Liu Hongyang Research Paper Final

DSC 598 THE CULTURE OF OBJECTS RESEARCH PAPRE Version 2.
0_Topic: Lipstick
LIU Hongyang_MSD_NPI
READ OUR LIPSTICK: THE FEMINIST ANALYSIS OF LIPSTICK

Introduction A woman has an inherent love of beauty. From their outfit, make up and those cosmetic stores in the Macys, we can have a clear understanding about what a huge industry there is for the beauty and body care. But why women are keen on the make up? And why they are willing to wear three inches high heels? Even though as a woman I have a clear impression that it is not comfortable at all to wear a high heels shoes, but I still like to purchase them. Standing on high heels, I can see the whole world. The words by Carrie in Sex and the City have stricken chords of plenty of girls. And it is as same as wear lipstick. Wearing the lipstick is an indispensable step in the makeup. Women can feel more confidence and feel more beauty but putting color on their lips. In the name of beauty, women try their best to being shining and look fabulous. But what are the reasons for doing these? I want to figure them out by using the feminist analysis and feminist theories in this research paper. The reason why I want to choose lipstick as my research paper topic was coming from my childhoods obsession. When I was a little girl, I was fascinated by those bright and shinning colors on my Barbie dolls lips. Also, my moms makeup desk was used to be my favorite corner at home. I loved those magic tubes on her desk, and always tried to put them on my lip. Then I looked in the mirror and imaged that one day I may came to my moms age and makeup every day to make me look pretty. At that time, wearing lipstick blend in the illusion about my future. Then, I went through my teenage age. Like every teen girl, I dated with boy and hung out with my friends with full makeup: foundation, mascara and lipstick... I never thought that the intention of wearing the lipstick could be any other than increase the attraction from other, especially boys. After I grow up, Id love to buy many famous brand lipsticks and made a collection for all my favorite colors. And every time when I hang out with my girlfriends the lipstick can always be one of our popular topics, as well as the makeup tips. Since I looked up some theories glossary I found there are some interesting relationship between critical theories and why women wear lipsticks. So I tried to explain and analysis this
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DSC 598 THE CULTURE OF OBJECTS RESEARCH PAPRE Version 2.0_Topic: Lipstick
phenomena in a critical way. Also want to conduct a fairly deeply research for my favorite cosmetic. Thanks for those lipsticks, they make my life colorful. In this research paper, four parts of lipstick as an object will be elaborated:
Part I: The meaning of feminist analysis Part II: As long as its pink - Lipstick as a sign of the feminine Part III: Why we color our lips The feminism analysis of lipstick Part IV: It makes me pretty. vs. I dont know. Interview with women who wear lipstick
Conclusion
Part I: The meaning of feminist analysis There is no doubt that as the important compositions of social structure and culture structure, women play the significant role in the human being and society evolutions. But due to the structure of power distribution and conservative thought in the early times which were rooted in peoples mind that men should be endowed with more rights and power and higher social status, the importance of the status of women starts being pay attention not be come up with until 1870s by a group of people who was called feminist first appeared in France. An underground revolution is taking place today in major cities and small towns, in campuses and in living rooms everywhere. The new feminists, women young and old, are meeting to demand complete equality: social, political and economic. To get it, they intend to fight. So announces in Cellestine Wares Woman Power: The Movement for Womens Liberation . Feminism was defined in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED) as advocacy of the rights of women. Feminism in the United States reemerged as a distinct social movement. In earlier periods, feminism was concerned less with values and the everyday behavior of average women than with specific goals feminists work towards personal and social empowerment,
cooperation and community (Hall 1990, 8). As waves of feminism sweep through society, awareness within the general population is heightened. Women and men are forced to confront their differences. In 1980, Michele Barrett wrote that any feminism must insist upon the specific character of gender relations (1980). So at that time the emph asis of the difference between men and women and the structure of power control started to become into the priority of the feminist movement. The feminist analysis could be used as a megascopic method to demonstrate the effect and the future impacts of feminist movement under the certain context. Minimally, the term implies the identification of women as systematically oppressed; the belief that gender relations are neither inscribed in natural differences between the sexes, nor immutable, and a political commitment to their transformation (Andermahr et al. 1997, 93). But there still have some microscopic perspectives to conduct the feminist analysis as a theoretical foundation. So I want to choose a cosmetic product as a starting point to apply this theoretical analysis in to it, since cosmetic product always fascinated human race especially among the women with their ability to make them distinct, pretty and more confident. And due to its mass-production and high usage, lipstick could be a good representative. Honored in 1997 as one of only 12 objects included in an exhibition entitled Icons: Magnets of Meaning, lipstick has transcended its decorative roots and become culturally indispensable as a quick and affordable way to transform one's image (Macor 2000, 171). To conducting the critical analysis about the reason and effect of lipstick usage, the studies about women dress and outfit could be a good start since women dress revolution played a significant role during the second-wave feminism. It is a period of feminist activity which first began in the early 1960s in the United States, and eventually spread throughout the Western world (Gamble 2001). According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English , wear means to have something such as clothes, shoes, or jewelry on your body. In English language, people use wear as the verb to represent the process of putting lipstick on the lips as well. Considering they are both part of feminine decoration, and people use the same verb to give the instructions, such as wear dress and wear lipstick. So there must have some relationships
between the feminist analysis of lipsticks and womens dress as one of women identity. For example, skirt, high heels and lipstick all can be considered as the representative of femininity. Hence we can get a clearer picture about why women keep wearing lipstick after so many years of civilization evolution and social structure changed and what they want to express and how their intention have been changed through those years from the feminist analysis and related feminist theory.
Part II: As long as its pink - Lipstick as an identity of the feminine As social beings our humanity is a product of interaction, not of isolation. The one and the whole are inextricably interrelated. It is when we discern this interconnection that we acknowledge our own duality as at once unique and universal (Hall 1990, 14). Individual identity is thus influenced by collective identity through the process of social conditioning. Identity arises as a product of our bonding with humanity, both women and men. Identity is out closest personal link with social values. We cannot have a meaningful identity without acknowledging our emotional relatedness to others. Women need to know that they belong to each other, and that they have bonds with men (Hall 1990, 15-16). Wearing the lipstick could be seen as an obvious female identity. Those dark red or vivid pink could be considered as the solo province of women at present. Why women wear lipsticks? From the perspective of feminist analysis, I supposed that the explanation could be addressed to three aspects: the gender equality and distinction, the structure of power distribution and the unconscious influence from public media.
The lipsticks advertisements in the 1950s (Image source, left: http://www.thegroundmag.com/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/revlon-1952-lipstickad.jpg; right: http://lulusvintage.typepad.com/photos/uncategorized/2007/10/18/1955lipstick.jpg)
The identities of female were changing constantly. And the attitudes which people toward to the female are changing too. During the feminist movement in 1970s in the United State, based on the dispute about how to ensure the female workers right in the working place the discussions about womens uniform under the working environment ha d been developed into two statements already. One type of feminist insists that female workers need to wear as much same as male workers when they were at working place; female workers need to wear white shirt and dark jeans. So the manufacturers need to product the shirt in two different styles, for men worker and women. The uniform needs to be the same as what male worker wear in order to guarantee equality between men and women. By using the outfit to fight for the womens rights can go back to nineteen century. Amantine, best known by her male pseudonym George Sand, was a French novelist and memoirist. Sand's reputation came into question when she began wearing men's clothing in public. In addition to being comfortable (the normal female dress had beam waist and petticoat to make female body looks more slimmer and delicate), Sand's male dress enabled her to circulate more freely in Paris than most of her female contemporaries, and gave her increased access to venues from which women were often
barred. Sands behavior brought out the inequality of status between men and women and the womens desire for equality. However, another type of feminist demonstrates that the gender equality and distinction should base on emphasizing the different characteristics between men and women. These feminists were more willing to focus on the unique part of women. They were encouraging public pay attention to the femininity of women. Moi (1989) makes a distinction between female, feminine and feminist whereby the female sex which the political discourses of feminism seek to critique. For example, the feminist writer Virginia Woolf describes the constraints placed on women by the image of the angle in the house ( 2000). So they both support that female do have their own distinctiveness and deserve to have the same rights which men already have. And at the same time, feminist encouraged female instead of fighting for their rights and also highlight and give prominence to their unique. Theories of the feminine tend to present femininity in two ways: as something basically imposed on women from the outside either through direct or indirect means which can be considered as sociological connotation, or as a psychosexual process involving the female unconscious (Andermahr et al. 1997, 92). Like the evolution of womens dress, the usage of lipstick has been through the similar development as well. In many cultures, red lips are an important component of feminine beauty, and this has often prompted women to augment the redness of their lips through artificial means. The modern use of lipstick in Western society has been part of a more general development of makeup for women (McLafferty 2005, 357). Wearing the lipstick can be considered as an enhancement of female beauty identity. During the nineteenth century, however, in both Europe and America, social commentators generally frowned upon the use of any cosmetics at all; women who resorted to the conspicuous use of makeup, including lip coloring, invited social criticism (McLafferty 2005). By the end of the century, in turn, many younger women rejected this socially conservative attitude and began to use cosmetics openly. The use of lip coloring came to be one of the beauty secrets of the woman. Until 1915 the first mass-produced lipstick was come out when American Maurice Levy designed a metal case for the waxy tub. At that time lipstick was one of the few luxuries purchased by Depression-era women (Emsley 2004, 3). Lipstick hit its stride commercially in the 1950s, and despite the
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creation of numerous formulations, lipstick trends have proven cyclical throughout the twentieth century. Wearing the lipstick could be a determiner of first impressions of personality. According to the experiment which McKeachie (1952) conducted, the findings of that research indicated that a stereotype exists about girls who wear lipstick and that first impressions of a girls personality are affected by her lipstick or lack of it. These determiners of impressions can also happen in workplace. Why do women wear makeup to work? There is a substantial literature in feminist theory that addresses womens conformity with appearance standards. There has a study maintained that the body is a central location for the expression and reproduction of power relationships. Some women spoke of their use of makeup as necessary to gain credibility and as a way to show their confidence at work (Dellinger 1997). On the other side, women do not wear makeup at work solely because of the pressure imposed by institutionalized appearance norms. Meanwhile, the makeup or the cosmetics such as lipstick could be a good topic during the workday. Women may get pleasure by talking about the color and brand of lipstick with other women and getting compliments on their appearance. Also, in some situation, there might have appearance expectations for work for women. Moreover, wearing the lipstick could be considered as a kind of style. Women, practically all of them, yearn their lives long for style; strive for it, st udy it, admire it, envy it, seek to buy it at any price (Gilman 1915, 112). Wearing the lipstick could be considered as a kind of style. Although this kind of style do not have a good reputation at the beginning. I understand in Roman times, the lipstick was used by prostitutes to make their facial lips resemble labia, it is a sexual innuendo and to signal that they were prostitutes. It's been female custom in our culture so long that it has become symbolic of womanhood, and therefore it excites sexual interest in men and serves as a symbol of femininity to women. Like high heels shoes. With time goes by, and the feminism wave came out, there is no doubt that today lipsticks are considered to be one of the most popular and cheapest ways for females to show their femininity and beauty, not an innuendo anymore. Look at all different color lipsticks and those famous cosmetic brands. And the celebrity shows on the advertisement may give other women
a hint to let them follow the fashion or style . If a woman wears the lipstick which are wore by another celebrity too, then she may be considered as a person who can always follow the trend.
Part III: Why we color our lips The feminism analysis of lipstick Lipstick has become one of the most widely used female cosmetics since Cleopatra first stained her lips with carmine in 69 B.C. "Even women who don't wear makeup wear lipstick," write Meg Cohen Ragas and Karen Kozlowski (1998) in Read My Lips: A Cultural History of Lipstick. Often referred to as hope in a tube, lipstick has captivated women since the earliest rosy stains forever linked lipstick and women's lips with femininity and sexuality. During the eighteenth century, a moderate use of makeup was regarded as normal and attractive for members of the upper classes, but frowned upon for people of more humble status; thus the use of lip color was involved in distinctions of social class. But why we choose to use lipstick? What kind of occasion we want to use it? Is wearing the lipstick means to show to other people? Or is it only for fun to make ourselves feel good? One is not born, but becomes a woman wrote Simone de Beauvoir (1997). This statement attempted to suggest that the preference of coloring the lip with red and shinning lipstick is not decided by the gene of female. The extraneous environments, such as feminism and womens psychosexual unconscious can still have effect on the usage of lipsticks as well. However, scientific researches studies do demonstrated that the notion that color preferences among the sexes have a biological basis rather than a cultural one. Gender distinction A study suggested that women prefer reds because their eyes are physically attuned to see reds better than other colors. In many situations, female are more willing to choose the pink stuff rather than the blue one. But the reason of wearing the lipsticks can not only rely on the genetic theories. We can see from the advertisement of lipstick, brands are always conducting the concept about becoming beautiful and attractive. According to a cross-cultural, crossgenerational study of human mating behavior by a team of researchers, the importance men attach to womens beauty has risen in the past fifty years, as television, a dvertising and beautiful models and actresses have become increasingly prevalent (Lehrman 1997). So the
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womens attractiveness to men can be an important factor. Or we can say that the sexual implication could be treated as a key point to analysis the lipstick usage. It could be imagined that most people, both men and women, find the items like lipstick or high heel shoes sexy primarily because they either enhance or subtly reveal the beauty of the female. In the mainstream, the continuing allure of red lips seems to assure that lipstick will be part of the beauty and fashion scene for a long time to come (McLafferty 2005, 358).
Barbie with pink lipstick can be thought as beautiful face. (Image source: http://owoll.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Barbie-Storia-Pink-Lipstick.jpg)
Scientists have always known that attractiveness matters. They found beautiful is t he average female face (average female face means a face with perfectly symmetrical features) with certain features exaggerated: a higher forehead, fuller lips, shorter jaw... clear eyes, clear skin (Lehrman 1997). These findings have no doubt annoyed many feminist theorists who believe that all notions of beauty should vary according to culture and social changed. However, according to Darwinian Theory, what men want most in women is fertility. Since a womans fertility potential is not obvious, man needed to develop an alternative way to evaluate it. Thus, the signs of health were becoming important correspondingly. Since a womans reproductive capacity begins to decline after age twenty-five, so the signs of youth such as clear eyes, clear skin and full lips can be the best evaluation. Thereupon, women found out that lipstick increases the contrast between the skin and the lips. By putting a color that complements for skin tone on lips will make womens skin look better, healthier and well. By wearing lipstick, a greater level of contrast between the skin of the face and the lips is viewed as more feminine
than a lesser contrast. Then, when a woman wears the lipstick it draws the eye to the center away from the outline of the face and therefore your face appears slimmer. The structure of power distribution However, these series of finding may frustrate some of the feminist, considering they have been tried their best for so long time to obstruct the inappropriate association between femininity and gender discrimination. Considering that womens knowledge of their own distinctness and difference from men strengthens the unity among women, so the identity of feminine could becomes an essential aspect of womens effective belonging and it could be a source of both strength and weakness as well. And this kind of identity could be important criteria for the social statues judgments. So if women believe that they exist only or largely to serve men, then their social activity and special statues and every aspect of their life will be colored by this. Hence, wearing the lipstick, putting the makeup and wearing high heels shoes may be considered as dressing up for men. On the other hand, if women believe that they exist in their own right and have a responsibility to live independently, then their identity and behavior are transformed accordingly. Under this cognition, the identity of female would encourage women to express them self. Consequently, wearing the lipstick could be a tool of self-expression for women. Perhaps the ultimate feminist goal is to move beyond the injustice of beauty, to be able to appreciate its magnificence while ignoring its perversions and misunderstanding, to be able to look at a beautiful woman with respect and appreciation. The simple makeup step such as wearing lipstick can treat like breakthrough of feminist perspective. It can be treat like the weakness of power distribution that women need to use makeup to win the attraction from men; or can be treated like the strengths which feminist emphasis on.
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The image of woman wears lipstick in todays advertisement. (Image source: http://m5.paperblog.com/i/54/549136/sneak-peek-emma-stones-latest-ad-campaignsfo-L-Yn8qPI.jpeg )
Influence from public media Feminist perspectives on beauty, it appears, often have much to do with the discipline or methodological framework within which a scholar is situated. Bonnie Adrian's Framing the Bride: Globalizing Beauty and Romance in Taiwan's Bridal Industry is a fascinating contribution to the project of a cross-cultural aesthetics and debates over gender and globalization. Adrian shows that the Taiwanese are not simply passive consumers of Western ideas, but active participants in the globalization process, appropriating media symbols and putting them to their own specific use. Hence the fantasy worlds of bridal photography, she notes, bear virtually no relationship to the daily lives of most Taiwanese couples. Such pictures are symbols of status rather than windows into a way of life (2003). Just like some women wear lipstick, they couldnt find the reason why they must wear lipstick every time when they go outside even though they can accept not to put other makeup. She also takes issue with Western feminist claims that the dissemination of media images of flawless femininity must invariably engender profound feelings of inadequacy among ordinary women. The advertisements of celebrity women wear lipstick which could be treated as catalyst to encourage more and more women buy and use
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lipstick. The women image in the advertisement may have a huge effect on the explanations of wearing the lipstick. Ironically, even though we had already clearly known that the intention of full makeup models who showed up on the cover of magazines is not to followed the hidebound beauty rules, but may this kind of feminist movement push the anti-beauty in to another extremism? It looks that women today still overwhelmingly wear dresses, makeup, and longish hair. Despite such apparent progress, in recent years the reigning feminist critique of beauty has taken on a political slant. The beauty ideal, claim many feminist, is not merely a cultural fixation with destructive side effects. Rather, it is a patriarchal ploy used both to control women morally and sexually and to earn profits for the maledominated medical, cosmetic, diet, and fashion industries. The more progress women make, the argument now goes, the more society has forced women to abide by an increasingly strict and restrictive beauty ideal. According to what Lehrman said in her book, the feminist movement could be an activator for the overwhelmingly wear makeup. Since, women are more eager to conduct the self-expression and self- esteem. Clearly, the vast changes that have taken place in womens goals, behaviors and social activities during the past forty years confirm much of the feminist argument. The structure of power and gender equity has been strongly sharped by culture changed. Women continue to be more dependent and brave enough to express themselves. I think it s safe to say that, now, women are willing to show the truly identity for themselves rather than present it for men or we could say for the power controller in society. However, in Gilmans The Dress of Women, she said that It is advanced, seriously enough, that women dress as they do from a disinterested aesthetic sense, and to imitate or to outshine, other women (1915, 52). I admitted that even women do not make up for men they might make up for competing with other women. Hence, women who wear lipstick and looks shinning may gain more satisfaction.
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Part IV: It makes me pretty. vs. I dont know. Interview with women who wear lipstick Since wear the lipstick can be seen as a self-identity action today, women could have thousand reasons to purchase for the lipstick. By using the feminist analysis I want to figure out whether the lipstick wearers use the lipstick as a self-satisfaction activity or just a showcase to others or both, and find out how women think about the identity of the lipstick as the feminine decoration. I interviewed with people around me and ask them only two simple but very subjective questions: first question is Do you use lipstick? and the second question is Could you please tell me why you wear (or do not wear) lipstick? When I recruited my participants I found that none of them have related background of feminist movement studies or ever claimed that they were feminist. But the interview result was very worthy of being thought. Chris is a super skinny girl, 25 years old. She can always get her own way to show her unique and wonderful taste: Yes, I wear. Most of time, I wear lipstick when I have nothing to do at home. I carefully select the colors of eye shadow and lipstick to let them match with each other and then put them on my face. When I look at the mirror, I feel like I become another person. Its really interesting. And I enjoy the makeup process. Actually, I wear lipstick just for fun. After I spend like an hour to make up, I always take a picture and then remove the makeup. I wont go out to show my pretty face to others. Its just something that I use to enjoy myself. I have more than 10 lipsticks. Most of them are from LANCOME. I like this brand because of its lipsticks are very beautiful. Cindy has a strong personality. She is so independent and knows lot of culture from different country. She loves independent movie and music: I use lipstick occasionally. I wear lipsticks for many different reasons. Most of the time I wear lipsticks because of the image I need to build up for a specific occasion. For example, if I am going to a job fair or an interview, I would wear a plain color lipstick to look professional and neat. Or if I am having a date, I would wear a shiny rose color lipstick just to look more attractive. It is true that putting on makeup would make me feel more confident. It might does not make me look necessarily more beautiful, but I
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would assume people would treat me more seriously because I look neat and professional. In a word, the way you assume people treat you would actually affect your mood. Tina is an outgoing 23 years girl from Shanghai. She loves to go to the club and hang out with friends during the night: Yes, I have more than 10 lipsticks. I wear lipstick, because it gives me a nice look ad good mood. I wear lipstick every day to keep myself look good, especially when I got sick or look pale. I need to use colorful lipstick to cover my lipstick on. And the bright lipstick I used in the club can make me look more fabulous. And I love those girly things. I want to make myself look pretty and I though wearing lipstick is an easy and timeless way to achieve that. Alexa is one of my roommates. She is a junior year student and 511 tall, loves social activities and makes up every day: Yes, I use lipstick every day. I need to go to work in the early morning. So I have to make myself look fresh and pretty. The lipstick could help to embellish my lips. And I am a part time model. I have to make up during the photo shooting. I also interviewed with my mom online. She is an interior designer who usually works at home. So she barely needs to go outside to negotiate with her clients. But she loves makeup, especially shinning lipsticks: I wear lipstick when I need to go outside to see my friends or take a review with my clients. But I do not wear lipstick when I go to the grocery store. Putting makeup is a respective behavior to others. They may think you value the conversation or meeting with them. It is a good manner I think. Luna is a vegetarian. And she believes in Buddhism. She loves jeans and shirt and travel: Yes, I use it especially in fall winter. I use it because firstly, I love the various color of lipstick. Secondly, I feel that wearing lipstick makes me more charming. At last, you
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know that in Beijing, there has a dry climate in fall and winter, so most lipsticks could help me moisten my lips. Thats all. Meng is an office lady works in the department of public relationship: Yes, I think the lipstick can make look better, and when the winter it can make lip do not so dry. I wear lipstick every day, when I go to work, or I hang out with my friends. But most of time I wear lipstick as well as put makeup in the formal occasions. Because every girl put makeup, you can not show up with a pale face. People may think you are rude. Bi Jun is an electronic engineering graduate student at Johns Hopkins University. She loves to buy famous brands lipstick: Wearing lipstick for me is to respond to holidays or some other special occasions. All my lipsticks are strong and dark color. I think lipstick is to show your life style. Those lipstick need to fit with some of my delicate couture. PD is a fashionable girl. And she is definitely a beautiful girl among other girls eyes: Yes I wear lipstick. Non color in daytime and red when going out. I like Burt s and bees daytime because it keeps moisture. I wear smash box red. It makes me feel pretty and different, because girls dont usually wear pure red. My favorite brand is LANCOME, the color is pure and could stay for a pretty long time. And I have to tell you that you can tell if a girl use the cheap lipstick or not at the first glance, really! So I always buy luxury brand, the lipstick can reveal your taste. Bing Lv is a beautiful girl with charming smile. She is tiny and skinny and fashionable. Most of her garments are designed by independent brand designers. She is a really smart architect graduated student as far as I known: Yes. When I want to cheer me and friends of make some differences I use lipstick. For formal occasions, being parts of my party or want to be paid attention. Most of all, please myself only.
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Conclusion In recent years, thanks largely to the feminist critique, notions of beauty have begun to expand beyond the Barbie standard. According to the result from the interview which I conducted above, I found that time are changing truly. Women today are far less likely to change their entire wardrobes to accommodate the latest fashion, no matter for men or in order to shinning than other women. But no matter what there still have women who wear lipstick for those reasons. Moreover, even if a woman who doesnt used to wear lipstick she might buy lipstick too. I think these purchase are coming from the unconscious activities. This group of female treated the lipstick as the identity of feminine. Meanwhile, advertisers and editors will fairly regularly use not just average female face on the cover of a fashion magazine. But a few decades ago youd have been hard-pressed to find even a girl with a light makeup shows on the public media. Women are distinctive far more for their quirky features and attitude than for their beauty (Lehrman 1997, 67). More important, there seems to be a far greater understanding among women today that they no longer have to adhere to inveterate regimen any more. Women do not need to be considered womanly or even beautiful. These means feminist movement gradually interiorize. However, with the huge wave of feminist is coming, the feminism activity starts to change the direction subtly, from anti-beauty to repel serving the men to over-beauty to express themselves excessively.
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Budgeon, Shelley, and Dawn H. Currie. "From feminism to postfeminism: Women's liberation in fashion magazines." In Women's Studies International Forum , vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 173-186. Pergamon, 1995. Cohen Ragas, Meg, and Karen Kozlowski. "Read my lips: A cultural history of lipstick." Chronicle, 1998. De Beauvoir, Simone. The Second Sex. Translated by H.M. Parshley. London: Vintage, 1997 (first published 1949). Dellinger, Kirsten, and Christine L. Williams. "MAKEUP AT WORK Negotiating Appearance Rules in the Workplace." Gender & Society 11, no. 2 (1997): 151-177. Eisenstein, Zillah R. The Color of Gender: Reimaging Democracy. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994. Emsley, John. Vanity, Vitality, and Virility: The science behind the products you love to buy: The science behind the products you love to buy. Oxford University Press, 2004. Felski, Rita. Because it is beautiful new feminist perspectives on beauty." Feminist Theory 7, no. 2 (2006): 273-282. Gamble, Sarah, ed. The Routledge companion to feminism and postfeminism . Routledge, 2001. Gilman, Charlotte Perkins. The Dress of Women: A Critical Introduction to the Symbolism and Sociology of Clothing. Edited by Michael R. Hill, and Mary Jo Deegan. No. 193. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1915. Hall, C. Margaret. Women and identity: value choices in a changing world . Taylor & Francis, 1990. Jacobson, Lisa. "Fashion, Feminism, and the Pleasures and Perils of Consumer Fantasy." Journal of Women's History 22, no. 1 (2010): 178-187. Keller, Jessalynn. "Feminist editors and the new girl glossies: Fashionable feminism or just another sexist rag?" In Women's Studies International Forum , vol. 34, no. 1, pp. 1-12. Pergamon, 2011. Lehrman, Karen. The Lipstick Proviso: Women, Sex & Power in the Real World . Doubleday, 1997. Macor, Alison. "Lipstick." St. James Encyclopedia of Popular Culture. Vol. 3, 171. Edited by Sara Pendergast and Tom Pendergast. St. James Press, 2000.
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McKeachie, William J. "Lipstick as a determiner of first impressions of personality: An experiment for the general psychology course." The Journal of Social Psychology 36, no. 2 (1952): 241-244. McLafferty, Elizabeth. "Lipstick." Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion . Vol. 2, 357-358. Edited by Valerie Steele. Charles Scribner's Sons, 2005. Moi, Toril. Feminist, female, feminine. Edited by Catherine Belsey and Jane Moore, 1989. Mulhern, R., G. Fieldman, T. Hussey, JL. Lvque, and P. Pineau. "Do cosmetics enhance female Caucasian facial attractiveness?" International Journal of Cosmetic Science 25, no. 4 (2003): 199-205. Scott, Linda M. "Fresh lipstick-Rethinking images of women in advertising." Media Studies Journal 7, no. 1-2 (1993): 141-156. Sparke, Penny. As Long as It's Pink: The Sexual Politics of Taste. Allen & Unwin, 1995. Thornham, Sue. Feminist theory and cultural studies: stories of unsettled relations . Bloomsbury USA Academic, 2000. Ware, Cellestine. Woman Power: The Movement for Women's Liberation. Tower Publications, 1970. Woolf, Virginia. A Room of One's Own/Three Guineas. Penguin UK, 2000.
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DSC 598 THE CULTURE OF OBJECTS RESEARCH PAPRE Version 2.

READ OUR LIPSTICK: THE FEMINIST ANALYSIS OF LIPSTICK

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