Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Dry Mortars
Roland Bayer, Wolff Cellulosics GmbH & Co KG, D-29699 Bomlitz, Germany
Hermann Lutz, Wacker Polymer Systems GmbH & Co KG, D-84489 Burghausen, Germany
Process∗ A B C D
Transport of sand and cement separately to the job-site +
Manual mixing of the mineral binder and the aggregates on the job site +
Transport of the prepacked dry-mix mortar in bags to the job site + +
Transport of the prepacked dry-mix mortar in silos to the job site +
Manual mixing of the mortar with water + +
Manual application of the wet mortar + +
Machine mixing of the dry-mix mortar with water and machine spray application + +
Productivity (m2 per man shift) for a render application 10 25 40 50 – 60
∗ A: completely manual method (job-site mixing technique); B, C, D: dry-mix mortar production in a dry-mix plant with different
methods of transport and application.
The setting reaction of the binders cement drite II and III. Gypsum-based joint filler con-
and hydrate lime occurs by chemical reaction. tains β-semihydrate.
Cement reacts on contact with water during mix-
ing while hydrate lime (without hydraulic por- Hydrated Lime (see also → Lime and
tions) sets by reaction with atmospheric carbon Limestone), [7]. Hydrated lime sets by reaction
dioxide. Gypsum and organic binders set phys- with carbon dioxide to form calcium carbonate
ically: gypsum by recrystallization with water and is therefore not a hydraulic binder. Hy-
and formation of matted crystal needles, and or- draulic properties in some hydrated lime result
ganic binders by forming a homogeneous poly- from impurities or added materials with poz-
mer film. zolanic properties. For centuries hydrated lime
was by far the most important binder in mor-
tars. Today it is largely substituted by hydraulic
3.1.1. Mineral Binders binders, which set faster, but it is still in use,
mainly because of its plastic properties. The
Cement (see also → Cement and Concrete). workability of many dry mortars is improved by
In dry mortars ordinary portland cement (OPC) adding 5 – 30 wt % hydrated lime to the cement.
is mainly used. The hydration reaction leads pri- Limes (including powdered hydrated lime) for
marily to the formation of calcium silicate hy- building purposes are specified in DIN EN 459
drates, which retain their strength and stability [8].
even under water (hydraulic binder). While the
quality of an OPC like CEM I 32.5R (for nomen-
clature, see DIN 1164 [5]) is sufficient for brick- 3.1.2. Organic Binders
laying mortars, masonry cement, renders, and
many plasters, in tile adhesives higher qualities Improving the characteristics of a cementitious
like CEM I 42.5R or CEM I 52.5R are desired. mortar with organic materials is well known. In
Dry mortars that are both mortars and decora- antiquity, for example, proteins in the form of
tive finishes, such as decorative plasters and tile liquid milk or even blood were used. In most
grouts, mostly contain white portland cement. modern applications, mortars unmodified by or-
Fast-setting high-alumina cement (e.g., Fondue ganic polymer binders are no longer able to meet
Lafarge) consists mainly of calcium aluminates state-of-the art technical requirements. Even ce-
and is used for dry mortars that require fast- mentitious mortars that contain cellulose ethers
setting properties or high-temperature stability. as an additive to improve their water-retention
capability and workability characteristics ad-
Gypsum [6] (see also → Calcium Sulfate). here poorly, or not at all, to many of the ma-
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate and anhydrite both terials used in the modern construction indus-
set with water by forming calcium sulfate dihy- try (e.g., polystyrene, cement fiber and wood
drate. panel; non-absorbent substrates like old tiles and
Calcium sulfate hemihydrate exists in two fully vitrified tiles). Furthermore, cementitious
crystalline forms (depending on the production mortars are very hard, brittle, and inflexible ma-
process): the α-form with larger crystals, higher terials, but for many applications flexible and
tensile and compressive strength, and lower wa- deformable cementitious mortars must be used.
ter demand, and the more amorphous β-form Thus, for many applications in the modern con-
with high porosity and lower tensile and com- struction industry the modification of cementi-
pressive strength and an up to three times higher tious mortars with polymers today is a must. In
water demand. two-binder systems, the mineral binder cement
Anhydrite exists in two application-relevant and the polymer binder in the form of a redis-
phases: the anhydrite II phase, which is of im- persible powder complement each other ideally.
portance in anhydrite-based screeds and the an- Their combination results in outstanding syner-
hydrite III phase, which is a part of the multi- gistic properties and characteristics of the dry-
phase gypsum used for plasters. Gypsum plas- mix mortar which cannot be produced by either
ters contain β-hemihydrate as well as anhy- of the two individual binders alone.
6 Dry Mortars
In the early 1930s water-based liquid disper- gether the filler particles, reinforcing the mortar
sions [9] were added prior to or together with structure and providing an excellent adhesion at
the gauging water if required. Mortars which are the mortar – substrate interface. Polymer films in
modified in this way are referred to as two-pack a cement mortar are shown in Figure 1.
systems (powder-form mineral binder plus liq- The use of factory-made dry-mix mortars
uid polymer binder in a second pack). However, with precisely stipulated proportions for cement,
in practice many faults occurred with the use aggregates, additives, and redispersible powders
of the two-pack (or two-component) systems at as organic binder results in a high-quality prod-
the construction site. The main difficulty is the uct with a high degree of application safety by
precise dosing of the polymer dispersion in its avoiding possible errors during dosing and mix-
liquid form. ing at the construction site.
Dosing errors may occur due to insufficient The modification of dry-mix mortars with re-
knowledge, experience, and training of work- dispersible polymer powders improves, depend-
ers concerning the appropriate dosage for a spe- ing on the dosage, the adhesive bond strength
cific application with precise requirements, or on all kind of substrates, the flexibility and de-
due to incorrect dosage, which may happen un- formability of the mortars, the flexural strength,
intentionally by error or even intentionally to and the abrasion resistance, the toughness, the
save on short-term costs. Incorrect dosage of cohesion and the density (impermeability) of the
the liquid polymer dispersion will change the mortar as well as the water retentivity and the
characteristics and the technical performance of workability characteristics. In addition special
the mortar significantly, and this will lead to se- redispersible powders with a hydrophobing ef-
vere damages in various construction materials, fect can result in a strong water-repellent effect
e.g., through insufficient adhesive bond strength, of the mortars.
flexibility and/or durability. Other reasons that
argue against two-pack systems, apart from the
difficult and risky handling, are the additional 3.2. Aggregates
expenses and logistics difficulties (e.g., the need
for additional containers and their subsequent The majority of aggregates are normal size frac-
disposal, storage and transport of liquid disper- tions of quartz, limestone, or dolomite. To ad-
sions which could freeze or deteriorate by mi- just the grain-size distribution (see Section 5)
crobiological attack, more time consuming and normally different granulometric fractions of
ponderous handling on the job site with the two- aggregates are necessary. Additionally decora-
pack system). tive fractions of special granulometries like cal-
The invention of redispersible powders (trade cite, marble, jurassic limestone, or mica are
name Vinnapas r Redispersible Powder) by used, mainly for decorative plasters. To re-
Wacker Chemie in 1953 made possible the duce the density of a dry mortar and to in-
production of the first polymer-modified dry- crease the insulation effect lightweight aggre-
mix mortars, known today as one-pack or one- gates like perlite, vermiculite, glass foam, ex-
component systems. Redispersible powders are panded clay, and pumice are used as additional
polymer binding agents produced by spray- aggregates. Because of their low density (typ-
drying special water-based dispersions, mostly ically 80 – 500 kg/m3 ) only few per cent by
based on vinyl acetate – ethylene copolymers. weight is added to the mix. Dry mortars for dec-
These are often also referred to as redispersible orative renders or tile grouts are often colored
powders [10], [11], because after mixing or re- with pigments.
dispersion with water, these powder polymer
binders can be returned to their original water-
based dispersion with all their typical charac- 3.3. Additives
teristics and functions as polymer binders. The
polymer film acting as a binder is formed after Without additives modern dry mortars would not
partial evaporation of the water by coalescence exist and many technical properties could not be
of the individual polymer particles. This poly- achieved. Relative to the mineral ingredients the
mer film acts as an organic binder, gluing to- content of additives typically lies between 0.1
Dry Mortars 7
Figure 1. Scanning electron micrograph (× 1500; Wacker Polymer Systems) of the interface between a polymer-modified
ceramic-tile adhesive (left) on a porcelain tile (right). The polymer films at the interface between the surface of the porcelain
tile and the cementitious mortar can be seen clearly.
and 10 wt %. The additives are of organic or in- ence of calcium ions, it is used only in few ap-
organic origin, often of polymeric nature. They plications as a thickener.
can improve the mixing of the dry mortar with The following sections cover relevant prop-
water, the properties of the wet mortar such as erties of MHEC and MHPC. As these properties
rheological behavior or the workability as well are valid for both products, here they are simply
as the properties of the set mortar including the referred to as MC.
setting behavior.
Formation of Solutions and Wet Mortar
Mixes; Viscosity Buildup. MC is water-soluble
3.3.1. Cellulose Ethers [12] on a large temperature range. The most suit-
able MC’s for dry mixes are powders whereby
Cellulose ethers are used as thickening and wa- 20 – 60 wt % of the particles have a size smaller
ter retaining agents in dry mortars. Cellulose than 63 µm. The dry mix, in which MC parti-
ethers are of major importance as additives, cles are dispersed between binder and aggre-
even though their addition rate is very low (nor- gate particles, avoids the formation of lumps
mally 0.02 – 0.7 %). Out of all additives cellu- which occurs only if powders are poured di-
lose ethers together with redispersible powders rectly into water. Coarse MC products, normally
cause the largest range of effects in dry mortars. classified as granular materials, are easy to dis-
The mainly used cellulose ethers in dry mor- solve in water without lump formation, but their
tars are methyl hydroxyethyl cellulose (MHEC) slow dissolution makes them unfavorable for dry
and methyl hydroxypropyl cellulose (MHPC). mortar mixes. For dry mortars with a neutral
Together they have a market share in dry mor- pH it should be considered that the granulom-
tars of at least 90 %. Colloquially they are still etry is not the only parameter deciding the so-
called “methyl cellulose” or “MC”, although lution behavior of the MC. Some MC-grades
pure methyl cellulose today has a very small are covered with a chemical crosslinking agent
market share. Other technically relevant cellu- (“retarded solubility”), which causes particles to
lose ethers with a small share in the dry-mortar dissolve quickly only under alkaline conditions
market are ethyl hydroxyethyl cellulose (EHEC) (e.g., coming from cement or hydrated lime).
and hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC). As (sodium) The alkalinity leads to an immediate breakdown
carboxymethyl cellulose is not stable in the pres- of the crosslinking as well as to a fast dissolution
8 Dry Mortars
of the MC in the mortar. Originally MC grades to MC. Figures 2 and 3 show an example of the
with retarded solubility were not developed for water retention of a wet mortar as a function of
dry mortar, however, they have eventuelly spread concentration and viscosity, respectively, of the
to the dry mortar market. added MC.
In pure solution and in a wet mortar, MC For the measurement of water retention see
builds up a certain viscosity. The differences Section 5.
between low and high viscosities can be seen
easily in a 2 % aqueous solution. Many MCs Water Demand and Yield. A mortar re-
are specified by their viscosity measured at this quires a certain consistency which is well known
concentration. The viscosities of such solutions to skilled workers. They add as much water as
varies between aqueous (viscosity up to a few is necessary to get the right consistency. The
hundred millipascals) up to jellylike (viscosity water demand depends on the ingredients and
of several thousand millipascals). Different MC their addition rate in the formulation. MC is
producers use different methods and apparatus the main factor which influences the water de-
to specify the viscosity of their MCs: the Haake mand. Mainly the viscosity, the addition rate,
Rotovisko, Höppler, Ubbelohde, and Brookfield and the additional thickening effect of MC are
methods are mainly in use. The results of viscos- the parameters. The water demand (water-solid-
ity measurements on the same sample can dif- factor) influences also the yield of a mortar. It
fer by up to several hundred per cent between is measured in liters of wet mortar per 100 kg
two methods, and this should be borne in mind of dry mortar and is an important parameter for
when comparing viscosities of MCs from differ- the efficiency of lightweight plasters. Some MC
ent producers. producers supply special MCs which garantees
high yields in the mortar. This can help to reduce
Stickiness and Workability. Stickiness is the amount of lightweight aggregates.
an expression mainly used in the leveling of Other properties which can be influenced
plasters and renders. Here “stickiness” means with MCs are open time and tensile adhesion
the feeling of adhesion that the worker expe- strength of a tile adhesive as well as the slip re-
riences to be between the leveling tool and the sistance of a tile in the mortar (see Section 5),
wall. High stickiness requires more force during the rheological properties, plastification, and lu-
leveling and results in a lower workability. Both brication.
properties can be influenced by the MC.
Figure 2. Water retention of a wet mortar as a function of the concentration of the added methyl cellulose (Walocel MKX
30 000 PP 01,Wolff Cellulosics, viscosity 30 000 mPa s, measured with a Haake Rotovisko)
Figure 3. Water retention of a wet mortar as a function of the viscosity of methyl cellulose (2 % solution, 20 ◦ C, shear rate:
D = 2.5 s−1 , measured with a Haake Rotovisko)
to a decreased wet mortar density, a better work- for calcium formate, and up to 0.2 % for lithium
ability, and a higher wet mortar yield. The carbonate.
included air leads to better insulation against
cold and heat, but also to lower strength. Air- Retarders. The main application for re-
entraining agents are based on powder form tarders are gypsum plasters and gypsum-based
and mainly sodium salts of fatty acid sulfonates joint fillers. Without retardation the setting of
and sulfates. The addition rates in plasters and gypsum is too fast. Different retarders are used,
masonry mortars normally varies from 0.01 to mainly salts of fruit acids like tartaric or citric
0.06 %. The optimum addition rates can be found acid and of synthetic acids (e.g., Retardan r
by monitoring the air content of the mortar and grades, from Tricosal, Illertissen, Germany).
its workability. The typical dosage lies between 0.05 and 0.25 %.
Accelerators. Accelerating systems are used Hydrophobic agents (water-repellent
in large amounts in cement-based systems to ad- agents) prevent water from penetrating into
just the desired setting properties. In particular the mortar, but the mortar remains still open
calcium formate (e.g., Mebofix r , Bayer, Lev-
for water vapor diffusion. The performance of
erkusen, Germany) or lithium carbonate (e.g., hydrophobic agents can be measured by the
from Chemetall, Frankfurt, Germany) are used capillary water absorption (DIN 52617) [14].
successfully. The addition rate is up to 0.7 %
10 Dry Mortars
The main applications for hydrophobic agents influence wet-mortar properties and water de-
are cement-based plasters for exterior appli- mand.
cation, mineral waterproofing slurries and tile
grout. There are two groups of hydrophobic Defoamers reduce the air content in wet mor-
agents on the market: metal salts of fatty acids. tars (e.g., Agitan P products from Münzing
(e.g., zinc stearate or sodium oleate, e.g., from Chemie, Heilbronn, Germany). Powder de-
Greven Fettchemie, Bad Münstereifel, Ger- foamers on a different chemical basis (mainly
many), and polymeric redispersible powders hydrocarbons, polyglycols or polysiloxanes on
with hydrophobic properties (some Vinnapas r an inorganic carrier) are in use.
grades, Wacker Polymer Systems, Burghausen,
Germany). The first group has the advantage of
lower addition rate (0.1 – 1 %), the second one 4. Production
the advantage of significantly better durability,
because hydrophobic redispersible powders are Production, storage, transport, and quality con-
not washed out of the plaster by rain even af- trol of dry-mix mortars are defined in DIN 18557
ter years. Additionally, the use of hydrophobic [16].
redispersible powders does not lead to wetting Modern dry-mix plants (Fig. 4) with a
problems during mixing the dry mortar with production capacity of typically 40 000 to
water and it improves the adhesion of the cured 250 000 t/a mostly are built on a small area be-
mortar to the substrate (see Section 3.1.2). cause the production line is oriented vertically,
and the silos for the raw materials are placed
Superplasticisers have a strong influence on above the mixing unit.
the water demand of a mortar. A mortar con- After appropriate quality control, the raw ma-
taining superplasticisers requires less water than terials are transported by the receiving system to
usual to get the same consitency. Consequently, the different silos at the top of the plant. Con-
an unchanged water demand leads to a lower- sequently, the material flow is mainly gravita-
ing of the consistency. The effect of superplas- tional, which saves on investment and running
tification is explained by the model [15] that costs. The raw materials are transferred by grav-
different surface charges of the cement parti- ity or by appropriate conveying systems (disk
cles lead to the inclusion of water when they feeders, dosing screws, pneumatically) into the
agglomerate. By the adsorption of the super- high-accuracy hopper-scales weighing system.
plasticiser the surfaces are discharged and wa- Controlled by the fully automated electronic
ter is set free. Depending on legal restrictions control system, the mixing unit is filled with
and technical advantages casein (many produc- all raw materials needed for each formulation
ers) or synthetic superplasticizers are used, e.g., for a specific dry-mix mortar. As mixing unit
on the basis of sulfonates of lignin, naphtha- mostly special mixers are used which are suit-
lene, melamine – formaldehyde condensates, or able for the whole product range of dry-mix mor-
polyether carboxylates. Examples of producers tars (from fine-particle materials up to coarse
are SKW (Trostberg, Germany), Sika (Switzer- dry mortars). Such mixing units, available in a
land), and Perstorp (Sweden). Superplastizisers wide variety of different sizes and designs, allow
are mainly used in mortars which need very good short batch cycle times and fast, homogeneous
self-leveling properties like self-leveling floor mixing. The temperature of the dry-mix mate-
underlayments, screeds, and pourable flooring rials should not exceed 50 ◦ C during the whole
tile adhesives. The dosage normally lies in the mixing process to avoid deteriorating the ther-
range of 0.2 – 1 %. moplastic and sensitive additives. After a short
mixing process of about 3 – 10 min for highly ef-
Fibers can be distinguished into two groups: ficient modern mixing units, the homogeneous
long fibers are mainly used for reinforcement dry-mix mortar is discharged into the interme-
of mortars. Short fibers (e.g., Arbocel and Lig- diate finished-product storage silo. After quality
nocel grades from J. Rettenmaier & Söhne, control, the dry-mix mortar is discharged into
Ellwangen-Holzmühle, Germany) are used in transport silos or transferred to bagging and pal-
letizing units, ready for the transport to the con-
Dry Mortars 11
struction site. Figure 5 shows a typical dry-mix raw materials available and the number, types,
mortar plant. and volume of different dry-mix mortars to be
In the production of dry-mix mortars, the produced in the dry-mix mortar plant. For all
quality of all raw materials used, especially the gypsum-based products usually a separate pro-
bulk mineral materials, must be controlled ac- duction line is used to avoid contact or mixing
cording to the national standards (e.g., EN 196 of cement-based products with gypsum.
for cements). If aggregates like silica quartz
sands are not available in the appropriate quality,
the dry-mix mortar plant must include installa- 5. Testing
tions for grinding, washing, drying, and classifi-
cation into different sieve fractions. The residual Consistency. Applying a mortar to a support
humidity of all fillers should not be higher than requires to mix it with a certain amount of wa-
0.3 %, and the temperature of the sand after the ter. Skilled building workers instinctively mix
drying process should not exceed 60 ◦ C before the dry mortar with the amount of water which
being used. The sieve curve within the different leads to the desired application consistency. A
filler fractions should be constant without large higher or lower amount of water leads to unde-
variations (e.g., by combining several subfrac- sired properties. The required amount of water
tions). for mixing is described by the term w/s (water
The design, the size and the number of si- to solid ratio).
los for all raw materials and the design of the
whole mixing and packaging unit depends on the
12 Dry Mortars
Granulometric analysis mainly is done The slip resistance is measured with a stan-
with screen sizing. The residues on the test dard tile of size 10 × 10 cm and a weight of 200 g
sieves are weighed and expressed as a percent- on a concrete slab according to EN 1308 [20].
age of the initial weight. Plotting the diameter
of the particles as a function of the percentage Tensile adhesion strength is an important
sieve passage gives the individual granulometric property of many dry mortars. For tile adhesives
curve. The curve has a specific shape for each EN 1348 [21] specifies four conditions of stor-
dry mortar. The coursness of dry mortars also age: standard storage under standard climatic
varies (Fig. 6). The granulometric range of most conditions for 28 d, after water immersion, after
dry mortars varies between 0.1 and 4 mm. freeze – thaw cycle, and after heat aging storage.
In some mortars a high wet mortar density is
necessary to lead to high compressive strengths.
In such cases the granulometric distribution of 6. Applications
all mineral components should be optimized ac-
cordingly. To use a simple picture, the spaces
6.1. Brick-Laying Mortars and Related
between the bigger particles should be filled by
smaller particles to give the best space filling. Adhesives
This best distribution of diameters of particles
can be calculated and and plotted as a Fuller Brick-laying mortars are used to join all kinds
curve (Fig. 7). of bricks: red clay bricks with low water absorp-
tion, strongly absorbing sand-lime bricks, and
Open Time. In the colloquial speech used on aerated light weight concrete. Generally, bricks
the building sites “open time” is a general ex- with low water retention applied in thick layers
pression for the length of time in which a freshly require mortars with low water retention, while
mixed mortar can be applied. The expression smooth and even bricks with high water absorp-
“open time” mainly is used for applying tile ad- tion require a mortar with high water retention
hesives, sometimes also for plastering and ren- applied in thin layers. Table 2 lists the different
dering. A more precise definition of “open time” formulations.
is given in the following three definitions: The DIN 18555, parts 1 – 9 [13] describes the test-
former DIN 18156 (part 2) defines the “open ing of mortars with mineral binders. Most of
time” to be the time between the application of them are valid for brick-laying mortars as well as
the mortar layer and the formation of a skin. The for cement-based renders and gypsum plasters.
skin formation can only be tested qualitatively Table 2. Typical formulations of a brick-laying mortar and an aerated
with a wad of cotton. Another testing procedure light weight concrete adhesive (in parts by weight)
defines the “open time” as the time after which Component Brick-laying Aerated light
the wetting of the back of the tile is at least 50 % mortar weight concrete
adhesive
of the square of the tile. Nowadays European
laboratories are testing the open time mainly ac- Cement (e.g., CEM I 32.5R) 12 – 20 36
cording to EN 1346 [19]. Here the open time (in Hydrated lime 0–6 4
Limestone dust, 0 – 0.1 mm 10 – 20
minutes) is the largest time range after which Quartz or limestone sand, 60 – 80
the necessary tensile strength of a tile adhesive 0 – 4 mm
Quartz sand, 0 – 0.5 mm 60
according to EN 12004 is reached. The tested Air-entraining agent 0.01 – 0.03
times are 5, 10, 20, and 30 min. Methyl cellulose, medium 0.02 – 0.04
viscosity
Methyl cellulose, high 0.3 – 0.4
Slip Resistance. A tile adhesive should have viscosity
a good slip resistance mainly for the following
two reasons: for tiling with heavy tiles like mar-
ble tiles, and second for countries where the 6.2. Renders and Plasters
tiling of a wall starts from the top (as in Ger-
many) and not at the bottom. In the latter case Plaster is defined in DIN 18550, part 1 as “a coat-
the lower tile supports the upper tile and prevents ing of plaster mortar or coating materials applied
it from slipping down. to walls and ceilings in one or more layers in a
14 Dry Mortars
specified thickness, which does not acquire its fi- ingress of moisture or fluctuations in tempera-
nal characteristics until it has set on the building ture. In addition plasters have to confer adequate
component” [22]. Different types of dry mortar protection against driving rain, but they are used
render and plaster are classified on the basis of also for bathrooms and other rooms where mois-
the type of binder used: ture occurs. Cement or lime – cement plasters
– Plaster and render mortar with mineral are used to satisfy these requirements.
binders (cement, gypsum, and possibly hy- Render and plaster must have good water
drated lime) vapor permeability and be suitable for paint-
– Decorative plaster mortar with cement, re- ing and hanging heavy papers. Mineral renders,
dispersible powder, and possibly hydrated typically applied in a single layer with a thick-
lime as the binder (see Section 5) ness of ca. 10 – 30 mm, also serve as a uniform
and smooth substrate or load-bearing layer for
Dry mortar render and plaster with other subsequent finishing coating materials like ce-
binders like potassium silicate, redispersible ramic tiles, paints, and decorative finishing coat-
powder as the sole binder, hydrated lime as the ings. Cement-based renders are used for exterior
sole binder, and clay are not covered here. Plas- applications and wet rooms, whereas gypsum-
ters assume a range of physical tasks, for in- based renders are used exclusively for interior
stance, protection against weathering or chemi- walls.
cal or mechanical actions. Weathering means the
Dry Mortars 15
Nowadays, in most European countries (not have to be adjusted to the different working pro-
in the UK) machine-applied render/plaster is cedures. A main difference in working concerns
much more common than manually applied ren- the final working steps after the second leveling.
der or plaster. Accordingly, the render/plaster In central Europe the surface is wetted with wa-
for machine application must fulfill the addi- ter and a cream is rubbed out of the surface with
tional requirements of a very rapid development a sponge, followed by the smoothening with a
of consistency and high water retention. Both pa- knife, which results in extremely smooth sur-
rameters are steered by choosing the appropriate faces. In southern Europe and Great Britain, wa-
grade of methyl cellulose. Next to the trend to tering of the surface is avoided, and this leads to
machine application, there is a tendency to use a coarser surface. To obtain the desired smooth-
more lightweight plasters. ness, the surface is plastered with a fine-grained
top coat.
Cement and Lime – Cement Renders. The Lightweight gypsum plasters containing per-
main requirements for cement and lime – cement lite or vermiculite are very common. Especially
renders are high non-sag properties during ap- in these formulations methyl cellulose plays an
plication, easy workability, low stickiness to the important role in increasing the yield and sav-
leveling tool, and crack-free setting. To fullfill ing on the cost of the lightweight aggregates. In
these requirements, the formulation requires the a lightweight gypsum plaster for machine appli-
optimum concerning granulometry and the ad- cation the right MC allows 100 – 200 L of perlite
dition of additives like methyl cellulose, starch to be saved per tonne of plaster for the same cov-
ethers, and air-entraining agents. Table 3 lists erage compared to a MC without any additional
typical formulations of a lime cement render and thickening effect. Such an MC will yield to an
of a lightweight render based on cement. approximately 10 % higher coverage of the plas-
ter mortar.
Table 3. Typical formulations of a standard lime – cement render
The true yield of a machine-applied
and a lightweight cement render (in parts by weight) lightweight plaster can be measured only in a
Component Lime – cement Lightweight
plaster spaying trial. Typical German gypsum
render cement render plasters have yields in the range of 80 L/100 kg
of dry mortar for a gypsum – lime plaster, and
Portland cement 8 – 12 18 – 25
CEM I 32.5R up to 120 L/ 100 kg of dry mortar for machine-
Hydrated lime 6–8 0–5 applied gypsum lightweight plaster.
Quartz sand, 0.2 – 0.8 mm 80 – 85
Limestone sand 60 – 75
Relevant standards are draft DIN EN 13279,
Limestone dust 5–7 parts 1 and 2 [18] (formerly DIN 1168, parts 1
Expanded polystyrene 1–2 and 2).
Starch ether 0.01 – 0.02
Hydrophobic agent 0.15 – 0.25 0.1 – 0.2 Table 4 shows typical formulations of a gyp-
Air-entraining agent 0.015 – 0.03 0.03 – 0.05 sum plaster, a gypsum – lime plaster, and a
Methyl cellulose, viscosity 0.08 – 0.12 0.1 – 0.12
15 000 mPa s lightweight gypsum plaster.
Lightweight renders for thermal insulation Textured Mineral Finishing Plasters. Min-
are specified in DIN 18550, parts 3 and 4 [22]. eral finishing plasters, stuccos, putties, and skim
coats are part of a coating system and are ap-
Gypsum Plasters (→ Calcium Sulfate). As plied usually on a thick-layer base coat (render)
the working steps necessary for a gypsum plaster or on other types of uniform and smooth sur-
are more complicated and time-consuming than faces (concrete, plasterboard, etc.). For exterior
for a cement render, the typical formulations are walls, mainly lime – cement plasters are used as
also more complicated. The main focus is always a decorative finishing material. Finishing plas-
on the correct adjustment of the setting retarda- ters must provide the facade with an optically
tion, which enables the worker to finish all steps attractive surface finish and have to fulfill phys-
of the work before the surface sets or becomes ical functions such as a durable protection of
dry. As the working traditions are different in the covered wall areas and undercoats against
many countries, the local formulations always dampness and weathering.
16 Dry Mortars
Table 4. Typical formulations of a gypsum plaster, a gypsum – lime plaster, and a lightweight gypsum plaster (in parts per weight)
Gypsum 74 – 98 40 – 50 70 – 100
Limestone 20 – 35
Hydrated lime 1.5 – 5 15 – 20 2–5
Perlite 0.3 – 0.8 3–5
Starch ether 0.01 – 0.04 0.01 – 0.03 0.01 – 0.05
Air-entraining agent 0.015 – 0.03 0.015 – 0.03 0.01 – 0.03
Setting retarder 0.025 – 0.05 0.025 – 0.04 0.025 – 0.04
Methyl cellulose, viscosity 30 000 mPa s 0.16 – 0.23 0.16 – 0.23
Methyl cellulose for high yield 0.2 – 0.24
To meet their required physical functions of redispersible powders. The different struc-
over long periods, mineral finishing coating ma- tures of the hardened mortar originate from a
terials for exterior application must have a good different particle size distribution of the fillers
adhesion to the substrate, a low water absorption used in the formulation (structure-giving large
and a high water-repellent effect (low coefficient grains) and from the application method (appli-
of water-absorption), good drying characteris- cation by spraying, brush, trowel, roller, etc.).
tics (good water-vapor permeability), and low Mineral finishing plaster is applied manually but
susceptibility to cracking; the modulus of elas- nowadays increasingly by machine spraying.
ticity of the mineral coating should be lower than The standard DIN 18550 [22] defines the
the modulus of elasticity of the layers below it. technical requirements and the application of
These requirements are met in an exem- mineral base renders as well as of the finishing
plary manner by mineral-textured finishing plas- plaster coating systems.
ters produced as factory made dry-mix mortars.
The term “finishing plaster” nowadays refers to
facade-coating materials pigmented in white or 6.3. Tile Adhesives
light pastel colors which are used as the final sur-
face finish without any additional painting being Ceramic wall cladding for building interiors and
necessary. Mineral finishing plasters are com- exteriors is by no mean a new invention. The
posed of hydrated lime and cement as mineral first ceramic wall cladding materials in form of
binders, aggregates (fillers), pigments, and ad- fresco and mosaic tiles were produced ca. 3500
ditives such as cellulose ethers and starch ethers years ago in Egypt, Persia, and China. Tiles pro-
to improve the water retention and processing. If vide an esthetically attractive decorative surface
required, other additives such as air entrainers, in combination with important functional ben-
water-repellent agents, retarders, and fibers are efits, being water resistant, tough, long-lasting,
added. The ratio of cement and hydrated lime hygienic, and easy to clean. For these reasons
can be varied according to the different require- tiles are important floor and wall covering ma-
ments; the higher the cement content the higher terials in the construction industry. In 1999 ca.
the compressive strength, the toughness, and the 4.5 × 109 m2 were produced and laid world-
water resistance, but there is also a higher risk wide. The most important market was Asia
of crack formation due to the brittleness and (1.9 × 109 m2 ) followed by Europe (109 m2 ) and
shrinkage of the mortar. The higher the content America (0.9 × 109 m2 ).
of hydrated lime, the better the workability, and Mainly earthenware tiles for indoor applica-
the lower the compressive strength. Carbonate tions (non-frost-resistant porous tiles with a wa-
fillers such as marble or limestone can be used ter absorption of ca. 25 % according to the EN
additionally or even exclusively instead of silica 87 [23] and frost-resistant stoneware tiles (non-
sands. The technical performance of the finish- porous tiles with a water absorption of ca. 1 %)
ing plaster can be improved significantly by the for indoor and outdoor applications are used.
addition of organic polymer binders in the form Different types of natural stones are installed
for indoor and outdoor applications. Nowadays,
Dry Mortars 17
the hard-pressed fully vitrified tiles (porcelain Therefore, the thin-bed mortar technique to-
tiles) with an extremely low water absorption day has replaced the thick-bed mortar method
(< 0.1 %) and an excellent scratch, wear, and in most industrialized countries. After the
weather resistance, as well as glass tiles, are be- polymer-modified prepacked dry-mix mortar
ing increasingly used, mainly for outdoor appli- has been gauged with water, it can be applied to a
cations and for floors. In addition there is a strong large area of the surface to be tiled with a notched
trend to use tiles in larger sizes (large-formatted trowel (floating technique) to give a ribbed mor-
tile, up to 40 × 40 cm). tar bed of uniform thickness. Due to the good
Ceramic tiles and natural stones previously water retention capacity of the thin-bed mortar
were exclusively laid with the thick-bed mortar (effect of cellulose ether), neither the tiles nor
technique based on job-site-mixed mortars. In the substrate (background) have to be presoaked
this method, sand and cement are mixed together or prewetted. The tiles are then pressed into the
on the job site to produce a simple cement mortar mortar bed with a slightly twisting action. If the
with a cement/sand ratio of ca. 1/4 to 1/5. After adhesive mortar is formulated in the appropriate
applying (buttering) this mortar on the reverse way by using adequate additives, tiles that have
side of the water-(pre)soaked or prewetted tile just been laid in the fresh mortar bed will not
in a thickness of 15 – 30 mm, the tile buttered slip. Thus, the insertion of spacers between the
with the mortar is pressed to the prewetted sur- tiles is not necessary and tiling can be carried
face to be tiled. The tiles are tapped to ensure out from the top to the bottom. This technique
uniform flatness of the tile surface, and thus a creates an adhesive mortar bed of ca. 2 – 4 mm
final mortar bed of 10 – 25 mm is obtained. This thickness, depending on the dimensions of the
procedure not only causes a compaction of the trowel notches used (usually 6 × 6 × 6 mm, de-
mortar, but leads in addition to the migration of pending on the size of the tiles and the flatness of
the fine cement particles into the porous reverse the substrate). The thin-bed mortar technique is
side of the tiles and into the porous substrate. thus more cost-effective than its thick-bed coun-
In this way a mechanical fixation or anchoring terpart. It also uses less material, can be applied
of the tile in the mortar bed is assured, as well more universally, and its execution is simpler,
as anchoring of the mortar on the substrate after faster, and safer. This is even true in cases where
curing of the cement. Because this simple type the background is uneven and has to be coated
of mortar has no slip resistance, tiling must be or levelled with an equalization mortar first.
started at the bottom, and spacers must be used With this thin-bed technique (Fig. 8) using
to obtain regular joints between the tiles. specially designed prepacked dry-mix adhe-
However this method is a very time-, cost- sive mortars, all technical demands of modern
and, material-consuming process which requires building industry using different types of back-
experienced craftsmen. They have to decide grounds and covering materials under different
whether the substrate and the tiles are suitable and extreme climatic conditions can be satis-
for using this method, a certain soaking time of fied. Today there is wide range of ceramic-tile
the tiles is required depending on their porosity, adhesives available, depending on the substrate
the mortar must be mixed in the correct ratio and to be tiled and the tiles being used: standard
consistency, and the right amount of mortar has and flexible, normal- and fast-setting, as well
to be applied on the reverse side of the tile be- as special adhesives such as white mortars for
fore it is laid. More significantly, there are a lot fixing natural stones, waterproofing adhesives,
of technical restrictions in using this technique flow-bed mortars for floor tiling, gypsum-based
in the modern building industry. For example, adhesives, and high-flexibility mortars for fresh
only porous and relatively small format tiles can screeds.
be laid on porous, solid, and strong mineral sur-
faces (backgrounds) with this method due to the
need for mechanical anchoring of the mortar.
18 Dry Mortars
Adhesive type∗ A B
Dry-mix mortars for thin-bed tiling must ful- 6.4. Tile Grouts
fill technical requirements such as good work-
ability characteristics, good water-retention ca- Tile grouts are used to fill the joints between tiles
pability, long open time and adjustability time or natural stones laid on walls or floors. Cement-
even at high temperatures, and good non-sag based tile grouts with appropriate formulations
properties. After curing, the cement-based ad- are suitable for interior and for exterior appli-
hesive mortar must provide a good adhesive and cation. In combination with the tiles they must
cohesive bond strength between all types of cov- provide an optically attractive suface and must
ering materials (e.g., natural stones and all kind perform physical functions. The tile grout must
of ceramic tiles) and various backgrounds (e.g., be capable of reducing stresses within the whole
concrete surfaces, brickwork, lime – cement ren- wall or floor covering material, it must protect
ders and base coats, gypsum, wood, old tile sur- the materials and layers under the tiled surface
faces, gypsum wallboards, aerated lightweight against mechanical damage and the negative in-
concrete, particle boards, etc.). This must be fluences of water penetrating into the whole con-
guaranteed even after exposure to frost, damp- struction. Thus a cementitious grout must have
ness, and even permanent immersion in water. In good adhesion to the edges of the tiles, low
addition to good adhesion, the thin-bed adhesive shrinkage, sufficient deformability or flexibility,
mortar must have sufficient flexibility to absorb high abrasion resistance, good toughness and co-
and reduce possible tensions between the back- hesion, low water absorption, and an excellent
ground and the tiles caused by different thermal workability (low stickiness of the wet mortar).
expansion coefficients of the covering materials According to their application, two main types
and the substrates as well as possible movements of tile grouts can be classified (Table 7).
of the background. For white and colored tile grouts, white ce-
These overall characteristics of a thin-bed ad- ment is used as a mineral binder. Alkali-resistant
hesive mortar can only be achieved by prepacked pigments such as iron oxides should be used for
polymer-modified cementitious dry-mix mor- colored grouts. Appropriate carbonate fillers can
tars containing cellulose ethers as additives and be used additionally or even exclusively instead
redispersible powders as a polymer binding of silica sand as a filler. To reduce the risk of
agent. Typical basic formulations for a standard efflorescence, the use of hydrophobing agents is
and a high quality flexible ceramic tile adhesive very helpful, and microsilica or trass can addi-
are given in Table 5. tionally be added. The main technical require-
ments for tile grouts are summarized in Table 8.
Dry Mortars 19
Table 6. Summary of European standards for ceramic-tile adhesives
Standard Requirements
these reasons, togther with the above-mentioned coat must be carefully adjusted to each other
principle disadvantages of two-pack systems, to- and must be tested and approved together as a
day the polymer-modified cement based dry-mix system. Therefore, it is not permitted to combine
mortars have almost completely substituted all individual components from different sources to
other systems for ETICS. create an ETICS which has not been tested and
Classic ETICS consist of the following com- approved as a whole system.
ponents: Figure 9 shows a typical composition of a ET-
– Adhesive for fixing the thermal insulation ICS.
panels, mainly expanded polystyrene, on the
wall (depending on instructions and techni-
cal guidelines, additional mechanical fixing
with special dowels may be necessary).
– Base-coat for embedding the reinforcement
mesh on top of the thermal insulation panels
(mechanical protection of the thermal insu-
lation panels).
– Mineral finishing coating (mainly cementi-
tious plasters or stucco with different struc-
tures).
A typical formulation (in wt %) for the adhe-
sive and base-coat mortar is given in the follow-
ing:
Portland cement 20 – 30
Filler (silica sand and/or carbonate filler, 64.7 – 75.9
0.05 – 0.5 mm)
Cellulose ether 0.1 – 0.3
Redispersible powder 4–5
Additives 0–3
persible powder is used for the adhesive mor- In DIN 55945 surface coating materials such
tar and the base coat. This means that apart as laquers and paints are defined, classified, and
from the required good adhesion of the cemen- characterized. Paints according to this standard
titious mortar on the substrate and on the insu- are compounds in liquid and pasty form, based
lating polystyrene panels, a sufficient deforma- on solvents, binding agents, pigments, fillers,
bility (flexibility) and a high degree of impact and additives, but including powder-form coat-
resistance of the mortars are achieved as well. ing materials as well. Paints can be classified as:
A large choice of different materials and sys- – Solvent-based coating materials
tems are available nowadays as finishing coats – Water-based coating materials (laquers,
for the ETICS. Apart from the classic dispersion- paints)
bound plasters, available in many structural vari- – Spray-applied powder coatings
ations and colors, mainly mineral cement – lime – Paints and coating materials in powder form
plasters or stuccoes, silicate plasters, and to a (powder paints) to be mixed with water be-
certain extent silicone resin plasters are used. fore application
Various countries have differing regulations
and specifications for ETICS. At present a Euro- Powder paints were known for many decades
pean standard is being prepared for external ther- before the invention of the liquid dispersion
mal insulation composite systems [draft from paints. In the early days of the powder paints the
European Organisation for Technical Approvals binder was either of organic origin (e.g., distem-
(EOTA)]. It will describe all specifications for per paint based on glue) or of inorganic origin
the individual components of the system and (e.g., mineral paints based on the mineral binders
the overall composite system itself (e.g., phys- hydrated lime and/or cement). For a long time
ical and construction specifications as well as the mineral binder was modified with organic
techical requirements like water absorption, be- binding agents (casein, cellulose ether, starch
havior under hydrothermal stress, inflammabil- ether) to improve the technical characteristics
ity, water-vapor permeability, adhesive strength, of the mineral coating material.
impact resistance, etc.). Natural organic binders have since been re-
Worldwide, new thermal insulation regula- placed with much more efficient synthetic poly-
tions (e.g., WschVO in Germany [25]) further- mer binders in the form of redispersible pow-
more establish minimum requirements for the K- ders, and this has again led to an increasing im-
value (thermal insulation value) of the external portance of powder paints. Redispersible pow-
walls of new buildings. For concrete and bricks der as organic binder is used as the sole binder in
walls these binding minimum requirements can powder dispersion paints and for the modifica-
often only be met by the additional application of tion of mineral powder paints based on cement,
an ETICS, and this will lead to a further growth hydrated lime, or water glass (silicate powder
in thermal insultation systems. Even in countries paints) to improve their technical performance
with an high average temperature, thermal insu- and durability.
lation composite systems are becoming popular Powder dispersion paints were first used on
for saving energy for air-conditioning. building facades in Austria in the 1960s and later
in Germany. They provide almost the same char-
acteristics as liquid dispersion paints, but offer
6.6. Powder Paints all the advantages of a powder system. Powder
dispersion paints are used for interior and exte-
The use of liquid dispersion paints is well rior applications. The most important difference
known and has proven itself in practice since in formulation is the content of polymer binder.
their invention in the 1950s, and today this is The higher the polymer content, the better the
the leading technology for interior and exterior adhesion and the higher the wet-scrub resistance
paint application. As a sole binding agent for of the paint.
his type of products aqueous dispersions based Like typical dry-mix mortars, powder paints
on styrene – acrylate, vinyl acetate ethylene, or are supplied in paper bags or in silos to the job
other copolymers are used. site and are gauged with water befor use and are
applied by brush, roller or spraying.
22 Dry Mortars
Table 9. Important test methods and standards for (powder) paints
Standard Comments
Table 9 summarizes the most important stan- walls, of swimming pools, as well as walls and
dards and technical requirements for powder floors in bathrooms, and on balconies and ter-
paints. races as a waterproofing layer to be tiled over.
Some of the main advantages of cement-based
waterproofing membranes are their excellent re-
6.7. Cementitious Waterproofing sistance to water (even if exposed permanently),
Sealing Slurries excellent long-term weathering resistance, good
scratch resistance, good load-carrying capacity
Water in liquid or in vapor form is the most de- and much higher water-vapor permeability than
structive weathering element for building ma- most of the other systems.
terials such as concrete, masonry, and natural Figure 10 shows a typical application of a
stones. cementitious waterproofing sealing slurry by
Traditional sealing and waterproofing sys- brush.
tems (e.g., according to DIN 18195) include bi-
tuminous materials, plastic waterproofing foils,
and metal tapes for interior and exterior applica-
tions. Different types of materials can be used to
seal and protect the surface of buildings or their
structural components against the intrusion of
dampness and water. Nowadays products for this
purpose are based on reactive resins like epoxy
and/or polyurethane, dispersions (paintable wa-
terproofing membranes), and mineral binders
like cement, which are known as waterproofing
membranes or sealing slurries.
Cementitious waterproofing membranes
have been successfully used for more than
40 years in Europe. The structures to be pro-
tected were either exposed to periodic or long-
term wetting (surface water, seepage water),
low hydrostatic pressure (soil dampness), or
in combination with appropriate engineering
even high hydrostatic pressure. Cementitious Figure 10. Typical application of a cementitious water-
membranes (slurries) are used to waterproof proofing sealing slurry by brush (Wacker Polymer Systems)
wet rooms and water tanks, and due to their
excellent weathering resistance also for exterior Cement-based waterproofing slurries are
surface protection. Further typical applications easy to use, nontoxic, provide a fully bound and
are the sealing and waterproofing of basement monolithic surface without joints, and can be
Dry Mortars 23
easily applied on substrates with complex sur- even in these high-polymer products, there is a
face shapes. In contrast to other systems, ce- strong trend towards one-pack systems in form
mentitious waterproofing slurries can even be of polymer-modified dry-mix mortars.
used on damp and wet mineral surfaces. Their
physical properties are also less temperature-
dependent compared to bitumen-based materi- 6.8. Self-Leveling Underlayments and
als. So far there are no standards available for Screeds
these alternative sealing products, but national
guidelines of mortar associations are well ac- Self-leveling underlayments (SLUs) are from a
cepted in the building industry [26]. technical perspective probably the most com-
Simple, non-polymer-modified cement- plex field for dry-mix mortars. On a given un-
based slurries are still used for protection against even substrate (i.e., screed or surface to be refur-
surface water, but they are not suitable for seal- bished), self-leveling mortars have to provide a
ing against water under hydrostatic pressure. suitable, smooth and solid substrate for apply-
To improve the poor adhesion, the poor water ing all kinds of flooring materials like carpets,
tightness, and the extremely low deformabil- wooden parquet, PVC, tiles, etc. Self-leveling
ity and flexibility of these unmodified systems, underlayments should be applicable in an easy
polymers are added in form of liquid disper- and efficient manner, even for large areas. There-
sions on the job site or as a redispersible powder fore, the SLU material has to have very good
already mixed with the dry-mix mortar. Spe- flow characteristics, and self-leveling and self-
cial additives in these dry mix mortars include smoothing properties. In addition, it should set
water-retention agents, thickening agents, and and dry quickly so that the flooring material can
rheological additives. be applied on top of the hardened mortar after
Today standard or rigid mineral waterproof- only a few hours. The SLU mortar should ad-
ing slurries are polymer-modified, prepacked here to all kinds of substrates and exhibit low
dry-mix mortars with a high cement and rela- shrinkage, high compressive strength, and good
tively low polymer (redispersible powder) con- abrasion resistance.
tent. They are used for mineral substrates which The technical requirements for SLUs range
are dimensionally stable, sound, and solid with- from very simple to highly sophisticated prod-
out risk of crack formation, movement, or di- ucts. They vary in thickness from a very
mensional changes such as shrinkage. Develop- thin layer of 1 – 10 mm (feather finish, self-
ments in the late 1970s led in Europe to flexible leveling/troweling mortars and underlays), up
waterproofing slurries, which to a certain extent to 60 mm for self-leveling screeds, which are al-
are capable of bridging small cracks (up to ca. ways applied by machines (mixing and pumping
1 mm) in the substrate. The flexibility of such in one set up).
products strongly depends on the polymer to ce- The screeds are used as a load wearing base in
ment ratio and on the flexibility of the polymer a thickness from 30 to 80 mm, and are thus high-
itself. Flexible and highly flexible waterproofing volume-application mortars. These mortars can
cementitious slurries are used on substrates that be based on cement or gypsum (anhydrite) as
are still subject to shrinkage, vibration, move- mineral binder, the latter providing underlay-
ment, stress, and crack formation, and on sub- ments with a high dimensional stability (low
strates that are difficult to coat, such as wood, or even no shrinkage). The set time (“walk-
steel, aerated lightweight blocks, and gypsum. over time”) of these materials varies from nor-
Due to their high polymer content (up to 40 wt % mal/regular setting to fast-setting products. Nor-
of the total formulation), they have a high dif- mally this depends on the requirements of a spe-
fusion resistance and are chemically resistant to cific job, that is, the flooring material can be laid
chloride, sulfate ions, carbon dioxide, or other on the SLU in a certain time frame. The shorter
aggressive substances. In central Europe flexible the setting and drying time, and the thicker the
cementitious waterproofing sealing slurries rep- mortar is applied, the more complicated and ex-
resent the last domain for two-component (two- pensive the formulation becomes. Self-leveling
pack) systems, which are based on prepacked compounds for underlayments and screeds are
dry-mix mortar and liquid admixes. However, based on special hydraulic binders like Portland
24 Dry Mortars
cement (OPC), high-alumina cement (HAC), Patching mortars for reprofiling and cosmetic
and gypsum (anhydrite), to achieve fast curing repair are based on dry-mix mortars. Usually
and drying by avoiding excessive shrinkage or cement-based mortars are used for indoor and
expansion. outdoor applications, whereas gypsum-based
So far there are no standards on self-leveling products are only used for some specific indoor
underlayments (SLU) in Europe. However, the applications (cosmetic repair), i.e., for filling
technique and its application have been well small holes, voids, cracks and cavities to restore
known for many years, and exclusively polymer- the original dimensions.
modified prepacked dry-mix mortars are used To guarantee the durable and reliable repair of
for this application. structural concrete, concrete rehabilitation sys-
tems must restore the corrosion protection of the
steel reinforcement (alkaline environment), re-
6.9. Patching and Repair Mortars profile the concrete structure, restore its load-
bearing functions, and finally restore the protec-
Concrete is a very versatile, long-lasting, and tion and thus durability of the whole construc-
durable building and construction material if it tion (protection against weathering and environ-
is applied according to the state of the art. In the mental damage caused by CO2 , SO2 , Cl2 , de-
past, and even today, unfortunately, repeated dis- icing salts, etc).
regard of the fundamental principles of concrete For the rehabilitation of structural concrete
and structural concrete application still leads to three types of mortars are used today: cement-
severe and serious damage in the building indus- based concrete mortars (CC; mostly applied as
try. The cost of the repair of concrete structures a shotcrete mortar), polymer (modified) cement
has dramatically increased over the last 30 years concrete (PCC) as prepacked dry-mix mortars,
in all industrial countries. In Germany approxi- and epoxy cement concrete (ECC).
mately 20 % of the cost of the volume of struc- Today mainly PCC mortars are used for the
tural concrete work is attributed to the repair rehabilitation of concrete structures. These mor-
and maintenance of existing buildings and struc- tars can be applied by hand as well as by ma-
tures. The degradation of structural concrete is chine, in a wet or even a dry spraying shotcrete
caused by corrosion of the steel reinforcement process. Different kind of mortars delivered as
due to carbonation of concrete caused by atmo- dry-mix mortars with different characteristics
spheric carbon dioxide and other aggressive me- and functions are used as the components for
dia (e.g., SO2 , acid rain). The corroded steel re- concrete rehabilitation systems:
inforcement increases in volume and splits off
the overlying concrete, thus destroying the struc- – Primer and adhesion promoter for the rein-
ture. forced steel (polymer-modified cementitious
In the construction industry concrete repair slurry or epoxy-based coating materials)
work can be classified into two types: – Adhesion-promoter slurry (primer or key-
1) Repair of concrete which does not contain coat) for the concrete to be repaired
steel reinforcement and which does not have (polymer-modified cement based slurry)
load-bearing functions. It is normally car- – Restoration and reprofiling mortar (polymer-
ried out for aesthetic reasons (cosmetic re- modified cement-based mortar)
pair work) only, with patching mortars or – Fine stopper or smoothing mortar (polymer-
patching compounds. modified cement-based mortar containing
2) Repair and reconstruction of damaged rein- fine aggregates)
forced and load-bearing concrete structures – Protective and finishing coat (dispersion
to maintain and reconstitute their structural paints, crack overbridging paints, cementi-
stability and function. This is carried out in tious waterproofing sealing slurries, etc.).
stages with different kind of mortars, which So far mainly national guidelines imple-
are part of a “concrete rehabilitation system” mented by various organizations and regulations
(typical applications: repair work and reha- are relevant to the requirements for concrete-
bilitation of bridges, parking decks, tunnels, repair systems [27]. Concrete rehabilitation sys-
etc).
Dry Mortars 25
tems are subjected to an official approval accord- 7. J. A. H. Oates, Lime and Limestone,
ing to relevant laws and regular quality supervi- Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1998.
sion from independent test institutes. 8. EN 459: Building Lime, Part 1: Definitions,
Specifications and Conformity Criteria draft
DIN EN 459-1, January 1999; Part 2: Test
Methods draft DIN EN 459-2, January 1999;
7. Market Aspects part 3: Conformity Evaluation, draft DIN EN
459-3, January 1999.
Precise data on worldwide production and con-
9. D. Distler, Wässrige Polymerdispersionen
sumption of dry mortars are not available, al-
Wiley-VCH, Weinheim, 1999.
though for Germany, France, and Italy calcula- 10. J. Schulze, Tonindustrie-Zeitung, 109 (1985)
tions of the production are known. According to 698.
ref. [28] the production of dry mortars in 2001 11. K. Adler, Schweizer Baublatt 31 (1988) 44.
was 10 × 106 in Germany, 3 × 106 in Italy, and 12. L. Brandt, Cellulose Ethers, Ullmann’s
2.7 × 106 in France, and total consumption in Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry, 5th ed.,
Western Europe was 30 × 106 [28] or vol. A 5, (1986) 461 – 488.
35 – 40 × 106 according to other estimates. 13. DIN 18555: Testing of Mortars with Mineral
Worldwide consumption lies in the range of Binders: Part 1: General, Sampling, Test
50 – 60 × 106 [28], or (60 – 70) × 106 according Mortar (September 1982); Part 2: Fresh
to other estimates. Mortars Containing Aggregates with Compact
With increasing local working costs the ratio Structures, Determination of Consistency,
between dry mortars and mortars mixed on site Density and Air Content (September 1982);
Part 3: Hardened Mortars; Determination of
is increasing, as the application of dry mortars
Binding Strength, Compressive Strength and
requires less time for the same work. Worldwide
Density (September 1982); Part 4: Hardened
dry mortar consumption is increasing. While
Mortars; Determination of Linear and
growth was strong in central Europe from the Transverse Expansion and of Deformation
1960s to the 1980s, nowadays growth is mainly Characteristics of Mortars for Bricklaying by
in Eastern and Southern Europe, as well as in Means of a Static Pressure Test (March 1986);
parts of the Asian and Latin American market. Part 5: Hardened Mortars; Determination of
the Bond Shear Strength of Mortars for
Bricklaying (March 1986); Part 6: Hardened
8. References Mortars; Determination of the Adhesive
Tensile Strength (November 1987); Part 7:
Specific References Fresh Mortars; Determination of the Water
1. A. Konietzko: “The Application of Modern Retention Value by the Filter Plate Method
Dry, Factory Mixed, Mortar Products”, ZKG (November 1987); Part 8: Fresh Mortars;
(Zement,Kalk,Gips) International, 48 (1985) Determination of the Workability Time and
no. 12, 625 – 659. Correction Time of Thin Bed Mortars for
2. U. Dilger: “Ready-Mixed Mortar Production Masonry (November 1987); Part 9: Hardened
Plants”, ZKG (Zement,Kalk,Gips) Mortars; Determination of the Mortar
International, 38 (1985) no. 1, 2 – 6. Compressive Strength (September 1999).
3. M. Guldner: “Production and Processing of 14. DIN 52617: Determination of the Water
Dry, Factory-Mixed, Mortars”, ZKG Absorption Coefficient of Building Materials
(Zement,Kalk,Gips) International, 52 (1999) (May 1987).
no. 11, 628 – 631. 15. Die Wirkung von Fließmitteln in hydraulisch
4. Data from EMO (European Mortar gebundenen Baustoffen. April 1997,
Organisation) and Wacker Polymer Systems SKW-Trostberg.
GmbH & Co. KG. 16. DIN 18557: Factory Mortar – Production,
5. DIN 1164, Zement mit besonderen Control and Delivery (November 1997).
Eigenschaften, Zusammensetzung, 17. DIN 1168, Part 1: Gypsum Plasters, Terms and
Anforderungen, Übereinstimmungsnachweis Definition, Types and Application, Delivery
(November 2000). and Marking (January 1986); Part 2: Gypsum
6. K. Krenkler, Chemie des Bauwesens, Band 1: Building Plasters; Requirements, Testing,
Anorganische Chemie, Springer, Berlin, 1980. Control (July 1975).
26 Dry Mortars
18. Draft DIN EN 13279; Gypsum and Gypsum 23. EN 87: Ceramic floor and wall
Based Building Plaster; Part 1: Definitions and tiles – Definitions, Classification and Marking.
Requirements (July 1998); Part 2: Test 24. Fachverband Wärmedämmverbundsysteme
Methods (July 1998). e.V.; Wiesbaden.
19. EN 1346: Adhesives for tiles – Determination 25. Wärmeschutzverordnung (WschVO) vom
of open time (March 1999). 1.1.1995 der Bundesregierung von
20. EN 1308: Adhesives for tiles – Determination Deutschland; Energiesparverordnung (EnEV)
of slip (March 1999). 2001.
21. EN 1348: Adhesives for Tiles – Determination 26. Deutsche Bauchemie e.V.: Instructions on
of Tensile Adhesion Strength for Cementitious Structural Waterproofing with Cementitious
Adhesives (March 1999). Rigid and Flexible Waterproofing Slurries,
22. DIN 18550: Plaster; part 1: Terminology and July 1993.
Requirements (January 1985); Part 2: Plasters 27. Bundesanstalt für Straßenwesen, Deutschland:
and Renderings out of Mortar with Mineral ZTV-SIB, Zusätzliche Technische
Binders; Execution (January 1985); Part 3: Vertragsbedingungen und Richtlinien für
Rendering; Rendering Systems for Thermal Schutz und Instandsetzung von
Insulation Purposes Made of Mortar Betonbauteilen”.
Consisting of Mineral Binders and Expanded 28. Estimation of the Production of Dry Mortars in
Polystyrene (EPS) as Aggregate (March 2001, European Mortar Organisation,
1991); Part 4: Plaster and Rendering: Duisburg, Germany.
Lightweight Plasters and Renderings;
Execution (August 1993).