James William A.

Bautista

ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY
Analytical chemistry is the study of the separation, identification, and quantification of the chemical components of natural and artificial materials. Qualitative analysis gives an indication of the identity of the chemical species in the sample, and quantitative analysis determines the amount of certain components in the substance. The separation of components is often performed prior to analysis. Analytical methods can be separated into classical and instrumental. Classical methods use separations such as precipitation, extraction, and distillation and qualitative analysis by color, odor, or melting point. Quantitative analysis is achieved by measurement of weight or volume. Instrumental methods use an apparatus to measure physical quantities of the analyte such as light absorption, fluorescence, or conductivity. The separation of materials is accomplished using chromatography, electrophoresis or Field Flow Fractionation methods. Analytical chemistry is also focused on improvements in experimental design, chemometrics, and the creation of new measurement tools to provide better chemical information. Analytical chemistry has applications in forensics, bioanalysis, clinical analysis, environmental analysis, and materials analysis. Analytical chemistry spans nearly all areas of chemistry but involves the development of tools and methods to measure physical properties of substances and apply those techniques to the identification of their presence and quantify the amount present of species in a wide variety of settings.

TITRATION
Titration, also known as titrimetry, is a common laboratory method of quantitative chemical analysis that is used to determine the unknown concentration of an identified analyte. Since volume measurements play a key role in titration, it is also known as volumetric analysis. A reagent, called the titrant or titrator is prepared as a standard solution. A known concentration and volume of titrant reacts with a solution of analyte or titrand to determine concentration. Titration is the quantitative measurement of an analyte in solution by completely reacting it with a reagent solution. The reagent is called the titrant and must either be prepared from a primary standard or be standardized versus a primary standard to know its exact concentration. The point at which all of the analyte is consumed is the equivalence point. The number of moles of analyte is calculated from the volume of reagent that is required to react with all of the analyte, the titrant concentration, and the reaction stoichiometry. The equivalence point is often determined by visual indicators are available for titrations based on acid-base neutralization, complexation, and redox reactions. and is determined by some type of indicator that is also present in the solution. For acid-base titrations, indicators are available that change color when the pH changes. When all of the analyte is neutralized, further addition

of the titrant causes the pH of the solution to change causing the color of the indicator to change. Titration is a procedure used in chemistry in order to determine the molarity of an acid or a base. A chemical reaction is set up between a known volume of a solution of unknown concentration and a known volume of a solution with a known concentration. The relative acidity (basicity) of an aqueous solution can be determined using the relative acid (base) equivalents. An acid equivalent is equal to one mole of H+ or H3O+ ions. Similarly, a base equivalent is equal to one mole of OH- ions. Keep in mind, some acids and bases are polyprotic, meaning each mole of the acid or base is capable of releasing more than one acid or base equivalent. When the solution of known concentration and the solution of unknown concentration are reacted to the point where the number of acid equivalents equals the number of base equivalents (or vice versa), the equivalence point is reached. The equivalence point of a strong acid or a strong base will occur at pH 7. For weak acids and bases, the equivalence point need not occur at pH 7. There will be several equivalence points for polyprotic acids and bases. How to Estimate the Equivalence Point There are two common methods of estimating the equivalence point: 1. Use a pH Meter For this method, a graph is made plotting the pH of the solution as a function of the volume of added titrant. 2. Use an Indicator This method relies on observing a color change in the solution. Indicators are weak organic acids or bases that are different colors in their dissociated and undissociated states. Because they are used in low concentrations, indicators do not appreciably alter the equivalence point of a titration. The point at which the indicator changes color is called the end point. For a properly performed titration, the volume difference between the end point and the equivalence point is small. Sometimes the volume difference (error) is ignored; in other cases a correction factor may be applied. The volume added to achieve the end point may be calculated using this formula: VANA = VBNB where V is volume, N is normality, A is acid, and B is base.