BUSINESS ECONOMY II

LESSON 9:
TYPES OF INFLATION

Good morning student now take a look at very interesting topic The following are the major characteristics of moderate
that is type of inflation inflation:
Objective of Lesson i. There is a single digit inflation rate (less than 10 per cent)
annually.
• Types of inflation
ii. It does not disrupt the economic balance.
On different grounds, economists have classified inflation into
various types. iii. It is regarded as stable Inflation in which the relative prices
do not get farout of line.
A few important categories are discussed below.
iv. People’s expectations remain more or less stable under
Chart 1 pinpoints the classification of inflation.
moderate inflation.
Chart 1 Classification or Types of Inflation

Accordin According to According to According to the According

g to the The nature of The scope or Government’s to the
rate of Time period coverage: Reaction: causes:
inflation of occurrence

1.Moderte 1. War-time 1.Compre 1.Open 1.Credit-inflation

inflation Inflation hensive inflation
inflation 2.Deficit inflation
(a) Creeping 2. Post-war 2.Repressed
(b) Walking Inflation 2.Sporadic inflation 3.Scarcity inflation
inflation
2.Running 3. Peace-time 4.Profit-inflation
inflation Inflation
5.Foreign
3.Galloping trade inflation
Inflation
6.Tax-inflation
4.Hyper
Inflation 7.Cost or wage inflation

8.Demand inflation

1. Moderate, Gal1oping and Hyperinflation

The severity of inflation is often measured in terms of the
rapidity of price rise. On the basis, a quantitative distinction of
inflation may be nude into three categories, viz: Moderate
inflation; Running and galloping inflation; and Hyperinflation.
a. Moderate Inflation
It is a mild and tolerable form of inflation. It occurs when
prices are rising slowly When the rate of inflation is less than 10
per cent annually, or it is a single digit int1ation rate, it is
considered to be a moderate inflation in the present the
economy.
Prof. Samuelson observes that moderate inflation is typical
today in most industrialised countries.
v. Under a low inflation rate, the real interest rate is not too
low or negative, so money can serve its role as a store of
value without difficulty.
vi. There are modest inefficiencies associated with moderate
inflation.
Economists have arbitrarily laid down that a 3-4 per cent price
rise per annum is a tolerable rate of inflation in modern
economies. Even the Chakravarthi Report of the Reserve Bank
of India has accepted 3-4 per cent rate of inflation annually to
be an efficient and tolerable norm for the Indian economy.
Incidentally, some economists have described up to 3 per cent
annual rate of inflation as ‘creeping inflation’ and if it exceeds

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54 11.251
10 per cent, it is called ‘walking inflation.’ This means,
Samuelson has clubbed ‘creeping’ and ‘walking’ inflation into
‘moderate’ inflation.
Samuelson’s opinion, moderate inflation is not a serious
problem. While some economists feel that even a walking
inflation should make us more cautious, as it represents a
warning signal for the occurrence of running or double digit
and eventually a galloping inflation, if it is not checked in time.
Running and Galloping Inflation
When the movement of price accelerates rapidly, running
inflation emerges. Running inflation may record more than 100
per cent rise in prices over a decade. Thus, when prices rise by
more than 10 per cent a year, running inflation occurs.
Economists have not described the range of running inflation.
But, we may saythat a double digit inflation of 10-20 per cent
per annum is a running inflation. If it exceeds that figure, it
may be called ‘galloping’ inflation.
According to Samuelson, when prices are rising at double or
triple digit rates of 20, 100 or 200 per cent a year, the situation is
described as ‘galloping’ inflation.
Indian economy has witnessed a sort of ‘running’ and ‘gallop-
ing’ inflation to some extent (not exceeding 25 per cent per
annum) during the planning era, since the Second Plan period.
Argentina, Brazil and Israel, for instance, have experienced
inflation rates over 100 per cent in the eighties.
Galloping inflation is really a serious problem. It causes
economic distortions and disturbances.
Hyperinflation
In the case of hyperinflation, prices rise every movement, and
there is no limit to the height to which prices might rise.
Therefore, it is difficult to measure its magnitude, as prices ris~
by fits and starts. .
In quantitative terms, when prices rise over 1000 per cent in a
year, it is called a hyperinflation.
Austria, Hungary, Germany, Poland and Russia witnessed
hyperinflation in the wake of World War I.
Hyperinflation notably took place in Germany in 1920-1923.
The German price index rose from 1 to 10,00,000,000 during
January 1922 to November 1923. Believe it or not, it is a fact!
The Main Features of Hyperinflation are
i. During hyperinflation, the price rise is severe. The price
index moves up by leaps and bounds. It is over 1000 per
cent per year. There is at least a 50 per cent price rise in a
month, so that in a year it rises to about 130 times.
ii. It represents the most pathetic deterioration in people’s
purchasing power.
iii. It is apparently generated by a massive fiscal dislocation.
iv. It is amplified by wage-price spiral.
v. Hyperinflation is a monetary disease.
vi. The velocity of circulation of money increases very fast.
vii. The structUre of the relative prices of goods become highly
lU1stable.
viii. The real wages tend to decline fast.
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ix. Inequalities increase.
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x. Overall economic distortions take place.
These speed categories of inflation are graphically depicted as in
Figure 2 where t represents time variable and p denotes increases
in the price level.
It must be remembered that the difference between all these
four types of inflation is one of degree than of kind. They are
species of the same genus.
War, Post-War and Peace-Time Inflation
On the basis of the nature of time-period of occurrence, we
have:
• war-time inflation;
• post-war inflation; and
• peace-time inflation.
a. War-Time Inflation
It is the outcome of certain exigencies of war, on account of
increased government expenditure on defence which is of an
unproductive nature. By such public expenditUre, the govern-
ment apportions a substantial production of goods and
services out of total availability for war which causes a down-
ward shift in the supply; as a result, an inflationary gap may
develop.
b. Post-war Inflation
It is a legacy of war. In the immediate post-war period, it is
usually experienced. This may happen when the disposable
income of the community increases, when war-time taxation is
withdrawn, or public debt is repaid in the post-war period.
c. Peace-time Inflation
By this is meant the rise in prices during the normal period of
peace. Peacetime inflation is often a result of increased govern-
ment outlays on capital projects having a long gestation period;
so a gap between money income and real wage goods develops.
In a planning era, thus, when government’s expenditure
increases, prices may rIse.
Comprehensive and Sporadic Inflation
• From the coverage or scope point of view, we have:
• comprehensive or economy-wide inflation, and
• sporadic inflation.
a. Comprehensive Inflation
When prices of every commodity throughout the economy rise,
it is called economy-wide or comprehensive inflation. It is a
normal inflationary phenomenon and refers to a rise in the
general price level
b. Sporadic Inflation
This is a kind of sectional inflation. It consists of cases in which
the averages of a group of prices rise because of increases in
individual prices due to abnormal shortage of specific goods.
When the supply of some goods become inelastic, at least
temporarily, due to physical or structural constraints, sporadic
inflation has its sway. For instance, during drought conditions
when there is a failure of crops, foodgrain prices shoot up.
Sporadic inflation is a situation in which direct price control, if
skilfully used, is most likely to be beneficial to the community at
large.
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 Open and Repressed Inflation
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An inflation is open or repressed according to the government’s
reaction to the prevalence of inflationary forces in the economy.
a. Open Inflation
When the government does not attempt to prevent a price rise,
inflation is said to be open. Thus, inflation is open when prices
rise without any interruption. In open inflation, the free market
mechanism is permitted to fulfil its historic function of
rationing the short supply of goods and distribute them
according to consumer’s ability to pay. Therefore, the essential
characteristics of an open inflation lie in the operation of the
price mechanism as the sole distributing agent. The post-war
hyperinflation during the twenties in Germany is a living
example of open inflation.
b. Repressed Inflation
When the government interrupts a price rise, there is a repressed
or suppressed’inflation. Thus, suppressed inflation refers to
those conditions in which price increases are prevented at the
present time through an adoption of certain measures like price
controls and rationing by the government, but they rise on the
removal of such controls and rationing. The essential character-
istic of repressed inflation, in contrast to open inflation, is that
the former seeks to prevent distribution through price rise
under free market mechanism and substitutes instead a
distribution system based on controls. Thus, the administra-
tion of controls is an important feature of suppressed
inflation.
However, many economists like Milton Frie,dman and
G.N.Halm opine that if there has to be any inflation, it is better
open than suppressed. Suppressed inflation is condemned as it
breeds auumber of evils like black market, hierarchy of price
controllers and rationing officers, and uneconomic diversion of
productive resources from essential industries to non-essential
or less essential goods industries since there is a free price
movement in the latter and hence are more profitable to
investors.
5. Types of Inflation Based on the Causes Inducing
Inflation
According to the cause of rising prices, one can consider several
types of inflation as follows:
a. Credit Inflation
Inflation which is caused by excessive expansion of bank credit
or money supply is referred to as credit or money inflation.
b. Deficit Inflation
It is the inflation caused by deficit financing.
When the government budgets contain heavy deficit financing,
through creating new money, the purchasing power in the
community increases and prices rise.This may be referred as to
as deficit-induced inflation. During a planning era, when
government launches upon heavy investment, it usually resorts
to deficit financing, when adequate resources are not found. An
inflationary spiral develops due to deficit financing, when
adequate resources are not found. An inflationary spiral
develops due to deficit financing, when the production of
consumption goods fails to keep . pace with the increased
money expenditure.
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c. Scarcity Inflation
Whenever scarcity of real goods occurs or may be artificially
created by the hoarding activities of unscrupulous traders and
speculators which may result into black-marketing, thereby
causing prices to go up, such type of inflation may be described
as scarcity inflation.
d. Profit Inflation
In his recent book, Growthless Inflation by Means of Stockless
Money, Prof. Brahmananda menti°!ls profit inflation a;, a
unique category of inflation. The concept of profit inflation was
originated by Keynes in his Treatise on Money. According to
Keynes, the price level of consumption goods is a function of
the investment exceeding savings. He considered the invest-
ment boom as a reflection of profit boom. Inflation is unjust
in its distribution effect. It redistributes income in favour of
profiteers and against the wage-earning class. During inflation,
thus, the entrepreneur class may tend to expect an upward
shifting of the marginal effiCiency of capital (MEC); hence,
entrepreneurs are induced to invest more even by borrowing at
higher interest rates. Eventually, investment exceeds savings and
economy tends to reach a higher level of money income
equilibrium. If economy is operating at full employment level
or if there are bottlenecks of market imperfections, real output
will not rise proportionately, so the imbalance between money
income a.nd real income is corrected through rising prices.
e. Foreign-Trade Induced Inflation
For an international economy, we may categorise the following
two types of inflation as being caused by factors pertaining to
the balance of payments.:
i. Export-Boom Inflation; and
ii. Import Price-hike Inflation.
i. Export-Boom Inflation
When a country having a sizeable export component in its
foreign trade experiences a sudden rise in the demand for its
exportables against the inelastic supply of exportables in the
domestic market, it obviously implies an excessive pressure of
demand which is revealed in terms of persistent inflation at
home.
Again, trade gains and sudden influx of exchange remittances
may lead to an increase in monetary liabilities which is further
reflected in the rising pressure of demand for domestic output
causing an inflationary spiral to get further momentum. Such a
permanent case for an export-boom inflation is, however, ruled
out in the Indian economy, because neither export trade is a
significant portion of Domestic National Product nor is there a
continuous boom of export-demand, causing tenus of trade to
move up favourably all the time.
ii. Import Price-hike Inflation
When prices of import components rise due to inflation
abroad, the domestic costs and prices of goods using these
imported parts vill tend to rise. Such an int1ation is referred to
as imported intluion. For instance, hike in oil prices by the Arab
countries was responsible for accelerating. inflationary price rise
in many oil-importing countries, including India to some
extent.
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j. Tax Inflation
Year to year increase in commodity taxation such as excise duties
and sales tax may lead to rise in prices of taxed goods. Such an
inflation is termed as tax inflation or tax-induced inflation.
g. Cost Inflation
When inflation emerges on account of a rise in cost factor, it is
called cost inflation. It occurs when money incomes (wage rate,
particularly) expand more than real productivity. Cost inflation
has its course through the level of money costs of the factors
of production and in particular through the level of wage rates.
Due to a rising cost of living index, workers demand higtKl’
wages, and higher wages in their turn increase the cost of
production, which a producer generally meets by raising prices.
This process of spiralling may each higher and higher levels. In
this case, however, cyclical anti-inflation remedies of monetary
controls are not relative effective.
Wage inflation is an important variant of cost inflation. Wage
push inflation occurs when money wages are raised without
corresponding improvement in the productivity of the workers.
h. Demand Inflation
When there is an excess of aggregate, detrland against the
available aggregate supply of goods and services, prices tend to
rise. It is called demand-induced inflation. Population-growth,
rising money income, etc. forces playa significant role in
generating demand inflation.
Types of inflation
Demand-Pull vs. Cost-Push Inflation
Broadly speaking, there are two schools of thought regarding
the possible causes of inflation. One school views the demand-
pull element as an important cause of inflation, while the other
group of economists holds that inflation is mainly caused by
the cost-push element.
Demand-Pull Inflation
According to the demand-pull theory, prices rise in response to
an excess of aggregate demand over existing supply of goods
and services. The demand-pull theorists point out that inflation
(demand-pull) might be caused, in the first place, by an increase
in the quantity of money, when the economy is operating at
fullemployment level. As the quantity of money increases, the
rate of interest will fall and, consequently, investment will
increase. This increased investment expenditure will soon
increase the income of the various factors of production.As a
result, aggregate consumption expenditure will increase leading
to an effective increase in the effective demand. With the
economy already operating at the level of full employment, this
will immediately raise prices, and inflationary forces may emerge.
Thus, when the general monetary demand rises faster than the
general supply, itpulls up prices (commodity prices as well as
factor prices, in general). Demand-pull inflation, therefore,
m:anifests itself when there is active cooperation, or passive
collusion, or a failure to take counteracting measures by
monetary authorities.
Demand-pull or just demand inflation may be defined as a
situation where the total monetary demand persistently exceeds
total supply of real goods and services at current prices, so that
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prices are pulled upwards by the continuous upward shift of
BUSINESS ECONOMY II
the aggregate demand function. By using the aggregate demand
and supply curves, in Fig. 4, the demand-pull process can be
graphically illustrated.
In Fig. 4, the X-axis measures real output, and the Y-axis
measures the price level. Curves D, Dl and D2 represent the
aggregate demand curves. The SS curve represents the aggregate
supply function, which slopes upward from left to right and, at
point F it becomes a vertical straight line. The point F suggests
that the economy has reached a level of full employment.
Hence, the real output tends to be fixed or inelastic at this
point. Assuming that the D curve intersects the S curve at point
F, the real output or income is at full employment and the price
level is OP. When there is an increase in the aggregate demand
function beyond D, either due to an increase in autonomous
investment (I), or because of an increase in the propensity to
consume (C), or government spending increase in the propen-
sity to consume (C), or government spending (G), represented
by a shift in the aggregate demand curve, such asD l’ D 2' the
supply of total real output being inelastic, the prlce level tends
to rise from P to PI and then to P2.
However, demand-pull inflation can also occur without an
increase in the money supply. This can happen when either the
marginal efficiency of capital increases or the marginal propen-
sity to consume rises, so that investment expenditures may rise,
thereby leading to rise in the aggregate demand which will exert
its influence in raising prices beyond the level of full employ-
ment already attained in the economy.
According to the demand-pull theorists, during the process of
demand inflation, rise in wages accompanies or follows the price
rise as a natural consequence. Under the condition of rising
prices, when the rate of profit is increasing, producers are
inclined in general to increase investment and .employment, in
that they bid against each other for labour, so that labour-prices
(i.e. wages) may rise.
In short, the inflationary process, described by the demand
inflation theory, implies the following sequences:, Increasing
demand increasing prices - increasing costs - increasing income -
increasing demand - increasing prices - and so on.
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 Causes of Demand-Pull Inflation
BUSINESS ECONOMY II
It should be noted that the concept of demand-pull inflation is
associated with a situation of full employment where increase in
aggregate demand cannot be met by a corresponding expansion
in the supply of real output. There can be many reasons for
such excess monetary demand:
1. Increase in Public Expenditure. There may be an increase in
the public expenditure (G) in excess of public revenue. This
might have been made possible (or rendered necessary)
through public borrowings from banks or through deficit
financing, which implies an increase in the money supply.
2. Increase in Investment. There may be an increase in the
autonomous investment (iI in firms, which is in excess of
the current savings in the economy. Hence, the flow of total
expenditure tends to rise, causing an excess monetary
demand, leading to an upward pressure on prices.
3. Increase in MPC. There may be an increase in the marginal
propensity to consume (MPC), causing an excess monetary
demand. This could be due to the operation of
demonstration effect and such other reasons.
4. Increasing Exports and Surplus Balance of Payments. In an
open economy, an increasing surplus in the balance of
payments also leads to an excess demand. Increasing
exports also have an inflationary impact because there is
generation of money income in the home economy due to
export earnings but, simultaneously, there is reduction in
the domestic supply of goods because products are
exported. If an export surplus is not balanced by increased
savings, or through taxation, domestic spending will be in
excess of the value of domestic output, marketed at current
prices.
5. Diversification of Goods. A diversion of resources from
the consumption goods sector either to the capital good
sector or the military sector (for producing war goods) will
lead to an inflationary pressure because while the generation
of income and expenditure continues, the current flow of
real—output decreases on account of high gestation period
involved in these sectors. Again, the ppportunity cost of
war goods is quite high in terms of consumption goods
meant for the civilian sector. This leads to an excessive
monetary demand for the goods and services against their
real supply, causing the prices to move up.
In short, it is said that the demand-pull inflation could be
averted through deflationary measures adopted by the monetary
and fiscal authorities. Thus, passive policies are responsible for
demand-pull inflation.
Cost-Push Inflation
A group of economists hold the opposite view that the process
of inflation is initiated not by an excess of general demand but
by an increase in costs, as factors of production try to increase
their share of the total product by raising their prices. Thus, it
has been viewed that a rise in prices is initiated by growing factor
costs. Therefore, such a price rise is termed as “cost-push”
inflation as prices are being pushed up by the rising factor costs.
Cost-push inflation, or cost inflation, as it is sometimes called,
is induced by the wage-inflation process. It is believed that
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58
wages constitute nearly seventy per cent of the total cost of
production. This is specially true for a country like India, where
labour intensive techniques are commonly used. Thus, a rise in
wages leads to a rise in the total cost of production and a
consequent rise in the price level, because fundamentally, prices
are based on costs. It has been said that a rise in wages causing a
rise in prices may, in turn, generate an inflationary spiral because
an increase would motivate the workers to demand higher
wages. Indeed, any autonomous increase in costs, such .1S a rise
in the prices of imported components or an increase in indirect
taxes (excise duties, etc.), may initiate a cost-push inflation.
Basically, however, it is wage-push pressures which tend to
accelerate the rising price spiral.
The phenomenon of cost-push inflation is graphically illus-
trated in Fig. 5. In the figure, the 0 curves represent the
aggregate demand function, and the S curves, the aggregate
supply function. The full-employment level of income is OY,
which can be maintained only at rising price levels, P, PI, P2' P3.
Now, if we begin with price level P, F is the point of intersec-
tion of the aggregate supply curve; D and SSo’ Let us assume
that the aggregate supply function shifts upward as Sl’ which
becomes a vertical straight line at point A, and merges with the
SF line (the previous supply curve at full-employment level).
The upward shift in the supply curve may be attributed to
either an increase in money wages due to trade unions’ success-
ful collective bargaining, or to the profit-motivated
monopolists or oligopolists, who might have raised the prices
of goods. Anyway, as the aggregate supply curve shifts to S}’
the new equilibrium point A is determined at OY} level of real
output, which is less than full-employment level, atP } level of
prices. This means that with a rise in the price level, unemploy-
ment increases’. It is regarded as the cost of holding the price
level close to f. Similarly, a further shift in the aggregate supply
curve to S2 on account of a further wage-push, implies a new
equilibrium pointB. This causes theinc-ome level’to fall further
to Y2,and prices to rise to P2. If, however, the government or
monetary authority is committed to maintain, full employ-
ment, there will ~ more public spending or more credit
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expansion, causing the price level to rise to much more - such as wages - incomes). Normally, thus, it is difficult to be precise as

BUSINESS ECONOMY II
from P to P 3 and P4. In this case, the sequence of equilibrium to whether an inflation is cost-push or demand-pull.
points become A-B-G-H. A cost-push inflation is much more difficult to control than a
Cost-push inflation may occur either due to wage-push or demand-pull type. A demand-pull inflation can be controlled by
profit-push. Costpush analysis assumes monopoly elements adopting restrictive monetary and fiscal policies so as to drain
either in the labour market or in the product market. When off excessive monetary demand. But cost-push inflation is not
there are monopolistic labour organisations, prices may rise due susceptible to a direct controls. In order to check cost-push
to wage-push. And, when there are monopolies in the product inflation, there is a strong need on the part of labourers and
market, the monopolists may be induced to raise the prices. in entrepreneurs for restraint in their wage and pricing policies.
order to fetch high profits. Then, there is profit-push in raising
Recap
the prices.
Demand-Pull
However, the cost-push hypothesis rarely considers autono-
The inflation resulting from an increase in aggregate demand is
mous attempts to increase profits as an important inflationary
called demand-pull inflation. Such an inflation may arise from
element. Firstly, because profits are generally a small fraction of
any individual factor that increases aggregate demand, but the
the total price, a rise in profits would have only a slight impact
main ones that generate ongoing increases in aggregate demand
on prices. Secondly, the monopolists generally hesitate to raise
are
prices in absence of obvious demand-pull elements. Finally, the
motivation for profit-push is weak since, at least in corpora- • Increases in the money supply
tions, those who make the decision to raise prices are not the • Increases in government purchases
direct beneficiaries of the price increase. • Increases in the price level in the rest of the world
Hence cost-push is generally conceived as a synonymous with
Cost-Push Inflation
wage-push. When wages are pushed up, cost of production
increases to a considerable extent so that prices may rise. Since • An increase in wage rates
wages are pushed up by the demand for high wages by the • An increase in the prices of raw materials
labour unions, wage-push may be .equated with union-push. These sources of a decrease in aggregate supply operate by
According to one variant of the cost-push theory, sectoral shifts increasing costs, and the resulting inflation is called cost-push
in demand are prime-movers in the inflationary process. inflation
Starting with an autonomous shift in demand, a rise in wages Other things remaining the same, the higher the cost of
and prices could result in one sector and this rise could elicit production, the smaller is the amount produced. At a given
further shifts of demand. This happens because thete is a close price level, rising wage rates or rising prices of raw materials such
link between different goods through inputs. One good serves as oil lead firms to decrease the quantity of labor employed and
as an input in the production of the other goods, and conse- to cut production.”
quently, when the price of the input rises, the prices of output
will also rise. For instance, when due to a rise in wages in the Notes -
steel industry, price of steel may rise, and this will raise the prices
of vehicles, machines, etc., using. steel as input. The rise in the
prices of vehicles may in turn raise the cost of transport and
manufactured goods. Similarly, prices of tractors, etc. may
increase due to high prices of steel so that costs of agriculture
may rise, hence food and raw material prices will also rise. All
these ultimately raise the cost of living, leading to increase in
wage rates. Thus, inflation once sets in motion due to the
phenomenon of costpush in one industry or sector spreads
throughout the economy.
Concluding Remarks
It is, however, impossible to state whether demand-pull or
cost-push elements are the prime causes of an inflationary
spiral. It rather seems that there may be a demand-cum-cost
inflation as both entrepreneurs and workers use. the mark-up
their wages to protect their share of total produt. On the other
hand, if wages rise, entrepreneurs will raise prices to adjust
mark-up to the previous level of profits. Thus, demand-pull
inflation may generate cost-push elements of inflation (as
‘Yorkers’ will demand high wages in view of rising cost of
living index), and the costpush inflation may in turn generate
demand-pull inflationary elements (as workers monetary
demand for consumption goods will increase due to high

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