DESIGN. TENI'H EDITION.

1954
CONTENTS
Tote1
Chapter Pages
1
2
3

5
6

{
8
9
10
11
Appendix
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Preface............................................. 1
Foreword "Airplane Design Made Simple".............. 2
Notation and Abbreviations.......................... 2
Introduction..... ..................... 4
Layout Design of Light Airplanes
Layout Design of Transport and Cargo Airplanes
Layout Design of Flying Boats
Layout Design of High Speed Airplanes
Layout Design of Helicopters
Structural Dosign Considerations
Production Methods and Costs as Factors in Design
Wing Design
Control Surface Design
Landing Gear Design ....
Fuselage and Hull Design
Total Text Pages
Design Data Appendices
Properties of Air and Airflow Data. Including Super-
12
4
8
7
22
.3
2
15
16
9
17
10
161
sonic Flow Data................................... 13
Aerodynamic Data
a. Wing Characteristics and Dimensions
b. Fuselage Drag Data
c. Power Plant Drag Data
d. Control Surface Design Data--Stability and
Control .
e. Propeller Data .... , ..
f. Ferformance Charts and Data u
Hydrodynamic Data
Power Plant Data
iTeight Data .. , ..
structural Design Data
s. .Applied Loads ..
b. Strength Data ..
Cost Data .
Data for Accomodations and Comfort
34
14
6
6
14
14
7
10
38
28
29
9
4
Answers to Problems............ 3
InC. ex 6
Errata......................... 1
Total Appendix 236
Total Pages .
397
P:l
PREFACE TO TEIITE EDITION
This book aims to show how an airplane or helicopter can be designed and to
include in appendix ferm most of the data necessery for a student to carry a design
project through it s preliminary stages. The book aims to provide occasion for apply-
ing fundBIDentals of fluid mechanics, thermodynamics, aerodynamics, strength of mate-
rials, and airplane structures to a design problem of current and future practical
importance. With this aim frequent revisions of the text are imperative, expecially
since the fundamental units going to make up an airplane are in a state of rapid de-
velopment. 'tiith frequent revision needed, photo-lithographing, which is economically
feasible in lots of under 2,000 copies, is the only reasonable method of presentation.
This book was revised nearly every year from 1934 to 1943, when t he seventh
edition ",as released. Majer revisions prior to 1943 were fortunately unnecessary
because the author concentrated on probable future trends rather than current prac-
tice and made a fortunate early appraisal of the importance of the retractable tri-
cycle landing gear long before its widespread adoption. During the war years, from
1943 to 1947, no new editions could profitably be issued because all important devel-
opments leading to a reasonable appraisal of the components of the airplane of the
future were shrouded in military secrecy. In the Bpring of 1947, thousands of for-
merly classified documents were released and it again became possible to discuss
public ly, with substant iating technical data, the trends in airplane design which may
reasonably be expected in t he near future. The eighth edition was issued at that time.
Civil Aeronautic Regulations also underwent a major change in 1947 thru the promulga-
tion of CAR 3 modifying the older CAR 04. The ninth edition in 1949 made further use
of post-war information releases. As this tenth edition goes to press the rate of
release of new technical data is at an all-time high and the need for a coordinated
presentation greater than ever, but the field has grown so diverse as to be confusing
in its complexity and e well indexed NACA file is more than ever indispensible to any
adequate preliminary design study. Many missile developments are of course still
security classified, but sufficient basic information is now available for useful pre-
design studies by students and other amateurs. The studant, even more than the indus-
trial preliminary design engineer, must design for the future, as his expected industrial
work is conSiderably farther in the future than that of the industrial engineer. Recent
developments in jet propulsion, lOi'; drag, and high lift permit a vision of future com-
mercial aircraft racically different from any available on the market today. Such
expected developments must be considered in this text in order for it to be useful.
This text is complementary to the textbook, Technical Aerodynamics, second edi-
tion (r.:cGraw-Hil1. 1947, also distributed by the University Bookstore) by the same
author and is intended for use the follo\.;ing U.S. Government publications:
(a) Strength of Metal Aircraft Elements, Publication ANC-5a (Government Printing
Office, $1.25), (b) Airplane Alrworthiness, Publication CAR-3 which is distributed by
the U. S. Government Printing Office. Those parts of CAR-3 which relate to airplane
design appear in this text for the convenience of the student as pages A6a:l to pA6a:26
inclusive. Numerous tables from ANC-5a (reproduced with permission of the Munitions
Board, Aircraft Committee) are elso included in the appendix material A6b).
Particular the.nks ure cue to the National Advisory Comrd ttee for Aeronautics and
to McGrew-Eill publications for permission to reproduce figures and data, and to Mr.
and Mrs. Jack Burnell and Kathleen Zylka for assistance in preparation of the
tenth edition.
Suggestions for revision would be greatly appreciated by the author.
K . D. Wood
Boulder, Color., A.pril 1954
p:2
The study of airplane must be
a study of airplane designers, and should preferably
include a portrayal of the conditions under which comm-
ercial airplanes are commonly developed. The following
articles from Aviation by R. R. Osborn written prior to
1940, while no longer as applicable as at the time of
their original writing present some personnel aspects
of the development engineering problem which are still,
with important variations, involved in many development
projects.
AIRPLANE DESIGN MADE SIlIPLE
"Lately we have been very much surprised to find
that airplane deSign and construction seem to be very
mysterious to some people
associated directly with
the industry, as well as
to the general public.
'r.ley have no idea why a
biplane is used for one
type of airplane and a
monoplane for the next
type. 7hey probably wonder why the enPine installed was
selected, and why the cabin or cockpits are as
they are. In fact, in some cases they have even wondered
why the airplane was ever built. RealiZing that some
information along this line would probably be appreciated
by our readers, we have interviewed a number of exper-
ienced we know, to learn from them the reason-
ing and processes by means of which a new airplane is
created. They were glad to tell us their experiences
and we have condensed all of their stories into the
following, which might be said to be the high points in
the life of an average airplane in its journey from the
drafting board to the field:
"As his favorite layout draftsman is working up some
advertiSing for the sales department, the is
much discourared to find that he will have to use an in-
experienced man and do the figurinp' and calculating
himself.
calls for a win" span of 37.5 feet. lay-
out draftsman misunderstands his writing and lays out
the airplane to have 375 sq. ft. of wing area.
"Airplane originally laid out as a monoplane. Ne'll"
Department of Commerce Inspector shifted to the district.
New Inspector has a great preference for biplanes, so
design is changed to a biplane.
"President sends in word that speed is essential in
all ne'll" aircraft of the immediate future, and airplanes
must be mainly for speed. Design is altered to
suit.
"Engine selected is the one manufactured by the
Chief En"ineerts Golfing partner. Designer asks the
world howinell he can turn out a good Ship when he has
to use an like that one? Chief Engineer's gol!
game gets poorer so that his partner beats him regularly.
DesiVler ordered to shift to the best en!7ine available
in another company. Desi!7fier asks the 'll"orld howinell he
can turn out a /"ood ship around an engine like that one?
"President sends in a note stating that the _tcll-
word is economy, and that all ne'll" designe should have
cheapness of construction and economy of as
their major criteria. is altered to suit.
"DeSigner hears that the Whoosis Airplane Company
is out a competin!7 model with gull-shaped wings.
I:!mediately scraps his design and starts over again 1I'ith
gull-whaped Simultaneously, the desi"ner of the
\1hoosis Airplane Company has scrapped his drawinp,s and
starts ne'll" layouts using butterny- shaped wings, after
hearing that the Whatsis Airplane company is proceeding
on that basis.
"President returns from a tour arourd the country.
Circulates notes to the effect that the present trend is
toward better vision for the pilot, and that all other
features, including speed and cheapness of construction,
should be canpramised to obtain better vision for the
pilot. is altered to suit.
"President sends in 'll"ord that the crying need of
this country today is a good 5-cent oigar. Design is
altered to suit.
"Shop makes an error, in the fuselage a
foot too short. In for previous shop favor
in covering up one of his errors, the writes
a long treatise to the Chief Engineer pointing out the
trend to shorter fuselage lengths, suggesting that the
fuselage be made shorter by 1 ft. Chief Engineer does
not grasp the full meaning of the obscure part of the
Designer'S calculations, so issues order to have the
nose of the fuselage shortened by 1 ft. Designer and
Shop Superintendent talk it over, and decide they had
better just cut 1 ft. off of the nose and say nothing
more about it.
"Engine finally arrives for installation in the
ship. Turns out that the engine company had decided
to build a nine-cylinder engine instead of a seven-
cylinder engine. Long correspondenoe between air-
plane company and engine company to determine if t'll"O
cylinders shall be taken off or if engine mount shall
be chan?ed. Matter finally settled by flipping the
coin. Engine mount is changed.
"On installation of the engine it is found that
the carburetor interferes 1I'i th the center landing
gear fitting. Engine sent back to the engine plant
to be made into a down-draft carburetor. When the en-
gine returns it is discovered that the ne .... carburetor
interfers with the oil tank. Send engine back to en-
gine plant to be made over into a solid-fuel injection
engine.
"None of the shop c01l'l workers understanding Eng-
lish, Project Engineer _ves his arm around in the air
to show them what type of wiD!! fillets he wishes.
Thinking he is referring to the engine compartment C01l'l,
they turn out a startlin!7 new idea in engine c01l'l.
Project Engineer has dra1l'ing made to suit and sends
dra1l'ing in to Chief Engineer pointing out that his new
design will probably add 4 m.p.h.
"Landin" was laid out for large diameter
wheels. Somebody invents small diameter wheels and
sells them to the PurchaSing Agent. When they are ap-
plied to the ship it is found that the propeller ground
clearance is too small. Project Engineer announces
that a three-blade propeller will be used because of
high propeller tip speeds or something.
"During set-up opetation, upper wing is found to
interfere 1I'ith a beam in the roo! of the factory. After
comparing costs of altering the beam in the roof or
changing one set of 1I'ing struts, gap bet .... een the Wings
is decreased by 6 in.
"First 1I'8if'hing of the ship ah01l's the center of
gravity to be badly out of position. Upper 1I'ing is
taken off and changed to one of large S1Ieep-back to
balance the ship. Chief Engineer sends note to
President explaining delay as necessary, as sweep-
back has to be used to improve pilot's vision.
"At the field 1 ft. of left 1I'ing tip is knock-
ed off on a hanger door. One foot is sawed off the
other tip to match, and both ends are faired off
neatly.
"The airplane is put over the speed cOllrse and
is found to have a high speed 5 m.p.h. more than the
reSigner expected, but 5 m.p.h. less than he wrote
in the preliminary specification. 'r.lis speed is 10
mop.he more than the Design Engineer expected and
10 m.p.h. less than he promised the President. The
speed is 15 m.p.h. more than the Sales llanager ex-
pected and 15 m.p.he less than he wrote into the pre-
liminary advertiSing copy.
"Knowing his organization thoroughly, the speed
is exactly what the President> antiCipated."
FOREWORD P:3
AN AIRPLANE DESIGNER BEGmS A NEW PROJECT
"Having finished the morning paper the DeSigner
leans back in his chair and starts to read over the
customer's specification for the new airplane.
"Thinks it would be a good idea to underscore
with red pencil the parts of the customer's specifi-
cation which will affect the design. After complet-
ing four pages finds that he has underscored all but
three words so throws down specification in disgust.
"Goes into Drafting Roan to discuss latest sport-
ing news with favorite layout draftsman. Finds him
busy on a rush job for designer. Dashes in-
to Chief Engineer's office and pounds on desk, de-
manding that favorite draftsman be transferred to
his project and moved into his office to aSSist, as
no other draftsman is able to understand what he
wants done. Chief Engineer IZrunts and says that
he'll think about it.
"wanders through drafting room looking at work
being done for other designers and offering sugges-
tions which involve scrapping all drawinf,s and start-
ing over again.
"Designer is startled on returning to his off-
ice to find that favorite draftsman has already been
moved in and is ready to go to work.
"Suggests that centerlines be drawn here, here,
and here, and returns to desk for contemplation.
"Reads through specification hurriedly and then
slams it down on asking howinell customer ex-
pects to get all that in one airplane.
"Looks at drafting board and suggests that
center lines be moved to here, here, and here to allow
more roam for expansion of sketches.
"Lights cigarette and starts reading specifi-
cation again with de-
termination. Dis-
covers that latest
model of engine is
called for. Swears
blue streak but is
secretly glad as drafts-
man will be kept
busy for a few hours
making a scaled-down
drawing of engine.
"Gets new notebook and paper filler from stock
roan and letters name of new project and his name
carefully on front cover, inking in letters with
beautiful shading.
"Places feet on desk and starts trying to con-
centrate on the details of the specification again.
"Factory Superintendent calls up and says would
like him to look at a fitting of his design which is
giving trouble in shop. De signer says that he'll be
down immediately to look at it. Shop Superintendent
faints at other end of phone as he expected that De-
signer would manage to get down to see fitting in
about three days, as usual.
"Returns to offices and starts in on specifica-
tion again. Notices grasshopper on window sill.
Studies unique details of grasshopper and considers
application of catapulting gear for Navy ships.
"Goes over to golf club for lunch and discusses
merits of new design of clubs with profeSSional.
"Returns to plant and as he passes watchman's
gate-house hears important baseball game being broad-
cast on radio. Listens to several innings, discuss-
ing probable outcome of pennant race with watchman.
"Back in office starts reading over specifica-
tions again.
"Admires lettering on cover of new notebook and
then numbers pages therein, using ornamental figures.
"Suddenly realizes that if he is to turn out de-
sign which 18 absolutely up-to-date it will be neces-
sary for him to read up on latest developments here
and abroad as noted in aeronautical magazines. Gets
magazines and reads all social and political news
therein. lIakes mental note to read technical arti-
cles later.
"Wanders down into shop to watch operation of
new rivetting machine.
"Talks over international political situation
wi th foreman of the Sheet Metal Shop.
"Hears report that new airplane built by
peting company has landed at field so drives over to
see if there are any new ideas thereon to be appro-
priated. Looks ship over carefully. Points out to
foreman of Hanger Cr_ all details which were impro-
perly designed and expresses amazement that competi-
tor managed to get a large production order on such
a poor airplane.
"Walks down to the School Hangar to watch stu-
dents practicing landing. Comes to conclusion that
modern landing gears are pretty good after all.
"Back at office starts to read over specifica-
tion again but notices that his slide rule is in
need of cleaning. Decides hi' had better clean rule
thoroughly as he will be using ita lot.
"Also notices that desk drawer in which he
keeps cigarettes, rubber bands, chewing gum, paper
clips, smoking tobacco and pipe cleaners is in need
of fixing up. Takes considerable care in working
out good arrangement of contents.
"Sees that it is almost
quitting time and if he
doesn't hurry he will
probably hold up the
starting t:line of his
golfing foursome. puts
on hat and coat
and l!a!lders over i' or
look at drafting board.
Observes that favorite
draftsman has made pro-
gress on preliminary
sketches for new de-
sign.
p:4
NOTATION AND ABBREVIATIONS
The following list of symbols used in this book
is, with few exceptions, consistent with the practi-
ces in the United states of the N.A.C.A. and the
Committee on Aircraft Requirements.
a
a
a
a..c.
A
AD
b
B
br
Bhp
c
e.g.
c.p.
C.

CDo
CM
Cyo
Ch
Cp
C.P.
C
s
d
D
e
E
f
2 acceleration, ft./sec.
2
slope of OTaph of Cr, vs. c;r (dCr/d
cY
) per degree
position of aerodynamic center, fraction of
chord; also subscript "actual"
aerodynamic center
area of cross section, sq. in. aspect ratio
equivalent drap area sq. ft. Also designated
by f.
span of winff, ft.; also distance between spars,
fraction of chord; also web thickness for
spars, inches; width of sections; subscript
"bendinf'''.
buoyant force, lbs; slenderness ratio factor
(See Sq. 1:24)
subscript "bearing".
a brake horsepower
subscript "chord"; coefficient; constant; gen-
erally fixity coefficient for columns; sub-
sCript "compression".
center of
center of pressure, distance from leading edge.
ft.
chord, ft.; cross wind force, lbs.; coeffiC-
ient; constant; circumference.
coefficients of lift, drag, and cross wind
force L/qS
(CD. D/qS
(Cc C/qS
.. ideal minimum drag coefficient
induced drag coefficient
profile drag coefficient
moment coeffiCient, about quarter chord unless
otherwise specified
moment coeffiCient at zero lift
rate of climb, ft./min.
). center of pressure, fraction of chord from lead-
) ing edpe
speed power coefficient for propellers
diameter, ft.; also drag loadinp, lbs./sq.ft.;
d W/A
D
; depth or heieht; mathematical operator
denoting differential.
s drag; Ibs.; diameter ft.
ratio of wing weight to ,,-ross weil1'ht; unit de-
formation or strain; eccentricity; subscript
for Euler's formula; Bubscript "endurance".
efficiency; also chord ratio for tail surfaces;
also modulus of elasiticity in tension
.. modulus of elasticity in compression
flat plate area of CD 1.00 equivalent to min-
imum parasite and profile drag of airplane.
Also deSignated by An
.. unit stress, Ibs./sq.in.; also front spar loca-
tion, fraction of chord also subscript "fuse-
la"e"; internal -Cor calculated) stress
force, Ibs; allowable stress
internal (or calculated) primary bending stress
internal (or calculated) precise bending stress
allowable bending stress, modulus of failure in
bending
endurance limit in bending
internal (or calculated) bearing stress
ultimate bearing stress
.. internal (or calculated) compressive stress
compreSSive stress
ultimate compressive stress
compressive yield stress
proportional limit in compression
column yield stress
internal (or calculated) normal stress
allowable normal stress
internal (or calculated) shearing stress
allowable shearing stress
Factor of Safety
proportional limit in shear
modulus of failure in torsion
endurance limit in torsion
h
hp
H
Hs
HP
i
I
Ip
j
m
!lIph
M
MAC
n
N
o
p
p
psi
q
Q
r
R
p
S
t
s
T
u
U
11'
allowable stress in pure shear
internal (or calculated) tensile stress
allowable tensiles stress
ultimate tensile stress
tensile yield stress
proportional limit in tension
acceleration due to gravity. 32.2 ft./ sec . 2
modulus of elasticity in shear, (modulus
of rigidity)
altitude, ft.; also distance measured per-
pendicular to MAC as a fraction of MAC;
heipht or depth; especially the distance be-
tween centroids of chords of beams and trusses.
horsepower
absolute ft.
service ft.
rated horsepower
subscript "induced"; slope (due to bending)
of neutral plane of a beam, in radians. (1
radian. 57.3 degrees).
moment of inertia of mass, slug-ft.
2
; also
moment of inertia of area, in.4
polar moment of inertia
position of wing c.g., fraction of chord; also
, ft.; also !if; subsoript for John-
son'lI formula. -(
torsion constant.
factor of safety; radius of gyration
span factor
coeffiCient, constant, or general factor
bearing factor of safety
lift, Ibs.; length, ft.; subscript "lift" or
"level"; subscript "lateral".
parasite loadin
a
, lbs./sq.ft Wife Also
deSignated by d W/An
span loading, Ibs./sq.ft W/e(kIb)2
thrust horsepower loading w/Tho..
mass, slugs; slope of lift curve-rdCt/dO()
per radian; also subscript "maximum vertical",
or "maximum".
miles per hour
moment, ft. Ibs.; also subscript "moment"
mean aerod)7UUnic chord
applied load in terms of W; rate of rotation,
revs./sec.; subscript "normal".
rate of rotation, revs./min.; also subscript
"normal force"
subscript "zero lift", "initial", or "stan-
dard".
subscript "polar"; subscript "proportional
l:iJni t"; power loading, Ibs./hp. vr/p
load (total, not unit load) J engine horse-
power, design unless specified.
pounds per square inch.
dynamic pressure, Ibs./sq.ft 1/2/ ()v2
static moment of a cross section.
radiUS; near spar location, fraction of chord
resultant force or reaction, lbs.;
subscript "resultant"J, stress ratio.
Reynolds number. Vc
surface (wing, unless otherwise noted; shear
force.
thickness; subscript "tail" or "terminal"
or "tenSile".
subscript "shear", "stalling"; wing loading,
lbs.!sq.ft W/s
thrust, lbs.; torsional moment, torque
subscript "ultimate".
gust velocity, ft./sec
airplane velOCity, miles per hour.
airplane velocity, ft./sec.
limited diving velOCity, ft./sec.
design flap speed
stalling velOcity, ft./sec.
maximum speed of level flight, ft./sec.
maximum theoretical diving velocity with
zero propeller thrust, ft./sec.
specific weight; unit pressure, lbs./sq.ft.;
also subscript ''1r1ngl'
average unit pressure, Ibs./sq.ft.; also
gross weight.
* in CAll 3 V dea1gna tea spe ad in lIIph.
NOTATION AND AEBREVIATIONs
x distance alon(' elastic curve of a beam; also
distance measured parallel to MAC in terms
of ).(AC.
x,y,z axes, see Fig. PI1.
y denection (due to benc!1.rli'.) of elastic curve
of a beam; distance from neutral axis to
outer fibre; subscript "yield".
Z section modulus, I
y
polar section modulus, (for round tubes)
y
'f
y ____ __ x

",,V
z
Figure P:l Positive directions of axes and
on airplane.
G( (alpha)
f3 (beta)
angle of attack,
flight path angle with horizontal,
de !n"ge s
S (delta) nap angle, degrees (elevator, rud-
der, or aileron): also unit deform-
ation; also deflection.
A (Delta)
I (theta)
increment
angle of pitch, degrees, see Figure
P:l
(eta)
tI. (lambda)
11' (pi)
propeller efficiency 4/3 1/3
performance parameter L L
t
/L_
3.1416
I' (gamma)
r(mu)
f (rho)
dihedral an"le, degrees.
Poisson's ratio
mass density of air, slugs/cu. ft.,
radius of gyration, inches.
fo
f at standard sea level conditions.
0.00236 slugs/ cu. ft.
1: (si"ma.)
q, (Phi)
sum
anl'le of roll, degrees (see figure
P:l); also angular deflection
Y(Psi) anrle of yaw, degrees (see Figure
P:l)
CAl (omega) anpular velOCity, radians/second.
ACI.I
AN
ACIC
ALCOA
ASME
CAA
CAR
DC
AAFTR
JAS
NACA
sAE
TA
Tl[
TN
TR
WR
SAllE
Air Commerce Manual, CAA, U.S. Dept. of
Commerce.
Army-Navy Standard Specifications.
Air Corps Information Circular, U.S. Army
Aluminum Company of America.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
Civil Aeronautics Administration, U. S. Dept.
of Commerce.
Civil Air Regulations, CAA, U. S. Dept.
of Conmerce.
U. S. Dept. of Conmerce.
Army Air Force Technical Report
Journal of the Aeronautical Sciences
National Advisory Committee for
Aeronautics (U.S.)
Reports and Memoranda, Aeronautical
Research Committee (Gr. Prit.).
Society of Automotive Enf,ineers.
Technical Aerodynamics (text by same author).
Technical Memorandum
Note (NACA)
Technical Report (NACA)
Wartime Report (NACA)
- Society of Aeronautical Weight Engineers
p:s
INTRODUCTION
It Is the purpose of this Introduction to
survey the trends In the recent past In perfor-
mance and use of aircraft as a guide to fore-
casting the types, performance, and uses which
may reasonably be expected in the near future
(1955-1960), to serve the aeronautical design
student and to a lesser extent the industrial
designer, in selecting types to which he may well
devote his efforts.
I:1 Trends In Types of Aircraft and Power
Plants. An aircraft is a vehicle for the trans-
portation of things and people. The principal
types of aircraft in use today (1951*) are air-
planes and helicopters. as shown in Figure 1:1.
Fig. 1:1 Production and licensing data,
U.S. airplanes and helicopters.
Data from CAA Journal, 1953- Auto-
motive Industries November 15,
1953. and Aviation Week March 2,
1953.
A current small (3 seat) production model
helicopter (Hlller) Is shown in Figure 1:2; a
current large helicopter (35 seat Slkorskyj is
shown in Figure 1:3. Note in Figure 1:1 that in
1953 helicopter production (chiefly military)
begaln to approach civil airplane production. The
great boom in helicopter production followed the
discovery in the Korean war of 1951-53, by the
U.S. military services of the enormous military
utility of helicopters. Quoting from an article
in Time magazine on the contributions of Igor
Sikorsky to aeronautical development ("Uncle Igor
and the Chinese Top,"Time November 16, 1953, PP
25-28) "few machines have so captured the nation-
al imagination. The Marine Corps has long since
adopted the helicopter as Its answer to the atomic
bomb, and proposes to send rotor-topped whirl'y-
blrds hurrying inland from carriers far at sea, to
1:1
establish the beachheads of the future. The Army
has begun supplementing trucks with helicopters,
and in so doing Is regaining a disregard for rough
terrain it has not been able to afford since the
day of the mule. And to-day no naval aviator
leaves a carrier deck without knowing that a hel-
icopter Is hovering nearby, ready to swoop and
pluck him from the sea if he is forced down."
Civilian uses, such as cropdustlng, airmail over
traffic-congested cities, and rescue and construc-
tion work in remote or mountainous country, have
also developed rapidly in the last few years.
Fig. 1:2 Hlller model 12-B 3-seat 200 hp
helicopter in production in 195^.
Courtesy Aviation Week.
Fig. 1:3 Sikorsky model S-56 35 passenger
3800 hp helicopter under test In
1951*. Courtesy Aviation Week.
The helicopter is essentially not a high
speed vehicle (see Chap. 5), and speeds much over
20c mph are not at present in sight except by
c;onvertiplanes (helicopter-airplane combinations,
like Figure 1:4] of dubious economy, but excellent
military potential. Because of the enormous
growth of the helicopter in industry, this 10th
edition of Airplane Design has undergone major re-
vision believed sufficient to Justify change of
title to "Airplane and Helicopter Design."
Fig.1:4 McDonnell XV-1 convertiplane. Time.
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INTRODUCTION
1:2
While most military airplanes are turbojet
powered in the interest of maximum
high speed (typical current jet bomber and fight-
er airplanes are shown in Figures 1:5 and 1:6
respectively) the future of the commercial jet
airliner is still (1954) in some doubt partly in
view of the unfortunate safety record to date of
the British "Comet" jetllner.(Figure 1:10)
(Note comparison with other forms of travel in
Figure 1:7.)
Fig. I:5 Boeing B-52 long range jet bomber,
key airplane in current plans of
the USAF strategic air command.
Courtesy Aviation Week.
North American F- Sabre; prin-
cipal USAF jet fighter of 1953.
Courtesy Aviation Week.
The British Comet experience may be simply due to
too early or too ambitious operational use. Many
other commercial jet arliners are under develop-
ment in 1954, but jet arliners have inherently
very poor take off and landing characteristics
compared with propeller driven airliners, which
have much higher take-off thrust, and which can
use the propellers for braking on landing.
The turbine-propeller ("turbo-prop") airline.
(e.g. Figure I:9) is a different story, since its
only major handicaps may be due to the fact that
aviation gas turbines have had several decades
less development work done on them than piston en
gines for airplanes. Advanatages are lightness
(current weights per horsepower about one half
that of piston engines) and quietness; disadvan-
tages are higher fuel consumption (by 50 to 100
per cent) and propeller control difficulties
partly due to much larger rotor inertia and
windmilling propeller drag. Reliability in ser-
vice may also be inherently less, since high
speed whirling red-hot blades are an essential
feature of the aviation gas turbine. For short
range flights, and particularly for helicopters,
where power plant weight is very important and
fuel weight is not, the turbine has great future
promise but is still (1954) relatively undevelope
particularly as regards the many detail$ which
must make up a satisfactorily functioning power
plant.
The piston-engine powered airliner, exempli-
fied by the best-selling DC-7 shown in Figure I:8
appears to be well established for many years to
come.

I
Fass. Fatalities per
200 i
r
100t"-.,
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10,
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, 100 :.:illion pass. :.:iles

;"utohlo:iles &
.2.
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Fig. I:7 Safety record of airplane, auto-
mobile and train travel. Aviation
Week, Feb., 25, 1952, CAB Journal,
and National Saf
..... _ ...., .... ,<k_.
Fig. I:9 Bristol Britannia turboprop air-
liner. Courtesy Aviation Week.
INTRODUCTION
1:3
Fig. I
DeHaviland Comet Jet airliner;
about 20 were flown extensively
in 1952 and 1953; 7 were destroyed
In a series of accidents, chiefly
in take-off or landing. Courtesy
Aviation Week.
The small commercial airplane (fewer than 6
seats e.g. Figure 1:11), once thought by many to
be the mass produced vehicle of the future, re-
placing many automobiles, has turned out to have
limited utility and large hazard . (Note in Fig-
ure 1:7 that private flying fatalities per 100
million passenger miles are now a hundred times
that of commercial airlines). Most of those who
have tried flying their own airplanes, and sur-
vived, have concluded that all-weather and night
flying is for experts only.
3eech "Bonanza" 4-seat airplane
which sold well in 1953 in spite
of the price tag of around
$20,000.00. Principal use was as
a small business airplane.
Turboprop light airplanes are under develop-
ment (e.g. a modification of the Cessna 180 shown
In Figure 1:12) and small turboJets are being in-
stalled in the 2 seat military trainer shown in
Figure 1:13, which may also be convertible to
civilian uses.
Cessna lSCBusiness liner" listed
at about'$13,000.00, one of fhe
best-selling airplanes of 1953,
also adaptable to turboprop.
Fig. 1:13 Cessna 318 Jet Trainer under de-
velopment in 1954. Two Contin-
ental-Turbomeca Marbore 352 Jets
of 900 lbs. thrust each are ex-
pected to give a level high speed
of nearly 400 mph at altitude.
A survey of engineering opinion in 1949 on
expected development in the field of aircraft
power plants by Gregory and PomeroyWis shown in
Figure 1:14. The forecast has turned out very well
Fig. I:
14 Summary of survey of engineers'
opinions regarding future power
plant types.
thus far, and current (1954) opinion is Judged
to be that there is a definite place at this
time for all three types of power plants, for
future Judging on the basis of safety and profit
as well as performance.
(1) Gregory, A. T. and Pomeroy, A. L.,
Future Trends in Aircraft Power Plants, the
Pegasus (published monthly by Fairchlld Engine
and' Airplane Corporation, 30 Rockefeller Plaza,
New York, 20, N. Y.
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1:4
INTRODUCTION
1:2. Trends in Airplane Performance. The
most important item of airplane performance is
cruising speed, since speed is what the airplane
has to sell in competition with other forms of
transportation. Landing and take-off speed are
also major importance and should be neither
too high nor too low (see Chap. 1 for specific
recommendations). Rate of climb and ceiling are
of minor importance for civil aircraft, provided
certain minimum standards are met except perhaps
for airliners that must cruise at high altitude
for economy, and for these low rate of climb has
serious adverse effects on the "block-to-block"
speed (referring to the blocks usually placed in
front of the wheels while the airplane is loading
or unloading).
A graphical history of airliner cruising
speeds is shown in Figure 1:15 together with es-
tablished speed records of seaplanes, landplanes
and automobiles. The speed records are of in-
terest only because t show

2000
1500
1000&
200
150
story of airliner
cruising speeds with seaplane,
landplane, and automobile speed
records for comparison. Broken
lines are a forecast, discussed
in test.
I'
I
the upper limit of speeds attainable with zero
payload. The "shock" or "sonic" barrier has only
recently been overcome. The forecast implied by
the broken line is that the "thermal barrier" for
habitable airplanes will take longer to crack, as
it :nay involve "space ships" rather than flying
machines and the economies and motivation are more
obscure. The forecast implied for airliner
cruising speeds considers chiefly the economics of
profitable operation. It is the authors Judgement
that airliners have nearly reached their limiting
speed of profitable operation (about 400 mph) as
railway trains did a half-century ago (at about
100 mph), though this proposition is certainly
debatable, and enterprising business men will pro-
bably bet millions of dollars to the contrary
(and, it says here, will probably lose their
shirts). Shorter term economic forecasts can of
course be much more accurate.
1:3. General Specification and Market Anal-
ysis. The first step in designing an airplane is
to decide what kind of an airplane is to be built.
This means that a specification must be
available. For transport airplanes, airlines
usually write the specifications. Specifications
written by such customers can be followed closely
by the manufacturer. For small airplanes for per-
sonal transportation to be sold in quantity, the
specifications might be determined by question-
naires circulated to potential customers, but for
the most part the specifications are written by
the <iesigner and involve his estimate of "what the
public wants"
Since price and cost are the major factors in
the success of an airplane design project intended
for sale to the public, a market analysis is a de-
sirable background for such a design project. A
15 year record of airplane sales classified by
size is plotted in Figure 1:16.
50000
20000
10000
SCJOO
2000
1000
S,CJO
200
100
50
---
D.C. Index of General In
Industrial Production
1935-39 ave. 100

-at a
MMMMMMMM MM
Fig. 1:16 Twenty year record of airplane
sales, classified by size, with
estimated sales for 1953 & 1954.
Data from CAA Journal and cur-
rent business magazines.
Data from Figure 1:16, or a Similar figure
with more recent informat1on when available, may
be used to estimate the demand in any particular
year for an airplane of any given payload and
performance. The wisdom of embarking on a de-
velopment program for a 2-seat 150 mph at this
time is not clear, but this is done 1n chapter 1
because the methods are general and applicable to
such other specifications as may be deemed more
desirable.
The two and three seat airplanes were used
mostly for flight (Civilian Pilot Train-
ing Program for the Civil Aeronautics Administra-
tion from 1941 to 1945: "G.I. Bill of Rights"
flight training in 1946 and 1947). The four and
five seat airplanes were used mostly for air taxi
service and to a much smaller extent as family
airplanes analogous to the family automobiles,
but serving for longer trips and at higher speeds.
Another major use of both of the classes of air-
planes shown in Figure 1:16 is the use of farmers
and other business men in personal transportation
to keep in touch with widely scattered business
interests.
Between 1947 and 1948 changes in federal re-
gulations caused practtcal abandonment of civilian
training of potential military pilots, and the
bottom dropped out of the market for two and three
place airplanes, while the demand four and five
place airplanes was steadily increasing.
CHAPTER 1
LAYOOT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
1:1
1:1
Specification for Sample Layout,
dure for making ~*'
A suitable proce-
a layout design for a light airplane will be
illustrated in this chapter by an example based on the market
analysis in the introduction. The illustrative example will
be for an airplane of low coat and hiph performance, carry-
ing two passengers at hitrh speed and small expense, because
it is believed that exceptional values will have to be c-ro-
vidad in any airplane intended for sale in 1950-1951 as
money expended for airplanes will probably be carefully
weighed by the buying public in terms of the value obtained
for the expenditure as compared with the value obtained for
similar expenditures in houses and automobiles. The
opportunity for giving good value in a light airplane is prob-
ably better than ever before because houses and automobiles
are expensive. On the other hand, the public has become
fully aware of the limitations In usefulness of the light
airplane, which are principally determined by (1) airport
inaccessibility (2) the hazard of flying at night or in poor
weather (3) the expense of complete Insurance (such as is
usually carried on automobiles) and of adequate maintenance
and protection of the aircraft at the typical airport.
One answer to the inaccessibility may be the roadable
airplane, and serious attempts are being made for development
of a satisfactory vehicle along this line by well established
manufacturers, but such a layout will not be attempted in
this chapter because of the many special features involved In
making a vehicle suitable for both ground and air travel.
In this layout example, flying at night or in poor weather
will be disregarded as a possibility, because of the expensive
equipment and high degree of skill involved. The design to
be developed here may be considered a modification of Figure
1:1 or 1:2.
Fig. 1:1 The Curtisa Wright Junior, a popular pusher
type light airplane of 1930, with 35 hp
Szekley engine.
ng,
The Volmer VJ-21 two place pusher airplane
being test flown in 19k7.*
Both of these airplanes have pusher propellers mounted well
above the wing in a location conducive to safety of children
and dogs around the airport, and both have outstanding vision
for the pilot. The Curtisa Wright junior had a conventional
landing gear but with such narrow tread as to be likely to
blow over in a high wind and the mono-wheel landing gear of
the Volmer VJ-21 la considered to represent an equally sat-
isfactory landing gear at considerable reduction in expenae.
The deaign here proposed for layout may be considered more
as a modification of the VJ-21 than of the Curtlss Wright
Junior, with an attempt to improve the aerodynamic design
and safety features by the following major changes:
0) Submerge the engine in the fuaelage, where it offers
less hazard to the paasengers in the event of a forced
landing in bad terrain. The submerged engine installation
can permit a marked improvement in top speed as well,
through proper design of ducting. (2) A major reduction in
drag can also be made by increasing wing loading, by im-
proving the fuselage streamlining, and by the use of a
Vee tail. (3) Drag can also be substantially reduced by tan-
dem rather than side-by-side seating. The following
specifications are written for the design. Discussion of
the specification items follows the specifications.
Specifications
Specification Item
1. Payload:
4) Pilot, Passenger,
b) Mall or Freight
Baggage
Example
Uoo#
None
55 mph.
150 mph.
165 mph.
IhO ft/min.
10,000 ft.
600
2. Performance:
a) Stalling Speed, Full Span Flaps
b) Cruising Speed
c) maximum Speed
d) Maximum Climb (full load)
e) Absolute Ceiling
f) Range (no wind)
3. Equipment:
a) Electric Starter
b) Exhaust Muffler
c) Quiet Propellor (cabin noise < 80 decibels.)
d) Two-Way Radio
e) Dual Controls
f) Parachutes
U. Arrangement:
a) Tandem Seats
b) High Wing
c) Pusher Prop above wing
d) Mono-Wheel or Bicycle Type Landing Gear.
5. Coat:
a) Maximum: $3000 in lota of 1000 per year) Initial
Preferrablyi *E5001n lota of 1000 per yearj Coat
b) Upkeep (Including Insurance and Depreciation) =
$20.00 per month plus 1-1/2 cent per mile.
6. Stability, Control, Strength:
a) Spin-proof
b) LIcansable by the C.A.A.
The following arguments are in explanation of the
above specifications. It is of course recognised that
different designers will have widely differing views on
these matters so these arguments must be considered merely
as explanation rather than a dequate Justification of the
specifications. The important point is simply that
some specifications should be written down and adhered to
throughout the project as closely as possible.
The proposed payload of ltOO pounds is Intended to
cover two 170 pound passengers plus 60 pounds baggage.
The two seat airplane is contemplated because the single
seat airplane finds little sale except for racing, and
airplanes aeating threeto five persons usually turn out
to be expensive (though/not Invariably so); two la thus
the least number of seats to provide if a wide sale is to
be^ realized^but see^Flg. 1:9 for estimated four and five
Under performance, a 55 mph atalling apeed ia
specified because an airplane that lands very slow, say
ho mph is in danger of blowing away in high wind and its
use is restricted to calm days whereas a plane landing much
faster, say 70 aph requires unusual skill for a good land-
ing. Moat people, moreover, feel reasonably at horns at
a ground speed of 55 mph from experience In driving
automobilea.
Courtesy Aviation Week, July 2B, 19U7.
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LAYOUT DESIC',;;-? .LIGHT AIRPLAl1ES
1:2
The cruising speed of 150 mph is specified because
it is desired to provide an ai:;plane that will "go
places" and not merely a training airplane, though the
sacrifice of the trainer market may be a severe handicap
to a prospective manufacturer. Adverse winds aloft of
30 mph are not uncommon, so if the cruising air speed is
much under 150 mph the time saving by flying instead of
driving an automobile, taking account of airport in-
acessibility, may be so little that the potential owner
would rather drive. The cruising speed is usually con-
sidered to be about 90% of the level hivh speed, as this
involves cruising at about 15% of the rated engine horse-
power.
The climb specified is the legal minimum [(Cho min. *
in ft. /min) 8 x (v s in mph) J, and should be exceeded
if convenient, but it is felt that very rapid climb is
not likely to be worth its cost (for a given weight and
power, better climb requires more wing span); it is
possible that a majority of potential pilots may not feel
this way but some assumption IIlUSt be made and if rapid
climb is relegated to a position of less importance a
designer may worry about other things which may be of
more importance. The range of 600 miles is specified to
provide 50% reserve for the longest trip to be made be-
tween major airports on a business trip east of the Rocky
Mountains in the United States. Except for long hops
the tanks need not be filled to the limit. Most pilots
will want to come down for other reasons long before the
four hour supply of fuel is exhausted.
The absolute ceiling of 10,000 feet, with an
initial rate of climb of 440 ft. per minute, would give
a service ceiling of about 8,000 feet, which would make
the airplane unsuitable for flivht in the Rocky Itountain
Region. An airplane for use chiefly in the RoCky Mountain
Region should have a ceiling and rate of climb,
but for other regions these values are unnecessarily high.
If a good sale in the Rocky Mountain region is considered
necessary, special wing tips to provide a larger span can
be supplied as an item of added-cost equipment.
The equipment specifications call for an electric
starter because the exertion of manual starting may be
exhausting to the pilot and contribute to the hazard of
flight. Two-way radio is considered necessary for
landing at many of today's busy airports. An exhaust
muffler and a qUiet propeller to keep the cabin noise
comparable to that of an automobile driven at high speed
is considered necessary to avoid pilot fatigue. Dual
controls greatly enhance the saleability of the airplane
at small expense and seat cushions replaceable by
parachutes are conSidered important by many pilots.
The seatin, arrangement specified (tandem seats)
is not that of optimum marketability, but sacrifices
a little in the "chuminess" of the travel in the interest
of high performance. The mono-llheel landing gear is
specified in the interest of lOir cost with small
sacrifice of safety (if any) and with small sacrifice in
convenience of operation. The pusher propeller location
above the wing, with adequate protection against people
walking into it, is considered to eliminate one of the
greatest hazards of light airplane ground handling.
A minimum cost of less than is judged unlikely
of fulfillment with the current prices of the engines
necessary to high performance. The upkeep cost
specified is very little more than that of a medium-
priced-class automobile, but of course the utility of the
airplane is so much less than that of the automobile
that there can be no comparison in the market for tl)e
two if the price is the same. It should also be born in
mind that purchases of airplanes for use by the head o!
a family will usually have to be by the housewife;
this limitation is one of severest handicaps to the wide
sale of two place airplanes.
CAR 03.12:3 (which supersedee
1
CAR 04) now also spec1t1ee
minimum angle of climb of tan- 1/12. For olimb at 10%
OTar T. (60 mph), min := 110/12 ,. !5 mph = 440 ft!m1D.
Agreement of thiS figure with a_Til 111 Plrely coinoidental.
The stability, control, and strength items are
conventional except that the airplane is required to be
spin proof in the interest of safety.
It may be found in attempting to develop a design
to meet the above reqUirements that they are conflict-
ing and impossible to fulfill, so the designer should
prepare a priority list stating which items are rigidly
fixed and which may be suffered to compromise. For
the example above the priority list might be as follows:
(1) Pay load, stability, control, and strength, no
compromise.
(2) Cost may have to be increased somewhat, though
if the cost is increased too much the market disappears
and the project must be abandoned.
(3) Performance: cruising speed may have to be
reduced a little in the interest of economy; range may
have to be reduced slightly, but there can be no com-
promise on climb as the legal minimum has been specified.
Very little reduction in-aESOlute ceiling can be
tolerated or the airplane will have little use on the
western prairies of the Dakotas, Nebraska Kansas
Oklahoma, and Texas, lIhere a large market' exists
the newly-rich farmers.
(4) Equipment may have to be reduced but value
in the following order: (a) dual controls: (b) starter,
(c) muffler and quiet propeller (d) two-way radio.
1:2 Preliminary DeSign Estimates. Preliminary
design must be based on the known weight and
performance of airplanes already constructed. Such air-
planes are listed on A2f:6. Performance estimates
should be based on aerodynamic data in Appendix A2
as explained in the author's related text "Technical
Aerodynamics, Second Edition" (MCGraw-Hill, 1941).
The object of these calculations is to determine the
approximate size, shape, and weight of the airplane
necessary to meet the specifications. There is no Single
best procedure to follow. Most airplanes are not de-
signed from the ground up, but are developed by making
minor changes on existing airplanes which have proven
satisfactory. The following method has been evolved by
the author in making commercial layout calculations.
The outline of procedure is followed by an example
with sample calculations. For an airplane powered'
by an engine and with a propeller the procedure is
essentially the same as that given in the previous editions
of this text.
1:3 Layout Procedure. For a given payload
stalling speed, Jiia5dmum speed, and climb or ceiling,
wi th propulsion by propeller and reciprocating engine
proceed as follows: '
(1) First estimate of gross weight. Estimate
gross night. 4 x (Payload + Pilot) for a normal
range airplane. This weight estimate is merely intend-
ed to be wi thin 50%. The pilot is specified as an
addition to the payload because for larger airplanes
the pilot is not considered part of the payload.
(2) First estimate of wing area. Estimate
wing area - S or: max v/'). Assume that
ct max- 1.4 or 1.5 for wings without flaps. Far
wings with full span flaps of the split or simple
type ct max may be assumed to 2.0 to 2.2. Where it is
desired to keep the wing area as small as pOSSible,
use may be made of a dooble slotted flap suoh as that
far which data are given on page A2a.:26, where it ill
seen that the C
1
max may be as high as 3.2.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIOHT AIRPLANES
(3) First drag estimate. For a low-drag airfoil,
the minillium arag coefficient is seen on page A2a:20 or
A2a:21 to be easily kept below CD min - 0.005. This
may be increased to 0.006 to allow for drag added by Vee
type tail surfaces. The drag coefficient associated with
the fuselage will depend on the fuselage size which is as
yet undetermined, but it may be assumed for this first
drag estimate that the drag of the fuselage with can-
pletely retracted landing gear is equal to the drag of
the wing and tail. In general, data in Appendix A2b
should be consulted for drag of other items if or when
present.
(4) Calculation of thrust horsepower reqUired. From
the specified Vmax read on page A2f:2 a value of ThPm/f
and calculate ThPm -(ThPmt'f)f. On page A2f:2, al!lsume
tentatively the Ls4- 30 to 60.
(5) Calculation of brake horsepower required. Assume
a maximum propeller efficiency (woOd o. 75 to 0.80, metal
0.80 to 0.85) and calculate BhPm ThPm/l'(. This gives
the engine power necessary for the specified speed.
(6) Selection of power plant. For a list of recipro--
cating engines see page 14:!; In some specifications the
engine is already selected and these first six steps can
be omitted ,
(7) Second weight estimate. Reville weight estimate
on the baS1S 01 power pIarit weight. Read weight of engine
dry (without hub or starter) on page A4:l. For an air-
cooled reCiprocating engine,
(total power plant weight) - 1.3 x (weight of engine
dry).
(Airplane weight empty) - (2.5 to 3.5) x' (total power
plant weight.
(Gasoline weight) (endurance at cruising) x
(0.38 BhPm).
Oil weight (gasoline weight)/12.
Fixed equipment as in specification (parachutes,
radiO, etc).
Gross weight weight empty + gas, oil, and fixed
equipment + payload.
(8) Second estimate of wing area and drag. Items (2)
and (3) may be repeated ilslligtEe- second weight estimate.
(9) Calculation of parasite loading. Calculate Lp -
W/f.
(10) Selection of propeller and estimate of efficiency.
Select propeller as on page A2e:1 at this stage of the de-
Sign and estimate maximum propeller efficiency from
other graphs in Appendix A2e.
(11) Calculation of and thrust power loading.
Calculate ThPm BhPm(rl) and Lt - W/lbPm.
(12) Determination of minimum ceiling and climb
tirameterA
(a) Using te specified sea level climb (0),0) calculate A
tt, Cbo/lOOO. Read maximum permissible cei!ing parameter ,>-
on page A"f':4.
(b) Using the specified altitude ceiling, read A on
page A2f:5.
(c) The smaller of these two values must be used to
fulfill both specifications. For multi-engined airplanes,
the ceiling with one or more engines out of commission
may be the prinCipal faoter determ1ningA
(13) Caloulation of the necessary" wing span. Knowing
hand 9tt use page 12f;3 and read or ca10iilate Ls4.
Knowine Lt, caloulate Ls' KnOll'ing Ls - w/eb2, estimate
e from page A2f:l and solve for the span necessary to
get the specified olimb and osiling.
(11) Preliminary layout sketch. Make a preliminary
sketch of the airplane. For a wing tentatively sketch a
monoplane of 2:1 taper ratio using the calculated span,and
calculating the geometriC mean ohord as Om Sib. Witll a
2:1 taper ratiO, the root chord will be Or 2em1l,s and
the tip chord will be 0t - emil. 5 The advantage of
. For Jet plalles lISe alta'll8te procedure 011 p. 1112.
1:3
taper of 2:1 can be investigated later. For a oonven-
tional tail arrangement, oonsisting of vertioal and hor-
izontal tail, tentatively assume Svert.- 0.075 S and
Shoriz. 0.15 s. For a Vee tail assume a 45
0
dihedral
and a total tail area of 0.225 S. This assumes that
the Vee tail involves no saving in tail area though there
is usually a saving in drag. Locate engine, propeller,
pilot, passengers, baggage, and gasoline so that the
oenter of gravity (c. g.) will be near the 1/3 ohord point
of the wing. Passengers, baggage, and gasoline should
be as near to the c.g. as possible to avoid a ohange of
c.g. location when these items are absent. Assume a
tractor monoplane unless otherwise speCified. The advan-
tage of ohanging to a pusher can be oalculated later.
Locate wheels and tail so that the zero lift ohord of the
wing may be inclined about 20
0
up for landing and so that
the fuselage center line incidence will be about zero
at an absolute angle of attack 0( a _ 3
0
to 50. Assume a
retractable landing gear; advantage in weif'ht saving may
be balanced against drag reduction in a later investiga-
tion.
(15) Third weight estimate and balance table.
Estimate weights of major aiI'plalle oomponents, using
charts on pages A5:l to AS:3. Measure location of
parts in terms of distance from the nose on the preliminary
layout sketch. Prepare table showing o.g. location.
(16) Performance Calculation. Revise parasite drag
estimate, using 'the data in Appendix A2 and caloulate the
specified items of performance. If Appendix A2 is
found exoessively condensed, oonsult Technical Aero-
dynamics, second edition.
If the speoified performanoe is approximately ful-
filled, the design is ready for an investigation of the
effect of changes in design on performance. Suoh an
investigaticn involves an evaluation of relative importanoe
of decrease in weight (for a given strength) and an in-
orease in minimum drag. Reasonably accurate evaluations
of these faotors is not possible until a speoial study
has been made of the relatim between weight, strength,
and oost and is therefore deferred to a later chapter.
Preliminary comparisons based on average weight and strength
of ourrent deSigns are however possible without suoh
detailed study and are therefore presented later in this
chapter.
1:3 Example of Preliminary Layout. As an example
of aPplication of the above method, preliminary layout
caloulations will be made for an airplane to meet the
speoifications given in article 1:1. These steps are
numbered to correspond to the steps outlined in suggested.
procedure given above.
(1) First estimate of gross weight: For 400 lb.
payload, estilliate gross weight 400 1600.
For small ships like this, the term "payload" may be
used to include the pilot (as here), though this usage
is not strictly in accord with the NACA definition. On
transport ships, the pilot (and erew) are not oonsidered
"payload".
(2) First estimate of wing area. Sinoe the speoifi-
cations Cill for high 11ft fUll span flaps, it will be
assumed that ct max - a stalling speed of 55 mph,
the necessary wing area is calculated to be
S - 1600
O.OO25ElX 3 x (55)2 69 sq. ft.
tentatively assume S 70 sq. ft. as a small change in
wing area makes an even smaller ohange in stalling speed.
(3) First drat estimate. As suggested in the layout pro--
oed.ure, assume thi the arig of tile wing tail, and fuselage
are represented a minimum airplane drag ooelfioient of On
0.012, whioh might be increased to 0.015 on account of the
windshield and the fact of the landing wheel is not
fully retracted. A 1Il0re detailed drag estimate is to be
made later but it may be noted at this time that the
minimum drag coefficient of 0.015 here assumed. is
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LI!1HT AIRPLANES
(b) For an absolute ceiling of H 10,000 on p.
A2f:5, on the next-to-top curve of the absolute ceiling
group, read A. 28.
The smaller of these two values of A is necessary
to fulfill both the ceiling and climb specifications.
(13) calculation of necessary wing span. Using
A 23 and the cfuii't on page A2f:3 and YLt rhJlm/f _
54/1 - 54, read LsLt 86. USing L
t
_ 23.5 as previously
determined, calculate Ls - 86/23.5 - 3.66 _ w/eb
2

To estimate e note the charts on page A2f:l and
observe that ew is usually between 0.8 and 0.9 and that
it is somewhat reduced by the effect of fuselage drag
variation with angle of attack. Tentatively assume
e - 0.8 (to be verified after the aspect ratio has been
determined) and calculate
20.8 ft.
-.J 1270
O.B x 3.66
1:5
For a wing area S - 55 sq. ft. calculate Om Sib -
55/20.8 2.65 ft. and the aspect ratio is 20.8/2.65
7.85. This is a reasonable aspect ratio and will be used
in making a layout sketch of the airplane.
(14) Preliminary layout sketch. The wing will be
sketched With a 2:1 taper ratio as suggested in the
outline of procedure. The root chord will be
Or 2 (2.65) - 3.54 ft.; Ct 1 (2.65) 1.77 ft.
!"3'""
These numbers may be rounded off to 42 inches and 21 inches
respectively, a5 wing drawing dimensions are usually
specified in inches. The span will then be 250 inches.
A sketch made in accordance with suggestions in the outline
is shOJlll in Figure 1:4. The fuselage width will be
made just sufficient to accommodate a single passenger.
pafe Al:8 shOirs that, among the airplanes listed, only
one airplane has a seat width less than 24 inches.
Accordingly the inside fuselage width will be 24 inches
at the front seat; the outside will be made 26 inches to
allow for fuselage wall thickness. A good fuselage

I I
, ,
, ,
: I I
, I I
, ,

01
(;'r - -:. ?::=. --
I
I
..... ""

"
"
"
" I
,dJ /
,In ./
iJ--,,'*'
\
\
\
\
,

1\
1\
II
\I
II

-J0
Fig. 1:4 Preliminary layout sketch for layout example of Art. 1:3.
See pp. and 1:12 tor photogr'aphs of airplanes of th1e type.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
1:6
shape has its maximum width at the middle of the fuselage:
at the middle our fuselage can be about 28 inches; only
21 inches is necessary to submerge the engine completely
within the fuselage. The engine Will be located tenta-
tively with e.g. approximately at the trailing edge
of the wing. The will be located ahead of the
main spar which will be assumed at the quarter chord of
the wing. A total passenger compartment overall length
of 72 inches will be provided on the basis of cabin dimen-
sions on page A8:1. The tail length frem the quarter
chord of the wing to the elevator hinge line is made a
little over three times the mean chord, in this case 100
inches. The total Vee-tail area (actual not projected)
was made about 13 sq. ft. which is 23.7% of the wing
area for this sketch. Investigation of stability and
control provided by the tail surface may, and usually
does, lead to in the dimensions and/or propor-
tions. A retractable nose wheel is shown to accompany
the single main wheel; a retractable tricycle gear
should also be considered as an alternate design.
(15) Third Weight estimate and balance table. Hav-
ing the prenminary sketch (Figure 1:4) showinl2' approxi-
mate sizes and locations of various parts of the airplane,
a more accurate weight estimate and a balance table can
be prepared. The form shown in Table 1:1 is suggested.
Discussion of the numerical values for the various
items follows the table.
Table 1:1
Weil2'ht and Balance Table
Weight Arm Mcment
Weight-(empty) In. Lb.-in.
1. Structural, Total-3l6#
A. Wing Group 110 105 11,550
B. Tail Group - 16 200 3,200
C. Body Group
1. Fuselage ------- 110 100 11,000
2. Landing Gear 50 115 5,750
II. Power Plant, Total-283#
A. Engine Group
26,350 1. Engine-(Dry) 176 150
2. Accessories
------
32 150 4,800
3. Controls 5 150 750
4. Cowling 10 150 1,500
B. Prope11or-(Complete) - 41 135 5,530
C. Lubricating System --- 4 150 600
D. Fuel System 15 105 1,580
III. Fixed Equipment, Total-126#
A. Instruments 10 50 500
B. Surface Controls 11 80 880
C. Furnishings & Safety Equip. 68 70 4,7&J
D. Electrical Equipment -- 37 80 2,960
Total Weight, Empty - 725
Useful Load
Pay load and pilot-- 400 70 28,000
Fuel and oil ---- 98 115 11,280
Total -------- ""'4%
Gross Weight ----
"Im-

e.g. from nose. 123,990 101.3
-rm-
Consider the elements listed in Table 1:1 in order.
I. Structural elements.
A.!Iii First approximation of wing weight can
be obtained from Fig. A5:8 on page A5:2. For airplanes
of 1270 Ibs. groes weight, read for internally braced
wings a unit weight of about 1.75 lbs,lsq. ft.
Check with Fig. A5:7: to determine the design wing load
factor, use Fig. A6a:3, calculate W/Bhp 1270/65
19.6 lbs/hp and for W 1270 lbs. read nIb 4.4.
With the usual factor of safety of 1.5 the design load
factor is n' 1.5 x 4.4 6.6 Calculate
(6.6 x 1270) (1000 x 2.65) 3.16 and read ww s 1.75
Ibs/sq. ft., which checks rough estimate from Fig. A5:8.
page A5:3 can also be used for a good check on wing
weight. The total weight of a normal wing (without flaps)
would then be 1.75 x 55 96 Ibs, but approximately one
lb/sq. ft of flap should be added for a double slotted
flap of this sort. For 20% chord flaps, the flap area
would be 20% of 55 or 11 sq. ft. and the additional
weight due to flaps 11 lbs., giving total wing weight of
107 lbs. A few pounds more should be added for retract--
able ailerons so the wing weight is estimated at 110
pounds.
Eo Tail Surfaces Fig. 1$: 8 shows that taU surfaces
for light airptanes have usually been built for about
1.05 lbs/sq.ft. for airplanes of this size. The Vee-
tail will presumably have to been a little heavier per
sq. ft. because of the more severe design loads and a
reasonable allowance for the increase in tail surface
weight is judged to be 15%, so that the estimated unit
tail weight is 1.2 lbs/sq. ft. and the estimated total
tail weight is (1.2 Ibs/sJi. ft.) x 13 sq. ft 16 lbs.
to the nearest whole lb.
C. Body In Fig. 1$:9, read fuselage struc-
ture weight 140 Is. For a conventional landing gear
of the two main wheels and a tail wheel or skid, read
in Fig. A5:9a weight of 75 lbs, this is judged to be re-
ducible to 50 lbs. by using a bicycle landing gear.
II. Power Plant Elements.
A. Engllle Group. -on-page A4:l, the weight of the
Continental A=65 Series 8 engine is given as 176 Ibs,
(without hub or starter). Desired accessories are starter
and muffler. The smallest starter listed on page A5:27
is given as about 17 lbs. manifolding, muffler,
and exhaust pipe are not usually listed in weight data,
but presumably such equipment could not be much lighter
than similar automobile equipment, and would have to
weight about 15 lbs. The total weight for engine
accessories is thus 17 + 15 32 lbs. Engine control units
and connections may be estimated at 5 lbs, allowan(".e to
provide for' scoops in the side of the fuselage designed
for minimum drag and good air flow to the cylinders can-
not be carefully estimated at this stage, but a figure of
10 lbs. is believed to be conservative.
B. Propeller. The weight of six blade 60" diameter
dural prop is estImated from fig. A5: 2 to be about 55
lbs.(extrapolated) and it may be noted that wooden
propellers usually weigh 20 or 30 per cent less than dural
for the two blade type. Accordingly the propeller
weight is here estimated to be .75 x 55 41 lbs.
C. D. Lubricating and Fuel Systems. Use Figs. A513
and A5:4, nth a 15 gailon gas tank and a one gallon oil
tank. For Dural gae tanks and piping read 15 lbs. and
for the oil tank read 4 lbs. (both extrapolations slight-
ly off the chart). The total power plant group is the
sum of these items or 283 Ibs.
III. Fixed Equipment Elements.
A. Instruments. on pages A5:31,32, and 33 read
air speed indicator 0.5 lbs., air speed tubing 0.5 lbs.,
turn-and-band indicator 1.4 lbs., magnetic compass 1.2
lbs., oil pressure gage 0.3 Ibs., magnetic tachometer 1
lb., oil and air thermometers 1 lb. The dash arrange-
ment might well be copied from recent model automobiles.
The total instrument weight is 9.9 lbs. which we will call
10 lbs. in this table, working to the nearest whole pound.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
B. Surface Controls. SUrface control are usually
about 10% of the Wlng we2fht (in which allowance has
already been made for weight of flaps and retractable
ailerons) so that the weifht of the surface control may
be assumed 10% of 110 or 11 lbs.
C. Furnishings and SafetyEquipment. For seats
refer to page A5:36 and choose the 12ghtest pilot seat
listed at about 7 Ibs. plus the quick detach-
able parachute at about lB lbs. For flooring, including
baggage space floor, allow, 12 sq. ft. of 1/4 inch
plywood or equivalent (at o.B Ibs/sq. ft., page A5:8 +
0.2 Ibs/sq. ft. for carpet) to a total of 12 Ibs.
for floor material. The only safety equipment item here
contemplated would be a 1 quart fire extinguisher list-
ed on page A5:36 at 6 Ibs. The total for furnishings
and safety equipment is 68 Ibs.
D. Electrical Equipment. Battery (12 volt, shield-
ed, page $:28) 21 lbs.; two-way radio trarlsmitter-and-
receiver, lightest outfit quoted on page A5:35, 16 Ibs.
The foregOing figures give a total weight empty of
725 Ibs. Adding the useful load(pilot, passenger, fuel,
and oil) of 498 Ibs. as in the previous (record)
estimate; the third estimate of "ross weight is 1223 Ibs.
Thia new gross weigh estimate is 3 - 1/2% less than the
Second weight estimate but this decrease may not actually
be realized and accordingly the performance will be
calculated basis of the larger figure of 1270 Ibs.
It is of course not contemplated that all the specified
instruments and equipment should be supplied at the ad-
vertised price of the airplane (any more than they would
be for an automobile), but the design load should be
sufficient to permit maximum eqUipment. Performance
should probably be estimated both liFht and heavy.
Heavy (maximum permissable load) for the deSigners infor-
mation. Light for advertiSing, (misleading perhaps, but
perhaps ethically justifiable on the grounds that the
plane will rarely fly with its maximum load).
The balance table and the third weightestimate are
combined in Table 1:1. The lever arms of the vdrious
prinCipal items were measured on the drawing from
the nose of the airplane to the c.g. of the component.
The sum of the moments divided by the total weight gives
the airplane c.g. distance from the nose. This point
was plotted and its distance measured from the leading
edge of the mean geometric wing chord and expressed as
a fraction of the mean wing chord, because the c.g.
location on the mean chord is one of the principal
factors determining the longitudinal stability of the
airplane. The following rules may help in estimating
the c.g. location of component elements: For wings assume
e.g. at 40 to 45% of the mean winr chord. For tail
surfaces assume c.g. at hinge line.
For fuselage structure, assume c.g. at 40 to 45%
of the overall length depending on fuselage shape. For
engine, the center line of the cylinders is usually
close enough. Engine accessories are on the end away
from the propeller hub. Engine control system weight
is chiefly in the cockpit. Lubricating system is
usua'ly as near the engine as convenient oil chanpng
will permit. Fuel system weight is chiefly gas tanks
which should be located near the 0.3 chord point to
avoid shift of with gas consumption. Instrument
weight and surface control weight is chiefly in the cock-
pit, which moves the c.g. of the whole item towards
the rear of the cockpit. Furnishings are in the cock-
pit; electrical equipment weight is chiefly battery,
location of which is optional but puttine the battery
far from the increases the weight of starter cable.
Passenger and pilot are in cockpit; caggage should
preferably be at c.[:. to permit balance with or nthout
baggage, but other locations may be used if baggage
is always replaced by ballast, (avoid this if possible).
Movable eqUipment, parachutes, fire extinguishers, etc.,
must be near the cockpit to be of use.
1:7
From the Table 1:1 the e.g. location from the nose is cal-
culated from the sum of the moments divided by the gross
weight and this point is sho'llI! on the drawing as heavy
plus Sign with a circle around it. On the drawing the dis-
tance of this point measured from the leading edge of the
mean chord is found to be 12 inches and the c.g. location
on the mean chord is 38% of om aft of the leading edge of
Om. This c.g. location is somewhat farther aft than was
intended, but the c.g. location changes as the desirn
progresses. The wing may later be given a 11 ttle S1reep
forward or sweep back in order to get a better c.g.
locatiCll on the mean geometric chord. Sweep has no
important aerodynamic effect at Mach numbers less than
0.3, though for high speed airplanes the critical Mach
number may be somewhat delayed by a large amount of
S1reep back as discussed in Chapter 4. A large S1reepback
usually involves a structural penalty, as swept wings must
generally weigh more than unswept wings for a given area
and span.
(16) Performance estimates. Using the dimensions in
Fig. 114 it is now to make a more accurate
estimate of the parasite drag. Such estimates are given
in Table 1:2 Arguments ju!!tifying the estillBtes are
after the table.
Table 1:2
Wing Profile, 14% thickness (mean)
(
65
4 Series) 55 sq. ft.
Fuselage, Oval Section, max. 8 sq.
Cockpit canopy, 0.7 sq. ft.
Tail surfaces, 13 sq. ft.
Propellor support Strut, 3" wide
Wheel, 1/3 Exposed, 6.6" wide, 22"
Total
ft. 0.0600
0.0200
0.0039
dia.
The above figures lIl!re determined as follows:
CD
0.0050
0.0090
0.0003
0.0009
0.0019
0.0014

Wing Root thickness 18%, tip thickness 9%, mean
errectiveness about 14%. For at sea level at
165 mph calculate i . 0.00256 x 165 69.7 lbs/sq. ft.
and for w/S 1270 55 23.1 Ibs/sq. ft.., the lift co-
efficient at cruising is W/Sq 23.1/69.7 0.331.
An airfoil should be selected 1Ih1eh will bave a low drllf
coefficient at CL approximately 0.3. The Reynolds
number of cruising flight is 9380 x (mpb) x Cm(ft)
9380 x 165 x 2.65 4,100,000. UBe of NACA low drag 6$
or 66 series wing is suggested. A suitable root airfoil
would be the NAC! 653-418 for which the ordinates are
listed on page A2a:12. Note from the top of page A2al2l
that the thicknesB has small effect on the minimum drag
and from the top of page A2al22 that a drag coefficient
of as 1011' as 0.005 at a Reynolds number of 4.1 million
might be expected 11' the leading edge iI! Blllooth.
Fuselage For data on elliptical' fuselages refer to page
A2b:2 and note that the incremental drag coefficient
A CD for a fuselage added to a high wing _8
0.0130 - 0.0093 0.0037 based on a wing area S 150
Sq. in. and a fueelage frontal area Sw 9.29 sq. in.
The corresponding Talue of\CDIr 0.0037 :z: 150/9.29
0.060. Referring to page A2bll
f
values as 1011' as 0.050
are reported for & high wing on & circular fuselage.
For the subject airplane the corresponding value of in-
cremental fuselage drag based on wing area is A Co .
0.060 x 8/55 0.0009 and this is the value shown in
Table 1:2. The value of 8 sq. ft. frontal area for the
subject fuselage was calculated from the width of 2.5 ft.,
a maximum depth of 4 ft., and an elliptical cross
section. The foregoing figures are for a perfectly
smooth fuselage and do not include the cockpit canopy.
Cockpit Canopy. USe the lowest drag cockpit canopy re-
ported on page A2b:4, which is tbe one
1-2, and for which the drag coefficient A Cntr (. .6 CoF)
is given OIl page A2b14 all about 0.02 at Jlach number 0.3.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
1:8
The frontal area of the canopy is here estimated as 0.7
sq. ft. so the incremental drag coefficient based on wing
area for this airplane Co - 0.02 x 0.7/55 _ 0.0003.
Tail Surfaces. Use the low drag tail surfaces 6500009
section for Which the ordinates are listed on page A2a:12.
to page A2b:9 and note that a value of C])r (for
horizontal tail only, NACA combination 312) is reported
as low as 0.0039 for an NACA four-digit-section tail
surface. For the Vee tail, there will probably be a slight
increase over this figure but this is judged to be com-
pensated by the change to low drag airfoil for the tail
surface and accordingly this figure will be used for the
incremental drag coefficient due to tail surfaces. The
corresponding drag increlD3nt based on wing area, for 13
sq. ft. of tail, is, CD - 0.0039 x 13/55 0.0009, and
this is the value that appears in Table 1:2.
Propeller support strut. It is considered that the engine
Will he completely submerged in the fuselage with a cool-
ing scoop of negligible drag. The propeller drive
is considered to be by a shaft through a cantilever
streamlined strut of about three inches maximum thickness
and three ft. length. The drag per foot of such a strut
is listed on page A2b:ll at 0.295 Ibs/ft. at 100 mph
and the junction with the fuselage is conceived of as
being the equivalent to one fitting for which the drag
is 1.75 Ibs. at 100 mph. Accordingly the drag of this
propeller support strut and shaft housing is estimated to
be 3 x 0.295 + 1.75 - 2.65 Ibs. at 100 mph. The
equivalent parasite flap plate area f is 2.65/25.6 _ 0.105
ft. and the corresponding airplane incremental drag
coefficient is en - f/S 0.105/55 0.0019.
Wheel drag. For the main landing wheel, select tentatiw-
1y a GoOdrich low pressure landing "heel tire of nominal
size 6.50-10 and static load rating of 1300 Ibs., for
which tIle outside diameter (as listed on page A5: 22) is
21.8 inches and for which the maximum width is 6.6 inches.
The frontal area of such a tire is represented approxi-
mately by a rectangle 6.6 inches by 22 inches and the
exposed area (one third exposed) is 0.33 sq. ft. On
page A2b:ll read drag per sq. ft. at 100 mph of 6.0 lb
so that for this wheel the drag at 100 mph is 2.0 Ibs.
The eqUivalent flat plate area is 2.0/25.6 0.08 sq. ft.
and the incremental drag coefficient is 0.08/55. 0.0014.
Total minimum dra,' Summarizing the drag estimates the
minimUm drag coer icient for the airplane is found to be
0.0185 instead the 0.0150 hoped for in the preliminary
design. This drag coefficient is lower than that any
military airplane pictured on page A2b:6 (for which data
are given aJ page A2b:5) except airplanes 7 (wind tunnel
mockup) and 11 (Bell Airacobra) and accordingly the
drag estimate may be considered reasonable.
The value of f 0.0185 x 55 1.02 sq. ft. may be
used to calculate the performance parameters for the charts
on pages A2f:2, A2f:4, and as followel
Calculate Lp 1270/l.02 _ 1250. the charts
on page A2r:l, For aspect ratio approximately 8 read
Sw 0.86 and A (l/e 0.78. Calculate /J. (1/e)f.
'"'"!rls -
0.78 x 8/55 0.111.
With l/ew 1.16 calculate lie 1.16 + 0.11 1.27, or
e 0.79.
Calculate Ls. 1270
"'0"';'.7';-9'-X--:"( 2""0- ...,.8""3... ) 2"--
3.69 and
Calculats Lt _ 1270 1270 _ 23.4
0.83 x 65 """54
Calculate Lp/Lt. 53.0 Calculate LaLt 86.7
Calculate -A.. LT. I ,3rT7T: 86 /
___ . r'tf V "'P' "'Ii. 7 3.77 - 23.0
A2t:4 tor A 2a rea' LtO:!.. = 10.loo a:a4 oalaulate O:!..
= 10.100/234 : 430 tt.!mi
On page A2f:5 for -A.. 23 read an absolute ceiling at
12,000 feet.
The specified performance seems to be "ell exceed-
ed except in the matter of climb, where the fulfillment
of the specification is marginal since the span was
designed for this climb. An increase of span from 20.8
to 25 ft might well be given serious consideration
for better climb from altitude airports.
1:4 Study of Possible Revisions of Layout. The
layout (Fig. 1:4) made according to the rUles given
in Article 1: 2 must be considered tentative. Before
proceeding with estimates, it is usually
desirable to investigate advantages of possible changes.
Changes to be considered for this airplane are,
(a) change of wing shape to rectangular wing in the
interest of simplicity of construction,
(b) elimination of flaps in the interest of possible
reduction in cost,
(c) retraction partly exposed landing wheel as well
as nose wheel,
(d) possible change to jet power plant.
For each ot these changes there are gains and com-
pensating losses to be estimated. The designers
problem is quantatively the net gain or lOBS in these
specifications.
the changes suggested above only the last will
be studied in detail here because this is the only
one that involves a major change in performance and
utility. The foregoing calculation method
is not convenient for jet propelled airplanes because
such power plants are rated by thrust rather than bhp.
The method recommended involves the use of the
Schairer-Boeing Chart (P. A4:9) discussed later in
this chapter and described fully in Technical
AerodynamiCS, Second Edition. The level high speed
can however be determined quickly as followe:
A turbojet that delivers 1 pound of thrust can be
considered to deliver one thrust horsepower at 375 mph
because 375 mile pounds per hour (550 Ibs. per
second) _ 1 hp. The level high speed or the layout in
Art. 1:3 driven by engine and propeller turned out to
be 185 mph which is almost exactly half of the 375 and
this level high speed was obtained with 54 thrust hp.
The necessary thrust to produce the same level high
speed 54 x 375/185 109 Ibs. of thrust at sea level.
lIhile no turbojet developing this small amount
thrust has been developed, two small turbojets are
referred to in this text, namely, the Boeing experimen-
tal turbojet (ror which the rotor is shown in Fig. 1:7
and which is there reported to deliver 150 Ibs. of thrust
for a power plant weit;ht or 85 Ibs.) and the Westing-
house 9-1/2 inch "baby" turbojet delivering 275 Ibs.
of thrust for a power plant weight of 140 Ibs. Since
the airplane drag varies very nearly as the square or
the speed in the high speed range where the lift co-
efficient is small and the drag coefficient nearly
constant, the estimated high speed of the airplane of
Fig. 1:4 converted to met propulsion is for the
Boeing turbojet 185 x 150. 218 mph at aea level and

for the We stinghouse "bahT' jet 185 x _[275 295 mph
at sea level. Y W
lIhen allowance is made for the drag reduction due to
elimination of the propeller supporting strut, retraction
of the main landing wheel, and possible substitution
of a plexit;las nose for the cockpit canopy, the sea
level high speed of the Westinghouse powered light
airplane here considered would be over 325 mph, which
would be a phenomenal compared with any
light airplane available today, though the jet nOise
might be highly objectionable.
At altitude, unlike the
powered airplane, the level speed improves same-
what.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
For example, at 13,000 ft. where the density ratio 6 2/3
(l/lf. 1.5) the thrust developed at constant air speed is
74% of the sea level thrust according to the general thrust
variation on page A4:9. For constant angle of attack, the
drag is independent of altitude and the speed of flight
must increase in proportion to the square root of the den-
sity ratio. Accordingly if the thrust could be kept ccn-
stant the level high speed at 13,00 ft. would be 325 x
-fW 398 mph, but because of the reduction in thrUllt to
74% of the sea level ;lue, the actual level high speed at
13,000 ft. is 398 x .74. 342 mph at 13,000 ft. While
13,000 ft is probably as high as private pilot would care
to go without Q&bin supercharging. An additional gain of
17 mph to about 360 mph level high speed is obtainable
at 25,000 ft. Flight at this altitude would have conSid-
erable advantage in bumpy weather if a simple cabin super-
charging device could be built. It is here estimated
that sealing the cabin for supercharging providing
an air bleed from the turbojet compressor, and providing a
cabin pressure regulator could be accomplished in a plane of
this size for approximately 25 lbs. which is of the same
order of magnitude as the saving in power plant weight.
For flight at 25,000 ft. the wing design cannot be consid-
ered anywhere near the optimum since the area was determined
largely from landing considerations and span from climb
considerations using an engine and propeller. At 25,000
ft. the lift coefficient at level high speed is approximate-
ly 0.2 whereas the lift coefficient for maximum L/D is
about 0.6 determined as follows:
I
I
I
I I
, I
L
1:9
The drag coefficient for this airplane was estimated to
be given by the equation CD .0185 + .0513 CL
2
for the
configuration shown in Fig. 1:4, or Co 0.0150 + 0.0.536
C
L
2 for an improved configuration shown on Fig. 1:5.
For the minim1lJl drag condition, deSignated by the
Subscript ( h
Cnl 2 x 015 0.030 and Cu 1 0.54. To
have a lift coefficient of 0.54 at the high speed condi-
tion would require multiplying the wing loading by
3 (di tiding the Wing area by 3) and the Wing span would
have to be maintained approximately constant in order
to maintain the sa.JIl(value of (L/D)I!IIOX 0.54/0.030 18.
The corresponding aspect ratio woUld be 3 x 7.85 23.5
and the stalling speed would have to increase by the factor
-rr to 96 mph. Thill stalling speed and aspect ratio are
judged to be impractical but a compromise high wing loading
obtained by dividing the wing area by 2, keeping the span
constant, and giving an aspect ratio of 15.7 may be consid-
ered as a possible reasonable modification of the design
of the Fig. 1:5. With this considerably smaller and
therefore thinner wing, the wing weight would be multip-
lied by apprOximately 4 and about 300 lbs. would be
added to the gross weight, giving a gross weight of 1570
lbs. A.dded fuel would also be necessary to maintain
reasonable range. If the fuel weight approximately
tripled, giving 260 lbs. instead of 90 lbs. for fuel, &
re&soo&ble new gross weight is 1740 lbs.

:: =:':,\, - _ "'_-<_>i_o----
'-' I

I \1
I ---\ 11
I' I ,'\
j;,/ ", U.
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..... -- ---_----1. ...... --------- .... "'"-____ _
"
Fif' 1:5. Revision of Fig. 1:4
for propulsion by 9.5"
turbojet. High speed increases
from 185 mph to 325 mph at sea
level, to 340 mph at 13,000 ft.,
and to 350 mph at 25,000 ft. With
reduced wing area, the hiph speed
can be increased to 390 mph at
1),000 ft.
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LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT AIRPLANES
A sketch showing a design to this specification is given
belOll'.
Fig. 1:6 Preliminary layout sketch for problem I,
Article 1:5.
A weight estimate for this airplane is given in Table
1:4 below.
Table 1:4 Weight Estimate
WEIGHT EMPTY 1163 Ibs.
I. structural total .595 Ibs.
A. Wing group 260 Ibe.
B. '!'ail group. .35
c. Body group 300
1. Fuselage. 200
2. Landing gear 100
II. POII'Sr plant, total. .445
A. Engine group. .351
1. Engines, dry 286
2. Accessories. .5'0
3. controls. ,
4. COlfling 10
B. Propellers, complete 30
C. Lubricating system .10
D. Fuel System. .54
III. Fixed equipment, total. .123
A. Instruments. 16
B. Surface controls. .32
c. Furnishings. 39
I'. Electrical Equipment. 36
USEF m.. LOAD. 662
I. Pay load and pilot. 400
II. Fuel and oil. 197
III. Movable equipment. 65
GROSS WEIGHT. 1825 lbe.
2. A problem of conSiderable interest and practical
value was provided by the U. S. Department of Canmerce
in calling for bids for the construction of 25 airplanes
(for Inspector's use) to the following specification:
1. General
(a) Any aircraft purchased under these specifications
shall m&tt th. airworthiness reqUirements effective July
1, of the Aeronautics Branch, Department of Commerce,
pertaining thereto.
(b) The airplane design shall be such that maintenance
and replacement costs will be as low as possible.
(c) The seating" arrangement shall be side by side
or staggered not to exceed 45
0

(d) The cockpit shall be closed or convertible.
(e) Dual controls with provision for readily III&king
one set ineUecti ve shall be provided.
(f) The fuselage shall be of all metal construction.
l:ll
2. Performance.
The minimum performance with a pilot and one
passenger (170 lbs. each), two parachutes of 20 Ibs.
each and baggage of 40 Ibs., and fuel and oil suffiCient
for a cruising range of 300 miles against a 10 mile per
hour head wind, shall be:
(a) Maximum speed at rated r.p.m. not less than
110 m.p.h.
(b) Jlinimum controlled flying speed level flight
not more than 35 m.p.h.
(c) Take-off - The airplane must be capable of
clearing an obstacle 35 feet high frOO! a standing start
800 feet ~ y with no wind, at sea level.
. (d) Landing - The airplane shall be capable of
being brought to a stop within 400 feet of a 35 foot
obstacle, which it has cleared, in a straight and fully
controlled glide. It shall also be capable of being
eaSily landed with the fuselage at any angle with the
horizontal frOO! minus 50 to the angle of maximum lift
with immediate and full application of the brakes.
There shall be no tendency to ground loop under any
landing condition. The landing conditions specified
herein shall be attainable by any pilot having a private
pilot's license.
(e) Taxying - The airplane shall be easily con-
trollable on the ground and shall be capable of being
brought to a stop frOO! a ground speed of 45 m.p.h.
in 150 feet.
3. Safety Features.
(a) With power on and pOll'Sr off am) with any possible
combination of settings of the horizontal stabilizer and
!!levator, full lateral control shall be provided and there
shall be no tendency to Side slip or spin under these
condi tions.
(b) FrOO! the maximum nose up attitude which can be
maintained with any and all settings of the horizontal
stabilizer with full power, sudden loss of power and full
upward movement of the elevator shall not cause the
longi tudinal axis of the plane to assume a nose down
attitude exceeding 10
0
below the horizontal.
(c) Any normal flight attitude shall be attainable
with power on or power off by use of the elevators
regardless of the setting of the horizontal stabilizer.
(d) The landing gear shall be capable of accommodat-
ing a vertical velocity component of twenty feet per second
without overstreSSing the landing gear or other parts of the
airplane.
(e) Operation of auxiliary high-lift devices shall
not require an independent readjustment of the horizontal
stabilizer.
(f) The airplane shall be capable of normal maneuver-
ing including right and left hand turns up to 20
0
bank
without the use of the rudder and without appreciable
skidding or slipping and without nosinr:' up or down.
(g) In ail flying attitudes, both pilot and passenger
by movement of the head and shoulders only shall have an
unobstructed view in the following sectors:
(1) A forward sector bounded by a plane inclined five
degrees below tne flip,ht path, a plane inclined 20
0
above
the flight path, and two vertical planes diverging 100
0
from the flight path, one to the right and one to the left.
(2) a downward cone of vision having an included
angle of 30
0
the axis of which lies between vertically
downward, and 45
0
forward of vertically downward, and
(3) an upward cone of vision having an included
angle of 45
0
the axis of which lies between vertically
upward and 45
0
to the rear of vertically upward. Vax-
imum visibility in all other directions is, of course,
desired.
(h) Windshield and windows shall be of a material no
more inflammable than doped fabric.
4. Power Plant.
(a) The engine may be cooled in any manner and may
have any arrangement of cylinders but shall not have less
than four cylinders. It may operate on the four stroke or
two stroke cycle. It mayor may not be geared. It shal.l
not develop over 100 h.p. at rated speed.
(b) It must be inherently free frOO! excessive
vibration.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF LIGHT A IF. PLANES
1:12
(c) It shall require no servicing at less than
50 hour intervala.
(d) It shall be capable of operation on any
good grade of aviation or automobile fuels and oils.
(e) It shall idle satisfactorily and accelerate
smoothly from all speeds on slow or rapid opening of
the throttle both on the ground and after long glides.
(f) Single ignition may be accepted.
(g) Prior to delivery and acceptance of the first
airplane the engine shall have successfully passed all
tests required for the attainment of an approved type
certificate.
5. Equipment.
The following equipment will to provided for each
airplane:
(a) Instruments.
1. Fuel Gauge
2. Altimeter
3. Oil pressure gauge (if required)
it. Oil temperature "auge (if required)
5. Compass
6. Tachometer
7. Bank and turn indicator
8. Air speed indicator
(b) Accessories.
1. Navigation lights
2. Liquid battery
3. Engine starter
U. Generator
5. Parking brake
A number of airplanes were developed as a result
of acceptance of bids on this specification.
3. The following
complete problem:
items are required for the
(1.)
(2.)
(3.)
Ou)
(5.)
General specifications
Preliminary weight estimate
Three view drawing, scale 1/U" - 1 Ft.
Height estimate and balance table.
Performance estimate, including
a. parasite drag estimate
b. speeds: max] min; terminal dive
c. climb at sea level
d. ceiling
e. range and endurance, high speed
f. gliding angle
g. landing and take-off run
h. one-engine-out celling
(6.) Control surface estimates.
a. horizontal tail
b. vertical tail
c. ailerons
(7.) Preliminary stress analysis
a. load factors
b. wing
c. tail surfaces
d. landing gear
e. fuselage
(8.) Detail design of one part
b.,e.,d., or e., in item (7.).
Calculate margins of safety in
/show estimated sis
( of main members
ain
It. Revise the layout illustrated in the example
in the text to use instead of 65 hp Continental engine
a 25 hp Crosley engine weighing 100 lbs and attempt
to get a level high speed of about 135 mph with the
same climb and ceiling specifications.
5. Assume the airplane of Fig. 1:5 is modified
by reducing the chord by a factor of 1.5 and sub-
stitution of a Boeing "baby" jet delivering 150 lbs.
thrust at sea level for the power plant weight of 85
lbs. Calculate the level high speed and maximum rate
of climb at sea level and at altitudes of 13,000 ft.
and 25,000 ft.
REVISED PROCEDURE .iITH JIT POWER PLANTS
The procedure for preliminary design on page 1:3, ite
(9) to (13), involving solution for the span required for
a given climb and celling is not applicable if a Jet
power plant la selected in Item (6). The else of jet
power plant needed may be estimated from the fact that
one pound of thrust is one horse power at 37S miles an
hour, and In general the power delivered by one pound of
thrust is proportional to the speed. Different jet
power plants available are shown on page A4:la, but ttte
selection la not very wide in the range of thrusts under
1,000 pounds.
When the Jet power plant has been selected to ful-
fill the maximum speed specificetion layout items (7)
and (8) (second weight estimate and second estimate of
wing area and drag) oan be computed aa before. In place
of lteme (9) to (13), In which the necessary wing and
aspect ratio are determined, it is necessary to make a
trial solution for aspect ratio. Since the necessary
aspect ratio for a Jet-propelled airplane with the usual
specifications of climb and celling la fairly small
compared with the aspect ratio for propeller driven
airplanes, a desirable fir at trial aspect ratio is 6.
Hence, items (9) to (13) should be revised to read aa
follows:
2
(9) CD: a+ bCL where a = f/S and
b = Xk<fU and e is estimated as on p. A2f:l
(10) Calculate CU|= V/b I Oj, : a D| =
D, = CpW/Cu_ lbe_
T, = -y w7aCu iffe) ft/seo.
P, D.V, , ft/seo.
C, = 60 P, /W ft/mln.
(11) Plot on p. *2f:9 a 43 line thru the point
V/Vi - 1.0 and P/F, - TawU. /D,
(IE) Read V\JV, and C/C, from the plot in item
(11) es explained In Technical Aerodynamics,
d Ed.
(13) Calculate vL = (Vi/Vt) V, and Cn - (C/C, )imz Oi
Repeat at several altitudes and plot Cn vs
altitude to find celling.
If item (13) as computed for aspect ratio 6 falls
to meet either the climb or the celling specification,
items (9) to (13) should be repeated with a higher aspect
ratio, say, 9 and the results plotted against aspeet
ratio to find the minimum aapeot ratio which will satisfy
both climb and celling requirements. If aspect retlo 6
turns out larger than necessary, the next assumption of
aspeet ratio amy well be 3. In thla narrow range of
eepeat ratios, a linear interpolation will give a satis-
factory trial solution.
An example of the design of a jet propelled light
airplane la given on pagee 1:9 and 1:10.
cms R 13
Fig. 1:7. French (Fouga) turbojet glider exhibited at the
Paris Air Show, 1949, much like design developed in Fig.
IlB. Jet thrust (Turbomeca) 178 lba. (Wt = 80 lbs.) vt
= 160 mph at 10,000 ft; Ch0 > 760 ft/mln. Celling - 33,000
ft; range ISO ml. Courtesy of Aviation Week, Hay S3, 1940.
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CHAPTER 2
LAYOur DESIGN OF TRANSPORT AND CARGO AIRPLANES
2:1 Scope of Specifications. The terms "transport"
and "cargo" airplanes are used to describe a Wide variety
of airplanes. The four or five seat airplane is sometimes
referred to "executive transport" but for the most part
transport airliners fall into the three classifications
shown in Table 2:1.
C&r"o airplanes may be regarded as transports primar-
ily for transportation of mail, express, and freight
instead of passengers. The classification of size into
small, medium, and large is somewhat artificial (like the
grading of fruit) as there are many airplanes which fall
in between these arbitrary categories and some airplanes
could be put into either of two categories. Thus the DC-3
airplane (the most popular trans-continental liner prior
to World War n) is in the process of being displaced and
is often used as a large "feederliner". "nle examples of
feederliners under development shown in Fig. 2:1 (a) and
2:1 (b) are fairly large for this type and could also be
used for small loads on multi-stop transcontinental runs.
The medium or "transcontinental liner" size is typified by
Fig. 2:1 (c) and (d). The examples of large transoceanic
liners shown in Fig. 2:1 (e) and (f) are larger than the
usual range listed in Table 2:1.
An increase in l!5ize of the airplane does not alllaYs
represent an improvement from the passengers' point of view,
even thoUlZh it may represent an economy from the point
of view of the airline for a given passenger load factor.
For example, the shift frClll DC-3 (21 passengers) to DC-4
(40 to 50 passengers) may save little time for the passen-
gers in spite of the higher airplane cruising speed be-
cause passengers are compelled to report earlier to the
airport before take-off time and stay later after arrival
time because of the longer time involved in checking ticket
amd baggage for a given flight. Short nights should use
small airplanes if an excessive amount of time is not to
be lIasted in getting people on and off.
2:2 Type of tower plants. No transport or cargo
airplane at presen flYing (1947) or contemplated for air-
line use in 1948 is powered by anything but a reciprocat-
ing engine. Recent studies of the relative merit of
various power plant types, however, indicate a future
trend away from the reciprocating engine except for small
airplanes. In general as indicated in the last three
columns of Table 2:1 the gas-turbine-driven propeller is
now thought to be probably more suitable for large long
range airplanes, and the turbojet more suitable for medium
size and range airplanes where speed is at a premium.
Even for airplanes of 120,000 lbs. gross weil'ht and
ranges up to 2,000 miles Godsey(l)finds the turbojet
superior to the reCiprocating engine in all respects ex-
cept take-ofr run and extreme range as shown in Fig. 2:2
Note that Godsey' a comparison would favor the
turbojet rather than the reCiprocating engine even for a
2,000 mile transoceanic hop on the basis of cargo
capaCity, With a considera.ble advantage or increase in
best cruising speed frOll! 250 to 460 miles an hour.
JETI",'Nl -
..... TURIIN! .. ''''. rzzz:zz:z3
IIEC"ItOCATIN' c:=::=::::3
f,,;m;,,""A
LINOT" Of
TAU -0" OUN
F""",,"")$r?? ?? 23 ..... UTI o. eL''''
: !!::::: IIAX ... m
14 JETS 51,0001 IEIT e.u.,,"o
r. <<<<5'" } 110,000 UT.I ,_no
P"""""'?"
f'","";b
m
q
ZZ
?24
pm;"",,,,,'vuU!
ALTITUDE CEILINO
EXTOl .. I "'"II
euoo e'.'C'TY
1000 MiLl "" !
2:1
Fig. 2:2 Comparison of performance of airplanes of
the same gross weight with types
of power plant. From Godsey (1).
(A decrease in time for a. 2,000 mile bop frClll 8 to 4.4 hra.)
The comparison shown in Fig. 2:2 is for airplanes of the
same gross weight of 120.000 Ibs. of characteristics listed
in Tables 2:2 and 2:3.
Table 2:2 - rake-Off Conditions
Installed
Gross Powerplant
Weight, lb Weight,lb
Conventional
TUrbine-Propeller
Jet Propelled
120.000 20,800
120.000 15,200
120.000 8,000
FUel
lI'eight, lb
40,000
45,600
52,800
Take-Off
Thrust,lb
28,000
44,000
24,000
Table 2:3 - Cruise Conditions (20,OOO-Ft Altitude)
Conventional
Turbine-Propeller (4 engines)
Turbine-Propeller(2 engines)
Jet Propelled (2 engines)
Jet Propelled (4 engines)
(35,OOO-ft altitude)
Best Cruising Miles per
Speed, mph Lb Fuel
250 0.120
300 0.125
280 0.145
350 0.050
460 0.066
Extreme
Range,
Miles
4800
5700
6600
2650
3500
Table 2:1
Camnon Sisea of Tr&nsEort and
A!!J!lanes Probable Future Power Plant
Sile

USual range mi. Usual Seata
Smilr
}OO - 600 &:12
YedilDl Transcontinental
400 - 1200 30-50
Large Transoceanic
2500 - 4000 40-100
(1). Godsey, F. 11'. ;Tr., Gas Turbihes and Aircraft,
SAE Journal, September, 1947.
Usual Payload
2,000
10,000
30,000
Selection.
USual Gross 1ft. Reciprocating

TurbOJet
8,000
1
C
40,000
C B A
120,000
B
A C
A Best
B Suitable
C Not very good.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF TRANSPORT AND CARGO AIRPLANES
2:2
FLIES FIRST DC7 ACROSS THE V. S.
First Doughs DC-7 Wright Turbo Com
American Airlines was flown from Califor-
nia to New York nonstop last Monday in
6 hr. 52 min. (see story on p. 17).
American plans to begin DC-7 nonstop
coast-to-coast scheduled service Nov. 29
with planes making the flight in leu than
eight hours each way. The transconbnen.
tal nonstop version of the DC-7 grosses
122,200 lb., has 5,512-gal fuel capacity
AA has 2$ DC-7* on order.
NINE-MONTHS' VERDICT: "Doing a first-class job, always ready to go."
Fig. 2il. Examples of current (1954) reciprocating, turbo-
prop, and turbojet transporta* The Boeing
design development(Model 707, at right) may
have a reverse thrust device, Courteay Aviation
Week* For jet transport layout examples, see
Corning, Gerald, Airplane Design, P.O. Box 14t
College Perk, Md.
The model photographed above indicates
how America's first jet transport will look
in flight. The lower picture reveals the
historv-making airplane itself, now near-
ing completion in the Boeing Renton
plant near Seattle, Washington. It will
be ready for g'round tests by midsummer,
and is scheduled to fly this fall.
Boeing is building this prototype jet
transport to demonstrate the valuable mil-
itary and commercial service an airplane
of its size, range and speed can perform.
A military tanker-transport, for in-
stance, would complement America's
swift jet bombers and fighters, accom-
panying them on long-range
and refueling them aloft at their own
choice of speed and altitude.
As a luxurious skyliner, the new Boeing
will carry from 80 to 1 30 passengers, de-
pending upon the seating arrangements
chosen by the airlines. It is designed to
fly non-stop from coast to coast, or from
London to New York, yet serve efficiently
over shorter routes as well.
This great new craft will travel the
smooth upper air around 40,000 feet
while maintaining a cabin pressure equal
to 7,000 feet. It will be virtually free of
vibration, and will cruise in the 550
m.p.h. range. It will be able to operate
from existing airports.
Boeing is investing over $15,000,000
of its own funds in the project. This con
is Boeing's contribution toward the crea-
tion of an airplane essential for the secu-
rity and the transportation progress of
the nation.
Although of entirely new design, this
pioneer jet has behind it the thousands of
hours of research and flying that Boeing
has put into the six-jet B-47 and eight-jet
B-52 bombers. It is thus the product of
the world's most extensile background of
experience with large, multi-jet aircraft.
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LAYOUT DESIGN OF TRANSPORT AND CARGO AIRPLANES
The importance of the turbojet and turboprop is realized
by a large number of airplane deSigners, as is evidenced
by the opinion survey shown in Fig. I:5 which indicates
that engineertl believe that by 1956 one transport in every
six will be turbOjet propelled and less than haH will be
propelled by reciprocating engines. A Douglas Aircraft
Compar..y engineer, Jo!r. R. S. Shevell, presented at the
August 1947 meeting of the Institute of the Aeronautical
in Los Angeles a paper outlining a 40 passenger,
12,ooo-payload transport powered by four turbojet engine I!!
each of 4960 Ibs. static thrust. As reported in Aviation
Week for August 11, 1947, )fr. Shevell stated, "The
design studies were prepared for analysis of the char-
acteristics of a jet transport that could be built with
lalOll'ledge available at the time". The
Douglas proposal contemplated a cruising speed of 490 mph
at 35,000 to 40,000 ft. with a top speed over 500 mph and
an economical range of the order of 750 miles, putting it
in the medium size category in Table 2:1.
2:3 FUndamental considerations. The specifications
for cargo and transport airplanes are commonly determined
by a balance of performance and cost items as explained
by Davies(l). Since cost and speed are not expressable
in the eame terms, the evaluation must be some..mat arbitrary
In general, higher speed requires higher cost per ton mile
or per passenter mile and a design etudy involves not
only determination of both cost and speed, but also a
business man's estimate of ..mat the public will pay for
what it can get. The engineering problem may be stated
as that of determining the most economical airplane
parameters for a given speed and range service. Data on
costs in service operation of turboprop and turbOjet
propelled aircraft will not be for some time,
though reasonable estimates may be made to supplement the
cost analysis equations and tables given by

It should be particularly noted that neither level-
high-speed nor flight-cruising-speed is the significant
parameter in an economic estimate but rather the terminal-
to-terminal speed (or perhaps the origin to destination
speed in the case of passengers). The terminal-to-terminal
or "block to block" speed takes account of time required
to taxi on the field and the time for take-off and climb
as well as time for unloading and loading the airplane.
The speed gains in going to turbojet operation, taking
account of usual airport delays and necessary operation
around the airport are much less than would be indicated
by a comparison of level-high or cruiSing speeds.
Another major consideration in the value of time saving
for passengers may be the possibility sleeping in flight.
For example a 2,000 mile hop in a 250 mph airplan
l
requires
8 hours and permits a comfortable night's sleep en route ..
Increasing the speed to 500 mph on this trip cuts the
nying time to only 4 hours and the time saving ill a
handicap to people who to sleep rather than a gain.
214 Layout Procedure. The procedure for laying out
an airplane-toa given payload and performance specifi-
cation can be made for transport and cargo aircraft in
the 88me manner as for personal aircraft illustrated in
Obapter 1, thOUgh in general the more elaborate design
and the lar!'1er amount of money involved in the larger air-
planes requires that many mora possible layouts be
considered and (2) that an attempt to be made to analy-Z"e
the cost per passenger mile or per ton mile for the differ-
ent possible layouts.
215 )(ajor Design Revisions. A method of analy-Z"1nc
dedgns taang into account bOth cost and performance
faotors has been described by Cherry and Croshere(2) who
B11!g8st plotting the results as in Fig. 2:3. The analysis
of Cherry and Cr08here is particularly concerned with
determination of the effect of the gross weight and wing
area 011 operating oosts for a given range and cruising
speed. If a MXimua stalling speed and take-off distance
11 a180 specified, the range of values of weight and wing
m.. w. W., Cil'Co urcra!ta. P1ti1iii 1946.
{2J Cber'7. R.H. and CTOSheN, 1 .15. Jr., .In A.pproach to
t.b.e I)u1gn of 1iror.ft. SA.E TranACtiOlUl,
1947. SU Pa.per pr.sented .lp!"U 10, 1947.
':;:
'" ;;;;

'"
'" o
IX:
'"

I
--r
__ -L __ -L ____ L-__ __ -L __ ____ L-__

Fig. 1 Labove) - S.mple chin of Ylriation of operating cost with cross weicht Ind
win, nea
Fiji:. 2 (below) - Heart of summary plot Illowable combinattons of gross
weicht Ind wing area
en
CD
::!
...
'"
Wt.o
'" ;;;;

en
en
0
IX:
'"
U.
W
1

75 U.
'i'
"'
" ;::
2:3
Fig. 2:3 J.!ethod of analysis of transport airplane
designs suggested by Cherry and Croshere,
from SAE Journal, August 1947.
area which satisfies the design specifications is indi-
cated by the heavy lines surrounding an area in the lower
half of Fig. 2:3. In such a figure it ie seen that a
number of airplanes fulfill the specifications. The airplane
defined by point has the greatest cruising speed; that
defined point M the least take-off distance, and that
defined by poiJit' the greatest range. With a chart such
as this, improvement in one item of performance can be
evaluated in terms of its effect on other items and the
airline operator can make a decision in which cost and various
performance items oappear on the same graph. The cost cal-
culation! are described as having been made by the cost
squaMons of the Air Transport ASSOCiation, which are
believed to be similar to those given in Davies (op. cit).
FormuJ.as similar to those given by Davies will eventually
be developed for turboprop and turbojet propelled aircraft.
2:6 Problems.
1. Layout a 40 passenger 12,000 lb. payload transport
powered by four 5,000 lb. static thrust turbOjets and find
the variation in level high speed with wing loading, using
the methods of Chapter 1.
2. Layout a 100 passenger transoceanic transport of
20,000 thrust horsepower similar in purpose to the Britsol
BrabuOD I shown in Fig. 211 (t).
LAYOUT DESIGN OF TRANSPORT AND CARGO AIRPLANES
Current Civil and Military Designs. Courtesy Aviation Week. For data see p.A2fi6.
2tk
Leading U. S. Military Transports
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FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
311 Usefulness of Flng Boats. Flying boats are
sometimes preferred to Ian ptanes for over-water
operations because in emergencies, under favorable
weather conditions, they can land on water without damage.
This safety feature has, however, been the subject of
lIome debate, and at present more land planes than flying
boats are used for over-water operations.
For many routes, however, airports are not avail-
able at the desired destinations, whereas as water land-
and take-off areas can be cleared and kept cleared
at relatively small expense. There example, an
excellent market for amphibians in Canada, Switzerland,
and some parts of Africa where there are many lakes and
few airports.
Land planes are also often limited in design by the
length of runway available for the take-off. whereas
sheltered harbors many miles in length are often avail-
able for flying boat take-offs. The flying boat has,
however, an inherent disadvantage in that the hull,
being designed primarily for satisfactory take-off from
the water, has a large aerodynamic drag in flight, though
recent improvements in hull design, notably the "planing
tail" hull shoill1 in Fig. 315 (data in Appendix A13) have
permitted development of hulls of drag comparable with
those well streamlined fuselages, witn also gains in
take-off performance from the water.
312 FUndamental Design Considerations. Experience
with long range fiYiiii boats has shown that the princi-
pal factors governing the deSign are not the flying
conditions but the take-off and landing conditions,
principally take-off. The basic fact regarding take-off
that determines the design (not yet explicitly stated in
any other text) is that with good hulls, clean lines,
and constant speed propellers, one horsepT"r will take
off only so-many pounds (approximately 16". This may be
stated mathematically as a modified form of Diehl's
equation for ma:'(imum load that can be taken off (Engineer-
ing AerodynamiCS, Revised Edition, p. 504) thus
w + 140 K - - - - - - - (3:1)
Bhpm T
where t is the take-off time in seconds and K is strict-
ly speaking a function of a number of variables in the
design (hull, wing, propellers, and getaway speed) but
in practice 18 nearly constant for modern ships and is
between 17 and 19. For take-off in 70 seconds (which
is usually considered the maximum desirable), equation
(3:1)reduces to W/Bhpm 16, where Bhpm is the "take-off
rating" of the engine, frequently 20% more than the normal
rating. This value of K probably applies only with
the current vogue of stalling speeds of 75 to 85 mph
(with full load and dead engines); for appreciably
higher stalling speeds, K should be written as SaDe
function of Vs such as K 63OO/(vs + 270) where Vs is
in mph. Regarding permissible land::ng speeds, these
have not much exceeded the maximum specified in CAR 04
if landing speed may be calculated with only a partial
fuel load (ae at the end of a trip, or by dumping fuel
in emergencies), but some designers consider it possible
that considerably hieher landing speeds are permissible,
especially Tith larger boats. Schuyler KLEINHANS de-
si!mSr of the Douglas DF boat, has proposed (JAS July
1936, pp. 335-336) that for a geometrically similar
series of boats it be assumed that Vs K L, where L is
any linear dimensions on the boats, and shows that Tith
this assumptian enormous flying boats (by 1939 standards)
are both possible and economical.
3:3 Boat Layout The general
purpose of speci ca on is to build as
large a boat as Till perform satisfactorily with 8 of the
largest reCiprocating engines which Till probably be
available in 1948. This procedure of building airplanes
to fit future engines is necessary if the airplanes
are not to be far behind the engines in development.
311
It is usual for at least two years to elapse between
preliminary layouts of a large airplane and the
installation of the engines. The general arrangement
contemplated for such a boat is to have 4 tractor radial
aircooled engines in the leading edge of the wing and 4
pusher liquid cooled engines behind them. The present
maximum take-off ratings for aircooled radial engines
of which public announcement has been made is 2000
horsepower (Twin Cyclone). The highest power liquid
cooled engine of U.S. manufacture is the Alliscn, 2000
hp. Both of these engines are described in the June
1939 issue of Aviation.
The proposed boat will assume 3500 hp for each pair
of tandem engines to be conservative. The reason for
building as large a boat as possible is to provide more
commodious passenger accommodation for transatlantic
flights than are available in any of the present ships.
Passengers can be more comfortable and happy on a large
ship, and it is considered that any cabin smaller than
a standard Pullman car is unnecessarily cramped.
Specifie&tions follow on page 5
* Possibly 20 nth new planing-tail hull
FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
3>2
Convair Launches First Production Tradewind
Turboprop-powered Convair R3Y-1 Tradewiod flying boat in the
water following launching from company'! ramp on the edge of
San Diego Bar (Aviation Week Dec 28, p. 18). It b the first of
of Tradewinds bd
more than 350 c
features numero
It is derived from the XP5Y-1 prototype and
l over this earlier type, jnrrndfng
* ilying tiiuau tajrja or>I The XF2Y "Sea Dart,"
sensational new U.S. Navy jet fighter, is shown talcing
off from San Diego Bay on its retractable "hydro-skis."
Designed and built by Convair, the "Sea Dart" is the
(triangle-shaped) I '-
let i
Figs. 311 to 31if Marin* aircraft
under development In 1954. Courtesy
ATlatlon steak.
MARTIN P5M long-range patrol boat has high length-beam ratio hull
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FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
33
Photograph of the dynamic model with the low-drag planing-tail
hull.
Planing-tall model
Conventional-hull model
Trim
Load coefficient
1.0
2.0 3.0 ^.0
Speed coefficient, Cy
5.0 6.0
TO 2*61
Figure 10.- Variation of trim and load coefficient with speed. Grose
load coefficient, 0.9^-
i
3
9 -
8 -
7 -
6
5
i
3
2
1
0
Planing-tail model
Conventional-hull mode
1.0
I I 1
2.0 3.0 u.0
Speed coefficient, Cv
5-0
6.0
TO 22(61
Figure 11.- Variation of load-resistance ratio with speed. Gross load
coefficient, 0.9^-
7ig. 3,5,6,7,8. Planing-tail hull data fran NACA TN2i|Bl.
See also TN2503 for more complete data.
TN 2il
Figure 3.- Planing-tail hull lines.
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3,4
FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
SPECIFICATION FOR TRANSATLANTIC
FLYING BOAT
SPECIFICATION ITEM
(1) Power plant ratings
a. Tractor engines, four, radial
aircooled, geared
Take off rating,Bhp/rpm alt.ft.
2CXXJ/2600/S.L.
Normal
1600/2400/8000
Cruising rating, Bhp/alt. 1200/8000
b.Pusher engines, four V-16, liquid cooled
geared
Take off rating Bhp/rpm/alt.ft.
1500/2600/S.L.
Normal rating Bhp/rpm/alt.ft.
1200/2400/8000
Cruising rating Bhp/alt. 900/8000
c. Total take-off power, Bhp-14000
(2) Gross weight, Ibs. 220,000
(3) Useful load, total to be determined
a. Fuel and oil for 3000 mi. at 160+
mph ("20 hrs. N.Y. to London")
b. Passengers, as many as can sleep
comfortably
c. Baggage, 100 Ibs./passenger
d. Movable equipment comparable to
data on p. A5.37
e. Fixed equipment sufficient to give
comfort and service comparable with
present extra-fare trains.
f. Mail and express = balance of useful
load.
(4) Performance
a. Stalling speed, full load, dead
propellers
b. Cruising speed, with 8400 hp
at 8CXXJ ft.
c. Climb in first minute
d. Absolute ceiling, 3 engines out
e. Range at cruising speed, no wind
f. Service ceiling (normal flying
at 8CXXJ ft.)
90 mph
160+ mph
300+ ft.
1000 ft.
3000 mi.
10000 ft.
The layout procedure for the boat may well foll-
oY( the lines suggested in Art. 1:2 except that items
(1) to (7) inclusive may be omitted because the en-
gine power and gross weight have already been de-
termined, so it is possible to proceed with "second
estimates". Numbering and naming the items as in
Art. 1:2, the calculations for this example are as
follows.
(8) estimate of wing .9!1l! drag. Wing
flaps are probably not of much use on the proposed
boat, because they would probably hurt the effec-
iency of the pusher propellers during take off
Hence
assume CLmax = 1.5 for a large scale normal wing
and ca.lculate wing area thus
220,000
8-0.00256 x 1.5 x 902 - 7100 sq.ft.
u the table
on A2t,land assume that t.he boat is nearly as
good as the best clean landplanes with retractable
wheels; large size moreover favors a lower f/S.
Recent tests show tnat f/S for large clean
be as low as 0.020. perhaps lower. Hence assume
f - 0.02 X.7100 142 sq.ft.
(9) Calculation of Parasite loading. L - W/f a 220000/
142 = 1560 p
(10) Selection 2f propellers and estimate of efficiency.
Propellers for long range boats must be selected to
favor take-off if table 111 is to apply. Tentative-
ly select a "peak efficiency n propeller froll Fig.A2eI2
for the high speed conditions with Bhp = 1600 x 0.7
(three blades) and VL - 200 mph (est). Calculate BhpQh
/mph = 68/200 = .34. In p A2e .4( extrapolated)
read 1500 rpm as the max. rpm without tip speed 1088
(requiring about 2:1 reduction and calculate.
as in TA p. 236 for 160 mph Ceo = 1.8 at
sea level. On p. A2e:4 0.85
and V/nD : 1.05 27
0
at .75R for peak
efficiency. CalcUlate D = (V/n (V/nD) =
200 x 88 _ ''''' ft
1200 x 1.05 -
Using a 22
0
blade setting (V/rill = 0.9), the
efficiency would still be above 0.8, and D .. 16.3 ft.
Using D .. 16.5 or 17 ft. would favor take-off without
too much sacrifice of cruising efficiency, and tenta-
tive layouts should provide for at least 18 ft. pro-
peller deameter in case it becomes necessary to in-
crease D to take off. Efficiency of propellers on
rear engines should be estimated in the same manner
using appropriate NACA charts, but the average eff-
iciency need not be below 0.80.
(ll) Calculation of Thpm and Thp loading.
Thpm = 11,200 x 0.80 = 8960 hp.
Lt = = 24.5
8960
(12) Determinat!on of minimum ceiliM and climb para-
meter. (a for Cho = 300. LtCho .. 300 x 24.5 -
7350. A2t.S applies only for fixed pitch oropellera.
For constant speed propellers, use p A2f: 10. Use ot
this chart requires first estimating T c = (Thp at
climbing speed)/(Thp at max. speed). fhis chart is
based on the assumption that the climbing speed (v
e
)
is 60% of the level high speed. (VI). In p A2f: 11
(which is typical of good propeller installations)
for C
so
= 1.8. Refer to A2f: lltand for Rv = 0.6
and C
s
.. 1.8 read t\- .745 and l'\..(R
v
.. 1.0) =.855.
Hence = .745/.855 = 0.87. (Strictly P A2f'.11
applies only to performance" propellers, whereas
the propeller we have chosen (D ; 16.5 ft.) is more
nearly "peak efficiency," but is not exactly either
type. In NACA TN 579 there is a chart for peak eff-
iciency propellers which gives for this case Tvc =-
0.89; for this example it is sufficiently accurate to
use the graph for Tvc = 0.90) Hence in P A2t.ll
(replot onp A2f'.4to extrapolate) for 1t C
ho
- 7350
read .A 1= 48.
(b) F".,. 1000 ft. ceiling. from p.A2f'.12 replot on
p.A2t.S to extrapolate) 1\'2 - 66 basea on 5 of
the 8 engines (4 x 1200 + 1600 ... 6400 of the normal
11,200 hp) Based on all engines JI.? = ;\'21(ll,
200/6400 )473 .. A I 2/2.1 = 30 neglect:mg drag of
dead propellers. Drag of dead propellers may be
estimated with fair accuracy by assuming that the
propeller blades are flat For this air-
plane with 17 ft. propellers, assuming 3 blades of
roughly parabolic shape and width ratio of 0.05 (TA
246) the flat plate due to 3 dead propellers is 3
x 8.5 (0.05 x 16 x 3 x 2/3) .. 40.5 sq.ft. This
resents an increaie in f of 40.5/141 = 29% and
since iL = LsLt 4 3/1p 1/3 requires for calculation
of a proper Ls that baSi:d on original flat plate
decreased by the factor 1.29 = 1.09. Hence,
corrected for flat plate, the nec.ssary ./1 for the
specified dead engine ceiling is 1J2a = 30/1.09
27.6
FLYING BOAT LAYOUT 3.5
(c) For a service ceiling of 10000 ft. with Lt, =
24.5 from Item (11) read
A.3-
28
The maximum permissible value of)lto fulfill the
specifications is thus about 27. The span thus de-
termined may however not be the best apan for a
long range boat. in lIhich the weight of fuel will
be a large fraction of the gross weight of the air-
plane. and in this case the fact that the rated
altitude of the engines is so near the service ceil
1ng suggests that the plane would normally be fly-
ing at an unduly large angle of attack. A more
rational criterion for determination of the most
economical span is that the sum of wing weight and
fuel weight should be a minimum. This will be in-
vestigated later.
(13) Calculation 2! necessary I'Iitf
YLt - 1560/24.5 - 64 read p. A2ta4for - = 27
LsLt = 105 and solve for L = 105/24.5 = 4.3. To
solve for b from L8 = (for a monoplane. first
estimate e: using; p.A2taIest1mate e, 0.9 for
suitably tapered wing; usini P. A2f'.2est1mate
ff/S = 60/7100 = 0.008 and for unusually well roun-
ded hullsassume curves nearly as good as for rec-
tangular fuselages. (see TA p195) and read e2 =
0.85. so that e = 0.9 X 0.85 0.76 (this checks
wind tunnel tests for ships of this type). Solv-
ing for b.
b 260 ft.
This span will be satisfactory except in that it
may not give the most econQrnical combination wing
and fuel weights for the specified range. llanu-
facturers comnonly check this point by calculating
the combined wing and fuel weight for a given rang
with various Sp!ll"lS (trial solution). Airline oper
ators might even more profitablydetennine the s
of minimum cost per passenger-mile as proposed in
Chapter mof this text; more span will save fuel,
but the first cost of the airplane (and possibly
its hangarage or dockage costs) will be higher; th
best span will depend upon the number of airplane
bui1t and used and the schedule of operations of
the airline-items difficult to predetennine. Sinc
the calculated minimum span of 260 ft. gives a
reasonable aspect ratio of 2602/7100 = 9.5, the
ship will be drawn up with this span,
but it is quite possible that a span of 300 ft.
would give a more economical ship. and this possi-
bility should of course be thourghly investigated
before the ship is built.
(14) Preliminary This is shown in
Fig.S.IO The !ii!!L has been laid out with a
straight center section of 100 ft. span and 35 ft
chord (1. = 3500 sq.ft.); the tip sections have
been made trapezoidal and tapered to 10 ft. at the
tips (S2 = 3600 sq.ft.) to get the specified area
of 7100 sq. ft. This procedure is arbitrary but
makes for convenience of engine installation; the
assumed taper gives an approximately elliptical
wing. lIhich makes for good perfonnance. A root
thickness ratio of 20% (= 7 ft. here) has been
found satisfactory by experience; this can be re-
duced to 10% or 12% at the tips; best thickness c
be determined later from economics of design. The
tail length (e.g. to elev. hinge) has been made
about 4 times the mean chord (4 x 27.3 OK 109 ft.)
to give a long hull with plenty of room. A mean
dihedral of about 4
0
has been tentatively shown;
this can be checked later to see whether it corre
ponds to the vertical tail size.
The hull has been made similar to an NACA Model ll-A
(ref. TA p. 29 2) lIhich has been found to be one of the
best. The height fran the propeller centers to the
water is determined by the clearance below the propell-
er tips necessary to avoid damage by spray and waves.
Only experience with such boats can tell what is a rea-
sonable clearance; 40% of the propeller diameter has
been frequently specified; a fixed minimum distance of
6 f't. or 8 ft. may be more reasonable. Here it was
made about 10 ft. to make the hull deep enough for two
decks of passengers. The depth below the fulL-load
water line must be such as to displace 220,000 lbs. of
sea water. This has been estimated >is 5 ft. but should
be checked when the hull has been laid out and curves
of displacement vs. draft plotted. The beam of the
hull was determined from considerations of take off.
The hull beam (b) must be such as to give a beam load-
ing within limits of P A2a.22. This requires that
C ... = Do/wbi:::=0.5 tp get a reasonable value of 4/R
at the "hump" is the effective coefficient of
friction on the \>ater; the "hump" is the peak of the
graph of R vs. V during take-of'). Since lift on
the is 0.3
2
to 0.4 times the weight, assume .6
(1 - 0.3 ) W =:0.9 w = 2oqooo Ibs. in this case. Us-
ing Do =200 000 and w = 64 for sea water, solve for
The beam has been made 20 ft. in the layout to permit
having the passengers slsep in beds running athwart
the ship (two 7.5 ft. beds plus aisle). Take-off cal-
culations should made as in TA pp.297-30Sto veri-
fy the ability to take off, but with the power loading
on which this design has been based and a suitable
beam as determined above there is little doubt about
getting off the water.
The tail surfaces have been shown as 1000 sq.f't.
horizontal ( = 0.14 S) and 500 sq.ft. vertical. Three
vertical t!lils have been shown (as in the DC-4, Fig.
9117) because 'wind tunnel tests have shown that a
single vertical tail on a large airplane must be ve!"!
large for adequate stability and control. This should
be investigated in a wind tunnel if possible, other-
wise as in TA Chap.1I.
The general arrangement of the interior contem-
plated is that the pilots and navigator should be up
front for good vision, the engineer and radio operator
(2 men) should have an office up under the wing, and
there should be 4 cabins (forward, center lower, center
upper, and aft), with 2 stewards and 2 stewardesses
(total crew = 10 including captain). Interior arrange-
ments would have to be out in some detail to
determine a desirable seating and sleeping capacity to
provide. Comparison with railway accommodations sug-
gests that there would be ample room to sleep 70 pass-
engers in canfort. Further working out of this pro-
ject is obviously a lengthy task, even if as many men
are available as can be used. For simplicity in this
presentation the third weight estimate will be com-
bined with the balance table. In practice. the weight
and balance would be checked continuously as the de-
sign progressed.
(15) Third weight estimate and balance table. The
weight and balance are tabulated here in Table 1.2
below in the same manner as in the previous example,
which should be consulted regarding c.g. lOCAtions of
the various parts to be scaled from the layout sketch.
Explanations of these weight estimates follow.
Wing Wj(ght is based on an applied load factor of
2.5 (P. .2) With a factor of safety of 1. 5 the
3:6
FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
Grumman Mallard
BRITAIN'S NEW 100-PASSENGER PROPJET BOAT:
Powered by six 5,000-hp. propjet turbines, first of the new Saunders Roe
SR 45 Saro, 120-ton flying boats is on the stocks in Britain. It is expected
to carry 100 passengers and cruise at about 300-mph. fully loaded. Two
decks and sleeping berths in cabins are features of the new type due to
take to the air in 1948. (British Combine photo).
^Courtesy Aviation News, June 23, 1947
Long
Extraordinarily clean lines of the Convair
XP5Y-1 are shown in the head-on view in-
dicating low profile drag. New side view,
taken as the giant flying boat was moved to
the edge of San Diego Bay for launching,
shows details of the remotely-controlled gun
, Glean Lines, and . . .
turrets fore and aft. The unusual hull lines
feature a high length-beam ratio. Bulge t
the top of the vertical fin houses antenna.
. . . Narrow Beam of the XP5Y-1
while radar equipment is carried in the
plastic nose section. Large size of the Alli-
son T-40 tuiboprops is indicated by the
Courtesy Aviation Week, September 5, 1949 estir
-naximura climb as 3000 rt/min.
empty nacelles on the XP5Y-1. Convair
has installed dummy engines and propellers
to simulate mass and weight of the Allison
5500-hp. turboprop powerplants during
flutter tests. Built for the Navy, the plane is
intended for patrol and anti-submarine duty.
ttes top speed of 390 mph at 25,000 ft 4
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FLYING BOAT LAYOUT
- - - - _____
1+-------260 0 ..
c::
Fig. 3,10
."
,
Preliminary layout sketch for flying boat of 220,000 Ibs. gross
weight.
3,7
design load factor is 1.5 x 2.5 = 3.75 = n'. Cal-
culate n'W/1000 c = 3.75 x 220/27.3 = 30 and read
wine weight in by Driggs equatic
as 5.5 lbs. per sq. ft. or 39000 lbs. Assuming
the c.g. to be at 1+5% of the mean chord, scale
drawing and read 62 ft. from nose to c.g.
ations of this sort are likely to run as high as 25 Ibs.
Tail weight for a ship of this size may well
be based on the wing data in Fig .A518; the tail
span is 60 ft. and airplanes with 60 ft. span
usually weigh 6000 to 10000 Ibs.; read weight a-
bout 2 lbs./sq. ft. for horizontal tail; estimate
1.6 lbs./sq.ft. for the three vertical tails.
Hence tail weight = 2 x 1000 -t- 1.6 x 500 = 2800
lbs. This is probably conservative by a few hun-
:ired Ibs.
Hull weight, including floats is based on Fig.
AS.9 extended, which is simply about 14% of the
gross weight; with larger hulls the structure may
be more efficient, but for high speed landings
the bottom must be heavy. Hence 220000 x 0.14 =
31000 lbs., which is located at about 40% of the
overall length from t.he nose, say 70 ft.
weight will be about 1.2 Ibs. per take-
off horsepower (FigA5,l.) (see also Aviation,July
1937, p. 64, an article by A.E. Lombard on "How
Many lrigines?") for the twin-row radials in the
leading edge or 1.2 x 8000 = 9600 Ibs. Estimate
from FigA5.1for the aft engines with radiators
and coolant 1.6 lbs./hp = 2400 Ibs. each or9600
lbs. aecessories are usually figured at
about of the engine weight, here about
700 Ibs. Engine controls for complicated install-
per 1000 hp here 200 Ibs.
Table 1.4. illtimate for Flying Boat
shown l t' :
Group Part e gh s. Lever arm Mom. ,
from nose 1000
ft. Ibs.ft.
I. A. Wing structure 39,000 60 2340
B. Tail group 2,800 160 450
C. Hull Structures
and i'loats 31,000 70 2170
II. A.1. Forward engines,
dry 9,600 40 385
2. Accessories 700 45 32
3. Aft. Engines,
radiators,
coolant 9,600 70 670
4. Accessories 700 65 45
5. Engine controls 200 20
4
B. Propellers, forward 2,500 38 95
Propellers, aft 2,500 88 220
C. Starting system 400 65 26
D. Oil System 900 55 50
E. Fuel System 5,600 60 340
III.A. Instruments 500 30 15
B. Surface controls 1,000 20 20
C. Furnishings 4,000 60 240
D. Electrical Equip. 3,000 60 180
E. Anchor and hoist 500 10
5
FLYING BOAT LAYour
3:8
Useful Load.
e.g.
Fuel, J..hooo gallons
Oil, 700 gallons
Crew, 10 at 170 Ibs.
passengers, 50 at 170
Baggage, 50 at 50 Ibs.
llovable equipment
Yail and express, by
difference
78,000
5,300
1,700
13,000
4,000
2,000
60
50
50
60
40
60
5040
265
85
816
160
120
900 80 72

is at 12825,000 58.3 ft. from nose. This is at
220,000
29% of the mean chord and should be satisfactory. Pas sen-
t;er and baggage requirements ere reduced from prelilllin-
ary estimate when it became evident that there would be no
room left in the weight estimate for mail and express.
Losr cruiSing speed (say 160 mph) and built-in fuel and oil
tanks, would leave room for several thousand Ibs. more
useful load.
Propeller weight. For dural propellers with hubs,
17 ft. in diameter, read in Fip. A5:2 a weight of 400
Ibs. for 2 blades; estimate 650 Ibs. each for 3 blades,
including constant speed control or 2500 Ibs. for each group
of 4 propellers.
starting system weight. As!lUlllS 8 starters (ref. p.
!Sr27 , Item 68 but larger) at 25 Ibs. each; four
batteries (. 100 lbs.) and allow 100 lbe. for wiring and
conduit.
Oil and fuel system weight estimates require first
an of the amount of and fuel needed. The
speed of the ship may be estimated from TOpm/f
8960/141 64 and in Fig. A2f:3 read about 200 mph top
speed at sea level or 200 (1.08) 216 mph at 8000 ft. Al-
titude. Cruising at 75% of Bhpm will give a cruising
speed of 216 x 3 0.75 194 mph. For a fuel consumption
of 0.45 Ibs./bp hr (which is conservative). The fuel con-
sumption per hour is 11,200 x 0.45 5050 lbs. and a
3000 mile trip would require 3000/194 15.5 hrs. Hence
the necessary fuel is 5050 x 15.5 - 78,000 Ibs. (-14,000
gallons). Assume 700 gallons of oil (Fig. A2f:4) at
7.5 lbs./gallon (- 5300 lbs.) and a lubricating system
weight of 900 Ibs. per 1000 gallons, or 5600 Ibs.
Fixed eqUipment. Instruments are about 3% of the
engine weight dry, Surface control allowance is liberal,
as serve-controls !light be necessary. Furnishings .at about
60 lbs./passenger will be comfortable if not luxurious.
Electrical eqUipment includes an auxiliary power plant,
heating, ventilating, lighting, and cooking equipment, as
... 11 as ample radio. Movable equiplllSnt as on p.
is usually required.
Passengers, baggage, mail and express make up the
balance. Revision of the weight estimate to carry more
pay load and less equipment would be the next step.
The performance should then be checked as in the previous
layout example.
There is, of course, still the question as to how
the various parts can be built strong enough without ex-
ceeding the estimated night. The development of methods
of doing this is the principal subject of the remainder of
this text.
3:4 ProblSlll.
1. Dellign a transoceanic flying boat to be powered
by four 10,000 hp turboprops and to be assisted in take-
off by two 10,000 lb. thrust Jato (jet assisted take-off)
uni ts of 2 minutes duration. Estimate the lrIIight, balance,
pertoI'llance, and payload as in Article 3:3.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HIGH SPEED AIRPLANES AND MISSILES
4il
4>1 - Scope of Airplane and Mlaalle Work. In the last
few years (1949-1954) work on the development of high speed
airplanes and missiles has proceeded at an accelerated and
tremendous pace) many millions of man-hours have been de-
voted to research and development work in thla field. Some
of the results for high speed airplanes are shown in Fig.
4>li for which technical data aro given (in-so-far as secu-
rity regulations permit) on p.A2ft8. Hundreds of supersonic
guided missiles have also been designed, developed, and
tested and a sufficient number have been rejected (or put
into military service, like the Nike) to provide the tabular
information shown on p.A2fi8a. The field of a supersonic
missile or airplane design is not suitable for undergraduate
design projects, as even an abbreviated review of the aero-
dynamic literature involves about 100 pages.*
Note in the tabular data on p.A2fi8 that the research
aircraft shown in Pig. 4:1 are nearly all designed to
operate supersonic as well as subsonic and thet one flight
has been made in an occupied vehicle at Mach 2.5. The
missiles listed on p.A2f16a are mostly designed to operate
in the range from Mach 1.5 to Mach 3.5* At Mach 3-5 missi-
les are well into the *Hest Barrier* which promises to be
more formidable than the 'Sonic Barrier" (at Mach 1) since
thermal stresses as well as cooling problems become involv-
ed in thla region. Only short flights in excess of Mach 4
now appear possible in the troposphere or stratosphere with
equipment on hand or at present conceived; the tabular data
for supersonic flow (ppAli7 to AI1I3) are terminated at
Mach 4* Speeds beyond Mach 4 are now usually considered
'hypersonic*. A substantial amount of research work is
being done in this field.
Mach numbers in the region of 20 to 90 are a matter of
common observation (meteors) usually associated with thermal
dlsentegration of the object (great balls of fire). At Mach
numbera in excess of 35 missiles directed away from the
earth escape the earth's gravitational pull end do not re-
turn to It unleaa propelled. A Mach number of about 25 is
necessary for a missile to become an 'asteroid* revolving
about the earth like the moon in an orbit of its own. The
design of such 'space ships" is beyond the scope of this
text end the following treatment of a simple sample super-
sonic missile is presented only to give an idea of the
scope of the problems involved so that the student who
undertakes a design problem in this field may do so advis-
edly.
4i2. Best L/D at Various Mach Numbers. The maximum
subsonic L/D for a well atreamlined airplane of aspect
ratio 6 or better may be in excess of 15 or 20 but this max-
imum L/D occurs only at reletively high lift coefficient and
correarondingly low level-flight speed for the usual range
of wing loadings. Various studies of wings, and wing fuse-
lage combinations in the supersonic region are represented
in Fig. I|i4 and it la apparent that values of (L/D)max of
better than J are obtainable for complete supersonic air-
plenes up to Mach numbers of 5 or more. The usual turbo-
jet exhaust velocity is of the order of 3,000 to 4,000
ft/sec (M s 3 or 4). Since Jet propulsion is possible only
if the velocity of the raaas of air flowing through the unit
is increased, it is apparent that a turbojet can continue
to provide propulsion only in the low supersonic region.
Afterburners ere usually necessary to break through the
sonic barrier" between M 0.9 and M 1.1.
It should be understood that Fig. 4'4 does not repre-
sent the variation of drag of any particular airplane with
Mach number, which is considerably steeper then any of the
lines shown in the auperaonic region. A supersonic air-
plane, like a supersonic sind tunnel throat, must be de-
signed for a particular Mach number and operates very un-
favorably under the off-design conditions.
For example Krzywoblocki, M. Z., The Forces Acting on an
Air Vehicle, A Review of the Literature. Aerodynamic Stu-
dies Volume 1, Supplement 4, Advisory &oard on Simulation,
Musuera of Science and Industry, University of Chicago,
Chicago 37. Illlnoia.
Fig.4>i.Latest Portrait of U.S. Research Family
Sewn Air Force. Navy and NACA research planes present a varietv nf connguratioM
in this group picture taken at the USAF Flight Test Center, Edwards AFB, Calif.,
where the craft arc being flown to gather data for future designs. In center is needle-
nosed, jet-powered Douglas X-3, designed for sustained flight at high speeds. Begin-
ning at the left, clockwise: Bell X-1A rocket plane, which has flown more than 1,600
roph.; jet-powered Douglas D-558-I Sky-streak transonic researcher: jet Convair
XF-92A for delta-wing experiments; jet Bell X-5 with variable-sweep wings; rocket-
powered Douglas D-558-I1 Skyrocket (which has climbed to more than 80,000 ft.,
and the little twin-jet Northrop X-4, which explores stability and flight character-
istics of sweptwing configuration at transonic speeds. Courtesy Aviation Week.
See also pp.A2fi8 and A2fi8a for test data and apecs.
Figs. 4t2,3. Douglas X-3 high speed research airplane.
See p.A2fi8 for data.
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4:2
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6ou hob 506 600 ! edu ! 1
2000 30 40
Heating
! 3doo I
Fig. 4:4 Best LID obtainable at various Jlach numbers.
Figure 4:4 represents a plot of the best LID obtainable
at each Mach number for the best airplane designed for
that lfach number. For Kach numbers between 1.2 and 2.0
the best wing design has a different amount of S1Ieepback
for each Mach number as shown by the studies reported
on page A2a:34. and designs with no sweepback are quite
feasible. Present studies indicate that the advantage of
Wing S1Ieepback becomes less as the Jlach number increases.
Taking into account the structural handieaps of the S1Iept-
back wing, the advantage of neep may disappear entirely
at lfach numbers in excess of 3.0. Note in Fig. 4:4
that excessive heating may exist at Kach numbers greater
than 2 or 2.5, but this should not discourage the develop-
ment of such aircraft, as it is quite possible that the
heating problem can be advantageously solved, possibly
by a friction-heat-regain system inVOlving evaporation
and rocket discharge of the coolinp, medi1llll.
The present evidence is to the effect that (L/D)
becomes progressively poorer as the Yach number increases
beyond about 2.0, though reasonably efficient flight in the
region of Kach number 2.0 appears to be quite practical
and may have camnercial as well as military applieatiell.
An airplane of the size of the p-80R. which can carry
sufficient fuel for 2 hours flight at SOC mph, when
suitably redeSigned for flight at Jrach lllaber 2, (about
1400 mph, depending on ambient air temperature) could
carry 1,000 lbs. of pay load across the Atlantic Ocean
(say from Nell' York to London) in a,proximately 2 hours.
The camnercial mar1cet for supersonic transatlantic "air-
mail at the price that 1I'Ould have to be charged to make
a profit on the flights remains a matter of conjecture
but it is reasonable to stIppose that a market 1I'Ould
develop if the serYice were offered.
4:3 Power Plants for High ape.d AirplaJIes. None of
the aerodyilaiilc Studies reported In Fig. 4:li take into
account power plant drag or possible regain of drag by use
of friction heat.
The Viles supersonic aircraft shown in Fig. 4:3 apparently
contemplates an annular power plant duct entrance around
the pilots compartment, with a shock wave diffuser
being used to advantage to build up pressure in the turbo-
jet inlet, and with an afterburner in the turbojet exhaust
(deSCribed in the figure title as an lIathodyd
ll
) to supply
(at poor efficiency) the necessary thrust to break through
the sonic barrier
While the turbojet with shock-ram intake appears to
be the most promising power plant for conmercial super-
sonic flight, such flight is more certain by rocket power
in view of the present of supersonic turbojet dev-
elopment, but the rocket has inherently poor efficiency
compared with the turbojet because it must carry a great
weight of oxidizer for the carbQn or hydrogen in the fuel,
and the range is thereby divided by a factor of 10 to
20 compared with the turbOjet. Attempts are being made
to develop Nuclear Energy Power plants for Aircraft
(NEPA division, Fairchild Airplane and Engine Co., pI1.me
contractor); if these efforts are successful, the status
of rocket propulsion for high speed aircraft may be rad-
ically altered.
4:4 Example Layo.ut for Supersonic Airplane. The
following preliminary design study of a supersonic sirplane
was prepared in the sUIIIIler of 1948 as part of a graduate
course in airplane design directed by the author at the
Univer si ty of Colorado and submitted as a report by F. J.
Kroll, R. C. Maydew, R. J. Naegele, C. v. Osborne, and
C. E. Waddell and represented about 400 man hours of
study, calculation, and writing. The deeign study was con-
siderably handicapped by the neceSsity of ueing only pub-
lished data not claSSified as to military secrecy. Fell' it
anI dssign stunies of tbis sort bave teen publishen tor
military sSClurity reasons, and this study would not be
publ1shed if it were judged to be a design worthy of actual
construction.
SpeCifications. Design of airplane of 20,000 pounds
gross weight, 1,000 pounds payload, and 7,500 pounds ruel
load far cruising at Mach number 3 at 60,000 feet altitude.
The milit!lI"y and pose1bly commercial si of
supersonic aircraft has been effectively pointed out Ref-
erence 1, which inclUdes photographs of an experimental
rBllljet-pOll' ered air plane wi th jets loea ted on the wing ti ps.
Reference 1* pOints out thst Rto achieve an airplane that
will have range and carrying ability above Mach 1 is an
extremely difficult problem. It must take off and land
at a practical speed and ny at first below Mach 1. It
IllUst pass through the dangerous transonic band wi thout
being thrown out of control or damaged by buffeting. Then
it must deal wi th 'he nell' air behavior and enormous drag
encountered above yach 1. There is no known design that
will do all these things and still be a useful airplane
R

Tha size of airplane chosen was arbitrarily cOOsen
as approximately the l!I8lI1e groes weight as a DC-3 airplane,
mmely 00,000 pounds. SiDee it was realized tlBt the pay_
load would orobably have to be considerably lesll than the
DC-3 and yet shruld be a reasonable value, an arbitrary
payload at 1,000 pounds was assumed. Sillee it was desired
to hava as muoh range as possible an arbitrary fuel weight
of 7,500 pounds (2rt'.5% of gross weight) was assumed all
reasonable and possible. For military purpoeS8, the ruel
weight and gross weight might both be substantially in-
creased in the same layout. All of the information used
in making thIs study as presmted here is of nonclassitied
1II111tary status.
Lalout Procedure The layout procedure 1I8.S in general
that described in Chapts- 1 exoept In so fer as the proce-
dure was necessarily modified by the statement of object
and specifioations. A thin sups-sonic airfoil was assumed
and a wlng area detet"mined to provide a landing speed of
approximatel iOO mph. Tbe wing area, as determIned by a
* Science Editor; Time YB8Bzlne, Aug. 9, 11148, pp 54-60.
.... -------,

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4:3
LAYOUT Dl!SIGN OF HI (E SPEIID AIRPLANES
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4:4
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HIGH SPEED AIRPLANES

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uYOllT DESIGN OF HIGH SPEED AIRPLANES
01 max of 2.0 (!.ssuming full span hinged nose (droop snootiJ,
was 475 sq ft. First attempts at a design to meet these
specifications were cased on wing tip ramjets as in the
experimental reouje. inS1ialla.1 On SllOwn 1n Reference 1, but
it was found that a much better acceleration, with the
possible addition of !pod subsonic cruising performance,
was obtainable when turbojet power plants were installed
coaxially with the ramjets. Structural considerations then
required thzt the power plants be placed inboard the
tips and below the wing as shown in Figure 4: 5. This layout
may not permi t s iligle-engine operat ion under supersonio
conditions but with a SUitable vertical tail it probably
can be flown subsonically on one turbojet.
The turbojets assumed were rated at 4,000 pounds thrust
because such jets were known to be readily available and
small in diameter (axial flow type) and could be located
inside the ramjet shell which might also be used as an
afterburner far the turbojet, though this use of afterburner
was not considered in determining the necessary rocket size
for accelerating through the speed of sound. An alternate
design should certainly consider an arrangement in which
the turbOjets are located inside the fuselage, with a single
ramjet and with the pilot inside of a conical spike-nose
rsmje t as shown in Fig. 4: 3.
Very little structural analysiS has been done on this
layout, and it is possible that consideration of landing load
factors would require wheels under the jet power plants.
Drag Estimate. Subsonic drag data for the component
parts were ccmpiled from Appendix A2 snd the result ing sub-
sonic drag equation is given by
C = .010 + .0850 2
Daub !J It (1)
(1 - O.7EM
in which Msub is the subsonic Mach number. The minimum low
speed drag coefficient of 0.010, of which sbout halt is due
to the wing, is better then any subsonic airplane now flying,
'but is beli eTed to be echieveable at high Reynolds number
in the layout shown in Figure 415. The correction for sub-
sonic Mach number is a modification of the usual theory for
subsonic compressibility effect taking acoount of more
recent data. The supersonic drag coeffiCient 1I'as estimated
to be given by
C - 0 .05 '!II!' 2
Ceupr- --=..- t T CL (2)
where1lt'?!J)/ SUP -1. The iteus oontributing to the profile
and 0.05,4i. are wing, tail, fuselage, and
nacelles; their drag are listed below:
811" ft MC1t
CDhing 475 .025
CDlta11 :
Cl)!ff'us : 0.3t*-
Cn.nacelles :
140
19.6
* Preliminary, increased later
.007
.012
.006
0.050
(3)

li@
--1Iax. Pwd. C.o. 2?..1l
t
I
i-------lJlexIllDt... Aft. C.O. 29..57' .. h8.J.Ue.------. ..."
WEIGHT A..lffi BAUBCE TABLE
Itell Group
Weight b'!II 1I000000t
(Ib) (ft) (lb-tt)
I. St1"Uctural
1
Wing (475 tt
2
) 2700 30 81000
Cont1'Ol SUrtaoaSl
3S0 48 16800
2 Vertical Tail
3
!iorlzontal Tail 700 48 33600
4
Ftaelage 2500 28 70000
5
Landing Gear 1000 39 39000
U. pC1ft!' Plant
6 Ruljeta
:!Soo 30 45000 (2 at 7SO Ib)
7
Turbojets
4000 25 100000
(2 at 2000 lb)
8 Rocnt Eng1ne 1400 48 67200
9
200 54
10800
10 Controls
20 6 120
11 PIleI Sj'WteII 500 23 11500
12
Au. PO'III8r Unit 3SO 17 5950
m. P'1:ad Equ:l.p't.
40 6 240
13
Inwt!'lllllellta

1l1gbt Centr. SYI. ,00 11 5sao
15 BJdl'anl10 SyateJa 300 38 11400
16
!leotrloal apta 300 17 5150
17
lIad1o, eto. 80 11 880
18 Cabin Air Condit-
12 3600
ioner 300
19 lI1s0. 300 9 2700
IV. P l\Tl.oad
170 8 1360
20 Pilot.
21 Jet Jael 7500 US 195000
22 Rocket ".1 noo 18 371lOO
23
Al'!II8JIIIIII1t or ma1l 1000 15 15000
StaDdard (]roo .. Weight 27810 lb.
Standard Pnll Load C. G. 27.31 ft. art of nose
lIa:ld.JIIIlDI C. a tra?el under flight oonditione
23.79% c
m
1'ig. ":11 Inboard profile and Balance Table
for Supersonio Airplane Layou t.
4j.
ti
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lXOOI.RD PlCllD
4:6

4:7
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HIGH SPEED AIRPLANES
2 The supersonic
term In equation (2), M CL la that given In Reference 3 *,
page 197. Thla term is analagous to the subsonic induced
drag term but le so large that the effect of aapect ratio
on drag oen be neglected. The drag coefficients plotted
from equations (1) and (2) are shown in Figure 4:0. The
results are different at aea level and 60,000 ft because of
the difference in C at the two altitudes for a given Haeh
number. The drag etlefflclenta in Figure 4:0 are baaed on
wing area. The drag coefficients were replotted in Figure
4:7 on the basis of the area of the combustion chambers of
the ramjets in order to provide comparison with thrust
coefficient available from the ramjets in the supersonic
region and to assure surplus thrust in the desired speed
range.
Thrust Estimate. Thrust from the two turbojets was
estimated to be 8,000 pounds.
Thrust calculations for the ramjets were based on a
normal shook in front of the ramjet nose and on an enthalpy-
entropy diagram for air. Pressure recovery factors and
combustion efficiency factors were neglected, but this
neglect is at leaat partly compensated (If not overcompen-
sated) by the possible Improvement In pressure recovery
through use of the spike nose. The results of the calcu-
lations here presented are believed to be consistent with
those of Reference 0**, though they are in general some-
what higher than shown in Reference 0. It is believed
however that the values given in Reference 6 were not in-
tended to represent the ultimate obtainable (or even the
best already obtained). The calculations for ramjet ex-
haust velocity were based on a Brsyton eyole with a
diverging nozzle at the exit.
Figure 4:7 is in reality a second attempt, the first
attempt having shown that with the original size of ramjet
combustion chamber listed in equation (3), super sonic
flight was not possible. Accordingly It sss found necessary
to approximately double the ramjet combustion chamber area
to a total of 20 sq ft (10 sq ft for each chamber, inside
diameter of combustion chamber approximately 43 Inches) la
order to get the results shown in Figure 4:7.
A comparison of thrust end drag, including the subsonic
range is plotted logarithmically in Figure 4:6 in a amy that
shows the region in whloh the turbojet and ramjet thrust
is Inadequate and must be supplemented by rockets. It is
seen in Figure 4:8 that for the range of ilach numbers from
.85 to 1.36 at sea level, the combined thrust of turbojets
and ramjets is Inadequate, so an additional rocket thrust
of 65,000 lbs was assumed to be provided, giving the total
thrust shown by the points plotted in Figure 4:8.
The Jet velocity for the rockets was assumed to be
8,000 ft per sec, and this is shown in Figure 4:9 to be
provldable by means of alcohol and liquid oxygen rockets.
The time required for acceleration from Haeh 11 - .86 to
II - 1.35 is calculated to be 8 seconds and to require
2,100 lbs of aloohol and liquid oxygen in the proper mixture
ratio. The fuel tanks, pumps, nozzles end controls for the
rockets are estimated to weigh 1,400 lbs. The total weight
for rocket machinery and fuel la thus 3,500 lbs. The ref-
erences used in rocket oalculat ions are given on Figure
4:9.
short range aa well as the thermal stress problem in the
wings. This airplane shows a good subsonic performance
aa well as fair supersonic performance. The subsonic
Is considerably in exoeas of the supersonic range.
Performance Calculation. The maximum thrust available
from the ramjets with a 3,000R maximum oombustlon chamber
temperature is plotted in Figure 4:8.
For orulslng calculations it was assumed that the ram-
jets provide a thrust equal to the drag, and that they were
designed for the particular lleoh number under consideration.
The results of range calculations are shown in Figure 4:10.
It la seen in Figure 4:10 that the dealred range of 1,000
miles at Haoh number 3 was not obtained but that a range of
bout 800 miles is obtainable in the Itaoh number range from
2 to 3. Macfa number 4 might be undesirable becauae of the
li:5 Problem.
1. Assuming the optimum wing-fuselage combination
for Haeh number 2.0 on page A2a:3U, layout a supersonic
airmail aircraft similar to Fig. U:3 powered by a turbo-
jet developing 1,000 lbs thrust and weighing 2,000 lbs.
installed. Carry sufficient fuel for 2 hours endurance
and 1,000 lbs. pay load and estimate the gross weight and
range of the supersonic airplane.
Fig. 4:12 Delta-wing British raeeeroh airplane teet
flown in 1949. Flight teat data are in-
tended for use in design of a 4- Jet bomber.
Courtesy Aviation Week, September 19, 1949.
* Mood, K.D. Technical Aerodynamics, 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill, 19*81
**0oss, Wm and Cook, Emory. The Ram Jet aa a Supersonio
Propulsion Plant. S.A.S. Journal, July, 1948 and later
transactions.
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kl = 190<3'
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kl
kl = 1300-
tbis cbapter
10 I 1/ n / / '''vuDt:T''o ... .l.r
e)
for 3Jlootb.
s. but more
5
SolidiLty % If"
o K ________ ________ ________
o .05 .10 .15
(e) Intercepts from Fig. A2e.6 for equation loSC
Q
= kl k
2
(1000
with k2 = 1.15.
k3
15 I -2
blades.l thic
(but rou
10 I \. V / ,'\I".p> blades.15
k3 : 150(f'
k3 = 120(f'
k3 = 1000"
450 iT 3/2 (usuel theory)
See p.A2e,14 for hovering
power chart.
5 / /jtl I
o
o .05 .10 .15 /2
(b) Intercepts from Fig. A2e.7 for equetion loSC
Q
: k3 k
4
(lPOO Cr)3
with k4 = 2.7. /2
Fig. 5.6. Comparison of accuracy of snd cf curve familias ss func-
of Note on p. A2e.13 thet dhte src better fitted by plot Ys.
CT and nete sboye tbat probable error of intercepts is less. Analysis
from plots va. c is bowever a useful simpla approximation snd 1s accord-
ingly presented hare.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
25
20
15
120
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
"
l,
(a) PROFIlE POWER AND SPEED LIMITS
..... Retreating blsde atell limit


"-
(Transient 1.b max = 1.8) --



blade aboek limit at S.L.
witb Mcr = 0.83 I I I I

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.....
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k
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Equation. 3


Rotor

t.,."
Pb
Profile
p w (j
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(b) POWER WEIGH]' DIAMEl'ER AND
SOLIDITY RELATIONS,
r'-t--- 0- = 0.10 3 or 4 wide blades

h iT = 0.5 "
Totsl
----
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rue /
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r--- 600
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3
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Tip speed (11 R 0
kO
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V
600
60-"
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corre!ted Blsde Losding
TYP1ieal 2 blade
0
0
I I
w/rr
Ib/sq. ft.
20 30 40 1)0 60 70 80 90 100 1 I o
1.5 2
j
4 !S _w for = 0.1
35 o 26 t8 ' 1'6,. D(ft) for 1000# at&..
w for (j =


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3,
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f
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D for 1000# gross-35 30 25 20 18 16
w for (f' = 0.025-"l
2
3.5
D for 100011 gross-- 35 30 25 20
Fig. 5.5. Hovering performance chert for helicopters, based on
l05cQ = 150 0 ... 1.15 (1000 also p. 5.22 and A2e.14.
__ .J
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LhYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
5:4
Equation (5:4) is plotted as an additional parameter on
the upper portion of Fig 5:5, which is a plot of rotor
Pfr0file power (1000 BhPh,.JI'i) vs. corrected blade loading
with tip speedllR a parameter. Note that only
very unusual designs (very low blade loading) will permit
forward sDeeds in excess of 200 mp.h. without stall of the
retreating blades.
Advancing blade shock limitation. Shock waves begin
to form on the upper surface of the tipe of the advancing
blades at a free stream Mach number considerably below
unity, aepending on the blade thickness and the lift
coefficient near the tip. Hhen the shock waves extend
over an appreciable portion of the blade tips, a substan-
tial increase in rotor torque and power is necessary.
Full scale hovering rotor tests (Ref. 1, page 5:fj)
with rather thick blades (te/c
e
- .15) reported a substan-
tial rise in Cq for a given Cr at tip speeds beyondJ1R-500
ft./sec. (Kfs - 0.45) and about a 30 percent torque rise at
JlR - 700 ft./sec. (Mfs - 0.63) which was however cut to
15 percent torque rise by a suitable (_50) twist of the
blades to reduce the lift coefficient near the tips.
Studies on airfoils indicate, however, that if the blades
are specially designed to avoid compressibility drag rise
(tic under 10 percent at the tips, laminar flow sections,
and optimum twist), serious adverse effects can be avoided
up to Mfs - o.eo to 0.85, quite possibly somewhat higher,
but also possibly somewhat lower, because lift coefficient
variation with cycling pitch control is not as favorable
for avoiding adverse compressibility effects. As a con-
servative estimate of the results of low drag blade tip
design, it is considered desirable to assume a specific
value of Mfs such as 0.83, in calculating a compressibiliir
limit for flight, in order that such limitations
may be represented on the performance and design charts.
It is also desirable in design studEs to consider
simultaneously the limitations due to retreating blade
and advancing avoidance-or-re-
treating blade stall requires high speeds which in
turn are limited by advancing blade shock losses. Hence
in design and performance charts such as Fig. 5:5, it is
desirable to show, for each retreating blade stall limit
speed (mphLS), the tip speed and other design parameters
where advancing blade shock losses become substantial.
Such a line is shown on Fig. 5:5 and some subsequent fig-
ures, based on Mfs - 0.83. Its equation is, for standard
sea level conditions
VLC - 0.83 x 1120 - 1.467
where VLC is the limiting forward speed in ft./sec. due to
advancing blade compressibility when the helicopter is
traveling forward at the speed of incipient stall of re-
treating blades. Note in Fig. 3 that this combination of
limitations, for! saecified high prevents
using rotor trp-spee s much in excess ofl55O'ft./sec.
except for very high blade loadings which are incapable of
shock-free landings, as explained later.
5:4. Optimum Hovering Design. Equation (5:2) for the
experimental hovering performance of helicopters of usual
blade thickness may be written in simplified notation
'" <f;s k:?:! -------------------(5:6)
- "IT!,;, 7
where k, ,.3 Ph = hovering profile power per 1000 pounds
and forPthe average of available tests (judged
reducible to about 6.5 for thinner and lower drag heli-
copter airfoils) and k2! Phi hovering induced power
per 1000 pounds and k2 I for the average of available
tests, but depends on blade interference and effective
blade aspect ratio, perhaps running as high as 110 or 120
for very low solidity two-blade designs,such S8 <r. 0.025.
The independent effects of each of the major design
variables (w, 6", and v) on the hovering power required may
be investigated by analysis of equation (5:6). The effect
of solidity requires no analysis, for the equation B tates
that for minimum power 6" should be as small as structurally
feasible, blade flexibility and vibration and flutter
difficulties considered. If, hOW8Ver, low solidity is ob-
tained by cutting the blade chord without correspondingly
reducing the blade thickness there may be no gain, and the
high blade loading w/o will further handicap landing.
The optimum tip speed for a given wando may be
obtained by setting a '" 0, solving for V
op
t(w,6"),
and putting the v
opt
back in equation (5:6).
The result of this procedure to show that fo! this con-
di tion p _ .. 3p ,or r - 3, (analogous to minimum power
conditioHifor aFplanes, and that
,;-," ,
Vc--,t '" 1.".6 -\j7i 'r;ric
------------(5:7)
and
-) V - 80 'tti
14
,r:;;:..
I - 0' Y"/'-' -------------(5:8)
Equations (5:7) and (5:8) are plotted in Fig 5:8 for the
usual of blade loadings and solidities. Speed
developed in Article 5:3 and rotor diameters
for 1000 pounds gross weight are also plotted so that the
designer can see at a glance the effects of changing de-
sign parameters. Fig. may be called an optimum
hovering design chart for a given w and 6'" It corresponds
to the maXilllUm "fibUl"e of merit" design condition dis-
cussed by Glauert and Gessow and Hyers (Ref. 3)
and involves maximum Its use will be discussed
after an alternate optimum design chart corresponding to
maximum Cr/CQ or Popt wk has been developed.
The optimum w or w/o for a given tip speed and I!i
may be obtained from equation (5:6) by setting
aPJy"a(w/o) - 0, solving for (w/o)opt(v,6"'), and putting
the resulting (w/<r)o t back in equation T?e result
of this procedure isPto show that for this Phi -
Php (analogous to the maximum LID condition for airplanes)
ana that r:-r;
I 2
or
and
(h'/a")ap'I;," \/ J.:... _!-.., ------(5:9)
V '"
V" 1092 ,/cU/(f)opt._--________ (5:10)
_3/4 r--:-- ()
Popt,w/r'" n.5 (I V (W/C-)opt .----- 5:11
Equations (5:-10) and (5:11) are plotted in Fig 5:9 with
speed limitations and rotor diameters as in Fig. 5:8.
Fig. 5:8 corresponds to a series of hovering designs
operating at high angles of attack and yielding minimum
power per 1000 pounds gross weight for a given rotor
diameter. but such designs will be severely limited in
forward speed because of stalling of retreating blades.
Hence Fig. 5:8 should be used for design only when rotor
diameter limitations are more important than speed of for-
ward flight. For commercial helicopters, the relative
importance of rotor size and cruiSing speed is a matter
of economics.
Fig. 5:9 corresponds to a series of helicopters
operating at low angles of attack (one-third the rotor
thrust coefficient of Fig. 5:8) and higher tip speeds.
They require 14 percent more power to hover for a given
w and (f than those of Fig. 5:d (compare equations 5:8 and
5:11) but can go much faster without retreating blade
stall, it sufficient power is provided without excessive
body drag.
The range of reasonable rotor diameters. in the light
of current practice. is in the higher power region in
either case (for a 4000 pound helicopter, the diameters
are twice those shown for 1000 pounds). If an arbitrary
limit of 50 foot rotor diameter is placed on a 4000 pound
helicopter. and a rotor o solidity 0 0.030 is consid-
ered a practical lower limit. Fig. 5:8 shows that
Popt-v 4B and hovering Bhp 4 x 4B - 192 with a blade
loading w/6" 65 and w 2 Ibs./sq. ft. at sea level.
The corresponding optimum rotor tip speed is t
490 ft./sec. and the limit level speed due to
LAYoor DESIGN 011' HEUCOPI'ERS
900
800
Retreating blade siall
700 limit (mphz.s)
f-c t=
Advancing blade shock
limit at S.L.
600
500
400
300
250
100
90
80
10
CflR)opt.
v and
lS" const,
:vopt.v,
15 20
.30
:3

,.,e:
,
v/t!" t
40
It
,
!
,
50 60
.5 4
,
,
,
,
" "
t---" ""L.,. 1-- i---

70 80 90 100 150
v for cr- 0.1
v for (J 0.05 _________ -=L-_____ """"' ___ ----''''-__ _ 2,
:3 4f ,
v for 0- 0.025 ---------.-
Retreating blade stall limit (mphr.s) ,
Approx. zero payload
boundary I.e.E. pOIO'er
100
: Popt. y
It
21
l
, Advancing blade
limit


10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 150
Fig. 5:8. Optimum design chart for a given w and CJ r : Phi: 3 basad on 3-blade rotor data with te/ce
Php
.12. Aboye chart gives substantially lower than true values for (J < .04 and 2 blade rotors.
500
400
; --i--+- for a given R
15 20 40 50
l
Fig. 519. Optimum hovering design chart for given (.(lR) " tip speed (r : Phi a 1) based
Php
on 3 blade rotor data at ta/cs r12. Above chart gives lower than true values
for <S < .04 and 2 blad. rotors.
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
blade stall is about tl5 m.p.h. For the same diameter and
blade loading Fig. 5:9 yields a helicopter requiring
220 h.p. to hover with a tip speed of around 640 ft./sec.
and a limit level speed due to stall of around 160 m.p.h.
Both designs are however in the dubious area as regards
power-off landing, and climb or climbing ceiling have not
been considered.
With no arbitrary limit on rotor diameter, both Figs.
5:8 and 5:9 show reductions in power for a given gross
weight as diameter is increased indefinitely. An obvious
practical limit is reached when the rotor becomes so large
and heavy that the payload is reduced rather than in-
creased by increasing the rotor diameter. In practice, the
limit of gains by increasing rotor diameter is reached
considerably before the maximum payload per hovering horse-
power, because of limited design experience in building
large rotors. It is possible, and perhaps desirable, to
evolve a semi-empirical formula for rotor weight, and its
effect on gross weight, as a function of rotor diameter, so
as to pennit determining the design of minimum hovering
horsepower pound <if but preliminary trials of
this method reported in Ref. 4 yielded a rather flat curve
and economic as well as flutter dictated a
much smaller diameter than that of minimum hovering horse-
power per pound of payload, without regard to speed of
forward flight and other factors greatly affecting the
utility of the vehicle.
In general, an optimum hovering design optimizes only
a part of the usual performance specification, and such
specifications are implied at the start of any project,
whether specifically stated or not. It is accordingly
necessary to consider forward flight performance in rela-
tion to hovering performance before selecting the overall
optimum configuration. Such relationships do not appear
specifically in the literature and were accordingly de-
veloped in this study.
5:5. Geheral Level Performance. When a heli-
copter acquires, by tilting 0 the rotor, an appreciable
forward velocity, the simplified analysis presented in
article 3, which considered the blades as rotating wings,
is no longer even approximately correct, for no analysis
based on rotating wings accounts for the observed major
reductions in power required (sometimes over 5u percent)
as forward flight speed is increased. The rotor profile
power change can be approximately correctly estimated, but
the rotor induced power variation must be explained and
calculated in an entirely different manner. This difference
has been the principal cause of the lack of an integrated
hovering and forward flight performance analysis.
The mathematical analysis of the forward flight of an
inclined rotor has been well presented in References 3 and
5 and also less completely presented in other sources there
documented. The physical picture is that the rotor disc
behaves more like a wing when flying forward at a speed
f V,PlR> about 0.05 (about 20 forJlR 600 ft./
sec.). At some point in this region the induced power re-
quired by the rotor, considered as a flying disc, becomes
less than that required for hovering, and further increases
in forward speed result in still further reductions in in-
duced power. It may thus be considered that the inclined
rotor acts on an increasing mass per second of air with in-
creasing forward speed, and the power required to support
the weight accordingly decreases, in spite of initially
small increases in profile power.

Before.
V
'\
.J}- , \
\'
C/o
\ ,
,
5:7
The usual analysis of induced rotor power in forward
flight (Refs. 3 and 5) is equivalent to assuming that the
rotor diSC, like an airplane wing, has the same lift as if
it acted on a mass of air of diameter equal to the rotor
diameter. This assumption is justified only on the grounds
that it gives results which agree well with experlJnental
data. A picture of the air stream affected and the ve-
locity changes produced is sketched in Fig. 5:10 below.
Mathematical analysis consistent with Refs. 3 and 5
permits writing an expression for the ratio of (profile +
body) power in forward flight to hovering profile power
as
Ppb 2 500f 3
Pap .1 .. P .. ""'7iO F ----------------(5:12)
Equation (5:12) is also plotted in Fig. (5:11) with
flAo as a parameter and a range of values chosen to
cover most existing helicopters, tho lower drag "flying
saucers" can probably be built. Fig. (5:11) permits
ra,id estimation of forward flight power for a given helt-
copter after the hovering power has been calculated.
Fig. 5:12 is a combination of the induced and (profile +
body) ratios in various proportions specified b.1 the
additional parameter r Phi and may be called a general
power required chart for based on hovering
power reqlllred. Note in Fig. 5:12 that two families of
lines are drawn r 1 and r 3, corresponding to the
optimum hovering designs of Fig. 5:9 and Fig. 5:8 re-
spectiveq.
Linear interpola-
tion for other values of r is satisfactory for some de-
sign studies; for greater accuracy, the equations may be
used. Fig. 5:12 may also be used for climb, climbing
ceiling, and autorotative glide calculations as explained
in articles 516 and 5:7.
Of particular interest in Fig. 5:12 are the minimum
power conditions, because these are the conditions of
maximum rate of climb and minimum sinking speed. For
simplicity let
* .r,.
f .. 500f, P oo? co P b + Pi
-- .- p ,
1l(l Ph Php + Pm
and the equation for Fig. 5:12 is
or in terms of;4 ,
p* a Pp -----------------(5:13)
l+r
p* .. 1 .. l + r*; + r/23'!: _______________ (5:14)
1 -I- r
For minimum p* with a given rand f*, setdP*/cl..,. 0 and
solve forl</, of minimum power. The equation for /11' thus
detennined is
'* 2
31 rl ------------------(5:15)
2311
Equation (5:15) can be solved for .M1(f*, r). Values of
..HI are shown on Fig. 5:12 for the values of f* and r
there considered.
An experimental check on the procedure is
shown in Fig. 5:13, which presents one of the very few
__ I
"-.
T
V!

(a) Front Vie;! of
Sid9 vieD of wlocitics (El) Side view
inclined rot.or shcn;o;..r.g
mass of air e,llsQ"Ecl <:i'f(Jcted
of fOl'ces
Fig. 5:10. Sketcles for development of induced power equation
in forward flight from momentum theory.
j . -
7
'v
S
i/f-
vi
)
V
V1
_ .!J2..!? : j2rofile and bodl Eower
Php hovering profile power
V
+
I
!
1 .:;
I I
1
..k
1 l T I I
.0 ?
.. r--
I
r I\-

, fran test
.8
.7
.6
)

'J
results
(NACA TN 1698)
.1"
.4
+
I .]
V
V
1/
'0"'0/ V
..l; V
l
/
V I- l-
V
i/ 'Vo' 04 '0
):
12'" -17+- >
iL'
./ ,- .L
--.1_ 17"
t-
k'"
A{S
.1.;;{v
.......
r-
Y""
W..l
I
---
i'-I

'" " _ ,,,,,",01 ,
Phi- hovering induced power



.2
.15
l"--.l
V
. .v
V
V
!.,Y
V-
i
I.
!
J)-=L
-
.1
1 1 1 I I 1 1 I
1 I I I' .f2.R I I I I I 1 1 I I 1 I 1 I
o .1 .2 .]
"s. 5:11-. Variation of 1ndu"ed and (profile plus body) power with .-peed
ratio uased on ]wblede data and assumption C
Q
= kl k2CT2
I
4.0
j.O
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
.9
.8
.7
.6
.5
.45
o
I I 1 T T I
r : 1.0 (max Cr/C
Q
designs, as in Fig. 5:9)
r : 3.0 (max Cr/C
Q
designs, 8S in Fig. 5.8)
" p. :.I:.-
V
/ Ph
1/
Plotted from Fig. 5.11
/
/ and equation.
p. : RE rR
i
V
1 .. r
V
I I
--------"-. -
II--
1--11
I
/
-
/ I
I
V
V
II
/
V
/ V
/ / / )'
V
I
/11
r- .
_Body drag ratio .L I
--
A::r -- I
V W /
) I
I I /
V
V
!/it
/
/
I

{ I
!/
j
I 1'\:1"-
V
/ / I
1",
' I '/ V /
"

X,/ ,/ V
1/
\
-..::
...... Il><b /
/ ......
\
'0<-/
/
"

V
II
,
"
')(1,1 V
V
'/. .-
"\t'--
!-I-- ',,1'" i:f><b
V-
I'
..,
"\.0
4
r--..,
I
fl: V/aR
.11 J I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
Fig. 5.12.
.1 .2 .3
General power required chart for level flight, baaed on
3-blade data and aasumption C
Q
kl k2Cr
2
'-"
CD


t1
&l
H

o
"11

f::
g


Ul
IAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOl'TERS
flight tests for which f/A6has been measured lNACA full
scale tunnel tests). The measurements were made, however,
without the rotor hubs. ./hen an estimated correction is
made for rotor hub drag and for the difference between the
tpick blades actually used and the thinner blades assumed
in Fig. 5:12, the agreement is good but may be partly fort
tous, as both r and be estimated; for much lower
or higher solidities, poorer agreement would be expected.
fran ... t data
_ _Sikorsky HNS l, NAC! TN 1595, /
\
6': 0.042. I
0.8 ,
- --- : \ /-
1- ,- /
06'
. --- --1
I
j I
i " Line calculated 3
0.4 I i

- riA 6" 0.,35 bT

I of this report. Honring J'
, j tests showed r/A.(J 0.30
I

i without rotor hub (est.
___ with __
i
I
! V
__ ____ __ ____ __
o 0.1 0.2
Fig. 5:13. Flight test check on level flight
calculations.
The level high speed, IF NOT LIHITED BY RETREATING
BLADE STALL OR ADVANCING BUDE SHOCK, may be read from
Fig. 5:12 for a given ratio available power 1 hovering
Values of)( L =-vr7!l.R so read from Fig. 5:12 are
plotted in Fig. 5:14, and the corresponding level high
speeds in m.p.h. (mph
L
) for values of f2 R from 400 to 700
are sOOwn on scales to the left of the chart. A partial
designation of stall and shock limitations is shown on
these scales of mph
L
It is evident from Fig. 5:14 that
enormous amounts of power (Paj> beyond the limits
of the chart) are necessary to achieve speeds in excess of
150 m.p.h., and that it can only be done at optimum tip
speeds 0"lR) around 600 ft./sec. Also, since is around
lOOhp/lOOO lbs. gross weight, Pa must be of the order of
500hp/1OOO lbs. Since internal combustion engine power
plants, with reduction gears, controls, and a small amount
of fuel weigh over 2 lbs./hp, the payload vanishes some-
where before this point as speed is increased, for the
necessary internal combustion engine power plant under
these conditions weighs more than the gross weight. With
gas turbine power plantsr the power plant weight is much
less (under 1 lb./hp) but the fuel weight for a given
endurance is greater. Hence it may be concluded that
short flights at speeds in excess of 150 m.p.h. may not be
possible except with turbine driven rotors. Pulse jets on
the blade tips are of course still lighter (and less
economical), but offer a good promise for high speed de-
signs if durability and variable speed operation can be
improved. Tip ram jets or rockets ("pinwheels") have been
demonstrated feasible but for economical transportation
their outlook is dubious.
5:6. Climb and Climbing Ceiling. If it is desired
to calculate rate of climb at various forward speeds, as
is customary with airplanes, Fig. 5:12 may be used for
plotting a graph of rotor power required (BhPr) vs. for-
ward speed. Subtracting BhPr from the net available BhPa
gives the power available for climb, or if no power is
available, the rate of autorotative descent is obtained,
PROVIDED the assumptions involved in deriving the level
flight power required equation are fulfilled; (the "small
rotor angle of attack" assumption is not fulfilled in
autorotative glides.). --
See for exemple Fig. 5,26, p. 5:20.
5:9
Designating the excess horsepower b.y and the
rate of climb in ft./min. by
3
_('"' n) 3'<" \,'0""0'
c :> l'a " -, h __ . '-'----------(5:16)
Ph
Equation (5:16) is plotted in Fig. 5:15 for low and high
drag helicopters of r 3 and r 1, corresponding to the
optimum design charts of Fig. 5:8 and Fig 5:9 respectively.
Scales of in ft./min. are provided for the c?mmon
range of values of hovering horsepower per 1000 pounds
used in Figs. 5:8 and 5:9, as a guide to design selections
when sea level maximum rate of climb is specified
To use the general power required chart (Fig. 5:12)
for climb calculations, calculate Pa/Ph for the particular
helicopter, draw a horizontal line on tbe chart through
the value of and read downward to get (PaiPh p/Ph).
l1u.ltiply by to get rate of climb in feet per minute.
Repeat for best climb at various altitudes, plot best rate
of climb vs. altitude, and read service and absolute climb-
ing ceilings as is customary in airplane practice. Because
of the wide variety of power plants contemplated for heli-
copters, and because variation of Pa with altitude differs
widely with different types of power plants, there is some
doubt as to the usefulness of a series of general absolute
and service ceiling charts.
5: 7. Glide and Landing. The helicopter did not
really "arrive" as a commercial vehicle Until it was dis-
covered that it could be landed without power more safely
than an airplane. Current u, S. Army training of heli-
copter pilots is devoted more to practice of power-off
landings than to any other maneuver. Three types of
power-off landings are practiced: (1) auto rotative glide
(about 45
0
to horizontal) terminated by "flare up" landing
(by collective pitch control) which reduces the vertical
speed to zero, but not the horizontal speed, (2) autorota-
tive glide teminated by "flare up" wdch reduces horizon-
tal as well as vertical speed to zero, and (3) vertical
autorotative descent with "flare up" to zero vertical
velocity, if possible. Type (3) is not possible with some
helicopters, and even when possible requires excellent
depth perception and pitch control coordination by the
pilot. It is also rarely a necessary maneuver, so it is
here considered that it should not constitute part of the
design specification, as it severely handicaps other fea-
tures of the design.
The approximate terminal sinking speed Vv in vertical
autototative descent has been found in Ref. 6 to be given
by the equation
,...--'
1J
v
" 21;-'; ".7 ---------------(5:17)
where Vy is in ft./sec. and w is in lbs./sq. ft. (correc-
ted to 5. L. ) the constant 28 having dimensions of
provided the descent is started with the rotor
turning at the s table rate of a utorotation corresponding
to optimum negative collective pitch. (Great vertical
heights are required if the pilot is not quick with the
pitch control when the motor dies). The independence of
Vy and solidity (i implied by Eq. (5:17) has not been veri-
in the references consulted b.y the author, and is con-
sidered doubtful, though t he usual momentum theory of
windmilling rotors (Eq. (5:17) from Ref. 6) does not in-
volve solidity, for the same reasons that solidity is not
involved in induced power for either hovering or level
flight. Certainly, as in gliding descent, the stable ver-
tical autorotative tip speed must be a function of
solidity. Solution to this problem will not be considered
here because the requirement of shock-free vertical-
descent landing is believed to be an unnecessarily severe
penalty to economical design.
A simple approximation to the minimum rate of gliding
descent may be obtained from Fig. 5:12 by assuming that
5:10
110
90
100
90
80 1
"1
70
+
~
I
0 0
0
t"-
0
'"
"
II
0:; 0:;
~ ~
70
60
t
0
0
II")
"
0:;
C;
50
t
I
o
g
..
0:;
q
LAYODr DESIGN OF HELICOPI'ERS
Iii
" ,-
~ . 2 0
r = 1 (low pitch), Fig. 5.9 ~ ~
, , . I j-,-' c-:' ''-]'--1--'-1-;-:-1
, I!: I Iii
Mph.. obtainable from available power -;.-'-;.-',--' j-L-I ;-' ''-'+1---:--r-+-l
-.. I: ' i , .15
t ...... if not limited by stall or shock, : ' ,I "i,
for 11. R at bot tom of seale r+-'-t-+-, ': L, ,'--h:-1I--t-T,-f
I j 1 III III' I Ii: 1 , Ii Ii ,Ii j : , I:: ! I: iii i i
I , I III! "I ' '" P /Ph +-1LI IHI++'+-;- iLl+- IIHI++++-i+- i'H 1'++'+1 ++-11
" iil!:!,,8 i! I Ii! iii I ! I I I I !
1.0
1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Fig. 5.14. General sea level high speed chart. baaed on Fig. 5:5.
80 60
6000 4500 3000
3500
2500
1000
1000
500
o o
IA your DESIGN OF HEUCOPrERS
Ph valuea (Bhp per 1000 lbs. to hover)
- - - I- - - -f- - --- ---
C
h
max, ft/min fo
Ph valu s at top f scale
(frcjm eq. 26)
2
Fig. 5115. General m ~ i r n u m sea level climb chart, based on rig. 515.
5111
I
.5
o
3
LAYOUf DESIGN OJ' HEUCOPI'ERS
512
the rate of autorotative descent vill be sueh that gravity
supplies the power necessary for the fOrYard flight velocity
indicated in Fig. 5:12 and that r Phi/PhP 3 for the
minimum sinking speed. This procedure is only approximate
because the assumption of small angle of attack involved
in the ealeulated indueed power is not fulfilled (usual
optimum descent angles are about 450): The indueed poyer
momentum theory (action on a eireular air stream of diame-
ter equal to span) appears to be conservative for this
case, for actual rates of descent are substantially less
than calculated by the theory (for one check exampla from
Ref. 8, the Bell Hl3 aetual descent rate vas 0.55 V
v
' cam-
pared Yi th 0.67 Vv caleulated from specified operating
conditions)
, below.
500
2
3 4 5 1
Fig.5:16 (a). Autorotative tip speed neeessary for sinking
speeds in Fig. 5.16 (b).
80 :-
70
60 I (b)
! Vs min-ana V
v
' ,
i Sinking speed i ; /!

/l I
'L I
4
0
:------------;--;1 ---'- r--
, ,/"
;
3
0

I
,
Fig. 5.16 (b). Sinking speed in vertical and gliding
descents.
Fig. 5:16. Some necessary eonditions for shock-free
poyer-off l\Lndings for average drag
helicopter Leq. (5.18) and (5.19)J.
han Fig. 5.12, for r_3 and an average body drag ratio
of fiAt)_ 0.2, p.p/ph-O.55. But Ph_80.4 fran
equation (5.8) under these eonditions, vhkh involve gliding
at (flR)<7)t" Jl;6{W/ --------------------(5.18)
Val:Wl .. 4h '${1i ------------------------(5.19)
Equations (5.17), (5118), and (5.19) are plotted in
F1g.5.l6. Equation (5.19) bas been redueed by a factor
0.8 to correspond to Bell and Hiller flight test data i.
plotting in Fig. 5Jl6(b). Flight speeds along deseent
paths of 45
0
are Y2 times the vslues of Vs min there
plotted
Approximate 'flare up' ealeulations my be made by
eonsidering the rotor blades aa rotating vinga of finite
aspeet ratio vith the aame assumptions as for the hovering
ealeulations. The basic physical quantities involved ara
thus brought togethar in their proper physical relation-
ships, and empirical eorrection faetors may be used to
bring the analysis into line Yith current flight practice.
A general 'flare up' maneuver caleulation can accord-
ingly be made on the basis of the folloving assumptions.
which sre believed to agree yell vith the physicel facts.
(e) the rotor is descending the blades at an angle of
attack corresponding to minimum Sinking speed (C
Lb
opt)
vhen the pilot suddenly increases the pitch to CLb max,
(b) the increase in lift decelerates the msss of the heli-
copter from Vs to zero in a stopping t
s
' (c) the
corresponding incresse in dreg on the rotor blades reduces
the rotor speed (and hence simultaneously the lift at
C
L
max) SO that the deceleration reduces as the maneuver
progresses. Mathematical analysis shovs that for a reason-
ably emaIl stopping distance and time a definite numerieal
value must be provided for the
Retarding factor. C
Lb
max/CLb opt - 1 -------------(5.20)
and that the rotor may slow up too soon unless there is
provided an adequate
I.,k
r
), 2 I r. )
Rotor Momentum factor. u4R 0 ------------(5.21)
::- {'1f"j
Equation (5t2l) states that heavy rotors and high autorota_
tive speeds are advantages in 1;0ver-off landings, and that
tapered rotors [ (kr"'R) emall-.J are a disadvantage.
Fig. 5t16 can be used as a guide to the selection of
6" consid ering the poyer-off lending requirement. The
haight in feet from vhich the landing flare up must be
initiated 1s 2v, and it is seen in Fig. 5.16(a)
that the necessary autorotative speeds become excessive in
the region of via- near 100. Accordingly in Fige. 518 and
5.9 this region hss been designated "Approx. hazardous land-
ing boundary.' The designer should have these limitations
in mind vhen selecting diameter and solidity. Aa alternative
provision for ssfe poyer-off landings is sometimes made by
considering the change of rotor kinetic energy from the auto-
rotative glide condition to the condition of hovering at
and alloYing the pilot 1 or 2 seconds time for the

518. Design to a Given Performance Specifieation.
Helicopters can be designed to a performance specification
as airplanes are sometimes designed (e.g. Chap. 1 of thia
book). Before a performance specification can be writtan,
hovever, the person so doing must have clearly 1n mind vhat
i8 p08sible and whet is not yet possible; in short, the
specifier must be thoroughly familiar vith at least the
preceding material in thia chapter. For example, to spec-
ify a level high speed of 300 m.p.h. for a vertical take-
off end lending vehicle 1s to specify something other then
a conventiODal helicopter becsuse it has been demonstrated
that
See F1gs. I:4 ('convertiplane')and take-off
airplane)
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
shock and stall limitations are far below this figure. In
general the specification should come within the range of
the charts here provided, which is still considerably be-
yond the range of vehicles currently flying or under devel-
opment. There need, however, be no severe restriction as
to size; 200 pounds payload is probably the mininnun for a
piloted helicopter; the field of pilotless helicopters is
as yet unmotivated except for experimental work. With only
minor scale corrections the procedure here developed is
applicable to a wide of size and performance. Sug-
gested limits (debatable) are given in the following table,
but very large sizes and/or very high performance involves
a large amount of development labor and in general the fact
that areas increase as squares of dimensions and weights
increase as the cube is disadvantageous to the large sizes,
for while powers go up as the cube (like weight) for a
given speed, speeds must increase with increased loads per
sq. ft., but speeds are severely limited by stall and com-
pressibility.
Suggested Size and Performance Limits
Gross Weight, lbs.
Payload, lbs.
Diameter, Ft.
Sea level high speed, mph
Sea level rate of climb, ft./min.
Hovering ceiling, ft.
Power-off landing roll, ft.
Min.
1
1
1
50
500
3,000
o
Max.
100,000
50,000
100
150
5,000
30,000
100
The specification should preferably include rotor
arrangement and power plant type. The sint:le rotor with
anti-torque rotor driven by an internal combustion engine
usually accounts for over 95 percent of
current production (almost entirely for U. S. Army and
U. S. Marine Corps) but the and design procedure
are also applicable to other rotor arrangements and power
plant types, each of Which has disadvantages as well as
advantages compared with the current predominating type.
Certainly the gas turbine power plant is a major contender
in current experlinental development, for it can be built
for hall the weight per horsepoHer of an internal combus-
tion engine, and its increased fuel consumption is not a
serious handicap for the short flights usually planned.
The rotor-tip pulse jets and rotor-tip ram jets are even
lighter, but there is some doubt as to whether they will
work satisfactorily at high forward speeds (widely fluc-
tuating speeds at the jet unit) because they are inherently
constant speed devices; rotor tip burners, with turbo-
cOlll!'ressed air fed thrrugh the hollow blades, as in the
XV-l, Fig. 1:4, may be more feasible.
For the usual unsupercharged internal combustion
engine drivinG a single rotor with anti-torque, rotor
losses due to gears, engine cooling, and tail rotor must
be estimated. Usual values are: gears 3.5%, cooling 5.5%,
tail rotor total 15%, and these fi[Ures will be used
hereafter, though the total may be 5 percent in error for
any particular design. For altitude performance of un-
supercharged internal combustion engines the well verified
altitude correction on engine torque (Ref. 4) will be used.
Qn1to e ..
0-- .. lo!.3 'i) - 0.1;. --------------------------(5:22)
co
3quation (5:22) assumes cylinder (or "indicated") horse-
power proportional to air density, and 87 percent mechani-
cal efficiency. For most engines in current production, it
is correct to within 3 percent for the range of altitudes
involved in helicopter performance.
The usual specification involves payload and perf or-
'mance, since this is what the customer wants, leaving the
power plant to be selected by the manufacturer. The
selection of power plant for a given payload of necessity
involves, at the start at least, some very rough approx-
imate estimates based on previous overall design achieve-
ments (Which, of course, the designer may reasonably
hope to better, but not without great labor and careful
5:13
attention to many details). Even after the power plant has
been selected (or specified), overall achievement of pre-
vious designers is the first guide to weight estimation.
Weight data of this sort, and some useful weight ratios for
design estimates based on previous designs is given in
Table 5:2.
Note in Table 5:2 that average weight empty per
installed h.D. is 8.0 lbs. + 9%. This average payload per
h.p. includine pilot is 2.7-(about 75 h.p. per 200 lb.
passenger). For a minimum of 1 hour of fuel, weight is
about 0.5 lbs./h.p. Minimum total weight/h.p. which may
reasonably be expected to be achieved is thus 8 + 2.7 +
0.5 about 11, corresponding to 90 h.p. per 1000 pounds
gross weight (probably somewhat less than 90 h.p. for
larger rotor diameters). This limit cuts off most of the
otherwise possible high speed designs and is indicated as
a weight limit boundary in Figs. 5:8 and 5:9.
Since the aerodynamic design is more concerned with
the main rotor than any other part of the helicopter, a
special study of rotor weight as a function of diameter,
solidity, and gross weight is of primary importance, and
a study of this sort is presented in Fig. A515. The
overall weight ratios and rotor weight study will b e dis-
cussed in connection with the suggested deSign procedure
given below, which is illustrated by numerical examples
in article 5:9.
(1.)
(2. )
Recommended Design Procedure
for a specified payload and performance
Make estimate of weight 5 times
(payload + pilot). Average ratio in Table 5:2 is
somewhat under 5, with an aVerage error of 35 per-
cent. Far airplanes, gross weight 3 to 4 times
fpay10ad + pilot) but airplanes are inherently more
economical (and, we now know, more dangerous to fly
where emergency lAnding fields are scarce). This
assumption implies, quite correctly, that helicopter
travel per passenger mile will cost at least 50 per-
cent more than airplane travel, and that in these
days of fairly good $9000 4-seat airplanes, the u-
seat helicopter cannot be sold profitably by an es-
tablished manufacturer for less than $15,000 to
$20,000, and then only after detail development
involving a lot of time and money. There may, how-
ever, still be a commercial market for a large
number of small helicopters, particularly for busi-
ness use when the expense is income-tax deductible.
Estimate the horsepower to carry the
first-estimate-weight and meet the specified perfor-
mance. This can be done fairly quickly as follows.
(a.) Estimate the rotor power needed to hover at the
specified hovering ceiling using 5:8 and
>:9. If the diameter is limited by the specif-
ication, as it usually is, the minimum power
will be obtained using this limiting diameter.
Possible more economical combinations of power
and diameter can be investigated later. Check
on Fig. 5:8 to see that speed limitations, due
to advancing blade shock and retreating blade
stall, will permit the specified level high
speed. If not, use Fig. 5:9 which permits
higher speeds but takes more pOwer. Check also
to see that safe-landing blade loadings are not
exceeded < 70 fo!' shock-free landing ini-
tiated from reasonable altitude). Check aleo on
Figs. 5131 anc A2el8 which are more correct.
(b.) Convert the altitude hovering power from part
(a) to sea leval hovering power necessary,
using the same charts.
(c.) Find power necessary to meet the speed
requirement, in terms of sea leve hovering
power, from Fig. 5:14. For low values of
specified level high speed, no additional
power may be necessary.
5:14
(3. )
(4. )
(5.)
(6.)
(7. )
(8. )
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
(d.) Find power necessary to meet the maximum sea
level climb specification, in terms of sea level
hovering power using Fig. 5:15. For low speci-
fied rates of climb, this chart also may show no
additional power required.
Tentatively select power using the largest
horsepower calculated in item 2) above, and dividing
by 0.85 to allow for gear. cooling. and tail rotor
losses.
Make a second estimate of gross weight. based on the
power-pranr-Belected (3) above. using weight
ratios for component parts of the helicopter given in
Table 5:2. and including sufficient fuel to meet the
endurance 2!. range. This estimate can be
much more accurate than the first. which was based on
payload only.
Repeat item (2) above usinrr the second weiGht
and if necessary select a new power plant and repeat
again. Usually 2 repetitions will be sufficient to
get within 10 percent of the final gross weight;
power plant selection based on second weight estimate
should preferably include 10 percent allowance for
incorrect weight estimate. and preferably also an
additional 10 to 20 percent to permit satisfactory
functioning of the vehicle even when the power plant
is not adjusted for maximum performance (ignition
timing, carburetor adjustment, value timing and
clearances, etc., or other details for other than
internal combustion engine).
a preliminary lavout sketch. Tentatively select
a 2 blade rotor in the interest of simplicity and
economy, either rotor bar stabilized as in Bell
Helicopter designs (Fig. 5:1), or with servo-rotor
controls as developed by FJJler Helicopters (Fig.5:2),
though the Seibel or other types of pitch control
should probably also be considered. Nuch Sllloother
operation at high speed is obtainable with 3 or more
blades, for reasons similar to thcse favoring 3 or
more blades in airplane propellers, but at consid-
erable increase in complexity and cost. A tentative
taper of about 2:1 in thickness ratio is suggested
with a tip thickness ratio not exceeding 9 percent if
high speed is important. If soft power-off landings
are to be favored, mean blade thickness for the
outer half of the blade may well be around 13 percent.
The inner third of the blade may well be a symmet-
rical ellipse of about 4:1 fineness ratiO, since it
"flies backward" half the time even at relatively low
forward speeds of the helicopter; structural consid-
erations may result in a faired circular tube for
this region. Planform shape is debatable, as in
airplane propellers. With a diameter limit in the
specification (as also in most airplanes) a nearly
uniform blade width will be close to the optimum;
some reduction in chord toward the tip may be justi-
fiable. but the experiments run to date show no con-
clusion of general validity. Other requirements of
the general arrangement as to payload. power plant,
and fuel are dictated by the same considerations as
in airplanes. Landin,: gear arrangements are debat-
able; some have no lfheels. only retractable (but
fairly large) casters for ground handling; skids,
skis. and floats all have special purpose places.
weight estimate, based on the sizes
shown in the sketch; a balance table showing center
of gravity (c.g.) location rotor shaft,
with and without fuel and A c.g. variation
(for various load conditions) of only a few percent
of the rotor diameter is permissible with most
current
Cal?ulate 1! performance, using the third weight
est1mate. Unless major mistakes have been made. the
performance will satisfy the specification. and the
desired result has been achieved.
The preliminary design is now ready for an investiga-
tion of the effect of changes in design on performance and
economy. One of the principal studies may well be the
effect of reduction in rotor diameter. The above study
may well be repeated several times using a series of
smaller rotor diameters, but still keeping on the "optimum"
charts Figs. 5:8 or 5:9. The effects on performance are
readilY obtained from the charts. The effects on economy
must involve studies such as those in Ref. 9, with consid-
eration given to "fixed costs" (interest. insurance. de-
preciation) as well as operating cost (fuel. maintenance.
and operating crew) for the Since use in-
tentions vary widely. and also differ from actual use, a
wide variety of answers comes from an economy study, and
a sinilar wide variety of most economical rotor diameters
results. -- ---
The eight steps in the above "recommended design pro-
cedure". numbered (1) to (8). correspond roughly to the
sixteen steps of airplane design procedure outlined in
Chapter 1.
5:9. Example of Proposed Design Procedure. Partial
solution of a design problem will be presented here to
illustrate the foregoing procedure. and to clarify, as only
numerical illustrations can. the meaning of the rather
abbreviated instructions. Item (2) on power requirements
may be particularly difficult to execute unless numerically
illustrated. The design engineer not only needs a numerical
step-by-step check on his procedures, but should also re-
view the basic assUl1Iptions and prepare charts similar to
those given here (but probably somewhat different. at least
numerically) corresponding to such special information as
he may have on drag coefficients. power losses. landing
techniques. or other aspects of basic design. which are
not available in this book.
The special project arbitrarily selected for solution
here is a very light single-place helicopter. with very
low performance requirements and with internal combustion
engine power plant.
Illustrative design problem
A. Specification
payloaii lbs. ---------------------------------200
'ameter limit. ft.---------------------- 40
Performance
Endurance. max. hrs.------------------------ 1
Hovering cej1ing. max. ft.-----------------7ooo
High speed at S. L 50
Climb. mas. S. L., ft./min.-----------------500
B. Design procedure (steps numbered as in Art. 5.8)
(1.) First estimate of weight 5 x 200 -
+ 350-rbs.
(2.) estiiiiate 2 horsepower
(a) To hover at 7000 feet, where elro - 0.811
(Std. air tables. p. Al:2)refer to Fig.
5:8 and note that minimum power involves
maximum diameter. Tentatively select the
diameter of 40 feet and investigate
later the possible gains or losses by re-
ducing diameter. Every point on the line
labeled D 40 feet for 1000 lbs. at S.L.
corresponds to a given ahd and hence
to a given w a W 2 At 7000 feet,
where - l:1L.Pa lIlUst be increased
in the ratio .yr.24 = 1.11 to keep w the
same. Hence the line labeled D z 40 at S.
L. could also have been labeledD-40 x
1.11: 44.5 at 7000 feet. Since the limit
D of 40 feet must be used for hovering at
7000 feet, the line to read on this chart
corresponds to a smaller diameter at S. L.
or D - 40;f:24 36 feet. Minimum power
requirement for this diameter is at minimum
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
solidity. To avoid the 'hazardous landing bounda!>"
by a good margin, choose = 0.025, and on the line
estimated at D 36, read w/ 38 lbs./sq. ft. blade
loading, ( R)opt = 360 ft./sec., and Bhp/(W/1000) is
equal to 30. Tor alternate solution, follow example
at bottom of p.A2e,14 and get (llR) 330 ft./sec.,
Bhp 35.
(3. )
(4.)
(b) The sea level engine power required, from
Eq. (40) is reated to the altitude power,
at constant r.p.m" by
(c) To check high speed requirement, read first
the sea level hovering power from Fig. 5:8.
For D a 40 and (j. 0.025, read w/ [J 32,
(1l.R)o t .. 330, Ph .. 28.5 h.p. per 1000
with a stall limit speed mphLS 50
(This says blades will not stall at
50 m.p.h.). To check level high speed at-
tainable with the available S. L. power of
38.2 h.p., calculate Pa/Ph .. 38.2/28.5
1.34 and in 5i14, for a medium body
drag coefficient f M 0.2 (corresponding
to f sq. ft. of flat plate for A::
(fiX 20 ) (0.025) .. 1260 x 0.025 31 sq.
ft.) read for r 3 (corresponding to Fig.
5:8), "L 0.345 mphL x 1.47, or mph
L

(0.345/1.47) x 330 Since the blades
stall at 50 m.p.h., the level high speed
will be stall limited, not power limited.
(d) To check the maximum sea level climb re-
quirement, read 5 :!5, (for P .. /Ph
1.34, f/Ar[. 0.2, anar as before)
Ch max/33Pb 0.8, and calculate Ch max
0.8 x 33 x 28.5 730 ft./min. Since only
500 ft./min. was specified, no additional
power is needed to satisfy the climb speci-
fication.
select a P2jer of Bhp
to 54 h.p. Con-
sult a list of available engines, such as that
on p. A4:1 (or preferably more recent manufac-
turers data) and note that a 65 h.p. Continen-
tal 4 cylinder engine, weighing 170 pounds dry,
is the least powerful and lightest airplane
engine available. A special two-stroke-cycle
engine of 50 to 55 h.p. might perhaps be con-
structed for the purpose, but tentatively
select the Continental A65-8F and see whether
the weight requirements can be met.
Hake second estimate of weight, referring
to'fable 5:2 and using average values, note
that (power plant weight) 2.1 x (weight of
engine dry) 2.1 x 170 Ibs. = 355 Ibs. Note
also that (weight empty) 2.5 x (power plant
weight) 2.5 x 355 890 Ibs. For 1 hour
hovering (the specified endurance is 1 hour;
cruising for 1 hour is a less severe require-
ment as seen in Fig. 5:12), assume fuel con-
sumption of 0.6 Ibs./hp-hr., and Ph 28.5/0.85
34; fuel needed is 0.6 x 34 20 los.; reason-
able reserve would dictate a 5 gallon tank with
4 gal. 25 Ibs. normal take-off fuel weight.
Total weight is then
\ieight empty 89.0
Fuel weight 25
Pilot weight 200
Gross lll, Ibs.
5:15
The weight hes run over the first estimate, but
the power plant selected wes considerably larger
then necessary (45 percent over) ao thet 45 per-
cent increase over the original estimate of 1000
lbs. is permissible, and thie would permit either
more payload or more speed but the mschine is then
something different from whet vas intended. A
better solution in this cese might be to use a 40
hp glider motor such as that shown on p.A4,2.
The very light advertised weight of 50 Ibs. is
presumed not to include ignition system. A rea-
sonable totel power plant weight with this engine
1s judged to be 150 Ibs. end the weight empty
450 lbs. permitting a gross weight of 650 Ibs.
for which 40 hp would be suffie ient. A design
proposel like this is shown on p. 5,21.
Items (5), (6), (7), and (8) can proceed on the basis of the
decision made in item (4). The feasibility of the foregoing
analysis will be contingent chiefly on the rotor weight
study involved in the next weight estimate.
5:10. References.
1. Carpenter, Paul J., Effects of Compressibility on the
Performance of Two Full-Scale Helicopter Rotors, NACA
TN 2277, January 1951.
2. Glauert, H., Airfoil and Airscrew Theory, Cambridge
University Press.
3. Gessow, Alfred, and Hyers, Garry C., Jr., Aerodynamics
of the Helicopter, 1952.
4. Wood, K. D., Technical Aerodynamics, 3rd 3dition. To
be distributed by University Bookstore, Boulder,
Colorado, 1955.
5. Dommasch, Daniela., Elanents of Propeller and Heli-
copter Aerodynamics, Pitman 1953.
6. Slaymaker, S. E., and Lynn, ::tobert R., and Gray,
Robin B., Experimental Investigation of transition of
a model helicopter rotor from hovering to vertical
autorotation, N;'CA TN 2648, Harch 1952.
7. Slaymaker, S. E., and Gray, Robin B., Power-off flare-
up tests of a model helicopter rotor in vertical auto-
rotation, NACA TN 2870, January 1953.
8. Baer, Harry S., Safety shown in autorotative landings,
American Aviation, 7, 1953.
9. Sturgis, Raynor F., Factors in Helicopter Economics,
Aviation, Nay 1947.
5:11. Notation. Notation used in the foregoing pre-
sentation has followed recent NACA practice, with minor
exceptions to simplify the writing of the special equations
involved in this study.
Physical Quantities
W
R
D
b
r
p
A
O
,'R2

A P
gross weight of helicopter, Ibs.
blade radius, feet
blade diameter, ft 2R
number of blades per rotor
mass density of air, slugs per cu. ft.
sea level air density
disc area, sq. ft.
corrected disc loading, Ibs. per sq. ft.
radius to any point on blade, feet
chord at any point on blade, feet
mean effective blade chord, ft. c
e
rotor blade thickness at c
e
' ft.
rotor solidity ratio, bcel R
rotor moment of inertia, slug-ft.
2
corrected blade loading, Ibs. per sq. ft.
effective blade area, sq. ft.
Sb a ce R/2
LAYOUT DESIGN OF HELICOPTERS
5:16
Physical Quantities (Cont'd.)
kr rotor radius of gyration, ft.
Velocities Aerodynamic Quantities
v true airspeed of helicopter along flight
path, ft./sec.
average effective induced velocity behind
disc, ft./sec.
angular velocity, radians per second
tip velocity in hundreds of feet per second
forward speed ratio
inflow ratio at disc. II vi/211R
free stream l1ach number
Reynolds number
mean effective blade lift coefficient based
on outer half of For hovering,
C
Lb
2Lt,/ st(. 75 R)
lift on blade, Ibs.
mean effective blade drag coefficient based
on outer half of blade
Characteristics
T
Q
P
Bhp
P-2-
10[/1000
p-* .. p/Ph
r ,. Phi/Php
f
f* .. 500f
rei'"""
Subscripts
rotor thrust, Ibs.
rotor torque, Ibs.-ft.
rotor power, ft. Ibs./sec.
p/550, horsepower
rotor horsepower per 1000 Ibs. gross weight.
p .. Pi + Ppb
ratio of power in forward flight to power in
hovering flight
ratio of hovering induced to hovering pro-
file power
ratio of induced power in forward flight to
induced hovering power
ratio of (profile + body) power in forward
flight to profile hovering power
flat plate area of unity drag coefficient
equivalent to the body (or parasite) drag
body drag factor
rotor thrust
C.. T .--io--.....
T (,rrR
2
(12R)2 fAV
2
x 104
rotor torque coefficient.
C
Q
Q P
e 11 R
3
(.il.R)2 pAy3xJ.0
6
hovering
induced
profile
body (or parasite)
vertical
sinldng
maximum
empty
power plant

engine
5110. Stability and Control Considerations. One of
the best published treatments of helicopter stability and
control is given in Ref. 5 (p. 5115). Most helicopters are
neutrally stable or unstable in both hovering and forward
or flight. but they are controllable and flyable
if adequate and collective pitch controls are pro-
vided.
When a hovering rotor diac is tilted there is a side-
wise component of thrust or weight which provides e lateral
accelerption and soon later a lateral velocity. Even small
lateral result in changes in the pitching moment
on the rotor tending to tilt the rotor more, and if the
body and center of gravity are substantially below the cen-
ter of the rotor diac (as is common) the drag forces are
also such as to tilt the rotor more. Coning and blow-beck of
the rotor b18des with forward flight is a stabilizing influ-
ence, but most helicopters sre essentially unstable with
angle of attack and nothing can be done about it except to
provide adequate control.
A basic rotor control arrangement is shown in Fig. 5117
involving a 'swash-plate" that be tilted sbout 2 axes as
well as moved up and d01Oll. This srrangement is also appli-
ceble to 3 or more blades. Special devices for control and
stabilization of 2 blade rotors ara shown in Figures 5118
and 5.19. A photograph of the hub elements of the Hiller
control system is shown in Fig. 5,20. Setisfactory flying
qualities of a helicopter require that it have 'apparent"
stability both as to stick-position and stick-force; to ac-
hieve this it is often necessary to use gyroscopic , hydrau-
lic, spring or electric actuators in the control'system
Fig. 5:17BASIC ROTOR DESIGN - CYCLIC CONTROL
Courtesy Air Trails" Oct.,
Fig. 5!18
MI/#Idd. Jjt.eep e."" ... t:tF
YOUNG NFLYBAR" CONTROL
Courtesy Air Trails, Oct. 1953.
Fig.5,19HILLER "ROTOR-MATIC" CVCLlC CONTROL
Courteay Air Trails, Oct., 1953.
Photograph of connection between wobble plate,
control and main rotor of Hiller 12-B
Helicopter. vourtesy Hiller Advertising.
517
Table 5.2. Weight analysis of typice1 helicopters (estimated items designated bye) (chiefly from Ref.9! some items
verified by manufacturers; e1so checked against Aviation Week, 25 Feb., 1952).
Manufacturer
Model
Sikorsky
R6A
Sikorsky
S51
Bell Bell
47 48
Piasecki
i'Dl8
Piasecki
PD22
Kamen
K240
Seibel
SiiA
__________________________________________
DTII.ENSIONS. :ro\;'ER. PERFOW.ANCE seded)
Sests 2 4 3 8 6 22 2 2
Est. (Pey1oad Pilot )W
p
1
Reted Ehp, normel
Rotor diem.ft ... D
Blades" b
400 1000 600+ 1600e 1200 4400 500 400
245 450 200 600 540 1275 250 130
38 49 35.2 47.5 35 44 38 29
3 3 2 2 3x2 31<2 2x2 2
1130 1880 970 1770 96Cx2 151Cx2 1130 660 Area, sq. ft. A
Solidity ratio: " .05e .0465 .036 .040 .05e .05s .08 .033
Disc Loading W/A ., wI' /.,"
Blade Loading W/A : /",,"f
Rated 1000 Bhp/W: P
2.3e 2.94 2.42 3.67"- 3.0 4.4 2.66 2.25
46e 63 67 91.y 60e 88e 33 67.5
Tip speed ,cruisingct1.R)c
Level high speed, mph
95 82 85 92.y 94 95 83 87
lI'LIGHI'S , lES.
Gross weight : W
UsefUl loae : Wu
Weight empty: We
Rotor, total
Blades
Hub and mechanism
2590
574
2016
259
159
100
Power plant total 665
Engine, dry 489
Gear transmission 176
Fuel system
Starting, cooling, etc. 1D92(
Tail rotor flight controls
Body group
WEIGHI' RATIOS
For first estimates
Gross weight : W
Payload ip1
For second estimates
Po.er plant total
Engine dry weight
Weight empty: :
Power plant tots1 Wpp
6.5
1.8e
Ws/Bhp 8.2
Payload/Bhp 1.6
For later estimates
Rotor; Blade wt/A" 2.8
Hub wt/Bhp .40
See also Fig.A5'5
Transmission wt/Bhp .72
500 660 695 590
103 98 105 105 105+ 115.f- 65
5500
1690
3810
596
376
220
1132
682
450
1832
5.5
2.2
3.4-
(2.5?)
8.5
2.2
1.0
2350
850
1500
3
2
9
176
153-
559
310
124
28
97
6500+-
2500e
4000+
939
498
441-
1928
846
397
177
508
5'(50
1750
4000
13,300
4500
8800
3
000
670
2330
.390
270
120
1000
400
250
350l
j
146 391 940(
466 742e I
-Includes stebi1izer bar and rotating controls
1.8
5.0
.75-
.62
2.1+
(2.6?)
6.7+-
2.7
7.0
.73-
.66
6.0
2.5
2.3
1.0
1500
5
2
9
971
125
99
26
522
28
5
151
22
64
1.8
1.2

12-B
3
560
200
35
2
.033
2.6
620
2500
754
1746
317
221
96
752
310
165
25
252
132
545
2.1
LAYour DESIr"" OF HELICOPI'ERS
5118
Table 5:3. Weight Summary for Hiller Model H-23B Helicopter Table 5:4. Weight Summary of a HYPothetical 3000 lb. Heli-
copter, based on data from Kaman Aircraft Corporation.
It'D! GROUP
WEIGHI' .'EIGHI' IT!
Rotor Group, D E 35 ft. = .0336, R00620
1
/sec. 317.3
Rotor Bladea (2)
Rotor Hub
Control Rotor
Ta11 Group
Horizontal Stabilizer
Ta11 Rotor
Body Group
Basic Structure - Body
Basic Structure - Tail Boom
Secondary Structura
Provision for Equipment
Alighting Gear
Landing Gear (Skids)
Ta11 Skid Bumper
Engine Section Group (Engine Mounts)
Powerplant Group
Engine as Installed (Franklin 2oohp)
Engine Acceasories
Engine Controls
Main Rotor Drive (Shaft, etc.)
Main Rotor Transmission and Clutch
Ta11 Rotor Transmission
Tail Rotor Drive (Shaft, etc.)
Starting System
Cooling System (Fan & Drive)
Lubricating System
Fuel System
Flight Instruments Group
Flight Controls Group (Single Controls)
Collective Fitch Stick
Cyclic Pitch Stick
Rudder Pedals and Supports
Gimbal Ring snd Support
Cyc lie Controls
Directionsl Controls
Collective Controls
Lateral Cyclic Trim
Longitudinal Cyclic Trim
Elec 1zicsl Sys tem Group
Generstor
Generator Reg. and Relay
(Aft Position)
Battery Accessories
Lights
Wiring, Plugs, Junction Boxes, etc.
Communication Group
ARC-12 Range Receiver Radio
Antenna Equipment
Bolts, Nuta, Clips, etc.
Furnishings Group
Litter Installation (2)
Belts, cushions, rugs, etc.
Total Empty Weight (Dry)
Useful Load
Pilot
Trapped Fuel end Oil
Usable lael (28 Gals.)
Usable Oil (10 Quarts)
Passengers, Litter Pstients or Cargo
DESIGN GROSS WEIGH!' (MAXIMtM)
220.8
64.5
32.0
3OCJ.8
14.8
6.4
23.4
165. 2
10.4
27.3
18.9
158
21.0
24.9
5.4
6.0
8.2
9.9
36.6
2.6
17.0
3.7
3.6
14.5
7.8
50.0
4.1
8.7
29.3
Rotor Group
Blades (4) D 38 ft.
Hubs
Servo flaps
Ta11 Group
Horizontal Surface
Center Fins
Outer Fins
Body Group
Tubular Structure
Cabin Shell
Tail Boom
Alighting Gesr
Aft
Forwsrd
Engine Section
est 0.075
Engine Vibration Absorbers
Fire Wall
Engine Cowling & Baffles
Propulsion System
Engine (As Installed) (Lycaning 0-435-4)
Exhaust Manifolds (2)
Air Intake System
Propulsion Controls
Rotor Drive Shafta & Bearings
Main Transmission
Intemediate Transmission
Drive Shaft
Clutch Assembly
Starting System
COOling Fan
Lubrication System
(Tankage - Engine Wet Sump 3.0 US Gals.
Transmission 6.0 qt. tank)
Fuel System (40.0 US Gale.)
Instrument.
Flight
Engine
Flight Control System
114.4 Collective Sticka &. Connecting Members
Cyclic Sticks &. Connecting Members
Foot Pedela &. Supports
Gimbal Ring Assemblies
Longitudinal & Lateral Controls
Directional Controls
Colleetive Controls
Longitudinal Trim Controls
28.3 Servo Flep Controls
Electrical System
Eleetronics (Radios)
55.0 Furnishings & Equipment
28.0
190.0
7.0
168.0
19.0
369.5
1746.5
753.5
Weight !lIlpty
Useful Load
Pilot &. Co-Pilot
Engine Fuel (40.0 Gels.)
Trapped Fuel &. Oil
Engine Oil (3.0 US Gels.)
Transmiseion Oil (1.5 US Gels.)
First Aid K1 t
2500. 2 Place Gross Weight
IT! GROUP
WEIGH!' WEIGH!'
273
81
32
16
13
17
173
199
42
74
36
3
27
29
400
10
7
10
108
214
37
20
28
17
14
45
30
6
22
9
12
11
17
26
,
8
4
24
,380
240
10
23
11
2
46
414
110
59
940
28
120
125
43
63
2334
666
3000
uyour DESIGN OF HEUCOPl'ERS
Photographs end sketches of some control system detsils ere
shown in Figures 5121 to 5123.
5:11. Structural Design Considerations. While most
parts of a helicopter may be designed from the same consid-
eretions as for en airplane. the analysis or design of the
rotor involves special problems not usually considered in
airplane design. The bending moment on a rotor blade is a
complex combination of airloads and so the
structural analysis must proceed by trial. Preliminary
approximate procedures are indicated in Figures 5:24 and
5:25 for fixed hub snd flapping blade mounts reapectively.
'Fixed' hubs usually teeter about "gimbals' as sketched
rnrrnuan . -
,\, Ar oe
TERHAL. PV9H ROO .........
}
"-- - -J'r
O
e1: M e,1r 1
Fig. 5:21. Sketches of control system details of Hiller
l2-B helicopter. Blade system teeters i.st.ad
of flapping. Courtesy H:! ner advertising.
Fig. 5122. Early model of Seibel S4 helicopter showing
flspping blade system with torsionally flexible
links. Courtesy Aviation Week, 23 Oct. 1950.
Fig. 5:23. Control linkage
details of Seibel 54 helicopter
Collective and cyclic control
tubes are concentric with the
hollow rotor shaft. Collective
tube raises cross-arm; cyclic
tube tilts it when cyclic uni-
versel joint below is offset at
an angle by cyclic controls.
Counterweights AA are needed
only to provide favorable con-
trol forca variations. Cour-
tesy Aviation Week, 18 Feb. '52
A
velie TU8[
COLLEtn,,! TUBE
::;C:TEi< SPIW
._ I
lHERAL CYCLIC
CONTFIOl ;r.
.XWTCYCLtC
{f/ eOHTFtOL
I ____ - _ Oed
,
Mo
et


---=--- -
to airload deflections
M'CF due to net deflection
Fig. 5:24. Approximate rotor bending analysia proced-
ure, fixed hub.
Lf
Flepping
i
------ - - y cOQ!llg .. _-I-_
I

deflections due to M'
with deflections due to Mrigid
Fig. 5125. Approximate rotor bending analysis proced-
ure, flapping blade.
in Figs. 5117 to 5,19. The major effects of teetering
on centrifugal loads must also be considered.
For a zero oraer erproximation it is suggested that the
be distributed uniformly over the outer half of the
blades end that the blades be considered rigid. For actual
load and stress distributions, consult NACA TN 2626 which
gives flight measurements of elastic straine in types
of blades. Considering each blade rigid the bending mom-
ents due to air loads can be calculeted. A series of blade
aections may then be chosen will aafaly
sbout half the air load bending moments UQder usual airplane
load factors. For this assumed series of cross sec-
tions, deflections can be calculated due to air loads. The
centrifugal force can then be calculsted on the basis of
the calculated daflections and a snd quite different
series of combined (eir centrifugel) load bending moments.
A second and third recalculation of cC!Ilbined airload and
centrifugal force moments and deflections permits
this ressonably rapidly converging triel analysis. For
better accuracy, assume 8 parabolic airload distribution on
the outer 60% of the blade with 8 peek at around 2/3 or 3/4
of the maximum radius aa in NACA TN 2626. Actual loads are
also a function of the position of the blade in the cycle,
but it is generally unnecessary to assume varying
load or load distribution throughout the cycle of rotation,
because operational roughness develops when there are major
reductions in load on the'retreating blade.
LAYour DESIGN OF HELICOPl'ERS
5: 20
5.12. Weight Estimate Factors. Deaign data and weight
analysis by major groups of items for nine current helieop-
ters are shown in Table 5:2: a more detailed ane1ysis of two
of these helicopters is shown in Tables 5:3 and 5:4. De-
tailed weight eomparisons are difficult bacause of the fact
that manufacturers of necessity classify their component
items differently, because different helicopters have diff-
erent components.
Rotor Blade Weight. Rotor blade weights for seven un-
classified helicopters are plotted in Fig. A5:5 on basis of
an analysis similar to that for wing weights given in Appen-
dix A5. It is evident that rotor blade \eights can be pre-
dicted with good accuracy in terms of design gross weight
and solidity. Note, however, thst the blade \eight is
usually less than 5% of the gross weight: accordingly good
accurscy is not important unless the rotor diameter is
unusually large. In Table 5:2 note that the entire rotor
group including hub and controls (and servo-rotor for Hille
gyroscopic balancing weights for Bell) comprises only about
8% to 14% of the gross weight.
Body group and landing gear. A graph for weight of
airplane fuselages and landing gears is shown in Fig. A5:9
and may be modified for helicopter bodies and landing gear
groups as follows, whereas airplane fuselages usuelly run
from 12% to 15% of the gross weight helicopter bodies are
seen in Table 5:2 to run frem 14% to 22% of the gross
weight including the items detailed in Tsbles 5:3 and 5:4.
Also note thet whereas airplane landing gears usuelly run t
about 6% of the airplane gross weight, helicopter landing Fig. 5:27. Lockheed vertical take-off "pogo stick" airp1ana,
which can hover like a helicopter because of
light turbo-prop power-plant and high solidity
geers usuelly run to only 3% or 4% of the gross weight since
they ere usually mueh simpler, and do not involve large
shock absorbers or wheele. If floets are provided heli-
copter water landings, the weight msy be expected to sbout
50% lighter then sea-plane floats for a given gross weight
of vehicle.
Reduction gear and drive system is seen in Tables 5:3
snd 5:4 to run between .7 and 1.1 Ibs. per horsepower, cal-
culations based on rotor torque may be more accurate. The
usual total reduction gear and drive system weight is seen
to run from 9% to 13% of the gross Weight.
The flight control systsm, exclusive of special items
such as autopilots or electronic stabilizers, will usually
run from 3% to 5% of the gross weight, the higher percen_
tage being associated with smaller helicopters. Cooperation
of manufacturers in relaasing all non-classified information
of this sort is greatly appreeiated.
5.13. Problem. Using the procedure outlined. aboTe,
make a preliminary layout design of a 24 passenger helicop-
ter with tandem 3-blsde rotors, and prepare layout 3-view
drawing and weight and balanee 'tables. Proposed performan-
ce: level high speed 125 mph, sea level rate of climb
1000 ft.j.min., hOVering eei1ing with full load out of ground
effect 5000 ft. (or 8000 ft. if for Denver area use). A
problem of this sort, with sufficient structural ealeula-
tions to demonstrate the feasibility of the project, may
well serTe as a term design project for senior college stu-
dents in aeronautical engineering. Actual flight of a test
vehicle must of course inTolve many thousands of man-hours
of additional work.
Fig. 5:26. Geners1 E1ecUic XT58 turbo prop for helicopter
use said to be 'six to eight times as powerful"
as s family car. Courtesy Aviation Week, 15
March, '54, p. 320.
6 blade counter-rotating propeller. A similar
Convair ship with wider landing gear was announc-
ed in March 1954. Courtesy Time, 21 March, '54.
Fig. 5128. Cockpit of Convair vertical take-off airplane,
viewed from the ground. Courtesy Aviation Week.

Fig. 5:30. Three-view drawing of Seibel S-5
Helicopter proposal. Data:
IlIAIN ROTOR T AIL ROTOR
Rotor diem 24 ft. Rotor diem 4' 6'
LAYOur DESIGN OF HELICOPl'ERS
SElBE! HE' !COPTER COMPANY INC
MOPf :5-5 HE! !COPUS
Fig. 5.29. Sketch of pro-
posed Seibel design of a
single-place military heli_
copter powered by e McCull-
och model 4300 2 cycle motor
rated 72 hp at 4100 rpm.
Courtesy Charles M. Seibel
Roltor disc = 435 ft.
2
2
Rotor disc :15.9ft.
2
II ) I r-:'-----.J
1
Bade area = 12.5 ft. Blade chord .. 30' -I
lr-1
Airfoil NACA 0012 Airfoil NACA 0012
Gean.Solidity ... 0276 Gear retio/engine 1.94 ,t"'1,!, 11L.....l
Eff. Solid ity : .0398 CENrER OF GRAVITY II Y
Hov. Incidence .. 8
0
Forward: 2.5'
Gear ratio/engine .. 10.34 Aft: O' I
Rated hov.tip'speed:398 WEIGHr: See below.
I
'\
T

---------- ---
"Ill IUlcmn II.IIC.
Table 5:5. Performance estimate, 8-5 Helicopter.
Table S-5 Helicopter.

Over-
Guaranteed
Items Groups load
Opereting speed st sea level (knots) 65
Rotor Group 51.32
Endurance at operating speed at sea level
Blades 44.88
(hours) 2 Pylon 6.44
Service ceiling with normal rated output
Tail Groop 14.22
(feet) (roughnesa 16,000-
Tail Boom 7.78
Hovering ceiling with takeoff output, out of
Tail Rotor Gear Box 4.41
ground affect (feet) 11,600
Anti-Torque Rotor 2.03
Maximum rate of climb at sea level normal
Body Group 34.47
rated output (fpm) 2,120 Fuselage (Less engine section) 22.00
Take-off distance over 50-foot obstacle at
Floor 8.00
sea level with take-off output (feet) 0
Firewall 4.47
Lending distance over 50-foot obstacle at
Alighting Gear-Land Type 18.00
sea level with take-off output (feet) 0 Power Plant Group 145.44
Engine (as installed) 80.00
Maximum Endurance at 20 knots (hours)
339
Rot or Drive (T ail ) 7.02
Maximum Speed (knots) 76
Tren3lli ssion 43. 26
Vertical Rate of Climb at Sea Level and
Transmission DriTe 15.16
Gross Weight (fpm) 2,080 Fuel System 6.00
Maximum Hovering Gross Wt. at See Level
Fixed Equipment Group 22.85
end Above Ground Effect (pounds) 950
Instruments 11.85
Flight Controls 11.00
Furnishings 7.70
Weight llmpty 300.00
Useful Loed 15.Q..&Q

Gross Weight 650.00 935.00
8
90
80
70
60
SS
SO
45
3
100
90
80
70
60
SS
'lit. of
LAYour DESIGN OF HELICOPI'ERS Rotor Bledes
(SO#).r- for VI = 1000

35
-------130
"-..
175
15
"
fr

BhPhr
'ti/1000
at bottan
of scale
----
- 10
<]
8
" 10
'0
20
3
0
j
50
j __ --'--'-I _'LI --''----'-______ J 7
60 80 100 150
Fig. S:31. Hovering Fower Chart for 3 blade helicopters, based on equation loSC
Q
= 450 (J3/
2
2.7(1000Cr)3/2
as in Fig. 5:6. See p.A2:e14 for high drag 2 blade helicopters.
Example: For a lOoOf helicorter to go 2CO mph and have diameter as small as possible, select point at mph
LS
= 200
and advancing blede shock limit. Reed w/er : 40, and various combinations of D, cr, end Bhp, e.g. for
D = 28 ft. and BhPhr = 68 hpJ for (J = .09, D 19 ft., and BhPhr : 105, but a 1000# helicopter is diffi-
cult to build with the necessary 120 hp (. 1.lS x lOS) engine.
6:1
S'1'.RUC'ltJRAL DFSIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6:1 General Considerations. An airplane 111 a vehicle
designed to take-off frem a snooth field cr body of water,
fly through the air in a direction controlled by the pilot,
and alight on another smooth f1llld <r body of water. A ae.t-
1sfactory airplane IIlUst perform this function econemioally
and safely. Safety requires that the airplane do these
things 111 thout failure of any of its parts; economy reqairea
that the parts not be heavier than necessary.
To perform the above functions is necessarily hazardous;
many airplanes have suffered structural failures in the air
or been "craoked" on landing and airplanes will probably
always be the most dangerous of the conmon lIXl.es of travel.
The prinoipal causes of airplane accidents have been:
(1) forced landings in unsuitable locations caused by
motor failure, fuel exhaustion, or foggy weather;
(2) unskillful landings; unusual skill in maneuvering
for landing being necessary because of gusty air or small or
ob structed a irpor til.
(3) loops" oaused by
(a) down-wind or cross-wind landings,
(b) faulty arrangement of wheels of landing gear
(airplanes with tail wheels are faulty in this
respect) and
(c) inlUfficient rudder control while taxying;
(4) unnecessarily Violent maneuvers (dives, loops,
rolls, spina, etc.)
(5) unusually strong gusts of air; up-gusts which
break the wings, <r dOwn-gusts which break the tail sur-
faces or throw the airplane against the ground.
In order to minimize the number of airplane accidents,
promote a public interest in fiying, and hence provide
business for airplane manufacturers so that they my be
ready to provide good military aircraft fOr Il8. tional defence
in the event of war, the various governments of the world
have evolved
(1) rules for flying, and
(2) rules for the design of aircraft.
In the U.S.A., the government agencies which deVise and en-
force such rules are the DiVil Aeronautics Board and CiVil
Aeronautics A.dministration of the U.S. of
Co_erce (OctOber, lQ4Q). The CiVil Air Regulations, CAR,
were extensively reVised in 1947 and are numbered in as
title 14 of the code of Federal Regulations. All revisions
through June 30, 1949 appear in the Federal Register, Part
II, SecUon I, Volume 14, No. 136 for Saturday, July 15, Hl4Q.
Tha Civil Air Regula tiolls will presumably eventually be
issued as 40 or more separate pamphlets numbered from 1 to
Q7.wi th numerous omis sions in numerical sequence. Pending
the printing of these regulations in separate pamphlets,
they appear at present only in the above issue of the
Federal Register (obtainable from the Super1ntendent of
Documents, Government Printing Off1ce, Wash1ngton 25, D.C. far
50 cents). The pr1nc1pal air regulations affect1ng the
des1gn of airplanes are CAR-3, 48, and 4b. CAR-4a and 4b
are now largely or histor1cal interest having been super-
seded by CAR-3 for a1rplanes designed after January 1, 1947.
Twenty-six pages of CAR-3 (ent1 tled -Airplane airworthineBII;
normal, ut111ty, acrobat1c, and restricted-purpose categor-
ies") as they appear in the abaTe issue of the Federal
Register are 1ncluded in Appendix A5 beginning with page A6a:l
The designer design student should preferably have a copy
of the complete CAR-3, but these 26 pages constitute the most
important itams for preliminary deSign, and since copies of
CAR-3 DIIy not be at hand or quickly available, these pages
will serve most of the purposes of the user of thU text.
CAR_3 represents s major improvement in rational
approach and technical oontent over CAR-C4 or 4a and -lb, and
the implied critici of the CAR-04 appearing ill :II' eVioue
editiolls of this book are not applicable to CAR-3.
The design student should preferably have also at hand
a copy of publications ANC-5a (Strength of Metal Aircraft
E!emEllts) and ANC-18 (DeSign of Wood Airoraft Structures)
obtainable trom the Government Printing Office, WQshingtoll
25, D.C. ANC-5a is sold for $1.25 111 the fall of lQ49. Since
a copy of ANa-5a l18y not be at hand or readily available to
des1gn students, copies Of the most important tables from
.ANC-5a are given in this text begir.ning with page A6b:14.
The following fet!( articleS of this chapter attEmpt
to explain the physicel basis underlying the current
rules for design which appear ill CAR-3 and to illustrate
the use of these rules in soma parts of the preliminary
des1gn of a particular a1rplane.
6:2 Procedure in Dea1gI!. The or an airplane is
an engineering problem involving:
(1) an estimete of the loads to which the various
parts of the airplane are likely to be subjected when it
is used as intended.
(2) a knowledge of the properties (strength and stiff-
ness) of the IIlBterials of which the airplane is made
(discussed later), and
(3) calculations to show that the deSign loads will
not cause failure of the materials ("stress analysis",
see beginning p. 6:17). Economicsl design requires also
careful attention to the construction of detailed parts
wi th a view to minimum lebor of manufaoture.
The definitions of primary importence in structural
design as given in CAR 3.47 (page A68:6) are:
Reference
Loads
Limit maximum load anticipated
in serviee ..................
Ultimate load: The maximum load which a
pert of structure must be capable of
supper t ing ............................ .
Factor of safety: The factor by which the
limit load must be JDlllti plied to establish
the ultimate load .
Secti ons
3.171
3.173
3.172
Load factor or acceleration factor, n: The ratiO of
the force acting on a mss to the wei ght of ths mass.
When the force in question represents the net external
load acting on the airplane in a given direction, n repre-
sents the acceleration in that direction in terms of 1h e
gravitational constant.
Limit load factor: The load factor corresponding
to limit loa d.
Ul tima te load factor: The load factor correspond-
ing to ultimte load.
The factor of sEtety is specified in CAR 3.172,
page A5a:ll as 1.5 wunless otherwise specified". A
greater factor of safeV ill requi red in very few parte
of the airplane, chiefly in fittillgB.
6: 3 "1mi tine Accelerations for Airplanes and Pilots.
The Civil Air require that the designer
plot a graph of expected load factors on the airplane
agsinst speed as ill CAR Fig. 3:1, page .16a:12. For
commeroial airplanes, maximum design acceleration
due to Jll!.neuver air costa is rarely over 7 (4.4 maneuver
load factor, utility airplanes from CAR Fig. 3:2 multi-
plied by 1.0 factor of safety = 6.6)
The human tolerance to acceleration as stated by
Professor Lombard of the UniverBi ty of Southern California
is Etlon in Fig. 6: 1 to be of the same order of JIl88Ili-
tude in a sitting position for periods of 5 or 10 seconds.
For shorttr periods of time or when the pilot is in
specified clothing, a pressurized flying suit, or in a
prone position, the human tolerance to acceleration 18
seen to be in Fig. 6:1 considerably greater, and corres-
pondingly greater accelerations are expected in
milt tary aircraft when sui table precautions of th18
sort are taken to avoid rendering the pilot incapable
of l!killtul flight.
6:4 Wing Loads Due to Mansuvtre. Loads in flight
bave been mealllred by means of an accelerometer. The
aecelerOllllter consists of a weight and spring, with
an indicating or recording needle attached to the
weight.
It an airplane is flying so tla t 1h e plane of the
1I1ogs is vertical, as in Figure 6:2(a), the principal
force in the direction of the acoeleration 1s the wing
5:2
DESIGN CONSIDmATIONS
100, r-
I ' -----.', I

!


.2 .5 1 2 5 10 20 50 100
Human toleranc e to acceleration 1ih ffi feeling CO mfortable, well, vigorous and happy. Poor
physical condi tion lowers tolerance; excitEmen t and effort rei se it. Graph from a study
by Prof. Charles F. Lombard at Univ. of S. Calif.,Dept. of Aviation MediCine, reported in
Aviation Week. January 17, 1949.
lift L, end L = R = Wa/g. The applied load factor for this
maneuver is thus n & L/W : a/ g. If Ule airplane is flying
so that the plane of the wings is horizontal
L - W = Wafg
and the applied load factor is
n = a/g + 1
As a rule, the pull-u.ps pU.l a largs- load all the wings
than any other maneuver. Oomponents of acceleration in the
direction of the z axis of airplane (Fig. P-l) as measur-
ed in flight and reported in NACA Rept. 99 (J'N-4H, "Jennyft)
andNACA Rept. :!Se (CurtisS F5O-4 Fighter) ere given in
Table 5:1 below.
Table ell Maximum Accelerations (e) in Mana! verso
Man euver J'N-4H
Pull-up from dive mph)
LOOp 3.7
Roll 4.2
Spin 3.1
Fig.612. Forc R =::f!
on airplane in
pulling out of 8.
dive.
J L
I

Pull out
I
lO / t
T_tM R-wa/ll
'1 -(b) Pull""
FeC-4
Q.3(175 mph)
15
5.2
2.3
6:'\1 PhySiological Etfeot of Hie!! Acceleration. Whetsvar
accelerations are IiRl1'fered by the airplane, the same acoelEra-
tions must be SU!'fered by the pilot; 1Iben airplane has a load
of 8W on the wings, the pilot has a losd of 8 times his weight
on the seat of his pants. The rising discomfort of the pilot
with increasing acceleration fortumtely sarves as an instinc-
tive check on his tendenoy to overstress the winga in emer-
gency maneuvers.
J. H. DoOlittle, in NACA Report 203, says regarding the
phyBi obgical effec t of alS tai ned accelera ti onll of the ordEr
of 15 g or 6 g such as are obtained in power spirals "The effect
of this mana! ver is not particularly uncomfortable. '!he SEll sa-
tion is that of heving a tight band around the forehead and a
feeling that the eyeballs are about half an inch too low in
the sockats." In conclusion Doolittle writes that ftser10us
physical disorders do not reallt from extremely high accelera-
tion. of very dlort duration but tlJlt accelerations of the
ordC" of 4.5 g, continued for any length of tillie, reall t in
a complete loss of faculties. This 1019s of faculties is due
to the fact that the blood is driven from the head, thWl de-
privillg the brain ti8sues of the necessary oxygen. To the pilo
it aeemed that sight 118.8 the only faculty lost .... The accelera-
t ion which an In di vidual can wi thstand for any length of
time dependS upon his blood :II' essure, the person with highar
blood pressure beiq;; able to withstand the higher acceleration.
Jim CollinS gives in the Saturday Evening Post for 2-11-
35 one of the most descriptions ever published of how
it feels to pullout of a dive with high acceleration. Hia
article reads as follows:
ftI took off and went up to fifteen thoWlend feet and
struck her down 1jo three hundred miles an hour. I horsed
back on ths stick and watched the accelerometer. Up she
wen t and !Xlwn into my seat I went. Centrifugal force like
some'huge invisible monster, pushed my head down into my
shoulders end squashed me into that seat so that my backbone
bent end I groaned with the force of it. It drained the
blood from my head and started to blind me. I watched the
accelerometer a deepening haze. I dimly saw it
reach f1 ve and a half. I eased up on the stick, and the
last thing I saw was the needle star ting back to one. I waa
blind as a bat. I was dizzy as a coot. I looked out at my
wings on both sides. I couldn't see them. I couldn't see
see anything. I watched where the gI'OIllld ought to be. Pretty
soon it began to show up like sometli ing looming out of a
morning mist. MY si ght was returning aile to tne eased
pressure from letting up on the Soon I could see
clearly again. I was level, and prObably had been for some
time. But my head was hot With a queer sort of burning
sensation, and my heert was pounding like a water ram.
eyes felt like someooil,i ht.d taken them out and
played With 1helll and put them back in again. I was droopy
tired and had sharp shooting pains in my chest. My back
ached, and that night I blew my nose and it bled. The
next morning 1I8.S one of those crisp, golden autumn days.
The sky was as blue as indigo and as clear as a mcuntain
stream. One of these @Pod days to be alive. To my sur-
prise I fel t fins. "These pull-outs IJIUIIt be a iD nic," I

ftSomebody told me about an Army pilot, whO, several
years before, in some teats at Wright Field, had accidentally
got too much g, due to a faulty ace elerometer. He got
some enormously high reading like twelve or fourteen.
IUptured his intestines and broke blood vessels in his. rain.
He was in the hospital about a year and finally got out. He
would never be again, they told me. He was a little
bit goofy. I to lIlYself that anybo93'i
kind of work was a little bit goofy to beg 11 .,th.
Six weeks aftel' thil! artiole was published in the
Saturday Evening Post, Jim Collins was killed while flight-
testing a plane for the Navy when, according to press
reports, the plane failed to come out af a pOWel' dive.
Prof, G. B. Upton in hi. lectures at Cornell UniTar-
sHy states the t the discomfort due to riding in au tome-
biles is more neBl:ly a function of rate of Change
2
0f aocel-
eration than of acceleration (ft./sec ) and
cites psychologioal expel'imente on d 1acomfort due to
vibrations of varying amplitude and frequency in support
of this proposition. In airplane maneuvers, he suggest'
that both facton contribute to the discomfort.
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6&3
6a5 Wing 1.2 G'usts
Vertical currents of air exist in the atmos-
phere not only because of the different specific
heats of various parts of the earth's surface and
the action of the sun's radiation as shown in Fig.
6a3 but also in and around storm centers because
of the cooling effect of evaporating rain fall. \.,.
blowing over hills also proctuces vertical air cur-
rents as shown in Figure 6& 5. The usual range of
vertical velocities of air due to various is
shown in Table 6 & 3.
) J 1 , 'lInt' 11
thermal convection are made use of by the soaring ex-
pert, but for the airplane passenger they simply con-
stitute hazccrds described as "bumps". The maffTlitude
of the differences in verticD.l velocities of air exist-
ing over a short horizontal distance has been measured
by means of recording accelerometers carried in air-
planes. The relation betvleen gust velocity and air-
plane acceleration is derived in the following analysis.
Let U be the gust velocity V be the airplane
velocity, both in feet per second. Before entering
the gust, t'1e airplane is flying at a lift coefficient
C
L
= - - - - - - - - - - - (611)
whez:oe q = I'V /2, and the corres,)onding absolute angle
of atta.ck of the wings in ra.dians is
0< r '" CUm - - - - -
wheY'e m is the slope of the lift curve of the wings
and is given by m = 21TR/(R 2), R being the effective
r;,tio of the wings (Ref. 'fA p.114)
Effect of sun's heat in producing ver- On entering nn up-gust of U ft. sec. the change
Figure 6 S 5. Vertical air currents due to wind
blowing over hills.
Table6s3. Vertical Velocities of Air Currents in
Atmosphere (from R.V.
Line Squalls and Obstructional Convection
Thunderstorms Turbulence Currents
(Figure 5 S 4) ( Figure 6 I 5) (Figure 0 I 3)
Velocity, ft/sec.
44 to 110
Limit of Altitude,
20,000
(u)
10 to 27
ft.
Varies with
terrain
7 to 24
4,000
The very high vertical velocities existing in
thunderstorms are known from
(a) the necessary velocities to support large
hailstones while they are forming.
(b) Timed observations of cloud motions in
thunderstorms, and
(c) experience of pilot s viho hllve been caught
in thunderstorms.
One pilot has reported enterinr a thunderstorm at
an altitude of 4,000 ft. and finding himself less
thnn a minute later at 14,000 ft ... ;ith his nose
pointing downward; the vertical velocity which may
be inferred from this experience is in excess of
150 ft./sec.
The vertical velocities due to to hills cmd
in rmele of attack is, fron Figure6s 6
4 DC. = u/V radians
r
and the corresponding chance in is
- (6&3)
The llew lift: coefficient is C
L
+ A CL' and the load
factor applied by the gust is
.t1
S
L m u/V
n = 1 + CL-- = 1 + VJ qS - - - - - (614)
If the airplane is fl;,;inl' at a.n angle p vlith the
horizontal, part of the weight is supported by the
drag force and equation 614 becomes, with simplificat-
ions f
n = cos f3 + ---- - (6,5)
This !f1ation is consistent with the requirements
in CAR exce,* jn th.:tt an i'lrbitrary gust reduction
f;u:tor K = 2" (v:/S) YI( (need not exceed 1. 0) has been
inserted to allow for the gusts not being in effect
sharp edged.
Fig. 6so Change of ane1e of at tack of wings of air-
i)lpne on entering a sharp edged gust.
For level flight cos!= 1.00 and
1a =
g
m TN ('12
Yi/S
- - - - - - - - - - (616)
Gusts such as occur in thunderstorms will apply
load of 15 to 25 to ty)ical modern airplanes
at normal cruising speed. Thus for an airplane of
v:ing loading Vi/S = 15 Ibs./sq.1't.. and aspect ri'.tio 7
flying in stqn(i3.rd air (I' = 0.002}8) at 190 mph ( V ..
6:4
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERaTIONS
278 ft./sec.), m = anx 7/9 : 4.89, (5:6) becomes:
a/g: 0.21.5 U
and a gust velocity of 100 ft./sec. would apply a load
factor in level night of
n: a/g+l: 22.5
It is not considered economical to design airplanes
to fly through thunderstorms.
6:6 Wing Load Factors. The current British
ments for wing load factors are specified by the graphs
given on p. A6a:2 Note
(a) that airplanes are first classified as in "normal"
or "acrobatic" categories, depending on their flight res-
trictions, and
(b) that the load factor wi th "C .P. forward" /'high
angle of attack" 10 the U.S.) is specified as dependen t
upon the gross weight of the airplane. This practice
implies first that loads due to maneuvers are the critical
loads for deSi gn, and second that heaVier airplanes will be
maneuvered more carefully.
Example. Determine the limit load factors at sea
level reui red by C.t.R 3 and construct a V-n diagrem like
CAR 3 Fig. 3:1 for an airplane similar to Fig. 1:6 but
assuming the follOWing data: gross weight = 2,600 Ibs.,
llhPm = 150, span = ft., design wing area = 210 ft.,
as shown in Fig. 6:7 = 1.5, estimated flat plate
area of CD = 1.00 euivaIen! to minimum drag : 4.0 ft.,
level high speed - 150 mph utility catagory. For
CAR 3 rules see Appendix A6a.
Solution. Calculate first the design air speeds as
in C.t.R 3.184, (p. A6a:12) For the specified "utility"
category of airplanes, the limit positive manEllvering
load factor is seen in Fig 3:2 to be n : 4.4 and the
design air speeds are given by the formulas.
Design maneuvering speed: Vp : V'$" : 57i'4:'4 = 119mph
where . computed stalling speed = g.aYW/s C
Lmax
= x 1.5
= 57 mph.
Min. design cruising speed V
cmin
: 331{2600/210
: 134 mph.
Design dive speed: Vd : 1.50 Vcmin : 001 mph.
Since the level high is estimated to be 160 mph and
it may be desired to cruise at 90% of this figure, the
sctual deSign cruising speed !!By well be made highar than
the minimum permi tted by CAR 3. Acoordingly it is pro-
posed to mke
Actual design cruising speed: Vc : 0.9 x 150 : 144 mph.
The negeti va limit maneuvering load factor is specified
in CAR 3.186(b) to be 0.4 times the positive load factor
or 0.4 x 4.4 : -1.76
Gust load factors are computed from the formula (CAR
3.188)
n: 1+ KUV!n
where
K:
U=
V =
m:

..I.
(l/2) (W/S)"'for W/S<l& pef
gust velOCity, ft/sec.
airplane speed, mph.
alope of life curve, C
L
per radian, for
aspect ratio.
For this airplane, W/S = 2600/210 = 12.4 pef
K : 0.5 H.a : 0.93
The wing aspect ratiO is &2/S : 38
2
/210 : lI.g and the
usual lift curve slope for thia aspect ratio, from p. A2a: 211,
middle lin, is 0.083/ degree or 4.75 per radian. Calculate
m/(575W/S) = 4,75/(575Xl2.4} : 1/1500 and the gust load
factor becomes
:l+KU;I(V=l+ U XV
tm 1'5l!O'
The regulations lIpec1fy that the airplane must stand U :
up to Vo and U tu; fps up to speed Vd
At Vc = 144 mph, the load factor is
n : 11:' 00 x 144 = 1 !3.18 = 4.18 or -2.18
1500
At Vd : 201 mph
n: x 001 = 12.04: 3.04 OE' -1.04
1500
The foregoing load factors yield the V-n diagram shown
in Fig. 6:7. POint A is at the maneuvering speed
V : 119 mph. The area by the shading is
cRlled the flight envelope.

Fig. 6:7. V-n diagram tOE' example airplane.
6:7. Tail Surface Loads. Tail surfaces, like wlngs,
must be designed to withstand both gusts and maneuver
within their flight limitations, end are usually critical
fop gusts for high spe ed airplanes.
Maneuver and gust loads are rationally specified in
CAR 3:2 (pages A6a:13-16). For horizontal tails, a
balancing load must be calculated for each flight condi-
tion and added to the gust or maneuver load.
ManEUver loads are specified as a function of wing
loading and control surface deflection limit; gust load
formulas are based on the physical that the change
in left coefficient due to a gust iSAC
L
=mq"" where
is the lett curve alope per radian and U and V are the
gust velocity and fHellt velocity in consistent units
(but in C.t.R 3 formulas are for U in ft./sec and V in mph),
and thet actual gusts produce slightly less than the
1d eel sherp edged gust by a reduction factor K. For
horizontal tails downwssh factor (1 -360w/Ky)
is included, where a
w
= left curve slope per degree for
wing and By = aspect ratio for wing. Typical tail load
calculatt ons are shown in the follOWing example.
Example. For an air plane similar to Fig. 1: 6 for
which wing load factors were calculated in Art. 6:6 assume
a verti cal ta 11 area Sv = 20 ft. wi th aspect ratio
Rv" 2, a hOE'izontal tail area of 32 sq. ft. with aspect
ratio R
t
: 3.7, a location at a3.e"ofthe mean wing
chord and aerodynamic 24.6% of the nean wing
chord. Fr>'1ll the gust ani manEUver limit average unit
and horizont al tail loads. Assume 4 = 3 x mean
chord Blld CM. = -0.054 for wing airfeil, and all control
surface deflections aa 30
0
Overall length ot airplane
24 ft.
Solution. 4. Horizontal tail; Maneuvers. First
calculate the tail load necessary for balance as speci-
tied in CAR 3.215. This can be done by reference to
F1g. 11:7 and writing an equation which states that the
allll of the momenta of the forces about the center of
gravity is zero. Neglecting thrust and drag force
moments, this is
FtoLt : C
L
S c( CyelCL _ X) ................ (6:7)
6:5
S'IRUCTORAL DESIGN UONSlDmlATI eNS
and
Fig. 5:7 Sketch for calculating tail load
necessary for balance.
'to
: balancing tail load, lbs.
L
t
= tail length, ft.
C
L
= left coefficient :


p /2; 0.00256 V at 5L if V is in mph
S :
Wing area, sq. ft.
'1.!0=
pitching momen t coefficiEKlt about aerodynamic
center
X : distaooa, chords, e.g. to 8j).
ihe unit balanCing horizontal tan load is
- xC
L
) q S c
St rt
(6.8)
To this balancing tail load must be added a maneINaring
tail load increment given by CAR 3 Fig. 3:4, and the
limit avarage unit maneuvaring horizontal tail loading
must also exceed thet shown in CAR Fig. 3:3(b).
lor this airplane, at speeds of Vp : 119 mph and Vd: an
mph, calcula te at see. level ih e balancing tail load trom
equa ti on (5: 7) or (618) as follows with W/S : 12.2.
'" = 0.00256r : 36.3 or 103.8 _
C
L
= w/sq.= 12.2/36.3_= 0.336 or 12.2/103.8 - 0.118
XC
L
: (0.039) x 0.336 - .0120 or 0.0046
-C/'Io-xC
L
= 0.041 or 0.041)
t:\;;' - (36.3 or 103.8lx210 1 : 79.4 or U?
ut 1)
F
to
/
t
: .041 x 79.4: 3.2 psf 0,..049 :J; 2.27 : 11.1 paf.
To USB CAR Fig. 3:4, calculate
Overall length of airplane ft. - 24 = 0,20
Dse1 gn speed, mph 119 or a51
and read from Fig. 3:4, for n : 4.4 (utility category)
Tail load incremmt = 0.27 or 0.15
rJes1gn we1gJlt
and calculate tail load increment = 0.27 x 2600 : 700
or 0.15 x 2500 = 390;or per ft of horizontal tail
't/St = 700/32 = 21.9 or 12.3
The combined maneuver hor izontal tail loads calculated
from Fig 3: 4 are thus:
At V : Vp : 119 mph;3.2+21.9 = 25.1 psf;3. 2-21.9 : -18.7
At V : Vd = all mph;".' +12.2 = 1,3.3 psf;n .... - 1.'
The max. maneuver horizontal tail loads are seen to oc cur
at V: Vp : 1111 mph, but cal"",lation at two speeds fte
necesssry because the regulations specify excess
at!.U. speeds (CAR 3.215, p. 5a:16)
A further check is from CAR 5 lig. 3:3(b).
Here, for 30
0
elevator deflection, read Kw : 2iI psf and
w = Kw n/4.4 : 29 pef. Since this is higher than any
of the loads calculated from Fig. 3:4, the limit aver-
age fl gure of 2iI psf must be used for maneuvaring hori-
zontal tail lo6d.
B. Horizontal 10llolling CAR 3.217, the
limit gust load increment is specified aa
where K :
U =
at V =

gust coefficient preViously computed: 0.93
nominal gust intenSity, ft./ssc. : 30
V, : 144 mph
slope or left curve of tail surface per degree.
For Rw = 6.9 read on p A2a:29, IIw = 0.082
(middle line) and IDlve for
At 0.10 x 0.93 x 30 x 144 x 0.060(1 - 35 x 0.082/6.9)
St = 13.7 plf.
This figure must be added to the balance tail load
Vc : 144 mph which may be calculated by foregoing methods
as 4.1 psf d01lD1iard. The maximum hor izontal tail gust
load "is here found to be 13.7+4.1 : 17.8 psf. Since
this is well below the maneuver load, the maneuver load
of 29 pSf govarns the hori ontal tail design.
C. Vart1cal tail, maneuvers. FollOlling CAR 3.219, unless
dynamic calcula tions of yowing motions are made, the
lIl!iIleuver loa d factor of 29 p sf in Fig 3: 3(b) must be
used.
D. Vertical tail, gusts. Following CAR 3:220, the
rationally developed formula is specified
.. = KUVm
'"J"i5"
where m: left curve slope p a- radian for vert iCal tail
and other notation is as before except that
K = 1.33 - 4.5 . 1,0
(W;S )3/
4
For the vertical tail here UDder considaration
130
3
/
4
= 38.5
and K : 1.33 - 4.5 : 1.33 - 0.12 : 1.21
38.5
For Rv : 2 us e tion of 10ller line on p A2a: 29
and get m : 2'1l'R = 2. 5 par radian
Rr3
Calculate next
i: 1.21 x:tJ x 144 x 2.5 = 2.8 pst.
575
For the varticel tail th a maneuver load of 29 psf gavarns
the design unless dynamic of yAliing motions
are made.
The foregoing calculations are of course all average tail
loads. The chlrdllise dis tribution of these loads is
specified at each point and reference is made to Figs.
:5:7 to 3:9 on p.
6:8 Landing"'ear Load lac tors. ... comprehenai ve
specification of Iced factors for landing condi tiona is
given in CAR 3.24, p. A6a:18. In CAR 3.243 it is ex-
plained that the inertia load factor may be calculated
from an anpirical for decent velocity in the
range between 7 and 10 feet per second, and the limit
ground reaction load factor must not be less tmn two,
fiith lataral and fore and aft components of force ex-
pressed as a fraction of the norel force as givan in F'9
3,.12 (a) Landing load factors are considered again in
connection with landing gear design in Chapter 10.
6:6
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6: 9 Problems
1. The following data are given fer a
flying boat of the utility category.
Gross weight = 16,500 lbs.; BhPm = 2 x
700; span = 92 feet; wing area I: 1020 sq.
ft. j wing section: NACA 2212; C:r.,max with
flaps = 1.9; estimated parasite and pro-
file flat plate = 34 sq. ft.; estimated
maximum speed at sea. level = 165 mph;
vertical tail aspeot ratiO = 1.2; hori-
zontal tail aspect ratio = 3.5; tail
length, e.g. to elevator hinge = ::s ft.,
e.g. at 0.34 c, StfS= 0.15, Sy/S =
a.c. at .240, C
MO
: -.05, over all
length o:f airplane 40 ft.
Find:
( a)
(b)
the limi t positive and nega-
ti ve wing load factors at
speeds of V
p
' Vo and V d.
the 11mi t unit lOad far: deSign
of the horizontal tail,
( c ) the l1mi t un 1 t 1 ce. d fo r des ign
of the vertioal tail.
2. For 'the neetster (6-plaee cabin) air-
plane, the following data are gt ven: =
5600; S = 380 ft."; ap8ll : 50 tt.; BhtlZll =
650; wing section = Goett. 398; YL =-170 t
mph; Ry : 1.4; R
t
: 2.7; Lt = 18 rt. F
i
n4
the same items as in problem (1). Use
St/
S
= 0.12, e.g. at 0.27 c.
6:10. !teferences on Load
1. Newell, J.S. Rationalization of Load Factors f2t
Airplanes in Flight. ASME Aeronautic Paper 1931-32.
2. Rhode, R.V. Pressure Distribution
and Tail Surfaces of a PW-9 Pursuit Airplane in
Flight-;-NACARept. No. 364.-
3. Roche, J .A., Proposed of Determining Dnsign
f2! Airplanes, Air Corps Information Cir-
cular No. 650.
4. Rhode, R.V. and Lundquist, E.E., .Pressure Distri-
bution Fuselage !2I. PW-9 Pyrsuit AirplanS!
in.fli.:h!:, NACA Rept. No. 380.
5. Rhode, R.V., Iill! Press'.1!. Distribution over
Horizontal and Vertical Tail Surfaces of C6C-4
Pursuit Airplane in Violent Maneuvers. NACA Rept. No
307.
6. Fahrney, Lieut. S.D. and Gilbert, Lieut., W.C.
Design Loads fQr Horizontal Tail for Airplanes,
Thesis, Mass, Inst. of Tech. 1930
7. Roche, J.A., Air Forces and Moments Acting .Qll m-
planes. Material Division A.D./,,{. 1119, \,!right Field,
Dayton, Ohio, 1930
8. Wen zinger, C.J.; and Jones, R.T., ! Study of Design
Conditions for Tricycle JAS May 1938.
9. DiCkinson, H.B. Maneuver Ability and Control Sur-
face Strength Criteria fQt Large Airplanes. JAS Sept.
1940, pp. 469-477.
10. Walker, P.B. Tricycle Undercarriage Wi.gn, Air-
craft Engineering, October 1940, p 171.
Sl'RlJCTtJRAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
.11. Aircraft Materials. This presentation aims to
describe the manufacture and properties of the principal
structural materials used in airplane construction and the
methods used in fabricsting these materials into airplane
parts. The practical problems for the engineer in this
field are.
(1) the selection of a material for a given purpose.
(2) the selection of a method of fabrication.
The principel factors determining the choice in each cese
ere economic, and a rational choice is not possible without
e more comprehensive study of the total cost of sir travel
(reaerved for Chapter 7); the economic estimates and csl-
culations given in the present chapter must, therefore, be
regarded as preliminary but illustretive of the method nec-
essary in compiling and using the basic data for economical
design.
The principal structural materials used in airplane
construction are steel and aluminum alloys though other
metels as well as plastics, fiber glass, and wood are
selected in preference to steel or eluminum under certain
conditions to ba discussed later. A recent comparison of
a number of eircraft materials is shown in lig. 6.9.
Stoinless steel)
Gloss fiber 181 Phen.11946(45YfOrp)ol
". No data avolYobfe of 300 ol'ld 500 F
EX!Xlsure
2hr.
Sheet stock
SPECIFIC ULTIMATE TENSILE STRESS VS TE'-4PERATURE
Comprenion modulus/specific gravity (E
c
/ S G.)
o IxlC
6
2xrO' 3xl0
6
4xl0
6
1 !
Aluminum 24 5T3
Mcgnesium
Aluminum
Stoinlesssteel A#ls-a Yz H
Titanium
Glo" fiber @phen. 11946$11 (CO warp)
61
Glon fiber r===J lei phen.1!946
dota available at 300 and 500 r
B
fj9[tJ
ij500 Fij
E xpO$ure time ';2 to 2 hr.
Sheet stock
SPECIFIC CO'-4PRESSION '-40DULUS VS TE'-4PERATURE
Fig. 6.9. Comparison of various aircraft materials on
the besis of strength/weight end compres-
sion modulus/weight. Spruce plywood also
belongs in this picture about third from
the bottom. Courtesy Aviation Week June IS,
1953
0

Desirable properties of airplana materials are:
(1) high strength
(2) light weight
(3) good durability, and
(4) low cost, including low cost of production and low
cost of fabrication. A ratio commonly used in comparing
materiels, as shown in Fig. 6.9 is ultimate tensile strength
divided by specific gravity; the temperature to which the
materiel will be subjected must alao be considered. Most
airplane parts are used in locations little effected by
engine and the properties et 80
0
Farenheit are a
satisfactor basis for co arison. Farts that ma be used
o Stone, Irving, Why Are Using More Plastics,
Avip.tion Week, June IS, 1953.
6.7
in or near the engine compartment may howaver be subjected
to temperatures of 300
0
to 500
0
Farenheit so that the com-
parison must also be made at these higher temperatures;
also missle parts which fly at high speed are subjected to
air friction, heating and at Mach numbers above about 21
the surface materials on an airplane or miasle may exceed
300
0
Ferenheit. Note in Fig. 619 that at temperatures
around 80
0
Faranheit the titanium alloy RC-130A leads all
other materials in strength/weight ratio and it is being
used in critical locations in spita of its very high cost
compared with the other materials. Stainless steel 17-7
also rates very high at normal room temperatures but is
hard to work. The aluminum alloy 755-T6 Alclad is the 3rd
ranking material in Fig. 619 and is tha most widely used
material of aircraft construction in 1954. Of considerable
interest is the fact that plastic lamanates of glass fiber
rank higher than alwminum alloy 245 which was the most wide-
ly used material in the pre-World War II period and is still
fairly widaly used wheraver high temperature or fatigue is
a major consideration. It may be noted that it is superior
to 755 at higher temperatures. Magnesium alloy FSI-R24
seems to rank lower than aluminum alloy 245-T3 in tensile
strass/weight ratio but in many applications this ratio is
not the primary consideration and particularly for some
castings magnesium alloys can result in lower weight finish-
ed products than any other material. The rating on the
basis of ultimate tensile stress is of course only part of
the story as some compressive membars fail by buckling Bnd
the modulua of elasticity is the determining factor in
buckling strength. The lower half of Fig. 619 gives the
relative merits of various materials when buckling column
failure is the primary consideration. In each case the
spruce plywood also belongs in this picture and ranks better
than the lower items in each part of Fig. 619. Spruce and
plywood were the orincipal materials for aircraft construc-
tion prior to World War I and, in spite of the much more
rapid increase in cost of wood than metals, still ranks high
as a possible material for light airplanes and gliders.
6112. Preparation and Froperties of Aircraft Woods.
The basic fact for estiruating the labor and expense involved
in preparing. wood for use in airplanes is that trees must ba
cut down, sawed into board s, and glued, nailed, screwed. or
bolted together to make an airplane. Joyce Kilmer has said
":roeIlOS are mile by fools like me, but only God can Imke a
tree", and F.B. Stout, designer of metal airplanes, has ir-
revarently paraphrased this to read "Only God Can make a
tree into an airplane". This observation is, however, more
emotional than scientl1ic; tne fact is that if the right
kind of tree is used and the wood is carefully seasoned, it
can be made into a very economical airplane, and .ith proper
protection a very durable airplane in termperate c cold
climates.
The principal source of authentic information on woods
is the U.S. Forest Service; information on wood for air-
craft has been prepared by the Forest Service for the NACA
as Reports No. 65, 67, and 68 and for the USN as l'anual
SD-31. Typical processes used in the transformation of
trees into airplane lumber are illus.ratec by Fig. 6.11.
Properties 01 wood vary greatly with moisture content.
Variation or strength of spruce (one of the cest wooas for
airplanes) with moisture content is shown in Figures 6112
and content is deterrrined by weighing be-
fore snd after crying (212
0
F., 2 to 3 days). The moisture
content of the wood in an airplane depends on the tempera-
ture and humidity of the climate or hangar where it is kept.
The mean daytime humidity at various localities in the U.S.
is shown in Fig. 6.14 (the humidity is somewhat higher at
night), And the effect of air himidity on wood moisture is
shown in Fig. filS. Since most airplanes in the U.S. are
to be used along the Atlantic coast, in the Great Lakes re-
gion, or on the Facific coast, and since the humidity in
these localities is usually from 70% to 80%, there is no
gain in drying airplane woods to less than 15% moisture.
If the wood were made drier (and hence stronger) it would
quickly absorb moisture in these climates until the mois-
ture content wes 13% to 16% (See Fig. 6115 70
0
F. line).
In cesert climates wooden airplanes are very strong; in
6:8
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Cutting down
and trimming.
Fig. 6111 Typical
Lumbering Processes
Fig.6ll0 Location of
Principal Forests in the
United States. (From
USN Bur. Aero. Manual
SD-3l)
)fill
G

,.,


L

-
i_
,.,
....-
-El pUQ.
.... V
."-/
Time of Year
o 10 20
:-
[.Q.eattle

Ney York


"-
00
90
00
70
60
50
40
30
20
4.0
Figure 6114 Mean daytime humidity at various local-
ities. (USN 30...31)
Air Mill Kiln
Drying
rt
Drying
, I
em


20
10
8
7
6
5
4
3
2

lbs. sq. in.
I""
"

"-
"-

,
Modulus of

RU.JLture
"\ r-...
. .
']: Lastic Llml t
"\

lfoisture, n to
o 10 20 JO 40 50
100
90
80
Idr
Humidity 1-
70
60
50
40
JO
20
0 10 20 30 40
Fig. 6112 Variation of strength of Sitka spruce wjfu Figurefi 115 Moisture in wood after long time (2 weeks
moisture content. (NACA Rept. 68) planks) at various air temperatures

Shrinkage from green,
of green dimension.
10 20
30 40 50
Fig. 6 :13 Shrinkage of Sitka apruce on dr Jing.
Ilanual SD-31)
140
So...31)

Figure6116 Approxi-
100 1---J-....:..;-t---t----1 mate drying schedule
40 ..... ---t--...:
Days in Kiln
per Inoh of Thickness
7 14 21 28
for airplane woods.
(NACA Rent. 65)
Sl'RUCTtJRAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
jungle climates they ere unsafe, not only because of the
high moisture content of the wood, but also because the
wood decays rapidly in hot wet weather, regardless of pro-
tective coating.
To schieve the desired 15% moisture content, it is cus-
tansry to use a kiln drying schedule approximetely as shown
in Figure 6:16. The drying can be accelerated by higher
temperatures and lower humidities, but the faster drying
may result in checks or 'ease-hardening"; case-hardening can
be removed by short steeming periods, but the checks or
cracks are permanent injuries. Moisture content of B% or
10% is sometimes specified in Government contracts, but 15%
is a common cammercial specification and is the fairest
basis for comparison of wood with other structural
Dansity of various cammon woods with 15% coisture are
given on p.AS.4 the corresponding mechanical strength pro-
perties are given on p.a65:4. Using the ratio of the elsB-
tic limit in bending to the unit weight ss a rough measure
of the desirability of wood for airplane use, mahogany
(Central American) 1s found to be the best, but the conifers
(fir, pine, and spruce particularly) are a close second and
the choice should be lergely a matter of price. For pro-
pellers which should be as thin as possible for low drag,
the stronger, but heavier woods should be used. For air-
plene wing beams, spruce and pine are most widely used.
6:13. Wood Construction Methods. In airplane con-
struction, wood is usually joined to wood by means of nails
snd glue. Wood screws have been found unsatisfactory be-
Cause they become loose and can not be tightened. Wood is
joined to wires or metal fittings by means of bolts. Metal
fittings are sometimes used to connect two wood members.
Glue is then the basis of most wood construction, and
a is no better than its glue. The proper-
ties of six different types of glue as regards tensile and
shear strength are sho.n graphically in Fig. 6:17. Formerly
blood albuminum and animal glue were considered among the
better glues with casein as one of the best. Newer develop-
ments in glues as sho.n in Fig. 6:17 indicste that polyvinyl
acetate now ranks at the top of the list for mounting all
sorts of materials including wood and plywood. The formula-
tion and bonding and drying conditions necessary to get the
strengths shovn in 'ig. 6:17 are shown in Table 6:4. Other
I SA
35
i G
.S 25 I \ n
::
I I I
Q) 10 I Vj b, 1 ! "
b I
5 II OOa
o
Polyvinyl acetate
20 x 10
2
d W
.....
15
10
5
o
i
s rt

Casein
Cellulose nitrate
adhesives, including sane that are good at over 450
0
F. are
listed on p. A6b:5.4. All adhesives in Table 1 of p.Aeb:S.4
except F, G, and H had shear strengths with 24S-T3 over 2500
psi et room temperature. Jdhesive N ("Plastilock' tspe,
presumed by NACA to be a phinal resin with butadiene-acry-
lonitrile synthetic rubber( wes the best at temperetures over
450
0
F. Adhesive D ("Plycozite 117C", a high temperature
setting vinyl-resin formulation) WaS most versatile end good
for over 2000 psi at room temperature and still fair at
250
0
r.
Plywood is commonly used in airplanes for flooring,
wing rib construction, and the covering of wings and fuse-
lages. Plywood is made by gluing together several thin
sheets of wood (veneer). The sheets are usually Msde by a
rotary eutter (like the shavings from a lathe) but can also
be made by rotary sew or vertical slicer; pressed together
after application of glue, end held under pressure for
several hours. Two-ply mahogany of a total thickness of
l/B" is commonly used for the construction of the webs of
box ving spars (see Figure on p.A6b:S). The grains of the
two plies, of course, run at right angles to each other.
Three-ply birch 1/16' 6r 3/32' thick is commonly used for
wing end fuselage covering. Weights per sq. ft. of ply-
wood of various thicknesses are given in AS; strengths of
various species of 3-ply panels are given on p. A6b15.
Bolts are used to attach metal fittings to wood spars
If high grade (AN standard) bolts sre used, the wood is
more likely to fail by crushing than the bolt to fail by
sheer, and dural liners are used around the bolts to in-
crease the bearing area. Comprehensive recommendations for
the design of bolted joints are given in ANC-5, section
2.50. Some of the data from ANC-5 are given on pege A6b16.
wings for bip1enes end externallY braced mono-
planes ere usually made with two redangular wooden spars
(for a typical 3-plece biplane, about 5' x 3/B") and
Warren truss airfoil shaped spruce ribs with plywood gussets,
as shown in Figure B:6. Such wings are covered with doped
fabric. For cantiliever monoplanes, plywood covering has
been foind necessary to give sufficient torsional stiffness
to avoid wing flutter.
w
L R
V:
J
c
S G
U
Resorcinol resin
S Stainless steel
A Aluminum alloy
L Paper-phenOlic
laminate
G Glass
W Birch wood
R Hard rubber
o Shear strength
f:J Tensile strength
f1 Failed in material
AL W
R

Neoprene

Fig. 6:17. Comparative bond strength values grouped according to adhesives used, TN IB63 (1949).
See also p. A6b:S.4 for data from NACA TN 2717 (1952).
srR1JCl'ORAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6:10
OF ADBESIVFS AlID PROCESSING DATA, fran NACA TN 1863.
I
Drying condi tiona Bonding condi tiona
Ad..heelve 'me
Munlf'acturer
J'or:IIll&tlOll
(parta b7 vt.) T1mo Temperature Time Temperature Pressure
(hr) (0(:) (hr) (OC) (lb/aq in.)
Celluloee oi trate 2O-eec viseod ty Hercules Povder Co. Cellulose nitrate 10 20 25 2 120 15D-f>OO
Eth,rl acetate 85
Camphor 5
Folyvinyl acetate AYAP Carbide am Carbon PoJ..;rvinJ'"l acetate 20 2 50 2 120 3
Chemicals Corp. Acetone 80 2 80
Resorcinol resin Penacoli te G1l31 Pennsyl V8.Il1a Coal. Resorcinol resin 5 .25 25 20 65 3
Products Co. CataJ..rst 1
ea.ein Reg. B 1 Casein Comp8.DJ' of ea.ein 100 .5 25 20 25 3
Amer1ca Water 300
(soak for 15 min)
Calcium hyd.:!-ox:lde 30
Sodium fluoride 5.8
Sod1um pl!ospbate (l2 17.4
Gum arabic 002 Arabol Marru.t'e.cturing Gum arabic 50 .5 25 20 25 3
Co. Water 50
Tlqmo1 2.5
Rubber Smoked sheet
_______ 00- ______________
Rubber 100 1 25 7 140 15D-f>OO
Benzene 400
Zinc Ol:lde 5
Sulf'ur 4
Neo'Pl"sne Qi E. I. du Poot de Nemours Neoprene 100 1 25 3.5 120 15D-f>00
UId Co., Inc. Ethyl acetate 200
Zinc azide 5
oxide 4
6t13.1. Glass and Plastics. It bas long been known
that glass fibers have a higher strength weight ratio than
any metal, but only in tha last few years have techniques
been developed for combiuing glass vith plastics in a
form which will give a resulting airplane structure of
high strength to weight ratio.
A photograph of an airplane with fiber glass plastic
wings undergoing flight test development for North Amer-
ican Aviation is shown in Fig. 6118.
Fig. 6118. North American T6 Trainer fitted vith
glass-plastic vings undergoing tests at
Wright Air Development Center. Courtes7
Aviation Week, February 15, 1954.
Properties of some plastiCS are given on psges
A6b5.1 to 5.3 inclusive, but these materials are under
rapid development,the manufacturers should be consulted
for the latest and best plastics available. One of the
best textbook treatments in this field is given by M. M.
Sprung of the General Electric Reaearch Laboratory in
Schenectady as Chap. 9 of a textbOOk on Materials and Pro-
cesses by Mr. James F. Young of General Electric Co., Erie
Pennsylvania (John Wiley & Sons, 1954).

The materials and processes for the manufacture of
glass-plastic airplane parts are simple, as shown in Fig.
6:18 and 6:19. While techniques for the construction of
glass-plastic wings are still being developed, possible
types of construction are shown in Figures 6120 and 6:21.
Vsrious types of eelular cores are available commercially
including the Douglas Aircraft Co., 'AIRCOMB', and the
Reynolds Aluminum 'REYNOCELL'. Lockheed Aircraft Corp.
has also developed a foaming plastic which can be poured
into the interior of parts fabricated out of sheet metal,
end which bond itself to the various members it comes in
contact with. Best bonda are obtained of course, only
vith the adhesives such as thoae referred to in Article
Allowable stresses for glass-plastic laminates de-
pend on the percent glass fiber content, as shown in the
graph on p. A6b:5.3. While ultimate strengta as
high as 100,000 psi are quoted by manufacturers or same
glass plastic combinations (Dynakon F1OM, p. A6bI5.2) but
this material ia presumed to be close to 100 percent fiber
glass with just sufficient phenolic binder to hold it to-
gether, as the compressive strength is listed as only
70,000 psi. For feasible structural procedures, such as
that in Ftg. 6119, allowable stresses obtainable from a
compsoite structures such as Fig. 6120 or 6:21 can rarely
exceed 50,000 psi as shown on p. A6b15.2 and particular
attention must be paid to bonds, such as web-te-flange,
and joints, such as the ving root joint, as in Figures
6,20 and 6121,
For a given strength weight it is probeble that a
glass-plastic ving can be built at substantially lower
weight than with an7 metal, and since the tooling cost is
much less than for metal wings it seems probable that there
vill be a large growth in use of glass-plastic wings as the
techniques of manufacture are developed in the near future.
One of the major limitations of this type of construction
is evident from the adhesive data on p. A6b15.5, lIhich show
that the highest bond strengths are obtainable only with
considerable baat and pressure, .though certain typea of
brush-on resins are sbown to provide over a 1,000 psi
shearing strength vith small pressure (5 psi) at room
temperature.
Sl'R0C'l'tJRAI. DESIGN CONSIDERAT IONS
~ 0
COLOR
Fig. 6118. Basic materiala for making glass-fiber
polyester resin laminates. Courtesy
Monsanto Chemicel Co. advertising, 1953.
rig. 6119. Process of manufacture of glass cloth and
resin fixture mold. Courtesy Modern
Plastics. JUDe 1953.
CENrRIFUGAL. STRESS - COM? BLADE
FATIGUE STRENGTH - BLADE MATER
ROOM TEMP.
rig. 6.19.1. Glass Plastic turbine-compressor blade end
comparative date vith other materials. Courtesy Av. Week.
- .
>
i
e
~ o
WING SCTlON SHOWING
Gt.ASS FIBR. SKHoI ANO
SPAR TO RPLAC
SECTION SHOWN IH FIGURE
~ AaOVE
UHI-DIRECTlO"'AL WARP
6.11
Jig. 6120. Possible construction of gless-plastic wing
spar end fittings. Courtesy Automotive
Industries March 1953. from erticle by
Norman C. Parrish of Northrop Aircraft Co.
Typical honeycomb stfUdVre 75 st aluminum
cover skins laminated with adhesi.... and
loaded lMyond the compression yield sir .. ,.
rig. 6121. Possible construction of glass-plastic ving
with honeycomb core. Courtesy E. L.
Cournand end Co Bevre de Greca. Md.
ot iron oro rsrra
und coal ~
dopoa1 ta 1 ~ U.S.
(U.S. Gool.Survoy dot",)
Stool
llill
See also 10 Apr.'54.Bus. Week for excellent plestics report.
6:12
STRUC7URAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6 s 14 Preparation.2!l!! Properties .2l Aircraft
Steels. Though the density of steel is 15 to 20
times as great as that of wood. it can easily be
made 15 to 20 times as strong as wood, and is used
in preference to wood in maIV airplane parts; for
tension members, steel wire or rod is used almost
exclusively; moat airplane fuselages are made of
steel tubes, and practically all small fittings are
made of sheet steel. A brief outline of the manu-
facture of aircraft steels is given below.
Steel is usually made by blowing air through
molton iron (as in the Bessemer type furnace). I
is made by heating iron ore with coal and limestone
Iron ore and coal are plentiful in the U.S. and are
found in the regions indicated in Figure 5122
j
the
principal processes involved in the manufacture of
steel are sketched in Fig.6a23.
Land containing good deposits of iron ore and
coal can be purchased for $10.00 to $25.00 per acr
though the more accessible of such tracts may cost
several times as much. In any event, the cost of
ore or coal in the ground ia negligible compared
with the cost of the finished product. lLining the
ore and coal and transporting it to the blast fur-
nace operating cost makes the pig iron cost about
$15.00 per ton at the furnace (l22.50 per long ton,
Uec. 1940). The operation of the Bessemer steel
furnaces increases the value about 60%. making
steel billets cost about $24.00 per long ton ($40.
00 in Dec. 1940, with average factory wages risen
to 80) Operating the steel rolling mills make a
rolled structural steel beams cost about $35.00 per
long ton ($45.00 in June 19:38) or about l.6 per 1'0.
at the mill. Steel made in small lots nth care-
fully controlled properties may cost 5/lb. to 10/
lb. at the mill. Delivered to the airplane manu-
facturer, the price is likely to be 15/lb. for no
mal carbon steel tubing, or 2O/lb. for high grade
AN standard alloy steel tubing. (Jobbers price
lists may show 60/lb but discounts up to 70'J> are.
usually given.) See page A7 n for current
prices.
Steel is an alloy of iron and carbon and some-
times other elements. Carbon is steel which
owes its distinctive properties chiefly to the car-
bon which it contains. Alloy is steel which
owes its distinctive properties to some element or
elements other than carbon. A numerical index sys-
tem of specification numbers for steels has been d
vised by the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE).
The specification number consists of four of five
digits (e.g. 4130); the first of the digits indi-
cates the principal alloy element or elements (thus
"4_ - -" represents a molybdenum steel; index key
for other elements given below). The second digit
generally indicates the approximate percent of the
dominant alloying element, and the last two digits
indicate the approximate carbon content in "points"
(hundredths of a percent). Thus SAE 4130 steel
means molybdenum (4) one per cent (1), 30 points
carbon (30)
.M W 1..2 Element s in Alloy Steel
Carbon 1 Yolybdenum 4
Nickel 2 Chromium ;
Nickel-chromium 3 Chrome-Vanadium.. 6
Tungsten .7
Silica-
!.langanese .9
Carbon steels which have been allowed to cool slow-
ly from their molten state ("normal steels"), when ex-
amined under the microscope, are seen to consist uf a
mixture of crystals of different sorts, like a mineral
such as granite. Low carbon steels consist chiefly of
crystals of pure iron (ferrite) high carbon steels con-
tain streaks of the hard iron carbide (Fe)C. or
tite); steels with intemediate amounts of carbon con-
sist chiefly of a fine-grained mixture of ferrite and
cementite known as pearlite. The percentages of each
constituent are indicated by Fig.n .24. The tempera-
ture (Fe) necessary to obtain complete solution of the
carbon in the iron (austenite) is indicated by Fig.
6125. Physical properties of normal. carbon steels are
shown in Fig. 6, 26. If the cooling is not slow but
rapid, the steel is said to be heat treated, and the
resulting crystalline structure consists of the excep-
tionally fine-grained needle-like hard martensite as
as well as pearlite (also called sorbite when resulting
from heat treatment). The effect of cooling velocity
on the resulting structure of a 45 point carbon steel
is shown in Fig. 6. 27. For other carbon contents, see
Bullens, Steel and Its Heat Treatment, pp. 104-108.
Note that faster cooling gives more martensite. It is
custO!llE'ry to cool steels more rapidly than necessary
(as by water quenching) and then temper them by reheat-
ing to a point near the critical region, followed by _
slow cooling.
60
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Fig. 61 24 Constituents of nonllal (slowly cooled)
carbon steels. (Bullens)
TeIIP ., J'o
1700 I--r-,.--+-+--t-+lr..-f
1600 t-lIlI:+-+---t-...,..-+-*foo-'"
1500
1300 0
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4
Fig. 6125 Critical temperatures of steels (Iron-
carbon diagram) (Bullens)
6:13
DESIGN
150
1000
Lbe/eq. n.
125
100
75
.4 .4 1.2
Fig. 6126 Properties of normal carbon steels
(Upton).
1600
Temp.
FO
1400

Av
I

I
j/

t---
+-I\ .... nHI1"
1200
1000
TRoO.T'T
\:

"'.4",rtr",sIT(.
I
' .1

FO/sec at
Cooling
rate, 13280 F
800
600
100 200 300 400 5 00
Fig. 6127 Effect of cooling rate on structure of
heat treated steel of 0.45 carbon
(Bullens).
The effect of alloy elements such as nickel is
to slow up the A-M-T-S change, so that an air cool-
ed alloy steel has much the properties as a
water quenched carbon steel. Alloy steels are oft-
en oil quenched and tempered and the physical pro-
perties resulting from sucn heat treatment are pre-
dictable with excellent accuracy.
Properties of carbon and alloy steels of nUl!ler-
In the form Qf steel tubes, this material is some-
times used in making welded fuselages, but the chroTium-
molybdenum steel SAE 4130 is more often used for fuse-
lages because higher stresses are allowed and the struc-
ture can be made lighter.
The probable actual yield point anu ultimate strength
of air-cooled SAE 4130 steel are seen on p. to be
60 and 95 thousand Ibs. per sq. in.; heat treated as spe c-
ified, the yield and ultimate may be 110 and 130 thousand.
Stresses allowed for design ( A6bll} are 50 omd 90 thou-
sand as received from tube mill. for welded SAE 4130 fuse-
lages, not heat treated after welding, Y.P. and Ult. are
limited to 45 80 thousand Ibs. per sq. in.
High chromiUlll (llstainless
ll
) steels have also been
used for airplane construction, the most widely used steel
for this purpose being "18-8" (USN Spec. CRS-l). The
properties of this steel are given on p.A6bIJ.A high
degree of resistance to corrosion can be obtained but at
a considerable penalty in structural weight. Some re-
cently constructed stainless steel wings compare very
favorably with dural wings in cost and strength-weight
ratio. See ANC-5 for a more dtailed specification of
corrosion resistant particularly CRS-l, ANC-S.
See NACA Rept. 615 for a comparison of CRS
tubes with X-4130.
6: 15 Preparation Properties of Aircraft &Ymi-
.m!ll! Alloys. Many modern airplanes are made largely of
aluminum alloys, chiefly 24/fJr dural. Airplane struc-
tures made of dural are lighter than equivalent struc-
tures made of SAE 4130 steel, but probably not lighter
than structures made of heat treated SAE 6130 steel.
The current price of dural is about 3 times that of SAE
4130 steel (See page A 712), but still low enough
to permit competition of dural with steel in transport
airplanes. The price of dural in the U.S.A. appears to
be set by the Aluminum Company of America at such a fig-
ure as to yield the maximum net return and, unlike the
price of steel, may bear no direct relationship to the
cost of production. outline of the processes
in the manufacture of aluminum and dural follows.
Aluminum is made by passing an electric current
through a solution of aluminaa (Al203); Alumina is pre-
pared from the mineral Bauxite (approx. 60% AlOH, 25%
FeO, and 15% Si0
2
) by crushing, heating (calcination),
grinding, screening, and dissolving in NaOH (Bayer pre-
cess), and treating with AlOH to precepitate A1
2
0
3
(ref-
erence S. Mortimer, Aluminum. Isaac Sons, 1919).
Aluminum may also he prepared from Cryolite (AlF and NaF)
but abundant deposits of Cryolite have been found only
in Greenland and in the Ural (U.S.S.R.). Aluminum is
found in almost everybody's back yard in the ferm of
Kaolin, chief constituent of common clay (A1203; 2Si0
2
;
2H20), but the cost of producing aluminum from Kaolin.
is at present high.
ous SAE specifications are given in ANC-5, data from Bauxite is abundant in the U.S.A.; deposits are
which are summarized on' p.A6bll.Properties and known to be available at the locations shown in Fig.
costs of steels and other materials are given on p. 6,28Annual imports of Bauxite to the U.S. amount to a-
A6b,2.The carbon steel chiefly used in airplane bout 600,000 tons in 1940. Many of the more accessible
construction is the mila carbon steel SAE 1025. In Bauxite deposits in the U.S. been purchased or are
sheet form, this steel is made into fittings by cutt controlled by the Aluminum of America, apparently
ing with a jig saw or nibbling machine, drillinf, on with a view to discouraging competition, but a careful
a drill press, and bending cold over forms. The geological exploration would probably lead to discovery
only heat treatment specified in ANC-5 is annealing of additional deposits on abandoned farm land that could
(heating above the lower critical temperature and be purchased for $lOO/acre, and Bauxite can be delivered to
slowly cooling to remove stresses due to cold work-
ing). The yield point and ultimate strength of such
steel are given as 25 and 55 thousand Ibs/sq.
in. according to ANC-5.
6:14
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Figure 6128 Bauxite deposits in the U.S. known
0, now being worked X. Locations of abundant
cheap electric power shown thus e .
the mill for $30.00 per ton of aluminum bi1lets
produced. Operation of the crtlshins machinery,
vsts, and furnaces is several times as expensive 0.S
iron per ton of product, but need not exceed
per ton of aluminum, making per ton (6/L.
a possible price. The current price of about l7
per lb. for No. 1 Virgin 98-99% pure (See
p. A7a2) has made possible a brge 1lJr.ount of ex-
pansion and development work in the aluminum in-
dustry. The market price of scrap cast
has l'anged from 9; to 10 per lb. for 1941. One
of the types of furnace used in the production of
is shown in Fig. 6129-
Durn,l (ALCCA alloy l7-ST) is made by adding
small quantities of copper (4%) and (0.5
t .. the molten aluminu,.... The dura.l is extrude4 from
the furnace in a state and must be care!
:::ooled to get the strength specification p.A6b13
Sheet dural ImlSt be heat treated after cold working
to retain its high strength. \'iith:l.n the last few
Fig. 6129. Heroult type fUrl)B.ce.
years, the stronger alloy 24-ST has been 17-
ST in airplane construction. The current of
dural sheet is about 50/lb. (See p. A 71 2) in the
thicker sheets. The 24-ST alloy has a Y.P. about 20%
higter than l7-ST, but there is little, if any, gain
modulus of elasticity. The price difference is about
10%; an airplane built of 24-ST instead of, 17-ST is
likely to be lighter and no more expensive. A pictor-
ial outline of the production of aluminum from adver-
tising of the Aluminum Co. of America is given in
page 719.
Numerous other alloys are produced by the Alumi-
num Company of America for special purposes; the com-
position and properties of a number of these are list-
ed onA6ba3. The meaning of the symbols designati11.g
the alloys is as follows; The wrought alloys are des-
ienated by a number and the letter S; the number denot-
ing tne chemical composition. The most widely used
wrought alloys are 3S,. l7S, 24S,24S, and 51S.
3S is used where high strength is relatively un-
important and welding is necessary, as in gas tnnks
and chairs.
l7S is the alloy usually referred to as dural;
24S is an improvement on 17':; '"lith slightly higher
strength but lower shock resistance.
25S and 51S are approximately equivalent to 17S
in strength when hard, but weaker when soft.
o designates soft or annealed temper after air
cooling from about 960
0
F.
W designates the condition after water quenching
from 960
0
F.
T designates the condition after aging. Time and
temperature for aging are sho ... n below for several1.lloys.
Aging Temp.
Roan
290
o
F.
3l5
0
F.
Aging Time
4 days
8-15 hrs.
18 hrs.
Thus 17SW becomes l7ST after 4 days at room temperature,
more than 90% of the having taken place in the
first day. Dur81 rivets are usually kept in powdered
solid CO
2
("dry ice") after quenching until a few min-
utes before they are used to keep them from hardening.
H designates the condition produced by cold work-
ing (strain hardening) of the 0 temper material. The
skndard tempers 1/4H, 1/2H, and 3/4H provide a grad-
ation of properties.
On A6b. 3 the symbol Al has been used to deSig-
nate "Alclad" alloys, which have a thin coating of
electrolytically deposited pure aluminum to reduce corr-
osion.
RT designates material that has been rolled after
heat treatment to give still higher strength, ductility
is of course sacrificed.
Under the action of salt water (and air with salt
spray ) dural corrodes as rapidly 8S steel
., though aluminum "rust" is white instead of brown like
i ron rust). and the corrosion while under stress is
much more rapia than unstressed corrosion. The effect
of the stress-corrosion is particularly deteriment:ll
to the fatigue strength. A coating of pUT'e aluminum,
electrolytically deposlted, 1s sometimes used to re-
duce corrosion, though thf' "Alclad" dural is little
better than painted dural in resistance to stress cor-
rl'lsion.
srRtJCrtRAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
.1. Comparison of Materials. A quantitative com-
parison of materials to determine the most desirable mate-
rial for any particular airplane part of Bub-assembly is
possible only if the airplane specification includes a care-
ful statement of what features of the complete sirplane are
considered desirable. An implication of meat specifications
is that psyload-miles per dollar is a measure of the desira-
bility of a particular material or type of eonstruction as
compared with another material or type of construction for
an airplane of a given power plant and external dimensions.
Some of the basic data for a comparison of wood, dural,
and for use in airplanes are given in Table-b75. Such
a comparison necessarily involves numerous arbitrary assump-
tions, but msy be interesting partly because it shows what
assumptions are necessary. The wood chosen for the compari-
son is spruce of 15% moisture, because thia is one of the
best end most comffionly used woods. The dural chosen is the
ALCOA alloy 24-sr because it is one of the best of the str
aluminum alloys and is superior to the newer and more widely
used 75S at temperatures over 3000 F. as shown in Fig. 6:9.
Two steels are chosen because both kinds are widely used
and a study of either alone would not give a fair compari-
son: SAE 4130 ('chrome-moly') is the typical steel tube
material used in fuselages; heat treated SAE 3435 (Chrome-
nickel) is of good British practice in steel con-
struct ion.
A structural weight modulus is developed in Table 6:5
by compering stiffness end strength with weight. Tension
and bending members in an airplane are designed on the
basis of yield point strength, but compression members are
designed pertly by stiffness (Euler column formula appli-
cable to long columns involvas only stiffness, not strength).
TABLE
Comparison of Materials
Materiel
Spruce
Specification
15% moisture
D = DenSity, #/1n.3 .0156
E = Elasticity Mod. 10
6
#/in.2
1.3
Y = Y.P., .002 set, 1000 6.2
U = Ult. Stress 1000 #/in.
9.4
Rl Stiffness/weight (E!D)
83
R2 = Strength/weight (Y!D)
396
R Rl R2
479
Structural Wt. Modulus. 1000/R 2.10
Materiel Cost, 11/53, $/lb. Fig. A717
.23
Min. direct labor cost, 11/53, $/lb.,est.
15.00
Structural Cost Modulus' $
3
2
The weighting of the strength/weight and stiffness/weight
ratios is arbitrary but believed to be approximately
eorrect. Table 615 shows that a good glass-plastic will
probably give the lightest structure, air cooled 4130 steel
the heaViest, but wood and dural structures are nearly as
light as heat treated steel.
A structural cost modulus may be developed by multi-
plying the structural weight modulus by estimated mat,erial
and labor costs per pound. Materiel costs include allow-
ance for typical waste of material. Direct labor costs
imply an assumed method of construction. For t he wood
structure, plywood covering is essumed to be necessary to
get ample stiffness with as clean a design as would be
possible with metal structures. For the dural structure,
sheet metel torsional bracing is assumed necessary; for
the steel structures torque brecing of wings like the Jun-
kers end Lorraine-Hanriot bracing (Figs. 818, ellO) is
implied. Note in Teble 615 that with current high labor
coste in U.S. factories (average over $2.00/hr. in 1954),
material costs becane a relatively minor factor, so that
even very expensive materials like titanium can also be
considered for commercial airplanes. Titanium structures
will often be little heavier then aluminum, and the com-
pleted structure msy cost only twice as much. Labor costs
are always difficult to estimate and are subject to enor-
mous possible improvement. In effect Table 6'5 expresses
the judgement that it is possible to build glass-plastic
airplane structures for about half the cost of steel,
dural, or wood.
The structure cost modulus is, of course, something
that varies from day to day end place to place. The de-
sired cost moduli for calculating pe yload-miles per dollar
fluctuate eTen more widely. The development of cost mod-
uli for deSign is considered in the next chapter,
615
For Ai!:plane Use
Glass-Plast ic
Steel Dural 50% glass by Vol.
SAE 4130 SAE 3435 24-sr 143 Fab.-114 Finish
.284 .101 .067
29.0 10.5
50
60.0 130. 40.0 50 est.
95. 155. 62.
n
102 104 75
211
457 398 750
313 559 502 825
3.2 1.8 2.0 1.2
.20 .40 est. .55 .85
10.00 20.00 15.00 10.00
33 37 31 13
Solution of problems like the following is a prerequisite to becaning a successful
manufacturer of airplanes, or even to profitably building an airplane of original design. No single
chapter or book cen give the information necessary for en accurate answer, since economic, social, and
political forecasting are as necessary as knowledge of manufacturing end management technique. The prac-
tical man calls it 'experience', but assistance to an accurate answer can be found in the manner end from
the sources shown in the foregoing psges.
1. Estimate the cost of production end delivery date of en airplane similar to Fig. 116 on which it
is proposec to start ordering material May 1, 1955. State assumptions necessary to arrive at your estimate.
6:16
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
6,17 stress Analysis The strength of fNery mem-
ber and fitting of an ,..irplane intended for commer-
cial license must bt; calculated by the manufactur-
er with a view to demon st ratin,;' to the CAA that no
member 'NHl fail (or suffer permanent deformation
large enough to impair the usefulness of air-
plane) under of the loads vmich are likely to
be applied to it. Methods of estimating the loads
which may reasonably be expected in have
been discussed in this ehapter. The
current chapter deals flith (a) methods of calculat-
ing the unit stresses in the members due to the
applied loads, and (b) calculation of margin of
safety fro:n the applied unit stresses and the known
unit strengths of the mcterials. This is the cus-
tomary procedure even tho the actual failure may be
due to instability (as in long columns) rather than
to excessive stresses.
It of course does not follow that calculations
showing a positive margin of safety will assure a
satisfactory design. A design may be strong enough
and still be unsatisfactory because of lack of rig-
idity or durability against fatigue failure. In
fact, it frequently stated that if fatigue, rig-
idity, and shock' resistance are used as criteria
for design, the structure will nearly always be am-
ply strong, and strength calculations are unnecess-
ary or unimporbnt for design. Strength calcula-
tions are required, however, and probably quite
rightly, before a license will be granted. Fatigue
strength and rigidity are more difficult 'of prede-
termination, and suitability of a design in these
respects is left for determination by
flight tests.
The student is assumed to be familiar with suo
elementary on Strength of Materials as
those of Prof. A.P. Poorman of Purdue or Prot. J.
B. Boyd of Ohio &tate. Some ot the following mater
ial constitutes a oondunsed review of the ele-
mentary texts; the rellll1nder is in the nature of
an abstraot of speoialized books on airplane stress
analysis such as' "Airplane Structures" by Niles
and Newell, "Airplane stress Analysis by Pro!.
A. Klemin, or "Analysis and Design of Airplane
Structures"by Prof. E. F. Bruhn, but aims to
include also sane of the concepts presented in
the more recent advanced work ot Prot. S.
Timoshenko. Cognizance is also taken of the
developments presented in ANC-5 (Gov't. Printing
Office, 25) which should be studied in conjunc-
tion with this Chapter. The student who proposes
to speCialize in stress analysis should of course
make a canprehensive study ot the original works.
The following material is such as is necessary
to a designer in making preliminary stress
analysiS, and also serves as an introduction to
the speCialized work ot the stress analyst.
6&18 Loading Airnlane Members.
Structural ;nembers of airplanes are subjected to
three prinCipal of loadings, tension,comPfes-
sion, and bending. For example, in Fig.6,30(a
which shows the forces acting on an air,llane in
flight, the member BD is in tension, member CD is
in compression, and the portion AB ot the wing is
in bendinf. The porti',n Be of the wing is su
jected to both bending and cqnpression, aa sholltl in
Fig.6130(b). llembors or parts of an airplane are
also so:netillles subjected to shear, as shawn in Fig.
61310r to torsion (t.wisting)as shown in Fig. 6132
Bending nearly always involves shear forces (8 in
Fig.6a30b) as well as tension and compression.
Torsion loads often exist concurrently with tension,
com;)ression, or bending loads.
Bending and compression
tt;'rlmll
Bending
T i
Compression
ens on D
(b)
Fig. 6130 Forces acting on airplane and airplane
members. rs
-t::J 1- __ '0.-_-.
[ ........ 1 ......... __ 1-

(Shear
Fig. 6a31Riveted joint and shear force on rivet.
Fig. 0132 Torsion forces on wing of airplane in dive.
Stress analysis computations involve (1) the
determination of the kind and amount of load applied
on each ;nember for each condition of flight or land-
ing, (2) the calculation of unit stresses resulting
from the loads, and (3) determination ot
margin of safety by comparison of applied stresses
with allowable stresses. Stress Analysis calcula-
tions involving the combination of bending and/or
twisting loads with tension or compression loads are
more difficult and uncertain because the nature of
the failure with such combinations has not yet been
thoroughly investigated, particularly if the sections
are thin and the failure partly due to instability.
6s19 Calculation l&W ill StaticallY !lIU.t-
minate Trusses. If an airplane structure contain.
just enough members to maintain its shape (and no
extra members) the force acting on each member can
be determined from the forces acting on the entire
structure by means of the principles statics, and
the structure is said to be statically detenningtt.
If there are extra ("redundant") members, the dis-
t.ribution of forces d8f)ends on the rigidity or the
members; a solution which takes acoount ot rigidity
and deformation of members in determining the loads
on the members is described as a method or "consis-
tent defomations" j mathematical treatment or
problems involving redundant members cOIlIIlonly uses
the that the actual
ations will absorb less energy than any other possi-
ble defonnations, and is hence called the "method
of least work". Discussion of statical.ly indeter-
minate
6:17
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
must be delayed until stresses and de-
formations in the various kinds of members have be8'l
considered. For statically detenninate structures,
the procedure necessary to solve for the forces in
each manhar is described in any textbook of engi-
neering mecha,nics. The treatment of Prof. E.H.
Wood of Cornell (Textbook of lIechanics) is particu-
larly recomnended, because no other textbook empha-
sizes so well the importance of a free body sketch.
R2
Fig 51 33 Free body sketch of simplified fuselage
structure.
For example, consider the simplified fuselage
structure shown in Fig. 61 33. The specified applied
loads were presumably determined by distributing
the weights of various parts of the plane to the
panel points, b,c, and d, by the prinCiple of mom-
ents ("Moment of the resultant of a series of forcp.
about any points equals the sum of' the moments of
the component forces about that point") and multi-
plyjng them by a limit bnd.lng load factor. The
problem is to find th e forces applied to the variws
members of the when tpe specified forces
are applied to the airplane. The first step in the
solution is to find the reactions Rl and R2' The
basic equations are the mathematical conditions for
equilibrium, the free body being assumed to be in
equilibrium under the action of the external forces
and the "inertia forces" (reversed resultant forces
which are the forces shown on the free body sketch.
If the airplane weighed 1400 Ibs. and the lLnit.
load factor were 5, the total load would be
5 x 1400 = 7000 lbs. and might be distributed as
shown. Of this 7,000 Ibs., 1400 Ibs. is external
force (weight); the remainder is inertia force.
equations are:
Z Fy - 0 (sum of y - components of forces is zero)
Z Fx _ 0 (" " x _ If "It If ,,)
llz - 0 (" "moments of forces about any z-axis
is zero)
In Fig.6133there are no x-forces with axes as
shown; the equations for finding Rl and are
therefore
- RI + R2 - 2,000 - 4,000 - 1,000 =- 0
1i1zRl. - 8R2 - 4 x 2,000 - 8 x 4,000 - 12 x
1,000 - 0
Solve these equations for R2 - 6,500 Ibs, Rl = 500
lbs. To find the load carried by each member, con-
sider the pin at each panel point (a,b,c,d,e) as a
free body acted on by the load in each of the ad-
joining members and by whatever external loads are
applied to the truss at that point, and write th"
equations which the condition of equilib-
rium. Thus the pin at e (Fig6a33) may be repre-
sented as a free body as shown in Fig.6s 34 (This
method is described by Niles and Newell as the
"method of joints"). For equilibrium of joint e
1/
tan':
l
t ;)Ie 1000if
t .--
e
_.>
Fig.6a34. Free Body Sketch of Pin at joint e.
!.Fx = - l:J.ce - lJt. de = 0
5 25
Fy ... 1 c,e _ L de - 1000 = 0
5 25
Solve for ce = 1200# and de = -1000#. The loads in
the members were arbitrarily assumed to be tension;
negative signs indicate compression. Similar calcu-
lations at joints a,b,c, and d would give the load
in every member of the truss.
A desirable method of cheCking the calculations
by the method of joints is to cut the truss by a line
at some point where the line will cut 3 members, and
use the portion to the right or left of this section
as a free body. Thu8 for the truss of Fig.6.33 a
line could be drawn thru members bc,bd, and ad, giv-
ing the free body sho1'l1 in Fig. 6135. Writing the
equilibrium conditions
F - ;r 0, = 0
x 1 '
permits solving lor the three unknown forces. The
unknown forces can also be determined from moment
equations about three z-axes - =
0, ! lizd = 0); ccxnplete solution of a truss by such
equations is sometimes described as the "method of
moments". See also Chapter 11 for description of
graphical method of solution.
4000#
e
bd __
r :d
Fig.6135 Free body sketch of portion cde of Fig.6.33
6&20 Unit and Unit Strength. Unit stress
is load divided by area. There are basically only two
distinct kinds of tension and shear.
Fig.6136 Block subjected to tensile stress in one
direction.
Fig.6a37Block subjecced to shear in One plane.
6:18
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
'!. 6. 38 Block subj ected to 3 tensile stresses an
3 shear stresses.
These are shovm in their simplest form in FigsSa 3
and 6 a 37. The unit tensile stress is ft - PiA, and
the unit shear stress is fs - s/A; unit
are generally expressed in lbs. per sq.in. in the
U.S. and Great Britain. It is sho'l'l1l in elementary
texts that:
(a) Tension loads produce a primary tensile
stress as in Fig. 6 a 36.
(b) Bending loads produce stress as we
as tensile and compresive stress.
(c) Compression loads on long columns produce
bending well as compressive stresses.
(For short columns, compression may be re
garded as negative tension)
(d) Twisting loads on circular sections pro-
duce pure shear stress as in Fig. 6137 en
sections of other shape, twisting loads
also produce tensile compressive
stresses.
(e) Combinations of bending' and twisting
may in general produce three tensile
stresses at right angles to each other an
shearing stresses in three planes at righ
angles to each other. This is the most
general type of stress and is shown in Fi
6138 Solution of problems involving ten-
sile stresses in 3 directions and shear
stresses about 3 axes is usually not con-
sidered necessary in stress an
sis.
Even the simplest stresses (Fig.6a36and6a37)
are not tension results in second-
shear, as shown in Fig.6a39, ilnd !"lrimHry shea
results in secondary tension, as sho'l'll'l in Fig.6a
From these free body sketches it can be stown (Ref.
Poorman pp. 41-44) that the maximum secondary
stresses are
Max. = ft/2 il,t 0 - 450 ,;.nd
Max. ft = f s at 0 = 45
--:r


Fig. 5139 Free boay :;k.::t.cn .;;howing secondary shea
due to tension.
Fig .6a4O Free body sketch showing secor.dary ten-
sion due to shear.
,
--
lnr
T
Fig.6,41 Primary tension and shear
f
t
,
----fa,A

qA\
Fig.6142 Free body sketch for finding secondary
shear and tensile stresses.
Parts of airplane structures (e.g. those subjecte,
to bending) are commonly fPl\:liected to both primar:,
tension and primary shear as shown in Fig. 6141.
Using the free body sketch shown in Fig.6a42, it
can be Ref. Poonman, pp. 216-219) that
Max. rS - (ft/2) + at Q = 1/2 tan-
l
(f
t
/2f
s
)
Max ft = ft/2 + -..j {ft/2)2 ... at 0 = 1/2 tan-
l
(-2fs/f
t
)
Calculation of secondary stresses is important
because they frequently determine whether a member
will suffer permanent deformation or
16'1
:1
I i l'
I 1 .
11-- '.,'"
t
""B! __ I __ , (-1 __
Fig.6143 Mechanism of permanent deformcltion (From
Upton)
Permanent deformation is always .!u: shear.
The mechanism of ,)eI"TInnent deformation is illuBerat-
ed by Fig.6a43. 'Maximum unit shearin'" stress,
whether primary or second,,!,"!, is the critenon of
permanent defoz:mation. Failure may be I:.lUsed by
either shear or tension. Since the U.S. Civil Aero-
now specifies that yield point shall
be a for design of airplane members, shear
stresses and shear are criteria for design.
(Buckling is also a criterion for airplane parts;
desif,Il loads for buckling are determined not by
stress but by stiffness).
Strength ot air,Jlane materbls is usually de-
termined chiefly from a The standard
size of test piece usually used is shov.n in Fig.6144,
and the results of tyoical tension tests of steel
(SAE 4130) and (17-sr) are shown in Fig.oa4S
and Fig.O&46 The term "yield point" is used to
refer to the first [Joint where the stress-strain
graph becomes hori?ontal, as point Y on Fig.oa45.
Note that the stress-strain graph for dural never
horizontal; for dural it is therefore common
prllctice to pick out a point "here the permanent
defor;n:>tion has reached an arbitrary critical value
of 0.002 as a measure of its strength without ex-
cessive deformation. The unit tensile stress at this

STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
point is commonly referred to as the yield stress
of the material. From the foregoing argument, note
that the yield point strength (F
ty
) in a tension
test of steel or dural is reached when the unit
s;le:J.ring stress (fl s) on a plane at 45
0
to the di-
rection of the load reaches the critical shearing
stress Fso - Ft/2 (see pp. P-3 to P-4 for list of
structural symbols). This same critical shearing
stress is the criterion for permanent deformation
of an airplane member subjected to shear or to com-
bim'!d loads in a single plane.
r- ._- - 2 til --<..,Jf' dil,ls
O
t par.allei I 1 8 l.n.
-; 1"'0.01, -l
._
'-,- 2"---....1
Fig. 6a44 Standard 2" tension test piece for metals
Other points commonly used in describing the
results of tension tests, indicated in Figs.6a4S
and6a46, are the proportional limit (Ft
p
) arbitra-
rily taken at 0.0001 deformation, and the
ultimate strength (Ftu)' Similar notation i8 used
for results of compression tests (p.A6ba 10).*
Wood is neither used nor tested in pure ten-
sion, and is seldom used in Dure compression (wood
struts having bee:) largely replaced by steel).
Study of the of wood is com?licated by
the fact that its properties are different with-the
grain from across-grain (i.e. it is
The only technically important property of wood is
its bending stren('f.l-j when used as a wing bea:';!, and
this property will be discussed under bending.
1200 .n1 .02 .n3 .01 .05



401-+--4-.
t
t /i:
t
-
_.-LL-
I Lower graph
IUnit
o .001 .002 .003 .004 .005
Fig. 6145 Tension test curve fo:" SAE 4130 steel,
rdr cooled.
0121 Strength Tension Members. Members vllich
carry only tension are made of steel wire and are
called ties or tie rods. The ends of such tie rods
are equipped with standard terminals for connection
by means of a bolt with adjoining members. The ter-
minals are so designed that they will be stronger
than the rods. Tie rods exposed to the air stream
are nearly always of streamline shape; tie rods
used the structure are either or
.* Allowable stresses consistent with ANC-5 are given
on p .lob,l.
round; the square section rods are probably safer be-
cause twist of the rod in rigging is easily detected
by inspection and avoided. A table of sizes
of tie rods and terminals is given on p.A6b.6.the
rated strengths given on p..!6hi 6are acceptaU; to
the DC as design loads (- limit load x factor pf
safety). The assumed terminal efficiency may not be
greater then accordi.ngt:.o CAR 04.4030.
Fig.6146 Tension
test curve for
;u.cOA 17-ST Dural.
Prom Automotive
Industries August
24, 1922, p. 375.
Rated strengths are determined by multiplying
the minimum rod section areas by the ultimate strength
of the steel. The Macwhyte Company of Kenosha, Wis.,
producp.s two types; type I of half-hard carbon steel,
cadmium plated to withstand a 200 hr. salt spray
corrosion test; and type II 01' stainless steel to
with stand a 700 hr. salt spray corrosion test. The
table of rated strengths given on p.A6blOapplies to
either type.
Steel or dural tubes are sometimes also used as
tension members as parts of a welded or riveted tubu-
lar fra'T.ework. The unit stress in a steel tube sub-
jected to tension is calculated by dividing the load
by the cross section area. Section areas of standard
size", er steel and dural tubes are given on pp.A5:8
to ASa12 inclusive. The ultimate strength of welded
SAE 4130 steel tube members in tension is commonly
taken as 80,000 Ibs./sq. in (as compared with 90,000
for tubes not welded) to allow for the annealing
effect of the welding, and similar reduction8 are made
in yield point as shown on p.Aoba1. The allo,"'able
tensile load on tubular members joined by rivets is
usually determined by the shearing or bearing area of
the rivets. Ultimate unit bearing and
strengt!":s of various materials are given on p.A6bal.
6,22. Strength Qf Compression Members. The most
commonly used type of compression member in airplane
construction is the tube, though extruded dural sec-
tions and sections rolled from thin sheet metal are
also widely used. It is shown in elementary texts
on strength of materials that for short. compression
members of ductile metals (as for tension
both yield and failure are due to secondary shear
on planes at 45
0
to the load. Hence the compressive
strengths are equal to the tensile strengths, if
based on load divided by actual area {not original
5: a:>
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
area)
Long compression members, or fail by
buckling, and the load required to produce failure
is given with excellent accuracy by the Euler form-
ula:
A convenient means of comparing the column form-
ulas in Table 6a6 is the nondimensional plot shown as
Fig. 614'1.
P/A = c1f"2 E/(L/,.)2 6114-
where P/A is the unit load causing bending failure,
E :; modulus of elasticity, L = length,!,= radius of
gyration of cross section, and c is an end condit'
factor. For pin ends, c - 1, for fi.xed ends, c:; .
CAR 04.360 does not permit assuming c>2 under any
conditions, and requires special tests to justify
assuming c>l. Hence it is desirable to assume c
More recent tests on tubular columns of "chrome-
:noly" steel, dural, and stainless steel, reoorted in
NACA Rept. 615, may be as in Table
61'7 , but the original report should be consulted for
special recommendations as to design.
=. 1 for stress analysis calculations, but see NACA
615 for a more elaborate accounting for end
fixity.
The Euler formula is valid only for long col-
umns (and low values of P/A); the critical length
below which it is of doubtful validity is determin-
ed by equating P/A = F
c
r/2 = (yield point of lIlD.ter-
ial)/2. Below the length it is customary
to use the parabolic formula (usually credited to
J.B. Johnson)
P/A Fco-Fc02 (L/p)2 6a15
4i2E
Parabolic-Euler column formulas for standard SAE
4130 round and streamline steel ,tubes ""; th E = 29 x
lob "nd F
c
,,= 60,000 are plotted. 00 F1g.A6bala.'1d
A6ba2 (Note however on p.A6bahhat Fco ll!i.i;r be as
high 79,500 for thin X-4130 tubes). These cha
(or their equivalent monograms given by Niles and
Newell) can conveniently be use1 for preliminary
selection of a tube size; for stress analyses it is
customary to calculate lUlit stresses with the grea
er accuracy of a 10" slide rule.
Colu.m formulas cons; '!tent with the allowable st!'f.SS
es on p.A6bllare given in TableS.S. (Ref; All'; -
5 pp. 4-2 and 5-2.
'fable 616
Formulas

o .5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
Fig. 614'1 Non p16t of
coll)JT'n forn'U'as.
for round steel and
alu-u.nurn alloy tubes.
,
Short Columns(l)
r-----
I
F;r I Fco Crid2) I.cl1g(l)
I
Materia.l .E!!....!5&s- P/A
I
1000 000
1'/1' Columns,
PiA
1025 36 36 36 OOO-l.l72( l' F}4 124
X-4l30 (3) 75 79 79 500-51.9lLYf)1.5 91.5 2 86xlQoj( L I IP ),
Heat-treatedO t 100 100 1100,OQO-8.74(If.P)Z 75.6 286xlO6/(LI/f}Z
Alloy Steel
Ueat-treatedO I 135
Alloy Steel j
135 65.0 286xl06/(r.r'f )2
Heat-treatedo
165 165 58.9 286xlO
6
/(L'/f)2
Alloy Steel
1165
Alloy Steel .
IG6 166.000-23.78(lj!p)2 60.7 286xl0
6
/(L'/r)2
A.n ,al'ld30 34 5 34 500-!'!45 L liP 94 101. 6xlO
Cl
/lLV f'} Co
17 ", ,if!" I 40 ; 42.5 42 500-334.5 LIIP 84.6 lOl.6xlOCl/tLllf }i::
i 24S1 42 ' 50 50 000-0127 LI/P 78
LI/,) .
"long" and which they 2 Crit. p is that above which columns are
are "short".
\(3). This supersedes p A6bl2 which is conservative.
IRotesl a. Investiga.te for local instability D/t)50
I ____ on p A6bl1.
Table 61 7 Formulas from NACA TR 615.
}'laterial
USN Ft -. Short Columns Crit I.cng Columns
sPec....E.d piA: L/f PIA =
1000
__ 94xlO
o
/ L 11,0 I i::
I)lral 44T21b 49 42 700-300L'IP 70 l04xlo
o
l L'II'>Z
000-1200L 'I.e. 7.) 26 6xlOo I L liP I i::
9-SxlOO I L I II' Ii::
6:21
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Short tubes which are also very thin (e.g. a
monocoque fuselage shell) fail by local buckling of
the tube walls, and formula (Ell5)is applicable
only if Fco is replaced by an allowable compressive
crippling stress Fcc which depends on the ratio of
diameter to thickness (D/t). Tests of very thin
tubes (Ref. 15, p.6a32) give rather scattered re-
sults because of the large effect of small varia-
tions in thickness and diameter. Donnell (Ref. 15)
gives a formula which fits the average of the data
very well but recommends for design a lower value
which takes account of the scatter. A suitable
formula for either dural or steel is
he.;;; rr- (6.5 tiD - 0.00093)
Fco "V F;;
1.0
.8
-"- "-
"-
t',S-
I-Steel with
! ;;; 550
"
. Fco
.6
Fcc

r"\

Fcc

'I
t
V'"

./
-
iI'r\.
.4
.3
.2
"
1
equation on p.A3:l5
08
D/t
(6116)
-(2)"
Dural with
E 270
Fco
1\.'
'i

\.

.......
" .
"-
:\.
"-
" \.
.06
'100
Fig.6a48.
200 400 600 1000 200G
Compressive strength of thin tubes.
This fonnula is plotted in Fig. 6.48. Note that
a tube is not nthinn until D/t> 100. With practi-
cal accuracy, it is satisfactory to omit the second
term of equation (6 a16) for tubes of D/t < 1000.
ColuDn formulas are also used to determine the
allowable unit com-oressive load in the compression
of beams (using L as the between
points of lateral support), and the allowable unit
shearing stress in the webs of beams (using L as
the distance between flanges).
6.23 Strength A beam is a body sub-
jected to loads in 91anes perpendicular to its long-
est dimension. An airplane wing is a structural
beam. Fig. 6.49 represents a cantilever beam sub
jected to a uniformly distributed load; at any sec-
tion a distance x from the end there is an internal
shear S and internal moment M exerted by the adjoi
ing portion. S and M can be determined from the
equations for equilibrium of the free body sketch
Fig. 6149 Graphs showing the values of S and II(
at any section, as in Fig. 6. SO are known as
moment diagrams. If the elastic limit is
not exceeded, the bending moment produces longitud-
inal tensile and compressive stresses in the beam
which are proportional to the distance from the neu
tral axis of the beam and are given by the equation
fb ;;;, (6.17)
where fb is in lbs. per sq. in. if II is in
Y is the distance from the neutral axis, and I is
the moment of inertia of the section area about the
neutral axis. If there is no longitudinal compres-
sive or tensile load on the beam, and the loads are
in a vertical plane of syrmnetry of the beam section,
the neutral axis is the horizontal axis through the
centroid of the section of the beam. The unit shear-
ing stress is greatest at the neutral axis, as shown
in Fig.6IS1, and d is given by the equation:
f - SQ/bI - - - - - - - - - - - - (6,18)
s
where Q is the static moment of the, area of the sec-
tion outside of any point at which the unit shearing
stress is f
s
' and b is the total width of section at
that point. Calculation of combined stresses is usu-
ally not because f is maximum at the neu-
tral axis, whereas fb is max!rnum at the outer fibers.
Bending tests are commonly carried beyond the
elastic limit where the formula f :: Yy/I is not app-
licable; the stress Wy/I is then called a nominal
stress; The nominal stress when the beam breaks is
the modulus of rupture. For beams of ductile
metals such as SAE 4130 steel and l7-sr dural, the
term modulus of rupture is sometimes applied to the
yield point of the bending test. A relationship be-
tween the nominal bending stress nnd the real ten-
sile or compressive stress in the outer fibers of a
x---;
I 1- 'j
ttf" 11 11"
11' Ibll./rt.
Fig. 6.49 Free body sketch of cantilever beam
Shear
!.loment
Fig. 6150 Shear and moment diagrams for beam in
Fig. 17
a
-"- fs -lf
b
. - ! '--_. Camp
. --:1 __ . Tenll
',I , _ ._ 1_ _ _ __
Fig. 6151 Distribution of unit shearing stress and
unit bendinp strflss 1n box-beaan.
beam hn.s been developed by Upton (Ref. 3,p6.32)and
is shown in Fig. 6.52. A beam yields in its outer
fibers before the result is apparent in a bending test.
The nominal stress at the apparent yield point is
seen to be about 50% greater than the actual yield
point for a solid rectangular section (almost exactly
50% for ductile steels; Fig. 6152 is for dural).
The construction in Fig. 6152 may be described by
saying that the real stress in a solid rectangular
beam is less than the nominal stress by 1/3 of the
stress intercept (1) of the tangent to the nominal
stress curve. For other section shapes, the relation
between nominal and real stress may be developed by
deriving equation 6.17>(a) .assuming elastic action,
and (b) assuming plastic action (stress independent
of distance from neutral axis). Because Prof. Upton's
book is out of print, this relationship is not gener-
ally known in this country.
6:22
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
30
i
circular sectton
= 0.41
[
10
f
C I
Unit defotmation
0 .01 .02 .03 .04 .05
Fig. 6152 Upton t s construction to detel"TIliIle
real st ress in bending test.
1.
1.
1,
1.
1.
1.
1.
1.
9
T
N' I

c, Retio
. omlna1 stress
Real stress
r\ : I-n;j
i-- 6
, \l/tSteel
-,0
T
,,' yield
point
4
. .,U\
,.
3
1'/ 1
Z. \\ -
I-
-
Failure
2
Rupture \'
.
data
1
\\
1 - 4130 she1
'\\ 1
ACre 686
nit
1,
\
I
0
I I
j
1. 2 '5 1t'):0 :In IO.rn, 500 lOCO
Fig. 6153 Relation of bending strength to com-
pression strength of tubes.
Ueing Upton's method, it can be shown that for
steel tubes the ratio of nominal yield point stress
) to yield point (F
t
) is given by Fig. 6153.
1"or
Y
dural tubes the ratil is Slightly less because
the tension test curve for dural is not so
beyond the yield. At rupture also the stress-str
graph is nearly horizontal and a
ship exists between nominal stress at rupture
("modulus of rupture II ) and real stress at rupture
( = ultimate strength if material does not neck).
For very thin tubes (D/t > 100), failure is due to
buckling jnstead of secondary shear stress, but the
relationship between nominal bending stress at fai
ure and compressive strength is con,s1 stent with th
of thicker tubes (see Ref. 11, p. 5132). As indi-
cated in Fig. 5.53 , it is desirable to use for
bending of thin tubes 1.27 (- 4/1T) times the all
able stress for compression of thin tubes (TN 479
gives 1.3 to 1.8 instead of 4/Tr , but 4hris con-
servative), or
= IE (8.3 tID - 0.0012) - - - - - - -(6119
Fco
The fozmula for allO\','able bending stress in thin
tubes given on p.A6b.11is a simplification of
equation (6,19) omitting the second term.* See ANC
5 Sec. 1.65 for thin walled truncated cones.
For reinfor<,cd sheet metal beams. (such as
Fig. 6.55) equation (5.17Jis coml;\only used
to calculate the allowable bending moment by using
f = F = colwun yield stress, and using a reduced
I obtained by multiolying the actual I of
the skin and strineers by an form fac-
tor determined by special test s. If special tests
conveniently be made, it is satisfactory to
assume for preliminary calculations tr.at the skin
no bending stress except in the immediate
of the stiffeners. for
the effective width of sheet (from Ref. 12 p.6132)
is
wit = c .yE/fc - - - - - - - - - - (6120)
where w and t have the meaning shown in Fig. 5a54}
f is the stress in the stiffener, and C is a coeff-
igient on the type of "tiffener as given
on p.A6bllO.See also pA6bs9tor Newell's tests
on riura' sheet with U stiffeners.
Fig. 6154 Effective width of stiffened sheet.
r
b
.J...
d ---I
Fig. 6155 Dimensions of thin metal box spar.
For thin metal box sections such as Fig. 6.55
with bulkheads spaced a distance x apart, it is
custoow.ry to use for allowable bending stress (Ref.
Vc'arner and Johnston, p. 379).
Fb = Fb tanh (1.2
7
d/x)
o 1.25 d x
6.20.1
where Fb is the bending stress in solid
but it is probably more nearly correct to
use the same allow"ble bending stress as in thin
tubes (see p. A6bl12
* Roark (ref. 23, p.6133 gives a formula which, for
Poisson's ratio = 0.3 reduces to
.Eb.. 0.505 i-------(6121l)
Fco Feo
D
and with dural of ElF co = 270 equation (6.21 ) and
p.A6b,ll)gives only about 70% of equation (6119)
and is, l.l,erefore, conservative. Length effect. said
to be negligible except for very short tubes. For
a dural cylinder like a fuselaee = 270)
D = 20" and t = 0.020
11
, Dlt = 1000 , - 0.135
from eq. 6119, F,,/F __ '" 0.136 from pA6b.l1md Fb/Fco
0.136 from eq. 6.211. In any case, with Fco ,.
42,000, 5700 lus.jsg.in.
6:23
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
The principal structural strength of a metal
cantilever wing is usually in the form of a sheet
metal box section such as Fig.6155 strengthened
either by stiffeners or corrugatlons. Stiffeners
may consist of either extruded z-bars, as in Fig.
6156 (which are advantageous as regards corrosion
resistance) or of bent strips of sheet metal of
the shapes shown in Fig. 615'7 A box beam of corr-
ugated sheet metal may be built as shown in Fig.
6a58
Fig. 6156 Sheet metal box beam vrith extruded
dural z-bar stiffeners.
Fig. 6. 57 Sheet metal stiffener sections.
l"ig. 6& 58 Box beam of corrugated sheet metal.
Dimensions of standard corrugations are shown on
p.A6b.8 where allowable Wlit cc:xnpressive stresses
are also given. These allowable unit stresses are
commonly used as design stresses in the equation
tb = Wy/I. Data on the compressive str
of stiffened sheet metal with various numbers,
sizes, and shapes of stiffeners and xarious thick-
nesses and radii of curvature of sheet are also
avaHahle. (See p. A6b.9)

(a) Shear truss for spar
(b) Spar with shear carried by
diagonal tension in web.
Fig.6159 lleans of carrying shear in wing beams.
Metal wing beams are also commonly made with
spar sections such as are shown in Fig.6s59.
Shear in such spars may be carried either by t
as shown in Fig 6, (a) or by a metal web as
shown in Fig .6. 59 (b). The latter means of carry-
ing shear is sometimes described as a Wagner "ten-
sion field" shear truss. The permissible shear
stress in the web should theoretically be to 0.5
F
t
(see Fig. 6140. Below this stress the web
but the wrinkles are not permanent, van-
ishing when the loads are removed. However ACIC
685 reports MIT tests on showing Fa (for per-
manent wrinkles) 11,000 #/in (- 0.3 Fty) for
large stiffener spacing, to l5,000#/in
2
l= O.4Fty)
for small stiffener spacing. Fatigue strength 01'
dural webs of this sort is uncertain and it is pro-
bably desirable to keep the stresses very low, par-
ticularly in stab'lj7
o
r spars and other places like-
ly to be subjec-.:!to vibration. See ppA6b.l and
A6b.6 for fatigue .. trength of dural.
For corrugated dural webs such as those shown
in Fig.6,58, allowable shear stresses are given 011
p. A6b.9
12r of T or box section (as in Fig.
6151), it is custOOlary to calculate the bending
moment at yield or break from equation (6,1'7.) using
experimental values of modulus of rupture and bend-
ing yield point which are a function of the relative
flange and web thicknesses. Such expermental values
for spruce beams are given on p.A6b: 5 right half
of figure. Upton's analysis of the relation be-
tween nominal and real stresses is applicable for
wood nearly as well as for steel or dural, but is
not useful in this connection because direct tension
or comDression test results for wood are not usuall:r
available. The left half of FigA6b& 5 deals with
strength under combined bending and compression,
which is discussed later. To deterr-ine the
mum allowable shear load on such beams, it is
customary to use equation 6 S 18 and the allowable
shear stresses given on pp. A6b: 4
Deflection of may be calculated by inte-
grating the general differential equation for the
elastic of a beam
d
2
y/ctr = M/EI - - - - - - - - - - - - - 6& 22
and getting a specific equation for the elastic
line. Deflection at any particular point may be
calculated more conveniently by the use of the sing-
le integrp
h .. j Mxclx/EI - - - - - - - - - - - - - (6123)
or the equivalent "area-r:loment equation"
hE x JB Mdx/EI - - - - - - - - - - -( 6124)
A A A
in which the symbols have the meaning shown in Fig.
6,60 The meaning mat: be stated in words by saying
that the deflection hA of a point A on the elastic
line of a measured from a to the elastic
line at point B, is equal to l/EI times the moment
about A of the area of the moment diagram between A
and B. (See Ref. 2, p.6.32, for development of this),
Fig. 6160
..

Calculation of deflection by area-mom-
ents.
5: 24
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
This equation can conveniently be used to solve
statically indeterminate beams such as are shown in
Fig. 6a61 The principal types of statically inde-
terminate beams found in airplane are
the braced cantilever (a) the with 3 supp-
orts (b). To solve such beams, it is necessary to
make some assumption regarding the deflections of
the supports. For braced cantilevers it is custom-
ary to that the point of attachT.ent of the
brace wire is in line with the tangent to the elac-
tic line at the fixed end of the beam. For beams
with 3 supports, it is custOll1&ry to assume that the
three supports are in the same straight line. It
is noted that this will frequently give
misleading results, a second solution ta.4ing.aC C;() <lr\-.
of the deflections is recommended. CalculatioIl':; ot'
moments and shears for a beam with 3 SUP?orts are
illustrated in Fig. 6s 62. From the of Fi
6,62 ( c), in whi ch the broken line is tangent to
the elastic line of the beam at the support,
Fig. 6161

-'-'I
"tHIn RZ!.II\f1
(a)
" 'I I
statically beams.
,'\.C):' ':tv"",
20"-. -,0" =f1
. I'
I __ _
r::'-;1\i::---(-'
: (fi}J" :1 -r- -- .--i
.
i ' I 'h2
Fig.6,62. Solution of beam with 3 supports.
hl/al - - - - - - - - - - -(6125).
Consider that the moment is analysed into
two parts: (a) the normal moment diagram for the
spans if the beam were not continuous, and (b) the
end moment which involves the three
ents M
2
, and M
3
of which ),4? is unkno"JIl. Sub-
stitut1Ilg expressions for h sinular to equation
(6123) in equation (6124)
A1XI. III M
2
a
l - -A2
x
2 - - M2
a
2 - -(6 a 26 )
e:r-
t
-r+-r ""'a2 -r -3-
This is known as the "theorem of three moments".
It is frequently used incorrectly because the
assumptions underlying it are overlooked. For the
specific data given in Fig. 6 J 62, Al = 8,000 lbs. -
in.
2
; Xl - 10"; al - 20" lil = M3 -600 lbs.-in.;
A2 27/XXJ lbs.-in.
2
j x2 - 15"j 1\2 = 30", and sol
tion of equation (6126.) gives M2 _ -750 lbs. in.
The student should verify this result.
6,24- Combined Bending and Compression. Air-
plane W1Ilg beA.ms are commonly loaded in combined
bending IU"ld compression, as shown in Fig 6,30 (b).
Landing gear members are also subjected frequently
to this combination of loads. If a body is sub-
jected to a bending moment M and a compressive load
p. the stresses add algebr,,,,ically at every point and
are a maximum on the compression side of the as
given by the equation
f - fb+fc = My/I +-P/A - - - - - - - - (-6,27)
When f - F cll' (- compression yield point tension
yield point) the beam begins to yield in its outer
fibers. and this condition is recommended for design,
using li:rrit loads.
For relatively short members, the moment M in
equation (6 S 27}m.ay be taken from the bending moment
diagram of the beam. For longer members with an
appreciable deflection M must take account of the
"secondarj' bending" and of t.he moment of the end
load P about the neutral axis of the deflected sec-
tions (e.g. point 0 in Fig.6s63). For beam-columns
of this sort. the critical end load P
cc
with no side
load and no end moment, is by the Euler
ula (equation6,l4)P cc - 1J"'EI/L
2
With a distribu-
tee: side load of W#/in. and an end load of P - DC. P
cr
Timeshenko shows (Ref.4, p.6,32) that the max!
bending ::loment at the middle is
_ wL2 oC.
-8 (it - - - - - - - -(6a 28)
1 -0(.
Fig. 6,63. Beam with end loads.
With end rr:oments Ml - M2 = e P, but no side load.
Timoshenko shows that,
!.!. Pe sec (L/j) - - - - - - - - - - (6,29)
max.
'where j (This is the well-known "secant"
column formula). For either of these cases, equation
(6,27 ) may be used for design with desi,.m loads. For
the combination of end moments, end loads. and side
load, Niles and Newell (Ref." p. 6 : 32) present num-
erous equations for special tY'les of loading common
in airplane wing beams. These equations have un-
fortunately been called "precise." the erroneous
impression of precision being strengthened in the
mind of many designers by the complexity of the so-
lutions. The unaertai nty of allowable stresses for
thiE: tyee of combined loads m8.kes the actual urecis-
ion rarely better than ;t 20%. Solution by the "pre-
cise" equations is recommended in ACM .04 for either
wood or metal spars subjected to combined bending
and compression. For the loading shown in Fig. 6163,
the general differential equation is
d
2
M/dx
2
+ M/j2 = w
and this may be solved to eet"
Mmax. = Dl wj2 (unless U
l
or U2 is
greater) cos(x/j)
where Dl - Ml - wj2
and x/j is the location of the point of maximum mom-
ent given by the equation
tan x/j (D2 - Dl cos L/j) /D
l
sin L/j
where D2 &. M2 - wj2 and j -1 EI/p as before. Sample
6:25
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
computations, with labor saving tables, are given
by Niles and Newell.
Calculations of this sort are of diminishing
importance because of the fact that very
few or externally braced monoplanes of new
design are being developed, and for cantilever mo
planes, calculations involving the Itprecise
lt
method
usually unnecessary.
.f2!: spruce spars subjected to combined bending
and compression, the left half of the figure on p.
A6b.S, may be used for design;
For (SAE 4130) or dural tubes (17-
sr) of the standard sizes given on pp.A518-A511
= 5 to 80) and values of L' /p - (1 to 7)
, E Fco (.::::::24 to 165 for steel) subjected to com-
bined bending and compression Which may fail as
either short or long beam-columns, ANC-5 (Arts.4.40
and 5.40) suggests that the criterion for failure
be considered as
fb/Fb + fc/Fco = 1.0
Where includes the effects of secondary bending
(bending produced by the axial load because of the
deflection of the column) and Fb is prescntGd in
graphical form in ANC-5 as figs. 4-10 anu 5-6 for
different values of F
tu
and F
ty
'
6. 25 Combined Bending Bending is
usually canbined with shear in beams. For solid
beams, calculation of combined stress is usually n
neces'sary, as pointed out on p.6.24 For thin
cylinders such as are used for meta.L airplane fuse-
lage, the shear ap?reciably reduces the bending
strength, as shown in Fig. 6164.

po
I-
-0
o .-'
V
f-"
-l-
I- t-
t::
f.-
11
tTf- I,d
,. ..-
-I-

It ,/
...... I-"""
L.-

L.-
1-'- l-
I-
f.-
/1/ v
-.,/
V

l-
VY;
'j
17 ....... I-' f-f-
v
.,/
v ..... Ii/oi riO
{!
V '/ V'
i/V


V
V V

V-
i
!,K MirV
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Fig. 6164 Bending and Shear on thin walled
cylinders. (Ref. 17, p.6.33)
100
,!
80 loa

.. 0
60
'\ .

40 a
..
20 n
o
....
't."

g.26 Torsion. Wings and fuselages of airplan
are commonly subjected to torsion, and landing gear
members frequently resist torsion loads combined
witq other loads. The general problem of calculat-
ing the unit stresses due to twisting of bodies of
irregular shape has not yet been satisfactorily
sOLved, but for most of the sections commonly used
in airplanes, satisfactory approximate solutions
are available.
In circular cylinders, either solid or hollow,
torsion loads are resisted by pure shear stresses
on planes normal to the axis of the cylinder. If
the elastic limit has not been exceeded at any
point in cylinder, the stress distribution is as
sho .... n in Fig.G.GS (a) and the maximum unit shear-
ing stress can be shown to be
fs - tr/'Tf r3 - 16 T/1T
D3
- - - - -(6130)

(a) Elastic (b) Plastic
Fig.6.65 Shoar stress distri-
bution in twisted cylindor.
where T is the applied torque. For plastis action,
as in steel shafts vmen the yield point has been
exceeded, the stress distribution is as shown in
Fig. 6.65 (b) and the relation between unit shear
stress and torque is f = 1. 5 F / 'ft r3. If eouation
(6131)is used to shear stress in a
test in which the yield point nas been exceeded, the
calculated stress is called a stress. Typi-
cal torsion test results are shown in Fig. 6166.
Upton's tangent construction is applicable to
mine real stress from nominal stress for torsion as
well as, for bending, though the fraction
of the intercept is different. The real yield point
stress ir. torsion is exactly one-half the real ten-
sile yield point, for the reason indicated in Fig.
No textbook except that of Upton (Ref. 3,
p.6132) app"r.rs to mnke this relationship clear.
All other textbooks imply an unexplained discrepancy
of 20% to 25% between the shear stress at yield in
the tension test (Fst = Fty/2) and the shear stress
at yield in the torsion test. For materials with a
tension test curve which is horizontal at yield,
the relationship between nominal stress at yield for
solid round bars (F's = 2l'/'lT'r
3
) is, from Fig. 6166,
Fls = 4Fs/3 -tFt/3, and for steel bars use of this
relationship is preferable to using the allowable
stresses for torsion yield given on p. A6bll
I
40
Uni t shead ng F
stress, fs ,-'
J--
.. .
'/
'Nominal stress
: I
-
t-- I
Real stress-
r
,
i 2C
1'.:Jr solid cylinder: __
! e = 0.25
1
i
For hollow
see Fig.616.,
I I I I
!
; I i

Unit deformation,
s
10
..Lo
o .01 .02 .03 .04 .05
Fig.6166 Upton's construction to get real shear
stress torsion test results.
l'j . -- !. I I NomlDal stresll' , .
1. stress t
1. --
I ' I , ! ' r' I,
Ii, :
.
, n/t
'-1
J
1.2 5 10 20 50 100 200 500 roo
Fig. 616., Relation bet,'/een nominal and real stress
at yield for steel tubes in torsion
(approx. for dural).
6:26
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Modulus of rupture in torsion for solid round steel
bars would be 2/3 of the maximum real tensile str
if the stress-strain curve were horizont:ll at rup-
ture and if the tensile failure was due to second-
ary shear (Le. if the tension test piece "necks"
instead of breaking straight across). The above
relationships exists of course only for solid round
bars. The more usual shape of metal members in
airplanes is the tube; for tubes the nominal and
real stre;s apnroach each other as the tubes got
thinner (D/t gets larger) as shown in FiE.6a6'1.
The nominal stress in a twisted steel tube' (assum-
ing elastic action) is
fs = Tr/J - - - - - - - -(6,31)
y!here J = polar moment of inertia of section area
about tube axis =1Tr4/2 -1T(r-t)4/2. For practical
calculations with D/t 10. J = 211"r>t, and
f,c T/21!r2t - - - - - - - - - - -6132
Note in Fig. 6.67 that for D/t the difference
between nominal and real stress at yi,'ld becomes
negligible. Long thin tube. fatl by buckling.
Donnell has shown (Ref. 9, p.6;32}that the allow-
able shear stress in such tubes (LZt/D3 is
given by the equation I
Fst- O.70E/(D/t) .5 - - - - - -(6133)
For dural with E/F
ty
= 275, this equation is repre-
sented by line (A) In Fig.6169. The broken lines
(B) and (C) represent empirical equations based on
tests on steel tubes reported in Acrc 261. The
equations, corrected for the difference between
nominal and real stress, are' given at the top of
Fig. 6.69. For short thin tubes (LZt/D3< 6.0 and
reinforced by bulkheads (as in airplane
fuselages) or clamped at the ends, the effect of
the bulkheads is to increase the torsional
strength. Donell developes rationally a rather com
plex equation for the strength of such tubes. An
variation of Donell' s equation which fits
the data equally v:ell is
F
st
= _.>, KE -------(6.34)
(D/t)1.:25
where K = 1.1 fits the data best, but values of K
recommended for design are 0.80 for clamped edges
or 0.75 with hinged edges. This equation is plott-
ed on Fig. 6169 as lines (D) for dural with E/F
ty
= 275. The lines for L/D = 0.15 and L/D = 1.0.
fit Lundquist's data (Ref. 16, p.6.33); the line
for L/D - 10 is uncertain, and in the range between
L/D _ 10 and L/D = 40, data are conflicting and un-
Research along this line is in progress.
Fig. 6168 Dimensions of hollow section subject to
torsion
For LID '740, equation (6133)1s probC1.bly safe, but
perh:lps over-conservative.*
For hOllow sections any shape to
torsion, it is customary to generalize equation (6&32)
by writing it in the form
fst = T/2At - - - - - - (6135)
where A is the area enclosed by the outer boundary
of the section as shown in Fig.6ISS. The allowable
shear stress for use with equat;,on (6a35) is common-
ly assUllled to be the same as in round of dia-
meter d = 6w.

.2
.02
500 lOOO2COO 5000
Allowable shear stress in dural and steel
tubes in torsion.
See Fig. 6169 for round tubes, but for
very thin irre"Ular sections (D/t 50) no data are
available, and special tests would he required. See
ANC-5
7
Sec. 1.642 for thin walled elliptic cylinders.
For solid rectangular sections in torsion with
dimensions as shown in Fig.6170, sell'.i-empirical
studies checked by the rhoto-elastic methods show a
maximum unit shearing in the middle of the
longer side given by the equation
fs max. ::: 3T Cn - 0.65 n/'l + - - - - - (6,36)
Aa [n - 0.63 l' O.052/n ]
where A is the area of the section (Ref. Warner and
Johnston (p. 429). For the special case of a square
section, n = 1 and
f tL_ n = 4.8T - - - - - - - - - - ___ -(613'1)
-maJ\.. Aa
Allowable shear stress Fs may be assumed the same as
for solid circular
I2t rectangular sections, use
(6,35 )the same as for other hollow sect ions to "-,et
actu!\l st.ress. Allowable shear stress for elastic
buckling b assUllled to be
Fst - KsE (tl/b) - - - - - - - - - (613S)
where tl and b are dimensions as shown in Fig,OI'10
and Ks is between 4.8 and 8.5 depending on the dis-
tance between bulkheads. The graph given in ANC-5
Fig. 1-5, is approximC1.ted by the equation Ks =
(1 +_b/a), where 0.2 <b/a (1.0.
For channel and I-sections in torsjon, tests
by on brittle material (F.B. Seely, AdvC'.nced
*For. steel and durar tubes, Ret.a,p.6133
for useful charts for design and is
tent with Donnell's equations for tubes with hinged
edges.
6: 27
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Fig. 61 '70 Dimensions of Rectangular Section.
Mechanics of Materials, p. 180) show that the max-
imum unit stress is given by the equation
(dimensions as in Fig. 6a72)
fs: 4'5T -----------(6139)
t
2
(h + 2b
o
}
assuming that the allowable shear stress is the
same as for solid sections.
1
,
If
1
1-
- b .. I
Fig. 61'71 Dimensions of hollow rectcmgular sec-
tions.
Fig. 6172 Dimensions of channel and I-sections.
Geodetic frames in torsion (Figslll15and
1111'7)may be conservatively analysed as pin-jointed
triangular frames as in Art. 6119 .. For circular
geodetic frames, the torque loads may be assumed
equally distributed to all triangular frames, but
for frames a rather complicated least
work solution is necessary to get the correct dis-
tribution of torque loads between the triangular
frames and elliptical rings.
6127 Representation of Limits
of Combined Loading. Shanley 18
p.6a 33) principal authors of ANC-5 have developed
the method of representation of alloW<ible stresses
under combined loads shown in Fig. 61'73-, in vtJich
fl and f2 are actual stresses and Fl and F2 are the
corresponding allowable stresSes. Rational studies
of stress relationships permit the equa-
tions flfFl + f2lF2 :: 1.0 as the condition for fail-
ure under canbined bending and compression, and
(i'/F
l
)2+ (i'2/F2)2 - 1.0 as the condition for com-
bined torsion and compression. These relationships
may be generalized by writing as a condition for
failure Rla + R
2
b _ 1.0. This method has the ad-
vantage of permitting empirical variations to be
easily written to cover special tests before the
stress relationships are understood. Since it can
be made to serve as a quick and practical basis
for design, it is likely to be widely Typ-
ical relationships of this sort are shown
.2. The appearance of the exponent 1.75 in part (b)
of this figure may be due to failure of the investi-
gators to calculate stresses (see p-6122)
1. a - 3. b = 3
a = 2. b = 2
o I-flfF 1.0
Fig. 61'73
of conditions for f:rll-
ure by stress ratios.
1.0 1"""""---:-"'---;---'
(a) supported square plates under compression
in two directions
.0
(b) Simply supported rect. plates under combined
bending and compression.
f
d(j-l

1---"""----;
o 0
(c) Infinitely long plates with clamped edges under
combined shear and compression.
1.0
(d) Simply supported rect, plates under combined
shear and bending.
Fig. 6174 Typical relationships for con-bined
loqdings. (From Shanley and Ryder,
"Stress Ratios
tt
, Aviation,June,1937)
6128 Margin of Safety under CO::lbined Loadings.
With two stress ratios in constant proportion, the
stress ratios under the given loads may be indicated
by RIg and R2g and the allowable stress ratios by
RIa and R2a corresponding to points "g" and "a" in
6:28
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Fig. 6,73. According to ANC-5. Sec. 1.424. the
"factor of utilization is U = RIg/R
l
- R2g/R2a and
the margin of safety is a
M.S. - l/U - 1 - - - - - - - - - - - - -( 0140)
6. 29 . Combined Torsion and Compression. For
members which do not buckle. yield is determined
by a critical value of unit shearing stress because
permanent deformation is a shearing process (as
shown in Fig.6143 p.6.19). For steel and dural
tubes. it may be noted in Figs. 0104 and 6.69
that elastic instability is relatively unimportant
for D/t< 50. which includes most commercial seam-
less tubing. Such tubes begin to yield when
ll@Ximum resultant unit shearing stress fls -ifs +(
exceeds the yield point shearing strength
Fs ( - Fty/2 for steel and dural). Hence the con-
dition for yield may be written
+ = 1.0 - - - - - - - - - (614])
Y.!i!::l. long !J:l.1!l tubes (L/D "40. D/t :> 50) fail
by local instability in torsion (as shown in Fig.
S, 69) and as Euler columns in compression. [equation
(6114il. The strength of such tubes in combined
torsion and compression has been very inadequately
eXplored. For such tubes. ignorance may well just
ify using the equation fs/Fst+ fe/Fcy _ 1.0 in spi
of its possible excessive conservatimn.
Short thin tubes of proportions comnarable to
those of a monocoque fuselage (L/D < 10. D/t > 200)
have recently been tested in torsion combined with
tension and compression with results of which Fig.
0175i5 typicA.l (from Ref. 17. p.6133). Note that
equation 01 410 shown by the upper broken line in
Fig.S;75. is approximately applicable to the tor-
sion-compression combinations. but not to the tor-
sion-tension combinations. A theoretical basis for
this relationship does not appear to have been
worked out yet.
8
.6
()
.2
.4
.6
,8
l.0
1.2
1.4
.i I fJF -:LJ. _. _ . .....:__ . ___ L I
.2 .4 .5 .8 1.021.2
I I
I

1
I ,;"
--.1
'-l
ft <>- I
F "It'-
= =-1=
1-.
. ,+-
I
--
; . I
Fig.6175. Strength of short thin tubes (D/t - 475
L/D = 2.8) in combined torSion. tension. and cam-
pression.
For combined bending .!l!l!! twisting of thin
tubes. it appears to be still necessary to the
equation f s/F st + f c/F cy = 1 beca1J.se of ignorance.
For thicker tubes. equationOl41may be used.
Wings such as that shown in Fig. 6 a 56 are common-
ly analysed as a unit box beam subjected to combined
bending and twisting. The effects of bending and
twisting are separately determined by locating a point
on each cross section thru which the 10aQ would have
to act in order to produce pure bending. This point
is known as the shear center (Seely. Advanced Mechan-
ics of Materials. p. 81). center 2! twist (Timoshenko.
Strength of Materials. Part I, p. elastic
(ACM Ob.) A general solution for-tfielo-
cation of the elastic axis of any section is compli-
cated. but it can be located with sufficient accuracy
for practical purposes for a specific wing by com-
parisons with the knONO elastic axis locations shown
in Fig.6176,617'7, and6a78. Fig.6a76 is essen-
tially equivalent to the spars of a multi spar wing,
the various values of I designating the moments of
inertia of the separate spars. For such a combina-
tion, the centroid of the of is ob-
viously the shear center. Box beams with two heavy
spars and a fairly light skin can sometimes conven-
iently be assumed to be equivalent to a pair of
channel sections (as shown by the dotted lines in
Fig.6a79) for elastic axis calculation. The two
I
Fig. 6.76 Elastic axis for several spars. (Ref. Tim-
oshenko)


x
J
't - h
o

e : 'b1 (
Seely)
e : b
2
h
2
t
-u;-
Fig. 6177 Elastic axis of channel section
Jf

axis
Fig. 6178 Elastic axis (.If angle section.
Fig. 6179 Approximate elastic axis of box beam.
formulas for elastic axis location given in Fig. 6177
yield substantially the same result. It is interest-
ing to notfl that the "centroid of ;noment of inertia"
6: 29
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
rule does not apply to the channel section, since
the shears in the two produce a counter-
clochr.ise moment about c in Fig. 61 '1'1. For the
angle section shown in Fig. 6178 the shear force
vectors for the two parts intersect in a point and
the elastic axis is at that point. For symmetrical
boxbeams such as Fig. 6155 or Fig. 6158 the elas-
tic axis is of course at the geometric center.
Fig. 6180 Measurement of elastic axis location
experimentally.
The elastic axis of a wing already built can
be measured in the manner indicated in Fig. 6180
by a,plying a pure torque to the wing and measure-
ing the motion of each section relative to the next
adjoininG section by sighting with a at
scales suspended from the front and rear of the
wing.
Viing beams are thus analysed for bending about
the principal axis x-x by "beam" components of the
normal force, bending about the axis z-z by "chord"
components, and for torsion by a torque equ:ll to
the product of the beam force and the distance be-
tween the center of pressure and the elastic axis.
It is customnI"J to add the unit shear stres"es due
to torque and chord forces in checking the stren5th
of the skin, though a safer and more nearly corr-
eCe solution would require calculation of secondary
:;tresses due to combined bending and torsion.
A summary of the foregoing formulas for stress
.:..nd strength is given on pp.A6bllO-A6ba12. It
is not customary to make calculations for rigidity
period and amplitude of vibration in airplane
design because of the labor involved in the calcu-
lations. In ,nany the labor of rigidity cal-
culations is worth while it pennits avoid-
ing an unsuccessful design.
Fig. 6181


71
Statically Indetenrrinate Truss.
6130 Statically IndeteMinate Trusses. A
truss which has ,nore than enough emembers to carry
its load and its shape is said to be
indeterminate. Such a truss is shown
in Fig.6aSl. Steel tube fuselage struct:.lI'es are
usually designed as statically deter.m-
inate trusses, but addition of extra members for
rigidity is commonly found desirable after the
btructure has been built. \'iire braced trusses such
as Fig. 61S 2 are statically indeterminate in the
usual case where the wires are rigged with initial.
tension. Such trusses constitute the lif
and drag trustling of bipl'mes.
Trusses such as Fig.6a82 are sometimes solved
by the following method, vlhich is knovm as the method
of least 'Irork.
Fig. 6182 Wire braced truss (statically indeter-
minate with initial tension in wires.
(1) Assume that one of the members such as b
is the redundant member, and that the force in it is
Fb
(2) Find the forces in the truss ac, Which is
called an "included statically determinate truss",
in terms of Fb
(3) Write an equation for the work done in
defoming each member. If F = force ,,= deforma-
tion, and U = work, the total work is U = Fa "a/2 +
and Fa and Fc are expressed in
terms of Fb from (2).
(4) Differentiate U with resoect to Fb and put
the derivative e(\ual to zero. Solve iu/ 'Fb = 0
for Fb' and substitute Fb in (2) to get Fa and Fc
For eXAmples of calculations by this method and
a recommended procedure for systematizing such cal-
culations, see Niles aod Newell, Pi). 324 to 343. See
'also T\ef. 10, p. 6132 for method of "virtual work".
>Iiire braced such as Fig. 6182 are
rigged so that the rigging load is 20 per
cent of the ultimate strength of the wire (CAR 04.
266). The structure can conveniently be solved by
assuming that the known rigging loads in the wires
are equivalent to known external loads at these
points, and then applying the method of least work
to the truss, that the wires will carry
loads as well as tension. The actual
resultant load in the wires is the algebraic sum of
the rigging and the least work loads. If the cal-
culnted resultant load is compressive, the member
of course drops out of action, and the truss solu-
tion should be repeated as a determinate truss omitt-
ing the member Which drops out.
It is interesting to note that an initial. ten-
sion in the wires results in an increase in rigidity
of the structure with no sacrifice of strength if
the members are not critical. The in-
crease jn rigidity (over the condition no ini-
tial ter,sion) results from the fact that both wires
deform when the load is apolied instead ofne hav-
ing one wire go slack.
6131 .QQll Estimates for Analysis. Re-
liable is not on this matter.
It has been custo!il'1r,r for n manufacturer to spend
1500 to 20CXl man-hours on the stress Malysis of a
bi:)l:me differing only in minor respects from one
previously analysed. For a monoplane of new design
it see:ns unlikely that an acceptable stress analysis
according to CAR 04 could be completed in less than
1000 milIl-hours by experienced men, and 3000 man-
hOllrs is a 'Jore probable figure. Stress analyses
are ccrnrnonly present ed RS blueprints from reverse-
carl>on t;)1)cwritten pages on thin paper, :md are sub-
divided for convenience into folders for the separate
items on wings, fuselage, landing gear, tail surfRces
:lfld contr-ol system. Seve:'al hundred pages of cal-
culations, sketches, and tables are requi:'ed
6: aJ
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
and 2 to 4 hours labor per completed page is a com-
mon figure. A man capable of directing the stress
analysis work is likely to be paid $2.00 per hour,
and his assistants may get an average of about $1.00
per hour in 1937. The total cost of a stress analy-
sis for a new airplane may thus r ~ from $1000 to
$5000. An itemized s t t ~ ~ e n t of a reasonable mini-
mum time for stress analysis of an airplane such as
that shown in Fig.llS follows:
Table 6,8 Time Estimates for
~ Analysis of Airplane.2! fig. liS
Wings
Control Surfaces
Control System
Landing Gear
Fuselage and Engine Mount
Fittings
Original Time
Revisions due to changes:
Total
250 man-hours
100
50
100
150
~
700 man-hours
1QQ
1400 man-hours
Both the original time and the revision time include
checking time, which is economical in the long run.
Revisions can usually not be avoided, because the
stress analysis must proceed concurrently with the
detail drawings, and inspection of the drawings will
usually show that changes are desirable even at the
cost of doing the stress analysis over again.
Fig. 6183 Engine nacelle structure with dimensions
and applied loads.
6132 Problems. 1. An engine nacelle has the
dimensions and applied loads shown in Fig. 6183.
Designating the load in each member by the capital
letters between which it lies ("BOi'I' s notation")
find the load carried by each member. (See Niles
and Newell, Sec. ed., Vol. I., P. 254 for solution.
2. Using the allowable stresses on p. A6bal
and the tube section properties on p. AS. 8, find
the ultimate tensile 108.d for a 3/4"-22 gage tube
of SAE 4130 steel, welded at the ends.
3. Using the allowable stress and E on ASb.1
(a) write Parabolic and Euler column formulas for
17ST dural tubes, and (b) find the ultimate load on
a 3/4"-18 gage dural tube 30" 'long.
4. A 2.5"-18 gage tube of SAE 4130 steel (air
cooled) is used as a landing gear member for an air
plane and is subjected to a bending moment of 10,
Ibs.-in. and a compressive load of 10,000 Ibs. Us-
ing the method of Art .61 24and the material proper-
ties on pA6b.1, line 2 find the margin of safety.
Assume L = 24" and effective pin-end length = 48".
5. Using the chart on p. AS121J. (a) find the
ultimate compressive load on a 3/4"-14 gage tube of
SAE 4130 steel 30" long, and (b) select a tube to
carry 5,000 Ibs. ultimate load if the length of the
tube is 25".
6. Using the chart on p.ASa2l select a
streamline steel tube to carry 6,000 hs. ultimate
load with a length of 7 ft.
7. A spruce cantilever wing beam carries
the limit load shown in Fig.6184 and has the maxi-
mum section area shown. (a) Using the chart on
p. A6b.5 find the effective yield point and modulus
of rupture of the material. (b) Assuming that
only half the web contributes to the section modu-
lus, find the maximum bending moment on the section
at yield and at rupture. (c) Find the margin of
safety against yield with the limit load. (d)
Using a factor of safety of 1.5, find the margin of
safety against rupture
8. Assuming that the beam in Prob. (7)
is tapered so that all sections are simi.lar and
that the depth d in inches is given by the equa-
tion d = 4" + Kx, where x is the distance from the
free end to any section, estimate the deflection
of the end of the beam under the action of the
specified applied load. Assume E = 1,300,000 lbs,
per sq. in. and deflection y = JMxdx/Er and in-
tegrate approximately by Simpson's rule (Consult
Poorman's Strength of Materials and E. H. Wood's
Textbook of Mechani.qs if necessary.)
J--- 15
f
.1--1
~ gIl f f f 1 f f ,f f f , 1
A 400 1be!ft.
Sec.
A-A
Fig. 6184 Wooden cantilever wing beam and cross
section.
9. For the beam of Prob. (7), the web con-
sists of two-ply birch plywood. Using the allow-
able shear stress given on .!,A6ba4
and calculating the actual stress under the design
load (F.S. = 1.5) by means of equation (6118)find
the margin of safety against failure of the web.
Refer to ANC-5 paragraph 2.220 and use C = 27"
10. A monocoque fuselage consists of 0.064"
dural (17 ST) sheet riveted to bulkheads spaced
2 ft.O" apart without longitudinal stringers. The
fuselage is cylindrical and 40" in diameter. (a)
Find the ultimate torque which can be 8]'plied to
the fuselage from equations(6: 34) and(:), 33)
(b) Using the allowable bending stress given on p.
A6b,l find the ultimate bending moment which can
be applied to the fuselage.
* assuming hinged edges.
6: 31
STRUCTURAL DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
11. A wing is made of 0.060" corrugated
dural sheet as shoml in Fig. 6,85. (a) From
the dL'1lensions of standard corrugations given on
p. A6b,,, calculate the section modulus (I/Y) of
the beam. (b) With bulkheads spaced 15" apart,
use the compressive strengths given on
p. A6ba'7 and calculate the ultimate bending
:norilent which can be applied to the wing. (c)
With a licit load "fl.ctor of 6 i<J:ld a factor of
safety of 1.5, find the maximum weight of airplane
for which this box section would be suitable root
section for a cantilever wing of 30 ft. span. (d)
Applying the formulas on pA6b.12for shearing
stress, and using the graph on p. A6bl9
for 'allowable shearing stress, find the
ultimate twisting JIIOment which can be applied to
the wing at the section shown.
I
10" I
.L_
Fig. 5185. Corrugate'd dural box beam for wing.
12. A !'1Onocoque fuselage consists of a 36"
di&lll6ter shell of 0.060" dural. The distance be
tween bulkheads is 24". (a) Find the ultimate
load in direct compression. (b) Find the ulti-
mate bending lIIOment. (c) Find the ultimate' twit'
ing moment.
13. An airplane wing has a box spar of the
root section shown in Fig. 6,86 .. All material
is 17 )'l'l'\. alloy, 0.020" thick with bulkhea9.8, 12"
apart.' a,ind the ultimate bending moment. (b,find the
ultimate twisting lIIOment.




Fie. 6,87 Fuselage bay of 12 tub-es and .i.2 el1'l.Ce
ires, 14.
14. A rdctangular fuselage section consists
of 1" tubes of SAE X-4l30 steel 0.035" thick
braced by square tie rods of nominal size 10-32,
( p.A6b.6 ) The wires are rigged to an initial
tension of one half their rated load. (a) Cal-
culate the rigging loads in all members. (b)
Calculate the maximum allowable bending moment
on the fuselage at this section, assuming pin
joints at all points. (See Fig.6a8S)
15. The framework shown in Fig. 6.88 con-
I!ists of 1"_20 gage tubes of SAE 4130 steel (air
cocled). Find the unit stress in member (b).
T
to"

Fig. 6.88 Statically Indetenni::late Truss, Prob. 1:5.
16. In the wire braced frame of Fig. 6.89
the wires a and b are rigged to a load of 680#
each before the 500# load is annlied . The wires
are standard tie rods (size A ; .155
2
.03 )
and the tubes are 11l(A = .106.) Find the force
in each member after the 500# load is applied.
roo #
1
12"
Fig. 6189 Vii,e bracpo truss, Problem 16.
6133 References.
1. E. H. Wood, Textbook of Uechanics.
2. A. P. Poorman, Stren/tth of Materials.
3. G. B. Upton, Materials of Construction.
4. S. Timoshenko, Strength of Materials (2 volb.)
5. A. S. Niles and J. S. Newell, Airplane. Structure.
6. A. Klemin, Airplane Stress Analysis.
7. H. B. Howard, Stresses in Aeroplane Structure.
8. E. E. Blount, Recent Aspects of Stresses Skin
Construction, ASME Trans. Oct. 1934.
9. L. H. Dormell, Stability of Thin Walled Tubes
Under Torsion. NACA Rept. 479
10. F. B. Seely, Advanced of
li. E. E. Sechler, Strength of Thill Structures
Beyond the Stability Limit, Aero. Trans.
Oct. 1933.
12. Th. Von Karman, Analysis of Some Typical Thin-
Walled Structures, ASUE Aero Trans., Oct. 1934.
13. ACrC No. 686, Strength of Chrome-Molybdenum
Tubing under Bending Due to Transverse Loading,
7-10-34.
14. ACrC No. 685. The Investigation of the Avail-
able en the Strength Properties
of Reinforced Skin Construction, 7-10-34.
15. L. H. Donnell, A the _Buckling of
Thin Cylinders under Axial COl'Jpression
6:32
16.
17.
20.
21.
22.
24.
25.
STRUCTURAL DESIG:-r CONSIDERATIONS
.i.!:l&. },;':lE Trans. r:ov. 1.93.'..
Lundquist. E. E., Strength Tests on Thin-
'.'ialled Duralumin Cylinders in Torsion.NACA TN
427.
Bridget, F. J Jerome, C. C., and Vosseler.
A. B Some New Experiments on Buckling of
Thin-:Vall Construction. ASME Trans. AugJ.934.
F. R. and Ryder, E. I. Stress Ratios.
Aviation, June, 1937.
Army-Navy-Cornmerce Committee on Aircraft Re-
quirements, Bulletin ANC - 5 (Govt. Printing
Office, Wash. D.C. 25i)
Loudy, F. E. Metal Airplane Structures. Wile
1938.
stang, Ramberg, and Taen, Torsion Testa of
Tubes. NACA Rept. 601, Feb. 1937.
Osgood, W. R. Qol,um h of Tubes Elasti-
Against Rotation at the Ends.
NACA Rept. 615, Sept. 1937
Roark, R. J., Formulas for Stress and strain.
McGraw-Hill. 1938. An excellent summary for
reference of aeronautical eneineers.
;:;ech1er, E. E. and Dunn, L. G., Air-olane ;:;tI'U.O-
tural and Desigr. Wiley 1942
BI'U.l-..n, E. Analysis and D':.:'lign of Airplane
StI'U.otures. John S. SWift Co. 1946
cosr AND PRODUCTION MEI'H:lDS AS FACTORS IN DESIGN
7,1. Cost end Value. An has velue because it
aics in satisfying a human cesire; its cost is determined
chiefly by the labor (direct and indirect) necessary to con-
struct it. Airplanes will be built and operated only when
the setisfaction obteined seems worth the necessary lsbor.
Many of the eerly eirplanes produced no satisfaction
except that achieved by the designer in leerning that he
could build a machine which would fly. In order for the
ebove statement to be appliceble to military eircreft, the
desire setisfied must be considered es the desire of
a nationol grouF for netionel defense; to gretify such e
desire, vast expenditures (of funds which represent essen-
tially men-hours of labor) must be defenoed by military
yielding, in the long run. a maximum defense
for a given expenditure. From 1932 to 1946 most of the
airplenes produced in the U. S., and most of the income of
the aeronautical industry, have been for military work
(see Fig. I,l).
Most modern commercial airplanes have value chiefly as
a means of trensportation, though e fair percentage of the
smaller planes are used only for student instruction, aerial
photography, and 'joy hopping'. The ideal airplane should
enable its passengers to go from one place to another quick-
ly, comfortably. safely, and cheaply. The airplane has been
able to comrete the railroads and bus lines largely
because it makes up in speed for its shortcomings in comfort
safety. ano expense. Such shortcomings should perhaps not
be discussed by the salesman, bl't the designer must be fully
cognizant of these facts: that unmuffled engines end high
speed propellers are intolerably noisy to many passengers;
that the air is often uncomfortebly bumpy at low altitudes,
and descent from high altitudes is very painful to the ear-
drums; that people get airsick more often than they get sea-
sick; end that the desire of many people to stay on the
ground is quite rational, for airplanes will probably always
be the most dangerous mode of public transportation (see
Fig. I.7, but note that great advances have been in
airline safety, end that in 1954 it is considerably safer to
fly on a scheduled airliner than to drive your own automo-
bile). To so design airp18nes that these objections will
be minimized with a minimum expense must be one of the aims
of the airplane designer.
7:2. Economics. The current economic system in which
we live. that of free private enterprise with more or less
governmental regulation, is the outgrowth of these simple
and obvious fundamental fects.,
(1) men require food to live; in temperate and arctic
climates. clott.ing and shelter are also necessary;
(2) each person could, thru his own labor. grow and
prepare his own food, grow and weave his own clothing, and
build his own shelter; but
(3) if three men agree to divide the labor and special-
ize. one producing food, another clothing, and the third
shelter, the seme products can be obtained with less labor;
(4) the effects of specialization and diVision of labor
are obtainable in a large group of people if each produces
he Can produce best and eXChanges part of his products
wi th others have he needs.
(5) Exchange (barter or trade) of services by means of
exchanging commodities is facilitated by the common adoption
of some COMmodity as a medium of exchange. Wheat ,cattle,
tobacco, gold, and silver have been so used. Silver and
gold have been the most widely used media of exchange. Gold
and silver have frequently been made into coins of known
weight and purity, the weight and purity being certified by
some well known person (e.g. Caesar. Pharaoh). Such coins
have been known as monev.
(6) When a durable" such as gold or silver,
is used for money, a large time delay in the exchange, which
constitutes "seving. is made possible. Saving is aCCom-
plished by selling the product of one's services at one time
end keeping the money so as to be able to buy services or
commodities at some other time. Since saving offers a hope
of security in case of illness. aCCident, or old age, the
desire to seve becomes dominant in foresighted people when
it is evident that the system of exchange is likely to con-
Ref. Adam Smith, Wealth of Nations.
711
tinue for some time. (Security requires future services in
exchange for present service.)
(7) The price of e commodity is its exchange value in
terms of the medium of exchange. With a fixed quantity of
money for exchange purposes, if everybody ssved money at the
same time, the shortage of money would cause a drop in
prices of and would stimUlate further saving.
If everybody tried to spend his savings at the same later
time, the prices of commodities would rise, and riSing
prices stimulate further spending. Thus the simplest mone-
tary system is unstable, if unregulated.
(8) Money may be kept by hiding it, or by renting 8
box a bank end keeping it in the box. Bankers are how-
ever. also:permitted to accept money from people ("savings
deposits<) and lend it to other people, paying a ST.all
percentage interest on the deposits and charging a lerger
percentage interest on the loans. Banks keep accounts of
the depositf' end loans. Borrowers fran banks do not u.sually
want money but simply credit on their accounts. against
which they can write checks. The bank is thus able to lend
more cre6it than it has money, and in practice the ratio of
credit to money. may run a8 high as 15 to 1.
(9) A money-credit system is more unstable than a
simple monetary system because larger expansions and con-
tractions are possible. Wide fluctuations in prices have
characterized the money-credit system of the U. S. in the
past, as shown in Fig. 7.1, 2. Instability of the money
or money-credit system makes same long time contrects im-
possible of in spite of the best intentions of
the participating parties.
(10) Wars end preparetions for wars (including con-
struction of military aircreft) are the principal ceuse of
general price rises. Drafting of men from the production
of civilian goods results in rises of prices of civilian
goods in accordance with supply end demand. Times of
peace are times of declining prices not only beceuse more
manpower is devoted to civil goods production but because
the development of an educatec populace results in more
efficient production. (Wheet purchasable by e day's
lebor has increased more than tenfold in the lest 100
years.)
(11) It would be possible to have a stable money-
credit system if the money depreciated in exchange value
as fast as the average of goods exchanged. Other simple
stabilizing devices are also possible. It is possible but
unlikely that s stable money-credit system which will per-
mit moderate savings will be adopted before the end of the
2Cth century A. D.

I
I
Wheat price Civil Wcrld ars
/jC0
$/Bushel War I II III
I
A
" " 1812
"I I
I
, I
"

",
f
/ \
I I ,. {
I
\ I I
' \ ,
I

1
V, \'
V
I
I ,
J[!O
2.00
"
,r
,
I
( \ 1
I
I
""
\ I \ I
1
I
V
!/I,I \ ),
J
\
'('

I
Yeer A. D.

50
1600 1700 1800 1900 1950 2000
Fig. 711,2. Recent history of prices in the U.S. end a
forecast for the near future. (Logarithmic dete scale of
years ago end ahead. with 1950 set at 50 on the scale. On
this scale, twice es long ago is twice as fer on the graph.)
cosrs AND PRODum'rON I'EI'!lJDS
7:2
(12) The labor necessary to make a complicated
such as an airplane fluctUates widely with the state of
social organization, as well as with the more primarily
economic factors, so that cost estimates in man-hours of
labor are only slightly more significant than cost esti-
mates in dollars, shillings, franca, marks, lira, rubles,
or yen.
The numerical values in the following discussion of
airplane costs in 1954 will therefore probably be obsolete
in 1960; the specific conclusions are immaterial. The met_
hod of approach to the study of economical design of air-
craft is believed to be useful and significant.
7:3. Cost as a Factor in resign. In the last analysis
all values except land values are labor values. A dollar
($) in 1954, regardless of its gold content, represents
about t man-hours of semi-skilled labor. Things have value
because labor has been required to produce them, and any
economic system is a means of exchanging See
wage data p. A7:l.
To state that flying is eJC]:'ensive is to state that
many hours of labor must be spent in building and servicing
airplanes for each hour spent in flring. The study of costs
is not a very exact science, since it involves chiefly a
study of the time required to perforw certain manual opera-
tions without e7cessive fatigue.
The cost of building an airplane or airplane part ia
commonly sub-divided into material, direct labor, and in-
direct labor (overhead). The material cost can also be
thus subdivided, and if the process is carried back to the
original iron ore or eluminum are, the original material
cost becomes negligible. Indirect labor, like labor in
producing raw materials, consists usually of labor expended
in building tools or factories or in organizing or planning
the direct labor. Adequate planning with a view to re-
ducing direct labor is possible only when more than one
airplane is produced, and in generel the cost per airplane
is less the more airplanes are produced {e.g. see Fig.7:3).
cost is achieved chiefly by skillful management of
direct labor and by desisning so that the necessary labor
for manufacturing is small (though skillful managers and
designers will usually claim most of the savings in labor
for their own efforts.)
on costs is seldom published; if costs are
known to a manufacturer, he usually considers this know-
ledge to be in the nature of a trade secret. For any
assumed type of construction, a manufacturer can plot
graphs of cost per unit against rate of production, 9S in
Fig. 7:3. Costs of vsrious servicing operations as deter-
mined by the U. S. Army Air Corps are given on pp. A7:3 to
A7:5, and servicing costs (men-hours) based on these data
are sometimes specified by airlines in writing specifica-
tions and contracts for airplane construction jobs.
For the specific design in hand, possible reductiona
in construction 13bor will be investigated, but such study
must be preceeded by a preliminary study of design loads,
aircraft materials, and principles of stress analysis.
Fig. 7:3 Cost of C-W Jr. and WiU?s as a
function of Weekly Production.
714. Automobile Travel Costs. The cost of transpor-
tation by airplane can be usefully studied by comparison
with the more familiar cost of automobile transportation.
Automobiles sometimes in 1954 at about $lO/day
plus 10 cents per mile (2 cents per passenger-mile for a
car with a full load of 5 passengers). Automobile owners
often calculate the cost of owning end operating their own
cars as 8 cents per mile to 15 cents per mile, depending
on how many miles are driven per year. Such a method of
calculating costs is misleading if used to decide whether
or not to make a particular trip by eutomobile, because the
cost of additionsl miles in s given year Is only the cost
of gas, oil, tires, and service (usually less than 3 cents/
mile for light sutomobiles), since the charges for license,
garage, if any, interest, obsolescence, and insurance, go
on .. hether the automobile is driven or not. The fact that
some of the costs ere a function of time and others are s
function of distance may be represented graphically as
shown in Fig. 7:4. The numerical values given in "ig. 7.4
represent approximately the cost in 1954 of owning and
operating a 1953 Ford, Chevrolet, or Plymouth automobile.
The annual time costs are assumed to bel
Obsolescence ($1400 to $1100)
License (varies state)
Interest, $1400 at 6%
Insurance (fire, theft, liability)
Tot 31 per year

36
84
80
$500
The distance costs, assuming only a small amount of city
traffic, and assuming normal cruising speeds of 45 mph
and 65 mph are estimated as:
Gasoline, 15 mi./gel. at 3et/gal.
011, $2.00 change/2000 miles
Tires, $80.00 set/20,000 miles
Repairs and service $10/1000 mi.
Total per mile
2.1/mi.
0.1
0.4
1.0
S5,
2.5
0.2
0.8
hl
5ot
These costs are perhaps less than the average, but
are possible with careful management and driving. The
dlstance-cost is of course greatly affected by the speed
of driving and number of starts snd stops. The power
required increases with the square or cube of the driving
speed "nd tire wear and repairs both increase with in-
creased speed. At 70 mph the gas mileage 1s llkely to
be 9 mi./gel. instead of 18, and both tire wear and repair
service costs are also approximately doubled. TO,
variation of dists.nce-cost with speed for a typical light
automobile is shown in Fig. 7:5.
1/ l'
!
Fig. 7.4. Cost in 1954 of
driving a
automobile, based on assump-
tions stated above.
I
t--+---i-:>"--t--L1
t-----+----t-+----+--i J
I
Speed ,
__
80 100
Fig. 7:5. Effect of
driving speed on distance
cost of a popular-make
automobile in 1954.
OOSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
7:3
The most economical driving speed is not
necessarily the speed of minimum distance cost (20
to 30 mph for most automobiles). It is usually not
possible to drive or ride in an autolOObile and be
otherwise gainfully occupied at the same time. A
desirable driving speed should take account of the
value (if any) of the passenger's time. If the
passenger I s time is of no value, the most economical
driving speed is zero; i.e. he has no economic need
to ride. If the cost of passenger's time is added
to the distance cost, a total cost is obtained,
which requires unusually high driving speeds for
best as shown in Fig, 7.6. Note that an
average skilled laborer, driving alone, should drive
40 to 50 mph if he can use his saved time productiv
ly; an executive whose time is valued at M.OO/hr.
should drive 80 mph if the car and the highway will
permit safe driving at such a speed.

Economicc.l I
Fig. 7.6 90 Driving Speed
Most ec- mph.! /
onomical 80 ! !.!o.x.speud --l-P''------I
driving of cc.r
speed for
light auto-
mobile.
Pussengers' Time,
30 EO'l 1 y Vc.lue
.50 1.00 2.00 5.00 10.00
7 as Travel Costs by Private Airplane. At the
present writing (1940) airplane travel in privately
owned airplanes as a means of transportation is
practically non-existent because of the expense and
danger: The few people who, through inheritance or
speculation or both, have sufficient money (= cornman
over labor) not to be worried about the expense (in
labor, in the last analysis), usually travel on
trains, buses, airlines, or private auto-
IOObiles in the interest of safety (see Fig. 111 re-
g&rding the danger of private flying) and conveni-
ence.
The cost of private flying is actually not
much greater per mile of travel than the cost of
operating a private automobile. An airplane can
be rented by a licensed pilot on a drive-it-yoursel!
basis for $ 8.00 per hour or 8 i / air-mlle, as
compared with $4.00 per hour or 10 / ground-mile
for an automobile (but the operator's license cost
may be $300 for the airplane as compared with $10
for the including the cost of instruc-
tion). For travel at a given speed, the airplane
travel cost may be less than the automobile travel
cost, and the most economical mode of travel depends
on the value of the passenger's time.
The principal cause of the present high cost of
flying is the high first cost of the airplane and
the attendant high annual costs of obsolescence,
interest, and insurance. There appears to be ex-
cellent possibility of substantial reduction in fly-
ing costs thru 'increased of airplanes
(and particularly airplane engines) and improved
JOOthods of manufacture, whereas automobile costs are
not capable of such spectacular reductions. Hence
comparisons of costs of private automobile and
airplane travel are likely to be much more favorable
for the airplane in the near future than they are at
present. The following estimate of airplane travel
costs should therefore be regarded as of only tempor-
ary significance except as to JOOthod.
The numerical values given in Fig. 7,7 represent
approximately the cost in 1937 of owning and opera-
ting a 1935 model 90 hp Monocoupe or similar air-
plane. The annual time cos1(s are assumed to be: ob-
solescence - ($1660 to $1260) = $400, interest -
($1660 at 6%) = $100, insurance, (fire, theft, liabil-
ity), = $100, hangar = $100. The distance costs at
100 mph are assumed to be: gas (14 mi./gal. at 2l
gal.) = 1.5 /mile, motor overhaul and service (5 top
overhauls at $10 and 1 general overhaul at $50 in 500
hrs.) z 0.2 ( / mile. The total cost as plotted (100
mph) is thus $700/year + 1.8 /mile. It is interest-
ing to note that a cost of 4 /mile is obtainable
with the airplane b'y flying 30,000 miles/year (at 100
mph); a cost of 4 /mile is obtainable with the auto-
mobile by driving 15,000 miles/year (at 60 mph). A
more careful and useful comparison will be made later.

$100
14 Year

101----_+_
6

1000 milesjyeo.r
o '
o 10 20 30 40 50
Fig. 7: 7. Total annual cost of opentiJ\g slMll
airplanein 1937. See,.7:13 fo.]:' actual figures
for 90hp Luscombe in 1948.
The effect of flying speed on cost is much the
same as the effect of driving speed on cost. A
portion of the total annual cost is independent of
speed or and this portion may be desig-
nated time-cost as before. The effect of speed on
distance-cost for both airplane and automobile is
shown in Fig. 7.8. The distance-cost of the air-
plane is reduced by reducing the cruising speed be-
cause of the reduced engine wear, but at very low
speeds the mechanical efficiency of the engine is
poor. At high speeds, the engine wear is rapid,
the engine requires frequent overhauls, and the fuel
consumption is high. The most economical flying
speed, like the most economical driving speed, is a
function of the value of the passengersl time. The
most economical flying speed for the airplane under
consideration is shown in Fig. 7: 9. Note that
two 50 /hr. skilled workers, if they fly a Mono-
coupe, should cruise at about 85 mph for best econ-
omy, whereas two $5.00/hr. executives, if they fly
a Monocoupe, should fly with the throttle wide open
for best economy if they are willing to take the in-
creased risk of engine failure and forced landing.
Perhaps they should use a faster (and more expensive)
airplane.
7:4
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
3.5
Distc.ncc-
3.0 cost,
i / mile
2.51---i---
2. () --+--+--+---+----
....... -

Speed, mph.
1. 0 ---'----'----......... --'----'
20 60 80 100 120
Fig. 718 Comparison of distance-cost of automobile
and airplane.
120
I
Mc.x.9
p
eed,/
Economicc.l
"
Flying
,,/
/
no
Speed
//
/
s-
100
/
L
/" Pnseengers' Time
$ Hourly Vc.lue
90
a3
.50 1.00 2.00 5.00 10.00
Fig. 7: 9. Most economical flying speed for small
a.irplane.
In order to determine whether an automobile or
an airplane is more economical for a given service,
two other major factors should be considered in add
tion to those discussed above. They are (a) (air
distance)/(highway distance) ratio, and (b) airwrt
inaccessibility. These factors depend largely on
the locality in which the traveling is done. (a)
In the eastern, north central, and west coast re-
gions of the U.S., where most flying is done the
ratio of air distance to highway distance is' usually
about 0.75. In the prairie regions, however, air
distances may be no shorter than highway distances.
(b) In most large cities of the U.S., airports are
about 30 minutes bus ride from the downtown section
where most passengers want to go. Many of the
smaller cities either have no airports or have air-
ports with dangerously rough landing surfaces. For
the average journey of a traveler, an
allowance of 20 minutes and 75 I taxi fare at each
end of the trip is necessary to make the airplane
travel costs comparable with railroad or bus travel
costs, and perhaps an additional allowance for taxi
fare on other business should be made in comparing
airplane and automobile travel costs. Another
factor, usually minor, which usually operates ad-
versely for the airplane is wind. An airplane flies
in a wind which is usually unfavorable, since side
or head winds usually occur 3/4 of the time. The
effects of head and tail winds can be considered
nearly to neutralize each other, but half the time
there will be a side wind of average velocity of
10 to 15 mph. With a cruising speed of about 100
mph, the effect of this wind is to increase the air
distance traveled by 1 or 2 per cent. The addition-
al air distance due to side winds is however
negligible compared with the' eaving of
distance due to airways being shorter than highways.
Weather is another major factor (if not the
major factor) affecting the economy of private:rly-
ing. Safety requires that you don It gz when :l2!!
canlt see, and that you keep out of thunderstorms.
In the east and north central U.S., fog or storms
are likely to cause postponement of about 1/4 of the
proposed trips in summer and 1/2 of them in winter.
The expense of postponed trips is difficult to esti-
mate in general, but is undoubtedly a major factor
preventing the development of private flying in the
eastern U.S. In the region of winter sunshine in the
U ,). from Texas to California, where weather usually
delays less than 10% of the proposed trips, private
flying has developed at a pace unequalled anywhere
else in the world.
The (air distance)/(highway distance) factor
usually offsets the airport inaccessibility factor
in comparing automobile and airplane travel, though
the former depends on the highway layout while the
latter deDends on the size of the cities. It is
convenient to make a comparison neglecting these two
factors (which partly offset each other), as well as
delay a comparison is made
T in Fig. 7 :10

1 C
8
7

5 1----I"-7',-:;;."9"-+"

t T:'me
3 r-----i
$ :-lourly Vc.l U
y
----I
.50 l.oe 5.00 10.00
Auto econornw speed, mph
40 50 65 :0
_. Airplane economy mph
c'.') 99 ioo l'lCi l?O
Fig. 7:10 Total cost per mile of travel in a
light automobile and equivalent small airplane.
Note that for 10,000 mi/year travel, only the
most highly paid people can afford to travel by
airplanes of present cost, but for 50,000 mi/year
travel, most travelers can save money by flying an
airplane instead of driving an automobile.
Substantial reductions in first cost of air-
planes will cause similar reductions in the mileage
and salary necessary to justify the use of a private
airplane.
7: 6 Transportation Costs on Airlines. l10st
of the foregoing arguments leading to the choice
between an automobile and an airplane as a means ot
private transportation are also involved in the choice
between buses, railroads, steamboats, airships, and
airplanes.
The expense of operating a typical airline in
France (1930) in francs per ton-km ot payload haa
been calculated by Breguet (ASME Aero. Trans. 1933).
Breguet I s figures on costs appear to bear no rela-
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
7:5
tion to the cost of running an airline in the U.S.
The French airlines are partly maintained by govern
ment subsidy which covers administrative and traffi
expenses classified as research in the U.S. The
French aeronautical workers appear moreover to be
paid unusually high wages compared with other clas
es of labor, so that Breguet's costs per passenger
mile run from 9 to 12 (at the 1930 value of the
franc in cents), as compared with actual passenger
fares of 3 to 6 per mile in the U.S. Breguet's
figures on airplane and engine durability are of
use however in making the following estimate of
expenses of operating a typical airline in the U.S.
The most comprehensive and accurate cost uata
on airline operation published to are those
of Mentzer and Nourse (Eef. 5 p. 7 : 8 , whose equa-
tions are summarized on pp. A7:5 and A7a6. The
assumptions invol veu in the outline below should
be considered significant only is to method. See
reference 5 for more reliable data on more modern
airplanes.
Consider an imaginary airline operating be-
tween Newark (N.J.) and Buffalo, using 8-passenger
Stinson trimetor airplanes and operating on a sched
ule of two trips daily each way. The airline
distance is about 320 miles and the winds may be
assumed to have the effect of reducing the average
cruising speed by 5 mph. The planes will be asSWJr-
ed to get an average of 5 paying passengers per
trip and carry a crew of 2 (pilot and copilot-
steward-radio operator). Ten per cent of the
scheduled flights will be assumed cancelled on
account of weather (See Fig. 7.11for actual aver-
age of cancellations in U.S.) The expected annual
income of the line (neglecting air mail or express
contracts, which have made the difference between
profits and losses on a number of airlines) must
thus eome from 5 passengers x 320 miles x 4 trips
/day x 365 x 0.9 days = 2,100,000 passenger-miles
of service. The probably maximum charge which can
be made and get the assumed patronage, because of
rail and bus competition, is about 5 / pass-mile,
so that the airline must operate on a budget of
about $100,000 a year. The probable actual expense
in the year 1935 are estimated below.
100 .--.---,----:---,
90
flown,
80 1--_""--_--1...._..-:._.-1
Spring Fall
Fig. 7111 Regularit
of air transport oper
ation. (Aviation
March 1932).
(a) Airplanes. If a single air-
plane were used for the service (repairs being
made at night) tnere would probably ocoasionally be
delays due to not having an airplane ready to fly,
and the line would lose patronage. Two airplanes
would be desirable (three in unlucky years). Three
airplanes of the type proposed could probably be
bought for $20,000 each. Each airplane would be
flown about 1000 hours/year. The usual assumption
of useful life of an airplane is 3,000 flying hours,
but careful inspection and service might increase
the life to 4, 500 or 6,000 hours. After 3 or 4 years
the airplanes are likely to be worthless thru ob-
solescence. A conservative assumption is that three
airplanes are purchased and completely depreciated
in 3 years; in case of severe accident the line
could provide good service with only 2 airplanes.
(b) Engines. The airplane cost estimate included
engines, but the useful life of the engines is
usually less than that of the airplane, depending
on the extent to which the engines are "pushed."
Typical variation of engine life with cruising Bhp
is shown in Fig. 7: 12 By "engine life" is meant
the time beyond which the repair costs are so large
as to make it more economical to buy a new engine.
For the particular airline under consideration, it
is proposed tentatively to cruise at about 70% Bhpm,
so that the engine life (Fig. 7 :12 will be about
2,000 hours as compared l'1ith 3,000 hours for the

2000
K
Engine
"
life,hrs
I
!
'"
--
BhPJn
"'-
I I
1000
50 60 70 80 90 100
Fig. 7: 12 Assumed effect of cruising power on en-
gine life.
airplane life. The three airplanes (9 engines)
will therefore require 9/2z5 extra engines during
their lifetime. The engines are 240 hp Lycomings
and will probably each cost about $5/hp or $1200.
Most airplane engines cost $lO/hp in the U.S.;
in the small sizes the high cost is necessitated
by small production; in the large (military)
sizes the high cost is due to including in the
overhead a large amount of development and research
expense. British, French, Italian, and Czecho-
Slovak (Walter) engines sell for $15 to $20 per
hp plus duty (30%) and freight; the high cost is
due chiefly to excessive overhead. Automobile
engines can be bought for less than $2/hp in small
lots, and less than $l/hp in quantity.
(c) Airports and hangars. Airlines receive an
indirect governmental subsidy through maintenance
of the airports by general taxation, but an airline
must usually either build its own hangars or rent
hangar, office, and shop space in hangars already
available at the terminals. A hangar suitable for
the headquarters of this airline can probably be
built for to $40,000 including office,
furniture, shop and equipment on which the annual
charges, including interest, insurance, repairs,
and 12 year amortization would amount to about 15%
or say $4500. The hangar at the other terminal
could probably be rented or financed for an equiva-
lent rental of $1500/year.
Personnel. A small airline of the sort here
contemplated could not profitably use a staff of
specialists such as is employed by the larger
airlines, and would either have to arrange for the
employment of a part-time staff or employ full
time men who could serve in various capacities.
Economical operation of the line obviously requires
that all employees perform necessary services in
7:6
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
all of their working hours. To assure the achieve-
ment of this goal requires a competent general
manager who would probably have to be paid at least
$6000 a Other necessary employees and the
approximate salaries necessary are: chief pilot
$5,000, 2 co-pilots at $3,000 each (also serving as
stewards), traffic manager, $3,000 (also serving as
ticket agent), chief mechanic $2,000 (also serving
as radio operator), 2 mechanics at $1500, secretary-
stenographer-accountant-clerk $2,000. The total
annual salary bill is thus $27,000 for the 9 em-
ployees.
There is considerable doubt as to how many em-
ployees are necessary, and still more doubt as to
what the salaries should be to get maximum service
per dollar of salary expense. As soon as an organ!
zation achieves financial stability, its employees
make strenuous efforts to have it operated primarily
for their benefit. Managers are harrassed also by
(1) their benefactors, (2) the needy, (3) politici
and (4) racketeers, most of whom want as much money
for as little service as the organization can stand,
and -few managers can resist all those urgent demands
for inefficiency. As an organization gets older
and larger it almost inevitably acquires parasites
("moss
lf
or "dead wood"), and only the most skillful
management can assure the continued functioning of
the organization. European airlines have been ob-
served by numerous travelers to support an inordi-
nate number of parasites and to give little service
at large expense. The above salary estimate of
$27,000 is believed to be a reasonable figure for
good management; it might be reduced 30% by ex-
ceptionally good management or increased 100% by
poor management. Operation costs are even less pre-
dictable than airplane construction costs.
The total annual expense of operating the hypo-
thetical airline may be sumnarized as in table 7 : 1
after the manner of Breguet.
Note in Table 7: 1 (1) that the proposed
airlift. aoe. 3 time. as much flying with half as
much management expentoe as the French airline, and
(2) that a fare of 5 t /mile ($16.00 one way, New
York to Buffalo) will yield a sJIlall profit with the
expected average traffic 5/8 capacity. The item5
of expense and income are represented graphically
in Fig. 7: 13 Note that if the 3 planes fly at
100% passenger capacity there is an excellent profit
in the business (about 100% on the airplane invest-
ment). With more than 3,300,000 passenger miles of
traffiC, another airplane must be purchased; the
steps in the expense line represent additions of
single airplanes to the equipment (with the necessary
hangar space and personnel).
The most significant items in the above study
for the airplane designer are (1) that the first
cost of the planes and engines determine about 30%
of the cost of travel (plar.es 20%, engines 10%,
but with more expensive engines the relative values
would be different), and (2) that, for flight
30
Income
and
Expense
$1000
2001----
__ __ __________ __
2 3 4 5 6 7
Fig. 7113 Incane
and expense as a
function of traffic
on a hypothetical
airline.
at the proposed speed and on the proposed schedule.
gas and oil represent about 1/3 of the total ex-
pense. The effect of cruising on the fare
which must be charged to avoid financial loss
on this hypothetical airline is shown in Fig. 7 :14
which shows also the total cost of travel (includ-
ing cost of passenger I s time) for passengers of
different earning capacities. The necessary fare
is less at lower speeds because both the gas con-
sumption and depreciation are less at low speeds.
For higher speeds, not only is the gas consumption
greater, but more powerful and expensive engines
must be used, and the airplane must be larger and
more expensive for a given pay load. Note that
for most people (time values loss than $2. per hour)
the most economical cruising speed is less than 100
mph" and a comparison with rail or bus travel would
probably show an economy by land travel. only
for a few very high salaried passengers do cruis-
ing speeds in excess of 150 mph appear economical.
The above study is believed to represent a typical
airline, but for any particular airline the results
may differ widely from the above.
Table 711 Operating Exppsesof Typical Airline.
Time-costs cost $/year
Breguet's Airline
Per Cent Per Cent
Airplanes -and extra engines ($66,000)
Obsolescence and depreciation
$22,000}
Interest (1st year)
4,000 27 34
Insurance (fire)
1,000
Hangar, office, shops; rent or equivalent 6,000 6
9
and clerical salaries
ll,ooo J
22
Distance-costs
27
Flying personnel salaries
11,000
}
10
Line service and Maintenance wages
5,000 12
Repair materials and tools
2,000 2
Gas and oil
38,000 38 13
Total $100,000 100 100
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS 7:7
,videly from the above.

12
111

- ::::=:t=(=b:::) ;:;'
8-
7
6

100
Fig. 7: 14, Effect of cruising speed on (a) fare
necessary to avoid loss, and (b) total cost to
passenger, incl. flight time cost.
An airline operator, from a study of the value
of the time of his customers or potential
can estimCl.te the cruising speed Cl.Dd passenger f'l.!'e
,\'hich wil} yield the maximur(: net retu:'n. cpe
ators and at present appear to be cater-
ing to the executive trade ("carriage trade" of the
nineties) with thE- expectation that a sufficiently
large of persons (though a very part
of the population) pay a high price for high
speed travel to make the line pay.
7 : 7 Air line Tr&.vel Cost as a Criterion for
Transport Plane]5;;igii':'A studys:G;ilar to the-
above may be made by the designer of a transport
airplane with a view to determining the most ecooon-
ical design of various parts of the airplane. A
fuselage, landing gear, or wing of low first cost
will be heavier and often have more drag
than a design of higher first cost. Added weight
either increases the necessary wing area for a
given landing speed or reduces the pay load, and
added drag either requires more power ( and operat-
ing cost) for a given speed or less speed
with a given power.
As an of a practical problem along
this line, jnvestiF:ate the economy of the retract-
able wheels of e Stinson airliner, as compared with
fixed cm-iled wheels similar to those shown in Fig.
10132 Assume the same hypotheticCl.l airline as in
Art. 7: 5 and assume thll.t careful estimates of
weight, drae, construction cost, and I'D:}'J"l service
cost yield the resulGfl given in Table7s2
Table 7:2
Cost Data for Selection Qf. Landing Gear Design
Retractable 7iheels with
wheels fixed cowl
Estimated Weight, lbs. 450 350
Estimated Min. lbs.
at 100 mph A2b-ll
(including drag of wing
area for constant landing
speed) 5 7
Estimated first cost (lq3l)
(including wing area for $600 $360
constant speed)
Estimated ann service $20/yr. $lO/yr.
cost
Airline time-cost charge-
$200/yr. $120/yr. able to landing gear
Airline distance-cost
chargeable to landing gear
i.2
2O
Ln:. $710Ln:.
Total cost chargeable to
$740/yr. $840/yr. landing gear
In TaLle 712 "he annual time-cost is 1/3 of the
fil"st cost (as for the complete airplane in Table 711
The distance-cost is the sum of the maintenance (ser-
vice) cost and the cost of gass and oil chargeable
to the drag of the lCl.Dding gear. The t.otal minimum
drag of the airplane is about 380 Ibs. at 100 mph, so
the nortion of the t38,000 fuel expense chargeable to
the retractable wheels is 5 x = $500.
Note that with the above assumptions, the fpel saving
due to the lower drag design more than offsets its
higher first cost, in this case the retractable
wheels effect a considerable economy in the operation
of the airline.
718 of Airplanes. Accura.te current
data on airplane production costs are difficult to
ebtain. The most authentic 1"ecent data are given in
Re1'erence 6. which is sunmarized in Table 7 : 3
7: 3 Labor and
Space Requirements for ProGuction from Ref. 6
based on orders of planes in lots of 100 to 300.
Airplanes only Total direct
labor, man-hrs.
Small commercial 1000
Primary- trainer 4000
Light bomber 14000
P',avy bomber 80000
..:ngines
Direct man-hrs.
per lb. air-
plane
1.3
3
.2
Direct man-hrs.
per hp.
Lbs. airplanes!
month per S:1. ft.
floor space
0.5
1. 5
horsepower/month
per sq. ft. floor
Capital invest-
ment per sq. ft.
floor space
$8 to
Total Cost

$5 to $6
$450
$10
3mall, commercial
space ______________
0.75 $15 to $25 $7
Large, military 1000
Effect of quantity lots of 100 $75000
lots of 500 $50000
Total costs to army
1.0
Airplanes $,5000 (PT) to (heavy bomber)
1nines to t6000
Furnishings and equii='ment ...,1000 to :50000
0.5 $15
costs S3/hp.
Turbo supercharger
Cost :'<nalyscs
50%, Eni;"i.1es 25j;, Furn.
&
7:8 COSTS AND PRODUGTION METHODS
7: 9. Problems.
1. Recalculate the conparison of costs by
private airplane and by private automobile (Fig.
7: 10 (a) taking account of the increased cost of
fife insurance for the airplat'1.e pilot, and (b)
assuming that the effect of delays due to weather
is to lose one whole day out of every five.
2. An airplane similar to that shown in Fig. laS i
intended to compete with light automobiles for
prlvate transportation. Assume that such an air-
plane is to be used by a business or professional
man whose working time usually nets him $2.oo/hr.
and that his interests are scattered over New Eng-
land and New York State, and require that he travel
50,000 miles per year. Assume that the airplane c
be purchased for $1200 new, and that other items
of expense are as in Art. 7: 4: (a) Find the speed
of most economical cruising (including the cost of
time spent in flying) in the airplane, and compare
the minimum total cost per mile of travel by this
airplane with the cost of traveling in a light aut
mobile. (b) Assume that a pair of streamlined
"pants" for the wheels of this airplane can be adde
for $50.00 including the necessary wing area to
keep landing speed constant, and that they increase
the servicing costs of the airplane by $5.00/year.
Assume that the addition of wheel pants decreases
the minimum equivalent flat plate area of the air-
plane by 6%. Find the effect of the addition of
the pants on the maximum speed of the airplane and
on the minimum total cost per mile of travel.
3. For an airline between New York and Los
Angeles it is proposed to run 1 trip daily each way
using Douglas DC-3 transport planes. See page A2:f. 6
for data on this airplane. Use data of Nourse and
Mentzer pp. A7. Sand A716 stating whatever other
assumptions are necessary, iinS the necessary pass-
enger fare per mile to avoid financial loss by the
airline (a) for a cruising speed of 180 mph, and
(b) for a cruising speed of 160 mph.
4. Fo'!" an airline b'etween New York and London
via Bermuda and the Azores it is orouo13ed to use
Sikorsky, 3-42 flying boats. See pp. A2f.6
for data on this airplane. data of Nourse and
Mentzer op. A7.Sand A7.6 Stating whatever other
assumptions are necessary, find the necessary pass-
enger fare (one way) for the trip (a) for a cruising
speed of 140 mph, and (b) for a cruising speed of
120 mph.
7,10 References On Costs
1. Breguet, Louis, Economics of Air Transport.
ASME Aero. Trans. 1933
2. Kleinhans, Schuyler. Some Economical Aspects
of Airplane Design. ASUE Aero. Trans. 1930
3. Trube, Carl E. Some Economic Features
Affecting Corrmercial Aviation. ASME Aero. Trans.
1928.
4. Upson, R. H. Some Fundamental Economics of
Aircraft Operation. ASJ.!E Aero. Trans. 1930.
5. Mentzer, W. C. and Nourse, Hal E. Some Econ-
omic Aspects of Transport Airplane Performance.
JAS, Apr. and May, 1940.
6. Fechet, Maj. Gen. J. E. Aircraft Production,
Aeronautics Vol. 2, No. 9 pp. 563-576, (National
Aeronautics Council, 37 W. 47th Street, New York
City) Covers an unusual surveyor unit costs or
military airplanes. - --
7. Nat.ional Bureau of Standal'"cls. Lett"r Circular
LC-520 April 12., 1938 Automobile Costs.
". Terry, C. W. ilnd Kellor!:, Paul. The Cost
of OwninG' and Operatine Sm.,>ll A.ircl"6it:
Aviation,. April pp. 34-35.
OOBrS AND PRODUOTION METHODS 7:9
WHAT IT TABU
TO MAKE
A 'OUID OF
ALUMINUM
..
UUXITE. The commonly used ore.
It is found in many countries. Oun
comes from Arkansas and Dutch
Guiana. Aluminum is present, not u
metal, hut in the form of complicated
cbem.icol compo11O<ia. All the follow-
ing raw materials are oecded to get
the aluminum out:
...... 1 III lilliE. Add water to
these, heat the solution and digest
the btzMxiu in it. Aluminum
pounda diuolve. Impurities are left
behind .. mud. From the filtered
oolution, lOmething called "'-i""",
b.:Jb"" is aepo.nIted. Heat the hydr."
to drive: out watcrf and you have
alumina, a white powder, chemically
labdled as aluminum oxide. It lOunda
limplc. but thil is really a vuy tech-
nica!, apcnaive proccoa.
eniUTE. Transluceot "lee-rock,"
found naturally ooIy in distant Green-
land, but alao made Iynthetlcally. To
get the actual metal out of the "'-'
the powder lint baa to he diaaolved in
beth of molten tt;JOIill.
U II I. l.tbo< is important in tvery
ooe of theae operations. Wages coo-
atitute the largest item in the coot of
making aluminum.
CUE. Til .. I PlTCI. Metallic
aluminum is made in a areel pot thickly
llned with whk:h contain. the
molten both of cryolite and diaaolved
alumina. Carbon bloclta are hung in
the both, and a heavy e1ectricol current
is passed from the bloclta through the
both to the lining of the pot. Thia
current chsngcl the oxide, .11161""', to
the metal, "'-_. Carbo.. hloch
and liningo are made from ...... , w
and pi"".
A. tot'" oj '"'" J-NI.r oj tb. j_
goi"l ",tlUrittl.! lIN rtf'IirtJ ,.
.,tt/u .,., po""" oj "'_i_.
BIll otlwr tbi_v an "f"tt/IJ ";141:
n EL. The procell of getting "'_i ..
from iNzMxik uses 22,000 cubic feet of
gas. or equivalent coal. for each ton
of 6na1 metal. Coal also U coosumed
in baking the carbon blocks used in
the reduction pots.
ELECTlICITY. Twelve kilowatt-
hours of electrical energy must br
generated to produce one pound Jf
aluminum. The energy needed for a
ton of aluminum would supply the
dectrical needs of the average home
for thirty-five yean. That is why w<
have invested millions in dams, reset
vain and power houses, througl
which, when running full, BoW!
enough water to supply tbe nCC'da ot
92 cities the size of New York.
TUU,UTATIIi. From mine to
refincry to reductioo plant our aluml-
num-in-the-maklng baa to be >hipped
and reshipped to locations ... he", all
theae raw rnateriaIa are best anilable.
Our transportation hill, just for getting
aluminum made, .... man: than
$5,000,000 lut year
III.UT. The wherewithal which de-
velops min .. , builda and equips the
necessary retinery and reductioo plants,
the dams, rescrvoira and power
must be available.
Fig. 7 t 151 Materials and processes used in the
manufacture of aluminum. From Aluminum Company
of America advertisement in the National Geographic
)(agazine.
All tbm ",., _did 10 MttIu nrgiII
"'-i __ , "'" oj tiH .. st dilfollit oj
iii/ &O",,,,,,.riaJ ",II-'.t 10 .xlr1 fNIIII
1UItIIN. WONIdJ"M""'" i",.gm.J ill
II I LL. Every step of the procca
mUit be supernaed and co-ordinated
by men who "know-how." Hundreds
of men in laboratoric:a must coatinual-
Iy check not only the raw materiaIJ but
every pound of mctaI produced.
,
7a11 Construction Methods. Metal airplane
parts are usually riveted, or to-
gether.
Bolts are used only at places where the members
must at times be taken apart because they are heavier
and more expensive than rivets. The only bolts which
may be used in a licensed airplane are those conform-
ing to AN specifications; sizes and prices of such bolts
are given in the catalogues of airplane supply dealers
(e.g. Nicholas-Beazley, Marshall, Mo.) AN standard
bolts are expensive compared with similar bolts purchas-
able as spare parts of autanobiles: For example, a 1/2"
x 3" bolt and castle nut list at 20; a Ford automobile
bolt of considerable greater strength can be bought for
lO without compromise of safety and with little weight
penalty.
All nuts should, of course, be cotter-pinned; the
risk of having nuts come off is unnecessary.
are at present the most widely used means
of joining metal members. For joints where the rivet
head- is not exposed to the air stream, round head rivets
Fig'1a18a) are commonly used. For exposed rivets,
. brazier heads (b) or dimpled joints (c) giving counter-
sunk heads are more often used. For joining plates to
steel tubes, the type of hollow rivet shov.n in Fig.7a18
(d) is used. Dural rivets are, as a rule, used in join-
ing dural members; steel rivets for steel members. One
of the most adequate and practical published presenta-
tions of riveting technique available is given by
the Cleveland Pneumatio Tool Company in their
Bulletin 86, pages 22 to 28 (issued in 1941).
Some of the prinoipal points oovered by this
disouuion arel
Type '"D'"
Alloy 17S
Heat treat
belor. usinq.
Minimum shear
30,000 Ibo.
per aquare inch
Type '"AD"'
Alloy AI7S
Do not
heat treat.
Minimum shear
25,000 Ibo.
por squ rue inch
T "'DD'"
AIioy 24S
Heat treat
belore wring.
Minimum shear
35,000 Ibo.
per square inch
rig. 7 z 16 Markings of Aluminum
Alloy Rivets
7:10
OOSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
1. Rivets are made principally of the three
alloys shown in Fig. 7116 , after anodized, it
so specified, to improve oorrosion resistance.
53 S-W or 53 S-T rivets are also used on bare
alolad.
2. Rard rivets 17S) should hot be used on
sott sheets, such as 3 8-0, but sott rivets may
be used on hard sheets if rivet stresses are not
too high.
3. Large rivets in thin plate fail by crushingJ
small rivets in thick plates fail by shear. Rivet
diameter should usually be from 1 to ;3 tillles the
thickness of the plate.
4. Rivet spacing should usually be more than ;3
times the and less than 24 times the thick-
ness of the sheet, tho for unusual arrangements to
special teste may show much wider spacing permissi-
ble.
5. Edge distance should be at least twice the
diameter of the rivet hole to avoid bulging the
plate.
Full strength is obtained only with accurately
aligned drilled or reamed holeel where lower
strength is permissible, hole, may be punched.
Ropper fed punch-end-rivet maohines and explosive
rivets oan greatly expedite riveting.
The cost of riveting is commonly estimated to
4 to 5 per rivet, including overhead, though the
rivets themselves can be bought for less than 0.2
per rivet. An all-metal airplane of 5,000 lbs,
gross weight may contain 100,000 rivets, and the
total cost of riveting on such an airplane would be
$4,000,000 to J5,000.OO. The direct labor and
material cost for rivets can probably not be re-
duced below 2 per rivet for dural rivets, drilled
and set by hand. A 2,000 lb. airplane such as that
shown in Figure 1 IS could obviously not be covered
with riveted dural sheet and still sell for less
than $1,000.00, since the direct labor and material
for riveting alone would cost about $800.00 (40,000
rivets at 2 each).
The cost of riveting can be reduced by
the use of riveting machines. The Thompson rivet
(Fig. 7117 can be set at the rate of 30 aminute
in previously drilled holes by means of the Thomp-
son rivet setting machine, and this machine is used
in certain simple sub-assemblies in current mili-
tary aircraft.
Riveting by means of a hopper-fed machine Which
also punches holes for the rivets is the current
practice at the Piper fact0\r in the production of
wing ribs See P. 7126 for sterophotograph of
machine in operation). This method is probably
cheaper and certainly produces stronger joints than
spot welding and has promise of widespread adoption
when it has been sufficiently tested on other parts
A large hopper-fed punch and rivet machine produced
by the Engineering and Research Compaqy for aircraf
use is shown See p. 7126
Fig. 7117 Thompson Rivet

, '\ '
'., . .'
;! I
(a) Iseman Rivet
(b) Goodrich "Rivnut"

(0) Heinkel Explosive
Rivet.
Fig. 7118 Types of rivets requiring no back-
.:.ng.
Several types of rivets are now which
",uire no "bucking up" from the back, and some of
these may prove to be less expensive than the conven-
tional rivets. Three types are shown in Rig. 7: 18
The Iseman rivet (a) is set with a drift pin, a simple
operation but requiring heavy plates for good results.
The Goodrich "Rivnut" (b) is set with a setting screw,
and must therefore be held from turning by a lug on the
rivet and a notch in the rivet hole. Both of these
types have the disadvantage that they'do not form water
or air-tight joints. The Heinkel explosive rivet (c)
(described in a Feb. 1938 issue of the British magazine
Aeroplane) avoids this difficulty but introduces another:
corrosion due to products of combustion--which is said
to have been overcome by experimenting with explosives.
In practice the rivet is "fired" by a hot iron held
against its head. This type of rivet may prove diffi-
cult to remove, but opens up such a vast field in
proved types of wing construction (e.g. Fig 8,29that
it is likely to be widely adopted.
welding (or resilltance welding) Jlas been suc-
cessfully used to replace riveting in stainless sheet
steel structures: typical structures are shown in Fig.
7t 20 7. 21 and 7.22 Spot welding has also been app-
lied successfully to dural sheets as described by D.
I. Bohn in the August 1934 issue of Aviation. Satis-
factory spot welds of dural require that the sheets be
pressed tight together while a large low-voltage cur-
rent of very short duration passes between them. Sat-
isfactory electrodes for applying the pressure and tran-
smittin the current are shown in Fig. 7119. Press-
ures of about 10 lbs. per thoUSl'ndth l
of an inch work very !d
well. The current used is about 30,
000 amperes and the voltage about 10
volts for a machioe with a throat of
18" or 15 volts for a machine with a if:::.
throat of 3 ft. The time interval-.-
must b, .,,=.toly 'Mtroll , t!me. e a
Fig. 7,19 Electrodes for spot welding. (From Bohn,
Aviation August 1934)
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
7:11
Fig. 7 J 20 Wing struct ure of stainlesti st eel fab-
ricated by electrical resistance welding, ('Shot
welding"). A.'Tlerican Corp. BB-l air-
pl.:mc. Photo fro.!! L' AerollautJgue .
....... 1'-' _r _ " _ .... ...", -t J

A '

Fig. 7 J 21 Details of shot ik;lded st,ainless steel
construction. A - Aileron spar. B - Rib. C- Rib
joint. D - LeRding edge of Below, spar fit
in:;. Photo from ASME Trans., E.J.W. Ragsdale.
Fig. 7.22 Fleetwings Airplane made entirely of
spot wel,cled stainless E:te"ll. Photo fro:;) Aero
M<J./ 11)8.
of 1 to 5 cycles of a 60 cycle/sec. supply have been
founG satisfactory; longer times will "burn" the plates
und cause the "spots" to pullout easily. Thyratron .
tubes have been used to control the current. Seam welds
tan also be made by using wheel electrodes instead of
pointed electrodes. inglarged phtotgraDhs of cross-
sections of such welds are shown in Fig. 7: 24- Proper-
ly made seam welds are nearly as strong as a row of
rivets; joint efficiencies of 40 to 50 percent are ob-
tainable, as compared 70 or 80 percent for well
designed riveted joints. Recent spot and seam welding
.jtiipment is shown in Fig. 7 J 24
The direct labor and materials required for resis-
tance welding are considerably less than.tbat required
for hand riveting, but the overhead (which includes
cost of welding equipment) is greater. Direct labor
and materials costs (including replacing of electrodes
after about every 100 spots) has been estimated by
Flader (ASME 5/34, Table 7a4below) as about O.l.:er
SDOt, but this fi.gure does not include alignment and
preliminary bolting of the sheets such as would be nec-
essary in actual construction and is probably not com-
parable with the cost of 2 per rivet pre-
viC"uslj given.
of the rivet points in a typical metal airplane
be reached electrodes of any spot welding
'Rchine yet contemplated, but ?robably of the rivets
'Juld be replaced by spot welds, and perhaps 95% if the
elding press and airplane were designed to work togeth-
r. For current designs, it is estimated that the dir-
ct riveting cost can be divided by 3 or 4 to get the
ost of a structure ?artly spot welded, but an invest-
. of about $3,000.00 (6,000 man-hours of semi-skilled
) in equipment is necessary to make such saVing,
no saving would result unless there were more than
5,000.00 worth of riveting to be done. Spot welding
osts should more properly be compared with costs by
chine riveting.
weldine (oxy-hydrogen or oxy-acetyline) and!t
are widely used to join steel tubes, steel plates,
sheets. Most airplane fuselages are made
gas welded steel tubes. A typical welded fuselage
details of typical joints are shown on p.7&12 as
in Fig. 7 J 23 The necessary techniyu.e lor iood
is described in an adequate and practical man-
r and Ward and by J .B. Johnson (Airplane
, Goodheart-Viillcox, Chicago, 1929). hard points
e fact the weld material is cast and the tube
al near the weld in annealed in the welding pro-
this explains why the allowable stresses near the
7:12 COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
weld is annealed in the welding process; this ex-
plains why the Allowable stresses near the weld are
reduced as on p.A6ba3 line of the table. Oxy-ace-
tylene welding equipment consisting of regulators,
hoses, torches, and goggles can be purchased for
about $60.00; tanks of oxygen and acetyline cont
ing enough gas for about 100 cluster tube welds can
be rented for about $20.00 from the Linde Air Pro-
ducts Corp. in most cities in the U.S. To do good
welding requirc$ a high degree of skill and welders
are likely to get considerably more than the aver-
age wage of semi-skilled labor.

fillet
Line of
fusion
T-tllbo Weld Sleeve Weld
All exterior fillets
are convave
Irterior
Cluster Weld
Fig. 7123 Steel tube welds.
! welded steel fuselage such as that shown in
Fig.ll: 3 could be built for about $550.00 in
material and direct labor (at 50/hr. in June 1937
not including fuselage jig, and not including the
seats and controls shown in Fig 11: 3. An outline
of the processes, with material and labor cost
mates, is given below.
Estimated Material and Direct Labor Costs
ill Steel Tube
Fig. 7 s 24 Photographs of spot and seam welds between
two 53-SW aluminwn alloy sheets, each 0.051" thick.
Enlarged 12 times. From D.I. Bohn, Aviation, August
1934.
Fig. 7125 Spot welding machine (above) and seam weld-
Material er (below) designed for use with alllminwn alloys.
Steel tubing, 250 Ibs. SAE 4130 at 30 $150 00 Throats are 42" and 24" respectively; used with elec-
Gas for welding, half of two tanks full, 20 00 tronic timers. Federal welder photographs from Aero
Direct Labor Digest of January 1938.
Cut tubes, 160 cuts with hack saw, 16 man-h 1
6
6.00
File ends to fit, 36 man-hrs. 3 .00
Insert and align nembers in jig,20 man-hrs. 20.00
Tack weld joints, 16 man-hrs. 16.00
Finish Yield joints, 40 man-hrs. 40.00
Remove fuselage from jig, and clean up,2
Total fuselage structure O.
The above time allowances are believed to be gen-
erous. A skillful welder helper would do the
job in less time but would probably not work for 50
hr. in 1941. Overhead, including rent and part of
cost of jig, tools, and welding equipment, would p
bably run from 100% to 300%, depending on the numbe
of fuselages produced, but with large numbers the
direct labor cost could also be less. Completed
fuselage structures of this size are sold by air-
plane companies for $300.00 to
COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS 7:15
c
I
I
I
I
I G
: Undcsirnble
I P:)er fnticuo
___ --J
I
I H
Undusirnble
Crushes under
s c.ce!' tube.
B
OK
D
F
Types G,H,I,J, and
K are \Uldersirable
and are not recom-
mended.
s c J
Stn ccr cr:-.cks Undcsirr.blc
!.ftcr crindinG. I Fn.tic.;uo crncks r\1; K
bond.
Fj 5' 7126 Desirable and Gypes of
bolted fittings for steel tubes. (Compiled from J.
B. Johnson, "Airplane V:elding" 1'\.S in Army Hand!:>ook.
Metal are commonly built of extruded dural
sections such as these shown on p.A5113 Typical
metal wing structures are shown Fig.8:3, to 8:13
Steel tubes have also been ".sed as spars as in Fig.8s8
and 8 , 13 Cantilever metal wings, in order to have
sufficient torsional rigidity are usually either cov-
ered with sheet dural (as in Figs. 8,7 and 8:11 or in-
clude sheet metal stiffening, preferably corruR8ted
durlU, under the fabric cover-.iJlg (as in Fig. 8.7 and
8:12. Note, however, that the Junkers JU-60 multi-
spar wing (Fig. 8: 8 and the Lorraine-Hanriot monospar
wing (Fig. 8:10 provide torsional rigidity by diagonal
bracing.
The dural or steel sheet and tubing for a metal
cantilever wing may cost little more than the spruce
and plywood for a wood cantilever but
methods of met?l wing construction usually make ',he
completed metal wing cost more. An all-dural riveted
cantilever wing may cost 3 times as much as the equiv-
alent wood wing (say $1200 for material and <11 rect
labor for a wing of the size analyzed on p6116as com-
pared with $400.00 for the wood cantilever wing); a
large nart of the additional cost is the riveting of
the .Sheet covering. A fabric covered metal wing
with COrl 19ated dural torsional bracing similar to the
Nicholas-l:leazly wing (Fig. 8:12) can probably be built
for less cost than a plywood-covered wood wing but
sufficient information for a detailed cost estimate is
not aVcd_laLle at present.


'!r'- ,'. ". .:. ""'--"-
, /
/
, / IIN\URAMc. rz.oo7i
au
] /
o 10000
UTlUZATlON - Mila f'" YeAt'
Fig. 7:27. Cost data of Eugene. Norris for
a gO hp Luscombe airplane in 1948 (note inter-
est at about 3% on i3000 might reasonably
have been also included adding igO fixed cost)
Courtesy 2, 1949. Agree-
ment lrl'th estirmtes ln FIg. 7:7 is poor
because most costs m va more than doubled in
the inter vel from 193'7 to 1948.
7:14 COSTS AND PRODUCTION METHODS
7 &12 Productions Methods The customary metroo.
of purehasing airplanes, by commercial airlines
as well as by military authorities, is to order
first an experimental airplane; if tests show
it to be satisfactory, a production order of 10
to 100 airplanes is entered. Herman has pointed
out (Ref. 2, p. '7 &18 that the details of the
production job may only faintly resemble these
of the experimental plane, as the most economical
production methods for a single plane are differ-
ent from those in which a substantial number are
to be produced.
7: 13 Engineering Department Organization.
An appreciable amount of detail design has
ally been involved in the preliminary design and
stress analysis of an airplane, and as the de-
tail design proceeds, it is usually necessary
to revise the stress analysis and layout. A
drawing revised to correspond to the completed
detail drawings is usually spoken of as assembly
drawing.
In order to turn out an airplane in a reason-
ably short time, it is usually necessnry for
a large number of men to work on the drawings
and calculations at the same time. This has
been done effectively with an organization such
as that sketched in Fig. 7: 27 In smaller organi-
zations, one man serves in various capacities.
In larger organizations, there are frequently
several layout men, including one for fuel systemb,
one for power plants, one for electrical systems,
etc. The detailers get dimensions from the lay-
out men and consult the layout men regarding
necessary changes; the layout man keeps the lay-
out consistent with the details as the detail de-
sign progresses. Weight and balance as well as
stress analysis calculations proceed concurrently
with the detailing.
OrqaniZCltion chart of etlqinHrinq department. ahowmq dlTialoa. of retpOnllhWtin.
Fig. 7: 27 Typical organization chart for engineering
department of airDlane company. A V IA T I 0 II
From Ref. b p. 7: 18 1_.11_
7:14 !/.anufacturing Methods Factor
Even for with wooden wing
spars most of the smaller parts are JT.ade of
metal: The more highly stressed fittings are
nearly always made of steel; dural is often
economical for larger parts such as ribs and
fairings. In general, the essential processes
in producing and installing a fitting are (a)
forming- the fitting, and (b) joining it to ad-
jacent members. The use of bolts, rivets,. and
weldin,g in joints has been discussed prevl.ous1
The economics
of production in fittings is considered here.
The principal methods of manufacture of
steel fittings are (a) cold working of cut sheet
metal, (b) forging and machining, (c) welding
sheets and tubes into an assembly and machining,
and Cd) casting and machining. For dural
the same methods may be used, though welding is
at present used very little, the principal use
of welded dural being for fuel and oil tanks.
Tools are necessary to perform these operations,
and jigs are necessary to hold the menbers
while the operations are beir.g performed. In-
formation of the sort shown in Table 7: 5 is
necessary for a rational choice between methods
of manufacture. Table 7:5 is necessarily in-
complete and inaccurate because of the variability
of costs of heavy machinery. In times of unusual
business activity (e.g. 1927-29), cost estimates
involving the use of ex:pensive tools must usually
be based on the assumption that tools are purchased
in depression times (e.g. 1930-34), machinery
which would otherwise be idJ?e can be rented or
purchased at small cost. Even within a given
factory, there is usually considerable doubt as
to how much expense is chargeable to the operation
of a particular machine. The management usually
prefers to payoff the cost of the machine and
the factory space it occupies out of production
orders; the cost engineer (or person of equivalent
function, such as general manager, superintendent,
chief designer, or engineering shop contact man)
is, however frequently confronted with the necessi-
ty of a different method of accounting. His sit-
uetlon is Malagous to that of a man who owns an
automobile. If he includes time-costs, he will
usually find it uneconomical to drive; actually
the time-costs go on anyway and figuring only
distance-costs makes it usually more economical
to drive.
The only reasonable way of handling the
time-costs is to charge them to the entire airplane
rather than to a particular part. Thus the cost
of running an airplane factory, like the cost of
running an automobile, lJ'ay be written
Factory cost=$ C
l
x (airplanes produced)
+ $ C
2
/year
Factory cost per airplane = $ Cl + $ C2/(a1r-
planes per year)
The cost C depends on the total number at &ir-
planes proAuced but not on the time required to
produce them (this statement defines C
l
); for a
factory capable of turning out 100 smaIl airplanes
per year the factory cost per airplane might be,
for example, $1000 per airplane + $20,000 per year
or a total of $1200 per airplane. Increasing the
factory size and equipment to turn out 1000 air';'.
planes per year might change the to $800
airplane + per year, or a total cost of
$900 per airplane.
Useful data similar to Table 7.5 can be
prepared for a particular project, but the task of
preparing useful general data and keeping it up
to date would probably require the full time
services of a larger staff of men than the present
state of development of the industry warrants. In
matters of this sort, it is particularly appropriate
to define an engineer "as a man who can guess
right 7 times out of 10 with insufficient data."
cosrs k'm PRODUCTION MEI'OODS
Table 7.5
Approximate Tool end Jig Costs for Production of Metal Parts
For Airplanes in 1954.
Operation Tool Description

Strai5ht

1. F.ack saw; vise
2. Power saw
3
Hand Shear
4. Power Shear
Curved 1. Nibbling mechine
2. Bank saw
1. Punch toress


1. Drawing bench
2. Bending tool
Circular Section 1. Spiilning lathe
2. Punch press


1. liamner and anvil
2. Bumping machine
'0
Hane press
1;. Power press(5 hpj
S. Droto hammer
\,'ORKING
Uniform Section 1. Falling mill
2. Extruding die
Irregular shape 1. "'elded assembly
2. Forging
.,
Sand casting
4: Die c8stin."
..A.Cf:"!:;r"G
Circular Section 1. Drill press
2. TurninG lathe
".
Grinder
Flat Surfaces 1. Milling m8chine
2. Shaper
3
Grinaer surface
JOTh'TS
Tubes 1. Drill and rivet
2. Gas ' .. eld
Sheet 1. l)rill. hand rive
2. Funch, IDachine

3. Spot weld
The set-up costs given in Table 7:5 are of course
only qUAlitative; quantitative estimates can however, be
in connection ,,,ith the problem of producing any par-
ticular part in a particular factory. Unit operating costs
ere given only in cases where the same result can be ob-
tained with various machines; only the relative magnitudes
of the operating cost figures are significant; the absolute
magnitudes are the cost of producing a small
sheet metal fitting.
For small airrlene factories an uncertain number
of prosrective sales, it is fr"quentlr more economical to
have fittings made to order by other factories which already
have equipment for the economicsl prodUction of small metal
parts. One of the tasks of the production engineer, of
wbich the designer must be fully cognizant, is that of
making cost estimates to determine whether it is more
economical to order the fittings m.ade by some other manu-
facturer or to install suitable machinery for making them
himself. Even Ford does not make all his own parts.
lS"t cos, :,e,-up "n1, Vl'e.-,,-
of- tool Cost tion Cost
$ 400. !hall $0.20
40.00 !hal1 .10
100.00 !hall .04
400.00 .02
2000.00 !hall .20
600.00 !hell .06
1600.00 Large .02
1000.00 Large
---
10C.eO .5i:rall
---
3000.0e &1all 1.00
1600.00 Large .10
40.00 &!all 2.00
1600.00 .small 1.00
300. 00 Large .10
160c.oo Large .02
1000.00 Medium .04
200C.OO Large
---
2000.00 Large
---
200.00 !hall 4.00
1000.00 Large .20
00 Medium 2.00
200.00 Large 1.00
1000.00 !hall
---
3000.00 !hall
---
1000.00 Small
---
6000.00 Small
---
3000.00 Small
---
600o.oc !hall
---
200.00 !hall 4.00
200.CO !hall 2.00
200.00 Large .10
1600.00 Smell .004
400.00 .:tnall .006
7115
CHAPTER 8
WING DESIGN
8:1
8,1 Criteria for Wing Design. Various
studies or wing design have been published, with
varied oonolusions depending upon what was assume
as the basis for design. It is generally reoog-
nized that loll' drag, light weight, low oonstruc-
tion cost, and low upkeep are desirable, but
opinions differ as to the relative importance of
these items, just as people differ in the kind of
airplane they want. A criterion which involves
only weight and drag, such as that of Upson (Ref.
2. p .8116), has the advantage of yielding as
solution a definite best design. but the handi-
cap of not corresponding to what many people want
in an airplane. Methods of combining weight and
drag to express various desires quantitatively ar
suggested by the author in Ref. 5. Ackr>owledging
the validity of criticisms of this proceedure by
I. M. Laddon and others, it is here proposed
that cost be oonsidered as a major criterion for
it is proposed that the
wing of a transport airplane be so designed
that the cost of travel the airplane will be
a min:iJllum. It is believed that this criterion
will more nearly fulfill most air"lane specifi-
cations than any other criterion, Since, as
pOinted out in Chap. VII; costs vary widely from
time to time and place .. 0 place, it follows
that the best design of wing for a given airplane
specification is also variable, and that. anyone
of a number of widely varying designs may be
nearly as good as the best. In other words, it
doesn't make much difference what the shape of
a wing is. as long as it has sufficient span to
meet the speoified olimb. Anything that looks
like a wing will fly nearly as well as the best
wing. Essentially the same conclusion has been
reached by Weick regarding propellers. For loll'
landing speed, C should be high, and this
dictates a thiokhftJ ratio between S and 18 per
cent at the mean ohord. For
low drag the wing should be thin (see p. A2a:
:18). but for low weight. the wing should be
thick if it ia a cantilever wing. A compromise
thiclmess of 12 to 14 per cent. with a taper in
plan form and thiclmess ratio dictated by manu-
facturing oonvenience. will give a wing nearly
as good as the best. The cost criterion yields
the above conclusions regarding design of tapere
cantilever wings from the data which follows in
the manner outlined in Art. 8, 6
8 J 2. Cantilever Wing Construction. Canti-
lever wings are at present made almost exclusive
1-1" of though it is pointed out in Cha.p. 6
P.6: 16) that for a given safe
load, the construction cost of wood wings is
considerably less. Manufacturers who supply
with both types of wings often quote
prices for wood wings of less than half the price
for equivalent metal wings. For use in Arctic
regions, wood wings are preferred bece'.'lse they
are less troubled by ice formation. and in
desert regions wood wings are exceptionally
strong. For airplanes used exclusively in such
regions, metal wings as at present manufactured
cannot 90mpete with wood. Profitable production
of airplanes requires, however. a large market;
a manufacturing venture which cut Florida and
South America from its potential market might
find its production so small that the wood-
winged airplanes cost more than the metal.
Photographs showing the structure of
typical metal cantilever wings are shown in Figs.
813, to 8113. In each of these wings the
bending moment is resisted by 1 or more spars or
stringers (or a oorrugated sheet metal equivalent);
the twisting moment on the wings is resisted by
shear stress in a sheet metal skin in all wings
except the Junkers (Fig.8,S) which use diagonal
steel tubes. A braced sheet metal skin is also
usUally found desirable for the leading. edge of
the wing, to resist heavy loads in the diving
condition. Metal skin often covers also the rear
portion of the wing, but recent studies (e.g. Ref.
3,P.Ss16) indicate that this is inefficient and
the trend: is toward fabric covered trailin .. edges,
as on the Sikorsky S-L.2 (Fig. 8,21) p. 8: 10)
A type of wing developed by the U. S. Army material
Division is photographed unccwered in Fig. 8111
p. 81 3. A similar wing is used by Nicholas-
Beazley on their NB-4 airplane. A sketch showing
its essential elements is given in Fig.8: 1. In
this wing. the skin is stiffened by corrugated
dural. Stiffeners such as are shown in Fig. 5: 57
are probably lighter but IlIltre expensive to con-
struct. For marine use, of these stiffeners
acceptable because of the possibility of hidden
corrosion; and the less efficient z-bar stiffen-
ers must be substituted as in Fig.51 56, 'flith
heavier angles than shown above, the wing might
be regarded as a modified fom of two-spar wing,
with skin to take the torque.
Bulkheads are usually designed primarily
for rigidity in the x-z plane, to assure twist-
ing of the wing as in Fig,8:2(b) instead of as
in Fig.81Z' a' . With a "stressed skin" type wing
such as that "nown in Fi
e
8: 15, flexibility of
the bulkheads in the x-y plane results in bulk-
head deflections as shown in FigS s 14and a It sh ear
lag" of bending stress from the spars toward
the middle. and a low "effective moment of in-
ertia" (or low II/orm factor
ll
) for the wing
section in bending. This effeot oan be reauced
by makd.ng the bulkheads more rigid, as shown in
Fig oS .15 tor made unimportant by grouping the
stiffeners more closely around the spars as
shown in Fig8:15. Blount suggests (JAS Oct. 1934)
that it may be desir-
able to replace
thicker dural
members
by a
high grade
of stainless steel,
Fig. 8: 1 Essential elements of sheet metal wing. using both m'l.terials in the
Solid lines from Blount. JAS Oct. 1934 show main wing.
structure. Sheet dural skin, stiffened with corrugated dura.l.
This is still (1949) exoellent oonstruotion. See
p. 8:16 for Boeing Stratooruiser wing like this.
8:2
r x

.. - "'"
'.
,
"

(a)
Flexible
Bulkheads
(b)
Ri3id
Bulkheads
WING DESIGN
Fig. 812 Effeot of flexibility of bulkheads in
x-z plane.
Fig. 815. Lower wing of Hall XP2H-l
experimental airplane with lower surfaoe fabrio
removed. Photo from "Aviation''.
Fig. 8: 3. ':'ling structure, Sikorsky 5-42.
truss diagonals of spar and ribs are of formed
17-5 sheet forward of rear spar. Photo from
S!'''l!' flanges are extruded dural channels;
c.1..r3.1 sheet. All members riveted. Courtesy or
"Aviation".
Fig. 8 :6. Typical wing structure with wooden
spars. Wing of Waco 10 airplane. Photo from
"Waoo".
Fig. 8:4:. Main wing fitting for Hall
multitubular dural spars. Note single rivet thru
truss joints. Photo from "Aviation".
Fig. 8: 7 wing struct ure of Boeing 247 airplane.
Photo from "Aero Digest".
WING DESIGN
Fig. 8s8 Jtmkers tubular steel wing structure
with riveted fittings. Photo from Bader,
Leichtflugzengbau.
Fig. 8.11 u.s. Army Air Corps Material Division
wing structure. Photo from ASME Transactions.
Fig. 8s 9 Wing structure of Ercoupe. J.iC'nospar wing is braced torsionally
by diagonal bulkheads. Ribs are ommited. Sketch from "Aviation" Nov. 1940.
Wing weight 1 Ib./sq. ft.; wing loading 7.8 Ibs./sq. ft., span )0 ft.
Thickness ratio _ 13 %.
Fig.8&10. Wing structure of the Lorraine-Hanriot 130\ low wing monoplane. This may be re-
garded as essentially a monos par wing, with special t.orque bracing. Photo
from "L'Aeronautique".
8:5
8:4
Fig.8.12- wing structure of Nicholas-Beazley
NB-4 airplane. Spars and wing upper surface are
corrugated dural. Ribs are stamped dural. Wing
weight _ 1.28 Ibs./sq.ft. Load factor - 6.9.
Photo from manufacturers' advertising.
Fig 8113. Under side of Nicholas-Beazley NB-4
wing showing steel tube and wire drag truss and
tapered U-section lower flange.
x
Fig.8 114. Deflection of Upper Edges of .1'lexible
bulkheads when wing is bent upwards.
WING DESIGN
I
I
I
LL.---
t ___ .J

I
Fig.8 1150 Bulkhead rigid in x-y plane to
avoid shear lag.
Fig. 8.16 De sirable stiffener distribution
with flexible bulkheads.
8:3. Weight of Metal let it be
assumed that a wing constructed as in Fig.811 has
to support a given gross weight \'I with a given de-
sign load factor nl and that the three dimensions
of the wing (span, chord, and thickness) can be
varied independently. The approximate distribu-
tion of wing weight among the various items of the
construction is shown in TableS ,I Jas well as the
estimated exponent (e) of variation of its weight
with each of the independent variables. Thus the
first line of figures in that it
is estimated that the spar flange weight (here the
corrugated and flat shil,et dural and angles which
connect to the spar webs) varies as the 0.7 power
of the design load, the J.m power of the span, the
0.3 power of the chord, and the -1.5:> power of the
thickness. The columns headed pe permit calculat-
ing the estimated variation of total wing weight.
The at the bottom of the table give as
an approximate formula for wing weight.
W k (nIW)0.53 b
l

06
c
O
.53 t-O.
ll
wing" 1
or the wing weight per sq. ft. is:
k ( )
0.53
w m 2 _n'W_ b
cO.47 t
o

ll
For wings of approximately the same thickness ratio
tic, this becomes
11' _ k3 (n'lV20. 53 bO.0
6
---------{ BIll
cO.
58
For a fairly narrow range of aspect ratios, blc does
not vary much and
----{SI2)
This is Driggs' equation for wing weight, and is
plotted in Fig. 2:7p. AS:4 An independ6nt estimate
made some time ago gave w = k6 (n'W;c) but this
does not seem to be as well verified by experimental
points as Driggs I equation!" An empirical study of
biplane wings by E. P. \'lamer (Aviation Handbook
p. 453), yielded the equation
* See p A5: 2 for with more recent
studies.
WING DESIGN 8:5
which agrees with equation (8 11) as well aa
the above is given by upson (JAS Oct. 1934), but tlB
added refinement is not believed when
wing drag is considered as a factor in the cost ot
air travel.
could be expected in view of the fact that it The drag of a wing, from equations (8,3 )to
is for a dirferent type of wing. A IIIOre (8,5) and the drag coefficient defini tiC'14
ful atudy of the weight variation of cantUever
wings of a particular type would permit de- D CD ! sv2
termining a more accurate equation for that !>....2
particular type than any of the above. A re- D .. (or D _ .00256 CoSv- in std. air at sea
finement the above method is presented inr-::T:""a'!""blet--...,
Ref. 6. Win We
level) is .00256 S v2.
EL ee of Independent Variations of Design Load (n'W) Span (b) Mean Chord (c)
and Mean thickness (t) on Wing Weight (W ) of Tapered'Yetal Cantilever ,
Constructed as in Fig. B 11. 1r
Per Cent or VariaUPn !1! 11' W'1ttl.:
Part tot.wt. Loacf Span Chord Thickness
Name epee pe e pe e pe
Spar flange
or equivalent
Shear truss
or equivalent
Bulkheads
L.E. structure
and skin
T.E. structUl!l
Joints and
fittings
T.E. fabric
and paint
33
20
7
10
10
10
aHover 10
100
As an example of use of equation( I
+0.7
+0.7
+0.5
+0.5
+0.5
+0.3
o
53
and Fig.A5t7, consider an airplane similar
to that of Fig. for which the gross
weight is W 2300 Ibs. The minimUlll .limit
load factor (positive HAA) is n 4., the de-
sign load factor is n' 1.5 x 4 6., and
n'W. 6.0 x 2300 .. 13,800 lbs., the mean chord
is c l88j3e 4.95 ft., and (n'W/c) 2800.
In Fig.A5:7, for n'WjlOOO c 2.8, read on
the graph for Driggs' equation W 1.65 lbs.j
sq.ft.; hence the total wing weight is approx-
imately 1.65 x 188 310 lbs. without flaps,
and with conventional ailerons.
8,4 Drag of Cantilever It has
been pointed outin TA (p. 131 that the
drag coefficient of a mng may be expressed
with sufficient accuracy for all practioal
purposes by the equation
CD C
Dv
+ K C
L
2
.( 8 t 3)
where env is chiefly a function of the thick-
ness ratiO (tjc) and max. camber of the median
line as given by equation
c
CDv' 0.0055 + 0.028 (1 +
c c
or for C
nv
0.0065 + 0.028 tjc .(814J
c
(Ref. p. A2aS1BJand the induced drag coeffi-
Cient K is function of the aspect
ratiO, but also a function of the thickness and
'Olan tOJ.'lll shape as shown by p. A2a.lS
For wings of thickness ratios between 10
and 18 per cent and plan form taper ratiOS be-
tween and 3:1, K is expressible with suf-
ficient accuracy by the equation
K 0.004 + ljd::::l.08/l'A /8'5J
where A is the aspect ratio of the wing.
A study of considerably greater accuravy than
23
14
3
5
5
3
o
1.5 50 0.3 10
-1.5 -50
0.8 16 0 0 +1.5 +30
0.8 16 1.0 7 +0.3 + 2
0.8 8 1.3 13 +O.!: .. 5
0.8 8 1.3 13 +0.2 + 2
0.8 8 0 0 0 0
o
c
D 16.7 be + 71.5 bt ... 880 C
L
2
0
2
vz roo roe-
or the drag at 100 mph is
D
IOO
- 0.17 be + 0.72 bt + S.S 0L2 (810)
or the drag per sq. ft. at 100 mph may wntten
- 0.17 ... 0.72 i + S.S eJ:
x c
8, 5 Cost or- Metal Cantilenr!!!!&!. Wing
costs of course vary with time and plac" with
quantitiy produced and management skill, and oan
therefore be estimated only VSI7 roughly, but by
the same token, rational wing design to fulfill the
requirements set forth in Art. ( 8s1 ) is poseibl.
with no greater accuracy. One way or eltimating
wing costs is to eeparate the costs intQ material,
direct labor, and overhead, meaning by JlI&terial the
materials usually purchased by the airp+ane manu-
facturer. For a wing such as that in Fig. '6,1
which is made chiefly ot dural, the coat
may conveniently be estimated as about SOI/lb., which
includes an allowance of about 10% for 'faIt. material.
An equation for wing material costs is ,herefon,
from Driggs equation, for wings or about thick-
ness ratio
bc
Cost
Mat
- nlW
1000 0
*
- $C).50 bl!/' n1wc/l()()()--.-( 8.7)
To determine the oost of direct labor &I a tuaeiion
of design load and wing dimensions, a t"ble .1.mUaZO
to TableS ."lshould be prepared for the varioUi .anu-
facturing operations. Such a table is Table 812
Design load was not considered as a factor in
table because it affects chiefly the weight of the
* 1934 Figur es. See page A7: 1 for
changes to li4i.
8:5
members, having little effect on the construction
cost if the dimensions are constant. From Table
8: 2 ,the direct labor cost is soon to be given
by the estimated
Cost
Lab --:l.
in which it is seen that the effect of thickness
1s negligible. Costs of machinery. factory rent
and maintenance, and supervision are usually
distributed either in proportion to the direct
lab:r orto the floor space occupied or both. Ass
ing
Cost k be
OVerhead 2
and making the common assumption that overhead -
100% of direct labor. it is approximately true
that
Table S, 2. lYING COST
Effect of Independent Variations of Span (b),
}lean Chord (c), and Mean Thickness (t) on Direct
Labor Cost ) of Tapered Yetal Canti-
lever Wings as in Fig .Sa1.
Operation
Cut and rivet corru-
gated flange
Cut, weld, assemble
tension flange
Rivet top and bottom
to sides
Construct and attach
bulkheads
Construct and attach
I.E ribs
Construct and attach
TE ribs
Construct and attach
aileron, joint, and
main wing fittings
Cover and paint
Total
fdl'ot.
tilDe.
P
15
15
8
9
9
9
15
20
100
Exponent (e)
Span
e pe
.8 12
.8 12
.8 6
1.0 9
1.0 9
1.0 9
3
20
80
With permissible sacrifice of same of the
foregOing attempted accuracy, it may conveniently
be stated that wings cost so-much per lb. plus
so-much per sq. ft. For production of dural
wings 0- the type here considered in small quanti-
ty wi th typical management, the cost is probably
given with fair accuracy by the equation:
Total wing cost at factory. $a.OO/lb. +
$l.50/sq.ft. or in
symbols
Cost to.50 W + $1.50 S-----{ 8 a9 j
wing w
The weight cost of such a wing is prac-
tically set by the Aluminum Company of America.
The area cost might be reduced to $l.CO per sq.
ft. for quantity production by efficient manage-
ment, or might run as high as $3.00 per sq. ft.
for small orders. Equation 8a91s represented
graphi cally in F1 gSa17 J the upper scale 1 s
plotted from Driggs' equation for wing weight,
so that wing cost can be estimated in terms of
design load per foot of chord.
* 1934 Figures, Bee p. A'7: 1 tor li4i
WING DESIGN
R 16. VLiM. Desien t2!: Minimum Air Traver
Cost. or operating costs ?f a
typical airline (p.7:6) it may be noted that
(First cost of airplane (less engines) 0.20 :x:
(total cost of air travel) and weight
analysis of typical airplanes(App.A:5)assuming
costs to be roUF)Uy proportionaL 00 weight
First cost of wing 0.35:x: First cost of airplane
(less engines). Hence
First cost of Wlruz :::: 71, of total cost of air travel.
For airplanes which are not flown as much as was
assumed for the typical Airline, the airplane cost
per mile vrould of course be greater, and for air-
planes for private flyine, the first cost of the
rring might constitute as much as 10% or 15;; of the
cost of air travel.
Service costs may be noted to constitute 7% of
the cost of air travel, but most of this cost is
chargeable to the engines, instruments, control
system, and landing gear. Wing inspection and re-
puirs are not likely to run as high QS 110 of the
cost of air travel, even with fabriC cBvered wings
which are usually recovered and repainted every 3
ears.
of variation of cost
Lab
with:
Chord Thickness
epee pe
.5 7.5 -.1 -1.5
.5
0
.8
.8
.8
7.5 -.1 -1.5
0 +.5 +4
7 +.1 +1
7 C 0
7 0 0
4 0
20 +.1
60
o
+2
-4-
Fuel costs ehargeable to the drag and weight
of the wing IDIJ.7 be estimated as follows. It ma7 be
shown that at the speed of minimum drag.(VLD), the
parasite and profile drag coefficient of the air-
plane (_ C ) is equal to the induced drag co-
efficient r. C
Di
- KC/) (Ref. TA p. 135). Air-
planes cOlll!!lanl7 cruisS' at 0.9 V
L
, and Vw is
u.suall7 about 0.6 V
L
Hence at cruising speed
CDi - 1 4 Cov ;:::: Cnv/5.
"11.5)
$ 3. 50
load, 1000 lbs
per foot of chord
3.00 1---,---..---,---:71
2.00
Wing wt. Ibs/sq.ft.
1.50
1
2 3
Fig.8J 17. Approximate factor,y cost of dural-fabric
wings constructed as in Fig. gal. (Graph tor equation
rea9)].
WING DESIGN
8:7
The fuel cost per mile may be considered as
proportional to
Parasite drag + Wing Profile drag + induced
drag and this item was J8% of the cost of air
travel for the typical air line on Tab. 7 :l(thOllgh
it might be only 15% to 30% on other air lines or
for private flying). But for typical modern air-
planes,
Wing profile drag of parasite drag
and as shom above, for typical airplane.
Induced drag 20% of (parasite + profile)
drag; from these relationships it may be shown by
simple algebra that
Fuel cost due to wing profile drag 7% of
total cost of air travel;
Fuel cost due to induced drag 6% of total
cost of air travel. The induced drag is of course
due to the weight; for typical airylanes wing
weight is 25% of the weight empty App. A:::> ) or
about 17% of the gross weight, and the induced
drag due to the wing weight causes a fuel cost of
about 17% x 6% 1% of the total cost of travel.
The effects of changes in Ifing cost, wing
drag, and wing weight on cost of air travel for
a typical airplane and airline may be summarized
as shown in Table 6: 3
Commercial air liners land as fast as the Civil
Aeronautics Administration will permit, and pressun
is continually being broUght to bear to permit
landings at higher speeds.
As regards lring thickness low drag requires
thin wings, and the thiclaless factor is about one
half the total for drag. Low cost requires low
weight, and weight can be reduced by increasing
thickness but this effect is small, and economical
requires wings as thin as can be
used without having trouble with wing flutter. A
mean thickness ratio of 10% to 12% is desirable if
the construction has plenty of rigidity, 14% may
be desirable to reduce danger of flutter. The effect
on cost is relatively small.
8.7. Comoa.rison of Types of Wing Construction.
The foregoing method 1s or primary importance in
the development of economical airplanes. The com-
parison between wood and dural has already been
made 12). It may be lI'orthwhile to consider
the economics of substitvti.r1g for dural box beam
wings a wing constructed of multitubular spars of
SAE 4130 steel. This type of construction 1s
illustrated in Fig.8,7.1 "though the original Hall
TableS. 3
Effect of Cost, Drag, and Weight of Wing on
Travel Cost at Cruising Speed for Typical
Airline.
\2) \3}
Per cent of travel Per cent change of
Variable item cost affected of travel oost due
llllJiTst oost of wing
b Dra& of wing
c \!9Jw of wiEg
In the colUmn (3) an arbitrary small change
of 14% ot each of the variables is assumed be-
cause the resulting changes in travel cost are 1%
for items (a) and (b). For wing weight, 14% change
produces 17% x 14% - 2.4% change in gross weight,
requires 2.4% change in C , and 4.8% change in
C
Di
2/11" R). Since drag is responsible
for 6% of the travel cost, the wing weight is
responsible for 4.8% x 6% _ 0.29%.
TableSs:; sholl'S that first cost and drag are
each about 3 times j!.S important as lreight in wing
design for economical transportation under the
conditions assumed above. For other conditions
the relative importance will of course be differen
A designer usually has things of this sort in
mind when designing a wing, but the above is be-
lieved to be the first systematic presentation of
a rational method whereby an amateur designer can
arrive at a quantitative basis for economical de-
sign of any particular project.
To apply the criterion evolved above to the
determination of wing dimensions, refer to equa-
tions(SI2),{ 814}, and(8t9)for weight, drag,
and cost, and note that minimi.un travel cost
requires of the wing design for a given design
load chiefly small wing area, which means high
wing loading. Hence the higher the landing speed
the greater the provided the risk of
crashes on landing does not become too great.
7
7
1
to 14% ohange of
variable
-r-
1
0.29
Fig.S.?1 Hall multitubulal'
apar aeotion. (See alao
Fig. 812.2
wing uses dura..L tubes, n(')'t. steel tubes). Photo-
graphs of the wing and a typical are given
on p.S12 , Fig .814. Material for this type of
wi.r1g can be bought for ... bout half as much cost per
pound as 4ural wings (251 vs. soi, see p.A7:2
but accordmg to the Mst comparison in Cbapter
the weight of the wing would be 50$ greater, and
probably the wing thickness would have to be in-
creased somewhat to get adequate rigidity. The
effects of these differences on the cost of travel
in the airplane may be summarized as in Table 8 S 4:
below.
8:8
WING DESIGN
TABLE 814
Comparison of Dural Box Beam Wing with Multitubular Steel Spar
Wing on the basis of Cost of Air Travel for Airplane like Fig.lt6
flown 50,000 miles/year at about 100 mph.

br. ____
[WiD{; weiGht per sq. ft. 1.6 2.4
cost per sq. ft. of iliTl{;. $0.60 $0.60
cost sq. ft. of wing $1.50 el .. OO
first cost per sq. ft. of wine C2.30 $1.60
drag per sq. ft. at 100 mph 0.24 0.28
first cost per per year (40%)
drag cost per sq. per year 0.75 0.6S
!Induoed drag oost per sq. ft. per year 0.10 0.12
cost per sq. ft. per year charge
able to "l'l.7'7 .1.64
\Relative wing ares. for constant landing
spoed
Comparative travel cost per year oharge-
a.ble to wing for constant landing
speed
1 1.08

The above estimate appears to show that
while the proposed steel tube wing would have a
lower first cost. its transportation service would
be just as expensive for the assumed conditions of
use. For a smaller amount of travel. it might
prove IIlOre economical. The above study is signifi-
cant chiefly as to method. The student should
attempt to apply this method to his own design
problem.
81.8. L,vestigation of Value of Wing Flaps.
Many JOOdern airplanes are equipped with flaps. As
parasite drag is reduced to get better high speed
and aerodynamic efficiency, the angles of glide and
climb are also reduced, and the airplanes find it
more difficult to get in and out of small fields.
Flaps to serve as aerodynamic brakes overcome this
jifficulty, but at some expense in weight, first
cost, and cost. Flaps also have the
of permitting a smaller w:!ng area for a given land-
ing speed (because they permit considerable increase
in the C
Lmax
of the wing) and as was pointed out in
Art.8s' 6 the smaller wings and higher wing load
ing in general give more economical transportation.
Wing slots edge) of course also give highe
C
Lmax
' but this is obtained at a considerably highe
of attack than with flaps. and the wing settmg
for normal landing attitude is often too high for
good cruising economy; slots are very little used
in this country, though they have been widely ad-
vertised by Handley-Page in England. An airplane
specification which calls for both outstanding
high and steep gliding angle (as on p.
implicitly specifies flaps. Photographs of typical
flap installa,tions are shown on Fig.a s19 And 8 1 20 )
and in "FisSI21(,slkorsky simple hinged. edge
On the Sikorsky boat, flaps were found to give not
only steeper glide and slower landinR. but also
quicker take-off. as shown inA2a: 25, 26, 27.
In the Sikorsky 5-42, the combination ot slipstream
and flap action permitted part throttle landings
at phenomonally high values of apparent C ,and
made it possible to obtain a commercial for
a normally unlicensable airplane. (W/S _ 28.6 Ibs/
sq. ft., '!o - 74 mph with dead engines, v s .. 65
mph at 1400 engine 1'PII1 with flaos c10wn 37)
The most widely used type of flap today is pl'O-
bablT the split T. E. flap. The flap giving
the tughest Cr _"_ is the Fowler flap (Fig.
S 120 i inexpetfSNe inat&llations of this sort
baTe only recently been achieved.
Strictly speaking, economical design of flaps
is not yet possible because of inadequate informa-
tion on construction and service costs. Quantita-
tive estimates for economical design of flaps are
gi ven in Table8: 5, but these estimates should be
regarded as suggestive as to method rather than
reliable data. For any particular type of con-
struction and manufacturing management. the figures
will be different from those given, but these are
possible figures. In estimating weight added,
account must be taken of the fact that the flaps
require increased weight for controls and a heavier
wing to withstand the greater twisting moment. Small
increases in drag have been assumed to allow for
increased surface irregularities necessitated by
the flap installations, though in some instaUa-
tions this factor has been negligible. For a
particular airplane, economic figures of merit can
be prepared as in Table 8 I 6 In every case the
flaps show a reduction in both wing first-cost, us-
ing the data of TableS.5 The effect on air travel
cost of course depends on the tY.r9 of service
assumed. The figures in Tab18 16a.re based on the
same typical airline assumed in discussing the de-
sign of normal wings. The figures are not very
reliable because of uncertainties of service costs.
For the Hall and Fowler flaps there is perhaps no
net saving on air travel cost. The uncertainty in
the wing weight and wing cost reductions is great-
er than the indicated differences, so it is not
possible to say which is the best type of flap.
Many pilots, however, prefer not to use flaps
because of the sharp stalling characteristics, a
typical pilot characterization being "They'll drop
you if you don't watch out".
Fig-B .18. Construction of Zap type flap.
From Trans. April 1934. T. N. Joyce
Type
No.
Ir. Normal
WiM
2. Split
Flap
3. HiD.{;ed

14. Hall
Flap
15. Za.p
Flap
6. Flap and.
I.E o.iler-
ons
Fowler


2
3
4
5
6
7
WING DESIGN
Table 8s5
Estimate Data for Design of Flap-Ffluipped
assuming fUll span flaps of 30% chord, 45 down. )
(see also P. A2a:25,26,27. for other data
CL'''' CI4in -C!lo'l)
}.lin. lut

Re1.
Sketch max. Flap Flap \'ft. Drag cost oost
UP down added added add. add.

1.4 .010 .cr. 0 0 0 0 1
(

2.1 .010 .26
15%
.81
c::
2.2 .010 . pL . ].Of.
.&&

2.2 .010 .29 12% .2"A. .U

2.4 .010 .4G
2or. .&8

2.4 .011 .22 \51- lof- 20%
z,c .60
2.8 .011
...


.60
-/
---._----
Constant wing area
Table 816
Economic Figures of Merit for Wings with air-
Various Types of Flaps for a particular
plane and service, assl.llll1ng constant stal.Ung
speed and climb.
iel. Rel. wi!lg 1st coat
Pro:ilo
Nilt 8Ilving
wing eost lI(l.viD.{; an 1IQ'V"Ul{; on Oil air
n. air trc.Tel c.ir traTs.l trtlTol
0.89 .84 1.1% 0.4%

0.83 .73 1 .. 9% 0.4,;
1.$
0.89 .82
1.2%
0.4%
0.84 .77
1.6% 0.5% + 0.1%
0.79 .60
2.8% 0.5%
1.3%
0.84 .77 1.6% 0.6%
- 0.9%
8:9
Fig.B ,19. Flap mechanism and aileron mountm,
used on Beechcratt airplane. Photo from A.ero
Digest
Fig.S .20. F1eseler airplane with lfings tolcilct ..
Note the retranted Fowler flap. Photo troll
Aircraft Engineering.
8:10
Fig.8.21. Uncovered trailing edge flap of
Sikorsky S-42. Structure is of 17-3 dural,
fabric covered. Photo from "Aviation
l1

Types 3 and 6 appear to tie for first place in
travel cost savings, with type 6 well ahead on
first cost. These tables have neglected the
necessity at having ailerons for all types ex-
cept type 6, so that type 6 is actually more
advantageous than shown, but flight tests have
shown the L.E. ailerons unsatisfactory.
8 s9. Wing Analysis. Most modern
wings are cantilever beams without external
supports. Such wings are described as internally
braced; design and stress analysis of such wings
is a problem in the mechanics of materials
classifiable as design and investigation at
cantilever beams. Analysis of biplane cellules
and of externa.lly braced monoplanes is of di-
minishing COl!ll!lercial importance and is adequate-
ly treated in other texts (e.g. nemin, Airplane
Stress Analysis, Chap. VIII for externally
braced monoplanes; Jones and Frier, Aeroplane
Structural Design, for biplanes) so this
chapter 1I'il.l consider only cantilever wings.
Preliminary of the root section a
a cantilever wing can conveniently be made
by (a) calculating bending moment at the root
section due to the design load, (b) calculating
the necessary section modulus at this section
from the modulus of rupture (Fb) and the equa-
tion l/z - MlF
b
, and (c) laying out a tentative
distribution or material to get the desired sec-
tion modulus. Thus for an airplane similar to
Fig.ls6 with data a.s given on 6. Sbut to
li.mit load rac;tor or 1..08 instead or 4.1 half
'/k---17.5
198 11; ft.
122 Bending load on eantileTer -.riDg.
WING DESIGN
the main wing beam is a cantilever loaded as
shown in Fig.8a22 The unit loading is shown as
uniform for simplicity though a reduction pro-
portional to the chord at the tip is permissible.
The total load carried by the wings is 4.08 x 2000
1bs. _ 8100 1bs but the weight and inertia
force of the wings are supported directly by the
wings and should not be included in calcula.ting the
load which produces bending moment. With an es-
timated weight of 300 1bs. for the portion of the
wings outside of the fuselage, the limit bending
load on the wings is 4.08 (2000- 300) _ 6950 1bs.
This is distributed over a span of 17.5 ft., so
the mean load per foot is 6950/2 x 17.5 - 198
1bs./ft. The maximum bend.ing moment is (6950/2)x
(17.5/2) _ 30,400 ft. 1bs. _ 365,000 in. 1bs. For
a corrugated dural box beam such as it is proposed
to use (see Fig8s23the most convenient solution
for Fb and l/z is by trial. Assuming the dimensions
shown in FigB.24 with standard 2.5" corrugations
(see p.A6b18 ) the radius of corrugations is
R = 0.282 x 2.5 _ 0.705", and with t _ 0.072" for
the upper surface, R/t .. 9.8 and the buckling stress
is seen from Fig.Ati>:8tobe44,000 1bs./sq. in. With
a dist.ance between bulkheads of 15 -3/8". and p=0.1077 p
e = 0.269" , L/p = 15.38/0.269 57, and with
a fixity coefficient c = 1.0, read in Fig.A6b:8
Fb - 25,000 1bs./sq.in. This is the compressive
stress permissible with the bending moment due to
the design load (. 1.5 times applied load). Hence
l.a M- = 1.5 x 365000 - 21.93
z Fb 25,000
To calculate the effective moment of inertia
of the corrugated beam shown in Fi88, 231t is con-
venient to replace it by several flat plates of
equivalent thickness (- 1.228 t, since We _ 1.228
Won p.A6bt8). Such an equivalent simPlified
figure is shown in FigS. 230 To calculate section
modulus, first locate the neutral (gravity)
axis by means of the equation z ZA _ ;! zA.
This is done in tabular form in Table B a '7 below.
Tab1eB.7 shows that the e.g. is 5.35" above the
center line of tte base Moment of in-
ertia calculations are gi van in Table 8,8. based
on the equation I _ I + Az2, where I is the moment
of eachpart about its own centroid and z is the
distance of each area A from the centroid of the
whole section.
EJ
l t
0393" 9.75" a.,38
_ --L_
Fig.8123. Simplification of section in Fig.8, 24-
for moment at inertia calculation.
Tab1eS.'7
Centroid Calculation for figS. 24
Area No. .Area sq. in. T, In. Ai, in"
--
1 1.30 0 0
2 .66 4.19 2.17
3
-
2.06 9.01 18.7
- 4.02 5.35 21.47
WING DESIGN
8:11

, ..,' 1 ...... -:1'-'"-::--+
-.
-.".- ------
.... ....- -- - - - - - - -. , - --- - - -
- - - - ..... , 1 , ... - -..... ..
" ..... "', I I / '
I ,", I , I I I \ ,,' ,-,
I ','" ,. ,,' "
., , I I I I " , I
t
" I J\ I .. ,," I
, , I I \ ' '"
, I , I ,
"--,, "',... .,. 1.... /'
/ ',', .......... _- ; I .... ___ ... ,,",," ,.'- .....
I "II" I \
\ ',', .. ",," (
II t \ / "I I ,,,
,. ',-,' ') '.' '- /
--
- --- - -
1= 1f -j 25-5T liS" thick
Fig.8.24. Corrugated dural box beam of Nicholas-Beazley NB-3 wing, modified for use on airplane
like F'ig8alAt x _ 210" from tip, w = 2-3/4", tl = 0.072" (B.S. sheet gage 13) and t2 - 0.032
(B.S. sheet gage 20).
Table 818
of Inertia Calculations for Fig. B J 24
Area Area Z Az2
No. SQ. in. in. in.4 I
1 1.30 5.35 37.2 0.2 Total I = 71.0
2 .66 1.16 0.9 3.9 For upper fibers,
3 2.06 3.72 28.5 0.3 I/z = 71.0/4.40 : 16.1
06.6 4.4
In calculating I/z for the upper fibers, z .
should be used as the distance from the section
centroid to the outside of the corrugations -
9.75-5.35 = 4.40. The calculated section modu-
lus (16.1) is seen to be somelihat smaller than
necessary (20.9. These calculations suggest
cantilever wing is that '1i is constant over the
span.
that it might be desirable to use the next
thicker standard gage sheet for the upper surface
corrugations, but the assumption of load dis-
tribution has been very conservative and the de-
sign may be satisfactory. Torsion calculations
by the methods of Ar6&2&hould also be made.
A analysis of the wing should be
carried through for each loading condition
and for each of a number of sections of the
wing, the margins of safety being presented in
the form of tables. The following sample cal-
culations will be carried through for only Con-
dition I, and for only one wing section, at a
distance from the wing tip of y _ 210".
The stresses in the corrugated dural box
beam should be calculated as resultant stresses
due to combined bending and twisting. The
bending moment calculations are simply a re-
finement of the preliminary design calculations
just presented, taking account of the taper
at the wing tip. The twisting is d1.!e to the
moment of the lift force about the elastic axis
of the beam.
Using a limit load factor of 4.08, and
a weight of airplane (less wings) of 1700 lbs.,
the applied load to be carried by the wings is
4.08 x 1700 ,. 6950 lbs. The most severe span
load distribution required by CAR 04 for a
This means uniform load per sq. ft. of
wing 1U'e&, and for this tapered wing results
in a beam loading of the shape shown in Fig.8. 25
Fig,st25 Wing Dimensions
(a) Plan form of wing
(b) Load distribution with uniform CN-
For wings like this which conbist of bingle
box spar for which the ela$tic axis 1s readily
determinable by symmetry (at center line of box)
it is desirable to use the elastic axis for refer-
ence and analyse the wing on the basis of bending
loads the elastic axis plus pitching moments
about the elastic axiS, as outlined in ACM .04.31-
equationa there developed, which refer to
Fig-B,26 are
8:12
Yx iCnq + n
a
e)CI/l44 --------------tSllO)
(Cn(z-a) + q + n2e (x-jillC
1
) ---
J 144
(Bsll)
Fig.8 s 26. Air and inertia forces per inch of
wing span.
where
Yx beam load, lbs. per inch of span.
mx twisting moment about elastic axis, inch
lbs. per inch of span.
x - elastic center location, traction of
chord from leading edge.
C' - wing chord. inches.
q - dynamic pressure, lbs. per sq. ft., for
the condition being investigated.
C. R11'toll normal force coefficient for
section in
a aerodynamic center of airfoil for sec-
tion in question.
n
2
E!! limit load foctor for condition being
investigated. ACM .04 conSiders that
n2 is negative in the above equations
beCause it takes account of the inertia
of the wi ng weight.
e - average Uhit wei'ght of wing, Ibs. per
sq. ft., over the chord at the station
in question. Quoting from ACM .04 "It
should be computed or estimated for each
area included betvreen the wing stations
investigated, unless the unit weight is
substantially constant, in which case a
constant value may be assumed."
j - lOCation on chord of center of gravity of
weight of wing at section in question
properly correlating the values of e and
j, the effects of local weights, such
as fuel tank and nacelles, can be dir-
ectly accounted for.
ft
A similar equa-
tion for the chord loads is giVen in
ACM .04.
It is suggested in ACM .04 that values of the
above quantities be tabulated for sections at var-
1-ous distances from the wing tip so a1! to permit
integration to find the bending and
twisting moments at any section. Such a tabulation
is illustrated in Tables8a9 and8110below, for the
wing in P'ig.8s25 but values are given for only
one section (210" from tip) in the interest of
clarity, and by assuming all quantities except C'
to be the same for all sections on analytical inte-
gration instead of a graphical integration is pos-
sible as outlined below.
WING DESIGN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Table 819- computation of Net Unit Loadings.
("Constants") for wjng in Fig-Ba 25 (Ref. ACM 04.31)
,. inches o 30 60 90 120 150 180 210
C r /144, inches 0.416
a,fraction of chord 0.239
(a. c )
x.fraction of chord 0.330
e,lbs. per sq.ft. 1.91
j,fraction of chord 0.400
+0.091
x-a oft) - {6} -0.070
*y dist. from wing tiP. inches
The items substituted in the above table may be
justified as follows:
Item 1:
Item 2:
Item 3:
Item 4:
Item 5:
Item 6:
point chosen for semple computation is at
root section (fuselage fitting).
chord at root section is 60", hence C'/l44
60/144 0.416.
for a.C. of NACA 2418 wing. ree.d in (T.A.-
P. 387). 1.1% ahead of c/4 ; hence a
0.25 - .011 0.239.
center l1ne of box spar is assumed to be
19.75 " art of leading edge of wing at
root section; hence x - 19.75/60 0.330.
wing weight has been assumed 300 lbs; area
157 sq. ft. Hence if wing weight per sQ.
ft. is uniform (actually there is con-
siderable variation. of course, which
could be taken account of in this table)
e 300/157 1.91 Ibs. per sq. ft,
c.g. of wing at this point is assumed to
be somewhat ahead of the 50% point. here
at 0.40 c. For a flapped wing 0.45 c would
be better.
Items 7 and 8 are subtrations to faci11 tate sub-
stitution itt equation { Sell)
lable8s1Q. eonwutation of Net Unit Load-
ings.

Condition factors, oasic section
Cp at CLtnax 0.28
[q
10m:
ve C'M n
2
bl.2 52.0 0.073 -4.08
(TableS.lOcontinued on next page.)
WING DESIGN
8:15
T
able8&lO (Continued)
D' t 1S ance f rom ng ti i h p nc es
0
9 C
N
(variation, if any)
10

(variation, if any)
11
Cm.

12
n2
e
"-
'l
13 (ll) + (,12)

IQ
14 Yx -(13)x(2),
15 Cn(x-e) -(9)x{7)
16 [ ] .(15)+(10)
17
[ ] q x 31.2
\!)
18 n
2
e .. -4.08 xeS)
19 n
2
e (x-j) .. (18)x(8)

(19)+{17 )
11\
20

21 (C)2/144
22 In,: '{20) x{ 21)
The items
follows:
CAR 04.2131*s
in Table8alOmay be justified as
nr(W/s)
pacifies that SJI where
or this airplane ft./sec.
119 x 162
2
., 31.2 bs. per sq.ft.
8 as before, and W/S '" 2000/157 "'
) - 52.0 and CN! - 52.0/31.2 .. 1.66.
30
qL "'f VLP.. F
and qL 0.00
Wi th nr ., 4.0
12.7, nr (W/S
From T. A.
., 1.5371.07 .,
CL.Cl .. 1.53 and Cl.rnax
.4 , but t is may be ex-
ceeded in gus
tervals. Fro
pressure, C
p
-0.038 from w
0.261 but TR
04.2131 defin
to give C
p
.,
ts or maneuvers for short time in-
C'M" (0
Justification
Item 9: Use
cons
m the basic equation for center of
- S - <1.1o/CL. '!'R 669 gives CMo ..
hicb C
p
.. 0.239 + 0.038/1.66 ..
669 also says C
p
:!! 0.27, end CAR
es C'M as the value of C
M
necessary
0.27. Solving for'C'M
.239 - 0.27) 1.66 -0.0515
by i terns follows.
.. 1.66; no reduction at tip, to be
ervative.
ACA 2418 section at root to corres-
with thickness of 10-3/8" and chord
Item 10: Use N
pond
of 6
omic
thic
inal
abe...TJ
of d
0" (Figs.B. 23 and8125l; econ-
81 design Vlould dictate reduction i.:
ratiO toward tip, the longitud-
corrugated Vleb would have to be
doned where thickness Varies because
etail design difficulties.
Item 11: Usin
Item 12:
Cura
g above figures nI(W/S)
- -4.08 x 1.91 -7.8, greater
cy would ShOVl e vnrieble.
52.0
ac-
Item 13: + n2e 52.0 - 7.8 44.2 Ibs. par
ft.
..-This method also acoeptable in CAR 3.
60 90 120 150 180 210
1.66
-0.051
52.0
-7.8
44.2
18.4
+0.151
+0.100
+3.12
-7.8
+0.54
+3.66
25
+9.1.4
Item 14: Yx w 44.2 C'/l44 0.307 C' 18.4 Ibs.
t wing root. per running inch a
Items 15 to 22 are simple su bstitutions in equation
+91.4 inch Ibs per fhll
t
giVing:t
running inch a wi ng root, or in general
at any distance y +0.0254 (0,)2
froD the wing tip.
The general proceedure
plot graphs of Yx end III:x aga
at this point is to
inst y and integrate
ng at every point. To
usually parfonned
to get the tollS ion and bendi
illustrate the integration (
graphically or mechanically)
C' will be assumed independe
all quantities except
nt of y. Equations
for C' in terms 01' y are
From y - 0 to y 108"
t
ct. 36 + 0.222y
The corresponding equations
S ., jyxdY and M .. 5S dv.
Yx- 11.0+0.068 y
y'- 108 to y 210
C'" 60
for Yx' S, M, are from
S .. 11.0 y+O.034 y2+o
M - 5.50 y2+O.0113y3
YX- 18.4 Ibs. per run-
ning inch.
+0 8-18.46y 2 400 Ibs.
These are represen
M - 9.2 Y -400 y +
14,300 Ibs. in.
ted graphically in
Fig.8.2'1.
The next step in the st ress analysis is to
calculate the bending stress and margin of safety
at various sections of the
inary design, with the dernen
wing. In the prelim-
sions given in Fig.B123
wing (y 210"), it
Hence, using M -
for the root section of the
was found that I/z - 16.1.
335,000 Ibs.-in from Fig.8a
prelininary design value of
calculated bending stress is
of safety of 1.5
2' ( instead of the
365,000 Ibs./in.) the
, with the usual factor
Fb
335.000 x 1.5 .
16.1
l,lOO ibs/sq.in
8:14
With an allowable stress of 25,000 Ibs./sq.in.
determined in the preliminary design, the margin
of safety is
M.S 25,000 - 1 - 0.81 - 1 -0.19
30,800
The corresponding calculation of twisting
II1Oment, from(T JMxdY and IIIx: 0.0254 (C
t
1 and
the above equations for C
t
, is
S
l08
T
I08
D 0 0.254 (36 + 0.222 )!1y - 646q( in.
J
210 Y
and T
210
T
l08
+ 108 0254 x 60
2
dy 6460
+ E 15,860 lbs.-in.
The corresponding calculated shearing stress

l'he shear stress in the web due to bending,
assuming the web carries all the shear, is fsb
3470/8.37 x 1.23 x 0.032 10,500 #/sq.in. In
the front web, these shear stresses combine
to give
fs - fst + fsb 1110 + 10,500 - 11,610 I/sq.ln.
The allowable shear stress in the weos
(p.J.6ba9) for F
LIP 15.4 /2.5 6.15 and p/t - 2.5/0.032 78 is
16000 Ibs/sq. in. Hence MS 16,000 _ 1 -
ll.5lD
Similar calculations of margln of safety
should be made for other sections and the results
presented in a tabular form, such as TableS.ll.
The negative margin not being permissible, the
thickness of the corrugated sheet shou1d be in-
creased.
WING DESIGN
I
Fig.8 a 27. Shear and moment diagrams far wing beam.
8.10 Problems. 1. For the flying boat layout
example with load factors as calculated in Arl.6,lO
Prob. I, estimate the weight of the wing by means of
Driggs' equation and p. ASI2.
2. lor your own layout proolem make a oompar-
ison or two possible types of wi'ng construction OIl
the basis of an assumed service use, and determine
in the manner shown in Table B, 4,vhich will
be more economical.
3. Using Tsble e. 5 (a) detennine the most
economicpl type flaps for the flying boat shown
in Fig. 3110 (b) determin .. the most economical
type or fl.aps fOl' an airplane of your own
Table B.ll
Method of Tabulating Margins of Safety
of Wing Beams.
wing tiP. inches
0 40 80 120 160 210
l!lng Chora lnches, (;'
36 449 53 7 60 60 60
[upper shee'!; ,!;hlClmess, inches
tl. .072
Web thickness, inches, t2
.032
Foot width, inches
3
w
2.75
Section modulu.s. m I/Z
17.3
Condition I
Bending stress, 1000 #/in.
30.8
Margin of safety, per cent
-19
Shear stress in webs,lOOOj/1n
2
11.610
M.S., cent
Shear stress in flanges
M.S.
Conditjon II, etc.
In view of the labor involved in the above
calculations, it is eVident that, for experiment-
al airplanes, or airplanes to be produced in
small quantity, it may be uneconomical to make
a complete stress analysis. Preliminary desigo
calculations will sui'fice to determinetlte ap-
proximate size of tl:e most important parts. and
proof testing can be substitut3d for stress analy-
sis. (CAR 04.203), but stress analysis is re-
quired for an approved certificate.
38
4. Assume a given type of wing construction for
the of your own design and calculate the
necessary dimensions for the root section of the main
wing beam.
5. Make a preliminary layout sketch of the lfill@
construction of your airplane and calculate the
margin of safety in the wing beams at bJ8t
b/4, and b/2 from the wing tip in accordance with
CAR 04 for positive-high angle of attaok.
6. An airplane weighs 2400#. lim1 t load tecter
4.
(a) Assumil14i w is unifol'll!., find 11m! t
uni t load w in Fig. B a 31
(b) Find max. bending momeat lbs. in.
WING DESIGN
Fig. 8s 2B Armst.rong-WhUlforth "Ensign" with 4 Tiger
IX engines of 800 hp each at 7200 ft. Weight over 20
tons; seats for 27 or sleeps 20.
Fig. S 129
o.Icdla 01 the oID91-
-opar--
Skin 22 gage, attached by pop riTets. 01 ilia ......
Sk.etcnes Courtesy "The Aeroplane"
8:15
8:16
..
WINGDESIGfl
(c) For cross sectional shown, in Fig.
8,32 find max. bending stress.
''''_--/6/(------<-'1
Fig.8131 Loading of wing spar in Probe 6.
0.,.0 -{ I--zl
-r

Fig.8132 Cross section ot wing spar in Prob. 6.
8 III References.
1. l}pson, and Thompson, 'M.J., Tr.F; Drag
of Tnpered Cantilever Airfoils, JAS, ocr;
1:9'34.
2. Upson, R.H., Coor1inated System of
Design, SAE Jour, Jun. 1930.----
3. Blo.u!1t, E.E., Aspects of
Construction, JAS, C0t. 1934.
4. Warner, E.P., Estimation of the Weight of
Jour. Roy.-;:erOS0C: Jan.
1923 (Also Aviation Handbook)
5. Wood, K.D., Weight Reduction VS. Drag
duct ion in Airplane Design. AViation Eng-
1932.---
6. Lipp, J. E. Estimation of Weight
JAS Oct. 1938
Boeing Stratocruiser Design Details
(P,
lig. 8:33
The outboard panel of the Stratocruzser's wing is a continua-
tion of the primary and secondary structural design found in
the inboard panel, consisting of a box beam, leading and trail-
ing edges. Ribs (A), are hydropressed members and
do not enclose fuel cells. The wingtip contains louvers
(B) for exhausting anti-icing heat from the leading edge ducts.
Aileron (e) and aileron tab (D) form the outboard panel's
trailing edge. Fuel cells are not installed beyond space
formed by ribs (EE).
Courtesy Aeronautical EnglBeertng Review
(lAS), July t 1 9 49
CHAP'l'ER 9
9:1
CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN
9 11 Layout .2LControl Surfaces and Sptem.
A satisfactory airplane must be stable and con-
trollable about all three axes. Lateral sta-
bility is provided by dihedral on the wings; lat-
eral control bY' means of ailerons. Longitudinal
!!!!! directional stability and control are U8U&l.ly
provided bY' tail surfaces; "tailless" airplanes
can be built b.T attaching such surfaces to the
trailing edge of the wing. Trailing edge !lap.
can be used for eleTators on a tailless airplane,
but they cannot also be used as a high lift d_
vice; this is one of the major handicapa of
the tailless airplane, since it has been shown
(Chap. 8) that high lift devices usuail7 gift
improved economy in the design of the wings.
"nlis dismissal of the tailless airplane 1a in-
adequate, but only airplanes with cormmtional
tails will be considered in this chapter.
For preliminary layout sketches, it has
been suggested that the stabilizing and control
surface areas be made a certain fraction of the
wing area. A more comprehensive survey of the
customary ratios is presented in Table 9 ,1 as
prepared by L. E. Root.
Fig.9a1. Desirable
method of laying out balanced tall fop
uniform balance ratio (Douglas pat.ent) a..1d meaning
of terms used in Table 9 11 as applied to this type
of surface.
hble 911
Ratios
Contro 1 Suift.Oo
Lntornl Vertical (Hod zontlil \
I(Ailerons) I (Fin Ruddor' Stab. Elov.
Total. CO:ltrol !!Urf'nco c.roa
- ir"ia----
.09 to.lO .075to,085 .16 to .20
Hovable surfoce
.18 to.29 .50 to .60 .50 to .55
Total surface area
Ba.le.nce
Uovnble surface erea
.20 to.26 .16 to .24 .16 to .26
1.!!? Area ,
l07ab1e surface to.OS .05 to .10 .05 to .10
ratio
The meaning of the terms used in Table 9 a 1 ,as
applied to a vertical tail surface, are shown
in Fig. 9 al. After tentative tail surl'aces
have been laid out it is desirable to investi-
gate their suitability by special wind tunnel
tests. or by the methods outlined in TA Chaps.
10-11 if special wind tunnel tests are not
convenient. Calculations or special test. of
this sort tell whether the airplane will be
stable, and whether the size of the control
surfaces is sufficient to make the airplane per-
form the desired maneuvers (usually simply take-
off J climb, turn I dive I pull-out I and land).
Unless special tests are made of the hinge
moments of the control surfaces I it is usuallY'
not known with good accuracy what forces will
be necessary on the controls for the various
maneuvers, or whether the muscular efforts of
the pilot will be sufficient to handl_ the ship.
Svl -= fixed surl'ace area
Sv2 + Sv3 - movable surface area
S.,l + Sv2 + Sv3 - total control surface area
Sv2 - b8.Iance area
Sv3 - movable surface area aft hinge.
5
vl
+ Sv2 + Sv3 + Sv4 = total exposed surface
1.0 to 1.8 3.5 to 4
1
5
Typical (SAE Standard) stick, wheel, and
rudder control conventions are shown in Figl.
9 I 2, 9,3 and 9 ,4 and dimensions to fit the average
U. S. or British pilot are shown on p.AS,l, Since
the angular movement of the control surfaces is
determined by aerodynamic limits of effectiveness,
and the angular movement of the controls is llmit.ed
by the size of the pilot and cockpit, the limits
of mechanical advantage at the disposal of the pi-
lot for rotating the control surfaces are definite
and, as shown in Table 9,2, small. The pilot has
also definite limitations not only as to the max-
imum forces which he can exert on the controls,
but also as to limiting forces without fatigue
(also shown in Table 9.2.
Altitude Balancing
Control Control
(Elevators) (AilGrone)
C- 4/" 'E# __
.r- -.... -;:...


Fig.9.2. Convendonal stick control for ele-
vators and ailerons. (SAE)
'-J
....
oq

-4
-
l\)
...,
<
II>
'1
...
0
"
..
'""
::a
"
,.
0
....
'"
'1
...
.....
:.- ...

.. ::r
.ss
.... "-
...
...
i:l
S
...
..
...
....
'"
"
'1
....
II>
0

!'
a
0
.:

..
'<
0
....
2
3
5
6
THE AEIlOl'lANE
TAIL COMPARISONS
FEATURES OF DESIGN I, do. Supomarin.S".,r"., 2, do.
H_, 3. 1M &./loa P.J D<F-l, do. AI ......... " M. 109, S, do. J...!t<n J. 878; 6, ,Ire H<inl<J H. 113.
1O

THE AEROPLANE
II-(Twm Fins and Rudders)

FEATURES OF DES/GN .... 10,1 ... i& '" Bri'iJ, and Gmnan , ........ ,.,!omb<r. 7. ,Ire HanJl.. P.,. HampJ""
8, do. HuJ..; 9. IM.Ie H.>;JJ.J F*"-; 10, do. Dwroicr Da 215, II. do.M ... rr<hrOII J_,; 12. do. Junhz. Ju 86/(,
lIP



I-'
0
0
!

0
taJ

H
r:;l
!Z:
CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN
9:2
11 t1 thee nal&neing
Coatrol
(Elevators) (Ailerons)

..........
..... ,.

Fig.9,3. Conventional
Ri!:ht ."nd Lett Control
(ltudier)
I/!N#T
e- -....
. ..".

$- ,...., 1'tA*
Fig. 9, 4: Rudder bar con-
trol. (SAE)
.... h
"
,,;'
ss If'''I'YJ(

It" .O'!.'tE-(I' ...... ,,-r.7N nt".
;: - , ...
f'i,.9,5. TaU unit with movable surface!; \Itl-
covered, showing current U. S. practice. Courtesy
of Aircraft Enpineerinv.
Fig. 9:6. &lpennage ot the
Ryan ST, showing typical
construction. Courtesy
Aviation.
" .. ble 9 12
Small an4 slow speed. ships with control
wr!aces of the cCIDventional wes given in
'l'able 9 a 1 require DO aerod1namic balance to
keep the cClDtl'tll forces well within the limits
of Table 9 I 2. As the size and speed. increase,
some sort of balance or provision for power opera--
tion IIlU5t be provided. Either the simple aero-
sur1'ace balance (Fig.9.1) or the serve
tab with balance linkage Fig.8a30 Item 2) ia
definitely limited in ita reduction of control
forcea by the requirement that there shall be n9
overbalance under any conditiCIDs of flight, so
that for high speed ships there is a size limit
for manuall;r operated control aurface'SlProbabl;y
at about 50 to 100 tho1llland pounds gross weight).
These relationships m&7 be expressed roughly b;r !l
graph such as Fig. 9.7 in which St is the control
surface area in sq. ft. and v is the speed in mph
at which control is desired.
A careful aerodynamic anal;rais of the control
aurtaces is of course justifiable only on large
or important o1'C1ers. For many small ships, tail
surfaces are C1esl.glaeQ b)' trial and error (or b;r
wind tunnel. which is essent1all;r the same proceaa).
Yethods of analytical investigation of tentative
control surface layouts are presented in TA,
Chapa. 10-11. Such investigation should ehOlt'

20

balanele
I
10
20 so lCO 200
Fig. 9 a 7 Ranp of sises
and speeds for which aero--
balance is useful.
AIldea and F01'oe Limits or control Sf.tea Layout
- -
Ailerons Elevator
motion ot mova.ble sur- 0 to 15
* 15 to 30 .. !O to 20
taoe, deg. - 15 to 25 - 15 to 30
T.E.down = 'r.E.lert .. = T.D. down.
otal motion of con-
trol sick, deg. .0 t{> 50
* 20 to 25
--
.0 to 50
foroe exerted by HACA
-c=
1)llots lb 90
200 ____
tor stre
a.na.lys 111 JlaJt. 50 200 130
iA.B7-A.Ssc.3l.W- ItroBS 1ft. Kin. 3o..02(W-500 l!O 7o..0S{W-5OO}
torce NACA pilots rta 35 .00 95
"ax. foroe, TWA
3O(wheel) 75 lb 150
9aS CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN
that the proposed control surfaces provide ade-
quate stability and control with minimum drag.
Most control systems are operated by cables
running over pulleys as shown in Fig. 918 though
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ = = = = - - - ~ ~ ~ j
----
-- -- --; ......
" Fig. 9,8 Typical wheel-and-colurm cable oper-
ated control system. (From Langley).
on many of the newer airplanes these are replaced
by the more durable but heavier push-pull tubu-
lar control rods. (Controls which operate by
twisting a hollow tube have been found unsatis-
factory due to lack of rigidity). Details of a
typical control stick installation are shown in
Fie.9a9.
Fig, 9 19. Control stick details of Avro train-
ing plane (From Langley and "Aeroplane").
For airplanes designed for the use of automo-
bile-trained pilots, it may be worth while to
revive the proposal of the wheel rudder control
sketched in Fig. 9 , 10 This arrangement of
Fig.9110 Proposed wheel control for rlldder
on top of stick.
controls on a suitably designed airplane might
permit substantial reduction in the flying time
necessary for instruction. Yost pilots have to
unlearn their bob-sled experience before they
can steer an airplane with their feet. Since many
modern airplanes are directionally unstable on the
ground, a well-trained bob-sled driver who auto-
lIBtically talse-rudders frequently gets into a
ground loop. Another possible variation ot the
control system would be to have the wheel control
the ailerons as on the conventional wheel-and
colunn control, but have the colunn rotate about
a vertical axis tor rudder control. Several new
ships (1937-40) are eliminating rudders and using
the wheel control tor both ailerons and tront
wheel steering.
912. Flutter Prevention. A free control in
an air stream is dynamically equivalent to a weight
and spring, as shown in Fig.9 1'7, and flitters
in the wind like a flag. The addition of control
cables or a control rod increases greatly the
effective stiffness of the springs and the natural
frequency of vibration, but still leaves the sratem
subject to flutter. Moving the hinge axis aft, giv-
ing partial aerodynamic balance. results also in
an improved weight balance. decreasing the effec-
tive distance x in Fig.9111. With about 25%
(a)
Fig.9.11 A tree control surface and dynamically
equivalent weight and spring system.
aerodynamic balanee and a heavy leading edge,
perfect. statio balance is obtainable, as in Fig.
9112 In Fig. 9112 (a) the rigidity of the control
1"04 is represented by a heavy spring. Note in Fig.
9 ,12(b) that the syn,em still has a natural period
or vibration; the static balance simply gives
- ~
(a)
Fig.9,12. Statically balanced control surface
with partial aerodynamic balance.
minimum moment of inertia and maximum natural
frequency vibration. For ailerona, static over-
balance may be used to avoid torsional-flexUral
flutter of the wing.
For a rudder such as Fig,9 113 (a) Torsional
vibration of the fuselage about ~ n e axis shown does
not cause any rotation of the rudder about its
own hinge axis because the rudder is symmetrically
disposed about the fuselage axis. Such a rudder is
of course unusual, the more usual arrangement
being shown in Fig. ga13(b). For Fig. 9 ,13 (b),
vi'::lration about the z-axis induces vibration about
OONTROL SURFAOE DESIGN
9:4
the x-axis, which :in turn may :induce further
vibration about the z-axis. Such a rudder is
x1
I z
(a)

I Rudd (hi
ui. ,
Fig. 9 113 statically balanced rudder lIhich is
(a) dynamically balanced, and (b) dynamica.l.ly
unbalanced.
said to be dynamically unbalanced. A rudder is
said to be dynamically balanced when the product
of :inertia .Jrr,d(W!g)-pxz."o. The product of
:inertia of the rudder (with respect to fuselage
and rudder h:inge axes) and the torsional rigidity
of the fuselage are factors affecting the period
and critical speed of taU surface flutter,
though quantitative relationships between these
items do not appear to have been published. It
is, nevertheless, sometimes required that for air
planes hav:ing a high speed greater than 150 mpn,
the product of :inertia of the rudder shall be
less than S% of the product of rudder mass and
rudder area. This is implied by def:ining
Dynamic balance coefficient .. Pxz = Cdb
SrWr/
g
and requiring that C
db
0.08, where
s .. rudder area, sq. ft.
_ rudder weight, lbs.
To make such a calculation for an actual rudder,
it is convenient to consider the rudder divided
by the x and z axes :into four parts, the weight
and c.g. location of each part being specii'ied
as :in Fig.9114. For this particular rudder,
Fig.9114 c.g. location of rudder parts for cal-
culation of dynamic balance coefficient.
and C
db
may be calculated as shown :in Table

The rudder is frequently divided :into a
large number of parts; four is sufficient to
illustrate the method.
The rudder shown :in Fig. 9114is thus soon to
fulfill the requirement that C
db
0.08. Other
suggestions for reduc:ing the danger of flutter
are given in ACM 04.323 - 04.424.
TABU 9 a 3
Calculation of Product of Inertia of
Rudder shown :in Fig. 9 114
PartofW _
No. Wt. or -
part x z xz W'
2
lbs. :in. in. fI in.
A 12
B 4
C 1
D 2
10 18 +2160
-.3 20 - 240
- .3 - 5 + 15
10 - 4 - 80
5 -JOx48-
li40 :in.
2
Coefficient of dy-
namic balance
To1a1. 19-Wr -1855=!xzdW C
db
= 1855
1440xl9 ..0.068
Fig.9alS Tail surfaces of Boe:ing B-1?
Note that rudder axis is shii'ted aft for better
sp1n control. Tabs are for trim and control.
(Courtesy of Aviation).
Fig. 9 .16 Control surfaces of st:inson Model 105.
Note that fin and rudder are shifted forward from
usual position for better sp:in control. Courtesy
of Aviation.
9.3 Tr1Jnming Devices. In order for an air-
plane to fly straight and level at cruising spee1
with hands and feet off the controls, there must
be trimming adjustments for control about all three
axes. Trim:in roll and compensation for propeller.
torque, ronnerly taken care of by dii'ferences in
rigg:ing of the right and w:ings, is now usually
provided by small metal tabs on the ailerons which
9:5 CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN
can be adjusted only on the ground.
13 taken care of either
9 117 Tail surfaces of Douglas
DC-4 under construction. Triple vertical tail
is used to reduce overall height and
horizontal tail effectiveness. Note that movable
surfaces will be fabric covered to get good mass
balance about hinge axis. Photo courtesy of
Aviation.
adjustable stabilizer or a trimming tab on the
elevators. Directional E:.!m is usually provided
by rreans of a trinming tab on the rudder (the
fin is of course offset to align it with the
slipstream) The trimming tabs are usual.l.y
controllable from the pilot's cockpit by lIW3anB
of cranks similar to the window controls on an
automobile. On small airplanes, bungee devices
consisting essentially of springs and turnbuckles
to exert any desired constant force on the CDlH.I"O.ll
stick or rudder bar (when in the neutral position
are sometimes used instead of trinroing devices.
Tabs that are satisfactory for trinming
may of course also be used for JDOderate maneuvers
When tabs are used for control, they are
as servo-controls, or Flettners (because Flettner
developed the first servo-rudder for steering
Data for the design of servo-con-
trols are abstracted in TA p. 151. liore compre-
hensive data are also available in Ref. 1 (P. 91 S
Serve areas for preliminary layout of a trimming
flap are shown in Table9al. Typical trJ.=ing
tab installations are shoJm in Fig. 8a 30
9.4. Tail Surface Analysis. Rules
for the stress analysis of tail surfaces are con-
cisely stated in AB7-A, Chap. IV and recollI!lended
procedure is outlined in ACll-04.42. The follow-
:ing sample computati'Ons are outlined for use in
an airplane similar to Fig .116. A stick con-
trol connected to the elevators by means of a
push-pull rod as shown in Fig.911B will be
assumed. Since the standard angular motion of
the control stick is _ 2:t' (Fig. ABa2 and the
desired an2Ular motion of the elevators is c30
(see Table 9 12 for more usual values), the ratio
of lever arms in the control svstem linkage is
30/22. With an arbitrary convenient elevator
control horn length of 4", the length of the arm
on the control stick shaft is 30 x 4/22 = 5.5"
24"
-LJ .... 3J:.-

,.
\
-;'l
./ 24"

5.5"
f
Horizontal tail and control stick
connections for sample stress analysis.
(as shown). The elevator hinge location shown
puts about 1$% of the elevator area ahead of the
hinge line.
Tentative assumptions regarding details of
construction are as follows: (changes in the
interest of economy can be made in the detailing).
The horizontal tail will be constructed as a can-
tilever without external supports. The main (rear)
sp.'lr of the stabili'l:er will be continuous and
fastened to the fuselage at points 8" apart. The
construction will be similar to that shown in
Fig'. 9 116,
The stabilizer spar will be assume to consist
of two plain extruded dural tee sections riveted
to a thin flat sheet of dvral. Calculations will
be made to the approximate size of the
extruded tees to meet the DC specifications for
tail strength. The stabilizer will be assuoed
tapered in both plan form and thickness ratio, with
a mean thickness ratio of 8%. An ideal trapezoidal
horiZontal tail approximately equivalent to the
actual tail 1.s shown in Fig. 9 119. With a thick-
ness ratio taper from 10% at the root to 6% at the
tip, the stabilizer spar depth at the root is 0.10
x 42" .. 4.2" (See Fig. 9.21.
T
Z4"
+
""
-L
Fil.9119. ApproXimate effective area of hori-
zontal tail.
9:7
CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN
f1tttf1flffffftfftttfftt ttft}
Fig. 9123 Beam loads on aileron spar with three
hinge points.
limit loads for the desien of ailerons. as shown
in CAR 3 in Article 3.223.
The chord load
distribution for aileron design (CAR Fig.3-1O)
determines the neces$ary strength of aileron ribs
or equivalent members.
916. Control System St.ress Analysis. The
required limit loads for the design of control
systems (CAR 3.25) are conveniently sumnarized
in tabular form l.n Fig. 3: 11. It is well
to note that the movable control surfaces need
never be designed for greater loads than can be
applied by the control system. Proof tests and
operation tests of the completed system in a
scientific manner, are required (CAR 3.2Z)
but practical pilots have a rough and ready
method of testing which is even more exacting.
This consists of yanking, pushing, or kicking
each of the controls as hard as he can; if some-
thing breaks, it is not satisfactory. Cases are
on record where the pilot yanked at the flap con-
trol handle and it came off in his hand. The
airworthiness requirements aim to avoid this em-
barrassing situation.
Stress analysis of a control system involves
the calculation of margin of safety of numerous
small parts by the methods outlined in Chapter
V. Too great emphasis cannot be placed on the
desirability of drawing a free body: sketch for
each part analysed, showing the forces exerted on
the part by adjoining members. Failure to draw
free body sketches not only makes the analysis
difficult to follow, but the prinCipal single
cause of mistakes in stress analysis. Free body
sketches are acceptable but not required by CAR
3; it is implied of course that stress analysis
should be intelligible, and individual manu-
facturers have been censured for lack of intelli-
gibility in their stress analyses. The cause of
such unintelligibility is usually the engineer's
habit of writing down equations and tables with-
out sketches or explanation. Many engineers
can't understand their own stress analyses after
having laid them aside for a while. Free body
sketches of a number of typical control system
parts are shown in Fig. 9.24
-
(a) Control (b) stick and
stiok shllft
Fig. 9.24 Control System
-In (g) Rod

support };c::::l c:=1-

(f) Control rod
if
M-
(c) Control (d) Control (e) Control
pulley cr!lIlks horn
Fig. 9. 24 Free body sketches of elements of
control system.
The stick (a) wou.1.d be analysed as a beam; the
control stick shaft (b) is usually a hollow tube
subjected to twisting and bending. The pulley
(c) should be checked for the strength of its
bolts (or strength test might be substituted
because testing would be quicker than calculatinS_
The control cranks (d) and the control hom (e)
might be either analysed as beams of static
tested. The control rod (f) should be calcula-
ted as a column of length equal to the distance
between supporting pulleys (g). A few sample
calculations of this sort should be worked out
by the student (e.g. Prob. 91'1 (5).
9 a '7 Problems.
1. For your proposed airplane, refer to
TA Chap.10 and calculate data for plotting
curves of pitching IOOment vs.... - _ _ the complete
airplane (a) with flaps up, andl..(b) with flaps
down. Include scales for stabilizer setting,
elevator angle, and trimming flap angle; assume
that stabilizer is set to trim at cruising speed
and determine (c) whether _25
0
elevator angle is
sufficient to permit holding the airplane at
C
Lnax

2. For the rudder shown in Fig .9.25 find
the coefficient of dynamic balance as defined in
Art.9.2, assuming that the rudder has a uniform
unit weight of 1.5 lbs./sq. ft.


Fig. 9.25 Rudder dimensions.
3. For your proposed airplane, assume full
cantilever tail surfaces and estimate the maximum
section modulus of (a) the fin post and (b) the
stabilizer spar.
4. For the aileron shown in Fig.9126 assU1118
the loading shown and the spar section shown in
Fig.9121 (ref. p.A5120 Assuming that all
three hinge points are in the same straight line,
calculate the maximum bending moment and the min-
imum margin of safety if the material is l7-ST
dural.
OONTROL SURFAOE DESIGN 9:6
The horizontal tail loads on an
airplane .liKe i: 0 nave oe en calcu-
lated by tre method of CAR 3 in Art.6:7
and an ave:-age unit horizontal tail 1081
w has been determined. The chordwise
distribution of ; is specified in CAR
Fig. 3:8. The spanwise distribution
does not appear to be spec1fie d in CAR
3 but it is implied that the load per
toot of stabilizer spar is proportional
to the tail chord and this assumpt ion
will be mede here because it is approx-
imtely correct and not excessively con
servative.
For this sample calculation on a similar but
different airplane, a design load of 63.2 Ibs./sq.
ft. will be assumed. The rear stabilizer spar is
thus equivalent to a cantilever loaded as shown in
Fig. 9,20 which also shows shear and moment dia-
grams. The load per inch of tail span is 63.2 cil
144 where C I is the tail chord in inches. Equatiom
for unit load (w) in Ibs.!in., shear (S) in Ibs.,
and moment (Y) in inch-lbs. may be found in the
same manner as for the wing and give a maximum
bending moment of 2.),390 inch-lbs.
132#/1 18.4 If/in.
.
56':::; S

,,::3J
Fig. 9.20 Shear and Moment diagrams for sta-
bilizer s:pal'.
....
f
16
....
1.5" 8
'-r
1
t
..;'-
Fig. 9.21 Tentative stabilizer spar section
preliminary stress analysis.
To apply the equation Fb - Yy/I to the spar,
Fb must be the modulus of rupture if M is the
moment due to the design load. The modulus of
rupture for a built up d\lral beam such as it is
proposed to use is uncertain unless special testll
have been made on a beam of lIimilar proportions.
As a rule, the failure will be caused by buckling
of t,he compression flange, and the unit compres-
sive stress is likely to be somewhat less than
the yield point of the material. If' the
pression flange is adequately supported against
lateral bucklinE. it is safe to assume Fb _ yield
point. From p.A6b.1read a yield point of
32,000 Ibs./sq. in. for 17-St sheet at 0.002
set, note however in ANC-5, p. 5-6, that only
30,000 may be used for extruded shapes.
Hence 1. !L 78 with z 2 1"
y - Fb - 30,000 ..., -
as in Fig. 9119, calculate I _ 0.780 x 2.1 _
1.64. To get I 0iS for each tee section, se-
lect from pA5120a tee of area of about. O.8/l.0r2
'" 0.28 sq. in. Because or the llmited choice
of section sizes, A _ 0.50 seems to be the near-
est standard size for which a die is available;
it might therefore be worth while to use two
angles instead of a tee section. For the di-
mensions shown in I - 3.5; this spar
would have ample margin of safety though it
might be considered excessively heavy.
The foregoing calculations are of CO\lrse
not strictly "stess analysis" but design cal-
culations made in a manner consistent with the
required stress analysis. Having determined a
spar size, the stress analysis can proceed as
outlined in CAR 04.
915 Aileron stress Analyais. It is custo-
mary to make a tentative layout. for conventional
ailerons with an aileron span of 4C1f. of the wing
span and an aileron chord of 25% of the wing
chord, with the aileron hinge at 5% to 20% of the
aileron chord. A typical aileron is shown in Fig.
9122 Ailerons of these proportions will give

____ c L.-. 25C ===!
Fig. 91 22 Typical aileron with control linkage
inside of wing.
nearly as good lateral control as any other pro-
portions, though !!2 trailing edge ailerons will
give lateral control when the wing is stalled.
The cost in weight, drag, investment, and upkeep
of wing tip or leading edge ailerons should be
considered by the designer if unconventional
ailerons are considered.
Ailerons are cOlmlOnly fastened to the wings
by hinges or bearings at more than two points;
in such cases the aileron spar may be designed
as a continuous beam as shown in Fig. Unit
CONTROL SURFACE DESIGN 9:8

4;t= 3 ft + 3 ft--l- t
54 Ibs/ft
it"t * '. * * * *,. * * * * * t t t t ; t
ABC
Fig. 9' 26 Aileron dimensions and design load.
Fig. 9 a 27 Tentative aileron spar section.
5. For the control stick and portion of
aileron control system shown in Fig.9.28 (a)
find the tension in the control cable between
A and B. (b) Find the reaction at the pivot C
and select a suitable ball bearing to carry the
load. (c) Find the maximum bending moment
on the control stick and select a suitable size of
dural tube. (d) Find the pressure of the collar
D on the control rod E against the control stop
S. (Note: wing analysis should take account
of this stop pressure; stops must be provided
to avoid damage.
r
18"
1 I

c
Fig. 9. 28 Control stick and part of aileroo
control system.
... -,
J[J
Fig. 9. 29 Stabilizer spar
6. An 1 beam for a stabilizer spar (Fig. 9129
1s bent up out of 24 ST dural sheet 0.040"
thick with flange stiffeners every 6". Find the
maximum allowable bending lOOment.
918. References.
1. Reid, Elliott G., Control Flaps.
JAS Oct. 1934.
2. Acrc 687. Airplane Vibrations and
Flutter.
3. Root, L. E. Design Aerodynamics. Mimeo-
graphed notes for lectures at Calif. Inst. Tech.
4. Bergen, W.B. and Graphical
Solution of the Bending-Aileron of Flut-
JAS Oct. 1940 p.495.
5. Acre 714 Tests of Wind Tunnel Flutter
Model.
Fig. g: 3:>. Vee tail ot Beechcratt
Bonanza airplane. See pp A2d: 4 and
A2d: 5 tor design procedure for Vee
tails. Courtesy Aviation Week,
oct. 3,
CRAFTER 10
10:1
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
10:1 Introduction. airplane(landplane) must be
designed to-C;perete-as-both a land vehicle and an air
vehicle. It should prefera::ly be stable and c.ont1'ollable
in either medium. The lending gear is frequently called
on to wi tlcstsnG very higb loads on landing. ;;>eventy per
cent of the structural failures causing accidents are
attributec to the landing gear (rof. 2, p 10:17). This
means of course, not that the lc"nding gears are the weekest
parts of airplanes, but that the art of gentle land-
ings on rougb fields is tl:e most d ifficul t part of the art
of piloting airplanes. The landing gear should be designed
to star.d heavy landing loads, but there is always a limit-
ing height of drop and a limiting terrain rougbness for a
given speed which cause failures. One amateur pi10t
(Ref. 9, p 10:17) on "the serious limitations
of heavier-than-air craft and the care and terrific con-
centration needed to nick them up end Bet them down on
fields built around and between gas tanks, high tension
wires, railroad tracks, and other impediments."
10: 2 .il.rranfement of Wheels. Land vehicles have one,
two, tnree, or I"Our woeels (or skidS). An airplane snoltid
have as few w::eels as possible for best performance in the
air. gliders c >lIllJlonly have a single skid as sbown
in Fig. 10:1; to avoid drunage to the wings when the glider
leans over sidewise after stoPl'ing, wing tip skids (T in
Fig. 10: 1 are necesssry. airplanes have been built with
Fig. 10:1 Soaring single landing skid


,
-------c;- --
Fig. 10:2 Airp18ne with one wheel and one skid.
one wh eel end one sk id, as sho?:n in Fig. 10: 2 aEd wi th two
wheels (like a bicycle); such airplanes can of course only
be balanced while in motion, end pilots do not like them
as 8 rule because they give a feeling of instability in
spi te of their en dent aerodynamic advantage. Three wheels
is the least number which will give static stability on the
ground, so most airplenes have three wheels. Prior to
World War II most airplanes, like the familiar DC-:3, had
three wheels: two directionally fixed wheels in front and
a swiveling wheel or tail skid in the rear. This arrange-
ment is directionally unstable; unless the pibt is extreme-
ly careful in landing, the airplane will execute a "ground
loop" about a verticle axiS, often at high speed and causing
serious structural darnage. There is an additional hazard
of nosing over due to sudden application of the brakes. A
few landinl! gears of this type are still in use (in 1\l4>J)
but many DC-3x are in prOcess of bein
E
converted to "cross
wind" landing gears shown in Figures 10:3 and 10:4. In
this arrangement the main wheels of a DC-3 are pErmitted
to caster and the danger of a ground loop in a cross wind
lancing is lErgely eliminated (not completely because the
wheels are designed only 15 degrees caster ing angle).
The three wheel laI'ding gear with the main wheels
sli/Zh tly behind the center 0, gravity and a steerable nose
wheel has become t he dominant type in new design since 1940.
Any wheeled vehicle has much less reSistance to up-
setting than a four wheeled vehicle such as an automobile.
Some consideration is being given to foor wheeled landing
gears in spite of til eir weigbt handicap. For "flying auto-
mobiles" or "roedable airplanes", four wheels are chosen
ncaly as often as three (eg. Fig. 10:5).
The ground looping tendency of conventional airplanes
can be nicely demonstrated wi th a s",a11 model airplane such
as can be bougbt at 5 and 10 cent stores. The model should
Cross Wind Icrnding wheels outomatkaDy colfer throv;h
an arc of 15 I.ft 01' right permitting Ihtp to weathervClM
into relative wind whil. wheels roll directty doWft the n,mway.
Fig. 10:3 Goodyear castering wheels for DC-3 air-
planes. Courtesy aviation week.
(IJ hralo..e; (2) \"ee strur; (31 axle; (4) atl3('hing bolts; (5) roller hear-
ings; (61 king pin; {71 cam; (81 earn follower; (9) shimmy brake:
1,10 J wheel; (11) tire; (12) castering hub; (13) return
Fig. 10:4 MechaniflIl of Goodyear castering wheel for
DC-38. Courtesy The aeroplane, Oct. 8, 1948.
Fig. 10: 5 Fulton "airphibian" flying over New york
Oity. Wings, propeller and tail are de-
tachable for ground travel. Courtesy
Life, 17 October, 1949
have wheels Which roll and a tail skid. Roll it on
the floor, giving it a push so that it coasts about 10 ft.
If rolled forwards, it will always turn aroun!!; if rolled
backwards, it will roll strai gbt.
10:2
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
The landing gear sho'.n in Fig. 10:6 may be regarded
as essentially another type of four wheel landing gear
with two main ",heels under the fuselage and smll stabil-
izing wheels on the wing tips, though in the case ot Fig.
10:6, the Martin XB-51, each ot the main landing gear
items on the center line consists of a pair of wheels
and the actual total number ot wheels is six.
Fig. 10:6 Four wheel landing gear of Martin XB-5l with
small wing-tip stabilizing wheels. Variable wing in-
cidence is necessary on this airplane tor satisfactory
take-oft. Courtesy Aviation Week, Oct. 3, 1949.
The principal handicap of the tricycle type of land-
ing gear is the structural and mechanical di ff1culty ot
completely retracting the wheels as is necessary to clean
aerodynamic lines in flying. Consideration to the nec-
essity of retracting wheels leads to the selection of very
thin wheels for retraction into the wings as in Fig. 10:7
or very emall diameter wheels as in Fig. 10: 8.
. 1
Fig. 10:7. Northrop XF-89. Note unusually thin min
wheels aoo unusually small diameter double nose wheel.
Courtesy The Aeroplane, October, 1948.
IfIo.. . . ~
Fig. 10:8. North AmericanXFJ-l. Note unuBuelly snall
wheels tor easier retraction. Courtesy Aviation Jan.
1947. See Fig. 10:10 for close-up ot main wheel.
A philosophy of wheel selection is developing in
which it is conceived that wDaels should be ss SIlall as
possible consistent with the nature ot the surface on
wh ich they will operete. This abandons any attempt to
absorb shock throogh tire deflection and leads to the
use ot solid rubber or zero pressure (hollow rubbEr) tires.
It is conceived that shock absorption by tires is unde-
sirable because the rebound cannot be con trolled as in
a shock absorber and the function of tires as a shock
absorber is abandoned. The ultima te development d: this
philosophy ma;y lead to the selection of wheels much
f!Ilaller than anytl:ing in current use where opEration is
exclusively trom hard surface runwa;ys. For operation trom
sott ground, any tire, no matter how lerge, provides in-
adeuate bearing surface under some conditions, and
serious consideration is being g1 Ven til track-tread land-
ing gears of the type shown in Fig. 10:9. Airplanes 111 th
this type ot landing gear have been aetely set down in
plowed fieldS, and it is possible that a sneller version
ot the landing gear shown in Fig. 10:9 may tind use on
airplanes used by farmers and ranchers.
Fig. 10:9. Goodyear track-tread landing gear on the
Boeing B-50. Courtesy GoOdyear advertising in Aviation
Week, 19, Sept. 1949.
Various meens ot wheel retraction are shown on
pages 10:3 to 10:6. With the newer jet airplanes, the
retraction problem is somewhat simplitied because pro-
peller ground cl earllnce is not a problem
Fig. 10:10. Main landing wheel ot North American FJ-l
shown in Fig. 10:8. Brake is GcOdyear Single d1 sc
external brake. Courtesy AViation "Heek and Gcodyear
advert ising.
The landinq qear of the Airaeobra (abon)
takes the main load ihrouqh the arm at
"A" and the &hock at ''11''. It is hinqed
hut above point "C" and the wheels fold
inward towards the ~ t r of the ship,
LANDIID GEAR Dl!SIGN
"Sketch of mein .. 1teeI auem-
tily wlIiclo ret<O<fS ioto wiJtg
portell as sIIOWII at ttle rigilt
:t
End view of wing where it loins the center panel
One of the 4,stincH"'. features
of tlte n Airocoltra
H
is its 'Well.
~ Iri-qcle landing
geor Sketdted at the right
.is the AOH wheel assembly

10:3
Fig. 10:11. Details above Of retractable tricycle
landing gear of Bell P-39 airplane shown in amall
photo at left, Courtesy AViation, 1940.
Fig. 10:12. Unusually compact retractable tricycle
gear of USAF transonic Jet fighter, the Lockheed
XF-90. Designer "Kelley" Johnson in right photo-
graph. Cour tesy Aviatt on Week, May, 1949.
10:4
c
E
Each main IIIlhe Constellation has a slll;!,l" ofeo-pnf'lImati(
strllt fA! an axle jastrned directly to Ihe ,trill pistun. Dual
whuls are l/1ounted on the axle, 7.1:hlCh extends out on each .1 ide of the
I"trlll Earn whl'el has a multiple-disc type brake unll. Torque arms
If)) keep shock strut piston and cylinder in aiignment. [ 'ppa end of
shock strut fits into a fulcrum forging (C), and keys pret'ent
be/we('n the two parts. Two side struts (D"I fasten the/ulcrumfor!;ing
tv the strut. The fulcrum PIt'vis on se!f-aIiJ!,ninJ; needle bearings
IllOun!"d in brackets attached to lhe u'ing structure. Of particular in-
!ert'I"! is Lo(khet'd's drag strut, dt:i!t'loped after an Independent :!-:yfar
ofl/d.yoj ull tJlfcmIlll1ndinr:;-.l!,Pllr prohlems. Thl' drag strut IJssembfy
r()i!.lIs111lJ; of an upper (J and /ou,:er (Fl ,trut, is a hydraullr def'io:
;llIlil'.Ifati'i'ely damps Ollt I'xressit't' 1I1YfdilTi!,-gcur !'ibrulions that might
"llier7.C/II' resil/l in dynamir ut'erirll1ding of the gmr \'trudurt'. It f.1l.w
rt'lracll Ihe II/I' hydraulic aduu!i1lg cylinder rotalin.f!. Ihe
j!rul, Ihl' strut {/sSf'mbly rind the gear fnr-
and lip lilt!! !he 'i.i.'hal well . ..t down-lork strut pil'oled at
lower i'nd to the connection between upper and hru.'er drag struts, pre-
I'r'nts folding of the strut. In locked P(Jsition, a hook on uppe-r end of
dou'n'-Iock stnt! enJ;ages with a shaft mounted in wing structure. A
"pring-Lauded latch in the hook keeps dlYdm-lock engaged un/lilatcn is
released by the dO'U!TI-lock release hydraulic cylinder. The gear is
held in retracted position by an up-lock assembly boiled to wing
front beam. The up-lork jaws hook uround a (1) tt> the
shock strut. The up-lock is operatt'd mt'chantcally and IS released
h ....-druu!zraUv. A. stop in the landing-gear selector t'alt'e linkage pre-
retraction oj the gear '!L,ken the airplane is on lhe
ground. The stop is uitMra'l1'n by a solenoid, which energized
7.J..hnlt'l.'N the torque arm switches on the left and 7If:ht main gears art'
udualed by [ams on torque arm shafts. The rams operate the
sU'i!ches unlv 'When 'Weight of the plane is off the gears. H.'hen gears
/Ire fo[ked I/.p, the circuit through the main and nose ,gror up-lock
st.:/lrhes i, brokfTI, and the sotennid is de-energi-;ed.
38
WNDINJ GEAR DESI GN
A
Constellation
Nose Gear
Constellation
Main Gear
Fig. 10:13. Deteils of landing gear retraotion
far Lockheed Constellation. Courtesy Aeronau-
tioal Engineering ReView 1949.
Lockheed Constellation
Thf' druK or retrarlin.1!, <;trlll L(){'khl't'd Constella/IOII
nose I!,cor ronsists 0./ an IIpper (A, (B) dmg strllt Pi;'o!/'d
tOl!,ethn, LU",",'fT end of tilt' drag slrllt dirrrtly on Iht' shork
'ii.'htle upper end vI upper drill!, Plt'ols 011
J//ounted lin Ihat urI' bo/ted to
,,/rllr!url'. tht' rylwder (I/tarllilioil i.'>
pl"i'otnj, I.t top of upper dfilK strut. Tv r/'trurt Ihe
\ C) retmets, rotlltlnl!, upper dra!!, s/rl/I.
rctra;tlTli!, I!,ear IIfr<lard and to rt"lr mto nose ,,,}hed ..;/ell.
shafl 'Drtall j L, ul!uched to !071'I'T Old of upper drug jlrllt
h ":Iorl att.uhinK, struts. T':.L'o spring-h'adt'd links {.un-
th" lo(k sh..lil to lou'l'r strul . . 1 ,,/hed/II the jil/,ltt
,Ialllln IS (onnt"cted by (uoles tu Il (ol/trot i.'all-I" IJnd
II1l'chf.1nism on the nose K,t'lIr strut I() steer the plaut' 71.'hile IS on
!!,r()und. Turning the sleeTing u"hel'l actuates the steCT control .'11/-;'('.
Pressure is then dlTt'(!ed to upposlte oj the
(EI, turning the u'heeis. In the ",,'ent broken wole,
Ihe staring u'heei, a rentalng jpTlng wfo the
rt'!urn the to neutral (shimmy damping position J.
DOWN LOCK GuiDE
H
/
RESTRIGTOR
(COLORED RED)
FLUID SUPPLY FROM
LANDING GEAR DOWN
PRESSURE
A
10:5
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
Grumman Mallard
Beechcraft Bona07.a \1odel 3;
Fig. 10:15. Retractable tricycle geer of Beechcraft
Bonanza. Inward retraction intQ wing root advantageous
because of ,ing depth available there. Courtesy

Main londing gear of Grumman. Mallard amphibian is
retracted by hydraulic iack (A), with wheel being swung
up and inward through pivot points (8), and (e! and (D)-
at which point down lock is located-and wing attach-
ment point. Hydraulically landm9 gear down
lock is shown in detail skelch at right,
lig. 10:14. Grumman Mallard and sane details of its
ma in landing gear. Courtesy aviation and Aviation
lI'eek.
The lallding gear of the Summit Model
HMS (below) is retracted by means of the
worm and quacircmt qeax. The worm is
hatld operated by the torque lube from the
fuselaqe and an inqeniou5 shock cord
counter balance relieves any load from
the pilot.
Fig. 10:15.1. ID3nua1 retrection gear for
light airplane. Courtesy Aviation
10:6
UNDHiG "EAR DESIGl'I
TEMCO Swift 125
Adel landing gear used on Globe Swilt retrocts into
Fig. 10:15.3. Simple manual ~ well i
ust
ahead of main sper. Designed for lood
traction gear for pulling wheel foctor of 4.33 on I,7S0-lb. plane, this gear occom-
into nacelle or small 2-engine air- modates stand",.d 6.00 x 6 tires mounted on spot-
Plane,,\ourtesy Aviation. type wheel drums.
The landin9 q.at of the
Hawker Hurricane is re-
tracted as ahoWll in the dia
qram at the riqhL By turn
ing the homonta.l tOrqu.8.
tube. as shown, the wheel La
awun9 first to po.ition "A"
th*D by further tumlnq it is
.""UD;' baek to position "B".
Courtesy Aviation
~ Fig. 10:15.2. Globe
(later Tn4CO) Swift
and detail of it.
main wheel retraction.
Courtesy ATiation, Jan.
11147.
Fig. 10:15.4
Left side of Ryan FR-I Fireball main lond-
ing gear. Gear retracts outboard into wells
in outer wing pane! in 5 sec. Normally
hydraulically operated, landinq gear is pro-
vided with two emergency standby systems.
Courtesy Aviation,
July, 11146.
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
Fig. 10116 Retractable tricycle landing gear
(a) Wheels down. (b) 1la.in lileels hal!
retracted. (c) Yam wheels retracted.
See p. 1-11 regarding stereo viewer.
10:7
Ld'lDU;C GEAR DESIGN
10:3 Selection of Tires and hheels. For air;>lanes
with retractable landing gears like moat of those shown in
sketches or photographs on pages 10:2 to 10:7, the problem
of fitting the wheel in tee space available in the wing
or fuselage when retracted is the prinCipal consideration
in selection of a wheel and tire, and mOB t of the wheels
shown on those pages must be regarded as makeshift com-
promises between the airplane designer and the tire rrenu-
facturer taking account of availability of tires. It is
possible trBt, if the airplane structural designer
also designed the tires and wheels and v.orked a combina-
tion out for maximum economy, the wheels used would be of
much smaller diameter than any that are shown. To make a
small pneumatic tire to carry a very high load
many plies of fabric and great thicknesses of rubber
approeching a sclid rubber tire. 1.. aolid, rubber tire
absorbs 11 ttl" of the land ing impact but this cannot be
considared a serious handicap since shock absorbers are
more effective for this purpose. The only reason for not
sbandoning the rubber tire completely for airplanes oper-
ating exclusively from hard surfaced runways 14 that the
tire does provide s replaceable wearing surface that ab-
sorbs high frequency vibrations generated in rolling over
e concrete surface. Tires like Fig. 10:17 or 10:18 such
as have formerly been used only for tail wheels may, when
properly redeSigned, thus be the optimum solution for hard
surface landing wheels for many airplanes, retraction
difficulties considered. Fig. 10:12 is illustrative of
this trend.
Fig. 10:17. SOlid and Fig. 10:18. Solid rubber tail
hollow (zero pressure) wheel tire.
tail wheels From Goodrich 1942 Catalog
Many light airplanes, however, are still (1949) being
built with non-retractable lending gear consisting of two
Imin Wheels and a tail wheel like the airplares Shown in
Figures 10: III an d 10: ro. In such airplanes, the aerody-
namic drag of the tire (Fig. 10;19) or its fairing (Fig.
10:20) Imy be a major consideration in tl:e deSign or
selection of tires.
],erodynamic drag data on tires suitable for a 3:100 lb.
airplane are shown in Fig. 10; 21. The pressure ti re
(a) became obsolete about 1930 but is now (1949) being
conSidered again for retractable landing gears. The
other three types of tires in Fig. 10:21 (b,c,d) are
listed by Imnufacturers (for example, Goodyear, 1948) as
being inacti ve for new designs. Data on such tires are
gi ven on pa ges A!5: 22 to ... 5: 25.
(aJ
L \lscom be Observer
Fig. lO:lll. 'l'ypical non-retractable landing
gear wi th maIn wheels and tail wheel.
Courtesy Aviation "eek 28 Feb., 1949
Piper PA-14
Fig. ro: ro. Typical non-retractable landing
gear wi th faired Im in whe els and tail skid.
Courtesy Aviation Week 28 Feb., 1949.
Dloo 9.;
.':glOI21 Outlines of various of tiro.,
with dimensions suitable for a
3,COO lb. "'irplane
J
and drag at
100 mph. With st reamlined fairing,
low pressure tire ga.ve D
100
_ 5.4
(NACA Rep!.. 485).
A typical ccmpression test for a low
pressure tire l'ti.th various air pressure is plotted
(deflection vs. load) in Fig. 10122
Fig.10122 wd-deflection gr'ph for Goodrich
6.50-10 tire. Load rating 1,000
Ibs. per tire
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
A desirable inflation pressure for air-plane tires
must take account of the maximum Ehock load and
shock energy. (Tire wear, which is the principal.
criterion for automobile tire inflation pressure,
is usually a negligible factor for airplanes. For
autanobiles, a compranise between riding cantort an
economy dictates the lowest pressure which will not
give excessive wear). It is custanary to ra.e air-
plane tires at such a load that the tire will be 1/
nat when carrying the rated load. With a linear
deflection-load graph, this rating would pennit
limit landing load factor of 3.0 to canpletely
flatten the tire; with a typical. non-linear graph,
such as shown in Fig10123the nattening load fac-
is 3.5 for typical. low pressure tires to 4.5 fo

9
8

3
o 2 4 6 8 10
Fig.l0a23 Comparison or load/weight ratios
for various types of tires.
airwheels. This is the range of minimum actual.
applied load factors for design (A6. 0 11 ) ,
so the 33% nst. rating may
be considered satisfactory for normal. airplanes.
If, however, unusually high landing load f&ctors
are contempla.ed (as in providing for landing fran
a stalled glide), then either the tire ratings must
be reduced or more air pressure must be carried in
the tire. The upper limit of air pressure vtlich can
be carried in a given tire is that beyond which the
tire will blow ollt before it is completely flattened
The pressure rise for canplete flattening is W:Jl""'-L.LV
20% to 30% of the rated pressure; the blowout
strength for new tires is usually considerably more
than 4 times the rated pressure, but the factor of
safety against blowout when canpletel.y flattened
of course decreases with the age of the tire. To
permit carrying higher pressures, Goodrich and Good-
year ma!<;e a stronger ("heavy duty" _ H.D.) tire in
addition to the regular tire. For a given load rat-
ing, heavy duty tires are likely to be smaller and
lighter, but absorb less shock. For unusually high
landing load factors, heavy duty tires are probably
more economical than regular tires. Economical.
design of landing gears requires consideration of
weight, drag, and cost of both oleos and tires to
meet a given specified vertical velocity and landing
load factor.
Comparison of tires and wheels alone with-
out reference to supports, shock absorbers, and con-
trol equipment is of course inconclusive, but the
studies presented in Fig10
l
23and].01241.re
suggestive as to qualitative relationships between
the significant factors (Adapted from Ref. 11, p.
10,17 by substituting air wheel data for data on
high pressure tires). Fig10121is a comparison
of whee1 weights for a givsn rated load; canparisoo
1019
200
Shoek absorbed
..
at 75'f. maxillWlll
defl eet! on,
;'
1000 in.lbs.
,;li


Streamline (6
-'-
V
'I
,
Ratod load
100
so
20
10
5
1000 lbs.
20 2 4 6 8 10
Fig.10124 (;omparison of shock absorption by
various types of tires.
is made for wheels without brakes and such wheels
are practically obsolete. A canparison of wheels
with brakes would perhaps give different results.
Fig 10 24shows that airwheels are markedlY superior
as regards shock absorption; for a given specified
shock absorption, lighter oleos can be used with air-
Tibeels than with other types of tires. It should
be noted, however, in Fig10121that airwheels are
definitely inferior as regards drag (But note in
Table10a1that H. D. Airwheel is superior). Air-
wheels or LP tires with paDts are likely to be
superior to streamlined wheels as regards both
weight and drag of the canplete instaJ.l.ation, and
definitely superior as regards shock absorption.
For wheels that are to be retracted, low pressure
tires may make a more economical installation be-
cause they fit better into the available space.
It is probably that no single type is superior
under all conditions.
Airplane tire costs are much greater than
automobile tire costs because of the small pro-
duction. The approximate cost of airplane tires
per pound is shown in Fig 10 a 25as a function of
$1000

Tire

cost
.0 per
pound
""',
1
$100
"""""'"",--
10
No. of ti ree produced
1"1
10 100 1000 10
4
0
5
Fig. 10.25 Approximate cost of airplane tires
as a function of tire production.
number of tires of a given type produced. With an
estimated production of less than 1000 tires of
any given size by a given manufacturer, and with the
current retail price of about $2.00/lb. for air-
plane tires, it is evident from Fig 10 I 26that the
manufacturers of airplane tires are not making any
profit on this line of goods, and that they can con-
tinue the business only because of profits on auto-
mobile tires.
10:10
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
As an example of preli:uine.ry wheel !l.nU tire
selection calcul"ltions, tires vdll be selected fo:-
an airplane simlaI' to Fig. 1.6 For a nose-high
llli1ding of this airplnne, iJractically 9.11 of the
weight will come on the main l'iheels. For a gross
weight of 2,000 Ibs., eacn ';heel should be rated at
a little over 1,000 Ibs. Select tires of this nt-
ing from pages A5.22-A5.26tabule.tinf: Qat'> as in
Table 8:1 below:
Ref.
Page
15.22
15.23
A5124
Ref.
Page
A5122
A512,i
A512
Table 8:1
Data for Selection of
and hbeels for Airplrule sim-
ilar to Fig. 1:4
Tire Nom5nal Load
Type Size Lbs.
LP 6.50-10 1300
Str. 2411 1600
HP 26x.5 1350
Ilated

,-,/In.
25
26
50
Vlt. ,lbs Drag, Over-all Inch
Tire!: Tube
D100 O.D . Thick
26.6 18.4 21.8 6.6
32.2 12.0 24.0 9.8
23.6 14.8
257 4.9
Abbreviations: LP = Low pressure, Str = streamline,
HP - high pressure.
For this particular case, assuming that one
type of ,meel and brake combination will be used for
each of the 3 different tires, the moat promising
selection appears to be the streamline tire if the
wheels are not retracted. For retractable landing
gear, the choice would depend on ltJich tYDe best .ffi:.s
the space available for retraction.
Inrake
pedal
connection
10.4 Brake Installations. Practically all mod-
ern airpl1Ules have brakes; it seems likely that air-
planes vrithout brakes will Su<1n be as obsolete as
automobiles without brakes. Brakes not.only facili-
tate ground handling, but may save your life in an
emergency. Since airplane wheel brakes are not
applied frequently or for long intervals of time, a
small braking area is sufficient: the heat dissipatic
considerations of brakes are not involved
in nirplane brakes. (Airwheel brakes have, however,
been rumored to be unsatisfactory because of over-
heating when used excessively on military airplanes
taxying in formation). Goodyear airwheels are built
\\i.th a very conpact multiple disc type brake in the
hub. Brakes for types of airplane wheels are
usually of the shoe type similar to automobile
brakes. The hrmng torque on the wheel is t rans-
mitted to the landing gear by means of a flange
with a of bolts spaced approximately equally
on a circle. Brakes are commonly operated either
mechanically (by a cable which passes over a series
of '11111eys to the brake pedals) or hydraulically.
Hyc.rau
1
ic bri'tke mechanism is used almost exclusive 1 y
on the larger wheels, and its use is spreading to
the smaller wheels also. A cable brake control
system is probably more both in first cost
and service cost than an hydrauliC system, though
the cost of materials to the airplane manufacturer
is less. The master cylinder for an hydraulic brake
control mechanism is shollTl in Fig.l0a26
,.........," ... Filler cap
Fig.10a26 Master Cylinder for Hydraulic Brake
Uontrol. (Reproduced fran Goodyear
Photograph)
B.1III1m
A
(<<) (6)
cig.10a2'1 "ketches showing method ot operation
at Goodrich "Expander TubeR brakes.
(a) Deflated. (b) Inflated.
A expander tube, B brake block,
C _ brake dI'1D, AA braJdng fluid.
10:11
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
1015 ArronP!en$. of Wheel Support s. Air-
plane lIbeels are usual.ly attached to the fuselage
either by a single cantilever support (Fig10124
(a) or a tripod support FidO'24(b), (c).
Photographs of typical installations are shown
from Fld012o-10136rn FiglOa28(d) note that
two tripods have been replaced by a wire braced
quadruped.. This type was widely used in 1914-1918,

.
(b)
o
" \ . .
"'- (d)
crose braced
o quadrupod
FiglO a 28 Principal. types of !lon-retractable
wheal supporls.
and wit"h the simple addition, of modern shock abo-
sorbers is found econQmical in modern British
fighting ships Essentially the
same type of bracing is commonlT used for each
wheel of a landing gear Tihich ie attached to the
wing of a low-wing monoplane, aa shown in Fig. 29
Fig.l0a29 Modification of FiglOa28:d) to
support singl.e 1!heel.
(see Fig10135 10a32t'or photographs) and this
type can also very conveniently be made retract-
able (see FidO.40 10141 10.4Z
or
photographs)
7ig. 10::30. Retracted lmding geer of
Ryan Navion, originally developed by
North 1ull9rican, Com.-tesy AViation,
Feb.
J
1947.
Fig. 10: 31. Droppable landing gear
dolly of Messerschmitt Me-163. Skid
1s extended for landing. Courtesy
AViation, Jan., 1947.

.uanalllg gea.r constnactiOl1 of the
Wibault-Penhoet 283 low win( mono-
pl.sne. Sketch by l16ud.troy from
L' A m-nn<l"!',
Fig. 10:33 Goodyear Single disc-brake magne-
nesium wheel on Northrop XF 7-U tailless
twin-jet fighter. Courtesy Aviation Week
4 April, 1949 and Goodyear Advertising.
10:12 LANDING GEAR DESIGN
Fig.10,34 Typical tripod landing gear.
122. Photo from
LI Aeronautique.
Fig. 10.35 Landing sear details for
Delt01 tine 332 low wing
monoplane. S1!'6tch from
L'Aeron&ut1que.
Fig.10a36 Mechanism of the Dowty wheel shock-
absorbing unit. llounting of the shoel.:
absorber on the wheel permits a rigid
support, but may inere:;.se the unsprun
weight for a given load eapacity and
oleo tz'ovel. Courtesy of Aero Digest
LANDING GEAR DESIGN 10:15
To illustrate a method of choice between
various possible landing gear arrangements, cal-
culations will be made to provide data for a choice
between a cantilever wheel support and a tripod
wheel support for the same airplane for Ylhich tires
were se1.ct.ed. Such calculations can of course
not be made until shock absorber calrulations have
been made, but the results of shock absorber cal-
culations can be included and the calculations
themselves will be presented later (Art. 1016
The vertical position of the center line of
the wheel axle relative to the fuselage ltIould be
such that, when the tire is flat md the shock
strut canp1etely compressed, the fuselage will
still clear the ground by several inches (say 3").
Reference to the table of tire dimensions (p. A512
sholl'S that the norma.l rolling radius for the tire
tentatively selected (Goodrioh 24" ITtreamline) is
9.8", and the radius when nat is about 6.8", so
that when the tire goes flat, the axle drops 9.8
6.a - 3".
(Art 10,6 indicate that it would be aesirab1e
to have the lIheel move vertically through a dis-
tance of about 10" relative to the fuselage lilile
the shock strut:. is being canpressed.
The horizontal location of the wheel center
line relative to the fuselage center line 1tI0uld
be such as to give ample late!,pl distance between
the wheels ("tread"). For airplanes in lilich the
wheels are attacMd to the the
wheel location should be sunh as to produce the
most econaniaal wing as far as stresses due to
landing loads are concerned; (o.g. Fig. 1,6 Fig.
10,14etc.) for a cantilever landing gear support,
economy of material and labor dictates as small
a tread as will give satisfactory resistance to
blowing over in a side wind or leaning over on a
turn while taxying. The tread is from
12% to zrtI, of the span, with 16% as an average
value. For a proposed airplane similar to Fig.
116but with a cantilever wheel support, a tread
of 6 ft. (16% span) would probabl,y be satisfactory
because the wing loading is rather high. A tread
of 0.13 b was considered unsatisfactory on the
C-W Jr. airplane, "ig.l.1 because it blew over
rather easily in a wind (25 mph), but:. this was
chiefly because of the loll' wing loading (less than
6 lbs.!sq. tt,.) For light airplanes, Teichmann
(ref. 12, p.10.l'suggest that lines thru c.g. and
wheel contact points make 25
0
angle lIith vert,ical.
The foregoing considerations dictate the
center line locations shown in FiglOl3'7which
shows the tentative alternative layouts. Prelimi-
T
nary strength calculations to determine the approxi-
mate size and weight of the members may be made as
fellows. A free body sketch of the oantilever land-
ing gear with the requirprl landing load factor ot
4.3 i8 shown in Fig 10, 38 The bending IIlOIII.8llt on
Fig.10.38 Free body sketch of port.ion of 1ancU.A8
gear.
the cantileTer at the reaction is K _ 4300 x 20 _
e6,OClO II" (dimensions are based on estimated
approximate size of tube of 4"). Assuming that the
cantilever wheel support, is a tube of SAE U30 steel,
use an allawab1e stress of 5O,OClO lI/in.
2
and neglect
the stresses due to P and Q which will be small
compared with those due to 11. The approximate
section modulus required is then
+ -+ - 1.72 in}
Referring to the tables of proporties of round
tubes (p. A2:10) note that a 4-3/4" 11 gage tube
has the ample section modulus of 2.19, but this
may not be excessively heavy when the torsion due
to application of brakes is also considered. The
unit weight of the tube is 6.27 lbs./.f't.., but it
can be swaged (forged) down to about 1-1/2"-11
gage (wt. 1.77 1bs./tt,.) at the wheel, and the
total weight of the tube is about
627 x 2 parts x 2 ft.. _ 16 lbs./ wheel
To get the weight of the complete landing gear
structure, fittings and the shock struts must of
course be added.
(b) Tripod

(a) Cantilever
Front
View
Fig.10,3'7 Alternative landing gear layouts for
single engine airplane similar to
Fig. 1:1.
10:14
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
For the triped landing gear, lree bodv
sketches (two views) are shown in FiglOl59In
C
6.3"
13"

Fig. 10:59 Free body sketch of tripod landing
gear.
making a preliminary analysis of this structure,
it is convenient to assume that two of the members
(e.g. B and C) are two force pieces, and that the
other (A) takes all of the bending (and twisting
for braked landing). There are then 5 unknowns
(A , A
y
' A , B, and C); four equilibrium equations
ma' be written = 0, MX = 0), and one
geometrical between components of A
(Ax = 5A
z
/13), and the problem is statically de-
tenninate. Writing these equations permits solving
for the loads on each member; members B and C can
be designed as columns; one member, say A, must be
a beam-colUIlU1 for the braked landing condition.
Results of such calculations will usually
usually show that the tripod is lighter, but of
course the cantilever has less drag. A compre-
hensive canparison of the two structures must take
accoWlt of the effects of weight, drag, first cost,
and upkeeD cost on the cost of air travel.
10: 6. Shock Ab sorber s. Moe t roo d Ern
airplane s are equipped with some kind at
shock absorbing device in addition to
the tires to permi t rough landings wi th-
out damage to the airplane structure.
Typical shock absorber s are sketched and
described on pp. 10:14.2 and 10: 15. Shock
absorbed in tires makes the airplane
iounee. Shock absorbed in oleo-pneuma-
tic absorber s need not. There is some
que sti on as to whether pneUD'8 tic t:ir as
have any proper place on an airplane wi th
properly designed shock absorber s 11' the
airplane is to operate exclusively from
hard smooth surfaces. See CAR 3.241 and
3.3611 for current (lg4g) regulations re-
garding landing loads and drop tests.
Fig.10:41(Right)
Ret ractable landing
gear for Junkers
Ju60. Photo from
L'Aeronautique.
Fig. 10:45
nheel retraction into
Fokker
FXX airplane. Photo
from Digest.
Fig. 10:40
Douglas Airliner.
Photo from Aero Digest.
F1g.10142
Retractable wheel for
Boeing 247 air-
Digest.
Fig. 10:44 Ylheels of the Potez 53 airplane partly
retracted. Photo from L'Aeronautique.
[
L
[
[
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
"'-
""
"-
\
\
\
\
\
\
\
I
I
/J
10:14.1
HYDRAULIC
UNDERCARRIAGE
MECHANISMS
A Lockheed Design
Til. iIlwiratioru on thu. PC1l<2 d<pI'ct an application 0/
Lo&,I...Jd.,itn<d mechanisrru to til. tricycl, UIItln-
ctITriat< 0/ a modern bomber. Th, two lar,. Jrawinp
.how (I</t ani emtre r .. ""tively) th< no.. wh.tl of the
tricyd, Ct>m/JOf1<1It ani on, of the main lanJu., wheeb.
tOfdhc with their hyJraulic ranu anJ r.tractu., Iinltat<.
At the bottom of each PCII< th, leotrII!try of the ~
i. rhown.
Jther Jrawinl' illwtrat. til. two-way hyJraulit ranu, the mechanical locJ"ing
J.vica which locate the wh.eb in tith., fully extenJ" or fully retract .. paaitioru,
the airJr",,/k urut whicJ. absorbs M. on lanJing or taxyi., anJ til. u.,eniow
~ blow-off w.,.. This permiu oil circulation from the IIlPP/y pump at
mazi_ JJilJt.ry ani uro amtra-preuu" with a maintain .. 1,200 lb. "roice
prwur, in the hydraulic ocaunulato".
ON '!'H15 LEG iliE
LOCKING PIN TRAVELS
ON THE PEIPHERY OF THE CAM
STARaOAlO
CUT AWAY ~
UP l.OCK - ACTING AS A
PIVOTING LOCK fOi THE
lEnACTEO POS mON
7Mt m.D!NG ACTION ~ THt vt FRONT llG
Fir.10:44.1 Deta.il. of Loekheed Landin,: Gear.
Courtesy of "Aeroplane".
10:14.2
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
LOClCIMG SLEM
LOCKING PIN ~ ..
HINGE
"
THE f'OLDING ArnON C*' TIll UI'!DERWiIAG!:
11r:.10a44.2Detalls of Lockheed Landing Gear
(Conttd.) Courtesy of "Aero.
plane-,
LANDING GEAR DESIGN 10:15
There is, however, an incipient danand for a land-
ing gear Yihich !lJJ. permit a stalled glide into
the ground; such a landing gear would be
cularly desirable for the airplane of Fig. 1:6
because the possibility of a stalled glide with
good lateral control is one of the distinquishing
features of this airplane.
A shock absorber consists essentially of a
(compressed air, coiled steel, or rubber
disc) to absorb quickly the kinetic energy due to
the vertical component of landing velocity, and a
friction device (oil or jrake band) to dissipate
this energy slowly as the shock strut. expands atter
being compressed. Three types of oil-da.mped shock
struts ("oleos
ll
) are shown in Fig. 10. The oleo-
pneumatic is the lightest ot the three arid
the least expensive in the long run, though it has
the disadvantage of having to be kept air tight
and filled with compressed air. "or a given amount
of energy absorption, the rubber disc device is
considerably lighter than the steel spring, though
it occupies more space, has more drag if external,
and requires frequent replacement:. of the rubber.
The details of construction of one of the most
widely used shock struts are shown in Fig. 46.
f
ir
va ve

Oleo-rubber Oleo-spring
Fig. 10:45 DiagralMtic sketches of three types
or oleo strut 5 (from Langley).
The operation of the strut on landing is described
by the mamU'acturer as follows (quoted from Bendix
Aviation (,;orp. advertieing): "Upon landing, the
oil is forced through the orifice by the dowmraI'fi
movement of the piston into the upper chamber
canpressing the air above the oil but. passing
freely through the nap valve on the top of the
snubber tube mounted above the orifice. As soon
as the stroke is completed, the compressed air tends
to force the oil back, Yihich closes the flap valve
and allows the oil to be mal:.ored slowly out throu&b
the small holes at the bottom of the tube, thereby
controlling rebound. The size of the holes may be
varied to suit the type of rebound eharac1ieristic8
desired.-
"Each type of atrut is laboratory toested jR an
Air Corps type drop rig which simulate6 service con-
ditions as it tests the assembly of strut, wheel,
and tire." Results of a typical drop test are
shown in Fig 10:45 these were obtained with a re-
Fi8'.lO,46
Bendix PneudraUlic" shock strut. (lett)
and typical drop test results (above).
Sketch and graph from Bendix advert is-
W.
8
J I
36- free drop
n uoad
/'
""\
6
factor;
,
5
I
.. free drop
.- ......
I

j
/'
1---__

free drop \
V

1
Stroke, inches
/
\.
\
,
J
/
o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 B
10:lS
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
recording accelerometer. The area under each
graph is a measure of the energy absorbed. It is
customary to so proportion the metering pin that thE
energy absorbed will be 65 to 85 per cent of the
product nWs, Where nW = applied load and s = oleo
stroke; 80 per cent may be assumed for a good strut
(Ref. 2, p. 10:17
It is customary to design the shock struct
to absorb sufficient energy to withstand the mini-
mum specified drop test unless particularly severe
landings (such !l.S stalled glide landings) are con-
templst.ed. Calculation of the necessary drop test
height to reproduce the effect may be made as
follows. The airplane at the instant when the
Wheels first twch the ground, is traveling with
a velocity V along a path inclined at an B
with the horizont!l.l as shown in Fig. 10&47 The

Fig.l0:47 Airplane l<::'1ding from Etalled glide
at inst'lJlt of contact ;,-ith the gro1.L."l.d.
kinetic anergy of the airplane is Vvy2/2g
.)
where V
z
and Vx are the vertical ana
horizontal components of velocity respectively.
Art.er the tires and shock strut have been can-
pressed, the airplane has no vertical velocity:
her!.ce an amount of energy equal to VN z 2/2g has been
absorbed (by the structure, air on wings, lfhock
struts, and tires). This same amount of energy
would have to be absorbed if the airplane dropped
vertically through a height h such that Wh _
YN
z
2/2g. For an airplane similar to Fig.l:S in a
stalled glide V _ Vs 66 ft/sec. (45 mph), with
naps down so that the gliding angl, is sin-
l
1/6,
Vz = 66/6 = 11 rt../sec., and h = /2g = 11
2
/64.4
= 1.87 rt.. = 22.5".
Minimum drop test requirements will
never be great (max. = 18.7" in CAR
3, App. A6a).
The sample Calculations
are based on a normal tir e deflection ot
1.95" and an arbitrary maximum inertia
load facter of 2.0 (less than the legal
maximum in the interest of comfortable
landings). CAR 3 does not permit assump-
tion of full wing 11ft during shock ab-
sorption requiring a lett reduction
factor of 0.667 or less; but this fac-
tor is omitted in the following calcula-
tions.
Let - t _ ma.x:imum tire canpression due to 2.0
load factors, inches
s _ vertical motion of axle relative to
fuselage while shock strut is com-.
pressing, inches, s may be called the
effective shock strut stroke; it is
the stroke t hat would be obtained it
the shock strut were vertical and
attached to the wheel axle at the
center line of the l'Iheel.
Assume a drop test of 22.5" free drop, giving a
kinetic energy at contact of 45,QOO in-lbs. Con-
sider the work done by the forces in
in order to apply the principle of work and
energy.
KE due to drop at instant. of cmtact
2,000 x 22.5 - 45,000#".
Work done by gravity during shock ab-
sorption _ 2000 (s +- t,)
Work done by wing lirt. during shock ab-
sorption ... -2000 (s.,. t)
Note that if test is made without lnngs,
the height of drop should be reduced by
(s i" t); i.e. the height should be mea-
sured from the comnressed position of tire
and shock strut.
Force on wheels = 2.0 x 2,000 - 4,000#
Max. Glre deflection 2.0 load factors
= t = 3.9" (2 x normal tire denection).
Energy stored in deflected tire _ 4,000 x
3 . 9/2 7,800 #" (this assunes a straight
line load-clefleetion graph for the tire;
see Fig.lO:22
Energy to be ubsorbed by shock strut _
45,000 - 7,800 = 37 this neglects
energy absorbed by the airplane structure,
Which, l'Ihile not truly negligible, is
small (about 1 or 2 inch-lbs. per lb. of
structure; perhaps 1000#" in this case).
(This also implies the large approxima-
tion that the max:iJm.un tire and oleo de-
flection occur but it is
suffiCiently accurate for practical pur-
poses).
filth a maximum equivalent load of 2,000 Ibs. on
each shock st rut and 37,200 in. Ibs. to be ab-
sorbed by two struts solve for the effective
stroke thus:
0.8 x 2,000 x s = 37,200/2; E:. 11.6"
The factor 0.8 is said by Johnson (Ref. 2, p.
10:17) to be typical of good struts. The
actual shock strut stroke can be less than 11.6"
if the load on the strut is e;reater. To detennine
the actual stroke, the wheel support linkage may
be laid out on a drawing board and detennined
graphically.
10:7 Landing Gear stress AnalYsis. A
convenient summary of the l:imit loads required
for the design of the landing gear of an airplane
is given CAR 04.24-.247. Since the tire and
shock strut deflections specified for the analysis
(50% max.) are arbitrary and correspond only very
roughly to the actual conditions, other approxi-
IIli'ltions which in'Ytllve no greater error are usually
considered acceptable.
A cantilever type tubular wheel support may
be analysed as a tube subjected to combined bending,
t"wisting, canpression, and shear. The critical com-
binaLion of these stresses for failure is uncertain
[
l
[
[
-
LANDING GEAR DESIGN
10:17
incorrect but probably conservative; a more
nearly correct formula is proabably based on a
critical value of secondary shearing stress as
explained in Chap. VI
The method of analysis of tripod landine
gears implied by the recommendations in ACM-04
Sec. 3;3, are consistent with Ref. 1 p.10.17 ,
In which an analysis of the tripod landing gear
shown in Fig 10 z48ls carried out.
Ii View
5. The landing gear shown is attached to a
pivot points A and B, baCh of which revolve about
y-axes. For the loads shown, calculate
(a) The load in member AC.
(b) The twisting moment at B.
(c) The bending moment at B.
(d) The lightest steel tube suitable B.
Use SAE x 41;30 tube of standard and
diameter 3-1/2".
D View
Fig. 10:48 Tripod wheel support f?r which stress
analysis is available 1n Reference 1.
The assumption that one member takes all the
bending and twisting is satisfactory for prelimi-
nary design, but if the resulting design given
members of approximately equal stiffness, it is
perhaps desirable to distribute the bending
and twisting between the two members-without-oleo
in proportion to the J/L of the members (J =
polar moment of inertia, L = length of member).
This assumption is correct if the fitting is so
designed that the ends of the members rotate
through equal angles.
10: 8 Problems. 1. Make a compa ri son of
possible types of wheels for your propos ed air-
plane in the manner shown in Tablel0:1nd explain
the basis for your choice of tire from the table.
2. Using the method of Art.l0:6 solve for
the necessary shock absorber stroke to pemit
landing from a stalled glide without- exoeeding 1/3
of the design landing load factor. Calculate also
the necessary height of drop test without wings to
simulate this condition.
3. Estimate the size of the principal man-
bers of your proposed landing gear to withstand
your design landing load with a positive margin of
safety.
4. Find suitable size of steel tube B with
F. S. ;:: 1. 5. Fig .10: 49Arrangement of landing gea
member for ProblaQ 4.

JO
AD
2,500"
Fig .10: 50 Landing
gear arrangement
for Problem 5.
10: 9 References.

1. Niles, A.'S., and Analysis
of Airway Age, Dec. 1929 and Jan. 1930.
2. Johnson, C.V., Airplane Landing
Shock-Absorbing System, S.A.E. Jour., Sept. 1930.
3. B.F. Goodrich Rubber Co., Goodrich
Airplane and Accessories. (1937 Technical
Catalog)
4. Goodyear Tire and Rubber Co.,
Technical Information 2n Airplane Products (1934
Technical Catalog)
5. General Tire and Rubber Co., General
streWine Airplane Tires. (1937 Technical Data
Sheets) .
6. Bendix Aviation Corporation, Bendix
.... Viheels (1937 'Technical Data
Sheets
7. Automotive Fan and Bearing Co., (Jack-
son, J.!ich.) 1937 Technical Data Sheets.
8. NACA Rept. 485, The Drag of Airplane
i'hee1s, Wheel Fairings, Landing Gears.
9. Ga1lico, Paul, .!lh2 Afraid.
Readers' Digest, Oct. 1934.
10. Weick, F.E., The W-l Airplane.
Aviation, July 19340'
CHAPTER 11
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
11:1
1111 Introduction. The term fuselage is
usually used to describe that portion of an air-
plane which houses the pilot and passengers and
extends aft from the wing to support the tail.
The fusele.ge frequently also carries the engine
and landing-gear-supports and houses also the bag-
gage or cargo and items of equipment which must be
readily accessible to the pilot, though in numerous
multi-motored airplanes (e.g. photographs p.la10)
the engines and landing gear are carried directly
by the wing. For airplanes with the tail supported
by booms (Fig.lOlla or by an uncovered truss
111'7 the passenger compartment is described as
the or body.
11.2 Fuselage Construction and DeSign. There
are nearly as many Varieties of fuselage construc-
tion as there are types of wing construction,
most of the existing licensed airplanes in
the U.S.A. have fuselages of either of two prin-
cipal types (1) fabric covered steel tube trussFigSc
(111 3 ,11s111, or (2) dural sheet reinforced by
dural bulkheads Rnd stringers ("semi-monocoque")
similar to the hull construction sho"m in Fig.
11 , 5. Airplane fuselages have also been made of
(3) wire braced wooden sticks with bolted jOints,
(4) wire braced steel or dural tubes with bolted
or riveted jOints, (5) durel, and (6)
plywood sheet reinforced by wooden btL.kheads and
Choice of A type of construction and
method of making YOints is a matter of economics
that can be VI orked out in t he same manner as for
wings. British practice for as for
wings, favors high grade heat-treated steel tubes
or built up shapes with riveted or bolted joints;
U.S. in Joints for steel tube
favors welding; dural tube fuselages are nearly
always riveted together jy means of gusset plates.
The fuselage of an sirplane is ['.lwe.ys the If'.st
part to be an"lysed, because the loads ,'.'hi ch e.I'b
cri tical for the fuselaGe meMbers ere determined
from analysiS of the winp;s, control sllrfaces, and
gear. The fuselage is also the
last part to be detsiled, thoueh it sfcould prob-
ably meri t first consideration in the
layout (i.e. a comfortable and convenient airplane
must be built around the passp.neers, since the
passengers are the reason for the existence of the
e.i !'plane). Designers 8re not abI'eed as to h0';7 c
fuselage should be designed: sorie dre,'r it the \Ir!.y
they would to to look on the (clean
making it larGe enour,h inside to
accomodate the passengers in desirable locations,
"nel then sketch in the prir,ci:91e structurlll l:lp.rnbE:rs
where the;T necessa!"! to c:?rry the major lo,"els
dUel to 'xings, r"ngin3 and pay load weight, lanning
[ecr load::;, a;1d tail Inads; otl:()rs dra\', in t.he
meJ':'.bp.rs fIrst r.nd then sketcl1 a '3:nooth fon,) cround
tr.em. Ei method involves repected cl:ences llS
the c.etailing progresses, so thd fuselcge GE:siLn
may qu:te properly be described in pr2.ctice 8S a
method of tric.l FirtU ",rror.
A preljmincr:
c
approximate size of the longerons
(steel tube) or ctringers (dural semi-monocoque)
just r>...ft of the vTing can be.o1::tair.ed by m!'-kin[C tte
resl. still!!; momFont due to t},e T1aximurrl I'.llol'loble stress
in the tubes equal to the moment of the rnto<:XlT1Um
applied load or, the horizont'll tcil (though with
some eirplc.nes the "tbree point" landing 103.d may
be critical). Thus for en airpln.ne similar to Fig.
1 t 5 the rear portion of the fl!Relage may be repre-
sented as a free body as shown in Fig.ll:l. The max-
imum horizontal tail lottd used for design (Art.9,4)
was 63.2 x 30 sq. ft. - 1900 lbs. For
equilibril.lIll of Fig.illl the sum of the moments
ebout P is equal to zero; the equation stating
;.,: 0 can be solved for the force Q. in the wo lower
longerons, thus:
't,!Ic;'- 30 Q. - 102 x 1900 O. Q. - 6460#.
Fig.ll.l. Free body sketch of rear portion of fuse-
lage of FiglO.Sacted on by tail load, aSSuming
steel tube truss construction.
The load in each lo\',er longeron will thus be 3230#;
the distance between panel points (a,b,c, etc.)
will be about 30" at this point (since it is desir-
able to arrange the trussing approximately in the
form of equilateral triangles as shown, forming a
"Warren truss"), and the longeron must be designed
as a pin ended column 30" long. A tube of SAE 4130
steel to this load can conveninetly be select-
ed from the chart on p. A6b17. Referring to this
chart it is seen that a 1" 20-gage tube would carry
the load wi th ample margin of safety. For a sem1-
monocoque fuselage, as in figure 1112 preliminary
stringer sizes and skin thickness can be obtained
Skin
x
Bulkheads
frames
Fig.ll,2 Section of semi.oJIlonocoque fuselage.
by making the section modulus of the skin and
stringers about the x - x axis sufficient to with-
stand the bending due to the tail load. A desir-
able distribution of strength between skin ana
is uncertain. Results of the most
prehensive studies made to date indicate maximum
economy by using as thin a skin as possible (just
sufficient to withstand the torsion due to the
load on the vertical tail and provide adequate
torsional rigidity avoid tail flutter). Thick-
nesses less tban 0.012" are not permitted (Ref.
p .l6ballast 2 .J.l.nesj'.
sizes for other members may be
determined by making similar calculations with crit-
ical loads as suggested in ACM 04.36.
1113 Fuselage Stress Analysi s. Since the fuse-
lage is usually ooniie'C"ted to all the other major
parts of the airplane, it must be analysed for all
conditions which have been found critical for other
parts, plus a few special conditions (e.g. nose-over
and complete turn-over) which have not previously
been considered.
11:2
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
Fig.
11,3
Yielded fuselage essenbly of Fairchild Hodel M-62 Trainer.
Engine mount is for Ranger inverted 6-in-line engine.
Courtesy of Aviation.
Fig.11a4MonocoQue fuselage of Luscombe Phantom
under construction. Note el-
liptical and note that skin has no
steffeners. Photo from Aviation.
Fig.ll,S Interior of DC-3 semi-monocoque fuse.-
lage as it IM.ves the prir.lary jig. Note the ring.
shaped bulle-heads and the continuous longitudinal
stringel's which stiffen the sheet. Photo from
Aviation.
For truss type solutions
are indicated as 04.36
such solutions are rarely nore accurate than 5%
for all members, but in view of the uncertainty of
the loads, this accuracy should be sufficient.
Graphical solutions are desirable because they can
usually be made more Quickly than analytical solu.
tions. The basic theoretical proposition of a
graphical solution is this: if a body is in eQuil-
ibrium under the action of a number of forces,
the vector sum of the forces is zero; i.e. the
force vectors, drawn tail to tip in any order, form
a closed polygon. To apply this proposition to
an airplane fuselage truss, it is customary to con-
sider that the t russ consists of a pin jointed
framework of two-force pieces, any loads that act-
ually act in the middle of members being distri-
buted to the "panel pOints" at their ends by re-
plaCing them with their components located at ad-
jacent panel points. Application of the graphical
method is illustrated by the following example,
(from Klemin, Airplane stress AnalysiS, p. 201).
Let it be desired to fiiid't'i1e stresses in all tile
members of tte fuselage truss shcvrn in fig. 11, 6
under the action of the load of 510 lbs. The mem-
Fig. 11 a 6 .Free body sketch of portion of fuselage
panel
bers may be rl 9signated by the letters between which
they lie ("Bow's notation") and panel pointe are
designated by .lumbers in circles; Figl1S6is a free
body sketch of the portion of the fuselage truss
shcvm. In accorda.,ce Vii th the usual convention
forces are assumed to be tension until they are
proved otherv;ise. Since the forces on Fig. 9:6 are
in equilibrium ttey must form a close1 polygon.
The polygon ai j c shown in Fig,11.7! ulfills the re-
qUirements of equilibrium in that all sides are
parallel to the corresponding members of the truss,
but the ai and ci cannot be arrived at
immediately. It is by this graphical
mettod, ToO consider each panel point separately as
a free body, starting at a point where there are
only two unmO'/m forces (liere point CD ) and pro-
ceeding successively to other points where ttere
are only two unknowns. The panel points are num-
bered in the necessary order. Free body sketches
of two successive panel points are shown in Fig.
11 s 8;it 1s connon pract ice to omit these free body
sK80dhes in solutions, but Many beginners
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
1l:.3
r------+1385
85

c \

Fig.lla'l. Graphical solution of truss of Fig.
11, 6 to scale of 1" 550it.( reduced in li thoprintin
510-'.!')1J la- '!
i.
Fig. 11.8 Free body sketches of panel points
1 and 2.
find them helpful. Fig.lla7may be regarded as a
serie s of vector polygons like Fig. 11,8 each
joined to the necessary preceding polygon. !(ote
that the distance between any two letters in Fig.
11 I 'Tis a measure of the stress in the correspond-
ingly designated member in Fig. 11,6
11: 4 ProbLems. 1. For your proposed Il.irplan
make preliminary estimates of the size of fuselage
members (a) just aft of the rlin;;, and (b) just
forward of the wing, in the manner illustrated in
Art. 9:2
2. !.:ake a layout drawing of your fuselage
structure, apprpxinate location of all
members and showing a sufficient and ar-
rangement of members to carry the flying, landing,
end teil loads as a statically determinate struc-
ture.
3. For fuselage structure 8T:1 loads
shol'm in Fig.ll:9 make a solution for
ti:e stresses in all members. The loads shovm are
design panel point loads for positive F.Aii. of a
p'lrticulnr fuselab9. See Y-lemin, Airplane Stress
, p. 215, for solution. ---
4. Gi/en the loads of 495# and 341# shown in
Fig.llalO
J
verify graphically the stresses given
in pa--enthesis.
FiC.llslO. Loads on top truss of fuselage.
Fig. 11:10.1
The fuselage of the Beechcraft D-17, at left,
is built up of welded steel tubing. The com-
plete fuselage frame is welded into one
piece outside of the engine mount. This
unit is attached by three through bolts, two
at the top and one at the bottom center.
Note the large diagonal brace extending
from the center of the landing gear section
to take a great part of the load.
q
Fig.ll.9 Design loads on one panel of fuselage for ti ve HM.
11:4
-------Semi-monocoque
section upper
attachment fiTting
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
En{?tne mounf
affachmenf riftings_,_
I
, I
'Wing affachmenf
fittings
'"
,
"
\
\
Courtesy of Product Engineering
Fig. 11a13steel tube !'lection of a COl7lt>usite fuselaee. shO')!1ng major f1 tt1ng".
.-
I
I
I
-",-"
.-
a.!). orhoss foheexfra large
fo allow ror weld distortion.
Min. wall fhic!mess aFfer
reaming should benotect On
drawing
nlS.1Ia16 The COl1pleted Greenwood-Yates mono-
plane, powered by two 50 hp Menasco
Courtesy of Aviation.
Courtesy Product
Fig.lla14 W1ng-to-Fuselage Attachr.i.ent F1tti!lgS.
:; ;:;'''0 .i"P''
.:"
Fig.Ila15Greenl'lood -
lates monoplane with
fuselage and
The spruce strips
fom a lattice which
takes the place of stress
ed skin and 1s easier and
cheaper to fom into
plex curves. Courtesy ot
Popular Aviation.
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
11:4.1
THE G.A.L. OWLET NIGHT TRAINER
(150 h.p. Cirrus Majo! motor)
of "o-let" Airplane.
11:4.2 FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
The.e drawing.. by J. H. Clark. .now well
tk detailed CJJrutructiun 0/ the Owlet. Tk
key to tk location 0/ tk variou!
portiom i. to be found in the small diagram
0/ the CDmplete machine on tk opposite page.
Further Detailll of Britilh "()Irlet".


courtesy "Aeroplane".
THE AEROPLANE
THE VICKERS-ARMSTRONGS
WELLINGTON II
(two J . I 4 ~ hop. RoUs-R.oyC'e Merlin X motors)
MAIN SPAR FWATS FREELY RIGHT THROUGH FUSELAGE AND
IS PICKED UP ONLY AT POINT ~ B BY RIB "C''' WHIOI IS
CARRIED BY FUSELAGE AT PIVOT FIXINGS "A" AND "A."
"A" AND '''A'' ALSO CARRY FRONT AND BACK SPARS "D" AND
"E." mE NACELU': IS CARRIED BY MAIN SPAR AT PIVOT
FIXINGS "F" AND COUPLED TO RIB AT "GG" AND COUPLES
UP FRONT AND BACK SPARS AT "HH."
Flg11116.3Geodetl0 Construotion in 9. Modern British Bomber.
"Aeroplane" (Nov. 8, 1940).
courtesy or
~
~
~
t:!
~
g
r.n
H
~
I-'
I-'
..
~

W
11:5
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
urtiss
Hawk 75A pursuit ship with rubber mounted bolts
for absorption of vibration. This structure is
essentially in that longitudinal as
well as torsional loads are carried by diagonal
members. COlJrtesy of Aviation.
S. Gompere the weight and cost of 'I'7
ST ahd 3 ply birch cylindrical monocoque
fuselage sections 24" in diameter between bulkhead
30" apart. Design for 2000 ft. # bending moment
of for 500 ft. II twisting moment, whichever is
cri tical.
6. Find the stress in marnber e and
a steel tube to carry t he load with a factor of
safety of 1.5. Refer to Fig.ll:18
Fig. lIs
Truss.
lIs 5 Geodetic Fuselage Construc.ion. Sev9l'Ol
airplanes have been built recently (1938) using
a fabriC covered lattice instead of a metal or
plywood skin(e.g. Figill:15Ilndll:16 One such
airplane, the Vickers Wellesley (described in the
issure of The Aeroplane for December 7, 1938),
established a new distance record for non-refuel-
ing ( somewhat over 7000 miles) in 1938,
and the exceptional fuel capacity was ascribed
by the manufacturers to their patented "geodetic"
so named because the members are
located in the surface like great circle
lines on the earth's surface. The patents are of
doubtful value because similar construction was
used long ago in battleship masts of the "cage"
type and because many engine mounts (e,g. Fig.
11: 17use similar construction by running the main
members di!'.gonally in the interest of gz:eater tor-
sional rigidity. In TIings, the same effect is
obtained by running the ribs diagonally instead of
fore-and-aft as in the "compression ribs" of the
newer Stinson steel tubular wings. The patents,
however, serve the very useful purpose of calling
attention to the following facts: (1) Fuselages
of thin sheet material are not as effective in re-
sisting torsion as thb same weight of material
in the form of a lattice cage because of the weak-
ness of thin sheets against local instability
failures, and (2) Lattice cages can be built up to
form surfaces with double curvature, such as are
most desirable aerodynamically for airplane fuse-
lages, Vii thout great expense for jigs or tools,
whereas p4.ywood or plastiC sheets must be formed by
expensive presses and sheet metal must be rolled,
hammered, or pressed.
Published data for design or stress analysis of
geodetic structures do not appear to be available
at present. Pending the development of a body ot
such data, the following suggestions are offered
for preliminary deSign and stress analysis of such
structures. (1) To arrive at a desirable size
and spacing of ge0detic members it is probably con-
servative to design first an equivalent monocoque
fuselage and then select geodetic members of such
size and spacing as to make the lattice cage have
the weight as the monocoque sking. This
procedure has been used at Purdue University with
a resulting margin of safety in excess of 50%
for plywood construction. To make the lattice
strips form a smooth surface requires at least
10 and preferably IOOre than 15 diagonal element
strips wound in each direction (see Fig.11115
which has about 20 strips). Also, to a smooth
double curvature requires that the strips bend read
ily about both axes, and therefore that width
be not more than two or three times the depth
to ) for rectangular wooden
For formed or extruded metal strips, sections es-
peCially suitable for this purpose would have to
be developed, though in the Vickers Wellesley fuse-
lage geodetic members were used in each
direction and smooth form was obtained with long-
itudinal fairing strips. (2) For structural
I.'nalysis, a lattice cage fuselage may be regarded
[s a series of triangular frames similar to Fig.
lla17with imaginary bulkheads and p!:n joints at all
intersections. In such a framework the load which
8 can be carried by one of the compression diagonals
determines the strength of the structure in tor-
sion and bending. For example, if a fuselage like
F1.g11,15 consisted of 1/4" by 1/2" Douglas Fir
geodetic ptrips spaced 5" apart, and wound at 600
to the bulkheads at a point where the bulkhead is
elliptical, 24" wide and 36" high, the least redius
of of the strip would be e. I/A
J bd 112bd dl ro - 0.0723" and the slenderness
ratio would be L'lf 5/0.0723 - 69.1 assUming
pin ended columns. For Douglas Fir, a Johnson
parabolic column formula may be safely used and in
Fig. 6:47, the critical L'I(I is seen to be L'1f
where E - 1,700,000 and Fco
5600, so E/Fco - 305, and L'lt - 82. Rence use the
equation f ElF co 1 - 0.25 ( (L'.t ) 2 lrr2E/F co )-
1 - (69.1 1(4-?- x 305) J 0.605. P-"mce fc
3400 and the ultimate load P is 3400 x 1/4 x 1/2
- 425#. In Figll:19 Which shows a geodetic
eleI:"ent as a free body, for no bending or compres.
sion on the fuselage, Ry 0, and!: Fx -1% Fy 0
F1g.11: 19 Forces on Ceodetic Fuselage F.lement.
gives 425# and Rv 4251. For a total
ference of about 'IT(24+36)/2 94.2" ("say 95/5
19 the maxil1l1ll1! torque could be spprox-
iJnated by ass1l!:dng that the Joints carried tangen-
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
tial loads in proportion to their distance
the elastic axis of the fuselcge (tte condition for
rigid bulkheads). In this case the load of 42:3
lbs. would be mul tipliod by 9. lever arm of 12"
(for joints 8.t the side of the fuselage). For
joints at t'he top and 'Jottom the loads carried
would be 12/1S x 42:3 alld the lever ani'. ,'rould be
lSH, so the total torque which could be carried by
the fuselage would be about 1.9 x 12" To 42'&IF
97000#". It should be clearly understood that
calculations by the above method are not "et
stantisted by and should only be used
as a guide to preliminary design.
11.6 Problem. For en airplane with an el-
liptical fuselage 36" wide and 48" deep at the
wing spar, assume a bending moment of 1600 lbs.
tail load x 15 ft. moment arm and a twisting mom-
ent of SOO Ibs. tail load x 3 ft. moment arm.
(a) Determine the nacessE'.ry thic!mess of plywood
skin. (b) Layout a lattice cage fuselage of
about the same weight as the plywood skin, and
(c) Using the method outlined above find the max-
imum allowable twisting and bendinlt moments.

View from underside of
Grumman Mallard wing-
tip float, showing access
holes in top skin and con-
struction of bulkheads,
When treated with Stoner-
Mudge sea I ant, these
floats can be used as aux-
iliary fuel tanks. " "',.
Mallard interior, looking forward
along right hand side of cabin and
showing hull structure near cabin
center. Panel at far right contains
food compartment, while similar
one on opposite side of cabin con-
tains electric panel.
11:6
-monocoO,ue Nt'} vion
C'ourtesy
, Feb.,
Fig. 11:19.2.
AViation, April, 1947
Fig. 11:19.3. Courtesy AViation, April, 1947
11:7 FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
11 s7 Hulls All large centers of
population are of necessi ty near largE bodies of
water, because water is prerequisite for life.
Marine aircraft are therefore r.lore convenient and
useful than land planes. They have, hovlever, the
handicap that they cannot be built quite so clean
aerodynamically as land planes, and that they can
carry somewhat less pay load as a rule for a given
perf'orrr.ance. ':.'1-.e ;',orl,.l's speed record k'but'.t
4;:0 n:ph in 1'?38) 1':::'S held by a seaplane (!:acchi
?2, Italy) ratl-,er tIlel1 a landlli2ne, in Slli te
of the nonr.al performance ',andic",p of the sea-
plane, chiefly bece.use em];lle sll<;ce for lend-
plantl tal:e-offs e.t 120 mph is tercl to find.
Amphibian aircraft have of course the widest
range of utility. I:ost f'J7lp;,i bians are :'lying
boats l'Ii th wheels. The added :'!eight and drae of
the wheels is likely to t".:.:1 Oe3']'; -1;"3
saving in d1 stance traveled, so that anphibians
are as a rule not economical unless safety (in
the event of a forced landing) is valued very
highly. For a multi-motored bod, it is prob-
ably most economical, all things conSidered,
not to have wheels, but to provide for remote
possibility of forced landing or. the ground by
means of a skid on the keel. Even I'd thout such
a skid, a flying boat has landed in a potato
patch in Cuba without injuring the occupants, and
the work on the hull was not excessive.
Provision is of course usuolly made for Rttach-
ment of wheels for beaching ("beaching gear"), but
such wheels can be much lighter than landing
wheels, and it ls, or course, economical to leave
them home excent for unusual trips. Kleinhans of
Douglas Aircraft suggests that it may sometiMes
be wortr. vlhile to make the beaching gear strong
enough to lend on, so that it may serve as a
"ferrying gear" for emergency overland trips
(wi th reduced perfonaance, of course).
By the term seoplane is usually meant a land
plane which has been adapted ot marine use by sub-
sti tuting floats for wheels, the Nelson (Ref. 2,
11810 appears to use the term also os synoz:ymous
wi th IJlsrine aircraft. A seanlane is usually a
of a iand plane, carrying
usually about 20% less useful losd and havine about
less high speed than the corresponding land
plane (though the Bellanca "Seacruiser", Fig.11, 20
nearly as efficient AS the corresponding "Air-
cruiser" because of the elinination of external
float bracing). The usual float braCing (see p.1381
of 12 struts and two wires will
usually give a lighter structure and no greater
drag. DeSign and analysis of float bracing is not
considered of suffiCient :1portance to merit
special s:udy in a work of this scope. For a given
;;
Fi g.11a20 Vling arrangement of Bellanca "S8a-
cruiser", showing unusually clean float supports.
land plane vleip.)lt, floats for conversion to sea-
plane can be selected from p. A311
Opinion as to
best means of providing for lateral stability
the water seems at present to b e about e'lually
di7iGcd between stub wing stabilizers
and side floats. Cal-
culations of necessary float size for stability,
as well as calculations to determine the necessary
hull beam for satisfactory take-off and
to select the best of the available hull shapes,
are explained in TA, Chap. "i1
1118 Hull Construction. Flying boat hulls
are at almost eXClusively of
sheet dural, stiffened by extruded or formed dural
bulkheads (crosswise) and stringers (lengthwise).
(In 1938 there on the market also one shot-
welded stainless steel boat and one plywood boat.)
Typical hul' construction (Sikorsky 5-42) is
in Fig. 11824, The plating of the 5-42 appears on
the inside to be relatively sparsely stiffened, but
this is because there are stiffeners on the outside.
TYPical details ot hull construction for a 4000 lbs.
flying boat are shown in Figs 11121and 11.22
Dorsal 3/4 x 3/4 x 18 oontin-
uous shell anGle, 18 bSbe
intercostal web.
_3/4 x 3/4 x IS (in-
teroostal) shell
20 ba:e inter-
costal web, 3/4 x 3/4
x20 Face
angle
z 20 faco anGle (oon-
tinuous)
x 20 Z sootion
0.036" side and

platiDb
<'I lS0Tumblo home
(IITumblum
ll
)
chine
bar
O.04S" bottom plating
keel strako
Fig.l1a21 Stringers and plating between bulkheads
(from
Pnalys1s of weight of a typ1cal British flying boat
is given in Table!18! (data from l,'unro).
Table 1111 Analysis of "!eie;nts of boat hull
(4000,,' gross). Per
FI'8llleS and Bulkhe'lds
Top and side stringers
Bottom
Keel and chine angles
Top and side skin
Bottom plating
Rivets and finish
Lbs. 'lent
100 21
70 15
40 8
30 6
120 25
100 21
20 4
400 roo
that the total structurel is consistent
''!ith what would be extimated from Fig, A5t9
pASa2
Flyinr; boat hulls heve also been !:lake of wood-
en frrunes covered with plywood; such hulls are less
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
11:8
gage web
18 gage
bracket
!4x3!4x16
angle
gage usb
Fig.11122 Details of Typical bulkhead (from
MUnro.)
Fig.11124 Hull structure of SIkorsky S-42 show-
ing deep keel, continuous stringers and bulk-
heads of l7-sT reinforced sheet. Photo from
I\.Viation.
_ -- -..- - -----1.. ... ___ _
ound
posed to salt water. Experimental hulls construct-
ed of stainless steel have proved very durable;
effective use of corrugated dural is shown in
11g.11a23
Hulls are usually constructed in a jig similar
to Fig.11,25 The frames are set up first,
up, and the keel. stringers, and bottom platlng
riveted on. The half finished hull is then turned
over and set in a cradle while the side and deck
stringers and skin are riveted. The hull shape
shown in Fig11125 is typical of British practice;
for typical U.S. hull shapes see
see TA Ghap.Vl1
1119 Hull Design. Hulls are designed large-
ly by trial and error;- Hulls of desirable hydro-
dynanic nerodynamic characteristics nay be se-
lected as outlined in TA Chap. XI and such choice
is as a rule not affected structural consider-
ations. The critical loads -governing the *
tural design of tulls are specified in CAR
and 04.255*as landing loads. The requirements are
convAniently summarized in ACM 04 Fig. 25. The
two types of landing considered are (a) step land-
ing, limit load fector 5.33, design load factor
Fig. 11 ,23 Hull structure 01' l.;artln 1Gb ocean
transport. This is a pure monocoque construction
with longitudinal corrugations taking the place of
stiffeners. Note excellent accessibility ane
storage space. Photo from Aviation.
8.0, and (b) tl'lO wave landine:. limit loed factor
1.0. The stresses in the hull under these condit-
ions are similar to 'those resulting from l?l;l speed
travel ill rough ?later: hogging Figl1,26(a)
and sagging Fig,) 1126 (b) are the traditional
condjtions for the desien of ocean going vessels.
---
-- .. _----..
L.

""-
---
6ft 6ft 6ft _ ........
Fig.11125 Hull in jig ready
expensive in than dural, but have
usually proved less durable than dural 11ulls.
Both dural and wood deteriorats rapidly when ex-
Boat hulls are designed as bewns by means of the
usual beem fomula Fb Mz/l (Eq.6117) where l/z
is the Rection modulus of the skin, plating, string-
ers, keel, and chine at a pOint where the
* See CAR 3
L
ApPe ,A,6s, for super seding
regulations on designs after 1947.
11:9 FUSELAGE HULL DESIGN
A preliminary approximate section modulus is
obtainable by considering that a landing reaction
of EM is concentrated at the step and th ... 'f .::oncen-
trated loads of SW
ha
and 8W
t
act on the hull at
reasonable locations, where Wha .. weight of hull
ai't of rear wing bulkhead, and -W weight of tail
aurfaces. t
The concentrated bottom loads due to a step
landing (CAR 04.256)*would produce theoretically
infinite stresses in the hull bottom plating if
the plating did not deflect between stringers. The
stresses in the bottom plating can b e r educed and
make determinate by using a fluted hull bottom as
sho7m in Fig.11. 2'7 Tests at '"he NACA tank (TR 470)
indicate that floats so constructed have nearly as

wave

(b) Sagging londs
Bending
l.(oml!!nt,
Sagging
loads
Load 9 and bending moment for hull
de"ign. *
Fig.l1.27 Fluted hull on float bottom to reduce
plating stresses.
good take-off characteristios as V-bottom hulls
with flat sheets.
11: 10 RUll stress Analysis. The requirements
for stress 8iiBIYsis of com:aercial flying boat hulls
are given in CAR 04.45t recommended pro-
cedure, witb a convenient summary of load factor
requirements, is gi'ren in ACM 04.25 and 04.45.
The stress analysis requirements for boat hulls are
simpler than for fuselages because the
landing loads always provides also enough
strength to carry the air loads exerted by the
wings and tail.

atL_U
Dot step .-.
" '/ 1.50.
,,:,
B
The neaning of the step load distribution
ified in CAR 04.254'is perhaps clarified by the
sketch of Fig.11 , 28
The unit loadine per sq. ft. at the chine at
the forward section (A) can b e shown by geoIj,etry tc
be given by a .. 16 nW, where n\'l/bL is the aver-
25 bL
aSe unit pressure. The proof ot' this is recomnen d-
ed as an exercise for the studeht {Art 11s11 probe
2;
The bottom loadings tor the design of hull
plating, as specified in CAR 04.256, require unit
loads as follows:
From B to A:
From A to s:
From S to C:
same as s.t A
as specified above
0.50 nW/bL
Formulas for the design of plating, are
specified or suggested in CAR 04. Pending the
development of a more accurate analysis it is here
suggested that study of uniformly
loaded thin plates with held edges by applied
3,11110. Timoshenko refers (p. 497, 1930 edition)
to a solution by Hencky for the deflection (' in.)
of a uniformly loaded (w, 'lbs./sq.in.) circular
plate of radiUS r, thickness t. modulus of
elasticity E. given by the equation
0.66 rJ/wr/Et ---------------------(1111)
For a typical flying boat of gross weight 20,000
Ibs. and 8 load factors distributed over 100 sq.
ft., w. 1600/144 .. 11.1 #/in.2. With stringers
and frames which subdivide the bottom plating into
approximately 10" rectangles, the pLate deflection
should be of the same order ot magnl tude as tor a
circular plate of 5" radius, For 0.060" dural
(E 10 x 10
6
).
b 0.66 x 5 1.1 x 5 x 1000 0.15"
10 x 10
6
x 60
The hull bottom plating deflects as shown in Fig.
11,29(a). Using the free body sketah ot11s29(b)'
the plate tension 0) per sq. incn is
15,4000 #/1n.2
See ref.4 for comparison with test data
M.. 0
lX.I x 5 x 2.5 - F x .15 0
H 925 width 925 15,400 #/m
2

:06
11 ,11 Problems.
1. (a) Calculate the approximate section
modulus of the hull section shown in l1g11121and
estimate the maximum allowable bending moment at
that section. (b) Assuming that this is a section
near the step for the hull shown in Fig.11 I 25 find
the margin of safety for a step landing with a
design load factor of 8 us1ng the approximate method
2L
I L.U.L.
I
2.25a tilt '!ceel
I
__ .... '-o.t \:hine
I
'c
Fig. 11128 Specified load distribution for step landing.
I
* See CAR 3, App. ASa, tor superseding
regula tions on designs atter 1947.
FUSELAGE AND HULL DESIGN
suggested in Art. 1119
2. From geome"try, prove the formula for land-
in!'; load given in em 04.254 l a).
3. UsinS eQUalioI{ 1111 }lstiLlate the tensi le
stress in a hull plating of 0.048" durnl stiffened
!'It 12" intervals under a load of 5 Ibs.jsg. in.
Fig.11129, Hull platinG, deflectec. under load e"d
free body sketcb to determine plate tension.
11s12 Referttnces.
1. Munro, WIt. Marine Aircraft Desi@.
Pitl'181l.
Nelson, Ifm, Seaplt'ne Desiim, MCGraw Fill.
Timoshenl\:o, 8., streae:th of Materials,
Part IL Y/llLNQ.strMd. -
Nembert J ).(., Son1'f\er J A .Rectangular
Shell PIa tine '1nd.er Uniformly Distribu-
ted Pressure. NACA 965.
Fig.11a30
Fig. 11a31
Althou'ib tho CoUIOlIdatod Modol
Z8 twin nJ!nv boat hao
been in .. me. for a llu.m.Mf of
,-1 tho method by which tho
_9 tip noato are rotr=ted b
DOt wldoly boWll. Whou low
ored In tho pooltlou lor lancl!u9
tho noat b hold In a ... rtlcaI
pooISou throu9h II ITOlo", 01 "1:"
brac:!n9 that !a loined tovoth.r at
polnl A. WhOD lo .... red thb
brac:!n9 !a hold rl9Id throu9h an
arm I thert b COZlDOCIod 10 tho
retractlu9 tube ert C. Wh.u tho
Iloat !a 10 be retracted tho H-
traetia.q tube mon. towards tlt..
_Ia'io mo..mq tho arm I up-
ward and Inward loldlnq tho
.... mbers D loqothor. Thlo l:aUMI
the float to .win .. from the
olHou E 10 tho pooI60u E' In
... hlch pooIHou tho draq !a
_IT reduced.
Courtesy of AViation
11:10
LookIDV edt !naIdo 01 tho Iuae
Iav. of tho Modol 28 sho... tho
%eo Itrlnvorl nmnlDv IOD9th..n..
cmd tho beltfr"", .. nmnlDV or.,...
..n... Th. 1"'9. bulkhoodo In
tho rOOf aro tho 'bcmlo' bulk
.hoods which oxtond on up Into
tho lin Itructun. Tho tunnol
door or hcrtch !a sho.... "" tho
bel whlle tho two ... rtlcal tubel
I:a tho forec;rrouud aro llaro
tubes.
Courtesy of Avintion
Qupnti ty Symbol
t--
Tempera ture
to
Absolute temperature
TO
Pressure
PO
Sneclfl.c weleht
wo
ty P -
o 80
Cocffl clent of visco.i ty
110
K1 np.-l.r:; ttc vj seosl ty
U ..!:a..
o Po
'0J1eed of 80und a
O
Mean free pe. th of A
nitrogen
n
Ilea!1 free path of A
oxygen molecules 0
Bean free path of
'e.lr
air molecules
Avcrnze moleculpr M
,;eight 0
RatIo of .pecific heat.
'YO
Relotive volume of
ro
oxye;en
(
Below the tropopause
! - (I - u h)
To !o
.:e- (I - u h) Pgg To
- Pou
Po To
British engineering system
At probable
At stende.rd
Unit minimum
tempera ture
temperature
"F -54.5 59.0
01" abs. 405.0 518.4
in.Hg at 32"F 29.9212 29.9212
in. water at 15
0
C 407.15
Ib/tt
2
2116.23 2116.23
Ib/tt3
0.097928 0.076506
.lugs/tt
3
0.0030437 0.0023779
1b-sec/ft
2
3.0420x10-
7
3.7250X10-
7
ft
2
/s8C O. 99944xI0 -
4
1.5665x10-
4
{
tt/sec 986.61 1116.22
mrh 672.69 761.06
imots 584.16 660.90
ft o . 189lX10-
6
o .242lX10 -
6
ft o . 1887X10-
6
O. 2415XlO-
6
ft
o .1890X10-6 O. 2419X10 -
6
28.966 28.966
1.4 1.4
0.2095 0.2095
)
Above the tropopause
At probable
maximum
temperature
116.6
576.0
29.9212
407.15
2116.23
0.068855
0.0021401
4.0455x10-
7
1.8903X10-
4
1176.60
802.23
696. 55
0.2690X10-
6
O. 2683X10-
6
-6
0,2688x10
28.966
1.4
0.2095
A TMOSPHERE TABLES
Quantities used in deriving values for standard Day
Temperature at sea level
Absolute temperature at
sea level
Pressure at sea level
Acceleration of
Density at sea level
Temperature gradient
Isothermal temperature
Ratio of specific heats
Absolute viscosity
n - altitude in ft.
to - 150 - 59C7
To - 2880 - 518.4or
Po - 29.92117 in. of Hg.
en

fZ


- 2116.229 lb/ft
2
g -)2.1740
p 002)78 lb.sec
2
/ft4 .,

U - .0065 O/meter - .00)56617
<7/ft.
-550 -67
0
F
T 1.4000 til
).059 x 10-
8
T)/2
T + 114
(T in 00 absolute.)
l:r.j
D
;:
P
t
- pressure at the
T - absolute temperature tropopause
(J)
d
I
P _ pressure
ht - height of the
tropopause in ft.
Tl - isothermal tem-
perature, absolute
Subscript refers to standard sea level
conditions.
::0
I


H
::0

.,


J6 - (h - ht)
loge P/Po - loge Po PoTi

cr-!,g P
Ti Po
0-- (I - h) - 1
To PeU
Reference: Warfield, Calvin N. Tentative Tables For The Properties of the Upper Atmosphere.
NACA Technical Note No. 1200.

I-'
D:2
STANDARD AIR UP TO 65,000 FEET
Altitude Ab.olute Pressure Pressure DeMit,. Densi ty Specific Coefficient Kinematic Speed of !dean Free
h Temperature P
!latio (Slug./W) !latio 'IIeight ot Viocoo1 ty Vi.cosity Sound Path of
T
p/Po
P
IS"
"
!'- V a Yoleculel!!l
(F abe.) (lb/tt
2
) &
(lb/fV) (1b- (tt2/osc) (tt/sec)

xloS
O
xl01
xlO
-1000 522.0 2194.1 1.0361 .002448 .0296 .07818 3.738 1.521 1119.1 .0002419
-500 520.2 215So2 1.0182 .062413 1.0141 .01164 3.728 1.545 1117.8
0 518.4 2116.4 1.0000 .002378 1.0000 .07651 3.719 1.5'64 1115.9
500 516.6 2078.1 .9821 .002343 .9854 .07540 3.108 1.583 11l4.0
1000 514.8 204l.3 .9644 .002309 .9710 .07430 3.699 1.002 1112.0
1500 513.1 2003.8 .9469 .002275 .9568 .07321 3.688 1.621 1ll0.1
2000 511.3 1967.8 .9296 .002242 .9421 .07213 3.679 1.641- 1108.2
2500 509.5 1931.7 .9129 .002209 .9268 .07106 3.669 1.661 1106.0
3000 501.7 1896.3 .8962 .002116 .9151 .07001 3.658 1.681 1104.3
3500 505.9 1861.7 .8798 .002144 .9015 .06897 3.649 1.702 1102.3
4000 504.1 1827.7 .8636 .002112 .8880 .06794 3.539 1.723 1100.4
4500 502.4 1793.8 .8477 .002080 .8747 .06693 3.628 1.744 1098.5
5000 500.6 1760.5 .8320 .002049 .8616 .06592 3.619 1.766 1096.6
5500 498.8 1728.0 .8165 .002018 .8486 .06493 3.608 1.788 1094,5
6000 497.0 1696.2 .8013 .001988 .8358 .06395 3.598 1.810 1092.6
6500 495.2 1664.3 .7863 .001957 .8231 .06298 3.581 1.833 1090.1
7000 493.0 1633.2 .7115 .001928 .8106 .06202 3.518 1.856 1088.7
7500 491.7 1602.1 .7570 .001898 .7982 .06107 3.566 1.879 1086.8
8000 489,9 1571.7 .7427 .001869 .7859 .06013 3.551 1.903 1084.7
8500 485.1 1542.0 .7286 .001840 .7738 .05920 3.546 1.927 1082.8
9000 486.3 1512.3 .7147 .001812 .7618 .05829 3.535 1.951 1080.7
9500 484,5 1484.0 .7010 .001784 .7500 .05739 3.527 1.977 1078.8
10000 482.7 1455.7 .6876 .001756 .7384 .05649 3.516 2.002 1076.8
10500 481.0 1427.4 .6743 .001728 .7268 .05561 3.504 2.028 1074.9
11000 479.2 1398.8 .6tl3 .001701 .7154 .05474 3.494 2.054 1072.8
11500 477.4 1372.2 .6484 .001675 .7042 .05388 3.H6 2.081 1070.8
12000 475.6 1346.0 .6358 .001648 .6930 .05302 3.1:72 2.107 1068.9
12500 473.8 1319.2 .6234 .001622 .6820 .05218 3.463 2.135' 1066.e
13000 472.0 1293.7 .6112 .001596 .6712 .05135 3.452 2.163 1064.8
13500 470.3 1268.2 .5991 .001571 .6605' .05053 3.1:44 2.292 1062.8
14000 468.2 1242.8 .5873 .001545 .6499 .04972 3.430 2.220 1060.8
14500 466.7 1218.0 .5756 .001521 .6394 .04892 3.422 2.250 1058.7
15000 464.9 1194.0 .5642 .001496 .6291 .04813 3.411 2.280 1056.7
15'500 463.1 1169.9 .5529 .001472 .11189 .04736 3.400 2.310 1054.8
16000 461.3 1146.6 .5418 .001448 .6088 .04658 3.390 2.341 1052.7
11'500 45906 1123.9 .5309 .001424 .5988 .04582 3.379 2.373 1050.7
17000 457.8 1100.6 .5201 .001401 .5890 .04507 3.368 2.404 1048.6
17500 456.0 1078.7 .5096 .001378 .5793 .04432 3.300 2.1:38 1046.6
18000 454.2 1056.7 .4992 .001355 .5697 .04359 3.347 2.470 1044.5
185'00 452.4 1034.8 .1.890 .001332 .5603 .04287 3.335 2.504 1042.4
19000 450.6 1013.6 .4789 .001)10 .5509 .04215 3.326 2.539 1040.4
19500 448.9 993.1 .4690 .001288 .5417 .04145 3.314 2.573 1038.4
20000 447.1 972.6 .4593 .001267 .5326 .0407$ 3.304 2.608 1036.3
20500 445.3 952.1 .4498 .001245' .5236 .04006 3.293 2.645 1034.2
21000 44305 932.2 .4404 .001224 .5148 .03939 3.283 2.682 1032.2
21500 441.7 912.4 .4312 .001203 .5060 .03872 3.271 2.719 1030.0
22000 439.9 893.3 .4221 .001183 .4974 .03805 3.262 2.757 1027.9
22500 438.2 874.2 .4132 .001163 .4889 .03740 3.251 2.795 1025.9
23000 436.4 855.9 .1,044 .001143 .1,804 .03676 3.242 2.836 1023.8
23500 434.6 837.5 .3958 .001123 .h721 .03612 3.230 2.876 1021.8
24000 432.8 819.8 .3874 .001103 .4640 .03550 3.217 2.917 1019.1'
24500 431.0 802.1 .3790 .001084 .4559 .03488 3.206 2.958 1017.;'
25000 429.2 785.1 .3709 .001065 .h479 .03427 3.195 3.000 1015.5
25500 427.5 768.1 .3628 .001046 .41,00 .03367 3.184 J.044 1013.3
26000 425.7 751.2 .3550 .001028 .4323 .03307 3.173 3.087 lOll.)
26500 423.9 734.9 .3472 .001010 .4246 .03249 3.10 3.132 1009.1
27000 422.1 718.6 .3396 .000992 .1,171 .03191 3.153 3.178 1007.0
275'00 420.3 703.1 .3321 .000974 .1.096 .03134 3.140 3.224 1004.8
26000 418.5 687.5 .3248 .000957 .4023 .03078 3.131 3.272 1002.8
28500 416.8 672.0 .3176 .000939 .3950 .03022 3.117 3.320 1000.1'
29000 415.0 657.1 .3105 .000922 .3879 .02968 3.106 3.369 998.5
29500 413.2 642.2 .3036 .000906 .3809 .02914 3.099 3.420 996.3
30000 411.4 628.1 .2967 .000889 .3739 .02861 3.085 3.470 994.1
30500 409.6 614.0 .2900 .m8n .3671 .02808 3.076 3.523 992.0
31000 407.8 599.8 .2835 .m857 .3603 .02757 3.064 3.575 989.8
31500 406.1 586.4 .2770 .C00841 .3537 .02706 3.052 3.629 982.6
32000 404.3 572.9 .2707 .000825 .3471 .02656 3.039 3.684 985.4
32500 402.5 559.5 .2645 .000810 .3406 .02606 3.030 3.741 983.2
33000 400.7 546.8 .2584 .000795 .3342 .025'57 3.019 3.797 981.0
33500 398.9 534.0 .2524 .000780 .3280 .02509 3.008 3.856 979.0
34000 397.1 522.0 .2465 .000765 .3218 .02462 2.995 3.915 976.8
34500 395.4 509.3 .2407 .000751 .3157 .02415 2.986 3.976 974.6
35000 393.6 498.0 .2351 .000736 .3096 .02369 2.971 4.037 972.4
35332 392.4 489.4 .2314 .000727 .3057 .02339 2.961 4.080 970.9
36000 392.4 474.6 .2242 .000704 .2961 .02266 2.961 4.Zl2 970.9
37000 392.4 452.0 .2137 .000671 .2823 .02160 2.961 4.418 970.9
38000 392.4 431.5 .2037 .000640 .2692 .02059 2.961 4.633 970.9
39000 392.4 411.0 .1942 .000610 .2566 .01963 2.961 4.860 970.9
40000 392.4 391.9 .1852 .000582 .2446 .01872 2.961 5.098 970.9
41000 392.4 373.$ .1.765 .00055'5 .2332 .01784 2.961 970.9
42000 392.4 356.5 .1683 .000529 .2224 .01701 2.961 5.609 970.9
43000 339.5 .1605 .000504 .2120 .01622 2.961 970.9
44000 392.4 324.0 .1530 .000481 .2021 .01546 2.961 6.171 970.9
45000 392.4 308.4 .)158 .000458 .1927 .01474 2.96J 6.473 970.9
46000 392.4 294.2 .1390 .000437 .1837 .01405 2.961 6.790 970.9
47000 392.1, 280.8 .1326 .000416 .1751 .01340 2.961 7.122 970.9
48000 392.4 267.4 .1264 .000397 .1669 .01277 2.9H 7.470 970.9
49000 392 255.3 .1205 .000379 .1592 .01218 2.901 7.836 970.9
50000 392 243.3 .1149 .000361 .1517 .01161 2.961 8.219 970.9
51000 392.4 232.0 .1095 .000344 .1447 .01101 2.961 8.621 970.9
52000 392.4 220.7 .1044 .000328 .1379 .01055 2.961 9.042 970.9
53000 392.4 210.8 .0995 .000313 .1315 .01006 2.961 9.485 970.9
54000 392.4 200.9 .0949 .000298 .1253 .'J0959 2.961 9.949 970.9
55000 392.4 191.7 .0905 .000284 .1195 .00914 2.961 10.436 970.9
56000 182.5 .0862 .000271 .1139 .00872 2.961 10.947 970.9
57000 392.4 174.0 .0822 .000258 .1086 .00831 2.961 11.1.82 970.9
58000 392.4 166.2 .0784 .000246 .1035 .00792 2.961 12.01+4 970.9
59000 392.4 158.4 .0747 .000235 .0987 .00755 2.961 12.633 970.9
60000 392.4 150.7 .0712 .000224 .0941 .00720 2.961 13.251 970.9
61000 392.4 143.6 .0679 .000213 .0897 .00687 2.961 1).899 970.9
62000 392 137.2 .0647 .000203 .0855 .00655 2.961
14.579 970.9
63000 392 130.9 .0617 .000194 .0816 .00624 2.961 15.293 970.9
64000 392.4 124.5 .0589 .000185 .0777 .0059S 2.961 16.041 970.9
65000 392.4 118.8 .0561 .000176 .0741 .00567 2.961 16.825
970.9 .00326
AI:3
PROPERTIES OF AIR FROM 65,000 FEET TO 262,467 FEET) DAY AND NIGHT


69,000
70,000
71,000
72,000
Rggg


79,000

82,000
3i;ggg


89:=:
90,000
91,000
92,000



99,000



110,000
112,000
IH,OOO
ill;ggg
1'20,000
12'2,000
124,000
12'6,000

130,000
132,000
13"',000
1)6,000
138,000
UO,OOO
1.-.2,000
1".000
1\6,000
HS,OOO
150,000
152,000

158,000


166,000
168,000
170,000
17'2,000
11",000
176,000
118,000

184,000

190 ,000


19B ,000
200 ,000
202,000
204,000
206,000
208,000
<'IO,OOO
212,000
21',000
216,000
218,000
392.'
392,'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.-
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
W.,
W.'
W.
392.'
392.'
W.
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
W.
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392.'
392
392.'
392.'.
m:i
420.6
-'28.7
ttd

<68.9
m:z
"93.0
501.1
509.1
517.2
525.2

s<U


589.6

m:A
629.8
6)0.0

6)0.0
6)0.0
6)0.0
6)0.0
630.0
6)0.0
Reference: Warfield, Calvin N.
DC! Technical Rote No. 1200
- PROPERfiU 01' 'lU trPP!'JI A'l'MOSPBERl JI'OR 'lU'TA'l'IV! MUDARD 'I'!lO'ERA'!'ORZ5 BASED O .u ARBI'l'RARY
COIIST.urt' V.u..cz OF QRAVl'tA'l'lOIlAL J'ORCI- BRI'fISH I:RGllfDRIRQ STS'l'PI
(a) 7ar botb d.q I&Dd. n1.Ibt
Coet'tlclent
or .1.co.1tl.
(lb_ .!/tt'2)
EiD_tic
"i.co.itT.

(tt'2/.ee )
Tentative Tables for the Properties of the Upper Atmosphere.
Al:4
Absolute
Al ti tude I tempera-
b ture,
(tt) T
(Op ab )
262, 467 432.0
264,000 432.0
266,000 432.0
268,000 432.0
270,000 432.0
272,000 432.0
272,309 lt32.0
274,000 435. 4
276,000

278,000 4 3.4
280,000 447.4
282,000 451.4
284,000 455.4
286,000 459.4
288,000 463. 4
290 ,000 467.4
292,000 471.4
294,000 475.4
296 ,000

298,000 4 3.4
300,000 487.4
302,000 491.4
304,000 495.4
306,000 499. 4
308,000 503. 4
310,000 507.4
312,000 511.5
314,000 515.5
316,000 519.5
318,000 523.5
320,000 527.5
322 ,000 531.5
324,000 535.5
326,000

328,000
M:g
328 ,083
330,000 547.5
332,000 551.5
334,000 555.5
336,000 559.5
338,000 563.5
340 ,000 567.5
342 ,000 571.5
344,000 575.5
346,000 579.5
348 ,000 583.5
350,000 587.5
352,000 591.5
354,000 595.5
356,000 599.5
358,000 603.5
360,000 607.5
362,000 611.5
364 ,000 615.5
366,000 619.6
368 ,000 623.6
370,000 627.6
372,000 631.6
374,000 635.6
376,000

378,000 6 3.6
380,000 647.6
382 ,000 651.6
384,000 655.6
386,000 659.6
383,000 663.6
390,000 667.6
392,000 671.6
393,700 675.0
PROPERTIES OF AIR FROM 262,467 FEET TO 393,700 FEET. DAYTIME ONLY.
PROPERTIES OP THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE FOR TENTATIVE STANDARD TEMPERATURES BASED ON AN ARBITRARY
CONSTANT VALUE OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE - BRITISH ENGINEERING SYSTEM - Cuntinued
Dens! ty Specific Coe'ff'lclent
Kl.nematic
Speed of
Pressure, Pressure Densi ty,
ratio, weight, ot vlscosl ty,
viscCJslty,
sound,
(lb/rt
2
)
ratio, P
p/PQ (.lugs/ft3) rs E....
y. gP

]/ rr a
(lb (tt/.ec)
Po
(lb/ft3)
(ll
(ft
2
;'sec)
(b) For day only
0.06669 3.151><18-
5
3.782XI0-5 2 3.212XI0-
7
1019
0.06241 2.949

3.522 2.695 3.212
35
1022
0.05724
7
3.210 3.212 .208 1026

2. 8 69. 5
2.2 1 3.212 4.612 1030
0.0 82 2.282

2.67 2.046 3.212 5.051 1034
0.0443 2.097 5 .07 2.442 1.868 3.212 5.531 1038
0.04381 2.070 57.26 2.408 1.842 3.212 5.610

0.04082 1.929
2.215 1.695 3.232 6.135 10 6
0.03760 1.776 7.77 2.009 1.537 3.257 6.818 1054
0.03469 1.638 43.42 1.826 1.397 3.282 7.559 1063
0.03200 1.512 39.45 1.659 1.269 3.306 8.380

0.02956 1.397 35.91 1.510 1.155 3.331 9.273 10 1
0.02736

3
2
r
1.377

3.355 10.25

0.02535 1.1 29, 9

.

10
o 1.111 27.32 1.1 9
O. 3. 3 12. 1107
0.021 4

25.02 1.052 0.80 8 3.427 13.70 1116
0.0202 O. 8 22.91 o. '1635 0.7371 3.451 15.06 1124
0.0188 O. 920 21.01 0.M37 0.6761 3.1175 16.54

0.01759 0.8310 19.30 0.8117 0.6210 3.499
18'M
112
0.01639 0.7746 17.74 0.7460 0.5707 3.523 19. 1151
0.7228 16.32 0.6865 o 3.546 21.73 1160
0.01 ?8 0.6750 15.03 O. 3.569 23.75 1169
0.01336 0.6314 13.87
0.5
0.44 3 3.593 25.90 1177
0.01250 0.5908 12.80 0.53 0.4119 3.616 28.25 1186
0.01170
o 11.82 0.4972 0.3804
3
0
.p 1195
0.01098

10.94 0.4599
0.35
1
3.6 2 33. 7 1204
0.01030 o. 6
1O'M
0.4259 0.325 3.68 36.38 1213
0.009671 0.4570
.3
0.3947 0.3020 3.70

1222
.705 0.3661 0.2801 3.731

0.00 550 0.40 8.082 0.3399 0.2600 3.754 46.45 12
0.3804
7
0.3158 0.2416 3.777 50.00 124R
0.0075 5 0.3584 6.98 0.2937 0.2247
54.40 1257

0.3380 6.504
o .2Ors 3. 22 58.75 1266
0.0067 0.3187
0.25
8 3.84l!
6HO

0.006368 0.3009
5.6 0.2374 0.1 16 3.867 6 8
0.006353 0.3002 5.62 0.2367 0.1811 3.867 68.71 1285
0.006012 0.2841
0.2224 0.1701 3.889

0.005686 0.2687 .965 0.2088 0.1597 3.911 7 .77 129
0.
0053
rr 4.661
3.933 84.38 1298
o 7 0.2 4 4.380 0.1 42
0.1 3.955

0.00 812 0.2274 4.114 0.1730 0.132 3.977 96. 7 130
0.004556 0.2153 3.866 0.1626 0.1244

103.4 1312
0.004315 0.2039 3.636 0.1170 .021 110.5 1317
0.004091
3.424 0.1 40 0.1102 4.043 118.1 1322
0.003875 0.1 31 3.220 0.1354 0.1036 4.065 126.2 1326
3.032 0.1275 0.09755 4.086
1331
0.003 5 0.16 7 2.858 0.1202 0.09196
I
4.108 1 3.7 1335
0.003306 0.1562 2.692 0.1132 0.08660 153.4 1340
0.003136 0.1482 2.537 0.1067 0.08163 4.151
1344
o 0.1407 2.392 0.1006 0.07697 4.172
.4 1349
0.002 29 0.1337 2.258 0.09495 0.07264 4.193 1 5.7 1353
0.002690 0.1271 2.132 0.08967 0.06860 4.214 197 .7 1358
0.1208 2.013 0.08466 0.06477 4.236 210.4 1362
0.002 29 0.1148 1.901 0.07994 0.06116 4.257

1367
0.002311 0.1092 1.796 0.07554 0.0577
4
4.278 23 .2 1371
0.002199 0.10
g
9 1.698 0.07142 0.0546 4.299 25
e
2

0.002092 0.098 7 1.606 0.06753 o 4.319 26 .9 13
g
0.09411

0.06387 0.0 886 4.340 285.7 1384
0.08962 1. 37 0.06044 0.04624 4.361 303.5 1389
0.001806 0.08536 1.360 0.05720 0.04376
322.2

0.001721 0.08133 1.288 0.05416 0.04144 4. 02 341.8 13
0.001640 0.07751 1.220 0.05130 0.03925 4.423 362.5 1402
0.001564 0.07390 1.156 0.04861 0.03719 1406
0.001492 0.07049 1.096 0.04609 0.03526 4.46 07.3 1411
o 0.06724 1.039 0.04369 0.03343 4.484 431.6 1415
0.00135 0.06417 0.9856 0.04145 0.03171 4.504
47.0 1419
0.001296 0.06126
0.
0.03933 0.0300
4
4.525 4 3.9

0.0012'17 0.05847 O. 72 0.03731 0.0285 4.545 512.3 142
0.001190 0.05624 0.8491 0.03571 0.02712 4.562
537.3 1431
Mean :tree
path of
molecules,
).
(ft)
6.40xl0-
3
6.84

.12
8.83
9.61
9.74
10.5
11.5
12.6
13.8
15.1
16.4
17.9
19.5
21.1
22.9
24.9
26.9
29.1
31.5
34.0
36.6

2.5
45.7
49.0
52.6
56.4
60.5
64.7
69.2
73.9

84.5
89.
95.
102
109
116
123
131
m
157
167
IF
1 8
199
211

23
250
265
280
296
313
I
331
350
370
m
434
458
483
509
536
560
IThe for listed :!.n these columns are not ,"'ppllcable "'t the higher altitudes the meRn free paths of'
the molecules "re c:J:!lpp.rp.ble to or longer than the dimensions of the bod;: be:!.ng considered. Furthermore J the v!llues listed
are 1:-"3,,,1 on the c()D'.'pntioP..c'll Sutherlp.nd formula for norm . .,l air and, consequently, no a.llO'l{rnce has been mt,de for the effect
of in thp "trnosphpre at the hicher levels.
Reference: Warfield, Calvin H. Tentative Tables for the Properties of the
Upper Atmosphere. NACA Technical Note No. 1200.
Alti tude,
h
(ft)
262,467
264,000
266,000
268,000
270,000
272,000
272,309
274,000
276,000
278,000
280,000
282,000
284,000
286,000
288,000
290 ,000
292,000
294,000
296 ,000
298,000
300,000
302,000
304,000
306,000
308,000
310,000
312,000
314,000
316,000
318,000
320,000
322 ,000
324 ,000
326,000
328,000
330 ,000
332 ,000
334,000
336,000
338,000
340,000
342 ,000
344 ,000
344 ,487
346,000
348 ,000
350,000
35:: J 000
354,000
356 J 000
358 ,000
360,000
35
0
,000
364,000
366 ,000
362,oce
370,oeo
372,000
374,000
37 6 J OOC
37P J ooc
.-----
,
-:'1',;:, VG.:'J
PROPERTIES OF AIR FROM 262,467 FEET TO 393,700 FEET.
NIGHT ONLY
PROPERTIES OF THE UPPER ATMOSPHERE FOR TENTATIVE STANDARD TEMPERATURES BASED ON AN ARBITRARY
CONSTANT VALUE OF GRAVITATIONAL FORCE- BRITISH ENGINEERING SYSTEM- Concluded
Absolute
Kineme. tic
tempera- Pressure J Pressure Dens1 ty I
Dens1 ty Specific Coefficient
viscos1 ty,
ture,
(lb!rt
2
)
rs.t10 J P
ratio I Weight, of viscos! ty

T plP
o
(slugs/ft 3 )
P
" gP
" 2
0--
("F abs.) Po (lb/ft
3
)
(lb-s9c/rt )
(1) (1)
(c) For night only
432.0 0.06669 3.15lxl0-5 89.93><10-
9
3.78:?xl0-5
2.893><10-
6
3.21:?xl0-
7
3.512
432.0 0.06239 2.948

2.707 3.212
432.0 0.05720 2.703 2.482 3.212 .164
432.0 0.05246 2.479 70.74 2.975 2.276 3.212 4.541
432.0 0.04810

64.87 2.728 2.087 3.212
U6i 432.0 0.04410
UM
3.212
432.0

2.056 3.212 5.475
435.4 1.911 2.275 1.741 3.232 5.974

0.03712 1. 754

6.620
0.03408 1.61) 7. ,26
447.4

1.481 40.80 1. 7'-6

3.306 8.103
451.4 1.363 37.24

1.1 3.331
455.4
g
1.255 33.98
o
3.355
459.4 1.156 31.01 1.304 3.379 10.90
463.4 0.02256 1.066 28.34 1.192

3.403 12.01
467.4 0.02081 0.9832 25.92 1.0;; 3.427

471.4 0.01921

23.74 0.99 4 0.7 3 3.451
475.4 0.01774 21.74

0.6994 3,475 15.98

0.01640 0.7748 19.92 0.6410 3.499 17.57
0.01517 0.7168 18.28 0.7687 0.5881 3.523 19.27
487.4 0.61406 0.6643 16.80 0.1065 0.5405 3.546 21.11
491.4 0.01302 0,6152

0.6489 0.4964 3.569 23.13
495.4 0.01206 0.5699

0.4562 3.593 25.34
499.4 0.01119 0.5286 13.05 0.4198 3.616 27.71
503.4 0.010<8 0.4906 12.01 0.5052 0.3865 3.639 30.30
507.4 0.009642 0.4556 11.07 0.4654 0.3561 3.662 33.08
511.5 0.008958 0.4233 10.20 0.4290 0.3282 3.685 36.13
515.5 0.008327 0.3935 9.409 0.3957 0.3027 3.708
519.5 0.007745 0.3660 8.686
nm
0.2795 3.731 2.95
523.5 0.007210 0.3407 8.023 0.2581 3.754 46.79
527.5 0.006711 0.3171 7.410 0.3116 0.2384 3.177 50'.97
531.5 0.006253 0.2955 6.853 0.2882 0.2205

55.44
535.5 0.005826 o .?7S3 6. ,37 O. ?66S


mJ
0.005437 0.2569 5.871 0.2469 3.84;
0.005073 0.2397 5.436 0.2286 0.1749 3.867 71.14
547.5 0.004736 0.2238

0.2119 0.1621 3.889 .18
551.5 0.004423 0.2090 0.1503 3.911 3.69
555.5

0.1953 4.335 0.1 23 0.1395 3.933 90.73
550 .5 0.1826

0.1692 0.1294 3.955 98.31
563.5 0.003617 0.1709 0.1572 0.1203 3.977 106.4
567.5 0.003384 0.1599 3.474 0.1461 0.1118

115.1
571.5 0.003166 0.1496 3.227 0.1357

.021 1?4.6
575.5 0.002967 0.1402 3.003 0.1263 4 134.6
576.5 0,002920 0.1380 2.951 0.1241 o
137. :2
579.5 0.002781 0.1'311; 2.777 0.1168 0.0 936 4.065 146.4
583.5 0.002611 0.1234 2.568 0.1080
g
4.096 159.1
587.5 0.002453

2.376
g
4.108
591.5 0.002305 2.199 0.07075 4.129
595.5 0.002169 0.1025 2.039 o .oEs75 0.06560 4.151 203.6
599.5 o 0.09646 1.891 0.07951

4 .. 172 220.6
603.5 0.001924 0.09090 1.756 0.07383 4.193 238.8
607.5

0.08576 1.612 0.06864

4,214 258.2
611.5 0.08008
Lm
0.06385 4.236 278.9
6H :; !:;
0.001612 0.0764' 0.05947

4.257 301.1
610:6 0.001531
g
1. 319 o 05546 4.278 324.3
623.6 0,001449
i:m
g:mn
0.0395 4.290
349. 2
627.6 0,0(.:373 0.06489 a 4.319

631.fi 0,001302 0,06151 1.075 0.04;.520 0.03458 4.340 03.7
635.6 o c .05236 1.006 c 0.03235 4.361
W:9 030 .5 o .DOl17'" 0.05537 O. 0'['3957 0.030'"'7 4.322
.. :; 0.00111:, o c .8:27 0.03703 C .o?837 4.402 499.3
.6 0 0.050(( [I 0.03471 0.02660 4.423 535.0
6S1.6 0 c,047S':" 0.7761

0.02497 4.44; 572.5
f5.5.5 0 o C'.7'"'SQ o .c'30c-5 o .O'"l3hS 4.464 61? .5
6: .... ,,:; I
'" 0" _ J "'"
o c .C:?"C'h 4.404 6,,4.5
6" ,S C n.Sh1..4
I g:
0.02073
I
4.50
4 ?
-::; .,: I (l (,')n2Q C "::':0'::4 (I ?:-: 4,5?5
I
746. ?
III o (1.:>74' f"'
10'00u
co 0.01
0
:: 4.5!>S 7()5.7
Ie (;'0-::::)0
! C .0';""(':: i 0.01749 4.o6?
I

L-____ ____ L ___
I i I I
Speed of
Bound,
,
(rt/ c)
1019
1019
1019
1019
1019
1019
1019

1032

1046
1051
1055
1060
1064
1069

1082
1087
1091
1096
1100
1104
1109
1113
1117
1122
1126
1130
1134
iN
1147
1151
1155
1160
1164
1168
1172
1176
1177
n85
1195
1205
1?15
1226
1236
1246
1256
1267

1287

1318
1328
1339
1349
135,<;:1
1370
1321
1391
14:1
lL:l?
11.:.:?:,
1 431
'n c"lr:'.3 thE: h.s.gher .... r.c"e the moen free p-tbs
U- ': r' ".:"
t-, ,',,!", 'f::' ,,::r.'n :h'C boc'" b(,'n:- FlL ..... ther:"'lorf:'. the v3.1ues
Al:5
Mean free
ppth of
molecules I
).
(ft)
6.40xl0-3
6.84
7.46
8.13
8.87
9.67
9.80
10.6
11.7
12.8
14.1
)';.5
16.9
18.5
20.3
22.2
24.2'
26.5
28.9
31.5
34.2
.3
0.6
44.1
47.9
52.0
56.4
61.1
66.2
71. 7
77.6

98.0
106
114
123
133
m
166
178
192
195
206
221
237
253
271
290
310
331
353

00
425
451
470
50E
539
571
I
604
6,0
676
714
754

:::;?
I
S7S
__ :'c :- f()r ;-:':"'r'::':'l2- -:::--- "n:. no f.llo,",sncc :>f'en m,,:'.(' for the effect
Reference: Warfield, Calvin N.
NACA Technical Note No. 1200.
Tentative Tables for the Properties of the upper Atmosphere.
Al:e
Abstracts from Summary of Data on Air up to 1000 miles Altitude
From the Earth e Atmosphere, by HCII'ard Eo Rob erie, Aero-Thermodynamios
Engineer, Aerodynamios Seotion, Xl Segundo Plant, Douglas Airoraft Co., Ino.
as publ1 shed in Aeronautioal En ineeri Review


FIG. 2.
10,000
1000
ALTITUDE
MILES
100
10-'10-1 1(,-.10-2 1 ICl to" 10'
Atmospheric influence on satellite tlilrht.
20 40 60 80 100
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE LBS. / SQ. FT.
FIG. 8. Variation of absolute pressure (data from Grimmingert).
1000
700
500
300
200
'"
100
...
-oJ
70
i
.:.
50
Q
::>
I-
30
5
..
20
10
FIG. 6.
COMPOSITION - PERCENT VOLUME
Approximate composition of the atmos!)here (after
Grimminger "atmosphere modelIII"2).
10' 10"3 to" I 10 10
3
TEMPERATUIIE- OF
FIG. 7. Variation of temperature with altitude t, ,
FIG. 11.
PARTICLE MEAN FREE PATH - FEET
Variation of particle mean free path (data from Grim-
miDgerS).
1,000,000
t;j 100,000
...
...
.;,
o
::>
I-
;::
cI
1301
o SMOKE CfUFn FROM SHEUS
00 DRIFT QIF l0N0SPttRIC CLOUOS
13132}
ORI" t;I NOCTILUCENT I
U ORIFT OF METEOR TJI!"'HS '
1000 LL-l_--1._....L_..L_..L_-'---'
o 100 200 300 <400 500 SOO 700
WI NO VELOCITY- FT /SEC
FIG. 14. Variation of wind velocity.
Courhsy Institute of the Aeronautioal Soienoea. Copie.ot
a large (approxo le"x 00") colored chart by the same author
end ting all of tIB above information end lIIuch mre are
eva ilable for eaoh from the III! ti t ute of the Aeron811 tical
Soienoe., Preprint Dept., 2 E. 64th St., New York a, N.Y.
NOTATION FOR OOKPRESSIBLE FLOW EQUATIONS
FROM NACA HANDBOOK OF FORI.!ULAS AND
DATA ON SUPERSONIC FLOW
Symbols IUid Notation
(AlTanged in approximate alphabetic order;
Greek symbols follOll' the list of English
symbols)
e
E
h
l
Zn
1.:
q
Q
R
Re
S
t
T
U,V,1r
U',V',yl
x,y,z
x,r,.e
U
v
W
6
English Symbols:
local velocity of sound.
area.
aspect ratio.
chord of airfoil.
nap chord.
specific heat at constant pressure.
specific heat at constant volume.
aerodynamic coefficients of drag, 11ft, and
pitching moment, respectively.
section force coefficients.
distance from the leading edge to pitching
moment axis, positive to the rear.
base of natural logarithms, 2.718
internal energy.
enthalpy, pv + E.
characteristic reference length
to base e.
mach number (ratio of local velOCity to local
velocity of sound).
free stream mach number, lI:!.. O/al'
number of degrees of freedom of gas molecule.
local static pressure.
pressure coeffiCient, p.- PI
dynamic pressure, pv2
heat added to system.
perfect gas constant.
Reynolds number.
entropy.
time variable.
absolute temperature.
velocity components.
1 Pl u
2
2
perturbation velocity components.
rectangular coordinates.
cylindrical coordinates.
free stream velOCity,
specific volume, lip
resultant local velocity, .fu2 + v2 + y2
maximum velocity ootainable by expanding to
zero temperature.
external work performed.
Greek Symbols:
angle of attack.
mach angle, sin-
l
1
-IJl.71
ratio of specific heats, Cpl0v
angle of denection of the super sonic stream
When passing through an oblique shock wave, or
When prefixed to another symbol, denotes the
inexaot differential.
airfoil flap deflection, positive downward.
local' angle of of airfoil surface
with respect to free stream direotion.
absolute coefficient of Vlscoeity.
perturba tion velocity potential.
velocity potential.
mUir density.
angle between chord line and the tangent to the
airfoil surface at a given point.
angle between Original direction of noll' and the
shock wave.
kinematic viscosity pIp, or:
angle through which a supersoniC stream is
turned to expand from )( 1 to K > 1.
=assure ratio across a shock wave, P2/Pr'
S'ubscripts:
)0 refers to stagnation conditions.
h refers to conditions in free stream or to condi-
tions just ahead of a shock wave.
)2 refers to conditions just behind a shock wave or
to conditions at a second point of the now.
)3 refers to stagnation conditions behind a shock
wave.
)s refers to conditions on the surface of a cone.
)u refers to conditions on upper surface of airfoil.
refers to conditions on lower surface of airfoil.
Superscripts:
) I perturbation quanti ties. (The prime is also used
as the symbol for the first deri vati ve in Section
II-C)
). refers to conditions Where )( 1
Notation:
Notation such as rper.fj, , etc. that appear
after many of the equations signifies that the equation
is strictly applioable only if the now of the nuid oom-
plies with the limitations indicated between the brack-
ets. For example,
[perfJ means that when applying the equation to com-
pressible flow processes the fluid must be a
perfect gas.
[isen per.tJ meane that the now must take place isen-
tropically and the fluid must be a perfect
gas, in order that the equation be appli-
cable.
[adiab] means that the only limitation to the flaw
process is that no heat be transferred
across the streamlines. With thie limitation
the flaw does not necessarily have to take
place isentropically, although it m&7 and
the equation would of course still be valid.
The restrictions the equations are intended to
indicate the most serious limitations that the nOlI'
must oomply with. It is desirable to indicate these
limitations because shock waves must be dealt with very
often in the applications of compressible now equations,
and those equations that are predicated on the aSlfUlllption
of isentropic nOlI' are of oourse no longer valid. Haw-
ever, many of the equations are predicated only on the
less severe aSSWIIption of adiabatic flaw and such equa-
tions are applicable even if shock waves do not exist
in the flow.
THERMODYNA..1flC RELATIONSHIPS AN;) GENERAL EQUATIONS OF COl41'RESSIBLE FLO'II'
Al:8
FROM NACA HANDBOOK OF FOIUlULAS AND
DATA ON SUPERSONIC FLOW
Thermodynamic relationships
The notation [Pertl or [re!] following an equation
indicates that it is valid only for a perfect gas or for
a reversible process respectively.
ah aQ
op = (-) = (-) = 0v + R [perf]
aTp aTp
aE aQ
v ...
(-) ::::
(a-T)v :::: 0p - R [perf]
aT v
dE :::: dQ - iflV (First law) :::: C
v
dT
h ... pv + E ::::
cpT [perf]
::::
(ov + R)
'( p
[perf]
y-l
=--
'(-1 P
dh
= - (perf]
dT (Al-I)
dE
= --'-
dT
T
(perf]
(Al-2)
[perf]
(Al-)
[perf]
[perf]
(Al-4)
dh E pdv + vdp + dE = c
p
dT [perf] = (c
v
+ R) dT
P :::: pRT [perf] (Perfect Gas Law) = B!
v (Al-6)
Q = ITdB
(rev)
dQ = dW + dE (First Law)
= pdv + dE [rev] :::: pdv + C
v
dT
= dh - vdp [rev]
R E [perf] .e
pT T
S
[perf]
= 0v (,(-1)
y-l
= C
p
(-)
Y
= (dE + dW) = dE + pdv
T rev T
dT dv
= Cv T + P T
dT dp
=0 --R-
v T P
dp dp
= C
v
- - c -
p p p
dT
= 0 --
P T
C
v
In T
dp
R-
p
R In. p
= C
v
In p - c
p
In p
= 0p In T - R In P
:::: c
y
In
P
-(Y-l) T
_ cl
= 0p In P Y T
= R In p-l
b.S = 0
(rev) T
(Second Law)
(Al-ll)
1 fiT
V !!I- =-
P P
[perf rev]
(Al-7)
[pert' )
[perf]
[perf)
(Al-8)
[rev)
[perf rev]
[perf rev)
(perf rev]
(perf rev]
(Al-9)
[perf rev].
(perf rev]
(perf rev]
[perf
[perf rev]
(perf revJ
(Al10)
(perf)
(Al-12)
dp
dv s -:2
p
dW = dQ - dE (First Law) = pdv
W = jPdV
y = :::: Cv + R
- Cv c y
n + 2
::::-- (Kinetic theory)
n
(Al-I)
[rev]
(Al-14)
[rev]
(Al-lS)
(perf]
(Al-16)
General Equations of Compressible Flow
The notation!! [adiabJ, and indicate
that the equations apply only for a perfect gas, an
adiabatic process, or an isentropic process, respec-
tively. An equation without such notation
[perf] indicates no restrictions.
(Al-S)
The fundamental equations of compressible flC1ll'
along a stream tube are:
Euler's equation:
dp
- + VdV = 0
P
dp V
2
J P + "2 = const.
Continuity equation:
dp dV dA
-+-+-=0
p V A
Energy equation:
V 2 V 2
hI ++- Q
(Al-17)
(Al-18)
(Al-19)
(Al-20)
For adiabatic flow the energy equation becomes
V
2
h + "2 :::: ho = const.
V
2
oT+-=cT
p 2 p 0
Y V
2
Y p
() + _ = _ (-..9.)
y-1 p 2 y-1 Po
a
2
V
2
a 2
_+_=_0_
'(-1 2 ,(-1
From the following relationships
a* 2 2
(-) =-
a
o
,(+1
2
a
o
) y-1
(-q =2"
a* 2 y-1
(-) =-
fi y+1
the energy equation becomes
[adiab] (Al-21)
[adiab perf]
(Al-22)
[adiab perf J
(Al-23)
[adiab perf]
(Al-24)
[adlab perf]
(Al-2S)
[adiab perf)
(Al-26)
(adiab perfJ
(Al-27)
THERYODYNAMIC RELATIONSHIPS AND GENERAL EQUATIONS OF C01U'RESSIBLE FLOW
FRO},! NACA HANDBOOK OF FORMULAS AND
DATA 011 SUPERSONIC FLOW
General Equations of Compressible Flow (con't)
a
2
v
2
I y+l
-+- =- (-)
'1'-1 2 2 '1'-1
Perfect gas law:
p
- = RT
P
Speed of sound eguation:
[perf J = yRT
Bernoulli!s equation:
v
2
Y p
+_ =_ (..2)
2 y-1 Po
Isentropic
p
- = constant
p'l'
p
(-)
Po
cl
'I' '1'-1.
= (..) =
Po
T

o
[adiab perf J
(Al-29)
[perf J (Al-30)
[pe>rf' J (Al-,3I)
lisen perf J
(Al-32)
[hen perf J
(Al-33)
[isen perf]
(AI-35)
All9
AlIIO
SUPERSONIC NOZZLE EQUA TrONS
FRO!.! NACA HANDBOOK OF FOmtULAS AND
DATA ON SUPERSONIC FLOII'
The following equation is derived for uni-dimensional flow
whioh is isentropio upstream and downstream of (but not through)
the normal shook wave:
Part A - One-Dimensional. TheoI7
u= 0
A==
I
1 (:c!:!) ..:L 1
'1"-1 y;.-r 2 2 y.;r 2y 2 y:-r

(1+-) (-+lL) (-M
l
-1)
2 y-l -:l y-l
I
p*,T*
p*,A*
p,T,p, u

(!l-4l)
The use of the continuity equation in
the form
When supersonio flow has been established in the diffuser
entranoe the normal shook wave stands downstream of the seoond
throat, A
2
*.
uA f* !.I.*A* const. (Al-29)
requires that the n01l' be assumed uni-d1men-
Supersonio diffusers Without initial boundary layer oheok
the theory very olosely, but if there 1"a an initial boundary
layer the maximum oontraction ratio i6 redUced and the equation
is a fair first approximation.
sional, i.e., it requires that the velocity Numerioal values for
profile be straight and the velocity component of Figure III-(Al-4l)
"v" be neglected. Then u;; V.
By oombining the above equation With suitable equations in
Seotion II, Part B, the folloWing equations for the area
are derived:
A*
-=
A,
A*
-=
A
1.728 H
_2 3 (isen perf]
(1 + 0.2 W) (Al-37)
1
2\y:.TT [ 2
J
M
u y+l '1"-1 u
(--)(-) 1 - -(--)
a
o
2 2 a
o
(isen pert]
(Al-38)
1
= (Y+l) '1"- G _ '1'-1 (isen perf]
A a* y+l 2 L y+l a* J (Al-39)
1
= ('::) I 2 (.r::!) '1"-1 [1 _ 2JY-I (isen pert]
A '1'-1 2 11 (Al-40)
Numerioal values tor will be tound in Table II as a
funotion of M.
The oompressible tlow equatiOns ot Seotion II and the numeri-
cal values in Table II are applicable in the one-d1lnensional
analysis.
PART B - NOZZLE DATA
theoretioal contraotion ratio that permits start ot
A
supersonio tlow in diffuser entranoe, :
A2 .... max
A
(-1.) may be picked from the ourve
A,2* max
NORMAL SHOCK WAVE EQUATIONS; FINI'IE WING EQUATION$
FROY NACA HANDOOOK OF FORilULAS AND
DATA ON SUPERroNIC FlOW
Al:ll
NORMAL SHOCK WAVES
The previoue relatione for isentropic flCIIJ are mid
for points on either side of a shock wave (e.g.: 0 and 1,
or 2 and 3), but not acroe! it.
u'" 0
u = a*
PI Tl P2 T2
PI a
l
P2 9.z
u
l
Hl ~ Mz
The general energy equat1on:
u
2
u = 0
- + h = h
2 0
(assuming adiabatic flow)
u
2
2" + CpT = CpTo
u
2
Y P Y Po
-+--=--
2 y-l P y-l Po
(assuming adiabatic flow
of a perfect gas )
u
2
P Po
-+-+cT=-+cT
2 P v P Vo
o
u
2
a
2
a 2 y+l
- + - = -!?.. = - a ~
2 y-l 'y"-l 2(y-l)
Hence
Together w1th the momentum equat10n
Pl + Plu1
2
= P2 + P ~
and the continuity equation
(U-6S)
(Al"",")
(Al-4S)
the energy equation provides the following relatione acroee
the !!hock wave:
ulu2 = a ~ (Prandtl's relation) (ll,,"")
(Rankine-Hugoniot relation
(Al-47)
Given Ml
(M
l
> 1.0)
2 (y-l) M12 + 2 M12 + 5
Mz = 2 = 2
2yM
l
- (y-l) 7Ml - 1
(Al-48)
(Al-49)
(Al-50)
(Al-51)
(Al-55)
AS
-=
= In r 2YM1
2
- (y-1)] _ y In r. (y+l)M1
2
]
l y+1 l(y-l)M
1
2
+ 2
(.0.-56)
Numerical values from equatione (Al-48) to (Al-54)
are given in Table III.
FINlTE-SPAN WING THEOIl!'
Rectangular Wing
Schlichting (as corrected by Taunt) gives for the
aerodynamic coefficients of a rectangular flat plate of
aspect ratio AR
40.
(1 -
0.5
C
L
=
Ii1.jM/ - jM12- 1 1
(Al-57)
40.
2
(1 -
0.5
)
CD =
1M2 1
JR/M12 -
1
1 -
(Al-58)
e
ll1l
=
0.333 a
M(M/ - 1) 2
(Al-59)
1Ihere the angle of attack IS is measured in radians_ For
AR .00 these equations reduce to Ackeret' II approximation
for the lift of a flat plate in two-dimene1onal flow.
'l'he foregoing equationl!l are theoretically valid only
for Kach numbers above that at which the Kach waves from
the forward tips of the wing intereect on the surface of
the lring. For any given rectangular wing thill Yach num-
ber ill defined by the equation
HI =j ;2 + 1
(Al-60)
Al:12
SUPERSONIC FLOW SHOCK WAVE FUNCTIONS
Definition of for Table II
M !dach number
(Ise!! tropic Flow)
p/Po ratio of static pressure to total pressure
(,/Po ratio of local density to stagnation density
T/To ratio of local temperature to temperature
a/ao ratio of local speed of sound to speed of sound at stagnation conditions
A<>/A ratio of area
2
0f throat to local cross sectional area of a stream tube
qjp
ratio of t t V to static pressure
qjpo ratio of V2 to total pressure

the
II ang1e-of-turning of a supersonic stream from M _ 1 to M
If
y2
:I ... / r'ach angle
T/To
a/a
o
A*/A q/p q/po
IS

\I
or""
p Po flPo
1.00 1.0000 .5283 .6339 .8333 .9129 1.0000 .7000 .3698 0 0 90.00
1.10 1.2100 .4684 .5817 .8052 .8973 .9921 .8470 .3967 .4583 2.182 1.336 65.38
1.20 1.4400 .4l24 .5311 .7764 .8811 .9705 1.008 .4157 .6633 1.508 3.558 56.44
1.30 1.6900 .3609 .4829 .7474 .8645 .9378 1.183 .4270 .8307 1.204 6.170 50.28
1.40 1.9600 .3142 .4374 .7184 .8476 .8969 1.372 .4311 .9798 1.021 8.987 45.58
1.50 2.2500 .2724 .3950 .6897 .8305 .8502 1.575 .4290 1.118 .8944 11.91 41.81
1.60 2.5600 .2353 .3557 .6614 .8133 .7998 1.792 .4216 1.249 .8006 14.86 38.68
1.70 2.8900 .2026 .3197 .6337 .7961 .7476 2.023 .4098 1.375 .727417.81 36.03
1.80 3.2400 .1740 .2868 .6068 .7790 .6949 2.268 .3947 1.497 .6682 20.73 33.75
1.90 3.6100 .1492 .2570 .5807 .7620 .6430 2.527 .3771 1.616 .6190 23.59 31.76
2.00 4.0000 .1278 .2300 .5556 .7454 .5926 2.800 .3579 1.732 .5774 26.38 30.00
2.10 4.4100 .1094 .2058 .5313 .7289 .5444 3.087 .3376 1.847 .5415 29.10 28.44
2.20 4.8400 .09352 .1841 .5081 .7128 .4988 3.388 .3169 1.960 .5103 31.73 27.04
2.30 5.2900 .07997 .1646 .4859 .6971 .4560 3.703 .2961 2.071 .4828 34.28 25.77
2.40 5.7600 .06840 .1472 .4647 .6817 .4161 4.032 .2758 2.182 .4583 36.75 24.62
2.50 6.2500 .05853 .1317 .4444 .6667 .3793 4.375 .2561 2.291 .4364 39.12 23.58
2.60 6.7600 .05012 .1179 .4252 .6521 .3453 4.732 .2371 2.400 .4167 41.41 22.62
2.70 7.2900 .04295 .1056 .4068 .6378 .3142 5.103 .2192 2.508 .3987 43.62 21.74
2.80 7.8400 .03685 .09463 .3894 .6240 .2857 5.488 .2022 2.615 .3824 45.75 20.92
2.90 8.4100 .03165 .08489 .3729 .6106 .2598 5.887 .1863 2.722 .367447.79 20.17
3.00 9.0000 .02722 .07623 .3571 .5976 .2362 6.300 .1715 2.828 .3536 49.76 19.47
3.10 9.6100 .02345 .06852 .3422 .5850 .2147 6.727 .1577 2.934 .3408 51.65 18.82
3.20 10.2400 .02023 .06165 .3281 .5728 .1953 7.168 .1450 3.040 .3290 53.47 18.21
3.30 10.8900 .01748 .05554 .3147 .5609 .1777 7.623 .1332 3.145 .3180 55.22 17.64
3.40 11.5600 .01513 .05009 .3019 .5495 .1617 8.092 .1224 3.250 .3077 56.91 17.10
3.50 12.2500 .01311 .04523 .2899 .5384 .1473 8.575 .1124 3.354 .2981 58.53 16.60
3.60 12.9600 .01138 .04089 .2784 .5276 .1342 9.072 .1033 3.458 .2892 60.09 16.13
3.70 13.6900 9.903 .03702 .2675 .5172 .1224 9.583 .09490 3.562 .2807 61.60 15.68
xlO-3
3.80 14.4400 8.629 .03355 .2572 .5072 .ill7 10.11 .08722 3.666 .2728 63.04 15.26
xlO-3
3.90 15.2100 7.532 .03044 .2474 .4974 .1021 10.65 .08019 3.770 .2653 64.44 14.86
xlO-3
4.00 16.0000 6.586 3 .02766 .2381 .4880 .09329 11.20 .07376 3.873 .2582 65.'78 14.48
xlO-
4.50 20.2500 3.455 .01745 .1980 .4450 .06038 14.18 .048ge 4.387 .2279 71.83 12.84
xlo-3
5.00 25.0000
1.890 3
.01134 .1667 .4082 .04000 17.50 .03308 4.899 .2041 76.92 11.54
xlO-
6.00 36.0000
6.334-4 5.194 -3
.1220 .3492 .01880 25.20 .01596 5.916 .1690 84.96 9.594
xlO xlO
7.00 49.0000 2.416 4 2.609 -3
.09259 .3043 9.602_
3
34.30 8.285_
3
6.928 .1443 90.97 8.21 3
xlO- xlO xlO xlO
8.00 64.0000 1. 024_
4
1.414 -3
.07246 .2692 5.260_
3
44.80 4 589 3 7.937 .1260 95.62 7.181
xlO xlO xlO xlO-
9.00 81.0000
4.739 5
8.150_
4
.05814 .2411 3.056 3 56.70 2.687_
3
8.944 .ill8 99.32 6.379
xlO- xlO xlO- xlO
10.00 100.0000 2.356
4.948 4
.04762 .2182 1.866 3 70.00 1.649_
3
9.950 .1005 102.3 5.739
xlO-
5 xlO- xlO- xlO
15.00 225.0000

6.968_
5
.02174 .1474 2.663 157.5 2.386 414.97 .06682 111. 5 3.823
xlO xlO xlO-
4
xlO-
20.00 400.0000 2.091 7 1.694_
5
.01235 .1111 6.503 5280.0 5.854_
5
19.97 .05006 116.2 2.866
104
xlO- xlO xlO- xlO
100.00
2.790 12 5.583 9 4.998_
4
.02236 2.157-8 7000.0 1.953-8 100.0 .01000 127.6 .5730
xlO- xlO- xlO xlO xlO
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 130.5 0
Al:13
SUPERSONIC FLOW AND SHOCK WAVE FUNCTIONS
Definition of Symbols for Table III
(Normal Shock Waves)
lIJ.
Mach number uplltream of normal shock 1Iave
Ll2
Mach number downstream of normal shock wave
Pl/po ratio of static pressure to tc>tal pressure upstream of shock 1Iave
P2/Pl
static pressure ratio across shcok wave
f>2/Pl
denSity ratio across shock wave
T2/TJ.
temperature ratio across shock wave
a2/
a
l
local speed of sound ratio across shock wave
P3/
p
o
ratio of total head downstream of shock wave to total head upstream
P2/P3
ratio of static pressure to total pressure downstream of shock 1Iave
P2/PO
ratio of static pressure downstream to total pressure upstream of wave
Vl/
a
* ratio of velocity (corresponding to Ill) to the speed of sound .... here V == a
Vl/
a
o ratio of velocity (corresponding to Ml) tothe speed of sound r.Jere V = 0
Vl/V ratio of veloci tv (corresponding to 1110 to the velocity where p. = T = 0
Lll Y2 Pl/po PVPl f>2/fJ. TVTJ. &2/al pYPo P2/P3 P2/P
o
v,/a* V,/a
o v./
V
1.00 1.0000 .5283 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.000 1.0000 .5283 .5283 1.000 .9l29 .4082
1.10 .9118 .4684 1.245 1.169 1.065 1.032 .9989 .5837 .5831 1.081 .9870 .44l4
1.20 .8422 .4124 1.513 1.342 1.128 1.062 .9928 .6286 .6241 1.158 1.057 .4729
1.30 .7860 .3609 1.805 1.516 1.191 1.091 .9794 .6652 .6514 1.231 1.124 .5026
1.40 .7397 .3142 2.120 1.690 1.255 1.120 .9582 .6953 .6662 1.300 1.187 .5307
1.50 .7011 .2724 2.458 1.862 1.320 1.149 .9298 .7202 .6697 1.365 1.246 .5571
1.60 .6684 .2353 2.820 2.032 1.388 1.178 .8952 .7411 .6635 1.425 1.301 .5819
1.70 .6405 .2026 3.205 2.198 1.458 1.208 .8557 .7588 .6493 1.482 1.353 .6052
l.60 .6165 .1740 3.613 2.359 1.532 1.238 .8127 .7728 .6289 1.536 1.402 .6271
1.90 .5956 .1492 4.045 2.516 1.606 1.268 .7674 .7867 .6037 1.586 1.448 .6475
2.00 .5773 .1278 4.500 2.667 1.688 1.299 .7209 .7978 .5751 1.633 1.491 .6667
2.10 .5613 .1094 4.978 2.812 1.770 1.331 .6742 .8075 .5444 1.677 1.531 .6846
2.20 .5471 .09352 5.480 2.951 1.857 1.363 .6281 .8l59 .5l25 1.7l8 1.568 .7013
2.30 .5344 .07997 6.005 3.085 1.947 1.395 .5833 .8233 .4802 1.756 1.603 .7170
2.40 .5231 .06840 6.553 3.212 2.040 1.428 .5401 .8299 .4482 1.792 1.636 .7317
2.50 .5130 .05853 7.125 3.333 2.138 1.462 .4990 .8357 .4170 1.826 1.667 .7454
2.60 .5039 .05012 7.720 3.449 2.238 1.496 .4601 .8408 .3869 1.857 1.695 .7582
2.70 .4956 .04295 8.338 3.559 2.343 1.531 .4236 .8455 .3581 1.887 1.722 .7702
2.80 .4882 .03685 8.980 3.664 2.451 1.566 .3895 .8496 .3309 1.914 1.747 .7811
2.90 .4814 .03165 9.645 3.763 2.563 1.601 .3577 .8534 .3053 1.940 1.771 .7919
3.00 .4752 .02722 10.33 3.857 2.679 1.637 .3283 .6568 .2813 1.964 1.793 .8018
3.10 .4695 .02345 11.05 3.947 2.799 1.673 .3012 .8598 .2590 1.987 1.814 .mo
3.20 .4643 .02023 11.78 4.031 2.922 1.709 .2762 .8626 .2383 2.008 1.833 .8197
3.30 .4596 .01748 12.54 4.112 3.049 1.746 .2533 .8652 .2191 2.028 1.851 .8279
3.40 .4552 .01512 13.32 4.188 3.180 1.783 .2322 .8675 .2015 2.047 1.868 .8355
3.5 .4512 .01311 14.13 4.261 3.315 1.821 .2129 .8697 .1852 2.064 1.884 .8427
3.6 .4474 .01138 14.95 4.330 3.454 1.858 .1953 .8716 .1702 2.081 1.899 .8495
3.7 .4439 9.903 3
15.80 4.395 3.596 1.896 .1792 .8734 .1565 2.096 1.914 .8558
xlO-
3.8 .4407 8.629 3
16.68 4.457 3.743 1.935 .1645 .8751 .1.U39 2.111 1.927 .8619
xlO-
3.9 .4377 7.532 3
17.58 4.516 3.893 1.973 .1510 .8767 .1324 2.125 1.940 .8675
xlO-
4.0 .4350 6.586 18.50 4.571 4.047 2.012 .1388 .8781 .1218 2.138 1.952 .8729
xl0-3
5.0 .4152
1.890 3
29.00 5.000 5.800 2.408 .06172 .8881 .05481 2.236 2.041 .9129
xlO-
6.0 .4042
6.334-4 41.83 5.268 7.941 2.818 .02965 .8936 .02$0 2.295 2.095 .9370
x10
7.0 .3974 2.416-4 57.00 5.444 10.47 3.236 .01535 .8969 .01377 2.333 2.130 .9526
xl0
8 .3929 1.024 4 74.50 5.565 13.39 3.659 8.488 3 .8990 7.631 3 2.359 2.154 .9631
xlO- xlO- xlO-
9 .3898 4.739_
5
94.33 5.651 16.69 4.086
4.964 3
.9005 4.470_
3
2.3Tf 2.170 .9705
xlO
xlO- xlO
10 .3876 2. 356-5 116.5 5.714 20.39 4.5l5 3.045 3
.9016
2.745 3 2.390 2.182 .9759
xlO
xlO- xlO-
15 .3823 1.515-6 262.3 5.870 44.69 6.685
4.395-4
.9041 3.974-4
2.423 2.212 .9891
xlO xlO xlO
20 .3804 2.091 7 466.5 5.926 78.72 8.873 1.078-4
.9050
9.753 5 2.434 2.222 .9938
xlO- xlO
xlO-
100 .3781
2.790 12
11,666.5 5.997 1945.11 44.11 3.593_
8
.9Q6l 3.255 8 2.449 2.236 .9998
xlO- xlO
xlO-
CtO .3780 0 6 0 .9061 0 2.449 2.236 1.0000
A2a:l
AIRFOIL DESIGNATION SYSl!lIS
NACA WR 1-560
Systematic Investigation of Airfoils. Pressure distri- For example: NAC! 65(lO)-211.
bution measurements over the upper and lower surfaces of
airfoils led to the concept of investigating independently If the design lift coefficient in tenths or the airfoil
the variation of upper and lower surfaces, but this procedure thickness in percent of chord are not whole integers, the
was found unsatisfactory because modifications of either numbers giving these quantities are usually enclosed in
upper or lower surface 1I8!'e found to alter the nO'll' charae- parentheses as in: NACA 6$(318)-0(1.5)(16.5). Some experim-
teristics over the entire airfoil. ental airfoils are designatea bY the insertion of the letter
Studies in the hydrodynamic theory of airfoils led to a
x immediately preceeding the hyphen.
concept of systematic investigatiem of airfoils based on 1leaning of the !lAC! l-series, the NACA 7-series, the
changing first the shape of the median line and then the NACA Supersonic, the NACA Helicopter series, and the German
thickness distribution about the median line. A good thick- DV1 airfoil designation systems are sh01lIl in Figures A2a-9,
ness distributicn determined by tests em symnetrical airfoils A2a-1.3, A2a-lh, A2a-l$, and A2a-16 respectively.
at 10'11' speed is that shown in Fir, .l2a-l and this thickness OA __ -- ____ ___
distribution was adopted in the testing of two large familie! _ _ J(
of airfoils knOllIl as the four-die
it
and five-digit series. -O'It----.:-:; -
For the four dig! t series, a mean camber line con- 0 .2 .Ij .iI . e II)
sisting of two parabolas, as shown in Fig. }_2a-2 was used. y. O.29697X- .126Ox - + .2483x3 -.101$x4
A typical airfoil of the NACA four-digit series is drawn to
scale in Fig. A2a-3. This is the NACA 241$ airfoil. A dia-
gram showing the meaning of the four digits used to designate
the airfoil is presented in Fig. A2a-4. The meaning of the
digits of the five-digit series of airfoils is shown in Fig.
A2a-$ and further explained in Table A2a-l. The mean lines
of the f1 ve-digi t series are of two types shown in Fig. A2a-6
those with a straight trailing edge having a third digit of
zero and those with a renex trailing ed;e having a third
digi t of one.
1lodifications of both these four-digit and five-digit
series involving changed nose radius ard crAnged location of
the point of maximum thickness are deSignated by two supple-
mentary digits preceded a dash, the first digit after the
dash designating the leading edge radius and the second argrr
arter the dash deSignating the maximum thickness location
acconting to the scheme shoilIl iii Table 12a-2. The dash num-
ber -63 is usually not written because it represents the
normal leading edge radius and thickness loactions shown in
Fig. A2a-l. For example 241$-63 is the same as 2415. Jlodi-
fied 0009 airfoils are shown in Figs. A2a-7 and A2a-8.
The dash number -4$ was found to correspood closely to
the special shapes developed for high speed. 'nlus the 16-009
airfoil may be considered identical with the 0009-4$.
For ordinates of above airfoils see Teclmical Aero-
dynamics, 2nd. Edition.
'!he NACA 6-series airfoile are usually designated by a
six-digit number together with a statement showinl' the type
of mean line used. See Fig. A2a-10. When the mean line used
is obtained by combining more than one mean line, the design
lift coefficient used in the designation is the algebraic
sum of the design lift coefficients of the mean lines used,
as shown in Fig. A2a-ll.
Airfoils having a thickness distribution obtained by
linearly increasing or decreasing the ordinate! of one of
the originally derived thicknes! di!tribution! are designated
as in Fig. A2a-12.
'!he more recent NACA 6-series airfoils are derived as
members of a family of airfoilS having the minimum pressure
at the same chordwise position as the earlier individually
derived airfoils, and are distinguished from them by writ-
ing the number indicating the 10'11' drag range as a subscriptJ
for example, NACA 6$3-218, a.O.$. 'n1e designations of air-
foil sections having a thickness ratio less than 0.12 of the
chord are nO'll' given without the subscript number indicating
the low-drag range. As an example, an !lAC! 6-eeries air-
foil having a thickness ratio of 0.10 of the chord would be
designated HACA 6$-110. If the ordinates of the basic
thickness distribution have been changed br a factor, the
10'll'-drag range and thickness ratio of the original thicknen
distribution are encloaed in parentheses as follO'll'SI
NAC! 6$(318)-217, a.OS. If, hml9ver, the ordinates of a
basic tliickiless distribution having a thicknees ratio less
than 0.12 of the chord have been changed by a factor, the
number indicating the 10'll'-drag range is el1ldnated and orU7
the original thickness ratio i. enclosed in parentheses.
Fig. A2a-l HAC! basic thickness distribution.
H-) 5e-cQ,'d
f'o.ra"o/-

t.,. t.l'1o,.. Co",bQ' ,."fol'l'IOI'l
Fig. A2a-2 liean camber shape for four-digit
series of airfoils.
rM",d/Cin lin"

6--- iD Ii" -- '(,0 - 80 -- -iito
Fig. !2a-3 Scale drawing of NAC! 241$ airfoil.
2 4
median CIlIIIber-f 'f.-........... )(ax thickness
per cent chord of
Position of
max median camber
in tenths of chord
Fig. A2a-4 Diagram showing meaning of digits of four-
digit airfoil series.
2 30

1$
thickness
in percent of
chord
1lean line
shape
designation
Fig. A2a-S Diagram !howing meaning of digits of five-
digit airfoil series.
$ 10 1$ 20 2S
..................

.

....................... 2.3 2.8 3.1
................
3.l 3.7 4.2
6 4.6 5.5 6.2
Reference I Abbott, Ira H., TOIl Albert E. and Stivers, Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Data. NACA Wartime Report L-560.
A2a:2
AIRFOIL DESIGNATION SYSTE1IS
Table A2a-2
Meaning of two dir.its after dash indicating non-
standard leading edge radius and non-standard max.
thickness location.
First di"it
o
3
6 (standard)
9
lLiX thickneSS
location
L.E. Radius in tenths
Sharp
1/4 Normal
Normal
3 x Normal
2
3 (standard)
4
5
6
2
3
4
5
6
standard shape is -sJ
Fig. A2a-6 Mean Camber lines for
NACA five-digit series.
< ..
-- __ 0009-03
-------------
___ 00C9-63 =
C ,,009-93
Fig. A2a-7 Comparison of airfoils with
modified noee radii.
...-- -----
', ___ OC09-6Z'

--------

Fig. A2a-B Comparison of airfoils with
modified location of point of maximum
thickness.
16 - 2 09
Series jLoJtion thickness
DeSignation press pt. tenths des. cl per cent
o from L.E. at determining chord
o lift condo camber
Fig. A2a-9 Dia1'1"am showing meaning of digits of NACA 1-
series or 16-series airfoils (from W.R. 1-560)
NACA 65,3 - 218 fa. os, '1.i 0.3{ Design. 0.3 - 0.1
1.0, CJi
Fig. A2a-11 showing hoW' design is specified
lIhen more than one mean line are canoined to produce
mean line used (from W.R. 1-560)
Range of 1:1 Series

6 5,
Location min. d
Dress pt. tenths
...-______ above and lielow
K: 18, a 0.5 DeSign 01 for
,
-
c from L.E. at
() lift condo
tenths des.
Mean line
Design cl in Io!ax thickness designation
tenths ___ -/
in percent c
Fig. A2a-lO Diagram shOwing meaning of digits of
NACA 6-series airfoils (from W.Re L-560)
6 5 18) - 217, a. 0.5
Lowdrag max thickness
Others same as in Fig. A2a-lO
percent c
Fig. A2a-12 Diagram showing deSignation used for
modified 6-series airfoils (from W.R. L-560)
Series number Serial Letter
Location of IltJ;:-,----DeSign 01 in
press pradient in 7 4 7 A 4 15 tenths
tRnths chord fJrom L.E.
at design M4.U-
thickness
Upper surface percent c
Lower surface
Fig. A2a-13 showing meaning of digits of
NACA 7-series airfoils (from W.R. 1-560)
2 s-
Circular Arc / t
Supersonic ---1
Location of point
of max thickness
on upper surface
percent c from L.E.
!.!ax thickness
upper surface
(50) (03) - (50) (03)
l
!.!ax thickness
lower surface
percent chord
Location of point
of max thickness
on lower surface
percent 0 from L.E.
percent c ---------'
Fig. A2a-14 Diagram showing meaning of digits of
NACA supersonic airfoil designation (from T.N.
No. 1211)
5-H-15
Serial number J DeSignttes use' Max thickness
on chord
Fig. A2a-15 Diagram showing meaning of digits ot
NACA helicopter series airfoils (from W.R. 1-452)
Jdax t
l
30
percent c ----1
Position of Yax
camber percent
c fran L. E.
12 - 1.1 40
1 r
Nose radius percent c
Thickness ratio % e
Fig. A2a-16 Diagram showing meaning of digits of
German DV'L desif'Ilation system.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von DoeMOf!', Albert E. and Stivers Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Airfoil Data. NACA Wartime Report 1-560.
NACA LOW DRAG AIRFOll ORDINATES
NACA WE 1-156, 1-.345, 1-521,
NACA TN-129.3, TN-IIBl
A2a:.3
HACA 27-212
Basic
NACA 27-209 NACA 27-215
7),/c!rhess o rdina.-fes
sta. Up'r l'w'r Sta. Up'r l'w'r Sta. Up'r l'w'r
STat-/en
-Pf!Yce.nf cl/lJrd 0 0 0 0 0 0

o. 0
%c
NAC.A. N'A.C.A. NA. C.A. lY.ke.A. "'A.C.A.

1.25 1.ll 0.81 1.25 1.45 1.10 1.BO 1 .39
07-012 '<'7-012- 18-012- J9-01Z

2.5 1.56 1.10 2.5 2.02 1.51 2.5 2.51 1.96
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5.0 2.2.3 1.46 5.0 2.86 2.05 5.0 3.49 2.70 .3 .5137 .544
... .902 BBS .au, .7'S 7.5 2.74 1.7.3 7.5 3.50 7.5 4.24 3.20
12, 1.."10 /.292 1.271 1.182 1.096 1.550
10 .3.15 1.91 10 4.01 2.72 10 4.86 3.61 :I.., 2.22.7 1.778 I.G5"1 1.53'" 2 I.'
5:0 2.9ZO 2.5/0 2."lfA 2.303 2.140 2.a" 15 .3.84 2.21 15 4.85 3.21 15 5.88 4.24
7.5 3.032- 2.965 2.59:J 3.5.5'S
20 4 .36 2.44 20 5.50 3.58 20 6.66 4.74
/0 3.373 :3.182 :1-95'1 "1.03'1
25 4.79 2.64 25 6.02 3.88 25 7.29 5.11 15 "'1.547
".IM "1.032 3.81.9
20 S.OS3 4.H"I 4.32!! 4.04/3 $.302-
.30 5.13 2.81 30 6.47 4.12 30 7.81 5.44
2S .5.427 5.085 "/.9'" 4.740 4.452- ""83
35 5.42 2.92 .35 6.82 4.32 35 8.23 5.72 '0
I
S.08!! '1.78"1 $'.917
35 5.'73 5.567 5.3'8 :!'.M:!' '.000 40 5.62 3.02 40 7.08 4.47 40 8.53 5.91
"10 .5. '!M 7 5.B.5'I S.769 ... ,o0 ... 331 $$"'10
45 5.78 .3.10 45 7.24 4.57 45 8.72 6.06 45 S908 5. 77:J 5.03' "'50
SO 5.993 '.000 5.990 5.899 50703 $,07/3
50 5.86 3.12 50 7.35 4.61 50 8.83 6.14
S5 .5.9(,1 6.000 5.975 $.833 4.1Z"
55 5.88 3.14 55 7.35 4.64 55 8.86 6.14 .0 S,8137 S.93e 6.000 5925 3.112-
,.5 5 . 09 5.7'_ 5.971 So981 2.317 f:I:J 5.79 3.11 60 7.26 4.60 f:I:J 8.74 6.08
70 S.33'1 05.2.70 .5'.498 S13'2- 6.000 1.'t.C
65 5.62 .3.02 65 7.04 4.47 65 8.49 5.92 75 5.097 ... '313 5.975
80 4.453 4.198 '1.509 5.Z4r. 50858 ,eCrl 70 5.34 2.92 70 6.72 4.25 70 8.08 5.66
S!! 3.+41 $.!i0/ .509
75 4.93 2.71 75 6.20 3.98 75 7.48 5.28
90 2 . "7 2..51B 3.'-'113 '1.B'1' 2.&4
92 2.098 1.97 3./39 '1.3<0' 80 4.33 2.42 80 5.48 3.52 80 6.60 4.62
94 1.40S 2.5"1:3 :5.7:01
85 3.49 1.94 85 4.39 2.83 85 5.34 3.71
SS 1.333 1."'4 , 2.2/0 :3.317 ./IS
90 1.35 90 3.00 1.94 90 3.62 2.59 98 I .835 1.852 2. 8 !fO
9.8
g421
.420 /.049
95 1.11 .66 95 1.46 .95 95 ;)..73 1.22
100 0 0 0 0 0
97.5 .55 .30 97.5 .70 .45 97.5 .84 .58
L..Rat/. 1.33 .7/ .70 .so :37 .47
100 0 0 100 0 0 100 0 0
1.E. Had. 0.39 1.E. Had. 0.70 L.E. Had. 0.21
NACA 35-215 NACA 64,2-015 NACA 641A212 NACA 651-213 a=O.5
Sta. Up'r sta. L'w'r Station Ordinate sta. Up'r Sta. L'w1r Sta. !!E'r Sta. l'w'r
0 0 0 0 0 0 o 0 0 0 o 0 0 0
1.085 1.857 1.415 -1.563 .5 1.199 .409 1.013 .591 -.901 .38 1.06 .62 -.92
2.037 2.619 2.693 -2.101 .75 1.435 .648 1.233 .852 -1.075 .62 1.29 .88 -1.10
4.786 3.674 5.214 -2.792 1.25 1.801 1.135 1.580 1.365 -1.338 1.10 1.64 1.40 -1.35
7.278 4.510 7.722 -3.322 2.5 2.462 2.365 2.225 2.635 -1.803 2.34 2.28 2.66 -1.76
9.777 5.211 10.223 -3.759 5.0 3.419 4.849 3.145 5.151 -2.423 4.81 3.26 5.19 -2.38
14.788 6.344 15.212 -4.448 7.5 4.14.3 7.343 3.846 7.657 -2.874 7.31 4.02 7.69 -2.84
19.809 7.221 20.191 -4.973 10 4.743 9.842 4.432 10.158 -3.240 9.80 4.67 10.20 -3.22
24.838 7.899 25.162 -5.375 15 5.684 14.849 5.358 15.151 -3.796 14.81 5.71 15.19 -3.82
29.873 8.416 .30.127 -5.680 20 6.384 19.862 6.060 20.1.38 -4.200 19.83 6.51 20.17 -4.26
34.913 8.774 35.087 -5.888 25 6.898 24.880 6.584 25.120 -4.482 24.86 7.12 25.14 -4.59
39.958 8.961 40.042 -5.989 30 7.253 29.900 6.956 30.100 -4.6f:I:J 29.89 7.56 30.ll -4.82
50.077 8.702 49.923 -5.762 35 7.454 34.922 7.189 35.078 -4.741 34.92 7.85 35.08 -4.96
f:I:J.150 7.265 59.850 -4.70.3 40 7.494 39.946 7.272 40.054 -4.714 39.96 7.98 40.04 -5.01
70.137 5.277 69.86.3 -3.295 45 7 .316 44.970 7.177 45.030 -4.549 45.01 7.94 44.99 -4.95
80.086 3.123 79.914 -1.817 50 7.003 49.993 6.935 50.007 -4.275 50.07 7.71 49.93 -4.77
85.056 2.098 84.944 -1.140 55 6.584 55.015 6.570 54.985 -3.918 55.11 7.26 54.89 -4.47
90.029 1.175 89.971 -.561 60 6.064 60.034 0.103 59.966 -3.499 f:I:J.13 6.63 59.87 -4.07
95.009 .436 94.991 -.148 65 5.449 65.050 5.544 64.950 -3.034 65.14 5.89 64.86 -3.60
100.000 0 0 0 70 4.738 70.064 4.903 69.936 -2.537 70.13 5.04 69.87 -3.06
75 3.921 75.075 4.197 74.925 -2.037 75.11 4.14 74.89 -2.49
80 3.020 80.090 3.433 79.910 -1.563 80.09 3.19 79.91 -1.88
, a.c.!
' "T1
85 2.086 85.088 2.601 84.912 -1.159 85.06 2.24 84.94 -1.29
:
90 1.193 90.062 1.751 89.938 -.771 90.04 1.33 89.97 -.72

11'1
,
95 .443 95.032 .888 94.968 -.398 95.01 .53 94.99 -.24
III; I, 1
'
."
,
'I 1:,11 100 0 100.000 .025 99.999 -.025 100.00 0 100.00 0
LE. Ilia. I. 544 .]!;. Haa. 0.994 t.E. Ria. I.I74
Sl.ope Rac\. TlIrU L.E. 0.095 SIope Raa. 'l'Firu I.E. 0.084
,
I
=::
HM

I
I
I
.-
--
r---
I
: I 27!21S
I I---
----+ I
k:-::
27- 209
"--
I I
-+--
11-_1
I i
I
-4--
I i
---
i
! I
: !
O.OlOe rad1uo
O.OZlo rod1uo
A2a:4
NAGA LOW DRAG AIRFOIL ORDINATES
NAGA WR L-2Bl,NACA WR 1-1M,NAGA 1IR 1- 668, NAGA TN 1276
NACA 65.2-810 y-o.0015x
Sta. Up'r sta. L'.'r
o 0 0 0
.260 .913 .740 -.513
.4B6 1.130 1.014 -.570
.949 1.510 1.551 -.654
2.143 2.274 2.B57 -.186
4.591 3.44B 5.409 -.920
7.072 4.371 7.92B -.979
9.569 5.149 10.431 -1.013
14.5B9 6.415 15.411 -1.031
19.629 7.386 20.371 -1.01B
24.681 8.139 25.319 -.979
29.740 8.705 30.260 -.929
34.804 9.098 35.196 -.858
9.339 40.130 -.771
44.936 9.409 45.064 -.649
50.000 9.282 50.000 -.458
55.058 8.950 54.942 -.190
60.107 8.434 59.893 .134
65.143 7.744 64.857 .496
70.164 6.922 69.836 .854
75.171 6.025 74.829 1.135
80.162 5.024 79.838 1.344
85.137 3.935 84.863 1.449
90.104 2.810 89.896 1.326
95.065 1.612 94.935 .916
100.048 .142 99.952 -.142
t.E. Rid. 0.666
NACA 66(215)-216
(a 0.6. eli. -0.5)
(a. 1.0, eli. 0.7 )
sta. Up'r Sta. L'.'r
o 0 0 0
.475 1.197 .525 -1.171
.724 1.435 .776 -1.401
1.223 1.781 1.277 -1.729
2.473 2.419 2.527 -2.337
4.976 3.358 5.024 -3.226
7.479 4.089 7.521 -3.925
9.983 4.718 10.017 -4.534
14.989 5.713 15.011 -5.497
19.994 6.476 20.006 -6.248
24.996 7.064 25.004 -6.B36
29.995 7.512 30.005 -7.278
34.991 7.B35 35.009 -7.5B9
39.982 B.039 40.01B -7.779
44.967 8.142 45.033 -7.848
49.943 8.132 50.057 -7.782
54.904 8.001 55.096 -7.557
59.816 7.731 60.184 -7.115
64.757 7.295 65.243 -6.361
69.787 6.616 70.213 -5.316
74.851 5.777 75.149 -4.143
79.927 4.794 80.073 -2.918
84.991 3.711 85.003 -1.719
90.043 2.518 89.957 -.654
95.045 1.289 94.955 .099
o 100.000 0
NACA 66(215)-014
sta. Up'r. L'.'r
o 0 0
.5 1.036 -1.036
.75 1.240 -1.240
1.25 1.535 -1.535
2.5 2.080 -2.080
5.0 2.880 -2.880
7.5 3.506 -3.506
10 4.048 -4.048
15 4.904 -4.904
20 5.566 -5.566
25 6.081 -6.081
30 6.470 -6.470
35 6.748 -6.748
40 6.920 -6.920
45 6.995 -6.995
50 6.962 -6.962
55 6.807 -6.807
60 6.497 -6.497
65 5.978 -5.978
70 5.224 -5.224
75 4.342 -4.342
80 3.375 -3.375
85 2.375 -2.375
90 1.389 -1.389
95 .523 -.523
100 .095 -.095
t.E. Rid. 1.206
o
.445
.690
1.185
2.428
4.924
7.423
9.925
14.932
19.940
24.949
29.957
34.964
39.969
44.970
49.966
54.952
59.909
64.881
69.904
74.945
79.990
85.028
90.048
95.038
100.000
.555
.810
1.315
2.572 -2.278
5.076 -3.125
4.224 7.577 -3.7BB
4.887 10.075 -4.363
5.939 15.068 -5.271
6.748 20.060 -5.976
7.378 25.051 -6.522
7.B54 30.043 -6.936
8.197 35.036 -7.227
B.417 40.031 -7.401
8.522 45.030 -7.468
8.504 50.034 -7.410
8.352 55.048 -7.208
8.038 60.091 -6.810
7.524 65.119 -6.138
6.747 70.096 -5.191
5.811 75.055 -4.113
4.739 80.010 -2.975
3.581 84.972 -1.849
2.352 89.952 -.820
1.138 94.962 -.054
o 100. 0
a O. Cli.-o.
a 1.0 Cli O. a 1.0 Cli - 0.7
.435 1.214
.678 1.462
1.170 1.823
2.408 2.498
4.897 3.498
7.392 4.286
9.890 4.969
14.894 6.054
19.903 6.895
24.916 7.554
29.931 8.052
34.949 8.401
39.968 8.633
44.989 8.734
50.011 8.694
55.037 8.502
60.0708.113
65.096 7.459
70.099 6.519
75.091 5.429
80.074 4.218
85.053 2.995
90.030 1. 763
95.011 .679
100.00
.565 -1.150
.822 -1.370
1.330 -1.683
2.592 -2.254
5.103 -3.082
7.608 -3.726
10.110 -4.281
15.106 -5.154
20.097 -5.827
25.084 -6.346
30.069 -6.731l
35.051 -7.009
40.032 -7.185
45.011 -7.260
49.989 -7.220
54.963 -7.058
59.930 -6.737
64.904 -6.203
69.901 -5.419
74.909 -4.503
79.926 -3.478
84.947 -2.451
89.970 -1.411
94.989 -.515
100.000
NACA 66(215)-316
(a 0.6, eli - -1.2)
(a - 1.0, - 1.5 )
sta. 'r L,..r'r
.531 1.169 .469 -1.199
.787 1.397 .713 -1.439
1.295 1.722 1.205 -1.786
2.560 2.308 2.440 -2.446
5.080 3.165 4.920 -3.417
7.594 3.820 7.406 -4.192
10.104 4.381 9.896 -4.869
15.113 5.258 14.887 -5.950
20.112 5.917 19.888 -6.805
25.100 6.419 24.900 -7.479
30.0786.801 29.922 -7.989
35.047 7.079 34.953 -8.345
40.003 7.259 39.997 -8.559
44.944 7.363 45.056 -8.627
49.863 7.384 50.137 -8.528
54.747 7.324 55.253 -8.228
59.516 7.185 60.484 -7.633
64.359 6.997 65.641 -6.607
69.418 6.626 70.582 -5.258
74.5656.099 75.435 -3.787
79.749 5.385 80.251 -2.313
84.926 4.498 85.074 -.930
90.053 3.358 89.947 .186
95.082 1.971 94.918 .7B9
o 100.000 0
2:::::Et ttL N'C' Ohord
i I I I : '-I-Tangent .002c a _
_ ----------- 9 P
NACA 66 (215) -0/4 airfoil
Airfoil With true-contour flap
NACA 66(215)-216
(a = 0.6, eli = -0.8)
(a : 1.0, eli = 1.0 )
sta. Up'r sta. L'.'r
o 0 0 0
.521 1.174 .479 -1.194
.775 1.404 .725 -1.432
1.280 1.734 1.220 -1.776
2.540 2.332 2.460 -2.424
5.054 3.208 4.946 -3.376
7.563 3.883 7.437 -4.131
10.069 4.462 9.931 -4.788
15.075 5.373 14.925 -5.835
20.074 6.066 19.926 -6.658
25.066 6.597 24.934 -7.303
30.052 6.999 29.948 -7.791
35.031 7.290 34.969 -8.134
40.002 7.476 39.998 -8.342
44.962 7.574 45.03B -8.416
49.909 7.575 50.091 -8.337
54.B32 7.477 55.168 -8.079
59.677 7.269 60.323 -7.567
64.571 6.949 65.429 -6.689
69.611 6.413 70.389 -5.501
74.709 5.724 75.291 -4.182
79.832 4.877 80.168 -2.829
84.951 3.904 85.049 -1.526
90.035 2.768 89.965 -.406
95.055 1.514 94.945 .326
100.000 0 100.000 0
L.E. !lad. 1.575
Slope !!ad. T!lr\I L. E. :0.011
NACA 66(215)-416
(a - 0.6, eli. -1.6)
(a 1.0, eli. 2.0 )
Sta. gp'r Sta. L'.'r
000
.541 1.163 .459 -1.203
.799 1.389 .701 -1.445
1.310 1.712 1.190 -1.796
2.580 2.285 2.420 -2.469
5.107 3.122 4.893 -3.458
7.625 3.757 7.375 -4.253
10.139 4.298 9.861 -4.950
15.151 5.141 14.849 -6.065
20.149 5.768 19.851 -6.952
25.133 6.243 24.867 -7.655
30.104 6.602 29.896 -8.186
35.062 6.868 34.938 -8.556
40.004 7.043 39.996 -8.775
44.925 7.153 45.075 -8.837
49.817 7.193 50.183 -8.717
54.663 7.171 55.337 -8.375
59.356 7.099 60.644 -7.695
64.148 7.039 65.852 -6.519
69.227 6.832 70.773 -5.008
74.421 6.470 75.579 -3.386
79.666 5.890 80.334 -1.794
84.902 5.092 85.098 -.335
90.070 3.947 89.930 .777
95.108 2.427 94.892 1.253
100.000 0 .000 0
A2a:5
NACA HELICOPTER BLADE AND MISCELLANEOUS NEW AIRFOIL ORDINATES
HACA I-H-
Sta. Uplr Sta. 1'1I"r
-0.087 1.448 -0.077 -0.042
.5 2.232 .5 -.655
.75 2.488 .75 -.739
1.25 2.931 1.25 -.887
2.5 3.813 a.5 -1.121
5.0 5.177 5.0 -1.304
7.5 6.305 7.5 -1.367
10 7.276 10 -1.400
15 8.916 15 -1.437
20 10.267 20 -1.453
25 11.363 25 -1.458
30 12.217 30 -1.483
35 12.831 35 -1.517
40 13.166 40 -1.565
45 13.243 45 -1.620
50 13.011 50 -1.679
55 12.42.8 55 -1.721
60 ll.459 60 -1.754
65 10.073 65 -1.766
70 8.272 70 -1.761
75 6.151 75 -1.717
80 3.987 80 -1.614
85 2.031 85 -1.460
90 .538 90 -1.200
95 -.261 95 .797
100 0 100 0
NACA 5-H-15
Sta. Uplr sta. L
l
lI"r
o 0 0 0
.192 1.225 .808 -.881
.409 1.501 1.091 -1.015
.861 1.973 1.639 -1.229
2.040 2.899 2.960 -1.599
4.476 4.294 5.524 -2.080
6.953 5.390 8.047 -2.422
9.454 6.3ll 10.546 -2.685
14.492 7.774 15.508 -3.090
19.565 8.904 20.435 -3.394
24.663 9.734 25.337 -3.626
29.782 10.331 30.218 -3.819
34.92210.709 35.078 -3.993
40.090 10.841 39.910 -4.123
45.29110.708 44.709 -4.250
50.635 10.171 49.365 -4.351
55.759 9.275 54.241 -4.459
60.772 8.193 59.228 -4.547
65.703 6.955 64.297 -4.541
70.575 5.658 69.425 -4.426
75.400 4.356 74.600 -4.166
80.157 3.098 79.843 -3.666
84.996 2.003 85.004 -2.793
89.968 1.087 90.032 -1.693
94.983 .372 95.017 -.656
100.000 0 100.000 0
L.E. Rad. 1.42
NACA WR L-452, NACA WR L-29
HACA 2-H-15
Sta. Uplr Sta. L'lI"r
0 7 . -0.077 -0 . .
.5 2.232 .5 -.655 .454 2.029 .454 -.595
.75 2.488 .75 -.739
.682 2.262 .682 -.672
1.25 2.931 1.25 -.887
1.136 2.665 1.136 -.806
2.5 3.813 2.5 -1.121 2.273 3.466 2.273 -1.019
5.0 5.177 5.0 -1.304 4.546 4.706 4.546 -1.185
7.5 6.305 7.5 -1.367
6.818 5.732 6.818 -1.243
10 7.27610 -1.400 9.091 9.091 -1.273
15 8.916 15 -1.437
13.636 8.105 13.636 -1.306
20 10.267 20 -1.453
18.182 9.334 18.182 -1.321
25 11.363 25 -1.458
22.727 10.330 22.727 -1.325
30 12.217 30 -1.483
27.273 11.106 27.273 -1.348
35 12.831 35 -1.517
31.818 ll.-64 31.818 -1.379
40 13.166 40 -1.565
36.364 ll.969 36.364 -1.423
45 13.243 45 -1.620 40.909 12.039 40.909 -1.473
50 13.017 50 -1.679
45.454 ll.834 45.454 -1.526
55 12.428 55 -1.721
50.000 11.298 50.000 -1.565
60 11.459 60 -1.754
54.546 10.417 54.546 -1.595
65 10.073 65 -1.766
59.091 9.157 59.091 -1.605
70 8.340 70 -1.660
63.636 7.7'27 63.636 -1.601
75 6.420 75 -1.470
68.182 6.309 68.182 -1.561
80 4.650 80 -1.160
72.727 4.955 72.727 -1.467
85 3.280 85 -.710
77.273 3.782 77.273 -1.264
90 2.370 90 -.090
81.818 2.873 81.818 -.991
95 1.870 95 .730
86.364 2.282 86.364 -.564
100 1.750 100 1.750
90.909 1.873 90.909 0
95.454 1.655 95.454 .718
100.000 1.591 100.000 1.591
HAC! 6-H-15 HACA 7-H-12
Sta. Up I r sta. L 'll" r ,.:.:'11'-:' r:..,.
o 0- 0 0 0 0 0 0
.097 1.252 .903 .788 .627 2.346 1.873 -1.232
.302 1.552 1.198 -.896 1.802 3.464 3.198 -1.576
.736 2.068 1.764 -1.064 4.296 5.018 5.704 -1.952
1.889 3.090 3.1ll -1.334 6.853 6.127 8.147 -2.173
4.300 4.647 5.700 -1.659 9.431 6.973 10.569 -2.323
6.768 5.878 8.232 -1.872 14.608 8.138 15.392 -2.524
9.267 6.919 10.733 -2.023 19.779 8.816 20.221 -2.652
14.317 8.575 15.683 -2.251 24.932 9.143 25.068 -2.739
19.414 9.855 20.586 -2.417 30.059 9.208 29.941 -2.796
24.54610.796 25.454 -2.550 40.237 8.737 39.763 -2.859
29.706 11.468 30.294 -2.676 50.316 7.712 49.684 -2.858
34.89511.883 35.105 -2.817 60.315 6.326 59.685 -2.778
40.1ei 12.017 39.879 -2.947 70.253 4.730 69.747 -2.580
45.392 11.834 44.608 -3.116 80.154 3.043 79.846 -2.193
50.855 11.168 49.145 -3.310 90.046 1.404 89.954 -1.490
56.020 10.084 53.980 -3.582 95.003 .665 94.997 -.949
61.035 8.794 58.965 -3.872 100.000 0 100.000 0
65.943 7.343 64.057 -4.085
70.772 5.848 69.228 -4.184
75.538 4.374 74.462 -4.118
8O.2ll 2.996 79.789 -3.762
84.994 1.865 85.006 -2.931
89.957 .980 90.043 -1.798
94.977 .322 95.023 -.706
100.000 0 100.000 0
L.E. R&d. 1.42
HACA 4-H-12.4
sta. Up'r Sta. L'lI'
l
r
=<5.072 1.207 :0.064 :0.035
.417 1.860 .417 -.546
.625 2.073 .625 -.616
1.042 2.442 1.042 -.739
2.083 3.178 2.083 -.934
4.167 4.314 4.167 -1.087
6.250 5.254 6.250 -1.139
8.333 6.063 8.333 -1.167
12.500 7.430 12.500 -1.198
16.667 8.556 16.667 -1.211
20.833 9.469 20.833 -1.215
25.000 10.181 25.000 -1.236
29.167 10.692 29.167 -1.264
33.333 10.972 33.333 -1.304
37.500 ll.036 37.500 -1.350
41.667 10.848 41.667 -1.399
45.833 10.357 45.833 -1.434
50.000 9.549 50.000 -1.417
54.167 8.394 54.167 -1.472
58.333 7.150 58.333 -1.468
62.500 5.933 62.500 -1.450
66.667 4.800 66.667 -1.433
70.833 3.750 70.833 -1.392
75.000 2.808 75.000 -1.333
79.167 1.983 79.167 -1.233
83.333 1.300 83.333 -1.083
87.500 .733 87.500 -.900
91.667 .325 91.66.7 -.658
95.833 .083 95.833 -.358
100.000 0 100. 0
HACA B-H-12
st.. Up'r sta. L'lI"r
o 0 0 0
.147 1.229 .853 -.819
.358 1.520 1.142 -.946
.804 2.006 1.696 -1.128
1.980 2.941 3.020 -1.415
4.424 4.312 5.576 -1.736
6.914 5.380 8.086 -1.920
9.427 6.263 10.573 -2.059
14.497 7.626 15.503 -2.242
19.607 8.605 20.393 -2.351
24.754 9.243 25.246 -2.417
29.969 9.533 30.031
35.174 9.432 34.826 -2.490
40.292 9.03039.708 -2.494
45.360 8.420 44.640 -2.476
50.390 7.666 49.610 -2.436
55.387 6.795 54.613 -2.377
60.358 5.846 59.642 -2.290
65.3ll 4.850 64.689 -2.178
70.250 3.838 69.750 -2.034
75.184 2.838 74.816 -1.860
80.118 1.895 79.882 -1.645
85.060 1.046 84.940 -1.384
90.016 .343 89.984 -1.051
94.995 -.ll9 95.005 -.629
100.000 0 100. 0
L.E. Rid. 1.325
Slope Rid. Tlirii 1. E. 0.344
NAC! 5-H-15
References: Stivers, Louis S. and Rice, Fred J. Jr. Aerodynamic Characteristics of Four HAC!
Airfoil Sections Designed for Helicopter Rotor Blades. HAC! wartime Report 1-29. Tetervin.
Neal. Tests in the NAC! Two-Dimensional LOW-Turbulence Tunnel of Airfoil Sections Designed to Have
small P1tchinR Maments and High Ratio!. NACA Wartime 1-452.
A2a:6
NACA HELICOPTER BLADE !liD MISCELLANEOUS NEW AIRFOIL ORDINATES
NACA i'IR 1-29, NACA WR 1-451, NACA "IR L-S57, NACA TN 1211
NACA 9-H-12
Sta. Up'r sta. L'lf'r
o 0 0 0
.117 1.238 .883 -.788
.323 1.537 1.177 -.907
.764 2.037 1.736 -1.073
1.933 3.003 3.067 -1.329
4.369 4.427 5.631 -1.598
6.857 5.540 8.143 -1.742
9.370 6.461 10.630 -1.843
14.443 7.890 15.557 -1.968
19.559 8.919 20.441 -2.029
24.714 9.599 25.286 -2.057
29.936 9.921 30.064 -2.067
35.150 9.845 34.850 -2.079
40.277 9.458 39.723 -2.066
45.353 8.859 44.647 -2.039
50.390 8.107 49.610 -1.995
55.393 7.232 54.607 -1.938
60.369 6.273 59.631 -1.861
65.324 5.261 64.676 -1.765
70.266 4.225 69.734 -1.645
75.200 3.194 74.800 -1.500
80.134 2.212 79.866 -1.326
85.073 1.314 84.927 -1.114
90.026 .550 89.974 -.844
95.000 .008 95.000 -.502
100.000 0 100.000 0
t.E. Had. 1.325
slope Rad. ThrU t.E. 0.378
NACA 10-H-12
sta. Up'r sta. L'lf'r
o 0 0 0
.234 1.062 .766 -.706
.451 1.319 1.049 -.817
.911 1.724 1.589 -.966
2.108 2.508 2.892 -1.158
4.5513.720 5.449 -1.414
7.028 4.695 7.972 -1.579
9.5215.523 10.479 -1.707
14.540 6.878 15.460 -1.878
19.588 7.929 20.412 -1.987
24.657 8.726 25.343 -2.064
29.743 9.315 30.257 -2.105
34.844 9.695 35.156 -2.125
39.963 9.860 40.037 -2.134
45.104 9.789 44.896 -2.107
50.310 9.420 49.690 -2.078
55.476 8.698 54.524 -2.084
60.518 7.736 59.482 -2.096
65.497 6.622 64.503 -2.084
70.433 5.405 69.567 -2.031
75.341 4.153 74.659 -1.927
80.2362.908 79.764 -1.758
85.133 1.739 84.867 -1.511
90.048 .723 89.952 -1.169
94.999 -.002 95.001 -.714
100.000 0 100.000 0
t.E. Rad. 1.000
Slope Had. ThrU 0.301
NACA 441BR NACA 23012-64
sta. Up'r L'w'r sta. Up'r L'lf'r
0 0 0 0
1.25 3.76 -2.11 1.25 2.53 -1.20 5
2,5 5.00 -2.99 2.5 3.41 -1.61 10
5.0 6.75 -4.06 5 4.59 -2.00 15
7,5 8.06 -4.67 7.5 5.41 -2.27 20
10 9.11 -5.06 10 6.00 -2.50 25
15 10.66 -5.49 15 6.70 -3.02 30
20 11.72 -5.56 20 7.04 -3.55 35
25 12.40 -5.49 25 7.23 -3.96 40
30 12.76 -5.26 30 7.37 -4.29 45
40 12.70 -4.70 40 7.32 -4.66 50
50 11.66-4.24 50 6.93 -4.70 55
60 9.82 -3.92 60 6.21 -4.42 60
70 7.47 -3.59 70 5.17 -3.79 65
80 4.86 -3.03 80 3.78 -2.86 70
90 2.36 -1.98 90 2.09 -1.63 75
95 1.21 -1.20 95 1.15 -.90 Bo
100 (.19) (-.19) 100 .12 -.12 B5
100 0 0 t.!. Rad. 1.58 90
t.E. !lid. slope Rid. Thru 95
Slope Rid. ThRi End Chord 0.305 100
End Chord 0.20
NACA 4409R
sta. Up'r L'lf'r
o 0
1.25 1.81 -1.05
2.5 2.61 -1.37
5.03.74 -1.65
7.5 4.64 -1. 74
105.37 -1.73
15 6.52 -1.55
20 7.33 -1.30
25 7.90 -1.02
308.25 -.76
40 8.35 -.35
50 7.66 -.31
60 6.32 -.54
70 4.64 -.88
80 2.85 -1.09
90 1.27 -.91
95 .61 -.61
100 (.09) (-.09)
100 0 0
t.E.Rid. 0.89
Slope Rad. 1hrii
End Chord 0.20
.92
1.67
2.25
2.67
2.92
3.00
2.98
2.94
2.86
2.75
2.61
2.45
2.25
2.02
1.76
1.47
1.15
0.79
0.40
0
NAGA 4412R
sta. Up'r L'lf'r
o 0
1.25 2.44 -1.43
2,5 3.39 -1.95
5.0 4.73 -2.49
7,5 5.76 -2.74
10 6,59 -2.86
15 7.89 -2.88
20 8.80 -2.74
25 9.41 -2.50
30 9.76 -2.26
40 9.80 -1.80
50 9.00 -1.62
60 7,50 -1.67
70 5,58 -1.79
80 3.53 -1.73
90 1.65 -1.25
95 .82 -.79
100 (.13) (-.13)
100 0 0
t.E.Rad. 1.58
Slope Rad. ThI'ii
End Chord 0.20
.57
1.oB
1,53
1.92
2.25
2,52
2.73
2.88
2.97
3.00
2.97
2.88
2.73
2.52
2.25
1.92
1.53
1.08
0,57
0
:
/v'/IC/l
NACA 9-H-12
NACA 4415R
sta. Up'r L'lf'r
o 0
1.25 3.07 -1.79
2.5 4.17 -2.48
5.0 5.74 -3.27
7.5 6.91 -3.71
10 7.84 -3.98
15 9.27 -4.18
20 10.25 -4.15
25 10.92 -3.98
30 11.25 -3.75
40 11.25 -3.25
50 10.33 -2.92
60 8.66 -2.80
70 6.54 -2.69
80 4.22 -2.37
90 1.99 -1.64
95 1.01 -1.00
100 (.16) (-.16)
100 0 0
t.!.Rad. 2.48
slope Rid. TlIi'ii
End Chord 0.20
.40
.79
1.15
1.47
1.76
2.02
2.25
2.45
2.61
2.75
2.86
2.94
2.98
3.00
2.92
2.67
2.25
1.67
0.92
0
NAGA 10-H-12
BfftttfHI
-==\ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : i==-
NRCR
NACA 4409R NAGA 4412R
: : : : : : : : : : : :=::>-
AI/lc8
Ml!l"ltfffl RitrfJtf
NACA 4415R NACA 441BR
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
I
!
I
I
AIRFOIL O,lilHA T":S FRO!.! NACA lR 1-560
NACA 0006
[Station. &rid. .. gh'CI UI
perGtlnt of air!cU
"
Upper 8u.rtao. Looftr Bm"1'aolll
StatiOQ Ordinate StaUOQ Ordin.t.
0 0 0 0
1.25 .95 I 1.25
-i:gl 2.
6
2.
6
1:5
1.
1:5
-1.78
2. 0 -2.10
10

10
15 15
ao
Nt
20
25 25
,g
,.00
ro
,.00
ro 19
Ui :i:ft
90

90
95 95
100 (.66) 100 (-.66)
100 0 100 0
L.S. rtl41uf 0.40
NACA 4421
t.t.1CIJI and oJ'dinlltl. g1nn
in of drfoll
Lonr Surf ...
I
Station I Cll"d.inU.
0 -------- 0
I
0
1.25
r.'
l.25
i
.... 42
2., 2.5
:t.
4B
5.0 7.82
1.
0
.1
8
7-5 9.24 .5
I
:l. 2
10

10 .15

12.
I

I
ra
I

26
I
-6.9<

'0
-6.16
r.
1,.18
r. 11.60
I


xg -''5
I

90 ,.
90 -1.:7
95 2.
1&\
I
(::31)
100 (.22)
100 --.----- 100 0
L. Z. l"I.dlull 4..85
of ra41.a th!'CU 1.. 1..1 0.20
NACA 23012
,utlanJI C)Id anUna t.. P"11..
1& pe!'GUlt or drtoll
1. B. 1.58
Slope or rlldl throu,gh Lo B. I o. ,05
NACA 0009
[atation. oIIld. ordinat .. ginn 1n
or a1rtoU ohord]
N,f.TIQfU.L ADVlSORY

NACA 4424
I Upp.r aut... 8d't&ee
ScaHill! 'OTlUD" 'UUClC:
NA.TlONAl
C""MIHH Fot A.EIIOII.lIJTKS
NACA 23015
r-r ..... _
I 0I'Il!aa'"
0 I
F--I
0

1.25
I
1.25
-1.1';
2.5
I
2.
6
....
It-; J5
.,.

i6 i6
26
I
t
08
I
ra


.05 '

I


&g


90 2.
I

....59
J6
1.12
(::i%) {.lii}
100 100 0

, 1- L. 2.48
I Slope of f'II41 .. t.K.1 0.,05
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhoff, Albert E. and
Stivers, Louis S. Jr. Su=ary of Airfoil rata. NACA
Wartime P.eport 1-560
i
I
NACA 2412
Surf.c. Lo ... r surt.<l4
St.t1on Ol'dlnate
i
StaUon r Ol'd.l".te
0 -------- I
0 0
1.25 2.15
i
l.25
2.
6 2U
2.
6
J5
t:
'
:
h :Ul
l6,
10
t
75
15 .61

.10
20 7.26
26

26

-4.12
to .80 to
_,.80
tg
19
'I,g
i
1.
18

".14
90 90
166
1.14
166
-.48
I __ !:::!.
' -.13)
100 100 0
1.. Eo radlu'l 1.58
Slope of ra4hu through 1..4. I 0.10
NACA 2418
Csu.t1on. Ilna O1''IUnatu sinn .m par_
Cant of chord._
I
I
I
I
I
Upptor Surtae. Lo .. r surt&.c.
Station ON.1nll.tt : Statio:; Orcl.lnlt.,
0 C 0
1.25
f""
1.25
...
25 .45 2.,
:4. - 5. 0 .O! 5. 0

16.
5
i
17 7.5
9::4
10
15 15
:*:lj 20 10.15 20
2; 2; -7.lii
tg
IO.St)
ti 1:f,
10.
6g 6:,; 6g
-5.99
-50:.
19
702
:UI 5.08
90 ,,31 90

95 1.55 95
100 (.19) 100 , 19)
lCO 100 C
L. :r:. rllciU!: 3.,6
Slope c!re.c.iua t:-_nout;!"; L. E.:
NACA 63,4-420
a- 0.3
[Stat1oa.. IlIld ordin_tea in
percent or airfo1l chcrd_
IDYlI' surface
Station Ordin .. tl StatiO!l Ordinate
NACA 63(420)- 517
[StatiCilI and ol"dl:nt gi"n 1n
plroe.nt or &1rto1l
at_HOD. Ozodlnat. Station; Ol'dlnate
o
i
Um,

4 '
: 6,
. <i!:
I
16:Jl.
lO.sa7
11. Om
10.
10.

!:925
8.067 I
1. 099 :
i

1,,1,
a
L.:I. -.c1ila; 2.2S,
o
-1.,01
-1.;62

:1'&

-5-178 '
-5M' : -5. 0'
-e. 7'
-5903
-5.621

tS69 '
-2917 I
-2.2'9

-.l14

o
Slope of rl.ll.1ua tbroy,gh 0.211
I
A2a:7
NACA 2415
U1Q erdin.t .. g1nn 111 per-
Oint ot a1rtdl
o
1.25
25

lb,5

25

r.

90
166
100
r.o-r Surraol
L. E. 2.48 --
Slopt. of r-.dlu. through L.a. I 0.10
H.t.T!ON.i,L ADVISOlh'
COMIIIIT1[E rot lUOfUl,ITICS
NACA 2421
[Station. I.llQ ordlrate. givln per-
c.nt or airfoil
Surt .. ce
Stat10n orGlnati ! StaUon Ord.1.nate'

0 0 0
I
1.25 ,.87 1.25 -2.82
25
1.
21 2.5 -4.0.2
50 j.o
75 .;
I
10 P 10
1; 1070 15
20 1159 20 -.)2
2;

I
25 -tl.b7
tg
/0
_8.62
12.16 40 _8.16

11.22
rc :l:ii
t:ll

-1..37
:i:Ws 90 90
9; 1.76 95 -1.06
100 (.22) 100 (_.22)
laC 100 0
L. E. rad!ua: 4.35
Slo,,1 or r.adl ua through L. Eo.: 0.10
NACA 63(420)-422
j)tat1oM &rid. ordinatu ginn in
peroent of airfoll
NATloPU.L ADVISORY
CQIIMITTEtrotAlIilOllAur,
A2a:8
NACA 2424
L. I. 6."
Slope 0: r&dila thl"eugh r.. So. 0.10
NACA 4415
[Sut1cna and ol'diD.ata.
La &irioll
Upt/.r 5ur!aoa r.a.al' 81lJ't'SC4
! OrdiJ:lata Station, Ol"d1llatal
0 0 0
1.25 /.", 1.2'3
2.5 1Z 2.5
!
50
1.
7 s.o -'27
75
'Il
16.
5 -'71
10 7

15 .18
10.25 20
'5 1092
'6
,g
n.25

-'5
Ig

Ig


.... J4
:i:5l
,
l:3i
-.5l
,
166 i:U) 166 (::11)
L
OO 100 0
I r.. I. ndl\lal
GI' r&d1ua L.. I. I 0.20
NACA 63-006
a!"Jc ,;;.l.ven in
"erc,,:;; ;;f airfoil
....e.er ",,,rflic,,
Stl< t 'J,;:;!:]",;" Station
NACA 63- 206
and ordinates in
05
70

25
jO
I 95
100
;Jere,,:: t of
:....E. ,:;.diu": ".297
,
i
!
NACA 4412
-Stat!.o". .. t g1_11
1.n pareant or 1.1rloll
, Op4r Surr.e. Law.r Su..-raCI
,
I
I
I
I
!
i
!tat1011 Qr-dioat. Station
0 0 0 0
1.125 2.1;4 1.25 ..1.43
'5 ,.'9 '5

5. 0 5.0
75 l:l! 705 -.iI..
10
'a;
10 -.iI..

15 -2.88
1:30 20
""n '6

'6
-2.
'0 '0
-,.

ro
!.11
ro
-1.40
.14 -1.00

6.69

65


t:B
90
95 95
_10
100 (.13) 100 (-.13)
100 100 0
L. E. t'&dl'J.8l 1.58
Slop" ot rad1_ throv.gb 1..:1, I 0 .20
.40"'1501:1'1'
COMMITTH fot.l[tOIUUTKS-
NACA 4418
r.. :I. rad1_1 3.5-6
I Slop. of rad!'ta t!lrougb. 1.. I. I 0,2.1
NACA 63-009
a!'1d
?e:,cen: cf airfOll Ch0:-uJ
NACA 63-209
!: :.E.: 0.00..2:
IoI.4T10!\1"L "OV1S0I:lY
COMMITTE! FOI ,u:IIOtWJTiCS
NACA 1408
NACA 1412
"Station. aa;l Gl'd.1nat .. ginn 1D
- _ or airfoil chord]
____ IJpR"-.! tower
_ Stat101:L ,Qrdl..o.ato
0 0 0 0
1.158 1.34< -1.8;0

psg
2.622 -2.491
5l55
-"!'.
7.670
:l::i.?1 511 lO.lZ6
>l:U1 Wt :UM
9

25111 -5. 081
,;6:U6
5. 0
6. ,
;0.OZ9 6.2.67

-4.;21

&.453
19'ill
-3. 0 75

19.9
95025 'Jl!

100.000 .lZ6 lOO.OOO _.126
. :C.E. 1.53
510;1& or rl.d.iWl througt:. r..B. 0.05
NACA 23018
jtatiOr"l. -.DIS ol'lllDat, gi..a
in of dl'foll c.b.ol"lf
r.. I. nQ ..hu 3456
Slop. cI r&d.ilUl UlI'O\l3b to. .1 0.305
NACA 23024

Oppu!Qrt... I
- to. &.
radiu. thrO\l&h L.i:.IO.30S
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von
!Jaenhof!, Albert E. and Sti vera,
Loui. S. Jr. of Airfoil
rata. NACA Wartime Report
NACA 1410
.. t10Il. I.DI:1 oM..1.naU. gh"en It.
____
Uppar Surf .c. Lo.. r Surfae.
Cl:rd1.Data Station Ordinate
I
0 v 0 0

1.639 1.32.6 -1.515
i:iZ
2.602



a:lli
16:14
:':m
5. , 15139
:f:031


20.120
.,,,,


29937


0.000

0.025
'5
60.C42 .692


'.8'4
2.741
1
9
:2z

-90
95.021 -512
100.000 .105 100.000 -.105
t.X. radlu..t 1.10
Slop. ot rad.lw through t.II.1 0.05
W4TION4L ADVI$OJ:!Y
nil AUOII.wtlCS
NACA 23021
1.. L 4..85
11 .. HiIU.- '- L. 0...305
NATION.foL AOVISORY
rot 4UOfl.I.UTI(S
NACA 63,4-420
r.. 1: 4 3.16
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhoff,Albert E.
and stivers, Louis S. Jr. Sum:zle.ry of Airfoil Data.
NACA Warti.l!le Report 1-560.
AIF.FOn OROI','A ES lIA8A 7/R 1-560
NACA 63-210
and. ordinates f.iven in
percent of airfoil chord]
NACA 631 -212
[stat 1tns :rdine. .! i;-;
of char':'
i::::::"
, ; C I' ,
!
NACA 64 -006
BJle ordinatee given 1n
percent of airfoU chord--,
:::::race J
Station ordinate Station Ord1.nate
NACA 64-108
! L.S. 1'a4iU81 0.455
I or rao:!lw tllrougb 0.042.
i
jstati01U 4nO oM11natea given ill.
percent ot airtoi' chord'
Upper-Surface LDwer Surrace
Sh.tlor Ordinate Station Ordinate
0 0 0 0
,5

,5
-;:1!4 ,75 75
1.25 1.519 1.25 -1.519
25 2.102 25 -2.102
5. 0 2,9t,l 50 -2.925
16"' U;9 16'1 :Ur,
I
15

15 -4.
20 20
:l:lH 25 d'2 25
I ,0 1,9,0
,0
:t:66g
i5
.000
(6 40 5.92C -H2O
,\ 5,70 .. 4\ -,70:"
5'
UE
1 :t:m ,5 ,)
be 1... ...20 6c -<..,.20
65 ;;.0;"0 65
jj
!:;;; I.
-,.21C
-2)56

1.90.;: 0 -1.902
1.2- :35 -1.27 ...
9C 7'J'7 9'J -707
.25( 9:: -.25C
::.cc' Q lOJ 0
:'.E. : l.ad,;,
NACA 63
1
-412
ana ordinate! given 1r.
percer.t of foirfoll ct:orc.]
I :. Eo ;
1 c:' :r .. :.E.:
N....TIOH.&.L ADVISOlh
NACA 64-009
[st&Uone and oNl.lnat. .. give? in
percent 0:1' a.lr!o11 chord]
Upper Sur! &(:8 !.oWr Surfaoe
Station Ordinate Staticm OrOlnaU
NACA 64-110
[Station. a.n4 ord11late. 1n
airtQll choN)
o
.

-1.0
-2.1
-2.61;


-<..(78


,

-1.
, _. 0
: -.4i'
-.'090
o
! Slope- ot ndlua through L .... I o.C4Z
H,t,T!O*.l AOV1:iORY
COMMITTU 'L'I AlPWTICS
NACA
a.nd given in
percent or alrto n chc:-dJ
NACA 633 -418
o
5
.75
1.25
2.,
50
75
10

25
3'
G6
45
50
16
\3
M
85
90
95
100
o
978
1.179
1.490


E.62O
;.17) I
rm
i


.2.695
2.02<:;
1.,8.2
,786
.286
o
,5
,75
1.25
25
5.!
7,
10
15
ZO
25
,0
G6
45
50
l6
\3

85
90
95
o i 100
L.K. ndlll.1l 1.c4o
[Stationl nd. ordinate. give!! 1n
or aU-toil
I L.B. radiwol 1.ci,.O
Sl,ope of rad.1ua throu,gh L.I..: 0.<>34
A2a:9
ano orCinates 1n
of airfo:'l c.'lord)
NACA 63
3
-618
.. Ro,,, ,iver.
?ercer.t cf &ir;"ci: ohc.!'C]
NATIONAL
'OI'IMIT1([ fOR AERONAUTICS
NACA 64,-112
[Stat1on!!. and orcinatea gin!, in
percent o!' airfoil ChON_
lStat10nB and ordlnatu given in
percent ot airfoil ebcra-
Uppe r Sur! ace Lower Surf.ce I
A2a:lO
NACA 634 -021
NACA 634 -421
NACA 642-415
[Stationll IUld ordin.tea glTen in
percent ot a.trfo1l ebol"d]
Dpper I Lo.... r Surtace
Statioll IOrd1.r::lata i Statlon 'Ordlnah '
.HR.:,'""'on OiIDIIIA'IES F'lO" liA8A 7ffi L-51'0
NACA
wwer'
St ... t.L:n !
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE FOI.utOlUI/TlCS
NACA 64
2
-215
_Stations &rIQ orclinateB glv,n in
pel'Cent or a1rfoil chord:;
:Jpper Surface

Stat lon Ordina.te 3tl.tiOll' Ordinate
o 0

L -1.7'1
2./ 7 , -2.liB
5.1 ,-3.184
i
15.160 i -).llO
,
lO'1H -6.345
)5. -6.452
40. -6.40.2
45.02; -6.129
50.000 -5.707
"'.980 -5.,11
gz.964 -4'8/9
:LJ
74.942 -2401
79'''''1 -1.675
84.917 _1.00;
, !4::aJ
i 100.000 I 0
L.I. ra4J.tI..Il 1.590
Slop. or rad1U8 throueJl:i. L.B.I 0.084
Reference: Abbott, Ira H_, von
Doenhoff, Albert E.and Stivers
Louis S. Jr. Summary of AirfOii
NACA iJartime Report 1-560.
.&DV!SOCIY
COMMITTU ft1 WOIIAIITICS
NACA 632 -015
I . I

NACA 632 -415
NACA 64-206
&r:d gJ.vep in
percent 0: airCoil chord...l
Upper Surface r...ower Surface
Station Ordinate Station Ordinate
0 0 0 0
i

:1'9t -'ili

I 1.30Z
1..2 z.500
I
1.719 5.066 7
t;.u
,
7.568
,z.lJl'
10.067
.')7'
2'r
O
l' "I
-1. 24
6+

:UH 2;.

t
679 039
.011
25-0
2
9


4.066 '0.019
, 991
"Oill
45.009
50.000

50.000
]5. 003
"'.91
2


14.9 5
-1.z60
3.080 ' .9&> -1.0Z0
70.023 2.712 768
;Ur;
;:1."1
::Ht, 85.020 1.410
:t7g
090 I 90.015 '
95. 007 993 .159
i
100.000 0 100.000 0
! L.X. rao;Utl.!: 0.2;6
0.064 I Slope of raditl.! through L . .8.:
i
NACA 64-209
,-Station. snd ordinate, given in
- poercent o! &1rfo11 Chord]
, L.B. rediu.a: 0.579
: Slope of radiu.a throU&h L.X. t O.ct34
NACA 632 -215
[.:.tations a::c ,,;1 Yen 1r,
pe.rcent of airfo!l chorq]
1:;07er ':'urface
[stat:e:lr:s an.c. ,;:;1ven in
::;ercen: of alrfDil

COMMIT1H FOG AfRCIUUTlCS
NACA 64-208
NACA 64-210
rStatione illld ordinate, given in.
- :>Je1'Cent or alrtoll
Upper Sur!ac. I Surface
Stat10n ord.inate
L.E. radilUl 0.7Z0
I Slope of radi\!.! through L.X, I 0.084
.lDVISOAY
COMMITTEE Fot AlOIIAUTfCS
NACA 64
3
-018
IJ"lQ ordinates g1ven in
percent of airroll chor!!
Upper Surrace Lower Surt ace
Sta.t1on ,Ord.1n .. te I st.-;;i;;-f Ol"I!inat;"j
T
o
50
75
1.25
'5
50
7.5
10
15
20
25
;0
'6

16
65
II
85
90
166
"------------------------
NACA 643-418
!Stations a.nd ordinate! given in
percent o!' airtoil chord]

i
Lowoer Surface
Station Ordinate: Station ,Orc:l.1oate
0
I
b"og !
0 0

737
:
1.ol.4 -1.560
.950
!
2'70

-1.;';2
2.152
,l57 -2. l!
4.609

5391
:E:l12 7.095

1.Uil
-4.7'5

15.lS3
20.343
707 .10.176 2529'

jl:l:l
' 10730 30.237
11. 037 5177 -6.17
NACA 65-210
ani ord.io.tea in
perceot o! drtoU
Upper 13urtaco : Lo'Hr SUl'tace
! Stl-t1OD or"li1na.u: Station 'Ordlll&te :
jo,o 10 10
, i ::m
tm 1.331
".898 2 4 91 :i:!;
7194 <609 7.606 _2.=
i 9:894 3 . 5
3
" 10.106 -2.521
, l4.899 4 3B 15.101
1990'1 4938 20
U
' -3. 6 I
24.921 5.397 25. 9 -3 <11 ,
936 5.732 30. 4 -J.788 I'
34:91
'
l:1l ,s.o49 -3.894
tUi 6.olA
50.000: 5.915 50.000 ! -3709
!3:
0
m un 1!;:jS6 i :1:'0\
65.0 4.712 14.9" -2.65.2
i 3.: 4.128 69.957
I 3.!U9 74.9,) -1.68
1
i -::m
. 90.028. ':m
I 0 . 100 000 0 I
I L.B, radlull l
I Slope or r.,;Uu.t througl:! L.B.I 0.084
NACA 65
1
-012
I L.S. r.."lu..l 1.000
1
NACA 64
3
-218
[Statl=1! and orCin.tea g1n_1'l in
percent ot urtoll ehord-':
Upper Surt&.ce , Lower Surr.c,
Ord.1tle.h : Station I Ord!nate
0 0 0 0
i:m
.620
:qfs
.88,
1.099
2:m
I

Ug(
'-
49
1
2:,Jl '
1.703 : 7297 '
1.
49
,,\:j&l.
./,6 10.203
:U6;



9 5 25.147
:1:11
;Z. 1. 9.760
3P>S I

10.009
'0.0>8
:j:!lll 10.023
'972
pH
1,.5. 028 -7535
,0.000 50.000 w7.011
n:&.'3
{m


9t; -(:i;1

! 6
4
.
935
-1 \'
i6::;t l:!!j ! klr I
!
2.62;
1 9 I
':m
I < -teE
95019 i
100.000 I 0
, .981 : -. '
100.000 I 0
i L.!.I
I
I
[Station! 1Llld. ordinate! in
percent of .. irfo11
tipper S1.l1't .. ce Lower S1.l1'race
Station 10rdinate Statior., Ordinate
NACA
NATIONAL AOVISOR'\'
COIII_1THE fOtlElIOIIwTlC
65-410
'StatiOll! and ord1Il&tU gi'ftrl in
'- p41re.nt of a1rtoll
tipper Surf.ea Lo.-er S1.l1'f.ea
StatIon iordicate Station 10rdinate I
:-
,
o : a ' 0 0
y2
.861 .628! _.661
1.061
lm ::W; l,On

U66
2: B2 .1.191
4.7
S
7 5 .
t
487 7.711 -1.791

s:m
10.21.2 -l'm
i
98 15.202 -2..,
iI. 17 ' l
ll1 20.1S} -2.
.Ii,l ' .2$0

.
6.702
I

7:m
-2. U
50.000
!.7ZC
50.000 _2.
tj.C29
6.288
ti(:92 _1.621
5.741
I
,:m
..1.2.11
-.792
,
3m
-.
Bj.<116 I 2. 29
-:m
1.
! 937 .327
100.000 0 100.000 0
NACA 65
1
-212
1.D
,'''''-
tower Surf.ce
Mation'D:'d1.Data 8tation ,
I
0 0 o 0
I :m ,:m
l:m
.i:m
! 2. 09 :i:W
I d7s 29'9

-2.28'7
i 7:W un 10.12 ,
! J..B 9 5073 15121 '

I nzg
20.110 '
.510
I

'0.039

".91. 7. 8
45. 019
-4.
6
l'7
5.017 6. '

-4W
6.m
_; .2
65. 3 ,.i<.ll


-2.7 1
70.050' 'lli
i5.051 3.9
k:94i
:i:b
-. 56
dil -.9 90.0;;! 1. ;
9t9S' -.a.o 95.0171 72 I
100.000 0 100.000 0 I
L.E.I 0.084
NACA 65,3-018
and ordinatell g1ft..? in
percent of airfo11 ehordJ
Upper Surface klftlr Surf.oll
:
Station onl.lnate Station lordinate
0 0 o ,0 i
:15
1.!Z4
:15
I:i:m
1.25 1.25 -2.
25 2i
28 25 I -z.i2
1.
0 ,. 31 50
.5
lb
5
I
I 10
1
1
.
1 5 15
!
20
i. l4
20

dH
56
i
46
'6
8.990 .8.990
45 8.916 45
50
1:14\
50
i:Ul
I
16 16
1
65

65 :l:i'6
!
70 70

i6
U56

.456
I
;390 i -;.;90
85

85
! -2'ill 90 1. 90 -1.
95 92 95 -. 92

0 : 100 0
L.E. rad1ua: 1.92
NACA 65,3- 618
[StatlollJl and ordln.at .. glvep. in
percaDt of airfoll cho:-d. ...
Upper Surhee i Lowr
Station iord.Inah! St.tiCICI iorcl.1nate I
L.S. radIua: 1.92
Slope or radI\J.! th."'Ough L.P. I
L.S. radiua I 155
0.1.68 of radIua tbrougtt L.E.I
NACA 65
3
-018
and ordlnatu g1 ...an in
pe:r-eent of airfoil chor4J
Upper S1.l1'face
Lo ..
Sh,tlon Statlotl Ordinate
0 0 0 0
U1J :U1J
1.25 2.014- 1.25 .2.014
25
pn
25 _2.p'
50 50 :e. ,6
11.
5
W
,1.5
r :1: it 15 1: 01 15
2C
i
476 20 j.476
Z5 .129 25 .129

!:g!l

:U$l
8.999 -8.999
45 8.901 45 -8.901
50 8.568 50 -8.568
16
8.008
t6
_8.008
1.
267
:1:;;1 65
:m
65
70
(.396
70
:4.
421
16 i6
.396
-3.3lS
85 , 2.295 85 -2.295
50

90

,
95 95
100 0 100 0
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., vonDoenhorr, Albert E. and
Stivers, LoUis S. Jr. Summary of' Airfoil Data. !lACA Wartime Report L-5M.
L.X. rad1uII 1.96
i
i
A2a:ll
NACA 65(216)-415
a-O.5
[;tation. and. orcltlll.te! ghon in
percent or airfoil chord)
Upper SUrface
1
Station OrI:l.1nate
0 0

1.236

2J37
4.564 4.
'
l,l
7.1:44
l2

i
J
!!

.51
9.

9900

t
9

911
.019
ID_r surr.ce '
Station ! Ordinate I
0 0
.756 -.960
1.031 -1.110
:i:6il
543'

16:41: -3.119
15.439
t:m 20392
25.3,1
:t:m ;0.258

-4.5<11
44. 81
O.2B
HATION.U ADVISORY
(;OIIIMITTE fot AUlOIIAUTICS
NACA 652 -415
a-O.5
tipper Surfaoe I Lolll!lr Surface
OnHnate r Station: Ord.lnat.
O:ru
2:m
'
J:
19. 11
.24.671

39.911
45. 019

lO.307
65.314
70.294
7;.253
80.199

95027
100.000
1:..:8. rt.ellU81 1.505
Slope or raQIIU1 through 1,.1.1 0.233 J
NATIONAL AOvrSOAY
COM_ITTH fOl A.ItO."UTICS
A2a:12
NACA 65-006
___
Station Sta1;lon Or41n .. to
NACA 65-206
[Statlot1. ani ordirlatu ginn 1n
;lercont ot airfoil chord-
NACA 65
3
- 418
NACA 65
3
-618
NACA 65-009
:3tat10nl a.."'Id ordinate. g1TOn 1..0
pereellt of a1l'toll ohord:
tfpper Surfaco r,..c,..:r Surfac.
Station o:-d;1nate StaUon Ot'd1nat;.
0 0 0 0
.\
.1..
00 .\
If '
lJl lJl .i:o\s
Lm
lb
5
tm
,b\

1\ ).299

'm
20



2\
lO
:h'l ,6
4.4;1
1\
.0 ....
45 4.4
1
45
.4m
50
U,l6
SO
:1::'

l.74J 16
65

65
70 70
.2.;

2.

2.
1. 5 -1. 5

1.260 a; -1.260

90
9\ 9\
100 0 ___ 0 _____
L.a, raQ.1ul
0552
NACA 65-209
'Station. L'ld ordinatos givon 1n
" or airfoil

Ullper Sur-race I",owIIIr Surrae.
St.t1on ordinaUi St.t1oll Qrdirlate'

0 0 0
.748
:ii!
.648
.912
::m
l.ln'
1.162 : 1.32; i
t,4i ;

2.i)8;
:tUl. 5092
7:4i\; ! 2.805
16:6l
-1957
J.9
3.251 -2.217
jfm!
a
971
i
: 25071
i 2
l:ftr,

1l:956 -;. 01 1
a4:ru

ttUfl
,
50 ,000 l: .. Si
50.000 -;.233
a
1

-2291

\6:m
4:m
,. 1. 1
;.237 74.9]9 -1.447
16:"'0 2.601

-1.009

19;3 587

::;;.9
:fJ
95013 .9
100.000 0 100.000 0
L.X.l
"I ...TIOI .....L-;;oVISOIl.'f

NACA 653 -418
a-0.5
Staticn. IIlld ordinate. g1.y.n 1n
oJ: a1rroil cbordJ
:;;'per Surrace i Lo'llOllr i
NACA 653 -618
a -0.5
IIlld onl.1.M.t gl'ten 1lI
- or a1rtoil
Station
I
L.E. l'diu.: 1.96
Slope or radl\la througtl. L.B. I
-
NATIOHAL .lOVISOQY
COi'IMITTH fill AUOUlIT\CS
a."ld o:"d1."latu given 1n
at
Lower Surrace
:..S. 2.684
Sle;:, of ra\!.!:llI tl--.rough J.168
NACA 651 -212
a-0.6
[:3tationa and o!"':iL"latu g1vM in
;.ercent ,,! airtoil cherd3
'Jpper $Ul'!&ce : Lower
Shts.on ,ordinate :
r...!:. rad.iu.u 1.000
Slope ot radiu.a through L.!:.l O.UO
NACA 65
2
-015
!Stat1OI1. and. oN-lna .... gh'.:I in
- percent ot airtoll Chorc:{j
I
I
and ord!nates given in
;.ercent or airi'oll

:?i=er Suri'aco Lower Surraco ,
Station
Reference: Abbott, Ira R., von
Doenhoff, Albert E. and Stivers,
Loui. s. Jr. Summary of Airfoil
Data. NACA Wartime Report L--560.
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE fOl I.EItONAUTICS
NACA 65, -412
[atationa aDd ordinate. ginn in
of a1rroU chord]
Uppu Lonr
ShUorl Shtiol!. :
0.l.6a
--'
and. o"l1natea g1von 1n
percent of chord]
Stanoll Ord.inate Station
L.E. !"ad.iua: 1.505
of rialu. through L.E.. 0.084!
H...TIONAL AOVISOQy
CO'QUTT[( FOIl AUOIIIAUTICS
NACA 747A415
[Statlene a.cd ordinate!! g1,.IUl 1.0
per-I).nt or urtoil ehord.=
Upper Surfaee r.o.tr Surraee
-Stat1on ord.1Date! Statim I J
------
0 0 0
-i:lto :
.18
B I

2.106 1.61,8
i

,.016 2.959
.W

!
ifll
5488 -2730 i

!
'r1
98

20.402

9.6
:t:m 10.210
,o:i
U
10.497
tlli 10.499
lO.J.2l
j6:at1
p16
l;,4:m
i6:t
74

....
6j.l0
--4.235


:5:m
AO"1;( ,.I"

85.06



90.0?7 1. 6

35. 01 5 . 39 985 -. 7
__ !Oo,_ooo ,0
I..E, radlU!1: 1.54l.
SlQ;le or radius through L : 0.274
NACA 66-006
LStatlo!le and c!"Oin.tea giver. 1n
per-eflllt o! a11'foil ehord
Surface lenr S..rtlloe
NACA 747A315
!Station, and ord.1.natu gl,",p in
percent o! .irto1l ebot'dJ
Upper Surfaoe S1Z!aee
Station O%'dinat4 i SUtion Or4inat.
0.2Z9 I
0 0
'D
'
-1. 031
.1ti I
1.01
:un 1. 9
t:'s2Z
2. 91
j:m
5
ro
7. 0I
s
;
16: :UIl ,l.5 :
;t:m '6
40'



... m ; 30.133
:i;:1 G,OOl : )4.1.S6

ll:61 1'020 - .<40
1;,4:h
- .014
25.4 J i
... :m,

.... 509
r
241

-4.lJO
,.130
-JSO.
8P;S 1l:9Z7/
-2.74, I
9 .016


166:g&j 1
0.405 !
Reference I Abbott, Ira H., Von
Doenhoff, Albert E. and stivers,
Louis S. Jr. SUm."OaI",{ of Airfoil
Data. NACA Wartime Report L-560.
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COJI!IIIIT"TLIFOIAIK*4UTICS
NACA 66-009
StaUoe. ordinate Shtion orcin.te

1.25
5
5. 0
lP
'5
2<l
5
JO
46
45
50
16
65
70

90
95
100
L.B. radlW1: 0.223

NACA 66-206
[St.Uoc. and ordinatu ginn 11:1
pUC'nt ot &.11"to.l1
L.B. rad-1UlI 0.2.2,
Slope ot radiWi tbrougb t.I..,
NACA 66-209
CStationa 1IrI0 oNlina.t .. ginn in
p41ro.nt ot airtoll e.b.ord=
N....TIOfll ADVISORY
COMMITTE[ fOR lEROIUUTKS

'Jpper S-..u-fIlCII Lo_er S ... -faee
--
Stat!cr. Stat!:;r;

0 0 0 0
., 1.,23 .j -1.723
75 1.,71 75 -.<.571
1.25
U2l
1.25

;:t
t
69O l:6
75 . 75 -1.513
10
t
2le 10
-1.
210
15
7:il.
i
1;
.0 .0
25
!t!
25 j.s:.B

JC
im
3.7:Jl
23

8913
lim
"
5'
so
n
-B.7;;'

G;
7C

-2.73<_
co:
';i.i
: l:(,
_.0... ::'.;00
&.no or:l.1natu glve_n 1n
percent ot a1rtoil choro..:
L.r.. I.,ll
S1opf! or radlua thNU8h L.J.I 0.<42
NACA 66,1 -212
Uppar surtae.. 1 Lo ... r surt .. ce !
StaUon loroirlah ! Station Ordinate I
A2a:13
NACA 66y218
... E. \l..ll: 1.9:'';)
Sl:o;:e of tr_-c"p. :".E.: O.YJ_
lOYISORY
(GOINITTH fOC.l.UOUUTI(
NACA 65(421) -420
Reference: Abbott, Ira H von
Doenhoff, Albert E. and Stivers
Louis S. Jr. NACA l'iartiJU. Report
1-560.
"IATIOH.l.L .fJ)VI$OAY
COIIIIIIITTH fotlI'_WHCS
i
A2a:14
NACA 66-210
0 0 0 0
.u;6 .806 .,.4
::ltc .679 980 .021 .
1:71 1.245 ,

-loO;l
1.699 -1.
4.902 2.!J.Ol 5.098 , -1.769
7:g:z

7.601 ! -2.110
';;.10l
I 10.102
j:j8J ,...202

19.912 :'.796

-;.2C4
24.924
\::6J :l:ZU

;0.
t
862
e',o, -3.802
U
9
'S
,.024

3.882
.984

50.00Q i

1
5
.
016 -,no

5736
I
-;.594
Zll2
-3.272


:
-2.815
lO.&;5
-2.281
;.29
lK:4?;
-1.697
85. 9 2.1...45
-::m 90.037
:
1570
i 95019 724 -.092
100,000 110C.ooo i 0
I
L.E. radl'..L!I 0.662
31opeotradil.Ul through 1. E. I 0.084 )
NACA 661 -212
[,Stat101lJ. a.ncl. oNUl.Ua ginll 1D
.,.reeZ1t at &i.t'toU cborl;l.]
Sul"t'.c.

NACA 654 -021
o
50
75
1.25
25
50
75
i
2;
;0
'6 45
50
55
>0
65
70
, li
85
90
95
100
; L.E. radl1.U1: 2.50

NACA 654-421
and ordinues given in
pere-allt ot airtoil chord,]
Upper Surfaoe I Lo"r Surf.cJ.
Station Ord1!late station ONlnate
i L.E. rlld.lulIl 2.50
I -lUop$ at radlU!11 through L.E:., 0.168 I
NACA 661 -012
-StatloQ8 and ordinat .. ginn lD.
- .,.ree:Qt o! airfoil

Opper Surface Lowtor SW'tacl
. ------ -
Station Ol"cl.1nate Station Ord,iD.l.t.
-
0

0 0

:15
1.25

1.25
:U6B
25 2.5
t'
O 2.496 50 -2.496
10
5
3.
0
H
7.5

,.4
1.
15 .2 15
.0 4.8al 20 -4.801


25

5. B 1O -5. 9
t3

t3
1
0
1
1.
94 - .94
45
H
.000
f6
5'm
5.
5 -55
65
,.'l9


U
-,:m

-2.9
85 85
-2.
':t
'"
-1.2
95 -.4
100 0 100 0
t .. 0.95Z
---
-,-----
NACA 66
2
-015
[StaU.on, aDd ordinates given 11'1
perce:Qt ac airtail Chord]
U'ppir Surface i to.-er Surtaee .
Sta.tion Orc!lnat.! Stat!on ord.inate I
o 0 O! 0 I
:i5 1.122 :h I :i:lli J
1.25 i:f.? 1.25 i. -1.t.75 I'
Z.5 2.2:55 2.5 1-2.2:5,
50 }.lOO 5.0 I ,.100
I
15 10 ,I I
5995 I -5995
30 I
G6 7
7

4
2'jO ?05 I -7.250 ,
"5 3
0
... w7.t..30 I
50 7.495 45 I -7
7

4
45
16 50 'I
n b:n : 1Jii
7,' 70 I -). 2
76
gs 3598 i I
90 90
166 0)66 166 I ;.5
65
LoX. radiWllf 1.435
NAT1OfjoU. ADVISOQ.'
CO/IIMfTTU FaI:
NACA 65
4
-221
s.nd ord!.nats! given in
percent at airfoil chord]
Upper Sl,ll1'ace
!o.K. r&dlua: 2.50
!lopot or radiWll t.brou.gh :"'E.:
0. 084 1
NACA 654 -421
a 0.5
I.Od ord1llatel giTen 1.Jl
perCatlt of lirfoll
I Station! Ordinat.: Station Ordi.lute
f.620 I
1.991

6:m
7.773
9572
10.951
12.000

".41
0

"'Om
10.
!. 17
d&
1
097
.5;0 I
2.995
.833
o
LoS. .2.50
ac radiu. tb..rO'U3h L.%. I 0 .233
HATIOMM,
COIIIMITTU rCIIA8Olf&lTICS
and. orcl.1.nat$e gi7en 1n
perce!\t of airtoil
'J'pper Sl.1I't'ace r.a.-erSl.1I'fae. I
station Ordtnah Station Ordinate i
:..E. 2.550
Slop$ ot thro'.1g!l :'.E.:
NACA 66(215)-016
NACA 66(215)-216
a0.6
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von
Doenhoff, Albert E. and Sti vera
Louis S. Jr. Sum-'1a!7 of Airfoil
r... ta. NACA lVartime Re port 1-560.
NATIONAL AOVISOQy
COMMITTEE fot ... OIlUUTICS
NACA 66(215)-416
($tat1oa. u.d ordinatel ,i Till 1D
per<:ent of airfoil c:hol'd.
1
,
Upptlr !urtao. I
Lowtor SurfaC4
I
Station
""'ina"
!t.tl0Il Ord,1n.t.
0 0 0 0
:m
1 .268 .6lA

10m
,:;:,.
1
Uf
-1.524-
.2.225 Z.775

4.6i!6

lin I

:';:.
i:
m

20.280


_1. 1
d -. s
.a.a 97 5 ,5.
1
5'
:l:m
ll:;,
10.0*
0.102
10.1
:h
19:o;o ,
10.1
54';0 -55
O'm
s ,

..
65.15 .1
70. 1
tm



:i
:.l:m
I
85. 150


1
1.2.2. I
I 0 100.000 0
! t rlldl'11al 1. i
I Slop. of rad.1W1 mouab t.:I.1 0.168 i
NATIONAl AOVISOOY
co.ITT(f fOI .u:IOUUTlCS
A2a:15
CRITICAL llACH NmrnER, 4 AND 5 DIGIT AIRFOILS
NACA WR 1-560
,1
'I .1, I
I i I
"j
I
i
, NATIONAL A
r- COMMITTEE FOI
"r ,'] 1 il
.1> I . .1\ I "
, I 'I I l-.!.
:'oy;-speed. section lift coefficient, C
Variation of critical Mach number with low-speed
li:t coef:iCient for the NACA 0006, 0009, and 0012 air-
fOl.l sectl.ons.
.-i
as
"
.<
+'
....
"
0
c
t
Variation of critical Mach number with low-speed section
lift coefficient for seTeral NACA 230-.eries airfoil sec-
tions of TariouB thicknesses.
Low-speed section lift coefficient, c
L
Variation of critical Mach number with low-speed section
lift coefficient for several NACA 24-series airfoil sec-
tions of Tarious thicknesses.
.-i
as
"
.<
..,
....
"
0
'F
,I V y T



::.-"
,:le"
:::::---
y

i'e! .. , ... FIT .. ,
I
.,'
:..::1
"
"
1 ",I', : J -1"' I ,I
i i
I ;
"I 1\
I
I
f-I -r--+--'-++-H-+++.l-H-+-;.-' -J--L NATlON"L "[
FOI. A
I T- l-r-r-r--+--

: I Low-speed section lift co&ff1c1ent, cL
--_ .. --
Variation of critical Mach number with low-speed section
lift coefficient for several NACA 63-series symmetrical
airfoil sections of TSrious thicknesses.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doe!Ihcrft', Albert E. and
Stivers, Louis S. Jr. Summary of Airi'o.il. Data.
HAOA Wartime Report 1-6S0.
A2a:16
CRITICAL llACH NUMBER, LOW DRAG AIRFOllS
NACA WR 1-560
+ -+::
!
,
,
,
i
i
:
. - ... f-.lj
! Low-speed section lift coefficient, cL
of critical Mach number with loy-speed Isction
lift coefficient for several NACA 63-series airfoil lec-
of various thicknesses, cambered for a design lift
Variation of critical Kech number with loy-speed section
lift coefficient for several NACA 65-series airfoil sec-
tions with a thickness ratio of 0.18 and cambered for
various design lift coefficients.
NAnON4L ADV'SOOY
(ON'IITT[ Fot AERONAUTICS ..

j.E. roc", . -= F""

ESf.Tj;- - EO, - bD.
Low-speed section lift coeffiCient, c,
Variation of critical Vach numoer with low-speed section
lift coefficient for several NACA 64-series symmetrical
sections of various thicknes_s_. ____________ _
66,1-912
67,1-215
65(216)-415,
Variation of critical Mach number with low-.peed section
lift coefficient for several NACA 6-ssriss airfoil .ec-
tions with different positions of minimum prsssure end
Tarious thicknesses, cambered for various design lift
coefficients.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhoff, Albert E. end Stivers, Louis S. Jr.
SwmIary of Airfoil Data. NAC! Wartime Report 1-56Q.
..
o
6
-4
-2

Ii
..
o

"
;;
c
o


o

o
"
o


'"
..

2
o
6
4
2
0
2
o
6
-2
..
;
c

:

20
i
2
0
LIFT CURVE DATA FOR AIRFOns
I
i
I
i
I
12 16 20
Airfoil percent of chord
(a) NACA tour ... and tlve-d1g1t .eriu.
I I
I i
!
I
"
I
I ,
J
i
r
I
i
I
i I
I
I
i I I I
12 16 20
Airfoil thickness. percent of ehord
(b) NACA 6;- aeries.
A
l-t--
I
I
H.lTlOHA.L ADVI$OA.Y
COMMITTEE rot AElOtIMSTtCS
4 12 16 20
AirfoIl thlckn8!;S, percent of chord
(e) NACA 6
1
... - se ri ee.
i I I
I j
>-1
I
I
I
I
"-
IA
I I
I
I
4 8 12 16 20
Airfoil thlckneu, percent of chord
(d) JiACA 65- .eriea
....
-
"
(
NATION'J. ADVISORy
I
COMMITTU FCt AOCIIAUTa
4 12 20
AlrtoU th1eknell, percent ot cbord.
'e) KACA 6h .. aerie..
,
I
!
NACA lIR 1-560
i
i
I
I
,
I
.12
"
;
.10
-;:
.OS

,
SerlOill 6
digit)'O 6
.. 230 (5 diBit)
o
o
o
..
0
Ii
o 0
(> 0.2
.. ot
v O.
oli
0 0
"
0.1
00.2
!
li
00
00.2
.. ot
.. O.
oli
o 0
00.2
.. 0.4


,12

'C

0. .10

0.
oS
"
:
.OS
"
!
..
;:;
..
f
., .12

'C
"
'"

.10
0.


t
.OS
!
5
.06 4

0
.
f
:' I
.12
"

0.
.1 0
.
0.
0
-;:
:
.OS
" g
J

,I
..,

..
i
.12
"

0.
.
.10
0.
-;:
- - -
!
I
,
I
i
i
I
:
I
A2a:17
Pugged armbola roup;h condition
j
i
!
Smooth
- - - - I j - -- ...,:
7
- -
$eries -
h
0
001
\
- ' ...

digit) ROUshT-
0
"
'"
2;0 (5 d1Bit)
;
10 12 16 18 20 22
Airfoil tr.J.cknea.s, percent of chora.
(a) RAe;. tour- and five-digit aerlee.
8
I
8
I
I
!
I I
i
I
i
i
I
I
..I I

f- _l
- - - - - -
O'i

00
00.2
40.h
I
,,0.6
I
10 12 14 16 18 20
J.i.lrfoll thiCkness, percent. Ol chord
(b) NACA 6,- aeriea.
l/ioOi
I ,;
- - - - - - - - -

!
li
0 0
"
0.1
0
.. o
.. O I
I I
NATIONAl ADVI$OAY
I COMMITTU FIJI A[IOIIAUTtCS
10 12 16 18 20
Airfoil thickneea, percent or chord
(0) NACA 64 .. ear es.
,
-- -
- - -
-
I 1
1
0 0
0

,
.. O
.. o
I I I
10 12
Airfoil thlckneu, percent of chord
{d) HACA 65-eerlea.
!
! I
!
I
1

-
- I
I
'\i- _
r Smooth
,j
-r
- -
Roush
20
i
Ir 8mooth
-,
Oli
[-ROUgh -
0 0
(> 0.2
I
..
0.4
NJ.TtONAl. .t.DVI$OAY

I COttMlnu Fot AlQUUTICS
10 12 l.B 20
22
22
22
Figure 37." !.6ea.sured section anglu or :tero 11ft tor a num-
of various thlcknenes and
Airfoil thieknan, percent ot chord
(e} HACA 66 .. series.
t
R, 6 x 106.
Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhotf', Albert E and
vers, Louis S. Jr. Bumm&ry of' AirtoU Data NACA'
Wartime Report 1-560.
A2a:18
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
.8
.4
!!A.XIMU1! LIFT CF Re 6 x 10
6
NACA WR L-56O
1
'"
J.
f-----
14-series ---""'I

L 44-series
(4 digit) ,X
(4
I
di
r) I-
I I
OO-series ----.
pj
I I
(4 digit)
/" r
- 230-series
I I
.<).

j
(5. digit)
I I I
I
. ;;::::::::
'-..,;..I.,
t.
.. 44-series
f---'
14-series
Ii (4 digit)
(4
I
dig
tt)
P
-a....
t---,
Fttt:::-
[(,-..
I I r, f\
--
--.
If
"""
OO-series
ib_ -
'6...
?-o-
(4 digit)


K'J
-"",,,/
:I-:t:
..0
fl

(1
4
di1giti
--- Smooth
------ Rough
Symbols with flags correspond to 0
simulated split flap deflected 60
..<::
..,
i
.... 2.0
...
o
....
..
:;!
1.6
...
1.2
....
..
i1
c
.8
....
p.,
.4
cl
i
V

..,."
------


/
/
'l> .4-
'i"Y
)'.)
.2=)Q
V; )'X
";""
b 0
./y

,J!S
)(
, \
c,li
'rf
-"<' 0.6
/// .'9' , , .... ;r:y "-J

.4
.2

. - 00
l----::
---------

- - c
li
V
tt,..;


I-- '" 0.6--" ---
J>..

-
e.
-;/
K:
. -
""G
<> .
-&
'-

I-- 00
/yt. r-
--0-


:-:8
>-- -0-\

--
1\ \ \

c
ti
'OJ 0.(,

- 11 .4
-
<>
.2

- 00
--- Smoo.th
I
----- Rough
Symbols wi th flags .correspond to -
simulated split flap deflected 60
0
f-----
I I I I I II I I I
o 0
4 8 16 12 20
4 8 16 12 20
2.8
2.0
1.6
1.2
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(a) NACA four- and five-digit series.
I--
I c I
li
I--
0.6
-e .4
"\ lK
F"/
t::t
'0 .2-
'\
I--1--'0 0 "\
\ Y/


--
\ Y

><
- -
l
d
,
, ,
"y
V V:
:"
\
Cl
i

/


\..!
-'\7 0.6
/
,
'e .4
-
-=-=-
,


r
"":::;... I-- .2
I
./ ""'"

Cl
i
"
-
J/;
/
/

.'

I--
w 0.6-
.4-
r
t

() .2--< /
'6
'-- I;) 0 L:
/. "..n
,. '"
-0-
2.8
2.4
....
....
..,
...
....
1>0
"
2.0
..<::
..,
....

....
1.6
...
0
....
..
...
<
1.2
....
...
0
....
.8 ..
i1
t::
i1
....
Airfoil thiCkness, percent of chord
(d) NACA 65- series.
cl
i
V'.\.. >--..
It> 0.4- V

V
r-

1:) .2-
""
'00

V

::b ......
<:..,'
/
V
.,
K

i:f'
""
.Y
.(
;roO"
:s:=
'e. 0.4
------
l::l'"
---
-1:) .2

. -- '00
-
-'
k:' '"'"\
Ct
i
/-
c....,
.....---:;
-t:'>. A
A 0.4---
V

"'\:J
<> .2-....) . :""--- ',-
o 0
V
I!:>-
i\S:
)--
. -- -0
-



V
..1;)-
- .
)--

Cl
i

-A 0.4
<> .2
'- 00
Snooth
\
\\
\
Cl
i
\\
\\.
.
.8
.4
p.,
-
----- Rough
- 0;0.6

eo .4
I-- <> .2
&nooth
1;)0
------- Rough
I
.4
_ Symbols with flags correspond to
simulated split flap deflected 60
0
4 8 16 12 20
r-Symbols with flags correspond to
Airfcil thickness, percent of chord
(e) NACA 66- series.
o
o
simulated' split flap deflected 60
0
4 8 12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(b) NACA 63- series.
Maximum section lift coefficient, c1max
Pigure Variation of maximum section lift coefficient with airfoil
thickness ratio and camber for several NACA airfoil with 6
and without simulated split flaps and standard roughness. R, 6 x 10
Reterence: Abbott, Ira H., von !Jt1e:ahoff, Albert!. and Stivers, Louis
S. Jr. 'Summe.ry ot Airfoil Data. NACA Wartime Report 1-560.

...
....
+'
...
...
1>0
to
....
...
o
....
..
i1
2.0
1.6
1.2
.8
.4
2.0
1.6
1.2
-
-
I--

\-
I--
I--
I--
A2a:19
IlAXIKUK LIFI' OF AIRFOns, Re 3 to 9 x 10
6
j.;z-
/.


R
Vv-
"""" (> 9.0 x
/' ,/'
F-o-
............
G 6.0 -........
0,.0 ---
V".,. t--o--
Ill. Standard
r--..
rougbness
V !>-......
6 x l06

I
NACA 2;0-series (5 digit)
I I I
R
k
f-.o-
6
(> x 10 -

'"U--
N j:::-
G .0 ---
--
7-

tQ:
G ,.0
r
r-o- Ill. standard

roughness
6 x

I
I NACA 44-seriea (4 digit)
""
NACA lIR Also erteot of Maoh
1:::--.....
.......,.
t--....
I
t--..
'--
h
"".
2.0
1.6
1.2
1.6
1.2
nwd:>er on C
L
lII8X from .i.F'lR 5773
-
I I I I I.
Ct = 0.4 and 0.6
1
-.
V
.>----

1'2 r-o-
V t---
-:::::
'---8.
"""-

-r.
c
ti
= 0.2

V
--.,

t.---
0
g
..L
Y
T"--
i'---
T 1
t--
lr-<>l'
o
J. 0 ;.

?
-(;)
R
o x 10
6
o
o
andard

6 x lOb
R

. 9.

o x 10
6
hc:::::0 ,.

1
o
o
andard
roughness
6 x leP
R
9. 0 x 10
6
G b.O
1. 2 ,.0
l:, Standard
roughnegs
6 x 10
.-i
I)
4
8 12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(b) NACA four- and five-digit aeries.
Airfo1l thickness, percent of chord
(e) NACA
2.0
T I I I I I
I I cL = 0.4 and 0.6
i
1.6
1.6
,.-1 R
?--
r-o-.

l:g

1.2
;.0
6 andard 1.6 --;K :2:.& St
:;! 1. 2 s
. r
I) 6 x lOb
1.6 R
@_+--,.......,,"'-rr-t-_b--"h-;:c:':<>9.
0x106
1.2
. 0 6.0
I
:lII 1. 2
o 3.0
Standard
.8 L--'----"--

R
. 2.0 x 10
6
b.O
1.2 r- 0,.0
8 Standard

6 x lOb

6 x 100'
1.6
1.2
.8
1-1
I I
Ct = 0.4
1
Ct
1
= 0.2
/
:F--
c
t1
= 0
4-

y+
o
4 8

0-r--\:
p.-
V/
V
V
V

.&if""

C-.

12 16
I Rl
v-'K> 9.0 x
'06.0

V
P'----
t-.
.-
o ,.0
Ill. Standa rd
ghness rou
6 x 10
6
""-
r---:=? t'

. 0 ,.

I
""'"
R
o x 10
6
o
o
andard
rouej:lne liS
6 x 100
I
R
9
. b.
o x 10
6
o

I
o
andard
roughness
6 x 10
6
20
.8L--L __ L--L __ __

Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(f) NACA 66-series.
R l.& __
(> 9.0 x 10
6
Ob.O
1. 2 ;.0
1_.8' St andard 1.2 I .... -------I
rou&mes
6 x lOb
.8
0

Airfoil thiCkness, percent of chord
(d) NACh 64-series.
M-
0.& ______ ______ __ ______
0.15 1.0
Figure 41.- Variation of maximum section lift coeffiCient with airfoil
thickness ratio st several Reynolds numbers for a number of NACA
airfoil sections of different cambers.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., Ton Doenhoff, Albert E. and Stivers, Louis
S. Jr. SUmmary of Airfoil Data. NAC! Wartime Report L-560.
1.5 2.0
Dda on effect ot Mali!
number on C.Lmax from
AJ'H! 5773 lig. I.
A2a:20
008
>----
I--,
r--
t---.. .
004
IlINIIltJll DRAG OF AIRFOilS, Re 6 It 10
6
NACA lIR 1.-560
0 NACA 632-215
.012
o NACA 642-215
o NACA 652-215
!; NACA 662-215
VI NACA 67,1-215
.0oS
-
.004 :
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEIE fOIl '1RONAUTICS
NAGA airtoil
o
o 6 -
<:>
t:. 6 -
"1 65.3-818
NATIONAL ADVISORY
0
.,
.4 5
.6
7
00
fOIl AERONAUTICS
p osition of minimum pressure, x/c
Figure 9.- Variation otminimum drag coefficient with posi-
tion of pressure for some NACA 6-series airfoils of
the same camber and thickness. R, 6 x 10
6

.016
.012
s::
11 .0oB
"
C>
Series
---r-
0
OO} c-------8
(4-
di
g
it
)
0
I---t:.
--'7
"il 230 (5-
di
g
it
)

;.0-
I .)--'"
-
Rough ;>--'1
.0-

-----
-lir

.r-'
.rO-!
:r-
Snooth
(a) NACA four- and five-digit series.



-
Rough -- ..
008
cL
i
00
=- 00'.2
.004
I t:. o.h
Smooth-b- "ilo.6
NATIONAL ADVISORY
__ __ __ J-__
o 4 8 12 16 20 24
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(b) NACA 63- series.
.2
.4 .6 .8 1.0
Design section 11ft coefficient,
c'1
Figure 11.- Variation of section minimum
coefficient with camber for several NACA b-
series airfoil sectiong of 18- percent th1ck-
ness ratio. R. 6 x 10
.012
.008
.004
0
012
.008
.004
o
.012
.006

... 1 1


t--"; --
--<;r 1
i
)---1
'
00
(I O.
<:> o.
..to.
:'0.
"il O.
Smooth
I I
(0) NACA 64- series
r.--

..


t--1
Ir'--- ""
1


o 0
o o.
....
o.
'"
"il o.
ioott
(d) NACA 65- series.
0

_--4
r"

AouJ
;>-- ....
. --
-v
Cll

4-
1
00
00.2
:, 0,,4
A

...
v
I
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE FOIl
4
8 12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(e) NACA 66- series.
1
2
t
i
2
t
Figure 12.- Variation of section minimum drag coefficient
with airfoil thickness ratio for several NACA airfoil
sections of different gambers in both smooth and rough
conditions. R, 6 x 10
Reference: Abbott. Ira H., TOn Doenhoff, Albert E. and StiTers. Louis
S Jr. Summary of Airfoil Data.. NACA lfart:lme Report L-560.
'd
"
-
..,
I':
III
oM
"
oM
...
...
III
0
"
til
oj
i-<
'tl
I':
0
oM
..,
"
III
III
lIINDfUl! DRAG OF AIRFOIlS, Re 6 and 9 x 10
6
NACA 1IR 1-560
o HACA 641-412
G HACA 64z-415
<> nCA
.!. HACA 644-421
.0281-_+_-+-_+_---1
NATIONAL ADVISORY
fot AERONAUTICS. -
J I I J I

Sect10n lift
Figure 13.- Drag characteristics of some HACA 64-ser1el airfo11
sections or various thicknesses, cambered to a design 11ft
coefficient of 0.4; R, 9 x 10
6
, 'lDT testa 682, 7", 7'5, and 691
02B
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE fot AERONAUTICS
.024-
t:.
.020
.016
.012
K
NACA
!J'
\ r\
I I I I
f\
]A
NACA 653-21B
\
I I I I
1\
,IJ> J t'h tr,.
NACA 653-01B
\:

"\
\
\

q:.
r.r'
.00B
0-


1
q
r\

IP' I'
ft'
1M
'"
",\

.004
l'h
'""" J..
.i"--...M .A


NACA 65; -61B -
fll
NACA 65,;-81B-f---l
0
-1.2 -.B -.4 o .B 1.2 1.6
Section lift coeffiCient,
F1gure 15.- Drag characteristics of sane NACA 65-series airfoil
sections of 18 percent thickness with various amounts of camber.
H, 6 x 10
6
TDT tests 16;, 314, 802, 813, and 830.
Reference I Abbott Ira H., von Deenhoff, Albert E. and stivers Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Airfoil Ie.ta. NACA Wartime Report 1-560.
A2a:21
A2a:22
c
.
2
.008
:l'
,aClCXt
c
o

o

"
o
0
012
8
0
.05
.04
.03
MINDlUM DRAG OF AIRFOILS, VARH TION WITH Re
NACA WR 1-560
j .02
NACA 63(420)-422
"

.,'
<:
"
..-\
"
..-\
...
...
"
0
"
:l'
"
'd
"
0
..-\
.,
"
"
"

.1
"
..-\
:s
I
I '
I
I
I
I
I
I
!
I
:
!
(rough leading edge)
eCA 23021
r--


/' (rough leading edge)
'--- I .1
.010
.008
""I-
Turbulent
I--
- I II
--- ,-
"- NACA 23021
I
1-, .-
-- t-
F- '"-'-
.006
.005

"t:--- NACA \
V-.......Q
---
t--
0012
.004
.003
.002
.COl
.2
I
i
I
:
i
i
I
i
!
12
I
I
i
!
I
i
I
i
1
I
I
j
J
I
I
1
F:::::
\ -
I-
./'"
. ,,''' .
i'---
t-----.
NACA 65(421)-42
0
.....---1 il--o-n

NACA 65,-418
/

V
NACA 66(2x15)-1l6 ---

I I I
I1tl
NATIONAL
COMMITTEE Fj AEROII!UrICS
.3 .4 .6 .8 1.0 2
4 6 8 10
20
Reynolds number, R
Figure 10.- Variation of minimum drag coefficient with Reynold. number for
several airfoil., together with laminar and turbulent skin-friction coef-
ficients for a flat plate.
!
T
1
i I I i
I
,
I
I
I I I
i I
1
I
I
I
I
:
I
! I
i
I
I I ! I !
I
!
1
i I
i
I
I
I
I
I
i I
I I I
20
Reynold.. Ill.DCer I R
(a) cond1tlon; 'ltlt teat 328
i
i
!
!
! I
I
I I
I
I

0
'-<>-
I
110 ,
I
I
I
...,
60 )( 10
I
I I
! I
I i
J"'TlOMAL 'UVISOQY _
!
'i
TTU
t" iUTi
S
I
12 16 20 24 28 ;2 40 44
"-1Ilolca number, ft
(b) Lacquer eamcutla.ge un1mprond at'ter palnt1.cgj "m'l' te.t l.i.61.
FIgure 20.- Variation of drag coefficient _1th Reynolds n\Z!lbor tor a 60-inch...chord .II.OOe1 or tJ
NACA 65(421)-420 airfoil tor two surface conditione.
48
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhoff, Albert E. and Stivers, Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Airfoil Data. NACA Wartime Report 1-560.
J.
5.2 x 10
A2a:23
CEN'lER OF PRESSURE DATA FOR AIRFOILS, Be 6 x 10
6
NACA 1IR 1-560
iIolgie flagged "1=0ou. are ror bOO eilllulated .pl1t tlap
.1 i i.!! i I
J
0
c .1


g
.2
j .. ,
.4
.1
<:: 0
!
.l
1
,
i
oo

2
;
h
.1
<:: 0
l
c .1

g
2
j .. ,
.4
1 i
!
, I
j
I
I I
i
j
I i
,
I
i
!
!
i
I
1 1
I i
I
i

,
! j 1
I T
!
i
I
I
!
!
Ti--l--.
,
,
I !
I I
;
.-t
12 16 20
.Urtoll thiclo:nell8, percent ot <:Dorl:!
(a) NAC;' and aerlee.
i
I
i
I
!
I
I
i
I
!
,
I
i
I
,
!
:
I I
: i
I ! I
!
i ,
!
I
I
i
1
i ,
i
i
i
t:::
i
:,;..n

1
i
i
i
i
i
I I i
r--- '
!
I 1

I
I
i
,
I !
I
Ii
I
i I
1 I ! I
12 16 20 24
Airfoil thiokneu. perc&l'lt of Chora
(b) SACk 63- aeriell.
I
: ! i
I
I
!
I
I
1
1 i i
I
!
i
,
I

I
i
I 1
i I
i
!
1 1 1 l I
,
I
I I !
i
1
I
i
!
I i
I
----+-<1
,
:
I
,
- -<) :
! !
1
I : -I'- 1 I '
'HATIOH.t.l l
J
i i COMM1TTtl FOI: A[1IOIUUT"5
16 20
Airfoil tl".1ckne,u, percent of chord
(c) NAC;' 61.- aerie
.1
'TTl I
! I ! : ; I ! I
I
Serlo!
o OO}
I
4 digit)
I
& 41.
v 230 (5 digit)
i
,
"1
00
00.2
:g:t
c
o a
o C.l
(> 0.2
*
.28
";
0
II
..r' .26
u
0
...,
0
'i<
,:
"
...,
c
.,
u
u
.....


'8
;..
.,
<II
....
0
C
0
.....
...,
.....
" 0
'" .,
" .....

'0
;..
0
.<:
u
.26
i !
,
I I
I
I
I
.24
---- N
i
I
I
I
NACA
I '1
.22
.26
i'-r-:.
.24


I
NACA 44-ser1es
4 8 12 16 20
.26
I
!
I
i
I
I
J 1=
0
! 1
........
J'--.-
I
:ttA.CA 24-:Jeries
.22
::1111 tilLllll1 !
.22
.26
.22 0
I I
I i
I 1 ! I
I
J !
i
i I
NACA aD-series
I
4 12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(a) NAC/" four- and five-elig! t series.
v
V
-.
f--

=
0.4 and 0.6
J
I
I Ii. = 0.5, lIlean '0
.24
c
CL
I

l
j
0
i
i i
I
!
-.1
i
i
I
i i
I i I
1
-r-
,
"1
o 0
o 0.2
I I
I
* 8:t
.2

;--
r-
'
-.1
i
i
.. ,
I r--
".=t;;
I
I
_ti"i
I !
-.4 0 L. 8 12 16 20 24
Airfo1l percent of chord.
1
/d) XACA 6,- aerIe..
NATIOtUJ. ADVISORY
c:a.
muFOl
il(.5
I
I I I I
0
i
i
1+ Ii
- 1- i I
I
I
r--
-0..
b I I
i'
r-
l"-
t--, f--...I-ul
i
"- H<>i
I
i
12 20
A.irfoil thicknel!l!J percent of chord.
fe) HACA 66- urlu.
"1
o 0
o 0.2
4:. 0.4
Figure 50 ... Variation or uctlon quarter-chon! pltchin,g-lllOl!lent coefficient (.=euUl"ecl.
at &n angle of attack cit zero d;egreel) with airfoil th.ic\mell ratio tor .. "eral
DCA airfoil et1onl of dirferent eaaber. R, 6 x 166.
0
.28
'"
"
"
;..
;..
0
u
1i
.26
<II

....
.<:
.24
...,
.....
.28 ..
"

0

.2.6 (/l
.24
'-
-
,--
n::r
0
V

cll. =
0.2
0
-0
y--
r-
--
t-----'
y- O
CLi =
0
o 4 8 12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of chord
(b) NACA 63- series.
Figure 52.- Variation of section chordwise pos1tion Jf the
aerodynamic center with a1rfo11 thickness ratio for
airfo1l sections of different cambers.
:RIIference: Abbott, Ira H., von DeeMotf, Albert E. and stivers, Louis
S, Jr, Summary of Airfoil Data. NACA Wartime Report 1.-560.
A a ~ 4
.28
.26
.24
Q
'i<-
.28
,:
.,
...,
c:
.26
.,
Q
Q
i
~ .24
""
o
H
.,
01
'c1 .128
c:
o
...
...,
...
~ .26
0.
.,
" ...
..
~ : ~
6
.2 6
28
.26
.24
.128
.26
.24
.28
.26
6 10
6
AERODYlIAllIC CENTER DATA FOR AIRFOIlS, Re. x
NACA 1I'R 1.-560
Symbols with flags correspond to c.
1
= 0.6
I
~
...... v
l--0'
~
c 1
= 0.4 and 0.6
-0
k:::::

r-
y ~
c1
= 0.12
,/'
!)""""
c1
= 0.1
b--O
0
1---"
-
f..--
~
)-"
cOl
= 0
4 8 12 16 20
Airfoll thickness, percent of chord
(c) NACA 64- series
-
r
~ ..--,
Cl0
1
= 0.4 and 0.6
0
'"
~
l--
-
I--
t-
,r- "-
cOl
= 0.2
1
0
1
~
r
l ~
C 1
= 0
4 8 12 16 20
Airfol1 thickness, percent of chord
(d) NACA 65- aerle
J
i
I
.28
.26
Q
'i<-
H'
.24
"
...,
c:
.,
Q
Q
] .28
~
""
e
~ .26
....
o
t:
o
~ .24
...
"
o
0.
"
"
...

~
.8 .28
o
.26
"...-
4 8
- v
c. = 0.4
1
=:>
"-
COl
= 0.2
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEf. Fat AERONAUTICS
0
-

,ir"'"'
-
i>-
c 1
= 0
12 16 20
Airfoil thickness, percent of Chord
(e) NACA 66- series.
Figure 52.- Concluded.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H von Doenhoff. Albert E. and Stivers Louis
S. Jr. Summary of AirfoU Data. NACA wartime Report 1.-560.
2.8
2.4

2.0


E
1.6
"
"
g


1.2

:
J
.8



"Ifo:
R, 6
;/
I[)""
I-
.... 0
IACA .612151-216 -7
V
IL
V
VAXDl1J)( LIF'l' WI'IH FLAPS, He. 6 x 10
6
NACA lIR 1-560
Hinge location 1
,
J!
"
r-= .17. -----,
t
A2a:25
(a) Flap eontlgurat1oh.
I-

;--- lIAC. Pisure 55.- Flap conf1surat1o
n and llIax!m1.m 11t't eoefficienh for the Nne" 6;,1...420 airfo1l dth O.25-airfoll-chord
hingec alotted flap; R, 6 '" 106,
?
3. 2
Y
'7
'I
I
2.
/

'"
;1//
V
\
\
8
2
4
f
NATlONo\l ADVISORY
j
jcoooo'l" i """'t
lTlCS
0 20 60 a:.
Flap deflection, Or. dog
2.
--

Flap-hinge
location
CD 1
- o
fhp.;
xlrl-. i/!
""-
G 2
2.8
p.o
.
III
I;
o 0
/
V:
,
/
I
I
VII
,
/
,
I';
I I
ao
I
-/

f0
.... eA
JU.CA
66(215)-216
R
(approx. )
6 x 106

It rom 2'eterC)Oe 5'7} <ert.)
V
f-- KAeA
/-RACJ.
NATtONAJ.. ADVISORY
... i'I'"
66,1-2.12
651-2.12
P'lq detlI9t1oD, lit, de.
1.6
I
.V
,./
V
1.2
.8
4
NATIONAL ADVISORY
-
COMMITTEE FOIl AERONAUTICS.
I I I
0
0 40 50 10 20
Flap deflection, Of' deg
i;iit tor .CM DCA alrtoil.l with
(b) Maximum lift characteristics.
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Doenhof'f, Albert E. and Stivers Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Airfoil Data. NACA Wartime Report 1-560.
A2a:26
i
V
MAXIMUM LIFT WITH DOUBLE SLOTTED FLAP, Re. 6 x 10
6
NACA WR
''OOO---------i-I

I


Flop reTractEd

I
/ ______ path
----
, I
,e 7!5 --------------1 \ \ /
i r.J Flop ,/\
! iii from 45" to \ \
--------------1-----1 65" deflection \ \
Flop deflected 65 Ll \\\
HATtOHAL .lOVISOIlY

(s.) i-'lB.'P .
Flap
o to 45 deflection \
!
),
2.8 -------,---,---1
I , . I
--
____ : iii
2.4 -- -
,I i i
2.0 :-_..L_I- --" -- -_L - __ 1..
'/ i i : , , I

: __ 'i __ __
I i I I I
1.6 I : i t--- j
I
1
i
! i
+t
i
I
I
I
i
I
i
I
I
I

i
I
I
I
I
1.2
.8
I
I
I I
I
1---
Flap deflection, l) , deg.
I
i
I
I
(b) Maxilnum lift characteristics
4
56.- Concluded.
1
I
I
I
I
j
,
--f
o
o 20 40 60 80
Reference: Abbott, Ira H., von Deenhoff, Albert E. and Stivers Louis
S. Jr. Summary of Airfoil Data.. NACA Wutime Report L-560.
IlAXDlllM LIFT AND I.!INnrolI DRAG WITH SLOT FLAP AND OOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL
NACA TN 1293
A2a:27
----4.0 .032
l
...,
c
"
"8
.....
....
30
2.0

()
...,
....
.....
.-i
C

.....
...,
()
"
'"
1.5
1. 0
5
a

/
/
/
a
f.-:::j
b-
----
5-

c::::::----"

Smooth
7'

-"

/
L
f-- Rough

t)

I':
'"
t)
....
t:
8
t)
bD
R


-
5
0 1.5
x 10
6
'H
0 ;.0
..,
0
<> 6.0
-
Q)
II)
NATIONAL ADVISORY ,_
I
COMMITTEE FOA AERONAUTICS
I I I I
.01 .02 .0; .04
Flow coefficient, Oil.
.028
.024
.020
.016
.012
.008
.004
o
-.8
c::
\
(\
h>






-.4 o
CQ
0 0
0 .015
<> .024
I
II
).
I
1/
)
/
V
I
...r.----
17
/ d
'-......
ru::.. JJ.---'
p8 [7
.....t:T
-v
NATIONAL ADVISORY' _
COMMITTEE (OA AERONAUTIiS
I i
.4 .8 1.a
Figure 17.- Effect of Reynolds number and leading-edge roughness Section lift coefficient, cL
on variation of section lift coefficient with flow
where
coefficient for NhCA 641A212 airfoil section with leading-
slat and double slotted flap. Os' 22.0; x
s
, 0.0;6c;
Ys' o. 037c " 0v' 16.5; X\., o. 004c; Y
v
' o. 014c ; Of' 55.0; R 6 6
.0 x 10; model with standard roughness.
x
f
' 0.oL,4c; Yf' 0.005c; test, TDT 990.
Jl .012
Q ...,-
v;co
Q flow through suc- .....
tion slot, fV/sec.
....
....
Vo. free stream vel-
ocity, rt/sec.
c chord., ft.
b span, ft.
'"
o
o
.008
0
-1.2


-.8
/
I CQ. I
-

:) 0

0 .015
<>
.025_


y

-0-


.;,.
""
-a-

v
-.4
o .8 1.2 1.6
Section lift coefficient, c
L
R = 6.0 x 10
6
; model in smooth conditiDn.
Figure 6.- Drag characteristics of NACA 64lA2l2 airfoil section with boundary-layer control.
Tests, TDT 953, 984.
Referenoe: Quinn, John H. Jr. Tests of the NACA 64
1
A212 Airfoil Seotion With
A Slat, A Double Slotted Flap, and Boundary-Layer Control b,y Suction. NACA
Teohnioal Note No. 1293.
A2a:28
EFFECT OF SURFACE IRREGULARImS ON WING DRAG FOR COllPLElE FllLL SCALE AIRPLANES
:r.A13LE IV.- Wing Profile Dr"s
CDo CDo
Doscri!)tion
lIGn
o
!:lDC.S- smooth
urcd 1'IiIl;
(cst. )
!:oto.l covered, bro.zier-hcad
ri vets; lo.rgor rivets on
I
fOrTIard portion of
111pG facing bo.ck
0,0090 C .0058[ 0 .0032
.!ctal covered, Dr1:'.ZlCr-neo.tt
rivct3; rOIT of 10J':;0r riv-
ets on upper S1;.rfnC8 about
15<1 c bel1in I.e .
1"
f' d __p8
facing back .0083
Fa ric covered, raise
stitchiIl;; drag ceasurcd
on lU1Ver
4 Fran portlon of
flush rivets:
rear ?ortion fabriC cov-
orad, flush stitching
5 liMe tal covered, rlusn rIvets
to about c behind 1. e. ,
remainder brazier-head
rivets; perforated dive
.0084
I
.00701
.
0070
1
.0014
I
.0OC3 .0007
I
and landing fla?s
6 Metal covered, f us rive s
on front half of wins,
1a?s faCing back; fabric
covering on rea: half;
perforated dive and
ing fla."s
.0109
I
.0072/ .0007
7 Metal covered, f ush
rivots, laps facing
forward
8 Metal covc;ri3d, flush
rivets, jOg&lBd laps
.0106
.0079
.0070
.0065 .0041
.0060 .0017
.0059 .0011
.ooni .
0060
1

_+-",r",i I:::' n::.t:.:s=-___ -=. 0077! .00 [ill
9 coverod, flush
rivetc, filled .0011
.0016
.0074 ,00611
1
11 "cod, filled ann ?olished
.0013
lIR 1-489
.00.3
1
<J.OOc
1
S ,
8
rieur- 27.- Drag of
\)
aurt'aee
l. , irrecul&ritle. Added

behilld the normal
1
2
3
4.
2,
&!nooth wing tran.1tIon
I ]X>1nt.
r-
.-
- "-t""'-
. -3
0- - +
-5l:"'"" 4'
3 4 5 6 7 8 10 15 cO
RrtynO/d3 number, R
6 rowe of 3/32" brasier head rivet. on each .urface of 5-foot chord airfoil
Pitch 3/4". forward ron, 52 percent of the chord from leading ed&e.
13 rowe of 3/32" oounteraunk riveh 011 each .=face of 5-foot chord airfoil
Pitch 3/4". lonard ron, 4 percent of the chord from lea.din& ed&e.
e ron 011 tap and 6 rowa 011 bottom lJ'.ll'face of 5-foot chord airfoil.
Pitch 3/4". lorward ron, 36 an:! 52 percent of the chord from leading ed&e
6 Joggled lape facing aft on each surface of 5-foot chord airfoil.
Forward laps, 8 percent of the chord from leading edge.
.003
! ! i !
i
<J.CXJ2
1
.!O

0

l
:


1
I
C.-O.IS
l'r-
!
': I
,
-
-:- I
I,
T
I,' '2 i
-x r--
-L I
3-r' -1- -.....>-.

I -x_
-
4-"
t--- -:;++ !
I i 'X- =L
I
I
I
I
4 5 5 7 8 /0 /5
number, R .mlllions
20
rieur- 26.- Drag of
aurfae.
.. added
ahead of tba 110 .... 1
amooth win,; transi UOll
point.
1 6 Joggled laps racing aft on each surface of 5-foot chord airfoil
Forward e percent of the chord from leading ed&e.
2 13 ron of 3/?:2" thin brazier head rIvets on each surface of 5-foot chord
airfoil Pitoh 3/4". Forward rows, 4 percent of the chord from leading
ede '
3 13 raw. of 1/16" bra.sier head rivets on each l11l'face of 5-foot chord air-
foil Pitch 3}4." Forward rows, 4 percent of the chord from leading
edl;e.
4 6 plain laps facing aft 011 each surface of 5-foot chord airfoil
Forward lap., 8 pereed of the chord fran leading ede.
--Smo:.dn '1!Iin9. C6 -.0060 I
4r---ServiC.r lI/
i
r/9- I I. 1 ,L
r------.serVlce ""tn; lINin
'0 Yiown below eriminaft!d. C.
f--
BJm
p
l
. 1 I I
trI trlt] IrIng
and waIk'lK!y .! ,,- .1XLJ15 r I
r-t
!
I I I !'itof head._
,
Inbocrd tip,

f--
=}
1
of aileron.
A
,
Tip I
,
,

--'"
L:-t--J-l
,
j'"
juncture
r-"o
t--
c _


---
>-.
r
--
I\. ' _,00005
Calculated smooth wlnq-t-- : -

-iii
I Il
l
I I I I
I
I
2 4 6 8 m m
Wing station. ft
30.- Typical resulta obtained by momentum traY8TS8 along
wing span and calculated _ooth wing drag. Airplane 9.
Reference: Dearborn, C. H. and Silverstein Abe
Military Airplanes Tested in the NACA Drag Analysis of Single-Engine
lUng Tunnel. NACA Wartime Report L-489.
A2a:29
VDT TESTS ON 4 AND 5 DIGIT TAPERED WINGS AND ASPECT RATIO EFFECT ON LIFT CTlRVE SLOPE
COMPARISOX OF EXPEJUMJ-;KTAL AKD CALCt"LATEl>
, , I'" , c I
I
, I.:;, ('.... I I 11'(1-..0) 1 a Ct . ., /".'. CL.,. ,
1- ." I .rR. I
Win. 1'1,,, 'orn: '! I: !I -]-1-- 3'- -3-
1
-;-3-1-1-]-- -]-1-
Iti J 1 I t ilit ill Ili'il!:li!l! IIJlld t) i I
:.;", :; '" I ;: I: 1< .:: t,. .:: I' .:; I :: i 0:1 I:: .:: 1 :: 1 .:: \ I 0:1 I.:! "
--- I
0IHHl.............. "'i"o'O I ': 'm"' .. .. I_ .. .... 1 0 0 0 0 -00"1-
0011
0 o. 0.1007'1 07' ,.53
1
\, ",I" 00"10 007' 0 .. 0 U$O.88
tH-<l.............. "': I "'''' .... ...... 1-...... .. 0, -.0<0
1
-.00 -.022
1
-.012 0 -L'I-" 07<1 .07< l.el 1.81.0017 .00711.1<1.11 .00 .00
1<-1&-0............. ", I ','m ........... """' .. ...... 1 "I 0 -.0<3
1
-.00 ''''1 .130 .14$ -1.0 -1.1107> .01' USI1.01 .0071' .007'1 .,9\.16 .00
1
.00
:IHO-<l............. ... , "0 '''' .... .... 1<0''--...... .. !OJ 0 -''''1-.
00
.
170
1 .7",-1.91-1.7 .07'j .07' 1.<3 1.81 .007811.00761 .16 .12 .88 .00
.................... , "II'''' I '1
2
<1"' ......... _ .......... 1 aol-UO .002
1
.0ltJ .766
1
.72.1
1
.7" .7 .. 018 '07< UI 1.60.001< '-1 .18' .ao .el .91
,R'-IH .......... I I 2"I'
au
1 :1 'R''' ...... .. rR'OO ........ 1 "1-uo!.OtQI .OUII ... 1 .uall II .07' .07' I." I." .0t002. '''''''1.28 .10 .11.00
1110-1&-0........... L=-J ! "IIlt) i ,I 'RIlL ....... 'Ro09 ......... 1 "0 '00:\ O<H
I
m
l
.130
1
.3<.1
1
-, -.8 .071 .07< I." ,.<81.00711.0078 ,18 .10 .19 .17
ooO-IH .............. , ___________ 2'1" 1 OIl" ........... - ........... .00, .010
1
.Wl
I
. lSI . It, 1.0 1.1 .018 .07< 1.<8 I.sa .00II11.0070 .00 0 .OO.M
Q()-IH."",I) ..... ';11." 'I
OOIL
........ """" ........... 16-1<.1 .00-
1
1
........ 11< .1301.127 .7 ., .01'.075 1.1, 1.I1.00I2,.007S
1
1
.10
1
0 .00.18
mHII............. "'I '" '1
2211
........... mo........... 0 - 020
1
- 0201- 020 - 01' 0 -1.1-1.' .071 .070 1.80 1.81 .-I.ooaa ", 13 . 1 .00
Me................. "II"", 'I Me (M-I,) ..... Me (M-9)..... 0 0 -.006
1
.002 -.0171-.01610 -1.,
1
-.7 '3070 .,;, I." I ..... _, .00001 . 18/
1
:05 00 18
Clark Y............ '''i'''' 'I ClarkYM.f .. 0 0 -.0111- 0711- (2) - 010 0 .071 .07' l.e7 UI .oooJooo,i :12 .11 :"1:19
01&-00 ....... __ ... ::::::--- ""I.... Ii 23OIL .... __ .. : """"' ........ -- 0 0 -.00' - 00'1- 0", - 012 0 -I.J-I.I .07' .070 \.71 1.:'0.0019
1
.0018
1
1
.17 .11 ." .11
1I01H9............ ,,'..... 112301I .. ____ .. .... __ .. 0 0 _.0071-.0051-,(2)1-.015 0 -LI-I.I .073 .071 I.'" 1.113 .0015,.001< .111 .11 .00.19
1-10-11.. __ ... __ . __ . c:::::=:---:, ! "'11.33 lui 230'1.. ..... -i,'ll3OOO------ .... 0
01
a _.011
1
-'"",/0 -.013 -.011 0 -1.1-1.1 .... t.al 1. ..
I
.
ooaal
looaa. I'" .01 .10.11
.......... I .2u u! 2301fi .......... j DXJIiiI.......... -,oog -.00'1' -.011 -.018 0 -1.2 -1.1 ,083 .CIA 1.50 1 . ,00II) .0011 .01 .10 .71.11
1-10-11 ...... ____ ... , .1", Wi 230" ..... ____ ., _ .......... : 0 0 -.011 -.ooe -.013
1
-.011 0 -L -1.1 .oa .oa I . 1.10._ .00171.06 .01 .11.11
1-12''' __ ...... __ ... .....-:::::-::- : ",'.:aI! 1'1 '3"1O. __ .. ____ .! _ .. ______ ..1 0 0 -.01< -.007 -.016 -.0"\ 0 -1.2-1.1 .. 015 I." 1 .... 007II.0011 .02 .10 .71.11
I-I2-ikl _______ __ ..
1
i "': = ... __ ..... 1_ ..... ___ --1 0 0 -.007 -.005 -.010 -.022
1
-1.2-1.1 ........ U2 1.".001< .00;310 .01 .7' 78
........ .. 1_ I ",, . , I 1
001
'--.... ----. _ ...... .. --1 0 0 0 0 -,(2)1-'
0
'" 0 .07'1.
07
I.<S """1
0
a . " .17
1I01HaoI0 ......... \ "'''i .... I! 2301!.. ____ .... UOIO.. __ ... __ 0 -2 -.000\-.011 ....... -.011,0 -.7 -.5 .07< .078 1.17 '" .007<1.007<1'"'" --... -- . '''' __
_ Elllptical .. " __ .... c::::==:::, 1. ____ , __ . __ 1, .. " ....... ____ .. " .... __ . ____ , 0 0 -.100 ""'I -.015 -OI0i 0 -<.0 -"'I .07'i .075 1.11 "' ___1 .ooaa
l
.00I:I
1
.15 .IS .W .81
I .\ll X. A. C. A.lf('tltm' "('tIlt tht' ('huk Y.
Effeotive Ri for &bove tests is S.2 million
Reference: Anderson, Raymond F. The Experimental and Calculated Characteristics of
22 Tapered Wings. NACA Technical Report 627.
-
I
/ '/: V-
.OS6
I--- dC L /dClC.
a
V
V/ ...
,,"
V
V-
./
I .- /0
,../
/'
/.
'"
llfting Line Theory
/""
,
/
:
L IA __

/'
,/
,r
.... ./
a
90 x ill
/'
./
I
/
/'
./
Surface
"
/'
//
ApprOximated by --:
r--;./
,,'
... /
V
L IA
a
)C---
V'
90.'-+2.6
V
,,"
V-
//
I
/'

Points plotted, from
,,'
TR 627, teste on tapered
/""i
//
. '-"'::::'"
Test Dat& on Ta11
wings. --
ec Surf&oes D
reotangul&r tips
V"
/'
Lx--A
0 ciroular tiplI
/
a

_c 1:1'1. 911, 90 A\+:3
&:I
/1:
,.
I I
/'
09
.OS
.076
.07
.066
.06
.066
/'

1\. Aspeot Ratio
//'

(Reoiprooal Scale)
.06
2.6
:3 3.5
6
6 7 8 9 10
16 20 00.
Lift ourve slope for wings
funotion of &speot r&tio.
ment&l values. HACA TR
data whioh plot nearly &.
IUld t&il surta.oe. aI &
Theoretioal IUld experl.
116 gives wind tunnel
a 1096 A -wt
I'""+T."s
dat& in TR 116 are believed to be inoorreotly
corrected for tunnel wall effeot.
i
A2a:30
Wing Taper
ratio
2.5
2.5-10 ,20 2.5
2.5-12-44,24 2.5
2.5-8-4h,24 2.5
19 FT. PRESSURE TUNNEL TESTS ON 4 AND 5 DIGIT WINGS
NACA TN 1270
TABLE I. - GE01lETRIC CHARACTERISTICS OF WINGS
NAcA ail'f 011
Aspect Span Area M.A.C.
ratio Root (ft) (sq ft) (ft)
section section
8.04 4416 4412 15 27.994 1.990
10.05 4420 4412 15 22.393 1.592
12.06 4424 4412 15 18.661 1.328
8.04 4424 4412 15 27.994 1.990
Geanetric
washout
(deg)
4.5
3.5
3.0
2.4
3.5-8-4h 14.7 3.5 8.03 4414.7 4412 15 28.021 2.070 3.0
3.5-1o:!ili,18.4 3.5 10.04 4418.4 4412 15 1.656 3.0
3.5-12-44,22.1 3.5 12.06 4422.1 4412 15 18.656 1.382 3.0
TABLE II .- CALCULATED MID EXPERHlENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WINGS WITH SMOOTH LEADING EDGE
CD
(LID)
a(L=O)
min
!llpx
(deg)
Calculated CalculAted Ca1cu1s ted
iHng R
Expari-

Experi-
General- Linear- mental Generpl- Linep...r.
mental
General- Linear- mentel
ized bed ized ized i.ed ized
2" .5-8-44 16
x 10
6
0.0080 0.0081 0.0090 29.4 28.8 27.8 - 2.9
-2.8 -2.9
2.5- 10- 44,20 3. 9 .0085 .0083 32.0 31.1 31.6 3.0 - 2.9 -3.2
2.5-12- 44,24 2.87 .008 .0087 .0091 32.6 32.6
- 3.0 - 3.1 -3.2
2.5- 8- 44 ,24 4.32 .0084 .0034 .0081 28.0 27.6 2 .1 - 3.1 - 3.2 -3.2
3.5-8-44 14.7 4.00 .0076 - - - - -- .0074 29.8
- - -- 29.5 - 3.6
----
-3.4
3.5-10-44,18.4 4.00 .0080 - - - - -- .0082 32.4 - - - - 31.1 - 3.4
- - --
-3.5
3.5-12-44,22.1 4.00 .0081 -- - --- .0088 33.9 - - -- 33.0 - 3.3 - - --
-3.5
dC
L C
L

Cm(L"'O)
cra- max
dCL (L=O)
Wing R
Calcu- Calcu-
Calculated
Exneri-
C.lculeted
lsted lated
Experi- Experi- Experi-
General- Line!'.!"- menta.l
General- Linear- mentp.l
General-
mental mental
ized ized
ized ized ized ized
2.58-44 16 4.32 x 10
6
0.0823 0.0815 o 0820 1.48 1.42 1.
4
4 0.007 0.012 -0.093 -0.099
2.5- 10- 44,20 3.49 .0827 .0828 .0860 1.41 1.36 1. 3 .006 0 - .0137 -.095
2.5-12-44,24 2.87 .0848
.08t
.0870 1.31 1.26 1.27 .016 .021 -.085

2.5- 8- 44 ,24 4.32 .0795 .07 0
1.35 1.30 1.37 .014 .021 -.083 -.0 4
3.5-8-4414.7 4.00 .0810
------
.0 12 1.47 - - -- 1.54 .008 .011
-
- .097
3.5-10-44,18.4 4.00 .0833
- - - _.
.0252 1.43 - - - - 1.45 .008 .020 -.0 9 -.Ors
3.5-12-44,22.1 4.00 .0852
_. ----
.0870 1.37 -- -- 1.33 .015 .015 - .085 -.0 8
TABLE. III.- CALCULATED AND EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERISTICS OF WINGS WITH ROUGH LEADING EDGE
a (L-O)
dCL
C
Dmin
(LID)
max (deg) dQ
C
Lmax
\ling R Calcu- Calcu- Calcu- Ce.lcu- Calcu_
lated E"l"'rl- lated Experi- 1.ted Experi- loted Experi- leted Experl-
(gener- mental (gener- mental (gene,._ mentel (gener- mental (gener- mental
"lized) ali zed) .lized) "lized) ali zed)
2 .5-8-44,16 3.90xlO
6
0.0129 0.0135 22.8 21.6 - 2.7 _2.6 0.0778 0.OT(4 1.18 1.22
2.5-10 - 44 ,20 3.90 .0137 .0133 23.9 23.6 -2.6 -2.8 .0760 .0796 1.03 1.08
2.5-1?-44,24 3.90 .0145 .0142 22.5 23.6 -2.5 -2.6 .0763 .0792 .88 .89
2.5-8 - 44 ,24 3.90 .0137 .0126 20.3 20.5 -2.6 -2.7 .0701 .0732 .91 .99
3.5-8- 44 ,14.7
4.00 ---.
.0112 - --- 23.0 --- - -3.2 -- ---- .0785 --- -- 1.26
3.5-10-44,18.4 4.00 - --- -
.0122 - - -- 24.7 - - - - -3.2 - - --- .0790 - ---. 1.10
3.5-12-44,22.1 4.00 - - ---
.0130 - - - 25.6
-- - -
-3.1 --.--
.0795 - ---- .99
Reference: Neely, Robert H., Bollecb, Tbomas V., Westriok, Gertrude C. and Graham, Robert R.
Experimental and Caloulated Cbaractarist1C!I of Several NACA 44-Series Wings With Aspect &tioll
of 8, 10, and 12 and Taper Ratios of 2.5 and 3.5. NACA Techniaa1 Note No. 1270.
.11
I I I I
A1rl'01l OOlltoal'
.10
---Sbocl<-u:pueioD _tbod. (ret .. _ 1)_
- -Ao ...... t.'. _t.bod (ret_.1)
.09
.08
tj

.m
u
..,
i
.06
'"

i
.05

,
.04
'c!
1
\
\
1
.. r\
..,
.Ol
.02
\


(perceDt.)

-...::::


.01
NAT1IONAL ADVISORY
-
COMMIT
1
fot AEjONAUTICS
o
o 6 7 1 4 5 2 1
rr-.. treu JI&ch 1IUIIber, 110
F1pre 6.- Slope 01' 1ifi _ ot 1IDCUberec1 tb1II airtoll at. nper.oDic .pMC!
t..u: at. llidobol'd, 0("::11", 0,:: O.
8
Reference: Ivey. Reese H. Notes on the Theoretical Characteristics of
TWO-Dimensional Supersonic Airfoils. NACA Technical Note No. 1179.
JI .12
i
'll
.. .10
...
...

l .08

II
'"
.06
.04
.02
o
.56
..... 48
.. -
U
...
il
...


.32
"

!
.24
.16
.08
a,
d
Airroil Coatoar
"1/0d ---
7.2
I
-"
w!
/
I
,
",2
6.4
/
'"
,
'"
,
5.6

,
I {[

'"
...
--(7 ----8
,//
/- ,
,
"-
I
I
I
/
/
/
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTU fOIl AERONAUTICS
4.8
4.0
I''
2.4
1.6
.8
o I I I I I I 0
024 6 8 10 U
Angle 01' attack, oC. de,
Figure 7.- zereot at engle or atteck and Mach nuaber OD characteri.tlc. ot
5 - peroe.t-thiol< ....., .. bered airroil. '-" at llidohord, .kiD trlctioo
drag ooetrloleot, 0.0060.
z
:.-

0'fJ
.....

0"
....
'"
-..)
0-
'"
..
i!
f
en


H
0
@
:.-

0
ttl
:<J
H
en
;:!l
@
0
.".
!
:.-
H


:.-
'"
II>
W
....
A2!l'32
Triangular end Swept wings reported in NACA TN 1955.
Leadmg-edge radIus opproXimate(y 0.004 Il7ches
COn/co/ stmg supporf
...L
3.2
Wing b c
lin) (In) (dea)
I 2 . .36 ()./J7 53.6
AA
2 E.Z9 1.1.3 45.4-
3 219 1.2S 40..3
u 4 ':./4 1.40 37.4-
S Z.03 1.53 34.3
6 ':.01 1.54 31.S
7 187 /.90 26.,z
8 1.63 2.32 /9.4
88
cc
ljplcai .sections
dlom.

(")

>-3
!<l
f-'
Figure 1.- Triangular wings and support dimensions.
\0
V1
V1
'"

'"
.,..;
I>
'"
0
l(\
Q CO
'S ,<I L{\

I
H
Po

to
'd --'t
.,..;
'"
0
....
+'
0
<
M
\D
:;;

+'
"
a
< '" III

)If::
.:l..-i
'H II
0
",::E:

0
+'
0
0
f")
l(\
\D
l(\
0
is.
"
11
<
<
Q

'"
.,..;
-;

"
:;:j
"
U'.J
l(\
li'\
0\
.-i
.-i
.-i
i2;
E-< i

0
.,.;
""

Triangular Wing Test Besults in NACA TN 1955
G)
Po
0
/.0
(-f)( :: I ~ r---
t--h
r--
~ ~
.8
.6
:1
.2
f---
1/
8
;(
0
.0 8
C
D'
O
h7l"
.Ll
/
(Jones! theory)
~
r.r' "0- ~
-
-
1-0
,
II
~ ~
. .2
i/
\ ! l/
I:V
~ I
~ V
I
11\
- "-
/ ~ 117! "- "-
.4 .6
I
.8 /.0
tan E
tan I??
r-- -
II
G
1.43
0
1.n
'()
1.75 (reference 1)
i 1
I
I
~
/.2 /."'/- /.6 /.8 2.0
Figure 5.- Triangular-wing lift-curve-slope results from figures 3 and 4.
o_ f"
f-o-
1-0. r- .........
r-_
~
~
--
- .... -
r--G
9--
'\"
~
/43 0
c
/.7/
I
-
I ~ -C r-
..0-
e-
I-
--
.n-V
-
I--
0-
~
r-v
-
~
~
.2 . ~ .6 .8 /.0
tanE
/.Z /.6 /.8 2.0
t O'n ;..,
Figure 8.- Triangular wing minimum drag coefficient and maximUm lift-drag ratio test results from
figures 3(h) and 4(h).
A2e:J3
A2a:34
/2
/0
(L!D)max FOR VARIOUS SUPERSONIC AIRPLANE ARRANGEMENTS
NACA TN 1550
BATIONAL ADVISORY OOYKITTEE
lOR AERONAUTIOS
~ 2 4 6 8 10
A.k'.
r <9
i1
1""-e / 7. - ft)n;oX' or dl/Yerp-rJt- 1v7 qch //umLJe,5
/'oroi/';6/c//?es (0 ill) -.5/r09/;/ clr)e! -.5uJep/:.hack. WIn:;S of
iA:JI'r///-;L/ 0::.;/,)(:(.'1" rbf;c;.
Reference: Jones, R. T. Estimated Lift-Drag Ratios at Supersonic Speed.
NACA TN 1350
FUSELAGE DRAG DATA
NACA TR 575
I
' Reetallgular , Hcetangular
I '1
8ta- RUUJl(l, 8ta- i Hounu ,
tion ifllSClag(', tiOll IfllsclagC': _____ _
8ketdl
dm. '... ; dill. . I _. I
I : HeIght "Hlth : ; Height i ,\ luth I
-' ---
-0.156; 0000 ! o 000 diameter 8.000 3.4-10 I 3.440 1 2.702 I
o.oOOi 0.772 : 0.772cliamP1erlOOOO: 3.406 ' 3.406 I 2.675
I' ,
0.250 1.2'42! 1.242uiamctcr ,12000 3.268 3.268 2567
o 500: 1.572
o.71ul
I
1.000i 2.0-41
1.500'
2.000 .2 .650
2.312
3.406
4.000 3.238
(j, 000 3.410
1.572diametcr 114.000 2.V!)0 2.U00 2.348
1 7!J5 dintndcr :lGOOO 2 516 2.516
117.0002.170 2.175
2.380 2.240 18.000, 1.608
IU.OOO. 1.000
,lD500 0.548
1.076
1.704
1.334
O.78i,)
0.130 2.7DO 2.370
3.0UO 2.470
3 238 i 2.51'3
3.410 ' 2.678
20 000 0 000 1. 125 0 .000
Fuselage dimensions, ",AeA TR 54Q (1935) 575 (1936), and 678 (1939).
Drag of abo\'e fusebge, alone at a = 0, YDT Re 14,000,000 based on fuselage lenp:th.
Round fuselage, C D7r = 0.066
Rectangular fuselage, C v" = 0.079
GALCIT ,btu on t>CD7r due to fuselages, Re = 1,000.000 to 8,000,000 biJ,S1I<'I MI Tuselage w,.gth;
Sec :'1illikan, ".-\erodynamies 01 the Airplane," p. 98.
Dirigihle huH alollc, Cv, 1).072
Large transj)orts or bOIllhers, no nObe l'llgine .6.C = 8.070
:--ilnall airplaJle, clo'lPr1 ('ockpit + engine, :::'CU7r = Q,QPr, tu O.13fJ
\'ert. i I I I
, . n, Iff
ell,
lIlin
I :CLlllflx:CLwaxi .lC])T
I ('Lib I /Ie = I He = I fuo'-
I \ 8.2 '[ 3.7 lage
I .\.H = fador .\.l', I emu
Diagrams rrpr('t1.'utillg cOlllbinatioll!"3
tiOll k 0.%
, c
ii,
Wing alone

'-

Largefillet
'\.\C'.\ 0018-0000 airfoil with rel'lmrguiar fuselage
--------: I I I
I) 07; 0 \)()O 009:3, 0 02U\ I 4 II i 1.23 I 0
0.22 0 Oi8, 0.85 '00124 0030: 0.005: 16 i \0211.34 ! 0.050
o 34 0.Oi8 0 S5 00271 0004: 1 4 11.49 r 1.34 0057
-022 0080 090; 0.0124 0.02,-0 OOji 15 1.51 1.27 O.l150
-034 0079 0 SOia 0128 0023'-0.004' 0 9 ! 1.26 i 1.10 0057
I ,
000 0079 0 S.; 00127 0.030 0.000 1.5 i 1 53 '11.26 0.055
. iii
OOl.S-0009 airfoil with rQund fusda . ..::gc..e__ _
- i-i
o lilt O.OSO OS5t,O 0117, 00201 0000: 1.5: 1.52 127 0.039
022.0.079
1
0.85.0.0124: 0 023,-00011l.6 i!.G5 1.37 0.050
, 0 341 0 076' a 85 :0 01391 0034\ 0.005 1. 5 I l.51 1.31 0.075
'. 0 -34, Oi8' 0.S5 i00135! 0027\-0003
1
. 16 \1.59 1.38 0.068
-0 22, 0 080: 0 0124: 0028, 0 001\ l148 1.22 0.050
'-0.34 0.076 06010.0139 0.0%8
1
:-0.006, 0.3 \ 1.28 1.09 0.07.5
'_034
1
0 o 90i'o 0135
1
0.024 0.003\ 1.5 1.5i 1.22 0.068
: 000' 0080l 0 so 'l'o.014Z: ll.B40!-0.OO3 1.5' 1.53 1.28 0.063
ii, i I I
From .\.4(,,4 Tech. Rlp/. 575,0018--0000 wing. Wing incidence =f:J; \wrjMmtallo('atlOn, of wing at J,,.4 of
Vetti('al Willg lot alions notc(i.
t Poor agn)l'llll'llt ill range,
i Poor agr{'Clllt'lit OVl'r whoh\ rangl:,
Poor agrrC!lH:nt in high-lift
Reference: Sherman, Albert. Interference of Wing
and Fuselage from Tests of 28 Combinations in the
N.A.C.A. Variable-Density Tunnel. NACA Technical
Report 575.
A2b:l
A2b:2
FUSELAGE DRAG DATA
NACA TN 1272
I
-


",",.

,'.
Spo!IIl. 1_'
cal crt cu..'ft .n1- 0;, I Co..
1"1- Yil>e.u.p. '"11!..1!. opt. _ta' -, &tt=t-.- 'I'
U<:III., .. t- (;000:0 t'&et=, pon- r __
-I t I'!:"'.:::'"" I "".,. ",",. Fuselage (+ interference) drag coeff. is:

''"or . i' " C # (C ) less (CD for wing alone)
r-__________ D Fus De min e min
!ll.po"", MC.l 0018-09 a1rtoll l'1t11 I'M'\; d.ll"ual. r-a...,
V\.l>.s&lo2W---- ---1------- o.qrr
,..,
0.'"
'""I
"'1..
.,.."
and
"" ACnr Cn Fus
5
, . .,
''''
-
. ." 6,,1.,
1.'3
'l"
Fus

, . .,
"", 6"1.' ." .. &1.)2
lIhere
.. ., .,,,
.... 6,,1.,

"'."
5 wing surface ( 150 sq.
.. .,
. ..,
' . .,
-- !.l.A@;&l_ ----{ 0.076
'."

,'"
-._-._----
. '" '."

".
---------- ,-""
"'-.,
:>
,"
0 ...
'"
::>
'"
.. 0
,,.,.,
lo .,
c.,-=: "->
,"
.... . .,
.'w
.,.,
"."
'l ..
7 ,.- ".lSl .,."

"'" ""
--
J., el.z6
".U
"",
,,'
."
"'.,. 'l"
,- ,." ,-
.. ",
.,.'
'l."
""
-'l -"'"
'.""
".,
"'."
., ...
O.ou8
'""

3
1
.2 .",.
ou1
.., ....
"_l "'--" "'-."
,.am , .. tI.."" l1..:>9.
"' . .,
,or., ."", 0,,,,
"'-J'
.
.



h&l.J:>l tMt bol4.I --.t oorw
and
5"
fusela"e
frontal area
for these tests)

"e>, -.u l.&rgitl"""

"-.
NATIONAl. ADV'JSOQY
COMNfTTEE FOI .AaC*AlITIC.S
Station x
7u
-<)-156
0
.250
500
719
1.500
1.719 1.383
2.312
2 :r19 1.760
3000
4.000 2.025
5-000
6_000 2.136
2.153
10.COO 2-132
2_046
14_000 1.Em
16.000 1.576
17000 1-362
lB.ooo
19000 [U;9
19500
20.000 562
J'tEZIAaE CJruJ:!J!Ml!S
[All rlliDonIJ1..,. in inch"]
:nll pt1 cal.
tuaeJ.aae ru .. J.aae

71
0.000
.m
1.242
1572
1795
1188
1.296
1358
1_436
1.449
1.43_
1394
1.Jl8
1.175
1.077
.746
562
r. r. h d
}

-m
Triongl./lor
Di __
1.2""
1-572
1.7;J:i
2-490 2.140
E-fl
2.644 0_891 5650
-
3310 2.)20
3-203 .634 6641>
3625 2390
3-609 .405 7286 4.170 2-'75
4.431 2-532
3814 _426 7673 4512 2578
3845 .430 7 7"" 4550 2_600
3805
.426 7664
"m
2-57"
3635 409 7-353 4323 2.470
E --1---
326'> .)74 6.728 3;J:i5 2.260
26'>3 Jl5 5-661 3329 1902
2_182
272 4894 2.&/0 1.64<)
2.247 1.281.
.828
092
6.615 1323 :756
Elliptical fl./seloge
725
.41_
0 0
NATIONAL ADVISORY
COMMITTEE FOIl AERONAUTICS
Figure 1. - Fuselage models.
Reference I SIlerman, Albert. Interference of Wing and Fuselage from
Tests of 50 Combinations with Triangular and Elliptical Fuselages in
the NACA Variable-Density Tunnel. NACA Technical Note No. 1272.
(
in for these tests)
9.29 sq. in
:
Model i C
Dmi
I n
203 with
0.0066
extended
afterbody
22lE
.0057
221G .0045
22lF .0037
DRAG DATA FOR PLANNING TAIL BOAT HULLS
NACA TN 2762
TABLE V
DRAG COEFFICIENTS AND ST.Alln.ITY PAFAMETERS FOIl LANGLEY TANK
!
!
,
i
MJ1ELS 22lE, 221G, 2211, AND 203 WITH EXTENlED AFTER:BOIlY
[The drag coefficients are given for a Felnolds number
of about 2.50 x 10
6
J
i
0I\i)adn
OCm


Kf
dt a.0020
I
I
0.031 0.095 0.0036 0.0050 1.10 0.0011 o.On
.03 2 .082 .0036 .0050 1.10 .0010 .029
.024 .065 .0028 .0050 1.10 .0010 .026
.019 .053 .0023 .0050 1.10 .0010 .026
("") kaC'J
0.=2
0
1 W
I
-0.098 0.0050
-.098 .0048
-.090 .0050
-.090
I
.0050
MOdel nIl
Jc--
!
us H I
-+-1 - '- --t-,
i

\
- d

==:70=--....; ..... .... t_ ..

Figure 1.- Lines of Langley tank models 22lE, 221G, and 22lF.
See Also TN 1.306.
I\)
-l
0\
I\)
:U"':U


l
::iJ
'" to

"'CD
t:1lD'

Ito
..,. ..
c'

8::
o III
...,.

g,Po
"'?j

1-'1>"
Poc+
....


"". I>"
fi
PoOl
!"f!

zc+
I:lt;
1>-1=:1

il
.601 I I I I I I I I I 1 1 1 ;1 I
.561 1 I I I I I I I I I I I'
.5zl 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 I- 1 1 j


oJ -/-/

/ 17
J-I-t.
_16 .,/ V iv -- I
1-1-- 17
.IZ ",7' Z-o-J
____ -----1 -') ;
.
1/,.
/

I I I +'=J, I I * o .1 .. _ ;
I\.-facA number., 1'4.
(o)aC,-O.67
Variation of windshield drag coefficient
with Mach number.
4-0-3
x-t.
X-I

'4-\-
.- -:::.:.=L_ -

_______________
1 ------ _.:::-:::---c-
I <;; .--..
, o.S
I __._ ' '-_____ _
C.-'X'-I
' I
I A !L.
c
, 1/ l--
1
/
J.SO
f +1:-::---
.t:::7J
A
-::::-:----J
B

X-I
1
X,7 ILl'
J I ii.SZ ,C.4Z ,
Z 1.90 .64 I
J I'-ZO .781
j
61'''56 -98, 7 1.55 '.00 I
8 1.47 .971
9 '.J7 .93
10 (24 .056
"U!J8 .75,
IZ .90 66'
14 .47 .35
i5 .. D

All dlfnen_, ,(} I'""] 5
Qr<!' 17 'r/l.:h;r.j
Ordinotes

I' '1,(,7
I Z I 1.25
. J i 1.75
4 2_25
j
6 . 2.72
.
I 9 ,,,.'-'8
I 10 ; .j09
I II : J.a.5
1
12 12.98
I j
1
,4 : 2.7.5
/ j '2_6J
:J' 16 12.46!
, I J? -:.!'/.
,d ?otJi
I:U 1/70
1
22 1/.10,
Z4 : .56 i
I I
' -c
I ___ ztJ.JS _. _------I FkJure;:. - Till': X I wlndshle ,d.
IT
h"'\
c -(- "\
5-tj A A
___ L
-. "J
'- - _ 9 .-
I
r f'- x
2
- 1
A I _ Ii
L I -'-:T'- t
>..c"" 3.50 .
1 _'t -L.:-r.
- .-----'-t-
-1 _ f-C
L ]4.64
A

.f5
I

.-'\-2 Crcl/;,C1U:)
h-l
I I L- ::;
i?i ,l.;l ,/]
I ;'7: .<1191 .jO
I 1.0" : ,j}! .3(:1
I . I .7JO ,46
f. (ri. . .54
i:. I .9'Il . (.,
3.17 /./B .74
4.11 ; I,ns . :13
',0)1 I. .90
i :;;
7.97 : I 51'4-, 1.00 :
! I I
1' ..15 I 1.474: .9+ I
. 1',131 1.'17 ,,9:
11.M /.Z.,. Sl
IJ.7'# f.I-:>" .75
11/..69 9H .'5
!, I ;:i
, '7. 344
18.'54 ISo .13

a
l .. ,
"
, \-,
, Xc
'I"
" .4tJ I ,J..')l
1.11 .,"1[8
1.75 1.r74
l.!O 1.45u
/,(;;::,4-
3.") 18&.)
,nf Z1.30
r '" I
tJ.'!.. i.na' .

i
1"',1z'1,l.0';>/
16.JJ : J.oJ(,)
17.9l. I l91.J
IY.fo I t.1.to I
ZI.0(j I.Joo I
1..l93!
2<f.Z6 ',.351'
\
2'1.0)1 ""J Jc.SiJ .l'}S
lip' C
<1,0
Jr' ',-'
fi9UJe.5.- 711" X-2 "wf-,d,f,ie1cl.
8
()

H
[:;: .,

til
r
t:J

o
t:J
".
:;2
".
N
c'



1lIH)
..... (1)
Cl) Ii
I (I)

(I)
.....

(I()I;j
C+(I)
(I ..
0:;t1
H)O
'<
i1:x:
.

ij

Ii H)

t:S Ib
Cl)()I;j
(I
$'
Z(I

>c+
(I

C+O
t-'a
a
Cl)$'
$'
-g
()
Cl)

Ii
c+
r;
lJg
..........
OCl)
m"<j
.

'I
TABLE II.- INDEX CF IMPORTANT DRAG R:lSULTS
[Number. 1n parentheses refer to flgur ]
r-I4 5 6 7 EG 10 1)
,
I-------___
f
Alrplane sealed and ialred
r AirplAne in s .... lc. condition AC
O
.0264
;nglne cooling 0.0040 I 6-0 0004 0.0041
I (}{a (5) (6)
Cowling-flop and hlnge-llne-ga.p leakage
0.0004
17{ a
0.0163 (..0219
.028c
0.0005
(7{b
0.0171
.0284 .0293 .0221
0.0005
17{ e
0.0017
Wing-duct inlets
--------
__ + ___ +__---+_______ 1 (10)
Coolant-radia.tor lost_ll.t1cn 0.0021
I -- I I I I I I
OIL-cooler lnstallatlon .0018 .0008
, 114{a (12{b
12
0.017'
.0208
I ", , 1- -4 I I I I
I Vanes installed In rear underslung fuselage duct " t.:... b_o.oo ::>4
f
i: Carburetor ",oop. i . - I I I I i
_____ f--. _____ __ (IS{ ..l.)
E.xhau9t 3tack9 .0008
___ ____ (18) 1 1 .. ,' 1 ,
Supercharger 1n.tall.tlcD 0.0040 I
(21{a
--- I I I
.0004
l kage and gun-access door. (24)

ganded w91kw"va
1-.-----. +----1----+----+-- 1 ,.
.0014
LandIng gear

.0008
(}2)
I -w' I
Annament
Tall .... urface-g.p leakas.
Tall wheel :'nd _rre.tIng hook
Canopy modl!"lcatlon
Rad10 antenna
-Estimated drag coetfic1ent ..
bModltlca tlons.
.0009
"O{a
.0004
(}9{ .. ) )
.0004 I (}9{ e ---+-,--1 ---+----

0
>

t-4

0
co
t:::I

0


a
z



:>
H


G.3
en
>
I\.)
0-
.,
\no
A2b:6
AIRPLANES TESTED FOR DRAG
NAeA 'lIE 1-108
(h) 8. Sealed and fa ired condition;
Service condition; propeller removed.
Wing area" 490.0 sq. ft.
prolceller removed.
__ ..;;.;-" area = 442.0 sq.
Figure 1.- Airplanes mounted for tests in Langley f'ull-
scale tunnel.
(1) Airplane 12. Sealed and faired condition;
Reference: Lange, Roy H. P. SUmnary of Drag Results from Recent Langley
Full-5aale-Tunnel Tests of ArlIlY and Navy Airplanes. NAGA wartime Report
1-108.
propeller removed.
Wing area = 2113.2 sq. ft.
COOLING DRAG DATA
NACA WR 1-108
"CD. 0.0040
flV. l7 .. ph
Q, 16. OOC au tt per .. In
H - Po. 0.4Oqo
I
I
(a) Orlginal long-nos. cow11ng.
----r-----
Flgure 3. - Cowllng drag on airplane 1.
':::::2-1---:
Od-cooler oui:lei
dCD. 0.0021
flY. 12 mpr
Original coolant-duct inlet
.. ..... ('
'\' )
4CD. o.ooi ..;,.. .' .... /
dY. 14 mph 'IIIIiIII
Revised coolant-duct inlet 7
(a) Coolant ducts.

, .
I .
\ \ .,-

A2b:7
Flgure 10.- 11ng-4uct inlet on airplane ll.
,/
/'
Q/V
o
' 0.12
H - Po. 0.40...,
(al Orlglnal duct lnlet.
Q/V
o
0.13
flV. 5 mph
H - Po. 0.95<10
(b) 1I0d1f1ed cowUn" and ducts.
Flgure 14.- Oil-oooler lnstallation on alrplane 3.
(b) 011-cooler lnBtallatlon.
Figure 12.- Duct lnstallations on airplane 4.
Refereooe: Lange, Roy H. A sllIIllD8ry of Drag Results from Recent Langley Full-
Scale-Tunnel Tests of Army and Navy Airplanes. NACA Wartime Report 1-108.
A2b:8
0.0021
9.5 "ph
Figure 17.- Exhaust-stack drag on alrplane 8.

/ACD,O;OUIO-- - - -
6 mph
Figure 19.- drag 011 airplalle 9.
(b) Submerged illstalla Uon.
Figure 21.- TUrbosupercharger drag 011 airplane 5.
EXHA'JS7 STACK DRAG DATA
NACA WR 1.-108
Figure 18. - drag on
6CD' 0.0005
6V, , mph
(a) Airplane n.
(b) Airplane 12,
Figure 20.- Exhaust-stack drag on airplanes 11 and 12.
(a) Completely eealed.
AC
D
, 0.0014
I:>V, 6 mph
(0) Original wheel 11.
0.0007
3 IIIPh
Figure 27.- Lending-gear drag on a1rplane 6.
(b) Partly sealed "heel wens.
Ref'erell"'e: Lange, Roy H. A SUl!llIl8.rY of Drag Results from Recent LaDgley Full-
Scala-Tunnel Tests of A:rrq and Navy Airplanes. NACA l'Iartilne Report 1.-108.
WING-FlTSELAGE-TAIL COMBINATIONS*

m. I
f
CT"max CTJrnax "-C
pus .. a= ac- .u. n
1 Remarks '" 6 06 t CD ffi;n A c. CrnO CLib Re = I Re = 1 1
Diagram, reprr- I I .0 or e 8.2 3.7 tal
s('ntiTlIl; ('omhmationsl c
I
--------:;:;;:roo airf:il with r:und --------
------ ------------------._--------_.-----------.--
___ . ____________ 1 ___
Tapered fillets. 0 0
1
00800.85
2
0.0117 00261 0.000. I 5 1.52 1.27
I PI",ter fini.,h
_ _ ___ .I. _________ _
[TapPrl'd fillds. I 0
Vprtl(al
I zont,,1 tapI'red
314 I ,,,,faces. I . =
'@if3='J
3/5

316

317

3/8
0'
= -4"; same' I 0
as ('omhination
314
Taprrr,1 fill"ts. I 0
Tail
wit.h (,lid platrs,
j =- ()O
i . = _4; othrr-I 0
wisp :I:1.TIIC' aR
comhination :llf;
Washed-oULIO
V('rt.iral .toncl
hnrizo'lltal tail
i., =
tI"
RymmrtriC'.al ta-I

319 Ii I
- _. __ . __ 1 __________ _
! Rame as rom hi-I 0

with vntH',tl'
32 [i and horizoutai)
tail. sllrf:t(,(,s. 'I
i=-oo
010086108"'10,01281-0.100' 00021 1. 7 1.73 I. 47 10.0043
010 08710 90' I () Q 1331-0.156' o 1021 1.6 I 1.62 I 1.34 10 0063
01008610 851 1
() 01341-0.122' 0.0801 1.0 1.62 1.33 100065
Rfi' 001421-0129' !-0.044\ 1.4
I
1. 42 1.38
I
41008010.85' I 0.0117 0.027 1-00211 1.5 1..55 1.25
TORT 85'
I I I
J I [
1.6 I. 66
" ""'1-0 "" , ""'j
1.36 10.00.59
Diagrams rl'prr
rOlnhillatioll8

321
A.r. CmO
t;('n1r
('Lib I Re = Re - tail
8.2 3.7
Vert. I Eff
pOS. . II = fac- 1(;0,> min
k I". 686
1
tore
I 1_ 1..__ _
, --
------
RC'm:uks
Tapered NACA 0018-09 airfoil with round fuselage
o
--410.080:0. 034 1--0;1:;11-1:5 -1-.2-2-;---
e:;;
V rrtiral and hori- \ 85'
zont:tl t:ul ----
far('s. i., = 0
0

1.35 10.0051
321

3 3
1---
= -4?; other-I 0
WifH' Ral1l(' as
comhination 322
- 1------_-

324
--
Tail with
('luI is =
0
Tape",,1 fill"ts. I 0
1 Horizolltai tail
325 I ,,,rf,,,e,. i.,
0
.-.-"-,----
410.0Rr.io.85" I 0.(l\38! -0.110' 0.0(\21 1.0 I. 60 1.3110.0070
4'OOR610RS'1 0.01351-0.114' 1-00321 I 6 1 65 1.34 10.00.18
010 OR610.ss" I 001271-0087 I 0.0051 1.7 I 172 I 1.41 10.00;;6
Tapered fillet,.
0.221010.0801085 I 0.01221 0032 1-0.0011 1.6 I 1.65 I 136
306 Q
-----------1-----__-

312

326
Tapered fillet".
Horizontal tail
Rurfa('('R. i ... =
0"
i", = __ 4; othrr-
a:-:;
('oTllhination 312
1.84 I I ,,0 10.on3fl
l """" ",' "m", U
0083
-----

T M' I " "',' ," "" , ,

321
i., -: otlH'r-
WiR(, Ballii' as
comhination 312
1. RI
I. r,o 10. oor,l

to H)
<11 <11

C/I:l t:I
<11 0
<11
..
'1
o
13

>
t-3
<11 m fi1!

..... 0

I-' I-' i::t
...;J<1I
!:l:I '1
<11 0 ct-
-g 0
'1
cf- I-'-H

...;J cf- <11
00 1-'- '1

t:I <11
to
..... 5
t:I <11
S:o
<1IH)


o

H)

'1 <11
I-'-to
g.jl)
1-'1:1
(l)p.
l::il
.....

1-"
1 Y.1 r:l T('('h. Rf'pi. 67R (1 fl39). 'Wmp; r.'4 at fU:'lriap;r T '4. '('(, at ('W-r/ I ....", 0 for (' lTul)lnatloTl:-O 't\
., Poor agrrement in "a I'. dr""i ,/d(, /, at C,., , 0 for ('omhination, With lall surL,ers.
Poor O\'l'r whol<' ran gr. {iw = inoidrncc of wing.

p.
.1 Poor agr(,f'm('nt in high-lift rangC'". ' Lib:=': lift ('orfT. nt, intprcrcnCl" burhle.
Tail-flnrfape-Drag nata
For tail f;urfa('('s aiot}(', s('e wing data,
(;ALCIT data on e
lJ
" for tail (see ;\Iillikan, "Aeroclynami('R of the
Airplane," p. 98):
Ringle-engine low-wing mOllop\n.rH', 6Cli c
!\II1lt.i('ngine low-wing Illonopinnc, 6ClJ "
.Muitiengillc high-wing monoplane, 6.CD"
0.0085 to 0.0120
().0060 to 0.0110
0.0120 to O,OIf'O

>
0
>

0"-
---J
CO

H
f:-4
en

>
fJ
t:I

t,""".l
t:I

.,
>
>
I\)
0'
..
'0
.A2b:lO DRAG DATA, MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Summary of Parasite Drag Data Drag
at lCOWPH*
1. Flat plate normal to wind (per sq.ft.) 32.8 9. Low pressure no wheels fairing
Streamline wheels,round strut,half fork
no fairing
Drag Ibs.
at 100 MPH
12.0
2. Wings, minimum profile
Moderate Camber
9% Thickness ratio
12% thickness ratio
15% thickness ratio
18% thickness ratio
(For riveted surfaces
drag (per sq.ft.)
add 10%)
3. Tail surfaces (per sq.ft.) including inter-
ference
Thin
Average thickness
0.22
0.24
0.27
0.30
0.35
0.40
Average thickness, including brace wires
or struts 0.60
So 1 .. It .. 8.1,
4. Fuselages (per sq.ft. frontal area)
Very well shaped, no surface

Oval section, sharp nose, cowled liquid
cooled engine
Oval section, blunt nose, no surface
irregularities
Octagon section, blunt nose, no surface
2.5
3.0
irregularities 4.0
Oval section, usual surface irregularities 4 to
5
Square section, usual surface irregu-
larities 6 to 8
Additional drag due to open cockpit .7 to 1.1
Additional drag due to N.A.C.A. cowled
J-5 engine (per sq.f't.) 2.5 to 3.5
Additional drag due to usual cowlea
(half' exposed) J-5 engine (per.sq.ft.i 7
5. Hulls of' Flying Boate(per sq.f't.
Very clean
Fairly clean-
Somewhat cluttered up
frontal area}
4
5
6 to 8
6. Floats (per sq.f't. frontal area)
Seaplane floet, very clean design
Seaplane float, usual sh?pe
Wing tip float, well shaped
Wing tip float, usuRl shape
Wing tip float, square
6.1 Complete Landing Gears, (NACA Repts.485,
518, 522).
Type 1. 8.50-10 wheels,not faired
7' 1. 8.50-10 wheels, faired
4
5.5
5
6
8
42.5
33.5
1. 8.50-10 whee1s,no streamline
members 98.0
2. 8.50-10 wheels, faired 19.0
2. 27
11
streamlined wheels, not faired 25.0
3. 27" streamlined wheels,not faired 21.5
3. 8.50-10 whee1s,faired 17.5
3 21
11 streamline whee1s,not faired 13.5
.. 4. 8.50-10 wheels, 11.0
5. 8.50-10 wheels, not faired 39.0
5. 8.50-10 wheels,faired 26.0
. .:( 6. 8.50-10 wheels,not fai.red 41.0
., 7. 24
11
streamline wheels,inter-
"

7.
8.
9.
sections filleted
8.50-10 wheels,no fillets
8.50-10 wheels
Low pressure wheels, inter-
sections filleted
* Lbs. at 100 mm Der sq.ft. - l04k
x
- 25.6 CD
22.0
29.0
27.0
8.0
9.
32.0
All members stre8Jlllined except where noted; "faired
l1
refers to wheel cowl A (see 7, p. AO:41)

8 i
DRAG DATA, nSCELLANEOUS ITEMS
.A2b:ll
7. (per sq.rt. of rectangle e!r- Lbs./sq.ft.
cumscribed on tire)(Naca Rept.no. at 100 m.p.h.
485)
Low pressure wheel and tire
streamlined wheel and tire
Extra low pressure
Goodyear Airwheels)
Disk wheel and high pressure tire
High pressure tires full fairing
(Army data, 1920)
High pressure tires, completely faired
(British data, 1930)
6.0
4.5
6.0
8.0
6.0
6 to 8
7.1 with cow1s(per sq.rt. of recto
circum. on wheel O1Id fairing)
FairiJ'lg A )
Fairing B (Ci> )
Fairing C )
FairiJ'lg D l 6? G:> )
For mud guards, each wheel, not per
3.0
2.0
2.4
4.3
sq. ft., 5 to 10
8. Engines (Radial) and Nacelles (per sq.rt.
of circumscribed circle)
(a) 240 HP 7-cylinder (J-5) engine, cylin-
ders half exposed, no cowl 14 to 16
(b) Same as (a) but with N.A.C.A. Cowl 3.4 to 3h
(c) N.A.C.A. Cowled Engine, including
interference with wing. Engine well
above wign, exposed struts. 9.5 to 14
Engine well below wing, exposed
wing. 5 to 7
Engine crankshaft on wing chord 2.0 to 2.5
8.1 OALCIT data on Nacelles, Fuselages, etc.
(JAS Dec. 1936) Drag added by Fuselage
(based on frontal area)
9.
10.
Bare hull of dirigible "Akron
fl
outline,
circular sect. 1.8
Large camnercial transports, low wing,
no nose engine 1.8 - 2.7
LArge military airplanes, no nose engine 2.3
Low wing, single engined transport 2.6
Low wing. small airplane with cockpit
enclosure 3.3
Drag added by Nacelles (includes inter-
ference)
Nacelle mounted externally above wing 6.4
I.eadi1l& edge nacelle, small airplane,
relatively large nacelle 3.1
Leading edge nacelle, large airplane,
relatively small nacelle 2.1
Drag added by Tail Surfaces
Single engined, low wing .22 - .31
Multi-engined, low wing .15 - .28
High wing monoplane or biplane .31 - .46
Radiators, per sq.ft.
Without shell, 5" to 9" deep 17 to 19
Without shell 26
With streamlined eow1 8 to 12
Struts and Wires (per foot of length)
Round Hard Wire (Estimated from various
sources)
Diameter B.S.Gage Drag Two
per ft. Fittings
.0641 14 .12 .4
.0808 12 .15 .4
.1019 10 .21 .5
.1285 8
.27 .6
.1443 7 .31 .7
.1620 6
.35 .8
.1819
5 .39 1.0
.2043 4 .44- 1.2
Stranded Aircraft (From Diehl)
Diameter strength Dra.g Two
Nom. Actual #Ultjmate
per. ft. fittings
1/16 .062 480 .16 .42
5/64 .078 550 .20 .42
3/32 .094 920 .24 .52
1/8 .125 1350 .32 .65 2
5/32 .156 2600 .40 .82
3/16 .187 3200 .48 1.01
7/32 .218 4600 .56 1.21.
1/4 .250 5800 .64 1.50
5/16 .312 9200 .80 2.05
3/8 .375 .96 2.60
1/2 .500 1.28 3.70
10. Wires and Struts (per rt. of 1ength)(Cont'd)
Round Steel Tubes(Estlmated from Incomplete NACA
Data.)
Diameter Drag Two
Nom. InChes Per Ft.
1 2.2
Fittings(Est)
2
2 4.4 5
3 6.6 7
4 8.8 9
Streamline Wire (From Diehl)
End Streamline Strength Drag Two
Fittings. Diameter Section Threads #Ultimate Per Ft.
.138
.190 .064,x.256
.250 .087x.348
.3125 .llOx.440
.375 .135x.540
.4375 .159x.636
.500 .183x.732
Streamline struh
6-40 1000
10-32 2100
1/4-28 34.00
5/16-24 6100
3/8-24 8000
7/16-20 11500
1/2-20 15500
Navy Struts,3:1 fineness ratio
Thicmess 1/2"
Thickness 1"
Thickness 1. 5"
Thicmess 2"
Thickness 3"
Thickness 4"
.033
.044-
.056
.067
077
.085
.092
(Est. )
.30)
.43)10
.58)to
.76)15
.97)rt
1.23)of
1. 53)wire
Two
Lbs./ft. Fittings
(est. )
.092 .7)
.138 1.1)
.180 1.8)
.220 2.2)
.295 3.5)
.36 4.2)
(For built-up fairings, add 10 to 30% to above figs.)
11. !.liscellaneous Items,Lbs.at 100 MPH
Control horns (per aq.ft. frontal) 8 to 15
(Add 100% interference if on upper surface)
Fittings (air scoops, stops, hand holds, etc) 60
(per sq.ft. frontal area, including inter-
ference)
Tail skid 2 to 5
Lbs./sq.rt.
Hemispherical anemometer cup
" II"
Conical anomemeter cup
n ff It
at 100 mph a
10
36
13 -. <J
33 -r[>
From NACA TN 450 at RN - 120,000
re
A2b,12

6
><

4
"-
e
... ' 3
'I>


2
c::

I---f--
'
Q

0)
!-
- 1---
.8
I
..,.6
(,j
-'
c::
.4

.3
'I>
Q
(,)
1:11.2
e
Q
i
I
I
I
.1
I--
-,-
Cylinder drag data from NACA TN 3038
M <0.36.
fb/V


V
'-
-
f-
,-I-.
....,
irIr----
'"
-,
'li
Nominal

size, inches
p 4 c

:.--
o 12
() I d

--- Ref. 5
\a>. idf

A 12



-x-Ref. 7

i-'
"J

0
q,

1
: : ""T n 1"1 rn of "lit'
v free stream velocity
lllllil I i
10 2 3 4 2 3 4 6 8 10' 2 3
Reynolds number, R
Figure 5.- Variation of drag coefficient and Strouhal number with Reynolds number for the circular cylinders.

II
I
!

I
0
I i

I
0 II
I

! I
I

'v


I
V
II
i
I II
tJt , ,
I<)
C\J
<0

I
i , '

,
i !

,
!
1
)3': I
,',

10
I

I
I, I
!
I
I I
I
I
I' i i

I
!
1<
:
,
"",
I
I
i I i
I
III
i
I
I
i
i
,
""
' ,
I
,



I<)
<I
c:i
C\J
II
c::
,/:>0



Oc::-'::
-:!'.


'1


i
I
<,;,'" "-

'"
..... 'b



II
Q
.....
;;:;
0 0 e

10

I<)
C\J
-cq I'! 'It; C\J -cq I'l 'It; t\!
P:J ',UIJ/:J,111i10:J 60J(J
/1/'11 'Ji1qwnu /OllnOJIS
Mach Number effects on Circular Cylinder Drag; NACA TN 2960.
2.4
I
I
I
r
! \
2.0
I I \
i
'.
1.6
f.::J'"
......
c::
1.2

....:
II>
\:)
I..l

.8

.4
,
! \
,
,I \

.1
Newtonian -
j;l

...


theory (Mo=oo)--,
If
I I I "
6j
bJ)
or- . . .1
. -
;:-
.:-.- r,
0 05"dia.-I-byJ';'-Foof WT
\
I:'
O.J" dia - I-by Jf -Foot WT
\
." 0
-
\
Iii
t:. unknown dia. - ref 15
'\
,
,
<> I" dia. - I-by J -Foot Supersonic WT -

f-Reynolds number
.; and J" dla. -ref 8
in critical Reynolds I-- --- 3" dia. - Langley 8 Foot WT -
Ii
------ J" dia. - Langley 16 Foot WT II number range.
I'
-"- r dia.-force measurements-ref 13 -
1\:

- -- rdia. -pressure measurements -ref IJ
---- 05" dla. fineness ratio 60-ref 12 -
I I I I I I I I
o .8 12 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
Mach number, Mo
Figure ? - The effect of Mach number on circular -cylinder drag coefficients.
...
(\)
]
>.
u
...
'"
'3
u
... .
c--
u-<;<
'"
-;'0
o ...
.0 (\)
'" .0
E
o
::;::
(\) ..c:
<'3
'0;;
..c: '"
c. ...
'" 0 .......
CD

o
"'Cl
'"
..c:
(J]
A2b.13
a
'"
a,
N
z
f<

o

Z
<f)
+>
c>
'"
'H
.,
" .,
p:;
]
.,
;,:
<1
o
.,..,
+>
:J

I..
+>
" ....
Q
" I..
:J
"
UJ
" H
P,
H
" ]
.,..,
....
:>,
o
I..
'" ....
"
" H
.,..,
o
..oj"
....
.0
N
."
NACA TN 2960
It.
...... -
<::::



<I>
C>
<l
<I>
'-
::,
11)
11)
<b
Q:
1.6
.8
h
r-
0
_._-----_.
-.8
-/.6
-2.4
-3.2
o
Mach Reynolds Cyl.
Symbol No. No. dia.
0 0.05 12"

0.0.6

0 to 12"
..-
f---
/
0.07
-7----
I
Ragged symbols denote -.9's
I

\\
I
I
I

I

l
-_ .. -
V, r---- ---
;\
r{
\1'<l

. .

I
I
[
I
_._-1------
I
/.....- 1-4sin
2
.9
I --r----.
\
u/
I
j

I
I
._-
I
\ I
\
/
,
11--
--1---- ---
,
'--
,
/

T
40 80 120 160
Circumferentiol on gle,.9, deg.
(a) Low subsonic Mach numbers.
Figure 5.- Circumferentiol distributions of pressure coefficient for circular
cylinders at various Reynolds numbers and Mach numbers.
NACA TN 2960
C\.
..... '

:\i

....
<b
I:)
<l



C(
3 r---r----,.- ----------------r---.
Theory
I- j---Newtonian (refI4),P2cos'.9,
0<.9<;
f--
2 - - - Incompressible potential
._--
theory, P"'I-4sin'B,
O<.9<r ---J
//
//
7
......... :r..-
I
/
P-
-2
ru-
/.
- R > critical R
/
"1

-3 I I ..../j j j /
o 40. 80 120 160
Circumferential angle,N. deg.
(e) Comparison between experiment and theory.
Figure 5.- Concluded .
Mo
2.90
.0.6
1.49
.TO
A2c:l
NACELLE DRAG DATA
NACA lIR L-229
----------------TABLE [] ---------
f)RAG or NACLLL5
./6
.14-
.12
.06.
. 06
.0,.
'"
I J I I I
ORIGINIIL NIiCELL
V
1"- V
V

/r'ACELLE IA\
Y
"'-,
l-P-
.---
.... lJ::


1a-x

y 4P
-."
(PlIsher) 5
o .10 .20 M . .3D .f<) .50
Figure 11.- Comparison of the drag coef-
ficients of typical nacelle
arrangements. a 2",
Free stream velocity
Mass density of air in internal flow
Free-stream density
Volume rate of flow
q dynamic pressure(1/2 P
o
V
2
)
Ae Yaximum crOBS sectional a rea of engine
F Maximum cross sectional area of nacelle
CnF External drag coefficient of nacelle
(total drag of combination) - (wing drag) _
(drag from internal losses)/qF.
Reference: Becker John. V
Radial-Engine Nacehea On of
NAG:A lJart1llle Report L-e29. LoW-Drag WUlg.
M=o.S 0<,=2"
CD 'EXT. DRAG AT I
,r:: Z5,OOOFT (It)!
MODEL ARRANGEMENT
INTERNAL
?l;
i
I
0051 10174 680:
;
I
IA
ORIGINAL
NACEi..LE
I
.051 1.085 335
I
.051 .080 315
'/IB .081 240
2A
(;tf--.053
.088 345
IZB,Ef--E .053 088 345 !
i I! .5AME 1'1.5 i'A LOW POSITION
\ illl, C
l
ZC tiE-r:: .07f .0.90 3SC
I 5.WE 28 LARGE OUTLET5
COWL C 11/0AJ.5/TlOIY
3 -01260056
1
/80
ELL!;P'>v.L (ROo:; jEer.):
- .Og3 .061
I j,4E AS 3A
.jrlORr AFTER/30OY
200
4 .065 .053 115
C.ROSS SECTION "HORT AFTERBODr I
.089 .045 120
A2c:2

'-'

NACELLE DRAG DATA
NACA WR 1.-229
'-tj (At nacelle It. )
1- ------+----;: 20/-----,--,-----1""1
, I
/ .....J,!. -t:harri /1(1"'. I
II rh -----,
-t- \_u'C.{7Ys / - t - Thrust axi, i li-E--
! / I y
I _ I I I I
I I t-
TRACTOR NACELLE r
(fow?o,r,ir;,,-,)
o C 8 A
5ECTION5 -NACELLE fA

pU:5HER NACELLE 5 o

F/9ure J- Generol orrongernenlor nocelles.
.
I I
I
./4-
r-r
,
I
,
I
!
I
!
I
I
,
!
.12
./0
II
i
II
)ACELL) 2A
I
L
./0
/ I
.08
"-
V
:/
2
I NACELLE 2A
""
/
V
I
><
V.
.08
Z,
V
-"
"....
F-
-
l/
.06
.... 1.--,
-
i'-"'"
."
V
V
.06
&-.
----
rt

v
H L .010 ..
..-
b-- t/' -:;:,.
.0+
---
VI "1
I I
cr

NACELLE SCi
1/
open-
.oz
I
fA./
/
o
r...l
o ./0 .20 ,30
Ad
hj?v,e 12.- ef'f"ects of' cTi,. o(.lNet'$
on I1,;;>ct!/le Q'rop.
(Q) "" = 2 0.
.02
o
.60 0
I><
.1-
<Y'
/ III
(.1CELLE
/,
/

./0 .20 .oHl
M
rigW'e IR.- Conclwed.
(h) : 0.
Reference I Beeker John V. High-speed Te sta of Radial-Engine Nacelles
On A Thick Low-Drag Wing. NACA Wartime Report 1.-229.
-'
.50
l
z:rSOi:
.. '11
.... e'l'j
, 1:i.1i'1I>

"'-iOII II>
I::!""-",m
S Iii .... "

'8 tt ()

p

.

.,.. '8 diI
o:t.P'
'11 J,





....



Ii

.... ()
..

r." OJ

If
o
i
11
.....
o
i'I"
Set-up
,

,
1
I
1
1
1
2
2
<)
2
2
2
2
2
I
Nose
B
19
2
7
19
4
4
5
5
3
3
I
TABLE I
Results from Tests without a Propeller
CD
D D-Do
at at
(uncorrected
Nacelle
for horizontal
CD
q::25.6 CD-CD
o
q_25.6
1
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
buoyancy)
lb./ag.ft. lb./sq.ft.
(lb. ) (lb. )
0.OB61 0.0739 27.9
.1115 .1011 3B.2 0.0272 10.3
.1193 .10B9 41.2 .0350 13.3
.1193 .1085 41.0 .0346 13.1
.1126 .1013 3B.3 .02741 10.4
.0710 .0670 25.3
.0728 .0668 26.0 .0018 .7
.0744 .0709 26.8 .0039 1.5
.0728 .0693 26.2 .0023 .9
.0802 .0762 28.8 .0093 3.5
I
.0773 .0733 27.7 .0063 2.4
.0809 .0751 26.4 .OOBI 3.1
.0840
I
.0780 29.5 .0110 4.2
&m
-- "I 81
--- - c
1
I
Spmnor
-- --E+ FI I
I
I
\
I
FIGURE: 2. -
o 6
Nose 8--
Remarks
rh
= ITI
Streamline shepe +-t------
for set-up 1.

Streamline shepe
for set-up 2
Spinner off
With spinner 1
with spinner 1
---
.loR'" ......
,

..
"
IJ(IrUT FRrJMOIt Ctl<Jl.1r
""'lfft1UrUTI"fft1HPVTEMOO/.Eff
___
FiQure 5.- PrOPOS(l(j ins tallation details. nacelle- 5.
.-Nose ;0
__ Baffle plate
0'
.
,-
" 1
II
" ,
" ,
:\ :
" ,
" ,
I II II I
--v----r-
: : ' : :
.. J" II I
'-, II I
I II I
, .1 I
- 'I --------
Set-up 2
''i:
-i!
" j
Set-up
Nacelle I, ..
Fiqure 1.- Line drawing of the lest arrangements_
'Nacelle 2




N
'<)
8-

-.I
'<)


o



()
.,
w
A2c:4

"".
+'
'H
11
U)
1-

..... .-+---+-
.,;
" :>l
C\l
.....
0
c:

"
c
.....
.....
.,;
...
0
;::
u
!Ul
C
.....
!O:
C

0
.,.,
+'
C)
OJ
'"
1 :r
1-
I
U
co -.jO
0 0
0
c:
.. oul
...
<l)
.....
.....
'" I".
0
...
I".
...
<l)
;:: .....
" .....
" 0 1". ....
...
'H ....
o oj
"OJ
"' .....
tl'1
+'1')
"
.>It!)
m",

u-..<
z
.d " c .:
... 0 0
0 ....
m ;::
" 0 C bD
"
C
a ....
..... "
.,; p
0
..... ;::
f..,
<!)'H
.: <1\
Q);::
D Ul
'.
N
"
...

.....
"'"
,
,

II)
...

lk.la
....
is<<
NACELLE DRAG DATA.
NACA WR L-299 and L-241
TABtE I. - StJ1i1(}.RY or
I
1
Drag ooefnclent
CooliN!; I].tell
bit
(at 100 arpb.l
Alr quant1ty Inl't.

{eu t1. per Tdoalt;
I 1I'1.dth
\ area
1111n at
rat10
'owl Sketell outlet Telt cood1tlonl (tqll!.. C
Dll1n
CD a'
350

I C
L
-o15 (b) I
--1 [
.sealed 0,0192 0.020; without
original
10001'
"ooth LI
fD
1.4-9 tll1ldard 167 O.O2}2 0.0243 o.QOI.I.o 16,100 0.6, v1tb
orlg1oal,
IOOOp

"al'"
I 0.0209 0.02'20 0.0017 1
]9
I
.0226 .002) 6,970 0.15 S/!
I
67 .0212
)1'
I
eO 15,1510 .19
90 10,2110 .2)
7/a
b 1 oooler open
I
"al'"
.0210 .02211- .0021
I !
0
0
'111 FOPluaJ.ed 0.0194 0.0209 0.0006 .. <1,.,
OOdlf1ed!
BP
51!
,. ,
.0196 .0209 ,0006
Open 6) .0206 .0221 . COl!
I
1,nO 0,2'J
I
SiS
i

h' .
.02O! .0224 .0021 I
.J'<
i
9! .0210 .0225 ,0022 10,900 7/15
I
9.160 .2!
at BU'a1ghtensd,
65 ,0224
I
,0021
51!
, expan!1on reduced.
I
.0210 .0227 .0024- 12.700 .)9 liS [Sa,-,e &. 51! 91
,
.. al ..
I
0.0200 0.0215 0.0012 Cowl!

10 .021; ,0225 .0022 12.050 0.;2 !p1nner S/!
I
.)6

L?
)/' 1! 13.7;0
I
9! .0216 .02;0 .0027 17.000 .44
1/'
I
.. al" bll cooler open ,0209 .0222 .0019
I (a)
6) .0201< .O21! .001; 12,0"-0 .)1 5/S
Seal'" "0 .... "' .. a I
.0192 ,0206 .000)
IScttOlll en t open ... 12 .0198 .0214. ,0011 .26
91 .0199 .0214. ,0011 12,800 .))
,"o<Uft,., bo"o. n1tal
. 91 .019'9 .0212 .0009 13,550 J5
P&rUal 5/!ll4od1tle4 '::oHcll ni"a 1)6 .0202 .0216 .0013
"5
e,150 .21 5/8 Bono. lealed .. I
12,100 .32
1/!
a
i
6)
I
1-1/'
a
I
90 ,0209 .0224 .0021 18,600 .'9
D
"al'"
}fod1t1e4 '::o';'Co1i .. 91 0.0199
1
0
::: I
0,0006 1;.!70 0.'>5

Partial Sis
a
1ll ,0201< .0012 21,14.0 .&J
Spinner
S
Coyl tlap gur reacTed and ItIIOOth e:d." In.tal-led.
'b Band on .mocth condition with lJooop off; landing gear turing re.oTldi CIOntrcl sur1'ac ..
<D
0
...
H


and ",,'aMa 00. _

References: Abbott, Frank T. Jr. Lift aDd Jlloag Data for 30
Pusher-Propeller Shaft HoUSings on An NACA 65 J Airfoil
Section. NACA Report 1-299. Silverstein Abe and
Guryansq- Eugene R. Developnent of Cowling for Long-l!Iose
Air-<lQQlOll Engine III the NAG! FUll-sw.. Wing 'l\mnel.
NACA Report L-24l
6-6
(al
Tho
2i-inch
nacelle;
DN/t. = 1.:;0
(b)
The
30.4-inch
nacelle;
DN/t. = 2.27
( cl
The

nacelle;
DN/t. = 2.60
NACELLE DRAG DATA
NACA 1m L-428

'
-T-
r-
58Z
'
Tb"
'L
IJ (.)
Kl Kl
, --r --,-----r-
I I
(a)
(b)
A2c:5
Figure 1.-
Diagrom
of model
showing
arrangement!
of tho
nacelle!.
Reference: Wilson, H. A. and Lahr, R.R. Drag and Propulsive Characteristics
ot Air-Cooled Engine-Nacelle Installations for Two-Engine Airplanes
NAC! 1fR L-428
A2c:6
NACELLE DRAG DATA
NACA WR L-428
__
.I 724, (approx;
\
Cowl ing profile
! I
x/DN yIDN xIDN yIDN
0.000 0.350 0.115 0.460
.005 .378 .135 .467
y
.010 .387 .154 .474
.019 .399 .192 .485
.038 .416 .231 .493
.058 .431 .269 .498
.077 .441 .308 .500
.096 .452 .335 .500
---"--- ---- ------ --<t (symmetrical)
Figure 7.- Dimensions of cowling and cooling
L = 11.06 in. for 20.0 in. nacelle
16.69" " 30.4-"
i CL

tl
, ,
i
! I ! I I I I 1 1 1 laic a/Ibn I
51--+--+-+- 0------- Four-engine dolo I o..2Sc1from reference /
0----" " " r-t.40C) 1 1 q ,
--- Two-engine" .SOc 1---+1_+-1 --+-+-+--
I 1\'
I
:5o.{i&
--- Interpolation i I I I
__
I
I -I I I CL 025c o..40c and G.So.c I 1 ' I I
i

-I--I--+- -0.0.4 (j I I 0 I 1
I I I I i - ; I I x Ii , 1
, 1
-1---1-- : 70. - 0' I I :
I i 1'<1 I I I ' i I I i
-._.- --r-
- -1'---
F- I
I T Lf.o- 1- t- i-- i

(b)
(a)
Figure 15.-
Rotio of nacelle diometer to winq thickness, .ox It.,
Air flowing through cowling (b) Cowling closed
Nacelle drag coefficient for various size nacelles and lift
Center-line nacelles. .
coefficients.
Reference: WUson, B.A. and Lehr, R.R. Drag and Propulsive Characteristics 01'
Air-Cooled Engine-Nacelle Installations for Two-Engine Airplanes.
NACA WR 1-428.
TAIL AIRFOIL TEST DATA
NACA WR 1.-663
TABLE: I .... nrPORMATIOI RBlAlWIlIfO 1Wo-DIKDSIOKl.L-F'l.CRI' JfODELS
'1'ESTBD II' nc"" 4- BY e-POO'l' VBRTtC,A,l. 'l'UWDL
A2d:l
Reference: Sears, Richard I. Wind-Tunnel Data On
the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airplane Control
Surfaces. NACA wartime Report 1-663.
j1 t Re7l101d. number 1 Maoh nunber, 0.1; tW'tluleno. (actor,
" .
11tt onl!l Experimental t'llnnel .1.11 correetton. app11e4 to
(-;,,; C C' \ \ il-o ('it
I>elcrlpUon
('a CO"" \
WACA airfoil
etle ... ;'r
tn>. or bal&no,
ot balance
KOH S.p
__ I
1\ C /; ;,
nap .etlan
4el1gnatS,on
00(,
t
Unbalanced.
Clrcu.lar arc Sealed, 0.0060 -.0040 -.0082 .09
1.
025
- --===t+ ""?3r IXlOQ 0.16 0.10
plain rlap
i
t
Unbalanced
C1rcular arc Sealed, 0.00&0 -.0043 -.0116 .1000\ .045

0009 0.20 0.10
plain nap


Unbalanced
Circu.lar arc
Sealed,
-.0064
. -.012 .096 .03
-
0009 0.C>e
plain r1&p 0.00500, O.OlOe

-.0094 .092 .056
E=====-
0.20 BIYnt DO"
!eat-d, 0.0010,
-.0056 0009
O.OlOe
{ J.
-
0009 0.30 0.20 Onrhan,;
lIo41tl,d
.044
0.005e
-.0052 -.0104 .088 blunt no ..
t ::::::--
0009 O.M 0.20 Ooerl>an8 "41". DO ..
$ealed, O.OCne,
-.006 -.0104 .088 .045 O.OOSC, O.OlC)o
* - 1<2-
0.20 O'Yerbang
ModIf1ed
O.OO6e
-.006 -.0124 .092 .052
0009 0.l!0
.. 41\& no
-I
S.aled., O.OC)lo,
3<L=====-
0009 O.SO o.ao c.uboAC Sba!"p 110
-.0064 -.0125 .092 .052 0.006<1. 0.0100
t
JIo41t1.4
.048
3E1-
0.20 o.el'bani
-.006 -.0116 .088
ooot
abarp no o.coe.
,
r>
- 0009 0.30 0.S6 00.rl>an8 BIUDt DO'. S.ah4, 0.0010,
-.0024 -.0036 .084 .058 T' 0.0060, 0.0100
-E- JCl- -===---
coot O.SO 0.S6 CnrbllDc Doe. Seal.d., 0.0010,
-.0032 -.0048 .094 .052 o.oo&e, 0.0100
t-
coot 0.S6 Ooerban& Sbi&rp DO
Sealeel, 0.0010,
-.0054 -.0074 .090 .052 o.coee, 0.0100
f-3
Seal.d.
t ==---
coot 0.&0 Ooerban& Bl=t nOlI
O.COl60
+.0068 .100 .048
0003
1- 1C-
T Sealed. coot 0.30 0.60 O .. rbanc .. 411a DOl.
.096 .064 0.00160
- -

::::=0 0.&0 0.&0 Ooerbanc
lIod1ti04 S..114
coot
_d1\a DO'. 0.00160
-.001 -.002 .092 .05
t J EE:'::
0009 0.&0 !b.a.rp DO
Sealed
-.0014 -.006 .094 .06 0.00160

0009 0.60 Ooorbanc
IIo41t104 Sealed
-.0028 .094 .052 ,harp 110" O.COl60
-.0014
+--
ProfIle Bu1co4 nap Sealed
-.0084 .088 .05
0009 0.C>e
IIOd.lt1caUoD protile O.C060
-.004
+--
I
Soaled
- -=--
Pl"Ot11. k l.1S.
-.003 -.0096 .084 .036
ooot 0.&0 0.C>e
.,d.1t1catlQD trall1l>C 0480 0.006c
t --=E-
::=;.
ooot 0.30 0.C>e
Protl1. l!:lUpUcal
Sealed
"006
-.011 .1 .05
IIlOdltlu tiOD t,..,1l1D1 14&-
i
-F- 4+
::3 ooot 0.&0 0.00
Protll. Circular
Sealed,
.c>d..ltlclUon ed&e
-.0092 -.0116 .1 .05
I
,
A2d:2
HAC. drf01l
erie ."/er Flap section
dell1t;nat1on
t-- (2?=====-
0009 0.30 0.50
-r--
OOH O.JO 0.15
t
0015 O.JO O.U

OOle O.JO o.u

OOle O.JO 0.50

OOle O.JO 0.50

00le O.JO O.SO
t
0015 O.JO 0.50

0015 O.JO 0.50

0015 0.30 0.50
t

0015 O.JO O.SO


0015 0.30 0.50
t

0015 0.60
f

0015 O.JO 0.:'0
t

0016 O.W 0.60
,
E::===--
55..QO\l O.JO 0.11 ,
i EI=== T
116-00; o.w 0.:511
E:C?====
&8-009 O.JO 0.50
t
E+ ::=::::=-
&&-009 0.2& o.w
t E+ =====--
&8-009 0.2& O.JO
t

55-009 0.26 0.30
TAIL AIRFOIL TEST DATA
NACA WR L-663
Reference: Sears, Richard I. Wind-Tunnel Data On
the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airplane Control
S1n'faces. NACA wartime Report 1-663.
roCI- \
rChfl
( r
Tn. ot balance
Description ---I
at balance
1'0" ap
\ "O:x. IS
\0 S 0\\0D( /.1\ c :l1o\1
,
,
Vent at 0.56c
,
Internal
and at 0.690
Sealed -.0026 -.0012 ; .102 .056
i
I
Unbalanced.
C1rcular are
Sealed.
-.0024 -.008 .09 .04 plain nap 0.00Sc
-
O .... rhang Blunt no
Sealed
-.0064 -.oo1ili .084 .044 0.005e
Onrhang Mad! .. nou
Seal.d
o.ooSe -.0034 -.0052 .082 .036
OVerhang Slunt non
Se.led.
-.006 -.0048 .078 .052 O.OO5c
Q-urb.ang lIedI". no ..
Sealed
0.0050
-.0048 -.0068 .084 .044
O'rerha.ng
Blunt nOI.,
0.00Sc
-.0038 -.008 .092 .048 mo41tlcat Ion 1
OTerbang
Blunt noae,
O.OO5c -.0096 -.0028
- - modUle.t1on 2
OYerhall8"
Blunt noe.,
O.OO5c-
-.002 -.002
- -
modlt1eatlon 3
O't'erb.a.ng Sharp nose 0.005e
".003 -.0032 .092 .028
Sarrow Sealed, 0.00114;1.
Internal
cover plates 0.00230, 0.0050 ... 0024 -.0028 .088 .0)0
Internal
lIIed11A 0.00110,
-.0052 -.0036 .088 .028 coyer plat 0.0050
Large Sealed, 0.00110,
-.0058 -.0038 .088
Internal
coyer plate. 0.00230, 0.0060 .030
Coyer plates bent
-.004 -.0096 .096 .048
Intenlal in and ;lut Sealed
at station
Internal
.... 0030 -.0032 .092 .032
Sealed.
0.:'00 ,tat1oo
I
1lDbalallcK
Clrel.l.lu arc
Sealed
,
pla1" nap 0.00&0
I -.0126 .096 .056
I
I
S.ale4
-.0064 .060
O ... rb&.n&: Bll,lDt no ..
-.0100 .092 O.OO5c
O .. rbazla Blunt DO"
Sealed
.076 .064 o.ooSe
- -
O .. rbazla Blunt no .. Sealed
0.001c
-.0022 -.0048 .092 .052
o..erhana
Modifhd
-.002 -.0034 .092 .056
blunt no ..
O.OC)1.
OTlrbazla dita nOif 0.0010
-.0048 -.0052 .09 .040
I
i
I
Plan fora
'rypleal !IIec Uoa ot
control surface
TAIL SURFACE TEST DATA
HACA WR W63
TABLa II. - IIIl'ORlllTIOII l!II).umnra TlIREII-DI_SIOIIOL-n.o. MODELS
TBSTED II" TIm 7 BY 10'-POOT TUlflfEL .. Conclu4ed
@:'urbulence tactor, 1.e. 'r\mD.l .... U
appl1ed 1n IlccoNiance with reference to.J
ys
or
s,./s
0.68
0."
0.30 0.50
2.41
Alrfo11
eUon
IIodlt1od IACA
.,....trlcal
Mod1t1ed
IACA 66
serie.
Telt
con41Uoa
Semispan IIOdel
R ::
M = 0.1
Ca:aplete t&1l CIr'l
stub fuselage
R :: 1.510,000
M = 0.1
2.41 0.42 0.20
lIIo41tled
NACO 66
"1'1
_plot. tall ""
.tl1b ruul.ge
R = 1,510,000
M = 0.1
1 2.41 0.42
2.41 0.41 0.t2 0.20
0.5'" 0.09
0.$'1' 0.27
0.2'7
0.2'7 0.50
0.&0
0.6? 0.011
Jlodlth4
.'CO 66
urle,
MocUf1e",
NACO 66
a.r1 ..
JW:.
0009
lAC'
0009
lAC'
0009
lAC'
0009
lall on
atub tutelage
H = 1,S10,000
M" 0.1
1all ""
stub tuulage
R :: 1,510,000
M = 0.1
Korbonul tal
pW'lul tuMJ.IreI
R = &02,000
M = 0.1
Borilontlll tat
on
purlu1 t
R :: 502,000
W :- 0.1
!orlsont .. l tl.1
PW'Iu1f'"ru.el&gl
II = 502,000
= 0.1
Bor1&ontal tatl
on
purlul t tuaelap
R:: 5002,000
= 0.1
Hor1&ontal tan
on
purlult
II = &02,000
: 0.1
fBor1&ontal ta11
on
p\U"8ul t tuMl&,.
a :I: &02,000
a:: 0.1
Gap
0.02. -.0015
0.02. -.0010
Sealed

Il'ICh
Sealed

Inch
-.0010
-.0022
Sealed -.0031
Sealed
O.OO6c
".led
0.00$0
Sealed
0.0050
Seale4
0.005e
-.004
-.0032
-.006
-.005
-.0024
-.0072
-.0068
-.0056
-.0035
-.019
-.006
-.005
-.008

Reference: Sears, Richard I. Wind-Tunnel Data On the Aerodynamic Characteristics of Airplane
Control Surfaces. NACA wartime Report 1-663.
A2d:3
.054 .014
.049 .028
.053 .024
.05 .034
.05 .024
.054
.056 .038
.06 .053
.052 .03
.048 .03
.056 .028
.052 .04
i
A2d:4
DESIGN PROCEDURE AND DATA FOR VEE TAILS
NACA WR 1-212
Design Procedure
The steps in designing a vee tail to produce desired
values of the stability and control parameters may be out-
lined as follows:
(1) Decide on required values of (C1n ) (Cn)
( a)tl ( (3 )t'
and C '!he vee tail probably should be designed
nOr
to produce higher values of C
m
and C than the
5
e
nOr
conventional tails in order that the elerudder deflections
can be kent in the linear range of control effectiveness
against deflection. This is discussed more fully in
the section entitled "General Remarks."
(2) Determine values of K from figure 2 of the
present paper and values of from page A2a-29.

(.3) Estimate values of "0 (7/a f3 and ada for an
average arrangement. Assume T' 35
0
,
At 4.5, and vee 0.25. References 7 to 9 will be

helpful in designing for the power-off and 'll'indmilling
condi tiona.
(4) Determine r from equation (28).
(5) Determine Svee from equation (29) or (30).
(6) Determine 'r' from equations (31) or (32).
(7) Substitute the larger of the values of T obtained
from step (6) in equations (26) and (27) to determine final
values of and C
n
One of these two values pro-
a
e
Or
bably will be larger than necessary since the two values of
'T determined from equations (31) and (32) will usually
not be identical.
(6) Use the value of T from step (7) with figure
1 (a) of reference 5 to determine the required value of
cfn'jCvee.
Design Formulas
(l-k)
(C
nS
)t
tan2J' -
11'
K (1 + ;; )ema)t
- - -. (28)
Svee. _
cama) t
S1I' h

(29)


cos
2
r
q
c"
acr
___ (30)
Design Formulas (con't)
C
n
l' - -
6
r

It
Svee
sin r q
0;
KC
L
s.-

Coefficients and Symbols
The coefficients and symbols used herein are de-
fi."led as follows:
1I'here
Lift coefficient (Z/qS)
Resultant-drag coefficient (X/qS)
Lateral-force coefficient (Y/qS)
Rolling-moment coefficient (L/ qSb)
Pitching-moment coefficient (U/qSc)
Yawing-moment coefficient (M/qSb)
Hinge-moment coefficient (H/qbe-
2
)
Effective thrust coefficient (Telpv2D2)
X,Y,Z Forces along axes defined in figure 1
L, Il, N Moments about axes defined in figure 1
H
T
e
q
Hinge moment of control surface
Effective thrust
Dynamic pressure
S Actual (not projected) area
c Yean geometric chord
C Root-mean-square chord of control surface
behind hinge line
b Actual (not projected) span
V Airspeed
D Propeller diameter
and
a
Mass Density of air
Angle of attack of thrust line for complete
models and of chord line at plane of I!yIIIIlletry
for isolated tails measured in plane of
symmetry, degrees
-.Jr Angle of Yaw, degrees
Reference: Purser, P.E., and Campbell, J.P Experimental Verification of a Simplified Vee-Tail Theory and Analysil!l
of Available Data on Complete Models with Vee Tails. NACA Wartime Report L-212.
A2a:5
DESIGN PlPCEDURE AND DATA FOR VEE TAILS
NACA WR 1-212
Coefficients and Symbols (con't)
Angle of Sideslip, de!!1"ees (-lIr)
Angle of stabilizer with respect to fuselage center
line measured in plane of symmetry, degrees;
positive when trailing edge is down
Control-surface deflection measured in plane normal
to chord plane of tail surface, de!!1"ees
1 t
Tail length; distance fran center of gran ty to
line of control surface
Angle of downwash, degrees
Angle of Sidewash, de!!1"ees
Rate of change of downwash angle at tail with angle
of attack
d cr/d{3 Rate of of sidewash angle at tail with angle
of sideslip
A Aspect ratio (b
2
/S)
Taper ratio; ratio of tip chord to root chord
F Stick or pedal force
The 6,YIIlbols used in the development of the theory of
vee tails are defined as follows:
l'
I
Lift coefficient of tail measured in plane of
symmetry
Angle of attack of tail measured in plane of
symmetry, degrees
Lateral-force coefficient of tail measured normal
to plane of symmetry
Ani!le of sideslip of plane of symmetry
Elevator deflection or e1erudder deflection
when elerudder surfaces are deflected upward
or downward together, degrees
Rudder deflection or elerudder deflection when
elerudder furfaces are deflected equal and
opposite amounts on the two Sides, degrees
Deflection of Single e1erudder surface, degrees;
subscripts Rand L denote right and left
e1erudder surfaces, respectively
Dihedral angle of tail surface measured fran
XY-plane of vee tail to each tail panel,
degrees
Tail lift coefficient measured in plane normal
to chord plane of each tail panel
Sum of changes in tail lift coeffiCient normal
to each tail panel when tail is yawed; equal
and opposite span load distributions overlap so
that '1.w' I'1.w. where values for I are
presented in figure 2
Ratio of sum of lifts obtained by equal and
opposite changes in anr1e of attack of two
semispans of tail to lift obtained by an
equal change in angle of attack for complete
tail (see fi". 2)
Reference: Purser, P.E., and Campbell, J.P. Experimental
Verification of a Simplified Vee-Tail Theory and Ana1vsis
of Available Data on Comp1e Models with Vee Tails. NACA
Wartime Report L-212.
K
t
h
Constant of proportionality
Angle of attack measured in plane normal to
chord plane of each tail panel, degrees
Slope of tail lift curve in pitch measured
in plane normal to chord plane of each
tail panel
liN
Slope of vee-tail lift curve when lift and
angles of attack are megsured in planes
normal to chord planes of two tail panels
while anr1e of attack of tail t is held
constant and tail is SideSliPped(aCLN'\
\DIINJ
Slope of tail lateral-force curve measured
normal to plane of
Contro1-effecti veness parameter ;, '\
l TaN)
Subscripts:
Wing
'Iliil
Horizontal tail
v Vertical tail
vee
e
r
er
f
Vee tail
Elevator
Rudder
Elerudder
flap
II Denote partial derivatives of coefficients
with respect to angle of sideslip, angle
of yaw, control-surface deflection, and
angle of attack, respectively; for example,

CyS --aIr
I
I
,
.80
AI
l.----
V

---
V
---
V
V
---
.76
V
v V

V
/'
---
V
V
V
V
K .72
./
2S
v 17
V
/ ./ ./
V
.68
,
V
y
V
V
V
NA IONAl AOV'S RY'
'" "
' "or
.64
V
.
60
3 4 .5 6 7 9
As;::ecf ratiO J A
1--
10
2. - Values of f( lOr compufll?q slope Ill"f curve Or
tOil 1/1 yow. (f)erlved -rrom dolo fOr roun::l-I/ppect.
Wln9S /r) Z or reference 4.)
A2d:6
RETRACTABLE AILERON TESTS
To LE.

Rih
NACA WR 1-250
PIClte thickness'. OO/e
INBOARD SECTION
3
Details oT the plug
FIgure .-
aIleron on the tapered - wing mtxfel.
.OOlc
OUTBOARD SECT/ON
CONCLUSIONS
The results of this investigation
indicate thst a plug aileron will provide
satisfactory lateral control on a tapered-
wing airplane equipped with full-span
slotted flaps. For satisfactory results,
it is essential either to obtain the optimum
amount of vent opening or to provide means
for deflecting the plate relative to the
aileron.
Ft'ql.n:: 4.- OetOi/5 ot the .modit/cotion.5 017
oileron.
+
Plug ollerun .!
Pluq OI/erOl7:5
Vent.5
open
B l-<:",
'I vp
. -'A"-
"'Op
.I5{f;Q/77.
Plug o;/eron Z.
Yent
5ea/ed
Plug Olleroo 4
.30" ()7 ceders

P/fJ9 ol/eron 5
Pluq aIleron 6
Reference: Lorwy, J.G. and Uddell, R.B. lf1nd-Tunnel Investi;gation of a Tapered Wing with a Plug-Type Spoiler-Slot
Aileron and Full-Span Slotted Flaps. NACA Wartime Report L-250.
71 ---I-
6

5' I , '. I !.'. I.
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
1S"'
9
8
7
6
7igure A2 e : 1 Diameter or Best. Pertonnance Aleta!
Prope11er at Sea Level.
Equcti on "_ --4-4-
D = .11B 6
rOOlil mpL
RPM, hunareds
5
---. 15 18 20 22 24 26 28 30
Figure A2e: 2 Diameter of Peak Efficiency
Metal Prope11er.
I
1---
co 1_-
i h
., .... =
.70
.60
.5
TR : Thicknoc3 Ratto
C_ : Dvcir-n C
'" 6
.J .7 .c .9 1.0 1.1 1.3 1. 1.5 1.6
Figure A2 e: 3 Max. Efficiency of Metal Propellers as a
Function of Design C
s
(From NACA TR 408,mOdified)
.90

.GO

i
.70 I- I / A
.60
.3
I
-'.-+-
JIlL
1/ V) = D,-,sicn !...
. nD
I
c
.v .6 .5 .7 .9 1.0 1.1 1.2
Figure A2e: L Max. Efficienct of Wood and Metal Propellers as
a Function of Design V/nD.
-
1.7


t"4


til
d

'"C1


[;j

t>=J

H

(")
1-4

t:::1


>:-
"->
<D
..
I-'
A2e:2
~
...;
1\
\
\
\
.5
N
-
-
1\
\
I ~ ~ H
(I
DESIGN CHART FOR 2 BLADE LIGHT AIRPLANE PROPELLER

M
.
~
"I
"
.,
~
ii
:-j
~
-- -
~
';l
5
0
~
w
3
LOGARITffiIIC CHART FOR 2 BLADE LIGHT AIRPLANE PROPELLER
FOR USE WITH p. A2f:8
T1J:?
. 110 pas s through
Q
plpl = 1.0, V/'ll = 1.0.
CQSl to be aligned
vn th V/Vl = 1.0.
1 ....
.... ;
: .....
I ... ....
).'
",:
." ....
L'
....
... f
. .....
....
.....
..... ....
.......
. ,' ,,"
,.r'

".'
: ....
....,.
,.
...
. .."
.. '
.. '
.. ..
....
,."
....
",
.. '
f
.....
......... l ..
....
,,""
.f
",
y'
...... 1
....... ..
A2e:3
/:
.
....
!
i
..'
4
5
6 8
9
10 11 12 13 14 15
Fig. A2e:5. Full throttle power available chart for use with fixed pitch
propeller and constant Q max. engine. To be traced onto
p. A2f:8 after aligning CQSl with V/Vl 1.0
1
and T D/Q with
45
0
ref. line.
A2e:4
DESIGN CHART, 3 BLADE 5868-9 PROPELLER WITH SPnmER
NACA TR 658
-Liquid-cooled engine nacelle with spinner.
-The propeller test setup with liquid-cooled engine nacelle.
CONFIGURATION TESTED IN TR 658
TWO n"LL-SCALE PROPELLERS WITH DIFFERE::-<T PITCH DISTRIBCTIO::-<S
I 1.-2'5" I" 1
35
" 1 1 I' I I I" I I J5.0

i-t-t1-ti-tljJ
" I 1'1 I' 'I '[ .8 clY""l I ...A' -30" 407 50" 55"1 ,j
.oW - V Y [ ...... :::B00 I 1 1 J
i A V L -r !: 450-j,-+-+-+-+-H----t--r-r-H
//4 I-f[ ; I
1
I
i -+ ine of mo>(/mum efficiency for C.
1 I
FIGURE l7.-Design chart for propeller 5868-9 with spinner.
Reference: Biermann, David and Hartman, E.P. Tests of Two Full-Scale Propellers,
with Different Pitch Distributions, at Blade Angles up to 600 NACA
TR 658.
.68, I 1 1 I I I I I I I I
.641 1 , , 1 1-' I I I I I I I I 1 11 1 1 r I r 1 r I 1 1 1 1./) 1 1 1 1 1 1 I I I I I I I lJ I I I I I I I 1 I I I
Ij6

AD
v
1-=
[:::P
.28
l
I I I' j..-.- V 1/'\1-/ V V v'/\ . v lv V 1\.-02-1_+-1 I I I I I !iii I
,1FT-=:[! / r-t-f-t--, V J/,.. V ,v \,v _-,.I" k V ,/" ./ Iv .01 I
.24 - = I' I--.... \ ./ ""'V -./ V K ./ .--- 1\ I..--- ___ .--- V _ V V lv V 0 I I I I I II 1
20'/---1 f-.-r- / "',> v v IV"'-I_ v kV' v l\vV . ./ Iv- IX I 1 I 1 1 1 I I
r- b>o:: ,.. 1'S<f./ jV / " /' V V 1\.) --- v 1\ ./ . ..... , V 1\ V V V ___ V f\. I, I
t
--t I"---r--.V" ./1/lX .--- l.-A v v f....--.... I--t\ 1--
1
.... ..A V' ./ V
.I B t-- / f;;f-... VI/I vf\ V fr ,F\ .---v v '), . - l--\I-- ./ V . I\: ,),.. v I I'
12 l-- t--I-c v"./ V Lv V K k l:>.. V 1--1 -- 1\ I--- 1,\ I-- V V f--+-+ 1 I 1 1 -++ ,
vk' ._1-- \ _1- 'v vl\ k'
___ _I-- 1\ 1--
1
- ..... K
__ ..-1-- \ _
04 ""'>:f.Sv
l
- _r::-k-I::::,!-, - 1-1\-1-- 1\ -I- I-f\. 1--1\ J.-- _+-\1-- :s _ I \.
i i ->k.::.I-'K"' ..... " -2 I--\j.--I- f\ 1'\1 1
.- . .....: ... "'-I-- --"'1 i,\,?n' tiE:. 1-1 - \fOj 1\ 4? \J50j \'55 Blade angle of q. 75 R BP:1. J
o
.2 .4 .6 .8 1.0 1.2 1.4 /.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 2.4 2.B 2.8 30 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.8 4.0 4.2 4.4 4.6 4.8 5.0 5.2 5.4 5.6
VlnD
FIGURE 16 -Power-coeIDclent curves (or propeller 5868-9 with spinner.
Reference: Biermann, David and Hartman, E . P. Tests of Two Full-Scale Propellers, with Different Pitch
Distributions, at Blade Angles up to 60
0
NACA TR 658.




(")


1-3
\...>

>t<:1



ex>
V\ I
CD \,()


t""'






::0
>
I\)
<II
V\
A2e:6
I. .9
LOGARITHDUC PERroRMANCE CHART, 3 BLADE 5868-9 PROPELLER WITH SPINNER
NACA TR 658
.. 4 5
'For use with p. A2f:8
4.
3.5
,6 . 25

2.
1.8
/.6
1.4
Reference: Biermann, David and Hartman, E.P. Tests of Two Full-Scale Propellers,
with Difference Pitch Distributions, at Blade Angles up to 60.
NACA TR 658.
Blade
Figure ae th1t,.
tactor
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
80
80
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
90
INDEX OF SOME NACA PROPELLER CHARTS
NACA WR t-286
TABLE I. - REPRESENTATIVE PROPELLER-OPERATING CHARTS
NUDDeJ"
or
blade.
Propeller
Rotatlon locatlon SoGy conflguratlon
Blade de.lgn, Bureau of Aeronautlc. 5868-9
, I Slngle
Tractop
--do-- --do---
Radial-engine nacelle
without wlng
Liquld-eoolecl eoloe
nacelle without wlng
Rererence
Blermann, Davld, and
Hartman, Edwln P.: Te.t.
of Flve Full-Scale Pro-
pellers In the Presence
of a Radlal and a Llquid-
Cooled Englne Nacelle,
Includlng Telt. of Two
Spinner Rep. 10. b42,
NACA, 19,8.
Biermann, David, and
Hartman, Edwin P.: Tests
of Two Full-Scale Pro-
pellers wlth Different
Pitch Distrlbutions, at
Blade Angles up to bOO.
Rep. 10. 658, NACA, 19'9.
Blade design, Hamilton Standard '155-6 and 3156-6
2
3
4
4
6
8
3
4
b
l:l
Slngle
--do--
--do--
--do--
--do--
--do--
--do--
Slngle
--do--
Dual
--do--
Tractor
--do---
--do---
--do---
--do---
--do---
--do---
Pusher
--do---
--do---
--do---
Streamllne nacelle
wlthout wlng
--------do--------
Streamline nacelle
wi th wing
--------do--------
--------do--------
--------00--------
--------do--------
nacelle
without 171ng
--------do--------
--------do--------
--------do--------
Gray, W. H.:
Tunnel Tests of Single-
and Dual-Rotating Tractor
Propellers at Low Blade
Angles and of Two- and
Tractor Pro-
pellers at Blade Angles
up to 65
0
. NACA A.R.R.,
Feb. 1943.
Biermann, Davld, Hartman,
Edwin P., and Pepper,
Ed.aro: Full-Scale Tests
of Several Prorellers
Equipped wIth Spinners,
Cuffe, Alrfoil and Round
Shanks, and NACA 16-Serlea
Sections. NACA A.C.R.,
O.:t. 1940.
Gray, W. H.: Wind-
Tu'mel rests of Single-
and Dual-Rotating Tractor
Propellers at Lo. Blade
Angles and of Two- and
Three--Blade Tractor Pro-
pellers at Blade Angles
up to 65
0
. NACA A.R.R.,
Feb. 1943.
Blermann, David, and
Hartman, Edwin P.: Wind-
Tunnel of Pour-
and SiT--Blade Single- and
Dual-Rotating Tractor
Rep. No. 747,
NACA, 1942.
B1ermann, David, and Gray,
ill. II.: \'lind-Tunnel Tests
of Eight-Blade Single- and
Dual-Rotating Propellers
in the Tractor Position.
NACA A.R.R., Nov.
Biermann, David, and Gray,
W. H.I Wind-Tunnel Tests
of Single- and Dual-
Rotating Pusher Propellers
from Two to Eight
Blades. NA':A A.R.R.,
"eD. 1942.
Blade design, Ham11ton Standard and 3156-6-1.5

14
15
16
17
3
4-
b
8
Slngle
--do--
Dual
--do--
Tractor
--do---
--00---
--do---
Streamline nacelle
.lth .ing
--------do--------
--------00--------
--------do--------
1
DaVid, Gray.
J
w. H., and Maynard, Julian
D.: Wind-Tunnel
of Single- and Dual-
Tractor Propellers
of Large Bl ade .idth. NACA
A.R.B Sept. 1942.
A2e:7
A2e:8
--
I
.9
T
.8

- --
.S
7
I
.7 0
I
.6 5
.6 0
I
5
7'Jf
fl
'Yre
n
f.
:"'i
I
I
0
!
17

.5
N.
I I
5
t"H- I
:
.4 0
I
I I
,
!
5
I

II
I
0
I
II
.2 5
.2 0
I
,
I-. I
15
,
I
10
V V
H-
05
IA
\--- IA
"c H
/3.20 izI.75RJ 3Oj\ 35-'-\
I
I
V
1"-
I
I
1
,
I
I
I,
I

; i'Oo"
I
1.
, ;
I
,
1
,,"
I
:
i
;.; J\
,/
iL1L
:/
r "'"
.... I
I

S
FOUR BLADE PROPELLER TESTS
NACA WR L-286
1 blDck 5/80
!- PROPHLER
11TH liNG
I
<{
TEN-FOOT PROPELLER "55-6
TESTED AT PRT. NACA
4
APR IL 1940.
SEE NACA REP. NO. 7 7.
r
I
I
I
7r
I ,
I
I
!
I
O 5 ..
60'
Fig. 6
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 ,.0 ,.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
\lIn D
Reference: Gray, W.H. and Mastrocola, Nicholas. Representative Operating Charts
of Propellers Tested in the NACA 20-Foot Propeller-Research Tunnel.
NACA WR L-286.
1.9
1.8
SIX BLADE DUAL ROTATING PROPELLER TESTS
NACA WR L-286
1 blook. 5/60'
A2e:9
Fig, 8
SIX-BLADE
t
.. TH .IIHI
I.? _
i
iiiiiiiiiilllllllllllill DL\\L-ROTATlNQ TRACTOR PROPElLER
::: ___

i
1.2
I. I
I
1.0
C
P
.9
,
,
.8
'r]nf),'>J en
If
I
1
1-
I
1 \1
6
t-)
i::>
5

I
!\
4
I
I I I,
,
I
I
IV
:X
1,-[
2
I V
vy
, I
""
l.- v/
c:;<r . .o.......
I
\. ......
-...l- I
I;;:f .
PJlt.73R = 201 '35"\ i 45'11' :

0
5
1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
'.0
V/nD
I
I I
,
'"


,
"
,
I
,
SY i
'.5
4.0
"
TEN-FOOT '156-6 t
TESTED AT PRT. HACA, APR IL 1940,
SEE NACA REP. NO. 711.7. l-
t

-
I
I
I
,

Ii !
65f
4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5
Reference: Gray, W.H. and Mastrocola, Nicholas. Representative Operating Charts
of Propellers Tested in the nACA 20-Foot Propeller-Research Tunnel.
NACA WR L-286.
A2e:lO
EIGHT BLADE DUAL ROTATING PROPELLER TESTS
NAGA WR L-286
(1 block!!. 5/60")
Fig, 13
4.8
4.6
I
4.4D' III 1111 I1EI1.IIEm
'
lmn
4.
2
Ipammtmtdwg.flD' II '
4.0 H-++++-+
EIGHT -BLADE j
PUSHER PIlUPELLOR=
wiTHOUT WING
) .3 4-H--I-H
3 .6 H-H-Ic--H
I
-
-
,
-
- I-
).0 TEN-FOOT PROPELLERS 3155-6 & }156-6 =U'
TESTED AT PRT, ""CA, JAN. 1941. I
H-I-H-+---I OF SINGLE- AND
I
2.8 PUSHER PROPELLERS
I-+-I--h' '-+-1 HAV I NG FRUM TwO TO EIGHT BLADES'
BY BIERMANN AND GRAY, FEB. 1942.
t
i H+-,
2.6 td:ti:mnmum:::nnm+tt!jzttttmi$tt\=l+H=J:=H=H4=H=+=HH:f=H=H=H
1+++-;- +
I
2.
I ,
4
; I
I
t
I I
+-
,

2. 2
;
f\
-
L
I
rlL
/1 :.L
111
- .. j
-j
IJ
I I
2. 0
-f'r
VB-
t:>

1-
1+
(1
C
p
- - -
-j..Ii1b'
t
1---'_.+
I
--
I .8 , I
t
I--t
tIl;
lit/I)
II

t

l
-
I! I I:
II
I
.6
1}n
I '!'Cent
7
j
k
r\ :
\>!i)/,
II tt
J
f\
CY.'
.4
"- +
if
-
I


1/ +[1
- t-
.2
I
M
/ -Ii
\
I-
II
-
i
,
No
,
.0 ,

.8

I I
.6
1'- I
I
I'
I
30'
A: I , /,;f
.4
IN. v 10. I
25'
A
L/f
Y'\
20'
I
/fiV I:
!'-< ...-1
.;.-
.2
<"'1:
I
1++
t -t-

ta:t:'
+ I'

H-so'
55 60' .a't .75R= 55't ,
'40'
.'; 1.0 1.5 2.0 2. '7 '.0 3. '7 4.0 ... 5 5.0 :.5 6.0 L.5
V/n D
Reference: Gray, W.H. and Mastrocola, Nicholas. Representative Operating Charts
of Propellers Tested in the NAGA 20-Foot Propeller-Research Tunnel.
NAGA WR 1',-286.
iOr' , I
S'

'1

g

. .9
8
.7
fi6 (, ,('148 ,.1
I" "'

.....
......

"':::r:
o
.....
'>6
.6
ry
52
5

'1 0.
''<'J
tIl':!
Ib'\l>
0.'1
"'.0.
...
0..
c+t::t
;r.

=i


\.Tu.
OJ
c+
..
g,
(J)
!oj'

I
/.2 /6 2,9 24
I I
D,
1)3'
i I
1
D,
't I I I +--l----t-JD,
I I tt1
D
'f
,u_ ,ll I I I Inn u, D; - j I In j
28 32 36 4.0 44 48 52 5.6
Cs
6.0
40 ,,-
3.6
3? 0
?8
2.4
20
i6
12
8
.4
/0
o Dx
[;4-
g

70
"_4J"
.4 8 It? 1.6
1,','/',.- .1. j "/' _-fl-- -- ,.,
35' 40 45" I
,- '7>" __ : s.0"_ __ 55" ..... ___ _
-. ,-, 60
. 6,50 -
4 blade
6
8
56
52
48
44
. I
Efl,r'em.y .
, 36
I I II \,1
J
20 24 28 32 36 4.0
Cs
i I
, I . I
D,
D.;
I I I

l 1_ _L _L __ _
44 48 52 56 6.0
32
v
n])
28
24 I
20 I
16 I
/.2
.8
.4
0
I
Figure 61. - Composite skeleton C chart for two-, three-, four-, six-, and
eight-blades; single rotation; propellers 3155-6-1.5.
_igure 62. - Composite skeleton C chart for four-, six-, and eight-blades;
dual rotation; propellers 3155-6-1.5 and 3156-6-1.5.
5:

1:1

\1\

(J)
H

(J)


Z


Z


"J

0

::u

>
'"
(I)

f--+--I--+ -_.-
.4"--_.--- -1- i 1
. --

9f-- __ __ -I- - f-- ,_____ - _____
! I-- --+--+-- --f--- -- I-- ---_ -- '==-"--C f--- Di
I-- - 1--1-- - --
7 __ _'---_ ,---+-- -- - - -t
D .4 .8 1.2 1.6 20 24 2a 3.2 3.6 4.0 4.4 48 52 56 6.0 6.4
C,
Fip;ure 56.-Composite skeleton C
s
chart for three four six and eight-blades. Single
rotation. Propeller 3155-6.
1.9
Ii
f f f f - 1.2
1
1-1- n r- I
I' "
I
1 t - t
} .
f 1
.4 j 1-
01 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ++++-+- I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
.9
D,
E.
i-
Bf +--
f--
. 4
} -}

L .
.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4
I
D,
.54- I
D,
5.-'----
t
ill -I
t:l11--JJJ_ LLttrI
32 36 4.0 4.4 4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0 64

Figure 57.-Composite C
s
chart for four -. six -, and eight blades. Dual rotation.
Propellers and

<0
'1
g
o
(1)
ttl
,...
j
'is

0.

0.
8
g . .,.
"". CJl
.... :x:
'1
o
H
t.1
a (f)
::1\ [.j
t; r,:
<0 'f ej
(1)>-3 0
:
<1> txl
txlf-' (f)
,... H
()Q >-3 Q
t:T<o Z
""CO
"" 0
to g:
11>0 ;u
0. .... >-3
<1> (f)
!II (f)
.

o
>.


;u

d-f-'
it:\:, (/)
<00
;uS-
<0""
'g
'1()Q
""'d
1:-''''
I ..
w:r

. ';/



III
i::;
<1>
f-'
'"

Fig. A2e.6. flelicO"pter tower test datI! fitted by fMlllv of str"ight
lines of form loS CQ. = k1 k2 (lOOOCr wi th k2 I: 1.15
PE of
50 l Sym.
Ref. TN te/ce 105k
1
105 kl Notes
x 2318 .027 .20 5.5 2
( _8
0
twist)
2277 .038 .15 5 1
T,Il. 1698 .042 .15 5 1
45 t- T ,0 1698 .060 .12 9 1 (Febric, not smooth)
x 2318 .076 .20 14 2
T : ARR-L5F25b. Full scele tunnel test check points.
I
40
35
30
(1000 Gr)2
25
20
15

1000 Cr
10
5
a A A,iL -='- I.. I (Sc8\e A)
o n ?n .,0 I." 50 60 70
'b /J 50
.. ... +- -_ ... +--_.
3J Jl 40
SC/lle B CL- (- r
Scale C ..
;,.\ 6.5
dO
fj)
.5b
6
55
5
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
o
18
16
14
t
12
10
8
6 .
4
2
T,O
x
A2e.7. Helicopter tower test d"tll by femUy of str"ight
linea of form loS C
Q
I: k3 k4 (1000Cr)3/
2
with k4 2.7
FE of
Ref. TN ta/ce loSk
3
loS k3 Notes
2318 .027
2277 .038
1698 .042
1698 .060
2318 .076
.20
.15
.15
.12
.20
4
3
3
7
11.5
0.5
0 .5 (_80 twist)
1.0
0.5
1.0
0.5 (F"bric, not smooth)
1.0
T = ARR-L5F25b. Full sCl!le tunnel test check pointe.
(1000
1000 Gr
7
6.5
6
55
.5
4.5
4
3.5
3
25
2
1.5
1
. 1 N,V I J., 1.1 1" '1Ji 1f 0
Sco1e BOlO

Sc"le C 0
:P fro i
o
60
10 20 Jl 40 50

.';.;
gj
E::
8



g

II-
A2e:14
100
90
80
100
70
90
60 80
70
50
60
40
50

30
40
II ..
'0 10
Fig. A2e :8.
100
80
70
60
lDVERING POWER CHARI' FOR 2 BLADE HELICO:rrERS
For example below
start here.
<-t. __ __ cr == .025
D, f't , for 'If : 1000#
t
i
location for
interpo13tion
"
..
III

t:
0 g 15
'" .
u
-
BhPhr
W/IOOO
forr! st
---
-
- -
speed12R. !t./sec.
10
9

......

8

7
6
5
15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 100
150
4
.,5
10
Hovering Power Chart for high-drag 2-blede helicopters based on l05c
Q
: 900a3/2. 2.7(1000Cr) 3/2,
as in Fig. 5:6. (See p. 5.22 for high drag 3-blede helicopters.) Example: For a 1000 lb. helicopter of
40 ft. diameter to go 50 mph at SL without stell of retreating bledes, Illld to hover at 7000 ft. (where.fPOl{i
1.11), calculate !!quiv. SL diameter. 40/1.11 36 ft. Fer each solidity (e.g.G: .025) draw vertical line
(like broken line with arrows above) fran D 36 to mphrs 50; reedl1R .. 330 !t./sec. and Bhp 35.
A2f:l
AEIiODYNAKlC DATA
Notation for performance charts in this
appendix from NAG A Report 408.
W Gross Weight of Airplane, lbs.
Rated brake horsepower of engine.
esm c Design speed power coefficient of propeller.
x Vm
_15_2/5
BhPm RPloIm
See table of engine characteristics for 100
Csm/mph,
vm - Maximum speed of airplane, mph
RPMro Rated RPM of propeller
'1\ m Maximum propeller efficiency, see Page A2e: 1
ThPm .1) mBhPm'" Maximum thrust horsepower av; ilal.le.
f tlat plate of drag coefficient CV-l.oo,
equivalent to parasite drag and runimwr vd.ng
profile drag, sq. ft.
fl. ;",'1. 26 = usual U. S. definition 0"' equi vnlimt
flat plate. To estimate f', add wing drag
and drag of component parts and multiply by
interference factors as follows:
Flying wing 1.00 to 1.10
Cantilever monoplane 1.00 to 1.15
Braced monoplane 1.05 to 1.20
Single bay biplane 1.05 to 1.25
Mult-iple bay biplane 1.10 to 1. 30
f/S Effective parasite drag coefficient, typical
w
f
values below:
Flying wing
Clean monoplane, wheels retracted
Clean biplane, well cowled engine
Military biplane, commercial braced
monoplane
Airplane with uncowled engine and
little streamlining.
- Span, ft
Span factor (for biplanes)
.010 to .020
.020 to .035
.035 to .050
.045 to .060
.050 to .070
= Airplane efficiency factor, which depends on
cleanness of design and dP/dN of engine; for
dP/dN = 1.00 values of e usually lie in the
ranges indicated below;
Flying Wing
Clean monoplane, elliptical
fuselage
Biplane or braced monoplane,
rectangular fuselage
Flying boat
For a close estimate of e, assume
1 = .l. + A (l)
e ew e f
.95 to 1.00
.85 to 1.00
.65 to .95
.60 to .90
and read l/e.. andO(l/e)f see A2f: 1 and A2f: 2
4. = thrust horsepower loading, lbs./hp,
= Lp = uarasite loading, lbs./sq.ft.
_-::1'1 __ = Ls = effectibe an loading, lbs./sq.ft,
e(klb) 2 /
ceiling parameter = _
Lp
Typical vahes- of Afor current mifi-
tary aircr;ft as follows:
Pursuit
Observation
Training or Bombardment
Patrol or heavy boats
Cruising speed, mph
Rate of climb, ft./min.
4 to 11
7 to 14
10 to 20
15 to 30
= Rate of climb at Sea level, ft./min.
= Absolute ceiling, ft.
Service ceiling, ft.
Minimum t:llre to climb to altitude,
minutes.

v.
2-
Ii'
N
c
11"\
2
0
9
!
>-'
>0.:
1
f-cx 0
OLU
LUI.
It-
1- ....
-ICX
t-
W
1
f-Q
.I
z
f-
1
o::\!l
f-Il.
I
1
f--J -J
<=> /
V
i ..
J
'b,<i/ .. ..,

J
...JU
f-jj , \
V \l \
"
"
'"
-
Q
I.AJW
QU
z-
wI-
S("J
:e<
oCX
uO-
w
a:


//\
C> 0\ CO
"

- c) c) d <::i

It'> <::>
'"
N
- -

-lJ
-
r-----

-"'t' ........
:"l.......... /'
/' /'
o /1 "

/ 'v."'f'"


<\.I-


-S
I
Sj'-
Jh.'\/
Ir'\
-1:10 -

I

I
I"-: r
I
:i

,
0
w
CC

1.1-
f- -
/:
\
I/)
\

t-
\ Z
\ \ Vl<
C
I
--"'.
\
_ Cl..
...J
,-
/
'
a::
1'" \
L&J
::J:
'"
...
i
k "
0

50
400
350
300
250
Vm
m.p .h.
200
~
~ ~
~ ~
~
V -poi'" f<'
V "V' i-"
~
V V ~ vV' ~
r--
"V v 1:/ .
po -. C---
//
Y ~ V
i-'
~
YVV
150
100
V ~
V /"
V
V
./
/
/
V
/
,V
/
/
/
./ ./
~
V
V
V
/'
V
L / V
V//V'
~ _ Thpm
V ~
""""It - f
:2
3 4 5 b 8 10 20 30
90
80
70
60
./
,.!,}

//
. ~
~ Y .
~ 1 1 ~
~ ~ ~
.;:
'/1/
Ls4. = 0
.-
1-'/ /' 1"'1
~
~
f/
,/
LsLt : 30
----
h V
LIIL
t
: 60
h ~ V
Ls4. = 90
?:
~
V LsLt = w
2
T
I '(k'j"T'

Equlltion V 52.8 \{jThPm - O.ll LsLt
m f
.- .-.
40 -,0 0 80 uu \JU J"U
~ ~
-?
~
~
-?
v
4JU -'uu IlDC I
500
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
90
80
70
60
o
K>
..,
I\)
a
~
~
I>'l
~ ~
>i ffi
:0
g ~
~
~
70
60
50
40
20
::.0
9
8
7
6
5
4
PERFORlfANCE GRAPHS:: PARAm'ER .It
""-
.......
"
'"

"

K

f'
........
"





........
r-.....
"" i'-.
..........
........



"
i'-....
"-

........

,
r--.....
........ "
r"-
r--....


K

i'-....


.



r--....


r-.....
.It
['-..

........
r--...



'"
'"
'"
f'..

...
r--....

I"


'"
t'......
"
..........

r--...
"'-

........

i'....


........
ThP
m
---
it t
4 5 6 7 8 ') 10 20
Fig. A2f, 4 (;hart for Ca1culEtion of Perfonnance
P;rameter A
Equation: A = Ls4/&,
A2f:3
LLt- w2
8 - e(Klb)2 ThP
m
'"
'"
"

"
'"
'"
'"
r........

r--...
"
r.....
"-


.......

.......
"

r........
r--...
'"
'"

'"
t'-.....
'"
.......
'"
'"
r--...
'"
t'-...
'"
'"

,...,
........

.........
"
'"
...........


...........
........
'"
"
........
i'-....
"-
........
A2f:4
PERFORMANCE GRAPhS - CLI1!B
17
.........

Eff. Prop. All Csm


p. = 0.80 , ,.....--
---
dN Best perf. Prop. Csm=1.6
......

'"

,
dP = 1.00
(Peak Erf. Prop. All Csm
--
'"
I"

----- ----- (Best perf. Prop. Csm 1.6
-
dN
I' r-...
.... ,
"'
"
" " "
" Csm - 1.2
t"-,

I"
[\.
_____ n
" "
" Csm = .9
I'......
"
f'-. r'\
,.

'-.

1\
"
""
'"
f',
"
r'\
f\
h.
,
I\. 1\

...........
"',
"-
1\

1\

"-

'\. 1\

f\
Approx. Equation:
.....
i\
-.....
I'
......... ,
"
"
"
'\
1\
1\
1'>. LtCh = 1800 - 320Jl

"
"
C
h
= Climb ft./min.
" .....

1\
"
L
t
= \'I/thpm
I'-........ I\.
........
."
-,
"
"
I\.
\
\
r",

I'
i'\
[\
r-....
"-
r-- "
1\
1\
\ .. \
'"
,
" f"
"


\

'"
I"
t\

'"
'"
...
'\.

1\ 1\
' ..... .....

i'.
'\ I'
1'\
1'>'
\
\
........

r---
1\
,
f\
'"

1\
,
"'-
"- K.
1\ [\
h'
"
'I
r---
f\
1\

\\\
\\\
'.
1\.


,
f\ \
l\,


,
r-..
f'..
1000
"-
'\.
'I
f\,
1\
1\



"- r\
\

1\
I' r\ 1\ \
"'\
i\

'\\

l\
"
1\
\

r\
\
1\
\
\ \
,


\


1\ ,\
1\
\\\ \
I' I\.
\

\\\



[1.
r\ \ \'

\


I' \\ '\
\ \
\

,.





1\ \
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
A.:a LsLt 4/3
\

\\

,


\ o
4 5 6 7 8 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fig. A2f,5 Climb Chart (From NACA Rept. 408; dP/dN = 0.8 added)
PERFORHANCE GRAPHS - CEILING
A2f:5
35

H =
Ceiling
Efficiency Prop. All Cam
feet
.sm - 0.80
dn
-
Best Prop. C
sm
1.6



I"
{peak Efficiency Prop. All Cam
.....
dP - 1.00
Best Performance Prop. Csm 1.6
'"

d.N -
" " "
Csm = 1.2

---
n n It
Csm = 0.9

"

,------
0
30000
2500
5000
0':

"

I\. '\
"-...,



"
o(

' .....







' .....






",
I\.
00 .....
r--."'. "'-

'.


"

1\


,
"
'\
L :: 45.7 - 25.2 LOG A




1\
/ 1000 10



\.

"

,

,


1\ /
"





h'


\\

",


,

'"



\.
\
\
\
.......
..................
",
I'--:


0-




"


,
\

"

'"

\
"
0
"

"
",

"' ....

t\ \
\
'"






\
,


"'-

"'.
K





,
"C\
"

'"
t'\
L"
f'.
00
r"-,
f'., 1"\ I'




t'-.

1'\

.-

t\. ",

f', t\
t\

t'-.
r'\
r-,




r'\
t\
r'\

t\
t\
10
I,
r-...
r'\




1'1, 1\
r'\
", , h


II-


t\




l\.
""


,

t\
A= LsLt 4/3.


r\

1/3
"
,


1\
,
0

'"
200
15000
100
4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 30 40 50 60 70
Fig. A2fs6 Ceiling Chart (From NACA Rept. 408: dP/dN = 0.8 added).
DA.rA ON U.S. CIVIL AIRPLANES, MARCH 1954
A2f:6
U. S. Personal and Business Aircraft
! :!; H j i, 1_ II
, 5!! lill' 1m ! I - i
I ....... ,mak _ 1 j 5 .. f .
Manufaeturer and Addr_: Designation
I
- '"i ! 'ih .. :l! i. i i to Iii H
.,.."of"",,,,, If 1 1. "H 'I - ! 1 = ! I J
1
E-t"i*i!'-".I.!i. 31''''''' III a
'j :i j Ii." !ii j:$i. ! > I I - -
-"-- ---"-- __
l'FlywgAuto) 2!11LYC 0200-D2@13Sbp 113"'12411950 1'00[34' 1'1' ,.:,. "f 190 1
125
,000
050 I 900 '00 000 I 150 150 5500 3800 H' .;J-i'2!.I. 1i , 212 .'iI'Ili1,OOO
Aero thlslgn &
En!2ineef!ng Cur;I.
Beiltallll, Okla.
1
1
"'1
1
/1.,24 ; I ' , I I i I
"I I '"" 000 0 69" 1.04525' 3.
1
", ,.1
1
""!, II"
i"IIFr'@165hP.m2\o\4! :,.1. ii !. J
Long Bead, CaN. I 1 ' :
Anderson, Greenwood iAG-14 : 2 1 ('')n. C90-1ZFP@90 hp 1;00..,..-119,('00-1-) -150 23 '1.-400 S50 34' 22' ; s' 1120 $4,495
Co. 1 1 ' I' I , '
BeUairt, Tez, I I "I
BaumannAitctaftCotp. 'BrigadierB-290 512con.cHs@H5hpiI19Q 1170 750 75* 3,500* Z,25O'* U' 2i' 5'10'. 1
213
PacoIma, Cd( I
Beech Aircraft Cotp. Dl&STlrinBeech 8 2P&WR985-B5@450bP.,230'1'1I11,76011.460:1,1902()'500'H5'2068.750'i.i70 .47' 8"' 34' 349 '187.0.50
Widllla, Ka'!. EI8S TlI"l.n Beeeh !!34 . 11.5iO :1.2.50 :1,455' ,UOO ,IiOO,(XXI*
E35Bolll>ilW 41IConF.z25-8@2Uhp.\[94"l54,1.009
I
jO-;\I.300:19.1))]830 39 1.875 3:.!'jIj' :5' Ijj\1$19.990
B5QTwmBonarua 612Lye,G0435-C2@260hp. i:05 :1,258 11,37511.450 :20,00) '1,088 134,0.000 3,9,11] 45'3,' ,ll' Zii ${!9,950
Inc. t ! I i .....
IQueenBee 41Lyc.0320@150hp. 11i5\'II: It,oo) 70011.000;:6.0(() 1700'36
1
2,150 32'iO'
Bellanca Aircraft Corp, 14-19 Cruiaem.a.mr 4 I Lye, 0435-A@190hP,II-luoo;,22,50011 9C(I 51 '2.600 '34' 2' i23' 161 5
I
I :: )1130, II :::6
1
i.Ui5
CassnaAircraftCo. 170 lCon.C145@145hp. 140 1120 : .. 1690 :15,500......, 1-5 $8,m
WichIta, Kat!. 180 ICon.0470-A@225hp. 11115 1160 I 1..ltiO P9,SCO I 675160 Z,5.'iO 1,460 .36 :6 6' n $129.50
195 LC-126A IJacohllRi55@300hp. 165 1 I !1.200 1.18'300 i50: 80 !3,3.50 ,2,030 ,36' 2' :- 2' 218 1$24700
310 2con.0410-B@2-whP'lm2051'111.7O 20,000 I' '7 :r 1t -5
1
$49,9.50
Cnloniai Aircraft Corp, C-I Slimmer 1 Lye. 029Q.D@130hP.\'I2.5iI151,700....7OOII4011950h300I,:H,'!l810'1150e$11,MO
Hllrnir.gton, L. I., x.r I, I, I I I
Ha!lo All"CI'aft Corp, 8:-391CourierYL-24 ,I ILyc.G0435-C2B@Z60bp. 11.57 500 i 500 IUOO !'l7,CO} 600 60 28(X) 1,900 39' 130 W 231 $24 500
'I I I I I
Lanier Airuafl Corp. Panplane2 2ICon.C90@OOhp. li t24 1108 2.50*11,225 I 20' .5' n' 4' 107 I
J{lI'l.Icm. x,J. I I I I I I
Meyers Aircraft Co, 145 ICon. CH5-2H@14:ihp. 11M 160 1500 575: 960 i18,000 600 32
1
19JO 'I 2.SO 30' 2110' <) 155 $9
Tec1.!mJeit,.\{lCh, 200 lCon.0470-E@225hp. 1961182 l.050118,00) 700 2600 1625 3{1' 4' 23'''18' \150 $16000
MooooyAirera!t,lnc, ISLA Mite ,I il4oel125 II 780 ' 520 25'lQi'17 951
Kerr-Nit, Tez. 2() _ u"- <>- h )li6 lSI 'iI,260 121,900 718 2,000 1,049 35' 23 2+" s 3t' 1689
Piper Ail'ttaft Corp, PA-18 Super Cub 2 I Lye. Q290..D2@ 135 hp, 12: 1'2 50CI 5OJ" 0.50 120 500 .50;) 36 J 500 I 895 135, 3' 122, 51 6 178 5, $5 095
Lot-kHarf7l, Pa, PA-1896SuperCub Z ICon.C90@90hp. :110 1100 952 800 1"624 ii3;500 al50 181,500 I SOO 35' 3' 22' 4' 6 17851 U,196
I
'PA-I8-A 135 1:2 1 Lye 0200-D2@136hp.!la5!i102IO'60011,000',19,500.5003611.500l930'.35'3'22'4,1 6 7'1 liS 5 $5 195
,P.-\-20Pacer "4 ILyc'.0290-D2@135hp. '139 '12.5 ,800115(0) MO 36'1.950'1,050'29' 3"'2()' 4' '37' 1475 $6275
4 1 Lye.Ozoo.D2@1351p.137i!23iSO):15:0IXI 580 i,I . '"",08.\16' :29,.,: 3' 20,7' 4,: 9' ',: 5,1 ,,$6, ill
PA.-23 Apa.cbe 42Lyc.032O@I50hp_ lIE() ;16i !,t{)() 670il,350i2O.(0) S5Q ''''I >JVV , .....,.. iAN
Rawdon Bros.Aireratt. Inc. T-I 21Lye.0320@150hp. 40 .,30 tJOO 600,000 :19,(0) 600 H 11,90011.215 '33' 4' 6,1'171 3'! 167 I.
Wichita, Kalt. I
'i' I I ii'
StitsAircraft Junior II 1185 ,165 800 1.000 1.000 I .. 75 4f 584 393' 8'1(Y ,11' 4'1""' 2' 311 I
P. O. Bex MJ8'; Siybaby .... "" h ''215 ,1'l.'l 800 800 1.600 i. JOO 5 1)60 452 I 7' 'l! i g' 10', 5' I 26.5
RiKTlide, Calif. Pia boy BAJA' 1 II Con. CSS-8@81hp. il70 :155 350; 600 >1300 114,000 I 16 54{) :20' 6' j17' .{': 5' 3' 90 I 12:500'
SlNIak Aeto Corp. ,3Ut -2255 2"jLn.@mhp.2381225490i""12,8IOi27'00011,35000'25'3'22'6':8' 1-1. .... 1
P. O. Boz 81 I ' I I I . 1 I I I
Ta= BC-l2-D De Luxe i 211 Con. CM@ 65 hi>. 105 i 95 j 350 i 710! 600 :'5.CO} I 45(}. 25 ,200 i80 136
1
4.
1
21' g'; 6' 6,11&1.7 $3,060
P1. f15AG Topper . 1 / Con.@2"..5hP..:l
l
'.,1
1
122\I,Z50\560I,9Ui;17 300 400, 42 ,0Uj 1,:ill 36' 5' Z4' i' a"1186.3! $8,950
TemtO Aircraft COI'p. 'Twin :S-anon' "' .2 Lye. oo20@I.50hP.1iOI'700'5501,400'20,000600. 60 ,350 ,2,300 ,33' H' 27'
I "
U. S. Civil and Military Transport Aircraft
ManufatlUl'9I'
and Addreu
FairehfldAlretaftOiv.
Fairehild En!Jjnt I:
Airplane Corp_

e-AMnlimata.
Alt.-Allison,
Dils/fInaUon
Plt,W - Pratt" Whltntoy Alrcntt
Wr.-Wrighl

!---
i
!
Eahp.-Equivalentshafthonoapower.
HII.-HOI'a&I)(rWW.
lb.l- Pwnds thrust.
I EstImatedd.atL
Former Chua Alnnft Co.altI!lane to be prtI(!uced
by FalrchHd.
I R1V-2 wHl have P&W T34 turbo9roPs.
i
0" lr
'd !I
:J.p- ..
!
"
- ..
f
f
i


i
t
J
f
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1
!:
. -
.
l"
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f
Il ..
.. ..
- :Ii
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f
mmm
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r:
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., :.'!I': l!! Z g ;,01':
i -r I f ir
:, !"'"- J" if [". l'
@ . i II II "83 i :
. @ U
,.. " '4'
p iii.
!l l!! .. I
_. --;- - - -- --I MSt.1mom IPIMI (mph.)@--
__. __ I
.5 l
f j
_ _ ' .. ("-) '" I
*ii _----- _ [;i!:l ........ (m;:;

>'
::!
o
z

l:l
f

,u:

______ __ -<! !:l -:-- _ !!is: -T ........... _-dIJ( .. '!ll
i i
g
i .. ........ 1 :Ii
... : ;: " ::; ; ;----:"--- I
.... 8 Ii: " II ,,OJ
..
s-
if
!
i
---: -------1 No.orrotcn- ---
J
... rn ... 13:
:l(!!g; ..
0: "i-t g
1 -------'----'---
. .-. - ITotaIroIOI'bIad.... ....
( .. -"-)
: s; t!

f
.
uc+c+td
::l.
J;:I () (Ii to
..
>c1' ..... 0
..... omt-'
!
0' .....
",:--.1
"'W
{O
" tJ
o
J:j p,.:J
()QW
{OO'I"-
toT '<I tJ :Il
o .. 0
'1 ttl ..
ct-
t:r't;t I 0
D' ..... 'O CI
(t) 0
t-'P-CDt:s"
'" <> tc:I (Ii 'd
" '1
'1 0
? b
I
: "i: ..
: 0;::
.,
.,
'"';::
..
Ii!
.,
::

..
: e IM .. -' ....... (bIa ....
.. 9
I f ...... mulmum width
. t
10..,." helght .. tap of
.. -
:;-
QI
a..
s
IQ
cr
...
!!.
IQ
:=I
::E:
!!..
-. ,.,.
o
"C
-
tD
...
'"
U. S. Civil and Military Helicopters
I
1 ___ ___ 1 PerfotmanM IFUell Weight. I MaIn Rolor
11 -" ! 'I
g ',!11 i t f:ll" 1-1 Ii!
._ """' .......... ..-, 11 'ill l!'1 i .i @. ! B
"C:I andmall.1akeofI .. .. :I' ! .iii 2l
Manufacturer and AddreSi DuignaUon
i I .-.,,",'00 'I i c til i 12 n 1
j i I fl J I , I J i i J !!,1 f 11

Am.. "*, H.loopler Co., Inc
MaMaUan ilNCI!, Calif.
Bell Alr.... tt Corp..
Helicopter OM,Ion
Ft. Wm-Ilt, Tf;t,.
Brantly Helloopl .. Corp.
%l'ennEltulicCfI.
PhllatUl"hia, Pa.
C.. NI AI""H Co.
IIJiropltr f}if'iaiOI1
Widiita., Kan .
Convertawlnp. Inc.
Amitvn"Ue, N. Y.
Doman Hellcoplers. lilli,
Dan/'Ilr". Conn.
O",odyonfl Co. of America, Inc.
St. James, 1,.1., N. Y.
Hm .. HeiIOOfIf.... Inc.,
l'al"A,J/o, Calif.
Alnnft Envln" Co.
PoCUtotun, Pa.
Kaman Alrtn.ft Corp.
WirnflarTJOrk" Con".
McCullocIt Motort Corp.
Alnn" Dlvltlon
Lo.AnoNeI', Calif.
MoDonneil AI""" Corp.
St.IMlt., Mil.
Au_I Helloopier Corp.
Mtlrion,Pa .
8IJt:onky Alnnft Dfvlslon
United Alnnft Corp.

XH26 1 I 2 AHC AJ6.75 pu!.ejri
"'
Uhr.IMI 7001 8001111
,.
47G
61
200
8-130
XH8L1
XV31
I: 13"II'I,531
41
'wl ,...1"'\'
B-2 21 I Lyo.@IMhp. 300+121 I 1,2110 7411118123' 1 ... I17'wI3'WI 6'IO'
CRI
QlIadrotnr I 2 I Con. COO @ SIS hp. 1,0&0 4 I 4 I la' .:30' &"130'8"'15' 0"
L1r15
2C
3
24
alS'
YR-31
Helidyno
UH-12R H2.1B
m1 Yn-32
, 11 Lye. S0580D @ 400 hp.
3 1 Lye. 80580-D @400hp.
'II P&:W IUlatl@400hp.
18 2 P.tW RI340 (it 1,200 hp.
3 2 Turboprop
73 2 Turboprop
". I ... 1'0001 ____ _1"'1'000 , ..... , , 1'1"" I'" I" 1'' , .
104 1,300 1,300 ...... f1 4,410 1 4 48' :::: 38' A' 10' 15'
'" 1""'
1
__
HiO 1,0lI0 ....
1t3 1,000 .
304 2,31!O ..
""1'001"8110 1"""'1'1'1'"
3110 IBIS 12,800 7,800 J 2 112'
1H 833 70,000 21,629 2 2 110'
IlOO .... 81,600 ....... 2 ., 8S'
""I'"
.... 112'
... 110'
SB'
I:: :.
'1,Y,-&Vt-:IIlII-C3II@ ... ,- I" 1
770
1 ..... 1'''' 1"1 , .... 11.... 1'
2 2 ramjet@ 32Ih.t. 711 830 4,000 31 52 1,200 t30 I
,.. 1".'I'rT' "I --- 1" '0'
23' IS 221' 3' 0' 8'
'04'
151 tJaoobeR7M.ER@3lSOhp. 1170 h,40014,oool MO 13& IH,8f7 1',110 jll.1 all' I u J211' 4'114' 110' IIr
K-WJ HTKI
K-3 fiOKl
K-'
t Lye. OWl @ 340 bp.
1 PAW RI340@ 600 bp.

.. ' .... 1.7001 40 Il,too I ',180 121' I""
1 2 t7'
, ,
MC'....C YH-30 ,""'_M.-"",-GO@>""hp_ 1"0 h.oool . oool 200 1 .. 1' .... 1' .... 1' III,.,
..
"
PD22
PH ....'
PDlS
PD1S
B-1S2
S-M
B-lI.
XHCH-t
XVII
YH.lft UI2P&WRZtSO.tl@U60bP.
YH-HIA 43 JAil. T38@I.800hp.
H2IA 18 I Wr. @ 1,160 bp.
H-2IB II: C 22 1 Wr. RISZO-Io.'l@ 1,425 bp.
H.MA 6 I Con. R0764n@ 1525 bp.
nUN! "t Con. R9715-46 @ 6211 bp..
YH-IS 411 JI'r. flV8-2IS-BHIF fj)' MIS hp..
H.IOA O-tZ I p&:W Rt340-StHI@ 000.
XHR2St ZS 2 P4:W R2600@ 1,900 hp
'"
12&+ 200 1 __ .130.,..,+,. 111]82'
, 1
3
1'"
' .. +1 _____ 1 __ . ___ 1""'1100 1''0lI0+1 _____ 1' I '"
140+ I,m 15,800 100 300 1",000+ 8,600 I ! '
100 1,000. ..... fOO 1110 11,100 3,"28 , 3 M'
103 1,000 ..... 400 1110 6,100 4,182 2 3 3tS'
111 1' .... 1'.""'1 ""I'" I '.700 1' ... 1' 1'1'"
:. 2::: I 51'
''''' 1'"1'1' .. 147' ':,. '0' ,.
.. 31' 5'14'2'19' 3'
. 10'
77' .,..1 .. '
:177' II' 23'11' 25'
52' 11"14'2'16'
"1S2' 11'14"'111'
32' 8' 12' fI-
.. 32' 8' 13' Z"
::8"11:: ::
- Approximate. Con. - Continental. Lyo.-L,........
AHC - Amerltan Helicopter Co.
All. Allloon.
IConyertlpiane
Fr. - Franklin (A,lrcoolod Molors). P&W- Pratt" Whftney Aircraft.
Wr. -Wriyhl.

..,
--.I
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(:I


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...

..".
U.S. RESEARCH A!BCRAFT. MARCH 1954
U. S. RESEARCH PL>I.:-iE FLEET (reading clockwise from lower left): Bell XIA, Douglas D-;;8-I, Convair XF-92A,
Donglas D;;8.II, Northrop X-i. Douglas X3 is in center of group. Specifications of airplanes are in table below.
U. S. RESEARCH AIRCRAFT

Manufacturer
and Address
i
I
I.. : h
l I __________________ i i-
S. :::!
! f Remarks
: __ __ ' J j
Bell AlruaftCQfJI,.
Buffalo, N. Y.
Consolidated VulllKl
AlnnftCOl1l.
San DUgc, Calif.
Douglas Aircraft Co.
EIStgUMa, Calif.
Ci
I X-I
i X-IAI
'I X-2
i X-5
i XF-92A
!
,
:D-55S-1
I D..s58-II
I I R..\1HOOO-C4 @ 6.000 lb. i. 1 ,COO
: I RMI XLR-ll-&'\f-.5@6,(OOlb.t. 1,5S0
111 C-W Rocket. 2,250
j 1.ill.J35-A-17@4,9001b.t.
: 1 All.]33.A29@5,200Ib.t.+
I
11 .ill. J35-A-ll@5,000Ih. t.
I 1 RMI Rocket'@6,00l1h. \.
i 2 W .. J34-WE--17@4,5OO1h. t.
1
! 60,000 113,069 28' I 34' 6' 10' 10' 1-"-'''''--'-. ---
: iO,OOO ! IS,COO I 28' I 35' 7' lQ' g' i Turbine driven fuel pump.
, 100,COO ;.. I I St&nless-trt.eel;nrep;wings,K-Monel
fuselage,t&i1
9,[I{KI . 32'9'! 33' S' ,12'-2' Yariable-sw-eep.....mg!. Transonic trials.
15,COO 31'3' 42'5' 11'8" Delt&-wingre!le&l'cb.
i 10,(0) 25 35'1'
: 21:00j:
45'3'
56'9"
1z'Z'
11'6"
Set rtrocd of 650.6 mpb.
Win&'1J1I'ept35 deg.
3I.titude rESeSrCh.
! X-3
('
1 ! 2Weet.J30@1,600Ib.t. Northrop AIrcraft, Inc.

10,000 1,000 26' lO" 23'4' 14'10' Semi-tailless sweptwing. Righ-lnD.5onic
-
-Approximate
All. -Allison
e-W
RMI- Reaction Motors. Inc.
West.- Wt5tInQhouse
Lb. t. - Pounds thrust
AVIATION WEEK, March 15, 1954
lOther venlON: X.1B, X1D. Each will collect
specIftc: dam!n supersonic r99lme. X-1D de-
stroyed test progAm 8-23-51.
Wlnp fully forward. With wings sweat. span is
Z3ft.41n.
1000Qinally fttted al80 with one J34
to provldt talc.eoIf power and climb to altitude.
TwtIoJet l.atat removed from at least one of
three Skyrodo:eb: to make room for more
PlanetheocaniedalGftlnbelly
of P2B-1S Superlortms..
{ Thi! soeed achieV9d COI.I'Se of high.speed.
higl\.tJtitudetJial!.
i Originally 2iWe&lngoou...'08 J48 jets of IIIlPI'Oxl.
matel} 1.000 lb. thrust each seheduled tor X.a.
Nike Missile and Booster.
Research aircraft speed marks
Military aircraft speed records
IUl..wA MkK 2.S' ____________________ _
...... ______________
lJ.-SS8-E _________
....... .. __________________ '--
DCU4i.A$ D-6SlI-P "AC'H .., _____
alu.IMACHI.#1 _____ M. ... "I. ..
""'.<naif ______________ ......
AVIATION WEEK, March 15, 1954
Foreign Military & Civil Aircraft
Mlnufltcturer
end Addr ...
OMII_lIon Mlnktn
s .... Powerplanlll Fuel .1 WeillhI1 DIIMnIIoM
I ... bw ...... modm i 1 f
------I-I! ] b 111 f IiI
SliUl'ld.... ROfIl'hl.
R, eMIIM,
Wight
Saottlllh ANUon Lid.

Short ...... H...... LId.
a.....' ....... B"''''
}(oriMrrIll'1lla4
_ .. Ud.


W..o.nd Alnnn L",
r-aJ.slIIMI'NI
FRANCE
CorrIItruItIonIAerotIIluHque
du B.....,
&u
Avlon. BollI.,.
IrrJlfVT-Bflirw

B.A.
Prine_
..... PIon.2
T.rin-Pion_
RB.l'i ........ .
B.A.6
B.D.. Bb!l1'pa
8.B.II Beamcw
""
700
1000
, ..
&oS
'W.3l'i
0:(10
Valiant B.!
V ..... ,
AU:&cbr P.B.!
.. Bril Y ."
WJTl!"QB.4
. lollaicab
M""""",
d'Avl.11on
Dem:-Poate
Vultur
p.,.
Ayfont MarDeI Du.ult
p.,.
AviD.. H....... Dub618

DaF .... CJt
p"",
M.DJua Plamant
M.D.4M) Ouracon
M.D. 52 MYlI'tere!
8.0.10
H.O.Sl

,0.0.,"
.. MYJltw:!.
C.M.8R18 CJclope S
C.M.170R Macidw
................ D"EhIdM" 110102
... COMtruclion de MaI"lt
GM'raut
A.. ,.,utlque! Spealeux

Sool.tt Mall HOIer.
p.,.
IocII.t, MMane-s.ulnl ..

8001", Induelrlel'. pour
L'AwoMluUqul
8l1rtlmt.
M.B.IUI Brou.w
M.A.m
MA7M
8.'2
B.2OO
8.001
8oeIet. N.tlonal. 4a Conatruo-IB.B. JI0 au.nUe'
Ilona AlI'OnaullqtH)a du Sud-Eat
POTU 8.1.2010 Armacn..
...
:alUlOOO DltOIJdeur
B.O.JON......... .
..... NadenIN .. ConIb'..... 18.0ao-P Bretape
OUMI B.O.fOIIO Vautour
PGrie 8.0.0000 Trideu.'
...... O"AvtonIetMot.w. 118
H...,.Pot.
p"",
HOI.1.ANO
DutoII AirGrafI FMtert..

8.11
It::
'atf
al4'2
F.27
Inetruetor
IlIIItnautor
(Footnotes on page A2tI8b)
112;182 6 Turborrrop
t"::x!t Itu
I AI. Leonidel'l fi01...t@ &20 bp. I''''
.,17.400 13411.000 1172,Il00 1219' 6'11117' 411'10' g-la,OtO
79
'"
1'1,400
13.600 t;m I ;;: ::: 8
'OIl
...,

'IRI'JI!('fUcb
Tranllport

ASW
1
2 AI. Looludea tI(l21 @MObp. 181
109' 102' I"tl8' 1J-11891.7 ,."._,4RRATI1nIb.t.

,
1-2;6-8
,
i .. Iii;:.I;;iooI' i;;;;I.i; "1 ii ;Olii;j'r ... :i
3

I AS Mamba
3S' 31' 3- 9'11" ..... .
M' 41' U'9' ..... .
'ii!. 1 j:i;o1 ,.:0001 ;,;;001;<;' Iii; ;olit; O'1iii
!F'ghtfr
.IFill:htft'
Fighter
Attaek
P ..... .t
P ..... .t
Iu:r
TrUlII\'lOrl 2;10
Yi"hter 1
Fighter 1
Fip;bter 1
ReftIU'ch 1
Tnt.nllpol't 3;3B
Tr&nspmt 3:42
80
Tniner
ITrainer
Fi,ht
PetllOf\a1 11;6
I
Trainer

1'l1I1DM'
P""",01
Trainer
:Tnn,port 15;10
In-t!::m

Fighter


FilMer
Attack.
i-U ;8I)-107
,
,
4;ao---u
,.
,
,
I
,I
"


,.-
w
12,300 m
1 R-RA'ftlD
t AS PythOIl I @ 4,110 hp. ,., / ".'" I to .... /... / w It< / ...
t Coo. AM M hp . to. 13 ! 1,01'18 ... 1 .. 1,8' I., 0'1 10'1
1 Renault 4 0 If!) bp.
'"
2,"6 I 1,3 I 38' 111 za' 11'10"1 III
I Jr.)::
2Rtmaultl2-8(@lI8Ohp. 2.16
t H"-o NI!III'I@ II,OM Ih \. 613
1 HiMo Tay@ 1'1.270 lb. t. 700
1 n)1IlIO Verdon @ s.oOO Ih t. 700
71Jbp. 161
@ROOhp. 174
'-02 (!) 1.200 hp. 186
0,000 (b. t.
.. 26CY'j 1 ;:;: 1 7-1
13,000 ....... 3a' 31)' .....
...
'"
I,Iff
29.832
38.170
90,405
18,8M 147' r 71' 2- 21' 10"' 1,077
::;:
1 Turbom_Palu@3301b.,- :na ..... . , ....
1I,79l'i
""" " to' , .. , ...... , ...
902 28',. 21' 10' l'i'10' 101
3,860 87' 1'1' III' 8' ...... 181 2 Turbom_ Marbore 0 83ft 420 170
,b..
1 Alar IOiC I 8,180 lb. t.
1 PlW R086@4Mbp. lh.'- 1162 l'i,202 I 1,212 I 44' I f't'
880

'.Il00
..... ::=I:i:
4-
...
, ..
lb. t.
! lb.
1 Minle fDC30 @ 76 hp. 124
2 m.o AYOIl!LA. 1ft. 0.000
Ib...
hP'Il:
1 Hi., NMII t02 @ !kIMft Ib. t. 678
1 Bnotmll Atar 10lC I!J' 1'1,160
Ib.L
b.t. 4116 hp 1m
1 Potes 8D32 @ 41SO bp
L ....
0880 8QO.
1 !.yo. OfM-A 19() bp. ,'30
1 'LJu. 0436-A 190 hp.. 125
2 P&W RIMO fIOO bp.. no
1 R-R ner-nt 8@3,.70Ib.L 4511
630
11 R-R Dart@ 1,680 bP. 280
OIl
..... , 4,035,10' I','" "'"
1.6O!I 8Sg 23' I' 17' !I'U)"'
1.320 SOli 28' 8"' 18' 10" 6' O
". ..
lao
... I ..... \ .. ... \"r "". "1 ...
71
",008 1615,000 84,070 151' 1- 128' ... .w r 1,.51
811,118 ........ &0' 1- Mi' 0' 1U' 469
10,000 1,700 :r.t8" n: S" ii"", ..
I I rr::J I =:
5,28013,685 142' r\32'10"
81 2,470 1,830 H' 7' 27' 10' 2" 1"
825 0,225 CIS' "' 718' 401 "1 ..... 1'.,..' ... 2','" ..
fliO 11.800 8,100 89' a D' 8'" 15' .. aa
'iO:iio' U; 5" 8'" 15: =
AVIATION WEEK. March 15, 1954
I
!

[

3:


r
> L-; 0
/" f

f !l
ii
ii


"'I' "'1"'0 00." [ eJ H
i!i :l'

: E'" .!'.
. g, g
________ , I
i!. t'J 0 t'J:
'" Z .. Ii' i?>!"'1i'
Ii: it d It
l r rr
g "Ji: it 0.'

g ff ff ; I
e e i
a: a:
ii

;::00
1
"'''1'''>'' ."i:; or'

i
g

.'"
: '" 1'l r
: h 0
: [f :
g:'
i:; a:
r-!'"Q

"": d/"'''' "'r:
.
flf
P
; o g h H
g; ..

Category
Deslgn.lIon
andnamo
Manufacturer
Semel!
Powerplanl mfr.
andlype

" i ,.lli: .f ,I ' '

0[[
i;-f.H"
f
if
, 0
I
"
: I:" :: 1: :' 1 r 1----------
: : : :: go: .... : ::.:: ::: 6::: , Body dll. ft
. . .. .. . .
. ... ..
__ I.. .. Ju __ -- 1
ii'
f;[s![
liue: Iii [ t I
. .'{ '<: 6''< f 3. 0
t i' "r S I c'l e.
i
'" H is . i ij :2 [ g ,
q. II - i:; - ! H
R j t i f

t I r I i I
!Z? :s:::s:: a:::s::
g.g.H
H"it
..


" g. il.
I
Remarkl!
Note I This list includes contemporary missiles and test
vehicles which are either experimental, or in pro-
duction or in serYice. No attempt hes been msde to
list the many usefUl but outdsted test vehicles such
as the North American Nativ or Cobra or eerly oper-
ationsl missiles. like the Nsvy's.Bet.
Abbnvtatfent:
ArmyOrd - U. 8. Army Ordnanea
- U. S. Nay), Bureau 01' AetOI'1aullel
Bp()rd - U. S. Navy 8Uf'1!au of Ordnence
NRL - Naval Research Laboratory
USAF - United 811\oG Air FGI'ctI
l.p. - liquId propellant
I-p.-aolldpropellant
AVIATION WEEK, March 15, 1954
c:
!-"

c
a:
tD
a..
3:
;;;.

tD
'"

o
I:r
...

.po
t
..,
CD

c:
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I
3:

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e

H
@
3:



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H
t-'
I
Foreign Military & Civil Aircraft
Manufad:ur..
.... --
AUSTRALIA
I ___ __\ PowNplantl ___ _
DeelAnallon I Mluion
Number, IIIIke. model
and IIW;x.lakooff
pow .. of 8(I1I'n.
t
11

E
.!?

: I I I ;
______ I _____ .I ___ ______ __ ___ __
';
"
oS
i

.,
0.
.
!
]
1


if

:;;.-
Common.... 1h AIrMft c.,. le,A. 25 Wiojrel
BM4 C.!. Z7 Sabre Mk. 30
ITrainer
Jo'jgbter l r-II::
O"' .... IINM1fAlrertft,.......
1i1MrMa', Bmd
CANADA
ca,...IrLId.
MtmIreal, P.Q.
de H.vUl.nd Aircraft Gf
eo.-Ltd.
TOI"OJItr), ant.
A. V. Roe Gan.a Ltd.
MaltlJR,OrtL
GREAT BRITAIN


Auat., Alnnft Ud..
RMrflbrl AI!rodr()lll,'

Aviltioo TI'MI... ltd.
........
8 ... .,.." A 0 .... AInnft
.....
BroIicJl.&. YorbAiNI
8..tton Paul AInnft lid.
Wol..-AdapColl
BrIeI:afA........... c...Ltd.
1iUMH.,.,.,Bri1t61
de Havll.:md AInnft Co., Lid.
HfIlUd.Hlrl/onIMu-.
(AJrIpMd DfvIIlon)
CAriIteA.rol.H.. ,....,.
"'C!' ..... c... .....
FairtfAYiaIiOfl Co.. LWo

OJotl .. AIrrnft Co Lid.


Ha..... AI,..,. Lbi.

'''"'II
P",vaI Aircraft Ltd.

A. V. Rue" Co. Lid.

M"""'''''
CT.-21
S.breti
. Caobem B.2O Homher
D.H.C.2
TransllOCt 1.12
Fl,hter I
Tnullport 1;8
Tranaport 1;[0 [4 D.II.C.3 Ott
CF-IOO MII: .... " AW Fililhterl2
1511
IIW
':610'
J,1I0
A.. O.I',(I
Accoont.nt
G.A.L.rIO
l'.IOSA
P.IlIA
J7()
175
I"
176
0.11.100
0.11.11&
D.H.I04
D.H.1Oft
D.H.JOO
D.H.IOft
D.H.IOft
0.11.110
D.IU[2
n.II.112
D.H.1I2
D.n.1l4
D.If.l14
D.H.C.I
A.S.61
.MllteorN.F.12
A"tocar
AiKlet
AIKlet
Autocar
AW l"i,hteri2


l'el'1'olHd
PertlOnliol
Liaison
1.1
1;2
1;1
1;3
2
.,Tr.u.pl)ft 122-36
..
,
2;170
H.lliolT.2
Frei,bter 311
BritlmnialOO
Uritannia21SO
Britaonia300
Trainer
llellearcb
TrllllllllOrt 1:1;511
Trawj.f)ort 8;02
'I'ran41)()tt !I-1);81
TlllH1I1)()tt 8-9;\01
Vampire F.Il.1S I
Vampire T_1l Tminer 2
Dovel Tra.Jlllport 2;8 II
C<Jmet 1 TrnllIlJ)()tt 4;311
Comelt lA TrllllllJlOI"t 4;44
f'AlCDet:l Tra.JIIII)l)tt 4;44
......... ;;68--76
113
Be.. VWlom N.lo'. 21 AW l"lght.er 2
Heron 1 TmllullOI"t 2'14-17
HtII"OIl" 2;14-17
Cbipmunlr: Traillez- 2
Ambuudm- 'fr&lUlp!Wt 13;4!}-.41l
..... OanbernT.4 Trainer ...... D.'
F.D.I
... ... :::oh
.. FU-eIb'A.B.7 ASW
.Oumllt A.B.I A8W
Trainer
Fighter
... Met<oorT.7
.... Me!.eootF.8
......
..... . JamDF.l
H.P.80 victor
.. . . . .. . .. Mantboa T.2
H.P.R..
.......... Sea IIawk
P.IOO1-1 HllDWr F.l
P.IOG7-2 Huntcit' F.2
P.'"
P."
Prince 6
ProvoetT.1
Bomber
Trainllr
TrlLlUlllOft
Fillhter
Interceptor
Ioteroepl.or
TraIIlport
Trainllr
...
...
707A
707B
?lYIe
Shackletoa O.R.:I IABW
Vulca.u. 8.2 Bwuber
Research
. R.e.eareh
.Ra<onh
5"
2;36--44
1-2;10-1:1
2
10
I
I
,
2R-RAvoll
2 Wr. 1l1lJ<;@ 1.500 hn.
I AvO @ 6,500 lb. t. 700'
I ",000 1
32,OI)()
'"
'0'
37'"
65' 1l"\15' 8'"\ 1160
3
I
I PA:W Rla ..O@ 600 hI) 2n I I I ::: j 61
2 AvCOmuillo9 ,50'
2UUD!lrwelit
10Ur"ooy M ..jor I I) 1201'1). I'W
IDIIr.!llHyMII;orl(1.i)120hn. 1265
122.5
I Ill. Maj. 3 @ 140 hr. 126
1 81. Boml)ll()ier@ 172 bp.
2 R-R Dllrt 6 200'
: ::: 173 @ 2.8.'10 lop 1234
I U-RMerlin36@I,280bp. 1292
I R-RNeJlII
34,000
'''I 2.400 all 5 1,9110
ails 2,200
38.6 2,460
24,000
4:320 '[i36:000
150 I 8,410
52'
li2' 41 If;' ,1 5400
'"
50' 113'1,1 374
I,'" 1 ". I'" 2'1" "1"45
1.324 :'12' 23' 2" H' 3' 11.14
1,324 2:1' 2' 1:1' 3' 164
1,367:w 23'71' 8' 6' 184.6
36' 5' 23'/11' 8' 5'
1112'
78,500 1162'
:g:
11,730 I ::I:i: ::
250
18:100
" Ik J'rot.e\1II 7M; (il, 4,15(1 !!IIhll.
4 Ilr. PrOtDUll 7M @4,160lIIhp.
IoIU ,000 '77 750 142' 114' :l6' 8 " 2, US5
"'()(-I ",5<7\10" I'" "1"'31'11'''' 165.000 8O;1I1m IW:W 124' 3 :u\' fl " 2,o.'i5
IM,OOO 8O,431S twiw 124' 3'36:8' 2,055
I IHI O.Ohlill 3 a.350 lb. t. 51)0 476j12.31iO
I f>HOobiin35(,.3.liISOlb.t. 541) :i06 11,030
2 nIT Oilltiy Q1I00n @ 3BO hp. 210 2(14 8, flOO
4DHr.hout60@5,OOOlh.t. 7,200 IOS.CIOIl
4I)H(;lu)IItlSO(i'05.000lb.t. 8.4()0 115,(0)
4R-HAvon503@7,OOOlb.t. 500+11,400 120,000
4 R-R AVon 16@9,000Ib.t. .' 0.600+ 1411.000
2R-RAvon 700+
I DIlr.hOllt IKKlJ-
! 011 nhtlllt (itj 5.000 lb. t. 000
72!so
0:000-
6.040
38' :lU' 1)'\ W 2'
3R' :14' 6' 7'
57' 3U' 6"1:i' 4'
II!.' 0:1' 28'
115' IlJ' 28'
115' {l3' 28'
Ill'
Il: ir 10'
41'10. 31'11"
'62
2fl2
'"
2.015
2,016
2.015
2,OUi
l gn bp. 600- 300"
138
2 Br. ClIDtaurwo 661 @2.600hpJ300 1,200
;;:00i'1 ;:"'1'" ",.,,' 6'lli" "I"'" ;:
52,/)0I.I 35,781 lUi' 81' 18' 4' 1,200
2 It-R Avon
2 R-R Avon
2 R-RAvon
.... , ...
M'
114'
M'
65' 6'116' 1-1 960
mI' 8 16' 1" 1i00
66' 8" 15' 7" QOO
: . .
I ASDoubieMlI.IIlba@2,9ISOhp.[ ...
10' 7'12fl' 3"
44' Ii' 38' /11
15
::.'1
Mo' ta' 13'S'" ::.
2U1t Derwent 8 Ih. t.
2 R-R Derwent 8 lb. t.
i L
.,4 AS Sapphirll @ S,OOO lb. t.
4 DEl Gn"" Queen @ 340 bp.
4 AI. Lel)llid_ @ 870 hp.
I R-R NUIle 4@ 5,000 Ih. t.
2 It t
2' AI. J.eonidetl 24 @ MO hp.
I AI. I,oo.lIidee 26 @ 560 bp.
4 R-RGrilfoo
.. 4 lir. ()lympua

IR-RDer .. ent
IR-RDer1fMt
>98 I 700
6QS 796
698 71M
700+ .
14,100 110,6715.137' 2"1
0
' 6'1'" 15,700 10,1570 37' 2"' 44' 7' 13'
. 2' 6' ::: a'i
".
36.
'W .,.,
I'Mii'I'i7:535'1 'iiz;ij'!i4;! ..QS
273 844 33,500 20,132 1i15' 70" 22' 6' 882
600'
700+1:
700+
221)
"'"
BOO
226
79
12,600
..,'"
8,038
3.321
'" 140' I 8' D" a3' 8" 45' a'
B4'. iii'
64' 6' 42' 1(f'116' 1"1 '00
llli' 2" 29' 12' 2it
... 1. . .
21 !r D"I::: ..... .
34' 2.,42'3 1 1::::::
"8
: l"OOTNOTES AT THE TOP OF PAGE.
AVIATION WEEK, Ma<eh IS, 1954
.
AL
AS
ASW
A.c
AW

t

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..

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ll tf-
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:", h
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..

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Wi!'

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r .
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u
n
I
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i
.... -

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.. -t""
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!s



Ii:
f
f
t ii

l @@

!<r
p:
11.1

If;J

..
,,-- I
; Q; I:i MUlPlled (mph.)
f
+
) .- -) i
- I
w""
"':;"''' " ;... il"'''' g,:'", M.q,. .... I'hl (lb.) 1
s" ___ . i
"= - o..,"jj<o "8 Emptywslghl(lb.)
w

-: I r
: "" t; t; ;0; IW:::':::':'(:1i!:.

81. -BlaCkburn. Hp. - Honepower

- Arnwlron,.-ShldJoley.
- AnI........... ln. WU1ar.
It. -Brlttot,
Con, -Contln8lltal.
DH - d. Havlll.nd.
= Alrel'llft.
- A. v, no. c..,...
-AUw.lh.
Fr. - franklin (A1rcooled "0101"8),
R4W)Qnn.- Rewnnal... noo.
R-A - RoII.. Ro)'u.
Wr. -Wrl.hl
"TI
o
....
!!!.
c
=
==
::;:
III
-<
QO
t"'\
:cr
::.:.
:z:-
....
1"11
...
QI
;.:::-
t Mk. 32 curl .. length"
I Retrutt,bl. 1rID)ct... nell"'..... H.-on 1 hu
T!-:Ot:;p..-I*"I buill
'WJn",rolded.
5Crllllll power " 1,560 bp. Lal ... unionl haVI
I HI.. N..,. lurboJelln Ih'

I En:::: SEPA rothl

a1110 rmkllli tnl Ihr....,au. Sub-VtB IInd..- a
.Imllatoontrul

...,
0>
a'
g

1-1

3:
1-1



C1

i::I
>
;;J
Q
>


til
...
. ""
\.n
t::"

1

6 .0
5 .s
I. 0
4 .5
4 .0
.5
2 .5
0
1.5
L! 5
1.0

..
A2f:9
GENERAL LOGARITHMIC CHART OF POWER REQUIRED
.. 1.0 125
Ii

j....-o
.....
Vv
V-

V
V-
I----'
Vv

V
I----'
I----'
Vv

V
V
I----'
Vv

V Vv
V
,/


V
V
Vv

V
V
V
Vv

V
Vv
V V

V
Vv
V V

V
VV'
V
: V Vv
l..--' V
..... .J ...... V
VV'
V
V

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V
V
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V
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V V

V
V




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V

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V
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If

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II
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I

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v
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V

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I
v
I
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M
"01",, I",
15 115 20 25 3.0
Vv
vi/VV 1/[;

Vv
Vv
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1/11
VV'
VVl/V
11[; [J
VV'
vV/1l

fl
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VI/viI 1/[/
II
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VVVII 1/1/
Vv
vV1/1l
Vv
VI//l,I,
Vl/

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[IV
11

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rf i

t1
V'
,
I
,
II
1/ II I
II
1
I
II 1/

7
/'
-,
II I iii ..
. -,

/ Reference line for
1/ on chart of TD/Q vs
QS
II /
for (3 Const.
/
IV
p. A2e:3
lJ'
I I!
I
II
I i i
I
I!
I I
J 1
I J 1
Reference line for on
propeller e ficiency
chart for C
p
const.
p. A2e:6
I
,
!
I,,,,
6.0
5.5
5.0
4.&
4.0
3.5
30
2.&
p
Po
2.0
I .&
1.2&
I o
15
.. .7 . . 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.15 2.0 2.& 3.0
General plot of power required for level Point ()l is the point of
maximum LID ratio. To be superimposed on logarithmic propeller efficiency chart as in-
structed. Adapted from Boeing Aircraft Co. Chart by G.S. Schairer.
PERFORMANCE WITH CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER
for calculation
A2f:lO
. 9
V
>0

q

/
Fuse18ge


l0 l/
.8
.7
V
0

[//
/'
.6

V/
V


//
V

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'l
V
/

V/
V r;
-
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1/7
V
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0V7
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-









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,--

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V
,/
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V /'
V
V
/'
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--- f..---




I----
-
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Lt:;

...-
-
IA
I----
I"""'
t .2.
-

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'0
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l..--




OJ
\.U
...I

Z
<:
uJ
o
<
.J
CO
.20 .30 .40 .50 .60 .70 .80 .90 1.00
Fig. A2f:6 Characteristics of two-bladed constant-speed best performance propeller. (NACA TN
579)
.00
::---...
.90 -"""f-

"-
An




.7()
lk


(..n

_ ....
1\
...
:::::: ...
,-

,
........:::::-;;
b-, ...... ,
'"
...... -::
r-
. L..()
F- 6'-0.117
'"
tS:... .......
--
088. I..:.(J-
......
'30
.......
r:::-z ......
.........
D
10,000
Alhtude, Ft.
20,000 30,000
Fig. A2f:7 Variation of full-throttle brake horsepower at constant r.p.m. with altitude. (NACA TN
579).
A2f:ll
2.5,000
"-..
,"'-
.....
"-
,,'
"-
.
20,000

""
f'
,

",




,,"
"-..

,
"'
"
t'-..
"
........
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,

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,
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"-
t',


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"
"-
f'..
1.5,000
"
,
"
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r.....

1"- '-.,
"

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I"" ,


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1\
,
"
,
10,000
,,\
[\,
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,
f',

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r\\
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5,000

\\

\,\
,
\
''I



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\
\\
1'\\
\ 1\,
\',
\
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I'
\
f\\
0
,
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b."
""
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"
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1',
"
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f'-...
""
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r-. 0,..,
"-
........
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........
'(.,..
,

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lY

,,.
\
...,
,
"

10.
-,

,,'"
" _\.
"

l\

,
\
\


\.\.
\
\

:L
Tv
c
0.94 - --
0.90
0.86 - - - - - - -
""
,
"-..

"-

'"

f
.......
""
'-<'< .......

,

I"" "'-
""
..........
i,
"'-
"-

"-
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"
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..... ,
.....
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t..... f' ,
..
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,
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,


"-
,
"-
,
, ........

,
"

"-
"
r--,

..........

"-
'-.,
......
".
t'.

I'
'-,
"
'"
-"-
l'-..
",

f'
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"
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1"-
'"

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t"o,.
......
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0
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r0
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,,,,,,
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"

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"-
I"
_\.
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A
;:>0
30
Fig. A2f: 8 4. C
H
as a function of A .at various altitudes. CH is the maximwn rate of clir.:tb in feet per
minute. (NACA TN 579).
40,000
30,000
""' lL.
lJ .. t
Q
20,000
10,000



1\ \





\\
\
o


ir'
\




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':\
",,,-,
\

\
CEILING CHART, CONSTANT SPEED PROPELLER.
T
Vo
0.94 _
0.90
0.86 -- -- -



"

I"
"\ ""

"

,







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,j
,
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":::::-

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,

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l'-

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ti;::
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:::::::--


--'"


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... , ""-
..........
10
A
20
Fig. A2f:9 Absolute and service ceiling as functions of A (NACA TN 579)
A2f:12
.
I ..... "

.....



'-......::

, .
'--.........
.....
.....-::-

,

k
"
...... --.:...:
-
-
8:
........

;::
'-
-...

.....
"60

"-
-...
--
-
-
30
HYDRODYNAMIC DATA ON HULLS
A3:1
NACA - C:ONFEPJ:NCE ON PERSONAL AIRCRAFT RESEARCH, SEPTEMBER 20, 1946
RESISTANCE, LB.
36,000
MAX.
_-------_ AMPLITUDE,
.: {"> DEG AFTERBODY KEEL
------- HORIZONTAL
DEPTH OF STEP,
"10 BEAM
STALL
I
8 I
I
L I
I
-b- = 5.2 6 I
I
24,000 5.5
12,000
-- -- I
4
TAKE _ 2 7.2

4 6 8 10 12
TRIM AT CONTACT, DEG.
Figure 4.-
30 120 150
60 90
SPEED, F. P. S.
Figure l. - Typical effect of increasing length-beam ratio with
constant length-beam product on take-off resistance.
Typical effect of contact trim and depth of step on
amplitude of skipping during landing.
GROSS LOAD,
LB.
CDmin Cma
.0075 .0062
.0067 .0051 .0012
.0060 .0044 .00135
100
80
60
LIGHT SPRAY
PROPELLERS
CLEAR
R.N.'3.40xI0
6
40T--------r-------.-------.
o 8 16 24
Figure 2.- Effect of increasing length-beam ratio on the aero- SPEED, FPS.
dynamic characteristics of hulls as determined in the Langley Figure 5.-
7 - by 10 -foot 300 -mph wind tunnel. Typical effect of gross weight on the range of
LOWER LIMIT UPPER LIMIT spray in the propellers of a model of a twin-
MAX. PORPOISING PORPOISING engrne flymg boat.
AMPLI TUDE, _ 'H I:l
6
l
DEG. \ /./-
24 28 32 36
POSITION OF C. G., PERCENT M. A.C.
I


I 1il ()
:1 ALLOWABLE _____ r
STt
LEM _ _ _. f / n
AM PLITUDE l\ .s tJ
o .J.-______ (.) ! I-
40 !;i / <;- 'B.<::
a: V g I:i:;:::
t5./ :::! "- as.;]
Figure 3. - Typical effect of longitudinal position of the center
of gravity on amplitude of porpoising during take-off with
constant elevator setting.
a:
(.)
z / ;5 l:5 J::bo
;5! I (.)
C/) <D <D g 0 0. .s:::
-i\
1--
Z
W

"-
"-
w
0
(.)
w
(.)
Z
;5
<:!
C/)
w
a:
<;-

6 '\. tf)
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o "-.. N

E-< .
:iq
o
'S:::"';
o:D g; II
<J
0





A IternQte ta/l

10
Il
'"
'"
'" 6
@
kIt
Figure 2 Hypothetical flytrl9 bO<Ji. with 5mg1e planing tail
'C-I-----:> :]
'tv 'YI N-'
9
cp
(!\
't'
(,!
All
ara. In Inches.
1'( dfl
I '''00 .,
r-+-ll

(,',i)-( 7)
5ectUlns
o
(" )
'tJ,
, I
({ r I
o
('il
'.,'u .0""" , ,
,
"'j

16
--;;:==[--i-

.--.t---

Minimum res1stance, hull A I t I
- L i-t--t---j--t--t----
@
+'
14
U)
12

r I I
10
trim
i3
6,--
4,----
2,- ..
0
0 5
l()
15 20 25
Speed, fps
Figure 9 ,- CO'llparison of resistance of NACA Model l6CE-l with that of a
1\
1;
,
i
\
lc '
\
\,
(I;
"
'" '.,
conventional flyin/:\-boat hull. (I block 0 10/30")
/;
r--- r- 1- -
-,' -1'- , ,-I
Figure 10.- Comparison of load-resist&nce r"tioB of complete
model and forebody.NACA model l60E-l.
I
,
!
i
I
....
I
!
... !
-I
,I ;,
-,
.;.l';.!
i
:
>
I
I
I
1-'
I
1
-1-
! .. -
I
I
I
i
I
,
r:',
coo 1
I : - T: I :;;
t;::
I (7) ('!! 10 I
. l!" ,)1' C
i
1
- -r-
l _____ = 4800 I 20,11- 141 * - 65.00 . __
",1---
!
"',-
PToftle
I
!
Flgure 5 -Lt.ne"!J of NACA Model IGO [-I
J 1.> . j
SLX"L;'lt f-:-!s
;':) ;-;0
""
II>
:t
Il
(It
1W
"d

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t-<
,!,
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....,
!
W
'"
(\)
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(\)
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g.
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5-

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I-'
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el
t::J
9
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(1
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I-'
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.... ,t;;l

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I';"

.... H
(\) t-<
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:x:
01
f'

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....
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f-9
f-8
f-7
f-6-2

'-5G:

2
".....,."""'"
c

i-4-:g
.....
..",.,.,. .-
%
HULL DATA
NACA WR W-I05
-4.19
-
.
,.
r&t'

Ir"

0
.-


0':=
Io>'c

A3:3
8.45
.. "l.

7.32.-':::::;;;;;

,--- \

..",.,.,.
P
T
\ t '.05 Ca.. Va


r f
....
'-3-1

HULL LENGTH VS LOA!) CoErncIENT

f-2
riO

HO
1-9
-8
-7--:
(,.)
-,
f-5
0
f-4
1-3
FOR VARIOUS EXISTING HULLS
(FROM REFERENCE 2)
c'o
o BOATS


or
Or OJ'
or
I
liO 1.,5 2.,0
'f
FLOATS
CHARTS TO DETERMINE RANGE OF G.o AND Cv. USED FOR
THE MODELS OF DIFFERENT LENGTH I BEAM RATIOS


t_



j 10-"

I-"I'!""
I<'"Jl

0 BOATS
-'"

V ...
-
P--:
(n Y
.M'"
'V
FLOATS
......-0


'00
/
1.45
/--"

7.32

..... -0Q.. iJ::
...
6.1,9
--,..,.....
. ...-' 5.67
I J
GETAWAY SPEED COEFFICIENT VS STATIC LOAD COEFFICIENT
FOR VARIOUS EXISTING HULLS
(FRON REFERENCE 2)
C&o

l
0." o.r
.10 I
j
5
'tf'

I
Figure 10.
Reference: Davidson, K.S.M. and Locke, F.W.S. General Tank Tests on
the Characteristics of Four Flying-Boat Models
of Differing Length-Beam RaUe. NACA WR'I-I05.
A3:4
HULL DATA
NACA WR W-I05
Lib = 5.07
RATIO OF 4 TO I
BETWEEN
SCTION DRAWING
"'NO PROFILE
MoDEL N0. 339-22
MODEL BEAM: 5.40"
C G = O. 35b FwD. OF STEF'
.. 0.90b ABOVE KEEL
<;TATION SPACING
OISU;';:.I: FROM
STEP, BE.utb
WHERE TESTED: S.!.T NO.1 TANK
DATE: II - 4 - 43
C,_" 0.588 (NOMINAL)
k/L= 0.225
1-23-3
1---.....
r
--+---+---1r--+-----+-3b--+-- --L-Fi;E - TO- TRIM, O!SPLACEMENT SPEEDS t--'311
l I! I i I ENVELOF'ES OF FOREBOOY SPRAY I:ILISTERST-
1
, : i! I I t
I---+------I----+-' ----i----+-211--+----+--...I...' ------f_ 211
: C 300 : 00
200 175 I \' l?OO

: OO.S7C ',50 I
I
I ! - , --- -I ,55
AFT OF STEP, BulliS ''-'., ;. - """' .k
I I I .
5 II 4 b 3,b 2 bib 0 '" , 2 b
3b 411 311 211 III
I
::: I I "rO : 060 L
...; i iFf/; b-I- '7 IUPF'fR I 1101 T
Figure 45.
Reference: Davidson, K.8.1I. and Locke, F.W.8. General Tank Tests on the
HYdroqynamic Characteristics of Four Flying-Boat Models of
Differing Length-Beam Ratio. HACA 1m W-l05.
Reference:
RATIO Of 4 TO I
IETWEEH
$[CT1Ofj OItlw IHG
IoIID PRoFILE
STaTION SPJlCING
FROM
S'I:U, BEAIIIS
5b 4.b 3b 2.b
HULL DATA
HACA WR If-105
Lib =
Mooa No. 339-1
MoDEL BEAM: 5.40'
WHRE TESTED: S.I.T. No.1 lANK
DATE: 11- 4-43
A3:5
6.19
e.G.- O.35b FWD. OF STEP
o.SoOt) /JI:NE KEEL
Ca.. 1.069 (NOMIHAL}
k/L- 0.225
Ib o Ib 2b 3b 4b 3b 2b
1-0.09+---1-!1 ---l---+II-t' -+I-r! --+----'---l--L-L , , " 1""",.,'1: 11>-"-
i FREE -TO-TRIM REsIsTANcE: AND TRIM
, ! i i DIsPLAcEJotENT e __
I-o.oet---t--+--+--+--+--+--
i, --; - :1 1 !
i
' ; I I :
0.07 , TRIM'! I I : I 14-
(\
"" ;.. ------r- --,---t- c. 1.40 i i
__ I ---+- 1.20 I
0.06 L ,-::;:::':--1
Ji. __ t!
rO.05 J ---- . -;- ,..,. - 0
"'r---.... V"'j.,/)..--" i I
1-0. f=j- - ,,/ :i_
8
_
I v' i ; c,Wo
o 3 -:.-,---- I" \... "">c:t--... /-. I.M I
. 'I -l>c _ -r--:t:-J I ,-6-
, !
1-0.02 '1// 0.60 r- 1 4-

.l I
9 10 II 12 13 14 I! 16 17 18
,
3 4 7 2 o
Figure 46.
!aTideon, K.S.M. and Locke, F.lf.S. General Tank Tests on the
Hydrodynamic Characteristics of Four Flying-Boat Models of
Differing Len&th-Beam Ratio. HACA WR W-105.
A3:6
HULL DATA
NACA WR W-1OS
RATlO OF 4 TO I
InwtEII
SECTION
AN 0 PIIOFlU
Lib = 7.32
MooEL No. 33 s-2 :3
MOOEL BEAM: 5.40"
STAT lOtI $l'ACil/G
O!sTANC FIIOfoI
ST'. BUMS
WHERE TESTED: S.IT NO. I TANK
DATE: 11-4-43
0.02 lIP 'I' \U'I.20 J!. -I
fY ! 1I.00
1
RESI I
I! 1/1 , r
Iii ,I e
y
l
l
!
o I 2 3 4 5 7 9 10 II 12 13 14 15
r: G % FWO. OF STEP
oJ.. O.90b ABOvE KEEL
C .. a 1.770 (NOMINAL)
k/L" 0.225
1!J.443
!
T
16 17 18 19
4-
2-
I


c.,. UPPER LIMIT
Figure 47.
Reference I Davidson, K.S. I. and Locke, F.W.S. General Tank Tests on
the Hydrodynamio Characteristics of Four Flying-Boat Models of
Differing Length-Beam Ration. NACA WR W-1OS.
RATIO Of' TO I
HULL DATA
RACA WR W-IOS
A3:7
Lib = 8.45
SE:CTIOH ORAWIIIQ
AND PRom.[
MoDEL NO. 339-46
MoDEL BEAM: 540"
C G z O.35b FWD OF STEP
. . O.90b ABOVE KEEL
STATION SPIII.CING
DIsTANCE FIIOM
STlP, BEAMS
WHERE TESTED: 5.1.T. No.1 TANK
DATE: I I - 4 - 4 3
CA. = 2722 (NOMINAL)
kIL= 0.225
"294)
i X::u"i/ "/"- I
)<'/ I I -I'"'--.:: -....:..... II . I I b
An Of STEP, tIUM1I '/ J / '/ / / ':/19 DlsTAIICl SlAMS
5 b 4 b 3 b 2 bib 0 I b 2.D 3b 4 b 3 b 2b I b

I

r-12 0.061 UPPER LIMIT
L J) ) / \ or
I .-- '- \ \
0.17 0.16 0.15 0.
14
i 0.13 0.12 I 0)1 7--:;::.--< .....
:I..;c;-;Cv l 0.10 \ ....
ii LOWEA UNIT 0.09 t-'/ .0
-oJ - --
I
0.07 7' 'f:.:::l.:.-...J..-.p _ -'0.075
L.... io.b6'"\- -4-8-:r-:.::.;;:r/ .0.15!
1 -REsISTANCE, MoMEN1:} AND STABILITY CHA1RACTER,sncs .
I
0.04 .0.30 r.;
PLANING SPEEDS i3
-0.25 --+--1--:-.-;-;.-+-----+-----+----+----1
Ie -IC-t
C
i
0.35 0.30 0.25 0.20 0.15 0.10 0,05 (
Reference:
Figure 48.
Davidson K.S.M. and Locke, F .W.S. General Tank Tests on the H,ydrodynamic
Characteristics of FOur Flying-Boat Hull Models of Differing Length-Beam
Ratio. NACA WR W-1OS.
u.s. RECIPROCATING ENGINES, MARCH 1954
A4:1
u. s. Reciprocating
1 Power Ratings I I I 1
lie -1--, -. "I g
i ; i: :,,'
i f I I! i i
1-... .:.: 1 ts -!.E -g f";
Manufacturer and Addreoa Designation
1; i i 11 1 $ co i i
1 C j c c JS =
--------1----------1-1--------,-- -----=--1--=---1-----1-- -----2-0
A1rcooled Motora, Inc. U4-9().B3 ............. 4 Ho Direct 902,31XJ, . 80 4.5x3.5 ... 7 138 .... ..
SlIT"""", N. Y, U4-100-B3 .............. 4 Ho Direct loo2,5SOI.. 80 4.5x3.5 ...... 7 138 ..... 200
6A4-1W-B3 ............... 6 Ho Direct ISO 2,600: .. ..... 80 4.5,3.5 ....... 7 136.... 27
Continental Moter. Corp,
M usk'ilr:m, Midi,
Herrmann Engineering Co.
Glenclale, CaJif.
Jacobs Aircraft Co.
Po_,Po.
Lycoming Diylsion
of AYCO Mfg. Corp.
StraJ.ford, Cr:m".
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Diy.
United Aircraft Corp.
EIUt Hartford, Conn.
Wright Aeronautioal Diy.
Curti .... Wright Corp,
Wood.Ridue, N. J.
6A4-165-B3 .. .. . .... . .... . 6 Ho Direct 165 2,800:.. .. .. 80 4. 5x3. 5 .. .. . .. 7 140.. 278
: ...... :::: ... :::::
6A4-2OO-C6 ............ 6 Ho Direct 2003,1001... ... 91 4.5x3.5 ...... 8.5 152 307
6V4-200-C321,C331033.'>-5,-6 6 Vo Direct 2003'100'1...... 91 4.5x3.5 8.5 152 297
6V6-24.'>-BI6Fl 0425-1 6 Yo Direct 2453,275.... 80 4.7x4 7.5 140 372
A65-8F ,.. 4 Ho Direct 65 2,300 . 73 3 875,3.625.. 6.3 131 170
C85-12F .. ' 4 Ho Direct 85'2,575i 73 4.062x3.625 6.3 139 182
C9().12F... 4 Ho Direct 952,655, 80/86 4.062,3.875 ........ 143
C12.'>-2 .. .. .. . 6 Ho Direct 125 2, 5SOI .. . 73 4. 062x3 . 625 .. .. .. .. . 7 138 265
C14.'>-2 .... 6 Ho Direct 1452,700
1
80/86 4.062x3.875 .... 141
0315A .. .. 4 Ho Direct ISO 2,600 80/86 5x4 ..... .. .. 7 143.. ... 263
EI85 ...... 6 Ho Direct 2052,600 ........ 80/86 5x4 ....... 7 135.. ... 355
E22.'>-8 . .. .. 6 Ho Direct 225 2, 6SO .. ... SO/86 5x4 7 143.. .. 385
0470-A .... 6 Ho Direct 225 2,600 . ..... SO/86 5x4 7 143 352
W670-23 ... 7 Rad Direct 2402,200 SO/86 5.125x4.625 6.1 130... 485
GE260-2 . . 6 Ho G .69:1 260 3,100 .. ' .. SO/86 5x4 7 431
Cam Engine
R765-A
R765-B
826C9HDE'
853C7BAl'
863C9HDl'
865C7BA1'
866C9HE1'
867C9HE1'
871C7BA1'
896C9HD1'
895C9HE1'
023.'>-Cl
0290-D2
0320
043.'>-A
0435-H
0435-Kll
043.'>-V
G043.'>-C2
GS0435-B
G0-480
GS0480-B
GS0580-C
805SO-D'
GS0580-D
S0580-V
R755-11
RI300-1A
R1300-2
R13oo-3
0435-4
0580-1
0580-3
RZOOO-D5
R2000-2SDI3-G ..
RZ800-CA3
R2SOO-CB3
R28OO-CB4
R2SOO-CA15
R2800-CAI8
R28OO-CB16
R28oo-CB17
R4360-CB2
745C18BA3
749C18BDI
826C9HD3, &; 5
826C9HD4
836CI8CAI
853C7BAI
863C9HDl
856TCISDA 1,2'
865C7BAI
866C9HEI
867C9HEI
871C7BAl
l
956C18CAI
957C7BAI
968C9HEl
972TCI8DA1,2
975C18CBl
976C9HEI
RI820-76A,-76B
R1820-101
R33SO-26WA
RI3OO-1A
R1820-103
R33W-30W
R13OO-2
R1820SO
RI820-82
R1300-3
R33W-34'
12 ......
7 Rod
7 R.d
9 Rad
7 Rsd
9 Rad
7 Rsd
9 R'd
9 Rod
7 Rsd
9 Rod
9 Rsd
4 Ho
4 Ho
4 Ho
6 Ho
6 Ho
6 Ho
6 Vo
6 Ho
6 Ho
6 Ho
6 Ho
8 Ho
8 Ho
8 Ho
8 Vo
14 Rad
14 Rad
18 Bad
18 Rad
18 Rsd
18 Rad
18 Rad
18 Rad
18 Rad
28 Rad
18 Rad
18 Rad
9 Rad
9 Rad
18 Rad
7 Rad
9 Rad
18 Rad
7 Rad
9 Rad
9 Rad
7 Rad
18 Rad
7 Rsd
9 Rad
18 Rad
18 Rad
9 Rad
Direct
Direct
200 1,900
1
300 2,200
2752,200
80
80
3.25x3.75
5.25,5
525x5
G .666:1 1,4252,700. .. .... 100/130 6.125.6.875
G .5625:1 800 2,600 . 91/98 6.125x6.312
Direct 1,4252,700 .............. 100/130 6.125x6.875
Direct 800 2,8001 .... ..... 91/98 6. 125x6.312
G.5625:11,4752,700i.. """ 100
/
130 6.125x6.875
G .5625:1 1,5252'SOO'1 ....." .. 115/145 6.125x6.875
Direct 800 2,600 ............... 91/98 6. 125x6.312
G.666:1 1,4252,700 ... " ...... loo/1306.125x6.875
Direct 1,5252,8OOi ... , ........ " 115,'145 6.125x6.875
Direct 1152. ,81XJ1 812,350 6,500 80 4.375x3.875
Direct 1402,800 100 2,350 6,000 80/87 4.875,3.875
Dmc\ 1502,7001112 2,4SO 7,000 80/87 5.125,3.875
Direct 1902,560 1422,300 6,500 80/87 4.875x387.;
Direct 20G 2,800 1422,300 6,500 80/87 4.875x3.875
Dired 260 1,400 1871.200 9,000 91/96 4.875x3.875
Direct 260 3,4001 1963,100 5,000 80/87 4.875x3.875
G .642:1 260 J,4(f)1 1802,7SO 6,000 80.
1
87 4.875x3.875
G .642:1 300 19; 2,760 10,000 91/98 4.875x3.875
G.642 2803,400 1952,7SO 6,000 80/R7 5. 125x3.875
G .642 3403,2001 210 2,75018,000110),'130 5. 125x3 875
G.642:1 375'1,300'1 2402,76013,500 91
1
98 487;;x3.875
Direct 400 3,3001 1l,00D 100 / 130 4.875,3.875
G .642:1 4(f) 1.300, 232 2,75D 11,0001100.'130 4.875,3875
Direct 400 3,3001 280,3,000 12,000 \00/130 4.875x3.875
G .500:1 1,45(112,700 1.2002,550 6,40011001130 573.5.50
G .500:1 .[,4502,700 1,200 2,550 5,000 100/1301 5.75,5.50
G .450:1 2,40012,800 1,800 2,600 6,000 100/130 575,6.00
G .450:1 2,400 2,8001,800 2,600 8.5OOi1oo'130 5 75,5 00
G .450:1 2.50),2,BOO I,S002.6O" 8,500,108130 575,600
G .450:1 2,400IZ,800 1,60) 2,60" 16,{)(X} 100.'1301 575',600
G .450:1 2,400 2,800.\,60J
I
2,6Qn 14,500 1OO'13015.75X6 00
G .4SO:1 2,400 2,8iXJ,1,5OO 2,60" 16,000100/130 575.600
G .4SO:1 2,500 2,800 1,700.2.600 14,500 108
1
135 5.75,600
G .375:1 3,500 2,700 2,660!2,550 5,5(f) 108
i
135 5.75,6.00
G .4375:12,200,2.800 1,40012,300 12, 100' I(f) '130 6.125x6.312
G 43751 2,500'2,800 1,470 2,400 11,000 100'130 6.125.6.312
G ,666:1 1,42512,700, .. .. ..... 100,'130 6.125x6.875
G 56251 1,4252,7001 .' 1001)30 6.125,6.875
G .43751 2,700 2,900 11511451' 6.125x6.312
G .5625:1 80012,600" .... 91/98 6.125x6.312
Di.rec:.. 1,4252,700! .............. 1100/130 875
G .4310:113,2SOI2,9OO: ................ 115/145, 6.120x6.312
Direct 1 8OOIZ,600i ............. 91/9816.125,6.312
G .... 1 .. "'1 .....
G.5625:1
1
1,020
1
2,8OO, ......... , .... "1115/1401 6.125x6.810
Dlrect_ 800
1
2,600, ......... 1 ..... 91/98 1 6.125x63121
G .4370:12,700;2,900,1,600
1
2,400
1
12,100 115/145, 6. 125x6. 3121
I
G .5625:11 800[2,600, 490,2,130 10, 500 [ 91/98 ! 6.125X6. 3121
G .56:5.1
1
1,475;2,800, 890,2,400113,000,100/130,
G .4315:1,3,250,2,900,1,910[2,400,11,400,115/145, 6.120x6.312
1
I
G .4375:1 i2 ,8OO:.2,9OO
1
1,600 2,400.12,500,.115/145: 6.125x6.312
1
G .5625:1 lil ,535,2, 800
1
890
1
2,400,12,200,100/130
,
' 6. 125x6.875i
I. ': 1
44'
44'
04.95'
60.45'
04.95'
50.45'
54.95'
55.74'
50.45'
04.95'
55 74'
22.53x32'
22. 81x32. 24"
24.68x32.24'
29.59x32.24'
24.65x32.U'
28.21x33.12'
33.12'
23 .59x33 .12'
32.36,33.12'
33.12'
33.12'
30.75x33 IS'
30.75x33 IS'
30.75x33.18'
33.1S'
49.10"
49.10'
52 80'
52.S0"
52.SO"
52.80'
52 80'
52.S0'
52 80'
55 00'
55.8'
55.6'
04.95'
04.95'
55.6'
60.45'
54.95'
56.6'
60 .45'
04 .95'
55.74'
50 .45'
55.6'
50.45'
04.95'
56.6'
56.6'
55.75'
8.5 ...... ... 264
6.0 144
6.0 132
6.80
6.2
6.80
6.2
6.80
6.80
6.2
6.80
6.80
6.75
7.51
7.25
6.5
7
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
7.3
5.5
6.5
6.8
6.8
6.7
6.2
6.SO
6.70
6.2
6.8
6.8
6.2
6.7
1
6.2
6.8
, 6.7
! 6.7
1
68
229
187
229
187
229
236
187
229
236
140
137
138
136
131
140
140
140
161
136
175
156
166
166
166
185
211
229
229
220
187
229
265
187
229
236
187
220
187
229
265
228
236
7.21'
7.21
7.21'
7.21
7.21
7.21
7.21
7.21'
7.21'
8.6
11.27
7.91
7.91
7 91
7.9
50
50'
1,3SO
I,On5
1,350
1,056
1,404
1.445
1,080
1,385
1,460
236
260
268
392
362
383
396
422
488
432
492
592
58
597
585
1,585
1,605
2.317
2.3jj
2,357
2,350
2,350
2,390
2,390
3,682
6.46' 2,780
6.46' 2,944
7.21' 1,3SO
7.213 1,380
6.46' 2,848
7.21 1,065
7.21' 1,380
6.46' 3,408
7.21 1,056
7.21 1,3SO
7.21 1,445
7.21 1,0BO
6.46'1
2
,957
7.21 1,065
7.21 1,390
646'1
3
,514
6.46' 3,029
7.21'1 1,460
Bmep. - Brake mean effective preasur ..
G - Geared.
1 for helicopter Installation. 856TC18DBI (R33W-30WA) is similar but has takeoff
power (wet) of 3,500 hp. and dry gross weight of
3,445 lb. 868TC18DBI (R3350-85) Is similar to
-30WA but weighs 3.438 lb. dry, Some have
manifold absolute pressure regulator.
Ho - Horizon tally opposed
R&d - Radial.
SL - Sea leyel
Vo - Vertically opposed.
'Manufactured under Curtiss-Wright lieense.
'Or 10.14:1.
Or aS9:1.
Or8.67:1. AVIATION WEEK, March 15,1954
7 Military engine rated at 3,700 hp. max.
A4.1e
U.S. AND FOREIGN GAS l"ARCH. 1954
U. S. Gas Turbine Engines
AJIlson DIvision
General Moten Corp..
IndiaMpolia, 1M.
Boeing A1rpjane Co.
St4J;lU, WaM.
Fairchild Englnt Olvidan,
Corp.
GMara! Electric Co.
AIrcraft: Gu Turb[ne Division
Cincmnati 16, Olt.io
Pratt & WhltneyAlra-aftDlvlsion
UnUItd Alrtn.ft Corp.
EallHl;lfard, Conn.
WeeUnghguse Electric Corp.
Aviation Gat Turbine Div!slofl
Phil.Gd&phi413,
.. -Appro:dmale.
AFJ -Ax\l.l.fiow turbojet.
AFP -AXial-Row turboprop,
CFJ - C8Illrlfupl..ftow turbojet.
E.shp.- Equiva.lent$haft hOl"MlpOwer.
I.b.t. -Pounds thrust.
'At 70% cruill8 power_
\ UncowIed., minustallplP6 but with taileone.
Leading Foreign Jet Engines
Manufacturer and Address
AUSTRAliA
Commonwealth AIrcraft Corp. Pry.. Ltd.
PDrlM!lbcvrM
CANADA
A. V. Roe Canada Ltd.
Mallan,Ont.
Brlml Aeroplane Co., Ltd.
[i'Jllon, BrUtd
D. Napier" Son Ltd.
London W.3
Rolla-Royce Ltd.
D""
FRANCE
5oc1&teo'ElIlJoita!lon des
MaterlallHi8i*lo-Sulza
&it Colcmbu (&iM)
Societe Ratau
La CC7\irn"," (SriM)
Sodele rQUonaJ, d'E!udt de
Collltruntloni de Motaw d'AYil:tlon
PW
SockiteTIrbomec:a
p.,.;,
Oeslgnation

A.vOQMk.l
Orenda 8
Orenda 9
Orenda 10
Orenciall
Mamba ASM.3
Double Mamt. ASMD.l
Pythoo Mk.3
SappblrtAS8a.6
ViperASV.3
Viper' !BV. 9
Proteus 706
PrOUII! 7M
Olympll!!.BOt
Orpbel.l8
GtllliD 35
Ghcm '8 Mk.l
Gbost60
Gyron
Nomad 2
Elo<>d
Derwent R. D. 7
NeJ:leR.N.2
Dart Mk.505
A"", R.A.2
Avoc.R.A.3
Avon R. A. 7
AVOD R. A. 7R'

Avoo R. A. 14
AvoQ &. A. ta
AvonR.! 21
Avoll R. A. 22
CoIl".,. R.Co.J
SR.! 101
AtarlOlC
VuJea.in
""""'"
Mpm2'
Muborl!l2
Poi
Pimme

CombInation ::J:l-&nekentrlfugaJ-ftow
1 Lonv--/ihl piloted a.Irtnftversion of ASV.1.
I medlum--thru$l unit for Fl)lland Gnat
l"lght8l'.
A horizontally CIPPQI6d rompresslon-
illnitlon engine supercharied by an axJaJ..t\ow
APJ
APJ
CFP
CFJ
OF1
CF1
CFJ


COInj)t$$$Of' and euupled 10 an exhaust ;u turbil16,
Power from the 0.1. engine and exce!$ power from
the turbine an absorbed by I singlw'otatlon
prnpell8l',
5i.83-
".,.
1.,..
106'
-'5.,.
,..
52.SW
...
35"
23."
23$'
39.5"
395'
'0'
Fitted with afterburi18t.
-Using the lfterburn8l'.
'Duetedfan.
'Sf)

2.WI)
'"
.. ,
2.650
2,925
3,520
I,UII
2.174
2.174
3.""
1,575
1,23)
1,121
1.0\0
'.IS
2,240-

2,9130*'
2,440
2,860
2,710
2,460
2.2<2"
1.008
2,015
2 ....
I.'"
3.0SfJ
'" 32"
...
112
118

(l)
{l)
..,
0>
"
p"
til

'"
(I
...
,...
'"
.;
'"
o
....,
Z
ro
f-'
til
o
"

v,
'0
"
"
Otl
,...
" ct
a,
(I
CD
"
..,
,...
0-
ct
a,


()
TYPICAl, LIGHT AIRPLANE ENGINE DATA
For Powered Soaring Planes and Many Other Uses
The new Nelson Aircraft Engine was designed to provide
itisey power for the famous Nelson "Dragonfly". It develops ample
horsepower for takeoff. landing, and ccuising of this fully loaded.
two-place sailplane. This simple, dependable, and practical four-
cylinder engine can be operated as efficiently and economically as
the motor in your automobile. A thoroughly tested, dependable
engine with a power-to-wei
ratio that makes it applical
for many other uses ... wit
crankshaft either in ver-
tical or horizontal
position.
>
-!:
I\)

....
o
>
t-'
::::

I

"

t::l

>
'"
~
2
w
V)
'" o
x:
w
'" :;
'"
2600
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
MODEl 749C 18BO1
WRIGHT ~ ENGINES -----------
ALTITUDE PERFORMANCE CURVE
COMP. RAno 6.50: 1
REO. GEAR RATIO . .4375:1 SUPER. RATIO 6.46 & 8.67:1
IMPELLER DIA. 13 in.
fUEL GRADE 100/130
At Standard Atmospheric Conditions with Operating Mixture Strengths Unless Otherwise Specified
r'TT',''';''',''';''';-'',''',''',''';''';''',''; .. , '; ",', i ,': : :: " . : : ' , : ' : : : : . , , , , I
SL. 5 10 15 20 25 30
ALTITUDE-THOUSAND FEET
WRIGHT 4k ENGINES ------____ _
OPERATION AND INSTALLATION DATA
PERFORMANCE
(AlI1'atingJ are baJ(;!t/ on the IIle of lOV/}30 grade luel and operati.ng -mixture strengthI.)
Take'off
(5 minmes maximum)
Low Ratio
High Ratio
Rared Power (METO)
!.ow Ratio
High Ratio
Cruise Power
Low Ratio
High Ra[io
WEIGHTS
ScanJarJ Engine Tllcal Dry Weight
951CI88DI
UHP/RPM/ALl
2500/280J/5L ro 3800
21OJ/2400/51. to 5500
1470/2300/SL to 13000
Standard Equipmem Included in Total Dry Weight
Provision for double-acting propeller piech control
Torquemerer
Priming sysrcm 011 engine
Firf seal adapter tlange
Cooling air deflectors
Accessory drives
Accessory drive covers
Reducrion gear with A:':' 75 ratio
Supercharger drive (single-speed or two-speed as indica{(;d)
149CI8BDI
BHP/RPM/ AU
2500/2800/51. to 3800
1900/2600/11500 ro 15500
.2100/2400/5L to 5500
1800/2400/9500 ro 16000
1470/2300/SL ro 13000
140012300/14500 ro 21000
Model 951C18HD1
Model 749Cl8BOl
2869 Ib
2884 Jb
Bendix 58-18-B.)A fud iJljection system including master control, injector pumps and drives, pump supply and
injection lines, .1Ild injecw[ nozzles
Scintilla DLN-9 low-tension ignition system includ log magnero, discriburofS, and high-tension coils; also radio
shielding and spark plugs
Standard Equipment Not Included in Total Dry Weight
Six Point Dynamic Suspension Assemblies
Front Cylinder Exhaust Pipe Extensions
Torquemerer Pressure Transmitter
Optional Equipment and Resulting Variations from Standard Weight
Manifold pressure rt'gu1awr
Gear-driven fan, including afterbody and fan drive
Propeller-speed fan, including afterbody
Reduction gear, with .35 r.atio
Approximate W.igh,
35 lb
20 lb
2 1b
Approxima,e IlIcr.ase
15.8 1b
168 Jb
80 lb
10 Ib
Water injection, including control unit and discharge nozzles bur nor including regulator, tank, tUbing, etc.
3.8 Jb
Reduction gear, with .5625 ratio
Approximate Oecrease
10 Jb
t-
~
t::l
~
~
z
&l
!i?
F
~

.....
CD
~
gj
"'"
g
'"
::r'
!$
C/lc+
til
dl1;' 1:'1
o '1 H
","0 :>-
...,,,
t""
","II>
0'" f;,J
"'c+
c+ ,..- Cl
","r>
~
011>
" ..... III
~
0
0
-d ::a
tv
C/l
'd
t'l
t'j
tj
G ~
!,J
;c,
~
CIl
sa
~
0
~
~
~
~
----------- WRIGHT t;-k ENGINES ----------
.88
.86
.84
.82
. 80
.78
.76
'"
J:
.74
"-
ili
"'
.72
1
Z .70
0
;::
a.. .68
::l':
::>
V)
.66
Z
0
u
-'
.64
w
i2
.62
u
iL
U .60
w
a..
V)
.58
w
"" -<
IX .56
...
.54
.52
.50
.48
.46
.44
.42
ESTIMATED SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION CURVE-HIGH RATIO
MODEl 749(18801
RED. GEAR RATIO .4375:1
COMPo RATIO 6 . .50:1
SUPER. RATIO 8.67:1
IMPELLER: OIA. 13 in.
fUel GRADE '00{130
At Standard Atmospheric Conditions with Operating Mixtur. Strenoths Unless Oth.rwi.e Specified
..............
....... ...... : ....... : ..... .
....... ...... : ...... .. .
.. ...
...... ......
. .
600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800 2000 2200 2400
BRAKE HORSEPOWER
IX
w
3:
0
"-
w
V)
IX
0
I
w
"" -<
IX
'"
2600 2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
1800
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
200
WRIGHT t;-k ENGINES -----------
ALTITUDE PERFORMANCE CURVE-HIGH RATIO
MODEL 749C18601
RED. GEAR RATIO .4375:1
COMPo RATIO 6 . .50:1
SUPER. RATIO 8.67:1
IMPElLER OIA. 13 in.
FUEL GRADE 100/130
At Standard Atmospheric Conditions with Operating Mixture Strenoths Unless Otherwise SpeciAed
ALTITUDE-THOUSAND FEET

;
:z:

t::t
:.-
F

H
g

>'l
....
""
0>
t>'
<+
:.-

ID
i
'1


;U
0
....


0
gj
0 0

(J)

'i
0 51
....
.... N
....
III
(f)
.."
<+
....
gj
0
::1
..
@
:.-

t::t
(J)

;U




A4:5
TYPICAL RADIAL ENGINE DATA, TURBOSUPERCHARGED
From SAE Journal April 1946, article by F.W. Disch.
:i
o
..
i
o
x
J
II
..
...
~
"'"

~
-,0'
a. ,. ..
ALTITUDe - 1000 FEET
Rg. 15 - Basic engine - note that it falls extremely short of giv-
ing good altitude performance
30 as 40 4$ 505$00
ALTITUI:JIE - lODD F1:I:T
Fig. 17 - Basic main-stage engine transform9d into 25,OOO.ft unit
I




:
~

0
x
0
..
...
..
3
100-
~ ~ .
0:
"
~
:.
..
z
"'
"
0:
~
.. o
'sa
..... TITuDe 1000 FEET
Fig. 16 - Basic engine provided with increased internal super-
charger ratios to improve altitude performance
c
...
~
Ill.
S"
x
i
..
z
~ 70
-=
..
X
....
o.
I
A,TOTUO. '.00 ET
Fig. 18 - Basic engine with large turbo for allout high-altitude-
and-power performance with favorable cruising
DA TA ON GERMAN TURroJETS
From SAE Journal, Sept., 1946
.00
I
. -t-l .t;
-
lEi. -f-i--
:nar.: c-+--
-:
,
!
I
I
.TTlMrl OOLR
toOO
['f:;:::
I i

I! \! 1\ 1
! .t. u:
.'--i---""
- It!')o
ffi
i \ i
r---.
1400
'"
0
i ),;

r=:t
,\. ,< I
-
2

-W !'-"\
I
"I
i

! 100
'I 0.;
'"
.
""-
'00

I I
""2 FlJ'l- 1
iii i
.00
I i
0
100 ... 400 .00 0 100
AIR'''U.O - .It H
I Fig. 3 - Performance of Jurno 0048 engine - 8700 rpm
'!IL' 110
1
I 10 '.j 46 1 56
A4:6
400
....
Cutaway view 01 Bristol rheseus turboprop
with heat exchanger.
0:
.c
ID
22001'\. 1\. 1\. l\. I I I I I I. I I I I I I
1600
1400
1200
1000
800
600
400
0 10,000 20.000
Altitude in fe.t
30,000 40.000
Chart showing preliminory colculations 0' propeller power and total elfeclive power vs
altitude under ICAN conditions.
,0
....
0,
0,
0.
0.

78
76
74
72

. ..:
"-
:to.



0.66,
gO,
56
.'" ..
62 'a 0.
50
...

58
56
,-
1:
0
<%0. 52
a
a
a
0-
a
48
4
42
I
I
I
-
11. 1\
.'- !\.
11\ !\
, ,
.'
I!
j

I',
TotolllffllClllIfI powllr "(Proe"lI"r shoff
U\ !i

I\,
\. pow"r + Jill P_"'j

J
I\: .,
,1
l\\.


.
\. AssumIng:" 1 ,I ,I,
I\i.i
"
,

ProplI/lllr IIffiCitI"tlc. is 80.% r-
/if/duclion gilD," iCillncy,_
r-
J1 .J
is 97.5% I I 1 f
IIolu" r-


l. 10. o.o.C/lu's/Ib.
'6-

20,000.

to,o.o.o. r-fs: L"-I'Si I-r- 200Mph.
1- 0

I:::'-- -'r- Jo.o.Mph.
J....-'rc::t-.. I - - 400.Mph.
1-
!Io..
....
, " t:;:.
__ ,

I'"
III to. I"""'"
.
't".::' -"r- -
\
,...
I'-
....
fllll:J ....
U
, -,


1--" r....,..., If; pO'tt"


I .....

.... ..

-

IS

1-
r ...... r"""-
I!!o.
0. ?Lb. prop"lIlIr 8/1p.-Hr.
I ........ r .....
1"--
.....
10--"
For non-stondard otmoSf::ic
--
r- ."nJlllons correction curllflS ,'0Pf*
200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400. 1600 1800. 2000 2200 240.0. 2600
Totol Effective Bhp.
Preliminary calculation. showing I,istol The.eu. turboprop fuel consumption under ICAN
conditiOtll.
tj
:>

0
Z
tJj

8

(l)

(J)


II> Cf.l
c+
...,. >-3
I

tj"d
es
"d
....


"d

>-3
f.:.
..
-..J
TURBINE ROTOR ASSEMBLY: (1) Turbine wheel, (2) buckets, (3) No.4 bearing
journal, (4) No. 4 bearing, (5) No. 3 bearing journal, (6) No. 3 bearing, (1' .
shaft, and (8) Main drive spline-fits into compressor rotor hub.
5
--------------------,

I6NlfORPLUU
COMDRfSSQR rURNOlZLl/ I
AIR' ./ <'_";; 'r' :8 __ _
COMBRE.SSOR ASSEMBLY with upper half of casing .removed .. Details are: (1) Com. ,.0.':-'0'4- _______ _______ __
pressor casmg, lower half, (2) forward frame, (3) mountmg tmnmon, (4) first stage rotor r"" I ____ ..
disk, (5) stator blade, (6) eleventh stage rotor disk, (7) mid frame, (8) combustion cham ......... -.:>
ber opening, (9) for fuel nozzle opening, and (10) main mounting trunnion. ,9
l
"::.c:
l
,
/' l-' __ __/_ =_

LEFT SIDE VIEW of TG180: (I) Engine accessories, (2) for.
ward air guide, (3) flow div,ider, (4) ignition transformer, (5)
horizontal main mounting trunnion, (6) fuel nozzle connection,
(7) combustion chambers, (8) turbine casing assembly, (9) turbine
ACCE')SORI(S AND
ACCi5S0RY DRIVE GfAR
Schematic Flow Diagram of GE TG-180 Turbojet
Fundamental Data
GE TG1BO
:Maximum dla.-36* In.
Maximum length-166 In.
Weight (Including all acce880rles)-2,380
lb. (av.); 2,450 lb. (guaranteed max.)
Thrust (15 min. takeoff and military rat-
Ing)-4,125 lb. (av.); 3,760 lb. (guar-
anteed min.)
Rpm. (takeoff and mllItary)-7,700
gas temp.-l.250 deg. F. (max.)
Thrust (max. continuous rating)-3,420 lb.
(av.)
Sfc. (lb./hr./lb. thrust)-1.026 (av. cruise)
Fuel-Gasoline (ANF28) or Kerosene
(ANF34)
Lubricant-3606 hydraulic fluid or 1065
engine oil
wheel cooling air line, (10) exhaust cone assembly, (11) engine
firewall baffle, (12) midframe, (13) thrust balancing pressure line,
(14) bearing cooling air fi].ter, (15) electrical junction box, (16)
forward frame, and (17) horizontal forward mounting trunnion.
0
g
t::!
'1 >
c+
<D
01
'<
0
Z
>
;1.

II>
[ij
c+
....
1:2 0
t-'

tx.1
<D
&j
;-<;' ()
..
;:J

H
()
>-3
-.J

II> CD
0
0-
>-3
I-'


'"
I-'
'D

-.J
t-
CD
A4:9
GRAPHS FOR TURBOJET SIZE
AND TURBOJET PERFORMAl,{CE AT ALTITUDE
:: ::::: :::& :c: _C\h: : .
c:':" :j;' '. j cO:: e:t, 9.t :4 lGmph ,:.
:
t.lke' ,!
'lee:';"'" ,,: '.;.p: : , .. .
,,' :::: ::i : ......
,. '::: :0: :::: ::,:., ., .:: "
:::::.:::::: ";...,.1i: .. ' 1
;;: ::: ::: : .,
....... -,., -_ .. -'-. - - - .... - - -- - ---
: : :: : .: ::'
. ,.
:' c: :::: :::::": E' i . ... :=c
;.:: :;::'::f: '!:'t:: : I'l ; :
r 10,000
[
F1Lwlf2.0 fa
lines
shown
I
I
/
I
j
S.L thrust, T
Ifj
or weight, W
pounds

:J
I

l
1000
/
,,./
1/ Var18
!J!
Qj
t.nrus
&/ /
lIICU\..I.lL
tH""",
/
turbc
1 /
/ I
,
!
:
IJ
/
I
I
I

1/
lS:

ro di
10 _
2 b :3
/ /
/
/ /
/ /
/
II
.i
f
,
i
I
i
:
I
\
I
I
Itl0n
11' ::>. L. s'tat.1c1
i" ana
Ou
J
IWU'
IWpJ. )0V, .l.vvv.l.
i 1+ .....
,,.. ""
'",1 f'lnw
,
jets.
!
I
I
I
r
r-pm, J

I
,
inches
),. 4 o SO
400
300
200
100
50
40
30
DATA FOR PRELlMINARY WErGHI' ESI'IMATES
5
3
2
.3 Li _-L----L-L-LlLLLL--=-L..J
20 50 100
Fig. A5-1
Weipht per horsepower of enrines without hub,
starter, or oil.
',Veirht of propellers with hubs. Data on 3
and more clades p10tted from T.B. Rhines,
SflL paper presented 13, 1941.
.. J
, J
- ,--- --- :--,\
i
,
__ ,-"--_--"-__ L.-_L __ J
500
tanks and piping.
50 __ +-+-f-.++-_-+_-+-_-7"'1'---+--l
40 Weight i
,

, ; I
30



5L-__
2 3 4 5 t., 8 10 20 30 50
Fig. A5-4
of oil tanks and pipin". eM requires at
least 1 gal. of oil for every 16 gals. of gas.
Some commercial airlines require 10 gals. of oil
1 gal. oil for every 20 gals. of gas (large enrines).
For any formula Gals. oil = 1 + Bhp/lOO +
Gals. pas V cruise is tentatively recommended.
20 - Vmax
500
400
Notations:
w.gross weight, lbs.
(f=solidity ratio
b=no. of blades
D=rotor diameter, ft.
of all blades, 1bs.
F=Firestons
K=Kmnen
S&Sikors!cy
Sb-Seibel
I
Number after
symbol
designates
blades/rotor
Wb weight of
rotor blades
( no hub)
II
I,;
200 1---+_-hV,..I+// "'--+-+--+---+--1--1
013 .? I
/;/ QS.3
Fig. A5:5. Rotor blade waight chart.
.\5:2
DATA FOR PRELIMINARY WEIGHT ESTIMATES
5.0
:

,
'I : :
,
i
,
I
i

i . I <p . f..-L.- k I' .
: I
, . lit' ! ..
.... - i
Drigg's equation:

... r"
yl..'
w .. O.98.fi''K
i...<
I
t/
1000cm
4.0
5.5
5.0
n 1 De si"n Load Factor,

H.A.A.
A
W = Gross Weight
, /',
Om - Mean Chord
.1.'
.;J'
2.5
A ! V WI'
.1
'
V /.
w. ',Vine> W",i"h IY
,-7
I
',,-n .ft
;/ ...rr;;.
laa l ,;
-t.;
m
2.0
[7, 1
0
/
/'
1 I
,
1/
1
1.5
/ 1 I
I
V
-I
,
/ n PrV .. Design Loading i
/
1.0
1
lOOOc
m
2
of mean chord I
.5678910 15 20
Fig. ole: 7. Com,arison of wing weight formulas
and data.
Kelley data (p. AlI:3) approx1.1l8ted by equa-
tion Ww : K,'"J? giving w = 2.0 _ rYE...
-{'f;yroooC;;;
Taylor equation (from Ref. 1 in Fig. Al\:S)
w : b/tR){i.
w
10000m
where 18 given in graphical tbrm
by the equation
K2 =

UI1it Weight
2.5
2.0
1.5 -
1.4
1.5
1.2
1.1
Lba.!sq.tt.
-
-
Airpl.ane Gross Weight, 1000 Pounds.

Fig. J.f5:8. Com,arison of tail Il.1rface
weight data. Data from Referance 1:
Taylor, M.:r., Weight Eatil1J9.tion, Glenn
L. Martin Engineering Lecture Seriell
No. 3A (lg48)
1
2 45678910
20 50 40 50 70 100

4000 -1
3000
2000
1000 -
eoo
600
500
400 Weight,

60
1
/
,/
2
J.irplaDe Gross Weight, 1000 lba.
45678910 20
:rig. Al5:9. Graph for estimating weight
of tnselages, hulls end landing gear8.
LongEll' lines from data in Warner and
Johnllton, olTiation Handbook,
ruselage "eight coefficients II: ror Tay:br
equation (Bef. 1 in Ati:S)
lrtus = II: L (,,+1 h
whe re L overall 1 mgtb, ft.
S " : oV8l"all fuselage width, ft.
h = lIlal(, fUBelage depth, ft.
'-hIlllPle: it Wgrosa : 4.0000 lbs, L ft,
Sand fuselage max section ill a Circle of
4" : h : g.67 ft. Read for aver'lge tnselage
II: = 4.2 a.!lLcelculate W
fua
: 4.2 x 71.3
: 3850 lbe. Check with
"'baelage structure"l1ne and read 4200 lbs.
40000
.t:tt+tti :.. r-L - -- -'::i:- r;: - -i loT : r
1::' 1M 'l'lrt -:-=t=:J:=I- f:+,k i:E ,-=-=I;i' - .
'.r1- Illt'liiti -- - 1-- . - :+T+ "" H+ -- :..'-'c:=t==! 0-1-;-- -+- , HI" ,
" .r . ,. tJ I-'-+-- It- - '-, ,--'
J- r-f-- . t I il
l
_ . :-+-r- f+1 +. ij, mt t -= r-:
30000
+t " 1Jt"" J: -'- Ii I ';; 'i"- il
'f 'j it 1 -+ ' "".,
I Ij 'jill +
,+ j'ltl .. '-t R I""
I ' rt t I tl , I Lt h-: -1" H1l I I I::H

I(JOCO
I ' ,1 ;t"' f ' 11 +, I i+ ; , I Ii -. rttr Jt
-+-++++-I-++HH++H-++f-l++-H++f++i,H+H-t+ I. 1
1
1.
1
' rei' I ; w- - ,- _kl . .. '.11 I IMfI l II I' jf!I-+++++-l-+++i
'I I II 'I i
l
II, I I , Ii I, '.ll!;J .. "'-'I' j 11 ,rJjl I J r Ii
1 It J tl I I i III I ' I ! n _. ......., +;. rll ! Iii IT rr ITl ' -t-t-+-t-t-t-t-H-
S"j-,c .. cL ,t .ml,,: '_"_- c S'= 1. :-HEffr;L'c3
J
!li!',C,::,y:,."tIlliJ.oFt "
.--',-r..: t: . :.,cc _ Jill iFi it ' c :g, 'if li:1 'itl ,': : ' : I"ff}' [!!-illHl,j; If 'J tE.' ':;:' 'I ,
If ',iil it ," +==rTftj:" au' --::-;. - it; 1" ,1.ttt=1 3:'.
-, ,-+rj' H - .' - t=!=: :-7- ,\f !lH r' . 'IF U-i. ' -- .. :...e ' ",::- f:l.i= - fll; 1""1 '.;-, r IHi,
1---t::::i-=i:=J:= -THe, r:;-'- 1::1 ,'J: t-'S: 'r-+-:+::t=t=::1j . "m:!: 'cg::
r
IHi ,;: L; Il't" ml : I-:'t *i, ..
=-:-=t= :.3::i.
T
+ .ul 't ::---+-+- -H '. i:-ttt: fpc 1;.;.ri'18 + ".-f1 :r ]'t.Lm tit! t-
-+. r, + -:+:1 '.! u -- .. -+j') ,
t=t - +L 1:1 t* -i i:m '1+1 Hi: .,.1 L ill1 '1
1
:
1
" c--= +
!=j:=L+- +-!T ; ilf T'tt+rtt d iff i t It, =t:.
.6"06iJ
E
--j- , , IiI. r ' . 1 r::-;' en '1" er= .... j. ',---1
,_etc = ;. ; tl r.d ' ,Pi' =:1::' t}l, _ t ItHlll ,: .:1=' ""
t",,,,,"': i .';;' J', IP It, l t '., _ ,'f'T-
L
[ Hf tHH in fJEt fdl ill! ll):tC'-E -:f=t
e:+ -+ 1f d' fll J' .dl I Itt' . <,t
r+- :tL ft H t 1 J I'! .. - r IllltWtt".{#l:W
+ iiI l:tt It [ '1'1
t If I II f' 1 I F?!', ,:lllil
, , ' + + lJ: m ,! II ' jj JtI '
1'1/ -H+++HI++lf 1 ii 'IU - iJ:IHF
. '.. + i'l- nttl t:1i1 ;H! i
l! ", 1"1 1 ,11 I ,Ii 11 ,,'
_c' ,l,er:, t :=t=- j i_l- '+ i I' ,':m, ;I,jji '" E' ttl ' IIi; "":F'[ In ilf! ,1
ecOO
1000
800
fil' 1- ,d I, ;ct :' J: 1 , I k" ail' ,:l '11 Ltlill II{ l'\J.n l!l: i in FFr. in ! Ii: ,Ii; 1,'
c::.c:=c::I=O: '.;: iJ;. a If' j-J. 1t
1,
1.O t - (I fH:!} fll 1 I 'P': Ijr!'.t JI': 'II l' '1'1 Jj f;j L i' I ji lilt :;-r ,fj
..: +1 t' 'I ::!=', '",' ,'1=_ r:!h :1' L I": '; " .. !' :,Hi -t i+_:{
Ii dO

-+- -+- - f--- t H:t+ --j- F-l!" I. .... :P,t. - -4-l--"!-j"
+ r +- jr;i"rr=t- . tit .. ! I r rlJ )11 t: ::1: -:.t
= L n " :,1' - r- ... -1+ t-tfi P;' -i=-
. ..., .. f+ I(Ht It Irti mi I iitll lli - +- :t::jj
0./
- H- , ff I . -..:r r- t I=n. 1+ r H-il );;1 1u 1=+1
I. /fi.
lOG.
Reference: Kelley, .Joseph .Jr. Wing Weight Estimation. .AAF Technical Report 5161.
If above equation is approximated by a line of slope 0.50 (instead of 0.60466 = 10 and W
w
:
6300 (wi th some sacrifice in accuracy) resulting equation is WIII!S = 2.0 n'W which agrees wi th Drigg's
equation (p. A5:2) far = 4.2 ft. Since mean thickness far wings:yr:;;- lOOOan plotted by Kelley was
more nearly 2 ft., Drigg's equation (based chiefly on airplanes prior to 1930) 1s judged to need correction
by a factor of approximately--/2to be applicable to newer airplanes, as shoVin in Fig. A5:7.
n

>-3
'zj
o
:;xl

z
o

H
o
:t:
>-3
t:r.l
CJ)
>-3
!:;j
!;
>-3
H
o
:z:

!;;.!


tit
I-'
0\
I-'
t\
.,
w
A5:4
METALS
Material
TIum!1lum oys
Wrouf!'ht
2S
3S
l4s
17S
24s
25s
5Is
52S
53S
615
XB 75s
roOl
roO]
Cast
13
43
195
220
356
Aluminum Bronze
Armor plate
Babbitt
Beryllium Copper
Bismuth
Brass, Cast & Sheet
Brass, Naval
Bronze, leaded
Bronze, Phosphor
Bronze, Tobin
Cadium
Cerrobend
Chranium
Constantan
Copper (Pure)
Everdur 1010
Everdur 1015
Gun Metal
Incone1
Invar
Iren, Cast
IrOn, Yalleable
Iron, Wrought
Kirksite "A"
Lead, Pure
Lead, Grade "Bn
lbognal1te
loIanganese
Yaganese Brenze
Magnesium
Magnesium Alloys
llechanite
Molybdenum
Ilmel
Nickel
Oilite (Bronze)
Platin1.lll
Silver
Stainless steel
Steel (1010, 1025, 4130,
etc. )
Steel, Aluminized (see
Sheet Stock Sectim)
Steel, Paintgrip
Stellite
Tin, P1lre
Tungsten
Vanadium
White Ketal (Babbitt)
Zinc, Pure
WEIGHT PER TlN'TT VOLTJdE OF AIRCRAFT MATERIAlS
WOOD - 12% MOISTURE CONTENT
~ AVERAGE WEIGH'!'
lieu. In. #/Cu. In.
.098
.099
.101
.101
.100
.101
.097
.096
.097
.098
.101
.101
.101
.096
.096
.100
.092
.096
.280
.283
.263
.297
.354
.313
.304
.319
.320
.304
.313
.350
.258
.322
.323
.)08
.316
.309
.310
.288
.261
.268
.285
.250
.409
.393
.1"0)
.268
.302
.063
.065
.269
.368
318
.322
.259
.774
.380
.286
.283
.277
.348
.264
.698
205
.263
.258
pp e
Ash, Black
Ash, White
Balea
Bambo
Basswood
Beech
Birch, Alaska
Birch, paper
Birch, Sweet
Birch, YellOW'
Cedar, Incense
Cedar, Port Orford
Cedar, western Red
Cedar, White
Cherry, Black
Chestnut
Cork
Cottonwood, Eastern
Cypress, Southern
Ebony
Elm, American
Elm, Rock
Fir, Douglas (Coast)
Fir, Noble
Gum, Red (Sweet)
Gum, Tupelo
Hemlock, Western
Hickory
Locust, Black
Magnolia, Southern
Mahogany, African (!haya)
Mahogany, (True)
Ilaple, Sugar (Hard)
Ilaple, lIhite
oak, Chestnut
oak, Live
oak, Red
Oak, White
Pecan
Pine, Norway
Pine, Ponderosa
Pine, Sugar
Pine, western White
Poplar, YellOW"
Redwood, Virgin
Spruce, Red
Spruce, Sitka
Spruce, White
Sycamore
Walnut, Black
.0272
.0197
.0243
.0052
.0135
.0150
.0261
.0220
.0220
.0266
.0249
.0150
.0168
.0133
.0127
.0203
.0174
.0090
.0162
.0185
.0440
.0202
.0255
.0197
.0150
.0197
.0203
.0168
.0295
.0278
.0191
.0185
.0197
.0255
.0195
.0266
.0359
.0255
.0278
.0266
.0197
.0162
.0145
.0156
.0162
.0162
.0162
.0162
.0162
.0197
.0220
GASES - WEIGHTS GIVEN AT 68F and 29.92 INL1teS HG
-- #jOU.Ft
Ili, stanaard .3753
Carbon Dioxide .1152
Helium .0104
Hydrogen .0052
~ o n ~ ~
Nitrogen .0729
O:<ygen .0832
The above data, and much ot what tollows, was prepared
chl.efiT tram the Handbook or the SocieV ot Aeronaut-
1cal Weight Ellgineers (B.A.W.E.) Vols. I and II
'!.'he original handbook should be consulted for IlION
complete information. !(embers ot the S.A.W.!!:. are to
be round in the weight departments of IIOst large air-
plane lI&nuiacturers.
Above Data FrOll S.A.W.E. l!andbook, Vol. 1
WEIGHT PER UNIT VOLUYE AIRCRAFT MATERIAlS
LIQUIDS
Alcohol, . .
Benzene 7.30 .0316
Garbon Dioxide 6.40 .0277
Carbon Tetrachloride (Pyrene) 13.25 .0574
Dichlorodifluero Methane (Freon) 12.35 .0535
(Refrigerant)
Ethylene Glycol (Spec. AN-E-2) 9.35 .0400
(Prestone)
Gasoline (Also Aromatic Fuel)
*
6.00 .0260
Hydraulic Fluid
Spec. AN-VV-o-366a 7.03 .0304
Spec. 3580 7.23 .0313
Spec. 3586 7.87 .0341
Kerosene 6.82 .0295
Mercury (68F.) 112.80 .488
Oil
Castor 8.07 .0349
Fuel
7.96 .0345
Lubricating
7.50 .0325
Smoke Screen Chemical F. S. 16.25 .0704
1\'ater, Fresh
8.33 .0360
Water, Sea
8.55 .0370
PLASTICS
CAUTION: Density must be selected bv chemical
compound and not trade
Group
I Aniline - Forma eye ReSLD T ermop as
(Cibanite, Dilectene)
II Casein (Thermoplastic)
(Ameroid, Galorn)
III Cellulose Compounds (Thermoplastic)
(Bakelite, Lumarith, Plastacele,
Tenite I, Tenite II, etc.)
Ethylcellulose
Cellulose Acetate
Cellulose Acetate, Cellular
Cellulose Acetate, High Acetyl
Cellulose Acetate Butyrate
Cellulose Nitrate (Pyroxylin)
IV Lignin Plastic (Laminated)
(Benolite, Lignolite)
V Melamine-Formaldehyde Compound
(Thermosetting) (eatalin, Yelmac, Plaskon)
Alpha Cellulose Filler
Asbestos Filler
VI Methyl Methacrylate Resin (Thermoplastic)
(Crystalite, Lucite, Plexiglas)
VII Nylon Resins (Thermoplastic)
VIII Organic Polysulfide Moulding Compound
IX Phenol-Formaldehyde Compounds (Thermosetting)
(Bakelite, Insurok, Micarta, FOrmica, etc.)
No Filler Molding
Woodflour Filler n
Mineral Filler n
Kacerated Fabric Filler n
Sisal Felt Filler n
Paper Base Laminated
Cotton Fabric Base
Glass Fabric Base
Asbestos Cloth Base n
No Filler Cast
Asbestos Filler n
X Phanol-Furfural Compounds (Thermosetting)
(Durite)
Woodflour Filler
Mineral Filler
Fabric Filler
n Polystyrene (Thermoplastic)
(Bakelite, Loalin, Lustron, Styron)
XII Polyvinyl Alcohol
(PVA, Resistoflex)
.0486
.0389
.0493
.0021
.0457
.0439
.0504
.0508
.0537
.0670
.0432
.0428
.0558
.0462

.0753
.0504
0487
.0490
.0490
.05n
.0648
.0476
.0577
.0504
.0720
.0504
.0385
.0468
Group
xnI Polyvinyl Butyral Resine
(Butacite, Saflex, Saflex '1'S, Vinylite X)
Rigid (Thermoplastic)
Flexible Unfilled
Flexible Filled
Thermosetting
XIV Polyvinyl-Chloride Resins
(Koroseal, Vinylite)
XV Urea-Formaldehyde
(Bakelite, Beetle, Plaskon)
Alpha Cellulose Filler
XVI Vinyl Chloride Acetate Resins
(Vinylite)
Rigid (Thermoplastic)
Flexible unfilled
Flexible Filled
XVII Vinylidene Chloride Resins (Thermoplastic)
(Saran, Mills PlastiC, Vec, Vel on)
A -
Type I - Cored
Class A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
Note:
RUBBER AND RUBBER PRODUCTS
Densities for Type I are for
gross volume and include coring.
Type II - lbcored
Class AA
BB
CC
DD
EE
FF
AIR-FOAMED LATEX, SYNTHETIC (LAM, INC.)
(Neoprene Base)
Soft
Semi-ilediUlll
Medium
Firm
(Uncored)
n
n
BOUND HAIR (SPEC. AN-H-5)
CKLLUI.A1t RUBBER (Spec. 26556)
Type I - Soft
.125 Thick
.250 "
.375 "
.500 "
Type II - Hard
.250 Thick
.500 Jf
1.500 n
CORD, ELASTIC
Ib;erciser Cord (Spec. AN-ZZ-G-361
.187 Diameter
.312 n
Shock Abeorber (Spec. 20-23-0)
.375 Diameter
.500 It
625 "
.750 ..
.0029
.0035
.0040


.0053
.0058
.0063
.0043
.0054
.0067
.0084
.0105
.0130
.0051
.0061
.0078
.0178
.0025
.00096
.00173
.00221
.00270
.00193
.00218
.00638
.0011
.0026
0046
.0075
.Oll7
.0184
Society of Aeronautical Weight Engineers, Inc.
Handbook, Volume I.
A5r5
CU. In.
.0403
.0378
.0508
.0432
.0575
.0540
.0493
.0576
.0612
.0630
r--
Il/cu.In.
n
n

n
It
"
II/cu. In.
ft
"
"
"
ft
lI/eu.In.
n
n
It
II/Cu. In
I/5q.In.
n
"
It
IjSq.In.
n
n
t!In.
n
I/In
..
A5:6
WEIGHT PER UNIT VOLUME OF AIRCRAFT KATERIALS
IHSCELLANEO (5
ALtJlHNtM FOIL .0008 Thick .00008
AID10RITE - Bullet Sealing Lining - .187 Thick .0080
CARBON .04!
m:mrnr GRAPHITE .075
DES IcA!'ITS
Actuated Alumina
Magnesium Perchlorate
Silica Gel
FIBER - HARD VULCANIZED
Glass
0286
0263
0200
044
---:ffinorli te .0888
Common .0903
Crystal .1065
Dup1ate .0950
Plate .0932
Shatterproof .0910
Saftee - Super Quality .156 - .219 Thick .0174
Saftee - Plate Quality .219 - .281 Thick .0278
Saftee - SpeCial Quality .219 - .281 Thick .0278
Saftee - .25 Thick .0243
Saftee - .375 Thick .0368
Transite .0744
Triplex
156 Thick
GlW
187 Thick
.218 Thick
.250
.312 n
-,nood Albumen (On Wood Surface)
casein (on Wood Surface)
LINATEX - Bullet Sealing Material-.187 Thick

ROck CORK
SCREEN
.0126
.0137
0185
0215
0222
.00013
.00017
.00725
0868
0081
weight of square mesh the
following formula may be used
(2K) (a} (D) (A) (1.08) Weight
Y Yesh of screen
a Cross sectional area of wire inches
D = DenSity in I/Cu.In. of material used
A = Total area of screen in Sq.In.
For other type screens consult 1I'1re screen catalogs
WELDING
Steel
Aluminum
ZIPPERS
-crown CheVron 115c (.75) (Chain Only)
115c Slide
Crown Chevron /l7C (.75) (Chain Only)
117C Slide
Crown Chevron IIlOC (1.00) (Chain Only)
#lOCSlide
Talon Nugild 112 (.812) (_ith Slide)
Talon Nickel 113-5 (1.000) (With Slide)
Talon A1uminumH3-5 (1.187) (With Slide)
Talon Nickel 115 (1.000) (With Slide)
Talon Aluminum #5 (1.187) (With Slide)
Talon "Spectra" Plastic 115 (1.00)
(With Slide)
Waldes Nickel 113 (1.00) (With Slide)
Wa1des Aluminum 15-150 (1.00) (With Slide)
.0035
0012
0033
.010
.0066
.033
.0107
.062
00138
00249
00153
00385
00254
.00129
00364
00170
#/Sq.In.
#/Sq.In.
lI/eu.In.
IIleu.In.
1I/cu.In
II/Cu. In
l/eu.In
I/Cu.In
IICu.In.
II/eu. In.
II/Cu.In.
II/CU. In.
II/Cu. In.
II/Cu. In.
II/Sq. In.
H/Sq.ln.
II/Sq. In.
II/Sq. In.
II/Sq. In.
#/eu.In.
II/Sq. In
II/Sq. In
II/Sq. In
II/sq. In
II/Sq. In
II/Sq. In.
II/Sq. In.
II/Sq. In.
II/CU.In
II/CnoIn
II/In.
II/In
II/In
Each
II/In.
Each
I/In.
Each
II/In
I/In
II/In
II/In
II/In
II/In.
II/In
I/In
Reference I Society of Aeronautical Weight Engineers, Inc.
Wei.pt 'I!!mdbook, VolU!lle r.
A5:7
WEIGHT PER UNIT AREA OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
Srl"!!:E'l' !llETALS
FABRICS AND TEXTIr.:;;::
WEIGHT - P01JNJ:)S_ PER SQUARE INCH BLUE DENIM (SpeC. cce-D-15la)
THICK- ALUM. COP-
INCONEL
THICK- Class A
.065
BRASS MAGNES. STEEL ZINC
NESS ALLOY PER
NESS
Class B
.072
(,100)* (,507)*(,525)* (,510)* {,065}* (,284)* (,258)* Class C
,077
Class D
,086
,010 ,0010 .0051 ,0052 ,OO5l .0028 ,0026 ,010 BROAOOLOTH UPHOLSTERY
,012 ,0057 ,0034 .012
E-24
(2)
,085
,014 ,0056 .014
#9OOJ
(5) ,087
,015 ,0047 ,0045 .015
A-28
(2)
,095
.016 ,0016 .0049 .0052 .0010 .0041 .016
A-22
(2) ,102
.618 ,0018 .0058 .0056 .0012 ,0051 ,0046 .018
#9100
(5) .108
.020 .0020 ,0061 .0065 .0015 .0057 .0052 .020
A-25
(2) .124
.022 .0071 .0062 .022
.025 .0015 .025
CANVAS {DUGK} (Spec. CCC-D-761)
.024 .0062 .024
Types I, II, & III
025 .0025 ,0077 ,0081 ,0078 ,0016 ,0071 .025
6 oz .050
028 .0028 ,0090 .0018 ,0080 .0072 .028
7 oz .059
050 .UOSS .050
8 oz ,067
052 .0052 .0098 .0105 .0099 .0021 .0091 .0085 .052
9 oz .076
.055 .0099 .055
10 oz. .084
.056 .0056 .0025 .0095 .056
11 oz. .095
.040 .0040 .0125 .0129 ,0026 .0105 .040
12 oz. .101
.042 .0150 .0119 .042
15 oz. ,126
,045 .0045 .0145 .0029 .0116 .045
COVER MATERIAL
.048 .0156 .048
#G06A (1) .052
.050 .0155 .0142 .0129 .050
#79729 (1) .056
.051 .0051 .0157 .0165 .0055 .051
FLANNEL
.060 .0155 .060
--ca:ntOn (Spec. CCC-F-451)
.062 .0192 .0176 .062
Type A .057
.064 .0064 .0196 .0207 .0042 .064
Type B .028
,070 .0181 .070
OUting (Spec. ceC-F-466
.072 .0072 .0221 ,0255 .072
Type I ,024
.078 .0242 .0222 ,078
Type II .050
,080 .0206 .080
Type III ,053
,081 .0081 .0249 .0262 .0055 .081
GABARDINE
,085 .0256 .085
Curtain l&iteria1 - 100% Wool

.055
.090 .0252 ,.090
Upholstery - Cotton Filled 5) .055
,091 .0091 .0279 .0294 .091
MOHAIR
.095 ,0288 .0264 .095
--casement Cloth (Spec. 16099) .042
.100 .0258 .100
Flat Trim Fabrics
.102 .0102 .0515 .0529 .0066 .102
A-728 (4) ,015
.109 .0558 .0510 .109
G10nooe (4) ,041
.125 ,0125 .0584 .0404 .0588 .0555, .0525 .125
Aristo (4) ,054
.128 .0128 .0415 .0085 .128
Brewer (4) .059
.156 .0156 .0504 .0484 .0101 .0445 .156
Pile Trim Fabrics
.188 .0188 .0577 .0607 .0585 .0122 .0534 .188
#75152 (4) .071
.250 .0240 .0768 .0808 .0775 .0165 ,0710 .0645 .250
Flat Upholstery Fabrics
,515 .0513 .0961 .1011 .0205 .0889 .515
Nell Sanvale (4) .053
.575 .0375 .1151 .1211 .0244 .1065 .0968 .575
Groton (4) .059
.438 .0458 .1545 .1415 .1244 .458.
#75602 (4) .059
.500 .0500 .1555 .1615 .0525 .1420 .1290
:522
Armor Cloth (4) .065
* Unit Weight of Material as used in Table.
Diagone11e (4) .065
Sa tin Mohair (4) .072
Wedge mere (4) ,076
FABRICS AND TEXTILES
#75587 (4) .076
1/15585 (4) .085
Item
#71905 (4) .090
AIRPLANE CLOTH,MERC.COTTON
Pile Upholstery Fabrics
Grade A (All but 90" Widths)
.028 #71468 (4) .069
Grade A (90 Widths)
.051
1/15152 (4) .071
Grade B (All but 90" Widths) .051
Canda Cloth (5) .088
Grade B (90" Widths)
.035 #71806 .107
ARMY BAG MATERIAL 1/19727
(1)
Capital
.128
.157 Banner .142
AROMATIC FUEL RESISTANT STOCK #79716
Gros Point .145
(1) .170 Chief tan
.144
BALLOON CLOTH (ArIlV Spec. 6-59-0)
NYLON, COATED #79751 (1) .017
SHEETING
Type BB
Bleached (Spec. CCC-s-271) ,052
.020
UDb1eached(Spec.CCC-s-29l) .053
Type HH
.014
WATER PROOFED CLOTH
Type KK
.010
Spec. 16094A
Type MIl
,029
Type RR
,059
Type I (Cotton Cloth - Grade 8) .056
II (Army Duck - 8 oz.)
.090
BEDFORD CORD
#7 8 .052
Manufacturer 1-
A-29
(2) .108
(1) U. s. Rubber CompaIV (2) A. D, Ellis Mills, IDe.
A-50
(2) .150
(3) Collins & Aikman Corporation(4)L.C.Chase & Compaqr
BLACKOUT CURTAIN MATERIAL (1) .107
Reference: Society of Aeronautical Weight Engineers, Inc.
Weight Handbook, Volume I,
A5:8
WEIGHT PER UNIT AREA OF AIRCRAFT MA TERIALS
FROM S.A.W.E. HANDBOOK, VOLUIlE I.
PLYWOOD
FELT - HAIR AND WOOL
,aIRCRAF'T HASKELITE WEIGIi"T TABLE
Description
Estimated Wts. per Sq. Ft. (1)
HAIR FELT - AMS 5280
Thickness in Inches Number Birch Birch Mahogany Poplsr
.125 Thick
Nominal Limits of Plies Birch Poplsr Poplsr Poplsr
.187
n
.250
ft
5/64 (2) .040-.068" 5 .21 .21 .18 .17
.512
"
1/16 .OS5-.075 5 .50 .25 .22 .20
.575
n
5/52 .085-.1OS 5 .40 .55 .29 .27
.500
"
1/8 .115-.135 5 .52 .45 .57 .55
.750
"
5/52 145-.170 5 .60 .50 .45 .40
1.000
5/16 .170-.200 5 .71 .58 .50 .47
WOOL FELT
5/16 .170-.200 5 .58 .55 .50
White Back Check - AMS 5285
7/52 .2OS-.255 5 .74 .65 .62
.062 Thick
1/4 .255-.265 5 .80 .71 .68
.125
n
5/1S .500-.525 5 .95 .84 .80
.187
ft
5/8 .560-.590 5 1.OS .97 .95
.250
n
.512
7/1S .420-.460" 7 1.50 1.19 1.15
.575
"
1/2 .480-.520 7 1.47 1.58 1.52
.500
ft
9/16 .545-.580 7 1.62 1.47 1.41
White Firm - AMS 5286
5/8 .600-.S50" 9 1.96 1.70 1.59
.125 Thick
5/4 .725-.775 9 2.ot 2.01 1.88
.187
n
.250
"
mm. Millimeter Thickness .512
"
.575
n
1. .029-.149" 5 .17
.500
1 1/2 .049-.069" 5 .28 .24 .21 .20
.750
2 .069-.089"

.57 .55 .27 .25
1.000
"
5 .108-.128" 5 .52 .45 .57 .55
Gray Back Check - 5287
(1) Nominal ;;eights given in this table are based on the exact
.062 Thick
veneer thickness required, the glue weighing .015 Ibs. per
.125
sq. ft. of glue Joint, and the weight of the woods in
.187
pounds per cubic feet as follows: birch, 45.5 Ibs.; pop-
.250
lsr, 28 Ibs.; mahogany, 52.2 Ibs.; and spruce, 27 Ibs."
.512
The moisture content of the plywood is assumed to be 12%.
.575
.500
"
(2 ) The weights for the 5/64" thickness are based on birch
.750
being used for core. United states Army & Navy specifi-
#!Sg.In.
.00088
.00151
.00162
.00174
.00208
.00247
.00551
.00459
.00081
.00162
.00244
.00524
.00406
.00487
.00650
.00085
.00128
.00174
.00216
.00259
.00544
.00518
.00687
.00081
.001S2
.00244
.00524
.00406
.00487
.OOS50
.00975
cations call for all plies of birch in case of any panel Upholstery - 5288 .062 Thick .00041
under 1/16
R
thickness.
PAINTS
Gray Firm - MIS 5290
.125 Thick
L!15ATTIm
.187
.250
ft
.0052
.312
"
Clear Nitrate Dope .0076
.375
Pigmented Dope .0056 .0083
.500
"
laCliuers .0056 .0090
.750
"
S:'11thetic Enamels .0049 .0069
1.000
" Primers .0035 .0069
FABRIC & DOPE
The approximate weight of fabric, tape, dope. finishing
material, and attaching parts as used in oontrol surface
covering varies frOlll .070#/aq.Ft. of fabric area. CORK-FIBRE SHEET PACKING(Garlock #6S0)
PACKING AND GASKET .010 Thick
Item
COMPRESSED FIBRE PACKING HH-P-96)
(Ve11umoid
.005 Thick
.004

.010
.015 "
.021 "
.052
.050 "
.062
.094 ft
.125 "
.250 "
CORK-GOMPOSITION
Class 1
Class 2
Class 15
Class 4
(Spec. HH-C-576)
Weight Unit
.00008
.00015
.00015
.00051
.00054
.00062
.00155
.00154
.00200
.00270
.00410
.00810
0081
.0099
.Oll6
.0159
#/aq.In.
"
"
"
"
"
n
"
"
#/eu.In
w
"
"
.015 tI
.021 "
.052 It
.047 "
.062 "
.095 II
.125
SYNTHETIC RUBBER AND CORK
WOVEN ASBESTOS AND lITRE 95
VR5111 Johns-Manville
.062 Thick
.125 "
NON-GRAPHlTE SHEET PACKING 1-/1
o Com essed Asbestos
.0156 Thick
.0515
.0625 "
WOVEN ASBESTOS, NEOPRENE & WIRE YX5012A
.062 !hick
.094 "
.125 "
(Johns-Manvillej
.00089
.00151
.00178
.00220
.00266
.00551
.00528
.00707
.00055 #/Sq.In.
.00048
"
.00065
ft
.00091
"
.00154
"
.00159
"
.00250
"
.00518
"
025 #/Cu.In .
00525 #/Sq.In
.00652
n
00105 #/aq.In
00206 #/aq.In
00411 #/aq.In
00445 #/aq.In
.00875
n
WEIGHT PER UNIT AREA OF AIRCRAFT YA'lERIALS
!"ROlli S.A. '!r .E. HANDBOOK, VOLmIE I.
CARPET AND FLOOR COVERING
Iwm * #lSg.Ft.
CARPET
#'73165-R556 (2)
#75165-&400 (2)
Regent A (5)
Impera tor (5 )
#75446-R485 (Flame proofed and
Moisture Proofed) (2)
#0-116 (5)
#50'734 (2)
Imperial #2 (2)
Bellington Lokweave (1)
Dualwx Lokweave (1)
Sheridan (2)
CARPET PADDING
LINOLEUM TYPE
Airoflor - Smooth
Airoflor - Ribbed
(Average)
Non-Slip (.052 Thick)
Non-Slip (.042 Thiok)
Non-Slip (.062 Thiak)
MATTING
Asphalt Impregnated Hair Felt
(4)
(4)
(7)
(7)
(7)
Burtex 200SH Series (.032 Thiak) (5)
Burtex 200SH Series r .050 Thiok) (5)
Burtex 200SB Series (.094 Thick) (5)
Neoprene (Pyramid) #l7056 (6)
Rubber (Pyramid) #4849 (6)
Vynilite (Pyramid) (8)
* Yanufacturerl-
(1) Bigelow-Sanford Carpet Company
(2) L. C. Chase and)Jompany
(5) Collins & Aikman Corporation
(4) Armstrong Cork
(5) Burlington 11111,. mo.
(6) Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company
(7) Simmonds Accessories, Inc.
(8) U. Rubber Company
LEATHER (REAL Ann ARTIFICIAL)
.12
.15
.19
.20
.22
.25
.26
.50
.55
.59
.40
.20
.25
.28
.19
.28
.41
.17
.24
.55
.22
.17
.52
LEATHER (REAL)
Item
#I&..Ft.
Dry - Tanned (FOr each 1/64 of thickness
Greased (For each 1/64 of thicknesa
Rawhide (.065)
Sillgle-Faced Tan Russet 7 oz. (.125)
Single-Faced Brown Spanish (.065)
Top Grain Trim Leather
Upholstery - Light Grade
LEATHER (AATIFICIAL)
Spec. tK-L-l36a
Type I (Pyroxylin or Cellulose Acetate Coated)
Class A
Class B
Class C
Type II (Deleted from Spec.)
!1Pe III (s,rntaetio Resin Coated)
Class A
Class B
Class C
Naugahyde (Trlll or Sateen Baok)(U.S.Rubber Co.)
#79052 (JI'lame Proof) (U. S. Rubber Co.)
#79055 ". ""
1/79054 ." "".
#79056 " "
.065
.075
.420
.580
.140
.220
.170
.150
.110
.076
.150
.150
.100
.150
.150
.150
.lro
.150

Item
FIBERGLAS ( Owens-Corning)
Type N Wool with Flameproof Muslin on
Both Sides, Sewn on 4# Centers *
1 1/2#/Cu.Ft. Density
.50 Thick
1.00 "
1.50 "
2.00 "
5/I/0u. Ft. Density
.50 Thick
1.00
1.50 n
2.00 "
Type N Wool with ECC-llA-108 Fiberglas
Cloth on Both Sides, Sewn on 4" Centers *
1 l/2#/Cu.Ft. Density
.50 Thick
1.00 "
1.50 n
2.00
5/I/Cu.Ft. Density
.50 Thick
1.00 n
1.50 n
2.00
KAPOK
-reIt - 60% Kapok **
.062 Thick
.125
.250 n
.575 "
.500 Ii
Felt - 45% Kapok(Spec. 16098 - Type I) **
.125 Thick
.250 "
.375
.500 "
.625 "
.750
.875 "
1.000 "
* Add .Ol#/Sq.Ft ..nen blankets are
sewn 2" on cenwrs.
** The weights for Kapok Felt are
nominal and will vary ! 10%.
KAPOK (cont1d.)
Kwillo (Seaman Paper Company)
#5 .25 Thick
#5 .50 "
#7 .75 "
#l0 1.00 "
(Johns-Manville)
Type A - Asbestos Paper Facing
.50 Thick
.75 If
1.00 If
1.50
2.00 If
2.50 It
5.00 "
Type It - Flame Proofed Muslin Facing
.50 Thick
.75 "
1.00 "
1.50 "
2.00 n
2.50 "
5.00 "
Type AM - One Face Flame Proof Muslin and
One Face Asbestos Paper
.50 Thick
.75
1.00 "
1.S0 "
2.00 "
2.50 ..
3.00 "
Type 2-BlM (Meets Spec. AN-S-32)
1.00 Thick (Less Trim MaterUil)
(ISQ.Ft.
.104
.166
.229
.292
.166
.291
.416
.541
.094
.156
.219
.281
.156
.281
.406
.531
.055
.045
.070
.155
.180
.061
.121
.170
.242
.280
.545
.592
.480
.060
.080
.100
.125
.224
.260
.507
.570
.453
.537
.620
.155
.189
.256
.299
.582
.466
.549
.194
.250
.277
.540
.425
.507
.590
.524

WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH
OF AIRCRAFT :.IATERIALS
Steel
Wire
GaO'e
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
O.D.

3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1-1/8
1-1/4
1-3/8
1 iL2
O.D.
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
9/16
5/8
3/4
7/8
1
1-1/8
1-1/4
1-3/8
1-1/2
Round Wire
Tinned SAE 1'iD 1050 steel
Diameter Lbs. Weight
Breaking #/ft.
StreQgth
.306 14,000 .249
.283 12,000 .211
.262 10,520 .183
.244 9,200 .157
.225 7,950 .134
.207 6,850 .113
.192 6,030 .097
.177 5,250 .083
.162 4,520 .069
.148 3,850 .058
.135 3,290 .048
.120 2,670 .038
.105 2,090 .029
.091 1,600 .l22
.080 1,260 .017
.072 1,040 .014
.062 775 .011
.054 600 .008
.047 460 .006
.041 356 .004
.034 250 .003
.032 222 .003
Copper Tubing, Vieight ruu: l!:l!1
Dec.

.125
.1875
.?50
3125
.j75
.4375
.500
.5625
.625
.750
.875
1.000
1.125
1.250
1.375
1.-.200
.0102
0099
0133
0161
0192
0223
0254
0285
0347
0409
0471
0533
0595
1657
0719
.028
0045
0062
0075
0098
0115
0133
0151
0169
0204
0239
0275
0310
0346
0381
0417
.028
0112
0148
0186
0222
0259
0295
0332
0406
0479
0552
0626
0699
0772
0846
.032
0050
0070
0090
0111
0131
0151
0171
0192
0232
0272
0313
0353
0394
0434
047'"
. 062
0121
0162
0203
0244
0285
0327
0368
0450
0532
0614
0697
0779
0861
0943
.035
0054
0076
0098
0120
0142
0164
0186
0209
0253
0297
0341
0386
0430
0474
Q218
.012
0312
0357
0402
0493
O'5R/+
0675
0707
0858
0947
1040
.042
0088
0114
0142
0168
0194
0221
0247
0300
0353
0407
0460
0513
0566
0619

0350
0417
0455
0560
0664
0769
0874
0979
1084
1189
Round wire of materials
y,ei",ht Linear Foot
Brass,
LTage Dia'Ueter Steel Phosphor Iron
Inches Sprinp, Bronze
24
.020 .00107 .00116 .00107
21 .028 .00210 .0023 .00210
20 .032 .00271 .00295 .00271
18 .040 .0043 .0047 .0043
14 .064 .0110 .0122 .0110
12 .081 .0175 .0195 .0175
10 .102 .0279 .0308 .0279
8 .128 .0442 .0487 .0442
Ga",e CQm:ter Aluminum Alloy Wire
Diameter Inches Weight #/ft
24 .00121 .03l25 .0009
21 .00238 .0625 .0037
20 .00300 .09375 .0090
18 .00492 .125 .015
14 .0125 .156 .023
12 .0199 .187 .033
10 .0317 .250 .060
8 .Oj02 .3l2 .092
.375 .036
Stranded Cable
7
x 19 19-5trand
EXTRA FLEXIBLE HON FLEXIBLE
Breaking Weight Breaking Vieight
Diameter Strenrlh #/ft. Strenrlh #/ft.
1-1/8
1
7/8
3/4
5/8 .805
9/16 .672
1/2 24,400 .432 28,500 .539
7/16 19,000 .340 23,500 .406
3/8 14,400 .265 17,500 .301
11/32 12,500 .225
5/16 9,800 .177 12,500 .207
9/32 8,000 .146 10,000 .177
1/4 7,000 .l20 8,000 .135
7/32 5,600 .095 6,100 .100
3/16 4,200 .065 4,600 .077
5/32 2,800 .044 3,200 .055
1/8 2,000 .029 2,100 .035
7/64 830a .015 1,600 .026
3/32 780a .013 1,100 .018
5/64 480a .008 780 .012
1/16 400a .007 560 .008
185 .003.-(7 Wir
aCott"r:>u center
Steel V;ire Rope
Ste!i!l Wire R02e
Extra Flexib.Le
Diam.
YIt. Diam.
1-1/8
Breaking

3/16
1
2,750 .053
7/8
2 2,oa .042 5/32
. , a 3/4
c,1a,;!.1 ... 5,:;:.0 ___ 5/8
9/16
1/2
7/16
3/8
5/16
llL:.
Weight
HUt.
2.00
1.53
1.20
.
89
.62
.50
.39
.30
.22
.15
.10
Breaking
Strength
90,000
62,000
55,800
00 41,4
28,600
23,000
18,200
14,000
10,300
7,020
4.680
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
e)
WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH
of Aircraft Materials
Weigbt of Streamline
.
incluciIne clevis ends and p lns, check nuts and cotter pins
Length Size and T reads Der Inch
Feet 6-1..0 10-32 1/1..-28 5/16 21.. 3/8-24
1 .07 .l2 .24 .40 .5B
2 .10 .17 .33 .51.. .79
"
.13 .22 .41 .68 .99
"'
4 .16 .27 .49 .82 1.20
5 .19 .32 .58 .96 1.41
6
-
.37 .66 1.10 1.61
7 -
.42 .75 1.24 1.82
8
-
.1..6 .82 1.37 2.01
9 -
.50 .92 1.52 2.23
10
- - -
1.66 2.M
11
- - - 1.79 2.65
12 2.85
Weight J2.ll !22!: Miscellaneous Materials
Piano Hinge - Dural 3/4" .wide ..................... .
Piano Hinge - Dural 1-1/16
11
wide .................. .
Piano Hinge - Dural 1-1/4" wide .045 .............. .
P1ulnber's Chain #0 Steel
Webbing - Cotton 1" x 1/8"
Webbing - Cotton 1-1/2" x 1/8"
Friction Tape (wound on .
Artificial Leather (upholstering material)
Guip artificial leather 1/2" wide
5/8" wide .

Cotton Herringbone Selvage Edges
" "
II n
n II
"
"
Pinked Edge Grade A Cotton
Plain Grade A Cotton
Width
1 2
5/8
3/4
2-1/4
2
7/16-20
.87
1.15
1.44
1.72
2.01
2.24
2.58
2.84
3.15
3.43
3.72
1...00
# ft.
.083
.100
.111
.0213
.033
.050
A5:11
1/2-20
1.19
1.57
1.94
2.32
2.70
3.07
3.45
3.80
4.20
4.58
4.96
'5.l4
.0286#/ft. of wire
16#/sq. ft.
.0148#/ft.
.0l88#/ft .
12-. 175#/sq.ft
ff.Ft.
.0018
.0024
.0030
.0055
.00 0
Tubing: - Hard
FIBRE
Roa - Hard
Outside Diameter Lhs. per Diameter Lbs. per
Diameter Inside Foot Foot
5 16 1 4 .017 3 8 .067
3/8 5/16 .021 1/2 .119
3/4 1/2 .149 5/8 .186
7/8 13/16 .051
3/4 .268
1 15/16 .058 7/8 .364
1
5/8 .293 1 .476
1-1/8 1 .l27 1-1/4 .744
1-1/4 l-l/B .142 1-1/2 1.071
4-1/4 4 .990
1-3/4 1.460
2 1. 08
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
A5:12 WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT UATERIALS
ROUND WEIGHT SECTION PROPERTIES
Out.id. 0 B\\G and
Weight per Properties of Round Section
Ft. Lb.
Section Alumi- Moment of Section Radius of
Diameter Thickness Area Steel num Inertia Modulus Gyration
In. In. SI). In. AllOY I Z k
0.18750/16) X2l.-0.022 0.0l.l44
9.:..Q.li
0.014 0.000040 0.000425 0.05903
0.1875 0.01403
!l:.ill&
0.017 0.000046 0.000491 0.05725
0.1875 X20-O.035 0.01677

0.020 0.000051 0.000547 0.05532
0.2500(1/4) X24-O.022 0.01576 0.054 0.010 0.000103 0.000827 0.08098
0.2500 X22-0.028 0.01958 0.067 0.023 0.000122 0.000978 0.079ll
0.2500 X20-0.035 0.02364
0.028 0.000140 0.001122 0.07701
0.2500 Xl8-O.049 0.03094 0.105 0.037 0.000165 0.001324 0.07314
0.3125(5/16) X24-O.022 0.02008 0.068 0.024 0.000213 0.001363 0.10300
0.3125 X22-0.028 0.02503 0.085 0.030 0.000256 0.001636 0.10107
0.3125 X20-0.035 0.03051 0.104 0.037 0.000298 0.001910 0.09888
0.3125 Xl8-O.049 0.04056 . 0.138 0.049 0.000364 0.002331 0.09475
0.3125 Xl7-O.058 0.04637 0.158 0.056 0.000395 0.002527 0.09229
0.375 (3/8) X24-O.022 0.02440 0.083 0.029 0.000381 0.002035 0.12505
0.375 X22-O.028 0.03052 0.104 0.037 0.000462 0.002463 0.12309
0.375 X20-O.035 0.03739 0.127

0.000546 0.002912 0.12084
0.375 Xl8-O.049 0.05018 0.171 0.060 0.000682 0.003636 0.ll655
0.375 Xl7-O.058 0.05776 0.197 0.069 0.000750 0.003999 0.ll393
0.375 16-0.065 0.06330 0.216 0.076 0.000794 0.004234 0.lli99
0.4375(7/16) 24-0.022 0.02872 0.098 0.034 0.000621 0.002841 0.14710
0.4375 22-0.028 0.03602 0.123 0.043 0.000759 0.003470 0.14512
0.500(1/2) 24-0.022 0.03304 0.ll2 0.040 0.00095 0.00378 0.16918
0.500 22-0.028 0.04152
ffo
0.053 0.ooll6 0.00464 0.16721
0.500 21-0.032 0.04705 0.1 0 0.056 0.00129 0.00518 0.16585
0.500 X20-0.035 0.05113

0.061 0.00139 0.00556 0.16487
0.500 19-0.042 0.06043 0.206 0:0?3
0.00160 0.00639 0.16261
0.500 18-0.049 0.06943

0.083 0.00179 0.00714 0.16039
0.500 Xl7-O.058 0.08054 0.275 0.097 ,0.00200 0.00800 0.15761
0.500 16-0.065 0.08883

0.107 0.00215 0.00859 0.15550
0.500 14-0.083 0.10873
.fh.m
0.131 0.00246 0.00983 0.15032
0.625 (5/8) 22-0.028 0.05252
.Q:J12.
0.063 0.00234 0.00750 0.2ll30
0.625 21-0.032 0.05962 0.203 0.072 0.00263 0.00841 0.20996
0.625 X2Q-O.035 0.06487 0.221 0.078 0.00283 0.00283 0.20896
0.625 19-0.042 0.07693 0.262 0.092 0.00329 0.01051 0.20660
0.625 Xl8-O.049 0.08867

0.106 0.00370 0.Oll85 0.20438
0.625 Xl7-O.058 0.10331 0.352 0.124 0.00419 0.01342 0.20151
0:625 16-0.065 0.ll435 9.:..12Q.. 0.137 0.00454 0.01454 0.19932
0.625 14-0.083 0.14133

0.170 0.00531 0.01670 0.19386
0.750 (3/4) 22-0.028 0.06351
.Qdll
0.076 0.00414 0.Oll05 0.25546
0.750 21-0.032 0.07218 0.246 0.087 0.00466 0.01243 0.25410
0.760 X20-O.035 0.07862 0.268

0.00504 0.01343 0.25309
0.750 19-0.042 0.09342 0.318 0.112 0.ll587 0.01566 0.25075
0.750 Xl8-O.049 0.10791 0.368 0.J2,2 0.00666 0.01776 0.24844
0.750 Xl7-O.058 0.12609 0.430 0.151 0.00760 0.02027 0.24551
0.750 16...0.065 0.13988 0.477 0.168 0.00828 0.02208 0.24327
0.750 14-0.083 0.17392 0.593 0.209 0.00982 0.02619 0.23764
0.875(7/8) 22-0.028 0.14887

0.089 0.00669 0.01529 0.29962
0.875 21-0.032 0.08475 0.289 0.102 0.00754 0.01723 0.29826
0.875 X 20-0.035 0.09236

O.lli 0.00316 0.01865 0.29724
0.875 19-0.042 0.10990 0.375 0.132 0.00956 0.02184 0.29488
0.875 X 18-0.049 0.12715 0.433 0.153 0.01088 0.02487 0.29255
0.875 X 17-0.058 0.14887 0.507 ..Q:l22. 0.01248 0.02843 0.28958
0.875 16-0.065 0.16541

0.198 0.01365 0.03121 0.28729
0.875 14-0.083 0.20652 0.248 0.01637 0.03742 0.28155
1.000 (1) 22-0.028 0.08550 o:29i 0.103 O.OlOll 0.02021
1.000 21-0.032 0.097'U 0.332 0.117 0.0ll4l 0.02282 0.34243
1.000 .x. 20-0.035 0.1<XUJ.. 0.362 0.127 0.01237 0.02474 0.34140
1.000 19-0.042 0.1264J. "'Q.4jI'
0.152 0.01453 0.62905 0.33903
1.000 X 18-0.049 0.14640
JW&22.
0.176 0.01659 0.03319 0.33667
1.000 X 17-0.058 0.17164 0.206 0.019ll 0.03822 0.33368
1.000 16-0.065 0.19093

0.229 . 0.02.097 0.04193 0.33137
1.000 14-0.083 0.23911 0.815 0.287 0.02534 0.05068 0.32553
1.000 13-0.095 0.27010
0":92l" 0.324 0.02796 0.05591 0.32172
1.000 ll-O.120 0.33175 1.131 0.398 0.03271 0.06542 0.31398
1.125(1-1/8) 21-0.032 0.10988 0.375 0.132 0.01642 0.02920 0.38659
1.125 X 20-0.035 0.11985 0.409 0.144 0.01782 0.03l68 0,.38557
Underscored items can commonly be bought from NatioriiI'fUbe Co. stock. SAE 1025 Carbon and SAE 4130
Chrome Moly. X _ Air Corps Std. Siz,es.
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
A5:13
Jl()TTNTl 'T'T rK TNr. Wl<:Tl1wr nln "'lCM'Trm
Weight per Properties of Round Section
Ft Lb.
Outeide a B"l and Section Alumi- Moment Section Radius of
Diameter Thickness Area Steel num of Inertia Modulus Gyration
In. In. So. In. Allov I Z k
1.125 19-0.042 0.14290 0.487 0.171 0.02098 0.03730 0 .38319
1.125 X 18-0.049 0.16564
W,
0.199 0.02402 0.04270 0.38022
1.125 X 17-0.058 0.19442 O. 2 0.233 0.02775 0.04933 0.37780
1.125 16-0.065 0.21646
~
0.260 0.03052 0.05425 0.37547
1.125 14-0.083 0.27170
...9.:.B.
0.326 0.03711 0.06597 0.36957
1.125 13-0.095 0.30741
..2:ld&.
0.369 0.04111 0.07309 0.36571
1. 250(1-1/4) 21-0.032 0.12245 0.417 0.147 0.02272 0.03636 0.43078
1.250 X 20-0.035 0.13360
...9..:.ill
0.160 0.02467 0.03948 0.42975
1.250 19-0.042 0.15939 0.543 0.199 0.02911 0.04658 0.42735
1.250 X 18-0.049 0.18488
~
0.222 0.03339 0.05342 0.42497
1.250 X 17-0.058- 0.21720 0.740 0.261 0.03867 0.06187 0.42194
1.250 X 16-0.065
0-:24198 ..Q&gi 0.290 0.04260 0.ob816 0.41959
1.250 14-0.083 0.30430
-hQn..
0.365 0.05207 0.08330 0.41364
1.250 13-0.095 0.34471
..hill.
0.414 0.04787 0.09259 0.40974
1.250 11-0.120 0.42600
...L.ill.
0.511 0.06876 0.11002 0.40176
1.375(1-3/8) X 20-0.035 0.14734 0.502 0.177 0.03309 0.04814 0.47392
1.375 19-0.042 0.17590 0.600 0.211 0.03910 0.05688 0.47152
1.375 X 18-0.049 0.20412
~
0.245 0.G4492 0.06534 0.46913
1.375 X 17-0.058 0.23997 0.818 0.288 0.04213 0.07583 0.46608
1.375 X 16-0.065 0.26751 0.912 0.321 0.05753 0.08367 0.46372
1.375 14-0.083 0.33689
~
0.404 0.07059 0.10267 0.45774
1.375 13-0.095 0.38202
~
0.458 0.07867 0.11443 0.45379
1.500(1-1/2) X 20-0.035 0.16109
~
0.193 0.04324 0.05765 0.51810
1.500 19-0.042 0.19238 0.656 0.231 0.05116 0.06822 0.51569
1.500 X 18-0.049 0.22336 0.761 0.268 0.05885 0.07847 0.51330
1.500 X 17-0.058 0.26275 0.896 0.315 0.06840 0.09121 0.51024
1.500 X 16-0.065 0.29303
lhm
0.352 0.075)8 0.10078 0.50787
1.500 X 14-0.083 0.36949 ..L1.2Q. 0.443 0.09305 0.12407 0.50184
1.500 X 13-0.095 0.41933
.l:.m
0.503 0.10394 0.13859 0.49788
1.500 X 11-0.120 0.52025
.bI&
0.624 0.12478 0.16638 0.48974
l.625{1-5/8) 19-0.042 0.20887 0.712 0.251 0.06547 0.08058 0.55987
1.625 X 18-0.049 0.24261 0.827 0.291 0.07540 0.09279 0.55747
1.625 X 17-0.058 0.28553 0.973 0.343 0.08776 0.10801 0.55440
1.625 X 16-0.065 0.31856
~
0.382 0.09707 0.11948 0.55202
1.750(1-3/4) 18-0.049X 0.21685 ..Q&ll 0.314 0.09478 0.10832 0.60164
1.750 X 17-0.058 0.30830 1.051 0.370 0.11046 0.12624 0.59856
1.750 X 16-0.065
034408
..l:.lll.
0.413 0.12230 0.13977 0.59618
1.750 X 14-0.083 0.43467
~
0.522 0.15136 0.17299 0.59010
1.750 X 13-0.095 0.49394 .L..b.. 0.593 0.16967 0.19391 0.58609
1.750 X 11-0.120
0.61450
..bQ2.i. 0.737 0.20519 0.2345 0.57785
1. 857{1-7/8) 17-O.058X 0.33108 1.129 0.397 0.13677 0.14589 0.64273
~ 1 8 7 5 X 16-0.065 0.36961 1.260 0.444 0.15155 0.16166 0.64034
; 2.000
21-0.032 0.19785
0:675 0.237 0.09581 0.09581 0.69589
; 2.000
20-0.035 0.21606
.fhll1.
0.259 0.10432 0.10432 0.69484
2.000 19-0.042 0.25835 0.881 0.310 0.12386 0.12386 0.69242
2.000 X 17-0.058 0.352.86 1.206 0.425 0.16696 0.16696 0.68691
2.000 X 16-0.066
0.39513
..L.3U.
0.474 0.18514 0.18514 0.68451
-
2.DOO X 14-0.083 0.49986
~
0.560 0.23005 0.23005 0.67840
2.000 X 13-0.095 0.56855
..Lm
0.682 0.25855- 0.25855 0.67436
2.000 X 1l-0.120
0.70874
~
0.850 0.31.439 0.31439 0.66603
""2.125(2-1/8) 17-0.058 0.37663 1.284 0.452 0.20130 0.18946 0.73108
2.125 16-0.065 0.42066
~
0.505 0.22336 0.21022 0.72868
2.250{2-1/4) 21-0.032 0.22298 0.760 0.268 0.13715 0.12191 0.78426
2.250 19-0.042 0.29134 0.993 0.350 0.17761 0.16507 0.78079
2.250 18-0.049 0.33882
..LUi.
0.407 0.20527 0.18246 0.77836
2.250 X 16-0.065 0.44619
..!.:..ill.. 0.535 0.26651 0.23690 0.77286
2.250 15-0.072
-0.49265
~
0.591 0.29245 / 0.25994 0.77045
2.250 X 13-0.095 0.64317
k.l21.
0.772 0.37408 0.33252 0.76265
2.250 X ll-O.120 0.80300
.k.m
0.964 0.45682 0.40607 0.75426
2.250
3/16-0.1875 _.21492
~ 1.458 0.65136v 0.57898 0.73222
2.375(2-3/8) 16-0.065 0.47171
~
0.566 0.31489 0.26517 0.81703
2.375 15-0.072 0.52092 1.776 0.625 0.35470 0.29112 0.81463
2.375 11-0.120 0.85011
~
1.020 0.54189 0.45633 0.79839
Underscored items can commonly be bought from National Tube Co. stock SAE 1025 Carbon and SAE 4130 Chrome
Moly. X - Air Corps ~ d Si7-88.
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
A5:14 WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
ROUND TUBING: &iD SECTION PROPERTIES
dKG aod
Weight per Properties of Round Section
Ft. Lb.
Section A1umi- !loment Section Radius of
Diameter Thickness Area Steel num of Inertia Modulus Gyration
In. In. S In. Alio I Z k
2.500 2-1 2 19-0.042 0.32433 1.106 0.389 0.24501 0.19601 0.86916
2.500 lS-O.049 0.37730

0.453 0.28344 0.22675 0.86573
2.500 17-0.058 0.44496 1.517 0.534 0.33187 0.26500 0.86363
2.500 16-0.065 0.49724
1.&2.2
0.597 0.36879 0.29503 0.86121
2.500 15-0.072 0.54920 1.872 0.659 0.40506 0.32405 0.85881
2.500 14-0.083 0.63024
b1!:o2
0.756 0.46077 0.36861 0.85504
2.500 13-0.095 0.71778
bID.
0.861 0.51976 0.41581 0.85096
2.500 X 11-0.120 0.89724 3.059 1.077 0.63691 0.50953 0.83252
2.625(2-5/8) 15-0.072 0.57748 1.969 0.692 0.47085 0.35875 0.90298
2.625 14-0.083 0.66283 2.260 0.795 0.53596 0.40835 0.89921
2.625 11-0.120 0.94436 3.219 1.133 0.74244 0.56567 0.88667
2.750(2-3/4) 19-0.042 0.35732 1.218 0.429 0.32761 0.23826 0.95754
2.750 18-0.049 0.41579 1.417 0.499 0.37929 0.27585 0.95511
2.750 17-0.058 0.49052 1.672 0.589 0.44454 0.32331 0.95199
2.750 16-0.065 0.54829 1.869 0.658 0.49438 0.55954 0.94958
2.750 X 14-0.093 0.69.543 2.371 0.835 0.61891 0.45012 0.94338
2.750 X 13-0.095 0.79239 2.701 0.951 0.69909 0.50943 0.93928
2.750 X 11-0.120 0.99149- 3.380 1.189 -0.85904/ 0.62476 0.93081
2.750 3116-0.1875 1. 50944 5.146 1.811 1. 24558- 0.90588 0.90840
2.875(2-7/8) 14-0.083 0.72802 2.482 0.874 0.71002 0.49393 0.98755
2.875 13-0.095 0.82970 2.828 0.996 0.80246 0.55924 0.98345
2.875 11-0.120 1.03861 3.541 1.246 0.98725 0.68679 0.97497
3.000 19-0.042 0.39030 1.331 0.468 0.42696 0.28464 1.04592
3.000 18-0.049 0.45427 1.549 0.545 0.49463 0.32976 0.04348
3.000 17-0.058 0.53607 1.828 0.643 0.58021 0.38681 1.04036
3.000 16-0.065 0.59934 2.043 0.719 0.64567 0.43045 1.03793
3.000 14-0.083 0.76062 2.593 0.913 0.80965 0.53977 1.03174
3.000 13-0.095 0.86700 2.956 1.040 0.91556 0.61028 1.02762
3.000 11-0.120 1.08574 3.702 1.303 1.12765 0.75176 1.01911
3.250(3-1/4) 18-0.049 0.49276 1.680 0.591 0.63127 0.38847 1.13216
3250 17-0.058 0.58163 1.983 0.698 0.74100 0.45600 1.12873
3.250 16-0.065 0.65039 2.217 0.781 0.82506 0.50773 1.12633
3.250 14-0.083 0.82581 2.815 0.991 1.03605 0.63757 1.12009
3.250 13-0.095 0.94162 3.210 1.129 1.17267 0.72164 1.11598
3.250 12-0.109 1.07559 3.667 1.291 1. 32805 0.81726 1.11118
3.250 11-0.130 1.17999 4.023 1.416 1.44715 0.89061 1.10743
3.500(3-1/2) 17-0.058 0.62718 2.138 0.753 0.92906 0.53089 1.21710
3500 15-0.072 0.77540 2.643 0.931 1.13948 0.65113 1.21225
3.500 14-0.083 0.89099 3.038 1.069 1.30116 0.74352 1.20948
3.500 13-0.095 1.01623 3.465 1.219 1.47392 0.84224 1.20432
3.500 12-0.109 1.16119 3.959 1.393 1.67078 0.95473 1.19951
3.500 11-0.120 1.27423 1+.344 1.529 1.82196 1.04122 1.19576
3.750(3-3/4) 17-0.058 0.67273 2.293 0.807 1.14652 0.61148 1.30548
3.750 15-0.072 0.83195 2.836 0.998 1.40733 0.75057 1.30062
3.750 14-0.083 0.95618 3.260 1.147 1.60803 0.85762 1.29681
3.750 12-0.109 1.24680 4.251 1.496 2.06794 1.10290 1.28786
3.750 11-0.120 1.36848 4.665 1.642 2.25651 1.20347 1.28410
4.000(4) 17-0.058 0.71828 2.449 0.862 1.39551 0.69775 1.39386
4.000 16-0.065 0.80354 2.739 0.964 1. 55570 0.77785 1.39142
4.000 14-0.083 1.02137 3.482 1.226 1.95972 0.97886 1.38518
4.000 13-0.095 1.16545 3.973 1.399 2.22282 1.11141 1.38103
4.000 11-0.120 1.46273 4.987 1.755 2.75520 1.37760 1.37244
4.250(4-1/4) 16-0.065 0.85460 2.914 1.026 1.87130 0.88066 1.47980
4.250 13-0.095 1.24007 4.288 1.488 2.67747 1.25999 1.46940
4.500(4-1/2) 16-0.065 0.90564 3.088 1.087 2.22714 0.98984 1.56818
4.500 15-0.072 1.00159 3.415 1.202 2.45545 1.09131 1.56574
4.500 13-0.095 1.31468 4.482 1.578 3.10925 1.41789 1.55776
4.500 11-0.120 1.65122 5.629 1.981 3.96269 1.76120
4.750(4-3/4) 16-0.065 0.95670 3.262 1.148 2.62535 1.10541 1.65656
4.750 15-0.072 1.05814 3.607 1.270 2.89519 1.21903 1.65412
4.750 13-0.095 1.38930 4.736 1.667 3.76465 1. 58512 1.64613
5.000 16-0.065 LOO775 3.436 1.209 3.06839 1.22736 1.74494
5.000 14-0.083 1.28212
4.371 1.539 3.87582 1.55033 1.73867
5.000 13-0.095 1.46391 4.991 1.757 4.40417 1. 76167 1.73450
5.000 11-0.120 1.83972 6.272 2.208 5.47979 2.19192 1.72586
items CRn be bought from Tube Co. stock SAE 1025 Carbon and SAE 4130 Chrane
Moly. X Air Corps Std. Sizes.
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT MATERIALS C
:>
A,:l,
streamline T!Wjni- and Sect jon Properties
Weight per
Ft. lb. streamline Ratio 2-1 2 to 1
Equivalent BYl and Section Alumi- lloment Section Radius of
Diameter Thickness Area Steel num of Inertia Modulus Gyration
In. In. In. A110 I Z k
2.000 2 17-0.058 0.35386 1.206 0.425 0.06011 0.10518 0.41215
2.000 16-0.065 0.39513
l.....lU
0.474 0.06665 0.11664 0.41071
2.000 15-0.083 0.49986 1.704 0.560 0.08282 0.14493 0.40704
2.000 13-0.095 0.56855 1.938 0.682 0.09308 0.16287 0.40462
2.250(f2-l/4) 21-0.032 0.22298 0.760 0.268 0.04937 0.07680 0.47056
2.250 19-0.042 0.29134 0.993 0.350 0.06394 0.99458 0.46847
2.250 18-0.049 0.3.3882 1.155 0.407 0.07390 0.11495 0.46702
2.250 16-0.065 0.44619 1.521 0.535 0.09594 0.14925 0.463n
2.250 15-0.072 0.49265 1.680 0.591 0.10528 0.16376 0.46227
2.250 13-0.095 0.64317 2.193 0.772 0.13467 0.20948 0.45759
2.250 11-0.120 0.80300 2.738 0.964 0.16446 0.25582 0.45256
2.250 3/16-0.1875 1.21492 4.l42 1.458 0.23449 0.36476 0.43933
2.500(2-1/2) 19-0.042 0.32433 1.106 0.389 0.08820 0.123"'9 0.52150
2.500 18-0.049 0.37730 1.286 0.453 0.10204 0.14285 0.52004
2.500 17-0.058 0.44496 1.517 0.534 0.11947 0.16727 0.51817
2.500 16-0.065 0.49724
l:E.2.2.
0.597 0.13276 0.51673
2.500 15-0.072 0.54920 1.872 0.659 0.14582 0.4>421 0.51528
2.500 14-0.083 0.63024
klli
0.756 0.16588 0.23222 0.51302
2.500 lr<J.095 0.71778 2.447 O.86l 0.187011 0.26196 0.51058
2.500 11-0.120 0.89724 3.059 1.077 0.22928 0.32100 0.50551
2.750(2-3/4) 19-0.042 0.55732 1.218 0.429 0.11794 0.15010 0.57452
2.750 18-0.049 0.41579 1.417 0.499 0.13655 0.17379 0.57301
2.750 17-0.058 0.49052 1.672 0.589 0.16003 0.20368 0.57119
2.750 16-0.065 0.54829

0.658 0.17798 0.22651 0.56975
2.750 14-0.083 0.69543
b.lZl
0.835 0.22280 0.28358 0.56613
2.750 13-0.095 0.79239 2.701 0.951 0.25168 0.32031 0.56357
2.750 11-0.120 0.99149 3.380 1.189 0.30925 0.39360 0.55849
2.750 3/16-0.1875 1. 50944 5.l46 1.811 0.44841 0.57070 0.54504
3.000(3) 19-0.042 0.39030 1.331 0.468 0.15371 0.17932 0.62755
3.000 18-0.049 0.45427 1.549 0.545 0.17006 0.20775 0.62609
3000 17-0.058 0.35607 1.828 0.643 0.20087 0.24369 0.62422
3000 16-0.065 0.59934 2.043 0.719 0.23244 0.27118 0.62276
3.000 1.4-0.083 0.76062
0.913 0.29147 0.34005 0.61904
3.000 13-0.095 0.86700

1.040 0.32960 0.38444 0.61657
3.000 11-0.120 1.08574 3.702 1.303 0.40595 0.57361 0.61147
3.250(3/1/4) 18-0.049 0.49276 1.680 0.591 0.22726 0.24474 0.67929
3.250 17-0.058 0.58163 1.983 0.698 0.26676 0.28728 0.67724
3.250 16-0.065 0.65039 2.217 0.781 0.29702 0.31987 0.67578
3.250 14-0.083 0.82581 2.815 0.991 0.37298 0.40167 0.67205
3.250 13-0.095 0.94162 3.210 1.129 0.42216 0.45463 0.66959
3.250 12-0.109 1.07559 3.667 1.291 0.47809 0.51487 0.66671
3.250 11-0.120
1.17999 4.023 1.416 0.52097 0.56108 0.66446
3. 250(3-1/2) 17-0.058 0.62718 2.138 0.753 0.33446 0.33446 0.73026
3.500 15-0.072 0.77540 2.643 0.931 0.41021 0.41021 0.72735
3.500 14-0.083 0.89099 3.038 1.069 0.46842 0.46842 0.72569
3.500 13-0.095 1.01623 3.465 1.219 0.53060 0.53061. 0.72259
3.500 12-0.109 1.16119 3.959 1.393 0.60148 0.60148 0.71971
3.500 11-0.120 1.27423 4.344 1.529 0.65591 0.65591 0.71746
3.750(3-3/4) 17-0.058 0.67273 2.293 0.807 0.41275 0.38523 0.78329
3.750 15-0.072 0.83195 2.836 0.998 0.50664 0.47286 0.78037
3750 15-0.083 0.95618 3.260 1.147 0.57889 0.54030 0.77809
3.750 12-0.109 1.34680 4.251 0.496 0.74446 0.69483 0.77272
3.750 11-0.120 4.665 1.642 0.81234 0.75819 0.77046
4.000 17-0.058 0.71828 2.449 0.862 0.50238 0.43958 0.83632
4.000 16-0.065 0.80354 2.739 0.964 0.56005 0.49005 0.83485
4.000 14-0.083 1.02137 3.582 1.226 0.70550 0.61731 0.83111
4.000 13-0.095 1.16546 3.973 1.399 0.80022 0.70019 0.28262
4.000 11-0.120 1.46273 4.987 1.755 0.99187 0.86789 0.82846
4.250(4-1/4) 16-0.065 0.85460 2.914 1.026 0.67370 0.55482 0.88788
4.250 13-0.095 1.24007 4.288 1.488 0.96389 0.79379 0.88164
4.500(1-1/2) 16-0.065 0.90564 3.088 1.087 0.80177 0.62360 0.94944
4.500 15-0.072 1.00159 3.415 1.202 1.88396 0.68753 0.93944
4.500 13-0.095 1.3l46S 4.482 1.578 1.14849 0.89327 0.93466
4.500 11-0.120 1.65122 5.629 1.981 1.42657 1.10956 0.92948
4.750(4-3/4) 16-0.065 0.95670 3.266 1.148 0.94513 0.69641 0.99394
4.750 15-0.072 1.05814 3.607 1.270 1.04227 0.76799 0.99247
4.750 13-0.095 1.38930 4.736 1.667 1.35527 0.99863 0.98768
5.000 16-0.065 1.00775 3.436 1.209 1.00462 0.77324 1.04696
Underscored items can oommonly be bought from stock.
(AN Chrome Moly)
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
A5:16
WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT }1ATERIALS
Streamline Tubing; Weight and Section Properties
Equivalent
Diameter
In.
5.000
5.000
5.000
BWG and
Thickness
In.
14-0.083
13-0.095
11-0.120
Section
Area
Sa. In.
1.28212
1.46391
1.869'72
Weight per
Ft. Lb.
Steel
4371
4.991
6.272
Streamline Ratio 2-LL2 to 1
Alumi- Moment Section Radius of
num of Inertia Modulus Gyration
AllQY_ I Z k
1.539 1.39530 0.97671 1.04320
1.757 1.10985 1.04070
2 208 1.9'l2'12 1.38091 1.0'1'5';2
i'EIGHT OF STEEL STREAMLINE TUBING
Std.
540 Size-Inches Equiv. Weight Std. Size-Inches Equiv. Weight
in Rd. #/in. 540 in Rd. #/in.
Tube Tube
-1 1.534 x .639 1-1/8 -.035 .031 -15 3.748 x 1. 562 .083 .1975
-2 1.697 x .707 1-1/4 -.049 .0525 -16 3.748 x 1. 562 2-3/4- .065 .1557
-3 1.697 x .707 1-1/4 -.035 .0379 -17t 1-7/8 x 3/4 1-1/2- .028 .0368
-4 1.874 x .781 1-3/8 -.049 .058 -18t .562 x .25 3/8-.028 .018
-5 1.874 x .781 1-3/8 -.035 .0418 -19t 1.125 x .69
-6 2.047 x .854 1-1/2 -.058 .0746 -20. .625 x .375 1/2 -.035 .0145
-7 2.047 x .854 1-1/2 -.049 .0634 -2:utl.O x .312 3/4 -.035 .008
-8 2.386 x .994 1-3/4 -.065 .0977 1.0 x .375 3/4 -.028 .018
-9 2.386 x .994 1-3/4 -.058 .0976 x .50 3/4 -.035 .0223
-10 2.386 x .994 1-3/1.. -.049 .0744 -2M 1. 375 x .687 1-1/4-.049 .0525
-11 2.726 xl .136 2 -.065 .1122 -25t3.0 x .437 2 -.035 .0614
-12 2.726 xl .136 2 -.058 .1005 x .437 2 -.035 .0219
-13 3.406 xl .420 2-1/2 -.083 .179 -27
-1.1.. xl .L.20 2-1/2 -.065 .1l12
I Oval tubing
t Aluminum
- .
Weight of Streamline Aluminum Alloy Tubes
Equiv. Weight Weight
Size Round Gage per per
Tube Inches Inch Foot
TMSK 10 4.018 x 1.76 3-1 8 .095 .0915 1.100
TMSK
15 3-1/8 x 1-3/16 2-5/16 .032 .0241 .289
TMSK
16 3.35 x 1-1/2 2-5/8 .065 .0528 .634
TMsK
18 2.75 x 1.125 2-1/8 .049 .0323 .388
TMSK
19 1-5/8 x 3/8 1.106 .032 .0109 .131
TMSK
21 3-1/8 x 1-3/16 2-5/16 .049 .0363 .436
TMSK
29 1-7/8 x 3/8 1-5/16 .035 .0143 .171
TMSK
30 3-1/8 x 1-3/16 2-1/4 .058 .0404 .485
TMSK
41 4.389 x 1.85 3-1/4 .083 .0835 1.002
TMSK
42 4.05 x 1.716
3 .083 .0770 .925
TMSK
43 3.71 x 1.572 2-3/4 .065 .0554 .665
TMSK
44 3.375 x 1.43 2-1/2 .065 .0503 .604
TMSK
45 2.70 x 1.144 2 .058 .0358 .429
TMSK
46 4.72 x 2.0
3-3/8 .095 .0990 1.19
TMSK
47 4.018 x 1.76 3-1/32 .065 .0649 .778
TMSK
50 3-1/8 x 1-3/16 2-1/4 .058 .0404 .485
TMSK
51 3-1/8 x .375 2-3/64 .032 .0206 .247
TMSK
54 3-1/8 x 1.3/16 2-1/4 .049 .0413 .495
TMSK
59 5.428 x 2.3 4-1/64 .109 .136 1.630
TMSK
68 3-1/8 x 1-3/16 2-21/64 .090 .0658 .790
TMSK
72 3.71 x 1.572 2-3/4 072 .0613 .736
ruSK
73 4.389 x 1.860
3-1/4 .095 .0968 1.162
TMSK
74 2-7/8 xl.
2-3/32 .050 .0343 .412
TUSK
1 2.0 x 0.8 1-1 2 .0 8 .0266 . 1
Square Aluminum Alloy Tubes with Rounded Corners
TMSK 2
.375 .50 .022 .00308 .037
TMSK
4 .5625 .625 .040 .00733 .088
TMSK
7 1.125 1. 50 .049 .0226 .271
TMSK
13 .50 .75 .022 .00501 .061
TMSK 20 1.125 1.50 .058 .0266 .319
Il'MSK
25 .317 .375 .028 .370
T't.!SK 28 .380
.4375 .028 .03661 .440
TMSK
32 .75 1.00 .049 .0148 .178
TMSK
33 1.00 1.25 .058 .0222 .267
T:.:SK
1.00 1. .06 .02 0 .2
From: A. W. Abels,
Consolidated Vultee Aircraft Corp.
WEIGHT PER UNIT LENGTH OF AIRCRAFT Y.ATF..'RIALS
A5:17

ar num es 0
wt. per Foot
Size Equi v. Round Tube Gage Inches wt.per Inch
R t Eru1 Alumi Tub With R unded COl"!'lers
TMSK 12 1.50 x 1.00 1.625 .125 .0572 .686
TUSK 22 .6875 x .375 .0312 .00617 .074
TMSK 27 1.25 x 1.00 1.375 .049 .02075 .249
TMSK

1.25 x 1.00 1.500 .065 .02776 .33.3
TUSK 1. 150 x 1.1215 1.62<; .065 .0'i122 '375
Aluminum Manl1'anese Tubil12
Size wt'!ft
1
t
Z
.-.t ,..tr.
- t
z
x .032 .0219


x .032
.02S1
7.16 x .032 .0474
B"",
B

Plain Z
ftL
Size

nvm AllOY Structural Sh)P8S
A B t # ft.
L!
?(8 ?(16
.060 .14
fl.-. B
P.,>"tly from ALCOA Handbook
l-l(;t

'In
5 .20
Ec:mal Anl1'les 1-1 3, 2 .29
Size Wt.
A t #/ft. Plain Tees


.07 A B t t2
0.13
1 .900 .070 .090 .19
3/4 1/16 O.ll
1-1/4 1 1/8 l/S .30
3/4 l/S 0.21
1-1/8 1-1/2 1/16 1/16 .20
3/4 3/32 0.16
1-5/8 1/8 l/S .23
3/4 3/16 0.30
1-1/2 1-31/32 3/16 3/32 .69
9/16 .040 0.05
2 1-3/4 1/8 9/32 .92
1 1/16 0.14
2-1/8 2 1/2 3/16 1.58
1 3/32 0.22
1 1/8 0.28
Tees
1-1/4 1/8 0.36
2-1/8 2 1/8 5/32 .74
1-1/4 3/16 0.53
2-1/4 1-1/2 1/8 1/8 .61
1-1/2 3/16 0.64
2-3/16 2 5/32 .97
1-1/2 5/32 0.41
2-3/8 1-1/2 .3/16 3/16 .96
1-3/4 1/8 0.51
2-5/16 1-1/2 3/32 5/32 .75
1-3/4 3/16 0.75
2-7/8 2 3/16 1.20
2 l/B 0.59

1-1/2 3/16 1.20
2-1/2 '3/16 1.10
2-7/'i2 1/16 ':1/16 1.':10


r: izzmzzz4-1
41.-B
t-- A-I"

Plain Channels
Size Wt.
!.lneoual Anp'les
A B t #/ft.


7(8
.il
.
A B t Hit
7/8 .3/8 3/32 .16
3(4 3/8 3;32 O.ll
1 3/8 1/8 .24
1-1/2 1 5/32 0.43
1 1/2 3/32 .21
1-3/4 1-1/8 3/16 0.-61
1-1/4 1/2 1/8 .36
1-3/4 1-1/4 3/16 0.64

11/16 3/32 .28
2 1-1/4 3/16 0.70
2-'3.8 1-1h 3/i6 1.02
2 1-1/2 3/16 0.75
2-1/2 1-1/4 .3/16 0.82
[lzzzzult
2-1/2 2 1/8 0.67
2 1-1/4 l/B 0.47
I--A
Bulb Angles
Bulb Channels
7/8 1/16 .13 Size wt.
7/B 9/16 1/16 13 A B t #/ft
1 5/8 .050 .ll
2-21(32
.76
].
ll/16 1/16 .15
2-23/32 5/S 1/8 .5S
1-1/8 3/4 .075 .19
2-29/32 1/8 .66
1-1/4 1-1/4 3/32 .27
1-5/16 'i';4 31j2 .2B
Non-standard sections available in 1937.
from ALCOA Handbook
A5:18
Properties of Extruded Dural Section
I.
STAND.!UID SECTIONS (1938 AWOA HANDOOOK)
Dimension m. Axis X-X Axis y-y Axis Z-Z
sq.in.#/rt.
f' L H t R I
f' y
I
P
x I
1(2 1(2 1(16 l(lt .059 .071 0.001 0.15 0.146 0.001 0.15 0.146 .0006 0.097
5/8 5/8 3/32 1/8 ill .134 0.004 0.18; 0.187 0.004 0.183 0.187 .0015 0.n7
5/8 5/8 1/8 l/lt .140 .169 0.005 0.182 0.199 0.005 0.182 0.199 .0020 0.12
3/4 3/4 1/16 1/8 .089 .108 0.004 0.220 0.199 0.004 0.220 0.199 .0018 0.142
3/4 3/4 3/32 1/8 .132 .159 0.006 0.219 0.214 0.006 0.219 0.214 .0026 0.141
3/4 3/4 1/8 1/8 .171 .207 0.008 0.219 0.227 0.008 0.219 0.227 .0034 0.141
3/4 3/4 3/16 1/8 .246 .297 0.011 0.214 0.251 0.011 0.214 0.251 .0049 0.141
1 1 1/16 1/16 .122 .147 0.012 0.311 0.271 0.012 0.311 0.271 .0048 0.199
1 1 3/32 1/8 .178 .216 0.016 0.301 0.276 0.016 0.301 0.276 .00f-6 0.193
1 1 1/8 1/8 .234 .283 0.021 0.298 0.290 0.021 0.298 0.290 .0($5 0.191
1 1 3/16 1/8 .339 .411 0.029 0.293 0.314 0.029 0.293 0.314 .0124 0.191
1 1 1/4 1/8 .437 .529 0.036 0.287 0.336 0.03cJ 0.287 0.336 .0162 0.193
1-1/8 1-1/8 1/8 3!lt .27 .320 0.030 0.33 0.32 0.030 0.33 0.32 .012 0.21
1-1/4 1-1/4 3/32

.230 .280 0.033 0.38 0.34 0.Cj33 0.38 0.34 .014 0.24
1-1/4 1-1/4 1/8 3/1 .30 .36 0.042 0.37 0.35 0.042 0.37 0.35 ,017 0.24
1-1/4 1-1!4 3/16 3/lt .43 .53 0.059 0.37 0.37 0.059 0.37 0.37 .025 0.24
1-1/4 1-1/4 1/4 3/16 .56 .68 0.074 0.36 0.40 0.074 0.36 0.40 .032 0.24
1-1/4 1-1/4 5/16 3/lt .68 .83 0.088 0.36 0.42 0.088 0.36 0.42 .040 0.24
1-1/2 1-1/2 3/32 3/lt .28 .33 0.058 0.46 0.40 0.058 0.4u 0.40 .024 0.30
1-1/::: 1-1/2 1/8 3/16 .36 .44 0.074 0.45 0.41 0.074 0.45 0.1.1 .031 0.29
1-1/2 1-1/2 3/16 3/16 .53 .64 0.107 0.45 0.44 0.107 0.45 0.44 .044 0.29
1-1/2 1-1/2 1/4 3/16 .69 .83 0.135 0.44 0.46 0.135 0.44 0.46 .057 0.29
1-1/2 1-1/2 5/16 3/16 .84 1.02 0.161 0.44 0.48 0.161 0.44 0.48 .070 0.29
1-1/2 1-1/2- 3/8 3/16 .99 1.19 0.184 0.43 0.51 0.184 0.43 0.51 .083 0.29
1-3/4 1-3/4 3/32

.32 .39 0.096 0.55 0.47 0.096 0.55 0.47 .039 0.35
1-3/4 1-3/4 1/8 3/1 .42 .51 0.121 0.53 0.47 0.121 0.53 0.47 .050 0.34
1-3/4 1-3/4 3/16 3/16 .62 .75 0.174 0.53 0.50 0.174 0.53 0.50 .072 0.34
1-3/4 1-3/4 1/4 3/lt .81 .98 0.223 0.52 0 .52 0.223 0.52 0.52 .093 0.34
1-3/4 1-3/4 5/16 3/1t 1.00 1.21 0.266 0.52 0.55 0.266 0.52 0.55 .113 0.34
1-3/4 1-3/4 3/8 3/11 J.17 1.42 0.306 0.51 0.57 0.306 0.51 0.57 .134 0.34
2 2 1/8 1/4 .49 .59 0.18 0.61 0.53 0.18 0.61 0.53 .08 0.40
2 2 3/16 1/4 .72 .87 0.27 0.61 0.56 0.27 0.61 0.5t> .11 0.39
2 2 1/4 1/4 .94 1.14 0.34 0.60 0.58 0.34 0.60 0.58 .14 0.39
2 2 5/16 1/4 1.16 1.40 0.41 0.60 0.61 0.41 0.60 0.61 .17 0.39
2 2 3/8 1/4 1.37 1.65 0.47 0.59 0.63 0.47 0.59 0.63 .20 0.39
2 2 7/16 1/4 1.57 1.89 0.5' 0.58 0.65 0.53 0.58 0.65 .22 0.39
2-1/2 2-1/2 1/8 1/4 .62 .75 0.37 0.77 0.65 0.37 0.71 0.65 .15 0.50
2-1/2 2-1/2 3/16 1/4 .91 1.10 0.54 0.71 0.68 0.54 0.77 0.68 .22 0.49
2-1/2 2-1/2 1/4 1/4 1.19 1.45 0.69 0.76 0.71 0.69 0.76 0.71 .29 0.1,9
2-1/2 2-1/2 5/16 1/4 Lt,7 1.78 0.84 0.76 0.73 0.84 0.76 0.73 .35 0.49
2-1/2 2-1/2 3/8 1/4 1,'14 2.11 0.98 0.75 0.76 0.98 0.75 0.76 .41 0.48
2-1/2 2-1/2 7/16 1/4 2.00 2.42 1.10 0.74 0.78 1.10 0.74 0.78 .47 0.48
2-1/2 2-1/2 1/2 1/4 426 2.73 1.22 0.73 0.80 1.22 0.73 0.80 .53 0.48
3 3 3/16 5/1t 1.10 1.33 0.93 0.92 0.80 0.93 0.92 0.80 .38 0.59
3 3 1/4 5/11 1.43 1.73 1.18 0.91 0.82 1.18 0.91 0.82 .49 0.58
3 3 5/16 5/11 1.77 2.14 1.45 0.91 0.85 1.45 0.91 0.85 .60 0.58
3 3 3/g 5/1t 2.10 2.55 1.70 0.90 0.87 1.70 0.90 0.87 .7C 0.58
3 3 7/16 5/11 2.43 2.94 1.94 0.89 0.90 1.94 0.89 0.90 .81 0.58
3 3 1/2 5/11 2.74 3.32 2.16 0.89 0.92 2.16 0.89 0.92 .91 0.58
3 3 9/16 5/11 3.05 3.69 2.37 0.88 0.94 2.37 0.88 0.94 1.01 0.58
3 3 5/8 5/11 3.35 4.06 2.57 0.88 0.97 2.57 0.88 0.97 1.12 0.58
3-1/2 3-1/2 1/4 3/8 1.69 2.05 1.93 1.07 0.94 1.93 1.07
0.94 /.80 0.69
3-1/2 3-1/2 5/16 3/8 2.09 2.53 2.37 1.06 0.97 2.37 1.06 0.97 .98 0.68
3-1/2 3-1/2 3/8 3/8 2.49 3.01 2.79 1.06 1.00 2.79 1.06 1.00 1.15 0.68
3-1/2 7/16 3/8 3.48 3.18 1.05 1.02 3.18 1.05 1.02 1.32 0.68
3-1/2 3-1/2 1/2 3/8 3025 3.94 3.56 1.05 1.05 3.56 1.05 1.05 1.49 0.68
[3..1/2 3-1/2 9/16 3/8 3.62 4.39 3.92 1.04 1.07 3.92 1.04 1.07 1.65 0.67
)..1/2
3-1/2 5/8 3/8 3.99 4.83 4.26 1,03 1.09 4,26 1.03 1.09 0.67
from ALCOA Handbook
e
45
c
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
4S
o
4'5
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45

45
45
45
45
45
45
45
!-
Cross
Section
-it!... Y


"e
*
tJ " Y
H
-
.1.
T
t
Z
A5:19
Q
Properties of Extruded Dural Section
1. EQl.Ial An1"les. Cont.' d.
Dimensions
wt.
Axis X-X Axis y-y Axis Z-Z
L H t R sq. in. #/ft. -r y I :x: I
4-
4


;'.'14 ;:;.-', 1;:;':14
-r;07 j2.91. [1..23 11.07 1
1

21 0.79 45
v
4 4 2.4l 2.91 3.61 1.23 1.10 3.61 1.23 1.10 1.48 p.78 45
4 4 3/8 3/8 2.86 3.46 4.26 1.22 1.12 4.26 1.22 1.12 1.75 P.78 45
4 4 7/16 3/8 3.31 4.01 4.87 1.21 1.15 4.87 1.21 1.15 2.01 p.78 45
4 4 1/2 3/8 3.75 4.54 5.46 1.21 1.17 5.46 1.21 1.17 2.26 p.78 45
4 4 9/16 3/8 4.19 5.07 6.02 1.20 1.20 6.02 1.20 1.20 2.51 p.77 45
4 4 5/8 3/8 4JJ1 5.58 6.56 1.19 1.22 6.56 1.19 1.22 2.76 p.77 45
4 4 11/16 3/8 5.03 6.09 7.08 1.19 1.24 7.08 1.19 1.24 3.00 p.77 45
4 4 3/4 3/8 544 6.58 7.57 1.18 1.26 7.57 1.18 1.26 3.25 p.77 45
Cr03s
mllU'lTTH
ANGl '83
Section
3/4 3/8 3/32
1
1
/
8 .09 .120 .0054 .232 .279 .0009 .094 .098 .0000 .077 113 44'
-itt- Y
1 5/8 1/8 1/16 .18/ .226 .0181 .312 .351 .0054 .170 .165 .0033 .132 2034'
1 5/8 l/t 1/8 .34' .418 .0306 .298 .396 .0089 .161 .210 .0084 .156 908'
r--
1 3/4 1/8 1/16 .20. .245 .0194 .309 .329 .0092 .214 .205 .0051 .158 2823'
1-1/4 3/4 3/32 3/32 .18 .22 .029 .40 .42 .008 .21 .17 .005 .16 1947'
l\
1-1/4 1 1/8 1/8 .27 .32 .040 .39 .39 .023 .29 .27 .012 .21 3151'
r--.
1-1/2 3/4 1/8 1/8 .2:7 .32 .061 .48 .54 OlD .20 .17 .007 .16 1425'

1-1/2 3/4 3/16 1/8 .39 .47 .085 .47 .57 .014 .19 .19 .009 .16 13451
Xl 1-1/2 7/8 3/16 1/8 .41 .50 .090 .47 .54 .022 .23 .23 .014 .18 188'

X
lFl\
232' Ll

1-1/2 1 5/32 5/32 .37 .45 .080 .47 .50 .027 .27 .26 .015 .20
1-1/2 1 1/4 3/16 .56 .68 .117 .46 .53 .040 .27 .29 .025
r-
21 2223'

1-1/2 1-1/4 1/8 3/16 .33 .40 .070 .46 .44 .044 .37 .32 .022 .26 3359'
1-1/2 1-1/4 3/16 3/16 .48 .58 .100 .46 .47 .063 .36 .35 .032 .26 3353'
1-1/2 1-1/4 1/4 3/16 .63 .76 .127 .45 .49 .079 .36 .37 .041 .26 3336
1
1-5/8 1-1/4 1/8 1/8 .34 .41 .087 .51 .50 .045 .36 .31 .024 .26 2955'
1-3/4 1-1/8 3/16 3/16 .51 .61 .152 .55 .59 .049 .31 .29 .029 .24 2147'
1-3/4 1-1/4 1/8 3/16 .36 .44 .108 .55 .54 .046 .36 .30 .026 .27 2622
1
1-3/4 1-1(4 3/16 3/16 .5:3 .64 .156 .54 .57 ,066 .35 .32 .037 .26 268'
1-3/4 1-1/4 1!4 3/16 .69 .83 .199 .54 .60 .083 .35 .35 .048 .26
2547'
2 1-1/4 1/8 3/16 .39 .47 .158 .63 .65 .047 .35 .28 .028 .27 215'
2 1-1/4 3/16 3/16 .58 .70 .228 .63 .68 .068 .34 .31 .041 .27 205'
2 1-1/4 1/4 3/lt .75 .91 .291 .62 .70 .086 .34 .33 .053 .26 2031'
2 1-3/8 1/4 1/4 .79 .95 .302 .62 .68 .114 .38 .37 .067 .24 2414'
2 1-1/2 1/8 3/16 .422- .51 .17 .63 .60 .08 .44 .36 .04 .32 2844'
2 1-1/2 3/16 3/16 .62 .75 .24 .62 .63 .12 .43 .38 .06 32 2SO)6'
2 1-1/2 1/4 3/16 .81 .98 .31 .62 .66 .15 .43 .41 .08 32 2820
1
2 1-1/.2 5/.16 3/.16 ],00 1.21 .37 .61 .68 .18 .42 .43 .10 32 2S00'
2 1-1/2 3/8 3/16

],42 ,43 .60 .70 .20 .41 .45 .12 32 -;:,037
1
2
1-3/4 1/4 1/4 .88 1.07 .33 .61 .62 .23 .51 .49 .11 .36 3444'
2-1/4 1-1/2 1/4 1/4 .88 .43 .70 .78 .15 .1,2 .39 .09 .32 239
1
2-1/2 1-1/4 1/8 3/16 .46 .55 .30 .81 .87 .05 .34 .25 .03 .27 1445
1
2-1/2 1-1/4 3/16 1/4 .68 .82 .43 .80 .89 .07 .33 .28 .05 .27 1429'
2-1/2 1-1/4 1/4 1/4 .88 1.07 .55 .79 .92 .09 .32 .30 .06 .26 1410
1
2-1/2 1-1/2 1/8 1/4 .49 .59 .31 .80 .80 .09 .42 .32 .05 .33 1940
1
2-1/2 1-1/2 3/16 1/4 .72 .87 .46 .79 .84 .12 .41 .35 .08 .32 1938
1
2-1/2 1-1/2 1/4 1/4 .94 1.14 .59 .79 .86 .16 .41 .37 .10 .32 1925
1
2-1/2 1-1/2 5/16 3/16 1.16 1.40 .71 .78 .89 .19 .40 .39 .12 .32 196
1
12-1/2 1-1/2 3/8 1/4
P.37
1.65 .82 .77 .91 .22 .40 .42 .14 .32 1842'
2-1/2 2 1/8 1/4 .55 .67 .34 .79 .72 .20 .60 .48 .10 .43 3157
1
2-1/2 2 3/16 1/4 .82 .99 .50 ... 78 .75 .29 .59 .51 .15 .42 3158
1
2-1/2 2 1/4 1/4 .07 1.29 .65 .78 .78 .37 .58 .53 .19 .42 31511
2-1/2 2

1/4 .32 1.59 .78 .77 .80 .44 .58 .55 .23 .42 3141'
2-1/2 2 3 8 1/4 .55 1.88 .91 .76 .83 .51 .S7 .58 .27 .42 13128'
ChieflY from ALCOA Handbook
A5:2Q
Properties ot Extruded Dural Section
\",."nSl.ons
L Ii
2-1(2 2
2
3 1-1/2
3 2
3 2
3 2
'3 2
3 2
3 ?
3 2-1/2
3 2-1/2
3 2-1/2
3 2-1/2
3 2-1/2
3-1/2 2-1/2
3-1/2 2-1/2
3-1/2 2-1/2
.3-1/2 2-1/2
3-1/2 2-1/2
3-1/2 3
3-1/2 3
3-1/2 3
3-1/2 3
b-1/2 3
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
t

1/2
1/4
3/16
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
1/4
5/16
3/8
7/16
1/2
L ArJS..:y
R --r pY
1/4 .78 2.16 1.02 .76 .85
1/4 2.01 2.43 1.13 .7$ .87
5/H 1.08 1.30 .98 .95 L.08
5/H .91 1.10 .82 .95 .94
5/1e 1.19 1.44 1.06 .94 .97
5/1c 1.47 1.78 1.29 .94 t.OO
5/1t 1. 74 2'.11 1.51 .93 1.03
5/1! 2.00 1.71 .92 1.(;5
5/1t 2.26 2.73 1.90 .92 1.07
5/lt 1.]1 1.58 1.12 .92 .89
5/lt 1.62 1.95 1.37 .92 .92
5/lt 1.92 2.32 1.60 .91 .94
5/Hj2.21 2.67 1.82 .91 .97
5/1c1449 3.02 2.03 .90 .99
5/lt 1.43 1.73
5/lt 1.77 2.1.4
5/162.10 2.55
5/1b 2.43 2.94
5/162.743.32
3/8 1.57 1.89
3/8 1.94 2.34
3/8 2.78
3/8 2.66 3.21
3/8 3,00 3.63
1.73 1.JO 1.09
2.12 1.09 1.12
2.49 1.09 1.14
2.84 1.08 1.17
3.17 1.08 1.19
1.84 1.08 1.01
2.26 1.08 1.04
2.65 1.09 1.06
3.03 1.07 1.09
3.38 1.06 1.11
1/4 3/8 1.69 2.05
5/16 3/8 2.09 2.53
3/8 3/8 2.49 3.01
7/16 3/8 2.87 3.48
1/2 3/8 325 3.94
9116 3/8 3.62 4.39
5/8 3/8 4.83
2.68 1.26 1.21
3.29 1.25 1.24
3.88 1.25 1.26
4.43 1.24 1.29
4.96 1.24 1.]1
5.4
7
1.23 1.34
5.95 1.22 1.36
4
4
4
4
3-1/2 5/16 3/8 12.23 2.70
3-1/2 3/8 3/8 R- 66 3.22
3-1/2 7/16 3/8 3.72
3-1/2 1/2 3/8 3.49 4.22
3.40 1.23 1.15
4.02 1.23 1.18
4.61 1.22 1.21
5.17 1.22 1.23
STANDARD
ANG 1,'<:$ Cont 1 d
Axis y-y Axis
ttl .70
.57 .57 .60
.63 .56 .62
.J. ..;,..",-+-.=-8-+
.31 .42 31
U
13 ,
.35 .42 3056'
.16 .39 .34
.29 .56 .46
.38 .56 .48
.45 .,6 .51
.53 .55 .53
.59 .55 .56
.oc .54 .58
.11 .32
.17 .43
.22 .43
.27 .43
.31 .42
.36 .42
.40 .42
.70 .13 .64
.86 .73 .67
.35 .52
.43 .51
.51 .51
.58 .51
.65 .51
1.00 .72 .69
.14 .72 .72
11.26 .71 .74
.73 .71 .60 .41 .53
.89 .71 .62 .50 .53
1.05 .71 .65 .59 .53
1.19 .70 .67 .67 .53
1.32 .69 .70 .76 .53
1.28 .90
1.52 .89
1..79 .88
2.04 .88
2.27 .87
1.29 .87
1.58 .87
1486 .86
tz,12 .86
1436 .85
2.60 .85
2:&.2_ .84
2.42 1.04
1.04
3.27 1.03
3.67 1.03
.76 .63 .63
.79 .74 .62
.82 .87 .62
.84 1.00 .61
,86 1.13 .61
.72 .70
.74 .85
.77 1.01
.79 1.15
.82 1.30
.84 1.44
t-!86 1.58
.91 1.15
.94 1.36
.96 1.57
.99 1.77
.64
.64
.64
.63
.63
.63
.63
.72
.'72
.71
.71
1422'
2325
1
2322'
2313'
230'
2244'
2225'
343'
340
1
3354'
3346
1
3337
1
2623
1
2618'
2610'
260'
2548'
3613'
3540'
3537'
3532'
3526
1
28
0
4?'
2840
1
2835'
2828
1
28
0
20'
2811
1
280'
Dimensions
Area J lit _':.;:00;,;:'.:;,.5 __
sa .in.llft. I P >J' I,.
Cross Section
nan :a Stem t
1 1 1/8
1-1/2 1-1/4 1/8
1-1/2 1-1/4 3/16
1-1/2 1-1/2 3/16
1-1/2 1-1/2 1/4
2 3/16
2 2 1/4
2 2 5/16
2-1/4 2-1/4 1/4
1-1/4 3/16
2-1/2 5/16
12-1/2 3 5/16
3 2-1/2 5/16
3 3 5/16
3 3 3/8
4 2 3/8
4 2-1/2 5/16
4 3 5/16
4 4 3/8
4 4-1/2 3/8
4 5 3/8
4 5 1/2
5/32 5/32'1/8 .267 .323 .023 .293 .292 .011 .206
r
5/)2 5/)2 1/8 .373 .451 .049 .363
7/32 7/32 1/8 .523 .633 .067 .359
7/32 7/32 3/16 .581 .704 .114 .443
9/3
2
9/32 3/16 .740 .895 .142
1/4 1/4 3/16 .730 .884 .269 .606
5/16 5/16 1/4 1.07 1.29 .37 .59
3/8 3/8 1/4 1.28 1.55 .43 .58
5/16 5/16 1/4 1.21 1.47 .53 .66
5/16 9/32 3/16 .85 1.03 .08 .31
3/8 3/8 1/4 1.62 1.97 .89 .74
3/8 3/8 1/4 1.80 2.17 1.49
3/8 3/8 5/16 1.81 2.1" -94 .72
3/8 3/8 5/16 1.90 2.40 1.58 .89
7/16 7/16 5/16 2.31 .89
7/16 7/16 1/4 2.)0 2.78.60 .51
3/8 3/8 3/8 2.17 2.63 1.01 .68
3/8 3/8 3/8 2.34 2.84 1.72 .86
7/16 7/16 1/2 3.18 3.85 4.56 1.20
7/16 7/16 1/2 3.39 4.10 6.27 1.37
7/16 7/16 1/2 3.59 4.34 8.56 1.54
9/16 9/16 1/2 4.60 5.56 10.84 1.54
.326
.352
.437
.1.64
.624
.58
.61
.64
.30
.73
.92
.68
.85
.88
.48
.60
.75
1.11
1.29
1.48
1.54
Chief17 from ALCOA Handbook
.0)8
.056
.056
.075
.060
.18
.23
.26
.28
.44
.44
.75
.75
.90
2.10
1.77
1177
2.12
2.13
2.13
2.83

.312 _J.r!
.319 \1 tI"j T,
.286
.41 ; I
.42 til
.46 t
.57 .... t __ _
.52 -hI-
.50 I
.65 Y
.62
.63
.96
.90
.87
.82
.79
.77
.79
A5:21
Pr perties of Extruded Dural Seetion

standard Tees Cont'd.
3 5/16 3/8 3/8 3/8 2.52 3.04 1.78 .84 . 71 2.52 1.00
5 3 3/8 5/8
r/
16 3/8 3.42 4.14 2.37 .83 .76 4.13 1.10
fl\
b
l
STAllDARD ZZES
T

I--t
.c
...
X-
X

"
0
!
...,

.....i
\
,

\z
f
t
Nominal Actual Vit. Area Axis X-X Axis y-y p..x:. s Z-Z
Depth Depth t b R #/ft. sq.in. I
;;,
t> I S F' G I

1-3/4 1-3/4 3/16 1-3/4 3/16 1.116 .922 .440 .510 .695 .551 .333 .773 4849' .101 .331
2 2 3/16 1-1/4 3/16 .946 .782 .458 .458 .765 .186 .161 .488 2912' .063 .283
2-3/8 2-3/8 3
1
16 1-1//. 3/16 1.031 .852 .(;94 .584 .902 .186 .161 .467 2312' .082 .310
3 3 1/4 2-ullo 5/16 2.40 1.98 2.89 1,.92 1.21 2.64 1.03 1.15 4324' .59 .54
3 3-1/16 5/16
;J_j!L.
5/16 3.02 ::.50 3.65 2.39 1.21 3.47 1.34 1.18 445' .76 .55
3 3 3/8 2-]J/16 5/16 3.48 2.S7 3.86 205'1 1.16 3.76 1.50 1.14 4431' .82 .53
3 3-1/16 7/16 2-3/4 5/16 4.09 3.38 4.57 2.99 1.16 4.59 1.81 1.17 454' .99 .54
3 3 1/2 ;2.JJ/l6 5/16 4.48 3.70 4.60 3.06 loll 4.71 1.93 1.13 4527' W3 .53
3
3-1/16 9/16 2-3/4 5/16 5.08 4.20 5.26 3.44 1.l2 5.33 2.24 1.15 4555' .1..22 .54
II. SECTIONS.
_Dinol1Slons In.
IAron I
1
_
1
I
2
_
2
L. 1:1, t R ..
so. in. x y Cross soetioI
lij1G "ll,t. ,
IlI,16
.12 .JH .005 .14
10
40 .34 _<::u
Zee 9 1G 1-1/1 .075 3/32 .17 .030 .007 .63 1-53 .47 .21

, _1:.1 l'
Dincnslons. in.
11-1 1
2
_
2 r1- 1 e2-2
H.
L '1 ,"2 R Aroo x !v
-ljO 1-11,2
ly}6
1?6
.11r .019 .017 .Z5 .34 .33
-
.1
P1nin
2
1-3{k
9/32 1 8 3 16 .76 .C15 .OCO .78 .08 .65 .76
-1/2 1-3 3/16 3/1G 1/16 .Cl .111 .113 .3S .90 .13 .39

2 1/2 3/16 3/32 .56(3 .13C .C4 1.0 .G6 .32
b.-i/1 2 9/32 5/32 3/16 .92 .5CQ . 109- .OC loO .72 .3
t
..
t2

2-1/p

I/O .50 .006 .lG3 .33 l.l .11 .57

2 2-3/0 3 1G 3 16 3/1Ci .eo .121 .303 .35 lo2 .39 .61 I"
2-1/8 5/32 l/S l/S .62 .301 .100 .69 J.l .70 .40
..
... ...
7/0 3/0 1/16 l/lCi .10 .001 .010 .11 .14 .11 .33
.. >12
7/0 3/C 3/32 3/32 .001
/
.014 .12 1M .10 .31
-1/4
1/2 3/32 3/32 .17 .OO3[ .021 .1C .50 .15 .37
ll/l( 3/32 3/32 .23 .053 .21 .63 .21 .40
5/0 I/O 1/1Ci .12 .014 ."'37 .19 1.-15 .1e .96
YO 3/32 .17 .03C .7313 1.15 .42 loOO

Y 2
from ALCOA Handbook
A5:22
GOODRICH LOW PRESSURE LANDING WHEEL TIRES t 1942*
Tire Casing Regular Cact us Proof Maximum Tire
Size Ply Tread Weight Tube Tube Static Tire Loaded Cross
We t ad Inflation O.D. Radius Section
5.00-4 2 Smooth 2.0 1.0 1.8 325 8 13.1 5.2 4.8
5.00-4 6 Safety 4.9 1.0 1.8 660 20 13.l. 5.2 4.8
7.00-4 2 Smooth 4.6 1.5 2.9 660 13 16.1 6.7 6.9
7.00-4 4
Smooth 6.1 1.5 2.9 900 18 16.1 6.7 6.9
8.00-4 2 Smooth 7.2 1.5 4.1 660 12 17.5 6.6 8.1
8.00-4 4 Smooth 8.4 1.5 4.1 900 16 17.5 6.6 8.1
700-5 4
Smooth 6.5 1.9 3.2 800 13 17.1 6.7 6.9
6.00-6 2 Smooth 6.4 1.4 2.8 660 15 17.3 6.9 6.3
6.00-6 2 R.Safety 6.4 1.4 2.8 660 15 17.3 6.9 6.3
6.00-6 4 Smooth 7.4 1.4 2.8 900 20 17.3 6.9 6.3
6.00-6
4
R.Safety 7.4 1.4 2.8 900
20 17.3 6.9 6.3
6.50-10 4 Smooth 10.3 3.0 5.2 1300 25 21.8 9.2 6.6
7.50-10 4
Smooth 12.5 3.4 5.9 1700 25 23.6 9.7 7.6
7.50-10 4
R.Safety 13.4 3.4 5.9 1700 25 23.6 9.7 7.6
7.50-10 6 Smooth 15.6 3.4 5.9 2100 30 23.6 9.7 7.6
750-10 6 R.Safety 16.2 3.4 5.9 2100 30 23.6 9.7 7.6
8.50-10
4
Smooth 15.1 4.7 8.1 1950 25 25.5 10.4 8.6
8.50-10 4 Safety 17.1 4.7 8.1 1950 25 25.5 10.4 8.6
8.50-10 6 Smooth 18.5 4.7 8.1 2500 30 25.5 10.4 8.6
8.50-10 6 Safety 20.6 4.7 8.1 2500 30 25.5 10.4 8.6
9.50-12
4
Smooth 23.2 5.4 9.5 2600 25 29.3 12.0 9.6
9.50-12 6 Smooth 29.2 5.4 9.5 35.00 35 29.3 12.0 9.6
1l.00-12 6 Smooth 35.1 7.3 12.5 3700 28 32.0 12.8 1l.1
1l.00-12 8 Smooth 41.7 7.3 12.5 4625 35 32.0 12.8 1l.1
12.50-14 8 Safety 62.3 10.0 16.8 6400 35 36.2 14.6 12.6
15.00-16 6 R.Safety 78.5 16.2 25.3 7000 2B 42.1 17.0 15.2
15.00-16 6 Ribbed 81.5 16.2 25.3 7000 28 42:1 17.0 15.2
15.00-16 8HD R.Safety 86.4 16.2 25.3 9500 37 42.1 17.0 15.2
15.00-16 10HD Smooth 93.0 16.2 25.3 10500 43 42.1 17.0 15.2
15.00-16 10HD R.Safety 95.7 16.2 25.3 10500 43 42.1 17.0 15.2
15.00-16 10HD Ribbed 101.1 16.2 25.3 10500 43 42.1 17.0 15.2
16.00-16 10 R.Safety 100.7 16.2 25.3 11500 43 43.7 17.4 16.2
17.00-16 lOHD R.Safety 118.0 19.6 30.6 13500 4B 44.7 17.8 17.2
17.00-16 10HD Ribbed 125.4 19.6 30.6 13500 4B 44.7 17.8 17.2
17.00-16 lOHD R.Rayon m.6 19.6 30.6 13500 4B 44.7 17.8 17.2
20.00-18 l2HD Smooth 148.1 23.1 16000 54 45.1 18.3 19.5
19.00-23 14
Smooth 188.9 25.4 39.6 20000 55 54.7 22.5 19.2
19.00-23 14
R.Safety 216.7 25.4 39.6 20000 55 54.7 22.5 19.2
19.00-23 16 Smooth 211.3 25.4 39.6 22500 63 54.7 22.5 19.2
19.00-23 16 R.Safety 237.0 25.4 39.6 22500 63 54.7 22.5 19.2
GOODRICH 1QTI PRESSURE !llb
5.()()..,.4
4 Smooth 3.8 1.0 l.8 600 30 13.1 5.2 4.8
5.00-4 4 Saf.ety 4.9 1.0 1.8 600
30
13.1 5.2 4.8
5.00-4 6 Smooth 4.8 1.0 1.8 1200
55
13.1 5.2 4.8
5.00-4 6 Safety 5.5 1.0 1.8 1200 55 13.1 5.2 4.8
7.00-4 4 Smooth 6.1 1.5 2.9 1000 25 16.2 6.7 6.9
7.00-5 4 Smooth 6.5 1.9 3.2 llOO 25 17.2 7.2 6.9
7.00-5 6 Smooth 9.1 1.9 3.2 2250 55 17.2 7.2 6.9
7.00-5 6 R.Safety 10.9 1.9 3.2 2250 55 ''7.2 7.2 6.9
*800-5 6 Smooth 13.7 2.5 4.3 2700 50 lu.9 7.7 7.6
8.00-5D.C. 6 Smooth 13.7 2.5 4.3 2700 50 18.9 7.7 7.6
*8.00-5 6 Safety 15.0 2.5 4.3 2700 50 18.9 7:7 7.6
*8.00-5 8 Smooth 15.8 2.5 4.3 2700 50 18.9 7.7 7.6
8.00-5 8 R.Safety 19.8 2.5 4.3 2700 50 18.9 7.7 7.6
9.00-6 8 Smooth 21.8 3.0 5.9 4000 50 21.9 9.1 8.9
9.00-6 8 R.Safety 23.2 3.0 5.9 4000 50 21.9 9.1
9.00-6 8 Ribbed 26.5 3.0 5.9 4000 50 21.9 9.1 8.9
* To be mounted on 7.00-5 Rim.
GOODRICH CONTQUR LANDING WHEEL
27" 6
23.4 5.0 9.6 2650 32 27.8 1l.6
27" 8 27.9 5.0 9.6 3300 39 27.8 1l.6
30" 6
29.4 7.1 1l.0 3250 34 30.3 12.7
33" 8
43.3 8.2 13.1 3950 41 33.1 13.8
36" 8 52.7 10.5 16.8 6000
38 36.9 153
39"
0
68.5 12.0 19.4 8000 45 39.9 15.4
From Goodrioh Catalogues. other manufacturers including Firestone,
Goodyear, and U.S. Rubber provide similar oatalogue lists.
Inactive for new 1949 designs
GOODRICH CONTOUR LANDING ,
1942 A5:23
Regular Kaximum Tire
Tire Casing Tube Static Tire Loaded Cross
P We t
ad latiS!D, Q.D
1
Ras!:i.y.; Sec.
39
11
10 75.0 9500 52 39.9 16.4
44
11
8 86.4 10500 48 44.9 18.7
44" 10 113.6 l2000 54 18.7
47" 10 121.8 13500 54 48.0 19.9
47" l2HD 146.0 15500 60 48.0 19.9
51" lOHD 133.8 1.7000 55 5201.0 21.5
51" l4HD 193.4
26000* 8()1t 52.0 21.5
56"
16 203.6 24000 65 56.6 23.3
a 65
11
16HD 365.2 32500 65 65.7 27.1
*For Beaching Gear Service.
a R.Safety Tread - all others smooth.
GOODRICH SMOC1rH CONTQUR !hJb :m.
8.00
11
4 1.5 .3 .6 350 35 8.1 3.2
8.00 6 1.8 .3 .6 450 45 8.1 3.2
10.00 4
2.8 .6 1.2 550 35
10.1 3.9
10.00 E.C. 4 2.9 .6 1.2 550 35
10.1 3.9
10.00 6 3.1 .6 1.2 700 45
10.1 3.9
12.50 4 4.2 .9 1.9 850 35 12.5 4.9
12.50 6 5.0 .9 1.9 1100 45 12.5 4.9
12.50 E.C. 6 5.1 .9 1.9
1100 45 12.5 4.9
14.50 4
6.2 1.2 2.3 1200 40 14.7 5.7
14.50 6 7.1 1.2 2.3 1500 45 14.7 5.7
17.00 6 9.6 1.9 3.3 2000
45 17.1 6.6
17.00 6 H.D. 9.9 1.9 3.3 2850 55 17.1 6.6
19.00 6 11.6 2.5 4.5 2600 50 19.0 7.4
23.00 6 18.5 3.0 6.6 3500 45 23.0 9.0
23.00 8 21.1 3.0 6.6 4300 60 23.0 9.0
26.00 6 25.4 3.9 6.9 4500 45 26.0 10.1
26.00 E.C. 6 26.4 3.9 6.9 4500 45 26.0 10.1
26.00 8 28.4 3.9 6.9 5500 55 26.0 10.1
26.00 E.C. 8 29.4 3.9 6.9 5500 55 26.0 10.1
26.00 10 39.4 3.9 6.9 6500 65 26.0 10.1
30.00 8
39.7 5.4 10.0 6500 50 30.0 11.7
GOODRICH STR.l!:AMLlNE IIB1f:2
24" 4 12.8 3.3 5.5 1600 26
24 9.8
27"
4 17.5 4.3 7.6 2200 28 27 11.1
27" 6 21.2 4.3 7.6 2800
36 27 li.l
31" 6 27.2 5.4 9.5 3100 32 31 12.7
31" 8 32.4 5.4 9.5 3950 40 31 12.7
36"
6 38.7 7.8 12.3 4500 34 36 14.7
40
11
8 60.0 10.3 6000
38 40 16.3
45"
8 77.4 13.3 20.7 8100
42 45 18.4
45
11
10 H.D. 86.2 13.3 20.7 9500 45 45 18.4
GOODRICH STREAMLINE !ill
8.00
11
F.B. 4 1.2 .3 .6 350 35 8 3.2
8.00 D.C. 4 1.5 .3 .6 350 35 8 3.2
8.00 D.C. 4 H.D. 1.6 .3 .6 350 35 8 3.2
8.00 D.C. 6 1.6 .3 .6 450 40 B 3.2
10.50 D.C.
4 2.8 .6 1.2 550 30 10.5 4.1
10.50 F.B. 4 2.9 .6 1.2 550 30 10.5 4.1
10.50 E.G. 4 3.0 .6 1.2 550 30 10.5 4.1
10.50 D.C. 6 3.4 .6 1.2 700 40 10.5 4.1
13.25 4 4.B .9 1.9 B50
30 13.25 5.1
13.25 6 5.6 .9 1.9 1100 40 13.25 5.1
13.25 6 H.D. 5.9 .9 1.9 1400 55 13.25 5.1
15.50 4 6.3 1.2 2.3 1200
35 15.5 6.0
15.50 6 7.6 1.2 2.3 1500 45 15.5 6.0
1B.00 6 10.5 1.9 3.3 2000 40 IB.O 6.9
18.00 E.C. 6 H.D. li.6 1.9 3.3 2850
55 18.0 6.9
18.00 6 H.D. li.O 1.9 3.3 2850
55 18.0 6.9
20.00 6 12.0 2.5 4.5 2600
45 20.0 7.7
20.00 6 H.D. 12.6 2.5 4.5 3200
55 20.0 7.7
From Goodrich catalogues.
Other manufacturers including Firestone,
Goodyear, and U. S. Rubber provide similar catalogue lists.
Inactive for new 1949 designs
Size
DIMENSIONAL DATA
U. S. ROYAL MAIN WHEEL (Continued)
TYPE III, LOW PRESSURE
Spec. Weight.
+or-3% >- ________ ,
Ply U Statl( Inn. TrNd f brl I Mu. Max. Static Fill Blllld V,lv8
DIMENSIONS ('0)
Rat Ie Load Preu. Deal,," I ( Welllht Welghr I Tire Overlll LOld&d Tire . ledge TA
Tiro Tube (*) r Seclion Dlam. Radiu, R.dlus DI.m. No.
D.00-4 Com. 700 25 Rib (5) Ray. 4.1 1.0 -':
5.00-5 Com. 800 30 R-j-b -_._-;t;y-. --4-:41.1- -
. . ---------------t--- ---.. --------..---.... -----
6.00-6 4 Rib (1) Ray. 68 1 7 HI
Com. ___ 30 __ __
4 Com. 1400 30 RIb Ray. 9.4 21 6.96 19.86 8.1 5.6 8.00 15
1 Rib ---R--;y
_.__ 6 MIL 2250 46 Nyl. 9.9 2.7 6.63 22.31 - - 10.00 25
7.00-6 4 Com. 1250 25 ]Rlb Ray. 7.7 1.9
6 Com. 1600 32 Rib Ray. B.t!' 1.9 7.00 18.62 7.3 45 6.00 20
Std. H.b_!3) Nyl 7.1 1.9__ _ I
7.00-8 _ ____ 32__ __ __ ____ __ 5_6__ __
7.50-10 .. __ ____ __ ___ __ __ _____
7.50-14 8 Com. 4300 (E) 651 Rib Nyl. 19.5 4.3 : 7.65 27.77 11.7 8.7 14.00 150CW
-------- ---------------t----_-- - --. - ..... -----.--.-. --------
8.00-4 4 .:: Rib (5) Ray. 8.2 2.0 I ::: 6.6 3.6 ::gg
l
8.50-6 4 Com. 1500 18- -R:--b (3) 22.10 8.5 4.7
Mil. 1600 20 I ay. . . i 9.05 22.10 6.00 168
----- - ----------
8.50-10 6 Std. 3000 35 Rib Ray. 21.4 3.5 (A) ,8.67 25.62 10.3 6.8 10.00 25
._--------_ .. _--j- - ---_ .._ .. _-_._----------_.
.90-12.50 Com. 1600 18 N Sk R 188 43 : 8.67 27.44 11.4 8.0 12.50 15
Mil. 1600 20 _ : ___ . ...... ____ __ 27.70 - _ 12.50 15
0.50-16 8 Com. 7000 65 Ny!. 36.8 5.0 9.69 33.44 14.0 10.5 16.00 150E
10 Com. 8900 (E) 85 Rib Ny!. 43.4 5.0
-- -------_._._----- _._-"._ .. _---.,_._---- -._ .. _._----_ .... __._._--
11.00-12 8 Std. 6300 45 I Rib Ray. 41.1 6.5 ,11.22 32.20 12.8 8.6 12.00 350
-.-.-- -.-.---------i-- ----
12.60-16 10 Com. 10600 60 Rib Nyl. 68.1 9.5 1
1275
3844 158 109 1600 193
12 Com. 12800 (E) 75 I Rib Nyl. 74.2 10.9 . . . . .
.. ------.----.. f f-c.-------.--... --.-.-.----.--.--
16.00-16 10 I Rib Ray. 95.8 14.7 I :::
16.60-20 12 18000 75 i Rib Ray. 134.7 15.4 (A) -1-1-6:00 46:20 18.7 13.0 2-i-OO--92-C
14 : Rib (3) Nyl. 120.7 15.4 (A) 18.7 13.0
14 Com. 20500 90 I Rib Ray. 145.4 15.4 (A) 16.00 45.20 18.7 13.0 20.00 92C
16 Com. 24000 110 Rib Nyl. 138.4 15.4 (A) ,
20 Std. 29200 (E) 135 Rib Nyl. 153.0 15.4 tA) ,16.00 45.20 18.7 13.0 20.00 92C
t - (8)
'1-7.00-16 10 Com. 13500 48 rRib Ray. 124.5 15.8 (A)
i Rib Nyl. 112.7 15.8 (A) I . . . .
12 :g : Rib (3) Nyl. 113.4 15.8 (A) ! !;:!ci
17.00-20 I 16 Com. 25500 95 48.80 19.9 13.4 20-:OO-92C-
Mil. 25500 90 Rib Nyl. 142.4 19.7 (A) 117.34 48.80 20.00 92C
20 Com. 31500 (E) 120 Rib Nyl. 169.2 19.7 (A) i 17.34 48.80 19.9 13.4 20.00 92C
I
. 22 MiI__ 34500 130 1_ Rib Nyl. 181.8 19.7 (A) 17.34 48.80 20.00 92C
18.00-20' -W Mil:-30000--;oo-1 (8) .18.36 50.30 20.00-1'&3-
19.00-23
25.00-28
-1'5."9--23.00 98
30 Mil. 55000
(J) Al,o available in
(3) Also available in ICE GRIP
85 ': -Rib--NY-I. (1=)'-' 25.72 --ii:13----=. ----------28.00 1920
(<4) Also also available in ICE GRIP and NON-SKID
(AI W.,ighl of Regular Tube. Fabric 8ase Tube also available
(E) hperimenlal practice for Commercial U5.
If) Weighl of Fabric 8ase Tube
(S} Also available in PLAIN
(8) Not current in U.S. Royal Aircraft lire line (Conljnu.d on page 9)
DIMENSIONAL DATA
U. S. ROYAL MAIN WHEEL (Continued)
TYPE VII, EXTRA HIGH PRESSURE
DIMENSIONS (o.)
Size
Ply
Ral.

SI.lic

I

+or-3% -
- - - - - - - -
Pro... Oealu" Woight Weight Tin Oyerall Loaded T,re ledge TR
__ i Tire _2.ub (-) _ Section Dlam. R.dlu. RllldlUI Ollm. No.
__ ___ '7D_J R'b ___ 5.82 18.00 8.00 67
10M.1. _____ 9.8 2.4 (F) I 4.50 20.00 12.00 67
22x5.5 8 MIL 4400 120 Alb Nyl. 11.4 3.2 (F) 562 22.00 12.00 67
------- .. -- -_... _._--- .. ,._------_._--_._--------_._-- ------
24)(5.5 5.62 24.00 14.00 67
-'24)(7.; _._- 85 4.6 (F) 7.65 24.14 10.00 26
-----t----
- -----------
14 Mil. 10000 225 Rib (3) Nyl. 27.7 4.2 (B)
6.66 25.75 14.00 176A
_ .. ------_._- ... _._------_... _._._----
26x6.6 I 12 Mil. 8000 16
N
Rib (3) Nyl. 23.9 4.2 (8)
29x7.7 16 Mil. 13800 220 Rib NyL 37.0 5.4 (FI 7.85 28.40 15.00 96
",.;; eo"" ",. ".. ..,,", . "' -.00 ".00 "M--j

36.0 5.6 (F) 8.45 32.00 20.00
__
12 Mil. 11000
135 I Rib (3) Nyl. 38.4 6.6 (B) I 8.90 31.00 16.00
34x9.9 I 10 Com. 8500
12 Com. 11200
14 Mil. 14000
16 Md. 16000
36xl1 14 Mil. 14000
18 Mil. 18500
38xll 14 Mil. 12000
40x12 14 Mil. 14500
._----
75 I DeepSkJd Rib Nyl.
100 DUll Skid Rib Nyl.
140 I Rib (3) Nyl.
160 Rib Nyl.
110
180 I Rib
95
95
(8)
Ny!.
(8)
(8)
42x12 14 Mil. 16000 100
53.9
80.8
53.8
59.7

7.9 (B) I .
7.9 (B) 1028
.
11.20
72.0 9.5 (F) I 11.20
11.20
12.35
33.40
33.40
35.70
35.70
37.70
39.70
14.2 10.6

22 Mil.
------1 4----
18) 12.35 41.70
46x9
26500
30000 I 13.50
-.- ----I --------.-----
43.70
45.40
16.00
16.00
16.00
16.00
18.00
18.00
20.00
20.00
30.00
168
176A
176A
176A
930
930
93
91C
91C
193
99B __ Ny!. 98 (7) 11.7 (F) 8.70
46x14 120 Mil. 20000 95 (8) 14.60 46.70 20.00 96
- -------
52x16 22 Mil. 32000 110 (8) 16.00 52.00 23.00 193
t 237.4 25.2 (F) 1
'620
5640 2800 193
32 Mil. 60000 240 Rib Nyl. 280.3 25.2 (F)" .
-1- (8) I 19.00 64.00 30.00 193
(3) Abo aVQilobtf!l in ICE GRIP
(8) Not currenl in U.S. Royal Aircraft tire line
(7) Estimoted weighl-not dondord
(8) Weighl of Fabric Bale Tub. Regular Tube also available
IF) Weight of fabric Ba,. Tube
,.
\.n
'"
to-
q
u,
.
El
;:
t""'



t""'
t:1

,.
.....

'"'"
F. MINIMUM CLEARANCE ALLOW-
ANCE FOR AIRCRAFT TIRES
Clearance allowances between 'he tire and
the adjacent parts of the aircraft should be
based on the maximum overall tire dimen-
sions shown In the tobles plus the growth due
to service as calculated in "En, plus the
increase in diameter due to centrifugal force.
Minimum radial and lateral clearances are
determined from the following chart:
1.10
) 1.00
0.91

z


:

o



i

0.1
0.0
)
)
)
)
)-
)/
)
/
)
)
)
/"
# .. "I>
\0

A' 1.
\" .. "" ?
I. ..
f-:- .. "I> "c.\
l>f


I-""
jAX\MUM, lIRj tCLIDINj
10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
NOll, Th. radial doo","c:e Indud (l1I ..... o"c. 'or ,h. In(,",o In
tlr. dla"'.'.' due I. centrifugal force ., Ip d, up t. 150 m.p.h.
o. RECOMMENDED INFLATION FOR LESS THAN MAXIMUM LOADS
Where .he aircraft tire is '0 be used at loads lell than the maximum shown in .his manual, It is suggested
that reference be made to deflection curves for speciflc lizel to delermine the appropriate inflation. These
curves are available on request.
0) t"d en 000 (II '"'d


.....
[D 'd ct f}:;I 0"
> ..... OJ f-'

Z (1 PO

.. 0 I .....

t1
I o:4l , P.
t-3\.oJ (I
o 0> ..
P 0> "1
I

Q I) 3::
'g!!
8 Ira
1:.:1"0 e..u>
.; t7't3 0
xZ

.-.
;z b :1.1
t.
,.".:r:;" ........... (1''''
Q) ...... DI' 0
.... 01
"':>' ..

P 0 U'

<I-
Ja ...... t; 0

... <t
HtH [lil.1
l
O

r'if!


ilhd !


c- r
1
g l
H. FORMULA AND METHOD OF COMPUTING THE DYNAMIC NOSE WHEEL LOAD
In recommending nose wheel tirel, consideration must be given to both Itatic and dynamic loading. The
dynamic load Is the sum of .he static nose wheel reaction and the reaction resulting from braking at a deceler-
ation of 10 ft. per second per second at .he maximum take-off weight. The method of calculating the
dynamic load is as follows:
CENTER OF A-...,
O.AVITY_
Tx
_
WHEEL
NOSE':f!2 i
._.
1----8------1
h II recommended thai the maximum dynamic load rating of any lire .In,
alher than thOle listed In thll manual, be obtained from the tl,. manufacture,.
Static load + Braking load = Dynamic load
W = Maximum Peslgn
Groll Weight
+ = Dynamic laad
I. The load ratings shown in this manual are limited to applications in which the aircraft take-off ground speed
does not exceed 160 MHP and the landing ground speed does not exceed 140 MHP.
DIMENSIONAL DATA
u. S. ROYAL NOSE WHEEL
Size
PI, Qynllmlc
net.
u ..
lOld
27- Com. 4_
33- 8 Com. 8300
10 Com. 11200
3U- 12 Com. 14700
44- 10 Com. 18200
12 Com. 21500
10 Com. 5250
5.00-5 4 Com. 1120
f---
8.50-8 4 Com. 1_
8.50-10 4 Com. 2450
7.50-10 8 Com. 3780
1.50-16 8 Com. 8800
10 Com. 12500 (E)
12.50-18 10 Com. 14850
15.50-20 12 Com. 25200
19.00-23 18 Com. 38500
1) Also available in NONSKID
TYPE I, SMOOTH CONTOUR
SpecifieaHonWelthl1 I DIMENSIONS (I)
Inn. T, ...
'Ibrlt +,,-0% I
P" ... DeII,n
MD. MD. flit .... Valve
Wlight Weltht Tlr. Overall Tire Ledg. TR
Tire Tub. (8) Seelian Diem, Radh Diem. Ho.
42 Rib (1) Ray. 27.8 3.U I 8.88 28.18 8.U 14.0 25
48 Rib (1) Ray. 40.1 8.1
I 11.30 33_06 10.3 16.5 25
70 Rib Nyl. 40.8 U.l
70 Rib (1) Nyl. 57.3 7.8
I 13.08
38.86 11.1 17.75 350
80 Rib Ray. IHI.1 14.0
115.78 44.114 13.8 22.0 350
70 Rib Nyl. 90.8 14.0
TYPE, II, HIGH PRESSURE
105 Rib Nyl. 20.8 3.6 (F) 8.65 25.75 B.8 14.00 178A
TYPE III, lOW PRESSURE
30 RIb hay. 4.4 1.1 4.83 14.18 4.1 5.0 87
30 RIb Ray. 1.4 2.1 8.118 11_86 5.8 8.0 15
35 RIb Ray. 10.7 2.7 8.83 21.114 8.5 10.0 25
40 RIb (1) Ray. 16.4 3.2 7.85 23_n 8.7 10.0 25
85 Rib Nyl. 38.6 5.0
1.81 33.44 10.5 18.0 150E
85 RIb Ny!. 43.4 5.0
80 Rib Nyl. &8.1 1_5 (A) 12.75 38.44 10.1 16.0 193
75 Rib Ray. 134.7 15.4 (A) 18_00 45.20 13.0 20.0 I2C
75 Rib (1) Ray. 247.2 23.1 (A) 19.38 55.10 15.1 23.0 98
(A) Weight of Regular Tube. Fabric Bale Tube also ayallable
(E) Experiment practice for Commercial use
(F) Weight of Fabric Base Tube (Continued on page l2)

&
CI
;.



gj
i


:..
A5:26 STANDARD PARTS &
Bendix Wheels for Smooth Contour Tires
Wheel and Brake Dimension
Tire Size A B C D E F G H
O.D.Inches
t
1
/
16 t3/64 tl/16 tl/l t .042 t .001
- .000 - . 000
27 15-3 8 14 11 9-3 4 3-15 16 6.295 1.500
30 16-3/4 15-14 12 10-5/8 4-1/16 6.826 2.000
33 18-1/8 16-1/2 13 11-3/4 4-5/8 7.635 2.500
36 19-1/2 17-3/4 14 13-1/2 5-5/16 9.447 2.500
39 20-5/8 18-3/4 15 15 5-3/4 10.557 2.500
44 24-1/8 22 17 16-3/16 6-5/32 11.244 3.000
47 25-3/4 23-1/2 18 17-1/2 6-5/8 11.807 3.000
51 27-3/8 25 19 7-9/16 l2.8l2 3.500
56 29-5/8 27 20 8-9/16 14.250 3.750
65 34-1/4 31-1/4 25 9-15/32 17.343 4.500
Wheel and Brake Weights. (Maximum)
Tire Size Aluminum ".heels Brakes
27 27 pounds 5.70 pounds
30 36 8.25
33 43 10.00
36 53 14.00
39 66 18.50
44 95 17.00
47 114
51 132
56 169
65 272
Magnesium alloy wheels weigh approximately 25
per cent less than Aluminum Alloy.
LA",- S1;'EiiAC
IN PiACE
8ENf}/A' W/lEEL /J/;lfEIYSIOIYS
t------D--------;
cE
SECTION A-A
I J
t .001
- .000
2.000 2
2.500 2-1/4
3.000 2-1/2
3.000 3
3.000 4
3.750 3-3/4
3.750 5
4.000 5-1/2
4.000 6
5.500 5-1/2

4.20 pounds
7.25
7.25
11.80
l2.20
14.00
From Bendix other manufacturers such as
Hayes have similar lists. '
WEIGHT OF ENGDlE STARTING SYSTEIAS
FROM S.A.W.E. HANOOOOK, VOLUME II.
A5:27
Eclipse Starters Jack & Heintz Inertia Starters
"Hith Meshing (24 volt)
Type 01 Engine DiS?l.
(cu. in.) Description Displ. Weight
Hand turning gears 470 8.5 Hand & Elec. Inertia 2600 41.00-41.5
II
" "
540, 680 12.0 Direct Cranking & Inertia 2600 44.0 -45.0
n n
"
975 17.5
II n n n
3350 39.75-40.75
Hand Inertia 1830 20.5 Hand & Elec. Inertia 3350 55.5
n n
2800 36.50-39.25
Hand & Elec. Inertia (12 volt) 1830 30.0 -30., Jack & Heintz Flexible Dri va Shaft Equipment
Hand & Elec. Inertia lIith Integral
Solenoid Engaging Device (12 & 14 V.) 2000 46.5 - 48.0 Description Weight
Direct CranJ.-ing Elec. & Ine:rti.a with
Flexible Shaft (First Foot) 1.33
Integral Solenoid EMa"ing Device
1830
Flexible Shaft (Each Additional Foot) .63
(12 & 24 Volt) 32.0
Hand . Crank
1.75
Direct Crankin<' Elec. & Inertia
External Gear Box 3.92
with Integral Solenoid En"aging
53.5 :.. 55.0
Adapter5 1.55 - 1.61
Device (12 volt) 2600
Direct Crankinf' Elec. & Inertia
Breeze Cartridge Starter5
lIith Interral Solenoid Engaging
Device (24 volt) 2800 53.5 - 55.0
Yaximum Displ. (cu. in.) Weight Less Breech
Direct Cranking E1ec. (12 volt) 350 17.5
1500 19.75 n
"
n n
450 18.0 -18.25
n n n n
750 18.50-20.50 1500 - 3000 30.75
n n
"
n
1000 24.75-25.25 over 3000 31.50
n
" "
(24 volt) 3350 45.00-46.50
Direct Cranking Elec. lIith Hand Breeze Cartridge Starter Accessories
Turning (12 volt) 1830 32.25-32.75 -
Direct Cranking Elec. with Rear
Description Weight
Hand Crank Mech. (12 volt) 1830 32.5
Breech 3.13
Direct Cranking Elec. with Rear
32.5
Revolving Magazine Preech 8.00
Hand Crank Mech. (24 volt) 2600
Intake Tubes (Jb/ft) .42
Direct Cranking Elec. with Integral
-39.5
Intake Tube Fitting (Wt. for 2) .16
Type Feathering Pump (12 volt) 1830 39.
Exhaust Tubes (lb/ft) .42
Direct cranking Elec. with Integral
Exhaust Tube Fittings (lVt. for 1) .08
Type Feathering Pump (24 volt) 2600 38.75-39.25
Cartridges (14, 17/ 20, 22 1/21 30 gram) .06 - .11
EcliEse Starter Accessories
Fuel Primer Pumps
Type of Accessory Wt. Range (lba)
Manufacturer Oz. FlUid/Stroke '!'ft. (lba.)
Starter Solenoid Relay {12 volt) 2.19 - 2.94
Lunken Heimer .15 .63
" " "
(24 volt) 2.19 - 2.94
Parker .125 .59 - .62
Battery Booster Coil (12 & 24 volt) 1.00 - 1.50
Parker .5 1.01 - 1.03
Acceleratin" Motor for Small Hand Inertia
Freeze .5 .813-.875
Starter (12 & 24 volt) 7.75 -11.25
Naval Aircraft Factory .6 - 2.0
Accelerating Motor for Large Hand Inertia
Starter (12 & 24 volt) 11.69
Electric Fuel Primer Valves
Solenoid Device for Starter for
Drive Jaw, Small Hand Inertia Starter
Manufacturer DeSCription Weight
(12 & 24 volt) 2.5 - 2.75
24 volt with or lIithout Starter Control Switches (12 & 24 volt)
.13 - .81 Winn.-Honeywell 12 or
Cartridge Starters (1)40, 18)0, & 4500 fuse ring .56
cu. in. Disp.) 22.31
Cartridge starter Preech Fuel Primer Distributors
(12 volt - use on 1)40, & 18)0 Above) 5.75
----
;ieight
(lbs.) Manufacturer
Yiscellaneous Starters & Equipment
Naval Aircraft Factory .20 - .30
Manufacturer Description Weight
Champion Elec. Direct Cranking 12V -
for En? up to 175 HP 16.75
n
Elec. Direct Cranking 12V -
for Eng. up to 300 HP 18.66
"
Hand Starter (Handle & Ext.-
3 lb. more) 7.00
n
Starter Solenoid Magnetic
SlIitch
.75
n
starter Button Recessed Type .19
Parachute Corp. Starter Shock Cord TYPe 5.00
Star Vachine Solenoid 2.55
Paulson Engrg. Booster Coil .88
Leach starting Solenoid Relay
(12 & 24 volt)
1.9 - 2.4
A5:28
Volts
6
8
12
6
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
24
2h
12
12
12
12
l2
24
24
l2
24
6
6
12
12
12
12
2
2
4
4
24
Watts
225
375
600
750
1500
1500
Watts
2500
3000
5000
7000
8750
36
72
l20
60
96
180
WEII}HT OF AIRCRAFT ElECTRICAL SYSTEMS
FROIl S.A.W.E. HA.'IDBOOK, VOLUME II.
Exide Batteries * Eclipse Generator Control Boxes
Cap'y 5 Hr Rate Amp Hrs. weight (lba) Weight Range A Wei!l:ht
Double Chamber Aerobatic Types Non-Shielded 2.2 to 4.9 Lb. 3.7 lb.
10 8.2
Votors
10 11.0
10 17.0
Delco-Remy Cranking
38 18.0
R.P.v. Power Watts Ave. 1ft. Lb.
19 26.0
9.2
38 36.0
29 38.0
65 65.0
Lear Avia (With Clutch)
34 38.0 7200 - 9000 to 21 - 25" to 1.7
68 72.0
6000 - 11000 118 - 165w
11000 - 13500 81 - 8,. 2.8
Non-5pill Vent Plug Aerobatic Types Non-Shielded
9000 - 13500 225 - 270w
24 28.0
8000 - 10000 350 - 415. 4.8
34 33.5
6300 - 11000 630 - 1075.
34 76.0
6300 - 13000 380 - 630w 15.7
51 104.0 5000 - 13000 3300 - 540aw
Non-Spill vent Plug Aerobatic Type! Shielded
Leece-Neville FUmE Motors
10 21
17 26.75
Volts R.p.y. H.P. Ave. wt. - Lb.
34 39.50 12 1200 1/2 12.5
34 39.0 12 1500 1/4 12.3
68 71.0 12 2700 2 1/4 19.0
17 48.0
24 2700 2 1/2 19.2
34 73.0 24 1500 9/10 13.5
12 2300 2 1/2 IS.7
Transport Types - Non Aerobatic Non-5hielded
12 2000 1 1/2 11.5
88 78.0
24 2300 2 1/2 14.7
34 72.0
24 2300 33/4 15.5
24 3100 1/4 9.5
Reading Aircraft Batteries
Retraction Motors
Non-5hielded
24 12.7
Eclipse Reversible (24 volt & 12 volt)
33 15.0 7H;light Range Ave.. Wei"ht Torque in Ft-1b.
24 24.5
17.5 to 21.0 lb. 19.0 21.0 to 100.0
33 28.5
37 37.2
Signal Equipment
55 52.0
Description ft. (lb)
Willard Storage Batterie!
Landing Gear Signal
2.5
10 2.7 Landing Gear Horn 2.0
65 14.4 Alarm Bell 1.2
10 5.0 Switches (Ave. Wt. for all Types)
0.3
19 9.5 Position Lights
0.4
11 33.0 landing Light Reflector
5.2
Inter-Aircraft Signal (with Case) 5.8
Eclipse

Volts AMPS. R.P.K. Ave. '1ft. Lb.
Cockpi t Lamp
1.2
Work Table Lamp
2.7
15 15 2250 - 3750 16.0 Instrument Board Light
0.2
15 25 2250 - 4200 21.5 Flourescent Equipment
30 20 2250 - 4200 31.5 .6" 4 Watt lamp wiUlTnVerter 8.6
15 50 2200 - 4200 31.7 9" 6 Watt Lamp with Inverter
8.8
15 100 2600 - 4500 40.0 Lamp Assembly - Navigator's Table
2.6
30 50 2600 - 4000 33.7 Ballast for 2-3Ow. Lamps
6.9
Ballast for 2-2Ow. Lamps
3.4
General Electric Generators
Ballast for 1-3Ow. ramp
2.3
High Speed Meters & Miscellaneous Equipment
Volts Amps R. P.v. Ave. Wil. Lb.
Ammeter or Voltmeter
0.5
Volt - Ammeter
0.6
28.5 88 3400 - 7000 36.6
Ammeter with Shields
0.8
30 95 5500 - 9500 30.5
Voltmeter with Shields
0.8
28.5 175 4000 57.1
V-Ammeter with Shunt-Resistor & Shields
1.0
70 100
5000 - 10000 35.0
Fuse Box Assam.
0.7
120
73 5500 - 9500 79.7
Rssistor Box Assem.
0.7
Champion Aircraft Generators
l.ow Volta!!e Filter
3.5
Rubber Blade Fan - 12 Volt
1.1
Wind Driven
Metal Blade Fan - 6 Volt
1.$
6 6 6.0
Thermal Plug Assam.
1.4
6 l2
9.0
Solenoid Contractor
1.5
6 20 13.0
Circuit Breakers
0.,
12
5 6.0
Aerobatlc Batteries are Non-Spillab1e through 180 from l2 8
9.0
*
12 15
13.0 vertical in any Non-Aerobatic Batteries are
ton Non-Spillable to 70 from vertical in any direc 1
WEIGHT OF LUBRICATING SYSTEl(
FROM S.A.W.E. RANI1l00K, VOLUME II.
A5:29
Manufacturer
Young
II
"
..
Airesearch
Harrison
Oil Coolers
----..r Cors
h Description Len2'.t
(in) In
Internal Warm up
Chamber & Spring
Loaded or Thermos-
thtic Relief Valve
External Warm up
Chamber & Spring
Loaded or Thermos-
tatic Relief Valve
Internal Warm up
Chamber less valve
External Warm up
Chamber less valve
Less Valves
" It
With Rotary Valve
& Oil Temp Reg.
4-14
4-14
4-14
4-14
$-15
11-15
--
9
9
9
9
9
12
-
Un. Airc. Prod With Sprinf' & Ther-
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
" II
II "
" "
"
"
"
"
It
..
"
..
mostatic Valves 4-15 9
It
Red
8xlO 9
With Spring & Ther- Rect
mostatic Valves 11x15 9
With Viscosity valve 4-15 9
It
Rect
8xlO 9
"
Pect
l1x15 9
Without Relief V 4-15 9
Without Relief Rect
Valve 8xlO 9
Without Relief Rect
Valve l1x15 9

wt. (lb)
8.75-48.20
8.65-50.2
7.25-46.5
7.15-47.8
10.4-64.0
46.0-85.3
81.0
8.75-71.25
25.25
57.0
10.0-72.5
26.5
58.25
10.0-72,5
24.5
56.25
Manufacturer
Airesearch
Diam. of Shutter (inche_s..:.) __
8 - 14 2.5 - 5.45
Oil Cooler Valves
Manufacturer Description
Air search 3/4" Spring Loaded
" 1" Sprin"
" Automatic Shutter Control
Valve
Weight
1.08
1.25
4.90
Manufacturer
Wiegand
"
II
Cities Serv.
"
Manufact ur"er
Oil Immesion Heaters
Description Cap'y (watts)
1 1/4" Diam. 300 - 2000
1 3/8" Diam. Thermo-
statically Controlled 250
3/4" Diam Chromalox 500
1 1/4" Diam Pipe Thr. 300, 500
1.92-14 Pipe Thread 300, 500
Miscellaneous Equipment
Description
Fulton Sylphon Oil Cooler Thermostatic Valve
Complete
II " 'rtlermostatic Sylphon Element
Only
tho Aircraft Prod Thermostat Valve
Pacific Gear WIes. Oil Cooler Flap Gear Box with
Motor
Manufacturer
Air. Assoc.
" "
"
,.
II
"
Oil Dilution System Equipment
Description
Cock Assem. Y Oil Drain
(1", 1 1/4", 1 1/2" line)
Cock Assem. Y Drain & Oil
Dilution
Solenoid-0il Dilution Valve
Assembly
Un. Airc. Prod.
Twin Restricted Tube Fitting
Cock Assem. Y Oil Drain
" " "
(1", 11/4", 11/2" line)
Cock Assem. Y. Drain & Oil
Dilution (1",1 1/4",1 1/2"
wt. (lbs)
1.13 - 4.0
1.88
2.50
1.04, 1.18
1.10, 1.24
Weight {lb
L
1.68
.47
.52
7.70
Weight
-
.93, .95, .96
1.38
1.35
.16
.93, .95, .96
line) 1.38,1.40,1.41
" "
" "
Aero Ilig.
"
"
Corp.
Solenoid-Dil Dilution Valve
Assembly
Twin Restricted Tube Fitting
Aeromac 12 or 24 volt Sole-
noid Oil Dilution Valve
Manufacturer
Oil Filters
G P 1( FlO1r
Purolator 27 .8
Oil Tank car & Adapter Assembly
Manufacturer Description
Air Assoc. Cap & Neck Assem Tank Filler
1.34
.16
.75
Weight
2.00
Weight
.. II Cap & Adapter Assem Tank Filler
Naval Airo. Factory Filler Neck
.33
.32
1.70
WEIGHT DATA
FUEL SYSTEM
A5:30 FROM S.A.W.E. VOL. II
Fuel Tank Caps & Adapter Assemblies Pumps - Fuel (Cont.}
Manufacturer Description ;Yeight (lbs)
Engine Driven Fuel Pumps
Air Assoc. Cap & Adapter Assem. Re- !.Ianufacturer Cap'y at 1750 RPl! Weight (lbs)
movable 1.66
Romec 75 1.75
" "
Cap & Adapters Assem Flush 1.61 n
165 1.5 - 2.25
Naval Airc Factory Filler Neck 1.70
Pesco 165 1.; - 2..31
_" __ " __ " __ Filler Unit - Flush Type .90
-
Titan 165 1.8 - 2.8
Ceco 165 2.0 - 2.7
Dichromate Cartridge Containers
Thompson 165 2.7
Description ';Veight (lbs) "
330 2.25 - 3.30
Manufacturer
Ranee 330 3.0 - 3.;
Breeze Plug Assem.-Cartridge Drain 1.71 - .314 Pesco 330 2.0 - 3.33
"
Container-Potassium 01-
Titan 330 2.8 - 3.5
chromate .573 Ceco 330 3.1
Romec 600 3.0 - 4.25
Miscellaneous Equipment Pesco 600 4.0 - 4.3
Ceco 600 4.0
Manufacturer Description
Thompson 600 2.95 - 4.0
-
Purolator Fuel Filter 2.00
Hydraulic Driven Fuel Pumps
Weatherhead nas Line Check Valve
.33
"
Sump Selector Valve 2.22 Manufacturer Cap'y at 1750 RPM Weight (lbs)
Fulton Sylphon Fuel Pressure Reg. Valve 4.30
Clark Aero 906 9.25
" "
Sylphon Bellows Control Assem. .09
Aro. Equip. Co. Air Vapor Eliminator for Fuel
Breeze Fuel Pump Drive Couplings
lines 2.0 - 2.94
Breeze Inhibitor-Plug Assem. Cartridge Manufacturer Description Weight (lbs)
Drain
.171 - .314
Breeze 90
0
Fuel Pump Drive Coup Assem 1.2)-1.61 n
Inhibitor-Potassium Dichromate
.573
"
Fuel Pump Dti ve Coup. Assem. .85-1.74
Johnston &
Jennings Flame Arrester Qyal_Square .50 - 1.41
Strainers
Pumps - Fuel
Manufacturer Max. H.P. Weight
-
Electric Driven
United Aircraft Prod. 300 .81
(Weight includes motor)
If
" "
800 1.22 - 2.0
" " "
2000 2.3 -2.5
!.!anuf. Motor H.P. Cap'y Gp]'{ Volts Weight (lbs)
Romec .28
- -
14.13
Valves
"
.25 600 12, 24 15.5
---
Cork Seated Fuel Valves
"
.125 330 12, 24 11.75
"
.12; 150 l2, 24 10.75
Manufacturer Description Weight
Pesco .125 150-650 24 5 - 15.5
Un. Airc. Prod, 2 Port .42 - .89
Auto Pulse
-
22-28 6 __ n
3 Port .78 - 1.38
"

"
3 Port Friction Release 1.09 - 1.43
Electric Driven Booster Pumps
" " "
4 Port .81 - 1.9
Manufacturer PSI Volts Weight
" " "
4 Port Friction Release 1.0 - 1.3
----[iJGPM
300 Gi1f I
n
"
5 Port 1.0 - 1.6
" " "
5 Port Friction Release 1.065
Thompson 7.25-8.7 5.4-6.8 12, 24 4.95 - 5.20
Aero Supply 5 Port Refueling 4.63
" "
4 Port 4.25
Emergency Pump!
" "
2 Port .41 - 1.25
(Combination Hand Pump, Strainer, & Relief Valve)
" "
3 Port .63 - 2.3
Manufacturer Capacity Weight
n
"
4 Port .44 - 2.6
" "
4 Port Special
.38 - .50
Romec 160
5.5
" "
5 Port 1.2 - 2.1
"
340 7.5
United Airc. Prod. 160
4.75 - 6.50
Poppet TYPe Fuel Selector Valves
Aero. Supply 155 5.25
n
"
160
5.69 - 6.38
Vanufacturer DeSCription Height
" "
285 9.75
Aero SupplY' 3 Port 1.6 - 3.2
" "
300 8.50 11
"
4 Port
1.8 - 4.0
" "
425 6.25
" "
5 Port
2.1 - 4.5
" "
6 Port
2.4 - 5.4
Emergency Pumps
" "
7 Port 2.8 - 6.2
(Hand Wobble)
" "
6 Portz 7 Position 2.6
Ilanufacturer Capacity Weight
Relief & Bypass & Relief Valves
Romeo 160
3.0 - 4.5
"
340 6.5
l!a.nufact urer Description Weight
"
400 6.5 - 6.75 Aero Supp11 Fuel Relief .5 - 1.4
"
650 9.0 - 10.0
"
Fuel Relief Supercharger Valve 1.25-1.75
"
700 8.25
lb. Airc. Prod. Fuel Relief .4 - .6
!hi ted Airc Prod. 75 2.4
" "
Relief Bypass .8
- 1.3
"
II
"
1000 11.6
" " "
Fuel Reliaf Supercharger
1.3 - 1.4
Aero Supply
160 - 920 3.06 - 11.13
" " "
Fuel itelief 1.2
Air Assoc. 155 3.13
" " "
Relief
.4 - 1.4
" "
950 12.25
" " "
Relief - Adjustable 1.2
n
"
"
Relief Bypass
.83 - 1.5
__________ R __ elief
.4
WEIGHT DATA
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
FROM S.!.W.E. HANDBOOK, VOL. II.
A5:3l
Inclinometers Aircraft Time Pieces
Manufacturer 1ft., lbs.
Manufacturer Tit., lbs.
Air Assoc. Pitch & Bank Indicator 0.27 Air Assoc. 0.600
n n
Pitch Indicator 0.53
Elgin 0.563
n n
Bank Indicator O.ll to 0.25
Jaeger 0.440 to 1.000
n n
- Midget Type 0.05
Ko11sman 0.375 to 0.440
Rieker Pitch & Bank Ind. 0.75 Longines-Whittnauer 0.375
n n n
- Type 0.25
Pi oneer-Elgin 0.750
"
Bank Indicator 0.16
Pioneer-Waltham 0.750
n
- A.N. Type 0.16
Waltham 0.770
"
Pitch Indicator 0.53
n
- Midget 'l)pe 0.19
"
Bank Indicator 0.25
Misc. Navigation Inst.
-
- Midget Type 0.05
Manufacturer Description Tit.! lbs.
N.A.F. Bank Indicator 0.25
Amer. Paulin Alt-Temp. Corr. computor 0375
Bausch & Lomb Aircraft Sextant 3.00
L. N. Schwien Army Type 0-2 Inclinometer 0.90
n
Bubble Octant-Com. with case
Spare Bulbs & Batteries 6.50
Minn.-Honeywell Inclinometer 0.22
n
Bubble Octant only 3.66
Gurley P.A.!. Pelorus 2.61
"
Army Pelorus 2.00
Turn and Bank Indicators
n
Bearing Circle 3.50
Manufacturer
1ft lbs. "
Gatty Ground Speed & Drift
.
Meter 4.00
Pioneer 1.36 to 1.60
L. N. Schwien 1.50
Link Sextant with Battery 2.44
II
Case wi th Sextant & Access 5.75
n
Sextant with Battery 3.19
Accelerometers n
Case with Sextant & Access 6.56
Manufacturer Tit., Ibs.
Pioneer Octant (Disc.) 3.13
n
Octant (Disc.) with case& Aecess 6.63
Pioneer 1.00 to 1.10
Vard Aircraft Plotter 2.76
Kollsman 0.60
N.A.F. 1.10
Drift Indicators
Sperry Gryo Inet. Equip.
Yanufacturer Tit., Ibs.
No.
Description Tit., Ibs. Gurley 3.00 to 4.00
50 Gryo-Horizon 3.94 to 4.375
Pioneer 1.40 to 6.95
Bank & Climb Control Unit 16.22
Directional Gyro Control Unit 9.36 Pi tot Static Tube Equip.
Directional Gyro 3.66 to 4.00
Manufacturer Tit'
l
lbs.
Directional Gyro Unit 6.62
Bank & Climb Gyro Unit 13.06 Air Assoc. Strut Type 0.350
Venturi TUbe 0.936
" "
Naca
n
0.300
Aluminum Tubing 12' x 3/6" O.D. 0.50
"
n
Monoplane Type 0.340
Vacuum Relief Valve 0.375
KollSDall Pitot tube for Monoplanes 0.250 to 0.810
Gyro-Horizon Indicator 4.50
n
Pitot tube for Biplanes 0.3J I) to 0.313
Directional Gyro Indicator 5.00
"
Elec. Heated Pitot static 0.675 to 1.000
N.A.F. 0.230
Airspeed Indicators
Pioneer 0.310 to 0.500
"
Elec. Heated 0.740 to 1.000
Manufacturer 1ft., Ibs.
Pioneer 0.51 to 1.10
Climb Indicators
Kollsman 0.50 to 1.00
Manufacturer Tit.! 1bs.
Air Assoc. 0.50
U.S. Gauge 0.69 to 0.94
Pioneer CY.63 to 2.43
N.J..F. 0.55
Kollsman 1.063 to 1.666
Air Assoc. 1.70
Altimeters Aircraft Ind. 0.50
lfanufacturer
peReMption
n., 1bs.
Manifold Pressure Gauges
1\:011sman Standard 0.72 to 1.25
"
Sensitive 1.186 to"l.390
Manufacturer n., Ibs.
Pioneer Sensitive 1.19 to 1.40
Kollsman 0.66 to 1.25
"
Standard .90 to 1.00
Manning, Max. & Moore 0.77 to 1.13
Air Assoc. English thUs Used
Pioneer 0.75 to 1.76
American Paulin Level Flight Altimeter 3.00
Air Assoc. 0.516 to 0.735
U.S. Gauge Non Sensitive 1.00
Gen. Elec. 0.60
-
U.S. Gauge 0.666 to 1.13
Magnetic Canpasses Liquidometer 0.30 to 1.00
Kollsman 0.91 to 1.313
Manufacturer lI't'
l
1bs.
Kollsman 1.1675 to 7.625
Pressure Gages
Pioneer 1.00 to 6.70
Manufacturer
Aeromarine
1ft.! Ibs.
Air Assoc. 1.06 to 2.00
U.S. Gauge 0.313 to 0.116
Elgin 0.675
!ollsuan 0.23 to 0.672
General Elee. 1.875
r,.en. Elec. 0.355 to 0.75
N.A.F. 3.00
Air Assoc. 0.29 to 0.34
Yannin!i!.!ax! & Koore 0.35 to 0.60
WEIGHT DATA
)5:32
AIRCRAFT INSTRUMENTS
FROM S.A.W.E. HANDBOOK, VOL. II.
Suction Gauges
Thermometer Selector Switches
Manufacturer "t.! lbs. M3.nufacturer wt., lbs.
Kollsman 0.25 to 0.$19
Gen. Elec. 0.313
Pioneer o.M to 0.50 Scintilla 0.34h to 0.688
u.S. Gauge 0.313 to 0.315 Weston 0.50 to 1.188
Auto-Lite Lewis Eng. Co. 0.219 to 2.000
Manning, Max. & Moore 0.38 to 0.42
N.A.F. 0.46
'nlermocoup1es
Al ti tude Barographs & Metoro?raphs
Yanufacturer wt., 1bs.
Manufacturer Wt.
z
lbs.
Lewis Eng. Co. 0.031 to 0.188
Friez 5.ba to 1.00
Themocouple Equi'pment
Warning Units Manufacturer wt'
l
lbs.
Manufacturer m., 1bs.
Weston 0.09 to 3.80
Pioneer 0.30 to 1.00
Air Assoc. 0.013
Schnen 0.50
Lewis Eng. Co. 0.18
Minn-Honeywell 0.101 to 0.94
Electric Flowmeter EquiE'
U.S. Gauge 0.40 to 1.25
Liquidometer 0.13 to 0.20
Yanufacturer Wtozlbs.
King Seeley Corp 0.38
Pioneer Autosyn 0.80 to 3.50
Pioneer Autosyn Remote Indicating EquiE'
Eclipse 0.50 to 3.50
Breeze Self-Energizing 0.048 to 1.56
IlesCI::!pI.jQD
ft.! 1bs.
Bowser 1.00 to 1.81
Dual Indicator- 1.00 to 2.30
HydrostatiC Level Systems
Single Indicator 0.15 to 1.90
Manufacturer Wt.! 1bs.
Kollsman Te1egon Remote Indicating Equip.
Pioneer 0.20 to 0.95
Description Wt.! 1bs.
KOllsman 0.34 to 0.938
Tele?on Indicator 0.50 to 1.625
u.S. Gauge 0.274 to 0.966
Dynamotor 3.50 to 18,50
M3.gnetic Direct Reading Fuel and Oil Level Gauges
Gen. Electric Selsyn Remote Indicating EquiE'
Yanufacturer wt.! 1bs.
Description lVt.! Ibs.
Boston Auto Gage 0.125 to 1.188
Misc. 0.26 to 2.90
Liquidometer Remote Indicating EquiE'
T'.1ermometers
Description "t'
l
Ibs. ____
-- Tank Unit for Fuel Quan. Gage 1.30 to 6.12
Manufacturer Wt., 1bs.
Tank Selector Switch 0.91
weston
0.11 to 4.9 Indicator (Remote Indication) 0.43 to 3.55
N.A.F. 1.30
Edison
0.50 to 0.90
Fuel-Air Ratio Equipment
Edison-Sp1itdorf
0.17
Pioneer
1.25 to 2.05 Yanufacturer
"tol Ibs.
U.S. Gauge 0.294 to 1.58
Cambridge Single to four engine
Breeze
0.059 to 0.740
Hickok
0.232 to 1.750
analyser installation 4.195 to 16.315
n
Misc. 0.063 to 3.688
Kollsman
0.938 to 1.475
Weston 1.10 to 2.25
Gen. E1ec.
0.40 to 0.80
Freeze 0.005 to 2.912
Air Assoc.
0.72 to 1.90
Liquidometer
0.30 to 0.90
Electric Tachometer Equip.
E1ec. Auto-Lite
1.50
Lewis Eng. Co.
0.14 to 1.875
Manufacturer wt.! 1bs.
Manning, Max. & Moore
0.04 to 0.54
Cambridge
2.00 to 5.16
Weston 1.31 to 2.14
Gen. Elec. 0.85 to 2.90
Special & Test Instruments
Pioneer 0.20 to 2.90
Kollsman 0.50 to 2.78
Io!anufacturer
"t.! 1bs.
Lewis Eng. Co.
4.31 to 15.94
Centrifugal Tachometer Equip.
Manufacturer ft.! 1bs.
Engine Gauge Units
Pioneer 0.80 to 1.25
Yanufacturer
wt., 1bs.
Kollsman 0.64 to 1.00
N.A.F. 0.76 to 11.02
Air Assoc.
2.00 Waltl\am 0.91
U.S. Gauge
1.50 to 1.75 Barbour Stockwell 0.li3 to 0.88
M3.nning, Max. & Moore
0.25 to 0.95 Breeze 0.162 to 1.077
Edison
1.20 to 1.70
Kollsnan
1.375 to 1.563
Magnetic Tachometer Equip.
Manufacturer m.! Ibe.
011 K smaIl t 1.063 0 1.125
WEIGHT DATA
. . .
AIRCRAFT INSTRt!o!ENTS
FROM S A 'II E HANDBOOK, VOL. II
A5:33
Chronometric Tachometers
Instrument Mounting
Manufacturer Wt.
z
Ibs.
Janufacturer Material wt.
z
Ibs.
Elgin 0.813 to 1.063
Lord Mfg. Co. Steel 0.016 to 0.308
Jaeger 0.80 to 5.50
H H n
Yonel 0.017 to 0.317
n H n
Steel & Alum. 0.023 to 0.363
n H n
lionel & Alum. 0.025 to 0.365
Remote Indicating Tachometer Equip.
Yanufacturer Wt.
z
Ibs. Standard Tube Form Mountings
Pioneer Autosyn 1.00 to 2.00
Manufacturer wt., Ibs.
Engine Synchroscope!
ord Mfg. Co. 0.04 to 5.8
Manufacturer Wt.! Ibs. Weights of U.S. Royal RUbber Mountings for Aircraft Inst.
Eclipse 0.75
Type wt. per Mounting, Lb.
Kollsman 0.50
Pioneer 0.50 to 0.60
Chalmel Safety .068 to .433
Weston 0.625
Cylindrical Type .006 to .127
Gen. Elec. 0.50
Venturi Tubes
Yanufacturer Wt.
z
Ibs!_
N.A.F. 0.96
Pioneer 0.40 to 0.70
Sperry 0.94
N.A.F. 0.69
-
Radio Instruments
JIa:n ufacturer '1ft., Ibs.
Weston 1.44 tQ 2.25
Hickok for Bendix 1.68
Western Elec. 1.25
Airaco 0.50
Hickok 0.566 to 1.78
Quality Elee. 0.63
Aircraft Flight Analyzers
Kanufaeturer Wt.
z
Ibs.
Friez 3.50 to 8.50
Kollsman Rim Light Adapters
Description
wt'
t
Ibs.
msc. - 0
Ammeters and Voltmeters
-
Yanufacturer Wt.
z
Ibs.
Weston 0.24 to 0.65
Westinghouse 0.25 to 1.00
Champion
0.19
Hickok
0.1% to 0.655
Miscellaneous Instr.uments, Etc.
Manufacturer
Wt.
z
Ibs.
Weston Fuel-Air Ratio Ind. 1.10 to 2.25
Gen. Elee. Selsyn DiU .-Fuel Pressure Ind 0.60
1I.E.A.
Liquidometer
n
Pioneer
Sperry
Breeze
Lewis
Yannin!!, 1Iax.
&. Yoore
Weston
Delco
Amer. Paulin
Weston
n
Quality Elec.
L.N. Schwien
Libraseope
Kollsman
n
N.A.F.
CO Ind.
Fuel Pressure Diff. Trans.
Ind. for Fuel Press. Differ.
Venturi Tube
n H
Fuel-Air Ratio Meter
Resistance Bulb
Torque Ind. Gauge
Resistance Bulb
Min. Autosyn Yotor
Level Flight Alt.
Wing &. Flap POSe Ind.
n n n
Transmitter
Trans. Auto. Control
Stall Warning Unit
Balance Ccmputor
Wing Flap Position Ind.
Cabin Pressure Reg.
Fuel Quantity Gage
1.30
1.00
0.30 to 0.90
0.40 to 0.70
0.94
0.762
0.125
0.60
0.17 to 0.38
0.44
3.00
0.93
0.29
0.09
0.50
9.63
0.875 to 0.94
0.60 to 1.00
WEIGHT DATA
A5:34
HYDRAULIC SYSTElfl
__________________ From S.A.W.E. Handbook, Vol. II ___________________ _
ACCUMULA1DRS
MANUFACTURER DESCRIPTION WEIGHT
Vickers 5" Diam. 65-69 Cu. in Vol.
1000-1500 FSI Press. 3.5
Vickers 10" Diam. 523 Cu. in Vol.
2500 PSI Press. 13.0
SiJnmonds 220 Cu. in Vol. 1500 PSI
Pressure 10.0
HYDRAULIC CYLINDERS (WTS. SHOWN ARE ':'IEIGHT EMPTY)
llenal.X lJOUO.le - 1.41/4" StrOKe
49.0 5.5" Bore
Bendix Double 15 5/16" Stroke
3.129 Bore 21.0
Bendix Double 2" Stroke
1.01" Bore 1.0
Bendix Single 5 3/4" stroke
2.44" Bore 6.1
HYDRAULIC OIL FILTERS
Purolator 5 GPM Flow 1.2
Purolator 15 GPM FlOW' 2.3
MISCELLA.'lEOlB HYDRAULIC EQUIFMENT
Ade1 1$00 PSI HYdraUiic
Actuating Cylinder
3.40
F1eetwings 1500 PSI Aux.
Charging Valve 16.00
Vickers 1000 PSI Piston Type
FlOW' Dividing lhit 8.0
MOTORS - HYDRAULIC
VICKers Piston TYPe .2 - .0 Cu.
in/Rev. Disp. 1000 PSI
and 3750 RPM 3.9-4.8
Peaco Cam Type .7 - 1.07 Cu.
in/Rev Disp. 800 PSI
and 1750 RPM 2.0-4.5
HYDRAULIC PlWS HAND
Pesco Integral Check
1.57 Cu. in/cycle
1000 Ib/Sq In Press 3.6-4.0
Aircraft 2 Integral Valve .5 Cu.
Access. in/cycle Disp.2500
PSI Pressure 11.00
ENGINE DRIVEN
Pesco Gear Type
.7 - 3.4 GFM Caply. 2.7-5.5
Vickers Variable Displacement 9.0
Vickers Piston Type
.2 - .507 GPM Cap'y. 4.25
Eclipse .8 GPM Cap'y. 2.8-3.5
Eclipse 1.3 GPM Caply. 3.1-3.9
Eclipse 2.0 GPM Cap'Y. 3.3
ELECTRIC DRIVEN
Pesco 3.0 GPlIl Cap 'y
200 PSI Press. 16.0
Pesco 1.75 GPM CAP'Y
1000 PSI Press. 23.2-24.0
Bendix 875 - 1000 Max. Press. 2.3- 5.3
Air 1450-1550
" "
Associates
2.5
Aero Equip. Co. 50 - 1000
" "
.78
WEIGHT OF OOmlUNICA TIONS EQUIPMENT
FROM S.A. 'V.E. HANDFIJOK VOL, II
wt. tbs.
Absolute Altimeter Equipment - Radio Type 62.7
Alternators and Invertors - Alternator 29.5
Invertor Filter - 400 Cycles - 750 Volt-ampere 23.5
Invertor Filter - 400 Cycles -1000 Volt-ampere 27.0
Antennas - Reel - 800 Ft. Cable 2.9
Reel - Autanatic - 12 V 350 Ft. Wire
Reel - i ~ h Voltage
Reel - ?OO Ft. Cable
Reel - Automatic - 125' Wire
Whip - 48 Inches
TenSion !hit for Fixed Antenna
Rubber Wind Sock - Trailing Antenna
Antenna Weight
Ki te Antenna and Reel
Radio Kite
Antenna Lead Out (Flying Boat!!)
Controls and Indicators
Azimuth Control
Loop Control
Remote Control
Radio Control Panel
Static Cartridf?E! Control
Direction Finders
9.0
16.1
4.5
6.7
1.0
.1
.2
1.0
1 .3
4.4
7.0
.6 - 2.9
4.1 - 10.3
.5 - 4.3
7.4 - 8.1
S
200-1500 Kilocycles 8.0
200-15,000 Yilocycles 22.25
140-4500 Kilocycles-remote Controlled (three bands)
17
ft
Fixed Loop-Cathode Rav Indicator 45.0
200-1500 Kilocyeles Sperry Receiver - Self Con-
tained Dynamotor
75'.0
Dynamotors, and Power Units
Input 12V - Output 250V
Input 6v - Output 300V
Input 24v - Output lOOOV
Input l2V - Output 500V
Input l2V - Output 1050V
Fan Ventilated Dynamotors
Input l2V - Output 200V
Input l2V - Output 600v
G.E. Motor Dynamotors
Output 300V
Output 600v
Output lOOOV
output l750V
Bendix Power Units
Boonton Power Uhit
DC Input - 12-14v - 100 Watts
AC Output - llD-125V - 50 Watts
Filters - Range
~ 50 amps.
Headsets
----
Telephonics
Handset
Miscellaneous sets
Interphone Equipment
Amplifier
Station Box
Recall Switch
10 Station Interphone Equipment Complete
With Bables
With l2-24v Dynamotor less Shock Mount
Loops and Accessories
Loop Rotator
Loop Mounting
Loop Control
Loop in Streamline Housing
Loop Amplifier
Loop Relay Uhit
Loop Direction Finder
Fixed Loop
Antenna Loop with Control Unit and Yount
Microphones
Throat
Other Misc.
2.1
5.0 - 5.8
19.0
13.0
31.0
3.8 -
8.1 -
16.4 -
47S -
2.6 -
6.0
32.0
2.9
9.6
18.4
5'1.8
43.0
15' - 20.0
1.9 -
.4 -
8.0
.6
.4
1.0
4.6 - 13.5
.5' - 2.0
.2
2.5' -
3.9 -
31.2
33 .3
6.8
3.0
4.1
9.9
5.0
1.2
1.3
9.8
7.2
.5
.41 - 1.0
'1ft. lbs.
Receiver!!
Direct Controlled - 180-4500 Kilocycles
Everyready Dry Cell Pack 6 Volts
Direct Controlled - 195-405' Kilocycles
Vitrator power !hit
Remote Controlled
Self-Contained Dynamotor - 129,000-
144,000 Kilocycles
3000-7000 Kilocycles
150-15,000 Kilocycles-
Self-Contained Dynamotor 150-10.000 Kc
For Instrument Landings 93-900 Ko
Self-Contained Vibrator 195'-6700 Kc
Marker Beacon Receiver 75',000 Kc
Range and Localizer Receiver Complete
with 12-24v Dynamotor less Schock Mount
110 Ilegacycles
Glide Path Receiver with l2-24v Vddynamotor
9.0
16.0
15.0
24.8
32.7
26.5
24.0
19 .3
40.8
less Schock Mount - 94 Megacycles 18.3
Shock Mounts .6 - 5'.1
Transmi tters
Direot, Controlled 2600-3600 Kc. With Dry
Cell Paek (6 volts) Aero-Voice 11.1
Direct Controlled 2000-6500 Ke. With Power
Supply Unit (vibrator) Air Radio 12.5
Direct Controlled 2500-15'000 Kc High
Frequency Transmitter Bendix 37.0
Direct Controlled .300-600 Kc Low Frequency 27.5'
Remote Controlled 125'000-145'000 Ke. Self-
Contained Dynamotor and Power llodulator
Unit Air Assoc. 34.0
Remote Controlled 2000-6500 Kc. with Virrator
and Dynamotor Unit. R.C.S. 40.8
Duplex Facsimile Transmitter with Power
Supply Unit and Amplifier 2000-10000 Kc. 50.0
TeleCommunications Finch
Master Oscillator with R.F. Unit Power and
Audio Unit Including Cables and Microphone
2-10Mc Western ElectriC 26.0
Transnitter-Recei vers
combined 'i'ransmi tter-Receiver 15.5'
Rex Bassett, Inc.
Transceive With Remote Control Unit, POlIer
and Case Stoddard 80.0
A5:35
DATA
FURNISHINGS
A5:36
FROM S.A.w.E. HANDBOOK, VOL. II.
CABIN EQUIPMENT
DESCRIPTION
Door Bolt
Door Latch - Rim Type
Rim Lock - S wing Latch
Dour Latch - Semi-Mortise
Door Locks
Grab Handle
Door Handle
Coat Hook
Door Bolt
Transom Catch
CUpboard Catch
Door Hook
Door Bumper
Door Stop
Door Holder
Spitoon - 6" Diameter
Match Striker
Door Lock - Remote Control
Locking Handle
Lever Handle
Main Cabin Door Lock
Door Latch (No Handle)
Ash Receiver
Door Hook-Double Swiveled
Sash Bolt
Flush Ring Pull
Flush Catch-Light Hinged Panels
Escutcheon & Thumb Turn for
Lock Installation
Door Hardware Unit Assembly
Weight - Lbs.
0.44
0.47 - 1.25
2.06
0.38 - 0.56
0.56 - 0.88
0.09 0.38
0.15 - 0.19
0.09
0.19 - 0.25
0.31
0.19 - 0.58
0.15 - 0.51
0.15
0.19
0.15
0.41
0.57 -
0.50
0.05
0.51
1.44
0.44
0.45
2.69
0.88
0.56
0.09
0.19
0.06 - 0.09
0.11
0.16 - 0.25
0.82 - 2.00
MISCELLANEOUS CABIN HARDWA.l\E
Flush Hinge - Per Pair 0.26 - 0.42
Flashlight Holder 0.50 - 0.51
Lock Set 1.125 - 2.94
MISCELLANEOUS FURNISHINGS
Map Case
Data Case
Balance Computer
Instruction Book
Collapsible Bucket
Tool Kit
Glare Shield
Blind Flying Hood
CAMERA EQUIPMENT
Intervalometer
Camera - Not Loaded
Camera Mount
Vertical Viell' Finder
Film
Filter
55 DIm. Movie Camera
16 lDlIl. Movie Camera
CHEMICAL EQUIPMENT
Smoke Screen Chemical - Per Gal.
Ch8lllica 1 Tank, Empty
0.072
0.72 - 1.02
10.00
0.55
1.88
15.00
1.69
1.15 - 5.69
6.50
50.5 - 70.00
15.00
6.00
7.0 -27.00
1.50
9.0 - 11.50
2.38 - 7.00
16.25
50.00
FIRE EXTINGUISHER EQUIP!.!ENT
Engine illite
Engine CO2
Hand-l'yrene-Pint-Qu.art
Hand-Garbon Tet.-l to 1 1/2Quart
Hand-G02 - 1 Quart
FIRST AID !ITS
(Amazol) First Aid Kit
Wood's Emergency Kit Complete
(Bauer & Black) Sateg'UlU'd Kit
C.A.A. Kit - (1-5) Passengers
14.19
4.10
6.51
15.25
59.11
- 6.56
- 8.62
6.00
4.00
3.45
5.58
1.25
EgUIPMENT
DESCRIPTION Wt. - Lbs.
Raft Carrying Bag 0.4 - 2.3
Cylinder to A.C. Spec. 94-40217-B 5.6
Valve Assem. - Std. Rafts 14.5 - 15.5
5-7 Man Raft 50.0 - 65.0
Life Vest 2.5
2 !z!an Raft 28.5 - 50.0
Flotation Bag & Container 27.5
Adult Life Preserver 2.4 - 5.2
Life Preserver Cushion 5.0
RANGE UNITS - ELECTRIC 1.6
CABIN SUPERCHGNG. &0 THERMOMETERS
CaC:lll ?i'essure Reg. Valve 5.5
Cabin Pressure Control 8.0
Cabin Thermostat 0.5
VENTILLATING EQUIPMENT
Staynew Air Filters (Multi-V-Type)0.2
Staynew Air Filters (Circular) 0.1
LAVATORY EQUIPMENT
- 2.9
- 10.5
- 16.0
- 1.0
- 2.0
- 4.2
Washstands
Wash Water Tank
Chemical Toilet
Self Closing Basin Cock
Liquid Soap Holder
Mirror
Toilet Rack
Towel Rack
Toilet Paper Holder
Flush Toilet
0.8 - 5.0
5.0
4.0 - 14.0
0.4 - 0.9
.6
4.4 - 15.0
0.6
0.8
0.5 - 6.0
12.0
Urinal 1.5
Relief Tube Equipment 0.1
5.0 - 11.5
OXYGEN TANKS (1800#)
tank (Free Air: 4.2-228. CUSt.) 4.0
Oxygen Regulators 1.9
MISC. OXYGEN EquIPMENT
Sub-strato Mask
Pressure Regulators 1.4
floII' Meter
Complete Un! t 5.0
Pigtail Connector
PARACHUTES
Quick Attachable Type 17.6
Fixed Type 15.5
AIRCRAF'I' SEATS
Pilot 6.8
Passenger - Lounge 55.5
Radio Operator 11.0
Navigator - Bombardier 17.5
-153.5
- 5.2
0.5
-
1.8
0.9
- 14.0
0.6
- 22.4
- 21.5
- 25.0
- 62.8
- 16.1
- 21.0
WEIGHT DATA
FURNISHINGS
A 5 ~ 3 7
PROM S.A.W.E. RANDBOClC, VOLtJl.lE II.
TYPICAL AIRLINE EgUIPMENT LISTS
TYPICAL AIRLINE EgUIP!olENT LISTS
NO. OF PASSENGERS
NO. OF PASSENGERS
10 22 46
10 22 46
SleeE' SleeE
ll&
Sleet!. Sleet!.
!!l
PASSENGER EQUIPMENT
OPERATING EQUIPMENT
DertlUlbleSeat Units at 55#/Pass. 550.0 770.0 1610.0
1 Anohor, Northill TYPe 80 ... 82.0 82.0 82.0
Safety Belts - Passenger at 1.0# Ea. 20.0 44.0 46.0
1 Anchor Winoh and Cable
BBrth Curtains at 1.5#/PasB 15.0 55.0
(Approx. 150 Ft.) ... 50.5 50.5 50.5
Berth Identifioation Numbers 1.0 2.0
1 Anchor Winoh Crank and Controls

14.7 14.7 14.7
Upper Berth Ladder 7.0
1 Column Look 5.5 5.5 5.5
Night Pillows 20 x 26 at 1.4# Ea. 14.0 50.8
- Blaokout Curtains 5.0 5.0 5.0
Day Headrest Pillows 12 x 16 at 0.8#Ea. 8.0 17.6 56.8
2 Pilot's Hatch Curtains 5.0 5.0 5.0
Night Pillow Cases 22 x 28 at 0.1# Ea. 1.0 2.2
1 Engine Tool Kit 16.8 16.8 16.8
L'e.y Pillow Cases 14 x 18 at .07# Ea. .7 1.5 5.2
1 Wing Tool Kit 8.5 8.5 8.5
Blankets 60 x 90 at 2.5# Ea. 25.0 55.0 25.0
1 Hoist Shaokle 11.8 11.8 11.8
Sheets 65 x 99 at 1.2# Ea. 24.0 52.8
- Spare Parts 5.0 5.0 5.0
Rubber Sheeting 24" x 48
11
at 1.0# Ea. 10.0 22.0
1 Crew Bunk - Forward 9.5 9.5
Hand Towels at 0.2# Ea. (2/PasS.) 4.0 8.8 18.4
1 Crew Bunk - Mt 10.5 10.5
Life Preservers at 5.5# Ea.
1 Chart Table, Looker & Bookoase
Inol. Stowage 55.0 77.0 161.0
(Navigator's) 42.0 42.0 42.0
Life Rafts - 10 Pass. 71# Ea.
1 Bucket - 2 Gallon w 1.5 1.5 1.5
Witll Oars, Pump, Case & Bottle71.0 142.0 555.0
1 Grapling Hook - 5/8" x 25'

5.5 5.5 5.5
1 Maohete
.,
1.0 1.0 1.0
(ULLE! I CLOAlROOIl & LAVATORY EgUIP!rIENT
1 Cork Life Buoy .ith
- food Lookers at 50.0# Ea. 50.0 50.0 100.0
1/4
11
X 60 Ft. Line

4.5 4.5 4.5
1 5-Ge.llon Water Tank 10.0 10.0 10.0
2 Cargo Nets 16.0 16.0 8.0
1 Coffee Maker 15.0 15.0 15.0
1 Bag of Rags 2.0 2.0 2.0
Steam and/or Electrio Cooker 20.0 20.0 20.0
1 Police Club 1.0 1.0 1.0
Hot Plates 5.0 5.0 5.0
- Broom. Dustpan, etc. 10.0 10.0 10.0
1 Ice Box 46.0 46.0 46.0
1 Ladder at 2#/Ft. 50.0 50.0 50.0
1 Sink & Cabinet 25.0 25.0 25.0
1 Megaphone w 1.0 1.0 1.0
- Refuse Containers at 1.0# Ea. 1.0 1.0 2.0
1 Life Raft - Cre. (5 Ilan) 58.0 58.0 58.0
Water for Coffee at 8.5#/Gal. 11.0 22.0 42.0
6 Life Jaokets - Crew at 2.4# Ea. 14.4 14.4 14.4
Drinking Water at 8.5#/Gal. 11.0 22.0 42.0
2 Flares, Parachute,
Beverages at 6 Oz./PaBS. 4.0 S.O 17.0
Wiley TYPe A-8 58.0 58.0 58.0
Beverage Coolant 2.5 5.0 10.0
1 Tow Line & Pendant -
Food at 2#/L'e.y Pass.; 4.0#/Night Pass. 40.0 88.0 92.0
5/8" x 40 Ft. ... 8.9 8.9 8.9
Food Tray at 1# Ea. 10,0 22.0 46.0
1 Utilit1 1/4
ft
Rope &: 5/8"Casting
Silverware at O.5#/Pass. 5.0 6.6 15.8
Line (Ave. 70 :rt.) w &.5 5.5 5.5
Dishes at 1.0#/Pass. 10.0 22.0 46.0
2 Lines, X2" x 75 Ft. ... 9.0 9.0 9.0
Tables 44" x 50" Ave. at 9.0# Ea. 18.0 56.0 72.0
1 Line, 5 4" x 120 Ft.

20.5 20.5 20.5
Thermos Bottles - 2 Qt. Cap. at
1 Line, Casting, 1/4" x 60 Ft.

4.0 4.0 4.0
5.0# Ea. Empty 20.0 40.0 75.0
1 Fog Horn ... .6 .6 .6
Thermos Jug - 1 Gal. Cape.ci ty -
1 Bell & Whistle

1.7 1.7 1.7
10.6# Ea. Empty 21.2 51.8 6 ~ 6
1 Flight Engineer's Log Book .5 .5 .5
1 Towel & Napkin Rack 4.0 4.0 4.0
2 Pilots' Seats & Cushions
Wash Water at 5/4 GaL/PaSS. 62.0 158.0 265.0
at 55.0# Ea. 70.0 70.0 70.0
"ash Basins at 5.0# Ea. 10.0 10.0 10.0
2 Pilots' Safety Belts at 2.0# Ea. 4.0 4.0 4.0
DreSSing Room Seats 15.0 15.0 15.0
1 Radio Operator's Seat & Cushion 15.0 15.0 15.0
Soap Dispensers 2.0 2.0 2.0
1 Radio Operator's Safety Belt 2.0 2.0 2.0
Sani ta.ry Napkin Dispenser 1.5 1.5 1.5
1 Flight Engineer's Seat,
Steward's Supplies 10.0 20.0 40.0
Cushion and Safety Belt 10.5 10.5 10.5
Magazines & Binders 10.0 20.0 40.0
1 Navigator I s Seat,
Coat Closet Rods & Hangers 5.0 5.0 10.0
Cushion and Safety Belt 10.5 10.5 10.5
Air Sickness Relief Containers 1.0 2.0 4.0
1 Steward's Seat,
Cushion and Safety Belt 7.0 7.0 7.0
1 Toilet Seat 11.2 11.2 11.2
- Toilet Paper 1.0 1.0 1.0
5 Deadlights w 9.0 9.0
1 Revolver & Cartridges 5.0 5.0 5.0
- Radio Sets & Spares 1Bl.2 181.2 181.2
1 Radio Table 8.0 8.0 8.0
1 Wind Screen 5.0 5.0 5.0
1 First Aid Kit at 2.5# Ea. 2.5 4.6 11.5
2 Pyrena Fire Extinguishers
(1 Qt. Ea.) 14.5 14.5 14.5
2 Control Column Boots 1.0 1.0 1.0
1 Hand Axe

1.8 1.8 1.8
1 Boat Hook

5.0 5.0 5.0
1 Sea Anchor & Lines
5/8" x 200 Ft. ... 21.7 21.7 21.7
1 Oil Container & Oil w 9.5 9.5 9.5
1 Bilge Pump ... 8.0 8.0 8.0
6 "ater Lights & Stowage ... 7.0 7.0 7.0
2 Flashlights - 5 cell Ea. 5.4 5.4 5.4
1 Very Pistol & Ammunition 7.0 7.0 7.0
- lrIooring & Towing Shackles ... 8.5 8.5 8.5
NOTE: All itellll! marked "11'" apply to Marine-TYPe Aircraft Only.
WEIGHT DATA
FROl( S.A.W.E. HANDOOOK, VOL. II.
A5:38
2.4
2.0
.;
I
ANTI-ICING EQUIPMENT
, ,
/ CHART FOR DEmRllINING '
/ / WEIGHTS OF STANDARD
/ ' "DE-ICERS"
/ 'I '
/1
/
/
,.
!:i " I
1.6 - / / '
'/

/ /- //
.8- /
,///
..,:t

Size of tube in inches
1 2
3
Anti-icing Equipment (total)'
includes:
Electric Pump and Bracket
0-31 gal./hr. 24 volt D.C.)
Filter
4
Four-way Control Valve and Switch Ohit
Distribution Valve
(10 port radial 24 volt)
Selector Valve 5 Unit Type
Relief Valve
(By-pass; 25-35 psi range)
Control Rheostat
Pressure Relief Valve
(Rheostat Control)
Tank (5 gal. Gap'y)
Restrictor
Flowmeter
Hand Pump
Propeller Anti-icing Ohit, Combination
Spinner and Slinger Ring (Benson Ilfg. Co.)
Auxiliary Power Plant Equipment
Manufacturer
Lawrence
Pierce Gov.
Rucksteel-
Burkhardt
Eclipse
Manufacturer
Description
2 071 Horiz Opposed Air Cooled Engine
Complete
Aux Power P14nt Gov.
4 071 Westinghouse Generator
Single Cylinder Gas Eng. Alone.
Control Wheel!
Description
Amer. Hard Rubber Co. 8" Diam.
"
"
"
Manufacturer
Sperry
"
..
If
"
"
12" Diam.
14" Diam
16" Diam
Control EqUipment - Remote
Description
Transmitter (Hydraulic)
Receiver (Hydraulic)
Remote Control Adapter
Tabs
lIanufacturer Description
Flap Controls
Man ufacturer Description
Weight
213.0
3.5, 4.2
257.0
63.0
Weight
1.1
1.7 - 1.9
1.3 - 2.3
1.8 - 3.1
Weight
2.7 - 8.3
2.2 - 6.1
1.18
Weight
.55
.8
1.0
Weight
Simmonds
Aerocessories
..
Control Assembly Auto Flap 2.1
5'Pirry
Part
Magneto
n
Oil & Inter Cooler Flap Actuating 071 2.4 -,-
Gyro Pilot
Height or mstalled Pilot less Pipes
Fi ttinp:s, Pumps, Etc.
Scintilla Ignition Units
Description
Use on 4, 5. or 6 cy1 Engine
Use OIl 7 cyl Engine
Use on 9 cyl Engine
Use on 12 071 Engine
57.1 - 63.1
Weight (lb)
Use on 14 Cy1 Engine
Use on 18 Cyl Engine
Windshield Equipment "
7.5 - 9
11.25 - 14.4
12.1 - 16.3
11.6 - 12.1
15.5 - 18.8
23.4 - 25.1
Electric Motor 1/4 HP 4.9, Distributor
Flexible Drive Shaft wtlFt 201ft. n
Push Pull Controls wtlFt .45/ft.
Converter 1.62
Window Ohit with Nuts .49
Mounting Parts-Window U,its .12
Drive Arm And Blade (lIax.) .45
Wiper Speed Control 1.50
Thermal Overload Breaker .25
Hand Pump-Alcohol .95
Eng. lIfg.
ffiison
Continental
Wright

Needle Control Valve .10
Alcohol Pump Assembly 2.7, Jaoobe

For 7 Cy1 Engine
For 9 071 Engine
For 12 Cyl Engine
For 18 Cy1 Engine
Manifolds (Solar Aircraft)
lhgine
V-I7IO:Cl$
IV-1430-1
R-760
R-2600
LAIlB
II1scellaneous Equipment

)0.8
23.0
20.6
64.0
11.2
4.63
1.56
2.00
3.19
Air Fi1tere (Air Maze) 2" Thick Shroud and Muff Assemblies - (Solar Aircraft Co.)
Size (Sq. In.) lIax. CFI( Gap'y Weight (lbe)
100 560 4.75
200 1190 9.00
300 1820 14.00
400 2520 18.00
5oo ____________ ___________ __ ___
Anchors
lIanufacturer
Description Weight
Northi11
43" Folding 77.5
33" Folding 31.8
__________________ ____ _
Eng. Itt'g. Description Weight
Allison Shroud for
V-l71O-C15 Engine 28.3
Continental Shroud for
lV-14W--l Engine 36.0
Wright Muff for R-2S00 3.1
Miscellaneous Power Plant Equipment
Manufacturer
Naval Air- Engine Control with
craft Factory Mixture Control 1.75
Naval Air- Carburetor Air Heater
craft Faotory Valve Assem. .9-1.00
Delao Manifold Pressure
Rem;)' Regulator 5.5
Pratt and Extra AccessoIj"
Whitney Drive Unit 7.5-10.0
4036
CIVIL AIR REGUUTIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A68,:1
PART 3-AIRPLANE AIRWORTHINESS; NOR-
MAL, UTILITY, ACROBATIC, AND RE-
STRICTED-PURPOSE CATEGORIES
SUBPART A-AIRWORTHINESS REQUlREMENTS
GENERAL
Sec.
3.1 Scope.
3.2 Date of effectiveness.
AIRPLANE CATEGORTES
8.6 Airplane categories.
AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATES
311 Classification.
TYPE CERTIFICATES
3.15 Requirements for Issuance.
3.16 Data required for NC and NR cer-
tification.
8.17 Inspection and tests for NC and NR
certification.
3.18 Inspection.
3.19 flight tests.
CHANGES
3.23 Changes.
3.23-11 Changes of engines (CAA pollc1el
which apply to i 3.23).
3.24 Minor changes.
3.25 Major changes.
8.26 Service experience
8.27 Appllcatlon to earlier airworthine81
requirements.
APPROVAL OJ' MATERIALS, PARTS, PaocESSES,
AND APPLIANCES
8.31 Specifications.
DD'INITIONS
. 41 Standard atmosphere.
lua Hot-day condition,
Sec.
8.43
3.44
8.45
3.46
3.47
3.48
8.48-1
Airplane contlguratlon.
Weights.
Power.
Speeds.
Structural terms.
SusceptibUlty of materials to lire.
Fire-resistant aircraft material
(CAA rules which apply to 13.48).
SUBPART B-FLIGHT REQUIIlEMENTS
3.61
3.62
3.63
3.64
3.65
GENERAL
Pollcy re proof of compliance.
flight test pUot.
Noncompllance wfth test require-
ments.
Emergency egress.
Report.
WEIGHT RANGE AND CENTER OJ' GILAVlTT
3.71
3.72
3.73
3.74
3.75
3.76
3.81
3.82
3.82-1
3.83
3.83-1
Weight and balance.
Use of ballast.
Empty weight.
Maximum weight.
MinlIIlUID weight.
Center of gravity position.
Pl!:aFoaMANCB RJ:QUIBEMENTS
GENEILAL
Performance.
Definition of staJl1ng speeds.
"Zero thrust" (CAA interpretations
which apply to 3.82).
Stalllng speed.
StaJllng speed of "not to exceed 70
miles per hour" (CAA lnterpreta-
tlons which apply to 3.83).
TAKE-OrT
3.84 Take-off.
3.84-1 Take-off performance (CAA policies
which apply to 3.84).
CLIMB
8.85 Climb.
3.B5-1 Rate of climb (CAA policies which
apply to 3.85).
3.85-2 "Normal climb" and "coollng test
procedure for slngle-engine air-
planes" (CAA Interpretations
which apply to 3.85).
3.B5-3 "Rapid retraction" (CAA interpre-
tations which apply to 3.85).
3.85-4 Weight for items of performance
and flight characteristics (CAA In-
terpretations whiCh apply to
3.85).
LANDING
3.86 Landing.
3.86-1 Landing distances) (CAA policies
which apply to 3.B6).
FLIGHT CHAILACTERISTICS
B.1011 Requirements.
3.106
3.107-U
3.108-A
3.109
3.110
3.-111
CONTROLLABILITY
General.
Approved acrobatic maneuvers.
Acrobatic maneuvers.
Longitudinal control.
Lateral and directional control.
Minimum control speed (V
mc
)'
TRIM
3.112 ReqUirements.
8.112-1 Performance as alternate test (CU
pollcies which apply to 8.112).
B.113
&.114
a.ll11
8.116
$.117
8.118
3.118-1
STABILITY
General.
static longitudinal stabUlty.
SpeCific conditions.
Instrumented stick forca meBSure-
ments.
Dynamic longitudinal ltabUlty.
DIrectional and lateral stabUlty.
Test conditIOns (CAA pol1cl11
which apply to 13.11B (a).
Sec.
8.120
8.120-1
B.121
3.122
3.128
3.124
stalling demonstration.
Measuring loss of altiWde during
stall (CAA pOlicies wbk:h apply to
18.120).
Climblng stalls.
Turning fi1ght stallll.
One-englne-lnoperlltU., lJtallB.
SPINNING
Spinnlng.
GROUND AND W ATEa CBARACT!!ltISTICS
8.143 RequIrements.
8.144 Longitudinal stability and control.
3.145 Directional stabllity and control.
3.146 Shock absorption.
3.147 Spray characteristics.
FLUTI'ER AND VIBRATION
3.159 Flutter and vibration.
SUBPART REQUIREMENTS
GENER.u.
3.171
3.172
3.173
3.173-1
3.174
Loads.
Factor of safety.
Strength and deformations.
Dynamic tests (CAA policies which
apply to 3.173).
Proof of structure.
FLIGHT LoADS
3.1B1 General.
3.1B2 Definition of flight load factor.
3.183
3.1B4
3.185
3.186
3.186--1
3.187
3.188
3.188-1
3.189
SYMMETRICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONS
(FLAPS aETlLACTED)
General.
Design air speeds.
Maneuvering envelope.
Maneuvering load factors.
Use of reduced maneuvering load
factors (CAA policies which apply
to 3.186).
Gust envelope.
Gust load factors.
"Slope of lift curve" (CAA inter-
pretations which apply to 3.188).
Airplane equllibrium.
FLAPS EXTENDED FLIGHT CONDITIONS
3.190 Flaps extended flight conditions.
UNSYMMETRICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONS
8.191 Unsymmetrical fi1ght conditions.
3.191-1 Aileron rolJ1ng conditions (OAA
policies which apply to I 8.191
(a.
3.194
3.195
3.196
3.211
3.212
3.212-1
8.213
suPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
Special condition for rear 11.ft tI'1,1SS.
Engine torque effects.
Side load on engine mount.
CONTROL SURFACE LOADS
General.
Pilot effort.
AutomatiC pilot systems (CM ')OU-
cies which apply to 3.212).
Trim tab effects.
HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFACE'
8.214 Horizontal taU surfaces.
3.215 Balanclng loads.
3.216 Maneuvering loads.
3.217 Gust loads.
3.218 Unsymmetrical loads.
VERTICAL TAIL SURFAC.
3.219 Maneuvering loads.
B.220 Gust loads.
8.221 Outboard fins.
AILERONS. WING FLAPS, TABS, IL'TC.
..222 Ailerons.
8.223 Wing flaps.
8.224 Tabs .
8.225 Special devices.
A6a:G
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGUUTIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
fEDERAL REGISTIR
4037
Sec.
3,231
3.231-1
3.231-2
3.232
3.233
3.233-1
3.234
3.241
3.212
3.243
3.244
3.245
3.245--1
3.246
3.247
3.248
3.249
3.250
3.251
3.252
3.253
3.254
3.255
3.256
8.257
8.265
8.266
8.267
3.268
3.269
3.270
3.271
3.272
8.273
3.275
3.277
3.278
3.279
CONTROL SYSTEM LOADS
Primary flight controls and systems.
Hinge moments (CAA pol1ciea which
apply to 3.231).
System I1mit loads (CAA pollcie.
which apply to 3.231).
Dual controls.
Ground gust conditions.
Ground gust loads (CAA JXll1ciea
which apply to 3.233).
Secondary controls and systems.
GROUND LOADS
Ground loads.
Design weIght.
Load factor for landing conditions.
LANDING CASES AND ATI'ITUDEB
Landing cases lind attitudes.
Level landing.
Wheel spIn-Up loads (CAA
which apply to 3.245).
Tall down.
One-wheel landing.
GROUND ROLL CONDITION8
Braked roll.
SIde load.
TAlL WHEELIS
Supplementary conditions for tall
wheels.
Obstruction load.
Side load.
NOSE WHEELS
Supplementary conditions for nose
wheels.
Aft load.
Forward load.
Side load.
SXIPLANDJ
Supplementary conditions for ski-
planes.
WATER LoADS
General.
DI:SIGN WEIGHT
DesIgn weight.
BOAT SEAPLAN1!:8
Local bottom pressures.
Distributed bottom pressures.
Step loading condition.
Bow loading condition.
Stern loading condition.
Side loading condition.
nOAT SEAPLANES
Landing with inclined reactions.
LandIng With vertical reactions.
Landing with side load.
Supplementary load conditioll8.
Bottom loads.
WING-TIP J'LOAT AND SEA WING LOADS
3.280 Wing-tip float loads.
3.281 WIng structure.
3.282 Sea wing loads.
SUBPART D-D:S:SIGN AND CONITRUorxON
GENERAL
3.291
3.292
3.293
3.294
3.295
3.296
3.301
3.301-1
3.302
3.303
3.304
3.304-1
General.
Materials and workmanship.
Fabrication methods.
Standard fastenings.
Protection.
Inspection provisions.
STRUCl"URAL PAKTa
Material strength properties and de-
sign values.
Design properties (CM policies
which apply to 3.301).
Special factors.
Variab1l1ty factor.
Castings.
Casting factors (CM poUcies Which
apply to 8.304)
Bec.
S.3ot! Bearing factors.
8.306 Fitting factor.
8.307 Fatigue strength.
FLtrrrII:II AND VmB.ATION
8.311 Flutter and vibration pre'lention
3.317
3.318
8.318-1
8.319
3.320
8.320-1
measures.
WINGS
Proof of strength.
Ribs.
Rib tests (CAA pol1cles which ap-
ply to 3.318).
External bracIng.
Covering.
Aircraft fabric \ CAA rules which
apply to 3.320).
CONTROl. SURFACES (FIxED AND MOVABLJ:)
8.327 Proot ot strength.
3.328 Installation.
3.329 Hinges.
3.335
3.336
3.337
3.338
3.339
3.340
3.341
3.342
3.343
3.344
3.345
8.345--1
3.346
8.347
3.351
3.352
8.352-1
8.353
3.354

3.356
3.357
3.358
8.359
8.359-1
8.360
8.361
8.362
1.363
8.864
8.365
11.366
8.371
8.372
8.373
8.381
8.382
8.383
3.384
8.383
CONTROL SYSTEMS
General.
Primary flight controls.
Trimming controls.
Wing trap controls.
Flap interconnection.
Stops.
Control system lOCks.
Proof of strenl!;th.
Operation test.
CONTROL SYSTEM DETAILS
General.
Cable systems.
Cables in primary control systems
(CAA interpretations which apply
to 3.345).
Joints.
SprIng devices.
LANDING GEAIl
SBOCK ABSOa:Bl:RS
Tests.
Shock absorption tests.
Landing gear drop tests (CAA poll-
cies which apply to 3.352).
Limit drop tests.
Limit load tactor determination.
Reserve energy absorption drop
tests.
UTBAorIN.a MECBANLSK
General.
Emergency operation.
Operation test.
Position indicatOl" and warnin,
device.
Wheel position indicators (eAA
pollcies which apply to f 3.359).
Control.
WHEEL8 AKD TDIU
Wheela.
Tires.
Brake
Skis.
InstallaUoZl.
Tests.
HULL8 AND I'LOAD
Buoyancy (main seaplane lI.oata).
Buoyancy (boat seaplanes).
Water stab!l!ty.
P't1sELAG.
PILOT COMPAaDOlNY
General.
Vlalon.
Pilot Windshield and wi1!lciow
Cockpit controls.
Inatrumenta- and markin,
Seo.
8.386
8.887
3.388
8.388-1
I:MDGENCT PItOVWION,
Protection.
Exits.
F'1re precautions.
Combustion heaters (CAA rule.
which apply to 3.388 (b.
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMOIlATIOl'la
3.389 Doors.
8.390 Seats and berths.
3.391 Safety belt or harness provlsioili.
3.392 Cargo compartments.
3.393 Ventllation.
MISCELLANEOUS
8.401 Leveling marks.
SUBPART E-PoWER-PLANT INSTALLATIONS;
RFCTPROCATING ENGINI:II
GENEIIAL
3.411 Components.
3.411-1 Reverse-thrust propellers (CM pol-
icies Which apply to I 3.411).
3.415
3.416
3.417
3.418
8.419
3.420
8.421
8.422
8.429
3.430
3.431
3.432
3.433
3.434
3.435
8.436
8.437
3.438
3.439
8.440
3.441
3.442
3.443
3.444
8.445
11.446
1.447-A
1.448
ENGrNI:S AND PaoPELLE115
Engines.
Propellers.
Propeller vibration.
Propeller pitch and speed limita-
tions.
Speed ItmitaiiOM tor fixed pItch
propellers, ground adjustable
pitch propellers, and automati-
cally varyIng pitch propellers
Which cannot be controlled in
flight.
Speed and pitch llmitations for con-
trollable pItch propellers without
constant speed controls.
Variable pitch propellers with con-
stan t speed eon troIa.
PropeUer clearance.
FuEL SYSTEM
General.
ARRANGEMENT
Fuel system arrangemeni.
MultiengIne fuel system arrange-
ment.
Pressure cross feed arrangements.
OPERATIOK
Fuel flow rate.
Fuel flow rate tor gravity teed
systems.
Fuel flow rate for pump systems.
Fuel flow rate for awt!llary fuel
systems and fuel transfer systems.
Determination ot unusable fuel sup-
ply and tuel system operation on
low tuel.
Fuel system hot weather operaUOQ.
l"low between interconnected tanka.
rum. TANKS
General.
Fuel tank tests.
Fuel tank installation.
Fuel tank expansion space.
Fuel tank sump.
Fuel tank filler connection.
Fuel tank venta and carburetor
vapor nnts.
Fuel tank vents.
Puel tank cutIei.
J'UEL PUMPII
8.449 Fuel pump and pump Installation.
I.IN1:8, J'Tl"I"INGIJ, AND ACCl!I8S0RII!lS
1.550 Fuel system linee, fltt1niS, Iild ac-
cessories.
Tuel valves.
'.5112 Fuel stralner.

'.554
DB.AINS AND DiSTRUlBNTII
Fuel system drain .
Fuel system IDitrumen1lt.
4038
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (C.iU1 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A6a.:3
Seo.
8.561
8.561-1
8.563
3.563
8.564
3.565
8.566
3.567
8.568
3.569
On. SYSTEM
on system.
"Capacity" (CAA InterpretatlonJ
which apply to 18.1561).
on cooling.
OIL TANKS
on tanks.
Oil tank tests.
011 tank installation.
au tank expansion space.
Oil tank filler connection.
Oil tank vent.
011 tank outlet.
3.570
LINES, FITTINGS, AND ACCESSOIlDCI
011 system lines, fittings, and
3.571
3.572
3.573
3.574
3.575
3.576
3.577
accessories.
011 valves.
011 radiators.
Oil filters.
OU system drains.
Engine breather llnes.
OU system instruments.
Propeller feathering system.
COOLING
8.581 GeIW!ral.
3'.582
3.583
3.564
3.585
8.586
8.587
3.588
3.589
3.590
3.591
3.592
3.593
3.594
3.595
8.596
3.605
3.606
8.607
3.608
8.609
3.610
3.611
8.612
8.615
8.616
3.617
3.618
3.623
8.624
3.625
3.625-1
TESTS
Cooling tests.
MaXimum anticipated su=er air
temperatures.
Correction factor for cylinder head,
oU inlet. carburetor air, and
engine coolant inlet tempera-
tures.
Correction factor tor cyllnder bar-
rel temperatures.
Coollng test procedure tor single-
engine airplanes.
Coollng test procedure tor multi-
engine airplanes.
LIQUID COOLING SYSTEMS
Independent systems.
Coolant tank.
Coolant tank tests.
Coolant tank installation.
Coolant tank filler connection.
Coolant llnes, fittings, and ac-
cessories.
Coolant radiators.
COOling system drains.
Coollng system instruments.
INDUCTION SYSTEM
General.
Induction system de-icing and anti-
icing provisions.
Carburetor de-icing fiu1d fiow rate.
Carburetor fiuid de-icing .system
capacity.
Carburetor fiuid de-icing system de-
tail design.
Carburetor air preheater design.
Induction system ducts.
Induction system screens.
EXHAUST SYSTEM
General.
Exhaust manifold.
Exhaust heat exchangers.
Exhaust heat exchangers used in
ventilating air heating systems.
FIRE WALL AND CoWLING
Fire walls.
Fire wall construction.
Cowllng.
Fire-resistant aircraft
(CAA rules which
13.825).
material
apply to
POWEll-PLANT CONTROLS AND ACCESSORIES
CONTROLS
8.627
8.628
8.829
8.630
Power-plant controls.
Throttle controls.
Ignition switches.
Mixture controls.
Sea.
B.63t
8.632
3.688
8.63'
8.635
8.fl36
8.637
8.651
8.652
8,655
8.655-1
8.661
8.662
Propeller speed and pitch controls.
Propeller feathering controls.
Fuel system controls.
Carburetor air preheat controla.
ACCESSORIES
Power-plant accessories.
Engine battery ignition systems.
POWER-PLANT FIRE PROTECTION
Power-plant fire protection.
SUBPART F-EQull>MENT
General.
Functional and lnstallational reo
qUirements.
BASIC EQUIPMENT
Required basic eqUipment.
Alr-speed indicators, direction in
dicators, and altimeters (CAA
rules which apply to 3.655) .
INSTRUMENTS; INSTALLATION
GENERAL
Arrangement and visib1l1ty of in-
strument installations.
Instrument panel vibration char-
acterlstics.
FLIGHT AND NAVIGATIONAL INSTRUMENTS
3.663
8.664
3.665
8.666
3.667
3.667-1
8.668
8.670
8.671
3.672
8.672-1
8.673
8.674
8.675
8.676
Air-speed indicating system.
Air-speed indicator marking.
Static air vent system.
Magnetic direction indicator.
Automatic pilot system.
Automatic pUots (CAA rules wh!ch
apply to 3.667) .
Gyroscopic indicators (air-driven
type).
Suction gauge.
POWEll-PLANT INSTRUMENTS
Operational markings.
Instrument llnes.
Fuel quantity indicator.
Means to indicate tuel quantity
(CAA policies which apply to
3.672) .
Fuel flowmeter system.
011 quantity indicator.
Cylinder head temperature indicat-
ing system for air-cooled engines.
Carburetor air temperature indicat-
!ng system.
EL!X;TRICAL SYSTEMS AND EQUIPMJ:NT
8.681
8.682
3.683
8.684
8.685
8.686
8.687
8.668
8.689
3.690
8.691
8.692
8.693
11694
8.6911
8.696
8.697
Installation.
BATTERIES
Batteries.
Protection agalnst acid.
Battery vents.
GENERATORS
Generator.
Generator controls.
Reverse current cut-out.
MASTEa SWITCH
Arrangement.
Master switch installation.
PROTECTIVE DEVICES
Fuses or circuit breakers.
Protective devices installat!on.
Spare fuses.
J!:LEC'l'RIC CARLEII
J:1ectr!c cables.
SWITCHES
SW!tches.
Switch installat!on,
INSTRUMENT LIGHTS
Instrument l1ghts.
Instrument light lnstallation.
LANDlNG LIGBTII
Sec.
8.698 Landing Ughts.
8.699 Landing Ught lnstallation.
POSITION LIGHTS
8.700 Type.
3.701 Forward position light installation.
8.702 Rear position Ught installation.
8.708 Flashing rear position lights.
ANCHOR LIGHT.
3.70' Anchor light.
3.705 Anchor Ught installation.
SAFETY EQUIPMENT; INSTALLATION
3.711 Marking.
3.712 De-icers.
3.713 Flare requirements.
8.714 Flare installation.
8.715 Safety belts.
EMERGENCY FLOTATION AND SIGNALING
EQUIPMENT
8.716 Rafts and lite preservers.
8.718-1 Life rafts and Ute preservers (CAA
3.717
8.718
rules which apply to I 3.7HI).
Installation.
Signallng device.
RADIO EQUIPMDfT; INSTALLATION
8.721 General.
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT; INSTALLATION
8.725 Accessor!es for multienglne air-
planes.
HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS
3.726 General.
8.727 Tests.
8.728 Accumulatore.
SUBPART G--{)PERATING LIMITATIONS AND
INFORMATION
8.735 General.
LIMITATIONS
8.737 Limitations.
Am SPEED
3.738 Alr speed.
3.739 Never exceed speed (V
ne
).
3.740 Maximum structural cruising speed
(V
no
)
3.741 Maneuvering speed (V
Il
).
3.742 Flaps-extended speed (VIe)'
3.743 Minimum control speed (V
mc
).
POWER PLANT
3.744 Power plant.
3.745 Take-off operation.
8.746 Maximum continuous operation.
8.747 Fuel octane rating.
AIRPLANE WEIGHT
8.748 Airplane weight.
MINIMUM J'LIGHT CREW
8.749 Minimum flIght crew.
TYPES OF OPERATION
8.7150 Types ot operation.
MARKINGS AND PLACARDS
8.755 Mark!ngs and placards.
INSTBUMl!lNT MARKING!!
8.756 Instrument mark!ngs.
8.757 Air-speed Indicator.
3.758 Magnetic direction indicator.
8.759 Power-plant Instruments.
3.760 011 quantity indicators.
8.761 Fuel quantity indicator.
CONTROL MARKINGS
8.762 General.
8.7fJ3 Aerodynam!c controls.
8.764 Power-plant fuel controls.
8.765 Accessory and aux1l1ary contrm..
A6a:4
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGUUTIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4039
MISCELLANEoUS
Sec.
3.766 Baggage compartments, 10.
cation, and special seat IOMlna
l!mltatlons.
8.767 Fuel, oU, and coolant filler openlngl.
3.768 Emergency exit placards.
3.769 Approved flight maneuvers,
8.770 Airplane category placard..
8.777
3.778
3.779
3.780
a.780-1
AIRPLANE FLIGHT MANUAL
Airplane Flight Manual.
Operating limitations.
Operating procedures.
Performance Information.
Calculated effects of temperatUre
and altitude variations (CAA pol-
Icies which apply to 3.780).
SUBPART H-IDENTIFICATION DATA
8.791 Name plate.
8.792 Airworthiness certlficate number.
AUTHORITY: 3.1 to 3.792 issued under
lee. 205 (a), 52 Stat. 984; 49 U. S. C.425 (a).
Interpret or apply sec. 601, 52 Stat. 1007; 49
U. S. C. 551.
SoURCE: 3.1 to 3.792 contained In
Amendment 03-0, Clvli Air Regulations, 11
F. R. 13368, except as noted following
affected. Redesignated at 13 F. R. 5486.
SUBPART A-AIRWORTHINESS
REQUIREMENTS
G;;;NERAL
3.1 Scope. An airplane which has
no features or characteristics rendering
it unsafe for the category for which it is
to be certificated is eligible for type and
airworthiness certification, if it compl1es
with all applicable provisions of this part,
or, in the event it does not so comply, if it
is shown to meet the same level of safety
as that provided for in this part.
3.2 Date of effectiveness. (a) Air-
planes certificated as a type on or after
November 13, 1945, shall comply either
wtth (1) the entire provisions of Part
4a of this chapter in effect immediately
prior to November 9, 1945, or (2) the
entire prOvisions prescribed in this part,
except that airplanes certificated under
(1) may incorporate provisions of (2)
when the Administrator finds the stand-
ard of safety to be equivalent to the par-
ticular and all related items of the latter.
(b) Airplanes certificated as a type on
or after January 1, 1947, shall comply
with the prOvisions contained in this
part. If the prototype is not fiown prior
to January I, 1947, and satisfactory evi-
dence is presented indicating that the
design work of the type was well ad-
vanced prior to November 13, 1945, and
the delay of completion of the airplane
was due to causes beyond the manufac-
turer's control, the Administrator may
certificate the airplane as a type under
the prOVisions of Part 4a of this chapter
which were in effect prior to November 9,
1945.
(c) Unless otherwise specified,
ance with an amendment to this part
shall be mandatory only for airplanes for
which application for a type certificate
has been received subsequent to the ef-
fective date of such amendment.
AIRPLANE CATEGORIES
3.6 Airplane categories. (a) In this
part airplanes are divided upon the basis
of their intended operation into the fol-
lowing categories for the purpose of cer-
tification.
(1) Narmal-Suff/.x tiN". Airplanes In
thti category are intended for nonacro-
batic, nonscheduled passenlier. and non-
.cheduled cargo operation.
(2) UUlity-Suff/.x "U". Airplanes In
this category are intended for normal Op-
erations and limited acrobatic maneuvers.
These airplanes are not suited for use In
snap or inverted maneuvers.
NOTE: The following interpretation of para-
graph (a) (2) was issued May 15, 1947, 12
F. R. 3434:
The phrase "limited acrobatic maneuvers"
as used In 3.6 is Interpreted to Include
steep turns, spins, stalls (except whip stalls),
lasy eights, and chandelles.
(3) Acrobatic-Suffix "A". Airplanes
in this category will have no specific re-
strictions as to type of maneuver per-
mitted unless the necessity therefor is
disclosed by the reqUired fiight tests.
(4) Restricted purpose-Suffix "R".
Airplanes in this category are intended
to be operated for restricted purposes not
logically encompassec:l by the foregoing
categories. The reqUirements of this
category shall consist of all of the pro-
visions for anyone of the foregoing cate-
gories which are not rendered inappli-
cable by the nature of the special purpose
involved, plus SUitable operating restric-
tions which the Administrator finds will
provide a level of safety eqUivalent to
that contemplated for the foregoing cate-
gories.
(b) An airplane may be certificated
under the requirements of a partic41ar
category, or In more than one category,
provided that all of the reqUirements of
such categories are met. Sections of this
part which apply to only one or more, but
not all, categories are identified in this
part by the appropriate suilixes, as indi-
cated above, added to the section num-
ber. All sections not identified by a suf-
fix are applicable to all categol'ies except
as otherwise specified.
NOTE: For rules governing the ellglbUlty of
airplanes certiticated under this part for use
In air carrier operations see Parts 40, 41, 42,
and 61 of this chapter.
AIRWORTHINESS CERTIFICATES
3.11 Classification. (a) Airworthi-
ness certificates are classified as follows:
(1) NC (standard) certificates. In or-
der to become eligible for an NC (stand-
ard) certificate, an airplane must be
shown to comply With the reqUirements
contained in this part for at least one
category, but not the restricted-purpose
category.
(2) NR ('f'estricted) certificates. In
order to become eligible for an NR (re-
stricted) certificate, an airplane must be
shown to comply with the requirements
of the restricted purpose category.
(3) NX (eXperimental) certificates.
An airplane will become eligible for an
NX (experimental) certificate when the
applicant presents satisfactory evidence
that the airplane is to be fiown for ex-
perimental purposes and the Adminis-
trator finds it may, with appropriate re-
strictions, be operated for that purpose
In a manner which does not endanger the
general public. Airplanes used In racing
and exhibition fiylng may be issued NX
(experimental) certificates under the
terms of this section. The applicant shall
iubmit sufficient data, such as photo-
graphs, to identify the airplane satisfac-
torily and, upon inspection of the alr-
plane, any pertinent information found
necessary by the Admlnist7;ator to safe-
guard the general publiC.
(b) An airplane manufactured. in ac-
cordance with a type certificate (see
3.15-3.19) and conforming with the
type design will become eligible for an
airworthiness certificate when, upon In-
spection of the airplane, the Adminis-
trator determines it so to conform and
that the airplane is in a condition for
safe operation. For each newly manu-
factured airplane this determination
shall include a fl.ight check by the ap-
plicant.
[Arndt. 03-C, 11 F. R. 133.63, as amended by
Amdt. 03-4, 13 F. R. 2965]
TYPE CERTIFICATES
3.15 Requirements for issuance. A
type certificate will be issued when the
fo!Iowing requirements of 3.16 to 3.19
are met.
3.16 Data required for NC and NIl
certification. The applicant for a type
certificate shall submit to the Adminis-
trator such descriptive data, test reports,
and computations as are necessary to
demonstrate that the airplane compliell
with the airworthiness requirements.
The descriptive data shall be known as
the type design and shall consist of draw-
ings and specifications disclosing the
configuration of the airplane and all de-
sign features covered In the airworthiness
requirements as well as suiliciE'nt infor-
mation on rlimensions, ma'teria1s, and
processes to define the strength of the
structure. The type design shall de-
scribe the airplane in sufficient detail to
permit the airworthiness of subsequent
airplanes of the same type to be deter-
mined by comparison with the type
design.
[Arndt. 03-0, 11 F. R. 13368, as amended by
Arndt. 03-4, 13 F. R. 2965]
3.17 Inspection and tests for NO
and NR certification. The authorized
representatives of the Administrator
shall have access to the airplane and may
witness or conduct such inspect!ons and
tests as are necessary to determine com_
pliance with the airworthiness requiloe-
ments.
[Arndt. OS-C, 11 F. R. 13368, a.a amended by
Amdt. 03-4, 13 F. R. 2965]
3.18 Inspection. Inspections and
tests shall include all those. found neces-
sary by the Administrator to insure that
the airplane conforms with the follow-
ing:
(a) AY materials and products are in
accordance with the specification given
in the type design.
(b) All parts of the airplane are con-
structed in accordance with the drawings
contained in the type design.
(c) All manufacturing processes, con-
struction, and assembly are such that
the design strength and safety contem-
plated by the type design will be realized
In service.
3.19 Fliuht t88t&. (Applicable to
all airplanes certificated as a type on or
after May 16, 1947,) After proof of
4040
CIVIL AIR REGUI.ATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A6a:5
compliance with the structural require-
ments contained in this part, and upon
completion of all necessary inspection
and testing on the ground, and proof of
the conformity of the the
type design, and upon receipt from the
applicant of a report of flight tests con-
ducted-by him, there shall be conducted
such official flight tests as the Admin-
istrator flnds necessary to determine
compliance with 3.61 through 3.780.
After the conclUSion of these flight tests
such additional flight t'ests shall be con-
ducted as the Administrator finds neces-
sary to ascertain whether there is rea-
sonable assurance that the airplane, its
components, and eqUipment are reliable
and function properly. The extent of
such additional flight tests shall depend
upon the complexity of the airplane, the
number and nature -of new design fea-
tures, and the record of previous tests
and experience for the particular air-
plane model, its components, and eqUip-
ment. If practicable, the fiight tests per-
formed for the p\lrpose of ascertaining
the reliability and proper functiOning
shall be conducted on the same airplane
which was used in flight tests to show
compliance with 3.61 through 3.780.
[Arndt. 03-1, 12 F. R. 1028, as amended by
Amdt. 03-2, 12 F. R. 2086]
CHANGES
3.23 Changes. Changes shall be
substantiated to demonstrate compliance
of the airplane with the appropriate air-
worthiness reqUirements in effect when
the particular airplane was certificated
as a type, unless the holder of the type
certificate chooses to show compliance
with the currently effective requirements
subject to the approval of the Adminis-
trator, or unless the Administrator finds
It necessary to require compliance with
current airworthiness reqUirements.
3.23-11 Changes of engines (CAA
policies which appZy to 3.2J). There
are currently available newly designed
engines of approximately the same siZe
and weight as previously designed en-
gines, but with considerable variations
In power. It is possible to interchange
these engines with little or no installa-
tion changes, and although minor
changes in engine weight may be in-
volved, it will still be practical to operate
the aircraft at the originally approved
gross weight. Under 3.185, the maneu-
vering load factor is not dependent upon
engine power, and under 3.184, the de-
sign air speeds can be independent of
engine power. Therefore, a change
which involves or permits a practical
power increase by exchange of engines
shall be approved by the Administrator:
Provided, That such exchange of engines
Is not accompanied by increase in the
gross weight of the aircraft or an in-
crease in placard speeds. Under these
conditions it will not be necessary to re-
strict the maximum continuous horse-
power by a placard because of the air-
plane speed limitations, since the latter
are indicated on the speed placards. Air-
craft alterations involving weight or
speed changes beyond those set forth
above will be approved by the Adminis-
trator only if the applicant shows com-
pliance with all of the applicable sec-
tions of Part 4a of this chapter, or all of
the applicable sections of Part 3, or relies
on the provisions of 3.2 by complying
with certain particular and related items
of the requirements under this part, and
certain of the reqUirements under Part
4a of this chapter, 1. e., the level of safety
for certain particular and related items
is equivalent to the reqUirements under
this part and the level of safety for the
remaining items is equivalent to the re-
qUirements under Part 4a of this chaptBr.
Under 3.23 it will be necessary to re-
quire such investigations of local struc-
ture, Weight and balance, power-plant
installations, and fiight tests as are nor-
mally involved in a change of engine type.
[12 F. R. 3434. Correction noted at 14
F. R. 36]
3.24 Minor changes. Minor changes
to certificated airplanes which obViously
do not impair the condition of the air-
plane for safe operation shall be ap-
proved by the authorized representatives
of the Administrator prior to the sub-
mittal to the Administrator of any re-
qUired revised drawings.
3.25 Major changes. A major change
Is any change not cover.ed by minor
changes as defined in 3.24.
3.26 SerVice experience changes.
When experience shows that any par-
ticular part or characteristic of an air-
plane is unsafe, the holder of the type
certificate for such airplane shall submit
for awroval of the Administrator the
design changes which are necessary to
correct the unsafe condition. After the
unsafe condition becomes known the Ad-
ministrator shall withhold the issuance
of airworthiness certificates for addi-
tional airplanes of the type involved
until he has approved the design changes
and untU the additional airplanes are
modifieq to include such changes. Upon
approval by the Administrator the de-
sign changes shall be considered a.s a.
part of the type design, and descriptive
data covering these changes shall be
made available by the holder of the type
certificate to all owners of airplanes
previously certificated under such type
certificate.
3.27 Application to earlier air-
worthiness reqUirements. 1n the case
of airplanes approved as a type under the
terms of earlier airworthiness require-
ments, the Administrator may require
that an airplane submitted for an
original airworthiness certificate comply
with such portions of the currently ef-
fective airworthiness reqUirements as
may be necessary for safety.
,APPROVAL OF MATERIALS, PARTS, PROCESSES,
AND ApPLIANCES
3.31 Specifications. (a) Materials,
parts, processes, and appliances shall be
approved upon a basis and in a manner
found necessary by the Administrator to
implement the pertinent provisions of
this subchapter. The Administrator
may adopt and publish such specifica-
tions as he finds necessary to admin-
ister this section, and shall incorporate
therein such portions of the aviation
industry, Federal, and military specifi-
cations respecting such materials, parts,
processes, and appliances as he finds
appropriate.
(b) Any material, part, process, or ap-
pliance shall be deemed to have met the
reqUirements for approval when it meets
the pertinent specifications adopted by
the Administrator, and the manufacturer
so certifies in a manner prescribed by the
Administrator.
[Amdt. 03-3, 12 F. R. 7898]
DEFINITIONS
3.41 Standard atmosphere. The
standard atmosphere shall be based upon
the following assmnptions:
(a) The air is a dry perfect gas.
(b) The temperature at sea level is
59' F.
(c) The pressure at sea level is 29.92
inches Hg.
(d) The temperature gradient from sea
level to the altitude at which the tem-
perature becomes -67' F. is -0.003566
F. per foot and zero there above.
(e) The desnity po at sea level under
the above conditions is 0.002378 lbs.

3.4<l Hot-day condition. See 3.583.
3.43 Airplane configuration. This
term refers to the pOSition of the various
elements affecting the aerodynamic
characteristics of the airplane, such as
landing gear and fiaps.
3.44 Weights. Reference
sections
Empty weight: The actual weight
used as a basis for determining
operating welghts_______________ 3.73
Maximum weight: The maximum
weight at which the airplane may
operate in accordance with the
airworthiness requlrements______ 8.74
Minimum weight: The minimum
weight at which compliance with
the airworthiness requirements Is
dernonstrated____________________ S.75
Maximum design weight: The max-
Imum weight used for the struc-
tural design of the alrplane_______ 8.181
Minimum design weight: The mini-
mum weight condition investi-
gated In the structural fiight load
conditions, not greater than the
minimum weight specified In
3.75 ___________________________ 8.181
Design landing weight: The weight
used In the structural investiga-
tion of the airplane for normal
landing conditions. Under the
provisions of 3.242, this weight
may be equal to or less than the
maximum design weighL_________ 8.242
Unit weights for design purposes:
Gasoline _________ 6 pounds per United
States gallon.
Lubricating oIL __ 7.5 pounds per United
States gallon.
Crew and pas- ___ 170 pounds per person.
sengers.
3.45 Power.
One horsepower: 3a,000 foot-pounds per
minute.
Take-off power: The take-off rating of the
engine established in accordance with Part
13, Aircraft Engine Airworthiness.
Maximum continuous power: The maxi-
mum continuous rating of the engine estab-
lished in accordance with Part 13, Aircraft
Engine Akworthlness.
3.46 Speeds.
V
t
True air speed of the airplane relative
to the undisturbed air.
AOa:6
CIVIL AIR .aEG1JLATIONS. Part 3 (CAR 3)
Saturday, July 16, 1949
In the following symbols having sub-
scripts, V denotes:
(a) "EqUivalent" all' speed for structural
design purposes equal to VtV pi Po'
(b) "True Indicated" or "calibrated" air
speed for performance and operating pur-
poses equal to Indicator reading corrected
for position and Instrument error .
Reference
sections
V'o stalling speed, in the land con-
figuration _______________________ 8.82
V
Bl
stalling speed In the configura-
tions specified for particular con-
ditions _________________________ 8.82
V., computed stalling speed at de-
sign landing weight with fiaps
fully defiected__________________ 8.190
Vx speed for best angle of climb.
V y speed for best rate of climb.
V me minimum control speed________ 3.111
V, design speed for filght load con-
ditions with flaps In landing
position _______________________ _
V Ie fiaps-extended speed __________ _
VI' design maneuvering speed ______ _
V c crUising speed ___________ _
Vd design dive speed ______________ _
V
ne
never-exceed speed ___________ _
V no maximum structural cruising
3. 190
3.742
3.184
3. 184
3.184
3.739
speed___________________________ 8.740
V
h
maximum speed In level flight at
maximum continuous power.
3.47 Structural terms.
Structure: Those portions of the airplane
the fallure of which would seriOusly en-
danger the safety of the airplane.
Design wing area, S: The area enclosed by
the wing outline (including ailerons, and
flaps In the retracted position, but Ignoring
fillets and fairings) on a surface containing
the wing chords. The outline is assumed to
elttend through the nacelles and fuselage to
the centerline of symmetry.
Aerodynamic coefficients: 0L, ON, OM' etc.,
used in this part, are non dimensional coeft!-
c1ents for the forces and moments acting on
an airfOil, and correspond to those adopted by
the United States National Advisory Com-
mittee for Aeronautics.
OL = airfoil lift coet!icient.
ON=alrfoll normal force coe1l!.clent (normal
to wing chord Hne).
ONA = airplane normal force coeniclent
(based on lift of complete airplane and de-
sign wing area).
C,I{=pitching moment coefficient.
Reference
Loads 3ectiom
Limit load: The maximum load
anticipated In service____________ 8.171
Ultimate load: The maximum load
which a part of structure must be
capable of supporting____________ 8.173
Factor of safety: The factor by
which the limit load must be
multiplied to establish the
mate load_______________________ 8.172
Load factor or acceleration factor, n: The
ratio of the force acting on a mass to the
weight of the mass. When the force In qUE!l!-
tion represents the net eltternal load acting
on the airplane in a given direction, n repre-
sents the acceleration In that direction In
terms of the gravitational constant.
Limit load factor: The load factor corre-
sponding to limit load.
Ultimate load factor: The load factor cor-
responding to ultimate load.
3.48 Susceptibility o! materials to
fire. Where necessary for the purpose
of determining compliance with any of
the definitions in this section. the Admin-
istrator shall prescribe the heat condi-
tions End testing procedures which any
No. 136--10
FEDERAL REGISTER
specific material or individual part must
meet.
(a) Fireproof. "Fireproof" material
means a material which will withstand
heat equally well or better than steel in
dimensions appropriate for the purpose
for' which it is to be used. When ap-
plied to material and parts used to con-
fine tires in designated fire zones "fire-
proof"' means that the material or part
Will perform this function under the
most severe conditions of fire and dura-
tion likely to occur in such zones.
(b) Fire-resistant. When applied to
sheet or structural members, "fire-
resistant" material shall mean a ma-
terial which will withstand heat equally
well or better than aluminum alloy in
dimensions appropriate for the purpose
for which it is to be used.. When applwd
to fluid-carrying lines, this term refers
to a line and fitting assembly which will
perform its intended protective func-
tions under the heat and ouier conditions
likely to occur at the particular location.
(c) Flame-resistant. ':.Flame-resist-
ant" material means material which will
not support combustion to the point of
propagating, beyond safe limits, a flame
after removal of the ignition source.
(d) Flash-resistant. "Flash-resistant"
material means material which will not
burn Violently when ignited.
(e) Inflammable. "Inflamm.able"
fluids or gases means those which will
ignite readily or explode.
3.48-1 Fire-resistant aircraft mate-
rial (CAA rules w1],ich apply to 3.48),
See 4b.448-3 of this chapter.
[13 F. R. 7723]
SUBPART B-FLIGHT REQUIREMENTS
GENERAL
3.61 Policy re proof o! compliance.
Compliance with the requirements sped-
fled in this subpart governing functional
characteristics shall be demonstrated by
suitable flight or other tests conducted
upon an airplane of the type, or by cal-
culations based upon the test data re-
ferred to above, provided that the results
so obtained are substantially equal in ac-
curacy to the results of direct testing.
Compliance with each requirement must
be provided at the critical combination
of airplane weight and center of gravity
position within the range of either for
which certification is desired. Such
compliance must be demonstrated by
systematic investigation of all probable
weight and center of gravity combina-
tions or must be reasonably inferable
from such as are investigated.
3.62 Flight test pilot. The applicant
shall provide a person holding an ap-
propriate pilot certificate to make the
flight tests, but a designated representa-
tive of the Administrator may pilot the
airplane insofar as that may be necessary
for the determination of compliance
with the airworthiness requirements.
3.63 Noncompliance with test re-
quirements. Official type tests will be
discontinued untll corrective measures
have been taken by the applicant when
either:
(a) The applicant's test pilot is unable
or unwilling to conduct any of the re-
quired flight tests i or
.ro41
(b) Items of noncompliance with re-
quirements are found which may render
additional test data meaningless or are
of such nature as to make further test-
ing unduly hazardous.
3.64 EmergenC1/ egress. Adequate
provisions shall be made for emergency
egress and use of parachutes by members
of the crew dUring the flight tests.
3.65 Report. The applicant shall
submit to the representative of the Ad-
ministrator a report covering all compu-
tations and tests reqUired in connection
with calibration of instruments used foe
test purposes and correction of test re-
sUlts to standard atmospheric conditions.
The representative of the Administrator
will conduct any flight tests which he
finds to be necessary in order to check
the calibration and correction report.
WEIGHT RANGE AND CEN'XER OF GIAVlry
3.71 Weight and balance. (a) There
shall be established, as a part of the type
inspection, ranges of weight and center
of gravity within which the airplane may
be safely operated.
(b) When low fuel adversely affects
balance or stability, the airplane shall be
so tested as to simulate the condition
existing when the amount of usable fuel
on board does not exceed 1 gallon for
every 12 maximum continuous horse-
power of the engine or engines installed.
3.72 Use of ballast. Removable
ballast may be used to enable airplane$
to comply with the flight requirements
in accordance with the following provi-
sions:
(a) The place or places for carryIng
ballast shall be properly designed. in-
stalled. and plainly marked as specified
in 3.768.
(b) The Airplane Flight ManUal shall
Include instructions regarding the proper
disposition of the removable ballast un-
der all loading conditions for which such
ballast is necessary, as specified. In
3.755-3.7'10.
3.73 Empty Weight. The empty
weight and corresponding center of
gravity location shall include all flxed
ballast, the unusable fuel supply (see
3.437), undrainable oil, full engine
coolant, and hydraulic fluid. The
weight and location of items of equip-
ment installed when the airplane is
weighed. shall be noted in the Airplane
Flight Manual.
3.74 Jlazimum weight. The max-
imum weight shall nm exceed any of the
following:
(a) The weight selected by the appli-
cant.
(b) The design weight for which the
structure has been proven.
(c) The maximum weight at which
compliance with all of the requirements
ipecified. is demonstrated, and shall not
be less than the sum of the weights of
the following:
(1) The empty weight as defined b)'
f 3.73.
(2) One gallon of usable fuel (see
3.437) for every seven maximum con-
tinuous horsepower for which the air-
plane Is certificated.
(3) The full oll capacity,
4042
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS , PART 3 (C.AR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A5a:7
(4) 170 pounds in all seats (normal
category) or 190 pounds in all seats
(utility and acrobatic category) unless
placarded otherwise.
3.75 Minimum weight. The min-
imum weight shall not exceed the sum of
the weights of the following:
(a) The empty weight as defined by
13.73.
(b) The minimum crew necessary to
operate the airplane (1'70 pounds for each
crew member).
(c) One gallon of wable fuel (see
I 3.437) for every 12 maximum con-
tinuous horsepower for which the air-
plane is certificated.
(d) Either 1 gallon of oil for each
25 gallons of fuel specified in (c) or 1
gallon of oil for each 75 maximum con-
tinuow horsepower for which the air-
plane is certificated, whichever is greater.
13.76 Center of gravity position.
If the center of gravity position under
any possible loading condition between
the maximum weight as specified in
3.74 and the mininUlm weight as
specified in 3.75 lies beyond (a) the
extremes selected by the Applicant, or
(b) the extremes for which the structure
has been proven. or (c) the extremes for
which compliance with all functional re-
quirements were demonstrated, loading
Instructions shall be provided in the Air-
plane Flight Manual as speCified in
t 3.777-3.780.
PERFORlIANCI REQUIREMENTS
GENERAL
3.81 Performance. The following
items of performance shall be deter-
mined and the airplane shall comply with
the corresponding requirements in
standard atmosphere and still air.
3.82 Definition of stalling speeds.
(a) V'
o
denotes the true indicated stall-
ing speed, if obtainable, or the minimum
steady flight speed at which the airplane
Is controllable, in miles per hour, with:
(1) Engines idling, throttles closed (OL
not more than sufficient power for zero
thrust) ,
(2) Propellers in position normally
used for take-off,
(3) Landing gear extended,
(4) Wing flaps in the landing position,
(5) Cowl flaps closed,
(6) Center of gravity in the most un-
favorable position within the allowable
landing range,
(7) The weight of the airplane equal
to the weight in connection with which
V'
o
is being used as a factor to determine
a required performance.
(b) V'l denotes the true indicated
stalling speed, if 'obtainable, otherwise
the calculated value in miles per hour,
with:
(1) Engines idling, throttles closed (or
not more than sufiicient power for zero
thrust) ,
(2) Propellers in position normally
used for take-off, the airplane in all
other respects (fiaps, landing gear, ett:.)
in the particular condition existing in
the particular test in connection with
which VOl is being used,
(3) The weight of the airplane equal
to the weight in connection with which
V.lis being used as a factor to determine
a required performance.
(c) These speeds shall be determined
by flight tests using the procedure out-
lined in 3.120.
3.82-1 "Zero lfLTUst" (CAA inter-
pretations which apply to 3.82). As
wed in 3.82 (a) (1) and (b) (1) the
term "zero thrust" contained in the
phrase "engines idling. throttles closed
(or not more than .sufficient power for
zero thrust)" \s interpreted to permit
"zero thrust at a speed not greater than
110 percent of the stalling speed."
(12 F. R. 3434. Correction noted at 14 F. R. 36]
3.83 SiaUing speed. V'
o
at maxi-
mum weight shall not exceed 70 miles per
hour for (1) single-engine airplanes and
(2) multi engine airplanes which do not
have the rate of climb with critical en-
gine inoperative specified in 3.85 (b).
3.83-1 Stalling speed of "not to ex-
ceed 70 miles per hour (CAA interpreta-
tions which apply to 3.83). In connec-
tion with any application to have an air-
craft certificated for airworthiness under
a combination of the requirements of th'ls
part and Part 4a of this chapter as au-
thorized by the provisions of 3.2, the
stalling speed of "not to exceed 70
miles per hour" established in 3.83 is
interpreted to apply only to airplanes
which comply with all of the following
sections of the Civil Air Regulations
which are construed by the Administra-
tor to cover "related items": 3.84
(Take-off); 3.86 (Landing); 3.120
(Stalling); 3.121 (Climbing stalls);
3.122 (Turning flight stalls); 3.123
(One-engine-inoperative stalls); 3.143
(Ground and water characteristics).
(12 F. R. 3434. Correction noted at 14 F. R. 36]
TAKE-OFF
3.84 Take-of!. (a) The distance re-
quired to take off and climb over a 50-foot
obstacle shall be determined under the
following conditions:
(1) Most unfavorable combination of
w i g h ~ and center of gravity location,
(2) Engines operating within the ap-
proved limitations,
(3) Cowl flaps in the position nor-
mally used for take-off.
(b) Upon obtaining a height of 50 feet
above the level take-off surface, the air-
plal1 shall have attained a speed of not
less than 1.3 Vel unless a lower speed of
not less than Vx pJus 5 can be shown to be
safe under all conditions, including tur-
bulence and complete engine failure.
(c) The distance so obtained, the type
of surface from which made, and the per-
tinent information with respect to the
cowl flap pOSition, the use of flight-path
control devices and landing gear retrac-
tion system shall be entered in the Air-
plane Flight Manual. The take-off shalj
be made in such a manner that its re-
production shall not require an excep-
tional degree of skill on the part of the
pilot or exceptionally favomble condi-
tions.
3.84-11 Take-of! performance (CAA
policies which apply to 3.84). To meet
the requirements of 3.84 pertaining to
certification of take-off performance and
to provide the Airplane Flight Manual
performance data required in 3.780 (a)
(3) and (4), it is necessary that a suitable
method be used for the purpose of deter-
mining these items during official type
tests. The Administrator will accept the
following procedure for this purpose:
The ground and climb distances may
be determined separately and the cor-
rected data placed together (as is now
done in the transport category). Thus,
for the simplest procedure, the airplane
shall be acceJerated on (or near) the
ground with gear extended to a speed not
less than 1.3 V'l' and a climb segment
to the 50-foot height point with gear ex-
tended shall be determined by saw-tooth
climb data. If it is desired to assume
retraction of the landing gear at an
earlier point, such point shall be assured
to occur not earlier than that which
would be used in normal take-otIs. The
acceleration to 1.3 VSI shall then be
measured as above, with gear retraction
being initiated at the selected speed. If
gear retraction is completed before
reaching 1.3 VB!, only one climb segment,
with gear retracted, need be determined.
If retraction is not completed during ac-
celeration to' 1.3 V," two climb segments
shall be determined; one with gear ex-
tended for the time period necessary to
complete retraction; the second with
gear retracted. Tl:.e acceleration seg-
ment shall be determined photographi-
cally, and a minimum of three trials shall
be made up to speeds equal to or greater
than 1.3 V'l'
NOTE: It is permiSSible for other methods to
be used in accomplishing these tests, pro-
viding that any method used is one which
the average pUot m::y be reasonably expected
to duplicate without use of unusual skill or
experience, and one which produces eqUiva-
lent accuracy. The operating procedure
which must be followed to achieve the meas-
ured performance shall in all cases be de-
scribed in the Airplane Fllght Manual. (CAA
camera eqUipment may be obtained on a
loan basis.)
(12 F. R. 3434. Correction noted at 14 F. R. 36]
CLIMB
3.85 Climb-Cal Normal climb con-
dition. The steady rate of climb at
sea level shall be at least 300 feet per
minute, and the steady angle of climb
at least 1: 12 for landplanes or 1: 15 for
seaplanes with:
(1) Not more than maximum con-
tinuous power on all engines,
(2) Landing gear fully retracted,
(3) Wing flaps in take-otI position,
(4) Ccwl flaps in the position used in
cooling tests specified in 3.581-3.596.
(b) Climb with inoperative engine.
All multiengine airplanes having a
stalling speed V'
o
greater than 70 miles
per hour or a maximum weight greater
than 6,000 pounds shall have a steady
rate of climb of at least 0.02 Ve
o
' in feet
per minute at an altitude of 5,000 feet
with the critical engine inoperative and:
(l) The remaining engines operating
at not more than maximum continuous
power,
(2) The inoperative propeller in the
minimum drag position,
(3) Landing gear retracted,
(4) Wing fiaps in the most favorable
position,
A6a:8
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGur ....... ;.TIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
FEOEIAl REGISTER
(5) Cowl flaps in the position used in
cooling tests specified in
(c) Balked landing conditiom. The
steady angle of climb at level shall
be at least 1 :30 with:
(H Take-off power on all engines,
(2) Landing gear extended,
(3) Wing flaps in landing position.
If rapid retraction is possible with
safety without loss of altitude and with-
out requiring sudden changes of angle
of attack or exceptional skill on the part
of the pilot, wing fiaps may be retracted.
3.85-1 Rate of climb (CAA policies
which apply to 3.85). To meet the
reqUirements of 3.85 it is necessary that
a sUitable method be employed for the
purpose of determining the rates of
climb. The Administrator will accept
the following procedure for this purpose:
This method of obtaining rates of
climb is through the derivation of a polar
curve obtained from a series of saw-
tooth climbs at various speeds. When
saw-tooth climbs are employed, a mini-
mwn of five different speeds is required.
However, demonstration climbs to prove
the article meets the minimum climb re-
quirement may be made at one given air
speed. In such cases, the minimum
number of climbs at one air speed shall be
not less than three. This may not he in-
terpreted to mean the best three of a
number of climbs. In the event addi-
tional climbs are made the average of
the total shall be the value to be ac-
cepted. It shall be permissible, however,
to discard any climbs which are ob-
viously In error due to such factors as
turbulent air.
[12 F. R. 3434. Correction noted at a p. R.
361
3.85-2 "Normal climb" and "COOling
test procedure for single-engine air-
planes" <CAA interpretations which ap-
ply to 3.85). In connection with any
application to have an aircraft certified
for airworthiness under a. combination
of the requirements of this part and
Part 4a of this chapter as authoriZd by
the prOVisions of 3.2, th items of "nor-
mal climb" ( 3.85 (a and "cooling test
procedure for single-engine airplanes"
( 3.585), shall be construed by the Ad-
ministrator as "related items."
(12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36J
3.85-3 "Rapid retraction" (CAA in-
terpretations which apply to 3.85). The
Administrator will consider retraction of
naps in 2 seconds or less as compliance
with the factor of "rapid retraction" as
that phrase is used in 3.85 (c).
[I!:! F: R. 3435. Correction noted at 14 P. R.
36]
3.85-4 Weight tor items of per-
formance and flight characteristics
(CAA interpretations which apply to
3.85). For mUltiengine airplanes in
which the des i g n landing weight
( 3.242) is less than the maximum
weight ( 3.74) for which certification
is desired, the weight for items of per-
formance and fiight characteristics shall
be construed by the Administrator as the
maximum weight defined in 3.74. Such
items of performance and flight charac-
teristies shall consist of balked landing
(climb) conditiOns ( 3.74), landing over
OO-foot obstacles ( 3.86), and all fllght
characteristics tests in the landing con-
figuratkm. The design weight covered
in 3.242 is intended for use for struc-
tural design purposes only.
[12 F. B. 343D. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
361
LANDING
3.86 Landing. (a) The horizontal
distance reqUired to land and to come to
a complete stop (to a. speed of approxi-
mately 3 mIles per hour for or
tIoat planes) from a point at a height of
50. feet above the landing surface shall
be detrmined as foJlows:
(1) Immediately prior to reaching the
50-foot altitude, a steady gliding ap-
proach shall have been maintained, with
a true indicated air speed of at least
1.3 V'o'
(2) The la.nding shall be made in such
a manlll' that there is no excessive ver-
tical acceleration, no tendency to bounce,
nose over, ground loop, porpoise, or
water loop, a.nd in such a manner that
its reproduction shall not require any
exceptional degree of skill on the part of
the pilot or exceptionally favorable con-
ditions.
(b) The distance so obtained, the type
of landing surface on which made and
the pertinent information with respect to
cowl tIa.p position, aoo the use of fllght
path control devices shall be entered in
the Airplane Flight Manual.
3.86-1 Landing distances (CAA pol-
icies which applll to 3.86). The Ad-
ministrator will not approve the use of
landing distances obtainable with re-
verse-thrust propellers in establishing
la!l.ding field lengths until sucl1 time as
suIDcient experience with their use is
available for proper consideration of all
related factors involved in the establish-
ment of aiIl>Ort lengths for
routine landings.
[12 F. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
FLIGlJ'l' CHARACTERISTICS
3.105 Requirements. The airplane
shall meet the reqUirements set forth in
3.10.6 to 3.124 at all normally expected
operating altitudes under all critical
loading conditions within the range of
center of gravity and, except as other-
wise specified, at the maximum weight
for which certification is sought.
C01'l'l'ROLLABILITY
3.10.6 General. The airplane shall
be satisfactorily controllable and maneu-
verable during take-off, climb, level
tIight, drive, and landing with or without
power. It shall be possible to make a
smooth transition from one flight condi-
tion to another, including turns and
slips, without reqUiring an exceptional
degree of skill, alertness, or strength on
the part of the pilot, and without danger
of exceeding the limit load factor under
all conditions of operation probable for
the type. including for multiengine air-
planes those conditions normally en-
countered in the event of sudden failure
of any engine. Compliance with
"strength of pilots" limits need not be
demonstrated by quantitative tests un-
less the Administrator finds the coool-
tion to be marginal. In the latter ease
they shall not exceed maximum values
found by the Administrator to he a.p-
propriate for the type but 1n no case
shall they exceed the following llmits:
Pitch RGiJ Yaw
--------1------
(a) For temporary application:
Stick ____________________ _
WheeJl_. __ ._. _____ ___
(b) For prolonged applJcatJolL_
1 Applied to rim.
00
75
10
30
60
6
150
150

3.1o.7-U Approved acrobatic maneu-
ven. It shall be demonstrated that the
approved acrobatic maneuvers can be
performed safely. Safe entry speeds
shall be determined for these maneuvers.
3.1G8-A Acrobatic maneuoers. It
shall be demonstrated that acrobatic
maneuvers can be performed readily and
safely. Safe entry speeds hllall be deter-
mined for these maneuvers.
3.109 Longitudinal control. The air-
plane shall be demonstrated to comply
with the following requirements:
(a' It shall be possible at all speeds
below V" to pitch the nose downward so
that the rate of increase in air speed is
satisfactory for prompt acceleration to
V" with:
(1) Maximum continuous power on all
engines. the airplane trimmed at Vz.
(2) Power oft', the airplane trimmed at
1.4 V,
l

(3) (i) Wing flaps and landing gear
extended and
(ii) Wing fiaps and landing gear re-
tracted.
(b) During each of the controllability
demonstrations outlined below it shall
not require a change in the trim oontrol
or the exertion of more control force than
can be readily applied with one hand for
a short period. Each maneuver shall be
perfmmed with the landing gear ex-
tended.
(1) With power oif, flaps retracted,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 V'
l
' the
naps shall be extended as rapidly as pos-
sible while maintaining the air speed at
approximately 40 percent above the in-
stantaneous val11 of the stalling speed.
(2) Same as subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph, except the fiaps shall be ln1-
tially extended and the airplane trimmed
at l.i V'l' then the flaps shall be re-
tracted as rapidly as possible.
(3) Same as subparagraph (2) of this
paragraph, except maximum continuous
power shall be used.
(4) With power off, the 1laps re-
tracted, and the airplane trimmed at
1.4 V.,. power shall be applied
quickly while the same air speed Is main-
tained.
(5) Same as subparagraph (4) of this
paragraph, except with the flaPS ex-
tended.
(6) With power of!, flaps. extended,
and the airplane trimmed at 1.4 VSl' air
speeds within the range of 1.1 V'
l
to
1.7 V'
l
or VI. whichever is the lesser, shall
be obtained and maintained.
(c) It shall be possible without the use
of exceptional piloting skill to maintain
essentially level flight when flap retrac-
4044
CIVIL AIR RmuLATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A6a:9
tlon from any position Is initiated dur-
ing steady horizontal fiight at 1.1 V'l
with simultaneous application of not
more than maxtmum continuous power.
3.110 Lateral and directional con-
trol. (a) It shall be possible with multi-
engine airplanes to execute IS-degree
banked both w.1th and against the
inoperative engine from steady climb at
1.4 V'I or V, for the condition with:
(1) Maximum continuous power on
the operating engines,
(2) Rearmost center of gravity,
(3) (1) Landing gear retracted and
(11) Landing gear extended.
(4) Wing flaps in most favorable climb
position,
(S) Maximum weight,
(6) The inoperative propeller in its
minimum drag condition.
(b) It shall be possible with multi-
engine airplanes, while holding the wings
Jevellaterally within 5 degrees, to execute
lIudden changes in heading in both di-
rections without dangerous character-
istics being encountered. This shaH be
demonstrated at 1.4 V'
I
or Vv up to head-
ing changes of 15 degrees, except tliat the
heading change at which the rudder
force corresponds to that specified in
3.106 need not be exceeded, with:
(1) The critical engine Inoperative,
(2) Maximum continuous power on
the operating engine(s),
(3) (i) Landing gear retracted and
(11) Landing gear extended,
(4) Wing fiaps in the most favorable
climb position,
(5) The inoperative propeller in its
minimum drag condition,
(6) The airplane center of gravity at
its rearll10st position.
3.111 Minimum con t r 0 I speed
(Vmc ). (a) A minimum speed shaH be
determined under the conditions speci-
fied below, such that when anyone
engine is suddenly made inoperative at
that speed, it shalJ be possible to recover
control of the .airplane, with the one
engine still inoperative, and to maintain
it in straight fiight at that speed, either
with zero yaw or, at the option of the ap-
plicant, with a bank not in excess of 5
degrees. Such speed shall not exceed
1.3 V.
p
with:
(1) Take-off or maximum available
power on all engines,
(2) Rearmost center of gravity,
(3) Flaps in take-off position,
(4) Landing gear retracted.
(b) In demonstrating this minimum
speed, the rudder force reqUired to main-
tain it shall not exceed forces specified in
3.106, nor shall it be necessary to
throttle the remaining engines. During
recovery the airplane shall not assume
any dangerous attitude, nor shall it re-
quire exceptional skill, strength, or
alertness on the part of the pilot to pre-
vent a change of heading in excess of
20 degrees before recovery is complete.
!'RIM
3.112 Requirements. (a) The means
used for trimming the airplane shaH be
such that, after being trimmed and with-
out fUrther pressure upon or movement
of either the primary control or its cor-
trim by the Dilot or
the. automatic pilot, the .airplane will
maintain:
(1) Lateral and directional trim In
level fiight at a speed of 0.9 V" or at V.,
if lower, with the landing gear and wing
fiaps retracted;
(2) Longitudinal trim under the fol-
lowing conditions:
(i) During a climb with maXimum
continuous power at a speed between V %
and 1.4 V,!,
(a) With landing gear retracted and
wing flaps retracted,
(b) With landing gear retracted and
wing fiaps In the take-off position.
(il) During a glide with power off at a
speed not in excess of l.4 V'
I
'
(a) With landing gear extended and
wing fiaps retracted,
(b) With landing gear ext;ended and
wing fiaps extended under the forward
center of gravity poSition with
the maximum authoriZed weight,
(c) With landing gear extended and
wing fiaps extended under the most for-
ward center of gravity position approved,
regardless bf weight.
(iii) During level fiight at any speed
from 0.9 V" to V .. or 1.4 V'
I
with landing
gear and wing fiaps retracted.
(b) In addition to the above, multi-
engine airplanes shall maintain longi-
tudinal and directional trim at a speed
between Vv and 1.4 V'I during climbing
fiight with the critical of two or more
engines inoperative, with:
(1) The other engineCs) operating at
maximum continuous power,
(2) The landing gear retracted,
(3) Wing fiaps retracted,
(4) Bank not in excess of 5 degrees.
3.112-1 Performance as alternate
test CCAA policies which apply to 3.112).
The following performance standards
will be used for the purpose of adminis-
tering 3.112 Ca) (2) (il):
(a) In the case of new airplane designs
which, due to their being equipped with
high lift devices, cannot meet the re-
quired trim at 1.4 times stall speed with
the landing gear and fiaps extended, the
Administrator, as authorized in 3.1, will
accept, as being of equivalent safety, per-
formance with the flaps extended based
on the following standards:
(1) The flap-down power-off stalling
speed shall not exceed 90 percent of the
fiap-retracted power-off stalling speed.
(2) The minimum trim speed with
power off, flaps and landing gear ex-
tended, under the forward center of grav-
ity position approved with the maximum
authorized weight, and under the most
forward center of gravity position ap-
proved, regardless of weight, shall not ex-
ceed 1.5 times the stall speed for that con-
figuration.
(3) The force required to maintain
steady fiight in this configuration at 1.4
V.
l
, shall not exceed 10 pounds.
(4) It shall be poSSible, trimmed in
this configuration, to execute a normal
power-off landing without exceeding a
stick force of 40 pounds.
(5) It shall be pOSSible, with the stick
free, to reduce the rate of descent to zero
and s1multaneously bring the airplane to
an attitude suitable for landing, using
not more than maximum continuous
power. During this demonstration the
fiaps-extended speed shall not be ex-
ceeded.
(b) When the standards set forth
above are ra(ied upon to determine com-
pliance with this section of the Civil Air
Regulations, the Administrator will ac-
cept as equivalent safety a demonstra-
tion of the following items at 1.5 times
sta11 speed instead of 1.4 times stall
speed: : Longitudinal control ( 3.109 (a)
and (b) (2), (5), and (6. SpeCific con-
ditions ( 3.115 (a.
[12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14 F. R. 36]
StABILITY
3.113 General. The airplane shall
be longitudinally, directionally, and lat-
erally stable in accordance with the fol-
lowing sections. Suitable stability and
control "feel" (static stability) shall be
required in other conditions normally en-
countered in service, if fiight tests show
such stability to be necessary for safe
operation.
3.114 Static longitudinal stability.
In the configurations outlined in 3.115
and with the airplane trimmed as indi-
cated, the characteristics of the elevator
control forces and the friction within the
control system shaIl be such that:
(a) A pull shall be required to obtain
and maintain speeds below the specified
trim speed and a push to obtain and
maintain speeds above the specified trim
speed. This shall be so at any speed
which can be obtained without excessive
('ontrol force, except that such speeds
need not be greater than the appropriate
maximum permissible speed or less than
the minimum speed in steady unstalled
flight.
(b) The air speed shall return to with-
in 10 percent of the original trim speed
when the control force Is slowly released
from any speed within the limits defined
In paragraph (a) of this section.
3.115 Specific conditions. In con-
ditions set forth in this section, within
the speeds specified, the stable slope of
stick force versus speed curve shall be
such that any SUbstantial change in
speed is clearly perceptible to the pilot
through a resulting change in stick force.
(a) Landing. The stick force curve
shall have a stable slope and the stick
force shaH not exceed 40 Ibs. at any speed
between 1.1 V'
I
and 1.B V'
l
with:
(1) Wing fiaps in the landing position,
(2) landing gear extended,
(3) Maximum weight,
(4) Throttles closed on all engines.
(5) The airplane trimmed at 1,4 V'I
with throttles closed.
(b) Climb. The stick force clU'Ve shall
have a stable slope at all speed.:l between
1.2 V'
I
and 1.6 V'
I
with:
(1) Wing flaps retracte'.
(2) Landing gear retracted,
(3) Maximum weight,
(4) 75 percent at mayimum continu-
ous power.
(5) The airplane trimmed at 1.4 V'I'
(c) CruiSing. (1) Between 1.3 V'
l
and
the maximum permissible speed, the
stick force curve shall have a stable slope
at all speeds obtainable with a stick
force not in excess of 40 pounds with:
A6a:lO
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4045
(1) Landing gear retracted,
Oil Wing flaps retracted,
(iii) Maximum weight,
(iv) 75 percent of maximum con-
tinuous power,
(v) The airplane trimmed for level
flight with 75 percent of the maximum
continuous power.
(2), Same as subparagraph (1) of this
paragraph, except that the landing gear
shall be extended and the level flight
trim speed need not be exceeded.
3.116 Instrumented s tic k force
measurements. Instrumented stick force
measurements need not be made when
changes in speed are clearly reflected by
changes in stick forces and the maxi-
mum forces obtained in the above condi-
tions are not excessive.
3.117 Dynamic longitudinal stability.
Any short period oscllIation occurring
between stalling speed and maximum
permissible speed shall be heavily damped
with the primary controls (1) free, and
(2) in a fixed position.
3.118 Directional and lateral sta-
bility-(a) Three-control airplanes.
(1) The static directional stability, as
shown by the tendency to recover from
a skid with n.:dder free, shall be positive
for all flap positions and symmetrical
power conditions, and for all speeds
from 1.2 V'
l
up to the maximum per-
missible speed.
(2) The static lateral stability as
shown by the tendency to raise the low
wing in a sideslip, for all flap positions
and symmetrical power conditions, shall:
(1) Be positive at the maximum per-
missible speed.
(il) Not be negative at a speed equal
to 1.2 V' p
(3) In straight steady sideslips (un-
accelerated forward slips), the aileron
and rudder control movements and
forces shall increase steadily, but not
necessarily in constant proportion, as the
angle of sideslip is increased; the rate of
increase of the movements and forces
shall lie between satisfactory limits up
to sideslip angles considered appropriate
to the operation of the type. At greater
angles, up to that at which the full rud-
der control is employed or a rudder pedal
force of 150 pounds Is obtained. the rud-
der pedal forces shall not reverse and in-
creased rudder deflection shall produce
increased angles of sideslip. Sufficient
b n ~ shall accompany sideslipping to in-
dicate adeqUately any departure from
steady unyawed flight.
(4) Any short-period oscillation occur-
ring between stalling speed and maxi-
mum permissible speed sha.ll be heavily
damped with the primary controls (1)
free and (i!) in a fixed position.
(b) Two-control (or simplified) air-
planes. (1) The directiollal stability
shall be shown to be adequate by demon-
strating that the airplane in all con-
figurations can be rapidly rolled from
a 45-degree bank to a 45-degree bank in
the opposite direction without exhibiting
dangerous skidding characteristics.
(2) Lateral stab1l1ty shall be shown to
be adequate by demonstrating that the
airplane will not assume a dangerous at-
titude or speed when all the controls are
abandoned for a period of 2 minutes.
This demonstration shall be made in
moderately smooth air with the airplane
trimmed for straight level flight at 0.9 VII
(or at Ve, if lower), flaps and gear re-
tracted, and with rearward center of
gravity loading.
(3) Any short period oscillation oc-
curring between the stalling speed and
the maximum permissible speed shall be
heav!ly damped with the primary con-
trols (!) free and (m in a fixed posi-
tion.
3.118-1 Test conditions (CAA poli-
cies which apply to 3.118 (a) (3. The
tests made necessary in 3.118 \a) (3)
may be conducted at speeds up to 1.2
times stall speed. flaps up and down, and
with power up to 75 percent of maximum
continuous rating.
[12 F. R. 8435. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
STALLS
3.120 Stalling demonstration. (a)
Stalls shall be demonstrated under two
conditions:
(1) With power of'!.
(2) With the power setting not less
than that required to show compliance
with 3.85 (a).
(b) In either condition it shrJI be pos-
sible, with flaps and landing gear in any
position, with center of gravity in the po-
sition least favorable for recovery, and
with appropriate airplane weights for:
(1) Airplanes having independently con-
trolled rolling and directional controls
to produce and to correct roll by unre-
vers.ed use of the rolling control and to
produce and to correct yaw by unreversed
use of the directional control during the
maneuvers described below up to the
time when the airplane pitches. (2) two-
control airplanes having either inter-
connected lateral and directional con-
trols or providing only one of these con-
trols to produce and to correct roll by
unreversed use of the rolling control
without producing excessive yaw during
the maneuvers described below up to the
time the airplane pitches.
(c) During the recovery portions of
the maneuver, pitch shall not exoeeed 30
degrees below level. there shall be no loss
of altitude in excess of 100 feet, and not
more than 15 degrees roll or yaw shall oc-
cur when controls are not used for 1 sec-
ond after pitch starts and are used there-
after only in a normal manner.
(d) Where clear and distinctive stall
warning is apparent to the pilot at a
speed at least ~ percent above the stall-
ing speed with flaps and landing gear
in any pOSition, both in straight and
turnIng flight. these requirements are
modified as follows:
(1) It shall be possible to prevent more
than 15 degrees roll or yaw by the normal
use of controls.
(2) Any loss of altitude in excess of
100 feet or any pitch in excess of 30 de-
grees below level shall be entered in the
Airplane Flight Manual.
(e) In demonstrating the qualities set
forth in paragraph (d) of this section, the
order of events shall be:
(1) With trim controls adjusted for
straight flight at a speed of approxi-
mately 1.4 V", reduce speed by means of
the elevator control until the speed is
steady at slightly above stalling speed,
then
(2) Pull elevator control back at a
rate such that the airplane speed reduc-
tion does not exceed 1 mile per hour
per second Wltil a stall is produced as
evidenced by an Wlcontrollable down-
ward pitching motion of the airplane. or
until the control reaches the stop. Nor-
mal use of the elevator control for re-
covery may be made after such pitching
motion is unmistakably developed.
3.120-1 Measuring loss oj altitude
during stall <CAA policies which ttppl1l to
3.120). To meet the requirements of
3.120. pertaining to the maximum loss
of altitude permitted during the stall, it
is necessary that a suitable method be
used for the purpose of measuring such
loss during the investigation of stalls.
Unless special features of an individual
type being investigated render the follow-
ing instructions inapplicable. the pro-
cedure described shall be used for this
purpose:
(a) The standard procedure for ap-
proaching a stall shall be used as speci-
fied in 3.120.
(b) The loss of altitude encountered
in the stall (power on or- power off) shall
be the distance as observed on the sensi-
tive altimeter testing installation from
the moment the airplane pitches to the
observed altitude reading at which hori-
zontal flight has been regained.
(c) Power used during the recovery
portions of a stall maneuver may be that
which. at the discretion of the inspector,
would be likely used by a pilot under nor-
mal operating conditions when executing
this particular maneuver. However. the
power used to regain level flight shall not
be applied until the airplane has regained
flying control at a speed of apprOximately
1.2 V,1 This Illeans that in the investi-
gation of stalls with the critical engine
inoperative. the power may be reduced on
the operating eng!ne(s) before reapply-
ing power on the operating engine or
engines for the purpose of regaining level
flight.
[12 F. R. 8435. Correction rated at 14 F. R.
86]
3.121 Climbing stalls. When stalled
from an excessive climb attitude It shall
be possible to recover from this maneu-
ver without exceeding the limiting air
speed or the allowable acceleration limit.
3.122 Turning flight stalls. When
stalled during a coordinated SO-degree
banked turn with 75 percent maximum
continuous power on all engines. flaps
and landing gear retracted. it shall be
possible to recover to normal level flight
without encountering excessive loss of
altitude, uncontrollable rolling charac-
teristics. or uncontrollable spinning ten-
dencies. These qualities shall be demon-
strated by performing the following man-
euver: After a. steady curvilinear level
coordinated flight condition in a 30-de-
gree bank is established and while main-
taining the 30-degree bank, the airplane
shall be stalled by steadily and progres-
sively tightening the turn with the ele-
vator control untU the airplane is stalled
or until the elevator has reached its stoP.
When the stall has fully developed, re-
4046
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
A6a:ll
covery to level fiight shall be made with
normal use of the controls.
3.123 One-engine-inoperative stalls.
Multiengine airplanes shall not display
any undue spinning tendency and shall
be safely recoverable without applying
power to the inoperative engine when
stalled with:
(a) The critical engine inoperative,
(b) Flaps and landing gear retracted,
(c) The remaining engines operating
at up to 75 percent of maximum con-
tinuous power, except that the power
need not be greater than that at which
the use of maximum control travel just
holds the wings laterally level in ap-
proaching the stall. The operating en-
gines may be throttled back during the
recovery from the stall.
SPINNING
3.124 Spinning - (a) Category N.
All airplanes of 4,000 pounds or less maxi-
mum weight shall recover from a one-
turn spin with controls assisted to the
extent necessary to overcome friction in
not more than one and one-half addi-
tional turns and without exceeding either
~ h limiting air speed or the limit positive
maneuvering load factor for the airplane.
It shall not be possible to obtain uncon-
trollable spins by means of any possible
use of the controls. Compliance with the
above shall be demonstrated at any per-
missible combination of weight ar..d
center of gravity positions obtainable
with all or part of the design useful load.
All airplanes in this category, regard-
less of weight, shall be placarded against
spins or demonstrated to be "character-
istically incapable of spinning" in which
case they shall be so designated. (See
paragraph (d) of this section,)
(b) Category U. Airplanes in this
category shall comply with either the
entire requirements of paragraph (a) of
this section or the entire reqUirements of
paragraph (c) of this section.
(c) Category A. All airplanes in this
category must be capable of spinning and
shall comply with the following:
(1) At any permissible combination of
Weight and center of gravity position
obtainable with all or part of the design
useful load, the airplane shall recover
from a six-turn spin with controls free
in not more than four additional turns
after releasing the controls. If the air-
plane will not recover as prescribed with
controls free but Wt'l1 recover with the
controls assisted to he extent necessary
to overcome friction, the airplane may
be certificated with the rearmost center
of gravity position 2 percent forward
of the position used in the test.
(2) It shall be possible to recover at
any pOint in the spinning described above
by using the controls in a normal manner
for that purpose in not more than one
and one-half additional turns, and with-
out exceeding either the limiting air
speed or the limit positive maneuvering
load factor for the airplane. It shall
not be possible to obtain uncontrollable
spins by means of any possible use of the
controls.
(d) Category NU. When it is desired
to designate an airplane as a type "char-
acteristically incapable of spinning," the
fiight tests to demonstrate this char-
acteristic shall also be conducted with:
(1) A maximum weight 5 percent in
excess of the weight for which approval
is desired,
(2) A center of gravity at least 3 per-
cent aft of the rearmost position for
which approval is desired,
(3) An available up-elevator travel"
degrees in excess of that to which the
elevator travel is to be limited by appro-
priate stops.
(4) An avallable rudder travel 7 de-
grees, in both directions, in excess of that
to which the rudder travel is to be nmited
by appropriate stops.
GROUND AND WATER CHARACTERISTICS
3.143 Requirements. All airplanes
shall comply with the requirements of
3.144 to 3.147.
3.144 Longitudinal stability and
control. There shalJ be no uncontrol-
lable tendency for landplanes to nose over
in any operating condition reasonably ex-
pected for the type, or when rebound
oCCUIS during landing or take-off.
Wheel brakes shall operate smoothly and
shall exhibit no undue tendency to in-
duce nosing over. Seaplanes shall ex-
hibit no dangerous or uncontrollable por-
poising at any speed at which the air-
plane is normally ope:;oated on the water.
3.145 Directional stability and con-
trol. (a) There shall be no uncon-
trollable looping tendency in 90-degree
cross winds up to a velocity equal to 0.2
V'
Q
at any speed at which the aircraft
may be expected to be operated upon the
ground or water.
(b) All landplanes shall be demon-
strated to be satisfactorlly controllable
with no exceptional degree of skill or
alertness on the part of the pilot in
power-off landings at normal landing
speed and during which brakes or en-
gine power are not used to maintain a
straight path.
(c) Means shall be provided for ade-
quate directional control during taxying.
3.146 Shock absorption. The shock-
absorbing mechanism shall not produce
damage to the structure when the air-
plane is taxied on the roughest ground
which it is reasonable to expect the air-
plane to encounter in normal operation.
3.147 Spray characteristics. For
seaplanes, spray dUring taxying, take-off,
and landing shall at no time dangerously
obscure the vision of the pilots nor pro-
duce damage to the propeller or other
parts of the airplane.
FLUTTER AND VIBRATION
3.159 Flutter and vibration. All
parts of the airplane shall be demon-
strated to be' free from flutter and exces-
sive Vibration under all speed and power
conditions appropriate to the operation
of the airplane up to at least the mini-
mum value permitted for Vd in 3.184.
There shall also be no buffeting condi-
tion in any normal flight condition se-
vere enough to interfere with the satis-
factory control of the airplane or to cause
excessive fatigue to the crew or result in
structural damage. However, buffeting
as stall Warning is considered desirable
and discouragement of this type of buf-
feting is not intended.
SUBPART C--8TRENGTH REQUIREMENTS
GENERAL
3.171 Loads. (a) Strength require-
ments are specified in terms of lImit and
Ultimate loads. Limit loads are the
maximum loads antiCipated in service.
Ultimate loads are equal to the limit
loads multiplied by the factor of safety.
Unless otherwise described, loads speci-
fied are limit loads.
(b) Unless otherwise provided, the
specified air, ground, and water loads
shall be placed in equilibrium with
inertia forces, considering all items of
mass in the airplane. All such loads
shall be distributed in a manner con-
servatively approximating or closely
representing actual conditions. If de-
fiections under load would change sig-
nificantly the distribution of external or
internal loads, such redistribution shall
be taken into account.
3.172 Factor of safety. The fac-
tor of safety shall be 1.5 unless otherwise
specified.
3.173 strength and deformations.
The structure shall be capable of sup-
porting limit loads without suffering
detrimental permanent deformations.
At all loads up to limit loads, the de-
formation shall be such as not to inter-
fere with safe operation of the airplane.
The structure shall be capable of sup-
porting ultimate loads without failure
for at least 3 seconds, except that when
proof of strength is demonstrated by
dynamic tests simulating actual condi-
tions of load application, the 3-second
limit does not apply.
3.173-1 Dynamic tests (CAA poli-
cies which apply to 3.173). (a) Sec-
tion 3.173 permits dynamiC testing in lieu
of stress analysis or static testing in the
proof of compliance of the structure with
strength and deformation requirements.
In demonstrating, by dynamic tests,
proof of strength of landing gears for
the stipulated landing conditions con-
tained in 3.245, 3.246, and 3.247, it is
necessary to employ a procedure which
will not result in the accepting of landing
gears weaker than those qualified for
acceptance ander present procedures,
1. e., stress analysiS or static tes1l\ng.
(b) The Administrator will accept, as
an adequate procedure for this purpose,
the following dynamic tests:
The structure shall be dropped a mini-
mum of 10 times from the limit. drop
height, and at least one time from the
ultimate drop height, for each baSic de-
sign condition for which proof of
strength is being made by drop tests.
(c) With regard to the extent to which
the structure can be proved by dynamic
tests, such dynamic tests shall be ac-
cepted as proof of strength for only those
elements of the structure for which it
can be shown that the critical limit and
ultimate loads have been reproduced.
[12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3.174- Proof of structure. Proof of
compliance of the structure with the
strength and deformation requirements
of 3.173 shall be made for all critical
loading conditions. Proof of compliance
by means of structural analysis will be
A6a:12
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS. PART 3 (CAR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4047
accepted only when the structure con-
forms with types for which experience
has shown such methods to be reliable.
In all other cases substantiating load
tests are required. In all cases certain
portions of the structure must be sub-
jected to tests as specified in Subpart D.
FLIGHT LoADS
3.181 General. Flight load re-
quirements shall be complied with at
critical altitudes within the range in
which the airplane may be expected to
operate and at all wejghts between the
minimum design weight and the maxi-
mum design weight, with any practicable
distribution of disposable load within
prescribed operating limitations stated
in 3.777-3.780.
3.182 Definition of flight load fac-
tor. The fiight load factors specified
represent the acceleration component
(in terms of the gravitatIonal constant
g) normal to the assumed longItudinal
axis of the airplane, and equal in magni-
tude and OPPOSite in direction to the air-
plane Inertia load factor at the center
of graVity.
SYMMErRICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONS (FLAPS
RETRACTED)
3.183 General. The strength re-
quirements shall be met at all combina-
tions of air speed and load factor on and
within the boundaries of a pertinent V-n
diagram. constructed similarly to the one
shown in Figure 3-1, which represents
the envelope of the fiight loading condi-
tions speCified by the maneuvering and
gust criteria of 3.185 and 3.187. This
diagram will also be used in determIning
the airplane structural operating limi-
tations as specifiet'. in Subpart G.
3.184 Design air speeds. The de-
sign air speeds shall be chosen by the
deSigner except that they shall not be
less than the following values:
Vc (design cruising speed)
=38 yW IS (NU)
=42 yW/S (A)
except that for values of W /S greater
than 20, the above numerical multiply-
ing factors shall be decreased linearly
with W/S to a value of 33 at W/S=100:
And further provided, That the required
minimum value need be no greatel' than
0.9 V" actually obtained at sea level.
va (design dive speed)
=1.40 Vc min (N)
,!!;'1.50 Vc min (U)
Vc min (A)
except that for values of W/S greater
than 20, the above numerical multiply-
ing factors shall be decreased I1nearly
with W/S to a value of 1.35 at W/S=100.
(Vo min is the required minimum value of
design cruising speed speCified above.)
V p (design maneuvering speed)
=V, yn where:
V1=a computed stall!ng speed with
flaps tully retracted at the de-
sign weight, normally based
on the maximum airplane
normal force coef!lclent, C
HA

n=I1mlt maneuverlni load factor
used in design,
except that the value of VI> need not ex-
ceed the value of Vc used in design.
c
A
+ MANEUVER
c:
/'
...".",- -
. ""...---.
.
--"
-"
- 1_ - - - LIMIT MANEUVER ENVELOPES
-. -. - LI M IT GUST ENVELOPE
---LIMIT COMBINED ENVELOPE
--.. --
* NOTE
POINT G NEED NOT BE INVESTIGATED
WHEN SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITION
SPECIFIED IN 3.194 IS INVESTIGATED.
FIG. 3-1-(V-n) DIAGRAM (FLIGHT ENVELOPE)
3.185 Maneuvering envelope. The
airplane shall be assumed to be subjected
to symmetrical maneuvers resulting in
the following limit load factors, except
where limited by maximum (static) 11ft
coefficients:
(a) The positive maneuvering load
factor specIfied in 3.186 at all speeds
up to Vd,
(b) The negative maneuvering load
factor specified in 3.186 at speed Vc;
and factors varying linearly with speed
from the specified value at Vc to 0.0 at
VII for the N category and -1.0 at Vd for
the A and U categories.
3.186 Maneuvering load factors. (a)
The positive I1mit maneuvering load fac-
tors shall not be less than the following
values (see Fig. :
n=21+ 24,000 ______________ Category N
. W+ 10,000
except that n need not be greater than
8.8 and shall not be less than 2.5. For
airplanes certificated as characteristically
Incapable of spinning, n need not ex-
ceed 3.5.
n=4.4 _________________________ Category U
n=6.0 _________________________ Category A
(b) The negative limit maneuvering
load factors shall not be less than -0.4
c: 7
times the positive load factor for the N
and U categories, and shall not be less
than -0.5 times the positive load factor
for the A category.
(c) Lower values of maneuvering load
factor may be employed only if it be
proven that the airplane embodies fea-
tures of design which make it impossible
to exceed such values in fiight. (See also
3.106.)
3.186-1 Use of reduced maneuver-
ing load factors (CAA policies which ap-
ply to 3.186). In connection with any
application to have an aircraft certified
for airworthiness under a combination of
the requirements of this part and Part
4a of this chapter as authorized by the
provisions of 3.2, reduced maneuvering
load factors may be used, provided it is
shown that the basic fiight envelope
for the airplane meets the requirements
of the applicable provisions of this part.
and that the related operating limi-
tations found in Subpart G are complied
with. The actual analysis may be done
on the basis of the requirements con-
tained in Part 4a of this chapter. These
requirements specify wing load factors.
The net load factor for each condition, n.,
shOuld be determined from the balanCing
computations. This net load factor shall

o
II--" 6.0 ACROBATIC
li!
0

>..J
tc.!)
(/)z
0-
0..0:::
W
..... >

-z
..J<
c:"2
6
5
n4.4UTILITY
4 ;J.O..-.
! n. W+IO,OOO L
L 21+ ,4.900 NORMA
NORMAL (CHARACTERISTICALLY
2 INCAPABLE OF SPINNING 1
, .. , " .. J
1
GREATER THAN
110,000 LBS .
0
o
NOTI.
10Poo 20POO 30,000 401)00
W- DESIGN WEIGHT (lBS)
LIMIT NEGATIVE MANEUVERING LOAD FACTORS SHALL B!
OBTAINED BY MULTIPLYING THE POSITIVE FACTOR VALUES
BY FOR NORMAL AND UTILITY CATEGORIES AND BY .5
fOR THE ACROBATIC CATEGORY.
FIG. 3-2-L1MIT MANEUVERING LOAD FACTORS
4048
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, pART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
be equal or greater than the airplane
load factor as determined from the Part
3 ftight envelope. This analysis pro-
cedure may also be used for airplanes
certificated entirely under this part.
[12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14
F. R. 36]
3.187 Gust envelope. The airplane
shall be assumed to encounter symmetri-
cal vertical gusts as specified below while
in level ftight and the resulting loads
shall be considered limit loads:
(a) Positive (up) and negative (down)
gusts of 30 feet per second nominal in-
tensity at all speeds up to Vc,
(b) Positive and negative 15 feet per
second gusts at Vd. Gust load factors
shall be assumed to vary linearly between
Vc and Vd.
3.188 Gust load factors. In ap-
plying the gust requirements, the gust
load. factors shall be computed by the
following formula:
KUVm
,,=1+
575
(W/S)
where:
-1.33- ,,(for W/S> 16 P,S, f.)
U=nomlnal gust velocity, f. p, s.
(Note that the "effective sharp-
edged gust" equals KU.)
V=airplane speed, m. p. h.
m=slope of lift curve, C
L
per ra-
dian, corrected for aspect ratio.
W /S=wlng loading, p. s, 1.
3,188-1 "Slope of lift curve" <CAA
interpretations which apply to 3.188).
For purposes of gust load computations
as required in 3,188 the slope of the lift
curve r,lay be assumed equal to that of
the wing alone.
[12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3,189 Airplane equilibrium. In de-
termining the wing loads and linear
inertia loads corresponding to any of the
above specified ftight conditions, the ap-
propriate balancing horizontal tail load
(see 3.215) shall be taken into account
in a rational or conservative manner.
Incremental horizontal tail loads due
to maneuvering and gusts (see 3,216
and 3,217) shall be reacted by angular
inertia of the complete airplane in a ra-
tional or conservative manner.
FLAPS EXTENDED FLIGHT CONDITIONS
3.190 Flaps extended jiight condi-
tions. (a) When ftaps or similar high lift
devices intended for use at the relatively
low air speeds of approach, landing, and
take-off are installed, the airplane shall
be assumed to be subjected to sym-
metrical maneuvers and gusts with the
ftaps fully deftected at the design ftap
speed V/ resulting in limit load factors
within the range determined by the fol-
lowing conditions:
(1) Maneuvering, to a positive limit
load factor of 2.0.
(2) Positive and negative 15-feet-per-
second gusts acting normal to the ftight
path in level ftight. The gust load fac-
tors shall be computed by the formula of
3.188.
V/ shall be assumed not less than 1.4
Vs or 1.8 V./, whichever is greater, where:
r, computed stalling speed with flaps
fully retracted at the design weight
V,/=the computed stalling speed With flaps
fully extended at the design weight
except that when an automatic ftap load
limiting device is employed, the airplane
may be designed for critical combina-
tions of air speed and ftap position per-
mitted by the device. (See also 3.338,)
(b) In designing the ftaps and support-
ing structure, slipstream effects shall be
taken into account as speCified in
3.223.
NOTE: In determining the external loads
on the airplane as a whole, the thrust, slip-
stream, and pitching acceleration may be
assumed equal to zero.
UNSYMMETRICAL FLIGHT CONDITIONS
3.191 Unsymmetrical flight condi-
tions. The airplane shall be assumed to
be subjected to rolling and yawing ma-
neuvers as described in the following
conditions. Unbalanced aerodynamic
moments about the center of gravity
shall be reacted in a rational or conserv-
ative manner considering the principal
masses furnishing the reacting inertia
forces.
(a) Rolling conditions. The airplane
shall be designed for (1) unsymmetrical
wing loads appropriate to the category,
and (2) the loads resulting from the
aileron deftections and speeds speCified
in .3..222, in combination with an air-
plane load factor of at least two-thirds
of the positive maneuvering factor used
in the design of the airplane. Only the
wing and wing bracing need be investi-
gated for this condition,
NOTE: These conditions may be covered as
noted below:
(a) Roll!ng accelerations may be obtained
by modifying the symmetrical flight condi-
tions shown in Figure 3-1 as follows:
(1) Acrobatic category, In conditions A
and F assume 100 percent of the wing air
load acting on one side of the plane of
symmetry and 60 percent on the other.
(2) Norma! and utility categories. In con-
dition A. assume 100 percent of the wing air
load acting on one side of the airplane and
70 percent on the other. For alrp1anes over
1,000 pounds design weight, the latter per-
centage may be increased linearly with weight
up to 80 percent at 25,000 pounds.
(b) The effect of aileron displacement on
wing torsion may be accounted for by add-
ing the fol1owlng increment to the basic air-
foil moment coefficient over the aileron por-
tion of the span in the critical condition as
determined by the note under 3.222:
L\'M= - .
01
0
where:
L\,m=moment coefficient Increment
5 = down aileron deflection In de-
grees in critical condition
(b) Yawing conditions. The airplane
shall be designed for the yawing loads
resulting from the vertical surface loads
speCified in 3,219 to 3,221.
3.191-1 Aileron rolling conditions
(CAA policies which apply to 3.191 (a.
In determining whether airplanes of
small to medium size and speed comply
with 3.191 (a), the Administrator will
accept the following simplified pro-
cedure:
(a) Steady roll. Determine the Cn
value, corresponding to two-thirds of the
sYmmetrical maneuvering load factor.
The Cn distribution OVer the span may
A6a:13
be assumed the same as that for the sym-
metrical flight conditions. Modify the
wing moment coeffiCient over the aileron
portions of the span, as described in the
"note" under 3.191 (a), corresponding
to the required aileron deftections. The
wing may be critical in torsion on the
up as well as the down aileron side,
depending upon airfoil section, elastic
axis location, aileron differential, etc.
(For the up aileron, the moment coef-
ficient increment will be positive,)
(b) Maximum angular acceleration.
This condition need be investigated only
for wings carrying large mass items out-
board. In such cases instantaneous
aileron deftection (zero rolling velocity)
may be assumed and the local value of
Cn and em over the aileron portions of
the span modified accordingly to obtain
the spanwise airload distribution. The
average Cn of the entire wing should
correspond to two-thirds of the sym-
metrical maneuvering load factor. The
resulting rolling moment shOuld be re-
sisted by the rolling inertia of the entire
airplane.
[12 F. R. 3435. Correction noted at 14
F. R. 36]
SUPPLEMENTARY CONDITIONS
3,194 Special condition for rear lift
truss. When a rear lift truss is em-
ployed, it shall be designed for conditions
of reversed airftow at a design speed of:
V=10VW/S+1O (m.p.h.)
NOTE: It may be assumed that the value
of C
L
is equal to -0.8 and the chordwise
distribution is triangular between a peak at
the trailing edge and zero at the leading edge.
3.195 Engine torque effects. (a) En-
gine mounts and their supporting struc-
tures shall be designed for engine torque
effects combined with certain basic ftight
conditions as described in subparagraphs
(1) and (2) of this paragraph, Engine
torque may be neglected in the other
ftight conditions.
(1) 'The limit torque corresponding to
take-off power and propeller speed act-
ing simultaneously with 75 percent of
the limit loads from ftight condition A.
(See Flg. 3-1.)
(2) The limit torque corresponding to
maximum continuous power and propel-
ler speed, acting simultaneously with
the limit loads from ftight condition A.
(See Fig. 3-1.)
(b) The limit torque shall be obtained
by multiplying the mean torque by a fac-
tor of 1.33 in the case of engines having 5
or more cylinders. For 4-, 3-, and 2-cyl-
inder engines, the factors shall be 2, 3,
and 4, respectively.
3.196 Side load on engine mount.
The limit load factor in a lateral direc-
tion for this condition shall be at least
equal to one-third of the limit load factor
for flight condition A (see Fig. 3-1) ex-
cept that it shall not be less than 1.33.
Engine mounts and their supporting
structure shall be designed for this con-
dition which may be assumed independ-
ent of other ftight conditions.
CONTROL SURFACE LoADS
3,211 General. The control sur-
face loads specifted in the following sec-
tions shall be assumed to occur in the
A6a:14
Saturday. July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (ClIR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4049
symmetrical and unsymmetrical flight
conditions as described in 3.189-3.191.
See Figures 3-3 to 3-10 for acceptable
values of control surface loadings which
are considered as conforming to the fol-
lowinz detailed ratIOnal requirements.
3.212 Pilot effort. In the control
surface loading conditions described, the
airloads on the movable surfaces and
the corresponding deflections need not
exceed those which could be obtained
in flight by employing the maximum
pilot control forces specified in Figure
3-11. In applying this criterion, proper
consideration shall be given to the effects
of control system boost and servo mecha-
nisms, tabs, and automatic pilot systems
in assisting the pilot.
; 3.212-1 Automc.tic pi lot systems
(CAA policies which apply to 3.212).
The Administrator will accept the fol-
lowing procedure as giving proper con-
sideration of automatic pilot systems in
assisting the pilot under 3.212: The
autopilot effort need not be added to
human pilot effort but the autopilot
effort shall be used for design if it alone
can produce greater control surface loads
than the human pilot.
[12 F. R. 3436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36J
3.213 Tnm tab effects. The effects
of trim tabs on the control surface
design conditions need be taken into
account only in cases where the surface
loads are limited on the basis of maxi-
mum pilot effort. In such cases the tabs
shalJ be considered to be deflected in the
direction which would assist the pilot
and the deflection shall correspond to
the maximum expected degree of "out
of trim" at the speed for the condition
under consideration.
HORIZONTAL TAIL SUl!FACES
3.214 Horizontal tail surfaces. The
horizontal tail surfaces shall be designed
for the conditions set forth In 3.215-
3.218.
3.215 Balancing loads. A hori-
zontal tail balancing load is deflned as
that necessary to maintain the airplane
in equilibrium in a specified flight con-
dition with zero pitching acceleration.
The horizontal tail surfaces shall be de-
signed for the balancing loads occurring
at any point on the limit maneuvering
envelope, Figure 3-1, and in the flap
conditions. (See 3.190'>
NOTE: The distribution of Figure 3-7 may
be used.
3.216 Maneuvering loads. (al At
maneuvering speed VI> assume a sudden
defle.ction of the elevator control to
the maximum upward deflection as
limited by the control stops or pilot ef-
fort, whichever is critical.
NOTE: The average loading of Figure 3-3
and the distribution of Figure 3-8 may be
used. In determining the resultant normal
force coetl'lcient for the tall under these con-
ditions, It will be jJrmlssible to assume that
the angle of attack of the stabilizer with
respect to the resultant direction of air
!low Is equal to that Which occurs when the
airplane is in steady unaccelera ted !light at a
flight equal to VI>' The maximum
elevator de!lection can then be determined
from the above criteria and tall normal
No. 136--11
Acceptable values of limit average maneu-
vering control surface loadings can be ob-
tained from Figure 3-3 (b) as follows:
Horizontal Tail Sur/ace!
(1) Condition 3.216 (a):
Obtain iii as function of W / S and surface
deflection;
Use Curve C for defiection 10
0
or less;
Use Curve B for deflection 20
0
;
Use Curve A for defiection 30
0
or more;
(Interpolate for other deflections);
Use distribution of Figure 3-8.
(2) Condition 3.21(3 (b):
Obtain w from Curve B. Use distrll:utlon
of Figure 3-8.
Vertical Tail sur/aces
(3) Condition 3.219 (a):
Obtain was function of W /S and surface
deflection in same manner as outllned
In (1) above, use distribution of Fig-
ure 3-8;
(4) Condition 3.219 (b):
Obtain 14 from Curve C, use distribution of
Fi&llre 3-7;
(5) Condlti6n 3.219 (c):
Obtain w from Curve A, use distribution
of Figure 3-9. (Note that condition
3.220 generally Will be more critical
than this condition.)
Ailerons
(6) In lieu of conditions 3.222 (b) :
Obtain w from Curve B, acting In both up
and down directions.
Use distribution of Figure 3-10.
FIG. 3.3(a)-L1MIT AVERAGE MANEUVERING CONTROL SURFACE
LOADINGS
LIMIT AVERAGE MANEUVERING LOADING:
ii K .. (PSF) WHERE
n IS THE POSITIVE LIMIT MANEWERING LOAD
FAc-TOR USED IN DESIGN.
NOTE:
.. SHALt NoT 8E LESS THAN
12 PSF IN ANY CASE.
o 10 15
W
5 (PSF)
FIG. 3-3(b)-UMIT AVERAGE MANEUVERING CONTROL SURFACE
LOADING
2:
I.O'!--.,...--t-+-----t.-..... --_.J..-..,....-

.I!:2

(!) ,
zZ

::> 0 .&!-____ +-____ -/
IIJ
Z
'"
:IE
I-

;:j
FIG.
I 2
.1 .2 .3 .4 '-.&
1. OVERALL LENGTH OF AIRPLANE (ill
V OESIGN SPEED (MPH)
3,4 - MANEUVERING TAIL LOAD INCREMENT (UP OR DOWN)
......
li..
CJ)
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is

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..J

CJ)
::>

-p

o
o
w
(..!)
t
I. :
, J
; i
Ii
rn.
10 15

S
3.5to)-DOWN GUST LOADING ON HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFACE

0.
C)
Z
o

o
..J
1-
ooF-
(!)
0..
;:)
W
(!)

a::
w

5
W 10
5 a(PSF)
20 15
FIG. 3-5(b) - UP GUST LOADING ON HORIZONTAL TAIL SURFACE
w
(!)

a::
w

I
-------
V!.!J.2S!.
lao
-
!.!2

.!!2
100
ao
l._.____'' __
NOTE: THESE CURVES ARE
FOR JlSPECT RATIO R 05;FO
OTHEH ASPECT RATIOS
MUL{PLY LOADINGS
BY . .2lL-
::J
I 1 (R+21
'T L I I =)
20 40 60 80 100 I 0 .. -

W MAXIMUM WEIGHT
Sv AREA OF VERTiCAL TAIL SURFACE
FIG. 3-6 -GUST LOADING ON VERTICAL TAIL SURFACE
I (ACTING IN A

_ /DIRECTIDN OPPOSITE
:!I. TO THE STABILIZER
!::=== c ---'---l ., LOAD.)
-E 39-'
NOTES'
(0) IN BALANCING CONDITIONS 03.2211
P 40% OF NET BALANCING LOAD
(FLAPS RETRACTED)
PO (FLAPS DEFLECTED.
U,l IN CONDITION 03.2221 (b)
po 20 % OF NET TAIL LOAD
FIG. 3-7 TAIL SURFACE
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
FIG. 3-9 TAIL SURFACE
LOAD DISTRIBUTION

.
i w:' ,.
..
LOAD DISTRIBUTION
f

L ___ __
FIG. 3-10 AILERON
LOAD DISTRIBUTION

CJ1
Q
o
H
c:::


!:d

:Ill! 8
C H
r- 0
:l:fj5
..
z
c
=8

s;: 0
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z
en ()I
r;
III
..
.....
OJ
A6a: 16
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGUI.A.TIONS, PART 3 (GAR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4051
force coefllclent can be obtained from the
data given In NACA Report No. 688, "Aero-
dynamic Characteristics of Horizontal TaU
Surfaces," or other appllcable NACA reports.
(b) Same as case (a) except that the
elevator defiection is downward.
NOTE: The average loading of Figure 3-3
and the distribution of Figure 3-8 may be
used.
(c) At all speeds above Vp the hori-
zontal tail shall be designed for the
maneuvering loads resulting from a sud-
den upward deflection of the elevator,
foHowed by a downward defiection ot
the elevator such that the following
combinations of normal acceleration and
angular acceleration are obtained:
Airplane
Condition
normal AngulRr acreleration
accelera radian/sec)
tion n
Down load
45
I. 0 +v n .. (n .. -l.5)
Up load. .......... ..
45
n. -T' 71. (n .. -I.5)
where:
nm=posltlve llmlt maneuvering load
factor used In the design of the
airplane.
V=lnltial speed In mUes per hour.
(d) The total tail load for the condi-
tions specifled in (c) shall be the sum of:
(1) The balancing tail load correspond-
ing with the condition at speed V and the
specified value of the normal load factor
n, plus (2) the maneuvering load in-
crement due to the specified value of the
angular acceleration.
NOTE: The maneuvering loaa Increment of
Figure 3-4 and the distributions of Figure
3--8 (for downloads) and Figure 3-9 (for
uploadS) may be used. These distributions
apply to the total tal! load.
3.217 Gust loads. The horizontal
tail surfaces shall be designed for loads
occurring in the following conditions:
(a) Positive and negative gusts of 30
feet per second nominal intensity at
speed Vc, corresponding to fiight condi-
tion 3.187 (a) with flaps'retracted.
NOTE: The average loadings of Figures
3-5 (a) and 3-5 (b) and the distribution
of Figure 3-9 may be used for the total
tail loading In this condition.
(b) Positive and negative gusts of 15
teet per second nominal intensity at
speed Vt, corresponding to flight condi-
tion 3.190 (b) with flaps extended. In
determining the total load on the hori-
zontal tail for these conditions, the initial
balancing tail loads shall first be deter-
mined for steady unaccelerated fiight at
the pertinent design speeds Vc and Vt.
The incremental tail load resulting from
the gust shall then be added to the initial
balancing tail load to obtain the total
tail load.
NOTE: The Incremental tall load due to
the gust may be computed by the followlna
formula:
M=0.1 KUVStat (1- 3!:",)
where:
,:It=the limit gust load Increment on
the tail in pounds;
K=gust coefllclent K In 3.188,
U=nomlnal gust Intensity In feet per
second,
V-airplane speed In miles per hour,
St= taU su.rface area In square feet,
at slope of 11ft curve of taU surface,
CL per degree, corrected for aspect
ratiO,
G .. -slope of 11ft curve of wing, Ct per
degree,
S w=aspect ratIo of the wing.
3.218 Unsymmetrical loads. The
maximum horizontal tail surface loading
(load per unit area), as determined by
the preceding sections, shall be applied
to the horizontal surfaces on one side of
the plane of symmetry and the follow-
ing percentage of that loading shall be
applied on the opposite side:
%=100--10 (n--1) where:
n Is the specified positive maneuver-
Ing load factor.
In any case the above value shall not be
greater than 80 percent.
VERTICAL TAIL SURFACES
3.219 Maneuvering loads. At all
speeds up to VI>:
(a) With the airplane in un accelerated
fiight at zero yaw, a sudden displacement
of the rudder control to the maximum
defiectlo;l as limited by the control stops
or pilot effort, whichever is critical, shall
be assumed.
NOTE: The average loading of Figure 3-$
and the distribution of Figure 3-8 may be
used.
(b) The airplane shall be assumed to
be yawed to a sideslip angle of 15 degrees
while the rudder control is maintained
at full deflection (except as limited by
pilot effort) in the direction tending to
increase the sideslip.
NOTE: The average loading of Figure 3--3
and the distribution of Figure 3-7 may be
used.
(c) The airplane shall be assumed to be
yawed to a sideslip angle of 15 degrees
while the rudder control is maintained in
the neutral position (except as limited
by pilot effort). The assumed sideslip
angles may be reduced if it is shown that
the value chosen for a particular speed
cannot be exceeded in the cases of steady
slips, uncoordinated rolls from a steep
bank, and sudden failure of the critical
engine with delayed corrective action.
NOTE: Thp. average loading of Figure 3-$
and the distribution of Figure 3-9 may be
used.
3.220 Gust loads. (a) The airplane
shall be assumed to encounter a gust ot
30 feet per second nominal intensity,
normal to the plane of symmetry while
in unaccelerated fiight at speed Ve
(b) The gust loading shall be com-
puted by the following formula:
where:
W=
K=
- }(UVm
W=---
575
average limIt unIt pressure In
pounds per square foot,
4.5
1.33 (W /S.) .,,' except that K shall
not be less than 1.0. A value of K
obtained by rational determination
may be used.
U= nominal gust intenSity In feet per
second,
V= airplane speed In miles per hour,
'" - slope of 11ft curve of vertical surface,
C
L
per radian, corrected for aspect
ratio,
W= design weight In pounds,
Sv - vertical surface area in square feet.
(c) This loading applies only to that
portion of the vertical surfaces having a
well-defined leading edge.
NOTE: The average loading of Figure 3-8
and the distribution of Figure 3--9 may be
used.
3.221 Outboard fins. When out-
board fins are carried on the horizontal
tail surface, the tail surfaces shall be
designed for the maximum horizontal
surface load in combination with the cor-
responding loads induced on the vertical
surfaces by end plate effects. Such in-
duced effects need not be combined with
other vertical surface loads. When out-
board fins extend above and below the
horizontal surface, the critical vertical
surface loading (load per unit area) as
determined by 3.219 and 3.220 shall
be applied:
(a) To the portion of the vertical sur-
faces above the horizontal surface, and
80 percent of that loading applied to the
portion below the horizontal surface,
. (b) To the portion of the vertical sur-
taces below the horizontal surface, and
80 percent of that loading applied to the
portion above the horizontal surface.
AILERONS, WING FLAPS, TABS, ETC.
3.222 Ailerons. (a) In the symmet-
rical fiight conditions (see 3.183-
3.189), the ailerons shall be designed for
all loads to which they are subjected
while in the neutral position.
(b) In unsymmetrical flight conditions
(see 3.191 (a) ), the ailerons shall be de-
signed for the loads resulting from the
following deflections except as limited by
pilot effort:
(1) At speed Vp it shall be assumed
that there occurs a sudden maximum
displacement of the aileron control.
(Suitable allowance may be made for
control system deflections.)
(2) When Vc is greater than Vp, the
aileron deflection at Ve shall be that re-
quired to produce a rate of roll not less
than that obtained in condition (1).
(3) At speed Va the aileron deflection
shall be that required to produce a rate
of roll not less than one-third of that
which would be obtained at the speed and
aireron deflection specifled in condition
(1).
NOTE: For conventional allerons. the de-
flections for conditions (2) and (3) may be
computed from:
_ Vp .
Il,- ve"h,
d
0.5 Vp
an 8,=--8 ,:
Va
where:
cS,=total alleron defiectlon (sum of both
aileron defiections) in condition
(1)
a,=total allercn defiection In condi-
tion (2).
Il.=total defiectlon In condition (3). In
the equation for 0.1. the 0.5 factor
Is used instead of 0.33 to allow for
wing torsional fiexiblllty.
(c) The criticalloadin, on the ailerons
should occur in condition (2) if Va is
less than 2Vc and the wing meets the
torsional stiffness criteria. The normal
force coeIDcient eN for the ailerons may
be taken as 0.048, where 8 is the defiec-
4052
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULI!S AND REGULATIONS
Aoa:
17
tion of the indiVidual aileron in degrees.
The critical condition for wing torsional
loads will depend upon the basic airfoil
moment coefficient as well as the speed,
and may be determined as follows:
where:
T. (C
m
-.01831)VI
T. (Cm-.0182t1 Ve"
T.IT. is the ratio of wing torsion In
condition (b) (3) to that in condition
(b) (2).
1I21 and 831 are the down 01
the Individual aUeron in condlt1ons
(b) (2) and (3) respectively.
(d) When T,IT, is greater than 1.0
condition (b) (3) is critical; when Ta/T.
is less than 1.0 condtion (b) (2) is critical.
(e) In lieu of the above rational condi-
tions the average loading of Figure 3-3
and the distribution of Figure 3-10 may
be used.
3.223 Wing !taps. Wing fiaps, their
operating mechanism, and supporting
structure shull be designed for critical
loads occuning in the fiap-extended
flight conditions (see 3.190) with the
fiaps extended to any position from fully
retractea to fully extended; except that
when an automatic fiap load d2-
vice is employed these parts may be de-
signed for critical combinations of air
speed and fiap position permitted by the
device. (Also see 3.338 and 3.339,)
The effects of propeller slipstream corre-
sponding to take-off power shall be taken
into account at an airplane speed of not
less than 1.4 V, where V, is the computed
stalling speed with fiaps fully retracted
at the design weight. For investigation
of the slipstream condition, the airplane
load factor may be assumed to be 1.0.
3.224 Tabs. Control surface tabs
shall be designed for the most severe
combination of air speed and tab defiec-
tion likely to be obtained within the limit
V-n diagram (Fig. 3-1) for any usable
loading condition of the airplane.
3.225 Special devices. The load-
ing for special devices employing aero-
dynamic surfaces, such as slots and
spOilers, shall be based on test data.
CON"rROL SYSTEM LOADS
3.231 Primary !tight controls and
811stems. {a) Flight control systems and
supporting structures shall be designed
for loads corresponding to 125 percent. of
the computed hinge moments of the mov-
able control surface in the conditions
prescribed in 3.211 to 3.225, subject to
the following maxima and minima:
(1) The system limit loads need not
exceed those which can be produced by
the pilot and automatic devices operat-
ing the controls.
(2) The loads shall in any case be suf-
ficient to provide a rugged system for
service use, including consideration of
jamming, ground gusts, taxying tail to
wind, control inertia, and friction.
(b) Acceptable maximum and mini-
mum pilot loads for elevator, aileron,
and rudder controls are shown in Figure
3-11. These pilot loads shall be assumed
to act at the appropriate control grips or
pads in a manner simulating flight con-
ditions and to be reacted at the attach-
ments of the control system to the con-
trol surface horn.
3.231-1 Hinge moments (CAA pol-
fcies which apply to 3.231). The 125
percent factor on computed hinge mo-
ments provided in 3.231 (a) need be
applied only tb elevator, aileron and rud-
der systems. The Administrator will
accept a factor as low as 1.0 when hinge
moments are based on test data, the exact
reduction which the Administrator will
accept, depending to an extent upon the
accuracy and reliability of the data.
[12 F. R. 8436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3.231-2 System limit loads (cAA
policies which apply to 3.231 (a) (1.
The Administrator will accept the fol-
lowinb procedure as compliance with
!!ir::
pilot, the autopilot effort need not be
added to human pilot effort but the auto-
pilot effort shall be used for design if it
alone can produce greater control,sur-
face loads than the human pilot. When
the hUman pilot acts in opposition to
the autopilot, that portion of the system
between them shall be designed for the
maximum effort of human pilot or auto-
pilot, whichever is the lesser.
[12 F. R. 3436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
86]
3.232 Dual controls. When dual
controls are provided, the systems shall
be designed for the pilots operating in
opposition, using individual pilot loads
equal to 75 percent of those obtained In
accordance with 3.231. except that the
indiVidual pilot loads shall not be less
than the minimum loads specified in
Fig.ure 3-11.
3.233 Ground gust conditions. (a)
The follOWing ground gust condition:;
shall be investigated in cases where a
deviation from the specific values for
minimum control forces listed in Figure
3-11 is applicable. The following con-
ditions are intended to simulate the
ings on control surfaces due to ground
gusts and when taxying with the wind.
(b) The limit hinge moment H shall
be obtained from the following formula:
where I
H-limlt hinge mOlI1ent (foot-pounds).
c-mean chord of the control surfaa.
aft of the hinge Hne (teet).
8=area of control surface aft of the
hlnie line (square feet).
q=dynamic pressure (pounds per square
foot) to be based on a deSign speed
not less than 10VWIS+10 miles
per hour, except that tlul design
speed need not exceed 00 mlles per
hour.
K=factor 8.8 Ipec1.fied belowl
Sur/ace K
(a) Aileron ____________________ +0.70
Control column locked or lashed
in mid-pOSition.
(b) Alleron ____________________ O.50
Ailerons at full throw; + moment
on one alleron, - moment on
the other.
(c) (d) Eaevator _______________ li:0.75
Elevator (c) full up (-). and (d)
full down (+).
(e) (f) Rudder ________________ 0.70
Rudder (e) in neutral, and (f) at
tull thtow.
(c) As used in paragraph (b) in con-
nection with ailerons and elevators, a
positive value of K indicates a moment
tending to depress the surface while a
negative value of K indicates a moment
tending to raise the surface.
3.233-1 Ground gust loads (cAA
policies which apply to 3.233). Section
3.233 requires ground gust loads to be in-
vestigated when a reduction in minimum
pilot effort loads is desired. In such cases
the entire system shall be investigated
for iround gust loads. However, in in-
stances where the designer desires to in-
vestigate ground gust loads without
intending to reduce pilot effort loads, the
ground gust load need be carried only
from the control surface horn to the
nearest stops or gust locks, including the
stops or locks and their supporting struc-
tures.
[12 F. R. 8436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3.234 Secondary controls and sys-
tems. Secondary controls, such as wheel
brakes, spoilers, and tab controls, shall
be designed for the loads based on the
maximum which a pilot is likely to apply
to the con trol in question.
LIMIT PILOT LOAD!
Control
Alleron:
Stick _____________________ __ _____ _
Wheel , ______ __ _._._. _____ ____ __
Elevator:
Stick _______________________________ _

Maximum loads for design weight Wequal to
or less than lbs.'
Minimum load! I
67 pounds _______________________________ _____ ._ 40 pounds.
53 Din-pounds , _________ ____________________ ._ 40 Din-pound
167 pounds ___________________________________ __ 100 pounds.
200 pounds _______________ ______________________ 100 pounds.
200 pounds ______ _________ ._. _________ ._. _______ 130 pounds.
I For design weight W greater than 5.000 pounds the above specified maximum values sball be increased linearly
witb weigbt 1.5 the specified values at "design weigbt of 25,000 pounds.
If t?e deSIgn of any individual set of control systems or surfaces is sucb as to make these specified minimum loads
inapplicable, values corresponding to tbe pertinent binge moments obtained according to p.233 may be used instead,
except tbat m any case values less than 0.6 of tbe specified minimum loads shall not be employed.
'Tbe critICal portIOns of tbe aileron control system sball also be designed for a single tangential force baving a limit
Talue rqual to 1.25 times tbe couple force determined from tbe above criteria.
'D-wbeal diameter.
FIG. 3-11-PILOT CONTROL FORCE LIMITS
A6a:18
Saturday, July 16, 1949
cmL AIR REGULATIONS, PJlRT 3 (CAR 3)
FEDERAL UGfSTER
GROUND LoADS
3.241 Ground loads. The loads
specified in the following conditions shall
be considered as the external loads and
inertia forces which would occur in an
airplane structure if it were acting as a
rigid body. In each of the ground load
conditions specified the external reac-
tions shall be placed in equilibrium with
the linear and angular inertia forces in
a rational or conservative manner.
3.242 Design weight. The design
weight used in the landing conditions
shall not be less than the maximum
weight for which certification is desired:
Provided, however, That for multiengine
airplanes meeting the one-engine-inop-
erative climb requirement of 3.85 (b),
the airplane may be designed for a design
landing weight whil:h is less than the
maximum design weight, if compliance is
shown with the following sections of
Part 4b in lieu of the corresponding re-
qUirements of this part: the ground load
requirements of 4b.241, and shock ab-
sorption requirements of 4b.371 and its
related sections, the wheel and tire re-
quirements of 4b.391 and 4b.392, and
the fuel jettisoning system requirements
of 4b.536.
3.243 Load factor for landing con-
ditions. In the following landing con-
ditions the limit vertical inertiaload fac-
tor at the center of gravity of the air-
plane shall be chosen by the designer but
shall not be less than the value which
would be obtained when landing the air-
plane with a descent velocity, in feet per
second, equal to the following value:
V =4.4 (W IS) )i
except that the descent velocity need not
exceed 10 feet per second and shall not
be less than 7 feet per second. Wing
lift not exceeding two-thirds of the
weight of the airplane m88 be assumed
to exist throughout the landing impact
and may be assumed to act through the
airplane center of gravity. When such
wing lift is assumed, the ground reaction
load factor may be taken equal to the
inertia load factor minus the ratio of the
assumed wing lift to the airplane weight.
(See 3.354 for reqUirements concern-
ing the energy absorption tests which
determine the limit load factor corre-
sponding to the required limit descent
veloCities.) In no case, however, shall
the inertia load factor used for design
purposes be less than 2.67, nor shan the
limit ground reaction load factor be less
than 2.0, unless it is demonstrated that
lower values of limit load factor will not
be exceeded in taxying the airplane over
terrain having the Il}aximum degree of
roughness to be expected under intended
service use at all speeds up to take-off
speed.
LANDING CASES AND ATTITUDES
3.244 Landing cases and attitudes.
For conventional arrangements of main
and nose, or main and tail wheels, the
airplane shall be assumed to contact the
ground at the specified limit vertical ve-
locity in the attitudes described in
3.245-3.247. (See Figs. 3-12 (a) and
3-12 (b) for acceptable landing condi-
tions which are considered to conform
with 3.245-3.247.)
3.245 Levellanding-(a> Tail wheel
type. Normal level fiight attitude.
(b) Nose wheel type. Two cases shall
be considered:
(1) Nose and main wheels contacting
the ground simultaneously,
(2) Main wheels contacting the
ground, nose wheel just clear of the
ground. (The angular attitude may be
assumed the same as in subparagraph
(1) of this paragraph for purposes of
analysis.)
(c) Drag components. In this condi-
tion, drag components simulating the
forces required to accelerate the tires and
wheels up to the landing speed shall be
properly combined with the correspond-
ing instantaneous vertical ground reac-
tions. The wheel spin-up drag loads
may be based on vertical ground reac-
tions, assuming wing lift and a tire-
sliding coemcient of friction of 0.8, but
in any case the drag loads shall not be
less than 25 percent of the maximum
vertical ground reactions neglecting wing
lift.
3.245-1 Wheel spin-up loads (CAA
policies which apply to 3.245). (a)
Section 3.245 reqUires that spin-up loads
be taken into account in structUral de-
signs. Section 3.244 permits the use of
arbitrary drag loads for this purpose.
(b) If it is desired to use a method
more rational than the arbitrary drag
components referred to in 3.244 in
determining the wheel spin-up loads for
landing conditions, the Administrator
will accept the following method from
NACA T. N. 863 for this purpose (how-
ever, the minimum drag component of
Tail wheel type Nose wheel type.
Condition
Levellandlng
Le vel landing
Level Tail-down with nose wheel TaIl-dOWll
landing landing
with inclined
just clear 01
landinc
reactions
ground
Reference section _ ~ 3.245 (8) I 3.246 (8) ~ 3.245 (b) (l) 13.245 (b) (2) 13.246(b)(c)
Vertical component at c. g ....... nW nW nW nW nW
Fore and aft component at c. g ............... KnW 0 KIIW KnW 0
Lateral oomtnent in either direction at c. g. a 0 0 0 0
Shock absor r extension (hydraulic shock
Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) Note (2) absorber) ........................... 'Note (2)
Shock absorber deflection (rubber or spring
100% shock absorber) .... " ' '" ...... 100% 100% 100% 100%
Tire deflection ........... Static Static Static Static Statio
Main wheel loads (both WheeIS) _ . {b':
nW nWb/d nWb'/d' nW .w
KV, 0 KV, KV, 0
Tail (nose) wheel loads .... {b';
0 IIW8/d IIWa'/d' 0 0
0 0 Kl;,
0 0
Notes (1) and (3) -..... ---_ .... _ .. (1) (1) and (3) (3)
NOTE (1).-K may be determined as follows: K-O.25 (or W-3,OO9 pounds or less; K-O.33 for W-6.000 pounds
or greater, with linpar variation of K between these weights.
NOTE (2).-For tbe purpoS<' of design, the maximum load fsctor shall be assnmed to occur throughout the shock
absorber stroke from 25 percent deflection to 100 percent deflection unless demonstrated otherwise, and the load factor
shall be used with whatever shock absorber extension is most critical for each element of the landing gear.
NOTll (3).-Unbalanced moments shall be balanced by 8 ratioM] Qr oonservative meth04.
FIG. 3-t2(a)-BASIC LANDING CONDITIONS
TAIL WHEEL TYPE
LEVEl. l.ANDING
TAIl. DOWN l.ANDING
fiG. 5- 12 Cb)
IASIC LANDING OONDITIONI
NOSE WHEEL TYPI
l.EVEl. l.ANDING WITH
INCl.INED REACTIONS
LEVEl. l.ANDING WITH NOSE WHEEL
~
~ ~
NOTl: lEE >3.24& (II)
TAIL DOWN LANDING
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, P1.RT 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AflfD REGUlATIONS
tl.25 times the vertical component will
still apply) :
1 2l .. (VR- Vcl nFv
max
F
Bmax
--;:
e t,
where:
FB.,.,,=maxlmum rearward horizontal force
acting on the wheel-pounds.
rc=erfective rolling radius of wheel un-
der impact-feet based on recom-
mended operating t1re pressure
(may be assulIled. equal to CJle
rolling radius under B static load
of n;WeJ.
I .. =rotational mass moment of interia
of roll1ng assembly slug feet
qu1red.
Y H= linear velocity of a1rplane parallel to
ground at instant of contact, as-
sumed 1.2 V'o' in 'feet per Beoond.
Vc= peripheral speed of tire if pre-rota-
tion is used (feet per second)-tl
positive means of pre-rotation
should be provided before pre-
rotation can be considered.
n= e1I'ective coefll.cient of friction; 0.80
Is acceptable.
'V
max
-m.lIXimum vertical force on wheel
(poundz) =1tiWe, where -We and nj
are defined in 3.353 and 8.354.
t.=tlme interval between g-:;:,u::ld wrr
tlwt and attainment of maximum
vertical force on wheel (seconds).
11 the value of FHmax from the
aboYe equation 8Kceeds 0.8 Fv
max
the latter value should be used
FBmu.
NOT!:: This equation lIBSumes a l1near vari-
ation of load factor with time until tbe peak
load is reached and under this assumption
determines the drag force at the time that
the wheel peripheral velocity at radius T.
equals the airplane veloCity. Most shook
absorbers 00 n exactly follow a linear vllli-
atkln of load factor with time. Hence, ra-
tiOnal or conservative allowances should be
made to oompensate for these variations.
On most landing gelU"S the time far wbeel
spin-up w1ll be less tilan the time requ1I>ed to
develop maximum vertWal load factor far the
specified rate of descent and fo.rward veloctty.
However, for exceptionally large wheels, a
wheel peripheral velocity equal to the groun<!
speed may not have been attained at time of
maximum vertical gear load. This case is
covered by the statement above that the drag
spin-up load need not exceed 0.8 of the maxi-
mum vertical load.
(b) Dynamic spring-back of the land-
Ing gear and adjacent structure at the
instant just after the wheels come up to
speed may result in dynamic forward act-
ing loads of considerable magnitude.
This effect may be simulated in the level
landing condition by assuming that the
wheel spin-Up loads are reversed. Dy-
namic spring-back is likely to be critical
only for landing gear units having wheels
of large mass supported by relatively
flexible cantilever struts.
(c) The arbitrary drag loads referred
to in 3.244 (Fig. 3-12) are usually suffi-
cient to provide for wheel spin-up ex-
cept for airplanes having large diameter
wheels or high stalling speeds. For the
latter, it is recommended that a more
rational investigation. such as that de-
scribed above, be made.
[12 F. R. 8436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
86]
3.246 Tail down - (a) Tail wheel
type. Main and tail wheels ('.(lntacting
ground Simultaneously.
(1) Nose wheel type. Stalling attitude
or the maximum angle permitting clear-
ance of the ground by all parts of the
airplane, whichever Is the lesser.
(c) Vertical ground reactions. In this
condition, it shall be assumed that the
ground reactions are vertical, the wheels
having been brought up to speed before
the maximum vertical load is attained.
3.247 One-wheel landing. One side
of the main gear shall contact the
ground with the airphme in the level
attitude. The ground reactions shall be'
the same as those obtained on the one
side in the level attitude. (See 3.245.>
GaOUND ROLL CONDITIONS
3.248 Braked roU. The limit ver-
tical load factor shall be 1.33. The atti-
tude arul ground contacts shall be those
described for level landings in 13.245,
with the shock absorbers and tires de-
flected L(, their static positions. A drag
reaction equal to the vertical reaction at
the wheel multiplied by a coefficient of
friction of 0.8 shall be applied at the
ground contact point of each wheel hav-
ing brakes, except that the drag reaction
ueo;d not exceed the maximum value
based on limiting brak torque.
3.!!t9 Side loal!. Level attitude
with main wheels only the
ground, with the shock absorbers and
tires deflected to their static positions.
The limit vertical load factor shall be 1.33
with the vertical ground reaction divided
equally between main wheels. The limit
side inertia factor shall be 0.B3 with the
side ground reaction divided between
main wheels as folklws:
0.5W acting inboard on one side.
D.I5W acting outboard on the other side.
:rAIL WHEELS
Sl/.pp[ementary conditions t07'
taU wheels. The conditions in 3.251
and 9.252 apply to tail wheels and af-
fected supporting structure.
3.251 Obstruction load. The limit
ground reaction obtained in the tail down
landing condition shall be assumed to act
up and1l.ft through theaxIe at 45 degrees.
The shock absorber and, tire may be
assumed denected to theIr static posi-
tions.
3.252 Side load. A limit vertical
ground reaction equal to the static load
on the tail wbeel, in combination with a
side component of equal magnitude.
When a swivel is provided, the tail wheel
shall be assumed swiveled 90 degrees to
the airplanekmgitudinal axis, the result-
ant ground load passing through the aXle.
When a lock steering device or shimmy
damper is provided, the tail wheel shall
also be assumed in the trailing position
with the side load acting at the ground
contact point. The shock absorber and
tire shall be assumed deflected to their
static positions,
NOSE WHEELS
3.253 Supplementary conditions for
nose wheels. The conditions set forth in
3.254-3.256 apply to nose wheels and
affected supporting structure. The shOCk
Rh<nrbprs Rnd tires she.!! be assumed de-
nected to their static poSitions,
A6a:19
3.254 Aft load. Limit force com-
ponen ts at axle:
vertical, 2.&5 times static load on Wheel.
Drs.g, 0.8 times vertical loacI.
3.255 Forward load. Limit force
components at axle:
Vertical, 2.25 times static load on wheel,
Forward. 0.4 t1mes vertical load.
3.256 Side load. Limit force com-
ponents at ground oontact:
Vertical, 2.25 times static load on wheel,
Side, 0.7 times vertical load.
SKIPLANES
3.257 Supple11U:.ntar']J conditions for
skiplanes. The airplane shall be as-
sumed resting on the ground with one
main ski frozen in the snow and the
other main ski and the tail ski free to
slide. A limit side force eqt:al to P /3
shall be applied at the most convenient
point near the tail assembly. where P
is the static ground reaction on the tail
ski. For this condition the factor of
safety shaD be assumed equal to 1.0.
WATD LOADS
3.26'5 General The requirements
set forth in lU66-3.282 shall apPlY t;Q
the entire airplane, but have particUlar
reference to hull structure, wing, nacelles,
and float supporting structure.
DIStGN WEIGHT
f 3.266 Design weight. The design
weight used in the water landing condi-
tions shall not be Jess than the maxi-
mum weight for wb.icll certification is
desired for any operation. .
llOAT SEAPLANES
3.267 Local bottom pre:ssures-(a)
Maximum focal pressure. The maximum
value of the limit local pressure shall be
determined fr.om the fOllOwing equation:
W
Pmax=O055 u (1 + 50,000) *'
where
P=pressure in poulld per square inch.
V'Il =stalling speed, flaps down power off,
in mUes per hour (to be calculated
on the basis of wind tunnel data or
ftight tests on previous airplanes).
W=deslgn weight.
(b) Variation in local pressure. The
local pressures to be applied to the hull
bottom shall vary in accordance with
Figure 3-13. No variation from keel to
chine (bea.mwise) shall be assumed, ex-
cept when the chine :flare indicates the
advisability of higher pressures at the
chine.
(c) Application of local pressure. The
local pressures determined in paragraphs
(a) and (b) of this section 'Shall be ap-
plied over a local area in such a manner
as to cause the maximum local loads in
the hull bottom structure.
3.268 Distributed bottom pressures.
(a) For the purpose of designing frames,
keels, and chine structure, the limit pres-
sures obtained from 3.267 and Figure
3-13 shall be reduced to one-half the local
values and simUltaneously applied Over
the entire hUll bottom. The loads so ob-
tained shaIl be carried into the side-wall
structure of the hull proper, but need not
be transmitted In a fore-and-aft direc-
tion as shear and bending loads.
A6a: 20
Saturday, July 16, 1949
8
1\
CIVIL AIR .r;i.l!.\.ru.ud'IONS, PAH.r 0:) {Cit.H 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4055
-r.r
0.
1

that it need not exceed a. value given by
the following formula:
n-3.0+0.133 W /S
(b) The propeller axis (or equivalent
reference line) shall be assumed to be
horizontal and the resultant water reac-
tion to be acting in the plane of symmetry
and passing thrOUgh the center of gravity
of the airplane, but inclined so that its
horizontal component is equal to one-
fourth of its vertical component. Inertia
forces shall be assumed to act in a direc-
tion parallel to the water reaction.
(c) Factors of safety. For the design
of float attachment members, including
the members necessary to complete a
rigid brace truss through the fuselage,
the factor of safety shall be 1.85. For
the remaining structural members, the
factor of safety shall be 1.5.
FIG. 3-13 DISTRIBUTION OF LOCAL PRESSURES
(BOAT SEAPLANES)
3.275 Landing with vertical reac-
tions. (a) The limit load faetor shall be
4.33 acting verticany, except that it need
not exceed a value given by the following
formula:
n=3.0+0.133 W/8
(b) Unsymmetrical loading. Each
floor member or frame shall be designed
for a load on one side of the hull center
line equal to the most critical symmet-
rical loading, combined with a. load on
the other side of the hull center line
equal to one-half 01 the most critical
symmetrical loading.
3.269 Step loading condition-Cal
Application of load. The resultant
water load shall be applied vertically in
the plane of symmetry SO as to pass
through the center of gravity of the air-
plane.
(b) Acceleration. The limit accelera-
tion shall be 4.33.
(c) Hull shear and bending loads.
The hull shear and bending loads shall
be computed from the inertia loads pro-
duced by the vertical water load. To
avoid excessive local shear loads and
bending moments near the point of water
load application, the water load may be
distributed over the hull bottom, using
pressures not less than those specified in
3.268.
3.270 Bow loading condition-Cal
Application of load. The resultant
water load shall be applied in the plane
of symmetry at a point one-tenth of the
distance from the bow to the step and
shall be directed upward and rearward
at an angle of 30 degrees from the
vertical.
(b) Magnitude of load. The magni-
tude of the limit resultant water load
shall be determined from the following
equation:
where:
P
b
= the load in pounds.
n. = the step landing load .factor.
W.= an effective weight which is assumed
equal to one-half the design weight
of the airplane.
(c) Hull shear and bending loads.
The hull shear and bending loads shall
be determined by proper consideration of
the inertia loads which resist the linear
and angular accelerations involved. To
avoid excessive local shear loads, the
water reaction may be distributed over
the hull bottom, using pressures not less
than those specified In 3.268.
3.2n Stern loading condition-Cal
Application 01 load. The resultant water
load be applied vertically 1n the
plane of symmetry and shall be dis-
tributed over the hull bottom from the
second step forward with an intensity
equal to the pressures specified in
3.267-3.272.
(b) Magnitude 01 load. The limit re-
sultant load shall equal three-fourths of
the maximum design weight of the air-
plane.
(c) HuU shear and bending loads. The
hull shear and bending loads shall be
determined by assuming the hull struc-
ture to be supported at the wing atoacu-
ment fittings and neglecting internal
inertia loads. This condition need not
be applied to the fittings or to the por-
tion of the hull ahead of the rear attach-
ment fittings.
::.272 Side loading condttion-(a)
Application 01 load. The resultant
water load shall be applied in a vertical
plane through the center of gravity.
The vertical component shall be assumed
to act in the plane of symmetry and hori-
zontal component at a point halfway
between the bottom of the keel and the
load water line at design weight (at rest).
(b) Magnitude oj load. The limit
vertical component of acceleration shall
be 3.25 and the side component shs.ll lk
equal to 15 percent of the vertical com-
ponent.
(c) Hull shear and bending loads. The
hull shear and bending loads shall be
determined by proper consideration of
the inertia loads or by introducing
couples at the wing attachment points.
To avoid excessive local shear loads, the
water reaction m"lY be distributed over
the hull bottom, USing pressures not less
than those specified by 3.268.
FLOAT SEAPLANES
3.273 Landing with inclined reac-
tions. (a) The vertical component of
the limit load factor shall be 4.2 except
(b) The propeller axis (or equivalent
reference line) shall be assumed to be
horizontal, and the resultant water reac-
tion to be vertical and passing through
the center of gravity of the airplane.
(c) Factors of safety. The factors of
safety shall be the same as those speci-
fied 10 3.273 (cL
3.277 Landing with side load. The
vertical component of the limit load fac-
tor shall be 4.0. The propeller axis (or
equivalent reference line) shall be as-
sumed to be horizontal and the resultant
water reaction shall be assumed to be 10
the vertical plane which passes through
the center of gravity of the airplane and
is perpendicular to the propeller axis.
The load shall be applied
through the keel or keels of the float or
floats and evenly divided between the
floats when twin floats are used. A side
load equal to one-fourth of the vertical
load shall be applied along a line approxi-
mately halfway between the bottom d!
the keel and the level of the water line
at rest. When twin floats are Used, the
entire side load specified shall be applied
to the float on the side from which the
water reaction originates.
3.27! Supplementary load condf.
tions. Each main float of a float sea-
plane shall be capable of carrying the
following loads when supported at the
attachment fittings as installed on the
aiI'!)lane:
(a) A llmit load, acting upward, ap-
plied at the bow end of float and of mag
nitude equal to that portion of the air-
plane weight normally supported by the
particular float.
(b) A limit load, acting upward, ap-
plied at the stern of magnitude equal to
0.8 times that portion of the airplane
Weight normally supported by the par-
ticular float.
(c) A limit load, acting upward, ap-
plied at the step and of magnitude equal
to 1.5 times that portion of the airplane
weight normally supported by the par ..
ticular float.
CIVIL .AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (OAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
3.279 Bottom loads. (a) Main 8ell-
plane float bottoms "shall be designed to
withstand the following local pressures:
(1) A llmit pressure of at least 10
pounds per square inch over that por-
tion of the bottom lying between the
first step and a section 25 percel'lt of the
distance from the step to the bow.
(2) A limit pressure of at least 5
pounds per sqL .re inch over that portion
of the bottom lying between the section
25 percent Qf the distance from t,hp Ii1;pn
to the bow and a section '15 percent of
the distance from the step tQ the bow.
(3) A limit pressure of at least 3
pounds per square inch over that portion
of the bottom aft of the step (aft of
main step if more than one step is used) .
(b) The local" pressures deterinined in
paragraph (a) (1), (2) and (3) of this
section shall be applied over local areas
in .such a manner as to cause the max-
imum loads in local structure such as
bottom plating and stringers.
(c) For the purpose of designing
frames, keels, and chine structure, dis-
tributed bottom pressures equal to one-
half of the local values specified above
shaH be applled over the entire specified
bottom areas.
WING-TIP FLOAT AND SEA WING LOADS
3.280 Wing-iip float loads. Wing-
tiP floats and their attachment, inelud-
ingthe wing structure, shall be analyzed
for each of the follo'i'/ing oonditiO!lS:
(a) A limit load acting vertically up
at the completely submerged center of
buoyancy and equal to 3 times the com-
pletely submerged displacement.
(b) A limit load inclined upward at
45 degrees to the rear and acting thr.ough
the completely submerged center of
buoyancy and equal to 3 times the com-
pletely submerged displacement.
(c) A limit load acting parallel to the
water surface <laterally) applied at the
center of area of the !.ide view and equal
to 1.5 times the completely submerged
displacement.
1 3.281 Wing structure. The primary
wing structure shall incorporate suffi-
cient extra strength to insure that failure
of wing-tip float attachment members
occurs before the wing structure is dam-
aged.
3.282 Sea wing loaas. Sea wing de-
sign loads shall be based on suitable test
data.
SUllPAR:r D-DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION-
GENERAL
3.291 General. The sUitability of
all Q.uestionable design details or parts
having an important bearing on safety in
operation shall be established by tests.
3.292 Materials and workmanship.
The sUitability and durability of all ma-
terials used in the airplane structure
shall be established on the basis of expe-
rience or tests. All materials used in
the airplane structure shall conform to
approved specifications which will insure
their having the strength and other
properties assumed 1n the design data.
All workmanship shall be of a high
standard.
3.293' Fabrication method.$. The
methods of fabricaLlon E:lli.nuyt:U Hi CUll-
structing the airplane structure snall be
such as to produce consistently sound
structure. When a fabrication process
such as gluing, spot welding, or heat-
treating reqUires close control to attain
this objective, the process shall be per-
formed in accordance with an approved
process specification.
3.294 S tan dar d fastenings. All
bolts, pins, screws, and rivets used in the
structure shall be of an approved type.
u.:;e of an approved locking device or
method is required for all sucn bolts,
pins, and screws. Self-locking nuts shall
not be used on bolts subject to rotation
during the operation of the airplane.
3.295 Protection. All members of
the structure shall be suitably protected
against deterioration or loss of strength
in service due to weathering, corrosion,
abrasion, or other causes. In seaplanes,
special precaution shall be taken against
corrosion from salt water, particularly
where parts made from different metals
are in close proximity. Adequate provi-
Sions for ventilation and drainage of all
parts of the structure shall be made.
3.296 Inspection provisions. Ade-
4U1:H1:: means shall be provided to permit
the close examination of such parts of
the airplane as require periodic inspec-
tion, adjustments for proper alignment
and functioning, and lubrication of mov-
ing parts.
STRUCTURAL PARTS
3.301 Material strength properties
and design values. Material strength
properties shall be based on a sufficient
number of tests of material conforming
to specificatiOns to establish design val-
ues on a statistical basis. The design
values shall be so chosen that the prob-
ability of any structure being under-
strength because of material variations
is extremely remote. Values contained
in ANC-5 and ANC-18 shall be used un-
less shown to be inapplicable in a par-
ticular case.
NOT!:: ANC-5, "Strengthot Aircraft Ele-
ments" and ANC-18, ''Design of Wood Air-
cTliit Structureo;" are published by the Army-
Navy-Civil Committee on Aircraft Design
Crltel1a and may be obtained :[rom the Gov-
ernment Printing Washington 25, D. C.
3.301-1 Design properties (CAA pol-
icies which apply to . 3.301) . (a) With
referenee 1<> section 5.00 O-f ANC-5,
Amendment No. I, allowable design
property c.olumns headed "Army-Navy"
represent design properties which will be
equalled or exceeded by the properties
possessed by approximately 00 percent of
the material. All other allowable design
property columns relate to the minimum
guaranteed properties and are based on
values given in the various material
specifications. The Administrator will
permit uses of these design properties as
outlined in subparagraphs (1) and (2)
of this section, based on the objectives of
3.301.
(1) In the case of structures where the
applied loads are eventually distributed
through single members within an as-
sembly, the failure of which would result
in the loss of the structural integrity of
the component involved, the guaranteed
minimum design mechanical properties
iH .nl'lC-5 shaii ue
A6a: 21
NOTE: Typical examJllea of such items are:
1. Wing lift struts.
2. Spars in two-spar w1nga.
3. Sparcaps In regions such III! wing cut-
outs and wing center sections where loads
are transmitted through caps only.
4. Primary attachment fittings dependent
on single bolts for load transfer.
(2) Redundant structures wherein
partial failure of individual elements
would result in the applied load being
safely distributed to other load carrying
members, may be designed on the basis of
the "90 percent probability" allowable.
NOTE: Typical examples of such Items are:
1. Sheet-stiffener combinations.
2. Multi-rivet or multiple bolt connections.
(b) Certain manufacturers have indi-
cated a desire to use design value greater
than the guaranteed minimums even in
applications where only guaranteed
minimum values would be permitted un-
der paragraph (a) of this section, and
have advocated that such allowables
be based on "premium selection" of the
material. Such increased design allow-
abIes will be acceptable to the Adminis-
trator: Provided, That a specimen or
specimens of each individual item are
tested prior to its use, to determine that
the actual strength properties of that
particular item will equal or exceed the
properties used in design. This, in effect,
results in the airplane materials man-
ufacturer guaranteeing higher minimum
properties than those given in the basic
procurement specifications.
(c) When strength testing is employed
to establish design allowables (such as in
the c,ase of sheet-stiffener compression
tests), the test results shall be reduced to
values which would be met by material
having the design allowable material
properties for the part under considera-
tion, as covered in subparagraphs (1)
and (2) of this sectwn.
Non:: Sections 1.543 and 1.544 of ANC-5
outline two means of accomplishing this, but
are by no means considered as the only
methods available.
[12 F. R. 3436. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3.302 SpeCial factors. Where there
may be uncertainty concerning the ac-
tual strength of particular parts of the
structure or where the strength Is likely
to deteriorate in service prior to normal
replacement, increased factors of safety
shall be provided to insure that the re-
liability of such parts is not less than the
rest of the structure as specified in
3.303-3.306.
3.303 Variability factor. For parts
whose strength is subject to appreciable
variability due to uncertainties in
manufacturing processes and inspection
methods, the factor of safety shall be
increased sufficiently to make the proba-
bility of any part being under-strength
from this cause extremely remote. Mini-
mum variability factors (only the high-
est pertinent variability factor need be
considered) are set forth in 3.304-
3.306.
3.304 Castings. (a) Where visual
inspection only is to be employed, the
variability factor shall be 2.0.
(b) The variability factor may be re-
duced to 1.25 for ultimate loads and
A5a:22
Saturday. July 16. 1949
1.15 for limit loads when at least three
sample castings are tested to show com-
pliance with these factors, and all sample
and production castings are visually and
radiographically inspected in accordance
with an approved inspection specifica-
tion.
(c) Other inspection procedures and
variability factors may be used if found
satisfactory by the Administrator.
3.304-1 Casting factors (CAA poli-
cies which apply to 3.304). With ref-
erence to paragraphs (b) and (c} of
3.304, the Administrator has approved
specific proposals which permit the U3e
of lower casting factors as speCified in
(b), with 100 percent radiographic in-
spection on initial runs, but with radio-
graphic inspection gradually reduced on
production lots as it becomes evident that
adequate quality control has been estab-
lished. All such procedures require the
submittal and execution of a 'Satisfactory
process speCification and statistical proof
tnat adequate quality control has been
achieved.
[12 F. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36]
3.305 Bearing factors. (a) The
factor of safety in bearing at bolted or
pinned joints shall be suitably increased
to provide for the following conditions:
(1) Relative motion in operation (con-
trol surface and system joints are cov-
ered in 3.327-3.347).
(2) Joints with clearance (free fit)
subject to pounding or Vibration.
(b) Bearing factors need not be ap-
plied when covered by other special
factors.
3.306 Fitting factor. Fittings are
defined as parts such as end terminals
used to join one structural member to
another. A multiplying factor of safety
of at least 1.15 shall be used in the anal-
ysis of all fittings the strength of which
is not proved by limit and ultimate load
tests in which the actual stress condi-
tions are simulated in the fitting and the
surrounding structure. This factor ap-
plies to all portions of the fitting, the
means of attachment. and bearing on
the members joined. In the case of
integral fittings, the 'part shall be treated
as a fitting up to the point where the
section properties become typical of the
member. The fitting factor need not be
applied where a type of joint design
based on comprehensive test data is used.
The following are examples: continuous
joints in metal plating, welded jOints,
and scarf joints In wood, all made in
accordance with approved practices.
3.307 Fatigue strength. The struc-
ture shall be designed, insofar as practi-
cable, to avoid points of stress concentra-
tion where variable sttesses above the
fatigue limit are likely to occur in nor-
mal service.
FLUTTER AND VIBRA'rION
3.311 Flutter and vibration preven-
tion measures. Wings, tail. and control
surfaces shall be free from flutter. airfoil
divergence, and control reversal from
lack of rigidity, for all conditions of
operation within the limit V-n envelope.
and the following detail requirements
shall apply:

CIVIL AIR PAn;: oJ '-:'A..:':' J)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4051
(a) Adequate wing torsional rigidity
shall be demonstrated by tests or other
methods found suitable by the Admin-
istrator.
(b) The mass balance of surfaces shall
be such as to preclude fiutter.
(c) The natural frequencies of all
main structural components shall be de-
termined by vibration tests or other
methods found satisfactory by the Ad-
ministrator.
WINGS
3.317 Proof of strength. The
strength of stressed-skin wings shall be
substantiated by load tests or by com-
bined structural analysis and tests.
3.318 Ribs. (a) The strength of ribs
in other than stressed-skin wings shall
be proved by test to at least 125 percent
of the ultimate loads for the most severe
loading conditions, unless a rational load
analysis and test procedure is employed
and the tests cover the variability of the
particular type of construction.
(b) The effects of ailerons and high
lift devices shall be properly accounted
for. Rib tests shall simulate conditions
in the airplane with respect to torsional
rigidity of spars, fixit3 conditions, lateral
suPPOrt, and attachment to spars.
3.318-1 Rib tests (CAA policies
which apply to 3.318). Section 3.318
was drafted so as to allow the proof of
strengt:l of ribs in stressed skin wings to
be made as part of lOO-percent ultimate
load test of the wings, in cases where the
complete wing is tested in such a manner
as to simulate the actual air load distri-
bUtion. In such cases the Administrator
will not require that separate rib tests be
made. When ribs of stressed skin wings
are tested separately from the wing and a
rational load distribution Is made, a
suitable variability factor (see 3.303)
shall be employed in determining the test
loads. Although no specific value is
stated in 3.303, a factor of 1.15 is con-
sidered acceptable. However, considera-
tion may be given to a lower factor if SUch
lower factor were substantiated by tests
on a large number of ribs.
[12 F. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 P. R.
36]
3.319 External bracing. When wires
are used for external lift bracing they
shall. be double unless the design pro-
vides for a lift-wire-cut condition. Rig-
ging loads shall be taken into account
in a rational or conservative manner.
The end connections of brace wires shall
be such as to minimize restraint against
bending or vibration. When brace struts
of large fineness ratio are used, the aero-
dynamic forces on such struts shall be
taken into account.
3.320 Covering. Strength tests of
fabric covering shall be required unless
approved grades of cloth. methods of
support, attachment. and finishing are
employed. Special tests shall be required
when it appears necessary to account
for the effects Of unusually high design
air speeds, slipstream velocities. or other
unusual conditions.
3.320-1 Aircraft fabric (CAA rules
which apply to 3.320). See 4b.302-1
and 4b.302-2 of this chapter.
[13 P. R. 7723]
CONTROL SURFACES (FIXED AN::
MOVABLE)
3.327 Proof of strength. Limit load
tests of control surfaces are required.
Such tests shall include the horn or
fi1lting to which the control system is
attached. In structural analyses, tlg-
ging loads due to wire bracing shall be
taken into account in a rational or con-
servative manner.
3.328 Installation. Movable taU
surfaces shall be so installed that there
is no interference between the surfaces
or their bracing when each is held in its
extreme positioq and all others are op-
erated through their full angular move-
ment. When an adjustable stabilizer is
used, stops shall be provided which, in
the event of failure of the adjusting
mechanism, will limit its travel to a
range permittg safe fiight and landing.
3.329 Hinges. Control sur f ace
hinges, excepting ball and I()ller bear-
ings, shall incorporate a
factor of safety of not less than 6.67 with
respect to the ultimate bearing strength
of the softest material used as a bearing.
For hinges incorporating ball or roller
bearings, the approved rating of the
bearing shall not be exceeded. Hinges
shall provide sufficient strength and
rigidity for loads parallel to the hinge
line.
CONTROL SYSTEMS
3.335 General. All controls shall
operate with sumcient ease, smoothness,
and positiveness to permit the proper
performance of their function and shall
be so arranged and identified as to pro-
vide convenience in operation and pre-
vent the possibility of confusion and sub-
sequent inadvertent operation. (See
3.384 for cockpit controls')
3.336 Primary /tight controls. (a)
:flIght controls are defined as
those used by the pilot for the immediate
control of the pitching, rolling, and yaw-
ing of the airplane.
(b) For two-control airplanes the de-
sign shall be such as to minimize the
likelihood of loss of the lateral
directional control in the event of failure
of any connecting or transmitting ele-
ment in the control system.
3.337 Trimming controls. Proper
precautions shall be taken against the
possibility of inadvertent, improper. or
abrupt tab operations. Means shall be
provided to indicate to the pilot the di-
rection of control movement relative to
airplane motion and the position of the
trim device with respect to the range of
adjustment. The means used to indi-
cate the direction of the control move-
ment shall be adjacent to the control,
and the means used to indicate the po-
sition 01 the trim device shall be easily
visible to the pilot and so located and
operated as to preclude the possibility of
confusion. Trimming devices shall be
capable of continued normal operation
notwithstanding the failure of anyone
connecting or transmitting element in
the primary flight control system. Tab
controls shall be irreversible unless the
tab is properly balanced and posseMes no
unsafe fiutter characteristics. Irreversi-
ble tab systems shall provide adequate
4058
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
rigidity and reliability in the portion of
the system from the tab to the attach-
ment of the irreversible unit to the air-
plane structure.
3.338 Wing f/.ap controls. The
controls shall be such that when the flap
bas been placed in any position uPon
which compliance With the performance
requirements is based, the flap will not
move from that position exeept upon
fUrther adjustment of the control or the
automatic operation of a flap load limit-
Ing device. Means shall be provided to
the flap position to the pilot.
If any flap position other than fully
retracted or extended is used to show
compliance with the performance re-
QUirements, such means shall indicate
each such position. The rate of move-
ment of the flaps in response to the
operation of the pilot's control, or of an
automatic device shall not be SUCh as to.
result in unsatisfactory flight or per-
formance characteristics under steady
or changing conditions of air speed,
engine power, and airplane attitude.
(See 3.109 (b) and (c).)
3.339 Flap interconnection. (a,) The
motion of fiaps on opposite sides of the
plane of symmetry shall be synchroniZed
by a mechanical interconnection, unless
the airplane is demonstrated to have safe
flight characteristics while the flaps are
retracted on one side and extended on
the other.
(b) Where an interconnection is used,
In the case of multiengine airplanes, it
shall be designed to account for the un-
symmetrical loads resulting from flight
with the engines on one side of the plane
of symmetry inoperative and the remain-
ing engines at take-off power. For
single-engine airplanes, it may be as-
sumed that 100 percent of the critical
air load acts on one side and 70 percent
on the other.
3.340 stops. All control systems
.shall be provided with stops which posi-
tively limit the range of motion of the
control surfaces. Stops shall be so lo-
cated in the system that wear, slackness,
or take-up adjustments will not ap-
preCiablY affect the range of surface
travel. Stops shall be capable of with-
standing the loads corresponding to
design conditions for the control system.
3.341 Control system locks. When
a device is provided for locking a control
surface while the airplane is on the
ground or water:
(a) The locking device shall be so in-
stalled as to provide unmistakable warn-
Ing to the pilot when it is engaged, and
(b) Means shall be provided to pre-
clude the possibility of the lock becomil;l.g
engaged during Uight.
3.342 Proo! of strength. Tests shall
be conducted to prove compliance with
limit load requirements. The direction
of test loads shall be such as to pro-
duce. the most severe loading of the
control system structure. The tests
shall include all flttings, pulleys, anI!
brackets used to attach ihe control sys-
tem to the primary structure. Analyses
or individual load tests shall be con-
ducted to demonstrate compliance with
the multiplying factor of safety reqUire-
ments specified for control system joints
subjected to angular motion.
3.343 Operation test. An opera-
tion test shall be conducted by operating
the controls from the pilot compartment
With the entire system so loaded as to
correspond to the limit air loads on the
surface. In this test there shall be no
jamming, excessive friction, or excessive
deflection.
CONTROL SYSTEM: DETAILS
3.344 General. All control systems
and operating devices shall be so deSigned
and installed as to prevent jamming,
chafing, or interference as a result of
inadequate clearances or from cargo,
passengers, or loose objects. Special
precautions shall be provided in the cock-
pit to prevent the entry of foreign objects
into places where they might jam the
controls. ProVisions shall be made to
prevent the slapping of cables or tubes
against parts of the airplane.
3.345 Cable systems. Cables, cable
fittings, turnbuckles, splices, and pulleys
shall be in accordance with approved
specii1cations. Cables smaller than 'nI-
inch diameter shall not be used in pri-
mary control systems. The design of
cable systems shall be such that there
will not be hazardous change in cable
tension throughout the range of travel
under operating conditions .and tempera-
ture variations. Pulley types and sizes
shaY correspond to the cables with which
they are used, as specified on the pulley
specification. All pulleys shall be pro-
vided with satisfactory guards which
shall be closely fitted to prevent the ca-
bles becoming misplaced or fouling, even
when slack. The pulleys shall lie in the
plane passing through the cable within
such limits that the cable does not rub
against the pulley flange. Fairleads shall
be so installed that they are not required
to cause a change in cable direction of
more than 3 degrees. Clevis pins (ex-
cluding those not subject to load or mo-
tion) retained only by cotter pins shall
not be employed in the control system.
Turnbuckles shall be attached to parts
having angular motion in such a man-
ner as to prevent positively binding
throughout the range of travel. Pro-
visions for Visual inspection shall be
made at all fairJeads, pulleys, terminals,
and turnbuckles.
3.345-1 Cables in primary control
systems (CAA interpretations which ap-
ply to 3.345). Section 3.345 provides
that "cables smaller than %-inch diam-
eter shall not be used in primary control
systems." Primary control systems are
normally considered to be the aileron,
rudder, and elevator control systems.
Hence this minimum of % inch need not
be applied to tab control cables having
high strength margins. However, in
cases where the airplane would not be
safely controllable in flight and landing
with tabs in the most adverse positions
required for the various critical trim,
weight, and center of gravity conditions,
the Administrator will require that tab
syStems be so designed as to provide re-
liability equivalent to thRt required for
primary systems. Examples are pulley
A6a:23
sizes, guards, use of fairleads, inspection
provisiOns, etc.
[1:1 P. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
86]
3.346 Joints. Control system joints
subject to angular motion in push-pull
systems, excepting ball and roller bear-
ing systems, shal! incorporate a multi-
plying factor of safety of not less than
3.33 with respect to the ultimate bear-
ing strength of the softest material used
as a bearing. This factor may be reduced
to 2.0 for such joints in cable control
systems. For ball or roller bearmgs the
approved rating of the bearing shall not
be exceeded.
3.347 Spring devices. The relia-
bility of any spring devices used in the
control system shall be established by
tests simulating serviee conditions, un-
less it is demonstrated that failure of
the spring will not cause flutter or un-
safe flight characteristics.
LANDING GEAR
SHOCK ABSORBERS
3.351 Tests. Shock absorbing ele-
ments in main, nose, and tail wheel units
shall be substantiated by the tests speci-
fled in the following section. In addition,
the shock absorbing ability of the land-
ing gear in taxying must be demonstrated
in the operational tests of 3.146.
3.352 Shock absorption tests. (a)
It shall be demonstrated by energy ab-
sorption tests that the limit load factors
selected for design in accordance with
3.243 will not be exceeded in landings
with the limit descent velocity specified
in that section.
(b) In addition, a reserve of energy
absorption shall be demonstrated by a
test in which the descent velocity is at
least 1.2 times the limit descent velocity.
In this test there shal! be no failure of
the shock absorbing unit, although yield-
ing of the unit will be permitted. Wing
lift equal to the weight of the airplane
may be assumed for purposes of this test.
3.352-1 Landing gear drop tests
(CAA poliCies which apply to 3.352).
(a) The following method has been ap-
proved by the Administrator for deter-
mining the effective mass to be dropped
in drop tests of nose wheel landing gear
assemblies pursuant to 3.352 (a): For
aircraft with nose wheel type gear,
the effective mass to be used in free drop
test of the nose wheel shall be deter-
mined from the formulp, for We ( 3.353
and 3.355) USing W=Wn where Wn is
equal to the vertical components of the
resultant force acting on the nose wheel,
computed under the following assump-
tions: (1) the mass of the airplane con-
centrated at the center of gravity and
exerting a force of 1.0 g downward and
0.33 g forward, (2) the nose and the main
gears and tires in static position, and (3)
the resultant reactions at the main and
nose gears acting through the axles and
parallel to the resultant force at the air-
plane center of gravity.
NOTE: By way of explanation, the use ot an
inclined reactions condition as the basis for
determining the mass to be dropped with a
nose wheel unit 11; based on rational dynamic
investigation of the landing condition, as-
AOa:24
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REUUL.riTIONS, PART 3 (CAR 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4059
sumlng the landing Is made with slmul-
taueous three-point contact, zero pitching
velocity, and a drag component representing
the average wheel spin-up reactions during
the landing impact. Although spin-up loada
on small alrplanes may be less than the value
implied by the formUla, such aiI'plane. are
more llkely to be landed with a nosing down
pitching velocity, or In soft ground. The
vertical component of the ground reaction Is
specified above because the method of de-
fining the direction of the inertia force at
the center ot gravity gives a resultant effec-
tive mass greater than that of the airplane.
(b) The following procedure has been
approved by the Administrator for de-
termining the attitude in which the
landing gear unit should be dropped
pursuant to 3.352 (a): The attitude in
which a landing gear unit is dropped
shall be that which simulates the air-
plane landing condition which is critical
from the standpoint of energy to be
absorbed by the particular unit, thus: (1).
For nose wheel type landing gear, the
nose wheel gear shall be drop tested In
an attitude which simulates the three
point landing inclined reaction condi-
tion; (2) the attitude selected for main
gear drop tests shall be that which simu-
lates the two-wheel level landing with
inclined reactions condition.
NOTE: In addition, It Is recommended that
the main gear be dropped In an attitude
simulating the taU-down landing with ver-
tical reactions condition If the geometry of
the gear Is such that this condition Is like1y
to result In shock strut action appreciably
different from that obtained In level atti-
tude drop tests; for example, when a canti-
lever shock strut has a large Inclination with
respect to the direction of the ground
reaction.
(3) Tail wheel units shall be tested in
such a manner as to simulate the tail-
down landing condition (three-point
contact). Drag components may be cov-
ered separately by the tail wheel "ob-
struction" condition.
(c) The Administrator has accepted
the following procedure for determining
slopes of inclined platforms when such
are used in drop tests: When the arbi-
trary drag components given on Fig.
3-12 (a) of this part are used for the
design of the landing gear in the level
landing conditions, the drag loads in
the drop tests for these conditions may
be simulated by dropping the units onto
Inclined platforms so arranged as to
obtain the proper direction of the re-
sultant ground reactions in relation to
the landing gear. (If wheel spin-up
loads for these conditions are deter-
mined by rational methods and found to
be more severe than the arbitrary drag
loads, it is suggested that the spin-up
loads be simulated by dropping the gear
onto a level platform with wheels spin-
ning,) In at least o11e limit drop test the
platform should simulate the friction
characteristics of paved runways and the
rotational speed of the wheel just prior
to contact should correspond to an air-
plane ground speed of 1.2 V,O' It is sug-
gested that additional limit drops be
made onto surfaces of lower friction co-
efficient and at several wheel rotational
speeds; coefficients for example, corre-
sponding to 0.6, 0.8 and 1.0 V'
o
'> The di-
rection of wheel rotation in the drop test
should be opposite to that which would
occur in landing the airplane. Spin-up
loads which are slightly greater than the
arbitrary drag loads can probably be
simulated satisfactorily by 1nclined plat-
forms, but platforms having greater In-
clinatIons may not simulate spin-up loads
correctly and are not recommended.
[12 P. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 F. R.
36)
3.353 Limit drop tests. (a) If com-
pliance with the specified limit landing
conditions of 3.352 (a) is demon-
strated by free drop tests, these shall be
conducted on the complete airplane, or
on units consisting of wheel, tire, and
s h o ~ absorber in their proper relation,
from free drop heights not less than the
following:
h (Inches) -3.6 (WIS)G.I
except that the free drop height shall not
be less than 9.2 tnches and need not be
greater than 18.7 inches.
(b) In simulating the permissible wing
lift in free drop tests, the landing gear
unit shall be dropped with an effective
mass equal to:
where
W =W[h+(1-L} d]
, h+d
W. = the effective weight to be used in
the drOp test.
h=speclfied height of drop In Inohes.
d=deflection under Impact of the tire
(at the approved inflation pres-
sure) plus the vertical component
of the axle travel relative to the
drop mass. The value of d used
In the computation of W. shall
not exceed the value actually ob-
tained in the drop tests.
W=W
M
tor main gear units, and shall
be equal to the static weight on
the particular unit with the air-
plane In the level attitude (with
the nose wheel clear, in the case
Of nose wheel type airplanes).
W = W T tor tall gear units, and shan be
equal to the static weight on Lhe
taU unit with the airplane In the
tall down attitude.
W= W
N
for nose wheel units, and shall
be equal to the static reaction
which will exist at the nose wheel
when the mass ot the airplane Is
concentrated at the center of
gravity and exerts a force ot 1.0g
downward and a.33g forward.
L=rat!o ot assumed wing 11ft to air-
plane weight, not greater than
0.667.
The attitude In which the landing gear
unit is drop tested shall be such as to
simulate the airplane landing condition
which is critical from the standpoint of
energy to be absorbed by the particular
unit.
3.354 Limit load factor determina-
tion. In determining the limit airplane
inertia load factor n from the free drop
test described above, the following for-
mula shall be used:
Where
nf=the load !I\ctor developed in the drop
tes,t. 1. e., the acceleration (d./dt)
in g's recorded in the drop test,
plus 1.0.
The value of n so determineci shall not
be greater than the limit inertia load
factor used in the landing conditions,
3.243,
13.355 Reser". energll absorption
drop tests. If compliance with the re-
serve energy absorption condition speci-
fied in 3.352 (b) is demonstrated by
free drop tests, the drop height shall be
not less than 1.44 times the drop height
specified in 3.353. In simulating wing
lift equal to the airplane weight, the
units shall be dropped with an effective
mass equal to
h
W.=W h+d
where the symbols and other deta1l.8 are
the same as in 3.353.
ItEl'RACTING MECHANISJI
3.356 General. The landing gear
retracting mechanism and supporting
structure shall be designed tor the maxi-
mum load factors in the fiight conditions
when the gear is in the retracted position.
It shall also be designed for the combina-
tion of friction, Inertia, brake torque, and
air loads occurring during retraction at
any air speed up to 1.6V." fiaps retracted
and any load factors up to those specified
for the flaps extended condition, 3.190.
The landing gear and retracting mech-
anism, including the wheel well doors,
shall withstand flight loads with the
landing gear extended at any speed up
to at least 1.6 V'I fiaps retracted. Posi-
tive means shall be provided for the pur-
pose of maintaining the wheels in the
extended position.
3.357 Emergency operation. When
other than manual power for the opera.
tion of the landing gear is employed, an
auxiliary means of extending the landing
gear shall be provided.
3.358 Operation test. Proper func-
tioning of the landing gear retracting
mechanism shall be demonstrated by
operation tests.
~ :.!.;j59 ['osition indicator and warn-
ing device. When retractable landing
wheels are used, means shall be provided
for indicating to the pilot when the
wheels are secured in the extreme posi-
tions. In addition, landplanes shall be
provided with an aural or equally effec-
tive warning device which shall function
continuously after the throttle is closed
until the gear is down and locked.
3.359-1 Wheel position indicators
(CAA policies which apply to 3.359).
The "means" required by 3.359 may
consist of lights of various colors. The
signal "all lights out" will be considered
by the Administrator as satisfactory If
used to indicate intermediate gear posi-
tions belt It will not be considered as
providing adequate safety if used to in-
dicate either extreme gear lOCked posi ..
tioD.
[12 F. R. 3437. Correction noted at 14 P. R.
36)
3.360 Control. See 3.384-
WHEELS AND TIRES
3.361 Wheels. (a) Main landing
gear wheels <1. e., those nearest the air-
plane center of gravity) shall be of an
approved type.
(b) The rated static load of each main
wheel shall not be less than the design
weight for ground loads ( 3.242) di-
vided by the number of main whee18.
4060
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PART 3 (C.AR 3)
RULES AND REGULATIONS
Nose wheels shall have been tested for
an ultimate radial load not less than the
maximum nose wheel ultimate load ob-
tained in the ground loads requirements,
and for corresponding side and burst
loads.
3.382 Tires. A landing gear wheel
may be equipped with any make or type
of tire, provided that the tire is a proper
flt on the rim of the wheel and provided
that the approved tire rating- is not ex-
ceeded under the following conditions:
(a) Load on main wheel tires equal
to the airplane weight divided by the
number of wheels,
(b) Load on nose wheel tires (to be
compared with the dynamic rating estab-
lished for such tires) equal to the reac-
tion obtained at the nose wheel, assum-
ing the mass of the airplane concentrated
at the center of gravity and exerting a
force of LOg downward and 0.31g for-
ward, the reactions being distributed to
the nose and main wheels by the princi-
ple of statics with the drag reaction at
the ground applied only at those wheels
having brakes. When specially con-
structed tires are used to support an air-
plane, the wheels shall be
conspicuously marked to that effect.
Such markings shall include the make,
size, number of plies, and identification
marking of the proper tire.
NOTJI: Approved ratings are those assigned
by the Tire and Rim Association or by the
Administrator.
BRAKES
3.363 Brakes. Brakes shall be in-
stalled which are adequate to prevent
the airplane from rolling on a paved
runway while applying take-off power to
the critical engine, and of sufficient
capacity to provide adequate speed con-
trol during taxying without the use of
excesslve pedal or hand forces.
SKIS
I 3.364 Skis. Skis shall be of an ap-
proved type. The approved rating of the
skis shall not be less than the maximum
weight of the airplane on which they are
Installed.
I 3.365 Installation. (a) When type
certificated skis are installed, the instal-
lation shall be made in accordance with
the ski or airplane manufacturer's rec-
ommendations which shall have been ap-
proved by the Administrator. When
other than type certificated skis are in-
stalled, data shall be submitted to the
Administrator showing a dImensional
drawing of the proposed method of at-
taching the skis, the sizes and material
of the restraining members and attach-
ment flttings.
(b) In addition to such shock cord(s)
as may be provided, front and rear check
cables shall be used on skis not equipped
with special stabilizing devices.
3.366 Tests. (a) If the airplane
is of a model not previously approved
with the speciflc ski installation, it shall
satisfactorily pass a ground inspection
of the installation, demonstrate satisfac-
tory landing and taxying characteristics,
and comply with such flight tests as are
found necessary to indicate that the air-
plane's flight characteristics are satisfac-
tory with the skis installed.
(b) If the airplane 15 of a model pre-
viously approved with the specific ski In,-
stallation, it need pass satisfactorily only
a ground inspection of the insta.llation.
HULLS Alm PLOATS
13.371 Buoyancy (main seaplane
floats). '(a) Main seaplane .floats shall
have a buoyancy in excess of that re-
quired to support the maximum weight
of the airplane in fresh water as follows:
(1) 80 percent in the case of single
1ioats.
(2) 90 percent in the case of double
1ioats.
(b) Main seaplane floats for use on
airplanes of 2,50Q pounds or more maxi-
mum weight shall contain at least 5
watertight compartments of approxi-
matelyequal volume. Main seaplane
floats for use on airplanes of less than
2,500 pounds maximum weight shall con-
tain at least four such compartments.
3.372 Buoyancy (boat seaplanes).
'I'he hulls of boat seaplanes and amphib-
ians shall be divided into watertight
compartments in accordance with the
following requirements:
(a) In airplanes of 5,000 pounds or
more maximum weight, the compart-
ments shall be so arranged that, with any
two adjacent compartments flooded, the
hull and auxiliary floats (and tires, if
used) will retain sufficient buoyancy to
support the maximum weight of the air-
plane in fresh water.
(b) In airplanes of 1,500 to 5,000
pounds maximum weight, the compart-
ments shall be So arranged that, with any
one compartment flooded, the hull and
aUXiliary 1ioats (and tires, if used) will
retain sufficient buoyancy to support the
maximum weight of the airplane in fresh
water.
(c) In airplanes of less than 1,500
pounds maximum weight, watertight
subdivision of the hull is not required.
(d) Bulkheads may have watertight
doors for the purpose of communication
between compartments.
3.373 Water stability. AUXiliary
floats shall be so arranged that when
completely submerged in fresh water,
they will provide a righting moment
which is at least 1.5 times the upsetting
moment caused by the airplane being
tilted. A greater degree of stability may
be required by the Administrator in the
case of large flying boats, depending on
the height of the center of gravity above
the water level, area and location of
wingS and tail surfaces, and other con-
siderations.
FuSELAGE
PILOT COMPARTMENT
3.381 General. (a) The arrange-
ment of the pilot compartment and its
appurtenances shall provide a satisfac-
tory degree of safety and assurance that
the pllot will be able to perform all his
dUties and operate the ,controls in the
correct manner without unreasonable
concentration and fatigue.
(b) The primary' fiight control units
listed on Figure 3-14, excluding cables
and control rods, shall be so located with
respect to the propellers that no portion
uf the plIot or controls lies in the region
Detween the piane 01 rOtatlOn of any in-
A6a: 25
board propeller and the surface gener-
ated b a line passing through the center
of the propeller hub and making an
angle of 5 forward or aft of the plane
of rotation of the propeller.
3.382 Vision. The pilot compart-
ment shall be arranged to afford the
pilot a sufficiently extensive, clear, and
undistorted view for the safe operation
of the airplane. During flight in a mod-
erate rain condition, the pilot shall have
an adequate view of the flight path in
normal flight and landing, and have suf-
ficient protection from the elements so
that his vision is not unduly impaired.
This may be accomplished by providing
an open able window or by a means for
maintaining a portion of the windshield
in a clear condition without continuous
attention by the pilot. The pilot com-
partment shall be free of glare and re-
flections which would interfere with the
pilot's vision. For airplanes intended
for night operation, the demonstration
of these qualities shall include night
flight tests.
3.383 Pilot windshield and windows.
All glass panes shall be of a nonsplinter-
ing safety type.
3.384 Cockpit controls. (a) All
cockpit controls shall be so located and,
except for those the function' of which is
obvious, identified as to provide con-
venience in operation including provi-
sions to prevent the possibility of confu-
sion and consequent inadvertent opera-
tion. (See Fig. 3-14 for required sense
of motion of cockpit controls.) The con-
trols shall be so located and arranged
that when seated it will be readily pos-
sible for the pilot to obtain full and un-
restricted movement of each control
without interference from either his
clothing or the cockpit structure.
(b) Identical power-plant controls for
the several engines in the case of multi-
engine airplanes shall be so located as to
prevent any misleading impression as to
the engines to which they relate.
Controls Movement and act'uation
Primary:
Aileron _______ Right (clockwise) tor right
wing down.
Elevator ______ Rearward for nose up.
Rudder _______ Right pedal forward for
nose right.
Power plant:
Throttle ______ Forward to open.
FIGURJ: 8-14 COCKPIT CONTROLS
3.385 Instruments and markings.
See 3.661 relative to instrument ar-
rangement. The operational markings,
instructions, and placards required for
the instruments and controls are speci-
fled in 3.756 to 37765.
EMERGENCY PROVISIONS
3.386 Protection. The fuselage
shall be designed to give reasonable as-
surance that each occupant, if he makes
proper use of belts or harness for which
provisions are made in the deSign, will
not suffer serious injUry during minor
crash conditions as a result of contact of
any vulnerable part of his body with any
penetrating or relatively solid object, al-
though it is accepted that parts of the
airplane may be damaged.
A6a: 26
Saturday, July 16, 1949
CIVIL AIR REGULATIONS, PAR'r 3 (1.1....rt 3)
FEDERAL REGISTER 4061
(a) The ultimate accelerations to
which occupants are assumed to be sub-
jected shall be as follows:

Sideward
N,U A
3.0g
9.00
1.5g
4.5g
9.0g
1.5g
(b) For airplanes having retractable
landing gear, the fuselage in combina-
tion with other portions of the structure
shall be designed to afford protection of
the occupants in a wheels-up landing
with moderate descent velocity.
(c) If the characteristics of an air-
plane are such as to make a turn-over
reasonably probable, the fuselage of
such an airplane in combination with
other portions of the structure shall be
designed to afford protection of the occu-
pants in a complete turn-over.
NOTE: In 3.386 (b) and (c), a vertical
ultimate acceleration of 3g and a friction
coefficient of <'.5 at "he ground may be as-
sumed.
3.387 Exits. (a) Closed cabins on
airplanes carrying more than 5 persons
shall be provided with emergency exits
consisting of movable windows or panels
or of additional external doors which
provide a clear and unobstructed open-
ing, the minimum dimensions of which
shall be such that a 19-bY-26-inch ellipse
may be completely inscribed therein.
The exits shall be readily accessible,
shall not require exceptional agility of
a person using them, and shall be dis-
tributed so as to facilitate egress with-
out crowding in all probable attitudes
resulting from a crash. The method
of opening shall be simple and obvi-
ous, and the exits shall be so arranged
and 'marked as to be readily located and
operated even in darkness. Reasonable
prOVisions shall be made against the
jamming of exits as a result of fuselage
deformation. The proper functioning of
exits shall be demonstrated by tests.
(b) The number of emergency exits
required is as follows:
(1) Airplanes with a total seating ca-
pacity of more than 5 persons, but not in
excess of 15, shall be provided with at
least one emergency exit or one suitable
door in addition to the main door speci-
fled in 3.389. This emergency exit,
0; second door, shall be on the opposite
SIde of the cabin from the main door.
(2) Airplanes with a seating capacity
of more than 15 persons shall be pro-
vided with emergency exits or doors in
addition to those required in paragraph
(b) (1) of this section. There shall be
one such additional exit or door located
either in the top or side of the cabin for
every additional 7 persons or fraction
thereof above 15, except that not more
than four exits, including doors, will be
required if the arrangement and dimen-
sions are suitable for quick evacuation of
all occupants.
(c) If the pilot compartment is
rated from the cabin by a door which is
l1kely to block the escape in the event of
a minor crash, it shall have its own exit,
but such exit shall not be considered as
an emergency exit for the passengers.
(d) In categories U and A exits shall
be provided which will permit all occu-
pants to bail out quickly with parachutes.
3.388 Fire precautions-Cal Cabin
interiors. Only materials which are
flash-resistant shall be used. In com-
partments where smoking is to be per-
mitted, the materials of the cabin lining,
floors, upholstery, and furnishings shall
be flame-resistant. Such compartments
shall be equipped with an adequate num-
ber of self-contained ash trays. All other
compartments shall be placarded against
smoking.
(b) Combustion heaters. Gasoline
operated combustion heater
shall comply with applicable parts of
the power-plant installation require-
ments covering flre hazards and pre-
cautions. All applicable requirements
concerning fuel tanks, lines, and exhaust
systems shall be considered.
3.388-1 Combustion heaters (CAA
rules which apply to 3.388 (b. 8Ae
4b.445-1 of this chapter.
[Supp. 3,14 F. R. 3305]
PERSONNEL AND CARGO ACCOMMODATIONS
3.389 Doors. Closed cabins on all
airplanes carrying passengers shall be
provided with at least one adequate and
easily accessible external door. No pas-
senger door shall be so locl:>ted with re-
spect to the propeller discs as to en-
danger persons using the door.
3.390 Seats and berths-tal Pas-
senger seats and berths. All seats and
berths and supporting structure shall
be designed for a passenger weight of
170 pounds (190 pounds with parachute
for the acrobatic and utility categories)
and the maximum load factors corre-
sponding to all specifled flight and
ground load conditions including the
emergency conditions of 3.3g!).
(b) Pilot seats. Pilot seats shall be
designed for the reactions resulting from
the application of the pilot forces to the
primary flight controls as specifled in
3.231.
(c) Categories U and A. All seats de-
signed to be occupied in the U and A
categories under 3.74 (c) (4) shall be
designed to accommodate passengers
wearing parachutes.
3.391 Safety belt or harness pro-
visions. Provisions shall be made at all
seats and berths for the installation of
belts or harness of sufficient strength to
comply with the emergency conditions of
3.386.
3.392 Cargo compartments. .l!..:;:;::'
cargo compartment shall be designed for
the placarded maximum weight of con-
tents and critical load distributions at
the appropriate maximum load factors
corresponding to all specifled flight and
ground load conditions. Suitable provi-
sions shall be made to prevent the con-
tents of cargo compartments from be-
coming a hazard by shifting. Such pro-
visions shall be adequate to protect the
passengers from injury by the contents
of any cargo compartment when the ul-
timate forward acting accelerating force
is 4.5g.
3.393 Ventilation. All passenger
and crew compartments shall be
ventilated. Carbon monoxide concen-
tration shall not exceed 1 part in 20.-
000 parts of air.
MISCELLANEOUS
3.401 Leveling mar k s Leveling
marks shall be provided for leveling the
airplane on the ground.
SUBPART E-POWER-PLANT INSTALLA-
TIONS; RECIPROCATING ENGINES
GENERAL
3.411 Components. (a) The power-
plant installation shall be considered to
include all components of the airplane
which are necessary for its propulsion.
It shall also be considered to include all
components which affect the control of
the major propUlsive units or which .af-
fect their continued safety of operation.
(b) All components of the power-plant
installation shall be constructed, ar-
ranged, and installed in a manner which
will assnre thf' continued safe operation
of the airplane and power plant. Acces-
sibility shall be provided to permit such
inspection and maintenance as is neces-
sary to assure continued airworthiness.
3.411-1 Reverse-thrust propellers
(CAA policies which apply to 3.411
(b) ). In applying 3.411 (b), the Ad-
ministrator will approve as providing
adequate safety only those reverse-thrust
propeller installations which conform in
all details with the following standards:
(a) Exceptional pilot skill shall not be
required in taxying or any condition in
which reverse thrust is to be used.
(b) Recommended operating proce-
dures and operating limitations and pla-
cards shall be established.
(e) Throttle movement shall be such
that the motion is in the direction of the
desired acceleration of the airplane.
(d) The airplane control characteris-
tiC6 0:.':';; Oe with regard to
control forces encountered, and buffeting
shall not be such as to be likely to cause
structural damage.
(e) The directional control shall be
adequate using- normal piloting skill.
(f) It shall be determined that no dan-
gerous condition is encountered in the
event of a sudden failure of one engine
in any likely operating condition.
(g) The operating procedures and air-
plane configuration shall be such as to
provide a reasonable safeguard against
serious structural damage to parts of the
airplane due to the reverse airflow.
(h) It shall be determined that the
pilot's vision is not dangerously obscured
under normal operating conditions on
dUsty or wet runways and where light
snow is on the runway.
(j) It shall be impossible to place the
propellers in the reverse-thrust position
until the airplane is on the ground un-
less it is demonstrated that it is sa'fe to
reverse the propellers in any likely flight
condition. Consideration shall be given
to possible rebound of the airplane fol-
lowing initial contact, at which point
propeller reversal has taken place.
(j) The mechanism actuating the
propeller and contrOlling engine shall
maintain sufficient power to keep the
engine running at an adequate speed to
prevent engine stalling during or after
thp Nfl-,p1]pr operation.
LANDING LOAD lI'AC'roRS, CAR 04:

n = applied
lOlld fuctor

U : 2.80 + 9000
'l'f + '.',000
+ 0.133W/A
Gross

500
20
18
15
1000 2000 5000 10000 20000
r.:...;. ;.C;:-.;:::..::.:i:.ng load f:ct.ors required b, CAR 04.211,
Fig. 04-10.
/
/
/'
h = Required
/

hoi;ht of free
/ ""l Rnllfl"': ; nT'l
drop 'Ii. thout
- wings. inches.
/
10

9
25
/
/
30
h : Vs
Vs =1 Sto,lling Jrrrph.
50 50 70
Fig. A6a: 2 Ret!uired height of free droD for landing
gear test. From CAR 04.2411
50000
80
A6a:27
7
6
5
4
3
2
A6a:28
MANIDV:ER LOiID FAC1''ORS, C.AR 04
I=G oss we l/!:h 00 D
I

-
--

-3-
k

...
"""


4.''''
r--...
'-.......
"'" ....
F:::

r--- -r-....
f.c.
r-....
n = limit
......... r-.....
..........
r-....
Ib

r4t..
--
,
f::::
.....
r-....
Load Faotor_ ......
r.....
for cuvers,
.........
N
r---..
r-....
1'H:..t. j"--...., .........
....... t......

..........

r-.....
r-....
r""--
.........
r-....
r-.........
.......... t-...
i'-...

...............

r-....
.........
j"--....,
.......
r--...
r-...


..........
t--.....
Ec:u"tiont
3 25 ( 32000
1 'W)O 435 0.77 + 2.5
W 1r + 9200
I W/p : Powor LbS.{BhP
f f I '1 I I I
4 5 6
7
g
9

15
LOAD FACTORS FOR C,VIL AIRCRAFT.
fOIt WEIGHTS GRfATER
,THAN 10.000 La.
i I
bs
't' e
J; c
...L,
'"
.....
t-...
,....
'"
r--...
'"
t-...
'"
'"
t-...
.....
.
.....
..... r""r--.
.....

.....
::::
::::
r-r--,

.....
.....
r-.

r--,
""
20
""
t"-i' I-
I-
I-
:-
I-
!-
25
Fig. A6a:3 Limit load factor for
for maneuvers, positive high angle
of attack.
From CAR 04.2131, Table 04-1
and Fig. 04-3.
I J I j I j I I ) J ! Fig. A6a:4 Load factors for civil aircraft
!ftIGIIT 01' AIRCI'VIPT F\JU.v LQjo,OEO leLa1
l
NOTI 0!1 C.P. BACK Loe,:i.mH. -I--
': L;;
- QIMCTLV PROPOllTIONAL. TO THE IN<:R!...... I--
_ lit Tl41 'tIW1G+4T 01' lMI! AIRCRAPT. LoAD F!\CTt!R
.30 WMvt WEIGHT ? 3Q.000 La.
p r.l
required by the Bri tis Air Ministry. From
BAM Handbook of Strength Calculation.)
STRENGTH OF AIRCRAFT KATERIALS
Jlllcwable stresses for Design of structural Parts
Consistent vlith ANC-5, Strength of Aircraft Elements
All stresses are in ttousands of lbs.!sq. in.
See A6b: 14 - A5b: 21
tor aat'a from ANC-5a 1Ih ich supersedes ./iNC-5
Spec ific a- Max. Type Heat
Ell)
Tentdon Compression Shear
W tions thick- of Treat F
tu
Fty
F
tp
Feu
F
Fep Feo Fsu

InABB Piece
ey
Carbon s,t,b No 28 36 25 55
30'
25 36 35 50
1025
Allort'"
9Cf') 70(5'
9OG!
;g:

ad"
X-4130 lI,t,b Yell 29 74
Alloy,W l-!
lI,t,b Annld 29 65
141
45
ttJ


30.4
36 65
lI,t,b Yes 29 100 80 70 100
-
70 80 65 90
-..I Alloy lI,t,b Yes 29 125 100 90 125
1&6 90
100 75 110
Alloy .065 s,t,b Yes 29 150 135 ll5 150
135
115 135 90 125
Alloy
.120 s, t.,b Yes 29 180 165 140 180
,6-5
140 165 105 145
V) 6,O,t Arr.l:'
26
1111
)
SO 35
20 80

15 30 70
-
Stainlesll
26(J8)
125- 65- 35- 125- 35-
,0'
90-
Cw s,b 185 140 80 185 140 50 110 125
-
17ST(I')
s Yes
10.f'9.'
55 32 25 55 32 25
- 33 50
)...
17ST,cw
QO
5
fS
)
t Yes 10.3 55 40
-
55 36
-
42.5 33 50

17SiP4J
.7 s,t,b Yes 10.3 53 30
-
53 30 - -
32
'o.j
245 lI,t,b Yes 10. 3ft) 62 40 32 62 40 32
-
37

245T,Alc II Yes
10.3,/111
56 37 27 56 37 27
-
34
-
52 s-!H II No 10.3
3.- - 3Jf- 2t
- - 28 --
52S-3/4H
II No 10.3 37 29
-
37 29
- -
22
-

17ST"J rivet Yes
-
55 - - - - - - 30 --
38 s.cast 10.0 32 18
-
62 22
- --
29 22
26,27 4.0 forgo Yes 10.3 55 30
-
55 30
-
- 33 -
j

rolled
6.f')
35 25
- - - - -
18
-
A or
tt

14.0 65 60

cstg.al'y east 30 12 50
- - -
40

Mg.
east 6.0 15 (Grade 1 29 9
-
- - - - -
Abbreviations:
Notes:
II : sheet
t :: tube
b :: bar
Al = aluminum
Alc=alclad
Mn .. manganese
Mg : Magnesium

casting
forg .. "forging
B.N.=brinell No.
worked or
stretched .
Ftg Fatigue
(1) E same as for tension except noted otherwise
(2) These values are the calcula.ted ult. (nominal)
stresll obta.ined on solid cylindrical specimens with
tID - 15.0. (3) In welded zone, 10% less. (4) For
material :>1-1/2 values are 15% less. (5) Alloy steel
refers to steel (6) For thicknesses
up to .188 the tension and compo value:. are 5000 Ibs.
larger. Feu is 50. (7) The H.T. steels are identi-
fied by F tu' (8) Same atter welding. (9) For the
185 (10) For Alclad, E .. 10.0; other values
are 5000 lbs. less except F
br
_ 68. No torsion value.
17SRT same except F co 42. Extruded shapes: F .. 50
F
su
"'3O. (U) stretche8
Y
is "as received". If H.T.,tu
then F'cp - 20, Fcy .. 32, Fco co 37. (12) For thick-
nesses of .75-3"., Ftu..- 50, Fey - 28, Fsu - 30. (13)
Bar only. (14) For ;;iitT, values are larger (F
cy
" 30).
(15) 24ST rivets _ 62,38,35,90. (16) Bronze- Ftu =
35 (only value). (17) Grade 2, 18. (18) For
tension only. (19) SecOndary .. 9,JUU,OOO. (20) Bend-
ing endurances limit, (300,QOO,OOO cycles of completely
reversed stress).
A6b:l
Ftl'
Bearing
Fsp

Fbe
F
br
BJl.
20 10 25 90
-

14g
J
11
4"
-
11 U.t 25 3O.
-
$; u 50 140
-
65 II 65 175
80 II 78 190
-
95 II 85 200
-
- -
-- - -
(\1
- -
75
- -
15 3.8 15 75 96
15 3.8 15 75 96
15 3.8 15 75 92
-
3.8 14 90
100
- - -
82
-
--
3.8
II>

-
3.8 20 66
- - - -
-
- 3.8 B 45
-
-
3.8 12 99 90
- - -
55
-
- 4.5 14
80
-
- - -
40
-
A6b:2
STRENGTH DATA
Summary Tables by K.R. Jackman
SAE Jourru;J. November., 1940, pp. 463 and h65.
Properties of Metallic Aircraft Materials"'"
IIoterial ce., apooi- I!oigh' .Tendon 110", ""oa ..
lIO. ;;spec 1!1 c,..t10l1!l rorm (A.Pl>' 0:1:.) tic 1/r:uIn l11l ",..te old \MC>C.o &l"
" in
UH1m!!." I"",,or :r.Ugu.
1-U!!I1"
D""T
Ifl
n f/Clll1 arev1t7 '1' TIl} TiY

.Il!!.-
2"
(Il)
-:- 10 flO"
luminum All ... _
f,w-'1'-llb 7ST lI'f-T-7ge '!'ub. l.eo 8.79 .101 eo 37 13.3 3.7 20 U
24S'1' 110M Sho.' ISO .06 2.77 .100 118 f24.e 44 15.11 10.3 3.7 19 U
4S'1'...IJ.. 11067-II
Shoot .ISO .06 2.77 .100 e2 U 14.8 10.3 3.7 lB
'"
24SR!' 11oe7.Jit Shoot .70 .0'1 2.77 .100 70 55 111.11 10.3 3.7 13 42
57-153 f!.6-A.-7 Bar 2.79 .101 55 li.7 30 10.8 10.3 3.7 Ie 35
14S'1' 57-153 Bar 1.00 .10 1.79 .101 e5 50 18.0 10.3 3.7 10
j;3
95-'1'4

Cotg 1.U .U 2.77 <100 31 11.2 Ie 5.8 10.3 3.7 8. 24
3511-'1" Cotg 1.35 .U Il.es .0911 28 10.& 1& e.l 10.3 3.9 II 82
1I-lB& C.tg 1.U .11 2.5& .091 45 17.5 ae 9.8 10.3 '.0 14
I/egllea1um A.lI071

11-314-11 Shoot 1.00 .04 1.7& .064 35 19.9 27 .. 5.5 3.7 9
Sh .. t 1.20 1.79 .063 45 12
5

2 34 19.0 e.5 3.es 9

(AH57S) 11-314b-8 htr. 1.80 .oes 43 o 30 le.7 11.5 :1.&2 17 eo
TAll 57-74-1C II-ll&.U4 Cotg 8.00 .13 1.83 .065 38
1ro8
16 9.8 5.5 3.55 e 18
A.lIOYo
!iaval
37-1112 4e-B-II Bar .30 .09 8.23 .30 57 8.1 45 5.5 1.82 82
fllUll.

411-8-1'711 Bar .30 .14 7.8 .28 75 9.e 37 4.7 1.92 eo
0"8.
iBronze Bel' .30 .08 7.8 .28 85 0.9 50 7.7 15 f.Ol! 5

Bar .60 .17 7.7 .28 110 4.3 70 9.1 15 2.1 11
(11.'1'.) Shoot 1.30 .39 8.23 .30 175 21.2 134 15.2 18.9 2.3 e.
ge
Isto.i Alloy.
jrl07-9B
Bar 7.8 .28 55 7.1 3& e 28 3.e II
2330 4&-8-21b Bar .04 7.8 .28 125 Ie.O 100 a.s 29 3.7 17
'-107-11i1 4O-8-23l1 Bel' .04 7.8 .28 130 19.2 135 U.S Ie 3.7 18 00
1062 4&-8-28
Sh '
7.8 .28 230 220 28.2 30 3.9 4
Istaill1 ... Shil All ....
16-8 7-135-9

Sheet .70 .19 7.S .28 80 35 5 25 3.3
'"
70
16-8 11.0&8 .752 Sheet .70 .19 7.8 .28 150 110 H.O 25 3.3 10
18-8 00'111 45S1 -10 Bar .55 .15 '.8 .28 120

eo 7.7 30 3.11
18-8 0079 4&Sl8-,. Bar .35 .15 7.8 .28 100
Itzb
50 e ,,9 3.7 28
15-8 11-28& Bar .50 .1' 7.8 .28 175 lU 17.2 30 3.9 13
Niokel UI0T.
57174 ''7IIla She.' 8.55 .31

100 11.e 31.5 3.7 7
01 .10
.a, 8.1 .12 100 j1l.2 10 10.1 811.5 2.1 8
"I:"lIonol (C) Ber .80 .25 8.e .Sl 1&0 8.5 l.BI 13.9 25.5 10
(m' A; Rolled) Bar S.l .29 aeo w Izu 7 3.32 8
Properties of Non.Metallic Aircraft Materials
Speol- lio1eture enaioD
Jlaton.l tio J.bsor1)t101l 17ltimote
G1'OTlt7
'"
Porled T(Il I:
(Il)
+1 T
iSnthetic R ln.
Paper rlUe1' 1.37 .9 241. 15.3 11..2 1.n
CallT.!s J'1l1er 1.30 .4 2411. 10.2 7.6 1.60
Linen liller 1.SO .J 241. 10.0 7.7 1.'3
Phenolic Resina
Cotton Flock 1.37 &.8 5.2
'food FlOUl' 1.37 7.5 5.5
J'abric 1.37 10.0 7.8
1 37 .8 241. 19.0 U.O 1.20
rea Resin - PeNr 1 53 1.0 '711. 10.0 e 5
- Opt1liwl .7 JoT. 1.0 '11'. ae.7 3e.5
Type I - eo
O
to Opt. .7 AT. 1.0 '11'. 4.7 e.7 .50

Optilflllll .'14T. 1.0 '11'. 1&.7 23.8 1.43
eo
O
te .'1 AT. 1.0 'II' 13.9 20.0 1.21
icwo04 1.28 0 241!. 17.5 21.5 50
Compound 1.25 e.& 2411. a9.e 23.5 3. ISO
!Birch hlnt. a .. ln 1 27 B7 7 818
3.'"
:Aeroll to - Cerd 1.34 25.0 18.7 2.0
. eroU te - Gordon 1.43 45.0 31.5 5 0
811'; BI!3e Resin 138 88.0 80.3 177
Cellul0.e Nitret. 1.50 3.0 241. 8.0 5.3
Cellulose Aoeta ,. 1.30 2.0 241. '.5 3.5 .3
IIetlt:11 lie thl .ryl. to 1.20 .e 7Il. 10.0 8.3 .5
Yinyl Rill" 1.315 .1 141. t.O 5.e

lat. til ... I.e 0. 3.0 1.8
&rew Gl ... 2.35 O. 3.0 1
Bro'
.41) 11 248. t.O 82.S 1.3
ire 118 11 241 15.0 11.1
1.'
51 11
-.
110 21 e 1 10
Ccto!>lot. X-.i011. II - II ...... , D - 1)078. - 'liNt.
- 71 .. tt. Cer. Sott .... at 'oDc.
Tap. Sheer
of nas. te 171U,,.to 17ltlZh
K,Il) Soth" , 1 C(Il S 31
C (Ocl
+1
1.18 110 21.7 15.5 a.a 5.1
1.39 110 18.3 14.1 10.2 7.a
1.10 110 ..... 0;,;
.0 87.0 2O.e
110 30.0 22.1
110 40.0 29.0
.88 110 30.0 22.0
lIo U.5
3.06 110 13.'
.71 110 7.7
1.04 110 11
1.73 110 10.4
3.51 17.4 15.e 4.9 3.8
I.es 11.1 15.9 5.3 4
2.118 18.8 16.0
1.49 27.0 10.1 5.8 4.3
'.10 .'.0 le.8 5.0 3.5
2.01 25.0 18.1 9.0 e 5
eeac 15.0 10.0
.13 700e 14.0 10.8
.30 lUDc S.O e.7
.SO 70Dc

10.0 8.0
20.0
3.2D 0.0 l!.5 .",1.!'8
7.31
10

7
1.3
I
i
l

91
1.45 e.5 11.7 11 e9
R1gidit7 L1mH
10'
+ 10'
18.11 !.8
14.8 3.8 lB
U.4 3.8
3.8
12.& 3.8 lIS
le.1 3.8 1&
8.7 II
8.3 3.8
11.' 3.8 7
e.5
11.1 17
9.8 10
11 7.0
10 811
11 es
11.8 11 7B
11 911
11.0 30
a.8 00
10.6
'.J
'.2
Source
II.A..C ,A. - '1'.11.
II.A.O.A. - T.II.
;; ... C.J.. -
A.O.A. - '1'.11. 1&28
II.A.O.A. - T .11. le28
: t;:
'j!rj t LI!>_ll .. u "
Inter J.rt.
hur Art. 1lm. 20, 1939
Inter ,rt. 1lm. 80, 1939
Inur .lrt. ;Tun. 20 1939
Aorop...... Oot. 1937
A.OoA. - !.II. le9.
"IIod01'll n .. tt.,- s."t.l 118
&04.8. - nn. 1937
io4.8. - 11n. 1937
1I0T. 9 1038
Boonton -ptaeUc.-
Ioonton "nanles-
Boontca. "PIlla tic'-
Boonton -Pl Uc.-
II .I.,U !.II.
::!:g:!: : t:
1-
2.
3.
Sec: "Alcoa Al urninum. and Its Alloys n, Aluminum. ':0. of Ameri ca. 1938.
See J. Ae. S. Vol. 6 No.5, March 1939, pp. 185 - 202.
bee "Aircraft Mate!'ials and Process.
n
by G.F. Titterton, 19J7.
A::J
T_
is-O
2S-)4H

::U
H
SS-O
SS-)4H

:.tU
H
.s-o
4S-)4H


11S-TS
llS-Ts
178-0
17S-T
17S-RT
Alclad 17S-T
AlcIad 17S-RT
STRENGTH DATA
Properties of Wrought and Sand Cast Aluminum Alloys
From Alcoa Handbook, 1937 Edition
TYFICAL* MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF IiROUGHT ALUMINUM AU.QYS (
1
)
TENSION
HARD-
SHEAR
FA-
NESS TIGUE
TENSION
HARD
NESS
Yield
FJonption{')
Ultimate
IP .. COot in 2 In. Brinell


(Set- 110!' SOOkc
Umit.(l)
0.2%)

i 1 s';; i 10 DUn.


. -. g.- .. a Ball


A::J
Yield

jstreD&'f.h(' Ultimate Brinell
T ... .,... (Set-

iH
500 kc.
0.2%)

lOmm.
l : .
] 0
Ball

5,000 1S,OOO 85 45 is 9,500 5,000
1S,OOO 15,000 11 !.5 is 10,000 6,000
14,000 17,000 9 iO Si 11,000 7,000
17,000 iO,ooo 6 17 88 11,000 8,000
il,ooo i4,ooo 6 15 44 18,000 8,500
A.178-0 8,000 111,000
I'
17 58
A.l7S-T 114,000 48,000 114 27 70
US-O 10,000 16,000 10 22 U
US-T '4,000 68,000 19 12 105
US-RT 55,000 70,000 18 .. 116
6,000 16,000 SO 40 is 11,000 7,000
15,000 18,000 10 10 85 l!I,OOO 8,QOO
18,000 11,000 8 16 40 14,000 9,000
11,000 !.5,ooo 6 a 47 15,000 9,500
!.5,OOO 29,000 4 10 65 16,000 10,000
A.lclad US-T n,ooo 62,000 18 .. ...
Alclad US-RT I 50,000 66,000 11 .. ...
51S-O 6,000 116,000 SO 55 is
61S-W iO,ooo 85,000
i'
80 04
10,000 26,000 10 !.5 45 16,000 14,000
11,000 81,000 10 17 51 17,000 14,500
27,000 84,000 8 12 68 18,000 15,000
81,000 87,000 5 8 70 10,000 15,600
84,000 40,000 5 6 77 !II ,000 16,000
42,000 49,000 .. 14 95 80,000 l!I,500
51S-T '0",000 '8,000 a 16 95
5iS-O 14,000 19,000 !.5 80 45
52S-)4H 16,000 84,000 It 18 61
29,000 87,000 10 a 67
84,000 89,000 8 10 7'
5!1S-H 56,000 41,000 7 8 85
41,000 65,000 .. 14 100 ...... ......
5SS-O 7,000 16,000 15 U 26
10,000 116,800 10 III '5
18,000 11,000
87,000 60,000 10 !12 100 86,000 15,000
18 .. 110 88,000 ......
6SS-W 10,000 88,000 21 80 65
5SS-T 88,000 89,000
l'
10 80
88,000 56,000 18 .. ... !i,ooo ......
"For guaranteed minimum values, see Tables 18 to ti_
A6b:3
SHEAR
FA-
TIGUE

Eaduranoe
Limit(1)

15,000 ......
16,000 18,500
18,000 12,000
n,ooo 16,000
42,000 . .....
'0,000 . .....
41,000 . .....
11,000 6,500
114,000 10,500
80,000 10,500
18,000 17,000
10,000 18,000
!II ,000 19,000
is,OOO 10,000
1',000 10,500
11,000 7,500
10,000 10,000
2',000 11,000
,
'7,000 165,000
40,000 i 57,000 11 .. . .. 81,000 ......
(I) See page 86 Cor defurltioDl and signlficance or terms: RiIo other data.
ALLOYS
Ii aod 2Ii
43
47(')
lOS
109
112
U2-H
lii-T61
142
H2-T61
H2-To7l
195T4
19S-T6
I 95-T62
214
il6
2!1O-T4
A884
s5s-T4
S55-T6
S55-T51
A85S-T61
A.$55-T59
U6-T4
S56-T6
S56-T51
045
"MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SAND CAST ALUMINUM ALLOYS(I)
See "Design or Aluminum A.lloy Castings", Page 68.
Minimum ValUM
TYPICAL VALUES (No< GnoroDte8I)
toe 8pecificatiooa
T_(') T_(')
I
iHardD. 8beor Fotipe
Iff [Ill
,;


.!!
fR
..

l=1
sH


!Hi
.! l
I


B
;! l


..



J
19,000 (S) 14,000
000 I
20 14,000 64,000 65 20,000 7,600
17,000 8.0 9,000 19,000 6.0 Ii ,000 ... 40 14,000 6,500
24,000 5.0 11,000 26,000 S.O 11,000 ..... 60 lS,OOO 6,000
19,000 1.5 14,000 2.0 14,000 62,000 55 20,000 8,500
21,000 (S) 18,000 24,000 1.5 20,000 64,000 75 iO,ooo 10,000
19,000 (S) 14,000 28,000 1.6 17,000 62,000 70 10,000 8,500
28,000 (S) 20,000 25,000 1.0 20,000 62,000 75 21,000 9,500
80,000 (S) "80,000 S6,OOO 1.0 48,000 96,000 100 29,000 .....
23,000 (') 24,000 28,000 1.0 81,000 82,000 80 24,000 8,000
82,000 (') 82,000 87,000 0.5 47,000 77,000 100 52,000 8,000
29,000 (') 28,000 82,000 0.5 84,000 79,000 85 27,000 8,000
29,000 6.0 16,000 81,000 8.5 16,000 .... 65 24,000 6,000
82,000 S.O 22,000 86,000 5.0 25,000 80 80,000 6,500
86,000 <I) 81, 000 40,000 2.0 S8,OOO
!
85,000 95 81,000 7,000 I
22,000 8.0 12,000 !.5,OOO 9.0 U,OOO .... 50 5,500
!.5,ooo 4.0 15,000 27,000 6.0 16,000 60 28,000 .....
42,000 !!I. 0 15,000 45,000 14.0 26,000 ...... 75 88,000 7,000
Ii,OOO (I) 16,000 !.5,ooo 2.0 22,000 78,000 6S 24,000 .....
27,000 4.0 iO,ooo 80,000 5.0 28,000 87,000 60 i8,ooo ..
8i,OOO 2.0 i5,ooo 85,000 8.5 87,000 94,000 80 80,000 ....
!.5,ooo (.) 2S,OOO i8,ooo 1.5 2',000 50,000 60 22,000 6,500
!.5,OOO (S) 24,000 1.5 24,000 54,000 65 2i,OOO 8,000
is ,000 (S) 11,000 25,000 2.0 21,000 48,000 60 21,000 8,000
26,000 5.0 16,000 28,000 6.0 18,000 84,000 55 22,000 .....
80,000 5.0 !Ii,ooo 52,000 4.0 22,000 87,000 70 27,000 8,000
is,ooo (.) 10,000 15,000 i.O 22,000 ,66,000 60 18,000 6,000
!.5,ooo t.5 20,000 29,000 '.0 20,000 70,000 70 ii,ooo 7,500
<I) See page 86 Cor defurltions and significance or terms; also other data.
o..ty
,!j
,;
\,l
l

0.102
0.096
0.095
0.099
0.105
0.108
0.106
0.106
0.101
0.101
0.101
0.100
0.100
0.100
0.095
0.094
0.0911
0.099
0.097
0.097
0.097
0.099
0.099
0.095
0.095
0.095
0.106
(') Tension and hardness values determined (rom 8tandard haIr inch diameter tensile test specimen. individually east in green
sand molds and teated without machining off the surface.
(I) Results or testa on specimens having an l/r ratio of 12. Specimens Cailed in shear except those Cor which no ultimate
strength is shown. Those alloy! deformed without Cracture at loads up to the maximum capacity or the teating machine.
(') Properties or this alloy ohtained by special foundry practice, called "modification".
(I) Not specified. The error in determining 10 .... elongations is comparable with the value being meaoured.
A6b:4
STRENGTH DATA
Strength values of woods tor use in airplane design.
8_01_

-...........................

Coctoawood _ . _. ,_ __

Elm, AmericaD ..... _
lIlm ...t .......................
Oum,blarir ........... __

_wood .......................

.M
...
...
. It
...
. !I
.11
..
.42
..
.111
=
... Yl'i!'
.It
.10
.'1
..
.G
.j,!
...
...
.38
...
.M
A_
=-::
-....
....... ,
oVIIIU-drJ
10 ..
..... bl
'"'
alld
-
"1IIt
1.1
.eo IU
2 ...
. r: ...
81 ...
.41 11.1
.M .. I
.IS 11.7
.... 1.1
.n 10,1
... &7
. ., U
.. t .
.14 Ial
.14 .. 7
... IU
.14 10,1
. ., .. 7
...
I.'
.U 11.7
.U 10.7
...
.67 U
... ...
... La
. M ...
.. 1 .. 1
. 10 ...
.41 11.1
...
... U
.. ...
30
:II
It
..
..

rI
:15
rI
loS
U
11
U
6.0
U
11
4.1
11
4.1
6.7
...
6.l
.. 1
7.'
7.2
U
7.'
a.o
1 . I
.. "'"
7.<00

CohunDbendlDi modalal
11,.
7.Il00
, ....
1."

l.r.
1,700
1,,,"
1.000
1,310
1,110
1.:m
.. 7
...
7.7
1.1
...
U
7
...
7.S

....
.. "'"
.....
'.""

>
.... 0

"""'I
PItOIloI
-, PvolIot ' Perpo1I<I""'''' ,
Num.! N ....
-
Num Poulldt N .... Poulldt Poulldt
booo!
""l"'"
hero!
""IUII't
boo 01
.. "' ....
booot

-
111<'1\ .... llIdl
-
I""h
.. "
--I--- --1--.--....
11

130 7.,. 130 1.779 120 12) I, NO
-
.....
_
... 200 6,510
"'"
"350
-
7.llO 200 1,670
""
... 200
'.-
110 1,,_ 120 U30 '20 '1,*

7._
1 .. 1 .. *
-
... 2IIl '1,100 7.700
II,
.. -
115
' ....
m

III 1,140
111 '2, ... m ....
"'
111 .....
oo 4"eo oo 1,110 oo
"'30
.. ......
'10 ... eo 110 l.m '10 7.:teo '20
.. ..,
II 7.8It' II
'.1020
II .... II
'.-
'10 ..... 174 , .... 174 ... 174 4.0'10
leo s,_ leo ,.070
1
,eo '10
.....
III 12,710

sa .. 5.100
oo
"000
40 I .... .. ... ..
'.120
""
t.'" lit
t=1
, ..
7.110
, ..
...
10) 7.7ftI 10)
'"
.... eo

.. "lilt ttO
'."
.. .. ... ItO
'.020
lit .. ..., tt,
I."
tJQ

II, ....
40 Il10 40 U40 40 40 740
..
..,
.. M70 2> 1,770
.. 'O,leo .. 2,310 .. 'o,m .. ...
III ... II , .... II

II
IS; Il,we 12> '20
8,'"
... ""0
..
'"l1li1
2112 1,140
, ..
'0,''''
:lilt .....
114
"100
115 2,070 116 ..... 114 1,410
, .. 10,..,
1" 2, no , ..
"730
I"
'.2IIl
II
a:
40
'.770
40
"610
40
...,.
1 .. , ..
1 ....
, .. 7._ 1" "730
.. 7.Il00 .. '.100 .. ,,1111 ..

101 7.610 101
' ..
II '01
.. ...,
I. 11.*
, .. 2,140 IG
..-
I" U:ItI
110 IUtlO 110
.. ""
110

110 1,_
1 PvItlW led k'I lbli diNeUOIl 01 lfIin of tbe fatellI1a1I,.. to tbf. ot tIM &bI1cnt.
J The reJatln I '011: 01 the ...at1oat ta't8d. dependa krall OD tbe hoIdll2l' .&nncth of the idol.
I ProbtbJ7 bil cbm7. I ProbabI,.lversreea /D&CDOVa. PratUl7 klKp 'P. t \upDL
... .., .......... "'''''., ... of ",,,,fu ..... ,... ... NokIi",
' ....
U:
1
810
7.10
i:\
1.100
....
1."'"
eoo
,.
...
'10
730
SIO
m
730
010
010
730 I
1.)10
...
000
110
...
Dl
_
IE
GO
...
.",
3IlO
380
...,
Spilt'!:. f'IllIt. \ Moduloa m tlUtlcU ..
1 ! PanlloI
=-
Num'l P.. I (1.000
her of t'tDt at poundl
0,000
-
c.tI birch I , per !qUIrt
....
. I JIk'b,)I

..,
1,073 ..
100 1,'20 1 ..
<00
..,
1,213 ..
"" 1:
1 1'ft 181
400
i
jg1
'lIO 1.0:12 ..
... I,m
1"
eo 744 7
..,
'.417 'I
70
gi
'.144 II
... I."
, ..
".
' .... 'I
'30
, ....
" ..
70 1,21& liS
3&1
!Itt 1 '.'"2
, ..
, ..
;'
I.'" lit
110) 1,154 ..
..
l:!gj
ttl
!IO
: ..
........ I , ..
10
"'I
I ....
,.
'.302
111
.. itO

1,.62 HI
101 2,111 I.
UO 70
' ..
110
300
ifl
, .... ttl
10 1.274 ..
IJO
'. $44
WI
130

1,21'
'10
... 1," loa
I0Il I .
,.
211 1.711 141
10
STRENGTH DATA
Fig. A6bal Allowable unit stress for spruce spars.
STtDGn< D' A.J:..

IN FCCL.,..CIlil..OI ....

......... """'O
PO. iLCCLNTIEJC L..C)ACIIt...
"T ON!; !!.NO C#
eo.;r 0.0.. ... 1 C)N'!>&
I'"1OOM c:.uoEVE.S "" &.

oJ
a
a *'
2
III 3Z


ze
<
011..
oJ 0.z.4

< 2.0
IilO
t0
2
It;.

t-

t3 12-

e

IF .q.
6
::>
A6b:5


A'T ONe. END OfT
eocr 0I0L1') ON'OE: 1..000
I'lOM I!S"f &.
I't>Ir. "'to< """'D MA.PL&
L..OA.O P1tOM
-n-cae. C:UII.VES ... _
""'tVL...TIp\,)( L..OAD$ ..-..oM
..... _c e-t I.S"T
ANO l.040
0 I Z !S .q. 5 '" 7
0 I 2. ... 5 t:. i
WIDTH Of" Wooo ME.MBfR. IN INCHE.S
STeENGTH OF BeL-TS It-J
WOOD - PAIC.ALLE.L TO GeAlN
WIDTH OF WOOD MEMeEe It-J INCHES
BE.AeING. STIGDJGTH of BOLTS IN
WOOD - PE.ePENOICUL-AIC. \0 GIC.AIIo..I
Fig. A6ba2 5T12.ENGTH OF BOLTS IN WOOD
A6b:5a
Properties of Ro'1G and Haas Corrrany PlexiGlas, from Plexiglas 3andbook for Aircraft :::ngineers, 1952
NOT E: t TABLE 1
Properly r.st Conditio/u
-Tensile Strength ASTM 63846T (0.1' /minute)
MaJl:imum Altowobl. Service Sf,.u pa
Te"
I
Maximum psi I RllphJ,.. pJi
I
I
Modulu. of Elasticity
I
EJongoHol'I 01
'c. 'F. "'exig'o, , .... Plexig/a, II UV.4
Temperatvr. Plexig/cf Plexiglas
I
Pl.xiglas Plnig/o.
'C. of.
I
/A II UVA /A II UV ....
-60 -76
I
11,500 14,001) - -
-40 -40
I
- -
I
- -
0 31 - - - -
15 77 8,000 9,500 7,900 9,500
60 140
I
4,000 5,700
I
1,500 4,800
71 160
I
1,400 4,400
i
1,800 3,400
Properly T.st Conditions
'Flexural Strength, WC.
I
ASTM O 79C45T
Spandepth ratiO 16 (OJ' /min.)
Maximum psi
I
Deflection at max., in,
Rupture, psi
Deflection at rupture, in.
I
Modulus of Elasticity, psi
Compresslve Strength, 2S"'C. ASTM 069544T
Yz"" x \1" x I'" specimen (O.2"'/min.)
Pluigku Ple.;gla,
I
/A II UVA.
I
8,10' 8,10'
i
7,10' 7,10'
5,10' 5xlll'
4,10' 4,10'
/,10' /,10'
- -
P1.,,;;/os',A.
13,000
0.6
13,000
>0.9
4.0,10'
Pluig/.::I.I Pluig/r"
/A /I UVA
- -
- -
- -
5% 5%
- -
119% 31%
PI.)(i;/o.
16,000
0.6
\6,000
0.7
4.0,10'
15
40
50
60
70
80
9C
77 or below 1,000
104 700
122 450
140 300
158 N.A.
176 N.A.
194 N.A.
Areo t44'"1quore inches
Temperature C
1,500
1,100
1,100
1,000
800
600
300
Maximum, psi 13,000 17,000
No,.,ino! Thickness
Appro", Weight
Modulus of Elasticity, psi 4.0, Ill' 4.0,10'
!
Compressive Deformation ASTM 061148T
i
under Load 1,000 psi @ 50C., 14 hrs., % 1.0 0.1
1
4,000 psi @ SO'C., 14 hrs., % 6.0 0.6
'Shear Strength, 15'C. ASTM 073246
.125 in. .77 lb .
.187 in. 1.15 lb .
.220 in. 1.36 lb .
I
2'" x 2'" x 1,4 '" specimen (O,05"'/min,)
j
Maximum, psi 8,000 9,000
*Poisson's Ratio, 25C. 0.35 0.35
I
.375 in. 2.31 lb .
.500 in.
3.08 lb .
Data fron Eastman Inc. Tenite 1953.
SUMMARY OF RANGE OF PROPERTIES- TENITE I TENITE II
Specific Gravity
Density
Specific Volume
Compression Ratio
Elongation
Izod Impact Strength (-40'F)
(73.4'F)
Tensile Strength at Fracture (73.4'F)
(158'F)
Tensile Strength at Upper Yield
Flexural Strength at Yield
Compressive Strength at Yield
Modulus of Elasticity (In Flexure)
Properties of Unplastici%ed EXON 402A Plate
Mechanical Properties at 75 OF.
Tensile Strength, psi
Compressive Strength, psi
Percentage Compression at Failure
Compressive Yield Stress, psi
Percentage Compression at Yield
Elastic Modulus in Compression, psi
Flexural Strength, psi
Yield Strength in Flexure, psi
Modulus of Elasticity in Flexure, psi
Izad Impact Strength,
Notched, ft.-Ibs';in.
(%" x %"barJ
Rockwell Hardness, R Scale
Shore Hardness, D Scale
load Deformation, % in 24 hrs.
8,500 - 9,500
11,000 - 12,000
5.0 - 6.0
10,000 - 11,000
3,5 - 4.0
350,000 - 400,000
13,000 - 14,000
10,000 - 11,000
450,000 - 540,000
0.4 - 0.5
117 - 120
85
0.5 - 0.6
20'C/20'C 1.24-1.31
oz/cu in 0.71--<1.76 0.67--<1.71
Cll in/lb 21.0-22.5
volume granular composition
to volume molded articles 2.0-2.6 2.0-2.4
%
10_70 40-88
ft-Ib/in of notch 0.3--<1.9 0.4-1.7
ft-Ib/in of notch 0.5-4.8 0.8-6.3
psi 2250-8100 2600-6900
psi 500--5400 1000-5700
psi 1400-7300 1400-6200
psi 2200-11500 1800-9250
psi 2200-10900 2100-9400
psi x 10' X 10
5
ASTM 063849T
ASTM 0695-49T
ASTM 0695-49T
ASTM 069549T
ASTM 069549T
ASTM 069549T
ASTM 079049T
ASTM 079049T
ASTM 079049T
Data from Firestone Plastics
Company Advertising, June 1953.
ASTM 025647TA
ASTM 0785-48T
ASTM 067649T
ASTM 062148T
FIP":R 'lE-r::FORCED rLASTICS A6bl5 b
Fhysical -,:,ro::erties of reinforced plastics manufactured by The Dynakon Corportation,
from advertising of The Dynakon Corporation, 1953
' .... 11e
........ "-'<,.
- -.
-,
Sttetttth.
-,
GRADE
.. ,
Poi Poi . -ff./iR.
A3A 12,000 22,000 24,000 10,3
A8S 15,000 25,000 32,000 12
ABU 8,500 36,000 26,000 12.5
E1I 20,000 36,000 24,000 18
E4EF-1 7,500 20,000 20,000 10
E4EF-1I 17,000 26,000 39,000 20
Fl0M 100,000 '150,000 70,000 70
G3A 17,000 24,000 36,500 12
K8H 32,000 63,000 54,000 35
SA
-- -- -- -
I
'0
Oc
cr: $-c

'0';:;
oS
'"
u '"
1:: .. ", ..r::
u.c
0- Po
.E "2
';:::.:2
'E! 0 .0 e
_Po ..
"
,,-
'" '"
0
"""" """"
.. 0.

= ", -.. "' ..
:Of-< ::;
"'-

PROPERTY
% Glass By
Volume 0 20 45 50
% Glass Bv
Weight 0 33 62 66
Flexural 8500-
Strength PSI 17,000 30,000 60,000 115, 000
Madulux of 0.3
Flexure
PSI x 10.
6
0.5 1.7 3. a 5.0
Tensile 3500
Strength PSI 10,000 18,000 40,000 77,000
Compression
Strength PSI 21,300 20,000 35,000 70,000
ln1>act Strength 0.3 -
Unnotched 0.4 18-20 25 55
Water Absorp-
tion 0.15 0.3-
% (24 hrs.) 0.60 0.6 0.4 0.25
SpecifiC Gravity 1.10- 1. 55-
1.46 1. 70 1.75 1. 85
-'"'
_HI<
..... "
...... .,
'01-
T .... ,
- .. /tit. ...
1.38 20 325
1.38 20 325
1.50 18.5 400
1,50 18.5 325
1.21 23 212
1,31 21.2 212
1.90 14.5 325
1,55 17.B 325
1.84 15 325
1.52 18.5 150
I
-:3
o
-..
OJ '"
'0.0

U.c
:
",-0:
e-
""""

-'"'
"''''
.. 0.
--
47 55
65 70
66,000 150,000
3.0 6.0
45,000 120,000
39,000 70,000
22 70
0.10
I
0.15
"" .
,

Q\, ,
1.75 1. 90
!
'a
,.,
a
'"
..
'"
.0
.0
=
'"
oj
;.>
0
0
Fl0M . -'"
This is rod grade having tensile
t'rties conunonly Oilly found in alloy steel.
shear and impact strengths au all
higher than mild steel. while eloctrical
properties are excellent aad themical resis--
tance is :(Rltstanding. It is a,ailable only in
rod fOrm: Diameters--11I6" to l.z".
K8H <"
Tensile strengths in excess of 30.000 psi.
can onl) be attained b) use of this gtass--
cloch. pol)ester laminate. It c(lMmnes un
:::! 'dt':;
available. to I", '-
I

=
E
..
,.,

a:
"
=

,::.
E 00
-'"
0
u =
Po
;;

:; e",
-"
,.;
"
-&,.e. OJ
E
'"
a ..
00 :CPo
'"
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
No 12,000
6600 Failure 15,000 64,000 50,000
0.44 0.33
0.2 0.48 0.31> 10.6 29
6000- 4000 -
4000 7200 5000 44,000 eo, 000
-- -- --
64,000 60,000
9.0 2-6 6-11 22 42
0.35
-- - -
0 0
1. 05 1. 04
1.12 1. 07 1. 06 2.7 7.8
I
I
I
I
properties of
Fiterglas froducts,
from OWens- Corning fiber-
glas Standards F?-6.A1,
18 AUt:. 1952.
F'13SR REINFORCED PLASTICS
Strengths of reinforced plastic manufactured
by Ren ite :lastics, Inc., from Renite
Advertising, December 1953.
When Ren-ite is laminated at atmospheric pressure with a plain weave un-
treated glass textile which is .013 inches thick and has minimum average
breaking strength of warp 430 Ibs. per inch and filling 400 Ibs. per inch
and treated as above, the following physical properties of the laminate are
obtained:
Tensile Strength .................................... 20,000 PSI
Compressive Strength ........................... 25,000 PSI
Flexual Strength .................................... 40,000 PSI
Flexual Modulus.... ..2.3 x 10
6
PSI
Izod Impact (notched!. ......................... lS.61 ft. Ibs./in. notch
Rockwell Hardness .............................. M9S.5
It is well to note that lamination at increased pressures and more carefully L-____ -=::.-____ ::.-_________ ..:... ___ .J
controlled resin to glass ratios will give even higher physical performance.
In a test on straight resin with no filler or glass cloth of any kind, the follow-
ing values were obtained by casting 0.25" sections, holding them at room
temperature for three hours, then heating to 75 degrees (167 degrees Fl for
30 minutes:
Tensile Strength ............................ l0,900 PSI
Flexual Strength ............................ 1S,300 PSI
Flexual Modulus ........................... O.46 x 10" PSI
Work to Break ...................................... 7.7 ft. Ibs./cu. inch
Izod Impact ......................................... 0.65 ft. Ibs.
Rockw'lll Hardness ................................ RS2.7
ASTM
Method No.
D63842T
D63842T
D69542A
D69542T
D25643T
D57042
From the Naugatuck Chemical Division
of the united states Rubber Co. in
an address to the Society of Automotive
Engineers, Jan. 12-16, 1952.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF VIBRlN LA.c)lINATES
Property
Ultimate s1r., flexural, fiatwise, psi
of elasticity: flexural, initia4 psi
IntImate sir., tenSIle, psi
of elasticity, tensile, initial, psi
UltImate str., compressive, edgewise, psi
Mod. of elasticity, compressive, edgewise,
initial, p5i
Impact str., edgewise, notched !zod, ft.lbs./
in. of notch
Gain in weight, 24 hrs. immersion, dis-
tilled water @ 25'C
Glass Content, %
Resin elongation, %
Type of laminate
V-114 in USAF
12049 laminate
57,000
2,810,000
37,000
2,920,000
29,600
2,810,000
14
.13
61.5
0.5
184 cloth
12 layers
.

...
From O1Iens- Corning Fiberglas
Standards PR6.A1, 18 Aug. 1952.
Fi Content vs. Tensile Strength
for Mat or Preform Polyester Moldings
Fiberglas Content Percent By Volume
The polyester glass-liber bodies are incredibly strong.
light and rust-proof. The cars have higher power-to-
weight ratios. Model shown weighs approximately
185 pounds. has an average thickness of 2/10 inches.
Courtesy Monsanto Chemical Company.
ADHESIVES DATA NACA TN 2717
CODE IDENl'I!YING ADHESIVES USED IN INVESI'IGATION
Tho trade namos or suppliers of tho adhesivos
usad in tho presont invostigation aro as follovs.
A Cycleveld C-3
B Cyclevold C-3 with Duroz
13
2
97
C Cyclevold 55-10
D Plycozito 1170
E Redux E
1 Bakelite XC16320
G Pliobond M-20
H GE 12513
I adhesivo suppliad by B. B. Chemical Co.
:r Araldite Typo 1
K Plastllock 500
L adhesive L-1372 of the Specislty Resins Co.
M adhesive L-1356F of the Specielty Resins Co.
N Plastilock 601 Tape
Tabla 1. Conditions used in bonding lap shear test speci-
mens of clad 245-T.3 allllllinUlll alloy.
Open
Pre curing condi tiona
Curing conditions
assembly
after open assembly
Adhe-
Method of at roam Bonding
applying conditions
sive
pressure
Temper-
adhesive after last
Temperature Time
(psi)
ature
Time
coat
('7) (min) (0]1')
(min)
(hr)
A Spray 40 to 64 ---- -- 250 350 25
B (a) 24 ----
--
250 225 60
c Spray 48 to 68 200 45 150 300 30
D Spray 68
b200
45 250 300 15
E (c) 40 to 44 ----
--
250 300 10
F Web 20 ----
--
250 300 25
G Brush 16 to 24 200 10 250 350 25
H Brush 8 320 20 200 400 192
I Brush Overnight 350 12 250 350 10
J dsprinkled "None ----
-- 5 360 120
K Brush 1 325 15 250 325 30
L Brush None ----
-- 5 75 Overnight
M Brush None ----
-- 5 75 Overnight
N Ooe layer None ----
--
250 400 15
of tape
"Primary adhesive ""s applied by spray and secondary adhesive, by
brush. Primary adhesive was assembled and cured as for adhesive A, except
that no pressure was used during curing in open assembly.
~ o l l o v e by pre curing in closed assembly at 300 F for 9 min.
cOoe component was applied by brush and the other, by dusting lIhile
first componem; ""s wet.
don metal heated to 2000 F.
"Metal only cooled to room temperature.
Table 2. Conditions used in bonding lap shear test speci-
mens of plastic laminates to themselves and to
Clad 24S-T3 aluminum alloy.
Curing
Method of Bonding
conditions
Assembly Pre curing
Adhesive applying
conditions conditions
pressure
Temper-
D P1ycozito 1170
M adhesive L-13581 of the Specialty
Resins Co.
Amber1ite FA-115
P Selectron 5003. vith 1.6 percent
benzoyl peroxido end 3 percent promoter
RI'-1
Q Cyc1eve1d C-11
R Selsctron 5003. with 0.8 percent
benzoyl peroxido
S Resin X-2
adhesive
D Spray
M Brush
0 Brush
P Brush
Q Brush
R Brush
S Brush
16 hr at
75
0
F plus
45 min at
200
0
F
Immediate
assembly
5 min open
plus 10 min
closed
Immediate
assembly
Immediate
assembly
~ hr
2
open
5 min open
plus 10 min
closed
(psi)
ature
Time
( "F)
(hr)
9 min at 150
300
0
F
300 1/4
No precure 5 75 16
No precure 150 75
16
No precure 150 75
16
No pre cure
5 75 16
No precure 150 250 1
No precure
5 75
16
DMA NACA TN 271 (

(lb/O.5 sq in.)
''''--1 ' ! . _t:t:. : :",s,t,'_',: at 00
0
F
:;-;.;:- Teet 1: SpecilDe:lB teBted !.zz:aed!e.telJ "-,,,e1' rO!:ach.irJg ,'-' '-'-' .. ." _ c:q-:;""...:"e ':'92 !l.r a::: -
__ ______ __
i _70' , 80' F 140' , 160' , "",' , ""'" 350" '50" ","', 180', i, 250" I 350' 'I '50' 'i 180', i 2",', i 3"'" ,,,,' 'I '70', i 80', 1400' r
I
, 12570.}060 1332-1760 1130-l225 912-111.0 900- 760-94.5507-697445-4.97 27- 44
6XJ-1180 1210-1540 980-1295 815-1010 780.1025 420-690 412-662 465-540 31-':'14
c ! 700- 830 1680-1960 1815-2060 622- 927 U15-1205 275-427 90-170 44- 79 16- 31
D i 740-1120 1800-2350 2100-2280
I
E \1550-1870 1850-2010 1595-1705
F I 700- 920 982-13.3) 582- 695
11150-1780 607- 957 ---------
Ii 1-------- 550- 712
I 2206-2578 l275-1485
,
'---------l!.66-14li8
435-.:.470 965-1640 60-127 20- 36 8_ 12 2_ 17
010-UOc 585- 645 207-295 100-155 38- 59 24- 3B
285- 550 350- 400 135-185 56- 76 19- 54 7- 12
107- 465 --------- 50-265 62-145 35- 55
-------- --------- ------- ------- 10- 30
-------- 2&:1- 430 ------- ---- ___ -------
60- 85 ------- ------- -------
L N
1------ 15J,1817
:1010-2365 1585-1925 925-1220 955-1120 675- 895 560-735 310-5&) 235-305 ;0-155
870-1057Ii610- 755[460-6351-------la55-13071775- 79Cj 697- n.oi-------: 0-145! 50-1321 0- 85
-------- 700- 0- 25 ---------i1l7C-.:.200j1110-1205r-------i560-1000! 765- 965:530-580
, I Ii, I
625-11:'51592- 975: 350-435 0-160! 1nO-21151 2300-2320i 235:1-264: 285-405i 510-1100: 750-1650 67-152
707-1695 1070-13851147-511 27- 57: 2C6o-225012330-242ol 35O-2160
1
105-l.251175- 885, 195- 482! 55-140
390-172518"72-1002: 250- 335 :1 U5-207i 1525-1)115 1480-1552 '1123-0-1340', 567-650
1
)55-1245 890,' 145-205
1 I I .' I : ,
745-114.'5 585- 960: 212-..lI.O 12_ 7511575-2030 2205-2225! 1540-19001345-482 845-1140 I 832-15121 75-185
TABLE 6
MINDruM AND MAXIMUM S'lRENGTH VALUES OF TmTS (JF LAP SHEAR SPECIMENS OF PLASTIC LAMINATm
BONDED TO Tl!ElELVlll AND OF PLASTIC LAMINATm BONDED TO CLAD ALUMINUM IIITH SEVERAL
COMMERCIAL ADHESIVES AND TmTED A'J' -70
0
, 80
0
, AJID 250
0
F IMMEDIATELY UPON
REACHING EQUILIBRIUM AT THESE TEMFERATURrn
Minimum and maximum strength valueB
( lb/o.5 sq in.)
Type C
3
: 24s-T3 clad Type D4: 24s-T3 clad
Type Al: Grade L cotton- Type B2: Glass-fabric
Adhesive
fabric -phenolic laminate (181-114) -pol,yester
aluminum to grade L aluminum to glas s-
tested at
-
laminate tested at -
cotton-fabric-phenolic fabric (181-114) -pol,yester
laminate tested at -
laminate tested at -
_70
0
F BoF 250
0
F _70
0
F 80
0
F. 250
0
F _70
0
F BoF 250
0
F _70
0
F BoF 250
0
F
D 632-740 615-655 250-485 Boo-912 935-1320 175-460 235-267 360-472 135-185 287-385 370-442 185-335
M 672-727 615-690 170-205 487-957 385- 870 212-330 120-155 245-330 75-100 155-240 310-425 45- 57
0
------- 2Bo-360 ------- ------- 365- 455
---_ .. _ ..
------- ------- ------- ... ------ ------- -------
p
------- 280-385 ------- 365-445 400- 525 200-250 ---.. --..
.......... _--
------- ...------ -----.. - -------
Q 622-708 595-670 95-130 825-986 600- 712 80-150 165-225 378-702 25- 65 172-274 444-704 20- 45
R ------- 365-490 ------- 640-852 740- 835 265-420
-------
... _----- ... _----.. ...------ ------- ------..
s 645-748 600-6Bo 195-365 405-660 315- 485 120-160 ------- ----.. -- ------- ------- ------- -------
-
Lrype A specimen consisted of two 1- by 19- in. pieces of liB-in. -thick grade L cotton-fabric-phenolic laminate
lap-jointed for 0.5 in.
8rype B specimen was the same as type A except that the laminate used was liB-in. -thick glass_fabric (181-114)-
polyester laminate.
3Type C spec imen cons isted of wo
0.5 in. with a shim of 0.032-in. grade
4TYPe D specimen vas the same as
fabric (181-114)-polyeater laminate.
1- by - in. pieces of 0.032-in. 24s-T3 clad aluminum alloy overlapped for
L cotton-fabric-phenolic laminate in the lap area.
type C specimens except that the shim in the lap area was of 0.032-in. glass-

ourLINE 01 PLASl'ICS APPUCATIONS
A6b.5f
When you say
plastics, you
probably mean
these families
of materials
They were lim
.-< produced com
mercially in the
U. S. about
.. k
o .,
e..p.,
You have probably seen
them used in these
familiar products
Aircmt ',mis, .Ift. '.11 11gb/s, .mII ktb.
Auylics
14)31 stps Itlyn,l, AuHln, on... ItlHltSl
Alkyd, and Rosin
14)26
Lin.ltom "rlo'ingl, paints fer rtfriprtttn ..
IIodificalians 17
.,Ios, ignition parts, mogntto "",n
Amino, (Urea and
Melamin.)
9
14)29 f.rtitclltnoppliotl(ts
Cellul... Plastk
1868
Oisploy pukllging, irrigation pi,e, frnm 'If
Material,
5
.yrglout1 (rayon and at,l,t, lutiltsj
(oumor ... -Ind ... and
1913
Asphlilt Uoor tiltS, .Ivminum paints. w.I.rprMf'
Petr.l.um Resins
6
(Hlings. printin, inkl
1948
Prinl.d (ifni! bading, Ddhesins, afhct tMf
Epoxies
inls, Irondormtr end enol.r laminlttS
1943
Pump diophr.gms, chtmicoi .. bill!!.
Fluorocarbons
tUfeinSllilllion
1938
'"rs. slide fosltn.n, combs, '_I,n. 1,..ls
Nylon
red.1 slrings (nylon ,.ltil.s)
Phenolic and Other
1907
T.I'phone IIandsll, rd.rv taillth, sNit ""'4-
Tar Acid .,ins
17
ill!, dial!, tlt<-Hll. plywood
14)U
$qlltelahll holll'5, Itftlj..ri,id kildltftW.r.,,.t.
'alyethyl.ne
.ting, (oOlio! (olrs
1942
I.inforcttl p!mln for .... Ndm, Mm, fNM.
'olrester Resins
'Menl pclntls (o.cTH fUHlts)
1943
IMIIln;,n f.r pHnllor uils, nt. ,.lhMs,
Silicones
wII.rpmf t.ltinI5, eirnit .am
litdlellltMstW.tfl, mrif'roltr ptrts, ,'''_
Styren. Resins
18 1938
iNftUil;S. w.1I tll.s. litIt'illl fishlm
18
1936
Sefttr ,1m illtrlifl.r. I1Mr ttfIriap, .....
Vinyl Resins
".pIIefI .. ,..,ltm.t6s{lIrtllhtfilts)
Others
..1....
Total 100
Keep your eye on these ...
ACRYLICS
EPOXIES
FLUOROCARBONS
NYlON
POLYESTER
RESINS
POLYETHYlENE
SILICONES
E. l. dl,l Ponl de NemolJrs &
Co., Inc
Rohm & Hoos Co.
Bde!ite Cc.
Ciba Co, Inc
Deoo;> & Roynold$ Co., Inc
Shell Chemical Co.
Bokel:l!' Co.
E. l. d u Pont de &
Co, Inc
M W. Kellogg Co., $lJbsidiory
of PlJilman,
Chemsfrond Corp
E I. au ?ol'll de Nemours &
Co., Inc.
AI 100$1 41 I"d by
Americon CyonotT.id Ca.
Bokelite Co
Borrett (Plo$kon:
Celenese'Morco'l
NClIgo!uck Chemicol
Pittsburgh Plote Glens Co.
Rohm & Hoos Co.
Bakelite Co
Bo're" IPloskonl
E 1. du Ponl de Nemours &
Co . Inc
Borrell
Dow Corning Corp.
Gl'neroi Electric Co.
Linde Air Produth Co.,
of Union Corbide
& Corbon Corp
They have these
important and often
unique properties
But they also have
these limitations ar
disadvantages
Oplin! dlrily, .- w"IIIt, ,.dsltnu, wiN ctlt, Itlolin'r Mft strf.ct, I, scratchill,
.... ,., flMlI.r misflllllCf, fMdlinnHity
Fost tllrifll, "'" ;11IMft1;OII,I JI.. ilily, ... lltelrl'I' taw Irn,w mitllft"
irrs.hrtiMl, toN hnt mist'""
hlimi'" tol.r mil', "" ,I.dric.l inll"'itn, mist I,..itts lratt ma in .. llIIlnl
"u h .rteic ,,',"is
T ..... st. IIifll 'Mp'd ""ft,th, tfl. tf fnricd'.". ."lli,,'y , .. hal millln, will sw.1!
Intr"' fillisl!, .... ,ltclri,.1 with ChanllS ill klImidily and t.mperailir.
Itsistllllc, It Wiler 1114 (lusH, "U"'ln, (","plliiilil, ".r mistonc. I. "I,tnts
.Bh coc"""illing illindifllh, ,less
Elull., "'tsiOft, mistlnc, t. clitmiells t1Id Hal. Erpensive
CM," clrtel.I IM/8 ttmp.raluru
E:rt1UM mid."c. It 09*"1$ ond $Olvtllts. PMr odhflio" f.r 1st with .th.r malerlal.
wiN 'tlllpttallll1 tIft.-, high impm slmlllit IlpftIsiYf
5McI slrtllllih entI tn,lInm .nr wii. ttmptrWhff. leqllire5 my fllht IMlel, txptntl,.
"'p, w"r millonct, MII-I,brie,'in,
M,td tnd rigid, feod Itftlp!r.fllrl flng', SfFt",. .... ll1nittd I. d,rt c,lors
.Jtcfricil ins-Ittien. low wo1.r .bsorption
""rt I, MlYtfth. fluibl, and levgh Her wi.. Imptr.- Stany Cllon, w.ry .r .rHSr 'H'. fUm Is
tta renft, """uk, .. rltSS, '.sftl,u .. I skiny
WHtIltr mittenct, C. N ,",""ttl I .. prtsltro, Will SMflinlfS crtd .r eral In mini, hilh
st..... ultrhr, ,.eny fillers _III mriflklll
It,... !tNt rf:5itt.", .... wtl.t oktrplittt. .... DffliCf" I .... 'd. r.qvlm. I.h, mini cyel.,
lIi.ltchk ".,.rtifS ... r wiie fr.qHnCf r.n,. "","i'fI
lip-test .f (MlNftitil ,la1liu, uctlllfli "'''ility, 1.lallYlly Ww ""pod tttidlnc ,.., WIt'W
.. Iblif. t.r,...., tMf.If1I .... ritst mitt",c.
T.-p -' st...... _We c.lft 1'8ft .. , Uctll., .ltdri,,1 PI.sticiul1 laM ft InI,r'l. 1m periN
iMtlttitll, mist .. u .. ( .... I(tls tf Ii ..
Courtes7 Week, April 10, 1954 iSBUe.
Reproeuced with special
'.U$INfSiWUK
TITANIU>< DATA
Cost & Weight Analysis of Titanium Aircraft Engine Parts
Approx. Appros:. Approx.
I Appro Wt.
I
Appros.
Wt. ForgingWt. Coot Savings from Coot DC
Part Material Finiehed to FlniAhed Fini.hed U&e ofTi per Weight
Part, Lb. Wt., Ratio Part Part & Per Eng. Savlngo/Lb.
Propeller sbalt. ..... AMS 6412.. .......... 53.0 3.0 $161.00
Titanium alloy .... , 32,0 1,155.00
Cranksbalt front, AMS 6415.. ....... .... 45.0 5.0 132.00
TitAnium alloy ..... .. ' 27,0 1,451.00
Cranksbalt center, AMS 6260" .... ... 61.0 2.5 142.00
Titanium alloy .. 37.0 1,097.00
Crankshalt rear . AMS 6415 ...... 32.0 3.0 74.00
TitAnium alloy. 19,0 631.00
Articulated rod. AMS 6412 ..... .. 3.0 3,5 16.00
TitAnium alloy, 2.0 98.00
Master rod. AMS 6412, .... , ., 17.0 6.0 87.00
Titanium alloy .. 10,0 705,00
Rocker arm .. M.1S 6322 .... .. ... 1.0 2.0 9,00
Titanium alloy. 0.6 31.00
Turbine support .. AMS 6322 ...... 3.0 g,O 50.00
TitAnium alloy. 2,0 246.00
A typical compressor AMS 6342 0<
rotor disk: Timken 17-22A(S). 25,0 5,0 93.00
Ti tanium alloy. 14.0 737.00
A typical compressor AMS 5613(AISI403) ..... 0.06 2.0 3.00
stator blade Titanium alloy, ....... 0,04 6.50
A typical compressor AMS 5613(AISI403) ... 0.10 6.0 5,00
rotor blade Titanium alloy ...... 0,06 14.00
'20
'00

-r--t:::::::::---<....8&!lp:1
I ----.:::::: ..--. OAf.,

..... Bt-W360
:
080
o
'I
'"

Ii;
kJ=::::::s.. 0.00-
... ... ENDURAHC RATIO
151403 041
----.... 041
40
20
100,000 ,OOOPOO IO,DOOpOO
OF COMPLETElY REVERSED STRESS
FIG. 5. R. R. Moore rotating beam fatigue curves comparing typical compressor blade
with two titanium alloys in the polished condition.
50
40 "-
................ BHH3eO
30 ud":::':::":"
EIII)1JIIWtCI "Ano

QlS
...... NO STA S REU
2t RCI3Ql.ST1OnS
'''''.moo-o:
i
END. RATIO
. I ---.----- - ----
-------- ---
'0 -'-IUST... -- 7-
REL.IE.VD ItfIt.lI200-,:V-
0047
li-I5OA V
0
,.q,$TRlESrRELJ!'
'poopoo lO,ooopoo IOO,OOOPOO
CYCt..ES OF COMPLETELY REVERSEO STRESS
FIG. 6. R. R. Moore rotating beam notcb fatigue curves for the titanium alloys in Fig. 5
(60-deg. V notch, .004.006" root radius).
Figures end dete fran ATietion Week (30 June '52) reTiev
of SAE peper by H. A. Henink of Wrisht Aero. Corp.
21 lb. $47.00
18 lb. 73,00
24 lb. 40.00
13lb. 43.00
Ilb./part 82,00
16Ib./eng.
7 lb. 88.00
.4 Ib./part
141b./eng.
55.00
Ilb./part 194.00
3 Ib./eng.
lllb./part 58.00
143 Ib./eng.
.021b/r.:;
175,00
30,1b. eng.
.00Ib/r.:;
238.00
28 lb. eng.
0()
\
\
,.
\
\
\
11n4tSL
'\\
\1!2!
l"'-
..


....,.. ,
..
,
\
,
-......
\\
,
>0
') \\
,
zo
\- -
\\
\ \
\
\
\

FIG. 4. Comparison of stress to produce
total plastic strain of 0.5% in 1,000 hr ....
temperatrue, for a heatresistant fmilie alloy
and three Ti alloys.

I 14ST'


HardIMd aftd: Ttmptnd

-r 1 '1' 1
"+--


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1\ 1\'
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I
,
i
I
+.,\.
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(--..
! \\ !'-l..
! I 1
I ........
! ! i

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,
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...
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.........
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"
'-
--
()
"'"
.po
"""
0<>0
FIG. 3. Offset yield strength of titanium
alloys compares favorably with alloy steels.
Highstrength aluminum alloy is inadequate
beyond 350F.
..
" \
\
'dO
"',.\\

I

-.. .. -
..
i'....
"-


"'"
<0. ... 000 000
FIG. 7. Offset yield strength vs. tempera-
ture for two grades of commerciaUy pure
titanium and 321 stainless steeL
_ Comparison of
ti tanium, steel.
aluminum and
magnesium alloys.
Courtesy ATistion
Week 2 June '52
from el:ticle by
P. G. DeHuff and
W. S. Hszel"ton
of Westinghouse
Ges Turbine
Division.
TIT A<'IIUM alloy exceeds other C<l1nmon
materials in strength.weight ratio.
A6b:6
IS 1----
10
5
COIfIe08/0N "."
r
,sPJe .... y - ZO% N.cl
V" 1: .;)r'CNG TI-I
PkoP. UAt4,r
l'M,r
e LoN6. %'
STRENGTH DATA
Fatigue Strength of Dural
/tJ,OOO
16.lJ

$ o .. /0
67, /00 67.900
':>9,400
lr.oaO ''- 000
IZ,tf. 13.5
f(n:, fil. oc . A.s. 7:"",
Po
p./19
Fig. ASb: 3
Fatigue
Strength
of Dural
Nt./M8'1f OF CYCLe-S

2100
3400
6100
0000
11,500
15,500
20,200
24,700
30,000
0
.190
.250
.3125
.375
.4375
.500
.5025
.025
.G075
4.
4.25
4.75
5.00
5.25
5.75
6.25
G.75
7.25
7.75
- 4.
1-1/2 .OG4 .250 .134 .110
1-7/0 .067 .340 .180 .155
2yl/0 .110 .440 .223 .201
2-1/(. .135 .274 .23C
2-1/2 .159 .G30 .320 .201
2-7/0 .103 .732 .377 .327
3-1/4 .209 .03C
3-1/2 .2.31 .924
3-3/0 .2591.03C --
Ti. rod length L + K cent.r to center ot tera1n&l hole
2100
3400
6100
0000
11,500
15,500
20,200
24,700
30 000
,,"

1.532
1.C13
2.000
2.250
2.500
2.013
3.125
3.375
3.603
Dimo1W1ona

.469

.a43
.075
1.000
1.1DC
1.375
1.500
1.625

.500 .150
.02& .2('8
.750 203
.on .266
1.063 .M4
1.100 .406
1.375 .453
'1.500 .510
1.024 .574
Courtosy Tho Hncwhto Co., Konoshn,Wlsoonsin.
standard
L:-
B
-4

..... Yacwhyte
"Safe Lock"
100
90
80
'10
60
50
40
30
11\ 20

..... 15
q
Q
Q 10
- 9 ... 8
Q '1
6
Q
-..J 5

.... 4
<lit
3
.:::
...,J
;:, 2
1000
800
600
500
400
t- --f- f.-I_-- .' I I l --L":.:=r--L.. .. 1 I I' I I 1
i Eguati 0 s.
IEulerl piA = n
2
2SxI0
6
/(L/r)2 to right of circlos
- Parebola. PiA = 60,080 - 3.15/(L/ft)2 to left.
- -r-;, ... r---;- i I
I
- i'- -- I--- .- ---.....
---
I" r--
r......,

r--I-
...... 1""---..
'"
17>-
J4 t-t-
l""-
t-
--- r--
.........
l'
.- -
. . -1'1..1. -
"
-
t-..
rJ
f"--
-
t--
""'"

........

.......
-

IT' -
U3
r--.
'- II r-:- r-....
II Fl

-..
-...

r-...


- -
...
_ 4.tc::.:
-
r-

'CI

r.-

'::: --
....
I"-
...................
..

.' "
" "
...
[ -:::-s::
...
'"
""I'
t,-::

7'J I"'-...

,
'\. '\.
;\.
.:
f I'
...

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,
!'/.'
1.,,'\
I/'S
..... F<o

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\,.



'<s
k'


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I'\: III./'
j;-Q ,'-( ./ I'C
-
.....
,.

>..: \'

(, :,

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r\.
t:-
COl
'J... ""..' l\.
"\

0
,
, ,
.....
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l-
i--
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,
, '\
-
.



I' '\
,
/
,
f-'\
t\
,
P<


[\
I'
"-
'"
\,.
:-....
\
='-
"\ 1"\
"\
\,.


,
t\
f\

1\1
,,'I.

,
f'\
'\
,
. Ci 'Y< .. ":"\ " '
"
"
I\. :""'\. "'C' '\
,
",'
'\. '\. I'\. ,'\
1'\
r..." '\. , '\ '\"" 1\'
" ,
'\
1\ "'At;;;) ,\ " '\
,
\,.
I"-
'"
'\
I\.
,
I\. .'\
'\ '\r- \,. ...
"
r\.

r\.'"
'\.

'\
."',
"
\,. , '\
'\

'"
I'
\
,"
r\.,
,
"
'\
i'...
' ,
,
, ,
I
r
!
I
1


I'. Ir
i

l>



I\,.

,
-'
R'
'-";
.'\ .-
I\. ,I\.
"
I\. 1'\"
f'\ "r\lt
[\ l'i
", l
I' .( i\
'I' ,
,
I' '
I\,. l\.
I, I I,
I\. i 1
1,\
'"
"
r\ r\ t\..

r'{'\

i\.

. "
300
250
:'\.'\. I'\. '\. " ".i '\. i\. '\ '- " , I i\..'

200
-
!
""" ' . \,. l' hl,""" '" _ 'i\0
10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 '10 80 90100
Fi g. A6b& 4 strength of nound Tubular struts, SAE 4130 Steel.
(Graph for solution of Johnson-Euler formula.)
150
V')
t:l
..J
o
o
o
o

o
...J
h.J
...



:J

GO
50
Equc..tions.
Long P - .85%286 l 10
6
colunms I A - CVf }

Short P _ 1-
colunmsl A - .85 60,000 - 3.141(!!)2]
- p
I .,-
I
I
III m I
=ft:R 11111I11
__
3 - +-+-
U
-L+-t::t::1H-1-
I -,-,- 1 1 1 I \.,j -!n ,!,.. LL.1--'--1.....L..1
'" 1 T I I I I I I
_ I f I ';"1',"&/', ,---;....... ' f ,\ I t I I I
R 9 10 15 flO 30 :C
. 0'"
-.1 Fia. A6ba5 Strength or Strclllillinc '.i'ubu1llr Struts, SloE 1.130 Stoel.
o (Grnph tor solution ot Johnson-Eulor tormuln).
A6b:8
STRENGTH DATA
.30 28 ?6 24 22 20 18
45'1110 .015 020 .025 .030 .050
I\. I'\. I'" IV '\."
'" V '" L\ '" I '" .-
20
"'\ '- V"..r
1\
\ \
6
f .1\"" .... N.lkh .. I \ \ 1\
5
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 SO 55 60
Fig. A6ba6 Chart tor Design of liOrrugated Sheet Dural Structures.
I>
I
fo 0.13"6
Section Properties of Standard Corrugated
Dural Sheet.
t : sheet thickness, inches
P : corruGation pitch, inches
D : -tn, cent er of sheet to center of
sheot, TIaVC to trouGh, inchc$ 0.300 P
R : corruGation curvature :. 0.282 P
I : of inertia of area of Rcotion
&tout x axis, : 0.158 tD'W
if: 1ndth of sheet, inche:s, soe Fi(; .A:516
Wo: 1rldth of sheot if pressod flat, inchos
= 1.228 1i
A : "ection aroa, sq.in. &
p. of gyration of shoot, inoho.
0.359 D
C = fixity coefficient
: 1.0 for supported only by bulkheads
= 1.5 for sheet covered by flat
shout
= 1.5 with acoq1.:atu "heot odGo support
\lld T"T< 3Lj.:,
Fig. A6ba7
Dimensions of Standard corrugations for
dural sheet.
: 3.0 for shoot oovur",d by aclditional
oorrucntco. shvct, oorruGations at
right anGlo s.
A6b:9
...... .
"t>

I I 10


fi
'"0
1\
'"
f"

BuoklinG
-15
Struss
35
......
(flQ.t
"
"
l'
for a
-20
1\ r\.
""

30
nit
-25
iU1owab1c ':$ '\
........
t".

1000Ibs -30
Pompro5s
o

lPor sq. iI
t"5
35
25
iva
Stress,


"
'"



000 1bs.
-(5
20 f- per
-
1
20
,-50
sq. in.

'"

-,
"'-
-60


15 -10




........ i'...

--
'"
-i00
10 0 -
.........
t'--
I""'"
r--
ioo......
5 5
: bemoan bulkhoo.ds
'-
f rnih?s or QTrr-Hon or stoot !
0
o 10 20 !Ii 0 <.0 50 GO 10 80 90 100 110 120 130 150 160
Fig. A5bl8 Column properties of corrugnted d'lrd sheet.
20
15
10 Al10'1mble
FIS
5
1000
Ilsq.1n.
o 10" wide
X = 20" wide
L = inches
O ..... - ....... -;;....----------.J
o 10 20 30
Fig. A6b:9Typical shear test data for corrugated
dural sheet. Pitch. 1. '3". t 0.020". ACrC 685.
1.0
.8
-
F
!'- "0
-I-- ...L... L':
.6
.5

.3
2
.1
QS
.06
.05
.0,",
- - -L 18"
'\..
-
'i.. t 053"
...
0". t 033"
-
"
_M of 019"
-
00-

...
t'
- I"@.
...

"'t>;.
-
"1 !o
- .lJ '
_ -:- .035"' '\,
r


1'\
.03
100
(PN".)/t
200 300 '"00 500
I-
1-
1-

f"

1000
Fig. A6blll Canpressive strength of flat dural she
with U stlfteners, P - 3" to 121f, t - .019" to
.052", Fe - 38,000#/ in
2
FY'CG tests by Newell in
Acrc 685.
15
10
B
6
5
pitch
pitch
2 . ...
30 .;.0 50 60 SO 100 200 300
Fig. A6bllOSummary of shear test data on corrugated
dural sheet. Replotted from ACrO
__
.8
F
.6
.5 - Fc
.CKI---4----l
1000t/R
__
o 2 6 8 10
Fig. A6bl12t::ompressive strength of curved dural
sheet with lJ L - 6
ft
Fran tests by
Newell in Acrc 6e,y
Mb:10
STIFFENED SHEET; STRUC'roRAL SIYBOLS
STIIT"..NER .. C FOR lll.5.4.2
"max (REn:R
ro FIG. BELO'I
Stitfen.r. A (Edg.)
"1
.
.60 a
Hanng
biz Single

"2
.8S
Line or
b/2
Coefficients for detenrlning err.cti ve
Cgnnect10n B(Int.,....di .. t. )
"2
.85
width of stiffened sheet (Equation5:4. 2 ).
Stiffen.rl C (Edg.)
"l
.60 a
Hanng
b/z Double

"2
.8S
Un. ot
Connection

"3
.85 c
D(Int ..... diat.)
"2
.85 b/2
! ""3
.85 c
Noto. 'nle abOTe conatant. apply whon the ahe.t romul1l!
unbuckled b.t"ten ri"fet. Ilnd when .! doe.
Dot exceed 0.4. Set> figuro bolOt.-. tc b
I
-a I b b
(a) Pan.l with aUrfenorl hanng a aingle lino of connection I
to the Ihe.t.
(b) Panel with .tiffener. h.ving a double lina ot connection
to the eheet.
A-Area of cross section) square inches.
a-Subscript "allowable"
H-Slenderness ratio factor. (See equation
1 :28.)
b-Width of sections; subscript "bendint."
br-Subscript Hbearing."
C-Circumference.
c-Fixity coefficient for columns; distance
fro; neutral axis to extreme fiber; sub-
script "compression."
cr-Subscript "critical."
D-Diameter.
d-Depth or height; mathematical operator
denoting differential.
of elasticity in tension; average
ratio of stress to strain for stress
proportional limi t.
e-Elongation. this fticWI' being a lli.eubLll t' of
the ductilitv of the material and being
based on a tension test; unit deformation
or strain; eccentricity; subscript for
Euler's formula; subscript uendurance."
E' -Effective modulus of elasticity.
of elasticity in compression;
average ratio of stt:'ess to strain below
proportional limit.
E,-Secant modulus.
E,-Tanlrent modulus.
F-Allowable stress.
(-Internal (or calculat .. d) stress
F,-Allowable bending stress, modulus of
rupture in bending.
f,-Internal (or calculated) primary bending
Rtress.
f; -Internal (or calculated) precise bending

F,,-Endurance limit in bending.
(",-Internal (or calculated) bearin!, stress.
"Fbfy-Cltimate stress.
F
br
.,-Yield bearing stress.
F
c
.'.........Allowable compressive stress.
(,-Internal (or calculated) compressive
stress.
1.! STANDARD STRUCTURAL SYM.
BOLS. FROM ANC-6e..
F,,-Allowable crushing or crippling stress
(upper limit of column stress for local
failure).
F,,-Column yield stress (upper limit of
column stress for primary failure).
F,,-Proportional limit In compression.
F
clO
-L1timate compressive stress.
F,,--COmpressive yield stress.
F.-Allowable normal stress.
f.-Internal (or calculated) normal stress.
F,-Allowable shearing stress.
f,-Internal (or calculated) shearing stress.
F, -Critical shear stress for buckling of
CT rectangular panels.
Fu-Endurance limit in torsion.
F,,-Proportionallimit in shear.
F,,-:\lodulus of rupture in wrsion.
F,,,-Lltimate stress in pure shear. This
value represents the average shearing
stress over the cross section.
F,-Allowable tensile stress.
j,-Internal (or calculated) tensile stress.
F,,-Proportionallimit in tension.
F .. -Vltimate tensile stress (from tests of
standard specimens).
F,,-Tensile yield stress at wbich permanent
strain equals 0.002 (from tests of stand-
ard specimens).
of ri!'idity.
g-
H-
h-Hei!(ht or depth; especially the distance
bet ween centroids of chords of beams and
trusses.
of inertia.
i--8lope (due w bending) of neutral plane of
a beam, in radians (1 radian=5i.3).
I,-Polar moment of inertia.
J-Torsion constant (=1, for round tubes).
j-Stiffness facwr= ... 'E1/P.
K-A constant. generally empirical.
hi-Kips (1.000 pounds) per square inch.
L-Len!,th; subscript "lateral"
M-Applied moment or couple, usually a
bending moment.
m-
M,-Allowable bending moment.
N-
lI-Subsr,ript "normal."
0-
0--
P-Applied load (tDtal, not unit load).
p-Subscript "polar"; subscript "propor-
tionallimit."
P,-AlIowable load.
psi-Pounds per sq uar;, inch.
'I-Stat,ic moment of a cross section.
q-
R--8tress ratio=jIF.
r-Radius.
S-Shear force.
8-Subscript "shear."
T-Applied tDrsional moment tmque.
t-Thickness.
T.-AlIowable wrsional moment.
['-Facwr of utilization.
u-Subscript Hultimate."
\'-
v-
Ir-
u>--Specific weight, lh/cu. in.
X-
x-Distance along elastic curve of a beam.
y-
v-Deflection (due w bending) of elastic
curve of a beam; distance from neu tra I
axis w given fiber; subscript "yield"
Z-5ection modulus, lly.
z-
Z,-Polar section modulus=1,ly (for rO\Jnrl
tubes).
o (delta)-Deflection.
rI> (phi)-Angular deflection.
p (rho)-Radius of gyration.
!' (mu)--Poisson's ratio.
I (prime)-In general denotes an Heffective"
or "precise" value.
\,
1.3 COMMONLY FORMuLA;) \,Cmlwi ju'lO-oa) A6b:ll
1.32 SBIPLE eXIT STRESSES
1:1 j/=P/A (tension).
1:2 je=P/A (compression).
1:3 jb=JJy/I=Jf/J:.
1:4 j,=S/A (average direct shear stress).
1:5 j,=SQ/lb (longitudinal or transverse
shear stress).
1:6 j.= Ty/l
p
(shear stress in round tubes
due to torsion).
1:7 .1,= T/2At (shear stress due to torsion in
thin-walled structures of closed sec-
tion. Note that A is the area en-
dosed by the median line of the
section).
1.33 STRESSES (see sec. l.535)
1:8 jn=f,+fb (compression and bending).
1:9 j'mu= "{F.+ (jn/2)2 (compression, bend-
ing, and torsion).
1:10 j"max=j,,/2+j'max'
1.34 DEFLECTIONS (Axial)
1 :11 e=o/L (unit deformation or strain).
1 :12 E=j/e (this equation applies when E
is to be found from tests in which
f and e are measured).
1 :13 o=eL=j/EL
=PL/AE (this equation applies when
the deflection is to be calculated
using a known value of E).
1.35 DEFLECTIONS (Bending)
1 :14 di/dx=M/EI (change of slope per unit
length of beam, radians per unit length).
1 :15 iz=il+ (rt M/EI dx=slope at point 2.
Jrl
(The integral denotes the area under
the curve of M/EI plotted against x,
between the limits Xl and X2.)
1 :16 Y2=YI+iI(X2-XI)+ rx'JJ/EI(Xz-x)dx
JII
=deflection at point 2. (The in-
tegral denotes the area under a'
curve having ordinates equal to
J;J/EI multiplied by the corre-
sponding distances to point 2,
plotted against x, between the
limits XI and X2.)
1 :16a .'12=YI+ [I'idx=deflection at point 2.
JXI
(The integral denotes the area
under the curve of (i) plotted
against x, between the limits Xl
and .f2).
1.36 DEFLECTIONS (Torsion)
1 :17 d>/dx= T/GJ (change of angular deflec-
tion or twist per unit length of member,
radians per unit length).
1:18 c/>= (XI T/GJ dx=total twist over a
JXI
length from XI to Xz. (The integral de-
notes the area under the curve of T/GJ
plotted against x, between the limits XI
and xz.)
1 :18a >= TL/GJ (used when torque T is
constant over length L).
l.37 TRANSVERSE
1 '19 _ / = unit lateral deformation
. J.I.-eL e unit axial deformation
(Poisson's ratio)
1 :20 Eex ---}x - J.Liv.
1:21 Eey=jv-JJ:ix.
l.38 BASIC
1 :22 Fc
o
=c7r
z
E/(L/ p)2 (Euler formula for
long columns).
=7r
z
E/(L'/p)2 where L'=L/..r;.
1 :22a F
c
=c7r
z
E' /(L/p)2 (modified Euler for-
mula for short columns).
1:23 Fc=Feo[ l-K(L' /p/7r.J E/Fco)"] (gen-
eral parabolic formula).
1 :24 - Fcu(!.'/p)2/47r
2
EJ (2.0 para-
bola-Johnson formula).
1 :25 Fe= Feo [1- 0.3027( eL' / p) /1r.J E/ Feo )1.5]
(l.5 parabola).
1:26 F
c
=Feo[I-0.385(L'jp)/1r.JE/Fco] (1.0
parabola-straight line formula).
1.39 BASIC COLUMN FORMULAS (Non-
dimensional)
1 :27 R.=Fc/Fco (allowable stress ratio).
1:28 B=(L'jp)j1r.JE/Fco (slenderness ratio
factor).
1 :29 Ra= (1!B)2 (E'Jlef formula).
1 :30 Ra = 1-KEn (general parabolic for-
mula).
1 :31 Ra= 1-0.25B2 (2.0 parabola-Johnson
formula).
1 :32 Ra= 1-0.3027 BI,5 (l.5 parabola).
1 :33 Ra= 1-0.385E (l.0 parabola-straight
line formula).
A6b:12
STRENGTH DATA
Fonnulas for Stress and Strength, 'Steel and Dural Sections
R
h
a = 1 - x:e (General p&rabolio formula)
Sl Ra = 1 - .25B
2
(2.0 parabola - Johnaon formula)
32 R., = 1 _ .30278
1

5
(1.5 par&bola)

= 1 - .S85B (1.0 parabola - line formula)
of LocdblG Unit Stress
l.llom'.b1e Unit Strt:ss
SHEl.R LlID
I fa' =jfs2 + (fj2)2 not to

f : P

c Dt
p.llol'mh Ie for pure shear
f V fo' : f0l2 + fa' not to exceed
,L.- P
tI ot

E--for compression.
l Fle.t
plate
I
SHEI-R IJiD
t , :/; 2 + (rcl2)
not to
p s 8
.
f
t
Dt
e7.oewd r.llowmble for pure shear
.
i
'p
f - V
1 f t '
: ft!'2 + f s'
not to exceed

8 - ot
I
. Flnt
F
t
for tons ion
Plr-to
I B:l!:Dnm loHD S:IE'J .. Tl ,-
f not to e::oel!.d E'.llm7l'.ble
1'0 =!:fl-
o for conprossion
I t "'iok I
If SQ
I f s not to exceed allm'/F.ble for
I ::-.bClut y r.xis s l'S
puro shear
, ,
soc io:-. londo(
nt elas'.::ic axi
,--

(500 clso TIT
Thin
fo=y-
! Fc;.for Wt.:c;120
oyl1r..der
I :.3 ./fu'co I
f
s

I for 1:, t >-120
1--:'1
Thb box f ):., f =

c

C r stress in thin plato
f = SQ f s = r.llOTI'l',ble Gher.r stro81S
Sib
fer thin flr.t plnte
Type of Unit Strese AIlowable Unit Stress
Bending and
Compression
Sprucs box or I
fb: See P A3:6.1
section
t;j
I
fc = t
Round tubes of
f -!:!r
fb fc
Steel or b - I
1); Fc
= 1.0
0
P
Fb
: bending Mod. of rupt.
fo = A
Fc
: allowable oolumn
stress

-
.
to
-6.
See pp. 5 p
M - bending moment about neutral axis, in. Ibs.
y _ distance from Jlelltr'-ll axis to o;l1;.or f 1 bprs.

POOrIJC'.n
P. 215
POOrtlflll
p. 215
Eq.
511.1
Reference
ANC=/If>
Sea.
2.41
ANC#5
Seo.
4.40
v
IT
I = moment of inertia of area aoout axis.
S - shear, Ibs. Q - A'y and b = width at point of

shear stress
Unit
TYPe of Loc.dh Ux;i t ____ . Rofere.I).cEl Typo of Loo.ding Stress J.J.lo\"1r.blo Un! t streGs
TORSIOn Tr ( :i:E!JSIOli Fty Cot yiold pcint

@
t
s
:-,- 1", 3!\t 'yield .. Al'!y p/l.
, _ ultinnte . Soctbn F
t
at ultiI:e.t"
u
For L/r. .:0. Equc.tions ,. L 2
Tbin but not mou then (619) COl!PR.ESSIOH Fco- L) for pIJ.> ill.e1l.
.r:-: lim t - 2T +30} t.nd Tbic._ piA 1T TN
-,"" cy er s .. ;rcI2l: Por Lh <:;10_, 1 25 (5110) '" ?E/(L/r)2 tor ?/J..<Fcrlz 307
l.ll!: (t It) 'J'f1. -t----tr-----------t-:-:-::-
_
________ Thbnp
r.:tI 1> :=. PInto 6.t" Aoro.
E
_ Solid !l - 0065n/(1+n
3
) Sf'Jlle 1'1.8 for round I.vil'.tion su J)c.rti..d p/J_ *-b Oct. 133
1'/. recl;l'IlG1e :nt'.t. n - b.Sr- bars R.uldbook (fo p- "-"d" : .. 1 ) \ 1
0
1 p. 1-:'7
//. P. or G,e
Shott
b
i
9 T - p/J. :Tith Eq.
... t } t Sme C.s for round bars Sedy . f. 6.5.JEFcdt/n) 5&?'.1
130 ...... a. .. a. .... =--= ..
I
b Aviation SHE.t.R F1 t Eucl::liDj; fr.ilur\l P.t Tiruo-
4 q=J
- Thin _ T 6E(t/b)2 Hr.ndbool: --. 9 Plr\o v/bt :: 4. 5 (b!l:'. + .J08) E (t/b)2 shanko
t. hollol7 po b t - I with S I .L but net narc -!;han Ft/2
. 1 ..L-: --- .. ,0." '. j.
e : unifon.l tensio:l yield at F
tt
2
chet"r (-i{!'.t;.lor "tund":l fiuld" sh(J('.r
Tl,in f.vidion brnoinc)
Tr-> Sti:" .. U- "'OF Hnndboo!::
-'9'-'1:'rii'e section T 8 p. 1.,30
-m-- 6T:/t + 30
- (For corrugated, see A3:l3)
'I'ORSION f = r :;; 2'+' (r 12)2..... Notation:
COilPRESSION. II 0 8 0/' Trt.:la.
Thill t : plJ. not to exoeed d- LuG. L' - length between bulkheads, inches.
oylinder 0 lcr:lI?ble for torsion(?) t - plate or sheet thickness, inches. d = cylinder diameter,
inches.
_ 21 L - length or column, inches. least radius of gyration of
J.}lD fl ifciZt f = rtl2 +../ t 2+{f/;!)2 section, in.
TENSION . s E - modulus of elasticity in compression, lbs./sq.in.
Thb i
t
= pi!.. 1'01 = If 2 + (f ... I2)2-
t
J2 see Ft;v- tension test yield point, lbs./sq.in. Ftu - tension test
oyli4lder to eloeed r.flowo.b1e FiG. ultimate strength.
for tordon (?) 5,'6 P - load, lbs. A - area of cross section, sq. in.

Q/S'ci
'" Lauraon - Cox
Notation: {See also p. P:3-4) Mechanics of Mater iala
L = length between bulkheads, in. A - area enclosed by boundary F = shear
stress at yield; Fty tensile stress at yield; Ftu ultimate strength (ten-
sion). thiCkn
4
ess, in. d - diameter. in. J. 1rr4 for solid shafts.
J - 11' L!'"f' - (r-t) ] /2 tor tubes. 2
T ;: twisting moment, in. lbs. r = outside radius of rod or tube, in.
1';0.,,,-,,... , .,.,.<1
I
III
CD
:;"
'1

'1
CD
CD
til
II> c-)
:s 'J
Po i 1
en :
.... "
'1 H
CD

::r't-;!
.. >

CD
I!-
8.


en
It
g.
....
g
til

0"
..
I-'
\.oJ
Aeb:U
STRl!NG'!H OF STEEL
(Reproduced .1 th perm1es1on from
TABLE 2.111 (a).-Design mechanical properties' oj plain carbon steels (kips per square inch)
Type Tube, sheE't, and
ha,
1020-25
SPt"Cific-ation
Condition ..
Diameter or thldml'ss.
i '
............ .1 L'..... . ')
.I [:::::::::.:::::1
1 T... ... :::::::::')
F .....
. .... ;
F ................ ............. .. I
1.5)' .................... .
F".,,(e/D=2.0) ____ ----- _ -- -- -- __ -- _ _ _ _ _ ____ . ______________ I
55
36
36
35
90
............. . ................. --1- .......... ..
........... .. ................................. + ____ .. ..
K __ ....................... ........... . .. ::::::::::::: ... :: ................ --1
E,_ .. __ .. _______ .. ____ ..... . ...... _ .. _____ .. __ ' .. ..
G .... _ .... ___ __________ .. __ __ ______ ... __ ... __
lV ths./int _________________ _
Commercial designation._
1
------------------------ ------------------ ------1
.... ---- ...... ----. -------.. --1-- ..
28,000
28,000
10,000
0.283
TABLE 2.111 (b).-Design mechanical properties oj alloy steels' (kips per square inch)
TyPl"
Alloy
I ,!
--.-1' Sh{'t't,plstf,tub;',bll.randrod r Pla!rand ,Platf,!uht.
! har and bar
Shf't't. pIau. tutx', har, and rod
.130
i------
,"'!loy steels cnnLaJnlnj!: than I*rN'nt Nrhon
AS-WW-T-8.'{)
and .... and
G,',
ConditIOn HT It))
J.ti
HT 125 HT \5(1 HT l!!ll HT aAJ
ttl k!l ktl r
------ --- ------------ ----
TlismNer or t<U 1>1.51.1 1<..1.51.1
------_.- ---------------- --- -----
FhI d __
L' '\ 90 95 55 35 100 125 150 180
I
T.
J
F!fI ____ L. I 70 75 36 45 80 100 135 165
, T .. 1
F
e
.. _____ __ :
L 70 75 100 135 165
T .. J
F .......... - .. I
55 55 35 40 65 75 90 105
1.5) ... 1 ,
F .... 140 140 140 175 190 200
F ... ....
-
E I 29,000 29,000 000 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000
Eo..... I
29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000 29,000 29.000 29,000
G..... . 11,000 11,000
I
11,000 11,000 11,000 11,000 11.000 11. 000
Wlbs.!in. ___ ._._ 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283 0.283

i
4130
,
I
TABLE 2.111 (c).-Design meclwnical properties oj corrosion resisting and heat-treated,
Type
Alloy.
gpeciflcation
Condition
resisting steels (kips per square inch)
i
i
I
18-8
A:s'-QQ-S-i72-Cl&ss I and II
"-l Cold rolled
.... __ . ___ ... 1 Annealed' i
200
165
165
115
29,000
29,000
11,000
0.283
corrosion
I I 1 I
i ! ;i hard i hard 1 .. hard i FuH hard II l4 hard i H hard I harrl ,Full hsrrl
Diumeter or
F .. b ........ 1 75 1251--:J--:1-:---=-r---=-I---=----:
F,,'_ ... ... 1 L... . 'i) 30 ! 75 I 110 I. 135 ! 140 75 140 160
F L
T .... -- 351 65 1 85 I 951 140
T::::::::
1
\ 35: 100 I 120! 140 '
F .... __ ..... ____ .. 40167.5.. 80 I 951
--.::' ----75) i5O i isoto loot ..

K _______ .. __ .\ L .. ______
1
29,000 1 27,000 ! 26,000 , 26,000 i
T .. __ .... 29, 000 1 28, 000 i 28, 000 1 28, 000 28, 000 ,
E, .. __ .. __ .... L_ .. _ .. __ 28, 000 I 26, 000 I 26, 009 26, 000 26, 000 .
T _______ . 28,000. 27,000 '127,000 i 27,000 27,000'
. .1: 7:::: 11,: I: 7:: [.
-.1-
I
11,000
0.286
& Where joints with tapered welds at angles of 30
0
or
1es8 to the center line, or fish-mouth welds ff)rmed by
cuts of 60
0
or less are used, the allowable tensile stress
near the weld un be assump-d to be 50,000 p. s. i.
b Standa.rd structural symbols are explained in sec.
1.2, ch. L
.. L= longitudinal, parallel to direction of rolling.
T= transverse, perpendicular to direction of rolling.
d: D=hole diameter; t=edge distance measured from
the hole center line in the direction of stressing; use
value of t/D=2.0 for all larger values of edge distance;
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing stress value
should be obtained by linear interpolation; values for
e/D<1.5 must be substantiated by adequate tests
prior to approval by the procuring or certificating
agency.
.. Except as noted, the value." given in thi:-; table apply
to any of the structural alloy :o::tE'els containing less
than :i percent carholl AllY of these stee1." will di"play
the properties given in the column correspollding to
ultimate J".trE':-;s. These .... apply to the
material" in .... arious form", s-uch a...; barJ"., rods,
sheet, casting!', forgings, etc. In the case of castillKs
the above values correspond to those obtained from
test bars. Reference should be made to the specific
requirements of the procuring or agency
ill TeJ2;ard to the use of the above .... alues ill the rlt'si!2:n
of ca...;tings.
b This valuE' is applicable when the material i" fur-
nished in condition :'\ (A:\"-\\TW-T-85OJ but the .... ield
strength is appreciably reduced when normalized t'ub-
sequent to welding,
e The u"e of higher heat-treatments than that cor-
to F , .. = 180,000 p. s. i. :-;hall be ba...,ed or!
rulings of the procuring or licensing agencies
<! Standard structural symbOls are explaiTlf'd ill sec.
1.2, ch, 1.
parallel to direction of
perpendicular to directioll of
f D= hole diameter: e=edge di;;;tB.nce from
the hole centerline in the direction of
value of e:D=2.0 for al1larller of edge
for ratio:; between 1.5 and 2,0, the bearinll iolhould
be obtained by linear interpolation; values for F! lJ< 1.5
mu...:t be ;;;ubs.tantiated by adequate teq;;; prIor to ap-
proval by the Procuring or certificating allellCY.
.. Heat-treatment consi!'t!' of holding from 16 to 3ft
h?urs at 300_200 c., (570-392 F.), and cooling ill
aIr.
b s.tructural symbols are explained in
sec. 1.2, ch, 1.
L= longitudinal, parallel to direction of rollin!l:
T=tran.'<Yer:-e, perpendicular to directioll of
d Th(> 0.2 percent minimum yield .stres:,es \\ere
determined on the basi:- of the initial moduli of
ticity as shown by the stress-strain data .
t The,;;e data afe safeI\" ba.sed on the "a..;-cold-roll{d"
material, and should be higher for the "cold-rolled and
heat-treated" material.
f D=hole diameter: e=edge distance measured ffom
the hole centerline in the direction of :-;tressill,IC use
value of e/D=2.0 for all lar,2;er value:, of ed,2;('
for between 1.5 alld 2.0, the bearing stre . ..;:- \'alue
be obtained by liTleaf interpolation: values for
el IJ< 1.5 mu"t be sub.st8.ntiated by adequate te;;;t:-; prior
to approval by the Procuring or certificating
A6b:15
SmENG'm 01 sTEEL YmBERS
(Reproduoed with permission from ANC-5a)
:--"
I
I OF WEUl CUT-OFFS
160
\ HEAT TREATED AFTER
iHEATTREATED
CUT-Off REF,
TOr. Fr"
1\
180.000 144,000 5 er.4.510
150
h
150.000 120.0005 EC.'\510
125. 000 95,000

NORIIIA1.IZEC
100.000 76ptJO F
140
N
95,000 67,500 FI
I 1
" \
I
I'--.. CUT-OFF
130
II
IHG
I
1/1
\
0:
\
i
0120
\

1
! 1/1
.... P I
c
!
z
= 1'50.000 P!
110
FlU J 125 Lo PSI
:I
0
:z:
100

.....
!
I--
Iv
1/1
1/1
Ie
11.1
II:
In
\
Z eo
:E
3
I
0
()
70
\--
CUT-oFF FOR WHO
11.1

AFTEII HEAT-TIlEAT-
oJ
III

4150
1
c 10

\\
I
0
oJ
oJ
c
50

75,000 P
I

P I
..:
40
\
I
30
USE OlSHED
FOR COLUMN
20 " OW ,,-CE .
""
i'-
10
o 20 40 eo 10 100 120 140 160
L'ly
FIGUU: No. 2.23 (c) ,-Allowable column stress for heat--
treated &lloy steel round tubing.
U COMBINED LOADINGS
2.5] ROU:-.iD TUBES 1:,\ BE:,\DI:'\G
A:,\D general theory
of failure under combined loadings is giv,'n in
section In the case of combined bending
and compl'Pssion it is npcessary to consider th{'
efeets of secondary bending; that is, bending
produced by lhl' axial load acting in conjunc-
tion with the lateral deflection of the column.
In genl'ral, e'Iuation 1:37, section 1.535, can be
used in the following form for safe vallles:
fj.+F
j
, =1.0 ___________ (2:2)
, 'r
1
S.= R,+R,-L------(2:2a)
Where
fo' = bending stress including
effects of secondary bending.
F,=Bending modulus of rupture.
I=Axial compressive stress.
F,,=Compressive yield stress.
In no case shall the axial compressive stress,
j" exceed the allowable, F" for a s;mplc column.
TABLE 2.21.-Colu.mnjormv.la.jor rou.nd steel tu.b ..
F .. ->n I i
Sbort COIUlIUlS
I Crt.""
Lo<al
Material
Buic L",
Lonrool\lIIlIU-
fa11W1!l
Column rormula It I equatloo
!
,
1025 ____________
------
36
1
36 36,000--1.172 (L'I.)' [1.24 124 276X 10'/('/.)' (.)
4130 ___________________
'76 79.5 79, 50(}-51. 9 (L'I.)" 1.25 91.5

(.)
Heat treated" alloy steel_
-100 I
100
1
100
,000--8. 74 (L'I.)' 11:24
75.6 Z86XIO'r(L'I.r (0)
Heat tieated alloy .steeL 136 136 136,000--15.92 (L'I.)' 1:24 65.0 286X IO'((V Ip)' (0)
Heat treated alloy steeL 165 165 1165, ooo--za 78 (VI.)' 1:24 58. 9 286XI0'/(L'lp), (.)
I
d This value is applicable when the material is fur
L'I,= L! rir:. L'I,. shall not exceed 150 without.
<Jpeciflc authority from the procuring or licensing &ffency.
nished in condition N (AN-WW-T-850) but the yield
b Critical L/ ,. is that a.bove which columns are long"
and below which the v are "short."
NOli heeess&ry to" investigate for local instability
"hen D/l < SO.
i !

Ni
,
I I
36,00
i
' i'"

r----i-;--

-r'
-t
- .-
I

:
oopoo
i :
'\
!

I
"
,
.,;
'\
.:
i
1
!
i
I
!O
..,000
I
1
I
,
!
! , ,
rr: ' .
I;;
I
1\' i z ,
!
"
,opea
'3
i I
i
I
8
I
!
I
i !
I \ i
" ; '>,000
.
1
I '\1 j !

1 I I
.
1
I

'0.000 ,
1
! !
I
, !
!
, ,
I
I
I !
I
I
I

0 to 40 00 eo 100 .. 0 '00 '"0
elf
FIGURE No. 2.23 (a).-Allowable column stress for
10Z5 steel round tubisIg.
1.6
--
-
I
,
,
1.5
I
I
w 1.4
(I:
:l
,
I-
0..
1/1
:l
1/1
W-ll'
I: W
I:
1.3
I&. l-
0 til
. .:.
1/1
W
:l
-J
-J
1/1

:l
z
1.2

0
W
,-,--+
0
I-
lIE
W
;-
(.!)
l-
Z <II:
;:; :I
1.1
z
w oJ
III :l
II
---

strength is appreciably reduced when normalized eu b-
sequent to welding.
See "Mechanical properties," tables 2.11l.
-t-
i
I
;
I i
"
10,000
.'
N '1'<'" !
-

\
:
.\
,
.0
""
:'\,\\
i " I\J
'"
K
:
" ,\,: \
i
:
I
'!
,i
!
,

...
",'\

-.
.. ..
rr:
011 0 .. USIC IIIOU"'D TUI
Ii; , ,-
z
,
"


'\
l
i i
i
,
!
..
-'
i
I,,\I!
..


:so
: luJ, ,\! I
0
-'
E. VA"''' " ." .... U I
-'
TilES' CAN IE UUO III SHOIn"
..:'
1I:.&.NGt ., SU,Sr"'T1A1'$I1T I
to.
I !
I I
'\
i
I
i
!
:
i
I
......
I I
10,000
0 '0 00 eo eo 100 ItO "0 I
.:/,
FIGUD No. 2.23 (b).-Allowable column,and crushin
stresses for chrome molybdenum streamline tubin
FfJI=75,OOO p. B. i.
, , ,
, ,
, . , , , , , , I
, , ,
I
, ,
, .
I
,
I
. ,
I
, ,
30 40 50
Olt
00
g
g
FlGUU No. 2.321.-Bending modulus of rupture--ehrome molybdenum steel tubing.
-,
j
iii 40
Q..
Q
Z
<I:
en
:::I
0
%
I-
I
1&1

l-
lL
:::I
a:

0
en
:::I
oJ
:::I
Q
0

oJ
<I:
Z
0
iii
a:
0
I-
aO
20
W
a:
:)
I-
0.
:)(1)
a: (I)
LL.
W
Oel:
I-
(1)(1)
:)W
...J...J
:)-
0(1)
OZ

I-
...J
<W
ZI-
0<
-2
(1)_
0:1-
O...J
1-:)
..
N

t
10 20 50
STREID'lH OF STE]l. L!EMBERS
(Reproduced WiUl permission h"om .4NC-6a)
40 o 80
9-T
FIGURE 2.42 (a),-Torsjonal mOdulus of rupture of 1025 steel round tubing,
0.70
o.so

'\
f::::

i'-..
.......
r-
.....

I-">
i-" V
Wt (,OOPOO
/
/
/
V
V-
i-" I--
I--

I . 125,000
/ /
f- F,.,= 150,000
/
V
f-,I
rt ..
0.50
10 20 30 40 50 60
91
FIGURE 2.42 (b).-ToJ'8ional modulus of rupture of round alloy steel tubing.
2.52 TFBES TOR
SIO:\.-Equation 1 :37, section 1.535, can be
used in the following forms for safe values:
(J.:), +({;;;)' = 1.0 - - - - - (2:3)
Streamline tubes: R.+R,=1.0 ___ (2:4)
1
S.= R,+R,-l- ______ (2:4a)
f,= Shear stress.
!' .. =Torsional modulus of rupture.
Higher values can be used if substantiated by
adequate test data.
2.53 TUBES I:\, BENDING, COMPRES-
SION, AND TORSION.-The bending stresses
should indude the ei'fects of bending
due to compression. The following empirical
equation will Serve as Ii working basis, pending
a more thorough investigation of the subject.
(
f')' (f)' ( f)' f. + F:, = l-F:, _____ (2:5)
1
M. S. R,+"'(R,)'+(R,),-L--(2:5a)
In no c.ase shall the axial compressive stress,
j" exceed the allowable stress, F" for a simple
column.
A6b:l7
(ReprodUCed wi th permission from .4NC-5a)
TABLE 3.111 (a).-Duign 17I$chanical propertu.a oj bar. t4S shut and pIaU (kips per square inch)
:=......b
st.tand plale' I Coiled sheet
AN-A-12
Hoot.-ted
Herot-treated
HeaHreated:
and rolled
CoD.d.JUaQ_. _____________ __________________ ___ _
_. ____ .. _____________._. ____ _____ .__ <O.2eO 0."'"
0.""
8. an-
1.000
1.001- 1001-
2.000
<0 .... 0.601-\.000 1.OOI-1.00l 1. 001-3. COJ
<0."" <0.'"
--r-- -----
t-
_A 1_8
A .. .. A B ..
I
8 .. 8 .. 8 .. 8 A B
1---I--
SMiI'. ______._._ .... _____________________________ _
62 60 56 65 68 65 67 83 68 61 64
----- ----- 701 72 62 66
62 60 56 64 67 64 66 67 60 83 56 59 69 71 62 66
',. "' ________________________ L',_ 62 64
T... 62 64
F ......................... L... 40 38 38 38 38 -l8 51 46 49 44 48 42 44
---.- -----
60 62 40 41
T... 40 38 38 38 38 42 44 40 43 40 44 40 44 40 44 52 54 40 41
F .......................... L... 40 38 38 38 38 40 42 38 41 38 42 38 42 "._-- -----
49 51 40 41
T... 40 38 38 38 38 45 47 43 46 43 47 42 46
----- -----
56 58 40 41
37 38 34 40
"I
40 41 38 41 36 38
"---- -----
43
,::
37 40
93 90 84 98 102 98 101 95 102 92 96
-----
--.-. lOS 93 99
118 la 106 IU 129
I;: I
127 120 129 116 122
----- -----
133
I:!
lEI
126
53 53 53 69 71 69 62 67 60 66
----- -----
84 57
61 61 61 79 82 74 I 78 70 77 68 75
-----
____ A
96 100 66
F. __ ............................. 37 38
F ... (./D=1.5) ,.................. 93 96
F (.ID=2.0).................... 118 122
F (.ID=I.5).................... 56 53
F ... (.ID=2.0).................... 64 61
B ........... ....................................................................... . 10,500
10,700
4,000
0.100
B. ____________________________________________________ _____________________________ _
G ................................. ................................................. .
Wlbo./in. .......................................................................... .
Commercial designatiOIUl .... ; .... : __ 248-T4' U8-TU I 248-T3 I U8-T4 , 248-T36 I U8-T4
Plate is material which is greater than 0.U9 inch .. thick.
Heat-treat by user refers \0 all material supplied in the annealed temper and
heat-treated by the user, and to all materiAl re-heattreated by the user regArdless
of .the temper in which the material W&S supplied.
A is the mech&nieal property column based upon minimum guaranteed. tensile
properties. (See par. 3.111.) B is the mechanical property column based upon
probability cia\&.
Standard structural symbols are explained in sec. 1.21 ch. 1.
L=longitudinal (with grain); T=transverse (ae""", grain). (See par. 3.111.)
, D=hole diameter; e=edge distance mea.sured from the hole centerline in the
direction of stressing; use value of for ail larger values of edge distance;
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0. the bearing streM value should be obtained by
linear interpolation; values for less than 1.5 must be substantiated by ade-
quate teets prior to approval by the procuring or certificating agency.
TABLE 3.111 (b).-Duign 17I$chaniud prOpertie8 of dad t4S sMet and plate (kip8 per square inch)
-.. -----------I--------------------s--o-:-d-:-.... -.------
Coiled sheet
s_ ..... __ ..... _ .. _ ..
AN-A-13
--------------,-------
CldJtkl'L .. _____ .......... . Bett b'Mted ILDd
rolled
lint tnated
... __ 0.010...... I 0 ....... '" 0.".,.. .... 10.'I)H"" '12.001-3 . ..,. 0 ........ ,..,
A A A .\ A "' B .18---:r;lA!BIAIB AlB AlB AlB A B A 8
Thlekn_ .. , ............... _
B ....
-F- -.-.- .. -.-.- .. -.- .. -: --6 =
T'.. 61 62 59 61 62 64 62 64 60
1
64 -58 61 54 57 62 65 66 68 58 61 61 83
F, .............. L .. _ 38 45 4 46 48 42 46 40 .. _ ..... 55 58 58 60 37 38 38 40
T... 39 42 38 42 38 42 38 42 48 50 50 52 37
1
38 38 40
F ............... 45 ::::: :::: :: 38
l
:
F.... ................ 40 41 39 35 3 ........ 40 42 42 43 3513 3 38
F (.ID=1.5)....... 95 98 92: 98 891 9 ..... _ .. 95 99 101 104 87 92 92 95
F (.ID=2.0)........ 120 126491 1I6i lU 112, 118 ........ 120 125 I 1311101116 II 120
F ... (.ID=1.5)........ 64 59' 64 56'1 62 ........ 77 81 81 84 52 5 5 56
F (.ID=2.0) ....... _ 61 7 74 781 671 74 64 70 ........ 88 93 9 96 59 61 61 64
I
PRL. 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500 10,500
B ............ SEC .. 9,500110,000 10, 000110, 000110, 000110, 9,sooI 10, 10,000/ 10,000/ 10,0001 10. 9,5001 10,000 9,5001 10.000
E ............. PRL. 10,100 10,700 10,100 10,700 10,700 10,700
G .............. 970010, 10,200110,2001
1
0,200110, 9,1001 10,2001 10,2001 10,2001 10, 9,7001 10,200 9,7001 10,200
W lho lin............... 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100 0.100
Commercial designa.- Alel&d248-T4 Alalad 248-T42 Alclad 248-T3 Alelad 248-T4 Alelad U8-T36 Alelad 248-T4
tiOIUl. Pu"",1ad 248-T42 l'ureclad U8-Ta, Purecl&d 248-T4, Clad 248-T4 Pureelad 248- Pureelad U8-
T4 Clad 248-T42 Clad 248-T3 T36 T4
Clad 248-n Clad 248-T36 Clad 248-T4
Plate is material which iB greater than 0.249 inches thick.
b Heat-treat by Wier reren to all material supplied in the annealed tem-per and
heat-treated b! the user, and to a11m&teri&i re-heat-treated by the WIer regardless
of the temper In which the material was supplied.
.. Specification minimllIIDl for clad material 0.500 inch thick and heavier are.
for the core material iIlABmueh &8 round test specimen is required for t.esting.
The values given here for thiekne!l 0.500 inch And greater ha"ve been adjuated
00
propertie!'!l; B is the mechanical property column based upon probability data.
(See par. 3.111.)
If Standard structural symbols are explained in see. 1.2, ch. 1.
'L=longitudinal (with gr&ln): T=tran.verse (aeross gr&ln). (See par. 3.111.)
D=hole diameter; distance measured from the hole in the
direction of stressing; use value of for all larger values of edge
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing stress value !thould be obtained by
linear interpolation; v&l.uee for el D less than 1.5 must be substAntiated by adequate
tests prior to approval by the procuring or certificating agencv.
Mb:1B
STRENG'lH OF ALUl.!INlJM KnreERS
(Reproduced '111 th permission trom
TABLE ;U II (e).-lJfR;gll mechanical properties oj cW.d 4S sheet (kips per sqU<lrt illch)
Sbt'et
('lad :us
AN-.O\-4.2
Condition Hr1lHl'Mtf"d and , Hnl-IrH.ted cold and &.gpd
1--- ._.-- .- .. -.
': <0.0&4 j 50.064 <0.004 1 50.004 <O,OO4! 50.OM 'I <U.f1t>4 I 50.064 Thidmf'S<;
Basis
F ..
F .....
P .....
Fo.. (./D=1.5)'.
1', (./D=2.0) .....
F." (.ID=1.5).
F, .. ('ID=2.0)
E,______ .J PRL ___ _
:---_. ---.-._----. .
______ ___________ _____ : ____ .
!
60
60
47
47
47
47
36
90
114
66
75
62
62
40
49
49
49
37
93 i
118
69
78
64
62
57
54
55
55
38:
96 :
122
78
90
67
65
59
56
57 i
57 '
39
100
127 i
83
94
10,500
67 I
63
62
39
100
127
88
101
70
66 .
65 !
40
105
133
92
106
70
66
66
62
63
63
40
105
133
91
104
72
70
69
66
66
66
41
106
135
95
109
. SEC. \I, 500 10, 000 9, 500 10, 000 9, 500 10, 000 9. 500 10, 000
E .
G ..
W Ibtiu , __
i PRL ...
i SEC.
10,700
9,700 10,200 9,700' 10,200 9,700 10 9,700 10,200
0.100
Commercial designations_
'{pureclad 248-T6 Purecl&d 248-T81: Pureclad 248-T84 Pureclad 248-T86
Alclad 248-T6 Alclad 248-T81 i Alcl.d 248-T84 Alclad 248-T86
T.'BLE :1.I11 (d).-Design mecha7l;cal properties clad 14S and RSG1 .hut all;/ platr (kips llf'
square inch)
.\lIoy ..
:o<peciftcatioo
Condition _
Thlclmesa .
I'lhf'('t (&t and rolle<l) IIofId plat(' Flat and
J _________ '_''''_IO_,,_R_'''_I_

COIled
:o'hp, I (fiat Ml.j ""j!p,j
a11dl'lall'
! Hffit-trea.tE'd hr Il!er Hrat-treatt'd Hefit trt'>ltE.'d and 1
I ______ _
.!, -0039 I 0.040- 0.2.50- i O.m- 1<:0039 0.040- O.UiI-- O ..m- -00351 0.0l- -UCC9 0.()4(f-- o!m ..
i<' . 0249 l.(XX>b; . : 0249 0.4519 1,(0)h <, O.l2!i <.
BaslS t. . ....... _ .. I-A--!-A-,-A-;---I---.,-!--'-A------ --- ...
1' .. L ' .. :--:- --:---:-:--:-1---:---':---.:- ---:- --:---:-
T .... : 55' 57' 3457 i 55 55 57 57 55 55 57 63 64 64
F.,...... 'L"'
I
32: 34: 32 40 41 41 37 32 34 56 58 57
T:I 32 34 34 32 35 36 36 34 32 34 55 57 56
.! E E E E H' E H
34 39 :
F.,.Ie: D= 1.5)' 83 86 86 83 84 87 87 84 83 98 98 86 96
F."I. D= 2.0) 105 lOB 108 105 106 110 110 106 105 124 124 108 122
F."I' D= 1.5).. 45 48 48 45 56 57 57 52 45 81 ilO 48 78
F . ,le D=2.0). 51 54 54 51 64 66 66 59 51 93 91 54 90
1':. 10,400
R.. 10,600
G. 3,950
WIIl .. in.l.. __ I.. _ ... __________ 0.101
ConmH:'r('ial desig- :
Hardclad
R30I-T42
H&rdclad I H.rdcl&d
R301-T3 R30I-T4
Hardclad
R301T4
Hardclad
R30I-T6
A1cl.d 1 Alclad Alcl&d Alrlad
I 1 8-T3 148-T4 148-T4 14S-T6
lIalioll .. _
TABLE 3.111 (e),-Duign mecMniad PC"P'rlie& oj 758 shut and pUue (lcips per sq'lum inch)
Type ......................... .
Alloy ........................ . Clad 158
s_ ................. .
AN-A.-IO
........ -'-1
7
;':
' ........ _ .. _- ;;11 ;; :1 II
p .. --_ ....... - L.... 66 69 67 70 67 69 69 72 69 61 64
1
63 66 63 65 641 6164
T.... 65
1
88 66 69 66, 68 66, 691 66, 60
1
631 62 64 621 64 621 64 62
, ............. L._._ 67 701 71 691 71 691 721 69
1
62 65 64 66 64 67 64, 67 64
L._ 70 731 71 HI 69 71 69 72 691 64, 67 66
1
88 64 6 64' 6 64
, _._..... ......... 46
1
471 47 46 47 47i 49 471 421 441 43 44 431 44 44i 45 44
F, (./D=1.5) ' .. _ ... 1141117 116
1
' 119, 116
1
119 119j 123: 1191 105'111011081111 108 111 11111141111
' (./D=2.0) ........ 144 1481 146 150'11461 150 150j 1561 150'1133 139 1371 141 137 141 lU 144, 141
F ... (./D= 1.5)........ 92, 97
1
94, 98 941 97 97, IOli 97 85: 90: 88, 91 88, 91, 90, 94: 90
F ,(./D=2.0) .. ...... 106, 110. 1071 112 107. 110 1101 1151 110 98: 102, lOll 104! lOll 1041 102! 107, 102
R ........ I PRL ................... - 10, 300 ..... .. ....... ............... 10,300 .............. ..
E.... ..I !!t::: :::::::::::::::: Ii: E :::.::::::::':::::
G_._ ................ ............... _ 3,900
::::::::::::::::
a A is the mechanical property ('olumn baserl upon the
minimum g:uaranteen tellsile properties.
to "ymha)" are explained in sec.
(with grain) T=traos\'en;e (eros!'

d J)=hole diameter: e=edp;e dhd,aoce mea."!meci
from the hole centerline in the direction of
use value of e/D=2.0 for alllarp;er value:, of edjll:'
lance; for between 1.5 and 2.0 the bearillJ<.
value be obtained by linear interI?oiatioll:
value8 for tID less than 1.5 be substantiated by
adequate tests prior to approval by the or
certificating agene,\'.
Plate material which j,. great.er than 0.249 inch
thick.
to :O:pt'cifir.al JUIl minimums for clad material 0.500
!I!cit thiel.; ann hf'8Vier are for the core material inas-
1l!1!('h a .. 8 teRt is required for testing.
11lt' ,'a!llf'''' ,2:1\'('11 here for thicknesRel" 0.500 inch and
lHP8t('f lia\ (. hf'(,lI adjl)."led to represent thl:' avera.'?;'
prol)f'rtip ... a('rI' ..... the wholf' the
f'laudillL!;
e .\ j .. 1 h(> mechanical property ('o\umn ha. .. ed upon
min innlIll a:uarantl:'M. Tell:'oile
Ii :-'talldard ."TnJC'rma\ are f'xplaillf'o in "'ee.
1.2, ('h. I.
e L=Jongitudinal (witll T= (cro:-:-
grain). (See par. 3.111.)
f D=hole diamf"fer; e=edl{t' mea"ured frum
the hole celltf'Tlilie ill th{' dinction of u:,e
VII-Ille of eID=2.0 for al! value:, of dj-.. tance
for ratio" bet\!of't'll 1.5 and 2.0 Ih!'
should he obtained h,\' l!1u'8r illtNpolatioll: \'aluh fnr
,,/1) J{>1"..: than l.S l)lu .. t ht "ul, .. tanti.ateri hy srif'qualf'
pilar to apprt,,'all,.\ till' l,rO('llrlll,Q: or certificAlilJp;
AJi!:ell('\,.
Plate is material which is than 0,249 inch
thick,
b Specification miDiums for clad material 0.500 inch
thick and he&vi:r are for the core material inasmuch
&8 &. round test specimen i.s required for testing. The
vAlues given here for thiokness 0.500 inch and greater
have been a.djusted to represent the averaji{ properties
acT06B the whol .. section including the Cladding.
e A is the mechanical property column based upon
minimum guaranteed tensile properties. (See Par.
3.111.) B is the mechanical property column based
upon probability data.
d Standard structural symbols &.re explained in
sec. 1.2, co. I.
L=JougitudiD&1 (with grain); T=transverse (crQ88
e distance measured from
the bole centerline in the of stressing; use
value of e/D=2.0 for all larger values of edge distance;
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing stress
value should be obtained by linear interpolation;
va.lues for el D less than L5 must be substantiated by
adequate tests prior to approval by the procuring or
certificating agency.
(Reproduced with permission from
TABLE 3.111 (f).-Duign muhar.ical properties oj 58 and 618 sheet (kips per square inch)
Type ..
........ 1
1
-------.-_---.-'--'----,,--------
..,.., R381
Specl.lhs.tion._
....... I QQHZ7
CondlUoo .... ______________ __ .'_,
_ !4 hard \ h hatd 'I li ""'" i Full ""'d \ H .. , ",',,'" i
------1--,--1--
, ,
Tbickneae.. _ . --- _ ---- '.-------.-.-- ".- ".--- _I O.Ola-o.3IW I i 0.013-0.128 1 <0.25 i <0.2.6
-------------------1----
B .... ........... ... ....... . .. I __ A ____ A __ I __ A __ I __ A __ [ __ A __ I __ A __
P"b....... . ........... 1 LI :: 34
1
37 39. 30 I 42
::::, f, ; !EJI}l E
.. .. !::::1 i! 1ZZIZ3rZo
p ... (./D-1.5) ........................ 1 50 04 I 59, 62 481 67
P, .. (./D=2.0) ..................... ! 65 71 I 78 I 82\ 63 I 88
p ... (./D:1.5) ...................... \ 29 34 i 41 : I 22 1 49
Fhll (e/D-2.0) _________________________ 1 a.t 38 I 46 i 03 26 I 56
.. :::::::::::t:::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::.1 ...... ..... .
I 52i-H32- i
i I I ! I R361-T4 ! R361-T6
TABLE 3.111 (g).-Design mechanical properties oj aluminum alloy rolled bar and rod, tubing, and
shapes (kips per square inch)
T",. ...... ) Rolled har, rod, and shApes Tubing
.... _ ... __ .. ...... 1 148 \ 17S II 248 i 538, R3S3 ; 618, &361 I 7.58 1 248 II 618, R31H
'-,--,---'--1--\--:---
Speciflcatlon.. . ........... 1--_i QQ- A-3.511 QQ-A-3M \ QQ-.-\-331 I QQ-A-:W ! AN-T-tlO I WW-T-i89
i Heat I' i I Hest i
H.at'"."" 1 H"""""""and .. ed I
............... I In., <3.!Uli <3.0CXl i <3.em I <3.000 I <3.000 I} O.o!8 to ;-O.oJ8 to ]1 0.02S w-
I <36in.'
_"'1 A A I_A _I-A _i_A
::'1 EI Ei i
l
,
jl:1<
P". .. .. ! f:::
I
' *1 :1
P..... ..... .. 381 33, 37 38 19 25i 46' 481 391 42i 39! 27
p,,. ........ 981 831 93 96 511. ....... , l00j 1041 96, 105. 96, 67
P,,. (./D=2.0) ......... 1 124i 105! 118 122 67] ......... 1 123, 128 122' 133[ 1221 88
(e/D=1.5) __________ 1 771 451 56! 601 35:---------1 86
1
901 59! 64
1
561 49
P", (.;D=2.0) .. ...... 1 881 511 64, 69! 4Oi ......... 1 92: 981 67: 74: 64 5'
K.. .' 10,500: 1O, 400i 10,500 I 9,9001 9,9001 10.300 I 10,500 ' 9.900
E,. _.. . .......... [ 10, 700
1
' 10. 6001 10, 700 I' 10, 100) 10, l00j 10. 500 10,700 i 10, 100
G.. . . .. .. .... . .. , 4, 000 3. 9501 4, 000 3, 8001 3, 800j 3, 900 4, 000 I 3, 800
Wlb./in.' .............. ! 0.1011 01011 0.100! 0.097 0.0981 0.101 i 0.100 0.098
Commercial designations. I 14B-T6 17S-T4! 24B-T4 1 53B-T6 , 61B-T6 I 75B-T6 24B-T3 24B-T4! 61B-T6
R353-T6 R361-T6 R361-T6
Alloy.
Condition ..
Thickness ..
B9Si!b.
TABLE 3,111 (i).-Design mechanical properties oj 48 and 618 extruded shapes (kips perBquare inch)
.'''u:: ,b.",,_ ----------1 'IS,
.. 1 QQA,.. I QQA-3"
... --- Hest tmlti"d I[ Heat trtated III Hett tn'8.teod
by ustr , and &.f'd
-----, ,----i-----
I
I
] , 51500000'''' 1 O""',ndu. I
<0"" "00"074' I 0700'01. ... I <2.1 "'U... 1 .:s''''..... e.to3000
B.,b. ................ _A_I_B_'_A __ B_1 A I B I. A B 1 .,
P"d1 0..
57
1 61 I 60 1 60 I 651 70 I 70 i 741 571 38
T... 51 I 53 1 51 53 I 51 1 54 51 1 54 I 51 , 38
P,,I ... !! II I :: I I !i 1 ;1
p ...................... ;: I :: I I i 1 ;:
p........................... 30 32, 32, 32! 341 38 37 40 30 24
..... (./D:1.5)'............... 85
1
91 I 851' 91; 85 91 85 91 I 85 61
P ... (,/D-2.0).............. 108 114. 108 1141 108 114 108 114 108 80
P ... (./D=1.5)............ 59 66! 60 66 1 6
7
1
1
1 661 62 66 53 49
P ... (./D=2.0)............... 67 75: 69 I 75, 75 73 i 75 I 61 56
Type ..
Alloy_.
Spt'Ci.flcation ..
Condition.
Thick-nes! b
R..... .... ... ... ............ .... . ........ 10,500 .... .. ... ....... 9,900
E,.. ... .... ........ ...... ... .... ....... . ............ 10,700.. ..... ... ... . 10,100
G ........ .......... "... . .. 4,000 """.". .. . .... 3,800
Wlb./in.' ..................................... 0.100 ............. 0.098
Commercial designations ................................. 24B-T4 . ... -" .. 1 24B-T42
A6b:li
A is the mechanical property column based upon the
minimum guara.nteed tensile properties.
b Standard structural symbols are explained in sec.
1.2, ch. 1.
e L=longitudinal ("dth grain); T=Transverse (cross
grain). (See par. 3.111.)
d. D=hole diameter; e=edge distance measured from
the hole centerline in the direction of stressing; use
value of e/D=2.0 for larger values of edge distance;
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing stress value
should be obtained by line&r interpolation; values for
e/ [) less than the 1.5 must be substantiated by adequate
tests prior to approval by the procuring or certificating
agency.
Heat-t reat by user refers to all material in
the annealed temper and heat-treated bv the and
to &II material re-heat-treated by the user regardless of
the temper in which the material was supplied.
b A is the meohanical property col umn based upon
the minimum guaranteed tensile B the
mechanical property column based upon probability
data. (See par. 3.111.) .
c Standard structural symbols a.re explained in sec.
1.2. ch. 1.
d. L=!( ngitudinal (with grain): T=transverse (cross
grain). See par. 3.111.)
e D=hoJe diameter: e=edge distance measured from
the hole centerline in the direction of stressing; use
of e/D=2.0 for larger values of edge distance: for
ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing stress va.lue
should be obtained b.v linea.r interpolation; values
el D less .than the 1.5 be substantia.ted by adequa.te
tests prIor to approval by the procuring or certificating
agency.
Heat-treat by user refers to all material supplied in
the annealed temper and heat-treated by the user, and
to all material re-heat-treated by the user rega.rdless of
the temper in which the material was supplied .
b For extrusions with outstanding legs the load carry-
ing ability of such legs sha.ll be determined on the basis
of the properties in the appropriate column correspond-
ing to the leg thickness.
"A is the mechanical property column based upon
he minimum guaranteE"d tensile properties; B is the
lechanical property column ba."Ied upon
t . (See par. 3,111.)
d Standard structural symbols are explained in sec.
1.2 of ch. 1.
'L=longitudinal (with grain); T=transverse (cross
gra.in). (See par. 3.111.)
i j)=hole diameter: distance measured from
the hole centerline in the- direction of
value of D= 2.0 for all larger values of edge distance;
for ratios between 1.5 and 2.0, the bearing :'!tres:'! value
should be obtained by linear interpolation: values for
D of less than 1.5 must be substantiated hy &dequate
test:'! prior to approyai hy the procllring or

AOO:;:'V
STRENGTH OF ALUMINllM MEMBERS
(Beproa..cea wit.i.. perlllission from loNe-58)
TARLE 3.111 (h).-D,.<iYlI mpc!uzn;cal prop"/;'" 148 and 758 ertrwled bar, rod, and s!uzpes (kips per square inch)
TyPl' F.:r:.trud(>{j har, TOIL ann shap(>s
----- ------- -- --------_-----1---------__---------
1
Condition
Thickn{'ss h
Basis'
F ______ __
F ... (e;D=l.O)' __ __
F ... (e:D=2.0) __
F ... (e/D=1.5) ______ _
FhlJ (e/D=2.0) __
E ________ ............... __ __
E, ....
G ..
lr Ib/in. 3
Commercial designations __ _
HrsttN'atM and age-d
39 39 42
102 90 U5
12\1 114 117
87
78 :
85
.. H'al-trf:'at hy u"er to all material ill the annealed temper and
heat-treated by th(> u"er, a.lld to"all material re-il(>at-treated In' th' reKardle . ..;,.;
of the temper in which the material wa ... :'llpplied. .
b For with I"'T": '11<' !WJr! f)f "\1cll leg..;
,",hall be d(>lermilled Oil the ba ... i . ..; of the propertip,.: ill appropriate column
corresponding to the thiehnl' .......;.
e is thp nlf'ehallieal columll ba."C'd upon millimulll guaralltec-d
propertie:o:; B the mechallieal property columll ba ... C'd UPOII probability
data. (&>e par. 3.111.)
d StaJ,dar;i ).truCfural symhols are explained ill sf'e. 1.2, eh. 1.
e L=longltudinal (with grain); (ero:' . ..; 3.111.)

----'.
f For part:" machined from extru,.;ioH'<: I.,SOO inch and over ill thickness so that
the major loan j:-:. carried by what wa!' the center seCtiOIi of the use 94
peree:lt of thi..; valu(' for (See par. 3.111.)
IJ For nart,.; lflachillf'ri from extm",iollS 1 .fiOO inch and over ill f'.O that
thp load carried bv what wa."i the c('llter section of the extru:-:.ion, U"ie
9J P('T('f'llt of thi..; vallie for (See par. 3.111.)
II ])=hole diameter: e=eoge mea ... nrcd from the hole cen1'Tline in
the directioll of n..;e yallle of e/lJ=2.0 for all larj.!;er of edge
di:-:tallcc: for ratio .... between 1.5 ami 2.0, the bearing vahlf' :-:.hould he' ob-
by !illear inTcrpolation. value:, for pi]) than 1.5 sub:o:talltiated
by adNlllatE' prior to approval by the procuring or certlfil'atll1g
TABLE 3.21.-Column formulas for aluminum alloy !ubing and/or shapes
,
Critical L'/p : Long oolumns I
:.-..1 Equation L22-1--(,-)-
.. __ -1 EqU8tionL22_1 ('l
I Must be determined by test unless conservatively
assumed. .
authOrity from the procuring or certificating &gency.
Critical L'/p is that above which the columns are
"long" and below which they are "short." L' L
-;= ,fCp; lIp sha.1I not exceed 150 without specific
w
a:
::>

(f)
Q.
::>
'" a:
UJ
a:
....

0
(f)
(f)
w
::> :::!
-'
'" ::>
z
0
UJ
0

::Ii
UJ
<l)

Z
<t
E !
z
UJ -'
CD ::>
CDI::>
....
010203040 5060 70 eo
D/
t
3.5 COMBINED LOADINGS
3.51 ROUND TUBES IN BENDING
AND general theory
of failure under combined loadings is given in
spction 1.535. In t.he CIlSP of combined bend-
ing and compression it is necessary to consider
the effects of secondary bending, that is, bend-
ing produced by the axial load acting in COn-
junction with the lateral deflection of the
column. In gener"l, equation 1:37, section
1.535 can be used in the following forms for
safe values:
(f,' /F,l+ (j,/F .. )= 1.0 _______ (3:2)
1 .
M. S.=(R,'+R,)-L-------(3:2a)
where
j, = maximum bending stres!' including
effects of secondary bending.
F,=Bending modulus of rupture.
j,=Axial compressive stress.
F,,=Compressive yield stress.
'"
..
...
o
20 40 60 80 100
YP
(A) ROUND 245 AND 615 TUBING
20 40 60 80 100
(B) STREAMLINE 24S-T3 TUBING
120 140
120 r-tO
FIGUlLE No. 3.32L-Bending modulus of rupture
aluminum a.lloy round tubing restrained ag&i.nst local
buckling at loading points.
In no ea.se shall the axial compressive stress, j"
exceed the allowable stress, F" for a simple
column.
FIGURE No. 3,23. -Allowable column and crushing
stresses 248 &lid 618 aluminum alloy tubing.
(Reproduced wi th parmission from ANC-58)
!oJ
'"
:::J
f-
a..
:::J
'"
'"
<J)
"-I
W
'"
0'
f-
<J)I
'"
:::J
!oJ
...J
...J
:::J
Ui Cl
0 Z
:::;; !oJ
f-
...J
.. W
Z f-
e:?
..
<J)
'"
f-
0 ...J
f- :::J
u.1l
FIGrRE 3.42.-Torsional modulus of rupture-aluminum alloy round t'tlbing.
TABLE 3.112 (c).-Direet Tensi01l-COmpre88i01l Fatigtu Strength 1
[Values given were determined by testing O.2-inch diameter specimens in Aluminum Research Laboratory direct-
stress fatigue machines and represent uniformly distributed stresses which such specimenB will withstand under
repeated axial loads. Stresses considered algebraically: Plus (+) means teDSion, minus (-) means com-
pression.]
M ...
(steady)
",.'"
u;
Revened (alternatlnl) Stre8a, Ui, at indicated Dumber of cycles
cycles cycles cycles eyc}ea I C}, cit's
---------------1---- --------1-------:----
100,COO 11 1,COO,COO I 10,00).,000 111OO'COO'OCO I 5OO,0CXl,OOO
14S-T6 and 24S-T4 ___________________ _
61S-T6 ______________________________ _
-10
-5
o
+5
+10
+-I5
+20
+25
-10
-5
o
+5
tlO
+15
+20
-10
-5
o
+5
+10
+15
+20
331 261 21 18i 16
331 ",26 21 17 'I 16
32 ",26 201 17, 15
32 25
,
20 I 16, xI5
31, 24 I 19i 161 14
291 ",231' 18! 151 14
271 22 171 141 13
25 21 16 13 12
26 22 17 13 11
27 21 161 121 11
26 2O 16 121 ll
25 19 151 12 ll
23 18 1
1
14 12
1
ll
21 17 14 12 ll
191 15 13 !1 Xl>
38 31 25 21 2O
37 I 3O 23 2O i9
36, 29 22 19 18
34 27 21 17 16
33 26 19 16 15
31 24 17 !4 13
29 22 161 13 12
1 Data based on testa conducted by Aluminum Co. of AmeriCL
TABLE 3.112 (d).-Shear jatifl!U strength 1
[Values given were determined by testing O.330-inch diameter specimens in Aluminum Research Laboratory
torsion fatigue machine]
ReW'ned (alWnAtinJ) !tn!sII, ta. at indlcsted number 01 cycle!
(steady)
I
1,000,(0) I 10,000,(0)
"'-
100,000 100,000,000
'"
I
500,000,000
",cles
"',.
m'" "',.
0 27 ll I 21 16
+5 26 2O 15 ll ",1
+10 25 19 14 ll I
14S-T6 and 24S-T4 ____________________
+15 23 18 14 I !1
+20 22 17 13 I IO
+25 2O 16 12 IO
+30 19 15 11 9
0 33 23 19 16 I
+5 31 22 18 15 I
+10 3O 21 17 14 I
75S-T6 _______________________________
+15 28 2O 16 14 I
+20 26 18 15 13 I
+25 24 17 14 12 I
o
o
o
9
9
9
9
4
3
3
2
1
I
+30 22

16
1
,31 !11
I-
1 Data bued on tests conducted by AlumlDum Co. of America.
A6b:21
3.52 TUBES IN BENDING AND TOR-
SION.-Equation 1:37, section 1.535, can be
used in the following forms for safe values:
(j,IF,)'+ (j.IF,,)'= 1.0 ______ (3:3)
Round tubes:
R?+R,'=1.0 _________ (3:3b)
M.S.
,j(R.)'+(R.)'
L ____ (3:3c)
Streamline tubes:
R.+R.=1.0 __ ______ . __ (3:4)
1
M. S.=R.+R.-L--------(3:4a)
j.= Shear stress.
F,,=Tol'sional modulus of rup-
ture.
Higher yalues can be used if suhstantiated by
adequate test data.
3.53 TUBES IN COMPRES-
SION AND TORSION.-The bending stresses
should include the effects of secondary bending
due to compression. The following empirical
equation will serve as a working basis, pending
a more thorough investigation of the subject:
If.'IF.]'+[j.IF,,]'= [I-j,IF ,,]' ____ (3:5)
1
S.
R.+";(R,')'+(R.)'
L ____ (3:5a)
In no case shall the axial compressi ve stress, j"
exceed the a!lowa.ble stress, F" for a simple
column.
TABLE 3.112 (a).-Rotating Beamfati!J11.t
8treng/JIl
[Values given we.re deteMD.ined b.y testing O.3-inch
diameter machmed specimens In R. R. )!oore
rotating-beam fatigue and represent ex-
treme fiber stresses that such specimens will withstand
in completely reversed flexure)
I
I Fatigue 5tl"f'ngth strt'M) , tsl at
indicated numbfor of cyclel

<lIoyMd"m .... ' I:; 1 g I go' II I
;, II It! ;,oX Si1:3! >1::S
I
-" I 0" 0 ,,!:. I
;. I
- 1---1--
24S-T4 ----I 40! 32 I 25 I 20 i 18
A51S-T6________ 291 21 115.5 12. 5 I 11
61S-T6..___ 31 I 22. 5 17.5 15 i 13.5
75S-T6_______ 451 35 27 22 I 21
I Tests conducted by Aluminum Co. of America on
specimens up to 2.O-inch diameter show no appreciable
size effect.
T-'BLE 3.112 (b).-Repeated-j/eX'Ure jatigtu
8treng/JI oj aluminum aUoy 8heet 1
[Values given were determined by testing O.OO4-inch
thick sheet specimens in Aluminum Research Labora.-
tory repeated flexure fatigue machines, and represent
the completely reversed stresses that such specimens
will withstand.]
Alloy and temper
1
-------
Alclad 14S-T3 ___
Alclad 14S-T6 ___
24S-T3 __________
24S-T36 _________
Alclad 24S-T3 ___
Alclad 24S-T36 __
Alclad 24S-T8L _
Alclad 24S-T86 __
61S-T6 __________
75S-T6 __________
Alclad 75S-T6 ___
Fatlrue strength (reversed stJ't':Slll) psi at.
indicated number ot cycles
0
i
0



I
:1
!
!
8",
h

'" "
- -
-----------
31 20 17 15. 5 15
31 20 17 15.5 15
34 27 21 18. 5 17.5
36 27 21 19 18
32 20 15 13 125
32 20.5 16 13. 5 13. 5
27.5 17 14.5 13.5 13. 5
32 19 14.5 13. 5 13
29 23 17 13 12
------ 25 21. 5 21 20.5
29 20 15 13 12. 5
I Data based on tests conducted by Alummum Co.
o! America.
STRENGI'H OF ACTUATORS
. . '., -.... -TABLE OF STANDARD MODELS
r .. Y #, "-.
. " Stock sizes with screw leng!hS frolY 2 inches to 20 feet,
_ - - _ '. _ T:hese $ta,!d:<rd models modified at a nominal '_ .
_ - - - , . - - charge to
P ... RT PfTCH NO. OF B ... LL NUT NUT
R ... D. OVER SCREW MAX.
OPER.
lEAD TUBE OR "0" 'T' BORE ST ... TlC
NO. 01 .... TURNS 01 .... O. O. LENGTH
ClAMP MAX. LO ... O
LO ... O
5401 .500 6.5 .166 .093 .750 1.875 .812 1.812 .125 .257 5,000 1,100
5402 .625 7.5 .166 .093 .937 2.125 .875 2.000 .125 .383 10,000 1,800
5403 .750 8.5 .182 .109 1.062 2.562 .937 2.500 .187 .468 15,000 2,500
5404 .875 10.5 1.250 3.187 1.062 2.312 .187 .550 25,000 3,500
5405 1.000 10.5 .200 .125 q75 3.437 1.125 3.125 .312 .675 30,000 4,000
5406 1.250 10.5 .250 .156 1.687 4.062 1.375 3.625 .312 .843 50,000 6,500
5407 1.500 10.5 .286 .187 2.000 4.625 1.500 4.375 .375 1.012 75,000 11,000
5408 1.750 10.5 .308 .218 2.312 4.937 1.687 5.125 .375 1.187 100,000 15,000
5409 2.000 10.5 .333 .250 2.656 5.375 2.062 5.250 .437 1.343 125,000 22,500
5410 2.500 10.5 .364 .281 3.250 5.937 2.312 5.875 .500 1.843 175,000 30,000
5411 3.000 10.5 .400 .312 3.812 6.437 2.625 7.000 .562 2.187 250,000 42,500
5412 4.000 10.5 .500 .375 4.968 7.687 3.437 9.000 .625 3.000 400,000 67,500
5413 5.000 10.5 .572 .437 6.125 8.687 4.125 10.500 .750 3.860 600,000 95,000
5414 6.000 10.5 .666 .500 7.312 9.937 4.812 12.125 .875 4.703 800,000 140,000
.. 00
300
200
SCREW No.
V>
0
I I
Z 100
'"
90
2 80
0
70 5412
60
'"
50
0
5411
z .. 0
;:'i
5410
'"
30
0
..
5409

20
0
5408
0(
9 5407
10
9
8
7 5406
6
'.1
100 1000
UFE IN MlLUONS OF TOT ... L INCHES TRAVEL
Ball-screw actuator data. Courtesy Clevelend Pneumatic Co Clevelend 5. Ohio.
COST DATA
Recent Price fluctuation for labor and Ikterials
.3. ,
1928 '30 '32 '34 '36 '.38
.3 :-::::- ",2.:
--= .:: z'etl''':;:: --= : .._.: .c. : - =-- .::: . __ : -:......j
f'-+-._._ .. ,_ . '-L-In Tsbed .... -;;.., .. , == . i
2 '-'-'-' -=::::e.-rr- f---- .-. f--- ..
'.;.I .. c-': Ii: -. I ., -'. !: =-. I", 1 . _ .'.
F'T" -:--j';; .:-'----'-. .':"'1
1
T9 F=
rT-Ht+' :: , I, I iii:!;: f:-" r:-- , Iii :
1928 '32 '36 '40 '44 '48 '52 '56
Fig. A 7:2 Recent wholesale prices of steel and
aluminum. Data on aluminum scrap
castinITs and composite finished steel
from Survey of current Business,
January 1928 through Sept. 1953.
Data on alumirrum pig prices from
ALCOA advertising.
'44 '46 '50 '52
11930 '32 ".36 '40 '44 '48 '52 '56
Fig. A 7:3 Recent wholsale prices of lUlllber a.rul
cloth. Survey of Current Business,
January 1930 through Sept. 19>3.
1711
A712
1.
.3
.2
rcOST DATA
Tubes and Sheet Material
$
rt.
outside Diameter, in.
Fig. A7:4 Net price per foot of Shelby seamless
steel tubing. sept. 1953
1 2
3 4 5 6 8 10 20
Sheet Thickness, 0.01 in.
Fig. A7:6 Net price per sq. ft. of steel, aluminum
plywood, andFiberglas plastie sheet,
Sept. 1953.
.40
.' .
,.I!; I
,.' r
.30 Perlt-' i+t- c,..:n t+
!
' ." '"
'"
lb. ..'
F'-'-' ,,' 'I'
II' " 111111,:, 1,I!il
.20 :j:;:q:j=c _
11 '
' ,
iR hi,:: J4hHt
.10 '
.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
outSide Diameter, in,
Fig. A7:5 Net price per pound of Shelby seamless
steel tubing, Sept. 1953
.90

.70
.60
.50
.40
I
III
!
.30
Lb
20
'1
I
,
, , .
,
I
I
: i, , .
,
I
I , ,
i , 1,1
.10
l:r't! ;!&<l ee :

.07
3 4 5 6 8 10 20
Sheet Thickness, O. Ol in.
Fie. A7: 7 ::"t r-ice -, lb. sheet materials
in of"250 sq. ft. Sept. 1953.
UQSr DATA
Time Required For Servicing Operations
A7:3
(From R.G. Lockwood, Aviation, Jan. and Feb. 1932)
Table shows the number of men required and the maximum time which should be ailowed. Thus 2-1:15
means that two men should take not more than 1 hr. ruld 15 minutes for the specified job. All operations in-
clude removing and replacing parts unless otherwise_specified. These are ideal min. times with good design;
actual time may be four times as great.
Page 1 of
3 pages
Single-engined
Gross Wt .... l,000-3,5oo lb.
Landing Gear Group
Landing Gear Unit
One strut
H2-'40-1oo 150-250
One brace wire
One wheel
One hrake
One wheel streamline
One fairing
One shock obsorbing strut
Insp. landing gear
!.!ill. Group
Tail surface complete
One stabilizer
One elevator
One rudder
One fin
One brace wire
One strut
Insp. of tail group fittings
and attachment
Tail skid
One tail skid shock absorber
Tail skid bolt
Tail skid shoe
Tail skid recoil check
Tail skid steering cable
Tail wheel assembly
Tail wheel tire
Tail wheel shock absorber
Tail wheel bearing
Tail wheel fittings to fusele.ge
Insp. tail skid or wheel
2-0:30 2-1:00
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:\)5
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
2-0:10 2-0:20
1-0:10 1-0:20
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:03 1-0:03
1-0:03 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:12
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:03 1-0:05
1-0:03 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:07
2-0:05 2-0:07
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:05
2-0:05 2-0:07
to fuselage 1-0:03 1-0:05
Stabilizer adjusting mechanism 1-0:07
adjusting cable or chain 1-0:10
Rudder control cable or tube 1-0:10
Elevator It II"" 1-0:10 1-O:l2
Insp. of rudder and elevator
control cable and pulleys
Insp. of stabilizer adjusting
mechanism and control
Vling Group
Upper wing continuous
Lower" n
Upper wing right or left
Lower" """
Center section
Upper center section struts
Outer interplane struts
Inner II II
Flying wires (comp. set)
Landing wires II "
Incidence wires " "
Drift wires (complete set)
Ailerons
cables
Insp. wings and
Pilot's Compartment .!2.!: Cockpit
Windshield
Pilot's cabin window(per window}
Pilot's seat
Window adjustment
pilot's compartment
Passenger Compartment
One Cabin chair
1-0:05 1-0:07
...... 1-0:10
2-0:30 3-0:30
2-0:30 3-0:30
2-0:15 3-0:20
2-0:15 3-0:20
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:05 2-0:07
2-0:05 2-0:07
2-0:05 2-0:07
2-0:30 2-1:00
2-0:15 2-0:30
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:10 1-0:12
2-0:05 2-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:10
1-0:10
Sing1e-engined
3,500-7,000 lb.
250-325 425--650
2-1:00 2-1:30
1-0:10 2-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:10 2-0:10
1-0:15 2-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
2-0:20 3-0:30
2-0:10 2-0:15
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:15 1-0:20
1-0:15
1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:12
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:15
2-0:07 2-0:15
1-0:12 2-0:15
l-O:l2 1-0:10
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:12 1-0:12
3-0:35 4-0:35
3-0:35 4-0:35
3-0:20 4-0:20
3-0:20 4-0:20
2-0:15 3-0:15
2-0:10 3-0:15
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-1:15 2-1:30
2-0:45
1-0:15 1-0:25
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
2-0:15 2-0:15
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
Multi-eng-ined
7,000-20,000 lb.
300--600 900-1,200
4-1:00 4-1:30
2-0:10 2-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:10 2-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:15 2-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:20
4-0:25 4-0:30
2-0:1<; 2-0:20
1-0:10 2-0:10
1-0:1.<: 1-0:15
1-0:12 1-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 2-0:05
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:15 2-0:17
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:10 l-O:l2
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:12 2-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
2-0:15 2-0:20
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:10 2-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:15 1-0:15
4-0:35 6-0:35
4-0:35 6-0:35
4-0:20 6-0:20
4-0:20 6-0:20
4-0:20 4-0:20
4-0:15 4-0:15
3-0:10 4-0:10
3-0:10 4-0:10
2-1:)0 2-1:45
2-0:45 2-0:50
2-0:20 2-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:20
1-0:20 1-0:20
2-0:15 2-0:20
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0: 10 1-0:1)
1-0:10 1-0:1)
1-0:05 1-0:()5
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
COST DATA.
A7:4 Time Required ror vsrvicing
(From R.G. Lockwood. Aviation. Jan and Feb. 1932)
Page 2
3 pr.ges
Passgr. Compts.
Single-engined
Gross Wt. 1,000-3,500 lb.
Hp 40-100 150-250
1-0:10 One window
One floor
One heater
One dome light
One wall light
One door
One cabin interior covering
One cabin chair upholstery
Insp. passenger compartment
Alignment
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:07
1-0:17
1-0:05 1-0:07
1-0:05 1-0:10
Airplane complete
Center section
Wings, biplane
2-1:20 2-1:10
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
Wings, monoplane (need adjust-
ment for balance
Ailerons(need adjustment for balance)
Fuselage 1-1:00
Propeller 1-0:10
Engine Exhaust manifolds 1-0:15
Exhaust tail pipe 1-0:05
Engine cowling 1-0:15
Engine complete 2-0:00
Battery 1-0:05
Starter 1-0:10
Generator 1-0:10
Magneto 2-0:10
Carburetors 2-0:20
Check breaker points 2-0: 05
Spark plugs 1-0:20
Engine })Ul'1p 1-0:45
Engine Oil pump 1-0:45
Engine fuel pump 1-0:30
Engine water radiat.or 1-0:20
Engine oil radiator 1-0:10
Engine water radiator shutters 1-0:10
Engine oil " ,I 1-0:05
Engine throttle controls 1-0:05
Engine altitude controls 1-0:05
Engine spark controls 1-0:05
Engine shutter controls 1-0:05
Engine starter controls 1-0:05
Insp. power plant installation 1-0:10
Insp. power plant accessories 1-0:10
System Group
Main fuel tank
Reserve or gravity tank
strainers
Control valve
Fuel line (tank to valve)
Fuel line (valve to carburetor)
Fuel line (reserve to gravity)
Inspection of fuel system
Lubricating System Group
Oil tank
Oil strainer
Oil line (tank to pump)
Oil line (tank to radiator)
Oil line (radiator to tank)
Insp. lubrication system in-
1-0:15
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:05
2-0:45
2-0:10
1-0:25
1-0:07
1-0:20
2-1:15
1-0:05
1-0:10
1-0:10
2-0:10
2-0:20
1-0:10
1-1):25

1-1:00
1-0:30
1-0:25
1-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:05
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:1,
1-0:10
1-0:20
1-0:10
1-0:05
1-0:15
1-0:12
1-0:10
1-0:12
1-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:05
1-0:07
1-0:07
1-0:07
stallation
Lighting System Grrup
1-0:10 1-0:10
One landing light complete)
One landing light bulb
One landing light reflector
One landing light glass
One navigation light complete
One navigation light bulb
One instrument light bulb
One cabin light
One navigation light cover
1-0:20
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:03
1-0:10
1-0:02
1-0:02
1-0:02
1,-0:05
1-0:20
1-0:05
1-0:05
1-0:03
1-0:10
1-0:02
1-0:02
1-0:02
1-0:05
Single-engined
3,500-7,000 lb.
250-325 425-650
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:10 1-0:15
1-0:20 1-0:30
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:15
2-2:25 2-2:30
1-0:15 1-0:):)
1-0:10 1-0:30
2-1:00 2-1:30
2-0:10 2-0:15
2-0:15 2-0:15
1-0:07 1-0:15
1-0:20 2-0:15
2-1:15 2-1:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
2-0:20 2-0:20
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:30 1-0:30
1-1:15 1-1:45
1-1:00 1-1:00
1-0:30 1-0:30
2-0:30 2-0:45
1-0:15 1-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:07 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0;10
1-0:15 1-0:20
]-0:10 1-0:15
2-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:05
1-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:12
1-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:15
1-0:05
1-0:07
1-0:07
1-0:07
2-0:20
1-0:20
1-0:05
1-0:20
1-0:20
1-0:15
1-0:20
1-0:15
2-0:10
.L-O:05
1-0:10
1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:15 2-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:03 1-0:03
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:05 1-0:05
Multi-engined
7,000-20,000 lb.
300-600 900-1.200
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:30 1-0:45
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
2-3:35 2-3:40
1-0:25 1-0:40
1-0:35 1-0:40
2-1:30 3-1:35
2-0:30 2-0:30
2-0:30 2-0:30
1-0: 20 1-0: 20
2-0:20 2-0:20
2-1:15 2-2:00
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
2-0:20 2-0:20
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:30 1-0:30
1-1:30 1-1:45
1-1:00 1-1:00
1-0:30 1-0:30
2-0:45 2-0:45
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
2-0:10 2-0:10
:::-C:10 2-0:10
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:15
2-0:20 2-0:30
1-0:20 l-O:ZO
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0: 20 1-0: 20
1-0:20 1-0:20
2-0:20 2-0:20
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:20 1-0:20
2-0:15 2-0:15
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:03 1-0:03
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:05 1-0:05
DA'rA
Time Required For Servicing Operations
(Frgm R.G. Lockwood. Aviation. Jan and Feb. 1932)
A7:5
Single-engined
Gross wt. 1,000-3,500 lb.
Livhtinf System Group Hp 40-100 150-250
One fus e panel 1-0:10 1-0:10
One fuse 1-0:02 1-0:02
One switch panel 1-0:10 1-0:10
One switch or rheost[,t (each) 1-0:05 1-0:05
Insp. of electrical system 1-0:10 1-0:20
Instrument Group
Instrument panel complete with
instruments 1-0:15 1-0:20
One tachometer head :>'-C:05 1-0:05
One tachometer shaft 1-0:10 1-0:10
One air speed indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One turn and bank indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One artificial horizon
indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One directional gyro indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One aneroid indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One rate of climb indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One clock 1-0:10 1-0:10
One compass 1-0:10 1-0:10
One water or oil thermometer 1-0:10 1-0:10
( each)
One oil or fuel
gauges (each 1-0:10 1-0:10
One fuel level indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One volt-meter or ammeter (eaCh) .J.-u:10 1-0:10
One drift indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One ball bank indicator 1-0:10 1-0:10
One inclinometer 1-0:10 1-0:10
Insp. instrument installtion 1-0:10 1-0:10
Single engined
3,500-7,000 lb.
250-325 425-650
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:20 1-0:20
1-0:25 1-0:30
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:15 1-0:15
Multi-engined
7,000-20,000 lb.
300-600 990-1,200
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:02 1-0:02
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:20 1-0:20
2-0:20 2-0:25
1-0:05 1-0:05
1-0:15 1-0:15
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:10 1-0:10
1-0:20 1-0:20
SlWlAARY OF AIR TRAI'!SPORT.ATION COSTS, by Hal. E. Nourse.
A. "SiO'nificant 11 Costs per ton-l".l le
SYMBOLS
Vb = Block Speed
L = Payload in Tons
N : Number of Ent"ines
M = Number of Seats
P = Total CruiSing b. hp.
U :: Utilization per Year per Airplane
C
t
Total Cost of' Airplane end Enl'ines
C
a
Cost of Airolane Less
C Cost of OnE; Enl'ine
:: 'tlei!"ht of Airplane Less l::n,ines
We Weight of One Enp:ine
Y Numbor of Cylinders Per
m.p.h.
tons
hp.
hr./yr.
i
,
,
lb.
lb.
C
m
Cost Per Ton Mile of Payload Capacity y
Notel The su1>script "0" added to any of the above
symbols indicates that the value is a known one
end must be takf,n from transport ai rolenp
whose economic characteristics are known.
Jo'ul:'l and Oil
l'ud --
Cml (Fuel Cost tCruise Sp. P
b
(.l?7) p
o bL
Oil
Cm.2 :: (Oil $/Gal.) (Cruise Sp. Cons.) P
7.5 VbL
P
VbL
Fuel plus Oil eouals, C
ml
,2 0.01016 P
Vb
L
Depreoiation oost of airplane, incl. propellers.
Engine Deoreciation Cost
C
m4
NCb
Life - Hour!) vbL
: 4 Cs = C!s (for two enrine planes)
5000 VbL 1 0 VbL
Airplane Overhaul and rtepair Cost
(
M N) (Wa C.)
Cm5
C
Labor "'0 Wo Material r.;o + tr;o
2 VbL

'lia C
a
13":-8"00 + lOu:"OOO
A7:6
CC3T
5uum+1ry of Air Transportation Costs, Cont'd.
Airnlane and Ground Service Cost
e
m
7"' (Labor + Supplies)
3 VbL
2N Vi
5.50 (2" +1t;mm)
3 VbL
Hut Pilots P!ty
emS. (1 + Ins. Ra.te);(.
Vb L
rrDa.Y-Night Factor)(3.5E,+.00667 V
b
)+
(i/
mi1
,,)(V
b
_ 100) .... Annual Base Payl
Aililual Fly. Hrij

= 1.07 f!.25 (3.55 +.0067V
b
) +.01

Other Crew Members
Cost (Cockpit
Cabin Cr.ew
Cmll.(Per Mile Cost) (cabin Jle"1oers)
L
00344 Cabin Ite,"o,'re)
L
Publio Liability and
Om Rate Per Mile
L
0013
-L-
Interest on .Investment y
(
Averare Investment
0'11113. Ct (Intere st Rate) Ct
(.7) (.04) C
t
UVbL
Airplane Accident Insurance
Value] [(Rate peUv!t Valuation) C
t
]
(.9) t 08) Ct
UVbL
Interest on Investment plus Airplane Acoident
0.10 Ct
Ins
iiVbt"
B. Service Cost per
C pass qO.005 (Pass. Load Faotor) M
For a partioular airline, Norse lets U =
= 754,000
9V
b
Vb
whioh he says is true for most schedule eet
ups. of U is 300 days x 8 hrs. : 2400
hr/year to 300 days x, 16 hre 4800 hr/yr.
for recent (1940) United Air1ino planes.
---.-----.
n
16

60 .700 _0.!
:z: mile . . t>1 i
55

'::j'14
f.1r

.......
3720, !IS assumed in this paper tnl
___ " ',13
4000 3000 _---------:--2000
UTILIZATION - HOURS PER YEAR PER AIRPLANE (U)
Fig .'\.718
SignH'i""'nt costs 'is affected by Util1ution
for airolane later desoribed as "r 35" 600
mile block sneod of 202 mph.
COST DATA FOR LIGHT AIRPLANE OPERATION
Aviation June 1946
A7:7
Direct Operating Expenses
Expenses incurred when the airplane is nown
include charges for gasoline, oil, maintenance, and over-
haul. The example given here is based upon sane retail
fiP'Ul'es that might be encountered by a private owner.
In considering cost of commercial operation, whole-
sale fil1ures would of course be used.
The cost of gasoline and oil needs no explanation.
Kaintenance costs, in the event of Chanl1es in CAR, will
probably be lessened. Whereas prewar regulations re-
quired that certain checks and inspections be done by
licensed mechanics, the ownST is now perc-it,ted to lio
more of the work himself. Because of improvements.
power plants in the lower hp. classes now afford some
four years of operation -if we measure with the
"yardstick of average use". Not only have these engines
stood up well, but top overhaul is now seldom necessary,
while the average time between major overhauls has been
extended. CAA figures that $0.89 per hour is cost of
maintenance, replacements, and mechanics' services for
the average lip:htplane, to which 15% will be added in
order to approximate retail costs, which will bring this
item to $1.02.
The owner should not overlook the fact that other
miscellaneous service expenses may be incurred from
time to time. Maintenance costs are not always as lC7ll'
as may be glibly claimed by the aircraft salel!mall.
Addition of eqUipment to an airplane is not a cost of 0p-
eration but an increase in the value of the airplane
itself.
The following estimate is basea upon direct cost
of nying a typical privately owned 60-75 hp. plane:
GaS, 4 gal./hr.at .25/gal $1.00
Oil, 1/2 pt.!hr. at .32/qt........... .08
Maintenance & repair
Total cost per hr $2.10
Fixed Expenses
Fixed expenses will be conSidered an the basis of
a yearly total, later combined with direct expenses to
arrive at the overall expense. Under fixed expenses
are such items as the following:
which goes on regardless of whether or
not the airplane is actually operated.
Hangar rents, which may run from $10 to as high as
$25 per month. Hangar rent of $20 per mcnth will be
considered here, with the airplane on a 12-month
"active" storage basis.
Insurance, which will vary from nothing to several
hundred dollars. Since an analysis of insurance is not
intended at this point. we will consider that cover-
ages are on damage to the airplane (htill insurance).
public liability. and property damage. The figul'e of
$322.50 for such combined coverages is a current quota-
tion (Apr. 1. 1946) an an airplane costing $2.400.
Depreciation. which is present from the day an air-
plane is purchased until its eventual disposal. In
the course of time, the private airplane owner will
sell his machine for price less than he originally paid
for it. and the loss will be part of his operating ex-
pense. If the owner be an operator. he should have
made an allowance for this depreciation. and in so
doing have created another asset (cash) that will enable
him to make a replacement without capital outlay.
Depreciation
straiiht line a. BY this system, the airplane
is depreciated on the basis of a certain number of
years of useful life. The Bureau of Internal Revenue
indicates that a 5-yr. writeoff for private aircraft is
acceptable; however. at the end of that time the air-
plane most certainly retains a residual value. !
steep wri teoff is unnecessarily hard on an operator.
In fact. CAA considers a period of 1071's. as fair. be ...
cause it more nearly accommodates the actual situation.
The average life of non-scheduled civil aircraft has
been 7.4 yr.. including destruction as a cause for
cessation of use.
Tabl. 1- Depreciation of Aircraft
Value in
Pereentage
of Oricina.!
Period Writ.&-Ofi Price
New ............ . None 100
20--35 70-80
35-50 50--65
40-5.5
55--70 30-45
65-75 35-2,5
End ut yr .. .
End 2nd yr ... '"
End 3rd yr .. .
End 4th yr ... .
End 5th !.
'1M teofr on an hourly basi s. This method, lIhich pre-
dicates a certain working life. and which becanes a straight-
line method with regular use. is not recamnended unless the
plane is used on a uniform basis over a long period.
Declinini balance method. This type of wrlteoff.
based on a lessening percentage of original value. more nearly
gives the true worth than the other two systems. Here. the
values tend to keep pace with the market prices. With the
introduction of yearly models, airplane values tend to de-
pend more upon age than upon the number of hours flown. The
plane does not. however. depreciate at a fixed annual
percentage.
To explain: The highest percentage is deducted in the
first year of the craft's life, with a gradual lessening
of this amount as the plane grows older. Hence. at any time
the plane will have some value. The method is similar to
that found in both the automobile and the machinery fields.
An actual case will be of interest--
The plane in question originally sold for $7.000.
It was flown for only 40 brs then remained in dead stor-
age for 2 yrs. At the end of that time it was sold for
$3.600-s1ightly more than half of its ori11inal value.
If it had been depreciated on a 5-yr. basis. it would have
shown a value of $4.200 at the end of 2 yrs while on the
basis of 10 yrs. it would have shown a paper value of
$5.600 at the time of sale. Obviously, these last two
firures were not in line with the market, but the interest-
ing point is that the plane would probably have brought
almost as much had it flown 140 brs. or even 200 brs. as it
did at 40 hrs.
In one recommended practice, ths airplane was considered to
depreciate in 5 yrs. to approximately one-third of its
original value. writeoff here would be one-fifth of the
difference, or about 13 1/2% per year. This again gives a
straightline depreCiation for the first 5 yrs. and
appears Slightly low for the first year if a yearly change
in models should become customary. In this accounting, an
operator may decide to use the 5-year write off basis. But
in sales he should use the percentages given in Table I.
since careful determination of depreciation and market
price then becomes essential.
Total Fixed Costs
On the foregoing basis fixed costs for the first year
lrOuld be:
10
50. :
100.
200.
MO.
500.
700.
Hangar storage at $20.00/
mo $240.oo
Insurance (hull, public liability.
property damage) 322.50
DepreCiation at 20c. (on $2.400
..
plane first year) 480.00
Total fixed costs $1.042.50
T.bl, 11- Con Per Hour n. HoY", Flown
Hr. flown Fued Expense DiTeet Coat Total
11,042.50 121.00 11,063.50
1,042.50 105.00 1,147.50
1,042 50 210.00 1.252.50
............... , .... 1,042 50 420.00 1,4.62.50
................. 1,042.50

1,771.50
1,042 50 2,092 50
1.042 50 1.470.00 2.512.50
Table IV -- Comparison of Operating Costs
Cost Per Hr.
'106.35
2295
12.53
1.32
5.08
4.19
3.59
Flight Hr. Lightplane Plane A Plane B Plane C
100............. $12.53 319.17 $29.82 $35.12
200............. 7.32 10.92 17.07 20.57
350............. 5.08 8.17 11.62 14.34
500............. 4.19 5.97 9.32 11.84
L1ghtplane is type already discussed,
Plane A is 9O-hp. 2-pla08 llQ-mph., costing$4,000; direct exp.
$2.67!hr fixed $1,650 yr.
Plane B is 145-hp. 4-place 125 mph costing $7,000; expenses
$4.32 and $2.550.
Plane C is 245-hp. 4-place 140 mph., costing $8.000; expenses
$6.02 and $2.910.
Reference: Parker, Charles A. "lIbat Does it Actually Cost to Fly Your Plane".
Aviation, June 1946.
COST iJATA 21I AIRPLANE
Aviation May 1947
A7:8
Table V and VI are a continuation of page A7:7 and are
taken from: Parker, Charles A. "What Does it Actually
Cost To Fly Your Plane". Aviation June 1946.
Table V-Cost Per Seat-Mile for Various Sit. Planes
Cost Per Hr. Cost Per COI!!t Coet Per
Typo> CrulSlflg "peed :Mile ::-00.01' Ses.tI
Lightplane ..

5.&.
5.6c.
:2 .Sc.
W
-,-
Plane A .
58 17
7.4c.
1Ae.
3.7e, ...............
----rw
-,-
Pln.neB, .
$11 62
9.7e.
9.7e.
.4<:.
IT<f
-,-
$H34
1O.02c.
10 .02e.
:2 .5<:.
PbneC .... -,-
Table VI- Cost Comparison Between Aircraft, Automobile, and Motorboat
Value ....
Cse/Yr ..
....
..
,\ircraft
.go hpJ
S3.S84
450 hr.
S5.63

hp.J
$9.000
450 hr.
111.5.1
9.2c.
Automobile
Seda.n

11.250 mi. at
25 mph. (200 hr.)
$3.98
15.!k.
::'!otorboat
l3-ft. Cruiser
16.000
1,800 mi. (150 hNt
113.23
11.10
Sample calculations for WORK TABLE in right hand column
sample calculations
Cost Per
Items Expense Groups Hp.-Hr.
(.36) 1. Depreciation' and overhaul of
main aircraft structure $0.02458
(.37) & (.38) 2. Depreciation and overhaul
cost for passenger accom-
modatioR and installations 0.00.300
(45) .3. Depreciation, fuel, oil,
and overhaul cost for power. 0.0.3144
(54) 4. Cost of operation of passen-
ger service and traffic
departments 0.02055
5. Remaining operating expenses
(60) Total per-hp.-hr. expenses
for flight creWB, adminis-
trative personnel, etc.
(60)/(24) 0.05800
(61) 0.11402/262.5 Cost/cu.ft.-
mi. of aircraft (1) 0.ClOO4.35
(62) 0.02.355/262.5 Cost passenger
expense net 0.00009
(6.3) (0. ClOO4.35X.3800. (0.OOOO9X
.3800) 140 (1.65+0.34)/40 0.0495
(64) 0.0495x.10+0.0495 0.05445
(65) 0.05445- 0.05100 Amount re-
quired frem cargo earnings
to satisfy demand for 10%
profit from a full.cabin
0.00.345
* This final calcUlation is included to shOll' that, in
this case, even fully loaded cabin does not make a pro-
fit. Of neceSSity, profit on operation of all payload
carrying capacity must COJDe from load in cargo holds.
Obviously, if no mail load is on board at a good rate,
operator will have financial worries. If he has 400
cu. ft. of cargo space left for payload, it appears
requisite that he use it all to best advantage.
WORK TABLE
lasic Data a.cI Equations for D.t..!rmining
Cost per Pau8ager-MU.
A. lasl. Data
1. Coat of aircrait, less power and pas-
senger accommodation
2. Cost of JlI'B8eD.ger structure and fur
nishings
3. Cost of ODe engine
4. Number of engines per aircraft
5. Total cruising power per engine
6. Total payload space (cu. ft.)
7. Ca.bin space for passengers (Cu. ft.),
including space occupied by passen-
ger fixtures and facilities, such a.s
cabin heaters, buffets, lounges., etc.
8. Cruising speed of aircraft
9. Seating cape.city of ai.reraft, or aver
age occupa.ncy, whichever is more
realistic
10. Free ..Jaggage aJlowance
11. Baggage average density Ob./cu. ft.)
12. Aircraft utilization d&ily
13. Aircraft!ile (yr.)
14. Engine!ile (hr.)
15. Profit(!}"
16. Selling price per p"""",ger-mile
. (k .. ral Equattons
20. Hp.-hr. per &ircraft cruise-mile ....
21. Cu.ft.-miles per fLireraft cruise-mile
22. Cu.-ft.-miles per hp.-hr ....
23. Aircraft!ile (hr.) ..
..... [(4) X (5)J/(8)
................ (6)
.......... (6)/(20)
(12) X (13) X 635
......... (23) X (4) X (5)
. ........................ (9)
24. Hp.-hr. used .................... .
25. Passenger-miles per aircraft-mile. ,
26. Engine!ile (hp.-hr.) ......... . .......... (5) X (14)
Zl. Number of engines required .. . . ........ (24)/(26)
C. "lreraH Expense
Mechanical Airborne Cost per.Horsepower-Hour
30. Depreciation, UDlumished aircraft . .. . .............. (1)/(24)
31. DeprecL&tion, ps.ssenger gtructure a.nd facilities. .. . .......... (2)/(24)
32. Overha.ul a.nd repm (1), labor. . .. .. ... . Your experience figure/hp.-hr.
33. Overhaul and repair (1), material .... Your expo..,en .. figure/hp.-hr_
34. Aircraft service expenae (1) J labOr. . . . . . . ... Your experience figure/hp . ..hr.
35. Aircraft service expense (1) material. . . . ... Your experience figure/hp.-hr.
(2).' .'.':.',',', ...... ',
38. Ps.aoenger installations o;erhaul ................................. 40% of (31)
D. Power Expens
Mechanical Airborne Cost per Ho:r:eepower-Hour
40. Engine depreciation...... .. ........... (27) X (3)]/(24)
41. Fuel per hp.-hr_. ........ . ... S.F.e. X Price of fuel per lb.
42. Oil per hp.-hr ..... ' . . . . . . ........ S.O.C. X Price of oil per lb.
43. Engine overhaul, labor.,. _ ....... Your experience figure/hp.-br.
44. Engine overhaul, materi.a.l ..................... Your experience figure/hp.-hr.
45. Mechanical airborne C05Ilhp.-hr. for power ......................... Your tot&!
E. Pasl ger Operating bpenses
Ground Establishment and Personnel, Stewards, Etc.
50. Total of following passenger services accounts ......... , ....... your cslcula.tion
a. S&l.&ries and wa.gea of station man- e. Pa.aaenger rood servtce expenses
agars, passenger s.gents, reservation f. Passenger 9
agents, service employees, super- g. Pa.ssenger mterrupted flight and
vision, stewards and stewardeases travel expenses
b. Servicing supplies expenses h. Liability and compensation insur-
c. Traveling and incidentaJ. anee
d. Office suppllee expenaes i. Other expen.ses
51. Tot&! _ operating expenses per hp.-hr ................ _ . __ .. (50)/(24)
Traflic Ex,.
52. ToW oi foHowmg traffic depart.JDent accounts ............. Your calculation
a. Salaries and wages of supervision, e. Rents of offices
represeo.tativee, and other employees f. Agency commissions
b. Traveling and iDcidental expenses g. Liability and compensation
e. Office supplies expenses insurance
d. Telephone, telegraph, a.nd teletype h. Other expenses
e;w;penses
53. Total tralIic department expenses per hp.-hr.. . . (52)(24)
54. Total _nger operating expenses per hp.-hr.:.. . ...... (51)+(53)
F. Remaining Operating Expenses
personnel, Materials, Establishment & Corporation
60. Total per hp.-hr, expenses for followlng (60)/(24)
a. Flight crews d. Ground establishment .and
b. Administrative personnel and equipment
c. Executive personnel e. Supplies and material I
f. Labor
61. COlt per cu.ft.-mi.to aircraft(l)...... ]
K36)+(45)+(60) l(22)
62. Cost per cu.ft.-mi to operate following t(.37)+ (.38)+ (54)J /(22)
a. equipment c. Supplies
b. Supporting personnel d. Establishments
6.3. Cost Per passenger mile [C(61)X(7)) + ((621X(7)11 /(9)
64. Price per passenger mile required C(6.3}x{15)J+ (63)
65. support, if any, required from cargo compartment
earnings to make, passenger business profitable
Difference between (64) and (16)
Reference: By a canadian Bush Pilot. Pinpointing Costs Per Passenger-llile. Aviation, May 1947.
COST ESTIMATES FOR HELICOPTER OPERATION
A7:9
Helicopter Estimated Operating Costs
Sikorsky

Bell
47
Kellett Fireston. Plait LePage Sikorsky Bell McDonnell Kellett P-V Eng. Project Project
XR-8 XR-9B XR-1A (PL-7) 8-51 42 XR-10 PV-3
Passengers .......................... .
::: :::::::::: :::
Payload ............................. .
@Fuelload .................... .
&; Range ........................ .
Gross weight. . . . .. . ................ .
Engines, number ..................... .
Make ............................... .
Rated hp., each ...................... .
Weight, polter rIant .................. .
Cost. est. @ $5;1b. ................... .
Weight, transmission ................. .
Cost, est. @ $14.5;1b ................. .
Rotor diameter ...................... .
Blades, number ...................... .
Weight, blades ....................... .
Cost, etc. @ $15;1b ...... ., ...........
Weight, rotor mechanism ..............
Cost, etc. @ $14.5;1b ................. .
Weight, instrument and radio .......... .
Cost, est. @ $38;1b ................... .
Weight, airframe hlanco .............. .
Cost, etc. @ $7.5;1b. ................. .
Cost, etc. total ....................... .
Init. sales price (est. x 1.50) ...........
Actual price ......................... .
Calculation Detail
Depreciation, airfrsme ................ .
Depreciation, engine ... ............... .
Depreciation, transmission . ........... .
Depreciation, hlades ............... , .. .
Depreciation, annual total ............. .
(Use, 2,000 hr. @ 500 hr. int.) ......... .
engine, (labor) .............. .
Overhaul, engine, (material) ........... .
Overhaul, transmission and repair ...... .
Overhaul, aircraft. (lab. and mat.) ......
Ground service ....................... .
Engine repair, (lab. and mat.) ......... .
Maintenance, annual total ............ .
Pilot insurance . ..................... .
Public liability ....................... .
Public insurance ...................
Cargo insurance ...................... .
Insurance, total ...................... .
Fuel ................................ .
Oil ................................ .
Fuel and oil, total .................... .
Operating Coat Summary
Depreciation ......................... .
Maintenance . ....................... .
Insurance ..........................
Fuel and oil ........................ .
Pilot @ $8,000/800 hr ................ .
Total oper. cost/2,400 hr .............. .
Total oper. cost/hr.. . .... .. .. . ...... .
Oper. cost/mile @ 60 mph.-block ....... .
Oper. cost/pass.-mile ................. .
Oper. cost/ton-mile..... ... ... . .... .
1 Includes hubo and rotor drive.
1
2,016
574
... 2:500
I
Frank.
245
489
$2,445
176
$2,552
38
3
159
$2,385
100
$1,450
60
$2,280
1,032
$7,730
$18,842
$28,350
$47,000
$3,100
918
690
3,590
8,298
560
1,300
650
2,160
6,130
1,560
.. i2:s60
765
2,880
2,520
1
1,500
500
... 2:ioo
1
Frank.
175
425
$2,125
125
$1,813
33
2
250
$3,750
85
$1,233
60
$2,280
555
$4,163
$15,364
$22,800
$25,000
$2,265
873
636
6,150
9,824
.... 400
1,000
625
1,320
5,950
1,260
10,555
765
2,880
2,520
I
2,123
656
'''2)79
I
Frank.
245
489
$2,445
152
$2,204
36
6
258
$3,870
341
$4,944
60
$2,280
823
$6,172
$21,915
$32,800
$3,620
880
596
5,800
10,896
560
1,300
650
1,515
6,160
1,560
.. iU'45
765
2,880
2,520
I
1,239
511
... i:75i1
1
Lye,
135
327
$1,635
216
1
$3,132
28
3
100
$1,500
J
.... 00
$2,280
636
$4,020
$12,567
$18,800
$1,700
615
846
2,350
5,511
.... 340
760
650
1,050
5,890
990
9,680
765
2,880
2,520
... 6"."ItiS ... 6j6:5 ... iiJtiS '" 6",i6:5
4,400 3,150 4,400 2,420
276 200 276 151
4,676 3,350 4,676 2,571
$8,298
12,360
6,165
4,676
24,000
$55,499
$23
$0.38
$0.34
$2.71
$9,824
10,555
6,165
3,350
24,000
$53,894
$23
$0.38
$0.38
$2.58
$10,896
11,745
6,165
4,676
24,000
$57,482
$24
$0.40
$0.40
$2.25
$5,511
9,680
6,165
2,571
24,000
$47,927
$20
$0.33
$0.33
$2.18
I
4,046
1,149
"'5;i95
I
PkW
450
772
$3,860
716
'
$10,382
31.5
6
246
$3,690
178
$2,581
60
$2,680
2,188
$16,310
$39,503
$59,200
$5,850
1,450
2,810
5,430
15,540
840
2,160
1,100
4,200
6,760
2,430
17,490
765
2,880
2,520
'''ii,i'tiS
8,100
510
8,610
$15,540
17,490
6,165
8,610
24,000
$71,805
$30
$0.50
$0.50
$1.44
Leos hube. Included in transmission weight.
3
3,650
1,250
. "4;900
1
PkW
450
772
$3,860
450
$6,525
48
3
376
$5,540
220
$3,190
100
$3,800
1,732
$12,990
$36,005
$54,000
$48,500
$4,850
1,300
690
7,500
14,440
840
2,160
800
3,650
6,330
2,430
.. ifi;2io
765
2,880
7,560
4
3,400
1,500
"'4;900
1
P&;W
450
772
$3,860
292
$4,234
47
2
600
$9,000
200
$2,900
100
$3,800
1,436
$10,770
$34,464
$51,800
$4,740
1,442
1,141
11,750
19,073
840
2,160
700
2,930
6,540
2,430
1.\i,600
,:.765

10,200
.. ii',205 .. is', 845
8,100 8,100
507 510
8,607 8,610
$14,440
16,510
11,205
8,607
24,000
$74,762
$31.1
$0.52
$0.173
$1.41
$19,073
15,600
13,845
8,610
24,000
$81,128
$34
$0.57
$0.14
$1.00
10
8,250
2,750
2,000
84 gal.
65IDi.
11,000
2
P&W
450
1,550
$7,755
1,607 ,
$23,302
48
6
800
$12,000
356
$5,162
100
$3,800
3,837
$28,778
$80,797
$121,300
S10,200
2,910
6,300
18,000
37,410
840
2,160
2,400
6,380
13,660
4,860
30,280
765
2,880
27,700
31,345
16,200
1,010
17,210
$37,410
30,280
31,345
17,210
24,000
$140,245
$58
$0.97
$0.97
$0.97
11
8,598
3,002
2,200
.. ii;soo
2
Cont.
525
1,692
$8,460
1,201
$17,414
65
6
987
$14,805
794
$11,513
100
$3,800
3,827
$28,762
$84,694
$127,000
$11,900
3,170
1,700
22,200
38,970
'''i",7"84
4,800
1,800
6,280
13,700
5,580
33,944
765
2,880
27,700
31,345
19,800
1,240
21,040
$38,970
33,944
31,345
21,040
24,000
$149,299
$63
$1.05
$0.096
$0.84
8
4,279
2,141
1,600
50 gal.
50 mi.
6,420
1
Cont.
525
978
$4,890
680
$9,860
41
6
360
$5,400
160
$2,320
100
$3,800
2,000
$15,000
$41,270
$61,800
$5,700
1,835
2,760
8,110
18,405
.... 840
2,160
1,100
4,200
6,760
2,430
17,490
765
2,880
20,150
40
23,270
10,730
8,908
"34;000
2
P&;W
2,300
4,830
$24,150
4,600
$66,700
80
6
1,680
$25,100
1,370
$19,865
100
$3,800
13,200
$99,000
$240,615
$361,000
$32,700
9,060
20,700
37,500
99,960
.. i1',4OO
3,800
7,000
14,500
11,230
9,950
57,880
765
2,880
100,000
40
12,480
13,520
8,000
700 gal.
75 mi.
26,000
1
1,875+Jets
1,919+Jets
$9,595
.... 'ioo
3
2,680
$40,200
800
$11,600
100
$3,800
,'1,900
$66,750
$131,945
$198,000
$18,600
3,560
.. 00:30&
82,460
"'6".400
2,160
... S;i30
13,530
5,720
35,940
765
2,880
100,000
23,79: 'iOa:645 'i03;645
8,100 82,500 79,000
510 5,160 3,990
8,610 87,660 82,990
$18,405
17,490
23,795
8,610
24,000
$92,300
$38
$0.63
$0.079
$0.77
$99,960
57,880
103,645
87,660
24,000
$373,145
$156
$2.60
$0.065
$0.65
$82,460
35,94C
103,645.
82,990
24,OOC
$329 035
$[37
$2.28
$0.057
$0.57
Fig. 1. Operating costs for 'copters Ixrsed on AT A formulas. Calculations fake into account 25-mi. trip at 60-mph. block speed.
Reference: Sturgis, Raynor F. Factors in Helicopter Economics.
Aviation May 1947.
LAYOUT DATA
A8:1

oN
-

!-I

KAXB
it


OF AIRPLANE
...

",,<
i 15 VI 1.1
Piper Cub J3
2 26 46 68
.1eronoa "K" 2 36 44 40
Stearman-Hammond
nyn
2 38 50 45
Rearwin 6000 2 23 72
Gwinn .A.1roar ;2 45 45 66
star Cavalier
2 32 44 40
Utscombe Phantom 2 40 46 60
Ryan SC .)
43 51 75
Bellanca Jr.
3 35 43 89
Fairchild 24
4 42 48 70
Waco S, C, N
4 45 60 96
Cessna '38 4,
36 42 68
Howard 00.1-9 4,
44 50 90
Grumnan G-21
4 60 68 130
Fairchild 45
5 51 56 110
stinson Re 11 ant
5 52 58 80
Beeoh 18 6 54 61 124
Barkle:-Grow T8P 7 56 60 150
Vultee VU 8 58 68 130
Stinson Tri. 10 48 66 180
Lockheed Eleotra 10 66 70 190
Lockheed 14 11 66 75 228
Douglas 00-3 24 93 78 312
Junkers 90. 30 120 70 410
Ilartin Clipper
361.1.26178
375
Douglas 00-4 40 128 89 468
Boeing 247D 10 60 72 240
.,<German transport airplane.
1. Does not include the crew compartments (if sep-
arate from the main cabin.)
2. Length of passenger compartment only.
3. Refers to passenger seats (sometimes double
seats)
4. Actual distance is twice this because rows face
each other.
r I
I I
I I
I I
I I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
:
... eo..... ........J..
T,
I lr
I
'" A
y
!
!

Fi g. AS, 2 Location or base lines and average con
tour of spring surfaces with respect t
floor and toe-board-Pad thickness,1.5
in. (S:.E Journal !:ov. 1940 PS. 490)

i

10
8
8
10
12
12
8
14
14
12
12
16
14
15
15
15
14
16
15
16
15
14
i
1:



24 16
34 14
19 18
18 15
44 18
16 16
38 16
43 14
15 15
15 15
45 18
36 15
44 18
18 20
17 17
18 16
15 18
18 16
16 18
16 16
16 15
18 16
18 18
25 18
18 16
20 18
20 18

i
i I J:
I
5 \1-

b

0

z
1 2 28
2 1

Inside cabin d1menaions
2 1 of some .Amer1ean.A1rpl.aDes
1 2 40
t
(1938)
2 1
2 1
2 1
2-1 2 24
2-1 2
2 2 36
2 2 40
-
2 2 30
-
2 2 42
-
2 2 40
2-3 2 36
2-3 2 40
-
Var. arrang.1
2 4 34 1
2 4 33 1

2 5 34
2 5 30
2 6 33

"
4 8 394
4 10 3s'
'"(.
4 10 394 1
I
4 10 45
4 ::;
2 5 40

Fi g. AS s 1 1>1lttensions ot TypUal
(from H1JlU'o, I,larine Aircratt -o.s1gn'
Fig. ASs 3 Location of e.g. or the average
man in seated position. (SAE
Journal, Nov. 1940, p. 495)
A8:2
Airplane model
and Manufacturer
Curtiss-Wright
(Condor)
Boeing
nor:: :)ATA
Chart ShOlrlng Materials and Methods or Applying Sound and Heat Insulation
to Airplanes as Used by various Manufacturers (N.A.C.A. TN 948)
Material
Insul1te, l/S-.by 1/4-
inch thick, flameproof.
Seapak, liS-inch thick,
flameproof.
Location and method ot
application
Cabin: Insulite and Seapac
nailed to wooden cabin
framing.
(General practice)
Laminated p110film and
cheesecloth
Manufacturer
Insul1te Mrg. Co.,
Minneapolis, Minn.
Seaman Paper Co.,
Ill.
Dobecknum Company,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Ventilating system: l/S-
inch felted kapok covered
with pliofilm.
Douglas
(Transport)
Lockheed
(Model 12)
Sikorsky
"!
Dry zero blankets
Felted kapok
Casement oloth
Seapak
Latex oement
Seapak
Alcoustitos
Latex cement
Seapak
Type K felt
Rubatex
(Cellular sponge)
B-C sound deadener
Neoprene cement
Vultex cezr.ent

1S12O
Fee
II

,--
:t
..8100
1\1
.0
on
80
.....
GI
;-
Q)
1;0
.....
>.
..
...
40
..
I':
Q)
..
I':
20
r-.:: -
j
t-
"

t:--I--
':-..
I'-
:-
"

r--...
!--..

,
....... 1:'



"



I"-
0
t
100 500
Ii
!I
I
I
120
Dry zero Corp., Chicago
AlDerican Felt Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
L. C. Chase & Co.,
New York City or I,foss
Rose, Inc
Philadelphis, Pa.
Seamen Pape r Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
Billings-Chapin,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Seaman Paper Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
Billings-Chapin
Cleveland, Ohio.
Seaman Paper Co.,
Chicago, Ill.
do.
Virginie Rubatex C9.,
Bedford, Va.
Billings-Chapin,
Cleveland, Ohio.
Du Pont Company
Arlington, N. J.
Vultex Chem. Co.,
Cambridge, t:ass.
,.
Cabin: Two l-inch dry z.,
blankets next to hull,
various thicknesses of
felted kapok, casement
cloth. Materia.l supported
by hooks which ere riveted
to fuselage.
Seapak is attached to hull
with latex cement and may
be reinforced by metal
strips.
1.lateria.L is glued into
place with Dum Dum.
Cabins and Cockpits: Seapek
and felt cemented to metal
surface with Vultex cement.
Rubatex attached directly
to sides and deck, covered
with neoprene cement.
Sprayed direct17 to akin.
Sprayed or brushed on
rubber.
Sprayed or brushed on
metal - not on felt.
Ventilating ductal line
with lie-inch felt.
110"" r-......
'4

100 Airplane Motor
100-
I""-
r-....

80
I--

70
--.

60
-r-.-
50
-r-
40 -.....
-
30
20
-
10' :--
0--
r----
..... r-......!-.
t ... ./L

90 N.I.SUbW81,50 mph
80 Pullman sleeper
3::
./' ..
rr .J-
K', ./- -
T [,,-
t
I
--1
60 Auto,con9rete
highway.4U mph
40 Usual
20 Sort music
o Rustline leaves
t jb above 1 mb.
!JOO 500b 10000
Frequency in cycles per seconi
Fig. A8.4 Lou:1ness level contours of the ear; each contour
represents all the tones which a.re equally as lout
a. a 1000 c,vcle per second note. For example, an 80 cycle per
ttecod note at 7(\ iecibeh sounl. as loui a. a 1000 c 'cle- note
at 50 iecibeb. (N.A.C.A. TN' 748) "
, 1
I
,
\0
\
3



NOISE DATA
1\
I
c \\ i\
, ,
\ \
, '
Ub-
,
l\na\ I
"\
Ie
'Ib\ n
IJ 1\ B r\
01\' 1\ \ \
:LS.:
'\

,A
'\..
"' "'
o
la,
Ib,
Ie,
IIa,
IIb,
are not noticeable
just noticeable
well noticeable
very strongly noticeable
disagreeable
very disagreeable
1 1020 466OFig. A815 RelPOI1H or thl 11141T1411&1
Frequency, c p B to .,lbratioJl (N.A.C.A. TN 748)
tlirst attempt to soundproof airplane
,< ,l'iei?,ht of soundproofing p"r passenger
" ,
/' / /NQise lev"l in db.
- < 30
, "'! I I
It I < ,:
, _ /. .... "S.:lpi)r" ,!,-32 I
80 '/ --- a;-;'Jt:-
2
" --- 25 ;
: t -1 , .; "/1. Vii i
70 -i+--- 20 ;:
_ '/r--+- 0.--
IIJ 1 ill. " G- J. ,,< - - Ii'., i -'"
Ql 60 -_.-+- __ j-_-1_.. -+-t--j--- 15
I I I MartL "13 1
C1 50 ---1'- 1---- ,--+-- I
40 ---'--- - I --L --'0 9: 0-
1832 1:;-33 1 '::134 1':13:5
Yl.Jar
Fig. AS.6 ?rJf.:r<.ss 0f soundproofing of aircraft shol'linf,' the
of n.:lise level and reductirm in wd(ht
Jf acoustical treatment required. ApproxiI:lat.,ly 14 db snould
be adied to noise levels to convert to usual r"f,;-rv!lc .. L,vel.
TN 748)
A8:3
NOISE DATA
A8:4
NACA TN 1554 and NACA TN 1558
140
130
120
.8
or<
o
..
<d

..
..
..

..
;
III
"'100
..
,.
Po
i
,g
90
L
1//
Number
ot: blades
0 2
8- - 4
0 - 7


V


V
V
.... =::::-:
/
/'
r--
r- .7
/
7
L

Kz
')
;"
.;
/'

I

/'
I v'"
1 .. /'\
l\
/
5
o
)\4
I

7
0

...
..
Sl
..
o
..
.,;
Figure 6.- Effect of number of and Mach number
Kt" 3
on variation of sound-ressure levels with power
input t:or NACA 4-(;)(0 )-0; propeller with blade
angle e = 16.5
0
I J
1 \ I I I I
o
120 160 20 0 240
PH' horsepower

i
I
I
i
I
I
I
I
I
,
I
,
!

i
I
!
I
i
I I I
I I I ! !
I
: 1= 1600
,
,
I
0.7
f-----'-=+--=t-----r---t-----1----, 0.4

,-- .-
, = r-.L i fb-
F-t::: -
!-- r- .
I
,
i
I
I ! .. I.
, NATION4L. ADVISORY ._
!
I

I
I
COMMIITEl IFOt TAUTICS
I I
6
7 a
D, t t
(a) D :: 2.
9 10
7 a
D, teet
(b) D = S.
9
r1gure 52.- Etteot ot d1a.eter at oonatant rotaticn _peed K on propeller loudn
V = 50 d1u per hour; Pa = 100 horeepover; S = 300 teet.
I
10
References: Hicks, Chester lI'. and Hubbard, lfarvey H. Comparison of Sound Emission Fro.
Two-Blade, Four-Blade, and Seven-Blade Propellers. NACA 'l'ecI:mic:al. l!IQte 1554. Hubbard,
Harvey H. and Regier, Arthur A. Propeller-Loudness Charts for Light Airplanes. NACA
Technical Note 1558.
ANSYiERS TO PROBLEMS
Numbers refer to articles
Thus 6a9(2) refers to Article 6:9, Problem 2. N:l
Problem 6:9
(a) Maneuver load factor
at all V's n - 4.4
Gust load facwrs
(b)
(0)
at Vp = 175.8
at Vc : 152.6
n : 3.0
n : "1.0
n = 3.4
n :"1.4
n = 2.8
n :-0.8
Hor izontal tail maneuver load
at Vp = 125.8 load : 44.2pef
load ="42.0ps f
load: 38. Ips f
load :-:30 .9psf
load = .lpsf
load ="10.3pef
Gust load
at Vo : 152.6 load: 20.6psf
l'"l8.d :"'13.5psf
Vertical tail Maneu ver load
at Vc = 152.6 load: ze.lpsf
(88me as posi tive load on hori-
zontal tail at thi s speed)
Gust loads
at Vc : 152.6 load: 17.9psf
Possible answer to Prob. 6:16 (1).
The following design and manufacturing
cost estimate for an airplane similar to
Fig. 1&6 assumes that for 1 or 25 airplanes,
a hangar is rented at small cost and made
usable as a factory, that materials can be
bought at faTorable discounts tor 25 airplanes,
but not for a single airplane, that a wage
scale of $l.54/hr. is paid to skilled aero-
nautical craftsmen, an average of $2.00 an
hour for draftsmen and engineers, and an average
of ts.oo an hour for supervisors, and that an
order for the airplane (25 airplanes) was ob-
tained at a cost of 50% of the sale price.
COST S T n ~ T FOR SMALL AIRPLANES
One 25
Design Calculations
Drawings
Airplane Airplanes
$ 1000 t 1000
2000 5000
stress Analy"sis
Jigs and tools
3000 3000
1000 2000
Overhead (factory rent,
heat, light, manage-
ment)
5000 11,000
Total of above costs
per airplane $10,000
Materials & equipment
per airplane
Engines (Cont. A6r;
or better)
Wheels and Tires
Instruments (some
automobile)
1400
280
200 3000
$800
1080
200
120 2000
Seats and equipment 160 100
Fuselage materials 160 100
Wing materials 600 300
Ldg. gear me. terials 200 100
Construction labor and supervision
Wing group 600 300
Fuselage group 300 150
Landing gear and
brakes 200 2000 100 1000
Power plant installa-
tion 400 200
Other assembly" labor 500 250
Factory cost per airplane 15,000 3800
Selling price per
airplane 214,000
For each of
4 airplanes, about $10,800 ea.
100 airplanes, about $5600 ea.
1,000 airplanes, about $2800 ea.
10,000 airplanes, about $2200 ea.
100,000 airplanes, about $1800 ea.
1,000,000 airplanes, about tJ.600 ea.
5440
'l"hus the airplane of Fig. 1:6 can pro-
bably" be bull t to sell for about $2600 in
lots of 2000, which probably" is the maximum
demand any single manufLcturer could count
on in the year 1948. If' it can be sold at
84000 there should be a good profit.
6:32(1) T = 0 =-
FO = -313#
EO = l40t,
NO - 396#
NY = -420#
DJ,[ 429#
WN = -1138.5#
ilL = 815#
1G =' -1JJ.4II
OK - 1175#
KL = -1904.5#
AIl -938"
BH = 938#
JA -760#
HJ = ?P2#
JK = -770#
ANSWERS :.: :-:::lOBLEMS
N:2 Numbers refer to articles
Thus 6:52(2) refers to Art. 6:32, Problem 2.
6:52 (2)
Ftu = 81,000#/sq.i. Section area =
0635 (3/4" 22 gage PA2:8) P = 5150 1bs.
6:32 (3) (a) Fco = 42000#/s'Jzin. (p. A3:1)
E _ 10.3 x #/sq.in.
Parabolic Formula P = 42000 - 4.35
A
P
6:52(4) Using f = PiA + Mc/I (neg1e::tine length
effect)
6: 32 (5)
A = .3773 sq.in. K = .86573
Z _ .22675 PiA = 26500ff/sq.in.
MC
:r = 44,OOO#/sq.in. Fcy = 70,OOO#/sq.in.
M.S. .. -0.6% (P. A3:1)
Using co1um fOr$ula for Fc
f - 1: PeC sec M.S. = -6%
A T 4#1
(a) P = 3000# (b) 1" - 18 gage (A3:10)
6: 32(6)
'2 3/4" 16 gage (A3:10)
6:52(7)
(a) = ..1.. tC/h = 1/4 M. of R. = 6400#/in.2
12 4
(b) I = 728.8 in. Ma = 777,000"#/sq.in.
Myp =
(c) M _ 540,000 in.lbs.
6: 52 (8)
M,S'
R
=-4%
K' = .0353 4
I - .0353 d
M = 16.67X
2
Y = 10.35 in.
M.S.
yp
_ 8%
K - .0445
d = (4" KS)
MX -6
1: = 12.8 x 10 h.c.
h.c.x3
6:52 (9)
(a) S = 6000# Y = 4.27 in.
Actual fs _ 2060#/sq.in. Allowable fs =
1300#/sq.in. (p. A3:4) M.S. - -36.9%
(b) FS = 1596.5 M.S. = -18.96%
6: 32 (10)
(a) (D/t)1.25 = 3100 L/D = .775
FS
t
- 3210#/sq,in. T - 516,000"#
(b) Using equation 5:4.1, and FCO = 42 x
10
3
#/in.
2
fc _ 8100#/sq.in.
I .. 1600 in.4 M = 648,000 in.1bs.
6:52(11) 4
(a) 11 = 73.8 in. 12 _ 12.3 in.4 Z = 17.2
(b) fb = 25,000 psi M = 430,000 in: lbs.
(c) Vi = 1060 lbs.
(d) pit = 4.16 L/P = 6 fs = 21,000#/sq.in.
(Fig. 3:10) A - 200 T = S05,ooo in. lbs.
6:52 (2) 6
(a) E = 10.3 x 10 #/sq. in. Fso _ 42 x 103
#/sq.in.
Fcc = 6500 f!/sq.in. P _ 44,000 1bs.
(b) fc = 9100 1bs./sq.in. I = 1075 in.4
Mb = 544,000 in.lbs.
(c) fs = T = in.lbs.
6:52..3'
(a) W
1
= .216 in. w? = .306 in. Yl = 3.01
M = 59,000 in.lbs .
(b) T = 2.88 FSt
For wrinkle, 1O"st = 143#/sq.in. T = 413 in.1bs.
For yield, Fst = 32Q(X)#/sq.in. Ty = 92,200
6152(14) in. 1bs.
Using least work method
b = -1000 - .78a - .78f
c = 1000 - .78i - .78a
d = -.623a - .707K
e = -:623f - .707K
h ' ..... 707K - .623i
If.!!! - .9.l! = .9.l! = .9.l! = 0 hold true
da df eli dk
then E9! = 35.3a + f + i to L'315K
da
= 44
0
,000 + 344.5a + 200K
-t 6060.51' _ 0
= -440,000 + 344.5a or 200K
+ 6060.5i = 0
.. hOOa + 200f 1'" 2001 1- 10708K 0
6:52(15) _ Solve for a,f,i, and k.
Remove AC
AB = 1854# T AD = 2140# C
Virtual load
.446 ab = -.696
Pb = 124 lb. = 1170 psi.
6: 52'16) Using "least work" method
a _ 900 - b c = 500 - .555b
d = .832 b - 750 - .832 b
k1 = 21.65 k2 = 21.65At
2EAw Aw
Aw = .024 sq.in. At = .1061 sq.in.
Before the load is
a _ 680# T b = 680# T
c _ 375# C d = 565# C
e = 565# C
After the .load is applied
a ll20# T b _ 220# T
c - -6'32# C d = t72# C
e = 922# C
8:10(6)
9:7(2)
9:1'0)
9:7
6
)
(a) w = 300w/ft. (b) II = ll5,000 in.1bs.
(c) I = 71.6 in.4 fb = 9640#/in.
2
(a) C
db
= 0.1945
ii
1
= 0 142 = -47.2 ft .lbs.
M3 =- 27 ft.1bs.
(a) Tab = 277d (b) RC = 212#
(c) hl = 960 in.lbs. 1 3/8" - 16 ga/!A Al.
tube (d) P = 195#
(a) I = .166 M = 13,800 in.1bs.
(b) with stiffeners M = 2650 in.lbs.
10: 8(.4)
A = -2520# B = -4500#
Choose 2 1/2" - 14 gage
10:8:5) (a) AC = 12,700#
(b) T =000 in.lbs.
(c) J.! .. 0
(d) Te = 80600 in.lbs.
U:b e = 2060/1
ANSWERS TO PROBLEMS
C = -750#
T = 54,000 in.1bs.
(with brake)
'3 ?,/ z,n - 12 gage
N:5
11:11[3)
6 = .158 in.
f
t
= 23,700#/sq.in.
Euler Fonnula (c 1) f. = 101. 5 x 10
6
A (L/p)2
(b) = .2485 = .1079 p - 755 1bs.
INDEX X-I
(Numbers refer to pages)
-A-
Abbreviations, p:5
Acceleration ma.x1mum, in maneuvers, 6:3
physiological effect of high, 6:4
Aerodynamic center,
data for airfoils, A2a: 24
Aileron,
retractable, A2d:6
stress analysis, 9:6
Air, standard,
at sea level, Al:l
equation for, Al:l
properties of, Al:2-Al:5
Aircraft,
American, A2f:6-A2f:7
trends in types of, 1:1
AfrflO'll', reg:!Jlles of, Al:6
Airfoil,
center of pressure data, A2a:23
designation systems, A2a:l-A2a:2
maximum lift, A2a: 18, 12&: 19
minimum drag data, A2a:20, A2a:21
ordinates, A2a:7-A2a:14
ordinates,
helicopter blade, A2a:5, A2a:6
low drag, A2a:3, A2a:4
miscellaneous new, A2a:5, A2a:6
tail,
control surface characteristics, A2d:1-A2d:3
Airlines equipment.
airplanes, 7:5
airports and hangars, 7:6
engines, 7:5
income, 7:6
operating expense, 7:6
personnel, 7:6
transportation costs on, 7:4
travel cost as a criterion for transport
plan deSign, 7:6
Airplane,
annual cost, 7:3
cargo,
layout deSign, 2:1-2:3
distance cost, 7:3, 7:4
drag data, A2b:5
high speed, Chapter 4
classification! 4:1
pOller plants, 4:2
layout procedure, Chapter 1
most economical flying speed for, 7:4
performance, 2:1
regularity of travel, 7:5
tested for drag, A2b:6
transport
layout deSign, 2:1-2:3
method of analysis, 2:3
types, 2:2
travel cost by private plane, 7:3
travel cost on airlines, 7:4
Air temperature, .
behind shock wave, Al:6
Air transportation,
cost of, A7:5-A7:6
Aluminum,
cOBt of, A7:1
Aluminum alloya,
dural, 6:15
numbering system and uess of, 6:15
preparation and properties ot, 6:14
properties of sand cast, A6b:3
properties of wrought aluminum, A6b: 3
sheet, minimum bend radii for, 7:17
AnalyBis,
estimate of cost tor, 6:31
estimate of time for,
for wing deSign, 8:11
market, 1:3, 1:4
of wings, 8:10, 8:11
stress, Chapter 6
AnSllers to problems, N-1, N-2
Anti-icing equipment,
lIeights of, A5:35
Aspect ratio,
effect on lift curve slope, A2a:29
Auxiliary power plant equipnent
weight of, A5:3B
Balance,
table, 1:6
Balance estimate,
boat, 3:7
Batteries,
weifhts of, A5:28
Beams, wing
box
-B-
corrugated dural, 8:1, 8:10, 6:29
elastic axis of, 6:30
thin metal, 6:29
wooden, 6: 22
wooden cantilever, 6:31
deflection of, 6:22
metal, 8:10, 6:26, 6:29
Beams, wing
statically indeterminate, 6: 22
strength of, 6:22
1IOod, 6:22
Box beam,
corrugated dural, 8:1, 8:10, 6:29
centroid calculations for, 8:11
moment of inertia calculations for, 8:11
stress analysis for, 8:12 to 8:14
elastic axis of, 6:30
thin metal, 6:29
wooden, 6:22
cantilever, 6:31
distribution of stress in, 6:22
-c-
cabin,
layout d:!Jllensions, A8:1
cabin equipment,
weights of, A5:36
Camera equipment,
weights ot, 15:36
cantilever wing,
construction, 8:1
drag of, 8:5
metal, weight of, 8: 4
cargo airplane,
common Sizes, 2:1
Center of gravity,
flying boat, 3:8
Center of pressure, A2a: 23
CiT1l Air Regulations, A6a:l
Cookpit wiDdsh1eld, drag data, .i.t6;4
Coefficient of restrb.int, 11:20
Cold working, limits or,
Canbined
bending and canpression, 6: 22
bending and twisting, 6:29
Camnunication systems,
weights of, A5:35
Comparison of,
cost and appearance of small metal
parts made by various methods, 7:14
distance cost of automobile and airplane, 7:4
manufacturing methods for minimum cost, 7:17
materials, 7:13
safety record of air and autanobile travel, 7:1
tire types, 10:10
total cost per mile of travel in light auto-
mobiles and small airplanes, 7:4
X-2
INDEX
Comparison of, continued
types of wing construction, 8:7
wood, dural, and 6: 16
Compressible flow,
equations, Al:8-Al:9
Control surface,
tail airfoil, A2d:l-A2d:3
Control system,
balance, 9:3, 9:4
construction details, 9:2, 9:3
flutter prevention, 9:3
layout, 9:1
stress analysis, 9:7
Cooling,
drag data, A2b:7
Cost, Chapter 7
aluminum, A 7: 1
annual cost of small airplanes, 7:4
automobile travel, 7:2
commodities, 7:2
distance of auto and airplane, 7:4
douglas fir flooring, A7:1
effect of driving speed of auto, 7:2
effect of wing, on air travel cost, 8:7
helicopter operating cost, A7:9
labor, A7:1
light plane operation, A7:7-A7:8
metal cantilever wings, 8:5
minimum, manufacturing methods for, 7:17
of small metal parts, made by various methods, 7:18
private airplane, 7: 3
tool and jig, for small metal parts, 7:15
price fluctuation for labor and materials, A7:1
servicing operations, A7:3-A7:5
steel, A7:1
summary of air transportation, A7:5-A7:6
tube and sheet material, A7:2
Cost estimates for stress analysis, 6:31
Corrugated dural,
box beam, 8:10, 8:1
centroid calculations for, 8:11 moment of
inertia calculations for, 8:11
stress analysis for 8:12 to 8:14
Cruise conditions, 2:1
-D-
Deflection of beams, 6:22
Deformation,
permanent, 6: 22
Department of Commerce, speCifications for
light plane, 1:20
DeSign,
estimates, 1: 2
layout,
light airplane, 1:1
procedure, 6:1
production consideration in, Chapter 7
propeller chart (3 blade), A2e: 4
reviSions, 2:3
tail, A2d:4
tractor pellers, A2e:ll
Detail deSign,
Drag,
comparison of cost and appearance of small
metal parts made by various methods, 7:18
description of machines used in making
small metal parts, 7:19
general, 7: 14
limits of cold working, 7:17
manufacturing methods as a factor in, 7:14
minimum bend radii far sheet aluminum alloys,
tool and jig cost. for production of small
metal part., 7:15
estimates, 3:4
estimates table, 1:7
m1ninlm wing, 314
wing-effect of OIl air travel
cost, 8:7
7:17
Drag data,
airplanes tested, A2b:6
boat hull, A2b:3
cockpit windshields, A2b:4
complete airplanes, A2b:5
cooling, A2b:7
engine nacelle, A2c:l-A2c:6
effect of air outlets, A2c:2
exhaust stack, A2b:8
fUselage, A2b:l, A2b:2
minimum, A2a: 7
airfoil, A2a:20, A2a:21
variation with Re, A2a: 22
miscellaneous items, A2b:lO-A2b:ll
pusher-propeller housings, A2c:4
resistance of planing tail hull, A3:2
take-off resistance of conventional hulls, A3:1
tail surface, A2b:9
Dural,
corrosion of, 6:15
corrugated,
box beam, 8:10, 8:1
loading conditions for stress analysis, 9:5
cost of, A7:2
fatigue strength of, A6b:6
method of production, 6:14
properties of extruded sections, A5:18-A5:21
properties of various types, 6:15
rivets, 7:9
spot welding of, 7:10
strength of corrugated structures, A6b: 8-A6b:9
Dynamotors,
strength of, A5:35
-E-
Econcmics, 7:1
figures of merit far wings equiped
with flaps, 8:9
Effect,
physiological, of high acceleration, 6:4
EffiCiency factor,
charts, A2f:l
Elastic axiS,
of box beam, 6: 30
of several spars, 6:30
of structural shapes, 6:30
Electrical equipment,
weight oi,
Elevator,
construction, 9:4
control system, 9:3
Equations,
compressible flow, Al:8, Al:9
normal shock wave, Al:ll
standard air, Al:l
supersonic flow, Al:12, Al:13
Estimates,
balance, flying boat, 3:7
cost for,
fabric covered wood wing, 6:12
stress analysis, 6:31
data for design of flap equipped wings, 8:9
drag, flying boat, 3: 6
preliminary, 1:2
time, stress analysis, 6:31
weight, flying boat, 3:7
Exhaust stack,
drag data, A2b:8
-F-
Fabric covered lI'Ood wing,
construction of, 6:12
material and labor cost, 6:12
Fabrication methods,
comparison of cost, Chapter 12
Factors of :sai"ety,
airplane efficiency AO:l
load, Chapter 2
Fatigue strength of dural, A3: 6
Finite wing,
relations, Al:ll
theory, Al:11
Flaps, wing,
construction, 8:9
Flaps,
effects on economic figures of merit for wings,8:9
Fowler, 8:9
investigation of the value of, 8:8
Floatation equipment,
weights of, A5:36
Floats,
design, 11:7
stress analysis, 11:9
Flutter prevention in control system, 9:3
Flying boat, Chapter 3
design conSiderations, 3:1
specifications, 3:4, 3:8
types, 3:2, 3:3
usefulness of, 3:1
Flying boat hull,
hydrodynamic characteristics, A3:3-A3:7
planing tail, A3: 2
take-Off resistance, A3:1
Form factor, 6:22
Formulas,
basic column, A6b:ll-A6b:12
combined stresses, A6b:lO
deflection, A6b:ll
simple unit stress, A6b:lO
type of loading, A6b:12-A6b:13
Fuel, miscellaneous equipment,
weights of, A5:30
Fuel pumps,
weights of, A5:30
Fuel primer,
pumps, A5:27
valves, A5:27
Fuel valves,
weights of, A5:29
Fuselage,
de sign, 11: 1
drag data, A2b:l, A2b:2
stress analysiS, 11:1
-a-
Generators,
weights of, A5:28
Glue for aircraft woods,
joining pressures for joints, 7:10
properties of, 6:10
strength of, with time, 7:10
Gusts,
Heat,
load factors for, 6:6
graph of, A6a:3
velocities in the atmosphere, 6:3
wing loads due to, 6:3
-11-
insulation of, A8:3
Helicopter, Chapter 5
blade ordinates, A2&:5-A2&:6
example, 5:3
in vertical descent, 5:4
inclined flight, 5:3
layout,
for hovering reqUirements, 5:1
operating cost, A7:9
types of, 5:1
utility of, 5:1
Hollow rectangular sections, 6:27
Horizontal tail loads, 6:7
Hovering requirements for helicopters, 5:2
Hull,
deSign, 11:7
stress analysis, 11:9
weight, 1:22
Humidity,
mean daytime, at various localities, 6:9
Hydraulic systems,
weights of, A5:34
-I-
Inclined flight of helicopter, 5:4
Instruments, aircraft,
weights of, A5:31-A5:33
Insulation,
of heat, A8:3
of sound, A8:3
-L-
Labor cost, A7:1, Chapter 7
Landing gear,
cost data for selection of deSign, 7:7
design and stress analysis, Chapter 10
Landing load factors,
graph of, 16&:1
Layout,
airplane,
design, 1: 1, Chapter 1, Chapter 2
procedure, 1:2
preliminary example, 1:3-1:6
drawings, preliminary, 3:7
flying boat, Chapter 3
example, 3:1
calculations, 3:4
preliminary sketch, 3:7
specifications, 3:4
of drawings, 11:1
helicopters, Chapter 5
inside cabin dimenSions, A8:l
procedure, 2:3
reviSions, 1: 8
transport,
fundamental considerations, 2:3
Landing gear, 6:1
wing, 6:4
Lift,
for airfoils, A2&:18-A2a:19
maximum with flaps, 12a: 25-A2a: 27
Lift curve,
data for airfOils, A2a:17
Light plane,
cost of operation, A7:7-A7:8
Load factors, Chapter 6, A6a:l-A6a:3
for gusts, 6:5
for maneuvers, 6:6
for civil aircraft (British),
general, 6:1
landing, 10:16
Loads,
calculation of in,
statically determinate truss, 6:17
statically indeterminate truss, 6:30
design, 6:23
types of, 6:17
uni t tail, due to gusts, Chapter 6
X-3
x-4
-l.!-
Mach number,
best LID, 4:1, 4:2
critical for airfoils, A2a:15, A2a:16
Maneuver load factor,
graph of, A6a: 2
Maneuverini' loads (tails), 6:6
Materials, Chapter 6
cost of, A7:1-A7:9
Metal,
beams, 6:22, 6:27
construction methods, 6:15
density of, A2:4
parts, small,
thin, boxbeams, 6:29, 8:1
wings, 7:16
Metallic aircraft materials,
properties of, A6b:2
Modulus of rupture, 6:22
MOisture,
in atmosphere, 6:8, 6:9
in wood, 6:8, 6:9
Moment of inertia,
calculations for corrugated dural
box beams, 8:10
Motors, electric,
weights of, A5:28
Motors, hydraulic,
weights of, A5:34
-N-
Nacelle, engine,
air outlet far, A2c:3
drag, A2c:1-A2c:6
general arrangement of, A2c:2
installation of pusher, A2c:3
model of, A2c:l
propulsive characteristics, A2c:5-A2c:6
Notation, p:4, p:5
compressible flow equations, Al:7
Normal shock wave,
equations, Al:ll
Nozzle,
supersonic equations, Al:10
Oil coolers,
weiphts of, A5:29
Oil dilution systems,
weights of, A5:29
Oil heaters,
weights of, A5:29
Oxygen equiplilent,
weights of, A5:36
Parasite drag,
estimates, 1: 7
performance,
-P-
airplane, 2:1
ceiling chart, A2f:4
climb chart, A2f:4
jet light planes, 1:10
maximum speed chart, A2f:2
parameter chart, A2f:3
power required chart, A2f:8
propeller chart,
t1l'0-blade, A2e:3
three-blade, A2e:5
radial engine, A4:3-A4:5
.wilJEX
turbojet, A4:6, A4:9
turboprop, A4:7
Permanent deformation, 6:19
Plywood,
cost of, A7:2
Power plants,
light airplane engine, A4: 2
piston engine specifications, A4:1
radial engine, A4:3-A4:5
trends in types of, 1:2
turbOjets, A4:6, A4:8, A4:9, 1:8, 1:9
turbojet specifications, A4:1
turboprop, A4:7
Preliminary ,
design estimates, 1:2
Preparations and properties of,
aircraft alUlllinum alloys, 6:14
aircraft TOods, 6:8-6:10
Prices,
wholesale, commodities, 7:3
Principles of stress analysis, Chapter 6
Problems, at end of each chapter, answers, N-1, N-2
Production and licensing of airplanes, in the U.S., 7:1
Propeller,
blade (4 to 8) operating charts, A2e:8-A2e:10
efficiency and diameter, A2e:1
index of SOlile NACA propellar charts, A2e:7
logarithmic performance chart, A2e:3
pu.sher design charts, A2e:12
sound emission, A8:4
two-blade, A2e:2-A2e:3
three-blade, A2e:4-A2e:7
tractor propellers deSign charts, A2e:ll
-H-
H,
. variation with temperature and pressure, Al:6
Radio receivers,
weights of, A5:35
Radio tranSlllitters,
weights of, A5:35
Redundant structures,
discussion of, 6:17
Reculationa, C1T11 Air, Ma:1-as
R.Tid.llS,
design 2; 3
RiT.ta,
cost es to spot welding, 7:11
types and use, 7:9
-8-
Safety record,
airplane and autClllObile travel, I:1, 7:1
Scope of speCifications, 2:1
Servicing, .
cost of, A7:3-A7:5
Shock absorber, 10:15
Shock wave,
equations, Al:ll
functions,. Al:12, Al:13
Signal equipment,
Sound,
weights of, A5:28
J}\,:1
propeller, A8:4
vibration, A8:4
Specifications,
flying boats, 3:4-3:8
general, I:), I:4, 1:10, sample 1:1
sample, 3:4
scope of, 2:1
Spot welding,
of dural, 7:10
Starters and equipment,
engine displacement, A5:27
weight of, A5:27
Steel,
constituents of, 6:13
cost of, A7:1-A7:2
critical temperatures of; 6:13
effect of cooling rate an structure of, 6:14
preparation and properties of, 6:13
properties of normal carbon, 6:14
SAE numbering' system, 6:13
strength of round tubular struts, A6b:7
strength of streamline tubular struts, A6b:7
Steel tubes,
cost of, A7:2
Stiffeners,
dural z bar, sheet. me I. M
strength of, A6b:10
Strength,
beams, 6:22
compression members, 6:20
glued jOints, 6:11
members subjected to ccnbined bending and
twisting, 6:29
tension members, 6:20
wood, 6:10
Strength of aircraft materials, A6b:l-A6b:13
corrugated sheet dural structures, A6b:B-A6b:9
dural, fatigue, A6b:6
formulas for, A6b:10-A6b:13
properties of metallic aircraft material, A6b:2
properties of non-metallic aircraft
materials, A6b:2
properties of sand cast aluminum allQY!, A6b:3
properties of wrought aluminum alloys, A6b:3
round tubular Aob:/
standard tie rods, A6b:6
stiffener, A6b:10
streamline struts-steel, A6b:7
structural metal parts, A6b:l
wood, A6b:4
Stress,
analysis, Chapter 6
formulas for, A6b:10-A6b:13
naninal, 6:26
unit, 6:1B
stress analysiS, Chapter 6
aileron, 9:6-9:B
calculation of loads in a statically determinate
truss, 6:17
ccnbined bending and cCinpression, 6:25
ccnbined bending and twisting, 6: 29
cost estimates for, 6:33
deflections of beams, 6: 24
distribution of shear stress in hollow
sections subject to torsion, 6:27
distribution of unit stress in box beam, 6:22
fuselage, 11:1
hollow rectangular sections, 6: 27
hull and float, 11:9
landing gear, 10:13
modulus of rupture, 6: 22
metal beams, 6:22, 6:23
nominal stress, 6:26
of wings, B:12-B:14
permanent deformation, 6:19
shear and moment diagrams, 6:22
statically indeterminate truss, 6:30
strength of beam8, 6:22
streng'th of compression members, 6:20
strength of tension members, 6:20
tail surface, 9:5
tension test, 6:19
thin metal box beam, 6:29
time estimates fer, 6:30
torSion, 6:26
types of loading, 6:17
unit stress and unit strength, 6:1B
use of a free body sketch in, 6:19
wire braced structures, 6:30
wood beams, 6:22
INDEX
Structural metal parts,
strength of,
Supersf'nic,
flow, Al:12, Al:l;
thermodynamic relationships, Al:B
airplane,
(L/D)max' A2a:;4
nozzle equation, Al:lO
Sweepback,
Tail,
effect of, A2a:;2, A2a:;;
-T-
coefficients and symbols, A2d:5
design formulas, A2d:4
design procedure, A2d:4
horizontal, pull up speed for design of,
Chapter 6
loads and load factors, 6:6
1I9ight, 1:16
Tail loads,
due to gusts, Chapter 6
necessary for balance, 6:7
Take-off conditions, 2:1
Temperature,
air behind shock wave, Al:6
Tension,
members, strength of, 6:20
testing, 6:22
use of glued joints in, 6:10
Thermodynamic relations, Al: B-Al:9
Tie rods,
strength of, A6b:6
Time,
estimates for stress analysis, 6:;1
of drying in ldln for aircraft woods, 6: 10
of setting for various glues, 6:10
Tires and tubes,
dimensions, A5:22-A5:25
selection of, 10:8
wheels for, A5:24-A5:25
Torsion,
combined with bending, 6: 29
in stress analysiS, 6: 26
Transport airplanes, 2:1-2:;
common sizes, 2:1
types, 2:2
Trends,
in types of air craft, l:l
in types of power plants, I: 2
in airliner cruiSing speeds, 1:1
in wing loadings, 1:1
Trilllning tabs, 9:4-9:5
Turbojet,
advantages of, 1:2
Turboprop,
advantages of, 1:2
Types,
flying boats, ;:2, ;:;
transport airplanes, 2:2
-u-
Unit,
stress and strength, 6:18
Vibration,
socnd, AB:;
-V- .
X-5
x-6
Wedge airfoils,
supersonic characteristics, A2a:31
Weight, Appendix AS
aircraft electrical systems, AS:28
aircraft instruments, AS:31-AS:33
anti-icing equipment, A5:38
auxiliary power plant equipment, A5:38
brakes and wheel, A5:26
communication equipment, AS:3$
electrical equipment, 1:18
electrical s;rstems, AS:28
engine, 3:7
n ~ i n starting systems, AS:27
estimate, 1:11
flying boat, 1:16
extruded dural sections, A$:18-A5:21
fuel system, AS:30
furnishings, AS:36
hulls, 1:i8
hydraulic systems, AS:34
instruments, 1:19
landing wheel tires, A$:22-A$:25
lubricating system, A5:29
metal cantilever wings, 8:5
per unit area of aircraft materials, A5:7-A$:9
per unit length of aircraft materials,
A$:10-A5:17
per unit volume of aircraft materials, A$:4-A5:6
preliminary estimates, AS:l-A$:3
table, 1:6
wheels, A5:2S-A5:26
Welding,
cost, 7:12
gas, 7:11
of steel fuselage, 7:12
resistance, 7:10
spot, 7:10
typical welds, 7:12
Wheels,
arrangement, 10:1-10:8
dimenSion, A5:25-AS:26
selection of, 10:8
Wing,
beams.
box, corrugated dural, 8:1, 8:10, 6:27
cantilever, construction of, 8:1
construction,
cantilever, 8:4
comparison of types of, 8:7
cost,
effect of on air travel cost, 8:7
of metal cantilever wings, 8:$
drag,
cantilever wings, 8:5
effect of, on air travel coat, 817
effect of surface irregularities, A2a:28
design, Chapter 8
fabric covered, cost of, 6:2
finite equations, Al:ll
flaps,
economic figures of merit for wings
equipped with, 8:9
estimate data for design of wings equipped
with, 8:9
Fowler, 8: 9
investigation of the value of, 8:8
types of, 8:9
load factors, 6:4
margine of safety, tabulating method, for, 8:15
metal, 6:29
metal, 6:16
metal cantilever weight of, 8:4
preliminary design of, 8:10
stress analysis of, 8:10-8:14
VDT tests on, A2a:29
weight, 3:7
weight, effect of on air travel cost, 8:7
WOod, 6:11
Wing characteristics,
tunnel tests, A2a:30
Wing design, Chapter 8
cantilever wing construction, 8:1
comparison of types of wing construction, 8:7
corrugated dural boxbeam, b:30, 8:10
centroid calculations for, 8:11
cost of metal cantilever wings, 8:3-8:6
criteria, 8:1
drag of cantilever wings, 8:$
economic figures of merit for wing, with flaps,8:l0
effect of cost, drag, and weight of wing on
travel cost, 8:7
estimate data for design of flap equipped
wings, 8:9
for minimum air travel coet, 8:6
investigation of value of wing flaps, 8:8
method of tabulating margins of safety of
wing beams, 8:15
preliminary deSign, 8: 10
weight of metal cantilever wings, 8:4
wing beams,
corrugated dural box,
moment of inertia calculation for, 8:11
stress analysis for, 8:10-8:14
Wing loadings,
trends, I:l
Wing loads,
due to gusts, 6:3
due to maneuvers, 6:2
Wire braced structures, 6:30
Wood,
beams, 6:22
bolted jOints, 6:12
construction methods, 6:10
density, A2:4
glue, 6:10, 6:11
moisture content, 6:9
plywood, 6:11, A2:4
properties and production of, 6:8, 6:10
strength and elasticity of, A3:4
strength of, A6b:4
wings, 6:12
GENERAL LOGARI'IHMIC CHART OF POWER REQUIRED
T I 1.0 125 15 '1'1'5 20
5.5
1.0
2.0
1.5
I I I I I I'
" ~ / I I
_ ~ ! !VI III '"1 ' ",,' ," '''' I I I" I 75
.. .1 .1 . 1.0 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.5 3.0
General lo?arithmic plot of power required for level f l i ~ h t Point ()l is the point of
maximum LID ratio. To be superimposed on logarithmic propeller efficiency chart as in-
structed. Adapted from B>'1ing Aircraft Co. Chart by O.S. Schairer.
ERRATA
Errata, Airplane Design lOth Edition
Page 1:8 column 2, line 2. Add: Also read on pA2f:2, vm = 185 mph.
Page 1:10 Table 1:3. Change values of C,ft./roin. to read, in order
2005, 1347, 810, 306, 0.
Page 1:12 middle of Col. 2, after PI = DIV
I
change ft./sec. to ft.
Ibs./sec.
Page 6:2 Fig. 6:1. At right hand side of figure, change 30 and 50
to 3 and 5.
Page 6:4. rv;idd1e of 1st column, change 9.8.JW/SCIma:x to 19.8 Jw/SC
Imax
Page 6:4 3rQ par. after Fig. 6:7. Change left to lift in 3 places.
A2e:3. 'I'itle reference to page A2f:8 should be A2f:9.
A2e:6. Title reference to page A2f:8 should be A2f:9.