Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Steven C. Chapra
Tufts University
WAVELAND
PRESS, INC.
Long Grove, Illinois
CONTENTS
Preface
xvi i
1
PART 1
LECTURE 1 Introduction
1.1 Engineers and Water Quality 1.2 Fundamental Quantities 1.3 Mathematical Models 1.4 Historical Development of Water-Quality Models 1.5 Overview of This Book Problems
LECTURE 2 Reaction Kinetics
3 4 6 10 14 19 20 24 24 29 38 40 42
47
2.1 Reaction Fundamentals 2.2 Analysis of Rate Data 2.3 Stoichiometry 2.4 Temperature Effects Problems
LECTURE 3 Mass Balance, Steady-State Solution, and Response Time
3.1 Mass Balance for a Well-Mixed Lake 3.2 Steady-State Solutions 3.3 Temporal Aspects of Pollutant Reduction Problems
LECTURE 4 Particular Solutions
47 52 57 62 65 66 68 70 71 73 76 80 83 86 86 91 vii
4.1 Impulse Loading (Spill) 4.2 Step Loading (New Continuous Source) 4.3 Linear ("Ramp") Loading 4.4 Exponential Loading 4.5 Sinusoidal Loading 4.6 The Total Solution: Linearity and Time Shifts 4.7 Fourier Series (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE 5 Feedforward Systems of Reactors
6.1 Steady-State for Two Reactors 6.2 Solving Large Systems of Reactors 6.3 Steady-State System Response Matrix 6.4 Time-Variable Response for Two Reactors 6.5 Reactions with Feedback Problems
LECTURE 7 Computer Methods: Well-Mixed Reactors
7.2 Heun's Method 7.3 Runge-Kutta Methods 7.4 Systems of Equations Problems PART II Incompletely Mixed Systems
135
LECTURE 8 Diffusion
8.1 Advection and Diffusion 8.2 Experiment 8.3 Fick's First Law 8.4 Embayment Model 8.5 Additional Transport Mechanisms Problems
LECTURE 9 Distributed Systems (Steady - State)
9.2 Application of the PFR Model to Streams 9.3 Application of the MFR Model to Estuaries Problems
LECTURE 10 Distributed Systems (Time - Variable)
10.1 Plug Flow 10.2 Random (or "Drunkard's") Walk 10.3 Spill Models
CONTENTS ix 10.4 10.5 Tracer Studies Estuary Number Problems 186 189 190
192
LECTURE 11
Control-Volume Approach Boundary Conditions Steady-State Solution System Response Matrix Centered-Difference Approach Numerical Dispersion, Positivity, and Segment Size Segmentation Around Point Sources Two- and Three-Dimensional Systems Problems
LECTURE 12
LECTURE 13
PART 111
Water-Quality Environments
LECTURE 14
235
River Types Stream Hydrogeometry Low-Flow Analysis Dispersion and Mixing Flow, Depth, and Velocity Routing and Water Quality (Advanced Topic) Problems
15.1 Estuary Transport 15.2 Net Estuarine Flow 15.3 Estuary Dispersion Coefficient 15.4 Vertical Stratification Problems
LECTURE 16 Lakes and lmpoundments
16.1 Standing Waters 16.2 Lake Morphometry 16.3 Water Balance 16.4 Near-Shore Models (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE17 Sediments
17.1 Sediment Transport Overview 17.2 Suspended Solids 17.3 The Bottom Sediments 17.4 Simple Solids Budgets 17.5 Bottom Sediments as a Distributed System 17.6 Resuspension (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE 18 The "Modeling" Environment
18.1 The Water-Quality-Modeling Process 18.2 Model Sensitivity 18.3 Assessing Model Performance 18.4 Segmentation and Model Resolution Problems
345
347
19.1 The Organic Production/Decomposition Cycle 19.2 The Dissolved Oxygen Sag 19.3 Experiment 19.4 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 19.5 BOD Model for a Stream
CONTENTS xi 19.6 BOD Loadings, Concentrations, and Rates 19.7 Henry's Law and the Ideal Gas Law 19.8 Dissolved Oxygen Saturation Problems
LECTURE20 Gas Transfer and Oxygen Reaeration
20.1 Gas Transfer Theories 20.2 Oxygen Reaeration 20.3 Reaeration Formulas 20.4 Measurement of Reaeration with Tracers Problems
LECTURE 21 Streeter-Phelps: Point Sources
21.1 Experiment 21.2 Point-Source Streeter-Phelps Equation 21.3 Deficit Balance at the Discharge Point 21.4 Multiple Point Sources 21.5 Analysis of the Streeter-Phelps Model 21.6 Calibration 21.7 Anaerobic Condition 21.8 Estuary Streeter-Phelps Problems
LECTURE 22 Streeter-Phelps: Distributed Sources
22.1 Parameterization of Distributed Sources 22.2 No-Flow Sources 22.3 Diffuse Sources with Flow Problems
LECTURE 23 Nitrogen
23.1 Nitrogen and Water Quality 23.2 Nitrification 23.3 Nitrogenous BOD Model 23.4 Modeling Nitrification 23.5 Nitrification and Organic Decomposition 23.6 Nitrate and Ammonia Toxicity Problems
LECTURE 24 Photosynthesis/Respiration
24.1 Fundamentals
433
437 448
450
25.1 Observations 25.2 A "Naive" Streeter-Phelps SOD Model 25.3 Aerobic and Anaerobic Sediment Diagenesis 25.4 SOD Modeling (Analytical) 25.5 Numerical SOD Model 25.6 Other SOD Modeling Issues (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE 26 Computer Methods
26.1 Steady-State System Response Matrix 26.2 The QUAL2E Model Problems
LECTURE 27 Pathogens
482 486 500 503 503 504 506 510 512 516
27.1 Pathogens 27.2 Indicator Organisms 27.3 Bacterial Loss Rate 27.4 Sediment-Water Interactions 27.5 Protozoans: Giardia and Cryptosporidium Problems PART V Eutrophication and Temperature
519
521
28.1 The Eutrophication Problem 28.2 Nutrients 28.3 Plant Stoichiometry 28.4 Nitrogen and Phosphorus Problems
LECTURE 29 Phosphorus Loading Concept
29.1 Vollenweider Loading Plots 29.2 Budget Models 29.3 Trophic-State Correlations
CONTENTS xiii 29.4 29.5 Sediment-Water Interactions Simplest Seasonal Approach Problems 545 551 558 560 561 563 565 571 575 577 577 580 585 588
590
LECTURE 30
Heat Budgets
30.1 Heat and Temperature 30.2 Simple Heat Balance 30.3 Surface Heat Exchange 30.4 Temperature Modeling Problems
LECTURE 31
Thermal Stratification
Thermal Regimes in Temperate Lakes Estimation of Vertical Transport Multilayer Heat Balances (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE 32
Microbe/Substrate Modeling
Bacterial Growth Substrate Limitation of Growth Microbial Kinetics in a Batch Reactor Microbial Kinetics in a CSTR Algal Growth an a Limiting Nutrient Problems
590 592 596 598 600 602 603 603 605 607 609 612 613 615 621 622 622 626 629
LECTURE 33
Limits to Phytoplankton Growth Temperature Nutrients Light The Growth-Rate Model Nonpredatory Losses Variable Chlorophyll Models (Advanced Topic) Problems
LECTURE 34
629 631
633
35.1 Spatial Segmentation and Physics 35.2 Kinetic Segmentation 35.3 Simulation of the Seasonal Cycle 35.4 Future Directions Problems
LECTURE 36 Eutrophication in Flowing Waters
36.1 Stream Phytoplankton/Nutrient Interactions 36.2 Modeling Eutrophication with QUAL2E 36.3 Fixed Plants in Streams Problems
PART VI Chemistry
665
667
37.1 Chemical Units and Conversions 37.2 Chemical Equilibria and the Law of Mass Action 37.3 Ionic Strength, Conductivity, and Activity 37.4 pH and the Ionization of Water 37.5 Equilibrium Calculations Problems
LECTURE 38 Coupling Equilibrium Chemistry and Mass Balance
38.1 Local Equilibrium 38.2 Local Equilibria and Chemical Reactions Problems
LECTURE 39 pH Modeling
39.1 Fast Reactions: Inorganic Carbon Chemistry 39.2 Slow Reactions: Gas Transfer and Plants 39.3 Modeling pH in Natural Waters Problems
CONTENTS xv
PART VII Toxics
693
695
40.1 The Toxics Problem 40.2 Solid-Liquid Partitioning 40.3 Toxics Model for a CSTR 40.4 Toxics Model for a CSTR with Sediments 40.5 Summary Problems
LECTURE 41
42.1 Photolysis 42.2 Second-Order Relationships 42.3 Biotransformation 42.4 Hydrolysis 42.5 Other Processes Problems
LECTURE 43 Radionuclides and Metals
739 739 751 751 753 755 756 757 757 758 761 768
44.1 Analytical Solutions 44.2 Numerical Solutions 44.3 Nonpoint Sources Problems
45.1 Direct Uptake (Bioconcentration) 45.2 Food-Chain Model (Bioaccumulation) 45.3 Parameter Estimation 45.4 Integration with Mass Balance 45.5 Sediments and Food Webs (Advanced Topic) Problems
Appendixes A Conversion Factors B Oxygen Solubility C Water Properties D Chemical Elements E Numerical Methods Primer F Bessel Functions G Error Function and Complement References Acknowledgments Index
834 835