 8 3S 94-"Z#+M = "!
$
& ()*6+#,-.$#M2 /$356!# /7 8 ,-901:;101=<*>9?#;
@A$CBDD(F
 2 95K#n[FK
 8 P 93!
#?#+#K,-"ZM+#?#?
 "!
 ]^ /7
>
!
C901
#+#[cQH9, 
Yc?C9?#+#2$BDDRF




  

   
  



P;TB
RT)*0Q  CB5D? >"
8
 21)* X.? 
Q
@
 )*.35 &."
'8)*&  .CB5D
%,-N9,-'@.) M "
GB5<  > 

f :M M M

 7219 29 35.212X 7 M Y 6"

  ; (a, b) 35&,-7 )*.(X"
>D, c  21R 
 f ,-  )* 
a, b  ;N35NB5;77
 7C35Y f ((a, b)) = c
7N1 ,T7&,-M1 af b = c 7
 .!W 2 6 6'  /)*W .7."

&,O7&,-'  
 D )*  L 7 C35."
; 5 + 7 = 12 1 5 7 = 35   +((5, 7)) = 12 1 ((5, 7)) = 35 9
   W  7 ,L 1 1 9 M "
> Y)*0 Q ,!,O721 7
7 @29
 
X
@
> T,- PX )*  
 )* ,O7)*
 "
 ,-NL
N & 

 ,O7 1
N0 = N {0} H
;#$ W ,O7 1
Z &W ,O7 1
Q H,- 
 ,O7 1
R0 &
;#$ 4,O7 1
R &>  ,O7 9
7CB5( 
R M1IX)*   &,-"
Q  .CB5D
 Q>,O7S.)*29 1



QJ 95 
Q
@




;#$ ,O7>.)*  (  .CB5D
 "

  
P,-21  

;#$X,O7 ."


,O729 ,- 
 ,O7.)*
  .CB5D
 , )*=6, 21X 
!,- 
6,O7=:<6! !)*0!
,- 
29
 
 f : M M M ,- G35
 &$ 
$ -/ 1
8
(af b)f c = af (bf c)  a, b, c M 1R !  -/
$ -/ 1 8

af b = bf a  (a, b) M 9


  
  Z 
 ,-QW ,O7P7

: Z Z Z,

(a, b) 7 a b,

,=,-,-
 Q,=.
,-
29

%Z 
 ,-

N N N,

(a, b) 7 ab ,

U 77)*& ZQ,-,-
H+.
,-

 "

Q,-

f : N N N,

(a, b) 7 ab + ba ,

.
,-
21   
 ,-,-
 ((1f 2)f 3) 6=

1


9
2

$
9






,




,













+?.
,-
&;87 
1f (2f 3)

29
 ;

 
Q
@
 ,O7> 29



    @

  f :
M 1 N 1 P  H 

M N 1 g : N P ?;729 f  g 7 !

 

 1R !  ,  $ 
1 G35

7M1,

9 29

gf :M P

 .CB5D
 #$.


(g f )(x) = g(f (x)) x M,

f "A< g " )*.
<)* 292012,-

1 7 D
 ,- M  
M = N = P&
)*YY7XGB59 .P,-Y0Y 




9D Q29;CB



@
H
H 8M1,

 9

 -  


535."

8
M ,->21 n 

?,O721O)*

M n "AFD )* ;FT 
  
(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) 1 ai M 1 1 i n 9 M GB5 n
 -/ UE n
  K*Z
 
 -/   
$  @.)  ' 
7 f : M n M 17 ,O7 n"  G35 f
 
 - 
   
$  

#& 


 9<

."
 4
 7  
 
 (n = 2) 
 
 (n 1) ,-29
.

&,- M '#$@.
& 21
  M 0 "A @.)&  >;   9 
R"
 (n = 3) ,-Q 8Q0 M  N "
GB58N@,-
!7
,- ( , , ) =

9
1 1
2 3

   $  


    !
 -/
(-/ 

  $ 
  
 47 N1  7 W ,- "
!





/




(

/




$
  
N = {1, 2, 3, 4, . . . } 9




 ,O7!H)*0=DC35;   # -/+ $ 
-/
# U 
 
 % .
Q>> )* 6EG K*ZL 1

N >8
n N 1R)* n + 1 N 95@ <  

      
  
 !-/   # -/+ $    $   @4

n"   (n N) @= A(n) 35 29<8
A(1) 35"
 ;  >Q 

 n"  A(n)"
N; 
  A(n+1)"AN; "
21 )* A(n) 35 X; Q n"  (n N) 9
     1  !
  ,-CB5;#
0 
<,-<W"
 # G3529
21, 
 
 !-/   # -/+ $    &
W!#$ C35 L  Z(,- 6UV35 Z A(1) 35"
;; >UEG 
@,-
CB5K*Z- 
% Z
"
 1  A(n) ; Q  ,-.
 n"  (n
N)   
 #
0NB5 ,- A(n + 1)"A?;8"
 %UEG 
@,- C:<K*Z9

QJ 95 
Q
@


   
1  !



  
@,- W )*.0."

%  ; 
%
 A(k) (1 k n) "
ML<8
A(1) ; 6  k " M1
,- 1 k n 1 1 A(k)" X;  Y  
A(k + 1)"A'; ,1)* ?;  A(k) ;"
 >
29
;,1)*; 
 A(k) (1 k n) ;
A(k) (k 1) ;Q1-  k " M1-,-
k n + 1 1 D; A(k) = A 1M, A #$@.
 "

X
29 S3521* A(k) (k 1) ;"
 4
 7   Z$ %Z-N; A(k) (k 1)
; 29 01; N A(1), A(2), . . . , A(n)

29

     1  !


B5 2:< A(n) 35  n"A(B5 ; "



S )*   !,-21  !CB5SS@M1
 =)*.0  ; 4,- m"A
C35
%% 

 n" M9;.M1.721B5 "
:< A(n)"A ,-!)*.0 n"A 6 
R"

  )* M14W n"A,1I"
1-G35
 .
 Q n"A(QW?
"
;#$  )*  95,O7215 
@,-T,-Q ."
>N)*W87)*,1.7 ,-?> C:<
@  A(m) 35 >)*3529R,-  C:<
7%)* /)* 0% N1; A(n) 35 
;  >W n" M1 n m 9

  


 

 ,O7%)* (+) ' 

 ,- 47 S)* Q2L

U ) 7 Z 8
x, y N 15)* x + y N
U N"A 7 )* ;;Z

UV
7 Z 8
x, y N 15)* x y N
U N"A 7> ?;;Z

U )*Z 8
x, y N 15)* x + y = y + x
U )* .
,-
 N" )*Z

()

'

9D Q29;CB


UV Z 8
x, y N 15)* xy = yx
UV ?.
,-
 N" )*Z

U )*Z 8
x, y, z N 15)* (x + y) + z = x + (y + z)
U )* ,-,-
 N" )*Z

UV Z 8
x, y, z N 15)* (xy)z = x(yz)
UV ?,-,-
 N" )*Z

UV
Z 8
x, y, z N 15)* x(y + z) = xy + xz
UV,O7 Q
,-
Z

UV Z 8
x, y, z N 15)* (x + y)z = xz + yz
UV:< >
,-
Z9
UVZ N" )*<  -/
1    129 29*WY."
  e N 1X  x"   N"A X  @
ML

xe = ex = x
VU ;.
 Z

 ,O7 9
W>  N" )*  


L
UV
Z N"A
-  
 #

 


1 < 2 < 3 < < n 1 < n < n+1 < ;

UVW;Z> ,- M N @.. 47 6
,-"
.& 219 29WH 

H,O7 m M 1
 m n  n"   M "A QU    
(-/

   

Z9

   

  
YCB5#
0 


 ."

@,- ,- 7N)* ;@ 
N#$29
  # -/+ $    $   @' n"  (n N) @
 A(n) 35 29N
7;N1N 7 +#$ 35.M1
,6)
? 0   ; A(n)"AQ;"
; 
,-.
 n"  NIN1  A(k) ;8"
   k < n"  &UV01 
721
)* 0
)*35; A(1)"A ; Z9)* A(n) ; 
 n"   (n N) 9R;,1
R)* @.

M = {m | m N, A(m) ,- } N

QJ 95 
Q
@


,-29$ 
&+ 7 M )*,-
."
,-. m  M9P)* A(m ) 35 S,-21<7
0
0
A(m) ; ' m < m0 "  M9.'HG35 D ."
 A(m )"A ;  ,->)*.0M9

0

I)*W87)*,%
 
@,-<W ,-."

 (( C35  >)* 2L  ZP,- &UV35 Z A(1)"A

; >%Z
 1  A(k) ;  ."
 k < n &,-.
 n"   (n > 1) (,-
Q;  k = n"  M9

    ! 
 !
 !    


 )* 7  43"

 B5 ;Q,- Q>#$@215,=)*.7 N
 "
M9
@ ,-.
H
 M 1
,
)*  n    9;./ H)*.0/  ."
 @ ( n 

 1, 2, . . . , n ,O7?)
."
 21Y  7 W  . 87)*=
 
@6 )* 6M18
 
     +)* 
M 1 7 (
 DN1 M "A6."
 &35  .' .%,O72L M = {i , i , . . . , i } =
1 2
n
{1, 2, . . . , n} 9
? +   X7)* "
7 77H ,-&)*   +Q35. )*  "

;)*.0  ,-<    )*29 W
,- X 
X
535 127 P C35M1
,47
6,- 67  )*35 S"
 M9R )*Q.7 
X
 .7
29IQ
 @)*  .7
(@ ?B5 ;
.
 
 ,- 29

      
#
!
$  

 
 
#
!
$  


 $ 


 ;/UV

@
n "

M = {i1 , i2 , . . . , in } = {1, 2, . . . , n} n
   

  # 

# 
;ZPP
 29 
  -/ 


        
  
#
!
$ 
 

 &# 

9 n
 ;%  ,-/B5 H7 i , i , . . . , i @ 21
1 2
n
,  i  1, 2, . . . , n ,O7 ;21*  ,
k

9D Q29;CB


;'+,O7 & 7/:<9

;  '"
Q)*0+ .H.7 ;( 2B5NL$'"
;   6  9N  
{1, 2}   > 2B5NX77 )*02L 1 2 1 2 1 9
   {1, 2, 3} & 2B5(@%77 )*0
 .ML 123 1 132 1 213 1 231 1 312 1 321 9 n    Y)* ."
4  ,-?,O7 P "A D )*  9 7 Y 7WN1
n
P1 = 1 1 P 2 = 2 1 p 3 = 6 9
P "A    <
 
4#$.

n

U: Z

Pn = nPn1 .

,-;  29 n  ;+  ,-HB5  7

i1 , i2 , . . . , in 9 i1 "AP87)*0 n 77X77N9 8
&

88
 7.
21 )* I 4
 7 n1  21 <,+
n 1   X
R7N9*<)*.
 Pn1 77
"AHCB5H7;Z9I
 D n"A  
)*0!U P
n1
?  nP
77219 29 P = nP
9
n1
n
n1
:U  Z>#$.
 
H 
@,-%W )*0
,-.M1 P 6 n 

 ,O7
n
2L
U %Z
Pn = 1 2 3 n.
 123 n  n!"A!D )*  9 P = n!
n

87
 EG %#$@KR9<

 P = 0! = 1 9



D
21

     
 
 


) $ 

./H ."

Q >,-.
 35.  N; #

 

-/   

G3529 
NP   
 @..
 

G35&U  .  
 M1
((@.Q)*0( .H )*.0 35."
;Z9
@!,-.
 M = {1, 2, 3, 4} 9C4
 3 M "A  
? ??.(? ?  .CB5D
+ "
  .M9N '77 )*0!6 W

 6W
77!29;,1N! 68
 7 ;87



QJ 95 
Q
@


77
72L

)*021 7

>87Q 87 P < "

12, 13, 14
21, 23, 24
41, 42, 43.
,-.
 n    m"A  35Y,O7 Am "A
n
D )* 295B5;S 7WN1 A2 = 12 9
4

35& H 


>#$.
2L

A1n = n



 +
 ."

,- 1 m < n.
UM
' Z
Am+1
= (n m)Am
n
n,
UM
' Z(#$.
 1
! 
@,-6."



8
<
 *
) 0Q,-.M1

n!
U **Z
.
(n m)!
U **ZN#$.
Q;
>  n, m N 158
0 m n 9
I#$.
  )*0YU 
% Z$#$.
 ,9;,1
@'43 n"A  ;Y 29 )* D,
m  >
R7 n   Y m   ."
29.+)*0()*.
. Am 77N98
S m  
n

21X)* '87  n m  29. =

   n m  M9.&)*0 )*.
. P
77
nm
"A CB5!7;Z1
 D n"A  %"
UP
nm
   Am P
7721>9 29 P = Am P
1  .

nm
n
nm
n
n
n!
9
@ Am =
9XU *
* Z #$.
%7)*
n! = Am
n (n m)!
n
(nm)!
7C35>WP7,L
Am
n =







Am
n = n(n 1) (n m + 1).
  47 WN15 An1 = An = n! 9
n

U 2Z






   n    m"A    


  
 
  G35X  i , i , . . . , i @ .M9  ,-WN1
1 2
m
 %,O7'  #$.
 A
9 01
bm = nm 
n
bn = Pbn = nn 9
A
n

9D Q29;CB


  

 1-   
 
 1-   


 $  1-   



$     
 
  )* 
>( "
'@.. 1-   

G3529  7; M = {1, 2, 3}

6/@.9N/,O7/2L 1 {1} 1 {2} 1

{3} 1 {1, 2} 1 {1, 3} 1 {2, 3} 1 {1, 2, 3} 9 n    m"A "
  :N
#->,O7 C m ; D )* 29
n
8
&  n    m"A  35M1*"
DN15 Am = C m P 9  ,
n

Cnm =
U "MZN#$.
P7)*

n!
.
m!(n m)!

U "MZ

7C35>W 7NL

n(n 1)(n 2) (n m + 1)
U 5Z
.
1 2m
   

   n"A> m"A (0 m n) 
 "

 C m = C nm 29;,1
n
n
Cnm =

n!
n!
=
= Cnnm .
m!(n m)!
(n m)!(n (n m))!
   

  n"A  X@.W<"
Cnm =

,O7

2n "A>2L

Cn0 + Cn1 + Cn2 + + Cnn = 2n .

U $MZ

m+1
Cnm + Cnm+1 = Cn+1

U MZ

     

L  
@,- "A ;N9
n
   


  n"A  m"  M1O,S"
#$ 0 m < n M1;

295;,1

n(n1) (n m + 1) n(n1) (n m)
+
=
1 2m
1 2 m(m + 1)
n(n1) (n m + 1)(m + 1) (n1) (n m)
=
+
=
1 2 m(m + 1)
1 2 m(m + 1)

Cnm + Cnm+1 =

QJ 95 
Q
@


n(n 1) (n m + 1)(m + 1 n m)
=
1 2 m(m + 1)
(n + 1)n(n 1) (n m + 1)
=
.
(m + 1)!



   ,-W U MZ/
R)
F.:<"
=

N9

  n

   m"A   1-   

G35  m"A  T@..M1
)*,H)*<;N  Y  !"
8729,-WN1& ,O7 6#$.







   
 

(n+m1)! 9
bm = C m
C
n
n+m1 = m!(n2)!

 ,-WN1/





n!
m1 !m2 !mk !

n"A   

77X776)*0Y k  Y@."

1M,H)* X;#$ LM "

T >Q@N1R)*.1 m , m , . . . , m  "
1
2
k
  >)*,-  m + m + + m = n 9
1

,O7M1M n"


@ N)* 
(n +

1) ,O7  (n N0 ) 1 
 !
  
!-   #
535 #$ ."
 &29$6U:!"%'  !""%Z,-1I."
,=7
 ,O7? 29

Cn0 , Cn1 , . . . , Cnn

-/&

     
    !
 -/
(-/)
 

 



7 W ,-  #$.
2L

   - 

(a + b)1 = a + b,
(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ,
(a + b)3 = a3 + 3a2 b + 3ab2 + b3 .
8
 % 



n

(a+b) =

n
X
k=0

Cnk ank bk , ,

n" H;
 /#$.
R"

Cnk =

n!
, Cn0 = 1; U:!#MZ
k!(nk)!

9D Q29;CB


(a1 + a2 + + am )n =

n!
at1 atmm ,
t1 ! tm ! 1

U: Z

,'C:<<35X<W (t , t , . . . , t ) m" @ ."
1 2
m
 ;N15<, t + t + + t = n 9
1
2
m
:U !#MZ
 -/&    -/
G3521 7T>"
:< Q C35
    
  #

9
#
 &! $ 

 Z #$.
/:U !#MZ 1-,S;  n =
1, 2 1 ,-;  
@,- n"A ;N9

(a + b)n+1 = (a + b)n (a + b) =
= (Cn0 an + Cn1 an1 b + + Cnk bk + + Cnn bn )(a + b) =
= Cn0 an+1 + Cn1 an b + + Cnk ank+1 bk + + Cnn abn +

+ Cn0 an b + Cn1 an b2 + + Cnk ank bk+1 + + Cnn bn+1 =

= Cn0 an+1 + (Cn0 + Cn1 )an b + + (Cnk1 + Cnk )ank+1 bk +

+ + (Cnn1 + Cnn )abn + Cnn bn+1 =

0
1
k
= Cn+1
an+1 + Cn+1
an1 b + + Cn+1
ank+1 bk +
n
n+1 n+1
+ + Cn+1
abn + Cn+1
b
=

Z  
@,-
; 

n+1
X

k
Cn+1
an+1k bk .

k=0

m"A';
m = 2  
 @HZ
8



  7L
m".M1)* 
 @>Z "  

(a1 + a2 + + am )n = [a1 + (a2 + + am )]n =

n
X
X n!
=
Cnk ank
(a2 + +am+1 )k =
al1 (a2 + +am+1 )k =
1
k!l!
k=0
l+k=n
X n!
X
k!
tm+1
=
al1
at22 atmm am+1
=
k!l!
t2 ! tm+1 !
l+k=n
(t2 ,...,tm+1 )
t2 ++tm+1 =k

QJ 95 
Q
@


(t1 ,...,tm+1 )
t1 ++tm+1 =k

k!
tm+1
at1 at2 atmm am+1
(l = t1 ). 
t1 !t2 ! tm+1 ! 1 2

 
     $  


W ,O7 Z = {0, 1, 1, 2, 2, 3,

3, . . . } 
,- N" X@.P7N9 
 "
, N 1 Z  7 )*>Q  ;

)*; <,- Z" )*
,-,-
21 .
R"
,-
Q Q
Q
,-
?@.29
  Z" )*X
 2L
UVZ


Z" )*X   -/
    19 29 WX."
  e Z 1   x". ZA"   &@
ML

xe = ex = x
U  -/

  


Z

QQ  
 Q)*

UV Z


1 9 29W% ."
Z" )*H -/ 
    I
  ZA"  & !@
 n Z 1&  x"  
ML

x+n=n+x=x

 -/
U

  


Z

W>  Z" )*  0 9

D )* ; Z" )*X)* 
 ,- Q;>2L
UVZ  a  
Z  215

Z"A X0  W x

a+x=x+a=n
U   &#
 (   
  



Z 9
"
*
)
Q

.
















Q










"


2

9
Z
(a)

9D Q29;CB


    
$ &!
(-/ #
!
 # $  


      ',- 

n
o
p
1 ,
|
p

Z,
q

N
q

,O7

U 35;Z 

Q =

p
m
=
pn = qm
q
n


35 m  
 m W ,O7 12,- Z" 
R"
1
Q@.>7N9 , Z" )*21 )* Q ."
';#$ B5; 7; 7M1
,-"
,-
M1R.
,-
>X
,-
?M1
)*.

 .
 N <
29*X < .
 X,- 
Y,O7
 X@QM1R,   
PN."
  >)*M1571O
U )*Z 8

a


Q 1 a 6= 0 1)* P W   x Q 1

xa = ax = 1
U  
 -  
-/   
  


Z9
,O721&W/)*
 
6 

x=

1
a

   

= a1 = qp 9

a =

p ".=
q

 <)*.3521 

 ,O7 R "

.7.
 )*>  ,- ;
47 ? +21-,S,- 
 ,O7 Q "
.M9
-.N7)*!  ,O7
35;#$QUV,O7ND."
0 ZH35< .  1 9 29<35;#$.  1X ,

'';8
21
NB5, D )* .

;.
 / 0= W! #$@.
635
0 9*  x P,O7P  
 ,O7PD0 X
35< 1,  0 35 %"
;8
N1N8
x 0 17
;#$/;8
N18

x < 09

QJ 95 
Q
@


,- 
 ,O7 Q   !  .7 R "
.7 

;77Y#$.DN;
   19 29 N a"  M1 a
R 1
/ ! 

 n"   R" )*/6  x 1
 , xn = a 9

  


3  Y
 @)* 7;X 

1 W 1*,- "

5

!
S,O7NN Y < "
2127<   68CB51M=M1

W    )*  N9 . X
@.
(W  )*29-+ + 

@
@
<W X;
 )*.35)*21"
,S ;#$ ?8
=P@.  35  . Y"

@
)* ,-(D,TM9$  Y
,
!< )*  21 !  CB5D.,-"
S 
 )*W87)*29 ,H
)*.

<@.."
21*)*
 W;; P@.  
P 2B5
D
>  29
 @
 21$  +@. 21-,
 .! .)*29)*.
0 E 3 KT   
W@.N21M,'  .<)* 
"
9$(@.?M1I,T  .7
& "
+ )*21 4
 7 '7  0!  6+"

&
@
! CB5/)* 21, 
 
2B5 35)*29-W :<
#$M1$ M1$M1-@
R"

,-Y
7<@.21M,% ,- 

)*29
   W ?@.HB
R 7M1
 
>@   CB59 
 
@
)*>."
,->7 PD )* > ,-
Q )* Q
@M1Y H
#$ 7)*  , 
EA)*K 4EG "
K(
535 XQ)*.>7 D )*  9. )

0Q  ; ,O7CB5N,-Q.
R)*
 ."
  QQD )*  29

'

9D Q29;CB


4
 3>CB
R;N1   .  


@
YN)*  N Y.76X"
21, )*0 76,-.
/,-
 )*29M1;  7; UV 1@N1  "
;;Z  
(
@
21CB5Q35 (

  CB5?CB5;#$CB5 ,- 29

 


 @ M  ,-N157 N &


,-N9 (M, )  
+
@
%7 (N, ) "

 
@
)*!U 35 : M N ZQG35 ,    
8-/ 18
/  .7
    7  .7
2L



(a) 6= (b),

,-

7> 7?,-ML

a 6= b (a, b M ),

(a b) = (a) (b).

(a) D )*   >;

29

7)*

 

a  a D )*"

  8-/

(M, )  (N, )  
=
@
 ,  
U 35 (M, ) h (N, ) Z1*8
&QCB5;#$CB5Y;Y "

GB59 

@
NNCB5ICB5;#$CB5.

G35Q
   ,   9
  
    
>
@
?CB5"
;#$CB5QQ Q 
 ,-N9

     

  

  7 a
7 2a 35  .Y)*X; (R, +) "

 ,O7>+CB5;#$CB5.  

,O7 (R+ , ) GB5T  ,-Q"
;N15  2a+b = 2a 2b 9#
0 %"A> ,-T)*0
 D C"     .7
 P #
09
.66 4
 7 M1N+B5;#
  
 
@."

P)*X)*0X.QP  .7

CB5;#$CB529
721X  .CB5D
S#$.
 (a) = lg a 1<
CB5;#$CB5 (R+ , )"   (R, +)" B59

QJ 95 
Q
@


 

@ M = 
  /"

 H#$@.
/35;#$!@6;N9
  a ,O7 D )* ; t ". M
a
H+ 21I,T35  . |a|  "
0/@   ;8"A;H?&)*.0 "
;8
 1>, a ,O7 )*   CB5D"
 U 8
a = 0 1)* t  
% @ Z9
a
 721 t
1 , D )*  ."
a+b = ta tb

    UVB5,- Z9
 1
a 7 ta 7>35  . (R, +)  (M, )  


@
 CB5;#$CB5.M9

 21 88
 
;
@
;CB5;#
21

)* %
21;, 7
/.7
,-.
X,-Q )*21 @ Y;  ;8"A;


@
)* )* NP.7S)* 1 ,-PP; 
.)*29
 1 M .)* ,- G35 !  -/
$ 
-/ 1*8
a b = b a  a, b M 9 8
(M, ) 
@

(M, ) 
@
<CB5;#
N ,- M .)*
.
,-
21 )* ,-,&.
,-
 N .)*29

   -  

C35)*H ; :<
#$H  .CB5D21)*, "
 
;)*,-29 ,- 7C35 E + K "A'G35"
Q,-

 7C3529

    G .

8
IL

)* ,- ;

 -  

G3521

 Z (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) a, b, c G UV,-,-
Z

%Z> W   0 U -/ Z1R a + 0 = 0 + a =
a a

'MZ>  a"  XPWY  a U    
#
 1    Z1  a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 9

9D Q29;CB


8

,- G :<
#)* .
,-
219 29 a + b = b + a


a, b G 15)* G :<
# G35 ! -/
$ -/ 

 (-/
& 9 R9R?,-9
 ; <@. <B5 ;
. 29

 Z> .
>;;29;,1@ 01  02 HQ .
R"

21)* 0 = 0 + 0 = 0 9
1
1
2
2

%Z>  T;;29Q;,1Q@

(a)1  (a)2 a" >QX 215)*

(a)1 = (a)1 + (a + (a)2 ) =
= ((a)1 + a) + (a)2 = (a)2 .
'MZ>  a, b"   x + b = a  % 47 &"
;> 7 21, a + (b)"  29<"
7 .SG35 a  b   


 a b
;=D )* 29;,18
c  ,-.

   7 21<9 29 c + b = a 1)* (c + b) +
' ZN@.M1O"
(b) = a + (b) 9O8
!    Z M
DNL (c+b)+(b) = c+(b+(b)) = c+0 = c 9  1
c = a + (b) 9*.X 47  M1*
8
+ 7  c M1
)* Y ;; > a + (b) 9. .721
x = a+(b)"  7 ;  .7S  )*
47  M1
 a + (b) ;,  > 7 2L

a + (b) + b = a + ((b) + b) = a + 0 = a.
**Z>,-,-
 @.Y)
 0Q,-7
 CB5D; ,-
/:<
#$6 ; 

X,O7P:<21*9 29)
Q 0 "
,-;  n  T:< 

#$8
 7.7?  C35  9

  # -/+ $ 
n  $ 
    
(
 
@,- CB5 n = 3
55
B 
 ;#$ ,-?,-"

,-
N9
@N1$X
>;    k "  M1 3 k <
 7.7(   C35 n  
n 9O  7; #$8

QJ 95 
Q
@


a1 , a2 , . . . , an )*.CB51,6)*. +  
 ."

,-'   UV< H  Z9 7  H"
B5 6,-;N1< + ,-  6#$8.7 7


 C35

W87

 ,O7  /



( ((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + + an1 ) + an #$87.7  C35M9
  1,- n = 2 1R @ a + a 15,- n = 1 1R @ a 9
1
2
1
#$87.7&  C35)*( + ,-&  ."

  ? C:<'UV L (a + a ) a
(a + a )
1
2
3
1
2
(a3 + a4 )
((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) (a4 + a5 ) 1@ D )*  + ,-

    =   C35)*Z9  1
+ ,-Y  N35 k )*.CB5 a1 , . . . , ak D,
#$87.7  C35T (n k) )*.CB5 a
"
k+1 , . . . , an
D,'#$8
 7.7Y  C35N1*  1 k < n 1 1 nk < n 9
,O7 NN:< <)* + ,-Y  6

 #$8
 7.7Q  C35CB5>U )*.0 k = 1 
k = 2
)*.0 n k = 1  n k = 2
8
3 k < n 1 )*
 
@,-
 )*
8
3 n k < n 1)* Y WX 
@."
,-
)*;Z9M8
(,O7 :<.)*N8
 7 
&$   #
  
 -/
 -/ 1 7=:< N:<.)*  
   #
   -/
 -/
#$8
 7.7  C35+  
   "
,-,-
>P)*. M1ODNL

[( ((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + + ak1 ) + ak ] +

+ [ak+1 + (ak+2 + + (an2 + (an1 + an )) )] =

= [( ((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + + ak1 ) + ak + ak+1 ] +
+ [ak+2 + + (an2 + (an1 + an )) ] = =

= ( ((a1 + a2 ) + a3 ) + + an1 ) + an

U 7 . D )* )*21O8
k = 1 1)* [a ] = a
  
1$8

1
1
R
1




*
)




Z
9
nk =1
[an ] = an
 1 + ,-Y)* < <C35X#$87.7
 C35SW87=,O7  '

  C35."
M9O)*1$,-,-
?,-(   )*  
 
 #$8
 7.7 C35CB59


9D Q29;CB


     
 &$
!


W/
 .7
T#$87.7"
 6,O7  
 ,- )*.
 n  

 
4;CB59


 -&

(2n2)! 9
n!(n1)!

      

  


9   ,O7 Z 1 Q 1 R N


:<
#$ 7.
Q)* ,- ;N9
  Q<,-Q@ @; 7."

 )* ;T
Q:<
#$29


n ,O7'!
535; n  0 +& 9
Rn "A D )* ;6 <,O7  )*   n "
0Q@ 295  CB5D;T@ >)* 35.NL

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ).

, 721  Rn ,-<; 
:<
#$29
O
Q .
 >  -/
 +&

= (0, 0, . . . , 0).
  ,O7ND0<,-.
 @.GB5  .CB5D
T."
>#
 @,- F (X, R) = {f : X R | X R} P#
 @."
,- 7.
 )*?; U (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) Z

Q:<
#$29

 Q(2) = {a + b2 | a, b Q} 
(:<
#$ ,O7

7.
 )* ,-  ;N9

 !

 &

!
  
 (Z , +)  -  
  &# -/  n  @
n
(Z, +) W ,O7 :<
#$ )*&;N1 1 < n N 9I ."
 k "  M1 k Z 15@

k = k + nZ = {k + nq | q Z}

U nZ @G:<
#$/0 k  ;Z9,O721 k = l 1 l

)* >+.7 )* 18,- k l = nq 1 q Z 98 

nq + r 1;,

Z1
k =

q Z 1 0 r < n 1N k = r 9N 1

77 0 Z = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} '@,-

n
 )* n" B5% ;#$=)*  D
 {0, 1, . . . , n 1}
) P.  9

QJ 95 
Q
@


 CB5D;

Zn GB5<)* ,-2L

k + l = k + l = r,

,

k +l = nq +r 1 0 r < n 1 q Z 9 )*35;!,-

@
298
k = k 0 1 l = l0 1R)* k 0 = k + nq 1 l0 = l + nq 1
1
2
0
0



8
9
















1
q1 , q2 Z
k + l = (k + l) + n(q1 + q2 )
k+l =

9




,


1







@



0
0
k +l
k, l, m Z
(k + l) + m = (k + l) + m =



(k + (l + m) = k + (l + m)
k + l = k + l = l + k = l + k9
)*1 .N,-,-,-

.

292  ."
212 0 = 0+nZ = nZ 
  (Z , +)" )*217"

! 

k = k +nZ = (nk)+nZ = n k

35  .

k A" Y

 M9M 1 (Zn , +) 
<:<
#$21
 -    &# -/  n 9 
,!G35 !
&
!
  


Q:<
#$QQ>  ,O7 |Z | = n 9
n
)*&@ 
(
.'  D
+)* ?)*."

 .72L267 k  87ND )* 

7"
<#$@.
 /
   
#&   
CB51CB5N7)*"
 {0, 1, . . . , n1} CB5NUVG35 !
&
#


  

 n Z95)*W .7>)*.

(
k + l,
k+l =
k + l n,

8

8

k + l < n,
k + l n,

k = n k 1 4(n 1) = 4 = n 4 9801 @&)* 

)* 
 Z 1 Z  Z :<
#$ ML
2
4
5
+ #  % ' *
+ #  % '
#
#  % ' *
#
#  % '
+ # 

 % ' * #
#
#  1
 % ' # 1
9

% ' * # 
%

 #
%
% ' # 
'
' * #  %
'
' #  %
* #  % '
*
 ; 7Q:<
#$  .CB5D21,=  ."
 Y,-M9M,- 7C35&E K "A/G35N.
R"

,-
 7C3529

9D Q29;CB


   G

 .& H,-&;


218
IL

 -  

G35"

 Z (ab)c = a(bc) UV,-,-
Z

%Z> W%  e UV;.
Z1 ae = ea =
a a

'MZ>  a"  YYWN  a1 U  
 - 
 
-/    Z1* aa1 = a1 a = e 9
8
 ab = ba a, b G 1)* G :<
#'G35
 -/  ! 
$ -/

 (-/
 -   9
.
,-
 :<
#$ ;.
6B5 2:<  C
 "A

D  )* 29

:<
#$(@. )* 21O,TD
  ,-"

T CB515.
,-
  CB5N)*   .
 L

 Z>;.
>;;29

%Z )*
 
> Q;;29

'MZ>  a, b G"   xb = a   47 
;; 7 29G35 a"  b" B5 
!
  UV
 # 

Z8 ab1  a ;
a  b    
&
b

D )* 29

      

  
  

Q = Q \ {0} 1
R = R \ {0} 1 Q ( 2) = Q( 2) \ {0} 
Y:<
#$ 7 .
."

,O7H

>  

 ,- ;N9
  G = {1, 1} ?;T
Q:<
#$29

 @
M >21 S(M ) =&&@,-

7S;21Y7 7SB5,- S(M ) "
GB5
 ,-29*)* S(M ) 
 UV"
,- |M | > 2 ZN.
,-
 :<
#$29

     1 



c < a <

1  Z @

c} 9R47 WN15

c R 1 c > 0 1 G = {a R |

(G, ) :<
#$21 ,

ab=

a+b
a + ab
c2

U 47@>)*>#$ ,-


)*Z9

QJ 95 
Q
@


%Z<8
G :<
#$21)*, x2 = 1  x G"  M1O)*

G 
Q:<
#$29

   
1 



1 8
G .)*&,-,-
&,-"

  W e  (U 
&$  !
 -/ Z1  ea =

a  a G 1 
 a".<W 

a1 U
&$  !
 
 -  
-/ Z1  a1 a = e 1R)* G :<
#$29
,-WN9


 


@



G :<
#$21 a G 1 n Z W(,O721I@N1

|a a{z a},

n
an = 0,

1
1
1

| a {z a },
a

8

n > 0,

8

n = 0,
n < 0, ,

8

m=n

)* )* ;N1RY8

m = n > 0.

n > 0 1R)* (a1 )n = (an )1 95;,1

1
1
1
an (a1 )n = ( a
| a{z a} )( |a a {z a } ) = e =
n

= (a
|

n
1

1 n n
a {z a } ) ( a
| a{z a} ) = (a ) a .
n

 
     


9   G
 
  a G  m, n Z   

        !

am an = am+n .
#
 &! $ 

 #$
1 7  
 >  7; 3 3 = 9

)*W8729

    #"

m > 0 1 n > 0 UV)*1 m + n > 0 Z9R)*

a} ) = ( a
a} ) = am+n .
am an = ( a
a} ) ( a
| {z
| {z
| {z

    %$&

m>

01

n<0

UV

am an = ( a
a} ) ( |a1 {z
a1} ) =
| {z
m

n0 =n

m+n

n = n > 0 Z9R)*

0

9D Q29;CB


|a a{z a} ,

mn0 =m+n
= 1,

1
1
1

| a {z a },
a
=a

n0 m=nm
m+n

8

m > n0 ( 9 29 m + n > 0),

8

m = n0 = n
m < n0 = n

8

( 9 29 m + n = 0)
( 9 29 m + n < 0),

  
 ,-= 87 6)*W872L 'MZ m

n > 0
**Z m < 0 1 n < 0
2Z m = 0 1 n > 0
"MZ m = 0 1 n
5Z m = 0 1 n < 0
$MZ m > 0 1 n = 0
MZ m < 0 1 n = 0 9

<
=

01
0

 #   (am )n = amn   m, n Z
   

     7; G :<
#$ a    PWY772L

. . . , a3 , a2 , a1 , a0 = e, a, a2 , a3 , . . . .
)*.0>P)*W8729
    
  ;G35 Y <  .7
(UV9 29

ak 6= al ;W k 6= l ,O7 Z92O)*W87)*; 1

 a  P
R
  &UVD )*  |a| = Z9
    
  &G35)* ak = al B5 ; k 6= l "  M9
@ k
e" '

> l 9)* akl = e 1, k l > 0 19 29)* 7
a  / 

%7729
 7; T =
{t Z | t > 0, at = e} 9< 

 ,O7

,-Q@.29)*<>
,-. ."
 n 1, a       
535; &D )* ;
|a| = n 9- L  Z an = e 1 n > 0
8
am = e 1 m > 0 1$)*
m n9

      

   G = {1, 1} 1 a = 1 9)* a1 = 1 1 a2 = 1 1

|a| = 2 9
       


9 29

 |a| = n <    !

"   e = a0 , a, a2 , . . . , an1     !     ! 
$ !      m
    m Z      !   am     
e, a, a2 , . . . , an1
  ! 

  

  
  


QJ 95 
Q
@


#
 &! $ 

 

Z  

B5D 9
%Z @

a   |a|    ."

m Z 98)* m = nq + r 1 0 r < n 98 1

a = (a ) ar = ear = ar 9

 #   @ |a| = n < 95)* am = e )* YQ.7
)* 15,- m = nq 9
m

n q

 


 @ M 


29O 1 N
8

 
 

G"  +

  N  +@."
,- 

! 
  
$    
 1

a, b N a b N.
,-
 G :<
#$N,-
 -   158

H @..G35

 Z H 7Q)*  ;

%Z a H a H 9
8
H  G" (@G:<
#$21-35 H G 9I8
H G  H 6= G 1
)* N35 H < G 9
, 721,-
N:<
#$<@G:<
#$ 
O
,-
 :<
#$Q Y,- ;N9

 
   

  


  R

,-


:<
#)*+'@G:<
#$

)* P:<432L Z < Q < R 9

  ,-(@;?,-
 :<
#)*?P@; "
1 ,=,-.
X  35;#$>
21
@G:<
#$29

  ,-
 :<
# 47  /EG
K&@."
:<
#$2L :<
#$QQ .
 >@G:<
#$ {0} 9





W

1 G :<
#$Y  H @G:<
#- T H  "

i
i
iI

G" >@G:<
#$29

  

 &$
!
 ,-WN1 Z :<
#$%
@Q7 nZ 1 , n N 9
0

@G:<
#

 ;T35 Q  .CB5D?.
,-
  29

'

9D Q29;CB


 
 
G35

.
,-

G" >@G:<
#$218

G :<
#$,- H @..

 Z H 7 ?;

%Z a H a1 H 9
    

  
 9   R :<
#)*'')* %@G:<
#$
:<4
3 2L

 

{1} < Q < R .

@ a  G :<
#$6 

"
*
)
X

)*  @ .
G

 29  7;

hai = {an | n Z}

UV9 29 a   QWP77 ;Z9

Q47 21
Z hai  G :<
#$ 
>@G:<
#$

Z |hai| = |a| UV9 29 hai @G:<
#$N ;,O7 a  
  Z9
G :<
#QG35 $  !(-/ 1R8
%0  W a G ."
 21R hai = G 1R9 29 G :<
#$ Q  35  .
 a  XWS77M1 ,/)*W87)* G :<
R"
#$ $  !(-/ /
    +   G352988
|a| = n < 1-)*
G = hai 
 n    :<
#$
8
 |a| = 1-)*
G = hai
R
 U 
 Z<,-
 :<
#$29

 
  1  !

9N  G = hai ,-
':<
#$/ "


?
21I (
?:<
#$29$Q 

 :<
#$  )*0  ,-
  
Q:<
#$,  @ Q,-
29

 

 

  


9   (Z, +) = h1i = h1i UV,S+ 47."

M15,-
Q35@  )*0> 
Z9
  T,O7 (R, +) :<
#$N21M<
@ Q,-
29

 47 WN1Y,- 
 ,O7 
(Q, +) :<
#$
  ,-
29

QJ 95 
Q
@


 
  
 &$
!

9N:<
#$21,
S
>,O721R
29

   

47 

@G:<
#$'.7"

 -  

     ,  


 ;   P  ."


 @)*)*;#$CB5
)
R"
N9;#$CB5 ,- SCB5;#$CB5 ,-   6
 .721  87>@,-
M9

   

G" 

@ G  G0 :<
#$29 : G G0 7(G35

    8-/



G0 " )*'UV X
      

,   Z158
(ab) = (a)(b)   a, b G"  M9

     

   9@W G = (Z, +)  G0 = (Z , +) 9;)*
n







7






















@












Z Zn
a+b =a+b
a, b Z"  M9

   
1 



 
9 W  : G G0 ;#$CB521
, G = hai 1 |a| = m 1 G0 = hbi 1 |b| = n UV01N,-
m = 12 1 n = 15 Z9
    
 &$
!
9,-WN1$'

@,-
 "

;#$CB5

(Q, +) (Z, +) 9
     


(Q, +)" )* nx = a   @ ;;
 7 >  n N 1 a Q 9

  


  ; :<
#- ;#$CB5?B5 ;QB5 "

 N292@ G  G0 :<
#$21 e  e0  )*.6


> 21 : G G0  ;#$CB5295)*
 Z (e) = e0 9;,1@ (e) = h G0
)* h2 =
(e)2 = (e2 ) = (e) = h 1  , h = e0 9
%Z (a1 ) = (a)1 1M  (a) (a1 ) = (aa1 ) = (e) =
e0 9
'MZ (G) = Im = {(a) | a G}  G0 "A+@G:<
#$/UV."
, G35 ;#$CB5
!
 
 Z9
**Z88
G = hai ,-
N:<
#$212)* (G) = h(a)i  W
,-
%:<
#$29
;,1
8
G = hai  a0 (G) 1 a0 =
(g) 1 g G 1)* g = an 1 n Z 1N! a0 = (g) =

9D Q29;CB


(an ) = (a)n 9R 1 (G) = h(a)i ,-
 :<
#$ (a)

35@ N9
2Z (g 1 hg) = (g)1 (h)(g) 9
"MZ ker = {a G | (a) = e0 }  G"  @ G:<
#$&UV,
;#$CB5
  G35Z15  1 g 1 (ker )g ker
 g G  M9;,1

h1 , h2 H = ker (h1 h2 ) = (h1 )(h2 ) = e0 e0 = e0

h1 h2 ker ,

h ker (h1 ) = (h)1 = (e0 )1 = e0 h1 ker ,

h ker , g G (g 1 hg) = (g)1 (h)(g) = e0 .

      : G G0  ;#$CB5.PG35  &
   ,   18

= 1
G35  
G" ' 7
0
0
0  G35 ,    , 
G | a = (a)} = G

  ,   
1 8

(G) = {a0
 1-8
7

 ;#
//;#
29

:<
#$6=)* "
;#
 7 G35  #   ,   17 :<
#$ 
CB5<CB5;#
 7 H
   ,   9

   
1 

   9<8
G 1 G0 1 G00 :<
#$21 : G G0 1 :

G0 G00 ;#$CB521 )* : G G0 ;#$CB529
     1 



 9@ G, G0 :<
#$21 : G G0  "

;#$CB5295)* L
 Z  ;#$CB5')* %.7

)* 1,-

ker =


{e}
%Z CB5;#$CB5)* .76)* 12,- ker = {e} 1
(G) = G0 9



&  
 #
  


:<
#$  (  .7N1

 %%'W% ."

>
@
21$)*,  .CB5D
   
R"
P 
Q,-21R, 7.
/EA)*K 

QJ 95 
Q
@


EG KS
535 9!@.21<% , :<
R"
#  @.21$  7?  ,O7 ,-("
$
N9   I N@. P.N 
 ,-"
XQ;  
 ;87 X  .
21 ."
 ,6 W
)
 0>,-S 
P
R"
@
N7 )*  < ,1<  :< 7
)* 0 ;=.7!
; 7 N,-Y@;
)*>Q@
>  ,-N9



  R .X)*Y< P,- &  

 G35218
<,- 47 P)* >2L

 Z )*>; R 
 :<
#$ UV, R &  

 
# $ -/
 -   G35Z

%Z a(b + c) = ab + ac  (a + b)c = ac + bc  


a, b, c R"    U 


 # 
- $  -/


 ! 
   
 Z9

 ;T >@. B5 ;X)* 21 ,

)* %" )*  .7
S:<
#-@.)* <,O7)*29
 Z a 0 = 0 a = 0  a R"  M9;,1@
a 0 = b 98)* b + b = a 0 + a 0 = a (0 + 0) = a 0 = b 1
 , b = b + (b) = b b = 0 9
  
 ,-215 0 a = 0 9
%Z a(b) = (a)b = ab  a, b K "  M9*;,1


ab + a(b) = a(b + (b)) = a 0 = a,

215  
1 ab + (a)b = 0 9

'MZ a(bc) = abac  (ab)c =
 M9;,1

acbc  a, b, c R"

a(b c) + ac = a(b c + c) = ab,

215  
1 (a b)c + bc = ac 9


R  +G35 ! -/
$ -/ 1$8

.
,-
219 29

ab = ba a, b,

()* "

9D Q29;CB



 &$ 
$ -/ 158
/  )*Q,-,-
219 29

(ab)c = a(bc) a, b, c.
  -/ 158

    C" >G35 
a 1 = 1 a = a a.


 ,/.
,-
X:<
#$Y)*W87)*21*,O"
21 I )*;')*0
N
 .7
N;.

UV )*0>  , ;Z9



  1
   !

98

a = 0 15)* <  a"   @ 

a = a 1 = a 0 = 0,

9 29R X)*  .7 .
 >   95 1
8
/ >;S GB5<  )*,-M1)* 1 6= 0 9
**Z?8
   
@,- n"A ;N1;35.
 N1


(a1 + + an )b = a1 b + + an b,

b(a1 + + an ) = ba1 + + ban ,

(a1 + + an )(b1 + + bm )b = a1 b1 + + an bm .

    1  !
9N 
.
,-

)*W87)*
 P  .CB5D)*<)*XY@. ;)*0Y"
;6.7=;29  
N)* )* .7<;.
X  ."
CB5DM9

  
 

  
 9   ,O7
Z 1 Q 1 R !.
R"
 ,-
21,-,-
' ';.
 7.
%)*"

> ?;N9
   
53',O7 2Z Y.
,-
215,-,-"

Q P
;.
9

 ,O7ND0<,-.
 @.GB5  .CB5D
T."
!#
 @,- F (X, R) = {f : X R | X R} 
#
 @,- 7.
!)* !  ,-
U (f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x) 1 (f g)(x) = f (x) g(x) Z<; .
R"
,-
215,-,-
21;.
 > 29

QJ 95 
Q
@


 

C[0, 1]  [0, 1]  WB5  .CB5D
 Y T
535."

#
 @,-PX;.
 > 29
 ,-<N@)*N@

 ,- .
,-
 6,-,-

 29
"!
&
!
  
 (Z , +, ) &  
  &# -/  n  "
n
,!
<35.
 N1 ) Q




(Zn , +) = {0, 1, . . . , n 1},

:<
#$Q


k = k + nZ,

n )*

k + l = k + l = r,
, k + l = nq + r 1 0 r < n 18,-H;4

:<
#$+UV (% 9 9 1"MZ9
 CB5D;  
 ,-2L

k l = kl = r,

,

kl = nq + r 1 0 r < n 9I)*35;  ,-'"

@
29-8
k = k 0 1 l = l0 1$)* k 0 = k + nq 1 l] = l + nq 1
1
2
k 0 l0 = kl + n(lq1 + nq1 q2 ) 15Q kl = k 0 l0 95 
(k l)m = (kl)m = k(lm) = k(l m),
kl = lk,
1k = k = k1,
(k + l)m = (k + l)m = km + lm = km + lm.
 (Z , +, ) .
,-
21P,-,-
  
n
N1,4
535 !
&
!
  
 0& (
  n 9



   
 &$
!


;.
R"

 &# - 

 @ X X 2X  Y


@.(9-,-WN1$ 2X (  ."

 7

A M B = (A \ B) (B \ A)

'

9D Q29;CB


> W?;N15,  7  ,6)*."

  M9$,-WN1Y.?  .
,-

Q,-,-
29

    8

R  21 a, b R  a 6= 0 1 b 6= 0 1 ab = 0 1)* a
 (G35 
&$  !
-/ 
   R" )*21 b  
 !
-/ 
   R" )*29
G35 

.

  )* ,O721I,O7  (:< ( .

;#$ )*    .729



    

  

Z 1 Q  R" > 47 Q .
 ;#$29

    

   9<#
 @,-

F (X, R)  )*TUV7M9N 
' 9 9 ' 1'MZ; N .
Q ;#$P;)*W87)*21 ,- X "
 ;4 B5 +)*,-M9; X  ,- X
1
 X @. Q@N1,- i = 1, 2 1
2

(
1,
fi (x) =
0,

,-
,-

)*

x Xi ,
x
/ Xi ,

f1 , f2 6= 0 15  f1 f2 = 0 9

    

   9<8

n = k l 1 0 < k.l < n 1R)* k 6= 0 1 l 6= 0 9
  k l = 0 19 29 ) & Z  H)*   n
n
,O7 ;T 47 Q .
 ;#$29



  

 .
 ;#$

 )*P)*.0Q)*,-2L

{ac = bc (  ca = cb)  c 6= 0} a = b.

;,1 ac = bc ()*0& C35

7N1R ,1,- c 6= 0 15D
 a b =

(a b)c = 0
0 1R9 29 a = b 9

   

R   x 6= 0      -/ G3521

xn = 0 D, 0 < n N 9OW
,-. n 


8
 ,O7 G35       -/
 
  9

 21  
H & .
' ;#$6U 8

n > 1 1)* x xn1 = 0 1 xn1 6= 0 Z9)*
 
/


QJ 95 
Q
@


' 

=N;  U Z " < 47 <  
< 21
6
  2, 3, 4  .
  .
 ;#$Z9



   1
 



 

m 6= 1 9

 9 Z  )* -.7/)* O)*,-

n
 M1-,- n ;#$ m2 " B51, m N 1

   
  x    #    G3521 8
x2 =
R
, 721 
  02 = 0 1 12 = 1 9 8
x2 = x 1 x 6= 1  x 6= 0 1 )*
x9 O
x(x 1) = x2 x = 0 <;
X 
.
 ;#$29

  
 ;.
 Q  a1  >G35 a  

 
 -  
-/ 1X8
aa1 = a1 a = 1 UV.
,-
F )*



 87;N1 aa1 = 1 Z9


 ,/.
,-
X:<
#$Y)*W87)*21*,O"
212;.
 ,-,-
= )*N,H;  <
4
 7 (  .7
+)*
 
(  UV  )*0."
?,T;? 4
 7 . Z9$ M1$,S)*
 

4
 7 21  
 -  

# G3529



   1
 

   

   .
  ;.
 

   .
  a ."


)*
 
,  .
 29
 a
  )*
 > Q .
 ;#$ 29,-WN9

  S)*
 F ;  )*
 

1

(ab)1 = b1 a1 .

,-WN9

  
R  
)*
 ! ;;D "
)*  R  U (R) ;29 ,O721* U (R)  Y "
 
 ,- ;T:<
#$29



     

  

U (Z) = Z = {1, 1} 1 U (Q) = Q = Q \

{0} 1 U (R) = R = R \ {0} 9

'

9D Q29;CB


     

   9@

Zn = {0, 1, . . . , n 1} 1 k = k + nZ 1
) 
 YQ Y
 n 9*D )* ;N1  k + nZ
U (Zn ) 1 k Z 1 )* X.7 )* 1 ,- (k + nZ)(l + nZ) =
1 + nZ D, l Z"  M1
9 29 kl + nZ = 1 + nZ 1;,
)*  kl = 1 + nq 1 q Z 159 29 (k, n) = 1 9
 1 |U (Z )| = (n) 1, (n) X k 


n
,O7!,O7 1 k < n 1,   n".
U   8- + $ 
Z901 (1) = 1 1 (2) = 1 1 (3) = 2 1
(4) = 2 1 (p) = p 1   p ,O7 M9
#$ ,1
8
p N 1-)* (p) = p 1 )* > .74)* 1I,- p
>,O729

    
 &$
!
9,-WN1

U (Zn ) :<
#$,-
;"
)* +.7 )* 1,- n {2, 4, p , 2p } 1I, p  
>,O721 N 9



  R

L @..?G35 + &  1R8

 Z L  R   ,-
Q:<
#$ @G:<
#$

% Z L 7   ;N9

 

,O721M@ Y Y  ."

,-%;N98  % 87.
 %W M1 "
,-Q.
,-
>Q,-,-
29

     

  
 9  
R :<
#$<@G:<
#$<:<4321,
 
  % 9 2 9 C" )*21N8@ <:<4329
   n N "    nZ  Z  ?@."
0
 +UV7M95,-  % 9 2 9 'MZ9



   
 &$
!


@.Y@ 

,-WN1  X Y;


2X   @ %UV7M95,- ' 9 9 **Z9



K ;.
 1M.
,-
1M,-,-
  M1
Q .
   P)*
 21   G3529

'

QJ 95 
Q
@



  1  !
9N 21*,H)* <.7 .
  1

  29
H &,- 
 ,O7 Q + "
 ,O7 R 29 Z  
 ML )*;)*
 
.7 1 9


  
 &$
!
 ,-WN1MP21M,H)*."

 %%   UV,O721; ;%  

 Q  .
21 7  &>;.
Z9



1 


1 )*  W % 1 '= 2!  '
)*> ?,- ,O729


  
 &$
!
 ,-WN1 

)*   ?
"    9

 21 ,

1 
 ,-WN1 Q( 2 = {a+b 2 | a, b
Q}  ,O7 7 .
?)*(? &"
;N15)*,- Q" M15)* R" )*21 X W87?, Q"  
, R" M9


    47  )*   )*   2L




1 



ab = 0 {a = 0  b = 0}.

 ;,1R8
a 6= 0 1 )* ab = 0 >.7 a1 " B5

 D b = 0 9
.
 ;#$;
@ )*; )* M1- ;
 .
 ?    WP .
 29 K ."
  .
    @  P
 :<
# 
 -   
;N95 G35 K    -/  !
$ -/
K "ATD )* 29


 
,-

  
 Zn

 PQ  )* NX.7T)* 1


n >,O729

 &! $ 

  ZX@ n )*   
 ,O721-9 29 n = k l 1

,

1 < k, l < n 95)* k, l 6= 0 1R 

k l = k l = n = 0.

''

9D Q29;CB


 1 Z   47 X .
Q ;#$X21 )*1 
n
Q M9
%Z>@N1@N1 n H,O7H a 6= 0 19 29 a 
;#$ n" B5950; a"  )*
 
  P)*87N19 29 a" 
  > B5 N9D  

,-;N1P

0, a, 2a, . . . , (n 1)a.

 



U: %Z

 .7
29Q;,1 8

ka = la (0 k < l n 1) 1-)* (l k)a = 0 1I9 29 (l k)a

;#$ n" B51M,H)*.
021*  ;, l k 1M, a  ;#$
n" B5QUV@   n"A>Z9 15 ;(U: %Z
G35)*> 7 Z  ?> 21S)* 1"A,1
n
.>> )* M15 a  P)*
 29





 
21.
,-
21R
 .
 ;#$  Q29


  ) S  )* 7 ! @T@!B5 ;

7    1 ,/ @X <,O7 )*29
71 Z )*+U n Z
 
n

|1 + 1 +{z + 1} = p1 = 0

U:!'MZ

VU ;@
 21.;  Z  )*,(  n"   Z9
n
;!8)* 
N @ B5 ;!"

1CB5, @;TN9
@N1 CB5 1 K  29RN1R K ."
 

 
 
   p 18
p
,-.> 

 ,O7"
21  , p1 = 0
8
'W p SM15)* N."
N1- K " (7& .
29- 1 Z U p Z
p
 p 7N17 ,O7 =7
@T .
29 K  7 D )*  char K ".29





   

 Z

char K = p 

  !

         

'

QJ 95 
Q
@


char K = p    ! a K pa = 0   char K = 0



a K    ! a 6= 0  n 6= 0
  !     !    
na 6= 0 
'MZ  char K = p  p | n  n N    !!      0 6= a K

    !  na = 0 

#
&! $ 

  ZQ8
C35 D '
R)*N19 29 p = s

1
t , 1 < s, t < p 1)* H
,- #
0NB5
%Z



@ 

(s1) (t1) = ( 1| + {z
+ 1} )( 1| + {z
+ 1} ) =
s

= 1| + {z
+ 1} = 1 + + 1 = (st)1 = p1 = 0.
st

  K )* s1 6= 0 1 t1 6= 0 1,%G35 D <)*< .


;#$ M9
%Z-;,1 pa = p(a1) = a 1 + + a 1 = a(1+ +1) =

{z
p

a (p1) = a 0 = 0 9
8
a 6= 0  na = 0 1$)* n(a 1) = 0 9-@ a (n1) = 0 9
  a 6= 0 1$ n1 = 0 9O  char K = 0 1OD

n = 09
' Z na = (pq)a = q(pa) = q0 = 0 9
M



     
H  #$.
'& C35&"
; 
 )*21   I;  NN "
 ;)* Y,-Y.76Y."
21$ , )* +@. 7 )*  
&)* 29 7    .

."
?  .7 Q#$.
)*21$, )*,- 
R"

 ,O7CB5Y  Q ;#$M9
 7;N1 1#$.


(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 .
/; !  )*218
2ab"    
  ,
% HD&
#$  
ab + ab 98  )*&7 '

'

9D Q29;CB


7.

(a + b)2 = a2 + b2 .

#$TB5 1


p 7 )* ;   ."

(a + p)p = ap + bp .

;,15 
   ?#$.
  7

p

(a + b) =

p
X

Cpk apk bk .

k=0

 15,-

0<k<p
Cpk =

p(p 1) (p k + 1)
k!

,O7212;#$ p" B59 )*12 
 < Y#$.
<."
 )*.21- ?(
  M1I,-.
 )*W0."
)*Q .
 29


   
 &$
!
  WT@ 15
Zp )*&U p "
Z ap = a  a"  %U #$>,-YZ9

#$
. %@1,-H 43% 

 "
,O7CB5
;#$21* 1 ,-Y  X; ab" P 7
B5;%35:<N#$.
 9M1 
Q)*Q ;#$>,-WSCB521 )*0Q  ;T 
R"

 n ,O7CB58 
 ,(- 1 + + 1 = n1

{z
n

 B5N 
)* n" B5 ;#$Y)*0Q  ;S"
,!N B5 ;#$29  8
n ;#$P 7."
NB515)* <.  Q .
 QQ ;#$P)*.
029
#$.
!
6   7 M1<,
)*,- %" B5
;#$ 
PCB5N1  X "
 )* 6= 2 7N1$  % 7 )*>
 .
R)*M9

QJ 95 
Q
@




)*


 

  

97 =
X  

'
Z7 "

4x2 + x + 2 = 0.
7.
 #$.



NL

1 31
1442
x1,2 =
=
.
8
8

  31 = 4 = 22 1O)*0 7 ;N1 

31 =
V
U


















$
#
.










;

8

A
"


;



Q







*
)















Z

9




*
)












1
2
1

3
4
1 2
=
= = 4,
8
8
1
1
1
1 + 2
x2 =
= = = 1.
8
8
1
x1 =

)*W87)*X  X
 #$.29M)*0X"

.71;#$.X@.)>  =XX."
D,% <29M8)*W87)*N,-.
S

   @ >#$.PC35 )*29


   1  !

Zp D )* < ,- p   +EG"
@
K 
 T  F  GF (p) U
  J


p

(-8
 (  ZOD )* M9  N@ ;/.7)*21
> GF (q) 
& q = pn  + ."
N1 , p 21R7 n 1 9

 

K  L @..?G35 +   1R8

 Z L  K   @ 

%Z a L 1 a 6= 0 a1 L

'MZ 1 L 9

,O72128@ N ,-"

 ;N9

 

  

  
9

Q < Q( 2) < R 9

'

9D Q29;CB


    1 


 9,-WN1I K 
)* Q.7 )* < @21,-

L @.

 Z L 7  Q ;#$ ;

%Z L 3 0, 1 9

  
1 



 9 K   K @< T K "

i
i
iI

WQ@29

    
 &$
!
9,-WN1<

Q"  

&UV9 29R  Y 7
Z<@29

47 ="

  # !
 
 #
&  
     ,  




    @
R  29 6= I R @..+G35 R
  
&$  !
 # !
 1R8
IL

 Z I  R   (R, +) ,-
Q:<
#$ @G:<
#$

%Z rI I  r R   UV9 29 ri I 
i I "   Z9
 

 # !
 L %Z "A? ,-"
  
  CB5D 

 
% 0 Z Ir I  r R  'UV9 29 ir I 
i I "   Z9
8
R  )* I @.&,O7 ',- ':N"
 ,1O)* I "  G35 R       # !
 UV9 29 I
(R, +)"A/@G:<
#$21 rI I 1 Ir I  r R"   Z9 R
  .7 I     I C R D )* M9



   

  
 9  Z {0}  R  R   29
%Z Zn C Z  n Z"  M9
'MZ Ia = {f C[0, 1] | f (a) = 0} C C[0, 1]  a [0, 1]"

 M9
**ZY8
R .
,-
  21 a R 1O)* Ra = {ra | r
R} @. R  &218, G 35 a
  T35@   

 # !
 9

QJ 95 
Q
@


 
1 


 )*+

W(UVW
 

535



'

 9,-WN1+W ,O7 (Z, +, )

'@ Zn 71 n Z 189 29&
   
.
,-
T   

  # !
 
&
Z9

    @ R  R0 
 29 : R R0 7(G35



&  
  
   ,  18
(a+b) = (a)+(b)  (ab) =

(a)(b)  a, b R"  M9

 

Im = (R)"A D )* ;    ,  
!
 
 1*9 29
(R) = {(r) R0 | r R};
    ,  
  1 9 29
ker "A   
ker = {a R | (a) = 0}.

  , :<
#$%)*W87)*21 : R R0 ;#$CB5.


G35  &   ,   18
ker = {0}
   ,   18



Im = R0  ,   ,  158
 ;#
>>"
#
29
D )* ;  < : R R0 ;#$CB5 B5 ;
29
    
 (R, +) 1 (R0 , +) :<
#-
 ;#$CB521
 (0) = 00 1 (a) = (a) 9
  8
1 R 1 10 R  Im = R0 1)* (1) = 10 1 (a1 ) =
(a)1 )*
  a   M95;,1R8
a0 R0 1 "
 a0 = (a) 1 a R 95)*

(1)a0 = (1)(a) = (1 a) = (a) = a0 ,

a0 (1) = (a)(1) = (a 1) = (a) = a0 ,

9 29 (a1 ) = (a)1 9

. 
 
 )*0> Q; 21O8
Im 6= R0 9

 8

: R R0  <;#$CB521 )* ker R  "
 .7?29-;,1O  : (R, +) (R0 , +)
:<
#-
 ;#$CB521N ker  (R, +)"A6@G:<
#$29
8
a ker 159 29 (a) = 0 1 r, s R 1R)*

(ra) = (r)(a) = (r) 0 = 0,

9D Q29;CB


(as) = (a)(s) = 0 (s) = 0.

 1 ra ker 1 as ker 1R9 29 ker C R 9

   <
: R R0 ;#$CB5X)*
Y.7 )*
 CB5;#$CB521,- ker = {0}  Im = R0 9
 21MCB5;#
T Y 47 6 Y; "
P29  158
: R R0  <XCB5;#$CB "
21 R 21)* R0 "A,= W<29



  1  !
9
K  K 0  ,  8-/(
535 1M8

 NCB5;#
 ,H 292  21 (0) = 00
 (1) = 10  CB5;#$CB5M9+CB5
 @ ;  ;#$CB5GB515 

ker 6= {0} (a) = 0, a 6= 0

(1) = (aa1 ) = 0 (a1 ) = 0

b K (b) = (1 b) = (1)(b) = 0 (b) = 0

ker = K.

  ,  
 1$9 29 K %'CB5>CB5"
@N1
 

 ;#
?7218)*
&&CB5QD("

 Y35   N )*.35>0S ."

  9 3-9R 
?)*29



  1 


 9<8
R .
,-
' 21;)*
  )* X . 7 )* 1,- R" )*   {0} 

 .7
 
 29

  1 


 97 Z Z 1R,-
3
6
35  .  <Q ;#$CB5.M9
 

R ."
R"  

k + 3Z 4k + 6Z 1

!    + -/  $  
 

7 H,- 2L 

 ,O7+% #$;; "


,O7QW 1)*, x2 + 1 = 0  >

@ >#$.29
#$SB
R1  Q ; W C 215L

 Z R < C

QJ 95 
Q
@


%Z C *
) ,- W i  M15 i2 = 1

'MZ C 

,-./W/6@  /)*M1;9 29
8
K C W @21O, )*,- R"   i" M1
)* K = C 9
 7; ?.' ;&N9"

,- +D0+  ; ,O7 R D0W 98)* 
P35X)*0 ,-.>35  ."
N1-9 29I  ,O7( 
 (a, b) 35N98 
35 (a, 0) H,O7+D0 a &,O7298 "
'H35<& D )* ; C".29 1
C = R2 = {(a, b) | a, b R} 9O  CB5D; C" B5<)* 
 ,->NL

(a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d),

(a, b) (c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc).

    
 C     

               

     



   !        R    C
       !   i      

     i2 = 1  !         !   C
  !         

 !  a + bi          a, b R   K C        
         R
  i
    ! K = C 

 

#
&! $ 


R)
 35P@.29M01M
/ .
&35 (0, 0) 189 29 %,O7 0 1 (a, b) 35"
  (a, b) 35? (a, b)" 21-("
.
&35 (1, 0) = %,O7 1 1 (a, b) 6= (0, 0) = 0

a
 Q)*
 
> 
, b 9
a2 +b2 a2 +b2
< 212,O7ND0< CB5 C" )*  .CB5D

)*! =W87! F,O7 7.

)* = S   @  a(c, d) =
(ac, ad) 1 , a > >,O729
@ i = (0, 1) 9$)* i2 = (1, 0) = 1  (a, b) = (a, 0) +
(0, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) = a + bi 9
 1 C > = (a, b)  X,-7S35"
   a + bi 7N1*, a, b R 9 1R8
%D,
K C @ )*,- R  i" M1R)* K = C 9


9D Q29;CB


  
C . B5;  .CB5D
=)* = "
 ,- G35 !   + -/  $  
  15
  !   + -/  $  
 G3521?  i"  
/
   
    -/ 1N7  ; D0.M1X9 29Y"
. Ri = {bi = (0, b) | b R}  /
   
  )   9
  
535 9
,- =D0. UV,O7 D0. Z !
 #
= (a, b) = a + bi @.
&,O7H35  HG35."
>
 
 -/   

  a  ,O7?G35."
 ,O7 !
 # !
   Re ". D )* 217

b  ,O7   /
  
   !
   Im ".
D )* 29
 
 #$ 7C35 @.
 ,O7
)*215 >Q ;#$P7P)*  L

(a + bi) + (c + di) = (a + c) + (b + d)i;

(a + bi) (c + di) = (a c) + (b d)i;

(a + bi) (c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i;

a + bi
ac + bd bc ad
= 2
+ 2
i, c + di 6= 0.
c + di
c + d2
c + d2

% ,- = a + bi @.
%"
,O7Q;
87  ;Q)* 7 0 = (0, 0)
35 = (a, b)"  < @N9
 

   1  !


 
 C )* x2 + 1 = 0  +@


.7 P#$.2L x = i 1 x = i 9 ;,1 8
(a + bi)2 = 1 1
)* a2 b2 = 1 1 2ab = 0 9  b 6= 0 U 7 1 a2 = 1 Z1
 a = 0  b2 = 1 1R9 29 b = 1 9

 

= a bi ,O7=G35 "   -/ 
-/ @."

/,O729
@.
 = a + bi ,O7 ()*.
D

@.
S,O7CB5 Q 
X ,-
)*2L >D0 ; 29

     

          C       
       + = +  = 
 


    

"

9 


   
 
          
   , C     

 
  



QJ 95 
Q
@


       =  ( ) =      6= 0        

!                     
     a = a     

a R C
 =    ! R
$        
                    
( = ) 
  = a + bi C    ! + = 2a R  = 2bi Ri 

N () = = a2 + b2 R &      !  N () = N () N ()    
, C 
# : C C           C  
 %       













a R C  !  ! = idC  !
       (a) = a
() =     C 

#
 &! $ 

 

Z1 
% Z'MZ
R)
S  P)*.
D."

Q@.
 ,O7  .CB5D 9
**Z  i2 = 1 1 (i)2 = (1) = 1 15
 (i) = i 15Q)* (a + bi) = (a) + (b)(i) = a + bi 1
 (i) = 1 1 
)* (a+bi) = (a)+(b)(i) = abi 9 

 
  1  !
9  Z 8

@.
+,O7  , "
7
 D
 , . . . , @.
 ,O7  Y)*"
1
n
M18 M1 %+ ;#$&,-&)
R"
N1)*  Y 7 , . . . , @.
 ,O7
1
n
0 " M9
%Z = a + bi @.
H,O7' .
 0 6= c + di
@.
 ,O7CB5< 
 #$T ;#$>35.NL

a + bi
(a + bi)(c di)
ac + bd bc ad
=
=
= 2
+ 2
i.

c + di
c + di)(c di)
c + d2
c + d2

    



F#$. "A (G35 "


 # /
&
-   ||". D )* 2L || = + 9
@.
 ,O7
 1


= ||2
1 =

.
||2

'

9D Q29;CB


 21

|| = || ||.

= a + bi ,O7 
> ;  = (a, b)

35< 0?295

| + | || + ||.

  D0 35(
 .  .CB5D

W87Y P,O7P
7.
P  .CB5DM9

   
87Y  D0? ;8
 >"

  ; (a, b) 35;)*;  W8;)*"

M18, (%&C35 D 18G35."
 = a + bi @.
 ,O7
& -   'D )* ."
 arg ".29$,O7 0 = (0, 0)"A(
   &  .CB5D"

21R7  8
 7 >@.
 ,O7 
 
 .CB5D
 2 " >W :<?NCB
RN9

8

@.
 = a + bi ,O7 
 21P)*

a = r cos 1 b = r sin 1*9 29 = r(cos + i sin ) 1, r = || 9
@.
 ,O7+W 35  +G35?    
  -/   
9
@.
&,O7H
((
 +>,O7&,-"
7T  .CB5DM98
',O7>
 # "A 21R)* N"
,O7 # "A&298(@.
&,O7+218

>
 >>
  7 2k D,
k "  M1 k Z 159 298
r , r > 0 1
1

r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) = r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )

QJ 95 
Q
@


{r1 = r2 , 1 = 2 + 2k, k Z}.

;,1 
 #$ ;; Y @

r1 cos 1 = r2 cos 2 ,

r1 sin 1 = r2 sin 2 .

)*>  P)*Q)* 

D


r12 (cos2 1 + sin2 1 ) = r12 = r22 (cos2 2 + sin2 2 ) = r22 .

8

r1 > 0 1 r2 > 0 12)* r1 = r2 92 cos 1 = cos 2 1 sin 1 =

sin 2 215)*1 1 2 = 2k 1 k Z 9

   @.
/,O7!  
 #$' "

 )*G35; M1 ;#$M177;#$."

D ,- 9571O>
87 :<? .
R
P .
R?#$.
 Y  M1

= r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 ) r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 ) =

= r1 r2 cos(1 + 2 ) + i sin(1 + 2 ) ,

9 29 @.
 ,O7>  P
P"

217 
  29-@ P   "
;#$QQ77 )* >#$.
2L

r1 (cos 1 + i sin 1 )
r1
=
=
cos(1 2 ) + i sin(1 2 ) ,

r2 (cos 2 + i sin 2 )
r2

n
n
= r(cos + i sin ) =


= r n (cos n + i sin n) U -8
   -/
Z .

    1 


1 .
 #$.
 ; 
 W  n ,O7M9O,-WN9

"

   
 &$
!
UV@.
?,O7 7C35((@."

 ,-
P#$Z9  7; c = a + b i C 21
n
n
n
, a , b R 9N8
 lim a = a R 1 lim b =
n

R 1)* 

lim (an + bn i) = a + bi C C = R2

9D Q29;CB


Y)*21,


lim

 .CB5D


a + bi
1+
n

n

||".21 C Z947 WN1

= ea (cos b + i sin b).

.  0 ea+bi = ea ebi 1*, ebi = cos b + i sin b 1 D )*  )*."
 >#
0'UV.
Z98
, C 1)* e e = e+ 9
  
 #$ 7C35 = r(cos + i sin ) "
@.
>,O7 )*0 735 = rei 7 U " 7C35."
 + &  $ 
(-/ #$Z1  ,  
B5;SD
> )* 29


  

n"
?77   
 

= r(cos + i sin )
@.
 ,O7 ! n =  S 7 29
@ || = 1 arg =
)* n = r 1 n = + 2k (k Z) 9
 1

U #$. 
  )* Z1

=


D


+ 2k
.
n


+ 2k
+ 2k
r cos
+ i sin
.
n
n

0 6= "  M1,- k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1 1D "  n  .7."


; )* 21  I 

3
;N#$.M1"
 k = nq + r "A 1 0 r n 1 1R  

+ 2r
+ 2q.
n

' 7
 n 77=#$./' )* ."

?   
( .
 ,-   n r 
R 35G35B5

Q@      n !-   # 35 
 
=

+ 2
2
+ 2(n 1)
2
,
= +
,...,
= +
(n 1).
n
n
n
n
n
n
n

QJ 95 
Q
@




UV 7
Q)*W87

    1 


 9 W
 
QCB529


n = 6 Z9

 X ;#$ ."

   1 


 9 Z
  .7
 , , C = R2
1
2
3
@.
N,O7N)* .7!)* <;'35"
#$GB51R,-

1 3
R.
2 3
%Z(;87!  .7
 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 C = R2 @.
R"
  ,O721$, R2 " )* ; 35;#$GB5P  1$)*

Y.7 )*     
 ;=35G35B51 ,-X8

 P)*W#$

1 3 1 2
:
R.
2 3 2 4
'MZ  7;     + $  C C 721
= a + bi 7 b + ai = ,

47 WN15
Z7

a, b R.

@,-215  + = + 1 || = || =

a2 + b 2

Z = 1 1 , C

i
*Z || = | | = || || 1 01 | | = ||2 1 ,- C 9

9D Q29;CB


    
1 = 1(cos 0 + i sin 0) 1 r = 1 1
"





X


7









7


 $
# .?#$.
 
 @Q7
n

= 0 1;)* 1"A

2k
2k
+ i sin
, k = 0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1.
n
n
@.
4GB5C"A n 77 #$.&   

;.
 I35G35)* 7 7CB
35. n"A
87N35CB51
 ;8"A;!35 (1, 0) = 1 3529<@ % ."
 M1 C
 "A n 77 #$.21 ,  
k = cos

21535" 35
 

  1 



)*.
D
29

1 k " ; )*  YD C"A

n 77 #$. > )* 29

 ! n          Cn = { C | n =



 
1}             
                 

    
   C = C \ {0}
 
  

     


 

#
&! $ 



"



k , l Cn 1)* (k l )n = nk nl = 11 = 1 9
  C 159 29 C 7 ?;N9
k
l
n
n
,O721 1n = 1 1R9 29 1 C >;.
 > 
n
Cn " )*29


1 n
8
C 1 )*
9 
= 1n = 11 = 1 1  1
k
n
k C
k

 


1 



01

8

1 47 WN15

(


8
k+l ,
k l =


k+ln , 8

9
1
k = nk

k + l < n,
k + l n.

  1  !
 8


6= 0 1 n 1 = { , , . . . ,
1)* n =
0 1
n1 }
{0 , 1 , . . . , n1 } 18, /;8"A; n"
+77
#$. "A 1R9 29 n = 9
8
(  7 C
 "A n 77X#$.;M1
)* 8#$.  8B5 ;;
@  C
 "A m 77Y#$.21




O
,

7




Y









;

&
#















"











V
U


  C
 "A m 77
n
m
 

QJ 95 
Q
@


#$./ C"A n 77 #$.,1
 m"A!:< n"
ML n = (m )t = 1t = 1) 95 Y n" ?
n 77'WH#$.218 ,   C"A >, ;

#$T  77 #$.295W>@ 215 1 =
= cos 2 + i sin 2 1 9M 7 #$.< "A k "
1

n1

>7721 = k 1O,S 7 .(.
+#$.
 9

k
1
N1 C"A n 77S#$.   
# 1
 !-    n 
  
( 1$8
n +
,-.+ 


,O7215 , n = 1 9
 



    k    !          !       
 n   !         (k, n) = 1 

   


      


#
&! $ 



@

1-, m 
R"

(k, n) = 1  m
k = 1

 ,O721 1 m n 9)* 2km = 2t D,
n
1-9 29 km ;#$ n" B59-  (k, n) = 1 9
t Z"  & km
=
t
n
  m ;#$ n" B5159 29 n m 95 1 m = n 9
@N15@  #$.Q d = (k, n) 1 n = n d 1
k
1
n1
2k1
2k1 
<
9




*
)



<
9



@





k = k1 d
k = cos n1 + i sin n1
k = 1
 M1* d = 1 1M9 29 (k, n) = 1 127  @ 
n1 < n 15, k "  ?G35 D 29


   ! 
    k = cos 2k
+ i sin 2k
n
n
   n1 = nd  d = (k, n) 
 #  

n1 


 !    




 &$
!
 C"A n 77 #$.  )* /=.7

)* Y?21$8
6 k 7721 k = 0, 1, . . . , n 1
 .7
21;9 298
T  C3
 C
 "A n 77
 

>#$.29

   1 
 


1    @  @.
P,O729
 ,-W 

  U 
  A  .CB5D  {a |
a A} ZL

n
n = n

Z n n = n

Z n = u n 1 , u  n A"  ;;Q )* 29

*
Z

9D Q29;CB


 

,-WN18

 2n 2 9

 ;  8

 n ' ; 

Q

ns

s =

n
(s > 1)

   !
#
 -/
 

 
 @ ,-.
Y"

Y   x2 + px + q = 0 Y@.
XW#$"

,- 
B5  )*.
5B5D
 )*0 7;
#"
%W#$,-  C"A/9;./  H)*0H)*."
  C35ML



p 2
p2
x+
+ q
= 0.
2
4

 ,S,-N1 p2 q @.
(,O7 )*0("

4

 #$. D>@.
 ,O7Q X 
R"
9H#$.6  )* M1N , ; W 
. 7


)* 

 .7 187 (7C35;

p
x+ =
2

p2
q,
4

p
x=
2

p2
q.
4

9 29,-.
!  

 #$.


p2
4

q 7N9

#$./)*060 

7.
."

    7; = a + bi @.
 ,O7 X"


 #$.! )* 29@

= a + bi = u + vi 9
(u + vi)2 = a + bi  X  
(
u2 v 2 = a,
U Z
2uv = b.
 

()  .
( .7+)*  

P)* )*

DNL

(u2 v 2 )2 + 4u2 v 2 = (u2 + v 2 )2 = a2 + b2 ,

QJ 95 
Q
@


+ a2 + b 2 9
()   Y XDNL


1 
u2 =
a + a2 + b 2 ,
2


1 
v2 =
a + a2 + b2 .
2

 , u2 + v 2 =
< Y

u  v " 'D
& )* H

)*0& ."


 @  +; W + 1  ()  
 0N1 uv  )* Q
 >W87. b"  )* .M9
.H0 u  v " & )* H )*.0  ,-M1
9 29 u + vi 7  ,O7M1, @  ,O7

 #$./ )* 
.',O7'  .7
; W  < )* N9
01R
)*.0 
 #$.?D
"
;#$ Y,O7 1*  

#$.X )* 
@  35 %35729
;,1
8
a < 0  b = 0 1

@

a2
7 )*

v=

 

a 9

21
+ b2 = a 1  +.6#$.'
  6
u2 = 12 (a a) = 0 19 29 u = 0 15 ,
a = vi 1

 @.
 ,O7 C = 

 $ 
      9

    1 


1 
 ,-WN1
,O7
21 
 ,+%)*
 

  1 



@6G35

Q(i) = {a+bi | a, b Q}
R" )*;/W87 C" M9

1 8
= r(cos + i sin ) 1 r > 0 1R)*

= r (cos( + ) + i sin( + )) ,
 


1 



= r (cos() + i sin()) .

1 ;

x2 (2 + i)x + (1 + 7i) = 0

 ?#$.

C" )*29

9D Q29;CB


   !


(2 + i)2 4(1 + 7i)

(2 + i) 7 24i
x1,2 =
=
;
2
2

@
7 24i = u + vi 98)*
a2 + b2 = 49 + 576 = 25 9
 u2 = 1 (7 + 25) = 16 1 v 2 = 1 (7 + 25) = 9 1I ,
2
2
)* 
 ?(  .7
 b" 
u = 4 1 v = 3
u  v "  

;#$ 1R
7 24i = (4 3i) 1
(2 + i)

x1,2 =

(2 + i) (4 3i)
(2 + i) (4 3i)
; x1 =
= 1 + 2i,
2
2
(2 + i) + (4 3i)
x2 =
= 3 i.
2


 


 7
 
 "  "
 

  

"      
   

   
  
 



   
 #


 ! -  
 
 $ 

 
-&    &
 #

     
# 
 
, 

  
 
 K  ;  
  


 


 
x1 , x2 , . . . , xn - $ 
 
  UV - $  

 
   
 Z;G35
ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn = bi

(i = 1, 2, . . . , m)

U: Z

7 7
 ;M15, a , b K 9

ij i
.
  7
 G35    
 

1
aij "A  !   $   
(- $ 
 

 1 bi "A  
 




 - 
   
 UV 
 - 
 !   $   
 Z9 aij
XW#$,-  x
,-  i"
'  )*21 b  i"
  "
j
i
?
#$>3529
n
,-   m 35;#$N  
 7C35
)* 
B5 P7NL

a x + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1 ,

11 1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a1n xn = b2 ,
..................................

a x +a x ++a x = b .
m1 1
m2 2
mn n
m

aij K W#$,- ;!;
87 (m n) ,O7 U m

@ 21 n Z

a11 a12 a1n

a21 a22 a2n

A = (aij ) =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 am2 amn


'

9D Q29;CB


G35 U: ZI !   $  



87 (m (n + 1)) ,O7HU m @ 21

1 7 ;
R"
n + 1 Z


a11 a12 a1n  b1
a21 a22 a2n  b2

A = (aij | bi ) =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . .

am1 am2 . . . amn  bm
U: Z  

  
-/ 
 $  UV, /


W   .CB5D Z9

8
m = n UV  &,O7&(
,- +,O7 Z1
)* P35;#$  ?6UV +W#$,- ; A =

a11 a1n
a21 a2n

,O ZG35 !
#
 -/ 9

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 amn



a11 a12 a1n

a21 a22 a2n

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 ann

 &
 !
    &#  
,O)* )*0=  CB5D # 
#
 &!
 L

a11
a22

9 9
9

ann

a1n

an1

a2(n1)

8
%35;#$X  (U: Z)* b = b = = b = 0 1

1
2
m
)* ?G35   

 9
35;#$%   U: ZQ
 &!
  G 35&"
@ . x0 = (x0 , x0 , . . . , x0 ) K n 1R ,
1

ai1 x01 + ai2 x02 + + ain x0n = bi

(i = 1, 2, . . . , m).

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

 
  

#
18
&P 47 Y;< ,/ 7 21*35 "
D <)*W87)* 


  

# 9 <G35."
 
 
,  -/ 18
4 47  ;;= 7 21Y

-& 
,   1 8
/ 7 >;B529
,-  ;Q
  x , . . . , x ; ;  35;#$H  
1
n
QG35  
  UV +
  -/ Z18
% @
 7 W; IL2
< 
 7 '    7 ''./ 
 7 > ? 7 29

    
-&    &#

@'7X:U  Z P 29 

 > 7 ?0  
R WQ 
:U  Z /W%@ 
H )*,-)*21
 7 >)*29

    !        !        

   c K     !    
       !              

 
              !              

        !                                 

   c
  
%Z  U: Z           !      !         !    

    
                 !         
'MZ  U: Z           !                 !  

 ! 0 6= c K     !      
                !

        

**Z  U: Z               !               U: Z

        !              !       
       
  Z% :U 

Z   

c 1 x1 + c 2 x2 + + c n xn = d

    !              

j = 1, 2, . . . , n 

cj = l1 a1j + l2 a2j + + lm amj ,

l1 , l2 , . . . , l m K

 U: Z   

       
     ! 

d = l 1 b1 + l 2 b2 + + l m bm ,

   !         !         !

      

9D Q29;CB


#
 &! $ 

 

Z @ x0 = (x0 , . . . , x0 ) 6U: ZY

P
1
n
> 7 >QN i"
    k "

Q  21 
 c" B5L (i) + c(k) 1 i 6= k 9547 ;N1
 x0 ;#$ 7&:U  0 Z
 i"
  ML

(ai1 + cak1 )x01 + + (ain + cakn )x0n = (ai1 x01 + + ain x0n )+
+ c(ak1 x01 + + akn x0n ) = bi + cbk . U Z

@N1O8
x0 %U: 0 Z
?   7 21)*
 4U: Z%  7 ,-29Q;, U: Z/ U: 0 Z'

 .7 Y.7 i"
  N95@ 1R x0 "
;#$!:U  0 Z i"
  M1-9 29O;  ()
 21   a x0 + + a x0

i1 1
in n
)* M15 x0 U: Z;? 7 29

 %Z
1 'MZ **Z
 ,O729

= bi 29 .P

,-
 
 )*=

 Z
 'MZ+ @ 

+   
 9
U: Z;   
 -/ 
&# 


G35

     1  !


 D )* ;N1-YC35  )*0?"


D
 @ (7  >  + 
 @ 
)* 1$  Q.( @  )*
 29I1- 1
8
i"
S   
 c" B5N 
 k "
S  "
M1O)*0
 
 WN1I8
7? i"
  ."
'
  k "
   UV, W21
 ,!C35  Z1 
 (c)" B59

   
   



    

     
!     

   
 +
 
 
! 
  

                !          %      ! 

 

    !     !          !       

#
&! $ 



 
 9 % 9 C"A    6)* )* 
9 % 9 %"A> 35 29


  8
#$!77<.
R)*;!

 1"
' UV #$;
YZ-,- 1 -)* ;H)*."
>  .CB5D>,-M9

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

   

 ,- +& 

 )   
 -/
G35P)* X> @ ML


&#
+   


 Z>,-& 

 @ GB5>& B5> "



 7 @  

%Z> >P@   ,-

'MZ> @ < << .
 ."
 B59

   
1  !
   
F  CB5DT,-  
 
    
 /
-  
&#
+   
 9

,O721P'35;#$      ."

 
 @ 6; %)*.!,- 
#$;
>,-  
4 @ 9
N1 A  B ,- @ 
218
;
  PD  
 @ >
?."
T 35 A B 9
K X;= (m n)"A,IN
D )* 
Mmn (K) ;29
N1 A ,- i"


(0, . . . , 0, ais , . . . , ain ) K n

@    # 

  s    18
a 6= 0 17 
is
ait 6= 0 1;,- t < s U 7)* ais  ! W(
535


i"
6@  /
 
    i"
6@  
#  Z9

   

,O G35 
 -/
 158

 Z
.
 X@ 218
'   1R   
Q
 .
  @ >)*

% Z&8
4 .
 6@ = =." s"A()*21<)*


/
#$   ! .
 !@ ! 
)*21 <X X s" B51*9 29 8
a  i"
<"
is
@  ( .
   21$)* a = 0  i <
rj
r m 1 1 j s UV  arj = 0  (r, j)  M1
,   
+@ )* i"
H@;  j = 1,

9D Q29;CB


. . . , s )*Z9*7YN1
#$   Y@ 

Q  ,- :< 29
 1R#$.7
 >,- &.Q)* X7 ,-


a1j1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

a2j2 . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . ,
arjr . . .

, a , . . . , a
 21 ,(#$.7
 35
R"
1j1
rjr
87)*'   
21  .7
! .
  1;7 
 21, H35 7,- 66@; M1
.
 29  1 1 j < j < < j n 9
1
2
r
.

,O @
#$.7
  7 UV .
  O
M
(K) ,-Q .
 > NB5 Z9
mn

   
 N1X' .
 '#$.7
 A ,O @

 



  #$.7
  718
A ,-  .
 Q"

 C"A
@  a , . . . , a
1j1
rjr (1 j1 < < jr n)
   l "  M1 1 l r 1 A ,- j )*
l
;;Q .
    a = 1 L

      

  


ljl


1 . . . 0 . . . . . .

1 . . . . . .
9 9
9

,O

0...
0...

.
0 . . .
1 . . .



1 3 4 1


0 0 
7 0
0 0 0 0

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

@ #$.7
 T7 U @  
 <QW #$.7
  79
,O

;#$Z1


1 3 0 1


0 0 
1 0
0 0 0 0

@ W #$.7
  79

,-

0
2
0

0 0
1 4
0 3

 X#$.7
 ?UV .
 @ XP .
"

  P@  B5;;Z9

,-

0
0

1 0
0 0

7 0

3 ,
0

7 2

0
9

0
0 0
9 9

4

5

!@'#$.7
 

7QUV.I@ <N!"
 @  B5Y,- :< Z9

       


 @ a = (a , . . . , a ) 1 b = (b , . . . , b ) K n 1

1
n
1
n
as  a @  21 bt  b @ /21 cu  c
@ +21 c = a + b = (c , . . . , c ) 1 c = a + b 1 1
1
n
i
i
i
5
9




*
)



5
9
8



R
1




*
)



9
su
s<u
s=t
in
#
 &! $ 

 8

a = (0, . . . , 0, as , . . . , an ),
b = (0, . . . , 0, bt , . . . , bn ),

as 6= 0,

bt 6= 0,

s t 15)*
a + b = (0, . . . , 0, as + bs , . . . , an + bn ),

9D Q29;CB


H s u U 8
b
s
s < u Z9R@ s < u 958

= as 1)* as + bs = 0 H

s < t 1R)* bs = 0 1

a + b = (0, . . . , 0, as , . . . , an + bn ),
 
s = t9

as 6= 0,

s = u 1R, s < u  G35 D 29 1

 #   @ a, b , . . . , b K n 1 a = (a , . . . , a ) 1 b =
1
m
1
n
i
m
P
(bi1 , . . . , bin ) 1 1 i m 1 a =
j bj 1 j K 1 as  a @ 
21

j=1

bti  bi @  29)* s min{ti } 9

    
   

   
  


-& 
     

!                !    " $       

!               !     

   !   

 !         

    
     !      

#
&! $ 

  .
 
 $  
&#
+ !
 s  
   
 
535; )* ,-
ML
 )*21
9 8?

,-,+;@   N." s"AO
)* ,-
>TW29
% 98
 @ 21,  
)* D;  W215@S@ 

." s"A )*21

(0, . . . , 0, ais , . . . , ain )


 Z ;  a1 " B5+UV+)* 4,-?)*,-

is
?@ 
N1I  7 Y)*
W @ W?."
 
Y @ 21 i"
N@ P." s"A  < 7."
 C"A == 
 .=@ =  ." s
)*Z1 7S)*
ZN @  r N1 r 6= i 1

(ar1 , . . . , ars , . . . , arn )

@ S)*  L ; @  i"

@ 215 
 a " B5>U )* TDN1"
rs
,-%)*,-! @ 
  '@ =." s"A

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

  21  i"
21 7 # "A'Z9  )*."
W87)*& @  ,O)*+@ +(
.H; "
@ 215,  >." s"A)*29

-&    &# LO @  ,- C"A &;N1
)* = @ /,-' @  ." %'!;N1
D
,-  .:" '<X;6N29 )9 1  =C3
R"
 XM9 )* S,-X)*,- @ 

Q,-   @ Q
. ;P"
@ 215, N)*Q 29
,-<
M1*8
.
4
 36 721
 ,-;S T@ 29


      1  !



HX  ,-)*< ."

8

 @ S)*
F,-  r @ "
M1, r > i 1)* I- @ ;)* ',-"
P#$.7
 7GB59

      1  !


    @  ,-
21OYW"

Y#$.7
 X71 NB5,!  ,-.
X,-21
 .CB5D
 ,-79

  


3 ;#$  =SG35 
 -/
 1

5
8
/> #$;
>,-P#$.7
 29
,-
H% 7 H35; "
#$.7
 P?7 29
 ;S)*    N95
 A = (a )
ij
,O/G35 U , #
Z 
 !-  
18
a = 0 1,- i > j
ij
  !
$ 
# U , #
Z 
 !-  
18
'  a = 0 
 ii

i"  M9 35;#$P  X G35 U !
$ 
# Z 

!-  
158
/>W#$,- ;Q,-+UV,-
Z

8729
 7;T7 P35;#$P  (:U  Z29
 ; % #$;
',-'@ 
 W
#$.7
 X7GB59O@  W#$,- ; ,-( .
R"
 <@ W ,O7  r UV,O7 r  )*  ? "
    
,-  6 .
 =W#$,-  

9D Q29;CB


 <,O7
#$.7
 87.)*
  !@ ."
,-
 r ,O7Q
X#$.7

7GB5N"
% &77 
'W#$,- ;&,-'  Z1
7 #$;
 ,-  .
 <@ W>,O7
 r 95,O7215 r = r  r = r + 1 9
)*.0<)* NY ,-
  .7
X)*W87"
29
    
  r = r + 1 9$X)*W87)* #$.7
 ?
)*,-

0x1 + 0x2 + + 0xn = 1

7  M1R,

29

1 6= 0 215)*1U: Z;>"

    
  r = r = n 9*)*W87)*X .
 X  ."

Y

 Y)* >D#$.7
 X,-=
87<"
298
  '   ,-7  CB5D x 1
n
)* ?
   35    P  CB5D x

n1
29 )9R 1:U  Z;? 4
 7 Q;;Q 7 29



   
 r = r < n 9@ )*W87)* i , i , . . . , i 
1 2
r
 212)*,&   
#$.7
 
."
 .
   N35 NW#$,- 2129 292I
,O"
P 21*, C35X,-.
N#$.7
 Y"
+  29I x , x , . . . , x
,- +
535;  

i1
i2
ir

 1R7  8
 7 x , x , . . . , x
 
 - 
 - $  
j1
j2
jnr

 
 UV9 29;
,- 21,  C35!
TUVW"
Z-#$.7
 
Y,H;  
 
)*0
;    1,- r = r = n Z> .
 H  


 >)* DP)* P

xi1 + f1 (xj1 , . . . , xjnr ) = ci1 ,

............................

xir + fr (xj1 , . . . , xjnr ) = cir ,

U %Z

@ f (x , . . . , x
+
#$
,-  D, 35;#$
t j1
jnr )
 ,-W#$,-  K   c K 98
+D

it

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

 Y  )*<35Q
#$<
,-  "
 W=:< Y.7.M1MD ,-6
87
W
,-  ;NL

xi1 = ci1 f1 (xj1 , . . . , xjnr ),

............................
x = c f (x , . . . , x
ir
ir
r j1
jnr ),

7

 , , . . . ,
1
2
nr
0
0
(x , x , . . . , x0 ) 1 ,
1

K "  

x0js = s , s = 1, . . . , n r,
x0iu = ciu fu (1 , . . . , nr ),

U 'MZ

@ 

u = 1, . . . , r,

x0 =
U **Z

HU %Z;? 7 &UVQ)* >U: Z

  7 ,8Z9
@N1 U: Z+  x0 = (x0 , x0 , . . . , x0 ) "
1
2
n
7  )*0 D;
U **Z #$.
 7  
1 , 2 , . . . , nr K "  %UV Z9
#$.
%U **Z " M1, D35/:U  Z(  7"
W;M1 G35;$ , &
#
 &!
  9"
 ? 7 ?D B5 ? 7   1I8
=)*
7W P   M9*  
T)*W87."
)*D
S 7 .M19 29 (x0 , x0 , . . . , x0 ) n"A.
<G35
"
1
2
n
 !  
 &!
  9
35;#$&;   +&</."
21<  ' < 4
 7 = .
   7 29X8

Q  .CB5D
&UV9 29R 4
 7  ;;  7 Z15)* N
4
 7 P.7S .
   7 2158
'P  .
RCB5D215"
)* X? 4
 7 ?;  ,  .
   7 %U
R

 7 ,1,- K
R
Z9 
 D )* "
)* T)*W87  Q@M1,- r = r < n 9

    

                  
!           
! %   ! 
         


        !       !    
!          !      
  !   !  ! 

'

9D Q29;CB


#
 &! $ 



6 7
35 N1Q<
,-M9
B5;4  .7
+ )*W87

>7N9

r = r < n  m < n 9;8

r m 1ID4"

7;4)* +."

    
   
 
  
 

 



 


# 
 ! -      
 -/
 


 

  
   #  

      !       (aij | bi )mn

     x1 , . . . , xn  !  










 
  !      !                 

  !      r = r n 
 #    
     !                        ! 
       !             !       
 !  0x1 + +
0xn = 1       !    
         
    
 


      
 
,  
 -/
 
!  -      
    !        (aij | bi )mn

 !            !         !



 !
              !     


   0x1 + +0xn = 1      !         
 
  

%Z r = r = n        !              

       !       !  


  





Z  

 

  

x1 , . . . , x n

 


    
 
-&    &# , &     #  

 
#     ,- 
 ,O7 K = Q ';

UV
Y
R
T>;;Z35;#$P  X."
  7 W ,O7 )*0 1
 #/UV Z1
+UV  .CB5D
QZ UV  .
RCB5D Z9
  !
 
     Z = {0, 1}  ;

2
(
x1 + x2 = 0   @>B
R 
 Q 7 29
x1 + x 2 = 0
 #       
 



! 
#
 -/    

 

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

 Z;@ m = n UV9 29  P,O7X
,- P,O7

Z95)* N)* Q>@ 
2L
Z
>  .CB5D
HUV9 295@ ;;Q 7 Z

Z#$.7
 ;7.)* r = n UV9 29* 4
 7 P
#$Y
,- "
Z

*Z )*.6;  6 4
 7 /;;/"
7  (0, . . . , 0) 9
%ZX#$ + 2L-,- m = n  P35;#$  "
'/  .CB5D
21 +/)*.6; 
 4
 7 Q .
   7 29,-WN9

    1
   !


 .
RCB5D 35;#$F  !."

 !)*06 47 W 77 EG  .
RCB5D 7"
7KR1O,S
 17; 
#$
,-  ,O7
+B5   7 .)*29IQ 1-35;#$P,-.)* "
,-Q;T
#$
,-  Q35;#$Q  QN1
7  !4
#$
,-  ? UV,
;    /)* Z9Y,O721X/.  ,-

 .7
!)*W8729< H;!! &35;#$6  ."
 )*X  .7
YB5 <"
7 21
)*, 77?
,-  )*0?D8
 7 .+
#$"
215 
 >8721<  >8
/>
#$

,- ,O7292!
R7Y87CB50@

,-?  GB5?,- 21,    @ Q)*"
 29

 

 Z


R W    

x + 2x2

1
x1 + 3x2
2x
1 + x2

2x
1

+ x3
+ 2 x 3 x4
x3 + 3x4
2x3 + 3x4

= 2,
= 4
= 2,
= 1.

7C35; 
> #$;
 ,-PX ;S

9D Q29;CB


:<S#$.7
 7GB51 7T)* WS#$.7
 7GB5

2 1
0  2
3 2 1 4
.
1 1 3  2
0 2 3  1

1
1

2
2

8
&  1M.;<;87@ PT"

@ .M1 
 )*. C" B51%" B5<1%" B51D
,O

2

1
3
4

1
0  2
1 1 2
.
3 3  6
4 3  3

)* R18
+.;878@ X
="

@ .M1R 
 )*. ' " B5 * " B51RD


2 1 0  2

1 1 1 2
.
0 0 0  0
0 0 1 5

 .X ;87@ (  ,- )* 

#$.7
 Y,O

0
0


2 1 0  2

1 1 1  2
.
" 1  5
0 0
0 0 0 0

D

 15,-.
XP)* X#$.7
   @"

 


= 2,
x1 + 2x2 + x3
x2 + x3 x4 = 2,

x4 = 5.

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

  x , x , x  W?
,- 21O7 x !
#$
1
2
4
3

,- 215N )*   C35

= x3 + 2,
x1 + 2x2
x2 x4 = x3 + 2,

x4 =
5.

8
 %7  x , x  x
,- H;N18"

2
2
4
DS%UVXC35Q ZNB5   7 .

x1 = x3 + 8,
x2 = x3 3,

x4 =
5.



 WS#$.7


0
0


2 1 0  2

1 1 1  2


"
5
0 0
1
0 0 0 0

,O 
   ;
 W #$.7

@ . 
; .N@ 2L

0
0

2 1

1 1
0 0
0 0

0  2
0  3
.

"
5
1 
0
0

8
 @ .! 

Q.@ . 

7GB59 

.M1; 
 %" B5

(1)" B51RD ,O

0 1 0  8

1 1 0  3
.
0 0
1  5
0 0 0  0

9D Q29;CB


 1 C35Q )* X @ 


x1

x3
x2 +x3

= 8,
= 3,
x4 = 5,

,S@(W #$.7
  79$8
635 x
,- "

3
  W :<  C35)*21DT
Y0  B5"
T 7 .ML

x1 = x3 + 8,
%Z

x2 = x3 3,

x4 = 5.

x2 8x3 = 17,
x1 + x3 = 10,

x1 x 2
= 0.

0 1 8 17

1 0
1  10
1 0
1  10 0 1 8 17
1 1 0  0
1 1 0  0



1 0 1  10

1 0
1  10


0
1 8  17 .
1 8 17 0

" 9  27
0 1 1 10
0 0

Y?UV= 0x + 0x + 0x = 1 7P  ."

1
2
3
Z1I x , x , x
,- +W21 x = 3 1 x = 7 1 x = 7 9
1
2
3
3
2
1
Q  .CB5D
21O@ ;;> 7  (7, 7, 3) 9

'MZ

x1 + 2x2 3x3 = 2,
3x1 x2 + 2x3 = 7,

5x + 3x 4x = 2.
1
2
3

1 2 3 2

1 2 3 2
3 1 2  7 0 7 11  13


5 3 4 2
5 3 4 2

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

0
0

1 2 3 2
2 3 2
" 7 11  13 .
7 11  13 0


7 11 12
0 0
0  1

47  0x + 0x + 0x

1
2
3
29

= 1 7  21*)*1M

    
$  
 
 $ 
,   !
#
 -/
  
&
 
  

"


 $%



(m n)"A,- UV m n ,  
 $  Z K
  
   

  G35

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn
;1

UV<D )* 

A = (aij )mn Z ,

7=;
87 H,O7M1N,4)*
TUV 
,-"

  .7
Z   a K (i = 1, . . . , n
j =
ij
1, . . . , n) 95  ij  @.&UV  Z 
M1
 a  Q A ,- i"
 @ .)*Q j "
ij

6)*29* (m n)"A,-X K " B5;D )* ;
Mmn (K) ;29
 m n B5 A = (a )  B = (b ) ,O 
ij
ij

535; A = B 1$8
=  )*.? ?21
9 298
a = b 9
ij
ij
CB5
#$  .F  )*  T )*W8721
,-<  7 (m n)"A,-GB51*)*,  ."
CB5D
%,O7H)*  ?+   (
 
  7  X)*> 29
@ K  21 m, n, p N 9
 B = (b )
,-."
;>Q <B5 A = (a )
ij mn
ij mn





G35Q,O

A + B = (aij + bij )mn .

9D Q29;CB




A = (aij )mn ,- !

 c K   , U "

B5 ZG35>,O

cA = (caij )mn .
,IP)* 0 2L
 Z A + B = B + A ()* .
,-


%Z (A + B) + C = A + (B + C) ()* ,-,-


'MZ Omn ,-21*, .7 .
 
)* 21M .
R"
 > 2L A + O


mn = Omn + A = A
**Z  A Mmn (K) ,-'%W
B Mmn (K) ,-21 A + B = B + A = Omn UV 
8
A = (a ) 15)* B = (b ) 1 , b = a Z9
ij
ij
ij
ij
,IPB5X ?0 2L
 Z (c1 + c2 )A = c1 A + c2 A

%Z c(A + B) = cA + cB

'MZ c1 (c2 A) = (c1 c2 )A

**Z 1A = A 9

A = (aij ) m n B5(,- !

 B = (bjk ) n p
B5,$B5-G35 mp B5,OM1N ."
Q,-P)* Q#$.




cik = ai1 b1k + ai2 b2k + + ain bnk

i = 1, . . . , m  k = 1, . . . , p QC35; C = A B 9

      
 $%
!
 
 
 

   

  


 
 

1 a
1 b
1 a+b

=
, a, b K 9
0 1
0 1
0
1
%Z (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) M1n (K) ,OM1 , *
)  .7"
 Z



;

@   1


@ 
G3529
t
(y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) Mn1 (K) ,OM1, ;P 
)* 21NG3529 @ N
< M1,O7
CB5(@H.7 >N18,-?@ TEA 0K%."
 EADK'29$W )*W87)*? )* D
 C"
   
 ,-(UV, @ ;X@ 

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

Q;XZ19 29


  2L

y1
y2
9
(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
+ +xn yn ) M1 (K) = K.
99 = (x1 y1 +x2 y211
(1n)

yn
(n1)

m D+H  n  0+@ GB5>"

 )*.0Q )*QD m n B5>,-2L

x1
x1 y 1 x1 y 2 . . . x 1 y n
x2

99 (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ) = x2 y1 x2 y2 . . . x2 yn .
9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(1n)
xm y 1 xm y 2 . . . x m y n
xm
(m1)

x1
a11 a12 . . . a1n
a21 a22 . . . a2n x2
9
3)
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 =
am1 am2 . . . amn
xn

(mn)

(n1)

b1
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + + a2n xn b2
9
=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = 99 Mm1 (K).
am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn
bm

(m1)

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

4) (x1 , x2 , . . . , xm )
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =
(1m)
am1 am2 . . . amn
(mn)

= (a11 x1 + a21 x2 + + am1 xm ,

a12 x1 + a22 x2 + + amn xm ,

9D Q29;CB


. . . , a1n x1 + a2n x2 + + amn xn ) =

= (c1 , c2 , . . . , cn ) M1n (K).

(1n)

2Z @ A = (aij )mn 1 B = (bjk )np ,- K 

;N988
CB5 
&+
(7CB5 A  B
,-> ;#$ A  B C35 UVT
535
ij
jk
)*.>,- + 
 $ 
  N
5:< ZL

nt
n1
z}|{
z}|{
A11 . . . A1t }m1
9
A=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 ,

As1

...

Ast

}ms

A = (Aij )st

  i = 1, . . . , s

 .CB5D
 ,-

p1
pu
z}|{
z}|{
A11 . . . B1u }n1
9
B=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Bt1 . . . BAtu
B = (Bjk )tu ,

}nt

j = 1, . . . , t  k = 1, . . . , u"  

Cij = Ai1 Bij + Ai2 B2j + + Ais Bsj ,

)* AB = C = (C )
9R,-WN9
ij sn
7CB5Y 
R M1*Y,-X X  .CB5D
R"
>.7 )* 1,-QQB5Q)*W .7
2157"
1X,- S,- ;S,O7  ,-
@ WQ,O7 29
,IQ    .
,-
29 1

A=

2 1 1
,
0 3 5

,-

AB =

2 1
,
8 9

 - M1 AB 



>,-29

1 2
B = 1 2
1 3

2 7
9
BA = 2 5 11 .
2 10 14

BA" M1@-@CB521 - I  .7"

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

  

,I N0

N,-"

3  ;&)*G:<

< D
)*."
 P29 a + a + a 7?>:<Q)*
1
2
n
n
P
P & ,O7
ai "A @ ?D )* .
29-D )* ;

i=1



X
 X
n
n
c
ai =
cai ,
i=1

n
X

ai +

i=1


  7 :<

8
47 N1O  i =
 7C35;NL

n
X
i=1

bi =

i=1
n
X

(ai + bi ).

i=1

S 1
 aij )*.=/ @.
1, . . . , m
j = 1, . . . , n 1)* S )*  "

S = a11 + a12 + a1n +

+ a21 + a22 + + a2n +
................
+ am1 + am2 + + amn ,
9 29

aij  P)*   ,O

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn

()

@

bi  ()"A i"
'@  ! 6:<21

n
m
P
P
9 29 b =
9)* 1,O721 S = b + b + + b =
a
bi =
i
ij
1
2
m
j=1

i=1

'

9D Q29;CB


m P
P
n

i=1

,-

 P
m P
n
a

aij 9M.X.721 8
cj  () "

ij
j=1
i=1 j=1

m
P
j "
P Q  :<21)* cj =
aij 
i=1

S = c1 + c2 + + c n =
 1

n
X
j=1

m X
n
X

S=

cj =

n X
m
X
j=1

aij =

i=1 j=1

aij

i=1

n X
m
X

n X
m
X

aij .

j=1 i=1

aij ,

j=1 i=1

9 29* Q:<.)*<)*.0Y)*G:<  Y)*,-29 

."
 35  m = n"A=)*W87)* 7)* 35

S=

 


n
P

aij 159 295 
 <Q S35 C:<29

i,j=1

,IQ >,-,-


U: Z

(AB)C = A(BC),

 "
8
A, B, C ,- B5Y)*W .7
  1 

 ?@ CB529
;,1@ A = (a )
1
1
ij mn B = (bjk )np C = (ckl )pq


(AB)C = (uil )mq ,

A(BC) = (vil )mq .

)*  @ML

uil =

p  n
X
X
k=1

vil =

n
X
j=1

aij bjk ckl =

j=1

aij

X
p
k=1

bjk ckl

p
n
X
X

aij bjk ckl ,

k=1 j=1
p
n

XX

aij bjk ckl ,

j=1 k=1

<1 u = v 9
il
il
)* ??)* Q,I +"
,-7,- YUV ,&,-,-
<)*W87)*21

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

@Y
721$Y,-?B5 Q)*W .7
21O
Q
4,- @ CB5ZL
Z

(A + B)C = AC + BC,

Z

(cA)B = A(cB) = c(AB) c K.

A(B + C) = AB + AC,

Z
@ A = (a )
1
ij mn B =
  (i, k)   @ 


U %Z
U 'MZ

(bij )mn 1 C = (cjk )np 9 ."

n
n
n
X
X
X
(aij + bij )cjk =
aij cjk +
bij cjk ,

j=1
n
X

aij (bij + cjk ) =

j=1

j=1
n
X

aij bjk +

j=1

j=1
n
X

aij cjk ,

j=1

,=,-(7 . 
M9

1
1$)* 
ZP8
A = (a )
ij mn B = (bij )np
? @ 
n
X
j=1

(caij )bjk =

n
X
j=1

aij (cbjk ) = c

n
X

(i, k) "

aij bjk .

j=1

 ,
H,-N1 n n B5 ,O=G35 n"


 >
 ,-295
4,O>G35 #

 &!
(-/ 18
;; ;W;  N W
.
Y29M  
 ,-CB5 < .

 .
 L

a1 0 . . . 0
b11 b12 . . . b1p
0 a2 . . . 0 b21 b22 . . . b2p

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =
0 0 . . . an
bn1 bn2 . . . bnp

a1 b11 a1 b12 . . . a1 b1p

a2 b21 a2 b22 . . . a2 b2p

=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an bn1 an bn2 . . . an bnp

9D Q29;CB


UV-,-N@ 

,-
)*.   
  B5 ZN215  
1

a11 a12 . . . a1n

b1 0 . . . 0
a21 a22 . . . a2n 0 b2 . . . 0

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . =
an1 an2 . . . ann
0 0 . . . bn

a11 b1 a12 b2 . . . a1n bn

a21 b1 a22 b2 . . . a2n bn

=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 bn an2 b2 . . . ann bn

VU <,-YN<<,-<)*."

   
  B5 Z9
n"
X  
 ,IY:<PX P 
H  .CB5D
&+ W>
H,-298"
,IX)* 0 >   Z1 %ZN"
= 4
 7 M1Y',-,-
 K   ; 
"





X





Q
 ,I M
"
n
nn (K) = Mn (K)
 ; Q)* 

         n N     !
      



                
    

Mn (K)           %
                    
 
     
   K 

  

    N ,-212 n"
"


!
F,I' K =;  W
 2935 ,I  K +;  W
 2935 .  '@ / 
7 M (K)"  @.)
n
)*29$)* )* ;N1- M (K) ;.
 ( 29I;."
n

(35  .+  
(,- E = (e ) M (K) 1
n

ij

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

,

  87  e = 0 L
eii = 1  i"  M1R7 
ij

1
0

.
9 9
En =

9
0
1

35 
#$.
   M1 I 
A ,-

AEn = A,

mn B5
U **Z

Em A = A,

,&=)*W87)* E D )*  n"


 N;.

,OM157 )*W87)*  m  ?;.
 X"
,OM9
D )* ; M (K)   B5 ;=EA
;#$K%21
n
,- n 2 UV  M (K)  K Z9
1
 Z Mn (K)     .
,-
29,- n = 2 1  "
7; )* Q 2L


 

2 0
0 3
0 6
=
,
0 0
0 0
0 0

0 3
0 0



2 0
0 0


0 0
.
0 0

  
> ? P)*0>  n > 2 9

%Z Mn (K)   4 7 Y .
 ;#$29* 47 XB5."
;   %21N
#$ ,1< 'W
 .
 ,-21 <; .
N29  "
1

0 a
0 0

2

0 a
0 0



0 a
0 0

0 0
0 0

(a 6= 0).

'MZ Mn (K)  + ( .
 (  )*
R"
295.  ? .
 ;#$  XQ
#$@ 12 .
Y ;#$N!)*0N)*
 29
 1 ,-

M2 (K)" )*29




2 0 
0 3   I)*
 
 
0 0
0 0

9D Q29;CB


     
 &$
!
 E
ij

,OM1N)*, (i, j)  NB5% 

 17 

  87 & CB5 T .
21NG35 
 $ -/
 -/ VU   ;=;.

,O)*
Z9*35W="
,O
 ;.
  ,O7 (i, j = 1, . . . , n) 9R47 ."
WN1- 

A = (aij ) Mn (K) ;; 2B5H35"

n P
n
P
   A =
aij Eij 7N9
i=1 j=1

   !
 8
i, j = 1, 2, . . . , n 12)* 87 D E 7 n2
ij

 ,OM1 ,!,IX  #$.
> 7

)*    <)*
2L

Eij Ekl = Eil , ,- j = k,



Eij Ekl = 0, ,- j 6= k.


 %,I:<;B58 N."
8
,-M1D W '
/,-/)*."
 ?35  

n X
n
a11 . . . a1n
X

A = ............. =
aij Eij ,
an1 . . . ann
i=1 j=1

  1,O7 35   ;;29

     
 &$
!
 cE (c K) 7?,- G35 !



 -/ 
 $ 
 9R,O721N
 cE ,-> "

,-



7 ,I M (K)"A L (cE)A =

n
c(EA) = c(AE) = A(cE) 9I,-W )*
 
+
2L
,- M (K)"A 1 ,=  ,-Q ,O"
n
 M (K)" )*21 
29
   n  

  W 35 >,- 29

   

 &$
!


,-WN1


a b
,
b a

M2 (R)  )*

a, b R,

7%,-&@  @M1,

 CB5;#
29

@.


,O7

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

 




,-

 $ 

a11 a12 . . . a1n

a21 a22 . . . a2n

A=
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
am1 am2 . . . amn

 CB5D;




 & 

-/


 

a11 a21 . . . am1

a12 a22 . . . am2

At =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
a1n a2n . . . amn

,  @ >43 N? ?X ."
1I)* At = (at )
1
4(@N19 298
A = (a )
ij mn
ij nm
, at = a 9
ji
ij
,O721 (At )t = A 95,O7Q W15

(A + B)t = At + B t
(cA)t = cAt c K.
,-;N1

(AB)t = B t At .
;,1<@

)*
(c )

A = (aij )mn 1 B = (bjk )np 1 AB = C =

ik mp

ctik

= cki =

n
X

akj bji =

j=1

 ,

7 .M1 C t = B t At 9

n
X
j=1

atjk btij

n
X
j=1

btij atjk ,


  

9D Q29;CB


  
 -/ 
&#
+   

 
 $ 
  ,-M1
,!D N;.
  E ,-  N;X ."

> @ N15
535;   
 -/ 
 $ 
 L

99

999

9 9
9
1) Tij (c) =

9 9 9 999

99
9 9

9
9

2) Sij =
19

99

c i

= E + cEij (i 6= j);
1

99
9 9

9
9

1
j
9

99

1 i

99

9
=
0
j
99
9 9

9
9

1
j
9

= E Eii Ejj + Eij + Eji (i 6= j);

999

3) Di (c) =

99

c i
99
= E + (c 1)Eii (n 6= 0).
9 9
9

1
i
9

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

 
>,-  2L

1 0 0
1 0 0
1 0 0
T23 (c) =0 1 c , S23 (c) =0 0 1 , D2 (c) =0 c 0 .
0 0 1
0 1 0
0 0 1
7C35; #$
  
>,-2L
 Z Tij (c) = (tpq )nn 1 ,

8
p = q,

1,
tpq = c, 8
p = i, q = j,

0  87  N)*W87)* .
%Z Sij = (spq )nn 1

1,
spq = 1,

,
8

p = q 6= i, j,
p = i, q = j  p = j, q = i,
 87  N)*W87)* .
8

'MZ Di (c) = (dpq )nn 1 ,

8
p = q = i,

c,
dpq = 1, 8
p = q 6= i,

0,  87 N)*W87)* .

       
 A        T (c)                   

 !
ij

 !    
!  !  i

   j
        ! 

#
&! $ 



8

    !    j
      
 i
            

(mn)

bpq =

m
X

tpk akp

k=1

  


c


 

= Tij (c) A 1R)*

(mm)

       
     

(mn)

(
tii aiq + tij ajq = aiq + cajq , 8

=
tpp apq = apq , 8
p 6= i.

,-Q
Q ;N9

p = i,

9D Q29;CB


       
 A        S                   
 !  !
ij


  
!   !  i
   j
        !  
      !             

#
&! $ 



@

(mm)

bpq =

m
X

spk akq

k=1

  


 i

 

j

   

A 15)* < @ 

= Sij

(mm) (mn)


p = i,
8

sij ajq = ajq ,

= sji aiq = aiq , 8
p = j,

s a = a , 8
p 6= i, j.
pp pq
pq

,-Q
Q ;N9

   
  
 A        D (c)                   

 !
i

 !   ! 
 !   

         



i


 

    ! 

 j

   

  

c


       

#
&! $ 




 @ % 9 ' "AQ
R)
  29


 ! 
6,-')*
 21< , /)*."

 

,-,& W8 

,-21 ."
,6)*. )*
 
4 
4 @ ML

Tij1 (c) = (E + cEij )1 = E cEij = Tij (c),

   

Sij1 = Sij ,

Di1 (c) = Di (c1 ).

 7;T35;#$Q  

(
ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn = bi ,
i = 1, . . . , m,
29
8
x = (x , x , . . . , x )"A D )* 
,- /@ .M1
1
2
n
7 b = (b , b , . . . , b )t "A  
#$T35 M1
1 2
m
)* ?,-.
+&)*0 7C35%)*  
 $ - 
      L

A xt = b.

 D )* ;N1  x0 K n )* X.7S)* Q,-.



P 7 21*,- A (x0 )t = b  1,/ 21 x0 At = bt

QJJ 9R35;#$Q   

VU @ t  )*   . M1O  %,I "
 Z 189 298,-!U m n B5 Z A ,-% 6U n 1

B5 Z (x0 )t ,$B5 U m 1 B5 Z b ,- 29


R W ,O
  ,-F 
Axt = b  Q,O7  S 
 ,-CB5N ."
)*21 CB5 -< #$;
,-
#$.7
 7GB5< 29


  

"





  

 
    

 
 

   $     #     !
 



R? (21YWT
,- 
 W#$,- <X .
 
 .7
29  
 )*  X ?35  .?M1X. WQ)

 0!; ! 7 =#$.
21;."
,S W#$,-  ?
#$ 35 )

@   7
29*;.Y
,-77P."

 87)*21N01

 )*29
4
 3/35;#$/  /=')*35;
721R
#$TDQWN9

  

 

>

 7;/
,-  ;635;#$;  ."

(
a11 x1 + a12 x2 = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 = b2

U: Z

 )*,-;T;  x0 = (x0 , x0 )  7  x0 1 x0 "

1
2
1
2
   B5 >#$.
29
:U  Z+
,-  W#$,- =   '% 

4,O


a11 a12
.
a21 a22

U %Z

x01 "A? ;+?   ; a22 "
B 1;(   (a )" B5(H)*;  29
  "
5
12

1 x0 "A? ;& ; ?  
2
(a12 )" B518   a11 " B58)*;   U 
 
4 @ Q<;'UV7M9
 9 % 9  Z
B5"
2:<
,- =W#$,- ; =W
535 Z9

'

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

DNL

a11 x1 +
a12 x2
a21 x1 +
a22 x2
(a
a

a
a
)x
+
0 x2

11 aa
12 21 1

0 x1 + (a11 a22 a12 a21 )x2


R)*N1

a11 a22 a12 a21 6= 0 9R)*

=
=
=
=

b1
b2
b1 a22 a12 b2
a11 b2 b1 a21

U: 0 Z

a11 b2 b1 a21
U 'MZ
.
a11 a22 a12 a21
8

,-  D
  )* 7W U: 0 Z("
 =  )*21*9 29U: ZI)*21M 35.
 ."
N15>U 'MZ35  .HU: Z "A>;;T 7 .M9
b1 a22 a12 b2
,
a11 a22 a12 a21

x01 =

x02 =

x1  x2
,-  x01  x02  )* Y;= )* 

a11 a22 a12 a21 0 P 7%U %Z<,-?."

 +)
N9%D218
SW&  %."

 % '     ' 
M98> =U %ZP,- 
  
,   UV .
# 
    !
 ZG35QQD )* 



a11 a12 
,
d = 
a21 a22 

d = det(aij )22 ,  d = |aij |22 .

U **Z

;87  D )* ;N1Y''M1<,-=,- K

    )*  >,O721  >
 
  +
 ,I 
  ."
CB5D
35.)*
29 a a  a a 
11 22
12 21
       
 G3529

     1 



1 47 WN15,-



a11 a12 

 = 0,
d=
a21 a22 

:U  Z
 I212I  .
RCB5D UV W' "
>N)*W87 Z9

9D Q29;CB


x01  x02  )*  ,O7  W)* 0  ."

7;

 ,

b1 a12
b2 a22



a11 b1
a21 b2

,-   29 1


 b1

 b2
0
x1 = 
a11
a21


a12 
a22 
,
a12 
a22 


a11

a21
0
x2 = 
a11
a21



b1 
b2 
,
a12 
a22 

U 2Z

 9 29 x0 "A% 7
/,O7H ,-%  


1
35  .M1, D6U %ZQ,-  &
N)*,-S:U  ZOY
#$N35NN1 x0 "A
2
7
',O7H+'  + ,-21
, DTU %Z(,-  H!(=W
)*,-N9
:U  ZYH7 &.+35. !
    
# 
35
21,- n = 2 9

     1 



1 ,- n = 2 1 A = (a ) M (R) ,-

ij
2


a
a 
|A| =  11 12 
a21 a22

   ! 
T 

21<,  
 ~
a1 = (a11 , a12 )  ~a2
@ .  ; R2 )*29

#$;

= (a21 , a22 )

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

 


@; ~
a1 1 ~a2 35 G35

#   
-/ 18
~a1 "A ~a2 "AP
 'U
Q
87;Z7>>;8
N9

#
# 

" B5P "

  

M1  ; W#$,- ;+ %."

 .
,-  35;#$&  +/7 8"
M1<4
 3 ,-W .
,-    35;#$  
;  

(
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = 0,
U "MZ
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = 0
? 7 29 7  Y  .?  .
 
 7 219 29)*, ;& , x 6= 0 9@N1 "
i
1 x 6= 0 9 C35' ; (x )" B5?+)* ;
2
3
D )* 2L y = x1  y = x2 9O)* U M
" Z17 C35
1
2
x3
x3
 N7N1 , U: Z;2L
(
a11 y1 + a12 y2 = a13 ,
a21 y1 + a22 y2 = a23 .




8

7N1 a11 a12  6= 0 1I)* &U 
2 ZQ#$.
(0."
a21 a22 





a13 a12 
a11 a13 




0
0
a23 a22 
a21 a23 
x
x
 , y20 = 20 = 

y10 = 10 = 

a11 a12  .
x3
x3
a
a
11
12




a21 a22 
a21 a22 
7 W U M
" ZP  % x0 1 x0 1 x0 18
1

 )*W#$29-&;    ."

 M1<8
(x0 , x0 , x0 )   7 > c"A "
1
2
3
% 21;)* (cx0 , cx0 , cx0 )  W  7 '@ 29
1
2
3
N)* 0>C35;

x01







a13 a12 
a11 a13 
a11 a12 
0
0
, x = 



= 
2
a21 a23  , x3 = a21 a22  ,
a23 a22 

U 5Z

9D Q29;CB


<@N1*; X 7 XDY,-.
 
."
 x0 "A> TD, c K  B59R
R7 
i

#$ 
Q7<,-WN1 )* )* ;N15<


 

a b   b a 

 

 c d = d c  ,

,!
R)
 <      .CB5D X "

 M9 U 5Z;)* X7 7C352L






a12 a13 
a11 a13 
a11
0
0





= 
,
x
=

,
x
=
2
3
a21 a23 
a21
a22 a23 


.  #$.
=   'N1Y a11
a21
x01


a12 
$ Z
. UM
a22 

a12 
6= 0 9
a22 

 )*.3521<H,-
=
!;8"

 2158
U $MZ;   N;8"A;X  .7
Q .
R"
  9O8
 X  > .
?21)* U $MZ#$"
.
60= 7 . U 7 .
 . Z1  7
 )* 0Q ,-215Q 7 >DQ 
& CB5>  UV  7W 21-)*  
Q;  x + x + x = 0    Z9
1

 


W 76.
,-  ==35;#$


>)*W87  .7CB5L

 

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 = b1 ,

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 ,

a x + a x + a x = b .
31 1
32 2
33 3
3

 M1 !; x  x
,- TW#$,- 


2
3
<21M<  < ; c "
1
B51R  c " B515.  c " B5<X)*;  2L
2

(a11 c1 + a21 c2 + a31 c3 )x1 + (a12 c1 + a22 c2 + a32 c2 )x2 +

+ (a13 c1 + a23 c2 + a33 c3 )x3 = b1 c1 + b2 c2 + b3 c3 .
7 XCB5  c1 , c2 , c3 
)*87;N1 D
  )*
35 x "AS x "AS 7   .
 298
/ 
T .

2
3

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

)*.QW#$,- M1 )*

   ML

(
 ,
D;

c1 , c2 , c3 "   7 D )*."

a12 c1 + a22 c2 + a32 c3 = 0,

a13 c1 + a23 c2 + a33 c3 = 0,

 P721,

U "MZY218P)*0+"



a22 a32 
,
c1 = 
a23 a33 





a12 a32 
a12 a22 
 , c3 = 

c2 = 
a13 a23  .
a13 a33 




a b 
a c 
)* )* ;N1-Q< 


 9-& 35 ."
 c d =  b d
 x0 "   DS)* 7

1





 
a22 a23 
a12 a13 
a12 a13 





 x =
a11 
a21 
+ a31 
a32 a33 
a32 a33 
a22 a23  1






a22 a23 
a12 a13 
a12 a13 
U MZ
 b2 



= b1 
a32 a33  + b3 a22 a23  .
a32 a33 

x1
,-  < W#$,-  G35

a11 a12 a13

a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33


 QD )* 
,- #    !


a11 a12 a13 


a21 a22 a23  .


a31 a32 a33 
 1.<     7  <D 7
."




a11 a12 a13 










a21 a22 a23  = a11 a22 a23  a21 a12 a13  +


a32 a33 
a32 a33 
a31 a32 a33 

 

9D Q29;CB




a12 a13 
 = a11 a22 a33 + a13 a21 a32 +
+ a31 
a22 a23 
+ a12 a23 a31 a11 a23 a32 a12 a21 a33 a13 a22 a31 , U:!#MZ

,/; P  X)
 D29*"

Q 721 U MZ :< Q.7<D x "A
1
W#$,-   1<8
a "  )*,- b "AN1 a "   b "A 
11
1
21
2
a "   b "AN95  U MZ )*0Q 7C35
31

 d x
1



x01 =





a11 a12 a13 
b1 a12 a13 




a21 a22 a23  x1 = b2 a22 a23  ,




a31 a32 a33 
b3 a32 a33 

= d1 9 
7;N15 d 6= 0 9 )* n = 2"A   "

d1
d2
d3 U !
     -/ 
 Z U: Z
.
, x02 =
, x03 =
d
d
d

,O721IQW>.:< )*0(  ; ;87M1

7
  29 )9X  =M1Q<, 47 "
 ;8721$7
  29 )9O
,- 29-&:< 4
 3+ "
 ; U MZ>#$.
%  
%#$.
(+  "
 ;87
,-  Q;  P
)* ?;87
  ;87
,-  6T; c , c , c , c
1 2 3 4
29 7 N0  c "A (i = 1, 2, 3, 4)  )*  
i
  >;    9
W#$,- M1<, D x ". %= =.'"
1
Q    U MZ#$.
> .
R)*>7N1 7
@ ;87+ !  M9N8
 +.:<
7 x2 , x3  x4 "  M1 7 H x0 "   :U  Z "A
i
  
 #$.
M9 )*0P  0;
R
9
35 ')*211
 7 ?.D, D35 CB5 .M1; 0

> 
@,-  ,-29

 
 1
 



1 .  (  (35& )"

  .CB5D?  
 35.2L > 

QJJJ 95


)*!E

,IQ  

 

+ K )* 
Q 

)*!E K  )* N9

W  
  
Q35.>;87    M9

 
 1
 



1 4 7 WN1

+.+ 6  
Q@Q35QS)*0> ;
 29

 



)*35WN15


 

a11 a12 a13  a11 a21 a31 

 

a21 a22 a23  = a12 a22 a32  ,

 

a31 a32 a33  a13 a23 a33 

 
  1 





 0
a b 

a 0 c  = 0.


 b c 0

1 ,- n = 3 1 A = (a ) M (R) ,-

ij
3


a11 a12 a13 


|A| = a21 a22 a23 
a31 a32 a33 

  %? 
/6,O


21,( 
 ~
a1 = (a11 , a12 , a13 ) 1 ~a2 = (a21 , a22 , a23 )
 ~
a3 = (a31 , a32 , a33 ) @CB5 ./ ; R3
)*29
@; ~
a1 1 ~a2 1 ~a3  
 .
XG35 #
# 

 
#   

-/ 1M8
%
  ~a "A ~a "A ~a "A .7"
1
2
3
 < 7
 7>>;8
NL



9D Q29;CB


  !
#
 -/ (n n) 
 $%
#     !
 



  

7 )* ; ,- 21-, 
,- n"


 +,-+  +  .CB5DM9IC35&"
 ?0 n = 2  n = 3"AQ)*W8729
 ,H
;,- U <J 1M
 @ 9 % 9  Z 1, 2, . . . , n ,O7
  i , i , . . . , i  &Q  .CB5D
("
1 2
n
N1 ,/ i  1, 2, . . . , n ,O7 ;;21 
k
, ;(4 7(:<1 n  ; UV n ;Z

#
!
$  

G3529*  i1 " <)*.
0YD n  .7"

< )* 21 i " Y,-.
 i "  <)*.
0YD n 1
2
1
 )* 21 i " Y,-.
 i "  X i "  Y)*.
0YD
3
1
2
n 2  )* H+29 )9 1>
 n    ? @
n(n 1)(n 2) 2 1 = n!  ,-29 1, 2, . . . , n  ,-"
 G35 
(-/ 9
@ i , i , . . . , i  1, 2, . . . , n ,O7X,-.
N "
1 2
n
,-29N1,O7 (i , i ) 1 k < l 1R35>@    
k l
  
 18
i > i 927 1 N1 ;,-.
  "
k
l
,-)* i  j ,O7@   M18
i > j 
 ,-"
)* i 35 H
R35 j " M9  ,-SG35 (-  U )*."
 !  Z1 8
( N@   
53 U )*."
  
Z,O7M9 i , i , . . . , i  ,-)*Y 
1 2
n
,O7 I = I(i , i , . . . , i ) ; D )* 29
1

      

  

  I(3, 5, 1, 4, 2, 6, 8, 7) = 7 UV @  (3, 1) 1 (3, 2)
(5, 1) 1

(5, 4) 1 (5, 2)
(4, 2) 1 (8, 7) 35Z9

QJJJ 95


 

,IQ  



 ,-)*& +,O7%H+;

35.2L
Z ;!,O7N;6,O7 "
21,+35 $
R35 C" 
; C" B5
7CB5;
,O7 9
Z ; ,O7 % !; % 
R7CB5="
,O7  21I,T35 P
R35 %" ( 
%" B5
7CB5; ,O7 % U 8
S,O7 &
 %'@ 
 M18)* ++ C:B5 Z  29 )9
W  D
=,O76:<= ,-.  "
 I ,O7<,-.
  ,-)*29;6 ."
%,O7 3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 7  ,-)*29;
C35;
,-.P,O7 9R,O7(
 P >@ 
<,O7 1. ,O7 ' 
1 *  % 95,O7 Q 7"
B5;   )* ; & )*@ ( H,O7"

 ' 957>  ,-)*

3, 4, 2, 6 1, 5, 6, 7

%  T@ T ,O7 9P.S,O7 ' )*R9

7CB5; 6
% / )* ;   )*@ / "
 ,O7>29

3, 4, 6 2, 6 1, 5, 6, 7.
+  ,-)* ' , ; ,O7 + @ ! ."
M189 29-,O7 ' "A+ )*@ ( H,O7"
?,-.
  ,-)* # "A 29- 
35.
 N15  ,-)*P7  87  P"
,O7  )*@ 6  ,O7 # "A=29
)*1 I(3, 4, 2, 1, 5, 6, 7) = 5 9P 1 ,-.

 ,-  29





 ,-

47 
 
I(1, 2, . . . , n) = 0 9*@N1 n, n 1, . . . , 2, 1  ,-)*P"
,O7X X35P@ Q M9 N
 ,-."
)*Q  ,O7

I(n, n 1, . . . , 2, 1) = Cn2 =

n(n1) 9
2

 '

9D Q29;CB


 ,-)* 

 Q    )*,- < ."
 
  ,  $ 
G3529

       !
#
# 



     


  

 


  !



        !    

#
&! $ 



GB5( & .B5,-+)* 

,->.7 <Q >
;;   21<
C"A6,-X X,O7 UVCB5Y
,-Z
)*"
1 ,-P35,9 i  j   . . . , i, a , . . . , a ,
1
s
j, . . . 7 . . . , a1 , . . . , as , i, . . .  .B5,-21P, 7 s
 /)*
21;)*0/  .7,-. 2s + 1 ."
B5Q   .B5,->)* L :< i" > ,-."
 ')

  ; & j "   6U s + 1  .B5"
,-Z1)* > j " P ,- <)

  ; PUV"
 s  .B5,-Z92 
1 7 8  ,-<35
"
<
:



*
)




,






W

N

M
1




P







,'D
  ,- @
(2s + 1)
C35 D  3529

 #   ,- n > 1 
53T  ,-%,O7 n ."
;  ,-)*    ,- ,O7 29
#
 &! $ 

 C35; !
535!  ,-6!"
   .)*&7 ;N1 1H+ 
 .B5,-29)* 7 -DN1  8:<1; 
 ,-M9


  

7 ;67 ,- 2171 n -/

,- 29 n 

 {1, 2, . . . , n}
,O7 
;;,-7 a 7  CB5YG35

n -/
 

9 D )* 2L
 ;


 

a=

  

i1 i2 . . . in
j1 j2 . . . jn

a=


i1 i2 . . . in
,
i1 i2 . . . in

U: Z

, j = i a = 1 j = i a = , . . . , j = i a = "
1
1
i1
2
2
i2
n
n
in
 {i , i , . . . , i } = {1, 2, . . . , n}  ? 7 a 7
1 2
n
M9;,O721;(W/,O7H)*,-/
  W#$,-
a 7?)*.721$  X  .CB5D {1, 2, . . . , n} "
'& ' 7M9 a 7'@ :U  Z 7'

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



77 7 C3529 a 7%; 7 C35 ?GB5 "

=)*0=;  / .B5,- )
N9
  <)*.0'U: Z7 W 7 C35 D21
B5 UV@@Z$@ .)*N  n  ;
35 35=,-.

 ,-29 01 n"
  a 7)*.0
7C35Q)*  !
& !-/ 
  L


1 2 ... n
a=
,
1 2 . . . n
1 = 1a, 2 = 2a, . . . , n = na,

U: 0 Z

9 29B5>@ .)* ,O7 

   N9$W "
 7C35 677 76  .7 /; ."
  H@/@  ,-N1! n -/


 
  
  $  
n    

  #& 
  
#
!
$   
 
  $  

  
n!  
9

n"
<77 7 Q 8 35  .   -/




1 2 ... n
e=
,
1 2 ... n
 ,  NB5Y87 Q> 29
D; n"
P77 a 7  7  C35


i1 i2 . . . in
a=
.
j1 j2 . . . jn
-   1M8
&Y  7 C35XX
a 7 PG35 (
@ (  ; ,O7?
535? !  HC35"
D  )*W87)*297  %@N1 7 =
53521
8
S&@ '@'; +35%&  
C35 D  3529

     1  !


8

3   % 9 9 %"A0 a 735"

5
 4&
&( 
 7 C35  
@ ?7N1$9 29O;   
 7((7 C35(@
;  3529



9D Q29;CB



a 77C35 U: 0 ZP7N1)* a 7%35

8
 CB5D
@@ .)*  , , . . . , ,-."
1
2
n
35N9 @ 8  M1  n -/
 

(- 
  
  $  
&! 

1 n!  
9

  
  $    

 


  35  7 W21X,


B5;4 /@ 
29 CB5 /  ;

 

!
 
 1O,  ,   .+C3 "
M9 n"

77 7X !)*.
Y"
;T  .CB5D
 . n"
 77 7 1
,%G35,-.
 7  ; !
 
 ."
GB5&UV
 7H41, ,O7  7C35."
Z95 1O8
/,-.
>@N771
 7

a=
)*


1 2 3 4 5 6
,
5 2 1 6 4 3
ab =

b=


1 2 3 4 5 6
,
6 1 2 4 3 5


1 2 3 4 5 6
.
3 1 6 5 4 2

 ;,1 a 7/ %  2" )*21  b" )*&"
 2%  ' " )*21I ab" )*? +  ' " )*21
%29 )9;@ ,O721;17/ ',-,-
29
 WX,O721OX 
1
 7?)* ;.
 P."
   W>  M95Q 721

a=

i1 i2 . . . in
j1 j2 . . . jn

7 )*
 
7Q


j1 j2 . . . jn
,
i1 i2 . . . in

QJJJ 95




,IQ  

, D a"   YB5  @Q@ (  ,-"

N9 n"
?77 7+ 218,- n 3 1-"
.
,-
29;,1

a=

1 2 3 ... n
2 1 3 ... n



b=

1 2 3 ... n
3 2 1 ... n

7? @

ab =

1 2 3 ... n
2 3 1 ... n

6=

1 2 3 ... n
3 1 2 ... n

= ba.

  1 n"
'77 7/%.
,-"


Y
(UV,- n 3 Z:<
#$XY n -/ 
 
  -/
 -   G35Q Sn ;>D )* 29
$  !(-/
 
 $  ! G35  /,O7S"
M1N)*, ,-.
 7==6,O7
>.)*21R +..)*QP29 )9 1
   &."
)*29 ,-PD )*  P,O7Q;S  #$8
 7.7."
)*
 7 > N1I ,  (;.)*( 
,-.

 7HM9I8
,O7+H)*( M18)*
<;@ <,-M9,-<G35 #
  - ! # 
  18
(
 4
 7  ; ,O729O(
 7>)*0 ;;
7 )*6
!,-= 9 "
1


1 2 3 4 5 6
= (163)(25)(4).
6 5 1 4 2 3

7 # !   d G35 n s 7M15, n 

N ,O721 7 s >
T,-<N,O7
?)*)*2L d = n s 9 7 ?35  .7? 7 
 /35M9N,-.
  8)* n = 6 1 s = 3 1
d = 3 1R9 297 Q 29



9D Q29;CB


8
? .B5,-%
,-.%,O721, 
,-."


 n  ;;; i , i , . . . , i  ,-  "
1 2
n
WT< ; j , j , . . . , j  ,-CB5
1

i1 i2 . . . in
j1 j2 . . . jn

7   29X 1 n  ; 

 ,-Q ;

 ;<  ,-21
,  )*0H  ; ,-.
  ,-)*
(n 1)" B5N   .B5,- )
N9

  

@

a11 . . . a1n
A = . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mn (K)
an1 . . . ann

n"
>  
 ,-21 aij K 1R, K "
Q&UV 1 K = R, C  Z Z9
p
,- n = 1 : |a| = a K 9
,- n = 2 15 @


a11 a12 

 = a11 a22 a12 a21 .
|A| = 
a21 a22 
,-

n = 31


a11 a12 a13 


|A| = a21 a22 a23  = a11 a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21 a32
a31 a32 a33 
a13 a22 a31 a12 a21 a33 a11 a23 a32 .

n = 2  n = 3 )*W87 EG 7KH#
0NB5 "

W     .CB5DS  GB5 CB5' 
n"
   
 ,-M9

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

      
 
,  

  A
#     !
  G35 n!

 ,-H)*. n -/

35;Q 
 :<.


  



 a11 a12 . . . a1n 


 a21 a22 . . . a2n 
=
|A| = 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
an1 an2 . . . ann 
X
=
(1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 ann , U %Z
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

, ( , , . . . , )  .X n 

Y,O7

1
2
n
 n!  ,- N)*  N)*  LMY35."
<35  .YN@  ;
"
 D
 n  ?  21  Y35."
 D
SE + K% )* N188
( @.(@  >
5)
3 7
 E K' )*  !35 D %)*W87)*298 H
)*.)*Q (
 7 7C35; @ WQ  N9
1 1
D )* ."
7)*   < W det A 1 det(a ) 1 |a |
ij
ij nn d
M9

      #     !
    
 
 


, 
   

  

 


  !

1 0 ... 0
0 1 . . . 0

E = En =
. . . . . . . . . . . . ,
0 1 ... 1

|E| = 1 

#
&
 ! $ 

 47 ;N1



a11 a12 . . . a1n 


 0 a22 . . . a2n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = a11 a22 ann .


0
0 . . . ann 

   
 


 

9D Q29;CB


  
  ;& ()* E + K/ )*  
,-    7
)*21O  <>)*.."
  
(
 729B5Q
87?,- )*W87)* X "
7
)*(( 8
 7 ?35 .
&29I;,1I8

a11 a22 ann 6= 0 1$)* 1 1 1 2 2 , . . . , n n 9$ 
1 + 2 + + n = 1 + 2 + + n 9 .QY)*.0 .7
)* 15,- = 1 1 = 2, . . . , = n 9501 |E| = 1 9


 #  

  !

  

   

 &$
!




a11 a12 . . . a1n 


 0 a22 . . . a2n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6= 0


0
0 . . . ann 

  !       

aii 6= 0  0 i n 

>Q  



 a11 . . . a1,n1 a1n 


 a21 . . . a2,n1 0 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


an1 . . .
0
0 

VU 9 29-&  21I)*,

   @;S .
 Z9
@ A M
(K) L

+  ("

mn

a1 b
a2 . . . b
an
b
a11 a12 . . . a1n
a1

A = a21 a22 . . . a2n a9 2

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
am
am1 am2 . . . amn

a1 , a2 , . . . , am "A D )* ; A ,- @ 215,

K n " 
  17 b
a1 , b
a2 , . . . , b
an "A A ,-21 "
, K
b m " Q
  1 9 29 ai = (ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain ) 1 i = 1, 2, . . . , m
 b
aj = (a1j , a2j , . . . , amj )t 1 j = 1, 2, . . . , n 9
   

  A       !        ai  aj  i 6= j 
   !             !  !  |A0 | = |A|      A0

 

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

              
   

   !        
#
&! $ 





          !

 

 



    ! 

@



. . . . . . . . . . . . 


 ai1 . . . ain 


|A| = . . . . . . . . . . . . 
aj1 . . . ajn 


. . . . . . . . . . . . 


 

 . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

 

aj1 . . . ajn   bi1 . . . bin 




|A0 | = . . . . . . . . . . . . = . . . . . . . . . . . . , i < j.
 ai1 . . . ain  bj1 . . . bjn 

 

 . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . 

? 7

D;

bik = ajk , k = 1, . . . , n,
bjk = aik , k = 1, . . . , n,

b = a , k = 1, . . . , n; p 6= i, j.
pk
pk

|A0 |"A>B5  35P
 )* L

b11 bii bjj bnn = a11 aji aij ann .

P)*. 7 


1 ... i ... j ... n
.
1 . . . i . . . j . . . n
8
=
  +35H  7 C35; @ W("
  N15D |A|    35
a11 . . . aij . . . aji . . . ann ,

 7


1 ... i ... j ... n
.
1 . . . j . . . i . . . n

 

9D Q29;CB


D
 7QC35 D  3529$ 1 |A0 |
 |A| )* P;P  35  15,=  .7"
Q.7 )* ;N159 29 |A0 | = |A| 9

0
   




ai = cai
A 
 i

 
0

c
 
|A | = c|A|
#
 &! $ 

 |A0 |" )*<)* P )* i"
Y@"
 N)* .7 ;>  ca 95 1

          

    !

  
    !

    

 

    ! 

ii





. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. . . . . . . . . . . .




cai1 . . . cain  = c ai1 . . . ain  .




. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
. . . . . . . . . . . .

ai = (0, . . . , 0)    ! |A| = 0 

 ! |A| = 0 |A| = 0 
   

 U 35;#$?Z9
 #  

   !

a i = 0 ai 

ai = (ai1 , . . . , ain ) = (bi1 , . . . , bin ) + (ci1 , . . . , cin ) = bi + ci

       i
        !        !     

    ! |A| 
 |A0 | +
|A00 |    !  !  



  A
 i
 ai      ! !       !  !

ci      !  

    A

   
 
bi 

    ! 
       
     


 


 
 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . . 

 
 

bi1 + ci1 . . . bin + cin  = bi1 . . . bin  + ci1 . . . cin  .

 
 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . .   . . . . . . . . . . . 
#
&
 ! $ 


X
|A| =
(1)I(i ,...,n ) a11 (bii + cii ) ann =
(1 ,...,n )

(1 ,...,n )

(1)I(i ,...,n ) a11 bii ann +

(1 ,...,n )

(1)I(i ,...,n ) a11 cii ann =

= |A0 | + |A00 |.
 87  >  ;


C" * EACB5K+ 9

QJJJ 95




,IQ  

   


  i 6= j  ai = aj    ! |A| = 0 
#
 &!  $ 

  7; |A|" Q >35
b = (1)I1 a11 aii ajj ann ,

i < j,

I1 = I(1 , . . . , i , . . . , j , . . . n ).

 

aik = ajk 1 k = 1, 2, . . . , n 1RDT35

c = (1)I1 a11 aji aij ann .


c" >  7C35;

8
@ 

,

@ WP> N1R ."

c = (1)I2 a11 aij aji ann ,

I2 = I(1 , . . . , j , . . . , i , . . . n ).

,O721 (1)I1 = (1)I2 98
W @ / ."
 |A|" /%35M1 7 (DN1
( /;#$
351O< :< .
   P ."
  Q .
 29


        

             a0i = ai + caj 

A       !       A0
i 6= j  c K    ! |A0 | = |A| 
#
&! $ 

 ;,1$8
|A0 |   ()* 
  :<TU i"
@ 7;Z17  8D
|A|" YY .
   M1*)*, i"
N@  c
 &  +)* 4 @H(;  @  U a
j
i"
X@   NB5Y aj  j "
T NB5 Z9


   

 ,-
( )
+ 0(  )*


Q 215 Q;21 .
 @,-;N9
N1X A M (K) ,- i"
6@  
n
 8
 7 @     ! 
 !
$ 
1M8
& ."
 l , . . . , l , l , . . . , l K 1
 a = l a + l a
1
i1 i+1
n
i
1 1
i1 i1 +
li+1 ai+1 + + ln an 9 lj W#$,-  1 j = 1, . . . , i 1, i +
1, . . . , n 1)*0B5 ;N .
<NM1 9 29  .)*
 7 
i"
 @ +@ +35;#$+ ,-&&+ 8

'

9D Q29;CB


@ 215  C35290158
l W#$,- ."
j
 P.7 ;  .7 .
  1OD Q"
@ H,-
H)*W87M9M18
@ 
)* Y .
  1R)*  <>@ X 8
 7 Y"
@  35;#$/ ,-21 S.!/)*W8721,-/ l
i
.
 29
   

UV  P .
<
YP"
Z9


A 


 
a

 
 

    
        ! 
!  |A| = 0 

#
&! $ 



ai =

n
X
j=1
j6=i

            !       !  i   

 !   !      !         !      

;,18

lj aj = l1 a1 + + li1 ai1 + li+1 ai+1 + + ln an =

n
X
j=1
j6=i

lj aj1 ,

n
X

lj aj2 , . . . ,

j=1
j6=i

n
X

lj ajn ,

j=1
j6=i

)* N )*; |A|    (n 1)   Q:<

  j "
'  " )*. i"
@  8 "

 ; l  29Q)*  D    
j
; Q@  U i"
Q@ (    a "
j
@ 21 j "
P@      a @ Z9
j
   


UV )*   .CB5D?B5 >35.Z9

        

a 1 1 a 2 2 a n n
I(1 ,2 ,...,n )+I(1 ,2 ,...,n )

 

 !     
!


    !  !     

|A|
(1)
#
 &! $ 

 ;,1 8
a a a 35 7C35;
n n
1 1
2 2
@ WX  N1 DN1  a
1 1 a 2 2 a n n =
5
9












5
1










=
,




,


N

1
a11 a22 ann

(1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n )+I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) = (1)I(1,2,...,n)+I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) .

.X< )* 21*, 7 WY . a
1 1 a 2 2
35 )*   Q)*  )*29
a
n n

QJJJ 95


   

   


  !

 |At | = |A|  

#
&! $ 



 7;



,IQ  

!         !  !   





|At |" QB5  352L

(1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) at11 at22 atnn =

= (1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a1 1 a2 2 an n =
= (1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 ann =

= (1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 ann ,

  (1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) = (1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) 9

DWN18 |At |" +(35+& )* 
)*  )*2159 29 |At | = A 9

  


n)
     |A| 
!  !           
!          ! 
 #  



 " 
         A 

   !  !       
       
 !  !           !  

)*

|A|" 

(n

   
       
        

#     !


  

 
  
 ;
  .CB5DN"
#
0NB51* , n! )*."A  :<Y 0 
P
)*W87)*, 215,- n 0 <> M9



      
   A = (a )
    
ij nn  

 $         !   
   !            
   !%       

 

  

 
    
  

  !

    !   "
 !    $    t     !  
  !               

       

a011
0 a022
0

A =

0



. . . . . . . . a0nn

|A| = (1)t a011 a0nn .

 



9D Q29;CB


#
 &! $ 



 

(1)t a011 a0nn 9

|A0 | = (1)t |A| 1  |A| = (1)t |A0 | =



   
 $  
#     !

8- + $  


, 

 
  #

 
 





       
UV  T#
 @,-

 ,-X;;Y)*.7Z9

   

*SCB5F."

   !     d  


A Mn (K)            !    d(A) K     !  

    
       !  !    !    "
        

  ! d(A)
= |A|        !  !   !     |A|         !

 
 #"      

#
 &! $ 

  ; A ,-;@   Z$ %Z$"
N 
N @ SU
% Z$ t @ ZO
87

7GB5

a011
0 a022
9
A0 =
99
0

9 9
9

. . . . . . . . a0nn

)* d(A0 ) = (1)t d(A) 215)*1 d(A) = (1)t d(A0 ) 9
8
S @   W a0   H(&B5;
nn
# "AQ35@ N1D

a11
09
99

99
9
= a011 a0nn .
d(A0 ) = a0nn d
0 . . . a0

0
n1,n1
0 ...
...
1

WQ.:< )* TDN1

0

d(A ) =
 1

a011

a0nn d

1 99 0
9
0
1

d(A) = (1)t d(A0 ) = (1)t a011 a0nn = |A| 9

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



#     !
 
 
  
  #

!
-  
#





   
#    !
 
 

  
,  #$@.; A =




(aij )nn 
Q,- aij  29  7; n"

    



 a11 . . . a1,j1 0 a1,j+1 . . . a1n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0
1
0
. . . 0 (i),
Aij =  0 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


an1 . . . an,j1 0 an,j+1 . . . ann 
(j)

/,-'D&C35/   ,- 

aij   C"A )*,-N1O7 i"
 @ ( j "

X7< Y .
!)*,-N9   

  G35 a  
 
 -/&#

 

9"
ij
 ND
 A D )* 29)* )* ;N1 A  N"
ij
ij

SC35T   i"
 @   j "

& CB518  |A|   H )*."
21I,S)*,- i"
 @ ( j "
 
 M18  a " 218 .
%2187 Q)*."A ."
ij
M1, )*,- a = 1" M1; W+N1
ij
B5<  <
29




    
   A = (a ) M (K)  Ab = (A )

ij
n
ij nn

                   !           !  ! A        

  !                      ! A Abt = Abt A = |A|E 
     !                       

    E
 !       
1)

n
X

     !  !  

j=1

aij Aij = |A|,

i

i = 1, 2, . . . , n


 

 

 

    !           



9D Q29;CB


2)

n
X

aij Akj = 0,

     !  !  

i, k = 1, 2, . . . , n


j=1

3)

n
X

4)

aij Aij = |A|,

     !  !  

i=1

n
X

i

j

aij Aik = 0,

     !  !  

#
 &! $ 

 

 

    !     

j = 1, 2, . . . , n


j

i 6= k

       

 

                
j, k = 1, 2, . . . , n


i=1

 

  ,

  ,

          

j 6= k

      

Z 

(ai1 , . . . , aij , . . . , ain ) = (ai1 , 0, . . . , 0) + + (0, . . . , aij , . . . , 0)+

+ + (0, . . . , 0, ain ),

)*   1' 1*R1R"   7




|A| =
aij 0 . . . 0

j=1


n
X

=
aij 0 . . . 0

j=1
n
X

 #    ZY@

D




1 0 . . . 0 =


n
0  X

1 0 . . . 0 =
aij Aij .
0  j=1

|A|   )*  87.
 i"
>"

@ QQ,-.
 K   n   b , . . . , b 9
1
n
P  i"
>@ + ( 
 ."
CB58 <:<
  212,O)*

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



ai1 , . . . , ain   ,-    b1 , . . . , bn  



 a11 . . . a1n 


 . . . . . . . . . . . . .
n
X


bj Aij =  b1 . . . bn  .
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
j=1


an1 . . . ann 
;,1



 a11 . . . a1n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . 


 b1 . . . bn  = b 1 A 0 + + b n A 0 ,
i1
in


. . . . . . . . . . . . . 


an1 . . . ann 

, A0 , . . . , A0     i"
;@ <."

i1
in
 & 
+298 Q 
+
4 
 i"
?@ H CB518>
 W87 A , . . . , A C35N  < 
S"
i1
in
M9
%Z

n
X
j=1

aij Akj



ai1 . . . ain  i


 =0

= 

ai1 . . . ain  k





U )*   7 <   k "
P@  7

)*21 , D
SC35T    k "


@  i"
?@  )*,-()* 4(, .
R"
 21  < 
7 QQ;  @ Z9
'MZX1
 **Z /.  ZY %ZY( . 
 At "
,- UV  |A| = |At | 1 |At |"  j "
'@"
!7 )*'35  . |A|"  j "
%=7
)* Z9





9D Q29;CB



 
  !.7  
! "
M1O,  WX0>)
(  ? "
;! ;
#$ 6    = "
;CB59
#$@.; A = (a )

%,- a ."
ij nn
ij
 29O8
=X,O)* )* i"
 @ .  j "
 
UV,(  a " B5 Z1D n1  ,OM1
ij
n 1  ?  ?G35 ,-.
 ,-?"
   a  (U #

 
   Z     M "
ij
ij
&D )* 29B5 2:<  &
535 ?  n 1  

 @,OM9 )* )* ;N1 ,-.
 A = (a )
ij nn
,-? @ n2  M  29
ij

  
       

     Aij














!   i+j
  !  ! 

    (1)i+j  
(1) Mij     Aij = Mij  ! Aij = Mij
     !      i + j 






#
&! $ 



    Mij 

       Aij =
       

,-  7;

P)*W8729

 Z i = j = 1L


1 0 . . . 0  

  a22 . . . a2n 


0 a22 . . . a2n  
 = . . . . . . . . . . . = M11 = (1)1+1 M11 .
A11 = 
 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . an2 . . . ann 
0 an2 . . . ann 
X
A11 =
(1)I(1 ,2 ,...,n ) a11 a22 ann =
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

(2 ,...,n )

(1)I(2 ,...,n ) a22 ann



 a22 . . . a2n 


= . . . . . . . . . . . = M11 ,
an2 . . . ann 

  I(1, , . . . , ) = I( , . . . , )  M   )*

2
n
2
n
11
  XX; @.X; @ ."
 P CB595 1 A = (1)1+1 M 9
11

11

QJJJ 95


,IQ  




%Z@ 7 i  j 2L



 a11 . . . a1,j1 0 a1,j+1 . . . a1n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


0
1
0
. . . 0  .
Aij =  0 . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


an1 . . . an,j1 0 an,j+1 . . . ann 
 ; C
 "A  (aij = 1) ,O7 +B5&
87.)*H1
)* 8.7
 ;6 87  @ <<
;;  ."
 292.N4
3 M1M n1   Mij  N )*."
,-M9RNCB5 S7 ; i"
Y@ >

UVGB5Z .B5,-Y@ B5;6<;@,-W!)*."

 j "
X ;T:<  X,O7 295D

Aij = (1)(i1)+(j1)


1
0
...
0
0
...
0 


0 a11 . . . a1,j1
a1,j+1 . . . a1n 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0 ai1,1 . . . ai1,j1 ai1,j+1 . . . ai1,n  = (1)i+j Mij


0 ai+1,1 . . . ai+1,j1 ai+1,j+1 . . . ai+1,n 
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0 a
... a
a
... a 
n1

n,j1

n,j+1

nn

B5;S  .7


i = j = 1 )*W87 0N9


   


   ;   


1 2 3


= 2 3 1 .
3 1 2

ZN  .CB5D  71

= 1 3 2 + 2 3 1 + 2 2 3 3 3 3 1 1 1 2 2 2 = 18.
ZN @  7

)*>)* TD








3 1
2 1 
2 3 
1+2
 + 2 (1)
+3

= 1 

3 1 = 18.
1 2
3 2




9D Q29;CB


*Z@ WQ 
 @   S @

1 2 3
1
2
3
1
2
3
2 3 1 0 1 5 0 1 5
3 1 2
3
1
2
0 5 7

1
2
3

0 1 5 ,

0
0 18

7  ,- B5&
87H79@7 "
 W .70 Z;  
 @ 21R,
 ,-   M9 1 = 1 (1) 18 = 18 9




 

   ;

  



 2
5 3 2 

 2 3
2 5 
= 
.
3 2
2 
 1
 1 6
4
3 

.@ Q;
,-

W  
 @ 

  ;

@"





 0 1

 0 1

1
6
1
6





 2 3

0
3 2 1 
2 5 





3 2
2 
3 2
2 
 1
 1
 1 6
 1 6
4
3 
4
3 


 0 1
1 6 

 0
3 2 1 

.
3 2
2 
 1
 0 3
2
5 

7 ?  W

. 7  Z    
' @ 21

,(',- I  M9 8

     

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



)*TQ 7N1 @ 



 1
1 6 

= 1 (1)3+1  3 2 1  = 4.
 3
2
5 


  

   U "
!     ;6."

n

 
' #$')
;Z9X ; "
  



9 5 0 0 . . . 0 0


4 9 5 0 . . . 0 0


n = 0 4 9 5 . . . 0 0 .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


0 0 0 0 . . . 4 9

)*;T  > @  7NL

n = 9 n1 + (1) 5 = 9 n1 + (5) 4 n2

U )*.  )*<  W <P7 )"

 Z9 8
' 35 N15 = 9  = 61 1 )* D."

1
2

;
 

#$.
 0;)
N ;
n  n"  M9PT35.
 21Q n =
5n+1 4n+1 UV%,- )*021 1 
@,-
n"A ;;Z9



Z


 &$
!
 ;W n"
Q    2L



0 0 . . . 0 1 


0 0 . . . 1 0 


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


0 1 . . . 0 0 


1 0 . . . 0 0 

UV <  Q W=Y < .
 217"

 Q  ?Q C"A Z9


'

9D Q29;CB


Z



 1 2 3 . . . n 2 n 1 n


2 3 4 . . . n 1

n
n


3 4 5 . . .
n
n
n .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 


n n n . . .
n
n
n

  

   ;T W 35
 
 #    

 # #     !







1 x1 x2 . . . xn1 
1
1


1 x2 x2 . . . xn1 
2
2
 , x1 , . . . , xn K.
V (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) = 
. . .
. . . . . . . . .2 . . . . . . . .n1
 1 x n xn . . . x n 

8
!    x

bn x1 x
bn1 1 x
bn1 x1 x
bn2 , . . . , x
b2

































@








+









D


































+

"
x1 x
b1
P@  7 )*M1DNL

V (x1 ,x2 , . . . , xn ) =


1

0
0
...
0


1 x2 x1 x2 (x2 x1 ) . . . xn2 (x2 x1 ) 
2
=
= 

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.


1 xn x1 xn (xn x1 ) . . . xn2

n (xn x1 )
= (x2 x1 ) (xn x1 )V (x2 , . . . , xn ).

8
/Y  0N1 

V (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) =

DNL

(xi xj ).

1j<in

)* )* ;N15

,- x 6= x 1 i
i
j
 .7
Z9

V (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) 6= 0  )* <>.7 )* 1

6= j UV9 29;,-' x1 , x2 , . . . , xn  

QJJJ 95


,IQ  








 x
0 0 ...
0 a0

x 0 ...
0 a1
 1

0 a2
 0 1 x . . .

 ..........................
 0
0 0 ...
x an1

 0
0 0 . . . 1 an




 &$
!
 47 WTUV!Y76)*;Z1



 &$
!


a 6=

b 95)*




  
 &$
!


@







 = a 0 + a 1 x + + a n xn .





f (x) = (c1 x)(c2 x) (cn x) 1



c 1 a a . . . a 


 b c2 a . . . a 


 b b c3 . . . a  = af (b) bf (a) .


ab
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .


 b b b . . . cn 
;W

n"
Q    



n 1 . . . 1 


1 n . . . 1


. . . . . . . . . . . . 


 1 1 . . . n

n"A'21H 87 

   C"A Z9 
 -& (2n 1)(n 1)n1 9
UVWH  / 


   
 &$ 

!
 ,-W U @ 7')*%

 
 
 #$ D>)
;Z1

,



a 0 . . . 0 b 


 0 a . . . b 0


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . = (a2 b2 )k ,


 0 b . . . a 0


 b 0 . . . 0 a

n = 2k &,- B529



9D Q29;CB


 
8
M  PUV9 29 k "

 ,-N  Z1
, ;
 n"
>  ,- i , . . . , i "
1
k
 P@ )*  j , . . . , j  P)*21 1 k n 1 1
1

)* I M #

 

       CB5D , nk
 <,-Y  21,%D i , . . . , i "
1
k
@ Q j , . . . , j  )*>)* 95@
1


a11

a
A =  21
a31
a41

a12
a22
a32
a42

a13
a23
a33
a43


a14 
a24 
,
a34 
a44 

k = 2 1 i1 = 1 1 i2 = 3 1 j1 = 1 1 j2 = 4 95)*


a11 a14 
,
M = 
a31 a34 



a22 a23 
.
M = 
a42 a43 

01 a  Y n 1    21*, ,-

ij
i"
 @   j "
  )* D
21
"
;   35 35   9 M  

A(M )
 
 -/ #

 

)*    CB5D2L

A(M ) = (1)(i1 ++ik )+(j1 ++jk ) M = (1)s M

,

 

s = (i1 + + ik ) + (j1 + + jk ) 9

   !
#
# 

 !      k
    M !   !    

   A(M ) = (1)s M                 !  !  



k!(n k)!         
        !    ! !  
         !     !  !        !        ! 

#
&! $ 

 A = (aij ) Mn (K)

 ?)*,-
)*,- (n

,- k "
?  "

5
3






M

1

7




4







+






& A(M )
k!
k)! 35M9:<  7; )*W8721,- M

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



 Q,- ,O7  B5Q
87.)*>;




99


9
 a11 . . . a1k
a1,k+1 . . . a1n 


99
 ...
9
M
...
...
. . . 

99


9
 ak1 . . . akk

a
.
.
.
a
k,k+1
kn



A = . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ,
99


ak+1,1 . . . ak+1,k 9 ak+1,k+1 . . . ak+1,n 


99
 ...
9
...
M
. . . 
...

99


9
 an1 . . . ank
an,k+1 . . . ann 

 9 29 i = 1, . . . , i = k  j = 1, . . . , j = k 9
)* M  "

1
k
1
k
Y:< X@Y
87. M9 M "AP 
 


M  <35  .M1*  ;,O7 s = (1 + + k) +

(1+ +k) = 2(1+ +k) 
53529 M  B5 !35Y@
7 (1)I1 a
1
1$7 M "A+B5 
11 akk I1 = I(1 , . . . , k )
35  (1)I2 a
1
1M)* M M
k+1,k+1 ann I1 = I(k+1 , . . . , n )
 B5 T35 @ P7L

(1)I1 +I2 a11 akk ak+1,k+1 ann ,

()

 , HW n  ;( 218, ,-


77 @ )* Q77 )*  P   ."

29)*1 |A|   %352947 ;N1
I1 + I2 = I(1 , . . . , k , k+1 , . . . , n ) 9<;,1<  '
i k / j k + 1 1
&, ; i " ! )*.
0."
P)*@ > >,=; "   9 () 7 35;Q,O7
j
k!(n k)!"A>295T

>35 ?0
)*W87 ,-29
7+ W B5  )*W87H  .7CB519 29I
"
7;N1 M   i < < i  ?@ )*'
1
k
j1 < < jk  ;)*P   
29 @ 
?' .B5,- M  +,O7 (B5+
87.)*



9D Q29;CB


 ;N1  <1R

,-M9?W T43

M  Q )*."

(i1 1) + (i2 2) + (ik k) + (j1 1) + (j2 2)+

+ + (jk k) = (i1 + i2 + + ik ) + (j1 + j2 + + jk )

2(1 + 2 + + k) = s 2(1 + 2 + + k)

@ WX<;PGB5P .B5,-29RX "
@  )*  7 |A0 |   (DN1-)*, M
 
,O7 B5;
87$

;' 

  Q8729 M M 21 ,6B5;>,-
21

35  .Y:<. |A0 |    k!(n k)! 35;21M."
,  )*   D
21R ,   |A0 |" )*)*"
 9*  |A0 | = (1)s |A| UV 
,O7 2(1 + 2 + + k) 
R"

35Z9-@ Q  M1I (1)s M M = M 9 (1)s M =

M A(M )  |A|    k!(nk)!  <35."
  <)* 21, WX )*   YD
21
 ,= |A|   )*Q@N9


  1
   !
 8
M  M
;;  21
)* s  s ,O7(;?  P35 @N1$ 
s+s :<

,-N@ 
N 
;T:<219 295 2(1 + 2 + + k) 
535Q,O729

 A = (aij ) Mn (K) 



1 k n 1  i1 , . . . , ik k      !        !  



      ! |A|    !  !     M A(M ) !      
 

            

          M     !   Cnk !
    i1 , . . . , ik !     !       !   

 


  

@

UV&Z9


a11

a
A =  21
a31
a41

a12
a22
a32
a42

a13
a23
a33
a43


a14 
a24 
,
a34 
a44 

i1 = 1 1 i2 = 2 9R)* <(  7

QJJJ 95


,IQ  




 
 
 

a11 a12  a33 a34  a11 a13  a32 a34 



+
|A| = 
a21 a22  a43 a44  a21 a23  a42 a44 

 
 
 

a11 a14  a32 a33  a12 a13  a31 a34 

+


+ 
a21 a24  a42 a43  a22 a23  a41 a44 

 
 
 

a12 a14  a31 a33  a43 a44  a31 a32 







.


a22 a24  a41 a43  a23 a24  a41 a42 

#
&
 ! $ 

 n"

  A ,O)*
87 ; k @ 29
n!
87 .
 k @ .)* ;
 t = C k =
."
n
k!(nk)!
 k "
Q   2947  ;N15
|A| = M1 A(M1 ) + M2 A(M2 ) + + Mt A(Mt ).

;,1

Mi )*,- k! 35M1 A(Mi ) )*,- (n k)! 35M1

k!(n k)! t = k!(n k)! Cnk = n! 1O9 29O:< ?.7.)* 
n! 35298
  35  ' 9 ' 9 C" M1./35 |A|"

 35,  1-  P77!UV9 29-P:<.)*  
|A|" +; 35/ Z9.';, 21 
Mi  Mj  Q;P  ,  .7 9

 #    UV .
 Y
87 >  >)*.7Z9

,



A X 

 = |A| |B|,
|C| = 
O B

A Mn (K) 1 X Mnm (K) 1 O Mmn (K) ' .
 

(m n) ,-21 B Mm (K) 9
 #     @ A 1 1 i r 1
',-29
)*


 A1


A1



<


<

9 9
9





 = |A1 | |A2 | |Ar |.


Ar 

    1  !
 <

 ;CB5 .)*G35 
.7!I)*W87)*212,-
,O)* k @  UV I Z
8
 7N)*.021M@ )*<;
 k "
   <> .
 Q@ 29

 

9D Q29;CB


 

1 



1 ;W



 0 A
,
|C| = 
B X

,

0 Mnm (K) .
  (n m) ,-21 A Mn (K) 1

B Mm (K) 1 X Mmn (K) 9

  
 $%

!
 
 #     !
 ,-;
#
  
  )*  ,I
Y."
  Q)*.729



     


          

 

!     

A.B Mn (K)

       



|AB| = |A| |B|.

#
 &! $ 



@

A = (aik ) 1 B = (bkj ) 1 C =
+ ai1 b2j + + ain bnj (i, j =

AB = (cij ) 1, cij = ai1 b1j

1, 2, . . . , n) 9 8
|C|      @  
 (  7  , n )*.(:<.M1 7 X)*0."
  )* n   n"
Y Q   :<9
(.721I8
=?W n   +Y@"
6  !  7N1 , n )*.6:<.M1
7 
DN1  |C| )* n2   n"
Y  ."
  ?:<  29 )91 |C| 35   nn
 P)*  n"
Q     :<L


 a1 b 1 , a1 b 2 , . . . , a1 b n 
1
1
1
1
1 
 1
 a b , a22 b2 2 , . . . , a22 b2 n 
.
s =  22 2 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
ann bn 1 , ann bn 2 , . . . , ann bn n 
 ;
 a

s   YN@  ;6."

1-P@  Q;4 a
(29 )9 1
11
22

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

n"
X@  ;  ann L



 b 1 b 2 . . . b n 
1
1 
 1
b
b
. . . b2 n 
s = a11 a22 ann  2 1 2 2
.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
 b n 1 b n 2 . . . b n n 
8

 

()

1 , 2 , . . . , n ,O7< Y  .7
P=M1*)*

()    :<  C35?@ >Q; Q"

@ > ,  P .
? @  21)*1 "A,
s
.
N;@ 29  1 87 ;   1."
s
<,H , , . . . , ; W  8  .7
N@."
1
2
n
21M9 29*,- X@  1, 2, . . . , n ,O7P
 ,-"
M9 ()   +:< ? C35)*?35" 35 "

 ,-;/@ N1 @ < ."

 @ . @.
 1 1O@ N 
1
 1* % 1 n"
=@ Q Q 1* n 9
2
n
,-
>)* TDNL

,



 b11 b12 . . . b1n 


 b21 b22 . . . b2n 
t
.
s = (1) a11 a22 ann 

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
bn1 bn2 . . . bnn 

()

t Y .B5,-Y,O721,'
,-

1 , 2 , . . . , n  ,- 1, 2, . . . , n  ,-CB5 "
M9 I( , , . . . , ) ,O7H t" &@4;(( "
1
2
n
&35 UV Z9 7  %7N1< ()"A=:< 
C35)* 47  |B|   29P 1 |C|  =
s
I(1 ,2 ,...,n )
U







(1)
a11 a22 ann |B| 1 , 2 , . . . , n
1, 2,
. . . , n ,O7 T  ,-Z/7T)*.
:<P; |B| NL


X
I(1 ,2 ,...,n )
|C| =
(1)
a11 a22 ann |B| = |A||B|.
(1 ,2 ,...,n )

9D Q29;CB


  #
 &! $ 

  7;

.7

  2L

(2n 2n)" B5



99


9
 A

O
n


. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
=  1
 = |A| |B|
 9 9 0 999



9
B

 0
1

UV Q n @  ;;Z9

.
.721 8
B ,$B5I  6

A ,$B5<  )*. ; 35;#$Q ,-M19 29

a11

a1n

c11

999
999
999 999






a
a c
0
+ b1j n1 + + bnj nn = n1 ,
1
0 0
b
9
9 9
ij9
9
9 9
9
9
9

9 9

bnj
0
1
0
j = n + 1, . . . , 2n,
DN1



 
99
99

 

9
9
 A
On   A
C = AB 

 . . . . . . . . . . . . . .  . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 
= .1
 =  1
=
 9 9 0 999
  9 9 0 999


9
9
B  
On 
 0
0
1
1
= (1)s |C| (1)n = (1)sn |C|

, s = 1 + 2 + + n + (n + 1) + (n + 2) + + 2n = 2n2 +
n UV  S)*'
   n !;;Z9
 1

= |A| |B| = (1)2(n +n) |C| = |C| 9


 #    ZP8
A, B M (K) 1-)* |AB| = |A| |B| = |BA|
n
UV9 298
,- AB  BA ,-)*0    .7
21
2

 <Q  QZ9

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



%Z>8
A1 , . . . , Ak Mn (K) 1)* |A1 Ak | = |A1 | |Ak | 9

|Ak | = |A|k 1 k N 9
  #     !

, &    
    

01

  ! 
    
        
UVH35.Z9      (a | b )   
 
ij
i

 


  !              A = (aij )nn           

"         !   
     !          !    
|A| 6= 0

$             |A| 6= 0 (x01 , . . . , x0n )       

   !   !       j = 1, . . . , n          
x0j =

 


 a11 . . .
 

|Aj | =  

an1 . . .

|Aj |
|A|
b1
bn


. . . a1n 
 
 

. . . ann 


      
     |A|  
    !  !    

b1
                     
bn
   
j

  !  !      !

j

       

#
&! $ 

  Z-8
? 
 @ / W'"
H#$.7
 (a0 | b0 ) 7GB5 #$.7
  A0 = (a0 | b0 )
ij
i
ij
i
,-N1)* 
%  .CB5D
6"

 + @ML; (a | b )  .CB5D
!)* +
ij
i
.7 )* 15,-

a011 a012 . . . a01n

0 a 0 . . . a0
22
2n
A0 =
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0
0 . . . a0nn

 '

9D Q29;CB


#$.7
  ,-
a0 6= 0 1R  ,

,-


8721?9 29

nn

a011 6= 0, . . . ,

|A| = (1)t |A0 | = (1)t a011 a0nn 6= 0.

%Z8
(x0 , . . . , x0 ) >,-.


X;;N 7 
1
n

a11 x01 + aij x0j + a1n x0n = b1 ,

.................................

an1 x01 + anj x0j + ann x0n = bn ,

 )* 1 8
H  C"A   A " B51 i"
  ."
1j
  A " B51 n"
   A " B5 ?Q   )*"
ij
nj
N15D

0 x01 + + |A|x0j + + 0 x0n = b1 A1j + bn Anj = |Aj |.

 1

|A|x0j = |Aj | 15 x0j = |A|j 9

%Z # 
-/ 
    #
 &! $ 

 47 ;N1 (x0 , . . . , x0 ) 1
1
n
, x0 = |Aj |  ,-.
P  7 29
j
|A|
n
P
;,1 7 (x0 , . . . , x0 ) @  i"

aij xj = bi
1
n
|A |

j=1

 )*2L

n
X

aij x0j

j=1

n
X
aij |Aj |
j=1
n
P

bk

k=1

@17 ?  W

|Aj | =

n
P

k=1

bk Akj

|A|
P
n

n
P

j=1

aij Akj

j=1

|A|

aij


n
P

bk Akj

k=1

|A|
=

bi |A|
= bi .
|A|

|Aj |    j "
+ 7

n
P
)*21O W1,- k = i 
aij Aij = |A|
j=1

n
P
)*QQ,- k 6= i 
aij Akj = 0  > )*29
j=1

QJJJ 95


,IQ  

              !    


                   !     !  !   !    

  
 #                !              


!               !   !    !            !      

    
 !  !    !        
 #  
       !     !            


        !         !  
!    !    !   !  ! 
                 !              !  !   !  
    
 #  

    !       

     
 &$ 

!
 ,-WN1<8
|A| = 0 15 
 D, j "  M15)* N>29


 

|Aj | 6= 0

 

 &$
!
 4 7 WN15Y8

|A| = |A1 | = = |An | = 0,

)* 6
S )*0S  , ."
21   .
RCB5D UV W  21 ,! "
7  )*.0?CB5,- Z9
   1 
 -  
-/ 
 $  8

A = (aij ) Mn (K) "
,-%%W X M (K) ,-218 AX =
n
XA = E 1R)* A ,O G35  
 -  

# UV 
#
-  

 
  Z957 X "  A ,-  
 -  
-/ UVD )* 
X = A1 Z9

      
        A M (K)   !       !

n



        !     |A| 6= 0   |A| 6= 0    ! A1 = (xij )nn 
 
       !        !     
A
    xij = |A| 
        

 

ji

7 N1

#
 &! $ 



bt 9
A1 = |A|1 A

AX = E |A| |X| = |E| = 1 |A| 6= 0.

9D Q29;CB


|A| 6= 0 1I)* 1 , ' 9 % 9 C "A >  ."
M1 |A|1 A
bt  A ,->)*
 
>,-29O8
X  Y
 A" ?>)*
 
 ,-21$)* X = XE = X(AY ) =
(XA)Y = EY = Y 9

8

 

   1 





U )*
 S,IYB5 ;PZ9

 Z (A1 )1 = A 1
%Z (AB)1 = B 1 A1 1
'MZ |A1 | = |A|1 1
**Z (At )1 = (A1 )t 9
 

 
1 



)*

 1 @


a b
A=
M2 (K),
c d

1
=
ad bc

 >7;

 

   1 



|A| = ad bc 6= 0.



d b
.
c a

.> #$.
29

1 @

1 1 ... 1
0 1 . . . 1
.
9
A=
99

0 0 ... 1

)*

1 1
9 9
9

<

9 9
9
9 9
9

<

1
1

QJJJ 95


 

 
1 



,IQ  

1 W

1
0 1 ... 1
1 0 . . . 1

. . . . . . . . . . . . Mn (Q)
1 1 ... 0

U nn 5
B X,-21XW   NB5; X .
21
7 
 > 87 Q C"A>Z9


 
1 
 -  
-/
A1
 $   !
 @  ,-.

WQ
 ,- A M (K) 1R |A| 6= 0 9

 

,/
 A1 = B = (bij )nn 1 bij =

Aji
|A|

UV87."

 n2   (n 1) (n 1) B5 A   

ji
;Z9
  ,/
 ; W
X = (xij ) Mn (K) ,-21
 AX = E UV)* XA = E 1 X = A1 Z95. QW x
b1 , . . . , x
bn
   <#$21

Ab
x1 = eb1 , . . . , Ab
xn = ebn ,

9 29 n  +35;#$&  +' 7 M1
<,- A ;
#$;35; e
b1 , . . . , ebn
UV;.
 &,-+Z9  |A| 6= 0 18Q"
@ W  Z1 %ZP 'MZ H 
+ @  )*.0."
 A ,-P ;T;.
 E ,$B59R8
'
@ N  /;
 7  n N;N1
D

(A | E) 7 7 (E | B).
 N)* B ,-Q  7   n  ;;
 7 21 AB = E 1 B = A1 9
 
  1   
  Z-)*0 <7 Y"

29 0 ( Z1%Z; 'MZ; T  
P,-."
i
21- T T A = E 1$9 29 T A = E 1O, T = T T 1-21
s
1
s
1
)*1 T = A1 95 <)* B = T E = T = A1 9

9D Q29;CB


%Z ( !  &)*.0  ."
,12X8
(
)*
 
,-212  8
|A| =
0 1N)* 7 % )*0 A ,- E "AH  ."

X @  U A ,-X#$.7
 Y7@ YB5."
N
87P,-Y;Y .
  ,   NB5 Z9 PY
)* M18)*0= ; A ,-Y  ."
Q    C359
 


  

  



1 a
A=
, |A| = 1 6= 0,
0 1


 


1 a 1 0
1 0 1 a
=
,
0 1 0 1
0 1 0
1

9 29

 




1 a
.
0 1



   ;S)*
 
>,-

5 2 0
2 1 1
3 3 8

,-M1O8
/ M9

   !



5 2 0 1
2 1 1  0

3 3 8 0


1 2 7
2 1 1
5 2 0

0 0
5 2
1 0 2 1
0 1
1 2

0 1 1
0
1 0
1
0 0


1
2
7 
0 3 13 
0
1
4 

0 1
0 0
1 0
1 0
7 0 1 1


1
2
7  0 1
1
0 3 13  0
3 2
0 8 35  1
5 5

0 1
1
0
3 2
1 4
1

QJJJ 95


1
2
1
0
0 3


1 2 7  0 1

0 1 4  1 4
0 0 1  3 9

1 2

0 1

0 0

 1

,IQ  


7  0 1
4  1 4
13  0
3

1
1 2

1 0 1
1
0 0

0  21 64
0  13 40
1  3
9

1 0 0

0 1 0

0 0 1

1
1
2


7 0 1
1
4 1 4
1
1 3
9 1

8
5
1


 5
16 2

 13 40
5 .

 3
9 1

5 2 0
5
16 2
2 1 1 = 13 40
5
3 3 8
3
9 1

 
  
 &$
!
 @

A &)*
  W,O7 %UV9 29
WY,O7  ;)*  Z
P,-29 "
,-WN15 A1 ,->W,O7  )* Y>.7 "
)* 1R,- |A| = 1 9

 
 $ -/

AX = B 
 

   
Y A = B
#
  
 

  !
, At Y t = B t 
    
  A M (K) 1 |A| 6= 0 9I)* > A1 )*."
n

 
+,-((  AX = B  
;; 7  X = A1 B U Y A = B  <;."
;+ 7  Y = BA1 Z9-)*
 
 A1 ,-%,-
;> ?
,-21O8
!   7  .  "
.M1*9 29 A ,O 
535; B ,OM1 (A | B) 1 YX"
@   
 @   W (E | A1 B)"A9
  

'

9D Q29;CB


  

 

@

1
3 2
A = 2 1 1 ,
1
2 2

;

8 16 9
B = 6 7 3 ,
7 13 7

X = A1 B 9

   !



1
3 2  8 16
9
2 1 1  6
7 3


1
2 2
7 13
7


0
1 0  1 3
7
2 1 1  6

1
2 2
7 13


0 1
0 1 0  1 3 2
0 3 5  8 19 11 0 0
1 2
1 2 2  7 13 7


0 1
0 1 0  1 3 2
0 0 1  1 2 1 0 0
1 0
1 2 2  7 13 7


1 0
0 1 0  1 3 2

0 0 1  1 2 1 0 1

0 0
1 0 0  3 3 1

 1

AX = B.

2
3
7

0  1 3
5  5 10
2  7 13

0  1 3
1  1 2
2  5 7

0  3 3
0  1 3
1  1 2

2
5
7

2
1
3

1
2 .
1

3 3 1
A1 B = 1 3 2 .
1 2 1

 $ -/ 
 
 , &
#0    

AX = B 1
1
1
1
5
3
A Mmn (K) X Mns (K) B Mms (K) s ;#$&  ."
NP  .7P<#$21M<<,- A 1
74
#$(35( b
b1 , . . . , bbs 9 A ,- A0
#$.7
 +7GB5H M1 (A | B) (A0 | B 0 ) 1
.=,- 

QJJJ 95


,IQ  



'

s #$.7
 Y  CBRB51 <Y,- A0 1

7 
#$>35> b
b1 , . . . , bbs 9
     1  !

Y = BA1 ,- ; )*0 ."
  
> @   NL

 


A
E

.
B
BA1






  
  
  

 
  
 
,  

#


  

  

 @21;,4  7  CB
 )*21


)*0?  )*;N1- )*0? 
,O7CB5? ,9 H,-// CB 
; @
 ,- ,- 9
 7  W  .CB5DM1I
,-(D )"
;N1  7 N ; GB5<,->N   7"
7 1 ,&@  29 @,O7CB5 "
=X,-<; P CB59M.
,-21 ,6 35&UV,O721 @Z
 ."
&@M98@
(,-&B5   .CB5D)*(@
+ 21I > (,O7+,-+ 
UV <#$@.
Z<  N9

    V

 .?)*  K   CB5P "


',-/; G35  + -/ UV    Z
&$ K     
 1R8

 Z *
)  ; V  
Q:<
#$

%Z a(u + v) = au + av  a K  u, v V

'MZ (a + b)u = au + bu  a, b K 1 u V

**Z (ab)u = a(bu)  a, b K 1 u V

2 Z 1u = u  u V 1 1 K 9

@
',-! !G35  + 
 1I7
    !

 
 9

   

@

 
  CB5 
535;

9B5 ,- ;#$
@
 ,-& @.M18,T 7 @
?"
,- B5; ,-.
  .CB5D?#
029$

 U )*.   GB5 6
/,- Z

   -/  + 



'

>J
95@
P,-

'


Q@QYD )* ; E 2 "A U *


) ."
 E 3 "A;Z97CB5 
RN1- E 2  E 3 @
 
 ,-."
 R  ;N9

   
 

  

K P  n  0<@ 

b n ZO@

K n U )*. n D K
,- K >; )*  S  .CB5D
Q,-"
9

NL

(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) + (b1 , b2 , . . . , bn ) = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , . . . , an + bn ),

c(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (ca1 , ca2 , . . . , can ).

      

  

9,O721* K   PY."

 QU
R
/ 0
@  Z K 8@"


X,- K >; )*Q K QB5
H,-N18, >  CB5D21"
,6
> 0 @  M9$?G35
   -/ 1I8
(35H.7 
&,O7+ .
"
  +  .7
29<#$ 
  @  +@

,-. K  ;N95D )* ;T K "AN9

  


H#
 @,- F (X, K) = {f : X K}  X

 K )* @
X,- K >; )*."
  ,-NL

(f + g)(x) = f (x) + g(x),

   

(af )(x) = af (x).

 (m n)"A,I M

 ,I
mn (K)
)*  ,- K T B5  ."
,- ;N9

  


@ K  L"A @2L K L 9<)* L 6)*."

0!  7;N1 , @
 ,- K ="
;N1
8
L 6   K 6 CB5
 CB5DN1- ,S  L" )*29O01 C ?
 T@
 ,- R"A ;N9

''

9D Q29;CB


 



; @
Y,->@. N  

B5 ;!)* 2B51M,  

Y:<
#$P@.."
+)* 298& & %@.&)* H "

 ,- (0 K 1 V ) L

 Z a =  a K

%Z a(u) = au  a K 1 u V

'MZ a(u v) = au av  a K 1 u, v V

**Z 0u =  u V

2 Z (1)u = u  u V


" Z (a b)u = au bu  a, b K 1 u V 9
M

   +
  ! 

 !
$  

  

  8)*.35P@@
N,-217 "

  W    )*?X
M1$,
7 W @   .9
V ,- u @ G35 v @  &$ -/ 1
8
HQW a K 21R u = av 9*01 = 0v
 v V "  M9 8
H u = av  u 6= 0 1 , a 6= 0 1
)* v = a1 u 19 29; .
 /@ 6,-"

>
 >@M9
,- 21Y, 7=)* WN1X.7  
,-.
 @M1  @Q;M1  1 "
,= 1  +
   
 9

  
  +
  
V

 @
 ,-.)*+G35 V " 


 @; 
4M9
)*.06  %; ;; @;
,- CB51I9 29-W CB51I, ,T; @."
  )*,-M9

     1  !

9N@;P,-   .7X@"

;+ ,-  ?N118:< ;21@;&"
&@+
721>  21,1I

>J
95@
P,-

'

)*')*0/ 29

 1 n @  )* ."
Q   {1, 2, . . . , n} (,-.

7 V ,-.)*29
@;Q,-N7)* @ X .7
P<35."
& .
,- C"A QQW n"A1 n 1 1-."

Y  <)*.9  ;@;Y "
W;)*0 ,-. P35>,O7  N:< 
 7C35."
    7 )*29 7 <
,- )* S35.ML<@;!)*635 
 6,-!=,O7  %:<  7C35 6 

,-D )* )*N C35  W8729 "
1O)* u 1 v 1 v 1 v  35 u 9-@; "
4
2
3
4
4
Q 0G35Q)*X)*Q35 ,O7M95 "
1 u 1 u 1 u 1 u 1 u 1 u @;<P 0X@2
9 7
2
3
6
2
4
2
   
 CB5 ;6CB5 K " )*21
@;P CB5 V " )* Q29 )9

      @;XHU ;  Z +    
UV

!
  Z(G35! ' +M1< H  M1
,+  D

B5 ;;35)*
)* 9

 


 @;&,-
 ,- %  GB5 %35"


  .?)* ?  .CB5D21I, ,- @ "
(
 7 N
N)*7N9

 
 

 

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + + as vs (a1 , a2 , . . . , as K)

7 7
G35

. . . , vs } @;  Z
W#$,- N1 7

v , v , . . . , v @ UV {v , v ,

1 2
s
1 2
   ! 
 !
$ 
a1 , a2 , . . . , as

u = a 1 v1 + a 2 v2 + + a s vs
@ G35Q35;#$Q ,-    

9

'

9D Q29;CB


;>Q Y@ )*0>>77 35;#$>"

 ,-  )* 29 ,-)*>  S)*0> "
 ; 35;#$6 ,-=  )*  9<,-"
TB5 2:< 7 <  ,= WN9

 
  1  !

9  a v + +a v  b u + +b u 35;#$"
N
1 1
s s
1 1
t t
  ,-?
  Q 7;  ,
; 21I8
s = t 1 a = b  v = u 1$,- i = 1, . . . , s 9-8

i
i
i
i
(35;#$& ,-'   4 )*  1)*
7 P
  7;N18 18 1u + (1)u  0x + 0y
 >;+( Q35;#$+ ,-2901I)* >CB5
 S
 35;#$  ,-21X 4
 7 60 ."
=UV ?CB5 Z?@;+/35;#$ 
"
  .CB5DM9

 

 

  

9@

V = Kn 1
v1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0),
v2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),

v3 = (0, 0, 1, . . . , 0),
.............
vn = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1).
)*

 
 

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + a3 v3 + + an vn = (a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . , an ) 9

35;#$ a v + a v + + a v  ,- G35 

1 1
2 2
s s

(-/ 35;#$/ ,-21N8
/ a , a , . . . , a "
1
2
s

W#$,-  .
>29

@ 
Y35;#$Y ,-  )* X"
< "  29
35;#$ a v +a v + +a v  ,-<G35


1 1
2 2
s s

(-/ 35;#$  ,-21$8
6 a , a , . . . , a W#$,- 
1
2
s
)*=0 6;! , .
  '  .7
21Y9 29N.
 ,->  
29

'

>J
95@
P,-

 



 >)* P)*W .72L?,-Q"

<;;N
35;#$ ,-21  
W#$,- YX,-217 ;35;#$Y ,-
 )* > .
 >@ 9

  

. L(v , v , . . . , v ) = {a v + a v + + a v |

1 2
s
1 1
2 2
s s
ai K} 1 >   v1 , v2 , . . . , vs @>."
35;#$< ,-21 G35 v , v , . . . , v @   
1 2
s
 
   {v , v , . . . , v } @;&/35;#$% 
1 2
s
U )* )* ;N1R)* .
,-
 T QT

 @;Q .
,-CB5N)*Z9

   

8
D'@  % 9 ' 9 %"A 1)* -35"

#$Q QW87>W ,-. L(v , v , . . . , v ) = K n 9
1

      7;N1

$,-;@;N W87"

 {} .M1=;;  ! .
 
@29

 



  
 

v1 , v2 ,
N1X'@ u   
#
. . . , vs @ UV {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs } ;Z1*8
+Y<"
D,F35;#$  ,-  )*  21(9 29 u
L(v1 , v2 , . . . , vs ) 9 N9 8@; UV@ 
ZO35;#$/ 77 UV@
 Z1 8
%YQX@Y35;#$"
 7 >)
N9
 
   

  

9@

(a, b, 0, 0, . . . , 0) K n 35;#$ "

7 v = (1, 0, . . . , 0), v = (0, 1, . . . , 0) @ "
1
2
 a, b K "  M17 (1, 1, 1, . . . , 1) @! "
7& @N18
n > 2 9I.H.721 K n " & "
 @ 35;#$ 7 v = (1, 0, . . . , 0) 1 . . . 1 v =
1
n
(0, 0, . . . , 1) @N9

'

9D Q29;CB


 
 

,O721 .
  @+35;#$ 7

 . ,- @;Q )
N9O.?"
/+ 7;
 
21 7;N1+ .
 
@=35;#$ 7S,- @;6
)
,1  8
)* .7N12;;N,-"
P 35;#$Q >W87 {} .M9

    N1% @; v , v , . . . , v 1 s 1 1+

1 2
s
   
# #
 &! # 
-/
1N8
 H "
#
  - ! # 
 


=35;#$= ,-    
#

35 D %)*W87)*298 1 v , v , . . . , v @ 35"

1 2
s
#$ 
218
a v + a v + + a v = 
1 1
2 2
s s

>.7 )* 15,- a = a = = a = 0 9
1

      

  

9@ v = (2, 3, 0) 1 v = (2, 0, 0) 1

1
2
35;#$ 
217 @"
v3 = (0, 2, 0) Q
 v = (1, 0, . . . , 0), . . . , v = (0, 0, . . . , 1) K n "A ?35;#$
1
n

29
3 "A

   1
   !

9N  E.35;#$& ,-K  .)*

  ?CB5NLI ,T@+21I."
,=35 ,-.
 @CB51, a , a , . . . , a ."
1 2
s
,-
<#$21 ,(-@;)* 29 "
@.)*4EG,-.
6@ 
 35;#$="
 ,-? .
  @(K%
(  ."
 ?CB5N17 .
 P@; P '
CB5N9

  


  -/
1
 N1<@;>  +
 

8
/Q35;#$Q >W8729
 


   #)*()*  &,- &)*+77


)*  Q)* >29

>J
95@
P,-

 
     

'

 % L     
             

   u, v L  a K    ! au L  u + v L 

   
  




 
  U V             U !     #         !   V       
      U  V     !       !         !     
U        V
       V  U
    U        V
  
  ! U  V
                !     U V       
   !   U
           !  V
          ! 
    !     V
 
    v1 , v 2 , . . . , vs                     !
       

    !          ! !      

 

 !            !          
9

a1 v1 + a 2 v2 + + a s vs = b 1 v1 + b 2 v2 + + b s vs
(a1 , a2 , . . . , as ) = (b1 , b2 , . . . , bs ),

  

a1 = b 1  a2 = b 2 , . . . , as = b s 

                               

  u       !    !                 



   

     
  ! !               !      u =         !         


                       
     
           
       u1 , u2 , . . . , us   !         !     !   

                       r N  r s     
   u              {u | i < r}      
r
i

  {u , u , . . . , u }       

           

1
2
s
                 v1 , v2 , . . . , vm           !


s m      !                 

  !              !    


#
 &! $ 



Z&@

L = L(v1 , v2 , . . . , vs ) 1 u = a1 v1 +
a2 v2 + + as vs 1 v = b1 v1 + b2 v2 + + bs vs 9)* au = (aa1 )v1 +
(aa2 )v2 + + (aas )vs L 1 u + v = (a1 + b1 )v1 + (a2 + b2 )v2 +
+ (as + bs )vs L 9

 

9D Q29;CB


Z?@ U = {u , u , . . . , u } 1 V = {v , v , . . . , v } 1;D "

1
2
s
1 2
s
)* ; L(u , u , . . . , u )  L(U )".21 L(v , v , . . . , v )  L(V)".29
1
2
s
1 2
s
,-;  
 
,-S 
@,- s"
T;N9Q8
s = 1 1P)* ! 0 u L(V) 1PZ "
1
  7  a K "   35;#$' ,- au
1
L(V) 1O,S,- L(U ) L(V) 7;M9-8
7 s > 1 
c = c1 u1 + + cs1 us1 + cs us L(U ) 1I)* Q 
@,-&)"
 a = c u + + c
 b = c u L(V) 1
1 1
s1 us1 L(V)
s s
 , Z " +0 c = a + b L(V) 9-.+(+ )* M1I
L(U ) L(V) 9
,-;/
29 @ L(U )
L(V) 9N4 7 ;N1N U   ui @!
 
L(U )" M1  , 21< 
  L(V)" M19 29R35;#$
7 V ".295 @

ui = 0u1 + + 0ui1 + 1ui + 0ui+1 + + 0uus L(U ).

Z
 @PX
X,-
29 

 @P "
7  
  QZN
 @>
R)
S)* 29
*Z a v + a v + + a v = b v + b v + + b v a v +
1 1

2 2

s s

1 1

2 2

s s

1 1

a2 v2 + + as vs (b1 v1 + b2 v2 + + bs vs ) = (a1 b1 )v1 +

(a2 b2 )v2 + + (as bs )vs = U 35;#$ 

 .CB5D Z a b = a b = = a b = 0 9
1
1
2
2
s
s

Z?)*W .7 % 9 ' 9 * "A= 7 ,-!@;/
35;#$ 
29
8
au  u @+
 35;#$? ,-21
, " X21*)* a 6= 0  u = 1u = (a1 )(au) = 9*8

u = 1 )* 1u  u @
35;#$
 ,-"
21O, " ?29$
 @(? X

,-
29
.
Q; >   @ 1R
8
'?35;#$ 
 C35 "  4"

  ,-<)*=WY35;#$ ,-"
! .
 SW#$,- N1 D W  " 
 
 35;#$Q ,-M9

 

>J
95@
P,-

 Z(@ u , u , . . . , u @/35;#$ 


1
2
s
  a u + a u + + a u  " T 


1 1
2 2
s s
35;#$+ ,-
r "A D )* ; > ,-H
  ."
X .
 QW#$,- Q 29 )* a u + a u + +
1 1
2 2
a u = 21)*1 u = ( a1 )u + + ( ar1 )u

r r

a2

ar

r1

L(u1 , u2 , . . . , ur1 ) 9@N1 8
ur = a1 u1 +a2 u2 + +ar1 ur1

L(u1 , . . . , ur1 ) 1M)* a1 u1 + a2 u2 + + ar1 ur1 + (1)ur  " 
 {u | i r} (
?35;#$  ,-"
i
29535 >
 @? 7 W {u | i s} , 35;#$
i

29
ZP@ u , u , . . . , u 35;#$ 
+@
1
2
s
Q u L(v , v , . . . , v ) 159 29
1

u1 = b11 v1 + b12 v2 + + b1m vm ,

u2 = b21 v1 + b22 v2 + + b2m vm ,
................
us = bs1 v1 + bs2 v2 + + bsm vm .

@ < 

a1 , a2 , . . . , as K "   D


a1 u1 + a2 u2 + + as us = (a1 b11 + a2 b21 + + as bs1 )v1 +

+ (a1 b12 + a2 b22 + + as bs2 )v2 +
..............

 7;

+ (a1 b1m + a2 b2m + + as bsm )vm .

m ;  s
,-  Q35;#$Q  

b11 x1 + b21 x2 + + bs1 xs = 0,

b12 x1 + b22 x2 + + bs2 xs = 0,

..............

b1m x1 + b2m x2 + + bsm xs = 0

29Q8
(a , a , . . . , a ) / S 7 21

1 2
s
)* a u + a u + + a u = 98%0 a = a =
1 1
2 2
s s
1
2
+ a3 = 0 9R)*1 s m 9
<

R)
    9


9D Q29;CB


 
  1 



 9,-WN15

{u1 , . . . , ui1 , ui , ui+1 , . . . , un }

Q@ 
>)*  PML

,

{u1 , . . . , ui1 , aui , ui+1 , . . . , un },

a K 1 a 6= 0

{u1 , . . . , ui1 , ui + buj , ui+1 , . . . , un },

, b K 1 b 6= 0 9
)* .)*%@;H!W @  
535;
  
 -/ 
&#
+   
 98  +N1; 
( )* u @21
@ ')*W87)*
+-/
i
7 H @ !)*W87)*  u @29 8
 7
j
@>)* 
 -/ ( 9

 


 &$
 


9   ,-WN1- 
; @."

 '')*0/ @,-; !@ ."

 {v , . . . , v , , . . . , } 1-, v , . . . , v @
1
r
1
r
35;#$ 
29
  ,-WN1$X  35;#$ 
 "

 
N @ ')*0 @,-; "
 35 35S,-.
  @ 
S35;#$S

9

  

@

U @
+,-%
'@;+."

   

,   G35==W 35;#$ 
"

29 U
  C35M1
,4@ 
 W U " 29

   9
CB5 
 @;>,O7 G35>  

     1  !

9N@;Q35;#$




v1 , v2 , . . . , vr
()



+  

(-/ 35;#$ 
Q"
 
535;
21 8

  u @  @,-

>J
95@
P,-

35;#$ 
 9  v , v , . . . , v , u @"

1 2
r
;  35;#$!
)* u"   &  W#$,-"
 
 6  .7.S .
  U 35 D S)*W87)*
() Q@ P35;#$ 
Z1 u @"
N35;#$ 7 () @Y)
N1*,' ,
() @;<)* N.7 )* @ @.

35;#$!

21 ,- () @ 835"
#$ 
2187  u @&435;#$
 ,- 35  .M9

        

 #            !     

" A U    
$ A U
                !      
 A U
!    !                L(A) = L(U ) 
                   !        
    
                   

   

  !            !              !     
      


#
&
 ! $ 

  % 9 5 9 C"A>>  29

 
#                !  !     !            


       !     
       !       

    K ; V &$  +  &$

G35 V "

'  ,- S @..M1;,07
V @
 ,- ,-?;NL5  u, v S
@ H?  a K  %@
u + v  au 
  S " !U 7?N1 S "A+@;( ."
?
 H ?)* S " )*ZP?35 S V 9
8
S V  S 6= V 1R)* 35 S < V 9

      

  


,-29
%Z {} 

9  ZQ@;+%35;#$H &@."

V  V ,- @ ,-,- UV V ,-




!-   +  &$  
 G 3521;7   87 . 

!-   Z9

 '

9D Q29;CB


'MZ E 3 " )*+ @;(1 , ,-.
+35;#$

 ,- 
21O E 3 "A @.,-9
* Z>,O7%D0',-.
 X )
B5?'#
 @,-
*
F (X, R) ,-.)*P
535 #
 @,-PY@.,-29
2 ZN@ S = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) K n | a1 = 0} 95)* S  K n

,- @.,-29
"MZ @ S = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) K n | a1 = 1} 98)* S 
 K n "  @.,-9
5Z K n < K < K 9
D )* ;N1* V ,-P Y@.,-
 ;
,- V " )*  .CB5D
 ,-?;N9

1 
  -/
4,    



&$  




 
V ,-.XG35 
  -/
4,   

 1 8
V "
 
(@; +35;#$( 29O,-.M1I."
,  >
  GB5 21-G35 -& 
  -/ 
 
,    

 9

     

  

 9  Z K n 
  GB5 F,-29
%ZY(#$ 
   K ,-X
R
4  GB5"
 29



  V

,-

,  

G35QW

V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }

@;
 V "A 12,H;#$<)* X6"
ML
 Z V 35;#$ 
21
%Z L(V) = V 9
8
V = {v , v , . . . , v }  V " &CB521)* dim V = n "
1 2
n
,O7+G35 V "  
4,    

U
 
   TUVN9 Z   GB5"
Z98
u V  u = a v + + a v 1
, a K 1
1 1
n n
i
)* [u] = [u] = (a , . . . , a ) @ ./G35 u @
V
1
n

!&# !
 +& UV !&# !

+& Z
V CB5)*29

>J
95@
P,-

     

  
 9 9  CB
  ,- 21
- ; 
 v , v @)*  . E 2
1 2
,-(CB5M9-  
1-  ? 
R"
Q@P)*  . E 3 ,- CB5M9
% 9 @.
S,O7PM1R , @
 ,-. R"
+;N1-@+  GB5 % 9-CB5+7 )*0(D;
v1 = 1 1 v2 = i 9 = a+bi @.
,O7Y 
CB5)*  " ( ( 357+ C352L [] =
V
(a, b) 9
' 9 

v1 = (1, 0, 0, . . . , 0),
v2 = (0, 1, 0, . . . , 0),
v3 = (0, 0, 1, . . . , 0),
.........
vn = (0, 0, 0, . . . , 1)
35  . K n "A+CB5=UV CB5HG35 
 #
 -/

,   
;7)* {e , e , . . . , e }"A'D )*  Z9 u K n @."
1 2
n
<  @  
 CB5)* u" YW87"
2L u = (a , a , a , . . . , a ) = a e +a e +a e + +a e = [u] 9
1

1 1

2 2

n n

      !      




    V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }            V
  ! 
 #            !    
" V V
   

$  V                        


  V
  !

 V !               V
  !          

L(V) = V 
  V

 
!        !           !       

                     V
   !   V
    

 
          V
 !             



      
9
  V        ! 

3 3

9D Q29;CB


    
                     !



         !                  !   

         
   n = dim V    !  V
 !       n +  1        

          V    !     n      

  V
     V     !          
    
  !     %  
     n
 
  V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
V
       !      u




[u]                     !         !


V           ! V n
%    K n
      
! 
     

[u + v] = [u] + [v], [au] = a[u] !      u, v V, a K,
 !         !          
V


[a1 u1 + a2 u2 + + at ut ] = a1 [u1 ] + a2 [u2 ] + + at [ut ]

!   
 
 

  u V  a K        ! u , u , . . . , u        
i
i
1
2
t
        V n
     !         !       
        [u1 ]  [u2 ], . . . , [ut ]  K n
 

#
 &! $ 

 %"A  % 9 5 9 C"AXX  29 
  
 

   9<8
X  n   ;21 )* X "

 K )*<#
 @,- F (X, K) ,-Y  GB5"

 n 9  7; 9 3-9 ".#
 @,- (x) (a X) 15,
a
 .CB5D
 #$.


(
1,
a (x) =
0,

,-
,-

x = a,
x 6= a.

,O721   f F (X, K) #
 @,-Y;;Y7
 )
N9571
35   ".#
 @,- 

f (x) =

f (a)a (x).

aX

 )*1 1 a X 1#
 @,-N@  F (X, K) ,-YCB5M1
a
  N#
 @,-  P
CB5)*PX )* 29

>J
95@
P,-

8
X Q
R
21)* >  n"   F (X, K)
,-.)*6 @ n 35;#$ 
 @21 "
1 , , . . . , 1M, a , a , . . . , a X  a 6= a 1 i 6= j 9
a1 a2
an
1
2
n
i
j
)*1 F (X, K) ,-

R
  GB5 HUV9 29 
@ 4
 7  
 CB5Z9

     

   9<#$ 
4
K  ,-.)*?"
B5 @T)*0QD;S)* X7  

ei = (0, . . . , 0, 1, 0, . . . , ) (i = 1, 2, . . . )
UV;.
&  i"
   Z9 1 K ,->
R
R"
  GB5  UV9 292<6 47 CB521M,&)* 
@;P
>,O7  Z9

    

   9
R 21M ,'@
,- Q" Y"
;N1R
R
  GB5 29I;,1?
  ."
B5 HM1)* & H,O7&  .CB5D"

 @ !,- 
 ,O7/
6;
=&  Q,-'D, CB5)*29 
)* H  ,O7( @ H21,
3529

   
 &$
!

9 W!
 q   YX;
 CB5  
 @
 ,-  ;Q,O729

n"

  
 &
 $
!
9,-WN18Q,O7&D0& 
)
B5 
 .CB5D

535S#
 @,- C(X, R) ,-

R
 
 GB5 29

   
 
 $   

 
 -/ 
 
   


#  

    A, B, C Mmn (K)  B  C       







 !                 
       !    ! A      

    !   "  $          !          !    
    !  
  ! 
"  B             !   {b , . . . , b }  C          

1
m
  !   {c1 , . . . , cm }           !     K n
 
L(a1 , . . . , am ) = L(b1 , . . . , bm ) = L(c1 , . . . , cm );

9D Q29;CB


$    


          !    !       !  
      r   ! r B   C
  (r = r1 = r2 = dim(a1 , . . . , am ) 
1
2

               ! 

r = r(A)     !  
               !       

         ! B  C              !        

  !                  

  B  C   !    ! A   
               !
         ! B = C 


#
&! $ 

  Z A

,- @ W {a , . . . , a } ."

1
m
 T  
S @ 21 ,   B #$."
7
 /7GB51PT<#$21 '@ W K n ,-.)*
L(a1 , . . . , am ) = L(b1 , . . . , bm ) UV7M98:<)* % 9 5 9 %Z9  "

1 L(a , . . . , a ) = L(c , . . . , c ) 95 1
1

L(a1 , . . . , am ) = L(b1 , . . . , bm ) = L(c1 , . . . , cm ).

%Z  #$.7
 Y,-X .
 <@ N)*."
   >@ W& CB5 U :<)* R
* 9
 9  Z1
 Z "A   M1 r1 = r2 15 

r = r1 = r2 = dim(b1 , . . . , bm ) = dim(c1 , . . . , cm ) =
= dim(a1 , . . . , am ).
'MZ@S#$.7
  B ,- r  .
  b1 , . . . , bm
@ /%   
 s < s < < s ."
1
2
r
 ?)*217 #$.7
  C ,- r  .
 
c1 , . . . , cm @  ?   
 t1 < t2 < <
tr  /)*29 !JJ 9 9 % 9   7 s1 = t1
U s min{t } = t
t min{s } = s Z9
1
i
1 1
i
1
8

b2 =

r
X
j=1

2j cj ,

c2 =

r
X

2j bj ,

j=1

)* = 0 = 9O8
6P.:<(   {b , . . . , b }

21
21
2
r
 {c , . . . , c } M1, 35;#$ 7."
2
r
 N; P)
N15DN1R s = t 9 N,-."
2
2
  0 35.
 N1 s = t , . . . , s = t 9
3

>J
95@
P,-

**Z;
 @)*
 %Z; 'MZ,-
21R .
 "
@  W>,O7 r  ; 1 s < s < < s n 21
1
2
r
)*,'   
YWN#
R7
  B  C 7
WX
,- 21  .CB5D
>,-79R 1RW
Q
#$
,-  ;#$215,  .CB5D
 B
 C #$.7
 N7N1;N 29  WN
,O"
X,-7T 7 <
#$X
,- X)
."
 UV@ 
 35;#$
;  8  ;)*
W #$.7
  B  C ,-;Z1-  7"
TW #$.7
  7Y,-7  CB5D29

 +

    
 $ 
 

,   #
1

,  ,

#
  

  $ &
 +  &$ 


!
! 
#

 

 
 

  A M (K)
mn

,O

[u1 ]V
[u2 ]V
9
A=
99 ,
[um ]V

 ,+)*  K Y;!D, u , u , . . . , u @."


1
2
m
  
@   D,
V =
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } CB5)*21G35 U = {u1 , u2 , . . . , um }   
  
 $ 
V

,   1 V = {v , v , . . . , v }

,   #

1 2

 n
U = {u1 , u2 , . . . , um }  
,  
#
 
 $ 
     1 


 947 WN1; {u , u , . . . , u }  u
1
2
m
i

@21 <,6Q 
RQ7 "

@  ,O)* i"
@ 
 .7
N .
  1)*"
  {u , u , . . . , u } &CB5M1-74 @ ("
1
2
m
,-H .
 &@ H L(u , u , . . . , u )"A%"
1
2
m
D, CB5>  @ &UV V CB5)*Z9
   
 @ V n 
  GB5 H@
 ,-
  ;T

V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn },

U = {u1 , u2 , . . . , un }

 

9D Q29;CB


!!CB529<  7;

 ,- V CB5)*2L

U CB5M1< ,

@;

ui = ai1 v1 + ai2 v2 + ain vn (i = 1, 2, . . . , n).

A(aij )nn ,OG35 V

,   #
 U

,  , %
#

 
 $  9O @   U CB5("

 @  V CB5)*29

01 V "A V " B5+  ,-
E = (eij ) ,-21 , eii =
eij = 0 1R,- i 6= j 9
)* ;S)*  D )* 

v1
v
~ = 99 2 ,
V
9
vn

8

=;.
 
1 1N,- i = j 1

u1
u2
9
U~ =
99 .
un

a V n  [a]  a @' 

CB5)*21)* a = [a] V
~ 1 7
V

~9
U~ = AV

@ 

ui = ai1 v1 + ai2 v2 + + ain vn =

~ (i = 1, 2, . . . , n),
= (ai1 , ai2 , . . . , ain )V

      

9     V  U
V n
       A V












U
  
        !      !          !  


[x]V  [x]U                       
 

!

[x]V = [x]U A.

   V  U  T       


 
 ! U
          
    C V
   T
        B  
      !          
  A
V
  ! U
       
 ! V
       
        

          A cV

U
  ! T
          

      ! C = BA 

              
         ! A1 U

>J
95@
P,-

#
 &! $ 


[x]V = [x]U A

 

 Z x = [x] V

~
~
~
~
V = [x]U U = [x]U (AV) = ([x]U A)V
UV@ 7C35&;;+CB5+)
R"

;Z9

Z?! 7

~ = AV
~ 1 T~ = B U
~ 9@ T~ = C V
~9
U
)* C V
~ = T~ = B U
~ = B(AV)
~ = (BA)V
~ C = BA 9
*Z " (,- ()* )* ;N1$ V "A U " B5 
,- E " XY<@ Z " )* T = V 9*)* ;Z " P 7
E = BA 9  , |A| 6= 0  B = A1 9

7N1 n"A  GB5 @
 ,-.)* )*0
 7S   .7
SCB521P   .7

n"
Q  
  
 ,-, M9
;21R)* XCB521 )*  P;XP @."
  1D H7
  7C3521
 .7"

9

     1 


 
 9N@ A  V CB5 U CB5B5< "
 ,-29
9$ ; (n 2n)"A,- (A | E) 9O ; ?@ ."

 (E | B) 7Q,-?UV.X)*0X W.X@ 
 
? @ N1O 1- 
R( ;Z9
)* B  U "A V " B5 ?,-29,-WN9
% 9@ [x]V  x @; '@  V CB5"
)*295 ; ((n + 1) 2n)"A,-2L

99

99

. . . . . .9 . . . . .
99
[x]V 9

 
( @ +)
N18)*,

@ &<!)*'
 M1;
 
 )* X7 ,-

99
E 99 B
9

. . . . 9 . . . . ,
99
9 d

 "
H@"

9D Q29;CB


, E @ 
 A" 21  n  0Q .
 X@"
21 d  n  0Y@ ?UV.Y)*0Y W.M1* 1

R? ;Z9O)* d  x @   "
@  U CB5)*2L d = [x] 9
U

 
 @
 ,- >@.,-

A B  W>@."
,-212,+)*< , A" )*21  B " )*29 A  B +  
&$  


  G35. A + B = {a + b | a A, b
B} 9 A  B @.,-':<H@.,-21, ,-
A" ,= B " ,9

 


 1 



 
 9 
 9 A + B = A B A B  B A 9
% 9M;,-P  U  V 
P@;."


 


L(U ) + L(V) = L(U V).

    


9   A  B        ! 

               !

      !   

dim(A + B) = dim A + dim B dim(A B).


#
&! $ 

 @ {u , . . . , u }  AB " CB529 )*;
1

  u

@ A" XCB51M7 v
."
p+1 , . . . , ur
p+1 , . . . , vn
@  B CB59)* p = dim(A B) 1 r = dim A 1
n = dim B 984 7 ;N9 {u1 , . . . , ur , vp+1 , . . . , vn }  A + B " 
CB52L

A + B = L(u1 , . . . , up , up+1 , . . . , ur , u1 , . . . , up, vp+1 , . . . , vn ) =

= L(u1 , . . . , ur , vp+1 , . . . , vn ).
DWN1OP x A + B @? u , . . . , u , v
1
r p+1 ,
. . . , vn  35;#$Q ,-2947 ;TN>35;#$"
 
29  7; 35;#$Q


a1 u1 + + ar ur + bp+1 vp+1 + + bn vn =
a1 u1 + + ar ur = bp+1 vp+1 bn vn .

 6 ,O7 T C35T
 


 1 :<  C35

 

 1  :<   B " M9

A" M
A B " M9   



>J
95@
P,-

bp+1 vp+1 bn vn = c1 u1 + + cp up 9X PD."


N1- c = = c = b
9$)*1
1
p
p+1 = = bn = 0
dim(A + B) = r + n p = dim A + dim B dim(A B) 9

    @.,-W:<)*0;  CB5D;)*.
"
%,O7MLN8
A @
H,- @.,-
i

  G35
(i = 1, 2, . . . , s) 1R)* A +  &$  


s
X
i=1

@.,-.M9

Ai = {a1 + a2 + + as | ai Ai }

D )* ;N1 

s
P

i=1

Ai W87 Ai @.,- Ai CB5


@

> ;  35;#$Q ML

s
X
i=1

Ai = A1 + + As = L(A1 ) + + L(As ) = L(A1 As ),

,

Ai = {ui1 , . . . , uini } (i = 1, . . . , s) 9

 +  &$ 
&#


 

   @.,-W(:<% )*  0 )*W87&35"

 #


  1R
  . @.,-W &
  CB5 >)*."

>@.,- CB5 
@

 ; 29

       
 
 
,  

9

       

S=

s
P

i=1
            !     
     v     !   S
  !

       ! 
    !   
      v = a1 + a2 + + as  

Ai

Ai

 
 

v = a1 + a2 + + as = a01 + a02 + + a0s ,

   ai , a0i Ai     ! ai = a0i   i
   

  
       !  Ai
      !     
   
   

= a 1 + a2 + + a s ,

ai A i ,

 '

9D Q29;CB


   !


ai =

 

 

i
   
j = 1, 2, . . . , s

Aj

 
X
i6=j

Ai = {}.

    i
   Ai    Ai
      !   Ai
 
    
 
       !  S
    

       %         !  
        ! 

s

  !     ! S = P
         ! 
Ai
     
i=1







 
  
! !  S = si=1 Ai  ! S = A1 A1
As        



#
&! $ 



Z Z1M  ;Z0!)*W87YZ " 2127

8
&)*.

 
 Z; v = a + a + + a = a0 + a0 + a0 1
1

,

ai , a0i

Ai

1M)*

ai a0i

Ai



s
P

i=1

(ai a0i )

12 ,

ai a0i =  ai = a0i 9
P 98)*
P 1$,
Z *Z9I@ v A
Ai
v = aj =
ai
j
i6=j

i6=j

aj Aj 1 ai Ai 1  , = a1 + + aj1 + (aj ) + aj+1 +

+as 1 212)*12<0N128:<<
)*.
" >2901 v = aj = 9
*Z 
Z9-@ A  A CB5H
@

+ ;"
i
 2L

A = Ai 9   S = L(A) 1Y "

i=1
,-; A @;;<35;#$6
29M@ w
  "   A @;>(35;#$  ,-29-)*

s
P
w=
wi 1 , wi  "   W 35;#$  ,- )*."
i=1

212,& A @;;<@N35;#$"

i
N ,-NW#$,- N1, w 35;#$N ,-
)*.>W#$,-  29)* <  j "  

wj A j



wj =

X
i6=j

wi ,

>J
95@
P,-

 ,18H0N1 w = 9I  w  A CB5

j
j
j
  35;#$P ,-215 w 
 35;#$
j
 ,-219 29 S CB529

Z Z9 @ = a + + a 1 a A 9 7;S
1
s
i
i
ai )*. Ai CB5 )
  7 
)*29 "
D )*.>CB5 
@

Q ;  35;#$
 ,-M1, " 29Y0N12.35;#$N"
 ,- 
 2101 a @ .
 
i
@ 29


     

  
 9  9-@ V = K n 9I8
n = s + t 1O,
s, t N 15)* V = U W 1 ,

U = {(a1 , a2 , . . . , as , 0, 0, . . . , 0) | ai K},

W = {(0, 0, . . . , 0, as+1 , as+2 , . . . , an ) | aj K}.

% 9
@ K 6; V n @
',-6CB5
v1 , v2 , . . . , vn  Ai = Kvi = L(vi ) = {avi | a K} 95)*

V n = A1 A2 A n .
  1 &$ 

 
 &#


  @ U  V 
,- K (;N9O@ W = {(u, v) | u U, v V }

PX 
X3521R<XP"

   U " <@2127=    V "
 @29R  CB5D; W " B5)*  K "A ;B5
 ,- #$.
NL

(u, v) + (u0 , v 0 ) = (u + u0 , v + v 0 ),
a(u, v) = (au, av)
U )*W )* %B5H =  .CB5D
@ WP,-.)*Z9
Y)*.3521  W @
<,-29 PG35"

  UVD )* 
 U  V &$  
 
 &#

W = U V Z9
8
U 0 = (u, ) | u U } 1 V 0 = (, v) | v V } 1)* U 0  V 0
@.,- W ,-.)*Q W = U 0 V 0 9

9D Q29;CB


     

   9@

U = K n 1 V = K m 9)* U V =
K n+m 1 8
((a1 , a2 , . . . , an ), (b1 , b2 , . . . , bm )) 35 U V "A ; "
  n + m  0 (a , a , . . . , a , b , b , . . . , b ) @"
1 2
n 1 2
m
W 9

     -;:<  .CB5D; ,-

)*.



K n = KK K U n
 9

 


 CB59
 1
)*.Z12, K  
 K 1 "

 
+  &$

 @ A  V @
?,-+@.,-9I8
v V 1



)* v + A = {v + a | a A} . G35 A +  &$ 
  
,  !
 


v /
 
#&   9
)* )* ;N15

v v + A,
+ A = A,
v + A = u + A v u A, u v + A v + A = u + A.

 ;'  .7"

V /A .M1   A" ;

 CB5DH21NG35 V 
 ,- A @.,-
; 
+    
 9

   

    @ V = K 2 1 A = {(0, a) | a K} 9;8

v = (1, 1) 1O)* v + A = {(1, a) | a K}
V /A = {(b, 0) + A |
b K} 9
     
 V /A          !        !   
 

        

(v + A) + (u + A) = (v + u) + A,
a(v + A) = (av) + A.

   !
  V /A          
          + A = A 

K


          ! 

 !

>J
95@
P,-

   {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr } A
    {v1 , v2 , . . . , vr , vr+1 , . . . , vn }


V
              A
       ! {vr+1 +A, . . . ,

vn + A}   !  V /A
      
#
 &! $ 



dim(V /A) = dim V dim A.

:<)*F  .CB5D

CB59

)*35."

,- 

 
 $  
  

   7 O
I ,-  K N; A = (a )

,-
ij mn
@ W  PU :<)* R
* 9
 9  Z9-  

535;
 -/1 

   92  A ,-Y)*."
,- +&
0 7 ; K
b m @
(,-H 18CB5
 
      

       

1 

 
@ A ,-  
  ,- =)* M9X  S )*   #$@
 ,-! !%@ .
 
   
29.H ,-;N9H)* ;  "
,-> 
>   ,- 29

    CB5 ;6 Y,- N;
87 <,-"
1
9
M9<@ A M
mn (K) k min(m, n) A = (aij )mn
,- k  -/       G35  (k k)"
,-Y  M1,'D A"A   m
k @ X n k P)*X)* 127N1
Y,-   M1,   A ,- k "
@ Q k  WCB59


A
 $    -/  
   G35PW r ,O7M1 
A" )* H;( , r  & .
 & 218 >
 ; .
 X 21*<<  > r 9M,-X ."
  0 158
,-Q .
 29
  7   . ,-%
.' / .
R"
 Q N15Q0     "
35 ;T)* X)* )* 29

9D Q29;CB



1  !
 8
A ,- k "
 

 ; .


21R)*  .
  P
#$SDQ > ,9
;,1-8
%?#
0NB5  (k + j)"

N M1 k < k +j min(m, n) 1 Y)*6  k
@ Y7N1)*  <35  W k "
N 
 ;
 j "

 N CB58 <:<7 
T,-N1< Q .
 29

!     
      !  ! 

     

 $%

     
 



    
 !    

  


 

    !  

  
   

#
&! $ 

 @ A ,-  
6   r 9N47."
  ;N1(@ .
6  ! W r "A=29N 


7;N1 ?.X6)*GB5D
P,-PB5  ?
r  + .
  M   ;
 A ,-+"
 r @ .)*2L

A =

 @



. . . a1n a1 (a1 )

.......
. . . . M ..............
.......
........
...

ar1 . . .
arj1 . . . arj2 . . . arjr
. . . art
. . . arn
ar (ar )

.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
..............................................
........
...

ai1 . . .
aij1 . . . aij2 . . . aijr
. . . ait
. . . ain
ai (ai )

.......................................
..........................................................
...
am1 . . .
amj1 . . . amj2 . . . amjr
. . . amt
. . . amn am (am ).
a11 . . .

a1j1 . . . a1j2 . . . a1jr

. . . a1t

ai = (ai1 , . . . , aik , . . . , ain ) K n (i = 1, 2, . . . , m) 9 ai @"

r  0> W 
535; ai = (a1j1 , . . . , a2j2 , . . . , arjr ) 1
r n 1@M98
a1 , . . . , am @&35;#$ ."


21O)* Y35;#$ 
  ?#$@.."


% 06 W,9
;,1 c a + + c a =
1 1
m m
X )* M1  c a + + c a @  P"
1 1
m m
 N .
Y21 7 c a + +c a =  )* 
1 1

m m

>J
95@
P,-

 . ?X  M1I, )* P W."

)*29@ 
R)
  M1M;8
a , . . . , a @"
1
m
'D, a , . . . , a  W%35;#$ 
."
1
m
218)*  a , . . . , a @, 35;#$ 
"
1
m
29   M  P@ W<X35;#$ "

 (M 6= 0) 1R A ,-  r @ ,
 W35;#$T
295@ a (i > r) r  0
i
@ 21, )*   A ,- i"
(@ 

   1 ,!   
P;)*21 "
)*,   
 M  2L

ai = (aij1 , . . . , aij2 , . . . , aijr ).

  M   @ Q@  NCB5
M  Q@  35;#$Q ,-

K r " )*21  ai 

ai = c 1 a1 + + c r a r ,
,

a1 = (a1j1 , . . . , a1j2 , . . . , a1jr ),

............
ar = (arj1 , . . . , arj2 , . . . , arjr ).
; A ,- i"
 @ .
@  W<35;#$Q ,-2L
j1

j2

ai "  P r "

jr

ai c1 a1 cr ar = (, 0, , 0, . . . , 0, , a0it , ).

D@ 21,&)*,-< .
 a0  
8
it
)* t N1 )*   7; A ,- W r + 1 "
Q  M 1 , M    )*  TD2L
1
M   @ +
; A ,- i"
 @"
?)*.(   M   +
; A
,- t"
  )*.  /UV 1$ M
1

 

9D Q29;CB


 XD  M  /EG)*K A ,-

@ Q t"
P>)*.  ;ZL

i"
<"

99
a1j1 . . . a1j2 . . . a1jr 9 a1t
99

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
9

M1 =
arj . . . arj . . . arj 99 art .
r
1
2

..........................
aij1 . . . aij2 . . . aijr
ait

7  t" '87!7 M1  H)*
 21"
' M  /
   @ .! ; 
1
r @ 'B5; 87.
H35;#$' ,-217 )*
)*;=.X <6@ P7N1MY35.
R"
WN15 M  > .
 <B5X <CB
R"
1
 M   W872L

99
a1j1 . . . a1j2 . . . a1jr 9 a1t

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

99
0
M1 = a
9 a = ait M.
rt
rj1 . . . arj2 . . . arjr
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
0 ... 0 ... 0
a0it

r "A  .CB5DT7 W=
,-=)*.
0 

 @ )*  A ,- i"
@  7
.
 2L

ai c1 a1 cr ar = ,
9 29

ai = c1 a1 + + cr ar (i = r + 1, . . . , m).

7N1C35 i"
N@ Y A ,-P."

 r @ P35;#$Y ,-297
47 WN1* A "
,-  r @  ?X,- @ WQ
CB5219 29 A"  @ .
>   r "A 29

>J
95@
P,-

 

,-;N1M8 Y   r "A<212"

 B5;S  .:<)* EA@ K('EAK?)*."

,-;  29

.( 47 M1$X @ CB5?  7; "
,-  )*Y,-Y  X@.
) 7   
@ .
   M1 I 721 -N
 ,
 21RN 
P  +UVD )*  r(A)  A ,-
  Z9
)* )* ;%21-,-
  ;)*.7;"
,- Y  M1<,-   >W87> "
 W>)*
 ?   M1OP  "
)*Q +U 8
 > Z  
29
 #   UV   .
< ' B5 =Z9

 ,-    )* =S.7 )*
 0"A21 ,-,-
@ ;35;#$ ."

>UV 1 ,H 21,-N@ /)*   CB5
@ WP,-.)*Z9



 

   ;

2 4|
3
1
1 2|
1 4
A=
0
1 1
3
4 7
4 4

0
2

1
5

,-   29
,-,O7 
B5
87.)*8  "
 .
(29$ P,- )*,- .
  Q  .7."

 < ,= ,15 1



4 3
=
M = 
6 0.
2 1

9D Q29;CB


.<   


2


M1 = 1

0

,



4

3


 M 


2
1  ,
1
1 

 )* M  M1  .7
 .
  1

M1 = 1 1  M1   )*'  ;87 "
  Q .
 2L

2 4
3
1 2
1
0
1 1
4 7 4

 1






1 

 4 



3  = 0,
4 

2 4
3
1 2
1
0
1 1
4 7 4



 0 


 2 


 1  = 0.

5

A ,-    r(A)  ML r(A) = 3 9

 

   ;

u1 = (2, 2, 4),

u3 = (2, 4, 1),

u2 = (1, 9, 3),
u4 = (3, 7, 1)

@;(/  6UV9 29@.
%35;#$

Q@.Z9
)*  ;T,-

u1 u2

u3


"

u4

2 1 2
3
2 9 4
7

4 3
1 1

 , ,-.
 @ 35   %M9P

,-=   %"A629N,O7 /B5!
87.)*!;."

 / T   T .
T21P  
)* P.X    .
 29$@
 M1<%,-.
 )* u  u @
1

>J
95@
P,-
)*   ?;8"A;
M9



@.


35;#$




 A0         !           !
   ! 
 !       !   r          

  


   ! 


@."

r(A0 )

#
&! $ 

 r  P 21M,/
 r  .
R"

 @ 

#$.7
Y
87CB5 
WCB51O35  .(,- 
87 ,-("
 N
8  .7
 .
  9  21 ."
<Y  > r 1* .
 21  
@ .
 <@ 29 




0
  
    
 
  

  !     !          ! !  A r                         
          !                 !  !  
   
                     

 ! 
 

  

#
&! $ 

 
XX35;#$ 
21
   I  I .
   N@  (rr)"A,O"

B59 #$.7
 >,-  QN 35;#$Q"
 ,-29

 #   UV,- ; )*S@.
 35;#$

 C35? ? Z9 W A "
,-
@ W  
 @  A0 #$.7

,$B5127;! j . . . , j 212,
1
r
 A0 "A>#$.7
 
87CB51D; A ,O)*> 
 b
a ,...,b
a 29



j1

jr

 

   ;

=35;#$

C35 @ WP)*

a1 = (1, 4, 3, 2),




a1 , a2 , a3 , a4 R4 1

a2 = (3, 7, 5, 3),

a3 = (3, 2, 1, 0),
a4 = (4, 1, 0, 1),
 87  6@  7;  , ' C35

7
35;#$Q ,-29

   !
 7C35; a , a , a , a @ Q ,/
1
2 3 4
'D
/,-H@ W/ 
/ @ 

 '

9D Q29;CB


 ;

WS#$.7
 7GB5L

1
3
3
4 7 2

3
5
1
2
3
0

1 3

0 1

0 0
0 0

7C35;

4
1

1
0

0
0
1
0

3 4

2 3

0
0
0
0

3
3 4
5 10 15

4 8
12
3 6
9

1 0 3 5

0 1 2 3

0 0 0
0
0 0 0
0

W #$.7
  7?N 21"

 ,  Y#$.7
(
87CB5L 1, 2 9 {a , a } @."
1 2

 35;#$ 
/ C3521 a = 3a + 2a 1
3
1
2
a = 5a 3a
@ W a , a , a , a     % 9

 
   


 

A = (aij ) Mmn (K)  B = (bjk )

r(AB) r(A)  r(AB) r(B) 
#
&! $ 

 @ C = (cik )mp = AB 1R)*

Mnp (K)     !


cik = ai1 b1k + + ain bnk ,

ci = ai1 b1 + + ain bn ,
b
ck = b
a1 b1k + + b
an bnk ,

 9 29 C ,- @ >35@;#$ 7 B ,-


@ !)
N1 C ,-! 35;#$ "
7 A ,-(()
N9I r(C) r(B)
 r(C) r(A) 9

 #   
 B ,$B5 <)* 12,-
|B| 6= 0 15  Q ,-29
#
 &! $ 

 @ C = AB 1 |B| 6= 0 1)* A = CB 1 9
@ 2L

C = AB r(C) r(A),

A = CB 1 r(A) r(C)

r(C) = r(A).

>J
95@
P,-

 
  
 &
 $ 
 
 9  Z r(A + B) r(A) + r(B) 9
     


A+B ,-
@ W;35;#$ "
7 A  B ,-;@ W;
@


; >)
N9
%ZN8
A, B M (K) 
n

AB = 0 = BA 1 A2 = A 15)*

r(A + B) = r(A) + r(B).

'MZN8
A Mmn (K) 1 B Mnp (K) 15)*

r(A) + r(B) n r(AB).

**ZN8
A, B, C Mn (K)  ABC = 0 1R)*

r(A) + r(B) + r(C) 2n.

2ZX@ A Mmn (K) 1 B Mnm (K)  m > n 9$"

,-WN15 |AB| = 0 9
"MZN8
A2 = A Mn (K) 15)* r(A) + r(E A) = n 9
5ZP8
A, B Mn (K) 1 AB = BA 1 r(A2 ) = r(A)  r(B 2 ) =
r(B) 1R)* r((AB)2 ) = r(AB) 9
$MZN8
A , . . . , A M (K) 1 k 2 1R)*
1




r(A1 ; . . . ; Ak ) r(A1 ) + + r(Ak ) n(k 1).

   
 


    
  

#

!  -  


     7; K &;

x1 , x2 , . . . , xn
,-  ;

35;#$  ?

U: Z
ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + + ain xn = bi (i = 1, 2, . . . , m).
 ,!
<,-N1U: Z;(7C35 ,O
 #$
G35Q 7


Axt = bb,

U %Z

A = (aij )mn /U: Z8Q,-21 xt   . ."

x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) @   n D 21)* ."
P
,-   1R7 b
b H
#$>35>29

,



9D Q29;CB


U: Z; 
R)*

aij
a2j
9
b
aj =
99 ,

b1
b
bb = 99 2 .
9

amj

)*

bm

U 'MZ
b
a 1 x1 + b
a 2 x2 + + b
an xn = bb
7
(G35&U: Z7C35  + -/   
 
9
D )* ;N1-

x0 = (x01 , x02 , . . . , x0n ) )*  .7 )*

?U: Z-P 7 21M,- b
b b
a1 , b
a2 , . . . , b
an Y35"
#$Q ,- x0 , x0 , . . . , x0 W#$,- N9
1
2
n
  
  

#

! -  




       
UV   Z9 

"        !    



     !                A         ! 
           A = (A | bb)          !      
#
&! $ 



 , 35 /
 @)*/D )* WN1PU: Z 

)* H.7 )* %21;,-H
#$ 35;
b  35;#$ 7 A ,-Q>)
N1
 9 29*,- A ,-P;<P@ 
 A "

,-; (L(a , . . . , a ) = L(a , . . . , a , b)) 129 292,-
1

A ,-?; +    A ,-?;

+  M1$9 29- 74   ?)*.721-,-

r(A) = r(A) 9
    , &
#
 &!
  9;@ .

Y = (y1 (t1 , . . . , tp ), . . . , yn (t1 , . . . , tp )) ,

, )*   y (t , . . . , t )  n #
 @,-  t , . . . , t
i 1
p
1
p
,-+;N1$G35/U: Z(B5   7 21I8

 , . . . , "   K "A @ 
1

(y1 (1 , . . . , p ), . . . , yn (1 , . . . , p )) ,

>J
95@
P,-
,

)*   y #
 @,-  )*   ( ,

i
1
5
3




)*21I35  .=U: ZY% 7 .%21I"
. . . , p )
@N1RU: Z$<  x0 = (x0 , . . . , x0 )  7 
1
n
0  , . . . , K 1 <,% i = 1, 2, . . . , n"
1
p
   Q@ 

x0i = yi (1 , . . . , p ).

  B5 P 7 Q#$.
21R,6D35+U: Z"
 > 7 W .M9

  
   
9 n
       !  r



  

 !    !
     
        n r  

#
&
 ! $ 



 " 

     
 
!         
  

         
!  !     

X @ 21,'D35 "

R/W)*21 ,- U: Z  ,- U @ .
YZ
  M18Q)*0 7;N1&U: Z " H 47 + 
R."

P7

xi1 + f1 (xj1 , xj2 , . . . , xjnr ) = ci1 ,

.............

x + f (x , x , . . . , x
)=c .
ir

j1

j2

jnr

ir

U **Z

 7 C35)*  C35 ,O7 r 35  . U **ZN("

 ,-Y  M1M  P,- r   X 21M"

,   
 i , . . . , i  X)* /;.
 
1
r
,-/  217
#$ D/ / 
 4
 7 2L

i1
i2
ir

1 0 ... 0
99

9
1 ... 0

99
99
9 9

9
9
9

99

9 O
1

9
9
99

j1

99

jnr

9D Q29;CB


721,O7215N@ 

Y = (y1 (t1 , . . . , tnr ), . . . , yn (t1 , . . . , tnr )),

,

yjs (t1 , . . . , tnr ) = s ,

,-

s = 1, . . . , n r,

yiu (t1 , . . . , tnr ) = ciu fu (1 , . . . , nr ), ,- u = 1, . . . , r,

HU: Z; B5 Q 7 29

U 2Z


    

   
 U: Z

?G35   


  1*8
' 
#$P35  bb .
 295;8"

 PQ<?21  N S"
0 .
 X@  P 7 +UV 7 .>G35

(-/
 &!
  Z9

    n   !     ! r   !      ! 

 !          K n  

   
 


   
  
          !   !             
       
      
 


  
   x1 , x2 , . . . , xnr A           !          !  

           !       !
     !  !    !    ! 

     
9

   
       !    K
   ! 






(n r)
 !   
 !

  

Y0 = t1 x1 + tnr xnr

   

   

             !  ! 

  "  !                 !           A  
  x0    
      !  !      !       !  Y
x0 + Y0  "              !  ! 

#
&! $ 



R)


 35 @.,- 2L

A(x ) =  A(y ) = 1P)* A(x0 + y 0 )t = A((xo )t +
(y 0 )t ) = A(x0 )t + A(y 0 )t = + =  A(cx0 )t = A(c(x0 )t ) =
 7;N1ON
c(A(x0 )t ) = c = 9R)* ?)* 0
0 t

Z



0 t

>J
95@
P,-

"

@ 
R
Q7

xi1 + f1 (xj1 , xj2 , . . . , xjnr ) = 0,

.............

x + f (x , x , . . . , x
)=0
ir

j1

j2

U "MZ

jnr

Q B5 Q 7  M@ 

(y1 (t1 , . . . , tnr ), . . . , yn (t1 , . . . , tnr )) ,

U 5Z

,

yjs (t1 , . . . , tnr ) = s ,

,-

s = 1, . . . , n r,

yiu (t1 , . . . , tnr ) = fu (1 , . . . , nr ), ,- u = 1, . . . , r.

#$@.; s  " P 4
3 ;  )* (127  "
s
7 k "A 6 )*  # 9$)*  D xs  7 .M9-)*."
  ; (n r) n B5 X ,-21
 @ 
 xs  7 21 s = 1, 2, . . . , n r 95,O @Q7
i1
i2
i3
ir
1
1 0 0 ... 0 x
0 1 0 . . . 0 x2

0 0 1 . . . 0 x3 ,

9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
0 0 0 . . . 1 xnr
j1
j2
j3
jnr
,  7 C35 i , i , . . . , i  <)*21O"
1 2
r
<Q >< )*7  <  .'UV 
.
H)*0/ 35SU 
5 Z?#$.
  ;Z9
,O721HH,-  
=   (n r)"A=21

 ,1- 74?   )*.721-  M1
H 7 W x = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xnr } ;635;#$

294
 7 ;N1HU "MZP'  z "
7 Q x  35;#$> ,-29@

z = (, 1 , 2 , , 3 , . . . , nr , ),

 

9D Q29;CB


,!  > CB515NB5, X "

,O)* UV  7 N1+'@ /)*   x 
  Z9
)* >U "MZ
  7 WQ35;#$Q ,-

v = 1 x1 + 2 x2 + + nr xnr z

:</;21@;7 (, 0, , 0, , 0, . . . , 0, ) 19 29 v @ N."

  N  j , . . . , j
.
Y21,1 v U "MZ$"
1
nr
X 7 29 8
&
 7     7W U "MZ8"
)*P
,-   ?Q 7 N1 f (x , x , . . . ,
u j1
j2
xjnr )  
#$ xj1 , xj2 , . . . , xjnr
,-  35;#$S"
 ,-21O? , f (0, 0, . . . , 0) = 0 1 7 X  WN1O
u
 7    , # "A?29O. "
v @  7  8
)* +M1I v .
 ?@ 21I9 29 z = x1 + x2 +
1
2
+ nr xnr x Q35;#$P ,-295QZ

R"
@ ,-
29
ZN
 @Q)* <   B5 Q 7  >#
R"
 
P  .CB5D 9
*Z " 
,-/;)* 7 ;N1I;; "
-< 7 N735  .)*.;8"
    7 . P)*  ;TZN
 @2L

z x0 = y Y0 z = x0 + y x0 + Y0 {x0 + y | y Y0 }. 


 1
   !
98
H;.
  E
,-Y@ 
nr
,-T
#$X
,- >DS<)*.0 C
,-<@  (C M
1
12)* ;.Y "
nr (K) |C| 6= 0)
Q0> 7 WQ,- PCB5
Q)
M9




?"

 V = K n &$   
    +   &$   &
 $ 
 
  


   

 
 


  
 &
 !
  


&
 $  
 

    @ K 21 u , . . . , u V = K n 1 U = L(u , . . . , u )

1
m
1
m
 K n "AP@.,-29 7 ;0  W A M
,OM1
(K)
sn

>J
95@
P,-


 

0
9
A 9 = 99
xn
0

x1
99

35;#$ ;  =     7 W ,-
U "  W8729
8
U .
 N@.,-21)* A" 7/)* 0D;
 (n n)"A,-S .
    N9>8

U = K n 15)* A" >7 D; .
  ,- Msn (K)"
 1 s 1 9 8
% 1 dim U = r(u , . . . , u ) < n 1*)* 1 @N1
1
m
ui = (ui1 , . . . , uin ) 1 1 i m 1 uij K 9
 7; ,- B M
1
1
1
mn (K) B = (bij ) bij = uij
1 i m 1 1 j n 1+35;#$H;  ?  


0
99
9
U: Z

9
B
= 99 m.

xn
0
 21- r = r(B) = r(u , . . . , u ) = dim U 1- 1
1
m
r < n 9 
> 7 W Y0 ,-Q  GB5 dim Y0 =
s = n r 215  1 r < n 15)* 1 s < n 9
@ v , . . . , v K n @ &@  %U: ZP';8"
1
s
;  7 WYCB5 M1 v = (v , . . . , v ) 1 1 i s 1
i
i1
in
vij K 9O@ A Msn (K) 1 A = (aij ) 1 aij = vij 1 1 i s 1
1 j n 9547  ;N15 A 0>,-29
;,1 A ,-+ +7 U " (  "
@ >UV , u , . . . , u @ X35;#$ ,-Z35"
1
m

  .

x1

0
99
9
A 9 = 99
x1

xn

U %Z

;  /= 7 .M19 29

U Y0 9.6.721
dim Y0 = n r(A) = n s = n (n r) = r = dim U 9* 1
U = Y0 9


9D Q29;CB


  1  !
 ,- A  =,-7  .CB5D
29

 17 A0 ,->)*0?D; :U  Z( ."
 7 CB5 >)
N9
@.,-/Q7 ,-( HB5 ;&@."

>,-  7 M9



 &$
!
 @

u1 , . . . , um Rn 35;#$ 
."
@ 29M;6W u
@ 21
m+1 , . . . , un
{u1 , . . . , un } > 7. Rn "A CB529

   !
  ,!B5;N1R@ v , . . . , v U: Z "
1
s
7 WS CB5 4UV )*W87)* r(B) = m 1
s = n m Z9-@ um+1 = v1 , . . . , un = vnm 9I4 7 ;N1I
{u1 , . . . , un } CB5 Rn " )*29MQ4 7 ;N1  u1 , . . . , un
!35;#$ 
29Y@ , . . . , R 
1
n
u + + u = Rn 9R)*
1 1

n n

z = 1 u1 + + m um = m+1 um+1 n un =
= m+1 v1 n vnm

@  @ z U V 1 , V

8
z = (z , . . . , z ) 1 z R 1 1 i n 1)*
1
n
i
   7 UV7M98U %Z1IU 'MZZ @

= L(um+1 , . . . , un ) 9
U  V @.,-."

z1
9

(z1 , . . . , zn ) 99 = 0,
zn

z12 + + zn2 = 0 1R9 29 z1 = = zn = 0 15 z = 9

)*1

1 u1 + + m um = = m+1 um+1 + + n un .

  u , . . . , u 35;#$ 
=@ 21Y"

1
m
 = =
9@  u
 W
1
m = 0
m+1 , . . . , un
35;#$ 
21N)*1
9
m+1 = = n = 0
 1 = = = 0  u , . . . , u @  35;#$
1
n
1
n

29



>J
95@
P,-

   7  I  7W V = K n " )*@.,-,-; 2B52L

 Z
 ,!35;#$ ;  X  7 W Y0 "


% Z , u1 , . . . , um K n @  35;#$Q 29

  7 
35W  Z "A 
% Z " B5
 UV 7 WY"
CB5 ZY
% Z "A  Z " B5X 29$ 2B5 7"
7
Q@.,-W U W  W ,-HU 4
3 

 ;    
535;  Z9M; 2B5Y"

77
>@.,-WQ:<  ML

 

L(u1 , . . . , um ) + L(w1 , . . . , wt ) = L(u1 , . . . , um , w1 , . . . , wt ).

   8)*7  < 7 <Q 2B5  ,-M9

 

   @ U = L(u , u , u ) < R4 1 u = (1, 1, 0, 0) 1

1
2
3
1
u2 = (0, 1, 1, 0) 1 u3 = (0, 0, 1, 1) 1 V = L(v1 , v2 , v3 ) < R4 1 v1 =
(1, 0, 1, 0) 1 v2 = (0, 2, 1, 1) 1 v3 = (1, 2, 1, 2) 9; U +V  U
V @.,-<CB5212  I@  u1 , u2 , u3 , v1 , v2 , v3
7; U + V @.,- CB5 )
N9

   !
 @  u , u , u , v , v , v 7 C35; 
1
2
3 1 2 3
 D
Q,-X@   
Q @ 
 ;S#$.7
 7GB5L

u1
1
1

0
0

0
0
0

0
1
0
0

u2
0
1
1
0

u3
0
0
1
1

v1
1
0
1
0

v2 v3

0 1

2 2

1 1
1 2

0
1
0 1
0 1
2 1

1
2 1 0
1
0
1 2

1
0
0
0

0
1
1
0

0
1 0 1
0 1 2 1

1
1 1 1
1
0 1 2

u01

u02

u03

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

v10

v20

v30

1
0
1
1
2
1

2 1
0
1 1 1

   U +V = L(u , u , u , v , v , v ) ,-@ 


1
2
3 1 2 3
 
< @ =,- 35;#$< #$X

 '

9D Q29;CB


X)*M1* {u , u , u , v } CB5 U + V " )* UV 

1
2
3 1
dim(U + V ) = 4 1 )* U + V = R4 Z9*#$.7
 P7 v20 
v 0 ; u0 , u0 , u0 , v 0 @>)
NL
3

1
0
0
0

v20 + v10 =
1 = u 1 + u 2 + u 3 .
0

  v 0 = u0 +u0 +u0 v 0 21 )*1 v = u +u +u

2
1
2
3
2
1
2
3
1
9 7 7 v 0 "  M1R v 0 + v 0 = (2, 0, 2, 0)t = 2u + 2u 1
v1 
1
3
3
3
1
 v = 2u + 2u v 9 7
? ;?,-.

3
1
3
1
,- W #$.7
 H7GB5%  
 "
<#$2L

1
0
0
0

0
1
0
0

0
0
1
0

0
1
2
0
1
0
0
1
2
1 1 1

 7<  7; U V 9X;=<35;#$N; "

 8  
212< 7 W

)*. W87 U " Q V " M9
U "  ML

x1
1 1 0 0
0

x2
0 1 1 0 = 0 ,
x3
0 0 1 1
0
x4

 

'@ #$.7
 671 x , x , x W6
,- "
1
2
3
21 x  
#$29 7 W/CB5 /)* 
4

>J
95@
P,-
;


(1, 1, 1, 1) @   9R 1 U @.,-NW87"

x1
x2

(1, 1, 1, 1)
x3 = 0
x4

;     7 W ,-.M9

V "  ML

x1

x1

0
1 0 1 0
0
1 0 1 0
0 2 1 1 x2 = 0 0 2 1 1x2 = 0
x3
x3
1 2 1 2
0
0 2 0 2
0
x4
x4

x1

x1

1 0 1 0
0
1 0 1 0
0
x2
x2

0 2 1 1 = 0 0 1 0 1 = 0
x3
x3
0 1 0 1
0
0 2 1 1
0
x4
x4

x1

1 0 1
0
0

x2
0 1 0
=
1 0 ,
x3
0
0 0 1 1
x4

 7  #$.7
 >71  x , x , x W 

1
2
3
 ."

,- 21R7 x %
#$29 7 WQCB5 
4
 )* +; (1, 1, 1, 1) @   9  35;
 #$
;  <  

Q0

x1
x2

(1, 1, 1, 1)
x3 = 0
x4

V @.,-.M9

9D Q29;CB


 21N


0

1
1 1 1
1 1
1 1

x1
 
x2
= 0
x3
0
x4

U V @,-,-.M957  .Q2L


 x1
 

1
1 1 1
x2 = 0
1 1
1 1 x3
0
x4


 x1
 
1 1 1 1
x2
0

1 1 1
1
x3
0
x4

! x1
!

1 1 1 1
0
x2
,

=
x3
0 2 2
0
0
x4

x1 , x2 W
,- 21 x3 , x4 
#$Q
,- 29

 7 W CB5

Q)*  P@  

u = (0, 1, 1, 0),
v = (1, 0, 0, 1).
)*1

{u, v}  U V @.,-?CB529


  + -/ &$  

   
 
 


  

@

V  U @
,- K Y;N9

: V U 7M1P, V ,-S v @

 'D, u = v @ U "A 1G35 V ."
  
 

UV
@
&,- U @
 ,-.)*  

>J
95@
P,-

  
 Z1R8
!  a, b V  K "   ;8"

 >

(a + b) = a + b  (a) = (a).

   

  
 987 [ ] : V n K n 18, 
a @
     [a]V @ . V =
{v1 , . . . , vn } CB5)*21 V n "A>35;#$Q7 K n " B59
% 9-7 0 1-,   .+
 &(35"

M1 QX  W#$,-  N W V ."
@
P,- 35;#$>7 V " )*29
' 9 .
  7 V "A U " )*21,6
 ?
v "  V "A U @M1R35;#$29
* 9@ V = U1 U2 1)* 1 : (u1 , u2 ) u1  V "  35"
R
#$%7 U " B5187 : (u , u ) u  V " %35;#$
1
2
1
2
2
7 U " B59* 7>G35XP:<Q@."
2
,-X)*. )*.CB59
2 98@ A  B  U ,-%@.,-21 V = AB 
 NQ:<295)* (a, b) 7 a + b  V "  U " )*
35;#$Q729
" 988
A  V ,-H@.,-218)* : v v + A 
"
V >35;#$Q7 V /A #$@" ,-GB59



   
   V = {v , v , . . . , v }

1 2
n

V n
     












W = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wn } !  
 
     U
  ! 





   !                !                V n
  !
   
U
          vi = wi   i
 


#
&! $ 



  V n 3 a = v + v + + v
1 1
2 2
n n
 7;   a 7 u + u + + u U 9
1 1
2 2
n n
.% &7294
 7 ;N1 : V n U 35;#$298

b 7 w + w + + w 1R)*
1

(a + b) = (1 + 1 )w1 + (2 + 2 )w2 + + (n + n )wn =

= (1 u1 + 2 u2 + + n un ) + (1 w1 + 2 w2 + + n wn ) =
= a + b;
(a) = (1 )w1 + (2 )w2 + + (n )wn =

9D Q29;CB


01

(1 w1 + 2 w2 + + n wn ) = (a).

vi = wi  i"  M9


  1 



 
  98
35;#$H721)* =
 (a) = (a)  a @M9
% 92@  V ,-Y35;#$729*,-WN1 ."
 V = {v , . . . , v } @;X V "A V =
1
s
{v1 , . . . , vs    Q D V " >  M9
' 9@ V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vs } 35;#$ 
/@."
;H V "A 17 U = {u , u , . . . , u } @;
1
2
s
 U "A 9O,-WN1OX 35;#$ 7 V
,- U ,-.)*215 , v = u  i"  M9
i
i
* 9Q@  K m ,- 35;#$T7 K s ,-.)*29
R
@ A ,-212 a @  K n ,-<"
i
D,/ 29 A"A D )* ; ,-21)*   a "
i
@   UV ;Z9M)*  ; (A | A) ,- UV"
; n )*  . A ,OM17%
   s ."
  A ,O Z92,-W )* N
2LM8
?@ ."
  
 @  .?,-   (B | C)
7GB5 UV
Q7CB5> < NB5Z1)* C = B" M9





 @ L(V, U )  V @
<,- U @
T"


,-.)*<<35;#$Y7P29 @ , L(V, U ) 1

  Z
K 9  CB5D;S7 + U   
 



 U   
 
 !
 
 !

 , ZL
 v V 1 v( + ) = (v) + (v) 1 v() = (v) 9




     
 L(V, U )          

#
 &!  $ 

 @
P,- @.>)*3529




W, V, U, T @
,- K ;N1

, L(W, V ) 1 , 0 L(V, U ) 1 L(U, T ) 1 K 9
 CB5D; 2L2  w W "   w() =
(w) 9
0

@

>J
95@
P,-



     

9NZ
( ) 9

 Z

*Z
 Z

 Z

L(W, U ) 9

() =
( + 0 ) = + 0 9
( + 0 ) = + 0 9
() = () = () 9
#
&
 ! $ 


R)
T)*3529


  

V n @
 ,- K  ; V =

{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } CB5N17 U s  @
H,- K ."
&; U = {u , u , . . . , u } CB5N9 L(V, U ) 35;#$
1
2
s
7?,- (V, U ) 35?;TG35

[v1 ]U
[v2 ]U

[]VU =
...
[vn ]U
@

(ns)"A,OM1 @  vi @N"

  @  U CB5)*29>W   .CB5D

[]VU ,-+35  . (n s)"A,O K ';N1
  ij ';W#$,- M1,+ 
uj "   vi @ U CB5 7?M9


       


9   V n 

       K   

 

    V = {v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }         U s       

  K      U = {u1 , u2, . . . , us}     []
  !                      ! (V, U )     

   
    L(V, U )                        
Mns (K)      

#
&! $ 

 [vi ]U

@  ,-7

 CB5D
7  (V, U ) 35N9P  35;#$ 7S)*."
.+;;+,-298
(7',-+"
21)* ?.%H7%;  @ V CB5/."
 CB5?21)*1;  @ V n "A' 

 

9D Q29;CB


@B51$9 29-W872988
A  M

" +  "
ns (K)
,-21X)* !@ w @ U s "A 1P "
i
T@  U CB5)* W87 A ,- i"
T@ .M9
 CB5D; 7 V n "A U s " )*/)*  L<8
a =
1 v1 + + n vn 1, i K 1$)* a = 1 w1 + n wn 9
%  L(V, U )  [] = A 98  &,-
D,=35;#$Q7?,-29



      +
!
 
 !&# !
 


s "AXCB521

@

V  V n"
L(V, U ) 9M@ [] = (aij )ns

PCB521 U  U
 35>7?,-Q<CB5?;TQ@

v1
v1
v
v
~ = 299 ,
~ = 99 2 , V
V
9
9
vn
(n1)

vi = w i =

s
P

vn
(n1)

u1
u
~ = 99 2 .
U
9
un
(s1)

aij uj (i = 1, 2, . . . , n)  H "

j=1

  )* /,O
!21N, W  D"

35' )*M1;,  35;#$H7M1
(V, U ) CB5 <35Q< [] ,-M1 ,
0>N35;#$Q7?,-.
 CB5 >35 ;NL

~ = []VU U~ ,
V

, :< >  []

 U
~ ,- 29
VU
8
a V n 1)* 1 , 35 N1 [a] ".%D )* ; a ."
V
@/  @  V CB5)*29N 7 ;N1

~9
a = [a]V V

 
   
98
a V n 1 L(V n, U s ) 1R)*

[a]U = [a]V []VU .


#
&! $ 

  >@ 
 >:<43

~ = a = ([a]V V)
~ = [a]V (V)
~ =
[a]U U

 

>J
95@
P,-

~ ) = ([a]V []VU )U
~.
= [a]V ([]VU U
 

[a]U = [a]V []VU .

8
L(K n , K s ) 1)* (e, f )  
/CB5!"

;T  a K n @   >@?
a = a[] 9


     

  

 



 
   .
  : V n
U s 7 ,-212, v V n v = U CB5 X 
35 & .
  (n s)"A,-29
  @ V m+n = U m U n 17 : (u , u ) u 
1
1
2
1
1
2








@
,






+

*
)
.















/












*
)
.





."
2 : (u1 , u2 ) u2
CB592@ {a , . . . , a }  U m "ACB521 {a
1
m
m+1 , . . . , am+n }
1
 U n "A>CB5Q {v , . . . , v , v

V m+n "A>CB5"
1
m m+1 , . . . , vm+n }
2
21-, v = (a , ) 1I,- i m 1 v = (, a ) 1I,- i > m 9
i
i
i
i
)*


Em
1R, E  (m m)" B5?;.
"
[1 ] =
m
Onm
 (n m)" B5 .
 >,-21
 Q,-21 7 O

 nm
Onm 1M,
[2 ] =
En ;.
  (n n) B5 "
En
(m+n)n

,-21 7 O
& .
  (m n)" B5 ,-29
mn

 @
A  B @.,- U = K s ,-.)* {a1 , . . . , am }
 {b , . . . , b } CB5 )*.1 V = AB %>"
1
n
 :<>CB5 V = {(a , ), . . . , (a , ), (, b ), . . . , (, b )} 9
1

9D Q29;CB


@ e  U " H 
%CB521)*

a + b 7?,- (v, e) 35?;T

a1

: (a, b)

999


a
[] = m .
b1
99
9
bn
(m+n)s

  @
V = {v1 , . . . , vn }  V ,- CB521 U = K s 1
e  U " > 
 CB521 {w1 , . . . , wn } %  @"
;> U "A 1$)* : V U 35;#$?7&,-21
 , v = w  i"  M1-)*  w , . . . , w "
i
i
1
n
@   UV <;Z9
 @ A  V ,- @.,-21 : v v + A 35;#$
7 V "  V /A #$@" ,-GB598
{v , . . . , v }  A"  CB5"
1
r
 V " >CB521,= A" 
21 V = {v , . . . , v , v
1
r r+1 , . . . , vn }
CB5?,-M1 U = {v
 V /A"  )*.
r+1 + A, . . . , vn + A}
CB5212)* " ,- (V, U ) CB5 N35Y; 

[] =
,

Enr

Or(nr)
Enr
n(nr)

Or(nr)  r (n r)" B5Q .
 P,-217

 (n r) (n r)" B5>;.
 >,-29

    
 

!
 
 #

  &
  #

#  +

L(V, U ) 9
 
 )
!
 
 G35 .
Im = V = {v | v V } U  

+UV   9 1$#$9 Z ' 7Z9 " 

  G35?. ker = {v V | v = } U

 

@

UVN9 Z &;21
Z9

>J
95@
P,-



U            !  

     
  
 dim V r()
  ker V              !        


   
 dim(ker ) d()
 
    !        
   V
  !           
 !      
#         !    
 





 !    !                
   
#
 &! $ 

 Z  ZY
R)
435 @.,-H  ."
       
 

B5D 7N9
*Z$@ {u = v , u = v , . . . , u = v } 
1
1
2
2
r
r
21 {w , w , . . . , w }  ker "APCB529 47 ;N1*
1
1
d
vr , w1 , w2 , . . . , wd }  V " >CB529
8
a V 15)*

V 3 a =
a

r
X
i=1

r
X
i=1

i (vi )

i vi ker a
a=

8

r
P

i=1

i v i +

d
P

r
X

i v i +

j=1

d
X

P
d

j=1

i (vi ) =

i=1

215)*1

i v i +

i=1
r
X

i v i =

i=1

V " 
CB5"
{v1 , v2 , . . . ,

d
X
j=1

j w j

j w j .

j=1

j wj = 15)*

= =

i v i

i=1

r
X

i=1

X
r

r
X


j wj = 1  ,

X
d

j w j =

j=1

r
X

i ui

i=1

d
P
i  # "AM1R>)* ,
j w j =

1R9 295 j "A, # "A>29

j=1

 '

9D Q29;CB


 Z/@ V = {v , v , . . . , v }  V n "ASCB521 U  U " 

1 2
n
CB529  V W87 v , v , . . . , v @<35;#$
1
2
n
M1 V = L(v , v , . . . , v ) 1 " 
  
W87
1
2
n





@




;



+















/








M


1













,
1
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn }
.7218W87 U CB5)* v , v , . . . , v @+"
1 2
n
 @  {[v ] , [v ] , . . . , [v ] } @;H."
1 u
2 u
n n
   M159 29 []"  @ W    M9


    
 &$
 
  

@ {v , v , . . . , v }  V n ,-CB5"

1 2
n
21  V n "AQ35;#$ 7>Q@ v "A> .
,- 
i
8
 7.
21 A = {v , v , . . . , v }  {v , v , . . . , v }
1
2
r
1
2
n
 CB529
,-WN1
Z A  V n "A CB5

Z ker "AXCB5<)*0YD;6)*  LMY."
@ v 7; A"  )
NL
i

vi = i1 (v1 ) + i2 (v2 ) + + ir (vir ),

i = 1, 2, . . . , n;

)* @

wi = vi i1 v1 i2 v2 ir vr

(i = r + 1, r + 2, . . . , n) )*   ker "A CB5M9

   W C "AP
 @ N 7>P;>CB5
 >)* X772L
@ A  35;#$>7?,-

(V, V) CB5 >35."

 ; (A = []
1 ~
~ 92)*  ; ( En |A )
VU V = []VU U )
(ns)

n(n+s)

,-21, E ;.
 ?,- A"  >@"

n
  N9
0
@  U )*6#$  ZI 
N "
@ T  ;

99
9 I

( B | C ) = . . . . . . . .
(nn) (ns)

K 9

99

()

>J
95@
P,-

7GB51 , C #$.7
 ,-N:<  9)* C "
,- u , . . . , u  .
  @  @  Im = V n " 
1
r
CB5M1I7 B ,- w , . . . , w @  (r + d = n) 1
1
d
<, C ,O)* .
 Q  0 @N1 @  ker "
 CB5M9
() ,O)* I ,- u , . . . , u @ &35;#$

21

(rs)

.
 6,-21<
!7CB5

(ds)

8 NB529 )* I )*  Im " ,&CB5N"
  @   U U CB5)*Z17
K  ker "A

 D,

)*Z9

CB5% 

|dn

@   /U



  

: K 4 K 4,
x 7 xA,
x K 4,

2 1 1 1
3 0
1 2

A=
0 3 5 1 ;
5 1
0 3

1
0
(E|A) =
0
0

1
2

1
3

0
1
0
0

0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0

0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1

0
0
0
1

2
1 1 1
3
0
1 2

0 3
5 1
5
1
0 3


 2
1 1
1

 1 2
3 0

 2 4
6 0

 1 2
3 0

V CB5"

9D Q29;CB


1
0 0 0
2
1 0 0
...............
3 2 1 0
1 1 0 1
B

2
1 1 1
1 2
3 0
...............
0
0
0 0
0
0
0 0
C

I
O

u1 = (2, 1, 1, 1)
u = (1, 2, 3, 0).
(2
w1 = (3, 2, 1, 0),
K &;?CB52L
w2 = (1, 1, 0, 1)

 @









,-/@.,-2L A V 9,-WN1
A V
 dim(A) = dim A dim(A ker ) 9
     



: V U 35;#$?7 |A )*GB5D
 A @."
,-GB5 &@.,- 35;#$>72L |A : A U 9
  @
A  B @.,- U ,-.)*21 : (a, b) a+b
35;#$7 A  B @.,- V = AB -
:< U " )*21  V " 
@,-6)*.CB5 : (a, b) a 9
1
1
,-WN15 A B = (ker ) 9
1
 % 1/!
* ,-   !# 9 
 @ % 1/' 1/!
*  
 W A B "  CB5  >)*  @
Q772L
@ U = K s ,-.)* A  B @.,- {a , a , . . . , a }
1 2
m
 {b , b , . . . , b } CB5 )*.92)*  ; ((m+n)
1 2
n
2s)"A,-
I & 7?CB52L

(ms)

O
Y

(ns)

(ms)

X
,
Y

(ns)

>J
95@
P,-
,

O .
  (m s) B5(,-21 X "A @ 

a1 , a2 , . . . , am 1 Y "AQ@  b1 , b2 , . . . , bn 9 @  ."
 
Q @ 

  ;S#$.7
 7GB5

Z
P O

,';X,O7X , P, Z ,O)* s"APX Z "

<@ <35;#$ 
29 )* Z "A<@ 
)*   A+B " CB5M1 7 P " 
@ 
)*   AB "
>CB5M9

  


@

W @
 ,- K &; CB5

W = {w1 , w2 , . . . , wm } 1 V ,- K " =; CB5 V =
{v1 , v2 , . . . , vn } 1 U ,- K "  ; CB5 U = {u1 , u2 ,
. . . , us } 1 , L(W, V ) 1 L(V, U ) 1 K 9@ [] =
(fij )mn 1 [] = (gij )mn 1 [ ] = (tij )ns Q7H,-
)*. CB5 Q35)*29

  
     
  , L(W, V )  L(V, U )  K 

  ! + L(W, V ) 
       

L(W, U )  L(W, V )

     

[ + ] = [] + [],
[ ] = [][ ],
[] = [],

 

[ + ] = (aij )mn  aij = fij + gij   i  P

j
   



[ ] = (bij )ms   bij = fi1 t1j +fi2 t2j + +fin tnj =   
n
P
i  j
    =
fik tkj  [] = (cij )      cij = tij   i

j
   
#
&
 ! $ 

 47 ;N1 [ ] = [][ ]
k=1

~
~,
L(W, V ), L(V, U ), L(W, U ), W(
) = [ ]U

9D Q29;CB


wi ( ) = (wi ) =
=

n
X

fik

j=1

k=1

,

X
s

bij =

n
P

k=1

tkj uj

X
n
=

fik vk =

k=1
s X
n
X
j=1

k=1

n
X

fik (vk ) =

k=1

fik tkj uj =

s
X

bij uj ,

j=1

fik tkj 9 1 [ ] = (bij )ms = []mn [ ]ns 9



    
 



   
   
 
 

 
( 
,   
@

,-.
 35;#$Q  S

Axt = bb UV 15 . 
 #$N1 xAt = bt Z ,

(1)

, A (m n)"A,- K " >;N9

@ A  K n " ,- K m " )* 35;#$Y7 ,-
 
 CB5  (e, f ) 35;N9)* I  v
K n @   Y@X v = vA 12, A =
[] 9
ef

xAt = bbt   Q)*  7; V = K n "

 ,- 35;#$ 7 : x xAt U = K m ,-.)*29O ,

35 
CB5,O)*D )* WN1 7Y,- V " N U "  "

 CB5  (e, f ) 35?; At " >2L
[]ef = At .
;   xAt =   7 W!  .
7 K = ker ;297 N,-N1R K @.,- V " )*21
(  GB5 n r(At ) = n r(A)"  29-.(0
   #$@ <,-%U $ 9 ' 9  Z9
8

x0 'U: Z 0  7 21O)* x0 = bt 1R7"

U: Z> 7 WPWX; W87 x0 + K


CB5DHM9N@ H  =&,-

X B5 Q 7 >)*.7&U 
 $ 9 ' 9  Z9



>J
95@
P,-

    
 &$
!

n) (n + 1)

U: Z>29 ;

@ ,-.

B5 ,-

bb

(mn)
...

En

(m +

(m1)

...
,

(n1)

, E ;.
  (n n)"A,-21  .
  n D"

n
P29*> 
P @ N1 >
 H</
 /)*M1 ; 
7GB5

X
. . .
Y

O
...
F

. . . ,
z

, CB5 
 
 @7CB5 0F  M1 X
,-%%35;#$ 
21 O .
 '"
,-21 .
 &21, b" %  7 =U 8

.
218)* HU: ZX&Z9)* z
 U
#$ 351 z t @ Z  U: Z? ;8"A;
 7 217 F ,-?%U
#$ 351 F t "
,-%@ Z )*   Axt = ;  H
#
  
  7 W>;M9,-WN9

bb &

    
 &$
!

  #       
 

 35;#$Q  8>

Axt = bb.

@

,-.
R"

(2)

 7;S)*. ;   

Axt =

(3)

Q . 
 ;   

At y t = .
; Q)*  
2L

(4)



9D Q29;CB


 ZP6U %ZQH)* +.7 )* 18,- U **Z
  y 0  7   6@ 

y 0bb = 0 UV . 
 ;  '6 

 7  
#$>35> ;  
Z9

%Z<8
TU %Z<21$)* Y?Y .7 )*W87)*
@
;;; 7 21 ,-YU 'MZ " ;@.7/

 7 29
'MZI8
A 
,-21 )* U 'MZ$ U **Z$@/35;#$

4 7 W>> 29

   !
UV
 @ 9 Z
- $  


 @ U %ZY21
9 29M n  0 x0 @ 21* , A(x0 )t = b 9
)* !  m  0 y @  )*.



yA(x0 )t = ybb 9%8
y 0 U **Z "    7 21')* y 0bb =
(y 0 A)(x0 )t = (x0 )t = 0 9

! 
 

 @ U %Z F29 )* 1
JJ 9 
 9% 9 ?
2 Q)*   71 (0, . . . , 0 | 1) @  )*."
 A = (A | b
b) #$;
P,-P#$.7
 7.)*P21
)*1 /@ =35;#$6 ,-29&35"
#$X ,->W#$,- XD )* ; y 0 , y 0 , . . . , y 0 "A 
1 2
m
  )*  ; y 0 = (y 0 , y 0 , . . . , y 0 ) @ 29 @ "
1 2
m


y 0 (A | bb) = (0, . . . , 0 | 1).

,I (35.( 7

y 0 A = = (0, . . . , 0) 

y 0bb = 1 95 1 7 N)*0 U **Z

? 7 ? 21
, y 0b
b = 0   ;#$M9




 
 



R7    
21$@
>,-."

Y@ 

,- #$ .XX 
?UVYY "

ZPM988
=7 W @
 ,-
  (,-   M.
1 7 P<  ( )*"
 <,- 9

>J
95@
P,-




   A .X)*M1* 

 K   ."

CB5I <,-;'G35
 

K 
;N18
 4
 7 P)* >2L
 ZY)*( K & CB5> H; A
@
P,-

%Z;)*>Q ?; A  

'MZ (a)b = a(b) = (ab) K, a, b A 9


  1  !


  EG K " M1R, 7 N@N"


   ;8"A;   7M1 
 .CB5D)*>@>7>CB529



 

  

 ? L 1O,S@ 
 7 )*."
,- K "  )*0?  7;  ,S  K 
 ("
;N9501 C >   R"A ;N9


   

   E 3 ,-



 Y@
X "

 ;N9



 

  

 D(X, K) = {f : X K} 

  K  ;T#
 @,- )*M15 >
#
 @,- B5> +;N9$.(  .
,-"

215,-,-
 Q 47 Q;.
29


  
 &$
!


 @ X > 2X +Q


@.W?9I47 ;N1- 2X +  "

 7

M M N = (M \ N ) (N \ M )

  M N  WH,-M1$)*.18 ,S)*"


 
 Q ?;N9
X @,-; 
2
Z2 = {0, 1} N;N18
 
  CB5<  )*  

0M = ,

1M = M M 2X .

9D Q29;CB


@
@


A    47 =CB5 {e1 , e2 , . . . , en }  ,

,-. K 
  ;TQ@
a=

n
X

a i ei ,

b=

i=1

n
X

bi ei

i=1

& = 6  29N)* &  "

,-
 )*>;  'MZ
 < "
M15

ab =

X
n

a i ei b =

i=1

n
X
i=1

X

n
n
X
ai (ei b) =
ai
bj (ei ej ) =

i=1

n X
n
X

j=1

ai bj (ei ej ) =

i=1 j=1

n
X

ai bj (ei ej ).

i,j=1

. &H 47 M1>  A  )*(
  "
CB5D CB5 @ N9
8
'CB5 @ >.
,-
219 29

ei ej = ej ei i, j,

)* 8 

,1

A  )*W )*N.
,-
292"

ab =

ai bj (ei ej ) =

i,j

  
 ,-21OX8

Q,-,-
219 29

bj ai (ej ei ) = ba.

i,j

CB5

@ "

(ei ej )ek = ei (ej ek ) i, j, k,

)* A" )*Q >W )* ,-,-
29

.721 8
V n 
@
,- {e , e , . . . , e }
1 2
n
CB5= e (i, j = 1, . . . , n) ,-X@21)* 87
ij
)* 0 V n " )* ;  ,-Q35.

ab =

n X
n
X
i=1 j=1

ai bj eij =

X
i,j

ai bj eij

>J
95@
P,-
Q 

@,-;



 

   M (K)

n

Mn



V  9

 ,-,-


(K)" > 47 > .
 ;#$29

 

;.
N9


 

 @..NG35 + !
 


1C8

;"

  @.,-YQ@ 29  7?G35"
 ,    ,   1$8
=+;
 35  .(@"

P,- Q  CB5;#$CB5.M9


   

   C

CB5

 21$ ,   R" B51,->"


@ >)* Q


1 i
1 1 i
i i 1

.
,-
!/,-,-
!)*35/ 

1  i   (.
,-
( ,-,-"

 
 )*35CB59


 
 
 
   E 3  ! 

 
&#
 + -/
 
 

   
$  
 ( E 3 .
,-
H&,-,-


 29$  )* 
 )*   21-,

D, CB5T,- Y.
,-
 Q,-,-,-
ML

a b + b a = 0 UV .
,-
Z

(a b) c + (b c) a + (c a) b = 0 UV? Z .

 .
,-
N,O729 < )*35

 7; E 3 "A; 
 {i, j, k} CB5)* ."
@
Q ?
NL

.  
 M9

i j
k
i
0 k j
j k 0
i
j i
0
k

 .
,-




;#$T

'

9D Q29;CB



    

  
{1, i, j, k}

+
 && 

 

 H

,-

CB5)* )*  ?
NL

1
i
j
k

1
i
j
k
1
i
j
k
i 1
k j
j k 1
i
k
j i 1

. / ',-,-
 U )*35W Z1  

.
,-
29?@  7T)*,-?@.

 M9

/"
,O7


   
 &$
!
 E
ij

 ,OM18 (i, j)  NB5   1 1

7  87 Y CB5 H .
21G35 
 $ -/  
 -/ UV=
;=;.

,I Z9 Eij (i = 1, . . . , n 1
j = 1, . . . , n) ,O
(;.
+@  Mn (K) @

,-CB5M9 7C35; M (K)   N

n
CB5)*29


 

 &$
!


,-WN15

a b
b
a

M2 (R)  )*



7?,- @  X@ M1O,

;#
29

C   CB5"


   
 &$
!


,-WN1 M (C)  )*21,

2
 .7
  ,=  R" B51

a b
a
b

7 ,-Y@ 

@ M1 ,/@  WX"
 CB5;#
29

 !

 

!-/  & 

999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C999 '




 
 -/
   -/+ -/ 
 99999999C9999999999( %

) . 9C9999999999999C999999999999C9999999999999C9999  %

*
9,O7T9999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C9999999 %2
% 98:<
#$ 999999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C99999 2#
' 9 >Q 9C999999999999C9999999999999C99999
9 '"
*R9@.
 ,O7>!99999999999C9999999999999C99 2#


  
   
 


   

! 
#
 /

-  
 $%
&  99999999999C99 "'
9835;#$Q    

;
87  ,-29 
R W699999999C99 

" '
,I
 T999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999 
5

% 9,->,-CB595



!
#
 -/


 $%
#     !
 



999 *

9,-<     9999C9999999999999C999999 *

% 9
 (n n)"A,IQ   999 !#%
' 9  ;> ; 99999C9999999999999C9999999( 2
*R9  ;QB5 ;Q   99C999999999999(!''


   + -/ &$  



999999999C999999999999* %

9  .CB5D Q 49C9999999999999C99999999* %

% 9@; 35;#$> ,- 9C9999999999999C99999 **
' 9I
  GB5  ,- 99999999C999999999  2*

*R9@;P?,-295CB5 XCB5B5

?,-295@.,-W  W

 :< 999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C99999999  2
2 9@.,-W>>:< 999C999999999999C9999999 !"'
" 9#$@" ,-T9999999999999C999999999999C999999999
9 !""

9D Q29;CB


5 9,-Q   999C9999999999999C9999999999999C9999999 !"5

$ 8
9 35;#$Q    

 99999999999C9999999999999C999999999999C999 52
9

V = K n ,- >@.,- ,-

35;#$Q;  Y   

 7 W ,->7 9999999999C9999999999999C99 !$#
!# 9@
 ,- 35;#$>749999999999
9 !$"
9835;#$>7? 7>Q;21  
QW#$@ 99999C9999999999999C9999999999999C99999999 !%
 % 9835;#$Q  QQ35;#$Q7
CB5
9999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C999(!$
!' 9  99999999999C9999999999999C9999999999999C99
9 %##