Introduction

• In the Earth’s crust

there are different
movements which
cause changes in
the crust of the
Earth .
• These movements
are called Tectonic
movements
because they build
major landforms on
the Earth surface .
• The tectonic
movements are of
 Vertical Movements
• Vertical movements are known as
Epeirogenic movements .
• They are continent-building movements .
• Are associated with Plate Tectonics .
• Due to this movements a section of the
Earth’s crust may rise or subside resulting in
the formation of raised plateaus or extensive
shallow depression .
• The part that has risen is called the uplift &
that which has sunk is called subsidence .
• These movements are large scale and
powerful , hence are called continent building
 Horizontal Movements
• They take place due to compressional or
tensional forces.
• Responsible for formation of fold mountains.
• As a result of compressional forces acting in 2
opposite directions, the crustal rocks bend and
form a series of arches & troughs.
• This is known as folding of crustal rocks that
usually occur in a zone where the crust is
weak.
• The lines of fracture are known as fault.
• Due to this Earth’s surface tends to rise or sink
along the plane of fracture.
• Both process result in mountain building.
Folding and Fold Mountains
• A fold is a bend in rock strata resulting
from compression of an area of the
Earth’s crust .
• The severity of compression is indicated
by the tightness of the folds.
• In folding since the compressional
force is acting towards the centre, the
intervening land rises up in a series of
folds.
• The arch or anticline of the folds,
How folds are formed?
 Types of folds
• The folds
are
classified in
the
following
types
depending
on the
intensity of
the
 1.Symmetrical Folds
• When the
compression is
too intensive the
land gets folded
into gentle,
simple folds
called as
symmetrical
folds.
• Here both sides
 2.Asymmetrical Fold
• When the
compressional
force is more
from one end
one limb
becomes steeper
than the other .
• Such a fold is
called
Asymmetrical
 3.Recumbent Fold
• When one side of
the fold is pushed
over the other side
the landform is
called Over fold .
• When one side is
pushed so much
that it lies
positioned over the
other side , such a
fold is called
Recumbent fold.
 4. Over thrust Folds
• Due to excessive
folding , a fracture
is formed ,one side
of the fold slides
forward over this
fault .
• This is called Over
thrust Fold .
• The portion which
slides forward is
called Nappe .
 5. Fan Fold
• If the compression is from
opposite sides , small arch
shaped folds are formed .
• Several arch shaped folds
resembling a fan are formed .
• This is a Fan Fold .
 Fold Mountains
• The compressional force exerted on
the crust is a result of movement of
earth’s plates.
• When the plates converge, the weak
rocks and sediments lying between
the 2 plates get squeezed and get
folded.
• Parallel folds give rise to long chains
of parallel mountain ranges with
high peaks.
 Characteristics of Fold
Mountains
1) A fold mountain is characterized by peaks
& valleys. The tops of anticlines become
the peaks & the synclines become the
valleys.
2) The fold mountain system has parallel
ranges.
3) Intermont plateaus maybe found
between high ranges.
4) This system has a large no. of swift
flowing rivers, with many waterfalls &
rapids.
 Faulting
• Faults are large scale internal
movements causing large scale physical
features especially mountains and
valleys.
• An elevated block is called block
mountain.
• When rocks are pulled apart, or in
opposite direction, a tensional force is
created. This results in a crack or fault
line.
 Types of Fault
• Sometimes a section
of land slides down
along the fault plane
is called a normal
fault.

• When the Earth’s

surface is subjected
to severe
compression along
the fault line, a
portion of rocks get
 Contd…
• The second type of
fault is the reverse or
thrust fault. In this
type, due to
compressional forces,
the beds on one side of
the fault plain are
thrust over the other.
• As a result, a portion of
the rocks is pushed up
against the slope of
the fault plane.
• This causes the
 Contd…
• The third type of
fault is the tear
fault.
• In this case the
blocks on the
either side of the
fault are displaced
horizontally or
sideways.
• Tear faults
generally occur
 Plate Tectonics
• It is the theory according to which the outer
shell of the Earth is made up of a number of
relatively thin lithospheric plates composing the
continental & oceanic crust .
• Each plate is capable of moving over the semi-
molten asthesnosphere , carrying oceanic and
continental crust a like .
• At the mid-oceanic ridges ,the magma cools
and forms a crust from below . This causes
spreading of the sea floor and the movement of
the of the plates away from the central ridges.
This is known as constructive plate margin.
• At the other places ,such as around the
periphery of the Pacific ocean , the plates
either pass or collide with each other
 Contd….
• When a continental plate collides with the
oceanic plate it causes the oceanic plate to
move down into the mantle .This is
destructive plate margin and is marked
by a deep oceanic trench .
• The six major plates are : (1) Pacific Plate
(2)Eurasian plate (3) American Plate (4)
African Plate (5) Indian Plate and (6)
Antarctic Plate .
• The movement of these plates with respect
to each other throws up the fold mountains.
According to this theory the collision of
Eurasian and African –Indian continental
plate about 60-30 Million years ago
squeezed geosynclinal sediments of Tethys
 Features of Faulting
• The tensional features
which cause faulting
may be both due to
compression & tension
or tension alone.
• If the force is moderate
only cracks may
appear in the rocks.
• The displacement that • The plane along which the
occurs results in
formation of faults. rock blocks are displaced
• Such fractures are
is called the Fault plane.
divided into- 1)Joints & • Like folds, faults are of
2)Faults. various types depending
• A joint is a fracture on how they occur.
where a rock seems to
be joined together
without any movement
 Main Features of Faulting
• Faults rarely occur singly but a no. of
these may be parallel.
• Fault blocks: the elevated or subsided
masses of rocks are called fault blocks.
These fold blocks may be symmetrical or
asymmetrical.
• Horst: an individual fault block which is
sharply defined with respect to the
surrounding rock strata is called Horst.
• Rift Valley: it is the reverse of a horst. A
single fault in the same orientation is
called a rift valley. A rift valley is a major
relief feature of faulting. Rift valleys are
long & narrow troughs bounded by one or
 Landforms Of Faulting

Rift Valley

Block Mountains
 Rift Valley
• Major relief feature of Faulting
Activity is Rift Valley.
• Formation : A Rift Valley may be
formed in two ways : (1) When the
middle portion between two
normal faults is dropped
downward the sides remain stable.
• (2) When the middle portion
remains stable and the two sides
are raised upward .
 Contd….
• They are also known as Graben.
• These valleys have flat bottoms and
steep sides .E.g.- Jordan Valley ,
Great Rift Valley of East Africa .
• Some Rift valleys have become lakes
.E.g.- Lake Nyasa ,Lake Rudolf ,Dead
Sea.
• The Rhine Rift Valley in Europe is
bounded by Vosages and Hardt
Mountains .It is a fine example of the
Rift Valley caused by Faulting.
• In India the Narmada Valley,
Damodar Valley, Tapi valley are
example of the Rift valley.
 Block Mountains
• Block mountain is another
important feature of
Faulting caused by the
Tensional features in the
Earth’s crust .
• The mechanism of
formation of Block
mountains is same as the
Rift valley.
• The Block mountains as in
the case of the Rhine
valley ,are often found on
the sides of the Rift
valley. It is because the
land between two parallel
 Contd….
• Characteristics of Block mountains – flat
tops, flat bottoms on sides and steep fault
scrap .
• The Vosges in France and the Black Forest
mountains in Germany are examples of
the Block mountains .
• Other Block mountains – Salt Rang in
Pakistan, the Vindhyas and the Satpuras in
India are examples of Block mountains
.They enclose between them the Rift
valleys.
• The Fault Blocks with sharp features are
Flat top
 Distribution of Folded and Faulted
Landforms
• The fold mountains of various periods are found
almost in every continent .Almost all of them are
arranges in long lines and interlinked extending
through oceans .
• The Alpine-Himalayan system extends from the
strait of Gibraltar through the Mediterranean Basin
, Asia Minor to India and South –East Asia.
• The Circum –Pacific system comprises of Andes
,the North American cordillera & Island arcs .These
two system meet north of Australia .
• These two system are the main systems from
where various branches extend in different
directions .These are said to have existed as
geosynclines some 50 – 60 million years ago .
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