Higher Persian Grammar

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HIGHER PERSIAN GRAMMAR

FOR THE USE OF THE
CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY
SHOWING
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFGHAN AND MODERN PERSIAN

WITH
NOTES ON RHETORIC
BY
LIEUT.-COLONEL
D. C. PHTTJ^TOL^-M.A
PH.D., F.A.S.B.,
Late Secretary, Board of Examiners, Calcutta,
Translator of
the,
*
Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri,* and

l
etc.,
Editor of the Persian Translation of
Hajl Baba
of Isfahan*
and
of the
CALCUTTA
FEINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, CALCUTTA, AND PUBLISHED
BY THE UNIVERSITY.
1919.
PREFACE.
intended mainly as a book of reference, and for this purpose is printed with a copious index, It has been written chiefly for those students who have learnt, or are now studying, Persian in India. It
is
THIS work
should be borne in mind ^hat considerable differences exist between the

Persian of Afghanistan
diction
J
and
of Persia, not only in pronunciation
and
but also
in construction.
Many
of
these differences are
illus-
trated in this work.
It
is
hoped that the notes on composition and
rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students,
many
of
whom
for their benefit that these subjects
have to study Persian through the medium of English, and it is have been treated from an English
These notes, however, are not intended to supplant the study of Arabic or Persian rhetoric, but merely to supplement it.
point of view.
The author, not being a

Prosody.
poet, has
made no a/t^npt
>*.
4
to deal with
In writing this grammar, the works of Plaits ,* Ranking, Rosen,
Chodzko, Haggard and Le Strange, Tisdale, Socin, Thacher, Wright, and others, including several works in Urdu and Persian, have been My acknowledgments are specially due to Agha freely made use of.
Muhammad Kazim
ers,
Shirazi, Persian Instructor to the

in seeing the
Board
of
ExaminPress,
who has
also
assisted throughout
his
work through the
and
to
brother-in-law,
the
late
8hatns"'l-'Ulama*
Shaykh
Mahmud
Jilan!,
and other Persian

of a large
friends, for constant advice.
The addition
amount
of Arabic (viz. portions of the
Qur*an, the Alif Laylali and other Arabic works) to the Persian Course
has necessitated a far larger amount of Arabic grammar than was anticipated, a task for which I felt myself by no means competent. This portion of the work has grown much beyond the limits originally
set for
it.
In compiling
'Ulama*
Muhammad
thanks are chiefly due to Shams" 7Yusuf Ja'farl, Khan Bahadur, Head Maulavi of
it,
my
the Board of Examiners, to Shams'
7-'
Ulwn&* Shaykh
Mahmud
and
JilanI,
and
to Maulavi
Hidayat Husayn
of
Presidency College,
others,
who
means in modern Persian, for instance, ta mlz " order, medal," )& "stomach," imtiyaz ÛLcf
1
^\
"
clean,
dimagh
U> "
nose,"
IV
PREFACE.
helped
me
throughout
its
compilation
and
also to Professor L.
White-
King, C.S.I., of Dublin,
who
assisted in revising the proofs
and at whose
suggestion numerous additions were made.
Owing
duly long in
to the
proofs at sea
War and the consequent loss of manuscript} and and to other unfortunate causes, this work has been unissuing from the Press.
D. C.
PHILLOTT,
Lieut. -Colonel
CAIRO
March
1918.
TO
THE HON'BLE
MR. JUSTICE
ASUTOSH MOOKERJEE,
aS.L, D.L., D.Sa, F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E.,

VICE-CHAN CELLOR'I OF THE CALCUTTA UNIVERSITY, CHAIRMAN OF THE
TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT

OF THE ASIATIC SOCIETY OF BENGAL,
t
DEDICATE THIS BOOK,
IN RECOGNITION
BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP
AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS

RENDERED TO ORIENTAL
SCHOLARSHIP.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
PART
I.
CHAPTER
T.
ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.

Sec.
,,
1.
The Alphabet
..
..
..
..
Page ..I
2.
Pronunciation of Consonants
..
.
..11
. .
,,
3.
4.
The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels

The letter a (at the beginning Jazm or 8ukun
.
21
.,
Ilnmza and the Short Vowels at the beginning of words

of
23
27 28
,,
5.
6.
words)
.
.,
.,
7.
Ta*h<Rd and Ughftm
..
.
..
.
..
. .
29
M
, t
8.
Tamcin
Waslah
30
9.
..
. .
..31
31
,,
10.
11.
Solar and Lunar Letters
12.
,,
Ahjad Numeral Figures
..
..
, .
..
.
.
..32
33
of
13
To
find the year A.D. corresponding
to
the year
.
.
the
Hijm
.,
34
14, 15,
Siyaq
..
..
. .
..
.
..
.
.
..34
34 35
37
,,
Letters in Poetry
.,
16.
17.
,,
Handwriting Punctuation
.,
18.
19.
Abbreviations, Contractions and I mala
38
.,
Summary
Accent
..
. .
..
. .
..40
41
.,
20.
21.
Exercise in Translation
..
,.
..
..
..
..45
CHAPTER
Sec. 22.
23.
II.
Division of Persian and Arabic
Grammar
..
.
48
24.
25.
26,
.,
Etymology The Article .. The Substantive

..
_
..
. .
..
.
.
..
. .
..48 ..48
48
51
Declension
27.
28.
,,
29.
Examples of Declension Formation of the Plural Plurals Modern Persian
56
58
64
Classical Persian
.
.
VJii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
III.
PRONOUNS.
Sec. 30.
31.
,,
Persona] Pronouns
Page 68
71
The
Affixed Pronouns
.^
.
32.
Possessive Pronouns
..
.
..
,
..75
77
33.
,,
Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns
34.
35.
36. 37.
,,
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns
82
87
,,
,,
Compound Demonstrative Pronouns .. Interrogative Pronouns ..

Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns
Indefinite
88
..
.
..91
98
38.
,
39.
Pronouns
98
CHAPTER
Sec. 40.
41.
,.
IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

The The The
Definite Article
Indefinite Article
.
.
130
..
..
..
..131
42,
Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or Relative
^
.
141
CHAPTER
Sec. 43.
V.
.
The Adjective
149
161
M
,.
,,
44.
Compound
Degree
of
Adjectives
45.
Intensive Adjectives
169
171
46.
Comparison and Comparative Clauses
CHAPTER
Sec. 47.
48.
,.
VI.
THE NUMERALS.
Cardinal
Numbers
.
182
191
The Ordinals
Fractions
49.
50.
51.
194
196
197
,,
Adverbial Numerals
Multiplicative Numerals Distributive Numerals
..
.
.
..
. .
..
. .
..
.
,,
52. 53.
198
,;
Recurring Numerals
198
199
,,
54.
55.
,,
Approximate Numbers Numeral Adjectives
199
CHAPTER
Sec. 56.
57. 58.
.
VII
.
Arabian Months The Turki Year-Cycle The Zodiac

. .
200
..
. .
..
.
..
. .
..203
. .
204
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
IX
Sec. 59.
,,
The Seasons
. .
Page 205
206
60. 61.
Ancient Persian year
. .
Yazd-Gardi year
..
.
..
.
,.
. .
..209
, .
62.
Days
of the
Week
210
CHAPTER
Sec. 63.
,,
VIII.
..
.
.
Money
Weights
..
..
.
.
,,
.
.
,.212
213
64.
65.
Measures of Length
..
..
..
.,
..214
1
CHAPTER
Sec. 66.
67.
,,
. .
.
IX.
.
68.
The Verb The Separate Substantive Verb .. The Verb Transitive and Intransitive
.
217
..219
,.
.
.
..
.
.
221
Tenses from the Imperative Tenses from the Shortened Infinitive

,,
223
225
69.
Active Voice
..229
. .
70.
71.
.,
Verbal Adjective Negative Verbs
234
237
..
..
.
,.235
.
.
72.
73.
74.
Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs Interrogative Verbs

.
. . .
238 239
248
Roots or Stems
of
Simple Verbs
.
75.
76.
,,
Hybrid Verbs
. .
The Auxiliary VerbShudan

Tawanistan
Giriftan
..
.. ..
248
249
77.
..
..
78.
79.
..
.
.
..254
. .
80.
The Verbs " to begin, etc/' The Auxiliary Verb Khwastan

"
.,
..
256
..
..257
. .
81.
Guzashtan, Dadan,
Mandan ; and Verbs

"
..
to Permit, Allow
..
,.
.
261
,,82,
83.
,,
Kalian Dashtan
..
.
..263 ..263
. .
84.
85.
Impersonal Verbs Compound Verbs

Certain
2CO
274 280
282 285
,,
86.
,.
87.
88.
Verbs used in the Compounds Causal and Reflexive Verbs

.
.
Common
,,
Passive Voice and Passive Verbs
CHAPTER
Sec. 89.
X.
.
Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

Prepositions
..
289
90.
91.
..
. .
,.
. .
..
.
.
..322
.
.
Simple Conjunctions
338
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
Page 354
366
Sec.
92.
93.
Compound Conjunctions
Interjections
. .
and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings, Compli.
ments, etc,
94.
,
Signs and Signals
..
V.
etc.
..
.
.
,.389
.
.
95.
Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions,
390
CHAPTER XL
Sec.
,,
96.
97.
Diminutive Nouns
Affixed
394
398
404
and Arabic Abstract Noun

.
. .
98.
,,
99.
The Terminal The Suffixes ban

,,
or van, vana,
un and van
.
406
407
100.
101,
gar, gar, gari, kar

ar, dar, al
.
..
..
.
..408
. .
102.
103,
104.
The Turkish Suffixes fi, cAi, .. The Suffix c5 The Suffixes zar, sar, start
gard, khana, shan,
bash, tash or dash

..
409
..
..410
410
or istan, lakh, kada, yah, abad,

.
na
,,
105.
The
Suffixes
umawJ* wand, mand, nak, ak

bar, yar
.
..413
.
.
106.
413
107.
j,
,,
avar, mr. rar gan, man

}
414
108.
109. 110.
.,
ana, ma,
m,
an,,
an, ra, van

,.
415
agin or gin
.,
111.
112.
113.
The Formative alif .. The Suffixes fam (pam and

,,
,.
..
..417 ..417
.
warn), gun, charta

t
.
418
a-a, sa, san, iw$h das, dl$, vand

..
..
.
419
114.
The Suffix urn The Termination
..
..
420
1$%
..
..
..420
CHAPTER
Sec. 115
.
XII.
Verbal Nouns and Nouns and Adjectives derived from ..421 .. .. .. Verbs
.
3 ,
116.
Compound
Substantive
425
PART
CHAPTER
Sec 117.
118.
119.
II.
XIII.
SYNTAX.
On
the use and omission of izafat

of
433
The Cases
Number
of
Nouns Nouns. Nouns

.
445 464
of Multitude
and
their
Concord
TARLE OF CONTENTS.
XI
CHAPTER
Sec. 120.
XIV.
Paqe,
..
Pronouns
..
..
..
..476
CHAPTER XV.
Sec. 121.
122.
,,
Adjectives
..
.
.
..
. .
..
.
.
..
.
..490
.
Adverbs
405
123. 124.
Conjunctions
Prepositions
..
..
..
..
..
,,
..
..497 ..502
CHAPTER
Sec. 125.
XVI.
.
Use
of the
Tenses
Aorist
505
CHAPTER
Sec. 126.
XVII.
.
Subjunctive
Mood
538
CHAPTER
Sec. 127.
XVITT.
COMPOUND AND COMPOUNDED SENTENCES.

128.
,,
Conditional Co-ordinate, and Optative Clauses. Conditional Clauses (continued)

.
545 552
129.
130.
Concessional Clauses
556
558
Relative Clauses
131.
}J
Predicative (subordinate) Clauses
..
..
,.
562 570
132.
Subordinate Clauses (continued). Local and Modal) Clauses

Subordinate Clauses (continued). Causal) Clauses
. .
Adverbial
. .
.
(Temporal,
.
.
,,
133.
Adverbial (Final and

.
573
134.
Co-ordinate Clauses
576
CHAPTER XTX.
Sec. 135.
Concord of Subject and Verb

Errors in Concord, etc.
585
591 600
130.
, .
(continued)
.
.
..
. .
..591
.
137.
Concord of Adjectives, and Pronoun with Noun Government of Verbs, Prepositions, and Errors
600
CHAPTER XX.
Sec. 138.
Order of Words and Phrases
604
CHAPTER XXI.
Sec. 139. 140.
Apposition
literation
614
Repetition of
Words and Phrases

.
Jingling Sounds
. .
Al.
622
Xii
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
Sec. 141. 142.
143.
XXIT.
Page
.
.
.
Notes on Rhetoric and Composition
629
144.
Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, Further Observation on Style Examples of Errors in Rhetoric
.
etc.
.
644 652
659
APPENDICES,
Appendix A. Appendix B.
Arabic Grammar (with detailed (Continuation of Sec. 125)

.
list
of contents)
. .
675
899
INDEX
..
..
..
..
..
..909
Higher Persian Grammar.
PART
ORTHOGRAPHY
1.
(
I.
t>
fl*
AND ORTHOEPY
(
*dji
The Alphabet.
-*j^
).
The Arabs and other Muslims write from right to left, and their printed books and manuscripts begin at what Europeans would call the end of the book. Their writing may be regarded as a species of shorthand,
(a)
the short vowels being omitted. In printing, each lei er is not kept separate as in the
Roman
character;
there are no capital letters, no stops, and no paragraphs; in short, not one of the devices valuable alike to the printers and readers of Europe; from
cover to cover their books appear to contain but one long unbroken sentence, and many of the words are jumbled together, or, at the end of a line, written
one on the top of the other* In some carefully written MSS. a line in coloured inkôn the top of a word indicates a proper name or the commencement of a new paragraph, but even this aid is rarely given.
,
Of existing alphabets, the Arabic ranks next in importance to the Latin alphabet. It has supplanted the Greek alphabet in Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Thrace, and has supplanted the Latin alphabet in North Africa.
Western Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Tartary 1 Turkey and of all the alphabets employed in India, it is the best known. 44 That the local alphabet of Mecca should have exterminated ail other
It is the sole alphabet of Arabia,
;
Semitic scripts, and have established

is
illustration more striking than any other that can and Asia, be adduced, of the power of religious influences in effecting a wide and rapid
an
diffusion of alphabets.
<l
no more than eighty years (632 712) for the Arab conquerors a dominion wider in extent than the widest empire of Rome, and to found
It took
******
Mecca from the Indus to the Tagus."
it is said,
*
itself
as the dominant alphabet of Africa
to extend the alphabet of
The Arabic and English Alphabets can, same primitive Phoenician source.
1
be traced back to the
" The Alphabet," by Isaac Taylor.
THE ALPHABET.
The Arabs
in the
originally used the Syrian alphabet, in
which the characters are

of
this
same order
as
in
the Hebrew.
Remains
former
order
are
still
preserved in the numerical value
of the letters, which in their
numerical order are arranged in a series of meaningless words that serve as a memoria technica and correspond with the order of the Hebrew or Phoenician
alphabet.
1
The Arabic alphabet consists of twenty-eight letters, all consonants. The arrangement of the Arabic alphabet is morphological,* i.e. letters of similar
form are brought into juxtaposition
aid to
for the sake of
comparison and as an
adapted
the Arabic
memory. With the Qur*an, the Persians

ill-suited to their
adopted
and
alphabet, though
or Farsi letters
p,
ch,
requirements, adding to it the four 'Ajami ^J* g. The Persian alphabet therefore and jh
all
consists of thirty- two letters,
Persian 6 and eight 6 are peculiar to Arabic
consonants; four of these letters are pure while the remaining twenty are
,
400. So far as their alphabets extend, i.e. up to From Or, morphl ** form " and " logia." Other methods of arrangement are (1) the Chronological, in which the letters are added according to the date of their adoption; {2} the Ideological, in which the characters are classed according to the meaning
1
names (from Gr. 'idea "idea" 4- loqia\\ as in the arrangement of tho hieroglyphic signs by Egyptologists (3) the Phonological, the scientific arrangement of which the Deva-nagari is the most perfect example in this, the letters are arranged according
of their
;
to the organs of speech by which they are articulated, viz. gutturals, palatals, etc., ** each division being also scientifically arranged. Vide ** The Alphabet by Isaac Taylor.
2
For an account
Taylor.
The Alphabet by Isaac Ancient Persian Scripts, vide At the time of the Arab conquest the Persians uned tho Pahlavi character.
of the
'
9'
* Also In MSS. and in books lithographed in the East, the diacritical printed !> bar that distinguishes g from Jc is generally omitted. This puzzles a beginner. It will be noticed that the body of these four letters is identical with that of Arabic
letters,
and that the only
distinction
is
"
by tho
ant*
diacritical
marks.
They
letters
6
are adaptations of
peculiarly Persian sounds as
new
Persians do not always regard the letters but occasionally represent them by the Arabic
^*
" is they resemble; thu* ^**f "horse frequently written v** !. The four letters purely Persian are enumerated in tho school rhyme:
9
^- ^j
->
J^ w
^j wy ,^
.
f&
I
These eight letters are enumerated in a school rhyme:
The Urdu or Hindustani alphabet contains three more letters to correspond with three sounds, found in words of Hindi or Sanskrit origin; it thus consists of thirty-five
letters.
THE ALPHABET.
3
letters
common
to
both
languages.
The
form of many of these
varies
somewhat according
to their position in a group of letters.
In addition to the Alphabet, there are three vowel signs, which, if written, are placed directly above or below the consonants to which they
which they follow in enunciation in writing, but are sometimes inserted in

belong,
i.e.
in practice they are
omitted
books
printed
specially for
beginners.
There are also certain orthographical signs, a knowledge

necessary.
of
which
is
The following table should be studied, in conjunction with the remarks that follow and elucidate it. The greater number of the letters are by
Persians 2 pronounced as in English:
signs, as
Qur'ans are printed or lithographed with all the vowel-points and orthographical it is considered a sin by Muslims to mispronounce a syllable of the sacred text. if not of the editions printed or lithographed in India this, mo^t, all, Notwithstanding
1
have. numerous orthographical errors. Inserting the vowels and signs adds considerably to the cost of production. The State edition of a Qur'an printed and published in Turkey, and said to be letter perfect, is sold in Baghdad at the rate of thirty rupees,
2 a copy a similar edition, but printed in the Roman character, would probably be sold for five Blullings. The Arabic character, beautiful to look at, is an enemy to printing and an enemy to the diffusion of knowledge.
i.e.
:
The written character of a language is merely a collection of conventional signs, a mere mechanical device used to give it expression. The Arabs have already changed
their alphabet once.
Many Muslims object

sider mutdharrak.
2
to printed or lithographed Qur'ans,
which they do not con-
The Persian Shrahs however do not seem

10.
to share this objection,
Vide
(k)
page
THB ALPHABET.
OS
'
1
09
I
S
C3s
o-
rS
g o a
,
3 bO
d d .S
Q*
8 v o a o a QQ o
<M
eo
(j;
4q
'I
4 -'VI
2 M <
V^
1o>
0}
-oaid
jo
tn
JU
g i
1
8
8.
ar.
!-
THE ALPHABET.
1
s
.3
I
"
*
'S.
Z
P a
.a .g
'3)
"
I I M
.3
.3
.g
.g
A
CO
OO
S
4?
4
.*
r
_D-
\\ H.
^3
*2
%
-5
tf
-if
s
It*
1
ft
P
4
3i!2
"*
Nl
S
e
I|IS
N3
W-
J=
*-
10
co
00
^3
-^
<J
THE ALPHABET.
I
CO
*l ii S
.-S
PH
-<
s
03
eg
ter
^^5^
fl
'a
^
F3
U
W
d m
r-l
1 o
Tr
oo
&0 ^H
.S
i
^j
10
i!^
"^
g
vvi
'
o^J
J3
'-2
...
THE ALPHABET.
<D
00
ii! U
s
sc
13
I 2
^
cp
j-i
1
"bO
^ a
c8
.,
|| a s
a 2 | S
T3
_g
g>
o -^ CD
j
CO
_|
<D
JM CD
'-3
a
'S>
a 1 t
4)
'i "2
g
L<
a
r/:
5 5
S
-S
tf
SO
ans
"&&! t-^1
*T?
5^5
CD
."S
O c p o
Q>
"~*^
ie~
-i?
^ !
Hi
I
*S
c
3
<S
CD
C
Q_)
J-
^ ^
O
oL
02
.^
g r?
4.
P.
**
e 5
u o
>
.2
<y '*
-ri >^2
O
"S
r^
^
o ^
V
-
^ 5~ ^ *
** 4> K^
si
i o
1C?
P^ f^
,1
iS
18
^ o
ice
-Sig
r-^*
S rt
is
CD
sl*;
|
CD
.a
*
11
2
"I
?*^
*^J
"I
^ O
THE ALPHABET.
THE ALPHABET.
(d)
9
i
-
It will be noticed that the letters
a -
--)
j and j never
alter
their shape, and though they are joined to the letter that precedes follows (on their right), they are not joined to the letter that
them
them
hence if they occur in the middle of a word, a gap or left) formed nearly similar to the interval between two adjacent words. Inaccurate spacing is one of the difficulties in reading the cheap lithographed
(on their
;
interval
is
books of the East.
The letters ^ and though they do not change in shape, yet unite letters on both sides of them. the with
(e)
J=>
The eight letters peculiar to the Arabic are ^ ^ - (jp o* - ^ - & and <> The four letters peculiar to the Persian have been enumerated preIn the Table of Consonants these two sets are distinguished viously.
-
(/)
by the abbreviations Ar. and
Per. respectively.
Remark.
The
letter (fiction & occurs generally in Arabi<f ?
words, but
of
is
also found in
Persian words, as
' '
d(&
'"kid"; J^ "comb
bees**;
" jj^ shout

(g)
' ' ;
jj)U
rouge."
resemble each other in shape and are merely etc., are distinguished by the position or number of the dots, ^ g mutamdsil sometimes and called huruf-i mutashabih {ÛJlc huruf-i ),
Those
letters :>that
oj^
Sometimes also
3
letters that
have only an imperfect resemblance, such as

vav
1
and
<>,
are included in this term.
* whose names are palindromes && ) (and these are all formed by three consonants) are called Maktubi ( If, however, the first and third letters of the anagram differ, as in fim
(h)
Those
letters as
mlm.nun aud
qaf, etc.,
the letters are styled Malfuzl
u&j&o
).
Masruri ( <s)jf~* ) is a term applied to by two consonants only, as k etc.

() Letters distinguished ) or huruf-i mu'jama
(
letters
whose names are formed
by dots
are called
huruf-i
manqufo
" Combined, these form the Arabic wordoo?m (fj* ) sleep,** A palindrome is a word or sentence that, read either from right to left, or left to right, is exactly the same. Adam made the first palindrome when he introduced him1
self to Eve new word or

*
Madam, I'm Adam/' Letters transposed by, sentence are anagrams, thus * rat * 13 an anagram of
an anagram.
to
**
"
anyhow to make a tar and tear of

*
*
'
rate/
s
A palindrome is also called

Nuqfc Ar.
)
a dot "
* * b*
;
(*?^7
mark with
diacritical
points.
to
The term
alphabet
(for
f?^*+Jf
which
kiJt
it is
<J*>
is
also
applied
the
irrespective of the order in
arranged.
It is so called as containing dotted
letters, in contradistinction to the ancient
Arabic character called *>A*J/ tiJf , in which
there were
no
dots.
10
THE ALPHABET.
Dotted
letters are further
(
subdivided into jawqam ('<^tfy
those dotted
above, and tahtam
Û^j
(
those dotted below.

talitanl,
Dotted
letters,
whether fawqdm or
***
are further distinguished

***
by
)
aÛ* ****;* ), musannat ( *^*> ) and musallasa ( marked by one, by two, or by three dots. of transliteration in the present work is practically (j) The system the Hunterian system. Modifications are q (instead of k) for <3, and m for e> before a quiescent b or p for the final Arabic vowels, a small a, i, and u,
***
the epithets muwahhada

according as they are
written above the line, and a small

cases where s-h
t ween
for the
and
z-k are separate letters,
nun of the tanwn. In the rare a mark or comma is placed be.
them. Ex.
C5"
(
A
"
final
or
literated
self
by " and
;.
" thou "
" blossoms." " asjiald^l more or most easy ", az,har )tej\ A silent j as in <^L^ is trans) pronounced like alif is q. In the few words where j is pronounced short, as in zj&>
,
it is
transliterated u.
Cl
The ya
or the
hamza
of the
ya
of unity ". etc., or of the izafat, are
transliterated as pronounced.
Hamza
Remark
in Arabic words
is
shown by a hamza
as in fcfida.
prolongation is omitted, but expressed by fatha written perpendicularly over it: thus haza 4< this" is
I.
In some Arabic words the

}
alif of
always written \&A or at end of j and ^.
!Â
and d+**j
is
usually in Arabic eJ-*^
vidz a ^ so
In Persian, an alif that is not mamduda or 'prolonged', *' abbreviated ", by Indians incorrectly called maqsura or though this latter term is properly applicable only to a final! and & vide under letter ^.
Remark
II.
as in e>i^j^,
is
also
^^
(&)
It
will
be seen in the table that there are two letters

h, four letters
-
transliterated
by
i
^
(
and
and &
ail
by
z,
two
- J> ;
by
t9
and three
&
^*
ô ) by
s.
In Arabic
these represent different
sounds, but the modern Persians
make no
tion of the various letters in each group.
distinction between the pronunciaA few pedants and poets affect
the Arabic pronunciation, generally that of Baghdad. (I) Certain letters, especially at the beginning of words, are frequently placed, not alongside each other, but above one another this is the case
:
in combinations with
it
2 (m) In the case of a change in letters' as fil J* Ar., from ptl JAJ, P., will be found that a labial is changed into another labial, a dental into a
dental, etc., etc.
There are
five labials^
'
o y and
-
*->
J^'
tabaddul-i-huruf.
THE ALPHABET.
11
Something similar occurs in the permutations of weak consonants, a vowel (English) being usually changed into a vowel. Sometimes, however, a palatal becomes a lingual, as in (#*- and
' '
^^
China "; Jtf and
(m.c.)
"squint-eyed."
2.
Pronunciation
(talaffuz
i!3)
of Consonants.
-4K/.
(a)
letter
and not as born from
The Persians, unlike the Arabs, look on alif as an original ^ or> If it commences a word, it is to be reitself
;
garded as having no sound of
it
is
is a prolongation of the short vowel fatha and is transliterated by a, irrespective of its modern pronunciation. In this position most Arabs, Indians, and Afghans pronounce it like a in father Ex. V UT Utah " a book " some Persians and some Afghans would pronounce this more broadly, like a in "ball." This broad pro' '
(written or understood) that accompanies it: If it occurs in the middle of a word, it
merely a prop for the vowel 4 (6). 1 vide under
nunciation
in Persia.
is
characteristic
of
the
tent-people
and
of
certain dialects
In the Ears dialect, a before n or m is nearly always pronounced like u ; 99 Ex. e>&> " a shop " is duJcun <%*, and bam lC roof " is bum &. This incorrect pronunciation of
Is
in certain
common
words, the colloquial pronunciation

u>f
many
its
parts
of
Persia; for
example Jb "bread** and
"that"
and
compounds are generally pronounced as though spelt nun e^ 5 etc. " is In many cases the aUf is pronounced broad thus bad lt wind pro;
&
nounced nearly like bawd, the alif being given the sound of a in the English word jail. 8oine Afghans too have this broad pronunciation, but the Indians
In Persia, always pronounce the aUf like a in the English word father. if this last however, pronunciation be used, the word will be taken to mean **} ba*d ** after *, and even an educated Persian will be puzzled by it,
In Khimlsan, on the other hand, the j is turned into alif; Ex. andaran " " " blood/' e?jM for C>M the women's apartments ; and khan e>^ for &}** For the pronunciation of alif with a hamza (I) in the middle of a word,
vide under a in this section.
Remark
I.
Alif in arithmetic represents the
number one ; and

It also signifies
in astronomical tables
and almanacs,* Taurus and Sunday.
an unmarried man.
In this case
it
is
usually called hamza, to distinguish
it
from
alif as
a letter
of prolongation.
*
are written in
There are two kinds of almanacs, taqvlm-i Farsl t$**r 5 *> which the days, etc.* fdj^* and in full, taqvim-i- ruqiiml (H^ which signs and the letters of the
&*&
Abfad
<**u* are
used to represent the days of the week.
etc.. etc.
12
THE ALPHABET.
" In Arabic it is a particle of interrogation; Ex. A-lastu bi-rabbi-kum, Am " I not Your Lord ? Quran VII. 168, whence the Persian vs*J( or
<j
Q
'
vs*~Jf
jj;
the
day
of
the original covenant between
God and Man
at
the creation.'
Poets frequently compare an erect stature, 1 or the straight nose of a c j ^ = " from the creation of Also jf beauty, or sighs, to alif. jof ^*~ f* Adam to the birth of the Messiah"; t>j*>\ cM "the equinoctial line":
'
alif 9
ba
(e
the alphabet/' etc., etc.

II.
Alif
is
also
a sign of the Unity of God.

alif
Remark
Indian Grammarians assign various names to the letter

:
according to its use
Kinds of
(1)
alif.
Alif-i rabita
*tyj
<-&i )
words that are identical;
as,
%ao &*>
alif
is
"binding or copulative alif" joins two <4 from hand to hand; (a dast-a dast
also
{
ready-money bargain)."
" the
alif of
This
called
<-ft)t
alif-i
.
ittisal
JUri! u&f
junction ", or
(
alif-i inhisar
)
)U**uf
c
Some Grammarians
**
)
style this alif-i vast
JLaj <Jty
is
but vide
the
(10).
Similar to the above

alif,"
alif-i
atf
<-*ke
<-ftJf
the conjunctive
which conjoins two dissimilar words;

(or
as, skab-a-ruz (3jy
and day; always": tak-a-pu (jj&)

bustling."
(2)
takapuy
^j$&)
' '
night search diligent

)
;
M^ "
Alif-i fd'iliyyat
(
oaLU
i_&f )
the adj. bina

participle.
(3) Alif-i
U*>
^seeing",
the alif of agency as the alif in ; which word has the force of a present
ts
"
participle; as, zlba

(4)
tives; as,
v^J, ) that gives the force of the past ( oÂfic " = âdorned ( ( U?j ) 8^*^ ). which forms abstract nouns from adjecAlif-i masdar ( JXA* J$ " breadth", from (m.c.) ârmand pahn UjS (m.c.) ^warmth",
mafuliyyat
^
)
adjectives.
(5)
AKf-i
#
tanwm
^y3
n
^
w^
the alif of the Arabic accusative case
as,
in the adverb U5f^ da*im

(6) Alif-i-
"
continually, for ever."

(
qasamiyya
as,
&&~$
^\
^g
)
**
the
alif
of the Persian
!
vocative
when expressing an oath;
Haqqa
;
IA^
" O, or by, God

'
!
When
it
is
this vocative alif is

(
called Alif-i nida*
*'*>
not used in an oath, but as a simple vocative, ' " heart bulbula Ûl " oh uty ) as, lf> dila
grief, etc., as in
If
however
it is
!
" oh
alif of
used in words expressing
help
or oh distress
alif-i
"
Uâ
"
alas,"
)
it is
(
called Alif-i
v^Jf ).
nudba
****
%^f
" the
"
plaint
or
madd-i sawt
o^ A*
An
erect stature is also
compared to a cypress tree.
THE ALPHABET.
13
verbs
"
(7)
;
Alif-i
as,
du'autamannq ( ^*3 ^ U^ <Jd\ ) "the precative alif in " " mabada ^ta "may it not be " kunad may he do.
f
(8)
Alif-i
ment "
as, in
#7&/-t zoft'^
(9)
or
<c
"the alif fHf ^-WJ &? " he said." This is also, and more properly, " vide alif
tahsm-i kcdam
(
CAÎ
of embellishcalled xfy
<-&(
superfluous
c c
(12).
Alif-i mubalaglia
efl)l )
*xJU<
uftJ,
" the
is
kasrat
ci^Sf
the
alif
!
of excess
' '
tives; as, in
UjA
" Blessed
How
*Jti
happy
(
"
!
afe'/ of exaggeration" or alif-i found at the end of some adjec-
This
is
also called the alif-i

(
firawam
)
;
^\^
*M
(10) Alif-i wasll
JL*>)
beginning of certain Persian
words
said to be the superfluous alif at the " camel " as, in ushtar j^f (or shutur)
is
(
and also the alif

This
is
in Arabic
marked with a wasl cUj ;

alif-i nida*,
~
}
9
but vide
(1).
really alif-i zafid.
(11)
In certain cases the

(
vide
(6),
is
also called alif-i

+jZx** ii^^
mutakallim
" oh my respected kind

(12) Alif-i zafid
(
j*li*
4-afj
};
as,
Dust-a muhtaram mihrbana t>^<l
friend."
*$\\
^
:
superfluous alif"
A>
is sometimes,
in poetry,
added for the sake

cu*st
of
metre
^^^^
tk,-.^,
*
U'i^ l^S
<>juiiU<Jj
î*Af
Saîb.
AaxiiP
Verses written on the
tomb
of
Mirza
'
In m^fa
Vide also
chapa La., ,5a62;a ran^/, î; Df-, the a??/ is Derivation of Words for Formative Alif.'
'
(13) Alif-i liyaqat
^^
tJtii
expresses fitness or capability;

*
as,
khwana
U^
in
legible.
;
C^ B
Persian words is sometimes interchangeable with / as, zafan ^3 l " with " ; tongue m; as, ghuzhm ftp [for ghuzhb (for P, za6a ej^J) " with j v; as, vas <j*^ v^c (old)] f< a single grape (for bas ^ô) " ** " <( } khwav and with tcor t?; âw? (for fchivab) sleep enough
; ;
as,
*'
aw
f<
(for a6)
55 a
water
"
nahw
(for
the Persian nahlb
fear.
Pronounced as in English.
(
Ba-yi za*id ^fj Verb Transitive and Intransitive

This letter
is
Remark.
^
5
**
superfluous
(
w as m
'
(*J-H-
^^
under
and
Prepositions.'
often called ba-yi muivahhada

*->.
the single-dotted b
'
to
distinguish
it
is
from
i^ P
called &a-/^ farsl
^^
^5^, or 6a-/i 'ajami

it is
u*^
c5^
There
being no p in the Arabic alphabet,
frequently interchangeable
1 Still
used in speaking by Zardushtis.

letter that
The
has been changed,
i.e.
substituted,
is
is
called
mubdal
(
J ***, and
4
the
'<*
original letter
from which the change was made
called
mubdal minh*
***>
(J*** )
14 with
*>ou*
)
THE ALPHABET.
/
J, as
fll
" white "
JA* (for pil JAJ

;
"
)
elephant
"
;
safld **&*
(for
sapid
jlruzl ^)jjt> (for plruzl <s)jj%)
"
victory."
d>
T\ the Arabic * is generally written in Persian o and so pronounced vide under *. <-j 8 by the Arabs is pronounced like th in Cuthbert, and sometimes
:
as s; in
Egypt
it is
pronounced &.
it is
Among
the Persians and Indians,
an English
give
it
s.
Some Afghans and some educated Indians
the sound of
th.
~ J
called jlm-i
it
faw ^j^
It
is
^,
or jlm-i 'arabl
^j*
*&>, to distinguish
from
the contraction for the two Muslim months
Jamadq'l-Ulq a,ndJumadq'l'Akhir. It is sometimes interchangeable " crooked " withc/& - and z\\ with zhj as, kazh (old) (for kaj /) ;
;
as, chuza *}>> (old) for

of
juja
9
**-+** (m.c.)
"a
chicken, and the
young
a bird"; with g; a,a Jilan for Gllan a province S.W. of the " would that." Caspian with sh o2; as, kaj (old) for kash <J&
;
^ Oh
called jim-i jar si
^^- ^^,
&^sJ
(old)
it
or jlm-i âjami ^5*^^

It is
+^.
It
is
some-
times confounded with -J

sh ^4; as, lakhclia
(for
(for
lakhsha
sometimes interchangeable with "flame"; with z } as, )
*J
)
puchushk
<c
-^^
;
pizishk
(je>;
Â-V)
**
k<
a physician,"
(for
In
Arabicized words
changes to
as,
Sin ^>/o Ar.
Chm
&**)
China"
^^ sanj,
c^^
Ar
(for
chang
Jj^
Called 1m yi huttl
A!*.^*
C5^> ha-yi halqi
^^
cymbals," ^*> and ha-yi muhmala

9
Û.
this
The Arabs, some educated Indians, and some Afghans,

a strong aspirate, something
in
like the
make
this
h in
"haul"
if
catch this sound, the beginner should copy an Arab or an Afghan many times when 5 Sahib: he says the word (he should also note the sound of
the throat.
word be pronounced
To
v^^
in this word).
By
the Persians this letter
is
pronounced
like *, q.v.
Remark.
Children in Indian schools are taught to

*,
make a
(jo
distinction in
<_r,
pronunciation when reading between ^ and

practice, in speaking, 110 such distinction
is
and between
and
but in
made,
Kh
called kha-yi sakhiz **
Û,
kha-yi
mcmquta *k>*A> ^l^, and
kha~yi mu'jama A*?UUO ^lk. Great care must be taken to make this a guttural and not a k. (There is a story of a doctor who seriously alarmed a patient by mispronouncing the word e^ khun (i
blood.")
sometimes interchangeable with <3; as,cAaMmaM ÛM. (for " flint or cock of a gun and with h as, ctiaqmaq jU^ ) (old) <c earth." (for khak <J()
It is
' '
;
;
uU
In Abjad,
it
has the same value as
viz. 3.
THE ALPHABET.
4>
15
D called dal- iabjad*^

muhmala aU^
o^
J|^.
Jta
dal-i gjiayr
manquta &j&scj*fi
' '
J(a, O r dal-i
sometimes interchangeable with t ci; as, " black with si; as, wsJaz partridge turraj ^[y (for durraj <j& ) " master " ill*! (for wsJad alM ) a kind saza? Ar. form of sada *&
It is
' '
of
plant"
with z):
as,
dizarj^
(for
oWary*^).
mu'jama *+****> Ji. It is sometimes interchanged with d j>; as, tXxi? for >.i?. By the Arabs it " is sounded like the th in though," if, when pronouncing it, the tip of the tongue be thrust well forward between the front teeth of
t
called zal-i
manquta
*k?$x*> Jii, or
za^"
both jaws and slightly compressed: compare with & and u^-
By
month
\
c< zeal." It is a contraction for the the Persians like ), or as z in is while f5 the contraction for Zu* l-qa' Zul-liijjah A^3*J< ji,
is
" are." always rolled and never as r in
Called ra-yi
imtnquta &L^^ j>& ^ci^ or ta-yi muhmala ^tU^c ^^. It is a contraction for either of the months Rnbi'. It is sometimes interchanged
with
<s
as mlufal c-UÛS
' *
;
(for
nilufar
^->V) '"a convolvulus;

chanar
;
afc'O
a waterlily
â-yi
chanal
\$&
J^
^>Cs
(iruc.) (for
JU
^
)
plane-tree/*
sa-î
called
hnvwiz
2a-?/i
manquta AJJ^VO îj^ and

;
s mu'jama *^*-o ^cfj. It sometimes is interchangeable with as, #&;" T > (for suz 3r*) with^; as, gurljA &/ (for gunzjtjS } with 5; as, with - q.v. Zi j ) is a poetical contraction of i?/a$ (for ^?/a^)
;
;
(
the preposition
J*
j ZA
called â-?//
/am
u*;!*
^(3,
or 20-^1
a;ant
4^+^ ^3-
It inter-
changes with
Si
q.v.
It is
pronounced as j in French jour or as s in
measure."
called sin-i ghayr-i
f<
^ $
&l*y* ^xvo.
It interchanges
manqula *kj&* j** ^*, and sin-i muhmala sometimes with J^ as, kustl ^L3 (for
;
kushfi ,^+f)
4 wrestling"; also the Zardushti belt worn under the " f or jJ^< *musk/ Also sometimes with ê; as, clothing, and
J^
j
*,
*""'
for
AS'A
called $Mn-i
is
It
manquia A^s** <^^, and sliin-i mu'jama -. an abbreviation for Shamal JU^ "the North."
<c
It
inter;
changes with -; as, pachan e.^b (tor pashan eA^) scattering" " also with " a with ; as, kaj J (for kash sjk^ ) pine u* Q*v.
*,
^Sf
called sadri
UD.
<thayr-i
manquta
*j?âix
^x^ ^l*, and
,sad-^"
It is the abbreviation for the
month
of Safar
muhmala yU and
Pathans say usiaz
in Pushtoo.
*^ and J are sometimes interchangeable. 3 Still used in speaking by Zardushtis.

4
Ex.^HJ** or
The Bombay Parsees
call this belt kustl,
but the Persian Zardushtis
call it kushti.
16
also for
THE ALPHABET.
the
word
lt
sadiq <j*l*
;
genuine" which shows that an

(old)
account has been audited
hence sad kardan ^jj? oU>

the Persians
it is
to so
mark an account,
etc.
By
pronounced
like <j.
In Arabic a stronger and harder sibilant than in English. Educated Indians and Afghans affect the Arab pronunciation vide remark
:
to
A
h.
Z,
zad-i
manquta, or zad-i mu'jama.
Pronounced by the Persians
like 3, i.e. like z in zeal.
In Baghdad like the thin though if pronounced
the tongue behind the root of the front teeth with the tip of the upper jaws. (In Egypt a hard palatal d).
of
Jb
T called
td-yl hutti
^k*> ^Lt,
ta-yi ghayr-i
manqutn, and
ta-yi
muhmala.
By the Persians pronounced like o. By the Arabs a hard palatal t. Educated Indians and Afghans imitate the Arab pronunciation. It
interchanges with a
fe
;
as,
&*^
for *&fa=L
9
called za-yi
manqufa
3.
^lâix
^&
or za-yi mushala &JI&* <^$&*

tl\
By
the
Persians, like
*
In Baghdad like the
in
though
or
pronounced
naturally* called 'aynri g&ayr-i manquta &Jsy*i* j*c

*^*t*
crf^*
^,
'ayn-i
muhmala
It is often in Persian not distinguishable as a separ-
ate letter (as prosody proves).
In some words
it is
interchangeable
with
* h.
It
is
transliterated
by an inverted comma.
is a strong guttural In Arabic the Few Persians can imitate ^ the Arab pronunciation. At the beginning of a word, it is by the Persians treated as though it
were the prop for a vowel.

oaty).*
Ex. eoU* ibadat "adoration "

f
(as
though spelt
At the end
as in tarna'
of
a word
it is,
in Persian, either quite silent as

like
*A.
jam'* or
e
eke more properly there
*k
slight vowel sound The Persians never say jama*

is
a half a or half
like the Indians. 8
Many
words like +^ jam' and (** man' are often pronounced with a drawl, and a peculiar intonation that sounds affected to English ears; such words are not
pronounced in the least
like
^ jam ^ man
or
If so
pronounced they 'will
often be unintelligible. In the middle of a
word
this letter has
a half-bleating sound like
f
i
By
the Persians
Oj*
is
pronounced as though spelt Oj t, but the Arabs would
before pronouncing its vowel u J[ give a distinct and peculiar sound to the consonant * This at least is the case in Southern Persia with some words of three letters end-
ing in
In the more accurate pronunciation of the better classes in Tehran the final
slightly.
,
is
perhaps always pronounced though

8
The Arabs
fully enunciate this final 9
though not quite
like
the Indians.
THE ALPHABET.
a double a; Ex. **~ sa d
(
17
;U*t are Arabic word pronounced i-i-tibar and transliterated, of course, i'tibar. [An with a mute hamza in the middle, has, in Arabic, and should have in
is
pronounced
sa-ad. 1
Words
like
Ex. j^^> ma*mur correctly-spoken Persian, this same half-bleating sound; " ordered a commissary *' (pronounced ma'amur)].
;
a middle salable of a word, there is a very perceptible ^ begins ^ must be taken to pause in the enunciation; Ex. *M qal-'a "a fort": care make this pause in the correct place, as the pronunciation ga-l'a or qal'a is
When
generally unintelligible.
c.
The Arabs do not make

manquta,
Gh
called ghayn-i
**&>
this pause.
or ghayn-i
hard guttural something between gh and r, much like the r in Parisienne, by a " Parisienne."
mu'jama *+^** &** the r being sounded

It represents
ItOO in arithmetic and hence is with Persian poets a symbol for the bulbul-i hazdr dastan e^'j> ;t>* cUl\ It interchanges with (3
as ayngJi
ty
(old for
{
ayaq JM)
" a cup."
interchanges with
V^.3 -^ called /a-y*
sa fas o&ft*-*
^^: sometimes
<
l- v
'-
Sometimes interchanges with q.v. hard a In Baghdad and by Persian Turks of ten pronounced like English g. A guttural like q pronounced from the depth of the throat as if undergoing suffocation, or like ck in stuck when pronounced at the back of the throat.
called qaf-i qarshat
c^^y J'^
It
must not be pronounced
like k,
By
it this
the uneducated
it is
a common English mistake, confused with c, and even educated Turks give
Ex. j>* ghadr instead of two letters seem interchangethe In Turkish words u>ed in Persian, qadr able: a Turk of Persia will often spell the same word with either letter
pronunciation in certain
common words
^.
indifferently.
The
and
tf|
distinction in spelling
is
generally observed between
" Uf " a eunuch

It
is
"
master
"
,
but both are colloquially ag&d.
K called kaj-i tdzl

called kaf-i farsi
ô
^;l*
<,
or kaf-i 'arabi <jj* o!
in Persian
frequently confounded with gaf.

<J^, or kaf-i 'ajami
i
^^^
<Jf^.
It
is
somebridle;
times interchangeable with ^, as lijam halter" (Persia).

<J
^M for lagdm f&

J^^
"
L is
an abbreviation
of the
month
shavvdl
Poets compare
it
to a ringlet.
is
an abbreviation
for the
c^;
month Muharram
ban
interchanges with
as,
3 f^ ^*.
It
sometimes
(in.c.) (for
bam, fb*
In ba'd
(m.c.).
Vide Haggard and Le Strangea' Vazir-i Lankuran.

is leas perceptible.
*xJ, the
doable
sound
&
Pronounced bun and bum.
18
THE ALPHABET.
N.
There
is
y)
no nasal n l in Persia.
In India, however, n
is
in
some
is imperfectly pronounced, as in chunan, then called nun-l g&hunna^ but before a vowel (and jatian; before an It has izdfat) the nasal sound disappears. consequently
words almost nasal or

it is
usually
p^>).
this
is
the sound of
when
it
immediately precedes b
(or
Ex. JAO
(tanbal)
transliterated m.
"lazy" is pronounced tambal: note that Nasal n always follows a long vowel.
W or
F.
At the beginning
1
"an answer ", v "a good work,"
of a word, or in such words as U(9 ^ javdb savab "rectitude", ^ty savab " a reward" or
it is
amongst Persians a consonant
like v;
but
amongst Arabs, Afghans and Indians it is a w, like the w in we or it is pronounced like a v, or between a v and In ^.^ and went.
p*jj*
is
a w.
Before an
The
alif
v sound
common
,
in Isfahan
and Kirmau.
j has, in pure Persian words, no sound ; Ex. are pronounced jchdhar, khdhish, etc. ; there is, therefore, 4^-*^, etc., j*\j=*> in no difference pronunciation between Â**^ Ichwastan "to wish" and
and after
^.ju.lk
khdstan
"to
rise
up
"
:
this silent j is transliterated w.
Khwish <^y*
and
its
compounds
j
are pronounced khlsh (transl. khwish).

alif
is
however,
before
pronounced
Ex.
u*>*>
In Arabic words, In of u*^. pi-
&yjs* "to eat" and its derivatives, the j is pronounced like pish L and khud < self", is transliterated u\ also 3* du, "two", y tu <c thou" 4< the sun", î-;^ khursand c4r^ fckush "pleasant", <vj^ khurshld
?
c<
happy ". j*- and >-+* are often pronounced chi and hamchi. A few Arabic words like ****. hayat ^life", x^ salat "prayer", are generally in Persian phonetically written oU^ and o&.
^
is
sometimes interchangeable with J, as ydfa b'b (old) [for ydva\^ <c vain, foolish ". The vdv that occurs before an alif and is (m.c.)]
not pronounced, as
" distorted aÂ*^ y^
in
khwdslan cA-'A>
*s
called vdv-i ma'dula
mv,
or vav-t iskmdniri
zamma
&+>*
this is maktub-i ghayr-i tnalfuz that gives a smell of 9 *' written but not pronounced." A vdv-i malfu$-i ( &f&c j*& v y&* ) gayr-i-maktub ( VJJ*Â* ÂJUy^ sometimes occurs as in ^Ûb
vat?
: )
" the
"
Û^f
j|j
id'us
a peacock," but the more correct form (j*?^^* is also found. In Ar. both the lodws have the sound of w in this word.
**
Remark.
harf~i
A letter that
(
is
<c
masruq
($)j~*
u^
and
a stolen letter."
written, but not pronounced, is also called For further remarks on j, vide
cinder vowels
(b)
(d).
In Arabic the nasal nun occurs before the
letters
et,d>,,^,i,J, crU*f (J*>

**
>, Jo,
J,
o,
(3, <), as in
the words
^&c " from
thee
" sif " thou

-
^wn-* ghhunna only occurs after the weak consonants <^
"
THE ALPHABET.
19
B called ha-yi havvaz ()j*> <*s\*),

ha).
(tyj** C5^) (round decided aspirate like A in hope, except when it ends a Persian word or a feminine Arabic word (which is always preceded by a fatha*). In this case it is called the "obscure," "imper-
or ha-yi
mudawwara
ceptible" or "silent
"a house",
h
is in
**tf
A", and is transliterated a; Ex. gufta "said" (Past Partciple). This

y
*il^
'
khana
obscure'
India pronounced like jaiha but in Persia it is pronounced like a short e, or 6 as Ichani or gufte. (If the silent h precedes an "I have said", there may, it is said, be a slight alif, 'as in fl
breathing sound of the h, as guftah-am, but the writer is of opinion that this sound is imaginary aud that the h generally remains silent.
In the
first
case,
i.e.
when
aspirated, the
* is
called ha-yi malfuzl

(c$
1
), fia-i
muzhar or zahir
i.e.
(^^ ^^
or Ûs), or ha-yi jail

it
(Û ^ cs^
)
"manifest,"
ha-yi
sounded; in the second case

i.e.
is
or (^fti^*> cs-U
>
" concealed ", mukhfafl or makhfl

is distinctly
^^^
mute.
The h
nih
but not too markedly sounded in

**
& nuh
bi,
"
nine",
*>
"place"
(Imper.),
*t
bih
"good"
"
(but
ba or
the preposition
"to"
or "for"),
si
&>
bahbah(m.Q.)
&*. chi
well done, excellent,"
and
in such
like words. 8
In A-
" three ",
" what? ", AT
ki the interrogative
is
"who?"
* is
and the conjunction "that", there

it is silent
pronoun no aspirate, and the final
pronounced like short t. " not In & na and A* <&& ",
&* mih according to rule; but
"
" a mist, fog", and &<Q mah moon. great ", also "a Final ? after king", j or ^5 is fully sounded ; Ex. aUkU* padishah
r
*^ guh
**
human excrement ",

" a month ",
fy
etc., etc.
,
In A
shah
"
king
"
,
**>
mah "
the
moon "
final
or
rah " a road
" where the

words
fatha stands for alif, the

O.'
h
It
is
aspirated,
O
must be
distinctly
pronounced
in
like
j^> mahr, jt* m% ^r an"
X* mt/Jir
*
and in similar words, and in the proper names ctf^ Tih-ran* and Mash- had. A final silent & will sometimes become <3 in Arabic, as ftistaq ^Jl-** Ar.
Some grammarians consider the Persian silent * to be a vowel. Except when changed into o. The * is not silent in Arabic. only be silent (in Persian) when not an original letter,
^
This final
can
Note that when

ten."
final * is
sounded,
it is transliterated
by h and not by
a.
Ex. it
dah
*
*
Three distinct syllables, not two as in India. Two syllables, not three. In 1908 Persian
newspapers changed the spelling
to
20
(for pista
(for
THE ALPHABET.
**w
P.)
" "a pista-nut

suddenly."
also
as nakdj
jJffi
(said to
be Arabic)
nagdh
itfb P.)
In Arabic, final * is in certain cases written i and Arabs id marbuta and by some Indians hd-td, and
l
is
is
then called by the in classical Arabic
except in pause or before a vowel. In Persian this is often pronounced and written o; Ex. oJl*w instead of &U.. In English dictionaries this is generally treated as the fourth letter of the alphabet, i.e.
pronounced
like
as o.
Sometimes the same word

significations.
is
written both with
and o, but with

it
different
Ex.
dla
is
generally so written
when
has the signification
paper signed This distinction is, however, seldom observed and is considered pedantic, " and " thus jihat " cause qimat price*' may be written both *a^ or <^
2 of an instrument or apparatus,' but oJf dial (pi. ojjf ) when it signifies " " is this paper correct ? ", but Ojf> A*^*<juLy penis." ay a d*=^ *iy " " is this ?
and
o~fr*j
or A**?.
Vide also remarks on oU=>- and
oÛ at
the end of j.
At the beginning of a word is the yd-i tahtdmijya JuSUao Îj. in also consonant the middle of a word after an initial long y\ English vowel; Ex. iff dyd "whether." When, for the sake of euphony, the
(^ 7,
initial alif of
a verb
is
retains its original short
mayd
fall,
" don't come "
changed into ^, $his letter is pronounced y as it <s to come", t* vowel; Ex. from i*>^T dmadan
((
e^s&r uftddan
to
fall
"
,
nay uftad ^&i>
(t
he did not
etc."
also represents the long vowel I (pronounced 3 (d). a ai: vide in pique) or diphthong At the end of a word it is a long *, but at the end of the words ^t* and
it is
In the middle of words,
as
UJU.L
sometimes shortened
thus bale or ball and khayle
(for khayli
is
or
khaiti).
It is long in the verbal prefix
^,
thmmi-guft: but
sometimes
in careless talking
this prefix me).
pronounced short.
(The Afghans and Indians pronounce
final
In Persia, as in India, the dots are never written under the wêre In Arabic the in some printed books, however, the dots are inserted.
:
dots should be omitted in the
alif-i maqsura.* at the end of a word, and preceded
by a
fatha, is
pronounced
like
is
oK/, and
is
transliterated a: thus
cô
(also in
India written &j**)

<-Jf
(
pronounced da'wi.
This
is
in Arabic called
alif-i
fyâ*
alif-i
maqsura
)
"the abreviatcd alif",

*
as opposed to
mamduda
aj<Ux)
^|
<the
Colloquially in Indian schools it-gird.
Abb
or
*Wb
j s>
jn
modern Persian, often incorrectly

is
spelt t^**^; it
is
pronounced
baqile.
&
In Persian this <^
often written as aUf.
THE VOWELS.
prolonged alif" [vide
vasl; thus
'
21
(d)],
^jÛJf
^^
.
and is not sounded when in contact with alif-i " the contention of the moderns" is pronounced
*
da'vq l-muta*akhkhirtn
Note that in the Persian-Arabic compound y^M or yjJj! the ^ is in reality a final letter, and the comparative suffix y can be written separately,
>
asy Jj.
Remark
(
<_
is
" In Urdu or in Indian writing ya-e ma' bust or " reversed yd written at the end of a word to show that the has a majhul
I.
sound.
In
modern Persian the
'
ordinary In the Turkish oU^x** suyursat "supplies levied in kind", the

frequently omitted, both in writing and pronunciation; to omit it in both cases this word has no singular.
:
reversed yd
'
has the same sound as the
is
it is
however better
For further remarks on
vide
4.
Remark IL Even when quoting Arabic or reading the Qur'an, the Persians do not try to give the Arabic pronunciation to all the Arabic letters.
Indians and Afghans, on the contrary, not only attempt but greatly exaggerate the Arab pronunciation of certain letters.
For the Arabic and the Persian pronunciation

form
of certain letters before the izafat, vide
'
of the alphabet
and the
Peculiarity of Arabic
In Indian dictionaries a letter preceding another is and one following another is styled **<u I* thus in the word w), the letter ra
:
Words/ termed J ^,
is
<J^5
U ma
qabl-i bd.
3.
The Short and Long and Diphthong Vowels

of words).
(in
the middle
(a)
Arabs make use
There are no regular vowels in the Arabic written language, but the ~ L 1 (c)} which they call of the three signs z. [vide table,
t(
csâaJf al-Ji-arakat
motions"), and one of these signs placed above or below a consonant determines its vowel sound. When
the movers
(lit.
<**
"
accompanied by one of these "movers", it is called ^3*^1* " muiahanik or moving." The short vowels were originally quite unrepre. As the "movers" only give the vowel sound essential to a sen ted.
is
a consonant
consonant,
it is
obvious that they cannot stand alone at the beginning of a
word: vide
{c}.
For pronunciation, vide Table. (6) The letter having kasra or

having fatha or zabar above
pish,
it,
z%r
below
(
it, is
),
called maksftr
jr-**), that
maftuh
*)&*
and that having zamma or

inflection, are called ra/,
mazmftm
fo+***
).
(c)
In Arabic, the vowels, as terminal signs of
22
!> )
THE VOWELS.
vp
or genitive (T), and nasb (*-***) or accusative (H), and the words, not the letters, so marked, are styled mar/ft*
(
or nominative jL,/ar
(j*>)
majrur
(^M),
i
and mansub
vâix>
vide
8.
Remark.
'fen* than
for
The short vowel

in
'
i is in
like
/?n.'
Also fatha
Persian oftener pronounced like e in is locally so pronounced, as kerd
(rf)
Long vowels
} and
(in
the middle of words).
Alif,
^5 are
weak or
infirm
consonants
or semi- vowels
and
correspond respectively with the "movers ", i.e. the short vowels a, u 9 i* In Arabic writing the long vowels are formed by a combination of two
?
of these affinities;
father,
(Ex,
i
t ba, j* bu
and
^
*v
61)
and pronounced
like
in
u in prude and
I.
,
in police or pique*
is
:
Remark
to the is
In C the alif
prolonged in
II.
sound
written to indicate that the fatha belonging 2 (a). vide
Remark
is
The ^ and
2, p.
of prolongation
and
tjy6&Jl t*M
(&
or
is^)
are before (vide
21) a wasla shortened in pronunciation, thus

(fil-faivr).
jjM
pronounced ft \r\awr
(e)
Diphthongs
By
middle of words). combining fatha with ^5 and with ^, the diphthongs ai or

(in the
at/,
and au
or aw, are formed, and pronounced like a* in aisle (rare in Persian) or " inclination 3 * 4 , ey in they, and on in stout ; Ex. U*^ mail* or mayl f>* saum
or
sawm
<(
fasting."
In modern Persian the a#is most often pronounced like ey in they; Ex. ^5%^ is pronounced both khaiR and kheyll (also khaile, etc., etc.) (i?iê under
letter
^); ako
The
the
aw sound,
characteristic
of
the Arabic, Afghan, or
Indian accent, tends towards the sound of o in hose.

(/)
original Persian
vowel system was that of the Sanskrit, with the
semi- vowel
ft
peculiar to the latter excluded,
" weak
the
*
letters
* '
is
real consonants.*
- * as opposed the term applied to <^ ) in the school rhyme : These are included
to
Hence
o/t'/ is
;
called u%hi-i fatâ "sister of fatha";

is
vav
is
called ukhht-i
zamma
"
sister of
8
zamma " and ya

c$*
*',
-
called
&&*-
kaara
<c
sister of
fcaro."
When
form vowels th*y are
called
^j?;'^ buruf**l-madd
" letters of
prolongation
or huruf^l ishba* a'fil/t
o^^
like
"letters of filling
up
or impregnating
with a
*
sufficiency of colour."
In modern Persian pronounced more
meyl and 0om.
HAMZA.
23
When
and
^
l
follow a consonant
unmarked by a short vowel
oif
by jazm, they were said to have an open sound called Jj^* majhul,* * mar an ant, or "unknown" (i.e. unknown to the Arab invaders) Ex. *~ slier " a lion " but when a 9 was preceded by a consonant pointed with L or a (s with ~, then the sound was called cJj^t* ma'ruf or " known"
; ;
Ex. o*r w#s& " a mouse "
*3*
" milk." shir
The majhul sounds o and e are still preserved in the Persian spoken by Afghans and Indians, but they are now unknown in Persia: in modern Persian 9 (c an ant" is called mur, and there is nothing in pronunciation to
distinguish the
word
for
"
lion
"
from shir
ll
milk."
Remark
/.
There are thus, exclusive of the majhul sounds, at least nine

a, a,
vowel sounds in Persian,
The
last takes the place of the
u and diphthongs ai, ay, and aw. *, ?, u au sound characteristic of Indians.

t
t
f
Remark II. To sum up the remarks on the weak consonants, <^ - ^ ^JU J;^ when ^ and are initial or are movable in the middle of a word,
>
they are real consonants and are pronounced with their proper vowels
when
they follow a jazm they are consonsants, as in juzv *>\ and when they follow a consonant that has neither a vowel nor a jazm they were in classical, and are in Indian Persian majhul. When the consonant preceding ^ has a pish or zamma ( ^__) the sound is u when the consonant preceding has a zlr
;
or Icasra (-7) the sound
is ?.
When j and
may
4.
^ follow
(*)
a consonant that has a zabar or fatha
they
be called diphthongs.
Hamza 3
and the short vowels at the beginning of words,
(a)
distinct
In endeavouring to pronounce a vowel without a consonant, a though slight effort is made with the muscles of the throat; this
is
jerked sound or hiatus
by the Arabs
*,
impulse ", and
is
represented by
called hamzah, which signifies "prick, the form of which has arisen from the
*?In Persia lion isj*

sher
**a&tr" and a tiger jg babr.

:
In India the
tiger is called
and the lion babar
the
word
sher is also loosely applied to the leopard,
panther, etc.
* i.e. in Persia. Dr.Rosen justly remarks in his grammar: "The Persian of Tndiamay be looked upon as a petrifieation of the old classical language. It has also preserved the " majhul" vowels e and o for I and u, and many other differences of pronunciation. The Persian-spoaking Indians, whose studies are mostly confined to the classics and
poetic exercises, have followed none of the developments of the modern language." The Persian of India, therefore, though far purer both in idiom and pronunciation than the language of Persia, sounds pedantic, and is almost unintelligible to ordinary Persians.
8
of the alphabet is
Denotes " pressure" or " puncture." Among Arab grammarians the more generally called hamzah.
first letter
24
letter
SHORT VOWBLS AND HAMZA.

In other words hamza represents the cutting stream of breath preceding or following a vowel. In Arabic, hamza is placed over or under alif, or over j and ^c, but
follow
<c
of the
word j ^.
1
off of the
so
when final is written by itself, and may marked is called )*+** mahmuz or
word having hamza
Remark.
Alif
any
of the letters.
The
letter
hatnzated", a term also applied
to a
for one of its radicals.

it is
when
merely a letter of prolongation
is
not hamza.
In most cases alif occurs as the (b) Short vowels at the beginning of words. bearer of hamza and then performs a function essentially different from that
9
in the
Remark
is
to
13
(d)
Ex.
ab,
r,
w6.
.
When an
in the
sound follows, then
the sign *
placed under the bearer

of
as
For the pronunciation

under
silent,
silent
f*
hamza
'
middle of a word, vide
letter *
2.
In the word
and, as the first letter, viz c is with ^, the two in Persian pointed , together give the half -bleat ing sound mentioned in the remarks on the letter * 2. In the word <jf~) ra'%8 "a
; r
1
and, having no vowel to mentioned in the beginning of the paragraph
ma*zun "permitted**, the hamza is give it life, it represents the jerked sound
cÛ
head
**,
"a
chief ", the
hamza
is
not silent, but is
marked with
"^
and
is
con,9
sequenfly pronounced like ^ at the beginning of a word.
In the words *?*-s!j*\
the final * has no vowel and also follows a letter without a vowel. The Arabs would pronounce the final * in these words .something like shay-a, su-a 4 umard-a, but the Persians ignore the * in such Arabic words they do how-
^j,
ever pronounce the

/
at the end of
*?,
probably to distinguish
it
from the
Persian
word^* $u
"direction, towards.'*
In the pronunciation of an Arab, the hamza is an articulation very perceptible, especially when it begins a syllable that is in the middle of a
9
word, as in c,!^
^1^ 8
which are not pronounced qur-an and jur-aL

*
Note that though the is marked with _^ the hamzaled* alif doe? not serve to thus as would be the case if hamza were abnent from the prolong the sound of the to all intents and purposes alif-harma (or hamza) anJ alii are two separate letters.
1
/
This
final * in
)
Arabic must not be confused with the Persian

'
following a silent
(or
as a sign of the genitive case. 9 ' 9

t
That th3 Persians do ignore the Arabic

v-fi-'
-;'*),
* in such
words as jtj*\ and
>l^.
(Arabic broken plurals of j*ri and
is
shown
by
%a
manner of writing thse words in a state of construction, thus: \s+*j lS*j*t r " ^?5 c^V" "the nobles of the time 8 When hamza is found at the end of syllable, it is in Urdu changed into the letter
their
**.
'
of prolongation corresponding to the short vowel that precedes ; thus^-fr*^1 and +

;*
*
failr
become
in
Urdu j*?$
and c/*y* mumin.
LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA.

(c)
26
The
latest
the alphabet, and
alif
Arabic Dictionaries treat alif-hamza as the first letter of alone as aj> or for example, if it be desired to look
s**
out the Arabic root J ~
scfal*
" he asked", the
must be looked
for at the
beginning of the alphabet; if however it be desired to look out JL> sal* "it flowed ", the alif must be treated as a ^c, and the searcher must look for a word
spelt sin, ya,
lam (instead
of
An,
alif,
lam), while for
;U
sar
<
he scaled a
wall ", he should look for sin, waw, ra. The reason is, that, in Arabic, alif is not considered an original letter, but is supposed to be the offspring of one of the
two weak consonants j or ^, and according to certain laws of euphony a weak consonant undergoes certain changes or permutations when it comes
l
together in a 'measure' or 'form' with a vowel that

it:
is
accordingly, in the last two examples, an original

alif.
or
^
"
tion been changed into an
and the
letter after
v must
jL
* ^
is
is from U^ k>, Similarly " the be treated as the first letter of alphabet."
-
"a prophet"
not analogous to has by permuta/-<" /-
The second
letter of
Jiamza, because
it is
mutaharrik or movable, while

it is
the second letter of
JU
is
called a/*/, because
letter of prolongation.
Hamza, however, may

(d)
f , be sakin, as in c*J>
Long vowels
at the beginning of words.
that
vowels are formed by a combination of is its affinity ; and the manner of writing the long vowels in the middle of words has been demonstrated in 3 (d). It follows by rule [vide short vowels at beginning of words (6)], that the long vowels at the beginning of a
^
As already stated, the long a short vowel and the weak consonant
word are introduced by a hamza , thus w>f ûb; and
^t&.
Similarly
* i
1
should â6; but to avoid this awkward form the second alif is written over ** the mark of madd or the first, thus f this alif on the top is called madda
:
* J
prolongation.
(e)
By
the same rule the "diphthongs" at the beginning of words
are written w/f aib (or ayb), and 3 (e). vide
vy
aub for
aivb); for pronunciation,
It will
be noticed that the three weak letters or semi-vowels are
oli/ f
ray and ya.
The Jiamza is a strong letter, although in certain cases it is liable to modification or consonants, change lik > any of the weak letters. \\ hile vav and ya are sometimes real the alij is not regarded as such at all ; but only as a prop for hamza, or as a letter of
f
prolongation, as in the word Jt*

*
44
An
ali/
so marked
Alif-i
is
by some Grammarians
called
aliH mamduda, as
c^T Pr.
to
come."
Qvr-an.
In Arabic the term
mamduda can only occur at the beginning of a syllable: d\j* to a final ahf followed by alif mamduda is restricted
i
hamza, as in
*UW
*U*>,
contradistinction to ali/ maqsura, as in
and
^.
26
LONG VOWELS AND HAMZA.

As
in Arabic,
I
hamza following a long a is written on the line, 1 the alif that precedes such a hamza is generally marked with a madda, but this madda ' ' '*' for fl* " he came." thus in Arabic has no effect on the
pronunciation
;
*U>,
This
is
also the case
when^
or
^ act as bearers of hamza, e.g. J5U qcfil"*?

)
Final hamza in Arabic words (as t\*k\ 8 always disappears in writing before the
is
rarely written in Persian,

of the izafat; as,
:
and
(
^
:
f^**
c5 fbt
" medical
might
26
the Military Department" were the * retained, the vide also be mistaken for the vide Remark to (g) of unity
officers of
(/) (2).
t
* over at the beginning of words is omitted, (/) In Persian the sign even in words fully pointed with the vowels, etc.; and in the dictionaries, Persian and Urdu, no distinction is made between alif and hamza; i.e. both
are at the beginning of the alphabet.
Hamza' corresponds to an English hyphen in such words as re-open,4 and is then written over a y (^) without the dots: in other words, hamza is thus written, instead of over the prop alif in those cases when (according to
Englishmen) one syllable ends in a vowel and the next begins with one; Ex. *$J fa*ida benefit " instead of or *.j>. 5
( '
s.Û
When two ^ come

first
together, it
:
is
more correct to omit the dots in the
and place the sign * over it, as &<5^ pd*idan <( to stand firm." This word may also be written c>^*^ plyidan, bat in this case the first must be
treated as a consonant
and
transliterated y.
Similarly gunjcfish
<J^?^
or
gunjayish îsof.
Strictly speaking
a hamza in Persian ought to be used whenever a
As a
rule
hamza has
in Arabic no bearer
it is final
when
it
is
movable by a fatha and

f*
follows a long vowel, or

i.e.
when
and preceded by aukun.

is 45",
In words like A^*->

the
in
words where the long vowel preceding the hamza
hamza
*
is
placed on
'
*
$ ^
**
or above the line, or is written over a

4
&
(without dots): thus *lxkS* or 4-*k&. s

.*
In Modern Persian usually pronounced qayiL In Persian, it is optional to write or omit the
final
* in such words.
In Urdu a hamza does duty for a h3phen,
e.g.
cJj*^
/5-tZA
"
may
I go T",
y*
ja-o
"go,"
be seen that the Persians and Indians have extended the use of the Arabic orthographical sign hamza.
It will
*
^(f gfov
In Persian pronounced fay ida. cow, though Indians do write
A hamza
is
not correct in such Persian words as
^j!f (g<**u).
In *^li qa'ida and such words no hamza can be written, as
is
a strong consonant
and cannot take
*.
THE LETTER *AYN.

syllable beginning with a
27
vowel
is
added to a root, thus:

is
^^
(for ^j. -<^
and
is
p*'>*>* (for
^[
*>*
),
but this rule
necessary for distinction [vide
Remark
only observed in certain cases when it For the Persian " hamza' 9 I (g)].
as a sign of the genitive case, etc., after an obscure h or after a final ^5, vide 41 (c) (d). of unity, vide 26 (/) as substitute for the
;
an Arabic word used in Persian, in and often omitted, both in pronunciation writing; as, pA* qayim for qcfim, but generally safil <-UU, rarely sayil JjU.
(g)
Hamza
in the middle or at the end of
is
Remark
The
practical uses of hamza,
and
its
:
omission in modern
;
Persian, are best illustrated *$ gadafi* " begging";
Kirman " the beggar

and
of
" beggar" by the following examples \*$ gada " a beggar"; &\* ^\< gada-yigada-i* <J* Kerman."
<
It will be noticed that the distinction
between the words for
t(
"a
:
beggar (with
*e
^
"
;
of unity)
"
begging"
lies
Main
m.c.]
4^*^*
fish
ô U
8 a fish [^ <^*k mîhi-i (class ) c< one month more yak mah-i dlgar (m.c.)
* :
in the accent only, " 4 **
<-&
:
"
yak mah% in
^^ Û
yak mahi-yi digar (m.c.) "one fish more"; also in m.c. ^^^ ^*&> mahl-yi " I show <Rgar-l and classically j&& îÛ mahi-t digar: î*> nnmayam but j**^ nuwiyim (i we show."
Remark
of
77.
Note the division
of syllables
when
occurs in the middle

$*>(/
a word: O^>A. or
<xJUx>
of^
is
jwr-at
(not ju-rat).
In the same way
Qur-an:
or
ali-*u>
mas-ala.
The
letter
the beginning of words). ^ (at

at the beginning of a
<-*i* is
In Persian (but not in Arabic) the consonant
word
*
is
pronounced
*
l
f
like the
consonant hamza, thus
pronounced
like
v^
>
and WJA* u ub
(Ar.
spelt *~*x1 , vide
20.
broken plural of *?***) defects, vices," as though In the Roman character, * is transliterated by a
line.
"
reversed
comma above
the
If***
would in modern Persian be taken to be badl-l

the hamza
is
**
a badness,** but in
t^f^
line
jttda'i
is
necessary.
it.
When a
But
this
syllable begins with a vowel, the
mark hamza
used
to
introduce
prop"; and this requires without or *), and in the case (with
initial
"a
in
the case of a
hamza being written above the is in the case of u it is y

I
>
of i it is ^s (with or without *
),
form
this last is [often] distinguished

*'
from the ordinary y by losing
only that in the its dots : e.g.
J^j** tu-al
4
3
advantage." inquired of", **$l fa-ida Palmer's Concise Eng.-Per. Diot. Note the different position of the accents in the two words.
a question," JV"^ mas-ul
'*
"
For
28
JAZM OR SUKtfN.
6.
(a)
Jazm
or Sukun.
In Arabic and Persian, the first letter of a word is always accompanied by a vowel, hence in the mouth of an Arab or Persian a word like Smith becomes Ismith (or Ismit).
1
When
a consonant in the middle or at the end of a word
is
followed
by
no vowel sound, it is said to be sdkin c/*-s i.e. " quiescent, inert, or mute," and the symbol called or &j** fj** jazm "cutting off, or amputation," " 9ukun "rest __A *_o_ ] is placed over it. In the word joj* mardum [ " " the first letter is moved'' by fatha, but the second letter (;) men," ( f ) is "quiescent, inert, mute, or silent", having the sign jazm o) over it while the third letter (.>) is 'moved' by zamma or pish; and finally the
(
;
last letter
is
"quiescent."
is
A
first
letter so
marked
called sdkin
"
"
quiescent
or
majzum]
it
has none
of the *>&>
or more quiescent letters occur together, the *z&j** " is termed only sdkin, the others being termed mawquf oy>* dependent
or
te
When two
on"
jj
supported "; thus in

arc mawquf.
cu^ dust
" friend" the ^
is
sdkin and the
and
In Persian (bub not in classical Arabic), the last letter of all words is quiescent; this being a rule, the sign jazm is omitted in the case of
final
letters.
Jazm
therefore signifies that (in the
Roman
character)
two
eonsonaats in the middle or end of a word have no vowel between them.*

(6)
In such words a? Jik
J^>
&i>
great care must be taken in Persian
to avoid even the suspicion of a vowel between the two last letters ; many Persians pronounce these words almost like tifti, naqla, nagda, and in the two last words slightly dwell on the The Arabs? and Indians pronounce fatha.
these words less affectedly; the Indians as though they were

naqed.*
tijel,
naqel,
Remark.
The presence
"*
or absence of a jazm in a
e.g.
word
of three letters,
;
sometimes completely alters the meaning,
(j*i nafs
C"'
means " passion"

*
privities of
"the penis", but ^Jb nafas means "breath"; ^y " freedom from a woman,4 " but
"a
fissure
and the
faraj
grief or sorrow,"
illiterate Indians can pronounce two consonants at tho beginning. In Hindustani a few wo ds begin with two consonants with no vowel between them. In such a\sos a jazm is not written over the first letter as theoretically a
1
Fow
quiescent/
a vowel
8
is
consonant cannot occur at he beginning of a word. It is for this reason that often inserted; thus Brahman is often pronounced Birahman.
is
Barf *'snow"
unintelligible to
in India
pronounced 6ara/;
this pronunciation renders the
word
*
many
Persians
In Arabic the privities of either sex.

farj.
Uneducated Persians pronounce both
words
TASHDID AND IDOHAM.
29
7.
Tashdld
and Idgham.
the sign (*
doubled letter in the middle of a word is written only once, but *>*& tashdid " corroboration " or "strengthening", is ), called placed above it to indicate that it should be pronounced twice.
(a)
A letter so
rated."
marked
first of
The
mushaddad ^^"strengthened ", <f corrobothe doubled letters ends one syllable, and the second
is
called
begins the following syllable. (b) In practice, the Persians strongly emphasize the letter that
is
marked
with the sign of duplication; Ex. f,^ khurram "joyful"; &J\ albatta " certainly." The Arabs however pronounce the doubled btter twice, unless
it
ends the word, when it can only be emphasized. (c) Arabic words of only two letters are rare
"**
***
consequently words
jj
like k2>
andî
omitted.
and daqj) are three lettered, even if the sign ( " For further remarks on ( * ) vide under " solar letters 10.
(shatt
,
be
word
Without the tashdid, there is nothing to show whether a " or " e{ quvvat strength." CL^ is gut food In Arabic words a euphonic tashdid occurs when the article al precedes a word beginning with a solar lettter vide 10.
Remark
I.
spelt like
Remark
II.
Tashdid
is
said not to be found over
any
of the four letters
that are purely Persian. The \vord &su bachclia is an exception ; if the { ^) be omitted there is nothing to distinguish it from &^ bi-chi, (t for what"; vide also '-'Peculiarities of Persian words." In compounds, the tashdid
over bachcha is dropped, as sag-bacha, bicha khzr, bacha-Turk,
etc.
and
also in
*A>
the expression Bacha/ mar-at bi-zanad dense." and * " hillock

:
' '
(a
curse).
Other exceptions are
thick,
(d)
Idg&am
+*tf signifies inserting one letter into another, coalescence, as
f*
As a letter so assimilated (mudg&am shappara (from shab-pira ^J -r^ ) is marked with tashdid, the two words are practically ) synonymous.
Eemark
Removing a
is
tashdtd
**
jadda
{<
lightened
"path", " is
II.
called takhfif
^
<-&****.
&** from a word, as Â^J " lightening ",
jada $:U for
T^
and a word so
mukhaffaf
Remark
'Doubled* Arabic substantives in which the last two
radical letters are the
same/
in order to avoid
two quiescent
letters
coming
63 tashdid Âi-> LÂ. (m.c.) " most emphatically an ass." In Arabic v-ft^ -a* muza'af " a reduplicate verb, i.e. one whose second and third
j&frar-i
radicals are the same.
equal syllables, as Jji)
The term muza'af " zalzal."
is also
applied to a quadrilateral verb of two
30
together, lose the tashdtd
TANWIN.
^*>
before the Persian plural termination ha

its
thus
finn er^
"a
' *
spirit,
a Jinn" has for
Persian plural jinha.
Similarly
from
saff
Ju* " a
line
" comes
'
the Persian
compound
saf-dar j*&*
" rank
breaking
(an epithet of All).
Such Arabic words frequently

"
lose the tashdid

,
in Persian, as
3$
kaff
pill
Ar.,
palm
of the
1 un hand," kaf^tf, P.; habb
&
-**>.
" a berry, grain,
"
becomes in Persian hab.
Sometimes the tashcRd

becomes habb-i
is
again restored before the

t(
of unity, thus hab, P. (m.c.)
Jx*
(m.c.)
kaf-i
"
pill
;
fan
" art ",
fann-%
but kaf
<*Jf
"
palm
of the
hand ",
(m.c.) (not kaff-t <jM).
Remark
word; arra
exceptions.
III.
(S.
mushaddad
letter
is
rarely found in a pure Persian

(or
dra " a
saw";
8.
farrukh
jarukh)
"
happy, etc." are
Tanwln
In
classical
Arabic the short vowels are used as terminations to express

:
the three cases of nouns *

_
is
is
the nominative
T
If the
,
n. is
the genitive Vide also the accusative J

is
(a).
noun
indefinite, these terminations are
doubled and written

This
is
"7,
t{
and pronounced with the nun or w-sound.

3>
called \*xj
tanwn
3 giving the nun. Arabic nouns in the accusative case are in Arabic used as adverbs;
* (
Ex.
&&
ittifaq-**
" the accusative by chance
of
<j&^.
Note that the final
alif is
not sounded.
If the
word ends in
* '
* or
,
there is
no
final alii;
Ex. &&& *& bina***similarly

if
"
'alay-hi
accordingly
in
&+&>*
hikmat* an
^skilfully";
is
the
word ends
^^
(in
such words the tanwin
written over the letter

**
preceding the
the 45 is unsounded), thus <^y*>* hawa* lovingly/* In modern Persian the tendency is to omit the n and prolong the final a
Such words are considered by Lexicographers to be Persian. There is practically only one declension in Arabic. In modern colloquial Arabic the final vowels and tanw'in are with 8 few exceptions
^, and
*
3
omitted: a noun in the accusative case, used as an Adverb, is given the tanwln. Colloquial Arabic has, therefore, no distinction of case as found in the classical language.
#
*
:
*
is
The
alif
over the (s
is
silent
J^sux>
now seldom
like
written, the word being spelt <5>A
the
c$-
Words
$**
*uqb<f are generally written
Â^J (without
a.
aKf).
In the
Roman
character, a final <^ pronounced like a is transliterated
WABLAH AND SOLAR AND LUNAR LETTERS.

',
31
hal- a *
<9
in the
pronunciation of these Arabic

is
adverbs;
Ex.
JIU-
"
now,
at present ",
reality"
is
modern Persian always pronounced hald Jft*, while X*; " in pronounced both with and without the n. In some words the
in
t a*
n
*
is
always retained; Ex. '&&

jabr
an
ffhaflaU
"suddenly"
or
"by
accident",
"
\j**>
by force."
9.
Waslah.
" and is This word signifies " a conjunction or joining only found over " the alif of the Arabic definite article J/ al " the : it signifies that the alif
is
suppressed in pronunciation and the

,/ v ~'
J joined
by the previous vowel

:
thus
amir ui l-mu*rnimn
II to
If
e^^* lj^f
5
" Commander of the Faithful"
vide
Remark
3 (d)*
a word before a
is
final
vowel
is
wctsla ends in a long vowel or in an alif-i maqsura, the shortened in pronunciation before the alif with wasla, thus pronounced fi'l-jumla and not fi'l-jurnla.
10.
(a)
Solar and Lunar Letters.

letters, fourteen in all, are
In Arabic the dental, liquid and sibilant

vJjj^Jf al-hurufvs'h-shamttyyat* or
called
&~+jf
no means obvious reason that the word shams

of
^j~+&
" solar letters " for the by " sun " with one
begins
i
them.
They
are
o-&-a-3-j-3-(j-c4-u-o^-'k--'J
J*
-e>.
If
an
Arabic word with the article
euphonic reasons, the J

loss,
begins with one of these letteis, then, for of the article is not sounded, but to compensate for its
the * ~ ?
~
first letter
*
of the
word
itself is
doubled and marked with ^, thus
lU Salah-d-dtn " the Peace
of Religion
"
(Saladin).
The dentals
3 sinniyya ^*W, those that are enunciated by the aid of the teeth, are
--&by the
&
- eL'.
The
lingual asaliyya
**l<\
)
j
are those that are pronounced

u*-*
aid of the tip of the tongue,

(6)
and are
)-3-o**u-u^-
The lunar
letters <*Jr*?
^^
huruf-i qamariyya are said to be so called
because j+* qamar the
moon
begins with one of them.
With them no such
change takes place in the J of the article. The lunar letters are subdivided into the labials shafahiyya or skafawiyya * * * or **f& ) j c5 vJ the palatals lahawiyya (>#} ) 45g; f
"
The hamza
is
pronounced.
*
S
Difficulty of pronunciation or
want
of
euphony
is
called istisqal (
JlSi
The
The
loss of the front teeth prevents the people

letters 3
-
pronunciation of the dentals.
u*
"
U*
are called
JÂ^ ^Jj^
"
sibilant letters."
32
ABJAD.
and the
C
'
gutturals, halqlyya (&&**)
or hanjariyya
'
Remark.
Arab grammarians have themselves
fallen into confusion
over
these ill-defined divisions.

(c)
4
The Arabs further term

ut
'clacking letters"; huruf
certain letters &JS1J| cJjj^ huruf*l-laqlaqah or <ua^<W, J>ysJf al-huruf'^zz-zalq (j^f
o?^
zawlaqiyyah are the liquids

?
JfijJa*
letters articulated
;
*'
-
with the tip of the tongue and the
lips
I
they
-
& J
-
huruf'^l-lin
'
^M\
.
vJj^.
.
>
" soft letters"
is*
(J* ê arched", mufbaqah nounced by the tongue and the fore part of the palate (viz. ^> - * - Jo ) " depresvsed (letters)" are those in which the tongue does muslafilah AJ&~*C
:
viz.
&
* niViyyah **&&
letters pro-
not
rise.
11.
Abjad.
(a)
The
:
following meaningless words give the letters in their numerical
order
The use
of letters as
numerals
is
confined
to mathematical works,
8 almanacs, and chronograms.
The sum
of the letters in the
name
of a
work, or of a brief sentence or
verse recording an historical event, gives the year of the Hijra in which the event took place. This practice of commemorating events by chronograms
is
common
in all
Muslim
is
countries.
This system
called abjad^ *?u)
and hisab-i-fammal JU^ w^^> *& e
Arabic word jummal J*^ signifying cable; addition." &}&> a as reckoned is with tashdid single letter.
(6)
:
"
letter
marked
When Nadir Shah proclaimed himself sovereign of Examples with the Arabic inscription as a chronogram coins struck he Persia, x^ ^ * v *O' a " the best is in what ** t*'-;**^ happened." Tfie alkhayr* ft ma waqa' t'J ^
t
sum
1
of these letters
1148 (A.H.)
A.D. 1735-6.
Letters formed in the uvula.
*
S
Also (j^*^
J5^.
Morocco in the above words substitute
Vulgarly abujad.
The Arabs
of
f or
<j*
o*
-
for
for {J
^
As
*->
u*
<j
for &.
regards the four Persian letters,

of -^,
i.e.
may have
the value of
of
of 3
they
may have
the same value as their corresponding Arabic
letters.
NUMERICAL FIGURES.
33
The date
Vida'-i
of
Shahryan
Taymurlang's death is in the dramatic words isj*x&*\&) " Farewell to Royalty," this = 807 (H.) = A.D. 1404-5.
to the
A
1882),
*
new gate
Mlrza, an uncle of Nasir^-'d-dm,
mosque at Kazimayn was constructed by Farhad Shah of Persia, in A.H. 1300 ( = A.D.
o
and an Afghan poet of Bagdad, who wrote under the takhattus (jol*ri or nom de plume of Shihab, immortalised (as his son says) the event in a poem, the chronogram of which, according to custom, occurs in the last, or the last two misra' ^ (a line of verse)
'
(ft/0
:
^ ^f
to
is
jf
cuAf^ u*J*j*
V^
^ ty
*^>
J& ^ **+& ftp
^ y L&M*
" Shihab in a " happy frame of mind fixes its date May your road Paradise be by this gate." The sum of the letters in the second misra'
1299, but the writer says at the end of the first line "ba dil-i-shdd Jj>b these words may also be translated " with the heart of shad" now
:
al" and
the heart of shad
is
alif
which
<
'
one,
so this
makes the
total 1300.
Persians love obscurities.
The
Kfor 21,
(c)
letters of abjad
etc.*
can also be used to represent
figures, thus
b for 12,
In a certain style of almanac called taqwm-i ruquml
<**>*; rt j&
the letters of the alphabet are used with special significations; thus the letter * denotes Thursday, the sign Virgo, the planet Venus and the inoon when bright. Few Persians nowadays know these signs, and the almanacs
,
never contain a key.
The taqwm-i Farsi
^^ ^>
is
preferred,
12.
Numerical Figures.
Hindus by the
(a)
The
:
usual signs for the numerals (borrowed from the

*
Arabs) are
0123456789
I
r*
<\
In combination these are written from
left to right as in
English thus,
M* !?
1901.
Called
by
the
Arabs
is
the
Bab*-*l-Farkadiyya
and
by the
Persians
Bab-i-
Fctrhadiyya.
*
The abjad system
also used
as a species of Morse alphabet for visual and
auditory signalling, in a manner that will readily be understood by Military Officers. Double raps or long sounds, such as sighing or sucking a pipe, indicate the number of the
word
in the abjad system,
while single
of the letter in that word.
Similarly, signs
raps or short sounds indicate the position made by the right eye or eyebrow, or by the
on the
tongue in the right cheek, or by the right hand or foot, indicate the word, while those Vide also 16. left, the letter.
34
SIYAQ AND LETTERS IN POETRY.

for 2, In MSS., variations in the signs for the numerals are > for 8. for 4, D, or a for 5, * for 6, < for 7, and , or
:
(1)
(*
g for 3,
or
Fractional numbers are usually written as in English as
L
r
!L
v
*
7
etc.
13.
To
find the year
A.D. corresponding to the year
of the Hijra:
M^the Muslim date in years and decimals. Let E = the required English date in years Then E = M x 0-970225 + 621-54. The answer is
Let
:
the date A.D. of the
end of the year A.H. The year A.D. 1900 (1st May)
1318 H.
14.
Siyaq
J>W
)"
Mustawfis (L*J*~~*>) or Revenue Accountants, and Munshis keep their accounts in a system of figures called o^~* siyaq or <.yf^ c&vam which Is India. nearly the same p*j raqam of
l
For a detailed account
of this system, vide
Appendix to Woolaston's
a complicated one. English-Persian Dictionary. Shop-keepers and merchants keep their accounts in a form of siyaq : fcne y ^ not understand the cRivam ( <^te ) or siyaq ( (3U* ) of the ( <3l*- )
is
The system
Mustawfi
a sum in a receipt the ) is applied to a system of writing written in siyaq ( (${* ) and then in words underneath it; under this again, Jialf the sum is written in siyaq.
:
î>~* ) Ruquml ( ^^)

(
sum
is first
15.
Letters in Poetry,
Persian poets delight in discovering fanciful resemblances in the form of letters. As already stated, an upright stature is likened to the letter
but bent by grief or age it is a U: a bent neck is like a, while a drooping head is like > The Persian poet Jam! in his beautiful but
aft/,*
1 The revenue accounts being kept in aiyak none but a mustawfi u*j**** or revenue acoountant can interpret them. Persian officials are in the hands of their accountants. * I heard of one Governor who on removal from office had his accounts made up and was found to be a debtor to Government to the extent of 80,000 tumams (16,000).
*
He got another mustawfi ( ^fÂ**^ ) to examine his accounts and the latter brought him out a creditor to the amount of 40,000 tumams.'* Yates Khorasan and Sistan.
9
Sighs are also
compared to
alif,
HANDWRITINGS.
35
somewhat lengthy poem "Yusuf and Zulaykha >SJ compares the heroine's teeth to sin (<*), her mouth to mim (*), and her eyes to sad (<*) or 'ayn (*) zuif is again compared to lam and jim.
;
16.
Handwritings.
The two most important varieties of Arabic writing are the Kufi and the Naskh? and all the other varieties, national or calligraphic, may be referred to one of these two styles. The Kufic took its name from the town Kufa on the Euphrates^ a town that at one time was a seat of Muslim learning, and famous for
a school of Arabic copyists. From authentic Kufic inscriptions,
it is
now no
longer doubtful that the
Arab employed the Kufic

foundation of Kufa.
style at the time of the conquest of Syria, before the It is now supposed that the naskh did not originate in
the second or third century after the Prophet but was used simultaneously with the Kufic in the time of the earliest Khalifas, and possibly in the time
of the Prophet
himself. 8
{
The
and
Ta'ltq
(p^**
} 9
hanging' hand,
in Persia.
is
an elegant court hand that was,
still is,
much admired
According to the Eastern romance Zulaykha saw and loved Yusuf in a dream suitors hearing of her beauty vainly sought her hand, At length she agreed to espouse the 'Aziz of Egypt, Qitflr (Potaphar of the Bible) believing him to be the Yusuf (or Joseph) of her vision. Her marriage was a rude awakening and
*
Many
her respect for her husband was doubtless lessened by the fact that, he was, for some reason or other, \\ eunuch. Joseph is recognized and bought in the slave market by Zulaykha and adopted by her husband, Zulaykha makes furious love to the unwilling youth. Th> ladies of Memphis discover her secret and talk scandal. ZulaykhS hears
tance.
the gossip, and faces the difficulty by giving a banquet to all the ladies of her acquainWhile sending for Yusuf she gives each lady an orange to peel, with directions
to observe Yusuf covertly the while, The ladies are so agitated at the sight of the slave-boy's unexpected beauty that they absently cut their fingers instead ot* the orange. They have to confess that Zulaykha has an excuse for her passion, the temptation being so great. The Qur* an says * * and she shut the doors and said * come
:
given me a good home and the him; and he had longed for her, had he not seen a token from his Lord.'* Qitfir dies and Zulaykha becomes a beggar, old, blind, decrepit, but Joseph retains his youth. Zulaykha builds a reed-hut on the way by which the man she so faithfully loves has to pass. Joseph fails to recognize in the blind beggar-woman his former mistress. She has however expiated her sin by Her youth is restored to her, and Yusuf is directed to make her his wife. suffering. Yusuf is a type of male beauty, the Adonis of the Muslims. " a Naslsh. of transcribers."
hither!*
*
He said God
keep
me
Verity
my lord hath
for
injurious shall not prosper.*
But she longed
jr**
writing
Qurans are written lithographed, or printed, in what is commonly styled

i.e.
M&M
k*> ), 'ardbi ( yfij*
nas&h with
all
the points.
36
HANDWRITINGS.
The nasta'Uq
(JAJUI^S
is
a combination of the naskh
~*
or ordinary
a beautiful hand, chiefly used by the hand and the ta'Uq ( JN^ Persians for well- written manuscripts but the modern Arabs call the Persian
): it is
;
writing generally Some old Arabic manuscripts written in Persia are in this style. ' hand is the term generally applied to The shikasta *x~& or broken
c '
ta'ttq.
'
1 In it the the cursive or running hand used by the Persians and Indians. dots are omitted and all the letters are joined together. It is very illegible
and puzzling even to natives. The ruq'ah ***> is used by Arabs and Turks in ordinary correspondence.
UA
The cRwam ^y.z,* tughra ^*J,

edicts, etc.,
sulsi
^^
{or
&&)
are
the
names
of
other ornamental hands used in the
titles of
books, headings of diplomas or
and correspond to flourished
letters
and monograms amongst
Europeans. These several scripts are little more than calligraphic styles. In Persia, even at the present day, calligraphy is one of the
fine
arts.
One
or
two
lines written
by
(
certain old CalJigraphists sell for
many pounds
of
sterling.
The
Khatt-i sJmjan*
^/?^ ^-
>
or " tree- writing", a species
enigmatical writing, is merely another application of abjad <î; in it an upright stroke represents as it were the trunk of a fir-tree in which thenumber
of branches
on the right indicates the number

left
of the
word
in abjad <*su?,
*.4lt,
and the number on the

first letter
the letter in that word.
Thus
ia î*
the
it is
occurs in the fifth word of the abjad system, namely in o^****, and the second letter in that word. 'All would therefore be written:
J
Vide also
11
(6)
footnote
2.
'Remark. In writing and in printing, Persian and Arabic words should not be written half at the end of one line and half at the beginning of the
next ; also dual words connected by j should not be separated. Only inferior * copyists make mistakes in spacing and resort to the practice of dividing words.
'
The Arabs have a The

The
diwarii
vile shikasta
*&*&
of their
is
own.
the
official
!>:?,
a bold round hand,
character, in Turkish
passports, etc.
3
uls **** is
a fanciful character with calligraphic nourishes.

sarvl LSJJ*
it is
4 Called also &&aftt-t
secrecy in this form of writing as course written from right to left.
* "cypress writing." There is now little widely known. Like the Arabic character, it is of Vide Brownie's " A Year Amongst the Persians.* 9
PUNCTUATION.
37
if
A
is
greeting at the beginning of a letter
is
contained in one line
there
not sufficient room, instead of crowding in the last few words, they are written above the line in one or more lines decreasing in length.
Two words are often written in one, as: Two words separated by an izafat are sometimes
(kitdb-i
,
^f
dnmard "that man."
incorrectly joined in one as
mard) which ought to stand for kitdb-am-rd.

17.
Punctuation.
In Qurans or ornamental marks such as, .-.

;
.
stated,
neither
are
by various but as in : already etc., etc., manuscripts, the short vowels written nor the other symbols,
verses, punctuation is represented
:
l
Even
in printed works
assistance given to the reader.
an occasional tashdld <^<x& or short vowel is the only This is one of the reasons that the Persians
and Indians mispronounce so many common Arabic words.'2 The following punctuation marks ( *Alj &(*>&c ) are occasionally used:-
Comma
Colon
Full stop
'
aldmat-i ivaqfa
aldmat-i mutlaq
aldmat-i dyat
*
'
'
o^T o**&:
o (for*)
.
Mark
of interrogation
aldmat-i istifbdm,
^ÂW
<z+*&c
**-M/)
exclamation 'aldtnat-i nidd, wwûu b ifaj* $ tf&* c>*^

.
farydd,
.
yd ta'ajjub
.
c? (n)
*
Quotation, aldmat-i iqtibds ^^tw^f cu*3b

Parentheses
brackets
{
J
^*&* t by
), 'aldrtm-t-i
[
].
jumh-yi mu'tariza
Wyt**
&+?-
Poetry 'aldmat'i
maxzuma
;
In manuscripts, a dash ( ) called lakht oîJ, is sometimes used to introduce the words of a speaker and consequently takes the place of inverted commas. The modern sign ~~^ over a word signifies either that
it
is
a proper noun or that
it
begins a sentence.
These signs,
if
used,
are frequently in red ink.
In classical Arabic the short vowels are the most valuable part of a word: the
final
of a and
short vowel distinguished the person in a tense, the case of a noun* or the gender pronoun ; a short vowel makes the difference between the active and passive voice, frequently between a transitive and intransitive verb, and the presence or
absence of tashdid
root
may
entirely alter the sense: in the absence of
'*
marks,
)f
triliteral
may be pronounced in twelve different ways. * The vowels of even Persian words^ are misplaced
is
imruZf and in most parts of Persia padishah
the Ispahanis say amruz for the pronunciation of pad-shah. A

;
common example
girya &jj>
is
is
awaz
of the Persians, instead of 'iwaz
(jj*
The Persian word
in m.c. gariya.
38
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS, AND IMALA.

Abbreviations, Contractions, and Imala.
is strictly
18.
(a)
An
abbreviation of a word
a part of
it,
as
A.D. for
Am
Domini;
diet., for dictionary.
contraction
word, made
the elision of letters or syllables from the body of in such a manner that the whole word is indicated, as rec'd pai
is
:
for " received
payment."
f
contractions.
(a)
The term olMiô mukhaffafdt 1
is
applied to both abbreviations ai

:
Some
(1)
most common abbreviations are Jxis alay-hi-'s salam* " Peace be upon him. pc =, flUJf
of the
(2) j*L<*
U. j *U*
adJj
^L^
Sallq-llah
a 'alay-hi wa-sallam
' '
" G(
be gracious to him and give

only).
him prosperity
:
(of
the Proph
For Christ or other Prophets the Muslim says

3
(3)
&JLc
&\)\
j.
1
"
'
Sallq-llahu
* <
to him."
(4)
Also for
^*^
alay-hi" correct."
"God
be gracio
(^ " The Peace

A-*;
or)**
4UU*iff Salamv-llah? 'alay-hi or alayhw ^JL> (f4^* or)
of
God be on him
*^t
(or
them)."
(5)
or
^j
~ *^
<jdl?
^^j.
Raziya-llahu 'anhu.
"May God
**The mercy
pleased with him."

(6)
)
^JU
A^.
i)}
Hahamalv-llah* 'alay-M.
God be on him."
(7)
^*/
=
>*
^.Ju
*J,
La*nat*-'llah* 'alay-hi.
The curse
God be on him."
(8)
j.
^W aJJfa+L..
Sattama-h^ttafa'
ta'afa
(for
ordina
persons, in letter writing).
Nos. 2 and 3 are used for the Prophet only.
No.
1 is is
generally used for Saints, but not for the Prophet.
No. 4
used for the Prophet or for Saints.
Nos. 5 and 6 are used for anyone.
No. 7
for
for Satan; for Yazld,* the assassin of the Prophet's grandson;
anyone specially obnoxious to the writer. No. 8 for Mujtahids, etc., when alive.
The form
(9)
of writing the
y/, for
above Arabic abbreviations varies slightly. " and so on " (when ijtf ^l, etc., in the sense of
^
*
first
few words only of a quotation are quoted).
ABBREVIATIONS, CONTRACTIONS
(10)
5-
AND IMALA.
39
:
for
*
54^ plural
$
(also in the
Qur*an for j5Lx a lawful pause)
o*
**> for
<T
(11) a (12)
** 5*^ plural of plural. " for *k " name of town (in geographical works).
jf t
^
a
for
gjy
ee
" " name of a (geographical works). place
(13)
(14)
for **b
name
of a small
town
"
(geographical works).
j,
= <j^~^
" Christian era."

" Muslim era.'
1
* - <.$>*
(15)
o
e>
="*JU "note," and

9
J*l>
"subject"
(gram.).
(16)
(17)
(18)
- *i^~J ''note." Vide 17, line 13. = ^ ^*T " and so on." = ,*o* and yj* "first," and and
the order
'
"last,"
first
i.e.
'reverse
(read
.
the
word
with f over it
for
and with
over
it last)
f also stands for *f*I^c

also (23).
(10)
"subject," and
"predicate": vide
^c
tjj
.,
Jytic ôbject" (gram.).

wALix:
4i
(20) u**>
(21)
author."
(^yo^ (a well-known dictionary), (a well-known dictionary). ^ - cÛlIf ^3ui* (23) f (a well-known dictionary) well-known (24) v (a ^bi^ dictionary).
(22)
ÛU? Û*
vide also (18).
o^
(6)
The
:
following
common
contractions occur in words purely Persian
in origin
(1) An initial alif followed by a quiescent consonant is frequently elided, and the jazm being removed the consonant is then pointed by the same short
,
vowel that occurs in the second syllable of the original word, as &jiS\ aknun, "now," &j& kunun; afmrdan ot*~^ "to freeze, be dejected," fusurdan; i! a paint used by women/' sifiddf isftdSf t**&**\ (obs.) (m.c.).
:
gi&>&~>
If the initial alif is pointed with kasra, the short
vowel of the
first letter
becomes kasra, as: istadan eÛUj or istandan e^&*f " to sitadan e.îw or sHandan c>^li*. take/' If the initial alif is pointed with pish and the second vowel is fafha, the first vowel of the contraction can sometimes be either zlr or pish, as uftSdan,
of the contraction
:
eÛif
is
<
to fall"
fttadan or futadan
&*& *
or &&&*.
[Another form by imala
uf&dan].
(2)
Ishkastan &*~&>l (m.c.) for shikastan î-X*. Long vowels are sometimes converted into short
vowels
as:~
nigah *&, shah A^, digarj*, shuktih *>^, budan <&, for nigah
(3)
K, shah *U,
not subject to rule are: mar, ;L* for btmar jUw "sick," for madar "mother", and for mayar ** "bring not " chi, L*** fvular. and m.c.) for chtz. *** " thincr " mi. ram. /*^
Examples
of other contractions
40
SUMMARY.
m.c.) for
9
and
mi-ravam fjj**
(old)
mi-May
^l**** (vulg. and m.c.) for mi-khwahi
^yxuvo sham
for Aiyf
;
ffor shavamf)**,
;
[shum, tor Ar. ahum];

for jt e^*>
nusha^^,
ti
c '
anusha
(f
tuhl (mod.)
aqa ^f
shandan, &*>(& for nisluindan o^^; a f (mod.) for mi-rod, mi-shad and mi-dad are vulgarisms for mi-ravad, mi-shavad
empty
"
chunuy^,
;
chun u
for tihi
happy"
(tahi or
a>ndmi-dihad; usta for ^ârf (vulg.); shazda for shahzada. rH wwz are contractions for $-yf sunduq, ru-yi miz.
Tu sanduq and
19.
Summary.
be seen that the learner must take
From
(1)
the preceding remarks

:
it will
special care
to discriminate
;
between
^ an English k and
(like
kh
(latter
pronounced
in the
like ch in foc&)
(2)
to
;
make
a guttural
ck in SMC&
when pronounced
throat)
(3)
to pronounce with the half-bleating sound when it occurs in the ^ middle of a word and when it begins a middle syllable to make a pause before pronouncing that syllable and when it ends a word to omit it or half omit it, and to pronounce the word with a peculiar drawling intonation.
:
In such words as
(4)
^toj,
the
must be
slightly
pronounced after the
alif\
to avoid the suspicion of a vowel between the

o
two
last letters of
words
like
uib
tifl
(5)
to aspirate the
(or ^), particularly in
words
like jy* rnihr,
wj^
Tihran, and ** mih
(final silent * of
course being exception).
Remark.
there
As a must be no
* *
rule every letter in a

*
word must be
distinctly enunciated
English
his words.
slurring of words.
An uneducated
Persian
learning English would have
little
inclination to fall into the objectionable
habit of
' '
clipping
A clear distinction must be made between the long and short vowels. English people seem to have a passion for making the short vowels long ; they also expend a good deal of energy in shouting and putting the accent on every syllable. For accent vide 21.
The
necessity for enunciating every letter will be discovered in distinSA mixed," *I&;^** sar-rishta guishing between such words as al^** sirishta " the "a sar-wishta AJUj^* a and or of good knowledge experience thing,"
end
of the thread."
(b)
ay (generally pronounced
1
The pure vowel sounds are a, ey) and aw

In India ai as in
aisle
i,
1
u,
and
a, i, u, besides
the diphthongs
(generally pronounced
like
owin
cow).
and au
as in the
German
haus.
EXEBOISE
There
is
-IN
TBANSL1TEKATION.
41
also the rarer majhul vowel-sound o. 1
26 (/)], hamza, in Persian, usually (c) Except as a sign of the izdfat [vide occurs between two vowels (i.e. vowels according to English ideas) and thus corresponds to a hyphen.
(d)
A peculiar
it.
stress
must be given on a double

all
letter,
i.e.
a letter with
a tashcKd on
(e)
In printing and writing,
short vowels and orthographical aids are
generally omitted.
20.
(a)
Exercise in Transliteration.
are merely an exercise in reading
The following meaningless words

:
to teach the vowels

'
'
Short
^t
tire
an
'an
(for
<al
-j
&[ in
e/f
un
(
&*
JM)
al
JLj[
'in
^
J^
ol
un
Longjj
JU
Diphthong
U
jj
J/f ul
<ul
cUc
*
Jb| ayl
(Jj^
J^f
awl or
ayl
Jj* 'awl
Remark.
All Arabs,
and many educated Indians and Afghans, make a

-
distinction in pronunciation between w?

(6)
*r^> etc., but not the Persians*
The
following
is
also an exercise in reading, but all the

is
words have
meanings. the same.
Special attention
directed to words that are apparently spelt
The
learner
is
recom mended
first
to cover
:
up the right-hand column and
then by the meanings test his pronunciation

<J
a rose
gul
gil
J$ clay wU. earth

ty* gain, interest
fj* tribe, family
khafc
sud
qawm
bid
# a willow
2
ô a hair
vine-stock
mn maw
bachcha
bi-chi
u young, or the young of anything

ij
for
what
As
in c.}t o-i, oh!
There are many words in Persian pronounced differently though to the eye spelt the same ; these have different significations.
42
blood
the anus
TRANSLITERATION.
khun
kun
,
a squire a gentleman a table with the meat on

'
khan
it
'
khwan
ru
face
go (imperative)
self
9
s*.
raw khud
khud
abru
-
a helmet
honor
fi
gutter (for water)
ab-raw
j*
f
become
or go (Imperative of the verb
shudan)
*
*
+
>j
shaw
of the verb shustan)
AJ)
wash (Imperative
for
shu
him, to him (fory
bi-du
run (Imperative of the verb dawdan)
bi-daw
^ barley
f
*
jaw
ju
[jcw-i
one grain].
j*. rivulet
9
*^ x
xO
c
seek (Impera. of the verb justan}
ju
jj~j a follower, attendant

*'
pas-raw
pisaru
a
J2/
little
son
P^ge
he (poetical contraction)
giraw
jj/ if
r
gam
'uynb
(for
agar
u$ jt\
^.xs
[
a defect, vice
w^ Ar. broken
Ar.
of
}
pL of above
âday,
Ar. fbl
)
yawm
above
pL
ayyam
ruz
a day, P.
hope
table
nmtd or ummld
rmz
In modern Persian abaru.
Or bi-shaw
'*
become."
9*
In modern Persian the Imperative
)y*
bi-shur is
used
instead of the obsolete eh&j"

8
Also a " husband
"
(a
word much used by the

bi-ju *'seek
tent-folk).
instead of ju. ** 6 The Indians and the unknown*' sound of the vowel Afghans preserve these words.
In modern Persian
>W
"
(e) in
TB ANSLITBKATION
lion
43
milk
with
bd
^ V
flj
without
a blow or puff (with the mouth) a blowpipe (for killing birds)
K
puf
pufak
month; moon
a
/***t
mah
maht ism
fish
name
mean, low,
,
,
khwab*
r
pi. of.
pastan
pistan
the breast nipple

strangers (Ar.
sister
pi.)
khawdrij
(sing,
a
khwdhar
Ichwar*
jurât
wretched, miserable boldness

(3^
& knocking at the door
Civil
Code
in
Muslim law
urf
an eye
)
(A. head) a
cape
chief
leaf
varaq
a slave
banda
ydvar
(pron, bande)
a Major
an Arab
time
pi. of
'Arab
vaqt
above
food
.
awqdt khurdk *
pleasant
khush*
<ddat
custom
The Indians and Afghans preserve The
the
"unknown" sound
2
).
(
of the vowel
(e)
in
these words.
2
8
} not pronounced in these Persian words, vide

is
)*
The ,5
pronounced
in this Arabic word, vide
it
not pronounced in Persian. The Afghans, however, generally pronounce in this particular word. 6 This Arabic phrase is common with professional story-tellers.
The^
is
Note the
This
half-bleating sound of hamza, vide

2 under
8.
under
>
7
8
Final h silent, vide

is
one of the few Persian words in which the

.
is
pronounced
like short u:
vide
2 under
44
TRANSLITERATION.
ftf
Adam
Adam
zarar
)j* loss, harm Ar. standing, erect, firm pft*

(c)
qa*im
The
following difficult examples of transliteration should be studied
khurd
khwastan
fi'l-Jumla
ma na n
l
atibbd-and
jama'a-dar na'uz* Wllah
o&*4
or OÛA
hayât
Salah" 'd Din

handa-yi u
Mil&i-^f
tl
masJiJiad
azjiar
inmniyyal
(d)
As already stated in
1 (a),
the Arabic character
is
a species of short-
following Persian puzzles are exercises in inserting the diacritical points, the solutions being given below
:
hand.
The
(2)
Eemark.
The
solution to No.
>>
1 is
No. 2 begins mz- nary

(3)
and ends with man chi-kunam *&*

?
&*>.
7
What
is
the
word
fj*.
khurram, etc., tiO at last he says, Mar-am ( is anchi guffi Jwstl vail In mst ^~-& ^j
The guesser says haram, jazm, jurm, jirm Ci The reply then I am an ass "). ** Asuf what y<5u hare t^^ <J$>
said
you
are,
you are but

;
it is
not the answer to
this.'*
The key to the answer depends on the various significations of ja'far " 2 " donkey, yiAA. The first Ja'farj**^ is man's name, the second signifies " and the fourth " a >? z the third " parsley bridge.
'
Practically
equals a hyphen in this Arabic word, but in m.c. the

**
word
is
gener-
ally pronounced y, as qayim. * Ja'far is a local word in Kir man for a
donkey
*'
and
also for
a bridge: one of
the Arabic significations of ja'far
is
'*
river."
ACCENT.
(5)
45
or
A man named
and asked
for
Badri
^^ went to the $adr-i A'gam

He
said
:
fJ**\ ;***
Prime
Minister
money, but got nothing.
The
first is
is
Badn-yam
sad riyam.
the second bad riyam (for ri-dam a crude word)
the last word
21.
(a)
Accent.
The general
:
rule in Persian is that the primary accent falls
last syllable.
Ex. ^^>^ pisard boy " "a kdsh " a led horse (old) glove (m.c )." [In India this word means "an assistant to a falconer"]; l^^ *-^*>j> dast kashhd: u>^p
;
&j
" pasha a mosquito,"

;
t^
"a
"
on the
dost
darakhtdn
l '
trees
' *
:
)^
handz
"done"
" better " wij
(Past Part.); khub-tarin " the best, most beautiful," etc., etc.
;
^^/
to do &tj$ karddn " " has that to be done kardanl
' '
' '
' '
* '
yet
*t>j
v^
kardd l
bihtdr
Remark.
The accent does not

i(*
fall
on the
Ex.: darakhtan-i bagh
^^
4w
izafat
''the trees in the
nor on the affix !;. garden"; darakhtdn-ra
fli^ or
(6)
darakhthd-ra t;l^;i
:
to the trees."
Exceptions are
(1)
For the sake
of
emphasis the accent
falls
strongly on the
first
syllable of all imperatives, negative or otherwise, (frequently with special " bi-lmn "do thou Ex. y&j* Mr-dar "take away"; ; stress). " " " " do **&* md-kurild don't do bi-ravand m&kun, bi-kunld ye
:
&&
H^
il
let
them go (2) The accent

;
"
&*
bi
kunam "
on the
^^
let
me do."
syllable of the Aorist (or Present Sub-
falls
first
junctive), of the Present,
and
of the Imperfect tenses,
+& kunam, affirmative. " I am doing, JXxx> mi-kunam

Ex.
:
bi
kunam
(t
I
;
may
whether negative or do, shall I do," etc, :
I will do, etc."
" I was c^ft* ml-kardam
doing, etc." ^**> ndnn-kwiam; ?&&+* tidml-kardam. ^ ta na-gffi , the accent seems to fall on the 5 In the phrase the on than rather negative in i^*& % ta na-bim it seems to fall either on
;
^>
the negative or on the
first
syllable of the verb
(bi).
Afghans and Indians
say
$ go*e.
:
Should these tenses be preceded by a preposition that is part of the i.e. on the preposition. verb, the accent still falls on the first syllable,
Ex.
/*;iM'
^ bar mi-daram " I
will
take
it
away
"
^!H^y bar nami-daram

when
(*JJT*+*>>
ddr nami-ravam.
(3)
In the Preterite (except when
it is
negative), the accent is

it is
on the
penultimate of all persons except the third person singular,
on the
dmadan
is
obsolete
amada "prepared" has the accent on amada karddn is used instead.

;
the second syllable: the infinitive
46
last
ACCENT.
syllable.
:
" ordered
" " I asked": Ex.: f**j$ pursidam you *jj>^y' farmtidid " " we but etc. &*1* dddand "they gave": p*& gujtim said, " he " he asked " ordered," etc. aî farmud H~^ pursid (4) In negative Prets. the accent falls on the negative unless preceded
;
:
by a preposition, as mentioned in (6) (2) in the latter case the accent falls on the preposition. Ex. aU*| uftdd " he fell," â^ ndyuftad " he did not fall," but ÛijjJ j* ddr na-yuftad.
;
:
(5)
The
"
; *
affixed
hd-yash
his trees
their
"
pronouns do not take the accent.

:
Ex.
c^t^ kitabhd-yitan
o**|
ejlxy**
((
your books"
"it
t^lt-i^ darakhti^likft** madd*

:
Ichil-ishan
income":
falls
bas-i-tdn ast
is
sufficient
for
you/'
(6)
The accent never
on the
^ ^
of unity
[but
it
may
fall
on the
demonstrative ^J.
Remark.
rule
<<
nouns, as also adjectives ending in
and formed from adjectives and Abstract nouns ending in that are formed from nouns, follow the
and take the accent on the

:
last syllable, i.e.
goodness"
^*>>
2
dustl
t(
"
friendship
on the ^.
*J*#
4<
(from
mk
^xJ nikl and dust good"

:
Ex.
friend"), etc. It therefore frequently happens that there is nothing but the accent to distinguish between two words which are spelt the J> * or dusii same; thus î-^ may stand for dust-% a friend friendship", " i( ** B mean a bride" or
cu*j^
< ' l
â
ar&$-t)
may
nuptials
('amsf).
(7)
The following
:
indeclinable particles have the accent on the
first
syllable
Uj
dmma
/&<%?
" but "
(1
^J
llkin
is
"
but
"
:
or
" whether or <{ aV (an interrogative particle) not," etc," ^yf V? yes, very well" îjf inak ** here is, behold " *^Ju 6d^H <4 perhaps, moreover, on the w* " " here I am." 8 contrary Idbbay (in Persian generally a6g) " In the preposition ^[^ for the sake of" the accent is on the second Khud-a "for God's sake." Ex. syllable. bard-yi'
: :
^f,
or tinl " that
to say
"
:
^ vS
bale (or ball)

5 **
ll
"
yes
:
but yet, however
"
ûu
:
bf
^
:
This rule applies equally to a hamza that stands for this
<j?,
vide
(g).
*
3
Afghans and Indians say n&, dost, etc. In m.c. (^J^T* is a bride (not a bridegroom).
*
6
The Afghans and Indians say lekin, the Arabs Afghans and Indians wale, or wa-lekin.
lakin
"Here
am, yes"
for Arabic
^^
i
Idbbayka.
Labbay
is
common amongst
women.
7
Pronounce the
slightly as
a consonant.
The Afghans and Indians say 6or5,.
Bear
ay
^f^
Impera. of
ACCENT.
47
(8)
The following Infinitives have the accent on the first syllable: " " to drink: My&rdan to eat" c^^f dshamidan e;<>#LA khwdbtdan
:
"to sleep" (9) The

and
&<*-
e^f
dmadan "to come."
simple prepositions take no accent, neither do the particles tf or the conjunction ). As pronouns, * and **. may take the accent.
particle (&*> is accented, except
ki.
The
when
it
forms compounds, as in
chunauj chundn
(c)
A correct
accent, pronunciation, and intonation can only be acquired
by
The rules given above have, ear, i.e. they must be caught orally. however, few exceptions, and if carefully studied will prove a great aid to
the learner.
It
must, however, be remembered that there are dialectical differences in
accent, as well as in pronunciation: of
two well-educated Persians, one may
say pidar-i man and another piddr-i man. According to Dr. Rosen the only Persian noun with the accent on the "a first syllable is j&* sdnndr penny," a contraction of jlij3 6^ sad dinar. This remark probably refers to the more correct modern Persian spoken at
Teheran.
falls
In Shiraz, however, and some parts of southern Persia, the accent

first
on the
:
syllable
of
the following
common
Persian and Arabic
nouns
j&> pidar
" father "
jÛ madar
'
mother" j*\j^ khwdhar "

:
sister
"
: :
about three rupees or about four shillings) *' and infinitessimal coin, 50 of which go to one dinar (an imaginary jli?d shahi, 200 to one *abba& and 1000 to one qirdn) ^*= 'abbasi (the fifth of a
e;ky twman
(a coin, in value
*>
qiran)
*J*&* qdssab
)&\j*
" a butcher/'
" a brother," the accent
is
In
baradar,
on the second
syllable.
There are probably other exceptions to the rules in (a] and {6}* (d) In the old-fashioned classical Persian of India and Afghanistan, the
accent does not follow the above rules.
In the Past Part, the accent

**
falls
i
according to rule, as, amadd t to be distinguished

to 21 (a),
from amada
4
"
prepared
j
vide note
In Arabic nouns of intensity of the form
J^
the accent
is
on the second
syllable,
as
"a 43^** V** f* Swtip-i mashshaq
drill-master Colonel.'*
CHAPTER
22.
II.
Persian and Arabic
Grammar
is
divided into
U>?l
t^j^ Sarf
EtyoâJt
tology
and ^sO
is
Nahw
Syntax.
The Arabs say
^^l j f>M H
father."
accidence
the mother of knowledge and syntax
is its
23.
Etymology
^jy.
*
PARTS OF SPEECH
Aqsam-i kalima
j$ +U\
There are according to Arab and Persian Grammarians three parts of seech which includes substantives, adjectives, numerals, (1) p~*\ ism,*
:
ronouns, and participles
(2)
J*i
fifl,
the verb
(3)
o^
harj the particle,
inch includes the remaining parts of speech,

injunctions,
viz.
adverbs, prepositions,
and
is
interjections.
<
The
ound."
harf
divided into mufrad
"
single, simple
and muratkdb " com-
The former
and
j
consists of letters of the alphabet that are used singly as

for
articles, as j
the prepositions
jt
and *
these are said to be
24.
It is
The
Article.
is
customary to say that there
no
article in Persian.
There
:
is,
owever, a means of rendering a substantive both definite and indefinite
vide
40 and
41.
sJiarab signifies
In the absence of any article a substantive like wfy* " wine " or " the ther wine/' according to the context*
25.
The Substantive 8
oy*j
0506 <~*i
;
*-*!
Gender
,ju
},
(a)
tc.,
i
'Alam
a proper
name
and
includes not only names, as

'
Ahmad
*
but
titles (khitab yiiaa.,

4<
) ;
noms de plume
(takhailus),
*Sar/
accidence or etymology (gram.)**

**
:
ishtiqaq
ÛWf
**
derivation of Arabic
**
ords; deriving words from an Arabic root

"derivation,**
^
vajh-i taamiya
(lit,)
cause of naming
"
Not
to be confused with kalam

*
leans the
j/g
p
Muslim
is
profession of faith.*
is
(f$f ) sentence; proposition, etc, KaUma also The distinction between { *+i^ ) kalima and
latter
M/ ) (
that the former
a word with meaning whereas the

* *
may be
ord (of two or more letters) without meaning. * The term noun * in English formerly included ad noun-adjective were the terms used.
'
adjective
noun-substantive
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
49
surnames or nick-names or epithets (laqab) of famous people, as Ruym-tan " eP o&; brazen-body," i.e. "invulnerable" (name of Isfandyar); any
9
by which a person is commonly known, alias ('urf iJê ), as Kalian (Indian) for Kola KhZn, Ma'rafi (Persian) for Muhammad Raft, M%rzd; and the filionymics and patronymics (kunyat) of Arabs (which
contraction
common
precede the name) as Abu'l-Qasim

(1)
Muhammad
)
Definite nouns
**.**>
p~>i
bin Yusuf. include 'alam (mentioned above)
nouns
ordinarily indefinite that

AJ)
become
definite
;
the servant of Zayd

1
"
any
by construction, as g&ulam-i Zayd common noun given as a secret epithet
(ma'hud-i zilim J^XAJ tj^**), as dust o*jj!> "the (our) friend," dushman <r*$ "the (our) enemy" any common noun used as an epithet and commonly
;
known
(ma'hud-i khariji ^^) ~

y
^**>
),
as Gh ula m- i Misr â*
Egypt (Joseph), KhaKl* liah *Ui JUiA. the Friend of (Abraham) the a muâf of pronoun and the personal and demonstrative pronouns vide 40
; ; :
^ God"
" the slave
of
(b)
Remark.
(2) Indefinite
nouns
*j&
} ;
ya'm
iam-i har chiz-i giayr-i
mu'ayyan
Remark.
indefinite
(6)
In kas-i ra shumdam (*& \j*r& the object the marked by though postposition ra.
is
considered
Persian.
Grammatically speaking it may be said that there is no gender in Males and females* are either expressed by different words, as:
dlv y_&
**a
and pan
^^
zan na-dlda
%***>
&j and dushiza
** a woman"; khwvja &*. man," c>j ^ ^lady": or else they have the words y nar
4<
%y*
^ mard
mada
lord, etc.," khatnn&y*\**

<
male " and
**
(t
female/'
etc.,
4<
a bull,"
& &>U or t* ^
;
added, as jj*
or _V<f 'ft&r-gav (Indian) or gav-i nar (m.c.) ** mzda-gav or gav-i mida a cow" ; j*^*shir-i nar
>>4
* ;
*
mard-i biva %& j* and zan-i biva means widow however generally **% cy [bwa %& only and zan-murda " " \<& t* beggar-man," (m.c.) is [* widower '] &j* beggar-woman,"
* f
a lion"
*&> j$**
shir-i
iwada " lioness
Remark.
gender
:
Tazfar j&** the masculine gender; ta fms

%**
&#&
the feminine
+*
muzakkar^$&* and mtf&nnas c^>^

**
(adjee.) masculine and feminine.
Tamyiz-i jins
I
t^r*^j>*+*
distinction of gender."
**
Asp
ra fani&htl v^^Jtr5
^**"\
did you
sell
the horse
**
;
aap ra
ia
26 (k) Bern. II. * Arabic nouns are either masculine or feminine, and wheu in Persian qualified by Arabic adjectives, distinction of gender is sometimes observed, as will be shown later. Vide
8
Pronounced vulgarly
*)tf.
gab*
The Afghans and Indians say ga t tt, writing the word
with a hamza,
* Nar-ahlr
j* j> and mada shir j**> i^ are not used by Persians. #ar-' a*& ia " a great fat narral&ar-i in m.c. means means " the yard of a house ; o"/^ *' and of a the nar-i means bub &&ar jack-ass." Nariyan yard blockhead," vulg. j& j " and *' mare *' in m.o. stallion
vulg. m.c.
'
60
(c)
THE SUBSTANTIVE
GENDER.
Arabic nouns form the feminine by adding ah (in Persian the " aJU> malika P. " a ] to the masculine, as <-&*> malik ) king imperceptible " l "a queen ; e>^<* sultan &lkL sultana P. (class.).
Many
Eemark.
(
In Arabic this feminine termination
is
called ta marbutah
5 It is, however, only in certain words ) and by Indians hata ( ). JDJ>J* pronounced and written t in Persian vide remarks on *. This termination ^*& c5^ ) Ex. *^> is also called ta*yi ta*ms
:
*G
is the feminine of ^t^ khan "a squire Kluinum **&> a lady (at 9 is the feminine and to almost title a officer), begum every given present pt# of beg uJ^j. Grammarians call this f, mtm-i taints, banu " a a word sometimes Persian
"
"
**
(d)
'
(e)
The
wordyb
lady,
princess," (a
also
added to female names)
is
not the feminine of

<v
compounds, as e>l? U ba$&-ban a neat house-wite >>s Cj^ L5^^ banu-yi haram "female guardian of the harem" (specially for the Shah), Vav j must not, however, be considered a
* {
;
a woid only used in a gardener," etc.: thusÛ &$ kad-banu
^,
Persian feminine
termination:^
zalu **a leech
"
yj
z&nu
*'
the
knee";
jjteddru ^medicine, gunpowder, wine" and such words

culine nor feminine.
are neither mas-
In words
like jj~$ pisaru
words are distinctly
and j/^6 dukhtaru the j vulgar and should be avoided.*

is
is
diminutive
t
these
The wordy^. khalu

for its feminine
a maternal uncle
"
is
from the Arabic
J^
and has
Remark.
By
the uneducated, 3
(t
is
sometimes added in familiar
talk, as
*
maharu
bi-gir
f j^l yaru amad used in a half- joking sense). 8
take hold of the camel's mahdr (nose-string) *; va guft ** the fellow came and said" ; (yarn is here
In Arabic the
* is
not silent
f* ' **
*
In modern Persian haram-4 shah v*
"
wife of Shah."
*
mode n
8
Turks, also Afghans and Indians, give the e the broad majhul sound ; but in Persian the e is pronounced short as in the English verb ** to beg.** Also kad-banu shud *& j& &$ "the girl is -married, i.e. became a mistress
of a house."
* In Kir man a vav (j), and in Teheran a ya (i/), is often vulgarly added to proper for Ahmad *+*>\* names, as A^madu -jW^( and Ahmadl <^*>*^l 8 ghala **t^ is Ar. '* a maternal uncle "which properly the feminine of &&5Z is not used in Persian.
J^
In India yaru
is
often vulgarly used as the vocative of yar
jL?
DECLENSION.
(/)
61
Kam-tarln ^.jM>, the superlative of

for its feminine
&*+!>
l
modern Persian
is
little in quantity," has in kamina, which in modern Persian

5
"
used as a substantive by women instead of the pronoun "I" or "me/ when writing to a superior. Ex. ****^ kamfna 'arz or) >***
:
(f**V
u^
**& mi-kunam) "I (your slave) make petition"; " inform me kamina bi-ln oti&f javab iltijat bi-farmayid kindly ^jlojAt
mi-kunad
(or
^^
Û
(i.e.
your
slave-girl the
writer)."
Kamina
***+
is
apparently the feminine of
the contracted superlative kamtn. (g) Arabic past participles, used as substantives,
in the imperceptible
make
their feminines
man "my friend ^yo v^*^ [vide (c)]. (male)," (^ &jfw> mahbuba-yi man "my friend (female)": fy**j* marhum "the deceased (male)"; ax^yo marhuma (female): (j^**x> and &?>** ma'shuq* and ma'shuqa "beloved": &*&*> mutallaqa* "a divorcee" (set
Ex.
:
mahbub-i
free).
(h)
Vide also
43
(*).
Real feminines,
i.e.
are called &**&*

c
^V
or
nouns expressing living things that are feminine, c5^ **>^*, as opposed to j** *J^x O r
^^^
iÛ** %J^x> "grammatical or irregular (Jit. 'heard') feminines," such as shams (_r+ * the sun,' * arz o^f * the earth/ * which are feminine in Arabic.
'
Semark.
jannat**
;
u&s) Co>* are Arabic words that are feminine by form, as
&jtf [fern, of j^f ].
26.
Declension, Tasrlf or Qardan
^1*3*3
or
4_jbyj
).*
There
(a)
is
When
:
only one declension. indefinite, the accusative case
nominative
(6)
when definite f; ra is The dative is formed by

\j
usually the affixed to the nominative.

is
same as the
6
prefixing the preposition
&?
bi to
the
nominative, or by affixing
raJ>
1
*
In
classical or
modern Persian kamina

it is
is
used as a positive adjective signifying
mean,
vile.*
la the Panjab
followers/*
used in the plural or qualifying a collective noun to
signify
guft
"camp
kamina an ki murad-i " he said the least {of their qualities)
is
that they put the desires of their friends before

:
their
own
comfort,
i.e.
they are unselfish

Vide
an
40
izajat after
(a) (2).
kamina
is
wrong.
Here S*adi
<3>**IL*
is
used *M*^ as a masc. superlative.

2
In classical Persian
3BVX
'
&\*
'aahiq is generally used for the
male lover, while
or
v^
3
ê beloved
(J^-k
therefore distinguished
In Arabic
is generally considered to be feminine of necessity, and by the feminine termination vide also 43 (t) (6). is more usual for divorcee,
:
not
*
6
" These, especially gar dan &\&f t also signify conjugating a verb.'* in its full form unless the word following Seldom written separately
it
begins with
6.
The
dative with *J
is
generally used in m.c. in preference to t>
52
DECLENSION.
Remark.
The
ra
I;
of
the dative case
is
sometimes considered the
&
in yak-l ra khar-i dar gil uftada bud )t </* equivalent of the izafat: ted*\ JS - (class.), the same meaning could be expressed by
^^
\>
Wwr4
yak-i.
formed by prefixing ^t ay or ya " oh" or one of the interjections calling attention. For the vocative in alif in poetical or 27 (e) and 118. rhetorical language vide
(c)
The vocative
is
(d)
The Ablative, Instrumental, and Locative

There
is
cases are formed
by
prepositions.
no proper Genitive in Persian. This case is expressed by coupling two nouns together by a short t (or kasra *r^) called by grammarians the kasra^yi izafat ju*X*| \j~ ("the i of annexation" or " the i of joining"), or more commonly *l*tff izafa or izafat. The thing possessed
(e)
1
is
placed
uL*
(< the son of the king j~$ pisar-i malik " the book of the son of the king." kitab-i pisar-i malik
first.
Ex.
J&
' ' ;
^*J wti^
Remark Grammarians enumerate many kinds of izafat the similitudinary izafat, (1) The izafat-i tashbthi ( tH*~> c*iU and izafat-i isti'ara tyl***i oJl*# the metaphorical izafat,' vide (12) and (2) (iv). f the izafat of qualification,* (2) The izafat-i tawsifi ( â*-^ oJUf ) as w>^ ^yo. Here marîs termed the (noun) qualified/
:
<
The
(i)
qualifying izafat
***
is
subdivided into
The The
ft j***> t^ i-*y
o**Ur the simple qualifying izafat, as mard-i khub
(it)
^
f$ ty*
<.$&****
cuS-M where
privative adjective, as darkht-i
K barg
kam-'aql
(Hi)
J^
The
" a man
^ ^ ^^
the substantive
<4
is
qualified
;
by a
mard-i
a leafless tree"
deficient in sense."
compound
(iv)
is qualified by a <i as mard-i sukhan-chm a criticiz* agential adjective, &**$ cr*^* ^7*
^*y
t*%*P uuA^t where the substantive

(vii).
ing (fault-finding)
man." Vide
The âffi cA-^P a**W where the substantive

vJi*
<f
<
is
qualified
by
a metaphorical iadjective, as marfci sang-dil J^
^x>
the stony-hearted
man."
(
v) L*$^J* o*k
tf*^^ ****^ where the substantive
is qualified
txi*
by a com-
pound privative agential

<
adjective, as pisar-i na-sa'adat-mand
o^
undutiful son."
In modern Persian this

is
is
often pronounced like the e in bed.
The second
two
malik " a
noun
in construction
and
is called **Jf
oUl*.
In
modern
colloquial Arabic the

as, ibn
nouns are placed in juxtaposition without any sign of the genitive case, son of a king "; tbnu'l-malik " the son of the king,*' etc.
DECLENSION.
(vi)
53
is qualified
The ertH&*<^%^ oJUf

^j*)J\ oU*
first
ig*
is
where the substantive

to a
by
ad-
two
adjectives.
(vii)
^^y cuiUt links a substantive

which
(
compound
jective the
jU*j jjj
(3)
part of
Y~\ (= asp-i t%z_s The izafat-i zarfi 1 ^*j&

(c
qualifies the second part, as a$p-i Vide (Hi). -~*i).
tiz-raftar
A>iUf
'
the adverbial izafat,' as sht#ha-yi

vJf
<la. bottle of rose water, or conversely ab-i shisha &&* gulab " bottle " 1 water," abi-i birka tfj* v f tank water.'
(4)
^^
"
The The
izafat-i fa'ili
shanda-yi kitab ^li^ x*>ijy'

(5)
"
Û
oJUl
"the
as
agential izafat,"
as fatu-
seller of
books."
),
izafat-i maf'uli
" burnt by the sun." (6) The izafat-i tamllkl

izafat" or the
izafat-i haqiqi
cJUt I^JA&Q
(
sulchta-yi aftab
^(^ &Ly
<j^+> *&*Mt
(
)
)
" the possessive or property
^â^ o.-^ "the true izafat," as ganj-i "the hakim ^Cx *& sage's treasure (i.e. the 1st chapter of the Qurân) " the Shah of Persia." Vide also No. (8). Shah-i Iran cil^l l&
(7) Izafat-i taJchslsi
"
(^^x^J cuU{)
<
izafat,
as dukan-i qassdb
(
^&
the particularizing or specificizing
eXi.
;(
t{
(8) Izafat-i tabyini
4/H^
the butcher's shop," or izafat-i bayanl

tr
descriptive izafat," as s&at-i tila The descriptive izafat includes the
&& o^Û
(^^
*
vsJUi)
i{
the
sion of the 1st person singular, as, kitab-i man &# wll? " my book"; the j^\ * ^Kixs ^t^j c^JUt which shows possession of the speaker and his friends U Û' < O ur book "; the wJ^^^^ o,*l*f (i.e. 1st person plural) as kitab-i md
-
jJ* ^^
a watch of gold.' cu^'t^t which shows posses-
^#
shows possession of the person addressed; the &Ji jlx> ^(y cuilî shows " his book." possession of the third person, as kifab-i u^\ *JX These might also all be included under "the possessive izafat"
(No.
6).
(9)
The izafat-i tawziM

(
^^H^y
'
wi*Uel
"the
izafat of manifestation,"
which
is
nearly identical with the

c*UL~Jl
izafat of specification (No. 7),' as, Jcitdb-i
thdistan
wUtf
"the
book
Gulistan";
ruz-i
shamba AM^
"Saturday."
Remark.
The
difference
between the two
is
that the members of the
second compound can be reversed, as SJiahr-i Mash,had *^x> Shdhr j^ ^** ; but in the first they cannot be reversed,
(10)
j^
or
Mash, had
bad-i saba
(11)
cr^
(12)
The iqafat bi-'l-jins ( u^sJt? o,Û| ) "the cognate izafat," as U* ^ ) t( the morning breeze." ( " the izafat of Izafat-i ibm J^\ cuiUt filiation," as 'Abbas-i *AK " Abbas son of AIL" The izafat-i tashbihi ( oJUt ) " the izafat of simile/' as nargis-i
" the narcissus of the eye
is
^^^
chasm*
i
^>- >j&j
"
(i.e.
the eye like a narcissus)/'

ohaam a metaphor.
garf <Jj&
Properly nargfo-chaahm
an implied
simile
and
nargia-i
54
DECLENSION.
" hand of wisdom and daftar-i shikayat c*>w yi>. The distinction between the two is that in the former there is an implied simile, in the latter there is
not.
(13)
Theizafat-i fetf'ara* *'jULi eJU; "the izafat of metaphor" or the ' ' c " the the figurative izafat ,' as dast-i 'aql cUc c**o izafat-i majazi ^jl**.* vs*U*j
,
For
fakk-i izafat cu^'U! ^>*

117.
and
izafat-i
maqlutt <?>&* cu'Uf "the
inverted izafat" vide

(/)
If the first
1
substantive terminates in a semi- vowel

is
siletot
A,
the izafat
:
pronounced yi and
it
is
is
j - ), or in a then no longer written * but

(
f
as follows
(1)
After silent h
written
or
*,
as,
y &LL
" the khana-yi mard*
house of the man."
For the pronunciation of hamza when

etc., vide
it
stands for the
^
j>Jy
of unity,
41
(c).
Remark.
After aspirated
* it is
written
~;
as, <jJyc!
*
o~#
blst
" nineteen- twentieths of his wealth." nuzdah-i amval-ash

After alif or vav it is in modern Persian written <^,* without *, as (C Jf ^tbu-yigul <( the scent of the the foot of the man *j* ts't pa-yi mard rose (or flower)." It used also to be written * or *, asjl rS-i/i %,u^ ^t^>
(2)
' ' ;
tada-yi butand
6
but modern Persians

LS
:
maintain that
* is incorrect in
such
is
cases as also after

correct.
in
the latter case they maintain that kasra
Should however the
final alif
stand for *f at the end of Arabic words the

w*
*
izafat is, or should be, written in the ordinary

Bafk-i dima*-i ziyada az
way,
as o^^j! JbbjÛi c_&L>

' *
;
hadd
<
shedding blood to excess
^^
&+* sama-i
for
:
Inland
<4
the lofty sky."
In these two examples
*kcj>
stands
*W
also
"streams of blood," pi. of 4 (e). As however the

Persian, such forms as
blood," and *U* for A*-* (pL of^*-*) vide final * of Arabic words is often disregarded in <â*j commonly occur for ^y* &>
**
1
**
But not
after
an aspirated h as in mah,
f<
a moon ;
1
j& 2
U u$
*>
yak-iriah-i dtgar
another month," but yak mahl-l dlgar j*& 3^ -* <~& ** another fish," * The hamza-yi izafat is Persian and has nothing to do with the Arabic hamza.
Affcera final
*>
the izafat
is
also written in the ordinary
way, ,7 instead of
*,
as*^^^ yt*** I but *, though perhaps more ^S in modern Persian though so used in India.
*
correct,
is
not used for the izafat after
In order to distinguish
it
from the
^ of unity vide
41
(6).
This
^
is
IB
called yo~
yi izafat.
*
Persians never write jl^j

incorrect.
etc.
They
also state that
ly\ykU
correct
and
DECLENSION.
(3)
55
After final
it is
usually written in the ordinary
way T,
as,
t^Û
^
" the fish of the sea''; but according to some grammarians maht-yi darya it should be written * (or * ), as (%* Û. As however final <^ with * is liable
to
be mistaken for the

(g),
i^
is
of unity
following a
weak consonant
(vide
the former method
preferable.
(i e. alif-i
maqsura) or by tanwn fathah is changed to alif and the f& t^^ " its izafat c^'Uf expressed by <jr, as, c/f î** ma'na-yi an meaning." The * Arabic Ûx> is also pronounced in Persian ma'm and may therefore optionally in the genitive be written e>T J^^ (or, as above e/f c^^" ).
at the end of Arabic words, the final
After a silent
^ preceded by fathah
Similarly da'va-yi ishan may be written d^J c$t^, or eA^t <^^^> though the same meaning would be pronounced da'm-yiwhan.
it
has
Proper names, however, should not be, but often are, changed; thus
jA+.u j^yo
Muqs Payy&ambar
,
or incorrectly ^*+**2 C5^X*>
Musa-yi Pay;
" Moses the Prophet"; &*~* ghambar {-
c5^H^ for
^-^ C
v^-*^.
but
'Isi-yi
Maryam
Maryam. With the exception of case
or <Isq-yi
and printing, it modern Persian an absolute genitive is expressed by prefixing the In (4) ff word JU mal property/* 2 Ex. ^^j J^ mal~i zamm of or belonging to the " (( o^t b)d JU jj^ ^f Inchiz mal-i darya ast this is imported" (belongearth
in writing
' *
the sign of the izafaty&*i'$ being a short vowel.

(2),
is
omitted
ing to, or coming from the sea)
to the question,
v<
**
whose son
is this
"
the
answer might be
c<
&* J^ s
mal-l
man
*'
mine,
or (*;^y <J^ *
mal-t baradar-am
my
brother's.
5 '
In
mc.
(i.e.
this
word mml
Ex.
:
JU is
by
ast)
the vulgar.
fl
e>&-H^ J^*
frequently inserted unnecessarily, especially i *J*~4* qunsul m&l-i Slstan the Seistan
' '
Consul
not the
Kerman Consul)
c~*!
'
^^ JU mal-i qadwn ast (for qadim
it is
ancient, or of ancient days.'
The Indians and Afghans do not pronounce the i%afat like yi [vide (/) * or 45 they give it the classical pro(!) and (2)], but whether expressed by w5J&>e dar^. nunciation of jo-e majhul, as &y* &U* kh&na-e mard, is by them generally (h) After the semi- vowels and silent A, the izafat A kasra %j~ may in and as if at written (1) all, (/} (2). explained written, " the servant of God " khuda banda-e &<&> !** *or as however accompany B the place of the father "; or instead of a ^, hamza 1*e padar j*$
(g)
:
^ ^^
&^
^
<<;
is
the correct Arabic form.

plural J,j*l
The broken Arabic

In modern Persian
amwal
is
" possessions* only used in the sense of
property, wealth, etc."

3
56
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
as,
and kasra may be written

in the Punjab.
J? *#
bu-e gul
*U.*
This form
is
common
In practice the 4i (d). tioned in
with <^ of the izafat
is
suppressed for the reason men-
In #s cKv tc a demon," j>&^ khadw " Khedive,' giariv ' * * and such words the 5 is treated as an ordinary clamour, lamentation consonant and not as a weak consonant or semi-vowel, i.e. it takes the
Remark
'
/.
'
kasra
~) for the izafat.

II.
Remark
ism-i-'dm
(
Nouns are
)
;
called proper
(
ism-i-lchas
u^
p*\
(
) ;
common
<*~f
)
Û ^t
collective ism-i jam'

is
5+^ p*'
generic
o^
something that has a concrete zat) existence as opposed to an abstract noun ism-i si fat or ma'na ( <î**> or cJi>*f%{). The term abstract is specially applied to that class of nouns
the
of
concrete noun (ism-i
name
formed from adjectives and denotes character, as, " goodness'* t^j, and more generally to all nouns that do not name concrete things, as,
which
is
fj
"kingdom."
also "primitive
*
Nouns are A noun is

For
"
(
(
definite
'
ma'rija
p~\ **f* ) or
<**U
),
*
and "derived
'
' '
<5&x ^\
).
indefinite
40-2,
nakira
%* ).
definite
and
indefinite articles vide

is
When
is
common noun is
made
definite,
and, by an allusion that

it is called
J{
understood,
place of a proper noun,

<z**j^1
^*<i
AXJ
used to supply the ma^md-i zihm, thus an dust

we're talking."
meaning
So-and-so, our friend about
whom
When
a common noun
definite
is
noun, God)/' an epithet
it is called
used as an epithet or nickname, i.e. as a proper and ^**>; thus KhalU J*i^ "The Friend (of
^^
for
Abraham.
27.
Vide also
25
(a) (1).
Examples
or &ji or,
of Declension.
(a)
Singular
Number î*,
^'5
a<xc.
Halai
(cJ^) "case"
hand
of the
N. 2
^li eJU mard *j* man

f
dastri,
or the man.
mard
ty* cu**5 the

!
man,
G.
cu>Uf <iJU>
j khana*yiffiard ,yo
(
* pa-yi mard
^ ^ the house of the man.

man.
ty* <Û the foot of the
The
izafat
o'^t
that*
in India,
Note
is occasionally expressed in these manners in old MSS. written modern Persians would s&ybanda-yi Tchuda y f<^ f*V ; ja-yi pidar
Fa'il ( J^l*) ^subject." Maf'til ( J>*axi ) "object" is applied to any case governed by a preposition. 8 Of two words coupled by the izafat O^l^J the first is called the muzaf ( oUa* )
and the second the muzaf

*
ilayh
*J|
oUi*
).
In India and Afghanistan pronounced j* <Xil*x fehanfre mard and &j* 4.5^ pa-e mard. For another form of the genitive in m.c. vide 26 (/) (4).
EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION.
(
57
mardrra
bi-mard
JLs
<
(
A
9
t
^
\\
1j t>/>
l
to the
man.
to the
man.
Ace.*
,,
(mard-ra
(.
t5O**
X5
<&J(**
&** ^ the
man.
V.
*f*x>
iJU>
jj
mard ty ray ward

marda
az
*nan.
c$f
oh man.
or
-5
Ab.
Â. oJU
manZ jy*
jf
from the man.
T|he remaining cases are
formed by adding the prepositions.

f
9
^.'
Remark.
The accusative
>*c
case
is
also called
O
a
&
JJ*AX>
and the ablative
is
/oû"
jfôx
J>*AAJ.
sometimes called
<*i*
*
J>** and
the locative
&*
*
The dative in fjis considered the accusative. **. ) is declined in (b) The plural /am* ( precisely the same manner. In classical Persian and mar is in modern (c) poetry the particle sometimes added to some of the cases. It is generally redundant but
occasionally restricts the
u)f^
meaning to the case With the nominative it is emphatic, as mar an "that very/'
in point.
o^
mar jan* " the
life
itself"
(d) Vulgarly the accusative sign ro ?; is supplanted by one of the short vowels, thus marda, mardu or mardi for mard ra. This is said to be a survival of a Pahlavi termination.
In asbu ra biyar fa* bj***< the ^ is a vulgar diminutive. (e) A form of the vocative chiefly found in poetry is formed by
>
affixing
a to the nominative, as Ûb bulbula fi O nightingale "; ^**?^ dusta <( O friend/* This form is found in the singular only. If the nominative ends in a or in 5! * and alas a long vowel the euphonic rule in 28 (c) is applied. Danghfi
,
^^
^ Khudjaya O God" are still used colloquially. The vocative in a cannot be followed by the izafat, thus, bulbula (or ay bitlbul*
M*5
<4
This preposition *?
Fa'tt
ia
seldom written separately except before a w.

Maj'ul (J^***) ôbject
5 *
{JrU)
^subject.**
is
applied
to
any ease
by a preposition.
c *
Har ki daru dad mar jan-i mat a Burd 8\mu zarr u mar jan-i mara. Mawlavi. Whoever will heal my loved one He will get from me silver and gold and coral."
Zarr for zar by poetical
license.
is
The bulbul
of Persia (Sylvia luscinia)
confused with the bulbuls of India and Turkish Arabia :

is
a real nightingale and must not be its song in the writer's opinion
not inferior to that of the English nightingale.
58
FORMATION OF THE PLURAL.
" oh " oh bulbul of our bulbul," but butiul-i bagfai ma U> Û Jxb garden." For this vocative qualified by an adjective, vide 118. Nouns ending in silent * do not admit of this form of the vocative. 1
28.
Formation of the Plural
**>
Classical Persian.
s
\
There are two numbers, singular and plural. had a dual later Persian had none.
:
Old Persian
p?,*3 <j*j*
The following are the

Persian
(a)
:
rules for formation of the
plural
in classical
Ex.
pi.
*U^ J padsliah
(
Rational beings and animate nouns form the plural by adding eiU " "a king," pi. cMly^b padshah-an; asp a horse,"
aspdn
eAH
I.
Irani ^f^f " a Persian,"

If
^f
pi.
Iraniyan e^f^t.*
Jiaki
' c
Remark
the
noun end
in
?,
as
^^
a narrator
' '
it
follows
the general rule, the final

Similarly kay
^"
" has king kayan
becoming a consonant, as: eA^k* hakiyan.

&(*?, etc.
Remark
other words
(6)
II.
The
origin of this plural
termination
i.e.
is
stated to be a
in
repetition of the demonstrative
pronoun
e>f,
"that and that," or
"more than one."
Inanimate objects and sometimes irrational animals form the plural by adding t* lia. Ex.: *J& kitab "a book," pi, ty&? kitab*ha; Y*** ^P t( a horse," pi. ^J*f asp-ha (as well as asp-an &{$<*>).
f
Remark L There are exceptions to this rule. Sa'd! uses the plurals Ûa^ and c)Uit^. This is perhaps done to confer dignity on these nouns, the plural in of being more noble than the plural in U. Still under this supposi'tion it is not easy to account for such plurals, as ^^^ - e^jjU e>W$> and and an in is The in used both e>f poetry for the prose plural frequently tM[).
sake of rhyme.
II. Rarely in classical Persian the plural in ha is used for living U as: ndmburdaha the (people) mentioned above ": creatures,
Remark
(Iqb.
^chiefs,"
Namaryi J,, p. f U ed. Bib. Ind. of Beng. As. Soc.). Remark III. In a few words a distinction is made, as saran " heads," but sar-lm
:
* s
^!j***(m.c.)
Rukh <) " cheek " has

;
U^
modern Persian either rukhan c)^) or rukh-hd fingers"; akhtaran similarly angushtdn e;ti&&. and angushtha ^s>\ " " and abruvdn stars abru-ha and akktar-ha
in
t
U^Lxt
U^Jt
Îj^f
"eye-
brows."
If they did there
would be no distinction between the plural and
this
form
of the
vocative.
>
The word Yazdan

pi.
"God"
(also
Izad
*}>!
and Yazd
<&.
is
said
to be the
corruption of a Pehlevi
and to have been
originally used in a plural sense.

In forming the plural in an, from which a is apocopated, a
(c)
59
alif
t,
if
the noun ends in

is
or else in
a^ u
Ex.:
lifa
dana
"a
"
inserted for the sake of euphony. i^bty^ sage," pi. dana-yan; (^J pari-ru (for <^$j) ^jj)
when "the arm, the upper part

eyebrow,"
pi. &\jy\
fairy-faced," pi. After a final j,
e^^j pari-ruyan.
radically final, the <^ is omitted.
of the
Ex.
jj*\
jjlj
1
arm,"
pi.
&\j)(>
bazuwan,
abru
bazu " the
abruvan*
plural of UJ
Remark
niyagan.
I.
The The
niya "grandfather, ancestor"
is
Remark
II.
plurals
(J*ft*>
with as plurals of sal
Jk*>
and mah
saliyan and c^ A ^ are occasional^ fa. These are exceptions and rare.
met The
regular plurals of these words are to be preferred.

(d) If
the word ends in an obscure
this is, before o!, generally
changed
this is
into
as *j>y
murda
c<
dead " (past

* is
partic.), pi.
^tj*
murdagan.
JJ*^
:
Sometimes, but rarely, the

incorrect.
retained in writing, as \J
In poetry the plural termination gan * * *
is
employed contrary to rule
Qa-ani says
inanimate and ends in silent A, this h usually and ** properly disappears in the plural, as : &*b nama a letter," pL %*& namaha.*
(e)
If
the noun
is
If
however by the
better to retain
plural
&
any ambiguity is likely to tirise, it is **a quarter of a town" has for its mahalla* it, thus, i n to the correct al^vc^ preference î^ which latter might easily be
elision of the *
*Jl^>c
}
**
mistaken for the

retained.
plural
of
JU**.
In modern Persian the
is
genera ly
Must be distinguished from the word j^ff The plural o>? dw and similar words
26 (h) Remark.
ab-tu
is
**
honour.**
c>l^*i,
divan
or (mod.) divha
cJ|j>3
vide
Modern Persians often pronounce these bazivan
and
abri*
it is
As l^l> may stand for either riamha usual in modern Persian to write the
e^la^cG
in
s
^^
**
names
'
'
or nama-ha
UAÛ
<
'
letters/
latter
**>^.
For the same reason tha
plural namajat
preferred.
Similarly other words, ^t*^

for
"houses"
for
instance, might
modern Persian be mistaken

jazm be written
is
u>^> fyhan-ha khans.
If the
orthographical
sign
this
ambiguity
disappears.
To avoid such
mbiguifcy the spurious plural u>&*!^

*
used even in colloquial.
The
final
of Arabic words ought logically to be retained.
60
FOKMATION OF THE PLURAL.

Remark.
1 preceded by a long vowel follow the " a IA road," U^b; *j rah general rules in (a) and (6), thus U b plural to i.e. the word should the letters shouldbe Both rah-ha. pi. pronounced, afj
Nouns ending
in
be pronounced as written.
(/)
Arabic words take the Persian plural or the Arabic broken plurals
a book," Pers pi. îfc kitdb-ha, Arabic broken " JU>U 'amil a labourer," pi. o^* * 'amilan and *U* <amala. s
kitab
1
*
;
Ex.:
kutub
w^
;
t(
pi.
Remark.
are
The broken
in Arabic
(or irregular) plurals jam'-i
mukassar
than the regular masculine plurals, and are applicable to both rational and irrational beings. Some words in Arabic take the
regular as well as one or
commoner
more broken
plurals.
marians,
There are two kinds of broken plurals recognized by Arabic gramthe plural of paucity and the plural of multitude,' vide Arabic
* '
'
Grammar
but the distinction
is
not observed in Persian except by a few
pedants. In the rhetorical style, almost any Arabic word and its broken or inner plural can be used. Sometimes a word has several broken plurals if such a
:
word be used
tent,
in different
meanings
in the singular, it will generally take
one
or
plural in one sense and another in another.
Ex. from
:
<^-#.
bayt
" a house
<&?
a verse in poetry," we get c^#

Ct
buyvt.
"houses," and oUjf abyat
"verses"; J^t*
"agents."*
(g)
a labourer,"
pi.
<*JUc
"labourers" and JU* 'umvml

f
regular feminine plural in Arabic ends in e>?, which is an " kind." of the regular feminine affix * ; thus, masc. f?, karim,** expansion
The
fern.
*+*/ karimal
11
and
fern. pi.
oU.^
karimat"*
in Persian karlm y karima,
kanmaL
by
:
obscure,* but aspirate^. Called also inner plurals because they are formed, not by affixed terminations, but internal change. They are really collective forms, and in Arabic are trfeated
1
This h
is
of course not
silent
nor
grammatically as feminine singular, even when they apply specially to males. These broken plurals are a difficulty in Arabic and only a less difficulty in Persian they are so irregular and various that no rules really help the student. Arabic
:
grammars give long
tables of the various
measures
'
of these plurals
which however
only bewilder the beginner. The broken plurals of all words met with in reading should be written down and committed to memory. If this be done, the learner will be surprised to find that in a short time they ceaso to be a serious difficulty.
8
In m.c.
this
word
is
used as a singular and the plural

*
'
is
formed by the barbarous
form 'anwlajat
*
*
f
eU> &Uc.
plurals
*
Compare the English

so
pennies
*
pence
much
value
fishes
'and
fish
'
denoting a number of penny-pieces and * * cows ' and kine ; * brothers and ;
* '
brethren.'
FORMATION OP THE PLURAL.

This regular feminine plural
*
61
$**
sense, as fU*.
Jiammam
f
un
"a
frequently used for nouns with a neuter f bath," pi. oU>U*> hammamat"*; 1 J(*> hdl *
is
>
11
*~
"condition,"
pi.
oj/l*.
haldt un
*U*
samd un
"heaven,"
pi.
ofjU*.
samdwdt vn .
The
common
beings
is
" an enemy" (masc.) takes in Arabic the feminine terminations, singular and plural, but in Persian the word regular 3 is both masculine and feminine.
rare; thus, j*& 'aduv
regular feminine plural of Arabic nouns with a neuter sense is of occurrence in Persian, but the regular feminine plural of rational
Remark.
The Arabic noun
of relation or relative adjective is
formed
of the
by
affixing the syllable
<^T and
rejecting all such inflections as the
feminine, or the dual and plural signs. of Mecca." In Persian this final
relative adjective a collective plural
Ex.
&
x>
" Mecca"
has no tashdid.
" a ^^Co person In Arabic, from the

;
6
wj
may be formed by
un
simply adding the
feminine termination
one (in Persian ddhri ^s r *>) dahriyy who asserts the eternity of matter and denies the resurrection or the world (< the sect who hold this belief." to come, atheistic"; *y>^f ad-dahriyyat^
;
as
^y^
"
This collective plural 111 Persian (without the Arabic article) is *^d dahriyya* Only a few plurals of this description are used in Persian, principally those " the of various religious sects. Qajars" (the tribe of the Qajariyya &>;W^
reigning Shah)
(h)
is
used in m.c.
Plurals of plurals
(^W
*^-)-
An
additional broken plural
is
in
This plural
is
rare in
modern Persian
hammam-ha
Û^.
is
preferred both in
speaking and writing. 2 In classical Arabic the alif with ma>1da would be given the ordinary sound, then * 4 (e) Remark, the hamza would be pronounced and finally the tanwln : * vide The modern Arabs have simplified the word into sama, while the modern Persians say sama,
slightly prolonging the final alif.
In ofjU** the hamza
is
changed intoj
in Arabic also
f
written
s
oiÛ*
*?***
In modern Persian the feminine

**
may
occur in writing.
of enemies)
:
****!
J**
'aduv-i
a da?
s
(lit, enemy deadly enemy {)+*> has a different signification, viz. the enemy of (my) enemies, i.e. my friend, *.?+*o is used in this sense of " the but dushmantarln-i dushmanan &{*+&
**
signifies
dutshman-i
duskmanan
<*;U*<&^
+ 9.
greatest enemy."
latter is
'
^3
In Arabic grammatically corract.
j& ^^r
is
the idiom and not
*fM J^,
though the
Words like oUJ&J naqliyyat and e?lA*A^ wahmiyyat meaning *' things narrated,*' and " things imagined,*' are the regular feminine pi. of the Arabic adjectives and t5**j (vide relative (.s) f**j wahm the substantive '* conjecture, imagination"
has for
its
^^
broken plural f^jf awham.
62

as, *>
Arabic sometimes formed from the broken plural,

(for cf4>j), pi.
yad"
" a hand,"
u*t
"
aydl
hands,"
pi. of pi. <j^bf
ayddl
"
hands; benefits."
Sometimes the regular feminine plural is added to the broken plural, as " ahouse," pi. ct^j buyut "houses"; pi. of pi. oi^j buyutdt ju# fayt lt a cluster of houses ";Â^ jawhar "a gem, jewel," broken pi. j**j= " jewels of various kinds ": jawahir "jewels," pi. of pi. otyKyx jawahirat 1 of Arabic form the is the Persian jawhar j^^ gawkar^^.
meaning between a plural and a plural of a plural is not always observed, thus there is apparently no difference in " meaning between ($j> turuq (mod.) the broken plural of <3o* tartq "a road
of difference in
The shade
and the double plural e*U^l> turuqat (class, and rare), though the latter ought " 2 to signify many roads and ways." barbarous plural is sometimes made by affixing to an Arabic (*) A
broken plural the Persian plural termination U, thus ^*>j& zurufhd from " vessels " the broken 8 plural of zarf; zuruf ^^1 "many kindnesses " from alfaf otW{, broken plural of lutf.
These double Persian- Arabic plurals occur only in nouns with a neuter
sense.
few words purely Persian have been adopted by the Arabs and given an Arabic broken plural, and the Persians have in tore borrowed the broken plural of their own Persian word.; thus the Persian word ejty farmdn
(j)
becomes fardmmu ( *j^^* ) in the plural, and in Persian without the final vowel of the classical Arabic, faramtn.* " is The word andgur )J&\ 5 " grapes vulgarly used by Persians as the word Persian the There are probably one or two other of angur )y&\. plural
Persian words, vulgarly arabicized in this manner by the Persians. Dastur ;î a Zardushtl priest, pL dasdtir j*s^& ; Kkdn e>^% Persian, a title like squire, Arabic pi. &&j** khavdmn (m.c.), used only in Persian.
In imitation of the regular feminine plural in Arabic, the termination of at is sometimes added to Persian words, thus e&jy navdzisMt " favours" and cuUÛji farmdyishdt ** orders, commands,"
(k)
>^ are used in m.o. Persian, but

high-flown Persian.
*
c^l
anc*
c^^f only occur
in
In Urdu the same broken plural

**
may
be a plural in one part of India but a

9
*
singular in another.
8
Zarlf
witty, ingenious
" has
w-
for its 9
common
plural zurafa
this
Such a word is said to be term is applied to any foreign word adopted into Arabic.
*
***
y^
" made Arabic " mu'arrab
or
<4
Arabicized
}>
:
Similarly a
word
is
said
to be <j;&'
*
mufarraa
is
**
made FSrsi,"
Anagur
of course
i.e. adopted into Farsi or Persian. an imitation broken plural the correct form would be
:
anaglr.
For the Arabic dual with a purely Persian word vide
29
(i).
63
When the word ends in a silent h, the affix of this bastard Arabic plural becomes oU. and the h ( * ) disappears, 1 thus *&y navishta " a written com" Persian verb navishtan " to of the munication
(past participle
pure
write")
becomes e>t*JLy navishtajat, and the Arabic word <**!* qaVa* "a fort" becomes ci>U\*ljf qal'ajdt. This plural occurs only in nouns with a neuter
sense.
An
exception e>U?uUc
vide p. 60, note
3.
These imitations were considered vulgar and were rarely used in

sical Persian.
clas-
Remark.
have different
pi. *JjM
Sometimes the broken Arabic plural and the imitation plural " significations, thus from fja dawa Ar. medicine," the broken
(t medicines," but in modern Persian adviya signifies in Arabic Persian the while plural davajat signifies in modern "spices,"
Persian
" medicines."
eU^
(/)
Regular masculine plural Arabic jam'-i sahth or jam' 4 sdlim

,
^^^
two
+=*
or
jJU
is
+>*> ).
The
regular plural masculine in classical Arabic has

s
cases
and
formed by affixing to the singular

the remaining cases
e>j
un* for the nominative, and
ma for
terminations.
is tijjUt*
Thus
**
: these are an expansion of the singular Arabic in classical Arabic, the regular nominative pi. of JUU
*amilun*
workers,"
In modern colloquial Arabic the second affix only is used with the " workers." omission of the final vowel, thus 4^1U 'amilln (for all cases)
In Persian, Arabic plurals in
classical
un<*
Arabic.
The modern
plural
&) occur only in quotations from the however is occasionally used. Ex.:
^Ûo mu'astrin (in writing and speaking)

(m) Arabic Dual iasniyah
( *i^ ).
1
"contemporaries,"
classical
The dual in
Arabic
1
is
formed
by
the
adding to the singular &l "
an in the nominative, and
^ ayn
*
in the other
cases.
&
In construction, or when followed by the affixed Arabic pronouns drops out.

classical
The
dual occurs only in quotations from the Arabic.

is
In modern Arabic the dual
very rarely used
it
is
formed by adding
^ ayn for
all cases.
The Persian tendency would be

is
to transform * into <-,
but the
suffix
being Arabic,
the Arabic-Persian letter

2
substituted for the pure Persian.

*9
Qal'a
A*JJ>
the final h has no sound whatever.
The Indians and Afghans say
qila*.
The Arabic broken
&S plurals are f ^
and f V.
^.
64
PLURALSMODERN
In Persian
this termination
PERSIAN.
ayn only is used.
Ex.
;
^jti\
j
zu-'l-qarnayn
' '
bi-cornous
"
(an epithet of Alexander the Great)

of the
e^*u
^y ^'tLo
SuMn-i
barrayn o bahrayn
Vide
two continents and the two seas"; "Sovereign e^*/* haramayn "the two harams," i.e. the shrines of Mecca and Medina.
29
(n)
().
f
Akh
Ar.
" brother"
aTch-1
^\
Ar. "
:
instead of akh^l generally say akhavii* c5>^' as brother Husayn says ." Hence akhavi has
my brother." The Persians ^Maw Husayn mi-guyad " my
word, as:
(polite,
akhavi-yi
in letters).
come to be regarded as one brother" and akhavi-yi mukarram The broken plural ikhwan <^!>=M is used in the sense of
man
vulg.
"my
brethren (religious), as: ikhvan-i safa, i.e. ham-dinan. The plural of ukht o^f sister is akhavat o!>3wl
is
akhavat-i
mukarrama
an address
in preaching.
29.
Plurals
Modern Persian.
In the modern language, spoken or written, the plural in U is by far the most used it is applied to nearly every substantive, animate or inanimate,
:
official documents or in rhetorical writing, the plurals as well as the Arabic broken plurals and the Arabic used, regular feminine plurals of inanimate substantives: Mullas, and travelled or educated Persians, frequently use these plurals in speaking, when ordinary
Arabic or Persian. 8
still
In
in &) are
A people use the plural in

*
Remark.
In the vulgar form of the spoken plural the

Wt*
of
^* is
dropped*
_
Thus instead
khudhd-man
(a)
of bachcJia-Jia
l*xu
the vulgar say bachcha.
Khuddman
for
&l#b*tjA. is
a double vulgarism.
4
The
plurals Ût!
"
horses," e>bj^
"arms,"
u>?^~^
glsuvan
**
curls
of helmet depicted
Various reasons are assigned for this epithet : one is that it arose from the pattern on Alexander's coins ; another that it signified that he ruled lor two
a saying of the Prophet ten qarn &j* make a century, but garn &j*. According to according to others the word means a space of ten years or any multiple thereof up to In m.c. it frequently signifies 30 years or 50 years. At this time the life is in !20.
danger
d)*d
e^*
Afvj e#t In bachcha qarn darad (soothsayer's idiom)

*
**
the
life
of this
child is in danger.*
* In
*
modern Arabic
C5^
akhuya
'*
my
brother."
Zanan u^J, kharan cJt^, aspan cjU-f, gavan

du&htaran eity^.i f
etc., are ail
&^
marduman e>^^/, shlran

in m.c. as well as their
&1j**> 9 pisaran ttJ(.j*^f plurals in ha.

*
ft
common
In m.c. generally pronounced aaban*

Ola
u*$ or g\au ?~4 is also applied to a are called cAI) zulf and the fore locks *j*> chafar.
woman's long
hair.
The
side locks
PLURALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
65
or long back hair," cj!f*xu "slaves or servants," &\&)& " trees" and others are still used by the professional story-tellers. 1 " Muzhj* eyelash" is in m.c. muzha fyo and the common plural is
muzhaM
\&
tfy*.
The old
plurals
muzhagan ^(f)^, mizhagdn

;
ejfcVj*:
muzhgdn
&ty> and mizhgdn &tfj* came to be regarded as singulars form muzhqdn-hd l-^lfyo or mizhgdn-kd t^(fy.
(b)
hence the modern
The
28
rule for writing the plural in
IA
of substantives
ending in
silent
(e) and Remark) is often neglected be written for lÛ> and for ^JJ;.^ may
(vide
in
(c)
A few Arabic
' l
^
jj
modern Persian, thus
AiUt
broken plurals are used in speaking even by the vulgar
" thus *Uf ashyd* things shay* and fbf ayydm "days" (plurals of are never used in the Persian plural: the word ^Â** kazarai yawm) fj* "sirs, gentlemen" (a word common in speeches) has no Persian plural.
Fuqard* t\J*
saldjln
(pi.
(pi.
of faqir
"poor"), <Û}
ahdli
(pi.
" of ahl people"), <jjJ>JU
of sultan),
**
mosque by the uneducated.

Remark.
(pL of masjid
zavvdr s (pL of zcfir ** pilgrim"), &*>l~* masdjid "), and a good many others are in common use even
^\
In the m.c. a few broken plurals are incorrectly used as Ex. <*JU* <-& yak 'amala one workman/* o~-! &Ui ^f in fa'ala as^ singulars. * * ** under Zu. this is a labourer/* * For idu (= zawu pL of zu) vide
* f
:
Nd*ib v^^>
ft
a lieutenant," has for
its plural
nuvvdb
**?
v ^>
!
^ u^ ^ n Persian
title), is
by a change
of the first vowel the
word navvdb v^> nawab 5 (the

^
used as a singular.
for its Persian
**
Arbdb ^k)
(pi-
ra&b vj)
tÛ>f
mmc
*
if
master" and has
Lord "
(d)
pL arbdbdn c^^)t and arbdbhd
the singular rabb w) means
(of
the Deity only).

regular feminine plurals are also used in speaking (as ÛJt* "tracts of country"; <^!>Us *un5ra (&&<*)
Some Arabic
well as in writing), as
44
buildings." Persian words with the imitation feminine Arabic plural {vide also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as ctUb bdg&dt (rare)
:
28
**
(k)]
are
gardens",
desires**,
ci*U^
dihdt ^villages**,
ci.UU^ khwdhishdt
qissar^hân or qisaa-gu
collects
:
(m.o.)
"wishes,
or j
*A*
i.e.
also
&$ CWA.
^
hikayat-kun
.
aad
ma'rakagir ,
rectly
%
3
" one who
a crowd."
(In m.c.
*^*
is
often incor-
The
pronounced qassa and correct plural ^* *b
is
preferred in
modern
Persian.
In Persian generally (but incorrectly) zuvvar.

pi.
In Arabic zdfir has also the
regular masculine
* *JU*
6
eÛ*
cU^, tê
is
broken
pi. of
28
(/):
*l** plural of
In India the tashdtd
usually omitted.
66
PLUBALS
MODERN PERSIAN.
When however the termination is cuU 1 the farmayisMt eulfyU^' "orders. a silent h of the singular is often retained in writing, thus ei>U *jy (instead
of
cW^* mivajat
(e)
"fruits."
of plurals with the feminine termination [vide
A few plurals
28
-
(&)]
-^
are also used in speaking (as well as in writing), as: CLÂI^
(
e>Uj#
ofjyo?
jyf umur broken

The double
pi. of^*f
amr).
plurals,
one Arabic, one Persian, mentioned in
28
(i)
are
also used in speaking.
Remark.
In
is
m.c.
*
the
'
double
plural
oUaJU*
:
"workers"
28
(k).
occurs,
though cXU
(/)
not a
noun
with a neuter sense
vide
The
plural of the Turkish
word
JLÎ tl
" a wandering or
nomad
tribe
' *
is
oUL>
(g)
lliyat
(and incorrectly sometimes
e&r Hat)*
biscuits ", and the Turkish word " oUj5^ suyursat or oL*;^. sursat rations, requisitions ", are either singular or plural. The termination c,-l is not the plural termination.
(h)
The substantive e>Uj~& biqsumat* "
The
regular
'*
Arabic
plural,
masculine,
is
occasionally
used by
6
educated Persians in speaking
(as well as in writing).

;
Ex.
lit.
t^?*^
^^y^la*.
M%irin-i majlis gentlemen" (addressing an assembly the meeting) &*&j* *-* eH^***^ 5^*^- fami'-i mnltazimm-i " all our retinue were present." Diary)
;
those present in
(Shah's
ma budand
(i)
The dual
tiHi*^
is
also occasionally used in speaking (as well as in writing).
Ex,
*ij
both sides of the road;

is
^~^ Hasanayn
its
" the two Hasans/'

pL termina**
Sometimes an Arabic word

'*
used in Persian with
correct Arabic
tion
and sometimes with the Persian imitation

is in
O^
thus
wf**
liavala
is
a transfer
consignment
the plural
c*>Jf*_^x
in
Persian ojliâ- (rare)
used as well as
Hal "state, condition**;

but only used in Pers,
unity) Ar. pi.
*
;
J^t
**
aftval
;
and e.^S^f
tablet
**
ahvalat,
an Ar. double
pl M
raqlm
^)
8 is
letter
(in
Persian raqlma with the> of
^^J
).
raqcfim, and Pers. raqlmajaL
generally retained in this word as well as in
(also
oUd** 8 cUU has

(3
thus several plurals used in Persian

4)
(1)
'
*JU*
"
workmen,*'
doubl<-
(2)
agents,"
*'
and
oU.aU* and U*kc
workmen'
(bastard
(6) the regular
(m.c.)
^jjlxlc
j
Arabic masculine plural eH^ x ^ '5wu7?n ( a>\^ vd*\* 'amiRn-i divan Collectors of revenue '*), which is occasionally used as well as the classical form
the latter however
is
plurals):
only used in classical Arabic or in a quotation from the

*'a
classical Arabic.
t^^M
lliyatl, adj., signifies
man
of the
ifoyat
euUbf
amj
nag a
l^jJUL)
6
Hiyatl-ha.
The word
Hazir
bitkut
e>^C^
ig also
used in Persian as singular and plural.

**
j*^
has also a broken plural
jiuzzSr j\'**>.
PLURALS
i.e.
MODERN
PERSIAN.
'All
:
67
daulatayn ^jjâ
*'
Hasan and Husayn, the two martyred sons of two kingdoms," etc. vide 28 (m).
:
the
In imitation of the Arabic, the dual

Persian words, 1 as
:
is
even occasionally added to
Bisyar
lab-i
chu
la'l
zulfayn-i
chu mushk ;
(O.
" and many a ruby

(j)
lip
and musky tress."
K* 137 Whin).
lar,
few words are found with the Turkish plural
^
(?).
or
jlf*
as,
i.e.,
For an imitation broken plural of a purely Persian word one curl on each side of the head behind the ear
vide
28
CHAPTER
30.
HI.
PRONOUNS.
Personal Pronouns
Ism -i Zamir
y^
***\ ).
is no distinction between the personal and possessive pronouns : two kinds, separate and affixed. are of they The separate personal pronouns are less used in Persian than the
There
personal pronouns in English, as, except when emphasis terminations sufficiently indicate the persons.
(a)
is
required, the verb
The following
:
are the separate

I
zamlr-i munfa&il
<J*A&# ^-k+*
pronouns N.
Dat.
Ace.
fc/
man *
. *nara*
k ma, or
UU
maha we
(also
mayan
) V fr*>
>
me, to
me
I
!
Afg.).
N.
tu*
*
S
thou
j
UA shwnS,
y u ( aho
or
W*A skumaha
(m.c.),
Dat
Ace.
fy Item
thee to thee
*5y*
or^^
6
***** Pers. and
A
fg.)._
( j|
?
uB
^^t
or <jj t?a^ he (also w*l

classical
e)^^ Ish&n,
i
ushan, they (also
and
poetical),
is used instead of Vulgarly, ' * Give us the vulgarism, English Compare The vocatives of the 2nd personal pronoun are ay tu ki 3* ^\ and ay shuma ki tt U- <^f such forms however are unchaste (g&ayr-i fasth). In
*
,
ma U
^^'1 isT&nan Afg.). man 4^ as, Ma raffim î*^ U. a penny for give me a penny.'
classical Persian
however ay anki &f ^\ occurs as o.*x> \s*+* * o^jJ ^-Jb Â U fj& pp

^1^ anî
bi-iqbal-i tu dar *alam nlst
)&
y J^-^
&f
c5"^
Oiram
ki gham-at
mst gham-i
ma ham nt$t ?
(Gul. chap. I, st. 13).
PI.
>$U*.
^*f
ithe
It
must be
recollected
that
all
pronouns come under the head
of
" iem "

*
8
*>
For
vocative of
man c^
as a possessive
\)
Sometimes vulgarly in m.c. man-ra

is
(j^
',
pronoun vide 32 (6). but with the L$ ^ unity manri-ra
correct: vide
41
(y).
.
*
5
Note that the j is pronounced short like pish. The Afghans often say o. The Afghans say eshan, oshan and eahanan majhul sounds.
;
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
-ISM-I
ZAMIR*
69
The preposition
&
with
J and
also, especially in poetry, bi-du
&
is
generally written
& and (#
but
very
and
^^
bi-duy.
if
In m.c.
&
is
occasionally used: ejU^V
is classical,
and
rarely,
1 ever, used in m.c.
The
preposition bi
<j-j is
when used
for the dative case is called ba-yi maf'ul Jy***

,
^.
used for u j\ for the sake of euphony in the following sentence : Vay oAJ^jf U bi-vay guft (m.c, and classical). To avoid the repetition of the " he said to second pronoun u ji, the vulgar also say u bi-an guft cui? ^b y him." It may be said that vay is not used in m.c.
,
Remark
I.
The
first
personal
"
speaker";
the
second
v^*
"
"present
(b)
and the third
v^ gtfiyik
pronoun is called fi&< mutakallim mukhatab "addressed" or _,<*(*> hazir " absent."
" " For the third persons, the demonstrative pronouns ^t In this and and anha (m.c.) [or man i^f an "that" with their plurals InhS (m.c.) 34 (b)] are sometimes used. Also jt is class, and anan class., vide
^1
sometimes substituted for the demonstrative pronoun ^f
Ex.
Andarun az
to*
am
No.
in
khafi dar
(Sa'di)
;
Ta
here jf
is
dar-u nur-i ma'rifat bm%
used for of': vide also
34
(n)
10.
Remark.
not u ki &? jt.
(c)
*&1
an-fa (classical
and
modern
" he writing) is
who";
'
Instead of the
first
and third persons singular, s*u banda
u^^x> mukhlw "the

most devoted;"
&
(your) devoted"; kamtarm "the

s
* 4
J^r
least
"
^^\ ttW5j-iwft
;
" the slave 4 " the
?
;
(your)
and for the feminine
&&f
the (your) handmaiden or female slave," etc,, 25 (/} ] ; J*& kanlz {vide are often used when addressing superiors, and sometimes to equals out of
respect*
In classical Persian (and in India and Afghanistan) these words are in speaking and always followed by the third person of the verb, both i*v banda 'arz ml-kimad "I beg leave to represent" as ***
writing,
(lit.
:
\ji*j&
the slave makes petition), but in modern Persian (except in official u^* **M documents) the first person is more usual even in writing, as
:
" " I the slave make ***. ** ^f In banda chi taqsirdaram ? ; petition pte jJô> " u what fault has this slave ? (I) committed (m.c.)
bar *on," j* dar "in,",Jf az
il
^%
from,"
etc.,
and ishan
jjj
Ot
are
generally
**
contracted into one word, as: j>p daru,
o^!^
" "
6arwfeSn,
azu.
Chunu
is poetical.
cW klsh
(classically kesh)
:
is
a subs, signifying
gwlw* kith
faith, religion
'
': in compounds
practising,
3
addicted to. " Ex.
J^ ^>
oppressive.'
Also 4>*tf kanizak, properly the diminutive of kanlz
j&
70
(m.c.)
PERSONAL PRONOUNS
"the mean"; j$
ISM-I ZAMIR.
writing);
Uj> du'a-gft (in
writing);
Û da't
(in
aqatt (in writing)
"the least" are
also used as substitutes for
do with poor me ? " Remark. In Persia, a friend writing to an equal would use banda ****, to use the third person would be too abasing. etc., with the first person In addressing the Shah U, banda Jv and haqir j&*> do not express suffihaqfr darad (m.c.)
person. third person singular of the verb p&' "I this humble individual make petition
:
the
first
With the exception of s&*.

' '
;
haqir, these are all followed

*arz
by the
0^^*.
*jl&
nfi-kunam (m.e.) haqw &* chi dakhl-% bi~ j**u <Ûo
"what has
this got to
cient humility; such phrases as fidaw <^*j, jan-nisar

atj
jlii
&(*>,
khana-zad
&iU>
"house-born (slave)", khak-sar ÛTla.,

^
is
etc.,
are used.
A common
jj
signature
(oJU) aUJ|
t(
Jjff
" the least of the slaves agatt* 'l-'ibad (fuldn) (so-andj^
"
so)
c * :
Sayyids sign
aqall's- Sadat"
cufdM
cfcf
and Rawza-khwans
&^M\ J|
aqall*' z~zakirin"
(d)
'alam "Qibla of the world," and similar respectful terms, the third person plural is used when (even addressing people present), both in classical and modern Persian.
After
o^
Hajis
may
sign
*Jl d&f aqall^l-Hajj.
hazrat
"Highness,"
^&
ali
**
Qibla-yi
In m.c., however, after
J^ VW janab-i
Your Excellency " the second
person plural is preferred (but not in formal letters). (e) As the plural is used instead of the singular in addressing people of standing, its place is frequently taken in m.c. by the double plural. The double plural in of all three persons is used by the Afghans. In the m.c, of Persian UI+& and e&*+-* are common; UU is less common, while the
plural of ii>^f
(/)
is
unknown,
is
The
:
following
<>-&
an example of the use

3
(
C
of
these
polite
forms
<JM c*^^ or ^tS- or ) <^lc a>t-*jtoî farmayisMt-i Janab-i AEhali-yi banda na-shud *I have failed to grasp Your Honour's meaning." Remark /. Man &* is the only one of the personal separate pronouns that can properly be coupled to an adjective by an izafaL Ex.
&>!?
(
:
of speech
^^
v^
Chand gu*%
**
ki bad-andtsh
u hasud
How
*Ayb-juyan-i man-i misldn-and? (Sa*dl). long wilt thou say that the malignant envious seek to find fault
with poor helpless

1
me ?
' *
aJLu qlblah, the direction of the face in prayer, especially
the direction of the Ka'bah
signifies Mecca and Jerusalem. " and hence "a place of mar gin," etc.; " threshold Janab v^5" signifies Even a Governorrefuge," and hence "Your honour, etc.": yH signifies "high." General in attracting attention would say to a Consul, Janab-i Qunsal d~*j5 '* * Hazrat presence ", and c^*aa^ is from the same Arabic root as^^^ fyuz&r " s " of
*&,
the sanctuary of Mecca; the Arabic dual qiblatayn
v^
ajatt is
the Arabic comparative or superlative

ojal **the
d^
jalU
glorious, illustrious
must not be confused with <-M
appointed hour of death or doom.'*
THE AFFIXED PBONOUNS.

(*s>
71
^c man-i bar-bad
(m.c.)
shuda (m.c.) " I the ruined one "
man-i maz.lum
"
I the
The Afghans say
oppressed." *v &*> man-i banda, but classically and generally in ^

;
am
Persia the izafat is omitted man banda ^J i#*. fto>yf A*O| *jJj (Sa'dl).
^
"
Man banda, ummtd awarda
is also incorrectly joined to the pronouns of the second and the first and second person plural person singular, as, *x>;la ;i *o. ^ âi ^y ra chi kar ddrand (m.c. only) "what have they to do with tu-yi* facfir
;
In m.c., the izafat
you, poor creature
;
e
xii&<o cxii
i^âaj
^ Û U maha-yi
bl taqsir ra aziyyat
mi-kunand
fault"
:
(m.c. only)
*if
^ u^
of
is
they are punishing us though
we have committed no
5"
l^-
^^^
mja here?"
*/?Hrf
hobs karda and
(m.c.
*>Nw c^Û-i shumaha-yi bl chara ra chird only) "why are you poor creatures imprisoned
I)
Instead
cfr^T
ishan-i
bichdra
tylfvAJ &(&.))
(not
used),
anha-yi, bichara
used in m.c.,
and an mardum-i bichdra
*&&
f&j*
o>f
in
writing.
Remark
II.
Man u iu y ^ ^<
"
and thou
5>
,
" both
:
of us ", is
an ex-
pression of frequent occurrence, especially in poetry
Bar-kfnz
birawm az
m vilayat imm u
u man daman-i
^îx^SU^
zama'ir-i mutt&sila).
(
Tu
31.
(a)
(I)
dasi-i niard biglr
The
affixed
Pronouns
:
The
affixed
pronouns are
Singular.
PlwaL
;
First Pers.
^ am my me
;
to
;
me
to tliee
cA*
10
~^
* n#in>
Second
pers.
e>! ijt\
Third Pers.
thy ash his

it;
at
thee
&$
it
**
v i tan
hers, its; him, her,
to him, to her, to
islmn
was in all probability formed the termination ^f an to the singular, thus ft by adding regularly, plural " am mine, me, etc." would result in the plural <Ûf am-an. However fatha
plural of the affixed pronouns
i.e.
Remark.
The
has
now given way

(2)
to kaora.
In classical Persian ash <Ji and shan c?^ ,were used for animate things only. In modern Persian they are applied to inanimate things also.
" on" and bad
d)*\* *btf tr.
Barj* bar bad dadan

*
the
wind"
bar bad raftan
{^)
d*j> to be destroyed;
to destroy."
local.)
3
ra.c. t>^>> tuv fchudaiB for \*&* ly tura bi>&buda: tuv 1shud<?l (vulg. and without pay, impressed " ; perhaps a corruption of muft-i In prose this would be tura.
In
*
72
(3)
THE AFFIXED PRONOUNS.

In pronunciation these affixes should be, but seldom are, preceded slight pause in other words they do not affect the syllabic accent of their
;
:
by a
words, thus
uAsw> )& (sj& *Ju5T 3 etfjj** -*irV ^**f 6t>^ darigk amad-am "I felt a disinbi-tarbiyat-i suturdn va a*ind-ddri dar mahfil-i &#nm (Sa'dl) clination to teach beasts and to hold up a looking-glass in this quarter
e>tj>^
9
of
the
blind";
to
dmadam
"
it
came
me "
:
"I f^Wf would be
came", but amad-am ffWf
as in the example.
final letter becomes (4) In words terminating in the vowel i, the a consonant, as bint <î# " nose " J^^ biniyash " his nose " or poetically Knish. Sometimes the affix is written separately, as but it is <J\
;
:
^^
not so written by modern Persians.

(5)
Words terminating
;
in alif-i
t
maqsura
as:
JJ)ÂAX> vJJi
change the
&
to alif
and then
insert the euphonical y
&y^
da'va, {Jî\j^> da'vd-yash
"his
claim or quarrel, etc." in m.c. often o^fya: ma'nd-yash (J*^*** and ma'niyash cA^*-* are both correct.
Remark.
as pidar-sh cAj
4
By
poetical license the vowel of the affix can be omitted,
" his father."

,
(6) After Arabic words ending in *f as kibriya*, the alif of the affix should be retained, thus (J\ A*ji is poetical or modern colloquial. (b) In classical Persian the full forms of the singular are written in full,
:
^^
A^
:
only after a word terminating in. silent h. Ex, pt *kL &hana*am cases the alif is omitted, as f}&^ mddaram " my mother.",
in other
Remark.
Shaykh Sa'd! writes

but for the license of poetry.
t(
* *
' '
Here
(c)
at could not be joined to &> ,

!
After
' *
or ^* a
^
*
is
;
inserted for euphony, as
-yat
thy hair
bdzu-yat **4j$>
^b pa-yam my foot arm thy oUÛ^ dast-ha yi-mdn

;
;
"
" our hands." In m.c. and

dastha-man
c>
in poetry, however, this euphonic <^ is often omitted, as

;
u V**>
ja-ah <j!^
"his place": bazu-sh

;
dj$>
diram-ha-ah
<J&f)t> (better U.
(d)
cr^V -^
diramha-yash)
o^vil^ jadu-sh "his magic," ^ also
jadu-yash.
Examples
(1) (2)
(3)
of the affixed pronouns are
fJU
nan-am
bidih
"give
I told
(to)
me bread."
him forward."
(jUitf guftam-ash
"
him."
"
j^ cA^J
ptsh-ask biydr (m.c.)
bring
So written (probably) to indicate that the h

In the m.c.
is
not sounded.
\)
^#
|^
(^|jj>yk Aa/ du-ash ra biyar, ot )\*>
o^j* j*
har duycuh
:
ra-biyar
"
bring both of them," the

**$)*
is
omitted or inserted indifferently
har duyishan or &&tf
j* har
du-yi ls\an.
73
(5)
(6)
"she will not digar bi-zaban-asli nayavarad. again mention him" (lit. bring him on her tongue) ash here " him is the object (and is not her ', possessive). " I did not hear o(<x<? (m.c.) sadd-'t na-shamdam you.*' f^LSJ
;
' ' *
fb^
OL>|
!<x*>
(m.c.) sada-at
kardam "
I called you.'!
(7)
(8)
oU^^J
padar-i
man
" our father."
(jlkjUj**
ishan).
(e)
sarha-yishan "their heads" (but e>^t Also colloquially sarha-shan.
Û^*
sarha-yi
In classical Persian the plural affixed pronouns are not
much used
the separate pronouns are used instead. In classical Persian the affixed pronouns
may
be joined to almost
any word
in the sentence except to the simple prepositions

(h)]
:
and
of
A&Gf 31 ^ anan ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash dusti bud (Sa'dl) " one mutinied had a friendship with me."
*j*
the conjunctions 3 [vide
^^ J^k
*>&jf )*i
to
some
of
yak-i ra az
those
who
be noticed that the plural affixed pronouns are preceded by If, however, the noun end in (c) by a ^f). silent A, 4 the izdfat is in modern colloquial often omitted, as d* &{** khana <&*. JeKana-yi shan. sJmn b <v their house," or & In classical Persian this
(/)
It will
a kasra (or in the case of
would be
Persian
it
ejUî <UrL khana-yi-tshan or
^l^Û. khana-yi sJian; also in modern would be better to say cMi* ^^ kb&na~yi ishan than jchana-yi
is
or khana-slxin,
The kasra
omitted in the following:
Examples of both
^5^f
c^>-*l 3^^->f vjfjj; î?H^ A* Zi-andarz-i man ka$ na-ptcMd ruy
c;U 3^1 3
Ki and&rz afzun kunad abruy (Shah-Nama, Book I, sending message from Salm and Tur to Faridun, p. 21), " None turned his face from our advice. " Because advice
1
m.c. for sadayat.
*
S
In m.c. generally pidar.
*\$ (j^^ )J 5
* >-r!^
o^^ 3 &))
Gar-at zi-dast bar-ayad chu nakh.1 bash karlm Var-at zi-dast na-yayad chu sarv bash azad (Sa*di)
**
If
thou const
be
free like the cypress
bo generous like the date palm. But if them canst not, then * the epithets karlm and azad ^f **e frequently applied
*
:
f>.j
by poets to these two trees. Note the affixed pronoun " " gar^f and vagar J*j "if and and if."
* Final silent * is considered
at is joined to the conjunctions
a vowel by some Grammarians.
There
is
no
final
silent % in Arabic.
fi
In modern Persian sometimes written
c>^^
(without the &)
74
Z< pand-i
man
ar mayhz-i tan shud tuhl
Chird az khirad-(i)-tdn na-mand dgahi?
(Shdh-Ndma, same page as above).
Bi-farmud-i shdn td nawdzand garm
Na-khwdnand-i shdn juz bi-dwdz-i narm (Shdh-Ndma, Book I. Pddishdhi-yi Tahmuras-i Dwband si sal bud, p. 8).
Bi-ayvdn-i Zdhhdk burdand-i shdn
Bi-ddn azkdahd-fash sipurdand-i shdn

(ShdfirNdma, Book I. Bar takht nishastan-i va bunyddri bi-ddd niMdan, p. 11).
Buvad khdnahd-shan sardsar palds Na-ddrand dar dil zi- Yazddn hirds (Shdh-Nama, same page as above).
Remark
L
**
In modern Persian the plural
affixed pronouns,
to verbs, retain their kasra, as

guftam-irsJidn
I told
&\!&
gujtri-shan
"he told
when affixed them >J &(+&

;
them."
be noticed that the affixed pronouns, when the
:
Remark
II.
It will
direct or indirect
object of the verb, i.e. when personal pronouns in 32 (a) the Accusative or Dative case, are not followed by f; rd vide
t>
for
in ni.c.
(g)
Sometimes there is ambiguity which even the context does not make " Ex. î clear, bad-am guftl in m.e. would mean you spoke ill to me", but it might also mean "you said that I was bad" in >& ^*%a darbdn-am rahd na-kard " the porter did not let me go (or let me in)", darbdnam might mean " my porter ?> ^j*& <-& <^Ht-^ )f
:
'
oJUjjx &M
oJiu
\j
t& %f
^^ J&^
a^jJ
^y
khwdhar-i tu az khas%s% misl-i
karda nan-ash rd l pusht-i shlsha mi-mdlad (m.c.) Isfahan* panir-rd **your sister who in miserliness is the equal of the Isfahan merchants, * (or its ? ) bread on putting her cheese into a bottle and rubbing her
tu-yi shlslta
the outside of the glass"; here nan-ash " might mean the bread of it."
Û
instead of " her
bread"
l In classical Persian a noun in the accusative to which a possessive affixed pronoun attached often omits fj. * Here the ash would probably not refer to cheese as the cheese is inside the bottle and therefore does not belong to the bread. Otherwise the ash could easily mean either 'her 'or 'its.'
is
'
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
(h)
75
In m.c.
[vide also (e)l the singular affixed
pronouns can be, and

:
fre-
quently are, affixed to some of the simple prepositions, as e&ty barayash "for him, her, it"; <j*)f "from him, etc." <Jjt "in him, etc."; <Jtl> for " to o*t *J, colloquially <_rJ him, etc." <jtf3 z * r" as h "under it" tft.fi bi-am
:
:
dad
to
(m.c.)
"he gave
f)\
;
it
to
me "
f<
ab
olj bi-at
dad or
c*j (m.c.)
"he gave
it
thee"; az-am
still
az-a
ojt
from me; from thee
"
;
in kdr az-%shan?
i^t^jf jf j(
are
7^2 except yj za&ar "above ", and some others. the affixed pronouns are possessive, the pronoun of the first person is called mim-i izafat oJl*| ^yo, the second ta-yi izafat vsJlî Û, and the third sJvin-i izafat ovl*| ^^.
tf
,
,
^ " up to " J^
When
^| (m.c.) (Such expressions considered vulgar, but will probably soon be recognized as correct), " " b " ba with bi " without ", They are never affixed to y bar on
they are not capable of doing this."
' *
,
"
"
' '
used for the dative or accusative of a personal pronoun, the first mim-i maf'ul Jj*i* f**, the second ta-yi maf'ul J>*i* c?^> and the third shm-i maf'ul J**&* &$ or shin-i zamir-i maf'ul J^h^^â
is
When
called
^.
(i) The following are modern vulgarisms that are creeping into writing Ma g&risnorman ast ws^t |U ^L^? U we are hungry" sliutna tishnatan AxiJ UJi ast cu^f IsMn garm-i sMn ast c-^f Ûx^ Îwui you are thirsty " man sarma-m ** ast o*i they feel warm ^l^* ^> I feel cold." y) In modern Persian the affixed pronouns can take the place of the reflexive pronouns when the latter are used aspossessivepronouas, vide%%(h).
:
<
4 f
* '
(k) In kitab-ha, hama-yi shan " whole of these books are good -
khiih ast
^*s ^^ && l^lÛr^r "the m ktiabhH Jiama khUb ast v^ *** ^^ &**
JU^K The singular ask <J could be substituted for sJmn &L& in the previous case; In kitabJt&hama-yagh khub ast (m.c.) cu-^f^^ fj^ &+& "these books, the lot taken as whole, are good ? % bat in the sentence
ha az zamm
chaha<r v&jab
buland bud va
sar-i
shan (or sarha-yi-sJuin)
tlz (m.c,)
y3 ( ~^j ;l^ (j-i^j $ ^t^H^ the singular ash c/& could not be substituted as the various pegs give a scattered idea,
tflZjiAty* or) e>U j** j
*>iJu
Remark.
>*/*
J*c* j*+*> " attached pronoun, nom.
case
"
;
JUtlo j-*^*
v>^ve
<(
attached pronoun, ace. case, etc/*

32.
It will
Possessive Pronouns.
31
(a),
(a]
be seen from
are
and
(/),
Examples
5, 7,
and
8, that
the
affixed affixed
is
pronouns
pronouns when
possessive as well as personal. possessive are properly followed by
In the m.c., the

t;
in the accusative case.*
Ex.
or dast-am
1
when
their
noun
"
\>
" take pl~* dast-am ra blgir
my hand
Afghans and Indians say

In
classical Persian
I; is
be.
only used after the affixed possessive pronoun, third person.

f
Ex.
Yak-l az frukama 9 pisar-aah-ra nahi hard az bisyar feburdan ki- I; U"*r*^ *^*- 3 "a philosopher warned his son against over-eating saying that
^
"
76
POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS.
classical and
The dative and other cases are usually formed by prepositions, both in modern Persian (and seldom by f;). Ex. cu*o| ***<*) oJî bi-gush:
at rasida ast
"have you heard?
"
pisar-ash ra guft cui?
fj
ur^
(Sa'dl).
Remark.
stantive,
it is
If the possessive affixed
pronoun
Ex.
:
refers to
affixed to the last only.

If the
last.
(b).
am " my
dear
life
(\>jr*>
more than one sub^*b$ pushak u khurakfollowed by qualifying

'umr-i
l
clothing and feeding."
substantive
is
adjectives, the
pronoun comes
Ex.:
e^js
"
!
:
j+*
aziz-at
"thy
vide also
Remark
to
possessive pronouns can also be expressed by the personal separate pronouns coupled by the izafat, to the thing possessed. Ex. er*;<^ father (lit. the father of me)"; oU*l &U* khana-yi ishan 1 pidar-i man
(b)
:
The
"my
"their house/'
(Pidar-i shan
&l
;*J
and khana-shan
&(
<kU>
(m.o.)
would
have the
same meaning).
In the accusative, the separate pronoun is put in its accusative form " he * with f> Ex. oi/ \j* dast-i mara girift caught me by the hand."
:
ca
The dative can be formed with u-ra dadam **Igave it f*\* pidar-i *j. bi pidar-i u dadam f\z j\ j^
Remark.
last [vide
!;,
but preferably with &.
Ex.
|^|
;^
to his father (m.c.)";
more commonly
In a continuous sentence,
Ex.
:
etc. , the separate

j
come pronouns also *

+>
Remark to (a)].
tabl'at'i pur sharr u shur va sBmt-i zisht-i bad-far az dlv-i u bar Ûîxx? {^ kas ra ml tarsanid "hiB evil nature and ugly appearance worse than that
y*
y J>*>
*^*3 &}j<*
)r> s j"j}
^*^
of
a demon
used to terrify
of
all.**
The vocative
exist, as pidar-i
(c)
man
Ux>
mand
^"
û
as a possessive (not as
a personal pronoun), does
oh
my
father!
"
In m.c, the affixed pronouns are preferred, but in writing and correct
speech the separate.

(d)
The separate pronouns can

Ex.
:
also be used in the ablative to express

jt
possession.
xU*o $\
AJ )\
U
"
A)
o;U* ^f In 'imarat na az shumd va
na az u mi-bashad (m.c. or class.) him " In mal az man ast B cu~f

:
^ y JU ^f
etc.,
this building belongs neither to
"
(m.c.)
this
you nor to belongs to me."

possession,
vide
(e)
In certain cases the reflexive
pronouns
denote
33
(a).
(/)
"Mine",
<c
thine",
"
his",
are expressed by the demonstrative
Afghans and Indians say fehana-e eshan. In ra.o. dast-am ra (^-^ (affixed pronoun) would be more commonly used.
Also in m.c. in
irial-i
man
oat
REFLEXIVE AND RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.

pronoun
4
c
77
az an-i
e/f,
as:
it
ctf j!
**
az an-i
man "mine "

'
&
e/f jt
'
to
whom
did
belong (whose was
'
it) ?
tcfifa-i,
Man
zan-i
bi-man guman-i ddrand khud-am chunan ki hastam hastam.

l
(K. Rub. 334 Whin.)
" Each sect miscalls me, but

I
heed them not,

I
am my
jl
own, and, what

C
^*
am,
am."
Sometimes
is
omitted as:
p
; j>
Otj-^
^~Vy
e;f
^J Â
(ôj
(^j;
;J>
AT ^f
-4^
^ â
ru-yi zamin-i,
hama waqt
an-i tu
mst
here an-i tu
(g)
Dlgaran dar shikam-i madar u pusht-i pidar-and mst cu-xJ y ^f means *' does not belong to you."
:
In m.c. "mine, thine, etc." are generally expressed by JU>, lit. 'JU mal-i man "mine" ; ^>t<^ l^j ^^ JU a "property." Ex.
^y
maZ-i
man u shuma
s *
classical e/f is also
"whatever is mine is yours." as an-i az Barahman birun avardand &$ jf used, gav-l they had out a bull belonging to some Brahmin."
taw fir na-ddrad
:
The
Remark.
Possession, in classical
and
in
sometimes be expressed by the dative case, " the king had a slave." g&ulam-i bud
33.
modern written Persian, can as <^3U \^ $U^b padishShrfa

:
Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns,
(Ism-i mushtarik u^x^c ^-4; also tXxTU^x*^ Zamtr-i

(a)
There are three reflexive pronouns in the
classical language,
khud*
o^^
khiplsh* and
rule
^^^
khiplshtan,
meaning "self": they are

:
indeclinable
and as a
can refer only to the subject of the sentence
they
take the place of the personal and possessive pronouns when they
the subject. of the three
use:
(I) c*i>
refer to
Khud is
is
applicable to either animate or inanimate nouns, and the most common. The following examples will explain their
&l*u
jf
b\
" he went to his khana-yi IthuA raft

raft
own house"
ojl^l
&Uu ^t u
bi-khana-yi
"he went
to his
(somebody
else's)
house";
Note plural verb after har. " Note that Jl* need not be repeated before l* increasing, j*&> taw/ir, A. '* to come difference." has etc." in modern Persian signify 8 Broken pi. *^(j? Barahima. * Note that the u is short, vide remarks on on ^ 2: &hud signifies "a helmet." " From Wiud " self " is derived the Persian word g&uda " God (the self -existing).
1
2. In modern Persian Note that the j is not pronounced, vide Remarks on j means also " a plough." The Afghans and Indians say Jehyeah for " self.'*
78
U ma bi-khana-yi khud raftim

kk >>
f;
"
we went
to our
own house "
Zayd
(**?,>
in his
is
I saw Zayd in my own house." used in classical as well as in modern Persian, as:
;4>
<f
wem Za^c? ra dar khana-yi khud-ash dldam " I saw own house ", but man Zayd ra dar tehana-yi khud didam Ij xjj <jx
^3
t^
&l&>
would mean "
Khud-ash
A
In
stag that enters the haunt of lions,

its
home
will
make a
death- vacancy
(Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 7): in

possessive pronoun.
(2) pi*)
c<
the preceding examples
is
for
the
myself, I
went "
forcibly *xif;
himself";
instances
(3)
^ ^ **X
is
khud raftam " I went myself", or more y* forcibly khud raftartd " they went themselves", or more iXxi^ ba khud burd l> c) l ^> he took it away with
;
^
((
^^
in
M^
l;^
M^
^
j
ra
tes^
<4
he killed himself":
these
reflexive.
In the sentence **Ui
bi-kamal
numayad (S^dl)
J^r ; &+* jlama kas-rd <aql4 khud one thinks his own brains perfect," and every
is
Jl^
similar sentences, the reflexive pronoun
necessary:
hania
kas
A+*
though grammatically in the dative must be considered the

the sentence.
(4)
logical subject of
With immaterial
things,
u*^
my,
in their possessive sense are used,
(5)
The phrase ^su
etc., khud *<* or khwish and not khmshtati ^^Ll^. khud bi-khud signifies "spontaneously", "of
" fame ",
f(
love
"
thy, his, etc,,

(6)
own
accord."
In the language of mysticism
^&}^ bi-kh<udi or <^c>wjtf

in the following
**
oJta* halat-i
bi-khud% signifies * a state of religious abstraction or ecstacy in temporarily leaves the body.'
which the soul

from *U?mr-i
Note the meanings
of
khud
Khayyam
*
:
two
lines
f^
&*.
^^
*3 &$
\^
*^J^\*^ <^tj*^j-*
tit
&
c?>-i^
Aknun
Fardd
ki tu ba khud-i nordanistx
eh
ki zi
Mud ram ehi
khwahl danist ?
whilst in possession of thyself knowest naught To-morrow (i.e. the day of Judgment) when thou leavest thyself (by death), what more wilt thou know ?
Thou who
"But,
if you know naught here, while still yourself, To-morrow, stripped of self, what can you know? " (0. K. Rub. 52 Whin.).
kbudlcushi " suicide."
"tent-sewer," the
;
taj^hallus (poetical
nom de plume
')
or possibly
the profession of ' Umar in either case the iza/at. 8 Past tense with present meaning.
*
For jf
poetical license.
79
jU&
jjj)
/ft ahl-i
AaevVlf &f jli*' vUJU^ t khdk u qubUr gashtand g&ubar Bi-khud shuda va bl-khabar-and az hama kdr
A? o-*! ud^.
Har
zarrd zi har
zarra giriftand kindr

ruz-i
Ah ! in chi sardb ast ki td "The tenants of the tombs

Nescient of
self,
shumdr
and
to dust decay, all beside are they
Their sundered atoms float about the world, Like mirage clouds, until the judgment day."
(0.
K. Rub. 242 Whin.).
Remark
I.Khud **&>
colloquially, as:
largely used in compounds, both classically and " " khud-bm khudr aj^ proud, self -concei ted
is
;
'* ray "self-opinionated <J-)|AJ^ khud-ddrl (m.c.) self-possession, com" khudl (rare) egotism." posure"; <^&j*> Remark 21. In the speech of the vulgar, khud c^ has a plural khud-hd
;
:J
^^
:
U^ before the
(6)
affixed pronouns,
which
is
contracted as follows
Khudhdyimldn ÛÛi^^ khudhd and so on for the other persons.
man c)^*^^^ and khuddmdn

</v
(vulg.)
For emphasis, the Arabic phrase *~&u
bi-nafsi-hi signifying in pr&pria

etc., for all persons,
(
personnd (or
ÂUb
bi-nrnafsi)*
can follow c^-,

(
both in
bi-
speaking and writing.
Ex.
f*^
u^^t
or) &~ix
fj
^^
;
khud-ash rd
(t &~iu tj&> (Jty I saw him in his own person" nafsih (or bi-n-nafs) dldam ** 4^*) tshdn khud bi-nafs-ih raftand they themselves, personally, went."
(c)
Khiolsh cA?
^ cau be substituted
J^^
pronoun
for
in places
where the
latter
signifies
rarely like &j*> stands alone possession, but substantive. It is also classically used in compounds, as : <*,>#
bin.
without a
khwi$h~
^.^
As a
reflexive
4^!^
is
not used in m>e., vide

:
(/).
Example
of khiplsh
<J*^ standing alone
Chu B
dil bi-dusfi-yash
Ohird bi-dusJmiam-yi
**
man
khwish rd *alam rnzad *alam bar afrdzad?
(Anvdr-i Suh., Chap. I, St. 15.) affection's him displays heart for flag My " he a should then hostile banner raise? Why
(East. Trans.)
^\)
<^
subs.
The Persians usually follow the modern Arabic pronunciation and say bi-nafsih &V in the first instance and bin-nafs <j*ixJb in the second. As already stated, the For the doubling of the n in the final short vowels are omitted in modern Arabic.
second instance, vide
'*
10.
In *Â^J the
final hi is
pronoun would be changed to agree with the pronoun subject or object, in number and gender, etc., but the Persians often neglect this point In writing they, however, also do use the Arabic dual and plural of Arabic syntax.
he,
it
:
"
the third person masc.
affixed
in Arabic this final
forms bi-nafsihuma and bi-nafaihum.

8
Chu j^
is in
speaking always
chi.
80
but cannot be employed to Jte?*> is applied to persons only, khwJsh a man or noun a w* could not raftam pronoun emphasize p**j
Khwish
o^^
be
said.
(d)
Khwishtan
"
body
"
;
^/A^
is
compounded
of
it is
both possessive and reflexive,
tan erJ>^ khwish and and unlike J^y*- it can stand

/
:
alone and can emphasize a noun or pronoun. Ex. o*o I; &&* j* khwishtan ra " kusht " he killed himself ojt*** o-*^ |^ ^lij^L ^^\ ^j&> har kas awlad-i ** khwishtan ra dust mi-darad (m.c.) every one loves his own offspring*':
;
0**)
eH^
"
(^>j*-
(^
l>
t>[frtf
life
(class.)
man
holds his
own
dear
adamt-zad rd jan-i khwishtan shirln ast " or " his own life is dear to man."
1
Tark-i dunya bi-mardum dmuzand Khwishtan slm u ghfllla andftzand (SaÎ). " To others they teach retirement from the world
While they themselves are engrossed in collecting

grain,"
silver
and
Khwishtan ^J^xj^L also occurs in a few compounds, as

^xi
^jLl-uah. (class).
khwishtan-bfn
Khwishtan ^&*JA> is applicable to rational beings only. (e) In modern colloquial, although &j*> is occasionally used alone, it is more usual for it to be coupled with the affixed or separate pronouns singular
and
plural.
Ex.
pti
25^
Jchud-i
man
;
guftam* (m.c. only), or

ojJua?
*is
f&j&>
Ichud-am guftam (m.c.)

(m.c,
**I myself
said"
U-i
o^
khud-i
l '
shumd
guffid
only), or **$
&$ c^
Khud-itan gufttd (m.c. only}

^*^ &j*
e/T
said";
( IB. c.
^^ <Jk^
in the city
khudash
raft (vulg.),
khud-i
you yourselves an mard raft
only)
* *
"that man went himself ";^' *
c^
\sdar khud-i shahr (m.c,
only)
itself.
The forms khud-am f^., khud-at ^^^,
etc., are also classical, as
Dada
( falak inan-i irddat bi-dast-i tu Ya'm ki man kit/am bi-murad-i khvd~am rasan
Khasm-at kuja-st
zir-i.
qudum-i khud-at figan

(Hafiz, Letter
Ydr-i tu klst bar sar
u chashm-i man-ash nishdn

Nun.)
Note that <^<s adami *'man*' has three syllables and not two as in Hindu" a man" also that stani, but adam-i Jslwplahtan (ytt?.j*> does not here refer to the grammatical subject of the sentence. However in sentences of this kind where no ambiguity can arise, **his own, etc.*' must be rendered by a reflexive and not by a separate personal pronoun. * Note the m.c. position of J&hud j>y^ and the iz&fat c^*U| ; classically
I
:
man k&ud
guftam.
81
^fîux mi-khhwdham dastam rd bi-shuram <( I wish to wash my hands," f*>^j t^+i*iA instead of (*))&> fy^ o*,> mi-khwdham dast-i khudam-rd bi-shuram Âfj.iu/o khudam bi-chashm-i khud-am didam (m.c. and (m.c.) Âjja fdj&* f**3*-? f*^" vide last two emphatic) "/, / myself, with my very own eyes saw (it)
:
In ordiftary conversation the rule that the reflexive pronoun should be used when the pronoun refers to the subject, is frequently broken if no ambiguity can arise from the violation of the rule, thus
/.
:
Remark
examples
in (a) (1).
Remark
ta>
II.
Though khud
is
indeclinable, such (incorrect) expressions as
5**
&UEU
^liuf are occasionally
met
with.
&j&*
is
The advantage of using the affixed pronouns with khud shown in the last two examples of (a) (1).
as possessives
Remark
III.
In m.c., the phrase

bt-khud
f*<^*u
bi-khudam means
useless;
"I am
myself
again," while
vide lines in (a)
(/)
j>>uj
(6).
means "foolish,
also in
a faint":
In the m.c.
;
" a relation"
o^y^ is usually used as a substantive only, signifying khmshan u dUstan e>UL*^ ^ ÎSî, ** relations and friends"; khmsh u qawmi na darad 4t he has no kith or kin."
Imkarna*' gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh asi n& baradar ast va nx khmsh ast (Sa'dl) " and the sages have said that a brother who is wrapped " in this extract from the Gulistan up in self is neither brother nor kinsman there is a play on the two meanings of khwlsh [another reading is baradar-* ki
t;a
:
:
*&)$j* without the second
asf\.
Khunshdwand aÛL?^
modern.
(d)
subs.
**a relation,
kinsman,"
is
classical
and
the
Khmshtan <Jk~y^
(d).
is
used in m.c, for the reflexive pronoun
(in
ace.)
for its use, vide
In modem Persian, spoken or written, the affixed pronouns can take (It) the place of the reflexives when the latter are used as possessives, as : ** 1 want to wash my mt-khwdham dast-am rd bi-shuram f)?^ fj
hands"
o~o or dast-i khudam-rd ty khud rd \$ *^*z) dyd shitmd dya-idn rd khwdnda id* ***w)j*> yUlf U^ Uf "have you read
(for dast-i
(
-^
Û^
^h^^
f^
your verse
[j+Juo
'
'
The separate pronouns cannot be
so used.
dast-i
It should be noticed that

lyo
may
stand either for dast-am rd or
mard, but
vi*o represents
only
dast-i
(i)
mard.
><>&<>
and ham-digar j&*+* "one another; each other" are reciprocal pronouns: yak-digar rd mi-zanand *uyv* j&*&> "they are Hama tawdt'-i yak-digar bi-kumd striking each other; fighting together." " do 4.A you all bid farewell to each (GuL, St. IX, Chap. I)
Yak-digar
\)
l
Plural ayat-i tan ra.
82
other."
SIMPLE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.
For
of
mislri
ham p* cU* "
alike (like each^ther), etc.", vide
under
Adverbs
Comparison.
j^Lii p~*\ ).
34.
(a)
(ism-i ishara-yi qartb pronouns an " that " (ism-i ishara-yi ba'id **** Ûf p\) they When refer either to persons or things,* and precede the noun they qualify. " this man In mard Ex. are indeclinable. a noun qualifying they OJ etff in zan "this woman"; lÛ* &?.\ in kitab-ha "these books"; " these men." in marduman
Simple Demonstrative Pronouns (Ism-i Mara " this" in are The demonstrative
V*^ ^^t
/**!
and
e>f
^
,?
' '
e*>!
Remark.
(b)
The noun demonstrated

of
is
called &d\ j(&*.
was fl im, which perhaps remains in Jjj " imruz "to-day"; Jl~xf imsal this (current) year"; *-*2\ imshab "to"this night"; and in y**f imbar "this time" (old). Imsubh f\
morning
more ancient form
"
also occurs, but
is
not chaste.
In classical Persian the plurals Inan eJ^jf and anan e>^f "these" and "those " are used for rational beings (zi-ruh ^jj.* ) sometimes as a separate
substitute for and in the sense of
for things giayr-i zt-ruh
cJ^
**
they
"
and tyl Inha and ^f anha

:
î j* These plurals are used only when the pronouns stand alone as a separate substitute for a substantive. Ex. &$> Uf * those who existed before *^**H'* ^ 31 cM andmki qabl az ma mi-budand us/* Note the relative In modern Persian anan. 42 after c>^f [vide (g)]
* '
these plurals in an
by
are rarely used even in writing and then only if followed " the relative ki **. ki ** i^f, or anlw*i ki **&\ =" they who
of
AnM
(iskan ki ^xSU^f cannot be used).
Anha
(ki) is
however
classically
used for " they
"
:
-j jahan zir-i qadam farmdand V'andar talab-ash har du jahan paymud&nd
"The
sages who have compassed sea and land, Their secret to search out and understand, " (O. K. Rub. 151 Whin.)
In conjunction with the preposition &} frequently in classical and in m.c. but not bi-dan mardbi-dan eabab, bi-dm sabab or jihat are used in m.c. must not be confounded with the bi-dan zan. The demonstrative pronoun for ** that
l
and
(^!<V
* *
Arabic word of " time." The O of these pronouns must not be pronounced nasally a common fault amongst English that are accustomed to speak Hindustani. In m.c. Sr
is
frequently pronounced un.

*
<^J &l~**
and
34 (n)
*f of y^.
its (of
except this that
thou art
(10).
tl f&t guftam ba-juz an ki tu hamsaya-yi u*i (Sa*di), I sak the house) neighbour " ; here }\ is used for e/f : vide als<
30
(6)
3
In modern Persian budand &*&# would be used.
Har du jahan
O^^^T^.
i.e.^this
world and the next.
83
Ariha ki dar amadand dar-jush shudand

tc
Many have come and run
their eager race."
ixif
and those black " bi-dnhd iriam dad va ba-inJia dushnam (m.c.) t\t> fUi| lÛ " h g ave rewards to those (or to the former) and abuse to these l*tt
;
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 237.) * U lia in In the modern Persian (c) plural only, is used. Ex. j &*&> l^xM &U* Ipf mha so,fid va anha siyah and these (things or persons) are white
: ' '
(or to the latter)."

(d)
<>iif
For phrases
"
e/T j{
mine,"
etc., vide
32
'
(/).
Ba'zl bar an-and

as
ji {.#6*1
"some
are
of opinion"
is classical
'
as well
p. 19,
modern;
this
idiom occurs in the Iqbal-Nama-yi Jahangm, Beng. As. Soc.

(e)
vide
Ed. Bib, Ind. of
former
(/)
"
In ^1
:
also
means " the
latter
"
(i.e.
the nearer of two), and
e/f
" the
Ex.:
f
vide
jf
of
e/f Jf
*S
pti
>
Example second in (e), and Syntax. means <( for that reason, for that purpose," classical, U ^/<=w j va in hikayat ba tu az an guftam ki (class.)
reason for relating this story was

H
"
my
so also
Shaykb Sa'dl says
is
bar hanna mwrgh&n az an sharaf Mrad Ki nstukhimn khurad va jan-war nayazarad The Huma * is exalted above all birds because It lives on bones and injures no living thing."
Humay
Apparently
*
c*f
Jf
stands
fy
in
&tt
such
*n
sentences
r&
for
ft3^
*+*">
of
jfete*-*
<4
*t^
you
l^jf
3',
ml-guyam
ki (m.c.)
1 tell
*
all this,
an bi-slmma h&rfh& that only (merely that} you ."

bi-khatir-i
Bemark.
((/)
Compare
vide
Compound
Conjunctions.
Note the employment classical and modem

^\$j
gardanl
fj
of e>f in the following
examples which are both
^ "
J^ {/ my need
** *-^*f c^f is this,
(^ oÛ.
Imjat-i
that thou shouldst
man an ast ki mam dil-shSd make me happy" &* of f#

;
* 4
the
^&& f&*jy *$ bim-i 5 an bud ki az zakhm halak skavam wound (lit. there was a fear of that, that I might die of
1
1 nearly died of
the wound),"
In modern Persian *&
o^
*
'
is
-
After the prepositions^
jt>
used in writing, but seldom or never man and 3t, the alif of these demonstrative pronouns
to their preposition in one word.
may be omitted, and they may be joined Ltff )* &*$ vide page 69, note 1. (itijl
9
Ex. (&.J& for
No
izafat after
*+*
m.c. requires the iza/at.
Û* is the bearded vulture or lammergeir and is not a fabulous bird as translators have supposed: vide Jl. As. Soo. Beng., Dec. 1906. There are however fables attached to it; one is that the person on whom its shadow falls will rise to sovereignty ; another that if any one kills it, his death will occur within forty
*
The huma U* or humay
days
from
this
word
is
derived the adjective
eÛA humayun
"
auspicious," etc.
The
izafat cannot be omitted after bvm.
84
\*y
Oar kushi var jurm bakhshi ruy u sar bar astan-am Banda ra farman na-bashad har-chi farma** bar em-am
(S'adl).
"Whether thou
slayest or pardonest,
my head is laid on thy threshold,

St.
2.)
Thy
slave
(I)
has no will ; whatever thou decreest he accepts with

(Gul, Chap. II,
resignation."
In classical and modern Persian the phrase
*x>f
j i^***
ba'zi par
an-and
"some
are of opinion." etc., is of
common
occurrence.
is often a substantive and (h) In mystic poetry e/T signifies something that can be felt rather than defined, grace, individuality. The following two examples, which the writer does not attempt to translate, exemplify this
obscure meaning
JU) ^-J jj**>
b>
&)\&
*^ o**jj
^f*
J$ )
*$*
itftf
** ^**l of
lab-i la'l
Shahid In nist ki ddrad khat-i sabz u Shahid an ast ki tn ddrad u

dn-t\
ddrad
Shdhid an mst ki mufiyyu* miydn-l ddrad s Banda-yi lal'at-i-dn bash ki dn-l ddrad
(t)
In m.c.
**
In
u an shud
m u an signifies various things, as *> &1 } &$ &**** suhbat-i we talked of this and that (different topics)."
:
Na %n vanadn
the other":
&$
& j &1 &
neither this nor that, neither the one nor
Sufi shuda-% In na-khwuri an na-khwuri? Dar*khwurd-i tu sang-ast; bi-raw sang bi-]ch>wnr (O.K,) ** Sufis, you say, must not take this nor that,
9
Then go and eat the pebble s 4

k
off
the plain/'
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 261.)
In man-am
is
M mt-ravam
"
;
to start, or I will go
(m.c.) fjj** In u'st ^~*j\
"
6
;
In u'st ki mi-ravad
is
" he
:
I am just going or about f*> &% " here he (or tnak u'st vi^jl vJûl )
ts
is
just going."
Var
poetical for
f\ j
am
at the
end of the
lines stands for
"I am " and
is
not the affixed pronoun. & Tashdld on the

8
by poetical license "one hair." " face." or TaVat aspect '* to be stoned " Sang ftbwurdan eJ>j>^ <& also means
:
there
is
a double
meaning.
5
Inak man-am p**
<*^?t, or
Inja-yam
{l-ijf m.c.
"here
am."

(/)
85
you,"
In the following m.c. sentence f <H**; e/ ** &*?\ wit ill j j(f " work or else I shall be down on kar bi-kun va ilia ast ki man rasidam " here I i.e. I'll In oat is used in a dramatic sense and
signifies
am,"
be with you but not in In
cXut
could be substituted for In ast ki
o~^
&>\ in this sensethis is
ast ki bd
shuma guftam f$> U
^ *$
o^t
which means "
the reason that I spoke to you."
The modern colloquial and classical phrase (^ of j \**f &a "in kuja vaankuja "where is this and where is that," signifies 'you can't even
(k)
compare the two

(1)
one
is
so
much
is
The following idiom

)ti
c 6
**j
&\j
\j# fj
&f pi)\ )&
^\ y
the superior to the other.' old, but still in use amongst the Afghans &j*. chun az in ki dar inam jarigh shawam
:
mara yad
remind
bidih
(of
when
am
at leisure
from
this (work) that I
am engaged in,
me
that)."
was stated that the demonstrative pronouns precede their nouns, but this rule is violated when emphasis is necessary. Ex. )\j* *$ <Â*f c u| jojj &> asp-i ki savar shuda budam In ast "the horse I rode this
(m) In (a) it
:
is it."
(n)
The following added instances
of demonstrative
pronouns perhaps
'
exhaust their meanings in the m.c.

(1)
f*fj&*
^y^ jf
(Û *tjj ^{ )*
Ji
jW
ilia
dar
m panjah-salagl
bd
u kushti ml-giriftam ** otherwise in spite of these fifty years of mine, I would have wrestled with him, even with these fifty years of mine ." Vide also No. (8).
(2)
oj&S
*>U p*
j*>f
^^ j&t&
near, he too
rasidRd;
waqti-ki tmzdik-tar
*&** slmM an ham
^^*) ^^ ^^1
* f
ittifSq**
shuma
cJidra na-did
arrived
when you drew

it
(the other party over there)
by chance you saw no
help for
."
Note the slovenly change from plural to singular in the verbs. NaztRktarj&ty means "nearer than you were when you rasiiRd Note the use of c>T for $ " he" better u,
Remark.
;
(3) ailSX*
bjrt& *& *&*>
o^ j ^^x
ci^xp^xC^
bar yak digar gkayrat
mi-burdand va bi-dan rasld ki kamz ra bi-kusktowd

of one another
"
(class.)
they got jealous
and matters reached to such a pitch that they
killed
the girl."
"behold, lo"; used in writing and in m.c. adj. from *l*aJ "year'*: subs. fifty" and " the state of S ^ old." panjah-salagl &&{* being fifty years F^ 3 Qhayrat O^XP here jealousy this word has generally a good sense and means <4 a nice sense of honour; jealousy for the honour of one's womankind." Bl-ghayrat
;
now "
also
Panjdh-sala
Û
^^j
JU
Oj^&fcJ (m.c.) is
or raahk
-^)
used as an abusive term by Muslims. In modern Persian hasad W^. would be substituted for yhayrat c^fei in the sense of *' envy " in the
above example.
86
chand-i 1 ba'd a&%n (classical and m.o.) = ts***- jt **J " " ba'd-az chand-l a little after this **f e*y *** cs)j> r5-t cftand 6ar in bar amad (class.) " a few days passed after this." xi& ^jjj^. ^xj AJ owl&j A^ ejf <J& tj** oj ^1^3 j>U 'adaihJa-yi bad nor (5) has khud-ash bi-kunad " she little ddrad misl-i an-ki
;
angusht birbinwji
(a
girl)
no bad habits such as picking her nose."

Remark.
after
it.
9
Angusht
is
used in a general sense and does not require
J;
(6)
o~*
life* aifa
' ?
gbuj
îjf
m-ham panjah ddna

no
tila
st
" and here are
fifty
pieces of gold.
Remark.
Ji^
Note that there

tila
is
izafat after
dana ;
also o~slU> for CL
dana-yi
could also be said.

fl
(7)
A&f ^{^j baray-i an-ki
because
."
^5?)^ (j|^ ÂA,^^ &f îJU e>[jf.-^ hayrdn iriandam ki dirakht-l bi-dan buzurgl chl taur uftad (m.c.) "I remained lost in astonishment as to
(8) dUij )jlo A*.
how a
No.
tree of such size (or in spite of its size) could
have
fallen
' '
:
vide also
(1).
Remark.
(9)
The clause
jb (jX-o
jj>
after *
is
in the direct narration.
%&j
o*2Bu
{^
(jjî V^)^
&\
^JJ
p*^ ^3
Zt^ba
khanum zud an
darb-i utaq ra sakht du-dastl baz karda" Ziba Khanum suddenly and violently " with both hands bursts open the other door of the room s (10) &&/ fa* ty Ay^ c^>^" 4^* cA^ pisJi-i -man cMz-i mpiya bud ; u ra
.
girifta
(Afghan)
*'
had a few rupees by me; taking

\^\
it
."
This
jRetnark.
Note
u-ra for
!j
the latter would be more correct.
idiom
is
common amongst
the Afghans.*
\&\ &*> **+*)
kar d&r In vaqt nmn ml'kardam va dar an vaqt an kar (Afân) "at one (special) time I did one thing and at another fixed time another."
(11)
j of oJj of )&
j f*j**> ft
&$ ^
(12)
AÛ^^cu^f
'
^jf <J&e misl-i

of,
ast ki nabasfiad
<4
it is
as
if it
were
not /
'
i.e.
not worth speaking

**
contemptible."
a little while.*' indefinite quantity some Pawjah ashrafl (now a two-ttlman piece) or panjah lira or some such phrase would ordinarily be used instead of panjah ddna tila.
I
Classically chande,
an
Chlz-l
4,53^
m.c. and classical for LSJ** qadr-%
t(
a little."
In m.c. nazd-i
man
chand rupiya-l or chand dana rupiya bud.

*
U jl
and ishan
i^lA-lf
are strictly applicable to rational beings only

is
except in
2 to
the case of personification.
For
34
(a).
classical
however frequently neglected. 30 (6) and footnote examples of substitution of ^t for of vide
This rule
EMPHATIC DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

ta Inki ta in-ki
87
f<H~;
and
*Cif
13
ta
dnki
((
until, before
"
:
jl
h^f *&!
13
anja rasidam u murda bud (m.c.) "before I arrived there he
had died"
*jîu
anki sharab asar nami-bakhsKid (m,c.) " every day I increased the quantity (a little) till (at length) wine lost its exhilarating
^y'f
ta
u^ a^f $ p*jj*l u*j*&*jt
)>j?J
ruz bi-ruz bar
miqddr ml-ajzudam
effect."
(13)
In bud'
ki
(classically
(0)
and
in
modern
In
mak
:
**&>\
was the reason that": an ki *&f " not u ki. writing) "he who " behold " behold here, here is," and anak J^T yonder,
*f
''this
;
w &J
is
there is," the affix appears to be the diminutive affix, but the signification " tnak " here intensive *J&| Û ufljj behold, here I am mi-ayad *tf
;
he
coming ": 'U$man Ag&a (Inak nam-iu) j /*l> wJU-ji ) Lef oUJc " Usman Agha (for such was his name)" mak-am f\ ^*u\ <k behold here am I." " (p) Ant cuSf is bravo!"; and ant ojf or anat cujf, for an tura ty of
is
e
l<
that for thee
"
also
ml
' c
bravo
"
and
Int c^vf
or in-at
ctf
^f "this
for thee," occur only in poetry.
Ha mm
one"
Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns. c^** "this same one, this very one" and e^+* ia-man
35.
!
<4
that
more emphatic forms of the demonstrative pronoun and are very of more frequent use in the modern language than in the classical. They are simply the demonstratives strengthened by the particle ham +*> dar haman ruz )j) O>UA >N = 1mm dar an ruz etc. etc. In m.c. the plurals e>T j^ ^>,
are
:
^H+A and
(a)
<(
Û^
are also used.
These words have other significations

*
5
illus-
trated below.
as
Ham&n&te haman d^ signifies when -- then (that same time)/* soon as" o *^ f)$j* &?j*j e>U.* c^ cJ^*f c^/j^ blrun amadan-i khun
;
Examples
murdan-i haradar-atu haman bud " as soon as he was bled iny ** no sooner was he bled than ." * This idiom is classical brother died,"
hajftfin
as well as m.c.
(1)
eide also
aij
(c).
Hamln ^^^
In
3*
d hamati Û*
' *
also
mean
4i
the same,"
Ex.:
Û*
&*\
* *
haman
az
ast ki dldld
thivS is
'**
the very
same one you saw
Immm rah amadim
we came by
this
very road, this
is
we came by." <j.*+* &* ^^\^ khivaliisJi-i man hamm bud the this was same; my very thing was what I too wished" man " " I am that ham an-am f! <jU* *-$+* U> (m.c.) very person, I am he
the same road
"
desire
f*ty
**
ÛA ma
ni.c.
hamlsha haman-im ki budlm (m.c.)

are always the same."
'*
we
are always just as
we have been, we
1
hi
often pronounced
hamun
for
^f
p* and
c)T
(**>
)\
f* are the emphatic

oJ>>^
of jl etc.
2
Or
birtin
amadan-i tehun va murdan-i baradar-am yak-l bud (m.c.)
88
(0)
COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

v**)jf j**f
" came, he went [vide (a)]. (d) *ta cj e>**A hamm yak
(e)
& i^xufc
hamln
ki
amadam u
"
raft (m.c.)
" as soon as
dana,
ja
&&>
e>fcfr&
hamm
spot"; l^ji cHt-^ hamln farda (m.c.) " to-morrow as ever English vulgarism
(/)
(classical and m.c.). " he was killed in this very kushta shud, " not later than to-morrow " = the
only this one
"
is."
^
bud
hamm
urt+A u-Mt*3***^ (ÛA iJ^'Mjs*. harakat-ash " such was his conduct and such (m.c.)
haman va sukhanha-yash were his words."
36.
(a)
Compound Demonstrative Pronouns.
Compounds with the adverb <^. chun
(1)
î^
this
chunin
(for <^l
a one as
(2)
"
:
e^
c^^
=
'
like this)
also
adverb " in this

e/f
are like, manner, etc." and ert^** lw>m chunin " such manner."
l
((
ÛA. chunan (for
like that
*)
a one as that
"
;
and ^liÂ ham-chunan
cc
such
" in that also adverb manner

**
:
"
:
" ^> ejlia. j you did so and so chunm va chunan bud the matter was so-and-so
va chunaw kardl
( '
^5"^*^^^
:
cr-Jt^
chunin
(îa.
Jl^ ci^*> surat-i
Ml
' '
Û aTy * ^^ ^(j * $j* ^b here chuiidn va chunm <^**-j J^ is contemptuous, Oh So-and-so.'

^jJu^ j
îjux
^f
'
Remark.
&&*
*n chunin 3
and &&*.
e>T
an chunan are
ratlier
more
emphatic forms.
b * bd chunin shakhs-l suhbat na-briyad kard j xjUi OA^V** ^âa^ ÂXa. not converse with should such a one *s~*\ c/tumn a$i? person" (m.c.) " here chunm 5 ** is an adverb. is the case so ( is it so ? &****
(b)
4<
;
^^
as, ^cj*^ u^^ t^f Uô maî ?^ chunin chlz-l na-bud ki 'iwaz bi-diham (m.c.) ÂiX? " 13 " I had no such thing with me that I could give in exchange ^f
(c)
Chumn
^^
can be combined with
^t 6*;
^^ A^ û Â-i
~
f*)f*j*^
1
in ch un * n
&
^^
travelled a farsakh
"
;
yah
fars<*M*> raftlm
<4
here In chunin
^^ ^
^^
:
(m.c.)
is
in
this
manner we
an adverb. 7
Chun
e>>^" also
means " how?, because and when.**

&*?*$
3 *
6
Tu kaun liai ay aise taise ? (Urdu). chunin ja-i budam fty, Dor talash-i
{Jl%*)*
unity).
Or ba chunin ashbhas ^je^ml cî^ ^ (without <^ of Chunin (^^- and chunan c>^^- are aama-yi Icinayat.
6 va faivr-i-ki an murgh-ha avaz ml-kardand Similarly chunan cJ&^ with an. Ex. an chunan gah-l na-shunlda budam fty e^^f^t ^^jô Jyf lô ^f AL'^Js ^ " I had never heard birds sing as those did.' (class.) 7 The of unity can be added to chunan c>^- and ham-chunan o^^-^ (but
^^^^
:
'
rarely
if
ever to chunin or ham-chunm)
vide
page 89, note
2,
&l^b
e;lfA.
(Shah-Nama,
Jild-i
x> *&ot i^. j| Lojb j^l Chunan-i ki az madar-i parsa Bi-zayad, shavad bar jahan padishah Avval, Ra^y zadan-i Kaymis dar kar-i Sudaba va Siy*aush).
.j
.i^w jj]^
COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOtTNS.

Remark.
(d)
89
In the second example )ô

(^Hjia.
^\
In tawr would be
(or
more
usual.
e^y
cA^
chundn u chunin kardan
guftan)
"to
pro-
crastinate, evade,
(e)
(/)
have recourse to subterfuge." Chunmhd It-H^- and chundnhd l^^*- "such

1
like things
"
are not used.
er^f **
ham-chunln
is
merely a more emphatic form of
Ex.
***>f
lîjf Âaiug*
^Laci+A ham-chunln shakhs-l

e/-?
^-^ chunln. mjd dmad (m.c.) "a person

1
exactly like this
came here":
"act
like
this"
in the latter example ham-chunln
;^ er*^1 ** JwM-ehuntn kdr bi-kun (m.c.) is an adverb: ** c^f
>ti p& I^Q <jyte>j>}>J ham-churiin Jci tu zur ddrl as you are strong, so am I too strong."
man ham-ddram
'*
(m.c.)
just
him "
"
merely a more emphatic form of &(**.. Ex. hamUJf \j ^*^f ^liasv.^ 4U*<i
is
chundn ddam-l
f^
vj* ty
A^SUap-^
I related it exactly as it
Jiam-chundn ki bud 'arz kardam (m.c.) happened (or as was the case)."
&* man
Remark.
It will
^jli^x^-A
be noticed that ham-chumn
^^SÂ
&
is
for near,
and
hamchundn
(h)
for
remote things.
,
There are three other words that
may
be considered as demonstrative
pronouns and deserve notice, viz. }&& hamchu "so (in m.c. pronounced ** so much." hamchi), such," and ^r'*^ and c^loJ^ chandin* and chandan
Their use
is
best illustrated by examples.

:
hamcJm or cir^** hamchun. Ex. &jS jjb^,.^* \j^ kar-ra hamchu " * s the work must be done like this bayad kard (m,c) o^w^J^ ^^f >SX*A
(1) ysx+A
' *
:
**-**;
man
li he is such a brave ^pjlc Jiamchu ddani-i diKr-\st ki misl-ash nlst (m.c.) i( clear as that there's none like him"; jj^^f *^ 6 hamchu ruz (class.)
1
daylight."
Benutrk*
t^F^ hamchm is
is
also occasionally used in m.c.

:
The
follow-
ing vulgar saying
an illustration of these two words
(^** j c#+a
it
aâ>
^.u^
and
like that
like this,
hamchu ti va hamchin, hamchln-ash khusha (vulgar) "he does but this is the way that pleases him."
*
3
For *uto*- chunanchi and *&&*> chunanki, vide under Conjunctions. '* 'Arza daahtam I made a petition in writing." p**\& &*y* (m.c.)
The (s
by
of unity
occasionally
\$3J
Persians
" exactly as he was

*
6
p*>
added to ham chunan or chunan ki by the Afghans and is perhaps incorrect. Ex.: tawf >>jf (or
<x
:
j^J
(Afghans)
" I was entangled
(or
imprisoned)
there
vide Adverbs and Conjunctions. " a few, etc.'* vide 39 *&*For chand (g).
Instead of hamchu
;&+*
the words hamchunan
O^f ^
1
or hamchunln
could be used here.

8
In (m.c.)
mil
C*Uo would be used instead of 'hamchu
90
COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

is
vulgar for khush, ast
c*w cÂ-
Instead of ham-chftn
and hamchin &*&+*>, the words chundn e)^ and chumn

be better.
(2)
(^^
would
that
Chanddn
t^fî*.
<c
so
much
:
as that; so
many;
that
amount;
all
time," and chandin
e^^^
"
all this;
without a substantive.
Ex.
this long time," etc., are used *$ *h &+! chandan l vu^***

:
with or
f&>lj&
vLr** <$***'
(t
he gave f3xj chandan sharab bi-man dad ki na-tavanistam bi-khuram (m.c.) me so much wine that I couldn't drink it (all)"; chandan misl-i u naml-
danam +>l<^
jf
JUx>
^1^
(m.c.)
"I
don't
know such
<j**)\*
a lot as he does ";

(class.)
chandan dakhl-i* bi-zaban-i Farsi na-daram fj*i " I have not a great knowledge of Persian."
dty 4^^^ ^t^^

:
Chandan-l az ta'un To chandan ejf^^. the indefinite ^ can be fixed as murdand lei - &* ^^c u>y>Lk jt ^3}îa. Ci such a number died of plague that ."
Chandan-i az in malikhulya firu yujt
U. AT
8
ki
buh
taqat-i guftan-ash
na-mand
(Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 21) ^tfjj* l^xuJU ^31 so much did he rave like this that he ceased from mere exhaustion."
^t^
'Umr
cliandan-l
ki
kam bashad pansltnm kam

life
(i
ast
<xU
the shorter one's
the less one's worry."
Chandan
iX
also
means
fold
cU>Ux
c^^t^^fy jÛj
an.
-(^fjf
e>l^^ &* f& (ît* J cJtandfin ki man dar In muqam

:
"
mazlum shudam
sad chandan az
ziyada~1ar istirahat hasil
the oppression I underwent there,

J
my
shud (m,c.) f{ in comparison with ease was a hundredfold (lit. as much as
was oppressed
(3)
there, a hundredfold
(.#***
:
more than that was ease obtained)."

na dida
Chandin
!j
chandm
(t
sal ast ki sliuma ra
am
(m.c.) <^<>^
35*X|^
l*-i
&$ c^**f
you
"
:
JU
it is
so
many
(i.e.
(<
many)
years since I have seen
cx^x
^HÂ^
hi-chandtn jihat (m.c.)

&]&*>*>
ior several reasons."
Remark,
Xote that chandan
and chandm
^^^
precede their
nouns which are in the singular.

(i)
For chandanchi atsuf^

4t
chandanki *^t^^.
etc., ride
(;')
as oft as,
"howniuchsoever, notwithstanding" and as many as, insomuch, although, as soon as,
Adverbs and Conjunctions.

(*)***&* (class.)
For bi-chandm martaba afzun e^jif ^-^
"how much
the more," vide Adverbs and
CWj unctions.
With the c5
of
unity
chandan-i
j*\&*^-
"of any amount, however much";
vide
(3).
2
firu
In modern Persian rabt-i fk*j would be used instead of (**> daWri. CJwndan-i <^>l<^- means " such a quantity" and not *'such a long time." jj* may be redundant, but I think it is meant to emphasize the fact that he raved one
in delirium.
in a low voice like
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.
37.
91
Interrogative Pronouns
Ism-i latifhdm
:
faK*>\
pia^
*!
;
strongly accented in speakthe verb or come close to it. and for immediately precede emphasis ing, " which ? " both forms are used in kudam or kudamin* ; &**>)*<> (a)
**$.
There are four interrogative pronouns or adjectives ' ? are and <**> chi. chand " how
kudam
ki
many
'
They
pl*f
m.c. as well as in the classical language; they are applied to substantives, animate or inanimate, singular or plural. Ex. tâacwi ^ fo^ kudam shakhs " " which kudam rah (m.c.) " which road ? " xJU^fij (m.c.) person ? f^ |*fo^
:
bi-farma*id bi-bmam man bd kudam l^cysvxsG ptitf fuj fjta na-mahram-ha dmad u raft ddram be pleased to say let me see with what
oi;
j cWf
<*j
c *
*& *~JfJ> ^^ unwarrantable people have I coinings and goings ? f\* c>T an nami-danistam ki wA/o kudam mulk u kudam nahr ast (m.c.) cu^f^j f\* $ " I did not know I it was." was what river or what (whilst country gazing)
:
"
Remark.
It will be noticed that
p\*f
is
used both for direct and indirect

is
;
questions. [In the last example the Imperfect " I was not " knowing (all the time I was gazing)
ftdf g-y* Inch kudam, "none, not ; but hlch kas meaning, as hldi yak <-*!
(b)
used in a continuous sense,
ast ^~*\ is
dramatic present.]
one of them/* has the same

-**&
means "nobody
(at all)."
(c)
In the modern language ^<*

yak-l-st
?/#&-?* is
:
kudam
khub ast
" wliieh one is it " which of them is good ?
"
generally added, as: *z~~*<* *\<& o-f v ÛjX* ^t^" kudam yak-*-shan
**
The answer might be
^-o
Remark.
of **
Kudam
?
" who
"
:
^^
can also be used instead of the accusative plural

to (A).
vide
Remark
"have you seen anybody? " 5 ^t^ j^^ $J\ uy &&*tf j^ $ kuddme* insan rd fty fcôJ ^j^. ^t )$ \j ÛJj az roz-i dmadan-l man Ha imroz <( dar m jazira na-dida budam, from the day of my arrival till to-day I had
kcuse-ra
For fl*j* ^ each " or "every," vide 39 (j) and (k). (e) The Afghans wrongly use kudam f\? in the sense of the Hindustan i " kudam Ex. ^& some woman told me &#,?. ^s*** h ^J~? f o) ftf
(d)
:
* *
dull
For
chigiina
&JJA.
&*
a substitute
for ^*- T vide
38
(a).
In the accusative
'*
\j is
of course added, as:

?
kudam kar
ra kardl
(m.c.)
what work have you done

it
*'
?
"
:
kudam
one did you give

3
dadl e?^tO ordinary prepositions can of course be used for other cases.
U-U
*^
<^^ti \J or bi kudam kas <j^
ra dadl
f^
(class.)
" to which
m.c.
ft*&
in
The
Na-mahram
j*juolj
<4
"unlawful man,"
'*
i.e.
one not within the degree of relation-
ship (brother, etc.) permitted to enter the

*
6
haram."
Yak
v^j numeral
one" and
^5-
of unity.
is
Kudaml
tyof**' for
kudamin <&*{*\^
used in
class.,
and modern Persian
in
writing, for kudam.
In correct Persian
hwh
instead of insan ra l/>^t ^^>
kudam
or
kudaml insan ra
92
INTEEBOGATIVE PEONOUNS.
" call never seen any man in the island": l^t** kudame-ra bi-talab " some one kas-i rd bi-talab). (for L> LS~? " dat. kira or bi-ki " acc !) *^ r !/ K^ 5 " whom ? (/) *L" wil
v^
v^
"
JB
\jf
or J&. 1
Ex.:
" whom didst thou

didst thou give
it
?
^ JU maW
strike
:
it
:
"
"whose (property)?":
:
L$*J
[f
za <
" who did it ? " ^*l to ***?! *>" istada <>y &f ki kard " " " a ast vXA^ ? is standing ? :i iJj^J budand who were they I; " " 8 *>J^-A> 5^ ki hastand Jb* vai/? &ard who loosed the dog? d/ ct^ âgr
1
âto( *&
or)!/ ^*ra (or fo'-H) dKdK
" to
whom
H
^
" who
1 (
who
are they
"
(or klstand *&~*t )
hikmat az ki amukhti
(Gul.) '*from
whom
didst thou learn
wisdom?
('
"
or
Remark
islifham
(
(*lfi&*f
This interrogative pronoun ol< ) or kaf-i kudamiyya

to
noun
'
^[
it
is
called kaf-i
When
used (interrogatively)
(
imply a negative
:
is
called
kaf-i
istifham-i naft
^sb f\^&\
<J(^ ).
Ex.
îiU Ûo|
^^j
(
o^^Jf AT
)
î^ A^$ li^^^f

:
(Sa dl).
The
particle
J^
A^
is
also a conjunction
for its various significa-
tions, etc., vide Conjunctions.
Remark
but
vide
(g)
//.
In the accusative, &$

to
(A).
is
generally used in the singular only,
Remark
Before
^1
am
'*!
aoi" and
all its
Jt
persons, the
of ki is
changed into
fa U-l is
**
4^ for euphony. Ex.: found: **z~~j6 fast " who

are they
' '
^^
is it,
tu ki-l
who
is
he
who " ?
are
:
thou?" but
also
*&*? &&*$ ishan kiyand
who
A
and
similar change
may
take place before
all its persons. Ex.: *&*<*? Kstand (or In the third person singular c^-* &? is not used.
tr lam, I exist" f*~*Jiatam " who are they? " ki Jiastand)
[The contraction ^+*~*f

still
stands for o*^ A^, vide foot-note.]

(h)
The
plural
î^ kiyan
is
rare in classical Persian, but is
in
The remaining cases are

is
of course
dative and accusative

distinguish
it
also written
formed as usual by the simple prepositions. The &* but in this caso care must be taken, to 1)
,
from the dative or accusative

be noticed that **
plural ki-ha
is
of
*^ kih
**
small
" or
of
huh
&>
poetical for
kuh
"a hill."
is
* It will
applicable to persons only, and to both singular and
plural.
3
The
also used in
m c.
' 35
Also pronounced vel to rhyme with the English bell.* * is vulgar for ast. Vulgarly, tyf kiya is also used final be the contraction of vS**f *& rather than of o*~fc A^.
:
Kwt o**J^
appears to
Ordinarily written
&>\
*& or <^l ^/.
In modern Persian
(
=Shahin-8hah),
.the
e)^ is used as the plural of the old Persian word term applied to the ancient kings of Persia before Islam.
kay
l?^ jt eA'l ** colloquial use amongst the Afghans. Ex. jJJUf j \ij^cf e>^ e>w ^ dar In fikr u khiyal bud ki Ishan az kuja bicKn
:
93
makan
dmadand va klyan and (class. Persian, and whence they came and who they were."
In the m.c. of Persia the plural
:
m.c.
Afghan) "he was wondering

(*>**
(4*?
kihd or
ki-ha
is
of frequent use.
Ex. tA&a.^ *>**$ U*r ki-ha amadand va " people came and what things did they say ?
Remark.
did you strike
it
**&
chi-ha guftand? (m.c.)
" what
The accusative
?
though correct is by some avoided in talking, as in quick Instead like j kir " the penis." sound might speech ^j Ij aUS' &A. chi kudam adamha-ra be or ra zadl kasan used, (m.c.) might y^T f\^
.
"
plural <âj
tj
(&? kiha ra zadi
" what people
In classical Persian the construction would probably be

ashkhas-% ki zadl ki budand ?
(i)
In m.c. the phrase CA~.X& tf ki
bi-kist
<(
who
is
with
whom ? "
signifies
disorder (amongst people).
c:^
Anja ki *& &f j2^
raftid
ai ^
shuma ra namzish kardandl Na khayr ki bi-last (m.c.) UJi ii*i>; *$ Uuf 4< when you went there did they >&j> <J*ity r>
?
treat
" you well ? No they were all in a bustle. " ^ v^-jf u sag-i klst whose dog is he (j)
of
"
in rn.c. signifies
**
he
is
The idea is that a dog has no respect on its own nobody, account, but has merely some respect on account of its master, and c: *f ^~ sag last consequently means 'he is the dog of no one of any account/
no account."
Similarly ^*-^
(k)
**
chi
Jmstmn? which? what! "what,

sag-i ki
;
**
<** U ma ^^ how
sag-i kistlm?
great! in
what manner
or
kind? why?, etc."

Chi
Ex.:
is
^j^**
used for the singular or plural, generally for inanimate objects. ** cu-juUT &*. chi kitab4*st kiim-khwa&l "what book do
better,
want? ", or
u^-s
i^jtif
&$u\X kitab-t ki tm-MwaM chtst? : " " what books are these ? a oJ^>j &*. (^fj^H^ %n chi kitabha-st
o*~^ ^r^>^
you
^\
?
:
kiiabM-t ki mZ-khieastl chi budand? (m.c.)

cu^x
"what books
J>
:
what
here
?
f
"
^
:
31
az dii jihat
chi
4i
for
what reason ?
(m.c.)
nishlni
chi niskasfafi
^^ ^-^J
ki
is
did you want

-f^
^5^^ "
sitting
barayi-chi "for
&*
"why
wonder are you
fe. ditto.
Note that
this first &

t
really a conjunction
and not the interrogative pronoun.
For
this connecting
*
'
vide Relative Pronouns.

?
Or kudam
I
kitabha-ra mi-Wiwastl
^^ ^^
t;
^^
1
f\** vide
(ra).
things were in the boxes" danistam ki chi chlzha dar sanduqha ** this sentence is correct, a Persian bud &# (f*)&L* j& l*}**- *$(&~*\* (m.c.). Though
knew what
would naturally
sanduqha chi bud
in speaking
tj*
omit the word chizha &* lfljl*^ (&f) chiha p*~3\& (or
^^ and
'{*
say daniatam
(ki)
dar
less
common)
an Afghan
would say kudam chizha
{*)*$- f\*f instead of '*_'*^- *$> chi chizha.
94
Remark
/.
Chi ** like ki
it
?
often combines with the

?
" what is as, chlst ^~~**" how ? " chiguna &j**

It
' c
how
"
:
word following
?
it,
chisan
e>^
" in what manner

for
"
:
Remark II. In m.c. az chi <**. Jt sometimes means " of what substance or material ? usually means
' '
what reason
"
(/)
"
gative,
The dative [^ chira "for what?" is only used why ? wherefore?" or as a causal conjunction
as
(*Z
an
interrochira-ki)
f^
" because that." The dative formed by the preposition can however be used. U bi-chi jihat " for what reason ? "
Remark.
of.
Ex.
In m.c., chira
[^
is
commonly used
in the sense of
"
certainly,
course"
(m)
(i.e.
why not
?).
An
accusative with ra after chi

:
is
ft***'
kudam, as
ScXxiU^
^^^
\>
tell me yourself what work you have combi-anjam rasanlda-l (m.c.) chi or kar ra bi-anjam rasamda-i looiU; Ûuf ^ ^ jg Aa. (rare). pleted," ** which book do you want ? " Chi kitab mi-khwaht ^L?^^ (m.c.)
"
^ ^
f\
rarely used: its place
is
taken by
ra
l
j& ouj^
khud-at bigu
kudam kar
v^ ^
also
"what
*
kitab ra
book do you want?", but " mi-khwahi? ** which book do you want ?
sort
of
^^^
tj
^X ftj
kudam
\&^ j ** chi kar karda-% could also be used, but might what fault have you committed ? ' taken to mean
Remark.
4
also
be
'
s<
vt is generally followed by ^f^ chlz In m.c,, thing", j% kar ** word, matter." Ex. *^~*t jj^ work", or vJ^*. karf $ u chi chlz oat " " what is he then ?" j *<* chi cMz-%m " what are we ?" (i.e. nothing"); f
(n)
^
((
>^
(Le. vf ***> h%ch-lm

(o)
we
are nothing").
The following are common colloquialisms: s &. ^^J bi-man chi *' what " business * is it of mine ? what have I to do with it ? &*-jt etc. also "is it possible?": "what do chi mean?", you ya'ni " what chi cJiara remedy?" ^b o^ ** chi jan darad "what is he able do? 6 (nothing)" xi^vo cxli^ chi hdlat mi-kashad can he to do? what
:
suffering," " he said what ? ": chi ki guft

1
"what
a state he
is
i.e.
how
miserable
*<
is
^^
he 6 !:
**. jf
&*.
tS u-if
chi sag-i
fi^ j~
^^\
^>
The ra necessary
Plural ace.
after
kudam
\)
* 4
^
3
kudam
kitabha
:
Vulgarly ^5$- chi
^^-
&*> chi chi
what
" or
4 *
what thing
"
is
common
vulgarism.
4
*j
?
jL^j^ ^hji
**
bi-kushad
6
fl
(Sa'di, verse)
" what
utf
Lr*
care I that the
mara az an chi H parvana moth kills itself ? "
Also u chi jism
u jan darad ?
Also chi baruy-a*h mi-guyarad
ast ki
sar-i
95
(lit.
bald-yam
bi-nishinad
he
?) to sit (at table, etc.) above

(p)
:
* shash nan ra har ruz chi ** What? Ex. I) " " mi-kuni what do you do with the six loaves every day? mi-khwahi chi-kuni (vulgarism) "what do you want to do"?: " what do I jjlj olo -*y iS *ijU chi mlrdanam shayad ki u ham najat ydbad
[
:
^>
"who is he me " *<* & <J jjy^

?
then
what a dog
is
know but
that he too
(m.c.)
may
am
chi
L)
shud*
<x escape ? a^ p*\ ^*$+> nami danam asp" I don't know what became of my hcrse": fj *U~
:
"
chi f& *$* *4j&* fttfcvjj** siyah ra bi-tu bakhshidam; kanlzak ra " " the I is but what can do with the (Sa'di) negro yours girl?
kunam
Remark.
"
It will be noticed that A*, is used in indirect as well as in
direct questions.
(q)
'
**.
How
!
" " what "

!
Ex.
:
how
fearful, terrifying
it
unfortunate
(r)
**.
<(
am I ": v>^ Jj^ ^ c ^ manzil-i khub How? In what manner? why?": xx

man chi me ? "
'
was " ^ (o*iu^ a*.

!
&# ^xlÂ
^^ ^ man "
said,
4i
chi-qadr* hawlnak
chi
bud
kambakht am
fine
' c
how
what a
'
mansion !"
zan guft bar in love with
'(ishiq
:
shuda-i
" the woman
Û
<^
^ j ^M ^
Rum*
ra
" it
&
guftand ki diyar-i mashriq

'
u maghrib bi^chi girifti ki (Sa^l) " Alexander the ** he had Great was asked how conquered the East and West, because (lit. " lt oJ,ô what manner didst thou conquer ?) they asked, In ^b
9
:
J^ &*- Îj* dar In chiharf ? ** ***^ u*ijj*&^ tJfyS *^> w^ ^ <4r"" J^

i>
have you fallen there is no doubt about

Iskandar-i
Why
^^ &^j>*tsj&*jf iuki bi~mmihnat giriftar-l shukr bi-chi gu^l?

what
tion
?
(Sa'dl)
" for
afflic-
^y
(or
how) can you return thanks since you are entangled in

*>*! ttJ^f
this
"
:
v^^^
:
wand-i 'dlim
oJjtâ-
^
**
*tit
&(&+ Subhana'llahf Chi Khuda-
whib*-* 8k>shan ast!

J
Praise be to
God
What
a wise and
mighty God is he
(Saî)
-
&$* **
5
" some one said to him,

c hi
^^ ^ <J&& ^-^ kaM

*
guft-ash chi nishmi ki fuidn
Why do you remain seated here because

' '
budi
(classical)
would to God
5 '
! :
a?
chi budl agar (or ki)
Governor had come here (or This idiom is still in use amongst the Afghans.
!
hakim Inja ml-dmdd " would to God the were to come here) 5)
Û. (^ or) j!\ ^djj
&<*>
For bala-yi sar-am
fj*
<^$*
better balatar az
man
But nami-danam has come to it."

*
8
chish shud (vulg.)
(J^
4<
^f>**>
I don't know what (sickness)
Also qadarjfr*
*'
quantity";
etc.
Cr
(without hamza)
" a
ball."
* But C5^ p*jp* j*!& JM jr^ **^t *^ chi ba&hadagar bar-i dlgar mutarannim shavi* " chi baahad or chi mlshud what " how nice it would be if you were to sing again if ." would it matter " would that he would 6 Ohi budl come Inja bi-ya yad *&> lîjl (^&j> *%- (class.)
' !
'
'
in m.o. chi
khub bud &j*
w^ **- or chi
fehftth
bud
&j* (jSj^-
fy
is
used instead of chi budl
5**
j\
rtzHtf kardl chi shudR?
(Sa'dl)
course with her, what then &* (t ) The plural of
"
?
&*j& )&jf* agar dar mufdvazayi u " had he delayed but, one night in his
chi-hd
:
inter-
is
it is
I*
rare in classical Persian.

:
In
&*.. Ex. ***&*> modern Persian the plural is also written " what do or what are saying?": they they say, miguyand
** chi-hd
&$(&&*
&j& chihd ki na-kard va chihd ki na-guft (m.c.) he didn't do or say/' nothing &*.-&*. (u) Chi-chi signifies "what does it matter one
lô. y
oA&
A^
"there was
or
way
the
" whether other"; also

bar takht
whether
."
Ex.
vÛv^^^
it
murdan
chi bar ru-yi

?
;
khdk " what matters
&ty# cuiu^j a^. chi to die on a throne or on

*<*.
the bare ground
it
is
simple
ground": j&* **> j&>\ " shah chi

=chi
the same thing to die on a throne as on the bare &$ chi amir chi faqir (m.c.) "whether gentle or
a pearl or an oyster high as low."
" shell
gadd (m.c.)
:
dur ^^ ^ ^ j -A^ ^ chisharif u

;
^t'
*J<x*o
*a. chi
chi sadaf
chi
**
whether
as well
wan' "
Remark.
examples.
f^
khivdh repeated could be substituted for a^
in these
This chi
is
called chi-i (not chi-yi)
musdvat (otf^l~x>
&*.
"the -
of
com-
parison or equality," (v) It was stated above, in (&), that &* is generally used for inanimate
things.
<xlb
however also occasionally used for animate beings, as chi ddamhd mi-bdshand (( ^xj^f &*. ^1 * SMJi pursld ki
It is
<H*vi
*^
the
(ni.c.)
Shah asked
<*&*>-*
who
are these
men?*";
{instead of
in
ddam-hd
*
klstand'*
In the former case, however, &*> has rather the sense " " of what sort of whereas * merely asks who are they? &>\
^jf
^0
&*>
o^
[in
?
In
mard
chi kas ast (rn.c.)

*j
?
**
what
sort of
man
what
8
is this ?
"
^^ ^
ast o~s'
"
:
j*> ^3\
fm.c.)
"what
c/
sort of
*'
man
is this,
mard chi fcdra or what is his

", also ~bi-tu
profession
chi
?
tu chi kdra-l
{
**>
&
^^j* & ~***\
^ ^
**$** (m.c.)
)nan In ihsdn farmudl (class.)
**- chi kas-ttu ki dar &* )* ** y haqq-i "who art thou who hast acted so kindly to-
is
your work
wards
me ?
' '
(w)
Chand***-
"how many"
is
applicable to things animate or inani-
mate, with or without a substantive.

in the singular.
The substantive,
if
used, must be
be pronounced with a stress on

**
is doubled durr J$ and must therefore in prose Here by poetical license the word is dur. " Hindustani The distinction that exists between and (vide SteppingStones ") in Urdu does not exist in Persian between *l^ and *^.
1
Note that
the
final
letter
it.
t^
In m.c. this chi kaa-l tu
^^
&<$>
would be too familiar an address to be followed
by
iJisan
farmudl
97
Chand ***-
is
also
an interrogative signifying
Ex.:
how
long? to
what length? etc."
danad lei chand az shah guzashta " he " passed (i.e. how near morning it is)
how much ? how many ? axA^w^jt cxia. * **(**+* namiknows not how much of the night has
* '
(Sa'di).
1 '
" For the camel has no more endurance left in it ? s ^^\ â. ajAUô y Turd mushahara chand ast? Guft " hich."
(Sa'di)
Pa-yi misktn piyada chand ravad K-az tahammul sutuh shud bukhfi-' (Sa'di) How far can the weary footman go
" how
1
much
:
bi-chand
* '
girijti'
?
how
often
"
is your pay?" He said "nothing": <^&^ *^^" how much did (m.c.) you pay for (this) ? "; jL> ^câric? bar
<>ia*
13
ta-chand
<*i^ is
i(
for
how
' '
long
Like chi *., chand
occasionally used in exclamation.

<*JL
years
Remark " or "
1.
In composition:
JA. chand-sala,
of
how many
Chand
Remark
II.
years according to the intonation of the voice. *** is only used of things that can be counted.
?
"
adj., signifies
"of few
For quantity that can be measured t^j** and ^^^ are used. In m.c., chand taab w/f &**. means, ** how many parterres of ground each measuring five oj3 by five eji will this stream water in twelve hours?" A
plot of the size mentioned is called
(#}
(1)
by villagers *-*&$ Grammarians distinguish the particle (*J^) chi &*> by various names
.
Chi
as a simple interrogative, as ^tj-^-vc

(
*^ chi-mi-khwah*?,
is
called
cMm:
istifham
^fftx*fâ.
(
).
!
(2)
Ghim-i
istifhani*i nufl
^jto |*^^*
f^* c
iniplies negative interroga*'

?
tion, as
aw
^ra^ r^?'
ml danad
(
*>ifax
^^j^'f
what does he know
nothing
also (6),
(3)
Chim-inahi
ê
^*^
(
implies prohibition, as: in sada chi ml-faml

?
(m.c.)
(4)
"why
do you make such a noise

the
*** of
:
=don't do
it."
Ghlm-i mvbalagM
&*)\*#
adjective and
intensifies it, as
amplification precedes an px ) &* chiziba mi-khwanad (m.c.) *' how ^tr^^î)
nicely he reads."
(5)
Ch%m-i ta'zim
what a man (brave) he is " o~o^* the of disdain" implies negative (6) Chim-i tahqtr (^*a3 p**> as combined with o*f Jbll *^. ^( %n chi qabil ast contempt, interrogation " This chi ** " how can he do is he how fit for this business ? this; (m.c.)
In chi mard-i st
&&.
'
!
^jJa*5^^
the ** of honouring precedes a noun, as
is
practically identical with chim-i istifham-i nafi (2) q.v.

(7)
Ch%m*i tahayyur
(m.c.)
^3 ^ "
i'j
<*
)
the
**.
expressing astonishment," as:
what is this you're saying! what do you mean !"

chand ginfti
A strong
7
breed of camel with two humps.

**^> )* or elliptically
Also in m.c. dar chand girifta
98
(8)
INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
Ch%m-i tahassur
(j~*^* p**>
* '
Fatak ba
man chi karcK ^^/ *^ &* how has thou dealt with me
!
" as in " the ** of regret dar\g> " Alas O wheel of the ^ **&* c^f U$p
)
!
(9)
(10)
For chtm-i musavat vide (M). For cMm-i tasgj&r j**>*> p**> or "the
*
'
**. of
diminutiveness
"
,
Diminutives.
38.
Substitutes for Interrogative Pronouns.
" Connected with &*> are the inter rogatives A*^. chiguna how ? in " from &* chi and and colour manner state ? A3^? guna appar derived from &*> and the demonstrative pronoun of. o~>i <^^f a *^^ chiguna adam-% *st (classical and m.< (a) Chiguna.
*
'
'
'
e^
*' what sort of a man is he ? OM^yoaf *J>^ ) For the m.c. phrase vi*w *; fe &^ *^*i.J| ?w
"
mard
chi-kara ast
mWe
exa
at end of
(v)
37.
Remark.
In the above example, chiguna **j&^

"
,
qualifies the
noun adav
In the phrase &*&* chiguna-i" ho ware you ? chiguna &>*. is an ad^ ({ chun-% tu bt-ma Ex, Chun.* U^ away from us, how d< ^^^ (6) " 4t ? ") thou art ? what how art thou find yourself? jo> 'j JU^ju (lit.
:
^JL
_*^
<j*rt*
J^ t5^^ J
?
c5^^ darvish-i za
?/
M2
ra
<iar tongft
khust
sal ina-purs ki chun-i
magar
(Sa dl)
is,
**
during a famine year

39.
(a)
how
he
unless
don't enquire from the poor da ."

/
6
)^
Indefinite Pronouns
+4** +*A
is
There are very few indefinite pronouns properly so called. ThS d of unity or by substitutes, as will be seen fron supplied by the
following
list
of examples
also
Guna *}y
gun &)*
be careful to pronounce the j long and the

'*
final
e-t &*j* **&- chand-guna &>j>*$- chigvne " of different colours or sorts." guna-gun
of different kinds,
various'*; also e
is
Chiguna &>j&*- here equals )j> ** chifawr or p~$ **> chiqism. Note thafct adaml " man "), as in chiguna zan-i 'at that of unity ' (and is not that of
^
'
o^^>)
8
what sort of a woman is she? " Note the difference of meaning of ****. n the following two sentences
*'
i
^^
ra dar Basra didam-,

(Sa*di)
"
*
5
Quftarn-ash chiguna-i dar fyafat ? ^ j^- "-(Sa'dl) I asked him how he was feeling.*' Chun e?j^ is also in some districts vulgarly used for kun &j& the anus/' cki. which is certainly a commoner wo Another reading is Wmshk-sall Chwnln 9 chunan c^^> fulan >^, etc., chand <>i^, chandan and \&
is
?
'
saw him what sort of a pilgrim

I
'*
hajl chiguna bashad ; <**? tej^f f*^^ *T^ )* ^ in Basra; how ran he then be a pilgrim from Mecca ? : ch
'
u*^
he
"
^^
^^
are called kinayat
ouUT.
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
(1)
99
"Other, another," dlgar ^.^^ precedes or follows its noun, as: digar ruz)jjj&* OT ruz*i dlgar jt*t> jjj "the next day" also "another day"; " another road " dlgar bar or rah or rah-i
9
dlgar
bar-i digar
fy
.*,
dlgar
fy
jb
"another time; a second time, again

altered";
;
"
;
jyt*
digar-gun &jf j&*

'
"in another
state,
' '
jt** jUi
afternoon prayer 1 dlgar kas
" % the of unity ** ^~$ kas-l dlgar " another person, some one els ^s.* " another " the other 'azvha (remaining) person, another"; c&gar limbs"; digar baradaran-ash ij*\)tij* jZt* "his other brothers" (Gul.,
>.*
dlgaran &\j&s or dUgar-ha (class.), or kas-i, digar
namaz-i dlgar (Afghan idiom) "the 9 ^Xj^ "others, other people
^^
(class.),
or better with
:
U^^y^
Book I, St. 3). The expression ^* <^$j>& oJ>; ^. yak-i raft " is classical as 8 other remained well as
m.c.
digar-%
mand " one went,

*
the
Yak
*
digar
^^ and
hatn dlgar
jl**.***
are
reciprocal pronouns
each
other,'
one another.'
I.
Remark
In classical and m.c., dlgar j&$
is
frequently
used as
an adverb signifying "otherwise, again, any more, why then," etc., as: j^Liu^JliJ j fi o*^^r^-* lia dlgar kas nam Da mshan-a,$h na-sMnavad (GuL, Book 3, St. of the Boxer, No. 68) "and no one ever hears of him again" here cRgarj^t* is an adverb " again," and does not qualify kas : digar payin" further down," tar
;
yi;
^Jâ
{ni c.)
Remark
tl
II.
In compounds and
in
poetry^Sa digar, as:
ct^î
dt gar-gun
changed, altered, otherwise."

*
Bazarcha-yi qasab-faru$han digar ast store of Cairene cloth or silk have we."
(O.
vj>f jl
K. Rub. 58 Whin.)
another place."
lit,
"the mart
of the muslia-sellers is
Remark
III.
For the
^ of unity with dlgar ji#>,
vide
41
(p).
For " the one

j{j&
the other
* '
vide yak-l (c)
1).
;
^j
;
" one other, another" yak-l dlgar

:
note position of
*'
^ of unity
in these
two words
also inÂ-!^ cSVf*' chiz-i digar
^5^.^ means
another person/' so iSJ^*-J&5"
chlz-i digar-l
should
mean
rectly
means " another
" the thing of some one else ; in m.e. however it often incorare These exceptions to rule. Instead of expressions thing."
**
chu-l dlgar j&* cî^-* y<*k chlz-l dlgar ^.^

to
(b).
d
C^34^
could be used; vide also
Remark
j^
)
^>*^ J oAjdJf JU
aîf
^C A^y **3ti^
.
c5X*u
4
JLc a^}f >j& JUtf j oJLycf Baxarcha *^> ^tj'j dimin. Qasab Persian).
j AJ^J 6^xj J> Here isj&z could have been used.

-*
u^ ji
in
v*
fine linen of
Egypt (word not used
modern
100
INDEFINITE PBONOtJNS.
(2)
j*
JU
To
" is properly a substantive (pi. ag&yar Ex. strangers "). j*# ghayr 1 mal-i gbfiyr "some one else's property": cJi? ^j& o* 2*** #hakh$-i
:
gh&yr-i guft*
some one else said this." " the answer " are the question might be you a relation of theirs ? " I am an outsider.' *ri* ay* man gh&yra hastam (m.c.),
stranger,
'
"a
Dar
umftr-i zatl va karha-yi gjb&yr bd

C$- A>{< (Tr.
I
man kunkash namudl

;
-5 ^f i
j>*t
p
his
^Ki/ fc/obî
H. B. Chap. V) "he used to consult
me on
own
affairs
and those
of the
community
"
ghayr-i
^j*
" another person, a
stranger."
prefixed to substantives and adjectives, and Arabic " un- im- " etc., to form adjectives. 9 participles, with the privative sense " or uninhabited " Ex. gh&yr-i abad * *f j** < uncultivated gh&yr-i insaf
Remark.
Qhayr j+*
{
is
* c
o^l j**
manqula
<v
unjust" (but
ghayr insafl
if
the
omitted, as
**
^^\
A^yîx)^ ghayr-i mankuha "unmarried, i.e. illegitimate (wife)"; **& jJ> g&ayr-i nafiz "inoperative, of no effect"; " maivrusi " not inherited (also ghayr-i mawrus ^5 ^))y*j** gkayr-i mod. Per.).*
immovable (property)
^ "
compound
(class.)
;
ivS
a substantive the
izdfat is
"injustice"); &Jj&*>j+e gb&yr-i
?**>. /
P. (for wa-gj&yr* "-hu

),
^^,
Ar.),
zalik (for Ar.

f
= " with jf ji
The
^3^^
izafat
an eif the exception of him." oÛi in modern Persian

and
gAaa/r-s*
^=
and uJJi^p^ va
;
"
et cetera"
but ghayr <& &
after ghayr j** in
compounds
^
is
perhaps a
corruption
of
the
final
vowel of the Ar. noun, thus c*5
^^,
gh&yr" khalis^, Ar.,

(6)
and cfayr-i "One another"

:
kfwlis,
Mod, Pers M
**
impure/*
of
(l)^JUs^ yakdtgar (one word) classical (t another." Ex.: (numeral) and digarj&.z
dust mi-darim
compound
yak
**&
"one"
^*^f^** *z>**}*
"we
are fond of each
other":
" we went to each other's houses.*' bi-kkana-yi yakdigar YakcRgar j&.*& is used in colloquial only by educated people
^^
\jj**& yak&gar ra &iiu raftlm
^1^
ham-dlgar
ji+*>
is
used only by the vulgar.

I.
Remark
This
reciprocal
pronoun must not be confounded
with
j&* 4J&
yakl-dlgar "another individual," vide footnote 2, page 99.
4^*r?i
J^
malri digar-i
**
the property of some one elne."
The expression
;
o"ut p
ghayr ehakhfi, though correct,
is
not used in modern
Persian
B
fihakk* i yhayr-l is
used instead.
v**l*|
jg
In modern Persian the izafat
uded after
ghayr j*P
in
compound
adjectives.
In old classical Persian, however, the Izafat

after ghayr
**'*4t
appears to have been omitted
j**
It is
omitted in India and Afghanistan.
INDEFINITE PEONOUNS.
101
is
Remark IL Note that in the second example <w^ would also be correct, but less usual, to use the plural
(2)
used collectively.
j&&
.c.)
oJ>x)f ^*j?,& p* v^* j' az *aqab-i ham-c&gar they are seated together amadand (Shah's Diary) they (the ships) followed one behind the other." " One " " some one " and <c a person.' (c) any one
:
"
p*>
ham
digar (m.c.)
f '
ba ham-digar nishasta and

"
<
' *
'
(1)
t5^ yak-i (the numeral yak
"one"
with the
of unity).
Ex.:
sukhun bar In muqarrar ixiLU?^j ÛLjj ^^âaJo tj ^j &$ j^âx> ^j> ^^R id ki yak-i ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand va (Sa'dl) "it was
1
sided to appoint
e
.
"
dl)
one of the kings
some one "

:
to spy on
o) j:>
^
:
jyix> j| ^X* yak-i az muluk " some one loiocked dar zad yak-i (m.c.)
:
them
' '
the door."
anyak-i î (m.c.) "that one," " this one." Ex. 1 in yak-i <^>. pusht-i (m.c.) f* ^*U> jd ^^J of 6J I hid behind that there door." yak-i dar qcfim shudam (m.c.) "The one the other" is yak-i <^& dlgar-l v5>^^, or yak-l
The following are colloquialisms
'
^$
^^
c<
digar-i ^5^:^ of.

dlgar-i
In
classical Persian digar

2.
cc
j>*
the other" also occurs
<^ji.
'
Vide foot note
Remark.
ir
Yak-i
*
is
also
a numeral
*j
thus, to the question,

yak-i dar dak
( *
what
is
average
tlie
answer might be
^ î
one in ten
rtridges, etc.)."
Note the following idiomn *>ty. ^H /**^ &+* hama bd-ham yak-i budand were all of one unanimous J^ -^} mind, key (yak-dil budand i{ in az 1 am one, alone," but yak-i man-am miyan n-yak-i~am ^ ^* ^^ ^ I am the one who ," * it^t ) fô Ô (Saklf) is FaM For yak-i ^, adv.. ** in the tirst place," w/e Adverbs,
:
^^
^
^
>
a subs, {note accent)
For yak
e
41
(a)
unity, oneness, concord." the numeral, as a substitute for the indefinite article, vide also under Numerals. JLfa yaka u tanha ^p j î &*> (m.c.
<-?,
44
y)
"
alone."
of ox=*( ahad* (the Arabic numeral "one" with the Persian the in with m.c. is used as ty), though practically the same only yak-i <^, b in the negative, vide <l No one " (d) (6).
(2)
l Note the Preterite tense is used to signify that not only was the decision arrived but that ifr was carried out.
lasht
Haklm-l guft khilaf-i In *a/o6 budl ki an yak-i bisyar-bhwar bud halak shud va an dlgar tehwlsktanrdar bud "
ffiqat-i
b*-nava*-i
jt
** a philosopher replied> 'the contrary would have been strange because (Sa*di) former was a great oater and could not stand the fasting, so he died ; but the second
latter)
3
was accustomed
to abstinence.
'
'
Or
yak- bar dah
102
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS.
Remark.
The broken
:
plural of
ahad **M
is
ahad
^f
"units,
alaJf
indivi-
duals.'*
Ex.
f^
j$
*$ i)\* if**
\)>
k&
^ of*^ cx^
:
&)j~$ j>
&&
guft bar pi$aran-i ahad-i ra'iyyat

pisar-i
mam
(Sa'dl)
chandan jafd u iawbikh rava nami-darl ki " he said you do not treat the sons of any one of my
jl c^ *^ fV<^ fj *& C5J^ ahad-t az ahad ra na-didam ki chunm kar-l bi-kunad (m.o.) " I never saw any one else do such a (disgraceful) thing as you have done."
subjects with the severity
you use
to
my
son
"
&V^
**
^T
or t^~$\ kas or kas -t. body said that ." Sa'di says
(3) ^v-^
:
Ex.
^0^^^
kas-% guft ki
"some
Kas na-<Rdam
Rastl mujib-i raza-yi Khuda-st ki gum shud az rah-i rast
Rectitude (or truth) is the means of pleasing God. Never have I seen an upright man forsaken."
**
Gar
bi-ja-yi nan-ash
Ta qiyamat
e
ruz-i rushan kas
andar sufra budl a/tab na-duR dar jahan

bi-i'timad*i
(Sa'di).
an
ki
danad ki bi-kas^
he replied because he relies on what he knows, viz. that na-guyam I won't repeat things to any one vide also example in Remark to (a) (1) ** ki sukfaan j'jf v^xyo ^ î& ^)^ (^> J^ t^*-"* t5*y c^k juz
(Sa dl)
' %
'..*
**
bi-hukm-i zarurat na-guftl va mulib-i azar-i kas bi-zaban-ash na ra//? (Sa'df) * 4 who never spoke unless it was necessary, nor unbridled his tongue to " hurt anyone's feelings Mif *Ua> ^ ; (in m.c, ka$-i instead of kas)
:
/^ ^
^>r?
i^^?M
u^ ^W
*'
u^
7X?
Jtukama* gujta and ckahar kas az diahar kas
^ j"^ ^
body ')
1
bl-jan bi-ranjand*
c^
four people live in dread of four other people '* : jj !>^ qaza-ra az kasan-i u yak-l hazir bud" by chance one of his
followers (people of the house)
was present."
used in the sense of "noble"
<*
Remark.
Kas
<jr* is also
(i.e.
some-
as opposed to na-kas
^&
ignoble,
mean"
thus Sa*d! says:
Jn
rn.c.
lcas-1
**
<B5~*$'
taken to pronounce this

*
this person." Care must some one," but ^^^1 n kaa word kas ijr* and not kus ^* (whence the Arabic kus}.
4*
Kaa
4 4
"a person, a body"; chunin koaqn eJ^ is properly a substantive, {jf such persons. ' 4 In m.c. and in prose kas-i ra \j ^j~ would be used for has ^jr^ in the example. " thafe 8 Ex.: person.* ^f J^>4J U vi^Xj (J3^^ da*t^f an kas
e^^
^f ^
' * 1
aah
bi-girift ta bi-manzil-i
an kaa dar avard
he took him by the hand and led him to

'
that person's house."

*
Bi-ranj J*j* "in affliction
" and
"are,
:
or else
bwanjand **ajjj the 3rd
person
pi. of the Aorist of ranjidan ()**&*)
both correct.
103
Shamshir-i n%k az dhan-i bad chUn kunad kas-i
Nd-kas
"
bi-tarbiyat na-shavad,
ay hakim, kas
(Sa'dl).
How
An
can a
ignoble
man make a good sword from bad iron ? man becomes not oh philosopher, noble by education."
;
Imruzhd u ham kas shuda
ast
exi
*&~-
^^
$ Uj^cf (m.c.)
" he has
become a big person, a somebody, these days."
Bar khud "

I close the
dar-i
kdm u
drzu dar-bastam
V'az minnat-i har na-kas u kas vd rastam.
Nor sue
for favours
door of hope in my own face, from good men, or base.'
'
Kas u nd-kas
Kam-tar
kas-%
^^
^^
f at
^
(C
(O.K., 315, Whin.)
"
high and low, all."
Bi-ka$ <j-*^ signifies
scarcely a person." These significations of kas \ na-kas ^*^^, and K-kas
^ ^
"
adarn,
:
friendless, destitute,
an orphan,"
^j^^,
are rn.c.
as well as classical.
(4)
"One":
<c
^tf
adami,
&{~*i\
insdn
* c
man"; oaJi
:
shakhs*
(lit,
a person." Ex. oi**o c^*^ ^T adam hayrat mikunad ki "one a man) wonders that " insdn could be substituted in such sentences
;
*&jj*>
vi
ij
4ja^
iX?Ui
JJ ^c^ bu-yi gul shakhs rd

' 5
;
" mast m\-kunad
the scent
of the
roses
<S*A
intoxicates one
Û
^J^t
^f
shakhs na-bdyad In harna subuk bdshad 4i a person, (a man) ought not to be so (jaii^ (m.c.)
impatient."
Remark!.
s**j
oa=R-
shajchs-i
vahid, <x
jj
&jf
fard~i bashar, sigmfiea
Ex.: **a person, some one." single individual," and shakh$*i ^*&** t oîj ^?** &xsu wf^+i j& shakhs-i vdhid bd dah nafar nami-tavdnad
"a
<4
bi-jangad
single individual
(to
cannot
" some one came
me)
"
fight
with ten
:
men":
^f
^^^
means
but^^
shakhsi adj
(note accent)
^personal."
Adam f^ and
insan c>^l both

'
mean *'man"
as opposed to
**
beast," but the
latter is also
used in the sense of,
possessing politeness, good manners

bi-dast-i
not a savage.'
The following classical sentence, Mi-tarsa'nmabada va in hamrchunan ast ki bi-panja-yi shir giriftar shudan
adam-i jangalibi-yuftam
^'
(^^
S^"
*^*><V f>4*
^^^
j&j! j% rendered Va
,j)Ji
*$ <?"J^ *^
*^^*l
vy^*u^
^| j |ÂXJ
(class.),
would
in
modern Persian be
shavad
In chunan ast ki guya, inaan bi-panja-yi shir
girifffir
*
8
The
plural of
In m.c.
g$
or
*f glj or glch
would be more used
in this sense.
104
Remark
II.
The
indefinite
pronoun
"one"
*
in English, or
' '
:
may
often be rendered in Persian by *5yb har-ki
whoever
*z+**\
cu*,|y
Û^j
is
har-ki nazdik-tdr ast

in anxiety,"
lit.
]
parishan-tar ast
is
" the nearer one
"a man," j*&& **j*

is,
the
more one
(v)
;
whoever
nearer
4
is
in great anxiety, vide
45
^^xslj ^4J t;jA. AJîu îti c/ *!) )* j* harki dar zindagl na-khurand chun bi-mwad nam-ash na-barand (Sa'dl) "when a man's bread is not eaten in his lifetime, his name is not mentioned after
oijAJ
nan-ash
death."
The following
is
often quoted
by dervishes and Sufis
" one" can only be expressed by putting the second the Aorist or into Past verb, person singular, as, gu*i Habitual, " '* you would say <^^y ^**j &* ^-^t^t ^j^*> j~/\ ^lia. $j*) &j fkojf izdiham-i zan u mard chundn-ki agar sar-i suzan-l-andakhll bi-zamln na-ras%di
(6)
The
indefinite
pronoun
(H. B. Chap. XI) "such a crowd of men and women that were one to throw (or had you thrown) a needle's point amongst them it wouldn't have reached the ground."
(d)
"No
&
2 one, none, nobody, nothing/ no, some."
(1) <_r'
$**
Jilch
kas
Sa'dl says
&>
&itiJ\
^ ^ ^ #&
y
or
kas
with the verb in the negative.

iltifat
Ex.
Mch kas bi-man

(m.c.)
:
na-kard
ta
<tf
*'no
'
one paid any attention to

h%ch ki az shuma-ha
lai*q-i
me
"
;
^^>ojU^
**
^ ^ ^Jf
UUJ^
}t
kar nlstld (m.c.) Af*~*j &*> t^^+^j* (^-^ ui*^ 3 business";

f
^ &&
none of you are
fit
for this
y&k az shuma-ha
layiq-imarhatmt-Iid'yimanmstid (m,c.) "none of you is deserving of my kick yak ma jam kindness" qalam-band ^ f^xU J^ &*/ xu
;
fl~-*ju
^15
^
"
I was unable to commit to writing any (Afghan) " &*> %*> d* 3 u j )j* rH* chaskm-i mur n one of the adventures ; " none has na-did kas ever seen ant's mulla nan-i (modern saw) pd-yi mar u * bread." eye, snake's foot, or Mulla's
kardan na-tatvanistam
<S
oJifc
*
*?**>
Mch
:
tl
na-guft
vide also
he said nothing
(/) (2)
hlch kas
nayamad
no one came"
and
110 (m).
Note
'
this
method
'
of forming the passive.
*
8
Nothing
is
in English a noun.
Or hlch yak <~& ***.

Grammatically,
of course, this
should be
riist
*^**J
this
2nd person plural
is
an
example
6
of the slovenly thought
so noticeable in
modern
Persian.
In m.c. this sentence would be hich yak az majaraha ra naml~tavanitam qayd
bi-kunam f&* * ^L-ofyu^j fj UyxU Jf cJo gA. * Mullas In m.c., rtMla-zada bleed people and are not bled.
*
'
fofj
H*
is
almost the
equivalent of
stingy/ etc.
105
Hich *$*, which is used adjectively and substantively is applicable to substantives, animate or inanimate. As an adjective, it preRemark.
,
cedes
its
substantive.
(2)
"Some, any."
"
:
times implies
In composition, some," and with a negative
&**>
*'
without a negative someetc.
none,"
Example
Gar Faridun shavad bi-ni'mat u mal

Bl-hunar-ra bi-hlch kas ma-shumar
(Sa'di).
" Even should he become a Faridun in wealth and possessions, Do not consider the ignorant (mean) person anybody."
So^jAa. grAfr ($)*** ($* tu-yi sanduq Inch chtz hast "is there anything <l in the box?"; ^f l*vvi <^x> ^f g* hich adam-l inja amad did any man come here?": **&**> yf^r" g& hich mard-l nayamad "no man came": Mch kas is there hast one there ? z "
Â
hich
gtt*
ixiqt
hich
oJ^ g*A any mara yad mi-kuni " do you ever remember me?"; <c have you ever gone there " yah anja rafta-l (class.)
anja
;
'?
l '
j
hidihl (m.c.)
(3)
t4
^.'f vajh ^t^ can you by any means complete this work
^^V
A ^=?-^
hi-liich
mi-tavarii in kar-ra
?
anjam
"
In answer to a question, hich

Ex.
:
<*& and
its
negative.
tf
Q.
^$* &*. chi mi-fcunl
kt
what are you doing

i;
compounds signify a " A. ? kick

^**
??
nothing," be ir*A
To the
no one."
question. e*-*r taut
who
is
there
the answer might
* 4
Similarly
m kama hich ast cuî

or)
ê*
A-
"*
f,
siguilies
this is all nothing
"
;
htch chlz nist cu-xi (chiz-i ^Jjj^
JJ^
^>
"
it is
nothing
"
:
In hama Jiicli ast chun mi-bugzarad Bakht u takht u amr u nahy u glr u dar.
passes away, (viz.) fortune and sovereignty, ordering and counter-ordering, empire and dominion." (Sa'di.)
is all
" This
naught, since
it
Hich vaqt
*^**>
ever
"
;
hich vaqt-na **
^.)*
^5 g*A
'
never."
Ex.
ghulam
hlchwaqt darya na-dlda bud
W *&*>
-^
*r-y*
(*^* (vâ'di)
" the slave had never
seen (or experienced )i the sea."

*
The m.c. phrase

),
(not mard-i ity*>

also
A hich ka#-l nist c^-oji or hich mar d nist^** &j* gt LT^gf*** ' * " he is of no sometimes the latter account, a poor creature signifies
;
signifies hich mardi na-darad
>;t^
4^^
translated " he has ffi* (politely
no
manhood
").
106
Dunya
didi va har chi didi hick ast
Van
niz hi gufti va shunidi hich
ast.
" You see the world, but all you see is naught, And all you say, and all you hear is naught."
(0. K.,
Rub. 50, Whin.)

1
"He
(m.c.), or
is
3 az hich chiz kamtar ast* ^<~\ jr^+O*^ g** az hich hich-tar ast ss^f j**** 31 y
less
than nothing
"
Â
Remark. It must, however, be borne in mind that Ac/i g**> properly " <f <c eating nothing is means " anything/' and WcA-na ^ thus, nothing " better than eating bad food would be rendered by hich na-lchwnrdan bihta,r
az to'am-i bad khwurdan ast cuî &*)?^ **
khurak khurdan
at
all,
^^ ^\>y^ g*
ever?"
Example:
^^
jW
^^sfej Q**
if it
while hich
(Indian)
would mean,
better
meant anything
"eating anything (or something)
is
than/'
(4)
"At
all,
In interrogative phrases
implies "ever, at
all;
in the least."
Ay
44
ki hargiz faramush-at
na-kunam
(Sa'di).
Hicli-at az
Oh
banda yad mi-ayad ? Thou whom I never forget,

all
Dost thou at
remember thy servant
"
'(
(Sa'dl).
:
^
**
it)
g& d>^*> g&

/>
~#> >
" " do r *f-2af (m.e.) h* c& you play the guitar at all 1 ** would it be (or is hich mi-slwvad u-ra bi-blnlm (m.c.)
&
at
all possible for
us to see
him ?
' '
Remark.
futile."
hich u puch signifies
**
contemptible, anything
silly
or
Hick gÂ {l^-rt* "either

(5)
(like
(of
har j&) can be joined with kudam f\<*$, as, hich kudam the negatwo); anyone (of three or more)." With
tive, it signifies
" neither
and " none."

(/)]
Remark.
Isfari
Hich
(
*&
and har j* [vide

)
are called
p*& o/^
or
mubham
' '
p**> f~\
is
Indefinite Pronoun.
,
(6)
No one
:
"
vide
(c)
(m.c.)
in the negative)
*j^-^^t ahad-ina (m.c.) aj^ <*V (2). Example

:
(i.e.
ahad-i with the verb

1
e^
barham na-khurd.
(Shah's Diary)
"no one was
upset (sea-sick).
For
Vaan
c/f
>
v^f>A *J^
2
9
Also u juzri hava oat
(m.c.).
Poetical for faramush-at cî-*!^
Could also be written p&&>
(rare).
(7)
107
Ghlz j#$-
or
"
cMz-i L$)**> followed
by a negative verb
signifies
nothing," vide (p).

(e)
Persian also falan)
"So-and-So, such and such, Snooks, what' s his name ": &* fulan (in is a designation of an undefined person or thing, present or
&%* absent; as an adjective it precedes its substantive, as: fulan-kas " such a *$ <**U ^JU person." Ex.: p*.*(& âiy*^ cJ^^j t; yjf o)l^ va " basharat avard fulan qal'a ra bi-dawlat-i khudavandl kushadim (Sa'df)
1
and brought the good news that such and such a

2
fortress
had been taken

certain great
' '
:
jÛ
^jlk'
j^ j
cfii
^^
gu-*i
&A~ s$ ci-si?
f^
t5^; i
l
^)
f
j*.
3 C5^ yak-i az buzurgdn pdrsa'i

f
ra guft ki
dar
liaqq-i
fulan
abid
(Sa d!)
"a
man
asked a pious ascetic what his opinion was concerning a certain religious " <vf (îu* or ^^) ^j &%*, or *<1 &&* fulan amad, or fulan kas person
;
(kas-l or
shakhs)
fl
amad **So-and-So came"

<c
&&*
&>*
&.* eA>
dar
fulan iarikh
L
sana-yi fulan
on such a date
is
in such a year."
Ya
fulan
"ho! you there." e>3b* male or female. *

The feminine
is <*>&*,
Fulan
also used to indicate the private parts of
but more often
e>j
eî fulan zan,
etc., is used.
Remark
e>&, as: in
I.
The demonstrative pronouns are sometimes used with fulan s< that **this So-and-So*' and an fulan eJî c^T fulan &&*
So-and-So."
is used for men or women and Remark II. In vulg. ni.c., yaru sometimes for things, as: yaru aniad **$ jfa ** So-and-so (man or woman)
came"
yam
^î*
ra hiyawr *j*
s<
fjj^t-
bring the
wine"
(or the goblet or
gaming
things: for anything forbidden).

(2)
futanl
is
refers
I)
to persons
only,
whether present or absent.

**
An
exception
fa
^&*
fulam-ra biyar (Tehran)

of his
bring
it
A caller,
to avoid the mention
own name, might say

,
(wine)." to the servant
at the door, Ingu^d
Man * amadshuma tashnf na-dashSd, etc. U

^Mi
sometimes
'
**$
In poetry fulani
signifies
a mistress.'
Fulan u Bahman
J^* and vulgarly Fulan u PasJimadan &]*+* ) &&* are also used for persons or things when there are more than one, as: Fulan u Bahman am" So-and-So with So-and-So came " adand ai*vf fulan u pashma-
cA^ ^W
îii?
dan guftand
&1*+^j &&*
(m.c.)
"they
said such
and such things."
Tn m.c. gushadan c^^*$ (not kushadan
The two words parsa

is
^*)^j
and
;
*8bid
^^
have much the same signification
the
former
Persian, the latter Arabic

es*
*56d
*jl* signifies
properly ^worshipping (God)."
Note the
*
of unity.
The
m.c. abuse fulan-am bi~fulan-at cuiJli p>&* (or fulamash ^^JiU) h as
an inde-
cent signification.
108
Fulan
the former
that
is, if
e;lU
is
can be used as an adjective, but fuldm ^llt cannot. indefinite (nakira *j&) and the latter definite (ma'rifa *
his listener,
referring to a person known to the speaker and would be used, otherwise fulan &&*. ^jiU
Fulan u
blstar (or blsar)
yjUx
&&?
is
also used in
modern
P<
generally for things, rarely for persons.

(3)
" What's
-
his
name " j*^ **;
chi chiz, or chi chiz-l (m.c. ).
Ex.
Uf Ûu JAA. AÛ foYaw; bigu bi-chi ch/iz, bi-Haji Agha (m.o.) whaVs his name, I mean Haji Agha " ^-^ f^, ^f e/ t>#->^ *^ c <( what's his name came to me (jj pisA-t maw amad-cfiulam Hasan Hasan." In,^>f ^J ^Hi ^$< )\ ^j^^ b^ ^5-f ay saba nakJiat-1 az kii-yi
:
"
go ar
'
bi-man ar, fulanl

(4)
ma'sJiuq.
Bastar u b%8tarj*~#j j&m'* "So-and-So," are obsolete.
Remark.
dard ra dava-i
e
In the following sentences

ntst
this disease there is no cure, but the gall of a human bein| (Sa dl) has such and such qualities," the word fulan could be substitut<
" for
magar zahra-yi adam-i
ki bi-chandin si fat inaivsuf bu\
chandtn &!**^ without materially altering the sense.

(/)
2
Both," and
neither of two."
4
**^^^> ^ >>^* har-du "both." Examples: ^j&> ra girift {m.c.} shutur oJ/ har du linga ra bar-i shut-ur karda mahar-i loaded the camel with both its loads and took hold of the nose-stri
J
(1)
A^
^^f^1 is*f J4^*^? M^^ J^j-tf bi-liar du dast dar dumbal-i kishti avikkl. (J he seized and clung with both hands to the stem (or perhaps the m of the ship " ***O^ ^^ j/ ^ tjj*j* of j** ^*^ guff biglr an har du tura sad dinar bidiMm 4C he said save both of those two and I will give
**
;
hundred dinars"
c *
5
;
+**j
^
* '
^ ma
har dn rajtim (or simply
liar
du
j*
we both went.
Note the demonstrative or relative (^5For har j* " every ", vide (?). " one out of a Linga ^*J is pair; the load
of
one side of a beast of burden,
Mdhar jV*
is
the camel leading-string attached to a

for instance) the
certain districts
(Khurasan
being merely attached to a rope halter.

"bl
mahar (camel without a nose-string) signifies refractory dering aimlessly ": commonly used in India. 6 Formerly a coin of value. At the present day a dinar is an imaginary infinitesimal value fifty go to one shahl or to a half penny of English money. tf for "and " j would be unidiomatic.
;
:
wooden key in the nose mahar )\%* is not used, the loading^ The classical expression jf* (jttj*** *' " and sometimes "
l
co
N<
In m.c.
109
j*y*
:
is
also placed before the separate

:
and
affixed pronouns as
l
ma dmad%m we following examples or or har or v^^ j^j** eÂll tsj* j* har du-yishdn, cJ&^ y*, " l du-shdn, or har-du-yi uhdn "both of them t><jl>*y> har du-ash rd biydr (m.c.), orÛj I; <jL>)*j*> har du-yash rd biydr (m.c.), (or har du shdn rd
shown in the " both came
har du-yi
:
^^T ^ ij*j*
"
biydr
^ lyU ^
e<
yfc)
bring both of them
"
the last however
is
for living
things only.
Remark.
In m.c., liama
all
si
shahr
shahr jfi **â> "

(2)
8
three
cities.
"
<w
<u*, etc.,
might be usedfor har
si
"Neither
(of
j& ^f " wanting in you, (you have neither of these two)

5*
o^
ty )
two) va turd
"
'
is
m har du nist
4t
expressed by j& with a negative. Ex. " arid both these (qualities) are
:
va sarv rd hich az
qualities
(3)
m har du nisi
"
(Sa'di).
mentioned
''Both."
is
A g- U J^r**J and the cypress has nothing of these two Fufealso (d) (1).
:
*^~**>
)&j*> e^3
Persian i#nayn,
(4)
e>*x>! ithnayn "both", pronounced used by Mullas, or in legal documents. occasionally
The Arabic dual
in
Indirect
:
ways
of expressing
"both"
are given in the following
examples
pjjjj ji j
^j^j
md
:
go him, let 5 ou and him both go*"; ** f^f rd biydr, or more commonly In u an rd-bii/dr j$*
?
"
^y
us both (you and me) go t^f ) n dnlia, (or md bd dnhd) Mravim (m.c.) "let us both (us and them) " y b {+> shumd bd u (or shumd va u) bi-ravid (m.c.) you go with
^yc Mian
it
tu bi-rdvim
"
let
"
^t f& ham m va ham an <f ^f ^ ^f bring both this and

^
,
that
(i.e.
both)."
s<
(5)
Both sides"
<J^b ji
y* Imr du
tf
dual fcjH*V jdnibayn or &**j& famjayn tending parties, both parties."
faiaf: also expressed by the Arabic the two sides, both sides; the con-
Remark.
etc.
Similiar to >}>* har

\j
du
<*
both," are
ûyfc Jiar $i
<c
all
three/*
<(
Ex.
*&*>jj*
&j^
V^ 7~*vJ*
îar
P^^j^db-i
Ichud-ra farukhtam
I sold
all five of
my
<c
books."
<c
Some, several, sundry, few." Qhand ***., or chand-i ^^- a few," signifies an indefinite quantity it precedes or follows its substantive, which should be in the singular, and may or may not have the ^ of unity.
(g) (1)
;
Or har
(m.c.).
* '
<1u
t&
man arnadlm
* '
^^
^
e>^
)& j* (m.c.): or har du ta shan
<jlt
U
*
8
Neither
<c
nor
Lit.
You have not
are expressed by these both."
na
&* na.
say
"
Note that the order of the persona is the reverse to that and thou (or you) *' and the English " you and I,"
in English
the Persians
INDEFINITE PRONOUNS,
M^rrf (Sa'df) "in short he sunl " s 6ar amad (Sa'dl) **f e*oOJ!> *** cAaweZ y5 6ar a few times" " few days after this"; *ia.*&if kalima-i chand (Sa'di) "a few words " " I went a few *ia. steps qadam-i-chand biraftamt (Sadi)
l
:
^Ly
<y<>**
Û
<\W sail chand
(Sa'di)
" a few years."

If it follows its
Chand
indefinite
***- is
an adjective.
'
noun, the noun requires the
<jr.
Remark.
ten.
Chand
.
1***-
a few
'
properly indicates a number less than
....
Khurush-i bar avard Elzhan chu shir
Zi Turkan bi-raftand chand-i
dilir.
Shah-Nama Book
4, Giriftar
shudan-i Mahuy-i
Sun
va kushta shudan-i u
Turk. bi-farman-i Bizhan-i its substantive, which is in (2) In modern Persian, chand^s*- precedes of unity, and the verb is generally in the the singular with or without the
***> chand sarbdz rafland* "a few soldiers went ": j*> murdand* chand-i (Afghan) "a few died"; j&**xL *&*. chand *^<y t5*^ <v some men," serving but^jK^<x^3f ^coia. chand-i az khidmatgar khidmatgar
plural.
Ex.: *&j jfe
ha
**
a few from amongst the serving men."

(3)
frequently put in the singular, 4uUJ (^4^ J&* chand nafar Isfahan* nishasta bud there were Ex. : some Isfahanis seated (there) "; the verb should be in the plural (budand
Colloquially
is
and vulgarly the verb
4 *
^^ c^)j> dar miyan-i darya in the midst of the sea there were chand kuha-yi digar ham budand, the singular should be used with the verb some other rocks," kuh kasan Chand &L~f <*&*. though sometimes used in m.c., in the singular.
il
In the m.c. sentence
*^^ p* j^.~ 4,5^^
***
&
is incorrect.
(4)
The Afghans
u
substantive after chand ***..

tajiran
1
(not the Persians) in speaking frequently use a plural Ex. *>^ <*JU& ? oUxl<* ) * chand
:
^3y
eÛ <i%
sahiban-i kothi nishasta
budand (Afghan) " a few mercliants and

v^JV
*xia.
(
Or **$ j> e^?
*^
**
o^cd^sxj rnasldfyat an ast ki chand riiz-lbi-shahr dar-ayi J*jr*t L5JJ) '* it is proper for you to come and stay in the city for a while." (m.c.)
2
6
*^
is
iJj) ^^
(class.); also
m .c.)
" a few days."
Ex.
The hamza
Chand Or bud
for the
^ of unity.
Colloquially, raft
nafar-l
l^?.
*
^
c*j the singular is used; but incorrectly. murdand *^>*y ^$j&> **%- a vulgarism and incorrect.
tajir j*>^ jto
Also k&h lj& should be in singular after chand <>J^.

oâ- O r
In m.c. chand nafar

is
chand nafar tajiran
but the singular

7
the commoner.
This
is
the Hindi word
Vjf
kothi.
HI
owners of warehouses were sitting (there)"; &> Ûy&Cf &*. ckand a 1 angushtarha-yi tila "a few finger- rings of gold*'; *# ($j* fUjf >ia. chand " there were several kinds of bud
aqsam-i 'araq
(6)
(m.c.)
spirits."
In m.c., <j?^ chand-i,OT yak-chand-1 ^v^ cJo, means (f alittle while," 3 Uuf several times. Ex. *& **>* âia* a*' <JUUJ( Â. Haklm-^-lMamamlik ki chand-% bud mja buddida shud (Shah's Diary) " the Hakim^-l
:
" 4 Mamalik, who had been here for some time, was interviewed by us < s-^ " I have been here for some î*A UsJuf O*~A chand-i hast mja hastam (m c.)
;
time
"
e^^jt
1
^*?
&a'^ az chand-i (m.c.)
tc
after a little while
"
^^t^ CIAÎ^ chub-i ki dar dast dasht chand-i bar sar-i u zad $ j\ j> j* o " he struck him several times with the stick he held in his hand." Af. )
(
)*
J*-
Remark
chand-gah
*
I.
It will be noticed that in m.c.

(classical),
chand-l
^5-^
is
used for
**
chand waqt
o^ jia. (classical and

î^. (m.c.).
m.c.),
chand bar
*ia. (classical
and
m.c.),
and chand daf'a **^

in speaking.
is
The Afghans use chand gah

Remark IL
*****
Yak chand ais^

najar-%
used in the sense of

fi
c<
a few
"
;
*xx^
c^^ ya ^ dwnd
(6) txio.
budand
(m.c.)
a few persons were present."

xia. sundry persons" û " budand (Sa'di) certain indivi; *
* *
tan-l
tan-i
chand
(class.) signifies
w^
sJjJ
i2*>
CÂ.^
chand dar mhbat-i

' *
man
duals were friends of mine
ît^ jj> *xj^x**jjb c>VV L azmuda ra bi-firistadand ta. dar shi'b-i jabal pinhan shudand (Sa*d!) " certain experienced veterans were senfc to hide in a ravine in the mountains."
W
,
**?*$ *-&* 3 *>^^ ***f^ c>l^ 3t ^. (^J to?î chand az mardan-i vaqi'a $ida va jang
fj
In
is
in.c.
instead of the classical
<xxa.
tan-t chand,
J&
*^ chand nafar
used.
(7)
(8)
For chand &*. as an interrogative, vide 37 (w). Yak-chand **& and chand ta U ooia. "a few, a
:
little,
somewhat."
vide (5) Remark II. Yale chand takes a singular noun, but a plural verb $ the verb is in If ta is added, however, the singular, as yak chand ta
:
mard
bud.
Yak-chand-%, adv.,
is
" a short while"
vide
(5).
Compounded "so much as this," etc., and chandan

(9)
with
the
demonstrative
&\***>
pronouns, ^^xia.
chandln
"so much
as that," etc.: vide
36(6).
For chandan
vide
ki
&|jJLa-
" however much, as soon
as, as
long as,"
etc.,
92
(d) (13).
I.
Remark
1
Chand
***. is
connected with and
a-if,
and andak
Or
singular.
qisni (*>~*
ally
In the m.c. of Persia, aqsam f\~$\ the broken plural of be used under the impression that it was a singular word.
8
might occasion-
Title of the Shah*s physician.
4 i.e. days,
weeks, or months (not portion of one day).

13
Similarly for things
chand
ta (m.c.) is used.
112
Remark II. Ghand *** is only used for things that can be counted. For quantity that can be measured <^)* and;*fc* are used vide (h).
l
:
For para tyk some, a few," etc., vide (p) " a little quantity/' Somewhat, (h). (1)
"
(2).
^^
qadr-i.
Ex.:
qadr-% ab bi-dih "give (me) a little water"; jV *>^ ÂJ qadr-t jaw biyar " a little. " Vide barkh-i etc., "bring a little barley."
{(
(2) (3)
is j*$ ^f 'in qadr. So much, this quantity " " That c>f an qadr. much, that quantity is
"
^^
"
(4)
How
vide
" much, what quantity

Remark
j** &* chi qadr
Remark.
csrj*, et c. ? is
only used for quantity, for things that can be

(g) (10).
:
measured
II
"
(i)
All, every, the
whole"
etc,
(1) **a>
hama the whole,

(class.), or ***
also
its
Persian,
<UA
precedes or follows
every (âr). substantive. Ex.

:
means
' 4
"
In classical
8
marduman
jjkiij
^^
marduman-i hama (Indian) "

4
c^y
all
*+*
Aama
;
the
men "
<UA
<
the
men went "
v^^yc
or)
^.^c
mardum
(or
marduman hama
raftand "all
(class,
and modern).
In the Gulistan, hama *** generally precedes its substantive (without an izafat), and the substantive and the verb are in the singular 6 or plural
" the whole according to the idea conveyed. Ex. _*& <*+* hama shab (Sa'di) " " the whole *** hama 'umr of one's life." night j+*
:
Naml-blm
4<
ki gav-t dar 'alaf-zar
Biyalayad hama gavan-i dih-ra? (Sa*dl). Dost thou not see that one ox in a meadow
Can contaminate
all
the oxen of a village
"
?
lê
is
;
A**
hama
is
the plural
1
aybha (class.) "all the vices" (i.e. every vice there here used in an intensive sense 7 to signify numbers).
l
Qadr-l; qadr, A.
and
P., signifies
4 *
quantity, value
' '
and qadar, P.
' 4
(in
Arabic qadr}
*'a person
"
signifies
fate,
preordained destiny."
* '
Hence
as
c^)** qadart (note accent)
who maintains
*
the doctrine of free will
opposed
to
cr*^
jdbri
one who believes in
predestination, a fatalist/'
To be
distinguished from
>^ ju
or
c$^
'
'
or juy (also
;
jtib)
*'
" and "a running brook
the Imperative of justan of juyldan " to seek

3
c51?^ jav-l
a single grain of barley.'*
No izafat. Mardum (*^/*
is
a collective noun always treated as a plural, though

in
it
has also a
plural
6 9
marduman e>^^*. A singular noun is often used

M.C. hama-yi 'aybJia
"
a collective sense and with a plural verb.
Similarly
y^ muddafr-hd " ages,

I
long times"
is
stronger than
]
&*** muddat-i
â long
tirne
>f
:
X>U
^J^G ^ô
<
<he was iU for a
ong time," but o*
he was
ill
for ages."
113
gar
if
U
(Sa'dl)
'
' '
&+*
^
'
pe
&*.
&ug guyand
chi
gham
hama
'alarn
murdand.
"they say 'what concern of ours is it, here dlam is a collective noun perish ?
;
the rest of the world

'
signifying
all
the people
of the world
'
:
Garchi slm u zar
Dar hama
sang ayad haml nabdshad* zarr u aim sang-l

zi
(Sa'dl).
and gold come from stone "Though Not in every stone is found gold and silver
silver
.jj-
Chu
'*
dast az
hama
hilat-l
dar gusist
(Sa'di).
Haldl ast burdan bi-shamshir dast
When
every
^single)
stratagem has failed
Then only
<xJL.JL
is it
lawful to resort to force."
oJbo
^ ^1^
A^
JA.
(^+*3
hllatrl
dar
mdnad
silsila-yi dustl bi-jumbanad
dushman chu az hama " when (Sa*dl) (your) enemy
has failed by every single stratagem (to injure you), he then tries to make friends with you." In the last three examples hama, with the
^ of unity added to the substantive, signifies

separately, It is difficult to say whether *UA
i.e.
( *
each
' '
or
6 '
' '
every
considered
har sang-i IJ&+* j&.
hama
follows
it
it either precedes its without an izafat, as apposition (of corroboration **?$ WA In modern Persian, e;!^* though the same con3 -^*^ ,^ ^(*;l^. structions are used, it is usual for hama A** to precede its substantive and be
a substantive or an adjective. substantive without an izafat or

is
)
:
in
coupled to it by an izafat: in this case it is obviously a noun. In Indian Persian, hama <U<* is treated like an ordinary adjective, it precedes its substantive without an izafat or follows it with one
i.e.
:
it
can also follow in apposition. 4 (2) In modern Persian, hama <u* generally precedes the substantive with 5 Ex. oo j/of 1^3 ** tiama-yi zanhd dmadand 'or zanhd hama amadand) the izafat. " all the women came." However, hama zanhd dmadand is correct (though
:
Poetical for agar-chi
^^f-
For zar )}
,'
tashdld poetical license.
Or wand
^^
(Past tense) and jumband

sufe&t
OiL^î
Tamarn
8
<W& hawa-yi shahr
" the whole of the city
(sing.)
was burnt," but

(Sufflita
<iAJj/x* j^>
^*A hama-y> shahr mt-guyand "all the people of the city say."
shud
could be said instead of su&ht).

5
f\+*
and jami'
***> are
always followed by the
izafat.
114
rare)
even in m.c. ;
*-**
&* hama-yi
" the whole of the day hama-yi ruz
" and jjj $+* shab " the whole of the night " but hama shdb *+* v* (or hama-yi
;
l^ fa) and hama ruz jj; *+* " o~>! " and " " every day every night & qassab ast (modern vulgar and incorrect)
shabha
;
(or
hama-yi ruzha
Ujjjj
*A
*)
mean
V UJ
e(
^^ *+* ^
dar hama* shahr-%
in every city there are butchers
"
(collective noun).
In modern Pe&ian, hama **A with a singular noun is equivalent to harj*, and should be followed by a singular verb, but vide end of (4).
Remark.
(3)
*f
Before the affixed pronoun U& there is no izafat. Ex. Jtt M> k julga hama-ash ba safa u zabz u abad ast (m.c.) "the >Vf ) jb J
]
**U
valley, the
whole of
it, is
pleasant, green, and fertile.''
Before the affixed plural pronouns, the izafat is either omitted or inserted $+&> hama-yi shan or &+* or &( hama *+A in speaking. Ex. <M*? " 6 are bad." them of all bad-and hama-shan (or hama*yi anha l^f ^** )
after
:
&&
Remark.
fiama *+*
:
Even
in m.c. it is considered better to

is,
omit
this izafat after
the omission
Hama-yi
\n
mardum fty
eî *** (m.c.) is

is
however, rarely made even by the educated. " but In hama lt all these people
:
** may mean either all these ambiguous, f$j* *+&' (in.e.) budand ki people' or "so many people." In hama mardum jam' shuda
mardum
as
it
dlgar ja na-bud
*& ^ji>*
there
*$
^>?
*<^ fi*^ f*j*

for
**$
ft
(m.c.
is
so
many
people
had
collected that
was no room
However,
(4)
hama-yi mardum fty &+$ it would be better to say hama-yi m.
ambiguous; but in "all these people'* there is no ambiguity.
more"
"everything," hama-ja U- <w* "everywhere," " andAa/na tf *+* hama-kas always*' are vagi cJ> A*A 'every body, " all this In hama classical as well as rn.c. malcKarij ^;i=^ **t^f expense"
chiz
Hama
J^
&+*
appears to be modern. A*A Hama kas
is
followed
either
;
according to the idea in the writer's
mind
by a singular or hama Jcmdmad a*f
plural
verb
a+* (in.c.)
Also
*j)j
^*A hama-ruza
every day.'*
a
3
No izafat :
or dar hama-yi shahrha
^ji"
*+*>
J^
Sa'di, however, uses dar
hama
$ang-i
<^&* *Â j^>

hill.
*
6
Julga AMA, a valley, or plain, as opposed to
Abad means "cultivated" and hence '* populous "; *~*** Â^T ^^xijl mjaabadi nlst means "there is no cultivation here," or "there is no human habitation here."
For neuter things hama-yi anha bad
1
ast
c^|^
lîf
JUA.
Perhaps the only instance in the Oulistan where

is in
nominative to a verb, kas muthtari buwad.
the verse
** <^* ^ M ^
fj
hama
kas
<U* occurs as a
& durr-i yatlm-ra
hama
116
*+* (m.c.) " all the people
"
everybody came
vide
"
;
hama kas amadand *^<f
(i) (2) Remark. The (5) Afghans in speaking also say hama Icasan ^^> 4Ua. " all (6) The m.c. expression p* csP *** hama tu-yi ham means together, *+* *+A hama dar-ham ^\ ^ bar-ham); indiscriminately" (= ^<y f*)t> ba in hama (classical and modern) "with all this, nevertheless, in spite " o*u*3 A+A " of all this ^f In hama nisi this is not all, something remains."
came,"
Remark.
It
will
be noticed that in classical Persian,

it is
&+*>
hama
is
considered an adjective, while in modern Persian

substantive.
(7)
generally treated as a
m.c.
The regular plural of UA hama, c>&*-* hamagdn is old and not used in Hamginan &{&+& is generally used as the plural of hama <*+*, and
whole collection regarded as individuals. is omitted in Persian, there diacritical bar of
signifies the
As the
' '
is
nothing in
writing to distinguish the plural of
ham-kun $^** "fellow-worker, com-
panion
(8)
from hamginan îO>.

is
^Ô) hamagi
a substantive, signifying "all, the whole, entirety,"
derived from *+& hama, as

1
^^fi
az hamagi-yi zanan
JJt>i**i
jumlagi is from aJU^ jumla (vide 9). Ex, " out of all the women (m.c.) ; <^>J* j!
1
^-^ } Jiamagl az buzurg n kudiak naml-favdnand

âli, great or small, lose their self-control;
dan bi'kiimmd
(m.c.)
^+* &*
n^ n hamagl-yi chlzha-yi khudra avardam {S I brought all f-jyf l> -^ ^^>^ my things." Hamctgl ^t+A also, like hama *+&, can follow the substantive
in apposition.
Hamagi
refer to the
collection.
went,
" but
by a plural verb, unlike hamginan e>&+* does not whole regarded as individuals, but to the whole regarded as a It is generally followed by a plural verb, as o*l>% (J +& fi all
:
^^, followed
vi*of
V^L
c<
J^tt+A
(t
all
of
it is
good,"
Hamagl
is
is
rarely used.
(9)
Jumfa
*W
sum, whole,
total,
:
usually followed
{ '
by the
the whole of his body
"
izafat.
;
Ex.
^ ^Wt~*
khayr* ast turn u jumfa-yi
Miwalmamti
welfare for you and the whole of the " the whole of the lashkar army (Sa'dl)
fy vi^f ^^ ^b^ &s guft du'a-yi m (a dl) " he said, a prayer of Muslim people* " j& Ûa. jumla-yi "
f
y Û^ j
a substantive, and is aggregate" &j*>) Û^ fanifa-yi uwj&dri u (Sa*di)

*
it is
oUJjf
Û^
az
whole of the things that be,

JU>
j\
all
creation
*
"
;
jumla-yi kafinvt
ft
the
u***~j* eHH^
ejtlaJU
agar
man
Arabic.
t5'^3 &*j* ghuday ta'alq chumn

is of
^^
Hama
*+*
is
Persian, but jumla &***
is
Jumlagi
1
course a Persian
noun.
*> is
here an adjective: du'a-yi Jchayr j&*
CS"
***
opposed to du'a-yi bad
There should be no
izafat after
gbuday though
colloquially
it is visually
inserted.
116
" had I fear< tarstdami ki tu az Sultan az jumla-yi siddlqan budaml (S'adi) God as you do the King, I would have been one of the Faithful * Testifi
A^ <&** jt ^ va az jumla-% ki dar firaq-i u guftam (*& J <3y j* and the following is an extract from all that I composed c (Sa'dl) separation (his separation from me) "; <xi^ ll^L aJU.^ jumla khata ka (S'adl) "the whole missed the mark"; jumla talaf shud *& cAtf <*JU*. whole was destroyed." Jumla <*JU*a> occasionally follows its substantive in apposition.
cx*t e^t
*'
Remark.
*JU^ e>Tjf az an jumla signifies

<*JUJ(j bi-l-jumla
;
"out
of the whole,
' '
example";
jumla
* c ' *
" on the whole
*JUaaJ
"in substance, in short"; <*JUJf * "in short aJU^ ^-c /?- I- jumla
'
;
out of the whole."

<f
Jumlagi ^&+=*- (also ^t^*"^ jumlaht, rare) universality, total TJiere is properly a shade of difference in meaning between jumla Ai* Ex.: jumla-yi zanan amadand oJ<ôf Ûj ^JU^. "the jumlagi Û^ or nearly of the whole of the women came," but jumlagi-yi zanan anu
(10;
li
the totality of the
Ra'iyyat-i
an
taraf hi-jumlagi mntl'-i
women came none was left." farman gashtand ^^^û o^Jb^f

?
:
,
" the people (peasantry, etc,) of that district be 51 subject to him in a body (at once and without exception) jiJ t: the whole of the army"; i>- u&+*> jumlagl-yi jwmlagi-yi lashkar
(Sa'di)
(m.c.)
(i
the whole body of the horses."

f
*
Remark.
All
kama,
or
jumla
came," can be expressed by hamagi (or jumlagt, la Hamagi, (etc.) yi-khnrak sarf <*U^) aniadatid.
if
all
the food was eaten/
'
Some
are
Persians maintain that these uses of hamagi Û& and jumlagi vulgar, and that tbe two \vords should be considered adverbs
4
zanan jumlagi amadand* <xi>^f ^Û^ &k\ the women came in a body.' (11) Jam!' *+^- *all, the whole, universal," is always followed by a Ex.: pj* *+*>jami'-imardum <4 all men, or all the men " i^)^^^^ fat. " zanhd " all or all the
;
women,
women"
^CSJ
of the
army
is
"
;
^^^
jami*-i lashkar
the
but in â*>f
^
^*it*^ (*jy '

is
mardum jaml (Qn amadand

:
*'
the
of the people
came," U**^
an adverb in the Arabic Accusative.
Mi
+%, as occasionally used for ^j+^x. tc of all the sons Adam, mankind."
majmu
-i
banl
Adam
ftf
û
Siddlq
&&**
*'
a faithful witness," an epithet of Joseph,
Abu Bakr and Abr
" sincere,
Note the
true.'*
^ of ^
is
Or
zariun birjumlagi
pronounced short /i. amadand ^tôf ^^XUmj ejU)
(m.c.).
(12) Sa*ir
117
is
properly signifies ''the remainder, the rest," but ' it is always the whole frequently employed in Persian to express l U <xU> an Ex. followed by LS\A*- A-UsJf j *j& jf izafat. ^J*** j ^*(**>
' '
yU
'
(jp**o fi-l-jumla chlz-i na-mand az sa*ir-i ma'asl vamunkar-l ki na-kard va muskir-l ki na-khurd (Sa'df) " in short there was no sin nor forbidden thing
^*u *
that he had not committed, nor intoxicant that he had not tasted."
(13)
flj|
*&
*f
kaffa
"all, universal";
and
<uiU> qatiba
;
''altogether,
(
all."
&
kaffa-yi
anam "the whole human race"

jo
^Jb
&H kaffa-yi
iilum "all
the sciences": ft^.5

c<
u^^
3'
^'
^^
'
kaffa-yi
anam
az khawass
u 'awamm.
(Sa'di)
everybody high and low.' These two words are not in common use.
,
Remark.
totality."
(14)
**^ kaffata
nn
and
&*>\3 qatibat an are adverbs,
*..
<:
all
of
them, in
Tamam
2 complete,' entire, the whole,
all
"
is
both a substan
live
it is
tv
and an
adjective,
and has the same
/?5/a#-constructions as
kama
also used, like Iiama, in apposition.
the whole day/* and Ujj +'*3 tamam-i shakr (m.c.) "all the city
the people"; x^ j*&=*

v *
^j^
**
;
every thing was ready

;
^jJUx* fl+itamam-i makhlitq (m.e.) i chizJta (or fa mamchiz) hazir shud (ni.c.) fU3
;
3 Ûi tamam-i ruz (m.c.) " ^ tanmm-i ntzJm (m.e; every day " " all
Ex.:
^^
)U>
j^.
+\+Z
tamdm-i chh Uiyyar skud (Afghan)

tnaJi-i
the samo
Û> j+* qamnr-l
tamnm
(rare), (in m.c.
tammn}
'*'the full
moon.'*
&*)\z 4i>Û5
^W
UM
(0.
**
tamam na-t<tmamau darand And clumsiest workmen own the finest tools/'
A#bab-i
K. 141 Whin.).
In classical {and in Indian; Persian
tamam
-U3 does not take an izafat
when
it
precedes
/.
its
substantive.
kar-chi lamam-tar
Remark
as possible."
The phrase
:
y>cW ^.Â means "as much
as possible," as
6? zudl-yi
bar ehl tatnam-tar
Û3
*xy* s?^*^
as qoickly
Remark
II.
Tamam
;
ended, finished"
(15)
shwlan &*> fU* "to be completed" or tamam kardan &>>/ Ûi ** to complete, finish off/'
fc
to
be
Instead of
tamam
j*U5,
the adjective
fti
tamm
(class.) is
sometimes
The demonstrative C5 .
1
*' rast ra zinat-i rastl taniam aat to the right (Sa*di) Û5 u$^\) ^î) \) *&\) * and in itself.* sufficient hand is ornament its the the fact of complete right (hand), being
o**>t
In India
tamam
ruzj)) (*UJ (without izafat).
118
used in writing.
(16)
Tamm u tamam
plete"; f$ ^J&Uf istisnayi tamm
perfect and (emphatic) " a (emphatic) complete exception."

^1*3
'*
fti
Tamami <yU3 (m.c.), substantive, is also sometimes used f*j* " all the men." tamami-yi mardum is a substantive, old, but is still (17) Tamamat eÛ3 (class and Indians in Ex. vi>&^ cÛ> tamamat-i p by Afghans writing.
:
{Indian) "all the elephants."
Remark.
(18)
UoW tamam*"
**
is
an adverb, " wholly,'* " in toto."

"all,
:
Kull J^ substantive
in
common
i^f kull u
Arabic phrases. Ex. ahad in Ar. "every one."

is also
universal, the whole, each": ** u- y n-nas lt all the people, ^liJf <Jf kull
Kull JS
the
used in m.c. and in writing, as

*+>
kull-i
zandn
kull-i
women"
j%*>
J^ kuU-i shahr "ail the
"
city
;
^
ptte
d^
*alam
the world."
KM
Jf, like
hama
^
*+&,
can be used in apposition.
Classically (ai
J^ precedes its substantive without the izafat. Pos the izdfat after kull in modern Persian is a corruption of the final vow the Arabic nominative case kvtt
Indian Persian) kull
tt
(19)
From
the Arabic kull J^, the Persian abstract noun and the Ai
adjective ^tf kutti are formed.
Ex.
"the whole
* '
of the
men went";
ability
Arabic adjective.
*
^5^ fty mardum J *^! ihtimal-i

1
bi-kulU raftand
kulll
ct
every
Remark
and
"
I.
#
^^^
**
bi-kulU,
adv.,
**
altogether,
generally."
Kulli
:
kull**
& are also

t
two adverbs with ^

****
different meanings, as
**
J/#3
(not kulliyat*"
&&) amadand &>**$ %t

nl8t^~& î>
kulluhum
^Jl>
^^ (mc.)
" he
is
all
the
men can
but
?7
kMiyat*
razl
jf
(m.c.)
quite dissatisfied.*
is
Remark
II.
^î^
(Ar.)
"the whole of them'*
use<
the Afghans in speaking;

(20)
it is also
occasionally used in m.c,
*lc 'amma
(class.), f>*c 'urn/Urn (m.c.),
"the whole,
etc."
Fron
'amma **to be general, comprehensive" is derived adjective fU <amm (m.c.) "common, universal" (as opposed to ooU. k m.c., "special"); AU^ al-'amma (class, and rare) "the common pe
Arabic root p*
1
Emphatic,
like the English saying
'
most complete.*
In m.c. tamamiryi pllctn
d^
&**+*
119
or the people in general"

(m.c.)
^*
am(m)i
(m.c.) adj.
"vulgar"
and
|V+*
'wnum
(class.)
"universal"; ****)
in Persian +*j*
^plj
"universality"; <.$*>* 'umuml> adj. (m.c.) ^**s rf jl (*** u^** "his universal liberality."
'amim
Hence
$#b 'amma-yi mardum

(class.),
(m.c.)
<toU
"the whole
of the
people";
" these fnmakhluq 'am(m)i aftd (class, and m.c.) 2 mard ara(w)i-stf people are ignorant, uneducated"; o^t ô ^jf <c this man is common, uneducated." " noble and plebeian"; (22) @a98 u amm j*U ^ îa. also means
(21)
*Jf
'amma-yi nas (class.) " the whole of the of the people" peaoa*j IcU 'amma-yi ra'iyyat (m.c.) " the whole of the women." santry "; c>^3 ^^ amma-yi zanan (m.c.)
pj+6
'umum-i nas
;
and ^-U
"the whole
'
Û <3jJÂ> c^t
(
'
Û
the plural
(23)
is f!>* j
ul^
f
-d^ ^>4^
' '
the people
adjective
;
(but " but In umum3> darad this
u 'awdmm. {( the people generally, very nearly all mardum 'umum-i " in ^*j+* &**+* a common matter," umum* ^^^ is an
Ichawass
'
is
common **).
i
Bemark.
general,
i.e
From
as a
the
same root comes the adverb U^P

<
nmuman
in
rule": o^yU/c Uj+c
umum* n mi-guyand
tf
it is
commonly
said."
(24)
**
^^
v<
yak-sctr (m.c,;
all
together, in one body;
suddenly"; also
without a break, and direct."

(j)
"Each," "every," "all,"
"
8 whatever, "Â Aor ,
^j*har
yak
(or
6ar "every time"; Ex.: jb^* / j* har ja "everywhere" Jiar mz j&j*, har sal J^*, ter waqt oJ| yk, fer Âagf <^**^* e ^J> " " every thing, every year," "every time or continually," every day,'
(l)j*kar.
;
*
etc.:
** let me na-bas/wd bi*har 'uqiibat ki farma** saz&var-am* (Sa*dl) yam, agar I fit not am does for if it and word more any (or every) prove true, say one
^l^^^^ ^^^^^^ ^^^

5
1
sujchun-idtgarbi-gu-
rasl
* Inma&hlfiq *awxrnm-and educated."
<iJf
f\j*
jk&* ^f
**
-f
{m.c. only)
<4
these
people are un-
Not
to be confused with the

**
word
umml
(Ar.)
*'
illiterate
" derived from
,,.
<sô|
utnrnah
3
people, nation, sect, etc."
&A>]
j&
har ahad
is
not used in modern Persian, and
is
rarely if ever used in
classical Persian.
*
6
For htch'kudam (*t^
gA w ith or without negative,
vide (d)
(5).
Note the absence
of the
of unity (?),
which could,
of course,
be inserted.
JdiU) jU*o ^
cJ^ ^^
(slave girls)
and
**
(Sa'di)
ij&j**? who are one and
ki har yak-l badi'-i jahan va mumfaz-i

all
zamanin
such as are rarely found
this
world and are unequalled at the present time."
120
punishment you may command"; j* j^j* cîe e o-J+ bi-har zarf-i-ki sar-irtdn bi-gunjad klla-yi an
'*
zarf barabar-i sar-i shumd-st
(m.c.)
any
vessel that contains

;
" equal to your head
your head will be the measure of a quantity

< <
az har taraf
o^ty* jf
from every side."
Harj*
by the
^
is
properly a distributive and precedes its noun. It is emphasized A of unity, as har mulk-i zabdn-i darad ajf^ <J*^) <J& ^ "each
is
1
separate country has
its
own language."
sometimes used for har arisen from the fact that "every
all
"
Har Â
is
"
sometimes used instead of ha ma <u& "all," just as hama *+& " every." [This confusion has probably
man
says
" = <l
all
men
'
say
'].
Remark.
Har an
itfj&,
and har an
ki *$ ^j*>, the
more emphatic forms
of har, are used in relative sentences, vide (k)

<->
and
'
(I),
(2)
f!<>>>*
" har kudam " everybody
J*
(or
^j j&)
l har yak (or har yak-l) every one j* har ka$ îj*> har yakl (or har yak) and (!*$' y> har
;
'
'
kudam take the
singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's but the mind, j* or ) <*&j& singular is the more correct. Ex. ^? J**^jXxx or ^y^* har yak (or liar kas) ehlz-l mi-yuyad or ml-yuyand (m.c ) )? " ^ c!^ &*t& j &*t <^? j* d-&*j& every one says something different *&& ^+& &[* har yak-lbazla-l wa latlja-lchunanki rasm-1 zrtrifan bashad ham-i
:
(
guftand (Sa*df) "every one told some good story or pleasant jest after the manner of wittv people"; (here the plural is used as the writer had in
his
mind, a number of people

>*<
in
writing); ^t; tjs*. tj^lt \J*5j*. ray mi-zad (Sa'di} ",and each one, according to his knowledge, gave tf Jb his opinion" (here the verb could not be in the plural), Uîi^/^ff
;
the assembly concerning which lie was tÔ*-* va & ar */<*&-* ^Jar vtf<l~i damsh-i khrud
JL? ^\&* j& ^jb ^b^ agar yusfandhd dah ta hudand bay ad fi if the sheep were ten har kudam-l yak yusfand ddshta bdshand (m.e.) then everybody should have one sheep apiece"; (here the plural is also
AlU &&i &SL4
used, for the

(3)
same
reason).
Harj*
also
har tmhv-i ki gujia way we have been directed;
means '* whatever." Ex. i/ J+** o-^bî aisJ AC^yfc ** we must act in whatever and bdyist Carnal kard (m.c.)
:
(lit.
in every
way they have
directed, in that
way
it
must be done).
51
It is
perhaps this
<j?
and not the demonstrative

is
^ that
is
found in the antecedent

42.
to a relative clause
*
8
*
when
the antecedent
preceded by har, vide
Or
<JN
A*A, vide
(i) (4).
Or grammatically dashta baahad *x^

Bayiat ^^-sU, past, for future action.
(k)
fc
121
*'
"Whoever, whosoever"
tf
pftfy* har
kudamki,
of y>
haranki,
har-ki,
(1)
&~t j&
/^;-
&&$-
&&, &'
^^^
<*+a>
hama
kas-i ki.
Examples:-
//ar aw-&i tukhm-i badl kisht
u chashm-i niki dasht
Dimatjh-i bihtida pukht
khayal-i batil bast

(to
(Sa'di).
Whosoevr er sowed vain and foolish thing.'

(2)
tXJ^jjÂ/o
<w
'
evil seed
and expected
;x
reap) good,
imagined a
in' am-l
'
^/oUif 6Jj\& ^*>\
/*l^yfc
harkudamkiaxp-ldarand
wl*
glrand (m.c.)
whoever has a horse,

In.
*'
will get a prize."
Remark.
bl-glrld *>-!^?
take whichever
*'
!;
you
please
" har kudam

is
ra ki
ml khwahld
A^fj-* ^
1
X^^/* (m.c.), the
fj
necessary otherwise ff^ J-A
would be taken
to be the subject.
(3) liar kas-l ki &&"*<>
j* harki
9
s$ j*>
&ndhama
ka#-i kl *$
j*>)
in the
same way.
Har
J
kas-i ki (or har kas-ki tf

'
^
I
^s
+* are used
Iriyayad in'am-l ml(or
<Û *A~ " will a reward comes) get

glrad
*j**
^^^
J A (m.c.)
c<
whoever comes
every one
who
Mar-itu, ki har
Mra
bi-binl bi-zani
Ya bum
'*
ki har kuja nishml bikanl /
(Sa'dl).
strike.st
'"
?
Art thou a snake that whomsoever thou seest thou
Or
Remark
an owl that wherever thou sittest thou dest coyest?

In the following har j*
is
understood
Remark
//.
Har an
(I) (3).
ki
^T y*
is
in
classical
language applicable to
tilings, also vide
Remark IIL^-*k
f
& j&
har-ki bashad
;t
whoever he may be/*

* *
(I)
liar
ckiz,
Whatsoever, whichsoever, whatsoever thing ^f j*> liar an ld^ ft* j*> har kitdam
y
a^yfc
Mr-chi,
chi ,
*<*>
&^ j* har an
an
(1)
j
chi.
AÂ
J5
har
;j>
cM
(classical
and
m.c.).
Ex.
<^
U-guyad
j>jU
darad 7âr ii rfa^ az jan bi-shuyad har-chi dar dil
Note *$
jf
j& har u
ki is not used; it does not exist in Persian.
Har an
ki
har ki ** j** though old is not obsolete. It is more emphatic than Persian. modern in * Har kaa-i ki is better and more common
3
Har
kas-l ki
would be preferred
in m.c.
122
' *
INDEFINITE PBONOUNS.
(Sa'di)
whoever abandons hope
of life, says
whatever
is
in his
mind (without
fear)."
Har-chi a^y> can also be used for living beings (in classical and modern
Persian) as
,
:
syfej
^j^ eAÎ j! * **J\j&ty a^ j *** ^\<>
\)
ejl&ji
*i>&^,>
k^* ^S
guft har-chi darvishan~and ishan ra vam-i bi-dih va har-chi tavangaran-and such of them as are poor, give az ishan ch%z-l bi-khwah (Sa'dl) "he said, them a loan and such of them as are rich, ask a loan from them* (lend to
;
whatever method or time he pipes)" or " the more he " " " ^) &&*> har-chi zud-tar as quick as possible ; plays the more he dances " " as complete as possible ji*U3 &xj* har-chi tamam-tar AÂ ^y ^*^
one dances
(i.e.
such of them as are poor, and borrow from such as are rich)/' The following uses of har chi *^*> should also be noticed **>** e^t &*?& *MjVo vi/f har-chi In mi-zanad an mt-raqsad (m.c,) "as this one pipes, that
:
in
^^
&j
har-chi tamam-tar sa
har-chi gasht 'aqab-i jaw, glr na-yamad &*>j*> &*huj$ -j*- V-&* he for much however sought (m.c.) barley, he couldn't find any (in spite of all his seeking he failed to find any)." z $ **! (2) Har-chlz JJ^Â (classical and m.c.) c^r^ y ^ i^J^j*
;
be made
(i
"
karda shavad (Sa'dl)
ft
let the
utmost endeavours
^^
ijj î^tol ÎKj ai^f ^ girifta bi-kinara guzdshtam (Afghan)
&+*>
ba'daz
m har chiz-l ki mara zaruratbud hama ra

* *
after this I took

of)
whatever I had need
of (or every single thing that I

(3) *
had need
and put
it
on
shore.'
'
e/fr*
kar an ki;
c*^*J!&
*v**
^**1
t-T^
fl*5
)&& &1 j*> har
qadlm lei pish dmacR bi-quwwat-i bazu bi-yafgandt (Sa*d!) ^whatever old ruined wall he came across, he cast down by the mere strength of
an
divar-i
his
arm.
' *
Ex.: *Cf f*~> bi-hukm-i an-ki har an tÛî ^^ b tty Cir4î ^f j& dushman ki bd-vay ihsdn kunl mukhdlafat ziydd Icunad (Sa*dl) ** because whatever enemy you treat kindly, he increases his enmity towards you
ki
Har an
A&fj*
is
&S
oîJiatvo
also applicable to living beings,

*
&
(whenever you treat an enemy

also (k) (1).
(4)
kindly he increases
his
enmity
5
vide
Har kudam
ft
fl**j*
whatever, whichever."
Ex.:
c5>
1 Note the plural of the adjective : the plural here makes the adjective definite harchl darvuh aat would mean " all the poor of the world."
Instead of har chlz-l ki
&& ^rt$j*>
the following
har chi mara zarurat bud or

f
har chi ki mt-l&wastam ff**^*****
&
**fj* or
^ ^)J? *
l/
***J* (m.c.)
(kinar ml-
gutaahtam
B
^tÂ^j^).
&+<& jb might be
In modern Persian, har divar-i qadim-i ki *& t5^^*^tj^ j*> * Or har dushman ki or har dushman-l ki fci+^ Â O r &$
used.
6
Or har kudam
lcar-l
ki
*ij
f\**j* (m.c.), or bi-har kar-l ki *&tffj** 9 or har kar-t
ki
*&iftj* (m.c.), or bi-har chi
INDEFINITE PKONOUNS.
ti bi~har
123
dast rm-zarii khardb mi-
kuddm
kar-i-ki
kunl (Afghan) " whatever you put your hand to you spoil": ^fj| f\*fj* har kudam az o*f CJ^L <JTJ*& kitabha bi-gm khub ast (m.c.) <6 whichever one of these books you select, it will be a good business for you,"
W&
Har an chi **uf^ (classical or used in writing only) of*Jj ***j* f^j **uf y> (class.) "we have attacked the rinds let happen what will." An-chi *$uf (classical and m.c.). Ex.: ^3 JjA3 afofyb Aar ^lif an-cAt (or har-chi) guftam qabul na-kard " in no matter all I of said, spite how much I said, he did not agree (lit. whatever I said)." * v Ui-o *^>T j
(5)
;
aU
fjj
'
*>^ â awc^^ dastyab shud tamam ra avurdam (Afghan) "and fU3 whatever I could lay hands on I brought (the whole of it)" OAI^V* tf A^f 3 *i>* anchi rm-khwahad mi-kunad (m.c.) <c he does whatever he wishes"
f*jtf
t>
f&j; ^1^ ^^|

c<
l
y j*lU dsxif ancAi ghulam u asp ddshtam farukhtam (m.c.) whatever slaves and horses I had, I sold " <*# **** f; 1*&* <{ I got *# *^ %? a^c/ii â/ar torda mulkha* ra dida budam bj-fa*ida bttd (m.c.) no benefit from all the travelling and visiting of countries I had done =
;
^^ *^
I got
in spite of the fact that I
had travelled and seen many countries
no
advantage."
'
(m)
(1)
great number,
many, enough
"
;
bas u+*+
Ex.
namvar
bi~zlr-i
zamm dafn
karda and
(Sa*dl).
Kaz
' *
hasti-yash bi-ru-yi
zatmn yak nislian na-mdnd
a famed one have they buried beneath the ground, Of whose existence not a trace has remained on this earth."
Many
Bas gursna 6
4<
kjhuft
va kas na-damsi ki
na~girlst*-~ (Sa*di),
Bm jan bi-lab amad ki bar-u kas

Many Many
45)
:
man a man
has slept hungry and none knew who he was, has been in death's agony over whom none wept."
Ba$-l tjr*
(vide
"a many,"
7
and bam
Uo with
the
"ali! of
excess";
**&
lfk
<^-t j va bas-l diXha az
hearts (were) fascinated

I
by him"
* and a number of u shayda (Sa*dl) ba&t mardum mi-guyand f*f*

4
^^
Or better harchi
**-;*
or har qadr guftam
*
3
In m.c. dast-gir j*&**. Note ki *$ after anchi Af^f
also
the ** could be omitted
or harchi
substituted for anchi

*
5
6
^^T.
is
Note the plural

Poetical for jl
necessary here.
ki az.
:
**
Also gursina^ gurma, etc., etc.

This
is
but nigariat o-**J^>

plural as in
"he
looked."
perhaps the only instance in the Qulistan where 6fl-5 ^r*J occurs in the
;
prose portion
and
it is
followed
by the
modern
Persian.
124
" bas-i zanan " many women," people say &(>j ^^ (m.c.) or zanan zan bas not bas-i az (bos farsang (Sa'dl verse) used) ^&*>y c*~* J " from many a farsang"
(m.c.)
"
many
wJJJy* tf
-i
<^>Uj
&'
j>;
J*>
c-**o
>z
U> ^|
tiz-raw ki
bi-mand
"
Ki khar-i long jan bi-manzil burd (Sa'dl). Oh how many a swift courser has flagged and failed,
When
(m.c. ? but
the wretched ass has reached the stage's end."

c$~^ bas-i zanha-yi jahisha
dar
Kirman hastand
;
fc 8 uncommon) there are many loose women in Kirmaii" oU^| U*> " **^*j basa ihmn farmudand (Afghan colloquial, and rare m.c.) he (respectful " âs zirak pi.) treated me with great kindness jy3 (cT- ^ or cT- ^
;
^
:
bud (Afghan and Indian, written and

(2)
tfc
colloquial)
ki
ki
Bas-i ur^ is also an adverb. Ex. & ^^ " a time did not before long ^^^ ^^' bas-i bi-gardid (Sa'cll) elapse he wandered about backwards and forwards a great deal (or a great while) "
^^
he was very intelligent." bas-i bar na-yamad f,
'
'
(3)
Basa U~
li
is
old and rarely used even in writing
^)^
bam
buzury
(classical old)
very big," ride
88
(1) (3).
(n)
(1)
Many of them, a large number/' ^*i guruli-i ^jU-j hixyari. From the adjective and adverb ^^bisyar ''much, many" comes
^^^blsyari (modern
Ex.
:
"
the substantive
(with
Persian), and bisyar-l ^b***

bisyar-l
**
of unity).
^^^
^s)^!r**
mi-guyand
(m.c.)
;
" many many

'*
say," or
bisyan-yl
of the
**jf
^
but az f*j*y oj^-^ bi8ijar-i az mardum mi-guyand (m,c.) ** from the excess tnardnm rah na~bud JA* fy &j* ^j*?~* $ (m.c.)
' J
crowd there was no room to Guruh

of
*)
pass.
(2)
f^j*
$ ^*tj>
Ex.: fy^ <j*Jjt (class.), or troop, band, class/' a body, a guruh-l mardum, or gumh-i az-mardum (m.c.)
*
"a
number
certain
men";
^j^
(j*j$ guruh-i mt-guyand*
4<
(class.)
cla.ss,
number
(of people)
say/'
%j
%*j>
Remark,
(ruruh gunth
signifies
mi-ayand
1
^T
fyj*
^ in troops";
guruh yttruh
v<
they are coming in crowds/'

va bas
i
In the clause
j* ^^ j
shukr gujtam
(Sa'di),
it
is
not dear
whether
fjujtan
bcts-l qualifies
(J& j**,
This
is
the substantive shukr j*"', or whether and moans " a great deal, a good while."
alif of
it qualifies
the verb shnler
not the
the vocative: basa bashad ki *$
*&*
(m.r.)
(t
prob-
ably."
5
In m.c. baa-l ilisan cJ^^t ^"^'

Ki-az bisyarl-yi du*a
JJÂJ
,
*)!&
^Â {^w
6
of ray servant
wa zari-yi banda sharm haml daram (^)\j j [*3 c$^*H )\ *$ " because from the excess of the (Sa'di) beseeching and lamentation feel ashamed. Note accents.
'
'
*1*
\)
e>^^
" he saw a collection of tj*9r guruh-i, marduman ra did (Sa'di)
people
"
:
note absence of izafat after C5*^r
on account of C5
of unity.
(o)
125
' '
" Mostof
them"
()(&
yf
c/^&i aksar-ash
most of
it
"
;
v_J^t
(1) &\>*J&\ aksar-i-shan (oraksar-i ishdn) "most of them"; (Jyi'\ aksar' ' most of it." Aksar-i mat (or better amval) , Jf^l or) J'^J'f " most (m.c.)
l
(
the
ir-i
"most of the women" ^jj*'\ property kasdn (m.c.) " most persons " (aksar kas ^\ not used).
;
"
aksar-i zanha
Remark.
(2) *-A*\
-j*\
aksar also means

:
c<
for the
most part."
aghlab
used like aksar.
(3) ^li^j blshtar
or
e^r^^
little,
bishtarin, used as aksar
"
(p)
Something, a
nothing
"
^^
:
(1) Chlz-i
c<
$y**>
e
(lit.
a thing ").
as
Ex.
ki
^j.Aa. dar
ilm-i
muhasaba chmian
is
*'
know a
-I
little of
accounts
known
to
ma'lum " you

>
ast
;
chiz-l
danam
:
(Sa^dl)
%iu c>fc^ &* y

"
az
man
bi'khwah (Sa'df)
dur-tar
(rn.c.
ask
me
for
1
?
'
(Afghan) i( has anything in the armed force been sent there ?)."
onlj^)
little
something (for further"; ^^
a boon)
^^ (^y^^1
sarbaz
?
c>^
chiz-t
way
of soldiers started
(i.e.
has
" not a Ghlz-i ^51*^ with the negative signifies Ex. thing." 4a- ^ va chlz-1 na-khwanda am (Sa'di)
Remark.
:
ti
unlettered
v "
\)
(*^^ ;t c>b^ ^rî^ u^'jf ^<^ *^ sabab 4 for this reason I did no work." <x^" <^>^ t?*
;
"
chiz-i
kar na-kardam
^^
ch%z-%kam shud
Chan)
(2)
al.
g-t
^ the wind abated somewhat/'

S;U nubs.
it
**
Pam4
a piece, bit,
Ji
patch"
is
usually followed
by the
5
In m.c. only,
signifies
little."
Ex.:
u&+^
^^*^
^^ l^b
harfha dasJitam bi-gnyam-ash (Shah's Diary) "Iliad a few words to U para-i sarbdzM raftand, or para-i sarbaz raft to him" **&*) UjU^* s;
; ;
b (Ti\ H B. Chap. XIV) " ^J l)b mcerning some small arrangements of the harem &*.tj<~ ^ ** (H. B. Chap. KXIII) **I used to see some women in the court of the
'j^j~* x;U
para-i tajsll-i andarunl
^^1 {!*<*&
l;
^^
dm, but
(3)
."
Khurda-i
s^;^
(m.c.)
(lit.
"a
crumb, a speck ")
also
*^Xj
yak-
wed by a
* 3
Aksar j^l and ^-J^' aghlab acoorcling to the regular rulo of the superlative are The*za/aJis, however, sometimes incorrectly omitted after these genitive. words in m.c.
1
In m.o., here qadr-l
<*)***
-***)
Or
sarbaz-i chlz-l raft?
In m.c.
'*
J^^
,
v^J^r** (m.c.).
\)& signifying
hawci for
6
bad would be used hava wind " as well as ** air.'*
"
air.'*
Indians and Afghans
Or
better
Uy*- ^***>
ba'zi harfha,
and
ba'zi az sarbaz-ha
126
(m.c.)
khwurda
"a
give
}
little"
(m.c.).
Ex.
*AJ
(or ab) bidih

(4)
"
VT
t|
j*
l^y*. khwurda-i
jaw
Kam-i
little."
Kam-%
^ ^
me
"a
*
little
little
"
barley (or water)."

(classical
could be substituted foi khwurda-i
and m.c.), from kam, adjeoiive "few, in the above
L^
example. (5) Andak-i* </*f

f
(classical)
"a
little,"
or
"a
little
time."
Ex.:
' '
;
titaandak-i quvvat yaft (Sa'di)
"
till
he gained a
*
little
strength
AJ
JUa> ôo| andak-l jamdl

"little,
Wi
az bisyari-yi
mdl
(Sadi).
and andak-l ^/^t " a little." ^4ttda& J*Jf is an adjective, pure and simple: it is according to some Grammarians the diminutive of and **\ but according to others and <M is a " contraction of andak c^Jof vide also Approximate Numerals."
Andak ^^1
few"
Remark
/.
Andak
also
means
Ar.,
4<
(classically)
4 *
a few," vide
;
first
example
" a few "
Remark IL
Qalll cU^,
little,
few"
and
qallli
^^
are equivalents of the Persian andak

(6)
*^\ and
andak-l
:
^^\.
Ex. <jj&M (old classical). )\ uV^5 ^ *-^^ ** u az zamaîm-i m&lum shud a portamf-i akhlaq-i (Sa'd!) j-^ tion of his crimes became known to the king''; <_>? al<Ux> } ^^Jb
Taraf-l
^^3
a portion
^^
o*
rwa^'A; r jt
^
31
^ &xwj
(7)
;<
(Sa*dT)
something of the matter had reached

5
Ins ears."
&>***)<
Barkh-l ^*yf (classical and rare modern).

J
Ex.:
^ ^^
j
;
va barkhri az
2>?/a^
az qabza-yi tam-rruf-i u hadar raft (Sa*di)

**
barkh-l
amadand (mod.)
few
a few came
"
^)
Jt
^5^;-?
barkh-1 az
zanha (modern)
aâr
r/ar
"a
women";
*^>u
ada-yi an
little
barkh-i tahavun
\jj J-*^ ^ e^V c5^-? ^f c^f^ ^^_^l takasul rava darand (Sa*di) " if they
' '
show even a
>jj^*>
â,
}j>
namudtm
^W^ "
slackness or neglect in performing (the duty) ; ^jj j j+e y va barkh-l az *wnar-i giran-maya bar~u kharch
r
(Sa'df)
we expended a portion
of our precious
It is
life
on
it."
Barkh-%
^^
is lit.
"a portion, a share."
as an izafat cannot follow the
not followed by an izafat, of indefiniteness or the of unity. This is
perhaps the reason that
it
is
more often followed by
az.
Compare ba
z~i
IS of unity
also
kaml
subs. " deficiency."
s
&
(^^
aJf
qadr-i could also be substituted.

adj.
Andak,
Ex.: atashri andak ra

'
Ij
u^X>l
(J^^ (Sa*di)
bi-andak
muddat
&> (Sa'di)
in a little time."
logically
Not
bieyar-l
c^J^rt as might
be expected.
As jamal JU^- has two
syllables and mal one, euphony requires bisyarl-yi mal J^ Lfjfer^ to balance andak-l
jamal
6
JU>
This
^/^t.
first
az }\ omitted in
some
copies
the two prepositions az dose together are
uneuphonious.
(8)
127
*>
Juzv-l
isjj>*> (Persian)
:
juzvjfr**
Ar.
"
juz*,
(t
on of a book"
izvi,
and cj>*
is
either juzv-i for ij*y
little,"
part, portion, or else

juzv-i
Pers. adj. for Ar. adj.,
^[^
little
"
partial."
Ex.
p*)& JjJ c^jj^

*^4>5j
dashtom (m.c.)
.)
"1 had a
cost";
;
money"; c>^
j>j>
bi-qtmat-i
juzvi
(m.c.)
"at
trifling
little
f>*j>
<*&*
juz-*%
birinj
giriftam
least
Dook a
partial
rtial
rice"
' '
;
word
' '
^^ c*^^
i
^j*> ^J-^V
bi-juz*i harf-i (m.e.)

I
"at the
word,
bi-jut.}
naslm-% (m.c.) " at the least wind, at
wind.
Remark.
Kull u juz* *y j
ctf,
or kulli
juz*-i
L$l&j
^
^j
îj^j u&, "

[There
or az kulli
is
c<
3'
n whole and in part, " a short time

' '
entirely."
also the
ctive c$2>^ juzvl

(9)
5
ic
petty, trivial," qimat-i juzm
^y*- ^^].
Lakht-i z
piece,
^^
(old classical,
"a
In
a portion,"
etc., etc.
Ex.:
osi>
and rare modern) from

a-So-xjlj
idlshd faru raft (Sa'dl) **he considered a little";

tr
laJcht-i
andisfiid
%.+
(Sa*dl)
" he considered a
*j^ ^^
particle, a
c<
^^
lakht-i
t^?t )**\
little
about this." pinch

(of
(10)
),
Sliamma-i
:
(rarely used, Ar.)

&+S*
"an atom,
etc/'
^j->
V)
^^
;
vaztr
shamma-i rah burd (Bast.)
the vazlr got
ikling of the matter

'
"
cui&xj i*Ji
^Lc &f&*)$jt <j&^ j Û^jt^J^ ^jb

ki
vazlr az shamaîl va akhlaq-i

4 *
ii)
well (or so) the wazir
u da> rat-i inalik sJiamma-i mi-guft was mentioning a few of the good qualities
."
of
boy
in the presence of the
King, saying
4i
Remark. Nabza $*& Ar. but is rarely used.

(11)
small portion/' has
much
the same significa-
X
.)
From $)i zarra *' an atom, a mote in a sunbeam/' comes yak zarra " one atom, the least part." Ex. %> $j& *J<* yak zarra ab bi-dih " give me just a drop of water."
:
(12) Bi-qadr-i
:
yak par-i kah-i
cxî^ o^Jf <^^j^ was not worth a straw "

(q)
:
a very little/ j*&> bi-qadr-t yak par-i kah~% qimat na-d&$ht (m.c.)
^K^^
j&*
* 4
'
(m.c.)
(lit,
^Some";
^^
ba'zi,
a chip of straw). Per. and 4> ba*z> Ar.

<i:
(lit.
"a
portion"),
some say"; ^j3f<^*u ba'z-lazzanM oJujxA ^Mi ba*z-l ml-guyand >me of the women"; *>*^ <^*J ba ( z-t chlzha (m.c.) f< some things";
I
l
^^? ba'spi az rakhtha-yi khud ra
dadam
<s
(m.c.)
gave some
Juzv-l C5J|3^ (m.o.) 4^ of unity
But
p**jr
t)
if*j?
-0^
'^
in writing also " I took a a k birinj ra giriftam (m.c.) juz'-i y portion of

:
ice."
" a corner of one's liver Lakht-i jigar jf^- iju^bj (or dil J<3) (or heart) "; meta" a beloved child." ioally
8
Par-i gul
(J>
j*
is
"
petal of a flower
'
'
^^
has the
of unity.
128
of
txijj&x) (jcUvJif
ba'z-l ashkhas ml-guyand (m.c.) "some khavamn "some Khans "; ba'zi az khava* persons say"; ^-^ ^***? n%n ^\^ )\ t5^ "some of the Khans." " is not used in m.c. it is Ba'z Ar. substantive
my clothes ";
^***
ba'zi
by the
is
followed "portion and by a plural noun or by a collective noun, vide barkh-l i^s>. Ba'zi 4^** is an adjective and therefore does not take the izafat, but ba'z a substantive and is correctly followed by the izafat, as: ba'z-i awqat u*
;
o^V
izafat,
cÛjjt
'sometimes.'
The
plural of ^>**t
is
^.^^
<
-^** " Ba'zi murg&ha didam saw some birds (indefinite)." f**i (fy& Ba'zi az rakht-ha ra dadam ôf.* Ij U^j jf ^<A+* = ba zi rakht ra dadam
(
"
gave some of
*
the clothes."
The
plural
is
better with ba'zi

:
and adv. Ex. (^+3 *Uv* *$ ^fj W. )^* avarda and ki sipah-i dushman bisyar bud va Indn andak <{ it is related that the soldiery of the enemy was much while the (Sa'dl) " o &{ yjf cJCûj j^>Lô G ool<^ latter (were) few j *-' J i*j (*;^
(r)
"Much, many,"
^***> bisyar adj.
^^
^^
shikayat'i ruzgar-i na-musa'id bi-nazdik-i man avard ki kafaf-i andak ddram va " complained to me of his wretched state (saying) that 'iyal-i bisyar (Sa^di)
v
'
have small means and a

:t
'
' J ;
large family
^^^ cuô
used to repent much and then " ^^f )* &j^~*j*"* aar asn&-yi r^h shutitr bisyar' bud (or shuturha bisyar bndand) <c on the way there were many camels'*; o.x^ô Û~j ^^j zanha-yi (m.c.)
kardl (Sa*di)
(Sa'df)
"with much trouble";

a certain
^^
^-
^^y
b*-ma*haqqat-i bisyar
tawbat-i bisyar
;
yak-i
man
bisyar (or bisyar zanha) mi-guyand (m.c.)
Ow^C j
&)JvJ J^*}-^
\J^* J^'~~t
^- ^
"many women
O-^J j
,,_-.
"
say
îÔ ji
&
{J***
Ma-kitn
Ki
*'
takija bar mulk-i dunya va pusM (Sa*dl). bisyar kas chun-tu parvard u kusht
Place no reliance on this world,
For many
like
you
it
has nourished and slain."

:
Note the meanings of bisyar Û~- in the following sentences az shab <% a great part of the night had bisyar guzasht c^J>? t^j ._~ )t (m.c.)
passed"
;
bisyar shab (or shabhd) guzasht *^*t$(
or)w^^>^--o (m.c.)
;
" maiw
nights passed," or o-Jio^ jt-j
o t^
l
shabhd^yi bisyar (juzasht (m.c.)
jj
(Ayj
(m.c.) bisyar
kinds of birds
"
qism paranda-ha giriftam (m.c.)

r
"
^~5 y\~j caught various
=
<
^J ^^j
jl ;
Uj"f (ni.c.).
Bisyar-t (az)
dance" "
say
:
bisyar-l az
bisyari-yi
a much," and bisyan <^f)^~~> (subs.) "abun** mardum mi-guy and *^jS f*^ jl o;^ many men " wrath mal
c^'t-^
<{
Jl*
^^
^
of
"abundance
vide also (p)
(5)
and footnote.*
J
In Urdu ba'ze
is
an adjective.
^
&
The
Or
plural budand **&* could have been used.
shutur-i bieyar j^-*> j^, or shuturha-yi bisyar
In prose kasan
129
"
(s)
the izafat as though

(1)
Remaining, remainder"; ^0, Ar. it were a substantive

:
adj., is incorrectly followed
by
t^k bdqi
' '
(adj.).
Ex.
"the remainder
remaining days
câ?**^ ^b
bdqi-yi ruz
ham
guzasht (m.c.)
of
;
the clay passed", but
l*jjy
^(*
A
bdql-yi ruzhd
"the
Jib
*
dil
<.-> *U3
<
Imshab-am dard-i
tamam na-shud
Baqi-yi dastan bi-farda shab (Salim). c< I could not relate all rny suffering, To-night The remainder of the story stands over till to-morrow night." Baqi put ra chi kardi or baqi-yi put rd chi kardi are both m.c.
The Indians and Afghans

occasions.
correctly omit the izafat after baqi <^b, on all
v
(2)
4<
sipdh
of the
baqiyya, subs, (classical the remainder of the soldiers "
<ui>
and
;
m.c.).
ixaj
Ex.
U~
^
j.<+>
' '
baqiyya-yi
jjj
baqiyya-yi rUz
the remainder
day."
(3)
^ U md
This
baqiy
is
:
a
,
Ar.,
in Persian md-baql û\*>,
lit.
* f
that which
remained."
substantive.
Ex.
used in modern (and perhaps in classical) Persian as a ** the remainder of the jj) ina-baqt-yi ritz (m.c.)
^^
day."
" &+&1atimma, Ar. subs, completion, appendix, etc." is used the remainder or balance of an account, as V U^. U
4<
^j
is
what v^ aqab rnanda mdnda "to what remains over" (of an account,
*Û>
to
generally applied only to remnants remains or is left behind ; *>&*

etc.,
^^
or of people,
things, etc., after counting).
CHAPTER
40.
1
IV.
THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUN.

The
Definite Article.
(a)
Harf-ita'rif
Ju_j*S
oj^
).
There
is
no
article properly so called.

:
If
the noun
is definite
and
in
the accusative case,
\) wt <C I saw the water"; du asp-ra dtdam p^ te du asp didam I saw two horses," and 2 f*j*> w*-t 3L0? ^13^ j* jjj*\ imruz dar ki bazar asld* asp na-didam (m.c.) to-day^ I saw no horses in the bazar."
t>
ab-ra bidih
"
give (me) the
water
"
Ex. it requires ra. but &V vt ab bidik " give me two horses"; but *-***! j$
;
Remark.
In the nominative case

the two armies.
5 '
" armies
(6)
j&J
j& du laslikar can
mean
* *
two
or
"
Proper names,
^JU.=k
titles etc.,
the separate, the demonstrative, and the

{t
reflexive
*& kl y o&i and <^j&, 3 ^*^, pronouns, the interrogative

y
+A , etc.,
4
;
^S A*A
^Û^
(
g*A.,jjL
),
^*>.
and
fj,
<*^$
j*9 j* j* ,
etc.,
are considered
so
definite or ma'rifa
&>j**
and require
.
especially in
modern Persian
also does the

(c)
pronoun tjak-i <^ In modern Persian, the affixed possessive pronouns when affixed to a
noun
in the accusative case, are also usually followed

classical Persian, this construction
is
by
f>
tj
In
rare.
In the Gulistan. the
is
both omitted and inserted.
The
Syntax.
fj
of the dative, however, cannot be omitted.

\j
For further
rules
on
the insertion or omission of the
of the accusative
and dative,
vide
under
Remark,
(1) All
The following are

Powerful."
also definite
nouns that have the Arabic
definite article Jt
j>
as
)^'ti\
"The
(2)
Nouns preceded
tive pronouns.
(or
demonstrated aJt^liuo
by the demonstra-
Ta'rif
( *-*>j*> )
also
means "
definition."
2
3
For asZ*.
t> of the accusative is often omitted, contrary to the rules of syntax. As a rule the reason of the omission can be traced to tho exigencies of the rhythm. Imitators of the style of Sa'di, especially Indians, raak e
Fulan&%* (adj.) and fidani j*&* (subs.). In the Gulistan and in classical Persian the
syntactical mistakes of this description, but no ordinary
modern Persian
does.
THE INDEFINITE ARTICLE.

(3)
131
(affixed or separate),
c\*
The vJl**
:
(4)
a proper name or of a pronoun Uf etc. as or of a Ûi ^x>, as f3Uy v Some nouns in the vocative, as
of
;
: :
*^*y*.
(5)
Proper names, noms de plume
LâJiJ
) 9
personal pronouns, and
and
(d)
>
sarbazka)
as, ***rt^*> j* U^l^w or) olj^** sarbamn (or m.c. du hazar budand "the soldiers were two thousand", the plural makes the noun definite; but du hazar sarbaz jbj** )^ j* signifies "two " or " the thousand men two thousand men" vide also example in Remark
( :
In sentences such
to
(a).
Remark.
(e)
The
cardinal
numbers are not followed by a plural noun.

4^, often
In relative sentences, a demonstrative or relative
confused
with the
of unity (sometimes accented for emphasis), with the connective * makes the noun definite vide 42
:
in conjunction
(6)
and
(g)
to
(r).
If
the noun
is
to remain indefinite, the
^ (or
*)
must not be accented:

**
vide
42
(p).
(/)
p*& ÛÛ padishah-ira slianidam (SaMl) I have heard of a certain king," ani *& ^<^ ^^^ <# ^^ yak-i ra az muluik
In the sentences
\\
\$
ajam hikayat kunand

'
the kings of
Ajam^'
(Sa'di) "it is related (they relate) of a certain one of the objects are to be considered definite though accom-
affix
of unity or so-called indefinite article : for the rule of the panied by in such cases, vide under Syntax. fj
the
(g)
The demonstrative pronouns,

:
especially in m,c. ? frequently take the
place of the definite article, as
Atimaxrdki
amad <Wf
;
^ôf
(for mard-Z-ki
amad&tf ^?^y)
learning
4i
the
man who came"
hence the reason vhat Persians

instead of
English generally say, **that
man who"
"the man
who."
41.
(a)
The
Indefinite Article.
(
Harf-i tanKr or 7a-yi wahdat
The numeral
article.
^ yak
e
ct
one
ftfy* " " one guzashta ml-kardam (Sa di) night I was pondering on olden times here shab-i could be substituted ivvyakshab *-*& *Ji, without altering the meaning. Vide also examples in (m). In m.c. this yak^&> is more often used
:
Ex.:
***
" sometimes cUU ^Ji j*U|
ox^3
<^b or takes the place of the indefinite yak sJiab ta*mmul-i ayyam-i
^^
for the indefinite article
than
is
the
^ of unity.
^ of
<xUa.
Remark.
certain person
Yak "
:
<-X
can also be joined to the

V5C|
unity, as
"
one, a
o*f ^f
vÎ
Û^ ^\tf
j\Qva az jumla-yi adab-i
Poetical nom-de-plume.
132

this is
" and nudama-yi muluk yak-i In ast (Sa'dl)

of the
one of the (good) manners
companions
is
of the kings."
There
nothing to distinguish from each other the ya-yi vahdat &&s*j
or the ya-yi tanldr
^., and the yayi mawsul Jj*j*
^k
42), except the
When the signifies unity in this case its place difference in signification. can be taken by the numeral yak it is known by the first name. When the <^ is used before a relative clause and is equivalent to t lie demonstrative pronoun,
it is
known by
Remark.
the last name.
The
c5"
that follows
j*> is
probably not the demonstrative ^,
but the
(6)
of unity.
The
ya-yi tankir j>
^.
or
of
mdefimteness acts as an indefinite

is
article.
This
^, which has several uses, and

was
1
more or
less
emphatic,
either in magnifying or in minimising,
in classical Persian pronounced

it
with the majhul sound.
In modern Persian
is
is
pronounced
i,
and with
it
40 (e) the exception mentioned in abstract nouns. of from the suffix ^s
unaccented, in order to distinguish
Thus
in classical Persian mard-e <L-*J*

:
" a certain man", but mardl ^Sj* ** manliness" in modern t( " manliness." a man", etc-; but mardl colloquial mard-l o^y This s is supposed to be derived from the numeral yak <-& (or yog <-& )
"a man"
or
^^
of
which the
water
last letter has disappeared.
Yi, for yak
_G, exists
still
* *
in
some
songs in the dialect of
Mazenderan.
Yi-qadr
aw
bi-dih
t* tf
)<&.
give
me
it
' J
little
is
common
in S. Persia.
it
In modern Persian, however,

collective
(c)
can be added to a plural, making

$,
noun
vide (k) (2),
If the
noun terminates
is
in silent
then, instead of the affixed 4^, the

is still
symbol hamza
superscribed, but in modern Persian

<*û backcha-e (classical)
2
pronounced
J,
[Me
26
{/)],
as
and bachcka-*
(m.e.)
"a
child
}
"
or
**a certain child.'*
If
the noun
is
concrete and terminates in

before the
the
^ of
the noun
is
"fish", but (Â^>

(d)
generally represented by* t( a fish." (or 4^1*) mahl-i

S
^ of unity,
*
as: ^5*^ mahl
(1) If silent
precedes
:
o^f
ast
"is", the
may be
omitted and the
written o*wt.
Ex.
Var shakar-khanda-isl
'*
shirin-lab
Astln-ash bi-gir u sham* bi-kush (Sa*dl). But if she be attractive and sweet-lipped Take her by the sleeve 3 and put out the light."
4,
Vide foot-note
page HI.
With thewo/a*, bachcha-yi kuchak

Attln
(.^jjujf
*^'
*&? (mod.):
difference in transliteration
and pronunciation.
8
probably the old hanging sleeve, in Persia
still
worn by some
darvisheg.

Banda-i
written
*^~*>\
}
133
maht-ist
st
may
,
be written
^^\
*L>
or
o~t !^x, and
may
be
cs^fc^
etc., or v^~j|
Remark.
to the sense in which it
Grammarians, however, give is used. Thus in

:
this
^ different names according
' '
One and all need each other, Even a small spider can hide a great prophet
' '
the
first
is
called i/a-/i tasg&r j***&
^ "the
^
diminutive ya" or
tatiqir j*&**J
^.
"the
i/a
of
contempt",
while the second
of respect." contrary meaning is called ya-yi ta*zim f*&** Îj relative the For the names of the relative definite article in (expressing
" the ya
having the
sentences)
(2)
vide
42.
is preceded by a *, to disAfter final alif *-&!, ?/a U, or udv *\j, this " a scent J ' but <J> of the f?a/a^ oÛt as ^5> 6?I4 ^>i tinguish it from the
<f
6i-?/e
gul
<c
the scent of the flower"
such a very great empire." should be inserted as bearer for this hamza. Some Arabic words end in a hamza, which may or may not be written in Persian, but before a suffixed ^, the Arabic *must fall away, thus: ** " a desert " and desert, or jungle as opposed to cultivation ", ^t^**
(m.c.)
^Ja* A ^
^^ a*^
chunin dawlat-i uzma-i

s
cs
^*
*"
ât
'
desert.'
*
(3) If
the Arabic word ends in

is
a?if-i
maqsura \& or
with or without the

:
tanwin, the final letter

for
*
changed to a&/ before the
^ of unity, as
^^f a'ama
?
** a blind man." The word <j>** is in blind"; Û^l &ama~l Persian pronounced ma*m j^^ or mafnq i t^**; its final letter may therefore in Persian be considered to be either ya I* or alif-i maqsura %)}>&* ^t, thus:
^tj4*i
>
or yii** ma'm-i (m.c.)
4i
a meaning,"
:
Remark
I.
The
9.
^
c<
is
andak-% jamal (Sa'di)
sometimes added to adjectives, as JU^ ^/^f " a few." For sal-t du little beauty": chand-%
^ JU,
vide
(/)
In old Persian, the is added to the noun when it is qualified by an adjective, and not to the adjective, as: mard-lkhub ^ty* "a and man" dat andalc zaman-l (class, (class, and mod.) c^^t^^ ^l*} good " for a little while." In to added is the modern mod.) generally Persian,
Remark IL
^^
the adjective, vide(k).
combines with oî in pronunciation, but may be Khub mardi-st written separately in full, or combined with the ast. Ex. " is written o-*| " he is a or man (m.c.) good ^tj* v^,
(e)
The
of unity
134

(/)
Examples
t\*
>z
of the various significations of this

I
are:
(1)
^.^
L$J~!
cs*^^
padishdh-l
pisar-i
bi-adib-i
dad (Sa'dl)
pas-l az shab
king handed over a son of his to a tutor cJj v^ jf t^^ " one watch of the night passed." guzasht " I have no special business (2) fjf^ <^;( lcar-1 na-daram
certain
;
'
"a
"
U^J ^ly*^^
<c
mi-khwaJiam bi-shuma khidmat-i ruju' kunam (m.c.) pit a^j ^5^*^to entrust you with a (special, or a certain) commission."
(3)
j^jj
want
' '
;
{}#<
*A hlch tadbir-1 no-bud
' c
there was not a single plan
o**,| <M^*XJ ijLc&L ij>\j=*- j tylfaJu^JL. jt ^fy* jj bar liar yak-i az saîr-i bandagan u hawashi khidmat-i mu'ayyan ast (Sa'di) "for every single one of his slaves and attendants a special (or a separate) duty is appointed," (4) ij&$ )\X Uuuf c^^ J^*Jt *$ ^^\ ^t cî^ bihtar-ash In ast ki al-hal
\\
bi-taivr-i
az inja kinar kashl
'*
(m.c.)
the best thing
is
that somehow or other

4<
you
at once get
(5)
away from here."

csV^JJl)
^Tê^J
ruzgar-i* bar-in bar-cimad

sa'at-i
* 4
(Sa'clT)
a short time
elapsed after this";
^^^
c<
a short time " a

little
or " one
hour";
!<
^JUj dar andak zaman-% (Sa'd!)

va
in
time "
;ti^
"also
** *
ham
shakk-i
lest
pay da shud
(but
ki
mabadd
(m.c.)
a bit of a
doubt
"there
*l&f
arose
"
lest
va
ham shakk paidd shud

ov*,f
^
j|
t<^j
cZ^
^j
was doubt
"); Jiô^
&^j)t
*z++*
a/ UvJf
î? j
^ ^s ^^
A^ îT ^yo ffÂ c5>^^ (^^jf
^JU{*x>
angah ruy ba-man kard
va,
guft az anjd ki
himmat-i darvishan ast va xidq-i mwamala-yi tshan khatir-l luannrak-i man kunid ki~^- (Sadi) "he then turned tome and said, 'on account of the gracious
magnanimity
attention to
to his
of dervishes
for
'
and
<xu
their
me
"
;
^-^
burut-i-1abld (m.c.)
uprightness in dealings pay a little he gave a alight twirl
moustache."
*>$
j*
(6)
<yW^ ^f * ^ Bi-ham ma-kun

bar
^*
ta
v<Jiy
tf
e^v' pv
(Sa'dl
).
tavam
dil-i
Ki
'*
ah-i jahan-i
if
bi-ham bar kunad.
Distress not,
it, a single soul, For one sigh to God (from a broken heart) can destroy even a whole world." 6
thou canst avoid
tjin this sentence, there is yet no con fusion as to sense. (^ has the adjectival sense of "a certain" and is followed by an explanatory clause, its noun may be considered definite, and if in the accusative case 40 (/). requires the affix ra, vide
1
Note that though there isno

this
When
More common in m.c. Jcinara kunl %y*S In m.c. ruzagar )^)j)' 6 It is this sentiment, the fear of the distressed sigh, that so often prevents the a of convinced malefactor in Persia. Some irresponsible person intercedes, punishment
8
(t
and the Governor, to hide his superstitious fears, professes The idiomi s biham kardan (and not kandan)
to be
overcome by
pity.

(7)
135
into
leii
usw ÛaL ***jj)j Vazir chi khiySLt-st uftdda ast? (m.c.) what a way of thinking (into what kind of a fancy) has the Wazir
wonder
vs**f
' '
o~ ^W|
?
(8)
^Jf
(J^js
i$hq dfat-1-st
((
love
is
a great calamity.
f '
In despair
is
many
a hope
For
(9)
bas'l
''
The close of a dark night " many a vide 39 (m).

bar
is fair.
<M^ ôy j^ ^JU sdl-i du bar In

"
;
dmad
(Sa'di)
" a couple of years
so passed after this
^ JL^*
fasl-i
du
(Sa'dl)
"a
couple of chapters.
]
"
For
(10)
^ with
the plural in
modern Persian,
vide (k) (2).

>?
)
;
itim-l*
" <^*y Fir'aun-i a Phararoh (i.e. cruel and overbearing " a Hatim", a man generous as Hatim (but Jiatimi
^^ "genero-
(11)
* 8
L5'J^3j>
<>~^ c^^ 4-A^Â
Aij
na
giriftdr
dmddl
bi-dast-i javdn-l
ki liar dam havd-l pazad wa liar lahza ray-l zanad va har shab ja-l Jchuspad har ruz yar-l girad (Sa'dl) " you fell not into the bondage (of marriage) bh a youth vain * * *, who at every breath starts a fresh fancy, and each
?,
>ment states a new opinion, and every night sleeps d every day takes a new love."
(12) SiXÛJ U jjoA^f^k G vi.^1 ^5-iî
jîJJLf
in
a different place,
qalandar darvlsh-l-st na-kharashtda
-tarashida (m.c.)
(13) (./Ui~A>
4<
a Calendar
is
a kindoi darvish, rough and uncivilized."

bar misl-i
Muslim
umd.
like
you
Ui c&o^j oi*j la'nat " or U JLtc

;
shuma Musalman-l " curses

la'nat bar
011
ÛL-xs^j oW
mnsalmdn-i misl-i
ft jj*> u>jl (^ di e)ly^ javdn misl-i man jur kdr nami-kunad a simple statement; but javdn-t inisl-i man-l ^^ di (^1^ ex " esses a considerable amount of conceit and "brag" and" lays a stress on van vi>!>^ and man javan liamchu man-1 îx^siÂ ^t^. expresses the
(14)
*>XA+J
i.e.)
is
me
idea, but in speaking there
would be no
stress
on the word javdn
(>[}*>.
(g)
The noun with
its
cc of unity is often in m.c.
preceded by the
JP/r'awn
er ones.
ne to
2
5 e^^j a title common to the ancient kings of Egypt, as Ptolemy to the The Pharaoh of Hoses' time is known to Muslims as Valid. Fir'aun has mean a cruel tyrant, insolent and unbelieving.'
*
In Persian sometimes Hatam +&*> an illustrious Arab of the tribe of tfayy who ed before the Prophet, but his son, who died at the age of 120 in the 68th year of the ght, is said to have been a companion of the Prophet.
:
&
Dust
*-"**}^, in Persia,
is
only used for men, but yar
is
a man-friend, or a
stress.
136
indefinite

yak
*,
for additional emphasis, as: *oj
^-^
"
;
Jo
(*\
agha yak
cJiiz-t
bi-dih (beggar's cry)
"gentleman, give me a trifle muddat-l bimari dasht " so that he was yak than muddat-l (more emphatic alone).
ki
1
*^\*
from
Ûw <y<c ^ tf
it
ill
quite
an age"
*-*J?
(h)
The
<^ of unity does not admit of the izafat after it, thus
wf
^f****
qadah-ii* barf-ab (Sa'dl)

** *>.* 8 fj
"a cup
of
iced water
(i.e.
knot of
ejky i>s*jj> guruh-i marduman ra did ki men who " vide also (/) (1) *xuf^<S? ^yf
:
water and ice mixed)] " he saw a certain (Sa'di)

^jjj &+\) Raja yuz-i
**&*
safid dvarda guzaramd (Jehangir's Memoirs) Cheeta and presented it to me.

' '
"the Raja brought a white

95
For a
(b) (5).
(i)
classical
example vide quotation from 'Umar-i Khhayyam in

its
In classical and in modern Persian, a noun before
qualifying adjec-
(Sa'dl) khuranda-yi bisyar man had a large family " 5 ^y AA-Ô ^1^^ padishah-i c^^* f^* ^ ^ A ba gJiulam-i 'Ajamt dar kishtl nishasta bud (Sa'dl) "a. certain king was <( " b ^* a seated with a Persian slave in a boat pddishah-t ba vaztrjtjj
;
meaning, sometimes discards the ^s of unity, as oûî &Afc ta'ifa-yi dustan (Sa'dX) " a party of friends"; but ejUL-j,* J* Îfc L ba td'ifa-t az dustan s^;y^ fUic }f " a certain learned 4 az 'ulama dasht
:
tive or before another
noun
in construction, even
if
indefinite in
ow|^l^ yak-i
^^
*^
king with his vazir ", but padisliJah-i ba-vazir-i a vazir (perhaps the vazir of another king).
^)) ^
f
^^^
it
"a
king with
Remark.
Note that
"one of"
requires j
(/).
after
in all cases:
it
cannot be followed by the

(;)
izafat.
Vide also
I
Concrete nouns ending in (^)
may take the ^

:
of unity
but the
first
U in writing
cases.
is usually represented by a *, as Sufi-% bi-man yuft cî? In m.c., however, the indefinite *J^> usually takes the place of the
^j J**r*
in
such
Singular abstract nouns in ^5 do not admit of the the indefinite c& is substituted.
Remark.
^ of
unity
(k)
(1)
of unity
is
generally added to
tfce
qualifying adjective [unless the adjective end in ^c, vide (m)] following the noun and not to the noun. Ex. vî ^^3 qushun-i khub-l budand
:
^^
(Shah's Diary)
"
they were a pretty soldiery
"
;
^/ s?^ ^^
a sick
nutq-i ziyad-i
kardand (Shah's Diary) "they delivered long speeches."

^
Bimtir-i
tS)^
is
\) is
(note accent) would
mean ho kept
*
man
in his
house/
2
3
In m.c. qadah
a basin.
is
Here ra
necessary though the object
indefinite, because of the *$ following.
*
6
In modern Persian
^^^ )J^ && nan l&hwur-i bisyar-l (or bisyar

(jjiulamrl
In modern Persian this would be
*** and
kishti-i

(2)
137
The
can
also
refer
to
a plural and
seems
to
give
it
Ex.: o*-f ^jk^ ^(^J&A. chakushha-yi ykarib-l 'st (Shah's " zanha-l darad Kirmdn " are (were) a strange lot of hammers Diary) they *$ ki zarda-yi tukhm ra az miyana-yi safida ml-duzdand cjjl/y j>jf^ (J*^j p>**l **)) " frxxil* <xHx*> Kerman has a class of women so
collective sense.
]
4JjJ<X
\j
(m.c.)
tricky
that they can steal the yolk of an egg from the midst of the white." Jn English, the indefinite article is still common before a general
noun
denoting a
sum
of
money
or a space of time.
The answer
your pay?" might be: liich, du tuman-i ^^y "From his birth * * * * to "nothing; a paltry two tumans" stroke on the field of Jena, what a seventy-one years"
is
" what
to a question, *r A (me.) j*
his death-
(Carlyle),
o^xl U*
_AJ
.vliiA
&*.
ixx^ jjj^K
^
is
ijtfj*
13
j*i
a)y
jf
az tavallud ta dam-i
marg-ash dar kar-zar-i Jena chi ha f tad u pan)

i-^^y^x^jj âa^^j j (m.c.) "it the has a diminutive force."
sal-ist.
In,
du farsM^l
bishtar
mst
not more than a couple of farsalchs^

of the simple
(3) If,
however, the adjective
is
noun,
the
'
^
he
is is
naturally
affixed
to
the
kind that can precede the khub noun. Ex. o^yo v
mard-l-st
a good
man"
(m.c.);
$ty* j#
f
plr-i
mard-l (m.c.)
"an
old
man."
(I)
man didam "I saw

PJZ
j
In modern Persian the constructions murduf*>& 0^^* ^5*-*^ jam'-t a body of men" or jam" -I az marduman dldam and jam' -I zanha didam f&>* ty) (jr**^, or jam' -I az &l>c-j*> y
;
didam f*n V3 (h) and (i).

(m)
3>
u*4^ "^ 8aw a body

1-
of
women ",
(&),
are
used.
Vide
also
In modern Persian, as stated in

;
the
is
generally added
to the qualifying adjective
numeral
is
however, the adjective itself end in ^, the " an Abyssinian slave girl >j^ preferably substituted, as:
if,
' c
^j^^ yak
kanlz-i habashi (rn.c.) or
î*^ ^sJ^^
1
kantz-i habashi (m.c.).
Note the following m.c.:

(b) qashuqsJnr, " "a of water glass
*-jf
"a
or
spoonful of
shir, or
milk"
(c) ^sj**
(a)
j*
(3-*^
*-&,
yak
^#>(
qashuq-l'
(5^
(jtlas-i
qashuq-i
ab, or
shir-i:
^f ^r^
gtlas-i ab-l, or
^ ^^^
u*^
J^
yak
(n)
gil<i$-i
ab or in apposition yak gllas ab. Note the absence of in the following:
c=~b
v^JJb
% palang dasht* (Sa*dl) "he had a (the) wound from a leopard zakhm-i shamshir khwurda (m.c.) " he got a sword wound ";
;
"
^)
zakJi-m-i
1 i.e. the women of Kerraan generally are of such tense with the idea of " can (and consequently do) steal."
a class.
Note the present
For qfahiq <3^', T. Here zaJshm ^j is used as the description of wound and it therefore becomes (lefinite. It would be also right to say zaWun-i palang-l cr^J or better zalch.m-1 az (**3>
3
palang
138

va u-ra dar chunin martaba
l
did
(Sa'df)
"and saw him
possessed of
such great rank."

In these examples the noun is considered generic, and, therefore, does not take the ^. It does not mean the wound of one leopard; it might be the wound of ten. Similarly ow-t Jib jÛ hanuz tifl ast " he is still a boy.' n kitab-i khub-i is occasionally met with (o) The construction <y^
it
aeems to mean
(m.c.)
dddam
(p)
"I
"a book, a good one " paid a thumping sum."

lt
^^
^fo ÂA&A
^^
pul-i hanguft-3,
As dlgar-l ^c^^ means

riot classically
another person",
dlqar meaning
"anor
other" does
yak
take the
chiz-i digar jj>_j*<*-
J^ " another thing, one thing more"; and in m.c.

asp-i dtgar-i o*/&* f*) "another person's horse": but as already
of unity
3
:
chiz-i digar ^&j>
^ y^
4 (vulgarly) cMz-i digar-l <^j&> J^-. As in m.c. the distinction is
may mean
' *
another horse
is
"
not observed,
or
stated the former
a vulgarism.
f
vide
For an example of dagh-i diqar-l ^j*s 94 (i) example from 'Umar-i Khayyam.
"another misfortune",
The following
boy
is
are m.c.:
*-^~t
5
cu~
<uUax
( *
j~*> &>.\
a devil
' '
,
but
e^-^ ^j~$
?tf
he
is
a devilish boy
;
in pisara shaytan ast "this ' ^*

'
pisar-i shaytan-i-st '*he is the son of
or in
4>Ji
adam
Jchar ast
o*t
^
'
a devil" adam-i khar-i-st *+** " he is an ass " marduman-i khar~*

;
^cj=^
cJ^^^j or
It
in
is,
inardum khayli
khctr
and &\ **
(^^ C
^ &^
Remark.
^c, kitab'i digar-l ki

(q)
however, correct in modern Persian to add the relative ^ ê other book which (or that) ." ^j^-* V
&
'
The
*^ltx
\\
following construction dar mashraî nz mashari'
is
borrowed from the Arabic:
^y^*^
a place
AT
(class.)
"in a road
(lit.
in
4
a road of
the roads)
"
;
&\j+*
jt
(^*^
;^ dar
mamarr-i az mamarrat
;
(class.)
*m
of passage, in
j
cX)li&
one of the places of passage"

^cj^ ^cU; ^
jt
vJWi
Icy
4^;^^ ^'40 îkf
^^
dar-%
jf ^1*3 ^t*^ bdshod ki Khuda'(yi) ta'alq
lfl>
o^b
nagah az
altaf-i
khwish
lutf-i
numayad va
az darha-yi ruzi
bar
ma
bi-kushayad (mod.) "it may be that God on High out of his gracious good. " ness may suddenly open a way of livelihood (out of his many ways) for us
(j*?^ bi-taraf-i* az atraf ravam (m.c.) or other, somewhere or other."
fj; vJf^tf j!
i
"I may go
in
some direction
In modern Persian incorrectly martdba-l ***?*. This is the incorrect reading by modern Persians, even when th e is omitted in the copies of the Gulistan. * The added to t.ifl* (.5 could not be " is a common S In "another shabha-i
m.c.
L^r^ U**^
c>^^
is
cKgar-i
person
vulgarism.
*
5
Also yak chlzlrl dlgar j*j.&

Shayfian
really
Lji^
<^J.
an adjective here.
In Arabic
tarf c*ji> is the
Erroneously
f.arf
J>fe.
"eye", but
iJj-k toraf
is
"a
side, extremity,
margin,
etc.'*

(r)
139
:
The
is
occasionally added to Arabic phrases, thus

' '
hazar-i az ta'am iartlb kardand (Sa'dl) "they set out a was ready in the way of food what here ma is the relative something Arabic "that is the 3rd person singular, which", andAa^râ^ pronoun
>3jf
*-*#j>
ma
of
raasc., Fret, of ''to

($)
:
be ready."
When
substantives are coupled together, the
is
added to the
f
last
j d&* **?*** J^J^f ks[y*)*j* \j l Wj >J*>j~> only J^&jp&j <2+&\$ Sarhang-zada ra bar dar-i sara-yi Ug&lamish" didam ki aql u* kiyasat-i va* fahm u firasat-i zaîd'^l-wasf dasht (Sa'dl) "I saw the son of a certain (?)
cA-^f
*5\)
J>^
officer
at
the door of the palace of Uglilamish
understanding and sagacity, and an description";
intelligence
that was possessed of an and ingenuity beyond all
^tÛ ^ UxJU^ oi.y a^/f o**0u ^^y fa jf ***> î&o A&f ^û aiÛ bi-hukm-i an ki malaz-l mani az qulla-yi kuh-l bi-dast avarda budand wa malja u ma*va-i sakfita (Sa'dl) " because they have taken possession of an impregnable asylum on the summit of a mountain and made it a place of
c
safe refuge."
In
ni.c.
the
first
yak kard u
.
chancjal-i bi-dih
substantive may, however, be preceded by yak uj, as: <X' ^ dj('v^, or kard u changal-l bi-dih j
^&a
"give me
[.
a knife and fork."
Remark
only of
-Similarly, in
modern Persian, the

:
^c
is
added to the second

dur u daraz-l
$
two adjectives qualifying one noun, as Si a long long journey." <syj* ini.c.)
of
safar-i
)^J^
Remark II. For an example in classical Persian of the ^_c added to both two adjectives qualifying one noun, vide last example of (c), 125.
(t)
When
the
^_-
of unity supplies the place of rule take the

fj
its
noun does not as a
a simple indefinite article of the accusative. Ex. mf~$ c4)^

:
^
^^
aUu*ji pish-i
pidar-ash kas-l ftristad (Sa'di)
**
he sent some one to his father."
In the sentence AX^JS^J ^^> >x^ f; î^j zamin-i ra kanda sang barddshta " having dug up a (certain) (Afgfian) the sense requires the definite sign t;,
special plot of
ground and removed the stones." Note the distinction in meaning between the two following " khana-i atash zadand (m.c.) Ck they set fire to a house but *5Jj>J
:
(J^>T
\>
khana-i ra atash zadand
<c
they set
<^)J>
I
fire
I;
to one of the houses."
In the following
buzurg-i
Ûj
lf
rihamd
,"
(Sa*dl)
is
^teA**^ (**& shumdam gusfand-i ra heard that a certain elder released a have
sheep
the ra
necessary to distinguish the object and
make
the sense
If
sarhang-zada
2
&
"an officer." Probably a copyist's omission; sarhang-zada-l ra \) 3\) v&A^ " W) ^j!iA^. be the correct reading, it means ** the son of the Colonel
of Chinglz
referring to a local celebrity.
The son
Shan
he reigned in Turkistan about 656 Hijra.

j.
Note these two pronunciations of
140
clear
:

first
omit it and buzurg-\ <^> at qualifying the nominative, gusfand-i
sight appears to be an adjective
Remark.
unity.
1
It will be noticed that the
t;
immediately follows the
of
(u)
4J
The
^5-
can be added to some
of the personal pronouns.
Ex.
(^frojji ij**>
adam-i chun man-i bar

' '
zamm nami-khwabad
;
(m.c.)
"a man
like
me
does not sleep on the ground
amad
act
(m.c.)
"a man
like
you came"
cU*>
^j* dl* jof adam-i misl-i tu-i **& ej*A^ <M^ <Û* L& adam-i J*M
"a
^T
misl-i shuma-i na-bayad chuntn bi-kunad (m.c.)
man
like
thus"; *
like
^^
jl<
<^f
f^T adam-i misl-i

1 '
u-i kar
you ought not to nami-kunad (m.c.)

be added
"a man
The
(v)
him won't work.

it
In these examples the
^ could
to f^f, but in this case

^c *^
is
must be omitted
after the pronoun.
not added to
p**>
U ma "we"
man-am
yak-%
&^ ^ )*
nor to &&>\ ishan "they."

dar in miyan ki
*f
one of these here who

single."
(w) In
"
<^j yak-l
"
(Sa'dl)
am
but
man
am
^6 ^c
"
(m.c.)
am
alone,
a negative proposition
:
the
none."
Â>
Ex.
&j*
laajf
)
^~
l^T anja
kas-i
must be translated " not a na bud (or anja hich kas na-bud
chanddn " much, so much ", as: ^'ta. ^***- o>^ ^ Â*O^ ^^ ** I was in search dar just u ju-yi chunin ja-l budam ki (m.c.) man pty " <xij of just such a place as this \&y jyio ^>\ V^ ^Â^^ &&$- chunan
or to
cjf'**^
" there was not an animal there." hayvdn-i na-bud (m.c.) (#) The indefinite ô can be added to the substantive qualified by chunm "such an one as this", or by eA^ chunan " such an one as that",
^^ Â
(m.c.)
" there was no one there"
^f)
^^^ ^f
*'
shakhs-l na-bayad In taivr karha bi-kunad (m.c.)

:
"such a person
chanddn
like that
rabt-i biought not to act in this way" ^>'^ <j~*)** ^3 ^ <J**-> c>I^J^ " I do not know a great amount of Persian." zaban-% Farsi na-daram (m.c.)
111 This ^c can also be added to the substantive qualified by e>*^ A but not ham-chunan, chunm, &\**> \*$ an chunan ^îacu*,* Jmm-chunin, &&*,
to these words themselves.
For the
chandan, vide
(y)
definite or demonstrative
(relative witli *$
with chunan and
42
(s).
The personal pronoun 1st pers. sing, man "I" makes its accusative o*o^M fj ^f**j&+& hamchu man-% regularly when the ^ is affixed, as ra as%r-i dast-i tu kard "he made a person like me a prisoner in your
:
^y
Similarly in the dative case
magar marduman-l ra
ki halat-i mutawassip. darand
gahrl In nawbat namirraead

(class.) (in
**
vagt instead of gahl)
modern Persian hlch
"but
to
men
possessed of a modest
competence only, such a thing never happens."
BELATIVB PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OB RELATIVE ^.
141
hand "
will
l :
>**"
^v
luJI
not select a fool

}j
crHH# like me as a
I)
<^* d**
O+^
by
:
^/o
J&o
^ft+A.) grjA \c&>.
Prophet." In neither case could mard

'
'**> Haji Baba "God ff& be expressed also This could

)j*>
be substituted.
^5 can sometimes be added to the infinitive used as a noun, (z) a telling of a secret * but raz-i guftani as ^ftf jt; raz-guftan-t a secret " one visit " Yak-didan-i to be told." one killing" (of one ; yak-kushtan-i
' *
The
' '
fic
person or of many). (ad) For the demonstrative

*
as a definite article with the connective
in relative clauses, vide
42.
42.
The Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or

Relative
.
HARF-l
(a)
MAWSUL OR HARF-I
3
(
) .
8ILA*
*1^
.
J^*. or J>*>^
).
There are no relative pronouns.

t:
ki is
the English sentence,

,
J^>- <Jr^ The man that came yesterday, came to-day ", would From this it will be be " The man that (ki) he came yesterday came to-day.'
'
used as a connective,
Instead the indeclinable particle &t Thus the Persian construction of
seen that in every relative clause there is a pronoun expressed or understood. If this pronoun is the subject of the verb in the relative clause, it is usual
to omit
it,
oblique cases it is often inserted. than in the classical language, as

:
except for the sake of special emphasis or for clearness. In In m.c., however, ifc is oftener omitted
mi-sham
in in.c.
(b)
;t>~ e>fy *^vo! asp-i ki bar an savar " the horse that you ride on it (the horse which you ride) the e/[^ would be omitted. The noun that precedes a Persian relative clause may often be
Ci
^^ ^
(class.)
regarded as definite, even if in English I 11 Persian this noun cs^ )-*

{
it
be preceded by the indefinite article
J^^
is
:
made
this
specially definite
it
by
affixing
a demonstrative ^5 even to the plural
^ connects
with the particle
Manl (j^>
is
**
P.,
is
also
sufficiency that
peculiar to
God
a subs, "presumption; egoism; also the quality of mam, AT., * the seminal fluid also man-i, as in,
' '
' '
65 man-t
thou art with me."
Persian
poets frequently
play on these
various
meanings.
2
Sifa
&be
:
conjunction
note that this

130
&
**
is
considered a particle
-^/
a*
)
and
not a pronoun Aa chi

.-.
for fuller explanation vide
Relative Clauses.'*
as
is
also considered
it is
by some grammarians
a connective in
relative
sentences.
As, however,
only in this use found joined to
j*
or of, as
^j*
and
A^vJl, and does not moreover admit of the "relative C5", the author has preferred to omit it and to treat the words **-j* harchi and *^cuT anchi as single words, indefinite pronouns. Anchi, harchi etc., are applicable only to manimate objects in the singular:
,
if
the antecedent
4
is
a plural noun, rational or
irrational,
*&
is
the only connective.
Thus "a fool who lights, or the fool who lights, a wax candle by day" have much the same meaning. If the noun before the relative is to be kept indefinite the sentence must be arranged differently vide (p) and Remark to (r).
:
142
ki.
BBLATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.
As however this ^, unlike the of unity, 1 admits of the accent in modern Persian for the sake of emphasis, it is perhaps an extension of the Ex. *^** shakhsl-ki (nom.) izafat that connects an adjective to its noun. " a man who " or " the man etc." *$ shakhs-i the man
:
who,
that,
\)
Â^^
rd ki (ace.)
strative
"a
(or the)
person
whom."
It will
be noticed that the demon-
#> corresponds to the restrictive relative pronoun in with (r). English compare is called the ya-yi si/at or of qualification and implies the (c) This force of the demonstrative pronoun that.'
followed by
^
:
' '
'
This ^5, however, in such sentences as cux ^> A p*^^^c AÛ^ kitab-l ki m\-khwaham ham-in ast " this is the book that I require ", is distinguislied by some grammarians as ya-yi mawsul 4r^> x> ^^ or y<*-yi muzmar j+*^*> Îj " the ya of the pronoun (the noun that is kept in mind}, or ^f ^b yu-yi ^nl " the ya equal to the demonstrative pronoun an ": while in such sentences
(
)
3 '
as
Os9i-~x> d*j>_
jf*&
&
.*>
<*r
~ AJ
el*
jUu
*o
(jJ^j*>
' '
~~*^ytj>
'
and call it such to be the equivalent of chunan " the ya-yi tawsijl <J***j* ^> ya b of description." For further remarks 011 relative sentences vide 130.
they consider the
a'
In writing, this
thus ACx*A3^ or &
can either be joined to the ^sî.
*>
or written separately,
Remark.
^5, but the
*
The
after j&
J
and c/T^
is
^ of unity
as in *#
w^ ^^
probably not the demonstrative ^r^ j* ^We under tor
in Pronouns.
{(f)
The pronoun
in the relative clause
may
seldom expressed) or understood.
It is better to
be either expressed (but is omit it unless necessary to
the sense [vide {/)]. In the following examples, words in parenthesis do not belong to the examples, but may be inserted to show the complete construction
:
L$^ abla-l ku ruz-i rus/ian *y LS)>& Ct~ eA*) j " who fool the sham'-i kafun^ nihad (Sa'di) lights a wax candle in broad
Nominative
>Ai>aA>
:
day"-
j*
' '
that gives milk
mi-kunand (m.c.)
Genitive
1
:
t j ^ j\ gav-i-ki (u) shir mi-dihad *uvo &** &(,>\ ) A&JUjbj*. sarbazha-t " the soldiers who drill."
(
<fc
(m.c.)
the
cow
ki (Isfian) masJiq
e/
viJiu
^^ >JA*. ^
e
:
*$
^ & ^ an na man basham

^
of
ki
However
i.e.
in classical Persian both this
and the
41
(6).
unity had
the sarno
sound,
*
3
the
J^?^
'*
majhid sound of
vide
For kiu.
camphor." The adjective is frequently applied to anything white. Falconers even apply the term to a variety of hawk that happens to be unusually light
From
kafur
coloured.
4
t*/
*>
and not na-man \&
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.

ruz-i jang
143
Him
puaht-i
man
of
(Sadi)
;
"I am
t>j*
not that kind of

J^*** *
man
"
;
whose back
you'll see in the
day
" battle
Û^
bimar-am kard
OM*|
cc
(m.c.)
the doctor whose
pills
^^b made me ill

(u$
tabib-% ki habb-ash
^j
a&JUjtiu.
^jj
" the stars whose &\> sitarahd-i ki partav-i shdn rawshan ast (m.c.)
rays are bright."
Dative
&j+>jj&a*
cJ^ (j&^>
<:
(Sa'dl) (shakhs-i
p*\s J)$ u*)*#
man
turd)
tf ^] ay ki shakhs-i man-at haqir namud oh thou to whom my form appeared mean "
;
L$r*t
pisar-l ki bi-pidar-ash put
dddam
f;
(m.c.)
"the boy
to whose father I gave
money
"
:
^^>\
*&/ v^
*^
îi;
lîjf^j
*xJU^w
t(
shahrha-i ki bi-danja (for bi-arifia] raftam liama-ra ab girifta ast (m.c.) cities to which I went, have all been washed away."
the
Accusative
^J>
tj^l
**
^^^^
shakhs-i ki (u rd)
dldam
*'
(m.c.)
the
&?*- *^f person whom I saw" (lit. that J saw him);^*^ AÂ (J"<m c( he whom I beheld all kernel dnki rhun pista didam-ash hama maghz -(Sa'di)
^^
like the pistachio-nut
&tf )jj& *<jJUjLo marhd-i ki diruz (dnhd rd) " oÂ^ " the snakes which we killed yesterday kushta budam (m.c.) AÛ*t <c 5 A asbab-i ki dasht fiama rd farukht (m.c.) ** he sold all the things he h ^*JL?
' '
]
;
^^
had,
all his
property."
:
Ablative
khatar ast
" ATÛ. " the proceeding in which there is a suspicion of danger khd-na-i ki (dor an or dar u) dakhil shitdi (m.c.) <4 the ^** i^L^ ( ^f house which you entered" c?Tj^ )*> jay-l ki(dar an) mi-nishinl
;
o~f^.k:L
AjJax?
^j
^ *f fe ^f
an kdr
ki da/r vay* mazinna-yi
(m.c. I
<û*** "the place where you always

;
!
^^
+&
sit
';
w^
."
'
c>^t^*f c?^**t
ik
Jt
*^^^
****j%* lliyat-l ki az ishdn a$pka-yi
khub bifiam 'im-rasand {m.c.}
the black-
tent tribes from
whom good
horses are obtained
Locative
oîoJt aja *;
^J^
^ **^ ^
)y
&
**
3*.
<^+$
gilim-i ki bar
an
he cast the rug on which khufta bud, dar rah-i guzar-i duzd anddkht (Sa'dl) he was (or had been) sleeping on the way the thief would pass e>&*^? of 3f
' ' ;
c<
^jyf
cux>fy
*A:CU **.
fjUo
^*j>
( vj/f
j*
az an bustdn
ki tu (dar an) budl
md-ra chi tuhfd karamat avardl (Sa'di) **what rare present hast thou in " generosity brought us back from that garden in which thou wert ?
:
had
turned out to be skin on skin like an onion," sterling qualities proved a fraud.
1
'
'*
i.e.
the
man whom
thought
Also mazanna *iA*
or az vay.
pile
.
3 *
5
fiP gillm
is
a cheap carpet without any

*'
But )**&\} Rah-guzar

Another reading
is
traveller, passer-by.*'
&*
4,^^
()&}*
e>T )
dar an bustdn ki budl.
144
RELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE
Tardam
na-rasi,
bi-Ka'ba ay A'rabi
ast (Sa'di).
K-m rah
I fear
ki tu
mi-raw* bi-Turkistdn
thou wilt never reach the K'aba, oh Arab, For this road thou goest leads to Turkistan."
i.e.
kas-i ra ki iqbal gh/ulam-i
u bdshad, or
iqbal
urd gkulam bdshad.
[This
construction has led to the following erroneous but now common construetion: a}- xi5) ^^. \^\ *S lj?.*s* mard-i ra ki imruz chub zadand duzd bud,
where t^y mard-i ra is the object of the verb in the relative clause vide(e)]. (e) There is another means of declining the relative (if in the dative or
:
accusative case)
consists in
commoner perhaps in modern than in classical Persran. It putting the noun first in an oblique cavse and then the connective
pronoun cannot be inserted in the relative clause, as
taken by the substantive in the oblique case at the beginning. kishtt-i ra ki Nuh riakhuday ^Jt> a. ^*| tj^b -^S * \^ J
(
<^
its
in this sentence the
place
is
:
Examples
'st
^^
bak az tufan "what fear from the flood to the boat whose Captain is in the dative Noah ? " In this example, instead of placing kishti-%
chi
^^
case at the
commencement,
it
could be put
tf
in
the nominative;
and the
ast
pronoun
\J*j
in the relative clause, expressed or understood, in the dative, as:
v^t <*^
o~f
fjtfk tj
fjjf
i^&S
\^^
kishti-i ki
X>
\)
an-ra
Nuh nakhudd
chi bak az tufan ; &j* '^^\
jJ^j
v_^.
zadand imruz murd (m.c.) 5 vide end of (d). to-day

'
" the
^zj*> mard-i-ra
ki dlruz chub
man who was
beaten yesterday, died
'
(/)
An
I
whom
sense,
(g)
expression like j*ô \)j\ *S âf ddam-l-ki u-ra didam "the man saw ", though correct, is heavy: as u-ra \jj is not necessary to the
better omitted.
relative cannot
it is
The
be joined to the singular demonstrative pronouns
a cube." The cube-like building in the centre of the Masjid^&t Mecca it contains the black stone (hajar&l-aawad), white as milk when it first descended from Paradise, but now black from the defiling touch of sinful man.
1
Ka'ba,
lit.
'
^
3
The broken
Poetical for
pi.
l;
is
y^l
*
the pi. of
f*j
is v-j^c.
ctff
ki In rah.
tu ( dar n ) ml-ravl. <*Jj* ( df )* ) J>* ** This sentence, though grammatically incorrect, the noun at the beginning being the object of the verb in the relative clause, is not uncommon in modern Persian. The
4
6
construction in *>jfjUj f* c^# &>\& ^jf *-&^f/ <>sj+** \) bi 'wmr-i fara chang arand na shayad ki bi-yak dam bi-yazarand (Sa*di)
it
&
&
c5^J A
**
dust-l
ra ki
to a friend
is
whom
has taken a lifetime to make, offence should not be given in a

is
moment "
different,
as the accusative at the beginning
the object of the verb *i)fjl# biyazarand.
-.
145
an
and In ^t, nor to har j*> " every. " It is best to consider an-ki an-chi *^T, tw-W <*&*!, har-ki ^_.t*, har-chi &*-;*> as single words.
c/f
,
However the
and
*f
man
&ty,
]
mha
etc.
plurals of the demonstrative pronouns lîj(, may take or omit the ^, thus
anan
:
a&J^T anha%-ki, or
definite, the
As the demonstrative pronouns are already anha-ki, definite ^c is a pleonism and may be omitted.
l$jf
The personal pronouns too

of the
are definite in themselves
and do not admit
relative
(m.c.)
^;
vide
41
(u).
A sentence
"
is
like *&*) *T
^1^1
tshan-t-ki
raftand
"they who went*

'
incorrect;
the
should
be
avoided.
(h)
As the
'
relative
'
^
is
before &t
is
be omitted when the uoun
already
made
used to make nouns definite, it can definite by the demonstrative pro-
nouns
[vide (g)] or
by j*
pustha ki dar khana-yi
cu-Jf yt *>Jixjj +ty &&> p X 1*1*^ j va an " and those skins blnand asr-i an-ast gazh-dum (Sa'dl)
har.
Ex.
that are found in scorpion- holes are the sign (remains) of that
"
^) w* j~> J
*
f^;^
&&* )*
& ^^^ ^^ ^-^ *-&8

'
^^*
cr*
^+&
e^l ^ guft
man
fulan-am va In
sang haman sang

I
man zadl (Sa*d!) "he said, am So- and- So, and this stone is that very same stone with which you struck me on the head on such and such a date " jt <^>& ^^-^ P ^s*** <s* ^
ast ki dar fuldn tarikh
bar sar-i
bi-guy a*, anha ki dlda-l va Ifjf shunida-i (Sa'di) 'he said, 'oh Sa dl, do you too relate some of the things " * you have seen and heard ^5^ ^^ Ai^fj, c>^; j} ^j* <&* &t>
guft a?/ S'aî
4 c :
|j^ ^
lj&
^ niz sukhan-1
o^f ^
bidan band-i
** he vay nihan dashta bud ba vay dar avlkht (Sa'dl) closed with him by means of that tricky artifice (or throw) which he had kept " 6 jJuUi * \^ to himself har jd ki ravad bi-khidmat-ash p\&5\ jjSJîu ^^ y*>
ytharib ki az
iqdam numayand
*z+*+\ ^fôh.
( *
(Sa*dl)
wherever he goes, he
is
well served
"
;
)t>
it k?uf ^
khwar
cu^t )\j^ va anja ki durr-i shahvar ast nihang-i mardumfOj* vJo^ l< ast (Sa'dl) and where the costly pearl lies, there too is the man-
devouring shark."
j ya k-l Sa'dl generally omits the <j? ; v^rp cA<J **&/ y* ** & y az anan-ki ghadr kardand ba man-ash diistl bud (Sa'di) 4 one of those who had mutinied
i
'
had a friendship with me.

4
' *
In
-tf x>l ***>)
*io>j c^-ty j^ a^l^jf

(Sa*di)
tar ast
va mardana va zurmand bay ad ki
yak-l az
shuma
is
ki dilavar-
"any
make
one of you
who
braver than
the connec,
the rest, and
manly and strong

&
(Sj** J*
of
arm
"
,
yak-l though it has a
before
tive *S is in itself indefinite.
If it .be required to
the pronoun definite
some such
",
phrase as
Jt
hw nafar-l
*s*~-fc&*o
ki az
shuma "
the
one of you who

c.
is
would
be
used.
3
If
the <^ were inserted
c>UA haman sangl-st (m.
).
*
^
Or dar
tarlbb-i fulan d)&*
&.$* )* could have been said.
yajt (Sa*dl)
But compare o^5 ^? Owo ($* j. '* to-day by that one single
10
&&
tt>f^?3j>y*t
imruz bidan daqlqa-l bar mandast
artifice
he overcame me."
146

could be inserted. In the above examples the the In the examples following (i) ^ is inserted
1
^^
**
<J^*& of _
oif ^
cx**i
*\i*i
JLj
)*
ham-chu an na-bina-i
ki shab-l dar vahal uftad va guft (Sa'dl)

fell
"like that blind-man who one night

^Jli,
<>*;j^ Û**!
Khurshid
Khurshid
Khdnum ast Rhanum "

:
"; ÂJ ^< tf ^sj&*s urf M dukhtar-i-ki rni-bim ismrash (Mod. Pers.) "the name of this girl that you see is
in the mire
H>$i
jl
<X5
and exclaimed
sjftÛ
^^
jufcfyiuu* A>,
^-^^
ftar kas-i-ki nit-
khwahad bi-pushad bi-andaza-yi qadd-i u bi-burand (m.c.) "let it be cut according to the size and figure of whoever is going to wear it ": t har kas ki or &>j& har ki, or u*^* har ka$ could be used instead of har kas-i-ki.
y
In the above examples the
^ could be omitted.
^
unless
(;) As proper names are definite, they do not require the v^J# i>f tf z?*^* Mahmud special distinction be required 3^7! * "; but ^f guft (m.c.) "Mahmud, who came yesterday, said
:
some
ki dlruz arnad
)^ ** ^^f**^
bi-i'timad-i
Mahmud-i
sentence
vus'at-i
ki diruz
amad
is
"the
Mahmud who came

of
understood that there

OJ**>AJ
more than one

**
this
yesterday" (it being name). Similarly in the
vi/^-^j
v^L^
ki
o^V <j^'
o,-?j ÛxcU Ut
amma
akhlaq-i buzuryan
'avayib-i
zlr-dastan bi-pusJiand
(Sa'dl)
trusting to the breadth of nature
and magnanimity
of the great,
"but who hide

the
the defects of their inferiors

**^)j>. buzurgan-i-ki would
(k)
'
' ,
d$)\> buzurgdn does not require

(that section of the) great
mean "those
who
."
cede
its
qualified by a simple adjective that can prenoun (vide under Adjective) it is better for the adjective to precede,
If
is
**> tf
the noun with this
î-^^î-su nafchustln dushmati-i ki bar sar-i ishan takht khwdb bud (Sa dl) " the first enemy to attack them was asleep " ' " *x?^ t$ )j$z &<f Jj awal kaS'l'ki (m.c.) the first person who f\ " dilavar-tarin zan-i lei dida am (m.c.) "the bravest woman I have seen
v
as: ty
v^
!
d>^,\j** j> *$
'
^ ^}
tf *J\j
regret will be that
^ ^j^j* ^jj> buzurgtarhasrat'idnbdshadki " ^jU ^ ^^ &f ^ ^^f

:
(S^dl)
"
the greatest
_L?
{J
^^b
^^
na-blm-ki
bi-andak ranj-l-ki burdam chi maya-i ganj avardam (Sa'd!)
" dost thou not see
what an amount
"
of gain I
bi-aabiqa-yi m&rifat-l ki daxhiim p*&te ig**j** the former ." by friendship that we had (I) If the adjective cannot precede the noun (vide under Adjective) it follows it taking the relative ^, as: c^f j) yt* *&$ o^>^ y^^ dukhtar-i
?
;
trouble I underwent
"
have brought
&f
in
return for the small stock of
^^
diruz
amad
(m.c.)
" the pretty
girl
who came yesterday."
(m) Sa'df says: A

1
Similarly
' '
,
the nouns after

(for
^p->T
do not require the

*
4.5
anchi asp u mal-i ki

1
dashtam (m.c.)
had
2
anchi asp u mat ki daehtam) whatever horses arid property to a confusion of two constructions. be appears
this
In modern Persian
ki.
would be
&> OM*|
^f
o^**^. (&.j^)j* bmurg-tarin hasrat
in (Mi

-
^5.
147
Ichwlsh ast
is
hukamd* gufta and baradar ki dar band-i khwlsh ast na baradar ast na " the wise have said that a brother who is wrapped up in himself
brother
neither
nor kin."
In modern Persian this would be ^;ity
Possibly Sa'di considered j^fy baradar in the above sentence aa a generic noun, or the copyist has omitted the ^. The reading in many Gulistans is barddar-i-ki.
barddar-i-ki.
*^^
^
can accompany a substantive preceded by a numeral when *& ^* }**+ ** it definite, as \j c/T *y &\> r* j\ fi~ " I broke si sanduq-1 ki az sarbdzdn bud dn-rd shikastam (Afghan colloquial) the three boxes belonging to the soldiers," but *$ o^^> *~* si sanduqki
(n)
The
it is
required to
make
'
*'I
broke three boxes belonging to

(o)
."
The phrase
If
^^
:
az qardr-l ki pj*** *&Jj* $
ma'lum mi-*havad means
41
as it appears/'
(p)
a noun
ki,
is indefinite
before a relative clause, the verb occurs before
<j?^j^ &^ of ;^ ^^^ ittifaq*" &x*)y cA^^ &lj&* l&* & dar an miyan javan-i l hud ki mwa-yi 'unfavdn-i sJiabdb-ash naw-raslda (Sa'dl) there was in that assembly, by chance, a youth, the flower of whose youth
the connective
as
fc<
had but newly bloomed''; *r tunity came which ."
tvcf
^jys mawqa'-i dmad
ki (rn.c.)
"an
oppor-
Sahmfjin
rib -I
ki muryjidbi, dar
u Iman na-bud
Kamtann mawj dsyd

'*
sang az kindr-ash dar rabud (Sa'di).

(a)
Such a terrible expanse of water that even the

safe in
it.
waterfowl was not
Its smallest
wave would have swept away a

is
mill-stone off its banks

is indefinite.
"
;
in this
example ^
understood after
db-i,
hence db-i
Vide
(r)
Remark.
(r)
Note the absence
of
^ in the following
11011- restrictive
relative clauses
aju^
eJfJ k.y*^ ,>d &> (j**^^ **b* } c~*t %z&*\ p\y* *t^>{ j^ &Z ^s&*~* J^-*^ j^b zikr-i jamil'i Sa'di ki dar afvdh-i 'avamm u/tdda ast va sit-i sukhan-ash ki dar
basit-i
zamln
v<
rajta (Sa^di;
the good repute of Sa*dl, which (and

of his words,
it) is
in the
mouths
of all,
and the fame
which (and
^fej$i
wide world
-."
^(a o*)^
ki
<vcT
liar
^ j* U *$
b
^^
it) has gone out into the OÂ^ c*)U^ dar 'imdrat-i
^
<
hazrat-i sadr-i
of
a*gam
ma
du dmad u
AflxJU
raft
ddrim
(m.c.)
:
inthe palace
H. H. the Grand Wazir where we both have free access"

^5ji)3l
ÛâJ J& ^j&

VJ^
*^j
J ^jJt c$V**J^J
khub va kushkhd-yi buzurg u kuchik az ru-yi saliqa bd kamdl-i qashangi dar kindr-i rud-lchdna va
tak tak
qasrhd-yi
Should be
\j
^T
anha
'
ra.
;
% i.e.
"a
certain youth
'
the
noun
is
hardly indefinite.
148
bdld-yi
BELATIVE PRONOUNS AND DEMONSTRATIVE OR RELATIVE ^.
kuhhd ki mushrif bi-rudkhdna ast sdkhta and (Shah's Diary) "here and there on the banks of the river and on the sides of the hills, which
residences (and they) overlook the river, are erected fine palaces and summer both large and small, all in good taste and of exquisite beauty." In the is not added to kuh-hd, as the hills are not last example the restrictive
particularized;
^
The
would signify " those

indefinite article
>>
hills
that."
Remark.
as
:
J**t ^\j t^W**! ****';>}
yak <** yak naw'

is
will also
make
the noun indefinite,
zird'at-% ki
ism-ash rap ast (Shah's
" a kind of crop, which Diary)
called rape
."
indefinite article, as
:
However, a <^ before *t may represent an English
ÎLol aJUÛ &j2* )*$ )j*a* )& *îr~j JJ*Î )y***> ja dar huzur-i u misl-i pisar-iki f{ he stood in his presence as a dar huzur-i pidar-i khud bi-istad istdd (m.c.)
son stands in the presence of his father

cxJdx&O *A}I
"
:
toxif
cj!jj>
^>
*4 &>
Ji
^^ fUj
xb
tamdm-i lashkar misl-i galla-i ki gurg dar

1
an uftdda bdshad
az
ham pashidand
($)
"the whole army scattered

."
like
a (that) flock of sheep
attacked by a wolf
Chundn
"
;
eA<*-
"like that, resembling that, to such a degree, in that

as,
manner, so
in India
*T, or
and chandan ^^^ " as many

Ex.
)
:
how much soever,
etc.",
may,
and Afghanistan but not

it.
in Persia, take the
omit
vyf
y'K *^/t J>xko

l
o'â ^*
>
demonstrative ^c with "=! v laxLô Û^JLfeup Û^
^ry*yc
^^
^(xa. yiuib
d/idagan maqbul
agarcM
kafir
du a-yi mazluman mustajab ast va nala-yi sitambdshand chunan-ki dar haqq-i an mahbus (m.c.)
oppressed is accepted and the cry of the distressed heard, even though they be infidels, as was the case of that prisoner (previously mentioned)" here instead of <*U^ chundn ki, **>&* or <*J^ could
*'the prayer of the
;
be used
nazd-i
just
xUyo
*-^tj^
shuma zira'at the same amount and

iÛ J^
J^ U ÂJ c^t vi^tj>3 *+*> )$ *^^ chunan-l ki dar 1 " we have ast plsh-i ma niz zira'at ml-basJuid (Afghan)
quality of cultivation that you have tufan-i dmad chunan-l-ki dil-i md-rd
&
"
:
o*of
zf
as struck terror to our hearts (Afghan)": " chanddn ki howevermuch guftam qabul na-kard (m.c.) ^C I said, he did not agree; in spite of all I said, no matter what I said, he."
AÛA. (Afghan) "a storm came such

J^JÎftf ^JIAAA.
J.
^^fc
khmhk kard 3
An Afghan might
For
with the
olia.
here say chanddn-t ki

is,
Hamchundn-i-ki
however, correct Persian.

ci
f
chundn and
vide
^
;
chanddn qualifying an indefinite substantive
^ of unity,
41
(#).
A Note that a plural verb after a collective scattered individuals.
noun
is
necessary here
to indicate
2 S
Chunan-l-ki
*^^
class.
rarely used in
modern
Persian.
In modern and
classical Persian *$
**f ^j^ 9
isfa*-
chunan bufan-i amad ki
would
be better.
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t)
149
40.
For remarks on the
definite article, vide
(u)
For the use
of the demonstrative pronouns
of ay, as a
definite
article before a relative clause, vide

(v)
40
(g).
As with the
of unity [vide
41
(j)
the singular do not admit of the relative <^.

ki dar sar
Remark], abstract nouns in Ex. Javdn bi-g&urur-i dilavari

:
o'>^ (Gul. Chap. Ill, St. 27). The relative 45 may, however, be used with plural abstract nouns,
az
darad ^*s)t>*
^tf*)^
as: cu-f **jj~* Uji A&jJlfjjUji (j ndfarmdmhd-i ki *& *c>y U^ a&xSlfAJjflb, khubiha-l ki shuma karda td.
ma
sar zada ast (m.c.);
Concrete nouns however in

*S *)\*j~ ;a
(w)
last only, as
may
take the relative c5> as
'
t$3kX*U
e^V 1* y
:
**
^fî <^**
aS (Gul.).
When
substantives are coupled together, the
^
1
is
added to the
Khan Mid bi-u ddda ast kifayat-ash ikhtiyar nami-kunad? *&+* j^&lir cu**! a^yj JfU. &(. &*&* j ; ^! j&* (m.c.) *' but the authority and importance that the Khan has already given him are they
magar
izzat-i-ki
not sufficient for him
"
CHAPTER
43.
(a)
V.
The Adjective.
is
Ism-isifat (osi^î).
)
The
(
adjective
).
called sifat
oA*
and the substantive
qualified
mawsuf
OJMJÔ
Persian adjectives qualifying nouns are as a rule indeclinable. In construction, they usually follow and are coupled to their nouns by the izafat,
as
:
asp-i qizil-i
(b)
man &* <J>*
>-~*\
s (
my
grey
horse."
its
In old Persian prose, the adjective preceded

In
substantive without the

their nouns,
*
izafat.
modern Persian, some few adjectives may precede

This construction
is
and
in this case the izafat is discarded.

'
called the
inverted
epithet
izafat-i
maqlubl
^^^
(
^t*
).*
the "^5- of unity/'
man";
The
*)te
Mpi^f
v>^ M&& mard-l (m.c) **a good Examples: hava-i mja darad (m.c.) "this place ^j* ^-^^ ajab
^^
The substantive has usually
has a fine
air,
good adjectives their substantives in this manner.
a good climate." JX mk "
" and
bad
f<
bad"
good
frequently precede
With the exception

'inverted epithet'
is
of the simple adjectives
"
" and " bad ", the
used only in poetry or in rhetorical language, or in

:
modern colloquial
3
for the sake of emphasis

signifies
in the last
by position emphatic and

(m.c.)
"a
really fine air."
example above, v*^p is Darakhshanda zan-i

sharir
**a bright,
cheerful,
woman";
mard-i
(m.c.)
1 Can this be a translation of the Arabic rummanl "scarlet like Qizil, T., "red." the flower of the pomegranate," the epithet for a nutmeg grey, or is it applied to a grey horse because in Persia the tail and legs of a grey are usually dyed with henna ? 2 Vide 117. 3 m.c. for duru&bshanda.
150
THE ADJECTIVE.
(t>j*j?.j**
"a
wicked man,"
etc., are
used in modern Persian and are more
emphatic than tfce ordinary collocation. the nouns (c) Arabic adjectives and compound adjectives should follow they qualify, but vide 117 II (e).
lit.
Turkish adjectives precede their Turkish substantives, as: (J$> J>i> (m.c.) "red-head," a name for Persian and also for certain other settlers in
' '
Afghanistan: L&-* fy qara-qush
the golden eagle
"
(lit.
the black 1 bird of
prey);^ty
(d)
m.c. for qarqaval
qard-kahar , adj., "dark bay (horse)." In Jjl? fy qardqdval, 'a pheasant," the first word is perhaps not an adjective.
'
The
'
many/
e>;
and bisyar (class, and mod.) "much, or take either a singular plural, as khayll (or bisyar) zan ( ;U~j or) ^Jâdjectives khaytt (mod.)
:
"a
lot of
;
women "
women "
khayR
(or bisyar)
also zankd-yi bisyar ^-^
zanhd l^) ( ;U~J or) J^- " many c$Vj> but not zan-i bisyar zan-iziyddis,
;
however, used.
Note that
^^ unlike ;U~j cannot follow

"
its
noun.
for it
Note too that ^;Jo ^$*^ ^"^ 3V^ * s ambiguous,

jahdzhd-yi bisydr-i buzury
11
may stand
either for
many
large ships," or for jahdzhd-yi bisydr-buzurg
ships very large, very large ships."
For examples
of bisyar as
an adverb,
vide.
89
(e)
(/)
(2).
Ghand ^x^ is followed by a noun in the singular, vide 39 (g) (1) to (7). Chanddn oiî^ has many meanings; "many, as much, how long, (/) " " etc." When it signifies much, many it is followed by a singular noun and in Modern Persian always by a negative verb, as chanddn sarbdz dnjd na-bud '* Uuf jLy. i^'o^ (m.c.) there was not a great amount of soldiery there ":
:
chanddn sar-rishta-t dar zabdn-i Fdrsi na-daram ^3 )* <k*;^~ c^t^^ " I don't know very much Persian." (m.c.) Remark. Chanddn sarbdz dnjd budand *>ty l?^f 3^ ^ <î*- " there were many soldiers there", is old. their (g) In modern colloquial, one or two adjectives sometimes precede
substantives with the izdfat, as pir-i
:
^^ ^^
mard *?<;** a
' '
the old
man
' '
;
pir-i
mard-t
The young
Plr
is
of the
Golden Eagle
is
black.
:
any religious sect o&J jb .x> plr-i tfiriqat *a spiritual guide." Sabza-Maydan, a square in Tihran, is vulgar for Sabz Maydarl. Sabza &*** is also used as an adjective, "dark-complexioned," of people; rang-ash
2
also a founder or a chief of
aabza aat
o**
)A*
eA^;
vJl
(a.c.)
t;
but
ailrat-ash sdbz oat:
ll
he looks green,
ill."
^]{
x>y'f
*x*
>>iA
tf
(jj$
AXA
|-U!i
)& ^^vi ijUJ
>>*
J^J
" There was not a dark face, bad-looking, in the whole of Ind. 'Twas as though Ind were created of salt." " [The word green," 'sobza? adj., is applied by the Persians to a dark complexion, face is said to be " saltish" or " "ull of salt" while a or
pleasant
good-looking
J^c
_j:
the play on the words
is lost in
English.]
The Arabs, however, do not

mouth
"
consider the
word jpJU " good-looking about the
to be connected with J[>c JL* " salt."
THE ADJECTIVE.
151
eJ^^xj
m.c.)
the grey-headed old woman" W-* fartut-i (m.c. and class.) " a decrepit, worn-out old man" but JM bdyhbdn, or û &\*c^. bdfj&bdn-i pir (Afghan and m.c.) " the old
ld
;
" au
man"
pir-i
zdl
JfJ^
"
gardener"
loÛû pw nd*khuda, " the old Captain."

:
or^ ^f^li nd-khudd-yi
plr (Afghan
and
or
jj;
"aged" is an Afghan expression for JU te>j*t> dirina-sdl *^r^ dirina-ruz, or s^>^ JU sal-khurda. For the modern colloquialism L ^Â^ marhum-i shah "the late Shah "
Plr-sal JL-^jJ
and
bachclia
Turk ^Jy
117, III
*^->
(6).
or
Turk bachcJw
in
*fxJ
uiy
(for
^3
is
<texj
bachcha-yi
Turk), vide
In classical Persian, the

jfir-mard-l
(A)
izd/at
the above cases
omitted,
thus
<^y ^,
as: ._&>
etc.
Adjectives, without an izdfat,
may
compounds, " " docked (of horses) y^ dum-daraz " long-tailed, i.e. donkey" 3i>> c4/ " gush-dardz (m.c.), more commonly ij donkey" vSAftlT 'J\^ dardz-gush
;
c/S^ khush-rang "of
precede or follow nouns to form " ; toj {* dum-zada, pleasing colour

;
^^
ot
yardan-kulujt, adj.
4<
of strong-back (in a vulgar
sense)";
to
also
"a man
power, no weakling."
(t)
When
several
adjectives are
attributed
the same
noun they
izn*at
:
may
(1)
Be connected to
is
their
9
noun and to each other by the

(
this
construction
called
tansiq* s-sifat
'
ei>&^(
'"
^>-^^
the stringing,
or
arranging, of the epithets.'

)\*
Examples
kuh-i buland-i sangt-yi barf-ddr (m.c.)
ojo ^&~> ^->
t^ "the
high rocky snow-ottered
mountain":
ydr-i
gul-
badan-i shlnn-zabdn (class.) vybj eri^-^

' '
^ J^>^
*
the mistress with delicate
body and honied speech. a construc(2) The adjectives may be coupled by the conjunction vav j (A tion not common. o^f^ î^ Examples Ja p ^ft. sjty ^ w^JG a$ ^\
:
W
of
f^
e>-y
^3
^J
(Tr.
H, B.
in
soldierly appearance, he
was
though he was of a fine reality the most timid and pusillanimous

OLiap.
XXXII)
"
men."
j
.,
OSop. F.,,%
20.)
'
gallant youth there

to a
Pledged
was and fair maid beyond compare."

(East. Trans.)
xojbf *$
sJujax:
A^ (Afghan)
4<
what
From
In modern Persian
152
THE ADJECTIVE.
does he see but that Ayaz has opened a wooden chest and taken out some old
and dirty clothes." (3) The adjectives may follow the noun
junction
j,
in apposition
without the con90

***>
vide
139
did
(b)
vide (2) or with the conjunction j,

za'lf
(a)
Example:
lâJl
shakhs-i
Ck
siyah-fam
anddm
(Sa'dl)
ftfU*
^^
"
:
(5).
*-&***o
he saw a person
jÂiL
dark-complexioned
^b iJ**
into
j j**j+ ^\)
^ ^.3xjM3
^^ c^-^ <^*^f
foolish,
!;
;1^>J
and feeble-looking *J " thou didst not fall

fickle
bondage to a youth, vain and
hot-tempered and
"
(Sa'di).
Remark
In modern Persian
it
would be necessary after

for the subject.
^^
shakhs-i, otherwise
(j)
might be mistaken
also qualified
If
the noun
is
affixed to
the
adjective
*aziz-i tu\
o)ij* [or awqat-i
by an affixed pronoun, the pronoun is and not to the noun, as awqat-i 'aziz-at otfjl " thy precious time."
:
The
I;
of the dative or of the accusative is

*j*
\)
added
to the last adjective
only, as: jy
9
^j* *-<
*H?
*'
robbers carried
c/2y*-
off
the Arab horse
"
;
*-*>.
<^tf
f***3j
b ^s)^"*
If
**jsJ^
^&)
''Isold the large finely-coloured moth-
a eaten Afshar carpet."
(k)
izafat
is
a predicate after the verb "to be " (in English), the of course omitted, as barf sard ast va dtash garm j o*i ^* iJ/j
an adjective
is
For a predicate pluml
in
English (substantive or adjective) and qualified

a
by an
(I)
epithet, vide
If the
119
(o).
predicate
is
noun
qualified
by an adjective
of the class
the adjective may, according to ordinary rule, either ^3 jx>, precede or follow its noun, as: pidar-i tu mard-i khub-ist o~jj^ In such cases the noun of the or pidar-i tu khub mard-ist cu-jô v
in (6),
mentioned
^f^
predicate has usually the

(m)
^ of unity.
:
An adjective used
"the sages say":

influential people of
this plural is
substantively may be in the plural, as *,j&+* o*j c*!^^l<! j| az a1cbir-i Baghdad ast *'he is of the
^;>
Baghdad."
In such cases the plural

:
in
an
is
usual; but
khushnot rigidly adhered to in speaking: O^ P^ " 4< is and m.c. incorrect: big things ^>jj buz^^fha properly gilha-yi majlis **ixe (soldiers) as opposed to is sometimes in m.c, applied to persons f kuchak-ha; but olf;^ buzurgdn "the grât in rank forefathers."
c^MÂ
'
<
l^y
In English, adjectives
(3)
may
occasionally take the place of nouns; vide (p)
and Remark.
1
*
The
singular duzd aja gives

'
an
indefinite sense
equal to the passive
either
a thief or thieves stole

'
or
'
the horse was stolen,"
scattered Turkoman tribe whose head-quarters a**e said to be in Azerbaijan. are nomadic and live on the produce of their camels and flocks. The men act as carriers and the women weave carpets. Nadir Sh*fc waa a& Afahar.
2
Many
THE ADJECTIVE.
(n) (I)
153
In a few instances in classical Persian, sometimes imitated by writers, a plural substantive, Arabic or Persian, animate or inanimate, is qualified by a plural adjective, Arabic or Persian.
modern
(2)
The use
of a plural Persian adjective to agree with a plural

is
noun
denoting rational beings

copied.
(3)
in imitation of
4.
the Arabic and should not be
For an exception vide p. 122, line It must also be recollected that,
in Arabic, all
broken plurals are
and may, therefore, be grammatically feminine singular, and that the commonest Arabic feminine termination is * sing., and of pi. * (4) and (5) Examples: <xu~^ ;<v e^$' j\ ^^y* &\*j* (Sa'di) "the brave men sprang out of their ambush": <Û? j ^ ^\^ ^LfexU (Sa'df) "they
collective nouns,
appoint coarse ruffians
."
Bishtar-i ishan dilavar an va bahddurdn-i kar-dzmuda* j c>U>^

**r*tf
o^ty^#
;^
c^V (Trans. H. B.
Chap.)
here
o ;^,> dilavardn&nd ert>^ bahddurdn

:
are treated as substantives and predicates to oUfi ^shdn and are qualified by the adjective kar-azmuda *.^jT;l<. Ashkhas-i akdbir j&i ^(^^\ (mod.) "persons, grandees," vide (1):
9
[akabw-i ashkhas "the great ones of

construction].
the people,"
would be an ordinary
^
Qasamha-yi
ôJtj
cfaildz
*U ^l^-j' (m.c.)
*\ . Je)U
"solemn oaths";
^^
(J^*&r
&lj^>
,>fo^
(mod.) "I swore strong and mighty oaths."

*
In the Quran
"angels strong and harsh," and this the Arabic for accounts plural adjectives being (incorrectly) used probably
occurs the phrase ^<*5
after
A^j^lx
U^JJ^ and
(f~~*.
Common
in jarmans are, flkc
ÛjyL^ and f&
^1*
\
Shuhud-i muvassaqa
(rare) *5Â)
o>^
(or
nesses "; ^j^ JU-; or *jy Jl^j (but not in Pers.
&*&?* ^^*) "trustworthy witrijal-i aqwiya* &* J^;)*

is
"
strong men." (6) The regular Arabic masculine
plural of adjectives
:
sometimes used
for
men, but always in the oblique case, as Ghuzdt-i mujahicRn* tifcf**^^" *}j* " kubara*-i 'arifm &*j\* dy "great mystics." "true warriors of the Faith A regular Arabic masculine plural substantive may be qualified either by
:
a regular Arabic masculine plural or a masculine broken plural.

(7)
else, less
frequently
in Persian,
by
be
broken plural signifying rational beings may, as

*
in Arabic,
In some copies of the Gulistan dilavar occurs and no*
'""
Or
K^jf
)&(tf
)}$& ejLkjf^Lij^ Or
*ty$
j*i
ishan dilavar va bahadur-i kar-azmvda or blshtar-i Ishan

8
dill
Shidad ^f>A plural of Shadid *x>^, and ghilaz &%*
But \f
J^;
is
used in Persian.
pi.
Not
e^*^^
nom.
154
qualified
THE ADJECTIVE.
by an adjective in the masculine broken plural, ^t " the Imams/'
tahirin) ;t^f
(3),
:
as
Aîmma-yi athar
(or reg. pi.

(8)
As stated in
pure Arabic broken plurals are collective nouns and

therefore also correct to say a*imma-yi tahira
;
grammatically feminine
*j*lJD
it is
hukkam-i 'azima **& (&*>, etc. but **j* Jl^;, however, does not be used in Persian, though correct Arabic. If, however, the broken plural is not applicable to rational beings, it is usually followed by a singular " the 99 feminine, rarely by a broken plural, as: asma*-i husnq <j^~^ *U*ot = attributes of God; ^<3^ ^&" exception ^* &&> c>^ vide (4).
&J|
;
appear to
>
Arabic regular inanimate feminine plural is usually qualified by (9) a feminine singular, less often of a masculine singular, and very rarely by a feminine plural: darajat-i aliya &J^ eL*p " high ranks" is commoner than while oUH* oUâ is rarer still. However, in a few instances a <Û
'
An
oL*;ii,
regular Arabic feminine plural
is
qualified
by a regular feminine
' '
:
plural, as
' '
:
euUJU?
the
eirUJ'b
first
pious works that are permanent occurs in the Quran.
"
oljJU cÛla*:
<
high places
dual denoting rational beings may be qualified by a dual, as '* noble parents." walidayn-i majidayn ^xÛ <âJ(j
(10)
A dual denoting irrational beings or neuters is rarely qualified by a masculine singular, as tarafayn-i muqabil cMa/o ^J^Jb. but generally by a dual. (11) An Arabic feminine singular denoting a lifeless object is usually
followed by an Arabic adjective agreeing with
it,
as yad-i bayza tl*a#

f
c<
the
white hand
(of 3Ioses), a miracle"; rutba-yi "ulya UU &) It does not, however, always agree, as yad-i rahid Îj
"of highest rank/' ^ *' monopoly."

is
If
the noun ends in
CL, for
?
the servile Arabic

(3).
Ji,
the adjective
usually
masculine; thus
Û
CU*A
vide
(t)
When, however, an Arabic feminine

adjective ending
rational
(ya-yl
noun
is
followed
by an
is
with
the
it
-.
relative
nisbati),
the adjective
]
feminine:
**
if
irrational
is
masculine or feminine, as:
cs-JtrJ^ "
v^^ ^ u ^
A>ij^
V^^; t5^ ^+*> but
AjJUlc
^j.
denotes a rational being, the Arabic
(12) If a singular Arabic substantive
and adjectives in Persian usually follows the rules of Arabic grammar. (0) Summary of rules of concord of substantives and adjectives other than the ordinary Persian concord.
(1)
adjective should always agree with it. It will be seen that the concord of Arabic substantives
'ified
either
*
f
^ A
regular Arabic masculine plural denoting rational beings can be by a regular plural or rarely by a broken plural. broken plural denoting male rational beings may be qualified by a
ral,
a regular masculine plural, or rarely a feminine singular.

t
But
THE ADJECTIVE.
broken plural not of rational beings feminine singular, rarely by a broken plural.
(3)
155
is
usually qualified
by a
A dual of rational beings is qualified by a dual agreeing with it. dual of irrational (or neuter) things is rarely qualified by a masculine singular, generally by a dual.
(4)
(5)
singular Arabic feminine of lifeless things usually has the adjective
agreeing with it, but not always. If the noun ends in o for the servile
X,
the adjective
is
usually masculine.
An
(6)
Arabic noun
If
adjective ending in the yd-yi nisbatl and qualifying a feminine rational is feminine in form; irrational, masc. or fern.
a singular Arabic substantive denotes a rational being, the adjec-
tive should
always agree with it. Plural Persian nouns should not be qualified (7)
by a plural adjective,
neither Persian nor Arabic.
few Persian adjectives are also treated as substantives, as: " j fjt j 3.>f> eâ* j aliu (Sa'di) (thou wast ibyejT fkf ^jj t-&jj j ^&a. j(f)jj most fortunate that thou fellest to the lot of an old man) experienced and
(p)
(1)
travelled, one
who had seen

^-y*
the ups and

j
downs
of life,
,
and
tried its
good and
are often
bad."
so used.
(2)
The
adjectives
*& and
,
'^ j cW>
may
and
^JJb >
o~J
Adjectives, Persian and Arabic,

of ÂA>)
stand for substantives, as:

,
ofôf
(pi.
" the dead
'
'
;
also
&&&$ and ^ô
vide
(r)
and
115
(r).
(3)
An
"
:
adjective standing for a substantive

:
adjective, as
sick son
oj* jj-^*) <*sj~*$
^^-
may be qualified by another t( c5>^L^ (Sa'di) a certain rich miser had a

** <jr^^ ^f (Sa'di).
*V*
c5t^
c&
*=***
lJiAj*H
Remark.
i
the past."
In English, -adjectives occur as nouns, generally in poetry, as: " and the "irreclaim" painful right George Eliot talks of the
able dead," but only a master of English prose can so introduce an adjective
by another adjective. an adjective is better, or as well, known as the substanSometimes (4) tive it usually qualifies, and hence is used alone, as c-Lj
qualified
:
Hindi here stands for

blade."
(q)
figi-i
Hindi.
Compare
"
my
Toledo
"
for
my
Toledo
as:
few substantives are in modern Persian treated as adjectives also, kishti bisyar aram bud (Shah's Diary) "the boat was f l;f ) #~J
{
&&
calm, did not roll
comfortable."
": e^( oî; Û~j C5^>i^> ^\ (m.c.) "this chair is very That dram and rdhat are considered as adjectives arid
not as substantives forming a component part of a compound verb, is shown by their having in modern Persian a comparative form dram-tar and
rahat-tar.
Tamizj+>
(for _>***>
judgment, discrimination) in m.c.
signifies
"clean."
156
(1)
THE ADJECTIVE.
(r)
The noun
of agency,
and
participles, are used as adjectives.
the present and past With these must be classed the verbal
as in English
adjectives in a.
The noun of agency is not much used. In modern Persian it is nearly an adjective: shakhs-i bakhshanda (m.c.) &x&4u o<aJ "a liberal always man"; ru-yi darakhshanda (m.c.) *xiA)^ ^^ "a bright-looking, cheerful
(2)
face''; mard-i
'
ata-kunanda (m.c.)
*>ixf
Ife*
a generous
man."
Vide
H5
(r).
Even
classically, the
noun
of
agency was used as an adjective:
"In synagogue and

Hell's terrors
mosque and school, and Heaven's lures men's bosoms rule. 0. K. Rub. 49
cloister,
is
Whin.
from an
Remark.
obsolete
The adjective *M*jA sharmanda "ashamed" verb e* >**>.

**'
The
Pers.,
adjective farkhunda *>i^y

;
is
connected with
Pers.,
fromy
far,
beauty, lustre ", and In charand u parand >ijg j

In m.c., charand
"
rukh, Pers., "cheek, face."

*
dropped.
the ^^ "grazing beasts, and birds," " an adjective, meaning bosh, rot ^^ alone,
is
is
' *
Manand,
'*
prep.,
" like"
(in
India vulg. manind),
iuS
from the verb
to be like, to resemble."
other adjectives, possibly derived from obsolete verbs, have this {< agent form, as diranda (m.c.) >J^ slow to act."
:
A few
(3)
Present Participle c>D^ eA'0> ^ ** ^^ J^" T^^^'* 3; of c^j " 1 said you are like the fox who was seen fleeing c;^j (Sa'di) and stumbling blindly in its haste."
:
away
(4)
Past Participle
c
jj^C^
table
* s
(/Sa ^?)
:
in short
i;_y JÛ j none had ever seen

9
his
spread"
(Shah's Diary)
them":
ty.j^ jjj BH* ;^ l$~Û? gilds-Jia " the cherries too were ripe and (the trees) well laden with ^jîwU kar-i na-pasandida kard (m.c.) "he committed
house with open door or ham raslda va pur bar bud
^^
a displeasing
(or reprobated) act.
* '
(5) According to Platts, mast, dust, and a few nouns and adjectives were once past participles. (s) (1) The Persian adjective ^xj appears to have a feminine r^j;
&J V*v fc^ -*
</^ -^
*&
(L>*
il
Jb;
eÔ^
C5^
(Sa'cfi)
"
Thou wouldst not have
treated
me
roughly in these days
When
Pira-zan
It
ihou art a strapping youth and 7 a poor old
woman."
cjj
sû
is
also used in m.c.
must be
recollected that Persians
sometimes express or emphasize an
THE ADJECTIVE.
izafat
157
*
by writing
it
as
Possibly, therefore, this
may
sfeand for
an
<;
izdfat y
vide
(g).
(2)
"
me"
is used by women for the In modern Persian, pronoun when writing to a superior, vide pages 51 (/) and 69 (e).
&^
"
or
In classical Persian,
****
kamina
is
generally used as positive masculine,

+
"
mean,
vile."
*\*&
^(fiXw
uA
*c
)&
1>
îjj
f J*-i
(SadI).
&
y&&
(t)
(1)
"Permit me for I am just a humble personTo rank and sit amongst the slaves." As stated in (n) (3), all broken plurals are grammatically feminine
is
.
singular, arid the Arabic feminine termination singular

(2)
This feminine
is
frequently
added to Arabic
participles
:
and
Examples masha*ikh-i adjectives even if the noun qualified is Persian. " the mazkura *)** ;~5U^> (class.) Shay kbs mentioned above"; "the women described"; ty^*^ oUuitf " the duties mentioned
^^JLoj^j
Axiyyo mukatdba-yi
marquma
bi-dusti (class.)
*'
correspondence written
in friendship/'
(3) If
the
fern,
rational beings, or
JU*j,
if
noun is Persian or Arabic, singular or plural, and denotes the qualifying Arabic adjective is of the form JW* or
is
the adjective
usually put in the feminine singular: al*

<f
o^^
of
or
(perhaps incorrectly)
cW< o*+^
perfect wisdom," but cU
^^
man's
power and
(4)
it
Al<tf
If,
o)x? of divine power; vide (TZ-) (11). however, the Arabic adjective is separated from the Persian noun
if it is a predicative adjective, it is preferably left in the " masculine form, as: *^*f cU'b ^LxL cjjy " she is a very intelligent woman. *
qualifies, or
In
e^j e^?t **this woman became famous in the town," a^Sfc/oÂ to substitute be better would ;^^.
txi
it
(5)
It
appears that
it is
optional in modern Persian to add a

the
:
'i
to Arabic
adjectives and
participles: in speaking
1
writing
writing)
it is
"
generally inserted.
Examples
generally omitted, but in y*U* ÛJ (m.c.), or fj^k'^lJ (in

* is
rich apparel
"; >!J* SÛ*
(m.c.), or
*>?J*
x^wfc
(in
writing).
There seems no
sufficient reason for

:
adding the
to faKhir in the previous

i'
in
example, as libSs is masc. in Arabic in fr^ <j^ the is correct, as khil'at o^JbL has a^l* os*U> the
termination,
is
never added
but
itself
the feminine
used as a substantive signifying " a woman (in m.c. especially a married woman)," the feminine termination is only added to *-AVA* when
As
&&****> is
the qualified noun

1
is
a rational being: *-***+
eÛ> madiyan-i
za'tf
"the
adjectives
The author is of opinion that it is better to add the 8 when they qualify a noun, Persian or Arabic, that
is
to all Arabic participles and feminine either logically or
grammatically.
158
THE ADJECTIVE.
weak mare," but madiyan-i za'tfa "the mare of the woman": " the feeble lady" is commoner than &&$*<* ^JU.. (m.c.)
In
AaJiXp
word
is
court of justice." the second an Arabic abstract noun formed according to rule, from the relative
jjj^-o, generally translated
to Arabic participles will be seen
"a
adjective.
(6)
The advantage
:
of
adding
from the
following
" the deceased woman/' but (*>^ x ^3 "the wife of the " " the river *A5l^ iXK^ deceased intervened," but *# u*;y. j here <J5U^ could be (mod.) "the intervening river prevented an assault"
Axyx^x
it is a qualifying adjective and is not feminine. not predicative, though or participles that are commonly used as adjectives (7) Arabic adjectives There is, however, no rule; for inflected for gender. in m.c., are seldom
substituted, but AMU*, clearly indicates that
Persians that pride themselves even when contrary to Persian

in
011
their Arabic, will use Arabic constructions,
grammar and
idiom.
is
The Arabic past
partic.
m.c.
is
means ''pretty," and " used in m.c. for
hence
rarely inflected:
however
(8)
In 4U)U
oi?
pretty girl," as well as Jâ^^.1^^. (m.c.), there appears to be no grammatical reason

in Arabic for
for the feminine termination.
most
of the
(9) *
common words
s*
Possibly the explanation lies in the fact that conversation are feminine.
'
'
Musammq
*
1
"
fe*~*>
named "
+>
(in
Persian written and pronounced U~^

*
and <^>~" musammi) has
for its feminine
musammat o>U~^
C{
^
(10)
t
&
(^
called Haji Blbl
"
^ ^^*
;
vsU
l
but
^
is
^j ^^
Issjf (m.c.)
there he married a lady

U
*U
j^v
>>
U~*>
is
^îU
^ ^ ^^.
**
In India, in written documents
ciÛ**^
prefixed
to
almost every
(
woman's name and

*
Mrs., or
?
Madame,
is
or Miss.
ulya-jdh
Ali-jah slaxJU
used as a form of address for men, and
aU. IJ^ for
women.
'THya
UU
the feminine of
i.e. U>U. IJLc
^^
"
the elative of
to
^^.
The construction appears

1
to be Arabic,
high as
rank."
it
Nikah
in its literal sense signifies 'conjunction

its
',
but in the language of the law

part. fern.
implies the marriage contract and

**
celebration.
The past
mankUhah A^yX-c
joined in legitimate wedlock
'
applied to a
woman
married by the ceremony of
&
as opposed to that of &***> (lit. usufruct, engagement), which is a marriage contracted for a fixed period and for a fixed sum a kind of legal prostitution. In Persia the word
****
is
used only by the learned, the term
**>>?*
siyha being substituted both for the
ceremony and for the temporary wife. The children of a riyha wife are legitimate, but do not rank equal with those of a &A>J&*> mankuhah wife, except in the eye of the law. Though the Prophet sanctioned temporary wives as a preventive to vice and the Shi'as still practise such marriages, the Sunnis consider them unlawful. Kirman, in Persia, is noted both for the number of its *** ?igha women and of its prostitutes.
'
'
THE ADJECTIVE.
159
is still an address for In India, and probably in Afghanistan, U persons of position, but in Persia it is used for JjjG ^.5l> ncfib vakils, etc. (11) An Arabic feminine elative is often used to qualify a feminine noun, " " the most Persian or Arabic, as dawlat-i 'uzmq j^Jap <^Jj* great empire
Û
'
"the smallest sister"

jjj^
&>kc ^ <]$&* OAAA^
^t
fi&&
ty **'^
ofy cJ*V
^^
*f*
&
of*aa.* ^ &/cf
kj*f Iq. Nama-yi J.,
Ed. Bib. 2nd., As. Soc. Beng.
Remark.
If
an Arabic adjective
is
of the
measure cU>f has

9
(
an
elative
signification, its feminine
on the measure
\^*>
but
f
if it
denotes colour or
fern.
deformity
S\
its
feminine
fern.
is
on the measure *&*, as
"
j**>
yellow,"
"lame,"
(u)
Arabic participles used

rule,
:
îs
substantives
friend
make
ll
their feminines
&*>
in
according to
as:
*
9
er*
v^^" "my
(male)";
i^x^x
"my
"
;
friend (female)"
f?*j* "deceased (male)," &*j^j*>

;
deceased (female)
^^x^ and
A3y^/o
afiJJa*>
4<
a divorcee."
is
In classical Persian and Arabic, <j^^

while (jji^*^ or vj* 3*"
of
generally used for the male lover,
"the beloved"
it is
is
generally considered to be feminine

fc
necessity,
and hence
not necessary to add ar
to
distinguish
it
as feminine.
" which a rule that " nouns by their nature can the do take feminine termination. to females not Sa'dl, neglecting apply only " this rule, writes M^l^ pregnant," but observes it in the word (j^*^
In classical Arabic,
it is
4
(
mistress."
'Utnar-i Kliayytim, however, uses ma'shuqa
And
In Paradise, they tell us, Houris dwell fountains run with wine and oxymel
be lawful in the world to come, 'tis Surely right to love them here as well."
If these
0.
9
K. 185 Whin.
both a sub-
(v)
(1)
Mushkil Jlwo
(pi.
mushkilat)
is
in classical Persian
stantive and an adjective.
In modern Persian it is generally used as an adjective only, ishkal being usually used in writing and in in.c., for the substantive. (2) 'Umda **+* is both a substantive and an adjective: i*+j^ "an
excellent
J^
thing"; ^y
^Jby^ J^w
<{
jfy (mod.)
he was one of
my
best
Great offence was once given to a Persian Governor by the Afghan interpreter of
official
a British
ignorantly writing to him as 'all-jah tk
160
THE ADJECTIVE.
1
customers'
66
*tjij}
x*+*
*'
)\
of the best of the ministers"; f,i>Aax>
$&**
jt
my
real object."
(w) (I)
Two
substantives are often substituted for an English substan:
tive with its adjective, as
OJÂ> t>jjb cu*# ) "he was endowed with high aspirations, a noble ambition" c>U* *** <îy^^ &LU " o,**> " by the previous acquaintance we had ^y U> (Sa'dt) &\y~> (Sa'dl)
(or ty
: ] ;
^ v3^*yooÂ ÂxJLw
"by former
days"
beneficences,
by previous favours"
(*l>*
J^fj** (m.c.)
''former
became changed to good ones " _j& AxjjV (m.c.) "what is necessary for a journey "; ^xi &c)iJ (m.c.) "what planning is " e^.^ ^j (Sa'dl) " what is proper to necessary, the right course to take -=~' ( *)t or) w^'lacu: jl j ^t "this is a wonderful good companionship";
their nature, his evil qualities
;
(Sa'di)
"by
the felicity of the companionship 2 of dervishes and the purity of
"
exploit
:
<xxi-^
health";
' '
JU*'
oy j
4<
<ui)
JU^ ;^
(SJiah's Diary)
"they are
in perfect bodily
the highest perfection";
^^
^^
*
^<
complete
(2)
error.
j*^
Kull Jf Ar., and
Per., are vsubstantives

*$ AJT**
while ^tf, fern.
A^
is
is
an Ar. adjective.
In sentences such as,
" there <J^ JUi^' (m.c.)
every probability that

Kuiliyyat
",
kulll is
sometimes mistaken for a substantive.
&&
is
also
an Arabic abstract noun

sense.
"
totality
"
;
the Persians
also use kultt in the

(3)
same
o>
The Arabic substantive ^r^ an d
its
antonym
*)
are in classical
:
and
in
modern Persian frequently used instead

+
*
of adjectives
*&lb
^f
^^ ^
c^-iu
this
&* (^
sect";
*
er-*^
(Sa'di)
"he
entertained the
very
9
f
highest
opinion of
vJ>^Ju
r^^
"upright conduct"; v^
er<^ **good manners";
<jjUjf
i^xu
"
by great good fortune, or very luckily
"
;
fl&if
is us
.9 ^r^
"
good adused.
ministration, also good discipline, etc/' " " the good thing about him is this
m.c. phrase
vulgarly also
^f^j^ &~*
is
(pl-
of *i^^
the
fern, of
<jÛ
"
)
"
precedents
:
&^<
birlcar-i sabiq
2
4t
based on a precedent."
In m.c.
'*
^3Eu0 means
(pi.
''conversation, also
" mention "
^^1^ OAS^
' *
i&AÛMiy jf
(m.c.)
3
he spoke in strong terms about him."

of
A^-x/oi)
gama'im
4<
)
"misdeeds, reprehensible qualities:
Jiama 9id
(pi.
of
84^4^.
laudable actions or qualities."

jf*
* Note that the hamza in the Turki 8u " water."
distinguishes
it
from the Pers. su "direction " or
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES.
Similarly with sy#
1
161
" <JU* * " evil " 1&& ty evil thought, suspicion " " ^ bad +<*& or j~ *j~> doing" J plight" indigestion"; ^^ *y ^^ *f " rudeness *wl^ $?* "evil end bad temper or nature. Jjl^ *r*> " is not so " a common or well-known matter (x) The classical j*U ^îu*
:
' '
'
'
' '
'
'
common
in
modern Persian,
as
^f+* c^**>
or
^ *U ^^^
(m.c.).
'Umumi
is
an Arabic adjective. A few Arabic adjectives and some Persian and Arabic participles are, (?/) before a substantive, followed by an izafat instead of by a preposition
:
J&c
'*
' c
JUu/o (8a di]
it
is
contrary to reason"; ooG ^'ij

cu^: (+&
o^
(m.o.)
contrary to sound opinion
"
;
î <^^^
"
(rn.c.)
this is not like
your
usual good sense."
Muhal-i
mumkin ^+^
vJ'b
Jt^x* (m.c.)
*
is
a vulgarism, apparently for muhal
na-nmmkin
(z)
^^./ob j Jl^x/c.
In
m.c,
moans "
clean,
and religiously pure," but JUo means

<{
^smooth, level"; o>^ ^*>, however, is to strain liquid through cloth," clean." and o^ j -b is and Indians Afghans use cJ'U in the sense of "pure" only, and <JU in " also ll " of clean
' '
the sense
completely wholesale
(of
a thing)."
121
Remark
(aa)
I.
For the negative use of

of
^ andy +f
vide,
(6).
The addition
ana
<*>
to substantives forms adjectives,
and to
adjectives forms adverbs, as: **\tyo manly, virile ": " <c ^ malik of muluk, pi. king") *>\^& bravely, boldly
:
"
&>\4^*
&(&$
royal (from AilA^f - AilUU

;
t(
vide also
108
*
(a).
After a
vowel/ the usual euphonic change
is
made, as: danayana
&UUi^,
etc.
AilÛuaf
adverb
is
"in a more masterly way" seems to be an exception, as the here formed from a noun.
44.
Compound
Adjectives.
/**>
(a)
whole phrase
Any noun with a particle prefixed may become an adjective, or a the man possessed of may be an adjective JU I ^ A
' c
:
property: o^jjîj (Sa'di) ^poor-spirited": Jf^Û pa dar gil (m.c.) = sar dar hava (m.c.) "awkward, thoughtless" jjjjLo^^ dar manda: \j*>)t>j<
sar bi-giriban &\**j>>j* *'full of thought,
anxious"
" out
e>'^
**>
kun-ma^kun
"fearing
e^^
none":
^^ ^
i
"hesitating; also
has
command": uy^
of
îgnoramus"
has ma-tars
outlandish
ma-purs
the
way,
Jlacuxj^jja.
"impossibility."
11
162
i^." In sar-i dast 0*0^* "ready at hand," sar-i zaban the tip of one's tongue," sar is practically a preposition.
(>(>)
j~
"on
An epithet may consist

" jang girifta (m.c.)
of
a whole clause, as
<jw>&
:
w*Acw l**>
banda-yi halqa
mulk-i dar
bi-gush (Sa'di) "slave with a ring in his ear
"
A!*/ <_&^;j>
c&x
country taken in
" war
o;^l^
^jfj j
Ai~<
^SAf efj^
*x~^
l<
(Sa'di)
a merchant whose ship has been wrecked and an heir
who has
associated with Kalendars
"
(fla'dt).
"
Oh thou
that displayest thy virtues, but concealest thy defects."

pj
mara bi-khalvat-i f^x5 karam kuchak-i si su-yi basta-yi dar-ash bi-su-yi rjushuda bi-khwast Tr. H. B. Chap. XVIII, "he called me into a private place, closed on three sides,
o*tj.=su fc(Z*
LS}"^
u*P
<x
^ C5^ *^ u5^^^ ojlj

9
'
with "
its
door opening into the harem.'
Note the position of ^ in: ^ *vxJÛ ^ ^ ^^x ^.{j ^f^^j?^ have never encountered such a difficult law-case as this." (b) Compound adjectives are formed
:
(m.c.)
(1)
Of an adjective or participle prefixed

-
to a
noun
} >
j
*=*f3 Â
erf
ugly face
i
i
4.
*-*> i, broken-hearted
both elements, Persian. both elements, Arabic.
vJukJ of gentle disposition

.
.
^
,
in
wretched circumstances
>
of pleasant voice
ill-tempered
î
J^ ot*
with moustache just coming

pure- hearted
Mnixed
elements.
Ja ^JL, simple-minded, rather stupid J
Remark I. Compounds with e>i and The compound fi î^ is common. quial.
Remark
^GîUI
are
rare
in
modern
collo-
II.
The adjectival member can

J5.
qualify- two substantives, as
strong, 'All
Qajfcir
Jbj Jb ^y jij> f^W (.ftf. CVzap. F/) " here by name J^ Jb c^y stands
;
"a
muleteer stout and
for Jlj
In modern Persian the former construction

(2)
is
preferred.
:
Of a Persian noun prefixed to a Persian adjective

sad, bored,
oppressive.
In modern Persian, both in writing and in speaking,

5jJ=
*-
and
or
-AxW
and <-M^
(pi.
JU.
'*
$5n
of
^n)
notes'*
ilhan inftn.
t(
chanting."
(lit.
>
163
round-toothed) v ulg., a thief.
one that drives hard bargains.'
Vide also adjectives of resemblance, No. (25).
Remark.
The members
"
<*+&*>
of the
o or 4ji^
(3)
grey- beard, old

:
compound are frequently man, etc."

'
inverted, thus
Two nouns
vide also (16)
lion-hearted
r
.
")
both elements, Persian.
lairy-cheeked with tlie appearance of
an ^
[both
j
!
an
el -
Arabic.
diabolical in thought
*J ruby-lipped
scattering pearls
billowy
as
the ocean (of a
^.Persian
j
and Arabic.
large army).
munificent
w^J
,
)
[
)
Arabic and Persian.
oyb
ruby-lipped
Remark.
as
l
Rarely the compound consists of two Arabic broken plurals,

(t
v->t*yf
(^d^x;
^jcliv^f
people of exquisite mariners
"
vide also (16).
(4)
Of a substantive, Persian or Arabic, prefixed to a Persian verbal

^li,* (jiof
h're.
root
scattering
"1
$$ J>
2&
heart-afflicting.
Lsubstantive Persian.
)
^^
Ifci t^x>
^4-=
world-conquering.
fault-forgiving.
assembly adorning.
x)
) 8 ubstaiitive
Arabic.
AlLxj
"Pardon
these hands that ever grasp the cup,
These feet that to the tavern ever stray."

(0.
K. 884 Whin.)
often a passive, not an active, sense, as: ^wj txk " known ru shinas khuda bakhsh "given of God": <jA& by face, i.e. " tamed (of wild birds, etc.)" JU acquaintance" 3>^T ^"^ dast-amuz
This
compound has
:
Û
pay-mal
"
trampled under foot."

"lion"
often an
In modern
' '
as
well as
classical
Persian,
shir
is
adjective
' '
brave.
2
Mahasin (*y(^*>
:
pi.
of
nr^
<f
beauty, any good quality; the moustache and
beard"
adab v^f,
pi.
of adab ^&\ manners.
164
(5)
Adjective (P. or A.) or adverb prefixed to a Persian verbal root
*
LvJ
1
sweetly-singing.
well-wishing.
^
ft*
*-&)
quick apprehension.
thinks after
the deed
is
[>
prefix Persian,
who
1+J^.xft'
done; imprudent. mild looking, but not

reality.
>so
in
1
I
.
.
..... uj fy>c apparently oppressed, but

reality a tyrant.
in
j
-prefix Arabic.
Some
of these
compounds have a passive

t(
:
signification, as )
be obtained, scarce." experienced, a beginner" v^ f (6) Of substantive (P. or A.) and past participle
difficult to
:
<)^
,y
experienced. r
i
i
substantive Persian.
T>
c^JL^ tried in battle,
proved. one that has seen trouble.
j
"i
shame- stricken.
J
1
substantive Arabic,
whose owner an animal).

In a few words the
"foremost,
perfect; also
final
is
dead (abuse to
j
is
subs, froth,
dropped, as j>/f ^) "rusty": scum; a chief": ate laA "given by

:
God."
Compounds
"of ill-omened
(7)
of Arabic
nouns and past participles are rare :

k
-
unlucky." Of substantives with prepositions,

irreligious.
fate,
*J
<y -j*
yj
j>.) 9
etc.
unjust.
cowardly. unwise.
lasting.
}
>j
imperious, tyrannical.
subordinate, oppressed.
useful.
ti
useless; vide (10)].
9
jjV
b (m.c.) of robust frame, I wealthy.

I b
jj
j
with
salt
pleasant-featured
pleasant of conversation,
possessed of sense.
a Persian verb from the Arabic root
fefaajlat.
From
c"**+t
Properly cJtap^
(8)
165
Of a substantive, or a Persian verbal with the prefix p&

j +*>
'
bed- fellow.
__
v
j
Persian substantive
.
fellow-traveller.
T*
'
*a of the same age.

school-fellow.
A
)
;
, "^ *
Arabic substantive.
,.
^;
3^>
travelling together.
(9)
A substantive
^j>3 f*
1
Â playing together. with the prefix
as a privative
.
cuiu +$ unfortunate (contemptuous). r

'
weak.
inexperienced.
,
1 ^ ^Persian substantive. J
.
aj^su
^.r
cucUu
(10)
..
possessed of
1.1.^1 -x i little capital.
r Arabic
substantive.
U a prefixed to adjectives, substantives, Persian verbals and past participles (compare with 12)
:
Na
H^ ^ displeased
(class.);
unwell
(mod.).
impure; in m.c. saucy, roguish âdjective, Persian. (of a woman, in a good sense).
J
not liked. ^ under a ore, immature.

^
IJ
J
) '
^
A u adjective, Arabic.
...
,.
*>
rough.
impure intent. inconstant not durable.

;
of
k useless.
1)
>
various compound*.
out of place.
^ of
mean
resolution or ambition.
ignorant.
not understanding, U rude rough. xity

;
C unpraised.
unabridged.
Was
L>
e'er
man born
that never went astray

0.
"
K. 391
unmanly, coward.
worthless.
hopeless.
l->
Ij
For the negative use
of
f$ and
^,
vide
121
(6).
In compounds usually na and not no.
Before an
infinitive either
l->
or
166
In modern Persian
&
is
frequently used instead of

Aiafcvj li
li
as
Axafaoi
o*&/
in
modern Persian
is
preferred to
o^/ **x^
:
cc
(*>
^J
rice
not steamed
(after cooking)."
In negative compounds, when part of the compound is a verbal root, the '* Godless vl^ l*/^ negative should immediately precede it, as vj& !*** "not having slept." Sa'di, however, has <j*^ (j*& for <jj^ J^.
'
'
:
Remark
(11)
I.
In speaking, na-ghafil
l
is
often used for *!AP
an
gh.afl,at
.
The privative^*
yhayr-i
:
prefixed to Arabic nouns, participles, and
phrases, and Persian adjectives

X
j^ g&ayr-i insaf
x*
ghayr-i tahqiq
contrary to justice (not unjust). " not verified.'

7
absent.
p unconditional.
11 ^
or(i er or
proper arrangement.
not in use, obsolete.

(fern.)
unmarried
(wife).
uncultivated, etc.
involuntary.
not allotted.
uneducated,
ill-bred.
(m.c.) unofficial.
incapable of being cultivated

irrecoverable.
fj
o^ jj>j^ ^ **A o^jl^jJi^jji
jj)'
^
of,
is
,
^7
(Shah's Diary)
in lines
14
men and women without number were everywhere drawn up

Remark. In *<*e^/c jc "not taken possession " immovable
viz.
:
on
both sides of the way."
unappropriated" and
feminine to agree with it is not clear why the
AJjiux j**
(property)," the participle

*JJU'.
a broken plural understood,

feminine
is
In
A-'yiU
used.
In Persia, but not in India, the izdfat always follows j**
the use of^J^

is
is
rare
in
modern
Persian.
In Arabic
^
^*i*
^6
is
a substantive, and
when
privative
followed by
is
the genitive, as:
CJ^
JL
"impure."
nom.
Possibly the izajat of tho_>J^ in Persian
corruption of the
ft
of the Ar.
case.
2
51
In Persian often incorrectly written and pronounced
alu.
Sometimes the participle has the
inherited."
(12)
167
it,
added to
as:
^5)5*
j& "not
Arabic
SI
Of a Persian or Arabic substantive or adjective prefixed by the "no, not" [compare with (10)]:
;
&;lj K belonging to no one.

<yl3
II
unique.
)
>
\U
*
J|
,. u
helpless, without
;l^
remedy
*)U.
).
Remark.
La-uball
^JU
"'x>>
K,
adj.,
'"careless,"
),
is
really
an Arabic verb
"I do
not care," from
alfUxj
(root
.fo*-
vwfe (15).
" void of Arabic substantives prefixed by the privatises, *>**, adj., " and *j.**>c, past part. " non-existent
(13)
j*>jh /*jxc
yjli
;
"
non-existing.
(m.c.) lost to ken, disappeared (of a thief).
-î3Jt
*~:pJt
|^*x**=
+,y\ 2}**yo
" known by name but non-existent,
i.e.
fabulous"
(as the SlmuryJi).
Remark. --The
Uy
,o^, Ar.,
14)
and
^,
is used for forming substantives, as substantive " want of Per., fidelity."
^j^,
Compound Arabic
*
adjectives,
comj)ounded
'
of
an adjective or a
participle and a substantive in the genitive case
Ui^ (m.c.) of noble dignity.

Aj*.
known by name
s
2
only.
(15)
Arabic
phrases,
at ";
as
S
<*^t
jtxil/o
"mentioned
above";
lt
:
Axff
" mentioned, hinted

'
^
.?
^>*>
U
' e
"
beyond expression
' '
"
o>j*j
Jl
immortal "
:
(lit.
he will not die
"
)
:
f j>'^
will
uncultivated
(lit. it
<{
was * not sown)
^1 r
"
"
boasting
i
lit.
"
you
:
not see
*'
me
")
uXlÛ
;
possessions," subs.
{<
(lit.
what he
possesses)
;
-ka^
J|
unceasingly, adv.
J^l-^l cf'U^ adv.,

[lit.
as for-
merly"
Ja*.
SI
^^^
mast-i la
" dead drunk ya'qil
drunk (and) he knows
nothing "J.
Remark.
ta'ala
When
"
^^ &M
The
the phrase contains an Arabic verb, such as in Allah God, may He be exalted," the Persians, if the first word is
vowel of the genitive
is
final short
omitted.
1
Many
of these are substantives as well ae adjectives, vide
(>?).
Tn m.e. m~#nl ilayh &*J\

*
^^.
Mitshar 11 *
> ilayh &)\ ^*** can bo used alone, but

*
q ilayh
^V J^y must
1
'
qualify a noun.
Lam
in Arabic gives to the Aorist a preterite sense.
168
:
Persian, frequently but incorrectly insert an izafat, as

*L
;
Khudawand-i
ta'alq
mast-i la ya'qil. <Ja*j
Jl
(16) Adjectives of resemblance are formed by affixing to nouns certain words, chiefly substantives, vide (3)
:
.*
like
an angel,
like
angelic.
acting like a fairy.
(3w shaped
a boat.
*Jti (old) like the sky.

like a houri.
with a face
like the
is
moon
beautiful.
Mdnand
Û
adj.,
"like",
derived from &*uU; and, affixed to a

^\~*> Ijp
* "like the sea*
substantive, forms an adjective, as: darya-manand

(gen. to signify quantity).
Rarely, a broken plural is used, as haza*ir-i falak-nazaîr J-51& cÛ^Lka* enclosures high and inaccessible as the heavens 8^k> vJU* falak nazlra (or
:
' '
nazw) would
also be correct.
(17) In a
few compounds, a numeral

very
la.
is
prefixed to a
noun
alert.
;
U- four-cornered
square, oblong.
four-year-old; vide
98
(6) (4).
Remark.
<4
Adverbs and substantives are
to
6 *
go at full gallop'': a market- pi ace.

' '
î-^
also so formed, as: e>M>
to
sit
tailor- fashion
"
^*^^
j~*
(c) TliQ following words, chieily Arabic, are frequently attached to substantives and adjectives to form compound adjectives
:
(1) ^jikj "receiving," JP.JOO Jy<^ "possible"; jto j**** (m.C.) " " can be mended (prop, of buildings). of tia (2) &&* pana h "asylum, refuge, shelter", as: eî*>c "asylum
'
'
as:
pardon
(3)
(an epithet for kings, governors or mujtahids)

5
VU
ma-ab
lit.
"
place of
return":
v^
^ c t^ "
l
(^ or
kings).
ij^j* (in5d.)
Europeanthe
ized."
(4) Ûxi
' '
body
;l*
lit. "outer garment; " &)j**> clothed with justice."
shi'ar,
anything
that
envelops
Kirdar
^^ from kardan
Pers.
&&j$
',
when one would expect kardar
In mod. Pers. ishtibah

3
*Lwli>/
means " doubt, error."

is pi.
Hurl <^)^
is
ISur J^, Ar.,
of
j^,
fern, of
)^\.
is
In Persian
huriyya
4
used as a singular: though Ar.

'
pi. in
form, this word

tl
not used in Arabic.
From
pazlrujtan ^jiJy&j or pizruftan t^>)*
to receive."
From vV?
Vf
' *
return
' '
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
(5) jjf
169
asar " trace, sign

:
"
:
j*\
/if asar, pi. of yt

(6)
(7)
f
^ o^
"
^^ "
:
inspiring awe, majestic."
"
friendly
e;UJ nishdn "sign,
mark"
cjUJ
e^}.c
"
#55 =
: :
(of people).
o^-c *_^l*.
*
s
v^f
"
;!y>'
i**fe&
''arrangement,
(of things).
manner"
^^1
)j*
j*$
^j^T ytf
o4^
(8)
well-shaped
ârar "dwelling, fixed (9) e^^/c mashjmn "tilled"

1
abode"
:
"dwelling in Hell."
of returning,
^XL-^/O jôUx
Pers.)
"wicked."
(lO)Â^
ojl&i
(11)
7/ia5?*
(rare in
mod.
"
"place
going":
unfortunate."
4<
^l^ maddr
centre, pivot
"
;
j!^^>
$ " centre o>c
of respect."
(12) ^j&o
makan "place "

nasz6
^^ ^^
"dwelling in Paradise
JJ S
(of
Muslims
only).
(13)
v-Ajj^J
"portion, fate": wo^-i
crâ.
"having received the
award
of Paradise."
(14) A^LXJ
(15)
44
" <**û " = j(^ /j^M "trade tyrannous." " and " joined, contiguous maqrun ^î ârm adj.
:
^^
past. part.
joined,
ft ' c
contiguous"
oO* ^^^^
viA^ô^
3
^.^l^;
e,^ c^.
< 4
c^Jj^ "fortunate, wealthy"; ^JL?^ ^l*** = o^*- I. ^jr Note also the following qarln-i maslahal o>*0la^ ^^jl
advisably ":
o*3x^j e^ft/o " healthful, etc., etc."

y
(10)
The verbal adjective

* *
in alif is
' *
:
jadtt-kuna (obs.)
practi&ing-inagic
very rare in compounds: US'Û. c?Û (old) wandering in the

4 *
desert."
5.
Intensive Adjectives.
is
(a)
(1)
An
jective a iinal
'i
ta'ajjub
<4
formed by adding to the simple ad* Or alif, called alif-i kasrat *j& -î, or alif-i mubalay&a kÛ>c bi-hdl-i Khushd as: JU> *^>^&* <-AJf, sulh-kunandagan Jlû U^.
intensive adjective
1
>^
Blessed
;\re
the peace- makers."
This intensive
alif,
which
'
is
probably the vocative

<j4r^
.
alif
and
3.
is
ot
rare
occurrence, the noun it qualifies
except after the adjectives

;
jj
and
^^
usually precedes
(I)
but
vide
'
basd Adverbs of Quantity
(2) In old Persian, the substantive so qualified has often a final alif O'' " &* as well, as khusha Shir am " oh delightful is Shiraz tjy &>jj* \*>
:
(b)
(1)
The adjective may be

-
intensified
by adding an adverb or adjeo^
From jt**?.
y**
There are several final ali/s, as: *$$
^f,
^*^>
*$& (j-^^
f<*>
,
vide p. 12.
170
tive, as
INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES.
:
JX^^. "
^^
'
<(
"
very pretty
:
(rn.c.)
& ;U-o
x
;
f
"
very bad
:
"
:
"a
great eater,
:
glutton":
J-a^
sfead / unpalatable shud (m.c.) " he became very delighted": ojlfj^ JÂ ^^Jk;j ^su the precipices appeared in my eyes extremely terrifyj^+jujx ^sJiA^^ vsJ^
J^* <-x> (class.)
"
^^j "a
perfect fool
"
jf^li
o*iu*.
o.=fcu
quite easy
"
"very
% saMtf
j&
ing";
vide.
45:
*X;<xJ
bÂ. (m.c.)
f
"an
accentuated ass, an ass and an ass
again."
For bas, az baz,

(2)
is
etc.,
mWe Adverbs
" =
of
Quantity
:
(I)
(3).
It
may
be intensified by the
of unity, as
c/?t
z}$
^&
' *
a very beautiful flower fine colour this flower has."

(c)
tw 7^?
rany-i khub-i darad
what a very
(1)
Repetition
may
4<
*VxrU j eÛ
pak u 9 pdklza
**>j
give a continuative or intensive signification, as: <c " very far 3 ;^j;j^ ^wr u daraz very clean
(
away
(a)
"
:
*i^
rujta sliusta
" tidied and cleaned
(lit.
swept and washed)."

meaning, vide
140
(2) Sometimes the meaningless appositive gives and Remark.
this
(3)
The repeated adjective may be

'
'
,
in
the plural, as
'
mast-i mastnn
^>ft>
ejlw^ o~x: "dead drunk": c^**^^* faqir-i jaqiran, or ijzti a pauper of paupers very very poor. fuqara*
"
faqir
'l-
In the
title
Ûiiulx modern Persians and Indians insert the

i(
izdfal.
Mons.
Raymond,
the translator of the

title,
Seir Mutaqherin,"
izafai.*
is
who knew
at least one
Indian holder of the
used the
In Turkish, Mir Miran d\j** j**
title
equivalent to
Amir^l-
Umara*
(d)
(e)
\j*y\j**
For sar mast, sar

(1)
(
sabz, etc., vide
117
to a
The
prefixes
^ -#&
"a
(j)
(4)
Remark.
form
an
ism-i
substantive
mukabbar
Wj *&
etc.
* '
j&*
:
^
'
giving the idea of size or fineness, etc., as: shah-rdh
(of wing)
main-road ": *-l^ " U> " a

c^y
big cup or
large variety of
mulberry
pot": "
:
*'
"flight-feather
j;f*i
)*j*
t&,
^, <^^
li,
pavilion
Khar-magas j^Xc^x "horse-fly": *J^*>j^ "crab": 'f^ "a a of stone

' '
'
"
large tent,
' '
:
'
'
^J^*jo*
large
*xiuj^
species
large mosquito
The comparative and

* '
superlative can also be so intensified, as:
**
much
8 4
prettier.
Vide,
Repetition of words
k
140.
'
He however
writes Rtiy-Bayan
(an Indian
title).
Khar j*. i n Pahlavi means "big, ugly."
DEGREES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.

Div-savar
171
Jy*^
" bold horse-man "
t& #*
"large clod": d> hearted."

(2)
of wheat": #& "whirlwind, frenzy": cAe>>^ "brave, hard-
p*& #&
"a large kind
In the following compounds,
"ass-mill": ^/f "asinine": o^^âL " stupidly drunk ": very large penis."
(3)
khar-as
^ Âj ^
(
signifies
" ass
" and not "

a
"
large
:
hog- backed,
tomb":U>y^
ass-like or
j^ j^
vulg.
"having an
Whether
^^ ^
means "big-eared"
or " ass-cared
"
is
a disputed
point.
46.
Degrees of Comparison and Comparative Clauses.
(ft)
(1)
The Persian comparative

i>
is
formed by adding
y
:
to the positive,
>s:
purjam'iyyai-tarj* SÂJU^^J (m.c.)
Mod. Pers.
_3 ciy I.
(2)
" more delicious." The superlative, which
c^>
b
;
" more populous" y cj>*j (Sa'di), in "more honoured ": y vs*I> (Sa'di), in Mod. Pers.
is
not
much used
in
Modern Persian
[vide
r ( ) (3)],
q i.
formed by adding tarm
^y
to the positive,
sometimes contracted
to
in, vide (b) (6).

(3)
The comparative can be used
in the plural,
as
" those greater than us."

(4)
U Ûy
cJ;>
(m.c.)
The
superlative has no plural
Remark. Note that the comparatives of the past participles *j^f " " " more " (< (( comfortable more humble ^^ more y intelligent
;
are in
use.
common
use
but not
&v^ y
*&!-'
^-h^,y ^-'^^,y
**>
/^> which are not in
(6)
(1)
Arabic adjectives,
9
in
?'
Arabic,
form both the comparative and

"-?
superlative on the measure J**f for the masculine, and

lative
'
^**
for the super-
feminine,
as: kabir
y^f "great,"
is
comparative and
*'
superlative
y"
masc., and kubra ^jtf fern. When comparative, the elative
followed by c^^
x
than," when super-
lative
by the genitive.
The Arabic elative (ao called because 1* includes both comparative and superlative), when it is a comparative makes no change in Arabic for gender or number. The Arabic elative is used in Persian.'2 dar vaql-i ahsan tr~^ oJ^^ tc in the most (3) Note the superlatives in
(2)
1
>j
The Arabic comparative has no feminine nor Both as a comparative and a superlative.
plural.
172

time": ^^j ^ uo! )* dar as'ad zaman-i "in a very fortunate " the most fortunate of the as'ad-i zaman c> *j **** age." Sometimes a cognate Arabic noun follows an Arabic superlative
l
t
1
time "
propitious
:
(4)
J
tf *jU oUUxj a^&j} (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXI) "no, lyo fiUut ^Jsf no, such an honour is fit for me who am the most skilled of physicians " ^t \j*& ytfit (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII) I am the most poetical of poets.'
* '
:
^^
'
of
Generally speaking, Arabic adjectives in Persian form their degrees clÛ*. _y JLel* ... comparison in the Persian manner: JLel*
(5)
^y
(6)
The
j
affix
t^
tarln
is
sometimes
a
contracted
to
In,
as
<jV*
" the best": or e>lA

greatest":
&>>
^^
-or :
u^y
:
or "the least": &w> j "the highest": these words
&
or^yyo
are
"the
or
classical
poetical only.
double comparative is sometimes formed by adding the Persian cXa*f Arabic elative d** lÛs j **jj (Sa'dt) " he asked p\c " " the most excellent*' (J"A' (m.c.) what is the best kind of worship \*j>j* cu~M Vî c>^ î=i^ ^,1^*1 Û! ^ cL*i ?i6^ ?* labar-i Islian munqati' kardan
(c)
affixes to the
aula-tar* ast
(d)
(Sa'df) "it is better to destroy their stock,

is
and
root
it
out."
(1)
Than with the comparative The preposition jf as &i&

,
:
expressed by
^j** )* er^^y ^-^

this
have never
bihtar
in
your
life
spoken a truer word than

*
"
(m.c.)=y
^^
&* &*) az In chi aulq-tar

vsignification of
ce
m.c.
" what better than this?
^^^
"
"
3 (Su'di)
!
you
j\
az
m chi
"
:
Remark.
Note the
Jl
one of
"
in the following
o
me
'
JU;
Ûi y
*t
** ALJf^
[Tr.
H. B., Chap. VII).
that he was a
man
of the greatest
consequence"
it became known to mara az quzidagan-i
shu'ara* sakht (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII)
"he made me one
of the chief est of
poets"
(2)
vide
(e) (4).
Nisbat
o^,
or bi-nisbat oo~j
^ "in comparison with,"

(
as:
nisbat
cuf-o
bl-digarafi (or nisbat-i digaran)
bihtar-ast (rn.c.)
is
^j&>*
g >od
*>**>>
:
o^f
yy
(3)
"
J
1
m comparison
is
with the rest he
"
or)
^^^
bi-nisbat-i n bihtar
ast (class.)
" she
better than he
"
;
vide (w) (6).

jt
:
In classical Persian, &f

tf
aj
is
'
sometimes substituted for
(J)j**
^+&
(Sa'dl)
" he
said,
dismissal
from
office is better
than employ-
The
plural
^xfc>r
could be substituted for the Pers.
pi.
eAfir^ here.
4< Mihtar, the comparative, alao means, prince, lord," and is the title of the ruler of Chitral. In India a sweeper is by a euphemism styled Mih-tar, just as a tailor, In Afghanistan and Persia mihtar etc., is called Khalifa, and a water-carrier Jama dar.
means
3
* *
a groom.
aulq>
'*
' '
^V
more
y
or
most deserving*'
is
an
*,
elative without a positive,
and must not n gu>
na-kuriim, (m.c.)
be confused with d?J ulq the feminine of <Jy 4< first." ** it's best for us to hold our tongue."
* Plural of
Jacf, elative of
Aulq an
kl dlgar gu/t

ment'
death
"
173
"
:
L> jf
is
better
^ than
^
thy
**
^^ murdan-at
]
bih ki
' '
:
mardum-azdn
(Sa'df)
"thy
afflicting of
mankind
thou desirest the truth, then it were better that a thousand eyes should be blind (like the bat ) than that the sun should be darkened."
If
For the use

(4)
of the positive for the comparative, vide

is
(i).
Occasionally the comparative
followed by an izafat,&s: bihtar-i
yihtarln guzin-i
Dm, Bukhari
(e)
(Nam-i Haqq of Shah Sharaf^dthe Prophet) "better than the best and chosen of all " =
:
hama ** eMj^ oi/V^t

(4).
az bihtarm bihtar, vide (n)

(1)
is followed by the genitive, * and generally by the plural ^ o^JU-c ^y u4f& (Sa'cK) 'I will not grant the rule over this country except to the meanest of the " the most illustrious of the oli5l JLx *U*> slaves prophets (Sa'di] oy^
:
The
superlative, Persian or Arabic,
^^
^^]
' *
' '
t4
the most noble of created things": cul^^/o
J,*(
(Sa'di)
"the meanest
of existing things."
In J^Sff ^r-a.1 <l the best of shapes, the best shape" and like constructions, the second noun is in the Arabic genitive plural.
In
correct.
cnJJisx
(^^t ahsan-i
khilqat
"the best
of creation," the singular is
For the superlative followed by

comparative, vide
(2)
(I).
** hama and
for its substitution for
the superlative qualifies a noun absolutely, it is treated as " the an ordinary adjective, as: pk? &?) greatest support": ^Jkf j&*> "the
When
Prime Minister
or
"
: <
^~ cHt^
!
u bihtarm mard ast, o?mard-i bihtarm ast îe ^ s ^ ie ^ es ^ man -"
W)
<:
j*
o^;^
31
-^*
it,
Such a
terrible
water that the water-bird was not safe in

mill-stone from its shore."
:
Its least
wave would sweep a

it is
In old poetry and prose
sometimes merely intensive
1 will not say I have given a most noble pearl (lady) to a most renowned husband." 3 (3) Such sentences as "go to the nearest village" may be rendered, e>U^ eVT $ ^^ e? y *-&5>V (class.) but more usual *k >j>
j
;
"
(m.c.).
Mush-i kur )j>
O*?"'
is
" * no hat
"
2
s
But
khilqat-i
This construction
tho best creation. ahsan w****\ is not used in this sense in Modern Persian.
^^
and not the " mole

'
'
'
' *
'
174

" This
(i)
is
the largest hriuse in
Buzurg-tar 'imarat-i
Kirman " may be rendered ki dar Kirman ast in ast &(
in five
ways
(ii)
Buzurgtarin-i makanat-i ki dar
Kirman
ast in ast
(Hi)
Buzurgtarin makdn-i ki
&> (iv) Makdn-i buzurgtarin-i ki In makan-i buzurgtarm-i Kirman ast o (v) " is " One of the most Rustam yak-i azdilavar(4) expressed by y tarin-i Iraniyan bud ty e/t-^f e^y ^S^Jf vide (d) (1) Remark. (****;> (/) The comparative can be strengthened by prefixing the adverbs 45 (6) (1) ^\ jt-jr ^s^* ^$1^ and ;^, etc. vide Intensive Adjectives, (Shah's Diary) "peaches of a very excellent kind" o*t ^-Ji^L^j "this is
much more fitting" is much better."

(g)
(m.c.):
o^
<^j^
&>} In khayli bihtar ast (m.c.)
" this
The comparative can stand alone,

this is better, this is
as
o**
:
v-^^Ji
(m.c.)
"
the better course
&>
^Â, orcu*! jJ^ &$+* o-of \^\ aula an ast ki
(m.c.)
W c^^ty^ CJÂ haman bihtar ast ki " the

'
better course
is."
of <J^K "perfect" (a super(h) The Persian comparative and superlative lative in itself) are vulgar or poetical, and correspond to the incorrect English more perfect, most complete, more unique, etc." The Persians expressions
'
also say
(1)
y ^y
(1)
:
farid- tor,
but not^J' U^ yakta-tar.

AJ
-
The
positives
Af
AX>
and
parative
(Sa'di)
^ are
sometimes used for the com^t^j for

jt
j~** & (^
ji
oÛ* cxp|y
"we
[the
king] will
a^ ^jU ^5*^ y make ready accommodation
^^ ^
'
' :
you in the
'
obtained city, so that leisure for worship better than this may be " : lt this is better than that in bih az an ast (m.c.) c^* e>(; *t
t
f
by you
JU^ ^f&
JU^jU-^3 ^ andak'i jamal is better than much wealth

'
'
bih az bisyari-yi* mdl (Sa'di) a little beauty cuiu. ^jb tf au o<iu bazu~yi bakht bih ki
^jb
Vide also (d) (3). bazu-yi sakht (8a*di). AJ is also a comparative or optative in poetry Bih (2)
"
traitorous army, let
it
be disbanded,
One that seeks the

(3)
ruin of his country, let his head be cut off."
The
positive can also be used in such sentences as,
" come nearer,"
Uj
(j&ty
(4)
or) *-û>, nazdik (or nazdik-tar) biya.

is
Ziyad a^j
a positive, and ziydda 1^3
a comparative for
^
;
jU3
for
Muyassar jr*^ properly means "facilitated." Here c)^r^ might be either an adjective with the ^$ the sake of euphony (number of syllables) Persians make
i
of
it
unity, or a
noun
but
a noun and say bisyuri-yi
mal.
8
In Modern Persian ear afganda 1&&*) j<
means
**
ashamed."

ziydd-tar:
<c
175
(m.c.)
' '
people.
az hadd
(5)
^
-y
give ine more," nutq-i ziyad-i " an excessive concourse of a long speech"; but oa*+;x <x^ jf Ûj Ziydd az hadd*^ jf ^,) is a modern vulgarism for ziyada (or ziyad-tar)
x*>
^j
or fcvy ^bj
"
jt
(y^ j or) *^>

and
(of
Pish Jk|J
Afzun c>'l " before

<ji#
6^
Ji-AJ
" more
"
are practically comparatives.

sense.
time),"
has
also a comparative
However
y
jf
cj^t
(6)
andy
<JkJ are also used.

also
The comparative "more" can

jl
be expressed by the words

;
J 5 l.:lx> mutajaviz az,
j&.>
cKgar as,
j^^
ki
'alava bar
f;l<^
,<j& *'
man yak
harj-i
dlgar na-daram
bi-guyam
(m.c.)
^&i oy* u "I have not a single

expressed
or
)
word more to say."

(j)
An
English
adjective
:
positive (as in
Urdu)
" This teais too weak " o**f

ast (m.c.)
:
qualified
by "too"
(
(
is
by the
is
-&r^
^~ ^s^ u*M
" this tea
:
m chay subak (or kam-rany)

& ^f
good)."
cu*t
c^>t
^~*
^l^
e^t (m.c.)
too strong." the adverb 6^2 30 (k) In m.c.,

jL>
is
" used in the sense of better," as
^ ^-^
tf^'
"these carpets are bad
yak-1 (m.c.) eM *^ qafo-h kJfwyfi bad astfiaz but this one is somewhat better (but still not
J
a comparison is drawn between a person or thing and the rest of the class, either the comparative or the superlative may be used, as " A \\ &$ " u follows They say the ass is the meanest of animals asl IA c^t o~j JT>U guyand ki khar az hama-yi janvarlia past-tar (m.c.).
(/)
When
^
1
This could also be rendered by:
ft
o^Â.
:
;îU.
^y
o--)
A"
^/
or
^ ^/
a vulgarism kucJmk-i fc^ 4^!, -si dukhtar dasht, yak-t buzurg, yak-i kuchak, yak-i kuchah-tar.ôi. 8. T. "he had three daughters, one big, one little, one The third term should be az hama kuchak-tar smaller than the little one."
(m)
The following
is
jf,
(ri)
or kuchak-tarin-i
hama
&+*>
vifa-jf:
(1)
The superlative can also be expressed as follows " as Ear chi tamam-tar yÛ JUÂ complete as possible": e^|*J b '* I came out with feelings of the greatest regret J *^;* (m.c.)
in
,
my
mind."
(2)
kiazan
buzurg-tar
(or
kamtar,
etc., etc.) nisi
(or nami-shavad)
f*xu ^,-Ui lif^ laxxj) e>f 31 /JU^5A> o^f 8<x has been found here, the largest in the world (lit. as large as any in the
oôjy ^j>
" a diamond (m.c.)

lki.
world)": *Jj^cy khitab-i Ramraj,

l
cuilJLc
<xb
v lka.
^jf Jf yjfb
^^ cXU ^ ^
ki
dar mulk-i
Dakan
bald-tar az in
^f; p f; v khitab namibashad
inayat farmudand.(Iq. Nama-yi Jah.,

1
p. 244, Bib. Ind.
Ed. of As. Soc.
Adjectives ending in d> are sometimes incorrectly written as
Batar
a
jh is classically and No izafat.
colloquially usod
176
Beng.)
(Tr.
^
By an
intensive
H.B., Chap. XXXIII) "the water-carriers had so sprinkled and swept the roads that their work couldn't have been better done."
(3)
word signifying ''extremely,

"
r
perfectly, unique,"
etc., as:
^j
o*&j cÛ.'
:
bi-yjiai/at zisht-riiy
extremely ugly
" " of extreme beauty
^^ JU
b (m.c.)
ilq
giayr*'n 'nihayat khush-gil
nihayat khushgil: ty )&+* j+ac sovereigns of the age in justice"

:
" ~< ^JrÛ j J^ j> "he excelled all the ty) cua>^ ^J ^,1U| ^ "he was most the
"
of
" in a perfect rage
utmost prettiness
1
pious
of the eîy t5
J
Muslims": dar
or ji&^V or )
'Urn
c
/*^
o^t
^^
(
yagdna (or bi-nazw or bi-qarina) ast ne s un l u or alone, in knowledge": )*

'*
^
i(
yakta-yi 'asr ast

(vulg.
,
if
OÎ^-^P ^(&*
he
is
unique
jk
in his ago
_
râr
"
(J,j>
*> G
A^^
^^,
in.c.,
abuse)
^^}',
= ^f^
z &a-5
j!
1
e^.
_,
Azhadd
bi-sliiddat
oaio,
kamal-i marlaba <*x^ JU^
are similarly used. or âr nihayat-i martaba ^^(^ Inhtar bihtarin .42 Jiy w>j>? $ "better than the (4) c (^) ( 4 ) etc v bihtarin, e/irV^)*
^^
:
best"
(or bihtar-i
" the positive, as ou^t 7t ^Lif^ he is the clever man of the city " = he is the bravest of his tribe." o*t pj$ ))$3 is sometimes prefixed to an (6) In classical Persian bar adjective to give f< bar buland &&> it a superlative idea, as and rare) (class, high."
(5)
By
c '
very
The comparative or superlative suffix is also added (1) To participles, as: *UJUjf^ c^>' î^v-jti ^, ^La &f j& y jf*yAx~jU (Sa'di) "sin, by whomsoever it may be committed,
(0)
:
CUXÂVC
is
objection(m.c.)
JujtiL^-o
able, but from the learned
it is
especially objectionable":
^jy Jjf^
^.^y;
"the prettiest": ^jy JÛ sabiq-tarin " the most used." musta'mal-tarin
"the most ancient":
Remark. The superlative suffix ^.y is seldom added to Persian participles. The comparative takes its place, as In rang az hama girifta-tar ast &+& jt J^) e> o~! y Asuda-tarin er^J te^, (m.c.) "this shade is the darkest."
:
Jf
&
mahbub-tarin
(2)
^^ ^^^^ are m.c. only.

prepositions
To a few
(
and adverbs: bar ^
"upon,"^y "higher":
e>y ^j or e^7^
:
j>
w'j) "highest": ^j "below",

,
^0 and
^
(3)
Sib,
etc.
To
in modern Persian
and
vulg.)
l
"more
rfar
a few substantives: asudagi-tary " comfortable foryaa^f asudatar:

!
^^^f (m.c.
^j UT
1
y o^T p
Dam-i
^^
^ (m.c.)
*
*'
threshold of the door."
" Radd ml-shavad does not

back, repulsion":
mean
kV
1
that
he went through the door."

retort, repartee.'
A>
Radd, Ar. "driving

J*
v'j^
^5
"a
In m.c. ()&
' f
means
'*
to pass, pass by, miss the
mark," and
radd-i
pa ^
&) is
'
foot-print.

<$>
177
Lankuran, stage direction). " Taymur Aglja crosses at back " " " a little more this door y oj-k <^)&* way " " a li^ e more that " y ijjj? c)T e;^ way y o^tj more comfortable" ^*-f y^xi^xwjt (m.c.) "he is more of a lion (braver) than a lion": dushman-tarm-i dus/imanan (m.c.) c>^^ ^.y ^.^^ <f the most inimical of one's enemies": dust-tarm-i duatan &$*j* (&*j**)& (m.c.) "the most friendlike of
(Va^lr-i
on
the further side of the
all
one's friends."
(p)
To compounds
member,
of
may sometimes optionally

or to its first
an adjective and substantive, the comparative suffix be added, either to the end of the whole compound
1&>* eAt"*> ;*
-^> ^^ j <>juui? i^ Û? j*>l^ had he if ever Ta*i seen anyone with a more asked Hatim-i (Sa'di) they this In nature than himself." example buzurg himmat-tar CU*A ^jj* generous CU*A y ^)^: and this latter himmat could be substituted for buzurg-iar
as:
^**y
"
reading,
more pleasing to the modern Persian more usual

to
ear, occurs in
some
editions
of the Gulistan.
It
is
add the
suffix at the
end
of the
compound.
Remark.
The
superlative
is
C^+A
:
&j)j*
*
buzurg-tann himmat (and not
cu^ ^;JJ buzury himmat- tar in)

correct.
but
ali-himmat-tann
^y
c^wfc
Û
:
is
(tf)
a>
<>b
e/f
of Resurrection will
l
comparative sometimes gives the meaning of the superlative ** cu>oLx5 3^ c^T^y ^J-^ " (Sa'dl) the greatest regret on the Day be a than others
)
TJie
this, that
(lit.
regret greater
j**>
c^xxy *J^y
Î^Jr;o>
:
o^ 'txc âc^
3
:
(Sa'di)
"
in the sight of
*
enmity excellence
is
is
:
the
greatest blemish"
o**y^
^'tf l^vi
31
which of these
the best
"
^;>
(m.c.) "the biggest and strongest horse in the A<-^| *y ^y> ^ " tf C^Â stable (*$*j*J&)y. buzurg-tar mard-i, dar shahr kas-l hast ki " the ." greatest man in the city is that man who (m.o.)
o*f
^J j^^
In
all
these examples there
is
an
ellipsis of
az
hama
A*^
jl
or az dlgaran
^'j&z
jf.
Note the
*:
of unity.
(2)
1
Buzurg-tar az buzurgtarin
vide (d) (4).
^y
^)^
3'
y ^;^
<
higher than the
highest
(3)
As already stated
:
in (a) (2) the superlative is rarely used in
modern
a+*
f<
Persian.
In compound adjectives, the comparative with az
hama
usually substituted as
o~.ty
cjlaeJf
(jS^^t^ ^l^JUb i**
31
cJUb
31
is
(m.c.)
this
nightingale has the best note of all."
Hatim
is
in Persian usually Hatatn.
In India the iza at
is
omitted after Hatim, as
Satim
* s
T&i
Or
Or kudam yak bih-tar (not bihtarln) Or ^c^ ^ *-^L^ vWc (0.
aat
12*
178

(r)
The phrase " and what was stranger

and
*&T
still,
etc."
is
rendered
y&
:
A- ^Jf (class.),
y ^j*
(mod.).
in English
(m.c.), or
is
(s) The progressive double positive " " He got worse and worse cu**y<x> j^
rendered as follows
;*
more correctly
(t)
suffixes
may
If two or more comparatives or superlatives occur together, the can be added to each, or to the last only in the latter case the clause sometimes be ambiguous: L^T J J^ y &{** +& v UfA>^ v UJf jf^f
(I)
;
f
>
&<
y ptjti"** j **u\.* (m.c.)

large
(f;he king of the gods) is more ancient even than the sun and the moon, and is more lasting and enduring than they." In khana . buzurg va va&i'-tar ast o*,y \J^ &{ ^\ may mean either "this house" or " this house " is and more is
" he
^^
is
spacious
j
o~!
lÛ- <UA
all
^y g.*.)
^^
spacious of
the houses,"
in cu^> ^&j>
and more spacious aiUL ip>\ (m.c.) "this is the largest and most open to the same criticism.
larger
:
Note that
Û^
&+A
^y Û
j>
^ *Jjy ^:^ ^>\
(ni.c.), digctr
should be omitted.
(2)
In the case of superlatives, the
first
may take
the comparative instead

\\
of the superlative suffix, as:
(m.c.) "formerly Kirman was one of the most important ^yo'yf and most populated cities of Persia:" in this example ^*>c -, or ^^^^^,
^^
u-l/o^*^
^ ^y ^^
^C<
Ûy
Û
is
Û;
could be substituted,
as a superlative.
but in
all
three cases the
adjective
regarded
" " the " the quicker the better are rendered as follows " farther you go, the f deeper the water becomes .>Lj v ^j^y;?^ **>j* " the nearer we the shore the (m.c.): approached rougher the sea became''
(u)
Locutions
like
oWy
ti
**>
ki
l
bp
;*X5
^Jivof
<*
J>
^*y
is
;U^
<^*
^y
(m.c.):
zlra
Mr
nazdik-tar
ast
parishan-lar ast
is
(m.c.)
y>^^
c^^t y^j^>
tfj* >j)
4<
because the nearer one'1

(v)
the more
one'1 distracted."
are
illustrated
in
Comparisons
:
between
clauses
the
following
examples
(1)
s*>
Ûblîb ^j&u iî&i'co^x &' &jj ^lx3B.x> ^ftXx/oî^ CUÛJAOXJ " kings are more in need of the advice of wise men, than wise
tion with
c;^ A
^^^( (Sa'di)
of associaf
men
kings"
;r^
*f
>> **
^^ ^y ^*
8
jt>
^**^
^*>
\
&***- c5
^t
(tiaidi)
"the performance
friends!
of such a service
is
better in their absence than in their

y,
presence": ^ld> y
Û^jASi LU &)&> ^\
^;
lj
(Sa'dl)
"0
"
:
I'm more
afraid of this escort 4 of yours than I
am
of the robbers
)&$ itf
is
a construction to be avoided though occasionally

of the indefinite
heard in m.c.
*
8
Note that A^^k " whoever " takes the place Ghaybat ^^^ absence, but yhlbat ^***f "
In Mod.
pronoun "one."
back-biting."
Pers.,o^ A^>^ means
speeding a friend on a journey by accompanying
him a mile
or so on his journey
DEGRFES OF COMPARISON AND COMPARATIVE CLAUSES.

e~~a> ;U~j
179
chust
c/* y & dar an &ar bisyar u chaldk bud (ki) man bi-an miqdar na-budam (Afghan) " he was much quicker and cleverer at the business than I was." " o~*f (2) "I would rather die than beg j^ <vf^ jl &*j* &* <_y (m.c.),
more
(3)
or
rhetorically hi-mirad insan va gada*i na-kunad

'
'
To be
like,
equal to
"
*& J*^ j &L~>>\ ^^

1
e>^ & &' o!ay v-$* t^l " To do kindness to the evil,
(4)
o**:
is like
&(**
c>^/
c) **
L$^
(Sa'di).
'
"She
(equal to) ill-treating the good.' " o^-oc was as much renowned for chastity as for beauty ;>/ " (m.c. and incorrect): "he has as much right as you
.
*^
c)^
;
(m.c.)
" I have never eaten as much as

!
have
an qadar na-khurda budam ila In vaqi :îu xo>ajf oJ>^ ^xtb he was as brave as Rustam 2 and as wise as Luqman" 8 (m.c.) uS> "he was as beautiful as Joseph 4 )$ y and as faithful as Majnun" 5 ^jiap-* ^he was as j o^tj> Ây ^.^wx ^f as Job and as afflicted as Jacob" u dar tahammul Ayyub va dar patient huzn Ya'qub had jî ^^ft*j CL>^;>J vj-^ cA*-^ ;5 y "the carriages and nor neither as numerous horses of this as good as those of are carriage city
hlch vaqt
'
now"
^^
1
(j
Russia
s:
*o
' '
vo It4-
) *j*j)
* AC-J
lûf
(Shah's Diary).
as:
(5)
So
7
^ p*1
J
^toJlL
by Â
cu^j>
"Never would a
"As Thou
Or bhurda
<
father act so kindly to a son," hast acted to the race of Adam."

Instead of
am
+\
fc^j^.
cui'j
jJ
it
would be better
to
:
say
JjLx &>
is
ailed
also
Eustam-i Zal Jij /*i^j and Rustam-i Sigzl
^_~* ^^j
he
the
Hercules of Persia: his exploits are celebrated in Firdausi's great epic, the Shah-Nama. In IV tod. Per j?*+*> is pronounced hamchi.
Luqman, the sage of the East, said to have been a black slave and the author Others state that he was a son Lnqman's FaWes. Ho has been identified with /Esop
"'
of of
Job's
*
sist
a son of lob's aunt, a disciple of David, a judge in

is
Israel.
k *
Joseph
the ideal of youthful beauty
Yusuf-i #anl ^>biJuo^.

beautiful/'
it is
*
a second Joseph,"
and
Yuafif-janial
&
JU^>
^-&*f>, adj.,
mean "extremely
:
of Layty
6
MajnTm ^jJ
.
signifies
"possessed by a jinn ^-^''
the
name of the
celebrated lover
Taha<nmul JlâRJ " enduring a burden patiently.'* The grief of Jacob is proverbial amongst Muslims from mourning for Joseph his eyes became white. When Joseph's shirt was yet a three days* journey distant, he perceived its odour, and his sons said ho doted. The shirt was the same that Abraham wore when cast into the fire, and it
* '
:
contained an odour of Paradise:

the well.
it
was on Joseph's neck
as an amulet
when he was
'
in
Joseph, cast on any one afflicted with disease, but he shall be whole.'
7
by command
of Gabriel, sent the shirt to
Jacob
for
it
shall
not be
Khurtadan
for fchandan.
180

' c
such as In this example * may be translated merely as the connective of a relative sentence.
'
" or it may be considered

,
" had
*^ $ o*^\ e;&L> j'y ** \j****j* v*^ (Sa'di) <e I but feared God as you do the king I would have been one of the
jt
f
^*
Faithful Witnesses."
(6)
^~**>
"Compared to";
kj* *jb* *^*~*
^b ojliu*j
to the generosity of
to the ocean.'
(w)
(1)
"
o*j~i âx/o ÎkL, o;Un*9 ^sS H. B., Chap. VII) " I said, compared our king the generosity of Sultan Mahinud is as a drop
'
vide also (d) (2):

(Tr.
" How much

"
If
the more," and
Arabs die of eating dates,

u or]
how much the less " how much the more must Englishmen,"
"
:
(2)
fear
God "
(3)
mi-tarsi
you erv^ bay ad az
'*
If
fear
|J^*
your Mulla
*V^ j**
**$-
like this,
c
how much
f
3^
<g~'j*v
the more ought you to or az Mulla 3 )** u^'>*^

f
^^
tariq-i
awlq
azKhuda
bi-tarsi.
then how
much
the more with regard to

?
me who am
seated in
chief seat of
(4)
^ tf yo CAX<. j*x^> ^ ,-f<u~~ "If coffee intoxicates you how much the more must opium do
"
^^
&*.
so"
^ c3.A^ a Persians can't pronounce the <^J Englishmen" *>\jk^ ^J &J*> ^y

(
'
..
**f
^/oy J JL^JO ^jJ

i
or)
A[^>C
^JL^j
^J
^^^^ >^yf
how much
{i
(5)
If
letter 'ayn,
less
(
can
' '
oj^j
' *
(6)
If
opium
will
not intoxicate you then

^ji ti.K^^J c^*ix>
f^j
how much the less
&& ^
^!^L^
will coffee
o^!<i Ookj-iu^
-r^k A^
c^L^j ^?t (m.c.),
or oâ/* tiryak turn
mast na-kunad (or nami-kunad) qahwa bi-tariq-i aula mast naml-kunad. " It has been said that there is no reliance on the friendship of (1)
friends,
how much
o^*A^
the less then on the flattery of enemies

5
"
^*}^
<x>t
AX?^
J*;
&*>
(ji^
tf
^>-^
'
^'*iffl
c;^^^
(Sa'di).
In m.c. this would be
(8)
kill
"If Rustam could not
kill
the father
how much
the less could he

(m.c.).
the
the
1
" &&& son
\j
*'
^-j
**$
^^J
;
'jj** o-^Siyi
î^î
;
There are four grades

;
in Paradise
!
the
first for
the vUfif
second for
the
the third for the

Jsia. û
f-
j>^
and the fourth
for the
^rsJL*.
Or bi-chand
Fa~kayj
a
is
only exceptionally used in Persian.
(also called pad-zahr j&) ^J, from pad ^ U a stone found in the stomach of certain rumipoison "), protection" and za&r " discriminator " between health nants. Tiryaq-i faruq is the best kind of antidote, or " is " In Mod. Pers. and disease. opium generally <*^jJ> and antidote <5^y*
Tiryaq-i Faral
" the bezoar stone"
'*
^3
**
Awlq J^jf Jj
the
fern, of
**
worthier, better" Ar. eiative of
) ^)
-,
not to be confused with
^>
Jy.

ft
181
(9)
ported to
(Afghan).
was unable to move it even how much the less could it be trans* the sea" <xia>c aoaJU,^ Uj<x &' ^f Û. AA. (jtXxiUi*. ^ &t ^wily^
I
;
In Mod. Pers.
(
this sentence could be,
AS* 8&xiU.^ or) f^*iH ljj^

lei
af ^^
?
*<$
f*>&
cu^
j+i~jtyo lyf
r^
na-tavanistam
harakat bi-diham chi ja-yi
an
bi-darya bi-rasanam (or rasanida shavad)

eHî>
<*>
/*"*^^
(10)
S jj
1
L^V
_j
^^'J^ ^^
&$&*
(Iq.
&
c)T
^*^
*^
7^^
jj>j
,
oj^
j^^ ^^./o
x.; *x
t\xiul5 *juiXl
Nama-yi
is
Jah., Bid. Ind.
As Soc.
*
JBeng., p. rpr).
(11) In
Indian
and Afghan
writings, aoJU U*/
sometimes used for
how much
is
the less."
less drink.''
" Hedoesn't smoke, much

This
u\y
^ &M ^ e)^
;
(Indian).
perliaps a translation of the
Urdu &
a kind
In m.c. jumbamdan ^xXjJUx^

dancing and
also gadan
is
a word to be avoided
it
signifies
ot'
poaturing in
CHAPTER
THE NUMERALS
(a)
V!.
<
Ism-i
adad
~*\
).
The numerals,
or
ism-i 'adad, are divided into cardinal

'
}
numbers
(:*-
or
anc ordinal
^
numbers
'
The thing numbered is The cardinals consist

tens"
;
called ô*x>
of
''numbered/'
oU>T
aMc
"
;
)"
(
units
>
'ashardt
<
mi*at
ott*
" hundreds
^?7/
o^t
thousands."'
47.
Cardinal Numbers
a dad).
o br.
pi.
as/a/.
'j
^
<*
yak du
si
ckahar
4 also
5
;l
AJ
panj
shash
6 classically
sliasli,
vulg.
haft
hasltt
7 vulg.
7ia/.
/^ff.^,
,,
nuh
dah
or)
u^jlj
10
ft
|
yazdah (or ydnzdah) davdzda (or davdnzdah)

.
11
12 13
sizdaJi (or slnzddh)
>
chahdrdah
pdnzda/i
14 vulg. char dah. 15 in m.c. usually

dah. 16 in m.c.
shdnzdah
'S'*'//'
in Arabic
I,
is
not a numeral as
it
represents naught, and not a number.
For ^l no other ot the

*
fc
The article is added to yak (yak-l " a certain one ") but to " fi.kran, " hazar is a noun. In cardinals. yak-hazarl In the Shahnama dah u du occurs for twelve.'
obsolete.
'
generally
an unlucky number amongst Muslims and Zardushtis, as amongst The Muslims believe that the twelfth Imam is Christians, though for a different reason. Hence the Persians alive, but concealed, and that the thirteenth will be a false one. " A hich or avoid slzdah: instead
*
Thirteen
is
saving
they say
gr
nothing,"
8^3
ziyada
" more."
unlucky.
The Zardushtis consider the
fifth,
thirteenth
and seventeenth
of every
month
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
hafdah (or
haft-
183
llihavdahor hivdah\
*
<3
or
hashdah
(or
18 (hajdah or hijdah 19 Mod.
hasht dah)
or;
nuzdah
(or nu-
Pers.
nuzdah,
vanzdah),
r
vulg. nunzdah.
20 sometimes
21
incorrect-
-$
u yak
r\
30 40 sometimes contracted
into chil u^..
. .
panjah
50 colloquially pinjah.
60 Sometimes
correctly
c^being
letter.
shast, ^j
not
Persian
hajtdd
70
80
hashtad
navad
90
100, in dictionaries,
also
correctly ^~
or
duvist (or in writ-
ing only du sad) si- sad
200 du sad in prose and poetry, not in m.c.
300
400
500, in m.c. usually punsad.
chahdr-sad
pan- sad
shish-sad
600 classically shash-sad.

700, vulgarly in m.c. haf~
sad.
haft-sad
has/it
sad
800 vulg. in m.c. hash sad. 900

\
hazar
1,000
du hazar
si
r-
2,000
hazar
hazar
f
r-
3,000
10,000
Also
*^*
hizhdah
(old).
Notice that*'*' '
s/ is
" three
pronunciation of these two.
" and " care must bo taken in the "* thirty ^^ si " three hundred "; an si-s&dis Though si is "thirty"
:
cannot be used in Persian. expression like thirty hundred is met with, but this form is not used in modern Persian.
s
' '
Classically
JMÛO si-sad
To be
distinguished from the Arabic
word sadd
prohibiting, checking."
184
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
sad hazar
100,000, in India the word

lak (for lakh
a
)
cJ
is
also
used.
.
kurur
. .
500 ,000 in India a karor = KM)

Za&7&
ten millions.
oj*k or c>t^
)
milyun
(or
milyun)
1,000,000
modern only, from the

French.
to 10 are, &^\ or
Remark
1
I.
The masculine Arabic numbers from

aLjk.
*!*,,
***fj,
olii
fijtf,
4-uy,
afiu,
WU$,
*-J,
j2L.*
From
3 to 9 inclusive
Arabic numerals (masculine) are used in Persian as adjectives to " the four elements " qualify a plural noun, as: 'anasir-iarba'ah A*j;f j*>lu=
these
;
wvqat-i khamsa
&+^
"
;
&-^
crly^
"the
otfy "the five times of prayer"; havass-i khamsn five senses"; kawakib-i sab' ah <***% v^!^ "the seven
<f the eight Paradises stationary planets jannat-i samaniya *xil*i oti^ ^--3 *J$j tis'ah "the nine heavens" aftak-i r^ 'uqul-i 'ashara
;
"
44
the ten angels (of philosophers)
"
;
mavaUd-i salasa
;
*X
"
oJi^x
i4
J^
the three
tiie
" kingdoms (animal, vegetable and mineral) ** " the six Gospels" ayyam-i sitta &** fty days
;
anajit-i arba'h
in
four
which God created the
world."
The Arabic
writers,
ordinals
but the use of
up to 20 have been employed by some Persian these ordinals beyond 10 is by some considered
inadmissible.
Remark //.The word for 100 is written &*c instead of o* to avoid any common Arabic word sadd li boundary." it and the 60 is written for ^~~^ which means " thumb fish^ftOtfk," Similarly,
confusion between
^^
In grammar, this
or obscurity."
is
called
^-^
daf'-i iltibas
"removing the confusion,
Remark
**
one"
vulgar say yeg, and more " six " shish and shisht for ; haf hash for
}
///.The
commonly
'
'
seven and
or yey for " eight yazza

ye
;
,
duvazza, slzza, punza, shunza and nunza.

(b)
The Persian system

'
of counting ceases at five

'
at half a million or one kurur ^j/. 6
To express one
and so on.
lak, vide (b)
hundred thousand, i.e. million, five hundred
thousand
1
they say
si
kurur ^^ A*
(obsolete)
Also
ÛjJ tum&n
tafcfa (in
and c^J
and
(c).
Persian lak) and karor (in Persian kurtfr) are of Sanskrit origin, and have been borrowed by the Persians from the Indian system of calculation. They
2
The words
are terras to be avoided in Persian

(pi.
as the ideas as to their values differ
In Persian lak
lakuk)
&
i.e.,
is
correctly a
hundred thousand.
numerals assume the feminine form
for the
in Persia, a kurur is only half a million.

3 to 10 the
From
i.e.
masculine,
and
vice versa.
&
half million according to the Persian calculation.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
While
in India.
in Persia,
I8t
ten millions.
a kurur equals only half a million, in India it equal This must be remembered when reading Persian works writtei
lak
by Persians. In India it signifies hundred thousand, but according to Dr. Rosen it signifies only ten thousan in Persia. The Zardushtis and merchants trading with Bombay give th word its Indian value. 1
is
The word
J^
rarely used
(c) Tuman &(*y, T., signifies a myriad (10,000), or a sum of money equal t 10,000 Arabic silver dirham hence, also a district supposed to furnish 10,00
;
fightingmen.*
The
In
chief of a
j*Jl*>
Baluch tribe is
still
called a
Tuman-dar, corruption
tuman-dar
y.
Persia,
the word
equivalent of ten qiran,

(a
tuman e>4P is only used for a gold coin, or it Ck commander c or = the word c^y j**' Amir tuman
nominal) ten thousand."

(d)
greatest
From twenty upwards the numbers are arranged by having th number expressed first, and the lesser added by the conjunction
:
[Though deviations from this rule may occur, they should not be copied " is hazar sad B u nava k< eleven hundred and ninety-nine (1199) u Example " ar Ci * * *A<> u nuh 3 hundred Such as eleven n j )*yt> ij. expressions
<*-
never used.
The
use of the conjunction^
is
obligatory.
Remark.
occurs:
In the Tiiztiki Jahangirl (Jalmngir's Memoirs) the followin

c;J>?
^T^
u
hazar u
<xUyo
Jlajl/o
C^PA
^^
)\yt
^>
A> ^J,3
*^-ib
x^^
chaJiar sad
pn.nzdal* tola ki
:
ba-wazn bar
tola ki
amad
si
yak hazar $i u hafi u misqal rm-badiu in Modern Persian this would be ch,ahar sad u panzda
u
mm
haft misqal
mm* j
^~
its noun (without the izafat) and th hazar mard il one thousand men", bu noun is in the singular, as: jyj_va> e< ten individuals." An hazar mard *' th ^cUxîîJ % dah nafar ashkhas
(e)
cardinal
number precedes
thousand men."
Very rarely the ma dud

1
^<***>
precedes the 'adad

:
^*xc
in this case
tii
amad
former has usually the indefinite ya, as *>^T j ^.y ^^Û- sal-i du bar <l about two years, a two years or so, elapsed." (Sa dl)
f
in bo
Vide note 2, p. 184.
2
8
Amlr-tuman ^*^j+*l (without
izafat) is
is
a Persian
title.
Yak hazar u yak sad &*&^

is
jj
}{*-'
also used for emphasis,
but ordinarily
tli
numeral yak
*
omitted except in Indian Persian.
Notice the position of nlm in the second instance and the insertion of j hetvvee
al.
hazar and
186
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
In poetry the cardinal sometimes follows for poetical license, as
M
(T
:
and
The ma dud
1
is
occasionally understood, also by poetical license:
broken plural
cL-Ud+c
si
In Modern Persian at any rate, an Arabic plural, or Persian imitation <c is sometimes em ployed, as: *A*i to dah'fa'ala ten workmen"
!
&
null
C
qal'ajat
'amalajat "nine workmen" three forts "; ofjfef ^^ chahar
or
"artificers";
ci>la**i*
&~
for chahar taraf', bi-sad mushkilat

bi-sad ishkal (ni.c.).
o^&*
"on all sides," **& (Afghan) for bi-sad mushkil, or

atraf (m.c.)
definite noun, the

<*
In the rare instances where the numeral stands as a predicate to a " noun is in the plural, as: " the men were two thousand
(j^j-*
mardan du hazar budand.

in the plural after sadha U<w> " hundreds
:
The noun may be

>
"
;
Jiazaran
t)j1
orhazarha UyjA thousands," as !;^ (e>^^ or better) <j*^ p* UyjA 8 *xijb'.:x hazarha bettor Iwm-jins-i* (or ham-jins-Jia-yi ) Wiud ra khivahand
<;
<4
award
(m.c.)
they
will bring
fil-ha)
;
J*i Ua*o (or incorrectly

after sadha, etc.,
thousands of their own people hazaran (or Jiazarha) fit (or fil-ha).
**
sadha
fi,l*
The
plural
" thousands
(/)
'j
is probably incorrect, for, as, already stated, sadha is rarely used in m.c., haza.rha or hazaran being substituted hazaran kurur (m.c.). thousands of krorzs" hazaran hazar (m.c.), or hazar hazar (m.c.) many
:
(lit.
" thousands of
a thousand " and
<c
a thousand thousand ")
chanrRn hazar " several thousand."
substantive preceded by a cardinal
number does not admit

:
of the
of
the accusative unless specially definite, as
"I
shot two and a half brare
of partridges
to-day" *:>y ;^
*-***"
6
**^ JkJ j-y
kardam, but har du both of us (def.) har

;
man
si
ra
firistad
imruz panj dana kabk* shikar *' he sent (m.c.) Û^j t^JU ^^ yk
t(
<V
(def.). Ûy> I sent all three or by the preposition [The dative, however, can be expressed either by as j>Ai j^ ô o e/f a-^ man/ ra bigu, or ^J ^^ ^b 6a an rfw mard( bigu
I;
:
ra firistadam (&&*;>
"
\)
'!
here
;
as singular
2
z
a tendency in m.c. to treat some of the commoner Arabic broken plurals sÛ^J asbab, for instance, is sometimes treated as a singular vide also 29 (c)
is
:
Remark and
footnote
I).
But u hazar ham
jins darad (not ham-jinsfia).

;
Here the plural ham jinsha sounds better
also
it
conveys the idea of hazarha az
ham-jinsha-yi Mtud.
*
6
The word hazaran or hazarha is used in m.c. and sadha rarely. Or kabg m.c. Or har du-yi man raj or har du ta man ra, or ma har du ta ra.
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
*
187
'
tell tliose
" two men

ra ki az
an dah mard ra bigu
j&
f;
'
'
tell
those ten
men," etc.]. Sad tuman
u+> O^f
*'*'^ v*
man duzdidid pas nami dihid (m.c.) jt tf f; " won't you return me the 100 tumans that you stole
may be
considered as pronouns.
from
me
' '
Remark.
(q)
liar du, liar
si, etc.,
various objects
cattle,"
'
The Persians have several qualifying or determining words for when used with numerals, like the English " twelve head of
etc.
These are placed before the substantive, which

'
is
in the
singular without the
imfat' (vide
;
117), as:
*^ v;^ or) v ^^j*

lj
duwst*
' '
bab khana,, 200 houses \(*j~j& ^~y bist nafar sarbaz" twenty rank and du farsakh rah " two farsakh's distance. "
file
Such words are especially

principally
common
nafar
in writing.
The following
are those
employed
Persons
*_&
I
>
\ji
du nafar
uwf;
*~*
far rash.
Horses
Mules
ras
y-t
si
ra*$
asp,
Donkeys
Mules
kamand
mahar
camels
a
11
applied to single animals. a slip knot kamand

* '
;
Camels
lasso; scaling ladder." chahar y& (j& or) ;^ ;
mahar
(or nafar) shutur.
Men
or
1
nafar
li
Mu
o s
qitar
qitar
line, string," is
camels.
string
of
camels
(of
under
usually
one
leader
seven camels).
Klephants
zawjir
mirbat
zanjir
1
'
*'
cliain
'
'
;
mirbat
anything for tying or binding such as halter,

etc."
'
Mso
twelve brace of partridges
'
* ;
six pair,'
'ten
'
sail
a thousand horse
'
or
foot.' etc.
2
Colloquially
v
o-"J^
didst.
Derived from
*-^~-*Jrf
(k)to dah
(ta) blsl
" ten twenties."

;
&\A. o.v-,. c^J yak dast khana moans one house with a complete set might consist of only one room.
.V,
of
rooms
yak
feliana
Far rash (j&j* lit. carpet spreader ": a servant whose functions are to pitch tents, sweep out the room, walk before his master, carry messages, apply the bastinado, and anything from a housemaid to bring tea. This functionary has been aptly described as
a
*
* 4
an executioner."
*
Also used colloquially
188
-
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
.
Sheep, goats
l~
shakh
dart a
'adad; ra^
shakh " a
= "horn" dana ~ grain"; adad = "a

;
number"
Fowls
dana
61
ras-s
'*
a head."
Dogs
qilada
I;
a collar."
bahla
1
Hawks
bahla
AwJ = "hand";
4<
(classical)
falconer'?
glove."
Falconer
bazu
l
(classical);
bazu
"arm."
Guns (cannon)
Sails
arrada
"a
' *
kind of small balista;

' '
farvand
a cart (modern)." a sail vulg. farund.

:
Money
dana
^-ky &
m>am
rn an
<;
$ ***
sad dana
tu-
(m.c.) 100 gold tupieces.
Jewels, fruit
dana
sanb
Clothes
yak saub
sardarl (also less correctly
Guns,
etc.
,
lula,qabza.
yak dtrna sardari). mJi " a bodkin for applyan obeing collyrium
;
lisk; a milestone; probe,
etc."; lula
barrel/'
*'a pipe;
Swords
daggers.
and
qabza
..
qabza "hilt a handle."

<;
of
a sword;
Books
Shawls or piecegoods.
jild
volume."
stani
corresponds to the Hindu-
word
;
than.
Carpets Felt
or
fard
takhta
"a
*
one PITM< a board."

unit
lt
For mablagh
139
*
sum
(of
money)" and muwazl
equal to, etc.,"
wV
(A).
Also naed colloquially.

j
qir5ngs panj gold five nine qirans). * Carpets in Persia are woven and sold by the pair, each pair being identical in pattern. Persian taste requires everything in a room to be in pairs the same pictures even (coloured prints of European women of ample charms only partially concealed), repeat themselves on both sides of a doorway or arch. Fard also means " an account "
bit
**
In m.c. dast-kash J^S o-^^ s use d for a falconer s or any other glove, this word signifies " an assistant falconer," " one who strokes " the hawk. i.e., -. " a Panj hazar ;!> 4five hu t fiazarl
'2
fn
India
(value
now
or
"a
list."
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
189
Remark
rendered
I.
A
si
"ura
phrase like, "I struck him three blows with a sword" is shamshir zadam fo)^*&* *<* f^f, or si zakhm-i (or zarb-i)
1
shams Kir zadam p*)j^+ vj** or) ^j A~ (m.c.). Remark II. In ordinary conversation,^ nafar
(
is
used for persons and
13
ta or
A>'^
dana
for things.
Tais also used in forming nouns

''
a score
t(i*i,
"
^3(3
t^j*
<->
number, as Îwxj yak btstd^(m.c.) " a dozen " yak davazda tafi (m.c.) ^13 te ,_> yak
of
:
dah
etc.

of
11
of unity
was sometimes added to form nouns

ll
)
number, two and two "
as: davazdah-3, (in speaking duvaza-i

;
dozen"
duv-i (class.)
yak-i is a
will
pronoun "one, some one."
Remark ///.It
be noticed that, as in the case of the cardinal
numbers, these determining numbers are usually followed'by a singular noun.

A&J linga is the odd one of a pair, or the load of one side of a transport animal &j)& cJo yak darzhan (or dajan) " a dozen" (applied to things generally sold by the dozen); (in.f.) is
(li)
Juft
cufiA.
or
jj
zauj
is
a pair;
tÛ) cu-,>
'
u>-'
yaA; dost libas
" a suit of clothes
' '
;
J&^ j ^
c^^^
^ yak
dost
" t4 a set of plates and six cups yak dast finjan n'alnakl ^^^ ^**** o~*^ uXj six cups and six saucers"; muqamir ra si shash mi-bay ad va llkin si yak mi-dyad (Sa'cli) "the gambler wants three sixes, but three one's keep
;
kdrd u changal 'one set consist! ag of 2 knives, 2 forks and 2 spoons' (or one place at table ') yak dast zarf ojfe ^ * wX " one set consisting of six
;
coming up."
(i)
man yaka va tanha signities The emphatic phrase l^xi j unaided." quite by myself; (j) The phrase &* ;^ Jk> du char shudan signifies to encounter unexpectwe met each other" Ex. +*(> ba ham du char shudim edly." ^*xu )^j& " I met him." du chdr-i u shudam, or urn du char shudam (m.c. only) " hundreds of: (k) 8adha* U^^; hazaran &\y\*>, hazdrhd U)|;A signify 4 thousands of." Ex. o^; Û laJL^ cu^t JU UiX^ sadha salast inja manda ast
" I single and alone
;
*
&
<4
(m.c.)
it
(Afghan)
has lain here for hundreds of years" "hundreds of kos." b
j/ UKX* sadha kuroh
In India
,/M/^
si shatushlr
;
zadam
^? chitb
zadam,
etc.
nami-fchwaham linga ml-Mtwaham ^*^â.^ single (odd) carpet, not a pair." 3 The plural -an of this word not used.
i
^JJ
f^lr*-^
^^
:
*'
want a
Hazaran would be more usually substituted
in colloquial idiom
no dah nah
it
sad hazarha (Qa'ani).

5
kos
is
an Indian measure
districts
however, varies in
of distance supposed to be about two miles and may be anything from H to 4 miles.
190
CARDINAL NUMBERS.
agar
chunm
amal mi-kardam
hazarhd daf'ah bihtar mi-sJmd (m.c.) "had I done so, it would have been thousands of times better for me" (better hazar chandan, "a thou-
OA? j* jj$ ^J y ;Uju &*> sad bimar az lab-i gur sand-fold"): " a hundred sick have bar gasht (many a sick person has) returned from the
brink of death (recovered
when given up)," but sadha bwnar "hundreds
of
sick."
The Afghans sometimes (incorrectly) say sadha-yi marduman&\*>:j*^*** instead of sadha mard d/ ^<x*>. :( we two, both," etc., vide 39 (/) (3), ma du tin far (1) For the expression
j&
t/o
?
or
ma
liar
du
?&
j*
I*
,
or bar du-yi
man
d*>
^^
**>.
(m)
The
cardinals are used to express the year, vidv
48 (*)J
This
life is
often, especially in poetry, referred to as In panj ruz jj;

*
<^'f,or
in
In du nlz-i 'umr j+* JJ) tho next

*
&>
"
:
haft
qalam
^
'
cÛrf>
Dar du dunya ^^ )2 )t means "in <k " is the seven of

l
this
world and
styles
writing
t]io
haft iqllm
*-^
^&*>
the seven climes of the world"

l<
haft darya {{)&
oJik
tk
seven seas
"
;
haftjahannam
*>
+t^ oA*
name)"
eight.
;
the seven divisions of the
haft blhisht
o-y oJi*
.
Muslim ilell (each of which has a separate the seven Paradises of Islam (exclusive of the Kursiy
According to tlie vulgar there are
.
or Falak^l-Buruj,
and the Arsh

5
or Falak**1-Aflak)."
.
Haftad u du j*
Û&A
for
haftadudu
:
millat
^~U j- j
,vUUu occurs in poetry for the
seventy-two religions of the world
Jang-i ha/tad u
f
<hi
millat liama ra
uzr bi-nih
>hun na-dldand haqlqnt rah-i afsana zadaiid.

(Ha/is.)
Haftad u
is
si firqa &*j*
A-
} Ûft^ ig
the seventy-three sects of
Islam.
Muhammad
reported to have said that there were 71 sects of the Jows, 72 of the Christians, but There are five more. that there would be 73 of Muslims There are ninety-nine attributes of God called al as naP'l-hiinna or " the excellent names," but commonly Persians talk of the thousand and one names of God. Alia hi*
and with the ninety-nine attributes, completes the one hundred names recited by means of the rosary in tho exercise or The IsmP'l-A'zarn,, or tl Uroatname of God," is supposed to be known only to zikr.
*
called the Istn u 'z' z at or
essential
name
of
God
'
'AH is supposed to have one less, i.e. 1,000 names. There are supposed to be 1,24,000 Prophets. The world it is supposed is 8,000 years old, and will reach the age of 50,00(1 years
saintly persons.
:
Farda
ki az in dayr-i
kuhn darguzarlm
Ba
haft hazar-salagan
ham
safar-im.
" To-morrow we
and march With comrades who have marched seven thousand

shall quit this inn,
' '
years.
(0.
K. 312 Whin.)
THE ORDINALS.
48.
191
The Ordinals.
(a)
The Persian
This
ordinals are formed

is
cardinals.
termination
turned
by adding the termination urn by Grammarians rnim-i
to the
siiati
) They are treated as ( ^l&o (>*) or mlm-i Wyln4 to,' dad ( &\**> (^**> adjectives and as such can precede or follow their substantives
p*
1st
J>!
+&
'
-or o~--so
avval (Ar.); yakum, or nufchnsl.

.
2nd
3rd
4th 5th
^
***
or
^^
***
duvvum
or duyum.
+r* or
+**>
f;^
.
sivvum or siyyum. chaharum.
f?^J
.
panjum.
.
6th
7th
^^
f
XR&
^.iÂ
ffj
shishum, classically shashum.
haj turn
has/itum.
8th
9th
l()th
nuhum.
dahum.
si-urn.
Â,V
.
.
30th
(b)
fl '^w
2
.
When
there
:
the last only, as
more than one number, the formative affix is added to " f;^ ^-W ^^ ? ac^ w chihal u chaharum the hundred and
is
->
->
forty-fourth (144th)."
(c)
The Persian
ordinals can hi addition take the affix

^jjjîu nukhusfin, (^*+:j3
*
w&,
sometimes
Ex,
îj;
contracted to ^, as: c.^ raunaq-i avvalin

f
duyyumin,
etc.
" former (Sa'di) brightness (or splendour)."

takes the place of
Remark.
an ordinal,
(^)
In poetry a cardinal number sometimes

fjZ-'
as:
**
c>'
^3 f/ 3^
The
ordinals
t $*[>-*
x>
may
^s^.
be
1
followed by the ra
of
Question:
Inn, as
^ f
time.
9
the accusative,
as:
kudam
yakl-ra
mi-khwaht
**
"which one
who have
pro-
we stay only a short
Haft-hazar salagan,
all
the dead
" ceded us
May
kh.ur ki
z dil
kasrat u qillat M-barad
V andisha-yi hajtad u du millat b>-barad.

to root
" Drink wine
up with a metaphysie's weeds

(0.
***
And
tangle of the two-and-seventy creeds."
K. 194 Whin.}
Yakum
is
yakum
is In India and Afghanistan p&> used instead of avval for month. the the 1st of Nufehust oîu generally
much
less
used in Persia than avval J^'.
and nuts&ustln ^>^*u are classical, and only used in writing nukhmt zad <( ** 2 Note the distinction in 3rd and 30th " in Persian. writing between
S
first
born."
Here avval
'
J;l could be substituted for avvalin
&~j
In avvalin
afyfairin
c^/^ 2
&~J
**
ancients and moderns
"
the terminations are the oblique case of the
regular (classical) Arabic masculine plural.
192
' '
THE ORDINALS.
'
do you want ? Answer t; fo > cu-jj Ust u yakum rd " the twenty- first ?<xi ^;t^. chahdrumi rd bidih (m.c.) "give me the fourth."
:
l
'
:
t;
(e)
The Arabic
ordinals, which are
also adjectives, are to
a certain
of
extent used up to
the agent
<J.cU
"the tenth."
.
These are formed on the 'measure*

the first
(masc.),
and
isb'
(fern.),
excepted.
MASCULINE.
FEMININE.
ula (rare in Per

sian;
(,?)
saniya.*
| \
sdlisa.
rdbi'a.
khdmisa.
sddisa.
sabi'a.
i
sdmina
i
tdsi'a.
'ashira.
Remark
I.
The Arabic numbers
20, 30. etc.,
up
to 90,
and the numbers
100 and 1000 are the same for both cardinal and ordinal.
Remark
II.
:
An
(^^
Arabic ordinal
substantive, as
be employed even with a Persian " the eighth heaven." ;* charkh-i samin
may
(/)
Sovereigns bearing the same
name
are distinguished
' *
ordinals, as
(who
lost
<y ^-1^1: Persia to the Afghans).

:
li
& Shah Tahmdsp-i sani
by the Arabic King Tahmasp the Second

' '
For chaharumln ra
In speaking up to
4<
2
s
the third
..A l>
"
only.
*
6
In Persian always <^ sanL In Pers. generally only used for

9-
* *
a second of time.
first
'
'
\)j**\&
'ashura
is
the tenth day of the
Muhammadan month Muharram, when

must be
recollected
the miracle play is performed by Shi 'as. calculation the night precedes the day.
It
that
in
Muslim
THE ORDINALS.
193
generally used in dates,
(g)
The Arabic
ordinal
" the Jy avval

1
first"
is
as
Ûa.^;
Jy
avval-i
j^jf
mah-i Ramazan
is
''the
first
of
Ramazan."
The feminine
Arabic months
;
rarely used in Persian even in the names of the

j^
thus ^îf c^+r-
is
less
used than
Jjll!
^Wit
Avval Jy
substantive.
is
an adjective and
it
is
coupled by the izafat when

it is
follows
its
When however
precedes a substantive
generally to be
considered a substantive, and
is
dar avval-i khak-i
Kirman (me.) "at the commencement
followed by a genitive, as: &\*j> ^\a* Jj) )& of the district of
Kirman."
is J'y a va til signify ing "the beginning; of ten every month," as opposed to y^fy d-iys part; the " the plural of /^f akhira ( and akhir y^T ends, latter parts; the oJJiiEx. each month." of ) JJty ^ dar ava*il-i saltanat-i u days
The
plural of Jj avval
first
the
first
avakhir
last ten
beginning of his reign

his life," avval shab
of the night."
"
(J**>)
first
^3
"in the " at the close of dar avakhir-i ;^ zindagi
" the
night," but avval-i shab
Jy
" the
beginning
(J^J
f^;^
^^
c5;^^ \^
Janvarl
the end
li-
<jjhayat-i
chahardahum-i April (m.c.)
az iurikh-i siwum-i f*fi $ "from the 3rd of January to
of tho 14th of April."

!>
!j
Remark.
Ula ^jf, the Ar.
fern, of avval
is
Jy, must not be confused with

the elative form from
^f
awla " more or most excellent" which

avval, uln.
waU
^
^^
and has no connection with

(h)
first of the month is also called g&urra, Ar., which properly " blaze on a horse's or a "star too large to be covered by forehead," signifiesa
The
the thumb-top, the

salkh<> Ar.
,
new moon/2
its
etc.,
etc."
The
last of the
months
is
also
which has for
original
meanings "to
skin,
flay;
to
shed
the skin (snake); to shed foliage and grow green again."
Not an uncom(
mon
phrase
in
writings
is
&*<*)
^l~j
^
t^
jl
^
lit.
*U mah-i
" the
umr-i u az
of his life-
" his gjmrra bi-salkh rasld day.s drew to a close," time travelled from its ghurra to its salkh."
month
U^*
The
and the
(i)
first of
the
month
akhir-i
is
also called
Jy
avval-i mah^ or
sar-i
mah,
last
aU^Lf
mah.
ordinals are used in computing the year of the reign of a but the cardinals are used in expressing the date of an era. sovereign, (j) The ordinals are sometimes vulgarly formed by adding digar to a
cardinal, without
The
an
izafat y as:
Ufy ^ to* j
jS.>$
tawana
J
(Tr.
H. B., Chap. VI) "the third was a

of the
man
moon
&> si-dlgar tanumand u robust and strong."

of fasting.
Ramazan, the ninth month
Muslim year and the month

)** the full
:
The new moon
is
hildl
is
J^*, and badr
in speaking
mah-i ahab-i
chafiardah to
)^^
|/0 *r^** *'
generally used for the
"
full
moon.*'
13
194
FRACTIONS.
OTHER CLASSES OF NUMERALS.

49.
Fractions kusur
pi.
of kasr\
(a)
Persian fractions are usually formed by placing the denominator
after the
numerator, as:.^
Â
haft
du
C{
two-sevenths
"
(
).
In
mixed
:
numbers, the whole number precedes the fraction as in English.
Examples
To(H
Remark
/.For
;
jj,
etc.,
tlie
Arabic fraction du mis,

si
5/A
sumn,
etc.,
must be used
-s
hasht yak or
7â^
would he wron.
Remark II.
The fractions
are followed
by the
izafat, as
:
*<x>
khhums-i in ra bi-man bi-dih "give

yak-i in haqq-i
me a
c
fifth of
this"
-=*~*t
c^^
man
;
ast (m.c.)
'a tentJi belongs

]
' '
by right to me."
is
The Persian
fraction \ si yak is not used, and and measures for weights give me a fourth and not the Persian would be used: similarly
'
chahar yah
only used for
'
of this
'
the Arabic fraction
half
\t
of this'
uun
nfof-i
In,
but
t4
!^ yards broad cloth"
c^t^
"
:
+**
*J*>
yak gaz
u nim ma hut.
Kusiir-i *a?nn> " vulgar fractions
kiisur-i a'shariyyah
:
"decimal fractions."
]s
Nlm
<Ux>
+*?
is
in
generally used in compounds

fc;
in
speaking nisf OiâJ

;
prefeireci.
Nlwa
(m.c.)
also used as nlma-yi rah (m.c.)

:
&+> "halfway "

is
" the fifteenth of the month "
nirna alone
used in
niwa-yi wah %k* Ûx m.c. for ** half a brick";
*J
î^
ki'abat riima~yi
is
dMar
= ol3'i
i.e.
c-ft/o.
c^jU^ kitabat nisf-ul-mulaqcit
Ar.,
**
writing (a letter)
equal to half a visit,"
correspondence with friends doen
away with
half the pain of separation.
FRACTIONS.
(6)
195
in speaking.
The Arabic
fractional terms are
sometimes used even

(e.g. ^JL>
In the singular, they are generally of the measure cU*
"a
third")
and
2
,^'
in the plural
-
JUf.
**&&>
Examples
l
m's/
Used
in speaking
instead
of
nim.
9
i
1
"a
.
*j
>j
rub' or ruha
si rub* (or
PI. a ty arba' (rare).

)
A-
ruba
.
-^
suls
PL
asla* (rare)
also
the
three- thirds).
sulsayn
Dual; (the dependent case in

the
classical
language);
du
suls in Persian.
khums
PI.
u*^
Û-'
^^^t
akhmas
(not used).
PI- <j*t*~
.
asdas (not used).
PI.
asba' (not used).
PL PL
asman (not
'
used).
a^sa* (rare). Ûi}

ushiir
*
PL ;^^
and
;t^
The duals
Remark.
*
arid plurals are very rarely used except

c
by Mullas in writing
tjuarter to'
is
sometimes expressed, thus: chahdr

is
ilia rub'
four minus a quarter," etc., but the expression

v
perhaps incorrect.
c)
In
m c.
c^/^'jj v^*ai
c<
tiisf-i
ziyad-tar- ax k^ or better
/ii,s/
zii/a(f-t(tr-ash signifies
more than half."
(d)
In
Modern
Persian,
mV
v^âJ
is
generally used for the substantive

:
"half" while
^ radius
asleep."
as
mm
^
(lit.
is
preferred for compounds, as
jlaj
Â-^
tusj-i qut/r
of a circle
half the diameter),"
but
v^
/*V
nim-khwab "half
However, in m.c., nwn-shab shab tiisj-i shab and nitna-ifi

:
is
occasionally used for

*
"
midnight/* as well
nim-rTiz (class.)
midday.'
"
:
Bil-muna#afa
AÛJb
S>
>
iri
halves,
o '
equally
but\vooii
two
dar
lutf-i
iarlq
'
half way.'*
'9
';
'2
In Arabic the forms

-
ami
>J;
in Persian (and similar measures) arc found, but
tho measure C/* ? only

'
is
used.
t
In speaking
du
#idft
du
kfeiims, si fcburns, etc., J,

is
l),
-\
*
fi
In Persian, the
pi.
;>^
used for the singular
T\jtli.
*'
In Arabic, the fractions above a tenth are expressed by a paraphrase
so
many
parts out of so
many
parts ( *y^ )."
196
(e)
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS.
Such expressions as "
^9
fl
5%"
daft
to>
are
.Ja
<i*o
sad pan].
Yak
bar
rendered by u& " ten to one
*u
(in
**>
sad panj, or
'
betting)/'
(/)
g*\
Juj
Decimal fractions are rendered by a paraphrase, thus *75"= j ^'&* ^^ J&* haftad o.*-J <w j' o*-J> sad 2 haftdd u panj-i inch, or g\
^j
u panj qismat
(g)
az sad qismat-i inch.
Fractions
may
also be expressed
j
as
follows
*&
jl
^C
?/afc-
as daA
"one out of ten, or one-tenth"; &^ or two- thirds."

50.
ja dw as
51
"two
out of three,
Adverbial Numerals
uJfi
^^
(a)
The
;lf
ordinals can be used as adverbial numerals.

$ j^t ^ îii> <*&f
Ex.
ty v^J.
^ dj&
^^
<*&f
^.
^.i ^ v^
2/a^-t
anki garmi-yi aftab bud;
tufang u barudugulula yak bar bar man bud, "firstly, there of the sun; and, secondly, the rifle with powder and bullets was the heat was " in this sentence avval could be substituted for yak-l. quite a load for me
duyyum anki
(b)
The Arabic
:
ordinals in the accusative case are also used in Persian
as adverbs
;?--<
Jly
anval- on
firstly, in
the
first
place."
Uils
*
'
saniy-
an
,
"secondly, in the second place."

etc., etc
n
,
(c)
The Persian
ordinals,
with the exception of yakum

ci
8 <e
added to
first time, martaba, A*^ daf'ah, or ;L> bar time," etc., etc., signify second time," etc., as Afyo Jy or J^f V|/ X> avval martaba or martaba-yi avval
:
"the
first
time,"
etc.,
<U?\>
daf'a-yi
duvvum
(or daf'a-yi sani), py# &>*&
daf'ah-yi sly yum.
Remark.
etc.
Bar-ha
U; l
(pi.
oi bar)
means
' c
oft-times."
For du-chandan,
"twice as much,"
(d)
trc'dfe
Multiplicative Numerals.
to
The
etc.
cardinals
prefixed
twice,"
Ex.
;b &** si bar
"seldom."
Ex.
^yj^
*^ ^jj;
the same substantives signify "once, " thrice" kam-bar (classical only) ** ;L> " he used to ruz-i si\bar khwurdl
;
(Sa'dl)
eat three times a day."
The expressions found in old Persian fl dah bis' 200 are not used in modern Persian.
1
and
/*
dah yak, or yak dah

-75 inches.]
2
*
Sad
">,
i.e.
per 100.
[As -75"
is
singular,
it
is
wrong to say
The Arabic
ordinal avval supplies the place of yakum.
In modern Persian )b p
kam-bar
is
an adjective signifying "of
light
weight or
load."
MULTIPLICATIVE NUMERALS.
(e)
<k
197
" " Once again is^jj>

>j*>
'
4*^
^ yak
jL>
daf'a-yi dlyar, or
)\^
bi-takrar
by repetition "), or
(/)
)j&* mukarrar, or
33
du bam.
etc. are
Such expressions as "twice two makes four,"

:
rendered as
follows
2 x 2
ast
du martaba du chahar
ast*z+~\
td
;l^
^ *j*j*, or du bar du chahar

^ j>
c^f
jly*.
5-1-5
j&jjt, or du du ta chahar panj u panj dah ml shavad

^
13
dah
to &
Jj.
5 panj az panj, hlch g**
5-f-5
panj dar panj,
^^ ^ û ^ yak u& ^ ^
to
y^
^
j -*J, or panj ta
u panj
ta
;^
51.
(a)
Multiplicative Numerals.
:
The
multiplicative or reduplicative numerals are as follows
"
"
Single
^xj mufrad,
ubUax;
^
U5o yakta, A>KJ
yagana.
"Double"
"Treble''
muza'af, &x
du chand,
^*^
5i
3*
du chandan,
&^}z dur/ana, Uja
rfw /a, J/ô> c?^ /a. 3

.,
^\^
5*
musallas;
; J!
U A^
8
5^*
â;
<>Aa.
A^
chand ;
^'^
*-
^t
chandan
<*Jlf
A-
âna
AV,
54 /a.
"Quadruple" g^c murabba', oUî

chand, etc.
A*J;|
arba'a az'af,
î^;^
a,
chahar
"Twenty-fold"
6i?^
c>f<>^ ^-*^
6^9^
^^
chandan,
o^x
Ms/,
Jblix;
c:
jj
muqabil,
'*
&L^
:
o^-y
muqabala.
hundred-fold
cu^;
"
c;i<^^ <^
s^ chandan,
t^
J
il'tflx i)^,
U xo, etc.
as that
Examples
^f
^ ^^
l
v^
'*
'*
this is twice as
much water
"
:
i?
î twenty times the amount of wheat v^^l;i parisham-yi ma chahar chandan izafa shud
this is
:
' '
(m.c.)
"our alarm was

cc
J
increased four-fold": in
si
barabar-i
an
ast
o^'
ft &
*^ cHl e;Tj^7
\
this is three times as
much
as that
"
;
(m.c.)
(>*>
+^
y.\y.
&*jk
>=* f.f. ^vijfj^ or) man bi-u si barabar-i hakim (or duwazda barabar-i f hakim) dada am (me.) "I have given him three times (or twelve times) as much " as the Haklrn gave Jbla/c A^ si muqabil ziyad-tar oy aiîyk *5of 3; f&\tji
;
dadam az an " he asked

:
gave him more than three times what Ai^tyx Aaeuf Jblax ^^ ^/o man si muqdbil-i anchi khwasta f>to' ^ bud bi-u dada am (m.c.) " I have given him three times what he asked."
ki
khwasta bud
((
(rn.c.)
^^
Arabic multiplicatives are seldom used. In ordinary use are the compounds of 0' ta, 31 la, &*>*. chand, e;!*^ chandan and
(6)
Of
the
above, the
muqdbila.
Or bar
;L>
or martaba
is
i ^
In India the word takrar

Colloquially dulla,
silla.
also used for
"
altercation, dispute."
198
52.
RECURRINU NUMEKALS.
Distributive Numerals.
:
The
v5^
also
distributive numerals are
-X>^;
*
yakdyak, or <-*
**>
yak yak, or
'
'
^
ta,
J
.
yak-i yak-l (m.o.), or

}&
&& &&
3
:
jj-*j
huva bi-huva
(rn.c.)
^^
one by one yagdnyagdn (obsolete) du badu, or *>> ^ du du, or Ujj> l^^ c?w
si se
;
"
/a
du
or dugan
"by twos"; *~ A^
"
''three
by
<k
:
three, by threes
";
chahdrdri chahdrdn (old)" four &t,B, time''
i&dahdali
by tens";
yagdn u dugan
îxiix'C
(old)
by ones and twos."
Examples
jj>
;&
*^f bi-nawbat jihai-i shikar ^.;o.xf (j^^ AsuU^ ^xi5jjj/o du du ddam me-raftem chundnchi du me-dmadem wa du-yi dlgor me-raflem " we* used to (Afghan) go out shooting by turns, two of us at a time, viz. when two of us returned two others from amongst us started in their place." ^ The Afghan idiom -^ If&Jb ;^ ^b^^^^ L^^^J er manriimnlmsir,
AJfjj^j v
v
^^
yd
bar ad, dar tujangha kardam (Afghan) s< I (oaded the guns with " would half a seer or a seer each in m.c. be expressed sir yd yak sir yak
sir sir
mm
sir
bdrud dar tufang- h d ka rdam

(2)
(m.c.).
Adverbs and Adjectives such
as
-H*^ takhmin
:
" about."
Inst sal
etc.
are also used to

&> Tb<^>
j.^,1
express approximation, as
takhmm
fln
slmda ki
JU
*'
o/*oj
1x^4.3X3
" about 20 years have elapsed since

pan') t'umdn
is
"o^b* ** o^y ^J
mi-bdshad
^c
AAJ^
five
*^'^
ki
mmcnzi-yi
x^
pdnzdah ruplya
(m.c.)
tuman which
equal to fifteen rupees
"
qarib-i sad (or bi-#ad)

)
nafar shutur dnjd bud (m.c.) about 100 camels there."

(3)
Uufy^
j'su
oâj
or
^^
"there w^re
English
And *>j (connected witli ôJ andak and ^^ eland), corresponds to si tuman ca and (class.) "thirty odd "odd," as: <^'j oUy
tumans."
53,
^
'*
Recurring Numerals.
:
" come every Examples: ^ Îjâ j; ->: ynk ruz dar jniydn biyd other day 6 "; "cut down every third tree" du biguzdr siyumin rd bi-bur
'
The recurring numerals are "once every ten days" &j-o
^ JD
alternately" e;^;^ ^0 yak dar miydn\ 8^ j& liar dah ruz yak martaba, etc.
Also moana
siuldouh.'
iSoiiio Ai'gliann still
say yagan yagan
\*y&* ^)^-.
he termination an appears to be
sevens
adverbial rather fchan a plural: ^J&LftA liaftagan
"by
"
(obs.)
;
e^t^ *&*[>
bum-
dadan "
8
"in
the morning''
(Sa'di)
the
Afghans say ($*]) rastan
for
the
adrerb
straight.'*
Means "
in detail
or exactly.
1
"
y
In Indian pronounced }&j*>

6 (
hfi ba-hfi.
In modern Persian
c
J
.
t^- f^ j*'
j&
J^.
j&
or) j<V J&
fo" *^t^
***';
**
^f'Oj&j^ bi-nawbat jihat-i shikar du bi-du (or du nafar p^j& j*t&j&J*Jp nafar) ml raftlm ya'nl du nafar ml amadlm va du nafar-i dlgar ml-raftim (m.c.).
t
i
*M
bi <tu
*
'
ghibb
an
, '
**
alternate days
visits of
a friend.
at intervals, occasionally,** is also sometimes used in writing for from a saying of the Prophet who was somewhat bored by the daily The Prophet suggested to his friend that he should visit him y]ihibb- a ".
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.
*^ J* or du dar miydn yak-1 rd bi-bur " take one dose every three hours."
54.
(a)
;
199
j}**>>
Approximate Numbers.
:
or
15
4u
** Approximate numbers are expressed as follows " " or two or three j& du si td (m.c.) jl &> chahdr panj,
;
ji
13
du
si,
chahdr panj td (m.c.) " four or five " six or seven," cJU <_ s/*as/& fca/J, Ex: o^> chahdr panj angusht, "four or five fingers' etc., etc.
f * ;
^t^
Vi
^ y^
breadth"; du si musht-i bar kalla-yi u zadam f <4 I boxed his ears once or twice for him."
Remark.
(^
is
jt $\$
^!L*
&*jt> (m.c.)
In du
si bar-i
^t
*~>j*
" a two or three times
or so." the
the indefinite ^5.

(b)
In the m.c. phrase haft hasht dah

is
c<
td
*t>
owSu CÂ,
'
some seven or
ten," the number nuh

(c)
<c
invariably omitted.
For *\^
e/?and,
}
a few," vide
an
about 20 persons,"
or taqrib
or
_Jii ^*-Jo an takhmln blst nafar.
39
(gr)
^^y gart&-i
6^ na/ar,
55.
Numeral Adjectives.
: :
aJU (a) Many numeral adjectives are formed by means of the silent h " ** <^> u of six years old &)(* *^**> j shash-sala, panjdh sdla, pir-i sad ** an old man of 150 years " *&; oAfc hajtranga, " seven coloured (the rain" bow) *^ y t^ v^w â7i7-i chahar-ruya, " a square a stone." In *Vj* ^-^ 5
Â
tufang-i du-lula,
lt
word Ma, The adjectives
" double-barrelled gun," the a spout, etc." *<fcUy> har mdha,

;
is
<4
already a portion of the
of every
month."
8j^j^
du-bdra
&;k
*^
si-bdra can also be used as adverbs,
wde
50
(b)
(d).
A^Ô ma rika~gir, or J& naqqdl)* " often express êverybody old and young by the phrases eJU 31 (j^ a+& 13 AlL. ÛiA U aJu hama kas az AJI* haft-sdla td haftdd-sdla, or *JU liij 31
Professional
(
story-tellers
(^
aa:
panj-sdla td panjah-sala,
or ^Û
os^
û
aJl*
ji-i
j|
a^ shash sdla td shast
sola.
The following idioms

Memoirs
'*
(obsolete)
:
occur in the Tuzuk-i

j>
Jahdngm
(the
of the
Emperor Jahangir)
larger than the
^jj^j
tj
they are
e;ly
somewhat
AAU^J
6iw>y ^)^ Â^jb ^^-^ e^b^3l common wild pigeon " 3^ &*> 3 A ^- J*
1
^Ûs ^tu
means "
^lU"
jjÛ
''they
(i.e.
pair
of
adv.,
at an estimate."
><
The Arabic
adjective
g*^
is
murabba'
"square"
is
also
used, particularly in
mathematics.
3
The term qie^Jsihwan
seldom used in Persia.
200
ARABIAN MONTHS.
newly-hatched sarus cranes) are somewhat larger than the a goose, or about the same size as pea-chicks a month old
these idioms arose from the everyday
young
1
of
':
possibly
Urdu idiom
(lit.
"the
21).
difference
between them
is
very slight
kd farq hai, the difference of 20 and

ikkls bis
(c)
Arabic numeral adjectives are

rub&i,
a four-lettered word
J>&
;
trilateral,
triangular, "treble
J '
a quatrain:
"quadruple" and
so
on.
CHAPTER
56.
(a)
VII.
Arabian Months.
'
The Muslim lunar months
are arranged to consist of
30 and 29
days (usually alternately), so the whole year consists of 354 days (and 9 hours). In a period of thirty years an intercalary day is added eleven times, i.e. the last month is eleven times in thirty years made to consist of 30 days instead of 29. (Hence the Naw Ruz would fall every year about 1 1 days earlier than the previous year and not, as it does, on 21st March.) As with the Jews, the civil day commences at sunset, and the month
commences on that evening when the new moon * is visible. [Hence the early Arab writers reckon not by the day but by the night ] The ordinal numbers are used to express the day of the month. (b) The following are the names of the months, which do not in any way
correspond with the English months
:
ARABIAN MONTHS.
*>
*.
or
?&>*>
Muharram
Safar
Rabi'u
_riJf ^ft^ or ^&*>

J^J/f
#jj
'lavval or Rabl tuni
'l-Awwal.
-r^Si C*;
Rabi' u 'l-Akhir or Rabi tuni

'l-Akhir.
now, but about
supposed to have consisted of 12 lunar months as was introduced, one month being intercalated into every three years. It is, however, related that the Prophet on a certain occasion said, " A year is twelve months only as at the time of the creation," and by There also existed amongst the this saying reintroduced the old lunar year. Arabs a system of commutation by which Muharram, the last of the three continuous
1
The ancient Arabian year

A.D. 412 a
is
system
of intercalation
sacred months, became secular and war lawful in " 2 Hilal J4U is the new moon" and badr
it,
and Safar sacred. the " full moon."
8 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians.
Or
'ayn-i-yak cJ
ARABIAN MONTHS.
.. .
201
Jumadq'l-Ulq
Jumadq'l-Akhir
Rajab
6
7
y^Jff ^<iU.A.
^Â.jJi WAJ, or ^=*j

%
^fe*4^l
a
c)
9
10
u()Ujf
-^j or e)U* ^LA*^ or cjUaoj

l
f
Shcfban
Ramazan
Shavval.
.
V^^t J >~>
f8**ftJf,i
or
J -^
1
Zu'l-qa'da
or
or
Z* qa'dah
Zu'l-hijjah or
Zi-hajjah
Remark.
The fourth month is also

}
called
^)lU( j^;,
5
and the
lj^f
fifth
8
and sixth
ungrammatically
J^Vl
^l**- jamadi*' l-avval

*
and
^Û^
jamad
's-
sam or^^t ^^l*^ jamadl u 'l-akhir. o (( month" is^^ (c) The Arabic word for
o^
shahr* and the plural
is
)^
Zu
9
o^
shuhur or^-if ashhur. (d) Four of the above months are held sacred, Muharram, Rajab,
Qa'da, and Zu'l-Hijfa.
(e)
is
(I)
Muharram
it
fj**'* is
the
first
month
of
the Muslim calendar and
so called because both in the 'days of ignorance'
and
in the time of
Muhammad
The
first
was unlawful
Husayn,
5
ten days
of
( f\j* Jiaram) to go to war during this month. of this month are observed in commemoration of the
and the tenth day is called I;>1* 'ashura; some this on Sunnis fast day. very " to be a (2) Safarj&<6 is said to be derived from safar empty," either because the Arabs left their homes empty by going to war, or because they
martyrdom
strict
left
those
whom
they attacked empty.
Another derivation
leaves
is
from
first
sufar,
"yellowness," or the tint of the
autumn
when the month
got
its
name.
1
Or jlm-i-yak
&
*%*>
and jlm-i-du
^ ^j^.
The Arabs say
^,J( ûjj j
Jjjf|
^J j and
2 These second forms with the adjectives are used in writing and occasionally in speaking by the Persians. 3 In Persian the forms with <î are usually used. Jamadi incorrect for Jamada.
* Not month is a] so
to be confused with the Persian

fcU^
word shahr, " a
city."
The Persian word
for
mah, which
is
also signifies
"moon."
Mah-i-qamari,
" a lunar month"
shahr-i hilall; mah-i shamal,

6
"a
'
solar
month."
called Sayyid* sh-ShtJiada. Husayn than FStima 'Alavi.
The descendants
of All
by wives other
202
It
ARABIAN MONTHS.
was in
this
month that Adam was turned out of Eden, and it was during this month that the Prophet was taken ill it is the most inauspicious month in the calendar. Hence the month is superstitiously called ^*Jf j&*
:
or the lucky
(3
month.
Jjill jyo>
>
a,ndRabi uni 'lalchir jMf' second spring months were so named when the calendar was The Prophet died on the 12th day of Rabi tu 'l-avval.
tuni 'l-avval 4) ltabi
&
the
first
and
first
formed.
(5
&
6)
Jamdda
'l-ulq
^y\
probably derived from which no rain has fallen."

(7)
a^
and Jamadq 'lakhira *>^JIl c5-aUa> are M or <c "a dry and on jamad, dry year or season
<^j>U^
'
Eajdb v^j, the honoured month the root-meaning signifying veneration with fear.' Good Muslims spend the first Friday night (the English
,
Thursday night) in prayer.

(8) Sha'ban ^^*^, the month of disbanding or separation, is 20 called because the ancient Arabs dispersed at this time in search of water. The Arabs call the middle or fifteenth of this month, " the night of the middle of
Sha'ban," but the Persians ci>i^? v** Shab-i Barat "the Night of Registration," for Allah on this night records the actions of men to be performed
during the coming year, and those
who
are to be born
and to
die.
Strict
Muslims pray
(9)
all
night.
of the annual fast, is said to be derived " from a root-meaning to be very hot." During this month the gates
Eamazan <r^j, the month
are opened and the gates of Hell shut. In Persia, night is more or less turned into day and a great portion of the day is spent in sleep the bazars are barely stirring before noon. The
of
:
Heaven
most
irreligious
become devout and read holy books aloud.

fast will
1
Even those who
make a pretence only of keeping the

the fear of
not touch wine, perhaps through
break the
fast,
being detected by the smell. Some Persians who secretly cover their lips with dust when they go abroad, to give them
the dried-up appearance of hunger and thirst.

(10)
of this
Shawwal Jfji month.
lit.
" a tail."
9
The Id" lFirt*jWt
***
is
on the
first*
(11) Zv> 'l-Qa'da
*ft*Jf
ji the
month
of
"session" was a time
of truce
cind peaceful occupations.
to
(12) Zu'l-Hijjah JsuaJtji is the month of the Hajj or Pilgrimage Makkah, which is made in the 8th to 10th of this month. The <^*Kl *& W'l-qzhq (vulgarly zuha) " the feast of sacrifice," called
l
The Persians maintain that the custom

Called also the
of drinking
wine has come down from
Gdbr times.
2
" minor
festival
"
;
fitr signifies
"
cleaving; breaking a fast."
THE TURKI YEAR-CYCLE.

also
203
1
"the great 'id,"

it
is
celebrated on the 10th of this month.
Muslims
are of opinion that

to offer
(/)
was instituted to commemorate Abraham's willingness
up Isma'lL
The Muslim era dates from the morning after the >?"> hijrah or 'flight''' of the Prophet from Makkah to Madinah, which occurred according to most on the
earlior
/V.D. (>22. tfaeh succeeding year begins than the preceding, and an anniversary, occurring one year in the
16th
July'
hot weather,
will,
sixteen
years later,
fall in
the cold.
Thirty-two English
years are nearly equal to

(y)
(//)
thirty-three Muslim years.
The 1st May AJ>. 1900 corresponds to A.K. 1318. solar years that have elapsed (1) The number of
since
any given
Muslim date
der
(current year
of
answer.
For example, to
Hijra year
is
Hijra find the
the given year)
3%
of the remain-
number
of years that
have elapsed
since A.H. 800.
The current
formula (1330 - 800) i.e. 515 years have eJapsod

A.H.
(2)
= 1912 A.D.]. Thus according to the - 3% of (1330 - 800) - answer or 530 - 15 = answer, since 800 A.H. or 1912 - 515, i.e. 1397 A.D. = 800
1330
[
To
+
find
the
equivalent
A.H.
year
of
an
021-54)
of A.H.
is
A.H. or (A.D.
621-54)
year :~-(A.D. '970225 - answer. For
A.D.
example, 1330
the current Hijra year.
equal to (the current A.D.

evident.
(3)
621*54)
-f-
According to the formula it will be ~ 621-54, which is '970225, i.e. 1912 970225
13.
To
find the equivalent A.D. of
an A.W. date, vide
57
The Turki Year-Cycle.

ei>(jx~
Sanawat-i TurTci.
This consists of twelve solar years each named after some animal in The following old Turkish terms are the names of these a fixed order.
(a)
years
v '
Jj?
cM^*~
..
. .
sichqdn-il
ud-il
The mouse
year.
' '
.
Jb> *y
..
"The cow
' '
year."
J*
<
^t
Ûy
bars -il
4
This
feast,
Jbt
..
tavishqan-U
..
The leopard year " The hare year."
known by various other names, in India it is generally called *c *,& Baqara, Id the cow '^7," and in Persia ^j* *** >ld-iqurban. In 1902 the is called **? <id-i naw nlz fell on the same Friday, whirh day <ld-i qurban and the
1
is
'&
cxTaxx^x^
id-
},ufiamt fl adi this concurrence of three
<Us
is
considered very fortunate-
^*uJ|l noun of which the noun

2
or
^^ ^
is
"The
Day
of
4<
Victims":
^^Sl
being a
collective
Another date
a sacrificial animal." of unity is Uu*l 20th June, vide Hughe's Dictionary of Islam.
204
5
(Jjf
JL?i
THE ZODIAC.
^p
eÛ oJ#
..
..
. .
lui-il
6
7
ilan-ll
$
..
The crocodile year." " The snake year."

" The horse year."
"
"
<Jj
until
..
.
8 9
Jji <_jj
<A?'
qm-il
bicht-tl
^H^
^jj Uu
..
.
.
10
11
ckf
takkdqui'll
?^-S
..
.
.
The sheep year." " The monkey year." " The fowl year."
" The dog year.
1
cXf ojf Jj' j./xi
'
12
(b)
..
tanguz-il
..
In Shaw's
"Grammar
:
of the
Language
(4)
of
'^The hog year. Eastern Turkish tan"

Ralik [The
the
names
(1)
are as follows
(2)
Sachqan,
(6)
Ui,
(3)
Bars,
Tausqan,
1
(5)
Fish or
Dragon),
Ape"],
(c)
(10)
Ildn, (7) ["The ToMtt" The Cock"],

entire cycle
is
At
Horse
muchal
'],
(8)
Qoi, (9)
Maimun ["The
by the Persians
first
(il) ft, (12)

in
Tun&uz.
Each
sal-i
called a
Uigljur, but
davazda
(d)
TurH.
in the Spring,
The year begins and ends
when the sun

it
enters
Aries.
When
(e)
A.D. 18t51
the cycle of twelve years is completed, = A.H. 1267-8 " the Hog year."
<Jj
commences
again.
The Bars-U
21st, 1902.
^-;^
commenced with the
Persian
jj;
y naw
ruz of March
58.
The Zodiac.
(or
r,
a)
Jj^*
(3^^ mintaq"' l-buruj
^
is
a'AkLc
).
"The
Celestial
Girdle," the Zodiac,
a belt of twelve constellations
extending about 8 on each side of the
ecliptic.
pi.
A
1
single sign
is
called
^
..
,.
bur)
Ar.
^f
'<
buruj)
tower or bastion."
The names of the <J*^ Hamal ?

(b)
.
signs or constellations are:
"Ham"
"Bull"
..
.
2 3
4
;>J
..
..
..
Sawr
Jauza*
Sarafan
Aries (Nawruz). Taurus.
*')y
..
..
oll^
o^f
<xJUi~
"Twins" "Crab"
"Lion"
<
Gemini.
..
Cancer
{*>j?
(1st
of
or e)UUoG Summer)^
..
.
Asad
Sumbula
..
,.
Leo.
.
6
7
Ear of Corn "
Virgo.
e^lH^
Mlzan
'Agrdb
.
..
'"Scales"
..
Libra( 1st of J^SU Autumn).

Scorpio.
v^
^r^'
.
..
.
.
Qaws
Jady
"Scorpion" " "

Bov^
..
.
.
Saggitarius (1st of
Winter).
10
^5^
1
..
..
"He-goat"
..
Capricornis.
This dialect of Turkish
is
called also Vighur.
2 3
Bars cu<*
is
properly the white leopard.
Jy
etf^*
J_jf
are used in speaking, but
all
are used in writing.
THE SEASONS.
11
205
.
12
>^ ei^
(c)
Dalv
..
..
" Bucket"
Aquarius.
Pisces.
..Hut
to
"Fish"
Arabic
..
In addition
the
:
names, the Persians
make
use
of
the following Persian names

1
V
jV
barra
2
3
gdv
du-paykar
.
The lamb. The ox or bull.
j**&
"The
two-faced
"
or
'
'
4
5
6
7 8
-
^'^
&&;&
two-figured."
khar-chang
" The crab."
..
.
4r
khusha
tarazu
'
..
.
"The
lion."
" The ear of wheat or barley."
jjty
The scales."
" The scorpion." "The bow."
pS^
eÛ*'
^
gazh-dum*
..
.,
kaman
Zmz-t'
..
10
11
c^y JJ
kuhl
.
^ **T
l
J^jb
dfU-i-asiyab
The wild goat." " The feeder of the hopper of a water.

mill; bucket.
5
'
f<
12
Û
(d)
..
mahl
is
..
-The
fish."
The Zodiac
named
after the constellations,
equinox, which is March. The Sun spends a

(e)
divided into twelve equal parts called signs and and the first point of Aries begins at the vernal the Persian Naw-Ruz or New Year's Day, about 21st
month
in each of the
above
mansions.'
It
is
supposed that the Zodiac was formed about 2000 B.C.
59
(a)
The Seasons.
(
The seasons
or
'
'
are
t%
Spring"
'
;^ bahar) commencing with the

(
jj;^>
Naw-Ruz
e; *^L
New
Year's
th< j
;
Day
'
;
"
Summer"
' *
(Û^'G tabistan or garma

)
U^f)
commencing when
khazdn or khizan) ^
(6)
sun enters 'Cancer'; il Autumn" ( u'U pdîz or * and " Winter (^jU^^j zamistan or (*y sarmd*).
is
**
Ghilld
Ala.
*JU*
or li^
a vague period properly

is
of
forty days.'
The
vj^.y
chilld-yi
kuchak or "small chilld^
a period of twenty days
of slight cold just
after the ^;,> î^. chilld-yi buzurg,

' *
forty days
of greatest cold preceding the
chilla-yi kuchak.
which latter "
is
the
The
ehilla-yi
also
^
&
=" a
bunch
'
of grapes
'
'
Or
kaj-dum
season
is
occasionally dated from the appearance of Suhayl or" Tanopus,'
f*^
. '
which
in Porsia occurs
*
about the beginning of Mlzan.

also ^-*
shita
In writing
and ^*+
seyf for
Winter and Summer
vjc^*and
Adj. are applied to the Winter and Summer crops. uaed in speaking they are often used in poetry.
;
The words
*-*-^
and
^jB**
are not
Garma and sarma mean " heat " and
'*
cold.
206
tdbistdn
ANCIENT PERSIAN YEAR.
is the forty days of greatest heat in summer, and commences when the sun enters Saratan.
(c)
Yilaq,
T. JjlUj
"summer quarters"
ing tribes, Turkish
( or jU'b ), and qishldq, T. ^4*3 (or J^-^ ), are and " winter quarters, " especially of the wander1
and others.
of obligatory prayer * are
.
The times Subh Zuhr ..

(d)
.
..
f* Dawn. Noon
[less
common
ntm-riiz* or
.
nima-yi
'Asr
j>&*
<-i*x
*\2*
peshm Afghan] Between noon and sunset; [namaz-i

;
ruz
or nimaz-i
dicjar*
Afghan].
4
5
Maghrib*
'Jsha*
..
.
"Sunset": namaz-i .tha HI." '* About one-and-a-half hours after sunset
(narn az- i khuftan }
.
'':
The three periods

1
of
.
voluntary prayer are

,
Namaz-i ishraq Namaz-i chaiht NamdZ'i tahajjud
tjy*' jUJ
When
the sun has well risen,
i.e.
about
9 A.M. (Sunni prayer).

2
..
cuU.jt*J About 11 A.M. (Sunni).

âs^jlw
say
the
"After midniglit " (Shi'a or Sunni ^.

'
The
Shi'as,
however,
tlie
j%&
ZuJir
and
<
j^^c-
Asr
prayer
5
together at either of
Similarly
,
witli
tJie
two times, and name them namaz-i Zubrayn, c^'^t^ ;^* which they name isfia^ ^j*>* magjirib and >l&c
9
^jjÂvcjl^ namaz-i
five.
nt-ag&hribai/n.
They thus pray
three times a (lav
and not
60.
(a)
Ancient Persian Year.

of twelve
The ancient Persian year was Solar 6 and consisted

Five days
7
months,
and,, as
each of thirty days.
were added to complete the year,
>ll>j
moans
**
to migrate" (of birds).
Arabic
is
J^^
of
is
salat,
Persian. }*+>
namaz.
repeated
Namaz-i
panjc/ana
or
wimu~-i
panjto
vaqtl
sort
ide^t
liturgical service
in Arabic.
IVayer
In
according
to
th^
daily
Christian
best rendered
by tho word
^J>
du'a.
addition
tlie
prayers thore are special services for Hpecial occasions. Shi'as usually pray only three times a dav but perform the same amount of prayer; they can combine tho noon and evening prayer which is then performed any time between noon and .sunset, and in the
mayhrib they
include the
"
laha
p'-vyer
which
I'M
then poformed any
time
hotueen
mo^hiib and midnight. 3 The Afghans often Bay nlm-i

*
roz.
'lifjur
perhaps, the Panjabi word word digar "another.*'
This
is,
meaning evening, and not the Persian
6 6
7
May!) rib
8al-i
is {
hour after
yjiarnb.
shamsl
^*+&
Jl*>
" ôlar Year "
it
was
bi-sextile
'
and
fall.
Panja-yi duzdlda
*&*.&\&
^^
now
also called
/fcha
n^sa-yi
mustanqa *J*w>

1
207
The new year commenced with us, a leap year occurred every four years. when the Sun entered Aries i.e. about 21st March. The jj; y **? *id-i naiv;
ruz, or
is still the great day in Persia, though the been has above solar year superseded the Persians changed their calendar and their written character, with their religion.
"New
Year's festival,"
Some It is supposed to have commenced with the mission of Zoroaster. Avesta Scholars maintain that Zoroaster flourished 12,000 years before Christ
others 8000 years, and others later
still.
None, however, places him
less
than
4000 years #go.
Some modern
was
originally
Zardushtis maintain that

first
^* Day and not
&J3)jj*
Farvardm
the
month, but
all
agree that the year began at )*J
Nawruz.
(6)
The following
name
1
of
are the Persian solar months, each month being the an angel, who presides over the month
:
&>&)}**
Farmrdin
March and
this
is
April.
The
1st of
month
May.
(21st
March)
the Persian 'id-inaw-rvz.
cui^x^M-
Ardi-lnhislit
or Urdl
April and
bihishl
3
4
^^))^
j*i
jsijÂ.
Khur-dad
.
May and
June.
Tlr
5
6
7 8
Murdad
Mihr
1
.
.
June and July. July and August.

August and September. September and October.
October awl November.
five"
in
tyj^
jrf
WjaJtrivflr
cM
Abati
The
in.
leap-yoar six
tercalarydays were inserted at the end of this month.

9
10
1
;if
Azar
^j>
c**t'
Day Bahman
Isfandarmuz or
November and December. December and January.

January and February. February and March.
12
i*o;|ii~
(colloquially) Is/and.
(c)
The
following are the
names
:
of the
-
days of the month as now pro-
nounced bv the Zardushtis

1
of Persia
^y
A?
fJrmizd or ffurmuz
2
3 4
tir*f
Bahman
,.
also llth
also the
month.
cuA^;f
;
Irdibihisht
..
.
2nd month.
month.
^j^
fthahnvar
also the 6th
Kablsa *
A'MCtrdad
"
^ty\
Leap Year." 9 or murdad ^^j*
former more common.
Vide note
0, p, 206.
208
o
iX-o

Isfanddrmuz
also 12th
month,
month,
month,
6
7
Khurdad
also the 3rd

also the 5th also 10th
Amurddd
8 9
Day
Adar
month,
also 9th
month,
month.
10
11
Abdn
KJnr or Khurshid
also 8th
12
13
Mdh
Tir or Tishtar
also the
4th month.
month,
month.
14
15
Gush
Day
Mihr
Rurush
also 10 th
16
17
also the 7th
18
Eashn
Farvardin
also the 1st
19
month.
20
21
r>'
Bahram
or
Virahrdm
Ram
Bad
22
23
Day
Din
or
*
also 10th
month.
24
25
26 27 28
c
^
Ird or Arashvdng
Ashtad
Asmdn
Zdmydd
Mdntarasfind
29 30
Urmuz
of
or
Hurmuz,
etc., the
Andrdm name
of the 1st of the
month,
all
is
Good, as opposed to Ahrlman the principle of Evil;

of Angels
the principle the remaining
names are the names
preside over the days named after them. It will be noticed that three days in the month are called Day, distinguished
who
as Day-ba-ddar, Day-ba-mihr
and Day-ba-din.
Christians of the Eastern church use the
call their
SYRIAN MONTHS.
European
their
ecclesiastical
calendar, but they
modern months by Syrian names. Their year still begins, as formerly, on the 1st October. The names of
: .
months are
Kanun*-8-.Ranl
Shubdt
<y$' j>K
J=U
jU'i
January.
February. March.
April.
Azdr
..
.
..
Naysdn or Nlsdn
cA"*^
*
f
Ay yor
Hazlrdn
;t^
May.
June.
cjjj^
YAZD-GARDi YEAR.
209
.
Tamuz Ab
Aylul
Tishrin u -l-Awwal
Tishrin^-s-Rani
j^w
July.
vf
JjJbf
August.
September,
October.
Jj$\
.
^.^
tir.^^
^li
Jîlf
Kanun*-l-Awwal
'
c^y^
November. December.
J^), also called Malaki and Malak Shahi, is (d) The Jalall yeai reckoned from Jalal-ud-din Malik Shah, son of Alp Arslan-i Saljuqi, and begins A.D. 1079. The year begins with the Vernal Equinox, i.e. with the
(^^
Persian Naw-ruz, and consists of 365 days, 5 hours, 49 min,, 15 seconds, and a fraction. The names of the months are the same as in the ancient Persian solar year, but the intercalary days are added after tho end of the 1 2th month. The Jalali year is entered in Indian, Persian, and Turkish
almanacs.
61.
Yazd-Gardi year.
and the Parsis
the
b
$J>
(a)
The
'
Zarduslitis of Persia
of India
have gone astray in

(
their
calendar: they
l
reckon
(^
by
Yazd-Gardi
year
Yazdajircl
or Yazdagird
^^ *j*
^^
$>>
J^
).
was tho name

is
of several kings of
Persia of the Sassanlan race, but

of
the
name
specially
applied to the
of Persia.
Nawshlrwan (the Just) the last of the Kayani kings grandson The era commences from his doath at the hands of a Khurasan!
was treacherously
killed while asleep)
miller
he
about A.D. 631

practically the
but, the
leap-year
being omitted, their calendar has fallen into confusion.

(6)
The names
of their
months are
same
as the ancient
Persian year,' but their year commences five months later than the Naw-ruz. 4 The year consists of 3(35 days only. Tho last five days ot the year are not
included in any
' *
month but
are added on to the end of the twelfth
distinguished by a special name. The following are " stolen days (/y/w *> <-**>) fchamsa-yi mustariqa, or
month and the names of these

6
&.j>)^
û
panja-yi
duzdida
(1)
(P.)
j^
ahnawad,
(4)
(2)
,>y^T ushtawad, (3) o*JuJi*

,
safantamad
(or
safdnlaman),
ji^*>j wuhukh-shatr
(5)
jS^yL&Aj wahashtu' ush (or
wahista-wisht) (Bir, p. 34).
One Khayyam.
l
-2
of
the astronomers
who
assisted in reforming this calendar
was
Uuiar-i
3 They, however, call the second month Iridibihisht; the fifth Amurdad the ninth the twelfth Isjand. Azar means fire and is supposed to have been A&ar or Adar the name of the father of Abraham. The Parsis consider it to be the name of an angel. * The Persians, both Muslim and Zardushtis, however, keep the festival of Naw-ruz at tho Vernal Equinox, but not so the Indian Parsis: their festival lasts 20 days, commencing 5 days before the fehamsa-yi mustariqa.
;
;
i.e.,
after Is/and (Isfandarmuz).
14
210
DAYS OF THE WEEK.

62.
(a)
Days of the Week.

are
:
The days of the week Shamba Yak- Shamba Du-Shamba 2

.
Saturday
. .
1st
day
of the
We
Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
..
.
.
Si-Shamba Chahar-Shamba
..
.
.
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
. .
Panj-Shamba
Jum'a
or
The Muslim Sabba
-*
or
..
(*Vf
(b)
Adina
: 1
As already stated, the day begins at sunset the night precedes " in day. Thus, if an Englishman wishes to say " Sunday night Persian, must say " Monday night " instead. *
(c)
is &&* hafta, from haft "seven": in Arabic *?>-? usb and <*A*>, sab* and sab' ah " seven." nahar (pi. (d) Ruz jy in Persian and nuhur) in Arabic me " as " shab* P. and cU^ layl " night time." day opposed to night
A week
from
*-
^ Ar. a day, has season." Shabana-ruz ^ ^JU^ the "

(e)
^^
is
Yawm
for
its
plural f tf
ayyam
"
days,
<;
tin
for day consisting of 24 hours ** 6 hours' rail ruz rah would be shabana ast.^ du ) eight journey (by (c) The longest night is called f*xl w_î shab-i yalda, and the longest d
(/)
civil
îjyu jjj ruz-i jawza*.
i.e.,
the day
is
In Kirman, the shortest day is called ^5>* AMÎ }j) ruz-i ishkamba-shi is so short that while one is washing a sheep's tripe (shikamb(
gone.
last six or ten
the day
(d )
The
days of cold before the

bard" 'l-'ajuz, Ar.,
JJL>>*
Naw-ruz are
call
in the
almanacs
6
}y**l\&j>
and by the people
sarmd-yi pir-zal,
from a popular legend.
J The Zardushtis generally use *ôT Adlna (old Pers.) in preference to ***-=> Jtlm the Muslim name. 2 Though the Muslims of India reckon in the same manner, many of them have a
p. 225.
adopted the English idiom for speaking to English people vide Phillott's Hind. Ma This sometimes causes confusion. The Muslim world was dark before it ^ The Zardushtis, however, say the woi light; therefore the night precedes the day. " With them the "with God was from all time and has no beginning. day precec
:
the night.
3
Used
It
is
in writing.
*
6
Plural shab-ha
and ahdban
*AJ Ar.
'
a night
'
has for
its pi.
c5^
remark that there are no railways nor even roads hardly The toy railway at Tehran, about 4 miles in length, can scarcely be counted. Persia. 6 The Persian Almanac of 1902 gives the period of the bard* 'l-'ajvz from llth
necessary to
17th March.
DAYS OF THE WEEK.

(e)
211
In m.c., for Tuesday, Friday, and Saturday
the phrases
shab-i ckahar-shamba, **+^
shamba
are used.
*AJU*> u> jam a, >^>J& shab-i yak a Superstitious people do not commence journey on these
v*
shab-i
and
three days.
any one
of the
Should a guest sleep at the house of a friend on the night of above days (English computation), he ought for luck's sake
This superstition has nearly died out.
to sleep the night following as well.
CHAPTER
63.
(a)
VIII.
Money.
The following are the moneys now current in Persia. Dinar j'i^ an imaginary and infinitesimal coin, used in accounts: there are 1000 in &*qirani
or qiran.
1
i^*\<$>
,,
Shahi
,,
50 dinar.
20 10
=1 qiran
1
oy
(or
<y^
),
or ;D*
^ yakhazar.
^^
tuman &l*y. ij\j$ Qirdnl The tuman is a gold coin (rarely met with). The qiran, and half qiran ^ dah-shdhi), and the ^;[>* ^ d% Jiazarl or " two âraw bit," are
2
silver.
(&)
PftZ-i safid
&*&* JjJ
<f
white
*^
<J^
" black
money
"
is
" money copper money
is
silver
8 money, and
pul-i siyah
or the nickel coins that

*x^, is
have
taken
its place.
Sannnr, a corruption of
)&&
a two-shahi nickel coin
(formerly copper).
(c) The following terms are occasionally now represented by actual coins
:
used, though the values are not
jU
Crhaz
Miihammadi
'Abbasi
(or
= = =
5 dinar.
100 r/^war
2 shuhi.
,,
200
,,
^4
a
cc^*^) panahbad*
abbdsl
rather less than half & qiran
23
tuman
20
(10 qiran).
Ûc
*%?.
jl^ chahar
depreciated
îm?i
=16
instead
of
JUj n'?/^
1: |
(!>
qiran
originally the
name
of the
Spanish dollar.
qurush or gh.urush, the Turkish piaster, value about 2d. of (j4r* or <Jk)j* English money or 17 1 shdMs: the term is used in certain places though the
coin
may
1
not be current. 7
European gold ducats,
called j3*~*
majar and
Also called
O^
war* Uo yahib qiran.

is
5 5
The gold
f/w
hazari
now worth
4.1
qirans.
This term was.also applied to the nickel coins (introduced by Muxaffar-ud-din Shah). * Yafc ghaz bi-*hunia naml-diham " T will give you not a farthing," the speaker probably not knowing the real signification of the word yhaz. 6 Properly panah-bad but pronounced and sometimes is incorrectly written with or
without
panahbadl
7
is
In Kerrnan and Tehran panah bad used for ten ahahia.

pi. of
>
is five
ahahis,
but in Yezd the term
Probably an Ar.
The term
is
used in
o^r5 the German groshen. Kerman but the coin is not
seen.
Piasters are said to be
current in Beluchistan.
MEASURES OP LENUTH.
l
213
î^lj bajuytkl'i, are worth a little more or a little less than the tuman: they are rarely met with. are the English C5 ~jj&l SjjJ Kra-yi Inglisi, and ^l*U'^ x^ lira-yi-'UsmanK, and Turkish pound: the former (in 1901) = 51 to 53 qlrdn. 2 fluctuates from 3} to 3| giran. ***)) rupiya, "the rupee/'
(d)
d.'fjj
Û^-v! Askings, a Russian bank note;

Barat, a cheque or
bill
also
any cheque.
of exchange.
Jl-^.VA;f
" = five oli* Manat, " a rouble qiran, The above terms are not all current in every
(e)
Impiriyal,
" a Russian imperial (gold), present value 28 to 33 qirdn.

district.
no postal money-order system in Persia. Money can be sent 3 by post, insured, in a sealed bag for 10%. Registered articles by post
There
i>s
are called ^^Lftw sijarishi.

territory.
A
:
parcel
<xx
is
" to insure"
Insured articles are sent only within Persian called oJU| amanat or basta: &&j(+#bima kardan
9
<jo*3 qabz-i rasld is

ÂO (
*'
"a
'
receipt.*
^ or)
*^>'
^,yak
,
kisa-yi (or surra- yi)
-sot/
blma kardam, I sent 100 tumdns by insured post.'' For the system of keeping accounts by <3^ w vide Woll. Eng.-Per. Diet, and also 14.
(/)
64.
(a\
5
Measures
of Length,
3 *
^^
<J>>
yak
fiq,
"the
distance a shout can be heard.
^ j^
-
y^ ^+*
mu-yi shutur (rare)
" the breadth
of a camel's hair."
jaw, *'a barley-corn's length."

>
o^l&l angusht
*;{-'
"a
1
.
finger's breadth.
bahar, length of one joint of the second part of a zar
thumb (about
1| iuoh), or the thirty-
o^ M
%
v_0
yak band angusht (about 1J inch) "the length of a finger
joint."
(jirah
2 bahar (or about 2J inches).
yi
âr' orj.f âa;,

tf
the Persian yard
(of
about 40 inches)
16 girah-l zar
6
.
vajab,
a span."
&iyal ml-kunl hi yak bajitglili bi-man dadl (m.c.) v^*^ t^*^ " " do you think you have given mo a vast sum for this ? The revenue of Beluchistan is paid to Kirman in rupees at the rate of 2J qirans a rupee, the merchant exchange being 3J in 1902.
1
^^b
2-
J^x â^w 'z-zamana. only used in Persia for insuring within Persian limits to a foreign (t tl I'll insure country ÂtXyo &l/ojj Jja^ fj &L~.j ^jf tn 6asâ /a haqq z-zamana ml-diham*
3
The insurance
This terra
is
foe is called AiU*aJi
thin."
6
This term is much used by the black-tent folk yak jlq-l rah ast. " nail,'* Also colloquially yak band nakhun: by the vulgar the word nakhun,
:
is
used
for
k *
' '
finger.
214
araj
WEIGHTS.
or <Jiy arash
a cubit, from point of the elbow to the tip of the middle ringer.
or
p&*
qadam a short pace.

(
the space between the tips of the fingers of both hands the arms are extended to form a cross with the body.'
l}
when
j* <*&. yak sar, or *5 of a man.
yak qad (or
*K
graz
kallah),
the ordinary
stature
JU*^ farsang
miles.
or
j-**^
/aM
6,000
12,000 qadam
3^ English
v_~*jf ^fjXx/o a vague distance, about half a mile. maydan-i asp In addition, there is the Turkish ell, &*)l arshin, much the same as the Persian yard.
Remark.
of sandals
In Baluchistan, distance
made
:
estimated by the numbers of pairs of the dwarf palm (phis) that will wear out in traversing
is
the distance
(b)
they say yak phis rah-ast, du phis rah-ast

*
etc.
Tasuj**
is
a word
much used by
the Afghans for a measure equal
of to about the joint of a According to the dictionary it is a weight ringer. 2 or of 4 barleycorns; or the or measure, of any weight twenty-fourth part
vide
65 (d). [Ar. ^~-k J of a danaq, the latter being J of a dirham and havthe ing weight of a habbah.] Arz (j^jc and " tul J^t are the two words commonly used for (c)
(
"breadth" and "length "

(adv.)
^
*
'arz an (adv.)
"by breadth" and >t

six gaz
;
^7
tul an
"by
length."
Ji>
' '
(d)
Shash gaz dar shash gaz Jt

,
^ J>
(not
JÂ "measuring
square
yards)
each
way
(square)
six
yards
square
six
six
but shash
gaz, murabba'
&j*jf <J^
square yards."
65.
Weights,
(a)
is
In Persia, as in India and Afghanistan, everything, liquids included,

'
'
sold
by weight and not by measure. {< a grain of wheat f*vf gandum,
about 3 go to
nukhud'6 weight r
Care must be taken to distinguish the difference in pronunciation between these is not sounded, and the the is pointed by fatha. This measure is ^)^, roughly taken to bo the distance from *the tip of the fingers of the left hand when
1
two:
in
<^>
the
arm
2
is extended to the tip of the nose when the head is turned to the right. In the Anjuman-ara-yi Nasiri, a dictionary of old Persian (Fur*-i qadim), tasu
is
given as the equivalent of

8
sa'at.
In India, grains of
rice are
sometimes used
for
weighing minute quantities of drugs.

:
The lowest standard weight, however,
in India is the rail, the seed of abrus precatorius,
which in appearance resembles a small scarlet bean with a black spot on the end it is used by goldsmiths, and weighs about 2 grains. In Persian works written in India the
rail is called
WEIGHTS.
âcu nukhud,
-j4 T of
a,
216
small chick pea or grain of gram, said to weigh about

3 gandum.
an ounce
sir
*
= misqal =
=
24 nukhud.
16 misqal.
^
-
J-
uqiyya (abbrev. a^j wuqiyyah or
*^ or waqiyyah) = 90
.
misqal (about
14 oz. avoirdupois).
cS'Jirt^
u"
wwm-i
'
Tabrizi
lb. av.).
" a Tabriz maund "
= $"vaqqa"
720
misqal (about 7J to 7J
^&U
co 15"lb.).
^/o man-i sha/iior
"
Royal
of
maund"
Rai
' '
nearly 2 Tabriz raaunds (14i

4 Tabriz
^Û ^ man-i
is
^ ^* man-i Ray
is
or
" maund
maunds (about 30
lb.)
;
lb.).
liashimi
16 Tabriz
maunds (about 116
this weight
only used in the South. " " )hj^ kharvar or donkey load
100 Tabriz maunds (725
lb.).
^J;^ charak
the quarter either of a Tabriz or of a
Royal maund.
The carat, -fc^x? qlrat (br. pi. ^jty qarartt) originally Ja\jS qtrrat, is an of a misqal : it is used for Arab weight and equals about 4 grains or the word qirdt to the T of sometimes The Arabs apply weighing jewels. anything and colloquially they apply it to a measure of about an inch.
In Kerrnan
Nisj-i haft dirham
.
**>)*
oi*ui<w =
Haft dirham Panzdah sang

Si-sang
..
. .
^;^ oi&
-&**
10 J- misqal in weight. 21 ,,
, ,
^>>b
..
.
^^ ^^^
^;U
u^;U
c\.^
=42 =84
=
,,
Charak
Nim-man
tii-charak
..&*{&
.
=2
3
Si-sang ^**
^j^.
Charak
Yak-man
(Tabrizi)
(c^Jt^
u^^
is
= =
little
Charak
Charak
J[>U.
;t t^.
In Yezd, ^;^ <x^ 50^ dirham = In Yezd, the word JjU. charak charak.
^^^
J&>
eX
nim-man
(Tabrizi)
used, Â;^
t^xj
panjah
dir-
ham
(etc.)
(6)
being used instead.

is
Water
measured by the sang

of
i.e.
by a quantity
sufficient to
is
turn a mill.
One sang
water
^^
^.
(with or without izafat)

is
^ *
supposed to be
sufficient for
one hundred
v^>
and a cMraA;
a fourth part
of this quantity.
(c)
Water
or
for irrigation purposes is also
borrowed or bought by the aû-U
iascha
1
cjC*>lb
aai
c *
little
cup
"
) ;
i.e.
a metal cup with a small hole in the
Persian for
Ibs.
mann
Ar.
Is
2
is
The word maund

In
the Anglo-Indian term for man, but the standard
man
of India
to
SO
Kerman
fashta, forty of
which go to 12 hours
also in
Kerraan 30 jurra go
12 hours,
216
WEIGHTS.
is
bottom
measure.
floated on water
and the time
it
takes to sink
is
the unit of
For instance, if a cultivator borrows six tasak channel, the whole of the water in the channel is turned into
that
the
tasak takes
to
of
his
certain
for
ground
is
the time
sink six times.
The
tasak
not
standard measure, but varies locally, according to the requirements of a

village.
Another vague term is ^-&fj> dang, which may be said to be the sixth Property of all kinds is divided into six imaginary parts, a dany. An owner of J share of land, a room, called is of each which or a horse would be described possessing two dang " an owner of the
(d)
part of anything.
'
' '
whole would say, "all six dang are mine": dang khana mal-i 'man ast.
0^1^ JU
lands.
&(L.
^Jj>\^
^J^ shish
But generally only houses and
CHAPTER
66.
IX.
(
The Verb
:
Fi'l
j^
).
The verb "to be" (vide also 68) (a) The simplest form is the affixed substantive
!
verb:
2
2
ft
am
1
(I)
i
am
(He)
im (We) ^\
AJ.
are.
^sl (*or)
v^**
(Thou) art
is
(You)
are.'
&>\ and (They) are. be (b) (!) may joined to a pronoun, adjective, participle, or substantive, and sometimes to an adverb and the same rules that apply to the written forms of the affixed 31 (6), (c), (d)\ apply in the pronouns [
[-adj as
These
affixes
main
here.
;
a Sultan "
o**f sxxjy
,
ow*t
Examples: eu-HjLL* JJJAJ jt w banda
j\
u sultanast " he
(for
*A***\
ÛxL*
j\ )
"\\e
is
ast, or (with
the
^
is
of unity)
eu~j| MAJ
or (old)
o.j
but
jjAij
M banda
dana^lm
:
tst
a slave
"
y [or
"
am learned":
we
are
pM
^Lo
&
dana-yam
XAXJ^J /^ banda-i
^JU
"
;
" art thou a slave 8 ? " man-am dana-l ^^h " thou art learned "
;
f
fi'l-b
"we
are learned"; ^-t

r
;
!
^x=
or
" I
^y "or
am
;
u dana'st oÔi^j*
ishan
dana-yand
M?16 rw'^ oô^ w>^ 5 or khub-rii ast cu^t ^ but ishan khub-ru-yand (not khubru-yast which is poetical only),
aijLi^ vyl^j
>
v^>
Maflmnihada nar bi-farman-i sharab Jan karda fida-yi lab-i khandan-i shardb. " 'Tis we who to wine*s yoke our necks incline, And risk our lives to gain the smiles of wine." (0. K. 21 Whin.)
(2)
The
'
alif
<-flJi
of the third person singular ast
-=**'
is
frequently elided
ra*st ui**!^ AJlx*^^
in contractions, as:
o^b;^
(for .SA^
bj^
dushmanan-am
(for
oô
ij
Ûî^
).
After w and
k(ir~i'st
i,
this aZi/ nearly

JJ
always disappears, as:

is
o~^&
nikusl;
oij
" he K; mudda'i'st cu^xc^/o

aft/
a claimant."
(3)
In the other persons, the

:
can ue retained or changed into

;
for
euphony, as
j^.
f!
!<>^
x^,
or /*J!A^ x^w
^-t *Ufci,
or
^vjUfci
txi
;
*i^.*e^ or
6i;faBu
This
affix is called mZw-'i
i?6^
in
i fi'l
<^*' olf>f
^.
J/^'
majhid
'2
In
classical
ed.
Persian (and
India and
Afghanistan) these are
sounds em,
s
The
*>\
full
)
form
is
generally nsod after final alif, as:
Muluk
oz baray-i pas-i ra'aya*
and
^j
(Sa'di)
"
kings are for the care of their subjects
"
;
îrf^lf;
raâya-yand
might
also be used in
modern Persian.
218
THE VERB.
before ast ow*f, as: c^ (4) Alif-i maqsura sometimes becomes u Musi'st, but better o*t ^**>^ y ?i Musa ast " he is Moses.'' (5) After a vowel, the <^ of the second person is preceded by a * over a " where art thou ? " In other words, two syllables ending and C5"> as
l
^^
beginning with a vowel are coupled by a hamza acting as a hyphen. (6) The final * of Arabic words is, in Persian, sometimes written and
sometimes not. If, however, an Arabic word ending in precedes the first person am ^', the & must be struck out to preserve the distinction between the singular and plural of the verb. Thus the plural of jf& sha'ir a poet h *\* shu'ara*, but man ash'ar-i sh'uara-yam " I am the most j*&\ fi\j*
f-
poetical
of
poets": were the hamza retained, the word might be read

is
shu'ara-tm p\j*&. (7) The contraction
generally observed in speaking and reading, even
though
it
may
be neglected in writing.
Remark
or
fit
o*t "is" and

"
.
riist
oî
is
"is
not"
are termed *kit>
"copula."
In the proposition
the copula sentence.
is joins
Religion indispensable to happiness," the subject religion to its predicate, the remainder of the
"
Any
into
tc
verb can be analyzed into the copula and a predicate

(the copula),
thus
lives,"
is"
"living"
(the predicate).
(c)
inserted
In the third person singular and plural, the euphonic need not be " khub-rust or (she) is CL~*^J VÂ khub-ruyast (poet.) o*~^; v
:
fair-faced
"
o*~jl>fa
;
dana-nd
cu-U
dana-st : iÛf^ dana-yast or cuÛf^ o.-l^ shuma-st (for ma-st (for o^t U )
;
danayand or
Remark.
Vulgarly, instead ofa^ o*l.-a (pronounced

is it
e) is
used as Tchub-e
"it
is
" good"; H-e who
"
(d) Tu ast o^l^j is contracted into eu~i fust (or o**^ ) and is so pronounced even if written tu ast oôf^j. Klst ^~*>? and chist c^-â. are 37 (g) ] and chi ast /os^t AA. regular contractions for kl aô^f ^* [vide
:
i^ cMyim
1
' '
what are we
* '
chiyam
of
' (
what
'*
:
am
(
"
Kujdfl
t^'^R^
is
?
an adjective
'*
what place
j&'~>&
^^pf j*
"
of
what
place are
which
^
^
is
you a native not used.
"
or colloquially
^^^
Tcuja^l-l ?
This formis for (^[
^4*^,
Dana-yast o~ob|d not m.c.

In
is
modern
'
colloquial, to the
question
is
(^^^
kuja*-%
" where
are
you?
"
is
the
en/a
answer
>:
{*!
f^N>'
in/a
am: (Inja-yam
considered vulgar).
The
"
correct reply
astam
*
' :
p*~**>
-V
Or nii-basham
<5^.
p\*.
_}*<*)
''who''
^Ci (.5^, as well as
^,
signifies
who ?":
&*-.
similarly,
â.
c&e (perhaps contracted

all
form
of chiz
is
another form of
In modern Persian
forms are used.

6
Better
THE SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB.

As a
ing
;
219
rule, either
the contracted or the full form can be used in writ-
Similarly, the final silent vi~*f, as c^Jk&^y u barahna'st
but in either case the contraction exists in pronunciation. * of other words sometimes disappears before
"he is naked." Note the following forms or contractions,

are
:
etc.,
&Vjj
c*j
zisht-ruyand
I
"they
slave
"
ugly":
^y
"thou art":
*i,m
" we are his slaves
" ^\ \^ banda-yi u yam I am "

:
^jyoy
banda-yi tu mard-l-i (vulgar for tu mard-l hasi-i

:
banda-yi tu f " his slave ^ty \*>

x^xj
am " U ma
am
thy
l
"Who
'
:
are they
" Ishan kiyand &u

'{
i^L^Jf,
or ki
and
&>
&> ',
or kistand
ishan kiyan-and <xL>Ufr ^l-iof (m.c.). the The of the second (e) person is called the ya-yi tchitabl ^^L. of is a as address" it written final and silent or final with a a y *, ^, " 2 t( ki i who art thou ? superscribed hamza, as: ^^ or <Jtyl*jf kirmam-i " 'art thou a Kirmani (an inhabitant of Kirman) ?
' "
&
(/) The above suffixes form the six pe" ,ons of every tense of the verb with the exception of the third person singular, when ast becomes ad. ((/} The negative form of the simple affixed verb is nearly obsolete, or else occurs only in poetry.
***
<s
^ or ^
sjJ
nay am, "I am not" thou art not" nayl

e "
..
. .
n'ist
" he
is
" not
/**5o naijlm *&> nayld
"we
"you
(or
are not." are not."
. .
<^> nai/and
oJi
w na and)
f *
they
are not."
Angar ki dar khalc na*i bar khak-i. " But now you are above earth, not below (O. K. 457 Whin.) A villager sometimes says: UpJut b ÛaJu^ y tu lnja-1 yd mja na-% "are you there (here) or not ? " Villagers also use nayam p&. The third
(i
!
person nist
(h)
cu^jjj is in
regular use.
<yTtf), aste
(mf
In old Persian (imitated by
*~*\ is
found for
67.
(a)
The Separate Substantive Verb.
From an
>
obsolete infinitive
(^^
.
hastan and &*j*~& hasfidan
to
exist," are formed
hastam "
aS
hast
am, or I exist "thou art, etc."

I
'
"
.
.
" he
is, etc.'
" J^Â Aa,?^ you are, etc;' *&~& hastand "they are, etc.'
'
^X-Jk hastim
"we
are, etc."
'
Or bandog an
:
Ftde p. 92, note 6 thou art a king."

i
<
$$
is
probably the more correct form, as
(J*
should
mean
Vulgarly pronounced nahi
^p.
220
THK SEPARATE SUBSTANTIVE VERB. Hastam

j*i~**, etc., is
substituted for
am ^ whenever euphony
requ
it,
or whenever the verb has to stand alone.
matt
"Am
Here hastam
p*~-
may-i mughana mast-am a wine- bibber ? what if I

zi
hastam
am?"
(O.
K. 334
:
is
used as the verb has to stand alone

:
the
could not be repeated.
Also
ddnam u
cc
u, chunanki hastam, hastam.
He knows
as well as I,
my
sorry case."
(O.
315 W7/m.)
O~A
***<> fa*
is
In khdna chundn ki hast td sad sal
used for asf cuw when euphony requires the former, davdm mi-kunad &*> ti o~* &&x*- *J^
JU
if
the
&
ki of A^li^. be omitted,
chunan
hast
ast ki *$
must be
written.
OV-SA also
/wzs^
Zâ^
means
OM-* ^j|
''exists/' as:
Khudd
A lAi.
"there
is
God":
/aocZ
''there
AiWifi
is
a God/'
TchalalVst
ffeisJ
o^
f;
also
' '
rr
emphatic, than ast o^f, as:
" something wrong with the ship (a simple statement) reply would be, kishtt ra khalal-l hast C~~A ^l^. ^ ^-^^
^^^ ^^ ther a denial but

to
c
'
there
is I tell
yo
The above
(6)
is
the only tense
now
in existence.
is
The negative form

nlstam
t(
tl
of this tense
.
(by contraction) as follows

4;
lt
fi-fci
am not "
"
not
>;
**i-^> riistim
we
are not."
thou art not

is
<*jJU^ >u5/K/
<yxx~xi
"
'*
you are not."

they are not."
he
msland
(c)
*'
^li.
Probably, there was an ancient infinitve ?r7?^ c^>f or " i'rom to be which one or more of the above tenses are deri
ha zagh-i bar dlwar-i bagJi-i khirdman hami-raftami (8a'dl) y dignity to be (I ought to be) strutting on the wall
d*iq-i qc
ma
-asti ki
i
wer
gar^
7v> jtin g
g^
in
company with
^jla.
(j^^j i^~**
a fellow magpie." ^.^j <Jkj^ J^ O*ASX^ suhbat-i gul khush budt gar n
}
tashvlsh'i Jchdr (Sa'di)
^companionship with the rose were sweet, were
tj
no
fear of the thorn."
hastam
^Â
**>\$>
Similarly, Sa'dl uses +>**** skunidastam for shut J have heard." Other instances occur in the
^-~A> (instead
poets of this
Perfect tense.
is
contracted form of hastam
of
am
p!)
with
the English magpie,
common
in the gardens of Persia.
The chou<
called *^*?3-
Here
asti
and null are Past Conditional.
THE VERB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.
221
In kar-i jahan agar
bi-taqlid-asti
flar ruz bi-ja-yi kh wish tan 'Id-astl',
Har
Gar
kas bi-murad-i khiytsh d

^zanlci
tst-l
bi-zadi
na in
hi-hftda t&kdid-asti.
"
If this life
were indeed an empty play,

'Tel
Each day would be an
And men might conquer
all
or festal day, their hearts' desire
Fearless of after penalties to pay!

(0.
"
X. Rub. 434 Whin.)
^
"
I
&*
OH
Gar
'
*HO\
*S&
f^^
C^^)
^^
M?
^x:
J.
man
I
guniih-i ru-yi
zamln kardastam
Afa-i tu
Though
umid ast Id girad dast-am. had sinned the aim of all mankind,
to
mercy he inclined." (0. K. 333 Whin.) J *+& O~AJ ^jfjf y j^ j-tiww Man nlst shudain dar Tu, az anam harna Tu "And I am Thine, since I am lost in Thee."
know thou would'st
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 400
Whin.)
llasti î-** is a substantive signifying
fck
existence," and
non-existence
It ast
"
^^
nisll
o~~* and niat cu ^ are used as adjectives
Chandan
^ The more
Id zi-thud ms-tar
I die to
sell',
am
has-tar-am.
I live
the more."
(0.
K. Rub. 351 Whin.)
68.
The Verb Transitive

(lazim
]
(muta'addi
^^*Vx>
and Intransitive
).
,-351,
or yAayr-i muta'addi ^-o^-L-o^

simple.
(a)
The
}
Persian verb
is
There
is bufc
called irregular verbs

(
present no
difficulty
one conjugation and the soEvery Infinitive or masdar

'
;0>*A/c
ends in &^ -dan or in

is
}
-tan,
and the
shortened Infinitive
or third
person singular Preterite

All
tenses
zaman
%
(
e)Uj
formed by cutting off the termination -an are formed quite regularly from the root or
:
shortened Infinitive, 8 and from the second person singular Imperative

1
the
2
3
Zaman
In India, laziml t^jJJ intransitive. <k Tense or time " mazdar eA-*}
;
Infinitive or source."
The shortened
infinitive is
always identical with the third person singular of the
Preterite.
222
persons are formed by the affixed substantive verb. Every verb has t two stems. As in most languages, the Imperative is the shortest form of
verb.
It
few verbs are both transitive and intransitive.

in
must be borne
' '
mind that native grammarians do not consider

can
it
Infinitive a verb.
"How
be a verb," they say,
"when
it
has
tense or time
(6)
1
(1)
There are two verbal prefixes
&>
(or
(~>)
and ô mi
(or
haml ). the same

Preterite.
The first is prefixed to the Aorist or Present Subjunctive (one t tense), to the Imperative, to the> Preterite, and to the old I
is
Potential or Habitual tense that
formed by adding an indefinite

to
^
it
to
The second
it
is
prefixed
the Present
(or
Present-Future)
distinguish Preterite.
In
from the Aorist, and to the Imperfect to distinguish
from
the following
:
example
(poetical),
AJ
is
added
to
the
shortei
Infinitive
Bi'bazuvan-i tavana va quvvat-i sar-i dast Khata-st panja-yi miskin-i natavan bi-shikast
(Sa'dl).
"
By
strength of
arm and power
of hand,
It is a sin to crush the poor

[Sar-i dast o^-o^/*
is
and helpless."
i.e.,
the end of the dast or fore-arm,
the hand.]
Dar ku-yi kharabat magar bi-t(a)van yaft An *umr ki dar sawmaâha gum kardlm?
(O.
K. Rub. 339 Whin.)
In the following, to the definite future
Bar anchi mi guzarad dil ma-nih ki Dajla bas-i Pas az Khalifa bi-khwctfiad guzasht dar Baghdad.
<
Set not thy heart on that which passeth away for the Tigris Will flow on by Baghdad long after the Eîallfas."
;
(Oul.
Book
8,
Maxim,
105.)
Called ba-yi zayid.

' '
The same term
is
applied to the Ai in such words as
bi-
^j*> except and haml (.$+& b< There is no difference in ^signification between ml these can be joined are probably contracted forms of or connected with, hamfoha In poetry this prefix is sometimes, by poeti their verbs or written separately.
;
' 4
also in
^
;
license, written after the verb.

In the following, to the past participle Â
A
-o
:
223
y
^2/
d^ hama
asbdb-i jahdn khwdsta gir
Bdgji-i tarab-at bi-sabza drdsta gir
"
Vdngdh bar an sabza shab-i chun shabnam Binshasta l u bdmddd bar-khdsta gir (0. K.)
Oh
soul
lay
up
all
earthly goods in store,

;
Thy mead with pleasure's flowerets spangle o'er And know 'tis all as dew that decks the flowers
For one short night, and then
(2)
)
is
seen no more!
"
hami
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 243.)

It will thus be seen that the prefix
mi <^
in
:
(in
old Persian also
gives
a continuative sense.
It
is,
poetry, even added to the
Imperative with this continuative sense, as
Gar
rahat-i javiddn
fam mi-dari
rd.
Mi-ranj liamisha va ma-ranjan kas

(0.
K. Bub. 15 Whin.)
In yak
(3)
nafas-i 'aziz rd khush mi-ddr.
Tlie prefix
*->
is
:
particle
and a verb,
as
(0. K. Rub. Whin.) omitted in verbs compounded of an indeclinable " " >{Ay bar Ichiz get up from ^^s^j bar-khdstan :
4<
bar gar dam f*J>j*j^\ agar verbs beginning with a b (
if
return/' from bar-gashtan ÎtJ^. Before the prefix is in modern Persian often written
I
separately and not joined to the verb. The verb o^y budan does not take the prefix e>4X& s/mdan.
(4)
AJ,
nor does the Imperative of
Very rarely do both prefixes occur together, as Û> <^ mi-bi-bdyad. " to be " is (c) The auxiliary verb* ^^ budan slightly irregular, in that '* the Imperative is c/H bdsh^ be thou." The shortened infinitive is bud.
j
TENSES FROM THE IMPERATIVE

THE IMPERATIVE (yf).
I.
(j*\
Bash*
'
'
<j8b
be thou
of
' '
-bdshU
*>^ "be ye."

all
With the exception
the second person singular,
persons of
th'
Imperative are identical with the Aorist q.v.

1
Bi-nishasta Ai*^v>j agrees with W&udra,
I; <$}*>
understood.
^ Fi'l-i
mu'avin
(Dj^** <J**
"
)
auxiliary verb.*'
It is of the Trnperative. >> was another form of the second person singular " found is perhaps," said to exist still in out-of-the-way districts bu j> or bit ki **J
Bu
in
mod. Persian,
in poetry.
224
Remark
haml.
It
I.
The continuous Imperative

usually
affirmative,
coll.),
is
formed by prefixing ml or
it
is
but
Qa'anl uses
negatively
also.
Mi-bash <Jtt&* (vulg. remain/'
or hami-bash
u^
^+*
(obs.)
"continue to be or
Remark
noun
of
11.
The Present
1
Participle (c>ll>
agency bashanda
// (A).
*<xil>
"
bashan "being") and the be-er ") are not in use.
The Aorisf
(I.
2
or Present Subjunctive
l(
j*l>
basham
hashl
may be
[or let
me be "
].
Singular
J 2.
^b
,*j^l>
"
thou mayest be
it
"
^3.
oJb basliad* "he, she or

be, etc.)."
may
let
be (or
let
him,
1.
bfjshlm*
"we mav
ye
be (or
us be)."
'
Plural
^
!
2. 3.
^îU bnsJild
'Ax^b
"
may
be (or Imperative,
bo ye')."
baihaud "they
may
be (or
let
them be)."
In old Persian
In modern Persian this tense does not take the prefix <.
it
does.
// (B).
The following
>'
is
an
old
form
of this tense
1.
fj
pj>
buwam
biiwi
" I
mav
be.'"
2.
'
-"
5
^j ^
s
"thou mayost be."

' '
^j buu.ad" he, she or it may be buwad or ^tj bad).'
(or '^t
bddaor
&\j*
^>-'
2.
buv^m
A^J 6 M ?rd
tXy
bit
"we may be." "ye may be."
wand "they may be."
Bashanda
$-X*U
(plural
is
bashandagun ^'fî-wb
in
is
**an inhabitant"; cUt

hastand
fct^x^s),
commoner
jl
modern
<
colloquial,
*>ii**rt>
a substantive signifying as: fe&an aW-i Kirman
&~& &{*>jf (J^> e>^

i
or i^.aw Kir,, aril hasiand
^1*^" e^Jf.
in
BasJmnda
n India
is
bafihinda,
IB
used for "inhabitant"
in Persia
writing, only
when
the author
2
i
avoiding Arabic words. his mlm as a sign of the first person of the verb is called inlm-i mutakallim. Bad or bada or buvad or buvadund buva the Precativeor Optative are still in use
not used as an Optative, &c. ^ Classically (and in Afghanistan and India still) these terminations of the second plural are em, ed majhiil sounds.
(in m.c.
is
;
bad and bnvad).
Bavhad
first
and
like
The Afghans
v.
use
this
6orf
tense
in speaking.
Note that
is
pronunced both
and a
6
In m.c.
and <My buvad
are both used.
To be
distinguished from the third person singular of the Preterite &j* bud.

///.
225
The Present Tense

f
J^
L
2.
^
*&\j
^n Modern Persian also a Future). " <* mi-baslwm I am (or will be)."
e/^j
)
Singular
-]
^^ ^
f** ^
9
mi-bashi " thou art.
(I.
Plural
.
J 2.
V,3.
<HÎJ (ô mi-bastiid

<3lil-'
"he, ^ mi-bashim "we ^ " you mi-bashand "they ^

mi-bashad
t
etc., is."
are."
are."
are."
The
prefixes
m?
or
hami written separately or joined to the verb,
are used with this tense in writing in
modern as well
as in old Persian.
Remark.
Me-buwam j**
is
an old form of
this tense.
TENSES FROM THE SHORTENED INFINITIVE

iy
/
t
The
Preterite
îbc
" ty budam I was."
Singular
2.
(3.
C 1.
^^ &
L
budi
li
thou wast."
etc.,
bud "he,
was."
^Jj^
budim
"we
were."
Plural
J 2.
(3.
F,
yjô budid "you were." &t} budand " they were."

j
T/ê Imperfect, etc.

1.
(*^j <^<*
^ ^*(*> ). mi-budam* " I was or used to be."

(
U3 L
Singular
^ 2.
(.3.
^^ ^y
^y
pjty
>.^>
mi-budi " thou wast or used to be.

he, etc.,
T
Plural
.
1.
was ^ mi-bud " ^ ml-budim "we were."
or used to be."
<
2.
(^3.
ô^J
^^ Tfil-budid "you were." ^^ mi-budand "they were."

mi-budam "if
I
This tense
is
also used as a Past Conditional ayar

*'
had
in
been, etc., etc.," and sometimes as a
Future Conditional."
is
The
Preterite,
budam,
however,
generally
used,
especially
speaking, instead of the Imperfect.

In poetry often contracted into
<X)
bud
te&irad-mand-l guft
Dar khwab budam mara
May
*
fchur ki bi zlr-l {chafe
mi-bayad
(0.
K. Rub. 61 Whin.)
Ml
c/
or
haml ^^>
haml
is
obsolete or poetical with the Imperfect of bildan.
Except
in the
Continuous Imperative, vide

Persian.
68
(6), foot-note,
tw
is
not prefixed to
this tense in
modern
15
226
VI.

The Past Conditional
or Habitual
(
budame "I would have been

Singular
-{
or used to be."
,,
,,
2.
c5^
bud* thou
,,
bude he,
etc.
,,
,,
,, ,,
budeme we
Plural
..-{2. e*>ty budede ye budande they
,,
,,
,,
,,
,,
.Remark.
This tense
is
obsolete in
modern
colloquial, but
is
still
used
even in speaking by the Afghans and Indians. In old Persian, the prefix me or hame is also added. It will be noticed that the majhul sounds of the tense have been retained in transliteration. A modern Persian, however,
would give the vowels the o^*<* ma'ruf sounds. The second person singular and first person plural are very rarely used, and the second person plural
is,
perhaps, not in existence.

?
VII.
The Definite Future

}
d^L-*
).
The verb
t^L Jchwah.
^.y^t^k Wiwastan
"to wish, desire," has for
its
Imperative
khipdham. consequence The Definite Future of all verbs is formed by conjugating the Aorisl of khivastan with the shortened infinitive.
f 1.
J>y
Its Aorist is in
^^
A bud f !>^ Mtfivaham
"I
shall or will be."

,,
Singular
..12.
(^3.
^ cs*!*^
&y*
khwaht bud thou

khivdhad bud he, etc.
,,
*&\JA>
,,
I.
ty
p**^
Jchwahlm bud
we
,,
,,
Plural
. .
-j
2.
(^3.
^ ^ XXAI^
is
**A\J. Tchwahld bud
TchimJiand
you bud they
,,
,,
,,
Remark.
This tense
tense taking its place on
all
seldom used in modern colloquial, the Present occasions it appears to bo dying out. It is,
:
used by the Afghans and Indians, who seldom use the Present tense for the Future. By Persians it is used in correct writing. The people
however,
still
of
Kashan are
VIII.
said to use
it
freely in speech.
*
The Past Participle ( <Jj**> ^\ ) is formed by adding shortened Infinitive: *^ buda " been" or " having been."
to
the
IX.
The following
tenses are derived from the Past Participle

Perfect Tense
ft
(
The
/
^^ Û
"he,
etc*,
).
1.
^
i&
buda-am " I have been."

buda-i " thou hast been."
Singular
.
<;
2.
3.
e~*i &^j buda-ast
has been."
Note that the j
is silent.
THE VEKB TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITIVE.

/
227
1. 2.
Plural
<
^
&\
p>\
3.
%& *& *j
buda-lm " we have been."

buda-ld " you have been."
buda-and " they have been."
In poetry the final 3 of this tense is sometimes omitted, and the verb contracted into one word, thus; o^^j budast.
Remark
Pish az
man u
iu layl
u nahar-i
bud-ast.
"Days changed
Remark
II.
to nights, ere
you were born, or I." (0. K. Rub. 33 Whin.)
Note that the

,
full
forms of the affixed substantive verb are
written after the silent
vide
66
(a)
and
(6).
Note the form
of the second
person singular;
.
66
(e).
The Pluperfect Tense
<v*j
u
"
bo
not in use.
(Buda budam
XI. The Future Perfect
1.
{
f^
jj^j, etc.)
agar Perfect Subjunctive^. " " or will have been shall îb tty buda basham I
(
)
^& ^Û
"
(with
"
Singular
must have been -"
..\
2.
^t> ^j 6^^
fea^M thou
1^3.
/
^b
^j
fcitcZa
bashad he,
etc.
1.
^^b
i$^ buda bashwn
we
you
Plural
2.
\
^b
<xxU
to
j^ 6i*&
65ftid!
*3.
^y 6â bashand they

Infinitive a
By adding
the
^,
called
by grammarians the
i
:>
ya-yiliyaqatoT
"^
of fitness,"
possibility is formed, thus

:
^j
budam
a future participle or substantive (i what was to be, or to happen ";
plural Ifi^y budani-ha
Bar lawh nishan-i budam-ha buda ast. " 'Twas writ at J> first, whatever was to be.
l
(0.
(d)
K. Rub. 35 Whin.)
Bad
^b,
and
in poetry fab
6ada
is
as
ab 3};^
o^p ^mm^
darazbad "
may thy
an Optative or a Benedictive form, life be long." #wvad jjt^j (old) is
j>b 65d The phrase (modern colloquial and classical) har chi bada bad " signifies happen what will, let happen what may."
another form of
tat
AÂ
tions of
Lawh the tablet upon which, according to Mohammadan mankind have been written by God, from all eternity.
belief,
the transac-
228

(e)
mabdd) "let it not be; by no means; away; be treated as a conjunction. (Note that, contrary to custom, the prohibitive * ma is retained with the third person Precative). In modern colloquial, the phrase tÛ/c '^ ^\^ bardy-i ruz-i mabddd " for a rainy day, for a day God forbid that it should come.' signifies is not and was (/) Nist u nd-bud kardan &&^ j^li ^ cu~J (lit. to make
t^>*>
Mabddd
(or
God
forbid;
lest"
may
'
'
'
'
not
'
* '
signifies
to destroy utterly.
' '
(g) It will be
remarked that there are three forms

In modern Persian there
is
of the
Present tense
in
of the
verb "to be."
no difference
their
signification; thus, "I am always here" nould be rendered equally modern Persian by man hamlsha mjd mi-bdsham, or haslam, or am, &o4&
in
^
"
;
or *1~A or f-**^* t^V'

(h)
Chi bude
(biidi)
fj
(class)
e/f
c^^f (spS *
^LJfdj
l
e^p
<^-j^>
X*
e{
^ means ^ chi
&**
l(
Oh
that! would that!

l
bude
ki
man an
tree
dirakht
rd biddnistame
ki kujd nst (Sa'dl)
Oh
that I
knew where that

is
was to be
found."
(i)
In modern Persian, the Preterite of budan
generally used for the
/*^^^ l?uf cxsj e/f )& jt\ Imperfect and the Past Conditional; thus oÛ. mi-budam dardn mard >Û4.> ^fj agar waqt dnjd hdjat-i qabr name-bud (Afghan) " had I been present then, I would have had no need of a grave (for I would have been buried in the ruins) " in modern Persian, budam and bud (without
;
the prefix mi) would ordinarily be used here. modern colloquial, the Imperative (j) In
<j*l'
bash
is
is
used for "halt,
stand
here,
' *
still,"
or
:
"wait." Mi-bash
(J(*^*
(m.c.)
also used for
"stay
Compare
imruz kdmrdn
Vinl,
Digar-l rd dil az mujdhada risk. Euzgdh^ chand bash id bi-khivurad.

*
Khdk mayhz-i sar-i khaydl-andish. One to-day you ma} sec successful,
7
(Sa^di).
Another broken-spirited from striving Wait a short time till the grave Swallows up their fancy-weaving brains."
;
Majhul sounds. In m.c. tj u# **> chi mi-shavad ; chi-mi-vhavad kiln lear ra bi-kunam, "I wish I could," chi *** danistam ^^4 ^! *^
l
khiib
bud agar In ra miAnother, and
pi~^*
\)
jf)
v^
(jO
ft
**
gh
for
Jjif
note that the

is
final * in the
former
is
aspirated.
probably the correct, reading
ruzak-l
dimin.).
ACTIVE VOICE.
229
dast-ash bi-bandad Ruzgar,
Pas bi-kam-i khwlshtan magiz-ash
bar-ar.
(Sa'di).
The Afghans
live."
still
use the present tense of budan in the sense of " to dwell,
Some verbs are both Transitive and Intransitive, as '.arwkhtan'1 eîu^f "to mix, be mixed"; rlkhtan îiu; "to pour away, be poured "to sew"; angikhtan* îu&t " to stir up, away, etc."; dukhtan* " to rouse"; amukhtan e^^f "to learn, teach" sukhtan burn";
(y)
1
^^
avikhtan*
" to break"
e>^T
;
4<
to
hang"; gusliadan
ct
payvastan e>**>*J
c<
to join
&^ "
;
^^
4<
afrukMan
tired, etc."
v&^
;
open"; gusistan, î-? pusJMan* U*N^J <4 to hide"

;
<(
to
to
kindle,
fc
congeal"; afzudan
\s>*jy\,
afsurdan* to increase"; khastan* ^Û^

to
inflame";
^^\
" to freeze, to wound, be
mandan
?;{(Ze
u*xiLo*
cc
remain"
(in
Afghan Persian
also transitive
"to place,"
81).
69.
Active Voice
6
<*-*)<*
is a conjugation " kandan to dig, root out, etc."

:
The following
(a)
of
the regular
transitive
verb
&<&
Infinitive( j<*z*>
^\
7 )
^^kandan
(the Infinitive can also be used as a
noun)
negative Infinitive,
o*yitfi
Ci
twi-kandan or
(b)
(
Imperative
&*& na-kandan.
bi-kari).
lean
dig thou, etc," (or

)
Past Participle
Jîxs
p)
(active
and passive
x^
kanda"
"dug"
or
"having dug."
Present
Participle (AAJU.
^t
iylir
frawSft
"digging"
(indeclinable).
Noun
2
3
Mushtarik) i.e. "shared, common." In modern colloquial, Transitive only. In modern colloquial, afsurda (with shudan) only used. In modern colloquial, Intransitive only.
of
6 i.e.,
6
which the agent
is
" known.'*
tofr$/
S*ar/
Oj^
"conjugation,"
kardan &&jf
vJtJjWfti
or gardaiidan
eA>!^
to
" In India, gardan (*>\^j is used f or a conjugate." conjugation." T For the Infinitive as a verbal noun, vide $ 115 (ft), and (r) Remark.
j>>
3igha-yi
it
tinguish
ZJÂJ*] amr-i mniarrad to disfrom t $*'**y amr-i mudami "the Continuous Imperative." The second
also called
f
amr "Imperative mood,"
persons are called
^1^.^*1 amr-i Mzir, while
the third persons of the Aorist or Present

4
Subjunctive bi-kanad "let him dig" <*ii& bi-kanand
*let
them dig," are
v.Ajljc^x{
In such sentences as
is
o-*j
(
*^j^,
which equals
^-^*^
8^
*
;l^
n>.-!f,
this
Parti-
ciple
called
mazi-yi
ma'f.Ufi,
(
^*^k*xs ^-alx)),
the final
being considered the
equivalent of the conjunction
*&
J^
7;a ^.
230
of
ACTIVE VOICE.
l agency (cUl* ^\ ) **& kananda "a digger'' (declinable). Noun of " that is to be dug up, fit to Possibility or Future Participle <^*if kandani " be to are that kandamha be dug up" plural dug up, or are things
;
^^
fit
to be
dug up/'
/.
Aorist or Present Subjunctive
muzari
dig
)L*c
(or
).
prt
or
*&
or
kanam
or
U P")>
J^
c^
kani or bi-kani
bi-kanam " I "
may
up"
etc.
"let
me
dig
mayst thou dig,"
termination ^ of the 1st person of the tenses of transitive or intransitive verbs is styled by grammarians mim-i mutakallim
Remark
/.The
^
fi'l
,*WLc
).
The
(
suffix
am
as in
['vide'
66 (a)]
;
is
termed
mim-i
isbat-i
J*
e>Ui|
p**
),
shadman-am ^
UÛ
am
rejoiced."
Remark
end
II.
In old poetry a pleonastic

person singular of this tense.
//. Present
allf is
sometimes found at the
of the third
(zaman-i hoi JU. Ûj
).
pti**
mi-kanam "I dig up, or am digging up,
etc. (also I will dig
up)."
Remark.
a verbal adjective to the verb
Present tenses can also be formed by prefixing participles or <e to be."
///
-4.
Imperative
siy_ha-yi
amr j*\
f<
e/
or
^^ kan or bikan "dig thou."

dig ye."
*&
The
Remark.
If
or xJXj kanid or bi-kanid
other persons are identical with the Aorist.
the initial letter of the Imperative has

<fc
zamma
:
for its vowel,
the vowel of the prefix may also be changed to zamma, as bu-guzar or Such contractions as bugzar occur in poetry and in modern colbi-guzar.
loquial, vide
72
(a).
III. B.
The Continuous Imperative (amr-i mudami
ÂAJ mi-kan (clas.), or t^wfc Jwmi-kan (class.), or OÂ hami " continue to on In modern (class.) dig up keep digging." colloquial
;
bi-tcan
^^
hay bi-kan
is
used.
or
&*
^*>f
guished from Adjectives and Compound Adjectives that have the Bonse
Participle.
2
the rea/or regular Active Participle as distinof a Past
In modern Persian the prefix
&
_r*
is
nearly always used with the Imperative.
It
is,
however, generally omitted before
O&
the Imperative of
shaw the Imperative of e><^ , and always before c^>j, and often before kun "do."
ACTIVE VOICE.
231
"Oh that he may dig" is The Precative kanad and confined to the third person singular. In old poetry, however, other persons are found. [Mabada tÛ* is both classical and modern
Remark.
classical,
^
'
colloquial.]
///. C.
Prohibitive Imperative
'
vide
sigha-yi amr-i nahl
^ j^
**&*
ma-kan "dig not up (thou)."

i
ma-kamd
t(
dig not
'
up
(ye.)' the
(The remaining persons are identical with
Negative Aorist.)
Remark.
For an example, in
classical Persian, of the
Past Subjunctive
used as a Continuative Imperative, vide
125
(j) (6).
IV.
The
c '
Preterite (mazi-yi
2
' '
mutlaq
f.^ kandam
for eupliony only.
dug up.
This tense, in writing, when affirmative
frequently takes the prefix
A>
,
V. Imperfect* (mazi-yi istimrari

C*** (j+* to dig up."
^7^-'^^).
I
hami-kandam. or ?*&** mi-kandam "I was digging up,

is
used
(This tense
also used in past
and future
conditions.)
VI.
The Past Conditional

^xcxi^
or Habitual, or the Optative*
^jj+*^ \j^ M V
kandame
(class.),
or rarely
me-kandame and hame-kandame, vide
68 VI.
Remark.
is
This tense can take the prefix

,
<?y.
The second person

exist.
singular
rarely used, and the second person plural perhaps, does not
is
The first
68
person plural
VI, Remark.
rare and, perhaps, should not exist
vide
Remark,
&S fAi^
The
tense.
vide also
VII. Future Definite (mustaqbil cU^^c). khwaham kand " I will
prefix
&
is
dig up." sometimes added to the auxiliary

full
^>^
khwaham
in this
;
In poetry, the
80.
and not the shortened form
of the Infinitive occurs
In
modern
classical
colloquial
k>
is
preferred, being less peremptory.
form of the third person singular

Sa'dl frequently uses
is
alif-f
8
tahsin as rafta (for raft).
is
formed by adding
gufta,
which
mazi-yi
is
is
also m.c.
When When
preceded by agar this tense
called
c5^r^ C5^
to
shartj,.
preceded by o2(
leash
^/^K
kashki, etc., this tense
called
<J&3
mazi-t/i
same term appears PI uperfect when preceded by kash, etc.

tammana'i.
The
be applied to
the Imperfect and
232
VIII.
(*(
ACTIVE VOICE.
The
<%
Perfect
(mazi-yi qarib
*xtf
kanda
am
have dug."
is
In the third person singular the o^t ast
often omitted, thus
%^
for
Remark.
(for Itxxf
An
old form of the second person singular
is
^X-a^
kandasti
kanda-l) and a contracted form of the third person singular is **+& kandast [vide 66 (d)} the other persons occur, but if perhaps
;
so they are rare.

of the Perfect.
In a rarer form
still,
a c5
is
found affixed to the auxiliary
This form seems to be always Conditional.
IX.
Pluperfect (mazi-yi ba'id

I
kanda budam "

This tense
is
had dug up."
also used in past conditions, in modern Persian only.

little-used
Remark.
Optative a verb, the
Preterite,
is
form
of the Pluperfect, used in Conditional
and
clauses, is:
kanda budami, i.e., to the Past Participle of Past Conditional or Habitual of budan, instead of its added. Example: '^ Jjf j' e/^ ^-^J j ay kadi az
^*zy t^
^^
^**y
awal Khuda ra
X.
paristida budami.
*
Future Perfect or Past Subjunctive
(mazi.yi shakkt
^ ^*
).
îb*^
kanda bash am "I
will
have dug up; must have dug up; may
have dug up."

This tense
(c)
is
also used as a Past Subjunctive.
The following
tenses are rarely used
(1) Continuative Perfect o~~f> ;>JAX mi-kanda ast (m.c.) "he has been " tho ; digging up Imperfect is ordinarily used for this tense, vide 125 (t)
(2)
f^M*
xi<
(J\)
the Imperfect or Pluperfect
doubtful accuracy and
is
(old) "(if) I bad dug'* used instead of this tense, which is of generally not used by Persians.
(agar)
is
kanda me-budam
The second person

This tense
is
is
written X<^
>
and
also (but rarely)
^\
t4
also called
/0
Ûi^.!
<^*k* mazi-yi ihtimutt, and

t
waznwn, and
1
L5^^c maziryi mashkuk (or tashkik) from haml lt thinking, suspecting" and fthalek doubting."
8
-^^
imputing," zann
rare in old
Or (^*i^ W*f kanda budame (not used

:
in
modern Persian, and
Persian)
me-kanda budam
is
another form
Qazl-l tariha shab-l ml-rajta bud.
Su-yi bustan did duzd-i hamchu dud.
" One night a Qazi was going alone towards a garden. When he saw a thief (pass him) like smoke."
ACTIVE VOICE.
233
Remark.
In the following example ***+*

' '
agar nishista budid /car sakhta nami-shud "it
&LJ^j1 (m.c.) you had remained sitting still,

\
&i>L*
^ ix^y
the Past Participle of the intransitive verb nothing would have been found is considered an adjective and not part of the verb; both verbs are, therefore,
correctly in the ordinary Imperfect to express a supposition.
According to Forbes, "Let him continue digging." unable to find any examples of such a tense. Such an expression " % in modern Persian would be taken to mean "it is kanda (engraving),
(3)
ixU*x>
aaif.
am
just as X&UA>O
(4)
dug."
nuqra mi-bashad signifies "it is silver." ty <tofj:k *&, a Future Perfect, "ho will have dug, he must have This tense is used by the Afghans and sometimes by the Persians.
*jftj
It is of doubtful accuracy.
(5)
pl
toy
JJcxi*'
For example, vide 125 (;') (3). " I must have kanda buda am dug." This
is
tense,
which
vide
is
also of doubtful accuracy,

(j) (5).
used in modern Persian.
For example,
125
(/)
The
third person singular of the Aorist
may
be made Optative or
,?
Benedict! ve, by lengthening the fafha of the final syllable; thus
ay bitvad
becomes
may
"
^ "
:
buvad or
" bad; *X kanad becomes z\& kanad,

'
Oh
that he
*^j$
dig
They say
(g)
'
Guy and mar a hi Izad-at tauba dihad J*z *y <^^f ** " (0. K. 172, Whin.) may Allah aid thee to repent
!
Paraphrases of some of the tenses can be made by prefixing Parti-
ciples, Persian or Arabic, and Verbal Adjectives, to the verb "to be," as: "> khwahan-i an bud Id &f &\A\*&> (m.c.) "he was desirous of
^^
--
j*I~a c^-k) raftani
liastam
(m.c.)
"I am
about to go";
ow*t a^yc
miirda
ast (m.c.)
<c
it is
dead"
(also
"he
has died");
^~t JU îLt j\ u
:
asl
(or
f&jj (^) J^^*i

colloquial
seeks after knowledge"; cW f^*^ malum ast" it To be about to do a thing, can be expressed as follows khayal-i) rajtan budam (*ay ^&j (J^ or) a<>-oja, or darsharaf-i raftanbudam " also in modern " I was 011 the eve
"he
(h)
Him is known." Dar sadad-i

talib-i
point,
of,
by,
mi-khwahad bi-ravad
ki
"he
is
departure on the
point
X$
of
c^T
going
when
*$
u dar kar-i murdan
ast (m.c.)
u heis
dying";
f^y
^^
;
f)<& )^^> j\j (*;!^ eAjt^f v lu^ "I was on the point of approaching her and jumping over the wall when " (Trans, of Haji Baba, Chap. XXII 1) (dar kar also means to be actually engaged in) y &****> ^skf* ; lj f^J
:
tf
"
)^
was about to leap over the wall." (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXIII). && y c**o ;l^ (i) The Imperative can also be expressed as follows: zinhar dast-i tu takan na-khwumd "don't let your hand shake",
*$
y&i* ma-guzar
"
ki bi-yuftad
' ' ;
biyayad
permit (him) to come
"don't let it fall" *jl v^b ;!*& bu-guzar bashad

;
;!^
bu-guzar
'
' *
let it alone.'
This
alif is called alif-i da* a or alif-i
tamanna.
234
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(
" " Gu say, suppose, let much the same signification as

Gu-ki
*$
I.
Imperative of guftan) occurs in writing with
bi-guzdr.
(conjunction)
"
although."
Remark
The
Preterite Potential
^ ,JLJy
o^
(
(vide
77)
is
called the
*>
mdzi-yi imkdni or mdzl
ma
'l-qudrat
^^
)
^^,
or
e^^l
cr^-*
Remark II. Sarf-i sagh/ir ( ^-^^ o/^ is an Indian term applied to running through the moods and tenses of a verb, giving the Infinitive, the third person singular of the Preterite, Imperfect, Pluperfect, Future, Aorist, and Present, the second person singular of the Imperative and the Negative
Imperative, and the Present and the Past Participles.
Sarf-i kabir
(
jtf
o^
and Tenses,
in both voices.
is conjugating a verb in all This term, too, is Indian.
its
Persons,
Moods
70.
Verbal Adjectives.
(a) From the Imperative stem of some verbs a Verbal Adjective (or Substantive) with the termination a is formed, which differs little in signification from a Present Participle, thus: e*>^ dldan "to see," Imperative
<^x>
verbal adjective ti# bind " seeing, clear-sighted " or " a blind man <c blind "; &#\* nd-bind (plural <^&w bindydn (classical) ) lvw bind shudan " to sjet sight, recover sight."
bin
;
" see thou,"
"
oSj^
fy
)/
Dar kargatiri kuza~gar-i raftam dush, Dldam du hazdr kuza guyd u khamush.
" Once in a potter's shop, a company Of cups in converse, did I chance to
(0.
see.
K. 283 Whin.)
Vide also examples in
43
(r).
" holding fast; Similarly, from ^^-^ ddshtan andy ju c^^ justan juy. comes (m.c.)
:
comes, IJÂ. juya seeking"; from c;^J** sazldan [saz] "to be worthy !>* sazd : and from ^fi? guftan and guyd gu or ^$ guy, comes tl For an example of Lify tavdnd and cJfyG nd-tavdn^ vide' speaking, etc." 77 (e) and Remark.
**
"
Panrd ÂJ has a Passive
as well as an Active sense.
Some
of these
Verbal Adjectives are not declinable, and are equivalent to Participles. from <^ pahn (b) A few nouns have a similar termination; thus "broad" comes U^ pahnd "breadth"; from &*)) rawshan " clear,
Poetical for
NEGATIVE VERBS.
1
235
also "Roxana" the Greek bright" rawshana (*$ (old) "brightness," form of the name of the wife of Alexander the Great, who was a daughter of the
king of Persia:
U>
tarsa a
f<
Christian."
71.
(a)
Negative Verbs.
Fi'l-i
Fi'l-i nafi
J*i negative verb and
nahi
^
<**
J** prohibitive
The Negative prefixes are: (1) 4u or or 3 & na; and /ma*; (2) * The prefix f' is always omitted when the verb is negative, as: (3) b na. " let me see " bi-binam na-Unam, f*& "let me not see." fHtf
verb.
<*'
;
used with the second person singular and plural only of the Imperative, and with the Negative Precative, as: u^* ma-purs "don't ask"; **&*> ma-kunid "don't do" and (with the Precative Aorist) d*&*
(6)
I/a
is
ma-binad
tl
may
he not see."
It is
always joined to
its
verb in writing,
compound verbs immediately precedes the verb itself, as: CL>^ o**a (last ma-zan &yo o^- ''don't touch"; *nde also Remark to (0). The benedictive forms ma-manad ^liU* ma-kunad *M*> etc., are sometimes used
,
and
in
in
m.c.
in the conjunction mabad or mabada (the Optative of e^y); as also in the adverb mayar "but, perhaps," which is
Remark.
The ma occurs
compounded
(c)
of
ma and
agar.
In
modern
AJ is
colloquial,
however,
it is less
ma
&*
is
falling into disuse;
and
na
AJ is
generally used instead, as
(d)
Na
correctly prefixed to all
imperative and therefore civil. the tenses with the exceptions of the
second person singular and plural of the Imperative [vide (b) ], and in modern It is also prefixed to the Past colloquial it is even prefixed to these also. Participle, and to the Shortened Infinitive as well as to its full form, as:
,^&AA:
cX> n^jXj [^ cbJjiO i; )\4 ^\ In bar ra na-kunid Khuda na-karda bad tm-shavad (m.c.) "don't do this (God forbid it), it may not turn out well." It can, in writing, be joined to the verb or be written separately.
(ej
na-yuft
If,
say however, the prefix be
The & immediately precedes the verb " he did not

t(
;
^^
or its prefix mi.
Example
a *A
nami-guyam hami and not mi, the negative
"
do not say."
is
prefixed to the verb, as:

1
hami na-guyam.
are pahna'l
The usual forms, however,

is
^^tv
rawshana'i
colloquial panha*i
used
for pahnu-l.
In India roshna-l geaerally means
modern ^^*>;. In "ink," and
roslmi ''brightness."
Called ^fc* ft* mlm i nafy. Nun i nafy A * &)* but with the Imperative mln-i nahy. For this nun is Interrogation, vide 73.
*
8
it
is,
or should bo, called
&}*
In
y^#
<^+> the
negative
is
called
&j& Ojr^, or u^-^

used as an
but when written
*> it is
But the negative
of the Past Participle
adjective takes
na & only.
236
Similarly, in
NEGATIVE VERBS.
compound
verbs, the
to the verb itself, as: ^|j> ^j remove your hand ? " or " won't
gardam "if I don't return";

vide
85
^ o^
" you cease doing ? f*j&j*\ agar bar naik I did not speak," harf na-zadam
:
follows the prefix, being joined o,*o dast bar nami-dari "won't you
*i
(c).
Remark.
standstill"
(/)
The same
rule holds
good for
**, as
oÛ
(j
va ma-ist "don't
This rule
:
is
sometimes broken in poetry, and by the Afghans
in
speaking, as
Chun
riist
dar In zamana sud-l
zi-]chirad
Juz bi-khirad az zamana bar mi na-khurad.
"Small gains
to learning
on
this earth accrue,
They pluck
life's fruitage,
learning
(0.
who eschew."
K. Rub. 224 Whin.)
(g)
(local
Nati occurs only in compounds, as: ^^na-dlda (adj.) "unseen"; blind"; o*vot Ûj^k U wJJao ^\ y j\ u az in matlab na-khwa/tan a>st and incorrect) :c he does not want to do it."
Infinitive
The
being considered a
noun, the
often treated like a
compound, and formed with modern Persian, however, na *j is preferred to na U.

In
Negative Infinitive is In k, seldom with &>.
&djtykj OV^M
riist
u na-bud kardan the ^y

t
is
probably considered
a shortened Infinitive, or a verbal noun.

(h)
only
is
correct, vide
In Persian, two negatives arc sometimes used where in English one 123 (6) (5) and (e) also for the negative verb with
;
hilch, vide
39
(d)
(1),
(2),
(3)
arid
Remark.
For the
negative
after a verb of prohibition, vide

(i)
122
(n).
With the
^x&
tf
auxiliaries
to the auxiliary
bayad <\>k, etc., the negative is sometimes added and sometimes to the principal verb, as bayad ki na:
kunad
^l, or na-bayad bi-kunad && Û); na-bayad raft^*)&>^] chira bayad bi-hukm-i shar' rdzi na-shavand? (Tr. &*j& ^1) ^ j*Ca=u *& " there is a H. B., Chap. VI) why shouldn't the dispute be legally settled (as " Mulla present) ?
(j)
Kam ft
:
and andak
^^
usually in poetry, can give the idea of a
Negative, as
Not e^~Jt
Ax.
EUPHONICAL RULES AND ACCENTS IN THE VERBS.

G/tandan
lei
237
justand kamtar yaftand (Gul.) "in spite of their diligent search they couldn't find him," or "the mo re they searched, the less they
found him."
Vide also
121
(b).
72.
Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs.
differs in
the Imperative of a verb ends in j, this letter sometimes pronunciation in the Imperative and in the other tenses. If the ^ of " bethe Imperative is pronounced w it becomes a v before #, as _>& shaw
(a)
1
When
come, go"
"go"
If
(Imperative (Imperative of <ji; rajtan),

j>
of shudan),
pj)
ravam, Aorist;
shavam, Aorist;^; raw (or ro) cA^ davidan "to
run" (Imperative
the^
daw), Aorist davam f*.

is
of the Imperative
pronounced u, a
is
inserted for euphony,
" as: u*5& guftan "to say," Imperative^ bigu say," Aorist +>* bi-guyam. The latter rule also holds good when the Imperative ends in a, as c^+j u to show," Present /*jl*> ^* mi-namayam. Such verbs ncumudaUy U^ nama
:
have two forms of the Imperative, one with and one without the <^, as: M~OW justan "to seek," Imperative ju or juy\ guftan "to namudan speak," Imperative ^ gu or <^ ^?l?y (classically go or #o,e)
^
&
^^
c^>^> nama
(b)
U>"z or
nanmy ^+>
in
As stated
G8
(6) (3),
the prefix
is
omitted in verbs compound-
ed of an indeclinable particle and a verb. (c) If the verb begins with alif without madda, this letter is generally after the prefixes &>, <*J, or*^, for the sake of euphony, as changed into
o;k!t>J|
andakht
"he
threw./'
)
:
î^'txx^
*'
nayandakht,
he
did not
throw,"
;KJ| anj;ar
(also written
o.|yiUi
Î>j
uftam
" I
may
afo'/
fall,"
fiiw bi-yujtam:
f
3 "consider," mayangat\ ^H^. (^) If the verb begins with an
marked by a madda
(
'
the
a/*'/
madda of course being rejected: trf arad "he may bring "; " do not bring." Û> biyarad let him bring" ;U* mayar *J often unites with the In the verb, as: <xU namad (for (e) poetry, " he came not." This license is often taken nayamad) by *Umar-i Khayyam. The contraction occurs in modern colloquial also. (/) The accent of the verb falls on the last syllable of either stem, except
remains, the
;
there be one of the prefixes
<t>,
AJ,
or
&*>
or the verb be a compound with
less
In the modern language, both j common.

1
shaw and
bi-shaw are used, but the latter

9
:
is
Indians, especially Punjabis, have a passion for using
they intrude
it
after every
alif or ya.
s
In
o~jU
tj
va ma-iat thia euphonic

t
45- is
always omitted.
238
INTERROGATIVE VERBS.
1
a preposition or an adverb;
in the
latter cases,
the accent
(6), (1)
falls
on the
prefix or the prefixed preposition, vide
21
(a)
and
to
(4).
73.
is
Interrogative Verbs.
2 It is usually expressed by the tone of the voice.' " " whether? or j*> also expressed by prefixing to the question Ijf dyd " " or " ^ Examples by suffixing the words & U yd na or not ? magar but ?
(a)
Interrogation
has he left the place or u**)^ yd na? nami-ddmd " what, don't you know Persian ? ": eu-*>j *jyc yix " is he dead that tiJj ^+J vJ^x <tf magar murda ast ki liarf nami-zanad " " are he doesn't speak ? &t^ j*> magar dlvdna-i ? you mad? ", or I fancy you must be mad." In modern colloquial, bf aya is seldom used,^^ magar usually taking its place. Interrogation magar is both positive and negative, and is used
<*j
(j
ow
Ai*j
rafta ast
lt
" not ?
*&\& aya Fdrsi
tk
idiomatically at
the
beginning
9
and
end
of
short
?
<:
Examples
^^jj** vir*
lit.
*'
^"
"
'\
magar shardb khhwurdi

'*
drinking,"
but have you been drinking

(a sly question).
"
_>^
<f
^'j
exclamative phrases. I think you have been "

raftl
magar
'I
you
went there, didn't you

(6)
7H
A^"
followed by
ya na
3
' '
&^, also
signifies
aJ
(
cxvof
js^/c is
whether he
i^fo^^ dead or not
naml-danam ki murda ast the yd na at the end cannot be omitted.

;
whether or not," as: ya na"I don't know
Remark /. Interrogation is of course also expressed by the interrogau how much ? " or tive pronouns or adjectives, as: chand *>J^ by the inter,
rogative adverbs, as
kujf
or kujd
>7
?
lJ
*'
where
"
bardy-i chi sabab &*
^ji
v*^
*'
for
what reason, why

II.
Remark
answer
is
simple question with the object of obtaining a direct

^lîiî
called
Û^l^t
istifhdm-i istikhbari.
If
the question indi-
cates negation, as in, ki mt-guyad ki khaydl-i safar daradl JU^ li who says he is thinking of going on a journey?", *}\*^&*
istifhdm-i inkdri.
is
&
&.**
**
it is
called
it
If the question
expects the answer "yes,"
called
as in: ^)\j*\ ^tÂv^f istifhdm-i iqrdrt,
p^t
ovWf
'*
Am
not youc
Lord?"
Examples:
eA^^
bardashtan, eH^*0^ &

^ji;
plÂi^f
<^-*^
gashtan.
* 4
In negative interrogation as
nami-ravl
w'ste
won't you go
J>
?
the
3).
nun
is
styled
nnri
istifham-i nafy
(^
c^*),
:
71 (a) foot-notes (2
and
This
negative interrogation can imply assertion, as

(;
*a vJÎ?
+A jjjl
AJ
jt}
ciie^ ^^(f
is
î^
^4.>
(Gul.)
Indians for ki might substitute
aj/a,
which, however,
incorrect.
ROOTS. OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.
239
74.
(a)
Roots or Stems of Simple Verbs.
The number
the
Infinitive
(
As already stated, of simple verbs in Persian is small. ends in dan or tan. Such Infinitives are called masdar-i
)
munsarif
<Jyaxx> ^*a/o
e>:>
Infinitives in
fatha, or else
85. as opposed to the Compound Infinitives, vide dan are preceded by the lon^ vowels a, I and u, or by by the consonants r and n.
<J* tan are preceded by kh> s, $b or /. In the so-called irregular verbs the irregularity consists, only in the :( to Imperative differing from the root of the Infinitive. Thus &**& dtdan
Infinitives in
(b)
see
' '
has an Imperative
bin
" see thou
' ' ;
&&jf /cardan
' '
to do
"
^/ kun
cjab
dadan "to give,"

(c)
^ dih, etc.
The following
are the rules for forming the Imperative or stem,
together with lists of the exceptions. Verbs marked by an asterisk are obsolete in m.c., while those marked with a dagger are regular:
(I)
Infinitives
in
adan or idan* and'
^nfinitives in tan
preceded by
,s,
reject these letters to form the root; in the reject this termination,
Infinitive.
i.e.,
same way,
infinitives in
adan
dan and the fatha preceding, as:

Root or Stem.
.
firist
cu^y
purs
z*
<^3
tavan
dzh jf
EXGErTIONS. s
Infinitive.
Root or Stem.
to bring forth
zddan
m.c. zd*ida
young
to
zd
Ij
or zd,y ^(j
(trans.
be born.
B
and
.
intr.)
m.c. dfridan
m.vC.
f to create to
dfrin &Jjtf
dmadan
6
come
ay
^f
or
m.c. guzidan
$ to choose
guzin
Verbs wliose Imperative stems are formed according

**
)
to rules are called qiyasl
L5*^4^
analogical, presumptive, regular
"
;
those that arc not so formed are called

(
{,<F\&
*
3
j&
' *
ghayr-i qiyasl, or shazz (rare, irregular), or samafl
i^+*>
" traditiona
irregular.
The greater part of the simple Persian verbs end Verbs marked f are regular.
used in m.c.
m.c. (regular) " to bite, sting."
in Idan.
* Infin.
6
In m.c. afaridan.
But gazldan
240
m.c. (vulg.) gddan
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

c^lf
}
copulate (of
only)
.
men
gd tforgdy^tf
dih
m.c. (vulg.) gd*idan f
o^lf j
m.c. dddan &&\& to give m.c. shariidan \
8<3
shanudan
m.c. shinuftan
&ty
to hear
shunaw
or shinaw
^&
cÛ^
)
\
m.c. gushadan
m.c. kushddan
m.c. kushudan'f
^(M
c^y^
to lo 8e
kushd
or kushdy
m.c. didan
(j*xa to see
bin
^
c>j
m.c. zadan &&) to strike to stitcJi *bakhldan
zan
bakhya
(m.c.).
kun
The only verb

from the
in
which the Imperative appears to be derived from a verb totally

joint,
different
*
Infinitive.
signifies
Payvand also "
subs.
" a
connection
mark
of
a join":
payvasta
(Participle)
always, continually."
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VEBBS.

*jistan
241
m.c. jastan
>
to
^jJkMM^.
jump
jah
fa*
m.c. justan
<^-^
e)-^
L
*
to search
(in
m.c.
also
/#
â.
or
jtty
=
m.c. chldan
to find).
.
.
to pluck, cull
c^m
^
>^j
and
intrans.
m.c. bar khastan m.c. khwastan m.c. rastan
e^t^
^.iÛ^j to rise up, get to wish, desire
up
barkhlz
khiuah *i^
^^;
to be liberated, to escape; to let go.
rah
trans,
m.c. ruîdan^
m.c. r us tan
*rlsian
o<H$^)*| 9 >to
grow
(intrans.
vl. adjective).
*ristan
to spin
thread).
(nsman
m.c. ristdan'f m.c. rishtan

8
m.c. nâ/i
>
to gtool
_ A
in m.c.
crude word, only used by the vulgar.*
m.c.
m.c. sUkastan
to break (trans,
trans.).
and
in-
trans,
and
intrans.
m.c.
to lessen
kah ^
tr.
and
intr.
m.c. kastan
*qirislan
6
,
to
weep
m.c.).
m.c.
m.c. gusistan
to break off, to
snap
gusil
J~>
;
trans,
arid
*gusustan
m.c. gusikhtan
l
tr.
and
intr.
intrs.
in m.c. trans.
Note that
*Ruahtan
e^l^
4<
and e^^f>*
grow
;
ôa.'j; r u* Idan to
(old),
&*?.j)
rawldan or ravldan
though spelt differently are pronounced the same. " to travel, walk/'
(old)
go,
to colour, dye."
(to
In polite speech sar-i qadam raftan &*') f&3j*
squat), or birkinar-i ab raftan
In modern Persian
or value:
&
16
&bf j~$
^*AJ
)f
kasr kardan
is
preferred for
tr.
for lowering of price

ts
AA^t^ ^JUJ
az qimat-i qall kasta shud m.c.
carpets have gone
down.
' '
Niganst
" he looked " and
na-girist
" he did not weep."
242
*manistan
m.c.
l
BOOTS OB STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

resemble
>l*>
intr.
mdnd
vl-
adjective.
mandan
to remain,
fluous;
be superto be fa-
<.
The
is
' *
participle
J>
mdnda
used as an
fatigued
,
tigued; to resemble.
adjective,
especially
by the
Af-
ghans.
In India it also
means "poor, worn out" (of animals).]

m.c. nishastan ^
to sit
i
nishln'1
*nigaristan
~\
m.c. nigaristan
*m"0rartefcmf
<^-^y& Vto look

e;*lr^ J
at,
view
nigar j&
rare).
(nigaridan very
*yaristan*
e^;b }to
^
be able;
other
(in
dictionary
also
yar ){->.
meanings
*yarastan
m.c. bastan
^-^
to bind
band *w
[6aâ
shudan
pass. m.c.].
*nishastan
to place
rn.c.
nishdn
^Jfo
[nishdsta
nishdndan'f
in m.c.
*
= starch].
;
shu*idan
m.c. shustan m.c. shuridan* c
'
to
wash
5/ii//
^^-^ or sAur
is
;^-
(shur
in
the stem most

in
use
m.c.,
but
both are used).
Remark.
It will be noticed that
some verbs have two forms
of the
:
and one in a vowel without as a f or Imperative stem, one ending in In both forms are but used in is modern ^/f ay. writing, colloquial the " " as nearly always discarded, bi-gu (not bi-guy <^* ). say
;
:
^
<4
Manand
**&*> adv.
(misl)
alike, resembling."
also as a transitive,
2
" to put, place."

is
The Afghans use
these verbs
Nishasta aat
Present tense:
both Perfect Tense and Past Participle with aat for the English " he is an/a niahctata aat sitting (seated) there," but " that is where he always sits." l;*uf gnyg me-nMmod ** -he looked " or else no-giriat '* he did not weep." nigrar^ o*Jjx>
*-^~*{
*i-*^> Mp-M
The Gabrs use
this
word
in writing, *^\))j* (m.c.) also
to
grow mad, be distracted."
BOOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

(2) Infinitives in
243
reject
udan &&) dan and change u into a or

!
of
which there are not a large number

:
ay, as
m.c. situdan
m.c.
namudan
to praise to do, to
sita
Uu
or siidy
11
Ûuo.
show
nama
U> or
namay Ûi,
intrans.
trans,
and
Exceptions.
m.c. budan
to be
>
6w
j>
or (jwU 6a5^.
m.c. shudan
, '
shudan
to become, to go
}
5â^
to twist,
j.
*tanudan
*tanidan-f
to
draw tight,
be twisted.
tan
ti>5.
shanudan
m.c.
shamdan
iii^
fto hear
j
shanaw
zinaw
j*S.
m.c. shanujtan
*zinudan
to neigh
^
))&.
(shayha kashicollo-
dan in modern
quial).
*darudan
m.c. darawdan^
to reap
daraw
the
(In
mod. Pers.
daraw
infinitive
is
kardan
m.c.
to slumber, doze
.
preferred).
ghunaw
ghunavidan^
Remark.
to
The
;
prove"
(tr.)
m.c. azmudan cJ^^jT '* to try, following are regular " to rest, be satisfied, be at ease" (intr.) asudan e^>~>f
:
cf to increase" (tr. and intr.): m.c. fuzudan cJj^ aludan c;^f "to stain, pollute; to be polluted" (tr. and intr.); (in m.c. intransitive is aluda shudan c;* *pT ) m.c. andudan 8 e)^*ii " to plaster,
m.c. ajzudan o>^>i
or
smear,
twist": m.c. paludan* &&jik ll to strain, filter; become pure" (tr. and intr.) m.c. bakhsJmdan eJÂiu (also m.c. bakhshldan ^jxlsiu " to " m.c. rubudan " give, bestow, forgive e^^; or *rubudan &wj) to rob, carry off; withdraw oneself from sight" (trans.): m.c. zadudan &wj
gild, to
:
)
:
"to
polish, .scour;
sdbtdan
^*>^
wipe sadness from the mind": *sudan eJ^ (also m.c. and m.c. saîdan &*$l> ) " to rub, wear, anoint" (tr.) 6
:
Sita f ish kardan
is
also in use.
* 3
Fide
72
(a).
is
In modern colloquial andud kardan In m.c. iJ^^ faluda-yi (or
preferred.
v^
paluda-yi
S^b
.n&
'
sharbat of minced
The Afghans use this verb and c>-H^ palldan for "to apple, rose-water and sugar.' search.*' Paluda in m.c. is also a sweetmeat made of starch and sugar. In m.c. this
verb
is tr.
6
;
the intrans. form
is
paluda shudan.
Intransitive eJ<^
J$Û* sa 9 lda shudan.
44
iraudan ^byj* "to rub, wear; to be worn, old (tr.) " kushudan &&j*f (also kushadan \&j*j* "to order
:
"
*
:
m.o. farmudan :*
)
c^^
"to open "
i.e.
gushudan oj^^
(3) Infinitives in
or gushadan e*>Uf.
tan preceded
by kh
reject tan
.
and change
into J
pukhtan u-*^ to cook anddkhtan to throw

Exceptions.
anddz
*akhtan
*akhtan
3
to
draw a sword
geld.
to
dkh
m.c. shinakhtan
ni .c gusikhtan
.
to recognize
shinas
m.c. gusastan
^to break
I
off,
snap
gusil
d~S
tr.
and
intr.
*gu8ustan
*sukhtan
m.c. sanytdanj
.. ,
.
to weigh G
,
.
sanj î-. }
*pikhtan
na.c.
to twist, to coil
pich -r^,
'
tr.
and
intr.
plchldan f
Remark.
frdshtdn
*'
The following
are regular:
m.c. afrakhtan (î^î, (or m.c.

:
Q.C.)
*
*'to raise (-ji&fyf) to set on fire"

(tr.
on high; to exalt" (tr.) afrukhtan ey^j/f m.c. amukhtan ^.^ôf 4 "to lear'nf (tr.)
:
and intr.): m.c. amlkhtan ^.litxof ** to mix, mingle; be intermixed" (tr. and intr.): rn.c. anglkhtan ^^^J! (also angidan JJ\ ) "to excite, rouse": m.c. avikhtan Îscu^f "to hang, suspend" " to m.c. bakhtan r.) play, to lose at play" (tr.): m.c. pardakhb n (^^&jJ "to finish; bring to perfection; to be busily engaged" " r. and intr.) m.c. parhikhtan u*k*H^ 6 (^) ** to educate (but parhizidan)
teach"
^^
Imper.
jjjA^j,
" restrain oneself, abstain" (intr.): m.c. bikhtan u-
2 3
Usually the participle t&f>j* with an auxiliary verb is used. Also in compound verbs used as a substitute for kardan, to indicate respect. But akhta kardan &&j$ <^^' " to geld " only.
In m.c. to learn only: amuzandan &^jjy*>\
or
amuzanidan cJ'H^j^'
'
(me.
to teach.'*
5
Man
bi-ln kar
naml-pardazam fj'î $+> ft (^& er* (m.c.)
an in
fear
&* ^^'^ j* \) ft " nam&z his prayers he finished parda&ht (m.c.) j( âbstinence" and kardan pahrlz ^tAj* &<^JrtPj
ra pardab&tam
4< I cannot do this " I (m.c.) completed this"
"
az
"=
farigh ahud.
only,
are
common
in
odern Persian.

1
245
"to sift" (in diet, also " to enslave; become weak") (tr.): takhtan "to hasten; to assault: to make to gallop " (tr. and intr.) tojchtan u-^y (old "to pay a debt; to wish, to want"; m.c. dukhtan eH&ja "to sew"(tr. and
:
intr.): rikhtan
^^ "
to pour, diffuse; cast, melt; scatter,
disperse*"
(tr.
" to (tr.) *supukhtan &,****> ' ' thrust one thing with force into another : m.c. sukhtan prick, pierce <ji^ " to burn, to be inflamed, to set on fire" (tr. and intr.) ; m.c. gudaTchtan
and
intr.): m.c.
;
sakhtan
^XÛ 3 "to make"
(^\^
flee
"to melt,
:
to be
melted"
(tr.
away"
m.c. navakhtan*
î^y
and intr.) m.c. gurlkhtan îu/ "to " to soothe caress etc.' to play upon
: ,
,
an instrument; to sing"; (and with an instrument of punishment) "to

chastise."
(4)
Infinitives in tan preceded

:
by
sh, reject
^ tan
dar
and change c4 sh
into
r, as
m.c. dashtan
to have
Exceptions.
..
)\*.
m.c. gashtan
m.c. gardidan*]
to become, to saunter; .. to return; be inverted
gard
*ag]iusliidan-\
embrace
_
.
ayiush
m.c. kushtan
m.c. hisfitan
m.c. hiKdan-f
^&f
to kill
*\
kush
> to
let
down
to quiet,
hil
JA
"
or hish <Ju*.
'
m.c. sirishtan*
*sarisliidan
^
)
7
to
mix;
to mix.
to create;
..
sirish
m.c. kdshtan^
to
^
plough;
sow;
till
inm.c. " tosow.
m.c. kishtan
Takht u
taz
the land; to plant

to make an inroad" takkttan Icardan c^^Jjf^^^ "to attack": tak&t u faraj Hence from this verb, tazi came to mean "Arabic an
-9
kardan
cJ.i^'j
vi*i>t
<4
to
*A.lj
attack":
tak&t avardan
"
plundering."
Arab horse, an (Arab) greyhound."

a
Bar
sar-i kas-l riWtfan
(^^)
^^ fj>.
"
"
to fall
;
upon
"
:
firil
rikhtan
" to pour out

3
"
:
az
ham
rikhtan (m.c.)
to go to pieces
also rlkhta shudan.
&
4
*
In compound verbs, can take place of kardan, etc. In modern colloquial, only to sing or play an instrument or chastise.
Dar aghfoh
Sirisht
girt ffan
*
<^y
<jw j.cf
^
9
in m.c.
sirishta
c**j*
mixed; nature, etc.";

of."
Ax^*>
'
**
mixed, kneaded," but
tar rishta
7
"a knowledge
A-w^ton
uJ&r
to
sow," but
(&&
kushtan " to kill/
246
m.c. rtsidan f a****^

m.c. rishtan
*ristan
*ristan
only in m.c.
]
m.c. navishtan
m.c.
to write
..
rams
kun
a&ashtan
*
to
m.c. aghishtan
mix; fco mois ten; be moistened to

;
agiushtan
pf J
defile.
Remark.
or
The
following
anbashtan ^^l^t
(tr.)
"to
fill,
angarldan
to
*angardan
are m.c. ambashtan ^Û^f and regular etc."; m.c angashtan ^^>\ (or m.c. e^;&! "to think, imagine": *awbashtan (intr.)
:
"to devour, swallow": m.c.

think, consider;
pindashtan ^îifolj (or *pindaridan be proud" (intr.); m.c. ddshtan v&*^ "to
<f
have,
(tr.)
:
hold,
keep"
guzashtan
(tr.)
m.c. guzashtan ^J^fi^f

(l
to place, put on,

z
leave"
m.c.
v*tf
to pass, pass
8
by"
(intr.
m.c. gumdshtan
m.c. nigashtan ^.y^î (or " to (Dtytyi paint, portray; embroider, to write."
:
^(3
"to appoint
for a purpose
"
m c. nigandan
dan ^^, as:
(5)
Infinitives in
cw dan preceded byj
r,
or
&
n, reject
m.c. kandan &**? to dig, root kan e/.

Exceptions.
m.c. avardan
to bring
avar f ;jf or ar ;f
m.c. shumurdan
m.c. burdan
$j+* to count to carry, to bear

to
shumar
bar j*.
;^.
.
m.c. kardan
m.c.
do
kun
murdan
to die
to
/
I
wr ^y.
resign,
m.c. sipurdan
commit,
deposit, travel.
^
;fjl
,
*supardan
m.c. azurdan
*azardan f
m.c. afshurdan
__
to offend, to injure
azar
<
jfjf (m.c.).
to squeeze
to
to express
afshar ;lAt.
*farkandan
dig a
canal,
bring
fields.
farkan u^j*, and farkand
water into the
" to drink*' nushtan (gen. nuahidan or nu/i kardan)
bufc
(jJ^y naviahtan,
etc.
1
* 4
to write."
to pass by (a person, etc.)." m.c. c^y ^^ ^wsar kardan In India the past participle, *>U? gumashta, is a common term missary, or agent, especially in the Commissariat Department,
Also
for a
com-
ROOTS OR STEMS OF SIMPLE VERBS.

(6)
247
Infinitives in tan
^ preceded by
/:
<J /. reject tan,
^ and, by a law
<->b.
of
permutation common verbs, however, retain the
to several languages, change the /<J into b ^>:
many
m.c. ydftan eP^^ to get, obtain m.c. baf tan c^^ to weave
Exceptions.
m.c. paziruftan u*ty*j to accept, approve m.c. suftan &.'&*> to bore, pierce
l
yab
..
baf ob.
pazlr j.*J.
sumb
v^
:
"
sufta
kun <uiu
(^
(D
sufta
kardan
in m.c.
6fw/to
^^
Past Participle, but ^/fa *ii-
(in m.o.
^*
/0
4<
thick, coarse,
from an obsolete
*
Infinitive.
Guftan
e^J
" to think " sometimes means to say to oneself, hence
^Toftâm bi-namaz
9 u ruza chun ma il shud
Ouf tarn ki muradri kulH-yam Tiasil shud. *To prayer and fasting when my heart inclined,
All
my
desire I surely
hoped to
find:
"
(O.
180 Whin.)
248
m.c. khuftan
THE AUXILIARY VERBS.
&&
]
(-khuft
f
(m.c.)
m.c. khwabidan
-\
c>H*!^
*o sleep, crouch,
etc.
khwab
(m.c.)
m.c. khusbldan^
m.c. khuspidan f
*taftan-f
e)Hf~^
1
(
khusb (m.c.) *-*~^
c>^>^^
>
Wimp
(m.c.)
*taftan
&&
The
to twist
tab wl
m.c.
Remark.
root shtiab
following
is
regular:
m.c.
shitaftan
^*Xw
to
hurry,
v^"75.
Hybrid Verbs.
In addition to the pure Persian verbs, a certain number of hybrids are formed by affixing the termination Idan cA> to an Arabic root. Example
m.c. e^+t* fahmidan "to understand"; &**&*) raqsidan (m.c.) (and raqs <{ and a few to dance"; c****^ talabidan "to summon" (m.c.) kardan)
;
others.
Ghaltldan
^^Mi
(m.c.)
" to
roll,
to wallow
"
was
originally Persian
and then given an Arabic form by the Persians. Challdan &**b (m.c.) is derived from the Urdu chalna
This hybrid Infinitive Persian Infinitive.
is
IxU.
" to go."
a true
called
^^^âx,
as opposed to
txâx: ) ^^JL^f ;
76.
The Auxiliary Verbs

^
lt
Û*
jUil
).
Shudnu o>^
(a)
to
become "
root shaw
j&
The verb
&<*
The Imperative is^ The noun of agency shavanda

is
shudan "to become, to go " is conjugated regularly. shaw: in the other tenses, j before a vowel becomes v.
is
shavam
obsolete or else extremely rare.*
The
Aorist
s
or bi-shavam ÂJ, both forms are used.

&*
.
The Imperative
is
seldom takes the prefix

(b)
The
third person singular of the Present
and Preterite tenses
also
used impersonally, especially in modem colloquial; ml>shavad &**> and namishavad *j&*& " is it possible ?" and "is it not possible?" mi-shud <xlx*;*
nami-shud *&*+>
(c)
"was
&**>
is
it
possible;
was
it
not possible? "
vide
77
(d).
Shudan
also used for conjugating the

or fehwabandan
grammatical passive
to
cj^
is
fi
<
to lull to sleep;
mak
(a
camel)
*
8
lie
down
to lower (a flag or anything that
raised on high).
literally
Shavanda
**>y** is fS,
sometimes used when translating

or
from Arabic.
Gum
show j~
gum
bi-shaw
^. f
be
off
with you," are both used
in m.c.
*
Compare ahmaq I agar

(m.c.J^J^f^f
?
'*
bi-tu tarsu *t
\)
mirguftand chi mi-shud ki fehud-at ra bi mahlaka
andal&hfi ?
even
if
they did call
&tj*> ** >Aô you a funk what was there
*&{
^ jiii^c ^y >M^f
in that to
'* 3 (j?* ^ make you go and
ass
cast
yourself into danger
TAVANISTAN.
voice.
249
its place can be taken by either of its synonyms, gashtan ey&? or gardldan e>*JJ>/, Imperative gard ^. (d) Note the following idioms
3
:
In other cases
(1)
far as I
was able "
f&9)
\&xx>
î*; *
;
;^3 cyf
an qadr
Jci
raftan ml-shud raftam
"
went as
an qadr
ki karda mi-shud
kardam
" I did as
(2)
ft>jf
*>Ax*
*j>y
&f
e/f
much
as I could."
Churiin na-khwdhad shud
"it
will
not happen that
"
;
shud &
Âfysu &t,j **> j to make a search for food."

(3)
^h^
*A^=EU ^x*. (Afghan and m.c.) khurdk jihat-i just u ju kardan na-khwdhad " it will not be ^t*- (Afghan) necessary
kitf *>
Guftam
said
chi mi-shavad agar in kdr rd
kum
?
(m.c.)
"I
why
should you not do this
"
:
^
j(
<c
\)
$6
&j.\ j>\
*?** *^
^^
u
guft agar dar mufavaza-yi
f shab-t ta khir kardi chi shudi
^^
A=W
^^î^^ ^^
&+e^&o )t> j$\ oJi? (Sa'dl)
''he said,
would
it
he had delayed having connection with her one night what have mattered."
if
(4)
Tajir bi-khanda shud *

I
a*x=faj
âA3 ''n.c.)
the merchant began to
laugh/' vide
(e)
79
(c).
Bafd ma'lum mi-shavad

^l*/o (m.c.)
65-^x5
<c
ma'lum shudan &*

Remark.
^1** *> (m.c.) to appear."
" we
shall see
";
also
want" (used in the Future tenses of verbs); hastan ^-Â " to be, exist" (used in Perfect ** to be" (used in the Pluperfect tenses); tavdnistan tenses); budan &^>
The
" to auxiliary verbs are Tchwastan ^.^My^
^^y " to be able"

(used in the
(used in the
) t
^^ <jr^,
^.jcjfU.
etc.)
bdsMdan &***{> "
to be
"
^C^
^Îx*
and shudan &*> " to become."
defective verb
is
called ^-aû^f
Some
of the auxiliary verbs are
also defective.
jUi are shud ^, bud ^, gardld X}^? and gasht^J^ etc., and sometimes dmad **>f and bar-dmad ^f y They are called ndqis o^.Û because though in appearance intransitive verbs, they yield no sense with a subject
AAAsfli
1
The
alone, thus
Ahmad bud
of
^ ^*^t
by
itself is really
meaningless.
:
fi'l-i ndqis are Examples " it turned out (was) very useless" *xf^j ~jj
:
dmadan eA^T as a
khayll puch bar-dmad
77.
(a)
Ta van f stan
is
^x-Jry^
to be able*': root tavan

as
This verb
regular, except that certain tenses, etc., such
the
Imperative, noun of agency, are not used. an (1) In classical Persian, this verb is usually either preceded by
An qadr
ki
ml-shud bi-ravam ra/tam (m.c.) f**) fjj*
Tavftnldan vii^ty obsolete.
250
Infinitive or followed
TAVANISTAN.
:
tanha by the shortened Infinitive, as ^viy ^+> &z>j$ kardan nami-tavdnam (Afghan and Indian coll.) "alone I am not able to do
;
(
it"
I;
j!
c*i
y i*^
sa&afc
c^ty
*&|ysu az
^*jyL
f;
ô
/f tf
avm/
chirdijh rd kushtam ki agar ru-yi pisar rd

:
^ ^
f;
J|
*.****
urfljl
khivdham did az shafaqat* u ra kushtan na-khwdham tavdnist (Afghan) leas na-tavdnad girift ddman-i dawlat bi-zur (Sa'dl) )& cJj^ <j.*t,i o**/ *Jty3
"none can compel fortune."

and Indians
Remark.
quently occurs
e)**f cJji^ p*lj&
in talking. 8
This construction
is still
used by the Afghans

fre-
In the Gulistaa, however, the

after the auxiliary, as
:
full
**
form of the Infinitive

l
v^r
l
&*j* e.^*^
<yt^ *^ oJ^*4.jyt
f
c^ty^ l^ jf j+z &$& ^b^JbU. oo*4A. agar bi-ma' unat-i shuma umr jihat-l mu'ayyan gar dad ki mujih-i jam iyyat-i khdtir bashad baqiyya-yi az 'uhda-yi shukr-i an na-tavdnam birun dmadan (Sa'dl) "if, through your influence, some means be settled that would release me from this burden,
I will be grateful to
<j^J c^> ji ^\j* you for the whole of my life va *-flkV-A) AS' .ify Îwl? Ûi' ^fjv^l^ o,3\-?j guftam bardy-i nuzkat-i ndzirdn ^j^ <( I replied (Sa'dl) fusha<t-i hdzirdn kitdb-i Oulistdn tavdnam tasnif kardan ki
;
' '
that I would perhaps compose

tion
6
the Gulistan as
a delight and a satisfac-
to its readers
so that
is
."
(2)
Or the auxiliary
is
verbal prefixes
is
the apocopated, i.e. the stem with or without verb followed by the shortened Infinitive in this case the
:
a present impersonal. This construction is modern as well as Afghan and o-*.*j Indian: U^bU ^ja*3 JuU> ufojbj ^.yjU. ^jj CA**J b;^J ^=^ 7 bi-hukm-i dn-ki parvdrda-yi ni'mat-i In khdnddn-am va ^fyj
^ j>y
^T
^'^^J
<fc
bi-andak mdya-yi taghyir-i'
khdtir bd vali-ni' mat-i
khud bi~wafd*i na-tavdn
kard ki
because I have been nurtured by the bounty of this House, be faithless cannot one and merely on account of a slight change in the regard
(Sa'dl)
of one's
patron towards one
' ' ;
Dam
(
' l
Id chi gujt Zdl bd
Rustam-i gurd?
'
Dushman na-tavdn haqir u bichdra shumurd Knowest thou what said Zal to the hero Rustam ?
One ought not
to
(Sa'dl).
'
count any enemy as despicable and impotent.'
"
In modern Persian /**?
&
bi-bmam (Subjunctive) would be more
usual.
Also pronounced shafqat. instead of the Infinitive Colloquially, the Afghans often use the Past Participle
;
before the auxiliary, thus
dlda nami-fawBnam
^ty
in
m.
4
41 am
6
f^
^ *^
i*
<
fo r
d * dan naml-tawanam
&*?.*
able to
* '
Lit.
and D.V. "
will
note direct narration in Persian.

a play
the
amplitude.
andakhtv The book being called the " Rose Garden," there even if tto* spectator."
6
upon
word j&&
i5&2/r
j&
"
change," but tag&ayyur
j&
"
anger."
TAVANISTAN.
251
Imruz bi-kush
ki mi-tavan kusht
K'atash chu buland shud jahan sukht (Sa'di). " Kill to-day while it is possible to kill, For a small fire, if it becomes great, burns
l
the whole world."

:
*t ^ ^^ ^-j;^- maldmat-ash kardand ki chunin sayd z dar dam-at uftad va na-tavanisti nigah dashtan? Guft " ay baradaran chi tavan kard? (Sa'dl) They upbraided him saying, 'such a
c>'y
'
Both constructions occur together
in
the
following
*>
^^ ? c^*'^ cjf;*y ^
to thy lot
8
&*J
jfcjUiU
t^LJtyo j oUit *ju*f^
fine fish
fell
and thou coulds't not keep

'
it
'?
He
brethren, what can one do
"
said,
my
Remark
1
I.
Sometimes the auxiliary

*>
is
:
not apocopated but

*J[yojx>
is
J
used
3
!
impersonally in the third person singular, as

&\Lm*j )$
txj^
<J)j)j& <*&T
<j?[/
guft az bara-yi
if
an
ki liar ruz-ash
ml-tavanad did magar

(the Sun)
dar zamistan ki
(Sa'dl)
because one can
see
him
every day,
except in winter,
when--."
Remark
form
II.
The apocopated
:
auxiliary
is
rarely
followed by the
full
of the Infinitive
^**J C*S
^43 3
<^t*^
u*
^^3
^s\*^
(
v'^3' e^^;
*^y
)***.
Bi-'uzr-i tauba tavan rastan az
azab-i
Khuday
rast
Va-llk mi-na-tavan az zaban-i
mardum
(Sadi).
"
the atonement of repentance one can escape the wrath of God, But escape from the tongue of men one can never."
By
In this example rastan &>*) is used for rast <^~>j in the in the second line for nami-tavan ofy ml-na-tavan o|y3
first line
is
also
a poetical
license only.
(3)
A
:
third construction
is
the Aorist (or Subjunctive) after the auxi-
liary, as
Warna saza-var-i khudavandi-yash Kas na-tavanad ki bi-ja avarad (Sa'di).

11
Otherwise
fitting
His Glory,
None
is
able to perform
what
is
worthy
of it."
(This construction
is
used in modern Persian.)
Note the
Preterites for the Aorist
and
1'resent tenses in a condition, after
chun
Sayd *<* Ar.
is
:
applied to any game, or quarry, or prey
anything in fact from a

y&*>.
mouse to an elephant the Persian (and Indian) equivalent is shikar & Dam ff*> 'snare" is applied to any kind of net, snare, or
figuratively.
trap, literally
and
By
trappers
it is
specially applied to a noose or set of nooses.
252
TAVANISTAN.
Remark.
ejj^J is
Tavan
&&
also takes the prefix
<*J
said to be sometimes contracted into tan
^
.
(bi-tavan
.
<j^
*>r|U
SJiayad
Tavan and bayad

'
*&
are sometimes used as

(6)
synonyms
for tavan e>iy
(1)
In modern Persian, the
last construction is the usual one,
but
in
speaking the conjunction
&
is
tavanam bi-yayam "I can't come," or tavanam ki bi-yayam 1 f>k* ** f>^+*

&#$ J>*> kunid (modern
agar mayl ddshta
bashid
generally omitted, as: p.^ <*>W (j+* I will not be able to come" for namlf '
:
nami-
** [iL
u^*** )*
*&[&* **&* *^'> d*
rnl-tavanid
dar mihman-khana manzil
up
in the hotel
(2)
"
:
Rozen's grammar) "if you like, colloquial; ki *t is understood after mlrtavamd *#\
you can put

still
^.
The shortened
Infinitive after the tenses of this auxiliary is
used
this by the Afghans and Indians, but in the modern colloquial of Persia in third it is used when construction is not common person generally
:
singular, as
*ity
kard (m.c.)
(3) *
ct
!;
^ ^ u***
is
^1
shakhs In kar ra naml-tavanad
this
man
can't (or won't he able to) do this."

also used in m.c., as:
The Impersonal construction
^(
ijjykc
^>^
"
:
*j*
$jS
c< J^ chignna rni-tavan In kar ra kard? (m.c.) liow is one to do this ? bavar kard (m.c.) "one jjO fc;fjw or) e)iy u+* naml-tavan (or na-tavan)
L)
cannot believe this": na-tavanist kard

kard
c*~jry
^
The
(me.)
'*
o^Jtyi (m.c.) or namltavanist one could not (past) do this,"
Remark.
Perfect of tavanistan
eûjy
aLJiy
is
subject to the
that govern the Perfects of other verbs, vide

tavdnista
125: vaqt-idar
same rules Landan budand

;
and anja bi-ravand &jj* l?uf the shows speaker was not present.
(4)
t>Jf
^^
m*>y
^ J&)
tlie
Perfect
as
OMJJ^
The auxiliary need not be repeated before the second of two verbs, shuma mi-tavamd anja bi-yayld va asp-davarii kuriid? *tt& t^6f (Hifyu^c i+ ^'^ WMI j (m.c.) "can you come there and (can you) gallop your
Occasionally, a transitive verb
is
horse"?"
understood, or tavanistan ^^SLofy
is
considered transitive, as: ammd kas-i ki kucha va bazar-i Isfahan ra mk bi-danad va dar shab rahnuma*i bi-tavanad, gh&yr az man na bud **>jZ &*~t Uf
itself
^M
Chap who could
j*i ^f^j ^5Uo l; v^ j> ^ <M*J *-^ b ^l^fl^f ;fjlj j (Tr. H. B. V), "but there was none but me who knew the streets of Isfahan, and
jf
5
act as guide
in
them."
Guftam
'
anki kuk kardan-i sa'at ra

'
na-danad idara-yi mamlakat ra chiguna tavdnad ? \) oÛ " I said, Aif^j AJ^ ; osJl*x> Sjf^f j>jf jj (Tr. H. B. Chap. VII)
f
&^ u^y *^f fs$

l
how can
a
?
man
'
who does
not even
Lr
know how
to
v*
^^
wind up a watch, manage a kingdom

31
"
:
^t
^
U
(Tr.
(Tr.
Chap. XXXVIII): H. B. Chap. XL).

B.
H.
Man
or
---- ^Lr**^^
qadir naml-basham ki In kar ra bi-kunam
f&
fyf eH' ** f**^
<jt+"
)*
Either a simple question cr in the sense of
it is
impossible to do
this.*
TAVANISTAN.
(c)
An
Indian use of this verb
is
illustrated in the following
U 6a Mwd guftam ty osuly <jy**> j &tf) JJ oÛa. *ac^~.x> u j| JAI JLx A+J j*Ia? va In hdl ahl-i bi-hama ma'drif tavdnad bud masjid jamd'at-i buzurgdn " I said to myself perhaps the people of this mosque are a congre(classical)
example
gation of big and well-known persons."

sense would be
If j^j *x*tyL
"must be": mi-bdshand *^b
^/o
would mean
was substituted, the "are."
Shdyad bdshand îAk ^\> could also be used. 76 (6), the third person singular of the (d) As already mentioned in Present and Preterite of shudan ox is used impersonally. It is followed either
by the Subjunctive or by the shortened
i
Infinitive, as
<x
f^
^^
&uf^
p#) \S>j> j**> jjj eA* bi-vdsita-yi badi-yi rah nami-shud hamdn ruz td bi-sar-i kutal bi-rasim (m.c. Roz. Gr.) c< on account of the badness of the road it was
t
" &$ * !j o^su^J ^\ impossible to reach the top of the pass that day ^.4,; 1 " was it not oJ\j nami-shud ki In rd naslhai bizanat bi-kuni ^îC(m.c.)
:
you to give this piece of advice to your wife (and not to me) ? " '* *> na <HC y fj*^ *} khayr naml-shavad (m.c.) ao, it is impossible (j+*j*^ cc az 'id* we can't nami-shavad the before :>>* ^) pish raft (m.c.) go
possible for
:
:
"
Id
"
j^x^j
(^
^>Â3(
^j
nami-shavad
td
imshab pas bi-giram

*
(m.c.)
*&$ J> \agar Û> qasd* cu^f^^j ^ >J&* ^^xx^Js <ju^. na-bashad chi tawr mi-shud sang.rd barddsht anddkht (m.c.) ^were there no
can't I possibly have it back in the following: c^x|*x>|
by to-night?
"
Note the shortened
Infinitives
bow was it possible (how did it happen) to have picked up a stone and thrown it ? " 5 ^(e) To be able, can also be expressed by the Passive, as: <**~ ^5Uj ;^b A^
intention,
o^ ^3 AJ^t^ U
o-^^'j
nd-tavan gashtim va qadamhd-yi* md bar-ddshta nami-shavad (m.c.) how can we come? we are worn out by fatigue, and cannot even lift our feet (our feet
p^
(j[p^
^^
chi tawr bi-ydyim>khasta
shuda
"
cannot be lifted)."
Ddnista nami-shavad bi-mi'ydr-i uqul Sanjida nami-shavad bi-miqyds-i qiyds.
l
"
No man
of science ever
Nor made
with scales, " assay with touch-stone, no, not one! (0. K. 279 Whin.)
weighed
(it)
Generally pronounced kutal. chi mi-shud agar in nasihat ra bi-zanat ml-kardl (m.c.). Colloquially and vulused for confused idea that the the is a from often Present, Imperfect apparently garly the Imperfect is a Subjunctive or Conditional, An English writer sometimes says>
1
Or
* *
What
3
were you pleased to order

*o2/rf.
* '
Vulgar
*
&'
For qasd-at ^*A*. This use of shudan v!)^
is classical
as well as
modern
colloquial.
Or singular qadam f*3, as a
collective noun.
254
GIRIFTAN.
iary
and verb, the auxih often 'can,' colloquial, immediately precedes the verbal member of the compound, as dvdza mi-tavdnl bi-khwdrii (^[y&* îy
Remark.
Before a
compound
:
of substantive, etc.
in
modern
(m.c.)
"can you sing?

?
", or ml-tavdnl (ki) avaza bi-khwdrii
jtyf
J>lr*u (m.c.)
(/)
Tawana Ufy
is
an adjective " powerful/' audits negative form

tify
is
na-tavan ^|y &, and also nd-tavdnd
U (old).
Tavan-gar ^fiiy is an adjective, signifying "powerful, rich." Tavdn ^y is a substantive " strength."
(g)
Jdrastan
<&*~*)k
or
ydristan
stretch
out the
hand," and
drastan
&**& (rt. ydr ;lj "to u^tf (rt. a/;T) "to

)
.
be able; to be able; to
adorn
' '
Yard
(h)
occur frequently in poetry for tavanistan ^-Jfy " boldness; power." l;U (subs.) Ddnistan <j~jf^ "to know" is in classical and modern
is
Persian
used for "to be able": the construction
the
same
as with
tavanistan
Pa<s
2i
maldmat u shun
at gundh-i dukhtar chist

)
Turd
<4
ki dast bi*larzad guhar chi ddni suft ?

'
After reproving and abusing [the husband] Sa'dl said,

girl's fault
'
What
(Sa'dl).
is
the
?
[
How
can you whose hand trembles, string a pearl

?
'
"
lines.)
U
how ?
(i)
ml-ddnad bi-kunad
l
*&* ôt^'
^f
(GuL, Chap. VI, last " can he do it does ho (vulg.)

;
know
' '
To be
able
da$t-at
bi-ydyad <Ûj
(
Id
&g
^ ô
or )
j>
can also be paraphrased by such expressions, as agar az az ru-yi man nami-dyad (or nami-xliavad) ^S\ " ic 2 ^jf
:
'
cuw^ jf
^ ^x ^^
^^
I;
:
jf
am ashamed to
^ô ^^
J<*>\
(i.e.,
I can't
qddir budanbar
&ty
qdbil-i or qdbil bar

L
)
budan, &&y
1$$ )*:
cLlf
or cLUI
m kdr rd bi-kunam p&

^yoj
lj
dar quvva-yi khud dldan or budan (&*#

;tf
tavdnd nlstain ki
(^1 *'
^^^
U)y, or tavdnd*t-yi %n kdr rd
na-ddram
(d)
j!
^l Ûfy
<(
iwfca?i
ddshtan
^\t
Vide also
76
and
77
(e)
for
to be able."
78.
Giriftan
(a)
Girijtan
^J*,
root gir
^ "to
seize,
etc."; transitive and intran-
sitive.
The Imperative form

l
g\r j4 is not used colloquially
always bi-gw
jg
j*
There
is,
of course, a double
meaning: guhar-i na-sufta &&*UykjJ
a poetical
expression for a virgin.

5
Kbayli pur-ru haati
(m.c.) you're very shameless <^~A )) j* ru az pish bardasht (m.c.) (t he hid himself."
^^
"
"
:
GIRIFTAN.
255
In
seize,"
classical Persian, in addition to its
" to ordinary signification of take,
this
verb, preceded
<+9jS (jJ&?
<jii?
y u
guftan girift
by an " he began
lei
Infinitive,
means
;
to speak
"
f
Ua
|;
&
"to begin," as: c^JU> c*fa * ^jt

girift
^ *ju^? ,jd|j> bi-zaban-i
ddshtmalik rd dushndm dddan
va saqat
guftan (Sadl)
"he began
to abuse the king

girift
native-tongue: zabdn-dardzi kardan began to scold."
and use bad language in his ^* &$ is)b* &ty (Sa'di) " she
nearly obsolete in
used colloquially by the Afghans and Indians, but is modern Persian. In a few cases only, in modern Persian, does giriftan && mean " to begin"; dil-am tapidan girift oui/ &*\L barf girift oj^ o^, bdrdn girift cu*/ e>l)k (m.c.) "my heart began to beat" " it (m.c.) began to snow; it began to rain." For "to begin'' in modern
is still
This idiom
Persian, vide
(6)
79.
Giriftan
(^^
is
also
means
<c
to suppose,
admit."
(In poetry the
Im:
perative glr j
5
frequently used interjectionally in this sense).
Examples
c^~v f&
&*$
#>
Uo
pi
cu^>>
oê
&t
pjj&
giram ki yjâmat
nist gjiam-i
ma ham
nist?
(Sa'di)
let
me
(c)
anxiety. ( ^ or), va giriftam (or glram) ki suppose) that they came":

f
"I admit you have no

jjj
Have we then none?": fi* amadand (m.c.) 4< and admitted

)
5
(or
1
mi-girtm (or
gmm}
u^Jte
(m.c.)
"we
p>j3 or will suppose (or

(
^j&j* âcuA
is
(vulg.) Jiamchi
let
Colloquially
and vulgarJy
giriftan
(^^
us suppose) so." used pleonastic ally, as
(d)
dallak girift khwdbld (m.c.) "the barber fell asleep"; bi-khwab (m.c ) " go to sleep." Note the following intransitive or reflexive uses of this verb
bi-gir
:
Ta chand kunam arza-yi nd-ddni-yi khmsh, Bi-girift dil-i man az parisharii-yi Jchwlsh ?
(
*'
Oft times I plead my foolishness to Thee, My heart contracted with perplexity."
(0. K. 281 Whin.) " I saw ** nafas-am dar narm-girad bj^** (Sa*'dl) p~& that my speech (breath) did not sink in made no impression" o^^;^ vf oJs? db dar gulu-yash girift ^ the water stuck in his throat; he choked"
Didam
ki
p^
li
5yA> cuÂJ nafas-at
c<
bi-glrad
hold your tongue
"
(m.c.)
lit.
may your
breath
be caught, may you choke"; *^j> ^*)\ f*^ tukhm az garml dar girift ** the the sun" <^y Â^j zaban-ash ml-glrad seeds were scorched (m.c.) by
:
(m.c.)
bi-divar girift (m.c.)
"he stammers" (lit. his tongue sticks) od^f^y^ "he suddenly struck his head against
:
<jj*
j u
sar-ash
:
the wall"
s
nab$-
am
tstada ast,
chashm-am nami-bmad, gusJi-am
girift,
dh-ah-hay
raftim (m.c.)
Hamchu
"
j-*1
is
* i.e.,
may you
'
die
pronounced hamchi. " ='* hold your noise, d

;
n you."
is
Do
not say nafa, which
generally
8
means penis.'* The conventional way
of writing this exclamation
^^ ^
Jif .
266
"
THE VERBS, ETC.

has stopped,
(the last
my pulse
my
eyes don't see,
my
ears too don't hear

;
am gone"
gulu-yash
(e)
girift (m.c.)
words of a dying man) ^j1 "sobs choked his utterance."
^^ ^ ^
is
ah! I
girya dar
1
A/tab girifta ast
o^t *&
wli*f
(m.c.)
"the sun
"
eclipsed.
Girifta *i*/ is also

(/)
an adjective, "dark," applied to colouring.
j>jfju
In sarud) glraniagi na-ddrad ( &)^** e*^ ^ ) o;^ ^f " this picture (or this song) has no attractiveness in it." ^^jd (m.c.) (g) U tamdm-i shab az harf zadan vd-gw nami-kard (or dram nami-girift)
surat
(or
In
cJ^
^
all
ff,>T
^*J j$
\)
c^j
~
' '
o^
jt
v* f +*
l
jt
(m.c.)
" he ceased not to
chatter
the night through.
o**>f AX^&^XA ^)j* &* (m.c.) (h) Ghilla-yi buzurg hanuz na-girifta ast " the have nob yet commenced." heat of (or greatest cold) greatest forty days sitdndan &&(* (vulg. istdndan (i) In modern colloquial giriftan e^*/ &nd
!
are used for
(t
to
buy."
79.
(a)
The Verbs "to begin,

^*<f in
etc/'
For the use
of giriftan
classical Persian for
" to begin," vide
78
(a).
(6)
The verbs 'Ho begin" are ij^lij 8 bind kardan ; 4 c>^r^J^T *IAXJ| ibtidd* kardan dgj&z namudan; (of a <^^ shuru,' kardan; UU+i? f*j* & ^ work). They are followed by the Infinitive, as follows " 1 5 began to look l^>^ va bind hardam bi-tamdshd kardan-i dukdnhd (m.c.)
(1)
^^
^^
^y
at
the shops";
/*iuif^
:
"
^^ ^
^lu
bind-yi rdh raftan
guzdshtam (m.c.)
began to walk"
run": " eat

:
^ c^^
:
p)*> f*s*
&! bind
kardam bi-davam
(vulg.)
"I began
to
to cry
4 '
"
^^ &j&
f>^
<f he began to ?j?* shuru' bi-ktiwurdan namud (m.c.) " she *&*'** shuru' ml-kunadbi-girya kardan (m.c.) begins r^* !&! ibtida* mi-kunam bi-ndm-i Khudd* (mod. writing)
" " to Dast bi-kdr shudan &*& j& ^-^> also means (of a work begin ** iX>b o^^ bi-kdr shud we dasl must (m.c.) begin only) tXo*^> |^ fardd bdyad the business to-morrow."
(2)
:
1 begin in the
name
of
God.
' '
1 Kusuf Oy*^* and khueuf o^-^- may signify an eclipse either of the sun or of the moon, but the former is specially used for the sun and the latter for the moon. These words are only used in talking by the learned.
" yi shab
Va hama shab n&-yaramid az aufehanha-yipariahanguftan " and hama shab *' every night." all the night
'*
(Sa*di)
Mod.
Pers.
hama-
8 Biria* signifies is
building
bar
" and
biria*
kardan &&j? f&* "to build
"
;
^ banna
*+>
** *
mason ": bina

Agkazldan
Bp. Ar.
pi.
jAv "because
is
of*';
and bina bar-an &\j*
'*
" therefore
the
not written in Persian.
*
6
c^J^T
arifk*
obsolete.
is also
dakakm
is
In
this
phrase the izafat
sometimes
used in modern colloquial. classically omitted.
KHWASTAN, ETC.
(c)
257
:
The following
are
Afghan idioms
< e
j^ ^JU&^y
(J&
kishti
:
nishastan
tjS
namud (Afghan
i^kl*
:
the ship began to sink ji ^ju " sang az kuh yhaltidan kard the rock began to roll down the hillcolloquial)
"
faro
j# er^J ^j ^ <for waqt-i peshin roz tayyar ^^ Uj t;jx* &*j+> namudan-i mez ra bina kardami 1 (Afghan colloquial) "at midday I began to make the table " p&J g^ &*\f r> A*^ â$ 'aqah-i khema ra kandan shuru kardam (Af. col.) " I began to dig (the ground) behind the tent "
1
side"
^^^ ^
vazldan
bi-kJ^nda
&f+> &**)i bad-i
lchawf-nak~i
wazidan namud (Afg.

5
:
col.) [bad-i sakht-i
yinft m.c.]
e<
a terrible wind began to blow'
aaiiu
shud (Afghan, and modern colloquial) " the merchant began to laugh (went
off into
(d)
(e)
^13
tajir
a laugh)." Man bi-khanda uftadam Ûs'i jitxiiu (1^c (m.c.) There are in Persian no continuative verbs.
prefix
(<
began to laugh."
in
The continuative
ml <y
or Tiami ^+&
is
added to the Imperative
classical Persian, or in
poetry only.
In modern Persian, however, there is a curious continuative particle or which can be prefixed to several tenses to form particle of excess, hay continuatives. This usage is at present considered vulgar, though used by Qa'am, Hay shikar ml-kardim ^JÂ/O ^K Â "we kept on shooting";
hay bi-khur, hay
keep on with connected hamisha this eating, Possibly ^^>, particle is probthe from derived of the camel- men, ably immediately cry hay! hay! hay!
bi-Jchur jj*u
-
)^.
(to
a greedy boy)
"
do."
used to keep a string of slowly-moving camels in motion it is to camels, what a swung lantern is to a shunting train. That this particle is connected with hami <^+*> and consequently with hamisha &.$+&, seems probable from the fact that haml ^^ is sometimes substituted, as ^ ^ J^ &jk i^**
:
jj>
j*l*jj
j j>
Ûî cxU/c OA^^

it
*
won
the hearts of two
other
who bore
**
"
(Haji Baba, Chap. XXIX) by this means he persons the one who received the present and the
; :
^t
*'
ura didam hami
mi-khurad
(i.e.
(m.c. or local)
" saw him eating and eating

KJiwiistan-
tj}^*
^5**
f*?.
\)
$\
a great deal).
80.
(a)
j^]^
"to wish, etc/'

of
khipdstan (^.f^x followed

Definite
As already shown in the paradigm of the verb, the Aorist by the apocopated Infinitive is used in forming both in classical Persian and in modern colloquial. Future,
of the
the
Note the 'majhul sound
vowels and the Infinitive without a preposition
Nimaz-i peshin ert**^ )^ is an Afghan and Indian *' " is a common word in *' Urdu." ready j^Jo ^ The Shah as a mark of favour sent special portions of his meal to his host, and had to the servants who brought the tid-bits. to certain courtiers they tip heavily Every one was pleased, including the Shah, who could thus pay his servants out of other
preceding the verbs "to begin." expression for the midday prayer
:
people's pockets.
In the original
^L*A,|
Jg
slip for^j?
17
258
(6)
KHWASTAN.
In the Gulistan the unapocopated Infinitive frequently follows the
:
Infinitive in the sense of a definite future, as
y f**
ki
J
**5f j*
^ ^^ *Â
to
^^
<J*ap.*j
c/f
ejox*^7#
e)*^
tXAi^sL
"har
chi ddnl
har a*ina ma'lum-i
tu
to
khwahad shudan
bi-pursidan-i an
'
enquire about anything that
" be not in haste (Sa'dl) ta'jil makun you know will of a surety become revealed
you (without asking)."

*jy
f^/o
tf
jj^*
oju
i^JtJ
t/
Yar-i dirm-i
mara gu bi-zaban pand ma-dih

bi-shamshir na-khwahad bwdan
(Sa'di).
Ki mara tawba
''Tell
my
I'll
For
ancient friend to proffer me no advice, ne'er repent even at the point of the sword."
&-
m zisJit-khu*~i dad dushnam

*
Tahammul kard u guft ay nik-farjam Batar-z-anam ki khwahi guftan an-i Ki danam ayb-i man, chun man na-dant.
' e
'
A bad-tempered person abused some one. With resignation he replied, Oh thou, maycst thou be blessed Worse am I than anything thou wilt say I am For thou dost not know my faults as I know them myself.' "
'
Khist-i ki zi qalib-i tu khipahand zadan
Ayvan-i sara-yl dlgaran khwahad bud.

"
And
To
see 2 your ashes moulded into bricks, build another's house and turrets high."
(0.
K. 162 Whin.)
signifies
The same construction
is
:
used in the Gulistan when khivastan
" to (< to desire," as wish,*' anja khwahad rajtan (Sa'dl) there"

:
^;
C
Âfyx Usuf ^lalxi Jii, ^ va tifl ba-nadani and the boy tJhrough ignorance wished to ô
x-p 35;
2
S
Note this meaning " Stars "

All one adjective.
Tot,
of har chi
is
<*<^
* *
whatever.
* '
(understood)
the subject in the English.
'*
it is
not known "
la-yi tajahul.
&HWASTAN.
259
Ay
hunar-hd nihdda bar kaf-i dast
'Ayb-hd bar girifta zir-i bagkaV Td chi khwdbi kharidan, ay maghrurl

Ruz~i darmdndagi ba-sim-i daghal.
(Sa'dl).
" Oh thou who display est abroad thy virtues, But hidest away thy vices from sight,
Shame^! what wishes t thou to purchase, deluded being, With thy base coin on the day of distress (the day of judgment)
"
?
Remark
as
:
I,
In the Gulistan the auxiliary sometimes takes the prefix

&.
as'
Chi salha-yi jaravan va 'umrJia-yi daraz
Ki khalq bar sar-i ma bar zamm bi-khivahad raft Chunan ki dast bi-dast dmadast mulk bi-ma (Sa'di). Bi-dastha-yi digar hamchunm bi-lchwdhad raft
The verb following the auxiliary is in classical Persian also put in the Subjunctive [vide end of (c) and Remark to (c)]. Ex. f; jt e^ ^> A man n rd nami-khwaham ki bmam (Sa*di) he said, îx Âfj.a. Â guft
II.
:
'
Remark
do not wish to see him.'

(c)
"
The Afghans in speaking sometimes use a similar construction, but the Infinitive before the auxiliary place )& )jk* t&te^ c^ ^*>^ e>*/ man Gluz-e ba-tawr-i nazr pesfi 3 kardan khiyastam (Afghan coll.) ** I wished
:
^^
?)
to
give
him some small present";

zj&. ^jli ty
turd ndiib-itkhud* kardan

1
mi-khwdham
deputy."
ki kishtl rd
Î^SRJU* o^
(Afghan
coll.)
"
wish to make you
my
They, however,
as
:
also
employ the Aorist or Subjunctive after the auxiliary,

jj^^f jl^;^
lyî?
f^
bi-girad
" he followed and

This last
^J&S'
&>
^^sxx*
is
dumbdl dmada mt-khipdst
tried (wished) to seize hold of the boat."
Remark.
the ordinary construction in

is
except that the conjunction

A f !>*H^
(d)
usually omitted, as
" I want to ask you
modern colloquial mi-khwdham bi-pursam
."
Khivdstan
^.w^
(2)
for or to
summon,"
a transitive verb signifying: (I) " to send "to desire (a thing)" and (3) to love, to be
is
also
<
fond of."
All
one adjective. Ta '3 ~ " it is not known "
ta-yi tajahul.
?i
Majhul J^t^* vowels; pish-kash
tj**$
(ra.c.)
a present from an inferior to a
superior (used politely). 4 Note that ra is omitted after khud (the second of two substantives in apposition in the accusative case).
260
(1)
KHWASTAN.
(m.c.)
"
J*M^
it
f;
e>*+
A
,
c*$j
bi-jihat-i
hanwn bud shuma ra Ichwastam

:
was
for this reason that I sent for
*i**|^ bi-ishara-e dast o
" *jS* ty |; y 0*0 I; Uib you ra nazd-i khud khwastam (m.c. and Afghan colloquial)
" I called him to
me by
2
a signal with
my
hand.
J '
(2) o>^ c^l* *-*" *-^/ 7^ agrcw mart; mi-khivahl bi-raw Oilan (proverb) "if you desire death go to Gllan 1 "; xlxj mi-khwastam bi-yayad ^JLofîvx/o " I wish he would come." for Present tense) (m.c.) (vulgar, Imperfect
(3) ^&fysxyoÛ~j f;j! ^x> man ura bisyar mi-khwaham (m.c.) "I am very fond of him, love him very much/' (e) In modern colloquial, and in Kabuli Persian too, this verb also signi" as: fies "to intend," or "to be on the point of doing, c^+j cxîu/o 2 "he was about to die (not wished to die)"; mi-lchwast bi-mtrad (m.c.)
*'. J$*>^. <3^*> ^
*^
AAfîu-o
Uf agka mi-Jchwahad
threatens the
chand-ta shalaq bi-ashpaz
cook with his whip (Roz. Gr.) Uf *r tjjj *>A!j.2cuuc mi-khwahad bi-ravad lei ag&a (m.c.) "he is about to go his t when master ": *j j5l^ o^îj* e^^ oi3\x>^.l*J3 tamam-i mihnat-i man ml-khipast ki za*i' sliavad (Afghan coll.) " the whole of my labour was
bi-zanad (m.c.)
;
"the master
"
4 nearly being wasted. " re(/) This verb is also colloquially used in an impersonal sense meaning b &>t^ in khana ta'mlr mi-khivahad (m.c.) "this : tx&tîuAO ^x*-*^ quires, "as
:
' '
house needs repairing
"
:i
6
:
j.Atj.2cu/o
cu^jjtj^j UjAa.
^^ ci& ^^ûba-jihat-i naql

"much
time
is
kardan-i chizha bisyar waqt mi-khwahad (Afghan)
remove the things"
*af>^
" the rug is too light in colour rang ast qadr-i bishtar rang mi-khwahad (m.c.) To the remark " I have forgotten to bring it wants a little more colour."
;
^ -&;_y&w
such
requisite to
^s)*$
o^f
^;
^ *Û>
qaltcha
kam
any money," or
might be matter."
1
"do you want
and such a thing?" the answer

"it
is
*&\j^
^w
nami-khwaliad (m.c.)
not necessary,
it
doesn't
The following are Afghan idioms:

fdqa kardan me-khwahad* (Af.) "it imruz bayad ruza bi-daram (*;I^J tjj)
is
x imroz* ra &&jf &l-M;Jjtr to fast necessary to-day" (for m.c.

oAf^fcuj*
f
j^/
'
o^!^^ ^^
"it was
^jJJ
c^tJ )^
)\*
\j*
mara bar
to
bar birun raftan me-khivast*

(for
go out frequently"
m.c.
^y
&y ^
(Af.)
necessary
\*.
for
me
A*i^
chand daf'a
Gilan
is
said to be the
most unhealthy part of
Persia.
Or u nazdlk bud bi-mirad

%
&j& &#
+J**&
shavad (or bi-hadar ravad) * Compare the m.c. use of raftan in 82 (h).
Nazdlk
"bud za*i'
&j) )&^*
^^ fSU^j^J
*Jj.t>y (m.c.).
In India
o*|
uîJa
cuô
>
.
marammat-talab
ast
in
modern Persian
in
writing
ta'mlr lazim darad

*
1
8
^fi pj* j^*-*cu
Modern
colloquial lazim ast

riist
Or lazim
Majhul vowels.
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
Idzim shud
birun bi-ravam):
261
man u
(g)
tu liar
both of us
du nafar khwurdk me-khipdhad'1 both for you and me."
(Af.)
"food
is
necessary for
In modern colloquial, the Imperfect

as:
is
also used in the sense of
"should,"
(^)^
t>
ufc. etf+* Jjt
L5
^b iu^
mi-khwdsti az avval
hamm
yak-i rd bi-ydvari (m.c.) "you should have brought this one at first": iWf jjjjxf Âf j cxU> Jjja cL/-*.fj.=sx.yo mi-khwdst diruz bi-ydyad va likin imruz dmad " he (m.c.) ought to have come yesterday and not to-day" [for Jj>^
c*^
(yQj*A&
bdyist* diruz bi-ydyad va likin
],
vide
84
(o)
mi-khwdstam
p>\*j
bi-ddnam (m.c) " I should like to know mi-khwdham bi-ddnam " I want to know."
;
"
less
peremptory than
p*\j^'
81.
Guzashtau,
Imper.dih;
.^!js>
Imperative, guzdr ^1^3;
JDTidau
^\^
^ Mdndan
u
jjjiU Imper. (jU; and Verbs

<{
to Permit, Allow."
(a)
Ouzdshtan
^^}^
Imperative
)\*%
guzdr ^
signifies
to
quit,
As an auxiliary followed by the relinquish; to place; to perform, etc." Aorist or Subjunctive, with a conjunction expressed or understood, it
signifies
"to permit,
let," as: <vUj
j&
"
let
bi-guzdr
biydyad "let him come,"

(jUet
(the Imperative alone
would mean, na-guzdsht utaq-i u harf bi-zamm " to talk in her room
time)
:
him come ") p#y o;^ $
o-^t<>^>
(m.c.)
<J!>&
fy^ ^j^W*
ham hasti
" she did not permit us (give us *&) o|i^ î-A

^> mi-khiydhi khudat-rd bi-kush mlif
^^
:
jiilj Âf^sxA/o
bad zdt khudat-l lakdta

(m.c.)
khwdhi bi-guzdr
you want to (b) The
kill
" wicked yourself and a trollope what's more; do if you don't, then let it alone." why yourself
;
Intransitive
(^^^ guzashtati
:
signifies
t
javdrii guzasht, nawbat-i pin rasid >^; <^^ passed and old age came" az palilu-yi u guzasht
" " to vaql-i (of time) pass o^^^? ooy *^ "youth c^'-^
(or guzar w-JJa/o in matlab az him" "lie bi-guzar ^f j\ )'^) passed by " let this matter alone." (m.c.) " in the sense use the verb dadan '* to give (c) The Afghans and Indians of "to permit," 7 as: Â^ Îkf I; *j* &\ an mardum rd gashtan diked
1
c^3l ^\
kard
^*i
;^
(Afghan) "let them wander about

l
(for
a time)"
*jf
<^ l;j!
o rd bi-dih
In modern colloquial
bi-jihat
o^J
also lazim ast ^>^l fj$ instead of
mi-khwahad.
1
s
Majhul vowels.
Bayad, or bayisi
;
or mi-bay 1st diruz
amada bashad
*
6
Quzar )\*$
is
also the Imperative of guzardan c^^)f^>
Colloquially often bu-guz_ar
}\&
6 1
But
of
a place Mriar, as *^
m.c. also bi-hilbiyayad (vulg.).
)\
*
Corresponds to the Hindustani verb dena
to give
*'
and " to allow."
262
ki bi-ravad 1
GUzASHTAN, ETC.
(Afghan), or
eA
ftan bi-dih
(Afghan)* "let
him go." (d) The following
are further examples of the use of the verb
dddan
(1) **j> (^ &j o^ ÂJ ;a tj y ura dar pish-i khud rah namt-dihad " he does not allow him to come into his presence."
(rn.c.)
" be bound
(3)
(2) ate er*~*>
(or
c^L khud ra bi-bastan dad (m.c.) "he allowed himself to &> t;j>y* ). khud-ra bi-bastan tasltm kard $ f>^~* ^JUj
f;
The Imperative
*^
dih
is
used as an interjection of impatience

ij>
or annoyance, in modern colloquial, as: IÂ^J* <e well then! go, you're dismissed." (m.c.)
(4)
x>Jj<X'
a dih bi-raw
murakhkhas-i
v ^>)
)2
\S))
&
^^
bayad yag* nim-tana-yi zari-yi
" abl dar Rasht bi-dihi bi-duzand (m.c.)

jacket
made
(
in
Rasht"
(ta)
v>i>
IÂ^
$)
you must get a blue gold-embroidered must (lit. you give it that they may sew it) bi-dihad bi-kushand (m.c.) " (so that) he may get him
*>
(or
killed."
(5)
The Imperative
more commonly
^V
is
a substantive;
^V*
Shah.
*^j or ^^^^
^&>
signifies the
total revenue of a district paid to
the
(e)
Other verbs for "to permit" are
ijazn dwlati
&&* *)^
izn darfan
cJiiU &'^,
murakhkhas (budan)
l<
ki
&&?
u^v^
<fc
permitted to
"
;
ram
dashtan
v*h
*j)
to
consider right or lawful"; and (^^|3? guzashtan; ,md
hiaktan, <-jXiA obsolete or vulgar.

(/)
Mamlan
e;^>^, intr.
'"to remain," etc.,
is
:
in
Afghan Persian
also
transitive,
(1)
(2)
"to place." Note the following idioms Az kar baz manda *,xiU> jl ;{ j (m.c.) " unable
to work,"
Manda *xU
<:
remained,
left
behind/' hence in
" worn out." " tired Afghanistan

before
and
in
(3)
the Panjab also "thin."
Du mah
hir'Id
manda
a<xH-
*>AHJ
U^
(m.c.)
"two months
nearly died."
(Gulistan,
the 'Id."
(4) (5)
Kam mand
bi-mtram fj**
&> <x!U
*g (m.c.)
"I
II, St.
Azhalakatchiz-ina-mdndabud ay Û> IX) "you were within a hair's breadth
^j^ &&* y
of perishing."
Book
him
(the beggar)
2
'<>
In modern colloquial n ra bidih bi-ravad " something to go, to make hirn #o.
bi-gitzar
(Art)
^^
(
8^
\)
(m.o.)
would mean
**
give
Ura
Also
bi-raad
3)j>
^jl^j
f^^f
ra .c.).
Yog vulgar
for yak.
commonly but
incorrectly
kam manda hvd
ki
&>
-j*
$^tc +f
',
DASHTAN, ETC.
82.
263
The Verb Rtiftau, î)

Imperative
j;
"to go, to continue ";
raw.
(a)
The Afghans
:
" to continue," as
az In ba'is bi-asani
an auxiliary signifying e^"3 zamin regl bud j p&j** kanda mi-raftam (Afghan colloquial), the soil was sandy,
colloquially use raftan
^ <ykl' &*^ ^t ^ ^.) "

up with ease
*'
:
^)
as
hence I continued digging
it
a^
jljb
\j
(&}$<**
&!\ jjjt&
(^
dar bazar dida mi-raftam (Afghan coll.] P&J&* " bi-kan bi-raw C( I continued at these things as I went yesterday looking " keep on digging." }j* e^ (Afghan) also m.c.
:
man
dlruz in chiz-Tia ra
(b)
Raft
amad
^
4<
o*;, or
amad u
raft
^)j
**T
is
a substantive " coming
and going, frequenting;

(c)
traffic."
oJj o^^?
Raftar ^**j
it is
(d)
is
done, past; let us say no more about it" (m.c.). a verbal substantive signifying tc gait, manner of walk-
ing;
conduct" and
l>
in
jtÂ
"
;U*)
(an inelegant
(adj.), bad-raftan
(e)
(/)
^^)
ai(j
some Indian MSS. "ambling": raftar-i na-liamvar " bad-raftar ^^ ** way of walking), bad conduct ^ (subs.) "badly conducted, bad conduct."
;
Rajla rafta
4i; "step by step, by degrees."
(m.c.) signifies "to start, commence (a business raw karda am f\ *^f $ ^-*b ^ti l (vulg.) "I have commenced carpet- weaving " raw kun raw kun <^f j), &? % vulg. interjec" tion, "go on, go on
Raw
kardan &*j
:
or matter)," as
qall bajl
(g) In modern Persian, "let me go with f/ow!" isbi-guzar ki hamra/t-i U U*A A> y&i) but " let me go with him" is bi-guzar minima bi-y'iyam ki hamrdh-t u bi-ravam fjjjj *\j^ *S " (h) In modern Persian, raj tan is also used in the sense of being on the
^^
y&
point of doing," "intending to

as
:
rajtani
an ra bi-giram
cA)^ ?*t*
o^.f
I
4
" saw that a snake was lying on it raftam 1 went forward or progressed towards.
;
ÎL' ^J^-^;
do" [compare 80 (e) khwastan (^wr^ ], dldam mar-i ruijash uftada ast *t pj& j^>f Â-> Ci I was just going to take hold of it, when (m.c.)
ki
p*>j
does not here
mean
that,
83.
(a)
I)7tsltt(ut
)J&&
f; ^
1
"to have, keep,"

is
etc.;
Imperative y*
dar.
The
verb
peculiarity of this verb
that the Aorist (or Subjunctive) of the
simple
(daram
)
signifies
"to have," while the Present tense
" to 8 keep." (ml-daram ^;^* signifies In modern Persian, therefore, to distinguish the Subjunctive from the Indicative Mood, the Perfect Subjunctive is as a rule used instead of
^
1
fluftan i^*)
" to sweep."
J>[
* 3
Vulg. for
JPfK
rah andakhta am.

(j\&
I
daram
have rnonoy
'*
:
pill
ra
ml-daram
**
f)l&*f
*)
(J>^
keep
rgo of the
money,"
for nigah
mi-daram
264
DASHTAN, ETC.
the Present Subjunctive, as,: *xb <xi^|^ tLej^jj*** ^^JU^. &>(* bayad khayll sabr va hawsala daslita bdshtd (m.c,) "it is necessary to have the greatest
patience and forbearance
"
:
**&*/
<-!
*
fi^ y>
*A*
ty or)
*k
13 553
aJJL^^fi
jlb
a^rar gusfand ddh td bdshad (or bud) bayad liar Jcuddm yak gusfand dashaia bashand (m.c.) "were the sheep ten in number, then all (everyone) " **&?<> **> j y^> ^r^ ought to have one sheep apiece U>A b^j
al(^
^b
^
* k
/& bd in hush bayad khayll shutur va

intelligence
rama dashta bashi
" you have, you must be possessed of many camels and flocks (rama specially for sheep and goats). This has led to a modern form of the Imperative dashta bash utj *^L\
;
(m.c.)
with
all this
dashta bashld
*v^ (m.c.) in the simple (not in the kdr-t bi-tn na-dashta bash <J(j A^!XJ ^cjtf (m.c.) "don't
ab
Û
do with this."
this."
Dar ;fa
is
also used in m.c., as :y*>\)
compound) verb; have anything to
"keep
this,
hold
In ra nigah biddr
=
see
In ra dashta bash <^>

'
Al^>i^
*'
Story-tellers say
for the present (while
(b)
o^L? Aiî^ N( t ijf or
^M
for
h ^t. here we will leave
them
In classical
:
what was happening to )." is both the Present Indicative and daram Persian, pit, etc.,
we
the Subjunctive
kafaf-i
0'
&>y& &***>
td
)\
o ^ **^
1
s^j* *-&* 'malik farmud td vajh-i

sufficient
u mu'ayyan ddrand
(Sa'di)
"the king ordered a
means
and
of subsistence
to be fixed for
him*': padishdh amr farmud
ki khizana rd classical
mahfuz bi-darand oJ>t<y &j&^* ij ait;^ & modern in modern Persian daslita bashand
;
^^ ^\
*xU
jsL&^'j
is
ed^b could be substi-
tuted here
,^b
^+&
^^
j*.
ty
J^ ^'
c5^-'
ytfni
in qadr turn bar

this
pay hami-
ddrad (Sa'di)
sufficient to sustain
"which being interpreted means that " here mi-darad thee

;
amount
d&>
(of food) is
nicjah
^;l*>*-
could be substitu-
ted for haml'darad
modem, as well as in classical, Persian the Pres. Subj. of dashtan <^^b is, in compound verbs, of the form of the Aorist, as: " he ordered u mard farmud td m ra bar-ddram fj*j* b u^ ^ ^j* \j* $ (m.c.) " me to remove this ^^ A*ASX^ ^/olj^ bi-gu bd man suhbat bi-darad (m.c.)
Remark
I.
In
him to talk with me." But u toner ddrad A;|A ^*i> y az u khwdhish daram *>IA ^^f^xjf jf iltimas az shumd ddram fjb U^3 u*^^ '^^? daram ît are Present Indicative. u*j* ffdab ddram
"tell
;
!
Ta hamchu
*'
tu dust-i bi-daram.
(classical).
Bale-am na-bavad Jcaahad bi-dar-am
As long as I have a friend like yon, no fear have I that he will crucify me." Note singular, baahad *>-& for irrational animals also the plural dashta bashand
;
4&ta
8
after liar
is
kudam
\*& j*.
**
Vajh *^j
also used in ra.c. for
sum, money
"
:
ba'd az mulahaza-yi In barat

f
vajh ra kar-sazl darid

of exchange.
^;b i$$"*&\)
*+)&\j*.
fa^* j
(m.c.)
written on bills
DASHTAN, ETC.
265
II. Frequently in compound verbs, and whenever the verb " to keep," the Present ml-daram *)I<HX> is used, as har ruz bd u " " I converse with him l> suhbat mi-ddram daily ^l*** oaêjl jj;y> (m.c.) urd dust ddram or mi-ddram (f^***) p;t^ o**^ f;y (m.c.) "I like him (or it)
signifies
:
(
Remark
very
much"
but
man hanuz
;
bd u suhbat ddram
pj&
oaaa^y ^3Â
:
cr* (m.c.)
"the matter is still under discussion, it is not yet finally settled": nigah " dast bi-ddr " " cease from " bi-ddr ;fw *& bar mi-ddrand ;t<v o*.j> keep " are removing, carrying away." they ^t^-*^ Remark III. In modern colloquial, the Aorist form is also used for the In bardy-i shumd samar-i nd- ddrad &)\& c5>+-> {*** c^ltf vi^f n ^ Future, as
:
nami-ddrad j^l**^
),
or
na-khwdhad ddshl cu^b o^t;^
(m.c.)
" this will be of
no benefit to you." Such forms as sdkhta bash ^b ai^Lo (local ? ) c< be ready " and drdsta bash (J&. <*J^>f;f <c be dressed," must not be confused with the form ddshta bash <J& *i-b in the two first, the participles are adjectives, whereas
Remark IV.
ddshta bash o^b <u(j>

(c)
is
a transitive verb.
Vide
125
(j)
(6).
The Afghans and Indians say mi-ddram fj*^ for f;f^ ct I have." (d) The Imperfect of the simple verb ddshtan ^y^b, except in conditional entences, is rare in modern Persian the Preterite, as is the case with the
1
verb budan c>^, usually taking its place; thus if, in the sentence jt> **&} A> the verb ^^Â/O JUi. j*^j vaqt-l ki dar jahdz budam khayal mi-kardam ki were substituted for kardan &s^, tho verb would be Khayal ddshtan
,
j^
i^b
ddshtam (&\t> J i^ and not khaydl mi-ddshtam ^\^^c JUi.. In compounds, however, the Imperfect is used, as bd u suhbat mi-ddshtam b (m.c.) "I used to talk with him." jJUÂ* o,Asuo^f
l
(e)
In modern colloquial, ddshtan

is
<jJUifj>is
also idiomatically used with a

<xT
<^*>
continuative and present signification,
as
ty\& )j**>
hanuz ddrad
mi-dyad "he
etc.
:
now coming along":
ddvhtand mi-dmadand ^^^f

(/)
^
it
similarly ddrad ml-ravad <^/ *;b, " xvx^f^ (m.c.) they were coming along."
is
In some parts of Persia,

:
also used in the sense of 'hold/

f;
i.e.,
&MJ$ I) iô ^yf rd girifta ddram (local) " I consider that bird as good as caught
:
consider' (for mi-ddnam ftf*^) pjte " I consider this table as bought (m.c.)
8-V^
' '
J*
&i\ in miz rd
f)\&
Khanda ddram 1 ^yo man an murgh
"
(g)
The following
chiz-1
is
man
dar bazar
an Afghan colloquialism (*;|^ ^3-^ )ty. )* er kharidan ddram <{ I have to buy something in the
:
^^
=fi &*J
bazar."
(h)
In modern colloquial ddrad ^(a
is
there are/ or with the subject understood, as
often used impersonally 'there *-** 'ayb na-ddrad, or ^\ oJ

:
is,
^^
The Imperfect
of the simple (as well as of the
compound) verb
is
used freely in
^conditional sentences.
2
In miz ra kharida girifta
am;
or (correct m.c.) kharida bi-dan.
266
t(
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
thereis
zararna-darad(m.c.)
no harm in
<~**f &*.
it;
why not;
I don't care if I do. 1

%
"
^'** <^&* *ayb-i na~darad, or ^ta
chi 'ayb ddrad
(m.c.)
"
it
doesn't
matter; there is no harm in it, i.e., why not do so; yes": &)]&> fyU. char a " na-ddrad (m.c.) "there is no remedy o*f^ UU3 ^^x khaytt tamdshd ddsht
:
<*JU* ;bU JUk^; JU* J? sight" az Shirdz ru ba-shimdl chdpdr khdna ddrad (m.c.) "from Shiraz northwards " here the there are post-houses subject to ddrad is apparently the distance,
(m.c.) "it
was a curious
(or wonderful)
or the road
understood
,
^ ^ v^k
<;
khub yd bad ? or bad? There are both good and bad "; here the like, post-horses good be the to subject appears chdpdr system.
yi chdpdri chi-taur-and
&)j^ &*. is)ty? o ltf asphdkhub ddrad va bad (m.c.) " what are the
'
&t
^^
In the
'
last
example from
Sa*'d! in
84
(c)
ddrad
a;fa
may
be translated
there is," the subject being the whole of the previous clause.
() In modern colloquial, Idzim ddshtan &''h fj$ signifies "to need, require, etc."; f;fj> ;Uo !; Û. sd'at-am rd bisydr Idzim ddram (m.c.)
" I want
my
watch badly."
84.
Impersonal Verbs.
"to be necessary, must."
Sa&ldan*
(a)
" to be suitable; ought, o>j>- "to be worthy."
etc.,
etc."
Zi'blt/an ^^-hjj "to adorn; to suit."

Bdyistan
b
erJu.j(-j j
shdyistan
^J^jti,
and sazidan
^^^
are
all
impersonal
and
defective:
the Infinitive,
Past participle, third person
9 singular of the Aorist (without the prefix), Present, Imperfect,
and Preterite
only are used, besides the future participle or noun of possibility.
^wj U y Ôkxjf ^Jiil/o "I was appointed XXXII)

levee," the
first
In ty
^lioij.^
to
)t>
&+
JAJ (Tr.
meet him at court
Haji Baba, Chapter after the morning

is
person of bdyistan
&*&
is
used: such use
rare
and
ungrammatical.
'
an
offer of
2
Corresponds somewhat to the barrack phrase a drink.

&)\&
<~?**
**
don't mind
if 1
do,"
in reply to
Ohi 'ayb darad
&^ can
also be
a direct question, "what defect
is
there
in
it ?
"
and j$*-, and properly the horse for a messenger or post, spelt jt( " * travel post." pronounced either way chaparl rajtan &**) C5^^}^ Shayistan er^?^ and sazidan &&>j>** are the same.
Chapar, T.
,
indifferently
*
5
Bdîdan &**3^ obsolete form.

Classically, the Aorist
is
used for the Present.
In modern colloquial, the Present

is
Ajb
^fc ml-bayad
)
is
occasionally used,
l+
but by far the commoner form

in kar ra bi-kunid (m.c.)
bay ad ;
ft î]
4^1
^x?
shuma mi~l>ayad
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
267
Dar alam~i jan bi-hush mi-bayad bud Dar kar-i jahan khamush mi-bayad bud
l
" Be very wary in the Soul's domain, And on the world's affairs your lip refrain."
(0.
K. 167 Whin.)
Remark
for
I.
Bayad
77
^ and shayad AJ&

(a) (3)
are sometimes used as
synonyms
lawn
^ly, vide
II.
Remark.
c:
Remark
(mod.)
Bayist-i vaqt cuJj
jb
(obs.)
muqtaza-yi vaqt oJ>j
the (b) In classical Persian, the Past Conditional bayisti, as well as Aorist with the prefix (bi-bayad) occur occasionally for examples, vide (/). (c) In classical Persian, these auxiliaries are followed by the Infinitive*
î^
:
the shortened Infinitive, or the Subjunctive, the logical subject of the sentence being generally in the dative. oJrf -*&*& <j.2R.* Examples:
1
t;
cA&Uob
&*l,k
|;
^kL
guftan
<*+&
^^
ra
&jlj
JJJKJOJU-J
&j*> j
^ft? xiU
grw/^
sukhan
bi-andivha
khalq
ra,
bayad
khassa
va
Jiarakat-i
pasandida
bayad
kardan
hama
padishahan
(Sa'dl),
"he
said all people ought to
speak
and act decently, but especially kings"; & .xjb )&^j) u lAl^Û ^_ô j OÂ. jt az hiddat va saivlat-i padisha-han bar liazar * bayad bud &/-(Sa'di) " one must be on one's guard against the & A& fj hasty and despotic nature of kings" p^w ÎxÛ y d*^lft~j
forethought
with
^^
'
^^)^ &rt-jfr*jf &*.* ^sfi** quietly pass over the folly of an ignorant man bi-bar juz sukhtan ra cx.t-liguftar-i bl kirdar chun darakht-i f; ^J^M* JA. jL'
; ' *
'alim-i ra na-shayad ki bi-safahat-i az 'ammwbi-hilm ajli (^^3 I; o^fcj^Â *r <c a wise man must not bi-guzarad ki har du taraf ra ziyan-l darad (Sadl) "
6
^^
na-shmjad
for
6
(
(classical)
a speaking without acting

c
is like
a tree without fruit,
fit
^&^
1
kar* bi-kunam c^L^* nothing except burning ": mara nami-sazad kiln ** ^>- (m.c.) .'it is not suitable for me to do this (i.e. I am fit
(sazidan
(
for better);
is
not used affirmatively in mod. Pers., but sazavar mi-
bashador
ast
o.^f or)
There are
Û
^
^
%
as however, in both the ancient and modern language exceptions;

*&>
I;
)\$
(Classical)
and
(m.c.)
for
ffi~*>
**">& )^
C5^ 3'
bara-yi
hlch kar shayista nlstam (m.c.).
Also hizr: the idiom bar
liazjar
budan
is
also m.c. (not pur hazar).
Note the
izafat after bi-safahat.
4
6
Better guftar-i bl-kirdar

-Ra
J&L> . j bj omitted after kar as ra occurs at the beginning of the sentence,
Also in modern colloquial zibanda-yi
man
riist
hi
268
IMPERSONAL VEEBS.
Remark.
The shortened
is
Infinitive
is
used when the logical subject
of the sentence
pronoun "one."
can be expressed by the indefinitive understood, If, however, the subject (in the dative) be expressed the
or
shortened Infinitive
(d)
may
still
be used,
is
vide, first
example in
(/).
Sometimes the subject
put in the nominative, in which case

:-
it is
grammatically the subject of the second verb, as

4JUJ
liUlcf
fj
^ ur*3^
bdyad
^
id
^ *Û
bi-hadd-i
o~^
st
*Jty
p&> &(*+& pddishdh
ki
bar
dushmandn khashm na-rdnad ki dustdn rd i'timdd na-mdnad (Sa'dl) "a king must not drive his resentment against his enemies to such an extent
that his friends even lose confidence."
This construction
(e)
is
the most
common
in the
modem
:
language.
in speaking,
The Afghans and Indians use the above construction
but the Infinitive generally precedes the <x> auxiliary, as tu-rd bi-khdna-e khud or ra/tan bdyad (Afghan coll.), bdyad ki tu bi-khdna-e khud bi-ravi 1 (Af. colL) "you must go home'
budam
**
ki dldan bdyad iardd ba-kudam qism marg bi-mwam (Afghan coll.) was immersed in the thought of what sort of death I should have to die on the morrow" in modern colloquial bdyad ctid *y>^ *A* would be substituI
;
ted for dldan bdyad <MJ &**&. (/) As stated in (6), the forms ty-ob and >.>'# are obsolete in colloquial Persian. The following are examples of these forms in the Gulistan )\
:
an miydn bi-tariq-i ^jja. p& \j> ^jjii' c;U^ ^f imbisdt guft turd ham cliiz-i bi-bdyad gu/t (Sa di) "one from amongst them said by way of a joke you also must say something " [vide Remark
^s.1 J=UA>J
<&
jLj
yak-l az
c
'
'
to
(c)]
B
^^j
c_o!3
U
f
Î^
"he
^^(j
^j
vî? guft
pathm
bdyistl kdsJitan id
it
talaf
na-shudi
riot
(Sa di)
said wool ought to

;
have been sown so that
might
have been destroyed" Ja* ^JUJ JU^so ^^^jf <-Af ay malik ! az daricha-yi cliasm-i Majtiun bi-jamdl-i Lttyla* nazar
^^^ f^
I The latter is also the visual construction in modern colloquial, except that the pronoun would ordinarily be placed first, as: tu bayad ki-kkana-yi kkud-at bi-ravl (rn.c.)
$ ^jbj.J.
This construction
is also classical:
Tu
**
ka'z mihnal-i diyaran

lei
Na-shayad
nam-at nihand adaml
(Sadi).
Thou who
It
is
art careless of the affliction of others,
not
fit
that thou shonldst be classed as man.'*

vide
In this example, tu
Clauses.
*
3
is
the subject of the verb in the relative clause,
Kelative
Bayistl is occasionally used in modern writings in Persia. This form is still used in India and Afghanistan, but in modern Persian the 1m-
perfective with the Subjunctive or shortened Infinitive

*
would be used.
In modern colloquial incorrectly Laytt.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
bayistl
269
kardan (Sa'di) "he said, Oh king, it was necessary (you ought to have) to look at Laila's beauty from the window of Majnun's eyes." (g) Bayad <xjb, without a second verb, signifies "to be requisite,
needful, to lack
Ai'f
"
and takes the dative of the person,
as
l>
<^lj
Jc
'
\j
jjU^b
padishah ra 'adl bayad ta baru gird ayand (Sa'dl) "a king needs justice (justice is requisite for a king) so that they (the peasantry) may rally ' ' ura raham bayad o^lj round him ananra ^^ \j _y (m.c.) he lacks pity
'
J ' (
:
karam bayad diram * riist o**i wish to give alms have no money."
ki
(h)
^ ^
Ajl
*t
|j
^Gf (mod. saying)
* '
those who
meaning between bayad oob and shayad * following example it is clearly indicated ** *jl j^JU*> Âuxi c$>^ c5<xUâ. fjU g uft jmr afiua ma-ra khiradmand-i kafi bayad ki tadbir-i mamlakat-ra shayad (Sa'dl) "he (the king) said, certainly we need a competent wise person who is fitted for the
distinction in
The
;
often fine
f;
in the
'
administration of State affairs."
The
distinction
is
even more marked
in
the example in
(j),
which better
illustrates the difference in
meaning.
or spoken, the constructions 'are the same, with the exception of the construction with the Infinitive.
() In
modern Persian, written
The Present, Aorist, and c^jb are used bfiyist (vide q)

o~->b
:
Preterite ml-bayad
for present times,
**(* bayad c\b, and <^c, and the Imperfect mi bay 1st
u* for past times 8 (1) "I have to buy something
in the
*'
;
bi-kharam pit? c4>h^ az rah-i bahri bayad (or
;0^ J^ (m.c.)
bazar" dar bazar bayad cliiz-i must we (one) go by sea or land "
?
class,
mi-bayad) rajtya barri c*ij

sal-i
c>jUxxj
joU
^^.^cu
fyj
^
t5^
this
(m.c.).
(2)
"You
should have done this last year"

(or bl-kunid)
*
guzashta
bayist m-ra karda bashld

(JSAXSCJ
^h^^*^!;^! o^jb^xjUA
shuma mi.u^^ JU
:
or)
(m.c.);
:
f)j*.
&JJ* (m.c.)
but dlshab mi-bayist birun bi-ravam vali^>~>j() "I ought to have gone 5 out last night, but' '
I
^ ^^
" when
was finished
had
five
or six other things to do,
but I had no
kar-i digar
leisure to
do them" chun
in kar ra
tamam kardabudam panj shash
ml-bayistbi-kunamvalifursat na-kardam(m.c.)
Ura rahm bayad u mara mal
is
common
saying.
Diram /p for dirham (**>J^* 3 In modern colloquial the past tense of all verbs is Hence perhaps the reason why in m.c. the past tense present.
*
frequently used for the

of baylstan &**?*>
(mi-
bayist
4
0"~jb
ô
and
bayist
^^
The Present Subjunctive

:
are also used for bayad *tM or ml-bayad *}M <y* of the Past (Aorist) can bo, and usually is, used instead
1
could be substituted. Subjunctive hero karda bashid <x^ " I had to be out last 5 Dishab lazim shud birun bi-ravam night.'*
270
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
Remark
Remark
bayad
<>\*
/.
It will be seen that after mi*bayist either the Aorist or the
Perfect Subjunctive
II.
may
be used.
vr*~jU is
:
In modern colloquial, bayist
frequently used for
(butmi-bayist
^~?M
tr* is
always past), as
" I must do (vulgar)

(3)
^^
cu~ ^
f;
;l
^ j^*
this
to-day."
miyan btrun hash wa-agar-na tura bayad sJiirkat bi-itmam rasani (m.c.) "you must withdraw from this business or else you must be a " the king lacks justice" gar partner to the end": *& Jo^ ^ *(^> (m.c.)
Jchud ra az
;
skaraf bayad-at
himmat buland dar j\t **b o+a> O*AJ oÂ have noble aspirations." want honour, you
Remark.
(saying) V
if
The
following
is
an example of
Ij
all
these verbs
*->^(*>
<*an.if
rti, mi-bay ad " that which a man ought nam%-shayad va zanra naml sazad to have,* is ûnfitting for a child, and unsuitable to a woman"; here all three verbs practically have the same signification.
<JM^)
anc^s sahib 1 rish
bachcha ra
Bayad
basham
^*^b
(or
bayist)
bi-navisam p~4j**
-*
**(>
(in c.)
and
bayisti
mi-navishtam
p^j*
or
C5
)
'^^
l>
(old)
~
<>>U
mi-bay ist
:
bi-navisam
(or navishta
aiy
/*-**i^V
vj^^jL
&iea*
^/o (m.c.)
vail
%& y mi-guzashtim ^j^^t^ Â^ " but we should be 232) obliged to pass ten 'difficult points*'; this " should be *?M guft bayad qabl az navishtan-i kaghaz ijaza ml-khivastld
bayad az dah nuqfa-yi sa*b (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim,
p.
fi)*&>
^^ *& (Memoirs of Abd-ur-Rahim, p. 224) jjj(a.t " he said have taken permission before writing the letter" you ought to this ought to be <*$^ <*juj^ ^j^t o**l> agar mi-Jchwastam sharh-i az har az anha bi-diham baray-i ghiza^l tafsil-l bayad mi-navishtam baray-i
j,jJuf^jjx)
AP(^ e>*"*P j
^^
(*J^> <y tion of
cÛJ 3 (* A<^ VT C5trf 3 <jr=^ (J^b*** vs.--Û here Monte Christo) ml-bayist bi-navlsam be preferred ml-navishtam is perhaps Afghan.
LS*****
^**j*
;
(Transla
^^
would
(j)
Bayad
is
more peremptory and therefore

f<
less civil
than slwytid
are
o^jli
:o-^ Ûi
(k)
tijf inja na-bayad nishast (m.c.)

nishast
you must not, you

c^-*^>
^jtîj
not, to sit u it is not
lapjjf inja na-shayad (ni.c.) you, you had better not, sit here." " is " let it be also used as an adver.b "perhaps, proper Shayad*AJ>
here"; but
fitting for
possibly."
(1)
The past
*l~jU participles sliayista*
and rarely
**~jk, are used as
adjectives:
^^
^Vf
**
<-^~*>
l/0
&^
"
<x3LulA
[shayista-yi sha^n-i
ma
nist ki
sit
mja
1
nishlriim
(mod. and
classical)
it is
not fitting our dignity to
Harf-i
2^-*9 but it is better to ornit the Or Sahib-i risk <JH) izafat. *' don't T O^ na-ahayist ma-zan &J"* o^lî li (rn.c.)
use
unseemly
language (or abuse)."
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
271
here";
zan-i
shayista
AwjU ^}
(m.c.)
"a
well-behaved
wife";
sipas-i
&L..)b bi-qiyas bayista-yi Hazrat-i Yazdanist cu^xif^ 0^*0*. Ûftjj <jU (modern writing) praise must be given (by us) to the God-head." Bayista The substantive bdyist o*~.b is obsolete. is not used in speaking.
* (
**>& can be paraphrased by the adjectives Shayista sazavar, or (J'JI Ids-iq, or zibanda ****!j y or by the substantive <ÛJ liyaqat,
Remark,
as:
^j|w
:
;t<
^Jt
oJU)
nHt <>$
to
ma
liyaqat-i In kar rd
kar nistim
us'*
p~<*>^
JJl* )
)
(m.c.)
na ddrim " we are not able to do

e*>f
(or
ma
lawq-i in
this, it is
beyond
o**oi
'
( (j^jjf
mst
(m.c.)
you
sazavar-i (or latiq-i) should not say this, ought not to say this."
;'jj>*
/fear/
or
-^
iw
shumd
(m) Shayistagi (^&~jl& and sJidydn

t;
^^
shayistagi-yi In kar ra
na-daram
^^S-jlw (m.c.) "this work is beyond me"; dar In Jiangdm f)\& ki shayan-i bahjat va shayigan-i masarratast &&(> j CU^L^J ÎL^ tf &J&A
;(
ciMf
^^
o^c(
e^^/o (modern writing)
" at
this
time when
it
is
fitting that
we
at
should lejoice."
Shay an &(^
all.
not used in modern colloquial. Rayan &M* not used Shayitfani î^jU and bdyistanl L5 **~jl-> are both old. (n) Bayad bdshad kl> ^b signifies "must be" and mi-bay ist bdshad
is
<c
>^b ojlj
î^j
must have been "

<4
tnd la-bud bdyad in kar ra bi-kuriim
^ *$ U
^^
^\
(m.c.)
we
are obliged of necessity to do this,"
tXijj
^ÂJtxi
>jlj
^ e><H^;
c^t/
(Afghan) "sensible people will say
that since he took so
much
trouble to construct a boat he
must certainly have
previously
(o)
made some plan for transporting it (to the water)." In modern colloquial bayad sometimes means " should," as:
<>b
"
y>b ^j\
^b
why
'
should
\j^ jj^ ^t In chiz chird bi-ln girarii bdyad ^bdshad this be so dear?"; (simpler "why is this so dear ?
(m.c.)
?>
chird
in qadr girdn ast o^*f

as
&\^
;^ftvi tâ.
).
Vide
80
(g)
for use of khwdstan
^^^
^^
^
should.'
(p)
Bdyad
f U>
cNjb
is it
(
sometimes in modern colloquial prefixed to the fusignifies" tvb ) c^-*
ture Perfect,
when
must have, "as:

(m.c.)
<x~>j cu>J^
e^t
^b
^
1
f^jlis'
tain ki in khan bi*Landan bi-rasad Fuldn

"
(bdyad)
kitdbash
rd
tamdm karda bdshad
by the time
this letter
reaches London, So-and-so will have completed his book
"
in this
example
bdyad vU could
(q)
classically be omitted. In modern colloquial the Past tense bdyist
is
used for the Present,

zad (or
sliud)
as
&>
or)
&jfa OUM.^ cu~jb
'
bdyist
dast ba-kar
(m.c.)
ihvbayad ^b would ordinarily be inserted. iX>b ( m .c.) " we must help each a Or bayad dast andar kar shud >A;K ;*i| o*.^ /mma bci-tshan dast andar karbuda U (m.c.) ^ U other" *!f ;tf ;^l ^^^ v^^t
l
In
modern
colloquial
"
you helped them."
272
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
set to
" we must
p-jW
nearly died
"
(m.c.)
;
work "; hama bdyad (or bdyist) bi-mmm ( cu~jb I we must all die" [mi-bdyist bi-mwad ^+J c^^b (m.c.) "he ought to have died."]
;
The affixed pronouns can be added to the impersonal verb bayad " /^*.^x> mi-bayist-am it was necessary for me": mi-baylst-i- shdn "it was necessary for them."
Remark.
<x>b,
as:
(r)
Note the substitutes

:
for the
verb bdyistan
<^^b
in the following
examples
(1)
&&\)=*.
jly*
j&
alaxijy
jjfÂ
hamrdh-i u
khipdhad bud (m.c.) "there must be

liamrah-i
fifty
panjah nafar sar-bdz soldiers with him"; [or bayad

j&* *(=uj
j\
u panjah nafar sarbdz bashad *&b )l> j

0*0 ^ *kpl* JJ&T
^j^-c
ty+A
(
v*b (m.c.)]
l
" this enclosure must panjah dast Jchivahad bud (Afghan) (or m.c. bayad bashad) z *J<XXA> be about fifty cubits in length and breadth" ^* ^~ ^.^ e/f;o?l 3 AAAS îa. aâr dar an waqt kas-e oîf xiL> cu-oL for tf jjli? (^^x^ ) .sy JAI^. ;lf (
; |4
jy i3A|^
J^Jaj *Jalî ^jf
m ihdtd bi-tul va
arz
bi-qadr-i
mara me-did chunin me-danist ki shakhs-i gunah-gar khwhdd bud (Afg. col.) " had any one seen me then, he would have thought that I was (must be) some guilty person."
(2)
(m.c. o^
dAt^k f^y î-j
or)
^ ^&}^
îi;
e;^ vf
J
e^;jf cu^^xj
^CJ
/eAw
berun raftan hhwahad shud (Afghan coll.) (or m.c. raftan Idzim khwdhad shud) "but it will be necessary to go out to fetch
ba-jihat-i awardan-i db
water."
(3)
^ t^J
Mr
c^/ C-A^
"
coll.)
C^xsu-c
^j^
du
c/iww
ba-anjdm rasid bardy-i
jlf JJ5 ^cl^j Jojv,; ^lôlj ;K C^f C>a. kdr-i digar milinal o koshish kardan
paydd shud (Afghan

yox>
when
this business
was finished
had to
toil
and
labour to accomplish two other works."

(4)
jU^
^,1^
^^j
lûf
e;3o^
o,^
jihat-i
didan-i asphd
berun
raftan bisydr me-shud (Afghan
coll.)
"I had
to continually go out to
have
a look at the horses;"
(m.c. bi-jihat~i didan-i
aspdn Idzim bud blrun ravam
(5)
d>i*\
<j* îj;
^ e^^/ ^*^
Î/J *^j O^XA:
giriftan ba-koh raftan me-uftdd (Afghan coll.) neither was powder expended (by this plan) nor had I to go to the high instead of ground to catch chukor;" [in m.c. Idzim mi-gasht cu^
4 '
me-shud wa na
^^
^b
*i
?ia
bdrud kharch
bard-e kabk
^^
mi-uftad].
)
c?^
*^ v^ ^f
(Afghan
)*
*-^-t
hah chi kardi?
coll.)
c^^ A Jf y^ hdld dnchi kardan ast dar an "now how much have you done of what you
*
s
va 'arz an (*>j* j il^Jb (m.c.). c^.^ a cubit from the elbow to the Dast,
m.c. mi-pindasht
Or
tul an
tip of middle finger.
gunah-kar
cu^fo-ij^ WO uld be
preferred to mi-danfot
0-0)^^0:
also
UffOP
quna h-gar )^ *X.
IMPERSONAL VERBS.
had
to do
?
273
"
;
[in
m.c. hdld az dnchi mi-bdyist bi-kunl chl kardl

insdn-e
dmada khwdhad bud Âf^ &*x>f (Afghan coll.) "certainly some human being must have come here" [in modern colloquial bi l -shakk Injd insdn-i dmada bdshad
(7)
Zarur dar Injd
JJXOJ
^Û*Of U?VXjf
y^^^j
(8)
j
Ldzim
ast ki bi-ravam
or
(
rajtan-i
)
man
&X
^*\
>j5f,
or raftan
vdjibdt)
am
lazim ast
az zaruriyydt
(or
ast
oUaJj or
" I must go/'

paraphrase of
<(
Remark.
A
<v
it is
necessary" can be effected by such

'l-qatl
Arabic expressions as
ciiiiJf
w^^fj etc.
(tr.) "necessitating, wajib* meriting death; necessary to be killed," etc.
mustahim pXw/o
(5?)
Further
modem
colloquial
*
examples
the
of verbs used impersonally, or
with the
are:
subject understood
after
manner
^^-^ &jif -^t^ on account of magas bi-mardum va malJia khayll bad guzasht (ni.c. Roz. Gr.) " here the large number of horse-flies, man and beast had a bad time of it " 6 " the day the subject is apparently "the time" or h^-j* J\ ^Xsx^yi
j*^>4.j
'
o^-<>?
^^
lûs
of ddrad &y&
83
(h)]
bi-jihat-i kasrat-ikhar
*
sjZ-vo oi'^lf) ^.3xix; ^&tf
3.jUJ
1
ic if numai/ad va gah-l munjar it a which does severe sometimes death." results in strangers injury
agar gjturaba gazid iô bi-Jialakat ml-shavad (m.c. Roz. Gr.)
ra
asar-i sakhtrt miit
bites
becomes, behoves, etc.," is a synonym of shayad " ^y^ ornament, beauty (construed with dadan *-**) (subs.) Ziba Ujj is an adjective; chi zlbd wii-khwdnad c>-U and shikastan (^Ju*<^). " how ÛJKU^ (**\ to*, he reads."
(/)
Zlbad
JAJJ
*'it suits,
and sazad
zib
' '
(m.c.)
nicely
is
(u)
Expressions like "it

of
' f
said,
it is
related," etc., are rendered
by the
third person plural
the transitive verb (vide 88 Passive) as: ^\ JbjyT dvarda (Did it is related (they, the ancients or the wise or the relators) have " jJf ** related and it is said/' ; MA?^ vagufta and
(f)
Some
verbs,
tive of
cognate meaning:
impersonal in English, take in Persian a nominabdrdn ml-bdrad (m.c.) "it rains"; &\
^^
Amada *>^T
is
treated as though an adjective and parfc of a (vulgar)

**
compound
verb amada. budan. cJ<*# 8^-^f

*
to
become."
In modern colloquial ihtitual darad ^jb
J^-^l
or ydhtamil
cUû>
could be used
in tho s^nso of
'*>
"
jjrobably/*
/0
*
6
a collective noun always used as a plural except by the vulgar. Ithar-magas ^j&*-j=*- used collectively.
(*<^
Mardum
o-^<>? Mtab-Jdiayll badbi-ma guzasht
^ ^ O"^ V^*
**
**
we passed
The bug
called
malla
^l*3 or
gana,
or
^harib-gaz
a bad night." or " biter *T*JJ*
of strangers."
^
7
For munjarr
18
274
*j*
COMPOUND VEKBS.
^
(w)
**)
tundad;
x^ ^
&
ra'd ml-ykwrrad (in.c.)"it

J>y barq
thunders" or
**&**> ;oJJ tundar mi-
mi-darakhshad "it lightens," or
<\=^
<3> barq
mi-jihad (m.c.).
An
impersonal verb in English
is
frequently rendered in Persian as
follows:
(m.c.)
^^ ^J
"
^yf
<^
"it
is
*=-y*
hich dil-l in rd pasand nami-kunad

;
" no one
likes this," or
it is
not approved"
^&
}fc Ja*
>aql
bdvar
na-kunad.(S'a,'di)
(x)
impossible to credit
:
"
(m.c.
nami-kunad
(1)
(2)
For the impersonal use of Tavanistan " to be able"
vide
77
(a) (2)
and
(b) (3).
Shudan
c^ vide
77
(d).
(3)
Khwastan
^^^ vide
80
(/).
(4] Gu.zashtan ^xô.? vide (5) supra. S3 (/^). (5) Dashtan e.^fa vide
85.
Compound Verbs
of simple
(a)
is
The number
of
verbs in Persian
is
made up
compound
verbs, which, like other
the deficiency compound words, are small

:
exceedingly numerous.
The compound verbs present no grammatical difficulty. be classed as adverbial verbs, and nominal 2 verbs.
(b) (1)
They may
Adverbial verbs are simple verbs, transitive or intransitive, with an indeclinable particle (ad verb or preposition) prefixed, as ^.yJif jl> l^z yuftan
:
"
to say a second time

)t>
e)^T
"; ^'A? jU bdz gashtan "to turn back, repent": dar amadati " to come in"; e^^~4! b va tstddan 3 "to stand still,
"
;
stop, halt
dashtan "to
also to twist
he came in ; j^j! az dar dar dmad (Sa'di) y bar to raise up; sutler, endure"; bar tdftan &**$ j* "to shine forth,
*>*f ;^
4<
"
^^^
u zabar kardan ^^f f)^f') " to make topsy turvy " vd guftan &M\I (m.c.) "to repeat what one has heard, say again"; "to wash again." vd shustan <^jî f^
J>
up
zir
'
-
(2)
Faru î,
to
firu j>y
or furu j y * (before
signifies
a vowel
jarud
etc.)
is
prefixed
some verbs and
dmad
oJ;
<>^f
j^
"he
U->
<p9
ô\ ^ (3) Fara
(rn.c.)
is
furu guft oJ# " he went into the room."

carne
down";
"down, downward; low," as farad 4 "he spoke low"; ^y

signifies
another adverbial prefix and
"back, again,
Vulgar pat/a mi-tfnirr ad. bj*** &^. Nominate are those formed by prefixing a noun or an mljectivo to a verb. Va ^ in composition with verbs stands for 602; j^ " back ", again, open, etc., as: va dad ob fj he gave back," va guft cJiJfj 'he spoke again "; \^ tjl; ;^ rfr
1
fc '
t>5
fcun
*
"open the door";

In m.c.
jurTi guft
vsturla JS-iU-^jf
= simply
guft,
standing" but va Istada Bc^^f^ the furu having no meaning.
**
halted."
COMPOUND VERBS,
over, opposite, etc., etc."
275
It is often redundant, being prefixed merely to avoid a cacophony. Vide the rule applying to the auxiliary Jchwastan &\+t^ when used to form the Definite Future, as khayma ra far a khipahand girift <*i*fj^ \j* f; *+#* " " cuy they will surround the tent (Class.).
:
(4)
Faraz
"
jfî
above,
amadam
pillow."
p^
jij*
j'î
U&VI*
o^
before," as: chun bi-balin-ash faraz " when I came up to his (Gul., Chap. VI. St. 1)
up,
,
Faraz
(5)
sometimes strengthens a verb but often it is redundant. Pish <j^, blrun &itf, andar ;^f (or dar ;j>), are also common
in
the preposition has by use become incorporated with the verb and the verb has ceased to be regarded as a compound in such verbs the preposition is prefixed to the verb itself, as tup khwahand
;
:
adverbial compounds. (6) In a few verbs,
dar hard
khast'1
&j>
;j>
:sx&iy2>.
^y
fcJiwdhand dar guzasht
c^^^;^ t\xa>|>^
khwdhnad
bar-
Remark.-
Bi-sha/ir (or dar sliahr) dar
amadan
cJ^-^T
<e
enter the city," but az shahr dar

city."
(c)
amadan
;^7t^3'
come out
of the
The
participle in these yerbs precedes the usual verbal prefixes

:
mi
3 and the negative^ na &* &ndma *>* as JsxxC^ ^ uj>y tup dar <yo mi-kunand (rn.c.) " the gun is being fired" (lit. they are emptying the <c take it out of your cannon)"; az fcisa dar bi-yur ;Lj j^ * *' jt (m.c.)
and
bi *j,
pocket."
(d) Some verbs that in admit it when compounded
4i
their simple form take the prefix

witfli
<*-'
do not
a proposition as
,
^^(^ y
bar (chastan
to
rise
;
up"
(bar
khiz
and bah kMzam,
etc.);
bar-yashtan
^&$j "to
return"
rdbi-dary^* \) ^' ''keep this", but in ra bar dar )\ty I; " amikktan " 61 take tiiis away (^^4f (tr.) (Impr. j**^. bi-yamiz) to mix ar-amiz j**tf ;*>. dar dmikhtan )* (intr.) Imp.
;
^ "
;
^^^T
In poetry, for thp verb sometimes follows the verbl 4
Remark.
fc-^ê
\
of metre, the particle of a
compound
(e)
Nominal verbs are simply
vt
>s
of action, transitive or intransitive,
preceded by a Persian or Arabic \sub

or past participle.
1
antive, verbal substantive, adjective,
Faraz u nisUlb
-r^^ J^j 9
Icard
"
"P * anc^
1
^wns "
\
or
" ascents and descents."

cu^(>> JXXA[^
Dar khwuhanA
^
^
:
î*(yxjj>
dar\
khwahand guzasht
vicaily: tup ra
^, and
bar
khwahand khast
*
o^l^
^vAfja,^) are old.

tup
is
Note the absence of ^
u&ed
geii
would moan one special

**
gun.
*
Tup Ichwahand dar kard
(Fut.).
In modern colloquial bi-raw in
}j> (not
tubi-raw),
}J
go inside."
270
COMPOUND VERBS.
Usage alone
will
determine which
auxiliary
verb or
verbs
can
be
used in forming the compound. are not permissible in writing.
Many
5 '
:
auxiliaries used in
modern
colloquial
Examples:
&*f
0*-;^
durust kardan
"to
make, construct "; "to correct

1
îxx> vju*^
cUL ^fy
Uajf
^ zan-i
qassdb baray-i bulbul kirm durusl mi-kunad (vulg.) "the butcher's wife ma'zul kardan breeds maggots (as food for) bulbuls j>*' (past " to dismiss from be shudan ma'zul eP^ office"; Jt>**> "to participle)
}
^^
2 dismissed"; &$ *iU~;t istdda kardan (classical^ (Persian past participle) " to set up." These nominal prefixes may be considered either as part of the
compound verb
they admit of
(TP V^S*
itself,
';
ra.
or as the object of the simple verb; but in no case do Examples: ftj wj^ l;y u-rd chub zadam (m.c.), or
chub zddam (m.c-) "I beat him (with a stick)"; in the first instance chub <~j*. may be considered an integral portion of the verb zadam foj; in the second it may be taken as its object, but it would
bi-u
u ~ ra bd chub zadam be wrong to say bi-u chub rd zadam fj>j f; v>^ means'* I beat him with the stick"]: "talk Persian" ft>\ Vj^ ;jt
'>
\_
I.-
Far si harf
time
"
s
,;
intizdr kashida
harj-i Farsi bizan eJj- ^^^ uv,^ khayll " I have Â' Ûai.t ^Û^ expected (waited for) you a long f> " " o>a^ J^ Jt**9 tliree years passed si sal t/ul kashid (here sal is
bi
zan
&j>
o^
^j^-y or
am
tul kaxhidan which should be regarded as one word). The ism ^*t etc. is often separated fiom the verb that follows it 4 c^;!^ & bind yuzdrdan is "to begin"; bd man bind- yi namak bi~liar ami
the subject of the intransitive verb
(juzdrda
a^t
o*^
jfî^f
^y
^ 3^
*-^-*.>
^ti'
t)\'^
^d
(m.c.)
5
-=
bind
c/uzdrd bi-na-
mak-hardmi kardan o^y
^L^
*^+^
^ (m.c.).
From
&**tf
qir
(jlr
j*f
a verbal substantive from girijtan,

bi-gir
c<
is
formed
()ir
dmadan
j3
(m.c.)
(for
" and dmadan) "to come into one's possession

into one's possession"; dnja
l
dvardan ej^T
naydmad ^^l^>
Remark
in
j4
to bring
.
chiz-i (fir-am
;
\SjX5- ^f (m-c
V nothing was got by me there

I
' '
dnjd chiz-i, gir
na-yavardam c^)^ j4 cffj^^l'tni.c.)"

I.
obtained nothing there. 6
"
It will be noticed th at rna^;/ compound verbs are intransitive
meaning though the actual verb

J
of the'
j,
pound
is
transitive.
Maggots are bred and sold in Persia as */ In m,c. bar pa kardan &3J> ^>,ora|
^-tjicie
$(tin
of trade tor caged nightingales.
(Â^f^, O r ra ilashtan
(^^\>
1^,
or
nasb kardan (*)^

<c '
v^^'
Or
lh.ayll muntazir-i
it
shuma bndam {?? [+& jSa&a î-^.
*
5
In poetry
sometimes follows the ve:b.
Tn the sentence <*S)}*^
pak-i Hazrat-i
sainted soul of
Axb ÛxLa <*3LJf e^âa. (J'U ^jj p*$ 13 ta qasam bi-ruh-i Sulayman ('alayh* 's-aalan' na-khwurl " until thou swearest by the Solomon (on whom be peac< ," the wordqasam (which is a component
'<}
' k
part of the verb

8
to swear
") could be insexpresses

;
ed just before na-khwurl.

;re of
Olr
amadan
(D^\ j$
chance than
glr
avardan
COMPOUND VERBS.
Remark
as:
ba
II.
277
of
Sometimes a compound verb admits

^j
two constructions,
marduman mahabbat mi-kunad

j>
jJ^x>
o*aevo
Û^L
(in
which
mahabbat 0*3*.* appears to be the direct object of the verb), and marduman
ra mahabbat mi-kunad JAX/C o^**.^
\)
Û^x;
the latter construction seems
commoner
(/)
in
modern Persian.
(c)
As stated in
rule
is
the verbal prefixes ml
^* and
bl
&
are intercalated
before the simple verb.
The same
*J,
as
observed with regard to the negative particles &* and 71 (c) and (/). dast bar narni-ddrl J. ^~t> vide
(g)
Usage alone
will
^ ^^ determine
"
which simple verb

:
is
used in forming
a compound.
The
following are a few examples
hamla avardan, (m.c.) "to attack, charge." *c uzr khwastan, (m.c.) " to apologise, ask pardon."
uzr dvardan, (m.c.)
,
" to make excuses."
to make preparation." tadaruk dldan " to suffer sitam didan, (m.c.) opposition." OL^x> maslahat dldan **to consider advisable."
L
a.
J/
gham khurdan,
<c
(m.c.)
<{
to suffer grief.
"
khurdan, (m.c.)
to be deceived."
an oath." }) " be to wounded. 2aMm khurdan, (m.c.) y bi-zamin khurdan, (m.c.) "to fall on the ground; strike
qasam khurdan,
(m.c.) to swear, take
the ground."
&)j &\&
takan khurdan, (m.c.) "to be shaken, to shake, tremble." " to be caught." fjirijtar amadan, to overcome the 6ar dushman yjialib amadan, u-*^^y
t
enemy."
Jr
amadanaz,
(m.c.)
" to be
tired of, disgusted."
**
'
sir
" to be satisfied, full from eating." shudan, (m.c.) " to be counted." ^/ar shumar amadan (class.),
1
**
,
;<>
^ 3 az pa dar amadan
1
,
-^
r
;js
Ujf
r/s
pa dar ufiadan
dfar
-t,-j
to be helpless,
come
to * grief."
to be) falsely
*fy>'f
s Jan.AO ; w
mahall-i
iftirat-ast,
" he
;<
is (or is likely
accused/'
(^j*.* j
dar ma'raz-i khatar

(**>3
ast,
he
is
in danger."
il
^5^1^
e.***/ \j*
(
qadam-i mardanagi pishnihadan,
to act bravely."
faragriftan, (m.c.)
&**>>)* (*>>*
furu nishandan, (m.c.) "quench (fire, anger)." " to surround."
j*
)\
chashm dukhtan (bar
<k
)
to stare at."
&&)&&
vytij
zaban gushudan, " to begin to speak."

*'
In bi-dard-am naml-khurad
(m.o.)
this
is
no use
to
me."
278
<ol~j
(of
COMPOUND VERBS.
j*
" " to aqd bastan (zan-i ra), perform the service of marriage
c)^t; f&,
the Mulla).
e>^ ^yt/ôr
ously
;
kdm randan
or ham-rani kardan.
ct
to live luxuri-
enjoy oneself."
v_/..c
**t
ÂAJ
'aqab nisJiastan,
" to retire
(of
;
enemy)."
j>>
tavallud ydjtan
"to be born"
"
,
also tavallud sliudan
&*&
*)ji.
o
^
jf
js
as das dddan
to give
up."
c;^3
^
j
f
w ^ a ^ shustan (ordar quzashtan) <^x^;^ "to give

C
up hope
begun)
of one's life."
cj&Xu*'
;
o-a^
c>!^
up."
\\
a2
^-^
ffosJ
kashldan,
"to cease from

refrain
(a thing
to give
\(}
Û^f
begun)."
^jt*.
az chiZ'i bdz Istadan,
"to
from
(a
thing not
e^j
Bj> 7 x)
&
;
eL~kU* ))
\j
tjs*
Wind rd var sdkht
ki
murda
ast,
" he feigned to
be dead."
" to play a trick, wile harf zadan, "to talk."
rang rikhlan,
(in
a bad sense)."
eJÂ'
}
e;^
d)t>j
^^ faryad zadan
" to collect."
or kardan or kashidan,
"to cry
out."
e;y,
â.
jam' zadan, "to add up."

kardan,
or
)
(j^^-i <^+fi
tuhmat has/an
(or
tuhmot zadan] bar
" to
accuse falsely."
crH/ jlr-*
^*j>
(
^^
)
giriftan,
" to become settled, to sit."

Ct
C5
I1" kushtl giriftan,
to wrestle."
'*
tr^/
or
^ of ^
w.s^
o^
grw5/i
ddddn
(or giriftan),
(
to listen to."
;f
kashidan, vulg.
j*^ c3>^>
to eaves-drop."
gush fard dddan

vi-*;
ditto.
e;Ux)
jt
az
r/ s
'
^y
^^
^^
miyan rafian m'iy n burdan

j
" to be abolished; cease

"
(tr.)
to be
used."
carry off."
^^l
t^?
Jâ.
^'faw uftadan,
cuiiA^
oA*
ftj^SJ
|
" to get before, go before." " to yriftan, sabqat surpass." " to to

sabqat justan,
surpass,
anticipate.""
or) ô-kj
" to be JUi^l ihtimal raftan (or dashtan), probable." tashrif ddsJitan (polite), "to be at home, in the house."
^Joj
nazar andakhtan, " to cast a glance at." u bi'taMiir a.ndakhtan "to postpone." l^ bi-taMlr uftadan (intr.) "to be postponed.
In India jam* kardan eJ*y ^*"^ " to collect

Birkharidan~i qall raftam vail bar
" and
also
*'
to
add
up.
man
sabqat just
COMPOUND VERBS.
279
_
*k Ja/fc/A ushmn-i ruzgar (or ayyam) chashidan <( to experience the ups and downs of life." c^j^ jf^jj) fj 9 ^j** sard u (/arm-i ruzgar didan (m.c.) the same as above. ism-bur dan " to mention." guman burdan (m.c.) "to think, doubt."
.
...
fijf
or
jlfjji)
cîr^ J
hasad burdan (m.c.;

giriftan
atasli
class.
warzidan)
" to bear malice."
" to catch
fire."
zadan
'
'
to set fire to."

(clsss.
sliumdan
and
m.c.)
" to smell"
;
(tr.).
zahmat
kashidan " to take pains suffer hardships." salam ra shikashtan " to break up the audience."
1
<J.aj
nuql-i
majlis
shudan
(rn.c.)
"to be
in
everybody's
to
mouth, be famous
&$j>
is
jA->
(lit.
to be the
sweetmeat
of the assembly).
(lit.
" to j ^~*y nisi u na-bud kardan destroy utterly
make,
not and was not)."
be noticed that a change of the verb in the compound may make a verb transitive or intransitive in meaning, thus laghylr kardan " to " to change." change," but tayjiylr dadan ^t\t j**-> (tr.) e^y^-j^ (intr.)
.
Remark I
It will
Remark
II.
It
must
be
recollected
that
in
modern
^+"*
colloquial,
prepositions and conjunctions are frequently omitted.

fikr-i
J
In, na-bdyad ki
**
s
shumd
-'^ mk-naim-yi khud biyufild ^.^ ^^ ^y ^^ j*^* (m.c.) " the ought you not to be careful of your reputation ? preposition AJ bi that is wanting, has only to be inserted before fikr ji to make the sentence
<c
,
perfectly cKâr; for though in
modern
uftadan &?&*}
(h)
&
colloquial the
is hi- fikr
compound verb
&*(**\
jlqr
is
used,
its
proper form vulgar
uftadan
in
j&.'
There
are
certain
compounds
colloquial
use,
which
should not be imitated, as: (I) nanrachigunapukhtakuiiant, AAXO t; eA> " *' bread? the 1 how shall can cook ; (for bi-pazam I) (Afghan) (or +y$> f& " " xhikaxta kardan danista nammlan ^^^ &j^Jfo (Afghan) to teach, inform &&jf &$*&' (Afghan) "to break"; mkhta kardan &*/ &-^j<~ (vulg. in.c.)
)
;
^^
* 4
to
burn"
afrukhla kardan
^^ &^î\
(class,), etc.
These compounds have come into existence owing to the frequent adjectival use of the past participle of the simple verb, which is both
transitive
(2)
and
intransitive.
like
verb
Islada
is
admissible, but there

fn.
kardan c^/ *MA~J "to no necessity for tstada shudan*

basta kardtt budi
set
up," may
be
mara az hama peshtar

In ladiii tahtif uft*-^
^^
(Afghan). '^./o ^y AX*J ÂÂJ &+&

\
o^
*ÎW
is
used for zahwat c^^^j.
^
6
Kven
in speaking,
most Persians would say
az In bar baz istada shud
bi-fikr
uftadan
(m.c.)
&&(*9' j^&s.
I*\***H
)^ 0'}'^
"he was prevented
from d oi?i c this."
280
CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS.

coll.)
(Afghan
"you bound me
and should
stated,
first,
before
all
the others," the verb might

**>** *.
just as well be,

(5)
be, basta budl
^^
is regarded as a noun; hence such barbarous compounds as jastan namud *j+> &***> (m.c.) "he made " or a jump jast namud î o~-^ (Afghan coll.).
(')
As already
the Infinitive
Some compound verbs

as
:
consist of a phrase,
and are both adverbial

;
and nominal, c>^T j* bj

dost bi-kar
(tr.) and az pa dar amadan " to cause to b (intr.) pas pa kardan &&jf retreat, j " zadan &&\ fa cu^j> to commence "; az dast dadan &&\t> ^~z\\
az pa dar-avardan
;
e^/f^
\\
"
to give up, relinquish," etc., etc.
86.
(a)
Certain
Common Verbs used
in
Compounds.
or
One of the verbs most used in compounds is kardan &&j* (S to do" "to make." Namudan &*?+*, sakhtan ^yÛ., gardanidan o^ ^, and
1
in deferential language
in
any verb compounded with the
farmudan &&ycji can be substituted for kardan latter. These are all used in modern
'
^^
colloquial.
/
(b)
In modern colloquial the forms kun
^f and
bi-kun
^j
are both in use
for the Imperative of
kardan
\*)&jf
Remark.
The past
Afghans with
redundant,
it
participle of kardan &$j? is colloquially used by the comparatives, in the sense of "compared with"; being
4^^ pJk* y
can be omitted in any sentence where it occurs, examples: 2 az avval karda htt* J^,Utf f^ 2 *.>y Jj jt *aw^ chunanchi
>
accordingly the density jum-i ash jar ziya da-tar ma'lum gar did (Afghan coll.) " of the foliage appeared more than it did before (compared with previously)
**
azawwal karda
bih-tar shuda ast

' '
o^
^^
*j>/ J*
y (Afghan
coll.)
"he
is
better than he was.

(c)
Namudan* CK^, Imperative muma*

signifying
UJ, is
both transitive and intran-
sitive,
"to show
(tr.
and
intr.), to
ma'lum ml-numdyad (or ^^.^ or simply ma'lum mi-shavad tt^.'o (^^

Remark.
lij! 3o>yf
following modern
A^J /*^1** ,^j

)
^ az " it appears."
appear"; JoUx qarar-l ki ma'lum ni

to
Note the change from karda

*^~>
%^
namuda
euphony
jf^*J
in
tlie
:
colloquial .sentence, for the sake of
or variety
jb
\)
u*
^~>$ AJ^JÂX
jfj^^
JAJ
tej)
jxib UJ^ lijvi
Û. j*
jy*+*
Timur
ra dar
dast basta
dunya bdshad suragh karda payda namuda mi-yirtd mi-avarid inja (m.c.) *' having traced out Taimur in whatever
liar ja-yi
Any shade
For
of
fiamfidan u)*j+* 9 or saklitan (Âa*.U

2
8
meaning that may have formerly existed between kardan in compound verbs no longer exists.
Jy
*J cu-A-j nisbat bi-avval (m.c.)
In modern colloquial often nimudan ((Tsfahani). Modem colloquial bi-numa Ux> only.
CERTAIN COMMON VERBS USED IN COMPOUNDS.

portion of the globe he
281
will seize
may
be (and) having produced him, you

l
him; you
(d)
will bring
him here bound."
(1)
Sdkhtan*
^.kU "to
^j
^l^.
fashion;
manage with;
is
suit,"
is
both
3^>).
transitive
and intransitive:
3
the Imperative
jU
saz (m.c.
bi-sdz
Example:
mi-kunand
jot
ixijUj^
îxS^/o
(j(^j^ dar Kirman jdm-i rud ml-sdzand (or durust
o*^
(m.c.)
alÛ shumd biham
sdkhta
;
"they make brass pots in Kirman"; Û^ Id (m.c.) " you have joined together, conspired
' '
(for
(Sa'di)
a bad purpose only) " oh
jl~u
Û?
s^ ^<
^ ay shikam-i khira bi-ndn-i
bi-sdz
^Lox ^j
me."
torpid belly, be content with a single loaf"; I*ULI ^j& ^ v f db u havd-yi m-jd bi*man mi-sazad (m.c.) " the air of this place suits
bi-saz id davd*i ydbi
V'az ranj ma-nal

11
td shifa*i
ydbi
To
put up with pain, Chafe not at woe, and healing thou wilt gain."
find a remedy,
(0.
K. 451 Whin.)
Qhayr az sukhtan va sdkhtan cJidra-l nist

nothing to be done, but to grin and bear it." sakht-i in qdll az (2) Sdkht euÛ* and sdkhtagl L/^\M are substantives " skuma dar " thist o*~o^ ^j oÛ* (m.c.) what is this carpet made of
(m.c.)
is
:
" there
\\
Û
In sdkhiayi karda-id
t\
*$j*
^li^l^ ^..^ U^
in
(m.c.)
"you have
dandun-saz
Si
adulterated
this."
(3)
<f
'
SfJz
;
J-*
is
frequent
compounds,
tl
as
\\~*
&t*
:
a dentist"
(dandan sdzi
<^^ &*'*2
dentistry ").
Note the folio wing dar

(mod.)
in the love of
i$ht j-i
mahbub
bi-svz va bi-sdz
\(~>j\}~*
v^ :sw* <3^ ^
"in Ham-sdz j^+* or Mm-dvaz y<X the beloved burn and be patient." \(~*c In confidant." man a mlva sdz-gdr nlst tune"; dam-sdz bardy-i
'
this fruit will disagree with me." ^}ji ÂXJ ^jf (m.c.) " and " Saz ){*, a substantive, means " a musical instrument necessary "he kard sdz-i as: taddruk began to furniture," safar tj> j&* jl (m.c.)
o~oo
j!fjUo
"
<
get ready for the journey."
Garddnldan &*&\&J Imperative garddn &\t>J is the transitive form of and signifies "to change, avert, turn (or gashtan ((^SJ^ gardidan &**&
(e)
,
9
}
round; cause to become."
Dast basta *i-f o*e^ might be an adjective agreeing with ^t understood.

(
Basta
* 2
is
here Perf. Act. Participle, dast-iii ra basta

*'
mi-avarld.
up,, false
In harf sakhtagist (m.c.) " dont't cheat me." (m.c.)

3
this is
made
"
;
ba
man
sakktagl ma-kun
Qali baftan
'*
to
weave carpets " not
qali sakhian,
which
is
unidiomatic; rud
vulgar for
&Wj)
rtl*?r?
282
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

(/)
Farmudan &byJ*^ Imperative farmd Uy, is transitive, "to order or command." In compound verbs it is deferentially substituted for kardan c^y. sakhtan ^^L*, or namudan ^w, both in classical and in modern
(1)
l
farmuda budid' (m.c.) '' &*. a Chi would be eminence what did your say?" guftid very familiar or very rude wa}7 of expressing the same thing, and would generally be used to inferiors only. Padishah bar takht juliis far mud <^>^ cîuy &U><>b
Persian:
-^>-> tej^j*
<*>*-
^^
wli^ janab-i
'all
chi
'*
^^
ti
$yoj
(2)
the king sat (or ascended) the throne."
In modern colloquial bi-farmdîd -vyUyij almost corresponds to the " To a visitor it signifies " please take a chair" if please." English word two persons are about to enter a door together it means "after you": if
:
food
is
on the
(3)
" "kindly help yourself," or begin." Far/nan &(*j* a substantive is a royal mandate. Farman-farma
table,
it
(*j*
a place,
^cj9 "the issuer of mandates" is a title prefixed and signifies " Governor or Viceroy of ."
Farman-bardar ;l^j eJ^V " order- bearing, obedient."
'
to the
name
of
Remark.
in the
:
The compound verb knr farmudan c'^^y )^
complimentary sense.
not always used Sa'di in the Gulistan, speaking of a boxer,

is
va qaid-i hukama* ra kar na-farmud says duz alat-i khud ra kar mi-farmayad (vuli?.)
^^ ^ h
['
cl -*-^
J^^
also kafsh-
"the shoe-maker
is
using his
things."
(g)
The verbs gashtan
^^ or gardtdan c?-^^/
^< or
*fe-*ulb
vide
'
(e)]
can always be
verb.
substituted for slmdan ^-^-. either in a simple or a
compound
JA
87-
Causal Verbs
j**)i
-^>ju-c
and Reflexive
Verbs
(n)
(1)
The
il
\-, or
andan ^)tf
causal verbs are formed by adding the terminations anidan to the Imperative stem of the primitive verb, thus:
,
\
jastan*
^*~^
;
to jump, leap," Imperative yah &*>

if
daw j^
damdan ^^^ to cause to leap jahandan c?>U^ davandan ^^^ or dacanidan &**? y& "to make to run, to gallop ) tazandan (*)nr& (rn.c.) " to gallop a horse." (a horse), etc., etc., etc."
*'
:
"
jahanldan &iA^* or " to run {Imperative
(2)
The Imperatives are formed
regularly,
that
is
by discarding the
infinitive terminations,
&*-
or
^~-
Farmana
In
bl*j?
classical
Persian,
used in precisely the sam inanner in Urdu. or by Indians and Afghans in speaking, the third person
plural
would be used
after the address

is
ÛjUa,
is
janab-i
'all.
In
modern Persian
in
writing the third person plural

'>
also preferred.
In contradistinction to a verb which

In modern colloquial jahldan
transitive of itself
O^^^
in
more used than jastan
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

In poetry the termination ened to dntdan.
283
is
Remark.
amdan &**$
sometimes short-
(b)
The same termination makes some
intransitive verbs transitive, vide
86 (c). This casual form will be transitive if formed from an intransitive, and doubly transitive or causative if formed from a transitive verb. " to cause to sit; (c) (1) Nishdndan ^jolfci (nishdnistan ^jJ-olfci obsolete) to plant, etc.," the causal form of nishastan aJ~&, is irregularly formed. (not used in Persia) is the causal of shunudan (2) Shinawdmdan &*&)*
e^y^, and
(3)
signifies
" to cause to hear,

v
tell,
read aloud."
<^J>j
Randan
cA- f;
"to drive"
is
perhaps the causal of raftan
"to go."
(d)
(1)
The verb
guzashta,n
u*^
or
guzandan cPt>
(old)
" to pass, pass

viz.,
by; cross over;
die,
etc."
has several causal or transitive forms,

^>xit^<>?,
yvzardndan cPJ!;^, guzdrdnMan and giizdrldan & *-*$&.

(2)
guzrdmdan e^Vl)^ guzdrdan

,
^^^
Quzashtan
l
^\'^
(tr.
"to
\\+*
quit,
to
discharge,
perform":
namdz guzdrdan (not guzdshtan) &*jtf &&* "to throw," causal afkdmdan uj^Wf (obsolete). (3) Afkandan have two roots admit of two forms of the causal, as: Verbs that (e) " to bore " xuftan âiu. suftdmdan ^ÂJU'i^ (obs.), and sumbamdan &^\**~
;
" to perform the duties of prayer."
(obs.)
" to cause to bore
"
rustan
^^;
or
ru^dan
^^^
" to
grow"
' c
(rt.
ru
^
to
or nnj
^^
ruydimlan ^^.*)
(m.c.), or
ruvdnidan
&^j)
(obs.)
to cause
grow."
il\
X'erbs in
letter into
^,
as;
i-'^
whioh the fmperativo stem terminates in eJ> change tliis ^>U "to comb," causal slmndau (obs.) &**l& (for
(obs.)
f<
;
sJtaydnldan
(obs.};
&*
ddnistan
to
^^^
''to
^know,"
>
ddydmdan*
c)>*itf^
chidan
^*s-
pluck, collect,"
cJnndidan &$&*%*
(obs.)
or
colloquial the shortened form of the causal verb is preferred ; thus iarsdndan co.jl~y is preferred to tarsdnidan e>-HJ ^:A ancl khwdhum
Ln
modern
tarsnnd
(f/)
<-
Some
' J
;
farsdmd ^joU^3 ^**^. ->^Ly ÂI^, to kjiwfiham verbs do not admit of a causal form. Examples: did#n
gaftan
&
&**&
to se
(A)
^^
of
" to say
'
*
;
dzmudan
*'
e>-r*3^
to ^ r y P rove
5>
(1)
Only a few
of the causal verbs are used in
modern
for
colloquial.
When
the Persians wish to mimic the Afghans or Indians, they
make
uses
an elaborate use
fahmanidan cÛv* or some such expression.
Afghan, where a Persian would use hdll kardan
the causal
verbs.
An
instance,
Jn India afgandan, etc.
2 3
The form dananidan
(obs.) also occurs.
The form cJ*>^ diyanldan
as a causal of didan
is
doubtful.
284
CAUSAL VERBS, ETC.

Remark.
The verb khurandan o>J|j^ "
to feed
**>
" occurs
in writing, but
it
not in speaking: khurdk bi-khurd-i u bi-dih food to eat, i.e. feed it."
Instead of ravdmdan
is
^^
^bj&* ( vu lg-) "give
&*& j)
]
or ravdndan e;^;, ravdna kardan
&&^
<Mj;
used.
(2)
The following
:
are a few of the
commoner
"
causal verbs in
modern
colloquial use
Tarsdndan
Davdndan &^\j* or davdmdan o^j* " to put into a gallop." Rasdndan ^Û) or rasdnidan viP*JUj t( to cause to arrive." Nishdndan eP^<k> or nishdnldan o-^LSJ " to plant, place, make to sit."
&*&j
or tarsdnldan
&*#lj
to frighten."
Khwdbdmdan ÂJbi^ or khwdbdndan&^tyjs*.

Fahmdriidan
explain."
to lull to sleep or lie down.
' '
cÛf
or
fahmdndan îUfi "to cause to understand,
Amuzidan eP^j^T
Jdhdnldan
Pardnldan
Remark.
(obs. in Persia) or
dmukhtan ^jj^xf
l
<c
to teach."
e>^^
" to make to or jahdndan up^l^ jump."
(D^yljj or
pardndan &**ty
of
<c
ditto
also to cause to fly.'

is
'
The passive
are,
the causal
fc-^l^v
'
verb
formed
in
the regular
manner, Such passive causals

(i)
as: parvardriida shud
kundmda shud
jj^wUr (Afghan).
however, rare and should be avoided.

:
Causation can also be expressed by certain verbs, as
&&f
^ *xi> AAJ
â
///,
bi-dnki
iztuHr-i
mahabbal-i khud rd bi-u buruz
tild
yak bayt-ash bi-yak mixqdl Baba, Cliapter VIII) "without appearing to show any particular partiality to him, I succeeded in being appointed to keep watch over him, under the plea that I would compel him " to make verses ura muxtalzam sdkhtam ki bi-rat/sad |*^>ll-/o \^\ (H.B.)
bi-yarzad pdsbdn-i
difiam, bi-shart-i vd ddshtan-i bi-sdkhtan-i asfcar-i ki
u gardldam
(Tr. Haji
1 obliged
him
' '
:
to
dance
"
&$
p&\
mard bar
oblige
m
to
y
do
I
' '
\) 9 \
ditto
bi-raqs dvardan &t>rf
urd bar an ddshtam ki bi-raqsad to cause to dance'
ma-ddr ki chundn kdr bi-kunam

it
+& j^ &***
man
u^
l '
'
**
;t-
v -<
t(
me
"
:
bi-u zur
dvardam
ki
bd
:
bi-ydyad
^?^
to
"
(m.c.)
made
Mm accompany me "
ki bi-chinad.
<<fco
&>j* \j* b *.>
don't
;;j
asp rd tdkht
o^3
f;
wt
f^ ^
"he put
to cause
his horse into a gallop": bi-chidan dar
" pluck =urd vd ddshtam

(j)
dvardam f*)^ )& &***v
<:
Qabuldmdan cpJoU^J
;
barbarous causal in m.c. use

(k)
cause to confess (by torture, etc.)" is a " make him or in a joking sense = agree."
sitives
by the simple tranu pd-yi urd bast c. t^f ^^ ^ o-.^ jjl^j^b (m.c.) "the king "bound him (had him bound) hand and foot"; or else some such
of the causal verbs is usually taken either
f
The place
:
as
pddishdh dast
is
also
**
to learn."
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.

expression, as
285
"the king ordered

used.
(
(or signalled to)
them that they should

by the
" he
' '
;
bind ---- ,"

(1)
etc., is
Reflexive verbs
A-oJta
:
^Î*
'
J**
are formed
transitive verb
killed
and the
khud rd kusht cu>o I; ^^ reflexive pronouns, as he committed suicide khud-kushl kard t>j=* ^>'
himself"
khud rd
'
jdn-i
mi-sJmst e*JU*3
\)
&js
e;U
cc
he was washing himself."
88.
Passive Voice
is
(J*-* &a*
less
;
and Passive Verbs.

The general
is
(a)
The Passive Voice

it, if it
much
used than in English.
rule
is
not to use
can be avoided
in other words the passive
used
only for some special signification, or if the subject is unknown, or if known it is desired to avoid mentioning it. This rule should be observed even
though violated by Persian authors.

voice.
Only transitive verbs have a passive
There are several ways of expressing the passive. (6) The grammatical passive is formed by adding the tenses of the verb shudan ^)^ 3 "to become " to the past participle of a transitive (or causal)
verb. The use of this construction is comparatively infrequent and very seldom occurs in modern colloquial, for in addition to the simple intransitive verbs the language contains a large store of compounds with a passive sense,
such as
thikast ydftan zakhm khurdan * to be wounded " zd*i' shudan " to defeated &* jSUa c< to be destroyed " to be deceived "; bl-duzcti rajtan, (^'&) ^j^-> f/ul khurdau ^;y^ J^ (m.c.) ''to be stolen"; an jam giriftan ^>\ "to be finished"; jarmdyish dad an î'Uy "to order (goods)" (tr.) [but jarmdyish* raftan
:
e^;^
^b
o~~ Cc
^ be
' '
' '
&h
^^
(intr.), as, o-^l AX ; ^jlxy 2$jU tu3 J^^?~> cffy baray-i sawguliyash nlm-tana-yi tdza jarmdyish rafta astl (m.c.) "what! an order has been given for a new jacket for his favourite wife, has it ? "] bi-sar burdan
(^) cr-'^y
Passive Voice," i.e., of which tho agont is 8lyha~yi maf/nd J^^-* C\A^ unknown. 5 The use of the Passive is antagonistic to the genius of both Persian, and Urdu, Tho se of tho passive i^ largely increasing in Trdu, doubtless owing to the articles in
1
>
vernacular newspapers translated from English. of India and in a less degree that of Afghanistan.
"
Urdu idiom again
affects the Persian
and gardldan iP^jr are occasionally substituted for shudan c)* The passive meaning of most verbs signifying 4< to beat, to knock, cast/' can be expressed by a compound with &&)J^ khurdan, as: takan k&urdan (D)j^ &r& (m.c. " zamln kliurdan kk &)**> eHi^ " to fali on to be pushed, to receive a push or shake
Oashtan
.
^^
the ground," etc.

>
This example
(
is
from tho "
Va/.ir of
Lankuran.'
would be rendered
^1 *^J> or) ^>^f
**\* *fi
&* f&
^ <j^;^ Jktf
(or
Ordinarily in m.c. this sentence

j*
^J
baray-i
sawfjuliyash sifariah-i
yak nlm tana-yi taza dada shitda ast
dada and}.
286
(tr.)
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
"to
pass one's time,"
but bi-sar raftan c>H>~r^
(intr.)
"to
be
passed." The admits of the Passive. (c) In modern Persian not every verb <<ne was beaten" is quite unintelligible :>j ^ expression u> zada shud* " he was even to Persians with some education, whereas kushta shud && &-&>
killed
"
is
a passive in
common
h"*-
use.
:
(d)
The
js-i
following are examples of the use of the grammatical passive
(!)
AAAf î-l' p
^ f^T
hastily
j*.
C5^
jl
bi-ikhtiyar az jay bar

<fc
amadam
ki chiragb-am bi-astm
I rose
and came forward so
from
my
c5^ chundu kushta shud (Sa di) place that the lamp was
l
-^'
of the extinguished by my sleeve." AJ&T would signify " i purposely extinguished." passive is of riot infrequent use in the Shah's Diary (2) The grammatical passive
Here the active kushtam instead p\2J
* jx^
ax^ j^t urVv <~^ c^ 3*-^ )* -^~f "v ;" cr*^l *' Ic';3 a^> c^< (Shah's <4 others have and of we seen a called 'rape' crop species to-day Diary) *.$ cJ^JUJf ^&xj> l^cuut ^j in the Prussian territory" (S.D.) ^>x^ 44 Haklm ^ I- Mamalik ki channd-i bud mja bud dlda shud (S.D.) ''the Hakim 'l-Mamalik who had been here some time was interviewed":^
1
^^
tk
t^xb du palang-i siyah Jiam dida shud (Shah's black panthers were seen by us."
t^j
Â
ljj*
Diary)
6
" two
(3)
The
transitive Infinitive
is
often used for the passive:
(^^j
^ &+&
zyCjS
o;U| hama-ra
all
b i- kushtan isharat
them
to bo killed";
ÂJJ
^^
he (the king) ordered joU b i- kushtan bid ihctd tura fy shayad
farmud
ki
(Sa*d!)
" he may hand you over to be killed." (ni.c.) is also sometimes used to express possibility or (4) The passive imposAJÎÎ c^>j & &4* ;^' Ji cs^jjlif ^| kitab'i-'st an sibility %< bi-dast andakhta nami-shavad this is ki book a so (m.c.) heavy, qadar sangln, " that it cannot be thrown by hand y ^c ^\ AAÎ^J
:
^^
^^
^ Û
Mr
:
In mlz az ja-yi khud bar dashta mi-xhavcid (m.c.) "this table can be moved, 1 a ki bi^bd' is-i it is not very heavy"; la du $i ruz anja tavaqquf uftad
" agar u Inja bi-yayud o^J;^J ^J\ (m.c.) ''the water boiled over if ho rn bi-$ar conios here I'll go to him u l-ravam davidan) (vulg.) (also man bi-sar jilav-i " feet ot on instead .* eJ^j^ jî c^^j' ^ my on my head (from delight) 8;^
l
Ah
bi-sar taft
* 6
" to bo finished." bi-*ar amadan j~> i In modern colloquial u rd zadand ^3J means "
&^
;t
&*1
f;jf.
Bi-ikhtiyur
;^^>
;
"
;
involuntarily
the unexpected sight of his friend

fc<
made him jump up

forward.
*
bar
amadan
>J^
is
>>*! j* .signified merely
to get
up
"
not coming
In m.c. dlda shud
frequently used unnecessarily, instead of the active
voice.
5
<>
Kushta shudan could not be used.
Or Ishara *;^t.
In modern colloquiaHî/a^
i
tavaqquj *-^j-^ (3^f
and
az ba'u tZ+zi*
j\
would be
substituted.
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.
287
abr aftdb dida naml-shud

***>
U t>^ ÛJf^t ,^>U-< &$ tâ. (\>\ uajy Usuf \^ " we had to it as there was two three or impossible days, stay (Afghan) " ba'd az to see the sun (to steer by) on account of the clouds g&altidan an
;
^^
rd jumbdnldan
js-io**
na-tawfinistam chi
ja*e
an
ki
ba-darya
jt
rasdnlda im-skud
^*j
it;
$>jJL^) Ij^j aSof
Û*
"
^
to
+i~*\j*>
,j.>uJUva.
jyf ^xjJs.U
to
(Afghan
coll.)
after (the boat's) rolling over I
was unable even

in
move
chi
how much
an
ki
the
less
could
it
be
moved
the sea!";
in.c.
jd-yi
bi-daryd
;
rasdnam-asli ^ÛÛ) A&J Û. ^^ (or bi-rasdiiam, not be would used here in m.c. as the agent is passive ty" C5^ ba against
(5)
(
L^
^^y
without ash)
:
the
known
&>>VA. jj^& ^
ÂjkX)
" in m.c. Fate o.^ b ^>/JL^ ^^ The modern colloquial phrase ba'dazan, dida khwahad shiid cjf jj^jôr) -Z >^|Â ^>j^, or more commonly d/ida nu-shavad ^^>
;
taqdw jangida nanri-s/iavad
(Afghan) "it's impossible to fight

.
\\
SAJ
$-^3
fc
(m.c.), signifies
we'll see."
01
/*? 5
:
(e) The passive can also be formed by an Arabic Past Participle, a Persian adjective with a Passive sense, combined with the verbs am hastam /*-WA etc., and sliudan c>^, budan e;^y, or f/ashtan ^v^. Examples
y
^WA J^^^)
x>
j*V*r
marsul-am
(or
marsul hastam),
51
<c
(in writing)
am
sent
"
J
*x^ Jîiô
(m.c.)
maqtul shud (m.c.) "he was killed "; ** tf^j*^ khabar-dur slmd " " he was " lie was 6 j>> ^5*^3 zakhml bud' (Afghan) apprised, warned <UA hauia chiz dmdda bud (m.c,) "everything wounded"; ^j *jiUf j
;
was prepared (previous to our coming) " prepared after our coming "].
(/)
\\mtamdda shud
cx
Ûf =
J<
was
The passive can

4<
of the transitive verb,

is
it
by using the third person plural do such and such a thing." This construction they
examples
:
also be expressed
both classical and modern colloquial. From the following will be seen that this construction corresponds to a real passive
&'
j^ vJ^Lfl^
j^y
ÔAA
a&|t*Ad.
|;
e;^
(^r^y
t
farm'dd
lei
marsam-i fulanrd chandan-ki

it
hast muza'aj kunand~(ti&*dl)
he (the king) ordered that the allowance of

;
So-and-so, whatever
it
may
be, should be increased"

:
(hero
was the king
himself
who
increased the allowance)

dust-iraki
bi-*
&>
<^lo
tiajt
v_î^fji
c5j**^
'J
c5^j>
*^'3^(*^
rt
^^
bujdzdrand (Sa'df) "a should not be made offended

Cornparo Urdu, taqdlr
se lara
umr-l jam chany 5 drand na-shdya-d lei bi-yak-dam friend whom it has taken a lifetime to make
in
a single instant";
(here there
is
only
ifi jata ^^nah r
e^Jtf*
^ j-\^^.
" ho bad a wound." was an allowance: bushad
i
s
Or
<H~*.}
4-Uaj
bi-qatl rasid (rn.c).

rn.c.;
Zakhmi shud &* (j+^j

Has^
signifies
it
zafchm daaht 0^*1^
f*^*3
" whatever
5
that the speaker
knew
that thero
may
be."
Fara chang î^f^> is to bo considered aa one word. Fara frequently precedes verbs, and in many cases is merely used for the sake of euphony.
<>
tiqsir-i or
Note this use of shay ad *{&. Before yak-dam f*& some such word is understood.
&i-awM^5 c^***"
or
bi-
288
PASSIVE VOICE, ETC.

friend)
:
one friend and presumably one person who has made him a
j>jy af jvif
*$
an rd
lei
gusJi-i irddat
girdn
dfrida and chun kunad ki bi-shinavad
va an rd
ki bi-kamand-i sa'ddat kashtda
and chun kunad
ki na-ravad
(Sa'di)
has been created deaf to the divine inclination, how can he 2 to and he who is forcibly drawn into the ]asso of happiness hear manage " how can he help travelling (the way it drags him) ? (here the grammatical
? ;
"he who
understood, as the Deity in Persian is singular and addressed in the singular; to use the respectful plural to the Deity is contrary to the idiom of the language 8 the verb is therefore a passive the author has presumably avoided the active
subject
to
dfrida
and
*>!
>-yf should not
be
"God"
" he voice on purpose, for to say
whom God
lias
created deficient in
."
would be,
or
4
might be, imparting

is
sin to, or a deficiency in the
works
of,
the
Almighty. This form of the passive
especially
common
in
modern
colloquial.
To
<^t
the question, "where been taken *j>y "it has

if vsure
is
the
horse?"
;
away
"
the answer might be burda and this answer would signify that one of the
grooms or servants
taken
it
:
the precise individual unknown to the speaker of the subject, the name would be mentioned.
had
Remark.
(m.c.)
s -
"A
te\z ^5^-?
present was given to him" in'atn-i hi-vay ddda shud i^**!, or better in'dm-l bi-u dddand ^>|j>^l? ^^^\ (in.c.).
In a few instances, the passive can both in classical and in modern colloquial be formed by dmadan c^xf instead of by ahudati
(g)
in
sltakhs dar zumra-yi fuzala*-
shumurda mi-dyad
is
is
(rn.c.)
s^-cj
;
A-f
^^ o^-w
*li-A^--^
''this
man
"it
dyad ^f
>xT
e;.x*T
seen" In qdli pasandida dmad Û> ^f (class.) ^'3i-j (m.c.) "this carpet was approved." Compare matkhuz dmadan i^ * {* (class.), and giriftar dmadan ^>x>f yjji^? (class.).
;
1
^
it
counted amongst the learned"
dlda mi-
as well as "heavy.** impossible for him to hoar, as it is decreed he is not to hear. * The use of the plural might lay the speaker open to the imputation of being a " * to the Deity), muflhrik or '* polythoist it may be (one who imputes partnership
1
Q ira n means "dear

is
(not cheap)
"
2 i.e.,
'
that Sa'di being a Muslim and an Arabic scholar ban adopted the Arabic idiom here and elsewhere; tbe plural is used in the Qur'an when Allah himself speaks.
*
In simiiiar instances the explanation of some translators

'
is
that tho Fates
is
* the subject. Though the Persians attribute misfortune to the revolution of the heavens or to the sky, no Muslim would attribute good to any but Allah: the Fates could therefore hardly be the subject of kashlda and.
CHAPTER
89.
(a)
X.
Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases,

:
by adjectives or
aition, or
There are few adverbs properly so called their place is filled participles, or by substantives with and without a prepo-
by pronouns,
or
by phrases,
for
of
etc.
Many
There
adverbs are also prepositions.

is
no regular term
adverb
it is
styled Jw^ tamylz
"
specifica.
tion" or Âi "the particle

its sense.
is
negation" or Jj
:
"
vessel," according to
:
OyJo
"dubious adverb "
ff
ism-i zarf is a particle used as an adverb Harf-i %arf J^fc a noun that can be used as an adverb zarf-i muhham o^Je
o^
ô
is
an adverb
" " before a limit of time or space, as fKx* "time/' (place or time) " as J^ "day," **(** ;t is opposed to c^Jo "limited adverb (noun, etc.)
(or
noun,
etc.)
that does
not express
.
u^
^^^
" house "
zarf-i
makdn
is
ism-i zarf
and includes such words
^ (j&
(m.c.)
" the place where shoes

!/*"
of visitors are
" removed
s
;
e/
A/0
(i
n Turkish Bath):
(V^>
(6)
*^
u^r^'
:
etc., etc.
Examples
ty *xi^
(2)
Adjectives:
AJU*
*
J^
<j}ti
vy^ J
(Sa'df)
(m.c.)
"he
speaks
Persian
well"
^\}
^ j*i&
"a
certain one
had
fallen into
drunken sleep by the roadside"; î^x> <*J!b"U y "he acts wisely": " I used to say (my prayers) in a perfunctory Îiix>oÛJ AJfjAl^ pb j^kj (Afghan) " manner m.c. bi-tawr-i umuml zahirana namaz mi-1cardam). (in
<c**
" See
Arise
dawn breaks and rends night's canopy and drain a morning draught with me Away with gloom full many a dawn will break
!
the
!
Looking
for us, arid
we not
here to see
' '
!
In this quatrain bisyar
is
(0. K. Whin. Trans. Rub. an adverb meaning " oft."
295.)
Adjectives ending in *tf or ;f> vide 43 (aa) 9 may be considered " AJLtâ. verbs rather as ad than adjectives AJblJuj " in a restless manner
Remark.
" *^L^> without concealment";

(2)
^~
^faU**!
5*JU,,>
:
"in a more masterly manner."
Participles
xi^
f[yu*t
U^j
^^ ^y
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
"he
is
to treat you with respect before people"

(m.c.)
%*jr* (m.c.)
"
suddenly
"
:
obliged
AÛUJ
running
"plain, not artificial": <Wf 19
etfjd
c^>
"he came
290
all
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.
the
way
* '
:
*Jk &ali~o|
(m .c .)
did
' '
he remained standing
"
:
&^ ) &
\)
ptfy*
(m.o.)
' '
!&~&i
(Afghan)
"I
' '
:
all
"by
pretence":
*:>jy*
^
* *
my
other business at
home":
Aii^
*t>^
*>^
(m.c.)
"a little":
' '
vi*jxii.
(Sa'di)
they laughed secretly

(3)
&;#
v f~4
"by
always.
:
Substantives without Prepositions (with or without post-positions)
f^ *oJU> ^bUj j*
wilderness"
m.c.)
:
JSj &f
or
a
[
' '
(Sa'cK)
because I once was weary in the

%
^^
"
once, ever
"
:
"
flj
by name
"
) v**> (class,
31
:
and
times
"
"by night":
:
\j
*u
<^*>*/ &>*>3
l^
as:
(Sa'di)
chance," " at times
in m.c. usually
l-*
^"oft-
they were chanting low."
Remark.
of
Sometimes a plural substantive gives the sense of an adverb
quantity or time,
^^
U*x^c
^/
îo
(m.c.)
"he made many
presents
(4)
and many vows
(or often
took vows)."
vi^suj
(m.c.)
Substantives with Prepositions:

lûjf (j*)
"needless, without
cause":
"here"; o/>j
b
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
"without further words, without

*J(
doubt":
c*yo
or
f^^*^
and
c<
ministers are like physicians Âî^|^ v-irf^ ^ a physician never gives medicine except to the sick"; fô *'each
"by turn": (m.c.) "he said,
*Ubf
JlJ^ ^j
*tj,)j
oif
moment.'
'
In m.c. the prepositions are frequently omitted, thus
f^f
oî;
we came comfortably."
understood.
(5)
Before^^f (=
Ar.yoi(t 7 A.f
the preposition^
is
Substantive with Pronoun, Adjective, Substantive, Adverb &*A and m.c.) "everywhere": cJj *+* (class, and m.c.) and a*A 4 v (vulg.) "always"; (Afghan coll.) "well, in a good manner ': " on all sides " or o^^t (m.c.) " this side of the o^bjt^, cj>t ; t^y> " 5 whither ? Ur " where ?" ^jj jj; in broad day city e^Jb ^^ ^^ 4^ (m.c.) or^*j|vfujj (m.c.) "the remainder of my life"
:
(class,
^ ^
^^ "
^ ^j
'
' '
'
' '
(m.c.)
"always."
Phrases
:
(6)
e>f
3'
after that, afterwards
' '
>^-Vt^y
movement and approach a little nearer " cJo^ ^*^y db j fj& " ^^ ^ (ni.c.) "with my turban round my neck they " me before the and the *su
^^ ^y^*
l
o^
carried
(Fa^r-i Lanlcuran) "the
farrashes,
:
make a
fresh
Qazi
Governor of the city
*a;^*
(Sa'di)
" of
In m.c.
|^ Lfcj
Nam
3
|*G
"byname"
is
apposition, as:
*U JJ)P
tjfisvw
"a
person, his
name
(an me) Aziz."
The Afghans
"
often use daru for gunpowder,

*> *Jb
and Indians
Jûb
for spirits or wine.
In Arabic and m.c. t&rh

this carpet is of
(poet,
In
gall
faffy-l* *st is*
xs Jb
'
c->*^. i*J^3
<y}
(m.c.)
*
good design."
?
Ku y
and m.c.) " where, whither
M : A;uA jjjy vulg.
where
is
he
"

necessity"
?1
;
291
^1*0;^]
7ra/ (iar
^ ma-riz*
p*
" *n spite of his youth" tjj*o at; j^/o j ;fj> rah mi-ravad (m.c.) " he keeps a middle course."
ctfl>>
:
^y
Ham
bi-ravlm
"together,
likewise,
(
with,
both, one another, mutual,

:
all,
either; also,
in the
ti
same manner"
Uj
Biya tabi-ham
:
whether, (or bahami
^J Û "
:
or)
go together
^^^^T
:
+tf
^ bi-ham
(m.c.)
let us "come, let us all go," or " commixture" darham barham arnlkhtagi
(
"
= tu-yi ham rilchta Alu; misl-i <^y f *y fAja "topsy-turvy, mixed" " " " *& ctax> ham ham sar-i alike pushtî sar-i p&^*> "contiguous, joining c< ham p& j* cu^,j one behind the other, continuously." " &$ ^b " it Verbs: be
(7)
(8)
that, perhaps may "'perhaps." Arabic phrases, and Arabic nouns in the accusative: A)UP J/ (m.c.)
:
Û
" at least
ever
to
(lit.
there
"
:
^&
,
jx>
no remedy) e*U^Jf ^Û " as long as life lasts, for " " with /**Jf ^^^ "agreeably that, notwithstanding (m.c.)
is
;
;
"
orders":
bi-l-marra
^Jb khabar
O'
O
(m.c.)
"completely" na-ddram (m.c.) " }
^
),
Uii5 or Ul+3
man
az in
of
Icar
am
completely
ignorant
this
matter'
fern.
):
(^^^"circumstantially":
:
^
.
(^ ne conj. fa + the prep. Z^ +
pron. Aa) "well and good"

is
Ûj
(3rd per. sing, rnasc. of the verb

<{
^^
>
"that
*
to say,
namely
(lit.
it
means, intends"): <^*^ U

naqd'
(m.c.)
*
fittingly
(lit.
like that
which
is
proper) ":
i^ftJ
"at present; afooincash'*:

" at present."
^
'atnd an " purposely

__
"
:
}|U>
7^tt (for
J|U.
Al-hal Jl^Jf, vulg. il-hal, whicJi has the

.^ is
same
}
signification as Jl^
and
In
ÂJ
an Arabic accusative ifor J'-sJ al-hala ) but is not used in Arabic. u ^9 Ar., the Arabic pronoun *J^^ " that " is understood.
as
:
Such adverbs
called
<**a&f
AJU^f
^^
etc.,
that
close
a speech, are
^bt^/cb (or
c^ A ^'
fKîS.
vbi
(Sa'di)
vî^f.
(9)
.vf^vxib)
cJi-
appears to be an old adverbial termination

use
this termination
"in the morning."

still
"suddenly
Tho Afghans "

:
even
in
speaking, as:
cA^t> "'straight (adv. not adj.)."

AJf
The Afghans also say " ruzana means by day."

Remark.
(c)
for
"everyday/' but
in (m.c,.)
An adverb is sometimes combined

:
f
now
'
'
:
^ '* till with a preposition, as r " there " " from now, henceforth J)^j az hala (ni.c.) taxif^ dar anja
:
e^
Jn classical Persian
*
Jy
jt-
s ^-^
Jrfj*
)^
*
k<
zy c>^ (*^ J&JQ ^v* )& t$ ^^ LS+& Thou say'st, Look not,' I might as well esây To slant my goblet, and not spill my wine."
'
kaj da?* u ma-riz signifies an impossibility

|*
(0.
'2
Iri
colloquial
Persian the nnnafion

&*** is
is
dropped
f
K. Whin. Tr. Itub. 2(il). in most of these adverbs, but
not in
all: for ins tam-e,
nn always maxl
but
^^
always hala.
Tho Indians and
Afghans preserve the nunation.
292

Ir
5
r^ u
o^
;
Tr
H B
*
*>
ChaP- XXVIII) "but we

c>t*.
hear, doctor, that your paradise has

(d)
begun here on earth/'

while particles expressing negation,
Adverbs
of negation
etc., are called
AJJJJO^
"
(
or
and &>*&
Particles of warning such asj^fc, jl^j,
as AJ
"not,"
(1) AJ
A^
J
<jj
without," are called <*w
o^.
jfj-A
"never."
^(f
" at no time, never," " not at all, in no wise." Â* at no time." **

,
or^.
}
aj
* t p,
6
or
A3^
c<
or
^^
A>
*i
neither
"no, not." c< no no." nor" (conj.).
^ ^
6
Ult- "not at all." &^ AA e< by no means."
*J
^^î^-
grj*
.
"nothing whatever" (pron.). A <c none whatever (pron.).

' '
AJ
^y.r
g>&
"no person"
(pron.).
^
A
wb
XA
" on no account."
*\
^t
j)
"not
at
all,
in
no shape.
"more than
;^3>
or )^&
4i
this."
} p!,
^
never," vide Interjections of Warninc:. " and " or 121 (6). "less," vide ff not
"
tf
ULx
God
forbid, never."
%
(2)
*jflL
cf
not at all."
Examples: b ^J^MJ ^?uT

<
(m.c.)
" are you going there or not
"
?
went nowhere.
Hargizjj& with an
affirmative verb
*'
over."
adverb of time, but inserted here for convenience of reference. ** na tanhu mara A 8 fuhah dadriiz or)J^ ^t^> Jk*^' |/ ajtr* ( mara zad (m.c ) **he not only abused me, but be.it mo.' * Class, and m.c. nay nay (m.c.) " no, no."
^
An
(or balkf}
'
AJ j ^J^ ***"/ AJ j U3 hopes have I above, no joys below." (0. K. Whin. Hub. 60.) Conjunction, but inserted here for convenience of reference.
O^J
*'
No
6 7
Indef. Pron., but inserted here for convenience of reference.
Hasha zadan eWJ
^^
(m.c.)
" to deny."

(m.c.)
(class.)
j^j
293
" his pocket was not picked at all." " he never does so."
aJ
Uuf
C5+J
A3n.j a)
^j aJfyo
"neither was the
man
there, nor the
woman,
nor the child."

**&
^
l
r>Je^
i
**Ui wtyx dike

night (tamdm
3
^
^
** l*uf (m.c.)
j.U3
"
nothing can be obtained there."
(Afghan)
"I
did not get a wink of sleep
all
skab)."
e>f* J
(
^ lx>a c/
"
?
Sa'di)
"how
can
the
latter
even resemble the
former
ojtî^ *&
**"*\ u*l *cstj>j
fof e/f (m.c.)
"this
man
is
much more than

a*j
you think (good or bad)."

(3)
'Scarcely,'
etc. is
expressed by a negative: *>j|>iu
o^> j^x* jUj ji

*j
JjusiS
Jj*x> (Tr.H.B., Chap.

'
XXXII) "he had
barely completed the
closing sentence of his prayers

(or
*^f ^5U) pa as
left
barely (not yet)

(e)
<c
when ." j>Uii u& <tf jj^l^j 6*^w na-nihada ki saqf pdym dmad i*i[ag the room when the roof fell."
:
^^j
<3
Jbf
ji
(m.c,)
"he had
4 Interrogation often expresses negation j\*y " how can the sleeping awake the sleeping 5 ? (Sa'dl) ^b *J * (l I said I kowv&n go when my feet are unable to (Sa'di)
;
>
move ? "
u^^^-cr-'^
*Jtej (Afghan)
2
"he knows, and he
alone;
what
* j& Lr does any one else know? (nothing) ': &*. Jt&j oÛ JU jf ^ " " then tell ? there of life what was *j* *l*1 (Afghan) me, hope " never!" is in (/) (1) Emphatic denial speaking and writing amongst " the educated &U^ i^*J we take refuge with God' " or AJL/|Â*i^f <4 1 ask
pardon of God." often expressed by the (2) In in.c., emphatic denial or contempt is " he does not reach his dust even " 8 *~j following phrases (m.c.)
7
:
^ o^
v^
Uf
p*y
1
ij+>
l^
î* ^x> (m.c.)

shab
" " I can't compare with you, Sir

f*^, with izafat
:
In m.c., tamam-i
also kh^wab nctrraftarn,
or
khwab-am nayamad tWjo ^Jf^^. a both in class, and m.c. Kay
**
when
" and
'*
how
"
Interrogation expressing negation or dissent.
*
6
'
Vara means
4 <
behind
"
;
but
in
'
o^t^&>
'
(^^ eHl
cÛ^
it
= V$
Can the blind lead the blind

1
6
f
'
^"
el^^(
+
" we take ^xs Ajb i>*j refuge with ' .
God from Satan
the accused."
Qur'ari.
o-:
7
aJf
vyf j
is
>^rf
^""tr^^
c
.".
aJJfyuxv*?.
The idea
taken from a grey-hound pursuing a gazelle, or a

he, is
man galloping
after a
wild ass.
* i.e.
a dog can bark at the heels of a person, but
not anybody's dog to do as
much
as this.
294
'
ADVEBBS AND ADVP^KBIAL PHRASES.

*
:
(m.c.)
" whose dog is he )W tj*j = j^ oJblj (m.c.) )i& u*jl*Mtf (m.c.) " " throw him " I don't count him a (m.c.) away jof cK'a f;f p>\$ human being," or ah dakhil-i adam ftf d**(j> T (m.c.) (ditto) muhal az ^~=* Ja*3 J^ 30^ (ni.c.) " impossible! " yum, ask kun (m.c.) *& <j^ 'aql ast " han him! '; ahv *'I don't believe lie can do it, or send him off": " all the difference CXM.I cA^f 15 az zamm fa asman ast
:
:
'I
v**\
\\
^3
jarq
(m.c.)
in the world.''
(g)
(1)
Na
to
for
ki
"no"
is
vulgar; na khayr GY khayr
>x
^
;
or î.
*> is
the polite form of

It is,
l
no."
:
however, better to avoid using Â. alone

*& AUt
*Uxi!
;
some such expression,

(
as
or^^ *T^j^> etc is preferred.

; ,
or
^^
A^ ilU
or^>^
A^ ^-j^J
(j.
orÂ
*> jyu*,,
(2)
polite m.c.
form of affirmation or negation
is A.jto
jUi^t "it rests
with you."
evasive reply that may mean "yes," or " no," or " I piefer not " what ' " to reply," is petition shall I make, what shall I say ^j^ ** the phrase: ^r/^ *^ *J^^ O**AJ uio.ia. (m.c.) l had such a (7^) Note
(3)
An
lot of trouble."
(/)
Adverbs
of
affirmation
Jî>
o^ or ^^ J^
J
)
>
and
<>f
assurance
(I) crjf (ni.c.)
ar?
^L
>*
J
(m.c.) bale or
7
*-^f (ni.c.) albatia "certainly'

c5^
:
(contr. of *
a^ m
(
(?
-)
^^>
1U (m.c.) bil
J 5 (m.c
f-
without doubt.
J!
(class.
j
'
It
t\vo
persons
vvt-n,su\
bowing
at a tlu'.rway. each pojjtol\

*Z+M\ (Jiir
dec lining to outer the
room
2
"
first,
one might
*$ fjj*j^*- \&*
Jlx
niuhal-i 'atjta^tkt
man jHaw
bi-racam
\lso oiyJ
^^
(J*"+f
*
" luck him guM-a*h ktni bi-rntwd
oil, let
hun go
to the devil."
i< not 110 Kltuyr j%** for '* or ** welJ." except as yes
* v
"
dsist-irai,
nor
i ^
1
it
us<-<i
by
Indian-^
and Afghans,
is
A.-*
albatla *-vV'
5
k<
cfrtaiuly
" and haniin tr;**
'*
tlii.s
very
"
:
the hitter word
also called
*
u^H1^ O;^.
Teheran
a/'e
In
^jt" or art c$;f.
Konnorlv
/6/^-
wtte used
for
"yes/'
Ky
the .Vfghans further shortened into albat.

ttU* (class.)
<*.Ujf .* (olass.)
295
"^
> certainly.
<âj or
iâ.
li**-'
(m.c.)
J
why
'?
of course (m.c. only in this sense); also
,'**
<y (m.c.) without
ceremony,
without
reserve,
without
jokinu.
cusjjixJi
^j
]
(m.c.) in truth, really.

^
&*y la-bud
*f*. $ la-jar
(
am
>of necessity.
(class.)
.'
IJU (class.)
certainly, surely,
L
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
u^'
labbayk
(class.)
j J
^
(2)
^,
here I
am
for
labbay (obsolete p
/.
you, what are your
commands ?
*>"
Remark
be omitted.
Mann UU
is
always followed by
A^,
but after UU* the
can
.7/v, arc. is
used locally instead of
bale,
or 6a^.
4t
As a strong affinnativo, the phrase v^ 5 uCi Axl^ (.*>) admixture of doubt and uncertainty," is used in writing.
(-4)
.^j
without the
if God pleases," is, with regard to future events, frequently used by Muslims for " yes." No Muslim asked, if it " \es " or tl is ôiiiti; to rain, \\ill reply no/' as this would be deciding for the
The phrase
*J^t *U^>',
or
*JU|
ft
U^
*'
Almighty.'
The answer
to-morrow
"
^-:f
7
}^T
^1J(
A^'y
Cv
(m.c.}
l).V.
will
come
freqiiontlj
made by a Persian when he has not the
slightest
intention of fulfilling his promise.

(5)
(+'
The
*s)~
following
common
m.c. phrases also express affirmation
&?
(^
n
t
<s^
^4->
(^
''I'm not lying to you"; p*~& " * **$ ^î^ * e^x *" l' in uo ^ talking rot
;
*^5 " I'm not yarning";
^* ^s^^
<^'
*& ^3*
"
f'
ni
joking,"
((>)
etc., etc.
<l
*!
Strong affirmation is also ex]>ressed in m.c. by swear by your \eneraled head that"; f**$ b)b
'
^--
'*-
^j**
j~*>
"by
mv
father's
*
"
Hainana
kl
^ bU^(
*
class.) also
moan-. " at the
same
tinu- that.
i
'
The 1'rophet was onct a.^ked lio\v mam log* hi-, hor.st had. He dismounted, Had lie stated four oil hand. Allah might have changed the counted, and said four number and so convicted him of error. ^ C5>*y ^^^^ " are you in earnest or joke * lt~ift /><7-;7?T//7 ya ijhwlr (m.c.) )**
'
"
(cheating)
*>
huk}il ml-ktinl
of
r?7/<
</a
jiddl ml-giiyi
^5^^
w?*^
(rn.e.)
c5
IT-
-^ L5^J^-
Arwuh rlj;fpl.
^j^.
Arvah-i pidar-at bi-rnw
^)>J
^f*jf
" for
296
soul"
:

*$
by our Prophet's tomb " "by the martyrdom of Husayn <>su "by the rights of 'Ail": *$ v^*f cu*f^ ^f &1*. by the life of my children I swear this p~.$ ftojj* " " is true thou die may'st c&L? (i.e. don't be alarmed)" ^j&*j*
p~S U^k+AAjÂaj
]
"
' '
ftx^ câ* 93 (k). vide also

(j)
A**
"may
I see
your beard bloody
(i.e.
your throat cut)
if
,"
Adverbs of Interrogation
f^. (m.c.)
( /> lÂi
(1)
why?
j
vide (4).
(m.c.)
*>
>
tor
what reason why J

,
(m.c.)
31
(m.c.)
&~*\5
(vulg.) wliy?
(m.c.) in what-
manner
A*, (m.c.)
j|
(m.C.)
how, in what way

?
?
(m.c.)
z kay (m.c.)" when
how ?
(m.c.)
a.
how long (m.c.) when

(m.c.) at
aa.
<*A.
what hour
c^z gar/r
(m.cj
how much, what

*.
quantity
(m.c.)
how many
(m.c.
and old poet. ; where, whither viWe (m.c.) what place, where ?
:
vide (2).
(3).
(m.c.)
which place
*^ (m.c.)
(class.)
what direction
:
*.
how?
?
vtete (5).
:
(m.c.) perhaps (m.c.)
ato but
(9).
vwfe (8).
whether?: vide
^*J (me.) what do you mean ? vide a. wWe (6). (m.c.) why not
:
(7).
For Shi 'as.
Sunnis say, Chahar Yar qasam

J>
<k
4t
by the Four Friends (Abu Bakr,
'Urnar,
'
rsman,
'All)."
Kay
^4 2
^ "when
^âjT
A';a
jt
^
long
"
:
7iar A*w/S
F^
îp&>\ ci^. whence ?": bi-kuja :F*& "whither?": A "everywhere.**

\-
= c*^
ta
kuja lvy G
"how
etc.
"
:
Chun c>>^ has other

it is
significations, not interrogative, as:

(5).
"when, because, how
used both in speaking and writing: vide

(2)
is
297
is
Ku
is
m.c.
and
also classical poetical.

:
Rush <jy " where
he
"
vulgar m.c.
Examples
44
The dove
started complaining to each
hill,
'Those
whom
thou sawest, have also gone
whither, whither?
'
"
'*
saw a bird on the walls
of
Tus?
,
'
!
Before
him
l&y the skull of
Kay Kawiis
And
Thy
Alas poor king " drums are hushed, thy 'larums have rung truce/ thus he
his
made
moan,
(0.
K. Whin.)
~ *'
'*
A-Sj.f^^
4A jljf
to
The Palace that
Heaven
his pillars
threw,
kings the forehead on his threshold drew I saw the solitary ringdove there, And 'coo, coo, coo,' she cried, and ooo, coo, coo.' "
*
And
(O.
K.\
Fitzgerald.)
sometimes an interjection, as: ^^ (m.c.) = "oh I wish it " were morning! (3) Note the following idiomatic meanings of UR/: &^tf *> ^jj^ o-y^Û^.
Ku
is
(m.c.j
^x*f
j*u;
**
or &** ej'j^v
or
<ine struck
him such a blow as
no athlete
o->>a. c;l^tv
chlst
!
:
(or Hercules) could have done
A ****
{**
&\ j
l^
Afghan colloquial ^**j* cA*chunan zarbat ba-ii hawdla namud ki pafdawan ^^ there is no comparison between the two": (^| (m.c.)
;
"
in
* 4
UaJ
v tr^> Ûk Uo
(i.e.
**j JJjA
where
wine?
(m.c.)
the two are irreconcilable)

can't possibly do such
is
"
is piety,
;
where the intoxication of
^^
U^(
:
^(^
tu va
m karha kuja
kuja
= "you
deeds"
tyj^^*
\**
^;AJ bi-dard-i
mi-khurad (m.c.) *'of what use U oJU^ " how much
this
more
folly will
thing?": himdqat you display?^; U*/ kujd
id
kujd (m.c.)
s
'is
it
An example
a dove
*
S
" and
of the rhetorical figure o^t*?*** tajnis.

kii,
ku "whither, whither
"
The play
is
of course
on
The
lines
do not scan.
fins cr^-k near Alayshapnr.
Jams
is
caravans.
1
Kus
is
a large camel- bell and perhaps the noise of departing and arriving a large and very noisy drum. In i'ersia drums are beaten from about
5 minutes before and up to sunset
Aj This is an Ijfo naqqarakhana ml-zanand}. (*i)fc* ustom, and, as formerly drums were also beaten at sunrise, the custom may
in fire-worship.
298
possible?": #***)* aijU

(prov.)
(said
1
man kuja va Khalifa dar Baghdad* ^ \^> by a deceived person to one that has gone back on his
:
^
!
word).
In m.c. the plural is also used, as " places in the world do you come
:
^5f ^* UUtf
UlsxS'
\\
" from which of the

ki
^^
U (m.c.)
what places
shall
we
"'
visit
'
Remark 1. ku,jd*i i^ an adjective " "of what are (m.c. only) place you a native ? Remark II. Kuja Uo is used in indirect as
'
^^
ll
of
what place"
^
1
well as in direct questions-"

*
fc
(4)
Ottira
\j*
"why?",
for
iu
m.c.
also
'
means
"
certainly, of
course":
possibly
it is elliptical
why
not
>
'
It is
also
up to?
(5)
"
an expression
vidf
of
astonishment,
what the Devil are you

used
for
<*Jj*
:
Chun c>^
*^
?
note 4,
' '
p.
296)
is
sometimes
the
g^jcy v^-k
*$
' '
fjjrJ
c^(m.c.)
how can T help going when

J
Shah has sum-
moned me
Hi-chun u cliiyim &j&* j o,>^ is an epithet of the Deity. Bi~c/iiin u rhira ("without why or wherefore") *j*. )
kl
^^ ^
cXili
signifies
implicitly."
(0)
Old hns/iwt ki
-^
(ctlass.)
"what would happen
if,
why
not?"
Intro. Chap. 1, Si. 3) /., "why not [the cat saysj perform due to courtesy and fraternity, and this time, when thou ôest, take "
'.
what
is
me
with thee
-East. Tr.
"
is
Ar.
^^, it may be that," is also used vide (k.) *' " what does it (7) Ya'ni chi &*> Û- (m.c.) signify, what do you mean common m.c. expression. Ya'ni ^** is the 3rd pers. sing. masc. of the A or. The 1st pers. a'ani ^^ " 1 mean" as well as ^*: " it means"
:
1
Baskad ki
&*
are
used in Persian for " that

(8)
is
to say, viz."
:
J/of/ar j&*
'
is
used in m.c. for interrogation, positive mid negative, an

?
iiyjs^Xx)
are
you mad, perhaps you're mad

as
"
In a sentence such
U
:
&t
*>\
LT
f7//*7
:
na-bayad ki $hunia
vide
J
t
with the Indicative would be

(9)
<
commoner
^bj^ ^*-^
in m.c.
Jt
73
(6).
f
riii
*<*>
and
%5Uf
c>!^ e;
^ v^ x ^ A u
J
<xl
(8ri*di)
"how do you know, my

"
?
:
not be one of the robbers
ayd
friends whether this young man may could be substituted for cki Aa., and
ya na
3U
could be added to the end of the query; also *Û>

.
could be
substituted for &^>
wlint I like,
2
fcliere is
Like
fcafta/i
in
ir Baghdad &\&*u )$ AJLxbL j (^xjjt\ ^^ moans 'i can do no one near to punish me.' Urdu, vide Phillott's tlindu8taM Manual, p. '24.
4
'

(10)
299
Short phrases in
is
common
m.c. use are

U
which the reply

earnest
(fc)
' '
^*j ^x
doubt
(
LSJ*+*
'*
^'ww''
to
^^
v~*
or (tS=*j,
^5^
Ls^L) "joking or in
Adverbs
'
f
of
&& j
-VaO
'
(1)
i
<x;
(m.c.) perhaps, vide (3). <*b moreover in m.c. perhaps,

;
vide. (3).
4^ jj|y (m.c.) possibly.

*
5*
(class.)
perad venture.
<uJa,c
(m.c.) possibly (with Aor. or Pres.).

if,
^
Ijf
(m.c.) probably, as
as though (with Aor. or Pres.), vide (4).

(j)
l
whether?
perhaps
(class.)
?
^
possible ").
(iriterr.),
vide
(I).
(intorr.); r/7*0
but":
vzrfe
(^')
(S).
^X*.;
possibly (3rd pers.
singular
masc.
Aor.
lit.
"it
is
\z+*
(ftdj.)
(m.c.) possibly.
(m.c.) principally; also probably.

**c
(m.c.) hardly, vide (5).

!?
(m.c.)
"ÂX:
^
L
perhaps vide (6). (m.c.) wbat would happen

:
if
vide (7).
(2)
Balki
j ^t>
f
*^Jb
'*
moreover, rather, but," in m.c

jic^j
ô^t
his
45
c^-voo
*^ vi
,-ÎXA:
jjl^j
ji^J
it
perhaps" o^j) yj>t when he placed (m.c.)

:
Ci
sfi
hand on the curtain, he discovered that

1?
'.
wasn't a curtain but the

* ^ JJ
<
Wall
11
j^Î''i>ak.^Ji>,xJ
!
Axi- tXixJ
1
^^J (^l**
*'
'J
^*-*
viJl^ ClÛ^
*
^jt^
c?^
*Ûfi>
*?*j*
{*}*
J ; *^-*
** i^-'f^
*3* (JSa'dT)
lie
said,
my
it
Lord, your slave attriof

:
butes
no fault to
you
in
this:
nay
rather
was the fated decree

'
God Must
<>-'Uj *.<lj
should happen to your slave come." perhaps may Though balki *& is enhansi ve and not exceptive yet in such a sentence as
Hiirh that something unpleasant
" b
"
(11 i.e.)
Jie
vt
I will
not halt at the
first
Persian as in English,
/
when
210
stage but at the second," ^^, etc., are used ir &L' would be obligatory in Urdu vide Phillott's
:
Manual,
p.
(e).
These aie
vorlis.
\Vords signifying
'*
perhaps
" are
ualled
advorhs oi
possibility
anjJ
tXxisx:
wk
1
J^yc
what
the* pi'ii'o ciii'i'tMit of

*
I
wheat to-day
V
:
Note the dramatic present the L'ast would be wrong. Note :ird pers. after 8->-*J and also the old particle
1st pors.
before the dative.
c.
the
usually follows
<>^
300
(3) Shayad "perhaps" is always followed by the Aorist or by a doubtful past tense: ÂJ ^L^ Û^ff (class.) "if perchance the men of the boat should come. from "also meaning "to be Shayad <^**?l. " xU +J ** = u~jl U^ o-~*> (m.c.) (m.c.)
Û
Û^
fitting
fy
^^
is
J6
:
<s*J^J*j* (poet.) "it

(4)
l
\
not befitting that you should ever

probably; as
tell
lie.
Guya
Lj^J
"perhaps,
though"
j
^T
(m.c.)
"probably (or perhaps) Mash,hadi

:
Muhammad is an acquaint-
ance of yours "
o^f ô (jj$ 8ja^ ^j)j> ^5;^ j
^^ cu^3^.j ^^
"
i^
j|
(m.c.)
"I saw him

Remark.
asleep on a bedstead with a sheet over his face like one dead."
c)^
^jt (m.c.)
(5)
Guya v is also a verbal adjective "to begin speaking."

ouUj
speaking" from
jti&
he
will
(6)
Mushkil mi-danam bi-yayad come."
^'x^c
jt**> (m.c.)
" 1 hardly think
Gah
ast
c^f
&
O^LJ
?
o^f
lf *>jf
j\
^!>X^c a^Xa.
U^
(m.c.)
"how
can you say he won't come (7) Chi rm-shavad ki " what would
(I)
perhaps he may."
'*
c^jt^f
&*
^^ (Sj^
**
-J^x
*$ (m.c.)
?
happen if, why should you not have compassion on me Adverbs of comparison
:
"
(i)
0-3
^>^j,
vide (2)
o*^
o, t?We (3)
-more.
or
'Û-*j
much more
(stronger than bisyar]
vide (4).
the most part.
less
vWe
(5).
at least.
) >
small.
least.
c^^
(ni.c.)
equal to.
parallel; equivalent to (of

(class.) of
sums
of
money, weights,
etc.).
the same weight.
c^
*
f*
,,
20 ^ Îjj
ti
neither
more nor
less.
Imam
a
Mash.hadl ÔÂxs a Riza in Meshed.
title of
a Shi 'a that has
made
pilgrimage to the
tomb
of
For ziyad-tar
y^> (not
used).

also, equally, even, vide (7).
301
lower
(of place,
x
rank, price).
only, vide
(8).
jr-as,
like, equally.
alike.
like.
Remark.
<xuU
and the
suffixes
arc called
"particles of resem-
blance."
In
txxjf
oU*j^^
v
ii>ja.
^--),
Rustam
is
called &v*c,
and
.sMr AJ
x>^; and
this order
chun, the
is
^ô^,
:
comes between the two.
In poetry, however,
<^^
5
neglected
&))***
&* v!^
(2)
)<*
3*
f^?"
V^
40
O^ j*"^*
(i)
Vt?^"
-i^)*
A)^ V^
^^
"***
^tt*
(Ghashm-i tu
is
the subject in the second misra*).

in
(4) ziyad
As stated
Û)
:
is
a positive.
But the
positive is
little
sometimes used for the comparative, as more."
%&* Û)
âJ
is
(m.e.)
^give me a
Ziyada
following
a,s
:
te t)
{
is
a comparative " more," but

it
is
construed with the word

jf
c<
it,
]
to
which
(one
generally joined by the prepositions

:
or
y,
x*.)f
jjÔj
compound word)
compounds, as
"
:
>?i*>
J^
^f
^tj)
(m.c.)
don't
jaw any more."

It is also used in
tolj, subs.,
"talking too much."

(class.)
(for) the greater part (3) Bishtar JJ&AJ the greater part of which was of glass." or an adverb, according to the reading.
<{
"
:
&jj
AkJjf j y^vj AT
Here Ulsh-tar
may
be a noun,
(4) (5)
Bisyar-tar
y Û~j
kam-tar
is
not
-
much
,
used.
are often used in a negaj
Kam ^,
:
ff
and andak
tive sense, as
oJjji
cXJf
Not ziyad
In m.c.
302
(Sa'dl)
is

"for the sages have said fortune comes not by
effort, the
remedy
not to worry
"
:
much"
&*
^y** fuzuR kam-tar bi-kun (m.c.) "don't
interfere
&
>
($
c
AJ
^ &^& ^
->
~&
***J*
cA^
<jyt*J &j*-
(Sa'dl)
'
Since you have not sharp-tearing claws Better not engage in strife with wild beasts
' '
:
*&f
cA^ e^
( '
(Sa'dl)
and the best dervish

121,
(6),
is
he that
does not mix with the rich."

(7)
Vide also
71
(;').
Ham
A
(ir*
;
when
fj&**
it
/*
very" (emphatic), etc., and riiz _>*> "also." Ham means "also" seldom commences a clause, whereas nlz does:
p* "also,
(m.c.)
= man
riiz
" said so
cuify f; jyx cÔiJ used at the beginning of the clause.
" both he and I mi-guyam : $ p* p&$ &*> p*> " also he said this " here ham could not be
;
Ham
clause
:
that very
himself
^^ ^ * ^ ^ ^^ ^ and none other"

oJL; && <ui* week " *>\A
:
p*>
is
also
an emphatic particle and as such often commences a

(Sa'di)
"they say
(Sa'di)
(the king) recovered
\^\
:
"
his leavings are fit for
lûjf
very place
vide (8).
"
:
&(*>)
^^
^
c
p*>
(m.c.)
"in " at
this very
place"
^f
l
*& " in thatIÂ+A-
this very time."
For ^ +* and
Vide
in
90
A
' '
(a) (6).
c
Ham p*
citizen
compounds means
^
fellow," as
"
^^ f* or
^^
:
" fellow
j*~*>
bed-fellow, wife."
b "together": Note the following compounds: j! "apart": p*> " Ali " OI^ on t ie ^ Another and sometimes P C5.^ ; colloquially f* L$J) t( on an average" pAj** " contiguous (of lands) level " ^l f* C5Jt? p*j**
^
fc
:
"one behind
the other":
^*A
:
clto " alike, equally ":

jJVyc
cuJ;
1
1
out, angry continuous dishes upset
"he was put

business
(8)
is
"
Ây
|yc Jla.
Â
^ c^ ^ ^ v#
y (Û^
vÛ*
^> J^ ^l
(m.c.)
jf
(m.c.)
" those (m.c.)
me": c^w
^b,j
Âp
*+A
"ali your
upside down, confused." Haniin (^^ and haman Û*

<-^>t ooli*'
cu^f^ fj^-^>
"he had
only
that one son":
î^.
^ jÂ.
^>Â {jU (m.c.) "this mere eating

<*^
and sleeping
is
Hamin
J
ki ACix*.*
enough for us, we want nothing else." means " as soon as " ftvof ^^ cxijî
:
(^M.*.
(m) Adverbs
(1)
l^sxkjt
of place
( <*>&<>
o^
j^, or
l^-
(m.c.) here.
lax-f j^,
or l-s^T (m.c.) there.

i
j** &\\
(m.c.)
^
^
^f
Any
(m.c.) v 7
-this
,,
way.
^f (m.c.)
j
(m.c.)
of the simple
propositions can
ride
(I) (7).
fê
prefixed, as: nzlnja ^^-'
;'
whence
m/a
c^^ A (emphatic),

etc., etc. (m.c.)
3Q3
that way.
V within.
oj^
**
.
Without. J
>
under, underneath, down.
^j/
l^ <UA
U.
^J,A
*j
everywhere. somewhere.
g*A
U*
nowhere.
^ (m.c.) somewhere. L*^ nowhere,

near.
before, in front of.

</
rj
level
(lit*
breast to breast).
u*,
CLAJ
behind.
or
CLA**^)
cuvo^
on the right hand.

the
left
or
*-**>
^*o on
hand,
outside.
>
inside.
all
the way.
opposite.
on the one hand.

^
1>{
on the other hand.

,
here
now
vide
(5).
In m.c., andarun
^3>3t.
is
a subs. " the harem "
Sa*di also uses
it
in the sing.
" the inside, the stomach." tndpl., as a subs., for " 2 Nuzd nizd " near is not used as an adverb
only as a preposition.
J(
3 *
6
Plshri
man ô
of place, <j**J
but pish az
man
^yc
(Jl*-u
of time.
Barabar
^^
*aqib,
also
means continuously, Indian and Afghan.

in Persian 'aqqib.
For AT.
and vulg.
304

on the top of one another p* cX>
^ty up
:
vide also
(I) (7).
vide (6).
:
ly back, behind, etc.
vide (3).
J,
above, over, upon.
below, down.
yj
]j~
head foremost
upside
down
steep
^wherever.
j*
e^f
here it is. here I am.

,
or
o~t ^T there
>
it is.
*^
,
somewhere
else.
j
îii/
tu or
inside.
apart, aside.
higgledy piggledy.
upside down.
different, changed.
headlong.
except, besides:
_vi3
vê
(7).
below
(of place, in
(
.,
an assembly).
,, ).
JU above
Remark.
(2)
Idar
Faru is used in compounds, as: cui?^? "he spoke low" he under,' got (the fire) )j Before a vowel j^y is sometimes used (class, and m.c.). 8 (3) Fara iy is sometimes merely a euphonious as:
<
'
'*
here, behold,"
is
obsolete.
:
particle,
o^^t;
:
" " I went Man bi-lcuh sar-a~bala raftam up the hillside ÂS; Jflj |^M ^5o Â3 (m.c.) imruz u U-man mra-bala kard (slang) " he overcharged me ": jj)^ W> tr c5 tV^ -? w 1iarf-h&-yi sara bala ml-zanad (slang) = "he's opening his mouth very wide (slang)."
1
l
t/z?r dast-i
man
nishasta ast
adj.,
o^*(
*L*j
below me":
3
^.^ o,^*^^)
^t
**he has taken a seat
zlr-dast
o-o ^>),
opposed to zabar-dast e~*.^
jJJ.
Redundant particles such as
fy .ô. Â,
etc., are called

^*T
305
" the >* (Mem. of Jahangfr) Rajputs f^<> ^ came in armed bodies and surrounded the entrance to the Sultan's tent" :
cui^J
\jZ \j
&JUL
(4)
Du
Û> _j yxsf V barabar j\j*
T (m.c.)
-
j*\j*.
" the flood came and swamped the house.'* " twice as thrice as much.'* *~,
etc.,
much,
e(
(5) Inalc
Mshtl mi-ayad <xf

az Baft
<^x>
^2J
y
coming": inak
from Baft."
amad **f oAj
uJJLjf
J
(class.)
"here
is
the boat
'
(m.c.)
he has just come
It is rather pedantic to use male in speaking.
Farazyj* has many meanings in classical Persian. It is common in compounds: e*H*> jij*' "to occur": ôxf jfy "to come close"; cuiJjfji cu~& " (the king) sat on the throne " jy* 9 <-?*& " descent and ascent."
(6)
:
Wara-yi In matlab-l digar daram ^\^> "besides this, beyond this, I have another object."
(7)
t^*x>
^t ^]^
(m.o.)
(n)
" Oh content enrich me, For except thee there is naught else." Adverbs of Quantity
! :
(1)
UM
little.
little:
:
vide (2).
;U~
JUa.
much
vide (2).
(m.c.)
much, greatly:
vide (2).
j)
abundantly. âbundant, >

sufficient, sufficiently,
>
^X
*'
o*^ enough
0^3^
-
ai1
u^ 3
very much
fwWe(3).
)
&***>
[**
even
c^-h^
this,
(class,
and
m.c.) nothing: n?ê (8)
],
jxft. x x-
(class,
and
a
m.c.) a little.
^"^ ^*^
(class.
little
,,
,,
(m.c.)
(class.)
>vide
(9).
^
i
as
much
as.
J
to the best of one's ability.
4j
<kay& as
much
l
as possible.
These are also adverbs of comparison, q.v.
20
106

;*5 A*, (m.c.)
(m.c.)
how much how many ?
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^
>
excessively
vide (4).
A j
,
(m.c.)
**.
^
.
(m.c.) boundless, innumerable,

little.
(m.c.)
5
(m.c.)
(m.c.) little
by
little.
little.
(m.c.)
a hair's difference, a very
&
(m.c.) in
amount the length
of one finger-nail, a
little.
(m.o.) in armies.
(m.c.) in flocks.
(m.c.) altogether; afeo in
one place.
(m.c.) 7
> , {altogether. (m.c.))
(m.c.) in toto, all of

.
them.
c ,) altogether: T?tWe (5).
(m.c.) as
much
as: vide (6).

:
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^
s
about, at an estimate
vide (1).
and mod.) however much, in spite of: vide (8). bisyar buvad ty ;U-^ c-U^ ^&\ (class, and m.c.) (2) Andak-i l A '^f (Sa dl) "it is related ^ ^^!>t <j?)b~> j *f *a*^3jl ^^;^> tf^t bhat he made an increase in their allowance, but a decrease in regard " * JU ^jU-o AJ JUa ÂJ! andak-i jamal bih az bisyari-yi mdl (Sa'dl) a little
(class,
dalil-i
:
'
'
j,i
beauty
is
better than
much wealth."
Vide p. 126
(6).
;
(mod.) has the same signification as bisyar /*-*j but for 43 (c). a slight difference in the usage of the two as adjectives, vide bas az bas-i and basa Bas vide -y y, ^**> (3) p. 123 (m)
Khayll
^^
^,
OJÂXJ &ti ^j^j j|

(class,
(class.)* he was going very quickly":

4
and
m.c.)
"he was
exceedingly clever."
<c
In speaking, *$ LrO i 8 commoner, as: I got weary from waiting such a long time.
Bas-t sulchan-i duahvar-l
*st
** &~-^
^JUAi
* c
c*~^fj,3 (^su
4^^* (m.c.)
itis very
much
(m.c.)
infra.
The "a
of unity, as
bisyar-l az
mardum mi-guyand
."
ki~~ *$ *>iÂ/c
is
+^4 y
^jU-wo
'
many
of the people say
Bisyarl
c/J~^
also a substantive,
vide
'
* Bisyarl (j\*r*t here might be either a substantive, or else an adjective with the ^s of unity. For the sake of balance it is here a substantive.

a
difficult
:
307
till
"
:
^wj U
matter" Ajl^Jaivc ^*o (Sa'cK) "a long time one must wait ba u suhbat kardam, bi-dard-i ja-yi ma na-khurd o***u0 y U î " I talked a long time with him, but it was Û, t>)*) f&jf (m.c.)
bas-i
useless."
" Ah! wealth takes wings and leaves our hands all bare, And death's rough hands delight our hearts to tear."
(0.
K. Whin. Rub.
<u~Jf*Jj cM i*j#
*
102).
Basa ashkhas
M\ (m.c,).
of ;U~>
Jci
murda and va na-ddnista and
<j0l| Uo
In classical Persian,
place
usually followed by a singular noun bisyar. and the other two by a plural. Instances of bas-i with a singular noun are few. These words are not quite out of use even in m.c. Bas-i mardum
is
^ Bas ^
lf>j
bas,
tuf
~*
6a5-t,
and
~J 6asa often take the
^J
4<
f&j* Ls~*9 bas-l zanha it often happens that
^^
(m.c.):
basa
bashad
ki *
*>^t l~j (m.c.)
Basa U; in m.c.
(4)
also
means " perhaps."
Bi-g&ayat ojlij, nihayat
"
exceedingly thirsty UA (m.c.), or man ^;td
:
^ nihayat mahabbat ra ba-shuma daram ^ (JOA^XJ^^.;^ bi-nihayat (or bl-nihayat) ba shuma mahabbat daram
oj^:
^Â
*LiJ
-^^ &*
(m.c.)
"I'm
oskacô lî
fj\t>
ojlî
^j
or)
J^^j ^^ ^\
(m.c.)
"I have an
x
excessive affec-
tion for
you ":
I
îax**
^^l
**
-^f*^!
e>Ui>o(
i
c^-*
(m.c.)
" from the beginning

jf
to the end of his speech

f<
": pf>
oj^;^
-
^t u^ cuâô ^t
^xj
(m.c.)
(5)
am beyond
M,
measure grateful."
a*k.
**
l
Kullan
Kulliyyat
pietely," as: pjt*^ c^r^ siy to you at all."

?
*
Kulliyyat
or)
&$S =- Jiând
*'
signifies
" com-
*(
^^
^K
^.
(ra.c.)
have nothing to
<c
means without exception: cxi^ they were all, without exception, drunk."
(6)
Kullan $
CL^X> nr
^XLXJ ^j|j^
O^*AX> ^f
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
* Har qadr (J^j> " as this nuisance decreased,

:
L5JU)^ J**
^^ ^ ^
A^^^
my
desire to return also decreased."
(7)
tamam
...
Qarib v^V? taqrib U^M: xA o^j j*Uij w^jlÛ&f ashya* qarib babar bad shud (Afghan) '* the things were nearly all destroyed " =
%
j*i cAlii
UW ^^j'Ûî
ashya* taqrlb
....
ashy a* qarib tamam

an
>
nn<l
talaf
shud (m.c.), or A+A Ix^Û.ii

-
vJJLJ
hama
^^ 3
talaf shud.
(8)
Chanddn
*'a thief
ki
^ t^j^
^ v^
*^ isMA^-
&*$ }& C5^^^ ^'^ )t
t^^
(Sa'di)
entered
the house of a certain God-fearing person; in
spite of
much
search he found nothing."
Or
cujlfXff
j$c
j^l.
Also timaman
308

Chandan-i ki
(9) Barkh-i
<*jjf>ia. is
<^y,
"a
little
neglect";
(m.c.)
^ "a
Indian or Afghan only. or taraf-i az y ^jl* lakht-i

9
(Sa
<K)
jf
>^
(Sa'dZ)
"a
:
little of
Ms
life":
JLc
jf
:
few
"
)
men say so"
^f^ o~oU
;
*T
kuj
s<
(m.c.)
" perhaps they up a portion of our property " he " (Sa'di) pondered a little time on this one must consider this a little." Vide p. 126.
will give
Lakhi-l
(0)
Î^J appears to be used of time only. Adverbs of Quality, Manner, etc.

:
(1)
wA
m.c.
r,Û m.c.
>good, well.
)
(m.c.) middling: t?tWe (2).

(m.c.) in the
manner that:
vide
(2).
(m.c.) in this
^jf
(m.c.)
manner; also. with heart and soul

eyes
(3).
(m.c.)
o
on
my
)
>
= w iHing ly.
or
by
force.
.) ) (class.)
or
(14).
(class.)
(class.)
per force; also nolens volens
nolens volens.
(m,c.)
)
(adj.; helplessly;
ti
nolens volens.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
-# (m.c.)
>
suddenly.
(m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
(m.c.)
3
(m.c.)
purposely.
(m.c.)
mounted.
on
foot.
(m.c.)
lii
the Punjab K&ub .a
an
adj. or adv.,
but in
JJdihi,
Behar,
etc.
an adv. only.
SavZr
Jf,
subs.,
'
a mounted
man":
aavara
jtj-
subs,
and adv., "cavalry
on
horse-back.*-*

j<
'
309
(Afghan) mounted: vide

(m.c.)
]
(4).
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) (m.c.)
Uecretly.
|
(m.c.)
(m.c.) openly.
(m.c.) inwardly, secretly,
(m.c.) divulged, openly.
\
(m.c.)
i
P en ly>
,.
clearly.
)
v
...
gratis, gratuitously,
(m.c.) )
n,c.) vide (5)
comfortably.
)
(m.c.) vide (6), pure, only, vide (7). (m.c.)

:
(m.c.)
^contrary to, against,

m.c.)
(ra.c.)
3
one on the other; also on an average
vide
(I)
(7).
(m.c.) apart: vide (8)
and
(I)
(7).
behind the other; vide
(i
(m
c.) losing
one's head, in a flurry.

etc.
}!
(m.c.)
by deception,
m.c.) falsely.
cJ? (m.c.)
X
on the peg.
(m.c.) in substance, in abstract,
(m.c.)
>**&>
\
>
(m.c.)
in detail.
Fash
bi-gu
j&
(J*\>*
(m.c.)
"
tell
me
without reserve."
*
>
In Mod. Pers. ashgar fe\ and ashgara IjK^t. So bewildered that one doesn't know one's hand from one's foot: pacha in
m..
is
the leg of sheep or cattle only.

*
For galu-yi mlMk

Qul-miteh
jffr
tsj&
}*'*&
tf+.'
vulg.
"hang
(the
par da) on the
nail,"
&* d&
subs., peg with a head.
310
ADVERBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRXSES.

j$j* (m.c.) level, continually: vide (9).
#
UUJf (m.c.) by guess.

aj'oJL (m.c.)
at
an estimate.
ditto.
)
.
(m.c.)
,
cj> (mod.)
,
(m.c. only)
u*j*li
t )
on an average ^
up, in short.
;
or &*NcLto
sum
&)j&
(j**?.
as
disguised as
vide (10).
t5**o>} (m.c.) with both hands.

T. (m.c.) slowly; silently,
at ease. ftyf (m.c.) slowly, u~Af (m.c.) slowly; in a low voice; aside.
X)
fj* (m.c.) headlong.

,,
e>>&7~ (m,c.)
Û-oU^j (m.c.) face upwards, supine.
f* prone.
(m.c.) excessively
(m.c.)
'
:
vide (12).
ditto.
(class.) as before,
in
lj
a manner,
like.
(m.c.) scarcely, barely.

<*J'**,
(2)
<c
Miyana
tawr-% ki *&>î>
^lav <^
:
you act moderately you will not be upset" " " why did you not do as I told you ? *j^ (m.c.)
if
(3)
Minnat m%-damm
the
?)\***
î<:
To
the question, "Will you do this

J?*-*
for
me?"
answer
might be:
^
^^^
cuiw (m.c.) *'I
will
with
pleasure."
<e
another has spoilt your business, and you are angry with
(4)
me ? "
etc.
,
The Afghans say

.
sar-i asp,
' '
1
sar-i pa, sar-i rel,
etc.,
amadam
rail , etc.
,
f **f
jj
; jjj '
Ôr**
^r* * T' * r* ^ or
1
cam e on
horse-back,on foot by
etc."
(5)
A5ouf 'Ayn u** "essence; eye, etc." (followed by the izafat " what I am is U^> the. course to telling you, ^^ /^>;^ (m.c.)
:
OU-M cuasJLA^
take
>ju**f
"'
(6) for
o^f UL^xc ;^^ c^W^ (m.c.) " the streets are cleanliness itself" u what w^.*> ^^ >^^^? (^j *.if (m.c.) you said is accuracy itself." " " Mahz unadulterated
:
(ja*^>
:
"pure,
U^yk^-o"^
9
(m.c,)
merely
your sake"
U^
&*j>3 u**^+t (m.c.)
"at the mere

s
sight
of
you":
J*. (Shah
Diary)
"
something

had been placed on the chair as a mark of respect" o, " (m.c.) this is pure calumny. In m.c., <ji.< is, as shown, also a preposition = <^fy. a noun, it is a an or preposition adverb; when it follows, it
;
311
When
is
it
precedes.
an adjective.
(7)
Fardham
what
"
ptiji
1
s
:
a collective particle ::>>/
he
is
collecting sticks'
collecting
c^T (m.c.)
^x> will be a nuisance to
^yf
^ ^y o,^ j^ ^y ^ " ^ ^jj

you
:
p*tji
(
v^
.)
(m.c.)
you are
p*\
^.lj ^xiif
Aacu.f
"what you mentioned
can't be collected together as quickly as
this."
(8)
Az ham p* j\ " apart"
:**
t^
p* j
"
(m.c.)
they separated."
" Until thou knowest that speech is absolutely proper, Thou shouldst not open thy mouth " (Sa'ctt).
:
j.s î kagr/iaz ra az hamjuda na-kun (m.c.) Âjf \j " don't Vide (I) (7). separate these two papers." (9) Bardbar ; *^j* cfj l O^' d *-#. jfj*. (Afghan) "they continued playwith eacli In m.c.. however, this would mean they were playing other." ing
\*s*
In
du
'
opposite to each other.'

(10) Bi-surat-i:
as,
" a dervish
cM^j;^ ci^^j (Sa'di)
"
in
the appearance of, disguised
J>t
o;^^
''
(m.c.)
as
:
it
was before."
l*t
*> Note the meanings of **>*jr* )i *$)?* )& :>yi &+> (^ do you allege this against J^JÂ: (m.(j.) "since I have done no wrong, why " me ? " ^J ^b *^. ^yo xf b/ jf ^^^> j^ (m.c.) in the event of his not " coming to-morrow what am I to do? " " v Ai~Ci lit. he in
:
J^
^
*
(11) Shikasta,
brokenly
^3^ ^f^
j (me.)
jerks
his
speech (as children do, accentuating every syllable)." *-*& ooU (Sa'dl) '*it will be the greatest kindness." (12) <jhfiyat-i: azTui c^jf <4 in that manner'*; and aydun &}* or Andtin oj^f (13)
Û
/'
and
Mmi
^^
"in
this
manner"
are really obsolete;
and
also
**now; always; in this manner."
*For
five
months, now,
have been in Shiraz

of living."
With an uneasy mind and scant means
tl
Now
in the eye (of Faith) that illumines the

is
mind
Abu Bakr
(14)
a candle and 'Usman a lamp."

jjiîuo
\)
Khwah ma-khiydh
t^. u!j +&j>
*^,
f
or khwahi na-khwahi
4<
^\
f^^c
would
go";
^^
springs out of the *' I was taken there nolens volens."
y (m.c.) I told him &* mc ojw c^^3^33 >.* w>^ v^ " its. own accord of ^T ground **cy
(^*)
not to go, but he onl y) <tthe water
y.*= ^l^ t/e (m.c.)
312
(p)
(1)

Adverbs
of
Time
cA*)'^
Time
9
present, etc.:
u^'f aknun (m.c.)

&j*f
1
kunun
(m.c.)
y(^-
hald (m.c.)
J-now.
JU*. hdl (m,c.)

*
JUJ| alhdl
(m.o.)
al-an (m.c.)
(m.c.) yet, as yet.
')
tiHt
j^ (m.c.)
)
i
cH)^ (m.c.)
nowadays.
jf
â
(m.c.)
;
at present
(m.c.) (m.c.)
adv. in cash).
(m.c.)
this instant.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
*
I
(m.c.) to-day.
(m.c.) to-night.
JUx>t* (m.c.) this year.

]**(j
(rare in m.c.)
(class.)
(class.)
r
break of day.
before the false dawn.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>
(m.c.)
(class.)
true dawn.
j-
(class.)
early
in
the
ete.
morning,
or
to-morrow
* subh-i
zud (m.c.)
(early ),
(m.c.) just as the

.'
sun
rises.
(class,
and
m.c.)
dawn, before
ditto.
sunrise.
(m.c.)
In Mod. Pers. pronounced and written hald

;
unless combined with another adverb
that has the nunation

*
vide note (4), p. 314.

'*
For
al'hdla AT. ace.
Now
or never
"
kunun, ya hlch-gah
&
*:**>
()&
dar
in vaqt ya hargiz j
S
For al-ana AT.
ace.
Im
for
in.

(m.c.) false
(m.o.)
313
dawn first dawn = fajr.

;
indication of light.
Û*
(*a.c.)
false
.
dawn.
t^f &>>>
(m.c.)).
>
>m
^t
le
the twinkling of an eye.
**j-k (m.c.)
(m.c.)
midday.
(m.c.) evening.
>*
(m.c.) at the beginning of the night.

(m.c.) midnight.
-a*ftJ
iJuaJ half-a-day.
fjj (class.)
'f
..
midday.
) >
)
.
. .
Jjl
(m.c.)
when
the sun
is first rising.
y[^-* (m.c.)
f
before sunset. f* (m.c.) just

|
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
by day.
(2)
Time past:
1^131
c*t
jt
(m.c.)
JA> (m.c.)
(m.c.)
|
3
^0^ this
1
^previously.
(m.c.)
j^
(m.c.)
53
}
(m.c.) quickly; aZ5o previously.

(class.)
ji,
1
(m.c.)
|>
or
ôj
anciently.
xs
(class.)
(m.c.) formerly.
(m.c.)
1
(m.c.)
'
^
^
,
> yesternight. e J
(m.c.)
[
i
or
oj^
' 11
(class.)
In Arabic zanab
s-sirhan
" the wolf's tail."

:
Nim-shab
v^ |*V
poet., not used in m.c.

:
*4^-
>
^-^
&*
c5^5 (m.o.)
In m.o.,
" when
half the night
had passed"
a brick.
&\"&*)
<X4Jo
* 4
the 16th of Ramazan.
nima
is also xised for half

8
(m.c.)
&
^ 2C4** (m.o.) rise earlier 4^3^-jjy " " did you not tell me sooner ? why
'*
Jiji)
in the
mornings"
Dina
ruz )j) *i}3 (obs.)
4 *
yesterday/
(rn.c.),
Also shab-gu&uhta
*v*w *^^
without an
izajat.
U4
(class.)
},
yesterday.
Ay;^ and e^j^
(class.)
cV3x>
(m.c.)
JU u^(~*
(m.c.) for years.
j*w "~,4 v (m.c.)

, v
the day yesterday. J before J

)
(m.c.)
o*v (m.c.) the day before the day-before-yesterday.

!
i rf
(m.c.)
^
I
JU. (m.c.)
/
l^last J year.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
^b^
(m.c.) the year before last.
(obs.) yesterday.
(obs.) last night.
(3)
2
Time
t^T*
to
come
(rn.c.)
(m.c.) to-morrow.
| )
thene xtday.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) the
(m.c.) the
to-morrow night. next niglit.
day
after to-morrow.
or
ly
o^v o*i (m.c.) the day after the day-after-tomorrow.
^y LT^
1
(m.c.) the night after to-morrow.

|
**
(m.c.) 7
>
next year.
,
J*. (m.c.)
U> (m.c.)
U
.
>next month.
snext week.
,
,,
(rn.c.)
J
)
,
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.) in future.
l
(m.c.) (m.c.)
31
->*J
(m.c.)
M n future,
|
after this.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
1
a
3
Vulg. pllar sal JL, ; iUj . In poetry often used for the
Judgment Day.
Ya&
Aa/ta
t/i
d</ar ml-diham /^^-fr* y*J^
&A*
cJ^ (m.c.)
I'll
give
it
in
a week* a
time"
an W*&\ * Halnn va now and for the future" ) HU i8tiqbal has the nunation vide (p) (1) note (1), page 312.
4
'
in this case
315
*
x5
(m.c.)
(class.)
)
{
henceforth.
(m
'
'
presently.
m.c.)
3 2
)
^^
(4)
(m
is
'
c ')
presently, quickly.
follows:
^j (m.c.)
Time
also expressed as
"
Û
1
lûf
U>
l^
**
(m.c.)
remained there, three or four months.

Also by the dative, as
<f
:
<wU-
&^
j*y***^*
->T
ty
v*"
**
C*j*
J^ o**^
"
:
(m.c.)
intended to stay there the night and go

ÛLj|
home
in the
morning
*>*) ^tx^j
**
well,
C5f^^3y *^^ *^^ I; T*** **&*> (Shah's Diary) at night, several bands took stand below the building and played a
0)1**
great deal."
(5)
Jakht cuiux " just
now "
(a village
word and vulgar)
is
coming
into use.
In Kirman jakht is a substantive meaning " endeavour" and is supposed to be corrupted for the Arabic <*^ it is, however, probably from or cj^^^ "to strive, endeavour quarrel." the Persian ^^.A>
:
(6)
Time
jÂlf
indefinite
and miscellaneous
[vide also (1)1 :~-
J'^>> (m.c.)
1
îmmediately.
^
* Jb
j
(m.c.)
f;y (m.c.)
.c.)
J
)
(m.C.)
(m.c.)
[without delay.
.^
, ,
without further words, immediately, without doubt.

"\
(m.C.)
r te
mpo r a r
ly
further orders, immediately, (m.c.) obliged to, without

(m.c.) hot
and hot.
(m.c.) especially.
j
(m.c.)
,,
more than
all.
**Jf
Ar.
and Mod.
Pers., especially.
ô
(m.c.)
go to-day for certain

horse
is
' :
y
"
:
>xj
UCi WA^,!
ji
"
it is
certain
and hot": 2 (m.o.) "bring in the bread hot ;^ otf fj " cool between whiles)." (don't get (m.o.) "work continuously
3
my
faster than yours
)j*
UÂ "yon must
go.'*
)^ ff
\*
Pronounced vungahi.
316
(m.c.)
many
times, oft.
65r-t (m.c.)
once: vide
(7).
(m.c.) at times: vide
(8).
^j
p$
*
(m.c.) at
;
one time
at another time
vide (8).
(m.c.) often
(also
much),
(m.c.) often.
(obs.)
seldom.
Uf,
lf
from time to time.

(m.c.) sometimes.
^(f
(f
(m.c.)
sometimes
sometimes.
(m.c.) occasionally: vide (9).
<j*# (m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
x
quickly.
(class.)
b ^3 sooner or
later
vide (10)
-\
;^ (class.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
f
^rarely.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
h
seldom,
less.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
always.
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
J
(m.c.)
Ar.
Jb
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
(class.)
^continually.
(m.c.)
Sometimes,
l(
also, classically
and
Ar. Past Part. Bi-frraf* darya

<m.o.)
I kept
in m.o. "no, not" mudam na&r mi-kardam
**
on looking towards the aea."
ADVEKBS AND ADVERBIAL PHBASES.

(m.c.)
J
.
317
} > )
continuously.
^.
(m.c.)
(m.c.) repeatedly.
(m.c.)
,*j
one behind the other, in succession

do.
(m.c.)
continuously. do.
jxj (m.c.),
and
**ij
jÂ?;
f
**<>:>
(m.c.)
day by day,
-\
daily.
(m.c.) every instant.
ijtti* (m.o.)
AiAAjA (m.c.)
1
weekly.
J a week. once cXiiAA (m.c.) jb

AiftA
(m.c.)
1>UM (m.c.) perchance

'lib'
vide (11).
:
Cf every moment,
^-j
moment by moment
vw?6 (11).
(m.c.)
from day to day.
(class.)
little.
(7).
b (m.c.) vide
^
!
^^ \ c^ (m.c.)
31 x
,
(m.c.)
I.
once upon a time, formerly,
etc.
(m.c.)
jj>
(ra.c.) late.
(m.o.)
^
>
./
at last, finally.
for a
^b (m.c.)
^^ AJU
*aS
(m.c.) subs,
and adv.
>
day and
night, 24 hours.
4.
n > at no time, never, ^ really not. __ lUt (m.c.) } U3 (with or without izafat) (m.c.) all the day. r U (m.c,) as long as.
(class,
cU3
(m.c.)
and
m.o.) in
any
case.
Hafta-l chand ml-glri

11
cÂ-
&**> (m-o.)
-bow much pay do you
get a
week?
* 8
Vulg. dwr-vaqt
*
*^+
For
^2 ori na-d^tom
t^ tUl
(m.o.)
- 1 have never had
it
at all."
318
ADVEBBS AND ADVERBIAL PHRASES.

(m.c.)
now* at present
(m.o.);
on account. 7
-o (m.c.) often. (m.c.) as soon as: vide (12).

*
(m.c.) as
soon as
merely: vide
(12).
y
(m.c.)
& (class,
>
and m.c)
,
vide (13).
a*Ut (class.)
from. besides, moreover, apart r
(m.c.); vide (14).
y
jUj
(class.) therefore.
o*~J
(m.c.)
compared to formerly.
Ûj
>j*
(m.c.) therefore, for that reason.
Uj (m.c.) therefore, for this reason.
(m.c.)
vat any rate, anyhow.
(m.c.)
every moment.
(m.c.)
oswU
(m.c.)
(m.c.)
>in the end; vide (15).
(m.c.)
crw î 3
(7)
(class., or
mod., in writings only) after

***
this.
f
Bar-l ^s)^:*)j*
cl?yij ^c; fj
*j*
j/*
kill
this slave, a*
(8)
Vaqt-i
if you want to ^( (Sa'di) do so the law.' the of (well) accordingto interpretation îj, vaqt-ha l^j
'
*^-^
^l^b ^
:
<Û
(Sa'di)
" he sank a
t(
ew * times ";
^
.*.
Jea,$*
(Sa'dl)
F^
times."
^M
tj*>
^)
*+* *&j
*j\~*>
*>*
J^
& *$
oJ^JU
fxJr
is
also poetically used for vaqt-l.
Similarly the plural vaqt-ha
vaqt-ha signifies
" at
timevS
and
at other
in
The correct meaning, India and Afghanistan.

1
of course, is
" on account " and in this sense only
it is
used
*
8
Common in Indian Persian. Bahama h&l namt-falfinam (m.c.) "I haven*t in the
bi-har jihat.
maqsud-i ahuma chlst

least
UA
^Âftx)
^9 ^w Jla.
:
a^^j
understood what yoxi're driving at*'

This might also be read Barl
*'
also jtf
B5r- chand
lt
(class.)
a few times."
well," chand
bhurd
'*
he sank a few times.*'

Gah> does this "
(9)
:
319
M etc.
l
>tf
^ ^
\ft
(*'f *'f
1
*
or
^lf
*(f
.
i?
(m.c.)
" he occasionally
cJ>?-* \j*^ j *î* erif **

later
In m.c. the
(10)
" Sooner or
an
#.
^^ (m.c.). ^ of unity"is always added to
I*
^3, or
.*. aj| l>(i
tjj
*
tf^ya
*jU
*!>*, or e>t$>f
,
31
"
if
/ Ahyan ^^î; {^ perchance he should come, in the event of his coming,
(11)
5naM
*.
-5w
Uf
^Joi-f GU:
tell
him
to call
" to-morrow
I
J>>^ wish more and more to see you."

:
^j ^ eU^*j ^
(3>^ ^^ ^f (in a letter) "every moment an a-an an a ~" j (In an f then, so, and ").
,
In Arabic
(12)
t'>Ujx|
means " sometimes,
or seldom."
)
Ta & and mujarrad &j*vo:fa jLa. )\ pA$ iy U (m.c. " as soon as I " saw you I swooned away = bi-mujarrad-i didan-i shuma az hal raftam *j^+>
fa JU>
$
31
l*^ &*** (m.c.).
Mujarrad
also
'*
means " merely," as:
ejty
^w
ij
^t
j&
*~&>
&^J*
^=F^*J
CLM*U* (m.c.)
:
merely on the evidence of one person, one can't punish

a
him"
ijTÛ
^ cU*
Digar
*jUi
;
e>uS
**
^w^j
(m.c.)
one cannot act on mere suspicion."
tf ^ *^ ^^ u"^T^3^ **fjl* &f &I& j~& j that kings are for the protection of their people, and not the people merely to render obedience to kings."
(13)
(Sa'di)
c^^^Jb
^^3^
"and
again
know
(m.c.)
^)jj
"and
*
quite apart from this,
it
is
against the public
interest":
BpU could here be substituted for^&i (15) Aqibat o*$ U

:
gkj'.
ft
None e'er But that* y
learnt archery
in the
from me,
end he made
<*&at
me
his target."
a&jf J?v, or *!>}
j,
or
^\j+
bi-juz in ki, or
g&ayr az In
ki, or
siva-yl In ki could, in prose, be substituted for c^JIU here.

(q)
(1)
Adverbs
of
Order and
Number
;U
vX
(m.c.)) ônce.
;b^
3^
(m.c.) twice.
(m.c.) again, next: vide (2).
jf-i* (m.c.)
again: vide
first.
39
(a) (I).
Colloquial for
Or guman-i
3
fi
hamchuntn e^f14^ ^d hamcfiunan little doubt" vulg. gamftn.

:
KttWt,
is
here an adjective
the
45- is
not 45 of unity.
(i.e.
Note t$ with negative
" but that "
who
did not).
320

jt
the
first
time.
1>s
UilS
(2)
>secondly.
J
again; afterwards' 9 xu >l A>t^y again'
:
Bazjb
"
1
:
such a thing
I will."
(r)
^JjJij*u
^ i^j U&
)
:
a^- )^
(m.o.)
"don't do
read
first,
(class.)
"do you
Adverbs of Exception l
(1) *T
*ttiL|
Jyx
a&fyU
(class.)
except,
till:
vide
(2).
(m.c.)
"except,
' ;
but";
and
(4), (6)
also
(5).
"yet"
(Afg.),
to
answer to
although (m.c.) but; vide

or
{1
vide (3)
and
(8).
y^
but.
2
except.'
except
vide (7).
v*/f
ct?*^
)
j j
except that: vide

>
(6).
besides
more than
this, besides
\
wefe (7).
(2)
Aii? ^sv** (Sa'di)

till)
Magar dngah *&f J^Q "he said,

1
jjKif JL* ^yjj 5 I will neither breathe nor
&$
^ +* O^jt
f*
^
this
move from
spot, except (or

(3)
some word has been spoken by thee."
^^ ^*T *&* y y ^f-** <xiLx jt J/f ^^J c$^j> **" " he said had'st thou become so hard that not thou couldat up ^c)^ (Sa'di) steal from any but such a friend (or was the world so small that thou
IUdy
J/'
:
o^
would'st find no other place to steal from except
>J
)
^v
sank ";
vide also
(4)
"*
Û>A
'^f^
(z)^***
Or* J
"although they did

note
(5).
so, ye
(Afffhao) as soon as the niast was cut down, the ship

ill
()\+& ^ri^> ^^jjj
<yjs^
*
^3cv*.A
ûx.*S(
this
Afghan and Indian use

is
of
ilf
to
answer to
Aa-^f
The idiom
incorrect in Persia.
Magar j*> "but":

Llkin
In m.c.
'
is
often used for

;
"perhaps," or
(j) (8).
instead of Uf in asking a question implying an innuendo

(5)
vide
' '
^J,
(m.c.)
etc.
but
'
:Amma and Ukin

&*.JS\
" but
and
^ "again
still
' '
(but not 5^) are used to answer
as
()(>or
ciA-î.
(*^T
'
'
"although he
(3).
has
or)U 0^.1 committed a theft,

also so used.
c^^
*J <^^ **f\
he
is
good
man
vide also
In India **b " nevertheless,

In
Fi**it
t>
still
"
is
Siva-yi in
jfci.
Urdu Granuuar tiio Aû ûnles
^^

(6)
321
Bidun-i an ki *f e/f c^*-?: "without (m.o.) your ordering it I am ready to serve you" * or) A&T (m.c.) " I won't go without you.'* U* o*U &* f^*A (13 or*&f alava bar (7) Ghayr az $ j*& fy^; guzashta az)\ &&*$, etc.: also az means "besides," it cannot always Though gfrayr "except" be substituted for ^ >3U, as: o~oJ (tS w*j\^ (3^ art* )* (m.c.) "except me there is no one else in the room " here >3U could not be substituted
:
'
but ÎAJÔ
others also
>
&>
jJu*& ^liî
(
;
who know
"
<xU~* ^êtiuif
AJ 5
^
A>
}
ts besides me there are e>x>3t^ or) er^ *j^* (m.c.) &i&! or guzashta az man ashkhas-i hastand ki )\
"setting aside me, there are people

*^ ÎK3
xxiU
who
:"
oSb
*!
^3
o^
p&
^ly<>
^
it
t;
aside poetry one can't even style it prose; saddle nor palan." The use of <u^ ;v for
is
J^ "setting o*r^ like a takaltu neither

is
Ai i)
*.*?
rare
and
scarcely
modern.
Gbayr ^*
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as:
gkayr-ima
shuma
sive
Remark I. Although g&ayr azj\j** means " with the exception of, excluof," and alava bar j ijk* means "besides, including," both are in pracused synonymously.
II.
tice often
Remark
In the sentence
^3^0
;
**f
((+>,
the word fjS

' ;
is
termed
the thing from which the exception the particle of exception' Sometimes the mustasna
it is
and
is
^^^
(Tr.
jt* the Ûl~/o the thing excepted.' different for the general term, when
<
is
made
is
called
o^
iXj
called
ki*
îiv-*x>.
Ex,: f-xjîu
j))***
e^j
J-^-J
(class.).
(The
former example is <-Lax* îijLx3.) **+>> ^jj+ jJ^ J^Jj,j

returned was laughter"
.c.), lit.
;
man
bi-juz
H. B., Chap. VI) "the only answer $am hargiz rahat na-dldam îjJ (&*
"
:
"
except sorrow I saw no joy
ffAjây Jx^c/f>>
Even a Persian
'
(m.c.)
This construction arises from a confusion of thought.
would not say, " in that jangal except fishes I saw no man.' (s) Adverbs of Qualification *Jb "moreover." ^t&.j (m.c.) more than all; besides; further: " Adverbs are: v-^ <^=^ very well*'; <Jji o* ^ "very (t) Intensive
:
1
#
1
î "knowingly and wilfully"; K^J Lr^ or ^j^ *' "nolens volena"; î^x^ & *** " continually laughing "; e^b c/b whole " lapfuls at a time," Wj>$ ;/ quite blindly." 4< In ^jr* ;r* just like an ant; slowly," the first member of the compound is a substantive wfo also Repetition of Words.
slowly
';
&~*\* )
^
*>
Takaltu
>&>
is
the
pad
of a Baluch saddle,
and palan ^Wji
is
a pack-saddle for
a camel or mule*
21
322
PREPOSITIONS.
90.
Prepositions Huruf-i Jarr
*
^
(a)
The
or __ ten.
They
indeclinable particles called simple prepositions are only nine are placed before the simple or nominative form of nouns and
:
pronouns, as
jf^
l
$ Uuu[ jf az
mjd
of.
td Shirdz
"
from here
:
to
Shiraz."
The following are the simple Persian prepositions

(1) Jl
(2)
az
from, by, out

with, in
b 6a
company
*
with.
(3) aj
ba 8 or
bi in, by, to.
(4)
j* or^jf bar or abar
on, upon.
(5)
(6)
(7)
6 j*\ andar, in, inside. A kam with, together. f

ti
td
up
to, as far as.
(8)
(9)
(10)
^ orjû,
(h).
(^ 6i without. dar in.

1 juz or bi-juz except.
(11) ^3 /, Ar. in.
In Persian per
it
xo
).
governs are called jarr and majrur. Native grammarians include the postposition I; rd in the term jarr. For
The preposition and the noun
examples, vide
Remark
Z\ ^j Remark
8
I.
Fard
\j*
"up
to,
back, toward" and fardz

is practically obsolete.
"
j\j*
above,
(3)
high, etc." are obsolete, or only found in compounds: vide
89 (m)
and
"
(6).
II.
bounds, shore, towards" Arabic prepositions properly occur only before Arabic
words.
(b)
In old Persian the particle mar j*>

:
is
found prefixed to the nominative,
dative and accusative cases, 9 as
In poetry 3
ze*.
Poetically also o5a.
In modern Persian
bi.
Ba
is
said to exist
still
locally in Persia.
(In Arabic
always
4
bi.)
In India
:
ba.
Abar poetical
Affixed to the words madar, pidar, baradar

is
and
fcb&har it signifies
"
'
step-brother/
etc.,
and half-brother. In m.c. To is also a conjunction.

1
prefixed to express the
same
idea.
J5,
Ar.
'
Zi also stands for zi/ii or zahl * well done, etc." 9 In Steingass's Dictionary it is said to accompany the genitive case present author has failed to find an example.
also,
but the
PREPOSITIONS.
323
" You are that By whom Majnun was oppressed." " You are not more beautiful than other women." She said, " Silence; you are not Majnun."
Laill said,
*
v.)vj
QA^j c*^J *
bob
&JA> UL; &>4>a* j
ULCJ &tfjj
^| j*$ ^
*)*
maslahat chundn did td

bihisht bi-hasht*
*$
mar
in rauza-yi
ra'na
xykj
vahadtqa~yi g&alba chun
ittifaq uftdd (Sa'di):
j^fe~*#Lj^J*
l>
(&s*
itfmar magar zahra-yi ddam-% ki (Sa'di) there is <-&* no remedy for this disease, but the gall of a man, who ": f&^j* x =iV c^^^ cjtfak malik dar khashm shud va marura az bandagdn jl t>jl j*)
in dard rd dava-*i nist
*
"
bi-siyah-i bakhshid (Sa'di)
"the king
fell
into a rage
and bestowed her
(a
slave
girl)
or one of his blacks."
(c) (1) In old, occasionally too in modern, Persian writings, a noun is sometimes both preceded and followed by a preposition, in prose or in poetry, as 0^1 ja J^j jy ^ ^^^ hasud rd chi kunam ku zi khud
:
^^
but with the envious what can I do, for he is himself bi-ranj dar ast (Sa*d!) in pain because of himself": p^f o^^jj y az khalaîq bi-zahmat
* '
^^
andar-am
troubled because of the people." In these two the is not part of the verb (vide 2 below), but refers examples preposition 3 to the noun preceding it as is better shown in bi-daryd dar mandft' bi>shumdr
(Sa'di)
I
ast vi~*!
(2)
'*
am
jU
^ jiUxja
preposition
*
(jj&
in voyaging there are endless profits."

also be
may
dar
dmad <Wf )* j-fij

kucha bd
(class,
or m.c.)
added to a verb for emphasis, as: bi-shahr " imruz " he entered into the
city
:
(bi)
sar-i
ba-ham "together": az hamp*j\ " apart": cJj^ vt^S bi-khwab andarun 6 " under the (mod. writing) j<M ^& yjj bi-zir-i sang andar (mod. writing) *.+ &+*> hama shab 1 dida bi-ham norbasta* stone": AJUjJ f*> (Sa*dr) "I
1
" I encountered u bar khurdam b **$ j, jf J~*.MJ*\ (m.c.) him to-day at the end of the street." (d) Sometimes two simple prepositions, or a preposition and an adverb, can be joined together, as:>w bi-juz b (or j^ juz): +*>{* or *& bi-ham or
^^
closed not
my
eyes the whole of the night."
Rawza
**
*+*})
it
is
said that at the last

;
a garden or a meadow; also the burial-place of a saint." In India day the burial places of the saints wiU become 'gardens.'
trees are close together.
Hadiqa is a walled garden gkalba fern, of ayhlab means that the The wording is apparently from the Quran.
An example
8 is
of tajnis-i &&ajCJ*i or linear pun. In prose, there would be an izafat after roana/T, but the scanning shows there
none.
*
Or
bi-u.
*->
Ba-yi zvfyid.
This
7
is
also
by some grammarians called
ba-yi za*id.
In mod. Persian liama-yi shab
v^*
is
^^
"the whole night," but hama shab
UA
every night." Basta is here transitive and dlda
the accusative case.
324
(e)
PREPOSITIONS.
" to bear ")

breast
or
Ear j and dar ^ may

"
signifies
also be substantives.
Bar
"
advantage
bar-tar
:
fruit,* profit,
bar also signifies " height
j (from
burdan
;
e^P^
bosom." "
'
'
The comparative " "

and
y^j and superlative bartann
signify
higher
preposition signifying 8 " az bar khwandan tinuously

:
" level
also excelling." Bar-a-barjij is a highest an adverb "con(lit. breast to breast)," or

;
"
^<M^y
' *
jf
to recite
" az bar raftan by heart

;
" to be u*h J*y

bar-i
lost (as
<Jj)
man
raft
&*
j*
dust az a mistress from the bosom of her lover) " I lost my friend." Dar )* as a jf ^^^ (m.c.)
;
;
"
" dar bi-dar shudan &*j*j substantive signifies a " door " kardan bi-dar to house from house"; c**/^ to turn out."
"to wander
The phrase ***Jfy <y**^ " some are of opinion." signifies

(/)
ba'zi
bar an-and
(classical
and modern)
(g)
In old Persian, andar }>t sometimes takes the place of dar
Jahan ay baradar na-manad bi-kas Dil andar Jahan-afarm band u bas
(Sa'di)
"The
world, my brother, abides with none, Fix thy heart on the world's Creator and nought else."
of the simple prepositions
jt
:
(h)
(1)
The following are examples of the use Azy az Kirmdn ta Shlrazy^ & Ûy
:
"from Kirman
to Shiraz
"
;
this is
az buzurg u kuchak called zci-yi ibtidaîyya (*-^m -fj ): hamagl y ji ^*A "all, both great and small": man az firishtagan-am
12*
fj )
:
"I am
va
si
one of the angels"; this

ki az
is
called
za-yi
ba'ziyya*
^
storm
sanduq &^&*>
mallahan bud
i
:
qufl-i an-hd rashikasta ojî^ ^* ^ " and (m.c.) having broken three boxes
Jo^lvl that belonged to the sailors" î>fc ^t y az in ^)j* '* an dar trees were rooted up by 5 uftadand tuf darakht-ha-yi buzurg (m.c.) [great
1* I; <j^>.* ^^J| ^fî &*y* &# Musa Paygh^mbar ( 'alayfc's-salam) darvlsh-i ra did ki az barahnagi bi-rig andar nihan shuda bud (Sa*dl) "the Prophet Moses (on whom be peace) saw a darvish that on account of his nakedness had hidden himself in
:
^-^^
this
"
)^\
*J->j
u&*j jf
**
Bar-i a/tab nithaatan
(^-^ u*Ufy
means "near, M
:
(m.c.) **to sit in the
sun."
The
izafat is
used in m.c. after bar
when it
near
as
bar-i
man
<
c>'-
<)*!& er^y J^
p. 328, note 2.
*
8
"
sit
me "
'
^/ > dar
bar-i manJbi-nishin
here bar
is
" breast." probably the substantive
Vide
Perhaps for bar jb

This adverbial use
is
a load," the crop of a fruit-tree, etc. very common amongst the Indians and Afghans, but
is
not in
use in Persia.
*
Qnl-i az bustan
cAV^ jf
vJ^,
^1?
is
another example.
;
This
is atfi~l**~>t
or *Jf<^j
vide (2), notes (2)
and
(3),
and Bemark
II.
PREPOSITIONS.
the
325
^fj (or za-yi sababiyya
<SUM*
sand";
this
is
called za-yi
'illat
cJLs
Sometimes azy, followed by a substantive or prtfnoun and signifying " a portion of," takes the place of the object, which is in this case understood:
^H^y
*?.*
j* c$"*/
^^;^ f^J* *f^T

p&
f*!^
5
a
jf
/-k# baytdr az dnchi dar chashm-i
chahar-paydn kardl dar cKda-yi u kashid (Sa'dl) "the horse-doctor put some" thing in his eye of the medicine he was in the habit of using for animals 5
az dardhim giriftam
jl
(class.)
"I
took some of the dirhams
' '
:
this is called za-yi tab'iz
u*W
<^lj
" the
partitive z."
jf,
Than, in comparison,
is
expressed by
this
is
called za-yi
tafztl
Az chand
ruz
) 5;
î^
jf
" since
how many
;
days,
how many days ago ? "

this
is
az chub
"made
^jj)
:
of
wood'
az
tild
" of gold,"
called za-yi
mdddiyya
accord
' '
;
(AjjiUo
az khud
<Jj.k
^^
"
y "involuntarily,
' '
:
of its or one's
own
az du taraf
" he passed by him" him "

(class,
^$
:
reciprocally
(classical);
cô^^jf
oJi^J^j ^ jt az u bar guzasht az u dar guzasht "he forgave
and m.c.)
' '
:
*&
*> &>(**
^ y az rud-khana radd shud (m.c.) " he

amad
ji
crossed the river

(m.c.)
:
^f ja ^ 31
*
***
az dar dar
az
naw
jl,
or az sar-i
waw
^' j
he came in by the door " afresh " az sar-i In qissa dar

* ' :
' '
guzashtam (class.) p&>tfj & &>** ^\ j y "I gave up this story" 8 az parcha saf kardan <D^ ol^ <^;Ujf (m.c.) "to strain through cloth"; az ham dar
:
raftan
(m.c.)
"
^j ^
p&
to pass
az ham guzashtan ^.j&M p*> )\ " vide also mutual to claims each other; (o) (8). give up by
jt
(m.c.)
"to go
to pieces
"
Remark.
/T
In the idiom
&*
^
^
ji
az an-i
is
man " mine
"
;
az
ani Rustam
<^t
j|" Rustam' s,
"
the preposition
called za-yi milkiyya

j\
6
*jU
(^fj ).
(2)
Ba
fjlj
L>
"with":
Bd u raftam
:
him."
"Possessed
of," as
^f
^
1
U baittila
yî ^yUj
^ o-^f AX*^?
^\^
nan-i sir (Sa^df) " a greedy man even if possessed of a whole world is hungry, " ba shamshir while a contented man is filled by one loaf kushlan^M
;
o^
company with " well-informed'* ; adj. (m.c.) haris ba jahan-i gurisna ast va qani* 6flj
pti)
" I went in
ÛU
"to kill with a sword": ba anki *^T^ "with " ba In hama A*A ^\ b " with all this, in spite of this
(m.c.)
:
although": ba In panjah-salagl ^
that,
in^spite of these fifty years of
mine."
In a similar sense az
(or
qahli
murdan &ty
**<*
'
*avj>
jt
to die of (or on account of)
famine
*
hunger)
"
:
&&+* JA^>
something
The word
This
This
for
"
"
e)U^*^3 ^^^^3
' '
or
a portion
is
understood.
y
^
is
called a j^
called ^"***>
is
o~^
vide (3)
Remark
TT.
326
PREPOSITIONS.
With
a)f<*i
guftan, either
I?
or & can be used:
fj>>
e^l* J *^ ^f y*
1
guyad bi-amsal-i ma guftan rava na-darad (Sa'dl) "what he he does not think right to tell to the like of us" : bakhud with says you, " he said to himself. " vîf b (or khayal kard *>j* J eA) m.c. AJ, guft
awcAi 65
l
Sometimes
" There
ba b stands for the conjunction
'
and,' as in
)&j> J^tfcuf pZ**-j*

is
*&f
j*)*
Û
a&f Ûx> o^t
^y
(Sa'dl)
a difference between him

is
And him who

(3)
has his mistress in his arms, at the door (for her entry). " looking expectantly
(class.)
who
Bi
to
Tihran
(m.c.)
raft
(mod.) and ba
"to,
to
for, in, on, with, by,
(dy&
"I
said to
him "
(m.c.)
:
"he went
" Teheran
^^
(
at"
or)
bi-
bi-u
guftam*
bi-zamtn (or bar zamln) uftad

ta'alluq-i
its
aîf
w**jj*
(m.o.) "it fell to the (m.c.)
ground";
for
bachcha bi-madar ;aUj Aa

bi*panj
sell
it
"affection of a child
mother":
farukht
bi-javab
^^/ p*^
s
o'^P
^^
4
:
(class.)
"I
will
tuman Jchwaham for five tumans"
Ja.^^3
guftam /*&? v ^su (m.c.) " he entered the " (m.c.) city
"I
said in reply": bi-shahr daJchil shud

:
bi-nazar dar rni-ayad
^T
>* j&>
(m.c.) "it
comes insight"
b*-Lfi'l
J*^b "in
pa
"
it
fact."
Uftad, baz ba-si

2*
(
pa
tstdda (or bar si

coll.)
istada)
shud B
*t>&~j\
&>**$>.
d&\
5UUj|
b *^j
or)
(Afghan
(the animal)
fell,
but got up again
on three legs":
bi-dan sabab
*-*** ^l^*
(or bi-dan jihat
o^
IÎAJ)
(m.c.)
\^\
"on
fbj
(
that account
": ura
bi-tufang
jb>
(or
hamrah-i tufang) zadam t-&AL

:
^Js&
t>\j+&
or)
"I
shot him with a rifle"
sher
ba^-ghurridan-i bisyar
bar-khast o-.l^
y jU--j ^JÂJ^^
l;r
roaring": c^^^f J
fainting, etc.)":
(Afghan) "the lion got up toith a great 4 bi~hdl amadan (m.c.) " to come to one's senses (after
&'
fty îx^f ^^L J)i* ^^j^j^xs

ki
(m.c.)
man
bi-rasidan-i manzil-i
khud arzu-mand budam
"
my home," but man dar rasidan-i reaching my home (I was anxious to)
ft
was desirous manzil-i khud

I
of reaching (or to reach)
J^vo
&*) ^ ^
all
on
."
bi-har surat
Bi'tadrtj g>y&*
by degrees
at
).
"
oô
^ " by
means
"
;
bi-har hal
J^
l<
all
events": ^11^
(4).
b*-l-akhira
"at length"
(in
m.c. V-l-akhira
1
^Hb
Vide also p. 334
him "
full
" Euphonically before demonstrative pronouns, etc., bi dan, bi-din, and bi-du, to ; generally, the **, both as a preposition and a verbal prefix, is only written in the
*^ before
its
form
is
and
joined to
4<
a word beginning with a 6 ; otherwise this preposition drops the % " but " to him " &* bi-u substantive, as: ; jj* bi-raw "go fli^
bi-blnam
2
3
let
me
see
"
(also
^^
'*
birbinam).
,
;
Or ba u guftam or bi-du guftam or ura (or vayra} guftam, or bi-vay guftam Or da* javab vl*^ )* (m.c.) the preposition used varies locally.
:
all
m.c.
*
6
Bi-nazar ml-ayad (m.c.)
it
seems."
without any preposition
:
In m.c.
(m.c
si
pa
latad (not Istada shud)
pa show biraw
pish-i
8
get up and go In m.o. shir and bi.

)
"
to
."
PREPOSITIONS.
387
Remark /, Bi is also a verbal prefix, vide Remark II (i) and footnote. Remark //.Grammarians give the preposition ** various names according to
(i)
its signification:
BS-yi zcfid
si***J
tf
^f)
^^ )
"superfluous 6
)t> l-i)*)
"
as in
cu^y -_>u,
or JA
:
etc.
etc.,
In
<j>^&* jl,
or
[vide (c) (1)],
^,
is,
some
grammarians
call
preposition dar
(ii)
the preposition *J that is superfluous. 1

(
l ***j& c5 *
"bd-yi za*id"
it
however, the
Bd-yi zarfiyya
"the
adverbial 6,"
:
stands for ;^ and
indicates place or time, as

(iii)
^ or
f,
(iv)
" stands for 6 of companionship Bd-yi musdhabat ( c*x=*Lox> Û ) as jahdn ay barddar na-mdnad bi-kas yj^ jJUiî^j <^t e)^ (Gul.).
î^^Â) bi-shahr raftam
bi-ruz jjjj
"
by day."
" the
and
(v) Sa-i/i
rdbita or &a-i/i $h'saZ

b of
:
I *t|; L$ N
or Jl^>l ^lj
"the
copulative
6"
or
"the
(
Ba-yi inhisdr
^tAsuf
junction," as ^^>J cu*o dast-bi~dast. " the 6 of restriction is practically the same, )
' '
<
but
signifies
(vi)
(vii)
completeness, as :_r^ j* sar-bi-sar for^~> $j sar td sar. Bd-yi qasamiyya ( &**>~$ ^t ), as }^^ ^y God."
:
/?-/&' mubddalaty or
6a-^ taqdbul
cLla3 <^lJ or
cJÛ*
'*
^b
:
<
the 6 of
the b of substituting barter or exchange," called also bd-yi ta'viz u^'.j** C5^ or compensating," is used with verbs of buying, selling, etc., as bi-dard-i ear
nami-arzad ^\ ^^ j AJJ the game's not worth the candle." the b of measure," as: ba e d az (viii) Bd-yi miqddriyya ( &*$***> Û
'
(f
vafdt-i
bi-sad sal
JU
&**> j\
e*Uj
}|
:
miqddr-i jfâ^ or bi-anddza-yi xjt-^l^
**> (Gul., Story 2); here bi AJ = bibi-ntm bayza ki sultan sitam ravd ddrad
(ix)
Bd-yi ibtidd*iyya
*d\*&\
<f
^b
)
),
as
bi-ndm-(i) Jahdn-ddr-i jdn dfrin
(Bustdri)
(x)
e*yT
o^>^^
khayr.
(
(*^^
(
^ (begin) in the
name
of
."
:
Bd-yi intihd*iyya wat-talimmat u b v l

(xi)
^lîif
^b
*'
is
opposite to the above, as
îJtj iûjf^
Bd-yi izdfi
as-:
^^
^
:
the b having the force of

^.U./c
o^'Uf,"
muhtdj
bi-pul nlsiam
f~# J^
(
an izdfat muhtaj-i pul nislam
(xii)
The 6a-?/i
isti'dnat or
ârâ or aâ
*tf or **J;i
or o<JUJ^|
l;jt
Û
to,
"the
.
6 of the instrument, etc.," as
bi-shamshir zad gardan-i u rd
&$
aj^-k+^j
as
(xiii) Ba-yi qurbat ( bi-pddishdh shikdyat burdand
oy
^b) "the ^ that expresses wer,
etc.,"
^^
),
%SA.J^> jsU^lAj
where
bi
stands for
& or
pish
(j*^)
(xiv) Bd-yi maf'iil
ta'diya
&**>
^b
bd-yi
),
" the
I;,
J^x>^lj
:
or " the b of the object," or the bd-yi 6 that makes transitive," is the ^ that takes the
in chlz bi-dn
(
place of the dative in
as
mard
is
bi-dih
>J b * }
^y&
e^!'-
'alq
(xv)
The
'*
isti'ld*
:
*iULt
^t
jj^J,
the bi that stands for bar j* or
upon,"
1
as
*-
bi-ru-yi
u nigdh kardam
fjj/i
The
in verbs, as
etc., is also called ba-yi za*id.
328
(xvi)
PREPOSITIONS.
The cJU ^b,

fla-2/i
or
*^xA or AjW*
JU,y
the b that expresses the

to flee
cause or end, as: bi"dlddr-in raftam

(xvii)
^jtjl^* "I went

is
him."
tow*rf
^
as
:
^b )
the 6 that conjures assistance, as:
j^su Ijfd^
Khuddyd
bi-hdqq-i
is
bam
Fdtima.
(xviii)
Bd-yi muvdfaqat
e/;!<
(xix)
cf
'
^ J^,
in
the 6f that expresses "in accordance with,"
or
(
Bd-yi tamyiziyya
*i\*&*
:
^
(/).
is
used for the y*** &**

.
and
expresses
(4)
for the sake of," as
Ud)
= lUJ
Bar
j* or
abar^\ (and 6ar-i
near ").
For
this preposition, vide (e)

*J bi> (3),
and
As already seen
of bar j>, as
:
savdr bi-asp
w^
takes the place especially in m.o,, sometimes " on horseJ ) (m.c.) (for bar asp
;^
^^
it
:
back, mounted."
Examples
bar
m\z bi-guzar
j^ jV* f.
"
sit
'
(class.)
bar-i aftdb bi-nishin
^^^ v^^?
(m.c.)
in the
" sun'2
put
on the table
lei
"
:
farmudam
:
bar
5 ruptya u ra bi-Jkashand **$& \\ *% j ** f*rJ (Jehangir's Memoirs) " " I ordered him to be bar-a T^J (m.c.) weighed against rupees (in the scale)
In m.c. bar j* is rarely used as a preposition alone. Thus " instead of bar db j on the water," in m.c. bar ru-yi ab *Jt <^vj* or
*'
come out."
^
(
simply ru-yi db wf ^sy would be used. This preposition is .usually omitted altogether in modern Persian, as
zamln bi-guzdr jiit ^^)
(m.c.)
(for
bar zamin bi-guzdr j>&
er^jy
cuû
"
put
it
on the ground"
(
vide
(ft).
Padshah bar
takht
nishast
(or
julus farmud)
cu^xi
*UÛ
*ry LT.^
^
or )
would
in
modern
LA^b.
nishast
table
^**f
"
^ ^J ^^
colloquial Persian be pddishdh ru*yi takht Similarly ruy-i m\z y** ^% (m.c.) "on the
j'^
instead of bar mlz j**j* (class.), instead of bar asp %--*} j*
and
;
ru-yi asp
>~~*\
^^ or savdr-i asp
j* "at
the
(a servant)."
(but sar-i
mtz Jv
table ").
Bar
is
" to dismiss taraf kardan &$j> o^fe j> (m.c.)

old
Abarji]
and poetical:
ÛM,
<U+xx
^jf
&\*$
b Jb
' '
^3 ^^>jf
:
*t
I)
c^-^ V^
(5)
.47icfar )*i
in, into, within
"
Shardb andar jam kun
In (m.c.) ru-yi
m
ft
(m.c.) =s in the shade juat near to the sunlight (so that a
Dam-i
a/tab *J*tf
slight portion only of the sun's

ttiryi
aftab
w^
warmth reaches the person): dar

aftab
a/tab
v^T )&
:
and
binishin (m.c.)
i
"
c^y
* '
(ra.c.)
= bar-i
p.
v^*^
I
.
right
in
the sunlight
sSyarU/lab
sit in
the half shade (of a trde)."
Dam-i
A
a/tab
v^f f*
also gignifies
nxc.
8
'*
near sunset.
Vide
324 , note
In m.c.
ham
vazn-i r&plya
kunand
*>ii^
AJ^JJ> cjjj
PREPOSITIONS.
(m.o. vulg.)
(vulg.)
329
raftand
1
"put wine in the cup"; andar khana "they went into the house" 5 *U~A ( J}i*
:
manzil (or dar manzil) hastand (or dar) bar kardand *>* (
Fide also
(7)
(vulg.)
" are they at home

(vulg.)
^ or) Jji* ^ "

?
:
andar
libas
andar
j ^ or) j*i| ^JJ
"they put on
clothes.'*
(9)
on dar ^.
Ta
CI
"
(also conj.)
to, until, as far as, as

:
long as, whilst, even to
"
:
" to* inja UuLjl U up to here, hitherto" az shimal ta junub *->y^ $ J^**Jt " from the north to the south*" ta bi-aknun cJjtflj 6 " until now" ta hat
:
:
JU. "
13
(or ta bi-hal
life lasts
Jlaw
13
"
)
while
"
:
ta
kay
or ta na bas ruzgdr Jfjj) u~^ ^ (class, only) " not for long" ta yak mah-i dlgar U cX U (m.c.) "in a month's time " ta chi rasad &*. 13 j?*>& (also conj.) class, and mod.) " how much the more" 91 (6) 12. vide Ta is also a " beware! behold! for shame! never! it is particle (poetical) signifying
: :
up
to the present
" how long
" "
ta bi-zlst
ta
cu-oj?
l5
,
(class.)
&>
13,
na bas
dlr j**
o^
not
(9).
known whether 3 ":

(8)
for
examples, vide
91
(6)
(12); vide also
(o)
Bl
'
:t
if*
to
nouns
it
without," a privative particle or preposition. un corresponds to the English prefix in

;
When prefixed
;
im
";
etc.
Bl-tu
nami-ravam
^
^
^^
^
^
(m.c.)
"I
will
not go without thee";
^ u*
bi-basar J*A>
"imprudent "; bi-khud
****# (m.c.)
"
useless, silly
bt-abr
water"; biydbdn c>^"cloudless"; bt-abi ^1 (subs.) ûncultivated desert," (i.e., without fixed water-supply except rainfall); " rude " bl-adabi bi-ihtirami ; "disrespect" bt-adab *->$
of
"want
^x>(y^(
"rudeness
ful
"
^\ ^
bi-adabana
bi-harf
A^JÎ
(adj.
and adv.) "in a rude and
disrespect-
manner":
(9)
w3^
words; without question."
^ (adv. m.c.) "immediately, without For e^ bidun* " without," vide
further
(o) (6).
Dar 6 )* "in,"
;
etc., vide (c) (e) (g).
" he looked at him ": dar 1 vay nazar kard tjf j& j* (Sa'dl) ** shubha-l ki dar dil-am bud bar taraf gardld (m.o.) AJ5/ Hr^^J f**)* " îu CUAA " the doubt I had was " seven divided* haft dar Jiajt dispelled
" he replied"
Dar-javab
guft cuif ^\j*>j& (m.c.)
^*
by seven":
cJiahar farsakh
:
dar chaMr farsakh

)j)
-^f
that
?$ )* ***j*
->W "four
farsakbs square" dar an ruz " in the meanwhile."
cT
)&
"upon
day"
dar In miyan
This should be andariin
i ]\jjjlna
(both in writing and speaking;
andarun
raft in
m.o. also
*'
not
common
i
8
he's gone to the women's apartments." and should be avoided.

is called
is
These vulgar uses of andar are
This U
This last
called ta-yi tajahul

:
*
5
Also dun e)j^
not used in m.o.
*
7
Dar )& is also the Imperative of darldan e)î *' to tear." Or bi javab. Dar is called ^*^le Jy^ as it indicates the place Or bar vay
or receptacle.
330
Vide also
(10)
(6)
PREPOSITIONS.
on andar
)M %
J.J
"
)
" " ; except God I have no refuge 6i-;2 Khudd-(yi) Ta'dlq pandh-% na-ddram *jUi *kj^> j^yy mihtar jut towla na-bdyad jd-% pd bi-guzdrad *;!*& ^ <^W " " the the stable where foot not to his (in) except any get groom ought (m.c.) " " " with the besides or except that juz az in ki *&>\ 3'^ juz az an &1 jtj^
:
:
Juz
"
except
:
(or bi-juz) _>. (or
f;f*i
" cent
*UjjUf
l exception of this, in addition to this. is used in Persian for per, as: (11) The Arabic /?
:
"
/I sotf
JU <y
"
**>
<y
/*
sad "per
per
annum."
-
Remark.
"Particles of exception" (>>
Sf
-^-f^,
etc.)
are called
o^
huruf-i istisnd.
of the prepositions are substantives or adjectives expressed or understood. They
(12)
The remainder
preceded by one of the simple prepositions take the izdfat:zir-i zamin c^*j^j, or bi-zir-i*
zamm
city
ground": nazdik-i " bi-hukm-i

:
(or bi-nazd%k-i) shahr
ziydrat
&$
3
^ ^^
(
^3^ " under the

or)
cJj^ "near the
^^cu (Sa'di)
UJ^
4
shrine)": bd-vujud-i ing, the dowry":
jaJidz
3^ ^j^
JSÂSL/O
pilgrimage (to a by way (Sa*dl) "in spite of, notwithstandof
"
ow
jJU
cUilw
,^c
^^j
zindagi-yi
man
bi-
has been saved by your "my tufayl~i " A*U &^ îU ;tâi bi-qardr-i ddat-i ki ddshtam (m.c.) " according to means " az a habit of mine qardr-i ki ma'lum mi-shavad ^^< Û/o A^îyji (mod.)
ast (m.c.)
(
shumd mahfuz mdnda

:
:
life
4 *
as
it
(j)
appears."
The prepositions may be used adverbially when occasion requires, 6 " he came forward " andarun as pish dmad *vof J^j raft ^) &jy*>\ (m.c.) " he went inside or he went into the women's apartments." as prepo(k) The following are a few of the commonest words used
: <
;
sitions
y\)
bald 6 upon, aloft.

1
e^'i pSsfn down, below.

_s*j
zabar
above,
jy
7
faraz* above.
w\ zir beneath.
Also yhayr-i In \&\ j? or ghaijr az In ki -
%
S
Or dar
zlr-i
j*\ ;^.
Also /aAts (class, and m.c.)J

f
cWi: used metaphorically in the sense of *-kj ** Jî from tu/ayl, the name of man of Kufa, who used to go uninvited to wedding-feasts hence an intruder, parasite.
4
;
5
fl
Classically
andar
raft
could be used.
:
With the
Zabar,
izafat c^SJ^, as
' '
bala-yi darakht
*'
on the
tree
"
:
&
c5"^**
*u-yi bagh
4 '
in the direction of the garden.

7
fathah,
8
zlr and pw/i are the Persian names of the zammah, and kasrah. Faraz u nishib (subs.) " ascent and descent."
three
Arabic vowel-points
PREPOSITIONS.
331
l
and
^
^1
furu and furud
down.
before.
pas after, behind. * su 8 towards, direction.

;Ux3
miyan between, in the middle. paklu by the side of.

<-&.>>*,
or
wazd or nazdik near.
KttHH, vicinity.
j
bwun, out.
4
t
andarun,
in.
( jt )
JUS
#aW
(az),
before (of time)
vide (8).
*V
fea'd, after.
B
o^
>
?'t7te,
towards
(old).
fc.Jlo.
janib, side.
p
for,
on account
of.
oaray
l^
()\
wa, except, )j* ghfryr (az),

t
)
except.
(c?ar)
payramun, around.
(2) All the
above
may
take simple prepositions before them in certain
cases.
(3)
iS\j* 9
The preposition ba bahrjtf, or qabl J^.
L>
or bi
AJ,
however, cannot be prefixed to baray

but
(4)
No
simple preposition can be prefixed to sipas (adv.)
***> c/f
Jt
cm
bi-ba'd
cv^w
ii>f 3'
azaw- si-pas.
(5) 5a'rf *u>
may be followed either by the izafat or by az,

cxli^ jt
as
&a'd-t" hafta-%
^*j ?
(6)
or 6a'^ az hafta-t
" after a week.'
'
The
ghayr j***)
(7)
may
prepositions pisli J^^*, birun qabl either be preceded or followed by az 3'.

^JNJ
jl
^^,
<J*3,
and giayr
j&
(bi-
Az pas
wards."
"from behind," but pas az jt is a contraction Si-pas ^j^- (= pas <j~J

)
"
after that, after-
of az pas
o^jK
In
modern language
'aqab
v-îc is
preferred to pas
tj*>J.
1
ft
IPurud before a vowel.

JZaftar,
fathah,
5
sir and pish are the Persian names zammah, and kasrah.
of the three Arabic
vowel-points
Vide footnote 6, page 330.
In m.c. andarun cLJ)^
is
also used as a substantive
" " the women's apartments
classically
6
and
in m.c.
it
also
means " the stomach."

to select, separate.*
1
In modern Persian " because, for."

Siva kardan e)^[^-*
*'
332
(8) Plshri
PREPOSITIONS.
man
(
" before
me "
l
&<>
;
J^J
" before me "
time)
man
qdbl az
man &*
but pish az man ' ' " y cU* before me (time) az qibal-i
(place),
;
JLjjfjf
az jdnib-i man.
Remark.
\*>*
&y,
etc.,
pahlH-yi
c^
8
;
In m.o. ptsh-i man Lf^ and less commonly nazdri man " I have." In signify Ispahan, instead of pish ijty or nazd a>J; a * 8 generally used with the same signification.
(9) Bi-nazdik-i
of the
wise";
this
khiradmandan ^fîx?^ -Xj>^ (Sa'dl) "in the opinion idiom is used in speaking by the Persians, Indians and
ghaltidan or bi-nazdtk-i gkaltidan rasid <-&>>> 1^*"*
;
Afghans
kishii
is
kishtl nazdlk-i
<>*-) cjjsjJtl*
c&yju b c^jJxlp (Afghan) " the ship nearly rolled over " in m.c. nazcKk bud ki bi-gJt&lfad *U*> * ty ^.*y ^^. Nazd &$, however,
{
used only for persons.

(1)
The comparative and
superlative affixes tar
added to many
(adv.)
of these prepositions, as: pas-tar

;
"lower"
pishtar
y^
(adv.)
f and tar in &>j* can y ^J or payin-tar j nazcRk-tann ^^ <*&*y (adv.), etc.

successive
be
The preposition need not be repeated before governed by the same preposition ÂJ ^j ^j& j
(m)
:
words
câo.^ ^ ^fc^fcl^b
bdkhatir-dari va mahabbat va dustl bi-man pish* with hospitality and kindness and friendship.
' '
amad
(m.c.)
" he treated me
" face
In m.c. the substantives which most commonly take the place of prepositions are nouns giving the idea of position or direction, as: rU ^
(n)
' ' ;
sar^
;
' '
head
' '
(on)
pusht owiu
* <
back
' '
(behind).
1
rw-yi mtz j**
(Afghan)
''on the table"; sar-l asp y^, behind the screen." pusht-i parda >^J îo
^)
Examples on 5 the horse"

:
Frequently, in mod. Pers., the preposition, or the noun that is a substitute the for preposition, is entirely omitted, as: zamin bi-guzar ji<ô ^^03 (m.c.)
(for bar-ru-yi
zamin bi-guzar j** ^*>j

(for bi
"
LSJ)J*)
o**.^ (m.c.) (for bi-dasUi uast
khdna
master
is
" o^jt *z+~& (m.c.) "it is in his hand or dar or andar khana 6 ) nlst *~~> &&. Uf (m.c.) "the
put it on the ground
"
not at home."
For pwhtar az
man c/J'y^t
In m.c. the comparative
is
generally
used
adverbially.
is
Compare the mere pas of Hindustani. never used in speaking,

ft
The dative with oat,
as,
maro aap-Vst
(old),
Qanb Vir*
me."
ia
not used in this sense.

<>*f
PisM man amad
M he came cJ*cT^ would mean

*'
to me,*'
and not "h*
treated
*
9
In m.c. this could mean
the head of the horse."

is
Or
tfcyi
iAana
nltt m.o.
andar khana
rare
and vulgar,
vide (6), pp. 328-9*
PREPOSITIONS.
following examples illustrate the use and so-called prepositions in m.c. l prepositions (1) "In, into":
(o)
:
333
of
The
a large number
of the
<j-y tu-yi utaq

\
"\
&j)&\ andarun-i utaq

;<*!
andar utaq
ar utaq
,~
, /' (class,
u and obs.)
. v
r inside the
j
room,
J
") .
.
miyan-i darya
_ 6 dar miyan-i
j
.
m the midst of the sea.
darya
bi-kishtl nishasta seated in
a boat.
savar-i kishti
on board. bud
}
f
>
bi-asp savar
savar-i asp
.
bud
mounted on a
back.
horse, '
on horse
asp savar bud bi-zamln uftad

uftad
*\
> he
fell
to the ground,
(me.)
^
) furud mi-ravad
1
J
.
it
penetrates into the earth.
UW
j!
(^N
%^ dar rikdb JJ
Shah
(m.c.)
[>in
*U v (^
rikab-i
Shah
the retinue of the King.
,,
...
__.
dA> i-baghal-iu
baghal-i
1.
r
in his arms.
j\ J*j;j> rfar
Sj^jJux*
.Ji
urabi'bag&al rm-glram I will embrace him. J^l^ %a dar dakhil-i shahr inside the city. 7-, 7. T. T 7 dakhil-i shahr *
JUAJ t^t
TâTi
}
j
darnazdlkl-yisaraparda, in the vicinity of the Royal (or
,-j v
Government) pay-i u
,
tents.
)
C
-,
JU>3 dumbal-i
/.
6
u
is
a^ ter him, to look for him.
Remark
as: dar
'id-t*
Dar
in m.c. chiefly used with

jj; y H
;^>
towns or countries, and dates
naw-ruz
"on Now
Year's
day":
dar anjd
ûf^
tu.
"
there, in that place."
Remark IL
1
The
preposition in
common
(mod.) use for
" in "
is
The simple
Bayhal
prepositions appear to be falling into disuse.

etc.
)<-!AJ AJ
*
8
cU? also means "side, arm-pit,*'

kardan
Bi-baghal (or bagkal)
c^/( J*J^
<-A^
*to
to
carry a child in the
arm,"
but bi'bagkal or bagbal girifton L^*^ * Kfrarij-i shahr jr^ ^J^, or dar
6
t cUj
aj is
"
embrace a grown-up person."
ZVozd
*^>>
'* outside the city," shahr jj* ^;^* )* or bi-nazd ^>f only used for persona nazd tj* or dar nazdi man iqrar
Jsharij-i
hard
bf ;tyl
(j/
^^^
**
he confessed
in
my
presence."
Vulg. *ayd AxP.
334
(2)
PBBPOSITIONS.
On, upon, over:

a bridge has been made over the
river.
I
chair.
sar-i atash (for bi-sar-i) bi-guzar t
*t>
put
it
on the
fire.
e# )*
e/tf
da? bayn-i rah
on the way, in the midst

road.
of the
H>
bayn-i rah
)
")
o**f
<x>U>
t^J ^j J>jj
zamin na-manda
9
the
snow has not stayed on the
barf ru-yi
(3)
ast
ground.
" Across," y az
or *JA
*>
vide (h) (1)

3*
and
(o) (11).
+&*i
(4)
^f
^n?^ racW 1 shudim or guzashfim, we crossed
over that place.
"To, towards, for"
For the various uses of *J in Bi & is frequently omitted

manzil raft &*j
ra bidih
(Jj***,
this sense, vide (h) (3).

:
in speaking like the other prepositions, as shdhr rafta ast o**f al*) Â, etc. also vulgarly "kitab
:
man"
e^ *^ b
-ij
v^
ôr kitab-ra
bi-man bidih t&
<&+>
I;
v^
1
'*
give
me
the book."
(
AJ )
pan; tuman mt-farusham, or bi-panj tuman mlfor five tumans.
farusham, I will
'
sell it
vjrjJk
or)
o^
*s
or)
towards the stage.
J?
oJ;
Jlw
c>!7t^
jj
or
*^bt"^
k went to Teheran.
rtl
bi-bala,
upwards.
(^ or
riZ
bi-ahimal, towards the north.
k)^
^ ar
^*> not use^ * n

it is
m --) ^
i8
situated on the
seashore.
tf kinar-i
,
darya-st*
on the seashore.
shore.
or
we reached the p>**)Jti,
(5)
"With, by":
Irani-hd ba dost nti-l&urand, (or vulg. hamrah-i) oJ^suô 8 the Persians eat with their fingers.
*,
r?
OM^
\&j>\
bring the doctor with you.
barddar-am hamrah-am bud,
my
brother was with me.
Radd shudan
elX&<>) (m.c.)
**
to cross, pass
"
;
Or
8
*
kinara-yi darya
%*&
Kinar
&
radd kardan
(i
to reject."
means "side," and kinara
'bank, shore.*'
Dost: note idiom.
Or 65 won <j* ^
PREPOSITIONS.
335
! *^yk Aar cAi ladabad, bd Khuda-st, happen what may, the issue is with God.
alj
fab
yL jU
an
(6)
A+*
^|
lj
&a in
Aama
6az
Mar ast,
notwithstanding
all this,
he
is
ass.
"Without":
For
a&fej
^ bi " without," vide

^jj
bidun-i
ittila',
(h) (8).
without information.
*jU) *AOJ
j*L j( AJ A&f eJj^ bidun-i an ki bi-u khabar bi-diham raftam, I went without informing him of my departure.
"
(7)
Except
"
**V
^5^^^
*>1
t^*L)
)^
ctff
3'
u**^
^^ Aawa
kas az in kar rdz% and
bi-istisna-yi
banda,
all
are pleased except your humble servant (me).
For juzy*, bi-juzj*u, ilia il, and gh&yr az JU**> all meaning vide 89 (r). " " From, out of, by, of, for (8)
:
*'
except,"
tn i 8 book belongs to
in kitdb az Sa'di'st, this book is my brother,
by
Sa'dl.
az raA-t ft7^>
li>
^
*
31
wft y
^^
oj^ kindness, kindly. az rw-i/i kitab-i khush-khatt mashq mi-kunam,
am
practising copying from a beautifully written

f
MS.
(pictures),
e^-^j
*^ HA^jj3^>^
*^V 4^
>,
he can copy
but
not design.
3^
i
the child can write from a copy.

fear for your
life ?
^j' don't you

also (A) (1).
(9)
"To, upto":
G
^f*>
jt
fl
az subh id sham, from morning
till
evening.
l>Oi ^rom &l#jf Vide also (h) (7).

' *
Yezd
:-
to
Barman.
(10)
Under, below
' '
v3^ v^J^j
3* r- *
&*6 /tar/ 7mi-2an

(lit.
(m.c.) don't speak indistinctly or in

lip).
such a low voice
under your
iU|^ ^,i, or *y iUl^ damana-yi kuh 8 or dar ddmana-yi kuh, on the skirts of the mountains.
\>*#
&
pa-yi minar* or bikh-i minar or
bi- (or
dar
minar, at the foot of the minaret.
Or har
chi mi-ehavad bi-shavad &j*>
^^
^J*
(t
or ôr c ^ f bi-shavad bi-shavad
}(
or ^jjt o
4t
6or or az hi/% naviahtan
to write
down from memory."
Daman
|^*to
skirt of
a dress,'
etc.
Colloquially
munar )\*.
336
jk
!
PREPOSITIONS.
pdyin-i rnindr (somewhere) below the minaret.
ft
(11)
"
Through, across":
f<>^
lAoAja
^lf
\)
jal*.
chadar-i
shumd rd az
Id-yi* darakht-hd
didam, I saw your teat through the trees. * is^ jl gulula az la-yi nayhd bi-shikar khurd, the yj>. <fci tfjJ bullet hit the game through the reeds.
^^
u*UT
<^Jf,
between the leaves of the book.

(h) (1).
Forjf "
(12)
through, across," vide " Near, next to

:
"
eX^jJ nazdik-i shahr

bi-nazdtk-i shahr
w-azêfc
t
near the city.
bi-shahr
dar nazdlki-yi shahr, in the vicinity of the city. pahlu-yi u, close by him; alongside of him.
)*
y> p> dam-i dar, near to the door, to the very threshold of the door. Jiif *t> dam-i aftab, at the edge of the sunlight (i.e. just within the
*Jjx>
f
shade) also near sunset. G td dam-i marg, till death,

;
till
the last breath.
(13)
" 'Outside
8
bwun-i shahr
kharij-i shahr
>
outside the city.
j& dar kharij-i shahr

4<
(14)
Before, in front
" of
dar-pish-i
man
C
before
me me
,
(place).
before
bi-ru-yi
A
\t
,
man
(place).
AJ
I
wÂ
02 'id
-
7,
)
XC
3?
cXu ga6Z az
'id
ri
(before
the *Id (time).
JL^
cai^^
jilav-i
& bi-ru-yi Qunsul khdnaf in front of, opposite, the
Consulate.
man
bi-raw, go
on ahead.
Or pa'in Az miyanri eA* Jf

**
is
more common.
Yak
laryi
dar )& ^5 If <-^ or yak lingo- yi-dar

\)
)b ifiJ cJi
(m.o.)
8
one door of the folding doors."

;
" he opened one fold of the door " dar-i du-dari <j? )& j& )& " folding doors." Az l&arija mi-ayad *>1 <^* a^)^ )l imported." Dar ra pish kun (J% *) )t> (m.c.) close the door,*' i.e. put it ajar. Pish-i
t
La~yi dar ra baz kard tjf $*
)*
^V
^
;
'
man
I
&*> (J^*J
'
I have," like m8r& pas in Hindustani.
In Persian
J~^
in Arabic
PREPOSITIONS.
jt
337
z jilav-i
man
bi-raw, get out of
(15)
"
Back, backwards, after * 3' LJ^ Pas a % 'id-i Naw Ruz ^^

:
"
my
New
way.
JJP J'
ba'd az id-i
Naw Ruz
after
}
'
Year's Day.
&*
fj
oû
?
pusht-i sar-am chi
mi-kum, what are you doing behind
my
"-^
back
z
pusht-i par da, behind the screen.
pa/-f âra, he went to fetch (after) butter. kashid, he retired, drew back.
Uj
((5)
'
^yo w^fl^
aqafo-i
:
man
biya,
come behind me.

~
"
^^v^x)
Opposite" (^j^ j) ru
,
bi-ru-yi
masjid
..,
muqabil-i masjid
.
dar barabar-i masyid
^-opposite to the mosque.
mahazi-yi masjid
(18)
"Around"
>
J
;^'j^ dawr-a-dawri daryacha, all round the lake. c>Vt jt^* *-?r^jW chahar taraf~i~}
shahr biyaban-ast ; or
o-voj c;UUj atraf-'i shaft r
^^
ol^fcf ,âll
round the city

in
is
desert.
vi>^^J^t^
cPl^
Ijl^lf
biyaban ast J hawati-yi shahr biyaban
ast,
the neighbourhood
(suburbs) of the city there is desert.
gulha ra dawr-i hawz bi-chm, arrange the flowers round the basin of the fountain.
(19)
all
"
(
For, on account of, out of o~L^ 3 or) c^Lr' V^ as P baray~i (or

:
r
!
"
as;
baray-i) tust, the horse is
for you.
t .*-
bahr-i fuqara*
)
>
for the sake of the poor,
bakhsh-i
on account
i^
of,
because
of,
the
darkness.
About the
Pushtri
Pa^/ ^
21st
March
***+
the vernal Equniox.
^
^
ham p&
r
tl
one after another, continuously."

(
pay
till lit.
iî ^<i c5y
mc
-
**
-)
continuously, one behind the other

td In
J)
:
f ^/ tj^K c^!l to this business

*
6
^^ ^ b maw
I carried
it
fehayli
pa-pay ahudam
kar ra kardam (m.c.) " I stuck
out.
' '
Babhsh,
"
lot, share."
Vulg. vasih.
22
338
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS.
Û.
for the lady
?
chdy vdsita-yi khdnum kujd'st, where
is
the tea
mahz-i ihiirdm, out of respect.
merely for your sake. u bi-Mdtir-i Khuda " )

-
baray-i khatir-i
.,,-..
Khuda
7-
/ for
God's sake.
c5l t #>S. ^J=l=j bi-lchntir-i
of khubtha-yi pidaram, for the sake
my
father's
f
many
kindnesses.
3JU
yisuc
UJi JUiia,
^
life
^jf^j
zindagl-yi
-man
bi-tufayl-i
shuma
(20)
mahfuz manda ast, " Instead of ":

8
my
has been saved by your means.
i>f
*
u2pLr?
^ ^y
l
bi-ja-yi baradar-ash
amad, he came instead
of
Ms
brother.
ixb
jjU. e^*jUx>
t>xiv>
^y^j
bi-'ivaz-i
safid mi-bayist siydh bashad, instead
of being white, it should
have been black.

6
^*? *^**
^^
^"^
&
u*j*
it
'fiYi2-t
tw-H sa/W bashad siydh karda-i,

it
instead of
(p) It will
making
white you've made
black.
be noticed that some of the prepositions are interchangeable,

:
U ba milirba.nl pish dmacf can frequently be interchanged " " b il kindness with if, however. he treated 3 (m.c.) J^f c^j (/ ^rt* (me) to avoid a is we bi-mihrbanl the pronoun inserted, it is better to say <j*\* #+\
thus
A?
and
repetition of the
same preposition
*x>T
^^
,
ex
tj
) *~*
îx*
J ubi-
mihrbdni-yi bisydr Id
(q)
man
pish
amad
az
(m.c.).
Sometimes
different prepositions
may
altering the meaning.
Thus
or bar
conformably to his advice." Sometimes a preposition changeable with an izdfat, as az shumd mamnun hastam ^WA î^
^csb
"
y
I
be prefixed to a noun without or bi-muqtazd-yi rdy-i u Ûii+j

is
interjj,
or
mamnun-i shumd hastam pi~&

,
^ ^^
*'
am
obliged to you":
or mashg&ul-i kdr
91.
Simple Conjunctions.
for conjunction.
)
(a)
There
is
no general word
huruf-i shart
(
The
this
Jb^ o^^ temporal and concessional conjunctions. The causal and final conjunctions we called huruf-i ta'lll JUU3 o;j* ; and the conjunctives huruf-i 'atj
tions are
called
and
conditional conjuncterm includes the
Ohay, in m.c. generally chahl.
*
S
Mahz (jfl>
For baradar-i
equals baray {$\j> in this sentence.

1$h.ud &j*> )Z\j*
.
*
5
*
Or
safld ast
bayad ki siyah bashad
*~^
U* *$ *
*^**^f
Rakhtrthur
m ra 'ivaz u badal karda ast (m.c.)

this.
the washer-woman has changed
"
(In Persia
%$ Jô j <j!ej fj women, not men, wash
clothes).
Jj7**
).
339
Particles signifying
(
huruf-i izrab
vj'î OJÂ,
(
6
),
"moreover, rather, etc.'* are called and particles signifying "or" (adversative
or huruf-i 'inad
particles) huruf-i tardtd
oj>y
Jj^ ),
The
huruf-i atf
JJ^
^Jr** or huruf-i 'atifa *ibk
^c Jj^ ). ^j^ are ^

(
sipas ur$**,
ham
J*A,
TMZ J*>, (^âr ^.s, and sometimes alif

difference
*-&l\.
Remark.
The
between ham
+*>
can occur both in the ma'tuf 'alayh
*>!* ojk**>,
and niz j& is that the former and in the ma'tuf o^lwô, as
:
(b)
(1)
The simple conjunctions " and j va or u (m.c.)

'
are
;
'
vide (2).
*V niz (m.c.)
"also"
'
f*
)\
ham
gar
l
vide (3).
(m.c.)
ar (class.)
(class.)
^
)
if."
J\ agar
l>
)
;
ya*
tj
"or"
s
vide (4).
(j
y*
j&*>
ilt
juz
-
^"
ya
either
or,"
" but
or"
or
(after
"
;
a negative)
vide (4).
except "
(m.c.)
Ck
vide (5).
jjfa.a.
*|^ kh wah
khwah " either
"
(vide 4)
;
Û-^
;
^ând
(poet.).
magar
unless, except, perhaps, etc."

still,
(vide 5
;
9).
ilia (m.c.)
as,
but, except,
Jb
bal
or
*>!>
2*.
perhaps chu 4 (class.)
"
"
6a^?*,
;
however, that" (vide 6). "but, on the contrary, rather" (in m.c. also
(vide 1).
)
>
"when, because,
since
"
;
vide (8)
and
(11).
;*^ chun (m.c.) .c.)

"*
> } u V
amma SJ llfcin
f
but"
(vide 9
and
5).
Vagar
f}
}
'*
(class.)
"and if";
;
vagarna **?j
**
(class.)
and
if
not, otherwise*';
also
gar
and ar
poetical
if."
agar chunanchi ^F ^^-
and chunanchi ^Fâ. are
used in m.c. for
(when
*
In English the conditional conjunctions are if, (old Eng. and prov. an), unless, so it means if only), and but (meaning unless).
that,
Provided
in case that* are conditional phrases.
Or
*'
va-llkin
^f^j
(m.o.), or
va-amma
^*l^ (m.c.), or
va-ya ^j
.
(class.),
often va an-ki
*^T^:
8
as for
me'*
amma man &* ^t

chi.
or
manki
^xixs
Or
bi-juz ^^P-?
is
In m.c.y**
pronounced ch& or
Chunk*
&&&
" when, how, and because.*'
Chun
c^
also
means
"like,** as in 'Amalri padishah

**
chun safari darya-ast

."
*&*
(Sa'di)
oflftce ia
like
a journey by sea
340
pas "consequently.'
ba'd ''afterwards."
+'
ku
chi
(m.c.)
Aa.
^ ^
4b
chi
cki
" " what does it matter one way or another
(vide 11).
"
since, because, seeing that
"
(vide 11).
&
[
<ua
na " neither
nor"
(vide 4).
U ta
(vide 12). (vide 13).
tf ki
bf aya (a particle of interrogation, etc.) (vide 14).
Conjunctions in English are chiefly of adverbial origin. for instance, is an adverb as well as a conjunction.
Remark.
Also,*
There are two principal classes of conjunctions: 'co-ordinate,' which connect clauses of equal rank, and subordinate,' which connect a subordinate or dependent clause to the clause on which it depends, as: "I
*
" went where he was

(2)
" when he had gone
I said," etc.
The
rule for the pronunciation of the vav-i 'atf <-okc j\j or
" con-
junctive
_}," is
that
if it
connects two words which together form one notion,
or connects words generally coupled together, or two verbs having the same subject, or nouns co-ordinate governed by the same verb, it is pronounced u, and in speaking is joined to the word that precedes it: in other cases, it is " " sinn-uShab-u-ruz j ~+ night and day pronounced va? Examples " " 3 " loose -&> or ^^ sal JU j ^^ (too) j (too) tight age" tang-u-kushad "father and mother"; amad-u-raft vsJj ^ <vof c< he j pidar-u-madar
:
Û
bul*bul-ha va khanajat " the va nawkaran j Ifplj j \^)2 ; padishah king ^j*j*j ^**^J and his servants": mddar va pisar 4 ^~J ) )&* " mother and son "; amad va
cijlaolA. ^ lA(J>Jb
came and went"; but darakht-ha va bac^-ha va
ba'd az yak hafta raft cx^j AiA^j
^t
**>
j &*!
*'
he came and after a week went
away."
Also after a vowel, and generally after a silent s, the j is usually j j*~* ; burida va (or u) dukhta pronounced va as sabu va 8urah% ^t u va babl banda Also ) sufi-gari aqa. &&jo ^>}*> 5 ^b, or babi-gari s^J
:
^^
va mjl-fjari
visi
^ ^y*
first
^^
^}
^jL,.
The^ may take the place of a colon or comma, etc., thus for veni; vidi; '* amadam u didam u giriftam ^*Ii/ ^ p*j* j ^<vof is used for "and" in English, when the second verb expresses Ta
.
tf
the cause of the

Also ta ki *
vide (12).
in order that, so that, until."
ti
* ;
Irregularities occur in speaking especially
amongst the vulgar.
It
is
also some-
times optional to give either pronunciation according to the idea in the speaker's mind. Note that j is sometimes used in Persian, when in English we say or.
*
Or madar u pisar j* ) j^^
is
341
)
as
Sf
va
ammd
sometimes added superfluously ^ **

Utj (or
*$\jjb
to certain conjunctions,
amma
U>t
va likin <^&J ^ (or likin
^^
" but ,"
etc.
At the end of letters and tales, the formula ^ va ilia "otherwise." va's-salam signifies "and for the rest, good-bye."
f&Jj
In m.c., the conjunctions are often omitted: hence short phrases or verbs are, in speaking, often entirely unconnected. This particle sometimes indicates state or condition (&^^ jtj) as bachcha
,
:
amad
a.
va
cjul-l
dar dast-iu bud

;
j(
^*^^^
^ **>f *acu
f '
the child
'
came
with
rose in his
hand
is
(and then he had a
rose in his hand).'
In such sentences, as: yak pin u sad blmdri
Û-u
<x*> ^
^^j
this
conjunction
sicknesses.
called vav-i lasviyat

is
&y^> $1
"the vav
of equality/'
the
meaning being that one old age

Sometimes
).
)
5
equal to, or accompanied by, a
hundred
is
equivalent to yd
lasts
I?
"or"
it is
then called vav-i tardid

)
(Sa'di)
Example: "the rose
gul hamin panj ruz u shash bdshad
but for
are
five or six
In,
man u
inkar-i sharab, in chi harf-#t1
days only."
*j*
&*-
&*\ w-
"
to refuse wine?
what on earth
j\j
;
called vav-i istigirab ^j**>\
but in
you saying?" the conjunction is man va In Tear Khudd na-Jcunad

(
i^& ix^ ^îi^f ^ ex, tne j course, mere hair-splitting.

In
is
called vav-i istib'ad
dUM~> ..
).
This
is,
of
J^;
JT
is
o ^ ^ ^ o^^^
1
^yc
(?,
J^J
the conjunction
vdv-i
luzum
^
-?
^^
^
t
fa*
:
for the relation
between dast
o~^ and
daman ey!*
&$)&*:*>
is lazini fjK
and malzuni fjj^^.

ji
Another example
\\
^
^
-^
CÂ
cuiXA^jk
^
o^^tia/o ^jtj-iJL*!
j^*Jj.
e>^**
3.)
03
T "~'*V X
ô
<^>
^^
e^--* ^"^
c>A*
r*~~
*~*jj^
<c
From
Could
(Anv. /SW?., CTap. 7, Pre/. the bone trickling flowed the sanguine tide,
its life it
'
xSY.
In terror of
4
escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mine and the old woman's cell
I
*****
**-vT
fled
and cried
V
(East. Trans.)
is
In 3lr^ J f$^
In
j
Jl*
" next year Shira/ for me," the;
perhaps the
o->^ r **
L^^!/
c^
jL>
^r *^
r^
;*
is
called vav-i mu'avazdt or the
"vav
of compensation."
are
As already stated in 43 several adjectives qualifying the same noun linked to it and to each other by the imfat.
l
i.e.
the cat.
342
If,
however, several adjectives follow a noun, the
:
izafats are
omitted, and
f
the conjunction^ generally precedes the last only, as
hushyar u
intelligent,
ziring >-&>jj
j^*>* ^*
shakhs-lbud
aqil,
dana,
^^y^S* (m.c.)
"he was a man,

,
wise,
clever
and active."
between
all
the adjectives, as:
The j, however, may be inserted ba'd az an dldam-ash zan-khwasta va bikh-i

&$ )
*I*fyv
nashat-ash bur Ida 9 va gul-i-havas-ash pazkmurda

**j*5i cr-*^ $ j
^ jixiXp ^y
<>*j
I saw him married, and *<Htf jXRli with a family, and the root of his joy severed, and the rose of his happiness withered."
" after that (Sa'dl)
The adjectives can as: Shakhs-i bud
also
'aqil
be classed in pairs, each pair being coupled
u dana, hushyar u
ziring C|^j <J*U
Compound words
to
like
amad-u
raft
^) 5
oôf
are treated as one word,
and the two portions in writing are not separated. Thus if amad *v<>f happened fall at the end of a line, the word raft ^j would be written on the top In other cases, of it, or in some corner, and not carried on to the next line.
the conjunction va j fall at the end of a line it is written, riot as the last of that line, but as the first word of the following line, the conjunction being treated as a portion of the word that follows it.
if
Remark /. The first noun, verb, or phrase preceding the <-flb* (i.e. the copulative conjunction) is called <*A!S <J^k*c, and the nouns, verbs, or. phrases following the first j are called Jjla*x>. Remark
*Uh
(3)
*'
>
o^
II.
'USh*
"
Vav 3 is also an Arabic " by Allah.

3
particle
used
in
swearing, as
Ham
little
p* "too,
also,
even"
at this (or that) very
"yet a
tic
nearer
it
"
time";
ham
qadr-% bi-dih bi-Nisa l~J
ham andar zdman &l>o) ;^Ji ^* (class.) ham nazdlk-tar j&fy p* ()** (m.c.)
*>
merely) give
to Nisa
"
:
m ham
e<
(m.c.)
*& e/l
"and
this
" then (empha". Vide also
89(0(7).
Remark.
Particles
signifying
also" are called
harf- i ma'iyyat
o^
In English also
(4)
is
occasionally considered a Copulative Conjunction.

either,
"Or,
nor,
neither,
whether."
Jax/o
HjU& ta.f^ lj j tju jl*-u khatar-ast, ya duzd bi-yak bar

2
yu
jj>
ow>y^h% va sim u zar dar safar mahaLl-i bi-barad> va ya khwaja bi-tafariq bi-khurad
L
(Sa'dl)
"
and
silver
off
the robber
makes
it
with
and gold on a journey are a source of danger, for 8 it at one sweep, or else the owner (or merchant
)
himself finishes
by degrees."
* 6
'
This expression, which corresponds to bi-Kjiuda f*J, is used in c. Sim p+* in m.c. 44 wire." Note pronunciation of va ya ^j und vide Formerly only merchants braved the dangers of travel.
(2).
343
chashm-i tang-i dunyd-ddr rd Yd qand'at pur Jcunad yd khdk-i gur (Sa'dl). " He said the wealthy, nothing can fill the covetous eye of But contentment or the dust of the grave."
Khwdh dar razm khwdh

"whether
in the field
dar bazm
&^
' '
f>5.
:
{ ^ [^
(class,
and mod.)
tj*
or in the council
^tiMwdhma-khwdfiKj*^
or narkhwdh
#,~
khwdhi (j*\y^
Na mva
l
Ichwdh-u ma-khwdh lj**j " nolens volens," vide Adverbs. (J*^ (class.) &* "neither this na an of & 5 nor that."
(class.), or
,
or khwdhl na-
In
poetry
sometimes nah
&
also
ne (Afghan), or nay:
Nay
tdb-i vast
ddram ne
tdqat-i judd*i
"neither have I the power to endure a greeting nor power to absent myself."
Pas an ndddn rd khwdh

rasld o.jj^/0 i^jU
'^ (ytÛ ^f ^^j (m.c.) well, whether that poor ignorant learnt or not, I learnt something": magar In ma'lum na-bud ki Ishdn dtash rd dlda dar kishti nishasta bi-taraf-i an raftand,
L,
'Urn hdsil
shud yd na,
tikin
bi-man fd'ida-tmtc<
^^J ^
x^
J^(^ JU
j/a
an ki
qabl azshikastan-ijahdz kishti sliikasta bud, yd dnki
mardumdn-i
jahdz-i
diyar
zitr-i
kumak bi-dnhd karda budand, yd

anhd rd burda bud
ba'd az sawdr shudan-i kishti db-i pur
bdyad az dunyd
Astin khwdh dardz khwdh kuidh
" At the
Remark.
or
last
we must go from
this world,
(
whether rich or poor."

<J^)
Disjunctive conjunctions
8'jA
are called
Û.c oj^. In English these are also styled "alternative" and are a subdivision of adversative conjunctions.
J c -) jt ^* 5) Az hama kas pursid magar az man *V;j cf*^ ***3* ( he asked every one except me," (or bi-juz'az man ^yo 3^33.3, or bi-gjiayr az man
i
Called niinri munfaail az

^j|
ft
1
t4
JUi jf cLaii*
whether you
eJ(>>,
as: M^wahl na-&hwahl Inkar *hud
^tîu ^ly^
AJ -
(m.o.)
like it or not, it's
been done.'* Shutur
Na
o^^*
tribes
a proverb, said to a Persian

(dida ra na-dtda kardan
who
sees
a thing, but makes as
though h
trouble.
did not see
it
The
U *^)- -Va ^> saves a lot of e>^/^> as to be on the right side. so to na every question people say
**'& is The mullaa say that naml-danam **?/-* f^ ^ The lover becomes 6t-f56 v^ (^ or 65-<5goe vSAjLb
f^^
-ft-^.
when he
loses his mistress.
344
u^ 3* j&)- Juz * n charc^l niat-^ & *;l*> etflj^ "there is no other course &U ^ *$ \) *J*A*J* f j>/ ^p*\) t; e;UfrA but this." ^>i^*J ^^tja* cJ>a
^)
ô
v.%+ju Jljjj J( efor

lei
saya-yi dawlat-i khudavandi

razl nami-shavad ilia
hamkunan
ra razl Jcardam
magar hasud ra agarchi dar In kar
bi-zaval-i
ni'mat-i
man
(Sa'dl)
p&
**-j*>
tjju
dil-i man mayil no-bud magar chi kunam er* J^ ;( &)& **$\ JLU (m.c.) "although I did not desire this to happen, still
what could
I do
?"
difference, antithesis,
Remark.
The Adversative Conjunctions express

In the sentence "he
is
honest but foolish," but is an Adversative Conjunction and the whole proposition is called an " Adversacantrariety, etc.
tive
Proposition."
But,
yet,
however, etc.,
make an
arrest or restriction
of thought
and are
called "Arrestive Conjunctions."
By Eastern gramî;*xw oj/^, which
marians,
conjunctions signifying
translated
"but"
are called
may
be
"particles
of
emendation,"
while conjunctions sig-
nifying
"moreover, rather,
nay rather/' are called
v^
^tr*-
Imruf-i
izrab "particles of turning from, adversative particles."

(6)
vi>^y^^*u
Jff
^jAj
wy~ix
cJ^jUL
*
agar shakhs-i bi-kharabat ravad bi-namaz
*JUA. chunanki oljyiu ^ûsc^^f kar dan mansub na-shavad ilia bi-khamr
*
,
khurdan (Sa'dl) " for instance, if a person go to a tavern to ]>ray, nothing " else will be attributed to him, but that he goes to drink wine ^L> ^\
:
^îa
ô
3
:
5l
>j<xi
^Jô
^^
aksar bi-m 'ayb mubtala shudand

of theai
ilia
man
I
na-
shudam
not
y^-
"
u*?
?
" (Afghan coD.) most
have
4
fallen into this vice,
but
have
hick vaqt
Jfr
m qadar na-khurda budam

"I have
ilia
In hala to;îo
)&>*
oJ>j
^^
(m.c.)
never eaten as
much
ilia
as I have just
done
^ "
:
bi-yak
adam
sar-anjam-i In kar dushvar

yij
bud va
bi-juz in cham-t no-bud
&#
this
xjU.
^f jxu
In
)\j^& $6 e^
(^Lr*r^^^
baruli
*<*)*
it
by means remedy": dar

*>)^
of one
man was
ba'zi
jj)
a
ruz
difficult
(me.) "to accomplish matter, still there was no other
'arsa
naml-shud
ilia
aksar mi-bartd*
^"
ji^l
HI
*&*+>
(J*j^
^s*"
period there were a few days that

generally did rain'
'
(J.) (Afghan coll.) "at this did not rain, still (or however) it
'
imruz bi-yak sukhun pish-i
tu
mi-ayam
ilia
hari ra plsh-i
'
Kharabat
Ham-kun o^-** is obsolete. In modern Persian ham qatur jfa* f*oU \j^- a ruin, a tavern a brothel. Wine was sold generally
' '
' *
in ruins.
%Jbarabatl
Sufis.
*
**
<^^[/^
a haunter of taverns."
The word baa a mystical meaning amongst
Better omit the words na-shudam
*^>.
*
6
Or add na-khurdam
In
ra.c.
f^xu, Or
nu-bhurdti
am
(-1
>^su.
and
substitute namirbarid
^^ i*+* for nanil shad <***+>,

**
ammu
for ilia
S.
6
In m.c. substitute vail <J) or
amma
^l.
kas na-guyid
345
*^&
I
' '
"
coll.)
tell
^
*L
jfcj
o^ ^jf & rf ^ y C>AJ e,^

tell
3^1 (Afghan
to-day
come
to you with something to
you, but mind you don't
anybody.
(7)
For
balki
k <
moreover" and
<*Jb
in m.c. " perhaps," vide p. 299,
(*) (2).
In the following two examples,

rfL
could be substituted for f j>/
M*
and
JUj'f
p,*/
la^p
(8)
C7m%
(or
chunki
ura dldam shad shudam

I
(m.c.)
" when
saw him,
was glad "
^ Û ^^
/card
)
\^\
&&J*- or)
(
&?$
" he
u in amr rd
(
chunki
or chun)
3!
shuma ra
chird
l
dust ml-dasht ^Jt>\&^
o,^^
iy+
&j*. or
&&j*-
\)j*\
^\
did this because he loved you."
a^cx^f (^ je^^j
+&
In matlab-i-ki bi-shuma yuftam bl-chun u Uô &> ^5^1^ ^1 (m.c.) *' you must act implicitly
on what I have told you u chigun e**&^ j &}*
(i.e.
=
(9)
is
you must not ask why and wherefore)." B% chun an epithet of the Deity. Also bi-chun u chand
bi-chun u chird
Ammd Ui,
4<
magar^j^,
likin
&d
vali
^ and
:
Hid
& "
but, still"
and bdz )b
*'
although
bdz (or
"
again." These frequently and introduce the principal clause

yet,
likin } or vali) sdhil-i
answer
agarchi
to
agarchi
ma
4i
*^/' dur na-budim
ammd, magar,
(
daryd bi-nazar
*x<T ^^J^JaX) lj^^ JLswLo
^J^ b
^J
jL*
Uf
riot far
from
it, still
the coast was not in view
^^^^ "
U
:
(m.c.)
nami-dmad though we were
^^
1
agarchi havd qadr-i faru
nishasta
budammd amvdj taskin na-yaft (#"* ^^

"
^! ty
& ^ ^r*
^sj**
^ ^r
although the wind had dropped, the sea did not become cairn "; o^- *^^ kardaast bdz ddam-i khub-i'st o^-^^ ^f Jb o^t agarchi khildf (m.c.) "although he has not acted rightly, still he is a good man."
(m.c.)
Û^
(10) (a)
Gu /
(the Imperative of guftan

*'
&&
"saythou,"
is
common
in
poetry, in the sense of
suppose
*"
" or although."
Or bi-chun u chand
ast ^>^>t *Xko.
>**
c^^
^.
/n qimatri
ki
bi-shuma
(juftani
bl-chun u
chand
o^ ^ ^f
amma
In modern Persian
l^j A^*^* e^Km-c.) '*! won*t take less/* ^f and 6as 3^ are preferred after agarchi *^~jrl
ta
the
Afghans use
8
i//5
ilf ,
and the Indians magar j&* and

;
ham
p&\>.
Or harchand &**>j& or hatchand-ki A^ â-Â
55 w,s/-i
5nH
A5of *-**9lj> or /i5âÂ

or ba-anki
aijjjt^., or
ba-vujud-lki &t*y*j\*> or bu-vujrid-i anki
*^T5^^
^T^
all
these signify
"although" and could he substituted

*
for agarchi
*^rl
in the
example,
and answered by
*
amma
* '
1*1
and 65 s j^
etc.
4<
In dunya gu ma-bash ij^-tj*
lx>^ (jJt (m.c,)
suppose you have no wealth
(it
does not matter).
346
Darvlsh-i mk-slrat-i farkhunda khuy ra
' *
u luqma-yi daryuza gu ma-bash Khatun-i khub-surat u pakiza-ruy ra Naqsh u nigar u khatam-i firuza gu ma-bash (Sa'di). Suppose the pure-hearted and unworldly darvish
Nan-i
ribat
1
Have
neither dole of bread nor morsel begged in charity. Suppose the lady with figure and face neither adornment nor jewels,
(i.e.
Have
*
what matters
it?).
l
j*jjoa
j^L^t
tpf tf j&
'*
\)
|*aL
ki
ma
ra asir mi-burdand
Khudd
ra shukr !
*^V t î^j 1^* j**\ t; ki anha ra asir-i khud didlm

to carry us off captives, so
va gu hamisha bi-biriim (rare m.c.)
those
who used
praise be to God, we saw them our captives and may we always " let him come." see them." Gu bi-yayad **Uj
:
Rlmma chira ghussa is generally used for gu /. In m.c., ku Remark /0 âp ^^ ml-khund ki u ml-mlrad, ku bi-mirad &?*& )\ *$ ^.)^^ j>jV <k (rare m.c.) why are you sorry that he is dying, if he does die what does
<
it
matter to us (we don't

(6)
like
'
'
him)
The 2nd Person Singular of tiie Aorist *' and hence " like " say, one would say ?
:
gu*i
^^
means " you would
Har
Gu*i
sabza ki dar kinar-i ju-i rust-ast

zi'lab-i firishta-khu*i rust-ast,
"Yon
turf, fringing the margin of the stream, As down upon a Cherub's lip might seem/'
(0.
K. b 2 Whin).
In
modem
Chi
&*>
(11)
Persian gufti û would ordinarily be used for gu*i ** chi bar takht murdan chi bar ru-yi khak cîo^j chi, <fc*
.
^^
^(^ i))j.
tti rone
cJ-y
(SaVll)
" what matters

?
it (it is
all
the same) to die on a
or on the bare ground
"
:
chi durr chi sadaf
ox^ *^ }$
**>
lt
whether
pearl or oyster shell." Chi &* also means
"because," both
in
classical
and
in
modern
(chi
Persian
hctrgiz
Ammd
sardar bi-ja-yi in
ki az bi-parvcffi-yi
u bar ashubad
chunan
harf-fia-yi
fn-parva bi-gush-ash na-khurda bud) asar-i khusfmudi

**.
az chihra-ash
ÛUJ u-IVt^ 3* <s*J&*** J*l ( tion Haji Baba, Ch. XL). In m.c,
by a pleonastic a^, as:
numdyan shudd**>J$j*
)ojy^f ^jl îj^j^ji
AÎ
^clapj;!^.
Lof
*dji^
J^^^
ft
\jj>
^
is
^5^07^
(Transla-
chi A^,
because,"
sometimes followed
Anchi mi-guyam
hi-paririd, chi ki (jjiaraz-i ba
shuma
"
Note the 2nd perRon Trnperativo
after gn
i.e.,
<s
say them
'
don't
be.'
347
[better omit ki *f]
a
( *
na-damm ^|JJ Ut> O^P

what
to it
I
:
<tf
&*.
**;***
&>
y^ft* **^T
act on
am
(*
"
telling you, because I have no
selfish object in
view with regard

(j
*A[^L or
1
^^*
or
*?&
y* j^ v'-M
^*
^ ^/j
jK
^j|
w fcar
harchi
rdbi-kunchi
shud)
liar
shab
atibab-i sar-dard^
na-shavad (or mi-shavad or khwdhad

blsh az in-hd-'st p*>, **/> " whatever I say is inade}
"do
j|
this so that it
ast chi* ki
may
not be a trouble every night":
bi-guyam U-khud
^^.ifXjf
marhamat-i shumd
o**i ^^x> more than
JÂJ \+Z c^+^/o &?
A^
is
(m.c.)
quate because your kindness

In poetry chu
it is
I can express.'
for
sometimes stands
^^, and
is
often incorrectly
pronounced both ehi and chu.

a mistake.
Sometimes
occurs for
in writing, but
6ar ai/a^ buland a/tab
Man
<c
u gurz u maydan u Afrasiyab

is
(Firdawsi).
When
There
the sun
will
high in the sky
to-morrow
field
be I and
my axe in the
(
with Afrasiyab."
(3
)
(12)
Ta and &ki
to,
(adv., conj., prep.)
** K
and
have
^
4<
many
significa-
tions
:*' up
:
" hitherto":
loiiî
"? reach "
id injd luj| up G u how the to tdbi-kay present": up <f the eye can td chashm kdr mlkunad *X*j\< pZ^ U (m.c.) as far as
until,
within,
by":
td bi-hdl Jlû U
to here,"
nami-guzdram
lj
bi-ravi td na-gu^l
mjd
chi ml-kardi
4
^^.
j
f}&&
(m.c.)
Uu| ^5î "I won't let you go till you say what you were ^-d/yo " td J doing here yak mdli-i dlgar bar ml-gardam ^^^^ j j*it *^(ra.o.) "I will return by (within) another month."
<u.
;
<xi
" was dead
Â ^î
;
"By
the
time"
ta
- Td
haldk shud yak-i rd khalds kard dtyar-i

4<
\)
&&
*r>
îJU>c
the other by the time he had saved one, (JSa'dl) ^r $$* ruz rawshan shud an tdrik-dil mablag]i-i rah rafta bud & " blackthe was it time the N *A light, (Sa'dl) by J W cJ^li ^f
^^
hearted
mmi had
gone a good distance":
gandum guzashtd bud

time the
*^*S
letter reached, the
wheat season had passed."
^ ^-
td ki
(
^r>
^^ Û
*)
khatt dnjd rasld

(class.)
fasl-i
"by
the
Sar-dard *)& j~ "headache/* but dardi sar j~*
means
4<
trouble."
2
3
Or
ta-inki *^}t
^
is
**In both classical and modern Persian the ** after
usually omitted
and
stress should
*
be laid on the word chi
**-.
1
Note na
lit.
"up
till
you do not.'
The na
*> could
be
omitted
and
hi j7?A c5*>^ substituted without altering the sense. Tarki **$ also 6 Or the hi could be omitted.
this ta
means -so
that, in order
that"
is
called
348
"In
order that:
that:
to": guftam
td
aura bi-bdzdr burdand
td
bi-
I ordered them to take it (and they farushand *i**jy*J ti&tyjjb *-> fyf Uîtf " khwdst ta took it) to the bazaar in order to sell it ; sang-i bar ddrad " he wanted to also m.o.) ^^*^ (Sa'dl pick up a stone." " Let This ta tf with the negative has also the force of -not," as
;
:
^4^ dust biyd ta gham-i fardd na-khurim

<k
Vm yak-dam 'umr-ra g&animat shumurim

let
Oh
us not forecast to-morrow's fears,

as gain
But count to-day

"
my
brave compeers (0. K. 312 Whin).

!
' '
And"
AA*J
Ûy
Jo
^3
(1
yo\3
^^ \^\
ura
bi-'jlr ta
man
2
turd yak tumcin
bi-diham (m.c.) "catch him and not take the place of ta &.
' '
I'll
give you a
tuman "; here

(m.c.) **as
^ could
As
soon as
"
*$
osi?
**$*
ta-rasld guft-ki
soon as he
arrived he said
."
Ta
dast-i
Nasir u -d-din khatam-i shahl

ta
yirift
Sit-i
dad u ma'dalat az mah

since 3 ) the
mahi
girift
"The moment
The echo
(or
hand
of
Nasiru'd-Dln took the seal
of sovereignity,
of his equity
and
justice resounded
from the Moon to the
The above was the

(assassinated).
Fish (on whose back the Earth rests)." inscription on the seal of the late Nasiru'd-Dln Shah
*>$
As a
substitute for
" than that," and &f U& <J* p,a* &*. G oô c>-O^ Ûij/^.* j*jj &A.J Umr-i giran-maya darln sarf shud
"
:
Ta
chi
khuram
life
sayf
chi
pusham
shitd
(Sa'di).
" Our precious
passed in the thought of what to eat in

to
Summer and what
wear in Winter."
^>
Guftam bi-raw va bi-nigar id klst c~~A r " I said, go and see (that) who is it."
Kardan-i in bihtar
ast td
j&*) )J (**& ( vu ^-
mc
-
a ^ so
^)
an &)& o^f ^j
^ c^^
"
(m.c.)
it
is
better to
do
this than that."

'*
The past tense shows that the order was

took -- "
:
carried out;
ordered them
and they if the Aorist bi-barand **j* to were (as it might be) used here, it would merely indicate that the order was given: it might or might not have been
-carried out.
Or ura
(m.o.).
3
Ta
This
is
13
bi-glr ; man lura yak tuman ml-diham not used like this in Urdu.
i
8 called
It is not
349>
known
l ;
perhaps
In sabza
l
ki
imruz tamdshd-gah-i md'st
61
Ta sabza-yi khdk-i ma tamdshd~gah-i foist. " As now these flowerets yield delight to me, So shall my dust yield flowers, God knows for whom.' Have a care " bewars* (This meaning of ta is poetical)
l
'
13
Ay
Ta
<c
ki shakhs-i
man-at haqir
namud
l
durushti hunar na-pinddri(S&
di).
Oh
rny person appeared mean Have a care that thou mistakest not coarseness for merit."
thou to
whom
Bi-bln ta
turd
na-zanam
(rn.c.)
" take care I don't whip you."

U? AO.
13
" Behold look here"

c<
*$
p\*&j
ta chi
(Sa'di)
now what
it
fault
have
committed that
ta ki
3
"
?
gunah karda-am ki
This
is
not the
ta-yi
tajahul, as
*'
might, at
first,
appear.
^)\* cli^ &$
'aql
As
long
as"
j>->
dan may na-khur
(m.c.
and
class.)
" so long as you have sense, drink no wine."

:
Since the time that
K'in zamdn panj panj ml-girad Ta shuda Mu*min u Musalmand (Mush u Ourba).
"
that
now
(the cat) kills five at a time
Until:
61
Since he has become a believing Muslim." Ta U with or without the negative: vide 123 (e). How much the more" *~y *a. U: A gar kardjak 4 az sardi mi-mirad
AJ
<**j
id chi
rasad bi-bulbul cUi>
&*.
^x^
^ (^^
j\
^s\jt
(m.c.) "if the
how much more must the bulbuls." " that " has still more & Ki significations than td U (13) " (( Ruz-i dlgar chun qdzi hama rd talabld va chub-hd rd did ma'lum That kard ki duzd kist ^ *? *)* & *f (*j^ .* ) J *H^t b *^ cr*^* ^J^ b the summoned when them and saw the "the next Qazi all, day (m.c.) *$ this the thief first is called who he discovered was"; kdf-i bayan sticks,
magpies die of cold,
:
:
^ ^^
or kdf-i tafsir (j*~& o!^

ta
13
" the k of expounding.'

LAAl=pJ 43^.
'
This
o
called
ta-yi
tajahul
Klat
^^^
for
ki ml-bashad
*^^
13
This
s
is
called
'.
*r!;
fj cc^, or
the Chough,
Or omit the ** Or zagh

i
f[3
is
the
common
is
English Magpie; zayhcha
*^
^f)
is
dblaq (J^t
p^
the Royston crow, and Kulagh, etc., the Raven.

v3^,
Kaf-i iaUfham
f^^\
vê Intern Pron.
360
" Because"
kasrat-i iqddm-i
:BS
in
hama
az u bi-g&dyat khd*if va mutahazzir

_
budam
ki
great fear of excessive eagerness to shed blood" an pisar rd zadam ki mufsid bud tjj** c/f ty *~&* *>' ft) "I beat the boy, because he was a mischief-maker." This
:
u bar safk-i dimd mi-ddnistam ^3*1* ^ Ui'Uw oÛj y y tf j*^ (class.) "in spite of all this 1 stood in ff<x?i oj' him and ever remained on my guard, because I knew his
}
.***
ki
is
called
kaf-i
'illat
^^
ol<
or kdf-i tcfRliyya
*-JUl*^
v3'<"
"the
causative ki."
x> î& <jtj*\j9 <Û j Jî ^f j>?yk pd> ^Lifxu shadl an va na-kunam ki plndashtam ki gandum-i faramusJi hargiz zawq " never shall I forget my delight and joy when I fancied biryan-ast (Sa'di) " in ra mi-gujt ki u dakhil shud *^ JL it was parched wheat
;
" When*
if"
cu-Jbî
*'
he was saying this when she entered,'

Qadr-i rah ki lay kard
'
this ki is called
ll
^^
tf
!;
^5;*^ (m.c.)
k<
ivhen he liad travelled
a short way." Sometimes
this *S ki
can be translated by
if," as:
tura ki bi-Khan bi-dihim
^**v
&(=. AJ &f
yyfcj^
^1^
"
Mi-dani khwahar-i " (m.c.) you know

;
that
if
we
give your sister to the

M
Khan
in marriage
here the Subjuncis
tive or Aorist after *$ signifies

^
supposition or doubt; this ki *'
called
kaf-i shartiyâ
^>j^
o ^ ).
f
"What
You
" Whether":
khurd ast
*
will
you
lose if at
your distressful lover

?
cast one kind glance, oh cruel girl
"
^^>\
"nothing was known to me about
Ahvdli in jd ma'lum nami-shud

^
^>
tyj+>
^
[
** **
this island whether it
(**/ J ^3^ ?$ " az db bi-ravam yd piydda guzaram (m c.) again I considered whether [direct " va rdy-i kam*kunan narration] I should go there in the raft or wade there
'
:
vf $ *^*i ^ (*^ <*& <jW* **
was large or small " bdz hhayal kardam ki bdld-yi kalak

:
ki in jazira buzurg ya
fJ***
Jj^
*
(Afghan)
dar mashiyyaUi Allah ta'dlq ast ki savdb dyad yd khatd UL"* Lj x^f vV* ** cu** c^^ *^ (Sa'di) and it depends upon the will of God whether the opinion expressed by my companions proves right or
* 4
f
Note meaning
of ba-in
hama
&fr^l ^
*'m
spite of
"
;
dima* s^*b
pi.
(streams of
in
blood) to signify excess: kasrat-i i?dam ffAÎ English by a substantive and adjective.
5
B
e^^
.
two substantives rendered
Perhaps
elliptically
used for vaqt-i ki

**
^^)
Mufajat from ^P*
falling
marg~i mufajat
*
e>U&c J^c
on anything unexpectedly, rushing upon unawares" sudden death. "

ast
In m.c. kayfiyyat ma'lum nami-shud ki in jazira kuchak
ya buzurg
351
wrong."
lbl&J J^t f '*>
<
Or "
this
in
want
book
ra mi-kh walil ki an ra ly f *Z <$* !>=>* I; " this ki *t is that? or called kaf-i tardid ( ;
fc&aft
v^ o*jy
* '
1
do you
<:
,J!<)
the
& of opposing, or the disjunctive &."

1 * Sayyah-l glsuvan* bar laft ki, "Man *Alavi-yam," <f va ba qdfila-yi Hijaz bi-shahr dar amad ki, Az hajj mi-ayam" va qasida-% pish-i
"Saying that"
malik burd
(
ki,
"Man gufta am " 3^^

eXU ÂJ
xÂ05^
j+yf
îiUI
^j
*^
p'^
A<J f
er *^ -îl3y
i^lr-**?
3
<e
v^'-i**
<xli>
l*
^yo
A*'
jy
(^
^
;
3'
^7t^
(Sa'dl)
a certain
and said he was a descendant of 'AH; he entered the city with the pilgrim caravan from Hijaz, and gave out that he had returned from the Mekka pilgrimage he took a poem to the king and said he had composed it himself " this ki is called kaf-i maqula ( *)yi/o ,J( the
travellei* fingered his curls
<
:
k of the object of discussion."
For
for
*k
"rather"
li> &i
:
In the following, ki
is
used for balki aL>, and
AJ
na
na tanha
iV'a
bulbul
6ar gul-ash tasbih khwan-ast
Ki
li
har khar-l bi-tasbih-ash zaban-ast

praise,
Not only the bulbul on its rose is repeating His But each thorn is a tongue to praise Him."
2Va qand-i
lei
mardum
bi-surat
khurand
(Bustan).
eat,
Ki
"
arbab-i
ma'nl
bi-kay/iaz
barand
My poems
are not sweets that
men
But they are sweets that poets write on paper."

called kaf-i mubalag&a (<*AJU"0 J() "the k of amplification or the kaf-i taraqqt ( o! ) " the k of climax." or superiority," 9 Mara bisyar khawf bud ki dar panja-yi anha Instead of iÛ^ or " lest
This ki
is
^y
'
Note the order

Qisuvan c^"Hi
of this sentence in Persian.
*
8
are the long locks like those
worn by the Baluchis.
'Afawl <jE>k, or 'Alavl, a descendant of *A1I, the son-in-law of tho Prophet. is an ode or Hijaz is Mecca and the adjacent territory, Arabia Petra. Qasida 15^^
elegy longer than a yhazal \jj*of the three *
Note that each

narration.
means "saying that" and introduces the
direct
Also that ^ takes the place of a point in punctuation.

^
The
bulbul
cW^
or Persian nightingale
is
the lover of the rose.
It sings
best
when
the roses
come
into bloom,
and
is
said to build its nest in rose-bushes.
852
'
I had a great fear ;a *S ty ;U-*o y> (Afghan) na-yuftam ^Siu t^f " lest I should fall again into their power correctly in m.c. khayll tars bud and bi-ijuftam. Zan-i hajjam az bim-i an ki avaz-i u na-shinasad va bar an
:
i^
J^
"
hal wiquf na-yabad yara-yi javab dadan na-dasht *x*UAJ y

vi~foJ
a&f +yj\ ^lux ^3 &\& oyj JU of/ 5 (Anw. Suh., Chap. I, St. 8) "the ^f;U l terror barber's wife in lest he should recognize her voice and so become
jtyf
w^
<ioUJ
" aware of what was going on, had not courage to answer (East. Trans.)
the negatives are incorrect.
Bar zamin-i
*r>
(^fjt*- j\
bi-farsh
o-l^V
**
naml-nishlnad ki libasha-yi u chirkm bi-shavad " he does not ***& sit on &**) j> (m.c.) u2y
the bare ground lest his clothes should get dirty." Instead of *t 6, "so that" etc. Generally with a negative and the Present Subjunctive, as Snkhan-i yavana-khwaham guft ki mardum 'ayb-am
:
ua-kunand *xU&
^c
'ayb
f&j*
*>'
viÂ?
ÂfîJ
j^L
^^^
if
the conjunction becomes kaf-i

guft-ki
(
'ilfat
^jîc
J(^, as:
the negative be omitted sukhan-i yava na-khipaJiam

&' oî? +*lj.^>
$>'j
mardum
or
)
mi-kunand
(or bi-kunand)
ft>j*
âeu.
yxi^j
((
cxiiXiu* *-**.
of
c<
doing"
of
Khayal kardam ki bi-ravam

Kaf-i
fjjj
*>
+*j*
JU^.
(m.c.)
thought
"And;
while
going." "
:
'atj
uik*
o^
" the conjunction
k"
i
*
tiz-raw ki
bi-mand
(Gul.)
Ki
'
khar-i lang jan bi-manzil burd.
**
Oh
"
the swift steed that has lagged behind, While (or and) the broken-down ass has reached the stage's end."
!
Many
is
As; B
just as
like
"
Ohunan ml-khurad zangl-yi kham ra Ki zangi khurad mayAz-i badam ra. cô^^x o^( Pleonastic ** ^ ^jla. *f U â H jan-am dar tan ast f*^*^ " as I I'm as live bi-khidmat hazir-am ready to serve you." Naml-danam long *J o^ if ki aya rafta*ast ya na ^ MJ Lf ^>^w (m.c.) or naml-ddnam aya rafta*' I don't know whether he has ast ya ki na&* *$ ^ ^~' ^*; ^1* ^'^ t5** gone or
:
1 could be substituted for &f Confusion regarding a negative Mabada verb alter verbs of doubting and fearing, is not uncommon even in English for " I doubt that he will 44 I don*t think he will come," English country people say, " come." In the example, the negative should be I doubt he won't come/ 'and i( as long as, until," in omitted. Similar confusion also exists, after the particle ta
.
\^
Persian
and after jab tak in Urdu. That he should not recognize,

;
cf.
Latin veror ne; vide also
133.
Baray-i tashbih.
SIMPLE CONJUNCTIONS,
not
353
"
:
this
A*',
common
in India
though occasionally inserted in speaking in Persia, and though both in writing and talking, is probably incorrect. After
:
verbs of asking or saying, a pleonastic ki can be inserted, as
mi-ram ^jj*>
(ki)
purAd
(ki)
nami-ddnam
he asked me where I was going : guft *>**^ (m.c.) ^+*f (m.c.) "he said he did not know": (**) fi\**+>
*$
)
:
"
"
kujd
a pleonastic ki often occurs after an oath, as
bi-khudd ki urd az jdn *aziz-tar
ddram
f^yJO* o^ jf
*
fjjf
Native Grammarians
zinhdr.
It
call this A^,
kdf-i zinhdriyga,
and say
it is
equal to
is often used to emphasize a pronoun: man ki nami-ddnam p^**+> A^X* (m.c.) "I who don't know (but " zarar-1 ki bi-shumd na-ddrad / don't know) ^fOJ (+&> &$ ^s)j* (m.c.) "it won't do you any harm." " But" In m.c. A**, sometimes before a pronoun in a short phrase, has " in " but he's dead." the signification of *' but English jyo &? jt u ki murd " we're *$ Uo md-ki The m.c. we're
:
may, however, be pleonastic. In m.c. ki Emphatic * with Pronouns
gone Fatah
"
phrase p&i)
raftlm (m.c.) signifies
off,
(when about to start on a journey). 'AJi Shah on his death-bed.

:
These were the
last
words of
In
the ki
it za*id.
is
Ditto in az kujd ki
?
.
emphatic or bardy-i tahsin-i kaldm, but some Grammarians call chumn bi-kunam?, and bi-firdq-i ydrdn chi-ha ki
in
(
na-didam
Ljfe
na-buvad htch dagrhd-bdz ki u
jf
X }bli^
)
^^
the ki
is
called
kdf-i tashbih
AJ^>
vJ(
"the k
of similarity"
(
and supposed to be equal

}
to mid
it is
also called kdf-i
" the k
46
of equality."
(d) (3),
"Comparison": and (v) (1)

also kaf-i naf*
it.
(
or kdf-i tasviya ( &>#** J^ It might almost be translated by *' but." For the use of a^ instead of y in comparisons, 1 vide
musdvdt
otjU* of
this is called kdf-i tafzil
&";
&& vJK
(
" the comparative '*the negative &," since na-ki can be sub(
J*A& JK
stituted for
For
this particle
<Jj^
as a relative pronoun, vide
42.
Remark
dnki A&f
L Ki
*$
and
chi A&. are largely used in
forming compounds, as
etc.:
magar dnki
"he who"; chundnki'1 " "

except
;
A&Uo.
&
pas dngdh ki
"however much," (? e>T crJ "when,
*&
after that
"
In
**b
<J\tfc
*J
>i^y^
itijf (Gul.);
for
*$ either
jl
or
A^ A> can
be
substituted,
2
For various
significations of chandanki, vide
92
(d) (13);
23
354
COMPOUND CONJUNCTIONS.
1
ya dnki *&f U, or yd dnchi

dnchi
<*of
tj
[yd dnchi
l
mi-guyam fij^** &* *f^T * j *+*>) <* in the same manner ham-chundnchi AfuU*v+A
man
c3 t>
shumd mt-gu^d sidq-ast va yd ^ ^^^^ U **Jf I (m.c.)]

:
as, etc."
Remark IL
is
In m.c., ki
if
*$
introducing a subordinate clause in the

generally, omitted, as: bi-gu bi-ydyand
:
frequently, Subjunctive oi,Uj^& (m.c.) "tell them to

taqsir-i
nofc
man
chi chtz ast

is
come " similarly mard ml zanand ? <MJ)

they are beating
in interrogative sentences
(m.c.)
" what
^
me
lyo
cu*of
?
jâ. **.
my fault
Both
it
:
"
c/^^^
(that)
(for it)
Remark
guftan
<jyu
,
III.
when
two other verbs, as

insert ki *
)
and in m.c., ki &f is often omitted after introduces the words of the speaker, and also after one or u namt-ddnist chi khwdhad-shud *> t^fÂ &*. v^^Jioojî y (or
classically
after nami-ddnist
in, churiln
o~Jf^W
**
happen
<A**ojt
"
;
(m.c.)
" he didn't know wliat would
but
ahmaq bud
ki naml-ddnist
dsmdn
bdld-yi sar-i u-*t
j^ ^^b c>^T ^^^*+>

"
not?
as:
W ^^f
e^t^ (m.c.) the conjunction ki *S

for
could not be inserted after nami-ddnist

(14)
cu~J'<3Jj+>
euphony's sake.
Ayd
is
tf
is it
"
is
a particle of interrogation used in direct
and indirect narration,

"
(m.c.)
(
dyd Isidda ast

?
he standing or not
}-~j ***$ <Jkj~*j
"
yd
(ki)
na? &
*$ k cu^t a:>U~ot
Ijf
^ f^ o^tf p*^* o^ ^ J^ Jjfi

;
^^
^ôlfcf
'*
here
ast
"
Û.
*^
'*
Ijf *>
%a m/a msi?
:
o~*>o tûuf
It
4<
is
he not
Ayd
t
^T also signifies
|
whether," as
(m.c.)
yd na ^ ^ o 8 " ; gone or not

a>
<ui;
^ or) ^f ^H^
nami-ddnam dyd
"
I
(or ki) rafta-
know
b
whether the
^ vs! t^^f*^ ) ^^-^l mahaut was captured or not

J
don't
know
'
whether he has
;^
^^ ^
5
f>\<**>
" I don't
cu^^ tx> ^^j î>oU> ^ j}LU L,f As already stated in Interrogative Verbs, usually expressed by intonation or gesture dyd kf is rare in
$& *XA^
AJta. ). ( <>riuxAfc)
interrogation
m.c.,
is
magar ji*>
generally taking
<;
its
place; vide
89
(j) (8).
Whether" can be paraphrased

ham-ast o*t
as follows:
îii;
am*
mislri
I go or don't go
"
(lit.
JJx>
îxy
*'
(m.c.)
Raftan-am yd na-raftanit is the same whether
my
92.
going or not going are alike).
Compound
Conjunctions.
:
two or more Conjunctions m.c.^ vagar, and if. m.c. *>/j vagar na, and if not, otherwise.
(a)
Compounds
of
Ya
Inlci
eharab bi-khur ya anki az majlis-i
shuma mi-ravam
(m.c.)
4t
either drink
or
I'll
*
8
go."
The *f being unnecessary
is
better omitted
vide Pleonastic *& in No. (13).
it is all
In India ay a ty can begin the sentence, as same whether he goes or not.

' '
aya ml-ravad ya naml-ravad yakl-'at
Note negative
infinitive
c^M/
nS-ra/tan (J^) U would also be correct.
m.c. ^Jj
'Gall
-\
355
and but, but.
m.c.
(J-&J?
in vallkin
j i
t although.
m.c. *^ft agarchi /i , f i (class.) *A.y garchi l m.c. (jM kdsh

(obs.)
ra.c.
y
"1
<V
attfc kashki
I
may
ifc
happen>
God Send
'
'
uld
m.c.
^^1^
kashak-l
if,
m.c.
yj
va-law, even
<*&>
,
although.
m.c. Jj or
bal-ki * orbal,
what
89
91
is
more, moreover, rather: in m.c.
(ft) (7) perhaps, m.c. <*&^ chun-ki. since, wide
91
and
(4) (2).
(b) (8).
(obs.) e)j wan, but, yet,
however
(obsolete).
^j
(
(h) The optative word kashki, etc. Persian followed by the Past Habitual
UJ
o^ or
3
t*j>
cJ^
l
is
in classical
is
tense,
whether the idea

^^V**
future or
(class.)
past: kashki sa'adat-i shahddat darydftaml
"
^^^^
^^ ^ (^fe
oh, would that I could obtain (or could have obtained) the happiness of
martyrdom." Kash c4'< or kashki ^^K, etc., can be preceded by ay, as: &**)1 L${+> 4^*^ is\ ay kash-ki ja-yi aramldan budl "Ah! would there were a place of rest from pain." (0. K. 442 Whin.) In modern Persian, however, the Imperfect is generally used for future, and the Pluperfect for past, time kashki mi-dmad *x>f <y (^&>1S (m.c.) " would that he would come" (also had come), but kfisfi-Tci anjd manda budam +ty J^JU lauf ^^tf (m.c.) "would that I had remained there (and
isty.
I :
not come here)." The Aorist can in modern Persian be also used as an Optative Future, as kash bi-ydyad *U> <j( (m.c.) <e would that he would come."
:
(c)
Conjunction and Preposition, etc.
ni.c.
J^
bi-juz, excepting.
m.c.
or
)\
m.c. +*
f*b bd-ham or bi-ham, together. 4 az-ham, apart.
Also kaj
(old).
"** " I have erred, misstated," and Occasionally Qhalat. kardam pbj* nay nay " 44 5ai J?, balki *&*. no, no supply the place of balki *^J. <y 3 This tense is formed by adding the ya-yi istimrari ^)ls**+* 4,5^} (the ya of repeated this tense may also take the prefix ml (class, me) of the action) to the Preterite
2
Imperfect
*
but after agar

* *
and kashki
^^,
the prefix
' '
is
usually dispensed with.
one on the top of another Ru-yi-ham p* ^jj) pusht-i sar-i ** one behind the other, continuously " sar-i ham f* j+ contiguous ***) f* (Jf}) or colloquially ru-yi ham +*> ij), on an average.'*
;
;
ham
;
p*>
j^
ham
-^*J
ru-yi
rafta
356
m.o.
m.c.
fA Jte
*
misl~i
ham,
alike, the
same.
p*j
^^
pusht-i sar~i
ham, one behind the other.
(Indian)
(d)
+*>
$ ta-ham, nevertheless.
Conjunctions are also formed by the union of adjectives, adverbs,

:
prepositions, and pronouns

*.
har chand
,
) }
.
notwithstanding
.
.
all;
v
in spite of:
however
J7 har chand ki
,
much;
,,
vide (1).
,.
;
ar in
\
|
, ;
therefore
,,,.
bind bar an
accordingly
,,
in consequence
of
na%ar bar
w) zwa-ld
T
.
\
'
(this or that)
,.
ê
.,
/ftx
(2).
<
therefore, because; veae
(3). y v
chwa-ly,
m.c.
o^
^
(j,jf jf
aa;
m jihat
m.c.
^31
02:
m ru
az tnsabab
1
for
this
reason; therefore;
vide
(class.)
$ ^)
zin-ru
(3).
m.c.)
m.c.
^ c^j
!<>J
^xc ^tjt
li-liaza
az
-for this; therefore; wrfe (3).
m.c. ti^
mod.
K-sa
m.c. *&f jt
m.c. &&T m.c.
js*j
^^J
^*j
jf
aw H, before that v*We (4). 6a'^ az an k^, after that; vide (4).
p*5A
^2;
;
^x5
min
ba'd, afterwards
vide (5).
m.c. 0"$*" si-pas* afterwards. m.c. *$ ^jf as; 6a5 ki, inasmuch as
since (causal)
\
>
from much
vide
(6).
m.c.
4Uaaf{
al-qissa*
m.c. <*x4U
Mw?a5a
tj
well, in short.
m.c.
m.c. m.c.
^^
bari
ba-vujud-i-ki
A^ÂJ
in
8
spite of; in spite of all this;
<*&J| <3**jk
ba-vujud-i
tw-W
although
(8).
while ; vide (7) i.and
m.o. A+A (^| ^
io-i/i
hama
J
\ \
m.c. *^/f agarchi m.e. A^/ garchi*

(class, only)
although; vide
(7) andi(8).
î^/t agarchand
&
is in Arabic a noun. The story," Ar. Can be answered by baz.
w/, adj.,
<4
Lit.
Garchi poetical only.
m.c. *S
m.c.
357
^XÂ harchand-ki
**A*)(*
"|
**Â harchi bd vasj-i In ki or
m.c. *$ (^\
^vide
(9).
m.o. A^vlu^ I bd-vdsf-i ki
m.c. *^T
m.c. *^
lj
bd-dn-ki
stfjA
or &j&,hargdh or hargdh ki, whenever; in m.c.

2 vaqirl-ki
7
.
if,
w'de (10).
m.c.
m.c.
&&&j jf ^ j| az an *&
.
i
ki
[since;
)
wde
(11).
m.c. f& e/f

1
j|
az-dndam,
A' l*u|
.
since, vide (11).

a^-aTi
^"a
(class.
and m.c.)
,
Jf
m.c. A&JA. chunki

m.c. jê
ii ) [since; seeing & that; vide (3).

}
^*A hamin
hamdn
oi-manz
tawr, while;
wde
~]
(25).
m.c. U>UA
m.c. A^MÂ hamin-ki
m.o.
m.c.
o^^v
x
.
.
âs soon
i
as, i?ae (12)
o^+J bi-mujarrad
T
[m.c. â]
.
J
i
m.c.
A&ixxfc.
chandanki*
as soon as
.
however much
,.
,
not-
\
<
m.c. &awtÂ. chanddnchi
i f
withstanding:
as long as; as
much
long
as;
., /10 v vtcZe (13).
m.c. r iÛ
m&ddm
m.c. ASo-(^Lo ma-ddm-i-ki
m.c. Auji
m.c. m.c.
c* mg
iw-fci
it
Aap^^^f
as aâ?* chundnchi,
were
>vide
(16).
A^ ^
IJ
chundnchi
m.c. AÛA. chundnki, as for example laivr-i-ki* in the manner that m.c.
**0jfe
viê (17).
m.c.
m.c. *$ J^. Aoi-ii w m.c.
^
,
(the
,
fact
.,
is
that;
,
whereas;
,
..,
,.
though;
j
notwithstanding;
/1QV (18).
all,
^v^^ vdngahl (pronounced

besides.
vungahi), more than

in case
beyond that,
;
m.c. &Q>)j<e )* dar surat-l-ki, inasmuch as

vide (19).
in the event of
m.c. JL=v# bi-har-hdl, at

(rare in coll.) !**
*>
all
events; however; vide

;
(20).
ma'-hdzd, with that
in spite of; vide (21).
In m.c. az-an
ja-l-ki
*
8
The use
of
chandanki &&}*&* for "a
soon as "
is classical
only.
In English the comparative conjunctions are than, as (preceded by a correlative), etc.

* Should not be written A&JjU.
just as, in the
same measure
ew, as if,
>
In Mod. Pers. always *$ tt>T J la> ) or *#f JU. ^.
358
(class,) j*#\
o^
nihayat" *l-amr, at last; vide (22).

1
(Indian)
^G
ta-ham,
nevertheless; vide (23).

*\
m.c.
UU* mabada
m.c. A&j-yjf az tars-i-ki

a)
>lest; vide (24).
#G
a-^
%
aM
fci
\
m.c. tf
Uy
/arz
m.c. Af f*j4 girim ki or *r
^f
giram
>
supposing that
w/e
78
(1)
Harchand ^^j*, harchand-hi &?

l*^f
^^.yfc, harchi &^j*>
Harchandki
t$
(or
harchi) bi-shuma guftam ki-anja ma-ravld qabulna-kardid
**&j&
J^ ^^c
:
(*Ji?
UAj (m.c.)
*m
a spite of all
*\*j* or) A^Â (or liowever much)

(
' c
I said to you about nob going there, you didn't listen to my advice"; harchand (or harchi) tangtar bihtar yXu ( AÂ or) >>J^^> the narrower the better" harchi (or harchand) zudtar bihtar ^vy^3 ( ^-^y* or) AÂ "the quicker the better." Harchi tamamtar y-*>U AÂ 'a much
as
ji
possible," as: ba nadamat-i harchi iamam-tar birun

c**'^lj (m.c.)
<e
amadam
az plsh-i
^j-^JJt f^^T ctf^y^^ A*^ with a regret, exceedingly great." harthi In mi-zanad an mi-raqsad as
:
lcame out from
his presence
t:
Harchi
^^^ ^f
AÂ "in the same manner," *j<e AÂ (m.c.) the one
makes the time and manner

the other."
of
his
dance correspond to the playing of
Bina bar yLu, or bind bi AJ Uj '* having regard to, with regard 3 for," as: Hala man bina bi-bad-raftariha-i lei dar ayyam-i iqtidar nisbat bira'iyyat vanawkar azshumdburuzkardaast na-bayad du-bara shughl-i vizarat-ra
(2)
bi-shuma ruju' kunam
^^)
*>)^
AJ
cÂyJ ^t^Jj}
I, j>^; with due regard to (bearing in mind) your ill deeds done 6 by you towards the peasants and subordinates, must not again entrust you with the office of
!
^*
j ^; 3j
!
^^
ji ^'-^
^^f
*^ 3^ ^
c
^\
A^x'U)U;
f
AJ U>
K^-
3 fj* J (m.c.)
"now
vazir
"
ammo, dar
1
shugtii-i vizarat
bina bi-islah-i
***
umur-i mulk va millat az

w^
man
ment
haqq-i tavaqqu
na-khwaJiid dasht
<{
o-U j
(I)
iJU'*
^\
î(^l*
Uu o;!3^
cl^-j^ Uf
in the state
but and the people, you

(m.c.)
will
having due regard for improvenot have the right of expecting
Indian and perhaps Afghan. In English the conjunction in this sentence could also be rendered by "notwith' '
standing
3
or
* *
' '
although.
:
Bina bar could not be used here

ariki
after bina bar
j&>
either an c/f
or
^
p**
follows, or
*
*^T
or Iriki A>.uf.
A ote
the subject
man
at the beginning of the sentence, and the verb
kunam
after
bayad &>b
6
Bnriiz kardin
u)&jf
Jtf
*'
to
come out"
blrfin
amadan
"
:
369
hdla maqsud-i mard ddnistid; bind bar an na-bdyad tajdvuz anything from me *& jjt?^ txjtjj lw oui-^t^ kunid JJU. (m.c.) "you have now cjy tye O^ÂJ understood my object you must therefore not exceed your instructions '
'
;
l
bind bar dnki man khddim-i qadlmi-yi shumd has tan dnchi arz ml-kunam 'ayn-i maslahat ast cuscJLA* ^^ p&* u*j* *5^T *w& (+t> ^-j^' (*>^ ^^ A&T ^ "& " old o*t I am is
(m.c.)
because
your
servant,
what
I tell
you
quite right
nazar bar in ki shumd marhamat na-ddrid

p&$x> o/o3^w,jy
^.yo
man
tar/c-i
khidmat mi-kunam
(i.e-
j^t^j e^4^x>
U^
because)
you have no compassion
" with regard to this A&uty^JaJ (m.tt.) on me, I will leave your service."
Remark.
Conjunctions denoting inference [therefore, wherefore, hence,

'illative.'
whence, consequently, accordingly, thus, so, then], are called

(3)
Chird-ki
&$
^
I tell
"because that."
Man
&
\j*.
In
J
shukhun rd bi-shutnd
.**
f
mi-guyam chird
ki ddarn-i khub-i hastid
(+
Ui
l
ij
^**^>
^] ô
;
"
(m.c.)
you
Â*^
this
ijr^.
because you are a trustworthy person"

&$
*^
jami'-i
\)
jlô &*\
f -y
oJ/
oi^jjc \)}\
rd ghayrat
yirift ki chird
mardum
In dukhtar rd dust ddrand
(m.c.)
;
"emulation seized her

l>*-
because every
is
one was
fond of this
' '
girl
(note that chird
after *$
properly interrogative introducing the

is
direct
narration
saying that
"why
everybody fond of this girl?
11
):
az in jihat (or az
mru
QYazin
sabab, or az baray-i
m) man
bir
shumd guftam
(
^>r j>.& y or ^ ^)\ or ^=F*M3t (*^^ '*^ e,^ &J ^j- y "for I this reason told that you this, you should not think xv^C (m.c.) told you this, so that you might give up this further on the matter;
*-'
) I
J^ ^ ^
idea.
' '
ki diqargird-iinkhayalna-gardid
^^ ^
Lihdzd
1^
; 1
u ki nihayal-i mihrabam* rd bd man ddrad

hastam
is j\
!
li-hdzd
man ham
f
bd u mihrabdn
(m.c.)
" since he
v fl> ^ p* c^ &* ^ ^ ^jt* ^ t^ '^ p*~*> d)hjf kind to 1 too me, exceedingly (therefore) am kind to
him."
Remark.
(4)
The
causal conjunctions are called

e
^^ ^j^ or
'.
:
Pish az dn-ki A^T;t cr^, ba d az an ki *tfy ^*
Pish az an ki
man
** before I tnjd Iri-yayam^ u rd didam ^*Vo t^f pd# [^^ &<> &&\ jf <j*^^ (m.c.) " 3 sarshudam az I him ba'd murakhkfais nazd-i shumd ankiaz came here saw
:
dard-i sakht-i bi-man 'ariz shud

e<
+* I
(m.c.)
after I left
you
had such a bad headache."
Qhayrat CIÂP
is
a good quality
ghayrat-i mazjiabi, {j**>*'
^}*f
"
religious zeal.'"
Note
this m.p. pronunciation of
mfhrban
,'
the Afghans also
say mihraban, but
not the Indians.

8
Note the Present Subjunctive in Persian
for the Preterite in English
360
Remark.
Note that while' the conjunction

'
Present Subjunctive in Persian,

English.
(5)
after that
'
is
requires a followed by the Preterite as in
before that
'
Min ba"d
**t ^*>
*x*j
the present whatup ooiÛi;^ a^y* ever has happened has happened, but for the future do better." Az bas ki bi-u guftam khasta shudam jL> A-*? ^ (6) Az bos lei *** jf
kunid
Td C*A?
hdld harchi bud guzasht,
min ba'd
till
bihtar raftdr
JflÛ (m.c.)
"
f&
*i*x (m.c.) "I told him so often that I got tired" f*& mardwndn mi-mirand, dar jahdn dil na-bdyad bast OOÂ*
ft
az bas-ki hama-y
^ ^toô
,
&& A-J
jt
inasmuch as all men die, one should not ^+~^ ^4^ J* &{&> )t (Indian) " in this sentence chunki *&>^* or az an jd-t ki cling to this world only ;
t&iUufy, or bind bar in ki *^ or az an ki A^jf
jihat-i
*&^
9
lw, or zird ki *'LHj> or az In sabab ki
*^**~
*+^j\
etc.,
could be substituted.
i-gazam u ah mi-kasham Atash zadam chu gul bi-tan-i lakht lakht-i khwish
(Hdfiz).
^Lr^ 3
atrdf va javdnib-i vay fard girifta
l
va mihnat-i
Âam va anduh az ambuh bar havdK-yi vay mustawK

6ew &'
gashta, hlch chlz bar
man
az suhbat-i dil dushvdr-tar nisi (Anv. Suh., Chap.

as grief
V., St.
2.)
"and inasmuch
and melancholy have usurped every

its limits,
quarter and part of it, 2 and a throng of troubles have overrun there is nothing more hard for me to bear than the society of
(East Trans.). bos ki <*~o y in Indian Persian often corresponds to the English 'inasmuch as,' and differs little from because* (vide last example). In modern Persian, however, it is used in the sense of " because I did a great deal," as: ^4z bas ki muntazir-i shumd nishashtam khasta shudam
and"
Az
my
heart
'
px AwA. piu&i U^ jjfelix

I got tired."
f&if câ\Aâj
a.~o j (m.c.)
Man
zabdn-am
muy
waited for you such a long time that dar-dvurd, az bas ki bi-m nasihat kardam
I
"
^t
&**)y
^f
j&
^jx> ^t>j
^c
(m.c.)
"hair
grew
on
my
tongue, from continually warning him."

(7)
Bd vujud-i
|;
iti
9t
&j>&j*. 9 (>
Bd
vujud-t ki urd nasihat kardam na~shariid
**&
r ^T cuu^
A^^^b
(m.c.)
"in
this
spite of the fact that (although)
warned him, he did not

Ast understood.
listen." In
example, 65-ww/- anki*
2 3
''It"
= my heart."
words signifying
*
This, as well as other
although," can often be answered by Jl*
or
Lcf
Or
ba-vaaf-i ki
,
361
or agarchi *^/f, or harchi **Â or ba-lnki *&*f lj, or hal~an-ki a.^f JU. or har chand ki &S *Â, could be substituted without materially altering the
sense.
The
(8)
obsolete agarchand ai^/l would give the
same meaning.
^>f
Agarchi *^/l
-3f
agarchi u murd
amma
ja-yvafsus nist
*j*
j\
**
vi~*i
urr
Û.
(m.c.)
"
although he died,
Ju>) U
:
it's
(9) Ba-vasf-i
Inki
*vl
Ba-vasf-i
bar k&ilaf-i an kar kardld ***jZ
warned you many times, yet you acted against what I told you," hal an ki *&T JU* (vide 18) instead of ba vasf-i m ki a&uf ui^ [or ]. (10) Hargahltfj* in m.c. has usually the meaning of "if": Hargah bi-shuma na-gufta budam haqq ba-shuma bud *j* U^> b &*> -^j Axi/li l+j ^j* '* if I had not told (m.c.) you, you would have been in the right.' Classically
although I
l>
(
"
c>f
o^ ^ f*j? o*)^-
m ki bi-shumd sifarish
L
no matter of sorrow." kardam
*^
*&Jt ****j ^ (m.c.)
'
it
means "whenever," but
'
if
can sometimes be substituted for

:
'
whenever
'
without substantially altering the meaning khwaham did shuma ra yad khwdham kard
&
har-gah yadgar-i shuma
ra
r^l*^
(**[?**
*+*>
)^^ *^*
me
:
pAj^k jb (class.)
'*
whenever
I look at
your
keep-sake,
az an
it will
remind
&f
of
you."
(11)
Az
vaqt-l-ki &***j y, az
an gah
ki *&
&f
jf,
dam
ki
ura dida-am hdl-am digar-gun-ast &^ j&>* pJ^ /**** \) j\ **ujj\ vs**t (m.c.) "since I have seen him I have been either of the quite upset" other two conjunctions, or az an zaman-i ki **J^ e/f jf, could be substituted
vaqti-ki
:
Az
f^
)l
for az vaqt-t-ki A^JJ^J y.
Hamln-ki* *5ou^ (m.c.) elliptical for" at the very (12) "As soon as." " hamin-ki time when," hence " as soon as amadam, u raft ^*j ^ f-^f *^H^ " as soon as I he went."
;
(m.c.)
came,
Dava khurdan haman, murdan haman&{+* &tj*

soon as he took the medicine he died."
(m.c.)
as h* (m.c.) Bi-mahz-i* khurdan-i davd murd

c^^*
&&);**'
(i.e.
'*
"
merely by taking
as soon as he took) the

_
medicine, he died
(m.c.);
"
;
or bi-mujarrad-i khurdan-i dava

ki
murd
&j*
))
>
or bi-mujarrad-i
davd khurd, murd
^y^ \^
*^^*?
(m.c.)
In m.c. har-vaqt
*^+*j
Subjunctive bi-blnam ^Hrf *J for the Future * Or az andam-l-ki *$ <^f^f 3'.

8
j* would be substituted l&waham did
for
har gah
^*, and
the
But haman
**
ki
ahuma dldid man haman ra dldam
(m.c.)
saw
just what
" you did
f*J>
haman
ki
*^>UA cannot be used
for
" at that very
time.
*
' '
Mahz-i
bhap.ir-i
ahuma
U^^-t^ o^*
(m.c.)
"merely
"
:
to please
in
you";
mahz
6i-
ft*oj-i didan-i tu 3*
is
e*&& (^SL^J
at the mere sight of you

:
m.c.
frequently used for baray <^t^, as mahz-i mulaqat-i u anja raftam j\ orj t4 I went there to see him": dava mahz-i khurdan va ^Xij bpjf
44
this medicine is to be
taken internally and externally."
362
Td-davd khurd murd
* " as soon as he took the medicine he died/
(class,
andm.c.)."
<^=F
Mujarrad
bi-mujarrad-i
signifies
guman
properly ''stripped, bare '; also a "bachelor" " on a mere e>U? */*+> suspicion, merely on suspicion."
signifies
L
Chandan Id A&toJiA. also sometimes ' as soon (13) Chandan ki *fi^

****)
" as
" as soon as," vide
(13).
J <^rH ^$ v.JU uj&ij;* j&> jf J&fdio*

' '
:
gfipfib
gasht bi-burj-\ bar raft (Sa'dl)
chandanki az nazar-i darmshdn " as 'soon as he was concealed from the sight
of the darvishes he scaled a tower
chandanki pds-i az shab bi-guzasht a&toia. " as soon as a watch of the (Sa'df) jt night was passed." " However much " all" A&IJJU*. ," spite of &?f ;a c^ 1**;^ &lâ ^ja v: ^2:^-* dar dar amad c>*^ ; chandanki talab kard khana-yi parsa-i chiz-i na-yaft (Sa*dl) "a thief entered the house of a certain pious person; however much lie searched (in spite of all his search) he found nothing guft
o<&
^^
^b
^ v^
said,
' '
zahidanra chanddn-ki talab kardam na-yaftam " he in

(Sa'di)
*
f&V f*^ v^
'
spite of all
my
search
A^foo^ fy|^f3 did not (could not) find those

3
& lj j \> v^li. A&f<>ia. chandanki khak ra buvad u " bad ra baqa (Sa'dl) as long as the Earth and the Wind exist."
' '
:
who were recluses." " As long* as
^ ^
"As much as"

j&\j
^fyt j cu-i
o>(;t &&**jt
1^
^JlA>
^\
&* p
!y
*^l^
e^fi^ t^ ^^ parastan iradalastu iqrdr,
o^
U^JA
^l chandanki mara dar haqq-i in ta*ifa-yi khudaIn shukh-dida ra ( adavat-ast u inkdr (Sa'd!) "as
in
:
much
fellow
as I like
*
and believe
this
hates and denies
them "
body
of God-fearing
id bi-ddnt ki cJianddn ki
men, this saucy ddnd ra az nd-ddn
13 nafrat-ast sad cJianddn nji-ddn rd az ddnd vahsliatast &\tfcj\ \j t*f^ Aîoid.^!^ %**! cu^^j L>|^ y yi^ c^lAW *x^ cuW &j& (Sa'di) "so that you may understand that the ignorant man dreads the wise a hundred times as
much
wise
as the
man
* ' hates the ignorant that as much as the (lit. dislikes the ignorant, a hundred-fold of that the ignorant man
wise
man
dreads the wise
man ").*
to
" So much
such a degree
' ' :
"
mardum ahudan 'ayb ntst Va Ukin na chanddn ki guyand bas There is no harm in visiting people,
Bi-diddr-i
*
'
(SadI).
But not
to sucli
an extent that they exclaim

is
this
is
enough
'."
In modern Persian, chandanki A&!<>^.

xA, or vaqt-l ki *&***j, or chun i^S-, *
,
not used
in this signification;
hangam-i
" as
ki
is
used instead.
in m.c.
In modern Persian used

This
in this signification in writing only:
inuh
however much."
8
is
Note the order
said half laughingly. in the Persian
and English.
Remark.
Persian.
36$
Chandanchi *Jfxka.
is
obsolete
it
rarely occurs even in old
Harchand ura bi-maktab burdandi

chandanchi ta'Kmi khatt-ash dadandl
1
az
miydn-i
maydan
kjiatti
sar bi-zadi va
mayl bi-nayza-yi
namudi
***- j*
(Anvar-i Suhaylf)
suddenly make
instructed
off
" when they conveyed him to school, he would and appear in the midst of the plain and whenever they
;
him
in writing, his thoughts darted
away
to the straight spear."
(Eastwick's Trans.).
(14)
[Madam*
f\*(* Ar.]
ma-dam
' '
:
ki
*t
ma-dam-t-ki
*
***>! ^ I*
$ " as long as
fbU, ma-dam-l-ki A^j^bU,

life lasts.
3
ta-
oU^cJf ^tÛ
ma-dama''l-hayat "
is
as long as
"
girya
Mudam
I
*!^/c
an
<
adj.
bachcha-yi
man mudam
mi-kunad
:
jj^xx) & \* ^/o ^-l^j mudam as o^l +\**> *^
(m.c.)
"
my
"he
little
is
child cries continually"

:
mast-i
(m.c.)
always intoxicated*"
mud,am u-'l-
awqat ^\3$\
(15)
ft**>
Guya
^
(
(m.c
"
)
"
perpetually
(also
<Ji*>
:
dayim
-'l-awqat Î5îlf
Û
(m.c.).
or misl-i
a&Jt (Ji
mki
^fâxAx
kas-i
^~
or)
mki) (I heard a sound

XA^J
^lif
mi-khwanad
Aîji <JU*>
<{
(m.c.)
^ f^h^ "
I
*^
c^t^f avaz-i
shamdam guya
(or misl-i
heard a voice as
if
some one were
singing,
like singing)
"
:
misl-i
mki bi-shuma guftam,

to
bi-kunid (m.c.)
Uij
do as
I told
:
you
do."
:
(16)
Chunan
ki <*&UA. (old)
chunanchi *apU- (mod.)

f '
ji^yo
ki
' v
A^Jljua. 5
chunnnlci mi-guyand (old)
as the saying is
fattls
"
:
guft chunan-
tu guftl ta*ifa-i
*
hasad burdand
said, a
^^
&~**
he replied,
as
Chunan- 1
ki ^^11^., or
have a similar
f*j*
p* ty ft)
6
number envied me.' ham chunan ki ^liû*^, and an chunan ki AxJUaaJf ura zadam tura ham ml-zanam signification, as: chunan-i-ki ^ ^ ^JU^. (m.c.) "I'll beat you as I beat him": man
you
6
y <^JUa. ^t "
cÂ? (Sa'd!)
ham-chunan
ki
bud 'arza
dashtam
*&o
*^ ^ ^SUsu^
m .c.)
((
have
'
The
final
of the Past Habit, (with the exception of the
2nd
pers. singular) is
wi-yi majhnl in classical Persian,
but by modern Persians
it is
pronounced as aya-yi
ma'ruf.
2
&
Ar. *?**> liayat.
Ta-dam-i tnarg
^y
& "
till
the last breath."
*
5
DayiipP-'*l-khamr j+&3\
*}\& (na.c.)
a drunkard."
Mudam
written
also
means
wine."
Or chunanchi ^JU^.
'Arz (jPj*
**
"an
oral petition"; 'ariza

l
**&fy* t
"a
one":
*'
'arz
daram
(OP
f)t*
COP
have a petition to make";
arz
ml-kunam
am
making) a
"
p(^tition
;
p^?
)
(ji*j*
I will
make
(JPj**i
but
f
in
the Past tense in m.c. 'arz kardani
f^r
T
or
'arza dashtan) /^*lv3 &*ej&
(not arz dashtam
*&'
OV*
The Afghans
however,
say *r2 da*htam
f*
364
it
related the matter exactly as

bi-ta'assub
l
"
-happened
&J>
:
guft
an chundnki shunldl
khalq-i
<*/f
gird
dmadand ****!
W*A*& y
^^
t^s*****
A&U^.
cx
"he said, as you have heard, a whole people collected round him from fellow-feeling 1 avarda-and ki kazhdum* rd vilddat-i ma' hud met chundnki 8 sdîr-i hayvdndt rd j3\~ A&tx^ o*x> j>>t** &*fy L> fty ** *^f
(Sa'dl)
:
IjoG^jj*. (Sa'di) "it
is
said that the scorpion is not
bom
in the ordinary
manner
like all other living things."
<^0j
j*
<^)
-A.
of
ptyo
^
ham
n hama
muta^ssir
as little
mardum
chundnchi az durushil mutcfallim na-shudand az narml
na-gardidand (Tr. Haji Baba, Chapter VII)
" the whole
them were
fc>/ (Afghan)
by wheedling." In Indian and Afghan Persian, chundnchi &^&*> at the beginning of a " clause means " accordingly Chundnchi ham-chundn kardam &&**+* *^^*" I did so
:
moved by roughness
as they were
accordingly,
exactly."
Though modern Persian chundnchi ^xuUo* may occasionally be rendered " or in English by "accordingly," its proper meaning is " so that "like," or *'for example," and, in translation into Persian, chundnchi must be employed only when its meaning will admit of one of these interpretations. Chundnchi *suU^ "like, for example": Dar yak sanduq ashyd-yi khurdki bud chundnchi (misl-i) nan va* birinj va panir va-yhayra c> ^
in
*&J
JW
J **J J
*^^ W
ufbj** </
&**" (Afghan
coll.):
va har
pddishdhri dgdh ki maddr-i kdr-i khudbar hikmdt nihdda, mavd'iz-i hukamd rd da8tur u 'l~'amal sdzad, ham mamldkat-ash dbdddn bdshad va ham ra l iyyat-ash
khush-dil va khurram, chundnchi Edy-i A'zam-i Ddbishlim-i Hindi
*b (Anvar-i Suh.,
his acts on wisdom, I, Intro.) makes the advice of sages his rule of conduct, his state will be prosperous and his people joyful and happy, like the great king of Hind, Dabishlim
Chap.
" and every wise king who, basing
who."
*'
if
Agar chundnchi u dmad b man mi-ravam fjjt* e/ ^T^f & (rn.c.) for instance he comes, I'll go; here chundnchi AûU^ could be expressed
\
^^^\
by
fi-l-masal
1
ft
Ta'assub *-***** means " zeal, party spirit."

Anciently this word was gazh-dum ftff*
In
rn.c.,
the Arabic word l aqrab
is
preferred.
3
Or chunanchi *3pj^
The copulative j could be omitted.

Note past tense in a condition,
$i not correct Arabic.
For chunanchi
AfÂo.,
it
is
better
to
substitute here az qabil4 dfc** )\, or ma$alan î*.

*
for present.
In m.c., chundnchi
AaxiUo.
365
if
alone is often used for "

fjjf
" and " so that"
y*
him
c**j
v^^-c^lj yj cusp.^ so severely that he died the next day."

JJD AfoUu*. <^*/<jr>K
(m.c.)
"they bastinadoed
(17)
***
Tawr-ikii
"
&J)*^ cA A
it
p&
+^
*&j?^ tawr-i-ki bi-shuma guftam hamdn tawr
vdqi'
hud
happened exactly as I told you." ki *&f JU :~ an Hal (18) Hal an ki bi-shumd guftam na-shunidid
(m.c.)
(in
I*
&&^
of
p&>
Uu
A&f JU.
(m.c.)
"although
(19)
spite of the fact that) I told you,

[vide (9)], instead of hdl
jt>
bd-vasf-i Inki A&jf Jt*fj
Dar
surat-i ki
*)j*
"in the event

go."
"
you did not listen ": or an ki <*f JU>.

:
Dar
"in the
surat-l ki
u bi-yayad man ml-ravam

coming,
I'll
f*>j*>
er*
^^
' '
:
jt
*+?)yoj$ (m.o.)
event) of his
(20) Bi-har hdl
J^^j,
etc.,
"
anyhow,
l^la.
at
any rate
(m.c.)
Bi-har
hdl
chdra-i
nist %û^x>
Jla^^
L>
"
anyhow
there
is
no
help for it."

(21) |iA
jx3
W rV
^rTâ
6a in
hama A^^f
e<
still,
in spite of
"
:
Bd-vujud-i-ki bi-u
dusti
nami-kunam p& ^^^ ^} \** &j& ) *& )^^ " to him do this and he didn't, still (in although I told
guffam in kdr bi-kunad va na-kard> ma* hdzd
^^
tark-i
*^*f*&
(m.c.)
spite of that) I
won't
give
up
his friendship."
v^jl^J
u nihdyat 'l~amr occurs rarely in writing for^/oîoa^ dqjbat*'l-amr **at length, at last." is not used at all in Persia. nevertheless It is a (23) /+A U td-ham
(22) yift
"
'
translation of the Hindi tau-bhi
" Lest " (24)
^y
it is
Hindustani.
:
Mabddd
if
fdU*; shay ad
^jU
The poet
for
says,
you earn anything to-day, you should keep a portion
to-morrow
Mabddd
*'
ki dar dahr dir isti

nisti (Firdausi).
Musibat buvad piri u

Lest you
live long;
For old age and want are a calamity."

\tj*
&? faUx>
^.^Jux)
y j&
(m.c.)
:
jf
viJi?
guft-az fikr-i tu ml-tarsam
ki
duzddn asp rd bi-barand

steal the horse
"I
fear lest while
ing, the thieves
^y
mi-tarsam ki mabddd az injd na-ravam may " I fear I ** shall not get away from here." Uciijt y \d& (K*J**Q (m.c.) In the above examples ** alone could be substituted for mabddd tÛo
:
"
you are think-
without altering the sense

Or dar har b Or mi-tarsam Or
sang-l
ham shakk bud
ki shdyad (or
mabddd) sang 8 az
ki
mabada
l^'f*
*$
366
bala-yi
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JEOTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
kuh bar man uftad <&\ &*j>. * ^s^)\ v-&* ( f^y or) <xU tS there was also some doubt that (lest) a stone might fall on me from (m.c.)
'*
the
cliff."
In the following Afghan
colloquial sentence,
mi-tarsam mabada dar
I am afraid I may panja-yi dushman na-yuftam p&y er*^ ^î j* f*j**' the fall into the hands of the enemy," negative is wrongly inserted owing
^^
"
to a confusion of thought.
In the following example from the Gulistan the same confusion seems to
*"
exist
s^
to
] andlshld ki agar bar mala* uftad fttna na-shavad M\ &*j*\ tf AA&JJJI " && (Sa'di) he thought that if the matter became known it might give
:
rise to
)
:
discord"
(i.e.,
should
it
become known
hope
it
won't give
{v
rise
modern Persians object to the negative here. *Z (25) Hamm taw ki mt-dawd uftad o>Ui[ **j*&t>
was running.'
93.
'
^X+A (m.c.)
he
fell
while he
Interjections
and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings,

Compliments,
etc.
of
Interjections
consist
either
indeclinable
particles
emotion or
else of substantives in the vocative case.*
expressive of Short exclamative
and Arabic, also act as interjections. 8 There is no general term for " Interjection." Interjections for regret are called huruf-i afws <jy*'f vJ^ for lamentation and grief, hurnf-i-nudba
phrases, both Persian
:
4bdJ
Oj^
*&)
for attracting attention

(
(ay,
ya,
etc.)
huruf-i nidd \> vJj^v

(
for
admiration,
:
wonder, huruf-i-ta ajjub
v^*^
<**jj*-
kalima-yita aj)vb
*-**>*>
for warning, huruf-i-rad' , etc., etc.
The following are simple

(1)
Interjections.
:
Regret (harf-i-afsus oTharf-i-ta'assuf), or sorrow (harf-i-nudba)
m.c.
ur~^
afsus*
)
>
alas
class. U^y^Jt afsusa
)
\
m.c. m.c.
>A
\j
^)5
righa
or
va a
alas!
va hasrata
f
note that the
final
letter is
hamza and not
alif
the a
is
the
fcttha
of the law.
The vocative is either the same form as the nominative or else is marked in such words, as diriyha [**jb> alsoaydmâ ^j(i ^t, bv a final 3. The vocative alif *>** *^f The latter form is used in the singular only. Dirigh is called atij-irnuiba
*
.
leardan &*jffc}* or dashtan

*
4^*^t>
"to withhold, deny ":

"
dirigh
amadan
c"^-*T
J^)^
to
be sorry, regret
8
"
dirigh nlst
^^ &)*
htizar afsua
you
are welcome to it."
Chodzko aptly compares the interjection to a species of musical note that gives a tone to the whole phrase.
* Also sad hayf
-ft^
&* and
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.

m.c. uush. hayf
..
1
367
class,
class,
._ _ uka- hayfa tap fj z;a darda or

lj
tpity!
tj>;a
darda, oh grief!
"\
class.
vah
m.c.
class.
Îj t,I
j #w/i
uj4J
C ah, alas.
m.c.
c5^
aft
wM
bi-man,
woe
to me.
)
C >
m.c. *f
m.c.
Uf a&a
I
* -7 -
si gh
m.c. olfAA hayhat alas.

class,
pf
I^
avakh*
alas.
class. *kj txi^/a, alas.
m.c. &> 5
va vayla, alas.
1^
class. li%t
vaasafa, oh
c^l^
my
sorrow, alas.
(said
(3).
3 m.c. <y ^t ay MaA; 6ar sar-am, dust on my head! occasion of death or when a false statement is made) vide
;
^
:
on
Examples
viw
<jfoeJ*
^^^
r;
^y tf
>Jt afsus
is
ki
baradaram sakht
na-khush ast (m.c.)
"my
brother, I regret to say,
very
ill."
Dawr-irjavani bi-shud az dast-i-man Ah u datight an ziman-i dil furuz 6
(Sa*di)
"
The time
(revolution) of
youth
left
me,
Ah
Har
alas! for that glad time."
ki shah an kunad ki u guyad Hayf bashad ki juz niku guyad (Sa*dl). " He on whose word the King (relies and) acts
A pity it
Hayf
ast ki in-ha ra bi-burand 6 (m.c.)
were he should speak aught but the truth." " it is a "

pity to cut these
" alas for *H e>!^ GhulamBiza, (*^ hayf-i-Qhulam Eiza javanbud^ (m.c.) he was young."
Also sad Jiayj -*#*
** and hazar ajsiia

"Alas,"
as well as for an exclamation of pain
In speaking,
aM
ft is used for
"Oh!"
3
" Oh what shall I do." Or bar sar-am alone: chi bhak bar sar-am fj^jl * The Persians refer all changes of fortune to the revolution of the heavens. Dawr " also means the circulation of the wine cup. "revolution ))& 6 From afruj&tan c^jj^f to kindle : also dil afruz ))f\ J^ (generally applied for a lover).
6
7
^^ ^
Generally pronounced with only one Applied to a dead person.
r.
368
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERJECTION AL PHRASES, ETC.

tt/f
An
"
murgh-i tarab ki ndm-i u bud shabdb

ki kay
Farydd ! na-ddnam
dmad kay shud
bird of youth
mark not when you came,

and
left
Nor when you
fled,
me
thus forlorn."
(0.
155 K. Whin.)
:
In the following, the poet's plaint
is
addressed to himself
Fa dsajd / vd dsafd / Iran 'ajab dar khwdb-i ghaflat ast (modern) " Alas " In what a sleep of forgetfulness is Iran sunk alas ay khdk bar ear-am In alas what words are these (i.e. they are untrue)." chi haif-ist (m.c.)
!
!
:
<
Remark.
Sometimes a verb
is
equivalent to an interjection, as
Own bdd-i ajal ohirdg]i-i

Tarsam
'*
ki turd zi-nang nap'zirad
umrat bi-kushad khdk
When
winds of death shall quench your vital touch,

lest
Beware
earth your guilty dust expel/*

(0.
K. 296 Whin.)
and surprise
(2)
Admiration
e>O*f J e^-* 3^
oj^
(real or
feigned),
m.c. vdh vdh Vj fy, good, good. m.c. AJ u bah bah, 1 well done also,
;
how
!
nice.
m.c. erir^ dfirin, (create

class. 1} zih
class.
a
)
^
^
well done
ÂJ
r~**\
zihl
3
m.s. <j2ljU shdbdsh
hurrah
rate
!
(in
India, well done).
m.c.
{1
ahsanf
first
good, good", afrlnama Ax>U^j (âfrmbud " a Zend word occurring at the end of Gabr prayers, and signifies Oh God ** able to are we than what more be express. prayer
1
For bih bih
4<
AJ,
is
may
our
2
8
O God
#
create
:
more
for us.
Classical also
."ft'
*
much used by Afghans and

<
<,'
Indians in speaking.
*
' '<*'
JUif
O 6* (<j~&)
or
w JUif are two Arabic forms expressing admiration, as:

+
is
of
Af>
"how handsome
Zaid."
1NTERJJEOTIONS
}
AND INTERJECTIONAL PHRASES,
ETC.
369
m.c. Ua^/a marhaba, well done (not welcome). m.c. *JJt v^b barak Allah, may God bless you, good. m.c. *iff -0'x tabarak Allah, good, strange (also used to express disbelief).
class. u>xx
m.c. jif\ m.c. *JUt
M
l
habbaza, well done.

Allah" akbar,
God
!
is
most great
will.
(for
wonder or admiration).
>lU ma
sha* Allah, as
s aa
.
God
m.c. *-*m.c.
ajab, wonderful
** ej*r*f )\j*
hazdr a firm, by
&zp &*
^JLff
all
means, a thousand times yes.
Examples: &*j* khub-i darid (m.c.) 6(

(m.c.)
^^
Û. Uo
ma
**r
what a nice
kard
little
child
sha** Allah chi bachcha-yi you have got ": barak Allah
\*>**>j*
chi kar-i khub-l-st 'a jab kar-i
cj^
*?^
&*- *J^f
^l>
"may God
:
bless it!
how
excellent a thing this is! he has performed
wonders"
afirin
bi-Mahmud
j>j+*uo AJ
e^yf
(m.c.J
" well done Mahmiid "

!
Firdawsl, the author of the S/iah-Nama, the great epic of Persia, claims that it is written in pure Persian. He was confronted with his verses:
Ir u Qadar guft dih Falak guft ahsan Malak guft zih
Firdawsl'a reply was that the Falak (not he) had said ahsan.
(3)
Lamentation, mourning:
4
")
.
m.c. e;U* fuahcin

^
ui
Lament! Oh! Alas!

^, Oh
. ,
m.c.
m.c.
^j
1
vay
_
C
>
misery!
^j ^ v^ vayla
m.c. fj** y
(4)
^^ ^
ay khak bar sar-am,
vide, (1).
)
Hatred, aversion, contempt ( 6 m.c. jA) - cA3 . of w/, <%/, /t^/ft,

smell)
;
^^ o^
tie,
for
shame, ako
*j
pah
(for
a bad
if ugh (for a bad smell).
m.c.
a/L
a" In Arabic "welcome," but in Persian "well done," for marhab

(1).
p.
382, foot-note
* Lit.
"As God
If
wills it,
what a nice."
The ma
sha* Allah
^ *UU
averts the
9 a stranger wero to make the remark without ma aha Allah 3vil eye. added. formula being bbo relations of the child would at onco insist on this
There
is
a distinction between qaza
and qadar }**
Fughan
kardan &sj$ u^*
"to cry aloud, lament."

$+*?
In Arabic uff of.
For Ar. &>
24
370
m.c.
INTERJECTIONS AND INTERACTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
j^
dur, avaunt.
m.c. AlJU i^f a'uz u bi-lldh,

m.c. *J pah.
(5)
God defend me
(I
take refuge with God).
Attention or warning
m.c.
8> Uajyi
injd nigdh kun, look here,

sar-i hisdb bash, look
m.c. <^b <~>{~^j*

class, (rare m.c.)
class,
,
out
*Jo^
e)l*
inak, behold!
now!
!
class,
and poet. , and poet.

y
hdn
!
7-1 know && h^n

1
in truth
m.c. )^*j zinhar
beware, never do! on no account

look
here;
(ay
is
m.c. *^yc ^t ay mardaka

substantive).
always followed by a
m.c.
A^y ^y
2
o*i
m.c. t^$
ni.c. ;>J
ejlU ^c\
mardaka, you there, fellow ay fuldn kas, oh So-and-so

}
(0*1
can be used alone).
a#
Tw'cfor,
oh you there, (oh father! addressed to one older
m.c. ^**
m.c.
than the speaker). 3 ^1 ay 'amu, oh uncle

<^t
!
"i
^*^+*
ay mashhadi, oh Mashhad!
karbalas.1,
m.c. ^>&!f
^\ ay
oh Karbala*!
!
m.c. j$\j ^\
ay baradar, oh brother
m.c. y'U* ^| ay musafir, oh traveller
j
is
Zinhar
either
j(^)
or zinhar
^^j, when an
interjection of warning,
:
followed
bi-din
by the 2nd person of the Imperative or of the Aorist, as

>
zmhdr
tama* digar-bar gird-i in dim na-gard ^t +k e^-^J^J ^^ ^*! & )b ** take heed, don't again through greediness approach the snare"; (Sa'dl) guft zinhar na-sitani ki bi-panjah dinar ham raz% shavand j ^3 " he said beware lest thou 1 cr*L> p*jfi'.* (on no account) take (Sa*dl)
^ ^^
?^
it, for
they will even consent to give you fifty dinars (' to go elsewhere )," Zinhar khwasian cr*"!^ A^j " to seek protection, sanctuary '* zinhari " under adj. protection" bi-zinhar amada-am c & (m.c.) "I have j(
3
:
\
^^\
*^
to you for protection." In the sentence guft mara kushta shudan qabul ast likan na-khwdham shud * c^t Jî A i^r txtj
come
^\^
^ ^J
*awm
zintidr
barahna
(m.c.)
oiT
Marfaka
A^XJ
'
(m.c.) for
mardak
Or /u/5na Ai&.
*^mw
*
or
arrmu j+*
all
(m.c.), for
in Ar.
These are
one who has made been to Karbala, are
m.c. forms of addressing or calling to a stranger. the pilgrimage to Mashhad and Karbalai
Mashhadl
oÛ
&&J,
one who has
respectfully addressed to
person addressed has really
same manner*
any stranger, and do not mean that the made any pilgrimage. The Arabs use Ya ^ in the hZjj ^
INTERJECTIONS AND INTBRJECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
371
"she
said
she could rather perish than undress,"
zinhdr y^j
may
be
considered either an interjection or an adverb of negation. In modern colloquial, zinhdr )($ is used without a negative in the sense
of
"mind you do,"
as:
zinhdr zinhdr Ichidmat-i khud rd stidkh u barg-i bisydr

\
bi-guzdr ;!*& jU~o
j,^ (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. 40) "mind, whatever you do, that you embellish your services when relating them."
Remark.
^^ j & ) ^L
cu^jA
^
!
Ha U
is
" have a care

f
-
behold
\)
"
is
in in.c. often corrupted into

-
a, as
shumd rd mi-zanam-d
p*}**>
U^
inyd biyd-d f
U> U*x|.
Hdn eM
(with nasal n)
similarly used.
(6)
Impatience
rn.c.
^ *&
tt>
<jj
m.c. j^j
nigdh kun, look here, conie here. dlh bi-raw, go along, do; (also dih for wonder).
1
m.c.
m.c.
rn.c.
>
^ ^
(
fXf*,
jahannam shaw, go
to hell.
(J^ gum-ash p$ gum sliaw,

Jib,
kun> hang him. be off with you.
m.c.
Jtf, or
or JUij, or) v-jb
^
8 3
^^'
my
bdji
biraw 'aqab (or dumbdl,
or bald, or kindr),
my
good woman, you are in the way.
m.c. j+*
jj>
jM
kindr bi-raw 'ammu,

(class., obs.).
good man, please move.
pusht pusht
m.o. 4Â Jo
posh posh (Afghan,

IA.
class.).
!
jd bi-dihid,
make room
m.c. tx*U^<> dur bdshid, clear the
way
m.c.
J~^t-* ^f^x^- khabarddr ! sar~i hisdb, take care, look out

a person riding). <^ <*^ khafa bi-shl,
(gen.
by
ni.c.
m.c,
^^J
may you
viJ^ dil-at dard bi-ydyad, as
be hanged (lit. throttled), above (lit. may you have a
stomachache).
(7) Distress,
want
m.c. djkf amdn, quarter
Haji Ag]& nigah kun being in the next room)."

1
&$
K>
^T ^\*>
(for
4 *
(m.c.)
Haji Aglia come here (H. A.
Bajl c**^>
l* fc -
sister'!
*Amuj+*
'ammu)
'uncle,' not necessarily one older
than the speaker: two boys quarrelling
will
say biraw
'ammu j+*
:
jtf
" what can you
do to
8
me
"
For explanation
1
of these terms, vide p. 372, foot-note (3)
liammal amad *>*T (O. K. Rub. 218, Whin.). packs.*
JUa^ c**J
o^
&f
^^
guyand ki pusht pusht the comes here porter with his precious
372

m.c. aky 1 faryad, injustice! m.c. ,*!*# bi-dad, injustice, tyranny
Lord m.c. vu Lj ya Babb, cr~*a jt o^l aman m.c.

!
>
az dast-i-tu,
help from
thine
hand
(of
oppression).
ni.c.
(8)
to*>)\
oU dad az
:
jafa-yi tu,
oh
redress from thine injustice.
Fie, for
shame
m.c.
*ar-a^ nami*ayad, feelest thou no shame ? m.c. *iX?T m.c. *U* oojj ruy-at siyah, thy face is blackened. UJ^;0 *^~NJ^ u^*- U^> ftat/a A$w& cliiz-ist dar dunya, a feeling of shame
^p^ oJlA (^ &j*
khajalat bi-kash, feel
shame
'
is
a good thing to cultivate.

(9)
Repentance
f^j>^
ra.c.
m.c.
t>jZ
f^/ ^^ yhflfat kardam, guh khurdam, I have erred; repent humbly (lit. I have eaten human excrement). Âjyio jtj^ digar na-khwaham kard, I will never do so again
!
&
(10) Miscellaneous:
m.c.
class.
^ ^
^
j) y(j
yalla*
raw kun, oh! begin!
^>^
v>j>^
^~*$ pusht pushtf
make way
look out!
m.c.
m.c.
khub,
all right,
go on, continue.
>j
^^-
chashm-i bad dur, a vaunt the evil eye.
m.c. (D&j& y )jz dur az know the like.
dustan (Sa'dl),
may you and my
friends never
m.c. &ifb iyti na'uz bi-llah
m.c. <*Ub fiUp

m.c.
txi^J
aydz
an bi-llfih
ii^
Khuda na^kunad
i>ix
j^God forbid.
"
\
m.c. AL*Mx>
Khuda
na-khivasta "~
_ m.c. UiU. hasfia
w jaryad
kardan &Zj' &^* 9 j
karri an <*)$j>
S^j* j
^
:
" to
call
aloud for justice"
faryad u
a^*
*'
to
" lament
bi-faryad rasidan
e)^^;
^l^
" to
assist,
c<
succour"
*
$
az
dast-i
hakim faryudl hastam
cf^^j*
^l^ o*^ jt
(rn.c.)
am
making a complaint against the Governor."

Vulg. for
Possibly
Y a Allah *M
tj.
posh
44
*'mind your backs" or ** turn your backs (i.e., face the wall; as a The camel-men of Afghanistan and the Indian N.-W. Frontier say, great lady passes)." " for out of tho which is a of the old
po#h\ get pusht pueht o^-> t**J
I
way,"
perhaps
corruption
veil your eyes (as in close succession.*

4
Another suggested derivation is that posh posh may mean a lady is coming)." Pusht pusht also means *' one behind the other
.
God defend
.
us!
lit.
"we
atoned ) "
take refuge with
God (from Satan
the accursed or
Quran
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JECTIONAL PHRASES, ETC*

y
373
ni.c.
<UJtyUL*t
astacjkfir-" llah,
God
forbid
(lit.
ask
pardon of
God).
ni.c.
**$
t^ Khuda
e> lat
m.c. &M\
4~
grant. Subhan*llah, Praise be to

"\
kunad,
God
God
(for
wonder, m.c.).
m.c. !*>
^
?/
ay Khuda
m .c.
kfoA Khuddyd
Oh God!
(in m.c.
m.c. *
m.c. ^t'f Ildhi,

rn.c.
(
my God
"I hope
(or
'
.")
^t*^
*JU'
or) *>*& t*A>
Khuda danad
mi-danad),
God knows.
m.c.
m.c.
aJDi ^Lfi^t
^^
tti,^
in sha* Allah, if it please God. >L&f in shaf Allah Ta'alq, if it please
God most High.
m.c.
^r*y
azbaray-i Khuda
[
for
God's sake.
m.c.
^Jolu bi-khatir-i Khuda class. A J^f (J-i^ c?-* ft mbiV-'llah

IOA.
j
~)
in
) m.c. '*^ M )* dar rah-i Khuda u m.c. *JU A^^Ji al-Jmmd li-'ilah, praise be to
God
name.
God (Thank God).

shumd
(or
m.c.
t^y^
(
shukr-i
Khuda, thank God!
m .c.
m.c.
(JoJl^ '*i^ or)
UA
Jfeâ.
ti>^
Khuda,
hafiz-i
Khuda
hafiz)
good-bye
;f
J>
(God protect you).

niaah-dar
<^ Khuda
;
^
r
^;td *Ki
LHW v^ Khuda shuma
may God guard
you.
ra nigah darad
ni.c.
j^j zinhar
t
beware!
virfe (5).
ni.c.
aâ,-
goon, begin.
!
m>
tâb.;
L|
m.c.
class.
4 ly turd bi-Khuda, for mercy's sake i^jb &ar Khudaya, O Great God!
6
*-*V labbayk
(in
m.c. labbe), here I am.

6
%1?
;
gulula-yi shash
tnisqali,
you want a
bullet (to keep
tu-yi kun-at bashacL you quiet) the coming ôJ qadam-i shuma bar chashm, welcome (to
or
guest)
M
or speed (to departing guest).

1
m.c.
to Aaxj
bachcha-ha
servants! attendants! (waiter!)
Ilahl
rahmat-at
hafi^l
kam
na-shavad ^^.J *&
oJU^> ^^f
(m.c.).
'
huda
kardan
o^^ <^^'^ !^^

^*J>
t4
to say ôod-bye. *'
Corruption of Allah,
Qasam ml-diham Â*^^

Lahbayk*
cJ^^jJ,
understood.
I
:
&
" here Ar.,
am
for
you (waiting your
orders).'*
f>
A bullet of six
mitqals
/fco,
Corresponds to
7ia
JÂXJ i n m.c. one mivqal of Urdu.
72 tjandum.
374

m.o. )\ty
ttJ^:?/
y c**o
Jf
dast
az^\
\
girlban bardar
m.c.
)\* )j /f
'
** J
o-*a dast az yaqqa
J-let
me
go.
am
m.c.
m.c.
**
vardar
,
J
!
A hick hich nothing, nothing *f*
.^
c*H&- c&*2- na-bud
) >it
)
m.c.
ib;!i^3
m.c. ajy
^
^t
vioJbU qabiliyyat na-ddrad
was nothing,
of
no consequence.
not
vvortli
^1*3^
bi-zahmat-ash
nami-arzad,
it's
the
trouble.
^f ay madad ay madad, help help m.c. eAÛi-*^ ^J eiGUJUsxj ^t ay musalmanan ay musalmanan, Oh Muslims Oh Muslims
m.c. ^vo
^x!
bi~kumuk-am
j*t
bi-ras
^corne to
)
my
help,
come
to
my
bi-fary ad-am
a
bi-ras
cries
m.c.
e;U>
Û
Au
^t
3
Û ^f
^.f
a/ madar ay madar, help, help (children) ay nana-jan, O dear mother (children to mothers
!
also in
addressing women used by women when startled) cA^ kb ^.f ay baba jan, O dear father (a man's exclamation
;
!
when
startled).
m.c.
*> &A.J&* magar

<*jf ^5+J (î-5^
chi shud,
what have
ki
done
m.c.
*"
cU*f asman
fall.
paym
^
)
nami-ayad, do so, don't fear,
the sky won't

m.c.
^
.
duzd duzd
,
m.c.
**>]
^ duzd amad
1
.thieves! robbers
m.c.^j^Jj^- fei^r bigir. seize him, seize him! m.c. o j va %Kt, stop
-it
f
m.c. i^^x:
m.c.
>c
\A j az jd 'ma-jumb
7 narakat ma-kun
oo^
don't move!
i
m.c. vlr*
bi-fchivab
crouch down, take shelter.

*
!
m.c. m.c. <j^^t=^ Ichamush, silence
m.c.
(J^l) jtjAs*
khabarddr bash, look out
4
!
m.c. ))z t&\j &j* sar-at-ra nigah dar, heads m.c. AxJU cuixLx multafit bashid^ please pay attention, listen!
!
m.c. {jt (Jj$ gush kun, listen (give ear) m.c. o2b Aîxi mutaivajjih bash, pay attention
!
In m.c. yak&a
*iv.-'.
T.
vardar j&)J m.c. for bar dar
*
8
A man
Nona
would address an elderly woman as madar

or
^^.
by mothers to their
&* *J
Nana jan e>^
^ J **
is
children, or
by children
to their mothers.
a pot name used * Vide also (6).

m.c. (VU UJ* U &&)* dilitan ba
375
man
bashad, just pay attention to
me
!
for
a few minutes.
m.c.ô U IA^JO
(11)
bi-gw,
ha ha
bi-gir,
soo on then (to a greyhound)

:
The following imitative sounds

P* s h
or cries are used to animals
cA*# cA'j
pwh, puss, puss.

(for driving
1
cuj^
4u.<
t
chit,
shoo
away a
cat).
AJO
fo'ê fo't/e,
for calling fowls, pigeons, dogs, etc.

(for frightening
chikh? shoo
^
away
dogs).
y yy
(
tu tu tu, fowls or pigeons (in
Kerman).
^fr C A y^$^ Aws&, stand still (to donkeys). <j^- achlsh, stand still (horses, donkeys).
for driving sheep. f$ ft pikh pikh,
&?* hun, for urging on a donkey.
^
cries
hay, uttered at intervals

I.
by cam el- men
to
keep camels in motion.
Remark
There are
many
other imitative cries used for calling camels,
goats, sheep, asses, etc., etc., as well as for urging on beasts of burden: such
cannot be represented in writing.
In the south of Persia, distance is represented by uttering ha several times with a peculiar intonation, as: Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a Kirman* "there yonder in the distance is Kirman." [In the Panjab a peculiar way of " there it is raising the voice (ohh pare hai yonder ") has a similar use.
) Examples Onomatopoetic nouns are called ism-isawt ( oj*> " " ku ku t( jlk jlk ~-^ *-&^" chirping of small birds cooing of doves " noise of laughter": chir chir j*. j** "fizzling of meat qah fjah tti ik* "tlie whizzing of a chakachak cooking": *J>**^ and chaqachaq <j & ll? and tran$-a-trang air": the sword, club, etc., through fash-a-fasli Û
(6)
(1)
the whizzing of arrows through the air": qul-qul J^3 "the *Z & &+=* Qa-ani has :j<o gurgling of wine being poured out, etc., etc." Such -j az kunad mu ki mu words, chun masti-yi bisyar. ;ljr c5^^ y gurba
v^yf
<4
^Jjy
however, as pish pish J^^

(c)
The following
L
are
oî anc^ chikh* etc are particles the commoner dervish cries
,
:
(harf).
I,
Ya Hu
Ya
Tlaqq
Ho
/
\
Truth
(or
God)
For biya biya
**
come, come.*'
',
2 8
The Afghans say chibhe ^**-*- also m.c. Can this havo any connection with the
For things
far off only.
m.o. particle of continuation hay
$*>-
J>oth are pronounced the same.

*
*
Hu
is
is
the 3rd pers. sing.
mase. Arabic pronoun "he*' also "He.**
Haqq
*'
the
Truth "
another
name
of God.
376
INTERJECTIONS AND INTER JBCTIONAL PHRASES, ETC.
Yd 'All madad, O ''All help (Shi' a dervishes). Yd Mawfud* Oh Omnipresent. U lj Yd Qdziy- a 'l-hdjdt Granter of the needs of man. A0U Yd Ghaffdr*-l-2unub Forgiver of sins (of the 'All
]
Allah!
sect).
yô
<JJ
Gul-Mawld, (a dervish greeting in which

a rose).
'All is
compared to
Certain cries are peculiar to certain sects Sadd-yi yd AK * b b oxb ( or) ^J^c (or yd Husayri) buland shud * ^?\** could only be s applied to Shi* as, and sadd-yi yd Char Ydr ;b jU. ^ <^!*x* to Sunnis only.
Remarks,
^^
Yd
Allah *Mi U could be used by either sect.

(d)
the following are some

:
of the street cries;
they are not current in
all
parts of Persia
Persia
is
the very home of flowery and figurative language, and striking examples of this are to be found even in the street cries. (1) Fruit or sweets:
b oyji)b
to
oy
:
b quwat-i bdzu, quwat-i pd, strength to your arms, strength
your Sweetmeats
*i)t
legs.
,oL^
:
c5
**-^+*"i
~~
^;^ tol^
cj?
ay
halvd-yi
khdrak
ay
pashmnk
Figs
1 ay halvd-yi drda.
o^^' Ab
Â.jf anjir, anjir-i bulhul-i hdyji-i bihisht, tigs! tigs for the nightinealeiS of the Garden of Paradise.
JUL^-xjciJi
J
1
tit
The Surmi dervishes say Ya char y^r

These
cries are
y-
<*-
t-
i.e.
Abu Bakr,
'I'mar, 'Usmaii
and
the
'All. 4
used by dervishes either to announce their arrival at the doors of

:
threat,
he
Ya
the too
when seeking alms in the bazars. A dervish entering doos not salute utters one of these cries. The writer saw a Persian dervish in Baghdad crying Mawjud Zj**?* b in an unpleasant and excited voice till utterance nearly failed, and sweat streamed down his face from the exertion. The shop-keepers wore only to move him on.' willing to give him money Abu Bakr u 'Urnar, Us man u Haydar ;^.^ j c^^* J j+* 3 7* (misra).
or else
'
" ;
'
Haydar
4
is
title of
'AH.
Republished from the JL As. Soc. Beng., 1906, by the courteous permission of the
subject should compare these with the street cries of Needless to add, some of them show a fin* imagination. snack by the polite, bur guest is sometimes pressed to stay and eat a
*
'
Council.
Those interested in the

old London.
&
colloquial phrase
5
yak
: f
chiz-i bl-bbur ki quvvat-i
zann payda
kii.nl
} <*>* *$ )}***
^J^
**^
V**
>4><
iv
-^*
(m.c.)
the idea apparently
is
that the refreshment
will
give the necessary
strength to the lea\ o-taker's legs.

6
7
KJtiarak vJjlA. a dried date.
Halva-yi arda
fc^jT
^j^*
is
made
of
sesame seeds,
Hiigar,
Hour, nnd butter.

,j
377
figs.
o>* quvvat-i zdnU anjlr

:
ast,
strength to the knees are
Pomegranates
jpomegranates h ^ anar daram anar-i.'} f

;.
have
I;
pome^
granates of the Garden of Paradise.
\ j
bdb-i dil-i btmdr.

t^
^jUf atabaki
tar, Tchiyar,
daram nar, atdkabl daram ndr.
Cucumbers
;
1
^^ ^
'
t^l
2/
qand-i
oh liquid sugar, cucumbers!

a cure for
bile.
Plums
yf
^^ i^p ^f
:
a ^ safra*8hikan alu, oh plums
Grapes
^y^xj
' *
û
i
.
HJs
^75 daram, mushtari, gold have

:
I,
oh buyer
Pistachio-nuts
<u^j ^t ay ^-yUux êjUxji pista-yi Ddmcj_lian, mushtari, pistachio-nuts from
Damglian, oh buyer! Nuts and edible seeds:
(i^
^ fj^ ^M.=?^ A+& Mulberries

J
:
hama
'ajil
daram
va bishkan.
bl'ddna nabdt
bi-ya lazzat
im-bari az ruh,
bi-ddna ab-i haydt; bl-ddna shakar-nabdt ; bi-dana, (mulberries) luscious without seeds,
;
ries like crystal
sweet as sugar-candy, priceless as the water of life seedless mulbersugar; seedless mulberries come and delight thy
soul.
Black Mulberries:
lîu>
ifj.x/o
miva-yi safra-bur shah mlva.
White Mulberries: v^^,f jj^ J^ ~

(
J^
nuql-i
liila
^
sweets with cardamoms

ildchl dana).
(in
India
=
cJ
hil
a.st)
(2)
Tripe;
-
Ût"**
(3)
êm^t, oh tripe!
:
^ c^;^
J
Cinnamon Tea
^,1^
^f
all
a?/ chay-i
dar-chln nabal* oh tea
and cinnamon* and
sugar-candy
I
mixed
Atabaki
(j&\
is
a good variety of pomegranate.

this
"
;
Qand
is
loaf sugar, the kind mosjt liked in Persia.
Pronounced Damyh fin:

Nabat &*>
is
ki
and Simnan both moan ^lash-had and are famous for

''
pistachio-nuts,
Some Persians do not eat qand. A few oldsugar-candy. fashioned Muslims will not take tea, which comes from Hindus: nor loaf-sugar, which is
najis
u*?
it is
firstly,
because sugar
is
made by
the hands of unbelievers, and secondly,
because
purified
by bones.
378
(4)
Water:
ij
bi-nush bi-ydd-i Shahid-i
Karbala, drink in remem-
brance
(5)
of the
:
Martyr of Karbala.
Kerosine-oil
<Ji*>
v ^?
pfa îii nail-i* ddram misl-i guldb, a naptha have I like roselamps)
water.
(6) Castor-oil (for
:
jf^.
$l
fâ.
:
$U b yd shdh-i ckirdgh
4
yd shdh-i chirdgh.
(1) For clothes &U (*ya P)\

-
&*.;b
^tjj
OHi^
vj?l
gwfcis
ddram
shlla
(8)
ddram, oh long-cloth have

:
I,
cloth have I, sdlu
pdrcha daram 6 have I.
For pins and needles 6
tjjl^j
AJUjf jUxi^ oj^^cf ay suzan

pins, thimbles, gold
sinjdq angushtdna yardq
oh needles,
and
silver lace.
(9) Scissors
)*{*>
f*i>
and embroidery (hawked in villages only)* (JiU^^f (j?\j**^ ay miqrdz ay yardq-i dam-i chddar, oh
1 (or silver) lace for chddars.
:
scissors,
oh gold
(10)
For antimony 8
rfkcj**
wî^
^y
:
^XLa
i/c^yo
^jj
Q.%
surma-'i/i sang,
o-l
surma- yi sang,
oh antimony
(11)
of stone.*
Indigo
c5^
!
10
****j cfj'
*
'
vasma
/ o-?
vavmct,
oil
leaves of Indigo, oh leaves of
indigo.
Husayn
v^*-*^, slain at Karbala,
was wounded
lie
stooped to drink
from the Euphrates.

-
in the mouth by an arrow, when His death occurred twelve years after that of
his brother
2
s
Hasan {r~A
is
oJa,
There
Persian for îi.
a shrine in Shiraz called Shah-i chirayh
^j^ ^î
is
where
is
buried the
brother of
Imam
Riza ^>) (*^K the
8tl)
Imam
(the latter
entombed at Mash-had).
Some Muslims
Tlie
salute the
now ly-ligh tori lamp by salam
Gabrs say Shab-i
fehayr
j^ v^
ô
p|^^ **^ *? f**** each other, generally juniors to seniors.

i/a fthahs-i chirciifJi
)\j <Jfr^"> or chihil-yar )^ <J^' because each piece is folded be the Persian word " time, turn, regulation," or a corruption of the English word yard; derivation doubtful. 6 Salu Indian names of the red cotton stuff. Shlla A*A ^L* or shalu j*[*
* Called also chihtl-var
in forty var; var
may
is
vulg. for ahilla

6 7
8
*^.
by Jews.
These
articles are usually sold
10
The Zardushti women wear a special chadar j^la. without yaraq oLri For the eyes and eyelashes. ^ ^ For some reason the best antimony is called aurma-yi sanq <X/c^ For the eyebrows; the dried leaves are pounded arid boiled. Sa'di says
^^
kushish-i
III.
bl Ja*ida
1'
astvasma bar abru-yi kur )jf)f.\J, *+**J v=î <<V^ (Jty>. Story 28, Book Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Oabr women.
'

(12)
Rouge:
cJf
v^r*
fctkk
(13) Patches
surkhab, oh paint (for the face)

~*
:
(lit.
red water).
^\ ay khitat, oh moles (14) Amulets: Not hawked in the streets in Persia; generally obtained as a hadiyya from a Mulla. They are, however, hawked in India. (15) Love philters
]
!
:
**'
^-*>3x/o
j j^c
live
<^sfjj>
dava~yi mihr
:
u mahabbat, medicine
for love
and affection.
oh
(16)
For
animals
J^tSJf
y^î ^^
for goats
'Id-i
~t
pul-i buz, o-i pul-i buz,
oh money
for goats a
money
j^> j\j*
For sheep in the

Small lambs:
J
f
QurbanI
8
j*j iJi.Â
sheikh-ash bi-gw, savar shaw.
^*y
efrjl; jtrt
!
*y
^
:
1
o-l barra-yi
!
parvar, o-i barm-yi parvar, oh fatted
lambs
oh fatted lambs
yab-i kart
Bulls (for the plough)

<.sfi*
v^ LSJ
:
-*
oh ploughing bull
Cows
c
<
.^ v^<o-y co^v ^ cs^f ^$j*

gob-i
:
LS^
o-i gab-i ahlri, o-i gob-i skirl, o-l

!
shin, oh milch cow! oh milch cow
oh milch cow!
'alves
AJL^?^! <jjU*j? ^f AJU^î ay yawsala, ay cjawsala, ay gawsala, oh calves oh calves oh calves

!
!
For poultry
<S1$ cr^r^ LSJ
-*
'kkurus-i Lari,
oh cocks
of
Lar
(i.e.
big cocks).
Kens:
^^.ivJ A^.AJ
^f ay murgi-i tukhmi, oh laying hens

(alive)
:
Chickens
*^y^
o-f
ay
juja,
ay
juja, oh chickens
oh chickens!
'
Only used by the Muslimas, not by the Gabr women. Buz JfJ is the female; the he-goat is called cliapish cAj^ or narl
Tliere is a belief that those
;s
who
sacrifice
a rain at this 'Id,

sacrifice a
will ride this
at the
Day
of
Judgment.
The Persian Shi'as usually
very ram ram, and not a camel,
nor a cow.
*
B
Vul#. for gav
Lar
for fear it
6
to cultivate, so\v, plough." from kaahtan y& karl famous for its large breed of poultry. No Muslim would buy dead poultry had not been slaughtered properly. Tho hens are cried as munjh.
:
e^
^^
is
baz
Modern, for the obsolete j>^ chtiza still in use in India and Afghanistan: chuzaan old woman fond of young men. In falcony chiiz, vulg. chwi, is the Indian technical term for an immature hawk or falcon (in Persia buz or buzyur, T.).
is
380
INTERJECTIONS AND INTEEJEOTIONAL PHBASES, ETC.

Nightingales:
1
AfVfA.
ay bulbul-i khwananda, ay bulbul-i pur chahcha, oh singing bulbuls, oh bulbuls in full song.
.j
JL\JL>
*xxJt>^
J*b
45!
(17) Qur*ans:
f
ay hadiyya- yi Qur*an, oh presents of Qur*ans

:
for
Remark. It is impious to sell a Qur*an hence it is offered as a present, which the owner takes a present of money in return. When a vendor of
* c
jjfcfyi^**
'* Qur*ans cries his presents," the following comedy is enacted: A woman or in Quran chand hadiyya tm-khwahad oTy> would-be purchaser enquires, " '< is bi-riza?
AJJ^
<W
mand\-yi khudat ^^x>(^t "what you please." The would-be purchaser " <k then takes the book, kisses it, produces some security, and tells the giver to call again. In the meantime the Mulfa is consulted who says, for instance " giver" calls again panj tuman hadiyya darad tj* *Â Ûy ^. The
.
o^
how many
presents for this
Qur'an
The
reply
for his
**
present
" and
_-AJ
j.
if
dissatisfied, says bi-panj
tuman
hactii/ya
nami-diham
jUy
(18)
(e)
Old clothes:
AJMH6
*^
= )^
aix
A,
'
a^
m^mi
//o.
are some expressions in saluting, or in welcoming an<l or a visitor guest.* Some of these are properly used by inspeeding feriors only, but there is no fixed rule in the matter
The following
^j^cf cî> khush amadid "welcome!" (lit. you have come happily; used on arrival or departure). & li musharraf \ am honoured (by your coming)."
muzayyan
adorned (by your coming)." mujtakhir farmudid "you have made me (or us) proud."'
lt
(my house
is)
x matbakh-i khud-i-tanast. or
yi
'
U fc^j^nshixiz-khnnti(l>y
your own kitchen." safa avardid "you have brought us happiness" o^j/T coming; used either on arrival or departure).
shuma
nst
"
(our house)
is
ti*>
your
^y^ fy)
of
age-bird^* before they are in bulbul is mast.
<
is
the
term
applied by
fanciers
l*
to
the
low warbling
full
song,
f'hahcha *^t^"
^lr
prin^ song
when the
<l
Hadiyya.
sp. a
present to a superior.
'
&e) buy old clothes and broken articleB: in Calcutta thi^ by Bengali Hindus (bikrl wolnha}. 4 The term for walking or riding out some distance to meet an expected guest in JUaL*! intiqbtil, while that for accompanying a departing guest some little distance to
A
Jews
(called A^.^^- or
trade
is
carried on chiefly
speed him on his
way
is
o**H*
or Aj^yj fadraqa.
The
latter
word
also signifies
" a
guide, escort, safe conduct."

j
381
please enter (in the name of God)." " jjkjjju xx5U^j bi-farmasid bi-nishmid please take a seat." U Jj\* manzil-i cu*af jl^-o JU AjlA khdna mdl-i sarkdr ast,
bismillah
'*
oW
shnmd
ast
" our house

AJl.fL
yours." khdna vdhid ast B " our houses are one."

j++Jli>
is
y*j Uijxtf
Sîj
J&P
jojfy
awldd-am g&uldm-zdda-yi
shumd va khdnum-am kamz-i shumd va khudam banda-yi shumd*yam *' my children are your house-born slaves, and my wife is your handmaid, and I
myself your
cx~3
own
c<
slave."
*r f z$j* ) UJ p karam numa va farud a ki khdna and this house belongs to be kind because alight, khdna-yi you," to an exalted or to a friend (said great person. " oj^xi^ c^4A>j tî^ khayli zahmat kashidid you have troubled
&l^
AJU.
tust
yourself
much
(
(to
come and
see us)."
c
*o*~>
o^t;
'
'
o-*xj
jyÂJ zahmat-i nisi rdhnt ast

t<^
5
'no trouble at all; a
pleasure
U-
JojU.
t^
or
JaJla.
Khndd
hdfiz, or
Khudd
hdfiz-i
shumd, ^good-bye
a
(God be your Protector)." " t*>^ Khudd hamrdh. '*God be with thee |J+A
traveller).
(spec, to
departing
to
fÂ*,
(to
tâhj
i)l*tihumd rd bi-Khudd supurdam,
*'
1 entrust
you
God"
a parting traveller).
jb**y j&* safar bi-khafar, starting on a journey).

Cf"* C5"*
"may
" your journey be without danger (on

*'
U^^r*
x
wurakliktias mi-shavam,
,
must go " (on taking
leave).
?na rd
" don't ydd kuwrt forget me."
" "don't forget me.
}Â?
Û
îUk
jt
<73
kJidtir-i 'all
mard
maliv ma-jarmayld*
^yo
&
*j
exJ
lazzat
mj-barum,
**
nice house, or at the good things
enjoying myself" you are giving me to eat).
am
(at
seeing
your
bah bah, ''good, good.
1 '
Bi-'sm-i'llah
i.e.
*XI|^~o
this
formula
is
work,
boforo eating, mounting a horse, firing a gun, casting
used by Muslims before commencing any off a falcon, slipping
a grey-hound, etc., etc.
Note spelling; after the Qur'an;

'
p*
for
f*aU.
Note
hand
*
tills
uso of bi/armayid
vidr
^t^j*
(m.c.) "please.*
The
right
hand only should

lost his right
be used in eating;
for theft.
Arabian Niights in the story of the young
man who
Used
This
in India,
civil
not in Persia.
*
6
phrase can, of course, be said on any suitable occasion. ^ /'/*;* cr^'k* lv>: is a subs, and adj.: &udu haftzi kardan gfcuda
'*
to say good-bye."
382

13? j
U*
good; good luck
"
j*}\
(a
form
awg&ur-i shuma bikhayr bashad, "may your omen be of greeting specially used by muleteers, camel- men
,
donkey- men with loads,
etc.).
Vide also U
for
'
(,?).
*
,
Remark.
ahl
an
The Arabic greeting

t
welcome
'
ahl an
wa sahlan *r*j &M
or
wa
marhab anl
l^*>j
is
used by pedantic Mullas only, generally on
return from the pilgrimage.

(/)
The wife
of a host or of a friend should never be enquired after except
exceptional circumstances. A respectable Muslim (not Gabr) when 1 " house,' kuch (rare)* mentioning his wife would refer to her as his khana a or 'iyal Jl-**, or ahl <J*f , or andarun &j)*>\ and for the Shah, haram (*^. A
in
'
^f
Persian
of his
who was jarangi-ma*ab wife as khanum pte, or of
Europeanized might speak his mother as (?*> ^fw bi-bi-yi man.

)
v^ <j&j*
or
'
'
An Englishwoman
going about without a veil
is liable
to have filthy
remarks passed on her by the shop-keepers or street people. (q) The Muslim greeting (in Persia accorded to Christians, Gabrs and Jews
s " the Arabic phrase fj&* f&* B salam un alay-kum peace be on ye," un is the to whiqh in Persia the reply same, viz., salam 'alay-kum j*3L
also) is
Û
^^
The Indian Sunnls and the Afghans say as-solam"-' alaykum pd* "the peace be on you," to which the reply is va alay-kum*' s-salam "and on you the peace." The Indian Shras among themselves say
'
salam nn 'alayk
's-salam f&-4
**
pd*
f^kj
f^*
ll
peace on thee," to which the reply

the
is
va 'alaykum *
1
and on you
peace."
The Afghans, Indian Muslims, Arabs, and Turks would not give the greeting to any but to a Muslim,* but in Persia, in many parts at any rate,
no distinction
is
made.
The Jews
him a$-sammu
in the Prophet's time used to slur the greeting
'alayk*
* '
^J^
and to say to he replied be which to on thee," fWf "poison

5
va <alayk a <-4*j
1
and on thee."
**
%
8
to welcome "; for the m.c. use of marhaba ta*/, vide (a) (2). Adarun-am fjjp^\ or fekana-um na-Mkush-aat ^^**f cAt^ ^ (*f*jl^-. In Persia the classical ruination is retained, but the modern Arabs, Indians, etc.,
TarMb
^^j*
omit
4
it.
The Jews
in
Baghdad
slightly corrupt the
Jewish salutation when greeting a
Englishmen in India sometimes fancy the Muslim greeting is is in when it to The author has been reality addressed to the sais behind. them, given frequently given the Muslim salutation in Persia even by mullas who objected to shaking hands with him. In India a vessel used by a Christian would be washed three
person of another faith.
times before use, but Persians will freely drink from an unwashed glass used by a
Christian.
5
tion without bending the

fcow,
hand to the head in salutabody as do Central Asians. Gentlemen incline the head in a and servants place the right hand on the heart while bowing from the waist.
neither salam, as in India, nor raise the
The Persians

(h)
(1)
38.'*
host, etc., speaks of his house as d)**
banda-manzil
"the
slave's
The dwelling," and of himself as banda **ij "the slave."* the avardan of in is "to coming guest tashrlf &?>)$ uiîJ person To an invitation to call or honour the house, the invited bring honouring."
would reply flkavam " I
)%***
v^V^ '^
*^'*^
&
A
in dha* Allah farda skaraf-yab mi-
hope D.V. to have that honour to-morrow."
A
call
visit
and return
visit are did <xj>
and
baz-did
&t
JL
and old residents
out:
Persian does not call after dining arrivals, as in England. the host's business to call on the guest, who has honoured him by * accepting his hospitality and thus earned a return visit. A foreigner should call on fete-days, such as the Shah's birthday, and
it is
,
on new
the
Naw-Ruz
it is
a fault on the right side to call on religious festivals, such
as the 'Id, etc.
^*jj Jiy^t ahval-pursi is "asking after a person's health," " enquiries on meeting. 'lyadat cÛc is visiting a sick person."
To
give and return salutations
i.e.,
kind
is
of the Prophet.
Salam sunnat
ast va javab farz.
a duty founded on the Quran, and the practice A horseman salutes a footman, and
it
is sufficient
a person on foot those return a salute.
who
are seated,
for one of a party to give or
Muslim women do not and are not saluted in the street, but Zardnshti women salute men. A Persian recognizing his wife (veiled) in the street would not speak to her. The laws of Islam forbid a man saluting a woman unless she be old.
their
Salutations
must not be made with the

:
left
hand, as
it is
used for legal ablutions
and unclean purposes. 1 A compound noun

%
no
iza/at.
1st person singular. Classically, and in India and the verb is in the 3rd person singular after banda. in speaking, Afghanistan * 3 In aha 9 Allah *JJ[ l&f I hope so and think "if God wills'* corresponds to
With the
verb
in the
so.'*
To the common question "
is it
going to rain
" a Muslim
9 says in sha Allah
where an Englishman says "yes"; no Muslim would dare to decide for the Almighty. A failure to grasp this idea sometimes causes Europeans much irritation: they cannot understand not getting a "straight answer."
A,Uf liof
To accept an invitation is, according to a sunnat cui**, obligatory on a Muslim. The word farda \&j* enters largely into the Persian vocabulary. During a two cannot once recollect hearing the word imruz years' residence in Kirman the author
3jj/U
4
An opium-smoker and
will let
* '
it is
estimated that
00%
of the
Kirmanis are opium
smokers
to-morrow
' '
run into years.
is either in the morning before noon (gen. for business), or two hours before sunset (for pleasure). It is usual to send a servant a day before, or on the morning of the day, with an oral message to arrange for a visit, so that the host may be at home and prepared to receive. The seat of honour, and the chief guest are on the host's right hand. Persians have expressed
The time
for visiting
in the evening about
sadr,
take the top of his table at a dinner-party and surprise to the author that he should and left. It is no easy matter to arrange the his on the chief right guests place
Guests sometimes ask seats at dinner for Persian guests, without giving offence. unless to come decline and promised a higher place. beforehand where they are to sit
384
(2)
The following complimentary phrases
are in
common
use; vide also
W/-i shuma ziyad "thank you (lit. your favour is great).'* shuma ziyad " thank you (as above).' oty " thank you." ^b; U^ o+a^-o marhamai-i shuma ziyad U uftbJ ji az M/-* shuma, or U-& oU$' 31 as iltifat-i shuma " thank you
1
*-*& aUj U-*
U&
'
ci>U&t iltifat-i
(by your favour)." U **y jt as tavajjuh-i
U
al$}
cufti^
j!
az
shuma " thank you (by your consideration)." (< thank you (by your indulgence)." shafaqat-i shuma
o*A3xx>
mahabbat-i shuma ziyad
"thank you (your
affection for
me
is
great)."
^\ U
'
O)P
(+
'izzat-i
shuma ziyad
"thank you (may your rank be

I
'
;
great)
(said to a departing guest).
s^^SJ ($
&U
saya-yi
shuma kamna-shavad "
am much
obliged
also,
good-bye (may your shadow never grow less)." " *i& U- ow-a dast-i shuma dard na-kunad thanks (may your hand or 4 arm never pain you)": (said when receiving help used by both men
and women).
^cyi ^xj pir sham
child).
(
<(
mayest thou grow old"

life
{generally said to a small
umr-i shuma ziyad "long

\**>
to
you
"
"
!
Khuda shuma ra nigah darad God keep you !" &\& *$ j* y fÛ^ <&U> f>^ Khuda sdya-yi shuma ra az sar-i ma /cam na" " kunad may God never remove your shade from our heads U^ LU Jjfe;^ dar zill-i panah-i shuma hasfim "we are under the ÂL*d,
IAS
!
shade of your protection."

axb
U^
(Jlfc
l
S CAM.!
w^
&f
b
well
(are your circumstances good
" shuma buiand " may your fortune be high " I *^ J ^' ahval-i shuma khub astl hope you are quite "
<5K'.f
f
^ aj;'<x>
no
"
?)
bak-i ki
na-dand? "I hope you are quite well (you have
solicitude?)
mistaken
This phrase lias often been used as a reproach against Persians, through a notion that ziyad means "more. " Ziyad is a positive adjective which
in certain cases only (not in the

2
3
example) can be substituted

to."
for the
comparative.
Iltifat
OwJ| means "to pay attention

is often
This phrase
(an old
used at meeting or parting in a street

state,
it
*
properly used by an
properly means
also to
inferior to a superior.
Some Persians
signifies
May
old ago never overtake

it
you
1
man's shadow is less than that of a young man); but may your shadow on U8 always remain.' * Said especially by a woman when a dish is handed to her, etc. after a display of skill in cookery, sewing, etc.
'
any one
is it
The
force of the *
is
that of 5^3 ^f at the beginning of a sentence
**
not
so?' 1

of
385
^*S
U-i
ou*' kayf-i
U
shuma kuk
kh-usJu
ast
" are you well
(is
your condition
ell?)"
5 iXjyaJ
&f
^j**
S
na
ki
na-dand? "I hope you have no

ast
disposition."
cu~*l
<jU. lî
fU>j>
>ur brain quite

AjJLut.
' '
fit ?)
"
dimagji-i
shuma chdq
I
"are you quite well?
(is
filx^j-*
sar-i
dimdyji hastid
"are you in the best of health and

ss
ririts ?
*^y
c^^ ^ [^ cWra Aam illifatl kardld

'
why have you shown a
lack
not coming to see me) ? The answers to the above would bo some such phrase as az dawlat-i sar~i uma U^^-M. usJj^ j| tl by your good fortune (I am well, etc.)," or az shafaqat-i umd U^> cuai^ jt etc. or jokingly, az marhamat-l ki na-dand ^;tî &>A+AJ# j\ " in sha*Allah khidmat-i shuma mithrough the kindness you don't show
(in
, ,
:
kindness
'
sam
tram
f+*j'
\+">
^**>^
<t^Jf
Û
<
c^f
if it
please
is
^f jL. saz ast p&tf kayf-am
"my
health
" God I will come to see you in tune" Û^ dimtigh-l

:
"I am happy, irderi, or company of

4
exhilarated (either from wine, or from scent from a

friends)," [but ^^> cl<a
:
i.e.)
'he
is
proud"
^f*xi
^^
^^ &$* fulankas dimagh darad imruz dimagJi-i na-daram (m.c.) "I 3^}
"
n in low spirits to-day.'*

(/)
Expressions of tenderness
*z*s*})* ^s
]
\&fo
a !f dawr-i sar-al hi-yardam
pj(*v
o^^
&\*j*
CLÂAJ
dard-at hi-jan-am
may I bo thy "your pain be on me."

I
(i
sacrifice
*ei^
ûxlLi
qurban-i sar-at
sar-at
**
may
be thy sacrifice."
salamat " may you be well."
Kaijf
^-ft^r
modern
for kayi*
" how," and ho nee tho kardan
**
how "
is
of oiio's health
also
hilaratiori
of intoxicants.
Kuk
a)^ ^j?
9
(m.c.)
to
**&
wind up, or tune,

1)3^* **tune the
in
asical instruments,
a watch, or clock, etc.: saz ra kuk kun
(^
jtruments'*: saz-ash
no
k
' '
kuk na bud i^>
^^ (j^jf^
uS>^
(m.c.)
"his instrument was not
kuk-ash raftam pfc) <J\jt e$-y (slang) kardam ki bi-asman raft *^+9j eA-**f *J &$ &j>
:
tu-yi
I pulled his leg, chaffed
him
": kuktill
(J^^
**
(slang)
"I
is
chaffed
him
ew him
2
well
'
'
fulan kaa kuk shud *
^y^ &%s
(slanp;)
" he
:
drawn. '*
Na-khuahl (_^* j^-U { n modern Persian " dia, etc.) displeasure."

3
sickness"
in old Persian (and in
In modern Persian dlmayh

(y**>j9
tc$
me ans
**nose
"
:
in
oldPersian " brain, palate
Lde"; dimagh farfibhtan

r
t
dimagh darad tyt * Û^ j& &*> " what idea has he in hia head zad (local) he shut the door in my face."
^^
(class,
and
m.c.)
"to
display pride": chi

?
"
:
dar ra bi-dimayh-
* An expression used by both men and women. The woman sometimes circles ind a sick person's bed with the idea of taking on herself any danger or calamity
at is to fall
on the beloved.
The custom
is
dying out.
386
ÂJ ^L. ^t ay jan-i pidar "oh life of thy father (said to a son or daughter, by the father)." " oh all * ctÛ. î ay janan (in poetry) my lives (said to a mistress)." y nur-i chashm-am light of my eyes (said to a son)."
'
U. &(*> jan-i
Û taj-i husband)."
|
jan-am "life of ear-am "crown of
my life." my head
"
"
(a
servant to a master, or wife to
albatta nazat bi-kasham

:
whims
(or coquettish wilfulness)

<*y
I'll willingly put up with your said to babies or a mistress.
ji in ki misl-i ruli-i
l
'
thou art
like a soul to
a y aziz-i man (used to friends, children, a commonly used expression without any great force)
(k)
me." husband to wife; " dear."
my
Adjurations
j
bi- sar-i
shuma "by your head."

pidar-am
y
if
turn bi-qabr-i pidarat
)*J ^'JL>^ bi-arvah-i
"
adjure) thee by thy father's grave.' " by my father's soul (plural for sing.
(I
c<
"
'
the father
j
is
alive bi-jan-i pidar-am).
by thy moustache." khudat " by thy dear life." " bi-marg~i sliuma by your death." " " ^ w bi-miri thou die," or mayst by thy life."
bi-aabll-at
qasam
(vulg.)
jl=?u
bi-jan-i 'azlz-i
Remark.
says,
ptfLs*
A man
say
" Swear
promises
to
come at a
certain time.
His friend
tu bi-mirl
cs^p."
By thy life
" tu bi-miri, mi-ayam >>," the reply is The host then says man bi-miram, I will come.
^^
zud bi-yaf id
A^JUj
me
^ ^^
^yo
"
''May
I die!
Come soon"
(if
you want
to die like an enemy,

(I)
come
late).
is
Sar-ikhary^^ "ass's head"
guest who is for any reason a check on khar paida sliud *& fajjjâ^*..
a term applied to an unwelcome the conversation m.c. sar-i

;
Sometimes a
sar-i Ichar
visitor will jokingly

f
announce himself by
zamm
bi-shigaft,
payda-shud ^>
(m)
(1)
The
*y j^j** o^'KSj e^^}, (or j**j* &* \*# &*& cri^J) Persians belong to the Sbl'a sect of Muslims and are followand
first
ers of *Ali the son- in-law, 6
cousin of the Prophet.
They maintain
Used when giving exhortations.
mother would say ay jan-i madar
o^
c5^
*)l*.
*
This word though apparently a plural

o>fJ^T
.
may be a suffix as in abadan

jana
I
The an e>f is always used as a singular. According to some it is an extension of the vocative
for
in your head is worth swearing by, mine is not: therefore a servant, would instance, say to hi<? master bi-sar-i shuma U-w^^j. * You are so dear to me that I swear by your death in preference to mine.
*
The idea
'All, the darling
of the
Persians,
was the husband
of
Fatimah the Prophet's
daughter.
387
that 'All was the first legitimate Imam f Uf or Khalifa &&d (successor to the Prophet), and therefore consider AbuBakr^y(, 'Umar^s and 'Usman e;Ui* as usurpers. The Sunnis on the contrary maintain the claims of these three
as well as of AH.
(2)
1
The following
are
some
of the
commoner
maledictions'2
&
? (y
) cjjj~o
<J(A khak bi-sar-at (bi-kunand^)
"
may
they bury thee."
khak-ash bi-daJian
)j**
" curse him."

"
*ty murda-shur turd bi-barad
may
the corpse-washer bear
thee away."
j
bi-sar-at bi-khurad
"may
about)
fall
on your head.
(the matter you are worrying me n the whole thing."
(oJ^
Khuda marg-at bi-dihad " may God give thee death." ^ Khuda tamam-nl kunad " may God finish thee."
'"
gU*
ej(f3j>>
-
ruzagar-at siydh
gtf
may
tliy
days become black."
^^.j (J^j
(^J)j
bachcha buzurg na-shi, '* boy may you never grow up." " cJf al-at bi-zanad, " may the Al strike thee. 4
*^.j
i
vj
sar o tan-durust (a disguised curse to the vulgar).

'
J?Â hargiz bi-khdna-yi hakim piycida na-ri be so sick that you will have to be carried to the doctor.'
libas-at
may you
naw
bdshad,
"
may you
die
and not wear out your
clothes."
(3) Eastern languages have a rich and varied vocabulary of abuse, and Persian perhaps stands foremost. The following are a few mild terms of abuse in ordinary use
:
pidar-sag dog- fathered.

,
J*$
pidar
sukhta,
D-d
blackguard
(lit.
your
father
is
burnt).
"one of the path.'* The Slu'as still possess majtahids or tiunnl, lit "enlightened doctors'*: they observe the ceremonies of Muharram, while the Sunnis
1
only observe the 10th day
('
ashura
'jjy"*^)>
the day God created
Adam.
i.e.
The
Shi'as also
allow temporary marriages and observe slight differences in ablutions and the forms
of prayer.
They
also say that taqiyya &-&> (or

is
kitman ^)^^)
concealing one's
religion to escape persecution,

2
permitted.
Vide
Jl. As. Soc.
Beng., 1912.
**
third person, in joke, earth of lettuce'*: the lettuce

3
is
on hearing this sometimes adds khak-i kahu jw* manured by human excrement, and is reckoned the
o^
dirtiest feeder of all vegetables.

*
women.
&
tf
A woman's curse to A Persian woman

A compound noun,
pi.
a woman.
The Al
*
is
that sees the
Al
'
insists
a monster that attacks pregnant on dying, such is the power
of imagination.
pidar-sag-ha
Subs, pidar
388

*
nasnds, ourang outang. walad-i zina tij oJj ... , -. / offspring of adultery. ,, r c J b>/f *Jj walad" z-zma
[
) ,
.
^Jwi
ay lavand, fascinating coquette ay lakata, oh flighty one.

qurumsaq, cuckold.
pimp.
(often used to little girls),
T.
<JtfU> ja-kash,
&>j^ dayyus, cuckold.
uaaJ^j zan-qahba,* husband of a prostitute. Jj^-i fuzul, meddler.
ahmaq,
5
fool.
is
,j
whether the word

ablah, a fool.
'
he jiyk hir az pir nami-ddnad, 4 is hir or pir.
such a fool he can't read
kawdan, a dunce. haram-zada base-born, illegitimate; frequently used in the sense

y
of trickster.
lull,
blackguard.
<J&*
(4)
qallash, cheat.
The
following, not to be translated,
is
sions heard even
amongst the educated.
It is inserted, as it is
a mild example of expressometimes as

:
well to understand
ti
what
is
being said as a protection against covert insult

c<
<J)*J
i*A>3 )
' '
f<xj
ridam dar dahan-i pidar-ash
Ispit on his father's
beard
(mildly paraphrased).
besides
There
fuhsh-i
1
is
a whole vocabulary of abuse
called
^^j^Û
jiocJ
madar u pidar, that is best omitted. The examples already given will be found more than enough to indicate the general lines of such 3 language language found in the mouths of even tiny children.
Though the Persians use the crudest expressions in their daily speech, they even the humblest and poorest of them can, when they choose,
administer a veiled and delicate reproof with exquisite
skill.
Not
often used as
also in a
it is
considered a sin to call a
man
this,
who
is
not.
2
3
Used
bad
sense.
signifies
lit.
Qahba
&***-* in
Arabic
"
cough."
is
In Arabic j?\ (}* jw\ ^j^.

*
SJi
which
explained as meaning
**
he knows not
a hirr or
5
tf
cat,*
from a
birr or
fox's cub.'
"
'*
Lu$
derived from Lot.

is
In "Urdu a
sodomite."
A similar expression
It
is
used in tho Punjab.
perhaps some extenuation, that, from constant use, these words have lost
much
of their force.
SIGNS
94.
AND
SIGNALS.
1
389
Signs and Signals.
are not only in constant use, but reference to and modern writings ancient in occurs both frequently
[
The
following signs
them
Silence:
Dast bar
sar-i
damagh zadan
ejj>j
e\**j"j*
e**>^.
is
The
right
held perpendithe the middle with tip of the nose; joint touching cularly (point upwards) the front of the forefinger to the left or the tip of forefinger is laid on the
hand
is
closed with the exception of the forefinger, which
tip of the nose.
Less
commonly the
here, biya LJ
tip of the forefinger is placed

lip is
on the closed
lips as in
England.
Biting the lower

:
Gome
As
a secret sign to keep silence. in India, i.e. the right arm is more or less
extended to the front, palm of the hand downwards. The signal is then made by closing the fingers towards the palm, and extending them a few times.
No
AJ
As
in India.
The open
head
is
(roughly) level with the
hand, palm to the front, held agitated from side to side. Additional
right
emphasis
given by turning the head to the left, closing the eyes and smiling idiotically with the lips closed. Slightly throwing the head back and closing the eyes also indicates
is
"No,
"
as well as,
"
He
is
talking rot/'
" Don't do it." " Raising the eyebrows slightly is a secret signal No," or = " Ask him." Raising them with a slight turn of the head means
nihadan j c**o. This action generally The tips and chashm signifies implicit obedience. accompanies the reply p*laid the on of the fingers of the open right hand (back to the front) are right " Yes." left breast and bowing = the on hand the Also right placing eye. " Lowering the eyelids in also a sign for Yes."
Yes:
Dast bar
cliaslim
^^ p^
Astonishment:
1
Anyusht gazldan
&*>
(
&&$ ^&i,
.
or angusht-i tahayyur (or
ta'ajjub) gazidan
v=F^
or)
^^J cu^>
The
is
tip of the forefinger is
placed on
the teeth of the lower jaw.
This action
commonly represented
in pictures of the
meeting of Farhad and Shlrin.
The Afghans lay the forefinger (underside to the front) transversely across the mouth and close the teeth on it opening the eyes at the same time in
an astonished gaze.
Halt
:
Va
ist*
or bi-ist
^~*?.\
&
or ^~~t\
fj.
The
right
arm
is
held
as in the British Cavalry signal for "halt," or the perpendicularly, open and extended right hand is held up a little above the level of the right
much
shoulder,
I
palm
to the front.
It
Republished for the Jl. As. Soc. Beng., 1907, by kind permission of the Council. is related that a European visitor at an Eastern Court nearly lost his life by
accidentally biting his finger (the signal for astonishment)
when
the king
was relating
cue of
8
his bes.t stories,
latgah
*^*-^t
railway station."
390
BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATION, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.
Mad:
Tapping the right side
of the nose with the tip of the
fore-
u&^k ^Û^ "he's cracked." finger dimagji-ash khu$hk-ast the hand across the mouth downwards, from wrist Drawing open right
t
o^
to tips of fingers, and blowing on
it
at the
same time
"All gas, he's
talking rot."
Go out:
Slightly poking the chin forwards.
95.
(a) Istikhara
Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions/

a
t
etc.
8)Ufcuut
signifies
to be pursued about which the seeker is doubtful,
asking divine direction as to any course by opening the Qur*an and
finding the answer on the right-hand page. The seeker first repeats the Surat^lFatihah a^li), or "Opening Chapter of the Qur'an," the Su-
g^
u
rat*-l-IKhla8
u^JI'
i(
*)?
On the
declaration of God's Unity' (Chap. 112), and
" the 58th verse of the 8u'mt -*l-An'am fUiilf %~> the Chapter of Cattle" (6th Chapter) three times, and then opens the Qur*an. Sometimes seven Salawat
are repeated in addition
.
;
or else the seeker

.
first si
*
salawat 3 mi- fir istad

JU>
*
SljJL*
*-*
Juj&{j/o,
i.e.
&** he says three times **L^ JT *

(i.e.
&.**'+ ,$^
>^=cuo ^.Jlc
$/
-^.Uf
He
then
says one Al-hamd

AiJlÂ JS,
and
the Fatihah or Opening Chapter) and then Old hu^llali the lastly Aya-yi-malat%h' l-(jjiayb ^*$\ ^3lix> if which is tht
58th verse of the sixth chapter or "Chapter of the Cattle."
*&&*
Then saying ^JysuLf
^\
Alluhumma'stakhir-m* the book
is
opened by
the seeker at random, by the forefinger of the right hand, and the top line of the right-hand page is selected. If no verse begins in this line, the seeker turns back and goes to the beginning of the verse.
or expressing pity, etc., are propitious.
Verses issuing commands,
number
is, after opening the book as above, to count the word Allah occurs on the page, and then to turn over (forward) the same number of pages, and again count the same number of lines from the top, and then if no verse commences in that line to read forward and take the first verse that oeeurs after that line.
Another method
of times the
Ropublishod from the
IstiM&ia tyUv.L!,
to a
As. Soc. Beng., 1900, by kind permission of the Council. that the: The istiM/ara Kt, "asking favours, etc.
Jl.
7 '
*>^M
Prophet taught was
a prayer asking for guidance.
The seeker goes
Mulla
for
an
iatilchara,
who
takes no foe
except perhaps an
offering of sweets or fruit.
One form
lirat
of
bibliomancy in England
enough.
person heard reading the Scriptures.

is still
omen from the first word of the from a Bible suspended by a omen an Taking
is to
take an
key
common
of properly any prayer, being the Arabic equivalent a has the word the however, signification. Persians, special generally by * * Incorrect Arabic for -r-khir-li " choose for me.
S
Salat t\jk*
is
namaz jU*
391
is of course often extremely vague. In addition to the above, the Persians, even the most irreligious, " or The rosary." generally take an istikhdra jUJL,f from the tasbih *$~* at of random. hold Fdtihah is recited three times and any two beads are taken
*
The answer
As the
first
seeker says Subhan^lldh <*M

slipped Alhamdrli'llah &M
bead between these two points slips through the fingers the " as the second is eAf* "Holiness be to God
;
^Jf
f<
Praise be to
God "
till
as the third
is
slipped
yjwala = "don't doit." These expressions are repeated in

According as the
is
this order
the last bead
is
,
reached.
first, second, or third expression falls on the last bead the reply favourable, indifferent, or negative, i.e. khub v^S miyana *^*>, or bad ***
From laziness, the Fdtihah is in practice usually recited only once. This form of istikhdra *;ls\M takes little time or trouble for most Persians carry a rosary in their pockets as a kind of play-thing and it is
resorted to on the most trivial as well as the most serious occasions.
a
Tajcful
'
'
J^&
'*
auguring,"
omen from Hdfiz. A &U* A^fyv hand and the following words are said c^jfjj-* vAwl^y ^jiÂ JIJsjuj JU. ^ÎLc Û ^j j Uj U^j Yd Khwdja Hdfiz-i Shtrazi tu kdshif-i har rdz-i bar-i md biyd va yak fdl-i mundsib-i hdl biyanddz, 4 or ^j^ ^'^ *-^f>^ ^ ciÛJ eêHt*^ ^^ v^t^J*^ ^ J>^ Û Jsu iy 7a Khwdja a*y&-s>x>^~J
:
B applied to seeking a fal or volume of the Divan of the poet is held in the left
is
generally
(j
&
Hdfiz-i Shlrazl turd bi-haqq-i Shdkh-i
dar in kitdb-i Ichud mu'ayyan kun. 6 and the first line of the page on the right-hand is taken, and the seeker turns back to the beginning of that ghazal J>. If the omen is unfavourable,
Nabdt qasam mi-diham ki kull-i ahvdl rd The eyes are closed, the volume opened at
hazard
the
ghazal
J>
following
if
it
is
is
read
(called
the shdhid-i ghazal-i avval

first.
6
Jjf <-i^
(c)
3Al) and
propitious
acted on in preference to the
The Persians
also consult astronomers,
and geomancers,
before start-
There are several ways

of
'*
of
making
this
istikhara j^lasJU*}, one
way
is
merely a
game
2
" odds and evens."

"
Out come the beads. Many a European Shall I or shall I not take a purge ? anxious to fretted and fumed, because day after a has critical surgeon perform operation beads said the the was unfavourable. day day " to take an omen" 3 Fal zadan
giriftan
is
îj! JU
tafcful
^^j
JV^
There
no fixed formula.
6 By running the nail of the forefinger of the right hand through the top edges of the leaves, the book being held in the left hand by the back, front edges towards the sky. 8 Munajjim û*> " astrologer "; *ilm-i nwjtim ^su .JU "astrology"; rammal
^geomancer": *ilm-i raml cU; /JU (raml andakhtan ^^fjof <J-;) ctUA JU "astronomy", a term also applied to Euclid. " to cast a kashidan
'ihn-i hayat
eomancy":
Zlch-i tali,
ÔJj^X
jJl^t is
^)
horoscope."
Falrgir
j& Jl^
applied to any professional omen-taker.
392
ing
on a journey,
etc.,
closing a bargain, or even changing a sleeping-room in a
house,
etc.;
they believe in lucky faces, fortunate

to have been discovered
(t
numbers, and
Geomancers,
unlucky days.
Geomancy is supposed
by Daniel.
therefore, before casting, say,
Td
Hazrat-i Daniyal
"
J^f<> oâa* L.
(d) The 13th of iSafar, the second month in the Muslim calendar, and the 13th of Nawruz, are days of evil omen 1 ; also the 5th and 13th of every month. To avoid the evil that might overtake them were they to remain in-
doors,
all
Persians leave their

to
homes on the 13th

air.
of
Nawruz, and spend the

boys and
girls
day from sun-up
sun-down in the open
Disaster follows a quarrel
during these hours. over a fire.*

(e)
On
the last
Wednesday
of Safar,
jump
Omens
are also taken from birds, animals, the
number
of times a
first,
person sneezes, the crossing of a threshold with the right or left foot and many other things too numerous to mention.
(/)
zakhm
ing
it,*
^J
Persians also believe in the evil eye, chaskm-i bad &* or chashmp***-, 3 one be of the evil knowwithout Any may possessed eye ^^.
and some superstitious people say
Ma
sha* Allah
aJDi
&U
before
gazing at their
effects of their
own countenances own admiring eyes.

off
in a mirror, so as to
ward
off
the evil
Blue wards
adorned with beads of
the evil eye, and for this reason valued animals are this colour. Also the ispand seed is burnt in the fire.
Pretty children are often purposely kept dirty and unkempt, and further 6 guarded from malign influence by amulets ta'viz **j**. Carpets are generally woven by the tribes-people with some small defect
in the pattern, to avert the evil eye.
Manhw u*}*^*
on the
last
or bad
in
ciJ.
The Prophet died
the
month
of Safar.
It
is
supposed that the Last

the
Day
and
will fall
8
Wednesday
fortunate.
of a $afar.
The Shah has the

is
right to see every
woman
in
kingdom unveiled,
the royal glance
The Mujtahida have the same right, being considered mahram. * In mard bad-chcwhm ast cu*f AAV^ j jô ^f^ or chasm-i shur (or ahwn) darad ast or ) $)\b ( +}> )y *A. (m.c.): In ahatehtB-zaban-aah shum f^St ^J^bjO^^* (&* " this man o**t
(m.c.)
6
always prophesies unlucky things." jjb, a charm made by writing a text, wrapping it in bulghar ÛJU or scented leather (qab-i Quran), which is then bound on the child's arm. An amulet is
Bazurband
**ju
also called *~Jljb ftiliam or
*'
talisman."
more commonly sar-rahl is money expended in charity ^ykfj ^, ^tyjj**, on the threshold, by a departing traveller, to insure a safe return. In India some Muslim women bind a coin on the arm of the departing relative to be expended in charity on reaching the journey's end in safety.
DamrrdM
BIBLIOMANOY, DIVINATIONS, SUPERSTITIONS, ETC.

Strange to say, a pig horses and mules.
(g)
l
393
in the stables will
ward
off
the evil eye from the
Certain
cities,
people, etc., constitute sanctuary or bast

clinging to a big
Mullas' houses, a Consulate, the stable of certain big o^. The writer once saw a soldier
gun in the square

of
his
However
in
spite
Kirman, declaring it was bast *^*~*. protestations he was finally removed by the
of
is
Governor's farr ashes. (h) The time of Naw Euz jjj

for
13 days, and every master is one month's pay. The chief of a dervish sect will auction certain sites, such as the Governor's Palace, the British Consulate, etc., to his followers. The purchaser erects a tent and blows a horn and refuses to move on, unless
People make picnics supposed to present all his servants with

a general holiday.
given a sufficient
site.
(i)
sum
of
money over
the
sum
for
which he purchased the
Persians attribute misfortunes to the revolution of the heavens, to

'
the 'evil eye of time, to the world, etc., etc. 2 The influence of the heavens on the fortunes of
man, appears
to be an
ancient superstition dating back to a pre-Islamic period. It has been supposed that Persians attribute their ill to the heavens, to avoid the appearance even of attributing misfortune to the Deity. This is not, I think, the case.
The Persians
still
believe that the revolution of the skies affects
man's
fate.
Muslims who wish to avoid ascribing ill to the Deity, attribute the occurrence to Fate, Qaza Ui, Qadar joJf, or Taqdlr jt*&. In the religious drama of Husayn, the sky is accused of being the author of his misfortunes.
Examples:
"
Ay charkh-i falak kharabiaz klna-yi tust (0. Ah Wheel of heaven to tyranny inclined."
!
K.)
(Whin, trans. Rub. 25).
aid
occasionally done in Persia.
Tweedie mentions a wild boar being kept in the stables at Baghdad, and this is Some say the breath of a pig is good for horses. In 'ArabistSn, pigs* flesh is said to be eaten under the name of guafand-i farangi ^xSJu^J
1
ij&j*.
Ham
in Persia
is
sometimes called
gusht-i bulbul
JUb
oJ^
a
t
name
said to
have been invented by a telegraph clerk. The Baluchis of Bampur (Persian Baluchistan), a very different-looking race from the fine people near the Dera Ghazi Khan Frontier in India, eat wild pig and foxes.
2
Oardish-i Falak
,Jlb'
(jS^, Dunya
Uio,
Dahr jA^ Qardun &j&jS 9 Charjeh
394
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
alt-bunyad Hargiz girih-i kdr-i kas-i rd na-gushdd Har jd ki dil-1 did ki ddgh-% ddrad
In
charkh-i jafa~pi$ha-yi
'
Dagh-i digar-% bar sar-i an dagk nihdd (0. K.) " The wheel on high, still busied with despite,
Will nev'r unloose a wretch from his sad plight; But when it lights upon a smitten heart,
Straightway essays another blow to smite.

(Whin. Rub. 154).
biguy Payvasta figanda-t mard dar tag u puy (0. K.) " Oh wheel of heaven, what have I done to you That you should thus annoy me ? Tell me true."
:
(
Ay
charkh chi karda-am turd
rdst
Whin. Rub.
499).
Chun
Idla
bi-Naw-ruz qadah gir bi-dast

l
Ed
Idla-rukh-i agar turd fursat hast
May nush
Ndgdh
" Like
bi-khurrami ki in charkh-i kabud

(0. K.)
2
turd chu bad garddnad past.

in the
Spring your cups lift up, with a And, tulip-cheeked companion, sup With joy your wine, or e'er this azure wheel
tulips
With some unlooked-for
blast upset
your cup."
(Whin. Rub,
44).
CHAPTER
96.
(a)
XI.
p*i
).
Diminutive Nouns
:
(ja-^t or^*^
c
-
Diminutive terminations are
A*'.
&
and
&*>
also colloquially
affection,
j.
may express contempt, pity, simply give the idea of diminutiveness. The diminutive nouns may further " be qualified by an adjective signifying "small," little," etc. tf or * are used, as first three the rational For only beings (6)
:
These diminutive forms
or
(1)
vJ,yo
mardak " a small man." mamdk "little mother"
(Sa'di).
In prose ast would be used. Lola is in Persia, Afghanistan, and the Punjab, the
Colloquially
name
of the
common
called
red
poppy.
8
mardaka
tf&j*,
also
zanaka &>)
(m.c.).
This k
is
kaf-i
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
-&5 zanak
1
395
"a
little
woman "
(rare).
'
tjfâ.*
dukhtarak or tj&>*diikhtara
little girl."
Tiflak-i
man
:
na-khush ast o^f <jw^ U

"
ijj&b (m.c.)
"
my poor
little
child
is
sick"
Farangiyak (Trans. H.B.)

In bad-i khurusak
contemptible European."
Remark.
sound of the cough) the

(2)
iJU*^
"croup"
(so styled
from the
is
nisbati.
A^J*=
2
generally gives a sense of contempt: * mardaka (m.c. only) tc fellow."
<*&j
(3)
a
zanaka,
"
virago."
:
generally gives the idea of immatureness, as
*j~j pisara "little
boy."
girl."
" jjâ dukhtara

In dushiza
M
little
tyjS*
ft
"
virgin
(from dushtdan
^<HJ
to No.
to milk) the termina(5).
tion appears to be the &., referred to in
Remark
*û
bachclw " child, or young of any animal."

*
Remark /.--The termination

life,
also
<c
occurs
in
substantives
without
as:
&>>&**
safida
'from safld, adj.
hump"
6<
(from a^
"a
98
hill"):
(6).
*&*
camelwhite"): **>jS bastinado pole" (from /a/a& falaka
kuha
"a
tho sky "), vide
Remark //.-The fomis />^rS ^-J,

colloquial only.
dakhtarii J*A*, kitchukii
j&&>
are
Remark ///.In to'm

*'a
ti
lamb,"
A^^
/wy'a
horse or donkey), jj " has no diminutive final chicken," etc., the
'
v5
''
a toal
"
(of
cat ion.
Remark /V.- Final

bandak
(class.)
[in
frequently elided, as: Mod. Pers. *^t >xi, or cA

is
s^
6anrfa
'slave," dim.
Ax?G jjj
^'].
Ruz-nama
"newspaper," dim. ruz-namcha Sometimes it is changed into f/,

as.
*^-<
?^Vfc
f
^,
''small book, or a daily account."

Similarly
(5).
is
sometimes elided,
^>t
1
/f//I,
-'jKUTot," dim.
/^^ cJU^k (class.); tjitiyak
c^Â*
(mod.).
An unmarried
girl
or
woman
is
called dubhtar
j*^
(m.c.).
least)
These words are properly contemptuous, but from frequent use (in Kirman at their force that a husband and wife use these forms in. adtlioy have so far lost
Generally
if
dressing each other.
woman
is
addressed as zanaka
^J
she replies,
zanaka madar-at
*
cs*)j>U> Ak)}.
Said to be derived from au obsolete form bach.
The
"
tashdld
is
apparently used
to distinguish this word from bi-chi "for what,
why
'* the tree (or any plant) has sent out a sprout." Darakht bacfazada Also falak : to which the feet are fastened by a loop and held soles upwards. The pole is held by two men.
396
(4)
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS.
The only termination found in irrational animals is ^, kharak-i miskm " poor wretched ass."
^$-l
as
murg&ak-i kuchak " a aspak-i kuchak

is
"a
little
chick."
little
horse or pony."
This
termination
generally added to the generic noun, as:
haywanak "poor creature"; ^jy murg&ak "wee little bird"; (vide also last example (c). (5) For inanimate objects ^ and *** (or za) are u ,ed :~-*su*^ or e*>^ " hawzak or hawzcha (m.c.) " a small artificial pond *Û baghcha (m.c.) " a
:
ittle
garden":
bazicha
*#
ia/cAa
"a
ladle" (kaf the palm of the hand):
4ujb
"a pistol": *-^J pulak " **u\* kamancha (m.c.) a bird's fish's scale, a scale on leg " " " a violin bow" chashm (m.c.) pupil of the eye p**- cJ^y mardumak-i
"a
:
little
game":
*$vii3 tufangchn
"a spangle, a
'
*^-/ ^wcAa
lane
' ' ;
maslikiza *}*2^c
a small leathern bottle
"
*
;
baytak-i chand (m.c.)
"a
few
little
verses
"
;
^ ^^
*i^
^Xi
*
^^)
^<y^
ruzak-l chand (Sa'dl)
" a few days." Jt; Jf I^t * }
iJL,
^JLXJ
t^
îu
^ ^yi ,û)^
;
Diltang shavi yak javak-i* bang bi-khur
Yd yak manak-i*
bada-yi gul-rang bi-khur.
" Are you depressed
? then take of bang one grain Of rosy grape- juice take one pint or twain."
two
(O.K. 251. Whin.). " and in one or " In lakh.sha "a live coal, a spark/' naysha a small reed words the sha is merely a corruption of cha.
Words ending
daryacha\
tj
in
a/i/take the termination *., as:
3*-*
sahra,
dim. ^^
|^-
sal\raclm\
darya, dim. *-^ ^rrT, dim. saracha

so sometimes
f)
As when forming the plural in em, final silent with the diminutive in *, as jama &*L" garment,
' '
:
becomes
</,
garment
"
J&*^ jamagak
' 4
a little
(vide also (3)
Remark
also
IV).
(m.c.)
The termination
^ is
added to adjectives, as: t-^.** surkhak
"measles";
" kam-tar-ak
further
' '
;
JÛ
talkh-alc
(class.)
little
"somewhat
less";
^^
(m.c.)
"a
^^
^
' ' ;
bitter; the colocynth" ; " a little dur-tarak (m.c.)
dir-tarak ^J*j*z (me.)
"a
little later
past-tarak c^y c>*o (m.c.)
In modern Persian aspak

is
-^*f
also
means a
'*
toy hor^f
"
:
in
Indian Cavalry
wallets.
Regiments it 2 In m.c
8
applied to the leather covering for the cape
when carried on the

fire.
:
kaf-glr
j^&fj a name
is
also given to a shovel for the
"
properly for qizilcha (dim. of measles'* (in the diet, also a gold coin and a bag).
A?JjJ>,
qiziljih
*
qizil) P.
aurtoh.dk
(m.c.)
=
or
Javok-l
so."
*
^^
" a small barley corn or so,
1 '
manak-l
^^
t4
a small
man
Also in mod. Pers. *-f */ct^
jama-ale.
DIMINUTIVE NOUNS,
' '
397
' ' :
little
lower
' '
;
^
1
zudtarak
" a
little
quicker
muzd-i
hammaml
ra
bad-ak na
all
dadam ^toJî ij Û^. *yc " badly" (Tr. Haj. Bab. chap. 17).
Remark.
I tipped the
bath attendant not at
tyh, danja or ddnzha
The termination *j appears to be a form of A^, as A*ufa "a (class.) lentil," the diminutive of Aija dana.
:
or
In a few words idia *fu| and isha *&$ occur, as: dancha Aûj^ "a small door, i.e., a window (opening like door)"; mahlcha **^*\s> "acrescent; orna-
ment."
animate nouns, as
(c)
In bdzicha *fujk, the belongs to the original form.* Iza is also for " naviza <l dushlza tyjt " virgin a small boat." >^G
The words pisar ^-o and bachcha AÛ added

:
to
rational nouns,
sometimes give a diminutive sense
a " a y pi sara mihtar or pisar-mihtar (m.c.) " oh 5a^5 yyo ^^j boy (not " son of groom "); gAulam-bachcha &*o ftt* (m.c.) "a boy slave" shutar***% bachcha *^> j& (Sa df) " young camel"; darmsh-pisar j-* cA^;> (Sa'dl) a boy dervish."
Murgh-ak az bayza birun ayad u
ruzi talabad
Va adamUachcha na-darad khabar az 'aql u " The chick conies out of the egg and seeks its living, But the young of man has nothing of sense or discernment."
Remark
the
/.Words
like 9 *>ju (or
juy (^^)
" a brook or stream " require
^ in the diminutive,
Jaw ^^ "
as
wj^ or
" becomes
javak
a grain of barley
Remark II. These diminutive suffixes are called chim-i tasgj&r " and kaf-i tasgj&r j**-*** o(^. In kharak ^ja* poor ass" and pisark
"
darling boy,"
of
the suffix
may be
called kaf-i tarahhum

<Jjl)
compassion or kindness." In zaluk the kaf is zaifid or superfluous. (gen. zalu)

(d)
" the k
"a
leech
"
^^ oK
for zalu
The diminutive termination ak

:
also gives
a modified signification
to the original noun, as
^ chashmak
(m.c.)
"a wink,"
dastak "clapping of the hands," (dasJ
(chasm "eye"). " hand

f *
").
^ puslitak*
l
*'
somersault," (pusht
back ").
Similarly kaj
*
&
Baghcha
" crooked " " a little &3?-*(*
is
sometimes gazh.
is in
garden*'
(m.c.
Urdu bayhicha
*'
Pisar-i mihtar
j^^^^^
and
class.)
the elder son/*

into the water."
Bar 56 pushtak
bi-zun (m.c. arid local)
"dive
398
AFFIXED
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN.

salted);
tutehmak
or
"water-melon seeds" (roasted and
(tukhm
"egg").
" a carrot."
6ad-^ khurusak
zardak
U
"
'
'
croup
(imitative word).
Remark.
signify
(e)
Inak and dnak

!,
Jjuf
and
<-&f, the
diminutives of
m and
an,
" behold
The
here
is!
"
;
(anak not used in m.c.).

or
m.e. k&chulu
^^
is
ktichM
J^^
"
tiny"
(for
children or
or things in a good sense)
Michuku " small"
is
creeping into writing. less diminutive than the former.

is
.Kuchuku j**>
This diminutive j
9
very
common
t
in m.c., as: pisaru jj~j, dukhtaru
aspu j*l
kitabiijrt&, etc.
Mardu j*s and zanu yj

J)
(
are n
used, but mardakti jf*j*> and zanaku
vulg- an d
or zanak
local) are
<-Joj.
Yarn
used to express greater diminutiveness than mardak " " is used as and the
jj^ (m.c.
vulg.)
boy
is,
by
Irish,
and does not express diminutiveness.
This
suffix is called vav-i tasghlr
(/)
bacJichagak cj
as a diminutive, as Khurasanis, in speaking, use the suffix gak *.> " dear or tiny little child " baradar-gak-i shuma
;
^ ;^
U& "your
(g)
small brother."
Persians however look upon
KhurasanTs as
Mashkula AJ^^X) " a small mashk *&**> " (leather water-skin), and mushkula dj&L* "a small bit of musk," are formed according to no rule, and are probably the only examples of the diminutive terminations ula.
97(a) (1)
Affixed
^, and
Arabic Abstract Noun.
Grammarians enumerate
several kinds of (Persian) formative

)
L
:
By
affixing a
^ (ma'ruf <J^*x5
formed,
as:
to an adjective, simple or
riiki
**
compound
an abstract noun
"
is
wisdom," from
<Jî
"good," and
goodness," ^lta <^^ Ufa "wise": ^^j>3 zar-bakhshi "the
danafi
bestowing of gold"; ^\^ e)^ jahdn-ddrl "empire," (from Jîujj, adj., " and " jld e;^, adj., world-holding ").* giving gold Abstract nouns are also formed by affixing this to nouns, pronouns,
verbal roots, and past participles, etc., etc., as: padishdh *Uj>b
1
"king/'
Briefly,
<_
from
5
:
all
adjectives
and from some

gl.
participles, abstract
nouns are formed
by adding
t(
silent
h becomes
From nouns,
2
adjectives are formed
by adding
I,
as
4^^^ tf-5*^
alif,
panjah tumani
gar ma
worth 50 tumans."
A
u
few abstract nouns and adjectives are formed by adding

heat,
as
^^
(m.c.)
hot weather" from garm
"hot";
weather"; ahayda, P.
<2) to (6) (3).
"mad
from love"
*' cold, or cold l#f# sarma (m.c.) from shayd, substantive: vide foot-note
AFFIXED
^
1
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN.
399
nisti
padishahi â-U^b "sovereignty": hastl " " non-existence " manl ; egotism."
^j^
''existence";
In /aas^ 4.5^
"
Û
existence,
being" and
wwS <^~^
(e
"non-existence, not
If the adjective
being," the
is
is
added
to the 3rd pers. sing. Pres. Tense.
helpless, unweildy," the ^ is compound, as: bi-dast u pa b^cô the of to the second added part compound only, as: bi-dast u pa*$ usually " ^jb^ 0*0 <jj helplessness." Similarly in the case of a double simple adjective, the ^ is usually added
to the second only,'2
below)
past
ast^J^ ^y tar u u bulandi " ups and downs "

Compare
also:
tazagi
;
"freshness"
(for this vide
ba kamal-i saf sadiql (H. B. Chap.
^t^ f* ()** f* j b he permitted me to sit in his "for H. B., XXII) Chap. (Tr. f&\*j\ ÛJLS p& " here, however, presence, to eat with him, and even to smoke his pipe, ham-nishml ^^^ p& should be substituted for ham-nishin (j^^ p*.
XLI,
p. 236).
*&J
^J^
e^
**
This Persian
may
also
be added to some Arabic past participles.

permitted to leave and licensed," comes the
is
Thus from murakhlchas

m.c. substantive
0^/0
now
preferred to the correct

If
mumlMthasi ^ÂÔ ^permission to depart, leave" which form rukhsat o/A^.^. 3

8,
changed into ^, as: banda t*v "broken," ^j^-Xw bondage"; shikasta AJL* " chum fracture, also being worn out, broken down (old age) shikastagl and chigunagl <^j&*- "the how and wherefore; state."
s
the noun ends in silent
the
is
"slave," bandagi "
^&u
"
^^
This
<_$
is
called the y<l-yi
masdar
.
^^^^^
^(j
or the
of
tlie
verbal
noun, and also ya-yi ismi ^+~>\ ^b Such nouns arc included in hasil-i masdar j^ô (J^>1^ vide 115. A noun may be formed from the Imperative root of the verb by affixing " u :>yL self-praise ^, as: khud sitcfi (compound word); vide also
}
^^
115
(e)
and
(/).
Nearly allied to the ya-yi masdari ^)^^^ ^^ is the ya-yi mushabih, or ya-yi musahabat cÂ^l^/o ^(^ which expresses similitude or assumption
(2)
of character, as
bi-farr-i tu
humd^l kunad
kunad.
(Nizaml).
8ar
ki rasad pish-i tu pa*l
Manl,
P.
egotism," but Ar. from root

' '
" ^"O " seminal fluid

.
also ba
man-l
" thou art with me.

*
An instance
Rul&sat
is
of the Persian dislike to the repetition of the
same word or sound.
always used in India.

source,
Maslar )&*&*
and hence the
Inf.
of
a Persian verb or the root
in Arabic.
400
AFFIXED
AND ARABIC ABSTRACT NOUN
" At seeing thy splendour the magpie acts the huma, The head that comes near thee humbles itself (lit. acts the foot)." of In this example huma*i Û^ and pa*t ^5b both illustrate the " boundless Hatim of famous Hatiml Tay, generosity (from similitude.
1
^^
il
for bis generosity)." nisbatl (3) The ya-yi

{i
'
c^-*~->
<^t> "
indicates relationship, as: Irani <yf^K
Persian," from Iran

111
Persia."
Arabic, the relative
^ has a tashdld,
as:
^^
o
-
^ vM
but in Persian the taskdid of the Arabic relative

culiae, as
:
is
un " solar" shamsiyy omitted in the mas;
wW
~4^, but restored in the feminine, as, shamsiyya *&***+ If the substantive is Persian and ends in ha-yi makhfi Â^* Û, &hamza " blue-black in is substituted for the ya-yi nisbatl <^b, as i*^* surma-** 5 " and colour" &~J light-green i.e. pista -coloured." The forms shamsi
3
J^
^X^
qal'a "fort,"
is changed into however also occur, but are incorrect. Sometimes the "a khana aSU^ house," ^(^ khdnagl ^domestic''; before the ^, as: " In India the form khanl soldier."
(j^*
qal'agi*
garrison-
occurs as well as khanagt, vulg. khangi, vide also (a) (1). If, however, the word is Arabic, the relative adjective should be correctly formed according to the Arabic rule, 7 (vide. Ar. Gr., Appendix); thus from " <kaxj bayza egg" is derived ,j**>., Ar. "oval." The form ci^ju is incorrect,
though occasionally used in Persian. Nuqra "silver" *y*J nuqraî (mod.) " made of silver " but classically ,J>Ju is also found. As regards the final relative^ in words like ShirazI * vide p. 179 of Volume
;
Jl.
Huma 4< tho Common Lamniergeyer (vide Called alsomurgh-i dawlat &Jj fs** a As. Soc. Beng., 1906) (not mythical bird) is supposed to be fortunate; humayun
}>
^Û^
*
adj.
'*
fortunate."
*
c^-
+*
This
<v
is
not the Arabic

etc.,
45-
that forms Arabic relatives,
as
ts^**
(Pors.
mien)
3
Egyptian,"
though
is
it
corresponds to
it.
The "relative noun"

un
miriyy
"an
Egyptian."
For tho Arabic
un a substantive or adjective, as: arziyy "earthy"; pi. of these nouns vide AT. Gr M Appendix.
*
,
Similarly abstract (Ar.) nouns are formed by
adding *i~
as: iluhiyyat &*Vl
*'(Jod-
head";
is
*A->^| inaaniyyat
'humanity."
words, as:
In imitation
of the Arabic, this termination also khari;
also
added
to
Persian
Wiariyyat
"stupidity,'*
**
zaniyyat
4
"womanliness"; mardumiyyat, etc., vide (1) (1). The words *dj&k fafuliyyat child" and Arabic infinitives and not abstract hood **&\jf karahiyat, etc., "aversion," are
nouns of the above
class.
Vide
(c).
+*
* Similarly with plural of sects, as
^j&b, "
pi.
dahriyya &<*j*&
" the sect of dahrw."
the
6 i.e.
Hebrew language
a tinman."
'
'
'
is
the feminine of the word
the light-green colour of the skin of the kernel.

C5*L5
But
7
Words
of the
form *1&* generally make
AFFIXED
1, 2, p.
^,
ETC.
is
is
401
derived from an older yaka (old Iranian) or possibly ika. The Hindi I is derived from a Sanskrit Ika and other terminations. The old Iranian yaka or Ika, and the Sanskrit Ika, etc., have a common origin in
the old Aryan language.
the Pahlavi
179 of the Grundries der Iranischen Philologie. It lie. Pahlavi dln-lk, Persian dlnl, pious. This Ik
derived from
Remark I. This 45 is added to the native city of a person as a patronymic, but not to the name of a tribe, as : Muhammad Hasan-i Shlrazl <* " but Fath " ^$31^ (J^^ *+&jc Muhammad Hasan the Shirazi (or of Shiraz)
;
''All
Shah-i Qajar
jUU *U J^
Jtf
Afraslyab-i Turk
<Jfy
" Ghulam 'All the Afshar For things, (of the Afshar Tribe)." 'All-yi Afshar is added to both the city and the tribe, as: Shal-i Kirmdnl however, the
v^L^f
Qhuldm
Û^" JU "a
carpet."
Kirman shawl" and qaU-yi Afsharl ^;îf
Û "an
Afshar
The Persians, however, say mardum-i Kirman \&\*^ f^j* (not Kirmanl) " the " the women of people of Kirman," and zanha-yi Shiraz 3^-i^ c^3 Shiraz (and not Shirazi)." Remark
II.
The
;
Ar. ordinal <ytf sanl (for

is
l
)
" second
" does not end
in the relative
there
no
tashdld, neither in the masculine nor in the
feminine
Yahudl " Judea
^^.
' ' ;
(*&& saniya the feminine of <yti; also means '*a second of time).** " (P.) has for its feminine Yahudiyya &i*j# *a Jewess also,
e
and
for its plural
Tahud
c^
'
the Jews.'
a
'
The forms bayzaw <&*&

J
(for bayzl
^<A>
"elliptical" and Basravl

;
(for Bisrl
^^
though used in Persian are incorrect
vide
Notes on
Ar.
Grammar.
Remark
III.
This c5
ia
as
qadlml qadlml* shuda and

:
dust-i
M
.
<^+i&*
o*j^
sometimes added unnecessarily to an adjective, (m.c.) and dust-i samlml ^,5*^*^ v **ji In-hd
i^ ^+!**
*'
(m.c.)
these have
become antiquated.*'
y
This
^
"
might be considered the ya-yi nisbat O-A-O LS (j
O r perhaps the
ya~yi zcfid ^13 (^b
Remark IV.
adj. (m.c.)
This
Participle
1
" that has to be written "
" = manuscript
can be added to the Infinitive, as: navishtanl, ^4^ khatt** Navistanl u&?> is also the Future
;
vide (b) (1).
The Arabic
ordinals from 2 to 10 inclusive are formed on the measure of
Bayzl in Persian "whiteness, purity /' but in Arabic "elliptical.
In mod.
Persian tubhm-murg&i
8
A* p&Z
**
oval
" and
'*
elliptical."
**
The Indian Parsis

tl
are divided into
two classes, rawi ^*^;
(adj.)
the moderns
' *
and qadlml <+>.**

*
the old-fashioned."
In India qalaml
26
402
AFFIXED ^, ETC.
*
**
" Remark F. From or ^^ Delhi," e^^ DMam "a man from Delhi." From ^do*** comes also modern and corrupt. îk^^, îla-ax>
^^
Marvazl
*
^sjjj*
'
man
'
of
Marv
'
is
an irregular form of MargJiazl

'
man
of
;
of Marv)
Margb (the supposition being that Margh was the ancient name and Rdzl ^cjf; an inhabitant of Ray is derived from Rdz jt; the
older
name of the city. From Kdslidn &\\f
and from
Badakhsh).
If this
^ti Badakhshan, Badakhsham ÛÂJ

is
<j?
formed Kdshi
'an inhabitant of Kash/

or
Badakhshl
^&*>&>
(of
is
affixed to the Arabic kunyat
disappear; thus, from ibn-i Zubayr
Abu
Hamfa *Jî=w^jf
Remark VI.
^ ^\
.
*^
the words abu ^t, ibn
is
formed Zubayri^j&j, and from
comes Hanafl ^s&**
Another form of the Arabic relative termination, chiefly

is <^t
used
in
technical or scientific terms,
as:
^1**^
"
jismdrii
corpo-
real" (no iashdld in Persian on the nurdnl {t bright, luminous" <J>\}

;
final
^^
:
^): ^^j> ruham
"spiritual";
3
nafsdnl ^psychologic, etc/
vide
notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix.

r o (4) The yd-yi maf'ul J^*i^ c5^ or thing being affected by some act, as " cursed." ifU*} la'nati
(5)
^ ^ ne
object, expresses some person " " ^^l^ cu^t- dast khattl signed
The yd-yi fd'il

warrior
c^li
^î^
**
"
^-?
is
the
of the agent in such

of science."
words as
jangl
hikmati
J**^
"
man
:
(b)
Other descriptions of
^ are
Û,
(1)
*
The
;
* '
yd-yi liydqat ciJUJ
fitness
this is the
;
or yd- yi qdbiliyyat c*jJUj ^(j, the of added to the Infinitive, as sukhtam îi^** "fit to be
:
burned
(2)
'
vide
Remark IV.
uxthdal
'
;
The yd-yi
o<^ Û,
vide
'
the
^ of unity,
*
and yd-yi tankirj^ <^L

is
the
y
(3)
of indefiniteness
41.
The
yd-yi khitabi
^'^ c5^>
or *c^
address,'
the
person singular of the verb, as: kardl <^tjf c thou art good." 1 This second is, however, usually distinguished as,
;
" thou madest "
<^
of the
nlk-l
2nd
û
oUi| ^lj ya-yi isbdt-i

(4)
fi'l.
The
ya-yi mutakallim
^^ ^,
or
'
^ of
the speaker,'
is (in
Arabic
rabbi
phrases) the affixed pronoun of the 1st person sing., as:
ilahl or
^}
44
1 In Ya Rdbb Oh God, thou art
first
karam aet and generous generosity is clemency/ the accent distinguishes the karim-l from the second which is a substantive karlml.
tu Karim-i va karlml
1
403
"my Lord"
^y&JbUo
(5)
âa&* mushfiq-i
"my
friend."
This
^b
yd-yi muldtafatl
" the yd of courtesy
^
is
is
also
called
(or benignity)."
The
ya-yi sifat cîL*
^b,
or '^9 of qualification/
the
that
is
followed
by the relative particle &\ and gives the force of the demonstrative pronoun vide 42 (b) for other names of this 4,5. (6) The ya-yi za*id <>oij ^b, or redundant <^,' occurs in the Imperative
;
'
after a quiescent
alif
f
" this
*'
bi-guy
a clever
workman "
e5^
or ^, as: bi-gushdy ^l&fc for bi-gushd "open Also in other words as in jîfe (for^/; ) r ^0^ j^
;
1
U&
vide also (a) (3) 5
Remark
III.
of satiating or filling up,' is the (7) <^ ^b, of poetical license used to eke out the measure of a verse as when an izdfat is
The
yd-yi ishbd
1>A
'
the
lengthened into ?:
Tlie
metre
is
J^'
Ûclivo ^^tix)
and the
izdfats after
^^ and ^^ have
is
therefore to be pronounced long.

(8)
The The
ya-yi istimrarl ^j+l***- <^b, or
^ of
repeated action,'
z
;
;
the
^
')
;
added to the Preterite tense to form the Past Habitual

(9)
vide p. 225.
i
so
named
(10)
ya-yi ma'ruf J^*/o ^b is the by the Arab invaders because
^ pronounced
(as in
police
they were acquainted with
its
sound.
The
so
named by (11) The
ya-yi majhul J^?^ <^ ^ is the the Arabs because the sound was
classically
sounded
like e
unknown
to them.
u preceded by fatha and pronounced like the English diphthong

is
ai in 'aisle' or ey in 'they,'
'
called ya-yi sakin-i majtuli
ma
qabl,
i.e.,
quiescent
(12)
<_$/ its
preceding letter being
movable by
fatha.
The
yd-yi izdfat
the substitute for
cJUi ^b, or ya-yi izdfl ^'Uf ^b, is the ^ that is the izdfat after the weak consonants and ^, as in ^l*^^
!
and
45^.
/.
Remark
c.-t>o^
The
in adverbs of time
may
be either the yd-yi vahdat

the yd of bud ki bi-khdna aniadam
tj
{ ;
^b,
or else
what might be
called the yd-yi taqrib
approximation," as in ^<vof " it was about evening when (m.c.)
*Hiu tf
I
LS?** *asr-i reached home"
^ & ^cb
<c
asr-i
may
also
mean
evening, an evening; this night" (Scottice *the night'). In shab-% subh-i bdyad bi-ydyad dobj x>b ^^su^ ^î (m.c.) " he must be here one of these nights or mornings, i.e. in a few days," the may be either yd-yi vahdat
"one
b, or the yd-yi
taqnb
With
hM
verbs,
44
and certain
particles that resemble verbs, this Arabic

4t
<^ becomes
4^J,
as:
ft
(^t
verily'*;
Obsolete in Persian colloquial, but preserved in the speech of Afghanistan and
^^
he struck me."
India.
^
Preserved by Indians and Afghans.
404
THE TERMINAL
Remark
for
II.
Yd
is
sometimies substituted for
alif,
l
as
ejUx^ yarmag&an
armughan ol*;t
(c)
(class,
and
m.c.)
"a
present."
Arabic abstract nouns of quality are formed:
(1)
By adding
iyyat:
Strictly speaking these are
First to nouns.
formed by adding the femi*.*"
x
nine
*
to the relative adjectives, as:
o^t
"divinity":
*;><x*
"
being dis-
" cordant"; &SUof humanity; politeness/* " as Second to

Jk
adjectives,
^^-^
"
poverty."
jo
:
Third to participles, active and passive, as
******
muriimiyyat
" bestow-
ment "
&ibj&vc mujarradiyyat
:
being in solitude."
Fourth to particles, as
oîus'
from VA^ " how
"
?
:
from>^
(2)
ma-huw " what

a
is it ?
"
is
-
oa*U> " substance,"
This Arabic termination

1
even added to Persian words, as:

.
o^.
Other Persian forms are oaLa*
o^jfÂx
o^&
o^jaL
^jL*^
mrfe p. 400, foot-
note 3, and notes on Ar. Gr., Appendix. Words formed by this addition are
* '
called
;alax>
"artificial
infinitives.
Remark /. In the same way, the Persian words pddshahat (Indian) and nazakat c^tji are formed on the Arabic measure of najabat oÛu, hamdqat
Remark //.If the feminine termination
terminating in a single
<4
is
added to an adjective
^,
there
is
no
tashdid, as:
" has high
Û,
fern.
*JU, but
J^JU
of course for its feminine &Ac.
98
(a)
(i.e.
The Terminal
* is
In Persian the terminal
of
sounded), and (.îaoo ?naÂ/i or mukhtafi "hidden" (i.e. mute). The former may be preceded by any one of the short vowels, as rah '*/ road ," and&h *>Jf " grief"; jarbih*>j* " fat," and is consequently sounded. 3 As
' :
^M
two kinds,
viz.yfcUi zahir,
" manifest "
already stated, final s when mute is unsounded and transliterated a considered a vowel by some Grammarians. 4
l
it is
Also rah-&vurd
<ty)
$)
(class.)
and
oU^
(for
sawybat
all
mean
a present brought
back from a journey.

* Infinitive in the sense of
the Arabic Grammar,
i.e.,
verbal noun.
' '
Panja
" claws, grasp,

I,
' f
but panjah
panjZh)
fifty.
*,
Alter silent
the izafat assumes the form of hamza, but after sounded
it
is
written in the ordinary manner, viz. */~^ kasrah. dropped in writing before the ha of the plural.
Mute
I should be,
but
is
not always,
THE TERMINAL
The
final a in
405
Arabic words though aspirated in Arabic as in <uK

of
kali-
waA,the pausal form

fatha of
&+&
,
become
silent
in Persian,
thus kalima\ the
mtm
drops out.
:
(b) Mute or silent a is added to (1) A noun to form a noun that bears a relationship or resemblance to it, as: dast^~* "hand," dasta *L*<* "handle"; garm-aba *>\*jf = hammdm ; " " frame " dvdza chahdr-chuba door,
ajt^f
picture, etc.)
reputation; singing" " ewer." dftdba #&T

:
&?*> j^*-
(of
This
* is
called
o^lx>
Û
hd-yi
mushd-
bahat "the
(2)
of
resemblance."
of the verb to
It is
added to both stems
form substantives.
Thus
from bastan i*^ (Imp. stem band) "to bind" comes bandd **** "a slave," and from didan (shortened Inf. did) comes dida t&>* "eye": giristan "to eji~j/ (gin) weep," girya &.J "lamentation": ndlldan &*Jb (ndl), AÛ nala complaint" shukufa &>," "blossom": larza %j) "trembling" from larzldan &*>jj) khanda *>Jx" laughter."
e^
:
This
verbal A."
is
called
^
;
<^^^
^^
ô-t/i
makhfi-yi
fi'll
t*
the silent
added to adjectives to form analogous nouns, as: safld *xi~ " a^ <{ U*> black," siy^* 5ii/aA white," ,sa/da Wai** (adj.) " a claw, a bunch five," panja *^J inventory, list of items" panj Ju
(3)
It is
"
^^
'
11 left-handed." but chap^*> "left," chappa**** (4) It is used to form adjectives or adverbs of time, age, number, etc., as: cJiaharsala* AJUjâ. "four years' old"; du-mdha &kU>^ "two months'
of fives, grasp, possession"
' har-ruza fyj j& chahdr-shaba A^ ; every fourth night ; daily shaban-ruza ajj; &(*& "lasting 24 hours"; du-dila "wavering, of two " endurminds " du-bdra a;^ " once more, over again " ; chand-ruza aj^;
old
' '
'
;^ dj*
' '
' '
ing for a
few days, short-lived": har-sdla
<*)U
daily, also a fast
"
j* "yearly": ruza
"
double, two-faced
a is
"
panj-shdkha
;
*Û û
This
called Jid-yi nisbat
du-marda* a^yo OA^J Û

.
du-ruya* **))}* pronged " of two men " (task, work, etc.).
:
<{
five
"
*)
(or
apido-?/)
*ubh
of
^>*
\<*&*
the
dawn "
siyahl-yi
chashm
(ra.c.)
(m.c.)
tl
"the black
the eye," but siyalia-yi hisab v'**^

tl
<^^-*
list
of the account, statement."
Subs, chahar-salagl (j^^ 1 ' and five years' old. four being
^Wt
'*
pan;'-3to0i
^5^^
^,
etc., etc.,
the state of
the opposing (facing) armies." Du-ruya ty) j& Du-rfiya sipah aU^ &tj)j& sometimes means in two ranks, but whether facing each other or one behind the other is
doubtful.
*
Afi-dSnwfom chand-marda
/iolJ5;
budam
knew
my limitations
capabilities."
406
(5)
THE SUFFIXES &(W, ETC.
The feminine form

:
of
ôme
t>J
Arabic past participles
is
used substan-
tively in Persian, as
mujassama
*+~3x<c
a statue ", from mujassam " embodga
ied":
a feminine agreeing with surat, etc., understood: Afcjx> " an inclosure." This is also the " h of resemblance " vide (b) (I). " mardana " fit for a king (or kings) (6) In such words as shahana AJUUi *Jf^, etc., the * is called by some native grammarians ha-yi liyaqat ciJlJ Û
it is really
;
:
"the h
of fitness or suitability,"
and
is
supposed to be added to the noun

self-
in the plural (shahan, etc.).
Ana
interested
(c)
<k*f,
manner"
however, occurs as a separate suffix, as in AJl*^' "in a " vide 108. dastana " glove" salana " yearly
;
:
Further uses of mute
are
(1) To form the past participle, as: rafta *Jj>; the departed, the dead "). This I is called JJ*A*> " the silent h of the passive participle." yi mafûl
' '
"gone"
(pi.
raftagan
/&*>
uAi^ ^*
ha-yi mukhtafi-
When, however,
"
and
is
the participle
1 '
is
past active, as: shunida guft oJi? t*#**
having heard he replied,
the
is
called *~*k*
^-U ha-yi
considered equal to the conjunction j
copulative 8 **and," as: shunul va guft

atf
' '
' '
(2) It is
namsanda *oi~^ " writer"

oolcb'
used to form the agent (a present participle) of the verb, as: (also part, "writing") and is then called
'*
îiitx
^b
ha-yi mukhtafi-yi fa'iliyyat
the silent
j<
of agency."
;
(3) It is used to form the feminine of Arabic words, thus malik "king" malika " Queen " (in Arabic malikah). This * is called v*jJU Û ha-yi tarns.
Remark.
In Persian, this feminine
* is
considered a silent h, but not so

Ar.
in Arabic, thus
(4)
&L* malikat un (and malikah)
To form the diminutive

I.
of nouns, vide
*
96
(b) (3)
and Remark.
<3
Remark
The
<Ji~o
final
mute
**
of a Persian
word sometimes becomes

is (5*~-*
in Arabic, thus
pista, P.
a pistachio-nut
"
fustaq in Arabic.
:
Remark
II.
The
final * is
sometimes redundant, as in ;U. chara
99.
The
Suffixes
ban or
tin
van;
^ vana;
and e^t
and &j
van.
(a) These suffixes are said to be a corruption of man &U, contracted from mananda gjJJU " remaining" (also "resembling"). They are more probably the Sanskrit suffix van or wan, and are, according to Platts, in 0. P. and Zend pana.
Gari-w&n or garttan eJ^j^ or eJ^jtf Hindustani, "driver of hackney-coach*
etc."
THE SUFFIXES
(6)
gar, ETC.
407
This suffix added to substantives forms substantives, as:

Ûtfl bag&ban (m.c.)
d)\**
[
' c
(1)
pasidn
is
J
:
"
of camels)
"
sentry,
watchman
gardener "; darvan ofjp (m.c.) "porter"; ft camel-man (in charge shuturban
' '
;
^J^
&(>
*Û saya-ban
)."
"a
shelter (from sun, rain, etc.)";
(this last
usually written cjlj*L): girlban
guards the neck

(2)
^
it
' (
^^
:
"collar of a coat*' (that which
To nouns
l
forma adjectives, as
^^
;
mihr-ban
"kind"
(in
m.c.
mihraban
(3)
).
Gar dun ^*j>

z
"
the wheel of heaven"
wdzhun
u ?|^
,
" inverted "
humayun oÛa>
astarvana
aijû.',
fortunate."
Van o>, and vana &\j (and iw) are also
affixes
forming substantives of relation, as: parvana

astarvan e^y^*t, satarvan
' '
;
*J^ "moth
(feather-like)";
eJL?y^*>
etc. (lit. mule-like)
"barren,
a barren
in
woman
pulvan
c/,j J^
(bridge-like) the raised path or partition
a field."
100.
(a)
The
Suffixes gar
/,
gar
^, gan
^
"
>
kar
3
;l^.
it
The Persian suffix gar signifies "doer or maker,"

;
:
is
the old Persian suffix kara, Sanskrit kar

'*
attendant"
(also
performer of service, i.e. God who one nourishment, parvardagar *;^j^ provides " " teacher " a king)" ham-gar /<* " successful dmuz-gar ffij>\ (m.c.)
as: khidmat-gar ^Ûj^
;
;
ruz-gar
j'fii?
j^
"time, etc."
; #,>li
yad-gar (in m.c.

:
yad-i-gar)
"souvenir";
gunah-gar or^lî? gunah-kar "sinner" (class.) "agreeing with (of food, climate)."
;tf}^ saz-gdr also j^j^* saz-kar
Remark.
is
In yad-gar
j^
t
memorial, souvenir,"
' *
etc.,
the idea of agency
not marked.
In ruz-gar J^)^
(6)
" time
fortune
it Ls
even
less
prominent.
in Sanskrit kar: it is
;
Gar
is
a similar
suffix, in
Zend kara and
probably connected with, or contracted from, kar y<, gar ft, etc. vide (a). It has the signification of the English suffix -er. Examples: zargar />> " " " " kar-gar goldsmith (or a worker or maker in gold) ^&ty tavangar rich
; ;
j6 "one
skilful
oration, etc.)
"
;
in business; also taking effect
(as
of
medicine, of an
^k^ klmiya-gar " an alchemist."

^
Mihr, P. Sanskrit mitr or mitra or mihira. By affixing a [ya-yi masdar or as: shutur-banl vide wo 97 further mnshabahat, substantives, (a) (I)| ya-yi get ^j&y^* Ci " the work or office of camel-man '* mihrbanl kindness."
1
:
^kj^
Hurna
UA
or
humay
(S^*
A the Lamraergeier
or
Ossifrage, a bird anciently
reverenced.
8
All are connected with the verb
c>^
kardan, P.
**
to do,
1 *
Sanskrit kartum,
and
give the idea of actor or action.

*
Sometimes written as
408
ar, ETC.
Remark
/.
It should be noticed that gar
^ generally signifies a maker,

^J
while gar jf indicates a performer.
Remark
which
oJta
//.By
"
adding a formative
:
(S9 the suffix garl
signifies
art, business," as
shikar-chi-gari nami-danad
^
If
(m.c.)
"he knows nothing about the business
baioar-ch^kharm-gan
of a shikari.'
^ ^^^
'
is
formed
In India
*>U>
" ^jÛ the culinary art."

is
two words occur together, it second only, as: Babl u Suft-gari

l
usual
to
)
^j> (jr*
add the suffix to the "the Babi and Sufi
religions."
(c)
Kar ji
' '
work
' '
is
another suffix sometimes interchangeable with

' ' ;
'
y^
(in
gar.
Bad-kar
'<
evil-doer
f '
;
jafa-kar ;lli*>
India gunah~gar) "evil-doer, sinner
"
oppressor taqsir- kar*
gunah-kar
^ *U?
jK^w
"one who has

is
committed a fault."
Possibly in amuz-gar jfyj*! and kam-gar )^fo, tuted for kar^. s
101.
(a)
etc.,
the affix
substi-
Ar
;T,
ddr j*
al Jf.
*
By
cutting off the final

:
of the Infinitive
and adding ar, verbal
nouns are formed

(1)
" kirdar 6 " " Indicating action, as guftar ^lii? speech jtf works " didar ;lx?^ "seeing, sight." (as opposed to words) This termination sometimes gives the sense of an agent, as kharidar (2)
: ;
;
:
J*>j*-
(m.c.)
"buyer";
firiftar
&>j
"deceiver"; parastar j *-*^

1
' (
a wor-
shipper
(3)
(class.);
a nurse (modern)."
is
Occasionally this termination
found in concrete nouns, as

anything
kushtdr
slain in
;
;li^ (m.c.) "'anything killed (also slaughter); classically

sacrifice
anything that has died of itself (m.c.) anything killed otherwise than with the orthodox Muslim rite."
i.e.
" "; murdar J&j* carrion,
also
If,
however, the
t?a,
suffix
be added to both words, then the copulative j must be
pronounced
foot-note
(3).
as: babt-garl va *ufl~garl vide also 97 (b) (3), (^$f <*$***>) i>s Similarly taqslr u gunah-kar or taq#lr-kar va gunah-kar >l< ti& j
'
^^
* Also
8
^jjii'*** togslr-war,
^5,
4t
jf^^^ftJ
taq*lr-dd,r
By adding
"
;
substantives like
isft ^^
and
<Xx/o
]**&* taqair-mand.
"
doing or
khidmat-gart "service, office of
attendant
*
zargarl
making anything)
" are formed.
the business of goldsmith
"
:
c^T->^ Kargarl
skill (in
According to Platt'a (Hindustani Grammar) the suffixes are
tar,
and
dar,
added
after cutting oft dan.

*
Note
Farfohanda
not kardar as might have been expected. aoiS^f m c .) not faru&tZr )V&>jji
(
.
farlbanda
THE TURKISH AFFIX

(4)
ft,
ETC.
409
Some
as: giriftar )&jt

(5)
adjectives with a passive signification are formed " taken captive ; arrested."
by
this suffix,
Dwar
Ddr
Jjj*
" wall "
is
said to be derived
" from ddv 1 jb " stratum

e^t^
" to have, to hold,"
as: plshdntddr
looks after
und
and
dr.
(b)
jtJ>
is
the Imperative stem of ddshtan

signifies
a
in
compounds generally
* {
"holder, keeper,"
(m.c.)
fortunate "; db-ddr

***
jla
vT
(m.c.)
"a man who
tea, pipes, etc." It

is
hissa-dar j(j> &*a*> (class.)
" share-holder."
also
" twisted."
If the
used in forming adjectives from nouns, as: pich-ddr

of
noun be a compound
i:
two synonyms, the

p2*>
affix is
added to the
second noun only, as: pick u kham

jla
f* j
4g
" twisted The

"
j ^-u
<s
twists," pick
8
u khamddr
'aql
u hush-ddr ;!^ <j2>^ Jac
"
intelligent, etc."
:
Remark.
man
Infinitive itself
c>*x>f
my
coming
"
;
can be used as verbal noun, as

115
(h).
amadan-i
vide
The shortened
farukht
infinitive
*
^î j <x^
erft
can also be used as a verbal noun, as Tcharid u buying and selling" az guft-i u man In kdr kardam
:
p*^ ft
(c)
s&*> jl
o^f y
(m.c.)
"I
did this at his instigation"; vide
H60')(fc).
"
claw
Al Jf is a relative suffix that forms substantives, as J&A. cliangal fork" JUi* duvnbal" tail, after-part." In zangal J&j " rust (for zangar, the letters I and r being interchange: ;
' '
able) the termination appears to be redundant.
102.
The Turkish
Affixes Jl
or chi
^,
Bash
Task or Dash
(a)
The Turkish
; *
affix cAt affixed to

;
a noun, forms a noun of the agent or
a noun indicating possession

c$^ <j*y qush-chl
chi
it
;
falconer
;
"
(^to
*'
a shikari "
5
qatir-chi
" shikar" ^sJj&L banduq-chi a musketeer " " ll a servant a muleteer
occurs chiefly in
modern
Persian.
Example
;
who
^j>(3
^^
prepares coffee." In Persian this chi
appears to be applied to professions only.
By
imfila, div.
is
Abdarl <)!*^T
a mule with saddle-bags fitted for a journey; lamp, tea-materials,
pipe, etc., etc.: also called

8
)1&j^ nah&r-dar. u hush ijy* ) J^ b * Chi has much the same In the UIghur dialect signification as wald in Urdu. of Turkish (Kashghar and Yarkand), this suffix is added to the Future participle of zakat-chl Infinitive to signify the agent, and to a noun to signify profession, as
Or 65
'aql
.
:
* 4
custom's
6
official.
' '
The business
of ono servant, as guests are continually dropping in.
410
If
dan.
the substantive end in

;
*,
the
* is
dropped, as: khizdn-chl

or
"treasurer"
scullion)"
:
mash'al-chl
^^ cUî
torch-bearer (in India dish-washer,

writes parwanas,
parvanch* i*^Jjj
"one who
Government
orders, etc."
After a soft letter like o, chi

<c
ji
bustanjl ^ûlLojj instead of chl is
miyanjl <^?^* commoner in Tehran owing to Turkish

;
a gardener
"
in m.c. sometimes becomes

a
j%
" a mediator."
influence.
as
Possibly
For the forms shikar-chi-gan ^Jf

etc., vide
(b)
^ y<,
(<
qush-chi-gari
100
(b)
Remark
^^
uj*,
II.
few compounds are formed by the Turkish words bash " head," and task or dash " companion," as qiziLbash (lit. red- headed) " a soldier; a
Persian;
tash
Qizil-bash; etc.,
etc."; yul-dash
103.
a guide "; beg-tash or Jchwaja-
"
fellow- servant."
Dan
"
;
&**.
The
as:
f
affix
dan
&l^ signifies sometliing that holds, or contains, a vessel,

lt
cJ
;
c>
u+3 namak-dan
salt -cellar
^'^*Xj
;
" case
eM^ khak-dan
"
;
cooking-pot
c^'^
(m.c.)
5
" " the grave
qalam-dan
(ni.c.)
"a pena copper
kumaj-dan &)&*
snuff-box."
^*
* e
ct
anfiyya-dan (m.c.)
suffixes
-
Remark.
after that
Compounds with the

'place,'
*
^,
.
and those mentioned here'
signify
as:
*&'
aJU.
ÎL** -^13
*lf
av&
jfc
(as
)
in
rud-bar), etc.,
form
c
Persian
compound nouns
and place "
; '
of place
^j*
*-*j&
In Arabic the
*'
noun
of time
place of slaughter, a vital spot

;
has special forms, as maqtal cliflx) " the East" (time or place mashriq ^-^
: *
of rising)
masjid
<*ax~*/c
mosque."
- - -
Those 'nouns
suffixes zarj)), sar
of place' that signify
the term &j*
;U, 6ar^b, lakh lf ^t+~*) 'nouns of excess.' cursed" are Such words as ^'ixH
abounding in' (formed by the are sometimes distinguished by

included under Jytix ^f.
For
y^ ^t,
104-
vide
j'j,
68 VIII.
sar
Zdr
Û, stan
e^
y^
-,
or istan
c) li**',
^M
$>
kada
^.
*tf,
gdh *%, dbad

(a) (1)
^f
*'
grarrf
khdna
&^,
:
shan er^, na
The
affix zdr yj signifies
abounding
in, as
Namak zar )}+*
salt-ground (where nothing
grows)"; shura-zar
2
*
JJ
In Arabic tW*^, but in Persian also is a Western Turkish form of chl.

sliding
A long box with a
drawer that contains pens, an inkpot, and scissors with
specially-shaped handles, for cutting the paper. painted and are very costty.
*
6
Some qalam-dans el**^

fat.
are beautifully
Originally used for baking a kind of bread in In Persian anfiya ***>! without tashdld.
Compare <j>+*>
skilful
'
:
vide
108 (a) Kemark.
zar, ETC.
411
uiJU
;fj
t)j
"
field of battle
(6)
"saltpetre "
affix
The
" meadow" *; kdr-zdr fa " any garden.'* (place of deeds) gul-zar yj d$ (m.c.) sar jU has the same meaning, and forms substantives and
ground";
'alaf-zar
;
;fj
and denotes plenty, magnitude, similitude, or possession, as: 2 chashma-sar ;U &Jb* "a place full (1) Kuhsar ; U */ "hilly" " sharm-sar "full of shame." springs ;U
adjectives,
;
of
Remark
I.
Sang-sar kardan
cJ^;Uw
'
" to stone a person."
to
Remark //.In rukhsdr jU^; " face modify the word rukh ;
(2)
cheek/' the termination appears merely

(m.c.)."
It also denotes
:
"like."
khak-sar 5
U^LL "like dust, base, low-
born"
shah-sar ;Ua>U
is
(3) It
like a king, kingly." used for sar " head ," as \-sag-sar
U Ji* (old)
"
' '
subuk-sar
Û^
light-headed
also
unburdened by luggage
"
dog-headed
;
nigu-sar, or
jU îj or jUJjX), in classical Persian = "one who hangs the head from shame"; but in modern Persian only "inverted (= sar-nigun).'" and is derived from (c) The affix stdn &&** or istan &&*\ signifies place
nigun-sar
'
'
,'
the Sanskrit sthan " place/ The former is used after a substantive ending "a in a vowel and the latter after a consonant, as: bu-stan e>^>? garden
'
(place of scent)
(place
of roses
"; Hindustan*
^&<j*u*>
" India"
Îw^j'
gulistan
d~tf "garden"
or flowers); qabristan
"grave-yard"; Farangistan
:
"Europe."
In a few words the termination gives the idea of time, as tabistan summer zamistdn Û-xsj winter c^^j^ baharistan spring.
<
' '
' <
' '
' '
Remark.
As regards the termination

:
c>T
an found
in so
many names,
M. Chodzko writes
"
du
Quelques erudits persans m'ont assure qu'anciennement le formatif pluriel &), donnait aux mots primitifs le meme sens geographique que leur stdn i.e. qui est tres probable; car an veut dire aussi propriet6 de,
i
:
appartenant a
appartient.
^^
^f
:
j!
ez
an hud, de son propre avoir, de ce qui In

ville,
Examples hemadan nom d'une
&V
ttf
ardelan
nom
d'une province,
gildn
nom d'une
province,
c^'j^-3^
mdzenderdn de meme,
lawn or any stretch of good grass or a meadow, etc., a green spot covered with weeds and grass. zar j) Kuhiatan &&*&}> means country with big mountains; kuhsar )\*ty " hilly. *'
1
Ghaman
is
an
artificial
'
^^
ft
With the formative

Hind.
"
humility.
fthak-sari
(ÛS'lk
an
* Also
6
For
the adverbial termination
(bamdadan
c>f^f^
p^, n&gahan
&\f^ and
(Afghan), etc. vide Adverbs.
412
azer-bijan de
zar, ETC.
^
/-
meme, &*})^ vtJ^

la contree
deskt-i
haveran,
les
il
le
desert
de Haveran,
les Ardels, les
doivent,
suivant ces
erudits, etre traduits:
Hemeds,
marais
(jil),
dans
la quelle (ender)
<maz) arbres ou des chenes (mazu), les du feu (azer), les deserts de 1' Occident (haver), etc."
y a beancoup de grands adorateurs ou les enfants (big-beee)
Remark.
In poetry istan
is
sometimes pronounced
sitan, as: gulsitan
ÎL
elf,
for gulistan cJ^J^.
(d)
The
l
affix lakh
if
signifies
^Kw
4
'
sang-lakh (m.c.)
"place," or numerous, copious," as "a j(*!> div lakh stony place; rocky, stony"
:
:
"
a demon-haunted place."
(c)
Kada
"
**? signifies "habitation, house,"
and
as the last
number
of a
compound,
place," as iAtash-kada ttf tjtil (m.c.) " a tavern " mdtam kada *<tf *tf (m.c.) may-kada <( mourning" but-kada l*f c^ an idol temple."
"
Û*
temple of the Magi <c house of (class.)
"
Remark.
In kad-khuda \**>*f
<4
bdnujhtf "a
of kada
(/)
housewife, a good manageress," the prefix
married man, a householder"; kadis an abbreviation
***.
Odh "
;
tf
(Sanskrit gatu)
is
an
affix
(?
denoting
<c
(1)
Place," z&'.Khwab-gah
takht-gah
l#
^^
bedroom, also acloth

jjlf
valise for
bedding"
farud-gah " a seat "
(2)
o.^vi (m.c.)
"an
open-air platform for sitting
on"
&
:
^/
(m.c.)
aram-gah
as:
&f evening time"; an-gah " 4< out untimely, then (m.c.) pasangah &f u^ "after that" &?-gra& ^ Sukhan na-bayad guft magar angah ki maslakat bashad (class, of season." and modern) *~k o^JLAA> A/ *&f yi oif <Û^ er*^* J w"^c a^ so 1 ^â noun denotes a city or place of (g) The word aftad* abf suffixed to
^f;f
"halting place"; nishiman-gah "a resting place." (m.c.)

(f
t^*^
(m.c.)
"Time"
;
Sham-gah
,& "the
<
abode, as
The
(h)
Bahram-abad ttf adjective abadan &*^.1

:
^^
(Bahram Town).
,
is
The
affix gird
or gard
^
:
have a similar
Ya&digird).
signification, as
not used in forming compounds. found in a few names of towns, appears to a/ ff^ Bahram-gird : *j* &. Yazdijurd (for
is
In Darab-kard
>ty&
(near Shiraz), the suffix
perhaps a corruption.
Also aang-lak&a (m.c.) and sangistan (m.c.).
In m.c. ma<aw-&&3rca or matam-aara

s
Oa^
'f is
*'
sometimes contracted into gah
&
with *> guh (not to be confounded
which means
*
human excrement)."
Mad
"
kardan c>^/
^T
*'to cultivate a place, or found a
town ": iS
cultivation; also the condition of being
populous or inhabited."
umand, ETC.
i *i&> "house" as a suffix has a somewhat similar meaning as: kar-khana &'*(*$ "factory": rud-khana *'Ao* and gah " bed of a river and hence " a river.' l properly added to nouns, also forms a noun of place, (j) The suffix shan as gul-shan (^^S t( a rose-garden or rose-bed." In rawshan {jj) (for rawzari) " window " it is a corruption.
(i)
KM
to kada **
(3*,
' '
'
(k)
Na
tang-na
U (sometimes nay U&3 " a narrow

ec
prominent part of
"
added to nouns or adjectives, as: place"; tdz-nd or tlz-nay <Û J^3 (class.) "the the sword edge that does the work (lit. place of sharp-
Û)
is
ness)
ab-na l^f
strait."
suffix is often written ^li.
In Indian Persian, this
Remark.
Na
&
as
is
:
also
cognate meaning,
daraz-nd
added to some adjectives to form substantives "

l>jf^ (class.)
of
length."
,
105.
Dmand
is
^/oy,
Wand &jj and Mand Nak uÛ, Ak ^1.

:
**>,
(a)
Mand
et
***
and
signifies
a suffix joined to nouns, generally to form adjectives, possessor of, possessed of," as
of
wisdom, wise"; aqlmand xiU8^ tanu-mand ÛjîJ ^^ profitable strong." "intelligent " In arjumand ( î^^l) (also arjmand) " noble," and baruw,and ** fertile, fruitful,' the suffix is a form of mand.
' '
;
;
Khiradmand jix^yL* (< possessed " sud-mand <>U

'
"
Wand <3Jj is occasionally found for mand oi*, as in khwtshd-wand <xij " hard "kinsman"; pulad-wand ^î/^ (like steel)"; khuda-wand
"master."
(6)
Nak
J^li
added to substantives, forms an adjective

<c
of quality, as
gfaam-nak
u^lu-i
sad"; khawf-nak
"
"
;
dangerous
(c)
dard-nak
is
Ak cf
suzdk
painful." a termination used to form some substantives from verbs,

*>:>
*JU^
"frightful"; khatar-nak v^l^ta.
"
as: pushak vÛ^j

&&)}&*
;
"raiment" from eP^#; khurak

' '
^^
"food" from
' '
<*\jy
gonorrhoea.
In mag&ak Ûx3 ditch; low place, etc.," from mag&* <JW and tabdk "fever," the termination, apparently the same, "depth," is termed a relative suffix by native Grammarians vide 115 (e).
Remark.
*
'
106.
(a)
i.e.
Bar
and Ydr
t.
in,'
(1)
The
(
suffix 6ar jb signifies
'abounding
as: zang-bar jb
^j,
Zangibar
river
1
"
'abounding in blacks'); rud-bar )(**# {class.) "channel of a
sang-bar^
is
^w (old) " abounding in stones, stony."

Any dry
*
There
hardly a river in Persia.
nala
that becomes a stream after
rain, is called
*
A^^^
rwc-&kana.
4.5,
With the formative
khiradmandi
414
(2)
tr, ETC.
Bar ^
used
;
is also
the root of e^L> and signifies
"
raining, scattering,"
l
and
is
to
form
pearls"
(3)
Bar ;L>
ear/ra
shakar-bar ;tj/ is also a substantive signifying "load,"

(of fruit
compounds, "
as
:gawhar-bar
raining sugar, mellifluous.
"
^j*f
and
is
"scattering
also used in
(m.c.)
compounds, as: pur-bar >(>jj "fruitful

{ f
trees)"; sar-bar jb/
a small
load on a transport animal." In a few adjectives, the suffix takes the form of yar ^-\, as
(also bdkht-amr,
bakhtyar^û
" fortunate"
yar j *j*
{
bakht-var or bakhtur,
and bakht-mand); hush-
or hiishyar
jU*
<;
full of senses, intelligent."
107.
Awwjyf (contracted
jf );
Var
j*,
and
twr
;fj>
Gan
d$\ and
auar >yf and ar ^T, which are used in forming adj Actives from substantives, are from the verb ^;jT "to bring" and signify
(a)
The
affixes
"bringing, producing,
or displaying," as:
jjlb
dil-avar
<
brave
(dis-
playing heart)": )^)^; zur-avar "strong (bringing strength)." In sal&r j^l* *' chief," the suffix is the same, but contracted. above mentioned are var $> smdvar jj 4 and (6) Related to the
jrj
vara:
u endowed these suffixes mean with, possessed efii^ (m.c.) "learned"; ummidvar )^***'<
gush-var (or gush-vara] >\j>J
shalirvar jt>kU
of, full
of," as:
damsh-var
"hopeful; a candidate"; " " a ; ear-ring (becoming or adorning the ear)
" "like an atom jan-var " nam-var "

;
"befitting, or
)\j>(**
worthy of a king, kingly "; zarra-var Jj *)& " sukhan-var " an animal of
(possessed
life)
;
eloquent
^>cl>
" famous.'
5 is
'
In musht-vara
7
jf)iy^ "handful,
the measure of a hand," the
redundant.
is
IndilirjjJz (also dil-avar
)^} "brave/
another contraction of the
same
suffix.
Remark.
The
suffix
var
is
sometimes redundant, as: saza-var jfjf>
"worthy." Inj^^j ranjur "sick," the suffix is perhaps the same as var. The suffix gdn signifies similitude, as: khudaygan (c)
oKjf<Xsx
*'
a great lord
* ;
happy.'
*
It also, like var
;fj,
signifies
worthy of," as: raygan*
"worthless
(fit
to be cast
;
"
fit
for a
king"
on the road)"; ahay-gan* (for shah-gan) " merchant." bazar-gan &^)$* (for bazar-gan)
^^
e;&L>
o^
Gawhar-barl
($* j*jr
subs, with the formative
*
3
In India generally, but vulgarly, hoshiyar.
With the formative c^
dttrftvari
(j^jUj.
,
* All adjectives
may
be used as ad verbs
but adjectives in var
)\)
and ana
are
specially adverbial in their signification.

6
In India pronounced gbuda-e-gan
ra-e-gan, sha-e-gan, etc.
ana, ETC.
415
Remark.
Dihqdn &\&A*
is
the
<~>j**
of dihgdn &&*>* or
suffix is
dih-khan e
of &jS
In girdgdn "like."
(d)
^*J$
" walnut " the

as:
perhaps a corruption
Man
&(*
'Mike,"
as-man
"
c;
+**f
"sky"
= " glad"
(like
revolving
suffix
'mill-stone');
mih-mdn
cAt*
is
guest."
In
Û*
shddmdn u'xÛ the

(i.e.
seems to mean "continuity": e/Û or

happy).
temporarily
Musalman
cA*A~*
by some said
pi. of
others to be a corruption of the Persian
muslim-man, by muslim, and by others to be a
to stand for
corruption of the Arabic plural.
108-
Ana *T
Ina
*ij
In
&
and An & and An ^T Rd>

to
and Vdv
j.
(a)
The inseparable
as an adjective
suffix
it
is
"like";
as
:
nouns or adjectives signifies usually applicable to things, not to persons,
ana added
Marddna
'
A^fjyo
"like a man,
manly";
div-dna ^fy^
"mad
(like
c<
'
;
div)
rubahana
nine, peculiar to
zanana wl>3 femi*JU^ fox-like (in behaviour) wily women" zishtana &\&) ft in an ugly manner"; ziringana
;
:
;
"
"
"in a smart or c^ver manner"

(adj.)
dast-dna *iU*o
"glove"; ruzdna
43 (aa) and 98 (6) (6). It can also be added to Arabic adjectives 'djizdna AJfÛ "helplessly,
"daily"
viae also
in a helpless or
humbled manner."
" Kdyhaz-i dustana &&*)& &\ "a friendly letter (but not mardi dusldna a friendly man"); dustana AJU^^ could, however, be used as an adverb, as: dustana kar kard ^jfc AiU*jd "he acted in a friendly manner." " he In Ichawftiak-anapursid **"^ &{lijyS (m.c.) enquired fearingly," the Arabic to the added substantive Persian affixed ndk khawf J^, forms an
*
4
adjective
*if
"fearful," applicable to persons; while the additional affix ana forms an adverb or an adjective applicable to things. Tarsndk-dna its compounds are all Persian. AJltiuy has the same signification, but
(6)
(1)
In
fc>j
and
ma
*i^t
are two
more formative elements used
for
forming adjectives of relation

of gold
,
(nisbat), as:
B
" from
adj.
zar
>)
gold;
of
simm &*+&
(m.c.)
zarrin^j) (m.c.) "golden, made " made of silver"

:
pashimn
;
"made
wool," or pashmma &***&$, subs,
"a
woollen stuff"
All adjectives
may
be used as adverbs, but those
in var
and ana are specially
adverbial in their signification.

*
8
silver
Ruzlna (class.) " daily; daily pay, pension." In modern Persian stm means "wire"; the Arabic word JJ/& nuqra " " he is 1U> for gold but Mâyll zar darad (m.c.) and very rich
: * '
is
;
used for
zar-varaq
(m.c.)
gold
leaf.
' '
416
pustln
1
ana, ETC.
cri*jj
"an
Afghan
sheep-skin
"made
of skins";
pishm
^^y
coat"; pustina* MJJU^J "of former times "; dlrma s AXJÔ

(also
(adj.)
(m,c.)
i;&).
"old, ancient: &*>
jj^b (rare)
"of silver"
&
;&, also
^'yJ and
Adjectives formed by the terminations asa Uf, -ana *Jf , etc., signifying "like," or by fam fti, gun & , etc. "colour," are classed as AU> +*) " nouns (adjectives) of similitude."
Remark.
(2)
The termination
In
also
denotes resemblance in colour, as:

&*))
zumurradm &ity), "emerald green"; zarrin bulunn e*U>k " like crystal or made of crystal."
"golden coloured";
forms superlatives.
It also
Remark
I.
but sangl <^x**
* '
From sang sÛ> " stone" comes made of stone."

The
suffix
sangin
i^&~
"
heavy,"
Remark
II.
m &* also
it
forms the superlative degree, but in

%
pishin u**>J# and pasln &*~$

It is also
(c)
seems to have a comparative sense.

:
;
The
suffix
added to the cardinal numbers, as awattn ^jt vide 48 (c). an e/f 4 like the suffix In &*, is used to form relative
, ;
in biyaban ^bU "desert" (from vf c^) payan adjectives and nouns as f< 'end"; kuhan cJ^y horse-saddle camel-hump." ^tlj " " The suffix in plsham ^^y forehead is probably formed from this em. This suffix is found in names, as: Iran &\j>\ and Turan e)!;y 6 Isfahan
;
Mdhan* c;UU (near Kerman). In abaddn e^t^f "inhabited," it appears to be redundant. In subhgahdn e;Ul<>*e, bamddddn ejf.tf^b, yagdn yagdn ^Kj ^&, baharan
;
the suffix
is
adverbial.
it is
In jawdan cjt^ta. and jdndn e>Û.

(d)
adjectival.
An
c>
joined to
p>)
some
substantives forms relative nouns, as: riman

etc.
;
(adj.)
from rim
(J*f*>
"pus, matter,"
pleonastic,
as:
jushan <j-r>^
" coat
of mail
"
from jush
It
is
"a
ring (in a coat of mail, etc.)."
sometimes
zlban ciU3 for ziba Uj); sun ^>- for

lafch **)
any*
pdddshan e^fÛ for padash " " direction

side,
;
<j,'*U
lafchan
"
&&M for
thick-lipped,
cam el- lipped."

" to blab out a secret" and
uftodan &&(i9l ^f~$
Puatln dartdan c)>J;c
eH^î
(class.)
lcaa-1
puetln Icandan (class.) or dar pustin-i * ' are classical idioms. backbite
*
tûj4
)t> (class.)
"to
In
pust-i
mlahina
ast
ya buzlna?
a sheep or goat*s skin ? 3 Dir ji& "late," but yar-i dlrlna * An-i nfobat.
6 6
"
^^J
^ Oul
ct
*iû*v
&j* e>^l
(m.c.) "is this
*ty6 )^>
an old friend."
Ir jj\ and TUT )j* are said to have been sons of Farldun.
Always pronounced Mahun.
agin, ETC.,
(e)
AND THE FORMATIVE,

final
alif.
417
According to native Grammarians a
is
substantives for nisbat, as: angushiar Â&f "ring" " " wine." "tavern " from lah finger" lahar
;
added to some from angusht oîXif
of final formative vav (vdv-i (/) Native Grammarians give instances o.*JUlJ fa'iliyyat ^) in patu yb, from pat ou " goat's hair, wool"; (pattu in India is a woollen stuff, but patu y^ in Persia " a blanket") shashu
:
"piss-a-bed
corruption.
"
^^
rlshu jfy)
" bearded"
the last, however,
is
probably a
109.
Agin
^
' '
;
or Gin
^.
"full of grief, sorrow" ashamed
' '
(^ a contraction of agin &*tf from dgandan c>>^T "to fill" ; gin and agin therefore signify " filled with." They are used as suffixes to nouns,
Gin
is
to form possessive adjectives, as:
gkam-gln
&*+*
l
ful";
khashm-gln
ÛU.
* '
angry
sharm-gln
;
^-^
^^^
'ambar-agln
&*;
^xlc
**full of
surma
(or
antimony
for the eyelashes)
amber" "
surma-gin
khirad-agln
(class
"
)
full of
^J^^. (m.c.)
" wise."
110.
(a)
The Formative a
(alif f )
This inseparable suffix forms adjectives and participles from verbal " to know", dana* bf^ roots, as, from dan &\* the root of ddnistan &l~* & " learned " guyd t>/ bind li# vide also 70 (a).
; ;
;
added to adjectives to form abstract nouns as garmd " breadth " " cold " sarmd *>*o pahnd (also pahna-i
It is
l :
U/
"
heat,"
Remark.
The following examples

of
3
illustrate the
forms that are included

Present Participle," as the Real or the Regular
' ' :
under the
title
Û^ J^
(
p*\
"Irregular
distinguished from the
o^*^
or )
</^^
^ cl*
U;^
' ' ;
**
/**'
Present
' '
Participle
:
inanda
&)&
^^
yjjA> "purchaser"
of complaints
":
4
:
o-^
****)&
" otyG feeble" " a wise man"
^ (Jty^
rt.) ij*)&.j* (= ^^ "fond of learning": Jkb ^ "of little sense ": "of pleasing speech " ; fcW^ " servant " OAX)^
:
:
:
" thief " (Imp.
knowing
î*^
skilful
' '
:
8xU;) "hearer
JU^
"painful" ^y^ "painful": if&*j^. "rifleman":

:
:
"camel-man "
4<
jyÛ
"
king
"
^JjtA^
Lord": ^X>J "hard
as steel"
Under
this
mischievous," " " the Arabic Present Participle of the form JUli, as: ^JUe tyrant.
: :
" executioner
"
head are also included such words as " kind " "
^/
<jy^
etc.
* *
' '
spy
^^
Also, of course,
Sharm-ru j) pj
This verbal
"shy, bashful."
AKf-i fa'iliyyat o^
4
8
alif is called
" formed * The " by adding an Impera. root to a noun participle

or
Many
of these are also
^j* ^<* f**l
"
compouad
adjectives."
is
generally called
27
418
(b)
fam, ETC.
adjectives expressing fulness and completeness are formed by between the two compounds, as: lab-a-lab *~J\d " lip to an alif inserting * s "of lip; also brimful": sar-a-sar j\j> "entirely"; gun-a-gun &j? l^?
Some
many
colours, variegated"
sar-a-pd
ty^ "from head

it signifies
to foot, cap-a-pie."
Vide also
(c)
140
(h) (5), (6), (7)
and
foot-note.
Prefixed to some Persian words
privation, as:
ajumbdn
e>UM
"motionless, fixed."
Alif is used to
(d)
form the vocative singular.

it is
When
or to attract attention
called alif~i nida**<y> vJUf
used to summon " the alif of calling."
When
alif-i
used in the vocative of distress, as in darig&a lty& " alas! nudba && ^\ " the alif of plaint."
different kinds of alif, vide
f;tiu is
2.
"
it is
called
For the
(e)
1
Bukhara
said to be derived from bukhar jl^j (Zand) " wisdom,
because of the learning that prevailed there. Some native grammarians style this final a alif-i vasfiyyat o,jjL>j *-&(, and give as further examples zlbd y) and ganda foif in these, however, the alif appears to be
earning,"
t
l
that of the participle [vide

111.
(a)
2,
Remarks
II].
Fam*
suffix
fli,
(Pam fa and
W dm
Gun
Charta *'^.
The
fdm
^
' '
(rarely
or likeness of," and
is affixed
to both substantives
la'l-fdm
fb*
fa or(*j) indicates "of the colour, form, and adjectives siydh-fdm

:
fU
of
*U*o
(me.) "blackish";
*
J*)
"somewhat ruby-coloured":
' t
nil- fdm fti <Jx*
bluish
;
" an emerald
Instead of
(6)
zumurrud-fam
(*ii
kuhl-fdm
Jl.^
p\~>
^
&
6
ty*>)
rather like the green hue

ciSx).
misl-i
:
surma (A/^J
f
li,
sometimes
is
found, as
b ^\>
sapid-barn
" whitish."
Gun &
(t
signifies
"colour, species, form, fashion, etc.," and in
compounds "of
the colour of
rose-coloured gul-gun &j& of various sorts."
" "
lala~gun
dJjf
gun-d-gun
&
^"
"poppy-coloured, scarlet";
of various colours, also,
" he's become pale (from sickness)." chorda **,*. and also jarta AJ^, means (c) Charta a^-, sometimes written " colour, hue," and occurs in a few compounds, as: zard-charda and *sj*.
Ouna-ash zard shuda *>^
^j>3o^'
**
Syn. ldb-rizj*jd
overflowing/' lab-bi-lab
'
^^.^
man
**
Up
to lip."
Or
sar-bi-sar
f~*j*
*'
as bi-dih va bisitan-i
^tdXkX) j***j*>
3
&*
(m.c.)
my
mi*guzarad income and expenditure are equal."
sar-bi-sar
Syn. rang-a-rang. In Persian / and p are often interchangeable; pll or

* 4
/tZ
"
elephant
"
;
saplda
;
^(Xuê, saflda 8-**i*,
white
>J
:
pam
or warn are not used in
modern Persian
as suffixes
but warn or
5
pam
(m.c.)
" debt."
Kufyl or
surma "antimony, collyrium."
Qulha-yi gun-a-gun
i$Ji U^S
&^jr
LS^r
" vftrio^ coloured flowers*';
kutttb-i
gunro-gun
^Sf
**
books by various authors " I saw a bird of (m.c.)
"
murgh~i ba*parha-yi gun-a-gun dldam
many
colours."
asa, ETC.
419
zard-charta
*5^
&
"
(old)
ing to
some grammarians
this affix is
yellow coloured" (not used of people). Accordfound only in the word siyah-charda
(d)
Rang J&)
is
also used, as:^gul-rang
J^jJ^, sdbza-rang JS>
*)**>,
etc.,
vide
112(/).
(e)
In old Persian dlz
v-^
"
^ and
obsolete
eBza
i^
).
are also found for dls ^/*^, as:

of
night-coloured, black"; "the name
Khusrau's horse."
These
suffixes are
now
*-^yx>
112.
3.sa Uf,
Sd U; San c>U; Fas& oj,

"
etc.;
(a)
$a
U
* c
and asa Uf are
dsd " scented

sihr-sa
like
U^xu*
ambar-sa UÂXP " like magic \mard-asa

:
musk "
affixes signifying
like," as
"
Uf^
resembling amber (in scent) ** like a man, manly."
Uf uk* mushk"
;
Remark.
These suffixes must not be confounded with sa U from sayldan "to rub," and asa Uf from dsudan &$)*f'z (m.c. intr.) "to be
-sa
satisfied, refreshed, etc.,"
(or
" making a profound reverence

(6)
jdbln-)
U a^
or
both of which also occur in compounds, as: jabha^ er^^ "rubbing the forehead on the ground,
;
ruh-asa
Uf
^
"
c<
soothing the mind."
sdn c)U has the same signification as the suffix asa or sa, and is probably akin to the Sanskrit saman and the Hindi sa. Examples shlr-san
:
cjUÂ~
(class.)
"like a lion"
(rn.c.)
sham'-san
Û
khursJnd sdn c>U *>^;>^
" like the sun
(also
^*^ (m.c.) "like a candle": khurshld-wdr )\j AA^;^ )
yak-san e)UCj (m.c.) "alike."
Remark.
Sdn c>U sometimes stands
for istdn
^Û
as: khdrsdn
(class.) for khdristdn
J.^\^
(m.c.)
"a
thorny place."
In modern Persian sdn-i qushun dldan 3 army ; Imruz sarbdzhd sdn dddand *>*\s c>^ î^/îi^jl Û ji (m.c.) " the troops were reviewed."
5 '
^^ o>* c^9
"to review an
jjtr^
'
>
or as s &n guzashtand
(c)
(1)
Vash
(Jb)
(pash
"like,"
as:
mdh-vash
gbuncha-vash (Jj *^
(class., rare)
;
Jy or fash î; o5U> (m.c.) "like,

{
obsolete),
is
an
affix signifying
or beautiful as, the
moon":
"like a bud (of a pretty mouth) "; qamar-vash farishta-vash Aigy (m.c.) [also farishta-sdn cjU Îî (m.c.)
e>^
or farishta-vdr fo
*xy
(m.c.)].
"
like
*
8
Probably connected with the Hindi me " dev ka sa *' like a demon ").
;
sa
(kald-sa
"
black-looking
"
;
mujh-sa
In modern Persian asuda kardan cJ3^
*3>-->f
and asuda ahudan
^*
8^f
San ejU
is
Eastern Turkish
Qazzaq use aan c>U for

which)*
Uighur it signifies the total (in number). The either ten or a hundred millions (the author is uncertain
:
in
420
(2)
THE TERMINATIONS,
In place
of vash, are
Um
isk,
ETC.
modern
"
Persian), as:
shaft- fash
sometimes found fash and pash (but not in <>> *& "like a Shah"; sarv-pash Jtjjs*
like a cypress,"
Native Grammars also give the form bas t as: shir-bas

tiger."
(d)
u^ jt
"like a
Das <jo and
used to form
"like the
adjectives, as
moon";
are also suffixes signifying "like," which are " fa e sun J mah-dis khwdis o"*-/^ " ^ke is but dis as same das ^/o has the signification yr^, dts
o*^
:
^^
very rarely used.

fc.
The Zardushtis sometimes

i
write
is
Khuda
bl
das va
daman
ast
^j IJA (old Persian)

as
:
= "God
eternal."
Khuda-vand ^f<^ like God, lord, possessor ; " master, husband" pjO&A-vand MJ&J* hence by contraction khawnd *>)&* hard as steel, also the name of a hero.'
(e)
; * '
'
Vand *>> (: like,"
"
"
This suffix
4>Jj
is
also used for

M*i^j^.
mand
*** ^possessed of," as: dawlat-vand
oJ;i
dawlat-mand
Remark
vand
/.The word
' *
ture (as pots
furni*>J avand "furniture," especially "kitchen and ab from "water," *-$ be derived to and pans)", appears
(old)
experiment
labour; praise; vessel; vase; cup."
Remark //.These nouns and adjectives of similitude, formed by the suffixes asa Uf wash o*j, sar ;U, ana A)f gun &^, vand ^, man ^, etc., are styled &*&*
,
,
p~\.
Remark IIL
Kirdar >\*J
is
also used to
form adjectives
of
resemblance
farishtakirdarjzjS *&j* "like an angel."

113.
The
Suffix urn
The termination f JL added

as: chahar-um
to the cardinal
^^
"fourth";
numbers forms the ordinals, bist-uhaftum f&* j o-jj "the twentyis
seventh."
Note that in a compound number the termination

last only.
added to the
114.
The Termination -wi
ddnish ^Jf^
This termination added to the Imperative root forms abstract nouns, as "knowledge" from danistan "to know"; blnish îjj (m.c.)
:
Called
Mn-i
mctsdari
^) >*&* cH^>
or Mfn*t masdar.
Radical
^,
as in the
word
Is called
CHAPTER
115.
XII.
Verbal Nouns, and Nouns and Adjectives derived from Verbs.
(a) The Imperative root of the verb is sometimes a substantive, as from " sukhtan <^^> (tr. and intr.) " to burn ", suz (m.c.) burning, inflam' ' ' to be mation bi-dih u biranj grief grieved ranjldan a^^j
'
* *
stdn-i
kdr
&
man er (^^ j *& (m.c.) "my expenditure and my income"; " debtor " bistdn-kar " t& &(*~j creditor."
11
c *
' '
bidih-
(m.c.)
fe
(m.c.)
(b)
few
of the verbs
6
of, as:
farmdn c>4/ from paymudan " to measure; to travel."

Remark.
(c)
,
ending in udan c^jf form substantives ending in an " an order" from farmudan payman^*** "promise"
;
Asan o^f however, is an adjective "easy" (from asudari). few nouns are formed by adding ak *Jf to the imperative stem, as
105
(d).
suzdk
c<
gonorrhoea," vide
(d)
For nouns derived from verbs and terminating in

(2).
silent
vide
^8
(b)
(e)
hamza and
^jt*
generally compounds, are formed by adding a ya y or the &>\ rakht-8hu*i Imperative stem, as: had-guti ya, to bidihl (m.c.) "revenue of a o^;ado; bidih (m.c.) "debt";
Some nouns,
^^
^^
district"; ^(ji^ shinava"l
"power
of hearing
"
guy (^f
(obs.), vide
97
In bina*t ÛAJ the termination is added to the verbal adjective For jaJiandan" sovereignty," vide 97 (a) (1).
(/)
t
taj.
For
ish
added to the Imperative

114.
:
atern,
as: afannish <^v.yT "crea4<
ion
"from
(g)
afridan, vide
For verbal nouns in ar jf, as
diddr
j(*i*
seeing,"
vide
101
(a)
(1).
(h)
The Infinitive
alone, affirmative or negative, can be used as a noun, as

i*3tf
:
az dad ufarydd kardan hlch fd*ida~i nisi *^~~^ * " " there is no use in out and
Â*
I
^^
ît*j ^*
3f
(m.c.)
screaming
crying
aznd guftan-i 6
*'
in harf Jchayli
pashlman-am ^ +*&<* mention this."

[
^^ o^ ^l \J& Ujt
Cl
(m.c.)
am
very sorry I did not
In bar
ma
takhlan dvurdand *>ytf
ÛU ^
they charged us," the
Infinitive is used as
an object.
commoner.
ârm-on
etc., etc,
Suziah (jW**
is
*
8
Bistan for bisitan.
Arabic broken plural fararnln ^yofî.
jjLpy
has
become anglicized
under the guises firmaun, flrmand, phirmaun,

*
6
Or
fa*ida
(without
of unity).
In modern Persian
Ai is often prefixed instead of
U t vide
(q).
422
VERBAL NOUNS, AND NOUNS AND ADJECTIVES DERIVED FROM VERBS.

Poetically,
and sometimes
in m.c., this Infinitive
can be used in the
plural, as
az tapidanhd-yi dtl 'Ashiq-i blchdra har jd hast rusvd mt-shavad.
Az paridanhd-yi rang u
"
By
his changings of colour,
The wretched
Indmadan-hd va " these
and the beatings of his heart, lover compromises himself wherever he is."
ma samar na-kard tj& 7*ji U ^îi^ j " but it would and (m.c,) comings goings of ours produced no result be better to substitute here dmad u raft-i bisydr for the plural Infinitive:
raftan-hd-yi
;
Ifi^yk A? guh-khurdan-hd
(i)
is
common
expression in m.c.
affixing
For compound nouns formed from the Imperative stem by

97
(a) (1).
c?, vide
Further examples
Prom (D**'s " to smell" comes buy ^^ " scent "; from e;^J intr. " to traverse" comes puy ^j, (but puy mi-kunad *tf** (sî (m.c,) "he " " to (C s searching ") intr. grow," ruy ^^ e*H 5 > x) intr. to mourn s* ) ^~&8huslit u shuy washing, etc." rakht-shuy muy
;
0^
^^
<
^^ c^
o^; washerwoman," but state of being a washerwoman."

'*
^^
rakht-shu*i
'
washing clothes
is
the act or
(j)
It
was stated
in (a) that the Imperative root
sometimes a noun.
Similarly the Preterite stem (or shortened Infinitive) is sometimes a noun, " * " as sar-navisht cu<tf " to pardon, guzasht kardan destiny " ' ' " * let ofl rikht the casting ; form didu bdzdid *+t ; j&>*" visiting
:
oî^
;
&^
0=^
and returning visits" (k) Sometimes the
vide also
116
(j).
*'
oo^y^ commerce " dmad u shud * 5 ^T, or dmad u raft cJ; ^ ^^ or in m.c. B also raft u dmad **tfj guft u shunld **& ^ oi? (Syn, yu]t-u-gu). These forms are sometimes in m.c. used in the plural, as dad u sitadhd-yi u ziydd ast e~| *dl#jy Û^X^ j^td he has extensive dealings."
: ;
Preterite stems or shortened Infinitives of two verbs, with or without the copula ^, are used as a substantive, as dad u sitad 8 <{ 4 *1* commercial transactions" kharid u farukht j did (m.c,)
:
x^
'
Lawh-i Mahfuz
of
J^svo
God regarding men are recorded. Tn the Qurân (*z+j*j**) the Qur*aii itself. The law tablets of Moses are called alwah.
5
"the Preserved Tablet,"
on
which
the
is
decrees
the term
used for
Bazrdid
1$ jb can be used alone (for the return visit), but not
d'td:
bi-dldan-i
rajtatn Jkji^ jj
*
&*?&
(m.c.) not did
({
went
to visit him."
Compare Hindi len den. Or l&arU farul&t oukjy *,^L also W&rld u farush Jî ^ " noise of 6 Qll u qal Jlji j JjJ taking" is somewhat similar; said" and qal, Ar. "he said," are coupled by the Persian
*
;
^^
(m.c).
qil*
Ar. "it
was
conjunction u ^ (in Arabic
j wa)i
vide
116
(c)
Remark on doubled
words.

(I)
423
Sometimes both stems of the same verb are used to form a noun with
or without the copula^, as: guft-u-gu

91
'
J j *J$
or guft
u guy ^j&tf
or guft-gu
oif, [= guft u shunid, vide (k)] "conversation"; " search f* j *~A. (or just u juy). This form, also, can have the usual plural.
c
'
just-ju or just
ju
(m) Sometimes in
modern Persian two Imperatives
of different verbs
are used, as: bi-gir u bi-kush
(j&j^*&
J
subs, (m.c.) (seize

(seize
and
"
tl
kill)
arrest-
ing";
or gir
bi-gir
bi-gir
u bizan
j
e^V j j*
>
(rare)
and beat)
tumult, noise,"
u ddr y*
u bi-band
(n)
tumult, confusion, trouble"; " tumult." <>i# j j*& (m.c.) Sometimes the Imperative stems alone are used, as: gir u ddr
(m.c.)
j4
or dar-gir
j4 }*
"
tftj^f
"tumult":
vide (m)
tak-a-pu j$
&
(m.c.)
"searching";
repeated,
2
tak-a-daw JZ& " running." (o) Sometimes the Imperative stem of the same verb
is
as:
kash-ma-kash (J&* <J^ (kash mapulling different ways; also quarrelling kill kash ddshtan): bi-kush u bi-kush (j&* ) ^fighting, rowing (crying " " 8 kasha-kashi a struggling" and kill') kasha-hash J**^ (m.c.) ^
"
"
^f
(old)
"allurement, attracting"
(p)
kashish, subs. m.c.

x^xi-^j
<{
attracting").
For the Noun

etc.
;
of
il
speaker,"
vide
43
Agency farushanda (r), and
"seller"
gu-yanda
Sdzanda-yi kar-i murda n zinda
tu-i
tu-i.
?
Daranda-yi in charkh-i paraganda
"
Who framed the lobs of quick and dead but Thou Who turns the troublous wheel of heaven but Thou
(O.
' '
K. 471 Whin.}.
The suffix ^ added to an nouns and adjectives. Examples

(q)
(vulg.)
L5
" these vessels have been cast "

(vulg.)
Infinitive (as kardani, pi. kardarii-h<!) in zuruf rikhtani hast O*~A

:
forms
in rang pukhtani,
ûiu; Jj^ e*! na shustani Jb) ^t
iw^ & ^5^^
clipping "; in sukhtani ast vi^f
khurdani-ha
^t) 9 *
"this has been coloured by boiling not merely îi^.^ ^ti (m.c.) "this is for burning"; " Masih dar " food, eatables (m.c.) dunya dmadani bud
;
& t^^T l^^ j*
xpJr-^ (m.c.)
''Christ
had
to
come
A
khardb-shudani na-ddrad tj*> i^&*> vtr^ strong it will not go to ruin."
^ &i
into the
l
world"
*'
in
khdna
(m.c.)
this house is so
This
alif is
called alif-i
at,f
ULfcu cJjf
*
Also tak u puy
For force
of repetition, vide
doubled words.'
Mard bayad
ki dar Icashakash dafir
Sang-i zlrln~i fay a bashad.
424
The negative
"
unfit to
is
be uttered
vide also
"
formed by prefixed na U as: na-guftani Ûi?G (m.c.) nd-shuriidani-hd lîû&b (m.c.) "things unfit to be
;
heard
"
;
116 (m).
In modern Persian, however, ai can be substituted, as: l$j^>ii. for a noun, as: (r) The Past Participle, Persian or Arabic, can stand
** T
31 3
cr* **** *
1
*f>
^ **
Az
hadlsa-yi zamdn-i ayanda ma-purs
Va'z har chi rasad chu mst payanda ma- purs In yak-dama naqd rd ghanlmat ml l -ddn
Az rafta mayandlsh vaz ayanda ma- purs " Ask not the chances of the time to be,
And
for the past, 'tis vanished, as
you see
This ready-money breath set down as gain, Future and past concern not you or me."
(0.
K. 278 Whin.).
is
and ayanda *^f <w what hence "the Past" and " the Future."
Rafta
*)
is
past" and "what
to come,
^xf y j
**%.<
&(& J,>
JJ^b
^lacu
tf
A?
of
An
"
bih ki bi-jam-i bada dil shad
kunim
V'az dmada u guzashta

'Tis well to drink,
kam 6 ydd kunim
For what
is
and leave anxiety past, and what is yet to be."

(0.
K. 308 Whin.).
Vide also
Example
in (p).
Guzashtagdn or
(r).
murdagdn
^^
or <^&&c& " the dead
"
;
vide also
43
Muharramdt oâuo "things forbidden; black clothes"; mahsurin the beseiged"; manzur ^JeJ^ (m.c.) "aim; objection, view, i^/o maktub written a intention"; v> letter"; almaktub *->j&J\ "Holy
" l
igl)yea*A
Writ."
Remark.
Persian nouns derived from verbs are called
verbal nouns," or
^f
9
or;x^Jij J^>bw ) as opposed to the real Infinitive when used as a noun, which is then styled ^î j*&x> p\ or
"compound
j^x
J^L*
In original zamana
*^3 perhaps a misprint Note continuative Imperative. JCaw, negative; not "less", but " not."
for
zaman-i
COMPOUND SUBSTANTIVES.
The Past
masdar.
Participle,
425
is
however (used as a noun),

A^T
not called
hasil-i
few Persian nouns of instrument
p\
are
included in the hasil-i masdar j**** JL*U>, as: aiU^ "a razor," but this seems to be an error.
by some grammarians "a cup, a measure" and
COMPOUND WORDS.
116.
(a]
Compound
Substantives.
chiefly
Persian
abounds
in
compound words
substantives
and
adjectives.
Compound substantives are formed as follows (6) A compound noun analogous to such English compound as cart- horse,
:
is
formed by the juxta-position of two nouns (in the English order) without * izafat, as: ruz-nama A*Ujjj newspaper diary account of daily expendi1
* '
ture"; jahan-panah Shah in writing or
lu
^(^ "Asylum
of
the
World
(in
addressing the
shutur-murgh fa* j& properly (but wrongly applied to other birds): gul-barg rose- petal "; but (poet.) " gul-i barg ^y uS (m.c.) any non-flowering plant with coloured or variegated
speaking)"; dsh-paz khdna 3 *U> j^f (m.c.) "cookhouse"; shab-khun *cJ>*u (class.) " night attack" barf-ab 5 _f J,J " snowwater from the hills"; the " Ostrich"
;
J^
6
' '
leaves"; khavar-zamin
&**>)
^(^
"
' '
Orient";
gfaarq-ab v f
(^
mashriq-zamm &**} O}^ ) "the water": deep miydn-pacha AÛ &(*# (m.c.) "a
(class.) (or
;
certain portion of the breeches
tah-jur'ah
A*/?*
7
a3
(
<*
dregs."
This compound
is
styled murakkdb-i mazji
^^^
vÔ'
Remark
I.
In some Arabic- Persian compounds the second part of the

tautological, as: sahar-gah
lf
compound
is
,&*
Jv^
(m.c.) (m.c.)
sahar-gahan Ûlfys^ (mod.); manzil-gdh " place "; maklab-khdna ^la. ^K/o "school
M
;
"morning," also " a stage, halting
mashriq-zamm (^*j oj**' (m.c.) "'the East, Eastern Countries"; matba' khana A*U. ^tx? (m.c.) ^printing
1
Adjectives are also formed by two nouns, as

shir-dil.
'bakht-yar jî^V
" fortunate; rich "
Jtj*r>
^ 3
Vide
ifchbar
(J*>\
44
(6) (3).
The words
Ash-pa* J*
and
afchbar are also occasionally used for
"
newspaper."
"a cook."
it
bawar, subs, and adj., and the T. affix chl),
an
*
officer
whose duty
' '
(from " : person to be trusted originally was to taste the chief's food, perhaps to prove that it was not
i.e.
lu India a cook
is
called bawar-chl t5^J>J^?
"a
poisoned: barwar-chl &hana 4 the culinary art.

*
6
^^^-)^
(India)
" cook-house"
bawar-chl-garl (India)
Better ahab-V fc&wn (m.c.), also used by Firdawsi.
But But
ab-i barf
tah-i
oy wT
" iced water " (cooled by snow).
6
7
ab v^f *3 **the bottom of the water."

incorrectly
Amongst Indian Grammarians
426
(?
house"; ma'bad-gah "

(m.c.)
J>*** (m.c.)
"any
place of worship"; maw'id-gah
appointed place of
any meeting, rendezvous."

is
In a few compounds an adjective

M stench
prefixed to a noun, as: bad-bu

or khushk-sali
&*&*
"
j&j
(also adj.)
khusk-sal
JU cJL
<JU
c&^ " a famine

adj.)
year
(a
year of drought)"; sa fid-risk
(J*>)
(subs,
and
"grey
bearded; an old man."
Remark II. Such compounds as khwab-gah been mentioned in Derivation of Words, vide
(6),
v!^>
(a)
e^ c
>
have already
100,
99
and
(6),
101
102,
103,
104.
Remark Ills
Many compounds
are formed with
sar^,
as
sar-chashma
"a spring of water," vide
117 III
(a) (4).
(c) Two substantives of the same signification joined by the copula, form a copulative compound noun, as marz u bum ) Jy (m.c.) = u kishvar marz u bum (mod.); "empire, country" marz j jj* (class.) " heat " tab u tab nashv u nama ^ pick u tab V l3 ^ #$* writhing
:
^
;
^ ^
l
;
)^
' '
' '
*U
' *
jJ*>)
thorns
"growing " dad

u
(i.e.
growing and increasing)";

(l
Tchar
Ichass (j^^ ^
}^
2
bl-dtid
crying for help
' '
(shouting justice
and
injustice).
Remark.In
Arabic,
(d)
lit. qil
qll
qal
"it was said " and
Jl^
cLj'
the two portions of the " he said." qal"'

different
significations
compound are
be joined ab u hawa tyb j v f " climate )\> or by an alif, as " " zana " 3 4 an outing and hunting (water and air ) sayr u shikar ;^ j j# " " " 6 " shu^l wedlock from zan ^} wife husband ' and shuy (jy& IJj s*>j {C in adam misl-i dlvu dad (m.c.) this man like a beast." ^ ^j>T ^\
of
Also
two substantives
'
may
either
by Vav-i
Atf ^b*
;
' '
'
,>
^ d^
In khirt u pirt o;J j words have separately
o^
no
(m.c.)
and tumult "

etc.).
"odds and ends, small belongings," the " noise Zur u sliur ;^ ^ ) signification.
5
a waterfall, river, or of attacking soldiers entering a city, Often the second word is a * meaningless appositive 6 ( tabi'-i muhmal
(of
sliur
cU^
C^> as:
u shar ;L& ^
^=
zur u shur jj
).
" and downs
Remark
I.
Adjectives used as substantives are also so employed, as:

>
garm u sard &j*
fjf,
and
talkh
u shlrin
^^
3 JCi
"the
tips
J& from
Compare
Ar. *J&.
also ahakh dar shakh (adj.)
**
2
3
intertwined."
Easterns attribute good or ill-health to either the water or air of a place. Hava can be used alone for "climate'* ab alone generally means literally that the water
;
of a place
*
6
is
good or bad.
is
A Persian gentleman's shikar y&** For such compounds as tak-a-pu
a sort of picnic.
vide
'
^^ W,
114 (n).
By some Persians considered a radlfa &>&)
synonym.'
and "
bitter
427
and sweet"
(of
the world).
zir
In
zlr
u zabar kardan ^
in reality
" to make topsy-turvy," the words

ordinarily as prepositions.
u zabar are
nouns used
In ntst u na-bud kardan

not
J
^^
^>U ^ CA~^
"
to annihilate"
(to
make
'ia
and
was not
'
the two portions of the
compound
are verbs used as
substantives.
Remark
$hurb v^ 5 "eating and drinking " of affairs [Jp; "closing a ordering

' '
II.
The compound may
rending"].
(e)
For
qil-u-qal, vide (c)
two Arabic words, as: akl u meat and drink " eM^f <j^ ^ <j^; and (Jii " cleaving, fissure, mending Remark.
consist of
;
:
' '
The contracted
Infinitives of
two
different verbs, or the contracted
Infinitive of a verb combined with the Imperative root of the same verb, did together form such compound substantives as dmad u rait cu*; j ^x>f
: ;
1 15 vide u bdz-did VA jU j <x?j> guft-u-gu 5 oJ (k) and (I). formed from two Imperatives or Imperative (/) For a compound noun and 115 vide stems, (o). (m) (n)
;
;
(g)
A Numeral
*
noun, as
(open on
or an adjective, with a substantive, form " the afternoon " yak-shamba <uL si-pahar j^^>
;
chahdr-pd
J;^
" a quadruped
"
char-fasl d*&*
;^ (m.c.)
^ "
a compound
t(
Sunday
"
summer-house
all
four sides)."
* is
98 (b) (4)], the final formative adjectives similarly formed \vide for nouns changed into gl, as panjdh-sdla <^l~> l^, adj. of fifty years
' '
From
' '
panjah-salagl
îlU
of
tl
2
lqp.ij
" the state of being
fifty
:
years
old.''
Examples
an adjective and substantive

a liquid-white for the face."
surkh-ab
^^^
rouge"
safid-db *Jt **&~*
(h) Substantives are also compounded from an Imperative root preceded s a noun (or an adverb or a preposition), as dsh-paz jj <j*f "cook"; by " t( *' ru-numd ^j a present given to the bride by archer tir-andaz 8 31^! j*> her to show her face (for the first time 4 ) "; pma the bridgegroom to induce
:
" * *Joj
a cobbler,
who patches shoes."

6
Also Charhar-paya Ajb ;l^-, ^ u ^ ^ n fntlia this
is
bedstead."
r
~b
52
Ba
f;
In punjah-salagl ml-tavanam
ruz-l
dah
farsal^h.
is1ii<ir
}>u-pfyada
bi-ravcun
fj>/
years 1 can walk

8
** s_5W ^JJA |*V^ more than ton farsakhs a day." " tho office or business of cook": Ash-pazl ^*,j (J^^
t^**^"X f**f
Û
lx;ij
(m.c.) "in. spito of
my
fifty
tlr-anddzl ^$j &>\
"
archery."
*
my father's wife," i.e. tho wife married to please the father: the second wife they choose for themselves. In Persia, girls generally manage to get a secret view of their intended, and of ten flatly refuse to accept him. Ditto with tho men. The Parsi women are not in ru-band, they are rn-ba~~
Tho Afghans
call
the
first
wife
**
KafaJirduz jj&
{J&
" a shoemaker."
428
In pish-kash <Jtf ^>J "present, gift", pish *v 0*0 "bracelet"; pas*andaz
J&ty
is
a noun used as a preposi-
tion: dast-band
jf*i
khizj^
" servant"
"savings";
pish-
(also adj.).
is
Remark.
In zar-baft ^**J j>j, the corruption of zar-bafta, the verbal
not
the Imperative stem.

(/)
few compound nouns are formed by adding the Present Participle
in
o**U> a place outside big cities an to a noun, as: khil' at-pushan where the recipient of a robe of honour from the Shah advances to meet it and "autumn"; ab nzan &*) vJf a fete be invested; barg-nzan djtj]
^^
observed by Zardushtis and Armenians, in which water
is
thrown.
Remark /.
Sina-suzan e/jy* &**
'
(m.c.) adj.
of
'running. fast
"
Remark
II.
Persian
noun
instrument'
compound, as: <jy fti "penknife"; " dast-mal handkerchief," but in Arabic there are special forms, as: miftah " mibrad " file " vide Notes on Arabic Grammar. " -Uixj key nouns are formed by suffixing the contracted (j) A few compound
:
&
(AJf ^*f) is generally a bad-bizan "fan": l jUJUa
Infinitive or Preterits root to a substantive or adverb, as
"
(1)
" adventures
et
yad-dasht expectation of favours." This form can take the usual plural, vide also
; ;
Qarar-dad^* jj*" arrangement, engagement " " memorandum " ciJf^
sar-guzasht
c^^f
j*
chashm-ddsht
o^|^^-
115
(;').
"return visit" baz-khwast ^^\^ $> "calling to (2) Baz-did <x>j> jb baz-dasht account, retribution; demanding reasons for action taken";
**&>,*
>
>s
"hindering
]
;
[baz yaft
(k.)
"
;
^/
oJlf jb
person)
improve"
(k)
(1)
pish raft dashtan or kardan &*f or " custom." lLr# pish-nihad
^to
"to recover from (a cuj Jty "to progress,
^
,
substantive may combine to preposition (or adverb) and a c^cai, khidmat (m.c.) "a servant"; form a compound noun as: pish a of camp sent on ahead to pish khana &\^ (J^J (m.c.) that portion
û
be ready
' '
on
arrival; pish-ddman
' '
^fa
<>^}
"apron"; ham-rah
:
fellow-traveller.
(2)
"one
tions
' '
pish-khwan e;fy Also a preposition and Imperative root as who announces the arrivals of guests; a leader ii? religious recita;
plsh-ras
^
;
' '
J '
<J>%
first-fruits.
(3)
Also
a preposition and the
contracted
$* c^J
(class.)
" "a law-giver
light breakfast
(I)
An
^;> u*i an to Imperative root adjective prefixed

vulg. for
"
j^
plsh-khwurd
^
"
Infinitives,
as: pish-dad
cA
(rare)
" an early and

a noun, as
leavings."
may form
In India rii-mal JUjj.
durbin
1
429
"field- glasses,
opera-glasses,"
khush-naws
^y u^" calligraphist
I.
:
"
durughgu^
p "a
liar";
(either professional or unprofessional).
Remark
"
(
.^j wX?;b
Adjectives are also formed in this manner, as: bank-bin looking into details also, particular about trifles (m.c.)."
last
The two
Remark
examples
in (1)
may
also be adjectives.
(m.c.) a
'
II.
In dur-bash-kun
^ <jb ^
cries
'
man who
(m.c.)
clears the
is
way
to
for a personage, a
man who
dur-bash,
{J*\*
an adjective
prefixed
two Imperative stems: dur-bash kardan &sf " dur-bash et <Jk )$& subs, (class.) a baton way
;
)^
"
to clear the
for clearing the
way."
a Future Gerundive preceded by na may form " the a noun, as: na-shumdan &&**\J rast na-guftamha non-hearing" = duruyh-gnftariha (m.c.) na shunidani tellings of untruths ~*i; (m.c.)
(m)
Infinitive or
;
' ' ;
An
(m.c.), pi. na-shunidani-Jia
l^ÂG
things unfit to be
heard
"
;
vide
also
115
(n)
(h)
and
"
(q).
Many
(m.c)
adjectives are used substantively.
Compounds
like pidar-
stitchta*
Compound
(b) (6).
Adjectives.
blackguard," Shah-zada " Prince"

etc.,
etc.,
are treated
is
under the head of

Vide
a substantive.
44
used as a substantive, as dar-bi-dar j**) (m.c.) (o) Sometimes a phrase is mendicant" (lit. from door to door); khana bi-dusK <^>^ ^lL (m.c.) " "any wandering tribe, such as the Gypsies, etc. (lit. house on shoulder)
:
"a
halqa bi-gush **do and don't (lit.
^^
*aK
slave
(lit.
ring in the ear)"
kun-ma-kun
&* ^
do")
''hesitating; also a
Such phrases can also be treated
as adjectives
commander; and
also orders."
joined to a sub-
stantive by theizafat, as: ^hulam-i halqabi-gush <Jj& a&U^lU" bond-slave." few Turkish compounds, confined (p) In modern Persian there are a
to titles or offices.
These, however, present no difficulty.

the plural termination, and
i
In Turkish
lar is
(after
a vowel
si) is
the 3rd Person affixed possessive pronoun "his," as: b)^ daryabeg-% "lord of the sea (a title) [lit. the sea, his lord] ": begJarbeg-t rlt#
^^
^^
(title)
lit.
"Chief of Chiefs"
(in certain districts
= Mayor)";
ishik aqa-si
bash-i
Îj (.^tft cXx^jf (modern) "chief usher" (apparently from isKtk " " a "its head." door, gate aqa-si ^^1 "its master," and bashl ma hazar are treated as substantives, as (q) A few Arabic phrases " is or whatever what that in or haste, (lit.) anything prepared pot-luck (m.c.)
;
^^
:
^*U
"
is,
present
ma-hazar-i
;
^Û
(with ya-yi tanUr
lit.
"
don't care"
laytula'all
cW oJ
?
"
^.)', la-ubali ^l\ V prevarication, procrastination"
jgv
Zarra-bin
^t
if
*'
*>'
microscope or magnifying
9''
glass.
i PI.
8
pidar subhta-ha
izafat:
^j<* }*j.
(
No
the izafat
were inserted after halqa,
it
might be mistaken
for the
<^ of unity.
430
(lit.
layt
a
AT.
" would that" and

).
la'all"
and perhaps
"
"perhaps," saying "would that
^2
*'
Jiastl-yi
khwlshtan bi-kulli rasta
Payvasta bi-mihrab~i alast-lm imruz.

I
am become
beside myself, and rest
In that pure temple, "
Am
Not
Your Lord
(0.
"
K. 212 Whin.)
Qur*an occurs
*
Alast* o~Jf in Arabic signifies "

;
Am I
not
" and
in the
the phrase Ôy o^/i hence in Persian ruz-i alast the day of the original " 4< Covenant of God with man Sani'-ikunfa-yakun c^^^/Û the Creator be and it will be '). (Zi^. the maker of
'
'
Kun
Ma-jara JJA.U Pers. **an event" (for Ar. ^jj^*> ''wliat happened"). " be and it was " the words used " the Creation " (lit. fa-kan" e>^ v*
at the Creation)
;
by God
(r)
Mdlik-i kun fa-kan a cJ^ c/ JJU> " the Creator."
Also a Persian phrase may sometimes be considered a compound o^ct^ cX jlft^ substantive, as hdla va yak sa'at-i dtgar mi-kunad *tf
:
(m.c.)
imruz u fardd mi-kunad
*f
^j&A
(m.c.)
\*j* }))j*\
"he
is
pro-
crastinating."
Before the creation of this world.
PART
II.
CHAPTER
SYNTAX.
117.
XIII.
On
the use and omission of the izafat.
Something has already been said about the use, the pronunciation, and
the forms
]
of the izafat in
43.
it
Though omitted
speaking.
/.
(a)
in writing (being a short vowel),
cannot be omitted in
Oases in which the izafat must be inserted.
The izafat is, in Persia but not in India, always inserted between the name of a person and his profession, or between the title and profesproper
sion, as:
Muhammad Khan-i
;
tajir,
na
Muhammad Khan-i
' '
;
'
saqat-farush (vulg.
na-ki
the
a>) ufr^'fca* Û. *+**.+ A^G ÛL &+:KX> (m.c.) merchant not Muhammad Khan the grocer
the Dabir-us-Saltana, the Vazir
"
Muhammad Khan
Dablr^-s-Saltana-yi
Vazir yjj &feJLJi^j^>

Vazir-i
"
(but Dabir"-s-Saltana
Kirmdn
"
)
;
^/^.^ &&U\ j>z
"the
Dabir-us-Salfcana, the
Vazir of
Kir/nan
Mu*ayyid"'l-lslani'i
Mudirj***
f JUjft OJÂ:
" the M. of Islam, the
Editor."
(6)
The
izafat
is
always inserted after a proper name followed by the

;
territorial or tribal designation
thus, Haft Agfaa-yi Shlmzi
"
Haji
Agha
of Shiraz
"
;
Hatim-i
Ta^J*^
(^^ Tay"; Hasan-i Baluch* <c -o^ the Afshar." Hasan j(j\ (ir The izafat also couples the proper name and a nickname, or a descriptive Gur Iskandar-i Zu'l Qirnayn \rf (not Bahrain Gu,r) epithet, as Bahram-i
:
:
^^
Hatim" of the tribe of " Hasan the Baluch " Hasan-i Afshar
^\j^ ^^f u*^
^-!
(in
**
Alexander the Great

f
(lit.
the two-horned)";
lsa-yi
Masih
India India
lsa Masih)
(in
Musa
Jesus Christ"; Musa-yi Payghambar the Prophet Moses." Paig&ambar)

* c
.
c<
The
izafat
:
has three forms

is
a fter the weak consonants

.
and j
bed "
and
after silent h
after c? it
it is
either
* or
When
,
its
form, expressed or under' '
stood
is
pronounced
like short i or e
as in
" bid
and
' *
in other
cases like yi.

*
8
Note the Persian adjective where we use a substantive in the genitive

a relative adjective. ytfi Baluch and Afshar are to be considered adjectives.
is
case.
The
latter
word
is
also
Afahari, as an adjective, qall-yi Afsharl (not Afahar)
" an Afshari carpet."
28
4IH
(c)
ON THE USB AND OMISSION OF THE IZAFAT.
The words
shahr-i
" the white nastaran willow tree"; gul-i nastaran rose, sweet-briar"; rud-i " " the bird ts the river Nile Nil J# & (known as) muryhri humdy Û* / Huma." As the last two examples show, the izafat is sometimes used
;
names by the izafat, Kirman &\*j! #" " the
to their country, kingdom, city, river, etc., are coupled *-&* "the country of Persia" as: Mulk-i Iran
&\j*\
;
city of
Kirman"
;.
darakht-i bid
*y
c*i;a
" the
between two nouns that in English are in apposition.

(d)
The
izafat is also
used in the
of (or on)
titles of
books, as: Kitdb-i makr-i zandn
olj j*>
Sa'di
v ttf
" the Book
the Wiles of
Woman "
kitab-i Oulistdn-i
^50***
&&J$
John
Gospel of St.
wltf. Compare also Injil-i Yuhanna U-^ câxjf "the " and the Arabic Kitdb^lMuluk vJ>Ut *->& "the Book of
Kings."
(e)
The
izafat is
also
Rustam (the son) of Zal Isa-yi Mart/am fa* er^* " Dafud "Jesus the son of Mary tfy* ^J^ "Solomon the son Sulayman-i " " of David Agh& Khan the Eunuch Agha Khan-i Khivaja a*i>* Umar-i Khayyam (-^^ "Omar the tent-maker "; Husayn-i Imam (but Imam Husayn) " Hiisayn the Imam." Arabic fractions, as nwf-i (/) The izafat is used with the Persian and
Rustam-i Zal
'
"
used to form patronymics and surnames, as "

;
J, j /*L*>;
'
^W
^
nan-%
Û
UAA>
*'half
a loaf";
sih-yak-i
jam-'iyyat
1 "one-third of the book." quarters of the crowd"; suls-i kitdb v an as the is treated on other adjective, is used in compounds, Nlm, hand,
^+*>
<x^
three
and
is
man
always without the izafat, as: ^*> p# "half a maund."
mm
ndn-l
p#
is
"half a loaf,"
mm
by
:
(g)
The
superlative, whether Persian or Arabic,
usually followed
;
the genitive plural, the two being connected by means of the izafat but as an intensive epithet, it merely qualifies its noun like an ordinary adjective, as oftl^ " the ashraj mard-i <^y ^j&\ "a most noble man"; khilqat-i ahsan^^^]
best creation," or ahsan khilqat-i
An Arabic superlative before

in suoh cases, as
as'ad-i*
:
**
ei^t?)
e>^J
oJU^ i^r"^noun used collectively may retain the izafat ^î dast khatt-i mubdrak dar <*M )& ^)^*
a
^
3
zamdn
ziydrat shud
"your
letter
reached
but dar as'ad zamdn-i

fortunate time
or dar bihtann vaqt-i

ast *^~l
me in the best of time," without izafat) "in a most
"
;
u mard-i bihtarln
(class.),
mard
ast
c~!
^ ^y^^
is
vij^ ty* (Indian) or u bihtann or u bihtorln-i mardum ast^^\ ^yc^^V ^
(m.c.).
Remark.
singular
^The use of an izafat after an Arabic superlative preceding a
noun that
without the
^ of unity
is
probably in imitation of the
Arabic construction
<J
'
the taj&hallus or
nom
^***l
de plume,' and the profession of the poet.

is
Dar
as'ad-i zaman-l
^*)
)&
also used, but is incorrect.
Izafat-i maqlitbl.
ON THE USE AND OMISSION OF THE
izdfat.
435
(h) A noun or an infinitive qualified by a phrase must be coupled to it by ruz-i ba'd the izafat as though the qualifying phrase were an adjective, as az In zad u khurd fy^j a) ert jf **i ) " the day after this skirmish" az
J
or az du daf'a bdkhtan c^^b **i:> jt>j'> from &&+> &* "to the forest near twice losing" bi-bisha-yi nazdik-i shahr the city"; (j^^ &')* c5 lA chizha-yi dar an sanduq; tumdnhd-yi dar
bakhi,an-i
du daf a
l
&***)*
&*^jt
"
^ e^
J^
kamar-am u** )* cs^ e> y "the tumans tied up in my kamarband." In rahm avardan bar baddn sitam ast bar nikdn \d&**j* ^^\ p*~ ^f^j ^ e^/f (Sa'di) "to show pity to the bad is to show tyranny to the good," there
l/c
should be no izafat after avardan &&jjf, though in modern Persian one is often inserted reverse the sentence bar baddn rahm avardan ^;jf f*y eJ^^J and the reason for the omission becomes clear kushish kardan-i dar kar " " in this business dar kar kushish (but (m.c.) striving (J^y ft &,)* Lr*^ kardan cA^^jû^J^ ); bisyar lab-i chu la 1 u zulfayn-i chu mushk
;
:
" <c J.&* &)*. (^^3 ) cU) v^*~J and many a ruby lip and musky tress (0. Whin va pish az dnki bickara bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haris" Rub. 137 )
&^
c^
25^' bud y C-A^^ fij**^ uÛ f'j** u** *zjt *^&# " and before that Suh. (Anv. ^Kujfi^ Chap. I, Introduc., St. 3) the avaricious is dis. helpless one could arrive there, the clear text of
mahrum
latlfa bar-anglkhta
AA,JU
appointed,
etc.'
"
/.
Izafat after Particular Words.
(a)
After the words janab
as: janab-i hakim-bashi
janab
mirza fy**
v^ " Mr. Clerk "

:
v'ând hazrat e^-^w, the izafatis always inserted, " '* ^>^ ^^ V IL^ His Honour the Chief Physician
:
jdndb-i qunsalJ**j$
v^> e ^c.
:
Hazrat-i
Hazrat-i Sidayman &\+^ 0^^. A'alq Hazrat-i Shahinshah-i Iran &\^\ jjt^x^L^ o^âxiAJUf (Title of the Shah). (6) The izajat is used after the word mablagh Q** (sum), as: mablaî " the sum duvlst tuman vajh-i naqd <*& **$ ^j* ^~~!.jt> &*> (m.c.) of 200 tumans
Payghambar _>***** c^.^^
in cash."
" The Arabic word ahld&\ " people (belonging to any particular place, ahali, is always followed by the izafat, creed, art, etc.), and its plural " ahl-i Islam as: ahl-i Kirman &(*_> d&\ "the people of Kirman f&t JU>( " " <f ahl-i cMt veiled ahl-i va the Muslims
(c)
^^
hijab ^^^
' '
(class.)
sayf
qalam
J3 2 uftx** JAI
(m.c.)
:
" the military and
civil
"
:
ahl-i khiyanat
eJUx
J*t (m.c.)
"treacherous" " the dead."
ahl-i %ahir j&U* cUf
"hypocrites";
ahl-i
qubur*
Remark
I.
ahl-i tariqat
Occasionally the Arabic construction " fellow

religionists."
is
used, as
&.^bJt c-Ul
This izafat though required in modern Persian, is generally omitted in Indian. " the Mahalla-yi Wkamfohan quarter of the silent'* (a city cemetery): ehdhr'
the city of the silent
"
(any largo burial-ground).
436

Remark
II.
izafat.
Ahl
also
means " a person
of sense; a
worthy man,
etc.'
as
mi'khuram u har-ki chu
man
ahl buvad
May
61
khwurdan-i u nizd-i Khuda sahl buvad

I
True
For
know
drink wine, like every man of sense, Allah will not take offence."
(0.
K. Rub. 197 Whin.)
^j cUf
"
Duzakh bi-jahan
111
suhbat-i
no- ahl
buvad
company
will
make
this earth a hell."

(0.
K. Rub. 232 Whin.).

" but from the
Az na ahlan hazar
farsakh guriz^jt
(O.
fit
&j* j]j* u^l by
worthless keep your walk remote." U ahl4 In kdr ast (m.c.) " he is
(d)
K. Rub. 263 Whin.) to do this."

" masters
The Arabic
:
plural wordar&afe vk>*

*
'*
"
is
also followed
by the
izafat, as
arbab-i kharad
"
ojljuo vÛ^t
&ja* Û^f
people of science."
as
Arbab'i shuma kist Ow-*Af
The singular
(e)
UA cjbjf (m.c.) Rabb means <k Lord" and
masters of wisdom, wise ": arbab-i ma'arif 8 In m.c., arbdb ^^1 is used as a singular, " " who is master ?
your
if
used independently
is
only
applied to the Deity.
In modern colloquial the word
marhum
{y**j* precedes its substantive

'*
with the izafat, as:
marhum-i aqa-yam
|*J^T fj**s
Marhum-i pidar-am ()*$ " late master."
py^j*-
my
l&te
father":
izafat
my
Grammatically the
1
should be omitted, vide
43
(6).
However,
form,
is
classically
and
in m.c. pidar-i
marhum f/V*
;*J,
the correct
used.
' '
The word abna*&], pi. of ibn (vide III (a) (3) ), takes the izafat before (t men and jinns the noun following, as cjU^ ^f Ûuf abnaî ins u jann " animals and abna*-i (i.e. everything "men, (m.c.) plants jahan e)^ Ûj| " in the world): people of our t;U ^jî^ Ûuj abna*-i jins-i mara bay ad
(/)
:
order or class
should"
sahib
^j ^^
* (
abna?-yi vatan (m.c.)
"fellow-country-
men.
(g)
when not forming possessed of, master of a compound, takes the izafat. This is especially the case when more than a
The word
,
"
Na-ahl
<J&\
ria-muvafiq
&\j*
^ or
**
people without sense,
etc.'*
*
8
Prop, and in India
PL
of
ON THE USB AND OMISSION OK THE

single notion
izafat.
437
expressed, as: sdhib-im khana &{*> owner of the house." Vide also III (a) (5).
is
^l
>-**(* (m.c.)
" the
u Occasionally the Arabic construction is used, as: ooJf w*Û> sahib 'l" u sahib 'l-amr (m.c.) "The Mahdi." bayt (m.c.) "the master of the house
;
Very rarely the feminine is used, as JUJf &^l* sahibat"'l-jamal "possessed of beauty" (woman) = malikat"' l-jamal (modern): fuldn zan <jî (in writing), but more sahiba-yi In khana ast cut *JU* î iva^l* &>lx ^\ *-**(* (m.c. and in writing). o*! ast khana sahibi in commonly
:
The Arabic plural of sahib v^l*, "the prudent; good managers."

///.
(a)
is
ashSb Îss^f
ashab-i tadblr j#<
wl*.*!
Fakk-i Izdfat (Dispensing with the Izafat).
(1)
The
izdfat is frequently
l
omitted after the words amir j*4 or mlr

9
:
>-<, vdK t^, bin
sar j**
and sahib ^=^(^

iJl*.
when
this is the case the
two
words forming the compound express one notion.

is
This omission o! the izafat
called fakk-i izafat*
oiUt
of 10,000" (nominal, as a but amir-i tup- khana d^^^ÂX>t. " Â^jj^s mir-shikar a head game- keeper also a goot shot." mir-akhur " master of the horse."
Ûp^xx| Amir-tu-man
"a commander
rule),
mw-panj "chief
amir- pan j.
*'<>
of 5 (battalions);
commander
of
5,000"; also
mlr-ghazab
-ab* (m.c.
" executioner.*'
and Indian) "an
official
in charge
of
a stream,
who
But
superintends the distribution of the water for irrigation purposes." <j"lw.*^* mir-i majlis and some other expressions the izafat. require
AlJUJyô mir-i qafila
;
(2)
VaK*^,:
vail 'ahd
6
"
*ye iji)
-^-fr*3
heir- apparent."
cf(j
"vaKni'mat " sovereign,
father, a person in a father's place
(lit.
'lord of bounty')."
^ 3
But not after ibn, vide (3). Not to be confounded with

In India, in words like
izafat-i maqlubi, for
which vide IV.
India every falconer's or bird-catcher's assistant
The word
Prince,
4-
tj/fc*
mlr is purely honorary. In honoured by the title of mlr-shikar. mirza, which before a name corresponds to Afr., but after a name to
;&& j**>
mir-shikar, the title

is
a contraction of Wjj** mlr-zada. In Kerrnan ^Vv ab-yar.

is
In Arabic valiyy wn (tashdld over the <j ). Vail vail ra ml-shinasad 4t * (proverb) = "set a thief to catch a thief " a governor." ^\)
:
servant writing to his master would style
him
vail nfrmat
o.
438
ON THE USE AND OMISSION OP THE
izafdt.
Remark
tion"
(legal).
^\
valiyy^d-dam
"a
relative entitled
to exact retalia-
al-vali
is
Vail ij)
" The Helper" (one of the 99 special attributes). also a reputed saint who has worked miracles, but in Persia
the
title is
given to any saintly person, generally after death. In Afghanistan and India the word pir is used for a departed saint and
'
also for the spiritual guide (living).
Karamat e>U^ are miracles performed by

oj>a**x> are miracles performed
(3)
saints
' '
while mu'jizat
Ibn &:\ or bin &*
(pi.
by "prophets." abna**&\ )
:
ejltU.
etc.).
^ bin sultan
" son
of
a king
"
(on coins, on official documents,
ibn*Jrvaqt oJpi
Ibn ^f, however, is generally used with the Arabic construction, as: " " " ibn u -s-sabil J#~Jl ^1 (m.c.) "traveller : ^t a time-server
:
ibn*'l-batn vkjpi
&\
(glutton).
In Arabic the word

preceding the
^t
*'
a son
"
loses its initial alif (vide * o /

. :
Appendix) when
k
name
of the father or mother, as
UJtb
\^r^ Husayri
'bn u
Fattmah. In Atabak
in gikr-i Amir-i kabir-i Fakhr u
*>*-* Bakr-i bin Sa'd-i Zangl j&î iJoUf, and d-dm Abu Bakr-i bin Nasr ^txlijabJ^^^xfyi (Preface to the Gulistan), the Arabic construction is retained.
Abu
^j
^l^y^jt
Usually, however, in such cases ibn is in Persian written in full and is followed by the izafat, as &\ &+*>** Muhammad ibn-i Karim.
:
(4)
Sar:
sar-maya,
sar-rishta
"
'*
capital." a slight knowledge of a thing."

*
8
sar-dard " headache."

4<
sar-ab
(<
source, fountain-head."
sar-aghaz,
"
beginning."
"
sar-afsar
" head tether and halter."

c<
sar-anjam
conclusion."
sar-angusht (m,c.) "tips of the fingers." aar-bar (m.c.) " a last small load added on the top."
aar-chaahma " the hole or head of a spring."
This
j
is
treated as an Arabic genitive: in
modern Arabic the

ear j*
genitive
is
formed by
simple
*
'*
uxtaposition.
Sar-dard &)&
j*
Ar
-
(m.c.)
"headache"
but dxrd-i
&)&
(m.c.) generally
worry, nuisance, trouble."

8
Sarab vlr*
4t
mirage": but vt/*4 sar-iabW.C.
ON
sar-khatt
THE}
USB AND OMISSION OF THE

copy
1
izdfat.
439
"a
also a thin stick used

also
to point
out letters
by boys in schools an agreement paper kept in duplicate

1
between master and servant/' 2 " a head 8 sarkdr land-agent, an overseer of anything.' " settled in full sar-rdst " (of account).
* {
sarhang
straight, complete, a rank just junior to a Lt.-Col commanding a regiment.'* sar-fitna (m.c.) "the ringleader of a disturbance." (< sar-qufli money paid for goodwill to a shop master on transfer
*
of business."
qandt." "a a before to the traveller." journey, present ^*\)j* Further examples of this common and idiomatic word with and without the izdfat: tjit Û*^ ffif* z>r** e/â cA^*^ ^ *Â h ar
vjjtô
" the top of a Persian pipe." y* sar-qalydn 6 " the head of a tribe (or of an army, or s sar-karda * sar-ndma " address on an envelope." " cream " for sar-i shir sar-shir (m.c.) (class.). " the source of a sar-db
(i-qandt) (m.c.)
of
a riot)."
sar-rdhi (m.c.)
f^
dushmanan-i dustdn-i
khud sulh kunad sar-i dzdr-i dustdn ddrad (8a dl)

of his friends, has it in his
^whoever makes friendship with the enemies mind to injure his friends."
sar-i vaqt (m.c.)
"
punctually."
*'
sar-i dasl (m.c.)

sar-i
sar-i
at
hand."
zabdn l< on the tip of the tongue." rah " on the road."
az sar~j
naw
<4
anew.
"a purse sealed up."
kisa-yi sar bi-muhr
ti&iqal'a sar-i sang ast (m.c.)
"the
fort
is
on the rock."
ba d bar khdsta sar-i miz raftim (Shah's Diary) AJUO^^J " " after that we e^**-^ )* &~^lr* j &{*)> ^J^ got up and went to the table
(
j^ljAlw jang-i
Almdn u
Frdnsa dar
sar-i
Jiamm shdhzdda shud (Shah's
Diary) "the Franco-German war was concerning this very Prince": " sar-bdld raftim " we ascended, went up hill *J>U~Î â. Jy^^> (**&! JfL^wa *** )) J (&*>**)& ftf tf ^*< kay sar-i qawl-i khudisldda ast ki ddarn 1 bi:
{
I)
tavdnad harf-ash rd bdvar kunad (m.c.) "when, has he ever kept to his word
Also snr-maxhq
S+Aj+# (m.o.)
<4
copy."
if
'2
:"'
One copy kept by each. Each month payments, Or mubashir jk* (m.c.) or sardar )\$s* (m.c.). The shops in a karavansaray <^j~**<))K belong
rent
is
any, are entcreJ on the back.

the latter, to
to the
owner
of
whom
4
cannot turn out a tenant who pays his rent. paid. " a chief of a Sar-guruh tyrj*" (Af.) body."
He
Or
ta.
Note adam
for
f2>\
vt
one "
(indef. pron.
and the subjunctive
after &$
440
ON THE USB AND OMISSION OF THE

"
:
that one should trust him

(
ij***l>*j#f *S SojJU; Ûpj

(m.c.)
f,
eylO*>f *3W ^t
JLo r ftj
ej*-^ o*^
2/
lakdta /
M*'r &5r-a< ra 6t-/a*t rasanidcfi ki kaniz-i
mard
fuhsh bi-dihl, bi-sar-i man advanced matters as to

(to
bi-firisti
" oh you trollope
so you've so
use abuse
<3>*
to
my
sar-i
maid
mu*l
:
and
set
her at
me
worry
me)?":
^f*J
^J*
~r*
"
*
there's not a hair's difference between
them "
farq na-ddrad
))&
(m.c.)
^y
v^ e^-^-tf
" the * eagle circled over the water" uqdbbarsar-i in db dawr mi-kard (class.) " sar bar # zamin zad sprouted from the ground ": &&* j~*t j^^* etf*;j " burdan to the the time" bi-sar XAjf_^*i c^J>^ CU*X^>^^M,J pisar pass days,
;
f
v^
dar san'at va quvvat bi-sar
dmad
**
(Sadi)
and
in his strength
"
bi-sar
burdam
4
f^;^ j*)\y j f&^~> ^ ^ va az u far khwurdam (m.c.)

:
the boy became perfected in his art &***> &* man muddat-l bd
'*
I lived
3
f
with him some

Sultan
az
pro>f
:
time and
sar~darakhti
suffered
chtz-i
much":
nami-girad
3j**+*
(class.)
c>^
c5^J^
-**"
^tJU
duce of
fruit trees
"
:
"the King takes no tax on the
Â-Ô^VJ^
sar bi-zdnu nishastan " to sit pensive
" *H^ t^ \a&* j* sar-i juldn mi-jumbad (m.c.) So-and-so is still alive, he's still " $ar-i zakham-i u mdlldam "I rubbed got a kick in him j-ooJU^t
:
^j ^
salt
on
his
wound
(figuratively), hit
him when he was down "
sar-i khar
:
j^j~* ("intruder"): f**jfj** sar dddan " to let loose"; ^; i^J&

ishdrat
o^
" to sargushi kardan whisper"
&thj*>
siy j*
ravam
<J/
&&j>
o>Lf
'*
kardand ki bdz
sar-i
sarud
guftan
(class.)
pas a signal wâs
^^
then made to
me
to begin singing again."
Remark
I.
It will
be noticed that when sar
is
a preposition,
it
always
requires the izafat.
Remark
II.
According to native grammarians the word sar sometimes

sar-shdr ;Uy*.
gives the idea of amplification or excess (A*Û*) as in the words sar-mast
o^*^,
sar'sabzj*~*j*
Vide also II. (g). This word is frequently used (without (5) Sahib. the izdfat) to form compounds. In modern Persian the izdfat is sometimes used where it is omitted in old Persian. 6
Examples
of sahib <~s*\* in
compounds
* '
sdhib-mansab
1
an
officer/
'
Sar-i
man e^-^* means "set

&%*)}*
her at
me":
the
maid worries the mistress
to
take her part and so makes herself a nuisance.

2
8
In m.c. dawr mi-zad
Zan
sar-i
ehawhar-ath ra mi~khurad, or u sar-khwar ast
^wx?
|j
<Jj*>j>^<> &)
or c**! )\*Q*^~ jt (m.c.) of an unlucky animal.

* Sar-daralshtl
"whomsoever she marries

"
produce of
fruit trees
dies/*
Also applied to owners
j^)&f*
":
in
some
localities
applied only
to oranges and lemons, citrons, etc. 6 The Afghans follow the old Persian idiom in this as in other points.
**
6 11. Bofyib-maneaban (or ha \*) the possessors of office.

' '
c>U*^
v^^
or eahib

sahib-kamal
l**
'
izdfat.
441
"a
master
(in
any art)."
qdhib-qiran
" Lord
<l
of the
happy conjunction."
sahib-dawlat "rich."
JU â.U
sahib
sahib
mat
(m.c.)
rich."
hunar "
skilled."
Ltf
saM'& iqtiddr " potent, possessed of power."
sahib-jamal
" beautiful." " sahib-divan supdt. of finance."

further examples of cu*U[
rn.c.)
(6)
The following are

*
j
bdz
(JJ.&U
ashiq shikar (rare in
J* "devoted
fakk-i izafat:
to sport'
;
";
'
ashiq
of the
(local?)
"player" with 'ashiq or
knuckle- bones
(the
sides
Shah, Vazir, Shaykh, Duzd): ^^s^J *-JU na*ib-nasaqchi " under- executioner (m.c.) "; 4j^>bU. i^Ju na*ib chdpdrchi "who looks after post-horses," but o;li^ v.5li na*ib-i sifarat " second to the ambassador,"
are called
bone
and
title
;
oJjyu
^>.5l>
nafib-i
saltanat
(also
cuikLJf
Û
ncfib s-saltanat)
^JU ncfib-i farrash-khana "the one under the farrashaiUfevAfy bSshi" jlj^ ^^shagird chapar (m.c.) = v^) v^^ na*ib-c?iaparchi; Jj o^T shagird ash-paz il cook-boy, cook's assistant "; j]>j 7-^ pisar-bazzaz
:
1
^^
(m.c.)
" a s young cloth-inerchant,- etc.*'; v^y ASU bachcha-Turk

;
"a young
Turk
of
yÂacu bachcha-shulur (m.c.) " " a noble house shah-balut 1^ ;
' '
"a young camel

tl
' ' ;
&l^
'^ shah-khana
chestnut
tl
"
oy U shafotut" a kind
;
mulberry
"
the wing of a bird
"
^ shah-par or^
;
^\*
A* shah-par
sMh damdd
the longest flight feather in " "a (polite bridegroom (m.c.)
term
for); j*
*j
U
;
shah-tir (m.c.)
"abeam";
;f^ ^ shah-savar
1
4 '
a good
rider ";
^.^l^
ddmankuh
(m.c.)
or*/ e^l^ ddman-ikuh

' (
*'
(m.c.)
^.s/i-i
the skirt of
the mountain"
4 *
^*Uo<jSj? gush-mdhi (m.c.) also

;
ÂU^f
;
mrxM
'
'
(m.c.)
:
a small shell
'
^^ &
^*
1
;
mikh-lavila (m.c.)
horse picketing-peg
1
J^
^jf sag-obi or
(m.c.)
^T
a/7-i
dbl (m.c.)
"an
otter"
v!^ ^ ^ jama-khwab
" source
of
Anight dress'
dregs in
/c
;y
>->1
&*^
chashma-nur (m.c.)
;
light";
(m.c.)
wf
A*^
chashma-db;
*<$-^ darydcha db
e^
i^^
tah-butri
"the
a bottle";
(m.c.
A*^
but
*>
l;
A)
tah>jur a,
(m.c.);
<-U
*3
tah-jdm:
man-banda
and
better
^J
than
e^
**> 1 J
man-f 6aw</a or
man-i mukhlis
yi bi-pul Jjj
etc.),
mar^* bichara and man-i banda-
SoJu ^xi.
[îlcâ-6a2;ar yjb *a.y

' '
A;iicâ
'
va bazar
^
;
*^/0
M
:
an ^ at tne foot * After the prepositions \j~ siva except," and b p^ one or two words ending in alif the izafat is sometimes omitted, as
'
y
One born under an (j* <JT^
auspicious conjunction
(of
two
or
more
planets)
a fortunate
and
invincible hero; a great emperor: title of honour.
'aahiq-kush (me.)
l k
lady -killer
"
(as
" Joseph); or of woman,
man
killer."
8
Not the " son
of the cloth-merchant."
442

&*> \y* (m.c.)
;
sivaman
U pasandali bi-ist (m.c.) jUJU. ja-namaz but Ûi Û. ja-yi namaz "a place for praying"; (m.c.) ^prayer-carpet," " a back (m.c.) street," but <^/ ^.j pas-i kucha pas-kucha (m.c.) " a flower resembling the pome"behind the street" ^fj? gul-anar (m.c.)
o^l fy^te*
a^^
" the blossom of the pomegranate." granate," but^tcl? gul-i andr
Such
jj
common compounds, as ^ nay-shakar (m.c.) "sugarcane" and ab-ru (m.c.) "honour" have come to be regarded as one word.
:
v'
Before an adjective
pisar farangi J&j* y~*

;
" a Frank boy
' * ;
u&j*
y^
" a dukhtar Farangi (m.c.) (m.c.) d>J> Turkish girl"; <*&;* /*^ hakim-Farangt " the Frank doctor"; ^;j c^=pi^ " a (kind of) finch." gunjlshk-zard (m.c.) the izafat is sometimes discarded specially after a license (c) By poetical " a Frank girl"
y^
dukhtar Turk
silent
Tu sanam him u man khdna Khudd

IV.
Izafat-i
mi-bin am.
Maqlubi
1
The oJUf
*
(
J>
fakk-i
izafat
" tho releaîn^
of the izafat" of
c5
-)
which
izafat-i
examples are given
in (III) is
not to be confused with the
^' vitf
is
maqlubi the two words in construction
the inverted construction": in the former the

is
usual order of
inverted.
;
observed, in the latter the order
Examples
Û;jl< kdfir-mdjard
examples of /H*-e
^.^x;
ungrateful Kafir-ni'mat c***iy'| " denier of facts" (or l>^

izafat.
"
"
(or c***; yff fta/ir-f ni'mat)
y<
!
t5/tr-j
majard)
are
Iran zamin (m.c. for zamin-i Iran) "Persia";

(m.c.)
Jj-ô
mashriq
zamin
"the East";
axh-paz
-w
"Asylum of the World Compounds such

examples
"
as
&\^
jdhan-pandh
are examples of the izafat-i maqlubi.

&>(>j-**f
khdna "cook-house" are also
of the in verted izafat.
Adjectives that precede their nouns do not properly take the izafat and are examples of the "inverted construction" (vide 4'? (6) ).
V.
(a)
Cases in which the Izafat must be omitted.

izafat
There
is
no
thus; C^T^
f^
*jU*'*A*
between the proper name and the title following it, ÛlUi <^+sv f^ Mirza Mahmud Tabatabd^-i^
'AVi*lMuUc Hakim-i Kirman "His Excellency Mirza

" and v^*
name
Mahmud
of the tribe
Compare ^**
J^l avval
ahab
*'
the
lirst
night
**
" the cb' owai-i shab
beginning of the night.*' 2 In Persian also fak.

2
Bi-riam Izad <^t *&*
in the
of
God "
is
an instance
of this 'releasing of the tza/at.'
The proper name here
is
Mirza Mahmud, and Tabafabtfi
is
the adjective indicat-
ing the family (derived from a famous Sayyid
who stammered).

Tabdtabd
tfi**Uait
izdfat.
44$
the
other hand
the
Ala u l-mulk, Governor

*4L Aldl-mulk-i
of
^lx
^jJlJt
?
Hakim mja
Kirman." " ast
On
is
the 'AlaM-Mulk the
Governor here
(6)
"
are not coupled together by the izdfat, thus c< " mother-in-law sisterkhwdhar-zan "; ^j A
1
Compound words
&))*!* madar-zan (m.c.) in-law"; (j)*j *ikx khzna-bi-dush "wandering, vagrant asbdb-i barham zada; Jl* b^* mard-i bd mdl).
(c)
"
(but ^3 p*j*
^^^
The
izdfat
seldom
oolte'
occurs after
s-*i?
quantity, as:
*>**
^^ ^*p &*
measures of number, length or guft sad dirham sang kifdyat miis
kunad
(Sa'dl)
"he
said the weight of a 100 dirhatm

%
d*oUT wf o^ Â* water " -U, 5 ^ Â*

;
handfuls (Sa'dl) couple " a db vO^ yak gaz yard's depth of water yak jav p<* 8\m (class.) or syu ^5-^ jav-t nuqra (m.c.) " a barley corn's, a grain's weight of 5tH^ Jtit^ w&u* silver" yak sang db (m.c.) "one sang of water"
a sufficient quantity dam-i chand db dshdinid (Sa'di) " he drank a few sips of " a muM-i du khl,k * of or so of
:
"
" earth
' '
^^
:
(m.c.) yak qdmat* ^f " ten camels " J& p# nim ndn-i /^/AJ te dah nafar shutur (in writing) " half a loaf" 6 &**^ (class, and m.c.) but^li uaî nisf-i ndn-i(m.c.) but " du db db" or A:a<sa a water of A^K ^f ?/aA; ^ khum yak kasa-yi ;^ glass 1 " two earthenware of vessels) jars (large barley "; yak finjdn chahl jav " " *** yak finjdn h-ilf a maund ^*U. ^laxi* w^; Tilw ma/i &*> (*# y*i &^*' li a cup of silver" (i.e. either made of silver or full of silver), but nuqra
;
du dang khdna
db
;
{<
two shares
of the house
"
cux>U
;
^ finjdn-i tiuqra^l
VI.
(a)
lt
a cup
made
of silver."
Further remarks and examples on the use of the Izafat.

are rather erratic in the use
Modern Persians
and omission of the
thus the Muslims say ***> fUf Imdm Jum'a (a title given to the chief church dignitary in each district by the Shah), while the Zardushtis
izdfat,
correctly say A*+^

(b)
f l*>i
Imdm-i Jum'a.
izdfat)
Yak khwurda-yi db (with
wf
5^^
e>
(m.c.)
may
be translated
Also
A^
v.jf
%^to
madar-shawhar
"mother-in-law"
(i.e.
husband *s mother)
*
8
Also
y
1
&*&.
^3
dam-l chand az 36
jf
(class.)
could be used:
v' C5!)^
qadr-l 36.
Mitshtl
du az
kliak v^Lk
cxifc* cX>
j^J&*
(class,
and m.c.);
blshtar
Û. s^4*j^ du
"there
mushtis
khak
CU-H^J^* ^
or sang
Ûx
yaA?
musht,
k&ak
is
nlst (m.c.)
not
more than a handful

*
I
of earth
"
:
in m.c. the izafat
sometimes inserted.
Co
(6).
*-&*
and
daiig
+*
c>(6
Or qadd
(or kalla
(colloquially dung), vide

)
or sar
36.
Izafat always follows ma/, subs., but not nltn adj. A weed that grows in the qanats has a leaf resembling the tea-leaf;
to
it is
dried
and infused
form a medicine
; f
hence Persians assumed that tea was grown in a wel

l
and have corrupted the word cha
into chahl
and
cfiayi.
444
izdfat.
"a very
without
small quantity of water," while *Jf *.i^-& yak khwurda db (m.c.) " a little water" there is no difference in meaning (unless izafat
;
stress be laid on yak).
Yak
noun
a,nd
in singular)
"
a band
dasta muqallid âx> AJLo^j (without izafat and of mummers," but ej!*iflx> $L dasta-yi muqallidan
(m.c.)
^15x
&Lo
dasta-yi muqallid
"the band
of
mummers."
but in
a>?
Yak
of f#
izafat
:
dasta-yi muqallidan <))*&#

(c)
In c*~f
l
v-jf
&*^ u& would be wrong. o*2nJLfl* maslahat an ast there is no

izafat
izafat ,
bim-i an bud
is
and similar places the
should be inserted.
it is
The
jj)
used after the Arabic participle baqi,* when " " the remainder of the 14*^. baqi-yi ruz day
;
treated as a noun, as
in this case there is
perhaps
an
ellipsis
}
of the
is
word
vaqt.
In
bdqt
In India ci}j^^ madar-i zan " mother-in8 law," but in modern Persian cJ}>^ mddar-zan without the izafat
^;
* '
<^lj bdqi ruzhd,
or^b
c^JJt; ruzhd-yi
^(t bdqi
an adjective.
(d)
Blshtar
mardum
/*i/
j*&$>
most men
'
'
btshtar awqdt
c*L>jt
j&#
" most times," but
btshtar-i
mardum
men":
vij&jf
bishtar-i awqdt c*Uy y&>o the meaning in both the constructions
the greater part of the ft>j* <c the greater part of the times";
j&x
tl
is
the same.
Bishtar-i ishdn
y&x>
with
**the
izdfat
k-jJte is
greater part
of
them"
j\
(not
bishtar-tshdn
bishtar
&&>t
j***x)
the
*a#^|
construction
cJ^f
j*>**&
az
Ishdn.
Ohdlib-i awqdt
used, not giidlib-awqdi.
Similarly otfy ^-JU( agAlab-i awqdt and oUyîrt aksar-i awqdt are correct,
though the
izdfat is
sometimes omitted.
ast.
The
izdfat
is
also
correct
in
the izdfat before an Infinitive governed by a preposition on the ground that cJf*V ^ &ty^ p*") rahm dvardan bar baddn is the equivalent of e^y &^s* bar baddn rahm dvardan. In India
o^l e^ i*JU oU^ gumdn-i ghdlib an (e) Some modern Persians omit
^)
the izdfat
is
^jj&fjd (>*
omitted before a preposition even in such a sentence, as ;|^ 31 A*J ba'd az savdr shudan-i dar kishti. The advantage of the insertion
:
of the Izdfat is
mardumdn-i dar Kirmdn ml-ravand

**)jX*
^,re
c^^/
or
;j>
apparent from the following examples: tojj** &{*jfi jt o^yo " " the (m.c.) people of Kirmanare going mardumdn dar Kirman mi-ravand (m.c.) "the people
o^y
going to
{tf
Kirman"; (^'^
j$ ()*& jj~*
jf
kishtt
^f
&*
j\f
jl
**>
ba d az savdr shudan dar
ba'd az savdr shudan-i dar kishtt "after
embarking").
dar-dmadan-i
dmadan
lj Persian agree that &**$ j& )\ *> ba'daz *>** ba'd az darthe of bagji, being equivalent c^ >> eP^T )* y dar bdglt, the izdfat is necessary. In pas az dmadan-i Eustam bi-
Some modern
khana *ilu
1
^^ ^^f
j|
<j*jno izafat
is
possible after
Rustam. 4
(chlz)
Maslahat an bud " that was the prudent measure," but blm-i an
In this case baqiyya can be substituted. Similarly in all compounds of madar.
'*
bud " there
was
fear of that (thing).

*
8
In m.o. pas az amadan-i bi-bhana incorrect : the izafat should be omitted.
after
my
return
home* though common,
is
ON THE USB OF
(/)
^5.
445
and subjective genitives "love of our neighbours," and Persian signify either the love that our neighbours ear us or the love that we bear over neighbours. Mahabbat-i hamsayagdn ,ishat bi-ma Uo o-wk~J &&(+> VÂXL* and mahabbat-i ma nishat bi-hamsayagan
The
objective
aay both
in English
are unequivocal.
VII.
On
the use of
is
The Arabic word ^ "possessed of."

ng substantive
Fern.
*
(
;
always connected with a follow] :
it is
fully declined in Arabic as follows
plur.
*
)
Masc.
*
f
)
*,
plur. *<
Fern. sing.
9
Masc. sing.
9
ojfy
eJ(jf
)
e>r^
(y^f
(
ofi
^1^
.
Subjective.
oiji
^f
^ji "
c$^
ii
Dependent.
Objective.
of^
Examples
>
j
zu'l-jalal
"possessed of dignity, majestic."

"
possessed of
all
9
e,( J
*'.
*.
zat^l-kamalat
perfections."
ii ji zu-fwnun " learned."
the prudent." is often wrongly constructed, no count being aken of the Arabic number, case and gender: so the month before Muharram
ulu'l-absar
this
'*
In
Persian
word
3
>
in Persian AâaJf
or a^^Jf
î
indifferently
it is
even combined with
ersian words, as <j>*>
î
"intelligent."
is
Moreover, the plural

ingular, as in
sometimes, in modern colloquial, used as a
In
sJiaWis khayli uliCl-qadr ast vj^-t
" has great rank, is honoured khayli ulu'l-'azm ast very m.c.) Ulu'l amr "Emperor or Emperors" (used as a esolute or enterprising."
"
this
man
"
^^\j)\
^jJU^îui ^t
ing. or pi.)
The Persians ignore also the meaning of the definite article in the word ollowing so eîî (m.c.) means the same in Persian as e^^t jl\
:
Arabophiles, however, use the correct Arabic cases even vhen the compound is used in a Persian construction, i.e. when governed
>y a Persian
Some Persian
noun or
verb.
118.
The Cases
in
of Nouns.
Nominative:
(a)
The Nominative case
;he
beginning of a sentence in
l
modern Persian is often employed at or near an absolute sense to introduce the subject,
omitted as
it
The Arabic dual
of this
word
is
does not occur in Persian.
Shi* as style their ImSras only ulu'l-amr.
446
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
construction avoids the use of two or more

genitive.
being independent of the grammatical construction that follows it. This consecutive nouns in the
Sometimes the subject is introduced qualified by a relative or by a subordinate clause: the sentence is then broken off and left standing without a verb, a pronoun or noun in apposition to the subject being
its
introduced and followed by
verb.
*>iu4J
|*+^
(*r*
man chashm-am nami:
binad (m.c.)
ty+>
<k
I can't see (lit. I
u mi-uftdd kamdl-i mihrbdrii mi-namud "she saw a young girl whom every one that saw her loved. In, $ f;lî ^c> <**# ^jj *> j&&fc>j* Ix5 j^ vir-* qarib-i jahdz-i md du jahdz-i digar ki pur -bar budand 3^j *>j<^j
^ 4/^f
J'+*
^'^ j ^
1
*** \j ^3^* my eyes don't see) *y*> dukhtar-l rd did ki harki chashm-ash bar cA*^^
"
&
u^
dlrak-i
budand "near our ship were two other laden ships that had had half of their masts cut down," there is no verb for and if there were, some conjunctions would be required before
dnhd rd
td nisf burlda
A somewhat similar construction is common in English ballad "My heart, it loves a gypsy, oh!" In, "the Prophets, do
for ever
?
poetry as
"
(
(Zee.
1. 5),
the pleonasm
is
they live allowable for the sake of emphasis.
>A*U.
j^ Û. Jf
cr^lj
fJ&
*l>
t^
*^ JL?
*&~^j*~
&c&* ji
cr^j;^
darmsh az
sadma-yi safar khasta va az sdkhil-yi rah muta*alim pd-yash az jdy namtthe Darvish wearied by the journey and its hardjumbld (mod. Pers.) Compare the old English construction ships was unable to lift his feet."
* 4
*'
'
Thy Kinge hys eyes"
the courtiers their nosys."
The subject of a passive verb is called &Lc(> p~j ^ U J>iU " the object " and is in whose subject is not known Persian, ancient and modern, always
put in the Nominative case.
In modern Urdu the subject or patient of a passive verb, being the verbs be put in the object of the action, can in the case of certain compound
accusative.
2
This construction
has found
its
way
into
Indian Persian.
urd
In the following example, taken from a public notice in India, the pronoun ^* % s-*^* cfl* C ** is incorrectly in the accusative: ) cux>jiU y \) $ " should 3 a he will servant be dismissed." accept tip, oyJb jj any j^f^L
*
Genitive case
(b)
There
is
no proper Genitive case in Persian.

is
This construction
common
in
Arabic, from which language

is
it
is
probably
9
.'..
sorrowed. This use of the nominative absolute

.ffcfa^
]
called
by native grammarians o'
<*!*&*
a sentence with two faces, or aspects.
Such a sentence
is
as 'aql-am qdbul nami,
cunam (*&%** Jt** * Thus Usko
f^
qatl
Lx?
*
though sometimes heard

kiya giya
l*>
obviously incorrect.
killed*'
is
^f eW
y*\ ^him was
as correct as
Wuh qatl kiya giya 3 Kudam

[nstead of
giri/t
UT JiJ
any
it
'
ho was killed."
^^
as the equivalent of the
Urdu koj
is
an Afghan idiom,
o^>?
would be better here to substitute bi-girad
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
447
When two nouns

J
are placed together in a " state of regimen*' as " the son of the king," the first or governing word is pisar-i malik
(
called
"the regent "

i
oUa-Ji
),
the second or the word governed
Aj
and the short

This
is
that couples the two words together is called the izafat. 1 but the izafat is used, besides, to the proper genitive construction
;
couple the substantive to the adjective or adjectives that follow it, vide 43 (<7), and also to couple substantives together as a name and a trade or
nickname, vide
117.
we
substantives coupled by the izafat are often used where in English use a substantive and an adjective (the governing word having the effect
Two
of the adjective),
The
great experience." be used to construction can also izafat signify the material out of
:
as
*^?u
o^,
ka&rat-i tajriba
"
which a thing
is
made, as: &

tilaî (adj.)
* f
o**L
sa'at-i tila
^53Lb *a^cU sfrat-i
a golden watch,"
"a watch or ^Jt
of
Û
gold"
(also
sa'at-t az tilla
watch made from gold"); u*U\ yAtif angushiar-i almas "a diamond " a a ring," but angushlar-i az almas would mean ring made from diamonds." The genitive construction is often used where in English a substantive
"a
with a
sliab
yak pondering on olden days'

tuted, as
:
preposition would be used, as: f2j** AL&i? fbi clU ta*ammul-i ayyam-i guzashta mi-kardam (Sa'dl) "one night I
1 ;
^J
was
f&j&> *x^^
fo*
j*.
here in Persian a preposition could be substid*& tatammul bar ayyam-i guzashta ml-kardam.
Infinitive,
This construction also occurs with the

as a
which
is
treated
&*
simple noun (though
it
may
also
govern an accusative), as:

" after
&* jy j ba'd az savar shudan-i kashtl getting into the boat" [or ^"Af p o>-^ )ly savar shudan 3 dar kashil (rn.c.) vide 117 (A)]; * i^x A) o^, ^jj&& ov^>j lîf ejj>f^ \y* sazd dadan-i anha bi-dast-i digart-stna man " " their c^lb f^ ^ (m.c.) punishing lies in the hands of another, not in mine " & c^^l^T &* J> ura taqat-i saza dddan-i anha-st na mard he has power \j* " SAJ b ad az niza' kardan-i ba u to punish them, not I ^1 ^ &&f aL>J y (m.c.)
;
]
ÂS
t>
" after quarrelling with him," but y &*/ j*y *** ba'd az niza kardan-i u vide also remarks on "after his quarrelling (with me or some one else)"
1
the izafat
117.
In the story of the second darvish, Chapter

of
XI
of the Persian translation
"
Haji Baba," occurs the following peculiar passage: ba'd az an
b [}*+& ]
[bi mar]
cjijt
AJU
ba halat-i
When
an adjective follows and qualifies a noun, the
oUa^
muzaf and the
ÂJf vJLox} mtizayf ilayh are separated, as: c^* <J^t^jî pisar-i ]ch.iish-gil-i iulan. 5 There may sometimes be a slight difference in signification between tho two con-
structions, thus 5/&>

full of silver
8
^^
kasa-yi miqra
may mean
either
" a
silver
cup," or **a cup
pieces," but
izafat.
&& \f*
fn
Or omit the
For
" a silver cup " kaaa-yi muqrcfi India this iz&fat would be omitted.
man.
only.
&* vS*-*^
bi'daet-i
Persians are very fond of elliptical expressions.
448
ba'ts-i hayrat-i
THE OASES OF NOTJN9.

hama,
his
balki
the astonishment of
all,
" va hakim ham, aru$k-l chand zad when, to not excepting myself and the doctor, he (the sick man)
man
In this passage fi^j e^ manva hakim are in the genitive case, though, owing to the faulty collocation or incorrect construction, there is no izafat to distinguish the case. The words
groaned, opened
eyes"
(Haji Baba).
orJu*. <^**lj
ba'is-i hayrat-i
should be repeated after
&&
balki, vide
120
(h)
Remark. Note the genitive case or the use of the izafat in the following " The road from Kirman to Yezd " * & eA^ rah-i Kir man bi-Yazd " Bandar-i rah-i road" 'Abbas; "the B. Abbas authority for v*^)^. *;
:
(;
this"
<(
yof
<*i-o
sanad-i in amr\ "fear of death
"
Jô
ast;
u^
tars-i
marg;
" he
is
a horse worth a thousand rupees

of
"c^y^D*
v**f as P'i hazar
tumam\
in need
money"
foj*jf
*a*-f
J^
Ûax/o
$ u muhtaj-i pul
''tempted of the
121 (o)];
12 1 (a)] and dzmuda-yi Shaytdn [vide " L&C Jl^.* muhal-i 'aql (m.c.). contrary to reason, impossible
Devil"
e> l t*
Example of the objective genitive bi-hukm-i gûriir-i pa-yi suturan-i " confident in the sureJ* (&**. ( ^ r H. B., Chap. V) khud &\)<
:
footedness of their
^horses."
Baba";
:
Example
J<
of the subjective genitive: yurikhtan-i
Haji Baba
^ ^^ i^^J
Vide also
the
117.
flight of Haji
vide also 120 (a) (1), of
me; my.
(c)
The Dative
There
are
(1)
ji
two forms
2 t{
of
(2)
urd guftam In m.c. the dative with
I said (to)
him "
bi-u guftam or the dative, thus, fti& 'j 6a w (also jl guftam}.

:
p&
A> is
usual.
(3)
with
t;
is
These twoforms are not however always interchangeable. The dative obligatory when it signifies possession, with or without the verb
:
^b
8 budan, and also with the impersonal verbs, as *<>Jf;<xj ^gjH&i <xftl^jf^ 6 *&^ id har ki tlr az halqa-yi angushtarl bi-guzaranad khatim urd ) $
t
" that the bashad (Sa'dl) ring will be his who shoots an arrow through it" 6 dvarda and ki gazhdum rd vilddat-i ma'hud riist chundn ki sa*ir-i hayvdndt <4 It is AÛa. rd \) **)$ (Sa'di) ^n*^ i5^J J (**$ ** b stated that the scorpion has not an ordinary birth like other animals."
;
obf^yu
o^
'
Arugh
ejjl is
belch
which Persians consider relieves the stomach.
* 3
*' to give.*' Either form of the dative can also be used after f&\& dad an The dative is not necessary with impersonal verbs (vide Impersonal verbs)
but when the dative

*
i#
used, the form with
I;
and not with
&!
must be used.
ttra
In modern Persian
y&&l
anguahtar.
Also instead of <^-^ \)j
bashad the
ifc
phrase ^lj jl JUyA&l but mtoashad " is or " will be.

6
anguahtar mal-i u bashad would be used: bashad "let

1 '
be"
Ortir-l.
6
41
55% jSU
signifies
" the remainder, the rest," but
is
frequently employed for
the whole.*'
THE OASES OP NOUNS.
449
kira ta*us bayad jawr-i Hindustan kashad
Ear
((
kira
mahbub bayad kunda u zindan kashad
(Sadi).
He who wants He who wants
a peacock must endure the journey to India, his mistress must endure fetters and prison."
Yak-1 ra dil az dast rafta bud atf; ****** y J* Jc5 G (Sa'di) had quite lost his heart." [Vide also (10) Remark],
f
" a certain person
j! \) &\.<\j=*-
)j~ )
0^1
va
Jj^-J
7w
V OÛo y o>*o f; o)^ .-x*o aSy j ^JL shab sanam-i dar bar ki subh-i taban ra dast az
khirdman ra az
sabdhai-i u bar dil ast va sarv-i
"the rich have each night a fresh her beauty and humbles the waving cypress by her exquisite by morning In none of these cases could * be substituted for t;. figure." *$ Û ^^^ u*^ j^*^ "praise to u sipas Khuda-yi pak ra ki liamd In " and similar God the Holy constructions, the verb is understood. This dative is rare in m.c. o^ >jtX> \j*t *** *$ cu^xpb f^x mara bagh-Vst (t I have a garden that no one has yet seen." ki kick kas na-dida ast (m.c.)
(Gulistan)
J
u pay dar gil mistress who shames the bright

khajatat-i
I;
In the above cases, the dative by native grammarians is considered the muzdf ilayh. Thus in, savaran ra chun chashm bi-ma uftad tdkhtan avardand
jsj^f ^.^LU
jjtjj,
l^j
+;**.
&}*>
tyt;fj.^
charged down upon us," savaran
ra
"when the mounted men saw us they c>;^ is considered the muzaf ilayh of
\)
chashm +&*
the phrase being equal to

:
savaran bi-ma uftad
chun chashm-i p&*> &?*. according to English ideas &IJj* savaran should be in
j>tk't
U of;lj^
the nominative and be the subject to
;jf
avardand.
:
Remark.
The datives
in
lawr ki u bi-vay (ura) khil'at
two clauses should balance one another haman dad, bi-man (mara) nlz yak shal-i Kashmiri dad
(4) If
substituted for
the indirect object express locality, the dative in I; cannot be bi-shahr rastdim "we reached the city"; <Ju, as:
^^) j^
\)
we attained our object }&$+> bi-maqsud rasidim " ' c< the bullet hit the 'game fjulula bi-shikar khwurd (m.c.)
^j^sj
preceding examples could
' f
' '
;
&)ys*
^ô
aîf
in
none
of the
be substituted for
AJ
But
mi-ayad)
<>yf ^5/0
wt^
fj^t
ura khwab mi-dyad (or
^f
^ J^l^^t u khwab-ash
"
"he
in.c.
is
feeling sleepy."
lt
what's the matter with you ? can be rendered either tura chi ? or ^* &*> >v bi-tu chi shud. shud by ix& fy (5) The preposition AJ has many other significations besides the **to" of the dative, as ov|<^ v^l^j b pa bi-rikab guzasht " he put his foot in the stirrup iron obviously in such instances its place could not be taken
phrase
The
' '
Another and
common
reading
is
ranj-i Hindustan.
29
450
(6)
THE CASES OF NOUJSS.

]
:
Duration of time can also be expressed by ; of the dative,* as k rd ruz tamdm-i yurtma 5 cu*j &jlj JUjjlfa. yd chahdr na*l *+*)ji !j jj) fW " shab 8 rd whole ? or canter the one trot must dnjd day bdyad raft? (m.c.) "I mandam fvl t; s* (m.o.) stayed there the (whole) night." dar (dar tamam-i ruz) could be In the first example the preposition
' '
:
^1
substituted for the

lauf _*
I;,
but not in the second; for dar shab anja

I stayed there at night (not
^-J* )*
mandam
:
fy>U dar shab anja raftam J>j lûf be wrong here).
would mean "
"
so also by day) went there at night," (shab rd would
"
A
"by
few adverbs can also be formed by the dative in I;, as fj Uj qazd ra Some accident, by chance," (but ittifdq, not \) $&\ ittifdq rd).
:
grammarians consider
this a
form of the ablative case, apparently because
the ablative (az qazd U^' jf) can be substituted.*
Andak fursatrd gard-i fand az an bar-dyad ^^* &\ $ &' ^&\ \) o^/ " at the ceases a it in short (Anvdr-i Suhayll) time) slightest opportunity (or " to exist rdstl rd khildf-i '-aql buvad 89 (h) (3). (Qa,ani), vide
:
(7)
If
more substantives than one
in the dative are coupled together, rd
is
y ^^ or kitdb rd bi-'Amr(u) ft>\& ^&? \> **j u Zayd dddam fd* *>) j ,j+*> \j v lif. (8) The affixed pronouns may take the place of the dative in I;, as: *t */f #**> Ij* ô o^t Âft (m.c.) hlch ydd-at mi-dyad ki ?, or *$
,
usually added to the last only. 5 *Amr(u) u Zayd rd kitdb dddam
turd
**J
Uch ydd mi-dyad
(m.c.)
^khwdb-ash mi-dyad, m.c.) "he feels sleepy." The affixed pronoun

:
or V}T
^ v^ W
^b
" " do you at all remember that? ^ly^ ur khwab mi-dyad (less common,
:
^^ ^
of itself does not
admit
of rd
is
but a noun in the

attached
dative case to which a possessive affixed pronoun
followed by Ij, as rd (Shah-Nama)
I;
^
is
may be
&
^Û
sildh
va diram dad lashkar-'$h
he gave arms and money to his army"; the more ordinary construction would be (Jlj&J AJ bi-lashkar-ash, (9) When the dative in t; has a noun in apposition, or is qualified by
usually added at the end, as:
îif
fj
{<
adjectives, the affix rd
The accusative with

:
or without
tafcht-i
IJ
is
used with compound verbs formed by
\*)>\u
dadan, as
*'
yak-l az vuzara pa~yi
malik busa dad
(Sa'di)
one of the vizirs kissed the throne of the king
$& *~j* *jA "

:
CU^RJ
^.b
\jfrj
j{
^^
ra
\)
could be inserted after
2 As the preposition dar can be substituted for this to consider this the dative and not the accusative caee.
s
\)
it
is,
I think, better
4
*>
Or shab anja mandam f &iUo lapjf v.*. The Arabic accusative used adverbially,
final
e.g. (qazft
an can also )
be substituted.
(
j+* 'Umar; but 47^ Mmr (the common in Arabic grammars.
j not pronounced).
Amr and Zayd
are
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
451
Ziaydpisar-i vazlr rd guftam (or fii? ^~j ^3 *> bi-Zayd pisar-i vazir guftam) ki tl l said to Zeyd the son of the Wazir " j\4j *>o}f -&^ c*a/ j *f >j^ shakhs-l az marddn-i tj îi> jang-dzmuda va kdr-dlda rd guftam ki
:
^Â
"I
va
said to a certain experienced
warrior."
"
In Minnat Khuddy rd
Great
<azz a
jallWi
cU j>
.
l^jljJL
f;
cut*
(Sa'di)
thanksgiving to the
last after the
and
Glorious
God
", the
rd could also 'be placed
phrase
JVjJ*
'azz* va jall a
Similarly in *
^sjt* j+*
*****
^^
jll;
yak-l rd az
muluk muddat-i
'umr
sipari shud (Gul. B.
II.
S.
28), the rd would, in modern Persian,
be preferably inserted after vJÛ muluk.

qualified by a phrase, the affix V preferably added at the end of the phrase, as : -M >0 Jl <^J t; .<&&> âcvAj ^ yak-l az muluk-i 'Arab rd hadls-i Laylq u Majnun biguftand(Gul. B. S. 10).
\)
Remark.
is
When
the dative in
rd
is
f;
rd
â^
v^
^J
still
(10) The dative in tj rd preceded by the particle mar sometimes used in books, but not in letters.
(vide (d) 12), is
Remark.
dative
is
sometimes in
classical, rarely in
:
modern, Persian
used as the logical subject of the clause, as
Sag-I rd luqma-i hargiz fardmush Na-gardad gar zanl sad nawbat-ash sang.
"
(Sa'di).
dog ne'er forgets a morsel (thrown to it) Even if afterwards you stone it a hundred times "
In the example, "dog
"
is
in the dative case.
Urd
hich chlz fardmush nami-shavad
^ ^ o^^î
jâ.
^he
(m.c.)
forgets nothing."
(11) The dative in rd I; sometimes takes the place of the preposition <4 for God's sake." For further remarks on bardy, as: Khudd rd the locative dative, & J>**> and J^*i<, vide under these heads.
^,
\^
The accusative case (1) The accusative has two forms: one form is the same nominative, and the other as the nominative plus the suffix !j.
(d)
:
as
the
One
(2)
of the difficulties to a beginner is the correct use or omission of f>

,
Generally speaking, as already stated
f;
corresponds to the definite
article
and should be
affixed to definite parts of speech such as definite nouns,
<Azza va
jail
A>
jjx
are ^r. verbs,
in Arabic the Preterite is {be His name) the wisher assuming the completion of the action,
:
"
and signify " exalted and magnified used in precative sentences and in cursing,
Prefc.,
452
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

1
demonstrative pronouns, the proper names, the separate pronouns, the 2 the reflexive pronouns, and the pronominal adjectives <*/, interrogative
and
indefinite pronouns signifying "all; each; every; so-and-so;

;
and both,
it also
all three, all four, etc.
a certain person
one
the others."
In m.c.
follows the affixed possessive

tive case
:
pronouns when
(6).
affixed to a
noun in the accusa-
vide
(c) (8)
and
40
Remark.
definite,
:
zaban-i
After the name of a language, the t; is only added if the noun is " 5 I wish to learn Persian" as fj^k cr*/ ^0 p^j**** mt-khwdham Farsi bi-yamuzam (m.c), but in selecting a course of study
3
.
at school the pupil might say, "I will take up the Persian and not the Arabic." Zaban-i Farsl ra ml-amuzam fjy ? ^*> h c** ejkj ; though grammatically correct to insert the \) here, the sentence with it has the same
9
stilted
sound, as
'*
I arn
now going
to
study the French language."
(3)
The ra
tj
must be added
to the direct objects of the Imperative

is
mood
or of causal verbs,
when
the object
definite (not
when
it is indefinite).
Remark. An adjective qualifying a noun often makes it definite, while Vide p. 461 note 8. the omission of the adjective indicates that it is indefinite.
,
a phrase, Arabic or Persian, is in apposition to a noun, the I; must be added at the end of the phrase, as: 8 f*^ v^*V '; *** *^ <j*>) "' * ra bi-khwab dldam "I saw 'All (may Allah be 'All (razly" 'llah 'an-h
(4)
]
When
^
^
"
pleased with
him
in a
dream."
ian '^ c hand az mardu*^ ***h v^tj* j **^ *-y)f man-i vaqi'a dlda va Jang azniuda ra bi-firistadand ki (Sa'dl) ''they sent
aôJali-a/b
\)
^^j
^
4i
severtil
warriors
l
of
experience,
6
1 '
tried in
battle, to
"
fj
^>;
<ÛL: j
jjjo^j yak-l az
learned
uLamd-yi rdsikh
men
of fixed principles.
:
ra pursidand (Sa'dl) they asked one of the In classical Persian, however, such is not
always the case

tf oJa*
OJ&A
(Sa'dl)
+xvi
kJjJLc
i;
kunand
in this
.
one of the kings of Persia that with ra could the equal propriety be inserted after the word example
6
^
of
yak-l ra az muluk-i
'Ajam hikayai
:
"they
relate
Similiarly in the apposition of substitution
and of explanation,
f;
must
But not )&&\ an
qadr^
^Xfti^t
In
fjadr.
The
ra
fj
is
in
m.c.
sometimes incorrectly omitted after the interrogative

t
kttdam, or
<^ fl**kudam yak-l

4t
'
unless definite, as: <j*\j****

?
v^"^
4
^ kudam
kitab
(vulg.)
ahl
3 *
*
? (vuig.)
which hook do you want " which do you want ?
*';
^f^H*
\jfc. f'
kudam
yak-l mi-
Vide also Apposition. Final u omitted after the pause.
Rasikh
fr*1)
means
of
sound
belief, of firm faith in his religion.

ra.
In modern Persian
\)
^^
v^jl* j[ ^f^ yak-l az multik-i 'Ajam
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

be placed at the end, as
453
saw Zaid the son

'
of
Zayd pisar-i Vazir ra didam 139 (6) (4). the Wazir," vide
:
In the "apposition of qualification," a past or present participle denoting state or condition, or an adjective, is placed in apposition to a
(5)
noun, and the noun

zalim-i ra khufta
if
definite takes
tj,
as
dldam
"I saw a
sang-i
*
certain tyrant asleep at
f*.^ c>t;-A^ty^l l)^-^
dar rah uftada

' '
;
" (m.c.) "I saw an elephant limping and stumbling dldam &* %&*\ fy )* ^j** (m.c.) "I saw a stone
:
:
riim-ruz guftam in fitna ast khwabashburda bih (Sa'dl) mid-day'* fil-i ra uftariu khizan dldam
;
lying on the road
vide also (8)
in
these examples
ra
t;
could
not be
omitted.
Remark
/.
If,
however, the participle or adjective be in apposition

\)
to an indefinite
according to the usual rule omitted, as: " " he had a slave, a blockhead siyah-l ddsht kawdan (Sa'dl) nawkar-l dashtam ablah (m.c.) *'I had a servant, an ass."
noun the
is
In &*+*^
)&
î.^ j
c^*-**
f^^
u ^.)
4
ablah-i ra
didam samin va
kliil'at-l
dar
bar samin (Sa'dl) " I saw a fool, a fat fool, with a fine robe, a costly one the first substantive is definite and the second indefinite.
"
:
Remark
'*
II.
Man
;
mar-i ra
dar rah murda dldam
f*i*
saw a snake dead on the road

';
"
;
*:>y
*!j;a ^
^;^
\^*
and man mar
murda-i ra 8 dar rah
didam
^^
b^
;êX
*'
saw a dead snake on the road
"
:
zalim-i ra
*&** !; ^^JUo I saw a tyrant who (or when) he was asleep khujta d%dam " I saw a and zalim-i khujta i ra didam sleeping tyrant." ^ &&**> pMo The shade of difference in meaning is slight, if indeed any really exist.
^^
"
^^
(6) If
the
-ls
i;*:
if,
however, the
**", it
merely an indefinite article, its noun does not require '* a certain ," especially if followed by the signify
relative
Kitab-l bardy-i shumd saw(jhat avarda-am(m>c.) requires r>, as *'I have brought a book as a present for you "; if ra be added it signi:
book as a present " and the sentence is incomplete and some, such phrase as c^-U ^H tf ki layiq-i shuma ast is necessary to
fies
" a certain
complete the sense:

ov~l*
it
would also be correct to omit the
^^
t$
p\
i^
ÎP^**
U&
ix>
^t^j
^\X
kitab-i baray-i
and say t; shuma sawg&at avarda

<(
am
ki la*iq-i
shuma
ast.
Similarly in f**&
j^ a
jj^*)
//.
imruz dldam (m.c.)

fil-l
to-day,"
1
it
would be incorrect to say

(
ra
f;
I saw an elephant U> unless some qualifying

in syntactic
Zaid and *Amr

:
are two fictitious
names used
*
examples
in
Arabic grammars the English boy learns that Balbus the Muslim buy is taught that Zaid is striking Amr(u).
* '
is
building a wall,' while
2
8
But ^ c5^*
sang-i ra **a certain stone.'*
The
r5 appears to be redundant.
!;
Unless the omission of
would cause ambiguity; vide
(d) (11).
454
clatise followed,
&
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

such as
fll-l
*-&J ^jjA <*r ki-khayll qashang bud; imruz dtdam ki khayll qashang bud (m.c.) ^lÂ dldam "I saw a nest," but (&>& (I; ) Uf ashiyana-l f*^ " dldam I saw the nest of a bird ashiyana-yi murgh-l (ra) C*j^ ^l^. asJilyana-yi murgh-% ba chahar tukhm dldam (m.c ) "I saw
*j*
JjJ*j
*>
(or ftl-l-rd
lj
^6
a bird's nest with four eggs." Dukhtar-l dasht o^b <jr/^ (Sa'di) "he had a daughter " here it would be wrong to say f; <4^*a dukhtar-l ra unless a relative clause followed, as 0^1 &) ^Lrfrk * <^* Ji **" t> C5>^^ dukhtar-i ra ki didi bi-Tihran rafta ast (m.c.) "the girl you saw has gone
; :
to
Tehran," where the ra is necessary. iili. 41 Compare the two examples already given in (t) ***} J^'JT khana-i atash zadand and ^J>3 ^Jf t; ii'i, khana-l ra atash zadand. For t; in relative sentences qualifying a definite noun, vide the Relative
9
*&
and Demonstrative
(7)
^5.
Nouns preceded by a cardinal number do not usually admit of \) ra unless definite, as: Hazar sarbaz dldam Â jl^Â "I saw a thousand " soldiers "I c?w saw two horses," but fO^ f; ^t JN dldam asp fxj> *-^l^d ^?w asp dtdam tc l saw the two horses" eu*^ ^,1^ ^^ f; AA5lJDj^> ^Ji H /0 ^<^^ *w dw ta*ifa ra dar jahan dust ml-daram 'ulama h ^3^ ^^ va zuhhad ra (Sa dl) " these two classses I cherish dearly in this world, Vide- also (15). viz., the learned and the devotional."
:
Remark.
tive pronoun,
A
is
noun with a cardinal number,

definite,
' ;
:
if
as:
^#
f;
fj
4&fcu
these two planks

(8)
d***-
&
Aiio
^ ^f In du takhta ^ ^ In du takhta ra biham bi-chaspan.

:
preceded by a demonstra" cut ra bibur
A noun
f;,
in apposition to a definite
f;
admit
e~of
of
but
must be
affixed to
noun in the accusative does not the first noun, as cM- O-MÂ &\ o&J ^[^
^li. *i*^ ^f^j f; ii5 Â) ^jf î^; khwaham guft zan-i Hidayat JZhan-i Raslitl in nlm tana-ra baray-i Shu' la Khanam sawqat firistada
jU^j oU^*
"
t;
ast (m.c.)
I'll
)
say that the wife of Hidayat

2
Khan
of Resht has sent this
jacket
cu
f
as a present
(without
I;
for Shu' la
Khanam": ^f^ oi?

(
a ^/^ Khuday azz va jail mara HJ|^/ vÛx3 î v^jU |ô Jl^ ^ malik-iin mumlakat gardanlda ast (Sa'dl) " he said God the glorious has made me master of this kingdom." Vide also (5) and end of (4), and (c) (9).
If
an indefinite noun has a noun in apposition to

:
it,
ra
to either noun, as
avarda
am
(m.c.)
^j ^y^^ p\ a^f otJ>^ " I have brought you back something (from a journey) as a
chlz-l baray-i
is not added shuma sawqat
present."
In writing, and preferably in speaking, the ra should be inserted.
Sawqat oily*
is
the m.c. for the classical

;
^f
ti)
rah-avard *'a
present or
" curiosity brought from a journey
also &\**)\ armaghftn (class,
and
m.c.).
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

(9)
<yif
455
:
Rd
!;
can be added to the Infinitive when

(îA? Gj)&j
(1
" A*?*** kunad " he does not give up loose talk and lying v>^ shind kardan rd khub mi-ddnad (m.c.) " he is a good swimmer.'? (10) With several nouns coupled together by ^ it is necessary
:
C^*S <~fy
\)
^S
it is the object, as Jj vil guftan va darugh guftan rd tark namil>
c^ ^
to
add
t;
to the last only, vide
example above in
* '
(9).
' '
Two
affixes of
f;
close together are
sentence "
He
invited
my
f;
heavy to the Persian ear. Thus the " would in Persian be rendered father and me by
pidar-am ra da' vat kard and rarely by ly^t u mara va pidaram rd da*vat kard.
]
*&j*&t)()*Jj e^
man u
f)^j
the grammatical
(11) Finally
tf
f)
o^
is
added even to
indefinite
nouns
if its
omission would
cause any ambiguity, vide 41 (t). " sirka shir rd In the sentence " vinegar curdles milk mi-burrad, the ra
is
correct.
laid in shir, the rd
In speaking, however, if a pause be made after sirka, and stress may be omitted, as the intonation prevents any ambi-
guity.
Vide
Remark
to (12).
guft agar kas-i nikl rd bi-badi
muqdbala kunad va khayr rd bi-sharr pdddsh ravd ddrad (Anw. Suh., chap. II, S. 6) '* Damna answered, If one return evil for good, and think injury a just recompense for benefit (I am, then, indeed, without hope)." (East. Trans.).
Remark.
Just as in m.c. the rd
is
sometimes omitted
nouns, as:
it is
sometimes
{
unnecessarily inserted
after indefinite
sharab
rd
;
bi-db
awdz*
kardan
is
kardan
in both, ^!r^ shardb
L> v(/^ awaz bi-db shardb v!/"* indefinite: the rd is, in speaking, unneces-
^Zj* u^** v^J
^^ o*>
v^
sary and may be omitted.

(12)
Vide (19).
is
An
old form of the accusative

:
j* mar and suffixing \) ra,as mar is not here emphatic.
f^
\^\
formed by prefixing the particle mar urddldam (old) " I saw him "
;
Remark.
In
^|Â/O
^yiii
shind
is
kardan
mi-ddnad
(m.c.)
he know how to
reply
il<io;>c
swim?",
\y
the object
regarded as indefinite,
but in the
^L.
^y
tj
IJJ*
been previously mentioned becomes

(13)
shind kardan rd khub mi-ddnad the object having definite, and ra must be inserted.
The
affix
ra being equivalent to the definite article, its omission
In
the Persian
idiom the speaker puts himself

should be noticed that
is
\)
first.
Here ev man
is
is
used
of
instead of I/* mara. It man : in the example given ra

*
&* man
ra
a vulgar
accusative
understood after the
first
object.
'Awaz colloquial
for 'waz.
456
should
case
:
THE OASES OF NOUNS.
make the noun
indefinite.
This,
however,
is
not
always
the
Ed I; cannot be used for both the dative and the accusative in the same clause. If, therefore, the accusative is definite and requires
(14)
t)
rd, the dative should
be expressed by
then the
[;
bi: if
the dative does not admit
(m.c.),
must be omitted, as: 1&> *j*> v^ or *? ^w f; v^ kitdb-rd bi-man bi-dih, or kitdb mard bi-dih " ^fa Shah pisar-i Ichud rd tdj dad \) *?^ j~$ (m.c.) "give me the book " the Shah * ^ fcl> Shah or s\z khud dad
of bi,
but requires
1;,
ra of the accusative
o^^j
\)
tdjrd bi-pisar-i
*^^f
(m.c.)
gave the crown to shabhd ndlida am

I
wept
till
He
<Hîu aJjy ^! [y* & p\ *<JjJti l^ <; td mard in farzand bakhshida a$t (Sa'di) long nights " = ast td In bakhshida bi-man me this son farzand gave
his
(own) son"
(mod.), or td in farzand rd bi-man bakhshtda ast G (mod.); here'; rd is really necessary to show
clearly
that
x>jy
farzand
is
not the
subject
its
omission in such cases
sometimes causes ambiguity. (15) The rd must be omitted after nouns preceded by cardinal numbers
unless
definite
si
shamba
thieves
***)
( vide. (1)), as: c*u^<3Jt '; j& *^ **^ jj) ruz-i " nafar duzd rd tandb anddfchtand, means they hanged the three on Saturday"; omit !; rd and it means "three thieves":
I)
v^
si
&*J>
j&
5$ )
îAoîtio
ÛJr
tj
j& &*
nafar rd tandb anddkhtand va

(of
du nafar ra gardan zadand " they hanged three two."

In the following arithmetical idioms the considered definite and require f;
:
them) and beheaded
first
cardinal
numbers may be
r+
d
'
<M~^
-ij
LJ* )j
(^.j|
;l^
t;
^^
*^
jam
-i
si
rd hd chahdr in tawr
minavisand
" three
3
plus
)ô ^jf
:
tafriq-i
four is written thus, 3 + 4 "; t; ;l^ &j& chahdr rd az panj in tawr " five minus four, thus
&* ^j**zarb-i si rd bd chahdr in tawr" three \) multiplied by four, thus 3x4": A-I-P^VJ. ; l t^ b ^ c^X* p~& taqsim-i hasht rd bd chahdr in lawr ** eight divided by four, thus 8-^-4" o^f )j~$ <**uf U
x
lj
4"
p y>4iAJt
;^
AT.. ^-jy ^
~
...
\)
(^*>
1
g*o
c^^*3
^^^
li
js:
amma
dnchi kusur
ast,
du
khums az hasht Us
rd chuninmi-navisand
but as for fractions two-fifths from

r
eight-ninths is written thus

haft
- " f
St
;
v
;
f^ u
^ ^^ ^ ^
^
^
<^h& j
va
sumn va du suds
rd chunin
!;
and seven-eighths plus two-sixths, thus

tw d^ gwZ
f +
o";
~
-f-yjîjf'-AA*;^
^j<5^
'
dar m'f/ iw jfa^r " two-
thirds divided
by
half, thus f-f-J."
Note that the
figures are written
from
left to right as in
English.
6ar musavat darad.
a in m'ôn
cfa/ato^
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

(16)
457
]
The ra
etc.)
is
"greed,"
omitted after generic nouns used generically only when the sentence is very short.
(as
" wine "
In dar arad
" tama'murgh u mahi bi-band **y <Û^ ij* +b tfi )* (Sa'di) it is greed that brings birds and fish into the net/' a ra would be necessary in prose. Similarly after nouns used in a vague or general sense, as 3^ fÔ' ^^^ dast az to' am bdz kashld (Sa'di) " he withdrew his (the) hand from food, he here ra could not be inserted dast is really part of a comstopped eating
:
*^
' '
pound verb
dast kasliidan.
But
in
Jahan ay baradar na-mdnad
bi-kas
(Sa'dl).
Dil andar jahan-afarm band u bas
"The
world
my
brother does abide with none,
By
the word
dil
the world's maker let thy heart be
won"
though used in a
" would "thy heart
in prose require ra,
general sense.
Remark.
(m.c.)
Compare the following examples

5
^Û* ^^ asp-i hazir kun
"get ready a (any) horse '; ^/îU. ]) %_*->! asp ra hazir kun (m.c.) "get ready the horse" (which has been mentioned or discussed): but " j**(s* s^vif asp hazir kun (m.c.) get ready (the) horse" (used generally)
the
\)
ra in
this
last case is
omitted even
if
the speaker
own but one
horse.
(17)
Compound
verbs such as <j^>!^ CÂSW? suhbat ddshtan being consi-
dered one word, the first portion of the compound does not admit of ra.'2 (18) In classical Persian, i^ is frequently omitted after an accusative with a possessive affixed pronoun sometimes it is added ^^^ ^ tx^j<x> ^ ^r^fb Jtk^
; :
bi-pasandldand they saw the kindness of his nature and the excellence of his " in the administration example, I; is both inserted and omitted :j)j>0 &j*> ^jjju*oj fj chun surat-ash ra bi-did slrat-ash ra bi-pasandid. ^.^ b u**^;-i^
oJyjî^
(Sa*dl)
AJ
cA^txi lutf-i tab -ash ra bi-didand va husn-i tadblr-ash
"
Vide also
(10).
Remark.
f;
should be inserted after an accusative
with an affixed possessive pronoun, vide above and

l
40
(c).
Generic nouns
may
be used definitely, indefinitely, or generically as "the man,
a man, or simple man."
Binakard bi-baradar baradar

call
(juftan
" on her brother (to say oh brother, oh brother)

:
&& J^J
:
)tij>. <V
(m.c.) "she began to J^f here the position of the preposition
&
shows that the compound is regarded as one word bina kard bi-guftan-i baradar baradar (m.c.).
8
also right to say jtfjt J^j*&M&
^^
In
In another edition
!j
ra
is is
inserted a second time after
o*^*^
tadblr-ash.
modern Persian the
additional
necessary.
458
(19)
THE OASES OF NOUNS.

In familiar language the ra
to
insert
it
is
sometimes omitted when

as:
it
would be
correct
[vide
also
]
rafiq in sukhan bishunid (Sa'di)

bar-i
[the
makes the
&&& ^^*> ^\ *b (11) Remark], " the companion heard what was said" noun definite without fj ] nukta pish-i
;
bnzurg.i
I
hamt-guftam
p& Â
Jl^
:
J^^j
ti
^jf
' '
:
^t
(Sa'di)
"well,
was mentioning this point to a certain learned man man na-shunid* " he didn't hear me "
^^
^^ &*
Jy*. harf-i
jJjA^jU &tf
Jk^
"
:
*^
**j
otherwise shayad khayal-i in safar hargiz nami-kardam (m.c.) I might perhaps have never entertained the idea of this tour" in these it would have and been correct, grammatically examples idiomatically, to
vagar na,
insert the
A!~J
\)
.
^^; ^
ra
3
Al~J*i
J*A*> j$
&*2\jS
*j
t^j^t* &'
<y>v>
f;
&{**&j'Q
^*jjt guruh-i
marduman
did ki har yak bi-guraza-i zar dar mi'bar nishasta va rakht basta he saw a band of men, who for a small piece (Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 28, East.) " of gold had taken their places in the ferry boat and loaded up their goods
'
:
(there to AX~J basta, or else s$ ki

(20)
is
an error in the text
either iM
and or
<x^>>
budand must be added
must be omitted).
is
The cognate accusative
rare
in Persian.
The
following
is
an
example: ij ^*A he slept the eternal sleep."

4 *
^^^^{^^
is
u khwabid khwabldan-i abadi ra
(class.)
The cognate accusative

from the Arabic.
(21)
sometimes used when translating
literally
The
fj,
affixed
admit admit
of
as:
of the dative
pronouns when themselves the direct object do not J^j zadam-ash (m.c.) I struck him." Neither do they " I said to him." tarn-ash as
'
fj
ra,
J^^'sS guf
(e)
fx^ c*^^
++^9
illustrate the rules given above 4 ura tuhi-dast didam, I saw him poor. jf *' 6 A >* I don't in the least hichnami-fahmam (if*'*** sukhan-i tu gT:
|;
understand you."
^ybujx>
^^
coll.)
z>y^ ->jlJ ly
turd na*ib-i* khud kardan
mi-khwaJiam
(class.
and Afghan
=
I
bi-kunam (m.c.)
"
ly p*'j*;*> p** wish to make you my agent."
tj**
^^
mi-khwaham
turd na*yib-i khud
Also m.c.
The
ra could, of course, be correctly inserted.
2
3
Commoner
to insert ra.
indefinite).
the indefinite
Here ra must be added (though the accusative is there is no izafat. It would be correct
Note that
after
to write guruh-l az
marduman
without
*
6
ra.
Vide (d) (6). Better tura.
Note that
*
w-Jli (pi. ^>\^
In m.c. the
or A$5l>
ciation
:
in
such words
(pi.
is
" misfortune "
nuvvab used in m.c.) in m.c. is >-*?& riayib (without *). But in w->JU generally omitted in pronunciation.
nava*ib or
is
v^>
oU^G
na**bat) the
is
retained in pronun-
the plural only of this word
used in m.c.
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
459
'
(class.)
a certain wise
[
man entrusted
danishmand-i hazar ruplya 'attar-irasipurd " a 1,000 rupees to a perfume seller.

1
an ravdn kard* (class.) *j* ^fj;oT ^* t)*t b c5^ yak-i ra bi-daryaft-i " he sent some one to the matter." into enquire &$ osi? &JA. b ba khud guft ki sar ra nami tavanam ÂJ \Jj\) ^ly^J ^ y* " " he said to himself I can't make my head larger. 3 buzurg bi-kunam
*
'
la*im ki habba-yi sim ra bi-sad jdn

'azlz
mi-dasht
a hundred
f
1
lives.
"the miser who counted a grain "4
of
silver
as
dear as
t;
i^j) j
c*>^ 5
vi>lkl^
*\y*-
Ai^^" &)<*>
chun kushia shud chiragh talabldam

5
va ru-yi ura didam "

&j>
when he was killed
I sent for light
\s*
ij
^Â
sultan har yak ra juda kard
and saw his face." "the king put each
person in a separate place." x *' c*" *^*/ ^^^^ )* t5^r
sliakhs-l
j t;îu^ i^,i^ padishah <f the dar dast giriftami-namud king saw a certain person standing under the wall who held a fowl in his hand that he was exhibiting to him (the king)." 6
3
&*
^^t
jfj.^
ra
zir-i
divar istada did ki
mur^l
Û^y J;UJ
present."
7
<*ijUj?
8j>
dah gusfand la'aruf
firisiad
" he sent ten sheep as a
xUlCjA5
&i&^jf
" do &j*- ^fOax m? danid chiguna gusfand mi-kushand

:
g xxi *** you know how sheep are killed?" but ^x&f ^^ fj oia^ ml-damd chi-tawr gus/and ra mi-kushand ? " do you know how a 8 sheep is " In m.c. the distinction killed ? between the two previous is not observed, but if the word ^f^\ insan were substituted for gusfand, it would be incorrect to omit the ra, as insan can be definite only, as it means the species man.' "I saw some birds," f*jj> ^/^ ^"** ba'zi murgJia dldam (in.c.), but ^^v ba'zi murgljjia ra dldam kidar mja nlst(m c.) in the o*~oJ Uajjt ^ *r ^X}i \){fj*>
*
} :
^^
latter
example the ra
G
is
necessary because of the

Jix: AfÂtXjs/o Îj ^tî
A$\
I; (jJll
ÂA. OJ^b &i^\^
^^ ^15
^?!
qall-yi khub-i
khwasta
bash/id chiz-i
nishan-i tan ml-diham
ki
An
jltc
'a.^.ar
also sells Persian medicines, sugar, paper, etc.
Dava-farmh m.c.
"seller of
* 8
European medicines."
(l
Vide
(d) (2);
yak-l
a certain one."
Kaa-ior mard-l might be used without a ra.
He
road in a book that whoever had a small head and a large beard was a fool. therefore thought to himself "I can't make the head smaller but I can the beard."
He
Or
habba-l sim (without
or with
6
l>
i.e.
of t; and with " the *>^ cJ^sifver jr^^ grain of lamp generally, not any special lamp.
* ' :
unity),
jl
i.e. *'a(any) grain of silver,** " dearer az sad jan 'aziz-tar
7 8
Vide
(d) (7).
:
Indefinite
the y5-yi tanklr (gusfand-l) could not be used here.
460
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

r
if you want a good misl-ash rd td imruz Jiargiz na-dida bdshid (m.c.) have probably never carpet I will show you something the like of which you
"
yet seen."
nd*ib-i digar bardy-i khud tyttto jy *afjA> <j&' *j&* (s^. j^^ v^ taldsh khwdham kard (class.) "I'll now look out for another agent for
myself."
o**f
2
1
**** ***' j *V cr ^ to&'l; (j'j*^^] ** *?* *^ thi did ki Aydz rd kushdda libds-ikuhnava kaslj pushlda ast " what did he see but that sanduq-i Ayaz had opened a certain box and (taken out and) put on some old coarse
clothes."
*iyf
u*
cA^ J;*k
'
^^ J ^**j&j*
etft
jt** Qadir
va madda'd
alayh rd pish mi-dvarad
"
(in.c.)
Beg* du nafar mudda'i Qadir Beg brings forward two
persons, plaintiff
and defendant."
In tar* dlgar-i rd farwffid (class.) "entrust this
:
oojUy
[;
^j&tjft
dar
dil
do this" l^stjt af^ld Ji;^ " I inwardly ki az injd blrun ravam (m.c.) ddshtam ?)) " b farz kun intended to leave this place 6 f; ^^J ^-U-k ^f 4< that used bd an tapdncha zadl yak-i rd kushtl supposing that you pistol and
work
to another, order another person to
vj# man
^^
^^
tA ^r"i ^- -^ a $ ar in pimr-i za'if td'un bi-girad albatta khwdhad murd (m.c.) "if this fragile boy were to catch plague he would certainly die." 7 <c Â/C &} tj ^*^* A'^-Jf^ ddnistam ki sabu'-lrd dida mi-davad (m.c.) I guessed that he had seen some wild beast and that was the cause of
shot one of us
6
(or
them)
"
**h^
^ ^ ^^
his precipitation
"
^ ^^ J^\ {&
*i^'^,
in m.c.
lA **)tf ** Lr^ J'^ chizhd-i
rd ki dvarda
Khtvasta bashid <^^lj
considered more polite than

jjjs
mlfchwahld, or
^f^^J
bi-kbipahid.
Dida bashid, >J^b

<>Jj5
p as t
*'
Subj.,
**
of
which
suppose you have never seen the like":

like."
t&?& dida Id
you have never seen the
Chiz-i o-V^* **a thing," or tj ^jrj*^ chiz-l ra "a certain thing"; both right. In m.c. the Imperfect or the Perfect is often used for the Present. ** a Or better the other -." riayibi digar: jiayib-i digar ra
*
The Turks pronounce beg,* but the Persian almost like the English word bag.' The ra of the accusative after the demonstrative pronoun ia omitted, because the
'
dative has
it: if bi-dlgar-l
were used the
\)
after
kar should be
inserted; the latter
construction would be used in

6 6
modern
is
Persian.
Here the object of daahtam
either the clause that follows or In ra understood.
Or yak-i az mara kushtl. The \) could not be omitted after the pronoun yak-i. 7 Here /.5'wn At any rate the word plague** is giriftan is a compound verb. in Persian a generic term. If, however, a man fell sick of a fever or of plague in Persia, and it were said "he brought the fever or the plague(meanmg this fever, etc.) with him
* 4
from Bombay,
8
\)
would be correctly used.
is best inserted since if omitted sabu'-i might be taken as the subject, vide (d) (11). In speaking, the ra might be omitted, the context or intonation preventing ambiguity.
\)
The
could be omitted, but
THE CASES OF NOUNS.
461
I
budam aghJ,ab-ash khub bud " good <j a>^ c5^

' f
(m.c.)
(J.
"the things
jd-yi
o^
j toj**! &l**j** tf ow-f
hunar-mandan bi-mirand va bl-hunaran
had brought were mostly Jlaxxj muhdl ast ki " it could ishan
glrand (Sa'df)
:
never be that the skilled should die and the skill- less should take their place * " pty ** (^ tij o^# )t> ij^j vaqt-i dar biydbdn rah gum karda budam (Sa'dl)
"
once I had lost

*Ju*-
my way 8
in the wilderness
"
^^^J^
^ J& $ OÂ;^ jJU

:
^ aU-o <yj> malik dar hay*at~i u nazar kard, shakhs-i did siyah-fam za'if-andam (Sa^l) "the king looked at his figure and countenance; he saw a person 4 black in complexion and poor in physique" ^ er^
f \&>\
3
*^
*>
va suhbat-asJi ra gjiammat shumdrand va |j jîx^^ ^ ra khidmat-ash minnat darand (Sa'dl) " and they think his conversation a
>^ta cîxj
cu^jJi
Û^
treat
and serving him
a favour
to themselves":
<^ty (D\^s
karvan-l ra dar zamin-i
cA^ eHj^j ^ t; ^h)^ Yunan duzddn burdand (Sa'di) "the

"
robbers had carried off a certain caravan in Greece? 5

dUaj*' ^yiviojj
pish-ash firistad
ij) ^^k. ^$jyf JU- js v^l^ malik, dar hal, kamzak-i khub-rm/ 6 (Sa'dl) "the king at once sent him a pretty slave-girl ":
^^
<x*^j
ii
^.^xjj
tj
zamm-i adab busa dad

Â)| ^'jf &
(class.)
Û^xa^
t;
^-^
&.+&*
rci*
AÂ
haqir
^y<>>
cU-.x3
îU ^'^j
har-ki du#hman-i
kuchak
shumarad bi-dan manad

VII, St.
1).
ki atash-i
andak
muhmil guzarad
(Gul.,
Chap.
^
l
^*J^
hikayat-i
shikar
Note that chlzha-l ra
is
the object of the verb in the relative clause- the ra could
be omitted and
*
in this case the
word anha ra would bo understood
after ki.
In modern Persian ja-yi Ishan ra.
Here rah
is
used by Sa'di in a generic sense:
if
previously mentioned, ra would
be inserted.
*
Here there
is
no ra because the
is
for
the indefinite article
and does not
signify
6
"a
certain person.'*
Ij
Here
must be used
as the
'*
signifies
a certain
clearly
."
the object; there
is
Here the
ra.
is
indefinite
and kanizak-i
is
conse-
quently no
7
Biisa
dadan &b\>
<***>?
compound verb governs the accusative and not the
In modern Persian zamln ra would be preferred: <H*^ V^ O'fc >c3 ô>inln-i adab busid, or H^y ^) V^t Oi^j zamm-i adab ra busld are both correct in modern
dative.
Persian writing.
Whether the supplicant actually

it
kissed
the
ground or merely
is,
touched the ground with his hand and then laid doubtful. The expression is now used figuratively.
3
on
his lips or eyes
think,
Here ra
is
necessary in classical and
modern
the two
noun
sdefinite
(Remark
to (d) (3)
).
Persian, because the epithets make '* In " whoever thinks an (his) enemy mean
is
^yîÂOa. fj ^*^^ A^jA har ki dushman ra haqlr shumarad, the ra because enemy is to be considered definite, i.e. "his enemy."
equally necessary
462
THE CASES OF NOUNS.

" the story of a thousand
]
namudan-i shakhs-i humd*-i rd bardy-i ishtihdr-i hazar rupeya about a person shooting a lammergeyer for an advertised reward
"
rupees
ty f;
^. o^js jsdudar miydn yak-Ira

2
every third one
"
(tree)
fj>b
j(> p*>
\)^
c
^^
jd-i
bi-bur (m.c.)
" cut down

bi-u
<J.+
du
3
td-yi dlgar rd
dadam
'amal'i
(m.c.)
"I gave him
the other two as well

dl)
"
:
^;f,>
ham oj-i^ *LÛ
pddishah du
taraf ddrad (Sa

(*+**S-
"the
service of a king
has two
aspects": *>*u+*\) <^*nothing,
chashm-am
:
ra* nami-dld (m.c.)
"I saw
my
eyes gazed at vacancy"

fj
(ja,***
cU>f OAXXL/O
jÂu
c<
f^
JUU o^fj
olli.
^y
rahat-i
ajil
ra bi-tashvlsli-i mihnat-i ajil munagJiast
kardan
5
khilaf-i
ray-i khirad-mandan
(Sa*dl)
to
disturb one's
comfort by anxiety of future wrong, is to act contrary to (the) present the opinion expressed by ths wise": ju~\3 ^kSU ;K ^jf (J ^- v^ vtr^ <c to exchange wine for sharab 9 bi-db awaz kardan kar-i 'aqilan nisi (m.c.)
(
water
is
not the act of
ar
wise person."
*$ *^^ pddishdh kird did ? the answer f; &f ki bud darmsh-l the query, <va ^ ^ IAÛ &^ but to rd; >j <^H<> the reason ki pddishdh u rd did? the answer would be darvish-i (without rd) in the first reply there is is that in both replies there is an ellipsis
Remark.
To the query, *^
might be
.an ellipsis of dld\ in the
second there
is aft ellipsis
of bud.
The Vocative Case.

(g)
The Vocative formed by

in m.c.
prefixing
ay or yd
to the nominative, is the
form used
The Indian
edition of extracts from
the
" Emperor Jahangir has headed

is
the " Tuzuk-i Jahanglrl" or this extract Hikayat-i shikar kardan-i
"Memoirs of humay j&nwar
dar kuhri Pir-Panjal bi-ishtihar-i in'am-i

ra this sentence
hazar
quite unintelligible to Persians.
rupeya ; owing to the omission of In India the word janwar is
specially applied by falconers to birds of prey, just as a muleteer in Persia styles mules " cattle.'* The ra is mal, while this same word in Panjab villages means necessary here direct of the the Infinitive which is specialized by the clause to distinguish object In hikayat-i shikar kardan-i buz-l "story of shooting an Ibex,'* the ra following it.
is
not required as the Ibex

*
is
not specialized.
The ra necessary
after the
(4).
pronoun
yak-i, vide (d) (2): the ra
required according to (d)

*'
Yak-1 bi-dih " give

I gave
me
one, any one
' *
would also be but yak-l ra bi-dih
give
8
me
one of them."
ta-yi dlgar
But du
Here
Vide
ham dadam "

The
him two more."

therefore definite
'
:
*
6
ja~%
ra stands for hloh

to (d)
(3).
if
ja-i ra
and
is
ra preferable."
raliat
Bemark
\)
should not be omitted after

'ajil
as the
adjective specializes the rahat; omitted.

8
the adjective
were omitted the
\)
also could be
Though
;
this is correct, it
vide
would be better to
insert ra after sharab to
mark
the
object clearly
Remark
to (d) (11 ).
THE CASES OB NOUNS.
463
it is
The Vocative formed by

also used in forming
suffixing
is
confined to the singular:
and in modern Persian is restricted to writings 1 (prose or poetry). Ex. o^t Jbg ^ ^k** 1^*^ Sa'diya ast I one other journey "0 Sa'di have safari digar dar pish (Gulistan) before me."
interjections,
:
I)
(& 2 CVj
Sometimes the object addressed " Oh who hast i*e(thou)
is
understood, as: p
."
Bulbuld muzhda-yl bahdr biydr Khabar-i bad bi-bum bdz guzdr a
" Oh bulbul bring the good news
of Spring,
And
leave
ill
tidings to the owl."
Hand
occurs in poetry as the vocative of
man "1,"
but
is
rare
and
possibly not correct.
Ay man-am bar sar-i khdk-i tu ki khdk-am bar sar (Sa*di) Oh I who am standing on your grave, woe is me " *
: '
!
** oh ay ki shakhs-i man-at Uaqlr namud (SaÎ) thou to whom my person seemed mean." Poetically the dative in ^ is occasionally used as a sort of vocative.
-ix ^ja^x* AC,
Thus Hafiz says
Dil mi-ravad
zi
dast-am sahib- dildn
Khudd
rd
!
Dardd
ki rdz-i
panhdn khwdhad shud dshkdrd

control
:
My
heart
is
leaving
for
my
oh ye who know about the
heart-
Alas
help that
!
me
God's sake.
my
secret love should
become public property.

by the
izafdt.
As stated already, the vocative

If the
:
in a cannot be followed
vocative in a be qualified by one following adjective, the adjective Shdhd sitdra-manzilatd UJ)i*> ÛU* takes the alif of the vocative, as
' *
UU
often begin
Modern Persian letters oh king whose dignity is high as the stars with dust-i muhtaramd, instead of the correct classical dustd
!
' '
But darigha "
alas!
is
a
8
Another reading Another reading
" are sfcill found " and " Kbudaya O God! bi-bum-i sham instead of bi-bum baz.
man-am.
a
in rn.c.
is In
is
kunam "oh what

expressions.
6
saying in m.c. ; abhir chi t&ak bar ear-am biIn the example, Wak-am bar sar might also imply " would that the earth covered me instead of you" Persians delight in ambiguous
4
K&ak
bar sar-am
common
"
shall I do!
Ea
is
here equivalent to baray-i.
464
NUMBER OF NOUNS, NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THEIR CONCORD.

latter is
muhtarama, which
tion,
however
also used.
The usual
classical construc-
however,
is
to
add the
alif to the noun,
and to every epithet that follows

:
the noun, G^x> U>Cc tju^ or to the noun only if the epithets precede it, as UUcj^ Jk*x) j fj&', but with two or more adjectives, the a of the vocative
is in
modern Persian sometimes added
to the last only, as

'
dust-i muhtaram-i
mihrbana
^^
Cj^*
*Z"jt>.
The following
are also
common
]>J>c
ÂWO and
lk*
The Ablative Case.

(h)
The
ablative
is
formed by the preposition 31
az.
For
its
various uses
vide
90 Prepositions
(h) (1).
119.
Number
of Nouns,
Nouns of Multitude and their Concord.
(a) As in English, nouns of multitude denoting living things are followed the verb in the singular or plural according to the unity or plurality of by the idea in the speaker's mind, thus L
:
tAx&U* Shdhinshdh-i 'ddil rd ra'iyyat lashkar ast ^Ht*; \) J^^ " " to the ^ ^*+^ (Sa'dl) just monarch the people is an army p* " the crowd extended right td dam-i qasr jam'iyyat bud (Shah's Diary)
o~*>t^J
j^
up to the palace" *}**f &J> y j ,_^:*u âJLk khalq-i* bi-ta'assub bar u gird dmadand (Sa'di) <c a whole people through fellow feeling collected round him " ^-^ +)\* <*+& J> ^ **- *uj1 guyandchi gham gar hama s dlam murdand " <c *>}> v|^ )j*^st" c^* they say what care we if all the world die (Sa'dl)
:
" the ahl-i shahr hanuz khwdb budand (Shah's Diary) people of the city were
still
asleep*"
**!
t^LH^
cJ^^J
bar misdl-i hay van and animals 5 ": A^f v^y 'Arab guyad (Sa'dl)
5
e>^î AJ^L îjlJs ^\ In tdîja-yi khirqa-pushdn ** this sect clad in shreds and patches are like (Sa*dl)
"the Arabs say 6 ": hama-yi
In English
*'
the committee sits daily," but " the committee are at variance."
*
3
Note the
plural verb even after a
noun with the (^
of unity.
is
izafat,
4
5
In modern Persian hama-yi 'alam. In poetry hama hence Indians always omit it after hama.
not followed by the
Here the singular could not be used.

r
Here the singular verb could not be used: the subject is not but the whole plural phrase c>^^ &*;** <XiJLfc ta*ija-yi bhirga-pushan.
used generically:
similarly
in
Aitflfe ta 'ifa
alone
Hayvan e;^^
(m.c.)
*UJ;
lAjb^
|;
para-i
sarbazha
raftand
or
*^; UUj^sjf
colloquially.
8
S;b para-l az sarbazha raftand
some
of the soldiers
went" both
is
the
subject (lA)bj* sarbazha) and the verb should be plural, but para-l sarbaz raft
used
OP *Uj*&
^tfj*
'Arab-ha ml-guyand (modern);
Arab
is
an Arabic
collective
noun.

1 buzurg u kuchak-i shahr ra taldbid a^jlk hj? summoned all the city both great and small." The word mardum " is
465 " he
**&*
^&
&+*
plural, thus: mardum mipeople" mardumdn is also used.* In the m.c. phrase guyand "people say"; **! &j&. *+* mardum hama dar fikr u khaydl-i c&M' Jk* j j& )* (*3r*
(6)
p*s
asayish-i
khud
ast B
people of his
(c)
own
^^^
ty.
;!>
The worde;-*A* dushman " enemy " * is treated as a singular, thus &+** dushman gunkht (not txxlii^? gunkhtand) the enemy fled *> e^*"*^ dushman dah hazdr bud (incorrectly *>^ budand) "the
:
(Vazlr of Lankaran), the speaker is thinking of the small state as one body ; at any rate ast should be and.
' '
' '
enemy were ten thousand." In &JJD/T jji) 07 J? j* jt c)li*^^ dushmandn az har taraf zur avardand " enemies (Sa*di) pressed him (the king) on all sides," the plural noun is used to signify more than one enemy, i.e. a collection of enemies. In djfa ^^âaavo cux/olah. jf^& e>^y j c^l^ (**"** (&)* âr ^ n mawsim " at this season the hava-yi bay& u bustan-i Shtrdz khassiyyat-i makhsus-i darad gardens of Shiraz are particularly delightful," the synonyms &\3*jj j e.b bag& u
bustan clearly indicate the plural it is therefore unnecessary, but not wrong to say IjitiUjj } ib bagh u bustdnha (or basalm) 5 ^~>*
;
^^
*' the mosques and houses of the city." 6 masjid u khanaha-yi skdhr (m.c.) (d) (1) Generic nouns denoting rational beings are preferably used in the plural thus it is better to say <v! J&A^, &\j>\ ^1^3 zanha-yi Iran Ichushgil-and " the women of Persia are s good-looking," thanos*t <J^^^ c^^' ^3 zan-i Irani
;
^ ^^^
Zanha-yi Bangala khush-gil ast *'the woman of Persia is good-looking." " the women of Bengal are mostly dark," but siydh-fam-and properly means " the whole of the women of zan-i Bangala siyah-fam ast Bengal are dark."
However ty ^$^43 J^r* sarbaz-i ziyad-ibud,
x>^j
^s^j LS^&J** sarbazha-yi ziyad-i
Or hama-yi buzurg u kuehakan-i shahr
ra
l)j>%*
e->^^
It
)j*.
*+*
Note the
plural termination added only to second adjective (or noun). adjectives in the singular,
Similarly ôlk' in English though plural has
*
is
better to use both
by modern usage got a plural,

:
folks.'
3
In
classical Persian
mardum
is
sometimes singular
1st
Book
of Gulistan, Sa'di, speaking of the
dog
of the
thus in the 4th story of, the seven sleepers' says, Pa-yi
nikangirift u
mardum shud
/0
** C*J*J
^f
,
^**\
ejf^j!
(^
L^^^
* k
($$
and
(**^*j
(*^/
c^-
\J& ^(j ; $ n shafehs mardum-i Iran ast man mardum-i Kirman-am (m.c. and
vulg.).
4
6
Indians occasionally use f&j* mardum for t>jx5 mard. When the word enemies is intended the plural is of course used.
' '
" the house of the Here the singular fefaana would be incorrect, as city'* would convey a singular idea in Persian just as it does in English. Note that the plural termination is added to the last noun only.
^^
Not
\tfjt\
Iran.
Zan-i Iran
e>|/!t
Oj would have the appearance of meaning
" the wife of Iran."
30
466

1
budand and o*f w^" i^ j y* sarbdz-i Iran khub ast are considered correct in modern Persian. It is correct to say
lj
also used
l*^t
*
and
1 e)}; **^
budand, bisydr zan dnjd bud (or Thus obligatory to use the singular.
e>jj*V uldghhd-yi
^^
not so good).
It
is
not, however,
i(t
^xu ûldgfai
Bahrayn,or <j>
asses
of
Bdhrayn "the ass (breed) of Bahrain Island," or "the Bahrain," are both correct and both have the same meaning,
latter might
though the
(2)
mean
the different breeds of the Island.
Generic
nouns
unqualified
by adjectives are as a rule used in
use the singular, with a singular verb: thus the Persians frequently for 'amal cU* the we use in when plural; they say singular English
the
"
actions,"
is
w^. chub
employed
it
for "sticks,'
'
etc.
The
rule
is
to use the singular
the noun
in a collective sense, but the plural
when when separate num-
bers are indicated.
If,
usual to put
in the plural
however, the noun is qualified by an adjective, it is even when it is used collectively. Modern
l
Persians are, however,
slovenly in their use of the singular and plural.

1
Examples:
^^ c5^j &
;
**
Diary) (or s^^ crossed a lot of rivers"
^*^
c^V^^JJ'
&\b
^) $ az rudkhdna-yi ziydd-i guzashtim (Shah's " we az

rudkhdnahd-yi ziydd-l guzashtim)*
4^*;;
Jl
e>[^t
^s&ty olÂU
Bus
talagrdf-i ziydd-i az Tahrdn dad (Shah's Diary]
^fi-M^ talagraf^-chi-yi " the Russian Telegraph*t

' '
:
Master handed
me
5
a lot of telegrams from Tehran

'*
bald raftim (Shah's Diary)
we went up
tc>
the steps, or
A*** *JU-
we
*b jt az pilla * p&>) K^ ' ' went up the step :
jjj^j
^r^4
^***)&
)j&l
t^bji *A^WJ
^; )Mkindr-i rudkhdna
hama
dih va qasaba va zird'at-i angur va darakht-i gilds va-ghayra bud (Shah's Diary "on the edge 5 of the river were everywhere villages and townlets and
6 vineyards and cherry
ferees,
etc.":
I;
*JU tf &\ &(*>}>
^\yo^
**-c^f cuif
^Vf;
have
&*
) *>\*d&
guftin chi hardmzdda mardumdn and ki sag rd kushdda

**
and
va sang rd basta 1 (Sa^l)

let loose their
" dogs and tied up their stones
he said what a set of blackguards are these, who

:
cuf
luj}
With the words

Or
signifying
"much,"
)^>f^
bisiyar,
^^
^
khayll and
faravan, the substantive

a all
may
be in the singular.
&) csV^^-V
three have
practically
nidMsanaha-yi ziyad (but not rudrkhana-yi ziyad without <^)l the same meaning except that the makes the noun
slightly
3
more emphatic.
Or
{**&
talagrafha, plural.
Here l^w pillaha could be used.
The
singular *Jb pilla might
mean " one

The
plural
step.'*
8
Kiriar-i^tf
*onthe edge of"; S;^
kinara-yi
" on the bank of."

:
\*j& kinarha would not signify the banks of one river " both banks." faraftoyn would have to be used to signify
:
<J>jlo
)t
du
faraf or
(&?jk
Dark sour cooking- cherry ^.^\ alu balu dessert cherry if& gilas. and is understood after &Uj baata. In modern Persian Note that haramzada would follow its noun.
1
NUMBER OF NOUNS, NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THBTR CONCORD.

khayll shutur
467
va
flocks here (the pi.
rama injd ast (m.c.) tl there are many camels and oJf and would be unidiomatic) oî ;bj~^J &~**? l**i>t f **&
:
r
shunida
am
Injd kisa-bur
bisydr
ast
that pick-pockets are
common
6
here
"
:
(or
and)
*i,!*if
(m.c.)
"I have heard

laxif
Û
*y& j*^ fa* Û~o

(or
dnja bisydr
jahdz
ships
"
(m.c.)
many
jam had
shuda
langar
anddkfyta
bud*
collected there
and cast
their anchors
*>^ budand) "

;
(here jU-o
3 bisyar gives the plural idea). If, however, the noun is
qualified
by an adjective
(other
than the
collective
it
is
adjectives or adverbs (bisyar jU~o khayli^^ , or e>fj|y fardvdn), usually in the plural. Thus, if jahdz in the last example were
j^
qualified
tiJ^j
by the adjective buzurg, the sentence would run
^&
)\^ ;U~J lof
AiktjJt
j.J
$.x
^
4
;
langar anddkhta budand is better than *# l?xiT ^j^

bisydr
**
J>ty dnja bisydr jahdzhd-yi buzurg jam* shuda lJf ;U~-> es^j^ jahdzhd-yi bisiydr dnja bud t>y,
;
is
also
correct.
;^ bisydr jahdzhd dnja bud jli-Jjt^ jahdz-i J^ ^lx-o Ûj^ jahdzhd-yi bisydr buzurg " very
ÛjL^
:
large ships"
-^^>j
might be mistaken for jahdzhd-yi bisydr*i buzurg jt>^ the latter, however, is better expressed by many large ships
' '
j^ j^**>
^}j*.
is
<c
Û> bisydr jahdzhd-yi buzurg.

be preferred to
large ships."
^)y
^^^
)\%~*
to
^v
:
J&>
^~>> bisydr
lci$hti-yi
bisydr kashtihd-yi buzurg buzurg (vulg.) for
many
however, necessary to use the singular for the plural, even when ' no ambiguity could arise thus the asses of Bahreyn 6 are fine could be
It is not,
:
'
rendered by either, o~of

ast, or
Bahrayn bisydr khub khub and. ^-^ ;U^j ^û Û uldghjid-yi Bahrayn bisydr In referring, however, to "the asses of Persia" it would be necessary to use the plural as various breeds of asses would be meant and not one cb ^jf ^Û hulu-yi in bdgk khub ast might Similarly vi[ single breed.
vyL
Û-o
^^^J
ijlf
uldcfai
ill
^^
be rendered
* '
the peach of this garden
' '
is
:
and there would be no misconception Persian would it be correct to say ''the

unless of course
(signifying peaches) very fine but neither in English nor in
tree
of
this
garden
is
fine,"
;
there
was only one species
of
tree under
discussion
o~!
;b^.> ib ^)\ ^l^lk;^ darakht hd-yi %n "the trees (generally) of this garden are fine."
(e)
^^
bdg& bisydr khub ast (m.c.)
The
plural
is
also used to give
prominence to a word, or to convey

j>j
the idea of
number
or quantity
j>>
*<;
\Jojc
\j
4tl>'U
qdfila rd dar
The Afghans say
_/*
v^^
it
;*6-6wr,
which, however, in modern Persian means

refer to the
"a
cheat."
4 If
the idea of
8
the plural were used, life to the ships.
would here
shud
men
in the ship or else give
But/oAcfe-f' bisyar varid-i bandar
*& j*&
3>(j
/A-^
j^
(m.c.).
4
6
^j Isuf ^)J*
This island
is
ÎgLf Û**j bisyar kashtl-yi buzurg anja bad (or better budand). famed for a breed of large white asses.
468
*arz-i
NUMBER OF NOUNS,
STOUNS OF MULTITUDE
AND THEIR CONCORD.

1
rah duzd zad (m.o.) "the caravan was attacked on the road, " " but M&) (A^ duzdhd zadand robbers attacked it or the robbers attacked it
f db
t(
"
:
bring water," but j^ l^f ^t in dbhd bi-riz (m.c.) biydr ;U) v "throw away all this water (in different vessels)*": j ^^jl c^; 8 l <J*^ ru-yi daryd az kashtl va qdyiq va kashtihd-yi <& ji ^jJ-> c$J^ cf
V^
bukhdri-yi buzurg pur bud (Shah's
Diary) "the surface of the sea was covered with ships and boats and great steamers. 4 Yak muddat-i bimdri ddsht oAa LS){+# ty*^ (m.c.) "he was ill for an age without a break," but c*i<> ^;Uu^x) muddat-hd blmdrl ddsht (m.c.) "he was ill
for ages
on and
off
"
;
**>**
^F^
ta'ajjubhd ml-kunad
(k).
= &>** ;l^ v^**
tatajjvb-i bisydr ml-kunad.

(f)
Vide also
Nouns denoting
objects which in English do not admit of plurality
and are used only

etc., in
in the singular, as gold, silver, wheat, wine, butter, water,
In gandum
is
Persian require the plural to signify variety, or diversity, thus: " this is wheat " is ast o**f correct, as the wheat ^jf (m.c.)
f&
&f
:
in one place, but

collect this
"
" wheat
\)
(^^S
in the latter
gandumhd rd jam kun (m.c.) example the singular ôJ^ gandum should
%n
6
be used as the wheat is in scattered heaps. Similarly db rd rikht " he spilt some of the water (from one vessel)," but CA 5Wa rd rikht lt he spilled the waters of various kinds or in various vessels "
not
dbhd-yi \n
AJIA.
" various kinds of seeds"; u>l nan "bread," (fi ndnhd âbJ tukhmhd " "loaves vide (k). Sometimes the double plural is used for variety (and " zurufhd (Ar. and Pers. Pis.) different kinds of vessels quantity), as
:
:
du rud-khdna bi-ham jam' mi-shavad +** ^.j "the waters of these two rivers join 5 " " ^\ u rawghan mlo^^jix* sharabhd-yi Frdnsa "the wines of France " 6 "he sells butter (clarified) ": seed," but farushad (m.c.) îJ tukhm
^5x3
(m.c.)
^^
^^
* *
i.e.,
by one or perhaps more robbers: the verb
is
equal to a passive.
With an
and
adjective the plural should be used, as:
In m.c., however, words vulgarly used in the plural when

3
like
^^
56,
LS'JTi** c5^jj> duzdha-yi Sforuzi burdand.
v^
last
sharab
etc.
are incorrectly
definite.
Note the plural termination added to the
noun
only.
qfiyiq
Though the
(d) (2).
first
two words
^t
^^ kaahtl
and JÎJ
are in
the singular
expressing multitude, the last noun
& ^V^ kashtlha
could not be in the singular: vide
end of
5
Pas angah
bi-dusti
karha kunad ki hich dushman na-tawanad kard

;
*/ *** <o*^*i
^^^
(or
i^T (j^
***>
*$ *ti U;(^ (Sa*d!)
here
}H
kar could be used generically instead
of the plural, but
would not be so
forcible: l^({ karha signifies
"such
great or such
numerous works ": in modern Persian *$ oi^x U^|^ ^li^, chunan karha chunan kar) ml-kunad lei
.
ft
c>^
Vulg. If&j) rawg&anha.
NUMBER OF NOUNS, NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THETB CONCORD.

javahirat
469
"various kinds of jewels":

(k).
oU5lu>
ajcfibat
" various
wonders."
(g)
Vide
The Persian idiom requires, except in rare instances, the plural where in English we use the singular, in all such sentences, as "to act
:
like
a wise man," etc., etc.: ^.y^ ^l****^ J ^ v"*^ ki In harakat munasib*i hdl-i khiradmanddn na-kardi (Sa'dl)
1
^j^
"you
(or
bi-tarz-i
u-it
&>
did not,
act in this like a wise

adj.) (m.c.)
man
' '
:
cA^ja
' '
:
"
^d*
before
bi-libas-i
darwshan
darwshi
disguised as a darvish
^*>T
^ ^j
me
&&** ^b
like
mastan
plsh'i
(mod.) " not fit for a Christian English idiom
man dmad
"he came
one drunk."
The
by the
" would
in Persian be rendered
plural.
Compare with
(o).
An adjective might also be used, as bi-libas-i darwshi. The occurs in poetry or in the rhymed prose of Sa'dl, but is contrary singular to usage.
Remark.
(h)
47
(g),
After the word " pair," etc., or the determining words mentioned in and after cardinal numbers,'2 the noun is the singular: In juft*
girifta
murgbra dar yak-maliagi

(Jahangir's
budand
pair of
>*tf
*(j?
was caught when they were 4< a month old": ten camels*": ftf j& t* shulur dah ^ najar yii " dali nafar adam, or ten men." dah mard t* (m.c.) &j*
Memoirs)
this
"
^ **k
cX>
\)
cj* o*i^ Ur
>f
birds
Remark.
is
After
117.
U<
mablagh^
^^
miqddr and ^j*> muvazl, the izafat
used.
Vide
is
verb and substantive, (i) The substantive in a verb, compounded of a used generically in the singular, even though the idea be plural:
(j2)Alx>
^jjj sj^j îifjJ jy f;ji l^fy' farrash'hd urd kul giriftand, burdand pish-i ' 4< the farrashes took him on their shoulders 5 and carried tnadar-ash (m.c.)
'
him
off to his
(/)
mother."
is
The
plural
,>^j
aiU. A+A
*t; of^Jfcf
sometimes used where the dual might be expected: " there were atrdf-i rah hama khdna bud (Shah's Diary)
houses on both sides of the road 6
"; the
plural after
hama
('altogether')
Arabic broken plurals are frequently treated as singular: the Arabic plural of
is ^.^.Li tajir
jlJ tujjar, but vulgarly UÛsJ tujjarha is used But "the men were two thousand " oJj^j ;|^& j*
&&* ^jj! modem colloquial y& ^ dah shutur. The man was lying senseless on the ground.
Occasionally but incorrectly ^Â
as a plural.
^Sj*
tnar ^ lun ^ n
du hazUr
budand.
8
in juft-i murgh..
*
6 6
In
dukan bud ^ there were shops on both but (^jb tarafayn sides of the road"; ol^Jk) af-raf is common is modern colloquial, The plural dukakln-i &M&-* (or dukanha-yi kb&>) ^5^ is used by the educated only. the singular. would be used if qualified by an adjective, vide (d), the verb remaining in"
Properly
^ e>!^
^^
farafayn-i rah
470
NUMBER OF
NOUiNS,
NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THEIR CONCORD.
" there would be wrong. (Atrdf-i rah khdnaha bud l^l> i; oi^fef (m.c.) were different kinds of houses on both sides of the ways '). and snow, land, butter, (k) Collective nouns such as wine, water, etc.,
'
etc.,
are used in
to; thus (^4

bottle, or
Jo^ jvtr*
I
the plural when different collections or heaps are referred shardb rd khunuk bi-kun "cool the wine (one
a-^f/j
f
c5^ r^ shardbhd-yi Fardnsa "the wines " the land of France" &(*j? i^*) zamm-i Kirmdn (or tract) of Kirman," but isfajf 45^^ zammhd-yi\Kirmdn "the tracts or districts of Kirman"r **> }A i&dt )$ dar jangal hizam jam* m%-lcard (m.c.) "he was tj&>*
one wine)," but
:
gathering
*j^* C
4
wood
(collective
and general)
in
the jungle":
^*s**> <J&^>
;>
jam* mi-kard (m.o.) "he was gathering collections of wood (either different kinds or different heaps)"; vide also (r)
:
^ dar jangal hizamhd

khunhd
rikht
o*j)
Ifj^L
"he
shed streams of blood
"
**** lt**^ ta'ajjubha mi-khurand " they eat the flesh of various animals " mi-kunad, vide (e) and (/). In m.c., however, the plural is frequently incorrect**&* ly used for the singular, as: A*I ** <Ûjx> muha-yi sar-am
;
^t>)}****
(**J luhum
safld
'
^^/J^^
(i)
^j* mu-yi sar-am ; vide (/). <( In kitdb this sort of book" (/) qism ^tif p*J î this sort of worm but lÛ^ in qism kitdbha ^t p~$ * kirmhd " these sorts of worms
^y*
'
'
shuda
ast, for
1 1
kirm J>)}*>^$ In jur " these kinds of books ;
jur
"
:
(or insects)
t;eWealso
135
Concord.
(m) After Ûjf aqsdm and similar plurals signifying various kinds, lt *' the singular or plural is used, as: <*s^j^j* j V**> -> ^-^ f ^ J&* -i ki bisydr anvd tutihd va tild*i-i td*us-hd va &j* qarqdvulhd-yi Û-)
^^>
" there were various qashang bud* (Shah's Diary) species of parrots and * here the singular could be used but peacocks and golden pheasants
'
the plural gives the idea of numbers in each species

is
;yW
a tyf anva'-i jdnvar
incorrect).
(n) In English, a noun taken figuratively may be in the singular when the literal meaning requires the plural: such expressions as "their face," '* our life" are common in Scripture. The Persian idiom, however, admits
the singular only, thus:
<6
How
can we escape from their hands?

? (m.c.)
:
J
"
Jt
fH^^l*)
c^~U
&\
\)
otijj
cô
chiguna azdast-i ishan rihcfi biydbim

(m.c.)
o*o to
*J^^ Û.
jan-i *+& &&
'our life (lives) is in your hand": *U Shah gardan-i hama rd zdd " the Shah beheaded them all." In such sentences as "We have changed our mind " j&ti fj tj** t-JU^
dast-i shumd-st
md
^j,if^
khiydl khud rd tag&ylr dadim it is in the Persian idiom, as in the English, better to use the singular, i.e. if only one purpose or opinion is meant ' ' allow us to go home or to depart to our houses would be correctly
:
* '
Note the plural
for dual.
Should be bfidand: elsewhere the Shah correctly uses the plural in a similar sentence. The plural termination is ordinarily added only to the last noun.
9
471
rendered in Persian by &Uj;fAj bi-guzar bi-khana-yi khud bi-ravim> the khud though plural khanaha-yi might be substituted without offence to the ear vide also jib in last example in (v).
;
^^
;
(o)
usually in the singular
Contrary to the English idiom, the predicate to a plural subject ia * ' the thus in the sentence, " These men are devils
,
word
*'
devils"
:
would in Persian be used generically
in
Examples
*>i>Ui
&j*
>U*^
*+& jj^
^ &$
fa bar sufra
all
hama
the singular. dushmandn dust
numayand
oJf <jf^xa*
(Sa'df)
"because at your
&tyk
table,
enemies show like friends
"
:
J&o^vsA^ **A
:
intd'ifa-yi khirqa-pushanbar misal-i hay van
and
(Sa'di)
tAi.
*if
&*>
^^^
(g).
&U*>\ Ishan
dushman-i
^{i~A
ma hama
banda-yi
Khuda hastim
man and 2 (m.c.) x^ <** U (m.c.) "we are all creatures of

:
God."
Compare with
In the following, Sa'dl has one predicate in the plural and one in the
singular
:
Ouftam
*$ ^*& i*v *' <î? &&>) o^c^ îft? jib* fj> ^)\^\^ mazammat-i ishan ravd ma-ddr ki khudavandan-i karam-and
l
**lf>>
'
" hersbanda is used as a collective noun, but they are the slaves of money it would be better to use the plural bandagan, which is the reading of another edition.
' ;
Ouft 'khatagufti ki- banda-yi diram-and* (Gui.) ' (the rich) down for they are the lords of bounty.
,
"I said, 'Do not run them He said ,' You are wrong, for
In the following sentence from the Gulistan, the singular word darvlsh might in ordinary prose be plural Sa'dl has used the singular to preserve
:
the rhyme:
cJ^* jf
f
^^
oJ*> oUipb ^^**

6
o^ o ^> U
l
^;Ui
^tj
Ji*j jSi
^^yj ^)Uj L5 ^^ y jahdn bar dwad bi-i
*
f
^jt*
cA-^j^
^ ar
bi-masal bardn na-barad va yd tufdn
timdd-i muknat-i khwlsh az mihnaUi darvish na-pursand
Vide
(a).
<f two .*j ^>o ^2*3 \j*) du kas dushman-i mulfc u dln-and (Gul.) 1 are enemies to cardina the of Church and State," the subject du ka*, because persons
In &>t
&
number du,
In
is
to be considered a plural
though the plural termination
is
not used.
v*A^&j3
xf
eJÂ>a J &j*+
(Gul.), the first
L&J)*
ot^P
^
is
) <5^ <j^* &?*** &^fi*

darvlsh-sirat , va darvishna
muqarraban-i Hazrati Haqq
a va 'ala jall
tavangaran and
and
with
tav ingar-himmat
*s*j**> {J<*j)t>
e/^y
tawangaran
to be considered a subject
darvlah-slrat
as the predicate,
muqarrdban; the singular

v>Jl
^y
tavangar would be wrong.
and not as the predicate of In eM*^ ^^ **^ *^

(m.c.) the
tjj*> j (3&c()
vuzara-yi
Shah hama k&iradmandan-i ba-'aql u hush and

it
singular
&\\
khiraimand would be wrong, but
lj*>j (JtfU hama khiradmand va ba *aql 8 Ki * 'because,' here gives the sense of * In modern Persian &ufan-i and jahan ra.
5
would be correct to say } u hush and.
JA-OJÂ.
&+&
*^
balki.
In modern Persian the plural would be preferred.
Darvish the singular
is
here
used for the sake of rhyme.
472

na-tarsand (Sa'dl).
va az ghuday ta'alq
Even
if
^
in
bo substituted for
jj*>j, Persians prefer the singular, for euphonic reasons. The plural, however, can be used, as: ma hama dust-im (m.c.), or
ma
hama dustan-lm " we are

the former
is
all
friends
"
both are used
modern Persian, but
correct.
(Shah Nama). however, a plural or collective predicate in English (whether substantive or adjective), be qualified by an epithet, it is frequently plural
If,
Hama bandagan-im u Khushra w- parast Man u Giv u Oudarz u har kas ki hast
1
in Persian also, as:
In khalq hama kharan-i* ba afsus and *+* ($&. " U *l ^r^-i thesefolk are asses, laden with conceit." (0. K. 227 Whin.}. &kj In addressing people, however, as "You blackguards," the plural is
: :
requisite, as
lfi^ ^00 U shumd pidar-sukhta-ha (m.c.) ordinarily, however, the pronoun would be omitted, as e/*"=M c5 a V ahmaqan t( oh ye fools." (p) The plural is used instead of the singular out of respect, as: CU-*JLS!J OA-O jt vjD^J^ jUIab.! ^Jo C5^* U"i P as a $ ar ij*))*f ){**\
:
f
^J
safa-yi
k
vaqt-i 'azizan az
suhbat-i
ag&yar kudurat-i
pazwad
ikhtiyar baqi-st
your valuable time is wasted and you become bored " by strangers, the option still remains with you (to leave the city). 8 In c>^ vJ#j Ûbo Jyliu lvU, jMilAiÛl^ÛîiJî^ layiq-i qadr-i padishahan
(Sa dl)
*'then
if
na-bashad
iitija
bi-khana-yi dihqan-i rakik burdan (Sa'dl)
il
in a king to take refuge in the dwelling of a
common
;
not becoming villager/' the ylural

it is
ÛLtÛ padishahanisuaed
in accordance with (g)
by the use of the plural
the application of the advice is made general and is not directed so pointedly at the particular king present before the speaker ji ^j\k* 3 Jr^ 4< *$ c^j Ûa. oULojo> mas-mul va matlub az dustan chunan ast ki I hope
:
you."
In the following, this respectful plural is carried to excess, the writer assuming that he is not worthy to address his superior direct; consequently he addresses the feet of the servants of the threshold, etc.. etc. ^b uUxj îj bi-khak-i* pa-yi falak-farsa-yi A la ^fcUÛlk u*&S\ e^-oîcf
;
j^Lvj*
Hazrat-i aqdas-i shahinshahl:

pa-yi
^1^*^ ^jlÂ
pa-yi
^li^
:
mulaziman-i astan-i humayunl mi-rasanad 6

bi-khak-i
javahir-asa-yi
mubdrak
'arz
mi-shavad.
" was* the Olv ^warlike

jjQiqr
name
of the son of the hero Qudarz.
a
3
would
also be correct in prose,
but
is
not so good.
vJi)?L)*
king here addresses an
^^
'abid
by the plural
'azizan
city.
he has invited
him
to leave the wilderness

*
and spend a
little
time with him in the
Or tV>;U* ^r^l oô.uJLcl e/^^V c5^*f ?*& c5^ *-^^ ufy* qurban-i
pa-yi jawhar-aaa-yi bandagan-i A'ly Hazrat-i aqdaa-i humayunl,

*
Humayunl
for
Shah
only.
NUMBER OP NOUNS, NOUNS OP MULTITUDE AND THEEE CONCORD.
473
On New
vious
:
Year's
Day and on
is
special
occasions the
telegraphs direct to the

the reply
far
in old
sent
Shah addressing him in such terms direct by the Shah himself.
Zardushti Anjuman as the pre-
Terms
found
more involved and extravagant than the foregoing are In modern Persian, Persian, and are still in use in India.
;
however, these forms are daily approaching the simplicity of Europe in fact few Persian gentlemen are now able to write these long involved expressions :
on
special occasions
when they
are necessary, a
Munshi
is
employed
for
the purpose, and the Secretary to the Royal Recipient paraphrases the text " The usual by, congratulatory address from ."
(q) The plural is sometimes used instead of the singular to avoid a pointed allusion. Thus in the 24th story of the First Book of the Gulistan when the king imprisons the trusted Khwaja, another king in writing secretly
1
to the latter says: *Jj>y
^j <yiJLot>J i^^^)^. cAi*- )*$ o^t e/f ^1* ki muluk-i an taraf qadar-i chunan buzurgvdr-i na-ddnistand va bi-'izzati kardand Some one informs the master of the Khwaja of the matter; (Sa'di). ^ta AJUf^ ^.^y kj?l
it
is
well
known
that the
agent in
In m.c., the plural

*)**
is
often used for the singular, as:
uj^^*
is
"So-and-so
(m.c.) <j*~j^ fulan kas ba-Ingllslia dusti-yi but one Englishman great friends with the English (there being
3
l^l&f ^ makhsus darad
^ &&
in the place)."
(r)
Persian languages," <0r f v5 x Lr*^'j

plural
IfHjj
In a sentence like the following: "He is learning the Arabic and the substantive in Persian would be singular, as: u zdban-i Arabl va Farsi mi-amuzad*; the
'
LsV'c^jy
is
zabdnha
not
admissible, and
there
is
an
ellipsis
of
the
word
the plural zabdnhd were used it cjljj those of dialects would signify the different languages vide (k) and (i). followed by a (s) Cardinal numbers, as already stated, are ordinarily
zabdn before
^^
Farsi :
if
^3
singular noun.
it
However,
after such expressions as
"all three,
:
all
four,
not wrong in modern Persian to use the plural, as y >^j> &-yfc etc.", his har si dukh-tar-i u or y ^yfc har si dukhtarha-yi u "all three of
is
t
Ûy^
daughters."
The
singular
noun
is
preferable.
The meaning of the word *^f^ here is doubtful. In modern Persian, Armenians and Hindus are addressed as *V>^-, and the Jews and Parsees as Mulla.
1
*'
verb in the relative sentence. Ij e)^ fulan rd is the object of the This substitution of the plural is not an uncommon vulgarism in English : *' the young men of this town do take Really,** says Harriot to the overbold Harry>
2
Note that
liberties.**
No
**Give us a copper* is another example. ra. Vide 118 (d) (2) Remark.
474

^'j
UL*^
si tan
bina-yi musahabat-i
ma
kar
bd rukn-i chaharum, ki tu bashi, tamhid ydbad chi akdbir gufta and har chand dustan bishtar bdshand hujum-i bald bar whan kamtar bashad (Anv.
Suh.,
will be
'
Chap.
III.,
S.
6.)
"and
the pedestal of association of

viz. thyself: for the wise
us
three
supported by a fourth
pillar,
have said,
the more numerous friends there
are, the less will
the assaults of calamity (East. Trans.). Arabic broken plurals being in Persian often treated as singulars, such constructions as JrU*f *j>jf^ davdzdah asbat "the twelve tribes (of Israel)"
1
"
they be exposed to
are occasionally
met with, where one would expect the singular

is
(sibt)
the
singular construction
the correct one.

11 to 99 take the accusative
Remark.
As the Arabic numerals from
singular of the thing
numbered, the plural construction referred to cannot be
in imitation of the Arabic.

(v)
it is
i,-*jp
nouns coupled by an 'and,' are subjects of the same verb, usually necessary to add the plural termination to the last only, as
If several
JUlt^jyk
^jf in khar
>2
u asphd
,
mal-i klst (m.c.

^
and
incorrect)
"whose
u asphd : ass and
kist
are these donkeys
and horses ? "

j
(ojj
for ^.A^f
yk whose horses are these ? " would signify " whose is this
;
dxfdU U,_^f
U^
^t
l
In kharha
^t
in khar va in asp ha mal-i kist " whose

0****'
JU ^^\
and
^^
n khar u asp mdl-i
ass (one)
this
horse (one)
si^^f
Û^jkf^
in
mddarva khwahirhd-yi ust
(m.c.), the
jj>
? In, ;3^ ^1 word mddar from the
"
context would be considered singular: ^*j#j) oij
^^
\^)j*"
c5^
)jj* p^
3***
(*&*&\f+*
ijjjj
^^
te>*
\)
j *;i j
MJ*
L5>^ bi-hukntri ghurur-i pa-yi
suturan-i khud, dar vaqt
bi-vaqt,
parva hami-guzashtim (H. B. everything with the greatest unconcern, confident in the sure-footedness of
their
juy u jurda va dara u tappa-ha ra bi-bdk u Trans.) "but my companions rode over
3
horses"
(Haji Baba, Chap. V.
):
^ ^ ^^M j
= ^X&f j
>($
^j\
jl^
jt
ruy-i daryd az jahaz
ty ji ruy-i Note the
u qayiq u kashtihd pur bud daryd az jahaz u qayiq u kashti pur bud.
(Jj^j
following ways of forming the plural of <^*& or )> P as l u bulandi (or pasti u bulandi-)yi dunya " the ups,
)
In Arabic the numbers from 3 to 10 govern a broken plural in the oblique case,
This slovenly construction might also mean "whose ass and whose horses are
?
theee
is
"
In,
cJkf
j^*i
JU
^^(
^
^jf ^
^^
n &&ar va
m asp
mal-i kist
(m.c.), there
no ambiguity.
8
Jfcxlfc
t^
-^j'
j?"
fs
better than
**dk
^)j> A*A hama-yi buzurg u Tcuchak-i shahr ra taldbld vfe^ ) ^) &+* hama-yi buzurg u kfichzkan-i shahr ra
talabld-
NUMBER OF
and downs
NOtTNS,
NOUNS OF MULTITUDE AND THEIE CONCORD.

;
475
world" (1) U>^ Û ^JJbj c*~J past u bulandhd-yi dunya, pasthd u bulandhd yi dunya, (3) tu* c^V**^ j <^*~i pflwS u bulandihd-yi dunya, (4) lâ c^-H^^ ^ c**^ pastlhd u bulandihd-yi dunya, (5) IA^ Îf-oiL j o^j pas M bulandlhd-yi dunya.
of this
(2) UJ^ Û-xiij j Ifl^j
Similarly in modern Persian if a number of plural adjective- nouns are united together by izafats, the plural termination is added to the last only,
as: jj tjJl&J**.
p&
[
^j>JU3
f;
Ulx^
fj
^ ^l^
m
&*$) *&*.
Ai^ ^l ^b
Îfjlftu
U
fcl:
gurisna-chashm-i luqma-ruba-yi p* L^^ j p&f ma bicharagan bay ad sharm u haydha rd tamalluq guyim, fib-i shdn rd pur kunim va khaytt ham " 'tis thus we (Tr. H. B., Chap. 22) pay the wages of the king's servants
a set of rapacious rascals, without shame or conscience

is,
and the worst of
it
we must pay them handsomely." (w) In modern Persian, the plural
of
* *fv^^* shutur-bachcha, or
&
î-i
*?
bachcha-shutur
Ujlft
"a young
camel,"
;
is
is
tukhm-i murgh "an egg" AÛ bachcha-shuturhd similarly often in modern Persian with the plural lfrV p*3 eô p* tukhm-murg&, tukhm-murgiha. The origin of these barbarous plurals is perhaps to be
qualifying such
l^ j** ^\
shutur-bachchahd, or vulgarly
attributed to the difficulty of
words,
when not com-
pounds, by an adjective.
ft/
"Hot eggs"
*
:
cannot be correctly rendered by

J
S?^
is
41
tukhwhd-yi murgh-i garm

clear
in its
wp
l </ t^/ ^^^ bachcha-gurghd-yi
daranda
at least
meaning; in
>Jj^ v-^?
^^t^
bachchafid-
yi gurg-i daranda the epithet would refer to gurg, while J^f 1^^ c?^^ bachchaha-yi daranda-yi gurg might mean "those young ones that are
daranda"
(as
opposed
to
those
that
are
bachcha " brave "].

(rr)
not daranda); [aô
mard-
lang p>*jf singular used in the latter case, it would signify that there was only one Sunday during the period of march (i.e. that the march lasted less than 14 days).
used to halt on Sundays" /tÔo î) aM-i,C| 3^ ruz-i yaki; here the Imperfect gives a plural idea to the singular noun. Substitute the Perfect for the Imperfect, and the noun must be in the plural ruz .i yak-shambahd rd kardim. fÛ AAU^J
"We
shamba rd lang mi-kardtm
Were the
#*+*> (in.c.) "exactly this amount," but "about this amount" îaj JU jlj r (*i^j hamin vaqtha bud ki pdrsdl bi-Tahrdn rasldam (m.c.) "it was about this time last year that I reached Tehran " if oJ>^ ^Â hamin vaqt (sing.)
(y)
Hamin
qadr
hantin qadrhd (m.c.)
were used, the meaning would be

1
exactly, just, at this time.'

is
Note no Mfat
after
ma:
6?
alwrm u haya
one compound adjective

(of
note
fib is
in the singular, vide 119 (n).
Tufchmha-yi garm
^/ ^lîo
" hot seeds" might mean
melons), or "seeds
that have a heating effect."
476
PRONOUNS*
(z)
Sometimes a substantive
is
is
:
of
" enemy of enemies, deadly Amirs"; jfjfiAJt >***, etc. In 4**\ j** are and Arabic the coupled by the Persian izafat. plural singular enemy," " " *U> Shah-i shahan Lords &&l*> c^ of &&& Lord Ex. crt^l^ **>** word first the of king kings," ghan-i khanan. Shahanshah *U*A^
:
an object
the greatest of its kind
repeated in the plural to indicate that " the Amir ^j^H\ j&\ amir* 'l-umara*
of which
is
a contraction of
eMU
Shahan the
plural of shah,
is
an example
of izafat-i vnaqlubi.
For the intensive adjective so formed, vide
45
(c) (3).
CHAPTER
120.
XIV.
Pronouns.
for per(a) The Personal Pronouns are not usually expressed except The first for or for personal contrast, spicuity, emphasis, vide (g) (h) (i).
pronoun
with
is
common
'
in poetry
me
(I)
as long as
'
ain
I.'
^^^ p* &*& "

by a
5
&'j*
"
t/hou art
he
who
is
The
1st Person:
The
ptj^*
1st person singular is used
as single individual in speaking,
&* man mi-guyam (m.c.); /**&*> u^y Many Persian Muslims maintain that
*^? banda
*ar?
mi-kunam
(m.c.).
applicable to the Deity only. The their ears sounds arrogant or egotistical.
If necessary
the 1st personal pronoun man is Persians seldom use mun &*, which to
for
emphasis
to
use
the
1st
person,
they
say
^\,
banda, or occasionally <J&^
o*^M
ikhlas-Jcish, ;***. haqlr, etc.
The Afghans
and Indians use man frequently. Occasionally in m.c., the 1st personal pronoun plural, even, is used to avoid the use of &*> man, but care must be exercised or the pronoun will give the idea of the Royal plural. The Shah, speaking not in a mere individual capacity, but as a
representative of a country, adopts the plural ma, as: .;^&i*> U u^cjê^ l ai chun khidmat-i shuma manzur-i nazar-i humayun-i ma-st
:
amr farmudim.
)
(^$->*
8
44*^
In private he
is
said to speak like a private
individual.
The
1
following
is
a telegram from Mazaffaru -d*Din Shah to the MutavalK

&>Ju
In writing A&y* \j*j
banda 'arz ml-kunad
is
also used.
The AfghSns anl

'
Indians use the 3rd person sing, after fcjjj banda, even in speaking. 2 The Royal plural was not used by the Anglo-Saxon kings: ic Aclfred
*
(I
Alfred).
fiiNt
The Anglo-Saxon
8
writer
makes himself
plural.
William the Conqueror was the
English king to adopt the

years.
Royal plural. Forms and ceremonies at the Shah's court have been much
simplified of late
PKONOUJNS.
477
Bdshl of the shrine of
Imam Razd
:
at Mesh-hed, to
whom
he had sent
apparatus for an electric light
U cuî
^j;
^jA j CA*!
l
Nas%ru'l-Mulk
ast
JWaA ahval-i shumd khub-ast.
llihtrisitd al-dn shab-1
chand sd'at rawshan

l
va
Nasir u har shab rawshan ast yd khayr mardtib rd mufassal an bi- arz bi-rasdmd 1-Mulk I hope you are well. For how many hours nightly does the electric
( '
light burn,
and does
it
burn nightly or not

is
Send detailed particulars."
An
editor in his public character
plural, as:
" Our pen
fails to
describe the action of certain false patriots."
U we have nought to do with those that falsely j;a î>Al^^ ; l^ be claim to patriots." We md sometimes stands for 'all men,' the speaker though single <{ we are all _>.>U ^ îL? &+& U identifying himself with all men, as:
6
'
^SltiJf
mortal and fallible."
In
an assembly, a person
will
suming that he speaks for the rest, considered a sign of overweening pride. The plural is occasionally used for the singular in vulgar language. 'I' or 'he' may include a person's immediate belongings, as:
Âfyiuuo
Ichayli
sometimes make himself plural 2 asbut to use to instead of ^* is generally
ojoA* ^*<*>
ma
s jffjô ô man sar-i rdh-i shuma rd girifta-am, &*j$ \j " zarat mi-lchivdham (m.c.) I'm in your way, please excuse me
p\
(said
My;
either
by a person whose luggage blocks the way)." " defence

of
me.
"My
<j/
oÛ^
himdyat-i man,
may
signify
"the
defence of
me by
another," or
"my
defence of another."
In Persian the ambiguity can be removed by adding a pronoun for the person côU^ himdyat-i man bi-s?iumd, or e>w UA oÛ^. who is defended, as: Ui? shumd bi-man: himyat-i ^^5 f^^ ^* sabab-i sadd zadan-i maw (m.c.)
" the reason may mean else called "me."
^ ^
I called
some one else," or "the reason some one
In English "the defence of
me"
(instead
of
"my
defence")
is
not
ambiguous. (2) Second Person.
The Deity is addressed in the 2nd person singular, as: ^j+tte y bf^ " God! thou knowest which of us two is speaking Khuddyd tu 'dlim-i (m.c.)
the truth."*
More
civil
than
*ji
bi-giiyld, or <**&&
s*
shark dihld.
I*
*
8
*
speaker in the Zardushti
Anjuman
will
sometimes use
ma.
Or (!*' j? t; UA i\) (^y tft-yi rah-i shuma Said by both parties who witness against each other.
ra girifta-am (m.c.).
478
PRONOUNS.
Ta
JRaftft
ta
mam tawba dih

u
'uzr-pazir-i
u uzr pazlr
f
Ay
tauba-dih
hama kas
" Grant
repentance, and accept my plea, thou who dost accept the pleas of all "
!
me
(0.
K. 276 Whin.).
The second person singular

1 to the Shah, as
:
)\j&
^^
may
is used in precations even when addressed " 'umr-at dardz bad " may thy life be long oJUy
;
fjt*
" qurbdn-at shavam
be thy sacrifice."
Darvishes and poets also address the sovereign in the 2nd person
singular.
Parents of the poor classes address their children, even when grown up,
in the
2nd person singular. The better classes, however,

as a rule
often address their children

tu
;
when grownup,
as
U& shuma,* but

:
and
;*J
pidar* but in writing
^^ jy
'aziz
nur-i chashm\ )*j &\** jan-i pidar

etc., etc.
^\ <>1^ eHJU^
an
;^>
p^* ^0' *!
^^
muJcarram *>J^> farzand-i

\*j
)**
Jj^
fan-i pidar tu
niz agar bi-khuftl bihaz
ki dar pustin-i khalq ufti (Sa'dl).
other in the 2nd person singular.* Friends in familiar conversation will often change from the 2nd pers. pi. to the sing., especially when joking <^^ ^ tu-bimiri.
Brothers,
when young, address each

:
lover, in poetry
and
in real
life,
addresses his mistress in the 2nd
person singular.
Servants, and dependants or inferiors, are addressed in the 2nd pers. but if the person addressed be an independent person or a person not sing.
;
a dependant
of the speaker, it is
much
better to use the plural, 6 even though
Persian gentlemen
may
neglect this rule.
People more or
less equal,
address each other
in.
the 2nd pers. pi, as
Persians say, c*~!
c^*J C5JD
c^**^
*U^b
padiahah Ihuda-yi ru>yi zamin
ast,
and o^lAi.
*
jU> saya-yi Khuda-st.
tionate diminutive or abbreviation, as this
Parents of the better classes do not habitually address their children by an affecis apt to bo copied by servants and to become
* '
a permanent name. A mother would call her son Hidayat All Khan in full. For the same reason a gentleman would, when speaking of his young relatives to a servant, ** the children." say J&bawariin or J^&ayan, and seldom bachchaha
3
Persians often address children by the same terms that the children use to those
who
by
are grown up.

*
When grown
up, the usual polite forms are used, brothers addressing each other
their titles
6
and using the polite plural. The Shah is said to address his own ministers as
tu,
but foreign ministers as
WA
shuma.
PRONOUNS.
**.
L*
l
479
A*. ^Jl$
shwna
?
chi mi-guyid ?
o*5U;ix*
Ji^
janabi
'all chi
mi-farmaytd
As
lation
in English, so too in Persian,

is
'
thou,'
is
also used
when
intended: " Thou

1
art a scoundrel"
&^
s
^ î^y
special isotu
khayK
pers,
*'
;
'pidar-sukhta-i*
sing.)
:
thou thief"
fy ^\ ay duzd
(with verb in
2nd
î-H ^.L As already stated the Deity is The use of y though common amongst the vulgar, is by the educated restricted to the expression of contempt, of affection and familiarity (children and trusted servants), or of reverence. Hence its employment in
addresses to the Deity.
(3) The third Person The 3rd person plural is often used for respect instead of the 3rd person singular, especially when referring to a person present, or when speaking of
:
tu khaytt amin-i
" thou (and thou alone) art honest." addressed in the singular. 4
a person in the presence of his relatives or dependants, as Ishan mi-farmayand " he says."
in
^l/cyL*
J&j>\
As in English the 3rd person plural of the verb Persian the pronoun not being emphatic, it
,
is
is
used indefinitely
omitted, as
:
but
<^*>
^x^f
mi-guyand they say, people say." Pronouns should follow the nouns to which they refer without the intervention of another noun. 6 In Persian (as in English) one should avoid
such sentences, as
"
Jj+ioî^ [ 5 ] *&*t* J>j AÂ ^-^ ij^x> aj at>* <4~ Sayyid Javad bi- Mirza Hasan hamlsha pul mi-dihad, [u] khayll mutamavvil " ast Sayyid Jawad always supplies Mirza Hasan with money, he (Sayyid
:
cu^l
Jawad)
is very rich" [in vulgar Persian the pronoun > u would probably be inserted even though it is not properly emphatic]. " He " and ji u when retrospective should refer either to the noun immediately preceding (" Rule
;
of Proximity ")> or to
some noun that
is
markedly more emphatic than

6
all
intervening nouns [" Rule of Emphasis "].
In writing, and in India,
etc. in
speaking, the 3rd pers. plural of the verb
is
used and not the 2nd person plural,

2 The singular is in m.c. always used in abusing a single person. " if thou thou'st says to Sir Andrew with regard to the challenge, * it shall not be amiss.
'
Sir Toby Belch him some thrioe
Not ij^y tu duzd. Even in the 3rd person, the Deity is singular. To use a plural verb after the name of God would by some Muslims be considered v-j shirk or polytheism. In "* the Quran, Allah frequently speaks in the 1st person plural. The Zardushtis addrey Deity, ^!^>J Yazdan, in the singular. Modern Parsees generally use the Muslim woru
2
1** gbudZ,
6
for
God.
This rule applies to the relative. Vide (q) (6). In English it is better to adhere to the rule of proximity, as the rule of emphasis
is
sometimes misleading.
480
PRONOUNS.
Reporting a speech in the 3rd person may cause ambiguity in Persicû, as in English. The remedy in both languages may sometimes be found in
the direct narration.
In the English sentence
it is prospective referring to the following clause "to In Persian the sentence would be inverted, correctly." speak the Infinitive standing as the subject as aaiyiuj* oJj <Û^ ~$s>^> oâ>
"
" It takes a long time to learn to speak
correctly,
the pronoun
learn to
harf zadan-i sahlh khayU vaqt mi-khipahad (m.c.). Similarly in the sentence "He expects to clear a hundred pounds by the transaction, and I am sure
[
he
will
do it," the
it
referring to the clause

:
"to
clear a
hundred pounds"
*& cu*f fo
is
omitted in translation, as
ajjjt
<^flj
^
Jci
<x>U?
u*r/
*** *l*l**> etfjl *j*J
jjjxf
o^yL
o*j p\& umidvar ast
az %n mu'amala sad
lira gir-ash
bi-yayad va
is
yaqin daram ki bi~dast khivahad dvard (m.c.).
Sentences such as "it
cold ",
dark ", are expressed as in English o*t **& shuda) OM! ^>ti tank ast (or shud).*
it is
;
"
a/- t5lo. khayli sard ast (or
Some
meaning
or xjf
'*
as:
English impersonal verbs take in Persian a nominative of cognate baran mi-barad **it rains" barf mi-barad t>)\* <^vJy
^ ^ Û
or
i4
<y <Jy, barf mi-ayad

It is
*'
it
snows/
f**>
'
8
**
I"
it is
me" 4
man-am
(m.c.):
it
was I that did it"

c<
:
f&j*
I;
fe
cjf
& fty &* man budam ki an kar ra kardam (m.c.)
it
isyou that
command here" &>i&* p** (x>^.\ *S ^jJUi shumas-id ki inja hukm mi-kuntd " I who command you am the man" >~&f (&<***> &\*j* &&# man ki (m.c.): farman mi-diham an kas-am, or ^ v>i.^f Û ^ \*j <J^v man ki farmandih-i
shuma-yam an shakhs-am.
I.
Remark
originally
The English possessive pronouns my,

of
his, their, etc.,
though
relative.
genitives
the personal pronouns,
are,
in
modern English,
*
adjectives only,
In,
*
**
am
*5
his
'
and should not therefore stand as antecedents to a " it is doubtful whether bondman, who bought me
;
his
'
or
bondman
is
the antecedent of 'who.'
If the
firsfc,
jj^x \JA
>J^L
\j*>
ptf fJU
eô.
piA
II.
Remark
gulam-ash hastam chun mara kharid. ^ôlU Except by poetical license, a pronoun in Persian should
:
^ man ^ man
^
*)l
render in Persian,
;
ghulam-i an-am ki mara khand
if
the second,
6 not refer to a noun following
Or f}*.
& ^H^*l
^ J>-^ {j*** muddat-l bul darad ta Inglfol
yad bi-giram
(m.c.) "it takes a long time for is omitted in translation.

2
me
to learn
English":
in either case the
pronoun
refer.
it
In such sentences there

*It
is all
is
no noun or
clause to which
fche it
up with
me " juii?
can properly
ft kar-i man
gu&asht.
Also
,j*$4A hlchkas
(m.c.), in reply to the question
^-^
klst or
^H^ klatl
(m.c.).
These vague
replies generally result in the impatient questioner saying,
^T
jfa
S^*^^ akhirkiatl, bi-gu (m.c.). 6 The same rule holds good in Arabic.
PRONOUNS.
In " Twice in his
life
481
man
Once
in her
wedding
dress
thinks his wife looks sweet, once in her winding sheet." ;
the pronoun his refers to

txLCxJ ^<*>js*
tiich
leas
man.
'
ijJ #.* ^>t Aifjj olir
AA.J
till
td vajh-i kifdf na-ddshta
bdshad
'arusi
nami-kunad
(m.c.)
"
he has sufficient means, no one

is
marries "; this construction, though occasionally used in m.c., written Persian.
incorrect in
"
Owing
***&
to his love of wine

' '
and
his habit of going to
bed
late,
-kj**
the
<
Khan
was rarely seen before noon

*
c**>
j&j\
1
dlr khwdbidan,
^ Khan
JA*
e>^ 'c^l^ jte &d* ^*t?V ^ vlr^
-V
>
v^
jt
az sdbab-i mayl-i mufrit bi-sharab va bi-jihat-i 'adatnadir qabl az zuhr dlda ml-shud; in m.c. JUx>
;
is used but it is incorrect, îsî/o az sabab-i mayl-i mufrit-ash might be and as ash might refer to a second person and not the subject of the sentence.
^
o>l*l
c^+>
3V
/*=p-^
otJ^r*
1^)
(jwS;
^ t^^
Khuda
pidar-ash rd biydmurzad
munajjimmz bi-miydn him the Astrologer
then -God bless uftdd (Tr. Haji Baba, Chap. IV.) interfered." When the pronoun precedes its anteun a cedent, the construction is termedy^l cUi ;U*e izmdr qabi -z-zikr.
'
C-
"
The first person is more worthy ( second, and the second than the third:'
(b)
2
J^*f
"more
definite ") than the
idiom
j*Jki
the
cu*^^>
speaker
mentions
himself
&*'$'
first.
thus, contrary to the English 3 j* *X f)\t>
^^
fa
L5^^ )* f^^J^^j^
t^j^
j \^
yad ddram ki dar ayyam-\
plshin
va dust-l chun du magjiz-i bdddm dar pust~i* suhbat ddshtim " I recollect that a friend and I, in former days, etc." (Sa'di) ma n V& c5^^ ^^T^ J e/ pisar-i nd-khudd-yi jahdz ham budlm
jtJj>jj
man
'
(m.c.)
" the captain's son and
^>jt^
I too
were present
" there
:fe
^b U^J^
na man va na shumdbi-m kdr ta'alluq darlm^ (m.c.) "neithei ^;t^ (5i*J 6 you nor I am concerned in this business."
dir
tehwabidan
"
going to bed late"; better dlr bi-l&wab raftan

* 4
former might signify getting up late next day." * It is usually this rule that determines the person of the verb when differen in the plural. persons are its subject ; the verb of course being 5 But when confessing a fault it is in English permissible for the speaker to assum<
as
ê
the
first place.
In modern Persian yak pust. a verb has nominatives of different persons or numbers connected by conjunctions or or nor, it should in English agree with that nearest to it. For
*
6
When
th<
th<
Persian concord, vide Concord of Verb.
31
482
PRONOUNS.
Remark.
i.e.
The Persian tense

1st pers.,
is
pers., English, persons are in reverse order, i.e. 3rd, 2nd,

(c)
2nd
and 3rd
conjugated in the same order as in In Arabic grammars the pers.

1st.
In modern Persian, the 3rd pers. singular of the affixed pronoun
may
an inanimate noun, as: *>> *& v^-> ^W eX^Jf ^Hr* c/f J& ( ot/- I? ) j an mlkh-hd az zamin chahdr vajdb buland bud va sarhd" those yash (or sar-i shdn) tlz (m.c.) pegs stood four spans out of the ground and were pointed"; *&! J^lxLoi; rdstlydt-ash In ki (vulg.) " the truth of it
refer to the plural of
jMv
the antecedent to a demonstrative, possessive, or relative " No one as not pronoun distinctly known, ambiguity results, as yet had exhibited the structure of the human kidneys, Vesalius having only examined & them in dogs " o-îj^ ty 3^J J^^* \) <vUof \&j> ^*0* er^V** Ito9 hif w> Jiich has id bi-hdl tarktb-i gurda-yi insdrii rd ^paiiii (jL tejf
(d) (1) If
is
:
^^
J^
makshuf na-karda bud; halta VaseliyusTiam.dn ra faqatdarsaâtaftishkarda. Read kidneys (ij i*t- J^? gurda-yi sagha ra) for them (lyf an ra) as the
*
'
'
'
sentence stands the seeming antecedent

J)j *+^*jj
is
'human kidneys.'
iÂy
cj^j
*^
fjl* *^y 4 Û^3 j|j^ Uijj^y A** %* bayad rish-i tu khayll safld-tar va az in-ha daraz-iar bashad va chashm-at Jchayll dunyadida-tar ki ma ra rudast 1 bi-zani (Haji Baba) *'your beard must be much
^J ^^
^ (jr^
1
*^-*-^ j
deceive
whiter and longer than it is, and your eyes more wide-awake, before you can me"; here the antecedent of in-ha is the singular risk, which
the speaker, thinking of the hairs of the beard, incorrectly treats as a plural. (2) Though the affixed pronouns may sometimes be the source of
sative
31 (a), (3) ], the position of the accuambiguity as already shown [vide and dative ra will often determine the antecedent, thus
:
magar vaqt-i ki dukhta-ash ra bakhsKidi Zlbd Khanum digar* misl-i an ra nakhwdhad khwdst*? (m.c.) "but Sir, when you have presented the made-up
here the \j garment of it, will not Ziba Khanum want another like it ? ra shows that &&j,> dukhta is the object and <Jtf ^h cannot, therefore, mean "to her": (j^t^teu AXSX^ dukhta bakhshidi-sh would mean "when
;
"
you have given

In,.^y^>
juhah-aah rd
this
f;
sewed thing to her."
(ÂsJ
its
x^
u^d
?
t;
md bi-shinavim?
(m.c.) "shall another
p# mm-tana rd digdr-% bi-pushad wear the jacket and we

her.
only get the abuse on
account
", the ash might mean
Rudast
is
a special throw in wrestling.

vS*-[>, Jâfcu stronger than
Nfrkbqjahad bhyast
as
'*
certainly she will

8
want one."
" Dlgar here has the meaning of again," and does not refer to the cloth but to
time*
PRONOUNS.
483
as
Remark. It is not necessary in Persian to repeat the possessive pronoun, " From his birth to " his death <J$j*j $ ** jj) > az ruz-i tavalludta ruz-i
marg-ash, or
J^j*
jjj^
c4^y J^
when
of
*
31
az ruz-i tavallud-ash ta ruz-i marg-ash.
The former
(e)
is
the better.
the demonstrative pronouns 'this' and 'that*
*
(1)
In English,
in
are
used
the
'
sense
former,' and
'
latter,'
'this'
'
:
and
'these'
correspond with latter,' " The
that
and
'
those
'
with
:
'
former
palaces and lofty domes arose
These, for devotion
and
for pleasures those."

:
Precisely the
same
}
rule holds
good in Persian
(j^f
l
e>*
,>
c/f
*j$
J&U^/
^ji
*&lj
jt
tjjb;^
cX
Sag u darban chu yaftand gharlb In giriban-ash glrad an daman (S"a'di).

i(
Dogs and porters when they see a stranger at the door, The latter seize him by the scruff of the neck and the former by
his coat-tails."
"
b&j* &$
e/f jl
cf^^y^t
tf
ta ikhtiyar
kardl az an
fariq ra (Sa'di)
that you chose the latter class in preference to the former." " in the " " Compare the use of Inja here" and anja there following:-
Ixujf j
(ÂJ naqd-i na-dihi biz&at-lna-sitani va Inja ta iradat-l nayari sa'adat-% na-bari (Sa'di) "just so the house of worship is like the shop of cloth- sellers,
Û^
^Jî (^*^ c^*^ c5*^ ^ ^T U (y^fj! hamchunm majlis-i C5;
*^^t
o'31)
1
va'z
{j^^ô ÂJop^ bazzdzdnast kulba-yi anja ta

<>
^ ^J
you pay cash you get no goods, and in the former you bring sincerity you get no lasting reward"; here anja and (inja) inja are reversed, not by a slip in writing, but because anja refers to an object more remote to the speaker's mind, viz. the shop. u "he" is used for an "the former " in (2) The personal pronoun jf
for in the latter (anja)
till till
the following examples
OAAI*JJ*
ÛA?
Shakhs-i
hama
shab bar sar-i bimdr
girist
Chun ruz shud u bi-murd u bimar bi-zlst (Sa'dl). " One wept all night beside a sick person When day dawned the weeper (the former) died and
one recovered and lived."
the sick
Here y u is used in contradistinction to jU# bimar, as %n. require tc be answered by

1
e/f
an would
CM
poetical for chun.

2
1
Must be pronounced
giriban-sh, to scan.
*
*
tej O^ ^ *
of any religion. majlis-i ua'g can refer to the place of worship
In prose ijt+& 6tm5r-f.
484
(3)
PRONOUNS.
This and that as demonstrative pronouns
' :
(a) (3), the pronoun this may refer to a preceding or a succeedor clause, as: "I tried to lift him, but this was impossible" ing noun *^ *k* e*>f c/*^ l> y f*~f>^ khwdstam ki urd bar pa ddram valikin
Like
'
it
(>!>
inna-shud
**S
^.
(m.c.)
*
is
1
"this
is
my
jj afjf
CA*| khdhish-i
man
ambition, to live independent "<jJt in ast ki dzdd zist kunam (m.c.).
t^cr*^
as,
(4)
Such
''such people"
a demonstrative adjective but omit the noun and

;
when
it
qualifying a noun,
becomes
;
demonstrative
will trade."
pronoun, as
should
" with such people

such
it
I will not trade

is
with such I
"
:
When, however,
follow
lovely dress
the speaker's sentiment
intense, the specification that

it
(and
so)
is
often
omitted, as
was such a
of unity
'
"
(that
beggars description ).*
In Persian, the
and
as
a certain intonation
sometimes correspond to this use of

:
such
'
demonstrative adjective, as p' **}}** 1*5*7* vf ^ ma b-i sard-i khurda im " we've drunk such a cold water (that I can't describe it, or I hate (m.c.)
to think of it)."
(/)
Classically,
and
in m.c., dnki
sative
is
A^ff dn
rd ki: but in
he who," and its dative and accumodern Persian u ki and urd are also used:
is
{t
An ki khwdb-ash bihtar az blddrt-yast An chundn bad-zindagdm murda bih (Sa'dl). " He whose sleeping is better than his awakening
.
were better dead." 3 U Aa. ix^laxx: ji cu^f c^b v UA. &f va an rd * ki hisdb pdk ast az ty f j muhdsabachi bdk ast (Sa'dl) "what fear has he of the accountant whose
Such an
ill- liver
6 accounts are clear and straight ? Even in modern Persian a&f dn ki and **VT dn rd ki are to be preferred
"
to *^l
ki or *$
!j
y urd
ki.
they,
In English also, these and those have greater emphasis than the pronoun " and are better substituted for it before the relative "who."
&(**/* tshdn ki tars-i shdn bd'is na-ddrad chird bdyad
should they practise arts of cunning

o,i\6
who have nothing to
fear
"
Why
tf eA.-!(
;Ky^ Jij
**\j \j*>
tj&
^**lj
bi-tazvir kdr
bi-kunand (m.c.): for 'they' read 'those,' and for &lty ishan
ki.
read *&5l^f dnhd-i
In fawr mardum fty (Jj* **> I*

ftf
))^*>1 9 or
chunln mardum
Note the order in Persian Here though
W ^^ Û
.
; J>&f
an qadr liba+i j&ub-i bud ki
chi <arz
kunam ?
&
\)j\
ura ki could be substituted for aS'fyf an ra
ki, it
would not be
considered good (shlrm) Persian.

6 The complicated Persian system of revenue account keeping <Vf,#<> *yS?-* dlvanl can only be understood by a </>** mwtaw/i, and he can twist the account to make it show either a debt or a credit.
O^
PBONOUNS.
(g)
485
is
a pronoun referring to a subject already mentioned, or to something present, the pronoun unless it is emphatic is omitted, the verbal termination sufficiently indicating the
the subject of a short clause or sentence
When
person: oi?
bi-man guft " he said to
me": oi?
jf
u bi-man guft
"he
said to
me."
^^\
is
But
in a sentence like
*I^>i jt
written," the insertion of u
" what he has Aûf anchi u navishta ast necessary, unless the subject has just been
mentioned, for otherwise o*t &&j> Aûf anchi navishta ast might signify " and not " he has written." " what is written
Remark.
following
:
Note the construction and

tj
signification of *fuf anchi in the

^*oli/o
oiklj
^Cj o*jj
o+& v l^t
ejX-
jvx>^^3
j(
^$&j*ji &sof
Lot
e^y^kU.
man'
1
<xi~A
<^x*f
& Jb
munasib-i
sirat-i
j &*$>hjf arbab-i himmat
^j^^ amma
nist
anchi farmudl az zajr u yak-i ra bi-lutf ummldvar
'* but as for what gardamdan va baz bi-na-ummidi khasta-khatir kardan (Gul.) did as is not the part him it and him regards snubbing you away, turning of a magnanimous nature to first encourage and then disappoint a person."
(h)
similar rule
question:
"Where
is
danam, na-didam (or him." To say f*^?*>

emphatic.
may hold good with regard to the object. Thus to the namiSo-and-so?" the answer might be p>\**+> " I don't know, I haven't seen j^/o^j^j na-didam-ash) ash J^*>&)&> ura na-dldam of na-didam instead j\ \)
^^
would be wrong, as the separate pronouns (unlike the affixed pronouns) are
Remark.
Where a pronoun
it is
express the meaning, see the beautiful variety of colour in the rainbow and are led to consider the cause of J^^xj AUXJ ^* tf \j ^>jf u> c$^b oî^t it"^^'f ma ikhtilaf-i rangha-yi qaws-i quzah ra lei mi-bimm bi-khiyal
or a pronominal adjective does not clearly Thus better even in Persian to repeat the noun.
"We
ki
ba is-ash
chist.
Better
say
"
the cause of that variety"
*U65'i-< an
(i)
ikhtilaf chist.
If,
however, the pronominal

<j^LL
jt
subject
is
emphatic,
it
must be
are the
inserted, as:
j ^jJ^lLX
U ma
makhluqim va u khdliq
"we
created and
He
the creator,"
chashm-i khud-am dtdam (m.c.)

(j)
man Tchud-am bifiXja ftj** p*"^t f&i^ (&* "1 myself with my very own eyes saw it."
*
J>
Mahmud
lost."
kitab-ash
gum shud
(jb\X
^*
(m.c.)
" Mahmud's
of
book was
For
this construction, vide (a) (3).
(k) For the position of the 130. clauses, vide (q) (6) and
(I)
relative
and the construction
relative
while
'
In English *each other* is correctly applied to only two objects, one another' is applied to more than two, but no such distinction is
;
observed in Persian
4
^^ yak
dtgar
and
jt>>*
p*
ham
digar signify either
each other* or
'
one another.'
486
PRONOUNS.
In English
'
each
'
is
used and not
'
every
when
the individuals referred
are only two or at the most few. 'Every' on the other hand singles out persons or things when the number is more than two. In Persian har
bo
is
used for either

'
each
'
or
'
every.'
is
though properly singular, may qualify a plural noun that a is as bi-har dah nafar-i "to every ten men"; unity: regarded " " har dar bist c^xct^;l^ Â kâ qadam-t at every twenty paces har chahar sa'at-% yak martaba " once every four hours."
'
Every
har,
^^ ^
Remark.
s$j>
^ "none
***>
,
Harkasna may often be substituted for hichkas

returns"
U>o>
na
f.
is
correct; you could not here substitute
But in
^j
zsjt u+sj) t)j>
which
is
^31 ( ij~ or Indian Persian only.

7
^
l
#& ^ ^
j*>.
j* you could not substitute
more than two

verb, or >>
relate to two things only: for be and should 'none used. any In Persian there is no such distinction ^ j& har du with a negative
(m) In English 'either

'
and
*
'
neither
'
'
j*>
(^yjf
apply to two only.

(n)
#>& hich az in har du with a negative verb, can of course For examples, vide 39 (/) (2).
self, used alone, is properly a noun, both in English and " the love of self is predominant" Persian, as:
^s**l
The word
khwishtan-dusti dar insan mustawlV si (or
hubb-i nafs bar insan musallat ast, or
^f^^ o-o^>^ ^4^3

all
i;
^
f
^^f
adam
&+?.
khud ra az hama
(o)
chlz dust mi-darad).
Hama
*+A
"all"
"He
gave them
a turn an
(m.c.)
"
<-
cA^t
j
J
$*
did
e;^y u bi-hama-yi ishan yak tumdn dad that he gave them all collectively a &\*j* but
;
^^y
bi-har yak* az tshan
yak tumdn dad
(m.c.)
" he gave each of them a
properly
eAA-Jt 3
signifies
jt*
tuman."
(p}
in Persian, as:
va tu
j* liar du, is often pleonastic in English as well as wan ) er "you and I both agree" *^t y f^^ ^ J A 8 har du muttafiq-lm bar 'Amr ki and (both) met," Zayd "Zayd
"Both,"
u Amr
(har du)
:
ham
dlgar ra mulaqat kardand
fj
<Jix> ( two hats are (both) alike " oil j* *>^ j*> In du kuldh (har du) misl-i* ham-and (m.c.). In "they (both) met
^Xj^x*^
oL?ilx>
these
^^ ^
^3 ^ ^
j+z j
None* stands for

cJ/i
13
'
not one* and should, therefore, be followed by the verb in the

1
singular.
)(f* <jf 3
*?*** hloh yak

jl
na-ra/tand; also *>xi^

*
c)^'
(az
an chahar
ta)
na-raft,
but in m.c.
* 2/ afc
az **han raftand (vulg. for raft).
Or tjfyj* har yak-l. 3 Even if the meaning be "you and I both agree with a third person," the pronoun both* is not wanted either in English or Persian. * But in *S[ UaH* ^f in kulah-ha har du misl-i ham-and (m.o.> f* l& )* j*> the wo rds har du "both M are necessary to show that there are only two.
'
PRONOUNS,
4>
487
(j*j*) lahan (har du) bi-ham rasidand, the pronouns 'both* and
har du are unnecessary. (q) Relative Pronouns

:
(1)
Which
'
in English sometimes has for its antecedent, not a noun,
but a clause, as
ki, as
"he
lost his pass-port
which cost him a
lot of trouble."
In Persian this sentence can be rendered almost literally by the connective

* ji ^j* CA^J v lH ^L. * \f& y & tazkara-yi khud ra fi } u asbab-l zahmat shud ki kard gum khayli bardy-i In, however, the (m.c.). was said be "The man to sentence innocent, which he was not," the word which cannot be rendered by ki *j*> **)** j* * -^l J *> guftand
:
\
'
^^
*&
la
u bl-gunah
(2)
ast* dar surat-1
lei
na-bud (m.c.).
In English, 'that' is frequently preferred to 'who,' as: "I that thee unto y b <*&*> man ki ba lu harf ml zanam speak ÛA p>y** * hamdn-am Also that in English is preferred after a superlative, as " the prettiest woman that I ever saw "; in Persian this relative must be
' '
J^
'
(3 paraphrased as f IP^ ^(^^ ^jb <yj JILJ ^xs man id bi-hdl zan-i bi-in cuî or &) ^>\ ^JJAJJ **Sl^& khush-giti na-dida-am (m.c.), JL^^ khush in zan ast (m.c.) or *jt& Jto &f c>^| &j gil-tarin-i zanhd-1 ki dida-am
: f
^j
^^^
zan-i khush-gil-i ast ki misl na-ddrad.
all
That is more restrictive than who.' " the Hindus who came to the Consulate
' '
'
"
(3)
Yesterday I interviewed
JLJy>
AJ
<*il>
î*
<L*&
^.jj^^
ftjf
s^&
ly^f
A^T
dlruz ki hama-yi
Hunud
ishdn rd muldqdt kardam (m.c.), signifies that all " interviewed. But yesterday I interviewed all the Hindus that
bi-qunsul-khdna dmadand the Hindus came and were
Consulate"
behind.
signifies that all

ft>j?
who came were
interviewed,
came to the but some stayed

dlruz hama-yi
In
olSlto
jjj^f &>U. J~.
&
A^J^XA <L*
>
jj^
Hunud'l ki*
bi
only some of were interviewed.
qunsulrkhdna dmadand muldqdt kardam it is not clear whether the Hindus came and were interviewed, or whether all came and
From
**
these remarks
'
it
will
be seen that ki in Persian

*
should primarily be rendered by

in f*i->;
that' in preference to
who.'
ay
e;^
^ f^
'
:
&U~Jt **-
tSa'ld^s-âUana ki hdkim-i
s-Sultana,
'
Kirmdn
of
khidmat-i jandb-i bud rasldam (m.c.) " I went to the Sa'ld 1' 1
wU^
cux>*^
However,
man
who was Governor

that
it is
Kerman,"
it is
'
obvious that ki cannot be
rendered by
1
therefore
of
'
who.
If
^j bud were used instead

tazkara.
;
x& shud, the &f
ki
would most probably be taken
to refer to
4
8
+t>
fy$& Not ty bud
but indirect narration
VSAA| fc^j
buda
ast.
(JLsi^.3
!u
This sentence can be rendered clearly by
o^/of
&lrx
tS
or
e*UH^ dlruz har Hindu-l ra ki bi-qumal Mtana
amad mulaqat kardam,

an Hunud-ra
<+*
dlruz hama-yi
:
ki bi-qunsal-
amadand mulaqat kardam (m.c.) (^ ra could be omitted in both the previous must be added to the second example in (3). examples, but the relative
Or
î<k <UA hama-yi
Hunud
ra.
488
PRONOUNS.
" There were very few passengers who escaped without serious injury. Times 8th Jan., 1868. [This might be resolved into and all escaped,' etc.
'
That would exactly reverse the meaning almost all the passengers were " Hodgson. In *j* lîU &c**o oJ^j &ijb~* ( kam seriously injured.'] musafirin budand ki sadma-l bi-anha na-rasld, the ambiguity is preserved
:
in Persian
*>ty
***t>*
is
)l
-
&>*x*> tf
little
na-rasld
to
kam budand
ai><* \*}
also
îy'lô musafirln-l ki sadma bi-anha ambiguous, but would primarily be taken

jf
mean
A*/o
^ ^ ^^ t>^-~*
^c^clU;
e.'.O
5
az musafirin khayll
<s+* kam-l az
kam
bl-sadma
riha shudand, or <M&;

bi
^^ jf
musafinn bi-salamal
dar rajtand.
'
(4)
What
'
and' that which.'

fi
5
is
The host provides what fare he pleases/ 'what' a demonstrative both adjective and a relative pronoun, and must be
In the sentence,
fiar
rendered in Persian by
'
with the relative
ki,
as
mlzbdn
liar
khurak-l ki
mi-khwahad hazir ml-kunad ****

'
^^ <xb^^*
&$
^^^^> dfaj**.
'
'
The relative what with its compounds (< whatsoever,' etc.), both The interrogative what in English and in Persian, refers only to things. though also neuter may be applied to persons, but when so applied refers to " " What are the character or quality of the person or persons, as you ? o>îwfc &*. U shuma chi hasttd (m.c.) ( = what sort of person are you ? shuma chi-kara Jiastid (m.c.) " what is your profession ? " but <Hi~A *fe *^ <c what have you to do with this ? " or
(5)
:
^
is
Whatever
j**>
'
sometimes merely emphatic, as
" no condition whatever
' '
-.;!*x
t>*>^>
u*> &+)
#W
bi-hich vajh
1
mm
al-vujuh khabar na-daram,or
+j
JVJ^L &e* asla khabar na-ddrain.

(6)
Relatives, whether in English or whether in Persian, should be so

2
The following sentence is, therefore, "He is unworthy of the confiequally objection cable in both languages: dence of a fellow-mortal that disregards the laws of his Maker," ;Uk &$j\ ^ >^~-V u layiq-i i'tibar-i insan nist ki hukm-i L*** ^' b cA^^ f^
placed as to prevent any ambiguity.'
&^
*j
** He that disregards the Khaliq-ash ra bi-ja nami-avarad (m.c.). Corrected: " <*&f laws of his Maker, is unworthy of the confidence of a fellow- mortal
o^cJ^
)ty*
<3î *)1 cs**
^^
($)^ an ki hukm-i Khaliq ra bi-ja nami-
arad layiq-i
i tibar-i
8
insan
ritst
(m.c.).
should follow the nouns to which they refer, without the intervention of another noun. Avoid such sentences as Muhammad pisar-i " *AK ra son of Ghulam kiln kitab the bi-man dad Qliulam Muhammad, 'All who gave me this book /' unless (jjiulam *All be the antecedent
:
Pronouns
of
'
who.'
Asia
>U
'
m.c. for ilo

(3),
asl an
Vide also (a)
Remark
II.
Not
it,'
vide
(a) (3j.
PRONOUNS.
In,
481
" David the father of Solomon, who slew Goliath/' and " David,
th<
father of
Solomon who
built the
English indicates the meaning.
commas ii temple ", In Persian this distinction cannot be made

l
the position of the
In
e^Jlx *r c;U^- j*j t*j\s the ** may refer either to Even in English the writer should not be at the to Sulaymdn.
cJte"
t^
Da*ud
mercy
o
c
commas. For further examples
of error of Concord, resulting

.136 (c) (2).
is
from confusion as
the logical subject,* vide (7) In English, the relative
sometimes in familiar language omittec i In, "he is a man I greatly respect/' the relative 'whom' is omitted in Persian: c*W omitted be cannot ki but the connective English, -;f*x jkxÎaaô tf u sJiakhs^ -st ki muhtaratn-ash mi-daram (m.c.). not infrequent error consists i (8) Hodgson says, "an awkward and
^&
as abrupt transition from a relative clause to one of direct affirmation, have read of a man who was very rich, but he was very miserly."
'
Persian
also,
this
error
occurs:
^cL y
Uf
Jj+i*
^ JUiu mard-i ra shumdam

(in.c.
ki khayli
mutamavvil
amma u
^^
*$ (*&*' l?t*j khayli bakhll bu
or vulg.).
the principal subject is sometimes erroneousl treated as the object of the verb in the relative clause, as vJSOV ** -* ^ IS 42 (e), duzd bud, vide ;jj J^NJ mard'i ra ki imruz chub zadand
In
modern Persian,
'
and
119
(g)
footnote.
of errors in the use of the relative
:-
The following are further instances
"All these princes are Emperor and ever as tribute, furs and gok second year repair to Pekin, whither they carry " &* \^*\ ciust which their subjects collect from the sands of their rivers
tributary to the Chinese
Itama-yi In
umura mufa-i Khdqan-i s Chm-and, va liar yak sal dar miyd bi-Plkin mi-mvand, ra bar ay -i kharaj bi~hamrah-i khud khaz va rizaha-yi tila mi-barand ki ra'aya-yi islian az rlgha-yi rud-khana-lia-yi khu&4 shan jan
as well as 'gold dust' is tl inl-kunand (m.c.). In this sentence 'furs in the Persian furs cann< and both in the English antecedent of which whither the be gathered from the sands of rivers. Correct as follows *L>* ^* J carry as tribute furs, and the gold-dust that'
'
c
'
'
-Âjlib
IA
k bi-hamrah-i khud khuz mi-bar and ba riza-ha-yi
tila-1
^ ki.
- Solomon, the son of David who slew Goliath/'
- Solomon, the son of Davi
who
built tho temple."

i
For confusion
of logical subject, vide
is ^ Classically tho Emperor of China means " a bowl of tho best china." 4 The singular jjj rba could bo used
" Error* in Rhetoric." but in m.c. kaea-yi fa&f styled Faghfur,

collectively
the plural, however, gives
idea of different collections.
490
ADJECTIVES.
Luckily the monks had recently given away a couple of dogs, which " were returned to them, or the breed would have been lost
"
OJÂX Û* bi-husn-i
ittifdq
ruhban
chand-i qabl yak juft
sagbi-kas-i bakhshlda
mi-raft.
budand
ki bi-lshan pets
ddda shud varna In nasl az miyan

is
Here
Corthe principal assertion rected Luckily a couple of dogs which the monks had recently given were returned to them, etc.' bi-husn-i ittifdq yak juft sag ki ruhban away,
incorrectly placed in
the relative clause.
'
bi-kas-i
bakhshlda budand pas ddda shud
."
CHAPTER
121.
(a)
XV.
Adjectives.
Diminution of quality cannot as in English be expressed by preand least to the adjective. Resort must be made to paraphrase, u kamtar az u dawlat ddrad (m.c.) " he is less rich " as ^;f^ oJj^jf jty {$ y " ov~>f ot^^ j*+ îcl?ui shuja'at-ash kamtar az digardn ast (m.c.) he is less brave than the others. " few " or " little (6) In English the indefinite article before changes the meaning from negative to positive, as: *' there were few persons
fixing less
:
:
\\
5 '
'
" <4 he needs little " there were a few aid," and present," persons present " he needs a little aid." The distinction in Persian can be preserved by
:
translating the tw*o
tûT anja kam-i bu-dand\ sentences by x>j^j ^ chand the second two by *-+* and anja nafar budand; kumak dddan bi-u kamtar Idzim ast, and ^+? g+'
first
iXAt^Rjtx)
yak kam4 kumak mi-khipahad The negative use of kam and kamtar
.
is
also illustrated
examples: *xv~^ khursand (Omar-i Khayyam)

(Whinfield Trans.):
<^~*)
^b
&f
^^
*'
^^fc
by the following
kam kun
tama'-i jahdn ki bdshi
^^4
p'
crave not of worldly sweets to take your fill," &^j&!)* &> *> vtf an bih ki dar in zamdna
friends
kam 3 gin
(0.
dust
"choose not your
from
this
rude
multitude,"
K. Rub. 77 Whin.).
m.c. phrases jj* *t; 31 fj&frjb&j u bi-kam-tar chiz-l az rah * " goes wrong for the least thing ij ; ^t In kar ra " kamtar bi-kun (m.c.) don't act like this," and && kamtar fazufc bi;
Compare the mi-ravad " he
^ jM
*
^Jy^^
raltib.
2
*
In m.c. often incorrectly used as a singular: In m.c. o&=> ju/i is often slovenly used
'
pi. of u-Mfc
like
the Kri^Jish
word
'
couple
for
two
8
mean "
*
properly signifies a pair, male and female. Kam here means 4 not" as may be seen from the whole context,
;
it
'
it
does not
less."
Note the use
of the
means
^ ^ fy jl^df
gf-fctf
comparative for the superlative and vide (). & U-hlcli chlz az rah naml-ravad, )\
Vulg. this also
ADJECTIVES.
491
kun " talk less rot, don't talk rot," (more cutting than the direct ^* df** fazuti ma-kun "don't meddle, etc."): cuk */ *-*&> *i\*\*. chanddn ki talab kard kamtar yaft (class.) "the more he searched the less he found.'*
^
71
Andak
also gives the idea of negation, vide
(/).
with their (c) In English, adjectives implying unity or plurality agree * " " nouns in number, as that sort of person/' those sorts of persons."
:
In Persian, these expressions are correctly rendered by

jur
adam and l^T ;^ î
In jur adamha, or better ^*jyo
j^ ^
:
)&>
in jur-
mardum.
(d)
v=***
!
JW
In comparisons, the noun in Persian should be repeated, as &* y-t " J* V**' y asp-i man az asp-i tu bihtar ast my horse is better than
Colloquially it is sometimes omitted if no ambiguity arise from the omission, as: o**( y&xJ U jf ^* j+& umr-i man az shuma bishtar ast (m.c.) "I am older than you." Jf the word asp w^*t were omitted in the first
yours."
example the comparison might
lie
between " horse" and " thou."
In the m.c. phrase c*i ^3^ &$ baz-i an ast, the word baz is merely a corruption of y *>> bih az. Baz-i an ast is, however, used in speaking by even educated people.
When the comparative degree is employed, the latter term of comparison should never include the former. Thus it is correct to say: " eu*u3 " Iron is more useful than all the other metals ^Lo^j.^ etjji* 9+*>y Âf
ahan az hama-yi filizzat-i diyar mufid-tar ast. But it is incorrect, though not an uncommon mistake in English and in Persian, to say" than all the metals " e^*! y *xJix> o|>l> i*A Jf âf ahan az hama-yi filizzat mufid-tar ast
" " improper to say Solomon was wiser than any king y> 3 e;U^ ^yUfj> ^l^k Sulayman azharpadishah-i ddna-tar bud. because Solomon was a king and he could not be wiser than himself. The correct form is "3 " Solomon was wiser than any other king y Û^.^ eA^ô ^ *A 3^ c>m**
It
is
1
(m.c.).
Sulayman (e) The opposite
az hama-yi padishahan-i-digar
is the case with superlatives. When the superlative degree is employed the latter term of comparison should not exclude the "The former. Thus it is incorrect both in English and Persian to say:
elephant
is
the largest of
all
other* animals" o**t^t^ oty^xA.
u,a>
^yf>^
Modern
'*
oy^
(m.c.).
bjf ^-ALyJUj )*3 yfc
har qadr
blslitar ifdab
kard kamtar yajt
(or
*
8
g%r-a9h
amad
Those sort
of persons
"
is
common
of
English vulgarism.
Or "Solomon was the wisest
the
(e).
kings"
e>to>U^L}
^y
lJ|j>
oUiL^
Sulayman dana-tarin-i padishahan bud; * But CA*| oUf^jua^ <1*A V

jf.>s
vide
y^>J
el**
/' buzurgtar az hama-yi hayvan&t-i digar
aat is correct
vide
(d).
492
ftl
ADJECTIVES.
buzurg-tarin-i hama-yi hayvanat-i digar ast
(m.c.).
The word "other,"

j**
^->j*o
].
digar, should be erased.
" The vice of covetousness of

&i*
*
all
others
is
the worst'' <jjy^J

ast (m.c.) [but
^**
&*A jf
V.JJA*
ayb-i
Mrs badJarin-i 'uyub-i digar

is
* *
^^C^
ousness Mrs
ness
is
az hama-yi 'uyub-i digar bad-tar ast

is
correct (m.c.)
Covet-
the worst
l
not one of the other vices. " o*i ** ^**

*.&*
iîr*
Say
v-fc*
of all the vices

2/&-*
covetous-
^^
Mrs bad-tarm-i hamafollowed by the (Sa'dl) "the best of

is
yi 'uyub
(/)
ast.
Though grammatically speaking the

as: a&f
is
:
superlative
plural,
^lâ
,"
cu-itf
&$w-t" darwshtin an
darvishes
he who
still it
-*'
may sometimes
qualify a
noun
in the ordinary
manner, as
^-/V cs^"*
^ mard-i bihtarln (m.c.) or o^t ^/o e/i/V ^' ^ bihtartn

is
mard
ast (m.c.).
If,
however, the superlative

insert
Persians
the izafat, as:
best (luckiest) of time," or
îj
^^ ^
Arabic and precedes the noun, some ^^j ***[;* dar as'ad-i zaman-i '*inthe " in a time the dar bihtarln
vaqt-%
most fortunate." (g) "This pen

az
is
the best of all"
o*!
y^
*^*jl
hama
^^
In qalam
bihtar ast (m.c.), or cs*-f _Jy

;
l^Jt^
is
A^^JI ,JJ
^|
In qalam az hama-yi
qalamha bihtar ast (m.c.) the former expression both are in common use.
:
the more emphatic and simpler

in Persian *&
Double comparatives and superlatives are occasionally used
by even good writers, as y cl^'f afzal-tar;^ w*~if ansab-tar; p&j* a alam~tarin-i hama-yi mardum (m.c.) "the wisest of all."
:
(^ fl*\
"
per-
(h)
Some
adjectives such as *&**> sahih "correct"

strictly
J^l^ kamil
fect,
complete,"
speaking do not admit
of
comparison, either in
English or in Persian.
:
" Other examples are ^ pur or^JUx> mamluv "full ^J^ Khali or iuh\ "empty"; rast oî ; "true"; durugh "false"; &>\$ nihdyat " extreme " or (subs.) c~*i; rast "straight." mustaqlm
âi^x>
"More complete" is, however, in common use in English and "most complete" is not uncommon in old ballads. Sa'dl uses yJU>K kamil-tar and in khayli sahih* ctir^^ Kamil-tarin, and the expression o^f y ^^^ tar ast " this is much more correct," is common in modern Persian.
^^ ^
kM
The words
g^x> murabba', Ar.,
and
*-^*
;^
" char-gusha, Pers. square,"

in Persian
have no degrees of comparison.
However gird or and parative superlative.
))**>
mudavvar "round" has
a com-
"Zayd
tarlnri
was the most culpable ' dyÂtf <*+* ^yâfl* *JJ Zayd hama-yi digar bud (ra.o.): say Zayd was culpable above all others'* A+A jfy IfU 4x5) Zayd bala tar az hama muqassirbUd (m.c.).
of all others
*
ADJECTIVES.
49S
(i)
When
a numeral and a qualifying epithet both refer to the same

'
noun, the order in Persian is (1) numeral, (2) noun, (3) adjective, as: &jJ j& du navishtajdt-i dkhirm-i shuma your two last letters
'
'
' '
J.|
JL>
%* ;a
dar dak
sdl-i
avval-i
(**)
saltanat-ash
"in the
first
ten
years of his reign"; " strike out the (m.c.)
c#
first
^^
j&
du ism-i await ra qalam bi-zan

" the two wisest
two names."
:
A
of
Korman "
similar rule holds good with, superlatives, as
men
cA^
c\ j^>
\&*.j^^ *j*
jt>
du mard-i
'
dlim-tarin~i
Kirmdn
(or better
du a'lam u -l-'uldmd-i Kirmdn).

however, the articles specified are arranged by threes or first three or the second four
*
Remark.
fours and
(c5-^f
If,
it is
decided to specify the

avvali
'
'
'
^
(j)
*~> si td-yi
and ^js
^ )^
first.
chahdr td-yi duvvuml)
it is
in
English preferable to put the adjective
To avoid
repetition, inconsistent qualities

is
are sometimes
*
joined
to the
same noun, which

;
in English in the plural
number, but in Persian
things animate and inanimate," oU* ^ 'dlam-i haydt va mamdt is better than cÛ* ^*JU ^ oU^ ^Jb 3 (This haydt va dlam-i mamdt, but the latter is more emphatic.
the
singular
thus,
for
"
^^
"
/*^
dlam-i
is really
<JUa*Jf
oâ*
Qdli-yi
naw va kuhna
ra biydr
\j
zifjy
LS^* signifies
the new (one) and the old (one) carpets"; but ;U? \) j y c5^^ qdlihd-yi naw va kuhna ra biydr signifies bring more than one of each [vide
also
bring
119
(r).]
Remark.
it is
In the following, owing to the non- repetition of the adjective, not clear to what two objects "Between" refers: " Between such a
Scylla
c
and Charybdis, who can

*$
steer
clear?"
(repeat
r
'such a' before
(jO'Jer?^ (tf^*- e;^3 az miydn-i Charbydis '), a;xk ^f>lv rud-khdna va lajun-zdr-i ki mi-tavdnad bi-guzarad. [Say
^^^
chumn
^^
chumn rud-khana va chunln

(k)
lajun-zdr-i, etc.]
In
"a
well-dressed
man and woman"
<jUJ o*>*u>).j *j* mard u
^Û (J^^ &jj &j* mard u zan-l khush libds-i, the adjective both in English and Persian qualifies two nouns. But in " a well-dressed man and a woman" <yjju^ <jry wiorA* khush libds-i va zan-* 9
zan-l khush libds, or
uA
du navishta-yi
*
8
Ar. br. plurals are often treated as singulars. It would, however, be better to say In modern Pers. 5M*5 preferred to ajc&irln. abhir%-yi shuma.
The Old and the New Testaments &** j *!*^ *** >ahd i jadld va *o%. The Persians have a great dislike to the close repetition of the same word ; they delight in ambiguity and study sound rather than sense, therefore, an ambiguity
that in English would be a fault,
is in
Persian often a beauty.
494
or
ADJECTIVES.
k
is
<jUJ u*^* L*J* mard-l khush libds bd zan-l, the attribute to one substantive.
^3
restricted
In English the expression "twenty

it
may mean
(1)
twenty men and twenty boys, or

twenty men
men and boys" is ambiguous, (2) men and boys, in
for
all
with some boys." (3) In Persian, however, **vj ty*j& ^^ 6*^ nafar mard u bachcha could have the signification of No. (2) only. No. (1) would be expressed by j& c: y
twenty/' or
"
btst
*j blst
(I)
nafar mard va bist nafar pisar, and No. nafar mard ba chand pisar.
(3)
by
When
in English
two adjectives, or
sets of adjectives,
connected by
'and,' qualify the same noun in the singular, it is better, if two nouns are intended, to repeat the noun after each adjective or set of adjectives,
thus:
"I
ate a small addle
egg"
fO;>&
<^ ^*^ / f ^
3
,
(*>JL^
if
or tukhm-i murgh-i kuchak-i laq-l khurdam (m.c.) tukhm-i kuchak man murgi-i yak J
-a^
[
*j* p**3
^ &* man yak ^ &*

khurdam
it
;
va
lag
but
two eggs were intended, one
fresh
and the
other
addle,
would
be better in English to repeat the noun in order to avoid ambiguity and in Persian the article, if not the substantives, must be repeated, as "I ate a
:
(i.e. two eggs) f^;y^ $* *j* p*3 ej e^ va man yak tukhm-i muryh-i taza \) yak-i lag khurd&m: j^ ^j* *~**\ " asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biyar can only mean bring the bay Arab " but Arabt va kahar rd *~\ horse would
fresh egg and an addled egg
"
$ ^^
"
\)j
^^
asp-i
biyar
mean
bring the Arab and the bay (two) horses."
J&U/c jfo^b
cua^f; rakat-i
*'
pdydar-i mustaqill
;
J4
real
and everlasting happi-
ness"
In
is
preferable to Jai~*>^
xjU OOK|; rdhat-i
pdyddr musfaqill, though
both are correct.

(
o>>*fr*
o>k~?
AJti^jd
*J|;df^ c^jxuc
mahobbat-i barddardna va dustdna
(yalcsan nami-shavad)
(is
*''the alfeation of
brothers and the affection of friends

is
not the same)," the conjunction indicates that there
an
ellipsis of
mahabbat after it. If two or more adjectives qualify the same noun, they should be coupled to each other by an izafat; as in the above example,
** asp-i 'Arabi-yi kahar rd biyar bring the bay Arab horse." or more Sometimes substantives with a preposition take the* one (m)
* )* ***& *tyj1 {j**$er~^ place of an adjective, as v^ *3* jl \) ^&. ra 'Arab kanlzak-l az muluk-i chmi dvarda dar g&ayat-i bftdan JU*> j yak-i Msn u jamal (SaMl) " a Chinese slave-girl, possessed of great beauty, was brought and given to an Arab king."
l
^&
:
(n)
Some
"
adjectives are followed

of
by the
genitive, as
ocf;^ Jblf
qdbil-i
zird'at
capable
**
cultivation
(of
land)"; _^*& j &~^
Tchasta-yi tir-i
taqdvr (class.)
wounded by
the
arrows of fate
"
Â
&*>** mutavajjih-i
It is
much
better to connect these adjectives by the izafat and not
by the
oopula.
ADVERBS.
;
495
" " wounded *hahr " going towards the city $ ^jj?** majruh-i u by him" ; " J&* JUtx> muhdl-i *aql\ khwdhdn-i desirous of "; haris-i "covetous " desirer of ." talib-i
of";
It will
be noticed that these adjectives are chiefly Persian and Arabic
participles, active
and
passive.
122 Adverbs.
Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs. The following quotation from the Gulistan, therefore, contains a grammatical error; it is
(a)
probably a misreading
Compare " Prime Minister

(b)
Bi-chashm-i khwish dldam dar biydbdn Ki-mard-i dhista * bi-guzasht az shitdbdn (Sa'di). the English errors " thine often infirmities";
;
"the then
" the seldom use

all
of it."
:
An
'
4 adjectives can be used as adverbs adverb qualifying an attribute to a noun is ordinarily placed between
In Persian,
the noun and

ajib-%* st
its
attribute,
as
*s~*t
c$^^*
^5^^
or ^^p^ cÂ ^~*>.j*\ &*t (m.c.) "this is a very strange matter " in amr-Vst is often misplaced In the adverb m.c., however, Ichayli 'ajlb.
"
j*\
i&*\
In amr-i Ichayli
before the noun, and this causes ambiguity, as ?^f -^>J** " there was a bud there (m.c.) very large ship anjd khayK kashti-yi buzurg = '* there were many large ships there " î^^ *uf (vulg.)" but correctly
:
^^ ^^
:
n i3 Zayd, zu'l-hdl}. that adverbs and adverbial (c) As in English, care should be taken
adjectives are so placed that they affect what they are intended to affect. This rule is oftenest violated in the use of " only," "not only," "not
more," "both" and
<f
not."
In the sentence " these books will not merely interest children, but
grown-up persons also
"
Jv
I;
In Urdu also, such adjectives are often followed
by the
.
genitive, inflected or
uninflected.
2
The
Another and better reading is ki ahista sabaq burd az figure of syntax by which one part of speech is used
" he Also occasionally in English as
flies
tor another is called
Enallage.
*
high."
In
difficult cases
to decide
whether an adverb or an adjective is required
in English, the rule is to consider
whether
quality OP manner has to be expressed : if the former an adjective is proper, if the latter " ' * ' an adverb. Ex. " I sat silent ' ; " I sat silently musing ; *' stand firm ; " maintain
your cause firmly."
496
ADVERBS.
masrurmt-sdzad balki mardum-i bdligji ra mz (m.c.), no obscurity 'either in the English or the Persian, the collocathe words not merely,' do not refer to the verb tion is faulty in both " these books will interest not interest but to children.' Reconstructed,
na
faqat in kitdbkd atfdl rd

is
though there
'
'
'
merely children but grown-up persons

f;
l
" *Jb o>;U ^jj/*-* f; J&M 4A* <u l^ltf ^| Jb rd na kitdbhd masrur mi-sdzad balki mardum-i \n faqat atfdl fty*
biligi rd
ndz (m.c.). " In 'Umar was not only the destroyer of the Persian nation, but of
its
language and
"
religion
cjljj xîtf
v'^ *Q
^ &^\ ^*
*
Sxii^ U^Â tii *J_j*e
Jô^|;Jt v^*^ 'Umar na faqat haldk kunanda-yi millat-i Iran bud balki khardb kunanda-yi zabdn va mazhab-i Irdniydn* niz, the English can be corrected by merely transposing the words not only and placing them
'
after
the destroyer
' ;
the Persian sentence however

*ÂJ
must be
recast
j (D^j *j& u/)U Wi j^jfyi v^Xo 'Umar miUat-i Iran rd ty &l**yj& t; faqat haldk na-kard batki zabdn va mazhab rd mz az miydn burd (m.c.). " *f " Because the parrot used to say this phrase only to all comers \^
Jail cuKjjx? ^j ^JJ+A c5-^-^ [better \) j v^Jxx> jj Jail ^^.A î\. 3 In m.c. man tanhd &*> Husayn rd didam would accordf*** f; t^r^ " or " I " only I (I alone) saw Husayn ing to the intonation signify either " but **** saw Husayn only faqat (or I^L) tanhd) man Husayn f*** |; &*-** (&* man Husayn rd tanhd (not faqat) didam, or rd didam, and f&* Ij u^êr
^^
^
j+*
ij>j
cr?j
b itrtr** cx man Husayn rd didam va bas* (m.c.) could each of them have but one meaning.
4
j
^^
The
*'
following, in the absence of
commas,
is
not at
first
sight clear:
^jUa.
(Trans. H.B., Chap.
XX)
ay e^y
c-ai^ *J
o;^yU
tf U->^j
the lower part of his dress was particularly improper A comma (H.B.). should be inserted after the na, which has to be read in connection with the
"
Â ^
^tÛ
words preceding
Remark. ment of "
it.
Another blunder in the syntax
of adverbs, is the misplace-
" Compare, It is true I boarded in the house of Mr. Cherry the headmaster, but I scarcely ever saw him out of school, and I never remember to have heard his voice except
ever, never, scarcely ever, etc."
Hodgson.
when
j*b
in anger," **
^^
sooiJi *~**ai euj_>A.f ^ {j*il*~o
y>Uw oJ^ g* j f&t, &*)**> ji ^jU \^\ ;<3J man nudratan urd khdrij az madrasa didam
15
va h%ch vaqt bi-khdtir naml dvaram ki sadd-yash rd juz
vaqt-i
gkazab ehunida
When
*'
not only " precedes

(Abbott).
'*
but also," see that each
is
followed by the
same
parfc of
speech
*
8
In slovenly modern Persian, e>^l whan might be substituted for u^jtf Irawiyan. The Afghans would probably say man-i lanha, if tanha referred to the
^^
pronoun. ^ This
classical
idiom
is
common
in Afghan colloquial*
CONJUNCTIONS.
bdsham.
*
'
497
:
In the English read I do not remember ever,' and delete when' in the Persian, insert the words o*j hich vaql after *> ki vide also 123 g**
;
(6) (5)
(d)
Remark.
Adverbs are occasionally substitute 1 for nouns, both in English and " wf ^t->J eiUU " Till now Persian, as they have paid no taxes Â ^5( 13 2 2# a/-aw. hlch mdliyydt na-ddda and.
] :
" He may serve for two or more verbs, as *>&*{* spake and acted wisely," but $3 $6 > j\ u 'aqilana harf zad va ^-ir^ kdr kard (m.c.) is ambiguous, as the adverb may qualify both verbs or only one. In ^ ^ * 5 a) o^ J-A A lUu y S aqilana ham harf zad va ham kdr kard, the adverb qualifies both verbs and in c>^j *-*/^H &jf^* c/3 <**> J *^ ^ *^Wle y
(e]
One adverb
in English
J>J
& aqilana kdr kard

'
the
tirst
is
verb only
also
va ba'd az an bind kard bi-harf zadan, the adverb qualifies w/ +* )\ j j>j Jj^ aJiUU aqilana harf zad va kdr ham
kard
ambiguous, but in
^)
o/*- aiÛlc^
^^l^y w
ftar fcard
va 'dqildna
harf zad there can be no ambiguity. to an (/) Two negatives in the same clause are generally equivalent affirmative, and can be elegantly employed to express a positive assertion,
as
ft
:
" The captain was not unacquainted with the port î
ol>
U^^ji j*>U
na,-khudd az bandar nd-balad na-bud (m.c.).

(f/)
An
it
adverb qualifying an Infinitive used as a verbal noun,

by the izafat, as: &
may
be
joined to
Uj^Hjfy
^J^
A*^ j
^(i
\\
az bdkhtan-i
ll du daf'a khayll awqdt-ash lalkh sJmd he was put out at losing two games." (h) An adverb qualifying an Infinitive may sometimes be regarded as
^ô dar
(i)
*+) &tl cjOoJUg part of the verb and be preceded by a preposition, as j^j j& ziid* rasdmdan-i inkdgk.az kutdh-l ma-kun (m.c.) "don't be careless
:
^^
in delivering this letter."
Subjunctive following a verb of prohibition requires a negative

:
in Persian, as
^y
^puf A^
' '
^^ Û man'
^k
kardam
\) )\
ki dnjd
nd-rawd*
b
(l
I for-
bade him to go there kardam.
= ft/
î^ <^; j\
urd az raftan
bi-dnjd
man*
123.
(a)
Conjunctions.
In English, conjunctions should not be unnecessarily accumulated*
as:
:
" but
and
if
that evil servant say in his heart, etc.
Matt, xxxiv. 48.
Also in English
'
till
then
'
(Pers.
oy
:
fa
an
vaqt).
is
" revenue" Maliyyat olÛs prop. and donkeys sheep paid by wanderers
4
5
C^T*
J^
pul-i sari
a poll tax on men,
jUA
j~ aar-ahumar a tax on villagers.

I
*
6
Or j*& zud-tar. But &}j\ 1->T /*^fif guftam anja bi-ravad
* *
commanded him
to
go there.
' '
In m.o. of ten (but incorrectly) MpJlj (y* ) raftan-i b*anja.

9
32
498
In Persian, however,
**>
CONJUNCTIONS.
/j
vagar,
(in
&& j valikan
**
',
Ufj va
amma,
)
bj va ya,
va chun,
Ixjlj
fa-amma
writing for Uf
ammd "but"
two
are
com
monly used by even good writers.

(b)
Some conjunctions
Both
are
composed
of
corresponding words.
Examples
(1)
of corresponding conjunctions:
and:
(l
He
both laughed and cried
"
<*;/
^^
it
is
&MA.
^y
ham khanda
(2)
kard va
ham
girya.
yet, still,
Though, although
nevertheless:" Though deep yet clear

ast vail bdz zulal ast.
"
Ji[)jk \J) eu~>tj>jj **;?' agarchi
gawd
"Though
j
a thousand rivers flow in

j>î
the
sea,
still
never full"
rud-khana
jl
L?j,i
JÎ^
suU*4?j ;IVA
<*^/t
agarchi hazar
dakhil-i darya ml-shavad baz pur namt-gardad.
Remark.
Words
may, when
joining
that prefixed to nouns or pronouns are prepositions, " " Before my illness sentences, become conjunctions, as
:
^x^^kGji
Many
I (m.c.) j^jo pish az na-khushi-yi >JjXc ^fj' Jt>% pish az an ki mutavallid bi-shavam* (m.c.).
:
man
" before
was 2 born"
conjunctions are also adverbs. " Whether or: they are killed or I, it matters naught" (3) Whether jl& ^lly (b) *^. A^j *ixi/ ^/c jjf^rL khivah man kushta bi-shavam khwah
(or ya) t.$ân tafdvat
na-darad:
''it
makes no
!
him, or I
"
ty&j
<ak
1
*i^.^
\)
y c>^
^j ^
\\
difference whether they killed

*-^ chi
man
va chi isJian
lira
kushta bdshand farq na-ddrad.

(4)
Either
or:
" no fear had he of either God or insan (m.c.) man " " either go or stay " d)^ ^ jj*.^J ya bi-raw yd bi-mdn; vide (5). M " nor Neither act nor promise hastily ^^ cJ^ JU,^ ** (5) Neither >j û j na bi-ta'jil amal bi-kun va na va'da (rn.c.): "he feared neither
:
i^l-o j!
<xJ
o^ (^
^^
& na
tarsaz
Khuda^dashtna az
God nor man

khaliq va
'
'
&^<c y
AJJ
<3^ 3'
A^
*^^t^ \jj> **& hich
tars na-ddsht
na az
na az makkluq.
"
Especial care must be bestowed upon These are correlatives either expecting
*
Remark.
(
'either
*
or'
{
and
'
neither
nor.'
'
or,'
'
and neither
'
nor/ and they must occupy corresponding

* *
positions,
i.e.
either'
must not
neither* a preposition, nor *nor a proprecede a verb nor or' a noun, noun. Though there may be no ambiguity in such sentences, as I have nofc
*
heard either from John or Charles,'

as
they produce the same ill-balanced effect
would a pair of awkwardly hung pictures."
Hodgson.
Also pronounced lakin. Note that the Aorist and not the Preterite
It
is
used.
first.
does not matter whether l*^ JgJbuda or e>^l insan be put
CONJUNCTIONS.
499
Compare:
without
"
ixtf
" in these times one can neither speak of Church or State cxx3*^0 txSjjI** oJ;^ dar zamdn y AJJ J* jt ^^ti &l#j
^^
nakas-l az millat va na azdawlat ml*tavanad suhbat bi-kunad

English should should be
(m.c.).
The
be"
)f
o^
122
&ij euJU
speak of neither Church nor State ": the Persian y <ju na az millat va na az dawlat. Vide also
Remark
"
I
to
(c).
am
(
neither an ascetic in theory or practice

1
man na amalan murtdz-am

^Xc )& AJ waft riydzat-kash
*
an ascetic either in theory or in practice va na 'Urn*", and

*
*...*.
(it
"
should be
'
am
not
).
(1)
UJU &*j
;^ &>
i
^ u^^yo
&+*
**
&*
;
(2)
cU*
nistam na dar 'amal na dar

M^c
;
f*~# ij& ^*d*) <j*<> ilm are both correct

*ilm
.
but
(3) j*I~v
u^ ^
1
70
Ul* U
^x5
f
man
*
'
amal
.
an
*
ya
an
murtdz nistam
though correct is not good (4) f u^^ va na ilm an murtdz-am though correct is faulty
l
*^
^ ^*^
**
ej-^
^^^ ^
amalan
in collocation, vide (1).
(c) English conjunctions are used as connectives in correspondence or wiiii t^dverbs adjectives
:
Some As
(1)
as, so
"
:
He
is
as amiable as his
ast, or cu^f
brother" eJ^f cA>^j J^^l

ji
o-*!
misl-i baradar-ash
mihrbdn
oW
*'
e>^t^ <JJ*'jt
s)*&\
fin <iadr-i ki
baradar-ash mihrban ast u
ham
ast (m.c.).
so he rises in estimation
"
hamdn
(2)
qadr-l ki dar fazllat taraqqi
ty**> *$*) LTîy^"' J? *xx^^ mi-kunadbar ihtirdm-ash afzuda mi-shavad.
As he excels in virtue, ^1x^3 ^ tf ^josu^ e<rjy

as a clean conscience
So
)jj~~'
as:
J
^jk*
t5^
"No ^f J/ d*
riches
make one
^*Jj^ gAA
so
happy
t
"
vJU
(JI/o
hich dawlat-i misl-i pak-diK insdn
rd
masrur naml-sazad
(m.c.).
"Speak
so
as to
be
understood"
^>A
^yio
(3)
>î &$ Â <J^

80
bi>tawr-i harf bi-zan ki
that (expressing
consequence)
fahmida bi-shavL He speaks so low that none can

c
him" <**^ +> (j>> Â &$ *^*p O;^ Aw*f ^^^ ^1 w tawr-i dhista ki Inch kas nami-jahmad. mi-zanad harf " " He is not Not (4) only but, but also: only deaf but (also^ blind k'ii AJ AxJL but better owwj ^t -^ na jdqat kar ast balki kur ham
understand
y
:
^
such
(5)
Such aa
^^J
as
I
S^ cUx) am" is*^ &*

" he
*AMI g&jdJ
There never was such a famine as the present famine " A man cJf^suA AfcA vaqt misl-i hdld qaht-i na-buda:
'
'
/0
misl-i
man
adam-i.
si
There never was

duzd-i*
such a thief as
^-^
^^
Ûa. cJj
AM va^ chunan ÂA.

U $$ cu^f
>/o
kas-l na-dlda ast.

(6)
Such
that
" Such
is
the emptiness of
' '
human enjoyment that we
are
always impatient of the present
o<xfJU^
jJU+ib
Such when qualifying a noun

'
is
a demonstrative adjective, as
'
'such people':
JUxf amsal-i shunia ashfehas (m.c.) "people such as you.' Note omission of \) (modern colloquial). The ra should, however, be inserted.
600
+***,&
CONJUNCTIONS.
lazzat-i dunyd an âdr bi-maza ast ki ma hamisha dar khaydl-ilazzat-i hastim (Here AÛ^. chunanchi could not be substituted for tf dlgar (m.c.). because of the preceding ;^f )
jL&
(7)
More, sooner,
jjfâfcJ^ jf
ft
etc.
than:
4<
M They have more than heart could wish
^.ukx*j
dihand
" The Greeks were braver than the Persians yj>j^* o^ <^ A| (m.c.). *jty ejlyf cU* aAW Tundn diKr-tar az ahl-i Iran budand (m.c.). tafsil-i qaziyya rd chunanchi (8) Pas, hama chashmhd bar man dukhta,
1
^LJl
(jiw ow&fj
;<>
rfar bihisht bish
az dil-khipdh bi-insdn ml-
vdqi'
shuda na, balki chunanchi gufta shuda bud, guftam eô

<*li?
*<x ftif ttf
*JIW
"
&&>
*j *<*
&j
all
^^
it
l^**^ *+& ^j-u
';
*^' J^*^
<J^j^ (Tr. H. B.,
Chap.
XXXII,
p. 99)
then, while
fixed their eyes on
matter, not as
(d)
it
actually happened, but as

' '
One conjunction may serve for \* *> go and [if] see him i)jj /*-y j& agar ma biravim va urd bi-binim ". p*v <4 the Foreign Minister and the War The the Prime Minister, Shah, Compare:
Minister were there
'
'
me, I related the had been related." two or more verbs, as: " If we
c^^
laajf
Jo^
,j\j
j <?^;l^ ;^ L^3j
/^l ;^^
^ Shah, Sadr-i
1
,
'* We have A*azam, Vazir-i Umur-i-Khdrija va Vazir-i Jang dnj a budand md kashfi ^ j ^ ^ ships and men and money and stores J^j jl>~ îU^ ^j;t ^ va sarbdz va pul va zakhira ddrim (m.c.), but better ^-:;l^ j^r^ (*-J^ c5^*^
' '
a^
^jb f* 7?Ai ^;!^ J^j md kashtt ddrim, sarbdz ddrim, ham ddrim (m.c.). 8 U id <; until, as long as, as (e) The conjunction
rise
pul
ddrim, zakhira
far
as" may give

y
to a little ambiguity as
or not.
*
Thus "stay
till
it may either be followed by the negative na return" can be rendered either by Axis' ^xo U
f*
'
j> (&*
bshumd
'
sabr kuriid td
man
bar qardam, or by
^/
ki
U-^
f*j&
is
Û
;
tdbarna-gardam* shumd na-rawd*

if
If fa
means
'
'
until
it
requires a negative
does not require a negative. followed by a negative. In the English sentence

it
as long as
Td
:
vaqt-i
&&)\j
not
marry
till
they can afford it" [vide
133
in the Persian
^4
(a)],
" In England people do not there is but one negative

U
oj
^^
uA[^ oUtf
*
<su.j
***> &\1>~&\
^
'
dar
Inglistdn hlch kas td vajh-i kifdj na-ddshta bdshad zan nami-glrad (mod.) there
are two; td in this
example means
as long as (they
have not
got)
Misrelated participle.
Necessary to insert the conjunctions, otherwise *^;U^ jjj^tyj j Vazfai Umiir-i
Kkarija might be taken to be in apposition to

t
f^
>^>
Sadr-i A'azam.
And
>JJA
Preposition.
4
6
The present
jô
l*
tense could not be used.
^^w
^J
&
ta bar
nargardam
till
shurrta sabr
kumd though
correct would
not be used.
"
In Hindustani "stay in the verandah
I return'*
can be rendered by either

raho yahan
jab lak
main na a*un barande meb

:
baifoe
raho, or turn barande meft baithe
tak ki maiti a*un
vidp Phillott's
Hindustani Manual, Lesson 38.
CONJUNCTIONS.
501
The usual construction with
ta is
that both clauses should be affirma-
tive or both negative, but that this is not a necessity, will be seen from the following examples G &** <u*a> khasta shudand ta ura dana sdkhtand = 13 tjy
:
iia
li'j>
ta
t;jt
by the time
=5ram na-giriftand they made him wise."
Ura dana na-sdkhtand dram na-giriftand tt oJJ^fc ffyf ta ura dana sakhtand lt wearied were they
AJ
c^*&
fAljiu ^x&
u^
say
;($y*
<a
bi-sarkdr 'arz
sit
nishast (usual)
"
till
>/ r* In tawr Carnal

1
^ <J+^.vt ^& ^j
khwaham kard
^
'*
:
my
say, I will not

ij
na-kunam na-khwaham, down."

matfab ra bi~man na-guytd I will continue to
]
^!Ja*ij|
tell
/g fa
till
^jy '^1 y az mja na-ravi ta man bar na-gardam (usual) (jSlj laxvji C^^ (^^ td man bar na-gardam mja bash (less usual), or laxijf inja lash ta man bar-gardam (usual) = 1^1 3' f*,{jj ^x>l3 ^b ^t^ ^y U â man na-yayam az Inja na-ravl (or ma raw). (jy
act thus
;
"
you
me
about this
f*> j* w*
In the following sentence from Sa'di
ki agar bar maid uftad iU^î fitna na-shavad (Sa'dl) the negative is in some editions omitted, but the sense is slightly altered with the negative the sentence signifies "he feared that
î?i
;
s*&
Ax?i
&>
>x^î andlshid
"; without the negative it signifies: "he thought that should the matter become public, it may cause mischief."
*
if
the matter
become
public, I
hope there won't be trouble
(/)
Seldom
if
ever* and
if
'
seldom or never/
"He
seldom
ever conies"
may
be rendered ff
J^
>ul#
p*
Jl
(iqarhambi-yayadkhayli kam (m.c.) and "he seldom or never comes" by *& ^ <y O;>AJ ? u bi-nudrat mi-ayad yd Inch* The universal English blunder " I (g) gave no more than I could help" and similar expressions can be rendered in Persian by ^b ty e,Xô G ta
mumkin bud kam dddam fate jb bi-u dddam (&i*j*+f Ûity A^yk
;
^ ^^c
^ ^^
'
harchi kamtar
mumkin bud
harchi tavdnistam kamtar dddam.
<{
(h)
scarcely addressed
hanuz
bi-u
had no sooner addressed him than he knew me "or "I had him when he knew me 3 = ou*LU fy> tf ^jj vJ^^L \Â harf na-zada budam ki rnara shindkht (m.c.): "I had scarcely
'
set foot
outside the house
when the
roof fell"
*&\*S
^^j
a^Juf
Na~ravl ^JJ^ more polite than the imperative j^ ma-raw Note that the verb must be in the affirmative after es>)*ij
(or m.c, j^> net-raw).
bi-nudrat,
and
in the
negative after
negative verb ought to be understood after however, this latter sentence is used though incorrect.
ayad
the
AScTi.
Therefore in
^T
^^J
lj
ci;^V
^t
bi-nudrat
ya hlch nami.
In m.c.,
e^j
bi-nudrat.
Hall
ki
man
In
SU&&GW bi-guftam f J&J ^xtô ^jf ^x? A^

Hal-l ki
^l^
(Gulistan)
<v
as soon
as
spoke
to
him."
A&JU,
almost obsolete.
502
<*-&*
PREPOSITIONS.
bi*mahz-i In
ki pa
amad
(or bi-mujarrad-i
mki
or
p&\*{
u)jj#
birun guzashtam saqf-i utaq paytn ^ ta pa birun guzashtam ). ^.
The conjunctions <*&f Jf ^J pasazan-kl, or*&i )\ <** ba'd azan-ki tl after that "; <jM** sabiq bar In ki, *&>\ y JUj qabl az inki, or " before that," are usually in Persian followed by *&>fjf tjku pish az Inki. the Present Subjunctive, even when referring to past time. That this Present Subjunctive may give rise to ambiguity is shown by the examples in
(i)
^^
126
(c).
As modern Persians have an objection to the repetition of the same word in a sentence, &$ is often omitted where in classical Persian it
(j)
would
didn't
probably
be inserted.
(is)
Thus
in,
"
He was
' '
sucli
a fool that he
&$
know
1
,
that the sky was
above his head
(&$)
oî^J
(J+^f
;^f
^^jt
c5^ eA^T an
sar-iu'st
writing.
qadr ahmaq bud ki nami-danist (ki) asman bala-yi the second ki would be omitted in speaking though inserted in
124.
(a)
Prepositions.
A
az
the
izafat, vide
preposition in English can sometimes in Persian be expressed by 121 (o), " Tempted by the Devil" u u~muda-yi Shaytan
1
bud~u
(b)
In English the phrases " In such a difficulty or dilemma " and " in such a difficulty or in such a dilemma" differ: the former signifies only one
thing,
sakjhii-l
Shay tan azmuda shuda bud.' Preposition repeated and not repeated.
the latter two.

'
:
So too
^^^^
J^l
refers to
one thing only, but
^'^*
ishkal- 1
ya dar chumn sakhti-i refers to two.

first
ishkal ya dar cJiunin e^-^^ J^ ui^;>> ^ It would, however, be better to

;^
^^
dar
cJmnm
^^r
express the
sakhil'%.
thought by ^xiu*
like
'*
^^ J^^'
^îa.;^ dar chunln ivhkal ya'nl
Though phrases
:
in joy or sorrow
"
and
'
in
wealth or poverty"
distinct to repeat
;*>
are quite clear as they stand, it keeps the two states " " in the preposition, as joy or in sorrow p* )* j
more
ykam Though
still
" in wealth or in poverty

this repetition of the
"
^s^
dar shadi va dar
j*>*
;i
tj
^*
to
**
dar ykana ya dar faqr.
preposition
is
be preferred in English,
and though the repetition

the Persian ear
tences),
in Persian keeps the
two states more

in
distinct,
objects
to
repetition
(even
the
previous sen-
except in
I see
certain special
cases
for
phrase
"
no difference between the dwellers
the sake of emphasis The " in cities or in villages
It
would be unidiomatic to say bud instead of
ast.
it
Here
jj^xjf ftzmnda bud would not be correct as
might be mistaken
for
transitive verb.
8
In the
first
case &,>yyf ctewuda
is
obviously a past participle,
Note the
In
rn.c.
of unity
is
added
to the second
i,s
noun
used.
only.
f* j îk~* )S dar shadt Da yham
PREPOSITIONS.
503
nam
(m.c.), is
l ma-bayn-i ahl-i shahr va dihdt nanfi-Kgrammatically incorrect in English* and unidiomatic in Persian
Û î
/ar^-i
insert ahl-i before dihat.
Note the ambiguity in

ratidlm
ta
mki
; tj ^fabf j v f the uninhabited salt desert of Iraq ": (insert^ bl before ^toljf of jl>+> namak-zar may be understood before it). abadam, otherwise the ^
pi**
} <$(,*
we reached
<
^
:
bi-namakzar-i K-ab va abadani-yi 'Iraq * a&i U (Tr. H.B., Chap. V) till

'
(c)
Besides,'
'
'
including
" His pay including allowances

fira
is
a hundred
tumans a month" mavajib-i u bi-inzimdm-i

mi-bashad
*
va
*o%
mah-t sad t&mdn
<X
AAX>
Ûy
'
Û JjJUj IÂ, j-U^b

w vf^ ^t>
.
jt
v*^|ô (m.c.).
:
Inclusive of
can also be expressed by 'alava bar In, as

SjJk ^
&>!
y**>
oUl^
^*U>
CÂ-. âj axjj^ **o
^\ j>
" exclusive
3
of, except,'*
))
(Bi-juz^*ua,ndj\ j*** bi-$iayr az signify ai<tf guzashta as In (m.c.) "leaving this

'
aside)/
refers should be plural, but the environment to which 'amidst* refers may be singular, as: "Among his " amidst the x miyan-i) <J^&*) friends" ^l* ma-bayn-i (or rufaqayash;
(d)
The environment
to
which among
snow "
*Jji
Û^ miyan-i
*
barf (not
4^ (Û ma-bayn-i
barf)]
1
"amidst the
darkness" c**Ue Ûx; miyan-i zulmat (or;^ dar, or *^;^ (j ^ miyan-i tanki). In Persian, if amidst' refers to singular environment Û* miyan only
is
used though also applicable to plural;

id (or ^j^ e>6 >l/c
' '
"
divide betweea
ta)
two"
l>
;Uc
c,<j ^flj miyan-i du among thousands

(
'
^
'
mabayn-l du
e)
(
" distribute taqslm bikun\
^-A> U;|JA
'
i^ miyan-i hazarhd (or U;Â ^juU
bay/i- Jiazarha) taqslm bi-kun*

(e)
Betwixt/ or
*
between
'
is
'
used with reference to two things or two
parties, but
among'
or
amidst
to a greater
number.
(
' following are examples of a misuse of the preposition between owin- to a confusion of thought in none of them is it clear to what two
:
The
'
are from well-known authors and the Persian translations have passed muster with educated Persians. 6 " Between each 8 are planted box trees " jU^ plane tree ^l^;* 0<*o;*C
objects
refers.
between
'
The English passages
yak dar miyan-i darakhtha-yi chindr darakht-i shimshad
oUj> cUf j
only.
ahl-i dihat.
Note that the plural termination
is
added
to the
second
noun
*
i
Corrected
"Between
the dwellers in cities
and the dwellers
in villages."
JJra, the bread ration or the
money allowance given

:
in its stead to
it.
*
a private
servant in camp, nominally a kran a day

consisting of barley
* It will
lucky the servant that gets
Allq, forage
and kah (chopped straw). be noticed that though Ûx? miyan can take the place of ^xilo ma bayn> the latter cannot always take the place of &\**> miyan the former refers to singular or
:
plural environment the latter to plural only. " Errors in the use of * Taken from Hodgson's English." * Insert " and the next."
;
504
niahdnda-and. 1
PKBPOSITIONS.
"It was published in successive

of publication
between each period
"
parts, with long intervals is*ty &*^' j *& jy+jy* ^(3S ^>\
^^
ty
+j* (^ U
in jfct56 juzv juzv chap
shud va
fasila-yi ziydd-i
ma
bayn-i har
juzv* bQd: "where between every stitch she could look up and see what was " UU3 j <xtf W?j*> a$*u Â e>*jU v^-JfjJU* Uut ^ going on in the street *& } *$/
^^ ^
va dnjdmi'tavdnist ma-ftayn-t Aar bakhiya sar bald kunad va tamdshd-yi tfoyi " between the kucha bi-kunad (m.c.) junction of the Tigris and the Euphra:
tes
a considerable space
is left
dry "f*\j
o**l
^
ast.
&) ^&*. j csy ^ AL.^ JUwi
JaBvx>
^.Û
nia bayn-i mahall-%
ittisal-i
shuda
Vide also last example
Dajla* va Fur at khushki-yi ziyad-t vaqi, 121 ($).

'
^^
'*
(/)
'With,'
crAr^
^^
>*
Jtamrah or b 6a, originally signified association with 4 i^ waw hamrah-i bang-i khurus bar-khastam (m.c.) *Lr*
:
'
was up at (i.e. with) cock crow." bd u jang Tcardam may be used either
I
in a friendly sense
'
"
I fought with
him "
'
f^ J^ j
in a hostile sense for
on
his side
'
:
^)
b \)$ %îi3
ba tufang ura zadam
against him,' or "I shot
him."
'
*
'
With
(b ba) 9
sometimes
is
'
signifies
in spite of
J1
'
' *
with
all his
wealth he
an unhappy
man
c~! ÛU
notwithstanding, as (> ba hamajlj ^J^j JU*

:
yi pul-ash baz ndshad ast (m.c.).

*
(g)
On sometimes
*
'
'
signifies
<J>j*>
I left
him
f&) <^S^
)\
immediately
" on his saying this, In az nazdash raftam harf &ti& bi-guftan-i

after, as
:
(m.c.).
Remark.
practically so
:
Td
in
c<
ti,
as
soon as,"
jt
is
fit>
u^
(**S
\)
J^
not strictly an equivalent though ^\ U to in harf rd guftam az nazdash

left
raftam (m.c.) "as soon as I said this, I that the two actions were simultaneous.
(h)
him
>?
:
ti
id
properly signifies
Az
)\
'from'
?
signifies portion, as:
<j?;o>
*^>*o j
^~Jj! az pisar va
dukhtar chi
of sons
dan
(m.c.)
" what sons and daughters have you (what have you
(m.c.)
and daughters ? " ): ^j* **> c5-;'r* J u $ az m <*l-i savdri chi ddri ? what riding animals "(horses, mules, or donkeys, not camels) have
C
The
dictionaries are seldom to bo relied
on
for accurate information
on botany
and
zoology.
4
Is
&+
shimshad the box tree

incorrect
:
signify
Modern colloquial but " between both the
also J)A.
j$
-A
C/#^
*>ayn-i
har du juzv would
"
parts
and would,
therefore,
mean
that no more than two

"
parts were published.

8
Write marbayn-i juzvha.

the Tigris
Also
JDijla.
"Between
and Euphrates at
their junction
al*.^ (iH^^
d*w ^j*
&*j* j wv
bayn-i Dijla va Furat qarib-i
maâU-i.
zadam &*&} {Js* <^j* *JjlS " I shot him in the head," but head with the f*JLAf* *)* *&** tofangtti-yi tar-ash zadam "I struck him on the
* Qulvla turyi sar-ash
butt of the
rifle."
USB OF THE TENSES.
505
; ttuj
you ?
"
:
*f
some
ji
j*l$u
^^ ^bU ;lx
' '
^
u
AfJf 31
6a^5r a ancAi dar

dropped into
chaahm-i char-payan
his eyes
'
karcfi bi-chashm-i
kashid,
"the
farrier
of the
'
medicine he was accustomed to use for animals."

:
Toward or towards may be used for both place and time, as *' We were travelling towards Tehran" pi$&*j*>* oj/^ ^J*> I* ma bi-taraf-i Tahran safar ml-kardim (m.c.) "towards morning" *f* ^k taraf-i
(t)
:
subh (m.o.).
CHAPTER
125.
XVI.
Use of the Tenses.

AOBIST.
The use of the tenses in classical Persian differs somewhat from that of modern Persian. The Aorist is used both in the Indicative and Subjunctive moods and
.
expresses indefinite time. (a) The Aorist in Classical Persian

(1)
is
used
With or without the

Alia e/f
prefix
*j
as a Present Indefinite.
%
Examples
o^b
li
^
!
(Sa'di)
"
they say
p& tjl* aijjj guyand malik, ham dar an hafta shifa yaft the king recovered that very week."
Sayyad na har bar

* *
shikar-i bi-barad
Uftad ki yak-% ruz palang-ash bi-darad (Sa^di) Not every day does the sportsman kill his game ; It may happen 8 (or it happens) that one day the leopard rends him."
^JjJ
^x* j*
$J*fj
OwO
^Jr *&
+*
J^ ^JIV^
^J
Vaqt-i zarurat chu
na-manad guriz
c<
Dast bi-glrad sar-i shamshtr-i fiz (Sa'di)t In necessity, when flight is impossible,
The hand
perforce lays hold of the sword."
Ouft tarsam ki Kna shavad lest he (should) recover his sight

'*
^"
'
Uw
:
^ ^y
f;>
^\^
"
oif (Sa'di) **he said, I fear oif guft man ura na-danatn *
*
:
(Sa'di)
he said,
is
'
I don't
know
him.'
(2) It
sometimes, with or without
*J,
used as an Indefinite Future
ya'ni tura
1
they say" As the sentence stands
Pros. Indef.
'
Pros. Def.
ham
they are saying." could refer either to mallk or to dar

it
"
5i> hafta.
In
to which speaking, the accent would show
belonged.
In
&AA ^l**
^
*
dar haman hafta

'
there can be no ambiguity.

8
*
The Aorists
be
')
of
^)^\
uftadan and
^^
budan (uftad and bashad

'
it
may happen
it
may
*
are used as adverbs in the sense of
perhaps.'
In modern Persian
iUA
nami-shiridaam; ^jJU))^ danietan could not be used.
506
US! OF THE TENSES.

l
khwahand pursid ki 'amaLat cMst va na*guyand ki pidar-at Iclst (Sa'dl) " that is you will be asked a (at the Judgment day) what your deeds were, " you will not be asked* who your father was *Alj <j2j> &&U4* iÛ-jtf il) <X&t <jL& J jjj -JU Â4A J? Oul hamin panj ruz u shash bashad V%n gidisidn hamisha khush 8 bashad (Sa'd!)
:
"The
of
rose
season
will
last
but
-
a
ptf
few days, but

e/*j-* ^
1
this
Gulistan*
^*i?
mine
will
blossom always":
eJiif
M^
"he
\jj
e^c
UJU^' Jt\
vlj iJkf OAJU

yuft
0w// agar
formal man ura khamush kunam. Padishah

said,
'
ghayat-i lutf bashad (Sa'di)
If
you order me,
I will silence
him/
The king
said,
'It
will
be a great kindness on your part'"
oj
ÂJJ ]^f*&)j j*p ci^ d

halat bar murad-i
41
**^ er*
man
^laut^ff grw/< agar anjam-i In chandln diram bashad zahidan ra bi-diham* (Sa'dl)
^Lx
it to, I will
cJ^
he said,
If
the business terminates as I wish

8
give so
many
dirains to the ascetics."
jf
u jahan khwahad bud Nay nam 'zma u nay nishan khtvahad bud Az pish na-bud&m u nabud hlch khalal Az In pas na-bashim va haman khivahad bud <{ The word will last long after Khayyam's fame Has passed away, yea, and his very name Aforetime we were not, and none did heed When we are dead and gone, 'twill be the same."
^4/ bas ki na-bashim
: :
(0.
K. 150 Whin.)
Guyand mara /a, Izad-at tawba dihad! U khud nordihad var bi-dihad man na-kunam
*
'
**
They
say,
May
He
(3) It is
grants
it
Allah grant thee penitence not, and did he, I'd rebel."
(0.
'
!
K. 329 Whin.).
3JfyL>
used as a Pres. Subj., or Conditional:

7
*'
^f lu ^
able
to
kas na~tavanad ki bi-ja dvarad (Sa'd!)

1
none
is
perform
it.
In modern Persian <>-jjj îA!^s^5
Jf
az tu
khwahand
same
pursid.
sentence*, apparently
Note the regular Future and the Aorist precisely the same meaning.
*
*
in the
with
Shaah old
for
*
^
Guliatan of course
Wwah. means
'
Rose Garden.'
* 7
Mod. Pers. $3 **j> fchwciham dad, or ÂOô ml-diham. Zahid a religious person who has renounced the good things of the world. X4|J The Subjunctive after ^L*Jiy tavanistan, though the ordinary constmction in
is
modem Persian,
not very
common
in the classical language.
USE OF THE TENSES.

J)?
507
^j
jf
A/ (*^^y tarsldam ki az bim-i gazand-i
khmshqasd-i
through
fear
halak-i
of
:
destruction
"
man kunand (Sa'dl) "I feared lest they (the ministers) their own life might (or should) determine on my
U
<xu< cuc;Ux>
^^ bi-farmud
id musara* at kunand
'
(Sa'di)
" he
ordered them to wrestle
(i.e.
so that they should wrestle)
"
:
cU>jJ
a0rar
* a kfiirqa ki pushtda Khuda-yi* azz va jail mar a pisar-l dihad juz chi milk-iman ast isar-i darvlshan kunam* (Sa*'dl) &&> ^xK U, .yjf (Jjljy (^ *jli J-AJ A>" jîf ^4^ (jfj^jt &\>s^
f :
am har
^^
^^
chandan
vahm
arzaq
mubalaghfi dar vasf-i ishan kardi va sukhanha-yi parlsluln gufti tasavvur kunad ki zahr-i faqa ra taryaq and va ya kalld-i khaztna-yi
(
Sa'dl
"such amplitude have you employed
in
praising
them
(the rich) that one would suppose that they are the antidote for hunger's poison or else the key of the treasury of God's bounty": 1>;I ^<d* Jo'A* y .>juj U qazi ar ba ma nishlnad bar ftshanad dast ra (Sa'dl) \) 0^,3
{
**
were the Qaxi even to music." *
sit
with us ho would wave his arms
in
time
to the
oiiXÛLLt ijj^ &lj
,3
(^^ ^ô-^^Jj^
*j*
jr
Gar turd dar

'
bihisht
bdshad jay
Dir/aran duzakh ikhtiyar kunand (Sa'di)
Should your
lot
he to go to Paradise
^11 others would at once choose Hell."
Guftam chundn kfnifta-and

*'*]
ki qu^l^
murda-and
^3 ^ ^\
*&** &^*~ p*J$
^-
ll
(Sa'di)
said they arc in such a deep sleep that
you would suppose
they were dead."
Tu
qii i
td qi t/a mat zislit-ntf
Bar u khalm-ast u bar Yusuf nikii^ (Sa'di) " Thou wouldst aiippose that, till the world's end, ugliness
Has reached
its
height in
him
as beauty has in
Joseph
"
Kardand
^^ the past tense would have been used here had the author wished
:
to
convey the idea that they wrestled then and thero on the spot. 2 Note Aorisfc the Present could not be substituted Iza/at incorrect.
3
in this
condition
in
In Mod. Pers. b&wciham kard bjfi (+*]f^ or mi-kunvtm /**> c5 X5> * Modern Persians wave their arms or their handkerchiefs in time to music or dancing a majlis-i shurb, or majlis-i tarab. They ro also expert in making a loud
noise
snapping
with
their
fingers
(failing
zadan.).
Contrary to
the dictionaries,
think, ^.xilfeijj
cu*o
Jast bar
fhhandan
refers to this
motion
of the
arms, and does not

*-**
mean "to dance."

Note
No
Persian
whom
the writer has consulted can explain
ast bar fiahandan.

this meaning of ^y* gift and compare jf yu "say, suppose, although." Eisewhcro hVdi usee the 2nd pers. sing, of what may be the Past Habitual (identical in this person with the Preterite) or the Preterite, in the same sense as
:
508
USE OF THB TENSES.

(i.e.
that no one will ever be as ugly as he

In modern Persian the Aorist
is,
just as
none can be as
beautiful as Joseph).
(5)
(1)
is
rarely used as a Present except

:
in telling stories.
guyand
of
ki
Examples Zal pidar-i Eustam

-"
:
in m.c. of this rare use are
^) ^ Jf) X
&*>.
(Prof S. T.)
"
it
is
said that Zal the father
Rustam
Sn who
is
o^?
f;
,*-;
^1 &^> Û>
^/r^
1
**
*&\ j*e*
Nasr Ullah
KMn
ki pisar-i
they say." however, used as a Pres. Subj., in place of the Present in " U " * there any one of you who knows (to know) Turkish ? j| English, as <>Jt<v LC<VJ *$ CU~A azshuma has-i hast ki Turkl bi-danad ?" (m.c.) " There
(m.o.)
is,
n guyand
Aoris
:
Karim KW,n bashad In rasm' rd guzasht (m.c.) <( Nasr Ull&h " the son of Karim JQian established this custom ^*'>? (^^ " so
:
The
is
none who knows

in m.c.
(2) It is
pi
'
^M
it
s-
*'
o^jj
t^**'
kas-i
nut
lei
bi-danad (m.c.).
In neither
of these
is
examples should
c>3tv>A/o
mi-ddnad be substituted, though it sometimes
uôd as an Indefinite Future as

guft chi ffuyam
2
ACJ.
o-?
(Sa'dl,
also m.e.)
"he
said
'what
shall I
r
" " what can I do, what should I do ? (m.c.) say " shall I do this ? " \) )K&* in kdr rd bi-kunam ? (m.c.) Â^ er^ (& " I'm *r man zdmin nw-shavam ki u bi-dihad* guarantee (me.) pul for him to give (the money) " Û' &' (**** ^j wa'da mt-kunamki bi-yayam " I l *>' promise to come," but ^-of /* A ,**&* *>*) wa'da <rm-lcunam ki khwd" & ar^* t; Jiam dmad I promise that I will come" &*>* ^*y
?
"
**> chi
Icunam
rjuftl
H fehurda-yi mma
fallen
bar khalc-ash
rl]ch.ta
have said that

bits of enamel).
bits of
enamel had
on the ground
"
(Sa'd!)
**
(the leaves are
you would compared to
Tn
Guft Bavur na-daahtam ki tura

Bar*g-i murgh-i churitn
kunad madhilsh
(Sa'di)
'*
the Preterite (not the Past Habitual) is used for the supposition would not have supposed that." Tn modern Persian the Imperfect would be used instead of ^J*
in
I did
not believe,
gu*l or ^f*S&
ffuftlt
the above-quoted examples, as

is,
tf
^'^ ^*
^^xiacw^
ham-chunm
mi-guftl
ki.
Outl
y*&
1
however, used on occasions.

dastvr so
The word^t^*O
common
is
m.o, in this sense.
Dastur )}**&
is used only locally in a high priest of the Zardushtis, and also locally
in India for
'*
custom
"
means an enema: ahuma

2
ra daatur mi-kunlm
addressed to a Zardushti priest.

sentences
The Arabs
Such questions indicate doubt or

is
word for " permission." perplexity and the use of the Aorist
use the
:
p*\**)jLb I;
U-& (m.c.)
is
a vulgar joke
in such
obvious.
But MO ^|j4 J>jy *Z p)"*' c^

dQd
'<
^ (x* man zamin

pay."
ml-shavam ki u
pill
(m.c.), * Vide
guarantee that he
will certainly
(b) (4).
USE OF THB TENSES.

v_/Jti
509
k&ud rd hamrdh bi-baram yd az " shall I (should I) take my saddle and ndyib-i chdpdr-khdna bi-glram (m.c.)
jf
I zln va dahana-yi
bridle or (can I) get
" them from the owner of the post-horses ? The Present participle in e/f an with the Present Tense of &*
'
shudan
also expresses the Future, vide

(3) It is
(o).
2 used as a Present Subjunctive, principally in final clauses & &ftt and also where a doubt is &? *>' td introduced by kitd; td-ki, ki,
t
expressed in subordinate clauses, expressing an object, order, advice, hope, t*$)j* )\jfc AJ*&J vaqt-l duty, desire, distinction, fear, permission, doubt, etc. " when to the bazar" (but to ki bi-bdzdr bi-ravl (m.c.) go you happen
:
LSJjV
)^
*.
*&h
vaqt~i ki bi-bdzdr
mi raw
(m.c.)
" when you go to.the bazar

:
' '
who is about to go or generally goes) *$ \) e^t^k ^f^-o t{ mi-dam khwdhar-at ra ki bi-Khdn bi-dihlm (m.c.) you know that ^jufcjj ejijiu when (or if) we (happen to give) your sister in marriage to the 1jhan " " " when we JIU give, as we are going to give f*^x> ml-dihlm would mean ^*j ^JU <u<*> va^c *>" |*xC ^ty* hald divdn-% bi-kunam ki ibrat-i hama-yi dlam bi-shavad (m.c.) *' now I will give a judgment that will be a warning " to the whole world.
(said to a
person
for each of the previous Aorists,
Aorist could be used.
am shuma
tSjJU* U^>
bi-yayid (m.c.)
In writing the Definite Future could be substituted and in speaking one Definite Future and one " " I ^5Uj U^ (*;|>HX| ummidvarhope you will come " I would come "
:
hoped you
bi-yayld.
(might)
fty.)\j***\
ummidvar budam shuma

in the sense, as
It can frequently be used instead of the Present
any alteration
able to
"
:
"
Tense without practically The magpie steals and hides whatever it is
Â/ocilfJu *>ljix*
ta
G j J^ô
^^
jojy
or) ilj
;
ml kunad va
ml-tavdnad panhdn ml-kunad(m.c.)
or
zdgh (or kardjak) duzdl td bi-lavdnad panhdn
ml-kunad Â-CC^JO ^JijIjU (m.c.) <4 whatever it may be able to." " I had (4) It sometimes takes the place of the Infinitive in English, as " * kitdb-i na-ddshtam ki bi-khwdnam no book to read îf^ ^l>-u " I had no that I to had no book tools to cut read, might read) (m.c.) (I
:
^W
AJ with ^j " I had no
"
wT
string (or thread) with which to strengthen the snares

tf
p&*
JtÂAfi/o f; j*!j>
^ ^ ^xj Û-| man ^&

nazd-i
6
asbdb-l plsh-iman na-budki bi-buram (m.c.)
"
yî
nakh no-bud ki dam ra mazbut bi-kunam
(m.c.).
(5)
It
is
used optatively as:
^b
*;>/
ijoj*
J^
Jt\
*tf
Shagird-chapar ^bU.
4* chapar-chi master of the &k*> jbU. c^SpSr-fc&ana. In a subjunctive sentence the verb
tive Mood.
fi
^?ki0 the postboy with the horses, while the^bU. cttapar or is the man who carries the post, and thej^^ u-J^ na'ib-chapftr is the
is
subject to a conjunction
1
vide
126 Bubjuno-
Nazd-i
I
man
no-fetid
(&
*s>
"I had not/

Better
na-*M "
had not
(there
was not near mo)/'
ftet**
Compare Hindustani were p5* noiA na dfahtam ki.
&
510
USE OF THE TENSES.
namak-at kur-am kunad agar khilyf 'arz karda bdsham^ (m.c.)

salt (that I
(6)
may your have eaten) blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts." It is sometimes used for the Imperative as vf 5jkJ {j*> JjJ U ^^
:
"
^&& ^^j vaKtapul na-gtri, qatra-i db bi-kas-i na-dihi (Tr. H.B. Chap. IX) " " but till you receive payment don't give a drop of water to any one
!
It also supplies the missing Persons of the Imperative
Mood, as
p>jj,
biramm "let us go."

(7)
It is in certain cases used
for the Preterite Indicative in English.
Vide
126
(c).
is
Remark I. It will be seen that the Aorist (Present Subjunctive) used in subordinate clauses expressing an "object, consequence, order,
and often
advice, hope, fear, duty, desire, inclination, effort, permission, necessity," in conditions. Vide also Subordinate Clauses and examples
,
Appendix. <c In sentences expressing purpose, resolution or wish, etc.," for a subordinate clause in be substituted can the Infinitive usually ^/A? qasd-i raftan ddshtam or the Subjunctive, thus: îfi ^y. (&\^-
of the Tenses
Remark IL
^^
khwdstam bi-ravam.
bud " to be weighed down by trifles is o^jf )J j^ ^t>^ (class.) &j* *3iy j5t^c to be like an old woman"; were ast substituted for ty ^J|y tawdnad bud
Remark
III.
Bi-juz*iyydt sar faru dvardan kdr-i 'ajdîz* tavdnad
it
would show certainty. The writer however implies that even some 'ajdtiz would not submit to such a thing.
(c)
^)5l*u:
In
classical
Persian
the
Present
îjf-t*
*
Tense
**.
is
is
chiefly
used for the
ki
Definite (or Continuous) Present, 3 as: u the chl
&f ****j
-^
?
ml-guyad (Sa'di)
king asked,
what
he saying
"
malik purstd
:
Na-dJda-i ki chi sakhtl haml-rasad bi-kas-i

az dahdn^sh * bi-dar mi-kunand danddn-i ? (Sa'di ). " Hast thou not seen what pain a person suffers
Ki
While a single tooth

1
is
being extracted from his jaw
"
?
Karda baaham 126. Vide pAl> &3/ an example of the Past Subjunctive. 'Aj&iz, pi. of 'ajuz. & In the Qulistan this rule is generally, if not always, observed; but in the Anvar Suliayli, the Present Tense is usually used for both Presents, except in the verses.
a
*
*
Dahan-sh (poetical
license).
Persian dentist (who has but one pattern and one pair of forceps for every kind of extraction) first lays the patient flat on the floor and then sits on his chest. Operator and operated-on then roll on the floor for a few minutes in an agonised embrace. As a Persian rarely submits to having a tooth extracted unless
lie is in
an extraction are severe. 4< European methods," and place the patient with his back to a wall. The tooth is then secured and the patient dragged round the room. In Sa'di's time the methods were perhaps more primitive.
Some modern
violent pain his sufferings during dentists have adopted
USB OF THE TENSES.
51 |
It is in classical Persian rarely used as a Future [vide (d) (2) for the modern use of the Present for the Future], an instance of such usage ** being :-Û~j ^jclLkJd ^^Lo ^txîa/o^ Ûî 0^*30 <*j^j >^f) ^^jax> a*jj zdhid farmud kiman si ruq'a m^navlsam ; tu bi-dast-i amm-i u mu'tamad-i sahib" l-ikhlds bi-sipdr " the pious man replied, I will write three letters and
^^
'
do thou
and
deliver
faithful person:'
(d)
(1)
them into the hand " tf p***j3\b

definite
^^ ^
^~v
of a select officer,
and a confidential
c*tf
(Gul., Chap. Ill, St. 14).
In modern Persian the Present Tense
ia
used:---
As a Present,
navlsad (m.c.) " he is now writing he writes every day." (m.c.)

* f
or indefinite, as: *~^.y
"
)j*
.|
)K^ jl u hdld miu har ruz rni-navwad
(2) In m.c. and in modern writing it is used instead of the Future, as Chashm ; bi-shumd hall mi-kunam +&** Û- Uj *^ (m.c.) "certainly, I & &tt\ *UJ| >i.f JU sdl~i dyanda will show you (instruct you)": {}j*p j*j 2 6 inslwf Allah bi-Tabrlz mi-ravam (m.c.) "next year I will go to Tabriz D. V." man nami-ravam, bi-man clii? man nami-ravam (m.c.) " '' &* I won't t-^ I won't
: :
pi)
&v î &* (^j >A^ orÛ

9
go,
go
fe oÛj
^>
khub-l
ayar u bi-nawkarl pish-l shumd biydyad kdr-i <{ it would be a good st(or mi-bashad or khipdhad bud) m.c. thing if he
or
)
OÂJ^
"
:
came
to
you
as a servant
will be
a Saturday
"
:
o^*t A>X^ 1^-'
farddshamba
0*^1
îvli
oUfj
^^
(m.c.)
ast (m.c.)
**
tomorrow
&U
^\
AÂ
hama-ruzam
mdya-yi dard-i sar va awqdt lalkhl*

of
*st
"this
will
be a daily source
worry and annoyance."
in
It may also be used lik^ the English Future in issuing commands, and is such case more polite than the direct Imperative, as U>^ Û^* ^ ^ j^+J AWJ o^^jj ^j^* toj*i \*y *&f l*a# x*;jf rd dar har jd-yi Taymur ^-o ty< dunyd bdshad swrdyji karda paydd namuda mi-yirld* dast basta 6 mi-avarid
:
^^
whatever spot in the globe he may have gone, track and find him, seize him and bring him here bound." This Future is more polite than the Imperative.
Injd (m.c.)
ti?ack
<c
Taimur
to
Remark.
The
will
Aorist of (j&>\* ddshtan in
modern Persian means
<
have"
or
"I
have [vide
83, p. 287], as:
^ty âu
t^
v Ur
^f J\
'
The Present here is for

to the repetition of the
the Immediate Future, an idiom

of unity.
commonalso
in Hindustani.
Note
'2
to the
<^ second word only, Insha* Allah " if God ploasos, D.V." corresponds to tho English **I hope to." 4< Compare the English I'm going now; I'm going home next year.**
In modern Persian this
would be added
*
^
The Present,
In
to indicate certainty.
classical Persian the
Imperative would be used.

dast-ash
<*
Here
not
&k*si
tj
(j&#&
ra basta
"having bound
his
hands " but
compound
adj. dast-baata to agree
with
(>jt
ura understood: in speaking, the intonation
distinguishes between these two constructions.
512
)
USE OF THK TENSES,

*)***
l&> er
agar In kitdb rd bi-kharam bardy-i
man
it
fat
will
ida-l
na-ddrad (or na-khwdhad ddsht) (m.c.)
"if
buy
this
book
be of no use to me."
(3)
The Present
is
also
sometimes used inrn.o.
in a Potential sense as
*u) if* ***& e^*

zarda-yi
Jf b (**** **)J ijUy &)\& <^5lfij tukhm rd az miydna-yi saflda ml-zanand
zanhd-i ddrad Kir man, ki
" Kirman
lias
a class
of
women
(so tricky) that
(Profess. Story Teller) they can steal the yolk of
an egg from the midst of its white/' (4) In quoting an author living or dead, either the Present or the Perfect Tensecan be used, as <c Shaykh Sa'di says "( o**i <u? or) &)** ^$**>
:
f*j
va Shaykh Sa'di mi-yuyad (or gufta ast) (m,c.), but the latter might mean "he has spoken " whereas the Present would refer to his writings. (5) In dramatic narration, the narrator will sometimes transfer himself
to the time of his narration,
sequently
c^-oJ
employ
the
and speak of past events as present, and conPresent instead of the Past In modern writing
this Historical Present

u<*>
is
common.
Examples
tf {&j> ru-yi urd dldam va Khuda rd shukr kardam ki pisar-i man j~j " I saw his face 1 o nisi' class.) (by the light of the lamp) and returned thank 1 . & *** not son was ttiti he *) God that ^-yf my j>y>j / ^x*
'
tj
!<>>
pxa
f;
^^
'
'
^y
o-l?
j>
&' vaqt-i ki mt-ravad

4<
mi blnad
ki
fa*ida~i baray-i-u na-ddrad, dn-bi

tliere
ki
bar yasht^ (m.c.) the business that
when he went, he saw that

>s
was no gain
to be
made
in
l
was the reason he returned."
cÂJ \\^ rô ^*xi; (m.c.) 4< when I arrived I was no longer there" it would be equally correct to say ~j^ j^ jahdz na~ bud or ty *'j }^^ jahaz ralta bud, tlie tense used depending on the dramatic
;
Raftam did am jahdz nlst saw that the ship had gone,
sense of the speaker.

It is
however inconsistent to change the time from present to past, or

of tense in the following
**"
vice versa.
Note the incorrect change

*
f&z cuiu
^L
31
(Tr. Haji
In,
"He
to say *vt
(m.c.),
^y
latter
Baba, Chap. XI). saw an ourang outang coming towards him,"
it
is
better
o^t ^^lu-S
is
a^
than *^f $* ji J^b ^^(LJ

also correct.
^ ^
did ki nasnds-i
taraf-i
u* mi-dyad
(m.c.),
did nasnds-l taraf-i u
ml-dmad
^ (SJ
1
though the
^j^ (^^^-^
*f
***>
**> Indians and Afghans write and say chi mi-blnad ki yak nasnds-l taraf-i u mi-dyad.
Saddyash bi-gush<im dshnd dmad\
chi
didam pidar-am Karbald*l Hasan
Note
(g of unity with pi. and its signification. This however may be considered an example of direct narration.
Better
**jb* j* oâpjf j| az an jihatbarmi-gardad.

this
is
Note that
not the direct narration.
USB OF THE TENSES.

ast c~*t
(
.
513
"
r^ îby
r; xj
his voice
seemed familiar: what do I see but that

is
AO. **f
Wf
r^Xj
jty^
it is
(Tr.
my
H.B., Chap. V.) father Karbalai
Hasan."
(6)
The Present
did not
sometimes used
wast a thief
in Persian for the
Past in English,
as
"
know thou
"
^^
*>
j;~J|^xi nami-ddnistam ki
ditzd-i (m.c.).
If the
Past (duzd bud-i) were used,
it
would signify " I did not
that you were the thief (of that article then)." that are at all times equally true or equally false (7) Propositions should generally be expressed by the Present, whether in English or
in
know
Persian,
as:
"He
was such a
fool
that he didn't
know
l
the sky
is
(not 'was') above his
head"
cx*jy
^ îJb
'
Û^f
cu-vJfj^J *'
u chunin ahmaq bud

a
ki namt-ddnist
dsmdn
bdld-yi sar-i u-st
(m.c)
(*?J^j*j*j (><* ^r^ ^*l^* e/*> ;:>U ) faf pidar-i man u tu Adam, va mddar-i man Havvd ast,* pas man u tu barddar-tm (class.) " the father of you and of me was Adam and our mother was Eve: therefore we are brothers."
(8)
The Present
is
in Persian
is
action that
both past and present, as:
am)
in this place
"
used for the Perfect in English, for an "I have been ten years (and still
j^.vc or
)
^~& li| ^
(m.c.)
:
*>
o^f
JU
^^
&i
dah
^-?
sal ast (or
mi-
shavad)
kidarmjd hastam
î^*
s^~^ ^^ ^
<^^
khayll vaqt
still
ast ki bimar-i bistari
confined to
my
hastam **I have been for a long bed."
time (and
am)
The Progressive Perfect may be expressed by the Present and the

Conjunctive (Past) Participle as
to learn
ast ki
:
"I
Persian"
fjyof
have been striving

JoAT eu+^j tf o^f
(m.c.).
for several years

jju^
is**^*
JU
chand sal
zahmat kashida Fdrsi mi-dmuzam
Remark
/.Both
in
classical
and
:
in
modern Persian, the Present
is
*ty ^ >. cui? dn dah dinar mail ust cu-^| JU ; li^ ** &ty *$ 8 it found have to whoever (the purse), let him he said, may happen (class,) " reward.' his be bring it to me and ten dinars of that will
[
dramatically used for the Future, as

4 '
Guft harki ydfta bdshad bi-ydrad ki az
^^
*
Remark //.A Continuative Present can be formed by the Present vide' (o). Participle and the verbs, &ty budan and ^* shudan,
(e)
(1)
The
classical Definite
Future
is
,
formed by the Aorist of
4 k&wdstan with the apocopated Infinitive as:
Note tho omission
of the second ki (before

*
2
8
Bud would
signify that
Adam
asman) to avoid repetition. was rny father once, but is not now.'
Vide
79
(6).
Direct narration.
The unapocopated 33
Infinitive occurs in old Pers.
514
USB OF THE TENSES.
khana sayd khâhl hard, Dast u pa-yat chu 'ankabut buvad (Sa'di). " If you hunt only in your house, Your legs are weak and useless as those of spiders." " **. " what will you* do ? &*** v Chi khwahi /card ? (class.) a man yaqm daram ki u khwahad amad (m.c.) *'I am dAfjA. jf * f;
Gar
tu dar
l
^ ^^
man zamin-am ki u pul bicome," but **>*> J;$ )\ *$ pM>\*> dihad* (m.c.) l^ y tf here would mean I am certain he will pay it Û? I think or am of opinion gumdn mi-baram ki u khwahad amad (m.c. only) that he will come," but xbo *f fji ^x Û? guman nw-baram kibi-yayad " I think he So too ajy come." and (m.c. JWa*l ihtimal mimay correct) " a in itself and is therefore doubt ravad there is a probability," expresses
certain he will
*
:
^^
'
followed, not by the Future Indicative, but by the Present or Past Subjuncj *>' tive, as: ôUj *j *jj# JU*M ihtimal ml-ravad ki yakh bi-bandad (m.c.)
**it will
ki
4 <>^b <*i~^ ^ tf ^j^ J^^f ihtimal rm-ravad probably freeze" J< it has yakh basta bashad (m.c.) probably frozen." This Definite Future (and not the Future- Present Tense) is regularly
:
used in speaking by Indians and Afghans. The Future sometimes indicates certainty.
rustling in the jungle one might say: Janvar-%
{<
For instance, on hearing a khwahad bud
(m.c.)
this
must be
(certainly will be)
tn janvar-i bdyad bashad (m.c.)
"
this
animal
** ^**t ÎJo *&ljJ c^^l cJ^ ^^ pas zahir art ki in nishan-i insdn na-khivahad bud (mod.) "therefore it is evident that this can't
:
"
some animal, " but& ought to be or must be
(doubtful)
some
be the foot- print of a
man";
*
while
"
Oof^xi
na-tavanad bud would mean
it is
impossible for it to be,' (2) This Future is frequently used in classical Persian in conditional
vide
sentences,
place
is
128
(cT
but in such clauses
in
modern
Persian
its
(/)
taken by the Aorist, i.e. the Present Subjunctive. In modern Persian the Definite Future is not much used
except
in certain districts:
when used
:
it
f;
sense than the Future-Present
^ fHr^
kardan
in
in speaking has a stronger and more definite,
^ ^ *j+*
p*
f^
/I agar pidar-
Note the Future here
in a conditional sense,
where the Aorist (Pros. Sub.) would be

" what do you wish
in Afghanistan, vide
used in modern Persian, written or spoken.

ft
to do
77.
But -$A ^ a " This

<
H5
/0
eJ*/^
*^
<J/it
ml-khwahi
(class. )
construction
is still
used
speaking in India
and
8 i.e. I
dad
<*AJjA.
II.
do not say he will pay the money, I am security for his paying it would be the direct narration and not idomatio. Vide
yafth.
k&wahad
131
(/),
Remark
* Ihtimalri
baa tan darad
*'
it is
probably
freezing,*'
USE OF THE TENSES.
515
am ham
though
bi-mirad In kdr rd
father were to die
khwdham kard 1
' '
:
(m.c.)
"I
j\ ^.yo
will
do
this
\>
even
USa J>\
my
o*tf
Âf>*6 ^>Wuf
a^t Îj^
igar dunijd rd tufdn bi-glradman az sar-iln kdr na-Jchwdham guzasht
(m.c.)
'even though the Deluge were to come I will not give up accomplishing
this."
In,
CA*^
pb\}S
>*JLu
Â
tf
eu**j
IfJUo
sdlhd ast ki mi-sitdnam va
years I have collected ind will continue to collect (this sum)/' the Definite Future is necessary in she second verb.
kliwaliam girift (Tr. H. B., Chap. VII)
"for
many
(g)
The
Preterite
or Definite
Past
is
corresponds to the
/hat closely follow
same tense
in English.
As
used in narration and usually it is used in narrating events
each other, it will sometimes take the place of the English Perfect and sometimes of the Pluperfect; vide (I).
sometimes euphonically prefixed, without lowever affecting the sense, as: ^M^ *$ &jf ^~~ u>^ p$ c$# f*&j* &}$> kard ki ddman-am az ^9j* euvo y chun bi-rasidam bu-yi gul-am chundn mast
In classical Persian, a
AJ
is
*>
hist
'*
bi-raft
(Sa'di)
when
I
reached there,
the scent of
the
roses
so
ntoxicated
rery
mo common in
1
that
lost
control over myself."
This pleonastic
to is
poetry.
In, ÔJ^J CA3xl>^x> &*.jtt +*Z*x*j c>vi? guft
bdkhshldam agarchi maslahat na-
have forgiven him though I do not approve," the wo verbs in the Preterite signify an action just past and done with, he time of which is therefore known bakhshula-am -ij^^ would mean that I have pardoned him before you asked me/
\ldam
**
(Sa'di)
y Uux> Ijyj^. tS ^sS guftl ki khurda-yi mind bar khdk-ash the verb oJi? gu/ti is the second person of the old Past (Sa*dr), Vide p. 507, footnote 5. labitual tense and not of the Preterite.
In, Ai^vfj (JÎA
:i
ikhta
In,
i
p^/
*&
^
it
**) )*
f~^ $ &** 3
p$* <j*r^ jbT
^ *&
fjb">
ma'lum shud
dvdz-i nd-khush
l
ddram
Sa'di)
"
I see that I
he
>ast
Preterite as
kardam have a disagreeable voice, I repent me," &<^shud is in refers to a past event that closely follows another
^JJi>
'
va Ichalq az nafas-am dar ranj-and, taivba
event, viz.
this
^^f^?
muttali* garddritdi,
if
and
it
also signifies
have
while
ast
rero
moment
learnt
the Present
'
>>^H>*
p-^
ma'lum ml-shavad
used the signification would be
it is
now
he Perfect cu~f
appearing to
me
that
'
:
fj>i**>
n own to people (before
ma'lum shnda ast would signify "it has become tawba this) that": also the Preterite *j>
*
8
Bott r than f**' ml-kunam which might also be used. i Maslahat nami-binarn **$* t ^ euacvL<a^ would be equally correct. Aat understood.
*
Quft,
:
zrdanidi
chi mubarak khwab-i ma'lum shud ki 'avaz-i na
'at
ki
dldl Inki
mard bar
'ayb-i
khwish mu&fali,
fehvsh
daram
.'
516
tTSE
OF THE TENSES.
'
kardam has the dramatic

I
force of
repented on the spot as soon as
heard.
is
used to express an action just completed, provided there " have no continuance of the action, as: Daw khwurdl ^t^j* IJA? you
The
Preterite
is
taken
the medicine (now)'?": al-an
khwurdam f^)^
îli
"I
have
just
swallowed it."
The
Aorist
Preterite
is
also
in
conditional
sometimes used for the Present Subjunctive or sentences, to signify a foregone conclusion, as
:
^s&j* i-i&^jSt ^j* ^9) j>\ you move on, you are safe; if you sleep, you are a dead man." Vide 128 (e) and (/), Conditional Clauses. It is also sometimes used as an uncertain Future instead of the Present
agar
raffi
burdt
agar khufti murdl (Sa'di)* "if
Subjunctive, as:
**~^
*^
^t
' '
>
^J ^^ $ ^ J^J A
har ch%z ki u guft va

,
shuma
it to
me " ***%&' U<^
jafimidid
;
bi-navisid
whatever he says and you understand
write
here the Pres. Subjunctive could be substituted, har chlz ki u bi-guyad va shuma bi-fahmid.
*>& y Ô**- J*
modern, Persian shows that the order was forthwith executed, as:
<>te
osfrAj^ vSAAJUt
After verbs of ordering and the like, the Preterite in classical, not in &??j* *^l*
^ ^GU} U malik far mud ta ustad ra khil'at va ni'mat* dddand
(vSa'di)
"the king gave the

to
order,
and then and there a robe
of
honour
and rewards* were given

ta khil'at
the master- wrestler
"
:
<xiA<^
<++** 5
ojd^ U
va ni'mat bi-dihand* would merely show that the order was issued.
(e).
Vide
125
cuU-j >&/ Usj Ax>La. ^ ^.Û j oJL) A> ^&to &1 j*> 8;^ an na didim ki rakht u silah va jama riha kardim va jan bi-salamat burdim* (Sa*df) (t we saw nothing for it but to give up our goods 7 and our arms and our clothes in order to save our lives."
In,
^^ CAX>ÛJ
chara-i juz
For an example
of
the
Preterite
Infinite, vide (m) (9), footnote (3).
supplying the place of an English Vide also (k).
When
a servant
is
being bastinadoed, he uses the Preterite tense, as:

b
taiobct
kardam, guh khipurdam, ghaM. kardam

* Also m.c.
8
klc
ftyj*>
<*>
^^
*>.
generally, (*l**l might and has a wider sense. 6 The Preterite shows that the king saw the order carried out. The Aorist merely nhows that the order was issued for the benefits to bo bestowed then or at some future time an order that in Persia would be but imperfectly carried out, if at all. In mod. Per. however this ambiguous Aorist is always used. 6 In mod. Pers. riha kunim and barim.
is
In'am
In the absence of an adverb of time, these Preterites might refer to Past time. *-^+*> ni'mat means " benefits " lye a small sum but
not clear
it
means
either clothes or baggage.
For the a in
lii?
guftd
vide p. 13
(8).
:
The
Preterite always refers to a definite point of time
the Perfect to an
iefinite time.
Vide Examples at end of this section.

(h) ], is
In m.c., the Preterite, like the Imperfect [vide <-+&*> jt esent * u~* jtf J^ ^
:
often used for the

^poj
î)
& p*
*f
8^
md
fti*
^*b) pas man &&*$ cr* ^ ^jj **" c^4 ^ e*jf kunam id bazar ham ki az khabar-ddr turd az matlab bdyad pish vaql bi-har kas rasidl shuhrat bi-dihi ki vazir bi-man chunln va chundn
aâ^j
)hj**>
1
ty o-Sj
jf
^ &>y&* ^
(.5***^
c^-3
karda ast (Vazir-i Laakaran) <; then I must make you quainted with the matter before-hand, lest when you go to the bazaar and set somebody, you spread about that the Vazir has confided to you such
idmat'i
ruju'
d such service
rddar-i
:e
'
'
:
*i~>f^=io
ham na-khwastam
:
(Vazir-i Larikuran)
harf-1
cf^^-^v >* d**j&.& &* man digarmisl-i tu pisar" I no longer want a nephew
ddshtam bi-guyam-at
C<
you"
c<
o*-^
to
p^l* <^y^
to
(m.c.)
have
ki
bi-
tnething
yam-at
(h)
you": o*^L *.$ have sometliing 1 am going to

say
:
f$& c^y^ harf-i say to you."
ddram
of an action and frequently takes the place (i) the Preterite in English, as: o*of ô i<xo *j? $ jfy )^ bar bar az kuh sadd the hills gave back the echo again and again" ;>H^ ^/f '-drnad (m.c.)
* {
:
The Imperfect denotes The frequency or duration
J s\&* jl cr^V ^^ (^^ ^^- dn jdnvar bi-nazar namiladlikin az sadd-yi u ma'lum mi-shud ki Ichayli buzurg ast (m.c.) <e that irnal continued to keep out of sight, but from its cry I thought (kept
*'
*-%)Jj
c5^^ A^
^^
it
/*^^
thinking) that
^y~.x> U^> xiâ.
**
i.e.)
while I
&f ^*j must be a very large beast " *t f^z f^T i shumd mi-sukht 4 vaqt~i ki ml-dmadam dldam ki chirdyh, " was returning I saw that your lamp was burning
: :
u munag&gjias shud b -chdra* ml'ddnistand (Saî) *' the king's enjoyment was disturbed (by the abbering of the slave) but no remedy could be found"; here the iperfect Au-ofjaw naml-ddmstand signifies that the people kept on thinking
'aysh az
^^ malik rd
JS
Bi-gufta
J**# ^CJ j
norchiz
^
budam
jAÛ Jf i^
man gil-i
Va
llkin muddat-l ba gul nishastam (Sa'di).
Vide also Subjunctive
Mood
126
(g)
and Conditional Clauses
128
(e)
Remark,
rav *
use of Preterite for the Present.

*
Here (Sty
bi-ravi
would signify
is still
*'if
you go'*; but

1 *
^-^
raftl or
clT^ m *
nify that the person is sure to go.

*
s
Or &}?*%* ml-stizad
^-*AX>
burning.
The Imperfect ty (j* ml

;
bud, or AjJ bud (but not
^^
ml shud) could have

ml-kard
an used
/ah az
6
but oî^ jl J ^-^ *fy* *tjr u munaghgha* ml- shud would be correct. In modern Persian chara-i would be preferred.
^J
j*
har vaqt girya
618
of
USB OF THE TENSES.
a remedy but couldn't discover one.

I
*
farsi mt-amukhtam "
v v
I studied Persian
studied Persian on and off for a year," but

Fdrsl amukhtam "
Ju
<Jo
l>
fk^>*T (***>^ a year/'
*/& sa/
continuously for
In the sentence
mi-guftand (m.c.)
iî&t^
didn't
**>
^wS^S
^ ^J
what
/?A?m
man
na-danistam chi
Imperfect dramatic, signifying that all the time they were speaking I failed to understand them/ The Imperfect therefore also signifies that an action is a " it was dldan-i u ml-raftam (m.c.) hahit, as my (+**?$* >! e;^ jj>> j* har ruz
'
l :
they saying/' the i^J naml-danistam could be substituted and would be more
"I
understand
were
him every day." Doctor Rosen says '* The Preterite is used in narrating events which (2) follow close on one another. Whenever the narration is interrupted by
habit to visit
:
a description or a simultaneous action, the Imperfect

following example
raftirn, shakhs-l
:
is
used as in the
&
t<xo
+&J!* (fS
*
Î\
yjb
{***>*)
*\**>
bi-shahr rasidnn bazar

to the market.
sada kard
'
wo reached the town, we went
But in the followi mr sentence â****** f**j >3^ (**&*) ^^ somebody shouted, ô bi-shahr we reached bazar ntftim, shakhs-i sada ml~kanl rasidim, ^j^c
"
the town, we went to the market, some one was shouting/ the third action took place either simultaneously with or before the second one/' ". in narration, can often be ren(3) The English phrase "I began to
"I went to the city and began to look (i.e. while I was looking) at the shops, when suddenly 1 heard the sound of firing ^^ ^ (*H>
dered by the Imperfect, as
:
tamasha-yi ^LiU ^ raj tarn bi-shahr f^-** dukanhd mi-kardam* ki ndgah sada-yi tup bi-r/ush-am khwurd (inc.): the reason for the Imperfect in this sentence is explained at the end of (2).
&)jZ
p}L
ujp ^*+c
fc(fC
*$
V^
A
*
similar use
of the Imperfect
is
illustrated
by o*
-5' al^ AS* murjji ( bar shcikh-i mi-nishast* ki ybaflat*" kas-l ^(i* J&fc cr ichall kard the bird was (m.c ) tufantj going to alight when suddenly some one " '* " was a nixhasta bud fired would be expressed by o^ A sitting gun;
^^
nti-niQhast has either the previous seated," and the Imperfect o^-^j " used to sit habitual the or signification "; the context gives signification,
vâs
'*
the exact signification.

(4)
The Imperfect Passive
also
sometimes gives a Potential sense, as:
for bi-dldan.
^
3
'
Soda kard
j?>
!>^ could
also
mean "called
us.'*
yfo
Also
&ty
UUu
man
just as I
*
began to look,
ftjZ I heard the gun.'

mi-rajt
lii
btnft
kardam bi-tamasha kardan-i dukUnhti would mean

'
***&i oJj <**

\)
bi-niahlnad
(ra.c.)
wanted to
settle.'*
lift
v^
1
raftam kitab ra bar daram ki
" I was just going to
ffrj {&* the book
USB OF THE TENSES.
519
biyak dast charkh dadan va bi-yak dast asbab tlz kardan khayll mushkil bud balki fitch kar sakhta nami-shud (m.c.) " to turn the wheel with one hand and sharpen the tools with the other was by no means easy, in fact no work
could be
'
done":
ty
^*> AJuxUî
j|
^fi
' '
kar-l az
ft
sakhta mi-shavad (m.c.)
'
was he capable of doing any work ?

(5)
The Imperfect
1
is
in m.c. often used instead of the Present.
Though
this use is generally considered
sometimes more polite to use this construction. Thus MJJ* axUfîu* ^(^ ^*> bi-kudam dukan ml' khwasfid* birawd (m.c.) "what shop was it you were wishing to visit?"
vulgar,
it is
is
considered a more polite (fasih) form than,

(t
&^ axafjiu* 0(3^ ^f^j bi-kudam

to
?
dukan mi-khwahid biravld
(m.c.)
what shop do 2 you want to go
"
**
mi-khwastl bi-shavad (m.c.) "what did you expect to but happen?" ij*b**& *^ chi mi-khwahl bi-shavad (m.c.) "what do " A you wish to happen ? dispensing chemist might say to a customer who had come tt> him before with the prescription, **- cu+*t ism-at chi bud ?
i
j^ î> iuA>
chi
a^
(6)
Lastly, the Imperfect

vide, (i)
is
used to denote conditions and not real
actions,
and Conditional and Optative Clauses.
(*V^* J^ 1) &*) fb+Â shast-tumam baray-i zan-i

ki tn ra bavar
;^T
tit
e>*
^ hamchi
shuda
ast ki nim-tana-yi
panjah
sawqat
(Vazir-i
mi-kardam*
to say.
bi-firistad, ya'nl man an qadr ahmaq-am Lankaran) "and now it comes to pass
that she sends a jacket worth

wife!
some 50
or 60
tumans
a-5
a present to your
(should
That
is
am
I such a fool that I should believe this?
have believed this? )." by the Contmuative

signifies
In modern Persian, the place of the Imperfect is sometimes taken Perfect; the difference being that the latter tense
that the speaker was not present on the occasion mentioned or has no personal knowledge of the facts, whereas the Imperfect leaves these points doubtful. Vide (t).
(i)
The Past Potential*
or Habitual Tense (obsolete in m.c.) differs little

of
it.
from the Imperfect and was possibty merely another form
It
is
Persian
Even well-educated Persians frequently use this construction. The best colloquial is simple and not too correct. One of the reasons that Persians do not underPersian,
is
that the latter speak too correctly and employ even. An compound adjectives and words that Persians do not use in ordinary writing clause to a short will use where a Persian use one will Indian (correct) word, frequently
stand Indians that speak
express that word.

*
8
The time might also refer to yesterday. bi-kunam: also * Or hotter f*\y^ khwaham
127. Vide understood. tically conditional with the Apodosis * This tense in its simple form without the prefixes is
kard.
This sentence
is
prac-
still
used in conditional
it
sentences
by both Indians and
Afghans
in
speaking.
Modern Persians use
in
writing only.
620
USE OF THE TENSES.

L
formed by adding <S remains unchanged.
to every person except the 2nd Person Sing, which
Like the Imperfect, it can in classical Persian take a pleonastic ty. or Sometimes the prefix Â is in classical Persian added, and in
this
case the prefix *> is always omitted. (1) In classical Persian, it can take the place of the Imperfect to signify A *$ AUS'O.J&X habitual action, as: ejf^ly j c$ A;LA e>U*&>* (t>* \) ^^JUe
^^
jiu
cs^
!)
zdlim-i rd hikdyat
kunand
ki "hlzam-i darvlshdn Isharidl* bi-hayf, va
<c 6 it is told of a certain tyrant that he tavdngardn ra dddl* bi-tarh' (Sa'di) used forcibly to buy wood for fuel from the poor, and soil it to the rich at a
good profit"
ûj ^ <^**^ &*>*>) vaqthd zamzama-i* kardandi* va bayt-l muhaqqiqdna bi-gujtandi'1 (Sa'di) " at times they were " b humming a little and reciting mystical verses jb j (S^ ^*~1 î* c$^* " 1 (^-~o yak-i tawba-yi* bisydr kardi* va bdz bi-sMkastl' (Sa'di) a certain one
:
c$.aJuij
*jlft:svx>
^j
used to repent oft but ever fall again.'' (2) It has also a potential sense, as:
b^ ^"*i javanl
charkh-anddz u silah-shur va
1
bi-badraqa hamrah-i
bish-zur ki
shud sipar-bdz u dah mard-i tavdnd kaman-i urd bi-zih
ma
na-kardandi 1 va zurdvardn i ru-yi zamln pusht-iurd bar zamin na-ydvardandi* " there went with us as an escort a (Sa*di) youth, skilled in the use of
the shield and bow, a fine man-at-arms and an athlete."
(3) In classical (and in Indian and Afghan) Persian this tense is also used in a certain class of conditional and optative sentences as well as in
predicative sentences, vide Conditional and Optative clauses
127 and
128.
Remark I.
In certain conditional sentences this tense can be interchanged
with the Imperfect, either the same tense being used in the protasis and apodosis, or one tense in one, and the other in the other.
Remark II. In modern Persian, the Pluperfect and the Imperfect usually take the place of this tense in Predicative and Conditional sentences.
In old Persian (and

L>
still
in
India
and Afghanistan)
it
is
in
pronunciation
istimrarl
*
is called by grammarians the ya-yi majhuL This " the ya of continued action."
c^Lr*^
CS^ &&*/*
In old Persian
J^t^
is
is
C5î
ya-yi majhvl
i.e.
bharlde, dade> etc.

is
3 Bi-farh
*
6
dadan
f)fj
an idiom
the
*
still
used in Persia, but

well at
rare.
Zamzam
Tawba
name
of
Mekka supposed
away from
to be
Hagar's
well.
*?>*
lit.
turning the
heart
sin*
signifies
renouncing
sin.
6 The Imperfect tense could be substituted for the Past Habitual and would be correct either in classical or in modern Persian.
7
in this sentence,
Note the
last
j only
is
pronounced
va.
USB OF THE TENSES.

(j)
521
The Future
Perfect,
In
classical Persian these

t&jjf
tejc
jU
l
cj
id
and Past Subjunctive or Presumptive Past. two are identical in form, as ^>y d!/* jt (3^ ^ az shavad dvarda tarydq 'Iraq mdr-gazida murda
:
*b
"before'2 the antidote can be procured from Iraq the " person bitten by the snake will have died I; 6ilL^ J^? *x^ &bj*> U " td chubdn bi-rasadgurg gusfand rd khwurda bashad (class.) by the time
bashad (Sa'di)
:
^^
the shepherd arrives the wolf will have eaten the sheep
a
"
êl j&
dar nazar-i a'ydn u buzurgan-i Hazrat-i Khudavandl 'azz a nasruh* ki...ast agar dar siyaq-i sukhan dillri kunam shukhl karda basham
fa~kayj
(Sa'di)
" how much the more then were
to display boldness in pursuing

etc., shall I
speech in the presence of the distinguished nobles, etc.,
have
been guilty of presumption."
Ta mard
'
sulchan na-gufta bashad B
<(
Ayb u hunar-ash nihufta bashad (Sa'di). As long as a man may not have spoken
His good and bad points are hidden."
o*j&x
^^
JL
kj
cî;'**
J^
u^
**
and they (the doordar saray nist va bi-haqiqat rast gufta bdshand (Sa'di) keepers) say that there is no one in the house, and they may in fact
have spoken the truth 4
'
' ;
3 va ^^ "
yuyand
ki kas
*U
***&
o^s|
&'
tf sahib-dil-i ra guftand bid/in khubi ki aftab ast naAii^f cu-^ji i;j| shumda-im ki kas-i urd dust girifta bashad 6 (Sa di) "it was remarked to a
c
^^
^^ ^^j îii?
of
f;
^t, <+A\+
certain
w "se man
f
that
'
in
spite
of
the excellence
the sun
we have
never yet heard that any one has looked (should have looked) on him as a Vide 126 (k). friend.'"
(2)
'
bayad txl &>y

ta*lif>i
In modern Persian this tense >^ " " must "or x>^ shdyad perhaps /
(
* *
Û
f;
by *A> *^ *^ ^ e)^^ u-^ ti^j 1 bi-rasad In bi-Landan tainki^ bayad u kaghaz uiJ^3y
)
^ ^
is
'
usually preceded
as
khud ra lamam karda bashad (mo.)
ff
by the time
this letter readies
In modern Persian
o**>|
foj* murda ast "is dead,
will
be dead" cau be used
instead of the Future Perfect, to signify certainty. 2 Perhaps a more accurate translation of ta in this kind of sentence
is
"
by the
little
time that."
8
In m.c.
it
also
means " as soon as."

na gufta
aat
Na
guy ad *ij&
or
**\ *&&,
*
could be substituted with
alteration in the meaning.

* i.e.
5 6
7
the rich owners inside count as

**!
nobody.*
In mod. Pers.
*${^ or
^^
^
AX&f,>
o*j
dust daahta bashad or girifta aat.
Or simply ^ ta, instead Or *~j%* mi-rasad.
of *&>f
ta Inki.
522
USE OF THE TENSES.

will
London he
completed (3) There

tj* tAijL.
his
book "
is
probably have completed writing his book,

[vide (5)].
must have
another method of expressing the Future Perfect, i.e. the Past Participle of the verb with the Definite Future, as c>^ **k c*?
:
by
^
i$j
f\
fj
tjL. Ûtf*
$ j^j
ia in
khud ra
bj$
<*&tjfik
tamam
Icarda
khwahad
it
bud
kag&z bi-Landan bi-rasad u kitab-i Persian (In modern (Afghan).

ast
fW
or
o*f *ay fU3 tamam karda

Possibly
or
tamam khwahad kard
could be used.
may
be a translation of the Urdu tense kiya
hoga
'*
will
have done.")
Remark. It will appear from the foregoing remarks that aAU " x& * bayad karda bashad properly signifies "he must have done* shayad karda bashad "he may have done 8 ", wliile karda khwahad " he " will have done. 4 (Afghan)
:
bud
&(> eiJj ^>\ 13 \^9 farda ta m vaqt bayad Compare (1) îC pl+j r, ûr tamam bi-kunam (m.c.) " I must finish this book by this time tomorrow (2) &jS (**1j& or p&** p\+> \) v'^ J^^M ^ '^ farda ta In vaqt in kitab ra famam ml-kunam or fchwahamkard (m.c.) '* by this time to-morrow
In kitab ra
;
I will finish (or will
have finished)
this
book
5
"
(3) vÛr ^jf *)(
c^j'^
^(
f^y
Û
karda basham ÛJ j farda ta in vaqt shay'ad in kitab ra tamam by this time to-morrow, I may have finished this book." (4) The following are m.c. idioms <*a. . (e~4f or) o^b l^y^ OM| *^*a- khivurda ast, khumrda bashad (or p* flrS/), chi kunam ? (m.c.) "what he has eaten, he has eaten, what can I do ?
%$j>
<;
(inc.)
(I
can't help it)."

&jZ tufy
<$a.
(
cô| or
^b
a*f)
chi tavan kard ? (m.c.)
as)
it
"
ipj&fu;!;!^ ( cu%f or ) mi-tavan kusht-ash ? "what he's torn, he's torn; one can't kill him for (but <xL> BJJ^ o^t i^^ darida ast darida bashad "if it's torn, it's torn,
be)."
^b
owst ?f^ karda ast karda bashad (or " " what he's done, he's done; what can one do ? darida ast, darida bashad (or ji^jjd ^~*\ **!)&
let it
The Presumptive Past Tense may, in modern Persian, be formed in two ways as illustrated by the following examples ^'k b c&!>* ** A V' albatta gunah-i karda bud ki saza~. *V^ ra "he have must committed some fault to be punished yash yaft (m.c.)
(5)
:
^^
This Transitive tense might also in some cases be Intransitive, the participle
being considered an adjective. a Presumptive Past.

8 4
*
Presumptive Indefinite Past. Future Perfect.

In modern Persian <V>^ shayad could not be omitted.
for
Yahtamil (J+fc*J can in
modern Persian be substituted
*!&
shayad.
USE OF THE TENSES.

for it" ; vulgarly eu*i ^> omitted, but this is incorrect
vaqi'
523
^
:
karda buda ast might be used and albatta &# *j>y y * g>ij ^} *&*) )*> dar vaqt-l ki In
shud u murda bud " he must have been dead when that happened." ti <xU This has the same **j? Ajb Âlif c/unah-i bayad karda bashad ki
first
meaning as the
Remark.
1
example.
Vide also
t
(2).
^\^ ft
g*lj
vaqi
shud~*
;
Ji
^\
0^1
a^yc
3)1^
%^
<x>b
t&j*
j\
u murda buda
ast ki
kar
*S <x*L
vaqi' sliad
but
for,
^^
tej*
be dead by now", o**{ be substituted.

(1)
Jtejj
jjjyo
y u bayad murda bashad ki In kar he must u hala ^ bayad murda bashad JJU. y u hala murda buda ast could not
' '
'
The Continuative Past Subjunctive is in Indian Persian formed by prefixing mi to the Perfect Subjunctive. The following examples are from the Iqbal~Nama-yi Jahangiri, Ed.
Bibliotheca Indica, of the Bengal Asiatic Society
:
cAb^
*J
.
** ***
l^X^y #(
I;
*
(
^>i^
(k)
(1)
The Perfect Tense
The remarks on the
Preterite
Tense [vide
(g)]
have already shown
that
sometimes supplies the place of the Perfect in English. The Perfect Tense in English expresses an action just finished
it
and
" I
it is
incorrect to apply
it
to an action finished in a past time; therefore
have seen him yesterday If however no time be
*"
is
incorrect.
specified, the use of the Perfect tense is correct,

is
because "though the action

'
accomplishment down to the present it is therefore correct to say seen him s whether the meeting occurred to-day or a year ago.'
:
*
'
passed, the doer credits himself with its ' I have
Since
'
when a temporal Conjunction
refers
to
time
distinctly
past and should therefore in English be followed by the Preterite: it is incorrect to say " I have not seen him since I have been here (or since I have come here) 4 " ; say " since I came here/' The following examples illustrate the use of the Persian Preterite for
the English Perfect: " and I have cited 5 this apologue that it may be understood, that in travel the most complete exaltation is attained and
a
8
4-
is not used in Persia. " I saw him yesterday ." In Persian also the Preterite. Say ft ura dlda-l have you seen him In Pors. also the Perfect Tense
This tense
X^
' '
?
*
Az
vagt-l ki Inja
amadam
ura na-didam f*>!&>
\))\
f^f
lap-Vt
^H?3
by the
Since
'
(seeing that) indicating a sequel or consequence can rightly be followed

6
Perfect.
The
Preterite in Persian (for the English Perfect)
is
here used in accordance with
the rule quoted
(gr),
para.
3.
524
that
(East. Trans.)
USE OF THE TENSES.
"
yU
)* *t *$& ^1**
1
Li
^^
^^
td
oâu JS
va in masal birjihat an irad
kardam
dar safar taraqqiyat-i tamam ast (Anwar-i Suhayll). course of Dabishlim was ended the other Vazir advanced
"
ma'lum shavad ki And when the disand

said,
'That
which His Imperial Majesty, the Shadow of God, has been pleased to say in " (East. Trans.) ^^ y explanation of travel and its advantages
^^
sukhan-i Dabishlim bi~itmam rasid Vazir- i dlyar

pish amad.
.
. .
va aw/2 'anchi Haziat-i Mhahanshahi

(Anvar-i Suhayll).
zill"
llah
dar bayan-i safar

**
va fava*id-i an farmudand
Kuja
is
budl. (m.c.)
where were
time
is
>
' '
you (when I called) ? As one of the uses

but that
"
;
" where have you been kuja buda-i
all this
of the Perfect in Persian
to indicate that an act
past,
its effect still
continues, the Perfect often takes the place of the
English Preterite, thus: ^ j>/ yfjj> sar mi-rizad ki chira 'aruei karda am
*$
&j** j~
^ ^^
Miak bar
(m.c.)
"he
is
scattering dust
on his head (and saying) alas why did I ever marry"; here the Perfect is used because the effect of the action continues. Similarly &$ij }t AJ*>J ki inja amada am ura na-dida am (m.c.) fj,f f\ awf tsuuf az ruz-i f\ " I have not seen or l?^ ) jt him, since I came here" ( f\ |*i-*k oôU^ az ruz-i ki inja haslam (or amada am) saldmat am 4< J enjoy good ^} health since I came here ": h^ W*> fiala ura didam (rn.c.) "I have just
:
seen
" he has just died/' but cu-^l JU c&. ' '* c**l jj^c âi 5a/ a<9^ murda ast (or /aw^ shuda ast) he has been dead a year. Another use of the Perfect is to indicate a time (indefinite) anterior to the
him"
J|U.
hald
fva murd
(m.c.)
Preterite,
thus:
OS*M
ast
^>
<jr^** jfi
u*^
*
j*
Bandar-i
Abbas
an
shahr-i
mu'tabar-i buda
' '
(m.c.)
"Bandar-i
Abbas was
once
important
here cu~.| ^y buda ast signifies that the city is one of the has beens,' place before the speaker's time, whereas tj* bud would signify that the speaker was in B. Abbas when it was an important place. Note the following miscellane;
tu
ous examples: ft 8^ J^^y tf c*~jxj>* &**> muddat-i madid-i " shuda am "I have been in love with you a long time ashiq
*sl
;
ki bar
here the
Perfect shows the continuance of the state
hastam could be substituted and

A^
(!
would be more
to
forcible,
ft
*x
_yo>
^f v*^/*
*^
il
c^3^
I
^^ o^
bajan-i khud bdzi karda
am
;
ki murtakib-i in
amr shuda am
have run
risk
my
life
in doing this
' '
here the Perfect shows that the risk existed and
still
continues; the Preterite would indicate that the risk had been run and risk was over; the Present p*** mi-kunam would signify "I am running a " and be would followed another Present. now, by In classical Persian however the Preterite is often used in such a case,
thus
c>j
bud could bo
classically substituted for
o^| a^ buda
ast in the first
In m.c. Irad generally
means " objection
(to
an arrangement).*
'
USE OF THE TENSES.

example.
ast.
1
525
The The Perfect can
Also &j*j*jt+ty Payg&ambar farmud (class.) for c**| *:>>*y farmuda Perfect however clearly indicates that the writer was not present.
indicate
an action recently finished
if
the time
:
is in-
JIU definite, but if the time is definite the Preterite should be used, thus *' *5J5 rasidaI have but <H*^ W*> just arrived," fl f*x*; man hdld rasidam
^
a
am would
signify that the arrival
perhaps yesterday: sv â^tv haji," but
^^ </*^ ^ ^^ ^*
i/U*
though recent, was perhaps an hour ago,

*
shudam
(m.c.)
"I am now
"
ft
hdld hdjl shuda
am "I have
recently become a
hdji
(perhaps two years ago).

In tho example above
Remark.
the
here," td hald, tinuance of the effects of the past act. If however the words JJla* or eJ>tf| U id aknun, etc., be inserted, the Preterite Tense should be used, as o,*lU* \) ^yx ^\f U j^f tjuf JAJL?J jf az vaqt-l ki injd dmadam td Icunun
:
Present
or
Perfect
is
"I enjoy good health since I came used in Persian to signify the con-
î>j
ô
khud rd saldmat mi-hinam

speaking.
(2)
(m.c.).
This rule
is
however sometimes broken
in
The
,
contracted
third person singular is sometimes, in old the final being discarded as c^JUy
,
:
guftam
khatt-i zisht-ast ki bi-db zar navisht-ast
&t o**| cu^j <îux ^ ^J^ " I (Sa'di) replied it (is like) a
and
in
modern Persian,
bad writing
in letters of gold."
Karm
lutf-i Khuddvandagdr Gunnh banda kardast u u sharmsdr
bin u
(Sa di)
" Behold the bounty and kindness of the Lord That his creatures sin and He feels the shame."
This contraction occurs in m.c.

(3)
The
ast of the third person singular is often
omitted* altogether,
as
*A^ jf
jj *U* )
cua*>
mashaqqat va 'and* bar man have passed over me."
^ cuxscuo y Afuf dnchi az mihnat va bald va " as for the travail and affliction which g&zashta
^ AU
"Shushtav was formerly a flourishing town" c5^^ j^> ^>^ Shushtar shahr-i mu'tabar-i buda (m.c.); (were bud here used in modern Persian instead of ow*i ^j buda ast it would signify that the writer or
speaker saw what he is describing). In the other persons, the substantive verb can be omitted only in such sentences, as: "The reason for my coming to your house was that I did,
and
still
do, love your sister-in-law

ast
"
j* \^
&*
**
w of U
Payyhambar
ml-farmayad"
It is the
Prophet himself who

:
says"
*
8
Hajl, Pers. for Ar. hajjiyy, or colloq. hatfi In modern Persian poetry the full form
8 is
**
in Arabic writing al-fyafj only is used.
is
written though often for the sake of
scansion the
omitted.
taken away,
i.e.
understood."
526
tj
USB OF THE TENSES.
j*^
l*~J> el) jihat-i
a n bud ki
(Vazir-i
man
khwdhir-zan-i tu Nisd
this sentence
hdnum
f;f->J*
dmadan-i man bi-khdna-yi shumd rd dust ddshta va ml-ddram

l
Lankaran); in
the 1st person."
ml-ddram indicates that daxhta
aSÛ
is
If
mentioned once, the substantive verb can, however, be understood for

:
the remaining cases in any person, as
ff
t*\&
^ i&)& j
shunida am, where
am is
rafta va dida va
understood after each verb.

(t).
For the Continuative Perfect Tense vide
Compare
Âjj^su ^
j
the emphatic statements " I do not and will not," as: &* man Mch vaqt tasllm nami-shavam va not^ f*^~* ^*j
&
khwdhaw shud
(m.c.)
pf^-j^j AiAfjj cîja

:
IjjtjJyfc
/nan liargiz urd dust na-
dashta va nam\-daram (m.c.)
8^
&&*;+&
CU-A
AÂ
&$
^^ ^^ Jj^
***>
^j AAJ^ ma hama mdyil bi-ln khayal-lm ki harchi hast hamtsha buda va khwahad 4< we are all apt to imagine that what is, always has, and bud (m.c.) " be." will [In English an ellipsis after the auxiliaries have, do, shall, always " is correct only if, where the ellipsis occurs, the will, may, and can principle
verb can be inserted
it
without change,
i.e.
in
the same
form
in
which
occurs in one clause of the sentence.

:
cannot be inserted after has In Persian however such an ellipsis

(1)
In the last example be (expressed) therefore been should be inserted after has.
is
The Pluperfect
is
not incorrect.] used in nearly the same manner as in

it is
English.
It indicates a time anterior to the Preterite.
In classical and in modern Persian

instead of the old Past Habitual,
Sentences.
used in conditional sentences

:
or of the Imperfect
'
vide Conditional
vide' Optative clauses. *>.x& e>U*T ^ ^j^ jt Ûj^X/o (jtf^S f^J *^J *> e;^J;^J' jO* Â d Â az dawr-i budam varuy az zamdn na-ndlida ty hargiz j j-J j*xui LT^V^ asmdn dar-ham na-kashida* magar vaqt-i-ki payam barahna bud va gardish-i
It ia also
used in modern Persian after kdshki'.
In, p>\
^^M
tstita'at-i
budam is As stated
pay-pushi na-dashtam (Gul. Chap. Ill, Story 19), used to express time anterior to ddshtam.
^^J
*J&
ndllda
p*&&
in (#), the Preterite
follow each other.
used in narrating events that closely Thus in the following sentence, the Persian Preterites
is
takes the place of

little
the
and regained my <sj** cJ>^ f^ U chun dsuda sar-i ja-yi khud dmad pd va shudam **1 nafas qadr-i P&J! shudam\ here, if the two first Persian verbs were put in the Pluperfect, it would signify that 'I had rested, a couple of hours or so ago, or
yesterday, etc.*
English Pluperfects: "When breath I got up " <^ (^^j~ u***> j
had
rested
^f
Am is understood.
Budam
is
understood after kashlda.
USB OF THE TENSES
527
The
following examples illustrate a use of the Preterite, Perfect, and

:
Pluperfect
Supposing a master were to order his servant to bring a c5^-;^* shikar-chi and were then to go out for an hour or two, and on his return ask The reply might be his servant if the shikar-chi had arrived. "he has come." amad (just) (i) <>x>f
:
(ii)
(iii)
*>*T amada, or cu*! l&tfamada ast he came and is still here.' &# *^T dmadabud 'he did come (but has gone away again).'
*
Vide also (m)
(9).
Remark.
budanii
is
The rarer form

as
clauses.
of the Conditional Pluperfect
^^
**/ karda
used
a substitute for the
Pluperfect,
only
in Conditional
and Optative
(m)
or
(1)
The Past Participle*
is
used conjunctively and serves to throw two

CL*>
more short sentences

' '
bnr-1 zaban-i ta'annut
Jtji OAAJ ^b} dardz karda hami-guft (Sa'di) "so he began to say in
into one, 8 as:
^^ l^
Û
* *<& o**;U ^Wf aj&f^ *!& fj (fJ( laliska-ha ra ***jf (J^^^ khamush amadand kardand, durust shud (Shah's Diary) paymnigdh dathta "the train was stopped; they got down and extinguished the fire, and all
derision
was put right"
falx^& (jwâU 4j^y toj c^t ij^J I; ^Tjt^ô magar Taymur zada pish-i madar-ash nafiristada-l (Vazir-i Lankaran) ra zamin-ash Agha " but haven't Taimur Agha to the ground (in wrestling) and sent thrown you
:
him
Pjô
(in
a state of insensibility) to Ids mother?
"
^ ^f
*S
vs
Al* cUj ( jt> ) pas rava'st (ki) 4 akhir-i 'umr (dar) ^Jl^ Shu'la Khdnam bachcha na-dtda bi-mwamt (Vazir-i Lankaran) "then is it " right I should die without having seen a child in Shu'la Khanum's arms ?
^4 t*j<> *ap.j
:
pS9\j
*^Ji 9 *j\
ptijZ
\)
**)) ?y
*<*
oi? guftmikh zada
riipiya ra giriftam, az
yaftam ? "he replied, I got the rupees as a reward for hitting the mark (with an arrow); but I have got nothing as yet by my begging": " we started before W) *->> w^'f (iftab na-zada rah uftddlm (m.c.)
su*al chi
fi&ti*i
sunrise"
&*\
^ (^
*l^*
*~>^^
^^
(*^^
^V^t" *^^
^J h* v^*
'
o,qab
mara
yarvarda hamrah-i man mi-amad 6 "it (the wild goat) refused to leave me but followed me everywhere, just like a tame goat."
vil
na-karda bi-har
ja-i
ki ml-rajtam manind-ibuz-i
Some grammarians
the above
consider the final
of the participle in instances like
to be a copulative Conjunction. 6
*
3
The Conjunctive
In Urdu, the Pluperfect here would have this same signification. Participle is also common in Hindi and Urdu.
Vide also (n). Tn the original, ki and dar are omitted. Ac *aqab-i u mi-raft would be right. Not mi-raft &Jj&l but C^MO y
*
^
In modern Pers. writing, this participial construction

*
is
preferred to coupling finite
verbs together by ^
and
'
528
USE OF THE TENSES.

:
Occasionally a redundant j is found after the participle, as *^ *#<> 1) L^>J>P &)& avarda-and ki buzina-l l darudt5*J ai-*î t5?>^gar-i ra dtdki bar chub-l nishasla vami-burid (Anv. Sub. Chap. I, St. 5) "they
*J*
have related that a monkey saw a carpenter sitting upon a piece of timber, which he was cutting, and ". (East, Trans.); (either elide the va or insert bud after nishasta).
O**ji}
T JjA3f
***\
J AAW[J>
(,*;UuoU9j
^ f^ ^lA, jy^^xx* bi-'ivaz-i mkikhudrdtaht4himayat-i'Amir-i Bukhara bi-danid bayad khud ra taht-i himayat-i Dust Muhammad Khan, Hukmran-i Afghanistan danista va ism-i Amir Dust Muhammad Khan ra dar
j*5UJ cl^f.i Â.
tukt
khutba-yi khud dakhil
numa*id.
'
(Mem.
Abd u r- Rahman Khan, Amir
of
Afghanistan, Fasl-i awal, p. 12).

djj+* j
^^
;
^^
*'
l*Hi
*^ A
J^
if
shighal harchi
pay da bi-kunad duzdlda va
mi-ravad (m.c.)
in this
cation might be,
duzdlda ml-ravad were written, the signifi. example In these examples the redundant va goes secretly."
should grammatically be omitted. This Perfect Participle " having
"
is
not
much used
in speaking.
Remark
/.
The va can
:
of course be correctly used to couple
two or more
participles together, as
hisar
ra
c>A?jU ^r>J^ i&&$ )\*?~) cuilô ^ t^f ^bsv* \) ; Ua^ muhasara karda va mashaqqat-i bisyar kashlda, ma*yus, baz-gasht
Remark //.It may be noticed that

accusative case, as
:
this
participle
can govern an
p**) e>^
eA' **j* *
i I;
<e
J^
û ^y
&u ba'd az an bachcha-yi
buz ra yad karda bi-an makan raftam Vide also 142 (a) went to the place."
then recollected the kid and
(2).
Remark 111. "This very idiomatic use of the Past Participle will present no difficulty to the reader if he will translate all these (subordinate) Past Participles much as he would an Ablative Absolute in Latin, i.e.
"haying done so-and-so (and) having made
this (and)
having completed that
deed, he acted (principal verb) thus." f{ When rendering into idiomatic English, the sentences must, of course be broken up." Introduc. Vazir of Lankaran' by Haggard and Le Strange. can take the place of an adverb 3 c>^ ^^J o*a>y (2) This participle
{ :
a/
me
**& marhamat farmuda baân kumd ki (m.c.) " kindly explain to , " Ufl* îJL ^JÂxivAXJ Awyj to*jf cUx j bar khiffat~i 'aql-i man
(j
:
<*
" besides this, in addition to this." guzashtaaz In (m.c.)
haml kardand va nihufta mi-khandidand (Sa*di) "they imputed weakness of my understanding and began to laugh secretly
' ' :
it
to the
In modern Persian the form *^jj tf buzina is preferred. In classical Persian baz gasht without kard would be used.
'
'
Devotedly
and
lovingly* are examples of adverbial participles in English.
USE OF THE TENSES.

(3) It
' *
l :
529
can take the place of a substantive t^* ^ÂJ bi-surat-i murda * like a ^î (m.c) corpse* *o&** îlUcJ^ j*Ljt JÛ^b baqt-manda-yi ayyamdawlat-i salatln-i Safaviyya ast (m.c.) " these (buildings) have been in " existence since the days of theSafavi dynasty cu^.i f*fj^ \) &&*& guzashta " ra khwaham navisht (m.c.) I will write what happened, i.e. the particulars'* jl <^^*&jf kardaha-yi u (m.c.) "his deeds": ft* I; &*y î In navishtara
: : ;
didam
(m.c.)
"I saw
this writing (or letter)." a
Ba
nafs hamtsha dar nabard-am, chi
Va'z karda-yi
kunam ? khwishtan bi-dard-am, chi kunam

;
"Against
I think
my lusts I ever war, in vain, on my ill deeds with shame and
' *
pain (0. K. Whin. Trans. Hub. 322).
Farmuda-yi na-karda siyah-ruy-am kard Faryad zi karda-ha-yi nd-farmuda s (0. K. Whin. Rub. 418).
Az jam-i fana chujur'a-% nushidl Az bud u na-budagan* bi-kulll rastt (O. K.) " And, when you drink of His entrancing cup, You hasten your escape from quick and dead.
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 429).
can take the place of a clause: khadim dlda va shunlda ra 'arz namud (m.c.) "the servant related what ho
(4) It
had seen and heard": AX( J 5 p* tukhm-i awal-kashta "the seed, the seed that was first sown." (6) It can take the place of an adjective: " one mi-kardam shab
f
first-sown
yak
ta^mmul-i-ayyamri guzashta
pondering on ancient
tafaf-karda* ta*-as8uf
life*'
:
" times
f^y***
'
*JUtf
mi-khwurdam
(Sa'di)
"and
night I was *-^ j+* j* j va bar ( umr-i was regretting my wasted

(Sa di)
**+tf aramida* (Afghan)
quieted, quiet."
Compare the Ar. Past

"
Part, malbus
u**^
(dressed), pi.
oUÛ
malbusat, used
in m.o. to signify
dress, dresses."
; ertf In ra navishta
But
'
c **t>
Al*>
Sins of omission and commission.
didam (m.c.) " I saw this written." Note the unusual uae of t*yj*b nd-farmuda
for
0>^* c.^ nahl farmuda.

*
For
^
34
btida
and &tf*j*> narbudagan.
Or **" shuda.
In mod. Pers.
H^;f armlda from &***)( \armldan
is,.
preferred.
530
USE OF THB TENSES.
^3
13
Asuda
shab-i
bayad u Ichush mahtab-i
Ta
ba tu hikayat
kunam az har
bab-i
Couplet.
I need the quiet night-timo and the pleasant morn as well, That to thee I may the story of all my sorrows tell.
(Eastwick's Trans.).
(6) It
Ji*^
o^y
can be used as a passive participle: in latlfa bar taq-i ayvan-i Faridun

1
navishta bud (Sa'di)

of
this pleasantry
was written over the arch of the palace'2
Faridun"
pa~yi
(7)
man
basta ast ^n.c.)
"my
foot
is
tied."
Sometimes
:
this participle supplies the place of the present participle
^ u*>* oL*t^ ^!/ 3!^*^ 3 *l) cJ)^* manazil-i rah az arz kard (m.c.) "1 will tell you the bi-Tahran khirnham Shiraz girifta td " cu-t ^f>^ kh,wablda ast stages to Tehran commencing from Shiraz " cu-| &w~^ nishasta ast " lie is " he is sitting, seated" sleeping, asleep
in English, as $j
f*^
ct
8Ûo! istada ast

<
* *
he
' '
is
standing
jjU
Vj^j
o^^ ^^
du
sa'at bi-g&urub
two hours (remaining) to sunset." Vide (10). (8) Sometimes this participle can be substituted for the Present PartiDavida ciple with but a slight shade of difference in meaning, thus:
(m.c.)
manda
atnad
having run he came, he came running," but >-*f &1j* ^^ dair^n damn amad implies that the running was continuous; "he ran the whole way."
**>t
t&j*
= bi-daw ama d
<>^f
'*
(m.c.)
(9)
The Past
Participle frequently indicates a state,

object.
It
and
in this case is
often in apposition to the
sometimes supplies the place of the ura dlJam az bam uftada (m.c ) "I saw him *&*) ;y Pluperfect: fb jf from the roof" has the same signification as fallen (i.e. after he had fallen)
^^
o| or
o>?
(m.c.): V*>
to&t f^3^ ** \*t* b > ? * r ^ dldam ki az bam uftada bud (or a$J) 8 ***) !/tjjK kdravun ra* rafta did (Sa di) '*he saw that the caravan
r
had departed": <j2M^ *yj
*w^^ & *>)s*j

]
MWyi.
cj>3
c^*^^ ofj
**>
aV/ az an didam-ash zan-khwasta va farzanddn bar
In the dictionary ono meaning of
*fi*laJ
laftfa
is
**
mysterious
meaning,"
which
doors*
better suits tho context than the motlern
* In
mod.
Pers.
O^f
ayvun
is
latlfa. meaning a veranda or a room with pillars and without
of
MWaJ
But $*t
roof**
4
:
fl*
jf
& ^X^
t;^f
f7r5
didam ki az b&m uftad "I saw him

ast.
fall
from the
in this sentence the Preterite takes the place of an English Infinitive.
saownl AU;
^y\ if &*
did ki karmian rafta
USB OF THE TENSES,

khasta va bikh-i
531
nashat-ash burida va gul-i hivas-aah pazhmurda (Sa'di) " afterwards I saw him when he had taken a wife and had grown-up children
his
and his joy had departed and *Jl&& &* jjj^f o;U^ Myp yL
ambition declined ":
cdaj^ **
&U
tij-xxf
shabdngah ki duzdan baz amadand
* ' at night when the safar-karda va gharat-avarda sildh bi-kushddand (Sa'di) thieves returned (in a state of) having travelled and having brought plunder
with them, they unbuckled their arms.'*

Participle of certain transitive verbs is also used in a " or o**i &&>> navishia ast may signify " he has written thus passive sense, "it is written ": similarly the perfect participles randa, **& kushta
(10)
;
The Past
Mj
Alssujf avtkhta,
etc.
AÔ
rikhta, **#}? kubida,
*^J^ shunida,
Aiif gufta,
*^j dida,
Compare No.
(7).
(11) The negative of the participles is usually, in classical Pers., formed In modern Pers. &* na is preferred. Umar-i Khayyam uses with b nd
'
.
both.
But
for
Na-karda gunah dar jahan kist ? Bi-gu " " Was ever man born that never went (O.K.). astray ? the scansion, atitf ^> na-karda gunah could be used.
Ay
"
nlk na-karda u badlha karda

ill,
thou who hast done
and
ill
alone.
"
(Whin. Trans. Bub. 406).

Vide also example in
(n)
(3).
Hodgson
says,
of
"
Participles are often a valuable

clauses, with two
finite
means
of condensafinite
;
tion, as instead
two
verbs, one
clause
and
is
participle will suffice,
when
there
is
common
"
also,
subject
" Too
*
great care cannot be exercised to leave no doubt as to
placed in apposition to,
if
what a participle really one would avoid the error known as the mis-
related participle.'
"
This author then
known English
writers,
cities as errors examples from wellwhere the sentences sometimes contain no word to
1
which the participle can possibly refer, or where the participle refers to a Possessive Pronoun only, or where the true relation of the participle is obscured by faulty collocation, The error in, " Sir Charles Wetherell addressed the
House
(of
Lords)
In Urdu and Hindi,
instances of the 'misrelated participle* are rare.

'
few
selekar generally phrases similar to the above, as, aksar karke (vulg. Hindu.) " az anja girifta (Pers.), are used absolutely like etc. commencing (Hindu.)
:
"
from"
concerning, notwithstanding,' etc., in English.
532
three hours
USB OF THE TENSES.

;
when being
e^JUx>
<j$*f;J5
fatigued
is
by
his exertions, their lordships ad\j~Jj
journed to the following day,"

>Jaij
repeated in:
u>T)f
^ $& c^L ^
13
*U
ejÂj
;bp j|
*>
******
/SAaA (5 nim-sa'at nutq kard va pas
mamlakat az darbar bJrun raftand (m.c.) "the Shah made a speech lasting half an hour; then being fatigued the * Vazirs left the darbar." In oJ) ojj# *j* ibj* jbâ vsjj zan dar baz karda mard birun raft (m.c.) " the woman having opened the door the man went out," though the participle may be 'misrelated' there is no ambiguity whatever. Further if the view
az an Ichasta-shuda
vuzara-yi
of
lent to the conjunction
x of the participle is equivathe sentence 'and,' may also be grammatically correct according to the laws of Persian grammar.
some grammarians be
correct that the final
The misrelated
vSA^j^y
^
'
participle is a construction
common
**>j*
d>j <yj B^J *ixJ^?U,
laxif
modern Persian. jy* hanuz dar anja ja*g%r

in
(Tr.
na-shuda, pira-zan-i bi-shiddat-i harchi tamamtar dar bt-kuft

I, Chap. II), and knocked violently at the door.'
H.
B.
scarcely having settled
down
:
there, an old woman came
In
^-f c>Ua j>
oA|
p.
is j*jyo
(^û*^ y
parti-
jJUJ
^li/
&(**
Û
"
i;
(Tr.
is
H. B. Chap.
understood.
XXXIV,
288), the
ciple (misrelated)
being"
Also as there
is
nothing to
show
whether there
sukhan or not, it would be better, to avoid a possible misreading, to put ** f*j* mardum-i dih first.
is
an
izafat after (?**
hardly intelligible; to a listener, the ambiguity might be removed by the gesture and the intonation of the
reader, the following
is
To a
speaker: f*UIjj
*=*?>
is+*')*>
cs^V ^H^yp AÛ^f
SL^|
aJJ
i*K &J+AA
owf
Jy fj 3^; j JU auJt w>*> &+&ij* f c*ULjj ^ cu-ô (H. B. to refers the here namuda the addressee, and lala, ***+> XV, 128); p. Chap. ^^t &^& na-Jcarda ast to the son. Though this construction is common in m.c., and considered correct
^;So
by many Persians, it is better avoided. For other kinds of participal obscurity

(o)
vide
is
142
(/).
The Present
Participle in
u>T
an
not
much
used.
As already
stated, the past participle sometimes takes
its place.
Whenever the present
participle is used, it
makes the action continuous
(.?*** &j)j* (*u bi-hukm-i zarurat sukhan guftam p&) e*J!r#cA*' j^.J ' I was forced to open my lips and va iafamtj kunan blrun raffim (Sa'di)
f&
we
left (the
garden) rejoicing as
we went."
Their Lordships or Sir Charles ? If the word vuzara it was the Shah who was fatigued and not the ministers. were placed before the participle khasta shudct it would be clear that the vazirs were tired.
1
Here
USB OF THE TENSES.
533
Ma-gu anduh-i khwish bd dushmandn Ki la hawl guyand shddi kunan. (Sa'di)

l
' '
Tell not
your secret
grief to
your enemies
horror rejoicing
all
For they
...fj^
will express their
the while.''
(lund
&*
lund kunan rafta
&*.** ^jf.) ***) viA' zir-i lab ml guyad)
*M *M
'
Jl^
IfJ
Ziba*
Khanum
muttering, says under her breath) r*i*>h is* t*^ ^li^^/o jfy^f az pahlu-yi dbdddmhd bd kamdl-i ihtirdz murur
:
l
Man chird " Ziba Khanum (going off " Why should I J^'o l^jabf u^)\
"we
travelled
kunan shabhd mi-rdndim

as long as
(Tr.
H. B.)
with
much
we were
day,
* '
e>f Ûf^^lx^j^t ubisyar khwahdn-i an bud ki (H. B.): (m.c.) " he was very desirous to ": ^^>y Ûy ^J magar tarsdnbucfil (m.e.) were you in a state of fearing (when you saw him) ; but Â^y jLo magar
"
in the inhabited parts of the country, lying
precaution by during the
tarsldl
**did
you
fear (at the
moment you saw him)
"
Continuative tenses can be
an auxiliary verb, as:

I
<XX!~A
think
"
<*xy
Ûy
formed from the Present Participle and t* magar tarsdn hastid "you are fearing }
refer to the
mi-tarsid
might
future as well as the
Ua.>f tf ^f ÛyL khwdhdn-i an budam ki injd bi-ydyam = present. ^jUj &f x mi-khwdslam ki griydn shud **he began to weep, ^Jwi^j>> he became weeping": cu~t girydn ast "he is a instate of
^^
o^
^J
tears" (present only); but *&** & girya mt-kunad, or be future mt-shavad might girydn (future
:
^ ^ ^f
*ij***>
mi-giryad
only).
J
J[w lahza ki az ajal
j*
*>
ganzdn gardam
Chun barg zi shdkh-i 'umr rizdn gardam Alam bi-nashat-i dil bi-g&irbdl kunlm 8
Z'dn pish
ki khdk-i khdk-btzdn gardam.
(O.K.)
receives,
When Khayyam
And
quittance at Death's
life,
hand
sheds his outworn
as trees their leaves,
Full gladly will be
sift this
world away,
(Whin. Trans. Eub. 309).
Ere dustmen
sift
his ashes in their sieves."
JDS hawl*
i.e.
wa
is
15 quwwatf* ilia bi-'llah
**
there
i8
God/'
*
8
there
no striving against Fate.

Vazir-i Lankuran.
is
This exclamation
no power nor strength except in is used on any sudden
emergency.
Stage directions
:
This change of persons
called olAÎ
iltifat.
Possibly there
is
a misprint for
kunam.
534
USB OF THE TENSES.

Remark.
Nearly
allied to this
Continuous Participle are the Verbal

t(
Adjectives ending in a,
arms":
^ ^^
"a
as; Uty ej'jj^ bazuwan-i tavana (Sa'di)
powerful
kur-i na-
tutl-yi
guyd (m.c.)
"a
talking parrot":
Ûjyf
bina 1 (m.c.)
blind
man":
lb
&j* mard-i ddna:

(p)
\^ <j*>?
"legible writing": "a hearing ear." gush-i shinava (m.c.)

(m.c.)
khattri
khwana
Noun of Agency in anda*

of agency, as:
;
is
occasionally used
as an adjective as well as a
(Sa'di
noun
nakhun-idaranda
and m.c.) " claws that rend
rending claws ".
Avval-i Urdi-Bihisht-mah-i 8 Jaldtt
" In the beginning
When
"
Bulbul guyanda bar mandbir-i quzban. (Sa'di.) of the month of Urdibihisht of the Jalali year, the bulbuls were singing on the pulpits of the branches
!^
tf (2) v2~-j$. i^cU j^
i>w.|y
navlsanda danad ki dar

is in
nama
'
:
chist (Sa'di
andm.c.)
the writer
knows what
eîix* uJU*
the letter he wrote
<j&*>*)\*$$ faj>
az kinar-i majlis guzar kard (Sa'di) fyf )*$ ravanda-l
"a
"an
wayfarer passed
by the assembly":
maghribl dar
i^tjtjj
*Ji^ ; ^
<j*j**>
!^^
Aleppo
j A ** f>*
.
khwahanda-i
4
saff-i bazzazan-i Halab nw-guft
(Sa'di)
African
' '
beggar
was saying in the company of some cloth merchants
in
41
Open the door!
Entrance who procurest,
And
guide the way,
O Thou
of guides the surest
Directors, born of
men, shall not direct me, " Their counsel comes to naught, but thou endurest
!
(Whin. Trans. Rub. 449).
In modern Persian the Noun of Agency is rarely used. It is some"a times used as a mere adjective, as: Ji*>i>2uRu tj* mard-i balchsJianda (m.c.) " khayll bafehshanda (m.c.) very generous": generous man," and *xiu 9 f an janavar-i daranda-i- st (m.c.) " that is a beast of prey."
(q)
^^
An example
An
:
:
of Persian
*J/^ tcfkid or
Â)lA*o
mubafagka, not tautology or
d&
fyashv-i qabih.
Abstract noun can often be formed from the noun of agency by adding
gl t as
baTf&Bha'idcm, baMk^haya^da, baMi^hayandagl (class.)
"
"
liberality
baML^handctgl
(m.c.)
8
jumbandagl from jumbidan
darmandagl.
Urdibihisht-mah
"month
of Urdibihisht";
but Urdlbihirht alone would stand

to the old
3rd day of the month. of the month.

for
The Zardushtis always add the word mah
names
Maghrib Barbary or Morocco: Mauritania.
USE OF THE TENSES.
535
Even
as: )t
in
modern Persian
it is
occasionally used as a
noun
is it
of agency,
l&jjjl'
v-*-^ klst kubanda-yi dar? (Prof. S. T.)
"who
that knocks
at the
(m.c.)
vs***y
door?": cu^î, t*xwy ijaii^ an shakhs navisanda-yi khub-i *st " " he is a o~f wJ>? ;*JLa* e/f an janavar gazanda ast (m.c.) good writer
:
liîAf
kushanda-yi ust
' ' ' '
(m.c.)
sdzanda (m.c.)
singer
<\>lx*
' '
.
*<*ijy
o**y J1315 ' navazanda player

' '
qatil-i ust (m.c.)

'
;
BôjU
*dx*5j raqsanda (m.c.)
"dancer":
a^ty^ khwananda mi-da nad

is
ki
(H.B.) "thereadei
can easily guess that

(2)
The following
fear jahaz-t
ki bi-dan taraf
ravanda
an Afghan idiom: f^;t>* tyi**j) J^5f*? *fyfa^j* bud war shudam "I embarked in a ship
1
that was on the point of sailing for that country." In modern Persian ty uh) *J^bif*J *& ki bi'ddn taraf ravart bud, or OÎAJ (*) *-Sj)t> dar
sharaf-i raftan bi-dan taraf bud, or
bi-dan taraf bud, or

(r)
dar sadad-i raftan-i ;*> î) would be used. bud cy^*? raftani The Future Participle or Noun of Possibility, formed by adding the
r
^ o J^f^j
3^*0
^l*' C5^
examples
ty
'Christ
:
.V^"2/*
Hyaqat to the Infinitive,
is
illustrated
by the following
(m.c.)
c^^f
had
j*^ j^
^.i-ô e^-Ai^
Hazrat-i 3tasih dar 'alam

into the
amadani bud
to (or
was
to)
come
world"
is
o>2Rjj? e>ty^+*
^^J^ y
what
I
az kar-i shudani nami-tavan gurikht (m.c.) "it " is destined, what has to happen
:
impossible to escape
cH^^ eA?
3Ry
^^ ^Û ^
:
_'-^
tark-i
vatan dar in jaztra
mdndani shudam
this
:
(m.c.)
"by
leaving
^^ u^ my home
**
mahz*i
have
had to remain
in
island"
be burned," or " for burning" U^S^yi. khwurdaniha* "eatables":
^y^
ci* c,-
to fit ^'&>j~* sukhtam (m.c.) khwurdanl " what has to be eaten"

;
? J&*)
"
man
raftant
am
(m.c.)
have to go now
<e
J '
:
CL*~JJ
^*5/
j^
lio
&>
na khayr in gul murdanl 8 nist

pot that doesn't look shudanVst mi-shavad* (m.c.)
(m.c.)
not at
1
all, this
flower will not
(said of a
rh\
healthy)
*'
':
a^
to
V^^JA^
will
*Â
liar
what has
(s)
happen,
happen."
The
-:
Infinitive is used as a noui). as: raflan-i

'
man
khub
riist
"I'm
darugfa-guftanha
az raftanhd-yi shumabi-haminam a jiz shudam ^^^- AJ tired of these everlasting goings to the bath":
"
gen. na-kardan)
genitive, as:
lies"; ^.yli cÛst ita'at m-kardan (in m.c. "disobedience." As a verbal noun it may govern the
tellings
of
^fc^ ^fjj baray-i
kuslitan-i
u "for the
:
killing
him."
It
can also govern the accusative in such constructions, as

1
Note that the Future
Corresponds to the Hindustani idiom iune-wala. Participle can bo used
in.
the plural.
In dava
bfaur-
daniat ya malldanl
3
^**J\*
is
^^^^ \^
if
^\ m .c.)
(
An
But
unusual expression,
correct:
a)*^
eJiSj-'
<*
%^
or
&*&
cXâ. l&ushk shudan
or
pazhmwda shudan
*
used for plants, but
murdan
of trees.
^ I^J
**>j& harchi bada bad (m.c.)
happen what may."
536
USE OF THE TENSKS,
t>
" Majnun's <^V mvldqdt kardan-i Majnun LayK ra (Heading of a Chapter) " U? w c: ra kushtan Laili Verbal &&* ^^tf fuldn (vide Nouns) t; meeting
:
gunah
nlst
= o~^
a'i?
c^* &**** kushtan-i fuldn gunah nlst.

is
(2) In classical Persian, the negative of the Infinitive with na but in modern Persian na is preferred.
(3)
usually formed
The
Infinitive of
a Transitive Verb
is
often used in an intransitive
sense, as:
killed
(lit.
^te &***^t
b^ ur
fekushtan dddand
"he was handed over

5
to be
they banded him over for their killing him).' as the Perfect Tense signifies that the speaker was not present Just (t) [vide ( k) ], so the Continuative Perfect gives the same notion but with the idea
,
of continuance.
This Continuative Perfect
is
rarely
if
ever used in classical
Persian,
its
is
td hal ml-karda " " and they have been doing this up till now o*! JI-* *o^ e>^* ^^jîa. cJj o^f a.^* j^jy fuldn shahr dah sal ast taraqql mi-karda ast vail chand-Vst bi-khardbi uftdda here 0^*1 s^x? taraqql ml-karda ast
Perfect
place being supplied by- the Imperfect. rare even in modern Persian. Examples
The Continuative
:
" has been
^y
rising,
was rising"
*jf+*
mi kard could be substituted but would

^f^J jiÛî
âx^x> jj tf
i***
not be so forcible.
In the sentence
cu-ii
jj,^Cxx)
\)
^sj
ajJuacut/o
Qur*dn iri*-khwdnda vasar-i khud ra pdyln ml-dvarda va buland ml-karda ast* " have you seen him standing in the mosque while he was reading the Qoran,
j
lu^yf
^JJb
\^\
y
l
ati5lj
tu urd dldarl ki
dar masjid
Istcida
etc., etc.
?"
The Continuative Perfect of the Subjunctive is used in a similar manner as the same tense in the Indicative, but expresses a ^ f; Ipf *$ ^>o jUvî doubt, as e^*t îiAc ; ^GuJL^* tf ^ *-H& JUi)t w*^ ^ shunlda am ki Musalmdndn ra ml-kushta ast
Remark.
:
ddrad ki dnhd ra ki wdjib u 'l>qatlbudd-and ml-kushta bdshad "I have heard that he has been killing Muslims but it is probable that he has
been
killing those that are

is
modern Persian, but

(u)
(v)
common
worthy of death." This tense is not used in in Abu'l Fazl&nd in the // tmdyun-Ndma.
is
The Continuative
The Imperative
Pluperfect
not used in Persian.
is in
m.c. sometimes used in a precative sense, as:

l '
\
*AJ
&j+c l** Khuda 'umr-at bi-dih (vulg. for dihad

life
"
God grant
thee a
long
in classical Persian, the Optative
form
ÂJ>
dihdd would probably
be used in this instance.
'
Note omission of
ra, the
verb being a compound eA*fj^ e/O*

rd.
Qur'&n
(i.e.
but *& l**\j+ '; &1j* Qur*5n he whole of it).

*
Khwanda
id
'*
Have you read the Qoran ?"

p. 87.
Example from
St. Claire
TisdalPa Grammar,
USE OF THE TBNSBS.
537
However, the 2nd Pers. Impera.

tively as
:
is
even
in classical Persian
used preca-
mard tawba dih u 'uzr pazir u 'nzr-paztr-i hama kas Ay "Grant me repentance, and accept my plea, " of all the O Thou who dost
tu
Ya Rabb!
tawba- dih
accept
pleas
(0.
K. 278 Whin.)
The Continuative Imperative formed by

used in m.c.
1
prefixing
ml or haml
:
is
not
it is
common
only in poetry
Oar
Also negatively
rahat-i javidan tama' mi- dan
Mi-ranj hamlsha u ma-ranjan kas ra

:
^^ ^j*\ )?^ )f** &*

is
(Qa*anl).
The negative
in m.c.
of the Imperative
classically
formed by prefixing
**>,
but
the less forcible and consequently more polite <*> is preferred.* In ra gufta bash <J&* *iif ij "continue saying this," <j$U
tj
^f
in ra karda bash,
<jU
:
*i*.iJ, nishasta bash, etc., is
an Indian and perhaps
an Afghan idiom
1
it is
not good Persian.
Instead, the m.o. Continuative Particle hay

is
is
prefixed, as
^J
<^, hay
bi-kan.
For the same reason the Pres. Fut. " of the Imperative ^jj^ ml-ravid you
:
often used in transmitting orders,
instead
will
go
"
for
&j^
bi-ravid " go."
CHAPTER
126.
(a)
XVII.
Subjunctive Mood.
The Persians use the Subjunctive more frequently than the English
in
use
it.
The verb
supposed.
the subjunctive sentence

is
is
under the subjection of a

Uncertainty
is
Conjunction, which in m.c.

ally
frequently understood.
gener-
Conjunctions introducing the Subjunctive are *$ fjj& giram-ki, tf WU. sallamna ki "granted": *& ^ Jrjyix> mashrut bar in-ki, A^l^j bi-shartl:
ki
' '
"
provided
l
" whether "; *&jf>^ juz inki, &u) jO* magar inki "unless", *!>^ khwah and a&jf e>j^ Udun-i inki, etc., "except" **j?i agarchi, A*.y* harchand, " etc. "though ", and ^^^^bd-vujud-% ki, etc. " although ;**y> har qadr, " so ^ however chandan-ki" A&f*^ much; notwithstanding": ta, and a? " " that 02 on K ere' JUj a^ ?wH before
; :
U^ jarzan
" " (jî farz kun supposing
jt\
agar
' '
if
"
a^fjl <>x)
st
pM
'
A^XJIJ!
ga6Z
**i5j
^lest", etc. Subjunctive clauses * are also introduced by the relatives 'whoever 3 j* har-ki, a^fÂ har-an " and * etc. and **> har-chi or *uf har-an chi " whatever*
tTO^^t
At
when";
*& tÛ^
mabadd
ki
'
oJj yk yk Aar vaqi ki (mod.) *' whenever." From the above remarks it will be seen that the Subjunctive Mood is generally employed to express a condition, desire, intention, doubt, or end,
it,
;
>wlj bashad ki ^^fc a^ taraf-l az mdl-i md dost bi-ddrand ki darigfa bashad ki chandin ni mat zdti' gardad (Sa'di) perhaps (it may be that) they will give back a portion of
stjt
f5U o**3 (.#***.

* *
&$
^b
>)$
*>
*>;!*.>
o-j>
U JU
j|
our property to us, for it would be a pity that so be lost" [in m.c. ** <*~4 crr~*l <j>^ * r trJ3 *>j*j* ^~**
;
much wealth should
u J u c5^3'
**
*j~
+! {
i^ **^
hama
shdyad ki az ha*z-i mal-i
ma dast bar ddrand zlra ki jd-yi afsus
ast ki \n
cJiiz
pay-mat shavad].
JKJiwah hayvan baehad ya in* an, kuahta

it
In m.c. also hargah, chunanchi, har angah, and agar chunanchi "if." khwahad shud (m.c.) 4t whether
shall be killed/
7
it
be
man
or beast,
3
,>
dtwd oat ehUb-i ;*>aj^t WÂ. o^t ii'yk Aar " daraz the of whoever if ahud stick khwahad bi-qodr-i yak angusht (class.) (He said) ' the thief, will grow one finger's breadth in length ' here ast is used because one of those present was the thief : bashad would throw a doubt on the matter.
Âfâ.
y^
si^ttf
L#
;
to
do "
|*i>^
*tÂ karchi bi-guyam bi^kun
(m.c.)
" do whatever I teU you at any time

I
but
&& (***
*fy* harchi mi-grut/am bi-kun *'do what
am now telling you
to do/'
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
Remark.
539
It should be observed that ** in all its significations, except
when introducing
Subjunctive
f*?f
:
direct
i
and
<xY ^ naml-ayad **j* ml-guyad ml-guyad ki nami-ayam (direct) "he says he won't come."
(6)
tf
indirect narration, is usually followed by the *$ **&* ki (indirect) , or
English in the Infinitive^ iu modern Persian it is usually in the Present Subjunctive, even when " ct I wish to go the principal verb is in a past tense, as py ( *& ) fAfj^v/
the
When
second of
two verbs
is
in
mi-khwaham (H 2
l
bi-ravam
"I
seized
him
to
bring
him
AJ
before
you"
fj>y#
+~ LT"$ ^
(**
ur
yiriftam
gave you leave to enter my harem" turn ki ijazat dad ki bi-haram-i man dar
be
used,
&
pish-i
shumabiyavaram:
fj*>
"who
A^jy
js (&*
tf &i& e>jU|
a*l\ (here
^'f
ml-atl might
but
&*.
with the
signification
chi
'since
you are coming'):
p<**j> )yk
namidanam
tawr bi-raqsam
"I
don't
know how
(*\*+> to
<C
dance," but p**j' j>k *^ ^f*>^ nami-danam chi tawr mi-raqsam don't know in what manner I am dancing"; vide 123 (6) (4):
(m.c.)
" whoever wishes to
".
In classical Persian the Infinitive was also used, as: u^j)* cAl) er*-? (i?.y maslahat na-didam az In bish " I did not consider i darun-ash kharashidan* va namak pashidan (Sa'di) it advisable to probe his wound further or rub salt on it" *t oJi? e>UaJ b eu+^ &+lf ki bashad Îkf u&$ kalima-yi Luqman guft >) darigli " to hikmat ba Isfian be a that it
:
*j
gu/tan (Sa'di) Luqman replied " waste the words of wisdom on them ^l+J^J Jf *j
:
would
pity
+>_
a&. A^
&$
iJ^^\
&>
pisi \j*. ki chira guftam (Sa'di)
&f c>v>j^ guft andislia kardan ki chi
guyam
bih az pashimani khwurdan

6
"he*
replied
it
is
better to think before-hand what
to say than to regret afterwards for having spoken."

J?6i7itt7")fc.
In,
<MxW>
.j
cjl^f IJ*~*?F^ &*
\)
(^*.
^**
)fi**
i^j* c^
^* sukhan
bar
In
muqarrar shud ki yak-l ra bi-tajassus-i ishan bar gumashtand (Sa'di) **it was decided to despatch some one to spy on them (the robbers) ", the
is
Preterite
was carried into

(c)
used instead of the Present Subjunctive to show that the order effect. Vide page 514.
are instances of the Present Subjunctive used instead " I did this before I arrived in Kerman "
:
The following
of the Past Indicative in English
*
8
Expressing command, desire, object, consequence, etc. In m.c., those Conjunctions would probably be omitted.
In modern Persian ki
bi-kharasham.
In modern Pers. &$ (*>^ ujl+^j &*
cu*f
(jfjf
jLg
ast
f*4>^
ki
^^
&*
^**j*^Jj?
oJu
îi> tji^. ehira guftam.

5
guft biyandlsham ki chi bi-giiyam bihtar az
an
pathiman bi-shavam ki
Note the
direct narration in Persian.
540
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
az an ki bi-Kirman bi-rasam
l
in kar ra kardam
' '
;
this
*~
&3
;
pish az an k
might curse
(m.c.)
*xif
fHrA* mi-tarsidam ki mara nafrtn* kunad &JJ f>j** u*ir^ *&f jf t_f% * ^-* o^ *~^ Ms^tf of ua J cr^f &*<*) L^'CI^ ^ vT jj (*^ iÂf* eA^ Û ^ftju^ pish az anki an
me " *& d>ij*> l/

jt
happened before I was born (*& tavallud shavam \n vaqi* shud: "
**
' '
*)>>
*C5f jt
^ÂJ
I feared lest
he
^ aJa^Ct
bi-chara bi-rasad nass-i sarih-i al-haris u

za'f-i tali' ab-i
mahrum latifa-l bar angikhta bud va hirman bar atash-i satvda-yi kham-i u rikhta va sabab-ash anki t: and before that helpless one coulp (Anv. Suh. Chap. I. Introd. St. 3) 8 arrive there, ill fortunes had poured the water of disappointment on the fire
of its crude
wish and the reason wae as follows

-
"
-j
p.
p> fl^
311)
4<
ij* tf^jfy u^) (Tr. H. B. Chap. XXXVIII, ÎLy ^ji^ two or three hours before I saw you the Sardar ordered me to
:
(East. Trans.)
cu*U
**
jj>
" there were few who did not or would not throw money & the was scarcely a man there (to Story-teller)" oJ)!*^ J^j " *$ ojfcvi who would not give me money but " there was J^j c^. $*trt f$
go to the
bath"
a^ ^
j>t
<
scarcely a
man
that did not give
me money "
ai J^j
^w
*f
^ ^tf p<
' '
:
few
remained behind in the city who did not come" ( t3JxUj or) **J^ *& *Âilx> ^. After such expressions as 'before that,' after that ,' etc., the modern
*
Persians prefer to use the Present Subjunctive. This tense may, and does, give rise to ambiguity. In the sentence, "This happened before I was
born" the Present Subjunctive causes no ambiguity

;
as
it is
evident that the
ji ^.u *y> ejU/ speaker has been born <JUj az varid-i Kirman shavam mani'-i pish amada bi-Yazd raftam, anki pish f**) the Present Subjunctive leaves it doubtful whether the speaker reached
but in
& *^f
^^ ^
^ *f
Kirman or not; he may have reached Kirman or he may not. But in, f*>d f;j< {*<H^ ^M *&f 3 cr*i pwA 02 anki anja rastdam ura didam it is clear
f
from the Preterite that I did reach

(d)
there/
equivalent shudan, and e>*""^ bayistan and ^î-*jU shayistan, either the Subjunctive Introduced by ki [vide Remark to (a) ], or the shortened Infinitive can be
After
v^-iy
tavaniston
'*
to be able
"
or
its
the
verbs
used, as:
In kar
^^
!;jt<
^'
*^*>
:
ra na-bayad kard*>) I; &>\ <yfy^, or ^/ ra or ra In bi-kuni : fj**i !; ^1 *' nami-tavarii In kard,*
na-bayad In kar ra bi-kuni, or
*jf
Ûi
fj
^^t
^^
\>
^\
,
&\
or
?
:
>j
nami-shavadin ra kharld
?,
or nami-shavadkiin ra bi-kharam
p^&x
f;
^jb, or
reach
a
From the Subjunctive here, it is not known whether Herman with ratttdam there would be no doubt,
:
the speaker did or did not
Or Or
**
**
4Û^ du'a-yibad. arrived."
4
6
nfi-shavad, and **> mi-thud, and *& *hud. This latter might also mean " we (or one) must not do this/ This might mean "we, they, or you oan't do this."
^^
'
SUBJUN01IVB MOOD.
<x>b,
541
" we bayad rah bi-yu/tim or bayad rah uftdd ought to start, we " 1 must start (*A# <xjU shayad bi-ydyad perhaps he may come" <y AJ& *>f shayad mi-dyad (m.c.) "perhaps he will come"): */ AjtAi fj jtf ^t
"
;n
rd bi-kun%
*T ojUJ ty tora kard, or f; jfc ^t na-shdyad ki In kdr not suitable for you to do this." (e) The Future* Indicative sometimes takes the place of the Future " I would 8 " Subjunctive; go through fire and water for you f; 3^ y ^NJ
(
Hr rd na-shayad
it is
^
;
(fjr*>t
ô
or) va-aLiiî fAty^ (or
e^tj
*Jf J* baray-i tw
ham anddkht
see
mi-andazam)
but
in,
dardb u dtash khwd" Did think I would not come to you

is
(
&W m
you to-day?", the Persian subordinate clause and must be in the Present Subjunctive or Aorist;
introduced by
)
*$
***j$*
y
tu
J^*4
imruz
^>Ui
jjyof
?
uiAjaj
:
bi-khaydl-i
tu m%-rasid (ki)
man
bi-didan-i
naydyam (m.c.) man gumdn kardam ki shumd dlruz mi-ay id * *$ Û? >^T <^ j>^.> U^ "I felt certain you would come yesterday," or^ ^
1
biydyld **I thought possibly you might *+*> \j U-S AT owt cu.^ i?i a^r c^WTtaw
(or
come yesterday": eA^- ^*j &>\ M< 3< ^^' shumd rd mt-kushad
4 to kill i^fÂ. khwdhad kusht) "this poison is strong enough " and will kill you", but bi-kushad is so strong that it might kill you *xix/o **. lîf Sb bi-blnam dnhd chi mi-kunand I went you raftam îtj to see what they are doing" (Present only) aja <^^V ^-^ /># ^1^^ ^t o>ft?
oJtf
o6
' '
* '
Owf ji*t^ guftay khuddwand blddrhastam chiguna duzddn khwdhand dmad* (class, and m.c.) "he said 'O master, I'm awake; how can the thieves come ? " (**T **\j&* or) A^ jî jf A^ > x^ ^^v g* A hichbi-khaydlam na-rasid kiu imruz bi-ydyad, or khwdhad dmad (m.c.) " I never thought he would come
*
:
k
to-day"; here the Pres. Subj. leaves it doubtful whether he did or did not come ; the Future gives the idea that he did come.
Note the
Pres. Subj. after *il& shayad,
which expresses a doubt.
The Definite
Future in modern Persian would be contrary to idiom. In colloquial, ***"^ ehayista " are the " " suitable " and only parts of this verb used. shayad perhaps * In classical Persian the Future Indicative is frequently used in conditional Vide 128. sentences where in modern Persian the Present Subjunctive is used
>^
In English, would is often a past tense, as "he would not regard their enchantto time. After verbs ; but it is often hypothetical without any regular respect " I would rain wish it as a event denotes future it u*^ kash bi-bdrad of wishing " if he would as: it denotes conditional la desire, clauses, hypothetical (not Future).
8
:
ments
* '
"^^
hearken to reason
tional
"
<k
;
if
his wife
:
and ardent
It has
desire, as
" Would
would have permitted him." It also expresses condito God I had died for thee, oh Absalom, my son,
my
son."
numerous other
\)
significations.
<*>l**>
*'
But
oyo
>
iS ty OtsiMA
chunan aakht bud ki shuma rU ml-kuakt or

it
xj
killed
6
*^~J\jLg# mi-tavanist bi-kushad
was so strong that
might have, could have
you."
Or *l|f
mt-Syand
(m.c.), or
ml-tavanand bi-yayand <^l#
ûfjl^
(m.c.).
542
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
In
classical
modern Persian requires the Present Subjunctive, as
Persian, the Future Indicative is frequently used where &j& ti *\&S

:
Â^^^Â U
ma har du Tchwahlm amad an ra both of us return we will take we Tchwahim girift (class.) "whenever " it (the deposit) back khwahim amad gives the force' when here &tf fi*f>^ in modern Persian p*'^. bi-yaytm would be we return as we shall do
o^?
^j^f^xi^f
**>f
1 guftand ki hargah
'
preferred:
&/
p*tj*>
& I/
XJ^Â^
did tura yad Ichwaham kard (class.)

ring
fy jg ^l ttfj*> hargah yadgar-i turd Ichwaham " whenever I shall see your keepsake (the
on
my
finger) I will recollect
you";
(if)
in
mod. Pers.
with
pi*>
tobi-bmam:
*xa $j$ prtj^ )j*
**'y^
*>}**
bavar khwaham kard
(class.)
p**& itfj* " whenever
hargah bi-chashm-i khud

I see it
khwaham
Future
is
did
my own
the
eyes I will
in
believe it"; here there is
no apparent necessity
for
ûj & bl-binam would probably be better in

Persian.
classical as it
and modern
(/) The Perfect Subjunctive is used to express doubt where the Present would obviously not be correct: atj WoAT AT OASU* j&iJu pish az In In qadr mihnat ki kashida bashad ? (class.), (but in m.c.
kashlda ast
would be used) nami-kunam ki Shu'la Khartum

:
believe
<jd^ *$ ^S(a^ (&& J>w qabul amr buda bashad (m.c.) " I will not that Shu'la Kbanum can have done this"; o~f ^j buda ast
sahib-i In
:
vxlj
i^^ î â.U
"
"has done this"
o*kb
^^>^
*L*j vasla va rufu na-shuda bashad

:
(m.c.)
"it has not, I hope, been patched and darned ? ,Jb ttf namak-i tu kur-am kunad agar khildf
^JiU
^^ o^lA.
'arz
&& <)
:
^JUJ
karda bashaw* (m.c.)
have been
jJJib
Axft?
*" s *'may your salt blind me, if I have misrepresented the facts <^+> AÎ? " na-khurda I bashad? (m.c.) ^îu gulula bi-man hope that I may not " *z~~>J * *v been have I ?
hit, I
haven't
Mf; bashand* (Sa'di) '* one at home and in fact they

'
oA*Sj j
hit, î/** ^^ ^j+t j va guyand ki kas dar saray nisi va bi-haqiqat rast gufta and they (the coarse ruffians at the door) say there is no
:
'
may have spoken

hargiz
5
o*b
a*x>*;
aJUa*
îa*
(class.)
&jS **I
j+*> J$j&
bi-'umr-i
the truth in so saying" Ichud chunln hamla
na-dida bashand
don't suppose
they had ever in their lives

in m.c. often used for
seen such a furious onslaught." (g) (1) As already stated, the Past Indicative
the Present Indicative: vide
is
125
(g) last
example.
In m.c. hargah means
**
* '
if
and har vaqt
is
used for " whenever."

<
Agar
khttaf
'arz
Icunam
f& uj*
ij&x^>!
should
misrepresent matters
1 '
(immediate future).
8
Pros. Subj. expressing wish, desire.
In
mod. Pers.
either
*&>
*& *A&
ahayad gufta bashand, or
**'
*&
OA&*U
bi-haqlqat gufta and.

*
If
*>\
the doubt
8x^ dlda and (without X?^ ahayad) were used and the sentence would then mean " they never saw.
it
would do away with
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
This
is
543
:
also in m.c. the case with the Subjunctive, as
yj\* jt\
**
ki
agarqaK-yi khub-i khwasta bashid
chlz-i nishan-i
tan m%*diham % ki misl-ash ra
8 hargiz na-dlda bashid (m.c.) "let
me say that if you want (wanted, were I a will show you something the like of which wanting) really good carpet, " *&** *Jf ){&+> * I don't suppose you have ever seen oji (>+* *? o*f 8<x
:
un lei bi-mu8har ilayh Jj>*^ *^fa;J \) *j*> hukm shuda ast bi-Kdbul rafta hisab-i Tchud ra pardakhta ma'zul buda bashad u (Memoirs Amir Afod r-Rahman, Vol. I, p. 123); in mod. Pers. U-shavad
<vb
>5>>
V UK
A*J JJf bi-man navisht
cuÛ* ^f^>AA3| wntdvar-am ki vujud-i mubarafaat " '* I hope you may* have been well bashad bi-salamat buda (mod. letter), here ^b bashad alone, or *^\ ast, would also be correct.
;
^^L ity
Lr~JLij
^j ^
(2)
In the following, the Preterite Indicative
is
used for the Aorist
*y" *J* c}^* ft dar muraja'at

'
^^^
ojL^f^xa )& <vof
jf
auxyfc
harchi kam
amad (for ^^
bi-ayad
mi-shavad (Vazir-i Lankaran) "whatever is (may be) short in the money I now give you, will be settled when you * this sentence is practically equivalent to a conditional senreturn here
bi-%nja
kar-sazi
tence.
Vide
128
(e)
and
(/).
" to have, (h) As the Aorist or Pres. Subj. of &&\& ddshtan signifies the Past. Subj. of this verb is usually used instead of the Present;
*'
o*t
&?*>}*
*t*& *J^to ck*
^^^-j*
ast (m.c.)
har
*'
darid do want)
mawjud
cJiiz-l ki mayl dashta bashid (or x)te whatever you may happen to want is
ready there."
(i)
The Past Habitual, the Imperfect
Indicative, take
(*))*
(Sa'di)
Wy &"
Indicative, and the Pluperfect the place of certain tenses in the Subjunctive Mood ** *)$? ui'J^ ^ Svaz-l bar avard ki murgh azhavd dar avardl
:
lt
birds
to
and he sang with a voice that might have brought 6 down the very listen to him" in modern Persian j^f mi-amrd would be
:
used here for the Past Habitual. 7

(j)
Vide also
127
(c)
(1),
Remark.
Present
libas-i
In the following Afghan m.c. sentences, the Imperfects should be <J>&. C ^W va digar Subjunctives: f*j**> J<^ fyf &f khushk na-bud ki an ra badal mi-lcardam (Afghan; in modern Pers.
^j^
p&
bi-kunam)
r^f
"
^ ^ ^jx
tf
x
*S>
^^
:
Jl^ f\ agar
^tPj^ bi-bhwahid if you want.'* Note Future Indicative. * 3 The Past Subj. here indicates doubt, I don't suppose* " the like nida id could be used, but the doubt would vanish,
1
Or
^ W>**jfj*
of
hargiz na-
which I'm sure you
hav e
*
^
11
over seen. *
i.e.
'
have been
+>
vj>t
*
*
The Tho Past Habitual
along and still are. kam ast would mean that the harohi *^>j* is understood. or if-clause protasis
all
is
money
is
not
sufficient.
not used in m.c.
544
jahdz
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
ham
gkarq nami-shud chiz-% no-bud ki mi-avardam (Afghan; modern

bi-yavaram).
:
Persian
(k)
fjj{*>
Note the following examples

f;y
*J&'Y *f
<y^
^^ "H^}
1
h (J* v**^
.
^li ai^f ^*-^
u~$
*
p>\
<iJ^J
khubl ki aftdb ast na-shuntda \m here expresses the doubt. Compare cu-j*
ra pursidand bi-din ki kas-i ura dust ginfta bashad ; the Sub j

sahib-dil-i
^~|
xb
aj^f
at/a
(j ^âm-4 ahunida Id ki shakhs-l an khanum ra dust
^^
c/f
AS"
vjf
^L^
?
If
girifta
bashad
(I
"have you ever heard that any one has ever made love to that lady
:
think no one has ever has)," but vs^f AJ^f girifta ast would mean '* have ' ' i.e. the latter tense you heard that So-and-so has taken her as a mistress
would
*t^
"it was beyond his sagacity to understand this " if a***^* mi-fahmid were used, it would signify surprise that he was understanding or did understand
;
refer to the present time rather than to the past. UpJy ;a ow*ty* ;*aijf l+tf (&* ** *j* * n qadr firasat dar u kuja bud ki in imcfra bi-fahmad t)
it.
For the Continuative Perfect Remark.

(Z)
of
the Subjunctive,
vide
125
(f),
(m) Note the signification of the Subjunctive in the second example of in qadr bi-paz ki mi-tavam bithe following ks)f***- yfW t** *^Ji *t j *' as a such are able to consume (now)/' but cook khipurl you quantity only
:
4
*^
cJ*^ t/^W
**
Jtf
J*^-'
n qudar
bi-paz ki bi-tavani bi-khwur%
<
cook only
such a quantity as
you may
be able to consume at any time.'*
In modern Persian
dust,
dashta ba*
CHAPTER
127.
XVIII.
COMPLEX AND COMPOUND SENTENCES.

Conditional, Coordinate, and Optative Clauses.
is expanded by explanatory clauses it is called a the and Complex sentence, explanatory clauses are called subordinate clauses.
When
a sentence
Adverbial clauses include Conditional, Optative, Concessional, Temporal, Local, and Modal clauses. In other words adverbial clauses place conditions
on the action
of the principal clause,
and
limit it as to time, place,
manner
1 object or cause.
Other Subordinate clauses

130 and
131.
are, Relative
and Predicative
clauses, vide
Adverbial clauses will be treated

(a)
first
A
2
principal clause,
Conditional (Adverbial) clause limits the action or state of the and is introduced by^?> acjar if or some particle of kindred
*
'
The conditional or subordinate clause generally stands meaning. followed by the is therefore called the protasis ( Js>j ), and is
clause or consequent proposition called the apodosis
(
first,
and
principal
*>*> or
vl^
Remark.
The Apodosis
of a
command
I'll
as
p>*
bi-guyam in
biya bi-guyam turd
"come
here and
tell
the Apodosis of an oath as in

' '
^ ^^
is called yf bi-Khuda man f*^ &* namt-dyam
you,"
.
^j(o v >^ while

[j*
f
LXJ
by God
won't come,"
is
called p~3
^&
(b) There are three classes of conditions, viz. (I) impossible, or those that might have been and were not realized or that cannot be realized or that are mere suppositions and (2) possible, or those which may be (or may
;
have been) realized;

In
conditions in which the apodosis or if-clause is latter these understood; belong partly to (1) and partly to (2).
(3)
(c)
classical
Persian, as also
in
the Afghan
and Indian spoken
language, the tense most in use for the first class of conditions is the Past Habitual, obsolete in the m.c. of Persia. This tense is interchangeable with the
Vide
The Syntax and Idiom
of Hindustani
"
by Kempson.
Expressed or understood.
8
In m.c. the Conjunctions are frequently omitted.
The Conditional
and according
fc*,
particles (bj
o^-^
are,
J\
aiar>
g<*r,)\
ar, o>>^ chun,
ehu,
to
Indian grammarians the temporal conjunctions e)^- cAwn,

concessional &*-j*l
vaqtl
etc.
etc., as well as the
agarcM,
****-j*>
ha*chand
etc.,
and *Xj&
harki, &%>j* fiarchi, ijp'j* har has,

*
\j*
fjJ
<^
vaqtrl ki
and {^Sj* har kuja: ml ayam tura Wwpaham falabid, and ^)\& <^y* f ^
^j*
heirj a
&
sentences.
voqt-l ki bagh-i &&ub-i darl birun
ma-raw t are according to them Conditional
35
546
Imperfect
CONDITIONAL, COORDINATE, AND OPTATIVE CLAUSES.

Indicative,
1
the
same tense being used

the
in the
protasis
and
the other in apodosis, or one in one, and

<ci*
other.
)>>
\
Examples:
tf
o**[
Ûaf
jf
^j
tjvil*
*2*#y &1&
of e-A*0 cXU
suhbat-i an baddn tarbiyat yajtl* yak-l az ayn-i haqlqat ast ki agar dar silk-i Inahdn shudt (Sa'di) "it is quite true that had he remained in the constant
society of those evil
^.vS j Û,
dar
y ^ty
" eta men, he would have become one of them m^ ^~j e^M *jf jf\ *xLo*0 AJ **f j& o^x> pisar chun pil-i ma^t
:
amad
bi-sadmat-i ki agar kuh-i
ahamn budi
az jay bar kandl
* c
(Sa'di)
the
boy entered (the arena) like a mast elephant, with a shock sufficient to tear {( up from its roots, a mountain of iron" (lit. if it had been a mountain of
iron, he
would have torn
it
up from
its
place)."
Oar na*budi ummid-i rahat u ranj Pa-yi darwsh bar falak budl
Var Vazir az Khuda
bi-tarsidl
8
Ham-chunan
k'az tnalik,
malak* budi
(Sa'di).
Were there no daily anxiety (for food and The darvish's rank would be * high as the
If the
clothing),
sky.
Vazir were to fear*

fears the king, he
God
As he
would* be an angel.
) ur^ olâit \) U^j^l agar shuma ra " had az jahan bar khasti -(Sa*di) you
8
insdf budl va
justice
l^ j J^V* (***) ^^^ \j* mara qana'at, rasm-i su*al

I content,
and
the custom of begging would
disappear from the
world".
Ah !
" Ah
agar murda baz gardidi*

(Sa'di;.
Bi-miyan-i qabtla u-payvand

!
if
the dead were to return,
To
his friends
and connections."
qadr
i
man
1
anastl
ki ba zapi-% bar dwar-i bagh-i

126
(i)
khirdman hami-raftami
is
(Sa di)
(6).
Vide example in
where the protasis

in India
understood, and also

this final
125 (h)
4
fi
In
classical Persian,
and
and Afghanistan,
is
majhul
(e).
Example Note the
while later,
6
L5^* v/*^^ lajnle-i &hat$. Though future, the first condition is one impossible of fulfilment the same tense is used to express past time, for conditions that might have
time.
t
of
been, but were n
or could not be,

verb,
*'to
fulfilled.
From an
obsolete
be":
ante
ast
,
in ancient
Pers.
Later aste
is
used only for the Past Habitual. be used in prose.
In mod. Pers., no-bud or no-mi-65d, or na-baehad would

"rather were
it fitting
547
my
garden wall in company with a fellow magpie with a parrot).
dignity that I should be strutting proudly on a " 1 (said by a magpie imprisoned
Sud-i darya
mk budi gar na-budl blm-i mawj

bMl
2
Suhbat-i gul khush
gar nisti tashwsh-i k]wr

8
(Sa'di).
"The
profit
from a sea voyage would
be great were there not

it
the terror of the deep. Pleasant would be companionship with the rose were
for the thorn."
not 8
Acjar Laylq, va
Majnun
zinda gashtl*
*
Hadls-i 'ishq az
m da ftar navishti
to
(Sa'di).
"
Were
come to life Majnun would learn love's methods from this book They
Laila and
of mine.
jawr-i shikam na-budi hlch murgh-i dar dam na-yuftadi balki sayyad na-niJiadi (Sa'di) " were it not for the pressure of hunger, no bird
khud dam
would
fall
into the snare, what's
more no bird-catcher would ever
set
a snare."
ahd-i khurdtt
yac?
dmadl
Ki
Ki
bl-chara budi dar aghush~i
man
jafa
6
Na-kardt dar In ruz bar

tu shir-mard'% u
man
pira
man
zan
"It thou hadst remembered thy childhood's days When thou wert a helpless babe in these arms,
Thou wouldst not have been rough with me now
When
1
thou art a strapping fellow and I an old woman.''
Zagh
is
give to birds or flowers.

is
the English magpie, but Persians are not very exact in the names they Elsewhere in the same sfcory the zagh is called a ghurab which
properly a
ft
'*
raven."
Zayh
is
sometimes usod intead of zaghcha " the chough."
mere supposition referring to no special time. though future, ia expressed by the Past Habitual. Also note the singular verbs, Laila and Majnun being by a poetical license Also va for w. In speaking, Laylq is gener125 (h) (6). treated as one idea; vide also
8
Btidl, poetical for budi. Note the Past Habit., for
Note that
this impossible supposition
ally Laytt.
*
Note
say
plr-i
Properly khurdiyyat read bhurdit for scansion. this feminine pira, or does the fc stand for the izafat
;
Persians
always
mard,
plr-i zan, etc.
548
Remark.
Sometimes the Protasis
is
understood, as:
az
6
JsMn ra
ki
kirishma-yi jamal-ash arusan-i bihisht ra jalva-gari amukhtl va az tab-i 'izar ash aftab-i jahan-tab bar atash-i gjiayrat bi-sukhil, chashm-i mast-ash (Anv. " and one of them (the damsels) the winning glance of Suh. Chap. 1, St. 8) whose beauty might have taught blandishment to the brides of Paradise (if
)and at the glow
of
consumed
with the
fire of
whose cheeks, the sun, which warms the world, was M (East. Trans.). jealousy; whose languishing eye
is
Vide also example in 126 (t). an Imperfect Indicative (2) In the following examples,
the Past Habitual without any change in meaning
:
substituted for
&**
Jr^
|/ )** ***L^
bihtar budl* chiraki
have been better
for
kardami -J*tf is**J* c**^y^?t agar muraja'at <c if had I it mara mi-kard returned would qabul pidar " me, because my father would have received me back
LS^
*&%* *% oJpf )& tj* p&^\ j tj*> &k^ ^h* (jH&^ )& dar kashti hlch badban dar an vaqt chi mt-kardam 7 "there was no mi-bud* ham va na-bud agar
.
sail in
the boat, and even
if
there
had been what could
have done with

In kar ra
it?
"
:
p^^
ft
(m.c.)
t^t
nami-kardam
ishan halak mi-shudam bihtar ^ mi-bud (m.c.) **had I 5> &*>$ ^/o) oJ ? ^f JS\ perished with them, it would have been better for me an zamin dahan mi-kard baz vaqt bi-khushi-yi îÂ/o jj* ÛJ ^^û ^y^/o jU agar
(J*
<* *"*
(V#>^ ^s^ " if I were you
W fi a9ar
I
man j-yi
not do this
tu
budam
:
would
"
^&& &(># b/f
a O ar
b(i
tamam
faru mi-raftam (Prof. S. T.)

:
if
had the earth only opened
would
*-> gladly have been swallowed up in it" or) f ^ wt)*\ si darin chiz-i bud bud ba$& digar (or mi-bud) bi-nazjir (m.c.) ^j ^x> agar
(
^ ty^
^^^J^
it
"if this garden had only contained three things more,

unrivalled
bi-qadr-i
"
o>fo^
oâj?^
^j-L**
^^
maya-yi khud zindagl mi-kardlm In
)<&! f.dft' <^^j tuhi-dasll hargiz dast naml-dad

\
^ ^^
would have been
âT
(Prof. S. T.).
the previous examples it will be seen that the Imperfect Indicative (or the obsolete Past Habit.) can in conditions or supposi-
Remark
/.From
Or
might be consumed
'
In classical Persian, the Past Habit.

use.
mi-budam are in common
45*^ budami, and the Imperfect In modern Persian however the Past Indicative
,
budam
Sometimes however usually takes the place of both these tenses. mt-budam is still used for euphony in conditional sentences. Note that a supposition, almost with a future signification, can be expressed
Persian
I
in
This might also mean **If I had been you, would not have done this'*; the context (qarlna or ma&lab) gives the time either
by the Imperfect
is
Indicative.
Past or Future time
indicated.

ons refer to
ith
ca
549
time either past or future

I
j
;
as
* t :
If
had wrestled
would have thrown him" î^x/oÎA^^f bjô^t ba u kushti mi-giriftam ura zamin nw-zadam dlruz >}x* ^jjcj |; j\ agar Q.O.) f^ eH^ h J fj& (j*^ y ^ ty'^l ^ J cu~oJ tu-' &^*> (JM^ layiq-i fan-i man mst va-illa agar farda ba-ii kushtl bi-giram ura bi-zamm mt-zanam r ^j *A>tj.^ khwaham zad) has the same meaning as ^ $ \*\&j*/\ ura K5 bi-zamm u wfc kushti ml-girijtam \5& &&& f; jf aâ/ /arâ &a
him yesterday
*
^^
ill
f**^*
t-zadam: cuî cl^>o ^xxi? î;>j p>\&^ nami-danam, agar bi-danam guftan" I don't \h mushkil ast (not bud) know, but were I to know (as I may or
\
ay not)
rar
it
couldn't
tell
"
but
d>2**> (Jkiva? ^juJf^/o
even
mi-danistam guftan-as/i mushkil b&d (not ***! if I knew (as I certainly don't) I couldn't tell
L
^f^^j namt-danam ast) "I dont know,

7 ?i
' '
:
e>
iff
4>Jô ^J^x) (jSivoJ ^XJÂXJÎ^
tj'f
;j+jJ U
^'U
lUJ
e^f )&
vab dadam layiq-i sh*an-i man nist va ilia dar panjah-salagi ba Timur " T a qa kushll mi-giriftam zamln-ash ml-zadam mi-dldid (Vazir-i Lankaran)
plied 'it
'
is
not fitting to
my
position, otherwise in spite of
my
fifty years,
would wrestle with Timur Aqa and throw him; you would see " c< I was a wrestling and was throwing, etc."). mrself (lit.
In modern Persian, the Imperfect Indicative
nditions,
is
for
the tense most in use in the
though occasionally
;
idicative as in English
place vide (d) below.
its
is
supplied by
Pluperfect
Remark II. For the classical (and modern Afghan) use of the Imperfect the Pres. Subj. in a condition, vide 126 (j).
(d)
In modern, and occasionally in
classical Persian, the Pluperfect
can
\
ke the place of the Imperfect in the protasis,

fcjj^/o jjô
as
*>*
\)
d?
<jf
3 dar utaq-i man mi-cKdid jjllf )& fty agar an gul ra cJMa budam " if I had i.e.) plucked that flower you would have seen (or would see) in my room j>ttit ^x> agaraz ir &*j Ml5 vJ^lo e/f $ p*ty. *^/r* **\ <**j^$ $ "had bar mala we or an budlm az karda ml-ufiad af iqdam taraf fitna
' ' :
l
The context
decides the time, as
t-^jUuj Â/O ^JU^
aiii
amma
but, Sir,
xjl>jf J$\ lif
Uf
ayha, agar andaza-yi nlm-tanama'lummi-sliud bisyar jcjiub bud (Vazir-i Lank.) " here the context if the size of the coat were known it would be better ;
is
jws that the meaning

!
not "
if it
v>^*
cr^^
it
>uld
imply
*^r^ f^*^ ty^t j*l was not possible to obtain the
had been known, it would have been better " agar andaza ma'lum bi-shavad M.ayli bhiib ast
:
size of the
garment
but
(JCi^x)
^.vUo naml-danam; agar mi-daniatam guftan-ash mushkil bud

if
pL*i\*** Jl\ p*\*%+> (m.c.) '*! don*t
ow, and
*( (Jx^l/o
*
I did I couldn't tell,'* can equally well be expressed in m.c.
by
JM
/Wîiok^J
i&$$
^\
*j
naml'danam agar bi-danam guftan-ash mushkil

to
:
ast (m.c.).
The Imperfect Indicative is used in preference indicate a supposition that is not likely to be fulfilled
;h
the Present
Subjunctive
the Vazir's position forbids
an unseemly action as wrestling.

*
Or
^fu*
mi-chidam.
550
CONDITIONAL, GOOBDINATB, AND OPTATIVE CLAUSES.
our part taken any action, the conspiracy would have been public "; * ^13* *w tijf c^f fAtj agar Iriha ba-ham ashtl karda budand (*<\* a
khushnud mi-shudam (mod.) "if they had been reconciled (to each other) I should have been glad" ^^ itf ejA jl ^ tsW *** e*? v^f LS*J+> isi) ***b o- ^J etft ;* C5<^ */ agar an ruz 'aqibat-i %n bi-dida bud*
;
c^^
^^
w
oc-
j|
I* 4
az kfeun rikhtan ijtindb karda budl dar
m vaqt %n vaqi'a ruy na-namudi (Anv.

event would not
Suh., Chap. X, Story 2) "if on that day thou hadst seen the conclusion of this
affair,
and had'st shunned
to spill blood, this
now have
curred, and such an adventure

(e)
would never have taken place
"
(East. Tr.).
Similar constructions in Optative Clauses (which are but a form of

<j*fc
" " I wish chi bftcfi, etc. or tSSMkashakit and ^sw that, would to Heaven i.e. it is followed in classical and modern written Persian by the Past
Conditional Clauses) occur after the optative word
kash,
1 ^(^^ kashk
! ,
Habitual, and in modern colloquial by the Imperfect and Aorist
Kash k'an ruz
ki dar pa-yi tu shud khar-i ajal

!
Dast-i gltl bi-zadl fig&-i halak-am bar sar
(Sa'dT).
8 Oh, would that, the day death's thorn pierced thy foot 8 Fortune's hand had struck me with the sword of destruction."
i&?> *^ cuaÂx3 AJLÂI ()(&**) L ba rafiqan ahista mi-guft, chi budl ki man an darakht ra bi-danistami ki kuja ast ta du a kardami ki pidar-am bi-mirad
o*a^j>
e^f
eX
A^
(Sa'dl),
"(The son
said)
Oh, would that
so that I might offer
up a prayer for
that I
my
father to
knew* where that tree is, die" ^J^d^^K

:
kashki danistami
"would
knew":
**T
mi-amad (mod.) " would that he had come yesterday"; **T l^y u*i< kash jarda mt-amad "would that he had come to-morrow (instead of " would that it would happen to-day)," but A*> \tj* <J^ kash farda bi-yayad bud* shuma kash baradar-i in to-morrow": arrive that he should javan
(m.c.)
:
jj^-p
tjM kash dlruz
*** )*
vs^f
bi-tu
ib/
'ata
Ua*
kash
m
<**
tamlz-i*
ki
Khuda
in
>* f>^ *f (SJ*+* (& <-$ karda ast dar hama kas
This prefix
would not be used
modern Persian.
'
* ra.c.
ty
^J
za &a & ^'

is
Note that the time

' !
past.
The meaning
I
is
would that
had died when thou

'
didst die
*
Note that the meaning

ta
is
would that
were knowing now
j;^(
*$
f&
:
^3
**
îj*'
du'a bi-kunam ki pidar-am bi-mirad would be the ordinary construction.
Murdl
bi-mirad in the sentence above whether (Past Habitual) could be substituted for the two last verbs are both put in the Past Habitual or both in the Pres. Subj., makes
^H
no
difference in the meaning.

6
Kash bud
*'
shad (m.c.) 8 For tamylz.
would that he were (but he is not) " would that he might turn out to be (as he may).'
&j*
u*K
(m.o.)
^^
(j4(^
kash
'
551
bud
(m.c.)
"would that
all
possessed
that discretion which
God has
^<~te
given to you."
Kashki pdrsdl In ra guftami

f
ki
urd kushiandi
(old)
^Jtf
I;
î JUjb
âiLS/ fj 5 tf "would that I had said this last year so that they might bi-kushand were here have killed him (by now)": if the Pres. Subj. <xL substituted for the Past Cond kushtandi, the time would be indefinite and
might
refer either to past, present, or future killing.
Remark.
the
From
the above-mentioned remarks,
it will
be seen that both
Optative and Past Optative

tense.
can
in
Persian bo represented
by the
same
" mad) m.c. "would that he had understood the order
" " would that leave were bi-shavad (or mt-shud*1 ) m.c., granted pt*> ^ ra bud u kdsJi hukm not bi-fakbut or) famida (or tj mi-fahmid *+^ <>^->
:
(/) In modern Persian, however, the Optative and Past Optative can both be represented by the Aorist or the Imperfect, and the Past Optative by the x ^* or) tsh <J^ kdsh murakhkhasi ddda ( Pluperfect also, as
l
:
^^
^^/
^ ^
^^
^ y e^^3f ^^^^
e<
^^j
v|^j kash pish az da'vat az
man
pnrstda budi
would that
J)i*
you
had asked me before issuing the invitation":

mutavallid na-shuda
I
f^
if^*
,
budam
(or
J*A,W
î
nami-shudam)
m.c.,
(J^^ kdshki "would that
had never been born."

This Aorist construction
tiJ^jj^
is
also admissible in classical Persian as
cu+xL? jJoU *$
aj^ ^*$ U
î^. ^îlf^j <^&f 0^x5
^C^K
KdsJiki qimat-i anfds bi-ddnandl khalq t
Td
<{
dam-l chand ki
manan l> yjiammat shimurand.

r
(Tayyibdt-i Sa'di)
Would that people knew the value of life That these few moments they have to live, they might not waste."
et
Until I say
Sacrifice
'
would that God would

in place of that
me
youth
"
!
'(Masnavi).
(g)
clauses
By may
inverting
the
order and substituting ki for agar, Conditional

:
"How
1
8 occasionally be changed into predicative clauses, as " nice it would have been, if lea*e had been allowed <y
In Urdu kash is followed by any one of the three Optative tenses as mare " would that he would strike him'* kash marta "would that he had struck him" kaah marta hota " would that he had been striking him " kash mara hotft <( would that he had struck him" (remote time).
:
Imperfect for either past or future time.
Mi-shui *&** may

Vide
(g).
refer to
Past or
Future time, but

8
Vide
bi-shavad to Future time only 131 Predicative Clauses.

}
J^
652
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES (CONTINUED).

ty or
j
dta'
.)
MM&
*
f
mi-bud (or &wd)

^ or
[
)
A;?'
murkhlchqsi dada
j.
:
mt-shud (m.c.), or
ast agar (or
<^&y 4) rawraMMem dfarfa *$ or ) _ff cM

(
: 1
^J
te\z
c^<*>t
&
a^.
chikhub
bi-shavad
Fut.
vidfe
(/) ]
^ v v^-
*^
Ichub budi agar
(or
jfo')
murklikhasi dada
^Jff ;^^f <^^f V^-^ (Future or Past) o**f *<w baharalan skuru sliuda ast (better shuda bashad) "how nice
i*
a^
^^M khub ast agar

U
commenced."
(h)
&}&> bi-shavad
is
if spring have would signify "were to commence just now."
mi-bud agar dar an si rJnz-i dtgar bud AJU [vide (c) (2)]. ^\ ^^^ *&* jf^ ^j^ Jw tuhi'dasti hargiz da$t no- mi-dad agar bi-qadr-i maya-yi khud yndaqi mikardim; [vide (c) (2)].
bag/i bi-nazir
The apodosis Wj^t-te- ** e/T,p in
occasionally placed
first:
^ ^^^
^\
^/ ^ ^^
^^
128.
(a)
Conditional Clauses (continued).
We now come
tense most
to the second class of conditions, viz. those that

realized.
may
be (or
may have been)
The
commonly used
in the conditional clause of conditions

3
;
of this nature, is the Present Subjunctive
the Indicative
if
Mood can
or
:
but (Aorist) introduced by^?i agar 8 usually take the place of the Subjunctive Mood
in the supposition.
there
is little
no doubt
Examples
masalan agar darvish jur*at numayad haml bar tahavvurkunand* va agar sakhdvat varzad ivrafnam nihand* va agar dar hilm kushad an rd ajz va bi-'izzati shumarand* (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. Ill, " thus for example, if a poor man show boldness, they ascribe it to Story V) rashness; and if he choose to be liberal, they call it extravagance and if he account it weakness and want of spirit" Êast Trans.) try to be mild, they
l
t^
eu*^
<*iUit
^j
^xio
U Ij^t ^^
qazi ar ba
ma nishinad bar fishanad dast ra
(Sa'di)
*'
were the Qazl even to join our party he would wave his arms in time
Or f\
agar.
Classically ij$t}**budi
and
^^
*<*
shudi would probably have boon
used.
This sentence has the same meaning as ty

bfid (m.c.).
fob
ahudl
j^^
;
kash murakhbhasl
dada shuda
*
Ml-shiid
A-Sixd
could be substituted for
^^
but &}&> bi-shavad could
it generally supposes that the condithe Imperfect Indicative is used in a future may ride Itcmark I condition it generally supposes a condition that will not be fulfilled 127 and footnote 2, p. 548. (c) (2) * The Aorists in the apodosis appear to be the old Present Tense.
budi. not be used after the previous tense 3 If tho Aorist is used in a conditional sentence
(&
tion
possibly be
fulfilled,
whereas
if
'
'
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
to the dancing
(continued).
553
"
l
:
^b
^xv-o
c>L>>>^b^
of
(jJj
*>f J^**/* J ^ &jr*j* $\ agar bar

1
surat-i hal-i tu muttalli'
gardad
pas-i khatir-i 'azizan*
minnat darad*
in ra bi-jihat-i
this for
(Sa'dl)
assist
bi-
"should he become informed
you
"
:
your condition he would gladly
**
f&>\j=
&**+* t^k^
kunl khayll mamnun be much obliged to you"
(& ^*y f; khwaham shud* (m.c.)
^&
^"
j*\ cigar
if
man
etft
you do
me
I shall
j^*;l
**jj>
J#kf
<J*j
6
kai^fi &f eu^f
A&^>
\)
cU*
o^xi fa &&*$ JJa
j>jA
Aristu In masal
ababll dlda shavad dalll-i
ra navishta ast ki a</ar faqat yak amadan-i bahar nist (m.c.) "Aristotle made the
proverb that one swallow does not make a Summer": î& MAJ f; wli^^ff khwaham shuma nazd-i ra bi-kunam U-A /fceVab firistad pa>/da aâr &\L*j9 +&>ljc*.
(m.c.)
"should
I find the
book, 1 will send
it
to
"
you
;j;
*i l xft
o^jl
U^ jS\
** b^ 33-^ A^ ty Lf^j^ *->yV u^^^ ^-J: shabana-ruz-i mara bi-bmid mutahayyir khwahid shud ki
^ ^ ^'^
^^
^^r
shuma awqat-i
sfiakhs chiguna bi-
sar mi-barad
(m.c.) "if you were to see the manner I pass my daily " would astonished how I live be & ** jt L> fy) *$ j p*~>* 3 J^ life, you ra az miyan-f rishva-sitani $ Âfyx tJ^/o fzj* agar az dast-am bar-dyad 7 mardum mawquf khwaham kard (m.c.) "the prevention of bribery shall bo
6
[
^^
contrived
if
I can help it."
take the place of (6) As already stated, the Indicative Mood can the Subjunctive when there is little or no doubt, as: o^f 30^ vsJW^Ji CJ& J+* ^/o OVTR.X-AJ AJ agar jan-at 'azlz ast bi-nasihal-i man amal bi-kvu
l
(m.c.)
"if thy
ji
life
is
dear to
thee take
<*>
my
advice"
jt
\)
cuiua^
$\
v^^f
^W^f
&f
^Lf f*'^
guft
ki
***;$
e^
agar haqtqat ra
az
man
?m-
pursid*
khwaham
u ahmaq
is
10
ast (m.c.)
"if
you are asking mo

fj^-
for the truth I should say he
a fool
"
:
<J;^^*j e^J
*#&* agar g&azab-nak

are not angry,
ntstid
chira bi-in ta$&ayyur harf

' '
^Jlx^s^y mt-zamd " if
<>M~AJ
you
why
speak so angrily
Music and dancing are generally held to be forbidden. The writer says that the music at his parties was so delightful that even the Qazi, the judge and administrator of the law, would fall a victim to its temptation.
1
2
3
'Azizan Vi)]/^,
pi.
used for respect,
"you and
other dear ones like you."

:
Darad
&}!& appears to be the Aorist used for the Future

(m.c.).
old.
*
6
Or ml-shavam fj& (f* Or misal JU (class.).

Direct narration.
baram
The indirect fj* u'j~f** **}&% Lr" ><* n chiguna bi-sar mlalso be would correct. (m.c.) 1 If the words f**^ c;^ )1 az miyan-i mardum were omitted, the sentence might be taken to mean "I will try to give up my habit of taking bribes." 8 Ast as every one's life is dear to him. ** 9 Or *b*j$ ** bipursid were you to ask.'*
6
10
" And
you evidently are angry."
554
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(continued).
The Present and not

;?
the Aorist tense of
v*^
khwaatan
is
usual after
when a dependent verb follows, as: eu*>^ \j* *$ AAfyjuj* <JXo^?f ^ V *i^ v* &*J)*> c/i- ci^J ^ va <*ffw malik ml-khwahad ki mara CJ f;te o
agar,
1
khidmat kunad va tawq-i minnat-l dar gardan-i man afkanad tavaqqu* chunan daram (Anvar-i Suhayll, Chap. 14, Conclusion of Book) "and if the king
wishes to do
me
service,
:
and to put the chain
of obligation
round
my
neck,
my
wish
is
that"
a^
1
^c;^^
*}b
^^
*jj &*&] }**** jS\
agar mi-khwahtd zUd
bi-ravid
bayad chdpdrl
you must travel post

cally, to
"
bi-ramd (m.c.) f< if you want to travel quickly here it is quite correct, grammatically and idiomati-
say
&>jj*
t>
(&?) a*Afj*w
^\
ti
agar bi-khwahld
(ki)
zud bi-ravld, but
there
is
properly a slight shade of difference in meaning.
Remark.
In conditional sentences the past

:
is,
in
m.c., often
f
used
for the present, as
^yf
*i
jl
&^k
AW^^^ (SJ^^ /
127
(g)
r cMz-i digar <*>yv<
khwasta bashed* az
besides these,
(c)
it
dih mi-arand (m.c.) lt should you will be brought from the village (near)."
want any
thing
The
alternative construction mentioned in

as
:
can also be used
in this class of unrealized conditions,

chi khub ast* ki
^b ^âô *$ o~f Â, &* murakhkhasl dada bi-shavad (m.c.) "how nice if leave be
&y**
granted." (d) In Classical and in Indian Persian, the Future Indicative is often used instead of the Present Subjunctive (Aorist), as: e^^ j^^ *^ syoj* ^ ^&Af >* y j<* vj^Û &?** ahan-gar ra farmud ki agar baz */
f^^-
|*V
^\^
chunin jawshan Q khwaht saJcht 1 sar-i tu du khwaham kard (Indian) " the if said the make to smith, you king again (for any one else) such a good * " coat of mail I'll split your head in two 125 (e) (1) and (2). vide also
*
mm
^ Â[^
Similarly in a temporal clause

Jljja.
ciÛ*.
y^f
<x
*AI^ v*^
u;*r^
|
^ v$j*>
JU^ JU^. j *i<*jj ÂI^ ysvî ^j 31 y hargah khwahad shud akhbar-i sa'adat-asar-i malik az nasimu -ssahar khwaham pursld va jamal-i ba kamal-i Shah dar cflna-yi khayal khwaham did (Anvar-i Suhyll, Chap. 8, Story) c< and hereafter whenever desire prevails, I will inquire of the morning-breeze happy tidings of the king, and will
iiJf
;^ jjU
f
iJî>o
ki shawq-% ghalib
behold in the mirror of imagination the perfect beauty of hia majesty

,
"
Adv. from chapar: generally written
*
8
Or incorrectly <H*/J ^3 AJUf^ The ki is omitted colloquially.

Bt-bbyahid
^^
agar J^wasta bashid zud bi-ravid.
^^^ though
really correct
would not
in m.c.
be considered quite
so polite.
^
Or
kliipahad bfid with agar instead of *$ ki.
Kash muraJ^hMkasii dada bi-shavad

tu.
(or ml-shud), m.c., has the

6
7
same meaning.
In mod. Pers.
c$3^ S*ti e)U^ chunan zirah-l bi sazi, and ra after Also bi-sazl (class, and mod.).
CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
(East. Trans.):
(continued).
555
rasld (Indian)
**
bi-vatan-i Mud khwahad er^tf 5! eJJS- cW* **> **!>* " but in m.c. when he reaches his home (as he will do)
;
Sometimes the speaker assumes that the condition is realized and first in the puts the verbs in the protasis and apodosis in the Preterite or the In m.c., howPreterite, and the second in the Future or even Present.
(e)
;
ever, this refinement of
meaning
is
generally
;
(S*S c**^ jf\ LSty m.c.) lias already been cited in

jang tarsidi bakhti (m.c.)
^h
burdi j^\ agar rafti
125
(g)
"
^^
The example murdt (Sa'di and agar Ichufti a9ar âr cf^^y ^&*)*
neglected.
if
you
fear in battle, you'll lose
"
^ L$*)J** c*5^r
CL*A:XVO &j& ^j' OAXWO^?| agar zadi khwurdl va agar mahabbat kardi Âf^L mahabbat khwdhi did (m.c. saying) "if you do ill, you'll receive ill; if " you are kind to people, you'll receive kindness (i.e. kindness wins kindness)
:
**)# ex i_r*i >la l+fy J>i j^\ <*>9 ar put bi-shuma dad pish-i man bi- ydvand cc will do), bring it if he (m.c.) gives you the money (which I think he tome": f^ (*j"*t or) A* /*^^fi agar hukm shud (or bi-shavad) wii-ravam
(m.c.) *'if
I'm ordered
to go,
I'll
go"
^t^-
^*tf
1
^^ y c*W J Ux ^>
}
\
0,-Jkill^ (jJ^^c
aâr imsal baray-i u bi-hhatar guzasht ba'daha 'umr-ash tulanVst have a long life" (astrono(m.c.) "if he escapes danger this year, he will mer's prediction) ^j *j>l^ cflU \j JL*^ *j^* ^^c ^tf
:
,,
^ ^
f
agar ghuraba* ra gazid asar-i sakht-i m%-numayad va gah-l munjarr bi-halak

5 mi-shavad (m.c.) y j\ (^L^ ^ -akUj tf ^~~# ^+* t u *^^ ^*3 tci bi4alattuf va *)) *) aQ ar 9 v az sar-panja-yi shir khalas yaft mumkm nist " and hereafter if the tamalluq-i u az rah ravad (Anv. Suh., Chap. 1, Story 26) ox should escape from the claws of the lion, it is not possible that he should be moved by his courtesies or kind speeches": o^^fj *^yy jt
(
\
:
^-^
***
farmudid va ita'at na-kardam muqassir-am^ (m.c.) "if you order me and I disobey, then I shall be guilty": **.**&) ^f*~êH^ 4 amad jahat tVAjîx |^ y^ 0,/of ÛjJs yaqln danistam ki agar in daf a tufdn ra khwahad shikast (m.c.) " I felt sure that if a storm came now, it would
PJÂZ* |*^J agar
\
o~i
break up the ship " : ( (&* or mi-kusham (or kushtam) (m.c.).

(/)
+&f
ty
^3
&*.j* J>\
agw
faryad zadi
turc\
similar construction
is
admissible in
;
are often identical with conditional clauses
temporal clauses, whicl but the Future (or Imperative^
Or
ay
<XA|>x
therefore luckier
2
kkwahad bud. and more polite.

'
Ast assumes that he has escaped the danger, and

a?
if
Ar. pi. of
vsy=
gana
is
fjharlb
stranger" here used
singular;
vulgar.
The
&!>*
malla or
is
w
1-
said to be a sort of poisonous

gkarib-gaz.
is
bug that
bites strangers only, anc
hence
3
nicknamed jf
T^*
Here the Present tense

Or
^
more
forcible
than the Future
556
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES.
apodosis.
must be used in the

money, bring
it
it
to
me " can
1
Thus the example in (e) " If he gives you the be rendered " when he gives you the money bring
1
to
me"
*?j;l# or*
3
LT^^ *^
J>j*>
J-*i *****)
man biyavand
vaqt-i ki
(m.c.):
"I cannot
talk Persian
4
vaqtfki* pulrabi-shumadadpisliri when (or if) there is a third

j+**>
*
person present"
fa
*$
^^
{
?>*>**+>
*&>
u&&
u*^
it
(/'or
*>$$
bi-
(or agar) shakhs-i salis-i hazir bashad

:
zanam
(in.c.)
kunam
(g)
(m.c.)
" when
B
o^Lti
*#
^ *&>)
nami-tavanam Far si harf
vaqt-l ki
I'll
man shumdam
out
ita'at
mi<3%*
I get the
order from you,
"
:
carry
5
jtfd>
&
A
130
(d).
it*
f*l* !/
conditional clause
har9h yadgar-i tura didam tura yad khwaham leant may be converted into a relative clause, vide
Remark.
*'
Possibly the fact that

in m.c. restricted to the
signification of conditional clauses, is
temporal clauses have often the the reason that 'f j* hargah (class.)
whenever
"
is
meaning
"
if."
129.
(a)
Concessional Glauses.
The Concessional Clause is a form of the conditional illustrated The difference is that the protasis, instead of being in 127 and 128. " " introduced by is introduced by *a^?! agarclii "although" if jit cigar, etc., or one of its synonyms î^?f agarchand** (class, and obs.), >iaÂ harchand or
*$
&IA.J&
harchand ki (mod.;, a -$-j^ harchi (however much), *^ or gu or gu-ki, 1 b va-law (ni.c.) ba vujud-i ki, <*>f ^ ba ariki, &&>.\ ^bainki, *jdj^j
;
]*&
go
ma'haza,
^f
!
^^
b ba vasf-i In or Aî-*^L) ba vasf-t ki "notwith-
standing"; *if J ^ "

ptj*?
) va halanki "whereas, albeit," and fo$ glram (or
giiim)*
admitted, granted."
or principal clause can be introduced
(b)
The Apodosis
by the Correla-
tive
Conjunctions }* baz, correlatives can be omitted.
amma, &*?
llkan
and
t,ali.
These
Niz
ki,
is
but
1
this is
sometimes incorrectly used for modern and vulgar.

is
jl?
baz after *tj;>^l? ba vujud-i
If the
Future
not used in the apodosis, the whole sentence

c hun
will refer to past
time, as:
*
8
L$*) ^^T* ^L^ you screamed, I beat you."

(*^j lr*
faryad zadl tura zadam (m.c.) "since (or when)
Chun
in writing.
y>i
Or ^j^> ()*
**&\
W4
\)
J>J
^-fjiJj
vaqt
kipul
\ra
bi-shuma bi-dihad nazd-l
man
bi-yavarld (m.c.).
4 Shied
would be
incorrect.
(class.)
;
Or
m.c.).
fl
*X|3
f*|>L bhipaham did
f*>*
dldam or
*!
bMnam (class,
and
(Xxa.jf|
7
agarchand occurs frequently in the Shah Nama.

if."
9
Ar.
"and
8
9
Also in m.c.
Also by ta
f&
giriftam.
ham
in India,
and Afghanistan
of tau hhl. apparently a translation
CONCESSIONAL CLAUSES,
Remark.
of It is not necessary for the apodosis to be introduced
:
557
by one
^^xi
1
these correlatives
j l^
<&*fy
o***f
<xil,
p& f&j*
*&f
^^ b
ww*& bd-vujud-i dnki bd mardum ham-khdna ast u u mi-rasad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, St. 6) " though * izd dzdr-i kiaz bi-vdsita-yi a rat be a partner in the same abode with men, yet by reason of the
*^ <y
3'
*^> J1'
I
annoyance and injury which

(c)
result
from
it
."
The English phrase "no matter how

^JU.Â
liar hdlat, etc.
" or " however
-", is
rendered
by j**j* har qadr,
with the Aorist, followed or not
by
&s*-jZ\
agarchi
"
No
matter
in
what circumstances a man

"
!
benefit
from knowledge
s
(*/ ^f^* or) insan mt-tavdnad kard) "no matter how

:
is placed, he will derive i ylj oJl-w \\ jj*' J^l^x *AI>^ ÛJt &f dar harhalat bavhad az 'Urn fd*tda hasilkhivahad hard (or
^ ^
many
cas^s are on the
file,
' '
it is
impos-
sible that they should not be decided on the appointed date e>U>ax> >jUi Jî c>~,xi âx? >Û j^ cri^P bar <?^r muqaddamat dar* pish
e^ *b
^^
bashad mumkin
dar tankJi-i muqarrara faysal na-yabad 6 "though it may be four farwkh distant, an object will be visible to you by means of the " .Wf **^j&\> Ja^x. telescope, as though it wore close at hand
nisi ki
:
*A* )j* /*A

cliiz
f**j*
)^ ^^^ *fr^
c^*U^
^^J
)t>
^
:
^\^^^ ^^^
*$ bi-tavassut-i
dur-bin** liar
cliunan bi-nazar khwahad
bi-fdsi!a-yi
chahdr jarsakh
remains the same for years, may be, he cannot help becoming tired of
amad ki guy a dar fahlu-yi sliuma ast agarcld ham dur bdshad (t where a man's condition no matter how good and pleasant that condition
it
at last"
^ JU
1 ^-^ ki salhd-yi sal yak halal bi-manad va-law an halat liarchi khub va pasandida bashad insau khwahl na-lchwahl az an malul ml-shavad, or better
'
^^3^ *^^
^JjAcJla.
ao.a.yk
OcUj
o^|
l^
JL>
^5^^
oJ'a. *-Al^f
salha-yi sal bd insdn bi-manad har
chand
hdlat-i
khub-i bdshad
is,
it
bdz Id-bud az
an malul mi-shavad: "however easy a thing seems difficult to a beginner" J&** }&* 3^? ^^
always
^^
<5
eW
)**
j*
c5;^
t^f ^yc
'*
Hr-t Aar âdr a5a?i bdshad bdz bi-nazar-i mubtadl mushkil mi-dyad " shall not sell it now, no matter how much you offer )** j& (^Jj* <*$** hdld nami-jarusham har qadr bi-diM.
because the rat does dwell with man.
**lj bashad could be wrong.
ast
*
Note
collocation in Persian.
The subject
for
emphasis precedes the Concessional
Conjunction.
8
Note the
collocation,
*
6
Dar pish
Or
oty )&
does not
mean
'
under
trial.
&j&
d^Js* jaysal na-phavad.
In m.o. (>&))* ^ ba durbin.

1
Or agarchi **jt\
658
(6)
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
following are further examples of concessional clauses "Though monkeys may not have the gift of speech, yet they
The
must
have some means

*L(>
*I
of
1 communicating their thoughts to each other"

**
***
fl& ay V;**" j4 s*.j\ agarchi dar likin nist takattum bdyad zabdn-i hdl-i dar miydn-i khud maymunhd quwa-yi ddshta bdshand: "you have no affection for me left, albeit I am so devoted
a
cA*jA
^l* ^b) <*jU
4i
^J
4
[
vi*~x>
you" fô-* ojf>i u-* *&T Jk*o *z~** *Û* (jfy cuxxu^ wan htch mahabbat baql na-mdnda ast va hdldnki man
to
5
** ^x>
Ij
iy
/^m ba
fidd-yat
mi-shavam:
"
forged, yet
though the debtor kept excusing himself on the ground that the bond was " he could not his
when pressed
deny
own
signature
u*^
1 ^f shakhs-i maqruz* har chand bi-takrar 3 'uzr ml-avard ki tamassuk ja*li-st vail akhir no-char shuda na-tavanist imza-yash\ rd inkdr bi-kunad ^^LLi^ [^y A^r^ "though you do not know me, I know you well" b tu mard llkin nam\-shinas-l man turd khub miVJ^ !;* (^ ayarchi* (+&*>
:
^^
shindsam:
clothes, I tf
know from your

^/o
drdsta-%
"notwithstanding that you have disguised yourself in a man's voice that you are a woman" ^ j^ *JÂJ tj
^>Uxj oîtx^
}|
^j
zj<S
U| <xi*^f AJ|^x> .^.LJj^
fta
vujud-t kikhud rd dar
libds-i
marddna*5
ammd
az sadd-yat ma'lum
different, yet this
is
mi-shavad ki zan-i:
"granted that men's natures are
should not be concord in a family "**&*! ^~*f A' oÛi oA>yo Ai SÂWO ptrom tabdyi'-i insdn mukhtalif ast likin ^!<x>lA, ;^ %n chi sabab ast ki dar khdnddn-% muvdfaqat na-bdskad?; "though the story
^^
no reason why there A^ vJUi*.x> oUj| gÛJa
o^
of *^^' v-*-fJj (IXA j, o-| J^b interesting" o~t r 3 ^ or ) agarchi dn hikdyat tavll ast ma'hdzd (or bdz or rat, or r (^^ ( JV " 1 you are addicted to drinking, albeit the practice vulgarly mz) dil-chasp ast:
is
long,
it
is
oo^
c)>A^ v^** cfLr? contrary to Islam" vi~*f os*uî ,J&L^<[ v^f ^J|l^^ ^;V bardy-i shardb khtvurdan mi-mlrid va hdl dn ki dn amr khildf-i shari'at ast.
is
130.
(a) (1)
Relative Clauses.
Another form
of subordinate clause is the Relative Clause.
Relative clauses are introduced

that, whoever, whatever," etc.,
by the pronouns "who, which, what, and by the pronominal adjectives of quafity
and quantity.
^j
zabanri âl
is is
opposed to
JU ^bj
zaban-i gal.
It
is difficult
to translate*
the former.
5 *
It
the mute language expressed by one's appearance and condition.
Or
Or Or
ahaT&h*-i
madyun.
In m.c.
tikrar.
*
& 8
4XXa>fc
Lcf
Harchand, or *f
t\i4
harchand
ki.
ammS or
jb &Sz.
Or instead
of the adjective **f5>*
xA; but mw/z<i
^L
(ro.c.) of
mardana, the plural noun books only, not stories.
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
559
A
way.
compound
relative sentence can generally be stated in
more than one
Something regarding the collocation of relative clauses has already been 120 (q) (6). said in the Syntax of Pronouns
(2)
The
its
is
ponds to
clause
position of the relative clause in Persian often nearly corresposition in English. Sometimes, the subject of the principal
first for
the sake of clearness, closely followed by its relative clause; the principal subject is then left to stand alone without a verb, while a secondary subject to a final finite verb is introduced to
introduced
close the sentence.
Kempsorx
<
points out that this construction

2
to the old English
Mr. Pepy's, his diary."
Vide also
analogous 138 Order of
is
Words
(3)
(n) (18) to (21).
In modern frequently, and in classical Persian less seldom, two verbs
(that of the subordinate
and that
of the principal clause) frequently

is
come
together at the end of a sentence; this construction
even by good writers. 8
&&/
cAi$Jbi
v^r
*'
c5*^ j
me
}
^^
not considered bad, " if thou &+?.) Lr*^'
^f
Usu wilt set
my mind
my
heart
at ease, and give

."
to tranquillize
***>* *j* jftx^)j
(Anvdr. Suh.
ij
A>*s,3\
^
to
a solemn promise sufficient East Trans., Chap. VII, St. 1)

:
c^*aak)
&+& &}*.
chun hama rd rukhsat kard shakhs-l

all,
ki duzdida bud, tarsid (class.)
" when he had dismissed them
the person
who had committed the

(4)
theft,
*-'
began
to feel afraid."
Vide also
(6).
The antecedent
pronoun, a common noun, antecedent is a proper noun or a personal pronoun,
be a demonstrative pronoun, an indefinite a proper noun, or a personal pronoun. If the
may
it is
jO
by Indian grammarians
termed
is
o^y
mawsuf that which

5
;
'
is
qualified,' or^^-ô
'
commented on
or simply cjk; baydn
' mufassar that which the explanation.' In this case the
connective *$ ki
tnufassir"
or
is
termed
(^
o!
***
kdf-i baydn,
and the
relative clause
commenting
" on
j~&* *
or <^/o
mubayyin
ts
explaining (the antecedent),"
oJU
" the sifat qualification." In other cases, the antecedent
is
called
J^*
mawsul\ the connective,
Jv*>* oK kaf-i mawsul or *X* jl kdf-i sila; and the relative clause itself *X* sila. A sentence containing a relative clause referring to such an
antecedent
is
termed &df*j' <*X^.

of the relative clause
is
The pronoun
which
1
called j^f; raji* or
Û
*a*id
refers to (the antecedent).'

'
Syntax and Idioms

also
*'
of Hindustani.
liis
4t
'*
Compare
Christ
sake" and
in
modern Persian
<x
*?
(J^^
M'*b*tnmad k^tabash gum shud

8
Muhammad,
his
book was lost."
In mod. Per. write dad for kard and
shafths-i duzd.
Such a common noun
may
of restrictive relative clauses be preceded
by a demon-
strative pronoun or else followed
by the demonstrative
^.
560
"
RELATIVE CLAUSES.
***
general term for antecedent

jd-i Id, *^*5l^
is
f&a/
muqaddam
"
placed before."
Har kujd and

?*w-f mawsul.
(5)
and IX^Â, are included
in the
term J>*y
p)
Examples
"How miserably passes the time of women that do not know how to read and write" *iy^ ^j* tf ^tij oUjy *)*&* eu.< j&*. chi qadr sakht
ml-guzaradawqdt-i zandn-ikisavddna-ddrand', or c^Vj eJ^t^ **Jty c^r*** <jjfja+j cW qadr bardy-i zandn-l ki khwandan va navishtan vi*iu jji/**
l
naml'ddnand sakht mi-guzarad or aSy&tô eu:**. oiiltî ^f>^ *&$^) zanhd-i ki khwandan nami-ddnand chi qadr sakht mi-guzdrand. "It is very unkind to forget the past claims of aged servants that can no longer work"
;
^^
^! Jte&f
bi-vafa*i-st
cAr^b3 \) ^\j^ ($** ^-^5l^xi UJU^ khayll huquq-i nawkaran-i sal-khwurda ra faramush kardan ki az kar
j!
**
&*j>
^JU
J u ^t/>-> J A? uftadaandior: Jk^ &*j* u*r*y Âj' sal-khwurda-l* ki az kar uftdda-and huquq-i ishan ra o^-oJl*^ nawkaran-i faramush kardan khayli bivata*\-st. "Let that one of you precede who is
1
6^ ^Û^
^J^
qualified to take
^j
on
^^jo
>Jib
precedence" *&b &&) cr-y ^k* ^^-^^ j*> Û^ &(&<> j! as miyan-i shumd-hd har shakhs-l ki liyaqat-i pish raftan ddshta
"Instantly report to
bdshad pish bi-ravad. 6

his part that
me any
unusual proceeding
Jr* ^
1
you may
" observe
ji lyo
|;y Aîxj
&j
Jt
o^
an
*^/l j*
ma'mul az u bi-binid fawr mard az an " in want of, shall be given him o&\y^ te\& JMÎ (J^^ <*</> bi-har kas harchi hdjat-ash bdshad ddda khwdhad " i( A Whatever people thought they thought wrong shud. %$j* J^ *^ f*j* ^^ <>i^b mardum* harchi Jchaydl karda bdshand g&alat khaydl J t&j?
ojji^j?
glCo
e>f
Aar awr-i if khildf-i
muttali* garddnid.
"What anyone
is
^^
A^
c;f
karda-and (m.c.). "

'
What kind
eat;
of a
man is
he who eats no
flesh
'
'
cuÛî dn
chi jur insdn-i-st kigusht
nami-khurad ?
b
;
(^t^
<^
-Mwrod = does not

reference to
:
certain);
the
Present Tense here indicates a

;
'
some one that does not eat meat the Aorist would indicate a a>*^ o^/ &' e^-oJUJi ;^ &<*. c/f an chi jur insdn-l st ki gusht nasort of man is he (may he be) that eats no meat," (i.e. "is there what khurad" " Are your mother and sisters in the same house as yourself such a man? ").
doubt, as
In
this sentence, the position of the relative clause corresponds to its position in
the English sentence. * Note the demonstrative
(preceding
&)
affixed to the qualifying adjective.
Also note that

8
c>[y[j>
nawkaran the
logical subject has
no verb,
vide (a)(2).
Note the two verbs together at the end, vide (a) (3). Note the collocation, subject first and then the relative
*Â
harchi.
Also the two
verbs could either be both in the Preterite, or both in the Perfect, with but slight change
in signification.
*
Collocation close to the English:
ortyîu cxAjJ
^ j-AbîUif j,^ 4U ^f 5n chi
jur insan-l baehad ki guaht na-tefaurad.
KELATIVE CLAUSES.
561
WA y
hamin khdna-i
&f &U> ,^X*A madar 1 u khwahirha-yat dar cujUâiyk. , t( ki tu hastl hastand*'* I practise the profession of marauding,
Û
"
which has come down to

ft
me from my
' '
father
<^J <J^ *** &~>

t
c^J* J
f
*&%
t5^j c/f
**>;**)
pisha-yi rahzani ki nasl
an
ba'd
nasl
in
bi-man raslda
ast dar
an baqi-am (m.c .).

cu**f
able"
ki
,jM
is
J^
sJmma nii-farmayid
parda
What you tell me of the weight of air, is inconceivU &JJ}JAA> *j c|3) vazn-i hava bi-mlzan-i ^Sl/Ojju*: The women of poor folk, amongst khilaf-i qiyas ast.
iyfc
'
'
whom
not maintained, work in the
fields
like
men"
**
mardum-i
misl-i
faqir ki dar
anha qanun-i ru
*2> *&\f*>
giriftan nisi zan
marddn dar
will
kishtzdr kar mi-kunand. B
u khwahirha-yi shan " The wages which are due to

v*^'^ *&*) anchi mavdjib-i you named was absurd " The gufii tn-huda ast. girl
' '
any one
liar
be given"
W*
'
o**t
u^f;*
price
kas ast ddda khwdhad shud.

****#
The
^^^t
s>^
p&
** *&*+**
of an
in
was some
U>
six years old

iJixxAJ
qlmat-l ki tu " short just the age of our Fatiuia
yô
v^T
ÛJrli
(Â
a^V-L
cu^f^ JU.
^2* v.^ an dukhtar
qarih-i shash sal
ddsht khulasa* bi-'ainih ham-sinn-i Fdtima-yi ma.

(b)
In
(a) (3)
it
was stated that the subordinate and principal verbs
sometimes come together at the end of the sentence. In a long sentence, however, with more than one relative or subordinate clause, as many as three
verbs are found at the end of a sentence, even in good
:
modern
authors. 5
The following example, far simpler than many, will suffice "In order to get rid, for a while, of the importunities and jealousy of his first wife, and also to acquire the good opinion of his father-in-law (who, although noted for clipping money, and passing it for lawful, affected to be " a saint), he undertook a pilgrimage to the tomb of Husain at Kerbelah
Haji Baba
i
of Isfahan)
\>to
gjli
J a
**
Note that
madar here remains
singular in
signification,
though according
to the general rule

first
the plural termination added to the last of two nouns

well.
(a) (3).
makes the
of the
noun plural as
i
Two
locative case
5
verbs at the end of a sentence, vide ^(^ dar an is avoided after ki. In
*
Urdu
'
it
Note that the repetition would be inserted.
Note the collocation
/aqir.
Note that
in
Uy*^ j
c>3
mardum-i Mr. Pepy's, his diary ; no verb to ^xaj pbj'Q 23 ^ u tehwahirha, the plural termination is added to the
tî}
second noun only, though both are plural;
zanha would also be correct.
In India
*W &)
It
riwai'i P<*rd<* would be used, instead of

also be correct to turn this
:
would
^ ^l* ^ji % îUf l^f ;^ ** j&*
^^
qanun-i ru giriftan.
f&j* ^(Ayfcf^x j
Akx^ C5
j^;t3 VSA^ )& ^l^xJ
Ji-o
owj] zan u
Ishwahirhfryi mardum-i faqlr ki dar
anha qanun-i ru
*
giriftan nist, misl-i
marddn dar
kishtzar kar ml-kunand.
Indian would probably here say ^j*^ bas instead of 0U^ khulasa. The 'suspense* is of course excessive. The sentence that follows has puzzled
An
even Persians at the
first
reading.
36
562
PREDICATIVE (SUBORDINATE) CLAUSES.
farigh
a* chand sabahJ, az dard-i sar-i zan-i awal pas, bi-dan khayal ki aqall shavad, va dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i taza-i ki bd Inki dar bundan-i kinar-i
l
dirham u dinar va rava^-yi naqd-i na-sara
bi-ja-yi sara
muzayaqa nami-kard,
dar sunan-i shar' vaadab-i din da'vq-i payadan dasht, taqaddus-l bi-farushad, 'azim-i Karbala shud.
'azim-i In the above quoted example the principal verb &*j? fj^ Karbala shud might be inserted between pas and JU^ e>l^ bi-dan khayal ;
^
5
**
,,
the subordinate verb taqaddus-1 bi-farushad *jjto strued with dar nazd-i pidar-zan-i taza &) )J
& ;, while the

o^b
t
^^^
might then be confirst
relative
ki following these
words would have for
its
verb
<^;i^ payadan
.
.
dasht
and the concessional clause j^^> ,,,.,.*^! ^ ba Inki muzayaqa nami-kard might be inserted between the first relative and its verb.
.
^l^
(c)
sentence, the relative clause being omitted, thus:

tion
statement can sometimes be more simply translated into a simple "He suffered a retribuin
which was
:
accordance with his
deserts,"
expressed by
ojj*^ ^yL JU*f d>U^ a'mal-i khud rasid* than by ^^;
wÛxj
;^Jbj bi-tawr-i
can be more simply mundsib bi-mukafat-i

*%j.t tawr-l ki
JU^l
oli^
&*
^Û^
mundsib bud bi-mukafat-i a'mal-i

(d)
Ichud rasid.
;
may often be converted into a conditional clause thus, vr**ty'( a>f e>JIU^. ;^ ^f A^x*Ai^ shakhs-i ki In jur khayaldt ddrad kaftr " ua ast person who holds these opinions is an infidel, may be rendered
relative clause
ayar shakhs'i * n far
"
if
a person holds
."
is
In long sentences this conditional equivalent
sometimes
useful.
131.
(a)
Predicative (Subordinate) Clauses.
Predicative Clauses are those which form part of the predicate and without which it would not be complete. These clauses are generally linked
to the principal verb
by the connective
is
ki **.
In
classical Persian,
completes the predicate,

(6)
the statement, or question, or order, etc., that 8 generally ia the form of direct narration.
is
In modern Persian the indirect narration
direct narration
would be used in the
classical language.
frequently used where the The use of the

Persian.
indirect narration appears to be increasing in
modern
Note demonstrative
a
2
Or
(before tf
affixed to the qualifying adjective.
(j
,^L JU*
(jSteb padfah-i >amal-i
khud ra
did.
Oriental languages prefer the direct narration. In Hindustani, which is more dramatic than Persian, the direct narration is used much more than it is in classical Persian even.
563
either in
"He
is
not the
man he
says he
:
is
" can
u
in
modern Persian be
direct or indirect narration, as

o-voJ (1)
nist,
**(
&&
(j,* jjjXfc*
tf
jt
Id
mi-guyad
Tel
man
fuldn shakhs-am
t
or (2)
o**^
cu**|
(ja**& &&$
laxijf
*ij**
*$ jl
u
tf
mi-guyad faldn shalchs ast

6*- 5
riis.
In modern Persian <jwb
&* c^?y
(.^J^^^
0w/rt td bar-gashtan-it
tell
man
till
inja bash?
would at
my
return
'*
"
once be taken to mean "did you
him
to Wait
but
if
^^ bdshad
were used instead of bash, the meaning
would be
your return."
Even
in classical Persian the indirect narration is preferred in cases like
the following:
hamsdya rd dil bar ndla u zdri-yi u bi-sukht va muqarrar kard ki In naivbat bl u bar sar-i da vat hdzir na-shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap, melted at his lamentaI, Intro., St. 3), "the heart of the neighbour-cat without him." feast the not attend would he tions, and he resolved that
gurba-yi
6 l
In English, the indirect narration is preferred *' a of clause is avoided either by using the infinitive as tion
Remark.
or the addi-
tell
him
to go
home,"
or by using a participle as,
"
thought
of
going to
Yezd."
Native grammarians term the reported speech, whether in the 1st or in the 3rd person, &^*> maqula', even in the sentence bi-gu asp biydrad "tell him to bring a horse " the second clause is a &(jA* maqula.
(c)
After verbs of
preferred,
8 commanding and forbidding
etc.,
the indirect narra-
tion
is
though the
direct,
as
well
as the indirect, narrations
are employed, both in the classical
and in the modern language:
rd farmud ki ru e/ istfj) ^ t) ^^ *^k pddishdh jalldd executioner bi-ru-yiman urd U-kush (class., direct) "the king ordered the 4 td G ^^ in Ms presence" to put him to death tyojto bi-farmud cu)t~x>
<j^
I;
^y
musdra'atkunandiS^dl)
sifdrish
(indirect)
" he
(the king) ordered
them
to wrestle
"
namud
ki dar vaqt-i btrun raftan az dar-i

( 4
khdna ruy bi-vdpas lirun
raw
td
(Trans. Hdji Bdbd) (direct)
to leave the house with
my
(my mother) further directed me face towards the door, by way of propitiating a
she
happy
1
return from a journey undertaken under such inauspicious circumwould be substituted
The
direct narration
would also be
for
j^Jli
right, in
which case
tu
for^t u,
*
and
j&
na-shavam
na-ahavad.
The employment
,
of the dramatic instead of the narrative style will frequently, of
necessity
8
alter the tenses as well as the persons.
For negative after verb of prohibition, vide 122 (i). " * If Z> U-kuahad were used instead of Jfc> bi-kush, the meaning would be the king ordered him to be beheaded in my (the speaker's) presence.'
1
564
stances"
:
&tfÛ
w~!
îyy*j
bi-mihtar bi-gu asp hazir
kunad
(m.c., in-
direct) "tell the

(d)
groom
to bring the horse."

:
The
following examples illustrate the Direct Narration
(1)
+\
***
#> **>'!
)* j\fy J^^**
Sxx*aj>^
^^
^T
^ J (*>k
o*
**
oJUjj
e>y*a? i^feLu*
ali? ^j* d^ ^j
c_l*
JÂJ
sayyah'i glsuvdn bar taft ki
'Man
'Alavi-am' va ba qafila-yi Hijaz* bi-shahr dar amad ki 'Az Hajj mi-ayam^ " a traveller va qasida-i pish-i malik burd ki, 'Man gufta-am' (Sa'dl) and entered the twisted his ringlets (saying) I am a descendant of 'AH
* '
;
city with the
caravan
'
;
the Pilgrimage
posed
s
it.'
ft
"
on the return journey from and carried a qasida to the king (saying) that I comof
Hi jaz
(saying), 'I
am
sent word that he would come to-morrow" (^ A^^Ûbjjt 3 u Khwahad vide pay gharri dad ki farda khwdham amad (e) (1). p*\j^ amad ôf Â|^, indirect, would also be right, but might refer to some third
(2)
He
s>xf
'
person.
Remark.
The
direct
narration often
occurs in
(c).
subordinate
clauses
expressing purpose or resolution.

(3)
Vide also
amada " (4) "I regret that I came (*tf \j*> chira amadam (or ^fJJ^^f amada am) ? 4
(5)
glad that you or), khush-hal-am ki shumd
"I am
have
come"
ti
^1
<Wf U-^
**>
id (or amadld).
f;j-^^ u*jr~*l afsus
mi-khuram
ki
" I fear that he

6
will
come
to
day
" x ^
1
j^/l
j\
b^
**
(Wj***
&* man
ml'tarsam ki mabadd
clause vide also
' *
u imruz bi-yayad.
/ was
?
' '
(For example
of a negatively final
133
(b) (2).
(6)
He
asked
* '
me who
tu kist-%
= (also
.
' l
who
are you
"
)
;
^^ y
p***$
or
**
e^ j az man pursid ki **j>pursid ki kislam (or coll.

***jj
(
ki
am]
(7)
Ask
if
any one
is
there
'
'
V*~A lûf
^^ ti ^ÂJ
*
bi-purs ki
kas-l anjd
hast?
*
(8)
Tell
him
bi~raw
n>
or better
to go
home
'
'
^.
Vide
AJliu
(e) (2).
j& jb
bi-u bi~gu ki bi-khdna
bi-ravad.
Or
less
common
2
^
H iyaz jl.A.
./^la*.
liazir
kun.
is
the province of
which Makkah
the capital.
Or Ajf ^ô mi-ayam. by
* This could also be expressed
(Ûx^J
(a).
or)
fj>*
u^**5
*'
^^
^^
)\
e/ man
az amadan-i fchud afsiis mi-fthuram (or

6
pashiman am).
Or
omifc f^'xc
Ijf
mabada;
vide
133
Ay a
7
The
(but not^fj agar) could be substituted for &$ ki. indirect narration would nearly always be used in such a sentence, though
is
the direct narration
correct.

"
(9)
565
My
jj)
custom
'adat-i
is
to read the
ax>G
man an
of
ast ki har ruz
vju t* paper daily" j^ ruz-nama 2 bi-khwanam.
(10)
?
going to Tehran to-morrow" khayal-am dmad ki fardd bi-ravam bi-Tahran ; or
"I thought
pjj*
lay
khayal bi-man guft ki bi-raw bi-Tahran.

(11)
"I saw a
(j^>
*>
gorilla
^T 4^
mi-ay ad.
(12)
vJjJb
ÎLJ
tells
advancing from the opposite direction

s
man dldam
ki
yak nasnas-l
taraf-i
man
you c^ J;A Husayn mi-guyad bi-zaban-i u harf bi-zarii.

Remark.
" Husain
to
" speak in his language
U
;
ki bi-zaban-i
ma
harf bi-zan
or
fikr
A person soliloquizing may, in direct narration, address himthe 1st or 2nd pera. according to the attitude he assumes towards himself (vide 4 & 10). Further examples c?*t>^ **$ *$ f*\&\j* v*^ bi-ln " what wilt " ki chi khwahi
self in
:
uftadam thou (i.e. I) do

*'
fe/rdlit.
fell
(direct).
^^ He wondered what he would do " ^J^

?
;
"
into this thought (that)

bi*in fikr
or
*$
f&\ji ^t
**
uftad ki chi kunam,
or
t>j$
^^
uftidam ki chi kunaml J *^ e^^ bi-mkhiyal chi khivahi kardl (direct). These
*> t$*\
1
two sentences might have

narration.
different interpretations,
if
treated as indirect
(e)
The following
"
are
modem
colloquial examples of the Indirect Narra-
tion
(1)
He
sent word that he would
come to-morrow
mi-ay am\
*
;
5>
^jU-?
dad ki fardd bi-yayad [or ^>f

{<
fî
&>
^b Û^
vide (d) (2).

bi-u bi-gu ki bi-khana
(2)
Tell
him
to go
home"
Jjy
aHiu
^^
jA&o
*$
bi-ravad.
The
direct narration though correct
would not be used in m.c. in
such a sentence, vide (d) (8). " He said that he was

(3)
expecting you
"
^&
**J tk
*st;
\>
{J>\*&*
<e
^^
janab-i
'all
rd yad karda guft ki muntazir-i
shumd
[or
muntazir-i Ishan Jiastam
The
If
indirect narration
is
would nearly always be used
in
such a sentence, though
the direct narration

2
also correct.
Ij
ra were inserted after &/oU
paper taken in daily.

increased force.
8
would mean the particular newsMl-Wkvpanam î[îux> could be used, but with a slightly
j^ ruz-nama,
it
Ml-amad
frc^
might be substituted.
(1
This sentence in India would be drama-
tically
rendered by, >jf <yo
bi-fflrafj
man
ml-ayad "what do
^c <JjL> ^-aUaJ a' ^x I see, but that a
î
d^
chi tfli-blnam ki nasnas-i
gorilla is
advancing towards
me/
566
(4)

if his master is awake yet *' <j;J & " as farrash bi-purs ki aghayash bi-dar ast* ? jl*# LTtJ^f " " Ask the **" witness if he speaks (5) English <j*ji *t <j?J^&!
"Ask
the 'farrash'
o*l?
^^
x
(6)
shahid bi-purs ki angrizi
Jiarf
mi-zanad^
jj&&
(7)
" " The four agreed among themselves to hunt in company f*lj jfl&b ^^l^Â^ jJuUj *r oJ^ baham ahd kardand ki biyayand
va har chahdr tan
bi-ittifaq-i
yak dlgar shikar kunand.*

fjjy
not to leave this place" farmud ki az in ja birun na-ravam 6 (class.).

(8)
"He
ordered
me
ej^ ^H\
J
jl
** ^r
"I came
3
*ij~* c**
Jl^J^*'
^
6
to ask
" Haydar whether you would go out riding to-day arnada budam az Haydar p*j$ *t j^^jf fty *^T c^'*
w^
bi-pursam shuma
imruz savar mi-shavid.
(Vazlr-i
Lankaran).
(9) ''That very moment he will go and tell the lihan that you have cast eyes on his intended" *&*. jf a} f'^^3 tf **&* ^^(^ v)U* j**. &(** AJ^>X> ^^3^ Jiaman sa'at mi-ravad bi-Khan khabar mi-kunad ki tu bi-namzad-i u
cJmshm dukhla-i. 1
(10)
" I have told Nisa

to
Khanam
us
at
to sit in the hall,

jS\
and should the Vazir

c^y
appear,
come and
>>i^^^ f;Uo t^ nishinad ; agar vazir payda shud? bi-yayad, zud

jyjUj
(/)
tell
once"
<3iJ*v
is)ilb
^^
(*l
^lÛo
dalan
<ju
^3^ bi-Nisa
it will
Khanum
ma
gufta-am ra khabar kunad.
tu-yi
bi-
From
the above remarks
be seen that the same sentence can

;
frequently be rendered either by the direct or the indirect narration in other words the same sentence may have two different significations. Though the
following examples illustrate this ambiguity, it is apparent rather than real.
it
will
be found in practice that

prevent
The context, and

misunderstanding.
in speaking the intonation or stress, effectually
t& ki, or
Ijf
aya, or ^f && kl aya

*-^*>!
but
not^t
agar.
2 8
Or
direct narration,
Or
direct narration, ^-i}
y***
^^
C5^'
agiha-yi
shuma btdar
astl
ml-zanl.
^ *\# ** ***J* *lf yak dlgar shikar mi-kunlm; or ;& j* baham 'ahd kardand ki bi-yayld ma har chahar nafar bi-ittifaq-i (***$\S* fe< ;&<*& <jjli3b yak dlgar shikar ml-kunlm.
aylm va
bi-ittijaq-i
l/0 * This could also be expressed in direct narration by j* (j* &* ba ham 'ahd kardand ki ma har chahar Uin ml' -)^^^^" (3^^ J
j&
pttf
}^
^
*>$
Or
direct
j/ ma-raw;
'
vide'
(c).
Note that
ki vazlr
7
The direct narration <#* )\j< )jj*l jt)j imruz savar ml-ahavand could be used but would not be so good. It would also be correct to say, ^^*t Aiâ fAa> U^ $ f Ixj ;^xi tf ki Taymur
this is indirect narration.
bi-riamzad-i
8
*
ehuma chashm,
*+*
dujchta ast (direct).
Payda ehud
1^
more dramatic* than AJ&J 1^^ payda
bi-shavad.
it
From
its
position zud might refer to either the verb preceding
or following
it.
Examples:
(1)
"He
below.
says
my
father
:
is
dead
"
lar-am murda asi (indirect

(ii)
if
direct
c*~| %*j* pyto *&&**)!
& mt-guyad
Vide
he says his father

e**| *^*>
is
dead.)
(2)
" He says
his father is
ast
dead "
:
(i)
^^j A^*
lar-ash
lar-i
(3)
murda man murda

l
(indirect)
(ii)
*-*!
%*
e>* ;>$ **j***
u mi-gUyad ^ & mi-guyad

j!
ast (direct).
is
"He
says your father
dead," vi*l
+^ j*i **
*>&* J u
-guyad ki pidar-i shuma murda ast (indirect). The indirect narration would ordinarily be used as in the above mentioned
imples.
The Persian
[ration.
of No.
it
Were
is
father
dead
"
would never be interpreted by the direct " He to be so interpreted, it would signify in English, says
(3)
(lit.
He
says thus 'your father
is
dead').
The
direct
rration for
No, 3 would be, cu~> i*j* <H);^

asked
H^*
*>$
mi-guyad pidar-i Zayd
rda
ast.
(4)
"He
me who
was"
p**
' ' ,
***j*
c(
v* $ ^ &
'
az
man
rs\d ki
<f
He
kistam (indirect). asked me who he (the speaker) was

o jf
i.e.
he said to
;
me who am
j u
az manpursid ki kistam (direct)
vide also (d) (6).
Remark
I.
More
tluan
one grammarian has stated that the oblique

It is
ration does not exist in Persian.
however often used.

from
his
:
A Persian servant delivering a message y '+ ^"câu jjjX} e>A*t (.;+* îîxyo
master usually says (if agka salam j ^JJU^c +& rasanand va mi-guyand mumkin ast imruz bi-khidmat-i shuma bi-rasand ? In Kerman, the writer has never heard the direct narration used in ,c.).
h a message.
Remark
II.
Possibly the two constructions account for the difference in

:
se in certain subordinate clauses, thus
p&** ttejva'da mi-kunam ^-? " I be indirect to narration <**} come," while bi-yayam may promise a AT va'da mt-kunam ki khwaham amad may be direct narration " I ÂtÂ.
*
^^
mise this that
I will certainly
come
'
'*
:
<xlxj
&f ***?* f-îu bi-khaya*
na-rastd ki u biyayad* ^x>f tXA^ 5 */

t
"I
did not think he would
come"
(indirect),
ect):
l%dan~i
/*^y
* ^-y Ûiu bi-khayal-am na-rasid ki u khwahad amad &*t**jjj*\ ^xj ^JÂX) cJUiu bi-khayalat mi*rasid man imruz
...
tuna-yayaml (indirect); ( <^f /*A|Â.or )*$<*$+* -namt-ayam (or khawham amad ?) (direct).
cuÛiu bikhaydl m
This might also refer to some third person. The construction with the Present Subjunctive (the Aorist) is preferable in lern Persian. When the Future Indicative is used instead of the Present Subjunctive
1
more
forcible
than
fche latter.
568
(g)
The
"
I
following examples illustrate other Predicative Clauses
(1)
am
is
fortunate in your arrival

ast ki
l
"
a^f U^
"
*$ cuwt
In az sa'ddat-i
man
shumd dmadid.
"
(2)
It
*()
tejf ;l>*
(3)
l; <^Jt )\ impossible he escaped by this road mumkin nisi ki u az in rah firdr karda bdshad*
"How
did you
(oJJu~A or)
**tyj& VÂ
I
&(^\ &
know without counting that they were sixty?" ^~J}& )^s ** *j>j+Aj na-shimurda chi taivr
budand
(or ha stand,
ddnistid ki ishdn shast nafar

(4)
" What did
according to idea). see on reaching there but that the straw was on fire"
cu*d &tijt
^f
*}
Ai
îxj
:
ô
&*>
*>*";
tuf anjd
rastda chi rni-binam ki kdh atash
yirifta ast? (Afghan)
(as this construction is

it
uncommon
(
in
modern Persian
and not always

***
&* *f better to say intelligible, f*** O-J^ dnjd rastda chi dldam ki kdh atash girifta (m.c,). " He * (5) put a mirror into his hand and said now look at yourself and
is
(
t^j
cJi? a^ *^-'f ^ j>*^ me, and see if there is any difference at all between us te CU-A U e>U/o ^Sji Uf &> bi-dast*i u AJ^ ^^ <Jj>j f; e>^ d;^ 11^ d*ina ddda guft hdld surat-i khud-at rd bi-bin va taraf-i man nigah kun 3
'
"
^ ^
va bi-bin dyd farq-i miyan-i ma hast ? " An idea came into (6) my head to go to rasld ki bi-Yazd bi-ravam. bi-khaydl-am
(1)
Yezd "
^j
CL>J
&
*3 ^*^;
^^^
'*!
f~îj vl^ bi-navisam.*

(8)
A ^"
do not know what answer to give J^ **^ *' hayrdn-an\ ki
to the
manager's letter"
f^j^
kdgfaaz-i ndzir rd chi javdb
" I saw
it
stated in a newspaper that there would be an eclipse of
the sun on the 3rd of this
month" *^
khwdhad
^ ^ &) &)$ )&

girift (or
&>
6
or) cî^? &&}}&. ^.tiif dar ruzndma-% navishta

tdrikh-i
(9)
didam
ki dar
siyyum-i In
mdh
dftdb
kusuf
vdqi khwdhad shud).

(
"It
"
is
to be regretted that I
gave him permission
"
c^^l
cj>*>
i ^ct^
^f5 o)U{ ^b and

&*},
\j*.
tf jd-yi-afsus ast ki chird bi-u ijdzat
dddam
(direct nar.)
(10) People began to be afraid that the police would hear the noise lij burst into the house" )ty BJOJ^ ^ lijc &*jt iÛ^ * f&j*
^^y^
^^
bind kardand bi-tarsidan ki mabddd gazma gidwghd rd shunida bi-zur ddkhil-i khdna shavand.
**(&>
cU^-b
mardum
Ki "
in that."
Icarda
aat
-s**?
JJA^"
Subjunctive to express doutt:

mat.
afirat-i 1&h.ud-at
would he incorrect after
mumkin
3
va mam bi-bin
<^Hj
&*
lj*J
&j**
a*)j*o
would mean "look at

6*fe* u>|
your own reflection and at mine,*'

*
Or better ki
chi javab-i
kaghaz-i
vazir ra
bi-navisam
(^
^JeU
AA.
A^
Navishta
Aly
for
a printed as well as a lithographed newspaper.

'*
But
oj~^
khusGf
eclipse of
moon."

(11)
569
"I saw
it
stated in the
Adab
that a meeting of the
Anjuman*
would be held at two o'clock on Saturday j;; ;a tf **y v<*' **^ 3i> )* j*^j> aU*'i .iUiui c*! (iX& Â)^, orj^j ttotjix (^fr=eui j& o-cU A*\^ dar or) <j2^;a (^?vJf Adab' navishta didam kt dar ruz-i shamba sa'at-i du in'iqdd-i ruz-ndma-yi
'
"
Anjuman
(12)
î&j/o
darplshast (or in'iqdd-i
Anjuman
tf
aj oj| j|
Jchwdhad bud, or khivdhad shud).
"He
boasted that he would checkmate him without his queen"
Al&f^j fj ^rL ^j^* bar ddshta mat ml-kunam.

(13)
oU
^x
ft
laf
zad
lei
man
Farzin-i khud rd
in this
have a strong suspicion that he too was concerned with you " o^> l^ b ^3 tj ^j^ jt A^ c^*f wJU c;U? highway robbery a^ ^**f gumdn-i s (jJidlib ast ki u dar In rdh-zanl bd shumd dast-yar buda ast.
"I
(14)
"You
"
j>*f
did a very imprudent thing in setting
security
(jo^
\^\
u^JU^
^ tf &*& ^^
C5î^
l**
him free without shumd khayll jurât
kardid ki bi-zarndnat urd khalds kardld.
"
(15)
You
did a great service to the Government in putting
down
the
rebels at the very first" t\^\ &\+& jt tf ^j&jf c^/o^^.j oxî. ^1^ U^ osÛ* zdhir kardid ki az shumd khidmat* bi-hukumat î^îxj t>j^4J |^ khayll
jM
hamdn
ibtidd
'*
mufsiddn rd
told
sdkit
namudld.
(16)
p<j*<> o;t>j
He
my
son he was coming to

&$
<*ifi?
my
house to-morrow
6
"
f**)j**
OA?>^ f^'
u bi-farzand-am b
gufta
ki fdrdd khidmat-i
pidar-at mi-rasam.
(17)
"I
entreat you to overlook this

i^3' *$
my
first
offence" fJU*
aival-am
1
^^
**)*fj*
(18)
fJJ!
j**&
could
multamis hastam ki az in
:
taqsir-i
dar quzarid.
Compare the following
not guess from his countenance that he would deceive (i) b me" *H}** ^3 ^t^ u ) JJ>J/ AT &ij&* JUJUt j\ A*V3' az qiyafa-yi ft ihtimdl nami-raft ki gul bi-zanad s (or khwdhadzad, or mi-zanad)" Here the
"I
Anjuman u+^\ lit. meeting called the Anjuman

and
in
Published in Meshed (Mash-had). k< committee."

at
The Zardushtis
ordinarily bave a weekly

is
which
religious
culprits are sentenced to bastinado or fine
and commercial business There for small offences.
transacted.
is
an Anjuman
Bombay. s With or without izafat. In m.c. generally giman. * " Service to the Government " could also be well rendered by ^fcfîdâ
,
dawlat-
Farzand
For
which corresponds to the Indian expression Âfî.^^ Ichayr-Jchwahi. means child, male or female, young or old. &*jj*
Ow*f
+\
tiitf guft ast.
Or
tu^jt avvalin-am.
naml tavanistam
^? lô
qiyas bi-kunam ki marti gvl fehivahad zad A< shows that he <M afterwards deceive.
devegfi.
In Hindustani either de/a hoga or
570
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
TEMPORAL, LOCAL AND MODAL CLAUSES.
Aorist leaves
doubtful whether he has or has not cheated; but the Fut

&
signifies that he has cheated.
->*^ JUkxf j| liUJjf az qiydfa-yi u ihtimdlnami(m.c.) "from his countenance it did not apj he would that have deceived me (as he has done)." probable *$ J)t t/ (iii) *}*' -^>**> JU&*I ji &U5 jf az qiydfa-yi-u ihtimdl nami-ra^ mard gul mi-zad (m.c.) "from his countenance it did not appear probs that he was deceiving me."
(ii)
\j*>
<x&b j^J Jjf
ki
mard gul zada bdshad
132.
Subordinate Clauses
(continued).
Adverbial (Temporal, Local, and Modal) Clauses.

(a)
Those adverbial clauses dealing with time, place and manner

dealt with.
now be
i.e.
Their construction nearly resembles that of relative clauses, vide ] the adverbial clause with *&sj vaqt-i ki 1 " when " aJujy& har vaqt-\
;
"whenever
*x5l^yk har jd-i ki, or IspSjA har I " " wherever " " bi-tawr-iki as, in the manner that *&jjl& *&*;&$ az taraf "from the direction that," etc., usually stands first, being followed by
;
9 *
aXxSl,^ jd-i ki
"where"
principal clause with or without the correlatives mentioned in (d)*
("adverbial clause") does not in Persian a subordinate adverbial clause as in English, but merely a clause that
Remark.
A **^
<xJU-a
m
<
tains
an adverb
take the place of AAX$J vaqt-i ki whei or *&i$3)\\ az vaqt-i ki "since," usually when the adverbial clause is
(&)
The
of place. particle *S ki
may
' *
shuma ra didam bi-u gu/tam ** &+**j man vaqt-i ki shuma ra didam hi-u guftam pis& ^b ^x>^ !;U he went, another came" <^f <^$j&* **> oJj &f jt u ki raft ba*d digar-i
initial;
*&?
f4r!^
fj
U-* &'**>
man
ki
W
at
ba'd az anki raft digar-i amad. {m.c. only) Ta with the verb preferably in the affirmative, 8 means ti, (c)
vide
'
unt
123
(d)
(e).
)jls
*z+*j <ÛA haman hamdn taur, *J>jk e>UA hamdn taraf etc. " Somehow or other " is rendered (e) by
The
correlatives are
vaqt,
^ o^
(
hamdn
ja t
y>J
bi-hartawr-i(orbi-harqi8m-i) kibud
etc.
" As before " by <Ji, or
(^+~* j
dar hangam-i ki, A^XJ^ hin-i ki " when.'* The normal shape and order of the clauses are those of the line " Where the sucks, there suck I." 3 In Hindustani, when jdbtak signifies " until * 6r yahant ak ki, it is correctly folio by the verb in the negative, but when it means " whilst " by the affirmative verb " Hindustani Manual," L. 38 (6).
chun,
A^KxA^^
'
SUBOEDINATE CLAUSES
AJ
TEMPORAL, LOCAL, AND MODAL CLAUSES. 571

"Still
JHc, or J&AJ kama-fi, 's-sabiq, or misl-i pish, or misl-i plshtar;
(as before),"
' '
by c/%w& hamchunan.
'
(/)
Before that
'
and
' '
after that
' '
are rendered by A&fjf j,jj psft az anki.
ki, A&'Tjf J-x*

(g)
qablaz anki; and by <*fjt c^J-^fjf ***ba 'daz an ki, pasaz an

:
Examples
(1)
(
"I cannot
help laughing
when
I recollect the
matter"
e>f
*$*(j J A
(OLi. ^/o jUi^f
^j or)
^&^
2<4>x&*
fyo tyjf ^/c
y ad-am mi-ayad mara

(2)
J
lch,anda mi-girad (or bi-ikhtyar
" I enjoy good health since I
^L^cf 7zar vaqt-i* ki an amr mi-khandam). came here" j^ î jôf laxi^ ^*^j 3f
1
/+^ 45^
(3)
cuxs^
( '
fj
as;
vaqt-i ki inja
amada-am
kh,ud* ra salamat mi-binam.
Sit in the
verandah
Vide
till
I return"
e>^t ;>
bi-nisJiln ta
man
is
bi-yayam; or
^^
123
pA# &* ciHt^w ^t^t ^ dar ayvan ^ /5 mawna-yayam dar î^ &*
$
*
ayvan bi-nishm
(4:)
(rare).
(e).
"It
<
8>
f^^
(5)
a long time since (that) my father died" valid-am muddat-l st ki marhum shuda.
will
Every one
went
" have leave to go wherever he pleases

leas
vs**t
(j&~j*>
(0)
x
jj> ÂI^S^J off
har
4
har-ja bi-lchwahad bi-ravad
murakhkhas
41
ast.
"He
in the direction he
came from" cA
j^*j
a>
oJj o^Jr a^
laraf'l ki
all
amad bi-haman
taraf raft ki raft.
(7)
i&*
"Sweep
\)
out
these carriages before the train starts" *&f
jt
7
j^j
7
***
XI
or)
^.C~.J(
^sy^-
({& AJ^
^ *-* A
^ J^
^0^
c5>)^ P* 5 ^
^^
crwfct'
gan
-* b
haratca
bi-kunad hama-yi in kaliskaha (or dabbaha ra) jarub kun. *^j J?V (S) "The only plan I could think of was to go myself" ^f 6 bi-ravam na-rasid. Inlci khud-am Inch bi-'aql-am î-*y ^li*j ÂA bi-j-uz " U ma tf ^^\ ^tji (9) "Both of us are all but caught ^.^j^lijS
?^
liar
du, qanb ast, ki giriftar bi-shavim. (10) "When you yourself see them eating you will admit that I
^>o J^j Af vnr^M
am
CA^!
.-jj:sw>
A:i
khud-i
tawr mi-tchurand, qabul mi-kunid Id
shuma ishan ra qawl-i man saKh
didid (or bi-binid) ki chi

ast.
1
Aj
)^**
jawhar-i agar dar
&&$&
Bk.
uftad
chunan
ÛapiÂ
*
8
Ishasls (Gnl.,
8, 55).
hamchunan nafis ast va (jhubar gar bi-falak rasad ham In mod. Pars.^b (>(+& haman fawr or +&jk bazham, for
ham
clmnan.
(fyi,
Misl-i pish
ki.
<J*
JUx) could not be used here.
Or tf
hargah
Not
c^.?j
â/of
amadam.
ki raft (m.c.)
*^
oJ^ m/^
"he went
right off,"
i.e.
without hesitating or
looking back. " 6 From the Hindi carriage or cart." ^jlf garl any 6 Note the Persian Pres. the for English Past Pot. Subj., 7 Note dramatic ast. Rast gufta am +\ AJJif c*^|; could
\
also be used
and
also
agar
tf
if
" could be substituted
for
*$*j
vaqt-l ki.
572 SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

(11)
TEMPORAL, LOCAL, AND MODAL CLAUSES.

left
"You
have no resource
o~oJ j&
(12)
ja-%
fjW *#S siva-yi mki nawkan

"Sit where
2
but to take service" <./> *&!l kumd charai dlgar nist.

]
my
voice
may
be heard"
es>^
t;
*&
fi\*'*
u^. uf^
3
bi-nishm
ki
sada-yam ra bi*shinaw.
"
(13)
Wherever you
*~J^
*j
iôf
}jk$
dldi
(j-*
c5"[/?
any curiosity bring it to me just {** Jiar kujd ki chiz-i Âjja <x>&t JH^ *$ j&>
find
as it is"
antika-i*
an ra bi-jinsih bard-yi man bi-yavar. " I saw what was in his mind before he could make (14) any complaint" lx> *& c^jto kunad ma ft anki az t> sMTcayat uj*+*> pish ^3}j! (jiaj ij* f*'kj*
zamir-ash * ra daryaftam,
" His eyes were no sooner closed than he was in another world" 6 c>Ufc vtijjSj* fa* j VÛA ^^JLo p&A. chashm bastan hamdn va biâvalim-i dlgar raftan haman.
(15)
4<
(16)
He
could not have gone five or six steps

*H^*
when he heard a man's
voice close
by"
^^
*-&&
is*}*
^** **^ ^
an
^ AiiyÎ^j f&3 ^Ji^

l2S(d)
-i^
panj shash qadam blshtar na-rafta bud ki daf'at

shunid.
(h)
sadd-yi mard-l nazdik~i khud
As
in conditional
and causal clauses
[vide
and
133(e)],
the Future Indicative can in classical Persian often take the place of the Aorist or the Present, as
:
oJip
cXx/o
Afandagar Haqq Subhanuh" va

ghaflat dida-yi baslrat-i
ta'ala
hukm-l bi-nafaz khwahadrasanid* bimil-i
bmaydn
ra lira va khira garddnad td rah-i khalasl az
an hukm
" and when the pushida shavad (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, S. 18) Creator, the Most High God may He be sanctified causes His decree to
b tr ishan
issue,
He
the anointing needle of negligence, so that the
clouds and darkens the eye of the vision of the clear-sighted with way of escape from that
to
mandate becomes hidden
them, for
."
*
3
Or o**w tÂl^ ^)^ chara-yi dlgar-i nist (vulg.). Note that i*5l^ ja-i and & ki are separated.
Antique (Eur.), used in Persian for any good thing or rare thing, however new, carpet would be called *&} antika. Tuh/a is any choice article
A newly woven good

4
6
that has not yet become
common.
Ma
ft
zamlr
j%**b
^^, ^ r
'*
-*
that which
it
(is)
in
mind."
If the
singular
JU
*a/om were used,
would imply death or departure from
this
world.
6
" In modern Persian ôUojA* mi-rasanad^ Present Tense (when) he does/' or

bi-rasanad (when) he
jj
may do."
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
FINAL,
AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.

(continued).
573
133.
Subordinate Clauses
Adverbial (Final and Causal) Clauses.

(a)
Those
adverbical clauses dealing with the
end or reason,
i.e.,
Final
and Causal
clauses, will
now be
dealt with.
Final clauses are constructed like Predicative Clauses [vide
131
td,
(a)],
being linked to the principal clause td ki, or U & ki td.
by a
final
conjunction
ki,
ft
or a* U
Clauses negatively final and introduced in English by the conjunction Â* mabddd, or ^C|A^ 'lest,' are introduced in Persian by the phrases
|
Khudd na-karda
or else
by
&$ ki
that
'
with the verb in the negative.
Examples of these conjunctions have been given. Vndev Huruf-i'Illat&iid Kalimdt-i'Illat, native grammarians include both ~ " the final and the causal conjunctions; they are *^^- *t\ji) ** LrO *^ *^"
:
)*&*)
(i^f
V^** e^tO
'
*^-f )&&*)
Jl
:
eJljAv
J+A (i$y
'
*&i\
*-?*?***
**>$ *^l*J.
(b)
Examples
of Final Clauses
companions held out inducements to the end that I might 2 3 journey in their company j&* a)^\ &L^t- J-^ & A ^ **& vH^y Lr* f^j" mard tdkardand man rilz bi-hamrdh-i ishdn rufaqd-yam safarkunamf taryjiib
(1)
' '
"My
&
"
(2)
Keep your hand here

g^jfouj
ASVJ
-1
lest
the child should awake and feel fright^(^*i+&

\j
ened"
cXvoyo
6^ )\&&
CÂ-WO^
dasl-at rd
hamin
jd hi.
guzdr mabddd bachcha biddr shuda bi-tarsad.
If
however
Here B^J |t^ Khuda na-karda could be substituted for \^y> mabddd. &' ki were substituted forfjiU* mabddd, the sentence would have
:
to be reconstructed
\j
cui^js L
vW^
a]^ ^-wJ jf^j
^^
tf ;fckC I?.AX*A
\j
0,^0^
*f a^.j <x*yo ^ôxi^f^j
^;)<^ (?J*+&dast-at rd hammjd bi guzdr
ki bachcha biddr
*
na-shavad va na-tarsad, or dast-at rd hamlnjd bi-guzdr td bachcha ki
bi-ddr mi-
shavad na-tarsad.
[The sentence
so that the child
(3)
<x*îi
*^^(i>xi AVJ &$ jfx^J
^*>^
t^
OA^,V dast-at rd hamlnjd
bi-guzdr ki bachcha biddr shuda na-tarsad would
may wake up
M
^}**-
but
if
"I
should not wonder
mean "place your hand here not be frightened."] he has deceived you, in order to get some-
may
thing for himself
^ o^
ejtfjl
^ ***^ Aiijji
f)
\+&
j\
& +tf
Mi-kardand cyj^Cvc
Kardand &&*$ here implies that

Or
A$t> ta ki, or
'
agreed to go with them.'
would leave the matter doubtful.

ft
U &
ki ta, or AT A* alone.
This final clause can be converted into a predicative clause by substituting
&Z
l*j
ki
U
*
&$ and employing the direct narration, as &*bj >U4A rufaqa-yam mara targhib kardand ki hamrah-i ma biya.
for
13
ta
Ki AT " when.
'
574
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
-FINAL
AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.

ki
man
'
ta'jajjub
naml kunam
u shumd rd
farifta
a*' ... tdaz In miydn yak chiz-i 'd*id-i khud-ash bi-shavad; or *iiî G tivwb chi orj%\ o*^ v^* '1 ajab ki turd farifta bdshad td
;
agar
" Writeine word of his departure, in order that I may set c U ^^j^jj \j jj&K^ j^l his for ^.yo reception cf;tx> preparations
(4)
' '
f*>{*
y
(5)
jtj^y a % dnjd tdrikh-i harakat-ash ra bi-navlsld td

l
man
dar
'
ta\
pishvdz-i
u bdsham
(m.c.).
little lest
\)j\
" Grease his palm a
jj&i
cJaxxj
l*UA3
(ÂJ
<jy
cuJ. he put a spoke in our wheel 2 urd td dar az bi-bin mu'dt pish vaqt
'
'
md
mukhil na-shavad (m.c.). lt He shook the pot to find out what (6)
J-J
cu -u**y jj G txir ) -^^^ o>[j5 * ( ^^JU/c ki dar an clnst (or pur az chist s ). " Chastisement to be
(7)
tf&
with e;'<J dig ra takdn dad td ma'lum

it
was
filled
"
ought
inflicted, to
**^3
the intent that peopl
see it
and take warning" ^j*$ ^j**
az in sabab tamblh kardan Idzim ast td*

(c)
f^^ ^ *^^f (*j^ &*j* & ~*** mardum dida 'ibrat girand.
clause
Unlike final clauses, Causal Clauses generally precede the pr (after the manner of temporal, local and modcil clauses).
are introduced
or
G
by the causal conjunctions

ki, &~*> j|
<*f
'
'since,'
&->$ chunki, a&Jluijt az dnjd-i

ki, etc.,
az baski, b
because,' &*> chi, &$
az In jihat in ki, etc.
^f j^t bind bar an
ki, &> [s*-
chirdki, *u.\
The
Causal clauses
(d)
^ * * Causal Clauses (*&** aU^.) 7 (1) *'As tliis verb is intransitive, the sign of the agent is IH " with the past tenses 8 ^^^> c5 t*^J^ v*^^ e^-0 c: ^ fj^ ^** c^^Û chunki in fi'l lazim ast az in sabab dar slg&ahd-y ^T ^w cU^
correlatives are cu^rpijj y\ az in jihat, iiHt J' #2 in sabab, etc may also follow the principal clause.
of
:
v^
Examples
Vide also No. (6). aldmat-i fd'il nami-dyad. " You had better (2) post a sentry here too, for this ravine ' the this of postern place speak,
'
is,
2
>
l>
Or JUflJUf iatiqbal. Or ^^ A^ \)j\ (*ti CU^ J O'"^ pish az vaqt dam-i u ra ism-i sJidb ra bi-u bi-gu '* tell him the countersign."
f
bi-bin.
Also
fj
11
Vulgarly jwr-i
chist.
*
6
Or A H.
For classical and m.c. meanings of &*oj{ azbas ki vide' elsewhere. Tho &$ lei is frequently separated from uiâaJf J) a an jihat. <l The term cLl*3 a causal particle,*' includes such âr/-t â'^^
*
*
7
O^
parfci
and ^f^j
8
all
the final particles.
Urdu grammar.
In India ^^Ji/ laziml
is
generally used for
"
intransitive
SUBORDINATE CLAUSES
it
FINAL AND CAUSAL CLAUSES.
575
cUu> ^jj jîsuo
JA**
[j^ aiLL bihtar In ast ki injd niz pdsbdn-i vd

!
ddnd
chunki In rud-khdna guyd madkhal-i makhfi-yi In mahall ast. " I cross-examined him, because they say he was one of the deceased (3)
man's intimates "

*** <j*yk
j!
u&**&
*
&*]
***j&i* f&j*
a
8
*y* (S^*)
man
az
n sabab
&f ftj&i* r^** vf* etff jt e>* * mardum mi-guyand jarh mi-kardam ki
bud.
in shakhs yak-i az rufaqd-yi mard-i mutavaffa
"
(4)
Do
not
take
his
part,
for
his criminality is unquestionable
"
o*jUa- himayat-i urd na-kumd az in oîâa/o f$$ Jjjf &{ ^f* cîi jt ^-J^ jihal ki u Id kalam muqassir ast. " Inasmuch as (5) nothing was found against me in the informers' ^X c/ ***j (S^^ LJO**^ ^)^\ j* *Cj^ summoned" I not statements, was
<>^JLhJ \j*
CA^^X
<(
cxio
chunki dar izharat-i mukhbirin irad-i bar zidd-i

' '
man
yaft
na-shud hukumat mar a na-talabid.

(6)
As
this verb is transitive the sign of the agent is used
J*i
^l &y*
^
(7)
JUitLaf (JÛ c^xlltf eu*t ^>*AX)

*
chun in
fi'l
muta'addi-st
'alamat-i f&il
isli'mal mi-shavad.
Vide' No.
' '
(1).
" As he learned English in

language
lj
\
his childhood,
he must be more or
<?
less pro-
ficient in the
tXalj
^CDJ^X) iôw*|
câr
Au/
Û
f;
ÎC|
e)b;
^!^ fty ;^ o^
ast
ayyam-i tufuliyyat zabdn*i Inglisi ra yad girifta lihdzd maharat-i kam yd bish-l bay ad ddshta bdshad. '* As you are fond of obliging me, I feel sure you will not grudge me (8)
JU|^
3jlj
^-ioj
cMw
(help)
9 *f c~i {ÂJ. **)]*> Jj^ lj matter" J& j>\ A^JJI (tr* &AsA*> kidar in amr ast mi-dand rd 'aziz ki* az bas khdtir-am &jf AxAfîo yaqin
in
this
^^
niz
muzdyaqa na-khwahid kard.

<4
(9)
without
it
You ought " 6 c~jo
to confess your fault, for reconciliation
^4^ &tf c^f
;y>
j&
**
impossible ** \j& yt* jtf\ *j**j*****
is
bdyadki
nist.
(e)
bi-taqsir~i
khud
iqrdr kuni zira-ki bi-p&ayr-i iqrdr dsMi kardan
mumkin
As in conditional and temporal
clauses,
the
Future
Indicative
:
sometimes in
classical Persian takes the place of the Present Tense, as
dqibat-i
kdr rakht-i
In m.c.
is generally used for the throat, as: tXil^x -âsxô mal^hraj
<ijlj
rjx***> jt
mafthraj bayad Jshtpand

<
8
"
pronounce the Arabic guttural letters well out of
the
throat."
Note that ^KM>
o tn sabab is separated from A. jjj ^)| Generally applied to a Christian or a Jew. Mardum f*j^/o for a Muslim. Note the correlative CL^SUU) \| az In jihat or |3^J lih'aza is omitted it could of
:
course be inserted.
6
Instead of the pronoun *' without confession."
Chunki more modern than az bas ki &&^> A&J jf. it would be better in English it ',
*
also to repeat the
noun
576
zindagi bi-gjiarqdb-i fand
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES.
khwdhad uftdd mi-khwdham
ki
(
har-chand zudtar
khud rd az maziq-i
ta'alluqdt-i
dunyd
bi>fazd-yi rdhat-dbdd-i
uqba rasdnam:
" and since in the end the goods of life must (Anv. Suh., Chap. IV, St. 11) I all desire with of tho in annihilation, fall possible speed to whirlpool of strait narrow the worldly things to the expanse transport myself from of the blissful regions of Eternity." (East, trans.).
the causal clause precedes the principal, the conjunction may be omitted, as: fjy 15+* e>j;# vs~* (*/ L^ havd (jarm ast blrun nami-ravam
(/)
If
&
CJ) L5**
!>*
<W- blrun nami ravam chunki havd garm *A>^ chunki havd garm ast birun nami ravam.
J
ast
134
(a)
Co-ordinate Clauses.
"Another form
is
of the
Compound Sentence
is
that in which a simple
'
sentence
extended by the annexure
of co-ordinate clauses.
These differ from
subordinate clauses in being accessory, or even antithetic to the leading sentence, rather than explanatory of its parts. They may indeed be con-
by conjunctions augrnentatively appropriate to the meaning they convey, but are constructively independent, and this too though they may have common terms.
it
nected with
"Co-ordinate Clauses
(2)
Adjunct! ve,
(3)
be conveniently classed as Alternative, (4) Adversative.
may
(1)
Appositive,
appositive or collateral relation is that in which no intermediary conjunction unites the clauses ." Kempson.
(b)
"The
The
b î'f jf jb az dsdr-i pd ml-ddnist ki rdh-raw az chi qabll ast va az kujd bi-kujd mi-ravad ; " from the foot-tracks he was able to bdr-ddr ast yd bi-bdr (Tr. H. B. Chap. V)
discern whatever
b 0*1
following are a few m.c. examples of Appositive Clauses lsxjl:^ jl j OM! <JA>J fe. jf yfy tf v2A~of>^c )\t> ;lj fyj**
had
travelled that way,

' '
and whence travelling and whither;
and also whether laden or unladen.

ravad, but the omission of *SSay Sir to others and
*
Va or ya'ni is understood after tjjt* mithe Copulative makes the sentence more dramatic].
[
'
'
Sir
'
will
:
" man, to say nothing of never having seen him e;T /*! $X *>j;^j \) &*i* f\ ÂXÔ p* i; ism-i an mard rd ham na-shunida am didan rd bi" well I have guzdrid kinar* (m.c.) enjoyed a sight of you please God I shall
the
durust bi-gu durust bt-8hinaw B (m.c.) "I gave you this order, did I not? " A) In farmdn rd bi-tu dad budam-na ?\ "I have never heard f&j* o!>>v lj&ji &4\
be said to you
"
>2
>i^
eu^ô
0**^
name
of the
soon hear you speak
"
*#
f**'>^ A*f^*u t^^^ffjAJ ^liif
s^j^j\^^
^jlj bdr-t
A complex sentence may also

Hindustani Jt kaho
be so extended.
^
8
jl kahljfo.
^ r *)$ v^
Or
^^J* **&* 'fazat 'izzat mi-avarad (m.o.).
classically-~c^ ja-yi didan.
COORDINATE CLAUSES.
577
didar muyassar shud guftdr nlz agar Khuda bi-khipahad khwaham shunld (Prof. ' S. T.) : the earth moves round the sun, I allow. Why * allow ? Say rather it
' '
does so
move"
**/**
&****> **
^^ *&.
L^
fj
-*4A* v&f^j>
^^f
Glram chira? Balki chunan bi-gu hi glram dunya dawr-i aftab ml-gardad "I looked for him in all directions not a trace haqiqat ml-gardad (me.):
him could be found >f p&(u ; )\ ^yf anja gashtam ; hlch asar-i az u nayaftam
of
|
l
at the service of
my
friends
:
' y
f*~a
c<
luf l?uijj y w*a* 'aqab-i u mja " (m.c. why should I object ? I am U^ V r^ ^ty^t ^^Va? chira * <oU
^xk?
)
:
man
khadim-i ahbdb hastam
it is
easy for some people to
lie, difficult
for
others'*
JWU ^^
^ly
o^.}
e)^T
e>^
^^
:
guftan asan ast, baray-i ba'z-i mushkil (m.c.) phy, others have a greater liking for mathematics"
dlgar shawq-i riyazi darand
<f
:
L**^ c5^ baray-i ba'z-i darugb " some are devoted to philoso-
the higher I ascended the lighter the air
became
"
***
y^^
A ;<3&Ua [>
f*^**
).
^*^
(
&j)b j&)*3j* &<*:

or
)
"the morel
cherished you the lazier you
became"
^^ ^
(c)
f&)>j*
fo>;^
tf^j&X Lr*;^ j*
;^j d^ y&tf
;->ailÂ
The Adjunctive Conjunctions

:
grammarians are
^J^^) enumerated by native and ham. Adjunctive j va, u^; pas, u^*** sipas, Jv n^2,
(^ftk*
Clauses (**&*> &+*>) connective (1) In these the principal
is
'and', va*, which
may denote
'
simultaneity of action, or antithesis. " What is is one
Examples
:
right
f
y^ J> tAHf^J "

(m.c.)
v^.*ot^Jti^
^^
thing and what one wishes is another ra^-/ 5a0^ dlgar ast va kkwahisJi-i dil dlgar
felt
nausea
(of cholera)
was no sooner
than Fate* overtook
him"
^jltjfc >jtf Î/AJ c^>>t^ j i^* eA* ^J ^J(s^?balaîqayyhaman bUdva rasldan-iqaza" what comparison is there between the Raja Bhoj and yi mubram* haman:
5 such a bi<r Qraâ ^w/a ? : Ganga, the oilman ? ttf >f j (?^ U sftaft fe/a '* amr-* business as this, and you not to know of it! 5^- ^" <4 before own look at tu 6?-Ma6ar!": va 6-in buzurgl insignificance your " c)^ 3 kkud-at ra nigah kun f; e>fy>! A> j*^^^^ *^ !> you abuse others
' '
{
'
"^^y^
S-
-^
^^
oJj
4
s
life,
c^^> j <>>of *V3 e>f)f ***J **&ke il*^. â/d amad * c< Many Muslims hold that Fate is, in some respects, absolute and unchangeable of in others that it admits of alteration; and almost all of them act, in many of the affairs in In the former case, it is called el-kada el-mohkam as if this were their belief.
,
Or on J5ara/ vo In faraf nigah kardam. Or faylasufiyya Gr. or falsafa Ar. form. When a number of clauses are connected by ^
,
as
va nishast va 6a*d azan raft, the sentence
is
called
be regarded the latter, el-kada eLmubram (which term, without the explanation, might Arabian Lane's Nights. as exactly synonymous with the former).'* cannot possibly live), and ajaU Compare ajali mafaum (beyond which period a man the previous period). mu'allaq (accidental death that may occur before 6 Ham* #5/5 Bhoj aur kaha* Ganga toll, a common Hindustani proverb.
4 '
37
578
l
va dushndm
of theft
bi-buzurgan dadan ra (or
"
!
LS&J
er j~i pisar-i
'
!
man va duzdif: " "
add ma-dih)
"
:
son and capable this amount of labour
my
and you gasp
for breath
va nafas zadanl:
nearer the iron
is
"it
is
c>*>3 u*** J &*$** *++*>) }&&>\ In qadr zahmatkashidan he property of lodestone to attract iron, and the
placed to
it,
the greater
is
the attracting force"
AJ}U, |jj rfar *an</-i maqndtis in* khassiyyat ast ki ahan ra jazb mi kunad va har qadr ahan nazdiktar bashad 8 hamdn qadr quvva-yi jdziba bishtar " it is not advisable to leave him to live 5 ast*: alone, accordingly do you
and he continue together

-Sra
va,
" be substituted pas " then" baz " again wards '; ^1 j?Uj bindbar in " therefore." Examples
<Ûj ^, y ^ (+ ^jjlu o~^ oJUaô ^L$\î lîJ ^y tanha guzaslilan maslahat mst bindbar 6 in shuma va u bdham bi-mariid. (2) If the adjoined clause implies a logical sequence of thought, then for
;
;
' '
may
*
AJ
' '
ba d "again, afterThere has been a ter-
rible dacoity in this village; accordingly the village
person to investigate it" eA^

**\
^ kU Ûf ^yUj cu^l **& y\j i^*^^ **&,j*

shuda
ast
governor has come in
%^ Ut>j&i (3>&3
:
o.^.a6u
A*iJj dar in dih rahzani-yi g&arib-i vaqi'
bina-barin Aqa-yizabit khud-i shdn bi-nafsih bi-jihat-i tahqiqat tashrif avarda and "he asked for you, so you must go" oJ; ^jb (m.c.) Mjf\) 0^1, &(&>\
ishdn ism-atragiriftaand,pasbayad raft : " His Excellency presented me with a watch well it was of no use to me for four days I kept thinking I would return it, then I thought he would be offended, so at last I retained it"
;
^<M
Ajall yak
sa'at-l
fikr
marhamat farmudand-kJtub bi-chi da,rd-i man mi-khwurdl Ta chahar ruz mi-kardam ki pas bidiham, baz kh.ayal kardam ki dilgir khivahand slmd\
(
'
akhir sa'at rd nigdh ddshtam

e^t ^*^
first
that
man came, then this one

ba'd in yak-i *t ^w
* c :
'
'
^ ^f
is
Jî
^f avm^ an mard dmad

it
the
wood
and yet you ask why

d ir*
does not burn
"
^ ^^ ^
namj-suzad
oar?
damp
Â jb
?
c**f
y ^*
"what
hizam
tar ast, baz
ham mi-pur si
him
to
ki chira
(m.c.):
need
was
there
for
right to contradict ine
" cJ|^ o^j-vi ^Jy

?
put
in his
j>;
ai^
Then too he had no ^131 j f3^ *^-jt <&^t^
mudakhala-yi
na-ddsht.
chi
lazim bud
va az an guzashta radd-i qawl-am niz jihat
* If
8
In m.o. often pronounced duahmun (for dushnum), by educated Persians even. " (^xt* hamln were used here it would mean only this."
O
Or
*
^
In Urdu
30 UA. chunanchi would be

cAnSnc/t*
correct, but not in
modern Persian
uako
aktla chhorjana maslahat nahln-chunanehi turn aur

9
wuh
sath raha karo.
for
'
which might, however, be used by Indians and Afghans accordingly,' even at the beginning of a sentence
A^Jlift.
'
Not
COORDINATE CLAUSES.
Remark.
4
579
clauses
What
are
apparently
adjunetive
introduced
by
therefore
or a
synonym, are in
reality principal clauses which are preceded
by causal
" It
clauses with the conjunction &&;* chunki, etc., understood, as:
not advisable to leave him to live alone, accordingly let you and him continue together " may also be rendered by cuaaJLA>o ^-ijjjf Igi'i \^\ *CJ^
is
^jJUj
^&U
j\
j^J
cu~o chunki urd tanhd guzashian maslahat
nist lihdza
shumd va u bdham bi-mdmd.

(d) (1)
Alternative clauses
(*J^^
&+*>)
l
are joined
By
the conjunction
L)
yd, or l^
va yd
"
or/' as
<Ju>>
^ <ulUx>
&J&J
chanddn mubdlagjta dar vasf*i Ishdn kardl va sukhanhd-yi parishdn gujtl ki vahm tqsavvur kunad ki zahr-i fdqa rd tarydq and, va ya kalid-i khazlna-yi
<j>l5;t
arzdq (Sa'di)
*$ *j* tf j! ^b e)U^ bj ^fj^^Ji ^y* ^# ÔJAJ ^la. ûss.!) ^^ ^ bi-hamdn qdni' bud ki yah gdh bu-yi mush-1 az surakh-'i shumdi va yd naqsh-i pd-yi u bar ru-yi takhta-yi khdk bi-didl (Anw, Suh. Chap. I, St. Ill) "it (tho cat) was content if occasionally it smelt the
:
J&
^Û
&
odour of a mouse from
its hole,
or
saw the print

*J
?
l>
of the foot of one
on
the surface of a board'"1 (East. Trans.): md-bayn-i tu va u hich khusumat-i ast yd na " you two or not ?
vs**t
" "is there any enmity between
^xyai.
$\
y ^^ U
'
The pleonastic va is seldom used in connecting two short clauses unless there are two ya. In some phrases the "or" is omitted, as: ^->&* A*O ^^ du si kitdb
" two or three books"
a
8
:
tf)j>
^&
yaki du td
or
"about seven
hist
si
dah
etc.
;
td\ (Jâ.
but
^ ÛA* hashtdd navad or

:
^
^/^
" one or two " a CUÂ O^JA and ten ": nine "about or eight"
:
13
si
chihal;
l3xij
<J^^
chihil
panjdh,
Interrogation can be expressed by adding the words ^ l yd na to the end of tho sentence, as *) ^ e**>f ^^R.A hamchuriin ast yd na (m.c.)
^ navad sad are not used.
"
is
this so or not
(2)
"
"Either.. or,"
is
is,
^ yd
(^
the sentence
interrogative the
first
^j va-yd; but when yd; or ^ yd t> becomes ayd.* Examples yd

.
ou
7/a
to^
i/a
" ya takhta a throne or a

yd kuldh: <J&> ctr^^-31
bier,
man or a mouse, do
^ L
sar
^"^ ^ ^
^ c^^jK
or die
"=
b yd kdr-i khud-
Fa
yd,
ijj
common
in classical
and consequently
in Indian Persian.
floor" compared to the board or canvas for painting on which the naqsh or drawing of the foot was made. 8 In m.c. The word nine ' is always generally slurred into ha/ ash dah ta. omitted.
tctfehta-yi fthak
'
The reading
means the
"mud
Only
^X/o
in interrogative clauses in direct narration does
Uf aya mean
whether.'
In m.c.
magar generally takes the place
of
lf
aya.
580
at bi-kun va
l
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES,
ya
dast az sav*i
man
:
or be
and don't bother me vjy^ ^ &*# ^f p*+> " am I awake or in a dream " (Vf ) US khwab nw-binam
off
'i
"
bi-kash (m.c.)
" either do your work
%
f)\&
bidar*am ya
jk(.
khatir
daram khud In biravam ra tabistan dar bi-sar kuhistan ya (aya) bi-vilayat-i " 8 I am to home whether or baraml perplexed go spend the hot weather " **l* in the hills ^ j 3' Sya tu az Khud Jj*\ {** </<>/
fj
r**
\*>\l~*jf
)*
\)
eÛ^f
k fj&
***>
^Vj. man
^^
own
taraddud-i
w
yd
&^
iqrar kardi va*
kas-l bi-tu ta'lim
dada bud"
to
e(
accord, or did
(3)
some one prompt you

**
chi*.
jf
do so
"
did you confess of your
Other alternative conjunctions are the verbal derivative
*iy^
khwah,
u/
*
or the interrogative
j^j^j
vjuioj j
^jl
w*\c
o^j
Examples:;^ " the IAJ ASotia. ^

-
^^ ^
&<*.
Uu> CMI
o^x>
' '
friendship of the sincere
shows
itself in
the
same way before your
face as
it
does behind your back
(Sa'dL):
man
6
(t?a)
^^ (j) >***> *\j ^-^ f>^ j*;lô J,^P |ÛJ| ^y insan ra 'aziz mi-daram khwah Muslim fchwah Hindu khwah Nasrarii " I love the sons of Adam, be they Muslims, Hindus or
^j*t$j
fean?
wa^*-
j^*~>^j**^*> j) y **$ *r^* \*-$ c>W-^^ *M* in shahr Musalman u dar bi-shavad har ju qadr just j J*A* tojs* 7 ahl-i chi az va chi az faqir hirfa payda nami-shavad chi az amir (va) " search as you will, no Muslim is to be found in this city prince, pauper, or " aitf i*A hama-yi tradesman |^ j*i* tij*. <**> \) j\ ^j^*)^ Û^
Christians
:
"
jf
*^
j*
^
^
JLfct yt
**.
^JLô
shdhr khwati
(or *ii**>
\)
Hindu
jf
khwah Muslim du'a

u^*t>
yi tandurusti-yi ura mi-kunand,
<^s&
j^
Mwlim
city,
bashand va chi Hindu
** j *xL&U ^Lô &. ^f& **A hama-yi shahr chi te 9 the whole du'a-yi shifa-yi urarrw-kunand )
alike, are
Hindus and Muhammadans
praying for his
recovery"
Or better omit the

it is
va.
In mod. Pers. the va
is
usually prefixed to
lj
ya> only
when
*
preceded by another
substituted.
ya.
Here aya simply introduces the
direct question
and does not mean "whether.**
Magar could not be

3
clause
Note that aya translated "whether" introduces the direct narration and the is therefore merely equivalent to a direct question. It is better to omit aya
possible.
when
4
6
Or better omit va. Chi "what does it matter one way or the other?" There is no between chi and khipah as there ia between the Hindi verbal form chahe
.
.
distinction
.
chahe and
the Hindi interrogatives kya

6
7
kya (' Vide' Hindustani Stumbling Blocks). Mt-daram j^tjjô (and not daram) comp. verb. Here az gives the sense of amongst and means chi az amir just uju bi-shavad
.
'
omit az and the meaning
is
na mutlim-i amir na muslim-i
faglr payd& ml-shavad.
8 From this sentence it is not clear whether the whole city is Muhammaaan or the tow5m H/* âhr chi whole Hindu, or whether mixed. ^<xU <W jf j{ jJL*> (/^^ az Muslim chi as Hindu shows that the population is mixed. -JUsô aÂ &^j^ êUJ
A^_^
tamaml-yi ahahr chi hama Miutlim baehand chi Hindu
needs no explanation.
*t
581
a'amm
l
chi
man
va chi
an " whether this or that " " shumd whether you or I."
az
m yd
&*.
A*
"Whether
or
not"
is
rendered by
:
&>
fj*>
|^
khipdh-khwdh na, both
verbs being in the Subjunctive, as fjj$* <jusd*x> 11^ Mwafe i\jL maslahat bashad khwdh na-bdshad mi-ravam: "whether ad visible or not I'm
* '
*U
*U
going
f&)
j^ji
i\js*.
&
C*!A*
is
afyx
fcA^Sft
maslahat bud Miwdh no-bud

na.
" whether raftam

(4)
it
was advisable or not, I went."

expressed by
<w
Negative alternation
.&*
na, or
A>
na. ,*>j va
na.
The English adverb

(contractions of
*>
\
'else' is rendered
by tyj varna or
*
*'>j?j
vagarna
j va agar na),
and
are consequently conditional clauses

J|i
in a contracted form.
Synonyms
*-
for these are
va
ilia,
and *^t U ydmki.
Examples
j^x^xjt
o^^^jl v*
va
%
khud
razi-sty
& na u az mavajib-i " na-man az kar kardan-i u khushnud neither is he satisfied

^
cu^t t^fj j>^
v^^*
3'
}\
with his pay, nor
am
pleased with his
work"
f$
& j &) & na

^
ziyad va*
na kam "neither more nor less": ^< a^j

+i&j*
&jk(*>
j& isij fyj
kagh-az-am tamam shud varna
bara-yi tafarruj-i khdtir-at ziyada
fk* f&sft mi-na:
vishtam*
>A?f
"
my paper is used up,

Û'j| vÛxjj^
ilia
J||
or I would write more for your
amusement "
^x ^DJ
rawshan ma-kun va
" <tf U^ between two persons, otherwise they will have a quarrel ^jt AUt^t &$ *}** (y+* $h *-H^y e^ H^ C5* j u?;^ ^H^; ^t ;* murasala-yi f^ (J^f>^ *~ty * awdtin-i shumd ki dar in raqima zikr-ash rd ml-kumd bi-man na-rasida, va ilia
:
f
jo> ^ ÂJ miyan-i du ddam atash dar miyan-i Ishdn niza'-i mi-uftad "don't light a fire
^^ ^T^f
^-
mumkin na+bud
first
<e I did not get your javdb-ash rd na-navlsam (mod.) else in I should to have refer answered it as a this, which letter, you
ki
matter
of course."
If
Remark.
o~oJ
&+* mumkin
mst w^re substituted for
&j**
(.+*
mumkin
_tf
you
** na-navishta bdsham would na-bud, the Past Subjunctive p2>^ *i^y be correct. In the preceding instances the Subjunctive follows K, but omit
(
c*~jj or)
dj*i
&+* mumkin
,
na-bud-(oT mst) ki
and the sentence would
ill j va ilia bila shak javdb-ash rd mi-navishtam f; J^t^ J^^ have to run " is finished, otherwise I would write more for in . My paper Similarly /^y^
&
*5 f**% kdgJwz-am tamdm shuda va ilia bara-yi shuma ziydd-tar mi-navishtam, the Subjunctive could not be used for mi-navishtam, and obviously the Future could not be used; it would
"
/^y ^*y
d k)
k* C^^
to
*^
Better omit the
j.
2
s
Or omit
va,
budam
*
could also mean Mi-naviehtam *&;> refer to the past only. could however (m.e.) Or 1carda-id no difference.
t
./'
would have written."
Navishta
532
to say, ,**H>V }*&& p&\** Similarly a.^ ***** *j** ))j*\ d)
*-*>
1
however be correct
bi-nawsam.
(~ i!^J 0*0 Jixj A&A cX az dast tMfa wU^f shustam vail imruz khud bi yak fiafta pish jdn f *J$IA khud bar khasta dakhil-i da*ira-yi ahbdb shudam "a week ago I despaired oi " but e life, whereas to-day I was able to get up and join the company
f
kagkaz na-dashtam ki
1
blshtai
-^j
f\
<u~
:
Û
jf
c>w,> tS j>&jj/o *ii*
yak hafta ml-shavad ki dast az jdn shusta

;
here shustam would be incorrect the Present Tense *j&#o mlshavad shows that the action is continuing and therefore the Perfect is M " I necessary to signify despaired and still despair.
vail
(e)
am
Adversative Clauses
*#l^*'
^W)
When
tive,
and the conjunctions

l*f
a clause restricts the meaning of another, the relation is adversa" but in use are <^' llkin or ^Jl lakin ", and its
synonyms
amma,
*>
vail,
cL bal or *k. balki,
xCijf
^ juz
more
c
inki,
*u]
y î
'
magar. ghayr az mki, Balki aXlj has properly the enhansive sense of
etc.
'
(and in m.c. means omitted.

{
perhaps').
Sometimes
balki *^b
nay rather moreover may be

'
'
or
'
ball
* Baz ham p&} * still, nevertheless/ are also adversative conjunctions. vaU ha, or the exclamation ^bU ha To in roduce an afterthought " or bash bash is
'
U^
** )
used,
uô^
(m.c.)
stay, stay."
&i$ CJ^j! f* Examples ** Kif fj> j ??.** ^**^j ^^5 C.JAJ ki dam bar va suhbat-i va azlm bi'izzat-i Ali? qadlm nayaram îuc guftd ^^> sukhan shavad ki he I said na-ddram bar gufta (Sa'di) magar angdh qadam 8 ancient our I and not that will swear by the Great Glory friendship " draw breath nor move from this spot till I hear you speak
:
*>
**
<
&9 niebat
bi-shahzada
b
khanum
safir-i
dukhtarha muftis budand vail* nisbai
mutavassiP-'l-hal va yak-l faqlr "all the girls bi-yak dlgar yak-l gianl, yakl the with Princess, but, compared with each other were poor in comparison
one was well

joSlo i^c
C<
l>
off,
another middling, another very poor"
J^
:
^ v*j&
e;U}
j
4^
*&jf
man
bi-shahr
naml-ravam juz
In-ki
(m.c.)
won't go to the city unless you accompany
shuma ba man me "
bi-yayld
Shusta budam *zy Aw^ would signify that at the time mentioned, i.e. a week hands of life the Preterite fixes the action at the ago, I had previous to that washed my time mentioned.
l
:
And
8 i.e.
^,13
" taham " yet still (Indian and Afghan).
God.
A common
m.c. expression
is
j*3U^xu^
\&A.
(û
bi-haqq-i
*
6
Or Uf ammo,
^/J
likin or
^^J^
va-llkin.
Or
ba'z-l.'. budand.
Qbayr az mkl aioLjf y j* could be substituted for A&JfJa. juz could not be idiomatically used for &*3Uj bi-yayld.
Inki.
Bi-ravia
CO-OKD1NATE CLAUSES.
583
zamdn na-ndlida budam vi ruy az gardish-i dsmdn magar vaqt-i ki pdyam barahana bud va istitd'at-i paypushi nd-ddshtam (Gulistdn, Book 3, St. 19) "never had I grumbled at my ill-luck nor got upset by my ill-fortune, but once, when I had not the means
jj
%ar{72 az dawr-i
darham
na-kasliida
to get protection for

t>i/ctj
my feet
l
' '
:
(j**^
Û*
!;jt
*&* &*
^ er^
t^ A>
f
f
' '
Hasan nami-guyand balki urd Hdji Hasan mi-namand him by the bare name of Hasan but all call him Hajl Hasan U (^tjj CAÂJ *>b cu^ftJ c* ^)\ in sag nlst balki'2 pidar-i/st bard-yi shuma " (m.c.), .'* this is not a dog you keep, rather it's an intelligent human creature
^/o ism-i urd tanhd
calls
"
no one
>Jj^J
?ia
3
xJU^c^
(!)(&$
CUA^lâ^C
Jf
&
CU**f j*Q>**b*> VtH)^
C)&^
i^JolAa.
A^L U-w
*^^|^) &>
rahat-i
shuma
balki hifdzat-ijdn-i tan darln

C4
munkasir
ast ki az musdhabat-i
ishdn dast bi-kasJnd
your comfort, nay more, your safety depends on your 1*^ *>.*/o A^b by ^3U ^>f AJ ?â dnki 'ildj withdrawing from their society karda-i balki mu'jiza namuda-i "it isn't a cure you have performed, it's
'
'
a miracle
"
:
" what do ddrad balki fi'l wdqi' 'amd nd-farmdni karda-l you mean by a misapprehension of orders? the plain fact is you have been guilty of wilful disobedience ": <^b Jtijy AÂ ab y A> ) e/ & na man mi(
by ÛylS
t^^c gjjyi
î
*^
^f^
^*^
a^.
Lxi^f
ishtibdh chi ma'-
^^^
6t
khivdnam va na tu balki harki* nawbat-ash bdshad,

I,
>J!
neither will you read nor
but he whose turn

jj^y
it is
"
:
o^^j
\
\)
cj>- x) t^sjQy*
^ & o^
5
*&?
vs
*^^- -A)3
S-ÂJ
^t^^
I
ziring chist
balki
chundn bi-gu
ki
nasb karda and " you may well call " o^f has an old head upon young shoulders (jllôî Û &h u laij &'* j.iwAy na faqat md balki tamdm-i shalir mushtdy-i dmadan-i u hastand *'not we alone, the whole city, I may say, longs for his advent ": J^> ^>^ )*$ jl
bar dush-i javdn
:
mujarrab rd him intelligent; why he

sar-i pir-1
ov-v-t^
j>^
JU
A*JJ*J jt
J^; o*~jo (^ J7i

f
(*
A v^^Ûs
31
pul giriflan chi, balki az talabidan

khud-i shumd-st
;(
ham
parvd*i nlst
A&J A- er^^ a2 pidar-i khud pul-1 u bi-'aynih mdl-i

;
there
is
is
nothing wrong in taking money from your father

it
;
really your oJJ^ ^1^ U â Ichayli x*Uiyij <5'V c$>i^ f* j^ p**/ o;ô y^ 6 vaqtdar in kdr mashvarat kardim, bdz ham tadbir-i muvdfiq bi-nazar na!< ydmad we had a long consultation on the matter but no suitable remedy
own "
:
nay more there
nothing wrong in asking for
his
money
is
^^
was arranged":
o*>t
or)
*~\
&*
\*
cu*-^.
U^
siydh chist
Or Hasan
Or
tanha.
*
3
Or omit 6a^H.
insert faqat after na,
and
mz
after tfm.
Or har kaski:
also a
could
be substituted for bashad but would not be so

chunln li-gu
good.
6
^
Or
omifc either the
words a^ jJo
or vail.
^jjia.
ki. or
Or
ttkin, or
amna,
584
CO-ORDINATE CLAUSES,
l
g&ya
as
" my hat
kun-i dig ast

:
(or qlr asi)
" black do you
call
him
**!
y^J-O^
*** j'
e>M
&l*>
p* $>
H^
.
why he's as **b*W> **j*>

?
:
black
liarchi
ml-khwahld bi-g&yid baz ham s jan-i insan az hama chlz 'azlz~tar ast "talk as much as you please, a man's life is the dearest of his possessions "
^8^,5
bi-'l-fi'l
.
û
hich kas layiq-i
JMÂW î^v>î< kar bi-khayal-am
nami-rasad, hd ball
fihrist-i
ashkhas-l ki talib-i nawkarl hastand
mawjud
ast,
shdyad dar an yak-l dilkhwah-i man payda bi-shavad "I can't think of a good man just now but stay, the list of applicants is here perhaps a " suitable person may be found in it |î <Jbb ^b U a*5ljo c>Jj ^JÂ l^
:
4 fardd hamln vaqt bi-yayid, ha bash bash, farda ja*l va'da daram (*;!> " come to-morrow at this time but (m.c.) stay, no, I have an appointment " Ai cu^r vJ^ somewhere ^jA **tf j** e^Hj oê ^^ JP)*
:
Û
v^
^^
5
lijîtÂf^x
|j
lîf
*$l'Cj&)^\ OM-jkâxi chunln kitab-l ndyab ast vail sabr kunld dar
kitab-khana-yi dawlall chand kitab-i sarf

ra
u nahv
hast, agar bi-farmayld

;
anha
khwaham
them."
1
talabld
t(
no such book
is
obtainable
;
works on grammar
for
in the
Government Library
if
but stay there are several you wish it, I will send
Orbalki.
'
** he's blacker than a blackey.' Or, o*t^> U* /A *U* j\ az siyah ham siyah tar ast ^ Or omit Â ham. jb baz * Note the m.c. singular (j#b bash the plural &<">(j bashld would also be correct.
Or
iSjJjXi
)\*9
OÎM> ichjSl
cigar ray-i
mubarak qatar
bi-glrad.
CHAPTER
135.
XIX.
Concord of Subject and Verb,

rules for
The following are the

(a)
concord in Classical Persian
is
Persian or Arabic plural noun expressive of rational beings, îj^ fcU^b aj cu*to &^*jj* **V " the burdand cotton sellers carried their pamba-farushdn shikdyat bi-pddishdh
followed by the verb in the plural, as
*ii?
:
complaint to the king":
*if
Ua* hukamd
gufta
and
"the
philosophers have said ": *^, iff vs**^*^ &* O**AP ^>cf^ &&** v^JLci aghldb*i tuklda&tan ddmdn-i 'ismat bi-ma'siyat dldyand (Sa'di) cc most of the poor are
forced to do wrong " ou^l; j c&;Aj ai^ eÛ*> (jiLo Îfjjj; ^ /aw-? cAarad az ravandagdn muttafiq-i siydhat budand va shank-i ranj
:
(ancient)
xl.
û
(Sa di)
" some few travellers joined together to make a journey
u rdliat and share
together the pains and pleasures of the way."

(&)
If the plural
it,
concord with
noun expresses irrational beings the verb is usually in as: ^XA*XXJ *A^k3 eA-JU oi? guft magasdn tashmsh-am
flies
mi-dihand "he said the
are worrying
j>>j
me."
Remark.
Ast cu*t "is" and
" bud " was are frequently in Modern

*
Persian used after a plural irrational noun provided it has the plural termination IA Jid (and not in c/0, as r ) i**9f v>^ \**$ ( LS^^ asphd-yi l.Ju( but ast Vide oJ| <*>Uf aspdn-i injd khub and. (or bud) Injd khub
:
^^
0')
(18).
of rational beings take (c) Two or more nouns in the singular expressive the verb in the plural, as: <Jtj*j> L> j^ e!nStot>U j ti^b xi va rd bar shdhzdda khud chun havd labdda-yi garm shud, pddishah >>^l^ îu-wo when the day became hot, the king and the dftsh-i maskhara-i nihddand
^ ^^
' '
etf&iJ (*lj| ;^ *$ )\t> ^b prince gave their cloaks to a jester with them, to carry VI*AU^ ddram ki dar ayydm-i )* (-1^ y* j* eJf^ (^k*^ o* 2/^ ô^f^ pishin man va dust-% chun du mag&z-i bdddm dar pust*i suhbat ddshtlm (Gul.,
:
' '
^^
Book V,
St. 4): ailjJU
AÂ
&*$}
**jj*
e>j
<Hvi
LT'!^'
-4
r56?
pwmrf
asked
A;i
zan va farzand va shutur-i man hama sdlim-andt his wife and son and camel were all well."
(d)
''the
Arab
if
more singular nouns expressive of irrational animals of dis<-> jf j**j tinct genera are followed by a plural verb, as: îi~> y^f " not of the same are the ass and the khar az nistand* horse u asp yak jins
or
Two
^^
Siyahat o-^lx*
probably implies & pilgrimage,
as
no Persian would travel in
Persia for pleasure. 2 In m.c. nlst might be used.
686
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB.
genus ": "a horse, an

(e)
^#
/^ LS^J
ass.
Cr^c5$*l asp-i va and an ox were killed."

Multitude, and
the
khar-t va gav-l kushta
shudand
of things
Nouns
of
Collective
in
Nouns expressive
with
life,
follow
same
rule
Persian as in English,
and
take
;
a singular or plural verb according to the idea in the speaker's mind vide 119 (a) to (d) ^J.x& B^f^J >ii^>? &? galla-yigusjand pardganda shudand
:
(or sliud in m.c.)

<njjf
the flock of sheep scattered
' '
:
y ail <>&** fl*

(mod.)
^-MAi*
cUf J
^)^
of
sahib-
bisyar-i
az ahl-i 'ilm mu'taqid and bar inki

:
**a
many
1
the scientists are of opinion that"
^> c^3
jb
j* J
w^ /*
mansab u
and
sarbaz-i ziyad-l
' '
budand (Shah's D.) " there were a

the singular and
lot of officers
soldiers there.
Remark.
beings,
A
in
generic
noun
may v*
Mod.
v* ^"
3
Pers.
expressive of rational be followed by the verb in the singular, as

in
:
sahib
mamab-i
ziyad-i
(or
bud
(m,c.), also W**A^

*ii(>
sahib mansab-i ziyad-i raft
better
raftand); but
(or
)^j^ 5 v^ not so good, bud).

1
The
sahib-mansab va sarbaz-i ziyad-i budand (Shah's D.) plural verb gives an idea of greater plurality
or of scattered individuals; the singular verb gives a collective idea. take the (/) Though a noun preceded by a cardinal number does not
plural termination, yet, if it denotes rational beings, it usually requires a J plural verb, as Jsxsut ^+^91 jjl/i^ljj^ <xu~iu ^f+d$)b o j)* ** dah dantish dar va du dar padishah iqllm-l na-gunjand (Sa'di) '*ten gitim-l bi-khuspand
:
darvishes can sleep on one carpet, while two kings can't exist together in one
kingdom."
Remark. Occasionally the singular is used, especially with irrational animals and large numbers, as: sad hazar asp (or mard) kushta shud ;]> 4< Axi^r ( a hundred thousand horses were yo b ) *-**! (class, and m.c.)
killed":
*
Hazar u sad u
shast yurd-i
dilir
(Shah Nama,
(g) If
jildri
avval
Bi-yak zalchm shud kushta dar jang-i shir ; Razm-i Iraniyan hi Turkan va shikast-i Turkari).
the
noun
preceded
by the
cardinal
:
number
expresses
irra
tional beings, the verb
is usually in the plural, as
Note the English phrases, all is well where all is singular. Also a thousand " Twelve years is as one day,' a thousand years here being taken as a unit of time. In, Nineteen twentieths of his fortune is derived from per cent is extortionate interest.' In 'Thine is the kingdom and coal,* the fraction being less than the whole is singular.
1
*
'
'
'
'
'
'
the power and the glory,' the word

a
is, is
Jqlim
f^!
in
Mod. Pers.
is
is
'
is
*'
probably understood after each nominative. continent" and mamlakat a *' kingdom."
Sa'dl has Iqlim-i Pars.
By
Arab Geographers iqllm 8 Another reading
used in the sense of a province.

jj^
&*
mar d-i
dilir.
587
&UAf
dam-saz budand
pigeons
1
vazir
gu/t
shunuda
am
ki
(Anvar-i
Suh.)
in
"the Vazir
one nest."
:
du kabutar dar ashiyana-i said I have heard that two
consorted
together
singular, especially in the Passive, as
^ &*&'
The verb may however be

y*>f
" four horses Were killed "

(h)
j^ chahar asp kushta shud

(?).
vide
(/)
Remark, and example No. 6

the verb
Plural neuter nouns expressive of material things are generally folif
lowed by a singular verb (especially
is
in the passive voice)
(1) LTt)* c&Jk j o**f j!Uj;i lj*j|j &f fciy" î jf 0*0 dast az in harakat kutdh kun ki vaqi'afia dar pish ast va dushmanan dar pas (Sa'di) '* dis-
o^
continue this (extravagance), for dangers are before you and enemies behind J t5^>* ;^T asar-i shukhi va you" ow*| W^D cuAAj J[>=^ o^sjka jf dilm az safahat-i ahval-i tu bi-g&ayat rawshan ast (Anvar-i Suh.) " the marks
:
cH^
of audacity
and hardihood are very manifest on the pages

' ' :
*$ *\* AjJ^ty J>-t ;^ l^f %** chub dad ki hama-yi anha dar tul barabar bud
(East Trans.)
v^ ^ LT^ j? J va bi-har kas yak

1 <A
of thy condition
' '
and he gave to each a
stick, the length of all of

(2)
vX>!
them being the same
".
*jUs'f
Such neuter nouns may however be followed by the plural, as: j ^l^jfcxi^ +A &*&* v*>^ )* (^"^ badishah-i dar khivab did ki hama-yi
<
dandan?ia-yi u uftdda^ and (Sa'di)

fallen
*'
a king once dreamed that
all his
teeth
had
*
vlr^ f*j* uty\** khdnaha-yi " ^xu> the houses of the people were destroyed :
:
out
'
'
&>*
mardum
kharab shudand
&{ lî Û-â. Jlav
U^.
:
^lia^ c54-w>? ) khusha bi-hal-i chashman i shuma ki mi-binand va but blessed are your eyes, for they see gushha-yi shuma ki mi shinavand vide end of Remark to (e) jt &j*j dJUa, &$ and your ears for they hear
&$
'
U^
'
'
'
* l& ^S\A> j *A^-J; ki Ail.*â.^^ &$ Ûi.^. jumla-yi oJ:Â>^Ja>^ ^>j^,J ki dar chashm-khana khdk shuda chashman-ash u rikhta va magar vujud-i
^^
Tiami-gar<Edand
va nazar mi-kardand (S&'di)
<{
that
all his
body had rotted

' '
(gone to pieces) except his eyes which were

vide
still
rolling in their sockets
Remark
Remark.
to
(b).
f'
iiAJ JAJJ}
)jfyj* ** ^^>* of C5^ ^ jf to/ J 1 ^ dar bdz dil-am guzasht agar shakhha-yi an darakht ki dauraA;jf
l<
^^
dawr-i khana nihal karda
am
awarda zambil bi-bafam shayad na-shikanand
*
3
Note absence Or budand.
of
&f
fa after cJi? guft.
In
mod
Pers. bud singular.
tho dramatic Perfect for the English Pluperfect, and also the indirect Also u instead of khud. narration. * Shud *& would be used in mod. Pers. and would probably be better in classical
No t e
Persian.
5
ossibly the
word ftyc mardum

is
close to the verb has influenced the concord.
Another reading
ast
(or bud) is understood.
the word gardld after this neuter plural in an. After rlWâ Also note the Imperfect haml-gardld or hami gardtdand,
in
instead of the
more dramatic Present, which would be preferred
modern
Persian.
588

verb
(Af.); here the plural
*uC&
na*shikanand
138 (m)
is
required after the neuter
plural (shakha) for the reason stated in

(3) If several
(8).
such neuter nouns representing distinct classes have a in the plural, a.s 3J|yt>^ j^j >J\> j <jfj u,f ab u atash common verb, u khak bar zidd-i yak dtgar and " water, fire and earth are enemies of each
it is
:
other/'
If
however such neuter nouns represent the
same quality
or class,
the verb is usually in the singular, as: J>1 j (j*^ j jW*\ ) )*\ lx> g^^ t5* t*$i v>^ c^ âr bagJt-i ma angur va anfir va gilas va shalUha-yi khub
paydd
trii-shavad*
'
"grapes,
figs,
cherries
and good nectarines are grown

refer to î>JLw
in our garden
'
:
(note that the adjective
v>^ M^& may
shaUlha
only, or
may
qualify all the preceding nouns; the sentence should be
reconstructed to remove this ambiguity). as: (4) Several abstract nouns are followed by a singular verb,
baran
va taqa'ud-l ki dar muvazabat-i khidmat-i bargah-i khudavandi mwavad, bina the omission and negligence that I ast ki tayifa-yi hukama-yi
Hind"
show
what the Indian philosophers have ". shad* va marg va zindagi az Khuda <x*jj*o tÂjf c^^J J ^f ) c5^ ) p* (fhftm va mi-rasad "grief, joy, death, and life (all) proceed from God"; but if A+A
in
your service are due to
hama
is
used, gfcam va
the plural verb is used, as: t*^ jf *.*.* <***) J marg va zindagi hama az Khuda mi-rasand.
^j*
) f*
Dawran-i baqa ehu bad-i sahra bi-guzasht Talkhl u Ichushl u zisht u zlba bi-guzasht (Sa'di)
c<
Time that we thought would

Passed too
is
last for ever,
has passed like the wind
(j^j
yaksanast
*A*-H^ l f -\&*>
y
* *
A&a. )* v-* J
fool
!
the bitterness and joy, and the bad and good." a y ahniaq ruz u shab dar chashm-i tu fr*^
day and night are
alike to thee
8
:
"
^^ ^^^^
^t&ab
j+* )t JU MO. &$ padishah-i az munajjim-l pursid ki chand sal az 'umr-i man baqi-st **a king asked an astrologer how many years he had to
live."
(i)
A plural
verb
:
express respect, as
1
sometimes used with a singular subject (rational), to &*)tf Â> cUi vsy^*, Hazrat-i ajall tashrif dvardand
is
4
His Excellency has just arrived."

1
Even in m.c,, and and not ast would be used here. The plural would probably be used in classical Persian. % The person addressed was blind and carrying a lamp. * The plural of majesty a form of hyperbole. Similarly ishan taehrlf avardand " he has just arrived (lit. they have arrived)/*
2
:
JUtf
Hazrat-i Ajall, H.
title of
latter case they are styled
governors of large districts when not royal princes. In the oû* Hazra',-i Vald, while ilfj w'y Navvab-i Fa/aisused
for princes not royal, or not nearly related to the reigning Shah.
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB,
589
Persians are somewhat slovenly in their concords, but (j) Modern mistakes in this respect should not be copied even in speaking. 1 Liberties " vide 136 (a), page 593. to be are especially taken with the verb (8) and The following examples are taken from modern colloquial:
* '
(1)
" There are many sheep here"

vi.*f
cu*of
jU-o ty
U^f
2 inja barra bisyar
ast,
or
(2)
y$~j
l^j
laxij!
inja barra-yi bisyar ast.

o**| Û~j
" There are
Inja dsiyd-yi bddi
many wind-mills here" ham bisyar ast.

the word f or " wind -mills
^ Û Û^f Uuuf
c$^<f
tÂjf
Remark.
adjective,
it
It
"
were qualified by any other
would be in the plural, as: o*st
^^
4"A!t
Inja
dsiyd-hd-yi khub-i ast, or
^^\
^^ ^^ es^^f
l
injd dsiydhd-yi bdd/i-yi
khub-i ast.
(3)
*>
L>-k
.
d*>*
ptf
*+*
t^K
kdliskahd
all
ki"
(Shah's D.) "the
(railway) carriages
hama bi-ham vasl bud tawr-i communicated with one an-
other so that"
(4)
kdliskahd-yi
in shahr va
asphd-yi
ntst
kdliskahd
bi-ziyddi
va
khubl-yi
kdliskahd ^yi
place,
4
(Shah's Diary) "the carriages of this aspKd-yi dnjd and the horses in the carriages, are not so numerous nor so beautiful
'
Rus va
'
as those in Russia.
B
^ c^l' ; c5*t*/ f ~*' aqsdm-i murghha-yi dbi dar darydchahd bud* (Shah's diary) " there were various species of waterfowl in the ponds."
(5)
l
^ ^^
(6)
**a#
v&t* ^ vi^* cj^
^ (>i^ 3
j
6
1
*~ *^* f*
*1
^ -fi^ ^^ dw palang-isiydh
du shakhs dida shud
ki
6 a Afriq ki khayU ghanb va muhlb budand (Shah's D.) 7iam (Kda shud "also two black leopards from Africa were there, singular and terrific
to look
at"
&&#
j&j^ JU*^ A*
budand
(m.c.).
1*4*
âiuw
dar kamdl-i khush-gili

l
In the Vazlr-i Lankaran occurs the expression

i*afc.
mardum hama
dar
'
fikr
u MLayal-i
asayish-i
bhud
ast.
This
is
much
the same
as the English vulgarism

* 3
says we."
Barra
Better
jj.J
properly a
"lamb."
aspha-yi kaliaka and not (^~J\ kalis ka ha. Birawaapha* * kaliaka ra kaliskaha biyar (not ra) go and bring the horses for the carriages aspha-yi yi kaUska ra would mean for one carriage ; but ^to^" <xJ|< aspha-yi Icaliska-yi
&<*)(
^f^l
^'^!
Kirman
(
(not plural)
*'
the carriage-horses of Kirman."

1
* i.e. of
Konigsberg.' A mistake ; should be i>3^ budand. In No. (6), note dlda shud the Passive
"
singular
followed by
JOt^J
budand
the plural, the subject to both being du palang; while in number No. (7), du ftl and si zarafa are followed by a singular verb. The plural dlda shudand would not be used but either bud or budani could be substituted
.
590
(7) 6j*
CONCORD OF S.UBJECT AND VERB.
d^*^ du
:
so good budand) In these examples the idea giraffes."

(8)
bud (Shah's D.) " there were two elephants," (or not " there were three &# Afyj *- si garafa bud (Shah's D.)
fll
^
:
is
a single collection.
(j+>
v^^
**
& ^
l
;*
)^ f*j*&> v^?^
'ajlb-i
anva'-i khuk u guraz va liayvanat-i
dtgar
ham an
^Gf^j^ j yji ) (Jj*. ofyf qadr dar an ja bud ki
bi-Msab namt-amad (Shah's D.)
" various kinds of swine and other strange in that an extent to couldn't be comcollected that creatures were place
puted
"
vide Remark to
(9).
(9)
If*/* j yf j
a*
vî-iJ
jU-4 tf iJiyî ^Xfc

>>^
c$y*ML^ l^lfcj
tfttiha
^^
L5J^3lVv J^*^
^jJOû^**
^L) u*>^ anva'-i
IfiJb^b gjy va ta*us-ha va
ki bisyarqashangbud,vaanva-'imurgjilia-yi qarqavul-ha-yi til&i-yi Ustraliya
khush-rang dar qafas-i bisyar buzurg mashyAul-i parvaz va bazi budand (Shah's
D.).
Remark.
Note that one verb
is
singular
and one
;
plural.
The second
verb must be plural to give the idea of number anwfr-i murgihd bud is correct, e^!^ J>^*
thus, though
l^jyo etyt
l^cô ^l^Jf anva'-i
murg&ha,
]
mashg&ul-i khwandan bud

(10)
is
&>w
<3V/&"*J
' '
**
^ *^ ^>ii^
c^
l
incorrect
the plural &*&

iAJ
budand
is
necessary.
(f?rfa
^j
i/afc
galla-yi gusfandi
of)
^^
A;i
6i52/ar
" we saw a flock of sheep (the members chaq budand

.
which
were very fat (11) / di* o*t

(Shah's D.)
(12)
"
(î
t^^
chakushha-yi
like
ghanb-i
ast
misl-i
kuh
they are wonderful

*l*i
jl
hammers
mountains."
is
cLv-o!
w fa'la B ast (m.c.)
" he
workman"
jT
(specially
one engaged in building)."

(13)
*w y^yj^ ^*J*^Jj**j(J*h**J
many small
*"
*fi>
y^j;b*M
(j^y&Xif
va chaqu va kard va miqraz va tabar va chtzha-yi angushtarha-yi d^nadar " there were rings with small mirrors, penknives, khurd khurd budand* (m.c.)
knives, scissors, axes and
(14)
(
articles."
(or
*>***
axôr
**
kushta shudand) (m.c.)

(15)
j* jj& ** dah hazar fawj kushta shud thousand of the army were killed." ten
fj
*i^
*^ *Â u^y
*** ^^
gandum va jaw
ki bald-yi jahaz
anchi 3 t^ C5"^^ ** j* J f**S j bud hama ra mush khwurda budand 5 (Afghan)

J
*^
gusfandl, adj.: the subs, gus/and could be used.

passive,
*
8
Note,
first
the sing,
and then the plural budand for the individuals. " a set Note the of unity with the plural noun,
of
hammers.*'
A,A*j'
fa'ala (Ar. pi of Jlcli /5't7) is in m.c. generally used as a aingular.
Or
bud, but
the
pi.
budand here
is
better
as the articles are miscellaneous
but
if
&;
vagkayrah were inserted after fehurd, the singular
bud would be better,
as vayhayrah
6
itself gives the idea of miscellany. This ought to be &ji bud singular after the generic noun ^Syo
mush
or
or
Aij^j *^j>y^
muehha khurda budand:
also
in
Mod.
Pers.
^.^.3
tu-yi
Jl^jo
I^M^C dar
jahaz and not
jl^ ^JjU
bala-yi jahaz.
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB

" and as for the wheat and barley No. (16).
(16)
(co^d.)
left in
ERRORS IN CONCORDS,
ETC. 591
the ship, the mice ate
it all
"
;
vide
In the sentence, " Partridges
fly in
is
covies"
^^
*tf
<*1?
galla galla mi-parad (rn.c.), the singular
better than the plural
^^
1
kabk
mi-parand.
(17) tyfa<~->
c$V^*->
*t^J
va qanatha-yi bisyar t*^ bayJthava Tchanaha
bud " there were many gardens and houses and underground channels." aspan-i Kirmanl khub and ( not ast) (m.c.), or (18) *i| *-*>> c^K^ os*t vjî. ijty* c^t***' aspha-yi kirmarii khub ast (m.c.) "the Kirman ^* c5 t$^ aspha-yi Kirmani khayU bar horses are good, but y <y/>
^^
^^
(b)
mt'barand (no$mi-barad).
(19)
Vide
Remark.
e>t*^
^^
;)> )&
Wi ^f ^1^ ^>^ ^>^
JU
o;fc A^^l^b
^^> is>d*>\
faqat
p. 28)
;
yagîha-i ki bi-taraf-i
budo,nd should be
chal rafta budand chun ta'dad-i anha
du hazdr budand chandan

here
<>i^j
istadagi na-kardand (Memoirs

<^y
'Abdu-1-Rahman,
bud?
136.
Concord of Subject and Verb

Errors in Concords,
etc.
(continued).
(a)
When
the nominative
in
is
separated from
or clause
its
is
or clause,
some noun
for the nominative.
phrase This error has been termed the " Error of Proximity."
is,
that
verb by a phrase oftentimes mistaken
'His attempt to preach extempore, and the shame and pain to which his failure expose him, are in a small way really shame and pain which expose '). tragic (' Failure exposes ', not
English example
*
An
Since in Persian, neuter nouns, oven
when
plural, are followed
by a
singular noun, the error illustrated above cannot be repeated in translaUf aya Inch kudam-i-shan tion. Compare however <^| *t>jf tyl &\* f f*f
:
an ra karda and " has any one of them done that ast would rarely be used in modern Persian.
Â
"
the grammatical v^^t
similar error, however,

is
common both
in
English and in
modern
Persian,
to
*as well as'

* '
treat singular nominative and an objective after or 'with', as the joint subject of a plural verb. 8 Thus;
of his
Magnus with 4000

l
supposed accomplices were put to death
' '
Vide
(h) (3).
Note that bisyar may
qualify
all
three substantives
or
only
the
last.
*
In modern Persian &s& 'adad would be used and

tM^*J ta'ddd kardan (m.c.)
'
nofc ^fiXiU
ta'dad for
'
number,'
but *b
8
"to count.
*
This copulative use of
with
is
occasionally adopted
by even good English
writers.
592
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB
(COHtd.)
EKRORS
IN
CONCORDS, ETC.
(Gibbon's
***
Roman
Empire) *j&r*JuAj| C****A *&>[
JU~îi;!>
j^
Magnas ba chahar hazar nafar bi-khayal-i Inki hamdast-i n hastand kushta man ba u raftim (m.c.) " I went with shudand (mod. Pers.) j^
:
p')
&
him":
^j^ man uu raftam
(m,c.).
bi-ittifaq
bi-yan-yi
mi-guft!m ki bi-guzar biyayand bi-ghuda agar hazaran hazar bashand Imam Riza yak-i az Ishan sar-i zinda bi-gftr na-khipahand burd
(Trans. Hafi Baba, Chap. II)
" we one and
all
exclaimed
let
them
[the
should there be thousands upon thousands of Riza not one of them would go to the grave Imam of the the them, by help u "I have with a whole head on his shoulders. p*to***jto*> ^ ^ (Prof. 8. T.). made some cAangal and will eat it with my husband.'
Turkomans] come.
By God
1 '
^ J^
1
The
error
is
traceable to the fact that sentences like

in
'
Pharoali and
all
all his
host were
drowned
the
sea'
and 'Pharoah with
his
host
were
drowned in the
juncts of
sea,'
convey the same meaning.
Grammatically the adit
the nominative should not affect the concord between
and
the verb.
The construction under
discussion
is
found both in ancient and in

concord.
2
modem
form
languages.
It certainly violates strict rules of

it is
However,
according to one English writer,

of expression.
occasionally preferable
to the correct
Sa'di
concord
nishasta
m the Gulistan, worthy of remark, often adheres to the correct **>>& f^ ^^ )* Jf& ^^ 4 65 tayifa-yi buzurgan dar Icashli
it is
budam* (Book
I,
' '
St. 35)
*'
was seated
in a boat in the
g^
c&lx> j! a party of great people >* cÛ. jt *i* ^*3 ; &&**} AJ khassan az dar chand ba tan-1 shikargah-i bioliil ))$ eÛ^ jt yak-l az muluk ct a certain king with his companions zamistanaz'imaratdur uftdd (Sa'di)
lj
^^
company of
was belated
in winter while
hunting."
"
A singular verb is correct after yak-l. A woman with a child in her arms
c^jjj
2j\&
is
+jy
'
Jj
Iw
zan-l ba
needs only one ticket" f^Ûj &su b ,J) bachcha-yi baghal-ash jaqat. yak billt lazim darad)
both
tickets
good grammar and good sense; but 'A woman with a man requires two is as faulty in sense as A woman with a man require two tickets,' is faulty in
*
grammar." Where plurality
is
signified (as in
woman and man)
the copulative
l
'
and
'
j must bo
* used both in English and in Persian, and not with ', or as well as.* s Apparent violations of this concord are frequent in the Gulistan, as
ij&bjf
diLt
be
,
*&*j%J)*
ab*x> fayifa-yi awbaah-i moballa dar u paivastand (Bk.
I, St. 4).
It will
found however that Sa'di prefers a plural verb after the collective noun A&U)
fiayifa, etc.
:
and that the intervening genitive Ûjt awbaah does not here affect the concord ^) ) *>) ax^ o^^JuAx ^\ (jUsu va guruh-l bi~bhilaf-i In maslahat dida cmd (Gul., Bk. 8,
No.
52).
CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VEEB
(CQUtd.)
ERRORS IN CONCORDS, ETC. 593
" " The house and the goods were burnt <> Juu^- cÛw! j ^^ khana va ashbdb-ash suTchta shud; but "The house with the goods was burnt" b aJU * AxL^M jjfyU*,) khana bd sbdb-ash sukhta shud : no difference in Persian in
1
the concord.
"The material and mental world have their points of union blending them together "(Read the material and mental worlds have, etc.) Vide also 123 (d). In, b*j ^^) 3 <,yU~^ (Jl* 'alam-i jismdm va ruham rabtri kulll bi-ham ddrad (mod. Pers.) the verb should be plural xij ^ darand, otherwise jjLc dlam may at first appear to be one singular noun qualified by the two adjectives Û-^ jismani and ^5^,9) ruham it would 'dlam before however be much better to repeat the word Û.^ ruham. the verb "to be " In modern the correct concord in the case of
'
^^^
Persian,
is
often violated: ^tja
&l)
*M <*** j
4<
;ta
ax-*
)&
all
but unfortunately
my
patients were not
druggists with an obstruction in their bowels, and every paper was not the wrapper that had contained an emetic." Vide (j) p. 589.
The
Vide
(c).
correct
number
of the relative
pronoun
is
frequently overlooked.
(b)
(1)
When
the subject consists of several singular nouns or pronouns
connected by the disjunctives 'or' or 'nor/ the verb, both in English and in Persian, should be in the Singular as " Either Muhammad or Hasan is come " o***f 8^f er*^ b ^:*uo b ya b o^*| jj*/of tj+ssue U yd better dmada Hasan Muhammad yd ast, (but er-^
:
Muhammad dmada asl yd Hasan)

"
' '
:
neither man,
*J
**
woman,
child,
nor beast was

bachcha
i^x> A>
* na mard ***& &\j^ to be seen ^3 _ ** *> u)j va na liayvdn d/ida shud (m.c.) better cjl^^ ( > ) *fJ marcZ rftrfa 5/m^Z, na zan, na bacficha (va) na hay van.
A ^ j *^v
;
*->* ^
na zan na .***.. ^
*^
>J^
na
(2) If
however one
of
the nouns forming the subject

:
is
plural it
should be placed last, the verb agreeing with it Neither the man nor the. woman nor the horses were there
' '
"
ai
&j* a>
na ward na zan na aspdn dnjd budand (or (* ^^ ***)*. " neither nor mice, are in the house" AJ^ *i *_&*, di dog, cat, asphdbud): a & &il^ o^l j6 u*^ jna sag na gurba vana mush* dar khana ast.
or )
e)^-t *J o>j
^T
the nominatives require different forms of the verb, it is in English generally more elegant to express the verb, or its auxiliary, with
(3)
When
each of them, as ''Neither were their number, nor was their destination known"; ** In Persian it is more elegant to express either thou art a knave or I am."
:
Not
The
were.'
plural lf&}*
mushha should not here be used
it
would be contrary to idiom.
38
594 CONCORD OF SUBJECT AND VERB

the auxiliary after the
jj
(COntd.)
ERRORS IN CONCORDS, ETC.

let
it
first
it
nominative and
rest,
as
^ ^dS>o
will take the prize or I
yd man muqassir-am yd will" *+.A> k c*^ f*ty^
be understood for the " either lu: Muhammad

I;
f\**l
e/
^ ya
man
in'dm ra
(4)
khwdham
girift
yd
Muhammad
(m.c,).
Vide also
(d).
As stated, the above-mentioned forms are more elegant.
There are
however other methods

Persian.
of rendering such expressions in English
and
in
English grammarians are by no means agreed as to the correct forms of such sentences. One writer says that the verb must agree with the
nominative
placed
nearest
to
it,
and be understood
'to
the rest, as:
'Neither he nor
cerned."
'
were there", "neither you nor I am conAnother writer states, "If the pronoun 'you' forms one of the
his brothers
'
and the first personal pronoun nominatives grammatically connected by or 4 1 is absent, the verb is in the plural form Either he or you were
,
'
playing.'
If,
however, the pronoun 'I*

'
is
one of a
'
series of singular
'
nominatives grammatically conjoined by or ', the pronoun I goes last in the One must not series, and the verb takes the form of the first person singular. say John, (or) James, or I is to win the prize,' but John, (or) James, or I
'
*
am
to
win the
"s
prize.'
Hodgson
writes,'*
when two
*
singular* pronouns
of different persons are
very nice question arises, connected by a dis-
junctive, as to
what person and number the verb should stand in. Should one say Neither he nor I are wrong'; 'Neither he nor I am wrong' or " * Neither he nor I is wrong ?
;
'
Apparently,
^jyc
*j
"Whenever my
wife or I die
" should be
But
in Persian
5
;
J|3
(j
I*,*
&$ har vaqt ki

az u
man yd zan-am bi-mwad
(in
cJ> j> modern
colloquial
^,j^
AJ
bi-mirim would often be used).
instead of >b j
man
aj
va du barddar-am bi-vujud dmadand, say
<^ $ jt p'^f
because of the copula (not disjunctive) va. +fA&> 12* wrong nor is he."
(5)
.

*

(not elegant).
(^
aS
na man va na u hich-kuddm muqassri
b jj
<>.i^J
3 (
For further Persian examples vide (5). *h um yu u bazi ml-kardld: better iXjj^ô <^$m k ^+** ^ y& shuma bazl u. mirkardld yu ya
.>jkXAx>
^ ^Jb
am
ra
l+
Cj
ûjJLxx)
|^
A*\
<X2cwo b
^x man ya Muhammad
nt i
ml girim
(m.c.); also ml-glram (m.c.).

4
*
'
You
'
is
Or
^jj
by some English grammarians considered singular as well as plural. har vaqt man bi-miram ya zanam. /*^**J ^.^0 o^jj
j*
Aj ^
na ^xj A)
man
u.
va na u muqassir hastlm (m.c.); better ^^c di
na man muqassiram va na
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT,
riistim m.c.
;
ETC.
AND VERB
is
(COHtfl.)
ERRORS, ETC. 595
(the grammatical
o~** mat
never used in such cases in modern
Persian).
u (elegant) "either y shumd bdzi ml-kar$id yd you were playing or he was/' jb y b U b 2/a shuma yd u bdzi ml-kardid (m.c.).
l
jt
1*
l +~' ^ *>&jf** cfj^
^jb
<in
*fj
u&y
^t
l>
U&
shuma, ya u yak
kuddm
bdzi ml-kard (class.)
mod. Persian ***%* mi-kardld).

j^Cxx?
^(i yfi
UM
U yd
shumd yd u
yak-l bdzi ml-kard (but in
mod.
Persf often *i*j** ml-kardid).

<>+3xx>
(elegant)
b AJ**A \) fUuf ^ô U 7/a " either I will take the

tj
1
wcm
t/a
prize or
&*
rd mi-glrad
^^Jox)
(in
*^
a4.33.-o
i*
U ^.^
man
U]f
j*to.f
;
vX
*+:a./o
b ^yo
dm rd mi-giram yd Muhammad Muhammad/ Muhammad in'dm rd rni-girim (modern). man i/a Muhammad yak kuddm in dm
in
1
'
(class.)
f^
speaking
j>jlAi
^^
fUSf
mod. Pers. f.Âx> mi-gmm. ^C jô b ^^TL/o Muhammad yd man yak-l in*dm rd mi-glrad ml-gmm).
in
<!>^
ojUj
e>^f
f&b
M^
tj^l
(^-
f>^
khwdh 1 man urd kushta
bdsham khwdh Ishdn

j>jfoJ
tafdvut na-ddrad (elegant).

iSJLiiT
(jijf
d^(A>
**&
cjUjf
f^
^yo
^f^ khiodh man khwdh ishan urd
kushta bdshim tafdvat na-ddrad (not good, but used).
kaniZ'l
maw kariiz-am va tu khdnum, yd tu B. H. (Tr. Chap, xxiv) "am I the slave and or are the slave and am I the mistress ? " the are you mistress, you
JIL
^.yo
^ <^j*&
lj
^^y j rh^ e^
vaman khdnum?
* Remark. In, +1^ %^ (&\b ^&h rafiq-i ddshtam ki sdlhd f*k (^^ (*> md liar du or bd-ham safar karda budlm (Sa*di), there is an ellipsis of "I a that had u friend after ki, (conj.) (we two) travelled y^^x) man va
^^
together for years."

(c)
Persians delight in elliptical expressions.

is
Vide also
(d).
(1)
When
the nominative
determines the number of the verb:

J
ing
,'
writes Hodgson,
"
is
th^t has appeared in any language.

t(
'
common "
3
a relative pronoun, the antecedent " The followall ye that pass by.' error of one the most valuable books
'
{ :
Snellingis one of the most esteemed numismatical writers that this

'
*
country has produced
(Right; but,
&\j>\
that have appeared in this country ')".

cu**| ^îiô Iran paydd shuda
Compare t*f
AAJ
uXLo
&.?
^\
y
ast
^^
u
;
yak-i az
ash-har musannifin ast ki dar mulk
(wrong
^\ and).
ô
&'*
j c^wf -^jbojf
dS
na u muqassir-ast va
?wz
man
is
also used in m.c.

tell
In
to.
English the speaker does not always put himself last though grammars U ^ ^^ z * ml-kard ya shuma. Similarly &j** C}^ ^ ^
&
him
ft
The modern tendency
is
to use
4x
chi
Aa. chi for tys*.
Wwah
jft^L
596
CONCORD OF ANTECEDENT AND VERB.

that I
ERRORS, ELLIPSIS.
"
I confess
am
'
one of those who
am
unable torefuse wt/ assent to the

e^ ** f&**Jj>\ o* my ') 1* y man iqrar mi-Jcunam ki man
;
conclusions of those philosophers ' * perceived ; (read are for am

'
who
assert that nothing exists but as it is

*
and omit
"
^f nami-tavdnam qabul bt-kunam ki az an ashkhas hastam ki jumla-yi yak-i * AUI ki nami-tavanand (write JÂJ ^fyj^ qabul bi-kunand).
Jj*$ ^j**+>
{*****
Af
J&
*$
ucUfcuAf
(2)
By
sometimes used that does not

* *
a similar mistake, a demonstrative or personal pronoun refer to the true antecedent, as

:
is
am
one of those who cannot describe what

vjjU?
(they)
do not see
' '
p& *<xijj t^tfe}***

ki
^tyo+J
s$
p~&
<^tJf jf
(^
er*
man
yak-i az anha-i hastam
nami tavanam bayan-i chizha-yi na-dida bi-kunam (should be vi^ namttavanand bi-kunand)
.
bi-marg-i kh,udam va bi-marg-i khudat
man
az
anau
read
mstam
ki murshid-i tu ham bitavanad in jafangha ra ba

l
;
man
qalib bi-zanad ta chi
rasad bi-tu nar qalandar (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) Û^l b ba whan.
instead of <>* b ba
man
CJ^JJj**^
lei
***i?*
^ o^
^' *j
bi-sukhanan-i
shuma
farifta
by your (read mt-shavad). Sometimes in a contracted (d) compound sentence, one predicate has two or more subjects, there being then an ellipsis of one or more verbs, as
;
sort of
man
to be deluded
&* man az an mard mstam u magjirur shavam (Mirkhond) " I'm not the " words
*$ f**** &J* vrty
3
heard, not a funeral note (was heard)." According to this the subjects in contraction admissible when is, Hodgson English, only are in the same number." The following are examples cited by him as
errors
:
"Not
drum was
" His 2 (Peter the Hermit's) diet was abstemious, his prayers (were ) long and fervent, and the alms which he received with one hand, he distributed
with the other."
Gibbon.
In Persian, on the contrary, not only are ellipses like those just mentioned, considered grammatically correct, but also a species of ornament.
Examples
s
*j*- &\*fyjiy
^j A*
^ oW c%?y ^ <HJ/
ki
e>^
^^ 9u
8
ft %
n farzand-i tu$t,
;
tarbiyat-ash chunan kun
yakri
az farzandan-i khud
(Sa'di)
(supply
ra tarbiyat mi-kum).
uîi^ jafang
with
(lit.
(m.c.)
" bosh'
1 :
&&}
^(S
qalib zadan(m.c.)
make
to swallow,
**
stuff
to
put inside one as

if
in
a mould)
"
:
buck qalandar
*
'
"
(abusive).
jjJJU
riar-qalandar (m.c.)
you
This English error,
true error
it
be, generally occurs in the case
of the verb
to be.'
8
necessary in
The omission of ra after Mkud modern Persian.
is
perhaps a typographical
error.
The ra
IB
CONCORD OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE AND VERB.
ERRORS, ETC.
597
Chi
bucfi ar sar-i zulf-ash bi-dast-am uftadi
Chu
astm-i kariman bi-dast-i darwshan
(Sa*di).
qadd bud va haqir, va digar baradaran-ash buland-bala va khub-ruy (Sa'dl, B. L, St. 13) " I have heard of a certain prince who was diminutive in stature and mean in appearance, while his brothers
l
rd shunldam ki kutah
were
tall
and handsome."
va ma'lum* ki agar tanha bi-gurizam, manand-i bisyar-l az dUgaran, az sar-it naw giriftar, va azab-am yak bar hazdr shavad (Tr. H. B. Chap. V.) ;
(
though the verb expressed is 3rd pers. shavam) has to be supplied after Û^J giriftar.
dar
liujra-i
(shavad),
the
1st pers.
kUchkak dar rakht-i khwab diraz kashida ast vanukaran-ash dar pay-
ramun-i u gird amada (Intro. Trans. Haji Baba) "there, on a bedspread " in the middle of a small room, surrounded by several of his servants, I
in the Persian there
is
an
ellipsis
of <M
is
and
after
&<>T
amada, though the
preceding verb vi~t s^x^ kasJiida ast
singular.
halat-i ba'is-i hayrat-i
Compare
hama,
balki
p& /*^
x
.j
(&* &
Q **^ ^j^ c^pbeJl^ b ba

ham
(Tr.
man
va hakim
all,
H.
B.,
astonishment of
not
excepting myself
Chap. 11) "when, to the and the doctor " (H. B.,
'
'
'
p. 50): (too elliptical
even for Persian; repeat
ba'is-i hayrat-i after balki).
the pronominal adjectives each and s every should (e) In English be in the 3rd pers., sing., and when they are the leading words in their
clauses they require singular verbs
and pronouns to agree with them. a verb however each and every,' In Persian plural generally follows (JÂ har yak and f\<^j&> har kudam) etc., not only in the modern but also
'
in the classical
<>j)l
language
f\*tj& or)
{Jf
^\
<c
each one has a horse."
^&jA har yak (or har kudam) asp-i darand (m.c.) For examples from Sa'di, vide 39 (j) (2).
ta har
kudam
dast-i
B
muvafaqat dar daman-i 'aqV zanand bi-qadam-i
{ sharaf bi-darajal-i va la-qad
Suhayll, Chap.
I,
karra mnabanl Adam a 'taraqqi numayand (Anvar-i Intro.) "so that every one should place the hand of compli-
In m.c. fcUy&Jf gad kutah. Note omission of bud.
Also either and neither; " vide
'
(/).
For examples of hama before a noun with the

39
(') (1).
of unity
and signifying every
'
Quotation from the Qoran,
xvii. 72.
598 CONCORD OF PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVE
AND VERB
(COUtd.)
ERRORS, ETC.
to the
ance on the skirt of reason, and by the step of exaltation should be promoted " rank of, And now have we honoured the children of Adam.'
*
har yak az ishan sifat-i az sifdt-t hamtda va khaslat-i az rd ta'rif ml-kardand (Anv. Suh.).
Jchisal-i
pasancfida
Jb
g*Aj
jsAfîu gfcyo
*^
ajjtf
a^t^L
ddbishUm farmud ki td khwdnda na-shavad shubha shud va hich yak az hdzirdn bar qd'ida-yi an hhatt murtafi' na-l&wahad " Dabishllm said that until vuquf na-dasfitand (Anv. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) this should be read the doubt would not be removed and that as no one of
e>f t**l*
,
^f G
tf
^y
f*J&jfa
those present was acquainted with that character ." It is however more logical to use the singular verb.
hu? kas, however, even in slovenly modern Persian, is usually followed by the singular verb, but u**' &+& Jiama kas by a plural one. The Persian translator of Hafi Babd of Isfahan however uses a singular verb after
(2)
<jOA
a+A
hama
(*t)f
kas.
*^M
t^;^
ty* J^ t5^?"
^j ^j* *->\~&\ ^j* vl>

}
(^ l
^3^ mulaziman-i
rikdb-i dawlat-intisdb har
ju-*i dar saya-yi darakht-i dram ydftand (Anw. Suh., Chap. I, Intro.) "the attendants of his auspicious retinue disposed themselves to rest under the shade of trees on the bank of a rivulet
yak bar lab-i
and"
(East. Trans.).
it
In modern Persian
is
not unusual for the same author to use the
singular or the plural verb indifferently after

(3)
a**
hama
kas.
Instances of each or every being in English erroneously followed by a

:
plural
if
pronoun are " He is not tied down to relate every minute passage or circumstance, " Each of they (it) be not absolutely necessary to the main story, etc."
'
* 2 ; separate rooms to rest and calm themselves " Ch. and GaskelPs Wives 42, ; (Mrs. p. 419) y iJ^/k Daughters (1867), oJÂ vs*x^ 0' oJ&) c>^ ^^. ÎfÛsb har yak az dukhlardn bi-utdqha-yi Tchud-i
the girls went
up into
their
'
^^
;
shdn raftand td rdhat shavand. In modern Persian oiitf

c*}t
jt
Â har yak az md guftand
U^
jf
*S*~#jK Idyiq-i In kdr m8tid\ $&\ ( c>^#! )l ) har inkdr kas kardand, etc., etc., are used both in speaking (az ishdn) *J&jf and in writing. The Persians will hardly acknowledge that these concords are incorrect.
ctfU Kick yak az
(4) "Every strong and every weak point of those who might probably "'Point' should follow be his rivals were laid down on the charts."
' strong' as well as weak,' but authorities differ as to the proper number of the verb. Crombie, in his Etymological Syntax of the English Language
shumd
Corrected
* ' ;
Each
of the girls
went up into her separate room to
rest
and calm
*if herself.
CONCORD OF DISTRIBUTIVE PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES,

(5th Ed. 1843), p. 167, opines that, (1)
is
'
ETC.
599
'
easier
',
and more precise than,

'
Every officer and every soldier claims (2) Every officer and every soldier
,
'
though the latter is unquestionably more agreeable to analogy.' " Professor Bain too says (English Grammar, p. 175) Plurality is cera effect is there but by joining produced disagreeable tainly implied, under the take shelter with and we a elliptical might 'every' plural verb,
claim
:
"
" usage, and say, Every officer (claims), and every soldier claims dilemma might be solved by using all.' "
'
"
'.
The
:
tf
In Persian, the plural verb would be preferred for No. (1), as l *uT iddi'd* m/is>(e&] }\>j*) ^Â\X) cj^xUÂ har sahib mansab va sarbdz
kunand
iS
ki
but the singular verb for No.
(2), as
jl{^
j*>
v*^ v^^ j*
K;
in
ai&x
**
leaf
har sahib mansab va har sarbdz iddi'd* mi kunad
the
latter case the

(5)
verb
is
understood to the
first
subject.
difficulty arises in the English

etc.,
when both genders
are implied in
and according to Professor Bain the plural may then every, be used. 'Where everybody [all] can ride as soon as they are born.*' In Europe no one marries unless they have the certain means of supportMadame Bonaparte, Life and Letters (1879), Ch. 8, p. ing their children
each,
* '
:
135.
is
s Hodgson. people do not marry'.] As the pronouns in Persian have no distinction for gender, this error Thus the last example might be rendered practically absent. ÛU&y
[Read,
'
"
**^
S^-iT* kifdf na-ddshta bdshad
^^ *J&|*i iJl& &s*j U

'arusi
;(
>A dar
nami-kunad. s
*jU
Farangistdn hich kas id vajh-i " Let every man do their
own work";
bi-kunad.
*&
\)
(J^
^^
har kas bayad kar-i khud-ash rd
The
and
this
one,' is in Persian jof ddam, o> -^t insdn, etc., would naturally be followed by a singular pronoun and a singular
indefinite
pronoun
verb.
(/)
Like each and every,* the distributive pronouns
either
and
neither ,
should in English be followed by a singular verb. In modern Persian, however, not only are these distributive pronouns followed by a plural verb but, by a confusion of thought, their adjuncts 6 (if the
6 pronoun be the subject) affect the verb, as ajJuoJ^tf ^f <j^J| UL jf Â " neither hichyak az shumdhd Idyiq-i in kar nistid (should be mat) (m.c.)
:
^
&
(or none) of
you
are
[is] fit
for this business
"
^ o**>y
<jh Jl
lAUfc jl
Note that har boy and each girl."

1
is
not usually repeated.

har
Teas
yLâ jj~$ j*
har pisar va dukhtar " Each

:
Chun dar mulk-i
mi-tavanand az vaqt-i tavallud savar bi-shavand
better
hama
3
kas, or else the verb in the singular. Note that in the Persian there are two negatives for one in English.
*
6 6
For eaoh and every vide ' (e). " vide " Error of Proximity (a).
*
This error
may
in
modern Persian be considered
universal.
600
GOVERNMENT OF VERBS, PREPOSITIONS, AND ERRORS.

hich
ki
l
az
" not Lankaran)

kindnesses ":
one
shumaha layiq-imarhamaiha-yi man nistid. (Vazlr-I (none) of you are (is) deserving of* my many
g*p bd in asp khar-davani bi-kuni hich yak sar-i salamat bi-manzil na-khwahid burd (Pers. Trans. Haji Baba of Isfahan) " Haji,ii you mean to play the fool like this with your horse neither of you will finish the day's march in
safety."
W A^tj^
<^*& <jb*j*>
^l
*&>
e*f k-aij
<J>*J
c**3U j*
** $\ ki "Haji agar tu bi-khwahi dar In rah
j*
^^.
.y
^^
Concord of Adjectives, and of Pronoun with Noun.

(g)
Some
errors in the use of the
demonstrative pronouns have been
noticed [vide (c) (2). An English blunder is to make them plural before the singular nouns kind and sort, as: "I always delight in overthrowing those [that] kind of schemes and cheating a person of their [his] premeditated contempt." (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. X.) " this kind " In Persian >H^t jur etc., is used before either a singular or a plural noun or verb, as vi^Ju^ oi^l j* ^T^xujf %n jur adam dar Iran
khayli-st
"this sort of character

e;Ujj
is
common
Ichayli
in
Persian" and
;* l^cdf jâpij!
ixUU* ^Lji.
(h)
in jur
adamha dar Iran
hastand.
of x^rabic adjectives
With the exception
of the feminine affix
and
participles, adjectives in Persian
may
be said to have no inflections. 1
the exception of the one or two points already referred to in 43 (n) (t) and footnote to (t) (1), questions of the concord of adjectives are not likely to arise.
(i)
With (s) and
a pronoun in the plural should not be a c>^t (j)j*$ ** *?*"*? <^3 *;# $&J singular collective noun. In: *^ *\j j<* *j* &*** (Tr. H. B., Chap. XXXIII), not only is ishan incorrect but the colloca" tion is faulty. Omit cAî ishan, and after zan insert fj y jt> dar sar-i
in Persian, of
The antecedent,
rah-i Shah.
137.
(a)
Government of Verbs, Prepositions
Jl*il
oj^***
and Errors.
accusative case.
Transitive verbs govern, in English, the objective, and in Persian the * The following English errors are taken from Hodgson
:
"#e, who had always inspired in her a respect which almost overcame her affection, she now saw the object of open pleasantry (Miss Austen, Pride and Prejudice, Ch. 61) [For he read him ] ".
'
'
'
This error can hardly be repeated in Persian. For one thing, the ' * the Persian pronoun in her could not in pronoun she, prose precede which is the subject of the principal clause. An kas-i ki hamisha Muhammad
' '
: 1
Hlch
ki, m.c. for hlch
kas
The
case of a plural adjective being used as a plural
noun
[vide
43 (m)
need
not be considered.
GOVERNMENT.
bi-u ihtiram mi-hard hala
x>,> tofti|
601
&$
u ra dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftada did
^^
e/f
asi/ax>
(jfjtuo j&
\)$ J|tx $
ô f\j*a*.\
j\*
&+suc &&*,**>
or
an
kas-i ra ki
hamisha
Muhammad
a&xua*
ihtiram mi-kard hala dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftada did
ejT, are (j>j**)* Jl^ if if* ffy^l jâuo *<**+*> a* |^ both incorrect; the subject to did is obscure, nor is it clear to whom ura refers in the first example. In, &u+* tf \j &f *+3**
itoKil
xa
^r
Muhammad an
kas-i ra ki
^ly^f^l hamisha bi-u ihtiram mi-kard

;
^^
^>
the subject to mi-kard
might be either Muhammad or an kas-i but omit bi-u and write, Muhammad an kas-i ra ki hamisha Ihtiram mi-hard hold dar ma'raz-i mazhaka uftada did and the sense is clear, Muhammad being clearly the subject to both verbs.
(6)
nouns or pronouns
Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same case. Also in apposition must in English be in the same case.
The
following English errors are taken from

'
Hodgson
(1)
Hoi '* kunad *&

"
God will send no sucli fools as / [me] upon His errands Westward Khuda hich ahmaq-l misl-i man-i ra bi-pay gJiambari intikhab namic
:
^v
^
Uuot ^57^*-*^
*! t>
c^ C^^ ^*^f ***
!<*^ (rn.c.).
In this state Frank Churchill found her, she [her] trembling, they (2) [them] loud and insolent.' Miss Austen, Emma, Ch. 39." Fulan ura dar
in halat yaft-ura larzan va ishan ra gustdkh &\jj) In the Persian sentence if u larzan ÛU5 \Ji\Sv\
\\
'
j\
&fo oJU.
^^
\^\
^&*
cjfjy j(
were substituted, the
pronoun u would
*
refer to Frank.
(c) Prepositions in English govern the objective case, and nouns and pronouns in apposition to a noun or pronoun so governed must be in the same
case.
"God
he [him]
forbid
that I should refuse a
my own son" c*^j~*i ftf 1 cs^ 5 ^ ^^ J>i -4 3 e^ ^ u hasha ki man az yak pul da dan bi-jaqir-i inkar bi-kunam va an ham pisar-i khud-am, or oî ^w A^]f JU^ ^\ ^J&A*. ^^ J^j ^>c î *&* t^ Khuda na-kunad ki man pul dadan bi-faqir-1 inkar kunam va lial an ki pisar-*
penny
to
poor
man
?
and
l
^^1
^^
'
khud-am
ast.
Remark.
verb
is
Af ter
God
forbid
"
and similar expressions, an affirmative

forbid that I should refuse, etc."
is
required in Persian, thus
"God
forbid that I should not give, etc.," Hasha (or Khuda na-kunad) ki bi-faqw-i pul na-diham +*** J!^ tf ( ji& 1*5^ U ) UU. etc., is unusual.
correct; but
"God
cj^
* *
(e) One relative pronoun may do duty for more than one clause as, Muhammad who was born and buried in Tabriz Muhammad ki dar Tabriz
' '
mutawallid va madfun shud *& ^ jJ^j-jî^^ AT ^+.x>. If however the relative pronoun is in different cases,
^^c
it
should be
Note accusative
of
man.
Or ahmaq-l
mi*l-i
manra (not mara).
602
GOVERNMENT.
repeated in English but not in Persian.

is
An example
of
an error in Engl
upper part of the house of which I know nothing, and [which seen. A Life for a Life (1859), Vol. II, p. 65." I; *JUk ^J/U t never have vt>f **;l? j u-* tabaqa-yi bala-yi khana ra ki man p) ifcX^JÂ^ fjf*>**3 Â* bara-yi an hick nami-danam va hargiz na dZda am
"The
&
(/)

:
illustrate the
government
of
some verbs
they
prepositions
(1)
Az u pursidand *>***# y jt (mod.) " He ^

Ura purstdand ô^j ^ j\ Az shumd iltimas ddram ki
1
(class) )
(2)
Nizd-i shuma, iltimas mi-kunam ki * U^ t>y > besee f&**> efUUf ) Az shuma multimas-am ki s$ ^^JJô U* Jf you. Az shumd mamnun-am ^>x*x>U^3t )*'! am (much) obliged (3) amnun-i shumd hastam p&~* UA c^*^ you." (4) Muhtaj-i an (or muhtaj bi-an) mstam +*~*> ( o^ Ûacvxi U ) ^f Û " I am not in need of it." an ra lazim na-ddram
was him."
asked
as!
ÛxJf
U y
"I
^^ ^ fyf
p*~~*
(5)
(C)
Dar fikr-i in amr hastam Dar vay nazar kard

" he looked at him."
^\j&)* I'm thinking about it." J& ^j j* (class.) = bi-& nazar kardj&
y
" I'm much afraid of him.
ought
to
"
tjf (mod.)
(7)
(8)
Az u
<
Miayli mt-tarsam f~*j*x* t^-jA^f

bi-taqsir-i
Bayad
Bayad
khud
i'tiraf
kuni^
^Jtyî
^L^^xsaJu x>U taqwr-at ra iqrar kunl

.
You
\
confess
fault."
l^djt jl
(9)
" here to look for him (now or previously). Az 'aqab-i u anja raftam p&) J
^S ))j9\ tj ClÂ^J Jjb Az'2 'aqab-i & inja dmada

(on a certain day).
(
am
ft
***$
sôc
'*
jf
"I have
cc
^f
^^
jt
went there to
1<
after
him"
**
6 Az' aqab-iu ufiadam ^Kj? I followed him."
y v^3> (~
either
dmadan
or ra/^
" enjoyed the entertainment

being hosts).
(11) JKhil'at*
(10)
Az mihmanl
khayli mutamatti* shudim

;
mihmdm
here
may mean
being guests
cu*U> (in n pushamdand v*i>l^ ^TU. a dress of with was honour"; presented bi-hakim) governor or wyuU^j %&^1^ ^ Û*. hakim ra khil'at pushanidand or kardand " " he finished his Az namaz
bar hakim
"The
^^
(12)
pardakht
Bi-namaz pardakht
OA^J jUij " he began to pray."

a
ouk|^
jiwjf
prayers
'
Or bi-ahurna. Or dar *aqab,

Here khilat
Or dar
'aqab, or bi-'aqab.
or bi-'aqab.
is
used generally and does not need the
tjff
of unity.
GOVERNMENT.
(13)
603
txbJljdl
f;
Az
"the
in
gift
nagar-i shah pishkash ra guzarandand was presented to the Shah."

csj
jt (class.)
J&
(14)
Az vay dar guzasht oA>?>>
mod. Per. = " he forgave him
his fault," or
"he "he
passed by him" (but beat him in the race

'*
etc.)."
Az u
by him."
guzasht (or radd shud)
i;
or)
o*tf y jt
(mod.)
he passed
Bar u khandidand &>*!<**** j\ji (modem); az U khantidand *>j\y AI>JAA^ harf-i u khandidand (mod.) also 6ar harf-i u
(15)
.
(class.)
Th
hed at him- M
(16)
(
/
) *^J
az
*/
or
maw ouÂ (^
6f-w
(or
pish-i
u)
shikayat burd (or kard)

41
^
x
^âj or)
hich
" he made a complaint against me to him."

"^
(17)
bar-tin
Az an sukhan
ittila*
na-yafta
am
f\
ii*U> A*iet
gjjk (^*u^ c)T)t

jpj
sukhan muttali' na-shuda
am
|*f
*>><&
5!^^ ^.^s^ ^f
"I know
nothing about the matter."
CHAPTER
138.
(a)
XX.
Order of Words and Phrases.

is,
The formal
or conventional order of words in a simple sentence

i.e.
generally speaking, the same as in Latin,
subject, object or
complement,
and verb, as:

something
It is
*5)yLjy u bi-safar raft "he also a general principle that things to be thought of together
;
"
c*it>^>
ch^
j**
faqir
cluz-i
khwast "the beggar asked for started on a journey."
should be placed in close conjunction,

cuf<*yc
^k^tjo ol<H^
&+&)\
y&#
Ij
^^ v>^
o-j>
ya'qub yusuf ra bisktar az
dust mi-dasht " Jacob loved Joseph
more than
is
hama-yi farzandan-i cfogar-i tihud all his other sons."
part of a compound verb it does not always immediately precede the actual verb, as: f^-' !<^- <^M cu-J^f j& 1 dar an vaqt yad-i Khuda kardam (or Khuda ra yad kardam ). (p*j$ aU|^ |^ or)
Remark.
Even
if
the accusative
(b)
" bdz ra bi-u dadam forms part of a compound verb, as: ftf* fj 3L i+j y u bi-ma salam kard* him the female goshawk f
' '
The dative generally

:
follows the accusative, unless the
accusative
I
gave
time, when they apply to the whole *t *i* as: sJiab-1 qazl-l sentence, >$ usually placed dar kitab-i did ki f( one night a Qazi read in a book that c5*>* c5-b; " one & A>J AJîo ÂÛÔ ruz-l mard-i dar masjid-i nishasta bud ki day a
(c)
Words and phrases denoting

are
first,
^^
<&* ^^
' ' :
^
**
certain
man was
sitting (seated) in a
1
mosque when
"
<Jt5>a C5^t"*>)^
C5"3j;
***
oJ> Îfc eJ&>^ ruz-i dar shahr-l* darwsh-l dar-i dukan-i baqqal-l raft 4 " day, in a certain city, a darvish went to the shop of a green-grocer.
(d)
" one
When
:
the complement to the verb

(3+^1 LT* *H**^ */
'
is
a complete sentence, a fool?

'
it is
put
last, as
" the
man
^^ ^
*
ward pursld mara ahmaq mi-pindari
enquired saying,
Do you
think
me
"
*^* dldam kidar miyan-i darya ckand kuhha-yi* dlgar ham p*j^*& <^^ bud (m.c.) ** I saw that there were several other rocks as well, in the middle
of the sea."
(e)
&
cjU*;*
as'
ffr^
When
the object
is
qualified
by a
relative sentence, the object

:
may
immediately precede the verb and the relative clause follow, as

~
l
t;
az in fa khalasi yajtan
ummld
The
nut, or
timid-i khalasi yaftan az

*
mja
nlst.
f^
^r
J&wandan
8
Cardan f^** for the former.

8a
^m
"
orally, or
with the hand."
Afghans say
-^^^
*^
"
*&*'* darvlsh-^
dar shahr-l.
etc.
4
*
" a man who sells dried and fresh fruits, ghi, curds, Jl&j baqgal Note plural noun after chand. The singular could be used.
ORDER OP WORDS AND PHRASES; CROWDING.
607
In conditional, concessional, and temporal sentences, the object or

subject may, for emphasis, precede the conjunction, as: <*** ejîuLjt j f**s( *A*u of^. the eye and knuckletîfcb isx)*>Jt\ *-*/ (H. B., Chap. XI)
" bones of a wolf, attached to a boy's person, give him courage when the doctor departed $U*I U? ^ "tyakim chun raft
' '
^^
' '
^0
savdrdn rd chun chashm bi-ma uftdd tdkhtan avardand, for

.
chun chasm-i savdrdn
When a sentence consists (5) Subordinate before Principal Proposition. of two Propositions, a principal one and a subordinate, greater force ! is " obtained if the subordinate precedes the principal, as " If you stay I'll go a gar tu bi-mdrii man mi-ravam. fiifr er* cs^
:
!L
Remark.
(as
When
the inversion
it is
is
so violent as to confuse
the sense
sometimes in poetry)
(j)
called Synchysis.
*
Never cro\vd many circumstances together.
When
in
a complex
sentence the qualifications of the subject or the modifications of the predicate are numerous, the most judicious course is to distribute them, placing
" At one 3 part before and part after the subject or predicate." Example " blow was his head severed from his body !**> eP $ u*r* **J" *"** bi-yak zarb sar-ash az tan juda shud. Here of the two modifications, at one blow
:
'
'
and from
'
his
'
body
one
is
placed before and one after the predicate.
circumstance ought never to be placed between two capital members; since, by such a proposition, it is doubtful to which it belongs,
(k)
"A
By
is
between parts of the member to which it belongs, ambiguity avoided, and the capital members are kept distinct. " By the articles subsisting between us, on the day of marriage, you
placing
it
'
thousand pounds.' thus By the articles subsisting between us, you agree to pay down on the day of marriage, the sum of eighty thousand pounds."
agree to pay " Better
the
'
down
sum
of eight
For example vide (n) (1). The following sentence from Hafi Bdbd is not clear at first sight *CA*f **^> e/V^^^ ovusf *y** *> to| *tf $j9 &}** &xj j* y^f &A> *^jrHO cs^ ** witl other each to relation obvious When different things have an (1)
:
'
a corres respect to the order of time, place, cause and effect, or the like, in the ponding order should be observed in assigning them their position
sentence.
Better
sdlim va zinda " well and alive."
Û j
" ^J zinda va salim alive and well

Vide also
(n) (5).
'
'
than
***) ^
^L
1
ft
And
More
also
'
Suspense.'
forcible
than "I'll go
if
you stay
"
^>Uj
^ fjj*
agar tu bi-manl.
3
" Vide Herbert Spencer on Style."

is
A semi-colon
required after *i na to
make
the sense clear.
608
(m)
(1)
' '
ORDER OF WORDS; EXAMPLES.

The
following Persian examples of collocation will repay study
<jLkLi Ji>c eJi?
;
:
JXo ^f
aUab padishah
guft
man-am
' '
sultan-i in
mulk
the king said

(2)
It is I
who am
U
the king of this realm.'

(f li
^t-a^ Ûi}
j â/^
'asd-t,
dalq-i
va amban-i va
na-gah ^'JD* "suddenly a darvish entered with

&/of j^
darvish-i dar
dmad ba
habit,
his
and leather bag, and

(3)
staff."
y *&<>
o*of
buland-tar
(4)
& jf cVj> f**S ^tfJ>Uo saqha-yi gandum did az qadd-i adam ftf "he saw stalks of wheat, taller were they than a man's stature."
<J)y
is
" the same
city
sWjUJî yL. khud-i shalir tijaratgah-i buzurg-i ast (mod.) a large commercial place."
jk /^^<>^>U^ <^jf ^*^)'->^vj f |j ^âsuw &r oôf g(X& îXj) Lk;b bdrhd dida shuda ast ki shakhs-l ra ki bisyar sud dyad hamdn qadr Tiam-bi-u
(5) tXttfô cAl)
ziyan mi-rasad.
(6)
^li^'f
^*^fl "
#
IxAftj
i^)j*.
)^. 0;Uc
laxjf
^xj
^^
l
&>
iXJ^y
0<Xw
&&&* &**)
*^
A-
^î
j^j si
daf'a zamin bi-chunan
shiddat larzid ki ruy-i zamin-i
4< an the earth shook anja 'imarat-i bisyar buzurg-i agar mi-bud yaqm ml-uftdd three times with such violence that had there been a large building there, it
would certainly have

(7)
fallen'
'
.
cJ }^ <Jx^3 *Jl^ j^ o.^ ^^ dar j* a> ^t *J^ 2 bud dar chand khana-am zambil-sazan ki dar khurdsati anja khana-yi ja-l vaqt-i bud c< there were several houses of basket weavers near the home of my
1
^^ ^f
<^^
Û ^^
youth."
(8)
ctÛA
jl
Jl\ f\
1$ Jl^
*^^*
*JLL
^?Lv^
cs
I;
1
^lÛ
A^Jl^;^ j\
&.f
O^^?
jii^fiJ
<J^3 c^ 5 ^
^W
(*)^^
-^y
^^
;^ )b
ki
^^;i bdz dar dil-am guzasht

khana nihal zada
az darakht-i ki shakhha-yash ra gird-a gird-i

;
am
agar az
hamdn darakht^ shakhha-yi kuchak bi-yaram shayad bi-vaqt-i bdftan-i zambll na-shikanand 'it then crossed my mind that if I were to bring some twigs
I had gathered the cuttings which I had the round house, perhaps, they would not break when weaving the planted
from the same tree from which

baskets."
(9j
f^f f. u* v^*^ ^^
s<
f^1
is* j! bar mt-amadam)
c h un bi-aftab mi bar amadam (Afghan) when I went out in the sun (sunshine)." 4
(m.c.
Or
<y^
ci^xij
oUo. chunan
bi-ahiddat larzid.
:
Note
repetition of
noun
of place after relative clause
4tC>Jl^ja dar ja'l ki and

(sing.)
.
far 3n/S.
8
Also
jU
JUjJ} ^^ ^^
chand teh&na-yi zambil-saz
Note repetition
is
of substantive after relative clause.

pi.
na-shikanand
darafcht being
*
used after tho neuter
Also that the plural verb sha&hha to avoid the possibility of the word
mistaken for the subject.
Bar-i a/tab raftan f^lij

' *
vÔ
or
&*&+ ^t^ Caftan
îi;
wl^'f^^
niod.
" to
go out in the sun.
ORDER OF WORDS
(10)
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
609
ha*il
^ JjU ^y
certain king
*t
<x
^L^
was
(^
yok-i ral az
muluk maraz-i
bud
(Sa'di)
"a
afflicted
*
with a horrible disease."
(11)
^^^
"he
j*z> \)
&&*
c*a? guft ki fulan ra* dlr shud ki na-dldi
(Sa'di)
said
with
regard to
So-and-so
it's
a long
time since
you saw him."

(12) cuftx*3 &Z /<*&*" UCa*
31 \)
" one of the (Sa'di) leading
z ^t. yak-i ra az hukama shumdam ki mt-guft men of the day, I heard him say that ".
\)
* '
(13) ^c^j &* AJ i*ijî jl^ )& (^jti j>\
ttjty*.
zan-l javan* ra agartw-l

girl it is
dar pahlu nishinad bih ki pir-l
wounded by an arrow than

(14) si*A*9^ Lu}
sirat-i zibd
to
(Sa'di) young have an old husband."
for a
better to be
c^^
ti^t jXjj
dar ust
(Sa'di)
o^^j A^J.A AJ na har ki bi-surat niku ast "not every one who has a pleasing exterior,
has a pleasing disposition."

&*j> ^^xî U^ va ba shamshir zad gardan-i salmani ra " the neck of that barber he cut in two." (Prof. S. T.)
(15)
\j
îU^
(16)
*>k^
\)
(3^^ & * A
v)*
^-?
*^^-^
ei>(^^^
c^fl? *Xtj
ASjjjf ^j
îu** &JS&
sukhan bi-andisha bayad guftan va harakat-i pasandida bayad fylALi.iU guft <4 he said, to speak after kardan hama fchalq ra, khassa padishan 6 ra (Sa'di)
consideration arid to act with propriety
is
proper for
all
but especially for
kings."
(17) <xilA)fj
Ifij
<iUi*f
^jjQJu*^
**$-
<rLV
mivaj agarchi mustaqim buvad
i'timad-i baqa ra nashdyad (Sa'di) even if a person's health be perfect, one cannot hope for everlasting life for him on that account."
(18)
<c
d)}^ p*j*
az In safar-i jafiaz
fta fty *t>j& j(f^ j*** w*y y**ty na karda budam dil-am barham khwurd
^^
raanki
<
pishtar
(m.c.)
who had
never voyaged in a ship before,

(19)
my
stomach
felt
sick."
^T (^ (*A^
banda hargiz In jur musafarat jj* "I never this like kind of travelling." nami-ayad (m.c.)
vaîl-ô jâxijf
xîu
More common
f^j
cô )\ <^
az
yak-l az
muluk
ra.
*
5
Note fulan ra object
of na-didi.
U^
â^Jf
jf
^)
yak-l
hukama
ra
more usual
mi-guft.
order.
Also
&$ +*
shunldam
ki yak-l az
hukama
In mod. Pers., the plural verb
ml-guftand would probably be used after

4
U&* jj
More
forcible
than
M>&3^J^ {j
\)
e)[>^
(^3^
^$o yak-l az hukama. ft dar affar zan~^ iav% n

dar pahlu-yi zan-i javan
pahlu nishinad, or
nishlnad.
6
***&
&^ ^) ^^j^^ ^jjJ

cuâf
Jt\ agar
tlr-l
More
forcible
than o*~xJ
jx> OJÂJ ** j* )* J^& *&j&*

|^
sirat-i
wku
dar
har ki bi-surat nlku-ast mat.

6
In modern Persian, to avoid the repetition of

khalq Jshassa padiehan Note that there is no verb for i*\s banda
ra.
ra,
this
would be worded
hama
1
the subject to
<*jf
^^
nami-ayad
is
musafarat
'
:
vide
'
130 (a)
(2).
39
610
(20)
ORDER OF WORDS
*f ^5* (Jj4 *&*jf v^{
gir-ash
p*> )\
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
yak gusfand
mi-dmad
(m.c.)
*& <J*^ jf) agar tambal na-bud u ham " had he not been lazy, he too would have
l
got hold of a sheep."

(21)
o^j^
(^
w*^ ctff
ty f*!*^ p*
t* p~lj*&jfc
**
f*# **^
cfef
)j)
*&*
bdr-i digar ndm-i jahdz Bj^yf Ûj <^ wan- W rfiz-i atwaZ $w/Ja budam ki ham na-khwdham burd In sukhan* rd dust-i man bi-yad dvarda guft ki " I who had formerly said that I would never even mention the word ship recollected what I had said, and said to me." my friend
&f oi?
(22)
JtiS
5
*jl$uj
&(#*!
^j* ji is&jt")*^
*#
e^ o^
**
^^
^
In-
Hatim-i Ta^l
ki biyaban-nishm
bud agar dar shahr budl az jush-i gadayan
chara gashtl (Gul., Chap. VII, St. 19).
rfar
zumra-yi sahib-jamalan
mutajalll na-shavad
'alim-i 'adil-i
etc..
magar angah
3rd
line).
ki
mufahalK gardad
bi-zlvar-i qabul-i amlr-i kabir-i
mu^yyad-imuzaffar-i, etc. etc. (Gul.,
Muqaddama;
Remark and
Zikr-i, Amw-i, Kabir-i,
(24)
(25)
Vide example in
129
(6),
footnote.
aiiU U| l*f ejUis ^ jJî ammd mdnand-i radd-i mazalim, nima-yi biryan-i pishkashl ra, kamar " but 1 determined bastam ki bi-'Usman Agha firistam (Tr. H. B. Chap. IV) to send to Usman Agâ as a reparation, half the roast (sheep's head) that
}
(
had been bestowed on me ": note position of *$ p~* j*f kamar bastam ki. or cjA^^Jf v-J^ tdKb hamdn khub ast ki (26) A*' <A^} *-^ he is rightly called a physician who 6?6 aw shakhs ast ki
J
^^
^^
l *
'
'
(27) C/f^*
3'
*j
A^'- O^
A^
^tx3
^T
^j
Jjy jf
A5
--^ Mu'tamad^d-Dawla ki az qulinj va sudda kam manda bud jtf olj^ ki kar-ash sakhta shavad az ta*sir-i an habb hayat-i taza yaft (Tr. H. B.,
in the intestines
(n)
(1)
Chap. XIX) *'the Mu'tamad^M-Dawla, who from colic and an obstruction had very nearly died, got from this pill a new lease of life."
The
following are instances of faulty collocation
her.'
^*
full
" 'The Moor seizing a **^ f; u^.} J
(^
bolster, full of rage
and jealousy smothers
^ j> ***J ^jfcU ^j** macfAribi muttakd*-l

'
girifta
pur az
Moor,
va khashm zan-ash rd khafa mi-kunad. Corrected, 'The of rage and jealousy, seizing a bolster, smothers her jf ^j ^j**
gjya>yz.
'
Note that there
is
no verb
for u:
vide
'
note
7, p. 009.
Note how the sentence breaks

subject.
tffi is
off in
the middle, a second clause being introduced
by a new
3
Îfc
the relative adjective from
ORDER OF WORDS
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
611
magkribi pur az &&ay% va khashm muttaka*-i

zan-ash ra khafa mi-kunad.
1
keen eye and a graphic pen see and set down for us the both scenery and manners.' (Corrected by Hodgson en eye sees and a graphic pen sets down '). lie original collocation (apart from the error in the concord of the verb) not bo considered faulty in Persian, 2 as: >o a*CUx> jô\ &+a> ty
*
"
I)
3teristic details of
*^
j
i
***? <g* CAW**-? tj*Jb pti j
hama-yi umur-i mamlakat ra chashm-i

;
tlz
va
naqsh-band-ash mi-bmad va mi-nig ar ad (better J^> j *xio ^c <Jy i**^ 1* ow.*v <jS*aJ chashm-i tiz-ash ml-bmad va-qalam-i naqsh-band-ash miid).
"
5)
Though
J
all
seeds do not contain albumen*'
j*
>>)|A> garchi hama-yi tukhmhd nishasta na-ddrand ] ar ba'zi payda ml-shavad] (m.c.). If all seeds do not contain albumen, s there no seed which contains albumen. Corrected " Though not all s
I^J c5^* j^ 3^
contain albumen
]ta
1)
[ Jk ] $y<^ *i**L^ ^âaJÂ &*. J>\ agarchi har tukhm-i na-ddrad [bdz ]. " All who lay claim to these virtues, are not to be depended upon"
"
ÛiLcf jjjjf
ojoT ij* <Jî {j^^\ ***eUaJf

la*iq-i i'tibar
A*rt>
hama-yi ashkhas-i
((
ki idda a-yi
i-kunand
mstand.
Corrected,
Not
all
who*
lay claim to
***
virtues are to be
r fet
idda a-yi fazl
" *^^f depended on jUi^f ^'K ml kunad Id iq-i i'tibar ast.

Kerman "
vide
'
'
;
*xi,<xx oka*'
Û^f
5^î>
A^
"
5)
He was
bred and born in
^ *âJO^ ^}Jt ^^
f
j^
j\
u dar
an buzurg va za* Ida shud

in
7
Kerman"
fi
(1).
^>?j
**^lj
u&*
Corrected, 'He was born and )* y w dar Kirman za*lda va
shud.
1)
Do you
U
wish
me
to roast or boil the
meat
"
^^
kunam?
(Better cx
^f
mi-kh,ivaliul ki gusht ra
biryan ya db-paz
Simple and more natural

AA5w
i fj ^|
^jiujj
lei
c^^J i^^^
az
Mayhribl pur guzashta ura Miafa ml-lcutiad.

AXwfii5
i^
yAayz ra
f*^^ j -6^ jl Uia*hm bud muttaka
^
f>
*
bi-dahn-i
~i
Obscurity
r
fxs
not necessarily a fault in Persian.

as
collocation
^jiiXu
tlz-ash
in the corrected English
However, in modern Persian, the example would be preferred j^^cf Â
\-i
ij&> ^Jj ^ jxiuj ^j c4)"6^ /*^Jt' U oXU>3 hama-yi umur-i mamlakat ra ml blnad va qalam-i naqsh-band ash ml-nlgarad.
is
unidiornatic.
** A^
is
unidiornatic.
612
ORDER OF WORDS
a) 1**?
t>
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS.
1
Ji vf ^ (&
or boil
(8)
it).
giiato
ra
birydn
Icunam yd db-paz
grill
the meat
*f
MJ*
<*&^
Mj)**\
J&J;;*
(%
v^ if (f*SJ
j jIAjb cAjjiko
&
âaxix âu âsu* cs^ ^ Ij Ji^b OASBUO J+A ammd, mushtariyan-i va luqmaha-yi charb u shinn-i darwsh, andaruniydn-i pddshdhi budanp pdyddr lei hama mahabbat-i pddshdh rd bi-mru-yi sihr bi-khudmunhasir mi-khwastand
i>JJL[yiuuo
the ladies of the king's seraglio were his Chap. 11) most Their customers. urgent demand was some powerful charm principal to insure the attention of the king": (put bi-mru-yi sihr
(Tr.
H.
B.,
"but
^^
LSJJ&*.
after *+* hama).

(9)
cvf
na man na agar Bu 'AU ham az gur dar dyad, kar-i az u bar nami-dyad " otherwise not alone (Tr. H. B., Chap. 11) I, why Avicenna himself could do were he to rise from the dead " make the sense clear
nothing,
:
^J
j\
j\
c^;^ <^T )* >j
j\
p* J>*j>j>\
& v*
*>
j vagar
[to
insert,
in the Persian, a
comma
after each
na
alsoaâr should follow the subject of
the conditional clause,

(10)
i.e.
be placed after ham].
&\ti\
<x>Uj ÎkL* ^Ûjf \Â* &> ^b^j e;Ux 31 |j ^\^ j e)Uy 3*** i*^ ki mabddd Arsldn larzdn man tarsdn u lj j*\# (j^b^ f Sultan biydyad va ustukhwdn-i mundzi' fih rd az miydn bi-rubdyad Khudd
aJ ajU/o îuLwi ^
c)^J^
pidarash rd bi-ydmurzad, munajjim niz bi-miydn uftdd (Tr. H. B., Chap. IV) "I all the while in terror lest Arslan Sultan should arrive and bear off
the bone of contention.
God bless
his
father, the astrologer too interfered.'
'
and as there are no stops in the original, the phrase God bless his father, might, and does at first appear to, but place munajjim before Khudd and the ambiguity refer to Sultan Arslan
his refers
feo
As
astrologer following
it,
disappears.
(11)
*
f!
,
f&
l*T
jyiî^
^ man
:
dukhtar-i
Ukuz AgAa ndm-i Shay Mi-
am
(Tr.
H. B. Chap. XXVI,
1st line)
l*f
note the awkwardness of an izdfat after

*#
ndm.
tlkuz
tlkuz
Re-constructed p*~& fb
j\
^^
ex*
^ man
man
dukhtar-i
Shaykh
Agha ndm hastam, Ag&d ndm.
or
Û Uf 3^1
f^H^T*^
no
dukhtar-i
Shaykh-am
Remark L
The order
of sentences is
less
important than the order of
words in a sentence.
birywn
biriahta k.
<4
&.
to roast or fry
(>&
to parch
"
;
also to
yojS qirmiz k. to fry in oil or butter bake 'bread in the Persian fashion; Û?
:
kabab k.
k. or
*'
to
broil
k.
;
"
;
(to
'pop* Indian corn

*'to fry
is
either
coft'ee
^^
**jt
Urishta
&bj
*
s
cjU^ kabab
'
&*\& j) bu dadan
berries,
gram, melon
'
seeds, nuts).
Example of Or with the
.f*}\ JL*J
Û^f a construction admissible

am.
in poetry only.
of unity ehayftbrl
ORDER OF WORDS AND SENTENCES.
613
sequence of the sense of its preceding sentence, then are the two sentences in a proper order and the sense of each sentence should be carried a step further by the sentence following.
is
When
the sense of a sentence
logical
When
a sentence refers
less
to the sentence immediately preceding it
than to some earlier sentence,
it is
not in
its
proper place.
Remark
II.
Sentences closely related to each other form, in English,
a paragraph, and each paragraph should start a
new
departure.
1
In Persian there are no paragraphs, but a chapter (bdb) is sometimes, in MSS., divided into sections (fast), each fasl having this word in red ink at
its
commencement.
Sometimes the
first
word
of a sentence has a red
ink line over

*
,
it.
Some-
times a
full
stop
is
shown in red ink by four dots, thus

Such
aids,,
two
of the centres
being usually joined.
however, are rare.
In modem Persian, a short dash is often while a full stop is indicated by the plus +
called in Persian chaprdst.
first
made
,
to represent a
comma,
Proper names
or the multiplication sign x have a red line over them like the
word
in a sentence.
Remark III. In a comprehensive composition, paragraphs related to each other, together form a chapter, and each chapter has usually an express heading of its own, stating the matter in it.
^b
bob or sometimes Ûif guftar.
CHAPTER
139.
(a)
XXI.
Apposition.
"Apposition
cases of
' '
is
or in
some
an adjective,
the relation to a noun or pronoun, of another noun, or a clause, added by way of explanation
or characterisation.
It is a rule that
l
etc., placed in apposition must be in noun or pronoun to which it is apposed. Arab grammarians enumerate * descriptions of what may be called apposition. For practical purposes there is but one apposition. A substantive or adjective in apposition is called g$ ( pi. ?!>> ) "the follower or appositive"; it follows the noun to which it refers, which is
a noun or pronoun,
the same case
as the
called
>OA>
"
that which
is
followed."
*
corrects a form of the Apposition of Substitution a statement respecting the whole of a thing, and states that a portion only was meant, as in 'I eat the loaf, the half of it.' This apposition is rare in
Badal-i ba'z,
'
^*j J<>J,
Persian.
Ex
c/T
vJuw
f;
Û (*^*^
is
"
eat the fish
half of it."
Badal-i ishtimal JUi^f j->

correct a statement and
itself,
to state that
the substitution of a word or phrase to it is not the person himself or the thing
it.
but something connected with him or

is
The
first
example above
is
better example of JUI^f JAJ badal-i ishtimal than of u*** J^? badal-i ba'z.
very rare in Persian. Badal-i gholat iaJ^ J** is the substitution of a word or phrase to correct " I rode the horse the she-camel Savdr-i asp shudama lapsus lingua as This badal is rare in Persian. Possibly the na shutur y& !>**
' '
!
This JAJ badal
an example ur^ * ^^> ^^j) (^ villagers are considered " to die " is dolts, j^ khar and the term &*> &*> saqat shudan applied to animals, not to human beings. Another explanation of the construction is
following
is
: : ,
that ^>
bud
is
understood after
^^jj rusta*-i.
last descriptions
It will
be seen that the distinction between these three

is fine.
of J*v badal
The simple term J*? badal could with advantage be applied to all these descriptions of J*j badal and also to e>Uj uitu 'atf-i bayan for which vide (b) (4), Remarks I and II.
1
It
must be
jf&
<ts
recollected that the accusative has
two forms, one with r3
fj
and one
without.
#s*
ss*
c,
-0O'
O '
Viz.
APPOSITION.
615
There
low fellows
(6)
is
meaningless
' '
.
" the a sixth form of apposition in Persian, called J+** gU, " as: M$E P%& "lutis and such like ^5* appositive
J
,
^V
Vide also
1 40 (a)
(1)
Examples: Pronoun and Adjective.
îiu ^/o
maw
az nishana-yi
lutf-i
kad-banu
ummidvar* sawdaha-yi kfyam
mi-pukhtam(TT. Haji Baba) "the mark of favour which I had just received had set my imagination to work, and", (lit. "I, hopeful from the mark of
favour of the chief wife,
k
")
(J-*
3
man&ndummidvar&rs
**&*
ts^T
^su
Jfc/of
in apposition
^^M jt*i&
j Jj>|
Jyfc
^l^JÛ* j
^ didar-i varta-ha-yi-hawl-angiz va past
bulandiha-yi sahm*amiz,
bi-chasm-i
manand-i man, adam-i nasht, dar nihayat-i vahshat u dahshat mi-namud (Tr. H. B., Chap. V) "the danger of the precipices and the steep ascents were something quite appalling to a young traveller like
me
"
(note that there
is
no
izafat after
man, though grammatically one
might be expected). (2) Noun and Adjectives or Phrase

,
8 <uy b j^w c&UP darmsh, sar u pa
barahna (Sa'dl)
<c
a darvish. bare headed and footed, but aJuy ^jj** cAu>^ dar' 4
msh-i sar u pa barahna
a bare-headed and bare-footed darvish

<(
' '
:
JU
l^lji
î^xx) î^^ isjS j&& OÂ. nazdik-tar nii-rasand (Vazlr-i Lankaran)
CAÔO farrashha, shal bi-dast, harakat-i digar karda
the farrashes, shawl in hand,

^
make
vHs^ <*&/^ ^j; j* **$j*. (&&*$ j&*. zada bar ruy-i Jchirsak, 6 na-shikib bar* banu astin $j* *^ chashm bi-rah-i man* nisliasta bud (Tr. Haji Baba)" where I found the Banou seated on a carpet on the ground, waiting for me with great impatience." Here the adjective ^*& li na-shikib and the phrase t\j> chashm bi-rah-i man are both in apposition to the nominative Banu.
:
another
movement and draw nearer
"
&l~& 6^>X3
^
:
^*
Adjectives and phrases in apposition
may
follow the verb, as
aa;
anati mard-i bud panjah-sala,
barik-qadd,
tiz-nigah,
surkh-rukhsar, ambuh-rish, ztr-jama-yi qasab

bi-dhl-i dar-i
dar pa,
va kulija-yi Kashmiri dar bar, shabih
khana
(Tr.
H. B., Chap. VI)
So
common
in
Urdu.
* 8
In Arabic ummldvar here would not be considered apposition! it would be hal. s sar u T barahna may be considered a compound adjective. Ef in the &iAjj ^vJ>jr*
'
accusative,
AXA^J
saw a certain dervish with bare didam sar u pa barahna;

*AiA^> \>*jj
or,
head:
and
darvlsh-i ra
"I saw
f&* f; (,$*))* a bareheaded and barefooted

J>
feet
"
bj^
dervish
4
"
^Jo^
f^
(^^j;^
**
darvish-i Bar
u pa barahna^ ra didam.
**Jj*- eJ-Js***f
5
asfinbar zada
having rolled up her sleeve.
jUoyk kMrsak, a
Buda understood.
coarse, rough,
and badly woven rug or carpet.
The word
is
often applied as an adjective by carpet weavers to express bad work.

6
616
APPOSITION.
of
" one
them was a man

fine
thickly-bearded,
of fifty years, short, quick-sighted, rosy-cheeked, muslin under-drawers on his legs, and a Kashmir
overcoat on his body."

(3)
Two
Indefinite
Nouns
in Accusative.
v*V>
L^L
jJ&**/
l
IJ
t*
^*&&
aUujjJ)(jJ shakhs-i dah id gusfand bi-tava$sut-i navkar-i ta* druf firistdd(m.c.) "a, person once sent by means of his servant ten head of sheep as a present
(to
some one)."
(4)
Two Nouns
in Nominative.
mi-guyad ki
"the boy Muhammad shumd dmad " Zaid your brother come," but better **$ AJ) (+ ;^ baradar-i shumd Zayd dmad, for *xf *a;afj? *?.) Zayd-i barddar-at dmad (vulg.) These are examples of J>j m.c. and incorrect] "your brother Zaid came."
:
*jj** &+*** a^J pisara Muhammad* " <>*>T (+> jî * Zayd barddar-i says
badal, or J? J*J badal-i kull.
&k* *-&* "Explanatory Apposition" defines more partiIt is also a form of J<x> or the cularly something that has gone before. * Apposition of Substitution." Ex. j+* &>} &U|*^, is &(*> cake, as the
I.
c
Remark
>G is
a better
known person; but
(+
jdj**l),
is
J*V.
There
is,
however,
really
no difference between the two.

IT.
nom de plume', should grammatically speaking be in apposition: however, in Persia, but not in India, they are joined by an izdfat. In Persia, but not in India, a person's name and his trade also are joined by an izdfat.
Remark
poet's
name and
his
uaJU^ takhallus,
'
^^] (y~* ^\ oJ^xs c^ô e^. j ^ chun mi-raft mi-guft ay pisar-am va C*J* <j* J* LS^ c^* jJ&M &*S~* /^^ Abshdlum, ay pisar-am pisar-am Abshdlum / Kashki bi-jd-yi tu mi-murdam ay Abshdlum pisar-iman 8 " and as he went thus he said, Oh, my son Absalom, my son, my son Absalom! Would to God I had died for thee, O Absalom,
(5)
Nouns
[
in Vocative.
fj~* fo~j ^l
1
'
my
^yl
*
son,
(6)
my
son!
or
'
"
*.
Noun
te&o*j* cjti^*
^f^j &(** OJ|&A> &j <*? JaA|y^ Al*^ khivdhid gujt zan-i Hiddyat Khan bardy-i Simula îU.
Pronoun understood.
Khdnum
The wife
(c)
sawqdt* firistdda ast (Vazir-i Lankaran) "You'll say will you that ' " of Hidayat Khan has sent it 6 (or the jacket) as a present ?
Corroborative
Apposition
takes
place,
either
in
the
words,
*J)l*J ta'aruf could
be considered
Jl.a
hal, or aJ
In Mutyammad-i pisara, pisara

or badal.
is sifat;
but in
Jj*& maf'ul lali Muhammad pisara Muhammad,

.
'
is 'ajtf-i "bay an 8
Also ay Abshalum-i pisar-i man. This izafat 4 An example of badal or 'atj-i bay an.
6
is
m.c.
and
is
incorrect.
Sawqat
is
hal or maj'ul lah u ,
and an ra understood,
maf'til
unbihi or
"
object."
An
ra or
mm tana ra understood.
APPOSITION.
rf
617
$ ta*lcid-i
of
lafzi,
or
in the
:
sense
^j**
*^
tcfl&d-i
ma'nam.
Examples
(1)
^^
**?$ ta*kid-i lafzi are

<x*suo
&+^*> <wf fo*
jivAj
Muhammad
pj,sh-i
man amad Muhammad

"
' '
Muhammad, Muhammad, came to me" :y c^y to zad to thou struckest, " I saw j^-acuo Muhammad ra didam Muhammad ra thou *>+3vo
:
"
\)
f<>j
fj
Muhammad, Muhammad":
guzashtam* az bar-i tu
^LS4? or better
77^^^
<7^
"
yy
J
1
'
(&&
y>
jt
c^
man
jl
az bar-i tu
passed
^r-?l
#w
as &/-?/
tu,
y ^^^f y ^
amadl
by thee, thee guzashtam : ^c^f thou earnest, thou."

/?/
" or
yy y y ^
/)ar^ zakat-i
husn u na-dam kira
dilii
Man
mustahiqq-am ay Shah-i kfmban, bi-man bi-man.
" You have such a store that you must give alms of beauty, and you know not to whom to give. I, / have claim on it, oh, Prince of Beauties."
" balay balay amadam,
(2) all right,
I'm with you."
In the species of apposition called (^yô **f^ the " Corroboration or Strengthening in Meaning," the appositive is any word that strengthens the
idea of the self or of the totality of the
ta^kid-i
ma'navi are:
"Zaid, he himself
*j&: Examples of <^y came" xx>f &y & Zayd

5 '
kh
amad: "the people came all of them" *J*Wf ^^c mardum amadand, A*A e>U *+& htfma-shan " I met the army all together p*b I) ^^ ^ ^3 fawj radldamhama ra bdham : " the two parties agreed both of them"
:
tarafayn razl shudand har du taraf.

(3)
Vide also
(/).
In, jU? t^*))
j<3
du man rughan biyar
"
bring two
maunds
by
of
yhl"
man and
rugh,an, though in apposition, are not so considered
native gram-
marians: du
is called
(A).
man
"
is
called
Jjj+*>
tamyiz
specificative,"
mumayyaz "specified," and ^^ rughan or else, mumayyiz the specifier/ Vide also
'
Remark.
^ jl^
chahar panj "four or five"
is
an example of
^.
Corroborative Apposition
<*jjy
),
which takes place
in the words.
For Corrobo
rative Apposition in sense vide (2)

2
and
(/).
Also tÂ.
jjwJiiu
tX^
Zayd
bi-nafs-i k&ud, or a-^ftij
t^jj
Zayd
bi-nafsih
**Zaid
himself": fulanlha or julan ha, UnafsiUm or

L.
or)
618
APPOSITION.
of
j*fti ta*kid-i lafzi ;
The following are further examples " or mar / " snake snake o**>U
!
y&to
)\**>
jU>
mar !
***>
U mar ast ! mar
ast
/.
*3U
+s* *fti:su AflJU.
*su
^x
aalacu
&&U* *
o**of J^(
Aj
j^&^ci+A
*XJ
(d)
When
definite
noun
to
it,
in the accusative has
an adjective,
participle,
the noun requires the affix ra. (The affix \y rd can, however, be added at the end of the entire phrase without much
or phrase in apposition
alteration in meaning). If the noun is indefinite, the
tj
rd
is
not usually required to mark the

'
noun, vide
(b) (3).
:
Examples
f*J&
tj
*&. ^ ^No
&ia*
fj(&
zdlim-i rd khufta
' '
didam,
" I saw a tyrant

<
asleep," but f&*

c
zdlim-i khufta'1-! rd didam, or f*ia

:
tj
zalim-i khufta rd didam " I

tt
saw a sleeping tyrant ^/e (raziya-'llah n( anh )* rd bikhwdb didam " I

It
is
^xi v!>*V saw 'Ali (may Allah be pleased

t;
with him) in a dream."

often
so placed.
;
incorrect to place
rd after
2
ddshtam ahmaq
^xi
jj
li
had a servant, a fool" c^* ^ nawkar-i ahmaq ddshtam, or îAta (3*^1 c^^y (( I had a foolish servant." â^^f nawkar-i ahmaq-i ddshtam
I
<l
^* 'All, though ^*^ c^/0^ nawkar-i
but
A
<J**
similar construction
a
is
admissible for the dative, as

jall
(a)
minnat Khuddy rd 'azz va

*azz a
ki
(a]
here
:
I)
rd could be added after the

*-î^
Arabic phrase J^ j j* rd guftam jang-dzmuda

*&**
wa
jall
tej*$
J^J
i^
^âxJ* sliakhs-l
"I
said to a certain person,

fj
who had seen much

jang-dzmuda rd
its
fighting"; but better A&?
jjôjf
^x^
^*n
is
shakhs-i
guftam (or
\j
idj*jfi
(â^
shakhs-i jang dzmuda-i rd).

participle
Sometimes the adjective or past
separated from
' '
noun
bi-
by a verb, as:
asmdr-i bisydr
Vide also
}^^
' '
)^+*^*
e^w-k*
lot
(&*&
^^l^Jit ashjdr-i
didam mashhun
.
saw a
of
trees covered
with
fruits
118
(c) (9)
and
(d) (4) arid (5).
K&ufta
Sifat.
is hal.
a
3
Jumla-yi
sifat.
If ra
were to follow immediately after 'All, the clause would be
parenthetical, jumla-yi mu'tariza.
The Shias say Ali alayh

l
's-salatn.
APPOSITION.
619
(e)
Words connected by
*
grammarians
or
<~*jj*u Ji.kp
to be in apposition.
certain particles are also considered by Arab This is J&* or 'Simple Apposition,'
1
Apposition by means of a Conjunction.'

jj+* ) <*)
Examples
(1) j
"
and."
C(
Zayd va <Amr(u)
p*
t(
Zaid and Amr.*

f
"
hattq
(2)^1^ hattq
even to/'
o^^j
J^
*J***v; J>3
wvvar rasidand
foot"
piyadagan ham*' 'the pilgrims arrived even to those on 8 * ^ o#iUj ^^ zuvvar hattq piyadagan ham rasidand)
:
(or jf^j
f;
^^ dilk*'
f*^
the
u mardum ra kushtand hattq bachchagan ra people, even to the children."

' t ya or.' *^lmr a?na^ " Zaid or
' '
mz 8 "they
**>f
killed
(3)
j^ ^
f '
<*x>f <x>3
Zcw/d araad
:
?/a
'Amr*, or
?/a
Ainr
came"
j^** ^
?
:
*s*-^ ^ <^J
Lf
j^ b *j) Za/^ ^/ Z2/d 6a tust
ya 'Amr kalam-ash
" Is Zaid or
Amr
5
f
'
with
dasht
you"
man
L)
va tura qasd
?/a
(^ " he meant you and me."
*s*\*
***
^j
J^^
o
L
>* dar
(4)
?/a
either
l '
or ", as: o~>!
^/ cfe-a^ c>*^
*&
t|
he has learnt either religious law or philoâ hikmat tahsU karda ast " or ss*+x c^>| ^j^r JUâsu Aai lj ^/a Â tahsil karda ast ya hikmat. sophy Compare with No. (9).
;
(j
(5)
to
na
'
'
not."
j^**
<Jy
<wf ^3 Zay^ amac^,
?ia
Amr
tl
Zaid came, not
'Amr."
amadna
(7) (8)
*)!*};+*'
&* - Axf ^* Ji**j jjj Za?/d Â-i man -^ " " ** Zaid came to me nay, rather, 'Amr ( j^khayr 'Amr na-khayr is (3J cftiip atf-i nasaq, and ^4mr is badal-i ghalat).
(6)
j*>
&
na
Ichayr.
Mai/r
' '
no.
"
\)
j^j^
f;
fU
f;
y*|
op ra kushtam, khayr khar ra.

e^>^
AS'
î^J j
a^
o^>f
5 &<V.j 'f
<^l'- (^1 *>^ Ai'jyoG

ÎjT
l;x^j-^ xut>^
^ Â
o^L;i
*^^*^
tj
cuî
xwf^f
haklm-i ra
chandln darakht-i namvar ki Khuday Ta'alq afanda ast va barumand 6 gardanlda ast hich yak-i, ra azad na khwanand magar sarv ra ki samar na" a certain philosopher was asked, why out of all the noteworthy darad (Gul.)
ki
and fruit-bearing trees created by God, none is called free except the Here ^ j^*> sarv ra may be considered in cypress, which does not bear." the ra is necessary, both because sarv ***> hich yak-l ra apposition to fj
*
'
As distinguished from Ûj
J&.
it
2
3
Am r spelt jj+c
Better omit
This
is *atj-i
to distinguish
This 'at] is called J^ from Umar j+&, called v^lfeJL^+s

'
ham and
nasaq.
nlz here.
*
6
va
Or o*&fa jâiix) maqsud daaht. In +J>*j*j* j &* (jtt *â^ maqsud-ash budlm (mod. Pers.), the verb should of course be bud however most Persians say hfidim in this and like cases.
?/
;
man
tion
In Arabic, words connected by particles or nouns of exception are not in apposithese come under special rules.
620
is
APPOSITION.
definite
and because without
this affix, aarv

ki.
might at
first
be taken for a
nominative qualified by the relative

(9)
fj
^j&o
\j
"I
sent
all
pt&Mj* \) &*.* (x* man hama rd firistddam magar yak-l rd but one ". Compare with No. (4).
^ll
l
:
(10) (***^>
f~
*$j&
in
(mS
gliayr az
Zayd
kas-i ra*
na-didam
"I saw no
one but Zaid."

(/)
Apposition
:
Persian
occasionally
English, as
(or
<*l>
^1^1
^^>
fii
shakhs-i, Ibrahim
nam
supersedes the genitive in " a person of the name of
named) Ibrahim";
*x3ô
Â**.**
shakhs-i
Muhammad nam "the
person called
(g)
Muhammad."
the other hand, in some cases where the English idiom requires l>p JkiJ lafz-i daryd apposition, the Persian idiom requires the izdfat, as: "the word sea" J*> ty rud-i Nil "the river Nile " ;U^ o^;j> darakht-i
:
:
On
the petunia": "the of Islam" Islam)": Sjf* (or religion ÂL| 5 "the melon": fruit kharbuza >j^ miva-yi ^'T J^ filizz-i dhan "the " " " metal iron Oh Abraham, the thou the slave 3 fJU ^p ^-?/^ gh/uldm
chindr
plane
(,5-JUbf
"the
tree":
gul-i
atlasl
<
t-ufcA/o
mazhab'i
Islam
* c
Friend of
God"
*U J^J^
Zayd, the slave
"
^tHt ^t ay
^$\
Ibrahim-i KhalU" llah*

4
(ra.c.)
"Oh,
:
fa
Û
^j
&>)
man, Zaid"
"I
***>
ay Zayd-i ghulam ^f Jl3U qdtil-i an mar d-i Zayd b ndm man-am

:
"
"I am
the slayer of the
am
the beater of the

6
slave
Zaid" /*^
AJ)
ixU)
man-am zananda-yi
Zayd-i giuldm. If the Arabic interjection yd be used, it is better to employ the correct Arabic construction, as *iJ| JUU* ***>\j\ b yd Ibrahim" KhaKl* lldh* but such
' :
a construction
is
of course not colloquial.
Remark.
It will
be seen that in m.c., &nizdfat
is
often incorrectly insert(m.c.),
ed; thus &*> j~*
+&e ^\ ay g&uldm-i pisar-i

\
man
"oh
slave of
my son"
by a
or e^ j~$
fa
:
ay gbuldm
M
t>*=R.x5
pisar-i
man, might be said

tf
slave
to his
son
^^J
^f
ay
Muhammad
&..x> ^f
pisar-ani
Muhammad my son"
mean
{
is
correct,
but
fj~$
ay
Muhammad-i
pisar-am though used in m.c.
in the
foregoing sense, might and should
*0h Muhammad belonging
to
my son".
In
fa
**.sô
Muham-
*
3
Jumla-yi ietisnafi. In speaking, this ra miprht be omitted. g&U i>yo man-i banda is sometimes used
is
ia m.c.,
but
fc&jj
ô man
banda sounds
better; while man-i blchara

*
5
better than
man
bichara.
The Afghans
say, man-i banda.
'Atf-i
bay an.
'Atf-i 'bayan and badal. Badal.
APPOSITION.
621
*+suo
mad-i ghulam
ghulam-i
t(
Muhammad
the slave", or in c^
'
f%*
Muhammad-i
following
*+^
man Muhammad my Muhammad are considered

' '
slave
sifat',
'
,
the
word or words
but in
&*
f&*
*****
Muhammad
yhulam-i man, the words

of substitution.'
(h)
(c) (3)
&*
gkulam-i
man
are badal or 'apposition
vf
*jj
Qualifying words used with numerals or signifying quantity [vide 47 (g)] are usually in Persian placed in apposition, as: " 1 ab " one and a half yards' depth of water jj? yak gazu
and
mm
' '
^x o&*
sang
in
<J.j> yak musht jaw a handful of barley maunds of barley " ty*#j* ^**~ at* jt>A *^j>/
:
"
^ &*
lift
to
dah man jaw
( '
ten
c*it
in faru-maya hazar
t(
man
bar mi-darad (Sa'di) " this
common
fellow can
a thousand maunds
four or
weight":
*^b
o-lft|
Ju ^l^
chahdr panj angusht parcha
five finger's
breadth of cloth."
Remark.
The
words
U/o
c<
mablagk
sum"
and
c53!>*
muvazi
"equal
as:
to (parallel), to the
muvazi-yi panj jild kitab "five volumes": " to dah ** )\*&* nafar shutur "ten camels j& jib (sy? muvdzi-yi " wheat to the man dah gandum quantity of ten maunds." miqdar-i
:
cjUy o-*j^ Q**> " tumans ^^ <xla. jjl^xij

jb
amount of," etc., are followed by the izafat, " the sum of two hundred mablagh-i duvlst tuman
c^JLr"
apposition to a noun or to an adjective, seem either to take or omit the izafat. Modern Persians prefer the izafat
(i)
The pronouns when
in
with the singular but not with the plural personal pronouns. According to Platts, man and ma may either be in apposition (without an izafat) to an adjective, or connected to an adjective by an izafat; but the other separate
pronouns cannot be joined by an izafat to a qualifying adjective. From the following examples, however, this does not appear to be correct: " I the man-i banda 8 (m.c.) slave," but man banda (m.c.) "I, that is
to say, the
slave"
Persians prefer the latter, Afghans the former.

*
man-i Muhammad * and

>
p&*>
(****
(^
man-i ha/dm
are in m.c. preferred to

*>lf# i^
^ man Muhammad, and

"
or
c^ man-hakim.
man-i bichara
' '
I the helpless creature
^
fM
bichara.
f&i
gjiulam or
$;Uuj bichara man, are preferred to man " thou the slave " (also <^y tu-yi giulam
wT^f /^ >
iJJj y<*k
u nlm gaz ab (Afghan).
For things that oan be counted only. 8 Also, Ub e)f &J^?-Jrf bichara anha, but rarely fylsuj the latter ^(j^lûj ^f an Ucharagan is used. * Better man ki Muhammad am, or +\ A?
*
C5^
+**>
<*nha~yi
bwhara
for
f&+as>
t$ (>*
man
ki
hakim-
am,
etc.
622
jito
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
both correct
;
tu
faqw or
j&
<^y
tu-yi faqir) are
but in jA;
(*^T
tu adam-i Rustam, the izafat
would be incorrect after
tu.
:
The
izafat does
is
Khuda
not appear to be used after #, thus t<x&>^x&j! shir-i not to be correct: â* ^t w-^/z /##?/ does used, though appear
-ft
grammatically correct.
With the
plural, the adjectives are either coupled to their
pronouns by an
izafat as ordinary adjectives, or else placed in apposition without the izafat
but in the plural, thus

Hjljj
or t<^
iytk>f
&\^> <^k> ma-yi nadan, or &^\& U ma nddanan ishan-i bichara, or <j(f)L.x> &\&t\ ishan bichdragdn (or vD^f fy^#
:
bichara Ishari)
i**>
f*^ e>^v
" we the slaves mabandagan-i Khuda

(also
k*>
of
God,"
U wa
banda-yi Khuda ;
shuma-yi bichara,
âcuu t^ sliuma bichara, (apposition), or ^ wa and j^tan-k^ U^ shumd bichdraha).
when used
1 c>t;^ *
n modern Persian, colloquially admit of the plural termination ha in an extended sense; bute^;tf li? ^ljU mayan* (/unahgafan, or ^jU mayan-i gunahgar^ is Afghan, for ot;( *li? to Tna gunahkdran.
140.
Repetition of a
Word
or Phrase
Jingling Sounds
Alliteration.
(a)
The Persians
sometimes
are extremely fond of alliterative and jingling sounds.
Words
of the hurry-scurry
;
synonym
rhyme.
it is
type abound. Sometimes the second word is a a real word used merely for sound and not for
is
sense; and sometimes
it
a meaningless sound used for the
sake
of
" each " In fj^j <Jt>^ Minsk u khurram* pleased and cheerful adjective has a meaning by itself and the combination is more expressive than the single adjective. Similarly with the nouns <t^ J v-^ <^ hi shakk u shubha ^ *^
;
L^Ô yir y a
masdar
is
tazagl "freshness," the^txôx: ^0 ya-yi c/3^ J y understood after tar which is an adjective this is an instance of
z r *"
In
tar
the Persian dislike to the repetition of the same sound but ^jfi j c$y tan u In J^^j J^ gal u qifil, a vulgarism for J^^ cU* qll u tazagl is also correct.
;
qal* ^chattering,
Jf*^ ^
In,
+J.U*
<&
Q
".
wrangling", the second word is meaningless. In jang u jadal the first word is Persian and the second Arabic. ) c-abJ }^y ura lakht u luch Jcardand "he was robbed of everyluch
thing",
the word
"
(properly
squint-eyed ")
is
vulgar for
htcli
" naked
Better
o^taJL .xA
&$ j| u ki shir-IChuda
'st.
The
izafat cannot be used when the predicate

>
is
in the plural.
*
muradif, synonymous.
a
ffiJ
From Arabic
it
was said " and
qal"
he said."
In Arabic
JUJ j JU
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
623
In
Aacvxj
*acu
bachcha machcha
it
(or ***>
a,
word
meaningless, but gives the form of this meaningless word

is
plural idea.
*f^ bacha macha, in.c.) the second It should be remarked that

:
is
say AfJ *su bachcha tachcha, or
*<*j
in Persia, as in India, fixed by usage to A*O bachcha wachcha* would raise a laugh.
In Persia, in words of the *.x> **u> bachcha machcha description, the second word generally begins with mim unless the first word begins with mim in this case the second word usually commences with p or " curds" ow*U> mast u mlz u biz " as ^x*b etc."
Remark
1.
6,
past
J-^jJ-**
table,
This
is
called
d^ y$
a;jT
" the meaningless appositive, vide

first,
139
(a).
&<$>
As a
rule,
the shorter of the two words comes
but
^^ amad
u shud\ ty)
avard u burd,
"
transporting," and possibly one or two
more are exceptions.
Remark
is
II.
The use
of a
first especially the Kalantar its reason peculiarity, asked
common
in
second meaningless word to rhyme with the Kirman. A new governor, struck with the
and received the
reply, Ufa
^x>
&u
luti
ô
U^fejj
^y ***j!
^f*>
^MÂ
mardum-i dana hamchumn nami-guyand
puti-ha mi-guyand.
(b)
The same number repeated has
as:
^
*j
-^
a stick apiece
^" ^
;
(1)
s ya ^ yak chub* dad cf*^ J$ (2) sometimes a continuative sense, as:
bi-h ar ^ as
sometimes a distributive sense, <4 he gave them
baran
*tjtj
nam nam
mi-ay ad
" it
keeps on drizzling
"
;
*>fj**
'*
*m*
:
**
c**f;
rast rast ki mi-ravld, mi-rasid bi-bazar (m.c.)
you'll reach the bazar
Âb
ai*f^
ij
j&
;!>*
' *
you keep straight on sometimes an intensive sense, as )\y*> * *xjb man bayad fikr-i hazar hazar nafar ra 4 dashta basham
if
"
(3)
^
zar
( Vazlr-i
Lankaran)
must take thought for thousands *

b
of people*
ll
' '
:
&tf**j$
&*> 1$^ parandagan juq juq $huda paridand (m.c.) 4xitX?^ f< in whole flocks" very quickly": ^j *j) zud zud
*<*
:
the birds rose

zar
<c
girlstan
to
"
e^/
jlj jfj
weep very
bitterly
tt
Compare
48.
" chick or child."
In some districts
in
India this jingling of words
is
carried to excess- pani tam< rasta masta (or wasta), etc. etc.- vide Hindustani
Manual,
'
Lesson
*
might and main Examples of dual phrases in English are wear and tear acknow'act and deed sum and substance.' In 'use and wont tooth and nail edge and confess ', Norman and Saxon are linked together.
'
'
'
.-
'
'
'
Note ra hero to mark the accusative
after a cardinal
number;
* '
it
does not
make
the
'
noun definite. The r5 could be omitted.

6
Perhaps tho meaning
is,
as
many
as a thousand.
'
Or omit shuda.
^Vof
~y
~ji ptyo mardum
jawj fawj amadand.
Juq
collo-
quial for jawg.
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
sayl-i gar dad (Sa'dl)
andak andak khayK shavadva qatra qatra
"
make a muckle, many drops a
" flood
many
mickles
Andak andak biham shavad bisydr, Dana ddna ast ghalla dar ambdr (Sa'di).
Remark.
(m.c.)
J*AX?
Note the idiom^*

all
^
all
"give either
water, or
vf dbi db bi-dih yd shir-i ahir " milk fused literally) b **> <-*lA> ^(^
^
**> *-$
j
:
**>$
khdk-ikhdk bi-dih yd gandum-i gandum (m.c.)
"
give
all
earth or
all
wheat."
(c)
Sometimes an Arabic singular
is
*
followed by
'
signify excess, as:

vazir vuzard
well-off
\j&j&
faqir fuqard**
:
"
ministers, etc.'*
Uiif
shuraka " partners." 8 Uneducated people are specially fond of this kind of phrase, under the * impression that they are using different words.
:
"
((/*
-%^ shank
broken plural to " beggars and such like tujÔj

its
:
gjiam aghniyd
c<
the rich, and the
Sometimes the repetition consists of two different measures from " the medical art": *>*&* the same root, as: c*->Ujb ^ w*.fc tibb u tibdbal ast. Here either alone word u saddqat mashhur o**jjjjj&A) oJJjiX^j bi-sidq
(d)
would be
(e)
sufficient for the sense.
In
a few cases, a Persian plural precedes a Persian singular, as
JL ÎÎU
sdlhd-yi sal
"
long years,
"long ages."
are not used.
(/)
But |U
ÛU
mdhd-yi
many years mdh and
"
<>/>
Â
^^^
qarnha-yi qarn
ÎÂAA hajtahd-yi hafta
Professional story-tellers frequently repeat a
indicate continuation, as:
^ </7V
xi/
word several times
to
f^p*
(*f kam kam, kam kam*

and
little
bihtar
mi-shavad (Prof. S. T.)'*by little and sS *>j ^Tt^ ^ ^j ***j raft ra fi raft 6
travelled on
h'ttle
he improves": o^. & bi-skahr-i rasid ki (Prof. S. T.) " he
and on
till
he reached a
(
city
where
**
* ' :
^m ^tf j*
jj>
ixjb
(ja,&
x^ ÎW
kunad
(g)
U AiT C5ius **f ^**
shakhs bayad dar har kdr-l sa'y kunad sa'y
sa'y kunad, td bi--matlab bi-rasad (m.c.)
you must
'
try, try, try again.'

,
The
repetition of the
same word or phrase is

139
(c)
:
vide Corroborative Apposition
also used for emphasis the example, there, " Thou struckest
Compare the Hindustani idiom dudh ka dudh ya

i.e.
pam
ka panl "all milk or
all
water ",
a
8
one thing or the other.

f^fif
Vulgarly,
j*5& faqir fuqara

faqifM'l-fuqara;
is
used for one beggar.
But
*JjflA)f
j*As
and ^(L^c o*x> mast-i mastan are intensive

used, but not three.
adjectives.
*
6
Either two, or four,
kam can be
Or four
raft.
BBPBTITION OF A
WORD OR PHRASE.
<^j>j
625
me, thou," could mard zadl.

Balay balay
<jJ5j&
also be expressed
* '
by ^dj (yoy
f^
y
'
tu
mard
zadl tu
* *
*aJa>
yes, yes Â* *i&j *S iJiU *j
and dray balay JiU lutf kun

l
^ ^f
:
* *
yes certainly. lutf ki bigdna shavad
halqa bi-gush (Sa'dl).
The
following expressions give the idea of excess
Remark.
Compare j? Â*
j<*->^
cr^
&as&
</az
dar
âA
âs
"four
yards by four yards; four yards square."

(h) The following example illustrates another signification of the repetition of a substantive with the izafat. In chapter XXII of Hafi Baba, the
hero relates to his master the
a broad hint that he wants a salary.

either a pure
Hakim a fable of the dog and the wolves, as The dog makes up its mind to become
,
jj
dog or a pure wolf

^
**
&\
jt
J&# j *>
(3^ u&tfU> **J>
oJU
31
(1
>^
U 4j& ^J^ J>f J>f *
U f U> lo^lapu) b AT x& ^fy dJUJ ijA**3 chun az halat-i
taraddud taqat-ash taq shud va blah az an tahammul-ash na-mand, bar an shud ki y ba mujahada-yi tamam, yd sag-i sag shavad yd gurg-i gurg (Trans. Haji <e when .... he (the dog) had no more power of endurance left, he Baba)
determined to do his best to become either a real dog or a real wolf." So also vjf wf U jUj ^x^x b ya shir-i shir biyar yd db-i db (m.c.), or more com-
monly ^T wT ^j^ c5^"*^* ^ yd

l
shir-i
shm
biyar yd db-i dbi* (m.c.)
"bring
either pure milk or pure water."

(i)
illustrate the
signification
of
repetitions,
etc.
(1)
Û
&
p\4
-*>j
' '
J ^t3 b j va bd zabdn-i kaj u maj guft

willing or unwilling."
(m.c.) "altering his
accent he said
(2)
ftf
kdm nd kam "
(3) \}f
)j**>
y
khwah ma-Uiwdh
(4)
an va jabr qahr** "by force or f^J *'^ khwdh~na-khwdh.

Ai-?
and violence"
^v
ill?
*lj
pitta pilla bald
mi-ravand (m.c.) "things are done
gradually, step
by step."
In Arabic, the repetition of these particles would come under the head of CorroboIn the first example the same word is repeated; in the second the sense is repeated by a synonym. The Zardushtis use the phrase aray balay to signify the assent (=" I do '; by Muslims merely, balay) of a Zardushti bride, in reply to the questions of the Dastur.
I
rative Apposition.
'
The*
in
^j^ and j-if
is
adjectival.
Compare
140
(6)
Remark.
40
626
(5)
REPETITION OF A
&*l*j& jjtfj)*
WOED OB PHRASE.
[
dawr-d
dawr-i
daryacha "all round
j**\f
sar-a sar or y^> j~* sar bi-sar, or ^~ U
sar ta sar (also
ky
lake" sarapa, b tf
the
aar ta pa, etc.) "throughout, completely": v&**j ***o das/ bi-dast "hai in hand ; also from hand to hand."
heaped, to the fullest extent" bj> \bj> giro " U^ kam-a-bish " more or less." round <Ji**> right round, gird " of various kinds " brimful" &3 </wn-a grww (7) v^** lab-a-lab* " breast to breast ") level, opposite, equal to." jiji bardbar (lit. har kuddm yak yak bi-ravand " JL in-ha <Jlj (8) ^^3 p\<tf j* l^Jut
(6)
<Jk
K^>
mal-a-mal*
all
"
"
'
' '
them
all
go singly."
(9)
^^/ <^*^j JLÎ

"
i-
cJj w^?
(Shah's D.)
(10)
I asked the
sufara rd yak yak ahval-pursi kardc Ambassadors, each singly, the state of his health
Ij
l)&<
c> yak yak
yafci yak-t "singly, one
" by one
uJ3
or <J^.& yakayak,
:
U}<5 tij&
&& (>&> yctgdn yagdn or c dutd duta, or j*> 36 du bi-du " t\

*')
and two."
(11) &j
u*
t<xjkj
i;-?^
hubara& tak tak pay da mi-shavad

khatt
hubara
is
to be found here
li^ la^
and there."
khatt
(12) &ji
Q&^J badan-ash
bud "it
(the
zebra)
w
(1
marked
ratq
all
over with stripes."
(13) &l)j>\
"
<3^
<jPj
closing a fissure,
â^ w /a^-e umurat "ordering of affairs" " mending ", and fatq cleaving, rending ").
qdl
(14) JUI j JUj qtt
" altercation (vide page 619, footnote
1).
(15)
kfj .K& ,sM^

;
u shut "loud jabber and chatter."

"kestrilsand such small
(useleg
:
^ mar " jumbled " ^Jry Ziirt puti "loose and k or <^j* ô^luUmuti: &>? &*> j &jj^ M*wurd u murd ( people, etc.", " u kkamw) kardan to smash into bits." +*>J *j9** khurd
âr
hawks " jU ^ jU
(16) A^lx> <*;?xJa dalija*malija (m.c.)
^^
(17)
(18)
& j& Û shakh dar shdkh " entwined;

j^
jjj** shur
ramified."
shdr "noise
and tumult": jy j j^zurush

city).
(of
a waterfall, river; or of attacking soldiers entering a (19) $j*jjj* dur u dardz "far off."
(20)
jk Jj^ kar
ubar" business."
J**> L>J&
dawr-drdawr from AT.

joining
(old)
^?f^f
gird-a-gird, P.
This
alif
two words exactly
alike is called ak>|j JU| aUf-i rabifa.

alif joins
) *
<sf.
\j&
daw-a-daw
\Jtf
"incessantly running ", the

all
two imperative
'it
rool
Jtf
kusha-kush "killing
the
way."
If
however
joins
two
differe
words, as:
)j^
U&
*'
ehab-a-rUz (adv.) *'day
and night"; U(^*

'
;
ear-<a-pa
*'head to foot
(6).
tak-arpu
s
searching ",
9
it is
called oft/-* 'atf
vide
'
also
110
For Ar.
U&.
In falconers' parlance.
Mcdlja
is
a meaningless appositive.
REPETITION OF A
(21) Ai~o|$j
a*j,&
WORD OB
PHRASE.
627
cKda
u
:
also purposely, wittingly

(22) fitij
"
ddnista "knowingly, with the eyes
open";
AXJJ
&*j rafta rafta
jW tyli*
Ttindra kindra raftim
"gradually." " we hugged the coast."
(23)
(24)
oj>3
&
embezzled
(25)
" as l {s*jj* bi-zucR-yi zud (m.o.) quickly as possible." u^y* *f &j4 i&j)L Ichwurda bud ki khwurda bud (m.c.) "he ": *' cJ, raft ki raft (m.c.) " he went it clean **+ij right off."
L$*~ J
1
c5"i^ any dinner?"
"*
*A5m u
shdb-l
i*
khwurdi (vulg.) "have you eaten

*
urd nazd-i hakim ejUtf kashdn kaahdn* (26) Aijy p*** ty \jj\ &ti> burdand " they carried him before the Governor dragging him all the way/* cr** kash-d-kash, or t^/o ^^ kash, ma-kash (subs.) "pulling and dragging
different
ways."
JWj
(27) **j }
(28)
f**?>>J
or
r5Aw raam,
* {3
or
l^*j
U^^
^ pollda palida paydd namudam (Afghan*) "

"=
gljj j
m6fm, w ravaj, "custom."

after
a long continued
(29)
search, or gradually searching, I found it."

)jjj )j) ruz bi-ruz (Pers.),
))j)jj ruz ruz (Indian) "every day
(30) i;l^J j &\ij*> juydn u puydn, or l^ j L>^- juya u puyd (m.c.) "seeking and searching " c>f>^ j o&l ^/ian ^ khlzdn " limping, staggering, tottering, in a broken- down condition": ^^} er* sarkan parkdn B (Afghan and Persian) "in great agitation."
:
"
dJ^fj.^* ^^Jo ^jJo (the birds) were all singiftg."

(31)
<Ûj|jf
dvdzhd-yi tarh tarh mi-lchwdndand
" fifty maunds I^^XAO j& j^b ^x? ^^ U â ^) ^] (Afghan) in a <3AT fj (^^3 ^f^f w?m mm ma7^, ya man man, bdrud dar f&jfj^ \*** (A*. rd kanda judd judd gor kardam (Afghan) 6 " I put zamm anddkhta sanduqhd from half a maund to a maund's weight of powder in all the boxes and then
"
each sack were
:
(32)
iSy u-"
*î ^^ JL^Â j^
h ar fawdl panjdh panjdh*
man bud
digging up the earth buried them."

(33)
*# ti$ gdh
at
all
bi-gdh, or
(
cJû
:
cJ>^ vaqt bi-vaqt
"in season and out
of
times": <^ f * season; " some time or other " (Afghan)

other."
^ ^
gdh gdh-l "occasionally": gdhnagdh-i &> yak-i na yak-% (m.c.) "one or the
4
8
The same as the classical bi-zudi-yi harchi tamam-tar. The Persians do not double the past participle in this
For
sense.
The
sar kanad par kanad; probably old Persian. ifjJ U^-wo Blaxu panjah would not be repeated in Persia.
In modern Persian |*tf
man n m
*
b iô ^x* **f ljÛdj^ *>jb zamln karda dar bwud man man V* man aanduqha
\j
ra kanda
dafn kardam.
In Mod. Pers.
4<
va>li>|
j]
^j
vaqt-i az
awqat; but
csiUjI
3'
u*^ gSW
rarely."
628
(34) JUx> j
(35) fi#
REPETITION OF A
WORD OR
PHRASE.
btnam (< I don't see him from year's end an interval of years." Similarly a**,
Tcagiaz-i az
JU
mat u mandl " wealth and property."

*
\jj\ I*?*
&j
^ JU
'*
JL, sal sal mt-shavad ki
man
&ra naml
to year's
fjt\jA jt
end
I only see
him
after
<^*&
*&*> AiiA hafia hafta
from
4 '
my
(36)
baradar-am nami-rasad, brother."
weeks pass without
my getting
e>
(
a letter
f^
my
/Juka.
' '
chashm-i chashm "light of

:
my
"
eyes"; e>^
^
'
jan-i jdn
life of
soul
(endearing epithets).
as,
(37)
For such substantives

cui? guft
<*y
bud ubash
(class.)
abode ", o^*^

(j)
u shamd "controversy,
etc., vide
115
place of (j) to (o).
Under
Alliteration,
1
may
be classed certain forms of the rhetorical
figure Tajruis
^y^*^
or Jinas u-U^.
Also the figure Paronomasia
etc.
comes under
CHAPTER
141.
(a)
XXII.
Notes on Rhetoric and Composition.

:
These notes are merely an introduction to the study of Rhetoric
they are not intended to take the place of special treatises. It is hoped that they will explain some points that appear conflicting to the student
who
of
reading both English, and Arabic (or Persian) rhetoric. The question Prosody is not touched upon. Rhetoric originally meant the art of speaking well It taught Oratory
is
).
The
objects of speaking well are: (1) to inform;
(2)
to please
The Ancients divided Style into three kinds, cor(3) to persuade. responding to three duties of the Orator: (1) the simple, to instruct (2) the medium or temperate, to please; and (3) the sublime, to rr\pve. As men may be informed, pleased, and persuaded by written as well
and
;
as
by spoken words, 'rhetoric' came to mean the
art
of
writing well
also.
discusses
Rhetoric therefore means the art of speaking and writing well. It and shows how language can be made effective, and it treats
of the rules that govern effective composition in prose or verse.
Eloquence (<**^) is a faculty or natural gift. An uneducated man may be eloquent (*k) , though he will make mistakes; but a study of Rhetoric will help to banish those mistakes. The study of rhetoric cannot make
l
a man eloquent who is not naturally so, but it may give him a certain ease, and make him a correct and logical speaker and writer.
Oratory (&jU*LjJU)
of public speaking.
has
now
the art of public speaking, or the exercise was the same as Rhetoric, but the latter Originally a wider meaning. Oratory requires also, a knowledge of the people
signifies
it
i.e.
addressed,
Rhetoric
is
a knowledge of what most appeals to them. variously divided by different writers.
The Will
is
moved through
fk) appeals
the Understanding and through the Feelings.

to the Understanding,
it
is
As Logic
Rhetoric.
((jM*v*
connected with
There
Rhetoric.
,
is
no Arabic term that exactly corresponds
to the English
word
The best rendering appears
to be either 'Ilm* 'l-Balag&ih
or
Jb
is
In Arabic rhetoric, the term

it is
applied to a
man but not to a word

ÂA* The
(but not a
pi. UR,AO>
or speech,
but in Persian
applied to either.
i.e.
word
may
be
man, neither
in Arabic, nor in Persian),
" chaste and euphonious/'
can be used of
men.
630
NOTES ON RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION.

{
Arabs have divided their Rhetoric into three parts, Ilm~ u *l-Ma'am <llm- 'l-Badi* (#&A\ pi*). (<^W| fU), <Ilm'l'Bayan (e>Udf pk), and terms have these Different writers, however, applied differently, thus while * one writer calls the whole of Rhetoric '//w I- Bay an (eA#Ji pl*)> another
1*
calls it
'
Ilm u
'LBadi* (g*Vl fk) and so on.
together in order (b) Literary composition (JAif) is putting words to convey our thought to others. Good composition conveys our thoughts correctly, clearly, and pleasantly, so as to make them readily understood and
easily
remembered.
Style
(c)
(ciÛ^JO
is
the particular
manner
in
which a writer expresses
his conceptions.
It is the art of choosing words, setting

It
them
been
in sentences,
called
and arranging the sentences in paragraphs.

architecture of thought."
has
"the
There are
kinds of style. ^ * (JjJLc), or verbose

&
urf
number of epithets to distinguish the various number of words determines whether it is diffuse The
large
(JolilJ'
^)
or whether concise (jiUj

*
t
ft* 1*0 >
or terse
(J^^ d^j.
It
may
be Figurative (j5fV j$)
or
Ornate
1
(&*&));
It
or the
opposites of these, Unfigurative
({VVi f.^),
that
It also
or Plain
(*>U).
may
be
named
after
any Figure
(ci**x^)
a predominates, as: Hyperbolical
(a*JU*> _jj),
(d)
Antithetical (ÛaKj) etc,

are
may be
Periodic, or Loose.
:
There
and Ornament.
the reader
stand."
two merits common to all styles, viz. Perspicuity The former means that "care is taken, not merely that
clearly understand,
may
but that he cannot possibly misunder-
Perspicuity implies purity and propriety in the choice of words and

phrases.
To
construed
write with grammatical purity, (1) the words must be arranged and 8 according to the rules of Syntax (j 3^ ); and (2) they must
4 express the precise meaning that good usage has affixed to them.
An excess of elevated language is Bombast a deficiency Tameness. Arabs and Persians have divided Mubalaghah (A*JUx>) or Hyperbole into three or exaggeration that is possible to reason and experience ; kinds. viz (1) Tdbttgh ( jJU3) or (2) Ighrag exaggeration possible to reason but improbable; (3) Ghuluvv
1
:
(<3|^f)
or exaggeration that
3
is
impossible.
The
violation of (1)
is
Solecism, which
is
bad Syntax or
violation of
idiom
Also using such incorrect phrases as " the violation of (2) is Impropriety. ' " " the best of all ") , such errors as lays for ' lies ', and the use of best of all others (for
*
The
wrong synonyms comes under Impropriety.
|rOTES
ON BHBTOBIO AND COMPOSITION.

all
631
violations
Barbarism (cu^), 1 Solecism, and Impropriety are

Purity.
of
Perspicuity includes,
Intelligibility.
(1)
Clearness or Precision,
and
(2)
Simplicity or
The
no
first,
Clearness (vr^y*),
(flÔ-
is
(*A3), or ambiguity
opposed to obscurity (vs**Ui), vagueness statement is clear ( ) when there is

f>j*
possibility of confounding it with anything else.
great obstacle to clearness (c*a.[^*), ia the ambiguity of language generally. When a word has a plurality of meanings it should be placed in such a connection as to exclude all meanings but the one intended.*
It is also desirable to avoid using the
One
same word
in
two
different senses
within a short interval. 8
The best known device

;
for
overcoming ambiguity
(fltft),
is
to
employ
Contrast (aUu) i.e. to state also the opposite of what is meant. If we write "light as opposed to darkness", there is no fear of this meaning being confused with light' as opposed to heavy.'
*
'
To prevent ambiguity,
it is
permissible to use Tautology (^jJUj-*^*).

easily understood,
Simplicity (ojUs cu*UU)

to abstruseness V';U
(e)
means being
and
is
opposed
Figures
(5*!<V g3U*o)
are a part of Ornament.
Figure
is
a departure
from the ordinary form of words (Figures of Etymology); or from their or from their literal signification regular construction (Figures of Syntax)
;
(Figures of Rhetoric).
6
Figures have also been divided into Figures of Words

of
jli*o)
and Figures
Thought
(^**
f5lLo).
Figures exist in all languages, though they may not be identical in Some Arabic and Persian Figures are confined classification or definition. to Poetry. It is impossible to find any exact English equivalent for many
of
the Arabic and Persian Figures, for there

is
is
overlapping
thus, while
the Tashblh (***&>)

part of Metaphor
&jf
:
the English
'
Simile
(
'
it is
also
more
it
includes a great
the
Euphemism y#3 t^~^) in

would by
Trans. Hajl Babd, p. 100,
^ Persians
)&* e/
be classed under the
Majaz-i Mursal
1
(<J^ jl^)
<.
and the Oxymoron 7

Barbarity means the use of un-English words, obso-
In Urdu
U^j> y>U
JUJ
).
lete
words, technical terms,

2
and unnecessarily-coined words.

the writer's intention to be ambiguous.
Unless, of course,
it is
*
*
Except
for special effect.

is
Tautology as a fault
^xwf jJ^&>.
Such as the Tajnw or

Such as
'
(^jî^J b and A*IU. (jjUb ^ ^kii, The Oxymoron is a form of Antithesis.

Jirias
632
NOTES ON RHETORIC AND COMPOSITION.,

either
would be considered,
an Antithesis 1 (c5^ j *k*0> or an
Isti'Sra-yi
'Inadiyya (fpLU |;U^f).

(/)
2
vary.
Variety requires that the length and structure of sentences should In English literature proper, easy short-cut sentences are the
like
rule; but
however,
there
is
they are relieved by long ones. Some good English writers, Macaulay, affect a succession of short sentences. In Gibbon
of the balanced period.
an excess
The
best style introduces every
type of effective sentence that suits the subject. There must, too, be a relief from bold figures and brilliancy. Variety is obtained by passing from the Tragic to the Comic, from the Humorous to
the Pathetic.
(g)
Pathos
(yt) awakens the tender emotions, sorrow, pity, sympathy.

:
Examples
of pathos are
***
A^ *X)b
" And when
like her, O Saql, you shall pass the guests, star-scattered on the grass Amongst And in your joyous errand reach the spot
Where
made
one, turn
down an empty
glass."
(Fitzgerald's Trans.).
JUs^x> r *T), excites to laughter. It is for the most part based on the degradation of some person or interest that is associated with gravity, dignity, or power but it is necessary that the degradation should not be of a nature to produce any other
(h)
The Ludicrous
style
strong emotion, such as pity, anger, or fear.

(i)
In
Humour, the laugh assumes a kindly
character: the ludicrous
the degradation is softened or removed by kindly or tender feeling. Thus the combines Humour humorists. of masters are the great pathos greatest effects of wit and poetic beauty, with the ludicrous.
(?)
Wit
(cJijJi) is
a combination of ideas,
(
(1)
(3) consisting in
a play upon words
cr xx^3).
unexpected, (2) ingenious, In English, the Epigranl is
regarded as the purest representation of wit.

1
Next, are Innuendo

of),
and
A Euphemism is often
/
expressed by Antonomaaia (naming instead
a form of
Syndoche.
2
Hence Composition has been

" Pathetic " ^.w.
" the art of styled as varying well."

it is
When
the language exceeds the occasion,
maudlin or
sentimental.
Innuendo or Insinuation is implying or suggesting, instead of stating plainly or Ax^y Under this head would be classed ^<XrfJ| <J+i often used in a bad sense.
f U^|, or &>)j"> tion of Innuendo.
r-toî
-
a Uii^f , and several other figures.
Euphemism
is
a special applica-

Irony.
1
633
The effect produced by double meanings (e>&*"> ji) including puns (<j"*M*3), and striking and ingenious metaphors, if they are unexpected, is
Wit,
The Melody or Harmony of language involves both the action of the voice and the sense of hearing. What is hard to pronounce is also dis(k)
agreeable to hear.
cJlfti
However, even difficult and hard combinations of letters be an ( ) may agreeable variety to monotony in sweetness. The alternative of vowel and consonant is agreeable. 2 The too frequent repeti-
tion of the
same
letters should be avoided. 8

is
Occasionally there
Imitative
Harmony,
:
or
the
Harmony
of
Sound
(Onomatopy). intended to imitate the soft notes of entreaty
and Sense
The
softness of the following Persian couplet is
u#9-
The harshness
of the following lines

:
on Rustam's
fight
with Afrasiyab
indicates noise or strife
In the following Persian couplet, the sound gives an idea of hurrying

rapidity
:
The cry
of the wolf is suggested in
"There comes across the waves' tumultuous roar The wolf's long howl from Oonalaska's shore."
Campbell.
In the following Urdu couplet on the birth of a child, dun " shall I " imitates the sound of I give ? the naqqdra
,
:
"Said the bass

I give,
(/)
to
the treble
by way
of
good omen:
' ' '
shall I give, shall
why
should I not give the good news
Taste, or
of art.
from works
Good Taste (Jii*), means It also means the kind of
first susceptibility
to pleasure
artistic excellence that gives
Or
in rhetoric, Antiphrasis
the use of words in a sense opposite to

in
their proper
***
meanings; irony either in sarcasm or

sarcasm, irony,
2
humour.
The Arabic Figure ^^>
includes
and
satire.
Hence
in English the
change of a into an before a vowel, and in Arabic the change
of
final g into CD.

8
In English, when successive words begin with the same letter or syllable it is This is common in proverbs. Unless based on a plan, as in balanced composition and some poetry, it is objectionable. This
called Alliteration (or Homoeophrophe'ron).
remark applies
also to iterations in the middle or the
end
of words.
634
the greatest amount of pleasure to cultivated minds. As men do not all feel alike, ages, countries, and individuals differ in their sense of what is
excellent in
Further, each person attached to one school of writers than to another.

composition.
(m) Literary Composition
is
by education
more
may
The primary object of the first is (ffc). Each has many subdivisions. pleasure.
be divided into Prose f^&), and Poetry to instruct, of the second to give
Poetry will be treated of first. The earliest compositions in all languages were metrical. Poetry differs from prose in that the words in poetry are arranged upon a definite principle of order as to their sound. Amongst
the Greeks and
still is,
Romans
this principle was,

i.e.
and with the Arabs and Persians
based upon quantity,
those that are 'long'

'
the time occupied in pronouncing syllables, taking up twice as much time as those that are
short.'
of accented
In English poetry, the principle of arrangement is the regular recurrence and unaccented syllables, the stress of the voice in uttering
the accented ones occurring with perfect arid anticipated regularity. The undulation of sound produced by a flow of accents and non-accents, and
the
symmetry produced by a methodical arrangement of words (according Persian and Urdu verse, their long and short their accented syllables, and according to English and Hindi verso and unaccented syllables and a recurrence of emphasis at intervals), is
to Greek, Latin, Arabic,
Rhythm.
If the
rhythm
If
has measure.
not regulated by fixed laws, it is prosaic. Tine prose the rhythm is reduced to law, it becomes metre.
is
English composition that has mstre, is Poetry. rhythm only, or not even rhythm, is Prose. Rhyme
in
Composition that has

(<*>to)
and Alliteration
are not of are, English, embellishments of rhythm or of metre, but in achievements its essence. Some of the highest poetical English are in un-
rhymed
or blank verse.
is
In Arabic, Persian, and Urdu poetry, there

of the Greeks
metre, depending like^that

is
and Romans on
quantity,
and there
is
also
rhyme
(***lf ).
There
is
no
blank verse as in English,

)
though there
in Hindi.
few of
the recognized Muslim metres (/*v a the metre

:
resemble English metre, as for instance
In this metre
is
the following
The rhythmical arrangement

For the definition of
.asu etc.
of inarticulate
sounds produces music.
consult a
work on Prosody.
635
<
Twinkle, twinkle
little star,"
resembleathe metre
*
'
comparison, however, between the two systems is difficult, Arabic and Persian verse composed on the English principle would not be recogis
nized as verse by Arabs or Persians, though owing to Hindi influence, it 2 The possible that Urdu verse so composed would be recognized as verse. " " of is translation a There land is missionary happy
"
Further, the style and diction of poetry differ from that of prose. Diction comprises the choice, arrangement, and connection of words. Poetic diction is archaic and averse from colloquial expressions.
Muslims divide poetry into Bazm (($*), and Razm ^J;). The first includes Love Songs (&*&&), Drinking Songs (<*/cU Û), Odes (Jj*,), Ballads (^JuS^),
Stories (the
masnam <îi~ generally

)
,
contains stories), Satires (y?u*>
),
the pure
Elegy
(
(
1
&^j>
)
and the Eulogy ( <^*/o !*^^).
The second includes War songs

is
j*)
j *^'
The Marsiya
is
^y
),
or Elegy,
usually a mixture of the two.

(1)
(2)
English poetry Epic or Heroic

;
(3)
divided into three principal divisions: Dramatic.

8
Lyric;
all
is represented by Songs, Hymns and Odes, , or Under emotion this head come the of feeling. expression being Hymns or Sacred Songs (^laLo o'^lixs), the War Song (>*; ), the Love
The
first,
the Lyric
Song (AxfiAc), the Drinking Song ( A^>ti Sentimental song, the Comic song ( Aili^ or Dirge (**S;*), and the Sonnet.
^L
p&
),
),
the
the Political Song, the Ode ( Jj^), the Elegy
The Epic 4
in contrast to the Lyric, is a narrative of
outward events.
The author appears in his own person, introduces the actors, and narrates the event3. The Epic has the widest range and is the longest of poetical compositions. The Shdh-Ndma (&*b*^>) is an Epic.
In dramatic poetry, there
is
a story, as in the Epic, but the author does
In English prosody, the accent

is
prosody the quantity

principle involves.
is
the
first
" Come
Ill
into the
\
|
the only principle, but in Arabic and Persian principle and the accent is a corollary which that
is
I
accentually equivalent to Fd'ildtun The test of true accented verse is that
garden, Maud" Fd'ilAt, but not quantitatively.

it
cannot be scanned according to the rules of
quantitative metre.
2 3
Such a composition would however be called ^JL? git and not

Lyric poetry comes under
^Ja>.
^.
The Epic comes under
/*J|j.
636
NOTES ON KHBTOKIO AND COMPOSITION.

Opera
is
not narrate nor appear in his own person.

is
dramatic poetry that
sung.
(n)
(I)
We now come to Prose.
that belong to Poetry. for sublime diction is pleasing and natural, only when the thought is sublime.
Prose avoids a large number of words Poetic diction without metre is usually unpleasing;
A
verb
(
Simple Sentence
&k~* &U+
is
a sentence that consists of one

):
subject
bjj ),
(*l*Xf), and one predicate " He is mad CA*>| as:

*
(^
)
it
contains
only one finite
AM^y.
f
A Compound
Sentence
A-*f>
&+*>
is
<>
ne that consists of two or more
sentences, simple or complex.
A
A3
),
Complex Sentence
*j* #U^
(
contains subordinate clauses
besides one principal clause
**A^f
lî
),
as:
"I
will go,
whenever
you
are ready."
In a compound sentence, the component clauses or sentences are independent of each other, as: "The sun rose and the clouds disappeared"
(
iX
j &>f *>JU> ^r-^ ) either assertion can stand alone. In a subordinate clause ( a*jtf i/ai ), the construction and meaning are
lAjjf
:
wJU
dependent on the principal assertion, as:

reach
"He
ran quickly that he might
home
first."
(2)
When
he different parts of a compound or of a complex sentence
are
made
similar in form, they are Balanced, as:
He
but he
When
several consecutive sentences iterate or illustrate the
same idea
they should as far as possible be made parallel, i.e. the principal subject and the principal predicate should retain relative positions throughout, whether the words themselves are balanced or not.
(3)
Further, sentences are either Periodic or Loose.
In a Period, the
He speaks so clearly as always to be meaning is suspended till the close, understood." If the meaning is not so suspended, the sentence is Loose, as "He speaks clearly, so as always to be understood" here a full stop
: :
" as:
could be inserted after 'clearly.' Some sentences are better in loose form, others in periodic. The periodic keeps up attention. Loose sentences are not
common in
Persian, as they are in English. Instances of loose sentences that should be recast so as to make them periodic, will be found in the Persian trans-
In Persian a compound as well as a complex sentence
is called

lation of Haji Babd.
637
Sentences
may be
re-formed, either by breaking
them
up them
into a
number
of small sentences (the isolated style), or
by recasting
into periods (the periodic style).
(o)
The Arabs, and consequently the Persians and the Indian Muslims,
:
dstinguish three kinds of prose composition
FIRST, Murajjaz
),
in
which the clauses are balanced but not
rhymed,' as:
This
is
the ordinary
or
{t
Balanced Structure
"
of English.
SECOND, Musajja*
there are four kinds:
Muqaffq (&&*> ( (i) Mutawazi
^^
k f^-*^), i.e.
)
Rhymed Prose,
Jly
of
which
or ''Parallel ", in
:
which the
jf
;
rhymed words have an equal number

>;
of letters, as
^ ;^?yo cu-*>p
(ii)
Saj'-i
Mutarraf (o,k*>j.9
or Diversified, in which the

as:
is
rhymed
b ^*.
words have an unequal number of
letters,
cu^l jj^t &JLap^
;Ufj
The
following,
by Professor
E. G. Brown,
skilful
imitation, in
?u: seeing that to fail and fall is the fate of English, of o^-* all 9 and to claim exemption from the lot of humanity a proof of pride and
vanity,
"Now
and somewhat
and
of
mercy our common need;
therefore
let
such as read,
and
than
errors detect, either ignore or neglect or correct

revile
them''; (iii) Saj'-i the final words are the same measure, but are which Balanced," and jatis ( ) (such words are said to be ) unrhymed, as faqtr J xfUf or ^syntactical rhymes ", as opposed to <^*A i^(S or " poetical
reveal
and conceal them, rather *u ). Or Mutavazin ( &yjLo
"
in
:
(^
^^
rhymes")
& " t+j* ) or Jewelled only in that the balanced words are rhymed), as
;
(iv)
Murassa*
"
(which
differs
from
0|
This
is
the " Balanced Structure
"
of English, with
rhyme added.
From
rajaz the
name
of a particular
metre
it is
muataf'ilun
^^JUiiwô
X
repeated
six times.
*
* If
8
'
t;?
"'
Uo > or the fourth variety o
rhymed,
it is
either
is
*;*
The term Murassa*
applied to poetry also.
638
THIRD, 'An
without rhyme.
(
^;U
or "
Naked ",
i.e.
plain prose without balance
and
'Rhymed
poetry, for
it
Prose', though it possesses both rhythm and rhyme, is not cannot pass the test of any of the recognized metres (j^ ).
has rhythm and occasionally uses the diction of poetry. It canon while rarely trespassing poetic compounds,
Semark.
Impassioned English prose
not be classed under any form of Saj*

'
gau.
).
Balance in a sentence
'
assists
memory and
is
).
pleasing to the ear.

is
It is
frequently combined with Antithesis ( " and " Meddle is Muddle { OWM[ j j) ),
$& 3 Â*
8
,
In " Might the sameness of sound
is
Right due to a
"
kind of
balance and
effect
surprise.
:
Note the
"And
sinning
caused by using the same words in an altered meaning in not a vanity is given in vain"*; " More sinned against than "* " The art of the science of sciences."
;
arts,
as: " We do not live to eat, but eat The balance may 99 "It was dangerous to trust 6 the sincerity of Augustus; to seem to live Gibbon: f&)) <J>jJU <J^JW| to distrust 6 it was still more dangerous.'
be inverted 6
" the words of e*>^r> ^Ltf cjf^jy *& (#+> ** Iji) kings are the kings of words " the children *^ *H^ ought not to lay up for the e>t*>jy L$\J* tî^lj *^ 2 Cor. XII. 14. parents, but the parents for the children."
' '
The advantages of balance caution. The Fasana-yi 'Affiib

**
are great, but

(
it
)
.-J^
^^
must be employed with in Urdu is an example
of balance and rhyme

(p)
*y
5^
carried to excess.
:
Persian
is
the spoken language of more countries than Persia
it is
the spoken language of Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Bukhara, and Samarqand. * s The word Farisi for Farsl ( mn'arrab *) "Persian", is the
^)
v^
Shem 7 and
or Arabicized form of Parsi, a word derived from Pars the supposed son of the founder of the Persian kingdom.
George Eliot
This
is
is full
of beautiful examples.
2 B
&)) p* 4U*'tf This would be classed under the Figure

or Persian Rhetoric.
j ^scJ 9 or Ûux, for which see any treatise

f
on Arabic
5
4 This is JlfliAf CL**L*,
a form
of
(
îxu.
^jjrrj U
Styled in rhetoric, Chiasmus
-H^
:
an
b verse
declaration,
the equivalent fact is stated for the opposite side, as *' Heat relaxes the system; cold braces it." For obverse iteration vide " Proverbs of Solomon", Chaps. 12, 13.
^LaJ U (5UI&I
1
o*L*.
is
According to some dictionaries, Pars
another
name for Pdhlu or Shem.
639
The word
is
is
also said to be derived
the ten sons of
Û
from the Arabic ^3* faras, " mare", Pars the king of Persia were noted for their
horsemanship.
The area over which Persian

still.
It
is
is the language of literature is larger therefore only natural to find wide differences in expressions and
the use of words.
In Persia
itself
there were dialects
Native writers mention seven.
The
principal of these were Parsi, the dialect of Persepolis or Istakhr; Pahlavi, the dialect of Ray 1 Isfahan, and Hamadan; and Dan (for Dam) the pure
,
speech unmixed with foreign words, spoken in the mountains and villages.* Pirdawsl is famous for the amount of his Pahlavl and Dan. He claimed, in
fact, to
have omitted
all
:
Arabic from his Shah-Nama.
When
confronted
with the well-known lines
Qazd he
'
guft
gir* , u Qadar guft

'
'
dih,
shufflingly said it.
Malak guft dhsant falak guft 'zih' replied that he hadn't saidcJu^ dhsant, but that the angel had
,
'
The poet Nizaml is noted for his Dan. The two most important countries where Persian is the language of s Even to-day literature but not of everyday life, are Turan and Hindustan.* the Indian Persian is taught in most Muslim schools throughout Empire,
while Indian gentlemen frequently write to each other
preference to Urdu. Some of the most interesting prose works
in
Persian,
in
we have in Persian have come
from the court

left
us his
Akbar, the great contemporary of Elizabeth, has Akbar-Nama; while every Indian student knows the intricate
of Delhi.
Shaykh Abu'l-Fazl* 'Allaml. Turanian, and a constant inflow

Insha^-i
The Persian introduced into India was

of
Turanian
Muslims kept
it
fresh.
Hence the
peculiarities of
Indian Persian are chiefly the peculiarities of
Turanian Persian.
Though Indian Persian contains

it is
many
expressions and
8 certain pronunciations peculiar to itself, practically, as Dr. Rosen " a petrifaction of the old classical language ", for Indian studescribes it,
Old Tihran. Bahman son of Isfandiyar is said to have made this the court language, so as to have one language for general intercourse. 8 Turkistan, Transoxiana. Said to be derived from Tur a son of Faridun.
1
4 Indian writers have applied the term Mughul or Mongol to all Persian-speaking immigrants other than Afghans, and not merely to the Emperor Babur and his followers and their descendants. The term Mughul is therefore vague and includes Turanis
and Iranls. At the present day in Bombay, a modern Persian and the Persian language Mughuli.
*
is
often called a Mugfrul,
By
itself pronounced abu but in construction abft *l In his " Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar/'
640
dents confine themselves to a study of the classics, which they imitate, and to poetic exercises. In the Persian of India, as well as in that of or " unknown" sound of the vowels Afghanistan, the J^p.** majhftl is retained, and the izdfat has a pronunciation quite distinct from its pro1
nunciation in modern Persian.
The Arab invasion and the consequent introduction
of
Islam into Persia,
made a considerable addition to the ancient vocabulary. A large portion of the population of Persia is Turkish, speaking Turkish* as its mother tongue, and Persian with a foreign accent. The reigning family too is Turkish. It is therefore only natural that an increasing number of Turkish words and
phrases should find their
lesser degree English,
way
into
modern Persian.
French too, and in a
have not been without their influence on the
modern
vocabulary.
(q)
The
history
of
literature in every
nation shows a tendency
to
abbreviation and simplicity in language, but this progress towards simplicity
more marked in prose than in poetry. Poetry is an earlier culture than prose, and this ia the reason given why the Elizabethan prose with its long sentences is inferior to the Elizabethan poetry. France had the start of
is
modern Europe in the cultivation of letters, and her prose is in consequence distinguished by an ease and brevity that are said to surpass those of any
other country.
8 it is at the Though modern Persian prose tends towards simplicity same time characterized by laxity of expression and grammatical inaccuracy. Persians deem the study of Persian Syntax beneath them, and there are no
(r)
prose writers of sufficient note to check the increasing corruption of the language. Many of the inaccuracies of the spoken language have found
their
way
into the written
the errors of Concord are frequent and the train
of thought slovenly.
" Dr. Rosen in his " Modern Persian Colloquial Grammar says " Unfortunately the inclination towards laxity of expression has proved stronger in the development of modern Persian than the tendency towards
:
lucidity.
To this circumstance must be
ascribed the great lack of rule and the
So called by the invading Arabs because their sounds were unknown to them. There are several Turkish dialects in Persia, the most widely known is that These dialects of course differ widely from the western Turkish of Constantiof Tabriz. nople. Most of the Turks in Persia can speak Persian, but few Persians can speak
t
Turkish.
rhetorical forms
Modern Persian letters are usually marked by great simplicity, while the ancient and addresses are still preserved in India. There is also a tendency towards simplicity in court forms and ceremonies. Should it be necessary to write a formal letter, say to a royal personage, a modern Persian has to call in the aid of a
*
professional writer, as the ancient art of writing
is
now known
to the few only.

partially apparent,
partially
real,
641
of the
arbitrariness
and inconsistency
language, which renders the use of some parts of speech, specially the conAlso junctions and prepositions, a difficulty for the pupil and the teacher. the inflection of the verb has lost some of its clearness anl simplicity, by the
1
various forms being now frequently interchangeable, whereas in the classical language they are distinctly differentiated.
"But vanity and love of effect, which, from the earliest days, have been weak points in the Persian character, have done even more harm to the language than inaccuracy of expression. It is owing to this love of display
that the simplest subjects are mostly expressed in bombastic style, and that quaint turns of speech are constantly drawn from the archaic or classical It is therefore, in dealing with the vocabulary and language, and from Arabic. with grammar, only possible to form a general distinction between the
language and that of our own day. But such a distinction will not hold good in each particular case. Modern Persian mu4 therefore to some
classical
extent be regarded as a mixture of strictly modern Persian and classical Persian. It is left to the taHe of the individual to adopt whichever style he likes,
the classical, the bombastic, or the colloquial modern Persian, but it is always necessary to distinguish the language of Iran from the Persian which
is still in
(s)
use in India.'
is
As quality
always preferable to quantity, the briefer the style the

8
better, provided .alwavs that brevity does not load to
As regards the length of sentences, the long has each its advantages and its disadvantages: a succession of long sentences Some nations prefer wearies, a succession of short sentences distracts.
long, others short sentences.
ambiguity .* and the short sentence
Some
styles require longer
sentences.
Wit
for instance
requires brevity, but
not
and others shorter In so humour.

is
English literature proper, short sentences are the rule but they are relieved
4 long ones. A long sentence, well expressed and well arranged, hence long periods are often feeble and obscure. difficult to construct
by
reader reading aloud will find that the long but well constructed sentences of George Eliot will present much less difficulty than the short frippery sentences of so many inferior modern novels.
I
In m.o., and even
in
modern
is,
writing, the conjunctions
and prepositions are
frequently omitted.
*
"The law
of literary culture
Reject all that is extraneous, but nothing that is
vital."
Originally an English Act of Parliament consisted of a single sentence. special Act was passed to authorize the insertion of full stops.
*
In 1860 a
and only
relieve
sentence should, as a rule, keep the reader in suspense throughout its course him at its close. This is called the ' Rule of Swpence.' This rule is
violated, for instance,
when the proataais
of
a condition or a concessional clause follows
the principal clause.
41
642

(t)
The
rhetorical style of the Persians
totally different from that of Europeans.
"Lights of Canopus" by Husayn Fa't'g read and admired in Persia and in India. Eastwick, in the preface of his scholarly translation, quotes some remarks by Sir William Jones "The most excellent book in the language is in my opinion the
,
:
must be judged by a standard The <^lj^ j|yf Anvar-i SukayR or is a work once largely 'LKSthifi
1
collection of tales
Anvar-i Suhaill by Husayn Va' 13, surnamed Kashifl, who took the celebrated work of Bidpai or Pilpay for his text and has comprised all the wisdom of the Eastern nations in fourteen
and
fables
called
'
beautiful chapters."
These remarks are

will give the
sufficient proof of the excellence of this
book, from an
Oriental point of view.
One more extract however from the same preface student some idea of the view that will probably be taken by most beginners. Mr. Eastwick says
:
u To them 8 the present translation
is
offered
with
far
more confidence
than to the English public, for it is impossible not to perceive that those very characteristics of style, which form its chiefest beauties in the eye of
Persian taste, will appear to the European reader as ridiculous blemishes.
The undeviating equipoise of bi-propositional sentences, and oftentimes their length and intricacy; the hyperbole and sameness of metaphor, and the rudeness and unskilfulness of the plots of some of the stories, cannot but be
wearisome and repulsive to the better and simpler judgment of the West. Bangs always sit on thrones stable as the firmanent, rub the stars with their heads, have all other kings to serve them, and are most just, wise,
valiant,
and
beneficent.
Ministers are invariably gifted with intellects which
adorn the whole world, and are so sagacious that they can unravel all difficulties with a single thought. Mountains constantly race with the sun
in height, all gardens are the
envy
of Paradise,
and every constellation in
Heaven
is
scared
away
in turn
by some
furious tiger or lion
upon Earth.
These absurdities are so prominent that they would probably induce the generality of readers to close the book in disgust. Those, however, who have
patience enough to proceed with the perusal will not fail to discover many beautiful thoughts, many striking and original ideas, forcibly expressed;
and though their
first
in. translation, still
beauty cannot but have suffered very considerably enough will remain to justify, in some degree, to all
candid judges the celebrity of the work.

1 These fables have been translated under various names into many languages. There are four Persian translations but that by Hwayn Fa'ig is the one generally For the names of the various translations, vide Preface to Eastwick' s preferred.
translation.
ft
* i.e.
Baron de Sacy also praises this work. "those who desire to qualify themselves
for
examination in our Indian
territories."
643
"
It
may
be here desirable to direct attention to those parts of the
book which are generally considered the best. The whole work consists of an elaborate Preface and Introduction by Husain Va'iz, and of 14 chapters or books, with a very brief Conclusion. The Preface may be dismissed from consideration at once, as being a turgid specimen of the obscure and repulsive preludes with which Persian writers think fit to commence their
compositions. A few helpless infantine ideas struggle in the gigantic coils of an endless prolixity and verboseness, which it would require a Hercules
Nevertheless this Preface may be read by those who wish a model of such compositions in Persian. The arrangement is the same in all. There is first an address to the one God secondly, a lengthy eulogy
to disentangle.
for
;
of his Prophet,
on the High Personage to a with dedicated, meagre explanation of the reasons which the author to induced commence his undertaking. The whole is thickly
Muhammad;
is
thirdly, -a panegyric
whom
the work
larded with quotations from the Kur'an, and with difficult and unusual words; so that it would really seem as if a preface were intended, like a thorny hedge, to repel all intruders, and to preserve the fruit within from
the prying eyes of readers.
" In the Introduction, Husain Va'ig is at once simple and more agreeable. The description of the Bees and their habits is prettily given. The
story of the Pigeon,
woman's
cat,
who left his quiet home to travel and of the old who was discontented with his meagre fare and safe seclusion,
;
are amongst the happiest in the whole work."
be as well to quote one single sentence from the Preface of Husayn Va'iz's Anvar-i Suhaili and leave the reader to judge whether Eastwick was justified in the severity of his remarks
Perhaps
it will
y
cU*acU j
(JjjdbJ
cîK
})
what is advantageous to mankind, and the multiplying what is beneficial to high and low, he condescended to favour me with an intimation of his will that this humble
to the universal diffusion of
individual devoid of ability, and this insignificant person of small capital, Husain-bin 'AH-u-'l-Wa<i3, known by the name of Kashifl (May God Most
"With a view
High strengthen him with His hidden favours), should be bold enough book in anew dress, and bestow fresh adornment on the of its tales of esoteric meaning, which were veiled and concealed by beauty
to clothe the said
644
NUMBER OF WORDS AND ARTS OF ABBREVIATION,
ETC.
tho curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions, by presenting them on the stages of lucid style and the upper chambers of
becoming metaphors, after a fashion that the eye of every examiner, without a glance of penetration or penetration of vision, may enjoy a share of the loveliness of those beauties of the ornamental bridal chamber of narrative,
and the heart

imagining
!
of every wise person,
trouble
may
without the trouble of imagining or the obtain the fruition of union with those delicately
'
reared ones of the closet of the minds."

(u)
East. Tra.is.
is
The student
*
of classical Persian
recommended
to
compare the
rhymed prose
of Sa'di,
the more modern and
Anvar-i Suhayll* of Husayn Va/iz 8 while for modern Persian he can not do better than copy Akhlaq-i Jalatt Mirza Hayrat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia, or the
;
bombastic style of the and the simpl or and terser style of the
simpler colloquial style of the Diaries of Ndsir"''d-Din* Shah, and the travels
of
Ibrahim Beg.
142.
Number
of
Words and Arts

brief
of Abbreviation, etc.
(a)
Language should be
effects are,
(^Lk/c&
),
i.e.
no word should be used that
does not add either to the sense or the beauty of the sentence.
however, often brought about by Diffuseness would require that the shorter of two synonymous words Brevity ( J^k* ). be should or expressions chosen, but emphasis or dignity might require the
Important
longer.
(6)
There are three forms of DifTusensss
J^JaS
(1)
Tautology
The
translator in a note remarks:
'
Theae intolerable
insipidities are considered
beauties of style
2
8
"
Both are admired and copied in Persia. The author was a Persia " are the best and truest * Dr. Rosen says these diaries specimens of the modern Also that it is only the colloquial language spoken at the Persian court and capital.'* uneducated who use the style which Nasir^d-Dm Shah has now raised to the dignity Educated people do not adopt this style. The style of the of a written language.'
>.
Diary when
l
first
published raised a great deal of adverse criticism.

sf
Opposed to JJa*3.
Brevity
is
a general term.
(
A statement maybe
brief
because
the most important things are omitted.

in
A concise {JU ^ g*^)
style expresses
it
much
a few words.
A speech may be the reverse of brief as
regards length :
may
J*
contain
a thousand statements each concisely explained.

conveyed
in the fewest possible
In a concise style, the thoughts are

U>
words but with the utmost

Pithy
( JAXJ
precision.
Terse
( Jj>
JL? )
means eloquent as well as
concise.
^j
is
short but full of force.

*f* );
(2)
(
ETC.
l
645
(3)
Pleonism
^jJUîc^
),
or
Redundancy (k-^^k*
other"
Circum-
locution
v^'
"They came
jZj* ***
successively, one after the
^
(
3J*x>f
ji
1
Tautology *&* j-k* ) ^& ^^r? "I saw it with my eyes" f*j& p&*u is Redundancy ( " " I saw it with my OMW eyes er**^ ^su is Pleonism
or ) c$>AM oû,
is
^^
The
if
epithets of poetry are often pleonastic embellishments
<y^} j**>
not kept within limits, they constitute the vice of style called Turgidity.
Tautology
f#*j^
is
the repetition of the same idea in different words
without the addition of force or clearness.
The synonymous words

place.
'
or phrases
generally occur in the

to
same grammatical
Tautology
is
generally due
',
an error
').
of thought (as in the expression
universal panacea
or
'
a single
unique
(c)
Tautology, is justified if the sense is not a common single term, as poor and needy ', or satisfactorily expressed by ' and vulgar i.e. when the two words mutually help each other.
' '
,
What may be termed
ly
Legal documents have to guard against attempted evasion; consequent"Tell the repetition and synonyms (this is -*lx> y^. ) are necessary:
truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth."

ai-Jfi jU^Jfi^
(
In a Persian deed of
*
sale etc. occurs the following:
x^Ki &)&
c^y
.
^ f jk'^ '*xU U/U
e4' &*>
va
'l-ijbar
(d)
*
^J
*J
^î^
'
alim an amidan bi-'t-taw (i va
'r-ragjibat*
dun^l-ikrdh 1
danista va fahmlda bi-saman-i mablaj&-i fulan
(1)
styled Aîi^Lc^^. In girya 14 zarl * and "what we have seen with our eyes ^;fj ^ A and heard with our ears" fi\ 1&&& u*^j ^! *^-> ^fV ^r > the pleonisms are ta^d &*<ti or emphasis, and constitute also section Vide ^JU> j^^. on " Errors in Rhetoric."
(2)
and *&~j and may be
Certain dual and tautological expressions as " null and void, ** ^, are justifiable by use, being almost regarded as one word,
"
Emphasis has sometimes the appearance

single
of
redundancy:
"Not
one
man
of
you"
U-&
jt
without exception" *Uii-ot 3b A+A hama bi-ld " ^ viôJ that doeth good, no not one p* ^&
all <^\)j&iJ*tA*nayaknafar-iwahidazshuma: is not one "there : ististsnij*
"
mst yak-i ham
na.
^^ ^ ^
hich kas nikukar
The
distinction
in
English
ôbserved, the former

2
8
term being used in Rhetoric and the

9
between Pleonism and Redundancy is often not latter as a general term.
synonomous." In the Persian translation of the New Testament
Mutaradif o^t;-^
"
this is nikukar-i nlst yah-l
ham nay
646

Emphasis sometimes requires the multiplication
ETC.
of connectives (Poly-
syndeton), vide
(3)
140.
The
refrain or
burden
of a song or
of
an emotional speech,
is
justifiable repetition.
(e)
So too
in affection or admiration there is iteration.

is
Emotion
of
any kind
often expressed
by
repetition, that is
by
(/)
CIRCUMLOCUTION
v ^'
1
is
a roundabout
way
of speaking.
It is
usually a defect.
tutes a Figure 8
.
But it can be used for rhetorical effect, and then constiAs a defect, it is a form of diffuseness ( ) that cannot
d^
be remedied by the omission of superfluous words the whole sentence must be recast in terser language. Under Circumlocution (v^0> ma y be included
:
digressions
cifysxi ),
and the introduction
of irrelevant matter
The
a
following
are
Figure:
"Brain
English examples of Circumlocution ( Ûki ) as preserved in ink" (for 'a book'); "An honest
lie
gentleman sent
ambassador);
(a fisherman).
abroad to
for
the good of his

at one end
country"
fool at the
(i.e.
an
"A
(
rod with a
worm
is
and a
other"
Euphemism
as
J*A*>
er*^
often expressed
"
:
Terminological inexactitude
is
"
(a lie)
by circumlocution ( ^ttlsf " fond of romance " (a liar).

).*
Circumlocution
notably used in Commentary (j>~&

is
(g)
VERBOSITY
^^
an excessive use
of words,
and
arises
from
a natural
(h)
gift of fluent
expression that has not been corrected.
and
PROLIXITY ( J5U> if Jj^h?) is the tedious accumulation of circumstances needless particulars, so as to encumber the meaning.
Remark.
In
many
of the older English
and Persian
writers, Tautology
and other forms
of diffuseness are
common.
Tarjl*
band &xj
JJ^y
is
a poem with a refrain or band.
English examples are:
astonished, I
never, never"
am
"
;
poor, infirm, weak, and despis'd old shocked, to hear that "; "I would never lay down
"A
man
"
;
"I am
never,
my arms,
O Absalom, my son, my
" Alone,
son"
and
alone, all alone
Alone on a wide wide sea."

All these are
8
^*JU j&*>
Sometimes
called Periphrasis.
Commentators ( _Jlo ) often carry the practice to sermon of " Old Mother Hubbard" is in ridicule of this.
excess.
The English mock

(i)
ETC.
647
The
chief sources of brevity are the selection of the aptest words, 1 the
grammatical structure, and the employment of certain Figures.*
The following are some of the methods of abbreviation ONE PREDICATE FOR SEVERAL SUBJECTS (or one subject
:
for several
verbs).
In a
compound sentence where
there are several statements, each
with the same verb, the verb need in English be mentioned only once, as: "Reading maketh a full man, writing an exact man, speaking a ready man." In Persian this non- repetition of the verb is very common. Examples:
(a)
v^
j*&*>
e>J>3
mard rd kdmil mi-kunad va
3 *&** <-kK hdzir javdb. zadan harf

*~*j^
*x c*>ifj>
(b) ejUj
*?
khwandan
L)
cJt^
Jijtf
ruz rd marddn bd bayan-i shaja'at va chigunagi-yi safar va kashldan-1 tutun,
va zandn bi-navakhtan-i daf va tarana-ha-yi-gunagftn bi-sar burdand
(Tr.
H.B. Chap.
esteem of
III).
Compare
all
" He resided here
for
many
years,
and
after
he had won the

*
the citizens (he) died."
In Persian the second pronoun
he'
could not be inserted.
Examples: Participles present or past. OASUO aia jd t; j jlj ij>**& tkji jj^y sar-i-an Zlba Khartum zud an* darb-i utdq rd du-dastl* sakht bdz karda,
(/)
(1)
PARTICIPLES.
A^&&
cU.i^
ejltf
dad u faryad kun'in, ddkhil mi-shavad (Vaztr-i Lankaran) (( when his back is 8 turned, Zlba Kb "mum, suddenly and with both hands, throws open the other
door of the room, and comes in crying and screaming'*: *U *U ) ^3 mizw-ilab lund kundn Ziba Khanum &^ rafta (Lund AJ^? ô wJ^) ***)
f^
muttering, says under her breath) ." This construction, especially in modern Persian, is often carried to excess. 8 In a sentence of eight or nine lines there may be but one principal
guyad
'*
Zlba Kfcunum (going
off
verb at the end, separated from

sion of participial
1
clauses.
subject at the beginning by a succesOashmz 9 va shambaUla bu ddda 10 Example

its
:
recollected that
For tho selection of words, precise rules cannot be laid down. It should be words have both a denotation ( <^yJ t^*" ) an(* a connotat i n
the
* In English, especially the following Figures: Comparison and Transferred Epithet, Antithesis, Epigram, and Ellipsis.
^
Metaphor,
For
if
inserted
it
*
6
An " the
other
"
would be emphatic. or " the further."

u.
Du-dastl and sakht are both adverbs.
' 1 8
Pushtrisar .* ow&j "behind"; ^/f
anfory
so
Stage directions in Vazlr-i Lankaran. Producing the 'excess of suspence'
dear to schoolboys when translating
from Latin. 9 In India J*JLutf kashniz.

Persian.
10
The g
of Iranian Persian often
becomes k in Turanian
Bu dadan " to
roast like coffee."
648
NUMBER OF WORDS AND ARTS OP ABBREVIATION,
ETC.
an va 1 ba'd hama-yi ajzd ra fard fard** scfida az alak yd pdrcha birun karda ' namak sd*ida makhlut namuda dar mutdbiq-i vazn namuda nim paund
'
shtsha
('
karda
9
sar-i
an ra muhkam
ij,y
\* i
}
bi-girand ki hard
\
tasarruf
na-kunad
Paund
-i
IngKsi sad misqdl)
} /.*.
&+* *AJ
w&j*
X<*lj
L>
**
roast the coriander seed
and fenugreek; pound
all
the ingredients separate-
ly
and pass them through a hair-seive or through cloth ; the weights (given above): mix in half a pound of
bottles.
make them up
pounded
'
to
salt
and
keep in tightly stoppered

misqal)."
(An English
'
pound
equals a hundred
Cookery Receipt.
phrases
and participial adjectives may be used as equivalents for for the containing the relative, as: "The never-ceasing wind " wind that never ceases." This construction is to suitable Persian, specially
(2) Participles
which abounds with compound epithets. In e'-^ s-*^* *-$ *-~&j**t gawhar-i " a shab-lab-i shab-chira^& "a carbuncle," or firefly," the second epithet would in English have to be rendered by a relative clause, or else rendered
by a substantive in apposition. The following is an example

marqum-i
of Arabic past participles: Maktub-i u muvarrakha-yi ghurra yi Rajab 'l-Murajjab-i surkar* mashub-i "pust" mutazammin bi-mazamin-i mahabbatana va mundanj bi-mardtib-i
muwddatdna
AJ^?
ziydrat gardid
w-î^-j
v> ax^*
J
^^
v^v^'
*-**>}
&
&c*)}*
^^ V>I^
*'
^^La^j er^>ô vju^.j your letter written and dated the first of Rajab, and sent by post and expressing your friendship (etc., etc ) reached me." Modern letter.
c^lj) ^Jl^yo
rj^-^
ilx>aa>o
(3) Participles
are often brief equivalents of phrases containing con-
junctions and verbs.
The
for
participial construction is in English often
does not always
make
it
ambiguous, as the writer clear by the context whether the participle is used
a causal, a temporal, a concessive, or a relative clause. The same obscurity can occur in Persian. Thus in Jlax^î. oJj -x* U^ ^f .~Jl.k j>yo
^f+>
&j~*
mard"i
tdlib-i
seeking this life is " the man while he seeks, or because he seeks, or the
" man dunyd hick vaqt khush-hdl namt-shavad never happy", it is not clear whether the sense is
in
man
that seeks."
Va should be
Note
this
omitted.
faulty collocation.
common but
Read
*&*)j*
&?
*&&*
maktub-i
sarkar vnuvarrijha-yi.
And
in English, adjectives also, as:
astonished mother finds a vacant nest

[the Swiss because they
"Drive it into his stupid head"; "The " War was mountaineers preferred by the hardy 99 651 Vide p. were mountaineers and hardy]. (p).
"
;

For the
error
ETC.
649
(n).
known
as the
misrelated participle,'
vide
125
Sometimes the participle "being" is omitted, as: "France at our " or " " France doors, he sees no danger nigh ", for being though France
is
".
hand he
(k)
Compare **?> eu*.Xj^+ " = " while the sword fears

;
shamshir bi-dast mi-tarsad "sword in

or though the sword
"2
etc.
OMISSION OF THE VERB.

:
The verb
lx>
or copula need not always be
expressed, as
giriftdr
tjto
d<*> r inguftdr va har du bd-ham jî/ p*^ j*s*> u>0^ l~j l?uJ| St. about Sa'di's 19, Quarrel): (Gul., Chap. VII., fi^K
;^
4
m^
1
**
w*
)j+* _>*
04AJ
^f~
jZ* &$
ki
V^ ^
**.
ftjf LSjty* Id
sdya-yi
divdr-l
kardam mutaraqqib
magar
kas-i zahmat-i harr-i

<U.Â>
jaram iltijd Wtamuz* az
man bi-barad
(Gul.,
" a thousand times more
Book V, "
;
St. 8)
^jl ÂJ
y^& hazdr martaba blsh az %n

3'
e>H?^
j~*>
e^3
^^ ty^f y
az iu ishdra kardan*
;
zi'man bi-sar davldan " you have merely to indicate an order and I obey" <>J^XA> &*. i^\^L& ;U> j\ u bi-kindr, digardn rd chi mi-guyid (m.c.) Cleaving
him out
ample
&A.
of the question, what's
" your opinion about the others?

is
In the
Persian translation of Hdjl Bdbd, the verb

:
frequently omitted.
cut^f
Ex-
*_&^
eA/ct*.
j y#
^
1
^xj
yjlJ
^ ^jj*
t$ oli^
'
(jwj,^ )&*
^^-^ o^c ^f U o ^;^ 6 ; shayad man bl sar u saman,

^VAJ
chi ? (Chap.
pidar puzish kundn ki in awqdt arusl rd najang darmiyan, bd %n 'arasdt-i 'arusl ya'm
XXXVII)
va
**4jt
^^ ^x
^^ j$* jliiib
Hamgindn
(Chap.
ÎJJÂ
f*(*k u^j+> )
and made the
Â'
If&jt j
bi-mariz
bal'dntdam.
bi-inlizdr-i ta*ir-i du'a*-i
man, chashmhd danda va gardanhd kashida

patient swallow
it.
II)
"
All present (remained) in expectation of the result of
my
charm
their eyes staring, heads
poked forward (on tiptoe from expecta1**
"
tion)
:
âao/o ^^l*^
3' J 3^ ^^ v^^" 3' *j* ammd chun na bi-kh%ma-yi u rdh-i ;^3' fV^3^^- e^ ddshtam va na bi-khimayi sa*ir-i zandn, payvandi dusii munhasir bud az jdnib-i u bi-ndz, va az jdnib-i man bi-niydz ; an ham az dur (Chap. 14)
:
t
^^
y
^^
e^^3
e^
&***u
*->^
^t> ^) )\
&+**v
*J
&}<*> to|
az altdf-i
yazddm inki
Û* <^*>j ^fif _J\
^*^
*$ ty ^| (Chap. IV) ^1 *$ In bud ki guftand, ki ay shd'ir

:
&&
agar
gu/ti,
all
rish-at
khalds, vagar na, khunat haldl
robbers)
exclaimed,
if
'Oh
poet, this instant
(Chap. VI) "they (the compose verses: if you do,
you'll be spared;
you don't, you won't."
Vide also Appositive Clauses
134
(6).
Abbreviations of construction consist in omitting certain (1) ELLIPSIS. words, but these omissions should be of such a nature as can be supplied
1
Obscurity can also occur from a careless use of the Persian Present and Past
Participles.
* 8 4
5
For other kinds of participial obscurity, vide 125 (n), (p. 531). The Persians feel the heat much more than do the Indians.
The
Infinitives are here nouns.
Man refers
to the father
who
is
speaking.
650
NUMBER OP WORDS AND ARTS OF ABBREVIATION,
ETC.
1 from the tenour of the sentence, easily and without ambiguity.
Baytdr az
dnchi dar
chashm-i
chahdrpdydn kardl dar cKda-yi

e>kU ;lf*
ft
kashld )* afvify
;Uy
**&j
of
l*t*
^/
**&
p*+
something* into his eyes of the
stuff
animals":
\>
uAj<* J^
put he was accustomed to put into the eyes ;l\^ ou*;j> j*. j\f ^.)^ guftdr-i K(Sa'di)
fit
"the
farrier (horse doctor)
kirddr* chu darakht-i bi-bdr juzsukhtanrdna-shdyadfi&'di)" words without
deeds are like trees that yield no fruit;
for
naught but burning."
"Who Wrote this In *& letter Muhammad [wrote it] c^y ^ kdphaz rd ki navisht? [oMy t^f] *+:* Muhammad[dn rd navisht] 1^^ j c^^^^l <*Qar sbd'ir-i va ti-chdra (Trans. Haji Baba) "if you are a poet and poor" -&b)&(&>\ ^.
OMISSION " * ?
c
AND NON-REPETITION OF THE VERB.

' '
I;
jl
jl*f
e>^ cu>U* ^
dardz kard va )h* u^*3 yak-l az %shan zabdn-i ta*arru?

(Gul.,
matdmat kardan dghdz
Chap.
II, St, 20).
Chakdn khun-ash az usiukhwan mi-david Hamt-guft u az hawli jdn ml-david

*
Ki gar rastam az dast-i In tir-zan Man u mush u mrdna-yi pir-zan*

In terror of
its life it fled
(Anv. Suh., Chap.
I).
"From
'Could
the bone flowed the sanguine tide,
and cried
I escape this archer's hand, I'd dwell Content with mice and the old wowan's cell/
*' *
(East. Trans.)
(m)
METAPHOR BRIEFER THAN LITERAL STATEMENT.

'
phrases of comparison (such as like,' 'as,' not disturb the structure of the sentence
:
etc.),
Metaphor
is brief,
Dispensing with and does
"All
able
flesh is grass
"
(Isa. xl. 6), is briefer
as
grass": dar
9 '
jang shir
bud &>
than, "All flesh
is
as perishlion
J^^
j*
"he was a
in
combat.
For examples of
ellipses, correct
is
and otherwise,
vide
136
(d).
The
object (cMz-t)
understood.
Note jl&f kirdar, from && kardan, when ;|^ kardar might be expected. (1) For the ellipsis of a verb in a contracted compound sentence and the difference
136
(d).
between English and Persian in such a construction, vide 121 (/). (2) For the non-repetition of a noun, vide
(3)
For the repetition of a noun, necessary for clearness, vide For the non-repetition of an adjective or participle, vide
For the non-repetition of an adverb, vide f 122 (e). For the non-repetition of a conjunction, vide 123 (d).
for the non-repetition of, vide
120 (h)
121 (k).
Remark.
(4)
(5)
(6) Prepositions
124
(6).

(n)
is
ETC.
651
GENERAL TERMS
fond of sport" ty\*$* " he " hawks, shoots, and courses

*
ARE BRIEFER THAN PARTICULAR TERMS, "He *^~*j* ;^ jt u shikar dftst nti-ddrad, is shorter than
1
**x&x>
yt ^jU ^
a^j, j ^fiLi; ^ jU
by
ii
bd bSz
va tufang va tula va tdzl

(o)
shikar mi-kunad.
A
of
book
is
PHRASE MAY BE EXPRESSED BY A WORD. "The style of this such an obscure nature that it cannot be understood" ^t ^;lf
t
u and more briefly

'
'ibdrat-i In kitdb an tawr iâxxA &f o**i pt** j cM*-* Jj-k ert mubham ast ki hich kas nami-tavdnad bi-fahmad, is expressed better
v^
by,
" The style of

forcible
this
book
is unintelligible
"
'ibarat-i in kitdb Id
I, is
yutham
ast.
"
mere
"
^^ cH' ^^
pisar-i nd>
taklif
stripling,
briefer
and more
' '
than " One who has not yet attained the

kas-i
age of
manhood
cu^*t
>^*/ ^-^Cl AÛ A^J^
ki bi-hadd-i
na-rasida ast.
STATEMENT MAY SOMETIMES BE BRIEFLY IMPLIED instead of being " The expressed at length, thus: conqueror of Austerlitz might be expected
(p)
to hold different language
when
by
from the prisoner of St. Helena," elated by the victory of Austerlitz" and "Napoleon
"Napoleon when depressed

i.e.
his
imprisonment at St. Helena." So too a mere epithet may imply a statement.

i.e.
Thus
tjf /xiî ^J\*> chddar-nishin-i shir-dil jang ikhtiydr kard
J^^-j^* t^*^ j.^ " the bold nomad

therefore
preferred war,"
brave.'
(q)
'preferred
war because he was a nomad and
CONJUNCTIONS MAY BE OMITTED.
In the short sentences of Macaulay,
for instance, conjunctions are frequently omitted.
Example:
"You
assert
this: I (on the other hand)
deny
:
it."
In-
stances of this omission will be found in
134
(6).
9
The omission
of connectives
ij
is
called
Asyndeton,
as in
&
I;
etfj^
y*Us \) c>lî >JA^ cleanse the lepers, raise the dead, cast out devils." Mat. x.
ejji^j
t>
Ûi
{&#& ***f A>J
Îfcyo
xjjU>
" Heal the sick,

8.
Û âxa^S
Chap. XLI, p. 335).

(r)
khidmat
THE IMPERATIVE MAY BE USED FOR "IF." Thus, biyd td kunam 4 ptf *+***> ty lu Come (for If you come) and I will
turd-
serve
you."
hound (Arab) ", and sag " the pariah dog" (and
8 It is
1 General terms are however not so forcible. General or abstract terms are less simple to conceive than particular or concrete terms. 2 Tula is 'a pointer' and perhaps any " small dog'* as opposed to tazl " the grey-
also dog* generally). the opposite of Polysyndeton, the multiplication of connectives.
Example of^c) wfâ* javab-lamr " Apodosis
of
a command."
652
(s)
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE.

APPOSITION
is
brief
î :
y *i^^(lqbal-Nama-yi
sabz
The above is u khurram bud va

(t)
Jahangiri,p. 241, Ed. Bib. Ind. Bengal As. Soc.). a^ ki mushrif bar ab va briefer than <>y ^^ j _}** j vt
^ oÛ
bud
(
PARBNTHESIS'Z
o^
flj
Parenthetical clauses are
commoner
in
is
modern than
in classical
Persian.
In
classical
Persian, the parenthesis
usually a blessing or a curse, as
(^ j
1
?uUu0f )
^ ^ j **^
*Ut
^Lo
the meaning.
In along sentence, English or Persian, parentheses are liable to obscure Though conducive to brevity, they must be sparingly used.
>
Jj *<
Guitar II)
*f ^y "
>
^3 j*>
c5";
<i*a' 3'
^ *>*/
';
**j* (Pers. Trans. /7a?i
Baba
he
was
a character well
known on
the road between Tehran and
for having cut off a
Meshed, and enjoyed a great reputation for courage, which he had acquired Turcoman's head whom he had once found dead on the " road "But in vain I endeavoured to cheer up his (Haj! Baba, Chap II).
spirits
by saying
"
aT (-J^JA*
(*^X
be the
^
first
)j' isj*
J^
CS'Lr?
u^
(Pers.
Trans.,
H aft Baba,
Guflar-i Sivum).
Remark. - Clearness should
consideration.
Some
of
the
rules for brevity clash with the rules for clearness.
143.
(a)
Further Observations on Style.
<e
" Other things baing equal", says a writer on English composition, a better-known word is to be preferred to a less known, a native or
thoroughly naturalized and appropriated word to a word of outlandish origin and habit, a concrete to an abstract word, a specific to a general, a homely to a technical." *
Persians are fond of obsolete Persian, and out-of-the-way Arabic words
and expressions. Arabic phrases and quotations from the Quran are dragged in wholesale, and sometimes Arabic idioms too, literally translated into
QuH, " aa though

&*JAX> Chawush,
it is
you might say"
vide
91
(6) (10).
*
8
&L+fe "incidental proposition."

T.,lit.
"a sergeant." A
leader
and guide
of
a pilgrim-caravan, whose
etc., etc.
duty
4
to
make arrangements
for supplies, regulate the
hour of march,
A business letter, even in Persian, is usually worded in every-day terms.

Persian.
letter of
will
653
A Zardushti Anjuman when

'
composing the usual congratulatory

of another city, or to the Shah,*
New- Year greeting
to the
Anjuman
search the dictionary for obsolete words with which to adorn the 8 As an example of ambiguity, the following quotation from the composition.
suffice
_.j
)
Anvdr-i Suhayll will
)}<&*
j Oo;f } j\jLc(J JÂ jf^cf jt jt> Z>j> C^l^ baz ki vahshi u gharib ast chun az u manfa at-i tasavvur milavdn kard va bi-i'zdz-i harchi tamdmtar urd bi-dast mt-drand va bar sd'id-i
\
**U
^x*iix>
jt
^^
o**t WAJ J )
^^
to )
tf
jt ^
CU^J
ndz az ruy-l i'zdz bi-ihtizdz mi-par vardnand " while the 4 which is wild and
sort of
(Anv. Suh., Chap.

allure
hawk, strange they 4 kindness and bring him up on the wrist of favour, indulgently In a footnote Eastwick remarks, "The and proudly." (East. Trans.).
MSS. I have consulted, omit the sentence after **j1 is found in the printed and lithographed editions.
baihtizdz
tation.'
I, St. VI) with every
^ mi-drani,
Keene
mean,
of
its
*
which
translates
'to
exercise.'
is
It
may
bear that
s;>nse,
or
with exul-
ambiguity, such a source of delight to the Persian author, and of despair to the translator." [This )\j* & bi-ihtizdz according to one or two learned
The word
no doubt chosen on account
which
is
Persians I have consulted,
understood by the few only. reading and enjoying the rhyme of the word.] The following sentence from the Persian translation of
(end of Chap. II) defeated
f allii dy>
till
means "exercise", but the word would be Most Persians would be contented by merely
Hdjl
Bdbd
<bL
many
Persians
J
f
f
*>
was * r* t/^ vx^ ; <Jtk d'^ *^3* c5 the discovery was made that J ? j was not the Arabic word qawl, but the Turkish word qul " a slave ", 7 that the obscurity was removed.
6 5
6
1
'
e^ k
^^
l
<&** ^5UI*[
^j
^* ^
l
not
1 A Paraee committee (in Kerman, twelve members) that meets every Friday and on other necessary occasions to discuss matters concerning the Parsees and to settle small disputes and religious matters. The Persian Anjumans are under the Bombay
Anjuman.
2
3
This
Sent of course through the $adr-i A'zam. is considered a sign of scholarship.
preacher too will
first
mouth a
sentence in Arabic (though perhaps only two or three of the congregation are acquainted with Arabic), and then repeat it in Persian. If asked the reason, the reply is To display
his knowledge.'
preacher
who
didn*t
display his knowledge
would be held in
little
esteem.
*
*
Baz properly the female goshawk.
QwiWbh, a
word Qajar to Shah belongs).
signify
term often applied to Persians generally, just as Baluchis will use the any Persian. (Qajar, Qajar, is the Turkish tribe to which the
which sect the 9 RfifUi, i.e. ShVah, a term applied to the Shi'ahs by the Sunnis, to robber Turkomans belonged. The author 1 It is doubtful whether the word qul is used by any but the Turks. should have used the common word banda.
654

The
difficulty in
the following passage from
the
same
translation,
is
attributable rather to the imperfection of the Arabic character than to the
obsoleteness of the language.
The Malik* Sh-shu'ara* when
relating his
adventures to Hajl Baba (Chap. VII), takes the opportunity in the translation of reciting a ridiculous couplet of his own:
Now JHi
is
in classical
and modern Persian means " where? " and

1
ku-kft
a "dove" and also the murmuring of the dove. More than one Persian Several P rsians who were poet has played on these different meanings.
consulted, exhausted their ingenuity in trying to apply these meanings to the lines in question, but it was only when a Zardushti suggested that the reading
" which was veiled and obscured should be gav and not ku that the meaning, by the curtain of obscure words and the wimple of difficult expressions
appeared on the stage
of lucid style
and the upper chambers
of
becoming
metaphors."
(6) (1)
Obscure and unintelligible expressions * are in English improper
" Yet " The
when
that flood in
it false
its
own
depths was drowrCd,
It left behind
first of
and slippery ground."
Dry den.
in plain
these
lines is
nonsensical.
The author's meaning,
* language, is apparently no more than when the waters of the deluge had subsided."* Extravagant as is this idea it is not too extravagant for a Persian, rather in its extravagance would lie its excellence.
(2) It
is
ambiguous, to employ a word or a phrase susceptible of

or general'y speaking to use the same word or
different interpretations,
phrase successively in different senses.

the crown'
'He aimed
J>+f j*+
***>
at nothing less than

hich chiz kamtar az
'
cîoJ
^fei
^x>
o.>tL-
nothing was less aimed at by him than the crown', or, 'nothing inferior to the crown could satisfy him.' In chapter 5* of Haji Baba, the Persian translator describing the faded charms of the candidates for temporary wifehood,
saltanat dar madd-i nazar na-dfokt
y may
denote either
employs the expression lala-yi ahdn ra az dam-i
CLI
l^f
jtj9>
31
Û
SJy
x^
chimgi-i
sard-% ruzgar afat-ha (ast).
It requires considerable
is
thought on the part of a European to solve this passage. Lala in Persian "a tulip, or a poppy ", and hence the cheek of a mistress ", but in m.o.
'
it
is also
" a candle-stick with a small globe."
On
account of the latter mean-
fb* chirag&ia here incorrectly used in the sense of "light." A cold breath (dam-i sard) might extinguish a candle: lastly l^'f afatha must be considered equal to !>?**<* andmahd. Persians consider that this kind of
fog*
equivoque exhibits the hunar of the writer.
Examples
of tajnis.
Vide also
(4).
655
By
point
is
the skilful use, however, of the same word in two senses, force and " If the loss of temporal gain be the gain of eternal good, obtained, as
:
then the reverse of fortune
is
the reverse of misfortune."
Here 'gain'
first
is
used in two somewhat different senses, while 'reverse' in the means * revolution ' in the second opposite.'
'
case
The Persians
delight in plays
upon words (Paronomasia)

v^
fjt3j wO^Cja erfr* yash digar tab nadaram.
v^ crij) v^3l
The
first
wan
a* tab-i ru-yash va tab-% mft-
tab
signifies
"brightness'*, the second
" "curling" and the third endurance."
Chu bar mazar-i man uftad guzar-at az pas-t marg Ma-shaw bi-g&ussa-yi man zar u bar mazdr ma-zar.
Mazar )]}*>
This
(3)
is
c<
tomb",
zar y)
is
is
a good example
of the Figure
"weeping" and ma-zar jJ*> is "don't weep." tajnia or <j&* jinSs.
o^^
Inconsistent words or phrases must be avoided.
'"I do not remember

whole
*
life'
Spectator.
'
*
that I ever spoke three sentences together in my Instead of together, the writer should have said
successively
or,
in succession.'
is
"
This kind of error
common
in Persian.
**&$
am
(m.c.), is
jumla ba-ham gufta basham pL> a sentenne that would pass unchallenged by moat modern Persians. A For baham, substitute pay-i ham or ^ ^* ^*ty pusht-i sar-i ham.
si
|*A
Hick yad-am nist lei fti-'wrnra^ *& ^~~^? c*t *& (r+*> ^*L *1*^
(4)
'
One source
:
of obscurity
is
the affectation of excellence, or
'
fine
writing
acquire a very peculiar and strong habit of turning their eyes inwards in order to explore the interior regions and recesses of the mind, the hollow caverns of deep thought, the private seats of fancy, and the
"'Men must
wastes and wilderness, as well as the more fruitful and cultivated tracts of
this obscure climate.'
Characteristics.
most wonderful way
of telling us
that
.
it is
difficult to trace
is
the operations of the
mind
' '
!
The following
from an American newspaper:

it is
" This
is
not an event
of to-day or of yesterday or of to-morrow,
a fact which will go gallivant-
ing
down the
corridor of posterity until
it
reaches the ultimate back-fence of
humanity."
Neither of these quotations
wepfc after the festival of the
like
this
is
too extravagant for Persians.
In chapter
II of Hafi Baba, the author says:
"The caravan was New Year's day." A

who
ready to depart a
simple statement
writes >)
'
does not satisfy the Persian translator,
<jkjj
3'
U^
^
1
jbui JbDji
*&*
The
figure Ploce or Antanaclasia.
Vide also
146
{').
656
FURTHER OBSERVATIONS ON STYLE

ti
j ***/
Ji <jWj
kamablsh da hafta az Nawruz-i firuz rafta (Rahm*'llah !) Mirza MahcR Khan-i naslm-i 'arnbar-skamlm-i Bahar az farr-i Farwardln muzhda-yi rangindvard. Baqiyyat* 's-sayf-i Bahman* va Shita gurisna va ndshitd ruy bi-hazimat niJidd.
}
Turan-zamin-i chamzn bi-Turk-tdzi yi junud-i quvd-yi ndmiya bi-tasarruf-i Gh'iral gardn-i sahn-i chaman va yaykmaîydn-i Qizl-Bdsh'i gul dar dmad.
ddr** l-muUc*i gulshan sar bi-pustin kashidand.
Turkdn-i lang-chashm-i shigufa
fawj fawj va s/ihri-nishindni riydhln, dasta dasta farmdn-bzri-yi SuUdn-i

rd ikhtiydr kardand.
daaht-i Qibchdq
Bahar
Turkamdndn-i
*
kuldgJi
pisa
mdnind
bddrisa bi-firdz-i
l
hdzir-yardq gashtand.
Bard*'i-*ajuz-i
Day
radd^l-'ajz-* 'ala
az-zahrkarda bid dnjd tdkhl ki

bash dar anddlcht ki
Arab nayza rdanddlcht. Chdûshdn-i chakdvak & 1 bdzdr-i vahazdrf dar rdxtabdp& u gulzdr bd dvdz-i buland sald-yi khush.
(t
Hamagdn im z'lrdn-safd Ear ki z'ahl-i safd 'st khush bdshad."
The reader
(c)
is
at liberty to translate this rubbish.
(1)
'Allied to the unintelligible, are the marvellous, the puerile, the
learned, the profound, etc. In Chapter 28 of Hdji Bdbd,
when the Shah
visits
the house of the
physician Mirzd Ahmaq, the Malik* 'sh-Shu'ard* recites:
" The firmament possesses but one sun, and the land of 'Iraq but one
king.
Life, light, joy
and prosperity, attend them both wherever they appear.
Name of
Bahman
Bad-risa
the famous Prime Minister of Nadir.

is
*
3
two months before Naw-ruz.

Pisa
'
The Roys ton crow.
piebald.'
It
JUjpb has apparently no meaning here.
however rhymes with &~AJ
pita.
i
Chakavak
air.
*;&. a
;!
species of desert lark
that sings both on the ground and
in the
<
1
For vÛw^
JA hazar
is
dfotan.
is
Rastarbazar yj(t &L*|j
the main street that runs straight through a city.
It
rhymes with hazar but
very unlike a

The doctor may boast
of his
657
is
medicine
?
but what medicine
equal to a
glance from the king's eye
What
is
spikenard
what mumiyafi
'
!
what pdd-zahr a
compared
to the twinkle of a royal eyelash
This
is
3 bad, but in the Persian translation occurs the following
MM)
&Jf
mihr-i munavvar sipihr-i gar dun ra Bi-din dalil ki yak Shah hast Iran ra *
!
Haydt u parvarish-i kd*indt u partav-i aysh Buvad muffi u mutdbi' ham in u ham an ra
(
*****
m. 5
:
Bardy-i an ki rasad dast-i Mirzd Ahmaq Bi-nabz, flaqq harakat bar-nihdd shirydn
Not quite so bad
is
the following from the Anvdr-i Suhayli
^ JU
CAw
Fikandl
13
Jl^
;fi?
t^-Ai
f jX{
jf
iS
6ar Jchdrd zadi az khashm dumbdl

shir-i
charkh az blm changal :
Bar an
rdh-i ki
u yakdam nishastl
Ouzdr-i khalq id sdl-l bi-basti.
(Anv. Suh., Chap.
I, St. 5.)
1 The mumiya^l of Eastern bazars is described as being the product of a mine, but it was formerly believed to be extracted from the skulls of living victims suspended head downwards over a fire. It is probably connected with and confused with bits
.
.f
mummy anciently
2
used in Europe in medicine.
The
bezoar-stone, obtained from the intestines of
some animals and considered
to
be an antidote to poison. 8 These lines are said to survive in a book of poems by Fath *A1I Kh5n-i aba-yi Kashi, Malik" 'sh-Shu'dra^'m the time of Fath *Ali Shah. Whether the poet considered
these lines poetry, or whether ho recited
his sleeve the while, is doubtful.
4
them
:
in derision of his audience, laughing in
thore
R
is
as there is only one Shah, so by analogy line is to be translated first only one sun and life, and all these depend both on the former and on the latter i.e. God made blood to flow in the arteries, solely that the physician Mirza Ahmaq
!
The second
might
*
feel
the pulse.
'tiger' of the story.
The
In the original palang, which means " leopard.**
42
668
" When with

Heaven's
his
tail
he furious lashed the rock,

1
dropped his talons at the shook. And where he but for one short instant paused A long year's stoppage to that road he caused."
lion
(East Trans.).
" One form of (2) impropriety is the lack of sufficient precision. By that the words and phrases employed express understood 'precision,' it is
the writer's meaning, and nothing more." Lack of precision to be one of the characteristics of Persians and Persian writings.
may
be said
Hajl Baba, replying to the questions of the Sardar as to the numbers * and dispositions of the Russians 2 says:
,
lflj*c
o-**J *o *
si
I*
Jo
Ifi'
3 <J^J AoJf
*.A^
<*i
*J;b Y>3 al^J
Jâ- dar sir-hadd,
Rus
khayli
du,
haft sad yd hashtsad;
shdyad hazdr; na
ast; pdnsad, shash-sad, hazdr: atbatta bishaz inhd riist.
$ kam
Dah
bist,
muntaha
chihil
yd panjdh, tup ddrand.
(d)
"Sentences should not be
extended
beyond
'
what seems
Rule
their
natural close."
To do so without some
special reason
is
to vioLate the
of Suspence.'
The principle of suspence is so to write he comes to the full stop, feels the sentence The
a sentence that the reader, until
to be incomplete.
violation of this rule is sh>\vu in the fo!iovviiUT
example:
b
p*>
ey
"I putting ^. (H. B. Chap. XI). ever are the whose answered, with on saintly appearance of one prayers ' the air of authority an 1 a clergyman's voice demanded pen and paper although in my whole life I had never held pen in my hand."
*
Sometimes however a violation

colloquial, as:
of
this
rule gives force, specially in
*^*#)\ ) (i?^*
^^^ ) ^'^ )
An jdh,
r
U^T
}t
^^^
j>*
&f
dar an diydr-i g&urbat, az dshna u Vigana u duit mahrum, va az dast-i a/raz bl-bahra, d madam bar-sar-i mayamhk-i khud. Haji Haba, Chap IX. In Persian, the absence of punctuacÛj
^^
U^y prf ^j ^
y^'
tion
makes such sentences
particularly difficult.
Though the
rule
is
:
perhaps violated in the following, the violation does not
conduce to weakness
C/**P ^J'-H^ J^H
e5*^ v-^/
c^T
^^^
;'
'/
oj ift
(H. B. Chap. XL).

figura-
(e)
tive language
The strength and beauty of a sentence may be promoted by and the use of figures.
An example
Chapter XL.
of that variety of
Hyperbole
AAJU
VSA*JU>
known
as
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS IN RHETORIC.
659
144.
(a]
Examples of Errors
in Rhetoric.
some
In the sections on the Relative, on the Participle, and on Collocation, instances of obscurity have been given. Those errors could, however, be traced to a definite source. The following are instances l of incoherence,
:
either in expression or in thought

e
" The riches of the temple gradually disappeared but by whom or when is not known.' ( Read 'how or when* )." This error can hardly be repeated in Persian still in the following translation it would be better to
;
substitutes^
c^~Ai
f>JU/o ij! )
*<*-
chi tawr for *$ ia*yu
bi-tavassat-i ki: a*'
oo
^^
oJj^>
*'!* Jo
c>^) c^**
pf ff
davlat
sarvat-i
but-kada
kam
kam
az
miyan
raft vali bi-tavassut-i ki
va kay ma'lum nistJ1

is
"The
who
ki
philosophers
who
held that this world
naught but a creation of
man's fancy ....

held
liama-yi in
l
that')."
belief of the philosophers Faylasufdn-i ki rdy~i shdn bar In qarar giri/ta buddlam Ichwdb u khaydl ast, 'aqida-yi shan ibdrat ast s az
their belief meant.
(Read
The
jf 3'
cu^}
ei>;Up.
(This
is
correct in Persian, but better

f
*?
^ ^^
'
J^ J
^ ^ ^ %+*
&l>2
^;
^^li^-Jlxf
lc
u
**
N ->
^'/ ;y ery
'aqida-yi faylasu-
fan-iki ray-i shan bar in qarar giri/ta bud ki hama-yi khayal ast ibarat bud az ).
in 'alarn khwdb
(b) Great length is one cause of obscurity, while brevity is another. In the following English passages, the ambiguity is due to the ellipsis of four words at most
:
"
officers,
Antony was not less desirous of destroying the conspirators than his buthe .' [Head* than were his officers,' other wise the meaning might
'than he was desirous of destroying his Fuidn khwahan-i officers.']" mufsidln kamtar az sahib-manasiban-ash na-bud J^X-ot J&+^ e>^ *& 4>-U^x< c^Û y j>+t ^cx-i/o. (Read f uldn kamtar azsahiban ashkhwahan-i istlsal-i mujsidin na-bud ***> ^j-JU jLaxL, &(&\ja* Û^'^p y ji.f c^')
be,
il-i istis r
<4<
The poor despise the purse-proud man not one whit

'
; '
less
than do
the well-born and well-educated
do
'
is
indispensable to avoid ambiguity."
Faqir hich kamtar az an ki najlb u tarbiyat-ydfta magirur-i davlat rd haqlr mi-shumdrand, naml-shumdrad ;ÂX AAI o^y ^ -rH^ ^^- 3 j*^ f**s& >;U iXjjlÂ ^/o îa. tîs clear and can have but the one construction put on it bub the following exhibits the same that would be found
^
;
^^
obscurity
'
in
the English example were the word
do
omitted:
\j
oJ^
))j
Taken from Hodgson either directly or Or bi-tavassufr-i ki va dar chi vaqt oJj
indirectly.
A^ ^ j
Or bud
660
EXAMPLES OF feBRORS IN RHETORIC.

r-%
davlat ra
htch
kamtar az najibu tarbiyat yafta haqir namt-shumarad. Insert the affix ra after tarbiyat yafta && ^*?,A an(^ ambiguity is removed, but the mean\) ing is not the meaning of the English.
'"The
*
Persians rate
than did Sa'di
him not less than Sa'di and FirdausL' (Read and Firdausi,' or else than they rate Sa'di and Firdausi ')."
'
Iramha ura kamtar az Sa'di va Firdawsi dust nami-darand

C5 4>JU
*
j*+t
\)j\
*8
ambiguous.
:
The two following however

narrii-darand
+
|;jt
are clear but with different meanings

ki Sa'di va Firdawsi ra
fy
Iramha ura kamtar dust

cs"**'* **
cr-py j
&y*&*
^^^
^'y
>
liramha ura kamtar dust nami-darand chunanki Sa'di va Firdawsi ura dust
mi-darand ^j*^*
*'
*jz~j$ \jj
is
LT-J^' j L5>*^ ^jlx*. aîjaj ^*>)&^l*f
\^\ l^t^Jf.
an able summary of the history of this remarkable man, who rose to the highest dignities, and deserves to be widely distributed. ' it deserves otherwise who before may seem to be subject [Insert
The
*
lecture
'
'
'
of 'deserves.']"
In
j
^j**
** <-U* &s*
^
etff
J ^ &fi
1
;'
^^^J
L*&
^Jk]
of
o*U5^
^^
)î]
*st
^lJo|
^^JL-./o
ty
i$j$
^jljl
aJljs
an nutq khulasa-yi
az tarikh-i kali In mard-i qabil ki bi-maratib-i 'aliya taragqt karda bud va mustahiqq-i intishar va ishtihar dar dunya *st> the English error
kuttiya-'i
is
repeated;
1
but
insert
<3& ^f an nutq
2 died, the Cardinal
after
va,
and the ambiguity
disappears.
spoke fifty languages.' [This reads as though the cardinal died babbling in fifty languages Substitute, 'before his death was master of at least', etc., or something of the sort."
8 >;^ Mi-guyand Kdrdinal Fulan ki murd panjah zaban mi-danist c>^ OW~S!*H* otij lJ^ *s ** s clear enough but write côt^ô ^lj l^x^ c>^' J^ ts* ** Kdrdinal Fuldn pinjdh zabdn ml-danist ki murd and the sense
^ ;
" 'It
is
said,
when he
&
^^ ^
aqatt*"
might be that he died because he knew

bj
fifty
languages.
vaqt-i ki
Better
Uuj
X?i
,^0
Ji^
ml-guyand
Kdrdinal murd
panjah zaban mi-danist*

(c)
The construction that
looks to the implied sense rather than the
Read
^b
11
lJtfl
& &> CA-|

It
is
j|i>^
te &\ j va an nufa sazavar
ast ki
dar dunya intishar va ishtih&r yubad.
necessary to repeat the word nuf.q
(3^>
as the
pronoun an ^\ can
4
3
refer to
animate beings as well as inanimate things.

AJUJ:(>A/o A
is
Cardinal Mezzofanti.
Or ml-danista
oat
c^|
This construction, giving a double and ambiguous sense,

4
called
by the French
construction louche or
squinting construction.'
EXAMPLES OF ERROKS IN RHETORIC.
661
form, 1 in which some part of speech not expressed has to be inferred from the context, is comon in modern Persian. 2
Our climate is mild and somewhat moist, and except when covered ' once in a year by snow, always presents a green surface.' [ The country Ab u havd-yi ma muldyim vd bdrutubat is the implied subject to presents'].' ast va ghayr az sdl-l yak dap a ki zir-i barf ast dar sd*ir-i awqdt sabz va Ichurram nfi-numayad 3 **io? y j$* j vs~*f &jj) b ) fi&* U
'
"
'
'
Û
'
The tobacco monopoly was broken down in such and such a year and may be included among the benefits owed to the Mujtahids." Inhisar-i tutun-jarushi dar sana-yi fuldn mawquf shud va ml-tavdn jahmil ki in yak-l az i' st ki az mujtahidin randa* ast *~ Jj*y eJ^5 &* )* \j")j* &y*5* j^*% It was not the âxx) jt * o-oî^Jt ^j î t$ &*& &[)*#*} Insert a was benefit.' that thereof monopoly but the breaking down
' '
*
'
'
jl/^su| <*-Axiy tawqif-i inhisdr
between In and
yak-%.
skeleton [a whale's] was thirty-one tons and was Vazn-i ustukhwdnhd~yi badan afterwards exhibited in London and Paris."
*'The weight of
its
si
va yak 'tan'-i Inglisi bud va dar Landan va Paris bardy-i tamdshd bi-mardum nishdn ddda mi-shud &&J j& j d>j ^ûiii u ^' cX j A^ &*> C5 lt>îa-.| &\j ^ e$i^ cr^;^ J (Add the words l^|>3x3L,| e>T an ustukhwdn *&** i^to e; (*^-*J
1
hd before dar Landan e^jJ^^ ). "They both speak a little Persian though
left
6
it is ten years since they da-yi Ishdn* qadr-i Fdrsi mi-tavdnand harf bi-zanand bd-vujud-i ki dah sal pish az in az anjd rafiand îi|^x> ^*)U ^;w *j^' ^5"^-^ ^ *>> ^!^>^j^ o^. Instead of ^Tjf 02 aw /a, xui; laLjfjt ^f Jt cr-y J 1
it
(Persia)/'
Har
>^
write e^jt
'
j>
a^ /raw.
in
" In Great Britain and Ireland there are more females than males, and France the excess of women is still greater but in Spain nearly equal and
;
Pros
to
s&Hiainomenon
'
'
with reference to the meaning

incorrect in English.
',
or the kata sun&sln
'
accord-
ing to the sense.
be used sparingly.
2
*
They They are

is
were, in
Greek and Latin, recognised as rhetorical devices to
4 *
'
The
guilelessness of his
not guilelessnoss \
own heart led him to suspect none in others.' (' Guile,' the intended antecedent of *none'. Read * no guile')." Vide
Note
*
5.
Insert
(^^
zatnln before
y^*
'jh^y r
<*<
If
however zaniin be omitted, there

a time of scarcity (and then selling Arabic on
^
*
in
according to Persian ideas not an actual mistake.

*
Or
rasld.
Ihtikar
:
^L*f
is
hoarding up grain
'
till
it
at a high price)
6
it
does not
mean monopoly.'
this construction correct as it is admissible in
'
.
Modern Persians consider

of
the
authority
the
Quran
i'dilu
huv a
aqrab" Wt-taqvq,
" be just; (Quran) Better
it (i.e. justice) is
the nearest (thing) to piety."
Â Û^t
Man har du.
662
EXAMPLES OF "ERRORS IN RHETORIC.

*
in the United States an excess of males' [i.e.

It
is',
the excess
is
should
etc.]."
be,
the numbers
[
are nearly equal, and

ast
an
in the
nearly equal/ U.S. there
Dar Landau
zan bisk az mard
va dar Fransa kasrat-i zan

bardbar ast va dar
az in
ham
ziydd-tar ast va UJcin dar Ispaniya taqrib

ast
j*
kasrat-i
mard
^)
^vjj
o) e^-ir
a~Jiî
l
^ cu*f ty
(J^^ o)
:
0^4 &j* &j c^j^f )& j ^*f j>^ J \*>j& *J^f )* fc>J j OML Corrected Dar Landan zan bish az mard ast va dar Fransa zan az dnjd ham blshtar ast va an musdm st va dar ltdzum kasrat-i mard llkin dar Ispaniya zan u mard taqrib
9
ast k*U
u< It Whatman of [the Edinburgh Review] could agree with nobody. in the Church strife ? of with sense could parties [He speaks agree anybody " An ruz-nama ba hlch yak-i shan durust namiis required in the last sentence.]
'
'
dmad-kudam
**
shakhs-i
'aqil mi-tavanist
Muhammad Hasan who was

in that
a friend of mine was a Kermani by birth

4
and was educated

ty
Aii'j
town"
(j*\*jf
&*
&*
<*$&*>
Jy
jj
*$
cr
*****
urf j^ *$ (yj
do Muhammad Hasan kiyak-i az rufaqa-yi man bud

tavallud yajta bud.
Kirmanl bud 1, 2, and 5.
zirdki dar
an shahr
Vide p. 661, foot-notes

***
A somewhat
(^
Jf'f f
similar error occurs in
>
^ fU
*
jt
f^**^ ^ fbf
;'*^
&**
khud-at
yo 0.5^ tamalluq-i bisyar kardam *:a pursidam Id az nam u nasab-i mard dgah kun: pursidan is to ask ' and not 'to say,' and should
'
be followed by a question. *' His name is among the most distinguished of painters" ism-i u dar
miyan-i musavvirin-i mashhur-i dunyd
Insert
'st
'
ju~UJ,> )ffi'
&4)r**
^yj^
jt
/**f.
^^ sabt before
Agarchi
"
asdmi-yi\ after &(**> 'miydn-iS bi-lashkar-i pddshdhl ki bd-karrdt u marrdt bar sar-i man
ast,
o*f
and
Ûi
firistdd,
muqdvamat na-tavdnistam,
ammd
oy j e>iy b tf ÂUÛîii
*<^/f
$ jJUltyj
my sacred
o-cjlS^ Ûu,y character was not proof against the attacks

'
^ j^
(H. B. Tr. Chap. XI)
" " -and Although made upon it by the
arms of the Shah, yet.' Here the subject of firistdd is pddshdh, understood from the adjective pddshdKi; read firistdda shud or firistddand, or else mention
the subject of firistdd in the relative clause. "The name of our present cook is
when he
1
likes."
Ism-i ash paz-i hdliyya-yi 8

not taught in Persia.
Muhammad and a very good one md Muhammad ast, va khayK
Geography
French
is
2
8
ttats Unis.
fern.,
Haliyya,
apparently for awqat-i fyaUyya.

khub
y,Aj
663
ham
hast agar bi-Khwdhad khub bi-pazad
^^
j o~*l *+***
This might not be considered incorrect in modern Persian, though incorrect it is, since 'he' is understood in Persian as the subject to hast: write o^jj^j^T v>5 JbJL j va khayK dshpaz-i khub-i 'st.
V .A. tîuî
C~*A Â
v^.
" 'Amen!
'
said Yeo,
it
and many an honest
voice joined in that honest

'
compact, and kept

Chap.
too like
men?
'
Kingsley,
'
Westward Ho!
'
(Ed. 1879,
XXV,
(
"
"
p. 401).
Ouft
dmin
o
va
bisi/dr saddhd-yi digar niz bd
u ma*
shudand va ahd*i khud ra bi-pdydn rasdnidand j>*
ÂJUj Ûb
(d)
AJ
(^
tjs*
^^nx^
^Jo-Ji
jt
IjjJ
insert after
Û~j va
sahibdn-i sadd.
Bi
vdsita-yi
l
<>3>.x-&&x
A^S* tf
uldjhhd va cha*-pdydn va aspha lei sltayha mi-kashidand on account of the asses and other ^ ^^1 &*a\f* ti^ ^ ^î
!
^W
all
animals, and the horses,
of
which were neighing
" here
;
jJ^^Cx-o *^*>
all
shayha mi-kashidand does not refer to l^f asphd alone, but to animals this is not considered incorrect in Persian.
:
the
Zeugma
a
is
a figure in
grammar
in
which
tivo
nouns are joined to

or
verb or to an adjective suitable to one only, the missing verb In English, Zeugma is usually a blunder. adjective being suggested.
Instances of
scenes or incidents
Zeugma
in
Persian seem rare
Examples
are:
"
Many
other travellers.'
cui>
j'j
ij
which are graphically narrated, are told as well, or better, by [One cannot narrate a scene]." Compare 8>J^ ^ (AJ^>
8 j^.L
5
^^L ^(A
shahrhd va dlda u shunida-ha-yi khud ra baz
guft.
"'He
my
long absence,
accounted, handsomely enough, for the delay by saying that and the recent loss in my family, prevented him from
applying to me immediately on my return.' [This holds good of the second reason but hardly of the first]," U ma'zarat khwast ki g&iybat-i shumd va
fawt-i
pidar-am mdni
bi-rasam
&
-i
in shud ki bi-mujarrad~i murdja'at-i jandb-i
all
bi-khidmat
&
*{*
i>J
&j*
U
' '
However
in,
" The bees and birds sang sweetly
'
(for
the bees
hummed
and the birds sang sweetly'), the Zeugma is hardly a blunder; it is a meta'Sang in gladness/ however, would be better than 'sang sweetly.' phor. This may be called c r}^'
are a source of error. Amongst (e) Too many negatives must be included such words as scarcely/ seldom,' 'few,' etc.
'
negatives
'
He thought the wealth and honours of this world poor compensation for a quiet conscience and a healty frame.' [It should be, compensation for the
c
'
"
want
of
'
etc.]."
In, <^!>-^
L>
^ ^)*>)
last
*&j
Compare
example in
(c
664
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
'arza-yi pddishdh rd qdbul na-kard rd chunki 'izzat u davlat-i dunya jazd-yi kam-i bar ay- i drdmi-yi zamlr va quvva-yi bunya pindasht read AAX* ly> f*& i^**** (j*tf (*** C5^ baray-i adam-i drdmi-yi zamlr va 'adam-i quvva-yi bunya; or else after j UJa dunya ra, write
|pl
?
^+* ^fjf
9
u-t/j
^^ zdhid
'
Mk' <x
V
'
<-$*^
c^D^ **^
*** ^
^-^
c?
A5
l>1'
(u^*
r ) *^
{
^*>
nisbat
bi-
(or
iwaz-i)
arami-yi zamlr va guvva-yi bunya jaza-yi kam-l

**
pindasht.
'
Few
;
of his friends, except myself,

'
[This
is like
'
saying,
have
*
little
'none
'alava
or for 'except,'
besides
kingdom/ money except a penny.' For few read " and " except ']." Ohayraz y j& means
*
knew
of his being in the
bar^ Ûc means "besides," and the English error

x*< ^^JIJL^^
*To~J
^^ (jij or) J&* e>*3' }& ghayr az man

;
kas-lazdustdn-ash mi-danisl* ki
or *$
*~*\**
:
^^; $
reproduced in: mushkil (or kamtar)

is
i&*> j\
j** g&ayr az
man
kam-i az rufaqa-yash mi-danistand ki
use in
modern Persian
of } *e yhayr
and
fy&&
however owing to the slovenly 'alava, few Persians would con-
ÎJUj^ examples faulty. Corrected: <^* jl ki man namt-danist* az dustan-ash kuddm az hich ^cu*Jt>j^ ghayr ." his friends except myself knew
sider either of the
(/)
' :
jt
p\*
" none of
The foregoing examples are partly right and partly wrong. The fol" The unwary traveller stumbles to rise no more.' lowing are wholly wrong after falls' must be inserted stumbles,' stumbling, neither being ['And
*
possible to one
on the ground, nor necessarily implying a fall.] Agar musdfir az ruy-i graftal dardn part-gdh sikandan bi-khurad hargiz na *!f khwdhad bar kk-dst j>j*> j>;^*u ;t e^> ^f; ^ cî^ ^^ )\ yUx>^f
who
"
lies
^ u^
oôlAy
afloat.'
jAjâciJ.
Insert
*&# ^ va biyuftad,
is
after
is
^û ^^* sikandari bi-khurad.

one
of the best transport ships
is
"'The 'Queen,'
[This phrase
the best, vs^f &\jt\
without exception,
unmeaning, as the 'Queen'
said to be not
but one
of the best, etc.]."
c Compare <jrU^ &ij*j*' j\
^ ^~t &
3
j\
billd istisnd
yak-laz mudabbir-tarin-i hukamd-yi Iran ast (m.c.).
"The
3urat-hd-yi
sad
faces
and joyous music
formed
an incongruous
"
sight
mutribdn tamdshd*-t ($amgin-i ndzirdn va musiqi-yi tarab-angiz-i bud ki bdham vifq na-ddsht &\.>^* v^3 î-r* 5 &jF& &*?+* c^Vi^ W+* tamdshd kardan and &*** didan oi|jj m.c. In ) c^^/
>^
Âb A^^J
^ÎJ.
are frequently used in the sense of hearing, as: fuldn kas dvdz mi-khwanad, e4 biydytd biravim tamdshd kunim, bi-bmlm chi tawr mi-khwdnad }\$
iju
ûLjj
*u>
it
Ul^
+)jj)
^5U>
<iofîvAx>
(m.c.).
'
'The occurrence,
was said at the banquet, was a thing
unprece-
Or
better
j<Ju-J Ji^-
chiz-i pasl-l.
2
3
In modern Persian the pkiral OAuJ|>j;A3 ml-ddniatand is often (incorrectly) used. This is not exactly Zeugma, vide* (d), as the error lies in a noun, and not in an
adjective or verb.
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
IN RHETORIC.
665
;
dented in the history of Scotland.' We have no doubt of it and we trust it will always remain so.' Times, 23rd October 1866." In vdqi'a dar tavdrikh-i Askdtland bi-sdbiqa ast va ummid ddnm ki hamisha chunm bdshad (orkhwdhad
mdnd) **b ^>i

(aSU o^fyx or). " A season more favourable for roses can scarcely be imagined, certainly It never has been surpassed.' [For has been surpassed read has occurred.'
*
'
'
is
a more favourable season has never been surpassed.'] Fasl-i bardy-i gulhd mufidtar az in fasl tasavvur nami-tavdn kdrd va yaqinan
nonsense to say
'
"
hich vaqtbihtar
ham na-buda
^
ast
&\j**!+> jp**
clai ^jf
Â/O
lî?
^^
{J
Lnf
o~(
**)**
*
f* j^. oJ^
gHiA Uxftj^ (correct).
it
The dance roused the Kirmani audience to applause but I do not think would do so in London.' [It is not likely that a Kirmani audience would be
to
applause in England. do not listen to a dance.'] people an ddsht ki shdbdsh bi-guyand vali
roused
For
audience
'
substitute
spectators:
Raqs-i u tamashachiyan-i Kirmani ra bar
gumdn namikunam dar Landan
in tawr
bdshad.
(Say
txiiCj
jîjl c>^^ Îj^liUii tamdshdchiydn-i
Landan m tawr
bi-kunand).
(g) (1) A metaphor is an implied simile and unless an intelligible simile can be evolved from the metaphor, the metaphor is false. In the writings of even good Persian authors, metaphors abound that
are absurd, strained, false, or confused.
Study the following:
JlAf
AÎ JLcî^f Â.

Surat-i
o**fj
^3 !^*^ cA* ^ ^'y^

1
(.Â/oK
j*H>
3'
u jdmayi majd u sa' ddat rd tardz Ma'ni-yi u khdlim-i iqbdl-i dawlat rd nigin
l
hama g&anj u jarib mushkin-i alfdz-ash sar-d-sar tab u chin Turra-yi Az kaldm-i kdmil-ash anvdr~i ddnish shu la~zan
Ariz-i rangin-i ash dr-ash
(
East chun asrdr-i ilm uz sina-yiahl-iyaqin.

l
(Anv. Sub., Prof.).
"
Its
Its sense the
and happiness, of the fortune that and success decks ring gem While from its verses' tinted cheek love's wiles and witchcrafts
is
form
fringe-like to the robe of joy
beam,
Its diction's labyrinthine curls like
musky
ringlets
seem."
)
(East. Trans.
The form
of the
book
is like
the fringe of the robe of happiness.'
666
EXAMPLES OF ERROKS IN RHETOIUC.

Dil agar khana bi-sazad bi-sari
zulf-i
it
(Trans. Hajl Baba; would build it upon thy locks."
Intro. Epis.)
c *
were
tusazad 03^ y *-* my heart able to build a dwelling,
" 'The passions may be humoured till they become our master, as a horse may be pamporei till he gets the better of his rider; but early discipline will prevent mutiny, and keep the helm in the hands of reason.'
[The metaphor,
if
not actually mixed,
is
here too abruptly changed.]"
Tan dadan
bi-nafs-i
am^ra
;
bfris-i
âlaba-yl
an khwlhad thud* chundnki
asp ra agar bisyar tavajjuh va navdzish kunand digar savari na-khwahad dad va sar-kashi khwahad kard amma ajar az avval nafs va asp ra jalaw-gin va
la*dib
larbiyat
numzyand az zahmat-i
'aql
sar-kashi-yi
dnha
riha*i
*<
mi yaband va
sukkan-i har du dar dast-i
mi-manad
'U).
<
" helm ' [For ^^** sukkan

l
'
,
read
^na?^
'
rein],
"'One
of usefulness
of
which he has
[
the sources from which has sprung that abundant harvest scattered broad-cast through the length and breadth
I,
broad cast, which applies to In asl yak-i az sar-chitfimi-haî ki az anîa h~isil-i vdfir-i seed, not crop]." ^ xf I u u tul-i zdd u bum-i 2 khud pashida sar zada ast Jf ki dar arz mufid
of his native land.'
Source;
2,
harvest;
3,
^}.
[For
V)
1
az anha,
AjasAâ].
rwd^ *&*>.
bi-vasita>yi
anhai and for
^Û
pashida, read Ai^tf
"We
see
how
difficult it is
to eradicate the stamp which the
mother
puts upon her child." Az in masal mi-blnim ki istisal-i minqush-l ki mddar *^ bar farzand-i khud mi-numdyad chi qadr mushkil ast f&& ^j* <-k*ejO*
J^^
o^-ot
jSsOj&&A> Û> ij*
&}*>
vjy
^>
^>dt>
^*^fti>o.
[Instead of
J^^t
istisal,
read
^^^ûc mahv
The
following,
fear dan].
an instance
of confusion of
inelegant in
modern Persian: ^t ) ^*t ^.U^f c^ l+* &+*<?<> i*r*\* daman-i marhamat-i shuma chun abr saya afkand va musmir-i $amar shud. In a work on Persian Grammar, occurs this sentence, "This glare of
^^
metaphors,
is
not considered
The word sukkan ",helm"

(Sukkdn
is is
'
is
ever seen a ship. word ' sea-cunny

2
also the Ar. pi. of sdkin "dweller.")
not generally known to Persians as few of them have The Anglo-Indian
fjJ
8
z<*d
if3
u bum, m.c.
a corruption of sukkanl. for ^3 zad-bum.
^y
Bi-vasifa-yi In sar-chashma basil ra kaahta

is
am
considered correct Persian.

anger was evident in
his postures
667
asar-i
khashm dar harakdt wa sukanat
<
ashpaida amad." The English and Persian are equally objectionable. " Akin to confusion of metaphors, are incongruities of speech and (2) Irish Bulls/ A medical student, when asked what progress he had made
*
in medicine, replied, for I think

I
hope
I shall
am now able to cure a

bi-shavam ziraki
child.
lial
soon be fully qualified to be a physician,' Ouft ummidvar-am ki hamin zudlhd

' '
duktur-i kamii-i
mi-tavanam
atfal ra
mu'alaja
kunam
In Mirza Hairat's excellent translation of Malcolm's History of Persia Just when the key of occurs an intricate passage to the following effect of those his in one ..... snatched the was events hand, extraordinary victory
'
:
tempting morsel from his

This
is
lips.'
This confusion of metaphors
is
not con-
sidered inelegant by Persians.

scarcely so ludicrous, as
"
:
We
shall never rest until
we
see the
British lion walking
hand
in
hand with the floodgates

2
of
democracy.
*\j*
(Exorjl
dium
of
(
an
English
Politician)."
^(f+tLi*.
Compare the following:

&xj?(
lx>
o*f
0~JO
^\^
ÂU j
*
y*
Jf
fj
^Â
^l^T
>
jf
^JjA ^(jjjj
^f tf *>j>\ ^<jt *
*z\ ^y~** \) &(**. U L^ ^^j*J

*>$
"xSj->j|
(H. B., Chap.
XXIV).
is
(h)
Confusion as to the logical subject of discourse
another source of
error.
cause too have you for thankfulness on account of the many which you are preserved.' [The true construction is, from temptations of your preservation from many temptations.' The relative clause is here " Az afmal-i shahr ki shuma qabiha-yi mah/uzml-mamd bayad inseparable]."
6
"'Much
khayli shukr-i
Khuda rd
bi-ja
dvand
jf
cXiU
j^JU ^x> JOÂ./O
U^ A^^
AacujxJ Jt^ci J|
].
jj^f lû
[;
\*Lj&>
^^.
[Read
oJsli^ (jaxi+> bi-mahz-i hifagat az
*'*The skirt of her dress, which was on fire, was put out by Mrs. .' [Read the fire which had caught the shirt of her dress, etc."]. Daman-i qdba,
yiura, ki atashgitifta bud,khamush kardand<Jj*^ty Alj^^f M\)$ Ûi^ôb A>^. In Persian this is said to be no mistake, as daman is considered
to
be a JU. ^*b cUvc Jlmx majaz-i mahall bi-ism-i hdl s 'the use of the
is
place for what
in
it.'
This Persian sentence has been submitted to the judgment of many Persians, whom prided themselves on their proficiency in Arabic. All of them failed to see the incongruity, even when it was
1
several of
carefully explained.
of the future we can see the hidden footprints of an unseen hand." A Eurasian father was heard to say to his son " You have buttered your bread and now you must lie on it."
is:
Another bull
"All along the untrodden path
Example 4* ^;U>
i.e.
cjtejU riavdan jarl
shud " the gutter in the roof began to
flow,"
the water flowed.
668
EXAMPLES OP ERRORS IN RHETORIC.
143 (6), force and point are derived from (1) (1) As already stated in the skilful use of the same word in different senses. 1 Persians are fond of
this figure.
(Tr.
Example:
*>^ &&# J&

"
H.
B., Chap.
XXXVII),
ftt
&>&& J*j j& ^ Lyi>*> Oj*(when 'shecame to her senses) and saw herself
jf
**>.&
in the
is
arms
of a stranger she
tarn
became greatly upset

(Trans. H. B. p. ra).
' '
:
Tajms-i
u*^^
Rakht-i khwab na-dashtan
this use of blgana zahmat-l na-dasht*
o-fciaij/wO
s^faJ V I^L o^,
Remark. 'The unskilful use of the same word in the same sentence, with different meanings, or (ii) as different parts of speech, is an awkward(i) ness to be carefully avoided in English.' Examples: (i) 'The terrible
War of Succession had now arrived at such a point that the royal authority seemed on the point of being destroyed.' (ii) 'The guinea places were better filled than the half-guinea, and not a jot better. (' Better' used as
9
adverb and adjective in the same sentence,)

(2)
is
But the
repetition of the
same meaning
in slightly different
words
a fault even worse than the repetition of the same word. To say the same thing twice over in different ways in the same context, or to repeat unnecessarily the same word several times (that is the useless repetition
of the
same
thing),
if
In Persian,
Persian ear,
-XAJÎ^). Tautology the jingling sound or adds to tautology

(
is
is
pleasing to the
of tautology
it is
considered a branch of Ornament.
Examples
are:
Portuguese law, every person is legally obliged to join the battalions arranged in defence of the country." Compare &+& e^t oyU^d <>ib aî <x>k <kli *afc, dar Iran UUj hama-yi ra'aya bdyad az qdnun-i ^)) j! gfjb,*
"
By
the
ruy-i
hukm-nama muti
-i
shar* bashand.
still
"In
**
'
addition to these, there was superadded a
more
fatal
and
*>3U
indelible source of discord."

(i)[tf
Compare >^>
^ ^j*j
oy ^rÛo &(^.& j
ham mazid
and
in the
aldva bar nuqsdn-i tijaral-ash fawt-i pidar-ash
bar an shud.
" He always communicated

ÂX>
eiUj
his directions with clearness

;
most
&+*>
concise terms, yet without obscurity"

j*l^j|
jlvaia.bj l.^tj
(
f;
tj** cU*^l jj$*t>
&J&J
bi-ikhtisar-i harchi
(j)
^L*U *Â hama-yi dastur^l- amal-i kh,ud ra vazih tamdmtar bi-dun-i 5 ibham bayan ml-kard.
an
va
It
dancy.
not always easy to distinguish between Tautology and Redun" the reason In, why Socrates was condemned to death was on account
is
*
3
The Figure Place or Antanaclasis. Did and gardid is Tajnw-i zu*id.

Tafnls-i ishtiqaq.
*
5
For the three kinds of Hashv or ' stuffing in Persian, vide Wl cy** bidun-i ibham is .-jjAJf^.Â. hashv-i qablh.
'
142 Bhetoric.
EXAMPLES OP ERRORS IN RHETORIC.

due to thoughtlessness, and would be Redundancy rather than Tautology. [Delete either on account of or the reason why and the second was']." Compare fAc ob jl j| <J&> ^lytf oy* JLol ;a
of his unpopularity," the error is
'
'
'
ty ftj* cuiU) dar as? jihat-i fatva-yi
qatl-i
u az 656 '-t
*
'
adam-i
rizayat-i
mardum
bud.
English redundancies sanctioned by good usage are, from hence', 'from ' thence from whence.' In modern Persian a preposition is as a rule prefixed
* ,
to the adverbs tnja l>Jt,
and anja Uuf while some prepositions are now

,
sel-
dom
used singly as, az baray

is
^^
A+A
jf,
bi-gjiayr, j***
bi-juz^*u.
This redun-
dancy
b,4jl* j&s*.
of
;
Emphasis sometimes assumes the appearance

without exception
"
redundancy, as: "all
UjuUf
&
hama
bi-ld istisna
" not one
single
man
is
of
you" U
AJ na-yak nafar-i vahid az shuma; "there jt <>^yiJ -j " hick Ifas nikukar mat that doetli good, no not one yak-l ham na *j A& Pleonasm is This V^MOJ j(jjj ^C
.
none
*&>
\j
^xJLoâ..
(^)
4i
A new
construction should not be introduced without cause.
Write
aiding or
walking" or
:
"on
foot or on horseback ", but not "on foot or
riding."
Compare
khud
zahir-sazi az qabtl-i bi-zamin nigaristan^
mz
dar
taqaddus-farushi
va
ah-i sard kashidan, va bihuda lab-
jumbarii, va sukut~i sakhta, va tursh-ruî, va kaj-khulqi, va bi-mazayi, va parsafi
bi-gard-am naml-rasul.
(Trans.
"HajlBaba," Chap.
45)
"No
face wore a
more mortified appearance than mine: even the dervish, who was the best mimic possible, could not beat me in the downcast eye, the hypocritical ejaculations, the affected taciturnity of the sour, proud, and bigoted man of
the law."
9
Compare
also the Figure Saji'-i Mutavazin,
cJJL^
-,
jj(f
vide
'
l-Adab t Vol.
I,
Beyrout edition 1902, p. 150.

<ÂVO;J>
l
Note the change
of subject in:
Û
^Kjl^
Substitute
is
common
in
modern Persian, but

:
is
Such a change to be condemned.

*j-U^5.
of subject
In the following "The detectives were baffled by the many complications, and had it not been for outside help, the murders would not have
been solved to this
day", though
and the
;
there
is
no actual
fault,
of subject is unnecessary
style therefore loose
(^Lu*>).
the change 'Detectives

'
should be the subject throughout also the co-ordination is slovenly. Reconstructed: "The Detectives were 50 baffled by the many complications that
had
they not obtained outside help, they
would not have
".
(Tr.
Compare: H. B.
In Persian Hashv-i qabih, but in English Redundancy.
670
Chap.
XXXII,
*;+>
p. 259)
the subject to
oJ/
1
gin ft
is
^Cy
Farangi, but the
subject to
(1)
bi-murd
is
^*&'~ nasaqchi.
(1)
is
An
"
'
Antithesis
2
may
be faulty or
it
may
be incomplete.
An
antithesis
faulty
" when the balanced terms present no actual contrast."

life
Example
1
His speeches in after

'
attest his familiarity with the least,

e
as well as with the best, read

'
Roman
writers.'
Least
'
requires
;
*
most
',
as
best would require Compare f; j&\& f^M> ' rd mi-n gdrim va shumd zahir ra. 8 [* Darun &jj& requires
worst ']."
'
U>
&*>&
U>
ma damn
'
jAU
zahir
'
requires ^tlj
uldyjjt
;
bdtin
i
Jlf
'
].
eSlf Ji**
j îl^ Ji*
e>*>
birun* &*j&, and man misl-i insdn-
am
va u misl-i
for
ulagh read
c>!>*^
hayvan].
incomplete* "when much of its possible effect is lost through non-preservation of consonance of the terminations," i.e. when it "'The idea which under, is unbalanced ( ^;^ gjtayr-i mutavazin).
An
antithesis
is
&
lies
most
of his plays is a struggle of virtue assailed
by
external or inward
temptations.'
[This should
be
'outward
or
inward',
or
'external or
internal.']"
6 (m) (1) Climax (a ladder) "is
an ascending scale",
is
i.e.
a rhetorical
arrangement
**
of clauses in
which there
a graduated increase in emphasis.

;
We glory in
tribulations also,
;
patience experience (Rom. v. 3, 4 ) i;_H cu>Aâx> A^^XJ
knowing that tribulation worketh patience and " and experience hope and hope niaketh not ashamed
;
iXxx>
A>^ ^xi^vo /.
^lâJxi^
f^
p*> lî'^fl.*^^
AL
jî ^ J ^^l^^cî
sabr rd
s*.Û
.>AX:(
i^
>ACI
ÎsuM
lû
^t
ai j
) ^vCjjxs IÂJ
va
na
tanha balki dar musibafha
ham
fakhr mi-kuriim chunk'i
mi-damm
ki musibat
payda mi-kunad vd sabr imtihdn rd va imtihdn ummid rd va ummld
bdîs-i sfiarrnsdti nami-shavad.*
IJabib-i
man qamar
lust
ast balki
shams
^^ *^
it
*^^*f
j**
&* VH^^ (Example

when
in Arabic Gram.).
"Then when
hath conceived,
bringeth forth sin: and sin,

i.
& ^x
it is
finished, bringeth forth
^ pas shahvat dbistan shuda gundh rd mi-zdyad va gundh bi-anjam rasida mawt rd taulid mi-kunad.
>J^5
t
tj
o^>c i***>) f)>^>
death" *M j ^^'
t
(James
15) *U?
>
^~>1
^^ ^
opposed to Climax and is, unless used for a special purpose, a fault in style; it consists in an abrupt descent from stronger to weaker expressions. Examples:
(2)
Anti^clima^c
is
xJO b'ichara
nasaqchi,
or
in m.c. of subject
^w.a J
is
jjlasuo bl-chara-yi nasaqchi.
Both
ft
in English
and
in
Urdu such a change
bad.
Faulty Antithesis might be called Tazadd-i qablh ^^J.
.4.1*.*
^^
*
6 6
Incomplete Antithesis might be called regular name in Persian but taraqql or tadrij might be coined for Trans, revised by Rev. R. Bruce, D.D. TanazztU or infyi^ ; coined term.
Nu
this.
671
^J
b shuma shakhs-i buzurg-i hasfid, bd

:
'ilm,
bd
/a?Z,
bd tadayyun\ raqs ham /chub mi-kunid j*&>^}$ u^T^ ^^^^;^ 9 ^)h* )* j\ u dar savdri va shikar va munshi-gari va dsh-pazi na$r na-ddrad:
'
^
;
jj
^xj
%,
shumd
kitab-i Sa*di rd
khwdnda
id
Bali khayli khub ast bi-nazir a$t
qumdn mi-baram
ki dar
Kirmdn dah mard
mst
lei
bi-tavdnand in jur kitdb bi-nawsand (m.c.).

'
He was eminently truthful in all things. I do not believe he would have told a falsehood, even on his oath " &**>& }\ ^-^\ ^t j g**> ) *f &*$)^> )* îsw ^*;^J-^ 2j2*$+> u hamisha rast-gu buda ast va hlch
'
"
^^
^
is
^b
o^
bdvar-am nami-shavad ki hatta dar sawgand-i khud

<f
*
riiz
darug^-i bi-guyad.
Where
'
the
is
man
if
or minister either
who
has not read

It should be
c
Guy Manman, even

This
nering [This a minister.'] "
as
a minister were not a
m in.
a^j'5lx>
Kujd
ast
dnddam yd
xif
(orbdshad)
bdshad
(n)
(<vib or) cu^t
should be kujd ast d-
ddam
ki
m kitdb
mulld'i ki in kitdb rd na- khwdnda ast

f;
V U"
^Ji
U r ^f
^ 0^*1 t^.
mulla
rd
na-khwdnda
ast agarchi
ham
It is
a violation of the " Rule of Suspence

of a long sentence,
is
"
to introduce unexpected-
ly, at the
end
such a clause
some short and unemphatic clause (unless purposely so introduced for the sake of effect). In, jj>
Aapjf
^xiKjjo
>-T ^<5
e; 1
^*^
It
is
(
(Tr.
H. B. Chap. XXIII), the sentence logically

'
ends at **$ kunam.

(o)
an ill-constructed
lj
loose sentence.'
Coherence
Jk'-jjy
(
J=j;
is
).
partly a matter of Syntax
y*u
and
partly a matter of Logic
(jf-kv
Avoid
illogical
compound
sentences.
complex sentence must have
one main part, and that part must be expressed as the main clause. The " Avoid danger. Keep your seats following therefore are both illogical: (i)
till
the car stops

tl
"
*o2
l>
Ai~^
c5
^^
*r* ***~4 aCJ|^

till
LJ
and
(ii)
Avoid danger and keep your seats
the car stops
^ ^('^\ ^^yi, "

cÛiî jk*.
An
English
example of
this
error is:
"This reform has already been highly
countrymen, and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us industry, self-dependence, and frugality, and not, as some say, wastefulness" Corrected: " and will, I am persuaded, encourage among us, not, as some say, wastefulness, but industry, self-dependence and frugality."
beneficial to all classes of our
*
The same
illogicalness exists in the
Urdu
672
EXAMPLES OF ERRORS
The sentence should
logically be:
IN RHETORIC.
"To
avoid danger, keep your seats
till
the car stops
' '
aCJfc *$
^j ^b
U
&k~& j^L Û.
^L. y vUi^f
are not co-ordinate,

reasons of
reference
Connecting, by the co-ordinating conjunction and, two statements that Other is one common instance of incoherence ( -kW) ê )
1
want
of
of unity
and lack
of coherence are,
undue
ellipsis,
the faulty
pronouns, and the faulty placing of qualifying words and

).
phrases
^5**** *****
Note the ambiguity
in:
Reconstructed as follows, there
is
no ambiguity:
In Urdu
3^
way with a
|~J
^^ U(ly a ^ so
^^1O
following English and.
Urdu
sentences
"
"
(a) Illogicali
turned to reply,
wên
crash
t$3
\ytf
^yo jj
^^ ^^^- V^
is
the platform on which I was standing gave eH^ ^î *^* &J ^- <&*
V^
<.
î
This sentence
logically upside down, both in English and Urdu:
In Urdu job in such a the main thought is expressed as subordinate and vice versa. tab If for ki then and stands be and then &t means substituted w*3. only' position for jab *-*o^, it will denote simultaneous action and the Urdu idiom will be correct (as it
^^
would be
in Persian) though the Pluperfect phera tha would be more idiomatic.

(6)
of the Preterite, JÂ^J instead
Logical:
" When
turned to reply, the platform on which I was standing gaye
way with a crash" fjf
^x> ^j
^^
^j**-
\j**$
<H^
^XJ
*t>
*->\f>
L.
&**
" When the (c) If you write, platform on which I was standing gave way with a crash, I turned to reply " L. ^. \5^ e^*_*i cr^ !/^^ V*^ 5i J* j**^ |k^J A^LS JkJ ^. ^JJ^, the idea is that the writer remained unmoved in the midst of
^*
the crash.
2
lf
or
THE END.
APPENDICES.
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
PART
I.
I.
ACCIDENCE.
.
. .
II.
III.
Arabic Forms and Measures On the Stems of the Verb, etc. The Fourteen 'Conjugations' (Stems, Participles, and
.
.
Page 077 682

685
Infinitives)
IV. V.
VI.
Quadriliteral Verbs Irregular and Weak Verbs Indeclinable Verbs
..
.
..
. .
..696
. .
698
VII.
VIII.
Verbal Nouns of Action formed with
&+J\ )&**l\
.
.
700
. .
IX. X.
XI.
Noun of Time and Place Noun of Instrument Other Verbal Nouns

The Noun
(ol^Jf
701
..
.
.
..
.
.
..
. .
703 704
706
^]
Concrete Noun)
.
XII. XIII.
Noun of Unity Some Forms of Nouns derived from Verbs

.
. .
706 706
708 712
XIV.
Verbal Adjectives, Degrees of Comparison,

<~
etc.
'**
*~<,
XV.
XVI.
XVII.
XVIII.
Intensive Adjective or Intensive Agent (&JUJJ JÛJf *~J). * * * " Z The Relative (Denominative) Adjective, and its Abstract Noun and Collective Plural
.
,
714 718
,$*/
<,
. . .
The Diminutive (**u*X\
*>[
XIX.
XX.
XXI. XXII. XXIll.
.. .. Gender .. .. Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine Note on iinal Declension of Nouns, and Regular Plurals
, . .
.
..720
.
.
723 724 726
Diptotes
..
..
..
..732
.
.
Broken, Inner, or Irregular Plurals, and Plurals of Paucity 734 and Multitude
.
.
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns (gH^f
p*\),
and Class Nouns (&*)\ *fi) 745

746
XXV.
XXVI.
XXVII.
XXVIII.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb, Active and Passive (Tenses and Moods)
.
.
Pronouns
..
..
..
..
..750
. .
Numerals
)Cardinals
..
..
..
. .
759
The Ordinals..
Other Classes
of the
of
..
.
..763
.
XXIX.
Numerals
..
766
XXX. Days
Week
..
..
..768
676
APPENDIX
A.
ARABIC GRAMMAR.
Page 768
769
XXXI.
XXXII.
XXXIII.
The Year
Prepositions (jSfJ\
Jj^
),
Exceptive Particles,
.. ..
etc.
Conjunctions
..
..774
. .
XXXIV.
Adverbs (and the Approximate Verb

Interjections..
..
..
a(fl
779
XXXV.
..785
PART
II.
SYNTAX.
.. .. XXXVI. Nouns Definite and Indefinite XXXVII. The Copula " Is," etc. XXXVIII. The Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns
. .
.
..788
.
789 790
797 798
XXXIX.
XL. XLI.
XLII.
XLIII.
.. .. Order of Sentence Interrogative and Relative Pronouns Cases of Nouns, and Kan* and its Sisters.'
*
..
. .
..796
.
Government
of
U
a
and
31
and Particles that Govern

. .
like
. .
Verbs (or Inn and its Sisters) The Negatives and Interrogative Negatives, and Particles
Incitement and Reproof .. Tenses ..
Indicative, Subjunctive, etc.,
.
805
of
809
XLIV.
..
-.
-.810
-
XLV.
Moods
..
(after
y*>*J
.-
ji
.îj)
..
..815 -.818
.
.
.
.
XLVI.
XL VII. XL VIII.
XLIX.
L.
Optative
Mood
..
.
.
..
. .
..
. .
Government of Verb The Passive The Impersonal Verb

Participles
819 820 822

823 826 826
(and
Aorist)
. .
.
and
the
. . . .
Infinitive,
.
.
and
their
LI. LII. LIII.
Government Concord of Verb

Prepositions
To Have..
..
..
..
..832
832
LIV.
LV. LVI.
LVII. LVIII.
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive, and Sentences Relative Clauses .. .. Conditional and Concessional Sentences .. Temporal Clauses Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition
.
.
Interrogative
. -
..
. .
..836
.
841
.*
.
LIX.
XiX.
Asyndeton .. Forms of Wonder, Surprise, or Admiration

Verbs of Praise and Blame
(
....
^^l
>
844 347
849
..
..849
..
,.
LXI
,
*Jt JlaM
),
Approximate
. .
(and Inceptive) Verbs, and Potentials

JS
+lf*
)
851
LXII.
LXIII.
Apposition
J^j
etc..
853
857
Emphasis or Corroborate on
Paradigms
..
**fti)f
LXIV.
or *$)&\ "
'.
.
.
..
..
.,859
APPENDIX
I.
A.
Arabic Forms and Measures.
(a) Arabic words abound in even the daily vocabulary of the Persians, while Arabic phrases and quotations are not uncommon in their writings. Not only is a knowledge of Arabic roots indispensable for the advanced
student of Persian, but also some acquaintance, at least, with the elements of Arabic grammar.
1
(b)
\fJ
Nearly every
9 S i,'^
'
Jrf'H*
Arabic word can * f W W*

'
be
9 *
o-'fc''
traced
to
tri literal
root
f*.
Quadriliteral roots
is
(^Lyf JLoJP)
are rare.
few nouns*
:
are primitive, that

*,<j
they cannot be referred to any verbal root, as

fi*^*,
;
^/^
"horse";
two
f*)t
"a dirhem "

'"
J^yU
of the
"quince."
Some words have but

particles.
*
letters, as for instance
some
pronouns and
-C"
;
The verb
tion
(root) cXv* signifies

<-iL$
*
"he accepted"
JUj
is
virtually a preposi-
"before";
is
the active participle or agent "accepter;

-PO-PO-
able
8
;
to
-
receive; capable,
^ *
is
fit": J>*&*
is
the passive
* 'O O
is
participle
"accepted
of
ibt&e
"confronting, opposition"; JU&*?

to
"going out
the
city
some
person," from ciu, the three radical letters occur somewhere in the word, and that the idea "accept or receive"
be seen that, in
all
distance,
meet
friend
or
receive a great
It will
these derivatives
is
more or
less
concealed in each.
er,
Supposing laugh to be an English root, the agent is formed by adding the participle or the gerund by adding ing, and the past participle by
ed.
adding
letters,
Such modifications are obtained
in Arabic, not only
by
suffixing
but by prefixing them; by inserting combination of these methods.

'
letters in the middle, or
by a
Some knowledge
**>
of Arabic roots
is
also necessary for a proper
knowledge of Urdu.
In Persian, la Lo
In Persian, j^Lo
tions,
Under Nouns ', Arabs include Adjectives and Pronouns, and Adverbs, and Interjections. Nouns are either primitive (
*
also certain Preposi<x*ct&. "

)
?
or derived
'
)-
There are only a few quinqueliteral primitive nouns. Hence "acceptable to the heart ", and in Modern Persian,
pretty."
678
ARABIC FOKMS AND MEASURES.

9,
(c)
$~
*
* t
<*,
*3>
The
seven servile letters
8*il)Jf
JuâJf , or *$\l\ *
<.?+*,"
used to expand a
word, are contained in the Arabic word

fat."
>^x..'u
yataaammanu "they become
According to Arab grammarians there are ten *3fjj zawcfid^ contained in the Arabic words l^JJU. *'you asked me about her." In this phrase, hamzah and alif are both given as it is added to some infinitives,
;
,
to
prefixed to the
of unity, etc., and to form the feminine and J,as it is and third persons of the Aorist Active (and in the Passive to the second persons also) to form the Imperative, " Let me, let them, etc."
;
form the noun

first
o-c"* 9 9 * <s
),
(d)
The
radical letters (*jJUJff vJjâJf
always found in primitive roots,
are twenty-one.
(e)
At
first
sight
it
may
appear that to find the root of a word,
all
is
;
that
is
necessary is to strip it of all servile letters. This, however, the case, for the servile letters are not used for augmentation only
roots themselves contain one
not
some
all
and even three
servile letters: so,
were
serviles eliminated
from
the derivatives of such roots, the
whole root as well
augmentation might disappear. It is therefore necessary to know the form of a word, i.e. in what order or position the letters of augmentation occur in each form of derivative.
(/)
as the letters of
The noun that expresses the simple action

all
is
is
considered as the
It supplies
is,
masdar or "source" from which

the place of the Infinitive, which ever, variable in form.
derivatives are derived.
wanting in Arabic.
it
This noun
how-
The Arabs have
therefore found
a convenient fiction to treat
all
words
as though derived from the third person singular masculine of the Preterite Tense, Indicative Mood, Active Voice ; so, in Arabic dictionaries, all derivatives (except
such roots as contain weak letters

for under, this root.
),
are grouped under,

f
and
must be looked
(g)
Arab grammarians have taken,
as a typical root, the

*
*
word cU*
*
\<
( u* fi l
signifying ac&'on,
and have expanded the root cU*
in every possible
way
to
form paradigms of every part of speech that could possibly be derived from a root, and the formulae so obtained are called " forms, or measures, of words." Just as all the tenses of the Greek verb tupto do not exist in
any one Greek verb, so no
single Arabic root affords all the
forms and
roots, for
measures assigned by grammarians to the root d**.
From some
These must
foe
looked for under the pure root,
i.e.
the form of the trilateral
infinitive.
ARABIC FORMS AND MBAS0RBS.

banoe, only
i
679
is
two or three verb-derivatives
exist.
Also, the root-meaning
always traceable in every derivative.

(h)
of the properly denotes the outward appearance del on which a word is formed, i.e. the model unpointed by vowels,
The term
'
'
Form
'
ile
Measure
properly denotes the
Form
fully pointed.
The
distinction
is
3n ignored.
In grammatical language, the three root-letters of any word are not led the first, second, or third but the fa, ayn, lam. Each derived form
(')
(
; **
JUiis in fact a formula.
oot-paradigm, and expanded

t
The symbols X, Y, Z could be substituted as for each form by the serviles suitable for
form.
(j)
As an English beginner usually experiences much difficulty in " measure " or wazn of an Arabic word means, ( c>j> ) aping what the him the following unscientific explanation is given
:
**' The measure of the passive participle is J>i*> maf'ul, and of this above the isure are (>!**> - Jy*> - fjt*I*> f r instance, *jA** be written isure Jy*i*, it will be seen that the words have certain letters in common
fi
occur in corresponding positions, and that these letters are also from 'servile lisfc. Each of the two words commences with the same servile
'
er
letter (j m) and each word has the same servile letter as a fourth short same vowels). the both words have the same number of letters (and y) the first for m >ther words, every Arabic derivative of five letters that has
(f
:
er
and u for the fourth,

'
will
be of the
'
measure
'
/ 9** Jj*** and will be a
sive
participle.
f * cUtf
its
*'
Conversely,
v,
qatil*"
killer''
is
an active
It
participle
or
agent.
what
is
root
and
its
measure?
has one servile

cU>).
letter,
the
>nd, alif: the triliteral root therefore
must be J& (=
get the
Expand cUf
".
the same servile letter

a
(alif),
and you
Form
/
d*\*: point the
with the same short vowels, and you get the Measure J*l*.
to be adopted with all derivatives
of
This
is
the
of
iciple
and
all roots.
A knowledge
correct measure
word
is
guard
against
mispronunciation
nans and Indians, for example, usually say munhasar and muttaham, but Arabic measures are munhasir and muttahim.
Some
' '
passive or past participles are also used as nouns, as

f$>,9
**
"
:
u>y&*
written, ateo*
ter
tftJlLo
in three parts, a triangle.'*
680
.
.
ARABIC FORMS AND MEASURES.

r
(b)i
Euphonic
difficulties arise
when the
&
consonants or semi- vowels
palatal
<*
(A!**!
o^
99
root contains
any
of the
weak
or
when a dental and

letters
come together;
or
when
two identical or similar
come
together without the intervention of a long vowel. The three weak consonants are homogeneous to the three short vowels
(
o(^
>
but subordinate to them.
When,
would
in pronunciation follow a short
in a measure, a weak consonant vowel that is not homogeneous to it,
euphony requires that the weak consonant should change

prolongation for
j
into the letter of
that short vowel; or, in other words,
the short vowel
changes the weak consonant into that weak consonant that is analogous to These changes are called the Permutations of Weak Consonants itself.
(
JjJjti
j.
" place or time Example: Û**

of of
of promise; trysting
s s *
(t
and trysting-
place; promised limit
time,"*
is
from A*J
***
is
he promised"; but the

1
measure
for the
Noun
which
Instrument 8
JUi*
mif'al
"
and
this
would give
un Ûy* miw'ad
is
uneuphonic
(j
hence, according to rule, the kasrah

f
'
it
it
conquers the
maw
$
,<,
and changes
it
into yd
).
So, too,
f<
"
depositing
is
for *f^t (v. n. 4 of
(I)
As regards the second kind
of
euphonic change called J*^l

f
fe
;
if
the soft
follows
dental
Jfc,
follows
u^
or
J=, it
changes into the hard palatal

it
^,
if it
changes into J, or else both letters become k; if changes into a; and if t, it either changes into
js
:
follows the soft dental
or else both letters be;
come
if it
followsj,
C
it
becomes
^.
Examples
*
'
;
from J-*
" he became fit,"
' u
on the measure Jîj

pronouncing
t'
ci>
we would
get ^-XL^t
but, as Arabs find difficulty in
immediately after
*'
^,
l(
the word, according to the rule given,
becomes
'
^-*J
idiom
' '
,
"
;
~*
fU>t
S* *
to overlook, look
* '
down upon,
S
' *
' *
(and hence)
*
\>i
ô know, be informed
sr3*
from gU>
to rise (of sun)

s ^"
' '
:
^JLfe
to oppress
' '
,
iif
s
or
Ûbf
" to be oppressed ": from the root
^f;
'*he married,"
we get on
Arab grammarians give many complicated rules

:
to
meet various
cases.
of
Though formed on the measure of the Noun of Instrument, a Noun of Time and Place vide VIII (b). And from a few verbs, of the Noun of Time and Place also.
*,
it
has the meaning
ARABIC FORMS AND MEASURES.

.-0
681
O
X X xG
.x*
the measure
^
t
Jl**ij (infinitive
of
cl*ii],
VIII Stem)
!>!)!>
which
in
an Arab's
/x
to
mouth changes
(w)
^tjdjt.
The weak
letters are a real difficulty,
and sometimes the Arabs even

"
have mistaken the root of a word.

dictionaries
For instance, c)^
"
place "is in some
said to be from e>& "it was'*; but

^
** **
by a mistake Arabs have

this non-existing * G^ P ' *
is **&*!,
'
taken the root to be ^r^

/
x
and so have derived words from

"
:
root,
as: i^Cc " dweller, well-fixed

X
the broken plural of e>&
whereas grammatically nouns of time and place have broken plurals on

the measure
(n)
Another euphonic change

letters,
is
ASSIMILATION
f^J
}.
When two
is
identical
or
two
letters
is
of a similar kind,
come
together, one
assimilated by the other, which
then pronounced with a tashdid: thus,

originally
the root
^^
In the
he became special
8th
" was
of
verbs beginning with !, ^ (o) Conjugation these weak letters are assimilated to the o characteristic of that conjugation, ' ',' $ '.** XXX jf X JW X ' " $ '** itiuf from i*.f. as JjUb! from &j ÛjJ from j~*
:
Remark,
(
In extracting the root of a word with a doubled t ( j, one should be considered servile and eliminated, while the other should be
f :~
<j*
tf
converted into either a hamzah, or else a radical wdw, as:

"^x <3*j
o^l
root
"accident,
X^x
.Pxj*
chance," root
united
*'it
happened";
JWj XX
"junction",
J^
xxx
''he
"
;
j-
^^| XX
*'
to take to oneself as, to take possession of ", from

f
'
*M
j,
A
root
servile
coming
his
after j
is
" crowd," changed intoa^, as: fboj! x

x
**
^.3
ne forced
way through
after u^, is
(a
servile
e coming
crowd, or forest)." f ,
A, as
:
o
'
changed into
X
;
vLr^J
agitation (of
mind, sea,
air, etc.),"
root
v^ " he beat "

'
"
)\j**\
great necessity, compul-
ix
gion ," root
j*
" he harmed.'
is
There
a root ^^Cc,
bufc
with a different signification.
682
(p)
ON THE STEMS OF THE VERB.

POSITIONS OP THE SERVILE LETTERS.
study of the various
for]
will reveal the following facts, that:

(1)
The
serviles
/" *
and e
C
-
may
x x G
'
occur at the beginning, middle,

6
<*'
/x
$ *
C*
end
of
a word, as
JUsf
f\f\
(2)
is
The
servile letter <^t
always occupies the second place in a word a

/
*
preceded by the serviles
or *, and followed
by a
servile
ou,
as:
o ^
(3)
(4)
1
The The
servile
f occurs only as a
first letter,
as
serviles
-
& and
-
^ occur either in
the middle or at the end
ol
stem, as:
JUiSj
^Â*
^^
(5)
te
The
servile ) occurs only in the middle, as: f>i**

*
*'
"
known"
placing
;.
very forgiving" (of God); forehead on the ground."
<>>=?.-*
prostrating
oneself,
on
II.
On
the Stems of the Verb, etc.

root or ground-form of the verb
Stern.'
Its
is
(a)
The simple
called
triliteral
by
so
grammarians
the
'First
meaning may
be extended
modified by the addition of one or more letters, and the fresh stems tl obtained are usually referred to by their numbers, thus c< Fifth Stem
" Tenth Stem,"

figure
etc.,
etc,).
which
in dictionaries are indicated
by a simple
stems
Rom
(V
X,
By some
writers,
these derived
are tern:
Conjugations.
(b)
There are
in all
fourteen derived Stems, which Palmer divides
ii
four groups, formed
by the four methods:

st
(1) Adding one letter to the simple stem: this makes a neuter transitive, or a transitive stem strong or intense in action.
(2)
Prefixing a
ci>
this implies a
letters:
consequence or
effect.
(3)
Adding two or more
this modifies the
meaning.
:
Distorting the original form as well as adding letters to it t implies distortion of meaning and indicates colour, defect, or intensity. are rarer s Stem XI is rare even in Arabic, while stems XII to
(4)
XV
and may be ignored. The stems up to XI only, are given below.

i
For Persian, the verbal
no\
But
& and ^
can occur as the
first letters in
tho Aorist,
^ for the
1st pers.pl.,
for the 3rd per.
masc. sing, dual, and plural, and 3rd pers.
pi. fern.

and the
participles only, of Nos. I to VIII,
*
683
and
' *
of No.
X, are
really necessary.
study of the derived

(c)
Conjugations
!
' *
',
however, simplifies matters.

or gerunds) are abstract nouns
are derived.
-
The verbal nouns
(or
infinitives
expressing the action or state of that
Stem from which they

ft,* 9
Some have always

"
*
a neuter sense, as
j>>*j
"existence
"
O
;
[trans. ejia^j]
/u-?>
being
b'
common";
but others are both active and passive in sense, thus
_s+>
means " helping another" or " being helped/' The verbal nouns and participles of the derived forms are fixed on measures. The Participles of the First Stem or Triliterai are also regular, but the measure
of its
in
verbal nouns
use.
are numerous,
though only four or
five
forms are
common
(d)
The following
are
the Stems.
Their order must be noted. 4
The
force
of
the derived forms and the measure of their infinitives or verbal

:
nouns, and of their participles, will be given later

I.
JU
fa'al*.
IV.
J*if
af'al*.
VII.
JUiij
infa'al".
X.
istafal*.
II.
&
/a"K
JULfa'al*.
V.
JUtf
(l
VIII.
ala .
JUtij
ifta'al*.
XL
ju5j
if all*.
tafa
III.
VI.
L&tt
tafa'al*.
[IX.
j2j
ifa'att*}.
.
[XII to XV.
1.
* s *
:
<
Remark
killed
I.
Stem
4
I is usually of the
measure JU, as
is
cU*
eiV^
qatal*
4
"he
"
;
but
<J*-*
(generally intransitive)
also found, as
**he was
sad
' '
(intr.)
J**
* *
he did
' '
(trans.)
also JUi,*in intransitives only, as
s* *
"it was beautiful."

-
Occasionally, a form has varying Measures, as: j+*

,
" to
inhabit "; j+* " to grow old"; j+e
9^
<
to be flourishing/
according to the
vowel of the 2nd Radical.
'
1
O '
'
'
Masdarun )&>&c
(pl a j^lî^c), lit. *
"place of
issuing,*'
i.e.
"source."
is
Because in European dictionaries the arrange these forms differently.

*
8
serial
number only
quoted.
The Arabs
Not found
it,
in Persian.
Kaarah under the second radical often indicates temporary condition, while
continuous condition.
zammah over
684
, .

.
Remark
II.
Verbs on the measure cUi
making
its
Aorist cU&>,have
,
always the second or third radical one of the gutturals, hamzah,

(e)
^,
or
*.
The Arabic
S>
participles
4
do not
in themselves
killed
convey any suggestion of

'
time
hence
'
Jtftf
may mean
one
one who has
as
well as
'
one who
ie
killing
Jy&c
who ought
to be killed
'
as well as
'
one
killed.'
The Passive
regularly
Participles (with the exception of the simple triliteral) are formed by changing the kasrah ( ~7~) of the last syllable of
(
the Active Participle into fathah
_^J, as
un " J*^* mursil
sender,
mursal un ''sent" (JWU and J*i*> of Stem IV).
(/) The Infinitive of Stem I is of varying form, and is therefore specially noted in the dictionaries, under each verb. The same verb has often more
than one infinitive, 2 sometimes with variety in meaning, as

*<* '
<3A5
" intention"
f
i <
^,9
$*
*'
'
' '
and
' '
*A<aftxj
object
^>
*
,
nearness
:
' *
and
&fyi
relationship."
One of the
most common forms
is
J*?, as
cUji
*'
killing."
f -*
:
The
infinitive of d** is generally <J*i, as
^^
t
S>
'
<c
being angry."
9 ,,
Other
*
* 9
99
measures, from usually intransitive verbs, are: Jyw, and Jli, as: ^f^ $?? *-' "sitting," (*1U "being in a perfect state, health," Jyio "entering."
Note that
Infinitive
all
the
stems that begin with hamzah
or
form
the
by inserting an alif before their last radical. In the longer forms, too, the second consonant after the hamzah takes a kasrah.
Remark L
unchanged; the
able
letters
There
is
by changing the short vowels

last
a passive voice of all transitive verbs, which is formed The last short vowel remains of the active.
but one must be kasrah (~7~~);
an d
cU-*
all
other move-
must have
~c,9^
zammah
9
(
),
as:
Ji
,
Act.,
Pass.;
wtaf'al* Act.,
Jnx*f
II.
ustuf'il* Pass.
JUli Act.,
tUy
Pass.
Remark
The
active
and
passive
participles
are
also
used
as
Adjectives and Nouns.
1 The same measure as the noun of place, as: ^J& maktab un (place of writing) " a or primary preparatory school.'* 9 The same verb may have different meanings, and then has a different noun of
action for each.
THE FOURTEEN CONJUGATIONS.

III.
685
The Fourteen Conjugations.

tUi'(or Ji,' or J*J*).
STEM
(i.e.
the
triliteral)
Ex.
JJll
< <
he swore
J ' ;
''he appeared"; JA*>

*
,
"he
experienced, tested":
'
J^ "he knew"; +
8
f
ci>>=*
"he rejoiced"; JU? "he performed, worked"; X

"
it
" he wassad "

'
was handsome "

*
* >
x-?x
;
j*u*
" to be bright
s> -
(of
the face), be blooming.'

t
^.'
*
' <
Active Part.
JU*
/a'tf"*.
Ex.
"hearer"; jÛ layiq)

Ex.
:
Û
adviser ";
JU
'
"
" knowing, learned

Passive Part.
s
;
,
(t
^Jl
laîq
(for
un
.
having capacity,
fit."
/ Ô"
/W> Gx
J>*A^
maûl
jy*^
"
blessed, late
(i.e.
dead, of
Muslims)";
f<
;Û
J*
"ordered, appointed ";
^^6
f|j*i
;
"understood "
mad"
flit,
6 possessed by a Jinn).
Infinitives
-i-"0x
cUu
6 .
JUi
>
Jj**
and
J>0^
JUi and
J5
;m*
C"
UUMIM
or
*iU
6
(
'
*
(and
many
' '
other forms),
;
l&x.:
^^
' '
" "striking"; J* opening":

;
being kind
J*c
working
/ >x
doing
pk*
" to be " forbearing

^ //
/*U
"to know, knowledge ";

1
J^
"to
accept,
accepting";
)^^
"being
Transitive or intransitive.
f
Always intransitive.
An adjective on the measure JUni can be formed from

*<<
'
'.
all
auch
,9,
verbs
x/x
,p*j;
^^
(JU*'),
as:
'
if
^^^
"beautiful,**
*>
"kind."
MJ "ugly." from ^y
'
t*
vide
&
XV
x
*
(4).
**
But
Also
(^))rw tr
^>o
grieve, sadden (some one)."
AJ
vide
For Passive,
J*o<
Remark
I to
II
(/),
and
'*
XXV (a)
x
and
(6),
and Table
II, foot-
note 2 of Paradigms.
x ^
X
f""
* '
JUf abstract noun from

^x *
transitives
JU^ and jUi.
(J*i generally
from JUJ when

X
*>'
is
intransitive.
^j$
from
/ //
^
^.
^-
>"^
from JUf when intransitive.
ma/*a^
'
"
and
is
/"
"
from
'
"^.
J*^*,
(J^ni
A)JAJ
afJUi
intransitive.
'
/xO^
8
'"
cWu
ttB
,
uncommon
as an Infin.,
also the
measure of the noun of place,
/Ô"
as
:
wJ&o
mafcô6<1 1
*'
" a primary or preparatory school.
686

S *'
' '
*
t .,
'
present, presence
f^f
to speak, speech
(also
'
' ;
JUS*
" to be perfect, perfec-
tion";
die,
'
j*^
"going out,
place
of
going out, exit)";
oU* "to
becomes
death,"
);
(from
oU, we
get &>j+*>
which by permutation
benefited, benefit."
c
oU*>
Alas^c
preaching";
&iLo "to be
J?
'
Examples of less common forms are
^4^
"
/ 'C
' '
being deprived
*t*>
*
ê^>
to
have power, also one having power, i.e. sovereign "; *6* " etc., etc.
regret"
II
;
" to regret,
cj>*>
being sorry, sorry,"
STEM
is
(i.e. first
derived form) J*i
/aJa
formed by doubling the second letter of the primary the original 8 or (2) it makes a neuter transitive, or a meaning of which it (1) intensifies or (4) it is denominative*; or (5) transitive causal; or (3) it is declarative
This
,
it signifies to
turn into, convert
or
(6) it indicates
a phrase
or (7)
it
indicates
movement towards.
" he struck ")
pieces"
r
:
Ex.
(1)
<3x5
" he
killed ")
c& "
he massacred
"
;
^j*
^^
" he beat violently"

4
($&
" he cut in " he cut") ^k>
(2) (J
" he descended ") J>' he brought

'
down"
(^
" he knew "
JU
(
* 4
he taught
'
;
' *
(*-+*?
*
he wrote
**
' '
w^
**+
' '
he taught to or caused to write

'*'
;
' '
jXj " he entered")
&
J^si
he caused to enter, introduced"
(yfr
( '
"it was
&,
many ") j&
him
tr.
' *
he increased
"
;
(3)
v&
him
' *
he told a lie
"
)
rll**
J&
/"
he believed
to be lying, took
him
or declared
to be a liar
"
;
<f
o*-*
(4)
" he was
$
<4S
' *
truthful
"
)
*&, " " he believed, or he declared to be truthful OAS<,
J^
"to
,
an
army")
^^
:
,$'
*&'
"he
'3
collected
an
army"
(oJU
*
"a
skin"
),
>J^
skin,
bind books*"
(5)^-i
" " to turn into a Christian, convert
*$**
;
o^""*
" to convert
aôZ*",
uncommon
as an Infin.,
is
also the
measure of the noun
of place,
maktdb** " a primary or preparatory school."

*'
*
Indians and Persians nidamat, ) ; incorrectly amongst a letter in Arabic has Doubling generally an intensive effect. * The Denominative forms of II Stem correspond to the English verb formed from a noun, as " to skin " <4 to water " etc.
(
Nadamatun
" UUi

to tamjis or
6&7
fire-
worshipping "; *&* "to

to
make
a foreign word) Arabic, to

'
Arabicize
* '
:
(6)
^"
say^f
"he
aUf
'
(Infin.
jV&) ji*
;
'
to say a^t
9
Iff
A^l
"
31 **
x*
^
)
:
(Infin.
4 '
Jî)); f-U
^JU=
greeted
him"
(i.e.
said
-***
f*Jf
(7) <j>y
to go East."
Active Part.
cU&* mufa"il ttn -
Jx.
/4*-
" teacher
' '
;
"
^âx> ^
-
corrector,
proof-reader
"
;
ÂM>
having a deep insight into."
Passive Part.
JUA mufa"al un -J&x.

.
v^/ "compounded;
a mixture;
ink"
t&'f j-^^ "bejewelled, inlaid with gold."

4
14
Infinitive
dîi,
^
to/
*/ ",
or ^JUit taf'ilat un .Ex.

^
c
:
^xUi x
teaching ";
^t>
,-
>5^
0<
"affecting,
!'
effect
u ^
4<
of":
*y& ^reminding; memoir;

X
testimonial;
pass-
port"
A^3
experience;
trial,
essay."
J>
x, X
Remark /.Rare forms

(speech)
to do a thing again
are JUi>
X5
X-^,
J '
:
X ^' ^ '*'' ^"^ and JUi>,as jUCfrom ;y

:
'*
to repeat
o^ from ^
of all the
X JJX'
<f
to explain."
Remark
j?
II.
The verbal nouns

fern, pi.),
Derived Conjugations form their

of II
plurals in of
also the
*
(= sound
Ô*"
broken plural
t
( * <>'
' *
though those /c/"
and IV Stems have

/
xx
<Jj^li,
as:
^jtt"a commentary
etc.," pi.
"
=
iJ^jf
false news.'
'
^
,
III
i.e.
STEM
JUli /a*oZa
is
formed by inserting an
alif after
the
first
radical
by lengthening the
first
vowel of the primary.
This stem adds to the primary, the sense of striving, thus: (cU* "to
kill
") but
cjili
"
to try to kill, to fight with
"
;
(^
the
to write),
v^
x
>
,
'*
to
correspond
with"
^ ^ "
1
(with
the
accusative
of
person);
wJi "to
is
")^ *
"to try
to overcome."
Hence a sense
of reciprocity
(>88

as:
often
implied,*
1
;
(^y*
"he struck") w>U
he struck
(
and
he
fought
with'
(J
"he sat") <jJ&
" he sat with";
d^
was the
partner of So-and-so)
JjU
(with accusative of person)
" he went partners
with."
This stem
or thing, as
:
may
S S
also
mean
to exercise
some abstract quality on a person

"
v
u#
' '
" to be
*, *
soft, gentle
' *
")
^
S
' *
:
" to exercise gentleness, to treat

*^*
* *
yL he journeyed alone " he or the either ) with some one else.* alone, (with preposition journeyed
some one kindly
:
^1V
to caress , etc.
^ ' -
' '
^^
"
"^
Note too the following

to (frequently)
Îfe
" to demand repeatedly
^* ^
' '
;
ojU
" to return
*'
"
;
* *
<
^ti
*'to hire
^c** " by the month (from^)
Û
$*
*"***
to hire
for the
XX ^
4 *
summer
"
" to speak with" (from cî); A*U

(from
JO*
*+ *
(from
^lip");
(3Û
to
" embrace
Part.
//^
4i
neck ").
n
.~
Active
..
dUli/o wtt/a'*7"
Ex.
,?
JUa* " opposing, confronting "

hindering.*'
/
(
,fi,
'
$
)
>Ux>
jJiiJf
"contradictory'
"
(**>&*
Passive Part.
J*fo* mufa'al** 8
Ex.
^;Ux>
un
"
blesssed, auspicious."
Infinitive.
4loUU mufa'alat** and JU

, ' '
fi'5l
*.
Ex.
iLtac
' '
opposition
* l
'
dialogue
*J*.Ux>
discussing with argument

,
' '
:
JUJ
"
slaughter
also
iblft-*));
*\y
*'
quarrel."
IV STEM cU^'f af'al*, is formed by prefixing to the root and suppressvowel of the first radical ( J ). With a few exceptions, it is transithe ing tive (taking the object in the accusative), and gives a causal signification to
I
But Stem VI JUUti (formed by
prefixing
to this, stem) always clearly indi-
cates reciprocity.
2
*>
So too
A/ *-+*
becomes &u(. and

is
6*x> ,j<*i^
becomes
&*J(s*>
This Passive Part,
rare in Persian.
:
Some
concrete nouns are also found in this measure, as
^lif
"book";
'<
stirrup-iron*';
WU*
-*
âccount,"
etc.
etc.

" he caused to descend "
689
the primary, as
4-tf f xx&*
Jjif
" he caused
to
write"; JH'f
" to do good
:
t/*M " to
" he bid
(
to sit
down "
fit
JU" to be
"
;
for"
"
to bring into good
" condition
^
x,o
'
" to cause to appear

;
cU^T " to
< x ox
cause to enter
"
;
^/^-f
" to cause to exit
*bf " to expose for sale

x*aJ
"
;
^cjlf^he found the matter important";

' '
"lie found
him
praise-
worthy.
"
-
G~
It of ten
"
forms verbs from nouns, as:
' " to receive Islam, become a Muslism.' Frequently it has the sense of beginning a gradual movement xx o* x^' xxO x ' ' <c to go westwards Sham to went he Uf ; (Syria) o^f f
XG '
^>f "to do
in the
morning";
as:
^f
(intr.),
*
'
^\
' *
'
to reach
the
top, bo high; to look

X '
1
downwards
witli
;
on,
overlook";
(ftf
"to stand,
*"
to rise
up ")
(*^f
" to halt, dwell
also to
make
to stand."
Remark.
*&*
From some roots, the Stems

x.O*
'
II
'
and IV are both used as causals,

Sometimes there
is
thus ^*^
:
and^^f both mean
to inform.'
*""
*
a difference
in meaning; thus
5^
" to teach", but

Ô'O-o
x
, <>'
:
^JLcf
"to inform."
* xc^cx-'O^
;
Other examples are
u^
"
;
oi^fljf
>*
" the land became desolate "

<f
*Ul <^f
jJ-o
xx o x
" the water became putrid

?u
-* x ^ G*
^;^f
<XA=wf
the crop became
fit
for harvest -
ing"
Jikll
^Jaif
" the child attained the age of weaning."

f t,9
.
fit
*
;
$>
Active Part.
uUa/o muf'il un
Ex.: jyixj "overlooking"
u^J*x>
poly-
/
theist,
o /
implying partnership
jf^
1
(to
God)"
^**>.<o
^ô
>
" benefactor."
>*
Passive Part. JUi/c muf'al"".
Ex.: f$JU>" inspired
"
;
/ô 9
^^
* c
made am-
biguous, ambiguous"; î^/ "forced into another, assimilated." / -O ^ O " ( un Ex. fiUj (intr.) Infinitive JU^'f %f al yielding obedience,
<e
Islam";
halves
/xc,
cc
>
(tr.)
;l4Je]
making apparent, declaration": ol^Sj "dividing
into
(two equal parts), justice."

* ''o*'
When
the IV
Stem
is
intransitive,
as
JLwf
is
passive participle; the active participial form only Stems.
come towards," there is no used, vide notes to VII and VIII

to
44
690

Remark.- The broken plural (vide
Remark
II,
Stem
II)
is
rarely
x,
fcl,
/ <o
ô
ffc
'+
as:
flfJl, pi.
A kf.
The regular feminine
plural is
commoner.
V STEM
may
reflect the
J*&> taftf'al*,
is
formed by prefixing a
:
o to No. II,
"
of
which
aJj
it
consequence, as
;
*Jj
"to give birth
to, to beget
" to
extract a child (doctor)

It also converts it
" " he was born.' * being the cause of ) *Jj* into a reflexive, or gives the idea of doing a thing by degrees,
also
fig.
(
and hence
is
also passive, as:
a^.
to drink"
^"
(^
;
to
make
to drink ")
to
j^>
" to
"
sip
:
(*+**
"to become frozen, or hard"

* ' ;
&+**
"to cause
freeze' *) <*+apJ
" he hardened himself by degrees
it
was cold "

<*
^
"
"to
j~Z
make cold ")

i(
^ "he
still
cooled himself
by degrees"
(j~$
(
he broke
jJU
he shattered ")^-*b "it was shattered in pieces, etc.";
" he
knew"
flc
(
"he
<c
taught, he caused to
;
know")
^W
"
" to bo made to know, to learn ";

UL>^
cfljj
to stand
to
be acquainted
" to make to stand
still,
to
stop")
U^y " he
hesitated, he delayed."
Sometimes,
1
it signifies
to give oneself out as, or think oneself something,
pretending,
as:
(^ "he became great ") j*G

(or less
" he thought himself great, he

give oneself out as a pro-
became proud ;" Uu

1
common Uu
to be
ill,
"to
<<to pr6 ^6 phet**; u tcPzuhd or monastic life."
to feign sickness
";
a*)3
"to pretend
It also means, derived

etc. of, to
^
from a concrete noun, "to adopt the tenets,
frs
^3
lion
"to become a Nasraniyy** (Christian)"; "I" "to become a Yah&diyy** (Jew); i^ "to become bold or fierce as a
become,"
as:
^-aiS
"
(
jss
+&'*>
;
Af)
&**9*
" to be propped, to lean on a Sal*$."

mutafa"il**.
/^-;>
Present Part.
<J*iIx>
Ex.
:y&o
/^-' "
thinking within oneself, be-
f^f
ing anxious"; (j*i^
1st person in
*>*
"pretending to be a prophet"; (J&* "speaker, the
** **
grammar"
pl&*
" a student."
But
in this sense, No.
VI Stem is more common.

( Passive Part. JUiLo mutafa 'alun .
691
/tffx
Ex. :j**j&o " being deeply versed in "
j& *,9
o" expected."
O
O
<
n Infinitive JUftJ tafa' 'ul
Ex. jSS&
:
"
thinking
;
alb
<
* '
taking warning
"reflecting."
VI STEM,
U3 tafa'al*, is formed
by prefixing
o to No.
to
Ill, to
which
it
gives a reflexive, or a reciprocal meaning, and the subject in the latter case
must be
dual, plural, or a collective
noun 9
as
l
:
"
v5*fy
throw oneself down

,<:
at full length
'
"
;
*i AU-O
^/
*W ^Jbu =
"
God made Himself

+ * *
c '
exalted above all"
VJU
' *
;
'
he struck, gave blows to ")
<^;l<a)
to give
and
receive blows from, to fight
" he wrote
respond with."
to ")
^Jto
<
to write to
and receive
letters
from, to cor-
This form has sometimes a sense of feigning'1 and the subject

*
*
may
then be singular, as
*
(j~**" to be bold
"
** *
^>U. "to make another bold")

* + *s
" to show or pretend to be bold"; j*Un3

'
+ S *
oÛS
"feigning sickness";
*
*
pretending to have fever

s>
' *
" " Û3 to

S+
.
pretend to be a Christian."
' '
*.
,* ^ Active Participle J&(&*>mutafa'il un
Ex. o^|yô
:
<c
being synonymous
"
;
^/
being close to each other

9
>*Uu> " being distant."
*s9
Passive Participle JatitiAmutafa'al**. Ex.: This form is not used in Persian. panion.'
'
u*MALo " taken
as a com-
jts
~
.
Infinitive cbli? taffiul

('
Ex.
jj*^
:
ijoSte
"being contradictory";
' '
;
; <>jU3 clashing together feigning sickness " (but in Persian bravery ").
"
$9
^-l3
*'
' '
feigning bravery
**
*r,
VII STEM,
Jkiij, is
,
formed by prefixing
e>J
in
to No* I, of which it
ia
'
always a neuter or passive (without any agent being mentioned), as:
In No. Ill, a second party
is possible
in No.
VI
the reciprocity
is
necesary.
A meaning sometimes given by No.
V.
692

"
" he broke "
j&l +
it
was broken
"
;
dtfS " to expose, reveal ")

*
&fif
*
" he showed
himself openly, was revealed or discovered.'
this
The original sense was a reflexive of No. I, as " it broke itself"; but and other derivative forms have become so habitually used in a
*
+(/
passive sense, that the true passives of those verbs in which the form cU&t 1 One of the meanings of this form is is in use, have fallen into disuse.
*
accepting the action of the primary,' as

* s+b +
* + 09
*Oj~CU* l*y?
" I broke
it
and so
9 O *
"
it
was broken
''; jpi&k'
v Uf
vs*I*
"I opened
the door and so
it
became
open."
It
sometimes implies that a person allows an act to be done to him, as

'
& sb uj"to
"O
let oneself
let oneself
be dragged'*; &&\ "to
be put to
flight, to
distinguished from VIII in that the reflexive pronoun contained in it is never the indirect, but always the direct, object, and also in that this Stem never has a reciprocal signification.
Remark
This Stem
is
Remark
this
II.
When
:
the
first
radical
'(' ^
is^-^-f-evo-J-;
its place.
or hamzah,
form
is
not used
form VIII
$
,b 9
eWif ) takes
*
<s
(Active
<c
Participle cUALo
munfa'tt.
" revealed Ex.: u&xix>
'<**
t <n,9
3
";
,>yu
"
being lonely
6+^*> being congealed.

s
3
,
Passive Participle
/
x
None.
, Ex ff^J " being thrown down,
<,
:
.o
Infimtive Jktiiinfi'al**.
demolition ";
of + *
et
turning aside, deflection";
"
JUftij
' s
admitting wrong doing, hence
shame."
In some cases for euphony, in other cases to avoid ambiguity.

&'%
33,
Supposing from
tf/
^J
the stem
^jf ^
were in use, the root might be
xô "to
backbite* ', on the form cUul.
X
^ Fa-nkasarat.
8
The
of the Infinitive in
a hamzaV'l wasl.
The form of the Passive

Vide notes to Stems
Participle is not found in stems with a neuter or passive
meaning.
IV and
VIII.

VIII
of
693
STEM, cUSj
which then
ifta'al*, is
formed by prefixing; to the

*
first
radical
and by inserting ta ( * ) before the second radical. This form resembles No. VII in expressing the result of the action of the primary, and it also expresses the idea of such result after It has generally a reflexive, less frequently a reciprocal or passive, effort.
No.
I,
loses its vowel,
signification, as
wA-tff
" to acquire
tried
for oneself, earn
one's
,,
;
living
*&*>l
" he busied himself, he

in
s" O "; J*i*l "he engaged

s*<*
himself,
was busy
***<,
"
(work for himself or another)
UU*J *
" he borrowed
(a
thing ")
J*if
^
" to take fire "
*,***,<,
;
"
-""
felt
'
^y*
*-^XO
c^la-*]
" he was exerting himself violently "; (LT^

for";
he touched")
s ' "^
<j&\
" he sought to touch, he
(^
1
;
he helped)
O
j&l
^
" he was victorious (by God's help), he was reinforced'

r+s
;
*'"
!*]f "it was

<e
full
"
(
*f+ O
9
<(
(J**
be passed by on the road, he excelled ")

'":<?
<4
^J^t
+
he beat in a
race,
'
etc."
fÂi^|
they contended or litigated with one another";

' s
"O
"
to be collected"
;
sb
<e
^*i^r
*
J*l
*
to be or get
mixed with."
$
*<,
<n*9
9
<e
Active
Participle
JAJ&O
/ ô/
mufta'il.
"
Ex.
"
striving
;
^ X, ?
<Hfcux>
ffci*
"managing, manager"; ^fexU

Passive
/Ô ^ cUiix>
;
^ ô ^ waiting for "; V.AUSWO
<c
shunning."
Participle
mufta'al
un .
^^"O /
Ex.: jft^
êlevated, high";
*"<j9
*Jji2o "shared, in
J?"xO
$"<*?
common
un
ifti'al
.
' '
;
^Îô abridged." ^Ô

"
:
Infinitive
J^| X
>
Ex.
"
;
^'O
jly^J
X
u^trÎ *
*
'
objecting to, objection
"
' '
avoiding
f'O " fl^t honouring, honour.'
Verbs with
I
(o).
as a first radical, do not appear to
have
this form.
Vide Assimila-
tion,
2
When
this
VIII Stem
is intransitive,
as:
~tf
"to be accused,"
the
* '
Active
'
Participle form only is used, with a passive sense, as
muttahim (not muttaham)
accused.'
Vide also note
to
IV Stem and note
3 to
VII Stem.
694

CJW J*it t/'aH.
*
first
IX STEM
suppressing the
This
is
formed from the
triliteral
by prefixing];
+
vowel, and doubling the third
radical.
It expresses the
+^ *
:
becoming a conspicuous quality, such as colour or bodily defect, as
(j&*>
" he
had a
bilious
complexion
"
;
J&+\ adj., "yellow ") yu>t

*
"
'
to be or
become
yellow, to yellow
"
;
'
(
'
v***
*
" to be hunchbacked ",

' '
*'
;
O/* O*M
hunch-backed ")
S't *
&"<*
&* o
" " to become hump-backed

Of
()**
to be one-eyed",
^y^f, adj.)
cj
"to become one-eyed."

are found in Persian.
this form,
one or two of the verbal nouns only
Active Participle JUi* muf'att*".
Ex.^+*u
"
becoming very
red.
Passive Participle.
None.
Ex.
a
Infinitive
J**il
if'ilal*".
'
^j^]
"becoming crooked";
"becoming
squint-eyed.'
X STEM cUiu!
xxo-o
a istaf al .
(
It implies inquiry, desire, opinion, or tendency,
vCwO
with regard to the matter predicated by the simple verb, as

' '
;
fl***l
'
" he
'
xô
&
wanted to know, he inquired

**^ c
j*&*[
" he asked for pardon
"O
' '
;
^.^-snJu-f
he
thought
it
beautiful"; ^JUJUt
" he thought him contemptible."
Sometimes it
ter
is
merely causal, as
Jm*uul * " to make to swear, to adminis+
*'<*'</
an oath
" =
'?'
cila..
xxO
x'feoO
*'
:
This form is also a reflexive

' * <,+ <
of No. I V, as
(^JUf
he taught
"<*
'<*
' '
^J^J
*
" he
taught himself"
^^yu-f
"
to feel oneself lonely
"
;
jJUJu>j
" to surrender."
This form
is
merely the 'adjective (nonn) of colour or defect' with the

;
final
radical doubled, etc.
vide
XIV (6).
This word
3
* &
is is
used in Persian.
This word
not used in Persian.
Originally also
"
to ask or
command
to be sworn."
is
And sometimes,
therefore, the
meaning
apparently neuter.

It
is
695
frequently denominative
like,
and
as:
may
X^
<*
signify
summoning
for
' O
a purpose and also becoming

a
f**i
"to
call
one to act as
pd*>. '
X
"and
hence "to engage as a

(tr.),
servant";
A$If' (tr.
and
intr.)
" to produce as a witness"

(intr.)
;
and "to
testify to, to
become a Muslim
"
>J!jf
" to become like jâ>, to petrify."
Active Participle J*&~.# mustaf'il**.

^
Ex.
cis**i~*
"
f <
wanting to be in a
<
<,<,*
&"0^
*
hurry",
i.e.)
"hastening";
<JUftx~x>
"coming towards, future"; VA**-*
"
wishing to resign" ;~*^Ju** "deserving of
"
;
^&-*c "one who
hires or
rents, a lessee."
Passive Participle Jxii-ô musfaf'al**.
Ex:
<JU*I~*
*'
used
' * ;
er~:JL^c "thought to be good, appreciated, liked

f
'
f'^,^9
"
brought into use, $* 9 9

,
yxll~x>
hire*d,
rented."
o
^x ^ O
n
.
^ Ô O
c
Infinitive ($*&\istii'dl*
Ex.: JUiuu*t
using"; jWAlt
<c
asking for
pardon
"
;
*.U*x.f
"
tendering one's resignation from office."
[XI STEM,
Jtiij if'all*, is
formed from No.

:
IX by
inserting
an
alif after
the second radical.
It intensifies
No. IX, as y&*t " to become very yellow."
According to some Grammarians No.

qualities,
IX
indicates
permanent colours or
No.
X those that
is
fn
\ti
are transitory or mutable.

all,
This form
not used in Persian at

'< ?
and
fn
is
very rare in Arabic even.
Active Participle Jt*ax> muf'all.
Ex. : ;U.xj " becoming very red."
\MS O 9
Passive Participle.
None.
In Persian ^.jnS./o (the definite form) also means "resigner,

*
i.e.
one
who has
under
<4*
o9
resigned."
The
Past. Part. ^ÛL-x) mu8taf<p* (note the absence
of the dots
^)
weak
signifies
in Arabic
"pardoned";
in Persian it is not used.
4 It is
letter
a rule in e>fjJ, that when a hamzah follows a weak letter that is aakin* the has a maddah (written or understood); or in other words the long vowel is
jîui
prolonged in sound ; thus

44
ghanq,
"be sang," but Ûi

s
ghinaa***
(measure
JU) *
singing" (verbal noun), in Persian
U.
696
QUADRILITERAL VERBS.
^'
o
1
/ ^
"1 .
c,
Infinitive JM^'ri/'tfiB
Ex:
te
jj*+**l
becoming very red."]
".-'G-'
[XII
STEM,
is
J*j*it if'aw'al:
s
This form
not used in Persian, and
is
rare in Arabic even.
It does
not occur in the Quran.]

xS^r.
[XIII
STEM
is
Jj*if if'awwal*.
This form
not used in Persian, and
is
rare in Arabic even.
It does not
occur in the Quran].
[XIV STEM, JlUfj
if'anlal* is practically
not used.]
[XV STEM,
^^l if'anlq is
practically not used.]
IV.
Quadriliteral Verbs
^}
A
).
Quadriliteral verbs are
formed as follows:
(1)
biliteral
root expressing
* *<**
sound or movement
cause to shake, to
p3***>
may
make
(2)
be repeated to indicate repetition, as: JjJj "to

to quiver"
(
" * + &* Jj to slip); o*-*^
<j
**
whisper ";
"to neigh"
letter,
To
the beginning, end, or middle of the triliteral,

** <x
a fourth
"to
raise
+
up
usually a liquid or a sibilant, may be added, as:y*j ^ < o' "V "to be proud (dust, or from the dead; from î*);
j*
(from
"to be high"):
letters,
(3)
They may be formed from nouns

foreign, as
:
of
more
than three
*& *
some
form
of
them
Co>>
" to put socks on aperson

&
<*'
:
*S<jS
(from v>*^
Ar.
of Pers. *-*)j)\
x*ij"to become a
**&
(4)
They
may be the prominent

aJJtj
3^!
parts of a well-known formula, as

to say
<Û|
U.?>^
" to say
tj*
j(j
J^l
j|
"
;
J-^^
*'
to say praise be to
God."
There " to
Remark.
A few derivatives of quadriliterals are found

^*
in Persian.
' '
;
ox
<**
are numerous onomatopoetic quadriliterals as
**
"
* *o+
to gargle
^rr*^
whisper."
QUADBILITBRAL VERBS.
697
STEM
cU** fa'lal*: in formation

;
and conjugation corresponds to II

X"X
<t
of the Trilateral
it
is
both transitive and intransitive.

9
Example
v*#
J5
" to cause to swing to and fro."

/ Ox ,P Active Participle JUft*
9
<j*
'fi
mufa'lil.
Ex.:
J&>
"quivering";
*-*!**.
Passive Participle cUÂ/o mufa'lal. 1

hesitating."
Infinitive,
Ex.: ^&**> "dangled, dangling,

f
-si,'
$ 'XOx fiUUi
f
fa'lalat
xO
,
'(j
or
J&*
-^
fi'lal.
Ex.
%Jj
"
quivering,
an
earthquake
II
"
;
^ x ^ Ox
:
x O
also Jlpj
i->^
or
^-^j
"
whispering of the Tempter."
STEM
LWUi5 tafa'lal*: in
*
T"
formation and signification agrees with
Vof
'.S
S<J' "
*
''f
to hesitate
' '
;
the Triliteral.
Example
v *j&
3^
/
c ,^/
" to quiver
^
' '
;
^^
'
"to
act like a
Jlk^."
(
/ Oxx/ Active Participle <Jl*&<> mutafa

f
,
.
lil
un
.
Ex.: Jjrb&>
"shaking, fanciful,
volatile";
^>&*
"
"
hesitating.
Passive Participle, None.

/^t^"
Infinitive,
Ji*&
03 - x
tafa'
c,
/ 9 <"'
un
.
Ex.:
J)J>3
"quivering; an earthquake."
di"
III
STEM
J**if ^7 < a < aZZa
This form
is
intransitive,
as:
j-*5j
"to
creep with terror (of a person, the skin, or the heart)." to VII of the triliteral.
xo^
.4c^'ve Participle,
It corresponds
i
muf'a'ill*".
c^
'*
' '
JU*jU
Ex.
eA^1
being at rest in mind
' '
[from
c)^ "he leant back (in a chair
or on a pillow)]
d^^x)
<
withering."
Passive Participle , None.

Infinitive,
*
]
J&**i]
X
if'i'lal.
Ex.: &k#J*l " being at rest X

<*
in
mind";
"withering, vanishing."
[IV
STEM
if'anlal*. u*J X
This form
is
very rare in Arabic and
is
not
found in Persian.]
This
is also fche
u only form of the masdar -'1rmimiyy of the quadriliteral verb.
698
IRBBGULAB VERBS.
VI.
Irregular Verbs.
Verbs vide Paradigms at the end.
xx*
(
For the conjugation
of all Irregular
They
are classed as
f
1.
*>
&*
**>
f or
&'
)
Doubled
" to
utcl^c), as:
&**
"to extend,
to
help"; j*
flee."
>'c2.
Hamzated (jy*U), as: ^cf

<** O
"to order";
JU
"to
ask"
(Im-
"O
;
<**
perative
cU and JUj
or
Jut)
fyf
" to read." " to be social,"
Remark /.If the

the III and
familiar,
firstradical is
hamzah, as in o^' +
o*^
*
IV Stems
become
at
will
be identical in form, as
^f
(III)
" to become
familiar
,
to
one's
ease" and u-if
(IV)
"to make
seta person at his ease."

9,^*
Remark
read";
II.
If the last radical is
hamzah
-
(or
fA
or^) as in f^- fy* to

^
)
'
^**j.^ "to become

Infinitive of its II
blind"; j**J
>
-
(3rdradical
'^togobe-
ox
yond," the
3.
Stem
is <&*>.
Assimilated or
PF&
o/
ê Fa*
Jlto U
X
^t JlL
),
as: **j
c<
to
promise
"
;
^^
7.
to be dry."
Remark
f
A
'
word cannot begin with

2.
alif.
verb beginning with
is
mahmuz, vide Remark

o
Verbs with the
first
radical
wdw, drop the j in the Imperat-
tive, as
*e
'*
promise
"
:
the measure of the Imperative

jfx
f
is <JU.
Such verbs
^ OX
^ ''
may have one

unite, reach
of
Infinitive of
Stem
I *k, as: <&*

*'
ord/^, from cU^, "to join,
"
;
*?**''
^jL?
or uA-oj,from
*-ft^^,
to praise, describe." In the Infinitive

f
IV, the } changes to

of
^
is
as: &**>[
rom ^j
while in VIII, the ^, as

is
also in the case

S>
^
(
assimilated to the o, that
characteristics of
x*
XXX
from JUj
),
Jfxjrf
XXX
(
this
Stem, as
JUJJ
and
;U5J
from^
The
Infinitive of III is &~*t^>,
and of IV îLf.
INDECLINABLE VEKBS.
699
4.
Hollow, or
Weak
of the
Ayn
o^f b ^ i*#d\
<JL***), i.e.
which have
in their triliteral infinitive, either of the

radical,
weak
letters ^ or
as the second
as:
J^- J^t "to say"
(from J^J
"saying");
*0
*
(UA*
" to
sell"
(#" selling").
of the Imperative
is
The measure
"sell"
cU, or
cli,
or eU, as
" cU " say
The verbal nouns

Jf s
of
-^
Stems IV and
"*
X add S
after the third
radical, as:
s
lJj
and
ss o Ax)l5xMt
from fU
).
5.
Defective, or
weak of
-
the
o^
Lam
**
o*Jtt
X
^ ^^t
^
^ x
J^
o"
),
as:
1>*
^3^
x
x
"to raid" (fromjj*); ^^-^^x?

to be pleased."
c^;
o-^
to call";
4^-^^"
to throw;
These have j or
^ for their
3rd radical.
,as:
#
In the Active Participles, the terminations are changed into f

(
^
)
for^b
and
g
(
for
^1;
).
For the
Infinitive of II, vide

is
Remark
II
to (2)
above.
In the Infinitive of III, the 45

of
changed
into alif,
as: 5&iU (Inf.
^Sl).
O
In the
Infinitives of
alif,
IV, VII, VIII,

is
and X,
where the third radical follows an

J^,Ô
^<f''
?,*
the
changed into hamzah,
O
(
'
**'
(f
as
*ULM
from
^\
îA*i^|
from ^5^^!
etc.
(6)
Combinations of these
may
occur.
Verbs with weak
letters follow
the usual euphonic changes.
Remark
I.
If the 1st as well as the
3rd radical
is
are dropped in the Imperative (vide 3,

*X
Remark
II)
weak, both weak letters as-: the measure is

;
uf}'
^. x
tr.
"to save/' Imperative

x
Remark //.The "Doubled" verb

(
1
is
a "Strong or
(3) to (5)
Sound"
are
verb
JU JkX X
* x /O.
the remainder, especially classes
and
(6)
" Weak "
VI.
Indeclinable Verbs.
5*
These are: (a)(j*V "he is not," and t^*" perhaps, which have a Preterite (From only. Both are conjugated in all persons, numbers and genders.
700
NOUNS OF ACTION WITH M.
'am
I not
your Lord?" comes the Persian expression c
If
^
JW
"the day of God's covenant with man").

(6)
The following are found
in the
2nd persons masculine and feminine
of the Imperative only,
singular,
dual,
and plural:
oU
"give";
"come."
(c)
To
these
may
it
singular
* * \j&>
and plural
* *
&, *U =
prolong
"bring" (Imperative); found in the masculine, and the singular feminine. The expression 99v* "
be added
(S*>
*j$*j, etc.
In the same numbers and genders haste." This occurs in the Azan.
VII.
(a)
is
found
(Imperative)
"come
on,
Verbal Nouns of Action formed with

*
(i^Jf ;x*Jf
*).
Besides the simple
Infinitives
'
or Verbal Nouns, there are
some
verbal nouns beginning with f, which have exactly the
same meaning.
:
They are
I.
'
(
of the
form of the nouns of time and place *

;
J*J
JUixj or cJ*JU
and &AJU or a'JUix).
Ex.
o*
v^^
"
' '
striking
$'**<
"
sitting"
i**j**
doing kindness
?
"
;
4+
<f
^^. 4
,,
The broken
*
'
plural of
*,
-
*,+
'
'^'
these
is
regular,
'
*j*'
on the measure JUli*, as: Û**; s

f &' 9
^f^; *
vjtA/c,
*
II.
J*i), JU&c.
Ex.:
Ex.
Ex.:
"*
III.
(
v^> = v^) s
(
f&*9
"mixing."
*.'"*
<*B&x>
).
f fi,' f
:
fi,*9
J*tf )-cUiU.
,
'<**
<,
Jjl&* (ordinary Infinitive

,<>9
IV.
V.
J*jf)-J*ix>.
c^C "honouring."
&,,?
$&,*
(
^C^^ ( cUtf )
^ r
(,
^35^^
.
J*x>.
-
Ex.
,3Ali>c
= d j^J)
*,9
J J
' '
being tight.
'
*x
)
j,*+9
JUlix>.
,*
VI.
j*li>
Ex.
JUlJ>o
= JUUxj) (
being long-suffering ";

la Arabic,
In Persian and Urdu, pronounced as the accusative case, wa gliayr a-h u . the word has the three cases.
1
These
infinitives in
M
is
and the noun
of time
and
place, are always identical in form

triliteral.
the passive participle too,

6
the same, except in the simple

or place of striking,"
But iu^xj "a time

>
as the Aor. has
as
its
second
vowel.
*
In Persian o^rky/o and
&
NOUN OF TIME AND PLACE.

XXXG
701
/x c ^
Ex.:
VII.
(JUiit).JUiixj.
x xx
*-J^( = vJlftJf) "change."

f
/*XG*
/x
/^c^
)
-
'0*
(
VIII.
/
x G
'
cU&J
cJUiic.
Ex.
Ôkc
= *l&t)
4-'
,,
;
''complaining
<->j
v ySf)
IX.
(
drawing near.
XG
XG^
(
/xxo*
for Jl***
.P
xC>
).
:
*'
J~'t) -<>**
-
Ex j+~* (=;VM) "being

-?
red.
x Ox
.0
x Cx o *
x G xG
2*^"*'
X.
XI.
JîS^t)-^*^*'
JUfJ)
^ x:
"ti16 deducing,"
-AlMa$dar u 'l-Mtmiyy u not

begins with
'
used.
$
(b) If
<*
the
'
triliteral
wdw
the measure
is cUftx,
as
'
<
promising
&> " inheriting.'

' '
Also from a few roots that do not begin

:
this measure, as with waw, the noun is formed on
&j*
"
'
returning
' '
';
j^c(^
u
- to be easy "
(c)
"
being easy
;
fa
tl
being an orphan.
also, the
In the case of verbs with four radicals

of the passive participle; as
al-masdar
X^GX
'l-mimiyy
$
:
xGxx
is
on the measure
(d)
Jj^x>=AJ>Jj etc., etc.
derived
al-masadir* 'l-mimiyyah, and the nouns of time and place of all as also of the simple forms from verbs of three or of four radicals,
The
quadriliteral root,
have no plural; but when these forms are past participles
they have a plural.

VIII.
(a)
Noun
of
Time and Place
&\*>j*\
d&\
*U-f
).
The measure from the simple

i.e. oUftx>
triliteral is
the
same
:
as for the
alma8dar>l mimiyy",
of slaughter,
or
J**
"
!
,
and a*ix> or
<SUi*, as
di&*>
a place
a vital spot";
cU
place of
alighting,
-
stage,
place"*;
f'f
-
A*
l
maqam
un
"place of
standing, place", from
ftf
"to stand"; fy
The second vowel

^ x
maqburah.
these forms
mahlakah or mahlikah ; maqbarah or is not constant, thus In a few cases only are two such measures found for one word. The pL of
:
s s
'
is
jUUuo
as
>
*Jfco x
*
pi. of
w*&o and &&*,

Ar., Pers.,
*"<'
'
vide
IX (d).
of
In Persian also
apalace
J[i^
and Urdu," the quarter
a town."
702
jJx/o "
NOUN OF TIME AND PLACE.

*
</
Jf"<,
j+s
to
fi*
6x
(t
"graveyard"
(also
*j&,
Xj***
and
"<*
^&<*);
*
<xl* or *&%*
place of destruc-
tion" or " place of execution ";
*;*x> place
of study, a college";
"
place of giving decision, court"
&*
or a^t/o
"printing-office."
x "*
:
The
addition of the
" often gives the idea of abounding in, as
"
iiXl
"a place
abounding in lions."
For verbs commencing with ^ or <_$, the measure is J*i* and / /xO / a c< 3 time sometimes JUix), 1 as &Pjx> place or time of promise ", and Ûyo '
(b)
(I)
or place of fulfilment of promise, rendezvous
";
/ iÛ*
X
^"O
(
for ^Jfr
X
"
)
place or
/Ox-
time of birth, anniversary of birth
* ' ;
^>
"
>" O^-
watering-place," etc.
j**#
"a
betting
(2)
game
at archery
"
(from j*
(t
to cast lots with arrows ").
This measure is also formed from some roots that do not
commence with
),
as
&*~* " mosque "

"
/*-
ô*
;
JÔ^
uûo
wes t sunset
f
'
'
;
vr**
"
place of striking
"
;
f Ox
Jî*
place of alighting, a stage."
All the above can be Infinitives as well.
(3)
When the third

:
radical
for
is
weak, the second syllable
is
always pointed
(for
with jathah, as
^j*
^j*
' J
from
"
to graze
"
;
^^
JÛ
from ^jf
(c)
*'
to look for shelter.
of the
From the derived stems and from quadriliterals, these nouns are same measure as the Passive Participle (and consequently of the
also), as:
II.
al-ma8dar u 'l-mimiyy*
JL**
(for
>tô
"
)
prayer carpet";
is
one of the measures
for the
noun
of instrument, as: ijf/fc* (for X
s*
scales
";
ÛiU "key."
/,o-
>
Plural
From Stem
I,
^f^*.
* o x^
on the measure JUlU,
Plural
A^lô.
From Stem I, on
the measure
^x JUlU.
NOUN OF INSTRUMENT.
703
fi ~9 f, +** V. U>xx> "place of ablution"; VII. ;**uu> " place of descent"; VIII. i &9 ,& 9
kxx>
for i/*?*
I.
"
)
pillow."
Remark
participle
Though neuter verbs have no passive (only the active) form, yet for the al-masdar" l-mimiyy", and the noun of time and
measure of their past participles
is
place, the theoretical
observed.
Remark II. It will thus be seen that a word like fj* have four meanings, (1) " treated kindly (past partic.) (2)
' '
;
(
' *
from
^
:
may
kindly",
of
treating another or "being treated kindly" (al-masdar* 1-mimiyy); or (3) "place
"; or
(4)
"time
of kind treatment
"
(i.e.
noun
of place or of time)
while
being from a neuter verb will have but three, (1) "changing** (intr. " time of infin.); (2) change "; and (3) "place of change." From Stem I,
*-*iaxx>
there
can be
:
four
active
measure)
i.e.
meanings (the passive participle having a different and passive infinitive and time or place of killing.
;
IX.
Noun
of Instrument.
(a) (1)
There
is
no fixed form for primitive nouns, as

Vide also
f c^- " a knife "
"a hatchet, adze."

(2)
XI
(a).
The
following forms are from triliterals (I Stem) only : JUix>

< '
:
&AJU;
uU.
Examples
' '
*;**
file
< ;
^kLo
butcher' s
' '
chopper
packing needle"; <îLa*

**
Ci
a strainer (metal)":
&~&o "broom";
X"
&*
"fan"
<&ku>
<c
(from
^
(t
"blowing pleasantly");
x(k**>
*fy>
(for
<e
i)fjx>
a mirror";
girdle,
zone of the earth";

1
(for AA<AXJ
" strainer
"( = the
commoner form
(3)
*A*>).
When this noun is derived from

weak
letter
verbs with ^ or
:
^ as the medial
(from
radi-
cal, the
remains unchanged, as
^ft
" halter "
"to
lead "); K****
"needle" (from ill
lust*
"to sew
of
").
These nouns are readily distinguishable from the Nouns kasrah with which the prefixed mlm is pointed.
l
Time and Place by the
704
OTHER VERBAL NOUNS.

*
0>
/*
(6)
The two measure^ JWu and
JUix> of the
noun
of instrument are
also rarely used as adjectives. 1
They convey the idea
of doing a thing like a
/-o machine and hence sometimes habitually, as: Jl*-** " coughing habitually"; >*0 " coming towards one with boldness." Vide also XV (5) Remark III. f(*5x>
Remark.
f
'<,
In Persian, perhaps the only word found of this

a builder; an architect."
x>
last
measure and
meaning
is ;U**>
(c)
The noun
is
of
instrument sometimes indicates the vessel in which

f
*b
*x O
'
O
<
something
pail."
contained, as: j****> or *j+^*
"a
brazier"; *-*l/o
a milk-
t xo
(d)
The measure
/
of the broken plural for

^f,0
Jkiu and
j'xo Ui}* is
x x
:
'
cMa*, as
j>;U>c
/x^
it
jfxo
as:
' c
files
',
^t^
"girdles": of JUi*
is
JUUU,
vUavo ârch",
"
pi.
X.
Other Verbal Nouns.

%
--
-î/
(a)
THE NOUN OF THE NUMBER OF TIMES (/^t^J x *

is
î-
-*
^x o ).
or
^
jJl ;âx>
This signifies the number of times an action

suffixing a X to all Infinitives that
done.
2.
It
is
formed by
do not already end in
It is
a form of
the
Noun
of Unity, vide for I
XII.
The measure
promise"; &/
standing."
Stem
is
&*5, as:
* >^
:
"one blow"
**j
AxjjJ
"one "one
" one
draught"; <LJ^
"one sitting";
Examples
&^
au^c
,,<,*
" I struck him once
"
(but
0^ &j* = " I struck

9*.
9,,
[>~JU>
*<.,?'
|ôl>
him severely "); e^-*^

4<
"they
sat ^M?O sittings
"( = f>-^) ; oUjJ

measure
is
ti^x:
s
they stood up several times."
The
plural of this
the
regular feminine plural, a plural of paucity,
and
'*
several times."
Make no change
for gender.
NOUN OF KIND OB MANNER.

$tems
Infinitive,
CONCRETE NOUN.
3
705
II
and HI,* and the simple

S;
Quadriliteral,
have two forms of
one of each ending in
consequently for forming this noun,
that form that does not end in I
is selected.
,
When
is
the ordinary verbal noun ends in fs x *^xx /^C,^

it,
a word to limit
its
meaning
Vide
placed after
as
x***)j
s
&*W *WF
"
raised
him up once only."
also Adverbial Numerals.

o*
<
(b)
NOUN OF KIND OR MANNER

manner
of
^t
X
p*>[
X
or
*
X
>JJi
)***
).
This
indi*.'*.
cates the
S>,
doing an act.
From
the
triliteral
x ? *
it is
of the
* ^,,
measure
<&**,
as: AM*'
"mode
If
of
writing, handwriting": (<Juy
&&
xxc,
<z*&
"I
.
wrote like
Yusuf)."
the
verbal
noun
is
already of the measure
<*'Jki
(as
&A^
),
manner must be expressed by a paraphrase.
From
number
does."
the derived forms, this noun

'*
('
is
"
the
'<J
i
same
x
as the
<c
noun indicating the

it
G-
>
of times
vide' a), as
^^M'
**
j>
^y
he mixed
as a doctor
3> "
^ o
XL
(a)
The Noun (^'^^

**UJ( ^Klj.
to
Concrete Noun).
PRIMITIVE NOUNS
be
referred
Primitive nouns are those that canroot.

' '
;
not properly
any verbal
.00
They may be
^-J
triliteral,
' '
/
<
quadriliteral or quinqueliteral
*'
as
' *
:
JbJ
camel
^Lo*
saffron in flower
quince." They exist in varying measures of all three forms. They have no fixed forms or measures. They are always concrete and are not derived from verbs. Still, in dictionaries, they must be looked for under the form that might be that of their root.
From
primitive nouns, however, derivatives
may be
formed, as:
'
Infinitives
(JjjUiii.
and
^JlnAJ
* Infinitives
JUj and
JiU^ and
AJLclA*).
<
Infinitives
a(lJUf (
45
706
NOUN OF UNITY.
" " horse or " a " mare," <jÛ "horseman, good rider"; ^*u* stone, 7 apuRJ
"
Petrify
;
to
JV
*>~*f
" a lion "
/x
;
i^^
(
'
1
<
a place
full of lions.'
'
(6)
DERIVATIVE NOUNS
J^Ltx* ^*t
m ay
be derived
from nouns or
from verbs.
XII.
+ O
"
Noun
^ O
l
of Unity.
<*
NOUNS OF UNITY
a species, as:
j
'*
iXa.yf
indicate
one individual form out of

t
Û^
* s
pigeon-kind"
is
or
<l
doves,"
i'/oU^
t(
pigeon or
a cock
$'
t
'
'
dove," (but fUa- used as singular

>
the masculine of iÛ*
and= "
pigeon"): *xAi
The
"a gold coin" or "a piece of gold," from the plural, regular feminine plural, is a plural of paucity.
XIIL
v^^ "gold."
Some Forms
of Verbal Nouns.
*'
The
1.
principal are
f".
'
TRADES AND OFFICES

;
(abstract) <MUi fi'alat**, as:
;l^ "trading,"
^ " tailoring "
*&
"
clerkship/'
is
Remark
Remark
under
51
/.The
II.
plural
the regular feminine plural.

or carrying
of
The person professing

Adjectives
(vide
on a trade
is,
as stated
'
Intensive
XV),
.
the measure
J^,
as:
v ^*
butcher."
2.
for sound),
PAINS AND DISEASES are f,9 " as: a

to**
Jl**'
ju'al** (which is also

fi
one of the measures

f
',/
,9
f ,*
headache";
ftfj
"catarrh"; Jl*- "cough";

* '{
are
<j}lk^
"
quinsy."
3.
(i)
CONTINUOUS OB UNBROKEN SOUNDS

/0
T
JU*
fu'al** (also
used
for
some pains
etc.), as
of the body), or
cU*i
t
,
*
c
/a'?/** (also
one of the measuresjor

*' .' S;û>
(<
s *s
motion,
f^*
"a cry
"
;
"
whistling
(
j&+
one whistle ");
j>jt>*
*'the sound of running-water, snoring, etc."
For these, the regular
feminine plural in
1
is
used.
Vide end of
2
VIII
(a), p. 652.
<4
*>*%*'
But jj;^ or
,
(from the same root) generally means
prostration (in worship)."
...
SOME FORMS OF VERBAL NOUNS.

t
707
(ii)
BROKEN SOUNDS
sound
are
<*U*i,
and sometimes
/XX G'
' '
*U*i, as:
*^V
' ' ;
" oaohinnafS
*
<J
'
bion, the ha-ha-ha
of loud laughter
"
;
ijiji
gurgling
<x<a+^ " riu' '
f.W
sing the
mouth
' '
xiflL>
' '
gurgling of liquid poured from a bottle.

f
x
*
For these
'
/
:
x x c
' '
either the regular feminine plural, or else JJUJ is used, as
elA*a*> or
4.
MOTION, COMMOTION, EMOTION.

ttw
n e>^*i fa alan*
l
and
/
less
x ^
/
commonly
/a*^
(which
is
also
one of the measures for sound), as: &kj*> " running

"
palpitation
of
fast; ofao
flowing":
fO '
c)Â&.
heart":
;
JU^
"marching,
" departure": JUaJ a torrent
fast-galloper (horse)
traveller."
5.
FLIGHT OR AVOIDANCE,
as
JW
X
fi
al un
(which
is
one form of the

' '
:
triliteral
Infinitive),
;y
'
'
"
flight
:
"
;lii
drawing back
X
aversion
/
X
"
îy
bolt-
$X
ing,
running
away ":
*bt
hence "modesty ", also a "

" a veil ly," a/50
XX
f
(
for c5^t
"refusal":
v^?^
"*
"veiling," and
veil or screen
"
:
^l&i
X
"
encountering unexpected-
"
:
J*tf
'*
a sheath."
Remark.
>
T)l
Most nouns
of the
measure JUJ make their plural in Jiu, as

,
$99
*-_-*"^,
v_Uy
X
6.
(i)
A SMALL BIT
";
**ii5
X
& frlat, as
' *
S>1^
" a broken crust

*
piece of anything
"a fragment ";
*J^ "a rag";
/K?ra$ or vertebrae of
the back.
XX
;
:
also a
broken
"one
of the
These take the regular feminine plural or

also Collective
else JUi, as
x
el Ju or gfci
^
FtWe
Nouns
(e).
(ii)
SMALL PIECES, REFUSE MUi

-
ftfdlat**,
as:
foij?
"filings";
j^Lfc]
^saw-dust"; *^^5
''clippings,
potsherds";
<t*sUf
^sweepings."
These
take the regular feminine plural.
708
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
(in)
SMALL QUANTITY, &*i

'
;
fu'lat,
(also the
measure for colour), as:

**#
LJa.
4*j
' "a draught of liquid
&5
also
" a handful "
" a small quantity

*
' ' ;
" small drink
"
(this
may
be the Infinitive with the

else cl**, as
:
of unity).
pi.
These take the regular feminine plural, or
A*U*>
" a copy,"
7.
COLOUR
IN THE
ABSTRACT
<*JUi
fu'lat
un
(also the
measure for a small

'*
quantity), as:
"
*?**>
redness";
' *
ij*&>
<jÛj
,
greenness ";
i^*-*
sun-burntness,
brunetteness
8.
41
"
;
but exceptions are
" " whiteness "; *i^ blackness."

/
'
^^
4 '
VESSEL OR IMPLEMENT JU* *
ftal"
n
,
as:
<->&* '
"milk-pail";
^(^s
throng."
9.
AN
OFFICE AJU^ fi'alat, as
ai>JU.
office of
KhdRfah"
ci
10.
MACHINE, OR PLACE WHERE SOMETHING

"fireship"; *<*&
t
is
OBTAINED $Ui
fa
alat un ,
as:
AjlljA.
chalk- pit."
vide
11.
For Participles used as Nouns
XIV
(a) (2).
XIV.
(a)
Verbal Adjectives.
SIMPLE ADJECTIVES denoting an inherent quality are derived from the simple triliteral (generally of neuter verbs), but are irregular in form and
f
measure, as: ^^-^
"handsome"
'
((j>~>*>
"to be handsome");
o
) ;
^y
,
(also
*
s
* *
"
' '
happy
(from
~f "
"
to be
happy
(JUii
9
it*
"
;^
S
cautious
' '
(from ;i^ '

<(
" to be
cautious ")
+
s
<**
&&&
"
thirsty
" to be thirsty ")

*
+
' '
J+j*
f
;
naked
"
(from
' '
to be naked
"
)
;
+ *
* '
yu
'
'
empty
(from j&x>)
v^
gd
* '
(from
Alif maqtuiah
for
or
is
written without the dots.
>&* " to whistle."
Also Jt* " zero."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
709
(2)
The
participles
are also
used as adjectives and nouns, as:

*
-
,<,*
'
"
temperate"
j~i* *
humble";
f
cU>l*
*
*
''accomplished
*
cXî
"to
excel;
f
*
also to
remain over");
^
3
"learned"
(from
fJU
/G/C,x
"to know");
'
"
writing, a scribe
-X
"
;
/C/Ox
v^"
<J?
<S
"
written, a letter
"
;
<*^x
existing
of <x^
"
'
to find");
e^*^ "mad."
transitive <J*i,
Remark.
is
The measure cUtf when formed from J** and the
not only a real participle indicating temporary state, but also a substantive
j?
.
or adjective denoting habitual state or continuous action, as
f^
x
etc.
But from the
intransitive J**,
and from
as:
JU*'
(always intransitive),
t
'
the measure has the participle sense only,

'*/
11
*;lj
"rejoicing";
'
(^^
*
:
being cowardly"
(from
^^
* >*'
)
;
(>H^;
:
<f
being
5
,
narrow"
$*.
(from
Û)
the corresponding adjectives of these are

(6)
IT
as:
f'$SS**S
r-r ** s
Ûa.
'
ADJECTIVES (MASCULINE) DENOTING COLOUR OR DEFECT are

f>
of the
measure
*
cl*if,
^*^f "red"
* f o ^
j-*^
"he was red");

* 9 *
J*<*\
9s
t-
"
^
yellow'
"to be yellow"); raLf " green"

9
' '
(^^
9,
" to be green")
>j*\
" black-
+<*'
*
f
,
' {
*
-
eyed
J^
' '
squint-eyed
<
JLv
JJBJ
to be changed, etc.
(also in
to be squint
of
eyed");
"
v-ftjjAf
to be thin in the
\
stomach"
" deaf "
;
good sense
(for
f)
a man,
to be lean in
the flank ")
J2*1 a'mq
" blind."
This form undergoes no permutation of weak letters
u^f
$
u
and
Remark
'is
*
8
,
1.
The feminine
*
of this
?-' *
measure, when
it signifies
>^
r' * as: *Ujj
colour or defect, * <<>*
white"; *Jj^ "squint-eyed";
*U*
deaf";
But
*
fi*
to whistle."
of
Alsojl*
(q.v.)
is
'*
zero."
final
Stem
IX
the Verb
merely this adjective with the

vide Declension,
radica
rnushaddad.
8
The
servile
hamzah changes
to j in the dual
XXI
(i).
710
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
found
" blind."
"desert."
The termination
Vide
is
also
in
substantives, as:
V* *T>M*
'
XVIII
(6) 3.
Remark //.The measure

or
defect (not
elative),
of the broken plural for the adjective of colour *<,> /o > 6 masculine or feminine, is cW, as j+* JU> and
:
*<>*
'
U^ and
(c)
THE ELATIVE
(i.e.
JU*ftjJf ***f
).
The same measure
cUjf
9 s o x
gives
the
masculine elative
\U
comparative and superlative), as: er*^f "better or

' <"
*,
best"
high";
cl*f
^
x
"more
or
most majestic" (cU^ positive); X

xo
"
^M
c<
more
or
most
Ox
<_!**{
"more
is
or
most thirsty"; c>*f

-
c<
more or most
naked."
When
the positive
already of this form, as in u*#f "white," the comparax X
^
\u
* *
<(
tive and superlative are thus expressed

$
Uijj
c*f
more intense
as to white-
ness
1 '
;
* w xx x t5f>^ xAJI]
'</ie
most intense as
to black.'
(d)
When
the elative
is
followed
by the preposition
"than" (),
^XOX
:
it is
* o
comparative and always remains masculine singular in form, as
yf\
<j
^
x
x
9+
Ai*
c<
"she
is
greater than
(of
he";
"
all)
;
otherwise
'
it
is
this is
^grandest
(of all
J
^K
Slf
" the greatest";^?!

noblest of
superlative, as: ><><,' 'JU
JfewJIf |4>A
"God
ia
most Great
"
)
;
Jt^l
o^f "the
men";
" the
largest (fern.) of the cities."

I.
Remark
If
the latter part of the comparison

etc.,
is
not
simple
noun but a sentence

Ox
an appropriate pronoun
> x O'
^
x.
is
suffixed to
^
X
as
/C
gôf (*Lc or)
^
"
s '
&
Ux>
xC-xOx
Ox
fj|lf
diklf ^J^f
u the weather
o /
is
't
better to-day than
it
was yesterday
^\j*u
^
*l
UU'O
a^l J^-;
^^
W XX
f**^
x^X X
Wj **and verily I wa
Ox
i.e.
$oi
.*
t(
than any other being."
VERBAL ADJECTIVES.
more concerned about the wounds my own wounds."
of the Apostle of
711
God than
was about
Remark IL
-*
The
X
article Ji
'
is
not a necessary adjunct of the superlative,

the
U/XX s
1
*(jf
XO
*fc
f\j
as:
J|>*lj
JIJj Ûf *U|^.
When, however,
Elative
is
defined by
it is
the article, or by a following genitive, or a suffixed pronoun,

superlative.
(e)
always
The masculine
elative can
bo
formed from most

it lias
Triliterals.
As
a comparative, the elative has only the one form: no plural.
no feminine and
Remark.
Elatives are naturally not used from roots which express ideas
that do not admit of comparison, such as
oU
" to die."
Adjectives that express colour or defect do not admit of comparison on

>
this measure, as they are already of the

(/)
''*:
measure
cUif.
is
For the elative

#
of the participles of the

9'<j
""
Derived Forms, a paraphrase

ts
'
O
'
^
;
C
'
UJ
X"
(
$*U**'<^
t^*,
* s
resorted to, as: idl0I*t ;frf '
Uolaiit <x& ';
^f,
or better tyj*>
w* ' *&i
\U '
=>*f.
(g)
^9 The feminine JU*

is
fu'la, of the elative, is only
when when
of
it
a qualifying epithet or
<j
when
9
,
it
used for the superlative governs a genitive (and not

" the
9 s C"o'
it
is
a predicate), as:
God"
she
^^1
-
j^sJt
largest
'
*U*}ff
Most Excellent names
"the
of
the cities": but
<{
w the handsomest of my
daughters "; (and
txx>
*
^^ ^\
-
"
Zaynab
is
handsomer than she is").

formed from every
feminine
:
Unlike the masculine, the feminine cannot be

;
tri literal
thus
^f
pjS\
-y^f
9
cU^
etc.
have
no
the masculine form
is
used, or else a paraphrase.

<?'
The
plural of the masculine
superlative
is cUl*'f,
and
of
the feminine
cU\ or
(rarely) ^tjJUi, as
j$\,
f pi. ^?tf
birf', pi.
^Kf or ^L^f.
Ff(fe
XXIII
(r) (15).
i,e.
the Attributes of
God
djU/AJf
*U*f
9
).
The
^"*
?
<*
essential
'
)
name
of
God
few:
is
&Uf
has
'</
.t ).
The exalted Name
of
God
^&*Vt f*Sl!
known
to
it
magic power.
712
VERBAL INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES OB INTENSIVE AGENTS.

-
Remark.
^* may be the fern, of adjectives

'-*
br. pi.
<*'.
that are not superlatives,
-*'
as:
^J^
"pregnant,"
dîjte
>'
"'
br. pi. <yli
"hermaphrodite,"
and wU^..
/
(h)
"good," and jA "evil,"
form the
elative in the usual manner.
However,
)
are substantives or adjectives: they their positives are often used
for their elatives, as: *i*

x
^t
or
|i*
" this
is
better than that";
JU.j^L
" the best
of
man."
XV.
Verbal Intensive Adjectives or Intensive Agents,

x
x
/,
<^x
their force from, the triliteral.
These are adjectives or substantives, and are derived from, The commoner forms are
:
i.e.
take
(1)
JU* an
liar
intensive form of J^li.

^
lx.: JU$
"killer
of
many";
t(
a great
"
;
}*&
" a great helper."

:
Remark.
tor,
Professions are generally of this form, as
<Jl&
*
"a
c
great imita-
a professional
"
story-teller
;
ft?^
;
" a barber " "

;!<^
J(<f
glutton
"
;
^tj^
"a great
traveller (especially
by sea)"
very treacherous."
(2)
cL*3.
^ "
Ex.
+
îW *
s
"
very
truthful
f
:
"
(
&l* ,
"
:t
truthful
' ' ;
,
it
" friend ")
*^~> " very
silent
"
+t
L^cJ
"
very holy
(of
men
but
^-^
/*.
of God):
^^* "very drunken."

<(
(3)
c!^/>*
"
))
-Ex.
jjf*(
=;^)
very patient
"
;
j^
J<
very forgiving
(of
God)";
very thankful; a/o a great appreciator" (said of
God with
This form JÂ-*
is
very rare;
jltf
"very great"; aU^-.
"
great collector
'*
VERBAL INTKNSIVB ADJECTIVES OR INTENSIVE AGENTS.

man's few good deeds)
713
reference to
*'
fi&'
J/f=J!<f
"
very frowning, looking angry * *' 4 9, fi &' " a glutton "; vj'^vt**'' a great liar" J>^ very ignorant.
; ;
^^
'
' ' ;
* '-
* '*'
f *'
c<
Rarely, this form has a passive sense, as: Jjf*

* '
(
= Jj^,
(butj^w
it
accepits
tance"): Jr")
intensive force.
f
*
s=d*y "sent"
"
e.)
Prophet": here
has lost
(4) <Jjj*%
Ex.: f-h^j " very merciful"

of
'
(of
God); pd* "very learned"
(of
God
or
man; but ^tr
man
'
"
very intelligent
:
"
p*)\
only)
pw*
very
painful."
This form
is
not always intensive, as:

*
'
"sick"; ^f^ "a O^T* X X

*
'
s<
philo-
"
sopher
;
**>#=" dear "; *Jj& "noble,
of
good family";
is
&+*
deep."
In
<J*2feu
"
very stingy, miserly," the intensive meaning
contained in the
root.
This form,
when not
;
intensive, has often the signification of the passive
participle Jj*i*>, as
d>il "slain
"
(
= J^* )
5
^*
'
'
wounded
(= ^ j^?^*)
:
p^S
' '
î'O.
' ' ;
It
has sometimes, though rarely, an active meaning, as

l '
*&
witness
^^^
quarrelsome
" = ^^) and

(
,
also
' '
' '
enemy.
There are other rare forms.

(5)
To a few
intensive adjectives, the addition of S gives

]
still
greater
intensity, as: -fiU
' c
very learned (of
God
or
man)";
but
&*&e
j*A*ll
"the very
learned
(of
man only)": fa
of
"very intelligent";
jfj
(
i*W "the
most
intelligent
the
age":
^^\
"a
relator of something that
happened"djfy
%j
Û^
"a
'
professional
story-teller
= aJfjj
Jf>*
"talkative," but
&jj)
a collector "
**l+*>
" an habitual collector "

Vide
^/c
" con-
ferring favours
iU
*.<*
on "
*'*
;
&^ intensive.
XIX
(/).
No
epithet ending in a
(which resembles the feminine), or in
(which resem-
bles the yafH'n-niebah), can refer to the Deity.
714
THE RELATIVE ADJECTIVE, AND
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.
In Persian, of this intensive form, perhaps the only words used are
..***
<*** and
..'^r
<xx>l0*.
Remark
Persian, as:
I.
There are other rare forms of the intensive not found in

>
]
4$,
'
&a*e
" an immoderate laugher"; but
<jjij;^
"a
f^
djj
great dis-
criminator
"
(epithet of the
Kb al Ifah
'Urnar)
and
f&
pj*j
*
"
>*&
Everlasting" are
#9
occasionally used in Persian.
^,? In the Qoran occurs $yJ

t
*
^,*
cW
* *
"woe
to
every backbiter and defamer."
Remark //.The Ism^l-Mubalag&ah

,
&JU+J|
^
*~!
'
forms the plural

Ex.
9
,
regularly in
^>CiJx
^
S&'
;
except the form with added

%'**
'
'{,
which has no
plural.
ujyclU, pi. of |*1^
but
A/oJU
has no plural.
in
Remark
/
III.
-*O
As stated
$
' O
IX
(6),
the two measures of the noun of
in-
strument, JUix) and JUix?, are also used as intensive adjectives:

of the intensive \
these admit
for
mentioned
in (5),
but they
9
;
make no change
9
dfcclflAj.
gender;
they admit of the usual broken plural JUllU and

(7)
For the Infinitive used as an intensive adjective vide
LXII
(d).
XVL
The Relative (Denominative) Adjective, and Noun, and Collective Plural.

ITS
its
Abstract
THE RELATIVE ADJECTIVE A*D

suffixing
plural,
ABSTRACT NOUN
is
formed by
the J of the feminine or the endings of the dual and <jr and rejecting and denotes that a person or thing belongs to, or is connected with,
\>w
it is
the word from which

9
derived, as:
to Mekkah,"*from <^c "belonging
"
t"
paternal, maternal, or parental
' '
;
"
y****-
belonging to Hasan,
(the
or to
the
Hasandn*
'"
;
*j*>
^relating to the
Haraman*"
sacred
precincts of the two mosques in
Mekkah and Medinah,
or according to
some
Mekkah and Jerusalem).

I
Masculine and Feminine.

$,,*
*y+*
"
defaming behind a person's back,'
but
$"* i\J" defaming to
a person's face.
"

I
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.
715
(a) If
the
noun
itself
ends
in
than two preceded by more
letters,
there
is
no change, as
*.'
:
t;
(jpj*
a Sufiyy."
(b)
If the ^c of the "
noun
is
preceded by only one

to
letter,
x
the
first
^ is
**
marked with
fathah,
and the second changed
as: <*^ Hayy**
(name
of
"
an Arab tribe and a
If
village),
(c)
noun
is
*>
of three or of four letters ends in
&
:
or
^
^
x
or
as
the final letter
changed to
before the suffix, as
Ua*,
rel.
adj
"youth," cjk'; x
t -+
,
^ name
^ '"
of
a
hill in
Mekkah, ^ji* "x

;
î^ "John,"
t
^'
rel.
" Moses ";
adj. c$>^^
jf~J^, rel. adj.
(d)
If
the short final alif

(chosen),
rel.
is
the
fifth letter,
it
is
dropped, as
"Mustafa "
adj.
^fiJa^s.
Û^ " the hubara bustard,"
^-
(for <|f^, for
^$
),
rel.
adj.
^***
only three letters besides it, if the 2nd rejected; but if the 2nd radical is sakin,
preferably rejected, as
rel.
:
But
radical
in
nouns ending
in
^ with
is
has a vowel,
the (s
the 4^
may
rel.
be changed into j but

adj.
is
<jy*^
adj.
<r
a swift
ass,"
^y*
rel.
^y
"the Barada River,"
"
relationship,"
adj. ^.j*- or
S
Such forms
as
x
-
2,
s
c5jLH*\
though used by the Arabs of
<j^lfc^
cJXV^ an d
Baghdad, are incorrect, and are borrowed from the Persians. Modern Persians, for " Chinese '* chinawi (m.c.) means Chinese", say ^jUfc"^. Tn Baghdad jJua.
si!k.
^^
In
India
is
and
Persia ^j**** for
the
era,
and
"
^L^
" a Christian. 11
In
Baghdad, there
?
an Arab Christian family known as
Incorrectly, amongst Indians and Persians

j^
*
^
In Persia
%fj*>.
Incorrectly in
modern Arabic and
in Persian
^jUJ^ and
716
(e)
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN, ETC.

(
Nouns that end

Jf^ x
in alif
rel.
mamdudah
OJ
*f
change the
final
hamzah
1
- *
into j,
as: sU*
' *
"
sky,"
adj.
eSJ^"
"belonging to the sky,'
but
winter
becomes
or UJjî "France," are formed
is
From
(/)
t~ir*
^~^, ^X
Aj
)
that has been dropped,
restored in the relative adjective, as:

<{
(
v?
(jft
"father/'
^f
(jf
"brother," <jr>;
blood,"
J*^^
x/x
)
"
Wx
r
missionary,"
<Uj
(g)
Occasionally there are certain changes in the short vowels, as:

XX
/ ,J
rel.
"Medinah,"
I
tribe)
;
adj.
<ô^ madaniyy**\ <J*^* "Quraysh""" (the Prophet's
,'
!
^^
QumsTiiyy**.
-
The
Jcasrah in the
measures d*i and <U*
is
changed to fathah, as
Baking,"
(h)
rel.
adj.
is
In the case of a proper noun compounded of two words, one

vU
"
^
C'
*s-
tjJ
O,--
U/
xx
O-^
usually dropped, as
c^C?
from^î
(t)
The following
are irregular:
>
and ^1** from VÂÛJ ^ ^ * x ^ x x --xo > vW jj iia. " ( from u^jJt ) <55
x-
^W
a follower
of
Abu Hanlfah," but ^î^ "a

:
follower of Harnf*"
"
55
***
(an epithet of
x
.
Abraham)
before Islam, the Arab tribes styled themselves
^^.
"
(;')
Another form
*
of the suffix is J>), principally used in technical terms,
%
as:
% *S
corporeal"
;
*'
"
spiritual
;
*<,'
^C~a>
L^ÂJ
Ûij
;
''lower
(of letters
dotted underneath
also of a storey in a building)
^î.
In modern Arabic, as well a* in India and Persia,
special kind of shoe without heel that conies
from Yemen,
is
now
called ^î^
**
it.
therefore annoys
a Yamaniyy un to
be called
**
Yamanl."

(k)
ITS
ABSTRACT NOUN. ETC.
717
The feminine
J.
of the relative adjective is
formed in the usual way by
adding
Persians however distinguish the fern. adj. 1 and the abstract noun [vide (I)] by a long t ( ).
Remar k.
by
a silent h
),
Remark.
Besides the regular

'
masc.
pl.
[vide
XXI
(p)]
broken
*,
pl.
plurals are found, as:
^j** "a Moor,"

//
Ûx S
"a Damascene," âAx^ s S
$''%*'<;
pl.
d&AU.i;
^j^j
" a Baghdad!," pl
i^ûj.
(/)
THE ABSTRACT NOUN.

*
, '
The feminine
"
of the Relative Adjective serves

OJ^
, I
as an abstract
^ & Ût*. r x
*
noun
**
as:
^t
pertaining to
God"
AXÎ
"divinity":
(<
foolish
"
;
"
'
<ul<fcU
xx
state of ignorance, the time before Islam
"
:
* c '
JUT *
"the
v>J
0"
/Ô'
"how?
",
rel.
adj.
^^,
^
;
and abstract noun <**V
Pers.
^^V
howness, state, etc."
Ar., <Â^, "

*
"what
is
that? ", abstract noun &*&(*

s
Û
"
kingdom
of
God "
OÂ*
"
omnipo-
tence of
God
o>lj
humanity."
So, too, a collective plural
is
(k)
COLLECTIVE PLURAL.
fern.
formed from some
words by adding the

oL.
$ to the relative adjective (and also to

+* o'
some
of
w -
singulars) as:
^Â,
relative adjective, "materialist,"
<y^ "the
lets
sect
"
dahriyy
;
6 $>'
(Jl*^, singular
*'**
'
noun. " camel-leader, or a man who
out camels
on hire,"
pl.
Ûa.
{<
a body of camel-leaders ").
As stated elsewhere, Persians have imitated

:
this
form and added the termination to

a bad sense).*'
>>
some Persian words, as

Indians
*'
i*xC*
<**
dog-naturedness
(in
even write
A-.^y
(" everything
is
nature'*)
and
in slang say
oojlo
being a native."
718
THE DIMINUTIVE.
XVII.
The Diminutive
*
(a)
The Arabic diminutive, which

triliteral
formed from the
very rarely used in Persian, is by inserting a quiescent ya after the second letter
is
and pointing the

/ ,*
first
with
zammah
(_ .'
);
the measure is cU**, as: JU>;
"a
man",
dim. JU^> rujayl
(used in contempt
= Pers. ^<yc
little
fi^'
)
:
I>A*
slave,
dim. ****
f^ "
a bumble slave; also a slave-boy, or a
son
of a
slave."
ts
[The diminutive also expresses endearment
t(,s
^>)
and even enhancement

e
<"f^
>>
,b *
the very best")].
From
quadriliterals the
form
is
JJUni, as:
^^
t
vide ^scorpion," dimin. vriA** *
(c)
(2).
For more
letters, the
form
is
JUL*^,
/
* *<.*
as
;Â*
"
<<'*
(c) (3).
sparrow," dimin. j*****, vide
be formed from .substantives, adjectives, participles, ' ^ ^ &' 3X from fi, and uflbS from *^)fi note that demonstrative pronouns (eg.
Diminutives
may
x-
the initial vowel
is
here
of
and not --- ),

i
^
relative
î
pronouns
X/x^
(l*Wf
xCx
from and
&
),
from certain prepositions that

surprise
re substantives
(^^froiu
su*HP^
**>
),
from some of the verbs

he
is
!
and wonder
^ " now good
"), and the numerals.
Diminutives cannot be formed from nouns that are already /Cx^ " of the measure, such as vi^^ a bay horse."
Remark.
:
There are rules for the euphonic changes in short vowels they are not given here, but are illustrated in the following examples. (It must be
(6)
recollected
that the
characteristic or
measure, are
xC^
1
zammah
/
'*
dominant vowels
of the diminutive
----(
at the beginning,
/^CX{
'
and kasrah
of
at the end
>>x
V+*
"
^
o '
a date," dimin.
1
S^;
little
Js/** (fem.
>*
Ox
dimin. J^V*^
?^#i^^
dear
one
/x
'';
x
^â,
(pi.
masc.y^f) "
"
smaller,"
^
x
(fem.)
red," dimin. *f/+*>

'loads," dimij).
humayra*" "dear
r osy- cheeked
";
Jl*a-f
of
paucity)
If the
noun has a feminine termination,
it is
suffixed to the diminutive.
THE DIMINUTIVE.
"
719
*f uhaymdl
little
loads'
c>CL "Salman*" (prop, name), dimiu.,
Sulayman"
"(dear)
Solomon
also
"
;
o x
e>l/*
masc,,
e>f,V* sukayrari" "slightly
drunk;
dear little drunkard drun

<fx
"drunk," dimin. "

(the fern. / x
X X0"0
^GxO '
expresses endearment
>
o '
of a mistress
that has S^+i

a-
>
"=
'
/<^/
c
and
u^*
^*^
(from
certain
fern,
triliterals)
ct
'hiH" =
JÂS
(c)
f,
With
j
,*
)
mak
letters:
(I)
(tor
+#) "door," dimin.

$ o'^
*-*4j>
butvayb**;
/'O
nuyayb**;
wb
(for
v^
"eye-tooth, tush, tusk", dimin.
v-ujj
&&>
(for
"balance, scales," dimin. c^J-J^ muway&n** "small scale"; S*^
"
opulence
fl (
from **j
dimin.
-Jxox
>
*****
t>(s'?
(2)
vJ^
"striker," dirain.
// ^
^^*
'
'b '
zuwayno**
^
>>
jiH^ "lion," dimin.

little
cx /
j^x
huivaydir**;
***& "Joseph," dimin. cJu^^ Yuwaysuf* "dear

,
"
Joseph
dimin,
;
JU *'boy,
aô slave," dimin. ^J^ ghulayyim
(for
^*);
(>^,
<;
rî*
2L/
^
,?^, dimin.
$x/ Â^
/^-^
(
for
^^
).
(3)
"key," dimin.
^4^
^
mufaytih**; jyuo*
sparrow"
(often
,o ^ ^
applied to any
little bird), diniin.^jAx-A* 'usayfi-r"".
(4)
The following should be noted f ' ?'' " &9 father

J(
'
(for twf
^f ubayy.
s.f
(fory4 )" brother";
^^f "sister";
itfj
&f ukhayyat"*.
;
(for^
PC,
"son"
,& bunayy.
"
;
&JoJ
" or cJLj daughter
*ô bunayyat**.
a thing
"
;
&,t
f$,t
or shuwayyal**.
^^ or &j>, shuwayy*"
720
.-?"
GENDER.
" slave
^
girl"
; ;
**f
f f
<(
<***?
umayyat**.
do.
f\
(5)
mother"
do.
As
in the
formation of broken plurals, so too those nouns that have

/*
o;
'
more than four

*
*
radicals, reject all after the fourth, as:
Jîu
"
quince ",
*
'.
dimin. ^j>&~> sufaynf".

(6)
Compound nouns
as:
take the diminutive in the

of
first
part only of the

;
compound,
44
^f^^
<*~U>
" humble slave
God"
(as
a name)
" before
fifteen",
x'
^
4<
"a mere
fifteen
"; v>^>
&
sunset";
MJ
(7)
little
before sunset."
Diminutives
may
*'
be formed from regular plurals,
masculine or
x^x
plurals of paucity,"
feminine, and also from

jf
as:
e^^,
/ Gx
dim. &j+i?j*
xô^/'.
5
oUu,
&f
pi.
dimin. oUL.
(8)
few diminutives are very irregular, as: ^ûo "sunset," dim.
dim.
XVIII
(a)
Gender.
There are two genders

is
masculine and feminine.

the feminine.
m
The
place
of
the
neuter
generally supplied
are of
by
Some nouns
t
*
common
gender, as
<j*y
" a horse or a mare"
UA> " a
(b)
wing."
are
The following
Feminine by form
Z"
'
I.
Nouns ending
,
in
servile J,
as: <s6>U "striker" funless the eense

"
is
masculine, as in
ii^
M " a Caliph
in servile J^
J
(pi.
*lAU)].
2.
*
a
*
Xouns ending
most beautiful
as:
^JU
XIV
" Salma
(g)\
;
"
(a
X O
woman's name)
i~^
"
[wrfe Elative,
" ^^î "remembrance
are feminine, without the
tanwm, and make no change
for case.
GENDER.
721
f
Ui*
'<*9
<j*
dunya (for ^v^> f r <kj^ from and to be near ") " the world.
If
x'
/<,'
-
y*j
'*
to be low, also to be
^G'
* x
mean
/
x
;
however the
"
youth
*
"
;
^^\
,9*9 ^=s^
(
is
radical, it
)
"morning
may be "
*
)
masculine, as
^H\
(^ for ^)
)
;
(from sunrise
till
4
about 9 o'clock
f *f
for (^jS
).
-^ but (j&\
3.
as a fern, (broken plural of &j*

9
9
,^,<j'
<
"towns "
^y
Nouns ending in *T,

^fÂafcJf
5
as: *UiiJf
Khansa "
(a
woman's name)
"a
4
plain";
n
"the sky";
c/
*f^ "red"
magnificence,
(vide
Adjective);
>
*r
;
sama**
"sky
^v.^
"grandeur,
haughtiness";
'desert.
(c)
The following
are Feminine
by
signification
1.
Proper names of women, towns, and countries, 1 and nouns that denote
*
'
females, and participles

f o'
on the measure cUU that are applicable to females
only, as
o^f
c
a sister
"
;
^^jx>
Egypt
<f
"
;
> x cJU>U
"
*
"
pregnant
(vide also
XIX
2.
(/) );
"barren "
menstruous."
The name
' '
:
of winds, fire, wine, as
^;
"a
strong or stormy wind,
also flatulence
j
f'
" North Wind

"fire":
Hell."
of the
' '
hand
side
"):
;U
c<
^
and
fb'
(but Shimal $* ?
" the North, or the left$*

*
/fl5x>.
"wine": ^!^
or
kof*x>
"wine": fi*
etc., etc.,
3.
The
double parts
/
;
body, as:
" hand
"
;
"eye
"
;
^
as
:
" shoulder"
J^;
" foot"
&
;
also
" tooth" (there are an even num-
ber) are feminine.
Remark.
/9
<,'
' s
These, besides the dual,

;
make
.
/Ô x their plural J**'f or
f '<>'
J^f,
feet
"
* x if
" ears
^ o9
r
' }
(sing,
îf
Because
<,j^f
&>&*>
*"
iiî
V
are
all
feminine.
In Persian, and
in colloquial Arabic, the
feminines are used.

<*'
The
principal direction
is
the East or
(jj>j&c,
46
722
4.
GENDER.
Collective
Nouns that denote
living objects destitute of reason
and
that do not admit of the j of unity to indicate an individual, are generally

feminine, as:
el***
" horsekind," ubt

**
" camels."
* '*
Those that do take the

tribe
S,
are either masculine or feminine, 1 as:
fU^
"the dove or pigeon

is
"
;
"a
5.
single
dove or pigeon": f
"people"
masc. and
fern.
Vide
also under Collective nouns.

All broken plurals are collective
and are therefore grammatically feminine (though

qualified
(d)
nouns (while regular plurals are not), in some cases they may be
*
by a masculine
considerable f '
adjective).
.
number
/o
rod";îi
"a well";
^ "a house"
are Feminine by usage, as: *'

;
l/a*
"a
staff,
;b "fire" etc., etc.
Remark.
or that are injurious, they have
Some grammarians state, that things that the Arabs dislike, made feminine; while things they love they
Hence
have made masculine.
moon "
^^1
is
" the sun "
is
feminine, while j+$
"a
is
masculine.
f
'
Firdaws u***j*
"Heaven"
*.?'
masculine
but
&*
"
Heaven," and
** *l+~
"
sky
"
are feminine by form.
(e)
Of
Common Gender
are
1.
Those
collective nouns, chiefly denoting animals
and plants, from
S^
which a 'noun of unity* can be formed, as
fs ^
:
jfc
"
S"
cattle
";
aiyj.
"grass-
hoppers or locusts
' '
;
f*&
"
trees
"
;
/Ox
* *
^
(
j+* De-
dates."
'
These are masculine by

').
form but feminine by Nouns.

2.
signification
aÛaJf " totality
Vide also Collective
The names
of
the letters of the

/< i"
alphabet.
(These are usually

*
feminine).
*,
" is
*.
3.
js
Words regarded merely
as such:
-feiJ
masculine, while <wK or
'*
feminine.
4.
considerable
>tf *
number
of
nouns incapable
$<*>
of
classification,
as:
f
/ox
fL>
"peace";
1
Û " a ladder ";

" a hare"
oj**
"bazaar, market,
"
path, road."
street
";
j***
"
barley'
(gen. fern.); JU^.
But *Ua> used
for
a single pigeon,
is
masculine.
FORMATION OF THE FEMININE FROM THE MASCULINE.
723
XIX.
(a)
Formation of the Feminine from the Masculine.

is
The ordinary method
by
$ * f suffixing j (plural e*f), as: vj 1** maec.,
iker,"
&>U
fern.:
*x>)*3Rx>
fern,
"served"; <uLc
*
muttahimat"*
sused."
*
Remark.
before % becomes
t,
as:
^
^^
a youth," *Lu " a young
>>"
(6)
xo"^Ôx
(1)
" Adjectives of the measure eJ**5 become ^bu, as : \*>\j~ drunk," P*d ' "O" vs>Uk^ "timid," fern. \ d*j* "an old dotard," fern.
;
(2)
But oiUi (with âwt^w) and

fi
oA*t>
make
$ ' <,?
their feminines in the usual

' *<**
<4*
$'*<*'
u>*i fern.;
as:
e>^^ " repentant,"

fi,<^
vkj*
"
naked,"
*&jj* fern.
(c)
(I)
JUjf as a superlative (when defined

x of
-<*0
by the
"
<#
article or
a following
"
>*
"
ive)
jf
becomes
'*,
^51*5',
as
(^>^
" " small smallest," fem. ") ^**f masc.

?
?,<>,
(jitS
"great")
j*&\ masc. "greatest," fem.
|2)
But J**f denoting
colour or defect has for its feminine *JU*',

'
as
O x
^
ite,"
u^
^ O^
;
Ox
>*
X / xC
;
fem.
*^^j
^5A|
>*x'
"chestnut,
red-haired,"
fem.
*fj&^
^
* '
|d)
'.
O'
;
ie," fem. *M^*

J>^>
uS^t
<f
^
^
x
.
^^f
CX
a white leper," fem. *Uy.

(tr.
when
it
equals cJUU
X
or intr.),
and
is
a predicate to or
:
hed to a substantive singular, makes no change

'
for the feminine, as
uj
" a contented
girl."
It
is
incorrect in Arabic to write this
as
though even
in the
Quran such
j;raphy occurs.
Broken plural JnA>
f .
Fê
f
also
XIV
(d)
and
(g).
<.*
Plural for both genders

5
<J*5*.
The feminine
of the
dual changes hamzah into
XXI (t)
Remark.
724
/
>x
NOTE ON FINAL
>
*<*
if.
'
if
But
Jyii
when
it
equals J>*i*, or
/ /x
J,
no substantive
(or
pronoun)
is
expressed, takes the feminine

''
as
^)
raasc.
" "a riding animal, camel
**^) fem.
Remark.
The
plurals are the regular feminine

*
*.
and masculine
is
plurals.
'
.'
,
(e)
Vice versa, ds**,
when it equals <Jj*i/0 and
under the same condi$<* S
$
tions as
"
' Q
Jyi makes*no change

Jf
for the feminine, as
'
^^ *f^J
'
'
" a wounded
fiO
fi*v X
woman"; J^S X
*
'
X
"a
it
murdered daughter."
*
'.
But JU*j " when

"
equals
Jlcli, X
or
is
an ordinary adjective, takes the

JÔ
**
usual
S,
as
"
/xxJ^x
intercessor," fem. A*JA;
u^*
sick ", fem. iflj/o. 1
Remark.
(/)
^These take the regular feminine

of the
1],
and masculine
f
plurals.
Those adjectives or participles

[vide
measure J*U that apply to females

they indicate
x
only,
make no change
f
XVIII
(c)
when
/
some permanency,
9
/xCJix^
Jf
as: <>HJ5
"divorcee" fem., (but &Ak* = Ît "
cUU^ ^pregnant"; '

to-morrow."
"giving suck
"
etc.
But
|A*
wife
Â "she
will be divorced
Remark.
These form the plural regularly in
csf
as
ci>lUU.4
XX.
(a)
Note on
it
final
J.
In derived and primitive nouns

*f*.
often forms a feminine *, as:
"boy," fem.
1
AlAfc
<4
girl."
When
the
Noun
*
*'
of Instrument
is
an intensive adjective
IX
(6)] it is
governed by
the
same
a
rules as Jytt
*
and uUn*.
C'
' x
*i
In verbs,
is
it is
e,
as:
c-J^
**she struck."
ct
;
In
Peman,
the final servile 5 of
Arabic nouns
generally written
some words
some
is
either with e> or 8, indiscriminately.
are written with e, only, and Occasionally, in Persian (and Urdu), there
as*,
a difference in meaning between the two,
g&xiU 'aqlda
;
"
religious belief (gener-
"
ally)
;
u>^&c
'aqidat
belief in
a particular
saint, etc."
^Jiu fti'2*^
" the
representa-
tion of the shrine of
Hasan and Husayn," and OJj*3
ta'ziyat
condolence."
NOTE ON FINAL
g.
726
(b)
It
forms the noun of unity, as:
^"
/o*
*'v dates," S^P" a date."
s$
(c)
It
sometimes distinguishes a singular from a broken plural, as

iai^J
{e
8y*
" a she-cat/'
9
)j*>
pi.;
acopy, recipe,"
pi.
*~i; **y
*<.
"village,"
/x O
c
a rarity," v-teu or vASUso

(5 '
pi.
>(,>
" an animal" (specially a

/
*
beast of burden),
u*l>*
P^
x /x ******>
X
///
-f.
^"
**
a volume," vJ$lx> or *Aua pi.;
^;
"
"
ôx
x&x
pis.
garden,"
u^; and uO;

^
it
an ^ ^^JL>
(d5)
fi
x-
Fece êmr,
J* >35x
sometimes distinguishes a plural noun from a singular

/x x
^x ^
ckb* or
*"
JUi
or else
a feminine collective, as:
<*V*
x
" travellers"
*J;U
x
" dwellers on the banks and drinkers

^35x
of the waters of the

<l
same stream ";

/i3x
e^ 1
/tx
<c
JUa.
a camel-leader (driver),
J>
pi. &)(**.
camel-leaders";
'
^^
**horse-
S
dealer,"
*
pi.
35
>
<&Ua*,
"horse-dealers";
/xx
'
^lxj
a leader in prayer, etc.,"
pi.
"
;
&
^
(e)
a tom-cat,'
pi.
k^
'*
tom-cats
"
;
f&O*
***j*>
the " Sufis. 1
"
"
:
It forms substantives
from
participles, as:
&*U
X
<
water-channel
<f
a claim; summoning; missionary work."

f+
x x
>*
x x
<{
(/)
It corroborates a plural,
>
as:
<xJL5U^
or cUlfc*
metal-polishers," pi.
of J15^>
and J*<*;
e^y
'*
a Pharoah,"
pi. fi^ly.
(gf)
It emphasizes intensive adjectives or nouns, as
&oÛ,
aujfj
etc,
XV
(5).
(A) It is
used as a compensation for a letter dropped, radical or servile,

jjx
as:
/xx
^ )= '
/
Ô'
e;)j
.Ifcs-.fxox
for
'*a
weight";
uUsUUj; &^4u * X
JÔ" "taking out"; ^7^^ ^ X
"
)
giving help."
*efo
Relative Adjective.
726
DECLENSION OF NOUNS.
XXI.
(a)
Declension of Nouns.
Arabic nouns have usually three cases, Nominative, Genitive and
Accusative.
Plural
They have
).
three numbers, Singular
^Jf ), Dual
(îLJf
),
and
e**Jf
The tanwn marks

:
the indefinite, and the short final vowel
the definite noun, as
9'<S,
The Singular (a^Wf

Indefinite
).
Definite
*
Definite.
* '"
(
*,'
'
).
*j&
).
**j**
with Pronouns.
<{
**
t;Nom.
v ^"Abook."
**
vJ*^' "
al~kitdb
The book." totif" His book. "^&

*
My book."
kitdb.
u
.
kitdbuh*.
:
kitdb-i.
:
^g
.
kitdb in
al-kitdb 1
kitdbih 1
kitdb-i.
kitdb an
al-kitdb a
kitabah".
kitdb-i.
A
(je>ji&vo
(6)
word
:
in
the Nominative
is
called *y*j*
in the Genitive
jjûo or
and
in the Accusative ^âi*.
noun with three cases
as above
is
called a Triptote, or
JLz. in
by Arab
grammarians,
tive
tive
is
JâU
< '
declinable."
Every noun that has

'
the nomina-
a triptote.
Every noun (undefined) that has

s tf Ac)
;
in the
nomina-
is
a Diptote (^r***j>*
vide
(/).
(c)
' '
The words ^\
[j*
"
father"; ^f
' ' ;
* c
brother"; ji
possessor
' '
";
p?
mouth "
with long
^ vowels when
' *
father-in-law
and
'
thing, vagina,
are declined
affixed
in construction with a
noun or with an
'
1
'O-
Indians and Persians generally say
^^^1.
2 i.e.
when
9 ^
defined
^^5
by the
Article, c
by Suffixed Pronouns, or by a following Genitive,
{Si**
etc. etc.
// X
727
pronoun other than

of
^
"
"
my,"
as
"
:
*>*f
his
father"
*i)
*
"
<^f
'
of the father
Zayd."
(d)
This
is
a survival of the ancient declension.
The noun
/o e^l
X
son," between the name of the son and the father,

*Q 9
,
drops
its
hamzah, and the proper name preceding

9
it loses its
tanwn, as (#
:
*$)
jj+* Zayd*
t
bn
Amr in "Zayd
line,
the Son of 'Amr."

is
But
if
the word J>\
happens to begin a
/O
the hamzah
,
:
not dropped.
/ o
(*&[
Jf
It is also
is
not dropped
CX
is
when
(jjj
used predicatively as
jj+*
^j
"
Zayd
the son of
'Amr."
In *Wf
^j, the hamzah

radical,
of
^t
is
always dropped.
5?
weak
with or without tanwin at the end

(^).
(^*
?
course affects the case-ending, tw/e

$'
.
The word
i
! is
also used for
" one
of a pair, a fellow to," as
(oufc.
'
(/)
IMPERFECTLY DECLINED NOUNS (vj^Ju)

i.e.
/x .
).
Some nouns
are im-
perfectly declined,
(',
.....
in the
they do not admit of the tanwn. These take zammah nominative, and fathah (_ru) in both the genitive and the
accusative, singular or plural.

All Diptotes
Such are
definite
called Diptotes. 1
when rendered
by the Article, or a Possessive Suffix ,

i.e.
or a following Genitive, are treated as Triptotes,

fathah, as
:
they take kasrah instead of

;
jtiW
(def with al)

.
"
for the very great persons," (but ^KJI indef.)
(def.
without
"
al)
for the very great ones of the people."

.?*' /
Some proper names

f.
are triptotes, as:
<>+aR.<c
others, diptotes, as
Some
again always require the article, as: &/*Jf.

in alif
x
(^)
Nouns ending
/
maqs&rah have only the one case, as

!
/x
Musa]
fcjtf (fern,
of^f
).
Words that have only one case
like
Or
&)*> or
;
any noun loiêd
to
"
my
are not considered ghayr* munsarif or îndeclinable" nor are the regular masculine and feminine plurals considered diptotes, nor the plural of jJ t nor words like^jcljl, though
they have two cases.
728
<"*/
(
(t)
The Dual
**&
).
Masculine
Norn,
Feminine
^Jy
).
eyjltf
kitabaw " two books."
Nom. ^tfL X
Gen. )
-'
malikatan*
x
" two queens.
Gen.
Dat,)
(^(If kitabayn x
1
.
Dat.)
v^juCLo malikatayn*. '
In construction, or when followed by an affixed pronoun, the

* *
vt>
is
dropped, as:
*tj Utf
f
" the two books
of
Zayd"
'
*gltf
'
^
"
/*
kitabay-h*
în
his
two books."
It
Remark.
(
a noun ends in
ah'/
mamdudah
followed by a servile hamzah

x
x
*"
*f
),
the hamzah becomes j in the dual, as: eJtjycuo
"two deserts"
(from ûtf);
^l^s^
e^^tî
"
wo
(
black women.
(j)
Regular, or Sane, Plural
Masculine
j
Feminine
Nom.
cJ?*>K katibun".
Nom.
Gen.
e>tJU>
malikat un
Ace.
malikat in
Dat The
inasc. and, fern, dual,
and the masc.

Jl.
plural,
make no change
for the
definite
(k)
form except prefixing
final
weak
*
radical affects the case endings.
The word
finish "), is
o*U> qaz in (indefinite)
"a
Qazl
"
(from
^^
^ftj C5
c<
to decide,
*
+
'
:
on the measure d*li
its
proper forms for the nominative and

qaziy
/
in
;
genitive would be
^tf
"
qa%iy
un
and
^^
**
and with the

u
definite article,
xc"
'
the nominative and genitive would be
^l^f "
'
al*qaziy
'
and
9-
^^f *
*
al-qaziy*.
But
these sounds are considered uneuphonious
JL^flS
),
so they
become
The h
of ^the ( 8 )
feminine singular becomes

x
d*
when followed by an
affixed
pronoun.
2 If
the
x the sound would not be uneuphonious. {^ were mushaddad, as in t*^ ,
W.^
with the tanwn
is
729
for
both
oases,
l
u<>li qa%**,
and without
is
it
c^&Jf x
al-qazi.
As fathah
over a yd that
preceded by a kasrah
*
not considered unx

M
euphonious, the accusative
is regular, viz. l&nil?
qaziy
an
and
<*^&f/ al-qaziy*.
With the
>>X
affixed pronouns, the Nona,
and Gen. become
<*JÛ qazi-h*;
and the
X
.
Ace. *j*l$ qaziy a-h u

article) is x /
Only the
definite
form of such words (without the
found in Persian and Urdu.

*
xx
*
The
regular masculine plural
is
Norn.
e)>*tf,
and Gen.
(^^tf.
' '
(/)
Similarly,
^fc*
fata"
a youth
' '
(from
^^^
,
"
to be
young
9
"
),
/-x
on the measure JUi, standing for <J& fatay un and îAJf al-fata is for (J&1 u al-fatay Consequently, according to the rules of permutation or Arab
is
.
euphony, there
is
no change
for case
all
three cases in the singular are
^
The
and
<^.&J'.
Their declension
$ s(j
+O
is
virtual
cÂflj
*
),
not expressed
(J**)).
S
S S
broken plurals
<uxi
^
and
c^îi are regularly declined.

*
" (m) So too Uj usury or interest" (from b;
-^
*'
to increase," intr.),
and Uj
4<
satisfaction
^X
with" (from
/
X
^j
;
^5^), are on the measure
cl*j'
and
stand forjj) ribaw
and^/) rizawun
and
they,J>oo,
make no change
rule.
for case.
Words
like t^c
^î
follow the
same
is ^5(o) The present participle of all derived forms whose final radical or j, have the terminations of <^ 1* while the passive participle will be
u^S
*
like
4^ ^.
-
The broken
plural of words like
jjU
^
and
^j& make
^>l>^
^
and
Û* in the
Nom. and Gen.

the
Sing,,
and c)L^ and cj&>' in the Ace. Sing.

the
But
if
(or
a ^
were preceded by a
the most euphonious
fatfyah,
(or
would become
^ .'
^/.
2
Arabs say that fathah
is
tJUflat ) of
X
the short vowels.
Note the absence
of the dots
under
to indicate aZ# maqsurah.
In the Quran
however, the dots are omitted under every ya.
With the
affixed pronoun, alif
maqsurah
>,,
becomes
alif fawilah for all cases, as
:
Jjlli.
730
REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL,,

Remark.
Nouns
like
^
.
*<t **93* 9
-
o*l5 and
^
&j* are
called
" declined but with the

(p)
(i)
final
vowels understood."
is
The REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL

Participles
used for:
making
their feminine in *
and signifying
rational beings.
(ii)
Proper names of men, provided they consist of one word (and are
JU >*'
not compound as
*JJf X
***
),
and do not end in
*:
and
also diminutives of such
names.
(iii)
Diminutives of masculines that denote rational beings.

wM
(iv)
Relative adjectives in
(qualifying a masculine plural).

9
(v)
The
dative, JUif
with comp. or sup. meaning, as
e^y KU
for vjlity.
Remark
I.
It cannot be used for adjectives of the measures
Jy* and JU*J X

of the
when these
feminine
are
of
common
gender
(i.e.
when they do not admit

(4)].
S; [vide
Intensive Adjectives
(3)
and
Remark //.Adjectives admit
of the
sound masc.
pi.
only
when they
qualify substantives denoting rational beings.
s&
(vi)
j&
it
&
JUi when
denotes profession, as: jlJ ''carpenter,"
pi.
(vii)
There are a few exceptions to the above

of a family
,
rule,
viz.:
&&
,
"
sons";
" members
9
'
;
"
(also
"
fit
")
ji
;
"
possessed of,"
pi.
#& and
9s
fs
"
9,
j)jl
(Jb
world," e^l*
a
" the universe

)
;
"
f^
(>;f
pi.
"land earth,"
eû.
8
^^ and
oU)f (more commonly

others.
u^ljf
u*
"a year,"
"
years," and some
The
is
,>
plural forms
d^&*, oy^b,
etc.
are not the plural of
^*
and
>Jli
(which
)UUf and
4
peculiar form.
In Persian
x
is
The oblique
case ^^Ju*
used in Persian (of course without the
final vowel).
REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL.

Remark.
731
As with the dual,
vide
(i),
the
of the regular plural dis-
appears in construction.
(q)
(i)
The REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL

Feminine proper names.
is
used for
(ii)
Masculine proper names ending in

Jf
*>
S.
$x
'
/x
&x
).
(iii)
All feininines ending in 5, as: olbUi,

'
tailoresses"
/ xO"
i'-fc^ sing.
fern,
O *
(
(iv)
The feminine
superlative <î*J
of
masc. JUif
).
(The
broken
plural is tUiff
(v)
V';
).
The feminine
both genders
9 *~ O x *JUi (of
''O''
JUif
when
it
expresses colour or defect).
*f*
<J**.)
(Plural,
(vi)
Names
of the
months.
(vii)
(viii)
Letters of the Alphabet.
Verbal nouns of the derived forms when used in a concrete sense

nouns.
and
all fern. vl.
(Stem II has also a
pi. Jftitf,
X
and Stem IV
x
(ix)
Diminutives for things, or for irrational animals.

^
X X
1 (
(x)
Foreign words
nightingales
even when they denote males as: ci!j^T
UTT.)5
"
ot;f>l (P.)
(xi)
(xii)
;
oUiyli
plural.
Feminine adjectives, the masculine of which has a sound

/
Verbal adjectives that are used in the plural as substantives,

4
/ b?
1*
*>
f s*t'?
as
(xiii)
Feminine nouns
O
t
in
and
*f
as:
^W
"
pregnant,"
pi.
^
;
^yi
"
^x'O.^'O"
memory", pi.
oUjI'i; pfûo, pi.
/^xo"
xx"
o^t^^
(also br. pi.
^^D
etc.).
(xiv) It is often used for neuter
nouns 8 even when the singular does not

,
> $
end in
' '
H,
as: fUa.*
, *
' '
masc. a " Turkish
s~
bath,"
pi.
ui>UUa*;
^4^ (com.)
heaven
1
pi. ct!jU^, vide (xiii).
These have no broken
plural.
In Persian
In Persian
Uf.
iJl^Xli.
2 8
Imitated by Persians in such Persian words
as:
Indians even say " ruins.

*
dUS*
(a) (x).
the (vulg.) "letters" (for the plural of
Hindi
^1^
),
and
J#,
* Ftrfe
XXII
732
(xv)
DIPTOTES.
few masculine nouns that have no broken plural take the regular f ' 'O / < < an animal, a living thing," pi. ^bf^ko*. feminine plural, as: ed>s
,
'
Remark.
The Regular Feminine Plural
is
sometimes accompanied by
charge, attack",
pi.
a change in the short vowels, as: *!**. '<* * t , *? f *9 9 " a room," pi. ot^û* and *f**>.
"a
XXII.
(a)
(i)
Diptotes.
:
The following
classes are Diptotes
Proper names of more than three letters that are feminine, or that -PX X/ ?,, end in masc. or fern., as: *-*HJ ( a woman's name) ; 4^1** (a man's name)
,
'&'
*fc*
$'<;,, " Mecca " " "; *->* a scorpion," but uôe " *Aqrab
?'<;,
(a
man's name).
(ii)
Foreign proper names of more than three
letters, or foreign triliteral
999
names with the second
(iii)
t^+,,
-
letter
moveable, as
UA^J
*^yj
triliteral
Feminine Arabic proper names that are
and have the

9<t
.
f<
second letter sakin,
may
*
or
may
not be fully declined, as: *i* or *U> (a

<c
woman's name); but^ô
Egypt," andÂ^c
>^
:
acity."
*'
But such
as
have
the 2nd radical mutaharrik are diptotes, as
j**
Hell."
Remark.
is
^^
is
the same in
all
cases: vide
XXI
is
*'.*
(/)
to (n).
^y
declinable, although foreign; because the second letter

(iv)
sdkin.
Any
proper names that are corruptions, as j*& Zufar", corruption of

:
l*
f
Zafir.
*' c(v)
Proper names that are on the form of any part of a verb, as: p
9
;
" I do (on JUif ")

(vi) All
9 o-
,
(
,
' c
^^
**.
he increases
9
"
)
;
*&s
" Jerusalem."
9
,
^9
and compound proper
proper names ending in

:
e>t
as
e)US*;
names
of
one word, as
U&MAJ.
t '*'
'>'
fs
).
(vii)
All adjectives of the measure of cUif (but not cUif

6^
is
[The feminine
is
9 0<
9,
9
?<,,
;
9, 9
of
JUif as a superlative Ss ox
dL ; f
^^
plural
cUWf
but the pl.^M
an exception].
But
"widower,"
fern
DIPTOTBS.
733
(viii)
Those adjectives
of the
measure îU5 that have as a feminine

(but
+
.W,
as: /
-
0,-^* "thirsty,"
G
*
fern.
^*\
$;'<;
^l^,
" naked" fem.
1^) and
ujUjJ "table companion," fem(ix)
<&UojJ).
'x>
Distributive or collective numerals from
3
/X0 x
to 4, as
aUf
or **.;*
"
by ones/
(x)
etc.
/ X ' " units (but *^1 ").

*T in
All
nouns in
which the
final
hamzah
^
"
:
is
'
za^'d
[i.e.
*T
not changed
from
4.
^
'
or ^ as in
*U~, and not radical, as
*Uvk* (name of a
is
district)].
But
^
*U
the
water"
is
declinable because its

;
hamzah
fem.
not 2a*d: and

it
in *U~
has been changed from j
it
is
when
;
means " sky," but

$
,
;
figuratively
when
^
it
means "rain"
etc. it
ismasc.
it
was originally jU*
^
so too *l~i
was jUo.
In such broken plurals as *Ua4 "friends," and *\*+& "martyrs," the

r
JJ
'O
hamzah
is 25a*i^,
but in *U*f "names," the hamzah
is
not
Remark.
i)
^^JUaw
"pregnant
" has no masculine
form.
Broken plurals that have two or more

4
-c,
letters after
a servile
alif,
as
xx
)
;
f,+
(pi.
9*+
;
$
(pi.
<,
9 **
;
f*
;
(pi. of
p*)*
yô>
of ajfa)
J^Ûs
of
ctxu)
^jJG^ (pi. of ;ULj^)
jj^fclxA * *
(pi.
of i^H*>
).
If
however a
is
added to such a plural form, the
noun
is
declined, as: &)l*
(pi. of
of/*)
"
money-changers."
(xii)
The numerals ending

9
in 5
when they stand

six.
'
also as pure numbers,
as
&*
U^
î
" three
is
the half of
9 ^9
f&'
Jj?
9^9
(xiii)
The broken
plurals J^f (from
"first") and y^f (from
"other")(6)
All
Dip totes that have
Jt,
or
a possessive
suffix, or are
a muzaf,
become
(c)
Triptotes.
The regular masculine and feminine plural, and the dual, have two cases, but are not diptotes; they never become tripotes: also the only
734
feminine plural takes tanwn.
x
*C
*
BROKEN PLURALS.
The
plural of ji is not a
dip tote nor suet
words as o*^ or ^tajf. * (d)
Feminine nouns and broken plurals that end
in jf or
are the same
in
all
X
<*
cases
and have no tanwn, as

X *
<jr^
*'
good news
"
;
t?MA
"
presents
ô
"sick
men";
jfi*
"virgins."
Remark.
Those in which the

/
s
alif
maqsurah
is
radical
(as
in
"guidance"
for
<j^), are exceptions.
XXIII.
(a)
Broken, Inner,
or Irregular Plurals.
that no rules can greatly some measures are more common
These
are so irregular
and
various
assist the
memory. Though than others. Only after some
irregular,
proficiency in Arabic has been attained should the tables of forms for broken plurals given in the grammars, be studied.
rule, the
As a
Broken Plurals (^~ilf *

,
**>)
are given in the dictionaries:

either has no plural or has a
;
when omitted,
it is
to be
presumed that the word
regular plural. Some nouns have more than one broken plural in this case the plurals have usually different meanings i.e. when a noun has several
;
meanings
in the singular, it usually has a different $ O /"
form of broken plural

$,<,,
for
each, as: *Jj
" "a boy, a son,

"eye,
^Ôx
*
pis. &)*ij
"
boys," and
&W
"
" sons or descen(which resembles

,
dants"
^^
pis.
chief, spring of water, the letter a
>
* 9 9
an eye), " letters
^.^f
"eyes";
ejUef
"chiefs";
&&
"springs";
va(ius
."
to be derived from obsolete singulars and not from
Many forms seem

those in use.
(6)
Some words have
the regular masculine or feminine plural as well as
one or more broken plurals.

(c)
The
irregular plurals are collective nouns
and are therefore usually

:
feminine, even
when they
are the plural
of
masculine words
they
are
declined like the singular, triptote or diptote.

distinct individuals.
The sound
plurals indicate
So called by German scholars as the change body of the word.

1
for the plural takes place within the
This form cUJf
is
generally used for limbs, etc.
BROKEN PLURALS.
(d)
PLURALS OF PAUCITY AND OF MULTITUDE.

of
735
Arabs count two kinds
broken plurals, " the PLURAL OF PAUCITY

'O***
MOÔS
** )," and "the PLURAL OF
MULTITUDE"
( g,i*)|
The former has four measures, mentioned

couplet
:
in
the following Persian
All other broken plurals are Plurals of Multitude.
PLURALS OF PAUCITY
(i)
are
JUjf ,1 as
tia^f
"
feet," sing.
L^
"
;
the dual could also be used
"a
letter
"
;
S9<,'
o^f
/ô
" some few
letters
(but
^ 9
d^
'
*9
*'
many
,
letters ").
jjxo
(ii)
AW,
/' o'
as:
<*+**
"some boys,"
O"
sing. f*Û (but
e>UU " many boys ").

<j
-^/
(iii)
&*if, as: Ajj^f
"medicines,"
sing, *fji
"medicine": ij^f "a few
drinks" from
only occurs in
/Ô'
(iv)
UÂ
6i " a drinkable" (but ^^ many drinks"). This form words that have the penultimate letter a long vowel.
ox
./&-?
JU#,
as: f&*f "orders," sing.
^&..
This form
may beeper a
plural of paucity or a plural of multitude.
Remark.
literals
(i.e.
cUif
and
Jl**f
can have, on the ordinary measure of quadriis
cUUf and JjÛf)^ a second plural formed, which
then a plural
of multitude.
sive;
Plural of Paucity expresses any number from three to ten Inclucannot, for instance, express 2 nor 11. The plural of multitude denotes any number from ten s to infinity.
(e) it
The
Some nouns have a DOUBLE PLURAL

cannot be
(/)
5*^1
**
),
and such a plural
less
than 9
'
(or 10).
Vide
'
(m).
is
(1)
The REGULAR MASCULINE PLURAL

definite things,
PLURAL OF MULTITUDE
:
when it denotes
whether Jf
is
prefixed or not, as
&)*?y+)\
J^f
This form JUj'f
is
generally used for limbs, etc.
Or according Or according
to
to
some grammarians 'nine/ some grammarians from eleven.
736
PLURAL OF MULTITUDE AND OF PAUCIT*.

<
BROKEN PLURALS.
happy who humblec
is
u>j*tU>
^L>
yi Â îkJf "
certainly the Believers are

^ 9
:
f< +
themselve in their prayers

tude, while
here &j*#*>J\, being definite,
a plural of multi
^y^l^ though without
Jf agrees with a definite subject and
is
therefore also definite.
(2)
The REGULAR FEMININE PLURAL
is
PLURAL OF PAUCITY,
:
unless
it
happens that a noun has only one form
of plural, as
]
j&J
:
"
<>JU
tree- kind,"
S^
" a tree,"
oy
" some few trees," jU^f

/ ^^
" trees
" a sign,"
" " few signs "; ^5Û many signs."

(g)
The
regular feminine
plurals
and the plural
of
paucity denote
several individuals, while the

(h) If
broken plurals denote a

it
class.
a noun has only one form of plural
has no restriction as to
paucity or multitude.
and for masculines usually, (i) Broken plurals are, for neuters invariably, treated as singular feminine (collective) nouns, and usually take theii adjectives in the singular feminine. They may, however, be qualified by a
f
x
X/O'^x
(or
broken plural, as: ?\/
JU>
e^/ J ^;
1
)'*
noble
men,"
as well as
by
the regular plural, especially

*
,
if
the noun denotes rational beings, as

oliiUff "the good horses";
or
v^J^f
:
ejv*Wf: *l*W
''
fat
cows "
"
)j*j)*
shining pearls."
an abstract adjective in the broken plural cannot, however, qualify /0 ^ô^ xx / Xx /xfrx ' / f '<*' noun, as *H*i J u *'f (and not Ûi JUif ), but we can say <3îl ^Jti.
An
(/)
There are three forms *
of
broken plural
(i)
Those that add

pi.
a* letter
or letters to the singular,
as
JL; a
"man,"
Jl^)
"
men "
as:
JU
wUr
"property,"
pi. Jl><f: (ii)
those that reject a letter or letters,

f? *
pi.
/^/
"a
book,"
pi.
w^; *i* "aship,"
f,
u^:
(i")
those
tliat
chan8e the
Many
There
or few, as this measure

is
is
common
for
to paucity
and multitude, vide
(d) (iv).
no
special feminine
form
broken plurals of adjectives.
BROKEN, INNEE, OR IRREGULAR PLURALS.

/x' **f
'
737
/
x
eowels only, as
a lion,"
pi.
/>V 99^ &-f (also <*>?) Aliens";
^^
"great/*
/#'
(also fife*
).
pi, fife*
(k)
BROKEN PLURAL OF QUADRILITERALS AND QUINQUELITERALS

J*VG '
(not
f
*i*t
/ pi.
x x
$
(pi.
x x
:
*
/0
primitive).
Examples:
^^ "jewels,"
f
f>\?
of pi. ci>t^M>*)
x
5
w^;
>
"
9
any conveyance,
,,
;
ship, riding animal, etc.," pi.
v*V *
v^
9
A,x
"
letter," pi.
*,<,*
î^
^
^tUU
'
emperor/'
pi.
^^l
x
<
,*
*<,
<
,,
;
'
<*
Uic r ^x
key,"
pi.
^lx> CX
ÛL*o
(Per-
jian
garden,"
pi.
/<^^0" ^^; v^>uo

As
>>xx
magazine/'
pi. &$>***.
(1)
BROKEN PLURAL OF PRIMITIVE QUINQUELITBRALS,

in the case of the
first
ETC. (exclusive of
[vide
md
the long vowels).
Diminutive
as
:
XVII
(c)
1
5)], all letters
beyond the fourth are

/
cut
off,
^jJaJLp
<*
"
nightingale/
9
)1.
"
*,<**
,,
:
JÛu;
last.
&j&*
"spider,"
pi.
v^li*
the
rejected
radical
is
generally
he
But foreign words,

are
Xx-
quadriliteral /x xx
X
or quinqueliteral,
/x xx
:
vith
<f
aK/,
/X
on the measure <&*#, otherwise <UUi, as

/
"<
X</X
J*>
XX
;
<
CX
J*
XX
XXx
if
they begin
^C^Cr^
^x xx
e^/,
pi.
&*M;
if , pi.
<M!|
:-M,
pi.
*wUf jAJ,
pi.
/"x
xr
J|ô ô^"
Remark.
Note, too, such plurals as #aUe,
pi. of
*i)f
***.
(w)
PLURALS OF PLURALS
(1)
iterals,
These are formed on the measure of quadriliterals and quinque& x xc* 9 x and indicate a large number, as: flb*+Jf *>#f **the dogs of the
but wyJf
f A*x
quarter,"
"the dogs vH^^ X
of
Arabia/'
^
Examples:
xx
1
Jy
"say-
ng"' P^ Jlyf "some few sayings";

M
Ji>
pi.
of pi.
Jb ^
'*
many
sayings
":
ipUlar
pi.
o^>f; pi.
of pi. Jflrf: AJ
4<
a hand'*; dual c>l^
"two
738
Ox
BROKEN, INNER, OR IRREGULAR PLURALS.

O*OX
l
* +
)
hands";
pi.
*af
^
&**$ *
"some few hands";

benefits
pi.
of pi.
^f
*
;
"
many
hands,
also
"
:
f
aifca**
assistance,
" a book "
* f f
pi.
"books";
ejSfi*'.
pi.
<-A3l-*
' '
many books ":
ii^â
city"; pl.ei**;
pi. of pi.
'Vide'
(e).
(2)
Sometimes the regular feminine plural

jJx
is
suffixed to the broken
Ox
xx
x^
:
x
c
plural of a neuter noun, as
j*y*>
-^%*
*>]>*f>*
J-^
'
road
"
;
*^
pi
pi. of pi. tsAj,l>.

(w)
IRREGULAR PLURALS.
:
The following are
quite
irregular,
or are
formed from obsolete singulars

t
x >
^mother,"
"
pi.
XO^
f
mouth,"
water,"
pi. Sfjif
mouths
t^f.
rumour/'
>x
*
fi**'
"
**
pi.
l*
or
-^^
!
/x&
or 5>^S or
^xo
&\y*
\
woman,"
man,"
pi. *l~i
women."
"
j
pi. <j.C
or <jJif (and pi. of pi. ^*tif *
).
(0)
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN PLURALS FORMED BY ADDING A LETTER

/XX
/
c<
(1)
JU^ ;a&a^"
,
a mountain,"
pi.
JU.) rajul**
>,
" a man "

4<
)
> pi.
JLl;
><
11
rS^tl*
rtA* n
a footman "
J^ rijal**.
<f
^j;
a strong wind,"
pi.
riyah**.
In Persian always ôj\ and
Not a plural of paucity.

8
But fl^Jb met. " road," has a

/ X Also cL.;
other plurals of
'
p).
footman " are
*-
w -
^-x
,r
jlj
#;
Jllj
739
x; rijl*
" a foot,"
"a king,"
pl.
cUjf arjul**.
f 9t
S
(2)
JJU> maZifc^
/OX.
gaZfc
J* muluk**.
/
,,
"
"a heart,"
/>
u^JL* qulftb**.
dars u * " a lesson,"

CUAJ
>5
^-jjo durus**.
6a^
ttfl
<tf
a house,"
,,
e^#
buyut**.
na/w-"*
Driver,"
,,
a "kindness,"
f* xx
^
1
shajarat
un% " a tree,"
JU*'f afzal**. /x c x
,,
^luAf ashjar**.
latvn**
"
colour,"
"
property,"
,,
M Jf^f awuxK*
"
state, condition,"
,,
Jf>^f ahwal**.*
vb
(4)
6a6 ttw
x
* *
door,
"
, ,
Ujjf abtvab**.
/x Ox
un .
dî; ragftj
"
loaf,"
,,
<&*;f arg&ifat
Â.
Ûi^
/ ^
janah**
"awing,"
'*
*u^j
*
ajnihat**.
1**1
^wâri
a horse,"
,,
AXA^! aâjno^
1111
.
^^
(
s?/afe
ttn
"
/x
o "
weapons,"
,,
JU*f aslihat**.*
p)
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN PLURALS THAT REJECT A LETTER OR LETTERS

(1)
v ^ kitab** "a
1
JftS
book,"
pl.
v^ kutub**.
Plural of paucity.
In Persian shajara. / X
X
Shajarat** va*|ya^, the reg. fern,
pl., is
a plural
of paucity.
tree-kind.'
But oKLx
halat"*, plural of
etc.
In Persian argbi/a, ajniha,
These are, in Arabic,
all
plurals of paucity.
740
/x
<

fit
Aij** madinat**
"a
city,"
pL
e***
.
mudun u *.
L&
<*'
' c
safinat"*
a ship,"
(1
^ sufun.
/
JT*
qaryat
"a
village,"
/ ,9
," etc.,
*Lcmillat u
c*
,,
burak.
"nation,"
etc.,
JJU milal.
*
(q)
EXAMPLES OF BROKEN PLURALS THAT CHANGE A VOWEL

f
,
karim** " kind,"
t *
pi.
ff/ kiram.
~>
sawt**
"
lash,
whip
for
j*
flogging,"
,,
1U^
siyat
un
asad un " lion,"

wdlad** " son, boy,"
,
,,
^f
f<,9
usudun
,,
*ij
wuld un
khashab un " wood,"

falak**
$? *
,,
un y>Aa khushub
f 99
"sky,"
,,
ufli
fuluk
un . B
(r)
THE FOLLOWING MAY BE CONSIDERED REGULAR

The
jJÔ-?
/x^
(1)
singular
*!A>
ma^ always have

j^xo^
as one of its plurals cJU*, as

tfxJ'
*i*o
/^C^
^^>
^^F
AX>!
"a
rarity," pi.
UbJ; AJU^â
f *9
pi. f*f.
x
sentence,"
pi.
cU^;
"followers of
a particular prophet,"
J)
/ //
cl*>',
(2)
The
f
,
singular JU*' generally has as one plural
as
v^ " a
r
>
book,
"
/ 99
$99$,
"a
wall," pl.;^;
$9 ?
;^
ttw
"
adonkey,"
is
pl.^
But the
99
plural of
v lj!Rw
?afe56
"cloud,"
also of the
form cW,
viz.
Also qary5t**= plural of paucity, vide /o> >r xo
(/).
^xox
;
The
plurals *Jj or
^tAtj=
<<
boys
>>
but
"
îljf
offspring, descendants.
'
/
Also
tjll*f plural of paucity.
BBOKBN, INNER, OR IRREGULAR PLURALS.

$
(3)
+
741
,
f
x
The
plural
JUw has always

/tfx>
its
^
*
x
**
"
f
;
Governor,"
pi.
J*k
l
JUU,
XX
x
singular U*l>, as:
Û
"a
trader,"
f&9
pi.
JU
"
JÛ
"ignorant
of
plural, as
However, the singular cUU
may have
(4)]:
other
forms
pl-
**U^ [as well as
JU^
vide
JU
" learned" has *U* and
and the regular masculine plural

(4)
c^ X
*.
When
cXck',
without a weak
letter,
is
an
irrational
or
substantive, one of its plurals
word
(in
grammar),"
pl.
cUf^*,
xx
but
$
* ^
may always be
J*>1*
cUfji, as: <-Ul*
"a
governing
"a
pl.
Viceroy,"
pl.
JU*
^^t^ x
pl.
"eye-brow,"
x^ x
7
pl.
v^l^J
x
ur)^ "Cavalier,"
x
u*;l>;
x
**U "
x
witness,"
(*''
xO
x x
*f^& (and j^
(5)
and ^Q^f
but >AU " a proof, sign,"
pl.
*A{J.
x
The measure
f,
as
:
<xJUl$'
has, without restriction of-meaning etc., always one

9
,
<i
plural
CxU|^',
*
ifo^b' X
a
x
rule,
X
a capital city,"
pl.
*cly
XX
xx
f,
ij^^ "margin,
^
8
marginal note,"
pl.
^[j^ (Nom. and Gen. hawashiy, Ace. hawashiy*);

<
{
<&/<*
or iâ.
^
gut,"
pl.
or csjL^ "
X
^t>a.
ii^fj X
angle,"
pl. <^jt>)
****
(and
^lj>)
zaivdya
).
(6)
The
plural &AJ'
mw5^ have as
its singular
a verbal adjective J*li, as
**U>
" school" boys,

tillab*"
sing,
v^^
"seeking," but
v^
tullab un
and
rarely
V^>
" seekers
"
;
also adult students).*
Also (j^Lote ^
the reg. mosc. and fern.
pis. of all participles
may
be used.
f
*
'
Also the plural of
$& U
"a
woman
past the age of child-bearing, an oldish
woman."
3
All three cases the same.
Incorrectly amongst Indians and Persians
'<'' *ULb
this
measure does not exist
in
/
Arabic from
742

Remark.-
But
!*
may
S,'
&**'
be a singular, as
is
87*^
i^b.
(7)
The measure
always a plural of rational nouns derived

fi,9
f,,9
(for
1
from verbs with the third radical weak, as: (JA* qaz 1 *,
pi.
5Uj
&A
);
f*
"
missionary
(of
*x
f,9
any religion),"
pi.
k>;
dtj *
"shepherd,"
pi.
SU;
)
;
jf*
*
"narrator,"
pi.
Sfj;;
jU*
Ajj
"raiding,
warrior,"
*i>*
(for
ty*
JfJ
"
Governor,"
pi. Sllj (for
).
(8)
From
Jjx
the feminine singular

J>x
*Jbî
from strong radicals, a plural

>*
can always be formed, as:

^x
x
AJLJX*
"*
"city,"
/x
+
pi.
^
<^f^x>;
^
*'
xx
XX
U^
-
x x
/ô x
^
<c
*-^
&^'
wife,"
eP|/*J
X
A^l^fem.,
great,"
pi. ftti*. +
x
But *Jû f rom a root with the

f$t ,
last radical
xx
xx>*OX
^Jwu
), pi.
weak, has one plural
111*'*
fa'ala,
as: *A,tc (from
xxx tUu
^5V
*;
"calamity,"
(9)
pi. bi'.*
Singular rational nouns that end in a weak

^ x JUai have their
*~ Ox
'
:
letter
and are
of the
measure
plural *JUt, as
*'
waliyy**
patron, friend,
In Urdu and Persian, compounds of the form of (jc\3
are incorrectly written
and
pronoumced with
with
*
^,
as:
gUUMf ^^l> qaziy u 'l-quzat, for

etc., etc.
SLAftJt (jell
go^
'l-quzat.
so too
e^l
Jtllf
csÛ and î>J! ^yoU
In India, Persia, and Turkey also a " religious warrior/' being a contraction of the
phraae
d*
fs*9
.
/x, /
final
S
(
xxx/^^ / x
In
S)J and |}+A the
&Ji$Jf ^0
is
an
addition
to
the
measure JU^, and the words are correct without

*
it.
In Urdu and Persian AJj^Jisnot "wife or companion," but "likelihood; context;

(of
and good order

*
many
things), or seemly attitude (of one person)."
All three cases the same.
BROKEN, INNER, OB IRREGULAR PLURALS.

>
it
1
743
'
,"
pi. *l*fjf;
'
& , ôA
"miserable,
hard-hearted,
black-guard,"
t
pK
ft
!.
Also rational muâ'af nouns of the measure J**>, or adjectives conto rational beings,
V
hysician,"
generally have one plural of this form, as:

'
*
"
pi. *U.4>f (for *U*.fcf
).
Remark
is
Lji^
" wicked
x
' '
(pis.
;f^f and jt^)
is
an exception.
^
*
The pi.
so too
confined to rational beings, .though the singular
cUU
is
not
Remark
fi
II.
-
There are three

f
<
common measures
:
fi
active clw^', viz. JU*'- jUif
for the pi. of the verbal

'
9~',f
.
*i<u, as
^
s
;
f
(sing.
v
;
* ,,9
Â r);
<-^!/^^
*f^*.
Other
sures exist, as
X
X/
Uxi3
/ x-X^
<<
slain," pi. ^5!^
"
^^*>!
prisoner of war," pi.
4Û!
(10)
(and also *f^f).

^
^
O-
Cr'
The verbal adjective ^'C'

gjU*p
4<
e>Û*
(fern. ^^1*^')
has the plurals

-^^
Ûu
and
as
wrathful,"
pi.
xxx Ô" ^Âe and c*^^

9
.
(11)
iscent
Those feminine quadriliterals in which the third

vowel,
<
letter is
a long
, , *
servile,
have a
plural
ulSUi,
as: &lax*
"cloud," pL
a pamphlet, etc.,"
/
pi.
J5Ui, Jl*A ^
the north
wind" and
* ,
ô
;
$<** ,
"the
left
hand,"
This
pi.
J5U
x
);***
" an old woman," pl.Ûu^. *

^
^
:
Remark.
pi. is also
rare in a few other cases, as
j^^
free
"
pronoun,"
pi.
a need, a thing,"
pi.
J>^j**
5^-
"a
woman,"
J?
<4
night,"
pi.
ji
(also
JtfV
).*
x
I
Tn the meaning of 'saint',

1
it is
a contraction of
.'
JlU|
^j.
The root meaning is

2
o*o-
oorae after, follow
*;
hence Aût
^jjlj
"heir apparent."
But
jj,"o^
> *cj
aJUi^ pi.
ojuf
744
BROKEN, INNER, OB IRREGULAR PLURALS.

(12) Quadriliterals
(
not counted), the consonants
all radicals,
have
*,
as
v^ "fox,"
pl.j*!*+
pi.
v^'; '
pi. f*>>; * '
fH>*\ s '
r
$& ''abridge,"
pl.
jW*; '
"gems,"
vV " a star,"
is
pi.
v !/.
those quadriliterals
prefixing
f - cs
(
The same measure

counted
)
used for the
pi. of
not
*' w
**>(
that are formed from the triliterals
by
or f , as
"
finger," pi. &U*f

S
\H
*i>*o, pi. v.)k3

*
J^, pi. JjU*; *

^
vi./o
*
pi.
^livx;
s
' '
pl.
(13)
Quinqueliterals
(S
not included) not primitive or foreign, with the

clÛ*', as:
+
<4
penultimate a long vowel, have a plural

f pl.
* *
11
vÛaJL?
an emperor,"
f f <s*
4<
;
"(,
pl.
(Jj*li*>;
e^-^^*
<3j*i*
a large box
or chest,"
c^-^3
"infidel,
hypocrite,"
pl,
<5-^3;
^î^"akey,"
pl.
^>&
&>*<* ^poor quiet,"
pl.
* (14)
The broken
f
plural of oLaiS is J**&, wrfe I

s '
Stem; but the regular
feminine plural in
e>f
can also be used.
Remark.
The
Infinitive of all other derived
forms (with the exception

/
ct>f
,
u> of the al-ma8adir l-iriimiyyah) is the regular feminine in
vide I Stem.
(15)
9
**
U'f,
When
'**' J*tf
is
superlative,
it
has,
when used
as a noun, its plural
in the masculine, vide,

<J
XIV
(g).
0,9
$',<*
Its feminine <j^** has optionally J*^ or ol*l*>.

9
*<j*
Vide
9 ~>tj*
),
XIV
(g).
When
J*5f signifies colour or defect (fern. ***>

is
the plural for both

pl. J+A-
masculine and feminine

x o"
'*
J*5 or eJ^,
f
*<,9
as
t(
:
j+s\
red,
"
or
/ <,*
blind,"
pl.
u** and c)^.

'' / 9 ', of instrument has optionally c-UUU or iVlA*,
(16)
The noun
The noun
vWe IX
(a) I.
(rf).
(17)
of time
and place has J*Uu>.
Vide also
VII
COLLECTIVE NOUNS, AND CLASS NOUNS.
745
XXIV.
Collective
Nouns
e^jTî
),
and Class Nouns

like the
There are a large number of words that,

a collective signification, as
(a)
:
broken plurals, have
c**
$o
Simple collectives
*Jf
p\
<*'
that cannot take the
of
unity to
indicate a single individual, as:

'
<J
^3
masc., which denotes a whole people, as

also
less
'
t(
well as individuals
jt~*
an army " and
"
f.f
the soldiers
"; ^*0
" a
band
for
jj*>v
horsemen," [but *&) a small band a small piece vide XIII (d)].
of
than ten
on the measure
From such nouns, broken plurals

o'
(,**
are formed.
Vide
(e)
and
\
XVII.
c,
(6)
Collective
nouns
g+Jf ,*)
),
formed by adding
Ô^xO"
to the singular,
vide
XX (d).
OÔ-Oô
(c)
Inhabitants of a country
is
5*^^! ^-|), as:
c^f
" the Jews.

jJ^Jf
'.'
5 '
Such
a noun
often identical with the
name
of the country, as
India, or
*$'
the Indians ";
^]
<c
Rum,
is
also the people of
Rum."
& ^.
Jf
9*
single individual
formed by the
relative
However the
plural d*i*
(the plural of
I ôi* is & * *,'

)
" the restricted to

9
?
Hindus
"
(not
" the Indians ").
The
plural of ^*jj)
is
f\^\ or
O'
C
*
eîs^j;.
Ô
(cZ)
Class nouns
(+a*ff
ax&
from which a single individual

+'
, ,
is
expressed
by the feminine There are abstract

(e)
J of
unity, as:
fUa.
"dove-kind"; ^=p^
<4
tree-kind."
collectives.
Arabs
differ as
regards the gender of such nouns.
Hijaz generally
masculine.
make them
feminine, while the people of Najd
The people of make them
* <"> /0 ' In the Quran, is always masculine is while plural, found both masculine and feminine. The general practice seems to be to
dj
make
those collective and class nouns masculine that primarily suggest

*<s
X ):
the masculine (unless they end in the feminine

feminine, as
it is
d^
"horse-kind"
*
is
"
"
the mares that Arabs esteem.
In practice j*p, f^**, and

last is feminine.
are usually masculine, but in the
Quran the
Vide also
under Gender.
l
In India,
call
Rum
means Turkey.
The
desert Arabs call
Turkey Rum, while the town
Arabs
Greece Rum.
746
CONJUGATION OF THB SIMPLE REGULAR TRILITBRAL VBEB.
XXV.
Conjugation of the Simple Regular Triliteral Verb.
THB ACTIVE VOICE

There are three tenses
.
;
JjjûJf
,9
the Preterite
tne Aorist
and the Imperative (^Jff

(a)
).
*S+
*r
'
9*
The
Preterite Active
is
<J**,
JU* f or
cW
according to the v<

'
All three are declined alike, i.e. they all have the same tense endings or cas in the Preterite, and the same endings or prefixes in tire Aorist these
:
virtually affixed pronouns.
The forms JU* and J** are generally
intransitive
and denote a stato
'*
quality: the former denotes permanent condition, as
:
'
ty** "to be beai
ful," the latter temporary condition, as
&y "
to be sad."
The Passive
is
always
J**'
and
is
declined in the same way.

<,
^
).
Preterite
(*^Wf
^
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
fa'aln*
/a'alu
fa'alata
fa'ala
'
fa'alat
fa'al*
"They did."
"They two did."

aUuma Ye two did/'
(
"She did,"
"
He did.
fa'altunn"
fa'altum
4
fa
"
fa'alt*
'
fa'alt*
Ye did."
,(,"
Thou didst/'
uu;
fa'alna
I did.
(b)
The Aorist may be
or
is
Usually verbs whose 2nd or 3rd radical

'
a guttural, and verbs of

*
'
th<
^
;
s*s
form cW, take
while those of the form
J^ J take
Note that
this final
alif is
JlJU^f
fci
or otiose.
In a word like
appreciated," were this alif not introduced, the final j might be mistaken for the eonjunction "and.'* Consequently, before the affixed pronouns the alif is dropped, as it
fulfils
no useful purpose.
CONJUGATION OF THE SIMPLE REGULAR TRILITERAL
VERtt.
747
Aorist
Plural.
jUJf
).
Dual.
Singular.
Fem.
Masc.
Pern.
Masc.
Fem.
Masc.
9 9 ex
yaf ulu n* "They door will do."

yaf uln*
taf'ul*
taf'ulan*
' '
yaf'ulan*
yaf'ul*
They
two do or will do. "
'
She does " He does or or will do." will do."

x
/CX
>V
fcx
taf'ulri*
taf'uliin*
taf'ulan*
1
taf'utin"
taful*
"Ye
do or
will
do."
Ye two do
or will do.
I
" Thou doestor wilt do."

jufl
af'ul*
JUftJ
naf'ul"
"We
do
or will
do."
"I do
first
or will
do."
The
Aorist Passive
is
JU*
yuf'al*
and so on, the
two vowels remain-
ing unchanged.
(c)
The Aorist
viz.
:
is
susceptible
of
certain
inflexions
to
express
five
Moods,
(i)
INDICATIVE MOOD.
In this the Aorist ends in
(ii)
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD.
To
express the Subjunctive, the final vowel of
in
is preceded by certain particles ; the Aorist changes to fathah ( ), i.e. when it such a case the final n, when preceded by a long vowel, is dropped. In the 2nd and 3rd pi., an otiose is added, except when a suffix is attached,
*
as:
\j&i "they
or,
write,"
O s
but
o
(
1^.
'
)
The
"it
particles
are:
^f
"that"
(with Pret.
Aor.)
(
eP
=v!>fK
will certainly
not"
(for future
time only),
or Jf
e>f )
(for
any
of
^] ) *
time);
^
of
"in order that";

course";
e>Jf
in
order that
not";
eJ^l
*
"then
li*an
= Jf = ^)
Hi) U*alla
i e>K
=B
H^J
" in order that not "

of
jf in
the
sense of " except that, unless" (not in the sense
"or");
when
it
0I
There
is
often an ellipse of
^f t
especially after
j and jf.
^f moy take
the Indicative, vide under Syntax.
748
CONJUGATION OF THE SIMPLE REGULAR TBILITERAL VERB.

or so that
means " otherwise,

'<**>
"
x
l
;
O
it is
x x
l
j when
equivalent to
55
e>f fi*
J +
(called
?x
<jJ| fSI
"the Jaw that equals kay
in order
that"); (J**
"until, so
much
so that."
(iii )
JUSSIVE MOOD OR APOCOPATED AORIST.

cx
When the Aorist is preceded
" and by the particles^ "not, never

Aorist a past sense);
&'
"not yet" (which give the
3^'s
fl "the lam of the Imperative ");
or
J"let"
(j*1t\
I/
prohibitive (called ^^JJl
la*'
'n-nahy)
when
it is
used as an Imperait loses
tive, or follows
its final
an Imperative (and expresses the jaza of a condition), 5*9 c '<x $ <J Uis vowel, as in Ua. ^^ v| 8it me less often and you
:
^
' '
<
will in-
crease
my
affection for
you
itsj
(said
by the Prophet
to a too-frequent visitor)
C,
/x
The verb Closes

those forms in
as
:
when the last radical is vowel-less, as: e^. In which there are no inflexional suffixes, it can also reject the n,
f,
yak*.
Remark.
The following
particles
:
and pronouns apocopate the final vowel

O
of two Aorists (protasis and apodosis)
"
O x
' '
e)J
if
ey*
he who
"
etc.;
" that
which, what
' ' ;
U*
x
* *
whatever
Ô
;
"
;
^f
* '
whoever
' '
etc.
(declined)
Ufc^
"wherever";
tij
"when"
'
f
U>il
"whenever that ";
^
xx-x
xx
"
when, if
"
(only
****
6 apocopates when conditional, not when temporal or interrogative);
Uxji
x-Ôx
[
gax
+*#*;
&l
" where
"
;
x<r
^f
where
"
;
&'
oljf
" when "
Ui^ " however."
Vide
XLV.
For past time

*.
lg*
'<*'
**
Jil
is
followed by the Preterite.
Vide
XLVi
at intervals, occasionally."
l+t*
'
<
'
and ^^ are never joined to
'
but the
rest
may
be joined or not.
After an indefinite noun,

'C,x
6 &,Ai!\
U =
" a certain," or " any whatever.'*
and
^
ij
do not apocopate unless joined with
^ V
" whenever "
(temporal) does not apocopate.
CONJUGATION OF THE SIMPLE REGULAR TRILITERAL VERB.

(iv)
749
ENERGETIC MOOD.
Ox
by adding
O^C"-
The Jussive may be rendered more emphatic

(the second being stronger than the first),
tf
and
&
.
an and ann a
fl&x'&x
as
{Âi and
the
<>!*&>
is
These forms have always a future sense and are used

imperative or prohibitive-imperative, and in assevera-
when
tense
:
tions or oaths
they
may be
strengthened by prefixing J.
shortened to
(
the long vowels j and

la-yap alttnn*
^ are
^
xox
and
Before the
),
suffix,
# >^xx
as
:
^
ter-
"
mination,
(v)
all
With the single n (for o>i*ibJ ). they will certainly do the dual and the feminine plural terminations are wanting.
"
THE IMPERATIVE is formed by
persons of the
cutting off the prefix e> from the second and Aorist a hamzat" 9 l-wasl, and, if the substituting Apocopated
(
second radical has

(
)
?
-- ),
pointing
it
with
pointing
:
it
also
with
);
and
if
or
Imperative.
Plural.
Dual.
Singular.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
Fern.
Masc.
JUif*
JUf*
uf'uln"
uf'ulu
(
^Doye."
The remaining persons
Aorist with or without the
o
e>
ufuld 'Do ye two."
uf'uK,
|
uf'ul*
"Dothou."
Z*
are formed
35
by prefixing J
0"v
to the
Apocopated
35x"Cx
;
or
e;,
as: J***! li-yaf'al ''let

If j or
him do "
li-yaf'alann* "let
him
certainly do."
precedes these forms, the
J X
generally loses its vowel.

x
(d)
The Prohibitive Imperative

itself
is
formed by prefixing
II
to the
Apo-
copated Aorist.
The Imperative
cannot be used in the prohibitive.
This
J
O O
"
?
'
9'
certainly
O'G
(called OJÛJf f if ) has
no governing power.
Or JU^t
or
Or ^JUif
X* X
or ,JUif
XX
as in the singular.
The vowels may change
750.
PRONOUNS (SEPARATE).
XXVI. Pronouns.
(a)
Some pronouns are " separate"
ctoiU
),
others" affixed
"
(
The SEPARATE PERSONAL PRONOUNS expressing the nominative

are:
Sing.
case
Dual.
Plural
F.
When
both subject and predicate are
definite,
it
is
usual, for clearness,
to insert the appropriate pronoun of the 3rd pers., as:
'Qod,
he
is
thy Lord," or
J\
"
\
God, h<hs the Lord."

<*s<s+So
'
)
This Pronoun of Separation
JUA>| _>$***
must be
carefully distinguished
from the Pronoun
of
Emphasis
o^tWf ^x***
<
that contrasts the subject with
x*
,,&*,
another subject and so gives
C,
,\
it
emphasis, as:
w***^
>fc
tia
e;K
" Mt
was
/^>*
/^
^ * c '<"* x x
the reason"; *iJf

cenaries)
cW^'
e>fc"the Muslims (not the slaves or mer-
Even
formed the army." if the subject is a first or a second personal pronoun, the third is used
~
to form the copula, as
:
tf
s
"
am
'
the Lord thy God."
If
*9
*>
the conjunctions^ arid *J

i
"and,"
or
"
certainly," are prefixed to

'(, *
>A or <>, the
may
optionally lose its vowel, as
>k^ uxihuP
^
*
o<
fahy
a
:
this
generally occurs in poetry.
lif
is
Colloquially also for
pronounced ana. an
indefinite predicate.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(6)
J51
;
(1)
The AFFIXED PRONOUNS are
Possessive
they also express the
oblique cases (Genitive, Dative, Accusative, etc.) of the Personal
Pronoun
kunn*.
two.
The affixed pronouns in the Accusative can stand alone,

particle
L?j,
x-
if
suffixed to the
as:
l{
"my
giving
it
to
him":
vide also ()
(2).
The
second persons
*
etc. are
used as particles of warning.

particles,
(c)
(1)
With verbs, and certain

*
^ i becomes
'
^
'
ni
as: <^j-*
2ara6i+t
" he struck
me";
^**J
w-?
e>
or contracted
inm "
verily I
";
ix)
min-ni " from me."

After a long
The added
it
prevents confusion in verbs,

+
s * s
(2)
alif,
becomes
^
<
y,
as: ^Ljlka. khataya-y*
"
my
sns.
(3)
If
the noun ends in (^ or j
a-, or aw-u),
it
becomes
<f
iâ
as
1
*
/a/tt/y
"oh my young man"; ^tf

1
qaziyy*
oh
my
" oh
Qazi
';
^sons") 4^ baniyy*
"oh my sons";
^f
abatvayy"
my
parents"
"t
(dual, <^-Hot^T
^
).
(rf)
(1)
The zammah
(
changed into kasrah

h*
/
(
of
the 3rd pers.
masc., sing, and

s
pi.,
is
if
preceded by a kasrahor a yd, as:
4jltf kitdb*-
"
of his
book "
*&>
'alayhim
" on them."
The diminutive
singular
is
bunayy*
" oh
my
darling boy."
752
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
(2) If
a hamzaP'l-wasl
follows
hum
or
him ** " they or them," kum *f *

'
'
"you,"
or
antum
^wi
"you,"
?"~9
is
or -turn (the verbal ending), then the mim

**
y
must
be pointed with zammah, as: f^Ji
fe*l*
alayhim
8-salam*.
if
If
is
preceded
by a long vowel,
long.
(e)
its
zammah
pronounced short
by a short vowel,
tanwln disappears.
:
As the
affixed
pronouns make the noun
definite, its
Consequently the termination 8 is written e before the affixed pronouns is of course pronounced t as it is before all vowels, even when written
t
.
it
(/)
(1)
The preposition J
'
/*
becomes J
before the pronouns, except the
first,
as:
, *
*'
,
lak a , iJJ lak 1
lah" etc., but
^ K " to or
for
me."
Vide also
XXXII
(2)
(b).
But
***
"near, with, in the opinion of," makes no change except

o
before the
first
person,
when
it
becomes c***,
'ind-l
"near me, etc."
(g)
(1)
The
final letters
&
of the dual cases,
and
of the regular masculine

9*
,
:
the affixed pronouns, as plural cases, are dropped before
abltf kitdbah*
"
his
two books
(2)
"
;
99*
VO^ zaribu-h*
mute
lt
his strikers
(i.e.
those
who beat him)."

pi. of
Similarly the
alif* of the
is
3rd pers. masc.

9 9,,
:
the Preterite,
it
or of the apocopated Aorist,

99
<,, <,'
dropped, as
'
" %j$$ katabu-h* they wrote
";
" they did
not write
it.'
(h)
Note the force
of the
pronouns in
<^V
&* "
>
o
prayed the whole of
i.e.
the hamzah in the article Jf, the

>
initial
hamzah
of all derived
forms of the
verb
fern.,
except
Stem IV
'<*/
/o /
af'al*),
o
?
&
(JUj'f
of
^j]
^|
8f^J fyot,
and
e)UJ(
masc. and
and
also the
hamzah
of the triliteral Imperative.
Though not here a

hamzah when
guttural sound
it
letter of prolongation, it is called alif.

it
The
letter
is
has a harakat, or when being sakin
is
marked with a
s-
only styled and has a
Ô-O^'O' ÛJJf &A*

* X
f
)
'
as in
^L
"
despair."
With the
Aorist,
gives the sense of the Preterite.
PRONOUNS (AFFIXED).
9"
that
"
753
9, *
night";
all
*flbJ
^
/-V
^'
"he wept
the whole of that night"; *LJ ^C?
"he
wept
those nights."
(1)
(')
^Pwo Accusative Pronouns.

o*
Two
affixed
pronouns
may be
joined
to one verb, as: A#Uk*f a'tayt*-k a-h u

also be written separately
9
if
"I
gave thee it."
The second may

fyiyya;
suffixed to the meaningless particle

1
thus
U iJ&M
If the
is
&
' *<,' 6
tftayP-k* iyya-h*.
pronouns are joined as in the

observed,
i.e. 1st,
first case,
the natural order of the
persons
2nd, 3rd
but in the second case you could also
say
^
(2)
When
is
for emphasis, a
*>
object, it
also suffixed to
1*1,
pronoun precedes the verb of which it is the 9 n' <,',&, fP' ' & as e>fc*~o ^.[j ***> î ** Thee we serve and
:
from Thee do we seek aid."

(;')
When an
affixed
pronoun follows the pronouns kum, hum, or the

A?C^C,'
is
verbal termination -turn, a long j (u)
inserted for euphony, as: *&xkcf
9 99 9 ^ ,<s
a'tayP'kum
"I gave you," but
>+ijlu>f a'tayP-kumu-h*
6
"I gave you it";
a'taytum
O^
"you gave," but

**
>+Julx*f
a taytumu-h*
"you gave it"
utcf aftayV-humu-h"
gave them
it."
x
Remark.
The
following are used in Persian:

r^
(
^s*& s
l
"
my
master
11
;
<,*
9&9
qurrat* 'ayn-i*
^my
lord," (and LOff ôurlord");

o^ /
j^p
s
" that
(to
99
which refreshes
wife or child)
;
my eyes"
(a son);
c^jj^
"
gladness of
my
heart
'*
^^
-
'*
oh
my
friend."
After verbs of giving, the receiver comes
&
The pronoun
first and then the direct object. should not be suffixed to Persian nouns. Nurchashmi
is,
in
modern Persian, used as

(ya-yi
well as the classical Persian nwr-i chashm, as
an
affection-
ate epithet for a child.
Originally this
it
^
U.
**my"
mutakattim), or
may
been the Arabic suffixed pronoun be the yft-yi tawalfi. Similarly with qiblo-gahl
may have
j-A(f ai*J,
44
modern Persian,
your father
?
=>^ <dM
and
a father.
Such expressions as
^
o*f
(,ss& (+
Â(f ^JU*
in
where
is
"
+j
^5
UM
*&^ j>y, we common
modern
Persian and
show that the
is
not now, at least, regarded as a pronoun.
48
754
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS.
"
(k)
THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUN

its
t." o**
*
is
expressed by ^îw
self
"
(agreeing
number with
noun) joined to the affixed pronouns, as:

G o**i "I went myself "
'
*
<*
V or) ij~&>
(^Jb(j
or)
tl
went themselves
themselves."
,
"
;
*-Ai
JLijf
he " killed himself
"
;
Âif
f^JUJf
"they
kil
c&*
in the
*'
(pl.
cH^f) as
eye, essence * <"

1
" and
e*|i (pi.
oî), are also used for"
sell
same way
^/-i-*.
(1)
(1)
THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS are

and
w^Ji
4<
*'
f
this
"
(or
more emphi
cally JA),
t
that.
Singular.
Dual.
F.
Plural.
M.
M.
N.
crti
F.
N.I
N.
tan\
A. )
G.
&j] or
Ua"
G.
/a.
A.
) zayn*.
tayn*.
&
It is usually
1
is
seldom used by
itself.
compounded with the demonstrative

"
'
particle
U
'
(writt
'
A)
and
is
declined thus
Sing. Masc. IXA,
and Fem.
** (rarely <^*A), for
cases.
Dual Masc. nom.

,9
i
cjfi*,
and Fem.
vyliA;
gen.
and
ace.
Masc. *&**,
a:
Fem.
cÎ*-
PL
both genders and
all cases.
According to one authority appear to be correct.

1
^^
is
used in the singular only, but this does
2 U> is
also
added
&'
for
emphasis to other pronouns

+
also, as:
+&\\*
"
you and
other
"
;
*'<*'+
+Q*
Aiiu (îJf ) vsJf
it
was you (who)
killed him.'*
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS, AND j
756
(2)
The words
for " that,

)
those" are formed by adding
c* (in
some cases
with interpolated
to the simple forms, thus
Sing. masc.
*J| i
or
*J^<i X
fern. <Jti
or
J*
xx
*
f
XX
:
or usually <JM
x Ox
for all cases.

^G*
DwaZ masc, nom. îfi

*
"
XX
x
c/x
xJWx
;
or vJ^ti
gen.
x
jJfcx
and
ace. ^-&*i or
XX
x
ujj.
Fern.
nom.
l3
or c^JU
gen.
and
ace. <jijJ or
xx/
(and rarely
(3)
xxx
wfljjf
x '
)
or
c%?
x
for
x
both genders and
all
cases.
In the Qur*an, the
^
O*
1
of
vjî
and
*jl> is
^
changed into the 2nd
person of the affixed pronoun, singular, dual, and plural, with correct gender,
x'
I
when addressing
people, as: *#i,

'
U& etc.
and cf i
is,
(m) For the Singular and Plural of >i masc.

vide
fern.,
"
possessor,"
117 (VII, p. 445) on the
izafat.
The Dual
O''*'''
N.
tji
masc., and Giji (or
'X
C>}i)
C"
fern.
;
O""
G. and A. <^>i
scm^
masc., and ^tî zawatay (or

/
C
^|i
/-?
satot/) fern.
/x
In pronunciation, the long

X
final
vowels of ji
-î
<''?':
^f
^^
"
;
and #& are
shortened before the article Jt.

f
' '
<J
ji
O
X
,"C
is
followed by the
genitive
case,
as: eH^'
concord";
x X
ci>!i
X*
*'
"
pleurisy
(Irt.
^ X
c^fi,
XX
4<
having or possessing the side)
jUa.
#
pi. cutji
O O x
'
xxx
jx
ft
beautiful (of a
woman)"; JU^
JUiff
X
'
'
<c
ji
handsome
(of
man ");
îAx>j^
"
' '
pardoning
(of
God)
gracious (of God)".

it is
There appears to be
9 9
no
rule for the use or omission of the article
usually used after

:
^f
but
in the
Quran
several instances occur without the article, as
"
great warriors
"
&*
t 9
* c
(speaking of extinct races); ?y y^f
powerful.'
Remark.
Persians ignore case and number, and even prefix

o
^
*f
to a
few Persian words, as: *JL <î "wise."

(n)
The RELATIVE (CONJUNCTIVE) PRONOUNS.
P
<^^f aWagt
'*
who
is
an
756
Adjective and
is
RELATIVE PRONOUNS.
used for
cases).
definite
antecedents
x
55x
only
its
feminine singular
/g*>
&
is
allatl ^f +
(all
The Plural
(all
is
^^\ *
allazm* masculine, and yJUf *

for rational beings only.
xSôx
xxtfx
cdttatl^
or
yt>^f feminine
x 33'
cases): used
The
fern.
:
Dual
is,
Nominative ^l^f
<
alllazan*
<*x j5 *
masc.,
and e^JUf*
./
alllatan*
x C#
'
and Genitive and Accusative

feminine.
^s&Jl is
^^f alllazayn* +
masculine, and e^J^f alllatayn* *
always definite, even when used substantively.

(and the INTERROGATIVES) are
(1)
(o)
OTHER RELATIVES
&*
(as
a Con-
" he who, whoever, such as, those who, whatjunctive it is without inflexion) ever (of living things)"; also Interr. "who?" usually (followed by a
8 singular masc. verb);
and
(2)
U> (without
inflexion)
" that which, what,

?
a thing that, whatever (of neuter things; also Interr. used substantively and are either definite or indefinite.
" what
").
These ar e
Remark.
/.
U> is also
an
;
indefinite
pronoun
as:
^
;
{-*#
*'on a certain
o*fj
day ",
also
t(
did not see
JU^ " any man whatever

A.
8
some day "
I*
" a certain - * &

;
man 4 "
*
Û.j
{n
"
Q.
^l5 ^cf
'
ayy qalam
" which pen (do
you want)
"
U
is
UU>
'*
any pen you
like.'
If the
antecedent
indefinite, the Relative
is
omitted.
Colloquially however (not
classically) the
2
antecedent to ôJf may be indefinite. Only two of the J can be pronounced. The sukun over the
first
lam
is
never
written.
*
Compare
ibf.
The pron. ôJf

s
f
is
compounded
of the Article
Jf, the
Particle
J and
?
the demonstrative
3
f
^3
o *
8
When
the feminine
is
definitely stated,
man ^c
takes a feminine verb.
Also the
plural verb
*
jf
may
be used to remove doubt.
Vide also
XL
:
(6).
eakin
nun
before
11
mlm
is
is
pronounced mim, as
t
Lo
+>
(JU*j
raful
u -mma
(J**j
r,
oo rajulH-m-maqtul * which
,
/
Similarly before
sometimes written
:
Jjlfl-o JLaj.
SHn nun becomes

6,
in pronunciation r, as
Before
6
tfi&tn
nun becomes mlm.

,<,*
Taflab* w.UJk3 understood.
>.OX
6
Î|{fa6*
wJUkf understood.
RELATIVE PRONOUNS,
3,
757
Remark
that
II.
^^f
is
an Adjective
*
when it follows and 3> ,9$ *<,**
qualifies
a noun
noun must be
<,',
;
definite,
as: *U> âjf
Jkyi ojfy "I saw the man who
came "
Aim."
+>,
*>&t "
MJ|; <îJf cJU^l
the
man whom
saw",
l
lit.
" the
'
man whol saw

"
I
But
$JS
e^>
and
are Substantives, as: *U.
o^f;
saw who
(him who) came."

(3)
Vide
LV.
63*'
<^f at/iy**, masc.,
and
<&f
" the one ayyat"* fern.

is
who"
and
(also
is
which?,
of
what kind, what?, what!.) whatever,"

c
definite
declined like
a triptote noun, usually in the sing. only.
Compounded with the
relative
afoo
nouns
^ and U,
of
first
this substantive
3
forms
)
e^f ayyuman "whosoever"

The
"which
these?";
I*jf
(or
t* ^f
o
"whatever,*' (afeo **what of these?"), the

being declinable.
first
portion of the
compound
of
these
two must be followed by
^ min
and a
definite
noun, dual or plural; and the second by a definite noun in the

Vide also
-
genitive, dual or plural.
XL
(6).
Followed by the Genitive, ^l also expresses admiration and is then always in the masc. sing. If it follows an indefinite noun it agrees with it
9,
in case,
* '
t>,
/oajj
'^x
but after a definite noun

to
it is
in the ace., as
' '
!
JLj ^\ "
*
.J*U.
*
Zayd came
(4)
me
what a man
which."
(he
is)
Utf "
x>
all
that, all
O x vu"
*o
all
(5) (.?*
Jf " every one who,
who."
refer to
(p)
Those relative clauses that do not

C**x
an antecedent, are intro(6).
c/x
duced either by cs^f, or by &*> and U.
Ptrfg
XL
x>
may
be declined but practically never

^,
is
I*
is
indeclinable.
After
some
prepositions Co becomes
2 8
as
"
for
what
why
"
note transliteration. Ra*ayt The addition of m3 is emphatic.

:
*
x
A sakin nun before mlm
is
proiiounoed mlm, as:

is
" ^ ^ x Lc JL^ \
*t
ra/w
Similarly
rajulP-m-maqtuP*, which
f sometimes written Jy&* J^),

JL-*
before r,
n
Before
n?tn
becomes
in pronounciation r, as
^^
>*
t\)\
* 5,
^y)
&+aê
MuhammadP-r-ras&Ftt&h*.
sakin
nun becomes mlm.
758
INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS, ETC.

INTERROGATIVES.
(#)
(1)
4^ "who?";
is
maso. and fern.;

Interrogative
e.g.
&*
v^
be
;
" whose book ?";

inflected,
li^ "who
it
that?"; as an
:
^ may
I.
(3)
but only when
stands absolutely
u>,
(2)
U>
" what
"
;
indeclinable
often strengthened by the demons.

[declinable, wefe (o) (3)
*
ffff
as
fiU " what then
"
:
î
:
fern.
with the following noun in the gen., as

*
G xU/'
cJ^ if
*
-
^
,-U^x
&x
;
together with
its
compounds
<j.*j'
and
U*f, vide (o)
^
:
"how many,
* xx
Ox
how much?," with many boys ?

' '
5&'-
the following noun in the ace. sing., as

for
f*(j
^ "how
is
Note the following constructions

x
(
"I know which

S^""*
of
Uf
them
o xx
.
in the
9
)
1+9 \*>*
9 o xx
x ^
$x ^
)
house"
first
(1)
yJt ^*
is
y*
^f *>>y and
,
(2) }&l\
Â
ojy>
In the
case,
^f
treated as an interrogative, and in the second as a relative.
Vide
XL'(b).
Remark.
o
*
The
interrogative
*f
must
be
distinguished
from
the as-
sertory ff
"many a,"
which latter requires a genitive

:
of the singular or of
**
* O
xO
the broken plural, and also the Preterite tense, as
oJU> Ûl* ff "many a

this
t*'
(or
how many
its
a) slave
/,*Jx
x*
have
owned."
is
If
however
:
xxxxîxOÔ
),
ff
is
separated
from
* f
noun (j*+*
the latter
in the ace., as
f**
/
&**
^vx
^^
" -
xxOx
ff
many
(r)
a bounty have I received from them at the time of want." ^ C" ^ x X INDEFINITE PRONOUNS. **f "anyone, some one," (W a P
u^
r-
-.xoW-'
tion "one,
some"
(sing,
or
pi.),
as: tfj*&\
u^
^ x
"a
certain poet or
some
to
(5).
poets
"
(according to the
number
of the verb).
Vide also
XLIX
(3)
(s)
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS.
;
" Each other, one another" is expressed by Ox O < ^ /O' " ^ " * *
'
the Stem JUI&
also
by UA*J ÂAJ
etc.
o**? i^*
(*^^ J&1
tjiA.
take revenge
from each other"

(t)
IÂJ U*AAJ UtXiu.
<
we helped each other."

each
**y
OTHER PRONOUNS
*>^t> # ^
Jf
:
&"
"
r
tive
noun or affixed pronoun

1
as
//C'^Ô"
" other than ," before a genij** xxx- ^ x-o x the king died and *JiJ vÛ(
;
Ô x
oU
Preposition
but
*y
adverb.
CARDINALS.
759
another then reigned in his stead''; uTî w-^f

thee
))
"I
love none other but

def.
"
;
J& mosc.,
x
and J&f,
x ^
fern.
" both " (with a gen. dual of a
noun
not inflected except in connection with a pron. suffix; w'de
LXIII).
NUMERALS
XXVII.
Cardinals
Masc.
Fern.
f
The numerals
1
and 2 are Ad-
(a)
jectives.
The numeral 2
is
seldom used with a noun the dual of the noun

;
is
used.
When
used
noun,
final
a before it loses its

l
& and gov-
erns the gen.sing. It is declined as an ordinary dual.

or
or
The numerals
3 to 10 are Sub-
stantives
govern
ferably
the
and
geni-
tive br. plural, pre-
a plural paucity: they ôf have the feminine form for the
or
masculine
vice
and
versa: rarely they follow the noun in Ap-
position but vide also (m)*
If it follows its (dual)
noun
in apposition,
it
does not lose the ^.
It
loses
its
'""
in
"*
lilf
compounds, as: j&e
"twelve."
760
CARDINALS.
'
"
<*
O
,]
,,
Indeclinable^***.
Gen. and Ace.

C
".0>
tJot
'.*
mase.,
Uxt
*
and
fern.;
Sj
declinable
ir
The numerals 1 1 to 99 goIndeclinable

11
*
ve
an accusative
r
| j
singular. 'II an adj.

is
iv
j
appendit
ed,
may
ei-
agree,
m a t i cally with the

|
ther gram-
n
r
*
'XG' "O
masc. and
fern.
noun,
or
logic ally
with the Cardinal

(11 to 99).
rr
rnasc.
and
fern.
The numerals
20, 30 etc. to 90 âre declined as
sound
plurals.
In compounding with units,
the unit
pre-
cedes, the* two are connected by

i
5,
and both are
declined.
"
or
From 100 on (i.e. up to 1000) the and numerals are substantives, govern a genitive singular.
CARDINALS.
761
uU
9
X
.*>
I
c,
Such compounds may optionally

be written as one word.
CrU X
Jjf
1*
<x'5U>
f ASUiJiJ (
*
In such cases the compound of the hundred is always written as one
r ......
Remark.
as:
An
undefined number from 3 to 10

>o
is
expressed by
UÂJ ^ XXXX^BV
o
u^
"a
portion,"
u^V J^x*
#
"some, a few, men";

/XC
<fe*J is also used.
etfJu
"in a few
'ears/'
In later Arabic
Firfc (j)
'
and
(fc).
>ut
The numerals compounded with ten both take fatkah in all cases, the ten of the compound agrees in gender with the object numbered
(6)
'
'
'
while the units from 3 to 10 reverse
it).
(c)
Twenty,
thirty, etc., etc,
c,y^- &jj&* are
of
common
gender, and
762
are declined like regular plurals.
*
>*x
.
CARDINALS.
The compounds
-
of units with 20,
30, etc.,
</
*"0 X *
>-
are both declined, as

'
j **?/ ^h%+j e^Â* x x

is
hundred
'
ttw <BU, mi*af ,
%'
common
gender.
is
xx
(<?)
From
100 to 1000 are substantives, and the object numbered

x Of-c
in
the genitive singular, or else the

9
'
number
is
expressed thus
Jl^yi " *
(#*>
X
^ttSU
X
X
(or
d^;
*
û
"A
s,
).
/Ox
(A)
/
is
thousand"
utff,
common
gender.
Its
pis. are
*J*f
and
/ 99
JjJf, the latter being used for
(i)
"thousands " in an
indefinite sense. as
The
thousands
compounded with
units, are treated
a thing
numbered.
Thus
for SOCK) to 10,000, the genitive
broken plural oilf is used:

*
from 10,000 to 99,000, the accusative singular $'

o
x
is
used: from 100,000
upwards the genitive singular

Remark.
vJ^f.
4
The
last
numeral mentioned decides the case of the thing
numbered.
(;)
The Indefinite Numeral &*>
hiz
<un
(also AA/A?)"
some, a small number,
"
:
indicates a
number between 3 and 10 and governs a broken

' '
genitive plural, as
' '
;
fbf
t
*j
*
" a few days

<
cl**Jf
*
&*
***aj
" a few of the horses

*'
e>iA^
'
r*^
uM
'.'*';'
^L
A> j
his age
was twenty and odd years.
Vide
(a)
Remark.
<-ikJ a
(k)
An
Indefinite
number over 10
is
expressed by <*% or
it
may
govern the genitive singular, as
vjb>i
j *j$*c
"
upwards of ten
' '
;
d>jjZ*
This word must not be confused with {JOM ba'z** " some (of any number), * ^ 9 * * *
5J"0
"
one, a portion":
J^Jl
";
* sW* ttS* <,* u&*> **M\ "I eat a part of the loaf"; *jtJf
*tts
Â^
"
Jlj
/ xx^ O^
x*
Cx x ^
O'
O*
>*Cx
certain poet says
^flf ^-i*u ^ *Uiif
^ÂJ âome
of
them are
rich,
and some
poor."
THE ORDINALS.
+t*
'
763
x f
9 x 9s
4
x
*
*t*" .0^
twenty and odd

'
' *
;
v^J ^ Jbx;
-
or Jl^> J*ij &*>, -
&
"
upwards
of 100 (and 10)
men.'
Ftfe also
XXIX
(g).
(I)

* JK~0
for
X
"
the three
men."
?"&,
9 ,
*>
"
/,,
I
' .H*
9, s& ,
9'S*'
(i) *"
JU>y
alii,
(it)
juyi
i'Ji&f,
(*) JU, tfHin,(iv) *>J&|JU_P?
(apposi-
tion).
(m)
When
the numerals 3 to 10 precede a Collective

cS5
Noun
indicating
birds
the genus,
^
'
^ -xu-^
is
introduced, as: j>Vf

*
(^ ^;f *
^*
-^
"then take four

is
(four of the genus bird)."

*-S
Occasionally the Collective

(in
in the gen. sing.,
' Sfj* tt?
'
as
j&> i*yf Â ^
^
" and they were four persons
number)."
(n)
The numerals
x-
,s
9^ s
3 to 10 agree in gender with the singular of the 9 s f s '

C,
noun
numbered, as:
/x^
p\)*\
i***
'*
seven years,"
but
^^
5^
(sing. (*U
masc.,
and
iv- fern.).
o
(o)
When
the numeral
is
followed by &*>, vide (m),
it
agrees in gender
with
its
substantive, even / <*? /

:
if
the substantive be qualified by an epithet
xx <,^
fixing the gender, as
)jZts p*$\
^ gy
f,<S
fi'
*'four sheep, males," the

its
word p**
being
fern.
If
however the epithet divides the numeral from

:
xx C
substantive, 99 *<.*
)
*
the numeral agrees with the gender of the epithet, as
***Jf
x
e^x
&>T
" three male sheep

Remark.
gender, as
:
(tliree
males among the sheep)."

as
The numerals used
abstract
numbers have the maso.

is
âi &U x
x
Si>,
or *i~Jf <-AA>
*
iiiJJf
" three
the half of six."
XXVIII.
(a)
The Ordinals.
JL^'f,
"First"
Jjf,
is
on the measure
and consequently has

,
for
its
feminine Jj\ ula. > *
From "second"
*x
x
to
" tenth"
the ordinals are on
^x ^
the measure cUb* masc., and ilcU fem., as: cA> and *V^
g\
<c
Sixth" however,
t
is
but >^ and eU. are <joU, X

$
also found.
764
First
THB ORDINALS.
and Second are
diptotes.
From Third
to Tenth the ordinals are
1 fully declined.
* *
Eleventh
"
j*
^^
rnasc.,
and \j*
]
.
&<^
fern.
From
Eleventh to
Nineteenth the ordinals are indeclinable
From "Twelfth"
(or
to "Nineteenth", they
are formed by adding )&* 5
iA*) to the
ordinals.
:
From
"
Twentieth" and upwards, the Cardinals are used, as
Ijb
"twenty chapters", but ^j^r^ X

5
v ^'
1
"the twentieth chapter."
The
Ordinals of the units, however, are used before the cardinals, for the interX^xoxo**/
1
/
x
OS
mediate
numbers, as: cJj/îj

to each numeral.
<*Ki)f
"the twenty- third."
The
article
must be attached
(6)
From
First to Tenth, the ordinals have the

first
Eleventh to Nineteenth, the

/S'x
(c)
part of the
compound
^
regular plural. From has the regular plural.
^,
the
first
" First" JjUl has also a broken plural

>*
" J%Jf meaning X

'
parts,
^ XX
^ <^^
the beginning,'
parts."
(rf)
'
just as^fjjfl
means " theend
parts,'
and
fc-ljj|f
" the middle

month.
'
These terms are
also used for the three decades of the
The Ordinals
are generally used for the time of day, as:

' '
*V*
<5uUJf
^>
53"<=
* c
AiJljJt x ^
at three o'clock (at the third hour).*
But predicati vely, the

is
cardinals
>Ware used,
/x
35
as:
d;ib
$S
<x*LJf
it
is
three o'clock (the hour
three)."
Note
'X/^x
that
^XXX^XX'^
would mean
*'
oUL>
three hours,
and
icUy^
***!
" eleven hours."
"
What
time
is it
"
A*LJ|
^, X
c<
or
" /w the morning,"

accusative, or else
at
midday
"
etc., are
expressed by the adverbial.

^x
:
j?c^d
by the preposition
"
:
as
tj4&
or^^tt^,
'
'
Wf^ or
(e)
Age
'*
is
"
expressed thus
o Ô
How
old are
x*o*<
you
*i^
^^
*'
:
"
am
** x
O^
# * x x t*/ o
Xx
twenty
*^
All make a change for gender. The hours are counted from sunset.
THE ORDINALS.
(/)
765
of the Cardinals after
(1)
Dates (the year) are expressed by the gen.
the words &*>
^,
but for the year of a
life
or reign the Ordinals are used.
(2)
The day
--
of the
O"
month
9&'
is
expressed as follows
first of
<*
s '
(*')
e>4*k
e^ fx
Jjf
"the
Sha'ban"; v^;
"5*
&
" the fourteenth of the month of Rajab "

* '
$t
9^^
fc
&
on Thursday the twenty-second

&
'
of
Muharram
'
' '
;
pj>**^\ (j s
9<,'o
(
o-
9
^
*'
or
ûJf Â)
(ii)
4ftJ6,
the 3rd of
Muharram/ and
so on.
v^;
^ iD
*
j^Ji,
or
v^;
*
c^
cJk
;*JUJL>
<J
the
first of
Rajab
"
*iit.
" on one night of Rajab being past ")
v^> v* ^^ (rf&$ on
the 2nd of
Rajab
"
;
v^ e^
^
*
<
&jl*
*
<-M ^^^ <;
&^ " on the 3rd of Rajab,"

*
and so on
GJ*"
'
/*
CG^
<J*
is
" o^>
up
to the 15th
v^;
ex ^*jJf ^y, or
v^>
******
or
oUalij ^5
in the
middle of Rajab."
nights remained,
But
as
:
after the 15th, the idiom

X
" when so many days or

^H^f
"
v^> w* (^ (^jt, )j&* **^$> or V^> e^'

16th Rajab,
C*^ ) Sr^ {0^

left
(*?**&*
of
="on
the
W. when
]
14
(days or nights) were
Rajab," and so on
v^; ^* *$
" on 30fch of Rajab."
Fê
also
Remark
The
subs,
it,*,
lit.
" a blaze on a horse's forehead, a new

of the
moon," may be used

Remark
ace.
,
for the first
day
month and
ii* for the last day.
II.
On
such and such a date
may
also be expressed
by the
or
by
^. *
of
(g)
" One
two "
b'tfO '
is
'
;
ûf
<^t>
" one
9
of four
*
"
* '
$"*''
**?;(
f
<j?
>
fifth
'^C'
,9
(h)
**He makes a fifth"
**;! <j**^ x
^
j*
(he
is
of four), or
a->k (he
is fifth
as to four).
766
XXIX.
(a)
Other Classes of Numerals.

" once
ADVERBIAL NUMERALS
or
*fcifc
(1)
Sô or
&y (or
similar words)
"
;
V*
u*tf,
V,
or
"
twice," or eHidr* (dual); kJO "secondly or a second
time"
UoU,
The
aÛ S^*,
etc., etc.
(2)
S^> p**l (vide
X) may be used
to express
"once
or twice"
of
an action, as
If that
cH&j^jf
*{/*
*{;**
" ^ e struck him once or twice."

is
noun be wanting, the verbal noun
used, as
" he fought once or twice."
(b)
DISTRIBUTIVE
These are diptotes, optionally of the measures J^* or
xx'/xx^xi*,
or are expressed
/
*
?
by a repetition
of the cardinal, as: Û-f,

-J
'
s
)
or v!r^y (or
f>A.fj
f^fj
" " one by one
*
;
sC"
"9
0^0
'*
)
*U) or îi^, (or e^v>] eHî]
two
by two";
43u^
&
by
or t&Jvo
"by
threes," (or
Hj
>Ki)
^j*t*vo
or
^*~*
(or
AX)
"
sixes
"
:
&&
j tj&*
^fu
"
**)j*
passed by people which were
in groups of
two and threes."
(c)
MULTIPLICATIVE
^yu= single, singular number, alone and simple. 2 /x>

'*
8
"
The measure
Stem, as:
for the others is
cUi the measure
of the passive participle of II
^*
*?*^
*^**
^twofold, double, duplicate"; ^JUx)
"threefold,
triple
/x>
having three, triangular"
;
^^w/o
<*
sixfold, six-cornered etc."
Once
*'
once upon a time, one day,"
is
Uc^j or
^j
/
/
,
/^</
^
'compound,"
is
<
O/Ox
'*
The
opposite to %^?^/o
fc&mj}
but ofii4Jf " simple medicines
as opposed to

I .* ADJECTIVAL (Û*) I s*
:
767
(d)
^Jlo
suna*iyy
93*'
un
"
dual, consisting of two

* '*"
'
'
;
ff
i
"
if
fi'y
treble, consisting of three," as
o^Jf
i-^f ^jlbA x
" the
simple triliteral
ot," and so on.
(e)
FRACTIONS:
(1) U*A>
"a
third
AaZ/,"
pi.
olaif (but
97
JtAJf
X
"dividing
is
'
to half, justice ").

*f
t>.
From "a
"
to
f *
tenth,
the ordinary measure

'
99
Other optional measures are,

ô-?
-
JUs
/
and
^'
dLuu.
The
PL
is
samples: gy
*
>'? g^, or
J5c
9*
C^j=|; u-^^
A
or
(j-*^
etc.
Two-thirds
(f)
US,
and three-fourths
*
(f )
*
=^b>I ?
'
f
iJHS.
Above TV, the

*<,'*
fractions are expressed
'<*!<;
>
a paraphrase, as:
J>A,
eH^; i^
*L>^
*^'* *^
"
3 parts of 40 parts, TU>h."
(2)
A whole number and a fraction are coupled

"
(4f = *|).
x
by > as
four and five-sixths

(/)
/ O
lili
<(
-"G
wfc>
:?
Recurring numerals:
' '
^J-^f
^
every third": ^)| '
e<
Ou^
every
urth
(gr)
etc.
Approximate numbers
-'O'
:
The following and

' '
;
similar expressions preetc.
de the numeral
>u
jf
" about
xx/c"x
^jj
' '
*'
what exceeds "
The words
e>j>c!>!
" or they exceed
are sometimes added in imitation
the following passage in the Qur*an
&jy>Jn jl ci^l
'
*5^ <J[ '
*UL*)| 3
XXVII.
90
147)
0')
" and
we
sent
him to a hundred thousand
or more."
Vide
XXVII
l
and
(k).
maddah
is
placed over a^/ and pronounced, when a hamzah follows
alif,
or
tlen a
>t
doubled consonant follows a&/, as in Û*.
This
a/t/,
in the middle,
the beginning, of a
word
is
id
and pronounced, when they
lengthened 5-5. A maddah is also placed over ^ are sSkin and are preceded by their sister-.
>wels
and are followed by hamzah, as:
J^M*
u-^
tt<l
;
^ (>^M.
al- fa
**it
was made bad."
at in
^&
and
jtî,
the
weak consonants
are not preceded
by
their sister- vowels,
and
have no maddah.
768
DAYS OF THE WEEK.
'XXX.
OiiJ
Days
of the
Week.
(the
first
"
S<>
(a)
o*J
+
;
(;tf> ) f#.
The Sabbath, i.e. Saturday

Christians and Jews).
day
of
theweel
of
Muslims
,
but the
last of
9 ,'
i
>V ^j Sunday
"
(lit.
day
of the
one"
the
first
day
Christians
and Jews).
^
GX G
"
)
I**
0**$^
OV
(**
Monday
Tuesday.
"
(ft*.
day
of the
two
'
').
XfcxO
^ XX
>*
;V
ft*
9 GX
)
Wednesday.
rj
Thursday.
^ Friday (day of Congregational Prayer).
The word
(6)
^ or
j(j is often omitted, as

8
' *
*GX>f
/x
<<
Tuesday."
' *
In addition to
jf^f
a week
' J
there
is
S^
'$
a period of ten days. *
XXXI.
(a)
The Year,
xo^
9*5> '
The
Christian
Year
is
called
by Muslims
i'i-Jf
AAUÎ &Jf "the

'
Messial
Year," and afea by Christians Ai^lLJi
XX
" the Birth Year/ and
<4
the Solar Year."

B.C.
is
f^\ ^
ô
x
djj
and
).
also
by Christians J>*M Jbi
XX
modern ab
breviation of latter, ^
ox
<jf
o-^
XG-'
A.D.
is.
^-vjf *
|*
>*>;
and
also
by Christians a%*Jf
x-
>*J
(modern abbrevia
X
tion of latter,
v> o^ simply ^
Muslims write a
abbreviation of cgr***)-
" to
,<,*
*
rest."
Muhammad
4'<*9
3
is
said to have fixed
gregational Prayers, so as to be different from the Christians
on Friday and Jews.
for the
Con
Also &A+A*
Also
THE YBAB.
769
A.H.
is
&jWl
&-Jf
"the
and
Flight Year
"
(16th July, 622 A.D.), [abbre-
viation A (butterfly h)]

O
<X
also
by Christians
*jj*U\
X
&~Jf " the Lunar Year."
'O*
B.H.
is
Sj^J! JUI (written in

*
.<
full).
/
(ft)
$~
-?
O"
Muslim Feasts.
There are two chief festivals:
(1) jj<*l\
3**Jf
at
the beginning of Jf>*, the day after the termination of

Fast.
c)^> and
its
In India this
is
known
as
<HC,
an abre viation
of its classical
name
w
^
> X
(
(" the festival of breaking the fast
")
(2)
^*fl, *
,.
A^Jf, or
S CM
o^
**the festival of sacrifice"
this falls
on the 10th of
tJ| ji, when the
pilgrims offer up sacrifices at Mina, a day's journey from Mekkah.*
,^*c
XXXII.
Prepositions
(,r*Jf
J^
999
),
Prepositional Nouns, Exceptive
Particles, etc.
(a)
Prepositions govern the genitive.

are
*
The noun
) s
so governed is styled
#9
1,
'
.x).
Prepositions
Separate'
4 'o? JLoil*
4
or 'Inseparable*
(
&t
(6)
INSEPARABLE PBEPOSITIONS
999
u -
These are
-
five
(1)
'
in, by,
with
(
' ' ;
[prefixed to the affixed pronouns
UA,
it
changes the
zammah
1 Every year has 354 days and consists of 12 lunar months 1327 began on 23rd Jan. 1909 A.D.
vide p. 200.
The H. year
9 ''
* **
-
*<"
f O
*<* C
The months
of the Christian year are usually in
Egypt
^Sliu
9999
(
99
or
^y
' <"<>* **<'.' -j*J** t/J*"^?
99" -j*^
,
'<*.*
-
j*+*}>
-.A*^^:
in Syria
tii]
ujyfc
(Jan.)
IUM
e^K.
is
-jjif
^l-^jo
Ôf
&\j*
j^J
vf
J^Jbf
9$?^ 99'
Jjjf
"x
^
*
>
In India, this
generally called Baqra
ld " the Cow 'Id," though goats are

cows, as seven houses
is
usually sacrificed and not cows.

in
Poor people
sacrifice
may
JP
share
one cow, whereas a goat cannot be shared.
In Persia, this feast
called
i*)by>
<Xk,
^ X
49
770
into kasrah
(
PREPOSITIONS, PREPOSITIONAL NOUNS, ETC.

),
as
p*>
(2)
J*
"
to, for,
is
belonging to,"* [b
'
'
affixed pronouns, except the 1st pers. sing., this
pointed with jathah,
XXVI,
(/)
(1); it
also changes to falhah after the vocative ya> as:

of
''come to the help
Zayd
"
!
;
but
" to
me"):
(3)
1c
"li
A
(not used with pron. suffixes): (4) j
l
'
wa
(a particle of swearing), as:

X>
<*l(j '
>*>
.-
God!" =
alfb: (5)
CL
j,
except that
can be prefixed to
;
A-Uf
<
whereas the other can be prefixed to any word

oath,
w>
if
a verb
is
used
in
must be employed.
For j with the

o
ace.
vide
XXXIII
(a)
Remark.
(c)
SEPARATE PREPOSITIONS:
*':
(1)
i&* "of,
from (indicating comnn
ment); than; some 4

after, at, about,
^ "from,
until":
"

-"
etc.;
(but ^^xc
"from me"):
"to,
towards,
up
to,
$JU
"upon against":
<,'
O '
O
t^y
"
After
fij
see
bohold ",
!
^ w^5// 6e
if
used, as
^f
Xf
(Ja^
:
\&\
* *
s +9
)
In negative sentences, the predicate,

*
a noun, has often v> as

j^x+JUu
(Lj(j or ^^li*^*
not learned."
he
is
not a rider":
^îJlc or
+& to
they are
also
2
XLII (a)
XXV
8
L1I (a) (2). (2) As a Conjunction with the Subjunctive,

(c), etc.
and
it.
denotes
*'
in
order that, so that"
cannot precede a pronoun or a verb

before a pronoun,
state."
*'
it
can precede a noun only

a verb.
<JJL* or
must be substituted
*'as
it is, in
and U? or UiLc before

^
Â
US'
IT
the
same
is
really a
noun
kt
signifying
\_A^VJ
similarity."
+
*
jlmj^t
I&AJ*^ = -'''
;
&**-**
$ a certain merchant";
*'
^yc ****
>
*>
"a
chair (made
wood"
4
*
k* JU^t 4^c ^tixc v^^
the wealth which
have"
(i.e.
ojÛ^t
<>>
t*J
*j-*ji
what you have done to us

;
in the
way
of kindness
"
" the kindness which you

of his signs."
intc
done to us")
&
Al$f
^.ô
" he has already shown you some *\)\ **
Before the affixed pronouns, .J) and the final jJLc change
s
alif
maqsurah
a
**
as
*
:
alay-ltf*
*&&
" on thee
"
;
Hay-h*
&y " towards him ";

I
,JUs 'alayy
on
me ",

o 9+
o
xx
771
35
off";
eJ*)
o* "from near":
*ui
<J*
&*
" from
on";
'
^
(
/*
"in";
(but
<J
"in me,"
"
'/
"in him"
etc.): &> (rarely
5*
"with, besides";
<*9
up
*
<
to, until, as far

'
as," (also a Conj.*)

x
x'
^ or
1
c,
9<>9 *i/o 8
c
<>*>
X
)
for ji
" since "
x -
"
-
|^-|J
-^^J-^J
(with suffixes JUxJ-aj>J
# xx ^dJetc.) "with, near," vide
LIII
"To Have."
Remark.
a,
-To these
it
may
#> " be added the noun or particle v; 4 often,
many
^x'
but few," as
governs the genitive, as
I
:
'
9,
Z>
ouJ
5
/
fijS *
cU^
&
*r^
"many
x
a noble
(2)
x
man have
O
met."
O
x
When^r" and ^^ precede the

xÔ-c
'
article,
a they are pronounced &*> min
and
^
min^l-walad*, and
J^ -^
'an '; as: J>J'

7
e>x)
^Û^f
"
^^
"it
is
told
^j)'& X
in apito of
x
that"
^f &e
x xx
^kl
*in spite of tlie

9
<,
faofc
that, although."
^ x
,f
tk
Note the phrase l$*f; ^yLv A^**Jf oJ^f
eat
the
fish
even
to
its
head
9
';
here read either ra*&*-ha, a genitive governed by the Preposition
.ATV^
or else ra
s a -ha
an
^
m-eusative as the object of the verb, in which latter case ^îa.

* ,
?"
is
a Conjunction,
*^'
x //c,
'-[even etc.'J
indicates
is
not used with suffixes: Ux>

at,
oU
uxtixJf
will
kill
even you."
connote the
motion towards and arrival
whereas
^j
'
does
riot necessarily
latter meaning.
3
Before a noun, either
may
be used, but without a

Tt is
noun
&o
It is
/ only, as in **
have not seen him since"

,
not used with
suffixes.
construed either with
the gen. or the nom,

of
the gen. being more particularly used

t
when a yet unexpired period
time
is
spoken
of, as:
f^Gj.$* A*
*L*tf to
k <
have not spoken to him since the

^
&fi
beginning of this month."

*
&
"multitude."
The
ace.
(dependent
on the
interjection b
of
wj
.^
must
an
:
and qualified by begin a sentence; the noun it governs must be indefinite of such adjective in tense Pret. a in or clause or nominal verbal place adjective, '**
an
it
ftsW
alternative construction
is
JU>>
signifies
a sentence. An perhaps, probably, sometimes, frequently," and introduces / being elided, as: indefinite gen. often occurs after the conjunction ^ the particle
"
^ ''many
a.
man."
With
affixed
(
l^
adv.
) ?
9<*
"
c^J
tfx
ojjA
In
"
many
a cup have I quaffed."
means " a
;
few," and also
many
a."
Urdu j^\ has

18.
the same contradictory meanings
vide
* <
Hindustani Stumbling Blocks,"
Supp. VIII,
772

;
on the authority of Ash-Shafi'iyy "
but before other connective
alifs,
becomes
i&*
* *
min
.<"*
1
,
as
AX?! ty*. +* + *
*"
'
When
'.o
j>t)
,
prefixed to e>* or 05 &* o#

:
U>,
the
final
& becomes
by
assimila
as
(*)+#
U*, and
U.
(or
Other separate prepositions are simply nouns in the accusa adverbial) case, but without the tannnn. They, too, govern the geni
(d)
and some
of them (originally nouns) after a preposition.

**>
l
may
also themselves be in the gen
"after" (time
JUv
) ;
or place), (dimin. ajju
) ;
JUS
"before"
(of tii
n
(dimin.
gji
"
above, over (place or rank), more than (a certain
ber)," (dimin.
"
5 <JH> ');
o*J "under,
"
;
underneath;
less
than
(of
a numbei
&*
'*
"
under, underneath
H^J "
before, in front of (of place)

' '
"
;
round about "

example,
"
;
*f>^
behind, beyond, besides
>*^
" about (numl
for
in the direction of, according to
"
;
x^
*** " with, in possession o
the opinion of, at the time of

s
Cx*
"
;
*Lc e>*
* *
from
' '
U^JK (or
^ L^c)
'
'
ins
O
"
Ox
of, in
place
of";^
*
'
;
8 (or j*& declinable ); "except, besides"; j*i
"
;
"without"
^>j "in the middle"
&
*
bi-la
"without";
*
<^f~*
+
" exce
(indeclinable): (^y*
" '?
"besides"; Û5
"opposite"; *fi^
"opposi
But as adverbs,
i.e.
when not followed by nouns,

is
t*Jt>
and
all its
^r
^*u
(
"
direction, quarter ")
used as a.substantive in
cases with a folk
genitive for "like," or
" about," as: <>,jjû JLxj

^
0^-ôf^.^x
*'
man
like
Zayd"; d
'^
"
I passed
by about a hundred men."

either
jJo
can be used with
an
*
indefinite or a definite
substantive, Jb
one that
*
*
i
is
indefinite, only.
After
9^
''^c^'Ox/xooe
understood, as
Vide also
(e)
:
î
t^
andî ^j^
L>***
*
<
*'not otherwise, nothing

^
fcjili is
^)i 3^^ ^
"
i/*^^ (**J* '

^
h*ve a dirhcwn on me, no
else."
and
XXXIV
(61 (2).
PREPOSITIONS PREPOSITIONAL NOUNS, ETO.
773
(
'
*uo
"
,
' '
placed
opposite
) ;
*l*J
-"Ox
or
*Ut>
*
&*
x
"
' '
opposite
>.
""before,
opposite"
^<x* '
(of place);
x Ox
x
Jd^
-
"after, behind
"
"C
*
1
(time and place); ^JJ

Cx
(sometimes (.^
X
>>
t*>%
and
<^jj
U**)
" between or amongst"; (;# X
"from &* X
amongst";
(dimin.
(e)
e?5O
"on
this
side of, under,
without
8
,
less
than or worse"
c*>;d).
The following
772
/
^
are
used as nouns and run through

<Jj^
X 4
all
the cases:
(vide p.
and
adj.
O-
notel);
ô
subs,
"likeness"
(=
adj.
" resem-
bling, like")
AJ$
*
and
Ô
subs. " like
"
;
j + ^J^S adj. "resembling, like, X

"
Ô
"like
X
O
X
'
" ^
match
"
for";
"
as:
*
A*j
^
Jit*
Zayd"
a
*li>c
^
" like him ":
*U B
*^;
^f;
O
*
*jj
^
(r^
"
or
Jô
or
aw
man
like
Zayd,"
Also
^
G-*
/CX
6
x^^ô-
Ô/
âlteration, difference,
' 4
non- etc.", as:

'*
^^Ju^ "a non-Arab"

' '
:
e>
' '
impossible
^*rA
^^^
kings and others
^^>
(rarely
^y* and
"except, other than, another (besides so-and-so)."

x
1
v,x
^'
'
<**
If
two substantives depend on uj#,the preposition need not be repeated (XjJ

but
O
<X
).
if
^4
X"
one (or both) of the words
is
a pronoun, the preposition must be repeated
x c^
j
'
U
<j*
Ox
and
'
(^
sometimes mean,
rich
"both
to us."
and,"
or
"
,<
partly
'*
partly": lu
j-w
^ " both
Ox^xO'
and poor came
9
AJ&J ^^jj
'
in his presence."
x
'
8
t '
f
;
In the meaning of "without,"

o
>>x
^N, XX
or
CJ>5^ x
(^
may
be used
^ or
c*J>^
but
<
x x >
iJ^j^ and /*Cj>
" beware "

!
fo
*
Mi*l'tn
JfiLo etc. is X
construed as a noun in apposition to the preceding noun and runa
through
6
all
the cases.
FwJe
Ô LXII. The usage of ty x
-Ô
-
)**
$ * ^X j|xa^ and ^jjBi
XxX
is
similar.
/O
^
refers to likeness of appearance, only,
x-
J^
/O
a^& X
but <UA&
-^J^J X
^
and
JLiuo
are general
terms.
ô" After ^jsi

x
I
x
J|
/o'
'</
and^jji
^
'O
*^^
O
" not otherwise, nothing more," jJi

I
is
understood, as:
Ô*
^ 0^
i*
"
have a dtrftaw, and nothing more."
Fide also
(d).
774
CONJUNCTIONS.
Remark.
>
all
;
These govern a genitive, as do

O'
s+^
cK and
&K
" the whole,

quantity,
Fade
and oo*j
* "'
;
"a
*
part, one,
some "
ft,"
;
$ ' <* ;<* or j\*&*
"
measure,
;
size,
worth "
Uj
*
Jf
number, computation
Z " = " about ") e)V

(
' '
both."
XXXVIII
'&
(/)
(h)
and
LXI
(k).
Ux-o
"
especially,
above all"
(lit.
there
is
not the like
of)
seems to
,
be both adverb and preposition being followed either by the nom. or the geri. 9 &~ * o' ' f*s <,' '& as: (AJJ or) ^j U^* H ^JJJf tû^f "all the people pleased me, especially
>
'
*>
Zayd."
The word
i/.
is
compounded
of
the ace. of
i ^
s
" an equal" and
the negative
(g)
$
exception are used
,
:
To imply
Jlj
(particle)
***,,,,* U ^ U UU
.
fxc
(par'
^<
tides of the nature of verbs)
(indeclinable)
vide
;
and the nouns

*
^
*
'</.
-
j&
(declinable)
and <^y*
s
LIV.
\'*
U and
Û
' *
*
govern the
*
ace.,
*
but
if
the ô is
omitted, they sometimes govern the gen.: UU. or

or ace.
Û*
f?
governs the gen,
o , *+ 9
XXXIII.
(a)
Conjunctions (uUuJf oâ.).

'
These also are
'
Inseparable
:
and
(i)
INSEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS are

consequence).
wa
Separate/ " "
and
a
f
" and so
'
'
(as
a
is
The
latter
indicates
a less close connection than

is
j,
and
frequently used for the English full stop: j

distinguishes
it.
8
irrespective of order, but
With the Subjunctive, J

**
= "
,
so that."
It also introduces
Nominal
of Condi -
clause
after
Uof
*'as
for"
from
"
q.v.
and
is
also used in the
apod osis
ItL Uo
Lit.
'*
'*
what
is
free
" )&& Ix
what goes beyond."
be excepted."
.,^^^
3
Introducing a second nominal sentence, j means "while"
JlaeJt jfj
s
as:
'*
second clause
is
'$*
Verbal,
'
^
the j
*'
Zayd departed, while

be dropped
;
(or
" and) 'Arnr. remained
if tlu^
may
vide also
XLIV (6) (3) Remark
II arid
LVIII.
This
waw
of condition
sometimes introduces a nom. sentence that has no Part.

with a sword in his hand."
or Aor.,as:
U^*
%*Jgj <XJ *U.
"Zayd came
For two verbs
coupled by *J for a verb and an adverbial clause etc. vide
XXXIV (6)
(7).
CONJUNCTIONS.
775
tional sentences q.v.
It is often prefixed to particles
&&
with a following
Nominal clause or a
(ii)
Suffix
means
'
'
for.'
" J with the Sub junctive = and
so that,"
" and with the Imperative " let
vide
XXV
(c)
(d).
With the
particle J, it loses its
vowel, as: *-+&*&
fa-l-yaktub.
Remark.
Accusative, as
In the meaning
:
of
"with",
the Conjunction j takes the
lLf j
x)
"Zayd
with his brother."
For
with the Genitive vide
XXXII
:
(6).
(b)
SEPARABLE CONJUNCTIONS
"then, next,
:
The
following are the most
common
)
^S
after
little
while*" (often followed by
e>J
connects
words and clauses"
indicates a shorter interval of time; also in indicat*
ing order, p> follows J, as
p* $j+**
<xj
^^
<J
8
.
here
or
f$
could be
used in both places, but
^ could not
precede
jf
" "or", but followed by the Subjunctive =

ct
unless,
unless
that":
Uf
either
or," or Uf ^
Ul
Uj for
v^J
and U);
l>
"give
it
either to
Zayd
or 'Arnr."
(*f
"or"
(in
double interrogative clauses, as:
JJ
*i*^ f
<c
shall I
do
it
or not? ").
$',<;
i(
i(^
,
f 9'
and not, nor"

").
Sfôt *
JI.J
J^;
^ (^^ +
tc
man
did not
come
to me,
nor a
woman
of
1
"
&
^ nf^
'
c/'
With the same meaning are

Also a preposition, ride
*".
2
ejU - ^5^; s s
(6).
negatively ^5J ami
4L^J
"HO
tliat
not."
XXXH
&*
is
The Adverb
^j
connected with
î
If all (jame in
quick succession,
should properly be used of both
776
O X
I
CONJUNCTIONS.
$)
,
* iy&
/aim and ^>J lakinn" X
* *
but
* * ;
the former
is
used befc
verb
and sometimes,
latter is used before
without governing power, before a noun pronominal suffixes and nouns, the noun being
used,
in the accusative
^
**& and ^5*^ both s Vx
"
where,"
is
used to join clauses; U**>

'
'ffr*
= "
wherever.'*
^ " at
*
which time, when,

;
since, because,'
is
used of Past time eithei
Nominal or Verbal clauses

as
it
connects clauses (and cannot begin
a sen
W can
fij*
*r
33
B );
j*
whenever " (conditional; with two apocopated Aoi

as often as
"
when,
"
if,
(originally of time, but often of condi

i
always followed by Pret., but generally in sense of Fut., in which case it duces a Verbal clause, vide Temporal Clauses in indirect questior
;
"whether" = cU)
(forSf and
*
lit
"
Behold," vide Interjections).
"if ever, when, as soon as
"
(temporal; with Aor. or Pret.).
Lakinna
is
one of
O '
U
,
So too after ^^9 or ^,| "

-'*<>''
if
" anyone," I*
'O'
if
, ^s " anything," l+x>
if
even anytl
'
xx
**
Ô^
SÔA.
"how,"
" wherever,"
UftJ^
*
"however,"
^f
where,"
c5
Ju"when,"
where,"
^t>f
" when" and other words implying a condition, the Pret. has a
The sense, the condition being represented as fulfilled. * \* <*' * \ * cx " it is all the and after jf *' or," as jl l>?^ %\y*
same
applies to the Prets.
*"
jj**>
same whether they
are abe
present."
+
If
the Pret. after ^f, ^f^
etc.
is
to retain
its
meaning,
^
and
'
or one
" sisters"
is
inserted, as:
.o'x^.ôS&'^J-^fo &J **+? <^3*aJ JUJ

*
^yo
el] *
"^
(a),
nia [Joseph's] sh
(5)
been torn in front then hath she spoken truly."

tional Sentences.
Vide XI3.V
LVI
^J
3
is
also a particle of denial
vide
XXXIV
4
(6) (3)
Adverbs,
p. 783.
For example
it.
/^/tx^G tyJ *A i]
* is"
*gj ^Jtr'S
99
$''&,&'
f^
C!^x>
but '*>** ?^^
U U
:
mxist
vorb after
*
But
2 /5f
adv. "in that case, then, therefore."
CONJUNCTIONS.
c
777
oj
f
"if"
(for
probable
conditions;
followed
O.x
by
Pret.
O
with present
'
or future sense; in direct questions
= cU
whether"):
oj.5
^
"even
-f-
if,
although"; sometimes
33
= "and
if": J^J "verily if"; "

&
ill
If]
XX
(of
if)
"if
not";
JIJj X
"and
if
not, otherwise."
as a particle
of
exception
"except but," vide
LIV).
y
of
"if"
(for
purely hypothetical or impossible conditions); (also used
before a verb
" would that," but before nouns and pronominal
suffixes
y is
Jjj
used).
With Negative,
O
"
Uy
O.
jj
^ji
"if not."
impossible
"
although" (= ojj ).*y j sometimes = "and if"
(in
conditions).
o ^
of "that"; with Verbal (and sometime? with Nominal) sentences, the verb being generally in the Subjunctive a or rarely in the Aor. Indie.
,
'
*'
or the
oil
o
x
Preterite; also
introduces
direct
quotations:
111
o^
" as
<c
though";
" because
^'
";
Hi
for
^f +
^5J +
<{
Jh
C(
that not "; ^f

x
C**
or of
except that";
'^^
;
" of ^1* " in spite of
so that not
"
;
of
" that " with Nominal sen&' immediately following of
tences and a verb in
the Indicative
3j
the noun
is
in the accusative (as with o]

X
*r"
8 '*
verily ")
with the suffixed pronoun of 1st
3ix
^J"
,
,$*,
*$&'
;
,&*'
Uitf
person
5!
or
tif
or Uif etc.
oK and
"
just as
if, it is
as though
"
;
" <*'
I
'
o<
Of
these,
Jy may
;
precede a noun, an affixed pronoun, or a verb; \*>y

Ox C"
is
used
before the Preterite

*
and *)
^
is
before the Aorist but with a past meaning.

c
*
is
If
more than one verb

*8
dependent on of, the Subjunctive
twed throughout
o^ but o?
no ^
P&ted.
For ^f with the Indicative vide Syntax.

*
3
In certain cases either ^f or ^f
may
be used indifferently.
778
$
'
CONJUNCTIONS.
x 'tx
cdl
" because "; of
&* &
or of
Iff
"except that, yet."
Vide
XLII
(c)
and
XLV.
cS
U>f
amma "as
for,"
with
a following
Nominative (predicate always
has o).
or Uijo
rarely luj
"
)
while, whilst."
followed by Pret. vide p. 776 note 2 (conditional) "whenever, at the time when" (temporal only, does not apocopate).
; :
" when "
Also
adv.
= "when ?"
r
UL/
^
<j (
'
\t*
&
'
îa, "until"
vide
C/
of
^f
with a Nominal sentence often of
^^,
XLV
'
(c).
FtWe
XXV
'
(c)
and
XXXII
(c)
and note
$*$
2, p. 771].
^ ^"
or
O"
in order that
'
;
takes vSubjunctive
and ^^P
*'
in order
that not."
jO"
U)
tect
'when, after
;
"
(
followed by the Preterite, generally with Pluper:
meaning requires a complement, as ^3 Fide note 3, p. 776. Zayd had gone ").
w>jki
*. UJ o^> " I slept when, after,
W Û
^
U
'
o>
or
A/O
4<
since" (former cannot precede a verb; both also used as
prepositions), w'de p. 771, note 3.

**as long
*'as
,
as"
(followed
by Pret. with present or future meaning);

long
long
as" (ma "as

long
(13).
^
" (f
as" and dam a "he continued";

'
',
' '
9 <>9
'
!j>l*
= "as
(e)
as
he rode";
UJti
cux^
" as long as
I slept").
^
,-
Vide
XLI
Often occurs in compound Conjunctions, as:

before
"after that":
used
to
U>
JU5
as
that"
(always with Aorist).
It
is
often
generalize,
^* UK "as
;
often as
"
:
^
U>
c
^/o
+*
whenever " (tem-
poral only, not conditional

x
(/
*
does not apocopate as <^x> does

s
,*
when
condi-
tional)
aZso
if
s
whenever," and
fit
"
if
ever
"
q.v.
Ux^f
Jx),
veXLV(6).
ADVERBS.
779
Remark
"
/.In
generalisations,
if
" whenever,"
'
tif
"if ever,"
'&*
whenever,"
UK "as
often as," are followed
by the
Preterite or the
Jussive, in the sense of the Present.
Remark
II.
In Persian and Urdu ^*

life,"
L* is
practically a preposition, as:

x x
(*!:>
madam*' l-hayat "for

alive"); the
*x/c|> U.
(c)
(but in Arabic
is
U^
$x
"as long
as he
was
Persian
Conjunction
ma-dam-ki &*>h U, or ma-dam~i-ki
Vide also
XXV
(c),
Subjunctive Mood.
XXXIV. Adverbs.
(a)
INSEPARABLE
s s + s'
1
interrogative prefixed
to
the
x
-?
first
word
of
the
^C/x
O-
sentence,
"did he beat you ?"; but ^j w^f * asm u-k a Zaydun "is thy name Zayd ? ": only used when there is no interrogative pronoun,
as:
J^f
o x
XG-"
(
XG XXX
or) oJU^'f
e *
xi
x>x
o-'
'
e.0.
fi^
oJUi
?
JU
' '
hast thou done this
", but |*A J*i ^x>
Wh
has done this
Vide also
XLIII and
8
LIV.
u*
a
(s
inseparable) and oyits
a sawf (separate), are particles prefixed to the
Aorist limiting
action to future time, as:
(*Wf
o^ or) AJOJU " I shall do it."

(i)
J
l
I*
"
'
certainly, truly."
t
This
in a
may
be prefixed
in oaths, as: Ji>+*)

f
* *
<J
'*
ûmru -k a
by thy
life
"
;
(ii)
complement
to an oath, as
^>^ *&
^
of"
\JJsO
j,
**
by God he has certainly gone out
"
;
(iii)
as an inceptive particle before a

;
noun, adjective, pronoun, or the Aorist tense
(iv)
to an apodosis after
ejt-
y,
or
iy
v ) to the Predicate of a Nominal sentence beginning with
x
i
x
.
oxx
-
xx
o 'x
.
9 xo " stf
<x
^n negative interrogative clauses,

/xO""*
x-
J)f
^)|
Uf
xx
J(f,
^f, a:
*Wf
is
V'
"shall I not
x
it ?."
do
it ?
"
;
AiLi Uf " hast thou not done

x /
j
But,
" look here,"
an interjection.
'.
'i
For the interrogative

is
the hamzat ^l-uwl). ^JU*.] (with

X
in
Along vowel cannot
precede a letter that
*akin unless the letter
doubled.
Also two saHtt letters never

^ x
o'
occur together, except in pause.
^
f
For ^f
in a
double question see

.s
j(.
Sawf
is
a
.iJ^M
indicates a more remote future than does ^j
a , of
which the latter
a contraction.
780
(6)
ADVERBS.
#0x
(
SEPARATE *" x *' '

S;tf
are:
(1)
Nouns used
at another
in the
accusative
:
case,
as
x U>
f^l or)
S;G
"at one time

by chance"
*"
* '
time "
U* "
*'
"
together
;
*<**'
I^P
K
"often
* '
"
;
"
Ulifj
-v
' '
fjjJ?
al-yaum"
,
"
' '
"
to-day
* '
; ;
J1
II,
or
^
**
undoubtedly
^Hf aZ-an
9
<s
this
moment now
- -
il^x (in
$
s
Persian often hafa)

fit
*
x C"O"
'
-^
O-C/**
âtonce";
ox
eît
1
or ^^11^) ^^11', (or ^/ôf, x '

# w
''always"; "yesterday"; Wf^ x

<{
or
' ^x
c<
in that case, then," as
ti|
^^
let
us go, then."
*&9
of,
To the same
perhaps"
futurity
class belong
(^^
" at the time
when,"
Uf;
"sometimes,
of
XXXII
(a)],
(c)]
(I)
Rem.,
if*!
"in the end"

l
[particle
;
vide
u.
as"
;
II
"especially" [vide
XXXII
.
(/) ]
"how
(interr. orcondit.*),
Aa^ (used only with

ôx
xx ^^
suffixes, as:
<x*j
"he
For
alone,"
3i/
ox*"o
x
<
p&c*j
they alone"); and co; and Ux>^ "whilst, during."

to (A),
<J*\
vide
Remark
(2)
XXXVIII.
tanwn, ['vide'
Several nouns that are used as prepositions in the accusative without XXXII (d)], are used as adverbs also, but in this case
*>.'
9 ox
o
'*
they are pointed with zammah instead of fathah, as
*AJ,
or 8 A*J e>x
after-
wards"
Jf5, or cUJ (.ô (but as

X
s
a preposition Jj$
C
X
4.^0.)
eo* 4
" where
"
(not
'
interrogative);
e*x^
^
O
is
^0
^whence";
^Cx
x
il,
e;l
î*^
x ^x
<4
in such
a manner that,
so that";
U^
if
x y O**
'^x
wherever ";
there
^C
j&
(or^^^j
^CX
;
"
nothing else" (inflected

vide p. 772, note 3)
>
;
for case, only
an affixed pronoun to
-
it,
JJM
"
'
'
like
(becomes <J* before
l>o
or
e>f)
u^*
W XCX or uf>^, vide IM.
1
f
J|
is
also
a conjunction " when,
if
since, etc,"
and an interjection
"**
'*
behold "
!
from
tf
iSf t *
an obsolete word
,
for
" time "; the genitive
of
which occurs
ir
A>\j^r^
or
t*
*
'
at that time/'
and iLo^j
cftA?
on that day."
Fi^6 p. 776.
a 8
Jif JUi3
The
final
cw
you do,
so will I do."
zammah
note
is
2.
of course
dropped
in Persian,
but not in colloquial Arabic.
Vide
p. 776,
ADVERBS.
x
3)
781
Certain particles, as:

/
C.x
r Jkf "
"
yes,
certainly
O '
'
(confirming a state-
x x
l
x
<4
),
as:
<**}
ftf
Zayd did not stand up." J*J = "that is so, he did

Oxx
[But in reply to a question,

t
p*>
is
better],
=
1
Jl
" not "

X
4-
interrogative
f,
vide
X
(a).
'
**
of
= U "not" +
"
or,
interrogative
f,
snefe (a).
O'-^X-GX
<c
in a double question, as
Jl
ff A!**!
" shall
do
it
or not
?"
fol-
"
,]
truly, certainly"; introduces
Nominal sentences, the subject
g being in the Accus. the Predicate is often strengthened by J, as P ^ o' & x ^ C* 3* " With pronominal t^j ejj, or (JjU? tH) verily, Zayd is intelligent.'*
:
""
^
;
>
es, *ij
^
"
verily
C?
he"
* '
^} xx
' '
or
?
<*x>J x *
4<
verily
"
;
^?
<!
?
x
ty
s
or
*'
tii]
verily we.
"
'^
Uif (for
x>
"
-f
c>J
^
at
only
always begins a sentence and qualifies the

xc
x'o
x x i5
x^J
<c
or clause
the
em,
as:
*t^ftiJJ X X
d)U>J>âJf
USj
the alms are for the

^*A
only"
CMX
often corresponds to the Hindustanti>> to

in
and
M.
y!
' ^5
a 4<
'
how, where,
x
whatever way, whence? "
(interr. or Conditional).
Mtf
and
i.e.,
x ^ ^b^
"
c
" when, whenever

(
(interr. or Conditional).
^\
O
t:
that is"
<*'
^^
much used by Commentators.

!
^ô
;
'
always followed by an oath,
as: *Ui ^ csl
"yea, by
' *
' '
!**i
yes
vulgar form of
' '
&\)\
5 ^t.
'
'
Jjl
where, whither
(interr. or condit.*)
e/x
' '
whence
* '
ither?
"
;
UJLJ?
" wherever."
In negative interrogative clauses

?
Jff -
+)\
kf
-
c^f> & s
*!**? Kf
is
"shall I not
interjection.
"
;
>X6' X Ail*^
< "
Uf "hast thou not done

note
2.
it ?
"
;
" but Uf " look here
an
Vide
p. 776,
782
O"
ADVERBS.
ck
f*
"but
rather,
no on the contrary, but."
4^' 'yes,
terrogative, as
:
certainly,
why
O^gkl"
-
not, of course,"
/
O
in reply to a negative in-
*x
/ x
<x
yi5
^^
c*-Jf
"Am
I not your
Lord?
They
said,
<Yes.'"
x
c^
Ujj
'
"
while, whilst
'#'
"
;
O'
.
connected with the prep. (&>

yonder, there"
;
** (or in
'
"
pause
**i)
vide p. 775, note 2.
Ox
^"yes."
<x, often untranslatable
;
with the Preterite
it signifies
the completion or
certainty of the action, and

-G" ' C-
may sometimes
have mentioned
be translated
(just
"now,
It
'
already,
signifies
<*'
really,"
as:
QX^>
" we
now)."
?9
/ o/
that something uncertain or unexpected has happened, as: *%^*>
was hoping he would come, and now he has " sometimes." XLIV (a) Vide the Aorist, it means Ill, and (7).
'*(L
<&*
<c
really
(6),
come."
(6)
Wit!)
and
(3)
Rem.
ox " ka^
o "
for
4JI
always placed after the s
) "only (and that noun it modifies.
is
all)," Z^.
"and enough";
lw>
*'
never"
(of
Past time); always follows a negative Preterite or a

y,
negative Jussive,
f<jS
[
6is:
^
Ôx
??<*'*
'
VW
"*
C"
<C
*-vb
U =
ks
jji^!
^J
have never seen

time); always
him"
u***> or
u^
XOX
1 ,
or
oy^ "never,"
(of
future
follows
negative Aorist,
as
o^*
^>;^f
"
il
will
never leave thee
"
:
f^f
" never
' '
(of either past or future
time
is
^ ^ " not at all, by no means, certainly not"

K a "not,
used with a negative verb].

;
vide also
XXXV
(6).
no," used with Aorist

it,
in
it
"
:
Present or Future meaning, as
*"*l
<*l**f
'
J|
"
do not do
Ô'Cx "
aJUitf
J|
or I shall not
do
"
:
or with Jussive in Imperative
meaning, as.
1
"do
not do
it
"
S,
followed by an accusative noun,

'*
only can be used

2
Tn Persian either *Jb or ^tj can be used for enhansive vide Phillott'a Hind. Man., p. 210 (c).
;
but"
but
in
Urdu
&L
Vide also
XLTT and XLIII.
ADVERBS.
tf*,
'
783
expresses complete Denial, as:
yu
" there
is
<
110
escape at all."
Also
used as representative of the other negatives after

CX
I*J
C,
j.
"
not,"
*
used with Jussive, to which
it
imparts a Past meaning
- 6' w
as
(J*ij *J
" he dtd not do it."
^r U "not yet
* *
"
;
followed by Jussive.
O
'
Ô ''
uj;<*
'
^(contraction
of
e;f
$)
"not";
^xx Ox
followed
by the Subjunctive,
not do it."
ox
which then has a future meaning, as:
4A**f
&)
"
I shall
U "not";
1
used with either Preterite, or with Aorist as a Definite
Present.
e;J
a particle of Denial, as
A^^JI t^f t^Lo ~

vide also
"
cuJij c>J
have not seen anyo
thing of her, that I despise"
LTV
(e)
Exception.
[For &\ as a
Conjunctive, vide
*
XXXIII
what time
<;
(6)].
' '
when
at
[Also Conjunction vide p. 778].

,
o -
"
yes
""
[derived from p*>
"
f*i
rarely f*i
affirms
(what you say)
is
agree-
o ^^
able "]
any statement or question. Vide cM.

',
J^ introduces more
vide
lively questions than the Inseparable particle or indirect questions; in indirect questions direct introduces (a);
xo^ xC"* O
<*
O O x
r
"
whether,
"^
as:
^M^t cU c5^^
"tell
me
whether thou hast expected
me";
Vide
dx
not used in alternative questions
8 gives the Aor. a future sense.
"
L1V.
ox
(
JU
<JU>
'
)l
not
"
;
used in Interrogative sentences,
q.v.
Vide also
XLI1 and XLI1J.

a/ya
Corresponds to the Hindustani (not Persian) use of
bf
before
The
interrogative
particles
and JÂ are
not
used
the
interrogative
0<*x
pronouns.
Occasionally the two particles are combined, as:

5S-
(JjfcT.
x*-o^
i cjJ
Note the idioms:
w>M
J*
" wouldst thou
like
some wine
"
?
;
"^c.^f *jJ J^
o
.IL)
**
doest thou wish to sleep ?"
in these,
some substantive
as &*+) or
tU* must be
supplied.
784
ADVERBS.
UA " here "
IUU
(or
U**)
"
just here, right here, this very place,"
and
and t^tl* " there."
(4)
Certain adverbial phrases, as
^y>
<e
"
shortly
"
;
^
:
o!i (or
or U> U>J
*
î
" one
day, once
"
;
*JU^ ^x)
from amongst "

35
J^
o
"
) e>?
J
*

or
^^^
* f
per-
$ "especially" haps** UXM f

vide
's
= U
'
<*
^
y "there
is
nothing like whatever,"

< (
XXXII
* *
(/)
U JJf'or UU a (from J?',

* '
* *
it
was little or rare " )
seldom
' '
,
and
U Jib
Vide also
or Ulfc* (from JU> - Jjk? 8 "it was long ") " not for a long time." XLII (c) <c Particles that govern like Verbs."
/ '^
l
'-'
+'
99'
(5)
The " Approximate Verb

"nearly, almost"
etc.,
^x
f<
$6
is
cfc
he was on the
point of,"
o
signifies
and
followed by the Aorist,
as
x
^^'o"ô'
(
iayof
e>f )
v^xf (pronounced K/^")
"I almost
died
";
^ c^
;
#o p
xc>^
very likely that poverty may result in infidelity " he Vide also LXL nearly did it."
it is
"
"
(
/Ô^ O^
*1***^
(6)
^J
"would that!", and J*

and
also
or
JW* "perhaps," govern

.
the
accusative
take the suffixed pronouns,
as: (^&d
(rarely
"
1
By Arab Grammarians
,*<-** is
considered an
"Approximate Verb"
&jjl&+J|
c^
and its subject is the clause following ^J or

your Lord
ii^
o'^
In
vff
OÛrf'
^.
o'oô^wx
/*^J)
**>}&* c^*!c>T
^/--^
"perhaps
9f
(said Moses)
will destroy
your enemy
",
*&\
is
considered to be the subject of
This word usually stands

Vide
first
in the clause.
The
Pers.
Â,
"
perhaps,"
is
also a
verb.
^
LXI.
these are considered to bo verbs.
By Arab Grammarians,
"o
*
They stand
' ^
lx>
first in
the
clause.
8
As
iill.> >
&*
JL5
*'
"c*
* *
thou hast seldom corne to us"
&*_&
Jli
" thou hast not
honoured us
*
for
a long time."
These are perhaps verbs.
INTERJECTIONS,
785
1 '
would that
I";
Cx
00
<^W
(rarely ^ÛUJ)
"perhaps
I"
etc.;
'C,** x
would that there were between thee and

of the East in
me
the distance
from the West! "
But
if
is
added to o*J, the noun may be

f
the nominative; while
if it is (c).
& added to J* or
x
xx
J*J, their
governing power
ceases.
Vide also
XLII
Note the construction JlÛ *=*u* ( = ^ysvJi Jltf ) "he prostrated " he himself and made long (his prostration)," for prostrated himself a
(7)
,,'x
x ^ x
x X ^
long time."
Compare
LXII
(a) (5)
Remark.
XXXV.
(a)
Interjections
e^f.
xix
'/ix
lij)
expressed by the particles vide the cases. of Vocative, Syntax

is
(b)
The Vocative
Lj,
and UJ or
For
Some Interjections
from it!";
are
' X
or
or Uf " ah alas !"

,
CÎÂA ciÛ^
"
alas,
+>
5>S
alas! or far
-
tJ^
of
*
"fie* on thee";
tfix
^,
or
more emphatic
(with prep.
' ?
x
4<
UTj
ULx
x
never
5i^
M
,
vaê also
XXXIV
"
!
(6) (3)
Cx
I*A
" make haste "
O-'
jJx +> s
v,as:
of
l^j
UA <come
e<
)
lefc
us go
);
^rJ>j,or^^ "bravo!"; J
L^
(fern.
Elative
<,** *
v^f
tail!
>J
(as cS^fc, or cjJ
c^-t "hail to thee! "); c^ j

OX
c^j
,$
8
or
f%>
"beware,"
x
= ^l
or
Ût;
<*f$s U ^lo!";
^
"woe!
(often
>f
(with
o"
suffixes,
as:
J^ "woe
!> or
to thee!", vide
in
t.jL_;
(c) ];
"oh!"
or for
with the
following noun ending

in
'
'
or
in
pause,
an
alif
maqsurah
l,
as:
'*
AJ)
* ' ,
!^J
(^
Oh Zayd!";
' '
t->/o
^x
^
Ij
Oh sorrow
and
also
^^wf
Oh my sorrow "
!
C^X
*
i/-
(and
pi.
fÛ)
come
But
in pause
0/
*
In Persian,
X
of
expresses pain or disgust.
/
^s
e)J^
f^t
*
-
a^so a Preposition.
2tV.
f
\f"
If* JlAj
" take and drag along "=" and
so on,
and so
forth, etcetera.
99
50
786
INTJDfcJEOTIONS,
here!, bring!, give!
(sometimes declined like an Impera.)
oa>U
"give,
X X
l
bring here!", declined as an Impera.; (properly Impera. $ , oo* OXG
IV
of
"to
'o'
come)'
^
jj,
"come!"
prep.
tf)
= fr*l
x>
<**"
"haste," or fj[ "keep to," or

x
33/o
*
,,
^f
"call") (with
*x
^
"
!
x x
t
as in
H^| ^1*
^
!
Ji
"come
to prayers
!");
C x *<*
kj, or
or
(for
admiration or regret) "wonderful! or alas!";
also
*+
*
"silence, hush
A* (also **) " stop

*
f<js
let
alone
O x
"
!
t*'
(c)
The substantives
to
and U.^ (formed from ^j) are used as follows

1
?j
"owe
(rf)
thee"
4J-
Jb "woe
to
Zayd"
*j^
I^
"woe
to him.
The measure
"
give
Jl** gives
X
an interjectional Imperative,
as: jf3^
X
" take
care!"; <Jy
.
it
up
"
;
J|>f
" come down "; JU^
"
(rn.c.)
stop work."
(e)
lil
<
or
^1
*
"behold "
often used after
^
.
or Ui^; the former before

:
a Nominal sentence
and the
as:
latter before a
Verbal
in the former case the
subject
may have v,
or i^qpu
f
l^f
^^?
it
"behold a jinn came !"; (Â,

I
tit
^jf
<xJ,
til
' *
"when suddenly
found a Jinn by me": vide Con-
junctions, for
til.
*
4
(/)
*
tj
Many nouns in the accusative
are interjections, as
"
lf^j/
welcome,"
"willingly";
%?* j
%*>*!
"welcome,
iU'
you are at
home, be easy "; -!

Vide also
Ui
"may'st thou perish";
"slowly, gently!"
XLI
(d).
(g)
Many
this
religious phrases are used, as: *A)

,
UU* " God
forbid! far be
it
yy *
from!,
cannot
be!";
aD|
x xo 9 2 e>Uu*
"praise be to
God"
(used for
Most Arabic verbs denoting

*
x
'*
to I
come " are
transitive.
xc-'
* Aix>
c)^^-
" how strange
wonder greatly at
it."
INTBBJEOTIONS.
'uU
admiration)
:
787
J,
x x
aJJl
*UU "as God

!
"
pleases
(to
remove the
' '
!
evil
eye
).
*U t+aJl
" thanks be to
God "
al;
*U ^
or
-
< <
if
God will
(often stands for the English
"I
hope so");
in
XX
1
*JJU :>af
*e *
aJJi X
iUx>
"God
forbid"
(lit.
"I
take
refuge
God");
*Mf
y&Uf "I
cases)
;
ask pardon of
i
God!"
(used to decline a
'
compliment and in other
p&*)\
*JJb
Jf]
Syf K j J^cw
If
there
is
no
might and no power save in God the mighty

X XX
*~
"
!
(expression of astonishment
^
*~
fX
vP ^
^^
or alarm): ÛS (IV of ê) exalted and magnified (be His

of
"He
is
exalted!
"; and J^
j*
*JJf
'*God,
name)!"
(constantly appended to the
name
God)
(h)
etc., etc.
There are also numerous
calls to
domestic animals, and imitative

xx
cries
and sounds which may be considered

O x
;
as Interjections, such as &* for

X
driving horses
o
^
o
X
or
Â
or
IA
x x
for driving a
dog away
o
<j>3 for calling
a dog
kneel
;
^^ ^^ X
*
for calling camels to drink
for making camels ^t orx^** X X^

^
x
X
Ûs the sound of a blow ;

(j-k
o ' H
O "
the sound of a stroke
>
the sound
of a falling stone
sound of splash.
Also
'
"
many", as:
*
^JJf
Û>U
.iiljilf
^J e;
"he had many children":
here
the word
many
is
not stated for fear of the evil eye.
PART
XXXVI. Nouns
(a)
II.
SYNTAX.
and
Indefinite
Definite,
/*'
'
' '
<*>
Tanmn
*'
'
is
*
equal to the indefinite article, as
v^k
*
v^
good
book "
(2)
f <&JU &JU " a glorious queen."
'
The
loss of
tanwn, with the addition

the case of certain
f
+,*<**
of Jf
definite (except in
proper names,
shows that the noun is and nouns that
, o -
are imperfectly declined), as:

(3)
v^' v^'
Jf
"the good book."

article, usually
The
loss of
both the tanunn and the

is
shows that the
noun
(if
not a proper name)

it,
definite
and governs, in the
genitive, the
noun
the
that follows
as: vJJWf
o* 9 ,s
;
e>ij
"the daughter of the king"; ojj^f "
father of
*
Zayd
"
p****\
" one
of
them."
is
(4)
" daughter of the king

to
expressed
9 * 9 ,?
by
uJJUJ cuij (" a daughter,
one of the daughters,

9* 9^9 9&
:
the king ")
J^)
#
f^
*'
the (or a) slave of a

}&
man " =
(
<.,
99
*
J^y *
^
^.IWf)
JUyJ
-
WSAJJ
a house belonging to the man," or eU^f PJJJ ^yo ^ju. ^

:
"one
of the man's
houses"
/i cX=^J
'
/ ^
^ "the
"
'
slave of the
man."
king"
;
(5)
Note the following:

" a or
<Ae
l
-Û
o^ "one
*<*.
of the daughters of a
!_!*
e>
v-JiJ
'
daughter of a king
"(*'<j*>
(according to context)
</
t 9
' o
^
S^ &\*d*
'
O
'
'
'
a cup of coffee / but

of silk
'
ty Jty
vjti
O
' *
Âe
cup
of coffee
' ' ;
ff/^
^ "
"
wy jj^ -
"a garment
"
:
bw &* d*j " a Hindu, one of the Hindus."

+
*
:
^/w -*
"'
(6)
The
definite article often denotes species or class, as

0-
^
-
/^
**
"he
is like
a (the
class)
ass"
fSjfi
^*Jf "
Ô'-O'
(the class)
wine
is
the origin
s &
of the (the
l
whole class
of)
sin."
i.e.
Definite in a generic sense,

(6).
nofc
the daughter of an ordinary person but of th
species king, vide
THE COPULA "IS" BTO.

(c)
789
(1)
After the demonstrative pronouns as qualifying adjectives, the noun

Jf, as:
has the definite article

is
V U)|
\*A
"this book'*; but when a noun
a predicate to a demonstrative, the noun

:
may be
l
either
is t
definite or
indefinite, as
^\X
is
(* A
"
this is a
book
vide
"
;
Û&jlyt
(**
" this
ÛT
x
-^fr*
lift
"this
your book,
XXVI
(a).
In Islr
'
^
"
ejj**y
"
x /
this is the
day which you were promised,'* >A might be inserted

Vide also
after \&& for emphasis.

(2)
XXXVII
(6)
and
XXXVIII
*
(e).
"&
Note the
:
definite article in such phrases as,
cU|
"
(adv.)
this
very
hour
'
'
^J
today
"
(c/.
Scotch
' *
the day
"
) .
XXXVII.
(a)
The Copula "Is
11
etc.
The words
*>
for
*
"
is
" and " are "

*
$ts
are omitted, as
J*+**j&
" Bakr
(is)
handsome "
(&)
<j?v
$'
* *
l
<+*
*
c<
eJ>^*^ or) &j*^

(to
J ^l
the
men
(are)
handsome."
prevent the predicate from being mistaken for an apposition), the third personal pronoun, masculine or feminine, singular dual, or plural is often used instead but the subject and predicate must be
(1)
;
For clearness
definite,
/
as:
Jf
j*
<*JJ?
"God
he
is
the eternal";
C
-^
Al^sJi
^Xf/o
iff
O-Ô
xOC^^-^''
L^jJi [in this last
'
example, after Â the adjective cannot be feminine

Ul
singular, vide
*'
XXXVIII
"
In
all
(a)]
^ J^J| uJi
'
" that man am

its
"
;
Ul >fc
who am
such cases, both the subject and
predicate must
be in the nominative.
.
(2)
After oj and
is
e>'
with a definite subject, the
JLajdi
^*.^
is
not required,
as the predicate
easily distinguished
by being
etc.
in the accusative;
separate pronoun of the
same person
f
may
be inserted, as:
^) ^
but a C*' f / 0*
<*>f
"I
(am) thy
(3)
Lord";
vM ^
x>>
^1 "Thou
(art)
the bounteous giver."

it is clear
When
1
the subject consists of several words,
without the
'
This copula
( Â)
is
" " the pronoun of separation
O'0*
(
790
THE ADJECTIVE AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

of
"pronoun
,
separation" that there

"tke religion in God's
is
a complete sentence, as:

al-Islam."
*-'<,
*
gift is
(c)
This pronoun must be distinguished from " the emphatic pronoun

,
*
)
,
"
"
C-o 9
,&
'
\
*
aiapjf
as
v**^ >*
!*A
oK " *A& was

the
* +
* /
c,
**"*
(not
is)
the reason
' '
:
Â
"the
,
**
Muslims (and not

//
/**
'
slaves or mercenaries)
formed the
3*
/^
tyl^
'
<
anny "; Lrt^lM

Jj3
^^
**
" but
they were
the
doers
of
wrong"
?
-*<*.(
*>*^
,^'
JSAJ\
tÂ
u*
Uf
jjixâi
^jU
<r
'
where then
is
my
share of the booty
";
'fr'
"
lil .
î
* *<***,
vtK)f
IXA
^
o "
whose
is this
book
Ours "
compare
li$"
LXII.
"
if
Occasionally the emphatic
J is
prefixed, as
^jjJl^f âcjJ
&[
we
be the righteous."
(d)
aif
*
and
l^f, etc., *
mean "
there
is
"
etc.
J(
<uf
<-
t(
there was,"
XXXVIIL The
Adjective and the Demonstrative Pronouns.
(a) Adjectives follow their nouns and agree with them in every respect, but sometimes according to the thought in the mind of the writer. Collective nouns (and broken plurals) may be treated as singulars or plurals, according
,*.
to the idea,
as:
&?"(&
s
?y*
"a
tyrannical people";
&mLc
/
^"
a united
f~ ,9
people";
$&*>.*
/o*
"a
miserly people."
Occasionally a
fi *
broken
$' " clf
plural
9o * t
takes an epithet in the regular feminine plural, as:
ol^^^
i
numbered
days."
*
(b)
s
generally
j*f
makes no change
for gender, as
^^ or) ^^ *J>
****'*
or
(c)
For the
Infinitive used as
an Adjective, vide Apposition.
For the
III,
Noun
and
of Instrument used as
an Intensive Adjective, vide
XV (5)
Remark
LXII
(d)
(d).
The
adjective
may
refer either to
a preceding noun which

C
x^
it qualifies,
*9,
<.*,
or to a following
noun that
is
connected therewith, as
tlft*l|
J^> lUê^f)
"

>^C,x *
791
G<V
# ^x
>*
saw a man poor

a generous
generous."
' '
of understanding
o x
:
*0
' *
-?
**
-?
aJ&c &JU>
%;
c^f;
U^ %.; c^fj " I saw

father
man";
*^f
JU; ojfj "I saw a man whose LJ/ ^
was
It agrees in cose, with the noun preceding it (to which it is, as it in were, apposition), but its concord with the noun following is the concord
,
of the
verb
and Us
agent.
Thus
in
fly
o;^ "I JLy ^/ ^ x

^
passed by a
man whose
dual noun
parents were generous,"
WJ^?/ *
might be substituted, since a
may either
"' ''
#
-
be preceded by a singular, or followed by a dual, verb.

'
Similarly in UA^f
''*',
x
(^&/?u o>y
-
**I passed
by two
girls
whose father
was generous/' the adjective can only be singular masculine, as the verb
which could be substituted for
it
would be ^/.
The adjective may

Jjx
also be rendered
,/
# /x
#/,
,x
9<j.
oufj,
and
y y
f
^^
by a verb
or a verbal clause, as
their
() The adjective follows its noun, tlie demonstrative pronouns precede noun; but if the noun governs a genitive or has the affixed possessive
:
pronoun, the demonstratives follow the noun, as
*** IAA
^V' * X
-
" this son of
mine
is
noble
"
;
!&*
jjj
*
^] X
this son of
^ x t/
x
Zayd's."
/
x
x
i
Note the
O
following
>*x
x
t
v li^>
this is
I**
**
this
book", but cjlK

>>
(<>*
this
1.5
^^^ ,|
<c
a book" and
^CU^
(<>*
4<
your book":
JLxjJniA
tJj^
this
man";
!&*
<
this is the
man
' '
and j-^1
U-'^x^x-P^ U Wf cUf
^ ^
k liuk 4<
this is the
man
(1)
who came
and
(c).
to
me
yesterday."
Fê
XXXVI
(c)
and
XXXVII
(6)
is
Before a collective noun, the demonstrative will be plural if the verb f &, Note that the word <j*UJF is always treated as a plural and plural.
(2)
it.
requires the plural demonstrative before

(3)
Before broken plurals, or

is is
feminine of the demonstratives

the singular or plural feminine
(/)
feminine nouns, the singular before regular feminines, either but used;
lifeless
used.
its
The
genitive
cannot be separated from
governing word.
In
792
THE ADJfeOTIVB AND THE DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

"the
1 glorious possessor of the throne," the
ji
zammah
in
clearly
If the phrase
shows that
it
is
Nominative, and therefore agrees with
j^
were unpointed, the word might stand for
*xWf
the genitive,
in
which case
it
would agree with <jyJf. a
" The spacious house
of the
Wazfr"
(00
as
Generally
+
is
when
several adjectives qualify one noun, the copulative
"and"
if
C?)
omitted, as:
t*#9s%>t,f,$'f'' &&> ^; J^; j* Ji* p
>" *&
&}**
fy*
'
,
But
as
'<,*
the
Adjectives are of the measure J*if they are coupled by ^

-
i^^f.^.Z"*"^'"!"'
jtfjpWs
(h)
(1)
'<'
-~
"
<~^"
every one
ftfj j+ij
cUf j>f j
no^Tis,
^M ^ ^f
such as
like
'
'
^^ aiiyiJj.
M
;
Some Arabic
"
all,"
one, some, a
<4
part"; <^x,wefe(e), Rem.p. 774"
M
;
'
o*' masc. and
eJ^ tern., *
and
(e);
both
"
5 8<< another than/

adjectives,
in
wrfe
XXXII (i)
9
"
a," stand
peculiar
for
English
but in Arabic govern a genitive.

^bJ,
use of
J^
apposition is:
<> fM\ 3* "he
is
a thorough,
real, scholar."
^
Note, that with a definite noun, J*
indefinite
OS^-o (S ?
4<
the whole or all," but with an

Cxo~
>
noun, it= "each or every,

**(,
" as:
(*>î <J*
'
"the whole
of the
<*'
day,"
*<****?
cU "
all
mankind," olii>xJl J*
'all
the animals":
* 9
J> "every
stratagem,"
(3* #
J* "every day," *Mj cK " each #

*
single
one," e^
& " every

In the
Sale
and Rodwell both

or
translate this
this is
*'
Urdu
2
translation of the
Quran
J/fj
tyj (Jijt *Jj
the possessor of the glorious throne." which is ambiguous, as _)J,
u^^j may
qualify either
^y,
Z*.
t^*
'
In modern Arabic, the final vowels are omitted in speaking ; hence, to avoid ambiguity, a word signifying property* is inserted in Egypt, to indicate possession, or
in
Baghdad J
X
*
j*i before an adjective
f^
0-?
/o '
is
privative, as
^+*
>*
'*
impossible."
793
&
one who."
as:
Note, too, that d*
may
follow in apposition to a definite noun,
Ulf o)iif
"the
" earth, the whole of it'*; p*tf <ÛJl
mankind,
all of
them."
Remark,
Note the peculiar use
of kull**
J* (followed by a genitive)
:
as an English adverb or adjective of excess, as
w^W| Jr
V^Â
" he
is
perfect liar, thoroughly untruthful
"
;
<^*~Jf
J' e^*~ "

*
I tried
my utmost"
Jl,
&
W7*alf
*
cK
w
J^
*a
" he beat him as much
as he could.'
But without
v^ &
"I
and
ate
^j***
= "in
every kind of way,
all
kinds of ", as:
cJi'f
df
cJLTf
all sorts of
dishes."
is
(2)
o^> lit. "apart, portion,"
followed by a gen. of a
pi. or
a collective,
and means "some one
or more, a certain one,
one," as:
f^Jli
u&*> u*
" one
^
evils are easier to o be
O ne of the pupils"; u^-u

,j
^^
eJ^f
îJi
(^^
>
" some
borne than others";
M
Ôx
u^**^
'
/4^ J ^
>/ / and *Uj
"even
though the one of them should aid the other."

/O
(3)
Similar to the use of J&> etc.
is
the use of
^
X
/ xO or $<&*>
etc.
XXXII
(e)
notes 4 and 5, and Remark], as
at;i
" " he saw in the water a fish, measuring a cubit

*'
l*j
Xx
note
2.
x X - > /^x J&î JjJ^ JLxj ^ X
the height of the idol

$
(4)
O
<*
is
about thirty cubits."

x t
For>*i and the
prep.
^*u
vide
XXXII
(d)
()
little o/
An
Adjective
may
govern a genitive, as
<
man
understanding."
In such cases the muzaf, contrary to rule,

$'
t
;
may
t&o
, , 9
have
Jl,
which
is
then considered to be a shortened form of ^xlf
JU^Jf Ja^lf
^,J|
x
" the man (who
is) little
of
understanding."
Ffrfe
Relative Clauses
LV
6.
794:

(/)

$ o
(i)
*
+ x
ô*
xjj
I**;
UÂ*
"Zayd
o
*
(is)
handsome as
<*+
to face
"
(i.e.
(is)
Zayd
is
hand-
99
* *
some)
GxO-c
=
>*
A^
x
ej~^ V) "Zayd,
*
his
face
handsome
"=
ô*
)
Zayd
(is)
handsome
of the face."
(ii)
A^jJr
^.^sJf
x
cUy? "the man, the handsome

35*
:
as to the face
(here Jf
X
<c*Jf) "
X
(for
other constructions and explanation vide
Relative Clauses
**<
LV).
is
/o x
tt*
(iii)
;-fiJ<J^l> *vj
"Zayd
long o/
fate
sight"
(i.e.
Zayd
is
long-
sighted).
-e/xO"
*'
(iv)
o"^'^f *
the most o/ men, most people
"
;
^ Â
of
O x X' O'
</
&j *
" I
walked, the quickest of walking

(k)
<*
"
(i.e.
very quickly).
Sometimes an adjective
'
is
expressed by a substantive in apposition,

$)
as:
j*
aijjl^
x
"a
x
girl
/ x
" [who is], a virgin;

c '
,+
c<
S<*P **>\<~*
number
mosques
"
;
$x $/
UA. t^x
xo^
JU| cjjW j
and they love wealth with a great love."

of
(2)
The material
which an
x
3
article is
x
made may
'
also be so treated, or
1
#,*>''#'
&*
else
put in the gen., as

^
' '
w^fci/|
X
*LJ|
'
=
x
wîJf
X
/x x
(
^Jx/"^* but no^ Â^lf *Uf )

X
'
rf
{ *
the
' '
'
golden image
(3)
^^ vy
ô,tr
= ^j^
ô
v^>
a garment of
silk,
a silken garment.
is
The
Infinitive,
without any change for number or gender,

/ /x
used
in apposition, as
an adjective, as: Ja^
JU>;
and J^c
/0
1,
viê
LXII
(d).
^
(?)
The natural connection

x/
between substantive and
adjective
*"^
may
x
always be broken, the words j* or
^d
o^
O x ^ O'
being understood, as:
(m)
(I)
COMPARATIVES from
6^0
transitive verbs of loving,

oxAf
hating, etc.
^C,x5*^ x/
aJJ X x X
are followed
after
by J, as
*&*
1
UU
Â, or
^
c-?^
I
X
*JJ X
X X
^xc/' x^ wJlif >k
he seeks more
God than ye do."
Verbs of knowing take

(2)
795
Comparatives from intransitive verbs take the same preposition as *' o x '* # ô Ox*wx their verb, as: S^ Jb *Jj v yf y> "he is nearer to you in affection (i.e.
X
x
<
you love him the most)."

(3)
When
^
the
O
comparison
O
x
is
between
I
sentences,
e^
with k or rf
is
xO *
"f
used, as
better
<c
^5X **&
x9 -
t,
^f ^x?
^î
Ô-OX*!A/|
*
o
x
* ' x
**A ^x)
iJ^x*
"
thy quitting this city

Ox
J>
ia
'
"
.00'^'
I**
than that thou shouldst remain in it";
this
c x
book
- x
is
^
/
better than that which I

C-
saw yesterday/'
^C.
''O-
x'O
"
"
<
x xG*
^ '
(n)
(1)
The SUPERLATIVE may govern an

it
indefinite
noun
.
in the genitive,
^
x*
x C x
>*
,0-
in
'*
which case
makes no change
for gender or
number, as
&)U>
Zaynab
is
a very pretty girl."
If it is followed
with
its
O"
noun
in
i,
by a dependent definite noun, it may or may not agree gender and number, but preferably does not:
9
o*
*/
' '
o'
'9
(^jft lUjf
U*or)
j^SJf cJLaif
UA,
1
they two are the most accomplished of
jw-G" their tribe"

;
xx
^x'Gx
(
/Ô"
or
)
x'x'x
^J|
cfjl^
otÛa
^-^1
*3lxj
'*
his daughters are the
prettiest girls in the tribe."

*$>'
/
really superlatives, take the
x
Remark.
Note that Jy and^f, which are

Cx ^ju -
same construction.
Either
^
*
î^ôx'
JjJ/l
J^f or
c^Jf
is
used for " the
first
day."
(2)
^
The
^x
^
lx>
highest degree
/
^
is
expressed by the elative followed by

x,
'
,,
U or
/
x
06 ^,
o
^
,'
^
as:
g^
c>>^
X
e>^^f
" the very best thing";
e>Uj
XX
^.^x)
cuiK
U
;
J*^f
X
^
X*
O ^5
1
"she
,x Uj
is
the most beautiful of the daughters of
Hayy
of
"
U>
cJ^ ^*L)
of
^.ô
*'Zaynab
is
the most
beautiful
the daughters
Note the concord
of the verb,
which follows the regular
rule.
796
ORDER OF SENTENCE,
Remark.
ETC.
*< **
'
Note the following methods
of expression:
* *
c***
*f^JJt
*
^*f *
* +
**
"
9
the
*
Amir
4
of Amirs, the Chief of the
Amirs "
*
%
and
jk\y*b\
\j&
or
'the precious of gems," i.e. "the moat precious gems"; (in this latter example, the adjective is practically a substantive and need not vary with the
gender or number of the thing specified).
XXXIX. Order
(a)
of Sentence, etc.
is,
The usual order
of a sentence
(I)
verb;
(2)
subject; (3) object

6l.+
(4) extension of qualifying adjuncts.
But when the agent has a pronoun

++'
:
referring to the object, the object immediately follows the verb, as
\&$
*->j>
"
Zayd's own slave struck him (Zayd)," while

third
fx>; &*>&* *->j*>
would mean
t <j'
"his (some
prospective.
person's)
slave
is
struck
Zayd":
JJ
pronoun cannot be
'S
The same
order
observed with
iff,
as
&
ill
" '
'
'
l/p
'
l^j
v/^
"no one
struck Zayd but

first.
me."
M With the verb "to be (understood),
the subject comes
The Predicate
is
placed
first
(i)
for emphasis
(ii)
when the
,9
'
:
subject
$*
comprises a pronoun referring to a word in the predicate, as

.
U*
subject
is
(not )]&i
*
<*
" its owner is l^^) *

by
i/j,
in the
house"
L**
(Hi)
when the
but Zayd
is
restricted
, ;
or
U)|,
as: oSj
î
^ "none
"
in the
,
house "
* *
x3
jl*J(
*
î *
Uif
^
only
' *
Zayd
is
in the house
(but ;l^l
^
^
^
*ij Uit
"
Zayd
is
in the house only
).
l (b) The subject of a Nominal Sentence should be either a definite noun or else one qualified by an adjective, except in certain cases of which the are the most important: following / ' * (i) When the Predicate is a noun with a preposition, as: c5*^ c
v^
*
"
* s
41
have a book "
6 ?,
;
-*
J*j;f J| J>
in the house is a
man."
fi
>',
**
(ii)
When
the subject
is
introduced by J, as:
pM
d*?)
certainly,
man
is
standing,"
t.e.
a sentence or clause beginning with a noun.
INTERROGATIVE AND RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

(iii)
*
I^Jt
797
:
When
/
x '
x
the subject follows a negative or interrogative particle, as

&~e
<y
x
*j*f
" there
is
no one
-
in the
-
house"
y*l\
x
<y
<*
^ cU
O/
x x
^x
c x
"is there a
'outh in the house

k
"
;
/^ t
'
//'x
Sfî ff j!*J{ <y J*;f "is there a
man
in the house or
woman? "
/x x
^
(iv)
When
' *
!
the sentence expresses a wish or prayer, as

;
*&JU
JL
"
peace
>e
upon you
(v)
**y ^
* *
JLij
woe
to
' '
Zayd
When
or
the subject
is
is
a diminutive (and therefore really contains an
^
Adjective),
/C,*.'
an adjective qualifying a noun understood, as

fellow at our
lijju
Jj^
.
there
is
a
(
mean
house"
fil
^
'
^^
"
fc>*5* JU>;
^
^^^c
*
a believer
(vi)
believing
man
is
is
better than
an unbeliever."
*9 to*
:
When
#^
the subject
a noun of general signification, as
<JS
$9 & * =) d^
^ (u-^
'
/-
"
all
die."
(vii)
Ox
*,**
If
the subject governs another word by means of a preposition, as

<0sf*'
Cx
O-*
j*t^ y*
*A "a longing for goodness is good.'

XL.
'
Interrogative and Relative Pronouns.

as
:
C x
(a)
^"how
many, how much?" governs the accusative,

f&9
,
;
#/-0, 1U; p$
'*
how many men?";

*<,'!'. <,,?<,
SAX>
"how long?" & ^r
*,*<*, ,9^9
^
(g).
^r^
**
how
old are
you?"
XXVI
Remark.
O*
Jbfc
(o)
and
Before the interrogative pronouns, the interrogative particles,
'
and
are not used.

'
**'
(6) <^f
masc. (and
AJ|
fem.) governs the genitive, both as an interrogative,

/XVA*-*
>
md
as a relative, as:
JU> ^f
" which
man? ";
**A
xx ^ ^ ""
c*'
c^^f
4<
give
or
798
CASKS OF NOtTNS, AND
Tfifl
VERff
Kan* AND
ITS
'
SISTERS.'
me any (whatever) book you

is
like
"
;
J**>*>.
c*/
(ex* or,
^for) ^f "he who
standing pleases
9,
me"
e/
or
there was only one </^^ might imply that
i,
vide also <^f implies plurality;
person, but
JU;
XXVI
(o)
and
(q).
XLl.
Oases of Nouns
and the Verb Kan 9 and
its
Sisters
'
^
(a)
),
etc.
$
s^
$ss
ABSOLUTE NOMINATIVE.
The subject (JUiinaVerbai, and f!&&*ina x

x
x
/O"
<x>3
Nominal, sentence)
>>
may be
introduced as an absolute nominative, as: e,U
.P"
^f Zayd
was beaten
his brother
died"
^j
*
O'^'^x/^-^/O'^^ ^f cÛ;*/o^^jj ^^
is
Zayd's slave
"
;
*/' * / x ^0' " **&* (&* J**>

*<?'
ê sl^ ve of Bakr
standing."
(d).
The Nominative
(gfj
is
sometimes used for the Vocative, vide
(b)
GENITIVE
:
(^
O u-*
or
u^^)=
)
The
genitive implies
'*
(i)
possession;
(ii)
' x
6"<j'
* 9' xo x
material, as
xo"
(v^^
^
*^^
v-Aî <xA^L>
*
O
**
a golden chain
"
;
(iii)
a part*
' ^ C
^''O
as: S>i
*
o ?^ "a cup
1
of coffee";
#
f*J
A*ti5
"a piece
of
meat"
[wrfe
XXXVI
earth
(a) (5)]; (iv)
cause or effect, as: (JîTjJlI "the creator of the x X
"
;
J^^l
/
<f
the heat of the sun."

C *
? s
<c
(2)
Note the Arabic idiom
4^^;^
9
a wild ass (an ass of wildness),"
where a noun takes the place of an adjective.

/
/c'
-
f
.
,
-
'
.
&
.
Note too the use
of
words
like
ji
JA?
^^L* ^f
^f
^j with
following gen., where in English a single adjective would be used,

C,'
as:
Û^jf
"dissembling"
(Zft.
"father of two tongues").

it
(3) If
the genitive refers to two nouns,

99
(ft
' ^
follows the J,*o f sbso f o
first,
x
and the second
muzdf has a possessive pronoun, as:
fy**\ j Ûl ^^f
&**.*
" we are the sons
The j
here, is to indicate the
zammah
of the nominative.
This j
is
only inserted
when the word is a muzaf and
is
nominative.
The accusative
is
&U| *lwj etc. , etc.

-
CASKS OF NOUNS AND THE VERB
K5n AND
*l*;fj
ITS 'SISTERS.'
799
and beloved
of
God"
(said
by the Jews):
ilr c^f
"the man's
hands and feet."

(4)
For
JM cUl* "
'
'
little o/ (the)
understanding"
(/),
=^
Jitf,
X
and
"
empty handed
(c)
"
t*fe
XXXVIII
(w***J).
and
LV
(6).
ACCUSATIVE CASE
9. i.?^'
(1)
The Cognate Accusative or absolute

noun
fo^j
99
w'
)
object ((3-&J/ tb*iJl
may
)
be an
fcXjj
infinitive, the
vs
of
manner, or
of unity,
or other noun:
f^<x
b^
*{7**
or
f**jx
^^^^,
" I gave Zayd a

:
good beating" (here the direct object
f<^3 is
of course in the acccusative)
&J* &j*>
"I gave him a
(one)
blow"
î*^jl
l^
(/^/^
"h e
struck
me
blows that hurt

j*
me";
* C**
*#!
*
4
<3^fc> +
"
^&>+}
"he
the
is
walking in the path of

the
*'
'
his
father"; ^lAl^Ji
Aix/o
oU
he
died
death
*
?
of
(those
of)
time of ignorance
(i.e. of
a non-believer)";
v>0
/
er**
T*^;*
"he
rides the
best of riding" (&>.
"he
is
a good rider")
&~
"
walked the whole of the
way":
tf
ctc^f &*>
\jj<*
j<*
he made the sand
into
many
oo'
parcels."
is
Sometimes the cognate verb

JL
understood, as:
&**>
"slowly",
f or
for
?$*,
o/
(Vf "wait
bit"; *U
>A
"thanks
for
God"
b^
i?
Even the Passive can be

violently."
(2)
so used, as: ()***)
v^ " he was struck

performed
is
The
INSTRUMENT
1^3
with which an action

struck
is
in the
accusative, as: ^%i
o^* "I
Zayd
with a
sword"
O" O ^
But
^
fc>Ju*a
'
" he beat me on two
different occasions"
Note
is
that, grammatically,
^â^f
is
the accusative, and the cognate or logical
object
in the genitive.
800
OASES OF
(3)
tfOCTNS,
AND THE VERB Kan* AND
ITS 'SISTERS.'
TIME OF AN ACTION.
e*Ji
It expresses details of
Time and Place

travelled for
tixj
(J/J), as: ]j4
"I
stayed a
month";
\j*&
ey'U "I
month"; Ulf*
^pf
"he came
left,
(4).
early in the
morning"; HU^j
j&
"he
"he
looked right and
he looked around cautiously"; JUx>;L>
journeyed a mile."
Vide
this
Remark.
To
:
class
belong
as Prepositions, as
(4)
uU^
"
behind,"
o '
J|>*
many words in " above " etc.

abstract,
the accusative used
PLACE OF ACTION, when

<,*
9 o
"
definite,
and immediately
derived from a verb, as:

seat
*jj
" ^/J^* c~J*
I sat in Zayd's sitting-place, his
"
;
(but
*>)
f
^^^
*
*
<y*
v^~U. " I sat in Zayd's assembly ").
*"
:
/o"
e>***
When
<,
vague, indefinite, or abstract, as

is
U&o
"
I sat in
'
place.'
as,
But when the place

^
^
ASV-^C
^ o*JU.
"
;
b"
"
<J
concrete, a O*
;
preposition
must be used,
tf
o^^^c/x-
I sat in a
9
<,'
mosque"
**)
^^/
(.5*
&***
I sat
in the chair
o-
of
Zayd
(5)
u*> </
express
^/ u
"
I travelled in a
land."
'
'
To
;
STATE
or
CONDITION
(<J^), as:
Ufy*U "he came
riding"
i.e.
** ^1 lâ^LcÛ X ^
" he journeyed, turning his face towards Mecca,"
"he
travelled in the direction of
Mecca":
ij*\ Uî;
^ *U. **Zayd came

may
walking, with his father
who was
riding."
Remark
I.
The Accusative
of State
may
be ambiguous: Wli *f;
mean either, " I saw him

Remark
A^5 j*^
(for
while / was standing," or " while he was standing."

is
II.
Occasionally the Infinitive
used for the Participle, as:

false charge,
U*** f&*)
"he was condemned on a
was
falsely
charged."
Remark
condition
it
III.
The JU,
is
generally
indefinite,
i*r~**\
but where
it
involves a
may
(
be definite, as:
ÂU-fy Ai*
v^[yf
"
<H>
Zayd when
xx
he
is
riding
-^j
JiJ
looks handsomer than he does
when walking"
IJ&A
>ij ).
The more usual construction would be (&
***
OASES OF NOUNS, AND Ran* AND ITS 'SISTERS.'
801
(6)
The ACCUSATIVE
OF SPECIFICATION (J^),
tfU>
as: ?
1 '
" he
is
closer as regards friendship ";
*f =
" more of a hypocrite.
The
accusative also expresses quantity, as: &} &^**>
" two maunds
of
olive oil."
(7)
The OBJECT
FOR AN ACTION,
respect to
t
if
indefinite, as:
U^5 c^
"I
stood up to show
my
him"; U>k
VIÂ "she fled through fear."

as
:
But
if defined
by the
article
J a preposition must be used,
JyJ[
:
<&* ^*j*
In construction, either the Accusative is used or else a Preposition, as
&*> ^*>j*
^^
" she
(8)
she fled from fear of me," and

fled
eliaJf
^^ ^ C*Â or
L
(6).
<-UiUi
o^
CUÂ
from
the fear of being killed."
Vide
The
ACCOMPANIMENT OF AN ACTION,
its
as: olA*Jfj
IC
!^
^ *W
is e(l ual
41
winter came with

' *
overcoats
the water
"
:
J*y
^Jt
c^
fche
water
with the sand

(9)
*'
(i.e.
is
very sandy)."
is
In such cases j
used for the
^ 9*
*>
* ma ta
The ACCUSATIVE
WITH TANWIN
is
VOCATIVE>
man,
1
when--(i) The person
addressed
imagined,
as: Û;
I?
"O
'
the
in the street cU.; U, or speaker being in the dark; [but to a stranger
W^
it is
JW.
(nominative)];
(ii)
In construction, as:
e)
*^l
*** ^
(iii)
When
a participle governing an accusative, as

a load
&**
c<
&cU
'*
Oh thou
carrying
*
"
;
or
J**JuLu
a ni g ya hamil* 'l-himl
oh thou carrying the load."

of the lion
(10)
CAUTIONING:
lion
8
*-H!,j -*y
"take care
!"
t4
(lit.
thee
and the
"
!)
;
11
H. ;H
) :
*^^ ^1
<4
avoid the
society of the wicked

'***
lîjf
'
For a
woman
o
*
ayyat*-ha.
'
But
S
JUWl Jta^
51
b "
Oh
carrier o/ the load."
Vide also
LXII
(c).
Both are considered to be the accusative.
802
OASES OF NOUNS, AND
Kan9 AND
ITS
'
SISTERS.'
(11)
The DIRECT
OBJECT OF A VERB
"Thee we serve/
'
(A;
//O' *GJy**), as: >*;
"I
beat Zayd
"
;
^ ^J
Many
be
)
,x -
Remark
the ace.
I.
Most verbs denoting " to come," are transitive and govern
Remark
II.
verbs take two objects, as: U*
thought Zayd
(to
AaKw."
and Active Participles may as nouns govern
'
Remark
III.
The
Infinitive
the genitive, or as verbs the accusative.

(12)
The Predicate
of
Kan* and
its
Sisters
vide
(e)
and the subject or
the Predicate after certain particles, vide

(d)
XLII.
preceded by one
Either the Ac(c)
VOCATIVE.
(I)
The person
which
l>
called, is generally
is
of the vocative particles, of
the commonest.
cusative
or the Nominative 9
may
os S*J*'
be used for the Vocative, vide

*
*\*t*
(9).
The
particles
masc. (and lAf
fern,), or \*l
l,
may
*
be prefixed to the
NOMINATIVE,
*,
which must however be defined by Jf.

l>
Before a compound
particle
word, or an indefinite word,

other than
is
prefixed, without
tanwn, or some
W
is
'**
In broken plurals however the tanwin

fsb'
'
lj
not dropped after ya, as:
&
c<
"
boys
!
(The tanwin
x
is
dropped in
collective nouns).
(f
x s
5*9
'
Note the folio wing

11
cujf L
"
lj
my
is
father!"
Uf b
mother!
M
;
v; ^
alif,
my
''
:
Lord
"
!
The aW/
!
of
' J
,
sometimes not written before another

**
as
^^ " oh my brother
*
* <'*'
welcome
' '
!
o
c<
After b
Oh! ", the noun has sometimes

O
'
added, to prolong the voice,
when
calling to
'
a person at a distance, or for affection.
After
\)
(for grief), the
noun has
or
*f
added.
$fi*
' (
fl
(2)
The word
*Uf
is
seldom used in the vocative,
^f Allahumm*
LXII.
= Ja
be
Allah*), without
a voc. particle, being used instead:
this is said to
a corruption from Hebrew.

(3)
For a noun in apposition to a vocative vide
OASES OF NOUNS, AND Kan* AND ITS
'
SISTERS.'
803
The following (e) The Verb Kan* AND ITS SISTERS ( '<& &'yLt > jft) etc. en verbs, however, require the Predicate-adjective or Predicate-noun
* )
* *<.'
(It
to be in the Accusative.
Numbers two
to thirteen are called
Jf oyU.
be recollected that state or condition is usually expressed by the Nos. 3 to 8 may retain their proper meaning, but frequently isative).
it
,n
'
simply
was
'
or
'
became,' irrespective of the time of day,
eto.
With
exception of
terite
:
^J,
they are regularly conjugated, both in the Aorist and
1.
J* " was"
also
" was and
still
<,'<'*<*
is," as:
*
' '
U^
*
Uxi*
X
*JJ,
JS "God
'aliman
il-knowing and
all- wise
"
:
+
+
UU f^J\ ^f &\6 *
*
* 9
kan* aWl-marhum*
U>
y sainted father was a learned

ô2.
man."
For &K
vide
XLTI
(a) (2).
|^
is
(conjugated like a Preterite) "is not," which

*
'
may
)
I
also take a
^
ft.' x
O '
2?^ ^
ô"
iicate
i*
with v as : U>U A*) ^rJ
Zay d
is
not a
thief.
' '
(**j or
*Jj *>jû*
^^J
Id
not a boy."
*<j
^ +
3.
'*
'
1
3* '
-O*a * *
;U>(Aor.
'
.
-<<
j*<*t) '
J
"became"
Lie
j*s&)\
){*
"the poor man became
" we are getting
tired,
"
4.
^?
(or
t^
"he
passed the morning," as:
ed the morning thirsty," or do at the dawn, etc.").

5.
"I became*
thirsty."
(So too with j&
4^~of
or
) )
"he
passed the evening," as:
U^ ^
C5*wof
<
Zayd
me
6.
sorrowful" (not necessarily in the evening).

x
>
<
<ysuf
to pass the forenoon.'*
7.
d& "to
continue (the whole day)," as: /*& r y* ^ *

'
\t>}*~>
face
became black and at the same time he suppressed

XXX
> tx
his anger.
And
also
x>
^f
Û
x
^jf
and **>
=
'
"
to
become."
For
" J*^. ia the sense of to begin" vide

c^ In such sentences as U^>=. ou,wof ^
nt the
^
LXI.
.
^.^
P oÔAflf " I passed the morning happi-
O-Q
evening unhappily," the verbs are taken in their proper meanings.
804
,
OASES OF NOUNS, AND K5n* AND ITS

X
'
SISTHSRS.'
X
'
OX
8.
&b "he
*
passed -the night, to Become,*' as:

y xx *
&U&)
/OX
oU "Zayd
' '
passed the night awake."

*
& x
9.
/
,,
Jfj I*
\ or Jf>j
il,
or J>>
" he failed
not, ceased not, continued

:
(Aor.
X
if)
Jl>
may
also
be followed by another verb, as
$ b**
*>'
'*'
/CX
ArfJ
"
,.
Jij
lx>
"
Zayd
was always an enemy to

were
still
me "
(
x
:
(,*
X f
97<*>
O"
JlwJi
|^ ^\& ;ôjf|
)
(J>3^) or)
xx* " cJfjU matters

u
in this condition:
Uati or
VA <^ *iJ
'
(<!)* /J
JO^
Zayd
still
goes."
10.
Ftrfe 5
XLIV
(6) (5),
and Approximate Verbs
LXl.
'{"C x
XXX
" he relaxed wo^
iJ&f
U m'anfakk"
J<j
U.
11.
Û
a
he ceased wctf"
= J tfU.
X
/
12.
^ the departed no^" =

fi,>U
JtjU.
as
long as
it
lasted" (requires a second clause), as:
LSXJ
f
or
UJU._,jjx>Kt * +
p^
os+i
"I
stood as long as the Amir remained
sitting."
14.
' *
^tc
-^yj
"
to
become again, to return,"
as
UJ^P &}**.*}
^
U^
+
f&ifl *
foj
' '
;
Islam was a stranger in the beginning, and it will become a stranger again
u**>
^j*~ u^ A^J
" when thou returnest from thy journey."

it
With a negative
wept again";
signifies
"not again",
as: l^b etx*
"
I never
jJ^ J*&
"
***
'*
SI
do not do so again "
l^wo /~J| A*> ,J

* S
S
'
" the journey was no more possible."

15.
(ÂkJ
-
âj
" to remain," as: LJUnjuxftj
"I remained
sitting."
MS U
adv.
" not
x
"; also pronoun
" that which." The Preterite

^
JJ is used with
C "
the
^xx
;
negative particles Lc
and the Aorist
Jfjj with
V and
<"*
O"
and with
(Jj^fJ).
Ffrf^
XLIII.
*
Ma U
adv. " as long as."
Vide also
X
*
XXXIII
X X
X
(6) p. 778.
Some Grammarians do not include

is
Îc
and ^QJ amongst the "
x *
Sisters of
*'
:
i>(
they say the accusative
the " Accusative of State or Condition."
GOVERNMENT OF
(/)
AND
of
Jf,
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS. 805

be followed by an Aorist instead of an
><,'
The "Sisters
as
:
Kan*" may
'
/<-" X
Accusative,
fi&>
If
^"
f* Ox
he became speechless
"; Wj j&>
The
(^**
"he
continued looking at her.

(00 ft>
I*
and
, '
<J*fcJ
are used in the Preterite only.
others
may be
used in other tenses.

9 9,
Remark.
f\*
fj&
without
I*
may
also
be used as an ordinary verb.
XLII.
Government of
I*
and
i, etc.,
and the Particles that govern

x
*
like Verbs.
(a)
cases
'
The particles U and Jf when they = ^J, have in certain the same government as the previous verbs [ XLI (e)], as:
(1)
'
**
'
/G'
*jj
U=
* - /OX U3U? 003
^
''
;
*
;
^
Uf
y
X
^3 =
/O'
"
* ' /OX x U1UI Ajt U.i "^
(2)
The above could

jj.
also be expressed
by
/ftaj x?j
U>,
or
/*5laj
'
^ î, or
"
Note
=s
this
9
redundant v, which
the former
is
is also
used with
Ji U,
and
as:
cîr
UG oJir U
better.
FWe
LIV
(e)
p. 783.
(b)
When
*.
V expresses general negation

,
^j^^ '
&f
),
it
governs, before
^ a an indefinite noun, the accusative without tanmn,

is
'*as: aUf
&
II]
^.
'*
^|K "there
^
no god but God "
o
;
315'*
'*>*,
(
.,
^^J|
^.ô
<xJl^.>o
If
or)
o^
II
la
budd* (or
Za mahalal*)
min** sh-shayf* "it

the matter)
(2) If
is
"
;
"
"
absolutely necessary
*
J|
(there is
no alternative from
ÛbjL
"there
is
no hawk
is
flying.
the subject of negation

is
connected with any other word (except

*
Ô
C^
Ô
"
x
Jf
a governed genitive), the tanwin

is
retained, as: &*** &>) ^^c f^L
" there
no one better than Zayd, in our opinion "
Uy UsTi; >
U-^
If
"
there
is
no rider of
a horse ," but
uv5 ^l)
'
J(
(ditto)
ÂX>
al**'
" no one is blameworthy
whose deeds are good."

(3) If
the noun
is
either definite, or separated
from
II,
there
is
no
It
is
O " not " has a disputed point whether governing power, but ^J
e>!
** has none.
l"
806 GOVERNMENT OF
I*
AND
$>
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS.
government, as: cuî <y
cXjjJf
"Zayd
is
not at
home";
" there
(4)
is
no man
in the house."
With
are indefinite
several negations, if V is repeated before each, and if the nouns and do not govern a word, the two constructions can be used
either separately or mixed.
For
(c)
SI
after j vide
LVIII
*
(6).
*
< *
4i
G**
The government
c;J,
of I*
and
D is
extended to elJ (= /4^) and the

+
negative
â>f
as:
(****>
f,
&L,
oil "it
was not an hour for repentance:

;
^ "he
(d)
rules over
nobody
"
vide
LIV
(e).
*'&,9i.~
The
!
following
PARTICLES RESEMBLING VERBS
(*t*iJl
<>
cU^lj
*
reverse the
government of the subject and predicate.

of these particles follows the subject, unless the former
^
."
/
The predicate
consists of
'*
î
an adverb or of a noun with
its
preposition, as in
t*.{j
^xlc o(
'
X
verily with
you
is
Zayd."
If the pleonastic
is
added, the particle loses
its
governing power, or
else this indeclinable
ace.
and
as
meaning
U may itself be regarded / ^ "

the fact is," as
:
',^S
as the subject governed in the / / ^ ,&

oj,
^5^
\*>)
but pM>
*i)
^>J.
(1) of
inna "truly, verily"
introduces with emphasis an independent

(
nominal sentence, or a direct narration, as:

/
'o
** xJ- ~
i
f$& "
or
/JU !V) &\ " verily , '

*
is
G '
clJ
Zayd
is
standing";
^
;ÛJ!
3*
*JJ, ^,1
"say that 'God
"
all-powerful*
;
^^
33
<j^*l**
^j^
^f
"your
friend is with
you."
a clause connected with such particles
where, as:
c>t is
also used at the beginning of
as ij
"then,"
|cj
"behold," and
^^
"
sit
where there
is
Zayd
sitting."
Named also l3 JLf
&[
A transformed nominal sentence.
GOVERNMENT OF
If
AND
53
j,
AND PARTICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS. 807

it
the subject of of
is
a suffixed pers. pronoun,
must be repeated in the
predicate in its detached form, as:
*->l*jl]
^\
cs
c&J "verily Thou art the
Liberal giver."
When
the subject immediately follows

*
c>J,
the predicate
is
may
take the
4
as:
1
"
*
+
#v*
corroborative
Jf,
*5laJ ijjj ^J,
but when the subject

take
separated by a porin
tion of the predicate, the subject

If,
may
vide
example
Remark
C
'
to (5).
*
is
however, the predicate not prefixed to it.
is
either negative or a Preterite without **, the
Remark.
,
If there are
copulative ^
is
several predicates in a nominal sentence, the / * o> JSJA^ ^\ "I am attentive (and) usually omitted, as: /*!& ' '
*
<,
*>
well-informed."
3* "
&'
(2)
&)
anna "that" and

as
if,"
its
compounds c$ "because" and

subordinate
*x
"as
as:
''
though, just
J,-*
introduce a
'Nominal'
is
clause,
9 9 ,
'*
&, 9 &' * ,<,,
*&\
Jr;
IA^SBWO c;|
y^| " I testify that
Muhammad
is
the Prophet of
God
(here
the clause beginning with ^f

f
art writing
"
the object): vJl ^juf ^/o* s x

*G
-
ÂS^ "I
*
3^^'
wonder that thou

Remark.
":
*,T
1^3^
" as
if
Zayd were a
(i)
lion."
$ Either ^1 or
&
&*]
may
_
be used indifferently after
signify-
ing consequence, as:
^^
*^ ^Îj
^ô "if
anyone comes to me, then he
is
honoured "
/
as:
(ii)
after
*
a particle of swearing provided the subject has not J,

*'
(iii)
S
r-
4**-
&'*
pW\*)&i
^*5U tij) î
*U\ j;
after
Uf o
( <>.jj4-*f
aJU^
begins with a
noun
or pronoun
o
a Verbal
*<*
<*JU^
)
'
Sentence
t*
\
<*>!*' + +
with a verb.
Before a verbal clause,
(jf
an "
that*'
(and
"but")
are used.
its
Here the verb governs
complement with a preposition.
808 GOVERNMENT OF
U AND
Jl,
AND FAETICLES THAT GOVERN LIKE VERBS.

and the
like introducing a direct narration,
'
God
as
:
is
forgiving"
(iv)
after oJJI
*i)i
*+*3
^f
^y
(
Jj>f
" the
first
thing I say
is,
I praise God.'
"
(3)
J^
c*J
lakinn*
or
J^j
"but "
1
introduces a nominal sentence.
(4)
layt"
" would
that
"
etc., as
^ ^
tolf
" oh that her father
were alive
"
^^
Ubf ^f y
Ua. U^jf c>^^.

8
;
(5)
JU;^ /a'aW* "perhaps"
^Sli ll^}
JU
in
"perhaps Zayd
is
sleeping."
Remark
/.
Note the emphatic order
\j**<~}
c^l
'
u^
oj
"some words
have magic power"

e^tjJl
(Prop.): the ordinary order
would be,
[/*"
e>!
e>Uj(
^< ja*
Ai|
[ A>t
" there is" and "the fact is"; 0We
XXXVII
(d)].
Remark //.All
these particles are prefixed to a redundant
ft
if
without
it
***** ^9 J^; they would immediately precede a verb, as:

cl
d&
e>!
&\ Ji^.
In,
JLa* Jj$J
it is
AJ]
verily these are decisive
words," the
ft
after
is
redundant;
a pronoun referring to " Qur*an."
(e)
(1)
The lightened forms

in a
'
e>J
eif-
e>^
and
(which mw5< be used in a
Z,
ff
and may be used

^9 /
o
nominal sentence) have no governing power,

that Zayd
is
/c
*
c<
as
(Jll^^ ojj
eif
^"*b
know
going away."
But ,.! ioHn (which has no governing power), before a

*
^ ff 99
verb, as
I " but JUf *iJ j

I
he said
ft
"
;
<*''<*
'
but +$>}& c**J>
e^^
" but
their hearts hardened."
W<fc also Adverbs
XXXIV (6) (6).

X X
8 If
must follow J*J, as: "perhaps" immediately precedes a vsr&, a pronoun

"perhaps he
will
9&"
aJUJ
come."
THE NEGATIVES AND INTERROGATIVE NEGATIVES.

This
takes
o
809
(2)
?>!
J before
f
as:
its
predicate,
o'
a fact that distinguishes
it o
' <**'
from the negative
e>l>
<jJ^
"
*?.)
oj,
verily
Zayd
* *~
is
* *
going away.'*
*f
-
e>[
,9
* * *
&
seldom occurs except before the *-*li

(3) If
JU*'f (e.g.
Vlj^T; &\6 9 andW*!>^* j e>*)

'
o "-
a verbal sentence
/O"
^ ^
is
<S"
introduced by vyV, the particles
^ or^J must
up";
c'
O '
be inserted, as
^CX
*>j
fLJ
^K, "as though Zayd had not stood
^3
^^
(4)
"
O" w ^
v^
-*
lr
" as though Zayd had not come."
For ^f vide
XLV
(a).
XLIII.
The Negatives
Interrogative Negatives and Particles of Incitement and Reproof.

t
"
'
O "
l
(a)
Before the Preterite,
U is
usual, and before the Aorist V: ,J

is
is
used
with the apocopated Aorist (Jussive) in a past sense, and
more
forcible
than
l-
with the Preterite;
J*J
= "he
)
never did."
(6)
U
*
Jl
"not yet"
like
precedes the apocopated Aorist (Jussive),
and gives
(c)
it
a past sense.
prohibitive, is used before the apocopated Aorist (Jussive), or the Energetic, as an Imperative: (the Imperative proper is affirmative only). In oaths and asseverations, ^ with the Pret. has a future signification, as
:
Jf
*JJ|
"
by God,
I mill not
open
this door
^
"
;
but in blessings
'
and curses
f
it
!
never see evil
$has an optative signification, as: [^ "
L'S
Jl
cu-jf;
"mayesl thou
a Preterite (in its past sense), only when there are two JLxxX & ' * * or more verbs, as jûe j <3*>* î "and he* neither believed nor prayed M
y precedes
:
Jl
but in such cases the
first
negative
is
often
to.
y also signifies simple negation,
"no."
is
the negation of cU*, but JUJU
of
<J**$.
The
infidel (generally).
810
PARTICLES OF INCITEMENT AND REPROOF.
Remark.
G"
Note that the Energetic increases the force of the

used,
aco.,
it
'
Prohibitive.
'
(d) If pi is
must be used before every

9*
*
verb
but,
if
followed
by
9 *
Jl
# G*
xx
more than one

nor his slave."
**
Jf
succeeds, as
** &*
IAJ) ;f
o x
"
I never
saw Zayd,
<*
* *
() eP (-erf K) precedes the Subjunctive (Aorist in negative future sense.

X
(/)
*
),
and gives
it
XX
and Uf with the Aorist ( or the copula interrogative negatives " understood) often mean truly, verily, certainly" in a present or future
f
The
#
sense,
c,l
being sometimes added, as
&~J
M t<*,'
3
x
c-o / xx x ^ "
ty
JUJ
H
.
J|f
certainly thou wilt
not attain learning save if a&AaJt ^j j|f "truly through six things"; ^ /-? c^^ x^ " j^x youth does not last for ever ; *Wigu,)| ^} Jff verily these are the fools."
,
9^9
*f* c.~&
'
(2)
)lf
JU
UP
O'O
"
)
U,J
o
X
are
o CM^
"
x5
PARTICLES OF INCITEMENT AND

99
REPROOF"
{j?fb\
**
{JO*<A*)\
oj^), and
are used with the future tense
in encouragement or with the past tense in reproof, as
AAprî UlK
JU~c3
Jff
"why
dost (or wilt) thou not compose a book on asceticism"

;
= "pray do
" compose one

U
is
" ^^li^f 3U
why
didst thou not inform
me ?
'
'
also so used, as: pj&
U "why
art thou not
standing
up?" =
"pray stand up."

(g)
Vide also Adverbs
XXXIV.
XLIV.
Tenses.
PRETERITE.
(a)
The PRETERITE
still
that did exist and
expresses a completed action, and also an action exists : the time is not fixed but may be defined
by the context
or
by a
particle.
is
It is also used of
a future act the occurrence of which
regarded as certain,
as
&*? O4jf
II
*U(j
"
by God
I shall not remain in Mecca.

9 o?
< o>>
Hence
c
its
use in
conditions that express a foregone conclusion, as
cu+J
o*$
&\ "if
*
you
rise,
then I will
risen."
rise, i.e.
supposing you have risen, then consider that I have

its
Hence, too,
use in blessings and cursings.
TENSES
PBBTEBITE.
81 1
Examples
(1) <j4A,
'u**^
jj** ftf
" 'Amr stood and
after that sat
down"; U*
dU|
Jljl
"as alrMutdbndbbiyyh&s said."

1
-
(2)
Û3
Ajjf
God was and

' '
t*
Most High
s*i,*+ '
"
;
U^ U*l*
/!.,.
*JU|
^
;
" God was

* +*
tt
-*< '
? +**'<'+
and
is
all-knowing and all- wise
u^Ji Jli UT
as the Arabs say
"
*UI^l uUUL|
M the learned Aove always disagreed about

i
this point."
9<*'
</
(3)
IAA ,j&Ja.c|
*
" I
grtve
you this" (expresses completion
of the idea of
<
giving); cuUi *
cU=
"
"dost thou accept this woman to wife? "; oJU5 = u Ido."

+
^G^
(4)
*Uf <u^;
ifa/ God have mercy on his soul
"
;
(also as a
statement
= " God
"
preserved him," of one
who has escaped a danger):

"
:
*M\ A+^J $
May God have no mercy on

curse
his soul
*
*JJ|
&*J
**H*
*W|
&*J
"May
hand,"
God
(i.e.
him "
9,+
:
9 o
<
"
u/'*^
jj<x?
e*C~* K aU| ^
!
"by God
!
I<will
not touch his
shake him by the hand) also " by God stop him, from doing that deed).
I will s not
touch his hand
"
(i.e.
Remark.
the wish
is
father to the thought.
In such cases, the speaker assumes the fulfilment of the wish So, in conditions too, the Preterite indi-
cates a foregone conclusion.

(5)
The
Preterite
is
used in Temporal and Conditional Clauses, for time

"
**
past,
or future, or present,
particles
with
lij
"when, if", &* "whoever,

mentioned
in
4
if
any
as:
body," and the
(conditional)
LVI
'^
(e),
**j ** &* "he who
strives,
succeeds";
e^ Vj &tf
Or
&AJ
is
The tanwln
9,9
'
over the j
.
the
waw
is
merely added as a sign to distinguish the
word from j+c
Umaru
instead of V were used, the meaning would be Preterite.

tableau
^QAJ
after *) the vowel or the
weak
radical
is
dropped.
$12
41
TENSES
of
PRETERITE AND PLUPERFECT.
when the time

i.e.
death Gomes, neither ears nor eyes remain

fate).
(S
1
"
(to the fated
individual;
he rushes blindly on his
Similarly, the Preterites before

9
, *
and
after jf 9 ',
^
"or,
is
are usually to be
the
rendered by the present, as they are absent or present."
{&*** jl
\j>!*
Ar
"it
all
same whether
f
X-
Remark.
its
'
If the Preterite is to
;
sisters
'
must be inserted
particle
to
vide
have a past signification, vfc or one LVI and p. 776, note 2.
of
(6)
The
it
*i" already,
'CX'
just," prefixed to the Preterite, properly
restricts
a time already past, and must usually be rendered by

O
"
the Perfect in English, as:
U/i
"we
have just mentioned," or

f
i
"we
x
xx
have already mentioned," or
"we had
mentioned."
But 2>*)(
Û
AJ
"the prayers are just going to begin" (said by the Mukdbbir just before the Imam begins the prayer) ; here too the commencement of the act
is
anticipated; vide also (7) Remark,
and
(b) (6),
and
also p. 782.
(7)
The Pluperfect may be expressed by

,
prefixing
\S'
(J*
<jK
to
<"*
"*
the Pre-
xl/X
f S^S
' '
"
terite
with or without
<x, as: cXI^ JLu |&&
JLo
^f
*J^x>!
<c
Zayd
had
told thee to
do
this before that
"
(or-e;? iJf^f ** *
Remark.- The Perfect and Pluperfect are, however, more usually expressed
C*
C ' '
by
** alone with the Preterite.
But **j means "whereas, notwithstanding,

"O'x
*
4<
and yet "
Ô-'GX'
:
o"
IÂ^ vidr oJ
^^cf
^V^
(^
why
hast thou raised

will
me up
at
blind whereas I had sight?"

x Cx x
(what the
infidels
say to
God
f
the
??&'
Resurrection)
this
^5Uau> ** j **#)
" I had brought him up, but notwithstanding
he has rebelled against me."

(8)
The
C,
Preterite
x'
and Pluperfect are also used
in Conditional Clauses,
^ <." as; cu*JkSLf
ts't
'^
(
v^t
IÂ
j
oJUi oJ^
it
Ox *$
j
"
)
would have done
this,
if
had had the
power
"
,
or e*4nw.j ^f IAA oJU&.
In the latter example

C*
J could not be
#"
[
< "
omitted.
If
two
correlative clauses follow the hypothetical

x cx
or
jt
(with
'
O'
]
,
nominal clause) -K/
^y
the Preterites in both clauses will usually have the
TBN3BS
signification of
AORIST.
Potential,
4 +
x
an English Pluperfect Subjunctive or Past Conditional, or of a and occasionally of an Imperfect Subjunctive or a Potential,
f
xjji
0tJ5
? x
\U*
x o*
as
*Mj A! uWl cU.^
cij; *U*
'*
if
thy Lord had chosen,

,*
He would
it
surely
*,9
have made mankind one people "; j+e ud^l

4
^V
if
$, .
'*had
not been for
Ali,
'Umar would
" and
surely have perished
";
they would leave (or were
let
those fear (God), who,

offspring,
to leave) behind
If
them weak
would be
afraid
on their account."
the verb in the protasis be an Aorist and in the apodosis a Preterite,

#
<
both must be translated by the English Imperfect Subjunctive or the

99
,<**
* 9 * +
c-
Potential, as:
UUf
ljjL*^Ûjy
"
if
we
pleased,
we
could
make
it salt
water."
Vide also
LVI
(a) (1).
Remark.
It is to be noticed
(I
conditional past
both the conditional present and would write or I would have written) may equally be
that
expressed by
^ with
a Preterite.
AORIST.
It may express the (b) The AORIST denotes an act not completed. Present, the Future, or the Imperfect. Like the Preterite, the context or else particles may define its time. Vide also L (c).
Remark.
p. 749.
The Energetic forms have always a future

-
sense
vide
XXV,
*
,.
(2)
The
particle
oj~
sawf" 9
:
or its inseparable shortened form ^j
a*,
limits the time to the
Future
it
immediately precedes the verb.
(3) The Aorist expresses an action accompanying a past action, and is then equivalent to the English present participle expressing state or condi-
tion,
#
and to the English

X'XG'^X'
lx
infinitive
expressing
in
the
end or object, as:
x-^X
"he came laughing";
both these examples the
words
Xo
x
j*j can be added

**
after *U* for emphasis:
+
C,
x*
H'
" he came to
me
to ask for a dirhem
"
;
c*C +
"
cir*.^
wXî
^\
wâi " he
* *
Note that
this
changes the clause to a Nominal one, and vide
LV
(e)
and
p. 774, note 3.
814
TENSES
AOBIST, IMPERFECT.
^
went to the bank to rob' it."

before it (vide also
A
:
Remark
II), as
negative verb, however, requires the j f 9 ^ ' * /o' 'S " u^> l*^ **) *!* Zayd came to me not
running.'*
Remark
a
thing,
The Present Participles, however, have the idea of doing wanting to do a thing, or having done a thing, according to the
I.
context.
Remark
II.
It will be seen
from one or two

:
of the
examples in
**
:
(3),
J^c/^
that
*
a sentence may be used

/
,
as
an adverb
further examples are
^j
'
&*)
*W
" v l# x Zayd came with a book
in his
hand "
f'
;
i,
'0* /C,-
<kJu& cj*4*J^ o^j
*U> " Zayd
*$
c*. 9 ".*
came
while the sun was rising."
This
waw
is
called
(e).
iJ'-^
*
$\jY\
" the
waw
that expresses condition or state; vide

If the
LVIII
nouns have
affixed pronouns, the ^
may
be omitted.
Vide p. 774,
note 3 and
(4)
LV
(o).
The
Aorist expressing Condition or State ,9,,., ^9 ,<,9>^., "I 8aw or c^>&k, f* j
may
them
stand for an Imperfect,

fighting ", or
f^b
M I saw
them when they were

The
4*
*
fighting."
s *
Imperfect, however,
f
'
is
usually expressed by prefixing oK,
as:
* o*
'
<**
"
<j
ci>;ô
"I
<f
passed him when he was buying a slave girl"
?'
&9
iu Uf
we used
to gossip (heedlessly) with the gossips"
(this
will
9 9,
,
be
said
by the
x x
^ x
careless
-
at
the
to
Resurrection)
tell
Jyb
*>j &\6
cP Jjj>
^&
ft,*
3* 9
<
or) |3 j
t^ ^j J?
Zayd used
me
this every
day."
Remark.
The Imperfect can
also be expressed
by oK with a following
"
present participle.
x
'
.'
(5)
The Aorist
4.^0
indicates dependence on another verb, as
&(***&) b&b
*iJi
j^
they (Adam and Eve) began to hide themselves with the
leaves of the
<c
Garden
"
;
a&
"
;
J*A> " he began to
weep
"
;
^Ji îf
;^f
U>
I cannot speak Arabic
^Â/of
cJ)
" I ceased not to walk,

(in).
I continued
to walk."
Vide also
LXII Approximate Verbs
FUTURE PERFECT, AND INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVE MOODS.

o x
815
(6)
The
>
particle <* before the

o
'
Aorist
as
**
'
o^ AJ
means "sometimes, perhaps/*

(a) (6),
"perhaps
x x
it
may
be so."
Vide also
and
(7)
Remark,
p. 812.
(7)
The Aorist
of
oK
'
has generally a future meaning.

is
x-
(8)
The Future
XO-"
-
Perfect
<j'
expressed by the Aorist of

"
'
J>'/
with the
will
'
(,*
'
x xx
Preterite,
as: UJf cU? ^f

X
X
cU &j*)i î J*>
x
.*
/ cx
9 ^9 *
^/j "Zayd
have
reached Medinah before I can get there."
Note, too, the order.
Remark
x x
I.
When
O"
*xS,
several Preterites or Aorists are coupled

X O X
x
<_>
by j
"
and,"
otf or the particles
Jr and
are prefixed once only.
Remark
in Arabic
II.
The English Present and Past
tenses can also be rendered
by the Present and Past Participles.
XLV.
(a)
(1)
Indicative and Subjunctive Moods.

&'
its
When
O^
of (and
compounds
it
-
Iff
and
(,
"
)
introduces a fact,
*
'c'
:
i.e.
/'ex
something in present or past time,
takes the Indicative, as

o^
<e
fti*
of
" I know
that he
is
"
asleep
;
^ ^
>"
^W
"
\
J^
o!
^f
know
that he said, did say
but in such cases

(2)
9^
<uf is
commoner.
necessity,
"^0CV x
ill
After verbs of wishing, ordering, fearing,

O
x
permission,
gj
x x
effort, etc., of is followed
by the Subjunctive,
Slf
as
^j^.
JU.f
^f
"I
fear
he
will
not leave
me"; **>^
^j>i>o
**what hath hindered thee from

' '
worshipping (that thou shouldst not worship) him

(3) If
the Subordinate verb expresses a future after a verb of supposing or doubting, it may be in either the Indicative or the Subjunctive, as
:
9 x>> xo
'
of
^& "
c,
I think
he
will get
up."
is
Remark
I.
In these cases the dependent verb with of

vide
(6).
*
said to take the
place of the masdar;
o(4) of can be preceded
by
the prepositions
I
^
*'
XXX
-
<,
<^
A****
L$*i
^^
&*
as
*^
dT^f of
*Mk
^f
I seek refuge with
God
816
of * INDICATIVE AND SUBJUNCTIVSJ MOODS-^f, U*,
/rom $a$ I might attribute partnership to him "; here &* could not be omitted.
*,+,9 o* r'S' " In JUJUf oil -&*>?
<-*
have come
for that I
might salute thee,"
erf
could
be omitted.
The
(5)
ellipse of
Ox of
is
common
rf
after
J
-
xxSD-'X
-
t$^
"
L**^
^ an(*
-*
The
predicate of
'
:
must be a sentence, and the subject

c
is
very
'
/v' v
"
]
seldom expressed, as
/" -x-
*Jtf *>j &\

'
ojk
X
" I knew that Zayd was standing
/O* iV)
^
if
'
(=^5U
cuJU
know
that the fact was thus
Zayd
is
standing)."
If the predicate is a verbal clause with its verb declinable + -9 > f *<.' f precative ( *j** <Jâi* ), it is better to insert as a separating word
and not
(
' * JUk*
'
),
the particles
*
>J
o>*> or
u>
or a negative particle, as: A#)

;
*V,^
x5
we know that Zayd has come " M stand.

'
^&>
J^
e)i
^J
*'
he knows that you
will
Remark.
vide
'
Indeclinable verbs'
are
those that have only

c;
one tense,
VI.
(6)
0"
In the Indicative,
*
<r'
(~*
^
can take the place of &\ after certain verbs,
"
(
'
O'O
or
e>f u-'
35>*0'
or)
as: 1^3 oj;-*
e>f
U* oaûs "I wonder /rom â/, that thou

v^^ v^-*?
didst strike
Zayd" =
/o<.*
f^j
^-y
"I wonder
at
thy striking
' '
Zayd
"
;
^9'
9 ,
)
^ j&* (^t^> =
''
*'*
99'
\t*y
<,' *
&\ j
" and that ye
fast, is better for
you
here \y*j*** of
(c)
is
the subject.
'*
When
mere
^^
until, that, so that, etc."
denotes a simple time limit,

x.
or the
it
result of
an
,
act, without
any implied design or expectation,

/
x
is
followed by the Preterite or the Aorist Indicative,

">
9' ?^,
,
31
as
^^
x x
*
I^;U
9^'&~e
"they journeyed
till
the sun rose"
*i>*.ji
al*>
^j>j*
he
is
<X>J
l^* would be ambiguous, as v.^0 vj** I
may
be either active or passive in
meaning.
You cannot say
'
4Xjj
^ O x O iJ^Jr^ ^>
as two rrntzaf ilayh* cannot
come
together.
SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD AND
<J.
817
so
ill
that they have no hope for him."

# *s
But when ,^^ expresses the

it is
inten-
tion of the agent or the object of the act,

s
{j9s
followed of the Subjunctive,

before
&'
'
'^'O "
<**
u/JJ ~e>
'
&?'
^y " we must meditate
we speak,
in order that
words
may
be appropriate"; ^\
(of
>
"
I will therefore
not quit the land
Egypt) until
my father give me
leave."
it
(d)
When
o
&
*
introduces a clause expressing the result or effect,
is
equivalent to ^k*. and takes the Subjunctive. The preceding clause must contain: (i) an Imperative or its equivalent; or (ii) express a wish or
hope or request; or
(iii)
ask a question; or
(iv)
be a negative clause.
Examples
(i)
^ -
(*Js*jfi)
' ' *^' or) .juo^b'
<,*
J*
visit
me and
:
I will
honour thee"
)
=
if
"
if
them
visitest
me,
I will
honour thee")
(or lest) I
(uJUUkf
^ or
ijUl*U'
^^1^3
"do
not punish me, so that
perish."
vs*J
(ii)
ai* (<3<xA>!^ or) J^^Jt*
Û
^J
"would that
had money,
cutf
that I might give part of
it
in alms!
"
;
Uxfe* (jyfj or)
)^
p$***
^^ b
:
"O would ,f*

f
had been with them, that
might have won great gain!"
(\)\
visit
or)
" 9* ^j^
j/*^
Z>
?'
+-'
-c^T
C5^ "perhaps
5
may
go on pilgrimmage so as to
*'
Jff
thee":
(*^**r**
or)
^Â^
U^xc JTti*
wilt thou not alight
with us, and thou wilt meet with good treatment":
j or
o"
(iii)
4<
)
will
thou not come to us
we
-ô-
will
c x
honour thee."
at
c' <
(
*Jt
-
^-axfj or
?
^^Û^jJi
"o
r''*
jJ-
^
W^
^3 JA
is
Zayd
home, that
may go
to
him
"
(== "tell
me
(,
if,
whether, Zayd
" ^
is
at
home
so that I
may
|t
go to him ").
/ f'
(iv)
( '
f *,'
"'
ty^+J
^ or)
t>^*-J
f-H**
t5^^
"sentence
UuJU
is
not passed upon
them that they die"

us to
tell
Uij.^.3
^ or
lx^3
LVI
" thou never comesb to
us something." 52
Vide also
(d).
818
SUBJUNCTIVE WITH ^
*
-
jl
e^J
OPTATIVE MOOD.
o *
Remark
L The
Imperative must not be an interjection like &* "hold

'
%<**
f
*'
thy peace," nor an adverb like^^
hush/'
Remark
II.
Sentences like the above are often equivalent to condi-
tional sentences.
(e)
It will
be noticed from the above, that

XX
takes the Subjunctive in the

x/o-O/'x
same circumstances
taneousness ";
it
as
cs-.
It is then styled <x>A.Ua+)i
the
wdw
of shnul-
introduces an act subordinate to, but simultaneous with,

It is said to be equivalent to
<s
the act in the preceding clause.

<,'
'
3>
(/)
when
it is
equivalent to
$1
" unless that/' or

"
OÎUU"
^f
'
,
(-
**
**
g.
or
^^
O'
O
C/x
x<,ô
^ O \P--'o
"until that," takes the Subjunctive, as:

the unbeliever unless he turn
till
'
/*^y \^\
"
Îtfll
I will
certainly
kill
Muslim": â^ ^H***of cU>ty
" I will
stick to thee
thou givest
me my due."
case,
(g)
Ox eKj or
X
i!
fit
"in that
well
then,"
t'/
it
begins
a clause that
not separated
expresses
some
future result of a previous statement

^ or
and
is
from
its
verb except by
an oath, takes the Subjunctive.

to see thee to-morrow,"
For example, to
the remark,
(
x
J|
"I
X
will
come
AJJij "
the reply might be

I will visit
îf, or
uAo/f
**
o if
*
etc.
But
to the
remark "
Zayd,"
if
the answer were,
" Well then Zayd will treat thee with respect," the
'
t,9
/c/x o x
o
),
"
Indicative would be used (J^^So
jo)
îj
as oil
is
separated from the verb by
<x>j
so too in the reply f*UJ *U[, îj *

X
then by God, thou wilt assuredly

is
repent it," the Indicative
is
used, as
interposed.
XLVI.
(a)
Optative Mood.
Preterite, or less
Is expressed
X
1
by^ with the
commonly with the Aorist.
If negative,
like *j
*
/
then
^
SI
precedes these tenses.

like," etc.
:
It is especially used after verbs

is
and v^-f "

9
it
^*) or c*^ b "

2
**
**'
****
;
also used."
I
Examples:
o*
would he had come"
tp^^
"
*>f.
wish he would come
"
;
GOVERNMENT OF VERB.
819
"and
when they
&i
(6)
if
thou couldst see

x
=
l
couldst thou but see)

,xc*
x x
s x G'
"I
x C'
are set before
their
Lord!"; Û.f
Oh
that this were thy brother."

t/xV
UJ
An
infinitive
without a verb
may
also be used, as
(a) (4)
^1*
*!)(
" God's curse on him
"
!
Vide also
XLIV
and
LVI and LVII.
XLVII.
(a)
Government of Verb.
is
The object
(1)
of
an action
put in the Accusative.
(b)
Some
verbs take two accusatives, viz. causals II and
IV
cW
'*'.
or
<J**'f
);
verbs of giving, thinking, knowing, seeing, finding, making into, and

:
8 others, as
^^
a thief
C?
/xO'-
f (,'
<*"&'
;
&
"
i^j
5>
;
M oJl^ " I taught Zayd Arabic

fjU* JU^Ji cuiv^x)
<
^-Ô
"
lÛ ^Jo^^
thought
him
(to be)
I turned the
man
into an ass
"
J
l^5G AAJ[)
c<
saw him asleep."
In the last example U5U
may be
the ace. of
state or condition.
(2)
Note that \&*A* ^^Jf
cu*4^
" may mean either
heard the Governor
" laughing", or I heard of the Governor laughing, I heard (some one told me) that the Governor laughed."
(c)
{>
Some
-
verbs of
to
coming and entering govern the accusative, as

*
{j
,_,
x-
* *0
S + *
*0 t5^W- "Zayd came

"
me";
<xsx~Jf
J^^ "he entered
the
mosque")
o ^
xxx
but SâJi
J^> "he
x'o ^
f<
closeted himself in the
room, he entered and
"
stayed
;
X xC**
w^f f^^l
enter ye the gate
"
^C**
(v^l
^ could not be
said).
Remark
(d)
But verbs
of going generally require a preposition.
Some
intransitive verbs
become
transitive with a preposition, as:
x.x^/xx
yniJb -^'
$13 f
x-^x
" he him the brought ^
^*A> news"; *-^ "he went", but v U#lj x
^.xx^
Accusative
îif
).
Nominative
t^c8
Verbs of thinking, knowing, finding, seeing, counting, are called
i.J&)|
or
'
Verbs denoting a Mental Process.'
820
THE PASSIVE,
took away the book/'
OF INTRANSITIVBS.
"he
go
In the Imperative
& u**[ =
X
X
,.
vîi) "let us
X
"
(of one or more persons speaking to another).
Such verbs have a passive, always in the masculine singular, as: ' * * ? & & * 'O , " l Û)b WA&> " the book was taken away (by some one ) o* <j" '
* ^
*
--
v/*Jl
"people from amongst the Arabs were brought to the Prophet."
Vide
XLVIII
.ftemar&.
(6)
and
(g).
is
ace. of the person, ^f (stem IV) the person and the thing. doubly trans., and takes the ace. of both
As
<j3f
" to
come " takes the
(e)
Some
:
x-
transitive
verbs change their meaning with the preposition

'
used, as
(i.e.
Uj>U
<LZ
in
' <
he sent a servant/ but

;
^WU XX
C.
-
**j
c '
he sent the dog
' *
some one
:
charge of the dog)

" O"
the direct accusative could

O
not
c/Ô
x Gx
4<
be used here
iL.jf
"I
(<
sent them," but fJj. oJU;f
sent /or
them,"
and y&o ^Jj^ vsJ^f X

(J
""
'
I sent a letter to
them "
I
& ol*
x ."
"
I busied myself
Â him (or with it),"

X tf
X
'
*
but
Ôx <uc
^0.
oJ
f"
"
put the matter aside"
(i.e.
occupied
XX
myself elsewhere away from

AA]U
it):
^ î "he
(i.e.
prayed to God for him," but
U^
(/)
he prayed against him,"
called
down
L.
curses
on him).
Vide also Participles and the Infinitive
XLVIII.
(a)
The Passive.
is
The Passive
O
"
is
employed when the agent

I
not known, or cannot be
O*
0-?
'
4<
mentioned, as:
XX
^t (^ ;^ J
''He was
is
he could not be captured,"
" but
O"
l
I
0-*
J ^. X
f,
killed
by a tiger," must be expressed *by the
Active Voice, as the agent

(&) X
X
mentioned.
Intransitives that indicate action

^
and not
taken
state,
may have
^ X
a passive,
as:
uÂo^he went,"
/
&>
^>
"he was
j.e.
away";
^ "he marched,"
Vide
#xO x
^^"^^ XL VII
" a niareh was marched/'

(d)
"it was marched a march."
and
(c)
(iv).
Active Voice.
Adverbial accusative ; vide
(c) (iv).
THE PASSIVE,
(c)
(i)
SUBJECT OF ETC.,
if
Jtf
821
in the nominative,
The subject
' '
of the Passive verb,

killed
expressed,
is
as
*jj
f^'? Jw
Zayd was
"
;
* 9
*
tjJJUf
they were killed
"
;
$^&*9'
AJJ H]
J& U " none
was
killed
except Zayd."
o
*
&9
^*>
(ii)
In ^J>*
"
" Zayd was passed by

is
[ lit.
"
it
was passed by Zayd,"

noun.
vide
(gr)],
the logical subject
a preposition with
if
its
(in)
An
undefined declinable noun
used as a proper
name may be the

(
subject, as:
eM" ;
of
p***
" the fast of
Ramazan was kept"
ejUa* ; p(*>
5
" he
kept the fast

(iv)
Kamazan ").
noun used adverbially may be the subject provided
, :
declinable
it is
restricted
by an
adjective, as
er*^ j&
j^ "a
s"
"
6t
good march was marched;
f <as
j*>
in
^
'
>
(without an adjective)
O^
would be wrong;
s *
but vide last example
(6).
So too, the passive

9 * <j*
**
of
^J
<^&)
u^>
he sat by Zayd,
"
*&*
or of
"he
recited the
glory to God,'
" would be wrong
as neither
nor
vs>l^f- is declinable.
(d)
If
a transitive verb governs two accusatives, the second remains in

*?&
'
frtt**
&
'
the accusative in the Passive, as: &* * 9 9 9^* , ^t 9
!<>+:.*
Aut
^4-^
"he named
his
^^^
son
' <*'
Muhammad"; fu^*
u he gave
av|
^4-**
" his son was named

, j
Muhammad ";
j
\i>
^^1
'
Zayd a dirham," but UA;^

f
(t
\*
u kpf "Zayd
was given
a dirham "
Ul^.A &^&*>
AJJ
Zayd
is
thought brave."
For verbs taking two accusatives vide

/*
XL VII
(6).
(e)
"
say
it
The verb JU governs only one accusative and when it means " to " to order " requires the direct narration after it (but when it means
;
t&
'
'*
may
take the direct or indirect)
d*u*
**
A)
Jlj
"he
him
is
called
Muhammad,"
'
;
f$
stands for
, 9
,9
*&,,,?
)
i*aciA>
(j* or
AJ]
*J Jlaj
it is
said of
'
he
is
Muhammad "
note the omission of

(/)
^ in the
:
first
example.
When a verb in
the active governs with a preposition, the construction

(
is
he same in the passive, as the
U*i*'
,
)
or
*>>&
<yat
" he made a claim against
him
"
(or her)
;
,,*
passive (l*^ O r
*J
$22
IMPERSONAL PASSIVETHE IMPERSONAL VERB.

(g)
The Passive (even

*
of neuter verbs) is
^ *
* *
sometimes used impersonally

finished
"
(in
the masc. singular),
as: **k
*
^j
+
lit.
" it was
G";
on him ",
fell
i.e.
"he
died
"
;
'
o*
U/
0-0
"
lîr
âijf
" the deceased woman "

A
*^JU ***&
" he
under the
wrath of"; l^J*

*'
v>^^
t5
= "she
"
)
;
is
cursed by
God"; ^1
;
those cursed
by God
(the
Jews
*&
Âi
" he fainted "
t^lp
'^she has fainted."
In f&u*
^+* "ye have

is
been blinded," the feminine

Vide also
is
used, perhaps because
e^f " eyes"
understood.
XLIX.
C^
O
^ o
(A)
Note the following ways of expressing passive state
(J^f
^
dates"
;
C<
^!Jf X
f 9' ? $
wonder at the dates being eaten, at the eating

?
i,'
t <,+
'
of the
j)
Zayd's slave
(is)
beaten," vide
(d).
Remark.
take their
or their
All verbs, transitive or intransitive, active or passive,

(infinitives), or their
may
own abstract nouns

or
Noun
of
Number
of
Times,
%, 0>>x
Noun of Kind
Manner
X), as
t
fi*
pieces
them with an exact numbering " " XLI

:
U; &*(&*
^=
^^
*
<l
"
He
hath numbered
he crushed his bones to
vide
(c) (1).
XLIX.
(a)
The impersonal "
it,
one, they,
w
The Impersonal Verb. " is

you
.
expressed as follows
to
(1)
By
the Passive, as: tyjj^t -^^j

s
'
^ Ô^ " they journey

~
him
to
in
+ *
fcho
time of necessity n
''
,
;
Ox
iy>;^
^
vaJj
X
^
**
c*
"
&)f j^* ' X + '
"they journeyed
him
*
"
5*
'
in
...."; djjj
aJJjl
^t
J^',
"
they [the Christians] say that
God has ason."
This impersonal passive must have a complement, such as

etc., as in
^\
or
\*>\
the examples just given.
^t must precede a Nominal Sentence

*
it
usually follows the verb
JU
after
which
neither
*> ^f nor ^f can be used.
If a verb
immediately follows
JU
it is
direct narration
without any introductory particle.
PARTICIPLES, THE INFINITIVE
AND VERBAL ADJECTIVES.

*
-
823
*,$
*
'
(2)
By
I
the 3rd pers.
pi. active, as: |>JL
"
they say,
it is
said ";
f^fiiSl
*J
'"
* *
*>*>
^
-x-
"and they
(the learned, or people) are
agreed about this
question."
**
(3)
>"
/x *
>
x
''
By the second person singular

he
is
or plural active as
,
&>!
Jyu
l^ J;!>-k j&> s
is as
*'<'
o
tall
it
very
tall, ?/ow (or

'
.
one) might say he

x
j
*
is
" = " he palm-tree

' *
as a
palm";
possible that
(4)
d**j ^yo ouf/ "do you (does any one) think anyone can change water into wine ?
\j
^\
By
*
a cognate subject, as:

*i *
*
J'lJf
JU>, or
-
JSlWf JUf =="

s x
((
someone has
' '
:
said
ssi,
' '
J5U JL
9
j5 -o
it
has been questioned

s
' *
;
^fj
^^
it
has been related
t
,
"
rj
<j'
$+
$s
*
*'
^
'
^l**.a.
rfô
a pretty
girl,
whose
like
has never been seen."
Remark.
*
The cognate
"
I
participle
is
used in other constructions also, as
*
'.
^ ^ ^^
+*' H
don't listen to the admonition of anyone."

O
f '
(5)
By an
intransitive, as
it
&a^^3^+ ô
' ;
&>*
OAA^ or
is
ciÛa*
'
"hence
the proverb, so
passed into a proverb

'
he that ridicules
?
ridiculed
"
;
the
'
f^
subject to the feminine verb

(6)
is aLâxj
or &\+s* understood.
9' XG-O- X X
Such impersonals as "it rains,"

;
etc., are
expressed by ^Jf^Jax)
" the
is
rain rains"
*U-J| >z+&&
fern,
"the sky snows."
Sometimes the subject *UJf
omitted and the
verb only used.
Remark.
f
In such expressions, as:

9 '
v^
2
"it
is
necessary," c5**^
is
"
it is
necessary,"
)^î "it
is
allowed,"
the subject
the following
clause
introduced by o? (with the Subjunctive).

Participles, the Infinitive,
L.
(a)
(1)
and Verbal Adjectives,

indicate time past, present, or
or
THE ACTIVE PARTICIPLES may

C'
9
-
future,
as:
^3 JWj '
#
c<
^=
<*
'
ct
who
killed
Zayd";
"who
1^
is
going to
kill
Zayd
"
;
f5U ^f
am
fasting, or going to fast
"
;
kJJi cM*'
^f
"I
am
Vide footnote
on
p. 822.
824
going to do this to-morrow

of
"
;
ft>(3
IJf
"
am
coming, I
am on
the point
coming, I
(2) If
will
come."
*
they Ex.:
may
ex
*>.)
used for past 1 time, they govern the genitive, but in other cases also govern the accusative. They may also govern by a preposition.
'
>>
x
1
9
.
,9
>*>
v;
**
'**
"this
is
the
man who
struck
Zayd";
"he
;
J31&I
cUjj|
"he
is
going to
kill
the
man," but
jljjf Jjtf
is
the killer
of the
man," and
^;
J5U> j*>
X*
"he
is
going to
kill
man"
fjl*>
6
'
^
'
j*
**$&*
t '
"he knows about many

,*^LiU
arts, etc."; fJUU

x
v-JWf "the striver after

x
x x
knowledge";
U^x> eJj
have not ceased to love Islam"
^ 0)3 U
i*l
^lili JLiU
= ^Di
? '
JLJl^
'
one that
kills
people," and Jj^Ji
or
ÛJf X
'
he
who
kills
"X
its
(3) If
a verb governs two or three accusatives,
active participles
first
usually have the
same government, though they may govern the

l->jj
object
in the genitive, as: f^k* l-y

^
x>
-fc'
Uf
"I
x <,x
will dress
x
Zayd
thou
in a splendid
robe";
&U
?
O x
(
y^ x
&
<
^ ox
vW''
(/
^^
Îjfe
Or
\j+*
&\&
^\ J* "dost
**
think
'Amr
"
:
intelligent
tfliiixx)
f>A f^^ xj ,JU^ '

*
'
this
one informs Zayd that 'Amr
is
going away."
(4)
When
referring to present or future time (but not to past),

{,
the
-^
x
i,
O^-o
x*
' CS'O
"
active participle as a muzdf
may
be defined by J
as
,^^1 J-^ or ^^^l J3U
**
one
who
^
^f.
kills
people
"
;
ÛJf
JLKaJf
or
^-IJJf
jHaJf
" he who
kills
people
-^
"=
' *'
So, too,
when a suflBxed pronoun

-cX."
is
a genitive, as:
/ /,
,
''one
who
reproaches me," and ^+5XJf
^^
2
ôJf "he who reproaches
The governing word cannot then have
jf.
The governing word may have Jf

(b)

is
825
(1)
The Subject
of a
Verbal
Noun
in the genitive,
"& x
and
its Object is
t"&
*
ox
*
-9
ox
either in the accusative or else has the preposition J, as

(the fact of)
(o**<*J or) \**&s>

#
&) J&f
"Zayd's
"
killing
Muhammad";
country."
J-tyi
{Jf
j^. (hubbiy
al
'Iwatan")
or e>fc>U
^s*
my
love of
my
(2)
When
vide
XL VIII
it
a verbal noun governs a genitive, it may have a passive sense, If however such a governed noun is separated from the (h).
in the accusative,
/
x
*x o x
muzaf,
must be
as:
^
-
Ûb] *
/
x G
feeding an orphan,
G'
< {
Ox
an orphan's being fed," but
U*AJ <u**u,c
î ^j ^j
Ûtfef
jf
O r to feed, in a
its
day
of famine,
an orphan," since a
genitive
can never be separated from
governing word.
(3)
Nouns that have a
similar force to the
vl.
noun can
also be construed
^
with the gen. of the subject, and the ace. of the object, as:
j
<H*j is
" the hubara- bustard's threatening the Saker Falcon," where

/
,
used for
the Infinitive
dl*j|.
(c)
To
express an
act
now
PRESENT PARTICIPLE may

(d)
taking place either the be used.

is
AORIST
or the
THE PASSIVE PARTICIPLE

(g).
sometimes used impersonally, vide

99'
9 fi
<,'
x>
^c'
*^3
XLVIII
<(
It
may govern
:
the nominative, like its verb, as

9 f'9
&$i vjtr^
9 9 C '<**> $ ^
Zayd's slave was beaten"
**ilp VJ
^Jl
"
<x?3
Zayd
of the beaten slave,"
(but A'CÛ
vj^"
dO " Zayd has been beaten by his slave").

tenses can be rendered
Remark.
Arabic Pres.
(e)
The English Present and Past and Past Participles.
by the
(I)
VERBAL ADJECTIVES
may
'
<*.
or
PARTICIPLES
their subject
are
sometimes
the
used for verbs; they

*t
be in any case, but
must be in
is
Nominative, as:
&j v^
;
'
"with a mouth whose
saliva
sweet"
Prop, hubbl al-wafcvnP
but as the a of al
is
hamzat ut l~wa8l
al,
it is
dropped, and as the

also sakin.
It
is
'
is
y of Âa*
sakin,
it
cannot be joined to the lam of
which
is
is
rule that to
make a
aWcln letter mutaharrik, either fathah or kasrah
added.
Here
(after
y) fafyah
is
euphonius.
826
CONCORD OF VERB
*f
" ^
"&
PREPOSITIONS.
"
19
(I*
<*ili=R/o
iâ
0./J
' *' " I saw there animals of various ojf;
colours"
(2)
Jtpf
cJliil
Uji
wde Adjectives
or
XXXVIII
(a)
and
(d).
The INTENSIVE ADJECTIVES

f 9^ J>**)
INTENSIVE AGENTS
[w'de
(6)
(chiefly
f &'
f^*f&
JUJ and
may
govern
' '
;
like
the
'
vl.
noun
" one who beats 'Amr

**a
?,<,,
(1)],
' '
;
as:
\j+*
jr**
//o
/" 3^
A^* Ûo
a great tyrant to his tribe
great collector of
books."
LI.
Concord of Verb.
(a)
The verb
is
Masculine, Singular before the regular masculine plural,
and usually before the masculine dual.

(6)
It
is
it;
following
Feminine Singular before a feminine singular immediately generally before broken plurals immediately following it; and
before the regular feminine plural , and the feminine dual.
Masculine or Feminine Singular a (i) before singular feminine not immediately following it: (ii) before collectives destitute of reason (but for female persons the feminine is preferbut if they denote male persons it is (iii) before all broken plurals able)
(c)
It is either
usually masculine
so too
if
the broken plural does not immediately follow
the verb.
(d)
Other verbs following the
first
verb, agree logically, according to the

as
thought in the writer's mind.

the subject precedes the verb, is natural. the concord Arabic,
(e)
(/)
When
it
usually does in
modern
If the
else agree
(g)
verb has several subjects, it may either be put in the plural or with the nearest subject in number and gender.
*
sw
9 o^<">
<S *
The verb
often agrees with the logical subject, as:
" even though every sign should come (be

agrees with the genitive
<
if L^ ^$$*^ >^ f " here the verb shewn) unto them

:
f.
(h)
The verbs
+*i
j " and " how " how bad," generally take the good (j*^
masculine form, vide
LXI.
LII.
Prepositions.
seize, begin,
(a) (1)
Verbs denoting to adhere, attach,

l
hang on,
believe in, swear by,
take
(a).
It
may
be'used with a predicate in negative
sentences ; vide
XLII
and j [Vide
XXXII
(6)]
are used without
any verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
827
(2) It
may
be used with
+ ' *
*'
;
!<M
*,
"see!
J*
behold", as: *~^jA

*
fit*'
"and
'
1*
'
'
suddenly a lion appeared

(6)
^^
^ I^J
' ' o
'
>
u^H
= s***
** c/^
laj;
wWe
XXXII
and footnote,
j *^f ^f *
c$^ * *
"may my
father
and mother be sacrificed

art
for thee, at the price of
my
father
and mother thou
ransomed (= thou
'
art very dear to

(3)
(b)
me)."
It is used in dates, for
expresses the Dative.
on
"
:
**
'
i.e.
aJ "this happened on the
five
nights that passed

' ' ;
from Ramadan,"
JÛiJ Jx>
It
It
is
"this happened on the 5th night of Ramazan

;
also
î
^XiJ * t
vide
XXVIII
(/).
used for " by
"
before the
names
of editors or authors.
'-
*'
:
* <*"
signifies
"for the benefit of" as opposed to ^c, as

-
&)
o^^
"
" prayed for him (but
^ e,o
" *
'
9 Q*
*'
I cursed
him)
"
:
'<j
'
<j'
j&i* vJ^Lj ^J'

-
"you owe
me
a dinar."
It denotes the
purpose or cause.
Vide also
LIII " To Have."

father was!
Remark.
wefe
The phrase
c(^f
^JiJ
means " what a man thy
"
LX.
(c)
î^
"
over, on, against."

AJ
Note the following idioms:
^JU
"bring him here to
me," but
" I con' "
' <*""
"you must
jure
stick
to
him, not leave
him"; cJUk &&

"
;
thee
by God";
\^.)
^^
sC,**
"seize thou Zayd

>
UJ
'
<s
o
X
'
<4
"it
is
incumbent on thee to obey thy parents"
<E*U?Jb c^l*
X
you must
as a conjunction
'*
^J/
in order that, so that,"

' x
-?
and takes the Subjunctive.
C-
Khalawn* 3rd
pers. pi. fern, of Pret. of

,
&L -^l=su
" to be empty."
In modern Arabic JLtxl&jf
A'JUJJf
would be used.
But
<WiJ
,,"
Ox
fern.,
"on
the 5th
day"
828
PREPOSITIONS.
never separate yourself -from the majority, you must act as others do ";
> * <s * ^yt^jdtf *

.s
"you must
**
+
look after the boy

s
"
;
/ & * o" * &>.* **!*

*
"he owes me a debt"
'
fyj***?^ ^
*** e^f^k'k
*
sb"*
'
.***
O
e>J
>J^ +
i^
o;!
"if you want to train Shahms, then
you must keep the Peregrine species"

" on the supposition or condition that
^^1* "according to ôJ X
x3 /
' ' ;
^
-
"
* *
&&
O'
lt
according to
XX
*!*
"
;
<*
"
c>l
&^*>ty
*
j$ '
" " so far as possible

"
c>
1
rank";
xx
ert*Jl
XX
j
spite
u*W
of"
cr^
willingly ';
O' Ox
;
^l$)l|
cr/x ; "publicly" x
1
uti?
x
^c; ^5X0 x
"in
f#4&
" in spite
of their ill-doing."
(rf)
^ "away from ",

It is also
(
is
used with verbs denoting to
flee,
avoid, restrain
oneself, forbid, hinder, neglect,
and defend.
With many
of these verbs
^
is
can also be used.

open, and ask
It also
used with verbs denoting to uncover, reveal,

1
C/x
= "
about concerning ").

the authority of ",
of
"
= "on
as: JU
aJJf Jj**>
^ j+* &*
said
"
it
related
on the authority
*i*
'Umar, that the Prophet
of
God
".
Ô ' *+"<>
Note the idioms

* '
*JJf
'
'
*
"
May God
be pleased with him

' '
;
"
!
apart from
' ' ;
JLjsii # -*
^
"
;
after a little
O x
>
while
j&+ Jj &* oU
*
he died
'
leaving a young child
Â^T * +
*
"
(^c
f^JLtf
they were slain to the last man.'

free, to forbid,
(e)
(1)
^ô
is
used with verbs denoting to go out, to

at, rejoice at,
be
near, approach,
wonder
be pleased with.
#
x-
With verbs
, *
of selling
*
-
9^
or giving in marriage,
it is
used for " to," as
Uy
**
"he
sold to
him
a horse."
(2)
'
e^
"some
of, of,
any ", as: *** X

?
o^ "
x
drank some of
it
"
;
J*
no
^1
x*
v^X "is there any
God
"
;
*Jl
'O< "
e>* I*
*
there
is
not any God, there
is
t'~
Jfcfm is
here practically a substantive and the object of the verb.
PREPOSITIONS.
829
' ' ;
God " = All

(
SI) ;
^ Û
J*>
"
ye have no backer
li&k Jjk
^^
L> " there
are
some among them who say thus "

Cxx X
o
^xo
oof " thou art one of them."

Gx- x
(3)
Note these idioms:
^xu*
x
f<
^ ^w i*
l
o'
since
"x
two years, two

G
~x
years
ago":
;l*uU|
^ y^G
!
/ XGX
a certain merchant";
vî ey
;
<&JU
chain
*
'
made
of gold
"
;
JUJl
e^^>
c5^
^ u
all I
' '
possess
oli
whatever good deeds thou doest."

Remark.
(/)
A
<f
pleonastic
in,
is
often suffixed to &*>

is
^ and
^.
(1)
c5*
among,"
etc.,
used with verbs of

(after),
speaking (about),
thinking (over), desiring

three by seven
(for),
yearning
multiply ing (by).
"Multiply
"
is A*A** *
^9 -x
AjUJ s.^/^!.
.
(2)
It
sometimes expresses motion into, as:

" he
into their
&y
Utff
^J
j.
< f
he
fell
into a
tank
"
;
^^f
"
^J 5^
fell
hands "
^^Â
^ ^y
'*
he set
out with 50,000 men."

with, just at, besides, etc.", as
to) fr
^r^^f
^^ t*
sick
' '
exactly at sun-
' '
rise
^y XX
\s*
**
C^
besides (the fact of)

Ix-X
my being
= Uayo oiT^f ** .
^
"Ixx
^jJi g*
"in
spite of
that"
I**
f^>
"in
spite of this, with all this
"
;
O-^
&i
j^>
4<
although, in spite of the fact that"; <j&**> j'0.xJ\ ''compared to him S

ii
'
Elias*
is
a tent-peg."
# c
Remark.
with).
The accusative U*
" at the same time," (not in company
(h)
(1)
The
preposition
C<x
^
s
ox
"amongst, between"
(a
noun
to
in the ac-
cusative.
but ^jo
Â
genitive
"from amongst") has
be
repeated
But JLo
^
ô ^$&c x x
-
t/o
"
own no property."
The wandering Jew
of the Muslims.
830
PREPOSITIONS.
if
one or more of the words governed by

betwixt
it
*
is
a pronoun, as:
Gx
<j
(<
me and
(betwixt) fchee
"
;
*
*"
I*
^XjAf
to
CX &#) ^jo " between me and
thy
brother."
But J^^; ^
' '
î 4'
"O
.
^
&*&
jîlf
" what
is
the difference between nabiyy
and raaul
'
?
'
<^'
O"
x .V
(2)
e^
I*
and &*>
I**'
are also used for

**"'<*'
^j.
(3)
Note the idioms
&
;
" before
him";
^
"
'
"
C '
C'
" j ^vw " e ,jj
Û
âjf
"both rich anc? poor came to
me "
JÛ ^
^Ju
Â
he
is
between learned
,,
and ignorant,
half
and
half
"
;
&# &# "
' (" ' u"
middling, fair
"
;
*'<;' 9 L 'i/*
^&*fy J^x
p. 773.
^j
" the
tribe
was partly
slain
and partly taken captive," vide

),
(i)
cj>*o
" on
this side of (opp. to *T;j
under,
without, besides, other
than, less than," as: j&i\ &$$
" on
this side of the river

^x
"
;
oUy
"
<J^Hr
^6
" under your book

kill
is
a paper
"
;
~x
9* 9
^jd\ &*> *^^ ^j
l\j}
^4^
-$99^,,
I will certainly
or,
Zayd and
all
besides
him
of the
Arabs"
cJî
^^
^^ or)
&j*
or
"without that"
(^^ U>
5^1 Ji
<;
ten or less," (but lA*f;j U^
S^Jf "ten
more").
Remark.
tJo^>
, ,
and *&)& are interjections and

G-^
= u/U and
f>jj
Û
" be-
#G^^x^^ OXxC/x
ware!" But ji^

* *
folio wed
'
by a noun equals &**" take, "as: him."
' '
seize
Zayd
*&j*
seize
(?)
>*u preposition
" as for " towards" example"), and (and adverb

C^XC'
<>
ty''
"according to," as:

c.
<4
<*Jy>>*u
^ o
as he says"
"
l
but *>j as a substantive
ô
ix>
<r
like,"
as: **[
/;
J^
fc
^^"
<f
or
>
or) ^î x
âcu
JLx;
man
like
a lion";
^ "I
.
CxX
passed by a
man
resembling your brother."
is
seldom used for "

x
I
like
"
as
it is
ambiguous, and
liable to
be mistaken for
so on, such like."
the preposition
but
^) i ^.acu
(which
may be in any ease) is used for "
PREPOSITIONS.
831
(of
As a substantive
(&) L^l
x
X
I
it
also
means " about "
numbers).
is
"up
x
I
to," also shows

>
(i
that one
thing
added to another,
XX
ju
as: I*A
^l
\&*
<**
add
this to that.'
It
is
used with
j>tj
"to augment"
/
.
5
:
with adjectives signifying love or hatred used in a passive sense, as

* O '
v^f *
/
*~+j
* x
' '
;
'
sâ^/o "dear
vo4
" dearer
' '
;
^ -"^
o**?f
" more hateful "
etc.;
and with
'
etc.
signifying
"near"
as opposed to
'
'
^*J
'
" " far from,
'<,
'
9&*
*jL>
as:
^\
'
w^Jf
for this
comes nearer to reverence."

*>^f
Note the phrases

or
^|
(contracted %l
"et
4<
cetera,
and so forth,"
J3
<-
stand
off
"
!
"
*Jj |i*
X
thi3 is entrusted to
him."
(Z)
Ai>
fviWe p. 771
and footnote
3)
may
be construed with either the
nominative or the genitive, the latter being generally used for a yet unexpired ' 9 ^<J<^" ' >x /' ^ " >&*> '0'0^ 3since last year &L^f Lo <4 1 have period of time, as Jjf Û bj^
:
c '
-*
C/'
not spoken to him since (the beginning
of) this
month"
x
Ux>jj &*>
or
X
"since this morning, to-day."

(m) For the repetition of a preposition after ^ vide
(n)
LV
(k).
Vide also
<,9'
LIII.
or &*
(o)
&*) and
x
9^9
<>J^)
^9
may
be directly connected with a following pro'! have not seen
position, as:
(3^
9^9 **^'' <^ *J^b Uo
him
since he
was born";
"since
the
tribe
-
departed."
or
But the other prepositions
6^#"
require the interposition of &\
"
vjT
^0"0'
t
as:
o^ ^f ^f
<c
till
grew up
"
;
'
'
"O"'
x OÔ*
35
x-
of
5*
"
though
it
is
easier
to destroy
than build";
xOx o^
1
x>xxoÔI
"that was because they disobeyed" XX f'9 "as we sent an apostle to Pharaoh"; u>JU ^^f
perished."
;
" '
y^j
X
^J[ tii^f &j*j* X

^
U>
XOX
cwo
" after So-and-so
The redundant
Co after
is rare.
832
TO HAVE
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, ETC., SENTENCES.

LIII.
To Have.
l
* *
To have
' '
is
expressed by the prepositions J

f s
or tic-go *
^d according to
or about the
the idea of possession.

'
.?'
Thus
**
*>
means " in company with

*.'
'
'
person," as: icU
^^
*
*
have with m&a, watch," but
<**U
^*&
*
"
I have
watch."
*' '
J *
.
also
means actual
possession, as
-VeU
<J ~ *
"
own a watch," but ^î* * *

"
;
Ask*
"
have (my own or some one

'
else's property)
a watch
<*OJ
^
"
property that belongs to Zayd.'
ô
J
after
is
used for immaterial things, as

f>'
JU
lt
know "
it also
' '
of
"
an indefinite noun, as
*
'
^ WAÛ *'a friend of mine."

(generally,
i.e.
JU>
t
,
^^
I
= "I
have money
on
me
or at
home)," but
JU> ^liJ
&*' "
have money with me, on

*
*
my
person."
'<^
Remark.
/
-
^$d
differs
from &* in being restricted to material objects, as

s
\
&
' '
OU-Ôx
not)
^5^
"
Jj&\ t^ A
'*
this assertion is right, in
my
opinion."
LIV.
Exceptive, Adversative, Restrictive and Interrogative Sentences.

&
After a positive clause,
t <*'&
{<
3ft
(a)
(i)
except" (not a
preposition), governs
^G'0~
(*^l
* "
*"
"G '
the accusative, as
is
1^3
Ht ^
^^f.
+
After a negative clause, the exception

jj
rarely in the accusative; but generally, the

r^t*
same case follows

*
JfU
that
&
Hi S
<j
precedes
it,
as
(<-y<^ ' '
&*+**
'
b*
5>
J|t
or
^y*
,
*S
^^ o.*^* U
'
<;
t,
'
'
<c
heard nothing
but thy voice, I heard thy voice only."

f
After the
51
of general negation, the exception is nominative, since it is
/JU &
the logical subject, as: *Uf
'
#| A);
" there
is
no god but the God."
'
<j
/^
comes
O
**
From
txi*
<x'jxii0
opinion, intention.'*
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTRICTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 833
(ii)
(Sf
"
except"
is
an ordinary preposition and
is
indeclinable.
(Hi)
(" besides, except,

'<*'
:
but")
is
a noun or pronoun vide

:
XXVI
(),
and
'
is
declinable
j*
*
is
a preposition only
both are used in the sense of

if *
except.'
jA*must
:
itself
<*'
be in the same case as the thing excepted would be

o'
'<*'
&
KJ
,
<.*
3*
JfJ
)
*<*'<*
were used, as
9
<,'
( fx>j
= *
*
j**
^^
' -
ft,*
;
&
l
and
is
<xj
ill
-,
'
^jîW f(* U.
*
o- 9 <^t
$ ~*
* +
In *JJÂC
:
~- * *V*>
" none came but Zayd ", j*&
*<*'
a noun
"
;
t <,'
so too in
but in &j (j*p or )^xc *a*u ojô U, the word
may be
treated either
as a preposition or a noun.
* *
* +
+
;
+r
(iv)
*
ftxc,
&x, and l&U* govern either the gen. or the ace.
butfxc
("what
goes beyond ") and
Û
is
<,
(* what
is
free
from ") usually take the accusative.
Rarely
is
t^t^ preceded
by U.
Remark.
o
(v) c;!
&U*
also as a Interjection (q.v.)

,
"
far be it from."
of denial is
/
may
precede any part of speech
and as a particle
^wjxxâs
^^.o
frequently followed by an exceptive clause, as
&*'j*
l^J
111
J^;
e^
'
4<
c^J *
there is
none amongst men that does not die
"
;
c^H^r
"
f*4^j>
e^t
Jl]
'
e^*^ "
c^J
"they
follow naught but doubt, and they do naught but guess."

(6)
Vide p. 783.
ADVERSATIVE CLAUSES:
"
if
(i)
**
is
used after an affirmative or a

m>J
'
command,
f O" as: jj+*
'
Jl
f<S
'
'
^3 <y*U
Zayd came to me,

c
I
'Amr "
(w)
e^
or
^
5i
^
'
G-
5v'^ O !>jj OA.
" take Zayd, not *Amr."

rectify
(often preceded
by
or
emend a previous
statement and are more particularly opposed to a negative proposition or a

O
'
<*'
tbs
&
prohibition, as
ât^
^j t^c
^
,
/tx
.-V ^
^) <^*U>
"
Zayd came
to
me, but
Amr
did
not come."
f^ a (J? orj^fjjjw^ Vdo

better than
not beat Zayd, but (beat)'Amr."
This
is
*jj^c
*
fJoj It
J|t
).
'
has no governing power.

distinction
has the same meaning as in Persian, and the

**
between
it
(c).
and Jb
is
not drawn as in Urdu, vide Phillott's
Hindustani
Manual," Lesson 60
53
834 EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTKIOTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.

o
]
<*
(in)
Jj
' *
nay, not so, rather, but
"
)
is
opposed to an affirmative or a
* ox o
'
>c^
' "
negative proposition, to a command or a prohibition, as

stood up, nay
it
j^
ck **}
fU>
"Zayd
was 'Amr "
^
;
o - O.x
/O'
'
"
jj+* uy *i) pti
I*
"
o
Zayd did not stand up, but

O
(nay
rather)
<Amr stood up";

J
^
J|
^ O"
C-
.*
* &*
cw f^j <^*j "beat Zayd, not so
"Amr "
(beat)
^ (^
*
or) Jb !x>3
^^^ *
" do not beat Zayd. but
=nay
rather)
'Amr."
(c)
RESTRICTIVE CLAUSES
are introduced
by
CSl
vide
XXXIV
(6)
(3), p. 781.
(d)
INTERROGATIVE CLAUSES.
'
-
(i)
The
particle
may
be prefixed
&
to
e>f
-
&?
v3
and
î'.
It is
used in direct or indirect questions and

o"
c/'
may
:
introduce a clause containing alternative questions connected by ~ , *t~ * * ,9 * 9 o* ,tS , ^ o' ^d5-e ' 9 &*+,?'$
<,
t,
ft or^f, as
îu
J^ +\
'
jJJiJf *
j*l
Jjji-J|
_yfcf
cUU
*
Â
^^ âa^
w*'UuiJt
*>
'
^yxj j
*
one of the
whether he
strange things is the self-conceit of him who does not will be saved or damned, or how his life will end."
It is frequently
G
know
O
"
O-Ô
*<**+
"
Gf
omitted in an alternative question, as

it
^f* p&~ Ûf
^<
.^HJ?
"
If
*
..
am < 4
king, whether ye like
or not."
is
both clauses depend on the same verb, the verb

/
'
placed between,
I
'
8
^. "
aa: l^>
jf e>
IAXC
<e
whether he be rich or poor"; vide also
under
XXXIV
(a).
^C) has no governing power.

o
it
It has the
same meaning
as in Persian,
and the
distinction between
and
<J* is
not drawn as in Urdu
vide Phillott's
"Hindustani
o^
Manual," Lesson 60
*
'
(c).
For
^XUf.
/
For Ui^f.
4,*-
fr
O*
" "V
/C*>
iJJ[
It is said that
implies ignorance, in a simple question, as:
*M jf
tîXU
*'
does either Zayd or *Amr happen to be with you

is
"
;
.o*
if
-f were substituted
is.
it
should
simply that the questioner knows one
with you and asks which of the two it
EXCEPTIVE, ADVERSATIVE, RESTRICTIVE, INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES. 835

o
(ii)
fr
preceded
tf
3*9
The
particle
JA may be
by
J and ^,
but
it
cannot be
prefixed to these particles, nor to uj.

s
It
cannot introduce a negative nor a

is
conditional clause, nor, in general, a nominal clause whose predicate

<*'
<*1
finite verb.
OX
It
may
be followed by ff or ji in alternative clauses, but before
&Pt,'"G
***'\
f\
it
must be repeated,
as
v** j'
" w* TM* J*
I
&'<*>
did he revile any one, or
was he
reviled
"
;
Ûk
i^
LT^
****
cU
/! JSf^j
09 ti JU jj^f
(Jbtc
<ask
Usayyid whether I have taken have cured my soul of its grief."

(in)
my
blood- revenge on Wa*il, or whether I
Vide also
XV
XXXIV
X^
Iff
(6), p.
783.
The negative interrogatives

'
are,
^
and Uf and
;
(the particles of
#V
-
^C"
-
O'
incitement and reproof)

(iv)
ill
&k
tP
and
K^
vide
XLIII
f
(/).
The
interrogative pronouns
x o*
^
o
*
"who?"
art thou
g
^
and ^
"what?" may
X <^
^
O ^
(j.*
stand in any case, as: 'cJf

thou, what
is
"who
"
(but
c*if
" what art

art
xx
thy
/
> o
position, etc.");
oJf
^ô
exu "whose
-/
daughter
thou
"
:
>
{<
oJU
^.^
whom
hast thou slain
"
?
;
vis'
*jJ
"in what state were
ye,"
etc., etc.
They may be constructed

being in such
o
+
as nominatives absolute, their proper

(
place
:
a case only, supplied by a pronoun
c>JU or {*[;)
as
J*
+>ff
-?s
c^JL* ^^ J^ *
$
' *
' * o ' ^jj =-') IOAJ ( ilô
^"
O
"
O ^
Say, In whose hand
is
the kingdom over
everything
'
More
^
lively forms are

x
$!
(i
^ and
"what
xx
filx>,
Six
which
may
occur even before ^^f,

x
^x
xx!&
C x
as: J^S3( li^ or)

r
^f
^-
is
it
(that)
thou sayest? ";
1^) (&*
"
&
f*\
{&\
<c
who
t*
is it x
(that) has given orders
' '
Though
13*
and
are substantives, they cannot govern a genitive,
nor be used in apposition.
The
relative adjective jJuJf
.'*;
" of what tribe
"
?
886
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
After interrogative ^*, the verb &9 O * '
is
"
usually masculine
' '
but
may
be
feminine, as
uof o^K
' *
er*
who was thy mother
.*
The
interrogative
U
</
is
rarely used of persons, but the relative
is
not
infrequently used for \$*.
Vide also under Relative Sentences
LV7
I(c) (i)
For
4^1 vide
XXVI
'
(o) (3), p.
757,
/
x
and
XL
(6), p.
x
'
797.
,*
"
The
x o'
*
interrogative
^f may
be used for &f

9 9
fcx
fern,
*t
and e^T,
$ ox
ox
pi., as
^
^f &*
and no
"
'
*a^f
*t^
" of what tribe art thou
"
;
c^
;
(>jf
^b
^Ju ^^JJ
U^
soul
knows
in
what land
it
shall
die"
c^S!
^jJt ^f
^ "of what
(d), it is
people art
thou?"
-
(n)
sing.
,
When
45! expresses
it
astonishment,
if
trcWe
LX
and the noun

is
governs,
undefined
is
in the genitive.
as: cU.;
always masc. If the preceding
noun
indefinite, ^'\ agrees
with
it in case,
<^f
cAa^ ^s^** "thou

is
hast brought
me
man
(and)
what a man! "
But
if
the preceding noun

cl^; <^T
^
<x>j
definite, <^f is
put in the accusative
of state
(J^), as:
first
<y*^ *
be
"
Zayd came
to me,
what a man he is!"
The
substantive
may
implied by the verb, as: i>&

*
*
^f
[ ijto ]
\&\ "how
they have been
tor-
mented!"
LV.
(a)
Relative Sentences.
relative clause qualifying a definite antecedent is introduced
by the
adjective c$^? and the relative clause generally contains a pronoun (called
aJU or g^f;
referring to the antecedent
this
pronoun is either expressed or

c-U^f *l^; here
y*> is
else
contained in the verb, as
^j&A\
+
pijj*^s^ *
,,
expressed,
as there
is
no verb in the relative clause
ô ôJf
^îi/f
*W
" the youth
who
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
837
sings,
came**
here the pronoun

is
is
contained in the verb:

'
t"'
fcjjf
eU;
'i*
'
here the pronoun
expressed, as the pronoun
hidden
in
ct>U
/*' >*'
P^CXX
' / /
cannot refer to the antecedent
**** *>T
iU
<f
" the
x,,x
JLa^Jf *l*.
"the man came

saw
whom you
'*<.'.
J
"
thought dead
5*^
"
:
afcfj
Âlf
tUyf
man whom
father."
"
:
<
î
"
my
shop which had belonged to
my
S>
(6)
O XO--C
Before adjectives, the article jf

x X^^C
1
may stand
the (who
S-o
for
^^f
as
^^.yt
^^^^Ji
-
<(
the
man came
u
to
me
,
is)
handsome
o/ the
face"
*0
(==
x^
^"
ts*i1 9
^^ /x
x^
/*'
JLa^)f
W^? er^^
or-
A^jf er^^
îJf
Û.
),
wrfe Adjectives
XXXVIII (d).
There
long
is
in Arabic
no
possessive
x-
" whose"
the
" the man whose beard
is
"
* 00* /o-^c
/ / 5j5 x
is
expressed by AxsJJt J^klf
JU^f
man
the long of the beard "
here J'
ôJf "
this
may
also
be expressed by
x
"
Other ways of expressing this are

^x
a^
to
<u*dJ|
^ ^
'xc,^^^//35x "
Jjpjf
x
2
Jk^f
x
the man, the long
^'O
)
&
~e
>
^tf>
J&e
beard";
xj.J or
<x**J
JLÛi
^cJLî
*
the man, the long as

<c
to
beard (or his beard) ";
(Jti^sJ
"
or
^J
, X
JL^jyf
JLÎf
the man, the long
o/ bread (or o/
(c)
Aw
beard)."
9
-e
x,x
Also, before a participle that
is
a w^za/, Jf
"
who,
' *
as
cJU^t JLiUJ F
the killer of
ê man " =
d^f
JiiU
^f JL^f
whose book
vide
(a) (4).
But
interrogatively ^.ô w,lj^ fi^
is
this
?"
(jok Ajli
Note the following
" I
am
at
tfie
house of
the
same person as thou

X5
XfcX
art
x'
"
oo^
^c **
Gf
;
"
I passed
by
^ aome person Sulayman did

article
$X
X*
O"
"
Here too the
Jf
838
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
/
(d)
9$
'
The pronoun
ÂJf
is
occasionally omitted in the accusative, as
JU^ff
f*
"this
(is)
the
man whom
there
is
beat."
Ffe
:
also (h).
(e)
When the
4
antecedent
is indefinite,
no
relative, as
x
;
^
*
X X ^ X
k
5
"
saw a book (which was)
in thy
hand
"
w-
^
fj>
9 /c-o x '
(v$+~* or)
&\
Jli
*>
&
$ 9'
,9 9" 9 '9
"he had
a son (who was) called
Muhammad
x
'*
;
lUaewo aJ
JA.;
9
s
*GX
"a man
(who was) called Muhammad'';

9
J&
<on the
day
' '
(that)
9 t
he was killed
' '
:
c^^
*
^
x
<.-
<f
people believing, people that believe
Such
a sentence
is
called <xi^
is
t,
an adjectival sentence.'
The
&
as
:
relative
9 xcx
also omitted
x
-
when the antecedent has the
generic article,
jfci-aty
vr^
^^
cl!*f
"
like the horse (horse-kind) that drinks
by whist-
ling."
(/)
Relative clauses that do
^f,
or
by U,
as:,
.olU ^)
*?'
<**'
. .
riot qualify a , 9, & &
noun, are introduced by <>*, or

<f
fyLcf
^jjf ^|
x x
x
verily they that believe will
have gardens "
x ^
;
/x
C,
here, either (^>f
^^
could be substituted, or ty*of

Ox
j^x)
^.ô.
FiWe
XXVI
(p)
Remark.
When
îiJf stands for
or
L*, it is
a noun and
it
= " he who,*
that which, whoever,
" whatever
o
-
but as an adjective
means " who, which,
that," referring to an antecedent.

generally followed by the singular verb (usually in the Preterite to indicate a general truth) but if the idea is plural, the succeeding verbs are plural
(g)
The
substantive
<&*>
" he who, those who,"
is
'
''
'
xX
(sing.) ....
/<#
'
and from amongst the

believers
;
people there are ôme

'
4.""
who say
x
but these are not
they
/ x OX
Ox
deceive
God"; u^j eÂ^^ e^/*^j "and from amongst them

'
are
some
who
listen (plural) to thee
"
;
xxx
f
Ox
vy^f
e^ (*^ J^^
"
e^
<c
whoever
of the
Arabs
entered (or
1
may
enter) Syria .....
Note the concord.

^ xo^x
1
$t,
*i
9 Oxx
cÛ'JU'' ( Ju
)ô <^^^
o^
"I passed by the same person as Sulaymftn did."
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
839
Note that
<^f
and
^Wf
are always definite [for the use of

<**
^\
vide
XXVI (o)
"V"
<*
(3),
and
XL (&)], whilst ex
"he who comes
I
and
U are either definite or indefinite

'
'
thus *U>
^ =
I
O
"
either
or one
who
cornea
";<yU =
either
" that which
have or something
have."
the pronoun referring to them must ' * so s & <~'' ' G " " I saw a woman *l-JJf Jl
<>*
*
*
Though
ij*>
and
U are indeclinable,
/
**
O-*
agree in gender and number, as: ^***** * f
o>jf;
who did not

(h)
please
me."
9
o9
'<*'
The accusative
/-L^" *s*flU.
p*
<,
etc. f^JUlf)
can also be omitted after
-*
and^,
thou
ô
as: Lui
^
?
*'
9
i
"
<
<^^f
shall I
fall
down
before
one
whom
hast
made
(f)
of clay
"
;
here AiaU. could be used.
Vide, (d).
-
The
'
indeclinable substantive
S
s
U = " that which, all that, "as:
I*
-^
*UiJ{
<,?'
^yQ
jg]
Îx "marry what pleases you from amongst the
women ":
> C
.
<l
-*>>,/
Ô^ or
)
(*il*
vsJl^
'"*(.'
OÂJ
*
'
I repent
what
"
;
I said
"
;
O"
f^J)
cujy
c^fc.
wonder
for u?te^ thou didst strike
Zayd
J|
-'if
thou
fulfillest
my
need,
I shall
be
indebted to thee for such a pleasure that the kings of the earth could not repay a grain of it."
9 ** (j)
An
(
indefinite antecedent
u>/
may
*
be repeated, especially after ck, as

* *
o ^
* , f
xo
I
jj-^ (
9 u '*
4<
<LoUa>
J^ or
4ô d^
j)
d>UUA
c*jfj
saw some
pigeons, each
of
which was red."

(k)
Further examples of relative sentences

is
" What
past
is
gone, and what
*'s
hour
m wAicA
thou art"
W
.
'
- f'
hoped for is hidden, and thine is the "" " 5/c ' " " * " '' /
oot
,.^0 is
here in the genitive.
840
RELATIVE SENTENCES.
"
;
14
That
is
not a thing to be (which
is)
mentioned
"^3* U& wî

be measured to
Verily
with the measure
wiA wAicA you measure

*
* *
it will
you"
e>J
J'
'
* '9
"
(& J& *
t 9
This is the boy to whom we have given the money

"
tia
#e wfeose tongue is
girl smiled,
long has
little
intelligence
JlU*
The
she in whose hand there was a
flower
"
iiyfc}
UtX
^y^f ivllt ss^^x)
c *
iX$;
saw
girls in
whose hands were
flowers"
*'
t*3
This youth, whose father we know,
is
clever"
^L
<
*tjf
J^tJ ^^Jf *
*
V I^J| fÂ
<c
;
Mount Lebanon, from the summit

mountain "
' c X"
-
o/
"
cA
x
/T
you
see the Mediterranean,

O
&JL*J
is
a high
oj^
c^*^'
X
^" ^r &***
'O^
Jb JU
' '
^ô;
" Those who spend their wealth
(in
alms
* ' ;
giving)
And who
does a greater wrong than he who

in
hinders the temples of

xx-o x
1
God from having His name mentioned

6<
;
them?"
O
AJJ|
He made known to me aK
that he
was leaving "
A^ U g^su ^jjj*
"
;
A day iw M;^^
&:li
there shall be no
bartering, nor friendship, nor intercession
"
H j *i^
J|
&xf
x x
1
gw
J|
^j
We
were removed to another room, which had been sprinkled with rose-water"
Remark.
relative sentence
is
merely a nominal or a verbal sentence

the relative sentence
is
added
to the principal word.

is
When
nominal, the
predicate
/x
,
sometimes co-ordinated with the word qualified, as:

x/
=)
*fe
O > x/ xCx
Ferfe also
under Interrogative Sentences.
CONDITIONAL AND CONCESSIONAL SENTENCES.
841
LVI.
(a) (1) If 9 c/x
Conditional and Concessional Sentences.

is
a condition
possible or likely,
(,
it is
introduced by one of the
or Conditional
Particles
&\
orMij
(before a verbal clause): if
impossible or purely hypothetical, by
*j) (or in
nominal clauses
\$\
v
After
^ etc.,
the verbs in both clauses have the signification of either an

x
English Pluperfect Subjunctive, or an Imperfect Subjunctive.

of a Present Tense.
After fij or
*
^ U Mj,
*
Either Preterites or Aorists (Jussives) may be used in both clauses, for the English Present or Future, or one in one and one in the other there are
:
thus four ordinary possible combinations. In the Apodosis, the Subjunctive and Indicative form of the Aorist can sometimes be used. Vide (c).
If
'
a Preterite
is
is
to retain a past sense in the Protasis of a likely condition,

x o*
"
&K
&l
used. 8
In impossible conditions, the Preterite, or
oK
with the
be intro-
Preterite,
is
used for the Pluperfect.
After
the Apodosis
may
duced by
After
J.
f
tit
<,"
conditional, the Jussive
is
seldom used.
Withy,
the Preterite,
or very rarely the Aorist Indicative,

(a) (8).
is
used in both parts.
Vide also
XLIV
the
Remark.
present
(2)
is
The Subjunctive Aorist always refers Intended, the Indicative must be used.
(
to future time:
if
The Apodosis
*fj^ or v!r^
ô
-
^s
O^nerall/ introduced
by
<J,
or less
often
by
If
>
the Protasis
(
(6)
if
is
an Aorist, and the Apodosis a

'
C/
Preterite,
O
<t'
O*
^C" '
the former must be apocopated (Jussive)

; <
as
<-jj**f
or
J&^* t$^r^
&l
if
you
(c)
hit
me,
I'll hit
you.
Vide
(h)
and
(i).
If the Protasis is
a Preterite and the Apodosis an Aorist, the Aorist

x J
Os
)
*
*J!
(/
G**
^t"*
may
]
be apocopated or not, preferably not, as

fit
is
**>j*1 or
temporal but conditional, vide
LVII(a) and
(6).
G2
is
also used to express a wish
(= "
if
only"); vide
"
;
XLVI, Optative Mood,

p. 846.
and
3
XL VII, p. 847.
Vide also
(e) (2)
^
and
e
(3).
" even
if,
although
vide
examples on
842

x
-
o"
*tf
(d) After *J,
the
*
first
"*"
Aorist
"
is
' *
usually not apocopated

"
as
vJ
Ox
"
iS^Lf
"0! God,
hadst thou not
delayed
me
have been
(e)
of fche just
only up to a speedy death, I would have given alma, and would " (said by the Infidel at the time of death).
(1)
" Clauses that are introduced by &[ if",

U$>o
<
^"
*Juf
if
anyone",
,
U " if
' '
;
' '
anything
x^
1
whatsoever
or UUx.
' '
;
*Jtf
' *
how ? "
lx?
;
"
howsoever
Cx
^f**
<f
"
when",
;
whoever "
' '
-
"whenever"; ^f "which, if any"; ^^1 '35^ " UK " whatsoever (afeo whenever a )" (^K everyone who
i5 Lc(
)
xx^xx/*
t
$ OJ''
*\H
A,
c^'
where'
'
UH*>
<k
wherever
' '
;
(^f
" where"
Uijf "
wherever
"',
are con-
sidered as Protases, and the Preterite or Jussive
is
used with them for the

if
English Present or Future, as: J^

O 'x
JU
" whoso seeketh findeth,
anyone
-^
-^
seeks he finds
(2)
' '
ci
If the Preterite is to
of its
'sisters'
Jf
have the signification of the Perfect, or one must be inserted between the particle and the verb, and
x x
tfi
the Apodosis (^Tj^") must be introduced by

<
i-J
^ >
"
+ '
J, as
cU^ 4^0
if
his shirt is (has been) torn in front, she

if
has spoken the truth."
(3)
But
the Preterite
is
to have the signification of the English Past

*
(or Preterite)
O
A*x
:
Tense,
o ? '
^
"
"^
or a
if
sister
introduces
its clause
and
is
followed
by
x'.-x
c{,as
iyJb fytfb ^j
'
iyK
they exerted themselves to attain an object, they
attained
'
it.
Remark.
The temporal
clause introduced by
til
is
often nearly identical
in
meaning with a clause introduced by &[

Vide
but rarely
is
it
construed* with
the Jussive like &[.

X
LVTI
(a).
(/)
The
particles
mentioned
in
(e)
(I)
take
two
apocopated Aorists
(Jussives).
Vide Conjunctions
XXXIII,
p. 776,
note
3,
and
LVII
(a).
xSX Uif in the sense of "whenever"

:
may
be used with the Preterite in a past
sense
also it does
not in this sense apocopate the Aorist.
843
(g)
The Jussive (without

(*f
<J)
may
follow
a Conditional Imperative,
*
' O <*?
as
l
:
**/\
"
4.5^}
visit
me
if
you
visit
me), I will honour you.
"
(h)
The Jussive with

Vide
e>J
nmy
occur in the Protasis, and the Preterite
in the Apodosis.
(b).
(i)
Unlike
&[,
the other conditional particles and pronouns require the
verbs in both clauses to be in the same tense. "

(?)
If
not
"
o
x
G*"
O
e>i
^
or
Jlf
*
x C""
is
fJ
with the Jussive: or for past time Ify with
X
G*"
the Preterite, or
t&)
(i)
^y
with the Jussive.

is
The Apodosis
introduced by
8
<J in
the following cases
In a nominal clause;
(ii)
in
O
a verbal clause where the Preterite

**
"
expresses past time, especially with *$ (were <J omitted the

-
time would
-
O
-
be future);
"
</
(iii)
in a verbal clause beginning with

(ivj in
Jj~>
^
o
("not")
or
o'
x
'
;
or
(^J,
or
*xj
clause expressing
command,
:
prohibition,
o>*
wish
4
(v) in
a final clause after interrogation, as

?
UJ >?y.ivi5 pi* '

?
;"&/;&
;
& p&
UA
'have ye any knowledge that ye can show us

-
"
(vi) in
a verbal clause
'
-
-O
-
with a defective Preterite
^^
4^-^
*> etc.).
(^)
for up
is
always used in the apodosis after a long or involved

-
t/
protasis.
With
jJ
and
K,
the use
of
is
optional.
If
o is inserted,
il
re-
quires the Aorist Indicative.
Or
2 The Prohibitive sentences Precative following may also be considered conditional sentences expressing polite invitation, urgent request, desire; hope (as "perhaps he will
:
come and we
is
will
honour him ")

I will
interrogative, as
Ufcp A^lul? <J'L ^c

(
*'
if
there
any beggar, then

8
give
him a dirhern "

<,
(W*.
who
is
a beggar so that I
'
*'
may
? ).
In
this case after
a conditional ^f, the interjection

x
fif
X
behold!
"
maybe
sub-
stituted for
844
TEMPORAL, CONDITIONAL, ETC., CLAUSES.

,"
(m) As stated above',
y is followed by the Preterite

:
rarely, it is followed
o>
-
by the Aorist
t
in the sense of an Imperfect Subjunctive

<,*<?+'*
'
*iJJa*
**
Û/
*,
fi
*,
"
3*V
da
4tf* *
^**
*** "0*
W*
"if
God
were desirous of
calling to account
mankind, he would not be leaving on the earth any moving thing, but he giveth them respite to a named time."
(n)
For further examples
of Conditional Sentences vide
LVII
(/).
LVIL Temporal,
'
'.
Conditional,
'
etc.,
**
Clauses.
<
(a)
ô
*
" when
(i e. if
'
' '
is strictly
conditional,
I
as
w^^' w*Ad3 ^îo
v*
'
??
'*
* *
when you
also tern-
go,rilgo"
poral,au
:
you don't go,

'
won't); but
(if)
tij
"when, if",
him,
I find
is
,*'(,*'
* ***>
WLi A>o^^ <ul]*âAi i^** when
I go to
him sleeping "

]
:
lit f
always
refers to present or future time,

if
even with the Preterite
it
may
3t~<'
be followed by the Aorist
the action takes place repeatedly, but the

x
verb in the apodosis
(if
there
is
one) must always be aPreterite, as
*
:
fij
MU
<4
swear by the night when
it
covers,
and the
day when it shines out."

<î*
*>
Vide
LVI,
p.
842
(e).
and UUx> are followed either by the Preterite or by the Jussive,
but
fij
by the Preterite or by the Aorist Indicative.

f
(b)
Note, in the following, the position of
li],
and the use
of the Preterite
instead of the Aorist after &\$ in the sense of

*'
<:
used to, to be wont
to"
*
? *
*
UJI V *
,*,;,,
-j.
/if
*
Uty
&\i
" he used,
when he went
is
out, to meet
him
at the door."
(c)
For past time,
**
when, after,"
used,
"if,
and the verb
is
usually
rendered in English by the Pluperfect.

5*
For
Me
XXXIII,
p. 776.
(d) 4jia>
can be used, either with the Preterite, or with the Aorist Indie.
1
,
9
*><,
or Subj., vide
XLIV(c).
Note the <jS*> and the order,

" when
"
in the following
Ai*
is
also interrogative,
If fit begins
a clause,
it ie
followed by the Preterite.

s
.a til
845
*'
"
followed
him
until I overtook him, as he entered
the house."
(e)
I*
" as long as"
is
followed by a Preterite, with present or future
meaning,
as: &jtil+ **>fe^t
V^!
^
x
tô|6
X '
ÛJf
x
" men are careless as
>*xW
long as they often as (wherever) you call it."

If
live in
this
world"; wUt a3>^

Vide p. 778.
ixO x
^lf
"Care answers,
as
the Preterite
(e) (2)
is
to
have a past
signification,
&%
is
inserted as in
LV1
and
(3).
The negative "

(/)
as long as not
"
is
expressed by
pU
with the Jussive.
Further examples of Conditional, Concessional, Optative and Tem:
poral sentences
"
When
(if)
he spoke, he spoke eloquently
"
V jJ3 jitX &\g;
"
Accept
my
excuse readily or (at

9
least)
be indulgent,
if
I have committed
a fault
"
oS!
^,
ex
9 o x
jy;
xcx,
" You
*'
;
are unjust,
if
you have done it"

if
^JU
>
(
x
'
'
' 02'
'
O"
cJU* ^!
= fJlfc
oolf oJ*j* ^t)

x
What
will
you do
we do not allow you
to be in a position (to do)

'*
that?"
if
^&* cJ>^*&
*
<*
/^^ ^
tit
^^JUiSfiLo;
If
you wish, send some to see

(&*> x
*>^!
(whether) one of your people has seen her
Ufj
e>^ ti[
f
JÂ) x
is
tÂ,!
JL*;^'
x
oi
x
^t
x
**
;
When two misfortunes befall

"
^jjlli
a man, the best thing
to choose the lighter
cAH*** c)^Sl^ Jf
t<i]
l^Lg**?
jUj
c)
"If you remain fixed in your determination,
will
make
fit
you
taste the reward of your rebellion to the
day
of
your death'* o^b
' *
'x^.^.XXX
me,
I
.XX
*yx
Be not grieved
for
O dear
one,
if
these wretches
die honoured before thine
make me drink the cup of death, for if I die, eyes; and if God allots me a fair portion,
S
<,*'*
~
am
thine and thou art mine
"
A,
"
f
tci
^ ^**9&&
Sjjj
+<'
*U55f! *J|â ^la-f
UU
li
846
"
;

had not been
for the
<J ^*s
c*jf
+
If it
number
of officers
*'<*-
who were round him,

,
9*
&
that crowd would have killed
him on the road

"
;
' '
&* ^cxx-'
&^
/xx,,
9
If
you had not been worse than the two

'
of
'G'
O" "
**"
' *0
O *x
them, you would not have entered between them

/'<,'
'
o*JuLa U) U$i
A^
*'
;
must consider
* 4
my neighbour even
light of the
if
he act unjustly
"
x O"*
lacJt
;
when the
morning had dawned,

" "
my
"
spirit
^
was
refreshed, although I
x x
*
had despaired
x
of deliverance
^-o Ô O c"* " cî)f Û*Jf *^

^
" x
^3^
W
"
i"
^ O " C"
^ O^ O
/
*'
;
If
he prove obstinate, then woe to him
*)
JLy IÂ*
if
'
î
If
they become Muslims, they have come to the right path

is laid
and
9
they turn away, only the bringing of the message

tf
upon thee
"
*>,<,<*
*r
*& ~ <&' '
"
fsit'C
^r
**
f'<S<s
**
:
p^Wt JljI* Uii* *
Py
e^J
^ IjA&M <>U l^JUf ^t *
When
the Arabs
knew
of
our
arrival, they hastened joyfully to

*
meet us and shouted at the top

to the guest,'
of their
"
-'x
voices,
Welcome
to the guest,
welcome
"
/ /
/ X X 0*
\
t.L*$&aj *->>*)
that I had died
when
I
was swimming in the sea " UJU oJ^ UJ <*x

to the place of
triix/ L
j***)\
^
u*;
*
"When
came
it
my
sojourn, I threw myself on

I
my
couch, but alas!
was a night
in
which
did
not
taste
sleep
o!
for a single
moment"
<jU ) isjlJ** i^* <^~*J cu^/t

U3
*
;
^^\ cl*-*
^\
fiJL^
S^fj &vl^
AJU) ^ô t^jO\ (#? îf ^J
L^l
How
can I forget thee
when
have seen the tears of love flow from thy narcissus eyes?" uÂlf cA^ s
^îxÂ-yJj cîjj*
Jji5 ân^J) j^x,j e^,bJ
<x$
^yu?
" And when he rode

if
his
steed, it was as though he
and the saddle were one piece "
*alj^ w*f)
AH soon
ag.
COPULATIVE SENTENCES, AND STATE OR CONDITION.

cl*"*' '^."'
X
$47
jJ\ j
ails'
"
:
had not
"
c,
finished
'
my
'
speech wAera
xO' Ox
heard the
sound
I
of firing
"
^^
' O
<?
fr
*j;b <3*fei vs*ô ' * /
c**+
'
^^ ^^ '
s xO'O
I
<.,* aiif * *
< < :
Had I known
9
that
should meet thee in this place, x *^9' ^ s & t * <*'* o-e o iJJUaj^t <^*t (3***
x
would have done

fÂ
my
best to receive thee"

<,+*
<j*
&
^'
vyM
'?*?*> *+" vJiÛU ^1
o^ ^
/
c<
:
When
'
*
she shows rebellion, he shows hardness of heart

*
"
x"
-^*
Sjt~&J|
^"OO-^xxo W^Jtj e)U

"
!
x-x
And
if
thou couldst see
when they
are set before their Lord
t>Wj
il
LVIII.
Copulative Sentences, and State or Condition,
.x
(a)
>
For the differences between^

also the following
I
J - and
^, vide
XXXIII
f f
(a)
and
(6).
:
Note
%
examples
I
of ordinary copulative constructions

s s *+ 9 b
'
(i)
and Jacob were present,

^
" was present and Jacob

;
'
or
wj^
/^ ^
pronoun
:
oôsk.
Here
l>!
could not be omitted
but
if
there
is
suffixed
in the accusative,
the subject need not be repeated in a
separate form, as
4t
^j j vJj^yf
'*
and Zayd have honoured thee."
(ii)
Your, and your fathers', Lord

f
u>
+>
"
(j
* r~*
^5ljf
^ j p&j
m*
9*
iSy**
:
in such cases the
governing word ( here v; ) is usually repeated. ,* .< '*' oJt vJÛf rare construction. x>J 3
:
"Thy book and Zayd's"
<{
(iii)
" The king's sons and daughters

To me and
his brother
99'"
si.~9,
**
"
(iv)
A^K x xxx ^ ^.
*
In such cases the preposition
must be repeated.
"
(v)
He
killed
him and her " UUJ J *&, orUU J *&.

.
(vi)
For omission of
(d)
with predicates in a nominal sentence,
vide
XLII
(fe)
(1),
Remark,
p. 807.
The negative i
after ^
Until.
Coul dst thou but
see.
848
COPULATIVE SENTENCES, STATE OR CONDITION.

+*9 x x
4 *
Neither
.,
my
father nor
.xx
my
mother remains
alive
' '
ifj <^*f *
<vf (jfc *
+
'<*'<*" *) :
'
here ty equals
$ fa and
saves a repetition.
In,
" there has been neither

,
" combat nor dispute between us

omitted.
^
to
Vj
JU* S Ui# jjj Uj the
first
Jl
might be
"It was impossible

2
for
me
:
do anything or to conclude anything"

-^
Jfj
'
~G"
t
xx
tyf gkf
Sb
&&
x x
ex
OX
ctf
xx cx x
cUcf
t**J&f ^
it
here the
would usually be inserted
and
as in the
(c)
first
example,
saves the repetition of a clause.
Single verbs
and whole sentences are often connected by j and

o'cx
*
,
where in English more definite particles would be used as

,
Jl
(& j
f f (^
fa'
altf
"God knows
^, vide
(e).
but (whilst) ye do not
know."
This
is
practically a
xo>
(d)
Note the use
of ^
and J in such sentences as

x
a X
JUU
ât-
"he
(a)
g^ ô
x x
prostrated himself for a long

(5)
time"
= ^>cJ|
is
JLtf ); wc?e also
LXII
Remark.
(e)
nominal or a verbal sentence that

is
equivalent to an adverb and

X
shown Such sentences XLIV (6) (3) in (4). vary slightly in is state nominal or verbal, and negaconstruction if the clause indicating
expresses state or condition,
generally introduced by ^, as already
and Remark
II,
and
tive or affirmative.
The following exemplify
this
(i)
^
(
NOMINAL.
"Zayd
rose
f (j
up weeping
f Ox x
*
^v^j
&j
or y* j
lied
-,Uf
the verbal clause
^^
x
^'C
**
*i) ftf
*
).
Ye
lied wittingly,
ye
knowing
CÔ^ x
C/Ô " "
the while that ye did
so" eiy*^
^^J
f**^:
this could be
made verbal by the

*
o^
Remark.
Ox
j
'
<^",
omission of ^w' j
or
by the substitution of
**j.
is
Occasionally the nominal clause

< '
merely appended, as: *&f

X
//
O*"
O"
<^j
"
A^
<ub
'
met him wearing a coat of embroidery

hand on
his
' *
;
*3)
X
'
xx ^^x /(^
*oo jjj
&*
Zayd came,
(ii)
his
head."
VERBAL with AORIST.

6 '"
The
Aorist alone
O^CI
may
>Px
be used [vide
x
X'XGX
(i) ],
x*
fX
""
>*
or
4
*
it
may be
introduced by v^ f as:
Vj
aJJf
J>;
why do you harm me, knowing " Apostle of God unto you ?
the while (knowing as ye do) that I
am
the
ASYNDETON
VERBS OF WONDEE, SURPRISE, ADMIRATION, ETC.
It is
negatived by
/'
fJj
or by -^C,'
51
and the Jussive, as:
o>Jt7*^
^
O
"
,'
(without ^ ), or in a past sense by I) or '*' & *>'<;' c< but they deceive ^j f#~& Hi
"
e^*^
is
only themselves, without knowing it."

(lii)
C *
x>
VERBAL with PRETERITE.

x x
The
clause
generally introduced
C*"
by
'
*"
-^
**j or u>lj;
<
but occasionally j or
is
oi,
or both, are omitted.

-
Ex. ** j
*'f p%*
UÛsX \b*
?< oJLJ "such

$
G G*
x
her singing,
^
'
<*
now
^
f
that she
*'"'*
is
grown old
"
;
^ ej^j ^ J^
'How
?
<**'*'' Z
shall I
? O'' O ' '
O"
Lip îjf ^/o c>Al> oJ ^
)jKe
is
(y yl
^^5 "he
X
[Zacharias] said,
have a son as
It is
my
wife
barren, while I have reached such a great age

*
"
-JÔ'
"V x
negatived by U$ or rarely by
9 9'
'
-
to
}
as:
v*; ^j X
*H5
*^"
<c
Zayd came
his father
'
'
without having ridden'' having stood up."

}
*yr Û>
Uj
*<*' '* '
*la.
Zayd came without
3*
'
(/)
/<,"
^x/i
^1=^ is sometimes a simple copulative (and not a preposition), as: :>' > < 'o^-' vsJLâ îa- c^- = "I journeyed on and at last entered al-Kufah."
Vide also
XXXII
(c),
XXXIII
(6), p.
778, and
XLV
(c).
LIX.
Asyndeton.
x^x-*
xx
> ^
>
In narrative, connectives are often dispensed with:
*T**J/
"they attacked and rushed on the enemy";

" go forth, and go to him
Imperatives.
;
&Jt
s-utnit
;A? +* "rise,
in these cases <J or ^ could be inserted before

* '
two
After several Imperatives without
and
' '
,
the conjunction
5 is usually inserted before
the last.
LX.
(a)
Verbs of Wonder, Surprise, Admiration,

(I)
etc.
(^^
xx
*'<S
J^'i).
There are two special forms, to express wonder or admiration,

sing. masc. of Pret. Act. of IV) followed
viz.,
(i)
cU>f
U (the 3rdpers.
:
by an accusat
tive, as
tj**> &j**l
U
!
<
how quick
how goodly
Vide also
is
is
his
walking
* *
!
'*;
ftX-jJ
er*M
<4
what a
O G"
good
man Zayd
is
or
Zayd
(ii)
w JUj'f
III.
(the
2nd
pers. sing.
XLI
(c) (6),
Remark
54
850
ASYNDETON
VERBS OF WONDER, SURPRISE, ADMIRATION, ETC.
maso. Imperat. of
IV)r,
as
f/f
" " how generous is Zayd

!
The thing ad-
mired must immediately follow these forms. No. 'i) means literally "what has made Zayd
(ii)
"Try your
if
ability of
good?/' and No. making good upon Zayd" (i.e. "make him more
(so)
#o^
*
good
you can)."
o *
*"
Past time
<S
is
- *
expressed as follows:
'
*
f>*)
<^~.*f
cjfe
I*5
"
how good Zayd
' O '
'
was! ", or
oj) ofe
I*
er^t
= "what
has made good that which Zayd
was?"
(2)
'
The complement
t **
of these
forms
***''
5
may
**
be a clause introduced by &1
or I*
as
fj>**>
^ ctf &) v^f cs^? c^r
'*<.*&'*
^ ow ^^
s ^ or
man
intellect
to seem patient."
Verbs of surprise are formed from such verbs only as express something in which one person may surpass another. They cannot
Remark
I.
be formed from verbs
like
oU or <J^,
in
which express an act in which one agent

inflection
cannot excel, nor from negative verbs, nor from verbs defective in
like
/*Xi
and ^^k, or defective
meaning as e;; nor from quadraliterals.
Grammatically, too, they are not formed from derivatives of the triliteral, nor from the passive voice, nor from verbs signifying colours or defects,
though this rule is occasionally violated. When a verb of surprise cannot be formed from a root, some form
circumlocution
is
of
employed.
Remark
/
11.
The diminutive
and
it is
*"<',, of AJUÎ
'
'
" how good, or goodly, he
is
"
!
O'f
s
)
*"*'
occurs,
also of 4*dx?
U "how
handsome he is!" and
of
U how
(6) If
sweet
"
!
the second radical is^ or

soft her voice
is
^,
''
there
is
no permutation,
f**'tl*S'
U
J
as^:
"how
is!" (not per mutated as \$\

'
tjjj
'
how bounteous
(c)
' '
Zayd
(not
aUJ
).
Other forms are
m>
%^
AJJ*
what a
fine
horseman he
is
From
*
The
literal translation
appears to be,
"To God may
his milk be, while he is a
horseman."
VERBS OF PRAISE AND BLAME

9
APPROXIMATE VERBS, ETC.

*
851
(here
"
his
"
s
A y is
S
*
\t*
in the genitive case)
A;U> ^3 '
#
^ "
u *JJ
what
!
a good reader
' '
Zayd
is
Jtf
OX WX ^
jj>
w " how exquisitely the poet has said
' '
repeated in the genitive and separated by ^f often ex/x & ^ S's what a man!," tmfe p. 757(3). presses admiration, as JU^ ^\ JU;
(d)
:
A noun
LXI.
Verbs of Praise and Blame
<
H* c >Ji
x
Ji^l
and Approxi-
mate (and
xO (a) **J
'
Inceptive),
xo
and Potential Verbs.

bad'* are generally indeclinable,
<t*
"how good" and
^. "how
s
f
X
&^
,
*
though some grammarians do decline these words:

lent is
the
*jj
^-ÛaJf
**>
x
"excel-
companion Zayd,"
i.e.
"Zayd
*
is
an excellent companion."
* '
#*,
This has the same meaning as

is
^3 Ua>U>
xo.
excellent aa
a companion
Zayd."
(6)
*"
These require a definite agent.
"x
Also indeclinable
is
)***>
"bravo!
or
how good!"; which

X
is
said
to be derived
from
> xw*A.
"it
is
agreeable"
is
and
|i
"that":
s
it
must be
followed by a nominative, which

l
in apposition to
U>.
(c)
*t
*
t(
how bad " must
agree with the agent in gender and number

is
^'',-x ILyl *U
*
what a bad companion he

is
"
!
:
Ifr**
*
*x^ o*U
all
" how bad an abode
it
(Hell, /em.)
!"
(d)
X X
^)
<(
that, which,
what " can be added to

'
!
{J5,,,
except !<x^, as:
U lô
oJk* (U*i or) " good Ss
is
what thou didst
'
(e)
^
(:r
xo
K etc.
(/)
^. (fully declinable) has the same constructions as
^.
It
may
also
have the same construction as *t* and often occurs with

t
this construe-
tion in the
Quran
XO u. for
is
also a transitive verb
"
to offend/'
852
(g)
APPBOXIMATE AND INCEPTIVE VERBS, ETC.
APPROXIMATE
all
(and
INCEPTIVE) VERBS.
*',
These are
of three
kinds:
(i)
take the Aorist (Indie., or Subj. with oO*
First, those that express that
an action
is
on the point of taking place

*- >'*
(
("he nearly, or almost, or well nigh

f -' /o oJ^; Act. Part. *5K *
*
) ;
o; -- "), as: [^'] ol-&

<,?
1st pers. sing, Pret.

<,?
1
s -<*?
rarely followed
by ujf and the Subjunctive

is
(eJ
J^y
*J
+
9
;
(Act.
Part.
J&>^)
rarely used in the Preterite,

is
' '
(f
personal or impersonal:
and
used in the Preterite only

9 ,<"
*
rarely followed
by &f with the Sub(vide
->*
junctive.
Examples: ta~9
^$1
*>
t\t
the
9
horseman nearly fell"

9
also p. 784)
^w
*$** K) -**!
t?
and
<.'^f<*'
f
<^4 o
<HJ <*&*jt
(both personal),
'*
<*jj
(impersonal, the subject of
ijt
being the following clause)
Zayd
is
on
the point of coming."

(ii)
Those that express hope, expectation, or

><>,*
/
-
possibility , as
( e>' )
C5~^
(1st pers. sing.

s
c^~c, and rarely o^r. '

its
),
used personally or impersonally like

or not, with
<s*
t*Jji q.v.
it
may be preceded by
or not
;
noun
which
it
may
agree in
;
number and person
it is
usually followed
by &i and the Subjunctive

*
it
may
also be used with
an
ace. suffixed
pronoun
o^
* 'l*' O
*U*je
"
perhaps he
"
etc.
it is
sometimes used with the negative

that
^
"
:
^f
J^J^J
"
(
rare)
it is likely,
probable,
"
;
may be
,
used personally or impersonally

-
^ ^j^ (rare)
stand up
will
Examples:
b''
;
9,
$^,
~* *
etc
etc
*
'*
-
perhapsZayd, may,
o/o
"
'
will,
\?~*
&&y
"
<*9^& f
9 9*
<,^
f
^/
1
(or f^câj e)
9^+ ^9
l5Ji
(.5-^
e^jJ
\,
'
etc.
"
perhaps the Zayds
stand up
.
't,*
b+
/^.x
^î3 ^f
;
'
^^^^
^
- .
perhaps ye
(*^3
e>t
may
be averse from a thing, though

$>*'
it
,*-<,*,',
be good for
you"
+^3 Jl*^, or
^~*
(compare
J^ p.
785).
(iii)
Those that express commencement; as
^f
- JLta. -
AJJ*,
and
v^
*'t;o
begin."
These are used as inceptives, in the

999*
Preterite only (followed
by an
***
Indie. Aor.), as: **>Aj
cU^ u he began
Fide
to
reproach
him";
t^^
"she began reproaching me."
also
APPOSITIVBS.
853
XLIV
(6)
(5),
p. 814.
Rarely these verbs take a verbal noun with the

'C*
-
'
prepositions
o or ^,
as
^*J\
tii^l
" we begun to travel." [But
- *
fi
to call to account, to capture in the act,"
when
* "fr*
there
is
no
Jl
].
Remark.
It will
be noticed that
^ and c*y excepted,
all
the Approxi-
mate (and Inceptive) Verbs are used in the Preterite only; that, <^ excepted, all must precede the noun, and the noun must precede the
predicate; that,
if
not followed by e/, the Indicative

9
is
used.
(h)
POTENTIAL VERBS. -(i)

'
>*
Jajfta
followed by the Aor. Indie.,

f * *'* *' <"
'
Jl
fr
* ?, </
'
or by
u>'
with the Subjunctive, as
<^kcf
y*\
" I cannot walk
' '
;
J^jû.
t&*
4<
he cannot complete this

"x
work";
A)
V7if ^f
ci>joJ
U "I
could
not get near
him"
(ii)
(1
^\
" to enable etc.", with a suffixed pronoun

/
-jxo;
>
or
(
;
)
<->
followed by the same constructions,
as:
J**'!
j'
^j^*^
U
is
<{
cannot
do it";
e>'
<^+j "it
is
possible that
"
;
Al*^
e>*^H>* "it
not possible
to do this."
Remark
I.
Compare the phrase
d ^ tU
"
to
'
'
can you
to
"
is
Remark //.-" Can "

by vJ^j
^Jj*
,
in the sense of
' *
know how
do,"
expressed
as
<^&
o^t>
he can write.'
>
xCji).
LXII.
Appositives
gL^f
(a)
Words
in
Apposition are put in the same case, as:
p.^
<H5
*W
there
came Zayd, the generous one."

distinguish five kinds of Apposition
:
The Arabs
(1)
c3t
9*
jj
The Descriptive
or Qualificative Apposition (o**Uf, or Â^Jf).
The
854
APPOSITIVES.
idea of
^/ <J*; is
"at man, a generous being
" rather than " a generous*
man."
to their Adjectives are therefore considered to be in Apposition
nouns rather than in concord with them.
Further examples are

' '
ct^ o^*
"
I
"
pjz
I passed
by a man, a generous being

father
is
and l?\ (*/&*

;
*;/*
passed
by a man whose
(2)
a generous being
"
vide
XXXVIII.
or
Connective Apposition or the Connection of Sequence (*-M,

'
,.
.
'3- *o
(j^JJr <-&*), i.e.
where words are joined by the particles (conjunctive ordisjunc-
tive)>
tive),
"and,"
>
(*f
"and," ,2'" then,"

" whether
* J
J^ " even to," j

*>
"or"
(disjunc-
" or "
(after
"),
6 *
Uf " either," U " not

c<
&'
"
<
(simple negation,
as in "
Zayd came, not Amr
),
t>
nay, rather,"
but."
(3)
Explanatory apposition
e)^t
*-*J^
or the asyndetic connection

it
of
a substantive with a preceding one which
defines
more
(i.e.)
particularly,
as in <x>*^ *to
^ ^^
he shall be given to drink water
pus."
(4)
Permutative Apposition or the Apposition of Substitution

Corroborative Apposition
J^f
).
(5)
H CÎ
vide
LXIII.
be regarded as in
Bemark.Even two finite verbs ^"xxxxxApposition, as in:

himself before him
*)
in the
same
'
tense
'
)
may
***>
fi (for
4<
^ >^
9 ' s ' ''

?
'
f^
j " he arose (and) prostrated
"
;
Jr^f &&' =
he sang well
"
;
compare
p.
785
(7)
and
p.
848
(d).
In
(S** JL-î,
S
*
the second verb

IjS
may be an example,
first
either of Appo-
sition or of
'
State
'
Jt*Jl
).
But
if
the
verb were in the Preterite, and

'
the second in the Aorist, the second could indicate
State
only,
and would
p. 800.
be equivalent to a participle in the Accusative

(6)
vide
XLI
:
(c) (5),
There are four kinds of Apposition of Substitution
Concrete idea. Abstract idea.
APPOSITIVBS.
gw f<jf<
855
grf
*0
9 XX
/X
.0
O*
(1)
cWl
e^
^'
^ X
J*,
as
J>yU ^3
*W
"
Zayd thy brother came
' '
JÛ. " the people, great and small, came to me. "
(2)
J#i
x
^
x
uoiu/f J*j, as
^
oJf
aJU*
kiss him, his
hand
'
'
;
***j
iua]
I eat the loaf, only half of it."

xa
x/^x
^x^^gxôxx
a^S 1^3 CUÂAS
(3) jUx&)ff J*3J, as;
f<
I praised
Zayd,
his
garment only.
(4) e)ljj~iJt ) kUJf J<-V, as:
iUJf <jy*J? ^*?) "
rode the mare, no I
mean
the mule."
(c)
substantive or adjective in apposition to a Vocative,
may
be in
the
the Nominative or Accusative, as:

f
x x x
x
l.j.
^h
**
j*,*uc
"Oh! Muhammad,
Prophet";
another word,
^f
^^\
If
however the word in apposition governs

the
it
x
;
must be
uu^*
in
Accusative (vide
J^
XLl
(c)
(9)
),
as:
tju*-x^
jdlf
XG
xG~
xx
c5^^ ^-
cLl^
f^f^J ^
*^f
^c
L^! occurring
it is in
between two proper
names
in the
loses its
hamzah, the noun to which
apposition
^
**
may
be either
the
Nominative or
Accusative, as: ÎkiJT
^r*^
Oh *Umar
son of Khattdb
(^)
"
\
The In6nitive
#0 x
* x
as an intensive adjective
> o xx
may
stand in apposition to
a noun, as
S(** <&A*
o^f;
"
saw a queen a
"
I
personification of justice
"
(i.e.
''justice itself");
JxJf AdWt X
ow?t;
saw the queen, her who is justice itself."
One grammarian at least treats such an infinitive as an adjective and makes However it agree with its noun but such a construction is usually condemned.
,
/xx
such expressions as **>Jb <jv j "a well-schooled mare" are found, though This infinitive should be masc. sing. only. incorrect.
(e)
Note the following examples
of Apposition
:-
But
'
j^\
v^y^f
XX--0
*ta.
X*
"
thy brother, Zayd, came"
'
(i.e.
not thy brother So-and-so or
^ X
So-and-so
), is
Û
856
APPOSITIVES.
(1) Size.
f;i
x-
$U>
*
&j
x
" " a street 100 yards long

*<,,
af>i ^
/ x/
of stuff"
;
eMji e4U*
' '
;
" two yards of stuff."
But
ffdjf
&
9&
^ 99 9
aJfî,
<J
fi
"a yard
9,
JL^;
man
six feet high
(here J>J? could not be omitted).
"
(2)
Ô
Likeness.
Sfjx>|
Ji*
iL>)
" a
man
like a
woman "
xx.,o#'x/x
;
Sf^f
J&
**) ojf>
"I saw
a
CG
man
x
like
woman."
-
*.'
,9
is
9,
If JjUi' is substituted,^*
c5^l
understood, as
j* ^<A\
^;
xO
(3)
Material.
*>**>
'
JUL
f<
a chain
made
of
iron,"
^*â.
^
X
ÛL
O
).
But when the noun

'
is indefinite,
xX
(
as in the example,
it is
better to use
e^,
X
/x xO
as:
wî ^*
&LJL,
= v^^
^x xo x
*JUL
"a
gold
chain."
If
definite,
the
genitive alone can be used, as:
" v^>^ *JUU
the golden chain."
%9
(4)
t&
-
The substantives Kull un Kdffatun and Jami (un j

,
<&!
and 5**^, either X

,9
9 f9 9
<j^
*,,
govern the genitive or else stand in apposition, as:
o**fJ|
J^, or
t& *+*$
<4
"the whole house"

people"; p%& ^.lUf
also
<jtiJ|
J^
4<
the whole o/the people"
^&
Js
every
Vide
<f
all
the people" or
3>
XXXVIII
Remark
I.
^
X
)
<j^
x
'all
the world."
(A).
' *
Every person
"= <j^( X
(
*<,
^^fj J^, or
*,
i/ Note that before a

definite noun,
Jr means
**
the whole or all," as:
"the whole day," and oUfâJt J> âll the animals"; but that
O"
*
U/
, x
before
an indefinite noun,
it
means "each
or every," as:
cK " every
day."
(5)
So too with Ba'z un

,
x uoo "
"
portion
in the sense of
"some, a part"
or
-
x
' '
^.
(6)
Ohayr
un
another than.'
'
î
tL*>
* '
another than he came
' '
;
EMPHASIS OB COEROBOBATION.
u
^jf,
lit.
857
(7)
Ibn un
son/'
&l
^X* ^1 ^;
" a
man thitty years of
5 '
age.
(8)
Kunniyyat
*&,
subs.,
the distinguishing part of an Arab's
name
<" father or son of So-and-so, mother or daughter of So-and-so"), or some nickname, is put in apposition.
(9)
So too with Laqab

'
L&
for
'
title,
nickname/' as
j* ^T,
lit.
" father
' :
of a kitten
'
(a
nickname
one of the Companions who was fond

xxrUJ? or
^
of cats)
LXIII.
(a)
Emphasis or Corroboration
also called
*j&\ *
).
This
is
CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION.
It is either
(i)
c$J&y, i.e. repetition of
a word or clause, or repetition by a
synonym
or
(ii)
kV
y***>, i.e.
repetition
all
by
special words, such as
"he
himself", "both of
them,"
(b)
"
of
them."
first
'
:
The following examples illustrate the

f<j"
iXjj
$Q*
&j
^^ " Zayd,
t
'r
Zayd came
to me.'
^
AO
* *
"
Zayd struck him, srw5& him."

' '
!
.**]
yes yes
,
Uiffj
L*f^ >U.
(t
he came running, running
oof vi^*e "thou hast struck, thou.''

f;
or
}'*
saw
tliee,
ihee."
Such nicknames are

of
also
given
to
animals and
lifeless
things,
as
**
4 *
mother
*
<Amir " (the hyena)
Jjf
Jij
son of a seeker of shelter
"
(i.e.
the jaokal)
T*w| cxv "
*<*
"
',<**'
daughter of the vine"
(i.e.
wine)
s
*
* **)j>'\
" father
of the knees'
(a fever
# s
?s
(i.e.
in
which there
is
pain in the knees); AxÛ^jf (local) ^father of safety"

are styled w*&f.
the
shark).
2
Nicknames given to animals and lifeless things But in Hindustani daurta daurta pahunch-gaya
" he ran the whole way

in its nominative form.
till
he
arrived."
3
The pronoun may always be so repeated separately
858
EMPHASIS OB OORROBOBATION.
"
passed by thee, by thee."
wf,'
"
At>l
^3^1
bf
verily verily
Zayd
"
lif
pi(*
"I
am
fasting, I
am
fasting.'
'
a lion came, a lion."
or
^^
/
jj
*'
,
the
army
retreated, retreated.
"
'
^xo "
J^^ ^^
x
c. "
^*j
j*+
x-
yes, certainly.
(c)
In the phrase
îj
'
or) U'
*'
(*UI
Uij
there only stood
up
(or
we),
is
none rose but
me
'
,
(or us)
the
first
personal pronouns follow a verb that
3rd pers. sing. masc.

(d)
By
the use of special words, emphasis

u<xfcx,*>^35 x
(
/O'
).
or apposition takes place /Ox / -^0(pi.
in the sense
^yiaJi
oÛJf
Such words are îi

"totality,
all,
u**^)> and
affixed
(pL
^î
"self
cU',
or 5^**, or &(
"with an
pronoun
agreeing with the noun

*
the elative 54^ f (a diptote) " altogether"

'<*
and the
pronoun.
of
dual noun &*C masc., and e;UK
fern.
<J
both", with an
affixed
Examples
f-4,
x
x o
or ^-^**lf or
o
'
'
j*4?
x
î
c<
oof;
saw the people, all
them",
or e>$**aJ
*>
*
^Ji'
^f
vô'^
(more emphatic than the previous);
or, **** or)
a^Â *U
" he himself came."
W X
.
tjs is
used in the singular only.
* *
Not ^<&.
& &
i.jt
Not
f<ij;
L.jf
PARADIGMS.
859
LXIV.
Paradigms.
I.
TABLE
(A.)
'
PARADIGM OF I STEM OF THE SOUND OR STRONG

* +*
vU OR *****) VERB
*
*<*
'
J&>,
"HE KILLED."
f^
Infinitive Jxj; Participle
Active Voice
).
Person.
Preterite or Perfect
AOBIST TENSE (OB IMPEBFECT STATE).

Jussive,!
ImperaEnerg.
1.2
Tense
Indicative.
(or
State).
Subjunc- or Apocotive. pated

Aorist.
Energ.
II. 2
tive. 8
3.
[
masc Sing
3. fern.
2.
masc
fern.
2.
1.
c.
!-> Jkjf
3.
masc. Dual.
fern.
Uliii
wanting wanting
wanting
99^
3.
2.
3.
masc. Plur.
fern.
{
{
>.
wanting
!.
masc.
2. fern.
wanting
1.
.,
For Derived Forms

1
vide Table IV.

After
J|
Strengthened by J,
X
it
supplies the missing persons of the Imperative.
" not," it expresses prohibition or wish. 2 The energetic is used in Command,

"
prohibition, affirmation, interrogation.
For
truly, surely ", is usually prefixed. greater emphasis J 8 The Jussive must be used for prohibition, as no negative particle can precede the Imperative.
860
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(concluded).
(B.)
OTHER MEASURES OF SIMPLE STRONG VERB.

Active Voice.
If
if
the second vowel of the Preterite

it is
'
x
,
is
it
remains
- in the
it
Aorist; but
it
changes to
x
_^, except in seven verbs, in which

x
*
' '
,
x
' *
may
" he
x x
be either
or
m. û
:
it
was pleasant
i
* c
' ' ;
_*~A.
he thought
' '
c <
despaired,
,j^|
'
it
dried
' ' ;
he excelled
"
;
&*
' '
he despaired
'
';
u^*
" he appeared.'
"
2nd m. CxJtJ
2nd m.
oJ
PARADIGMS.
861
TABLE
Infinitive Nil
1
;
II.
PARADIGM OF SOUND OR STRONG VERB

Participle
^
HE WAS KILLED
/oxo
Passive Voice
The Passive
lacks the Infinitive
and the Imperative, but the want of the

O"O^
latter
may
*
be supplied by
J and
the Jussive, as:
JU&J "let him be
killed."
All forms of the

x
<?'
Verb have an Active and a Passive, except intransitives of the

5*
'Q
),
&xO
measure J*i, and the Stems

measures
cl**' *
IX
(JU*!
XI
JUw'p,
and XV; and
also those verbs of the
and
JU*' that denote,
not a transitive or an intransitive act, but a state or
condition. The difference between the Passive

is
f|)
x"
,
and Stems
is
(JUiii),
VII
"^
(
J*ftij),
and VIII
is
that the idea of the Passive Voice
purely passive but the idea of these Stems
something effective or sequential. The subject of an Active Voice is an agent whose act may or may not affect an or else the object the subject of a Passive Voice is either the object of the Active Voice
;
abstract idea of the act.
862
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF THE QUADRILITBRAL
l
III.
**'.
(
v
)
VERB
b; <Jn>
jk+$
" TO TIB
TJP
BE ASSEMBLED."
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
Preterite
Aorist
Imperative
/'OX.P
Participle
Infinitive
There
are
numerous
onomatopoetic
quadriliterals,
as:
to
howl
(in
mourning)."
2
Measure
<JJU-.
X<
Another example
is
/*^y
is
" to translate."
"G^f
'X<> X C
3
*'
Measure JUU&i.
Another example
"
^laJUJ
to
become
vSnltan
"
x x c x
(from ^latl^
to appoint Sult.an"). ^xXO

*
&!> '<*
Measure
JJU^'f,
Another example
is
"
c)UJfc>J
to be quiet, to quiet oneself; to be
low (of land)."
PARADIGMS.
863
w
tf
QQ
> H
H
I
5
<M
O M Q
<4
o; t>
o >
CD
-a s
864
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
'
V.
STEM OF DOUBLED (uutJuc, VERB

u
y "HE
FLED."
Infinitive
y; Participle
;U*.
Active Voice.
3J X
^ >X
-
CP
i^X
c<
e.
go
too
are conjugated
i**
j^j
c<
to
prolong"; cU-JU,j
to
tire of,*' etc.
It may be noted that whenever the second of the assimitated letters would be quiescent, these letters are resolved or separate, otherwise the rule that two quiescent letters cannot occur together, would be violated.
.
Two
other forms of the 2nd Pers. Pret. are admissible,

fern.
,
viz.
e*y *
or
ooy *
In the pi. quiescent letter.
the hamzat^l-waBl
is
restored, as a
word cannot begin with a
PARADIGMS.
865
TABLE
PARADIGM OF
I
VI.
(continued).
STEM DOUBLED VERB

Passive Voice.
cThe Energetic forms

are
cjyb
and CÂJ.
Pass. Part. m.
c" ^Â^,
'
f.
)j^'
55
866
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VII.
$> '
.
PARADIGM OF DERIVED STEMS OF
Tense,
etc.
III
TV
VI
VII
VIII
Preterite Active
Aorist
,,
Imperative
,,
-**!,
$'
Participle
,,
>
Ju**o
Infinitive
t
Preterite Passive
)**
Aorist
,,
Participle
,,
jjjiu
Note.
j
" to be curly
The remaining Stems present no irregularity. * f '^ " " " "
;
Some
bad "
t
verbs,
,
;
as
^J
to be intelligent
f.
to be
<~&*
" to
also
be in one's dotage,'* and some others of the measures cUi or *

occur in uncontracted forms.
cW may
*
The forms
jlf
jli5,
etc. as well as
^(i
(ôrjjU^ are exceptions to the rule which

X
prohibits a quiescent letter from following a long vowel.
PARADIGMS.
867
TABLE
Ô^C'C"* ^ O Cx
VIII.
ffamzaled
j>*^( Jai)f) VERBS, DIFFERENT FORMS.
(A.)
Forms having Hamzah
for the First Radical.
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd masc.
Sing.
Note.
Speaking generally, when the

or
ceded by
supporting the hamzah is precharacteristic of the form, the alif is changed into the
alif
:
corresponding semi- vowel
vide Aorists Passive above.

<c
The verbs A
J^t
:t
to eat," drop
their first radical in the

,
Imperative of Stem
x x '
I, as
&*>, etc.
x
X'
x-
x*
'
*
'
},.
In Stem VIII (Jît), the verb o^f assimilates
its
hamzah, as
âfajt -
iî?.
The
tense inflections are the

'
same
as those of the
Sound verb.
.
But from
<
Imperative
is
ji>J
868
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
Forms having Hamzah
<B,) for the Second Radical.
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd masc.
to be asked. **<...
Sing,
The verb
;
JU
has in
its
x
Jussive
fern,
JU?
*
(or JSUo),
an d JLj (î
^ ;
<-
and
in its Imperative
J~,
^k*,
etc.,
as well as JU.J, etc.
All changes in this table and the table of derived forms, are governed by rule that hamzah, when it begins a syllable (not a word), takes as its prop the weak consonant that is sister to the short vowel by which it is pointed, and if that weak consonant be <^, the dots are omitted.
the
The
inflections are the
same
as for the
Sound
verb.
But fib
/*K
(Inf. fJI) 9 9*
"to
,*
^Jf
dress or bind
<.*
up a wound, accuse
of being low (in
character or origin)," and
fit*
-
**
-
(Infs.
^JU
&SU)
" to
blame.*'
PARADIGMS.
869
TABLE
VIII
(continued).
(CO
Forms having Hamzah
for the Third Radical.
Active Voice.
Passive Voice.
3rd maso.
Sing,
Uaiu
Note.
All changes in this table
and the table
of derived forms,
depend
on the rule already given in the Note to B. The inflections are the same as for the Sound verb.
870
PARADIGMS.
"**
o
:
o
"j
oiJ
^"W ^
^ *k
^j~
^J
-|*
?
rt
J
*^N *>
o "a*
o
v
v
x
o*^\
*3
*>
^ ^
<N
Stems
III,
V or
VIII, or the Passive of
I,
are substituted.
Vide
Stem VII, Remarks.
TED
d | m ,2 3 ^
53
05
Q
a o
1
Cb
PARADIGMS.
871
"
-3
a "
1
S
%
e
v
r>
^, j* ~
*^
7 ,-T
\ ~~_)
H
'43
34
S O
I
s
a
<a
<
S72
PARADIGMS.
H ^ H
v
o.
jw
'
aH
o
r*
'X
o,
i li
,*
"i
^
3.
S
of
H. v
1 8
v
,1 JS
^ *1
*^
>'
V
* I
3?
-)t
\
VK
O
">--'
'^
H
PQ
1. -^
"K
*V
v
XN
"i
32
"
<S
&
a
PABADIGMS.
873
TABLE
X.
,
PARADIGM OF ASSIMILATED VERBS (J&

First Radical ^
or
and
<^$
e.
Verbs that take Tcasrah

initial $,
(5
in the Aorist as the characteristic
vowel, drop the
as: JLoj
"to arrive"
Aor. JUj
Impera.
JLe.
A division of the Weak verb.
874
"
(
PARADIGMS.
,
Some with
fathah
have the same peculiarity, as:
*y
ia
"to place";
dropped and
^
Aor, j^j
*
;
Impera.
*>.
In the Infinitive of most, the ^

*
(
...)
suffixed.
few verbs with zammah
and fathah (~z)

l
in the Aorist, preserve
the j, as:
J^^
J^-?
" to be afraid." c^j -cl^j to be insalubrious.

^ <*>*
j,
Doubled verbs retain the

'
as
is
a$
# Mf "
to love."
in the Active,
In the Aorist Passive, the^
"
S
-
as
***>
*u
'*
to find
"
;
*
-
retained even though lost 9'^*

'
xa.j
<Xa^j
to be found."
are,
The changes in assimilated verbs zammah ' precedes a weak letter,

( )
that
when a kasrah (T*

letter is
or a
the
(
weak
changed into the
homogeneous weak consonant,

In Stem VIII, the j
unite," VIII
is
as
ci?ut
for cJajl),
Imperative of J^j.
assimilated to
its
following o, as:
J^
" to
J^Js
-'*>
'*to be
continuous," Aor.
J.^
*"
\j&>.
*
4j^J ''todes-
pair of," VIII
Ûj
" to despair."
The same
>V> " time
rules apply for the formation of
nouns; thus from &j comes
of birth
"
(for
to
9l
um t er
>
a ^80
t>
awake."
PARADIGMS.
875
TABLE
(A.)
9
l
XI.
"
o' $ o
PARADIGMS OF HOLLOW VERBS (u^fJUi); SECOND RADICAL *>

1
Stem
of jli (for
Jp) "he said";
Inf.
Jys
Act. Participle Jbu.
live Voice.
JV ^.
*'
The form d*^
is
conjugated in the same way, as
Jt-k (for J>J=)
to be long/' Aor. Jjtj.

1
division of the
Weak
verb.
Weak
of the âyn.'
For Jj^T; but as two vowelless

is
letters
cannot occur together, the

c
or
in such
dropped.
Hence too the Imperative J$
(not
Jjj>).
876
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(continued).
(B.)
PARADIGM OF HOLLOW VERB; SECOND RADICAL

I
Stem
of
;U (for^) "to march,
travel';
Inf.
-J*
Act. Participle
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
877
TABLE XI
(continued).
PARADIGMS OF HOLLOW VERB.

(C*)
I
Stem.
Second Radical ^ and
^ Passive Voice.
Passive Voice.
Sing.
m.
For
For
AAA from A(J -Âj V. x
**
J)
to
sell.'*
878
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XI
(concluded).
FURTHER PARADIGM OF HOLLOW VERBS, SECOND RADICAL

tf
AND ^.
(for
J^)
" to say,"
<Jt^ (for
.
o>^
-
" to fear
"
;
;U
(for
j^)
" to
travel"
&
^
J>o
'
" to lead/'
IV
or
VII
or
VIII
)2nd Bad.! 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad.i 2nd Bad.! 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad. 2nd Bad.
Preterite Active
2nd
pers. masc.
sing-
Aorist
J#
, ,
|
i i
jjif
Imperative
Participle
,,
Preterite Passive
mmmmmmmm
Aorist
, ,
'
.jlXftx)
Participle
*
,,
f s
, ,
<,
?' s
Infinitive
Notes.
(i)
few hollow verbs of the measure J*i preserve their j or

-
^
";
and
are
conjugated as sound verbs, asrjy +
j}*t
"to be
one-eyed
" to have glanders."
For
So too from
^b(=
gjj)
the Passive Participle of I
Stem
is
gjjk
<for
PARADIGMS.
(ii)
H79
their ^ or
<k
Hollow verbs denoting colour or defect always retain

as
:
^
or
in
Stem IX,
" $j\ to be or become black

'
3&x
(j
UÔ
' ' ,
"
;
tf&'O*'
Aor.
*&j>~i
O^XM
to b
>
wu^c,'
become white", Aor. u^J#(iii)
The
0;rC"
is
often
retained in
* ' O "
<*
Stem, as: wj^^J
*'
to approve,"
'
A Aor.
s
V^-AJ^J.
(iv)
*
*
Hollow verbs that have j orâs a third radical always retain their
f
*/
jj,
as: C5^*
(v)
it
4<
to be
worth", Aor. cy~:N

or
e>
Hollow verbs that have e
as the third radical, assimilate

/
/o /
' '
,
with a following
&
or
as
'<**
oi>U
<c
<e
he died
but
*=** (for
0X0)
* 4
I died*
'
;
J6 " he was,"
(vi)
&9
but
Itf
(for luT
^' fc
.:
we were."
In the measure
*
'
cU*'l,
verbs with the 2nd radical weak, use the strong

^ -"
"
form, as: a^-I

(vii)
"black"
(not
-'^-.
f^f).
* ,
,9 ^
On
the measure
J**'.
is Jtfc
(for
Jyfe>)
Aor.
J^
99*
Irnpera, rnasc.
Di,
fern.
880
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
(A.)
XII.
*FU
1
PARADIGM OP DEFECTIVE VBEB (o^c** 5*)

to raid
' ' ;
DIFFERENT FORMS.
Inf.
j>.
Last Radical j (JUi).
Active Voice.
f *w x o
1
" 9
Or
PARADIGMS.
881
TABLE XII
(continued).
(B.)
PARADIGM OF DEFECTIVE VERB.

*
<
Last Radical
rs*
(
^
^
(
.
J*j
;
= C5^
" to throw "
>
^
-
Inf.
<y;
Act. Part, rh
***l> f
Active Voice.
AOBIST.
Preterite.
Imperative.
Indicative.
Subjunctive
Jussi ve.
VÔ/Oj
**;!
Energ. I
eHi^ and
II
56
882
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XII
(continued)
(C.)

Last Radical j or
l(
J*J
s
).
to be pleased
"
;
Inf.
<^
and
vi>tj-*>
and SI*/*
Act.
Part
Active Voice.
PARADIGMS.
883
TABLE
XII
(D.)
(continued).

LAST RADICAL ^ OR ^.
to decide
"
;
f&'b,
Inf. *l~ojf
and
Ax-^jl
Pass. Part.
Sj*feo
f.i
Passive Voice.
"
1
5
is
<
Pass. Partic. of
884
PARADIGMS.
y
M-l
.
"J
i
x
>
HH >H
rrt
.S T3
*;a
VI
;^
o
*>,
^
V
x
'V
{3
-1* VJ
1
tf
"o
~
s
CO
"I
3*
\V V
^3v -f 3
'-
V
B
X!
"b"
S
tf
-a
H
-^ *|
ft
xX
x
i^ ^
Iv?
2 S
i
4S
.
.2
^2 ^ H
*S
t^
i a
PARADIGMS.
43
885
o
note.
.9
5 00
-
**
l*ft
t ^
'
J
*
* J 3
X^
>
"S
S
g
\H
'"
eo
1
o
03
"r
M M
^1
CO JJ
<D
-g
c o
\%-
^
?
o
c8
."ft
.
I KT L>
^
.*'
D
N
ji>
2
le
vi
1
CO
8
*rs
i a. I ^ **
CLi
& & 1 hS 1-4

S3
I
4
09
5
*C
a>
*C
886
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
PARADIGM OF DOUBLY WEAK VERB.

(A.)
(ONE RADICAL Hamzah AND ANOTHER A

I.
WEAK
LETTER.)
1st
'
Radical hamzah and 2nd j or ^.

s
vf
or
wf
" to return "
/O'
;
'
Inf.
wj
So, too, are conjugated

af
(for
of
4< )
(for <Jjf )
" to injure"
Jt( for
II
^5" *jf
J^f
'Ho come, return";

strengthen."
^f
to
be strong,"
Stem
"to
PARADIGMS.
887
TABLE
II.
XIII (A)
(continued).
1st
Radical hamzah, 3rd radical j or
<Jf
"to come"
Inf.
Note.
Stem IV
s 9
is
<yf
" " to bring
Aor.
^fy
Juss.
o^j
Impera. of;
Passive Pret. ^f.

So, too, are declined ^>f
Inf.
'*
(2)
to refuse
"
;
Aor.
^>^
t^f
" II " to pay,
Stem
(^df
(same meaning),
&*$:
^^
"to
grieve,
mourn."
The Subjunctive is, 3rd m.
^b,
3rd! ^jlj,
o
*3.
'
etc.
At the end
of
a sentence written
ex
In pause,
all
Imperatives that consist of
one
letter are similarly written
as
gj
for
888
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
III.
*
XIII (A)
(continued).
1st ^ or
f>
2nd Radical hamzah and

S
?
<tr
'
" to despair"
Inf.
^b
and
IV. 2nd Radical hamzah and 3rd $ or

"
to see
"
;
Inf.
^t) and
AJ-^).
PBETEKITE.
3rd masc.
ISing.
Dual.
Plur.
3rd fern.
c
O/O
2nd masc.
2nd
fern.
1st c.
The verb ^*5u being neuter has no Passive

Participle of
Participle.
But
Passive
^jf
is
wrongly used by Persians and Indians in the sense of "disap-
pointed."
PARADIGMS.
889
TABLE
XIII
(A)
(continued).
(1)
In the Aorist and Imperative and in Stem IV, the hamzah

, x
is
dropped.
i
her,"
(2) etc.
(3)
With a
suffix, the
forms are:
*1^
" he saw him";

III
^
x*
"he
The
Pxx^
.
following Derived
J>
Forms occur
to
^^
>*
tf
to dissemble,"
x> x>*
x
;
x'
Aor. (^[^, Inf 5*ty and *fy

;f,
IV ^;l
<f
show," Aor. ^^j,
Juss. ^?, Impera.
Inf.
*!;!
and
S*t;J
VI
^^
'*
to look at one
another"; VIII
"to think."
890
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
V.
"
XIII (A)
(continued).
3rd Radical hamzah and 1st ^ or

-
"
"to tread";
Aor.
tk*
;
<
*^
Inf.
U>
VI. 3rd Radical hamzah

S '
and 2nd ^ or
&
*U
'* '
f ' -*
or
*U
(for
f^j
'*
to be
bad"
Inf.
Preterite,
Aorist.
Jussive.
Im P era'
tive.
Active
Participle.
Passivt
Preterite.
Participle.
3rd masc. Sing.
j^-wj
or
*L*
{(Passive
I
Aoriat
2nd masc.
i
,
,,
'
2nd
fern
etc.
etc.
etc.
I
Note.
f'
Inf.
X
;
(1)
IV Stem *Uf
Jf
' *
to
make bad
'
' ;
Aor. ^-*ri;
Imperative
>
*Ut
Act. Part. t^-x, X

(2)
So too from
*U (for
f^*)
" " to shine, be bright
IV Stem
c<
to light."
PARADIGMS.
891
TABLE
'**,*
U, or *lx
(
XIII (A)
<*
(concluded).
' S
)
for *UA,
" to come "
Inf.
Active
Preterite.
Passive
Preterite.
Aorist.
Participle.
Participle.
3rd masc. Sing.
>or
3rd
fern.
2nd masc.
2nd
fern.
etc.
etc.
etc.
Note.
So from
*l* (for
U*), II
Stem U* "to prepare
f>
;
Inf. *3j^.
or
*U
(for
**
" to wish"
Inf.
and
<xU.x).
3rd masc. Sing.

(or
!
(or
Aorist.
3rd fern.
lj
2nd masc.
892
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
XIII.
(B.)
(Two RADICALS WEAK LETTERS).

I.
1st
and 3rd Radicals Weak.
^*3
" to guard
f"
' '
fi
O'
Inf. *jU[>
and
" to fear .-(l) VIII Stem jSf (God)."

(2)
So, too,
^
^
f c
to be complete, to
fulfil (a
"
promise)
;
IV Stem
(and
"to
fulfil
vow," Aor.
^,
'
Impera. Jjf, Inf. 5^1;

jT
C,
to be near," Aor.
Juss. d*, Impera. J, Inf.
^5.
PARADIGMS.
893
TABLE
II.
XIII (B)~ (continued).

These retain the 2nd radical.
if"
Inf.
2nd and 3rd Radicals Weak.
to
narrate";
a*^.
Active
Preterite.
Aoriet.
Jussive.
Imperative.
Passive
Preterite.
Participle.
Participle.
masc. Sing.
fern.
*,;,
(Passive
Aonst
2nd masc.
2nd
etc.
fern.
etc.
etc
"to be
well watered (of cattle), to

*
quench one's thirst";
Inf.
and ic3>
Sing.
etc.
2nd mas.
2nd
fern.
etc.
So,
etc.
too,
are conjugated
<j;>
"to be worth
"j^y
"to be
* '
strong
894
PARADIGMS.
TABLE
or
XIII (B)-~ (concluded).

' '
)
&
'
for j#^
" to
live
' '
Inf.
e.
II
Stem
"to
let live,
greet," Inf.
" to spare alive" (but in the sense of
X Stem Umj " to <=*; " " be ashamed generally written with
>
one
^ ^
O
),
O"
as: L5**-*!
Aor.
PARADIGMS.
895
TABLE
PARADIGM OF TREBLY
XIV.
WEAK VERB OR VERB WITH THREE WEAK

RADICALS.
A. 1st Radical hamzah.
Jtrf
" to take refuge
' '
Inf.
^.
i*
Note
(I)
II
Stem
453 f
"to show
hospitality to
'*?
f
"
;
IV Stem
^
is
(with
same meaning).
(2)
'
Such verbs are
inflected like
and
weak
com-
(form
*) is
the only verb with three
radicals that
in
mon
use.
896
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XIV
(continued).
B. 2nd Radical hamzah.
'*
to promise."
Such verbs are
inflected like jL,
and ^j.
PARADIGMS.
897
TABLE XV.
The negative substantive verb ^pJ " he is not" has no Aorist Imperative. It is inflected like verbs with the 2nd Radical j and ^.
or
2 fern.
2 masc.
3 fern.
3 masc.
Sing.
UL.J
UJ
x-0'
Dual.
Plur.
898
PARADIGMS.
TABLE XVI.
FORMATION OF VERBAL NOUNS FROM
WEAK
VERBS.
Novin of Time
Passive Participle.
Agent or
Active
Participle.
Verbal
Noun
or
and Place.
Infinitive.
Aorist.
Preteri
9 <,,
t
/
x-
JJU
ol
Uj
;^
APPENDIX
(Continuation of
B.
125.)
:

(1)
of the use of the tenses will repay study
Vaqt~i
tîA*)o>
ki
M\
Û3>
** *$
dar sdhra mi-raft did ki hama-yi darakhtha uftdda and here the plural verb gives *it> ^j** \j****)t> *j^;
ast
***#]
the idea
of
number, but uftada

*$&
*&) would
also
be
correct.
&*.
Instead of the Preterite

ml-binad
l
did,
the Historical Present ai#
chi
might be used by Indians and Afghans, but not by Persians. The Perfect iM uftada-and shows Indefinite Past time. The Preterite
would signify that the

(2)
.stijf
trees fell while he
was looking on.

uftad
f&j*
Vaqt-i ki
<X+A.
bachcha budam hama-yi dandanhdyam
*$u A^JJJ^
is
^jl^jf^k
Here the Preterite
is
used
because the time
defined.
The
plural oJÛJf
(3)
uftddand would not be good.
Khwahish-i
ma
raftan
bi-Bushahr
bud
llkin
bi
ta'mir
kardan-i
(
& jahaz rattan nami-shud jl^ &*j$ j*+*i ^Ju^j*. to to "we Bushire but wished it was impossible to do cs^ {>**) go Dar shab chunin awazha-yi muhib-i shunidlm so without repairing the ship.
^ ^J ^ ^^
*f
(*>*&
^^
ki raftan bi-sahil
*& (j&+* dÛ

The two
Pers.
mumkin na-bud " we heard such
& &&)
^^
c5 lA 3!jf
u^
terrible
noises on the land that
it
>-*)* was
impossible for us to go to the shore."

Infinitives
(e^*> raftan) are
nouns *
;
namt-shud in Mod.
*j#
^*>o mumkin
na-bud.
Vulgarly in Persia vxlxw Ai*> cLl^ bi-aahil rafta nami shud is used. The Afghans frequently use this construction probably in imitation of
;
the Urdu.*
"
(4)
You ought
to
have acted on
my
advice'*
J^x*
sjf mi-bayist naslhat-i

(5)
mara qabul karda bashid?
Shi ghat harchi pay da ml-kunad duzdida va mi-ravad " the Here the Aorist jackal steals whatever it finds." **?.*)&
bi~kunad would signify that there was a doubt about the jackal &X*' mi-kunad shows that finding is its occupation. finding anything The copula j is wrong or at least a redundancy. Grammarians consider
<vij
;
the final
of the past participle a copula conjunction.
Ml-ravad could be used for did, but might be mistaken for the Future. "it is impossible to fight Taqdlr se lara nahln fata Ul^ tjJ 4^J*ftJ (Urdu)
^^
against Fate."
8
Or
classically
t^/jô Jj^'
-owk
bn yi8t
,
qa
900
(6)
CONTINUATION OF
125.
Agar jandb-i *5G urd yak na%ar bi-farmdyid ummtd ast ki bi-zudl Here c**JLW ** ***** ***t *t*j** fi -& hj c^M** ,/!. shifd ydbad V^ *1 after the Subjunctive shows the doubt hope.' The Future cu'l$ **!> khwahad ydft could be substituted to show certainty; but in this case it would be better to substitute ^*' o*fy yaqin ast for cuî ^x/of ummtd ast.
&
(7)
ajj
Ndm-i an mulk
ki
jahaz bi-dn ravanda
bud
fuldn
of
bud
the
c/T
ft
cjlU
for
(Afghan) ^4 *jj; ejb jlt which the ship was about to sail was So-and-so.'*
is,
a>
*f *J^*>
"the name
country
of
agency
imitation of
modern Persian at any rate, incorrect. Substitute ki jahaz the Urdu construction.
in
It is possibly
Here the noun an

ki
bi-ddnjd ml-bdyis.
bi-ravad tjj c*~ob

ahurf-i
^ oJy^ Uofx bud & ^j *Jj&*. bi-raftan bi-ddnja

hurakat bi-ddnja bud
tof*xj
(8)
UBUJJO
jl^
&f
or raftanl bud
t^ )
9
or
*^,
jahaz
da,1
o^^
j*
j^
or
mushrif
An-qadr
bi-tdli'
ast
ki
agar
baray-i
ab khurdan biravad jub mi-
khushkad, or cXiX&x **\j

4<
khwahad khushkld
is
vf c^fj^
** c^*
C^
;^
so unfortunate that were he to go to drink he c&&** ^* *->j+ tjj e>^^ v If bud were substituted for o~=l ast, water, the stream would dry up.
it
would be followed by *^r^

<f
mi-raft and
^-i^
(9)
(
I did
jôf i^tyah.
or )
not think that he would come to-day y tf ***?* ^c^ u imruz ki >J^ jyo! bi-khaydl-am na-rasid
of
^"
mi-khushkid.
^^^
is
***
bi-yayad
it
khwahad dmad). From neither whether he came or did not come.

(or
(10) In,
the subordinate
tenses
clear
Shabhd nallda-am
4<
o~*f
Jojy ^l the Preterite would also

indefinite time,
>aA,j
mardm farzandbakhshtda ast \^ U ^ <WG (^ wept many nights till (God) gave me this son," be right. The Perfect ft Û ndUda am signifies,
td
if
NdUdam f^k
it
is still present. the year or place had been stated, and could be followed either by the Preterite jjîu bakhshid or by the
and
o-.t aajwfciy bakhshtda ast because the son
could be used
The Pluperfect ^^> ^t> ndUda budam, followed by the Pluwould mean that he had a long time ago wept and then received the The Pluperfect followed by the Preterite would signify that a blessing. long time elapsed between his weeping and receiving the blessing.
Perfect.
perfect,
(11)
Ghi khub ast ki tdrasidan-i

or)
man
bi-Shirdz zan-am zd*ida+ bashad (or
bi-zdyad) (*$y>
^n c*H*y ^ ** ^^^ *+ m.c. both the Pres. and Past Subjunctive are used here with the same
*>jj5ij
vl
j^^ u^
v^
signification.
Instead of
chi
^H
" ii
vy^
chi-khftb ast,
the Future jy
used.
khub khwahad bud, or a
JAJ^ khwahad shud, could be

Jbi
Agar J\
Better
lt
could be substituted for tf

mulk-i f^ nam-i
ki
" that."
^ 4^^
the two an sound bad,

rnuxhrif.
In speaking an iza/at woulcl often be inserted after
CONTINUATION OF
(12)
126.
901
" Whatever people thought, they thought wrong" ^(^ j* ki* har khayal-i kardand ghalat bud the Preterite mardum ty *>&j kardand signifies on that particular occasion.' But in jj^y ^tfc^Â
: *
har khaydl-i karda-and ghalat ast, the Perfect signifies whatever they have thought in the past or are thinking now. Substitute the Past Subjunctive Av-U? ^/ karda bdshand and the meaning is "whatever
tali
*i|
1
o^|
mardum
they
" what." Similarly *j> ^^. ^/ thing) **>j* harchi u kard bi-kh-ud kard ever he did then, he did wrong/' Harchi u karda bdshad bi-khud karda (( ast OM*I itjS tj**~u *t %*j $\ **>*> whatever he may have (or have
not) done at any time,
may have thought
(but they
may
or
may
not have thought any-
was
anjl is
I
wrong."
fool
"
(13)
-- that
or
is
the story *) ? f&fy* ki bdvar ml-kardam ahmaq-am

told
me
"
to say
am
8
enough to have believed

mi-kardam
it (if
you had
**
/
f&+^t )*&\ &*> LS-^
ya'm man dn-qadr
condition,
or
*
rather a condition
p*!}**
future.'
khwdham The lady speaks

tf
signifies a past ftjf*' that cannot be fulfilled; bi-kunam would I kard that should believe it in the signify
Here
p&
:
'
have said
pw
+*>}
;^f --- an
of her being foolish in the present
time
.
she might
is
qadr ahmaq
budam
ki
In the above instances, the meaning of mi-kardam or practically the same.

(14)
bi-kunam
you)?"
hala>
"where were you (when I called for <j-j# Kujabuda-i? S^ lJ "where have you been all this time?" murda Mj/o ill^ ^1 " he has just expired (I was present or the news has
Kuja budi
?
just been brought to
me)"
but u hala murda
ast oôt
jyc
J/t^
y *he
is
no longer
living,
he
is
already dead."
(15) jVa dnki 'ilaj karda-t balki
$^y "its not a cure you've fixed or mentioned (as yesterday, be used.
(16)
mu'jaza karda-i ^>ûix> ^Jb \^ -&c. &tf AJ done but a miracle." If the time were
last
month,
last year)
the Preterite would
"I would
(not
f^!**il
" you man khudra baray~i shuma dar db u dtash mi-andazam J V' ^ mi-andakhtam which would refer to past time unless
go through
fire
and water
to serve
an adverb denoting present or future were used and the context showed that the clause was the apodosis of a condition), but vali agar fardd
bi-man
mi-guftid khud rd
dar db u dtash mi-anddkhtam

ij
(^
t*y j>\
to
tell
^J]
)$
bys*.
txxxAô
means " were you
^ me
Not ty
bud.
Ast ow*|
'
is
wrong
still'
cu|
8^
buda 0^=' has been wrong
but
may
2
be right now.' Said by an enraged wife to her husband
she has overheard a story being
made up
by him
3
dupe her. Agar mi-guftid &*iA&sejS) understood.
to
902
CONTINUATION OF
125.
to-morrow, I would go through fire to serve you"; transfer \^ fardd the second clause and *$** m^guffid will give either a past or a fut sense. In agar dtruz mi-gufttd mi-anddkhtam f^f<^l ^c ÂAK* Jv^
the whole supposition becomes past.
"
(17)
I forgot it
up
till
"
to-day
fl
*>/ uij*!/' jps

)jji*
'
^ td imruz fardm
[
karda
am
(not f*j$ kardam), but (&# **/ <Jb*)j*
td-c&rUz
fardm
karda budam (not fdjf kardam).

(18)
l*}& A*.
Khwab-l dida am.

ab j*s
Guft khayr bad; chi dlda-l
(Gul.) ff
*<xj>
^
wai
propitious
oJ "I have had a dream. He one; what did you see?'" Here the
said 'I
hope
is
it
Perfect
used as
time
chi
is indefinite.
mubdrak
&*> Later on the addressee says A^f v fjA> utyfo ki the d/idl. Here ast Preterite khipdb signifies that
^^
narrator in telling his
dream
also
mentioned the date.
" Would that that young man yesterday had proved to be y (19) %**tf j* brother Ghanim" U^j^j tsbjt* uAj* c;f ** <J& kdsh-ki
&
javdn-i diruzi barddar-i shumd Ghdnim dar dmada bud (or **ti dmad\: here the Pluperfect without diruzl shows that the time
dar
;
past the also Past alone refer to or future tii (as Habitual) might past Imperfect but the adjective c5*J^ diruzl clearly indicates past time. " Would that
I
is
young man (now present) were your brother Ghanim";^ ^j ^JU i^w kdsh In javdn barddar-i shumd Ghdnim bud (or
l
&[?*.
^^
budi
^jjx mi-bud) demonstrative pronoun

;
here the three
tenses
are indefinite as
;
to
time,
but
s
in gives the clue
<xAl>
bdshad might be
future.
lie
stituted
(20)
and would indicate the present or immediate

" Since the time I was born
j>
have never told a
"
darugh na-gi
HU.
'5
f*& az
vaqt-i mutavallid
shudam
id
Ml
am.
Here the Perfect tense ^f <uA&, because the

(21) Qd'ida-yi
effects of the action contin
man an
&' I
ast
ki
har ruz ruz-ndma bi-khwdnam

is
&>
It
^w
Axti
jji)
jj)j*
cu^f means "it
my
usual habit to read

Substit
'
paper daily" (but
may have omitted
rm-khwdnam for âfctMo custom to read and I do read
^^
to do so occasionally). bi-khwdnam and the meaning is,
It
is
regularly.'
distres (22) "You ought to have sympathized with me in my *H&k **/' is*}*** &* ^ ooxâx) o^J^Jf ^ o^?l U* U& shumd mi-bdyist (ki) an vaqt-i musibat bd man ham-dard/i karda baahld? Instead of c*
mt'bdyist, cu-jb bdyist
can be substituted, followed by the Imperfect mi-kardid, but this construction is used in writing only. In ^ *$
Biida bud j^ ity is not used, but would be grammatically correct. Birkunid tî^j might be used but could be incorrect. -
CONTINUATION OF
125,
903
vaqt-i
khub bud ki dar an

dar haqq-i
Also,
musibat
dil-i
tan
man
*S
bi-suzad, ay
in
as
ki
bud gives to ajr*. bi-suzad the idea of past time. this second sentence is the equivalent of Jt\ agar, the
J
clause introduced
by
it is
in reality the protasis of condition
and
its
verb
can therefore correctly be put in the Imperfect, i.e. oA>* ml-sukht Mi-sukht o^* ^* however would in this instance instead of dj>H bi-suzad.
be open to the misconstruction
(instead of JuA r <^*^?f
cuaLj*.
ing with
me
in
<y
a&Jt
0^*0
bi-jihat-i Inki
ml-sukht
ogw
f/w-swMtf)
"
it
was well that you were sympathiz-
."
to-rnorrow " would that he had

:
Kash mi-amad **f kash farda ml-amad (or " *tf

(23)
"
<jStf
" would he had come

' '
<
&>(&
<j^t^
j^j>
would that he would come kash dlruz mi-amad (or d> ^/of amada bud)
bi-yayad)
]
come yesterday."
(24)
^x&b
Chi kar kunlm ki g&aflat na-karda bash%m ^C e^lii ya^n? &a*^ a^ kardan-i an kar gfraftat na-karda bashlm &*jS
^(^ ,jf
).
&
)\
t,
î^j there would be no real alteration in the meaning.
Here
if
bi-kunim were substituted after cJ
(25)
Kag&azra
navishta kardl
(s^
AXwy
fj
**ti
(Afghan)
for you
written the letter (yourself), or navishta khwaham kard (Afghan).
have you had it written
"
*'have you
?
Similarly
"
(26)
How
or
)
î^j
did you imagine that I would agree to this ? JÂJ fj îu^ ^j( ^x) *^ <x^/ chiguna tasavvur kardid ki
(or &J* ptyj^
"
man
in sukhan
r<*
qabul bi-kunam
khwaham kard
) ?
Shaytan shavad *t f\ %***& jSj* Here ^lisxi wpJti? ijfJ "I have never heard of any one loving Satan." a>& shavad gives the idea of indefinite time, past or present, but *xb *<* shuda bashad would mean '* I have never heard that any one ever has been " in love with Satan (past time only).
(27) Hargiz na-shuriida-am ki kas-l
talib-i
>>j
(28)
C>WM!
"There was an earthquake a few days ago"

chand ruz
ast ki zalzala
shuda
;
ast (not
^ shud
*3j))
) ;
tt
ft
or
s^ chand ruz pish

fci
zalzala
ast.
shud
or cu*t
3^;
<UA. 6^
AJ^
zalzala
(29)
shud chand ruz
"I
Aat?e
seen
you going about barefooted
for
a long time"
^5^/0 $j <UA^ b OWMI tiJ^ ^^JUA^ *^ Jukj ^^ ^>c pa barahna rah mi-raw (m.c.): here *HJ
man mi^Knam
ki khaytt vaqt ast
mi-tnnam shows that the
The Imperfect with <j(
kash
may
;
refer to future or past time,
but the Aorist
with <j!
only.
kash refers to future only
and the Pluperfect with
kash to the past ^jjlf
Shitd
is
m.c., but incorrect.
904
CONTINUATION OF
125.
person addressed is still barefooted. Substitute meaning may be that the person now has shoes.
(30)
ft
fcxj^
cKda
am and
" *n
In rd chiguna khwaham kusht

I kill this
*
o^
manner shall
is
"
p*\j*>
*
^^V
v^-
w^
primarily
cant
kill
'
but substitute ,*&& bi-kusham and the meani: it and secondarily I intend to kill it, but
*
;
what manner
(31)
shall I
do so
Wa'da mt-kunam ki biydyam fj(# * (*&** but wa'da ml-kunam ki khwaham amad ** come," I that will (and shall) come." promise
(32)
***j
"
promise
In sadd~yi pa az u khwahad bud *# *Afy* j jt wtwatf (I feel certain) be his footstep", but x*U jf jt ^ (t be not this to bashad u ad az (but may be) his footstep." ought bay pa
(33) Inja kas-l hast ki
Turki bi-danad
*xi|xj
? Here the Aori there anyone here who knows Turki (to know Turki) In m.c. however the Present is oft( is correct as it indicates uncertainty.
^y "AT O-Â ^^.f
lapuui
"
incorrectly substituted,
is
some one here

(34)
who
but in this case the meaning might also be knows Turki."

1
<f
The
-'I hope yc shumd bi-yayid A*5U> U ^>fjA^f ummidvar-am shumd khwdhld amad U^ pfj ** may be able to come " I that you will come.' Umidvdr budam shun know and jôf Âfy^ hope 2 " come ummidvdr buda 1 **3(+> U< hoped you might bi-ydyid f&# fo***) 'I felt certain you wou shumd khwdhid amad &*>1 *HA|^ U^ ^.jy j\) ^/ot<
Ummid'Vdr-am
' '
come." To express certainty *&\s ^ÂJ yaqm ddshtam ummid-vdr budam.

(35)
>\
is
to be preferred
"They
should have said B'ism
illdh
but they didn't" o~ob u
AxAXi txiwL <ui?
Had
AJJ> ô mi-bdyist b'ism illdh gufta bash and, na-gufta-an< the speaker been present at the occasion, he would have said -*x&
na-guftand.
Dar qadim Injd darydcha-t buda ast o**t ^-^> lu^f /^^^ been (was) a lake here formerly" bud ay would signify th has "there the writer has, or had, lived near the lake or else that he knew by traditic
(36)
:
that there had been a lake there.

Wtf
(37)
Ma%anna
ct*;U **\j*
ki asbdb-i tuy-i 'arrdda yjtdrat
shuda ast
Û^l
&
AJJfe
" " the c$y goods in the wagon have probably been stolen here the Perfect, even after the word probably/ signifies it is the con vie tic
'
In Urdu the Dubious Present Tense
jantft
ho should be used and not the Pres. Indi
In neither case
Should be
in m.c.
is it
known whether
the person
c-**f
*-
came
or not.
aet is really
<xL
*a
shuda baehad;
shuda
wrong thoug
common
CONTINUATION OF
125.
905
of the speaker that they have been stolen, that he has no doubt of the matter. Shuda bdshad <xtj *> would mean ' they may have been stolen.'
(38)
'ariza-i
bi-man ddda ast ki pas panrUz dar

jt>
'arz-i rdh-i Tifiis

t&\$
(y+>
bd jdnvardn-i khud mi-dmada ast

o**f
*vT u<
j^j*
cri *&
re
l
indefinite
shows that the speaker was not present. substituted, but would not indicate whether the speaker was present or not.
time
:
^ Mi-amad <vT ^ might be

ow*l
**x>T
d)l)>^
\*
^f^J&i
uj*' mi-dmada
*'->
H
ast
oH ^^ tof*
&Uj*
dada
ast signifies
Gush dadam, dldam hamdn tawr ast ki khaydl karda am f*xo foM <Jj$ ** ^^\ CÛA " I listened and found out it was even as I had f\ Ittjf thought." Here the Perfect fi ^/ JU^ khayal karda am signifies 'as
(39)
J^
the Pluperfect would signify I had thought previously and still think had thought' (but probably do not do so now). Kardam (*<i/ would mean Mi-kardam {*** as I had thought as I had thought on one occasion.
I
'
:
'
for
some time, or
(40)
frequently.
bdd-i tund
magar bi-jubha-yi kuchak va nahr-hd-yi khurd safar-karda mi-bashi AJ^/OJOJ^ ^<J <& ^b (^ ^jf ^tÛ ^\ ÎA j^ j ^-^ L5 t?>^ (Afghan) "Simpleton! this ^*U* jtu. is not called a gale. Your voyages have been confined to streams and
Ay nadan In rd
nami-guyand
l
canals,
Safar karda mi-bdshi ^kyo jj^ yu. is apt to mislead the student safar-karda j>y j& is a compound adjective like *I?U valo najdt-ydfta and Û^^ mi-bdshl is simply the Present Tense.
:
have they not?
"
" 2 dushndm dada ast oôf ^f^ fUj> &&* So-and-so abused me yesterday." Here the Perfect shows that the speaker was abused behind his back and that the abuse was reported to him. Had he been present and heard the abuse, he would have said ^l^ÛJi^ dushndm
(41)
Fuldn
dUruz
^^
dad.
**he didn't Ndml-danist ki kujd mi-ravad j>j^ {*** ** ^ >'^ tf ki nami-ddnist where know he was going ov-*i|<H^ kujd mi-raft CUÂ/O l^/ Didam ki (not so good and more uncommon) has the same signification.
(42)
' ' :
mutag&ayyir mi-shavad va nasihat-i mard bi-kardhat mi-shinavad j*&*> &$ f**t "I saw that he was getting angry and î^jj/o o^>(^j \j*> osv.^0) j ^^Mg* was taking my advice in ill part " here the Present 2>j^ mi-shavad might indicate Future time, 'I thought he would get angry'; but *&** mi-shud
:
would
be*
open to no such interpretation.

gufta ast cu*f
(43)
Payybambar
" " the Prophet used often to say (the speaker might have been present).
(the speaker not being present).
the Prophet once said Payghambar ml-gufta ast vs**f Axii

AAA?
' '
' '
j*+*ty
"Has
been coming."
Or
fularii.
906
CONTINUATION OF
(44) Ihtimdl ml-ravad ki
125.
u khwahad amad **f
&*)?*>
probably come." Though the Future is often used in such cases after ki, both in speaking and writing, it is incorrect. The Pres. Subj. should be used after .y^* jUI^f ihtimal ml-ravad, as there is a doubt.
will
" he
*$
However
(45)
**f^ y
^
t
j>
ôj yaqin ddram
ki
u khwahad amad
is
correct.
Vaqt-i ki ranj ziyada shud (or ast, or bashad} sawab bishtar

;
khwahad
J>j
bud
(or ml-bashad, or ast or mt-shavad (,ijAAA> U vs**,f I <XUAX> lj ) &Afj.L
but not bashad)

.
<x
^j
*^
yAu v |y
vaqt-i (ki
mi-amadam dldam
ki chiragh-i
shuma mi-sukht
(or mt-suzad)
anja mi-raftam "Had I not been afraid that " were I now not afraid that it it was too late I would have gone there," or would get late I would go there." The adverbs )jj& dtruz or fî farda would fix the time as past or future; also if miravam were substituted
yuf
(46)
Agar nami-tarsldam
ki dir shavad
^.
This
may
signify
either,
^^
for
f**/**
mi-raftam> the Future would be clearly indicated.

Vaqt-i ki
(47)
ft
man
bachcha buda
am
az yak-salagl harf mi-zada
*-j )\ Here vJja*. ^^t"* f*!foy *sy ^x>. continuance of the action up to the present.
*x^
4 *^
/0
^j** mi-zada
am *^> am shows
(48)
Az
<>*
qardr-i ki darvish rrii-guft
ast shigjial'i did
an
ki ruz-i padishah-i bi-shikar mi-rafta &$ c>Axx/o ruz ruz-i 'Id buda ast ÂU^l A^jfy jf
^^
^.^
according to what the ^^*** ^jb* used to say ') that Darvish was saying (either on a particular day or as a certain king was going out hunting, he saw a jackal, that day must
siMt
%ty
jjj
jjtr*^
*^^
^^^f
**
fe**?
ld" Mi-rajta ast o~>! ai^v shows that the Darvish might have been present on the occasion the Imperfect viJ>jA/o mi-raft could be Instead substituted but would indicate that the darvish was not present.
have
been
1
l ;
of
ovwof
jjj>y
buda-ast,
it
would be equally right
to say
*^
to>?
bayad
buda bashad*
*' it is not 'Ajab nist ki ( or agar) bi-ravad ^> ( j!\ or ) *$ &~& v?^ " ti khwahad if he but nist ki ***&> ^?^ raft, 'ajab (not agar) strange go " it is not will he strange that he will (or should) go (as oJ; AAJ^ (J\ not)
(49)
go).
(50)
(
/U>o
or
Muddat-l banda munta$ir-i mulaqat-i sharif buda am (or mi-basham) -AJ/A &($&'Cjia&'0 >Jj (j?**> but muddat-Vst banda niuntaz.ir-i j*l B^J
)
mulaqat-i sharif mi-basham (not buda am)
/*U
1 In Afghan Persian, the perfect participle is prefixed to buda ast to give the sense of " he must have done." " he must have must, as: rafta buda oat gone*' karda buda aat But buda buda ast cannot be said, though by analogy it would be the correct form.
;
Or
mirbayist bashad.
CONTINUATION OF
(
125.
907
f|
tty not
be written,
(51)
ÂJO,X>
it
" I have long been expecting to meet must be followed by buda am.
you"
if
muddat-l bud
Ba'd az dnki dnjd raftam bi-shuma ittild'mi-diham

have gone there I bi-ravam could be substituted for
after I
ptij
Uof
a&f
\\
***
&k>\
l+j "
will
here
^
\
inform you of
raftam
:
my
going"
also vulgarly
Û
<*>;
rafta basham.
(52)
t
Kag&az-i ki dar fuldn
tarilch
bi-man navishta budid imruz rasid
" the letter *!ty *i^y (j-*.j ^-^13 ^&i j& &&**^ you wrote me on such and such date arrived to-day." Here the Pluperfect is used to indicate a time previous to the Preterite, and the Preterite is used to indicate an action
just completed.
(53)
^M))9jM
Gumdn mi-kunam
) f*;f<*J
ki chlz-1 az
31
an qism na-ddram
(or na-dashta bdsham)
(^b
Al^tyj or
thing of that sort."
(t I dont think I have anyL&S- ** p*# &^ p~>* Na-daram f;f*> is here Present Tense, Indicative.
^T
THE END.
INDEX.
A
interj.=/i5, q.v. ; a or e, vulg. for ast, p. 218 (c), Bern. 465, poet, for 6a, p. 322, footnote 2. Abar, poet, for bar, p. 322, footnote 4. Abbreviations and contractions, p. 38 ; arts _ of, vide Number of Words. JLbdari, mule with saddle-bags, etc., p. 409
t
without izafat, precede nouns to form (g) compounds, p. 151 (h) a series may be connected by izafat, or by conj. av, p.
;
and footnote 2. Abjad, p. 32. Ablative case, p. 464. Able, to be, expressed by Passive, p. 253 (e) danistan, p. 254 (g) yarastan, p. 254 (g) shudan, p 253 (d) tavunistan, p. 248; paraphrases, p. 254 (i). Abna* with izafat, p. 43Q (/). Accent or stress, p. 45; on verbs, p. 237;
;
(i) ; may follow in apposition, p. 152 if (i) (3); with affixed pron., p. 152 (/) predicate is a noun qualified by a simple adj., latter may precede or follow its noun, p. 152 (/); adjocs. used as subs, may be pi., p. 152 (m) ; pi. adjecs., Pers. and Ar., occasionally used to qualify a dual to qualify pi. subs., pp. 153-4 (n) dual, 154 (10); Ar. fern sing., lifeless noun, how qualified, if ending in o, Ar. fern, rational noun with of unity how
;
151
qualified (11); sing. Ar. subs, denoting rational being, how qualified (12); summary of rules of concord, p. i ~>4 (o) ; Pers.
adj. treated as subs., may be qualified by another adj., p. 155 (p) a few subs, used as adjecs. in Mod. Pors., p. 155 (q) ;
;
falls on last syllable of either stem or on prefix, p. 237 (/). Accusative case, p. 451 ; has two forms; ra=def. article, p. 451 (d) (1) and (2); ra must be added to direct obj. of Impera. p. 452 (3) ; when a phrase is in apposition, p. 452 (4); ra in app. of qualification, p. 453 (5); after the indef. art. 3/5, p. 453 (5), Rem. II and (&) ; ra usually omitted after cardinals, p. 454 (7) ; noun in app. to a def. noun in the ace. does not take ra, p. 454 (8) ; ra added
,
Noun
Part, used as 156 (r) mast, dust, plr and plra, p. 15J (s) (1); kamma, p. 157 ($) (2); broken pis. gen. fern., p. 157 (t) (1) and (2) if fern, rational noun is Pers. or
of
adjecs., p.
; ;
Agency and Past
Ar. , or
it
is
adj is of measure usually fern, sing.,

if
.
Aixfc oi>j*J, p. 157
(t)
(3)
if
Ar. adj.
is
to Inf., p. 455 (0);
with several nouns,

;
added to last only (10); added to indof. nouns to avoid ambiguity (11) old form
of ace., p. 455 (12); omission of ra does not always make noun in def. pp. 455-6 (13); omission of ra, pp. 456-8 (14) to
,
separated from its noun or is predicative, it is preferably in masc. form (4) optional
;
(21 ); in
same clause ra cannot=both
dat.
Ar. adj. in mod. Pers., in speaking J generally omitted, but inserted adin uniting (5); za'tf^&nd za'ifa (~>) ; vantage of adding S p. 158 (t) (6); in
to
X
add
to
ace., p. 456 (14); omitted after cardinals (15): after generic nouns, p. 457 (16) ; with compound verbs (17) ; in Clas. Pers. often omitted after affixed pronouns, p. 457 ( 18) ; omitted in familiar language, p. 458 ( 19) ; cognate ace. rare, p. 458 (20) vulgar form of ace., p. 57 (d). Adam, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4), and p.
;
and
m.c., Ar. adj.

rarely fern.
part, in common use seldom take fern. Jj, p. 158 (7) ; maqbul,
and
, p. 158 (7) ; guft u gu-yi sabiqa, fern ?, p. 158 (8); musammat, fern., and 'ulya-jah, p. 158 p. 158 (9) ; 'all-jah (10); Ar. fern, elative with Pers. or Ar. noun, p. 15') (11) ; Ar. Part, used as noun
why
takes
a,
p. 159 (11),
Hem.
two subs, used
and footnote 7. 'Adam, in forming substantives,

53!)
p. 167 (13),
Rem.
'Adim, in cornp. adj., p. 167 Adlna, p. 210, footnote 1.
;
(13).
Adjectives pp. 141) to 181; Comp. Adjecs., pp. 161-9 Intensive, pp. 169-171 Adjecs. Num., pp. 199-200; adjecs. generally indeclinable, follow their noun with izafat, in old Pers. preceded noun, p. 149 fa) of unity inverted epithet, noun takes Ar. adjecs. follow their noun, Turk(6) ish precede their Turkish subs., p. 150 (c) l&h.ayU and biftyar, take sing, or pi.; " much " with chandan, sing, or pi., and with neg. verb, p. 150 (/) in m.c. one or two adjecs. precede their subs., p. 160
;
;
for sing. subs, adj., p. 160 (w) (I) and (3) ; hull, Ar. subs., kulll Pers. subs, and Ar. adj., p. 160 (w) (2); husn and w% p. 160 160 (w) (w) (3) huan-i jchubi-yosh, m.c. , p. f sukhan-i amm, class, and sufehanri (3) 'umumi, mod., p. 161 (x) ; izafat, after some part, in place of prep., p. 161 (y) ;
; ;
mubvl-i mumkin, vulg., p. 161
(y)
pak
and
saf, p. 161 (z)
-ana, p. 161
p. 161
;
(a a):
COMPOUND ADJECTIVES,
=adj.,
a phrase
noun,
p. 161 (a); compound of adj. p. 162 (6) (1) and (2), and of noun adj. (b) (2), Rem. ; adj. compound qualifying two nouns, p. 162 (6) (1), Rem.
noun -h noun, p. 663 (3) ; noun + II Pers. verbal, p. 163 (4); adj. or adv. + Pers. verbal, p. 164 (.>) ; subs. + Past
;
910
INDEX.
Interrogation expresses denial, p. 293 (e) '* emphatic denial Never," p. 293 (/) na for "no," vulg., na-Jskayr, etc., 294 (g) (1); ifehtiyar darld, polite affirmation or negation (2) adv. of affirmation, p. 294 mana and hamana, p. 295, Rem. I (i) in sha 9 Allah, p. 295 (4) ADVERBS OP INTERROGATION, pp. 296 (/)-299 DOUBT., pp. 299-300; COMPARISON, pp. 300-302; PLACE, pp. 302-5; QUANTITY, 305-8; QUALITY, MANNER, pp. 308-311; TIME, PRESENT, p. 312-3; PAST, p. 313-4; FUTURE, p. 314-5 other methods of expressTIME INing time, p. 315 (4) jakhi (5) DEFINITE, etc., pp. 315-9; ORDER AND NUMBER, p. 319-320; EXCEPTION, p. 3201 Adverbs, QUALIFICATION, p. 321 SYNTAX of, pp. 495-7 adv. qualifying a noun, p. 495 (a) position of adv., (b) substituted for nouns, p. 497 (d) one (c) adv. with 2 or more verbs, p. 497 (e) ; 2 negatives= an affirmative, p. 497 (/) adv. rejoined to Inf. by izajat, p. 497 (g) a subj. garded as part of the Inf. (h) after a prohibition requires a negative (*'). Adverbial Clauses, p. 545-573, 128, 129,
;
Part., Ar. or Pers., p. 164 (6); prep. + subs., p. 164 (7); kam, + subs, or Pers. verbal, p. 165 (8); kam + subs., p. 165 (g); na, + adj., subs., Pers. verbal, or
Past Part., p. 165 (10); ghayr-i, prefixed to nouns, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 la,
;
167 (12), Hem. *adim and ma*dum, + Ar. subs., p. 167 (13) compound Ar. adj., 167 (14) ; Ar. pi., p. 167 (15); adj. of
; ;
adj. or subs., p. 167(12); la uball, p.
resemblance, and br.pl. qualifying adj., p. 168 (16) words commonly used to form Comp. adj., p. 168 (c) verbal adjec. in 5, rare in comp., p. 169 (16) ADJECTIVES, INTENSIVE, pp. 169-171 formed by adding -5, p. 169 (a) (2); by adding adj. or adv., pp. 169-170 (b) (1); intensified by
; ;
ya of unity,
repetition gives continuative or intensive sense, p. 170 (c) (1) (3); meaningless appos. may be intensive, 140 (a), Rem. shah, fthar dev, preCOMPARISON of ADJECfixed, p. 170 (e)
; ; ;
p. 170 (b) (2)
TIVES and COMPARATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 171-181 vide under Comparison of Adjectives: Adjectives ending in t, compara.
,
and
pp.
super., how incorrectly written, p. 175, footnote 1 : ADJECTIVES, NUMERAL,
132, 133.
199-200;
VERBAL ADJECTIVES,
in
-var. -ana,
p.
Adverbial Numerals,
dinals
p. 196 (a); p. 196 (c)
Pers. or-
234:
ADJECTIVES
and ADJECTIVES Syntax, pp 490-495; dimurally adverbial, p. 414
genefootnote 4:
and cardinals,
nition of quality, p. 490 (a); 'a little' or 'few* changes negative into positive, kam and kam-tar, as negap. 490 (b) tives (b} adjecs. implying unity or in comparisons noun plurali by, p 491 (c)
;
should
be
repeated
(d)
some
adjeos.
strictly speaking: do not admit of superlative, p. 492 (h); inconsistent qualities
joined to same subs., p. 493 (?) and footnote; non- repetition of adj., cause of obscurity, Rem. one adj. qualifying two nouns (k) two or more adjecs. with one
;
;
Adverbial Participles, p. 528 (2) note (3). Adverbial Verbs, p. 247 (a). Adversative clauses, p. 582 (c) to p. 584 conjunctions used, afterthought, p. 582; examples, pp. 582-4. Affirmation, polite form of, p. 294 (g) (2); m.c. phrases, p. adverbs of, p. 294 (i) 295 (5) (6). Afkanidan, obs., p. 283 (d) (3). Afrlnama and afrln, p. 368 and footnotes I
;
and (d). and foot-
and 2. " After that," followed by Pres. Subj.

502
(').
p.
izafai, p. 494 with prep.=adj.j (I); some adjecs. followed by gen. (n) ; adv. used for adj. p 495 (a) all adjecs. can be used as adverbs, p. 495 (b) VERBAL ADJECTIVES in -5, p. 534, Remark ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 600 (g). Adjunctive Clauses, p. 577 (c), vide under Co-ordinate Clauses; ADJUNCTIVE CONJUNCTION, p. 577 (c). Admiration, Ar. forms, p. 368 and footnote 4. 'Aduv-i a'da 9 and dushman-i dushmanan,
(I):
noun should be coupled by

subs,
Afzun, etc., comp., p. 175 Agarchand, p. 361 (7) and note 6.
(5).
p.
556 and foot-
and footnote Agarchi, correlatives of, p. 345 2; p. 361 (8).

Agar-chunanchi m.c.="if>" p. 339, footnote 1. Agency, Noun of, p. 156 (r) and p. 534 (p) and footnote 2 and (q); used class, as
,
adj. (p) (1) (2); in Mod. Pers. rare, gen. a mere adj., p. 534 (gj ; Afghan
noun or
have
different significations, p. 61, foot-
note 3. Adverbs, with comp. and sup. suffixes, p. 176 (o) (2); ADVERBS and ADVERBIAL PHBASES, pp. 288-321; adjectives and participles as adverbs, p. 289 (b), and p. 414 and footnote 4 subs, with or without preps,, with pron., adj., subs., adv., phrases, p. 290 (3) to (6) Ar. phrases, p. 291 (7) and (8); adv. with prep., p. 291
;
idiom, p. 535 (2). Aghazldan, obs., p. 256 (6) and footnote 4. Aghlab, p. 125 (o) with izafat, p. 444 (I). Ahad-l=Yak-i, p. 101 (c) (2) br. pi. ahad,
;
;
p.
(6).
102
(c)
(2),
Rem.; ahad-i na,
p. 106
Ahl, p. 435
(c).
Ahfan
sahl nn , p. 382, Ahriman, p. 208.
wa
Rem.
4.
Ahsan,
interj., p.
(4).
368 and footnote
<A'id. p. 559
Ajali mahtum and
ajal-i mu'allaq, p. 577,

(d),
(c)
ADVERB OP NEGATION and WARNING,

;
pp. 292 (2)-293
SCARCELY,
p.
293
(3)
footnote 4. Ak t dimin. term., p, 397
and
p.
396
(4).
INDEX.
aWk and and footnote 2. a monster, p. 387 and footnote 4. -an, p. 312 and footnote 2. aat. p. 430 (q) and footnote 1. -hal, p. 291 (8), and p. 312 and footnote 2. I, every, p. 112 (i) and p. 119 (;'). la, interj., p. 373 and footnote 3. literation, p. 6:28 (;*) p. 033 (k) and footj&
,
911
;
and
alshavl, p. 64 (n);
Andak and
inter]., p. 367
andak-i, p. 126 (5) sense, p. 231 (;') and p. 304 (5).
in neg.
aote 3.
II,
Vide also under Repetition.

less
one attribute
1.
than God, p. 190,
footnote
if,
significations and names, pp. 11-3; maqsura, p. 10 (/), Bern. II, and p. 20 and footnote 3 ; mamduda, alif i
alif-i
pp. 20-1,
and p. 25, footnote 2; names of final alif, p. 169 (a) (!) (2), and foot;
note 2; added to qualified subs, in old Pers., p. 169 (a) (2) alif-i nudba, p. 366, Footnote 2; abst. nouns and adjecs. 'ormed by, p. 398, footnote 2; FORMATIVE ALIF, p. 147 alif-i rabita, oxs. and p. 626 (5) (6) and footnotes 1-2. ll-jah and 'ulya-jah, pp. 158-9 (10). liq, p. 503 and footnote 3. manacs, two kinds of, p. 11, footnote 2. phabet, pp. 1-27; Morphological, p. 2. bernative Clauses, pp. 579 (d) to 582 oined by ya etc., (d) (1) (2); other alternative conjs., p. 580 (3); negative alternation, p. 581 (4). bhough, p. 345 and footnote 3. u balu and gilas, p. 466 and footnote 6. tadan, as defec. verb, p, 249 (c), Bom. mala, used as sing., p. 69, footnote 3; amala jat ditto; pi. of 'umil, p. 60 (/),
;
Elem.
ibiguity,=i&7iam, p. 631 (d) ; examples in idjecs., p. 493 (/), Bom. and (k) (I); in idvs., p. 495 (b) (c) and Bern.; p. 497
c) by omission of and,' p. 500 (d) a often ambiguous, p. 500 (e) and footlotos 5-6; p. 503 (6); p. 505 (a) (1) and botnote 2 participial, p. 531 and p. i48 (3); ambig. words, p. 653 (a)-654; fine writing' unbig. phrases, p. 654 (b) i source of Vide obscurity, p. 655 (4). ilso under Obscurity and Incoherence. mil, pis. of, p. _66, footnote 3.
* ;
Andar=dar, p. 324 (g). Andarun, adv. and noun, p. 303 and footnote I, and p. 331 and footnote 4. Andun or azun, p. 311 (13). Anfiya, Pers. for Ar. anfiyyah, p. 410 and footnote 5. Anl, rel. adj. terrain., p. 402, Bern. VI. Anjuman, p. 569 and footnote 2 ; p. 653 and footnote 1. Ant, p. 87 (p). Antanaelasis, p. 655 and footnote, and p. 668 (i) and footnote 1. Antecedent, how styled, pp. 559 and 560 (4). Anticlimax, p. 670 (m) (2). Antlka, p. 572 (13) and footnote 3. Ahtiphrasis, p, 633 (/) and footnote 1. Antithesis, p. 631 (e) and footnotes 6 and 7; p. 632 (e); p. 638, Bern.; faulty or incomplete, p. 670 (I). Antonomasia, p. 632 (c) and footnote 1. Anvar-i Suhayll, best portions, criticisms on, pp. 642 (0-4. Aorist and Preterite, in class, and in Mod. and 6 ; Aor. Pors., p. 516 and footnotes both Indie, and Subj., p. 505 in CLASSICAL PERSIAN, pp. 505 (a)-8 as Pres. Indie, (a) (1); as Indef. Fut. (a) (2); as Pres. Subj. or Condit., p. 506 (a) (3); Dof Put. and Aor. in same sentence with same moaning, p. 506 and footnote 2 in MODERN PERSIAN, p. 508 (6) as Pres. tense (6) (1); as Indef. Fut. (b) (2); as Pres. Subj., p. 509 (3) takes place of Eng. infin., p. 509 (4); used optatively (5); for Impera., p. 510 (6); for Pret. Indie, in Eng. (7) Irif. can be substituted, p. 510, Bern. II Aor. of DASHTAN, p. 511 Bern. Appendix A, Arabic, p. 675; Appen. B
.'> ;
of 125) examples of use of tenses, p. 899. Apodosis, of command and oath, p. 545 (a), Bern., and p. 651 (2) and footnote 4. Apposition, adjecs. following in, p. 152 (i} of Qualification, position of ra, p. (3)
(contiri.
;
\riiin,
vide
'
'Amma.
izafat, p.
437 (a), mr, p. 450 and footnote 5 and p. 453, ootnote 1. TIM, p. 371 and footnote 2.
ilr,
without
453 (5); pp. 614-22; in Ar., p. 674 Exs., Pron. and Adj., p. 615 (6) Noun and Adj. or Phrase (2); Adj. Phrases in, may follow verb (2); indef. nouns in Ace., p. 616 (3);
(a); (1);
and two two
nouns
in
Nom.
(4)
EXPLANATORY APPO-
nma,
20)
;
subs,,
and *otmm,
adj., p. 118-9
*aml, adj., vulg., p. 119 (20) (21). ima, p. 345, footnote 2. n(m)l, vide' 'Amma. long and Amidst, p. 503 (d). ' to learn,* to teach,' in m.c.= \uWbtan, ormer only, p. 244, Bern, and footnote 4. as adv. termination, p. 198, footnote , an-i niebat, p. 416 and footnote 4 ; >a'3-l baran-and, idiom, p. 83 (d). agram, p. 9 (A), footnote 1. chi, p. 123 (5). d=odd, p. 198 (3). i=fa, p. 348 and footnote 2.
*
5
SITION, (4) Bern. I; tofc&aZZw?, Bern, II; in Voc., p. 616 (5) and footnote 3; noun or pron. understood (6) CORROBORATIVE APPOSITION (c) ; ta*kid-i lafzi, p. 617 (1) ; tcfkld-i ma'navi, p. 617 (2) tamyiz, etc. further exs. of exs. of tabi*, Bern. (3) t<?kld-i lafzi, p. 618; ra with def. or indef. no\m in appos. (d) ; words connected by certain particles considered, by Arabs, to be in appos., p. 619 (e), but not if connected by particles of exception, footnote 6; Pers. app. for Eng. gen. , p. 620 (/) ; vice versa (g) with Ar. interj. ya, correct Ar. construction better, iz&fat in m.c. often incorrectly in(g)
;
912
sorted,
;
INDEX.
Aya,
p.
Rem. qualifying words with numerals or signifying quantity in appos. , p. 621 (h); pron. in appos. to subs, or adj. may or may not take izafat (i) and footnotes; not used after pron. u, p. 622; pi. prons. and adj., p. 622; appos. is brief, p. 652 (s). 'Appositive Meaningless,' p. 426 (d) and footnote 6 Appositive Clauses, p. 576
;
p. 238 (a)
354
(14)
and footnote 3; p. 298 (9) and footnote 5; =" whether"

only
its
in inten. clauses
only,
in direct narration place in m.c., p. 579 (2), footnote 4; p. 580 (2) and foot-
magar takes
note
2.
Ay an
'Ayn,
(a)
and
(6).
2nd pers., p. 68 (a). beginning of words, p. 27; 'Ayn-i yakRabi'u'l-avval, p. 200 and footnote 4; 'ayn with izafat. p. 310
ki, class voc. of
letter, p. 16; at
'Aqab for
footnote
II.
'aqib,
5.
vulg. 'aqqib, p. 303

p. 129,
and
(5).
Az, with comparatives,
'Aqab manda and pas manda,
Rem.
Aqall, with 3rd pers. sing., p. 70 (c). Aqsam, followed by pi., p. 470 (m); qism
Arabic Noun
by
sing.
(I).
of," p. 172 (c) (2), Rem.; kiâz, az shahr dar amadan, p. p. 172 (c) (3) 276, Rem. p. 504 (h) Az an-i denote possession, p 76-77 (/) (g). Az an ja-l ki , p. 357, footnote 1.
; ; ,
"one
p.
172
(c)
(1);
of Relation, p. 61,
(6),
Rem.
;
Arasta bash, p. 265

(<*).
Arbab and arbab-ha,
p. 65 (e),
Rem. IV. R^m.
p. 436
Az bas ki, pp. 306 (3) and 360 (6). Azmar qablaz-zikr, p. 612 (10) and footnote 2. Az vaqt-l ki az an gah ki etc., p. 361
,
,
(11).
Aray
(g)
balay, at Zardushti marriage, p. 625

.
and footnote 1 Arl, p. 294 (i) and p. 295 'An, of prose, p. 638.
Article, p. 48.
B.
(2).
Ba,
p. 363
p.
Ba and
Babr
Arz and 'ar?za, kardan and dashlan, and footnote 6.
'As long as/ p. 362 (13). As much as,' p. 362 (13). 'As much for' as, in compar. between
clauses, p. 179 (v) (4). Ash and shan, these prons. classically used for animates only, but in Mod. Pers. for inanimates also, p. 71 (a) (2) ash substitute for shan, p. 75 (k). Ash'ar-i razm, p. 635. 'Ashiq-baz, player with kuncklebones, p. 441 (6). * Ashiq- kushltidy-kiMer , etc., p. 441 and
;
Bach, 395 (3) and footnote 3. Bachcha, dimin., p. 397 (e)

p. 441 (6) ; bachcha-ha p. 373 and footnote 7.
; 65, p. 504 (/). tiger," vide' Shir. obs. form of bachcha=" sprout," p.
"
322 and footnote baray, p. 331 (3)

*
3.
in
=Urdu
compounds,
ko,i hai t
Bad, bada, buvad,
p. 227 (d).
Bad and nlk, frequently precede
their subs., p. 149 (6). Ba'd with izafat or az, p. 331 (5) ; ba'd as an ki, etc., vide After that.
Badal or Apposition, p. 614 (a). Badraqa kardan, in m.c.mashay'at
k., p.
Ashura*, p. 192, footnote 5. Aspak, p. 396 and footnote 1. Asses of Bahrayn, p. 467 and footnote 5. Astaghfir* 'Uah, etc., p. 293 (/) (1) and footnote 7. 220 (c) Aste=a8t, p. 219 (h) p. 546 and footnote 5. Astl, p. 232, VIII, Rem. Asyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Atabaki, variety of pomegranate, p. 377 and footnote 1. I and 'At.f-i bayan p. 614 and p. 616, Rem. (4), footnote 2; 'a// or simple appos., p. 619 (c) 'a&f-i nasaq and apj-i bi {writ/ (c) and footnote 4. 'Aj&ar, sells Persian medicines, ginger, paper, etc., p. 459 and footnote 1. Autq or awla, elative without a positive, not to be confounded with ula fern, of awwal, p. 172, footnote 3. Auxiliary Verbs, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem. Awcfil, p. 193 (g).
; ; f
;
Jootnote
2.
178 (v) (1) and footnote 4; and p. 380, footnote 4. Bah bah, inter j., p. 368 and footnote 1. Bahman (or Pashmadan), p. 107 (2); fulan as adj., fulanl not, p. 108 (2) fulan u bisar, for things, p. 108 ("2) bahman, p. 639 and footnote 2. Bahrayn Island, cesses of, famous, p. 467 and footnote 5. Bastar, p. 108 (4). Ba,ldan, obs., p. 266, footnote 5. Bajl, p. 371 and footnote.
;
Balagha eloquence, p. 629 (a). Balance in sentences, p. 638, Rem. Balanced sentences, vide under Sentence.
Baliyh and fasih p. 629 (a) and footnote 1 Balki, p. 299 (k) (2) ; p. 345 (7) ; p. 582 (e). Ballads, p. 635. Baluchis, p. 393 and footnote 1. Banda, etc., for 1st and 3rd pers. prons., pp. 69 (c) and 70, Rem. p. 476 and foot, . ;
note
1.
Banu,
II.
p. 60 (e). Baql, p. 129 (a)
baql manda, p. 129,
Rem.
Awal&ir,p. 193
Awla-tar,
(g).
how
written, p. 21.
pi. of,
Awwal,
adj.
a subs., used in dates,
p. 193 (g) ; as subs, followed 193 (g); p. 193 (h).
by
izafat, p.
Baqiyya.p. 120 (2). Bar, in class. Pers. indicates a superlative, p. 176 (n) (6); p. 324 (e) and footnote 1. Barabar, p. 303 and footnote 4.
INDEX
J3ar5?y,p. 331
(3).
1.
913
Barbarism, p. 631 and footnote

;
Bard"' 'l-'Ajiiz, p. 210 (d). Bar&h-i, p. 126 (7) p. 308 (9). Baa, baa-l, basa, p. 123 (w) bas, etc., az baa ki, p. 306 (3).
;
and
bar, p. 358 (2). Bi-nisbat, with compar. adj , p. 172 Blrun, p. 331 (6). Bisar or bistar, p. 108 (2) (4). Blah, as cornpar., p. 175 (5).
Bina
(c) (2).
228 (/) baah bash for afterthought, p. 582 (e), and 684 and footnote 4. Bashad= perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and footnote 3. Baat, p. 393 (g). Balar, class, and colloq. for bad-tar, p. 175, footnote 1. Bd vafif-l ki, p. 360, footnote 4; 65 vasf-l in ki, p. 361 (9). Bd vujud-l ki-, p. 360 (7). Ba yiatan (and ba*idan obs.), p. 266, etc.; substitutes for, 272 (r); =should, p. 271 (o) ;=imi8t have, p. 271 (p) p. 540 (d).
p.
;
;
Ba/i="halt,"
Bish-tar, blsh-tarln, p. 125 (o) ; bish-tarîhe greater part, p. 304 (o) ; with or without
izafat, p. 444 (d). p. 418 and footnote 2. BismVllah, interj,, p. 381 and footnote 1. Bisqumot, sing, or pi. p. 66 (g) and foot-
Bt-#t5n==mcome,
note 5. Bisyar and Jshayll take not follow its noun

p. 120
(r).
pi.
;
noun
latter can;
p.
150 (d)
bisyar,
Baz,m.c.
;
better, p. 175(fc); p.
;
345, foot-
note 2 p. 653 and footnote 4. Ba'z and ba'z-i, pp. 127-8 (q) ba'z-i bar an-and, p. 324 (/).
Bazm,
*
p. 635. Bazu-band, p. 392, footnote 5.

p.
Be, tr., verb, pp. 217-221. Before that' followed by Pres. subj., 502 (').
Begam, fern, of beg, p. 50 (d). Belt, zardushti, p. 15, footnote 4. Besides, including, p. 502 (c). Better than the best,' p. 176 (ri) (4). Between or betwixt, p. 503 (e). Bezoar stone, p. 180 (w) (4) and footnote 4 p. 657 and footnote 2. 7?i-, gen. prefixed to Impera. in Mod. Pers., gen. omitted beforo shaw and always before bash, p. 230, footnote 2 can be prefixed to Past Condi t., p. 231, VI Rem. when omitted in verbs, p. 223 (3) with ml-, p. 223 (4) p. 237 (6) before tavan, p. 252 (a), Rem.; before Def. Fut., p. sometimes used with sim2.">9, Rem. I ple, but not with compound verb, p. Vide Ba-, and On. 275 (d).
;
Bisyari and bisyar-i,p. 124 (n) (1); p. 306 (2) and footnote 2. Bisyar-tar, not much used, p. 304 (4). Blue, wards off evil eye p. 392 (/). Blows, three, how expressed, p. 189,|Rem. I. Bombast, p. 630 (c) and footnote 1. Both, and neither of two, p. 108 (/) isnayn, indirect ways of expressing, p. 109 (3) p. 109 (4) expressed by Ar. dual, p. 109 (5) p. 190 (I). Brevity, p. 644 (a) (6). Budam, budaml, mi-bud, p. 548 and footnote 2. Budan, paradigm., p. 2231; Contin. Im;
;
pera., its negative, p. 224,

still
;
Rem.
;
buvam
used by Afghans, p. 224 bad, bada, harchi bad-a-bad, p. buvad, p. 227 (d) ruz-i ma bada, p. 228 (e) 227 (d)
; ;
mabada,
p.
;
228
(e)
in footnote 1 for Imperf., p. 228

(/)
chi budi, p. 228 and Mod. Pers. Pret. used

;
,
(i)
6as/i=halt, p. 228
ki, p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Bulbul, p. 351, footnote 4. Bulls, Irish, and Incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2). But, p. 345 (9). Buvad, old = bcid, p. 227 (d). Buz, female goat vide Chapish.
Bu
'
Bibliomancy, Divination, superstitions, pp. 390 to 394 istibhara, p. 390 (a) fa/aûl, geomancers,etc., David, p. 391-2 p. 391 unlucky days, p. 392 (d); omens (c) (c) bast, 393 (g) Nau-Ruz, (h); evjl eye (/) revolution of heavens and misfortunes, and Qadar (i). Qaza
:
Bi-dih, subs., p. 262 (d)

p.
(5)
;= expenditure,
418 and footnote
2.
p. 391 and footnote 2. Bi-gard-ash naml-rasad, p. 293 (/) (12) and footnote 8. Begin giriftan, pp. 254-6; other verbs, p. 256 (b) Afghan idioms, p. 257 (c) ; uftadan, m.c., p. 257 (d). Bih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i) (1); as optative in poetry, p. 174 (*) (4). Bih bih, interj., p. 36s and footnote 1.
Bi-/arma*id= please,
Bi-har JâL p. 365 (20). Bi-mujarrad, etc., p. 361 (12). Bin (son) without izafat, p. 437 438 (3).
(a)
and
p.
Calling, vide Etiquette. Cardinals, p. 182 (a); noun in sing, with, to cardinals and p. 469 (6); predicate noun, p. 469 (h) and footnote 2. Carpets, p. 188, footnote 4. Cases of Nouns, pp. 445 to 464. Causal Clauses, p. 574 (c) ; -Vide' also under Final Clauses. Causal Verbs, pp. 282-4; how formed, p. 282 (a); intransi made trans, by causal termination, and trans, causal, p. 283 verbs with two roots have two (6) forms, p. 283 (c); verbs with stem ending in n change it to y, p. 283 (/) ; in m.c. shorter form of causal preferred, p. 283 (/); some verbs have no causal, p. 213 (g); a few causals only used in m.c., p. 283 (h); examples in use, p, 284 (2); passive of causals, p. 284 (2), Bern.; other methods of expressing causation,
;
58
914
p. 284
;
INDEX.
Chihil-var, vide Qamfo. Chilla or chilla, p. 205 (6).
'
'
(i) qabulanidan^ (/) ; simple verb takes place of causal, usually, p. 284 (k) ; p. 574 (c). Gha, dimin. terrain., p. 396 (5). Chakavuk, desert lark, p. 656 and footnote
Chim-i tasghir, p. 397, Rem. II
various
(I)
;
names
Chira 298
,
of chi, p. 97 (x) dat. of chi and chira ki, p. 94

'
'
p.
5.
Chaman,
Chand, inter, "how many?" for nouns animate or inanimate, p. 96 (w); "how ta chand "how much?" p. 97 (w) " chand-sala " of a few long ?, p. 97 (w)
;
p. 411
and footnote
1.
and Rem. Chi-san, vide under

(4)
*
chi,
Chist,
vide
'
under
;
chi.
;
Chiz and chiz-i, p. 86 chiz-i ~qadr-i, p. 86, footnote 3 chiz or chiz-i with neg. p. 107 (7) chi chiz or c/tiz-i= what's his
,
how many years ? ", p. 97 (w), Rem. I. chand ta 56, p. 97 (w), Rem. II. Chand and Chand-i "a few, some," page 109 (g) followed by sing, subs., p. 110
years or of
;
name
4
?, p.
108 (3)
:
chiz-i, p. 125 (1).
Chu, p. 347 (11). Chun, p. 98 (6) =fcwn,

;
p. 29(5
and footnote
p. 98 and footnote 4, and p. 298 (5) ;
(2); Afghans use a pi. subs., p. 110 (4); in m.c. chand-i or yak chand $=a little while, p. Ill (5) ; chand-i in m.c.=c/iandgah, chand bar, etc., p. Ill (5), Rem. I; yak chand a few, p. Ill (5), Rem. II ; tani chand, class. few individuals, p. Ill
bi chun u chand, p. 345 and footnote 1. Chun and chun ki, p. 345 (8). Chunan, in India and Afghanistan (but not in Persia) followed by the demons. 4^,
p. 148
(s);
=a
ham-chunan-i ki correct Per(s).
(6)=m.c. chand nafar yak chand, sing, noun, pi. verb, p. Ill (8) and 5, Rem. II, but with ta sing, verb; connected with and and andak, p. Ill (9), Rem. I p. 199 (c): chand-sala= either "of a few years or of how many years ?," p. 97 (w), Rem.
; ;
sian, p. 148
Chandan and chandin,
p. 89 (h) and 90 (2) chandan-i, p. 90 (2); chandin, p. 90 (3); both precede a sing, noun, p. 90 (3), Rem. chandan in India and Afghanistan fol; ;
lowed by the demons. chanp. 148 dan = much, many, followed by sing, noun in Mod. Pers. by negative, p. 150
,
;
Chandanchi, obs. p. 363 (13), Rem. Chandan-ki, p. 307 (8) chandan-i ki, Afghan, p 308 chandan-ki=zos soon as, p. 357, footnote 2 p. 362 (12) (13), footnote
; ;
;
1 ; pp. 363 4 (16) and footnotes 5 and 6 p. 364 and footnotes 3 and 4 p. 578 (1) and footnotes 5 and 6. Chunan ki, p. 363 (16) 344 (6). Chunin and chunan, p. 88 (a) (1) (2) and (6) k. = to procrastinate (c) ; chunan u chunin 89 (e). p. 89 (d) pi. of, not used, p. Chuza, obs., p. 379 and footnote 6. Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and 646 (/). Clauses, comparison between, pp. 178-9 (v) Clearness in style, p. 631 (d). Climax, p. 670 (m) (I). Coherence, ride Incoherence. Collective Nouns and Nouns of Multitude^ concord of, p. 586 470 (k) when
Chunanchi~ii, p. 339, footnote

;
pi., p.
1.
Chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Chapish or nari, he-goat; buz she-goat, p. 379 and footnote 2. Chapter, p. 613, Rem. Ill and footnote 1. Charand u parand, p. 156 (n), Rem. Chawush, p. 652 (t) and footnote 3. Chit what, which etc. ?. p. 93 (k) sing, or
;
Collocation faulty, examples of, in advs. and adjecs., pp. 495 to 497 p. 49o,Rem. Pers. and footnote 1 p. 498 (5) Rem. errors in, p. 610 (n) ; exs. of, p 608 (m) follow adjecs. or phrases in appos. may the verb, p 615 (b) (12); faulty collocation, p. 648 (2) and footnote 2. Commentary, p. 646 (/) and footnote 4. how Comparatives, Past Part, of kardan, used by Afghans, p. 280, Rem.
;
(e)
chi-san, p. 94, Rem. I; ay chi, m.c., Rem. II; dat. chira and chira ki, p. 94 (J);=of course, (I) ; ace. with ra rare, (m) ; in m.c. gen. followed by chiz or harf, etc. (n) ; common colloquialisms with chi (o) ; chi what ?, p. 95 (p) ; chi how, what (q) ; chi how ? (r) ; chi biidi would to God (a) and 550 (e); chiha, pi., p. 96 (t); chi-chi, (u) ; chi-yi musavat, (u) Rem. ; used also for animates, (v) ; various names for chi, p. 97 (x); chi-chiz=z what's his name?, p. 108 (3); chi^chi, p. 218, footnote 4; chi and aya, p. 298 (9) ; chi f arz mi-kunam, evasive reply, p. 294 (g) (3); chi mipi.,
(k)
chist,
Comparison
not
pi.
of Adjectives
in
and Comparative
sup.
Rem
Clauses, pp. 171-81;
how formed,
much used
sup none, p. Past Parts., (a) Rem.; Ar. elativ'e, how formed, (b) (1) comp. and min, but sup. and gen (6) (1); as comp., makes no conchange for gen. and num., (6) (2) structions with some Ar. superlatives, after Ar. pp. 171-2 (6) (3) cognate br. pi.
; , ;
;
Mod. Pers., comp. has 171 (a): comp. of some
sup., p. 172
(6)
from degrees of com.

\
\
p. 172 (b) (6) ; -in, p. 172 (6) (6) ; double comparatives, Pers. suffix added to Ar. elative, p. 172
(c);
Ar. adjecs. usually in Pers. manner, suffix-tonn contracted to

(4);
ehavad, p. 300 (7) ; p 346 (11) p. 580 and footnotes 5, 7 and 8. Chiasmus, p. 638 and footnote 5. Ghiguna, p. 98 (a).
;
(3)
j
*than' with comp.
how
expressed,
p. 172 (d) ; by az (d) (1) ; by bi-nisbat, (d) followed by (2); by ki (d) (3); comp. Pers. or Ar. iza/at, p. 173 (d) (4); Sup.,
INDEX.
with gen., gener. pi., p. 173 (e) (1); sup. treated as ordinary adjec. (e) (2); " the nearest village," how rendered, p. 173 (e) "one of the most," p. 174 (4); (3); comp. strengthened by prefixing adv., can stand alone (g) Pers. comp. p. (/) and sup. of kamil, p. 174; positives bih, mih, kih, karri used as comparatives, (i) bih as optative in poetry (i) (2) positive
;
915
Q.
pounds, p. 279 (h); in a verb, p. 280.
phrase as a comp.
Concise Style, p. 644 and footnote 5. Concord, Subject and Verb, pp. 585-91 rational beings in class, Pers. p. 585
; ;
(a)
irrationals
(6)
two or more
pi.
sing,
(c);
nouns, rational beings, and
verb
ziyad and ziyada (i) (4); afzun, blah, plah are comp., p. 175 (5); "more," methods of expressing, p. 175(6); too, p. 175 (/) comp. between person and thing and rest of the class, either pos. or sup. is used (I) comp. followed by positive, m.c. vulgarism (m) other methods of expressing sup., pp. 175-6 (n) sup. followed by comp. p.
for compar.
(e) (3)
;
;
;
sing, irrrational nouns of distinct genera and pi. verb (d) ; nouns of multitude and collective nouns, p.
two or more
586
(e)
and footnote
(/)
1
;
of
pi.
noun preceded
; sup. expressed by pos. (n) bar, class., indicates sup. (n) (6); comp. and super, suffixes added to par-tarln tics., preps., subs, (o) (1) (2) (3); seldom added to Pers. particips. , (o) (1) Rom. ; -tar, where added to compound of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) comp. sometimes gives meaning of sup., (7) (1) ;comp. with az hama used in Mod Pers. for sup.
176 (n)
(5);
(4)
neu. nouns, material things, with sing, verb, p. 587 with pi. verb (2) and p. 688 (3) (h) (1) several abstract nouns and sing, verb, p. 588 (4),; pi. of respect (i) exs. of mood, slovenly concords, p. 589 (/) and footnotes: ERRORS in CONCORD, p. 591, vide under Errors NOUNS of MULTITUDE p. 464 (a), vide under Generic Nouns. Conditional Clauses, pp. 545 (a) to 552 (h) three classes (6); tense moat used clas-
by cardinal
;
(g)
sically
(c)
;
for
"IMPOSSIBLE CONDITIONS"
time past or future (c) and footnote 4, and p. 547 and footnotes 3 and 4; Imperf. Indie, substituted for Past time past or fut., Habit., p. 548 (2)
;
stranger still," how rendered, p. 178(r); progressive double positive, how rendered, p. 178 (s); two or more comparatives or superlatives, suffixes where added, p. 178 (t) (1) (2); the quicker tho better, (u) COMPARI(#) (3);
;
"what was
SONS between CLAUSES, how rendered,

pp. 178-9
545-62.
(v).
Complex and Compound
Sentences, pp.
Composition and Rhetoric, notes on. pp. Vide under Rhetoric. 629-44. Compound Adjectives, p. 161, vide under
Adjectives.
Compound and Complex

541-62.
Sentences, pp.
;
Compound Substantives,
pp. 425-30 of two subs., p. 425 (6) (c) (d) pi. of, p. 475 (w). Two Ar. nouns, p. 427, Rem. II; contracted Infs., or Inf. and Impera (e)
; ,
;
numeral and adj. with subs,

;
:
(g)
Impera. root (h) Pres. Part, Pers. noun of instrument, Rem. 428 (/) II contrac. Inf or Pret. with subs, or adv., p. 428 (/) prep, or adv. + subs, (k) prep. + Impera. root (A;) (2); prep. +contrac. Inf. (3); ad j 4- Impera. root(J); na with an Inf., p. 429 (m) comp. adjecs. as nouns, (n) phrase as subs. (<?) ; Turk; ;
noun and and noun, p.

;
ish
Compounds
(p)
Ar. phrases as subs.,

;
548 and footnote 3 and Rem. I pp. 548-9 and footnotes 1 and 2; Plup. can take place of Imperf. in protasis ; Optative Clauses, p 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5, and p. 53 (/) and footnotes 1 and 2; Conditional changed into Predicative Clauses, p. 551 (g) apodosis sometimes placed first, p. 552 (h) POSSIBLE CONDITIONS, p. 552 (a) to 556 (g); tense most used Pres. 'Subj.; gen. supposes the condition may be fulfilled whereas the Imperf. Indie, for a fut. condition does tho reverse, p. 552 (a) and footnote 3 Indie, can take place of Subj /if there is no doubt, examples, p. Pres. and not 552 (a) and p, 553 (6) Aor. of bhwastan used after agar, p. 554 in conditions, the past tense in m.c. (6) other used for the Pres., p. 550, Rem.; alternative construction in unrealized conditions, p. 554 (c) ; Fut. Indie, used use of for Pres. Subj. classically (d) Pret., p. 555 (e); similar construction in temporal clauses (/) and p. 556 (g), Rem. ; Clause may be converted into a Rel. Clause (g) Conditional Particles, p. 545 and footnote 3. Conditional Pluperfect, p. 527, Rem. Conjunctions, Adjunctive, p. 577 (c) Alternate, p. 579 (d); Adversative, p. 582
p.
;
;
p. 492 (q).
(e).
Compound Verbs, pp. 274-80

loses its
examples
of,
p. 274 (6) (1) ; faru (2); fara (3); faraz, p. 275 (4) ; prep, incorporated with verb,
.
meaning (6) ; no ra after nounprefix, p. 276 (e); prefix separated from

sometimes two constructions admissible, p. 277, Rem. II ; examples of compounds, p. 277 (g) to 279; tr.
verb,(e);
verbs in compounds
may give
Rem.
I;
tr.
meaning,
p.
279,
vulg.
and intr. com-
Conjunction [add], pp. 497-502. Conjunctive Participle, called mazi-yi ma* Vide tufi, p. 229 (b) and footnote *9. under Participle Past. Continuative Tenses, formed from Present Part., p. 533; Contin. Perfects, p. 536 (t) and Rem.; Conti >. Plup., not used, p. 536 (u); Contin. Impera., p. 537. Continuative Verbs, p. 257 (e). Consonants, Weak, p. 22 (d}.
916
INDEX.
datives in two clauses should balance, Rem. for locality, dative in bi used, (4); when ra cannot be substituted for bi- (5) ; duration of time expressed by ra, p. 450 (6); ra added at end of several nouns in the dative, p. 450 (7); affixed pronouns take place of dat. in ra, p. 450 (8) ra of dat. and noun or phrase in appos. pp. 450-1 (9) dat. in ra with mar, dat. as logical subj., p. 451 (10) and Rem. ro=prep. bar ay, p. 451
6
;
Construction louche or 'Squinting Construction,' p. 660 and footnote 4. Construction, new not to be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k). Contractions and Abbreviations, p. 38. Contrast or Tazadd, p. (531 (d). Coins, current in Persia, p. 212 (a) to (d). Co-ordinate Clauses, pp. 576-84; how classed, p. 576 (a) examples of APPOSI;
p. 449,
TIVE CLAUSES (6) Adjunctive ConjuncADJUNCTIVE CLAUSES tions, p. 577 (c) if adjoined clause implies a (c) (I), etc. logical sequence of thought, pas may be substituted fo?* va, p. 578 (2) apparently adj. clauses introduced by 'therefore,'
;
;
Dava
farush, seller of Ear. 459, footnote 1.

false, p.
medicines, p.
are really principal clauses, p. 579,
Rem.
Corroborative Apposition, p. 616 (c), vide Apposition. Crow, Royston, p. 556 and footnote 3. Crowding of Circumstances, p. 607 (/).
313 and footnote 1. of the heavens and circulation of the wine cup, p. 367 and footnote 4; dawr-i sar-at, etc., p. 385 (/) and footnote 4. Day, name of month or of day, pp. 207-8
Dawn,
Dawr=z re volution
(c).
Days
of
of
month,
(6)
;
solar, pp. 207-8

(a)
;
(c)
names
days of the week, 210

riiz
day begins
at sunset,
or nahar, shab or layl,
D5dan,=permit, Afghan and Indian,

;
261 (e) c. exs. of dadan, p. 262 (d) dih interj., p. 262 (d) (3) bi dih, subs., p. 262 (d) (5). Dah u du, =12 in Shah-Nama, p. 182, foot;
p.
;
(d).
Decimals, p. 196 (/). Declension of Pers. noun, pp. 51 and Defective Verbs, p. 249 (e) Rem.
;
56.
note 3. Dallja mallja, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. Dam, prep., p. 328 (4); dam-i darm.c.,= threshold of the door, p. 176, footnote 7. Dam~rahiior sar-raht, p. 392 and footnotes. Dana, in counting, p. 188, and p. 189
Rem.
II.
Danariidan, obs., p. 283, footnote 2. Dancing, vide Music. Danq, =the 6th part of anything, p. 216
Definite Article, etc., p. 130; expressed by ra, p. 130 (a) proper names, certain pronouns, etc., and interrog. ki, are definite and require ra (6), so also yak-% in Gulistan, ra may be owing to exigencies of rhythm, footnote 4; certain other dof. words, pp. 130-1 (c), Rern. expressed by the pi., p. 131 (d) demons. .c with ki makes nouns def (c) demons.
; ; ;
.
(d).
Daniel, discoverer of geomancy, p. 392 (c). Danistan=:to be able, p. 254 (h). Dar, p. 324 (e) dar wrat-i ki, p. 365 (19). Dard-i sar and sar-dard, p. 438 and foot;
pron.=def. article, p. J31 (g). Demonstrative Pronouns, Simple, pp. 827 im old for In, as in imruz, etc., p. 82 (6) pis. in -an, anha ki and anha^-l ki
: ;
note
2.
dozen, p. 189 (h). Daahtan, pp. 263-6; Aor. used for Pres. Indie., and Perf. Subj. for Pres. Subj., pp. 263-4 (a); dashta bash, p. 264 (a) and 265 (6), Rem IV Imperf rare, p. 265 (d) contin. signification, p. 265 (e) =hold, consider, p. 265 (/) Afghan colloquialism, p. 265 (g); darad=there are, pp. 265-6 (h) lazim dashtan, p. 266 (c) Aor. of, p. 511, Rem p. 543 (h). Dast andar kdr shudanto help, p. 271 and footnote 2; dost bi-kar sh.zzto begin, p. 256 (b) dast-i shuma dard nakunad, p. 384 and footnote 4. Dast-kash, p. 188, footnote 2. Dast-pacha, p. 309 and footnote 3. Dastur, p. 508 and footnote 1. Dative case, p. 448 (c) two forms (c) (1); in m.c. dative with bi- used (c) (2) two forms not always interchangeable (c) (3) either form u*ed after dadan, p. 448, footnote 2; not necessary with impersonal 9 verbs, footnote 3; sa ir "remainder" used for the "whole," p. 448, footnote
; ; ; ; ;
Darzhan
(not tshan ki (6); pi. in -ha, p. 83 (c) ; azan-i man and ba z-l bar an-and, (d) ; In latter and an former (c) azan for that purpose (/) idiomatic uses of an anan (but not man) ki used in Mod. (g) in mystic Pers. writings, footnote 1 In u an poetry an is a subs p. 84 (h) in mc.= various things (i), na In u na In an, In man-am ki, Inak ust, etc. (i) a^=here I arn, p. 85 (j) In kujd va an chun ay In ki dar in-am, Af. , kuja (k) demons, follows its noun for em(I) In=in spite of (n) (1) 3n= phasis (m) he over there (n) (2) bi-din rasid matters
(
such a pitch, (n) (3) other idioms, pp. 85-6 (to 13); Inak, p. 87 (o); ant (p) DEMONSTBATIVE PRONOUNS, EMPHATIC, pp. 87-8; Aam5n=when, as soon as, p. 87 (a) Aawm=the same, p. 87 (b) hamin, as soon as, p. 88 (c\;
reached
; ; ; ;
hamlnônly (d) =such, (/) DEMONSTRATIVE PBONOUNS, COMPOUND, pp. 88; ;
90; chunin, p. 88 (a)
(2),
Rem. and
(/);
(c)
ham=chunln,
etc.,
p.
89
hamchu,
6.
chandin, chandan, p. 89 (h). Dentist, Persian, p. 510 and footnote
INDEX.
Dervish, cries of, p. 375 (c) and p. 376, footnotes 1 and 2. Dev, khar, shah, give idea of size, p. 170 'Vide' Dlv. (e) (1). Dialects, Persian, p. 630. Dlda 'bhwahad shud or d\da mi-shavad, m.c. dida shud in m.c. used instead p. 287 (5) of Act. Voice, p. 286 (d) (2) and footnote
,
;
917
p. 119 (;') ; with sing, or pi., verb, p. 597 (e). Earnest, in, p. 295, footnote 4. Either or Neither, distributive pronouns, 'either or,' p. concord of, p. 599 (/)
Each, every,
Diffuseness, p. 644
(a)
and
(6)
and
foot-
498 (b) (4) and Rem to (5). Elegy, p. 635. Ellipsis, examples of, p. 526
(k)
ex.
from
note
5.
99 (1); adv. Digar,digar-i, dlgar-gun, p. otherwise, etc., p. 99 (1), Rem. I yak-l" the one the other," p. 101 (k) dlgar-i 138 (p) dlgar and digar-l, p.
;
(c)
(1);
dinar, vulg. used for forming ordinals, p. 193 (j) 206 (d) and footnote 4.
;
Gulistan,p. 595, Rem., and p. 596 (d) ; p. 649 (I). Else =warno, etc. and introduces a condit. clause in a contracted form, p. 581 (4). Emphasis, p. 645 (d) (2) p. 669 (/). Enallage, Figure of Syntax, p. 495 (a) and footnote 3.
, ;
Digression, p. 646
(/).
D&.
interj.,p. 262 (d} (3). Rem. Dihlavl, relative termination, p. 402, V. DimayhnoxQ in m.c., p. 385 and footnote
3.
Diminutive Nouns, pp. 394-98;
fc,
ka, h,
pisar and bachcha dim in. dimin. of ju and jav., (c) Rem. I; (c) innk -Icha and -isha. p. 397 (6), Rem. and -anak, p. 398, Rem. kuchulu and kuchull, m.o. (e); gak (/); mashkula (g). p. Diminutive wav, p. 50 (e) p. 57 (d)
(b) (5),
;
395, Rem. II, p. 394 (b); pisaru, etc., p. and 398 (c) and p. 50 (e) and p. 57 (d) ; -cha or -za, p. 396 (5) ; -zha- -cha, p. 397
Rem.
Epic, p. 635. Error of Errors in Concords, pp. 591-600 proximity,' p. 591 (a) and footnotes, apparent violations of concord in Gulistan, several nouns p. 592 and footnote" 3 or" or " nor," p. with the disjunctive 593 (b) (1) to (5) and footnotes when the nom. is a relative, the antecedent determines the number of verb, errors, p. 595 a demons, or pers. pron, used that (c) does not refer to the true antecedent, p. 596 (2) one predicate has two or more
'
subjects,
ellipsis,
(d)
"each" and
pi.
"Every"
(e);
verb, p. 597 distributive pronouns "either" and

;
with sing, or
398
and dma-shab, p. 313 and footnote 5. at beginning of Diphthongs, p. 22 (e) words, p. 25 (e}. 631 (d). Diqqat-i 'ibarat or Abstmsoness, p. Diranda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Direct Narration, vide Narration. Dirge, p. 635. Distance, vide Measure of Length. Distributive Numerals, p. 198. Vide' of, p. 59, footnote 2. etc.,
Dlna-rtiz
;
(e).
CONCOBD OF AD"neither," p. 599 (/) JECTIVES and PKONOTJN with noun. p. 600antecedent of pi. pronoun should (g) not be a singular or collective noun (i) GOVERNMENT of VERBS and PREPOSITIONS, errors, p. 600, vide under Govern;
:
ment
der
errors
in
COLLOCATION
in
vide un-
errors Collocation ; vide under Rhetoric.
RHETORIC
(h)
Etiquette of calling, etc., p. 383 footnote 4.
and
Dw, Dm.
pi.
Etymology, p. Eulogy (poet),
48.
p. 635.
;
Euphemism
Divination, vide Bibliomancy. Dlwanl or Siyaq figures, p. 34; diwani hand writing, p. 36 and footnote 2. form, Diyanldan, caus. of didan, doubtful 3. p. 283, footnote
or husn-i ta'bir, p. 631 (e), and and footnote 1 p. 632 (/) and p. 632 (e) footnote 4 p 646 (/). Euphonic rules and accents in verbs, p.
;
237.
Ever,
Never, Scarcely Ever,
misplaced,
Drinking Songs, p. 635. Drum, p 297, footnote 3. of verb, Du'a-gu, da'i, with 3rd pers.
(c).
;
p. 496, Rem. Every, All, Each,

p. 112 (i)
;
Whatever,
p. 119 (/)
and
p,
70
;
every and each with sing, or
Dual, Ar., p. 63 (m) in speaking, p. 66 (i) dual of some Pers. words, p. 67 (*) Turkish pi., p. 67 (/). Du char shudan, p. 189 (/). Dukhtar unmarried girl, p. 395, footnote 1.
597 (e). pi. verb, p. Evil eye, p. 392 (/). Examples of Concessional Clauses, p. 558. Excellence, affectation of, p. 655 (4) Excessively,' how expressed, p. 176 (n>
'
(3).
DuUtfqrB, p. 50 Du-ruya, p. 405
(e)
p. 395,
46")
Rem.
;
II.
(4)
and footnote
p.
(c)
f
3.
Duahman,
dushman-i dushmctnan and 'aduv-i a da have differsing.,
ent significations, p. 61
(15).
footnote
3,
Faces, lucky, p. 392 (c). JFa^/wr, p. 489 and footnote
3.
Dust and mast, once Past

Duvfat, or class,
Parts., p. 156
(r)
Fakayf a rarely used

t
in
Pers. p. 180 (w)
du
sad^.p. 183.
3. (3) and footnote Fakk-i izafat, p. 437 (a).
918
Pal giriftan, Fara p. 274
9
INDEX.
p. 390, etc.
(6) (3)
v
and
p. -287 (/)
I.
and
foot-
note 5;
p. 322,
(4)
Rera.
p.
Faraham,
p. 311 (7).
;
Faraz, p. 275
305
(6)
p. 322,
Rem.
I.
Farda, p. 383 and footnote 3. Farld-tar, m.c. but ydkta-tar not used,
;
Pers., Fut. Perf. and Past Subj. are identical (/) (1) and footnotes 1 and 2 ; in Mod. Pers. preceded by bayad (2) and footnotes 5 and 7; expressed by Past Part, and Dof. Fut., p. 522 and foot-
note
p.
(4);
(5)
174
(h).
Farj&hunda, p. 156 (r), Rem. Farmudan, p. 282 (/). Farrash, definition, p. 187, footnote 3. Faru, p. 274 (6) (2) and footnote 4. Fash bi-gu, p. 309, footnote 1. Faslh, vide Baligh. Fate, p. 288, footnote 4. Fates, the, p. 288, footnote 4. Feminine of Ar. Past Part., p. 51 (g) of certain compounds with ghayr-i p. 166
'
1 and Rem. certain m.c. idioms PRESUMPTIVE PAST in Mod. Pers. and p. 523 and Rem.
;
(3)
Future Indie, for Pres. in Causal clauses,

575
(e).
p.
G
Gah,
*
vide' Hargah.
Gah
na-gah-l, Afghan,=wzg-'Z az awqat, p.
(11),
Rem.
p.
Fi,p. 322(11). Figurative language,
658
(c).
Figures, rhetorical, p. 631 (e). Fi'l-midl, not correct Ar., p. 364
and
foot-
note
Final
6.
and Causal Clauses, pp. 573-6; deal with end or reason, p. 573 .(a) examples
;
627 (33) and footnote 6. Gak, dimin. termination, p. 308 (/). Oal-i mikh, etc.. and gul-mifeh, p. 309, footnote 4. Gardanidan, p. 281 (e). Gardldan, p. 282 (,?). Gashtan. p. 282 (g). Gave no more than (I) could help,' p. 501
*
to).
of Final Clauses, (b)

(6) (1)
final clause that
can be converted into predicative,
p. 573
and footnote 3
;
CAUSAL CLAUSES
usually precede the prin. clause, correlatives, p. 574 (c) examples ('/); Fut. Indie, for Pres., p. 575 (c) conj. omitted of causal clause precedes the prin., p. 576 (/). Fine writing,' p. 655 (4). Fiqra-yi tabi'a, p. 636 (ri), Fir'aun, 135, footnote 1. Fold, p. 197 (a). Foxes, eaten by Baluchis of Bampur, p. 393 and footnote 1. Fractions, p. 194 (a) and footnote 1 ; for f etc., the Ar. fractions must be used, p. 194, Rem. I ; followed by the izafat, p. 194, Rem. II; si-yak not used, p. 194, Rem. II ; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6); duals and pis. rarely used, p. 195 (b) ; a quarter to, p. 195, Rem. ; per cent., p. 196 (c) : DECIMALS, 196-(/); other method of expressing fractions, p. 196 (g). Fuhah-i madar u pidar, p. 388 and foot; '
General terms, brief, p. 651 (n) and footnote 1. Generic nouns, p. 457 (16) and footnote 1 denoting rational beings preferably in the pi., p. 465 (d) (1) unqualified by an with nouns adj. usually sing, (d) (2) qualified by much,' footnote 1 concord of generic noun, p. 586 (e) and Rem. Genitive, absolute, expressed by mal, p. 55 subjective and objective, p. 445 (/) (/) (4) and p. 448 (6) gen. case, p. 446 (b) two subs, coupled by izafat used for subs. and adj., p. 447 gen. of material, p. 447 and footnote 2 gen. for subs, and prep. used with a governing Inf. pp. 447-8 special exs., p. 443 ; vide also Izafat, pp.
; :
'
433-5.
p. 391 (c). Qhalat. kardan^sbalki , p. 355, footnote 2.
Geomancy,
Qbalba, p. 323, footnote

*
Qbamazat, obscurity,' p. 631 (d). Ghayn, found in Ar. and Pers. words,
p. 9
Qharabat, p. 631 (d) and footnote 1. Qbayr. prop, subs., p. 100 (a) (2) privative
;
note 7. Future Definite, how formed, p. 513 (e) ; used in Condit. sense for Pres. Subj .of Mod. Pers., p. 514 and .footnote 1 Fut. Def. reg. used by Indians and Afghans, indicates certainty, p. 514 (e) (1); used classically in Condit. sentences (e) (2) not much used in Mod. Pers. (/) ; "I do not and mill not," how expressed, p. 526 (k); Fut. Indie, used for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2 Fut. Indie, used
;
;
in class. Pers. where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj., p. 542: FUTURE and AORIST in same sentence with same meaning, p.
va-ghayra, (a) (2) Rem. ; izafat after ghayr, (a) (2), Rem. and footnote 3 ghayr and ghayr-i, p. 166 (11) and footnote 1 ; ghayr-i inaqbuza, shayr-i manqula, ghayr-i malfu/a. why fern., p. 166 (11), Rera. p. 331 (6). Qbayat, p. 307 (4) and footnote 1, and p. 311 (12). Qhayratt p. 359, and footnote 1. Qbazl, p. 635. Qbuluv, a div. of Hyperbole, p. 630 ($) and footnote 2. G6wrra.=first of fche month, etc., p. 193 (h). Gi, termination, p. 398 (a) and footnote 1 ghayr, (a)
(2),
; ; ;
;
Rem.
and footnote 2: FUTURE PEBPECT and PAST SUBJUNCTIVE or PBESUMPTIVE

>06
399 p. 400. < GUas, vide* Alfrbalu.

p.
;
PAST,
p.
233
Glram, glrvm, giriftam

(a)
^ although,
p. 556
(c) (4); p.
621
(;);
in Class.
and footnote
8.
INDEX.
<Giriftan, tr.
919
and
intr.,
pp. 254-6;
=to
be-
gin, pp. 254-6 (6) (2) ; =to suppose, admit, p. 255 (6) ; pleonastic (c) ; intr. or reflex.
(d);
attractiveness, p. 256 (/); vugiriftam =to caase, p. 256 (g) intr. =to begin, p. 256 in m.c. =to buy (i). (h) Gw, name of the son of Gudarz. God, attributes of, p. 190, footnote 1.
;
=eclipsed, p. 256
(e)\
glrandagl
Hadiqa, p. 323, footnote 1. Hajis, signature of, p. 70 (c), Rem.; hajl for hajiyy, etc., p. 525, footnote 2.
Hajv, p. 635.
or hala and al-fial, p. 291 (8) and footnote 2 p. 312 and footnote 2 p. 618 and footnote 1 hal an ki, p. 365 (18). Ha/**, with nunation in m.c., p. 314, footnote 4. Halva-yi arda. p. 376 and footnote 7. Ham, p. 302 (7); 342 (3); ham and nlz, difference between, p. 339, Rom. Hama, the whole, also=/iar, p. 112 (i) classically precedes or follows its subs., in Gulistan, verb and subs, in the sing, or pi., p. 112 (i) (1) with; pi. noun, with
; ; ; *
' ;
Hal
Goodbye, p. 373 and footnote 2. {rovernment of Verbs and Prepositions,
and Errors, pp. 600-3; object

;
of trans,
verbs should be in obj. or ace. case, p. 600 (a) objects connected by conjunct, should be in the same case, also nouns
and prons.
in oppos., p. 601 (b)
and
(c)
one relative may do duty for more than one clause, relative in different cases must be repeated (e). Greeting, Muslim, to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p.
382 (g) and footnotes 3 to 5 of Persians, p. 382 and footnote 5 ; Muslim, p. 382-3, footnote 5, Gu and ku, p. 234 (i) pp. 345-6 (10). Gufta, for alif, 'vide,' p. 13 (8); p. 231, footnote 2. Guftan 9 ~to think, p. 247 (6), footnote 2. Guftl, p. 346 (6) ; p. 507 and footnote 5. Gu,*l, p. 346 (6) p. 507 and footnote 5. Gurg u mlsh, p. 313 and footnote 1. Guruh i, a number, p. 124 (n), and (n) (2). Gusfand-i farangl, p. 393 and footnote 1. Gusht-i bulbul, p. 393 and footnote 1. Giiya,p. 363 (15). Guz_anhtan, guzarldan, etc., caus. or trans, forms, p. 283 (d) (1) (2).
;
; ;
of unity, p. 113
class,
and mod. con-
hama
tii-yi
;
structions with, p. 113; in Indian Pers. , hama is an ordinary adj., p. 113; construcs. in Mod. Pers., pp. 113-4 (2) and (3) Rem.; before suffixed -ash, p. 114 (3); hama chlz, hama kas, etc.; hama kas with sing, or pi. verb, p. 114 (4);
kasan, Afghan, p. 115(5); hama ham, m.e.=" all together," p. 115 reg. pi. hamagan, old, hamginan (6) usual pi., p. 115 (7) hama with compar. followed by sup. p. 175 (I) hama si, m.c.
;
, ,
:
for har si, p. 109 (/) (I), Rem. Hamagl, subs., followed by pi., verb, differs
from hamginan, p. 115 (8); by some, said to equal an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Haman, p. 302 (8) and p. 361 (12) and footnote
3.
Guzjashtan, p. 261 (a)
(6).
H
H,
silent,
;
note 1 I and III p. 395 (3) and Rems.

;
19-20; a vowel, p. 19 and foottermination, aspirated, p. 19

;
p. 295 (1) and Rem. I and footnote 2 ki may be omitted after it, but not after mana, p. 295, Rem. I. Hamchin, colloq. for hamchunin, p. 319 and footnote 1. Hamchu or hamchiin, p. 9 (h) hamchun u hamchm, p. 89 (h) (1), Rem.
Hamaria,
elided,
dimin., pp. terminal, pp. 404-6; silent h silent and aspirated, p. 404 (a) added to nouns, p. 405; to stem of verb to form adj. or (6) (2); to adj. (b) (3); adv. of time, number, etc., (6) (4); to Ar. Past Part., p. 406 (5) ; ha-yi liyaqat, p. 406 (6); other uses of h, p. 406 (c) ; ha-yi *at.f, p. 406 (c) (1); ha-yi fa'iliyyat, ha-yi tank, p. 406 (2) (3) final h becomes
Ill, p. 395,
(5);
Rem.
Rem. IV;
Hamchunan-l ki< correct, Pers., p. 148 (). Ham-chunln and ham-chunan, emphatic forms of chunin and chunan, etc., p. 89
Ham-digar and yak-digar
99(1); p. 101
(b) '2).
(/) (<7>
t
394 (a)-396
recip.
pron., p.
or ml-, p. 224, Rem. I; p. 225 and ; p. 230, III B p. 257 (e). Hamila. p. 119(w). Hamln and haman, p. 302 (8); p. 361 (12)
Hamlr
footnote 2
and footnote
2.
Hamln
note
Jb'=as soon as, p. 361 (12) and foot3.
(g)
in
(c) (4),
An, sometimes redundant, p. 406 Rems. I and II; final h of Past
Hamln
Part, considered a cop. conj., p. 527 (w)
qadr and hamln Hamm-fawr, p. 366.
qadr-ha, p. 475 (y).
Ha and
Ha
(1).
Ham-rah,
a, p. 371,
p.
504
(/).
Rem.
Hamza,
Ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-a, interj., p. 375, Rem. I. ball, p. 582 (e) or ha bash bash, p. 584 and footnote 4, introducing afterthought. Habitual or Past Potential tense, p. 519 (i) and footnote 4 with prefix bi- and mlor haml-t p. 520 is class. Pers. used for Imporf. (1) ; in poten. sense (2) ; in class Pers. used in Condit. and Opt. sentences
; ;
pp. 23-7; silent; vide under 'Ayn a, p. 16; alif-hamza, 1st letter of alpha(c)
;
bet, p. 25 p. 400.
substituted for ya-yi nisbat ,

(c).
Haqlr, 1st pers. of verb, p. 70
Handwritings, p. 35. Har, p. 119 (/) ; emphasized by

p.
^ of unity,
120
(/)
(3).
karan
(ki)
(1); used for hama, (j) (1); (j), Rem.; har yak, har yak-l.
920
INDEX.
Huanî ta'blr or euphemism, p. 631 (c). Husayn, a name of, p. 201 and footnote 5
p. 378
har Teas, har kudam, take sing, or pi verb (2) har whatever (3) har kudam ki, har an ki, p. 121 (k) (1) (2) and p. 122 har kas-l ki, har ki, hama kas-i (3) (4) ki, etc., p. 121 (3); har an chi, p. 123 Vide also Harchi, Har ki, Har du. (5). Harchand. harchand ki, harchi, p. 358 (1); < Vide also Harchi. p. 363 (13). Harchi har ch^z, har an chi. an, chi, p. 121 (Z)(l)(2)andp. 123(5); anchi,p, 123(5); harchi= any thing, p. 258 (b) and footnote 1 harchi bad-a-bad, p. 535, footnote 4
;
; ;
and footnote
635.
pi. of
1.
Hymns,
and
2.
Hyperbaton
Hyperbole,
or Trajection, p. 605 (*"). respect a form of p. 588 footnote 4 p. 630 (c.) and footnote
,
;
'
Har du, pp. hama si, p.
harchi tamam-tar=aup. , p. 175 (n). 108-9 (/) (1); har st=m.c. 109 (/) (1), Rem, ; with neg. =neither of two, p. 109 (2).
yak q.v. Ibham or ambiguity, p. 631 (d). Ibn and abu disappear when ya-yi nisbat is added to kunyat, p. 402, Rem. V. Vide
also Bin,
'Ids, p.
/, for
202 and footnote

I.
2, p. 203, foot-
Hardly, p. 300(5).
note
'Id*
HarK="one"
II
in def. pron., p. 104, Rem. takes the place of the indef. pron. p. 178 (u) and footnote 2. Harf-i zarf = particle, p. 289; harf-i ta'lil, p. 574 and footnote 7. Hargahîi, p. 361 (10); az an gah ki, etc.
" one/'
'Irfifr, p. 202 (10) and footnote 2; 5'cfa 'l-azha, p. 202 (12) and p. 203, footnote 1.
and footnote 4. and footnote 2. Iham, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Ihtikar, p. 661 and footnote 4.
Idmaj,
p. 632 Jghraq, p. 630
(/)
(c)
Harris = ever, 292, footnote 1. Haaha ki and hasha zadan, p. 292
d'l).
(d)
(1)
(b)
and footnote
Haahv,
7.
;
different kinds of, p. 644 * hashv-i qabih, * vide Tautology.

;
HStim, p. 135, footnote 2. Hay, contin. particle, p. 230 III B (e) and 537, footnote I. Hayf, interj., p. 367 and footnote 7. Heavens, revolution of, p. 343 (*'). Help, gave no more than (I) could
*
Ijaz-i majazl, p. 663 (d). Ikhtiyar darld, polite form of affirmation or negation, p. 294 (i). 7Z,T.,pl. of.p. Oft(/). c. =1 hope, p. 373 and footnote. Ilahi, Ilia, p 345. footnote 2; p. 584 (4). Ilti/at, change of persons, p. 533 and foot-
p. 257
help,' p. SOI (g) Hlch, for slzdah, p. 182, footnote 4. Hlch kas, etc., hlch na, p. 104 (d); hich as adj. and subs., p. 105, Rem.; =some any, p. 105 (2); =nothing, p. 105 (3); hlch-tar, p. 106 (d) (3) ; =at all, ever, p 106 (4); hlch u puch, p. 106 (4), Rem. ;
note 3. Imala, p. 38. Imperative, pp. 536 (v)-7 in m.c. used prein class. Pers., 2nd catively, p. 536 (v) can begin a clause, pers. so used, p. 537
;
hich
kudam,
p. 106 (5).
(/).
Hijrah, p. 203
Hizhdah, old for hashdah,
p. 183,
footnote
1.
Hope,
*
373 and footnote Vide also under In aha* Allah.

I,
= Ilahl,
other methods of expressing Inipera., p. 233 (i) Imperative CONTTNUATIVE, p. 537 p. 224, Rem. I p. 230 III B kanda mi-bashad, apparently incorrect, p 233 (c) (3) Imperfect tense, jrives a pi. sense to sing, noun, p. 475 (x), but with Pret. pi. must be used (x) Imperf. tense, pp. 517 (h)~ 619; denotes frequency or duration, may take the place of Eng. Pret., 517 (h) (1) and footnotes 4 and 5, p. 518 (2) ^bep. 605 (/)
; ;
;
p.
gan to"
perf.
rendered by Imperf.
,
(3);
Im;
However
(13).
or no matter how,' how renhowever much, p. 362 dered, p. 557 (c)

;
the more (or less),' how rendered pp. 180-1 (w). Hubara and hubarq, p. 626 (11) and footnote 3. Hwma, p. 400 and footnote 1, and p. 407, footnote 2.
4 ;
How much
Pass gives pot. senses, p. 618 (4) used in m.c. used for Pres. p. 519 (5) for conditions, its place sometimes taken by Contin. Perf. (6) Imper. Indie, substituted for Past Condit., p. 548 (2); time past or future, p. 548, Rem. I and
;
footnote 3, and footnotes 1 a/id 2, p. 549; class use of Imperf. for Pres. Subj.,
Rem.
II.
;
Hurmuz,
p. 208.
;
Huruf-i mutashabih and huruf-i mutamasil, huruf-i manqufa or huruf-i P 9 ((7)

huruf-i malfuzji (h) ; huruf-i masrurl (h); huruf-i maktubl (h) ; fyuruf-i fawqanl utaJitanl, p. 10 (i); huruf-i muwafrhada, musannat mutallasa, p. 10
(i)
;
c. exs. of Impersonal Verbs, p. 266, etc. some verbs used impersonally, p. 273 (a) Pers. verb with cognate noun = sing,
;
impers. verb, p. 273
(v).
mu'jama
630 (d) p. 631 (d). Inak, p. 87 (o) ; p. 305 (5)._ Inchunin, etc., vide Chunln.
Impropriety
4,
hiistyle, p.
and footnote
and
(i)
huruf-i
'illat,
p.
22
(d)
and
p.
573
(a).
Huan and
su*, p. 160 (w) (3); huan-i

(3).
yoah t m.c., p. 160 (w)
Including, vide Besides. Incoherence, p. 659 (a); avoid illogical 671 (o); incohercompound sentences, p. ence due to misuse of * and,' p. 672.
INDEX.
Indefinite Article, p. 131 ; yak place, p. 131 (a); and may
of unity, pp. 131-2 (a)
is
;
921
use of with certain verbs, p. 540
may
take
its
inf.,
(<*).
have the
the
^
;
after har
probably the
of unity
and not the
demons, ya,
132
the ya of p. 132, unity or indefiniteness= indef. article, p.

(6) ; ,yak, in Mod. Pers. may be added or refer to a pi. noun, p. 132 (6) and p. 137 (2) ; how written after silent h and final ya, after silent h before off, p. 132 (d)(i) ; after final alif or waw, p. 133 (2); after alif-i maqsura, p. 133
Rem.
deriv.
from
Indirect Narration, vide Narration. Inhiraf or digression, p. 646 (/). Innuendo or Insinuation, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Insan, indef. pron., p. 103 (c) (4). Inaha, p. 630 (6). In sha* Allah t =l hope, p. 383 and footnote
3.
Insured post, p. 213

4.
(e)
and footnotes
and
Int, p. 87 (p).
sometimes added to adjs., p. 133 (3), I in old Pers. added to the qualified noun, but in Mod. Pers. to the adj., p. 133 (3), Rem. II and pp. 136-7 (k) (1) sometimes with ast in pronunciation, how written, p. 133 (e) exs. of this ya and
(3)
;
Rem.
significations, pp. 134 (/)-5; in m.c. often preceded by yak for emphasis, pp. 135-6 (g) does not admit of the izafat, p. 136 (h) ; a noun before an adj. or another noun in construction may discard ya, p. 136 (i) ; concrete nouns, in % may take the ya of unity, p. 136 (/); sing, abstract nouns do not admit of ya, in yak is substituted, p. 136 (;), Rem. Mod. Pers. in added to qualifying adj., can be referred to a pi. noun, pp. 136-7 (k) (I) (2); indef. art. in Eng. before a numeral, expressed by ya, p. 137 (2); if the adj. is simple and can precede its noun, ya is added to the nonn (3) in Mod. Pers., both jam*-l and jam* I az
its
;
; ;
Intend, expressed by Ishwasian, p. 260 (e). Intensive Adjectives, pp. 169-71. Interjections, etc., pp. 366-90; simple, p. 366 (1); exs. 367; verb=interj. t p. 368,. Rem. Admiration, p. 308 exs. of, p. 369 Lamentation, p. 369 (3) Hatred, Attention, WarnAversion, Contempt ing, p. 370 (5); Impatience, p. 371 (6);
;
;
Distress,
Want,
p. 371 (7)
;
Fie, for
shame,
372 (9); Miscellaneous, p. 372 (10) Imitative sounds. Dervish Cries, p. 375-6 (c) and p. 375 (6) p. 276, footnotes 1 and 2; Street cries, 376 (d) Greeting to Guests, p. 380 (e) ; Wife, how referred to, p. 382 (/) Greeting to Gabrs, Jews, etc., p. 382 (g) Calling, etc., etiquette of, p. 383 (h); Complimentary Phrases, p. 384 (2) Expressions of Tenderness, p. 385 (;) AdjuraShi* as and Sunnls, p. tions, p. 386 (k) 386 (m) Maledictions, p. 387 (2) Abuse, Examples, p. 388 (4). p. 387 (3)
p. 372 (8);
;
Repentance,
p.
used
adj.
art.
(I);
"a "a (m); spoonful of milk," glass of water," etc.. how rendered (m) ex. of omission after generic noun in Pers. (in def. art. in Eng.), pp. 137-8 (n) ; added both to noun and adj., p. 138 (o) ; dlgar and digar-i, p. 138 (p) m.c. exs.
; ;
end
in Mod. Pers., if qualifying in ya, a yak is used as in def.
Interrogation, may express negation, 293 (e) adverbs of, p. 296.

;
p.
(p)
(q)
construction borrowed ya added to Ar. phrases
from Ar. ya added
a series of nouns, p. 139 () first noun, in m.c., may be prein Mod. Pers. ya ceded by yak (s) added to second only of two adjs., Rem. I; class. E. of ya added to both adjs., 125 (c), p. 511 does not, as a rule, take ra, exs. (t) ; can be added to some pers. not added to ma, prons p. 140 (u)
to last only of
; ;
Interrogative Verbs, p. 238. Inversion, p. 605 (i) (1) to (5) Invitation, to accept is a sunnat, p. 383 and footnote 3 p. 383, footnotes. Iqllm, meanings of, p. 586 and footnote 2 Ir and Tur, song of Farldun, p. 416 and footnote 5. Irony, p. 633 (/) and footnote 1. Irrelevancy, p. 646 (/). Isha, dimin. terra., p. 397 (b), Rom. 'Ishqiyya, love song 638, p. 635. 4 and Ishtiqaq, figure, p. 638 and footnotes
;
6.
Islian (u) ; yak-l man-am and man yak-i am, (v); can be added to subs, qualified by churiin, etc , and chandan (x) ;
with ace. of
man
(y); 'can
be added to
the Inf., p. 141 (z). Indigo, 'vide* Vasma.

Infinitive, in nominal compound verb, p. 280 (5) ; trans. Inf. used for Pass., p. 286 (3) ; in some sentences may be substituted for Aor., p. 510, Rem. II; inf. used as a noun, p. 535 (s) ; in class. Pers., neg. of, how framed, p. 536 (2) ; of trans,
Iam-i mawsul, p. 559 (4) and p. 56). Ism i mu kabbar, p. 170 (e) (1). Ism-i sawt, p. 275 (6). " Itnayn both," p. 109 (3). Isti'ara-yi 'inadiyya, p. 632 (e). Istibhara, p. 390 (a) and footnote 2. 4. Istiqbal, p. 380 and footnote Istiqbal, p. 314 and footnote 4. 4. Istitbagh, p. 632 (/) and footnote Itnab or Circumlocution, p. 645 (6) and p. 646 (/). after Izafat, kinds of, p. 52 (e), Rem.; after 'silent h, how written, p. 54 (/) (1 ) aspirated h (/) (1), Rem. ; after final vav, after after final ; p. 55 (/) (3) ;
;
(/) (2)
verb often used intransitively (3) class. used for subj., p. 539 (6); shortened
;
hamza, p. 54"(/) maqsura, p. 55 (/) (3)

final
(2);
;
after
alif-i
written and pro-
922
INDEX.
Jallali Year, p. 209 (d). Jama-ak, dimm., p. 396, footnote
nounced by Indians L and Afghans, p. 55 (g) (h); with man*, pp. 70-1 (/), Rem.;
with other pers. prons., 71 (/), Rera. I after kar du t p. 72, footnote 2; with with verbs, p. affixed prons., p. 73 (/) 74, Rem. I some modern vulgarisms* p. 75 (i) after khud, p. 80 (e) after yhayr
;
5.
Jaml', followed by
izafat,
majmu* occa-
sionally substituted, 'p. 116 (11).
privative, p. 100 (a) (2). Rem. and footnote 3 may connect a series of adja., p. 151 () (1): after some Parts, instead of incorrectly inserted prep., p. 161 (y) before Ar. verb, pp. 167-8 (15), Rem.; with Ar. sup., p. 171 (6) (3) and (e) (I); before compar. adj., p. 173 (d) t in India omitted after name Hatim, p. 177 (p) and footnote 1 ; after f*ad-ha< Afghan, p. after subs, avval, p. 193 (g); 190 (k) with fractions, p. 194, Rem. II nlm-i
; ;
-
Janab-i "All* followed by 2nd or 3rd persons pi., p. 282 (/)(!) and footnote 2. Janan, sing., p. 386 and footnote 2. Jaras, p. 297, footnote 3. Jarr and majrur, p. 322 (11).
ju, dimins. of, p. 397 (c). Javab-i Amr t p. 65 (r) and footnote 4. Javak-t, dimin., p. 396 and footnote 4.
Jav and
Jaw, dirnin. of, p. and footnote 4.

Jilav,p. 336
(14).
397,
Rem.
and
p.
396
Afghan, p. 206, footnote 3 USE and OMISSION of IZAFAT, pp. 433-45; cases in which IZAFAT must be INSERTED, pp. 433-4 between prop, name and profesroz,
;
;
Jlm-i yak=zjamad<} 'l-ulq, p. 201 and footnote 1. Jinas vide Tajnis. Jingling sounds vide under Repetition, etc.
Jlra, p. 3 and footnote 3. Job, patience of, p. 171 (4). Joking phrase expressing affirmation, p. 295 (5) and footnote 4. Joseph, beauty of, etc., p. 179 (4) and footnotes 466. Ju and jav, dimins. of, p. 97 (c), Rem. I. Juft and linga, p. 189 (h) p. 469 and foot;
sion, before tribal designation,

(b);
p 433
(a)
before the words * country river, city, etc.,' in titles of books, for patronymic, with fractions, with superlative, p. 434 (c) (d) (e) (/) (g) and footnote 2 ; before a phrase is inserted in Mod. Pers. but omitted in Indian, p. 435 (h);
,
note
3.
Juja
IZAFAT after PABTICULAB WORDS, p. 435 after Janab and Hazrat, mablagh and ahl,
;
Jum
p. 435 (a) (b) (c);' after arbab, p. 436 (rf) with marhiim, p. 436 (e) abna* (/), sahib
i
chicken, p. 379 (16) and footnote 6. banidan, word avoided in m.c., p. 181 (9) and footnote 1. Jumla whole, usually followed by izafat,
'
FAKK-I IZAFAT, p. 437 omitted "with amir, mlr, vali, bin, sar, sahib, p. 437 further exs. of, pp. 441-2 (b) (a) to 441 (c) ; IZAFAT-I MAQLUB! p. 149 (b) and p. 150 (g) ; p. 442 cases in which IZAFAT must be OMITTED, pp. 442-3; none between prop, name and title, p. 442 (a) none between compound words, seldom after measures of length, etc., (b) (c); further examples, pp. 443-51 with nisf but not with mm, p. 443 and footnote 6 after blm but not after maslahat, p. 444 and footnote 1 ; biahtar, aghlab, aksar, p. 444 (d) ; before an Inf. governed by a prep., p. 444 (e) gen. subjective and not used after voc. objective, p. 445 (/) in -5, p. 463 in m.c. wrongly inserted in appos., p. 620 (g) and Rem. man-i banda and man banda, footnote 3; after mablagh and muvazi, p. 621 (h), Remark; with pronoun in to noun or adj., appol. is inserted or omitted, p. 621 (i) and footnotes not used after pron. w. with not used when the pi. prons., p. 622; predicate is pi. footnote 2 repetition of same subs, with izafat, p. 625 (h) izafat possibly expressed in writing by $, p. 156
(g)
; ; ; , ; ; ;
; ; ;
p. 115 (9); in apposition, p. 116 (9). Jumla-yi zarftyya, p. 570 (a), Rem. ; jumla-
yi 'atfiyya, p. 577 (c) and footnote 3 jumla-yi jumla-yi tardidiyya, p. 579 (d) izrabiyya, p. 582 (c) ; jumla-yi mu'tariza, jumla-yi baslfa p. 618 and footnote 3
; ; ;
Jumlagl, jumlahi
p. 036 (n). shade of difference in meaning between jumla and jumlagl, p.

t ;
and jumla-yi murakkaba
116(10); "all come,*' different ways of expressing, p. 116 (10), Rem.; by some, said to=an adv., p. 116 (10), Rem. Jurra, a water measure, p. 215, footnote 3. Juzv-i and juzvi, p. 137 (8) and Remark.
K
K, dimin.
2.
Ka, dimin.
terrain., p. 396 (4) and (5). terrain., p. 395 (2) and footnote
Ka'bah, p. 144, footnote 5. Kabisa. Leap Year, p. 207, footnote 1. Kaf-i islifham or kaf-i kudamiyya, p. 92 (/), Rem.; before -am, etc., how written, p. 92 (g) pi. kiyam and kl-ha, pp. 92-3 (h)
;
;
ki bi-klst
disorder, p.
kaf-i
1)3 (i)
sag-i kist,
93
(;');
tarahhum,
'
p.
397,
*
Rem.
?. I
kaf-i
mawaul or
Kaffa, not
117(13).
common,
vide Mawsul. followed by izafat, p.

*ila,
Ka/-gu,a, shovel,
Jacob, p. 179 (4) and footnote 6. " Jafang, m.c. = bosh," p. 596 and footnote
J=just now,
p.
Kaj dar u ma-riz

note
1.
etc., p. 396, footnote 1. p. 291, line 1 and foot-
Kam,
315
(5).
kam-i, kam-tar; kam-i, p. 126 (4); kam, positive for compar., I74(t); kam
INDEX.
and kam-tar, as negs. p. 231 (;") p. 304 kam and kam-tar, p. 490 (b). (5) Kam 6Sr,=" seldom" in class. Pers,, but in m.c. "of light weight," p. 196 (d) and
, ;
;
923
footnote
4.
Kamlna,
positive
and
sup.
p.
51
(/)
kamina, banda,
etc.,
used for 1st and 3rd
note 3;=mabada, p. 365 (24); or usually introduces subj., p. 539 (a), Rem. when, p. 570 (6), 'vide' KI. Ki-ki " who ?," p. 218 (d) and footnote 4. Kih, positive for compar., p. 174 (i). Ko,i hai=bachcha'ha, p. 373 and footnote 7. Ku and ku*h, p. 297 (2) and p. 290, foot;
69 (c) ; fern, in Mod. pera. prons. , p. Pers., p. 157 (s) (2); in class, Pers. positive masc. (a) (2).
note
5.
Kamil. Pers. compar. and sup p. 174 (h). Kandaatl, old form of 2nd pers. sing Perf. p. 232, VIII, Bern. Kanlz and kanizak, p. 69 (c) and footnote 3. Karahiyat, not rel. noun, p. 400, footnote 3. Karavan saray, shops in, p. 430 and footnote 4. Karbala*l, form of address, p. 370 and footnote 4 Kardan, p. 280 (a) (6) Past Part, of, used by Afghans with comparatives, p. 280 (6),
, , ;
Kuchulu and kuchuli, p. 398 (e). Kudam or kudamln, etc., p. 91 (a); used in both direct and indirect questions, p. 91 (a); ktc/i kudamhich yak (b); kudam kudam, used for ace. pi. yak-i, mod. (c) of ki (c), Rem, har kudam (d); used by '* some one " Afghans for Hindustani ko,i
;
(e).
Kuhistan and k&hsar, difference between,

of, p. 297 (3). Kuja*l, adj., p. 218 (Sj'arid footnotes land 3. Kull, subs., p. 118 (18); classically precedes its subs, without izafat, p. 118 (18) kull Ar, subs, and kulli Pers. subs, (and kulll Ar. adj.), p. 160 (w) (2) and p. 118
;
p. 411 and footnote 2. Kuja, idiomatic meanings
Hem.
Kai,
kas-l, p.
102
(c)
;
kas u na-kas^high 102-3 (c) (3), Kern and low, bi-kas friendless, kam-tar kas-i, p. 103 (c) (3); kas with neg. verb=no-
(3); kaass noble, pp.
(19),
Rem.
I.
ono,p. 104
(d) (1).
Kull^n and kulliyyatn, p. 307 (5). Kulll, Pers. abstract noun and Ar. adj., p.
118 (19)
;
Kaxh and optative, p. 550 (c). Kushi, adj.=of Kashan, p. 402, Rem. V. Kara sunZsin, construction, p. 661 and footnotes 1, 2 and 5. KVr// = when and how?, p. 293 (e) and footnote 2. Kayf, p. 385 and footnotes. Kevtril, p. 626 (16) and footnote 4. KhUnam, fern, of Khan, p. 50 (d).
bi-kulll
and
kulliyyafan different
meanings, p. 118 (19), Rem. I'; kullu-kum used by Afghans in m.c. (19), Rem. II;
p. 160 (w) (2).
Kumaj dan
copper
cooking-pot,
p.
410
and footnote 4. Kurur, cardinal, p. 184 and footnotes 3, and p. 185 (b).
JFCw#=drum,
p. 297,
and and
footnote
3.
/ar,
shah, dev, give idea of size, p. 170 (e) tehar, signifying "ass," in com(I);
Kushia shudan not used,

footnote 5. Kusli vide Ku. Khwah, p. 580 (3)
'
p. 286 (d) (3)
pounds, p. 171 (2). Kbarabat, kharabati, p. 344, footnote 2. Kfrak bar sar-am, p. 463 and footnote 4. Khariyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. fCharus-i Larl, p. 379 and footnote 5. KJhatfci musnad, p. 9, footnote 3 ; khatfci
shagari or W&att-i
f*arvi, p. 36.
khwah ma-khtvah,
p.
311 (14).
Khivabanldan,
Khwafa
1
;
p. 248 and footnote 3. Mod. Pers., address to Armenians and Hindus, p. 473 and footnote
.
in
= Jew vide under
Mula.
than
1.
followed by sing, or pi. subs., bhayli, cannot follow its noun, p. 150 (d) p. 306. //im/r=no, should not be used alone, p. 294 (00 (1) footnote 3. Khirsak, p. 615 and footnote 5. Khifiba, oratory, p. 629 (a). Khud, pp. 77-9 (a) ; khud-ha and bhudhayi-man, etc., p. 79, Rem. II p. 80 (e) ;
biftyar,
;
Khayli and
JK&wasta
bashld, fehwahid, p. 460

Inf.
,
more polite and footnote

;
ml-
Khwastan, pp. 257-61

pated
p. 257
followed by apoco;
^d
(a)
by unapocopated
p. 81, Rem. II. Ij&tida hafizl kardan, p. 373 JK&urandan p. 284, Rem.
,
and footnote
2.
258 (6): bi-khwahad raft, p. 259, 1; Subj. after, p. 259, Rem. II; preceded by Inf., Afghan, p. 259 (c) ; tr.=to summon, followed by Subj. (c) desire, love, pp. 259-60 (d);=to intend, requires, p. 260 (/); =it is p. 260 (e); necessary, p. 260 (/) =should, p. 261 (g). Kfrwish, p. 78 (4), p. 79 (c) in m.c. a subs,
Inf., p.
Rem.
KJburda-l
and yak bhurda,
p. 125 (p) (3).
only, p. 81
(/).
jK/wrefan, in passive sense, p. 285, footnote 5

J&husJtra, vulg. for /$>'= who!," how
&&?^
##*> p.
90
(h) (1).
;
declined, p. 92 (/) ay with compar. of adj. or noun, p. 172 chunan (d) (3) and p. 353 and footnote 1 ; ast H, p. 179 (v) (3);=so as, (?;) (5); " whether ?," interr., p. 238, (6) and footnote 3 ; ki conj., significations of, p. 349 (13), etc. ;=< saying that, p, 351 and foot-
fQynsliawand, p. 81 (/). ^htplshtan, applicable to rational beings only, in compounds, p. 80 (d) p. 81 (g).
;
La, in comp.
adj., p. 167 (12); la-ttball "careless," really Ar. verb, p. 167 (12),
Rem.
924
Labbayk, p. 373 and footnote
5.
INDEX.
Malla, gana, gharlb-gaz, p. 273, footnote Mamduda (alif), pp. 20-1.
6.
Labbe, p. 294 (*) (4) and 'footnote 5. La-bud, p. 295 (1) and footnote I. L5-hawl<*, etc., p, 633 and footnote 1. Lak (for lakh) cardinal, p. 184 and footnote
2,
Manqufa letters, p. 9 (h). Mardaka, p. 370 and footnote

Masruri
1.
and
p. 185 (6).
Man,
letters, p. 9 (h). 1st pers. pron. ;

;
man
ra vulg. and
dash=inverted commas, p. 37. La&&*-*=a short time, p. 127 (9) and p. 308
La]$ht or
(9).
man-i ra correct,
man p. 140 (y) Rem. I ; man-i banda 'or

620
(g)
p. 63, footnote 3, and izafat, pp. 70-1
and
(/),
poppy, p. 394 and footnote 2. Lammergeyer, p. 400 and footnote 1. Lar or for, Turkish pi., p. 67 (?) and p. 429
Lala
(P).
and footnote 3;
man banda, p. man u tu, com-
mon in poetry, p. 71. Rem. II; voc. of man as a possess, pron., p. 76 (6), Rem, Mana must be followed by ki p. 295 ,
y
Lassanl or verbosity, p. 646
(g).
tablet, p. 227, footnote 1, and p. 422, footnote 1. Lazim and Z52ra?,=intr., p. 221 and footnote 1 , and p. 574 (d) ( 1 ) and footnote 8 lazim dashtan, p. 266 (i) ; lazim shudan, p. 269, footnote 5.
Lawh, the
Rem. I. Manand, p.
156
(r),
Rem.
=like, in comp.
;
adjs., p. 168 (16).
Mandan, tr., Afghan idiom, p. 262 (/) kam manda bud foctkam mand. m.c. p.
,
262 (/) (4), and footnote Manistan.
4.
Vide also
Leap Year,
p. 207 (a)
and footnote
;
1.
of alphabet Letters, change of, p. 10 (m) and significations, pp. 11-21; solar and lunar, p. 31 ; comparisons if poetry, p. 34.
Like, w equal
to,
in
comparison
between
clauses, p. 179 (v) (3). Linga, odd one of pair, etc., p. 108, footnote 3; p. 189 (b). Local Clauses, vide under Temporal Clauses. Love Songs, p. 635.
Manistan and mandan, amongst Afghans, tr., =to place, p. 242 and footnote 1. Ma qabl and ma ba'd, p. 21. Maqbul and maqbula, p. 158 (7). Maqsura (alif) as used by Indians, p. 10 II p. 20 and footnote 3. (/)', Rem. Maqula, p. 563 (6).
;
Lunar letters, p. 31. Luqman, p. 179 (4) and footnote

Lyric, p. 635.
2.
M
Ma,
neg., p. 235 (b)
(c) (e),
Mabad, mabada, p. 228 352 and footnote 1.

'
(e)
Bern. p. 365 (24)
p.
before dative, particle, p. 67 (c) 299 (2) and footnote 5; p. 322 (6) p. 455(12). Mardaka, p. 370, footnote 1. Mardaku, p. 398 (e). Mardum, pi., also marduman, p. 465 (b) and footnote 3. Mardumiyyat, p. 400, footnote 3. Marhaba, p. 369, footnote 1. Marhiim, in m.c. precedes its subs, with an izafat, p. 436 (e) and p. 151 (q).
Mar,
p.
Ma baqqiy*, p. 129 (3). Ma bayn, vide' Miyan.

Mablagh and muvazi, followed by
izafat, p.
Marsiya, p. 635. Marvazl and Marghazi, p. 402, Rem. V. Mast and dust, once Past Parts., p. 166
(r)
Ma dam
Madar, Magar,
.
621 (h), Rem. ki etc., p. 363 (14).

t
interj., p.
374 and footnote 2.
Ma'dum,
note note
2.
adj., p. 167 (13). interr., p. 238 (a); p. 298 (8) and 299 (k) (1), p. 343 (5) ; p. 345 (9) and foot-
in
comp.
Vide
Ay a.
p.
Allah, p. 369 and footnote 2. Ar.. and mash'ala Pers., p. 410 and footnote 1. Mashjiadi, pilgrim, p. 300, footnote 1; p. 370 and footnote 4. Mashkula, dimin. of mashk, p. 398 (g). and ma'shiiqa, p. 159 ().
Ma sha*
(6).
MasKal
Ma'ahuq_
Maggots
1.
and nightingales,
p. 70 (e).
276, foot-
Ma-ha " we,"
Ma<hazja,p. 365(21). Mahalla-yi Jshamushan and sJiahr-i Ishamushan, p. 435 and footnote 2. Mafrbub, and mahbuba, p. 159 (u). Maty, p. 310 (6);=6anty, p. 311; p. 338, footnote 2; p. 361 (12) footnote 4. Majaz-i mahall bi-iami fyal, p. 667 (h) and footnote 3. Majaz-i mursal, p. 631 (e). Majhul sounds, p. 23.
Masnavi, p. 635. Maudlin or sentimental and footnote 3. Mawsul, kaf-i mawsul,

p.
in style, p. 632 (/>

sila,
559
(4)
( raji or
kaf-i sila, a*id, p. 65^

3.
Mazanna,
p. 299 (k) and footnote Ma'zaq, p. 633 (/).
Majnun, p. 179 (4) and footnote 5. Majrur vide Jarr. Mai, absolute gen., p. 35 (4) in m.c. used for "mine, thine, etc.," p. 77 (g).
' ' ;
Ma/mi?=/awi,p.
116(11).
M.C. ss Modern Colloquial. Meaningless Apposttive, p. 616 (a) and p. 622 (a) p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II. Measures of length, p. 213 tasu, Afghan, = and footnote 2; inch, p. 214 (b) "square," p, 214 (d): Ar. measures, Appen. E. Metaphor, briefer than lit. statement, p. 650 (m) false, p. 666 (g) (1). Metre, p. 634 (m).
;
Ml =zhami,
q.v.
(t).
Matfuzl
letters, p.
(h).
Mih,
positive for compar., p. 174
INDEX.
Million,
925
how expressed,
milyftn,
etc., pp.
p.
184
(6).
Milyun or
p.
French,
=
;
Mufawwal,
1,000,000,
= diffuse,
'
p.
644
(a)
and
foot-
note
5.
'
184.
76-7 (/) in m.c. expressed by mal-i, p. 77 (/). Min ba'd, p. 360 (5). Minnat mi-daram, etc., p. 310 (3). * Ir vide Amln. Mlrza, p. 437 and footnote 3. Misfortune, attributed to the revolution of the sky, p. 238, footnote 4 good to Allah, ditto, Misl-i ham, p. 82 (i). Misrelated Participle, p. 531 (n) to 532. Miyan, may take place of bayn, but not always vice versd, p. 503 (d) and footnote 4, and p. 504 footnote 2.
Mine, thine,
Muvazl Mahlagh. Muyaasar, prop. = facilitated,

vide
p. 174
(i) (1)
and footnote
1.
,
p. 10
(i).
'
N
nasal, none in Persian; in Ar. occurs before certain letters, p. 18 and footnotes. Nfr, and na- t p. 165 (10) and p. 166 (10); preferred to ma, m.c., p. 231, III, c and footnote i ; na in compounds, p. 231 (g) with bayad, na, p. 235 (a) (d) (e) (/) na and not na position of, p. 231 (i) used with a part, that is an adj., p. 235, footnote 4; na for "no," vulg., nafehayr polite, p. 294 (g) (1); no and andar, p. 322 and footnote 5; p. 343 and footnote 1 p. 347 footnote 4 ; na and na in neg. parts, p. 531 (1). Nabat sugar-candy, p. 377 and footnote
N,
Modal Clauses, vide under Temporal. Money, various coins current, p. 212 (a) how sent by post, p. 213 (c). (c) (d) Month, first and last of, p. 193 (h).
;
(6)
j i
Months, Syrian, pp.

p. 209 (b).
208-9;
Yazd-gardi,
More, how expressed, p. 175 (6). Mubalagha, p. 630 (c) and footnote 2. Mubtada*, = subject, p. 636 (n). Muchal, T., cycle of Turki year,=Pers duvazdah sal-i turkl, p. 204 (c).
4.
and footnote 2. and footnote 4. Muqhul, Muhal-i mumkin, vulg. p. 161 (y). Muhammad and Umar Year, p. 200 and
Mudam,
p. 316 p. 639
Nabzja, p. 127 (10), Rem. Nafar, p. 187 (g) and p. 189, Rem. II. adv., p. 289. Nafl. Na-$hafil, m.c. for ghaflat, p. 166 (10),
Rem.
I.
Na
footnote
1.
Muhtamal*
note
4,
'z-ziddayn, p. 632
p. 9 (h).
(/)
and
foot-
only used in m.c., p. 458 (e) and footnote 6. Na Jshushi, m.c. =-. sickness, p. 385 and footnote 2. Namaz-l pishin, namaz-i digar, Afghan,
ib> pi.
Mujama letters,
t,
p. 206.
Mujtahids, right to see p 292, footnote 3.

r,
women
(a)
unveiled,
Namudan,
p.
280
4
(c).
p. 38. brief, p.
644
and footnote
and footnote vide Chapish. Narl, Narration, direct and indirect, p. 502
Nana and nana
= he-goat,
jan, p. 374
'
3.
(a)
Mula or
note
fc&wa/a
= Jew, p. 380 (18) and foot'
to p. 570. Nasal n, * vide' N.
3.
Nasbh and Kufi, handwritings,

Nasr,
p.
p. 35.
Multiplicative numerals, p. 197Mftmiytfi, p. 657 and footnote 1. ' Mumayyaz vide Tamiz.
,
634 (m).
Ncuta'liq, p. 36.
(/) (1) and footnote 6 Nawafehtan, p. 245 (3) and footnote 4, Naw-Ruz, p. 205 (e) p. 393 (h). Nay, p. 292 (d) (1) and footnote 4; nay nay =balki, p. 355 and footnote 2. Nazakat, Pers. word on Ar. measure, p. 404,
;
Munajat-i manzuma,
Muqaddam
Murawa*,
= antecedent! p.
(o).
p. 635.
Nauha, p. 635. Na'uzy billah, p. 293
560
(4).
MurajjaZf p. 637
prose, p. 637 (o) and footnotes. hen, p. 379 (16) and footnote 5; Murgh', mur/ih-i dawlat, p. 400 and footnote 7.
Musallasa letters, p. 10 (i). Musanriat letters, p. 10 (i). Musajja* or muqaffg, prose, p. 637 (o). Mush-i fctfr, = bat (not mole), p. 173, footnote 1. Mushkil and iahkal, p. 159 (v) (1) mushkil =hardly, p. 300 (5). Muahkula, p. 398 (g). Music and dancing, waving the arms in,
;
Rem.
I.
Nazd, used for persons only, NaztKk, p. 332 (9). Nazm-i zarlfana, p. 635.
;
p. 333 (o).
507 and footnote 4; forbidden, p. 552, footnote 1. Mustafl and Mwfafavl, p. 402, Rem. V. Must have, =:bayad with Fut. Perf., p. 271 (p) p. 233 (c) (5). Mutaradif, p. 645 and footnote 2. utawazl, of prose, p. 637 (o).
p.
;
Necessary, expressed by khwastan, Afghan, paraphrase for, p. 273, Rem. p. 260 (/) andak Negatives, p. 235 (a) to (i) fcam and as negs., p. 236 (i); ad vs. of negation, 294 (g) polite form of neg., p. p. 292 (d) (2) neg. subj. after verb of prohibition, after ta, p. 500 (e) and footp. 497 (i) note 6; neg. participles, p. 531 (11). Neither nor, p. 498 (6) (5) and Rem neither and either, distrib. pronouns, concord of, p. 599 (/) ; neither of two,
;
;
p. 108
(/).
926
INDEX.
tional beings preferably pi. (d) (I); unqualified by adj. are usually sing., p. 46$ (d) (2); pi. gives prominence, p. 467 (e); wheat, butter, etc., pi. or sing., p. 46& (/); pi. for Ensj. sing., p. 469 (g) ; after subs, 'pair* and card. no. in sing, (h) of compounded verb is sing, (i) ; pi. for
;
Never, emphatic denial, how expressed, p. 293 (/) too many negatives a source of Vide Ever, error, p. 663 (e).
;
Nightingale, p. 276, footnote 1 ; p. 351, footnote 4. Vide also under Riza-khwani. Nihayat* 'Z-amr, p. 366 (22). Nik and niku, rare in m.c., p. 162 (b) (1),
Rem.
p. 149
nlk and bad precede their subs.,
dual
(k)
;
(?)
collectives,
when
pi.,
p.
470"
(6).
Nim, nlma,
footnote
p. 194 (a) and footnote 2, and p. 195 (e) (d) ; nlrn-shab and nlma, p. 313 and footnote 2 nlw-i roz, Afghan, p. 206,
;
qism and aqsfim with sing, and pi noun used fig. may be sing, with (I) (m) pi. of shutur-bachcha, pi. meaning, (n) etc. , p. 475 (') sing, and pi. nouns with
;
;
3.
Nwf and
n?w,
p. 194 (a)
and footnote 2 and
p. 195 (e) (d).
Nlz, incorrectly used as a correlative of w(z and ham, differagarchi, p. 556 (b) ence between, p. 339, Rem. Nizd, not adv., prep, only, p. 303, footnote
;
subs, repeated in pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) ; sing, in Pers. before two inconsistent qualities, pi. in* Eng., p. 493 (;'). Vide also under Nouns. Number of Words and Arts of Abbreviation, pp. 644-52; three forms of diffuseness,
hamm
Imperf and Pret.

.
(x)
;
hamm
qadr and
qadr-ha
(y)
2.
Na'ib and navvab, No matter how

'
p. '
65
*
(c),
Rem.
1
or
however, how ren-
p. 644 (b); Tautology, Pleonasm, Redundancy, Circumlocution, p. 645 (b) justifiable Tautology (c) ; dual tautological
;
'
'
dered, p. 557
(c).
Nominal verbs,
p.
275
(e)
and
;
p. 274, foot-
note 2. Nominative case, pp. 445-6 used absolutely, p. 445; subj. of passive verb, 'in Urdu and Indian Persian sometimes put in the accusative, p. 446. No sooner than,' p. 501 (h) and footnote
3.
Not only, vide only. Noun, common, collective,
prolixity (h) ; SOURCES of BREVITY selection of aptest words, use of Figures, p. 647 (i) and footnotes 1 and 2; METHODS of ABBREVIATION, one predicate for several subjects, etc. (i) ; employment of participles, (/) (1) parts, as
(g)
; ; ;
expressions (d) (1) (2); refrain of song, 646 (3) emotion expressed by repetition (e); circumlocution, examples, euphemism, is used in tafslr (/) verbosity
p.
;
:
generic, concrete, abstract, p. 56, Rein. II primitive

;
equivalents of
(z);
relative
clauses,
(3);
p.
648
and derived, def. and indef., p. 56, Rem. II; Pers. noun of instrument usually a compound, p. 428, Rem. II; NOUNS of MULTITUDE, concord of, pp. 464-476 and take sing, or pi. verb, pi. after p. 586 (e) 3/3 of unity, p. 464 (a) ; mardum^pi., p. 465 generic nouns (b) ; dushman^ sing, (c) denoting rational beings or preferably, unqualified by adj. are (d) (I); pi. usually sing., p. 466 (d) (2) pi. for sing.
; ; ;
equivs.
;
of phrases
(I)
;
"being"
briefer
omitted, p. 649 (3);

p. (k)
omission of verb,
ELLIPSES
METAPHOR
;
than
lit.
statement, p. 650 (m)

;
than particular, 1 phrase expressed by one word (o) 'a statement briefly implied, Impera. for (p); conjuncs. omitted, (q) r "if APPOSITION is brief, p. 65 ( )
briefer
gen. terms p. 651 (n) and
footnote
Eng., p. 469 (g); COLLECTIVES, when pi., noun used fig. may be sing. p. 470 (k) with pi. meaning (n) noun repeated in noun pi. as a superlative, p. 476 (z) should be repeated in comparisons, but not so in superlatives p. 491 (d) (e) sing, in Pers. before the inconsistent to be qualities, pi. in Eng., p. 493 (;') repeated after each adj., p. 494 (I) ; concord of collectives, p. 586 (e) NOUN of AGENCY in -anda, vide' under Agency; NOUN of POSSIBILITY or FUTUBE PART., GENERIC NOUNS vide under p. 535 Vide also Number of Nouns. Generic. Number, a number repeated has a distributive, continuative or intensive sense, p. 623 (b) ; when repeated in Afghan, but not in mod. Persian, p. 627 (32) and footnote 4.
;
parenthesis, p. 652 (t) CLEARNESS consideration. Rem. Numerals, pp. 182-203; CARDINALS, p. 182 Ar. numerals I to 10 (and ordinals (a) up to 20), p. 184; system ceases at
(s);
;
the
first
500,0 0; one million,

p. 185 (b)
;
constr. of
Ar.
pi.
with card., p.
1 ; as predicate (e) ; after hard, sad-haêtc., (e); no ra (/) harsi.etc., (/) qualifying or determining words used with numerals, p. 187 (g) ya of unity and cardinal, p. 189, Rem. II; juft, zauj\ linga, darzhan, p. 189 (h) du char shitdan (/) ; sad-ha, hazar-la (k)
; ; :
;
Jcarur and lak, (b) nouu with card, (c) 786 (e) and footnote noun in pi. after
;
:
sadha-yi
mardum
(Af.), p.
;
190(fc);
year
;
expressed by card, (m)

:
things
commonly
Numbers, Approximate, p. 199. Number of Nouns, nouns of multitude take

sing, or pi. verb, pi. after j/o of unity, p. 464 (a) ; mardum. p. 465 (b) ; duahman sing, (c) ; generic nouns devoting ra-
accompanied by nos., p. 190, footnote 1 ORDINALS, p. 191 Ar. ordinal* up to 20, p. 184 formative suff. added to last only, p. 191 (6) suffix in -in added, (c) card, for ord. in poetry, (c), Rem.; may b made by adding dlgar, p. 193 (/); FRAC;
; ;
TIONS, Pers., how formed, p. 194 (a); for Ar. frac. to be used, Rem, I ; , si^/ak not used, Rem. II; nltn and m>/,
INDEX.
p. 194, footnote 2; Ar. fractions in speaking, p. 195 (6) ; duals and pis. rarely used (6); minus J, Rem. ; per cent, p. 196 (c) ; DECIMALS, p. 196 (/) ; other methods of expressing fractions (g}\ ADVEBBIAL,
927
Pacha, leg of cattle only, in m.c., p. 309,

footnote
3.
Padshahat, Indian, on Ar. measure, p. 404,
NUMERALS,
p. 197
;
196; MULTIPLICATIVE, p. Ar. seldom used (6) and (a) DISTRIBUTIVES, p. 198; yaganyagan, p. 198 (1) and footnote 2; RECURRING, p. 198; APPROXIMATE, p. 199; numeral prefixed to noun forms comp. adj., p. 168 (17) and
;
Rem.
Pair,
I.
Pah, interj.,
p. 369.
p.
noun in sing, after, Pak and ?af, p. 161 (2).

footnote.
469
(6).
Palindromes, letters that are, p. 9
(h)
and
Rem.
Numerical Adjectives, pp. 199-200
;
formed
Story
Paluda and faluda; p. 243, footnote 4. Paliidan and palidan, amongst Afghans
by
silent
(h),
55
(a),
p.
199;
idioms (6); obs. idioms from Tuzuk-i Jahanglrl, (6); Ar. num. adjs., p. 200 (c). Numerical Figures, p. 33.
Tellers
to search, p. 243, footnote 4. Panja-yi duzdlda, or fthamsa-yi mustariqa, names of, p. p. 206 (a) and footnote 7
;
Nun-i munfaeil,
p. 343, footnote I. Nuqra*i, etc., how written, p. 400. Nuvvab, p. 458 (e) and footnote 6.
209 (&)(!). Paradise, four grades of, p. 180 (w) and footnote 1 p. 190, footnote 1.
;
Paragraphs
and chapters,
(2).
p.
613,
Rom.
Para-l, subs., p. 125 (p)
Pardak&tan,p. 244, Rem. and footnote Parenthesis, p. 652 (t) and footnote 2. Parikah-i, p. 127 (12).
Objective genitive, p. 448. Obscurity, = ghamazat, p. 631 (d) p. 654 great length or brevity (6) (1) to (4) causes it, p. 659 (6). Vide Ambiguity and Incoherence. Odd,' or more, p. 198 (3). Odes, p. 635. Omens, p. 392 (c). On = immediately after, = &**-, p. 504 (g).
;
;
5.
Participles, Past, p. 527 (m) (1) to (n),p. 531
'
used conjunctively, final n considered a copulative conj., p. 527 (m) (1); redundant vav with, p. 528 can take place of adv. (2) and footnote 3; of subs., p. 5.9 (3) and footnotes 1 and 4; of a
:
clause (4) of an adj. (5); as pass, part., p. 530 (6) ; used for pres. part, in Eng. , and in Pers., with slight p. 530 (7);
;
Once again,
p. 197
(e).
Only, position in sentence, note 1.
p.
496 and foot-
change of meaning
(9);
indicates state (8) ; of certain trans, vbs. is used passively, p. 531 (10); neg. formed with na- t
Onomatopy, p. 633 (k). Optative mood, p. 233 (/)
clauses, 550 (e); is form of condit. clause, introduced by leash chi budi, etc., p. 550 (e) and footnotes 3 to 5 ; Opt. and Past Opt., represented by same tense, p. 551 (e), Rem. ; in Mod. Pers., both can be represented by the Aor. or the Imperf.. and the Past
;
with na (11); as a means o condensa' tion, p. 531 (n) ; misrelated,' p. 531 Ar. fern. Past (n) to 532 ; p. 166 (r) (4) Part., p. 51 (g); Perf. Part, prefixed to " " buda cwJ must in Af. Pers., p. 906
;
Opt. by the Plup. also, p. 551 (/). Or, p. 342 (4). Order of Words, and Errors in, pp. 604-13 formal order, p. 604 (a) dat. follows the words denoting time placed ace. (6) first (c) when complement is a sentence,
;
1 ; PART. PRES., p. 532 -an not much used, always for contin. action, p. 532 (o) to 533; contin. tense may be formed by it, p. 53 {; p. 15(3 (r) (I) and (3); VERBAL
(48;
and footnote
(o); part, in
ADJEC.
in -a, p. 54,
Rem.
ADVERBIAL
PART., p. 528 (2) and footnote 3; vide above: PARTICIPLE FUTURE, p. 535 (r), how formed used in pi. (r) and footnote
2.
it
comes last (d) when obj. is qualified by a rel. clause it can precede (<?) more
;
;
than one verb at end of sentence, p. 605 (/) Impera. can begin clause (/) in m.c. a few verbs precede their dat. (g) position of first portion of comp. or pot. verb Inversion (i) exam, of, pp. 605-7 (h) avoid crowding circumstances together, p 607 (/) circumstances should not be placed between two capital members (k) corresponding order to be assigned to circumstances (I); examples of collocation, pp. 608 (m) (n), 613 adjs. and phrases in
;
;
p. 628 (/) and p. 655 (6) (2) Vide also Tajnls. footnote 1. Parais, Indian, how divided, p. 401, footnote 3. Pafi for va, p. 578 (2). Pashmadan so-and-so, such and such,
Paronomasia,
p. 107 (2).
Pas manda and 'aqab manda

II.
;
>
p. 129,
Rem.
appos. may follow the verb, p. 615 Ordinals, pp. 191-3.
(2).
Oxymoron,
Orthography and Orthoepy, p. 1. p. 631 (e) and foqtnoto
7.
Passive Voice, pp. 285-88 methods of expressing, p. 285 (&) not every verb admits of a Passive, p. 286 (c) ex. of gram, trans. Inf. used for pasa. , p. 286 (d) pass., p. 286 (3); pass, to express possibility for impossibility, p. 286 (4); pass, expressed by Ar. Past Part., p. 287 (e) by
;
; ; ;
928
;
INDEX.
Plup. not used, p. 638 (u) and p. 232 (c) a little used form of (2) and footnote 3
;
3rd pers. pi. of trans. (/) pass, of neut. verb to express impossibility, App. B, p.
891
and footnote
2.
;
Past Tense, vide Preterite
Eng. Past Indie, expressed by Pers. Aor. p. 539 (c) PAST HABITUAL, for mere supposition, p. 547 and footnote 3 ; for future but impossible suppositions, p. 547 and footnote 4; PAST POTENTIAL vide Habitual; PAST SUBJ. and PAST PRESUMPTIVE, p. 531 (;')'; CONTIN. PAST SUBJ., p 523. Pathos, p. 622 (g) and footnote 3. Paya thunder, vulg., p. 274, footnote 1. Per, p. 322 (11) and footnote 9. Percent., p, 1<6 (e). Perfect Tense, old form of 2nd pers. sing., p 232, VIII Hem.; contin. Perf., p. 232 its use (c) (1) ; Perf. tense, pp. 523 (fc)-7 in Eng. (k) (1) expressed by Pers. Pret., pp. 52.J (fc)-4 Pers. Perf. indicates that an act is past but its effects continue, p. 524 indicates time indef and anterior to Pret., p. 524; indicates as recently finished if time is indefinite, p. 525 (1) h dropped in 3rd pens, sing., (2); ast omitted (3) subs, yerb of other persons omitted in certain sentences (3) some emphatic statements, p. 526; oxs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (I) CONTIN. PERF., p. 536 (t) and Rem. PERF. PROGRESSIVE, how expressed, p. 513 (8); PERF. SUBJ., p. 542 (/). Periphrasis, p. 646 (/) and footnote 3. Permit, pp. 261-2. Persian, dialects of, p. 636 (p) prose works, p. 639; Mod. Pers. simpler, but lax (r) rhetorical style, p. 642 (t) styles to be compared, p. 644 (u).
,
Plup., p. 232, IX, Rem. Pioce, p. 655 and footnote , and p 668 (i) 1 ) and footnote ( Plural, formation of, in CLASS. PERS., pp. 58-64 of nouns ending in a or u, p. 59
I I .
(c); of
words ending in
silent (A), p.
69
aspirated h, p. 60 (e), Rem.; Ar. words take Pers. pi., p. 60 (/) ; br. Ar. pis. (/) ; reg fern. Ar. pi. (0) used for neu. nouns, p. 61 (g) ; pi. of pis. (h) ; barbarous form, p. 62 (i) Pers. words with Ar. br. pi. (?) Ar. fern. pi. added to some Pers. words (k) br. pi. and bar(d) (e); in
;
,
barous
pi.
p. 63, Rem. MOD. PERS.,
may have
;
different meanings, reg. Ar. masc pi. (I) ; in

;
in m.c.
p. 64; a few br. pis. used even by the vulgar, p. 65 (c) incorrectly used as sings., p. 1 (c), Rem. Pers. fom., Ar. pis. used in m.c. (d) words with imitation, Ar. fern. pi. (d) reg. pis. of pis. used in m.c., p. 66 (e) br. pi. rnasc. Ar. pi. in speaking (h) treated as sing., Pers. pi. added, p. 469
; ; ; ; ;
footnote
(p)
;
pi.
used for respect, p. 472

p.
to give
(e);
prominence to a word,
;
used for sing, to avoid a pointed allusion, p. 473 (g) Eng. pi. trans, by Pers. sing., p. 473 (r) pi. after cardinal with several nouns, pi. termination (s) added to last, p. 474 (v)\ pi. of shuturwith Pret. or bachcha, etc., p. 475 (w) Tmperf. difference (x); hamln qadr and
467
:
royal pi., p. 476, foot(y) subs, repeated in pi. to indicate superlative (z) pi. dama* "bloods" for excess, p. 350 and footnote 1 ; pi. used in
;
hamln qadr-ha
note 2
:
Perspicuity, p. 631 (d). Pidar-sag, p. 387 and footnote 5. Pig in stables, p. 393 and footnote
1.
Pilar-sal, vulg. for pirar-sal, p. 314,
foot-
note 1. Plr and Plra,

Pir-aal,
p. 156 547 and footnote 6.
(s) (1);
plra, fern., p.
Afghan,
p. 151 (g).
;
Pisar, as dimin., p. 397 (c) pisar-bazzaz young cloth merchant, p. 441 and footnote 3: pisar farangi, p. 442 (b): pisaru, vulg., p. 5 (1) and p. 95, llem. II. Piah,p 331 (6); plsh-i man of place, and pish az man of time, p. 303 and footnote 3 m.c nazd-i man t pish-i man Af. p 86, footnote 3; pish, a compar. ,p. 175 to set a door ajar, (5); pish kardan p. 336, footnote 4; pish az an ki, followed by Pres. Subj. even when referring to past time, p. 502 (i). Pista*i, p. 400 and footnote 5. Pithy, p. 644 and footnote 5. * Please, vide Bi-farmayid. Pleonasm, p. 645 and footnote 1. indicates time Pluperfect, pp. 526 (Z)-7 anterior to Pret.,,used in Condit. sentences, after kashki, Eng. Plup. expressed by Pers. Pret., p. 526 (I): exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup. (I); Old Condit. Plup., p. 527, Bern. ; Contin.
;
p. 288 (h) the Fates as a possible pi. subject, footnote 4. Poetry, p. 634 (m). Polysyndeton, p. 651 (q) and footnote 3. Posh posh, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 and footnote 3. Possession, expressed by dat. p. 77 (g), Rem. by mal, * vide under Mine. Possible, expressed by shudan, p 248 (6) as quickly as possible, p. 627 (23) and
Qur*an when Allah speaks,

;
and footnote 3
'
footnote
I.
'
Potential, Past tense, vide Habitual. Prayer, times of, p. 206 (d). Precative, class., p. 231, Rem. p. ,233 (/). Precision, lack of, p. 658 (a). Predicate Widbar, p. 636 (ra). Predicative Clauses, pp. 562-70; in class. Vera., the statement that completes the predicate is indirect nom., p. 562 (a); but in Mod. Pers. in indirect (6) after verbs of commanding, for bidding, etc.. indirect preferred (c); exs. of direct, p. 564 (d); m.c. exs. of indirect, p. 565 (e) same sentence may be rendered by direct or indirect and have different meanings, exs., p. 566 (/) and p. 567; the 2 con;
structions may account for the difference in tenses in some subor. clauses,
p.
567,
Rem.
II;
exs.
of other Pred.
INDEX,
clauses, p. 568 (g) to p 570; Pred. clauses changed from Condit., p. 651 (g).
929
Prepositions, pp. 322-38; noun preceded and followed by a prep., p. 322 (c) prep, added for emphasis, p. 323 (c) (2); 2 preps., or prep, and adv., joined (d); andarzsdar, p. 324 (g); exs. of simple preps, (h) ; Particles of exception, p. 330
;
man ra (vulg.) and man-i ra, footnote 3 ; with preps., p. 69 (a) for 3rd pers., the demons, sometimes used, p. 6'J (6); u used for an (b) ; banda mufehlis, kamina, vide also Aqall, Du'a-gu, Da'i, Haqu ; (b) 3rd pers. pi., polite forms, p. 70 (d) (e)
;
(/)
Syntax
of, p.
476;
pi. of
ahema
;
(e);
AFFIXED PRONOUNS,
p.
71
-ash
and
), Rem. may be used adverbially (/) words that may be preceded by simple
(
I
-shan for animates, and inanimates, p. 71 (a) (2); how enunciated, p. 72 (3);
after final -i (4) ; after alif-i maqeura (5) ; vowel poetically omitted (5), Rem.; after final hamzah (6) ; after silent h, p. 72 (b) and p. 73 (/) ; joined to conj. ki (6), Rem.; after -5 or -w (c) ; exs. (d) ; pi. affixed prons. not much used in class.
Pers., p. 73 (c) ; not followed by ra, p. 74, Rem. II; ambiguity of, p. 74 (g); in m.c. affixed to some preps. , p. 75 (h) ; not affixed to bar, ba, bi, ta, juz, zabar,
t
preps., p. 331 (2); the subs, that take the place of preps, in m.c., p. 332 (n) ; exs. of common preps., p. 333 (o); nazd, used for pers. only ; some preps, in-
terchangeable, p. 338 (20); compar. and sup. suffixes added to, p. 176 (o) (2); preps, syntax, pp. 502-5; may be expressed by izafat, p. 502 (a) repeated
;
Vide also Pish, Ba d. Present Tense, dramat. pres., p. 299 (2) and footnote 4 pres. ten?e, p. 510 (c) in class. Pers. chiefly used for Def. or Contin. Pros., rarely for Fut., p. 511 (c); in Mod. Pers. as a Pres. Def. or Indef. (d) in Pot. sense, p. 512 (1), as Fut. (d) (2) in dram, narration in quoting (4) (3) inconsistent to change time from (5) Pres. to Past (5) u c ed in Persia for Eng. Past, p. 513 (6); for propositions that
l
and not repeated (b) among and amidst between and betwixt (e); govern(d) ment of, p. 600, vide under Government.
; :
etc. (h)
when
possess.
some mod. vulgarisms

the
adj.
jjlace of reflexives (/)
how named (h) (i) may take

;
;
joined to qual.
;
to noun, p. 152 (/) affixed take the place of the dat. in ra, p. 450 (8j ; ra omitted after noun in class. Pers.,
p. 457 (18); ra omitted when the pron. POSSESSIVE PROis the obj., p. 458 (21) NOUNS, p. 75; affixed prons as posses;
and not
are always
Perf.
(8)
;
true or false (7);
for
Eng.
Fut.,
Rem.
dramatically used for I; Contin. Pres., Rem. II;
used only after 3rd pers., footnote 2; cases formed by preps., p. 76 (a); suffixed to last of a series of nouns, expressed by pers. prons. (b); (o), Rom.
;
sives, p. 75 classically ra
(a)
followed by ra (a)
'! do
sep. pron. in
last (b),
not and will not" and "is and always has," how expressed, p. 526 (k).
formed by ra or
ace. requires ra (b) bi- (b) sep. prons.

;
dat.
;
Rem.;
Presumptive Past, vide Fut.

Preterite Perfect, Past Definite, pp. 515-7 usod in narrating events that closely follow each other, bi- prefixed, exs., p. 515 (g) expresses action just completed, used for Pres. Subj., as an uncertain Future, in class. Pers. after verbs of ordering, p. 576 and footnotes 1 to 6; refers to a definite point of time and Prof, to Indef., p 517 ; like the Imperf is used for the Pres. p. 517 and footnotes 2 and 3 ; used for Eng.
; ;
.
sep. pron. reflex, pron
with
pron.
voc. of man (6), az possession
come Rem.
(d)
;
possession
(e)
demons,
;
"mine, thine."
mine, etc., p. 77 (g) possession expressed by the dat. (g), Rem.; 612 its noun, (10) and po^s. preceding p. footnote 2. REFLEXIVE and RECIPROCAL Pronouns, p. 77 (a); refer to subj. () Miud for animate or inanimate nouns khud or khwish but not bhwish(a) ( ) tan with immaterial things, p. 78 (4)
etc.
;
man,
etc.,
(/)
malri
Plup., p. 526 (I); exs. illustrating Pret., Perf., and Plup., p. 527 (/); takes place of Eng. Inf., p. 530, footnote 3 used for Aor. and Pres. in conditions, p. 251, footnote 1; used for Pres. Subj., p. 539 (b), Rem. and p. 543 (2) in conditions, p. 555 (e) ; Pret. and Impcrf. with sing* and pi. noun, p. 475 (x) ; class. Pret. forms of 3rd pers. sing., as gu/ta,p. 231 footnote 2. Prose, p. 634 (m); three kinds, p. 637 (o) 8; impassioned Eng. prose has rhythm,
;
;
kh.ud
common
in
compounds,
p. 79 (o),
etc.,
tity, in
Rem., Prosody, accent and quanEng. and Ar., p. 635 and foot-
note 1. Pros to semainomenon, p. 661 and footnotes

1, 2 and 5. Protasis, understood, p. 548 (c) (1), Plup. for Imperf., p. 549 (d).
Rem.
1; Miud-ha jpl., (a), II; feliudha-man, etc., ditto; bi^na/si-h* (b) fehwish for fchitd (c) Ishipishtan, poss. arid reflex., unlike khwlsh can stand alone, occurs in compounds, used for in m.c. rational beings only, p. 80 (d) in Mod. Pers. is a subs, only, p. 81 (/) can be expressed by affixed pronouns, p. 81 (h) ; khud (e) ; in m.c. reflex, does not always refer to subj., p. 81, Rem. I ; khud-ha, Rem. II; bi-febud-am and 6ibhud, Rem. Ill; Icl&wisha-wand , subs., reflex, pron. (g) ; fcbtwishtan p. 81 (/) in Mod. Pers. reflexives can be expressed by affixed prons., p. 81 (h) ; RECIPROCAL pronouns, p. 81 (i) and p. 100 (6) DE;
Rem.
Rem.
MONSTRATIVE
for
;
pronouns
Pronouns, Personal,
man
(a]
p. 68; voc. of tu (a) ;
ma
ay
vulg.
fin ki (a)
sion, pp. 76 (/)-7 ; im ancient In, p. 82 (6) ; pis. (6) ; un-ha classically=
may =
possesform of
59
930
they
INDEX.
Pronunciation of consonants, p. 11; sum-
(6); idioms with 4n, p. 83 (d) (/) ; in = latter () ; an in certain phrases (g) ; u an an in mystic poetry, p. 84 (h) ; In m.c. ss various things (*) about to in =r here I am, p. 85 (/) ; old idiom (*') with In (I) In kuja va an kuju (k) position of (w) ; added exs. of demonstratives (n) ; Inak, anak. p. 87 (o) ; ant
;
m
;
mary, p. 40. Proper names, definite,

' ,
p. 130 (6).
DEMONSTRATIVE proHamln and Hainan COMPOUND DEMONSTRATIVE pronouns, 'vide Ohunin, Chunan pp. 88-90, Hamchu, etc., Chandln, Chandan; IN(p)
;
EMPHATIC
nouns, pp 87-8. vide
Prophets, number of, p. 190, footnote 1. Pun ' vide Tajnis. Punctuation, p. 37. Pusht ptisht, p. 371 and footnote 3, and p. 372 (10) and footnote 3; pusht-i ham, p. 337, footnote 2. Pvstin darldan, etc., idioms, p. 416 and footnote 1.
Puzzles, Persian, in points, etc., p. 44.
inserting diacritical
TERROGATIVE pronouns, pp. 91-8 ki ? is and requires ra p. 130 (6). 'Vide* Kuddm, Ki Chi, Chand, Chlm; SUBSTITUTES for INTERR. pronouns, p. 9S; chiguna, p. 98 (a); chun (b); INDEFINITE PRONOUNS, pp. 98-129; hama "is def. and " one can often requires ra, p. 130 (6)
;
def.
be rendered by har ki, p. 104, Rem. II expressed by 2nd pers. sing. Aor. or Past Vide' Yak-i, Habit, (c) (6). Digar jg&at/r, Ahad-l, Kas, kas-l, Adam, Tnsan, Shafchs-i, Hick, etc., clilz, clilz-l, Fulan, So-and-so, Such and such, Both, Neither of two, Chand (a few), Qadr-i, etc., Hama,
; '
Qabl, p. 331 (6); qabl az an ki, followed Pres. Subj., p. 502 (i). Qabulariidan, m.c., p. 284 (;'). Qadr-l. In qadr, etc., p. 112 (h). Qahwa-chl. p. 409 and footnote 5. Qajar, p. 653 and footnote 5. Qalam-dan, p. 410 and footnote 3.
by
QalU and
note 4
'
qalll-i.
vide
'
Andak-l.
Qamls and
chihil-var, p. 378 (7)
and
foot-
etc.,
Jumla,
etc.,
Jaml
( ,
Sa*ir, Kaffa,
etc., Kull, etc., 'Amma, Har, etc., Bas-i, etc., GuruJi-i, Aksar, Para-i,
Tamam,
Qand loaf sugar, p. 377 and footnote 4. Qaslda-yi madhiyya, p. 635. Qa&iba, not common, followed by iza/at,
p. 117 (13).
p. 393 (**). ' vide Yilaq. Qism and Jwr. p. 470 (I) aqsam, pi. (m). Qizit-bash, p. 653 and footnote 5. Qiziljih, qizilcha, dimin., p. 396 and foot-
Andak-i, faraf-l, Khurda-it Kam-%, Lafeht-i, Shamma-i, Barkh-i, Juzv-l, Nabza, Zana, Par-i kah-t, Ba'z-i, Bis-
Qaza and Qadar,
SYNTAX OP PRONOUNS, yar, Baql, etc. pp. 476-90; pers. prons., Shah and pi., prons. should follow their p. 476 (a), etc. nouns without the intervention of
: ;
QiMaq,
'
another noun, p. 479; "it" prospective, impersonal, p. 480 pronoun should not refer to a noun following, p. 480, Rem.
;
note 3. Quantity, words signifying
are in
appos., p. 621 (h). Qudrat-i kamil and qudrat-i kamila, p. 157
II
(b)
pers
;
and p. 612 (10) and footnote 2; 1st more worthy than 2nd, etc., p. 481
if
;
antecedent to prons. is not known ambiguity results, p. 482 (d] (1) position of ra with an affixed pron. often deter' ' mines antecedent (2) former and 'latter,' p. 483 ()(!) and (2); pros, and ' such = of unity, retros, p. 484 (3)
; '
;
and Qur*an, purchasing, p. 380 (17)
3 )-
Rem.
484 (4) an ki, te ki and accusatives omission of pers. pron. when not (/) emphatic, p. 485 (g) (h) noun repeated to avoid use of ambiguous pron., Rem. ; pers. pron. inserted when emphatic (i) ; each other ' and one another/ every,' pp 479-80 (I) either, neither Cm) ; self
p.
; ;
'
'
Ra, of .ace., after proper names, ^certain prons hama, interr.of, ki, yak-l, etc., in Gulistan, footp. 130 (b}; omitted note 4 ra of dat. cannot be omitted (c) in Mod. Pers. the affix possessive prons. rare in usually have ra, this construe, ra and def. nouns that class. Pers. (c) ra = of unity, p. 131 (/) have the
,
:
;
both (p) RELATIVE PRONOUNS, syntax of, pp. 487 (?)~900 'which' referring to a clause = ki, p. 487 (q) (1) 'that/ for 'who,' and Pers. paraphrase
(n)
;
all
(o)
(q) (2)
(3);
(4)
;
and who restrictive (q) 'what' and 'that which,' p. 488

' ;
that
'
'
'
ra with baray, p. 463 and footnote 5; def. and indef. noun in appos., p. 618 (d). Vide Accusative and Dative cases. Radd kardan and shudan, p. 334, footnote to pass by, 1; in m.c. radd shudan miss the mark, p. 176 (o) (3) and footnote
1.
relatives should be placed to avoid ambiguity (6) ; transition from a rel. clause to one of affirmation, p. 489 (8) ; errors in the use of the relatives (8) ; errors in concord of, p. 600 (g) ; pron. of
rel.
how
Rafizi, p. 653 and footnote 6. to continue, Raft'an, p. 263;
p.
263
(a)
raw
k.
(/)
Afghan,
to be on the
(o)
clause,
how
styled, p. 559
(4).
point of, m.c. (h). Hajay, name of a metre, p. 637 note 1.
and
foot-
INDEX.
Raji*
(4).
931
in restrictive rel. clauses
and
'tfid, s= pron. in rel. clause, p.

belief, p.
559
noun
may be
Ram,
popular note 3.
379 (16) and foot7.
Rasta-bazar, p. 65 fi
and footnote
179
(v)
'Rather
than/
p.
(2);
zinhar.
3.
Rauza vide Rawza. Razm, a division of poetry,

*
pp. 370-1. Rail, Indian weight, p. 214, footnote '
Rawza, meanings
footnote
1,
of,
Indian
p. 635. belief, p. 323,

p.
Rawza-fahwan, style of signature,
70
(c),
Rem. Ravawdan ravana p. 284, Rem.
k.,
substituted
for,
Redundancy, p. 645 (6) and footnote 1 p. 668 (;). Reflexive Verbs, p, 285 (I). Refrain of Song, p. 646 (d) (3). Relative Pronoun, and Demonstrative or Relative Ya, pp. 141-9, so rel. pron., particle ki takes its place, p. 141 (a)
;
preceded by demonstrative pron. or followed by ya, footnote 4; antecedent and pron. of relative clause, how termed, excessive susp. 559 ; exs. p. 660 (5) pence, p. 561 (6) and footnote 5, and rei. clause may be converted p. 562 (c) one relative may da into condit. (d) duty for more than one clause, if in different cases the rel. repeated or otherwise, p. 601 (e) ; exs. illustrating the government of some verbs and preps., p. 602 (/). Relative Noun, Ar., p. 400 (3) and footnote imitations, ditto. Vide also '6; Persian Appendix A. Repetition of Word or Phrase, Jingling Sounds, Alliteration, pp. 622-8; exs. of jingling words, p. 622 (a) MEANINGLESS APPOSITIVE (a) and Remarks I and II the same number repeated has a distri,
: ; ; ;
clause omitted or inserted, (a); noun before a rel. clause may be considered def. even if preceded in Eng. by in def. article, p. 141 (6) and footnote 4, and p. 142 (d); noun made
pron in
rel.
butive, continuative, or intensive sense, other words (6) Ar. Sing, followed by its two different measures br. pi. , p. 624 (c) from same root (d) Pers. pi preceding
;
; ;
specially; ;def. by ya (6); is possibly an extension of the izafat, p. 142 (6) this ya corresponds to the Eng. restrictive rel. names of this ya (c) how pron. (c) written (c) pron. in rel. clause expressed or understood, pp. 142-4 (d) another way of declining the rel., p. 144 (e) ex. of incorrect modern construction (e) and footnote 5 rel. cannot be joined to sing, of demons, prons. an and In, or to kar t pp. 144-5 (g)', may be added to pi., should not be joined to pers. p. 145 (g) can be omitted when noun prons (g) is made def. by demonstr. pron., exs.
;
; ;
Profess. Story-tellers repeat same word for continuation (/) repetition of word or phrase for emphasis (g) ; repetition of substantive with izafat, p. 625 (h); Exs. of repetition (i) (1) to
Pers.
sing,
(e)
repeat Present but not 627 (26) and footnote 2; Afghans repeat Past Part. (28); ALLITERATION, p. 628 (/). Require, expressed by Ishwastan, p. 260 (/). 213 (c). Registered post.
(37)
;
Persians
p.
Past Part.,
Resemblance, adjectives of, p. 168 (16). Rhetoric and Composition, pp. 629-44
definition of Rhetoric, oratory, etc.
;
p.
how
divided
(h)
omitted from noun following anchi,

1
;
no Ar terms exactly " Rhetoric"; how divided by sponds to COMPOSITION, = the Arabs, p. 629 (a) insha, p. 630 (6); Style, kinds of (c)
;
corre-
employment with proper names after an and In (i) with noun qualified by a simple adj. (;) ex. from Sa'di and its mod. (k) (1) equiv., p. 146 (m) with subs, and num.,
:
; ; ;
p. 146, footnote
ex. of its
two merits common

Figures
(g)
(/)
j
j
to
:
all
styles
(d)
(/);
variety, p. 632 (/); pathos ludicrous style (h) humour (i) ; wit melody or harmony, p. 633 (k) taste composition divided into Prose and
(e)
;
az qarar-i ki ma'lurn mip. 147 (n) xhavad (o) if noun is indef. verb precedes ki (h) exs of omission in non-restrictive demons, ya before ki rel. clauses (r) may represent the Eng. indef. art., p. J48, Rem.: chunan and chandan used with demons, ya in India and Afghanistan but not in Persia (a) abstract sing. nouns do not admit of rel. ya may be used with pi. abstract nouns, concrete nouns take ^, p. 14!) (v) ^, added to
;
rhythm, rhyme, metre, p. 634 2 p. 635 and footnote Bazm and Razto^, what they include divisions of Eng. poetry, p. 635; Prose; simple, compound, and complex senPoetry;
(m)
;
git
not nazm,
tences, p. 636 (n) (1); balanced sentence Muperiodic or loose sentences (3) rajjaz prose, Musajja* or Muqaffa. Saj' and its divisions, Murassa" p. 637 (o) ;
(2)
; ; ,
two nouns coupled by (w) RELATIVES introducing the SUBJUNCTIVE, p. 538 (a); RELATIVE CLAUSES, pp. 558-62; introduced by "who, what, etc.,' p 558 (a) (1) position of relative, antecedent to ki may be a p. 559 (2) (3) demons indef., or pers. pron., or comlast
of
'Art prose, p. 638 (o) Eng. prose and rhythm, balance, exs. of Antithesis, Ishtiqaq, Tajms, Taqllb, the Fa*ana-yi 'Aja''ib coun(o) ; Persian, the language of several
;
mon
or proper noun, p. 559 (4)
common
dialects, some Indian prose 639; Mod. Pers. prose simple but lax, p. 640 (r) quality, preferable to quantity, long and short sentences, rhetorical style of the Persians, p. 641 the Anvar-i Suhayll, p. (542-4; comparison of works suggested for students,
tries (p)
;
works,
p.
932
p.
INDEX.
644.
EBBOBS in RHETOBIC, pp. 659incoherence, p. 659 (a) ; length and brevity, source of obscurity (6) ; construetion that looks to the implied sense proa to sZmainomenon and katasunMn, p. 660 (c) zeuqma, p. 663 (d) negatives, too many (e) : exs. of further errors, p. 664 (/) ; metaphor, false, p. 665 (g)(i) ; Irish bulls, incongruities of speech, p. 667 (2) and footnote 2; confusion as to topical subject (h) ; majaz-i maliall bi-ism-i hal (h) and footnote 3; skilful use of same word in different senses, p. 668 (') (1); unskilful Rem. TAUTOLOGY or HASHV-I use, QABI^ (2) ; a new construction should not be introduced without cause, p. 669 (k) ; ANTITHESIS, faulty, incomplete, p. 670 (I); CLIMAX, (m) (1); ANHCLTMAX (m) (2); RULE OF SUSPENCE, violation
72
;
Salam, kardan and Ishwandan, p. 604 and footnote 2; aalam un 'alay-kum, etc., p. 382 (g).
Salatat-i 4 ibarat or simplicity, p. 631 (d). last of the month, p. 193 (h). Salkh, ' Salu, vide Shila. Salutation, of Jews, p. 382 and footnote 4 ; of Muslims, p. 382-3 and footnote 5.
San, T., = total, p. 419 and footnote Sana*i or Figures, p. 631 (e).
l
Vide Greeting.
3.
of, p. 671 (n)
COHERENCE,
p. 671 (o)
;
illogical
pound sentences,
commistaken use
of 4 and,' p. 672 (o). Rliyth, p. 634 (m). Rice, grains for weighing drugs in India, p. 214, footnote 3. Ridan, coarse, polite phrases, p. 241 and
Sang-i ab, p. 215 (6). anl, not rel. adj., p. 401, Rem. II. Saql-nama, p. 635. Sar 9 without izafat, p. 437 (a) and p. 438 Sar-i shuna, p. 386 and footnote 3; (4) sar-i sar-i ash, etc., Af. idiom, p. 310 (4) bbar, intruder, p. 386 (I) sar-afganda, in Mod. Pers, = ashamed class. = head cut off, p. 174 (i) (2) and footnote 3. Sar-a-bala, p. 304 and footnote I. Sarahat, clearness, style, p. 631. Sar-daralchtl, p. 440 and footnote 4.
; ; ;
Sarf, p. 48
Sarf-i saghlr
and
sarf-i kablr,
Indian term, p. 234, Rem. II. Sarkan parkan, Afghan, p. 627

footnote
3.
(30)
and
3.
footnote 4. Riza-Jchwanl, of footnote 1.

p.
nightingale, p.
380 and
Pers. verbs, 239; of Arabic, Appendix A. on an average, p. 355, Ru-yi ham, m.c., footnote 4 ; p. 302 (7) and p. 304. Rud-khana, p. 413 and footnote 1. Ruq'-ah handwriting, p. 36. Rustam, p. 179 (4) and footnote 2. Rvz~i> jawza*, longest day, p. 210 (c) ; ruz-i
Roots or Stems, of simple
Sar-k&war, of wife, p. 440 and footnote Sarma-yi pir r.al, p. 210 (d). Sar-rahl, vide Dam-rahl.
'
Satires, p. 635.
Savar and Savara, p. 308 and footnote 2. Saya-yi shuma kam na-sha'ad, p. 384 and
footnote 3. Sayyid, signature of, p. 70 (c). Sazidan, p. 266, etc. scarcely ever, vide Scarcely, p. 293 (3) Ever. Sea-cunny, p. 666 and footnote 1. Seasons, p 205: yilaq and qishlaq, p. 200
;
iskamba-shuy
(c)
ruz-i
(e).
mabada
and
rainy day,' p. 228
Ruzana, p. 291, Rem. Ruz-gaH and Ruzak-l, note 2.
p. 228
(;)
foot-
(c).
Sects of Islam, etc., p. 190, footnote 1 ; pi. of, from Ar. rel. noun, p. 400 and foot-
note
*
3.
3*5, suffix, prob. connected with Hindi sa, p. 419 and footnote 1. Sad, written with s to distinguish it from Ar. sadd, p. 183,' footnote 3 and p. 184, Rem. II ; du fad class, for duviat, p. 183 ; tadha, hazar-ha, etc., p. 189 (k) aadha-yi 'mardum, Af., p. 190 (k). Saf and pale, p. 161 (z). Safar, Prophet died in, Last Day, p. 392
;
Sa and
and footnote
2.
Sag-i ki*t, p. 293 (/) (2) and footnote 9. Sahib, with izafat, p. 436 (g) fern, and pi. of (q) ; without izafat, p. 437 (a) ; p. 440 (5). " the Scfir, prop. remainder/' also whole" ; followed by izafat, p. 117 (12).
;
'
SaJchta bash, p. 265 (6), Rem IV. Sakhtaji, adulteration, p. 281, footnote 2 and (d) (2). Salshtan, as kardanin compounds, p. 245 (3) and footnote 3; p. 281 (d); intr, "to
Saj as rhymed prose, mutavazin, mutarraf, muraaea p. 637 (o).

,
1 ,
put up
with,*' (d) (1).
if ever,' p. 50 (/). Semi- vowels, p. 22 (d). Sentences, order of, pp. 612-3. Remarks I and II; BALANCED Sentence, p. 636 (n) PEKIODIC or LOOSE sentence (3) (2) sentences not to be extended beyond their natural close, p 658 (d). Sentimental vide Mandhir. Sha, corrup. of cha, dimin., p. 396 5). 8hab-^ chahar Shabi yalda, p 210 (c) shamba, etc., p. 211; ahab-guz_ashta, in m.c., izafat often omitted, p. 313 (6). Shabash.'p. 368 and footnote 3. Shab-bhun and ahab-i &hun, p. 425 and footnote 4. Shayird chapar, p. 509 and footnote 1. Shah, how addressed, p. 70 (c), Rem. look fortunate, right to see any woman unveiled, p. 392 and footnote 3. Shah-i chiragh, for castor oil, p. 378 (6) and footnote 3. Shah, Jshar, div, give idea of size, p. 170 (e). Shahr-i fchamuahan and mahaUa-yi ehan, p. 435 and footnote 2.
Seldom
INDEX.
a,
Bern. I
Shan, Sharminda,
indef. prons., p. 103 (c) (4) shamma-i, p. 127 (10). ; affixed pron., vide Ash.
p. 156
(r) Rem. 184, Rem.
9
and
Speech, parts of, p. 48. Spite of, in, p. 307 (8)
p. 350, footnote 1 expressed by 63, p. 504 (/). Square, so many yards square, p. 214 (d).
;
Skast for shast, p.
II.
Stories, poetical, p. 635.
Shavanda, p. 248, footnote 2. Shayad, = should, p. 287 {/) and footnote 6; p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1 always
;
followed by Aor., p. 300 (3) p. 365 (24). Vide also Shayista Shayista and shayad, the only parts of shayistan, q.v., used in coll., p. 541 (d) and footnote 1. Shayistan, p. 266, etc. ; p. 540 (d). Shi' aha* oath, p. 296 (i).
;
Shikaata, hand writing, p. 36. Shila, vulg. for shilla, the Indian
Strange still,' how expressed, p. 178 (r). Street cries, p. 376 (d). Style, p. 630 (c) (d) ; rhetorical style of Persians, p. 642 (t) ; further observations on style, pp. 652 (a)-8; better known word preferable to less known, a concrete term to an abstract, etc.* (a); Persians fond of obsolete and out-of-the-way exs. of ambiguous terms, p. 652 (a) words, p. 653-4; phrases or words susceptible of 'different interpretations or
*
;
salu, p. 378 (7 ) and footnote 5. ' ' Shilla, vide Shila. Shinawanidan, not used in Persia, p. 283
(c) (2).
used successively in different senses, skilful use of same word in p. 654 (b) different senses, p. 655 (b) (2) inconsistent words or phrases to be avoided (3) ;
;
;
affectation of excellence or
(4)
;
Shir,
p.
in Persia, p. 23, footnote 1. Should, expressed by Imperf. of Mtwastan,
= " lion "

;
fine writing
'
261 (g) by bayad, p. 271 (o) by shayad, p. 287 (/) and footnote 6. Shout's distance, p. 213 (a) and footnote 5. Shudan, aux. verb, p. 248: for forming grammatic pass, (c) idioms with p. 249 = tavanistan, p. 253 (d) p. 540 (d). (d)
; ;
; ;
the marvellous, puerile, profound styles, p. 656 (c) (1); lack of precision, sentences not to be extended p. 658 (2) beyond their natural close, p. 658 (d) figurative language, p. 658 (e). "Subject, confusion as to logical subject of discourse, p. 667 (h); subject and verb, concord of, vide Concord.
; ;
Shuma-ha and Shumayan,

p. 70
(e).
pis.
of
shuma,
p. 343, footnote 1. Si, si-sad (class.) and si- sad, p. 183. Sifr, in Ar. not a numeral, p. 182, foot-
Shutur didi
Na;
note.
389-90. Signs and Signals, pp. ' Sila, kaf-i aila, vide Maws&l. wire, p. 415, footnote 3. Sim, Simile or Tashbih, p. 631 (e).
'
salasat-i 'ibarat. p. 631 (d). Simplicity, Since, p. 523 (k) and footnote 4 and p. 525,
Subjective genitive, p. 448. Subordinate clauses, p. 545, etc. p. 636 (n) Vide Conditional, Optative, Con(1). cessional, Temporal, Local, Modal, Relative and Predicative Clauses. Subjunctive Mood, pp. 538-44; indicates uncertainty conjs. and rels. that introduce it; gen. employed to express condition, intention, desire, doubt, end, p. 538 (a); introduced by ki, p. 539 (a), Rem. when 2nd verb is Inf. in Eng., Pers. Subj.
; ; ;
is
used for
;
it,
even
;
if
principal verb
is
Remark.
Sipas, p. 331 (4) and (7). Siyahat> probably implies pilgrimage, p. 585, footnote 1. Siyag or Diwani, p. 34. Sizdah, unlucky to say, p. 182, footnote 4. So As, in compar. between clauses, p. 179
(5).
past, p. 539
So-and-so, or such and such, pp. 107-8; fulan for person or thing, fulana or fulan, fern., p. 107 (c)'; yaru, vulg. m.c. Rem. Fulan u II fulani, persons only (2)
; ;
Bahman, Fulan u Pashmadan,

persons or things
fulani,
(2)
;
pi.
of
in class. Pers., Inf. also exs. of Pers. Pres. Subj. for used (6) Eng. Past Indie., pp. 539 (c) to 540; after tavanistan, bayistan and shayistan either subj. or shortened Inf. used ; Fut. Indie, for Fut. Subj., p. 541 (e) and footnote 2; in class. Pers. Fut. Indie, used where Mod. Pers. uses Pres. Subj p. 542 ; Perf. Subj. used to express doubt where the Pres. obviously could not be used (/); Past. Subj. used for Pres., p. 543 (1); Pret. Indie, used for Aor. (2); Aor. " ' to have of dashtan (h) ; Past Habit.,
(6)
,
may b
but not used as an adj., former

fulan,
indef., latter def., p. 108 (2); chi chiz, etc., SB what's his name (3); Bastar u bistar, practically obsolete (4) ; fulan for chandin, Rem.
Imperf. Indie., and Plup. Indie., take the place of certain tenses of the Subj. Afghan Imperfects, for Pres. Subj. (i) and (m); COTIN. f/) ; exs., p. 644 (k) PAST SUBJ., p. 523; CONTIN. PBBF. Vide also Aorist STJBJ., p. 536 (t), Rem.
;
So ranch
Solar,
, p. 362 (13). year, p. 206 (a); solar months, p. 207 (b) ; solar letters, p. 31. Solecism, p. 630 (d) and footnote 3 and p. 631 (d). " Somehow or other," how rendered, p. 370
and Future
;
Perfect.
(e).
Song, comic,
p. 635.
Substantive, p. 48 ; def. and indef., p. 49; gender (6) Ar. nouns forms of, p. 50 (c) in old Pers. -a added to subs, qualified by intensive adj. in -5, p. 169 (o) (2)-; compar. and super, suffixes added to subs., pp. 176-7 (o) (3) and p. 178, footnote 1.
934
Substantive Verb vide Verb to Such and such, vide So-and-so.
Suffixes, ban, van, etc.,
etc., pp. 406-20.
INDEX.
be.
la&h, kada, etc.,

4l
Sufta, past part, and sifta adj., p. 247 (6) and footnote i. Suhayl, p. 205, footnote 3. Sukkan, p. 666 and footnote 1. Sukun or Jazm, p. 28.
coarse,"
5 and 6 ; ex. of, p. 654 and footnote 655 (b) (2). Takallu, p. 321 (1) and footnote 1. Tafehiallus in Persia joined by izafat but not in India, p. 616, Rem. II. Tak&fif, p. 29 (d), Rem. I. Ta*kid or mvbalagha, exs. of, p. 534 and footnote 1 ta*kid-i lafzl and tWM-i ma'navi, p. 616 (c) to p. 618; p. 645 (d)
3, 4,
1
;
p.
Sulsl handwriting, p. 36. Sunni, p. 387 and footnote p. 296 an d footnote 1.

>
(2).
1
;
oath
of,
Superlative latter term of compar. should riot include former, p. 491 (e) ; followed by pi. or used as a simple adj., p. 492 (/) if Ar. and precedes noun, izafat sometimes inserted (/) ; compar. used as
;
p 279, footnote 1. handwriting, p. 35. Tamam both subs, and adj., has the same izafat constructions as hama, p. 117 (14)
Ta'-liq
}
Takllf and zahmat,
super., double comparatives and supersome adjecs. strictly latives, p. 492 (g) speaking do not admit of super. (h] ; order in sentence is num., subs., adj., p. 493 (*") ; to avoid repetition, inconsistent qualities may be added to the same noun, sing, in Pers., pi. in Eng. (/); nonrepetition of adj. cause of ambiguity (/), Rera. ; subs, with prep. adj. (m) ; some
;
mam precedes its subs., p. 117 (14); harchi tam,am-tar, p. 117 (14), Rem. I;
tamm u tamam p. 118 (15). Tamamat, class subs., still used by Indians and Afghans, p. 118 (17). Tamaml, subs., p. 118 (16). Tameness, p 630 (c) and footnote. Tamm, class. = tamam, tamm u tamam emt ,
tamam-i rdz and tamam-i ruzha, p. 117 (14); no izafat in class. Pers. when ta~
phatic, pp. 117-8(15).
Tamyiz and mumayyaz,
adjs. followed
by gen.
with or without footnote 2. Superstitious vide Bibliomancy.

Surat,
(n); superlative izafat, p. 434 (g) and
= adv.,
p. 617 (3)
tamyiz
p. 289.
Tan, contrac. of tavan, p. 252 (a), Rein. Tan-i chand, = a few individuals, class.,
p. 111(6). Tanslq-i sifat, p. 151
(i) 1.
p. 311 (10). Surfthi'ss.rati, p. 214, footnote 3. Surma'i, p. 400. Suspence,' Rule of, p. 641, footnote 4; p. 607 (6) and footnote 1 ; excessive suspence, p. 561 (b) and footnote 5, and and footp. 562 (6); also p. 647 (/) (1) note 3 ; violation of rule, p. 671 (n).
4
= disguise,
Tanwin,
p. 30.
Synchysis, p. 607
(5),
Rem.
1.
Syndoche, p. 632 (e) and footnote Syntax, etc., pp. 433 to 672.
and footnote 5. Tar and farm, added to participles, preps., ad vs., subs., adjs., p. 176 (o) (1) (2) and tann seldom added to Pers. parts., (3) Rem. tar, where placed p. 176 (1), after compound adj. of adj. and subs., p. 177 (p) and Rem.; where added after two or more Comparatives or Superlatives, p. 17#() (1) (2) and footnote.
Taqllb, p. 638
;
;
araf-i, p. 126 (6).
garaf-tar, pp. 176-7 (o) (3). ^Tarh, design, pattern, etc., p.
290
(5)
Ta,
p. 189, Rem. 11;=' and,' p. 348 and footnote 2 ; ta-yi ibtidaHyya, p. 348, footnote 3 ; ta^yi tajahul, p. 258, last line and footnote 4, and p. 259 and footnote 2 ; and p. 349 and footnote I ; ta-yi takidi or zinhariyya, p. 349, footnote 2 ; pp. 347-8
(12)
44
ta not strictly an equivalent for on," p. 504 (g), Rem.

;
1
bi-
Tabi
, ex., p. 617 (3), Rem.; tabi'-i muk. mat, p. 615 (a); and p. 622 (a); and Vide also p. 623 (a) and Rems. I and II.
Apposition. Tabllgh, form of Hyperbole q.v., p. 630 and footnote 2.

Tafa*ul, p. 391. Tafstr. p. 646 (/)
Tashabih, = vagueness, p. 631 (d). Tashbih or Simile, p. 631 (e). Tashdld, p. 29; loss of, p 30; for poetical licence, p. 84 (h) and footnote 2. Taenif (ballad), p. 635. Taste, p. 633 (/). Tasu, Af., = inch, p. 214 (6) and footnote 2. Tatimma, = mizan "balance of account," p. 129, Rem. I; tatvll diffuseness, p. 644
and footnote 4. Tarjl'-band, p 646 and footnote 1. flascha or iasak, measure of water, (c) and footnote 3.
p. 215
(c)
and footnote
4.
Tahakkum, a Figure, p. 633 (/), footnote 1. Taham, = nevertheless, Indian, p. 345,

footnote 2; p. 358; p. 365(23); p. 556 (b) and footnote 9. Tajms, p. 297 (2> and footnote 1 tajnw-i khat$, p. 322, footnote 2 and p. 546 and footnote 3; p. 638, Rem. and footnotes
;
Tautology, p. 534 and footnote i = hashv-i gabih, p. 631 (d) and footnote 4 p. 644 (b) p. 646 (e) p. 658 p. 645 (c) and (d) and footnote 1 (exs. of gkuluv) p. 668
;
;
(a)
and
(6); ta&vil-i la-taHl, p. 64(3 (k).
(2) and p. 252 (a), Rem. tan contrac., p. 252 (a), Rem. Tavanad ki- 9 p. 299 (k) (1) and footnote 1. Tavanistan, p. 249; class, constructions, p. 249-52 (a); Mod. Pers. constructions,
and (/). Tavan, pp. 250-1

(2)
INDEX.
tavan, pp. 250-1 (2) and p. 252 ti&n contrac. , p. 252 (a), Kern. ; need not be repeated before two verbs, p. 252 (4) ; trans, or trans, verb understood, p. 262 (4); tavanad bud, Indian before a comp. verb, idiom, p. 253 (c) position of, p. 254, Hem.; tavana, etc., p. '.54 (/); p. 540 (d) ; tawr-l K, p. 365
p.
935
252
(6)
(a),
Rem.
Uftadan, Ubht, pi. . ( w )-
= to
of,
(g),
k
begin, p. 257
(d).
an address
in preaching, p. 60
Via, p. 193
Rem.
'
Ulu
'l-amr, p. 445
Vide Aula or Awla. and footnote 2.

'Afajah.
"Ulya-jah,
5.
vide
Umar, name,
p.
450
(7)
and footnote
p. 209, foot-
Tazadd u jabaq, p. 631 (d). Vide Antithesis. Tawjlh or muhtamal^ *z-ziddayn, p. 632 (?) and footnote 4. Tawriya, p. 632 (/) and footnote 4. Temporal Clauses, p. 535 (/) and pp. 570-2; normal shape and order, p. 572 and footnote 2
or other" "before that" and "after that," (e); exs. (g). p. 571 (/) Tenses, some rarely used, p. 232 (c) paraphrases for (g) USE of TENSES, pp. 506Vide Aorist, etc., etc. EXAMPLES 37. of use of TENSES, App. B, p. 898. Terse, style, p. 644 and footnote 5. 'That* for 'who,' and POPS, paraphrase, that' restrictive, (q) (3) p. 487 (q) (2) that which' and c what,' p. 488 (4). * The quicker the better,' how rendered, p. 178 (u). Thirteen, unlucky number, p. 182,' foot(c/);
; :
;
'Umar-i Khayyam, astronomer, note 1.
'Umda,
subs,
and
T/mtrm,, pp. 118-9 (20) and 'JJmumi, adj. and 'wrafiw-i,

kk
adj., p. 159 (v) (2). p. 119 (23). p. 119 (23).
ki ; correlatives
= when
(6)
ta
= until
Ura for aura, p. 86 (l(J) and Remark. Urmuz, vide, Hurmuz

*
(c)
"somehow
Ushur, pi. for sing. footnote 5.
a tenth," p.
195,
V
Va, vide Pas. Va, p. 274 (b) (1) and footnote
'
'
3.
Fa asafa, interj., p. Fa an ki-, p. 329,

p. 354
'
note
4.
Vagueness, = tashabih, p. 631 (d). Vdli, without izafat, p. 437 (a) (1) (2). Vail ha or ha ball or bash bash, for afterthought, p. 582 (e). Vangahi, Vungahi. p. 315 and footnote 3.
footnote 2; = "or," and footnote 1 and p. 340 and footnote 3; va hal an ki, how written, p. 357 and footnote 4.
368.
Tikran or Tikran, p. 19, footnote 5. Tilism, p. 392 and footnote 5. Times, twenty times as much, etc.,
(a).
Vasma,
10.-
= indigo,
p. 378 (11)
and footnote
p. 197
Tiryaq and tiryak, p. 180 (w) (4) and footnote 4. Too, how expressed, p. 175 (/). Toward, p. 505 (i). Trajection or Hyperbaton, p. 600 (i). Transliteration, Exercise in, p. 41 puzzled in, p. 44 (d). Tu U-miri, p. 299 ( 10). Vide Marg-i shuma. fufayl, p. 330, footnote 4. Tufu, interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. gufu liyyat, not rel. noun, p. 400 and footnote 3. Tvghra handwriting, p. 36. Tula, p. 651 (n) and footnote 2.
;
Ttman,
and Turan,
100,000, obs., p. 184, footnote p. 185 (6).

3.
Vav, pronunciation of, p. 340 (2) and footnote 2; indicating state, p. 341; =2/5, with several adjs. qualifying one p. 341 noun, pp. 341-2; point in punctuation, p. 351 and footnote 3; as dimin. termination, p. 50 (e), and p. 398 (e) ; vulg. and dimin., p. 50 (e) and Rem. and final, as consonant, p. 50, p. 57 (d); Rem. I; redundant after Past Part., p. 528 (w) (1). Verb, pp. 217-88 Verb To BE, simple form how written (a) to (c) of, p. 217 (a) neg. of, p. 219 (g) separate subs, verb, p. 219 (a) ; verb TRANS, and INTBANS., BUDAN paradigm of, pp. 221-8; p. 221 karchi bad-a-bad, bad, bada, p. 227 (d!)
;
=a
1,
p. 639 and footnote Turk-bachcha, p. 151 (g). Turk! year-cycle, p. 203 (a)
Turkish dialects iin Persia, p. ^40, footnote 2.
Tuv K&uda,
4
p. 227 (d) ; ruz-i mabada, p. 218 (e) ; 3 forms of Pres. tense " to be," p. 228 (g) ; chi bu dl, p. 228 and footnote 1 (h) ; Pret. used for Imperf. in Mod. Pres., p. 228 (i) ; " halt " in m.c. bash (/) Afghans use Pres. tense for "to dwell," p. 229 (?) ;
!
m.c. for tura bi-Kfruda, p. 71, footnote 2 tuv-khudaH vulg. for muft, p. 71, footnote 2. Twice two makes four,' etc., p. 197 (/).
;
TRANS.,
some VERBS are both TRANS, and INp. 229 (/); ACTIVE VOICE of
KANDAN, p. 229; old form of 2nd pers. sing. Perf., p. 232, VJII ; Past Condit. can take bi~, p. 231, VI Rem.; bi- and
p. 230, footnote 2; another form of Plup., p. 232 IX, Rem. NEG. VERBS, pp. 235-7 ACCENT, pp. 237-8 INTERR. VERBS, p. 238 STEMS or ROOTS
U
&, dimin. form in, p. 398 (c). &, pers. pron., class, used for an,
p. 69 (b). Uf> interj., p. 369 and footnote 4. Uftad, perhaps, p. 505 (a) (1) and foot-
Impera.,
note
of simple verbs, p. 239; HYBRIDS, pp. 248-9 (c), Rem.; AUXILIARY verbs, 248-9 Rern. SHTJDAN, p. 248 pp. (c),
(a)
;
3.
= possible
(b)
gram. pass, formed
936
;
INDEX.
Whoever, whosoever, har kudam
kas-l ki, p. 121 (k).
ki>
by (c); idioms with, p. 249 (d) DEFECTIVE verbs, p. 249 (e), Rem. ; TAVANIJgbwastan, q.v., STAN, q.v., p. 249.
p.
tr.,
har
257; GUZASHTAN,
;
DADAN, MANDAN,
q.q.v.; PERMIT, to, other verbs for, KAFTAN q.v., continue, 262 (e) = to be on the point of doing, p, 263 (a) m.c., p. 263 (h) ; DASHTAN, q.v M p. 263 IMPERSONAL verbs, p. 296 BAYISTAN, SHAYISTAN, SAZIDAN, ZIBIDAN, q.q.v. COMPOUND verbs q.q.v., pp. 274-80; some common verbs in compound, kardan, namudan sa&htan, pp. 280-2 gardanidan, farmudan, p. 280 (a) sabhgashtan garditagl, sabht, saz, p. 281 (d) dan, p. 282 (g); CAUSAL verbs, q.v., pp. 282-4 REFLEXIVE verbs, p. 285 (I) PASSIVE VOICE, q.v., pp. 285-8 SYNTAX of verbs, two or more verbs at end of sentence, p. 559 (3), p. 560 (5) and footnote 3, and p. 561 and footnote 2 p. 561 and footnote 2; p. 561 (6); GOVERNMENT of verbs, q.v. p. 600 ; in m.c. a few verbs may precede dat. p. 605 (g) position of Comp. Pot. verb, h Verbal Nouns and Adjectives, pp. 421-5 Irapera. root, p 421 (a) subs, in -an (b) in -ok (e) ; suffixed -ya (e) Inf. alone = noun (h); Inf. used in pi., p. 422 (h) comp. nouns from Tmpera. stem,
p.
Wife, etc., p. 382 (/). Wit, zarafat, p. 632 (;). World, age of, p. 190, footnote 1. Worse and worse, how rendered, p. 178
how mentioned,
wWould, p. 311 (12) and footnote 3.

;
significations of, p. 541
Y, elided in dimin., p. 395, Rem. IV; sometimes added to Ar. past parts., Vide' Ya. p. 167 (ii), Rem. and p. 399. Ya, formative <jr, pp. 398-404; kinds of formative -I, p. 398 (a) [abs. nouns and adjs. in -5, p. 398 and footnote 2]; Pers. -? added to Ar. Past Part. ya-yi p. 399 masdar, ya-yi musdhabat and ya-yi musha*
;
,
added
(i)
Pret. Stems,
;
Impera. stems, p. of agency (p)

its
; ;
two (/) (k) (I) 423 (m) (n) (o) noun suffixed to Inf. and
; ;
Pers. or Ar. Past Part. == neg. (q) noun, p. 424 (r) some Pers. nouns of instrument, p. 425 (r), Rem.
Uh\ p. 399; ya-yi nisbatl, p. 400 (3) and footnote 2 hamzah substituted for (3) Hindi ?, p. 401 (3) ; ya added to nativesanl not city of person, p. 401, Rem. I rel. adj., Rem. II; bayzl, bayzavi, Basravl, Rem, II and footnote 2 ; "pleonastiadded to cally added to adjs. Rem. Ill affixed to kunyat, p. 402, Infs., Rem. IV Rem. V Ar. terrain, -am, Rem. VI; ya-yi maf'ul, (4) ; ya-yi fa'il, p. 402 (5) other descriptions of y (b) ya-yi ma'ruf p. 403 (9); ya-yi majhul, p. 403 (10) ya substituted for alif, p. 404 Rem. II; Arabic abstract nouns of quality in-iyyat,
; : ; ; ; ; ; ;
;
Verbosity, p. 646 (g). Vocative, voc. in -5, p

;
not fol57 (e) lowed by izafat (e) and p. 463 sing, only, nouns in silent (h) do not adp. 462 (g) mit of this vocative, p. 58, mana voc. of
; ;
463; poetically, dat. in ra voc., p. 463; nouns in voc. in apposition, Vowels, p. 21 (a); short, at p. 616 (5). beginning of words, p. 24 (b); long, at beginning of words, p. 25 (d).
man,
p.
Ya
added to Pers. words, (c) (c) (1) no tashdid on ya when fern, h is suffixed, Rem. II: ya of unity, to form nouns of number, p. 189, Rem. II; after Ar. sup., p. 172 (6) (3): ya after har, is ya prob. demonstrative ya 9 p. 120, footnote 1 and vide also rel. ya for detail of ya of unity, vide Indefinite Article.
p.
404
:
(2)
m kiîlla, etc., p. 581
(4).
Yagan yagan,
p. 198 (1) and footnote 2. Yahudl Yahud, etc., p. 401. Rem. II. Yak, yak-l; I for yak is obs., p. 182, footnote 2; yak-l; indef. pron., p. 101 (c) ;
W
Walad-izina. p. 388 and footnote 1. War Songs, p. 638. Wara, adv. and prep., p. 305 (7). Warning, particles of, p. 292 (d). Water, how measured, p. 215 (b) borrowed or brought (c). Waalah, p. 31.
an (or In) yak-l, m.c., pi. (c) ; yak-l " the one the other" (o) (1); dlgar-i " one in ten " yak-l dar dah (c) (1) Rem. ;
(c) (1) Rem; yak-l requires 130 (b) requires ay, p. 136 (i) requires sing. verb. p. 592 and footnote 1 p. 606 (1) and footnote 2 p. 609 (12) and footnote 3. Yaka u tanha, p 189 (i). Yak-dlgar and ham-dlgar, recip. pron., p. 81 not to be con(i) p. 99 (1) p. 100 (b)
idioms with
ra,
p.
Rem.
how
Week,
vide
Days
of
Week
Vide Water. that which/ p. 488 (4) (5). Whatever, each, all, every, p. 119 (?) and
Weights, p. 214; dang anything, p. 216 (d).
= the
founded with yak-l dlgar

sixth part of
(b),
Rem.
I.
Yak-ear, p. 119(24).
Yakum,
less
1.
common than
avval p.
191,
What and
p.
footnote
1203.
(I).
'
F5W5, interj., p. 372(10). Ya'nl chi, p. 298 (7).

to be able, p. 254 (g). Yarastan, Yarti, p. 107 (e), Rem. II p. 398 (e). Yazdan, formerly a pi., p. 58, footnote
;
Whatsoever, whichsoever, p. 121 Which referring to a clause =

(?) (1).
&*, p.
487
2.
INDEX.
Yazd-gardi Year, p. 209 months of, p. 209 " Stolen (6) days," names, (6) (1). Ye or yay or yeg, vulg. for yak also yazza, duvazza,QtQ. p. 184, Rem. III. Year, anoient Persian, p. 206 5 (panja-yi duzdida) days added (a) leap year, p. 207 (a) and footnote 7 Day or Farvardln, the first month, (a) ; names of Persian
; ;
;
937
(5).
Za'lf and za'ifa, p. 157 (0
&anabu 'S-sirhan, "wolf's down, p. 313 and footnote Zanaku, p. 398 (c).
Zaniyyat, p. 00, footnote 3. Zar, p. 415 and footnote 3. garafat vide Wit.
* '
tail"
1.
false
YEAR, v., p. 209 (&) TURK! YEAR, p. 203 (a); to find the MUSLIM or A.D. YEAR, p. 34. Yes, p. 295 (2) and (4). YUaq and Qishldq, p. 206 (o) and footnote
:
months (6) Ahriman, p. 208 months, p. 208 YAZD-GARDI (d)

solar
;
Urmuz and days (c) Day, p. 208 SYRIAN JALALI YEAR, p. 209
;
;
#ar/=adv., p. 289. garra, yak &ana, p. 127
(1).
Yusuf and Zulaykha, p 35, footnote
1.
Zagh, magpie, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zaghcha, chough, p. 220 (c) and footnote 1 p. 547 and footnote 1. Zahmat and taklif p. 279, footnote 1. Zaid, p. 453 and footnote 1.
;
,
Zanj, p. 189 (h). Zengma, p. 663 (d). Zha, dimin. termination, p. 397 (6), Hem. Zl, prop., obs., p. 322, footnote 8. &, vide Zu. Zibidan, p. 273 (*). Zinhar, pp. 370-1. Zir-dast, p. 304 and footnote 2. former pos. and latter Ziyad, ziyada; ziyada = slzdah, compar., p. 174 (i) (4) ziyad and ziyada, p. p. 182, footnote 4 301 (2) and footnote 1, and p. 300 (I) (1), footnote 2 ziya, p. 384 and footnote 1. Zodia, p. 204 (a) (b) (c) formed 2000 B.C., p. 205 (e). Zoroaster, p. 207 (a). Zu and zl, etc., how used in Persian, p." Vide also Appendix A. 445. Zuma'niyayn, p. 633 (/) (1).
'
'
;
Printed at the Baptist Mission Press, Calcutta.

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THE BOOK WAS

THE HYDERABAD LITERARY SOCIETY

This book should be returned on or before the date

HIGHER PERSIAN GRAMMAR

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AFGHAN AND MODERN PERSIAN

Baz-Nama-yi Nasiri,* and

Editor of the Persian Translation of

FEINTED AT THE BAPTIST MISSION PRESS, CALCUTTA, AND PUBLISHED

should be borne in mind ^hat considerable differences exist between the

of Persia, not only in pronunciation

these differences are

trated in this work.

hoped that the notes on composition and

rhetoric will prove especially interesting to Indian students,

for their benefit that these subjects

The author, not being a

In writing this grammar, the works of Plaits ,* Ranking, Rosen,

Shirazi, Persian Instructor to the

work through the

and other Persian

friends, for constant advice.

of Arabic (viz. portions of the

the Board of Examiners, to Shams'

King, C.S.I., of Dublin,

assisted in revising the proofs

suggestion numerous additions were made.

aS.L, D.L., D.Sa, F.A.S.B., F.R.S.E.,

TRUSTEES OF THE INDIAN MUSEUM, VICE-PRESIDENT

DEDICATE THIS BOOK,

BOTH OF PERSONAL FRIENDSHIP

AND OF THE SERVICES HE HAS

ORTHOGRAPHY AND ORTHOEPY.

The Short and Long and Dipthong Vowels

Ilnmza and the Short Vowels at the beginning of words

Ta*h<Rd and Ughftm

Solar and Lunar Letters

Ahjad Numeral Figures

find the year A.D. corresponding

Abbreviations, Contractions and I mala

Division of Persian and Arabic

Etymology The Article .. The Substantive

Examples of Declension Formation of the Plural Plurals Modern Persian

Reflexive and Reciprocal Pronouns

Simple Demonstrative Pronouns Emphatic Demonstrative Pronouns

Compound Demonstrative Pronouns .. Interrogative Pronouns ..

THE ARTICLE AND THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS.

Relative Pronouns and the Demonstrative or Relative

Comparison and Comparative Clauses

Approximate Numbers Numeral Adjectives

Arabian Months The Turki Year-Cycle The Zodiac

Ancient Persian year

Tenses from the Imperative Tenses from the Shortened Infinitive

Verbal Adjective Negative Verbs

Euphonical Rules and Accents in the Verbs Interrogative Verbs

The Auxiliary VerbShudan

The Verbs " to begin, etc/' The Auxiliary Verb Khwastan

Mandan ; and Verbs

Impersonal Verbs Compound Verbs

Verbs used in the Compounds Causal and Reflexive Verbs

Passive Voice and Passive Verbs

Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases

and Interjectional Phrases, Greetings, Compli.

Signs and Signals

Bibliomancy, Divination, Superstitions,

Arabic character called >AJ/ tiJf , in which