Crossing The Carpathians

Authors:
RADU OLARU - PETROM S.A. E&R Geoscience Office RELU ROBAN - University of Bucharest - Faculty of Geology MARIUS STOICA - University of Bucharest - Faculty of Geology
CROSSING THE CARPATHIANS

Field trip
Guide Book
June 2008
PETROM S.A. PLOIESTI - June 2008 -
CONTENTS
INVITATION GENERAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE EAST CARPATHIANS DEPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK PETROLEUM POTENTIAL FIELD TRIP ITINERARY AND STOP DESCRIPTIONS FIRST DAY Stop 1 - Berca Arbnai Oilfield Mudy Volcanoes Stop 2 Loptari Stop 3 Mnzleti Stop 4 Beslii Vintil Vod SECOND DAY Stop 5 Vidra Stop 6 Valea Srii Stop 7 La Grumaz Stop 8 - Brseti Stop 9 Cascada Putnei (Putnei Waterfall) Stop 10 Lepa 1 Stop 11 Lepa 2 THIRD DAY Stop 12 Rsnov Castle Stop 13 - Bucegi Piatra Craiului Geologic Park Stop 14 - Dealul Sasului Stop 15 Dmbovicioara Gorges Stop 16 - Ceteni Bibliography pg. 1 pg. 2 pg. 5 pg. 26 pg. 28 pg. 33 pg 35 pg 37 Pg.39 pg. 41 pg. 46 pg. 50 pg. 52 pg. 54 pg. 57 pg. 58 pg. 59 pg. 60 pg. 62 pg. 67 pg. 69 pg. 73 pg. 78 pg. 80 pg. 81 pg. 83
Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book
INVITATION
Why field trip? In the field, geology looks different than it does in textbooks, lab benches or on the display of the work-station. A valuable aspect of the field trip is approaching an outcrop and knowing what to do next. Even an incorrect solution to a field problem or a faulty interpretation of a geological event is of value because it prepares the way for a better solution or interpretation next time. As you get better at your job through practice, you gain confidence in your abilities. For this reason, a geological field trip must stress individual effort and personal initiative. Why field trip? Because we usually are working in teams, and the teams become strong not only in the office. Why field trip? Because it is a good chance to escape from offices. So, we propose to you: work in - and see - a lot of great geology... relax in and see a lot of great landscapes enjoy in and feel a great team
June 2008
1. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING
Romania's territory, which belongs to the geological structural ensemble of central and south-eastern Europe, consists of a chain segments from the Alpidic Pericratonic Belt of the Carpathians-Balkans-Rhodopes-Pontides, from the Alpine Intercratonic Belt North Dobrudja South Crimeea the Great Caucasus, as well as from their Foreland represented by the EastEuropean Platform, the Central European (Scythian) Platform and the Moesian Platform. The last two platforms and their intercratonic chain also extend on to the Black Sea Continental Shelf. (Fig. 1) According to Sndulescu (1980, 1984, 1994, 2004) the Folded Area can be divided into several major tectonic ensembles (Fig 2): The Main Tethyan Suture Zone which groups together tectonic units constituted by Middle Triassic-Middle Jurassic ophiolitic complexes overlapped by sedimentary formations whose age (Middle and Upper Triassic, Jurassic or Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous) is different from the age of the ophiolites they cover. The Main Tethyan Suture which runs along the Vardar Zone (between the European and the Apulian continental margins) splits from Beograd toward north or north-west - into two branches: the South Pannonian (separating the Apulian microplate from the Fore-Apulian one) and the Transylvanidian-Pienidian (situated between the European and the Fore-Apulian margins). The Fore-Apulian Microcontinent is situated on the opposite side with respect to the European margin, considering the Main Tethyan Suture a major geotectonic axis of symmetry of the Tethyan Chains. The Fore-Apulian Microcontinent groups together the Austroalpine, the Central West Carpathians and the North Apusenide units, as well as the units covered by the Pannonian Depression. The European Continental Margin groups together the main part of the East Carpathians (the Pienides belong to the Main Tethyan Suture) and the South Carpathians. There are two basic types of units: basement shearing nappes and cover nappes. The first type is built up of crystalline formations (metamorphics and sometimes acid and/or intermediate granitoids) and their normal sedimentary envelope (sediment on the continental margin). This type of unit, which developed in the Fore-Apulian Microcontinent too, constitutes the Central East Carpathians (the Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone excepting the Transylvanian nappes which are obducted from the Main Tethyan Suture), its correspondent in the South Carpathians (GeticSupragetic ensemble and the Danubian). The cover types of nappes are well developed in the Flysch Zone of the East Carpathians and in the Subcarpathians. In the South Carpathians only the Severin Nappe (situated tectonically between the Getic Nappe and the Danubian) is of this type.
June 2008
Fig. 1 Romania Geological Map (according to G.I.R.)

June 2008
Fig. 2 - The major Tethyan sutures and continental areas in the Carpathian realm (according to Sndulescu, 2004). Fore-Apulian Microcontinent [Inner Dacides, and Austroalpine]. Main Tethyan Suture Zone [Vardar, South Pannonian, Transylvanides, Pienides, etc] European Continental Margin [Mgura Group, Median Dacides (Central East Carpathians, Getic & Supragetic nappes), Outer Dacides (Ceahlu - Severin), Marginal Dacides (Danubian), Moldavides]. The Alpine geotectonical evolution of the Carpathians kicked off by setting in two expansion zones: an oceanic rift, with passive continental margins (Atlantic type) and an intracontinental rift (Afar-Red Sea type) located to the east as compared to the former. This distension period developed during the Middle Triassic Lower Cretaceous interval. The oceanic rift got unconfined in the Lower Triassic, whereas the intracontinental one in the Lower Jurassic, the two rifts evolving in an expansion regime till the Upper Jurassic (the oceanic one) and respectively the Lower Cretaceous (the intracontinental one). Since the Lower Cretaceous (Barremian), the direction of the movements is changed, setting in a compression regime in both basins. Depending on the intensity of the deformations, two major compression periods could be distinguished, which generally affected different orogenic areas: Dacidic period, characterized by two deformational paroxysms (MesoCretaceous and Late Cretaceous) and the Moldavian period, generally Miocene, but also within it, recognizing three tectogenetic phases. The two Igneous compression periods are responsible for setting up melting paleoplanes, oceanic and/or continental crust shields and tectonic nappes structuring.
1.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE EAST CARPATHIANS
East Carpathians represent an arched orogene, having a complex structure wherein the flysch nappes modify their trend with 200 from the northernmost area (Poland) down to the south, in the curvature zone of Romania. The segment of the Alpine belt comprised between the Tisza springs in the north and Dambovita Valley in the south represents the Romanian Eastern Carpathians. This orogene is continued with Ukraines Eastern Carpathians to the north and with the Southern Carpathians to the south. The geotectonic units that border the Eastern Carpathians are: to the east, up to Bistria Fault, the East European Platform, with a Precambrian basement, known across the Romanian territory under the name of the Moldavian Platform; to the south and east (to the south of Bistria Fault) the Paleozoic Platform, consisting of two segments separated by the transcrustal PeceneagaCamena Fault, one of the segments being called the Scythian Platform to the east and the other one, the Moesian Platform to the south-west; to the west the Transylvanian Basin, a post-tectonic depression.
June 2008
The East Carpathians are characterized by the geosynclinal polarity typical to the Alpine orogenes. Thus, it is worth noticing a structural polarity expressed through the eastward verging of the major units and an orogenic polarity given by the migration during the folding, from old to young and from inside (west) to outside (east). At the same time and in the same way, the depocenter of the sedimentary basin also migrated. This polarity is responsible for a remarkable cross-sharing. From outside to inside, the Subcarpathian Zone, the Flysch Zone and the Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone are distinguished. As far as the oil generation and accumulation potential is concerned, only in few of the Moldavides (Tarcu Nappe, Marginal Folds Nappe and Subcarpathian Nappe) and respectively the Foredeep in front of this assemblage present a remarkable interest. This is the reason why we will focus on them.
In East Carpathians, the following major structural units are developed (Fig. 3): THE TRANSILVANIDES proceed from the Main Tethyan Suture Zone obducted during the Meso-Cretaceous tectogeneses. There are three main nappes (Hghima Nappe, Perani Nappe and Olt Nappe) with different lithostratigraphic successions and ages of the ophiolitic complexes from the basal part of the nappes (excepting the Perani one proceeding from the rifting zone which precedes the opening of the Tethyan Ocean). They are overlain by sedimentary piles (mostly limestones but starting with radiolarites of cherty limestones). The youngest sedimentary levels known in some Transylvanian nappes are of Barremian (Lower Aptian ?) age. Transitional successions between these three basic units may be also recorded.
June 2008
Fig. 3 Geotectonic structure of the East Carpathians, (according to Bdescu, 2005)
June 2008
THE PIENIDES are a group of units, which relay the Transylvanides en echelon and consist of cover nappes overthrusted above the Upper Cretaceous-Paleogene-Lowermost Miocene post-tectogenetic cover of the Median Dacides (Crystalline-Mesozoic Zone), during the Burdigalian. The Pienides consist of Botiza Nappe with the Poiana Botizei Klippen Zone in its frontal part (southeast prolongation of the Pieniny Klippen Belt), the Petrova and Leordina Nappes (equivalent of the Magura Nappe). In Poiana Botizei Klippen Zone, a Middle Jurassic Upper Cretaceous pelagic succession (radiolarites/cherty and Calpionella-bearing limestone/dark shale/couches rouges) is known. In Petrova and Leordina nappes, a Maastrichtian-Paleocene flysch is developed (Inoceramia Beds type); well-developed Paleogene flysch formations are known in all Pienidian nappes. The actual general structural shape of the Pienides is due to the Lower Miocene (Burdigalian) tectogeneses, when the nappes were overthrusted above the post-tectogenetic cover (neoautochton) of the Median Dacides (Central East Carpathians nappes). The traces of the Cretaceous tectogeneses are visible only in the Poiana Botizei Klippen Zone (where formations of this age were preserved). The Lower Miocene transport of the Pienidian nappes was directed and/or accentuated by several important fractures with strike-slip components, mainly the North Transylvanian Fault and the Bogdan Vod Fault. THE MEDIAN DACIDES are situated on the opposite side of the Main Tethyan Suture Zone in respect with the Inner Dacides. The Median Dacides units were structured in Lower Cretaceous by compressive sequential movements break back type (Bdescu, 2005) and crop out in the Central East Carpathians and within an important part of the South Carpathians. These units are basement-shearing nappes, each of them involving metamorphic rocks and their sedimentary envelops. In the Central East Carpathians, the nappes are (upside/downside): Bucovinian, Subbucovinian, and Infrabucovinian nappes. The latest correspond to the Getic Nappe (Domain), the former two to the Supragetic nappes, of the South Carpathians. The mesometamorphic series with a complex premetamorphic composition and a polymetamorphic pre-Cambrian and Paleozoic history are dominant within the metamorphic formations. The epimetamorphic series proceeds from terrigenous or volcano-sedimentary formations (Lower and Middle Paleozoic); their metamorphism could be Caledonian and/or Hercynian. The Median Dacides sedimentary formations show several sequences which are more or less expressive sedimentary cycles: Upper Carboniferous and/or Permian molasses (locally developed), quartzitic Lower Triassic followed by carbonate Middle Triassic, detrital Lower Jurassic, sandy marl Middle Jurassic (locally ending with radiolarites), neritic or pelagic calcareous Upper Jurassic Neocomian. With the Lower Cretaceous (wildflysch in Bucovinian, calcareous in Infrabucovinian nappes) the Median Dacides succession ends in the Central East Carpathian nappes. There the Upper Cretaceous (molassic Cenomanian, almost marly TuronianSenonian) represents the post-tectonic (post-nappe) cover. In the South Carpathians, the Lower Cretaceous is mostly calcareous ending with glauconitic Albian. The Upper Cretaceous rocks are molassic in the lower part, followed by marl-sandy formations and ending with turbiditic or volcano-sedimentary sequences. The Upper Cretaceous rocks seal some Mid-Cretaceous compressive structures, but are also involved into the endCretaceous deformations. The post-tectonic cover of the East Carpathians Median Dacides are preserved in some subsiding areas (gulfs) on their western slope, being partly covered by the eastern parts of the Transylvanian Depression and the East Carpathians volcanic arc.
June 2008
The Upper Cretaceous formations are followed by Lutetian molasses, Priabonian limestones, marls or flysch and Oligocene Lower Miocene (alternating), pelitic (partly bituminous) and arenitic sequences. The post-tectonic cover of the South Carpathians Median Dacides starts in Paleogene molasses followed on their southern slopes by Oligocene marl-sandy formations and Lower Miocene conglomerates. THE OUTER DACIDES group together a strip of units, which proceed from a Jurassic Lower Cretaceous paleo-rift, developed within the European continental margin. In the East Carpathians the Outer Dacides (Black Flysch, Baraolt and Ceahlu nappes) are built up of Jurassic intraplate basalts and/or Tithonian-Lower Cretaceous flysch formations (locally with conglomerates in the Upper Aptian and Albian). Some marlz Upper Cretaceous formations are known in the Ceahlu Nappe. The Outer Dacidian units (nappes) were twice deformed: during the Mid-Cretaceous and Late-Cretaceous tectogenetic moments. They are partly overthrusted by the Median Dacides and run parallel with their external border, and represent a satellite suture in respect to the Main Tethyan Suture. In the South Carpathians the Outer Dacides (Severin Nappe) are sandwiched between the Getic Nappe and the Marginal Dacides (Danubicum). Here, the Jurassic ophiolites are followed by Tithonian-Lower Cretaceous flysch. THE MOLDAVIDES are the outermost Carpathian units. They correspond to a major part of the East Carpathian Flysch Zone (excepting the Outer Dacidian nappes). The term of Moldavides was introduced to designate the tectonic units which make up the Eastern Carpathians external flysch and molasse. The Moldavides complex is a succession of N-S trending imbricate thrust nappes which consist of Cretaceous-Tertiary sedimentary rocks. The oldest nappes of the complex consist of Cretaceous rocks and lie in the westernmost area (inner). The nappes of the Moldavidic complex are (W-E; fig 4): i) Teleajen (Curvicortical or Convolute Flysch Nappe), Macla and Audia all consisting of Cretaceous rocks; ii) Tarcu and Marginal Folds (Vrancea) they consist of both Cretaceous and Tertiary rocks; iii) Subcarpathian exclusively consisted of Tertiary rocks. These nappes are sedimentary allochtonous bodies overthrusted progressively on foreland elements. The sedimentary basin, herein called the Moldavides Basin, was characterized by either the oceanic crust or thinned continental crust which, in the end, was subducted underneath TisiaDacia Block (Zweigel et al. 1998).
Fig 4. Schematic geological section in central part of East Carpathians (according to Maenco and Bertotti, 2000).
June 2008
The Moldavides Basin has an evolution characteristic to a remnant oceanic basin which was flanked at the inner part by a convergent margin and wherein the sedimentation had a strong turbiditic character. The term of remnant oceanic basin is quite general and denotes that the basin was sequential narrowed progressively due to tectonic events (Ingersoll et al., 1995). The basins main source areas were placed in the orogene (Anastasiu, 1984 and 1992) and supplied sediments at a rate increasing concurrently with the basin narrowing due to the rather continuous convergence. The high sedimentation rates and the strong subsidence are mirrored nowadays in the large thickness (thousands of meters) of the rock-stacks (Sndulescu, 1984; Mutihac, 1990) which make up the tectonic units (nappes) of the Moldavides. Most of the facies in the Moldavidic units lying within the Cretaceous Eocene interval (Lower Oligocene) are characteristic to depositional deep sea-turbiditic (Contescu, 1974), hemipelagic or even pelagic environments. The flexural loading (Maenco et. al, 1997) of the basin determined the formation of one (or even more?) basin(s) of peripheric foreland (sensu Miall, 1995) beginning with the uppermost Oligocene through Miocene. Thus, a great facies change is especially noticed on the eastern basin margin, where shallow marine facies (which occur within Kliwa-type lithofacies) are followed in a stratigraphic succession (Miocene) by continental and transitional facies. The compressional deformations (Fig. 5) began with the Lower Miocene (Lower Burdigalian), concurrently with the thrusting of the Curvicortical Flysch/Audia Nappes, followed by shortening along approx. E-W trend (Upper Burdigalian). The effect thereof resided in thrusting of the Tarcu Nappe, the Marginal Folds Nappe as well as of the inner part of the Subcarpathian Nappe. A second shortening took place in the Sarmatian and led to Subcarpathian Nappe thrusting over the non-deformed foredeep as well as to the deformation of the postBurdigalian sequences deposited over the Tarcu and Marginal Folds Nappes domain. The next deformational stage (Upper Miocene: Upper Sarmatian-Lower Meotian) was characterized by a regime of compressional strike-slip movements along NNE-SSW to N-S trend. To the N, beyond Trotu Fault, the strike-slip deformations were taken over by E-W senestral faults, whereas, in the south of the Eastern Carpathians by NW-SE dextral faults. The transition zone underwent a shift towards ESE, estimated to 40-50 km, (Maenco and Bertotti, 2000). Along the Pliocene-Pleistocene interval, the curvature zone experienced thusting processes accompanied by shortening along NNW-SSE trend (Hippolyte and Sndulescu, 1996), of approx. 22 km (Roure et al., 1993) or 15 km (Maenco and Bertotti, 2000). While Roure et al., (1993) suggest that the shortening also involved the basement, Maenco and Beetotti, (2000), consider that only the sedimentary cover was deformed. The significant uplifts recorded throughout the Upper Badenian Lower Sarmatian interval, in the central area of the Eastern Carpathians, resulted in the erosion of an approx. 5 km sedimentary stack. The main uplifted area in the curvature zone is younger and it began with the Upper Miocene (Pontian), coeval with the youngest compressional moments (Sanders et al, 1999). The stratigraphic succession, showing different lithofacies, extends from the Lower Cretaceous up to the Lower Miocene. During this interval, the detrital rocks were supplied by two main sources: an external source situated in the foreland, and an internal source represented by the cordilleras or, mostly in Cenozoic, by the still structured internal units of the East Carpathians. The highly subsiding trough migrated from inside to outside since Lower Cretaceous (Convolute Flysch area) until the Paleogene (Tarcu area) and even Lower Miocene (Subcarpathian area).
June 2008
Fig. 5 Stratigraphic columns in the external Moldavides units and the main tectonic events (according to Maenco and Bertotti, 2000) The Lower Cretaceous formations display two main lithofacies: the external Black Shales development, covering the Audia, Tarcu and Marginal Folds domains, relatively thin (600 900 m) dominated by euxinic sedimentation and the inner, Convolute Flysch developments, several kilometers thick (5 6 km), developed in a subsiding flysch trough supplied by an inner source area (the Peri-Moldavian Cordillera). In the Convolute Flysch Trough, the turbiditic subsiding sedimentation continues up to the Turonian (even Lower Senonian?), while in the Black Shales domain, a condensed variegated very thin sequence, partly deposited below the CCD level, sedimented in the Upper Vraconian Lower Senonian time span. In Senonian, the main flysch lithofacies migrated to the exterior, the most specific of them being known in the Tarcu domain (calcareous flysch). Sandy flysch developed to the exterior (Audia domain) while the external lithofacies are of pelagic nature. The highest subsiding flysch area migrated again in the Paleogene (Tarcu domain) determining the development of many lithofacies, from the proximal sandy one in the inner part, to the distal shaly-calcareous one in the external part. The double source areas, in foreland and hinterland, still existed.
June 2008
10
During the Oligocene and Early Miocene a specific bituminous-quartzitic sandy lithofacies developed in the external part of the Moldavides (external Tarcu, Marginal Folds and Subcarpathian nappes). Synchronously, the flysch development is known in the inner part of the Tarcu Nappe. Following an evaporitic event (salt and gypsum), of (Middle) Burdigalian age, the Lower and Middle Miocene molassic formation began to accumulate (Tarcu, Marginal Folds and Subcarpathian nappes) being included in the thrust-sheets. The post-nappes molasses are developed in the Foredeep. The main tectogenetic moments, which structured the Moldavides, are of Burdigalian, Badenian and Sarmatian age. Some precursory folding events are recorded in the Convolute Flysch and Audia nappes during the End-Cretaceous time. Tarcu Nappe The Tarcu Nappe is a polyfacial nappe (Dumitrescu 1948, 1952). It is also known as the Medio-Marginal Unit (Bncil, 1955, 1958) and corresponds to the Skibas and Krosno zones of the Ukraine Carpathians. Several facial zones were distinguished in the Tarcu Nappe (Dumitrescu, 1952; Popescu, 1952; Joja, 1952; Grigora, 1955; Ptru, 1954; Dumitrescu et.al., 1971). The inner zone (Tarcu Sandstone Zone) is the best areally developed and shows the complete lithostratigraphic succession known in the whole nappe, from Lower Cretaceous to Lower Miocene (Fig 6). In the more external zones, the Lower or even Upper Cretaceous deposits are absent due to the subsequent position of the overthrust plane. The Lower Cretaceous is developed in the Silesian lithofacies (Black Shales Formation, Hauterivian Lower Vraconian) followed by variegated shales and marly limestones (the Lupchianu Beds, Vraconian - Turonian). The Senonian - Lower Paleocene is of flysch type, sandy marly inwards (the Horgazu Flysch) and more calcareous outwards (the Hangu Flysch). The sedimentation of the Tarcu Sandstone starts in Paleocene and follows up to the Middle Eocene, included. In the outer facial zones, the Paleocene Lowermost Eocene is represented by a variegated flysch (the Straja Flysch) followed by different Lower and Middle Eocene flysch types, getting richer in arenites, inwards. Hieroglyphic Beds flyschtype is known in the Uppermost Lutetian and Priabonian more limy inwards (the Podu Secu Flysch) and with red shales outwards (the Plopu Flysch). In the Buzu Valley basin, a constant shaly sandy flysch (Coli Flysch) developed during the whole Eocene. The Lucceti sandstone interbeds from the Globigerina marls, develop all over the previous mentioned facies. Oligocene Lowermost Miocene display two lithofacies: in the inner part of the Tarcu Nappe, flysch formations develop with a thick sandy flysch sequence (the Fusaru Sandstone) followed by a convolute sandy marly flysch (the Vineiu Flysch), similar to the Middle and Upper Krosno Formations. South west of the Buzu Valley, the Fusaru Sandstone, a menilitic bituminous lithofacies with several levels of cherts (menilites) and bituminous shaly clays or silts (dysodile shales) with two main sequences of quartzose sandstones (Kliwa) is developing in the Oligocene Lower Miocene. South and southwards, Lower Kliwa gets thinner in favour of the flysch sequences (Podu Morii Beds). In compensation, the Upper Kliwa sandstone gains thickness, reaching approx. 500 m in Teleajen Valley. Throughout the Tarcu and Marginal Folds Nappes, but in the same stratigraphical position, two cineritic levels develop. The lower one is interbedded in the Vineiu and Podu Morii Flysch as well as in their external stratigraphical equivalents (Upper Dysodilic Shales). The Upper Cineritic level (mainly benthonites) develops within the Upper Menilites and their inner (Dysodilic Shales overlying the Vineiu Flysch) and outer correspondents (Upper Dysodilic Shales).
June 2008
11
Fig. 6 Litho-stratigraphic column of Tarcu Nappe (according to Butac et al, 1998)
June 2008
12
A peculiar lithofacies is known in the innermost parts of the Tarcu Nappe synchronous with the Vineiu Flysch. It is a chaotic formation (Slon Facies) described either as Olistostroma or Wildflysch, represented by piles of argillaceous or marly breccias in which mainly Senonian and Paleocene allochtonous rocks are involved. In some places breccias and/or re-deposited lutites are only intercalations both in the uppermost part of the Fusaru Sandstone and the Vineiu Flysch. The Lower and Middle Miocene outcrop only in the East Carpathians Bend area generally displaying a molasse facies with evaporites (both gypsum and salt), thin stromatolites, cineritic and breccias intercalations. The first general folding of the Tarcu Nappe area was intra Burdigalian, but the overthrust was intra Badenian, when it covers and even overpassed the whole Marginal Folds Nappe and, locally, the inner part of the Subcarpathian Nappe. The amplitude of Tarcu Nappe overthrusting reaches over 35 km, as proved by exploration wells. The polyfacial character of the Tarcu Nappe has overprinted its different tectonic types of folding, following the lithology of the different flysch piles. Where the Tarcu and Fusaru Sandstones are present, more or less large folds, sometimes faulted, were generated. With the decrease of the sandy flysch content more narrower and imbricated folds develop. Marginal Folds Nappe The outermost nappe of the so called flysch zone is the Marginal Folds one; it is also known as Marginal Unit (Dumitrescu, 1952) (Fig. 8), External Unit (Bncil, 1958), or Vrancea Unit (Ionesi, 1971). It shows a complex construction and a peculiar tectonic style: overturned and recumbent folds, duplexes, imbricated fans or even anti-formal stacks are developed. The Marginal Folds Nappe outcrops in several half windows (Putna, Bistria, Oituz and Vrancea) or window (Dumesnic), but it was also found between them in wells, below the Tarcu Nappe. (Fig. 7). Inside the Vrancea half-window the Marginal Fold Nappe shows a more complicated structure. There, two tectonic subunits (digitations) are developed (Dumitrescu, 1963), the internal one (Greu) overthrusting the more external one (Coza). The former can be considered a correspondent of the Pocutian Folds (according to Sndulescu, 1984). The Greu subunit overthrusting reaches an important extent covering, partially, both the external flank of Coza and the inner margin of the Subcarpathian Nappe. While Greu Digitation displays a more intensive folding, up to imbricated structure, Coza Digitation has a large shape with tight folds and anti formal stack tipe structures with Lower Cretaceous deposits, in the axial zone. Northwards of Vrancea half-window, the two digitations can be followed, in wells, up to Moineti region. Southwards, the Marginal Folds Nappe sinks rapidly beneath the flysch piles of Tarcu Nappe formations, as proved by some exploratory wells drilled in the area. The oldest deposits known in the Marginal Folds are of Lower Cretaceous age, Streiu and Lower Tisaru Beds, in Vrancea half window. They show an euxinic, shaly lithofacies with some rhythmic sequences and black cherts. The sequence of Vraconian Turonian variegated shales (Upper Tisaru Beds), then Senonian Lower Eocene limy shaly pelagic rocks (Lepa and Cain Beds) and a thin bedded flysch, rich in silica and partly with variegated shales (Piatra Uscat and Tisaroid Beds) overlie the Lower Cretaceous deposits. Huge lenses of Paleocene conglomerates (Piatra Streiului), rich in Green-schist fragments, develop between Lepa and Cain Beds.
June 2008
13
Fig. 7 Litho-stratigraphic column of Marginal Folds Nappe (according to Butac et al, 1998)
June 2008
14
Lower Middle Eocene rocks are of different lithofacies and display limy detrital, silico pelagic (Buciau Beds) or flysch (Greu) developments in the outer and inner parts of the nappe, respectively. They are followed by variegated shales and grey black shaly formations (Bisericani Beds). The Globigerina Marls and the Lucceti Sandstone (quartzous) develop in the Uppermost Eocene. The Oligocene and Lowermost Miocene show a menilitic bituminous lithofacies with several levels of cherts (menilites) and bituminous-shaly clays or silts (dysodilic shales) with quartzous sandstones (Kliwa) and conglomerates. The Lower Miocene Salt Formation is known mostly in the outer part of the Bistria halfwindow. Its peculiar feature is represented by the presence of K- halites. Red (the Hrja Molasse) or Grey (sandy - conglomeratic) molasses are locally developed. The folding of the Marginal Folds Nappe started in Lower Miocene (Burdigalian), the main overthrust moment was in Middle Miocene (IntraBadenian) and it was remobilised in the Moldavian phase (Middle Sarmatian).
Fig.8 Geological map -Marginal Folds Nappe Vrancea Half-window (according to Dumitrescu, 1952) After tefnescu and Micu (1987), Bdescu, (2005), the stratigraphy of the Marginal Folds Nappe in Vrancea window is the following: (fig 9).
June 2008
15
- Streiu Beds, Lower Cretaceous-Lower Turonian, 300-360 m, represented by black bituminous shales, calcareous sandstones, rarely polymictic conglomerates with green elements; - Tisaru Beds, Upper Turonian-Senonian, 100-150 m, separated into: Lower Member, represented by black radiolarites, blackish-green shales and glauconitic sandstones and the Upper Member, consisting of red, green or variegated radiolarites, red marls, polymictic conglomerates with green elements; - Lepa Beds, Senonian, 250-300 m, consisting of thin beds of detrital limestones and gray marls, red marls and interbeds of sandstones and conglomerates with green elements at the upper part. The Paleogene deposits are represented by two synchronous facies: Bucia facies and Greu facies. Bucia Facies comprises: - Cain Beds, Paleocene, 600 m, in their turn they contain: The Lower Member, 100 m, consisting of argillaceous limestones and/or conglomerates of Piatra Strei (polygenous conglomerates with green elements); Median Member, 150 m, consisting of marls and subordinately calcareous sandstones and the Upper Member, 350 m, consisting of bituminous sandy limestones, shales and polymictic conglomerates with green elements - conglomerates of Piatra Cornii; - Piatra Uscat Beds, Upper Paleocene. Lower Ypressian, 100 -150 m. They consist of gray marls, gray-green quartzose sandstones, sandy limestones, silicolites, (gaizesspongolites), shales, rarely argillaceous limestones, red calcareous shales and polymictic conglomerates with green elements; - Bucia Beds, Ypressian-Lutetian, 400-500 m, green or white marls, subordinately calcareous sandstones and red marls.; - Bisericani Beds, Priabonian, 250-300 m: Lower Member, 5-20 m consists of red and green shales, subordinately lithic sandstones and graywackes; Median Member, 100-150 m, consists of gray and green shales, rarely lithic sandstones and graywackes, breccias with green elements, whereas the Upper Member (locally with variable thickness) consists of globigerina-bearing marls; - Globigerina-bearing Marls and Lucceti Sandstone, Priabonian, 15-20 m, consist of white globigerina-bearing marls with interbeds of quartzose sandstones; Greu Facies comprises: - Upper Member of Cain Beds, 200 m; - Tisaroid Beds, Upper Paleocene-Lower Ypressian, 50-110 m, equivalent with Piatra Uscat Beds, consisting of variegated sandstones and shales; - Greu Beds, Ypressian-Lutetian, 300-500 m, alternation of calcareous sandstones and greenish marls and conglomerates with green schists; - Red Marls, Lutetian, 5-15 m, consisting of red and green marls, shales and thin interbeds of sandstones; - Bisericani Beds (Priabonian), 150-200 m, consisting of an alternation of green shales and thin calcareous sandstones. At the upper part, ther are consisting of gray shales and siltites; - Globigerina-bearing Marls and Lucceti Sandstone, Priabonian, 15-20 m, similar to the ones belonging to Bucia facies. Oligocene Deposits and the Lower Miocene ones are developed in a bituminous facies. They comprise the following members: - Lower Menilites Member, with bituminous marls; - Lower Dysodiles Member; - Kliwa Sandstone Member; - Upper Menilites Member;
June 2008
16
- GoruMiina Beds: calcareous sandstones, silts, sandy marls and locally conglomerates with green schists. - Uppermost Menilites. - Salt formation and Hrja Beds, molasse deposits better developed in the Subcarpathian Nappe.
Fig. 9 Litho-stratigraphic Correlation Chart - Tarcu and Marginal Folds Nappes (according to Bdescu 2005)
June 2008
17
Vrban (2003) assigned the Piatra Strei Conglomerates to Lepa-Piatra Strei unit, (fig. 10). Structurally, near Lepa locality, the units are displayed in an anticlinorium-type structure (Coza), namely the western flank of the overturned Plaiul Faa Mare Anticline, which has in its axis the Streiu, Tisaru, Lepa Beds and Piatra Streiului Conglomerates and Cain and Piatra Uscat Beds in the flanks.
Fig. 10 Stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous- Eocene (Priabonian) deposits (according to Vrban, 2003)
June 2008
18
Subcarpathian Nappe Known also as Pericarpathian Nappe (Mrazec, Voiteti, 1914; Bncil, 1958), the Subcarpathian Nappe is the youngest and the outermost unit of the Moldavides. It is built mainly of Lower Miocene deposits, which have preserved at their bottom Oligocene and (local) Eocene formations and are overlapped in some synclines by Middle Miocene and Lower Sarmatian ones. Three subunits (digitations) were distinguished (Sndulescu at. al, 1977) in the Subcarpathian Nappe which is, from west to east: the Mgireti Perchiu, the Pietricica and the Valea Mare subunits. The oldest rocks outcropping or known from boreholes in the Subcarpathian Nappe are of Oligocene age (Fig.11), developed in a bituminous facies, similar to that of the Marginal Folds or of the outer part of the Tarcu Nappe. In very few places Priabonian shales (Bisericani Beds) were preserved bellow the Oligocene (Tescani field). In the Mgireti Perchiu Digitation, a Lower Miocene Salt Formation follows after the bituminous deposits. The main part of these digitations is built up of the Red Formation (Mgireti Molasse) and Grey Formation of Lower Miocene age, the last one passing to Lower Badenian. Red Formation consists, mainly, of calcareous sandstones with red cement, variegated and red marls, as well as local developments of conglomerates (Brsesti conglomerates). Two main evaporitic levels are known in the Grey Formation: the Perchiu Gypsum (the lower one, developed at the base) and the Stufu Gypsum (situated more or less at the Lower/Middle Miocene Boundary). Connected with the Stufu Gypsum and above it, thin dolomitic limy shales are known. The lower part of the Badenian deposits consists of Cinerites (Slnic Tuff) interbedded with Globigerina marls and a calcareous formation (Rchitau Sandstone). Evaporitic deposits (gypsum and salt) follow. Quartzitic fine sands and sandstones associated with Radiolarian Schists of Kossovian age (Halo Beds) are developed at the upper part. Molassic (conglomerates and sands) Volchynian and Lower Bessarabian deposits are preserved in some deeper folds in all the three digitations of the Subcarpathian Nappe. South of Trotu River, Valea Mare and a part of Pietricica Digitation are covered by the inner limb of the Focani Depression. Farther south and south westward, the whole Subcarpathian Nappe is unconformably covered by the Upper Sarmatian Pleistocene molasses of the folded part of the Foredeep s. str. namely the Diapiric Folds Zone, which cover even the frontal part of the Tarcu Nappe (west of Buzu River). The molasse deposits of the Subcarpathian Nappe have two different source areas: the Lower Miocene molasses rich in Greenschists and other foreland fragments and the Sarmatian molasses with arenites of Carpathian origin. The main overthrusting moment of the Subcarpathian Nappe is intra Sarmatian (the Moldavian phase Dumitrescu, Sndulescu, 1968). It was folded, before the overthrust, at least in the intra Burdigalian and intra Badenian tectogenesis. The latest tectonic movements occurred during the Pleistocene (Wallachian phase). North of the Buzu Valley, where the Lower Miocene deposits are largely outcropping, parallels alignments of relatively narrow imbricated folds develop. Diapiric phenomena are present along the longitudinal faults.
June 2008
19
Fig. 11 Litho-stratigraphic column of Subcarpathian Nappe (according to Butac et al, 1998)

June 2008
20
THE FOREDEEP. In the acceptance of the Romanian geologists, only the formations younger than the last tectonogenesis of the Moldavides, namely Neosarmatian Pleistocene molasses, were assigned to the Foredeep (Sndulescu et al. 1981; Sndulescu, 1894). The Foredeep is filled with Upper Miocene Pliocene Lowermost Pleistocene molasses entirely supplied by deformed rising Carpathians. They cover the most of the external parts of the East and South Carpathians and a part of the neighbouring platforms. In this acceptance, the Foredeep (s.str.) was divided in two zones: an unfolded and a folded one. In the Carpathian Bend area and in the southern Subcarpathians, the inner part of the Foredeep is folded (Plio-Quaternary deformations). The folded Foredeep deposits are developed in the Bend Area (Diapiric Folds Zone), where, as mentioned before, they overlay the Subcarpathian Nappe and partialy, the outer margin of the Tarcu Nappe. A more diversified lithology is known here (excepting the molasse, neritic limestones in Kersonian, Schlier facies in Pontian, etc.). In this area, the Upper Sarmatian Pliocene arenitic sequences proved to be the most important for the existence of oil and gas fields discovered so far (Fig 12). The folding of this part of the Foredeep took place in the Wallachian (intra-Pleistocene) phase, and was characterised by the halokinetic processes involving the Lower Miocene salt deposits. As a result, four regional diapiric folds alignments, with various piercing stages of the salt were built up. Two of these alignments i.e. Gura Ocniei Moreni Bicoi intea (exaggerated diapirs) and Bucani Ariceti Ceptura Urlai (attenuated diapirs) had a particular importance in the hydrocarbon entrapment. The Unfolded Foredeep is superposed on the Foreland units. South of the Trotu Valey a narrow strip of the inner limb of the Unfolded Foredeep overlaps the front of the Subcarpathian Nappe (Fig 13). The most typical sector and the most subsiding segment of the Unfolded Foredeep is the so-called Focani Depression, of lop-sided shape and filled with thick molasse sediments (more than 10 km in the central part). Northwards and south-westwards, in the axial trend, it gets narrower and has a reduced thickness. Inside the Focani Depression, the molasses formations show a monotonous lithology: mostly sandy molasses with andesitic cinerite layers at the Sarmatian/Meotian boundary and richer in gravels. In the Upper Pliocene Pleistocene, coal lenses are also known.
June 2008
21
Fig 12. Litho-stratigraphic column of Folded Foredeep (according to Butac et al, 1998)
June 2008
22
Fig. 13. Restoration of the post-nappe stacking evolution along the Putna cross section. The restoration shows the two different stages of late orogenic evolution: Latest Miocene Pliocene general subsidence (d-b) followed by 5 km of Quaternary shortening and tilting (a).(according to Matenco 2007)
June 2008
23
Fig. 15. Graphic restoration of the geological section Putna Valley (according to Bdescu, 2005)
June 2008
24
Fig 14. Geological cross section in East Carpathians - Putna Valley
June 2008
25
1.2. DEPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK

The depositional area of the geological formations encountered in East Carpathians was part of a collisional basin, largely filled with flysch type sediments, during the Cretaceous and Paleogene and with molasse formations in Miocene and Pliocene. The basin entrapped sediments from two main source areas: - western (inner) sources belonging to the Carpathian folded units; - eastern and southern (outer) sources, located on the Foreland regions (East European, Scythian and Moesian Platforms, North Dobrudja Orogene). Intrabasinal sources, supplying magmatic and metamorphic lithoclasts were also active during the Cretaceous. The sedimentary supply of the bordering areas was unequal in time. The contribution of the western sources extended gradually, since the Upper Cretaceous, as a result of orogenetic movement which led to the successive uplifting of the internal areas and to the shifting of the basin axis towards the foreland regions. The Carpathian sources supplied large volumes of clastic material predominantly transported by gravity mass flows and sometimes, via submarine canyons. The sediments from external sources, were more fine grained, with calcareous and siliciclastic material. The sediment transport was mainly via submarine canyons. In the Lower Cretaceous, the internal sources delivered terrigenous material which formed classic turbidites with more or less Bouma sequences (Sinaia Beds, Bobu Flysch) overlain by a huge pile of molassic conglomerates (Bucegi Conglomerates). The outer sources led to the formation of an euxinic black-shaly lithofacies (Black Shales Formation and Streiu Beds), followed by more sandy sequences (glauconitic siliceous sandstones and Lower Tisaru Beds, respectively). In the Upper Cretaceous the western sources supplied large mud rich sediments (Dumbrvioara Series and Gura Beliei Marls) as well as material for rhythmic (Macla, Horgazu) series. The outer source input was fine grained leading to the formation of calcareous (Lepa Beds) and limy flysch deposits (Hangu Beds). In the Paleogene, the Carpathian sources have led to the formation of fan deltas in proximal area (Tarcu, Fusaru Sandstones) and turbidites in distal area (Coli facies, in Eocene and Pucioasa, Vineiu Beds, in Oligocene). The eastern supply is represented by a marginal prograding complex of a siliciclastic carbonatic platform (Doamna Limestone and Buciau Beds) in Eocene and by sand mud rich, and sand rich turbidites with channel levee and lobes complexes (Kliwa Sandstone) in Oligocene. In the innermost part of the basin, to the west of Teleajen Valley the Eocene is represented by the marly calcareous otrile flysch. In the basin axial area, longitudinal transport directions were recorded, amalgamated sequences were accumulated (Lesunt facies, in Eocene and mixed Pucioasa (Fusaru) Kliwa facies, in Oligocene).
June 2008
26
The Oligocene Lowermost Miocene contains mud rich sediments with condensed intervals (Bituminous Marls, Lower Menilites and Dysodilic Shales, in the lower part of the Oligocene and Upper Menilites and Dysodilic Shales in the Lowermost Miocene) formed during the rising stage or highstand, that strongly alternate with sand turbidites (Kliwa Sandstone) formed at times of lowstand stage while contain the best reservoirs. The Oligocene basin is characterized by restrictively anoxic conditions, Kliwa sandstone is mainly represented by quartzose sandstones with silica cement, having a characteristic bimodal distribution (with fine-grained quartz clasts less rounded and coarsegrained quartz clasts well rounded). The specific heavy mineral assemblage is rutile-turmaline-zircon. The latest flysch type deposits are represented by the Upper Podu Morii Beds and Gura oimului Beds (Goru Miina Beds=Tranziia) with eastern supply, of the Lowermost Miocene. The molasse deposits have two different source areas: the Foreland for the Lower Miocene molasse rich in green-schists present today in Subcarpathian and Marginal Folds Nappes, and internal sources for the Lower Miocene post tectonic cover common to the internal Moldavides and Tarcu Nappe. The Lower Miocene accumulated in evaporitic basins predominantly filled with shallow marine to continental molasses deposits including alluvial fans and fan deltas. These deposits overlie the evaporitic Salt Formation and start with coarse grained sediments (Red Formation with Brsesti Conglomerates) that grade upwards to fine grained deposits with some evaporitic levels (Grey Formation). The Badenian molasse deposits are mud rich (Slnic Molasse) containing interbedded condensed intervals (Globigerina Marls and Radiolarian Schists) as well as an evaporitic sequence. During the Sarmatian, the depositional environment evolved from marine to brackish and, finally, to a fresh water basin which lasted as such up to the Pleistocene. Starting with the Upper Pliocene, fluviodeltaic deposits are predominant.
June 2008
27
1.3. PETROLEUM POTENTIAL

HISTORY The East Carpathians bend area is the oldest and most prolific oil producing province in Romania. The extraction of crude for domestic uses (fuel, grease, medication) has been mentioned since the 16th century and the first commercial production officially recorded in 1857 (275 tons) resulted, mostly, from this area. So far, 31 % of the total proven oil resources of Romania (oil in place) are related to the 40 fields discovered in this region and their contribution to the cumulative production of the country was of about 37 %. Until 1950, the region provided almost the whole amount of oil production of the country, reaching a yearly peak of about 8.3 million tons, in 1936, when Romania was the sixth oil production country in the world. Notwithstanding this, the interest for future exploration maintains unchanged, supported by the up to date evaluations of the undiscovered petroleum potential. All the commercial oil and gas fields discovered so far are related to the three most external nappes, i.e. Tarcu, Marginal Folds and Subcarpathian (the overlying Foredeep sedimentary cover included). Nevertheless, elements of petroleum system are present in more internal nappes (Ceahlu, Bobu, Teleajen Macla, Audia) including source rocks, reservoir rocks, seals and traps, but due to the unfavourable timing between peak generation and trap formation, to the uplift and partial erosion of the traps, the hydrocarbon accumulation could not be formed or were destroyed, if existed. Consequently the remaining potential may be related to the underthrusted areas of the above mentioned nappes. As for Tarcu, Marginal Folds and Subcarpathian Nappes the main elements and processes of petroleum systems could be summarised as follows: SOURCE ROCKS The most important, source rocks are associated to the Oligocene Lowermost Miocene formations, mainly to the pelitic bituminous sequence forming the Lower and Upper Dysodilic Shales Formations in Tarcu and Marginal Folds Nappes and to their equivalents in the Subcarpathian Nappe. The argillaceous shales, marls and marly limestones interbedded within Podu Morii Beds, or within Kliwa Sandstone, also proved to be source rocks. The average cumulative thickness of source rock sequences is from 600 m in Tarcu Nappe to 500 m and 400 m in Marginal Folds and Subcarpathian Nappes, respectively. The Total Organic Carbon content is, generally, higher than 0,7 %, up to 9 %, the highest values pertaining to bituminous dysodilic shales and marls. The organic matter is of Type II, or II/III, with Hydrogen Indexes ranging between 122 and 548 mg/g TOC. Geochemical analyses carried out on the dysodilic shales taken from the outcrop showed a TOC content of 1.16 2.78 % and a predominantly type II Organic Matter, with subordinate terrestrial influence.
June 2008
28
Apart from the Oligocene Lowermost Miocene, organic matter-rich interlayerings are present in Lower Miocene, Badenian, Sarmatian and even Pliocene formations. MATURITY, GENERATION AND EXPULSION TIME The Oligocene Lowermost Miocene source rock shows different maturity levels, depending on burial history, organic matter type and geothermal gradients. Therefore, R0 values of 0.4 up to 1.25 were measured on samples from different wells, at depths ranging from 1500 m to 7021 m. According to these values, the Oligocene entered the oil window (R0 > 0.65) at depths greater than 3500 m, in all of the three nappes. Burial history diagrams are in match with R0 maturity data, pointing out the depth, and duration of hydrocarbon generation and expulsion. Both in Tarcu and Subcarpathian Nappes the hydrocarbon generation started 16 MY ago, after the tectonic burial of the Oligocene source rocks, as a result of intraBurdigalian folding movements. In Marginal Folds Nappe, the maturation depths were reacher later, during the Badenian, when the Tarcu Nappe overthrusting took place. In Marginal Folds Nappe maturation depths were reached by the Oligocene source rocks on areas much larger than in Tarcu Nappe. The younger potential source rocks are still immature excepting the Lower Miocene ones, which could reach maturation depths (more than 5000 m) in a few limited areas of the Subcarpathian Nappe. Therefore, their possible contribution to the generated hydrocarbons is considered unimportant, as compared to that of the Oligocene source rocks. RESERVOIRS With one exception (the calcareous Doamna Formation) all producing reservoir rocks are of clastic origin (sandstones, sands or even conglomerates), occurring in a large stratigraphic interval, from the Eocene to the Upper Pliocene. The Oligocene Lowermost Miocene reservoir rocks provided the largest amount of hydrocarbon reserves discovered so far in the Marginal Folds domain. The contribution of the Oligocene Lowermost Miocene reservoirs to the producing fields diminishes in Tarcu Nappe and is the smallest in the Subcarpathian Nappe. Upper Miocene (Sarmatian) and, particularly, Pliocene reservoirs are the most important in these two units. In the case of the Subcarpathian Nappe, the small volume of oil reserves discovered in the Oligocene reservoirs should be explained by the limited number of exploration wells drilled so far in the relatively large areas where such reservoirs interbedding with good source rocks are located at depths of 5000 7000 m. TRAPS Structural traps prevail in all three hydrocarbon producing nappes. On the outer margin of the Tarcu Nappe and in Marginal Folds Nappe, longitudinally faulted folds, forming alignments parallel to the regional bend of the Carpathians, are characteristic to the structure of the Paleogene deposits.
June 2008
29
PETROLEUM SYSTEMS The basinal continuity of the Oligocene Lowermost Miocene source rocks was broken early, before the beginning of maturation expulsion processes, by the intra Burdigalian tectonic movements. Later on, during the Badenian, the source and some reservoir rocks were completely separated into three domains, one for each overthrusting nappe (Tarcu, Marginal Folds, Subcarpathian), which evolved independently from the point of view of maturation expulsion migration entrapment processes, leading to the existence of three main petroleum systems. The Tarcu Nappe Petroleum System is developed mostly on the external areas of the unit, where some of the source rocks reached the deepest position, due to the more intensive folding and underthrusting. At the same time, younger seal and reservoir rocks (Miocene - Pliocene), were deposited, while the more internal areas of the nappe were exposed to erosion, since the Upper Burdigalian. In the existing fields, the Oligocene reservoir rocks as well as those belonging to younger, overlying formations, above the Miocene, are oil producing. Source rocks: argillaceous schists with high organic matter content (Oligocene). Reservoir rocks: sandstones (Oligocene, Eocene); calcareous sandstones (Eocene). Seal rocks: evaporites (Miocene salt); pelites (Oligocene). Trap styles: structural. Fields: Pcuria (oil). The Marginal Folds Nappe Petroleum System is related to the areas where the preservation conditions where realised by the Tarcu Nappe overthrusting. The largest region with such conditions is located between Oituz and Bistria tectonic half window, Moineti area. Nevertheless, a few fields are protected only by the Lower Miocene normal cover, after the local erosion of the Tarcu Nappe, as a result of Pleistocene tectonic movements. Source rocks: argillaceous schists with high organic matter content (Oligocene); bituminous limestones, argillaceous marls (Paleocene). Reservoir rocks: sandstones (Oligocene, Eocene); limestones (Eocene). Seal rocks: evaporites (Miocene salt); pelites (Oligocene, Miocene). Trap styles: structural. Fields: Ghelina, Slnic-Bi, Cerdac, Dofteana, Nineasa, South Nineasa (oil), Lepa (gas). The Subcarpathian Nappe Petroleum System is, by far, the most important for the southern part of the Eastern Carpathians. At the same time, the system underwent the most complex evolution, due to the many stages of reservoir deposition and trap formation. Most of these events occurred after the beginning of the generation migration processes, when thick piles of impervious sediments separated the new traps from the generating source rocks. In Moineti area there are four hydrocarbon accumulations: Tescani (Oligocene and Lower Miocene), Cmpeni (Lower Miocene), Cain (Sarmatian),
June 2008
30
Cmpeni (small accumulation in Badenian). Cmpeni field has been exploitated since 1903. Source rocks: argillaceous schists with high organic matter content (Oligocene Lower Miocene). Reservoir rocks: sandstones and conglomerates [Oligocene (Kliwa), Lower Miocene (Condor, Brsesti, Grey Fm) Seal rocks: evaporites (Lower Miocene salt and gypsum); pelites (Oligocene, Miocene) Trap styles: structural. Fields: Moineti area, Gura Ocniei, Moreni, Filipeti, Tei, Ochiuri, Gorgota. The Foredeep Petroleum System is developed mostly on the inner part of the Foredeep. As a result of the Wallachian (intra-Pleistocene) phase, regional diapiric folds alignments, with various piercing stages of the salt were built up (Diapiric Folds Zone). Two of these alignments i.e. Gura Ocniei Moreni Bicoi intea (exaggerated diapirs) and Bucani Ariceti Ceptura Urlai (attenuated diapirs) had a particular importance in the hydrocarbon entrapment. In this area, the Upper Sarmatian Pliocene arenitic sequences proved to be the most important for the existence of oil and gas fields discovered so far. Source rocks: argilites (rich organic mater) (Sarmatian) Reservoir rocks: sandstone interbeding (Meotian, Pontian, Dacian, Romanian) Seal rocks: pelites interbedings (Sarmatian, Pontian, Dacian, Romanian) Trap styles: structural Fields: Boldeti, Moreni, Gura Ocniei, Bicoi, Pcurei, Mgurele, intea, Brbunceti, Berca-Arbnai.
June 2008
31
Fig. 16 East Carpathian Geological Map, - PETROM Blocks and Oilfields.
June 2008
32
2. FIELD TRIP ITINERARY AND STOP DESCRIPTIONS
June 2008
33
FIELD TRIP ITINERARY

First Day
Stop 1 Berca Berca Oilfield - Mudy Volcanoes (Pclele Mari) Stop 2 Lopatari - Lower Burdigalian Sandstone and Salt Formation. Stop 3 Manzalesti Geological profile - Slnic Valley - Miocene (Upper Burdigalian, Badenian, Sarmatian and Lower Meotian) Subcarpathian Nappe and Carpathian Foredeep (Upper Molasse) Stop 4 Beslii - Vintil Vod- Geological profile Upper Meotian Pontian - Slnic Valley - Carpathian Foredeep
Second Day
Stop 5 Vidra Milcov Fm Pontian - Putna Valley Upstream - The Carpathian Foredeep Stop 6 Valea Scrii -Marly and Sandy-Marly Formations, Sarmatian - Putna Valley - Carpathian Foredeep Stop 7 La Grumaz Grey Formation - Upper Burdigalian Putna Valley - Subcarpathian Nappe Stop 8 Brsesti - Red Formation, Brsesti Conglomerates Lower Burdigalian - Subcarpathian Nappe Stop 9. Putna Fall - Lower Oligocene, Lower Disodile Member - Marginal Folds Nappe Stop 10 Lepa - Upper Tisaru Beds, Lepa - Piatra Strei Unit Marginal Folds Nappe Stop 11. Lepa: Bucia Beds, Bisericani Beds - Marginal Folds Nappe
Third Day
Stop 12 Rsnov Castle Sedimentary cover of Getic Nappe Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonic), Cretaceous (Vraconian-Cenomanian) Stop 13 Fundata - Bucegi - Piatra Craiului Geologic Park panorama Stop 14 Dealul Sasului (Belvedere), Jurassic, Cretaceous Sedimentary cover of the Median Dacides Stop 15 Dmbovicioara Gorges - Dambovicioara Formation Jurassic, Cretaceous - Sedimentary cover of the Median Dacides Stop 16 Ceteni - Albian Conglomerates Sedimentary cover of the Median Dacides
June 2008
34
First Day
Departure: Bucharest 07:00 Bucureti - Ploieti - Buzu - Berca 07:00 10:30 Stop 1 Berca BercaArbnai Oilfield, visit to the Mudy Volcanoes (Pclele Mari), 10:30-12:00 Berca - Loptari 12:00 13:00 Stop 2 Loptari Lower Burdigalian Sandstone and Salt Formation 13:00 14:00 Field Lunch 14.00 14:45 Loptari Mnzleti 14:45 15:00 Stop 3 Mnzleti Geological profile - Slnic Valley - Miocene (Upper Burdigalian to Lower Meotian) Subcarpathian Nappe and Carpathians Foredeep (Upper Molasse) 15:00 16:30 Mnzleti Vintil Vod 16:30 16:45 Stop 4 Beslii - Vintil Vod Geological profile - Slnic Valley - Upper Meotian Pontian lithostratigraphy Carpathians Foredeep 16:45 18:00. Vintil Vod - Berca Buzu Focani 18:00 18:30 Accomodation Dinner 20:00
June 2008
35
Fig. 17 Geological Map Slnic Valley area (Romania Geological Map - fragment IGR)
June 2008
36
Stop 1 - Berca Arbnai Oilfield Muddy Volcanoes Unit: Subcarpathian Nape Age: Miocene Pliocene Formation: folded sedimentary deposits The structural Berca Pcle - Beciu Arbnai alignment is developed along approx. 30 km within the Subcarpathian Nappe and it consisting of of an anticlinal fold longitudinally and transversaly tectonized through a fault system which makes that the relation between the structure flanks differs from one zone to another.
Fig 19. Berca Arbnai structure Geological Sketch map.
Fig 18. Berca Arbnai Block Geological map 1:200.000 RGI (fragment). June 2008
37
In the axial zone of the fold, Meotian and Sarmatian sedimentary deposits outcrop. The drilled wells (the deepest one has a TD greater than 3330m) cross a succession of beds belonging to the Sarmatian, Meotian, Pontian, Dacian and Romanian. The lithological bed succession comprises more arenaceous levels than the adjacent areas (Moreni, Boldeti); the Meotian includes 27 sand levels among which most of them are productive. The Meotian hydrocarbon accumulations are accommodated in a number of sand beds different from one block to another. The nature of the fluids in the accumulations and their distribution within the alignment are different; the eastern flank is productive in all sectors of the structure (with oil, with or without primary gas cap and more rarely free gas), while the western flank is producing only at Pcle and Beciu (oil with primary gas cap and free gas). The existence of numerous faults as well as the outcropping or the very high structural position of the hydrocarbon-saturated Meotian deposits led locally to the partial deterioration of the conditions of fields sealing. The longitudinal and transverse fault system created pathways of hydrocarbon (especially gas) migration to the surface, what brought about the occurrence of the spectacular phenomenon of Muddy Volcanoes. Along their way to the surface, the gas and the formation water drive the pelitic material and form mud which erupts in the area, in a few spots. The phenomenon of the Mud Volcanoes crops up in a striking way close to Berca, at Pclele Mari and Pclele Mici. This area has been included in the list of the protected areas in Romania. The geological and botanical reservation Muddy Volcanoes covers an area of approx. 30 hectares and comprises two areals: Pclele Mici and Pclele Mari. The Pclele Mici plateau represents a 9.4 ha natural reservation ever since 1924. The object of the protection is the landscape displayed by the relief and the presence of two halophile plant species -Nitraria schoberi and Obione verrucifera. At Pclele Mici, there is the largest number of volcanoes having cones, craters with highly varied sizes as well as complex morphology, on one hand resulted from the mud accumulation and on the other hand by rain water streaming. The volcanoes occur in groups of 35 units being of 2-8 m high, with craters of 10-100 cm diameters wherefrom viscous mud comes out, flowing as tongues which reach 20-50 cm in length. Pclele Mari is situated at a few kilometers to the north-east. The name is connected to the very large sizes of three main volcanoes having diameters of over 100 cm, which are lying in the centre of the plateau. The flanks of the cones are very widely spread, several cones of secondary volcanoes and long violet-blue mud tongues occur onto the former. The external half of the plateau is fragmented by ravines, torrents, developing scenery of badlands. The natural reservation covers an area of 19.6ha.
June 2008
38
Stop 2 Loptari Unit: Tarcu Nappe Formation: Lower Miocene (Lower Burdigalian) Sandstone Unit: Subcarpathian Nappe Lower Miocene (Lower Burdigalian) Formation: Lower Salt Formation The contact between Tarcu and Subcarpathian Nappes Lower Burdigalian, Tarcu Nappe Within Tarcu Nappe, in the proximity of the contact with the Subcarpathian Nappe, a succession of Lower Burdigalian sand deposits outcrops. The succession represents a 15 m fining up and thinning up sequence, whose basis comprises sandstones and it is continued with silts and shales. The sandstones are of metre- and decimetre-thickness, with massive structures, parallel laminations and symmetrical wave ripples on top (fig. 20-23). Occasionally, the base is erosional. It represents a succession deposited in a marine shallow water setting.
Fig.20 Burdigalian sand deposits in Tarcu Fig. 21 Fining up and thinning up sequence Nappe at the contact with the Subcarpathian consisting of massive sandstones, parallel Nappe, Slnicul de Buzu Valley laminated and with wave traces at the upper part. It is continued with thin sandy beds further consisting of silts and shales.
Fig. 22 Detail, section in a sandstone bed with Fig. 23 Detail, top of sand bed with wave wave traces. In the lower zone, there are fine- traces. grained accumulations of organic matter phytoclasts.
June 2008
39
Lower Burdigalian - Subcarpathian Nappes, salt diapir at Loptari In the proximity of the contact with Tarcu Nappe, within the Subcarpathian Nappe, along Slnicul de Buzu Valley, a Burdigalian salt diapir structure outcrops. The salt is massive, but in certain points there have been noticed reddish argillitic and siltic interbeds, thus imprinting a parallel lamination-type structure. At the upper part and on the external flanks of the diapir structure, chaotic deposits are to be found, of the salt breccia type, consisting of a reddish dominantly sand matrix and green elements of Dobrudja type as well as fragments of marly sand beds, belonging to younger formations pierced by salt. In this area, the diapirism is due to both the tectonic causes and the differences in the density.
Fig. 24 Salt Diapir at Loptari, Aquitanian. Fig. 25 Detail, salt interbedded with Relation with salt breccia. reddish shales and siltites, with parallel lamination.
Fig. 26 Lapiazs, actual structures of salt dissolution
Fig. 27 Salt breccia, detail. Dobrudja-type green schists elements and reddish sand matrix.
June 2008
40
Stop 3 Mnzleti Unit: Subcarpathian Nappe and Carpathians Foredeep (Upper Molasse) Age: Miocene (Upper Burdigalian, Badenian, Sarmatian and Lower Meotian) Geological profile along Slnic Valley at Mnzleti The scope of this profile is to point out the main characters of Middle and Upper Miocene deposits as well as the complicate geological structure of the Sucarpathian Nappe and its tectonical relations with the External Foredeep along the Cain Bisoca Fault. Fig. 28 Geological map of Loptari Mnzleti Vintil Vod area. - Main tectonic units - The analyzed geological profile. (Geological Map 1:200 000, IGR.)
Casin-Bisoca Fault *Note: On the map are used old stratigraphic terms. Using the International Stratigraphic Scale, is necessary to understand the stratigraphic age from the map according to the following scheme: Aquitanian (aq) = Aquitanian + Earliest Burdigalian; Burdigalian (bd) = Lower Burdigalian(bd1); Helvetian (he) = Upper Burdigalian(bd2); Tortonian (to) = Badenian (ba).
Tarcau Nappe
Sucarpathian Nappe
External Foredeep
In this section the Upper Burdigalian* and Badenian* sequences of the Subcarpathian Nappe crop out into a complicated succession of few narrowed tectonic imbrications. The Upper Burdigalian is represented by so called The Gray Formation, a sandymarly complex containing several gypsum layers and marly intercalations. The Badenian sequence develops in this sector into an intermediate facies between the Slnic Tuff Facies and Rchitau Sandstone Facies. It is represented by whitish or greenish dacitic tuffs (equivalent of Slnic Tuff) and interbeds of these calcareous matrix sandstones (Rchitau Sandstone) with quartz, green schists, limestone grains and authigenous glauconite. The Badenian age sandstone is proved by the Globigerinidae associations identified in marly intercalations. In the lower part or interbeded with the tuff layers it can be noticed the so named globigerina marls represented by gray-brownish or greenish marls very rich in planktonic foraminifers: Praeorbulina glomerosa, Orbulina universa, Globorotalia mayeri, Globigerinoides trilobus, etc. The profile starts at the bridge to Poiana Vlcului village where the Badenian Slnic type tuff and marls in relation with the Rchitau sandstone are exposed in a spectacular erosional outcrop. The whole succession from the tuffitic globigerina-bearing marls, whitish tuff and Rchitau Sandstone seams to be overturned due the effect of the proximity of major CainBisoca Fault that marks the overthrust between Subcarpathian Unit and Foredeep.
June 2008
41
Fig. 29 The outcrop with Badenian Tuff and Rchitau Sandstone Mnzleti (Slnic Valley)
Badenian tuff
Badenian marls
From this point on our geological trip will continue downstream, on the left bank of Slnic Valley where the Upper Burdigalian sediments of the Gray Formation are exposed. They are represented by interbeds of calcareous, micaceous or gypsiferous sandstones, silts, gray marls with few thin gypsum intercalations or lenses. Frequently, inside this sequence, microfolds can be seen, due to the anhydrite hydration. Close to the concrete bridge that crosses the Slnic River, a new Badenian sequence with a thicker layer of green tuff and few interbeds of tuffitic sandstones, consolidated green silts and marls can be noticed in talweg. Fifty metres downstream of the bridge, this sequence comes into a tectonical contact with Sarmatian deposits along the Cain - Bisoca Fault. On Slnic Valley Section this fault is marked by a faults system and a disturbed zone where the Badenian tuffitic sandstones and marlstones are in angular contact with the Sarmatian (Upper Bessarabian) calcareous sandstones and silts rich in Mactra shells. The mlange zone is marked on landscape.
June 2008
42
Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book Fig. 30 The Grey Formation sequence (Upper Burdigalian) exposed on the left bank of Slnic Valley at Mnzleti
Fig. 31 Massive green tuff and tufitic sandstones (Badenian) at Mnzleti Brige on Slnic Valley
The Gray Formation sequence
Middle Sarmatian calcareous sandstone blocks with Mactra shells
Badenian tufitic silts and sandstones
Fig. 32 The fault zone (Cain-Bisoca Fault) seen on the talveg of Slnic River. Downstream of this, the Sarmatian (Upper BessarabianKersonian) deposits of the Foredeep Zone crop out Badenian green tuff
Downstream of this faulted zone (CainBisoca Fault) lots of big blocks of calcareous sandstones very rich in Mactra shells can be seen: Sarmatimactra fabreana, S. podolica, S. pallasi. The first Sarmatian deposits in place, crop out approximately 60-70 m downstream of the fault zone and are represented by interbeds of gray-greenish calcareous sandstones separated by gray marls and silts. At some levels, rich fossil intercalations with Mactra shells or thin layers with vegetal material can be observed. The sandstone beds frequently show sedimentary structures (oblique or cross- laminations on base, parallel lamination or wave-ripples on top). Few sandy levels have a mass flow aspect or present rounded or lens-shaped concretions.
June 2008
43
To the upper part of this profile, sandstone layers are thicker and contain frequent shells of Sarmatimactra caspia, S. balcica, S. bulgarica that prove the presence of Upper Sarmatian (Kersonian).
d c
Fig. 33 Middle Sarmatian (Bessarabian) deposits exposed on Slnic Valley (Mnzleti Village) a) Calcareous sandstone block very rich in Mactra shells. b) sand intercalation with concretions and deformed sandstone lenses that suggest a mass flow type deposit; c) Consolidated gray-yellowish sandstone with cross-laminations (d) and Mactra shells.
June 2008
44
A particular aspect of this upper sequence is represented by an interval (10-12 m) with interbeds of greenish, reddish and blackish silty-clays. These variegated clays represent a marker for the top of Sarmatian in all over the East Charpathians Foredeep. The clays contain a pore fresh water or continental fauna. Formerly, this interval has been assigned to the base of Meotian, but later a few levels with small Mactra above it have been found (Dumitrescu, 1951) that lead to the conclusion that this marker interval must be placed in the uppermost Sarmatian. Few tens of metres above it, after the last levels with Mactra shells, a succession of thick gray sandstones separated by gray clays and silts crops out downstream of Slnic Valley and it represents the Lower Meotian sequence.
Fig. 34 Late Sarmatian (Upper Kersonian) sequence with an intercalation of greenish and red clays (marker level) covered by few cycles of sandstones (some of them with wave ripples on top) separated by gray silts and clays. Few levels rich in Mactra shells occur on top of some sandstone.
June 2008
45
Stop 4 Beslii Vintil Vod Unit: The Carpathians Foredeep Age: Upper Meotian -Pontian Geological profile along Slnic Valley between Beslii and Vintil Vod Villages The scope of this geological profile is to illustrate the transition between Upper Meotian shallow water detrital deposits to more basinal fine - grained Lower Pontian ones. Also, along the section, it can be noticed the evolution and changes of sedimentary conditions in the Pontian interval that start with a transgression at the uppermost Meotian / lowermost Pontian boundary, followed by a setting up of more basinal sedimentary conditions in the Lower Pontian. The Middle Pontian interval represents a low-stand system tract when shallow water (littoral, fluvial, lacustrine) sedimentary conditions developed (this can be correlated with the Messinian Salinity Crisis -MSC- when the Mediterranean Sea experienced its dramatically desiccation). The Upper Pontian sequence starts with a new transgression (this can be correlated with the Zanclean transgression) and again pelitic sediments of basinal type developed. To the upper part of Late Pontian, it can be noticed the reinstallation of more shallow-water sedimentary conditions. Upper Meotian In this section, the Upper Meotian deposits are represented by few cycles of deltaic and littoral sediments. The gray-yellowish bodies of sandstones (front deltas) are separated by gray silts and clays (of flood plain and lacustrine type). At few levels, sandstones present wave ripples on top (littoral). Coarsening-upwards aspects can be noticed in this sedimentary sequence. Few fossils layers rich in mollusks can be noticed in the upper part of sequence. Fossils are represented mainly by bivalves and gastropods of deltaic and littoral type: Psilunio (Psilunio) subrecurvus , P. (P.) subhoernesi, Unio subatavus, Leptanodonta rumana, Anodonta sp., Viviparus moldavicus, Valvata(Atropidina) turislavica, Theodoxus (Calvertia) stefanescui, Hydrobia dif. spp.. Pyrgula hungarica etc.
Fig. 35 a) Upper Meotian deposits on the left bank of Slanic Valley. b) coarsening-upwards sequence; c) fossil level with Viviparus moldavicus Wenz
June 2008
46
The Meotian/Pontian boundary The Uppermost Meotian sequence ends with a succession of dark-gray silts, clays and few intercalations of thin sandstone rich in Congeria novorossica Sinzow. This is a marker level for all the Dacian Basin (and for the Eastern Paratethys, too) and it represents the start of an important transgression into the basin. Above the last Congeria beds, a strong association of benthic agglutinated and calcareous foraminifera develops (Stoica et al., in press).The Lower Pontian starts with gray marls rich in Limnocardiidae bivalves, especially Pseudoprosodacana species.
Lower Pontian
Upper Meotian
Fig. 36 a) Upper Meotian /Lower Pontian boundary on the left bank of Slnic Valley; b) Pseudoprosodacna littoralis littoralis, from the Lower Pontian sediments; c) Congeria novorossica layer in the Uppermost Meotian sediments The Lower Pontian, develops into pelitic facies represented by gray fine-bedded or massive marls (approx. 250 m) with rare thin intercalations of brownish silts and sandstones. All this succession is very rich in mollusks: Paradacna abichi, Caladacna steindachneri, Didacna sucarinata, Limnocardium (Tauricardium) subsquamulosum, Limnocardium (Euxinicardium) subodessae, Monodacana (Pseudocatillus) pseudocatillus, Congeria zagrabiensis, Congeria rumana, Dreissena rostriformis, Prosodacna littoralis littoralis, Pseudoprosodacna semnisulcatoides, Valenciennius annulatus, Viviparus incertus etc.. Also, this interval is very rich in ostracod species, mostly Pontoniella, Caspiolla, Bakunella and Leptocythere species.
June 2008
47
Fig. 37 Lower Pontian marls with Paradacna abichi The Middle Pontian (low stand system tract) As a result of water level lowering in the Middle Pontian, the dominantly basinal pelitic sequence of the Lower Pontian is replaced by a more proximal one developed in littoral and fluvial-deltaic environments. The Middle Pontian sediments are represented especially by littoral sandstones with wave-ripples on top, silts and clay formed in flood plain areas, thin coal layers (lignite), lacustrine clays with freshwater mollusks. To the top of this interval few big sandy bodies with erosional features on sole suggest an important development of transport channels.
Lower Pontian
( marls and silts high -stand system)
Middle Pontian
( sandstones with wave ripples, silts lowstand system)
Transport channel
Fig. 38 a) Lower Pontian (Odessian) / Middle Pontian boundary on Slanic Valley Section; can be noticed the transition between high stand system tract (Odessian) and low stand system tract (Portaferrian); b)-d) sedimentary aspects of Middle Pontian sequence; e) big sandstone body with erosional features on the sole (transport channel)
June 2008
48
The Middle Pontian (Portaferrian) / Upper Pontian (Bosphorian) boundary The Slnic Valley Section is one of the best profiles to illustrate the transition between predominantly shallow water proximal environments (littoral, fluvial or deltaic) of the Middle Pontian (low stand system tract) to the more basinal ones in the first part of Upper Pontian. The big sandy bodies of Portaferrian (transport channels, littoral sands) are abruptly replaced by a rich interval of gray marls with very few intercalations of silts and sandstones. This new transgression in the Dacian Basin seams to be synchronous (according to the paleomagnetic data) with the Zanclean transgression when Mediterranean Sea has been refilled with water after the Messinian Salinity Crisis event. In these circumstances we can consider the Miocene/Pliocene boundary at this level on the section.
Fig. 39 Late Pontian sediments represented by few cycles of grey pelitic intervals and sandstone layers on top (outcrop on the left bank of Slnic River).
The Late Pontian sequence (close to the boundary with Dacian) developed again into shallow water and continental environments. These sedimentary conditions (littoral, fluvial, deltaic, lacustrine) will be the dominant features in the Dacian and Romanian stages as a consequence of the progressive filledup with sediments of the Dacian Basin.
Upper Pontian = Early Pliocene

(high stand system)
Middle Pontian= Late Miocene

(low stand system)
Fig. 40 The Middle Pontian/Upper Pontian boundary - Slnic Valley section
June 2008
49
Second Day
Breakfast 07:30 08:30 Focani Vidra 08:30 10:00 Stop 5 Vidra Upper Pontian Cicles 10:00-10:30 Vidra Valea Scrii 10:30 11:00 Stop 6 Valea Scrii (facultative) Cain-Bisoca Fault; Sarmatian formations Vatea Sarii La Grumaz 11:00 11:15 Stop 7 La Grumaz (facultative) Upper Burdigalian Sandstone and Gypsum 11:15 12:00 La Grumaz Brseti 12:00 12:15 Stop 8 Brseti Lower Burdigalian Brseti Conglomerates 12:15 12:45 Brseti Gresu 12:45 13:00 Lunch 13.00 14:00 Gresu Cascada Putnei 14:00 14:30 Stop 9 Cascada Putnei (Putna Waterfall) Oligocene Disodilic Shales 14:30 15:15 Cascada Putnei Lepa 15:15 15:30 Stop 10 Lepa 1 Eocene Bucia Beds and Bisericani Beds; Oligocene Menilitic Shales 15.30 16.00; Stop 11 Lepa 2 Upper Cretaceous Upper Tisaru Formation; Upper Cretaceous Paleocene Lepa Beds and Piatra Strei Conglomerates 16:00 16:30. Lepa Trgu Secuiesc - Braov - Poiana Brasov 16:30 18:30 Accomodation Poiana Braov Dinner 20:00
June 2008
50
Fig. 41 Geological Map Putna Valley area (Romania Geological Map - fragment IGR)
June 2008
51
Stop 5 Vidra - Putna Valley Upstream (Westwards) of Vidra Village Unit: The Carpathians Foredeep Age: Pontian Formation: Milcov Formation The Pontian on Putna Valley has more than 1 700 m in thickness and it is represented by an apparently monotonous sequence of almost vertical gray-yellowish sandstones (2-4 m) separated by intervals (25-30 m) of gray marls and silts. Inside the pelitic intervals, thin intercalations of sandstones can be noticed. All this alternation of sandstones with pelites can be considered as a pronounced effect of periodical changes in sedimentation rate and sediments supplied from the source areas. The sedimentary conditions varied from littoral to shallow basinal ones, fluvial to deltaic and frequent continental periods. Probably the source had a close position to the sedimentary area and the measured transport directions have a predominant N-S direction. Even if the Pontian from this sections has not the same development as in the typical areas (Lower Pontian pelitic, Middle Pontian more sandy and Upper Pontian pelitic in the base and sandy to the top), and even if the fossil contents is generally poor, there can still be separated all three subdivisions of it (Odessian, Portaferrian and Bosphorian).
Fig. 42 Vertical strata of sandstones and pelitic intercalations on Pontian deposits (left bank of Putna River upstream of Vidra Village) Note the cyclicity of this sequence
June 2008
52
This cyclicity represents one of the main features of Pontian sedimentary sequence (also for Middle-Upper Sarmatian, Meotian and Dacian) New studies of this cyclicity (Vasiliev et al. 2004) suggest a direct connection with Milankovitch precession cycles. Astronomical forcing of the sedimentary cycles can be demonstrated by analyzing the average duration of a cycle. When the average period of the cycles in the time domain is constant and identical to one of the known Milankovitch periods, astronomical forcing is the most probable cause. Knowing the average sedimentation rate (per polarity zone) and the mean cycle thickness for specific intervals, the average periodicity of the sedimentary cyclicity can be estimated. The calculated values for the average duration of the observed sedimentary cycles are very close to the average duration of precession (21.7 ky), which indicates that the sedimentary cycles from the Eastern Carpathianss Foredeep deposits are astronomically forced.
Fig. 43 Vertically bedded sandstone units, alternating with finer sediments on Putna Valley expressing the Milankovitch precession cycles: (a) in Pontian and (b) in Meotian deposits. Inset in the top left-hand side of the pictures are the calculated accumulation rates and the periodicity cycles. Beneath each picture, there are the lithological columns for the intervals. The wider rectangles and the lighter gray suggest the sandy units, while the narrow and darker gray the finer intervals. (according to Vasiliev et al., 2004)
June 2008
53
Stop 6 Putna Valley Valea Scrii Village Unit: The Carpathians Foredeep Age: Sarmatian Formation: Marly and Sandy-Marly Formation The scope of this stop is to observe the tectonical contact between Subcarpathian Nappe and the internal flank of the Foredeep. This fault zone is very nice marked in morphology by a low landscape, followed by a more elevated one with vertical strata of Sarmatian deposits. Also this is a good section for illustrating the main features of Sarmatian sequence in Eastern Carpathians Foredeep.
Cain-Bisoca Fault Marginal Folds Nappe Subcarpathian Nappe Internal flank of the Foredeep
Fig.44 Geological map and cross-section of Putna Valley area between Tulnici and Vidra villages (cropped from the Geological Map 1: 200 000, Covasna, IGR, 1970)
June 2008
54
Downstream of the fault zone (eastwards of Cain-Bisoca Fault), on the right bank of Putna Valley a thick vertical sequence of Sarmatian deposits crops out. The Sarmatian starts with two levels of conglomerates with sandy matrix and well-rounded elements of lithic fragments (sandstones), green schists, debris of gray and black clays within the matrix. These are followed by a thick (more than 400 m), predominantly pelitic interval represented by interbeds of gray-darkish marls and silts with rare thin calcareous sandstones intercalations. Blackish finebedded clays (3-10m) with fish bones and scales are intercalated. Few marly layers contain Cerastoderma plicatum plicatum, C. obsoletum obsoletum. C. politioanei, Cardium vindobonense. Ervilia parepodolica. This mollusk faunas as well as foraminifera and ostracod faunas prove the Volhynian age for the so named The Marly Formation situated in the base of Sarmatian. To the eastern end of this outcrop (on right bank of Putna River), these pelitic intervals are replaced by few cycles of gray-yellowish calcareous matrix sandstones separated by 20-25 m of gray clays and silts with Mactra fabreana, M. crassicolis, , M. viataliana, Irus gregarious etc (Bessarabian) .
Fig. 45 The Marly Formation of Lower Sarmatian (Volhynian) sequence on the left Bank of Putna River, downstream (eastwards) of Cain-Bisoca Fault. This alternation is better exposed downstream on the left side of the river, where the coarsening-upward sandstones (thicker than 2 m each), with wave ripples on the base and cross lamination to the top (overturned sequence) are exposed. They are separated by well-bedded marls and silts. To the top of this Sandy-Marly Formation, coarser bodies of sandstones with micro-conglomerates in base and andesitic sandstones develop. Also, a packet of 15-20 m of reddish and gray-greenish clays and silts marks the proximity of the boundary with Meotian sequence. The fossil content of the last levels, Mactra caspia, M. bulgarica, M. balcica etc., indicates the Kersonian age.
June 2008
55
Fig. 46 The Sandy Marly Formation of Middle-Upper Sarmatian age cropping out on the right Bank of Putna River, downstream (eastwards) of Cain-Bisoca Fault. Thick bodies of coarsegrained sandstones, microconglomerates with green-schist elements and interbeds of gray clays and silts are exposed.
Fig. 47 Upper Sarmatian (Kersonian) sedimentary cycles on the left bank of Putna River. Note the presence of the variegated green and reddish interval that represents a marker for the top of Sarmatian sequence, close to the boundary with Meotian.
June 2008
56
Stop 7 La Grumaz - Putna Valley Unit: The Subcarpathian Nappe Age: Upper Burdigalian Formation: The Gray Formation At the confluence of Putna River with Vsui Stream in the place locally named La Grumaz, a small waterfall nicely exposes a sequence of gray sandstones with marls and silts interbedded. The sandstone layers frequently present cross-lamination, wave-ripples on top, flute casts and erosional features. Above them, gypsum bearing marls, siltstones and a layer (2-3 m) of nodular gypsum crop out both on the left and right banks of Putna River. This succession belongs to the Upper Burdigalian Gray Formation and it could be an equivalent of Perchiu Gypsum Complex even if the gypsum intercalations are not so well developed.
Fig. 48 Upper Burdigalian sandstones, marls, silts with gypsum intercalations at the confluence of Putna River and Vsui Stream (La Grumaz). Note the sedimentary features in sandstone layers.
June 2008
57
Stop 8 Brseti Bridge Unit: The Subcarpathian Nappe Age: Lower Burdigalian Formation: The Red Formation (base of it) - Brseti Conglomerates On the left bank of Putna River, close to the bridge at the entrance of Brseti Village, a spectacular outcrop exposed a reddish and green sequence of so named Brseti conglomerates They consist of varied size elements, in general rounded, represented by green schists, Eocene limestones with Nummulites, Jurassic limestones, Triassic red sandstones, quartzites, etc. These elements seam to have a Foreland origin. The Brseti Conglomerates pass to an alternation of reddish/ or greenish siltstones, sandstones with clays and marls interbeds (The Red Formation). Intercalation of green conglomerates and coarse-grained sandstones with wave ripples are still present.
Brseti Conglomerates
Fig. 49 Brseti Conglomerates (Lower Burdigalian) on the left bank of Putna Valley (upstream from the bridge at the entrance in Brseti Village)
June 2008
58
Stop 9 Cascada Putnei (Putna Waterfall) Unit: Marginal Folds Nappe Age: Lower Oligocene Formation: Lower Dysodiles Member Along Putna Valley, the Lower Dysodiles Member, of Lower Oligocene, Rupelian age, outcrops. It consists of an alternation of bituminous shales with cm- and dm-thick sandstones. The dark-colored shales have high content of organic matter, 4-6 % TOC. They also contain skeletons and fish scales and gypsum crystals. These aspects suggest an anoxic depositional setting, however, specific to the Oligocene (fig. 51). The sandstones show fining-upward, parallel laminations and current ripples or even slump-type deformational structures, suggesting turbiditic, gravitational processes. In Cascada Putnei (Putna Waterfall) area, a debrital-type gravitational deformational structure is displayed, where, in a bituminous argillaceous matrix, there are 10-15 m sized megaclasts, consiting of fragments of twisted sandstone beds from the Lower Dysodiles Member and fragments of older formations: Cain Beds, Piatra Strei Conglomerates (fig.50). The debrital megastructure suggests processes of mass transport, slide, slump, debris flow, accumulated at the base of dippings, slope or gravitational fault planes, while, the sedimentation setting, the alternation of cm- and dm-thick bituminous shales-sandstones, is interpreted as deep water deposits, basinal plain with intercalations of turbiditic lobes, in the periods of high stand of sea level.
Fig. 50 Cascada Putnei (Putna Fig. 51 Lower Dysodiles Member. Waterfall), Oligocene, megadebrital Bituminous shales in alternation with cmchaotic deposits. Blocks, fragmented by and dm-thick sandstones. twisted beds in a bituminous argillaceous matrix. The bituminous shales, which are found throughout the Eastern Carpathians, constitute the main source rock for the hydrocarbons.
June 2008
59
Stop 10 Lepa 1 Unit: Marginal Folds Nappe Age: Eocene (Ypressian-Lutetian) Formation: Bucia Beds, Bisericani Beds Bucia Beds Upstream of the point 9, at the first bridge, in Lepa locality, Bucia Beds outcrop (Ypressian-Lutetian). The beds consist of an alternation of marls and shales with cm- and dm-thick layers of sandstones and microconglomerates with elements of Dobrudja-type green schists. Following a thorough sedimentological analysis, it has been found that these sedimentary units actually make up 30-60 cm thick fining up microsequences, similar to Bouma turbiditic sequences, complete and incomplete. Thus, in an ideal case, they start with microconglomerates (Ta) with green clasts, fining upward and with erosional base, followed by sandstones with parallel lamination (Tb). These structures suggest strong turbiditic currents. Fine sandstones with current ripples (Tc) succeed, occasionally with slump-type deformational structures and parallel laminated siltites (Td), suggesting weak turbiditic currents. Then, the last term of Bouma sequence is laid over, marls or shales (Te), with variable cm- and dm-thicknesses. They are interbedded with hemipelagites. Bouma sequences are interbedded as hemipelagites and pelagites (G), representing the sedimentation background for Bucia Beds (fig. 52).
Fig. 52 Bucia Beds, alternation of turbiditic sand facies (Ta-e) with hemipelagic marly facies (G). June 2008 60
From the petrographic viewpoint, the sandstones are lithic, sublithic, having a high content of bioclasts, calcareous and siliceous sponge spicules, foraminifera and bivalves and glauconites. When the thicknesses are grater, it is noticed, that coarsening upward within the marly facies, (G), owing to the low density of the siliceous bioclasts ocur. In the marly facies, there have been encountered bioturbation structures (trace fossils) of Zoophycos and Chondrites type. They have been interpreted in terms of fine turbidites deposited at a max. depth of 500 m. Bisericani Beds (Priabonian) In sedimentation continuity with Bucia Beds, there are Bisericani Beds which consist of red and green shales with parallel lamination, interbedded with sublithic and lithic sandstones and graywackes (fig. 7), with parallel lamination and current ripples. There succeed gray and greenish shales in alternation with sandstones, graywackes, microconglomerates and microbreccias with green elements. At the upper part, the formation ends with marls. The green-red alternation at the base is given by both the climatic variation in the source area felt in the basinal plain domain and the place where the deposition took place. The sand facies are fine turbidite interbeds.
Fig. 53 Bisericani Beds - red and green shales with parallel lamination.
June 2008
61
Stop 11 Lepa 2 Unit: Marginal Folds Nappe Age: Upper Turonian Formation: Upper Tisaru Beds Age: SenonianLower Paleocene Formation: Lepa - Piatra Strei Unit Upper Tisaru Beds, of Upper Turonian age, are approx. 120 m in thickness. The stratigraphic unit consists of two distinct parts differentiated according to the color. At the base, the 30 m thick gray unit (Vrban, 2003) is highlighted, consisting of rhythmic-appearance gray deposits, represented by radiolarite-clay couplings with interbeds of lithic sandstones (fig. 54) laid over by ~80 m thick package, whose main feature is the red color, named the red unit (Vrban, 2003).
Fig. 54 Radiolarite (silicolite) - shale couplings, - the gray unit. Within the loose sequence, there are 10 couplings per 1 m, whereas in uncompacted sequence only 4.8 couplings per 1m. On the left, there are illustrated microscopic and macroscopic images of the radiolarites and interbeds of thin lithic sandstones, (Vrban, 2003).
June 2008
62
Further to decompacting calculations, Vrban (2003) interpreted the radiolarite-clay couplings within the gray suite as being deposited in deep sea with rates of 10-20 ka for each coupling, controlled by a reversible process. The silicolitic term has been accumulated during colder periods with strong circulation which increases the upwelling process. The Red Unit (fig. 55) has a rhythmic-appearance through the first 15 m, given by the reiteration of a dominantly carbonate term, white, and another variegated argillitic one, with parallel lamination, of red-green color. The white carbonate term in the first 15 m of the red succession is cm-thick and it is apparently massive. At the upper part, the unit becomes prevailingly clastic, dominantly siltic with interbeds of conglomerate levels, having thicknesses greater than 10 cm, almost exclusively consisting of green schist clasts. The limit between the gray radiolaritic part and the dominantly clastic red one is gradual, being determined by the disappearance of the gray radiolarites and the occurrence of the variegated shales. The red color seems to be due to the color of the finer lutitic-siltic granulometric fraction represented by a siliciclastic material. The color of some of the levels within the argillites may exclusively be due to the recent oxidations. They appear as reddish diffuse zones along the same greenish laminae. There is no indication of strictly periodical cyclicity; there are no shows for the periodic modification of the oxygenation degree at the sediment-water interface, while the general CUS tendency suggests an increase in the rate of erosion and denudation in the source area and an increase in the frequency of the re-sedimentation processes.
Fig. 55 Sedimentological log in the Upper Tisaru beds, the red unit. Alternation of the red and green mudstones. The white terms are carbonate (wackestone).
June 2008
63
Lepa-Piatra Strei (LPS) Unit Along Putna Valley, overlying Upper Tisaru Beds there lays Lepa - Piatra Strei (LPS) Unit, (fig. 56). This name has been introduced by Vrban (2003) in order to define a coarsening up succession, starting with carbonate rocks in the base, and continue with sandstones and conglomerates with green clasts, of Senonian-Lower Paleocene age. It is a different point of view compared to the stratigraphy presented by tefnescu and Micu (1987), who assigned Piatra Strei Conglomerates to the lower member of Cain Beds.
Fig. 56 Upper Tisaru Beds, Lepa-Piatra Strei Unit, and Cain Beds (Vrban 2003). Profiles along Putna and Tiia Valleys. Lepa Beds are dominantly turbiditic being characterized by the occurrence of two terms: one fine carbonate term, which represents the sedimentation setting, and another sandy or microconglomeratic, almost exclusively consisted of Dobrudja-type green elements (fig. 57). From base towards the upper part, it is shown a prograding tendency owing to the progressively coarsening character. At 22 m away from the base, there is an approx. 4 m thick level of red marls and argillites. The age at the base, somewhere above the red level is Lower Maastrichtian, whereas 145 m further above in the stratigraphic section is Danian (Ion and Szasz, 1994) what suggests a sedimentation rate of the order 24 35 m/1Ma. Along Putna Valley, the Lepa Beds are missing, the contact between the Upper Tisaru Beds and the Piatra Strei Conglomerates being erosional (Vrban, 2003) or tectonic, (Dumitrescu, 1952) (fig. 58). .
June 2008
64
Fig. 57 Lepa Beds along Tiia Valley, alternation of fine limestones and green elements-bearing sandstones Piatra Strei Conglomerates consists of ortho- and paraconglomerates with Dobrudja-type green clasts and sandy matrix (fig. 58), interbedded with sandy levels. They consist of fining upward sequences 4-5 m thick howewer their general trend is coarsening upward. At the upper part of the formation, there are paraconglomerate and dyamictite levels with an argillaceous matrix and green clasts and blocks from Lepa Beds (fig. 59).
Fig. 58 Block from Lepa -Piatra Strei Unit Fig. 59 Sequences in Piatra Strei (Piatra Strei Conglomerates with Conglomerates, along Putna Valley, consisting of conglomeratic and sandy Dobrudja-type green clasts). facies having the significance of amalgamated channels within deep water ruditic system. The limit of Lepa Beds with Piatra Strei Conglomerates is gradual and difficult to be set up. Along Tiia Valley, an affluent of Putna, the contact is erosional (Vrban, 2003), existing a distinct facies marked by the occurrence of a 50-70 m thick conglomeratic package, with very thick beds, over 4 m, strongly amalgamated. Depending on the position of the reddish package, which lies in the unit base, Vrban (2003) determined a 140 m erosional relief. Along Putna Valley, the reddish level is missing suggesting an increase in the erosion towards NNE. The tectonic contact was postulated by Dumitrescu (1952) relying on exclusively stratigraphic
June 2008
65
criteria. He assigned the absence of the Lepa formation to the occurrence of a fault which has the same azimuth and dipping with the stratigraphic limits. The Lepa-Piatra Strei Unit has been assigned to a deep water depositional system Vrban (2003), Roban, (1999). The carbonate and sandy deposits of Lepa Beds are interpreted as distal elements of basinal plain and lobes, while Strei Conglomerates, as a turbiditic, ruditic system (gravel-rich submarine fan sensu Reading and Richards (1994). The system functioned through the Maastrichtian Paleocene interval and was supplied from NNE (actual position likely dominantly northern at the end of the Senonian). The system parameters have been the following: the system radius, approx. 5 km; water depth, less than 1000 m, and the rudite volume is estimated to be approx. 11 km3. The very coarse turbiditic facies have not a fine granulometric equivalent, owing to very low flowing efficiency, so that to the west of the LPS unit, there is not an equivalent stratigraphic unit which should be the distal expression of it. progradation
green schists
Fig. 60. Facies model for the turbiditic complex belonging to LPS unit (Vrban, 2003). The occurrence of a ruditic complex in such depositional setting can be explained but as an effect of fragmentation in blocks of the potential sources (dominated by ) and their differentiated activity (repeated uplifting and lowering). Such sources situated in the proximity of slope breaks, initially supplied the delta fronts and, later, on through re-sedimentation processes under gravity flows and avalanches conditions they suported the turbiditic fans (channels, lobes, etc.). The attempt of correlating these events with the geotectonic situation in the sedimentary basin area reveals the role which a narrow forebulge zone (Bdescu, 1999), would have played through uplifting in supplying the gravity flows. Having in view this alternative, Vrban (2003) suggests the hypothesis of conglomerates formation through the re-activation of faults generated by the intra-plate stress, conveyed across hundreds of kilometres within the basin.
June 2008
66
Third Day
Breakfast 07:30 08:30 Poiana Braov Rnov 08:30 09:00 Stop 12 Rnov Tithonian Neocomian Limestone and Lower Cretaceous sandstone 09:00-09:30 Rnov Fortress 09:30 10:30 Bran Castle (facultative) 10:30- 12:00 Rnov - Bran Moeciu de Sus 12:00 12:30 Stop 13 Moeciu de Sus Bucegi Piatra Craiului Geologic Park 12:30 13:00 Lunch 13.00 14:00 Moeciu de Sus - Fundata Podul Dmbovicioarei 14:00 14:30 Stop 14 Dmbovicioara Corridor - Dealul Sasului 14.30- 15.00 Stop 15 Dmbovicioara Gorges 15:00 16:00 Podul Dambovicioarei - Ceteni 16:00 16:30 Stop 16 Ceteni (facultative) Lower Cretaceous Conglomerates 16:30 17:00. Ceteni Trgovite Ploieti - Bucureti 17:00 19:30 Bucharest arrival 19:30
June 2008
67
Fig. 61 Geological Map Bucegi Piatra Craiului Mountains area (Romania Geological Map - fragment IGR)
June 2008
68
Stop 12 Rnov Castle Unit: Getic Nappe Age: Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonic), Cretaceous (VraconianCenomanian) Formation: Sedimentary cover of Getic Nappe The Rnov Fortress is situated on top of a hill, east of Rnov Village, where the Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian) whitish limestone produced an abrupt and spectacular relief. This fortress is mentioned in historical documents for the first time in 1335. It was believed that the teuthons built up it to defend the commercial road between Brasov and Cmpulung. But there are no strong historical data about this presumption, the Rnov Fortress being considered like a peasant fortress built up for the protection of local people. The Kimmeridgian-Tithonian limestones (of Braov Series) are widely spread in all area between Braov and Piatra Craiului Mountains, giving rise to a spectacular landscape. They are represented by massive whitish limestones in the basal part and reef limestones to the top, having more than 500 m in some tectonical compartments. In Rnov area, they dont exceed 200m, overlaying (not exposed at this stop point) red limestones and radiolarites, limestones with siliceous lenses (Callovian-Oxfordian), quartzitic sandstones and marls (Dogger), blackish clays, sandstones with coal intercalations and bituminous schists Gresten Facies (Liassic) and unconformably, Triassic (Anisian) limestones of Guttenstein type. The Upper Jurassic limestones are unconformably covered by the post tectonic Vraconian-Cenomanian glauconitic sandstones, recently exposed (artificial) along the road that climb to the Rnov Fortress. They are represented by greenish medium to coarse-grained slightly consolidated sandstones with quartz and lithic grains and rare (in this area) intercalations of conglomerates.
Vraconian- Cenomanian Kimmeridgian-Tithonic Callovian-Oxfordian
Dogger
Liasic Triasic (Anisian)
Fig. 62 Geological map and synthetic log of Rnov - Cristian Area (from the Geological map, 1:50 000, Zrneti, IGR, 1972)
June 2008
69
Fig. 63 The Rnov Fortress built up on the top of Upper Jurassic (Kimmeridgian-Tithonian) massive and reef limestones
Fig.64 Vraconian-Cenomanian glauconitic sandstones cropping out on the road to the Rnov Fortress, unconformably overlaying the Upper Jurassic limestones.
June 2008
70
The Rnov Fortress is located on a rocky hilltop in the ancient Carpathians Mountains, 200 m above the town. The fortress is on the Bran Pass, a trade route connecting legendary Wallachia with mythical Transylvania. The view from the top of the castle hill makes you travel through time into medieval times; the wind still carries the dust raised by the Teuthonic Knights while defending the people. This castle was meant to be a place of refuge for the commoners from sieges over extended periods of time. As such it had at least 30 houses, a school, a chapel, and other buildings more commonly associated with a village. The first written record for the fortress dates from 1331. In 1335, when the Tartars invaded Transylvania, Rnov Fortress was already strong enough to offer resistance. The castle defenses include 9 towers, 2 bastions, and a drawbridge. As Transylvania has always been disputed, arms were stockpiled in the defense corridors at the walls. The legend says that, during a particularly long siege of the fortress, the citizens of Rnov were concerned about the lack of available drinking water. Two Turkish soldiers, having been captured earlier, were put to the task of digging a well in the centre of the fortress. These two men were assured that they would be given their freedom once the well was completed. According to local legend, it took them 32 years to finish the well, but they were still killed afterwards. This famous well still sits in the centre of Rnov Fortress, and is 143 meters deep. After a long time, the fortress waits to be rediscovered and appreciated. Hidden behind the ancient walls, the museums waits silently for its visitors. The inner rooms are looking more like a maze, with several wood ladders linking them and a few secret passages. The landscape is breathtaking, the feeling is unique..
June 2008
71
Bran Castle (German: Trzburg) is a national monument and landmark in Romania. The fortress is situated on the border between Transylvania and Wallachia, Commonly known as "Dracula's Castle". The first documented mentioning of Bran Castle is the act issued by Louis I of Hungary on November 19, 1377, giving the Saxons of Kronstadt (Braov) the privilege to build the stone citadel; the settlement of Bran began to develop nearby. The castle was first used in 1378 in defense against the Ottoman Empire, and later became a customs post on the mountain pass between Transylvania and Wallachia. The castle briefly belonged to Mircea the Elder of Wallachia. While Vlad epe did not actually live in the Bran Castle, it is believed he spent two days locked in the dungeon while the Ottomans controlled Transylvania. From 1920, the castle became a royal residence within the Kingdom of Romania. It was the principal home of Queen Marie, and is decorated largely with artifacts from her time, including traditional furniture and tapestries that she collected to highlight Romanian crafts and skills.- It was inherited by her daughter, Princess Ileana. In 2005, the Romanian government passed a special law allowing restitution claims on properties such as Bran, which was seized by the Communist government of Romania in 1948. In 2006, the Romanian government awarded ownership to Archduke Dominic of Austria, Prince of Tuscany, known as Dominic von Habsburg, an architect in New York State and the son and heir of Princess Ileana.[ The castle is now a museum displaying art and furniture collected by Queen Marie. At the bottom of the hill is a small open air museum park exhibiting traditional Romanian peasant artifacts.
June 2008
72
Stop 13 Fundata (belvedere) Bucegi Piatra Craiului Geologic Park - panorama view. Dmbovicioara Basin. Unit: Sedimentary cover of Getic Unit (The Median Dacides) Age: Jurassic, Cretaceous Following the road from Bran to Rucr, we have the possibility to notice one of the most spectacular geological architecture in Romania. Dmbovicioara Basin represents a Mesozoic (Jurassic-Cretaceous) sedimentary area superposed on a Precambrian basement (Leaota Series) of Getic Unit (Median Dacides). Dmbovicioara area has a key position for understanding the geological evolution of the area between Piatra Craiului and Bucegi Mountains during the Jurassic-Cretaceous time. The sedimentation was almost continuous, and predominantly in carbonate facies during Late Jurassic-Early Cretaceous time span within so called Getic Carbonate Platform (Patrulius et al., 1976). Sedimentation gaps are not widespread and usually during this gaps hardgrounds formed. Lower Cretaceous sediments (Berriasian-Lower Aptian) reflect a different pattern of basin evolution. The deposits are represented by greyish or greyish-whitish marls as alternating beds with high and low degree of compaction and reefal calcareous breccias. The Cretaceous stratigraphy (Patrulius & Avram 1976, 2004) of the region includes Berriasian -?Lower Valanginian limestones (Cetatea Neamului Member), Upper ValanginianHauterivian alternance of marls and marly limestone (Dealu Sasului Member) and BarremianLower Aptian marls and marlstones (Valea Muierii Member). The three mentioned members are grouped in the so called Dmbovicioara Formation. Unconfomably, these Late Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous sequences are covered by Vraconian-Cenomanian glauconitic sandstones (Podu Dmboviei Sandstone) that laterally pass to conglomerates. The region is fragmented into numerous structural compartments, partly different from one another by the detailed stratigraphy of the Lower Cretaceous. This block-tectonic type structure controlled also the sedimentary conditions from one zone to another. Lower Cretaceous sediments from Dmbovicioara Basin are well known for their rich fauna, mostly foraminifers and ammonites. Also numerous species of bivalves, nautiloids, gastropods, belemnites and echinoids were found. Crossing Dmbovicioara Basin right in its axis (Rucr-Bran corridor), following the National Road 73 that climbs a long crest to Fundata Village (up to 1000 m altitude), formed by Vracconian-Cenomanian slightly consolidated sandstones and conglomerates (these rocks crop out in many places along the road) the landscape is dominated by the sharp crest of Piatra Craiului Mountains East-North East and impressive western slope of Bucegi Mountains. Piatra Craiului Mountains forms the eastern flank of an asymmetric NNE-SSW trending synclinal structure (Piatra Craiului syncline). This long, high (more 2000m altitude) and sharp crest of Piatra Craiului Mountains is mainly formed from Upper Jurassic different types of limestones overlying Precambrian metamorphic rocks.
June 2008
73
Piatra Craiului Mts.
Dmbovicioara Basin
Bucegi Mts.
Leaota Mts.
Fig. 65 Geological map - Bucegi Piatra Craiului area (according to geological maps 1:50000, Moeciu and Rucr, IGR.)
June 2008
74
Fig. 66 Correlative logs of Mesozoic sequences from Dmbovicioara Basin and surroundings area (according to IGR geological maps 1:50 000, Moeciu and Rucr.)
June 2008
75
Looking eastwards, we are impresse by the dark and massiveness western slope of Bucegi Mountains. The top line of this slope arises slowly to the north up to the Omu Peak (2511 m). Bellow of it, the glacial cirque of Gaura Valley starts, with concave floor, designed by the erosional activity of the lasts glacial mountains. The base of Gaura Valley walls are formed by Middle and Upper Jurassic limestones (Dooger-Malm) overlaid by almost 700m of Albian polymictic conglomerates (Bucegi Conglomerates). Southwards, the Jurassic sequence forms a long cliff superposed on the metamorphic rocks of Leota Series. A sharp cut on this cliff marks the Strunga Pass famous for the rich paleontological assemblages of Middle Jurassic (Dogger) formations. South of Ttaru Peak, made of sandstones (Ttaru Sandstone) BajocianBathonian and Upper Jurassic carbonatic sequences, there is a passage zone that makes the link with Leota Mountains, where the Precambrian metamorphic series crop out.
3 4 5 5 4
3 2
Fig. 67 Panoramic view of Piatra Craiului Mountains: A) Eastern Slope, B) Western Slope. 1-Metamorphic basement (Precambrian) and pre-platform deposits (Middle Jurassic); 2- Upper Jurassic massive limestones; 3- Dmbovicioara Gorges well bedded limestone formation (Upper Jurassic-Lower Cretaceous); 4- Prapastiile Zarnesti well bedded limestone formation (Upper Jurassic); 5- Detrital deposits (Cretaceous) (according to Panaiotu, 2000)
June 2008
76
B
al ox-th Pcb-Leaota Series
C ox-th
Dogger
Pcb-Leaota Series
Fig. 68 Western slope of Bucegi Mountains. A) Panoramic view; B) Upper Jurassic cliffs on Strunga Pass- Grohotiu Mountain zone; C) Middle Upper Jurassic clifs on Strunga Strungulia Pass- Ttaru Mountain Zone (foto by I.Lazr)
June 2008
77
Stop 14 Dealul Sasului (Belvedere) Unit: Getic Nappe (The Median Dacides) Age: Jurassic, Cretaceous Formation: Dmbovicioara Formation From Fundata Village the road crosses few tectonic blocks (horst and graben type) where the elevated ones exposed the Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) limestones and the descended ones are filled up with Vraconian-Cenomanian sandstones and conglomerates. The northern slope of Sasului Hill shows a few isolated limestone blocks to the top representing small Barremian (Urgonian) reefs intercalated into Lower Cretaceous (Neocomian) marly deposits. The Southern and South-Eastern slopes of the hill are very steep and plunge to the Podul Dmboviei Depression. This represents a graben-type depression controlled by a NW-SE and E-V to NESW fault systems.
Fig. 69 Geological map of Dealul Sasului and Podu Dmboviei Depression (geological map 1:50 000, Rucar, IGR)
Dambovicioara Gorges
Tithonian
Fig. 70 Podu Dmbovitei Depression and the Upper Jurassic limestone cliff with the Neamtului Fortress on top (view from Belvedere stop point)
Neamtului Fortress
Vraconian Cenomanian
F F
Neocomian The belvedere stop point offers the possibility to observe very well the northern bordering fault marked in morphology by E-W orientated long cliff of Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) whitish limestones deeply cut by Dmbovia and Dmbovicioara gorges. On the top of a small elevated tectonical block of Upper Jurassic limestone, we can observe the ruins of the Middle Ages Neamtului Fortress, built to defend the commercial road between Transylvania and the Romanian Country. At the boundary between Upper Jurassic limestones and Berriasin Valanginian glauconitic and lithographic limestones, it can be observed the surface of the old Roman road. The central part of Podul Dmboviei Depression is filled up with VraconianCenomanian glauconitic slightly consolidated sands and microconglomerates that are unconformable to the limestones. These sandy deposits can also be observed in a few outcrops along the descending part of the road, from the belvedere point to Podul Dmboviei locality.
June 2008
78
Fig. 71 Diagram showing the possible interpretation of the facies evolution in the Dmbovicioara area during Upper Jurassic and Lower Cretaceous (Panaiotu et al, 1997) The Lower Cretaceous sedimentary sequence from Sasului Hill, above the Tithonian limestones, has been influenced by the tectonic evolution of this area. These sediments have been subject of many studies especially because of their rich content in fossils (especially cephalopods and foraminifers). The stratigraphy of Neocomian deposits from Sasului Hill is well known and a synthesis is given by Patrulius (1961, 1969)
Conglomerates and reefs with pahyoderme bivalves
Isolated reefs (bioherms)
Barremian
Grey marlstones rich cephalopods: Pulchellia pulchella, Barremites dificillis, Imerites giraudi, Heteroceras leenhardti, Torcapella suessi, Melchiorites cassidoides, Silesites seranonis, Anahamulina sp., Australiceras gigas, Prochelonites sp., Holcodiscus gastaldi, Deshayesites sp. Reefal calcareous breccias with corals and brachipods Marls and marlstones in the lower part with interbeds of marlstones with silex nodules at the upper part (20 m); Lamellapthychus didayi, Duvalia dilatata, Cymatoceraspseudoelegans, Neolissoceras grasianum, Spitidiscus intermedius, Crioceratites, Lyticoceras romanum,Plicatula carteroniana Soft grey marls (3 m) with Terebratula, Ammonites and Plicatula carteroniana Micritic - oncolitic limestone (5-6 m) with fragments of echinoderms, Sub-lithographic limestone (4 m) with rare forams (Lenticulina, Glauconitic limestone (0-0.8 m) with rare mollusks (Exogyra, Pseudomelania) Massive whitish limestones
Hauterivian
Tithonian
Fig. 72 Synthetic litho-stratigraphical section in Sasului Hill (modified from Patrulius, 1969)
June 2008
79
Stop 15 Dmbovicioara Gorges Unit: Getic Nappe (The Median Dacides) Age: Jurassic, Cretaceous At the entrance in Dmbovicioara Gorges, cut in Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) graywhitish limestones, it can be noticed the unconformable contact between these limestones and the Vraconian-Cenomanian post-tectonic cover represented by glauconitic sandy deposits that fill up the central part of Podu Dmboviei Depression. The road goes upstream of Dmbovicioara River into impressive gorges with the both sides flanked by huge walls of Upper Jurassic limestone that shows large scale stratification. Few fractures can be noticed in the limestones that correspond with the main fault systems in this area.
Fig. 73 Dmbovicioara Gorges Upper Jurassic (Tithonian) Limestones (foto by Florina Ciuperca)
June 2008
80
Stop 16 Ceteni Unit: Getic Nappe (The Median Dacides) Age: Cretaceous (Albian). Formation: Sandstone and microconglomerates. The Albian sandstones from Ceteni belong to the Pre-Austrian post-tectonogenetic cover of the Leaota series in the east of the Getic Nappe. In the sector situated east from Dmbovia Valley, north from Ceteni, the Albian is disposed transgressively and unconformably directly over the crystalline schists belonging to the Leaota series or over their Jurassic sedimentary cover (Kimmeridgian Tithonic).
Fig. 74 General Geological Cross-section in NE part of Getic Unit (after G.R.I.) The Albian deposits appear on large areas along the Dmbovia Valley between Cetateni and Badeni. Overlying these, in sedimentation continuity, of there are the deposits of the Vraconian Turonian Dumbrvioara Series, mostly pelitic at the lower part and marlysandy in the medium and upper part, locally developed in binary flysch facies. The Dumbrvioara series is unconformably overlain by Senonian deposits (Santonian Maastrictian), made up of series of marls and sandy marls in the flysch facies of the red beds. Fig 75 Albian Grainstone Dmbovia Valley Cetateni
June 2008
81
The Albian from Ceteni-area is made up of sanstones, sometimes glauconitic, microconglomerates and massive conglomerates, consisted of quartz lithoclasts and feldspars caught in calcitic cement. The Leaota crystalline and its sedimentary cover (Pre-Austrian and PostAustrian), respectively the Albian series, the Vraco-Cenomanian Dumbrvioara series and the Senonian series constitute the eastern Basement of the Getic Depression. The place where the Ceteni Albian sandstones crop out presents a particularity probably linked to spirituality and aesthetics. It is about a hermitage built around the beginning of the 14th Christian century by Negru Vod. The tradition tells us that Zamolxis himself God of the Dacians used to come here often at a small community of Dacian recluses who had retired for meditation in the caves dug in the rocks. In the first millennium after Christ, this monastic tradition was continued by Christian hermits who left their mark on the place digging in the mountains one of the first rupestral churches on the Romanian territory. In the Middle Ages, in order to conform the long lasting tradition of the place, Negru Voda built the monastery which bears his name even nowadays. This place of Fig 76 Negru Voda Monastery - Cetateni prayer was visited by Vlaicu Voda, Vlad Tepes, Mihai Viteazul, Serban Voda and Constantin Brancoveanu. Here there are also two priceless spiritual treasures: a source of healing water which only flows for a brief period of time during the year from a cavity in the church altar and the Miracle-Worker Icon representing the Virgin Mary. The peace and beauty of the place, the aura of legend which surrounds everything and the miracles which occurred here were the reasons for which a picturesque gipsy community found protection and peace at the foot of this mountain. The trip actually comes to an end here. From now on, the travel back to our homes will be for each of us an occasion to think upon what we have seen and learned, an opportunity of finding challenging topics of studying, of gathering more and more the relationships within this remarkable team who means the Oilmen. The organizing team thanks you for participating in the Field Trip.
June 2008
82
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANASTASIU N., 1984. What are the "green clasts" of the Carpathyan Flpsch? - a petrographic, reconsideration, Rev. roum., geol., geoph., gheogr., 28, p.51 - 60; ANASTASIU N., POPA, M., VRBAN B.L., 1994, Oligocene turbiditic sequences of the East Carpathians (Romania): facies analysis, arhitecture and cyclic events. St. cercet. geol. geofiz, geogr. Seria geol. 39:p. 35-43. ANASTASIU N., POPA. M., VRBAN B.L., DERER C., ROBAN R. D., 1999, The East Carpathians Reservoir Rocks - Kliwa Sandstone Formation. Geological Report, Bucharest, University of Bucharest, unpublished data. BADESCU, D. 1999, Modelul structural al zonei externe a fliului din Carpaii Orientali) partea central i nordic) i paleogeografia palinspastic la nivelul Senonianului i Paleogenului. Archive of Faculty of Geology and Geophysics, University of Bucharest, 249 p; BNCIL, I., (1958) Geologia Carpailor Orientali Ed. St. Bucureti BUTAC, A., DESEANU, D., DOBRE, S., GEORGESCU, C., GRECU, D., GHIRAN, M., POPESCU, M., SERINI, V., SINDILAR, V., STEFANESCU, M., ZAHARESCU, P., 1997, East Carpathian Bend Area, Romania: Oligocene Pliocene Source Rocks, Reservoirs and Hydrocarbon Fields. AAPG International Conference & Exhibition, Vienna 97. Trip #10 Field Trip Notes. BUTAC, A., DINU, C., GRADINARU, E., OLARU, R., SERINI, V., SINDILAR, V., TAMBREA, D., 1998, Dobrudja and East Carpathian Bend Area, Romania. 3rd International Conference on the Petroleum Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Black and Caspian Seas Area, Neptun 1998 Field Trip Guide Book. CIULAVU D., DINU C., CLOETINGH S. A. P.L. 2002. Late Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Transylvanian basin and northeastern part of the Pannonian basin (Romania): Constraints from seismic profiling and numerical modeling, EGU Stephan Mueller Special Publication Series, 3, 105120 CLOETINGH S.A.P.L, L. MATENCO, G. BERTOTTI 2007, Foreland of the Romanian Carpathians - controls on late orogenic sedimentary basin evolution and Paratethys paleogeography - Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam. CONTESCU, L., JIPA, D., MIHAILESCU, N. AND PANIN, N., 1966, The internal Paleogene flysch of the eastern Carpathians; paleocurrents, source areas and facies significance. Sedimentology, 7, 307321. DUMITRESCU I., 1952 Geological study of the region between Oituz and Coza. An. Com. Geol., XXIV, Bucuresti 195-270. GRASU C., CATAN C., GRINEA D., 1988, Fliul carpatic. Petrografie i consideraii economice. Ed. Tehnic., 208 pp. MAENCO, L. AND BERTOTTI, G., 2000, Tertiary tectonic evolution of the external East Carpathians (Romania): Tectonophysics, v. 316, p. 255-286. OLARU, R., ROBAN, R., 2007, Getic Depression Field Trip, Guide Book, E&R PETROM June 7 9, 2007. PARASCHIV, DUMITRU, 1979. Romanian oil and gas fields, Studii Tehnice i Economice, 13: 382. READIND H. G.& RICHARDS M 1994 Turbidite systems in deep water basin margins classified by grainsize and feeder systems. A.A.P.G. bull. Vol 78, 792-822 ROBAN, R., OLARU, R., 2007, Oil and Wine- Field Trip, Guide Book, SPE International October, 2007. SNDULESCU M., 1984, Geotectonica Romniei, Edit. Tehnica, Bucureti, 320 pp. June 2008 83
Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book SNDULESCU, M., 1988, Cenozoic tectonic history of the Carpathians, AAPG Mem 19. SNDULESCU, M., 2004. Geological structure of the Romanian Carpathians - field guidebook. - 32nd INTERNATIONAL GEOLOGICAL CONGRESS - Florence Italy August, 2004 SERINI, V., POPESCU, M., 2006 Carpatii Orientali Zona de Curbura, Prezentare Geologica Ghidul Excursiei E&R PETROM 26 27 Mai 2006. Stefanescu m micu.m 1987 flish deposits in the east carpathians ed acad TRPOANC M., 2004, Architecture, 3d Geometry and Tectonic Evolution of the Carpathians Foreland Basin, PhD, Netherlands Research School of Sedimentary Geology (NSG), 120 p VRBAN B. L. 2003 Analiza sedimentologica a secventelor ciclice de varsta Cretacic Superior din Moldavide reconstituire paleoambientala. Teza doctorat mineralogie. - Arhiva Universitatii Bucuresti 167pag.
June 2008
84

Crossing The Carpathians

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Crossing The Carpathians

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Authors:

CROSSING THE CARPATHIANS

PETROM S.A. PLOIESTI - June 2008 -

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

1. GENERAL GEOLOGICAL SETTING

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 1 Romania Geological Map (according to G.I.R.)

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

1.1. REGIONAL GEOLOGY OF THE EAST CARPATHIANS

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 3 Geotectonic structure of the East Carpathians, (according to Bdescu, 2005)

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 6 Litho-stratigraphic column of Tarcu Nappe (according to Butac et al, 1998)

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 11 Litho-stratigraphic column of Subcarpathian Nappe (according to Butac et al, 1998)

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig 14. Geological cross section in East Carpathians - Putna Valley

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

1.2. DEPOSITIONAL FRAMEWORK

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

1.3. PETROLEUM POTENTIAL

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 16 East Carpathian Geological Map, - PETROM Blocks and Oilfields.

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

2. FIELD TRIP ITINERARY AND STOP DESCRIPTIONS

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

FIELD TRIP ITINERARY

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig 19. Berca Arbnai structure Geological Sketch map.

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Fig. 26 Lapiazs, actual structures of salt dissolution

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book

The Gray Formation sequence

Middle Sarmatian calcareous sandstone blocks with Mactra shells

Badenian tufitic silts and sandstones

Crossing the Carpathians Field Trip Guide Book