I 8 CS a = .— = ye 6 Ba i nicalTable of Contents: ‘qe GU) Chapter 1 : Power System - An Overview and Modelling 1 = 1) to (4 - 42) [Chapter 2 : Representation of Power System - Per Unit Quanities (2-1) to (2-48) |Chapter 3 : Power Flow Analysis G1) to(3-90) Chapter 4 : Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault (4 - 1) to (4 - 96) Chapter : Symmetrical Components (= 1)to (6 ~52) (Chapter 6 : Fault Analysis - Unbalanced Faut (6-1) to (6-88 [Chapter 7 : Statilty (7-1)to (7-104) ‘Unitwise University Questions with Answers (P=1)to(P-72) %* Written in a simple language. * Large number of carefully selected worked examples with step by step procedure followed after explaining theory part. % Simple and clear explanation of concepts. 3 Unitwise 2 Marks questions added at the end. % Solved University Question Paper. 3 Lucid presentation of bus impedance algorithm and stability studies. Best of Technical Publications As per Revised Syllabus of Anna University - 2006 Course Measurements and Instrumentation Digital Signal Processing Microprocessor and Microcontroller Principles of Management @)2s [el Power System Analysis ISBN 9788184315615 {Al rights reserved with Technical Publications. No port ofthis book should be reproduced in any form, Electronic, Mechanical, Phetocopy or ary information storage and retrieval system without prior permission in writing, from Technical Publications, Pune. Published by : Technical Publications Pune” ‘#1, Amit Residency, 412, Shaniwar Peth, Pune - 411 030, India. Printer Alert DTPrinters Sino. 10/3,Sinhayad Road, Pe - 411 041Preface The importance of Power System Analysis is well known in various engineering fields. Overwhelming response to our books on various subjects inspired me to write this book. The book is structured to cover the key aspects of the subject Power System Analysis. The book uses plain, lucid language to explain fundamentals of this subject. The book provides logical method of explaining various complicated concepts and stepwise methods to explain the important topics. Each chapter is well supported with necessary illustrations, practical examples and solved problems. All the chapters in the book are arranged in a proper sequence that permits each topic to build upon earlier studies. All core has been token to- make students comfortable in understanding the basic concepte of the subject: The book not only covers the entire scope of the subject but explains the philosophy of the subject. This makes the understanding of this subject more clear and makes it more interesting. The book will be very useful not only to the students but also to the subject teachers. The students have to omit nothing and possibly have to cover nothing more. | wish to express my profound thanks to all those who helped in making this book o reality. Much needed moral support ond encouragement is provided on numerous occasions by my whole family. We wish to thank the Publisher and the entire team of Technical Publications who have taken immense pain to get this book in time with quality printing. Any suggestion for the improvement of the book will be acknowledged and well ‘appreciated. Author G. Shrinivasan Dedicated to My Parents KS. Gopalan and G_ Danaja cs ca‘VSR IRE REN ANS ET Ne RS Copyrighted material1.4 Complex Power and Power Triangle ..... 5B 3P Circul 12 1.6 Modern Power System .. 1.6.1 Three Phase Synchronous Machine 1.6.2 Transformers ......... vveinese 1.6.3 Transmission and Sub-transmission ......... 6-661 eceeeee eee ee eee ee eee ennee 1.64 Distribution 1.6.5 Loads 1.7 Per Phase Analysis .. 1.7.1 Generator Representation .... 1.7.2 Per Phase Analysis-Transmission Line 1.7.2.1 Equivalent Network of Uniform Long Line(T-mode).. ...... 1.1... 4-23 1.7.2.2 Equivalent Network of Long Line (r.- Model). 17.2.3 Equivalent Circuit for Medium Lines... ss ss sis a ten “O87 1.7.3 Per Phase Analysis-Transformers . 17.3.1 Two Winding Transformer. é 17.3.2 Tap Changing Transformer... ss. 2s... sss... aee 1.7.3.3 Representation of Transformer with Nominal Tums Ratio 17.3.4 Phase Shifing Transformers... ss. 17.3.5 Thwee Winding Transformer _. 1.7.4 Per Phase Analysis-Load Formulas...Chapter- 2 Representation of Pow Sytem: Por Unituaniies” 4) (248) 2.4 Introduction 2-4 2.2 Single Line Diagram ... 2.3 Impedance and Reactance Diagram 2.4.4 Per unit System Applied to Single Phase Circuits 2.42 Per unit System Applied fo Three Phase Ciroults ...........eeeeeeeseeeeseeeeeeee 2-9 2.5 Selection of Base Values wuteeseeeeisssesnsssssssssssssee 2 10 2.6 Changing the Base of Per Unit Quantities ..... 2.7 Merits and De-merits of Per Unit System ... 2.8 Network Reductions - A/A Transformation 2-12 3.6.1 Line Flows and Losses inthe System .............sssssssseeesseeseeerensens 3-11 3.6.2 Flowchart for Gauss-Seidal Method... BF 3.6.3 Step by Step Procedure for Load Flow Analysis using Gauss - Seidal Method 3.7 Newton-Raphson Power Flow Method... 3.7.1 Application of N-R Algorithm to the Power Flow Method 3.7.2 Flowchart For Newton-Raphson Power Flow Problem. . .. 3.7.3 Step by Step Procedure for Load Flow Analysis using Newton - Raphson Method. 3.8 Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution... 3.8.1 Flowchart for Fast Decoupled Power or Load Flow3.8.2 Step by Step Procedure for Load Fiow. 3.9 Comparison of Load Flow or Power Flow Solution Methods .. Formulas..... 43.3.4 Three Phase Synchronous Generator eee eee et AMO, 4.3.32 Synchronous Motor... ss 4M 4.4 Synchronous Motor... 4.5 Concept of Short Circuit Capacity of a Bus ... a 4.6 Balanced Three Phase Fault ....sccccssssssscssmscsssssesessmecssssssesecsssssce 4 > 14, 4.7 Analysis of Symmetrical Faults in Power System Network 4.7.1 Network Reduction Technique (using Kirchoff's Laws) 4.1.2 Thevenin's Equivalent Circuit and its Application . . 4.7.4 Symmetrical Fault Current Estimation using Thevenin's Theorem 4.8 Digital Computer Approach Employing Bus Impedance Matrix 4.8.1 Bus Impedance Matrix 4.9 Zou Building Algorithm 4.9.4 Addition ofaBranch 00 4.10 Step by Step Assembly of Zauc -. 4.10.1 Type 1 : Modification (Addition of a tree branch to the reference) 4.10.2 Type 2 : Modification (Addition of a tree branch from a new bus to an old bus),. 4.10.3 Type 3 : Modification (Adding of a link between an existing bus with reference bus)... 4-34 4.10.4 Type 4 : Modification (Addition of a link between two old buses) . Pe eae meee4.11 Flow Chart... Solved Examples Formulas... Exercise 5.2 Symmetrical Components Fundamentals .... 5.3 The Sequence Operator “a” .... 5.3.1 Concept of Symmetrical Components 5.3.2 The Symmetrical Component Transformation Matrix (OR) Matrix Notation ............ 5-4 5.3.3 Power Considerations 5.3.4 Nature of Sequence CUITENtS ....... 666s sess eee eee eee eee eee ees een en i eeeen 5.4 The Concept of Sequence Impedances 5.5 Three Sequence Impedances and Sequence Networks .. 5.6 Sequence Impedances of Power System Elements . 5.6.1 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Line .. 5.6.2 Sequence Impedances of Transformers . 5.6.3 Sequence impedances of Synchronous Machines . 5.7 Sequence Networks .. 5.7.1 Sequence Networks of Synchronous Machines (Unloaded) . 5.7.2 Positive Sequence Network 5.7.3 Negative Sequence Network 5.7.4 Zero Sequence Network ... . 5.8 Sequence Impedances of Transmission Lines .. 5.9 Sequence Impedances and Networks of Transformers .... 5.10 General Observations on Zero Sequence Currents .... 5.11 Construction of Sequence Network of a Power System. 5.11.1 Sequence Impedance and Network of Loads.......... 0... ececesseeeee eee e eens Solved Examples....... Formulas6.1 Various Types of Faults at the Terminal of an Unloaded Alternator Introduction ..... 6.2 Single Line to Ground Fault on an Unloaded Alternator 6.3 Line to Line Fault on an Unloaded Alternator .... 6.4 Line to Line to Ground Fault (or) Double Line to Ground Fault .... 6.5 Short Circuit Studies of a Large Power System Networks ..... 6.6 V-I Relation of a 3 Phase Element in abc Form ... 6.7 Algorithm for Calculating System Conditions after the Occurrence of Faults ... 6.7.1 Single Line to Ground Fault using Z,,5 6.7.2 Line to Line Fault using Zeus, 6.7.3 Double Line to Ground Fault using Zays - 6.7.4 Bus Voltages and Line Current during Faul 6.8 Step by Step Procedure to Find Out Fault using Za, Matrix Formulas... Exercise Chapter27” 7.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions ... 7.2 Rotor Angle Stability and Synchronous Machine Characteristics 7.3 Power Vs Angle Relationship 7.4 The Stability Phenomenon ..... 7.4.4 Small Signal Stability 7.4.2 Transient Stability... 7.5 Voltage Stability and Voltage Collapse ... 7.6 Classification of Voltage Stability 7.6.1 Large Disturbance Voltage Stability . 76.2 Small Disturbance Voltage Stability 0... 6.06. ee eee eee e eee eee 7.7 Mid Term and Long Term Stability 7.8 Classification of Stability .. ee ree7.9 An Elementary View of Transient Stability .... 7.10 Review on Principles of Mechanics .... 7.10.1 Angular Velocity, Angular Acceleration and Rotational Angle 7.10.2 Torque and Moment of inertia ......... 7.11 Dynamics of a Synchronous Machine 7.12 Swing Curve ... 7.12.4 The Swing Equation ... 7.12.2 Swing Curve Application 7.13 Steady State Stability ..... 7.14 Power Angle Equation .. 7.14.1 Simplified Machine Model . 7.14.2 Power Angle Curve........... 7.15 Response to a Step Change 7.16 Equal Area Criterion FATA Cobisel Chocttig Api S.3.svomitbsssisnannus nhtlds aencccnentt oh doinebanase 7.47.2 To Find Critical Clearing Time 7.18 Response to a Short Circuit Fault 7.19 Factors Influencing Transient Stability 7.20 Transient Stability in a Multi Machine System ....... 7.21 Numerical Integration Methods .... 7.21.3 Computational Algorithm using Modified Euler’s Method ................200e0eee 7-49 7.21.4 Runga Kutta Method 7.21.5 Runga Kutta Fourth Order Approximation 7.21.6 Computational Algorithm using R-K Method Solved Examples ... Formulas. ExercisePower System - An Overview and Modelling 1.1 Introduction Power is an essential pre-requisite for the progress of any country. The modern power system has features unique to itself. Power system branch concerns itself with the technology of generation, transmission, distribution, protection utilization and conservation of electric power. It is the largest man made system in existence and is the most complex system. With the present rate of growth, the power demand is almost doubling every decade. The power system engineer has an uphill task in designing and operating the power system and is confronted with a number of challenging problems. An increasing amount of attention is being focused on the reliability (or) continuity of service because of more complex. Further the system is never off and as such, no meaningful tests can be conducted on the system to ascertain its dynamic behaviour. Electric Power can never be absolutely reliable. Occasional interruptions to service in limited areas will continue. The special responsibility of a power system is that, in addition to maintaining the generation of electric power at adequate level, the power has to be transmitted to the various load centres in response to the changing demands in proper form and quality, in accordance with the individual consumers specification. With rapid increase in demand, load flow studies have to be undertaken to determine the voltage, current, power factor and reactive power compensation required at different points. They are also essential from the point of view of future planning. Interconnections of different locations gives the advantage that under fault conditions, only a small area where fault has occurred can be disconnected and the rest of area can get the power supply. However the interconnections raise the fault level for the interruption devices like circuit breakers and a detailed study is necessary to assess the fault levels to select the proper back-up units for protection. The development of digital computers has been a very big help in developing solutions for the load flow study problems. A computer program is capable of handling more than 1000 buses, 2000 lines and 500 transformers having the provision of tap changing under load. System planners are able to get the future projection a-4)Powor System - An Overviow Power System Analysis 1-2 and Modelling based on the present trends and plan the development of generation, transmission sub-transmission and distribution systems as would be required in future. Analysis by symmetrical components is a useful method of determination of fault currents under unsymmetrical fault conditions. Digital computer is a very useful tool, which can be programmed to give the accurate results under fault conditions at every stage of power system. Once we build up the system to supply the power to the consumers, it also becomes necessary to provide protection to the power supply system starts from generation to utilization. There could be a number of ways the fault can occur on the power system. It is necessary to anticipate all types of faults and provide the necessary protective equipment to interrupt the power when fault occurs. If the fault is not interrupted within the stipulated time it would burn out the entire system starts from distribution system and finally the generator itself also. Hence generally the circuit breakers are provided at different stages of power system network to get the discrimination and ensure that only the area where fault has occurred gets cut-off and the rest of the area continues to receive the power supply. If we have analyzed the faults, it becomes necessary to provide the protection system. There cannot be any system, not only power but any other system which can survive under conditions which would be termed as fault condition for the system. Hence the necessity of the protection for the power system arises. We can classify the faults in two categories. One category of fault is of transient nature. They occur on the line, the circuit breakers operate to clear the fault and then breakers can close again to restored the supply after successful removal of faulty system. The second category of faults is of permanent nature. In this case if the circuit breaker closes again, it would be closing on fault and tripping again, these types of faults have to be attended and the causes of the fault removed before the breaker is closed again. Generally for the LV side protection, fuses are being provided upto 150 HP. Beyond rating mentioned above 11 kV supply with Double Pole Structure with HG fuse protection on the H.V. side circuit breakers are provided if the demand exceeds 100 kVA as per LE. rules. Once the basic concepts of power transmission and the limitations of the system are understood, it would be helpful in developing new systems which are in the offing with the development of geothermal plants, wind power stations, solar energy converters, sea wave energy converters, ocean thermal energy converters and bio-fuels. Research on use of hydrogen as fuel cell is also going on. The necessity of alternative sources of power generation would force new system to be evolved in another 20 to 30 years.Power System - An Overview Power Systom Analysis 1-3 and Modelling 1.2 Power in Single Phase AC Circuits 1.2.1 Instantaneous Power wo Zz The power in watts being observed by a * load at any instant is the product of the instantaneous voltage drop across the load in volts and the instantaneous current into the wo load in amperes. _ Fig. 1.1 shows a single phase sinusoidal Ite Mh load. Fig. 1.1 Sinusoidal source supplying a > 8 “UPP'YIN & tom load Let the instantaneous voltage be v(t) = Vy, cos(at + 6) w= (1) and the instantaneous current is given by i(t) = 1, cos(ot + 0) (12) The instantaneous Power P(t) delivered to the load is the product of v(t) and i(t) and is given by P(t) = v(t) i(t) = Vay Ty cos(ot + $) cos(at +0) «= (3) The above equation (1.3) can be rewritten using trigonometry formula. cosA cosB = 5 [eos (A ~ B) + cos(A + B)] PC) = Ve Tq [cos(@ - 0) + cos (Zot + 6+ 0)] . (4) Add and subtract @ in the second term of equation 14 = 5 Vin Im [os 0) + cosQot+ o+e-H+ 9] (15) 1 = AV, Iq [cos(d - 0) + cos (2ot = 8) - (9 - 0)] »- (1) ‘The second term of equation 1.6 can be solved using cos (A ~B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB = 3%n T,, [c05(g - 0) + cos 2 (2eat + 4) cos(p - 0) + sin (ot + 4) sin(o— 6)] w= (17) A Vm Im = 3 Vm Br Te 7 Vem lene .. (18)Power System - An Overview Power System Anaiysis 1-4 and Modelling Let 8 = $ - @. The above equation in terms of the RMS values is reduced to P(t) = Vene Tre [C088 + cos 2(wt + 4) cosd + sin Act +4) sin 8] = Vane Jems €088[1 + cos 2(at +$)] + Veing Fens Sin 5(sin 2(cot + )) vw (1.9) ee ee eee RO KO Where Pa = Energy flow into the circuit. and Py) = Energy borrowed and retumed by the circuit where 6 is the angle between voltage current (or) the impedance angle. When ‘8 is positive then the load is inductive (‘I’ lags ‘V’) and if the ‘8 is negative then the load is capacitive (’ leads ‘V’). The instantaneous power has been decomposed into two components the first component of equation 1.9 is Paay = [VALI] cosé +] V] I] coss cos 2(ot + 4) +» (1.10) The above equation 1.10 has two parts one is fixed part and the other is time varying which has a frequency twice that of the voltage or current waveforms. The voltage, current and power waveforms are shown in Fig. 1.2(a) and 1.2(b). Fig. 1.2 (b) Instantaneous waveform Here the negative portion (hatched) of the power cycle represents the power retumed to the source Fig. 1.2(b) shows the instantaneous power is negative whenever the voltage and current are of opposite sign. From the Fig. 1.2(b) the positive portion of the power is greater than that of negative portion of power hence the average power in always positivePower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-5 and Modelling The positive portion of the power cycle varies with the phase angle between voltage and current waveforms. There is no negative cycle in the p(t) if the circuit is pure resistive (@ = 0) Hence all the power delivered by the source is completely dissipated in the resistance. Positive and negative portions of the power cycle are equal when 6 =12 At this instant the power dissipated in the circuit is zero that is the power is returned to the source. If & becomes zero we get P(t) = vit) i(t) = Vp Iq cos? oot - Nate. (1+ cos 2at) (1.11) there the average value of power is and the power wave has frequency twice that of voltage or current. 1.2.2 Average Power Average Power = T J P(t) dt wes (1.12) ° Tn a [cos(2at + 0) + cos6] dt v= (1.13) y, cos @ dt... (1.14) 2 [cos(2at + 6)] dt + 1 In equation 1.14 the first term becomes zero and the second term remains. The average power is cosd = Vn Im cosa = V, 1, cos ® watts: EE ros Tams To get Average Power, we have to take the product of the effective of both voltage and current multiplied by cosine of the phase angle between the voltage and current. 1.3 Power in Three Phase Circuits A three phase generator (star connected) with neutral [N-marked] supplying balanced power of star connected 3 phase load with ["n" marked] is shown in Fig. 1.3. We know that neutral wire will not have any current which is shown dotted in the Fig. 1.3. Both ‘n’ and ‘N’ nodes are at the same potential in case of 3 phase balanced load.Powor System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-6 and Modelling Fig. 1.3. Three phase star connected generator supplying power to a Three phase balanced load Van = Vex =V2 [VI sin ot Vyn = Vy = ¥2 |V| sin(ot - 120°) w= (1.15) Vin = Vay = V2] V| sin(wt + 120°) The above three voltages are measured relative to ground (earthed neutral). If the impedance of the connections between the terminals of generator and the load are negligible, then the above voltages are the voltages at the load terminals since the load is balanced. Then the three phase currents will be ign = ¥2 |] sin (ot - 0) iyy = V2 {Il sin (ot - 120° ~ ¢) s+ (1.16) iy = V2 [I] sin (at + 120° - 0) Since in star connected system. tae Wp We may write Pal = [Esl = Hood = [Hol = {Ef = Hl «- (L17) [Veal = | ¥val =| Veal =| Yel =1 Yt ww (1.18) The total instantaneous power (P,, ) supplied to the load is Pae = Yaw inn + Yon fw * Ven fen v= (1-19) Substituting the expressions of voltages and currents from equations 1.15 and 1.16 in the above equation 1.19. Pao = 31 VIII cos 0 = 3p w= (1.20)Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-7 and Modelling From the above equation we conclude that the total instantaneous power is constant and is equal is the three times the real power per phase. Thus we may write p,, a5 Py, (constant 36 power). Equation 1.20 can be written as P,, = 31V{I cos 6 = 3p .. (1.21) = = rae ll since {= [1,| and |vyf = [vj =e! V3 and we may write equation 1.21 in terms of line voltages and currents. Py = Y3|ViJ [Ip [cose (1.22) Since our power system consist of three phases, the following expression for reactive power is equally valid for three phase system. Qry = F/M] [hi [sin 6 » (1.23) = ¥3|V,| |, |sing wm Example 1.1: A balanced three phase load of 45 MW, with power factor 0.92 lagging is supplied at 11 kV (L - to ~ 1) over a three phase. Transmission line having an impedance of (5 + j 10) Q per conductor as shown in the Fig. 14 (a). Calculate i)1,, ii) phase angle iii) V, x, at load end iv) Impedance voltage drop in line 2) V;., source voltage vi) V, source voltage vii) Total power loss viti) Total real power at the sending end. Fig. 1.4 (a) Single phase equivalent of generator (source) load and transmission line (b) Phasor diagram Solution : In this problem Z,,,. is given so the voltage at sending end is not equal to receiving end. Let V, & V, be the voltages at sending end and at the receiving end respectively.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-8 and Modelling i Vv, — = = 6351 kV cos $= 0.92 Mle 4 p, = 8% - is00Kw i) Py = | Va} [Ta] cos [Pal 1500 Hylton [hl = Ter cosgy * B550855 x 092 * 75679 4 ii) cos ty = 092 $y = 23074° iit) |V,] = 6351 kV With V, as reference we can write phasor V3 as Vy = |Vp| £0" = 6351 20° kV iv) V, has taken as reference vector then the phasor. = [Ta] £~42 =| 12] (cos #2 ~ jsin 2) I, = 256.7269 (0.92 — j 0.392) = (236.189 — j 100.616) 1 Z = RejX=5+j10= 11.18 [69.435 2 vy) Vi = V,+1,Z V, = 6350853 + ( 236.189 - j 100.616) 11.18 | 63.435 V, = 6350.853 + (2187.105 + j 1858.81) V, = 8537.958 + | 1858.81 = 8737.96 [12,28 = 8736 kV vi) V, = V3 .V, =i 8.738 = 15.13466 KV = 15.135 kV vii) Total Power Loss P,, = 3{13| Ry = 3x (256.7269)' x 5 = 0.98863 MW 2 viii) Pass = Prey + 3b R Posy) = 4500 + 988.63 = 5498.63 kW = 5.48863 MWPower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-9 and Modelling 1.4 Complex Power and Power Triangle Fig. 1.5 shows single phase circuit From the Fig. the voltage and current phasor can be written as v= mel! 1 =[ifel ( v 1 v Vv Let us take conjugate current defined ew by 1 Ves jel (2a) (a) (b) Fig. 1.5 Single phase circuit ‘The complex power now defined as 6 savr ~ (1.25) svi’ =|velxjetl =/vy{1| ollY -) We already know that ZV-I= angle @ “ S={vilqe* =|V|{l] coso + j| Vj {I sing The above equation can be written as S = [V|[ I) coso +j|V]]1] sing a a = P+jQ vw» (1.26) Equation 1.25 can be written in two alternative forms V=Zl and I= YW S=VYtVvr=Y' [yr iv’) or s ZiV =qi By summarizing, we thus have three alternative power expressions. S=P4+jQ =W =ZjIP = Y|vP (1.27) Upon computing ‘S’ from either of the three alternative expressions 1.27 we obtain P and Q simply as the real and imaginary parts of ‘S’ respectively. js} =| wr} =| vis JP? + Q? o- (1.28) where |S| = Apparent power (VA, kVA, MVA) P = |Vj|T|cos@ = real (active) power (Watts kW, MW) (1.29) Q = | Vi[Ijsino = reactive power (VAR, kVAR, MVAR) __... (1:30)Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-10 and Modelling Q is positive for lagging current (lagging PF load) and Q is negative for leading current (leading PF load). S$? = P? + Q? can be represented by phasor diagram (Fig. 1.6) where 6 = tan“? g Reactive Power (2) Real Power (P) Fig. 1.6 Phasor representing of complex power From the Triangle [P? + gy” =8. If two or more loads are’in parallel as shown in Fig. 1.7. 1 I v Fig. 1.7 Two loads in parallel S=Wo-=V(G +h) = VI+VIh = §, +S, =(P, +P) + {(Q, +Q) (131) By applying Kirchoff’s current law for a complex power, In a series RL load carrying current I. V = 1(R+ j X,) S=Wo=PR+jP xX, sn( 1.32) P = I? R= active power absorbed by load Q = I? X, = reactive power absorbed by load In case of a series RC load carrying current I P=PR (1.33) Q 2 " X¢ (reactive power absorbed is negative) (1.34)Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-14 and Modelling In case of three phase balanced load as shown in Fig. 1.8. Tay (R+jX) Fig. 1.8 Complex power fed of 3 phase balanced load S = 8Vp,T, = 3] Vel [op 1, = V3 |V.1[8p 1 If |I,|]8,-0 Then S = V3jV,||1,|[¢ = VB {Vil |ti| coso+ j V3 |Vi|{1u] sine + (1.35) eS ee P eq Is} = V3 V1, P= V3V, 1, cose Q= V3 V, I, sino where o= PF. angle For example let us assume both inductive and capacitive loads are connected in parallel. Let P, ,Q,,S, and 4, - For Inductive Load and P,,Q3,S, and 9, - For capacitive Load Power triangle for both inductive and capacitive loads are shown here (Fig.1.9 and 1.10) Po Sy a; XN - s> 2 LA Py Fig. 1.9 For inductive load Fig. 1.10 For capacitive loadPower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-12 and Modelling The combined power triangle results in (P, + P,) and (Q, + Q,) and Sp. But we most know that S, will not be equal to|S, + S,|in general (refer Fig. 1.11). Fig. 1.11 Combined power triangle 1.5 Balanced 3 Phase Circuits Balanced load means loads with identical impedances in all three phases connected to a three phase generator as shown in Fig. 1.12. Fig. 1.12 3 phase balanced network Both the neutrals are connected through Zy impedances of connections between generator and load are negligible. By solving the single phase network corresponding to the reference phase three phase network under balanced conditions is easily carried out. For the reference bus “a” E, = (Zg + Z,)I, other phase V and I have same magnitude but progressively shifted by 120° When 3phase star/star Transformer is connected as shown in Fig. 1.13(a) in the single phase equivalent of the thee phase citcut is ean be obviously represented by- single phase Transformer as shown in Fig. 1.13(b).Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-43 Ta NyiNp Ia (a) Three phase staristar (b) Single phase equivalent transformer of three phase staristar transformer Fig. 1.43 If the three phase transformer is Star/Delta connected, then the Delta connection has to be replaced by an equivalent Star connection which is shown in dotted line in Fig. 1.14(a). On the Delta side the voltage to neutral Vay and line current I, have a certain phase angle shift from the star side values Vy, and 1,(90°) since both phase voltage and line current shift through the same phase angle from star to Delta side, the Transformer per phase impedance and power flow are preserved in the single phase equivalent as shown in the Fig. 1.14 (b). ly No i za — 8 a N equivalent of Yj A Transform It may be noted here that irrespective of the type of connection, the Transformation ratio of the single phase equivalent of a three phase transformer is the same as line to line transformation :atio.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 4-14 and Modelling 1.6 Modern Power System Power system network today is a complex interconnected network as shown in the Fig. 1.15. It is subdivided into four Major Parts. Hydro station Thermal station Nuclear substation EHV substation EHV 720, subsiation Sub transmission [ed 33/132 KV Distribution ule Tape substations 33/11 kV substations| Medium consumers. i whi a T1 turbine Distribution ct ] ansformers Residential consumers 415 V/240 V 39 19 Fig. 1.15 Basic component of power systemPower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-15 and Modelling Generation Transmission and sub transmission Distribution (Primary/secondary) ‘Utilization/Loads. 1.6.1 Three Phase Synchronous Machine Synchronous machine is a major essential part of a power system. Three phase 50 Hz power is generated (60 Hz in North America and Canada) by the machine and depending upon the types of generation its capacity is selected. Normally generation used in thermal power generators will be in the range of 60 - 500 MW. Examples i) : 15.75 kV, 10,000A, 210 MW - Neyveli Thermal IT power plant ii) 21 kV, 20 kA, 500 MW -Super Thermal Power Project (STPP) - NIPC + FARAKKA (UP.) Synchronous Generators/ Alternators have two synchronously rotating magnetic fields. One field is produced by the rotor driven at synchronous speed and excited by DC supply. The other field is produced in the Stator windings by the three phase Armature. The DC current for the rotor winding is provided by the excitation system. In olden days the DC supply for the field winding is obtained by connecting a excitor in the same alternator shaft so that exciter generates power supply which is purely used to fullfill the requirements of the field system of the Alternator. But todays system use ac generators with rotating rectifiers known as brushless excitation system. The generator excitation system maintain gencrator voltage and controls the reactive power flow. Because they lack the commutator. AC generators can generate high power at high voltages. (upto 1500 MW, 30 kV}. Prime mover Supplies mechanical Power to the Generator. Prime mover may be Hydraulic turbine at water falls (Hyde! Power Station), steam turbines (Thermal, Nuclear Power station) or internal combustion engines burning oil (Diesel power plant). Hydraulic turbines, those operating at low pressure operates at low speed. Their generators are usually a salient type rotor with many poles. Steam turbines rotates relatively at high speeds of 1500-3000 rpm. 2 pole 3000 rpm cylindrical rotor coupled with the steam turbines. In case of power generated by the generator is more than 50 MW, it is essential to use Busduct (segregated / Isolated phase) to transfer Power from Generator to Generator Transformer through Generator circuit breaker because of heavy current generation. In a Power Station Several Generators are connected in Parallel to get Bulk power supply. The power Generator (At peak load) will be from 60 MW to 100 MW by each generator for example ennore thermal power station generates a total power of 410 MW. (5x 60 MW, 1x 110MW) Each Generator will have its own control at generation level. The power generated by each generator is connected to a common point called a bus as shown in Fig. 1.16Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-16 and Modelling The advantage of several generators connected in parallel in a power plant is depends upon the station power demand. Generators may be put into service and connected to the common bus to fulfill the requirements of demand and whenever demand reduces one (or) more generators may be disconnected from the bus. Some of these alterative sources which are being used to some extent are solar power, geothermal power, wind power, tidal power, and biomass. 3 Phase bus system (EHV) Generator prime mover ©: EHV creuitbresker GT : Generator transformer (siep-up) +: Generator circuit breaker Fig. 1.16 Alternators connected in parallel to a common bus 1.6.2 Transformers Another major component of a power system is the transformer. It transfers power with high efficiency from one level of voltage to another level of voltage without changing the frequency and the power transferred to secondary is almost same (losses not considered). In step up transformer secondary turns ratio is more when compared to primary and the output current is less when compared to primary. This will reduce the losses since loss depends on the flow of current (I? R). So that we can transmit power over a long distance, so transmission voltage increases losses decreases considerably. In a transformer at voltage depends on tums ratio. If the voltage fed to the primary is less, depending upon the turns ratio, this will reflect on the secondary side of the transformer. To get constant rated secondary voltage, it is better to connect “ON LOAD TAP CHANGER” (OLTC) in the primary side of the transformer (rated normal current is less in primary Generally). OLTC will automatically adjust with regards to input primary voltage. The function can be explained as follows :Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 4-17 and Modelling i) In case of input voltage is less than the rated specified value of the primary, OLTC will adjust the twins of the Primary of the Transformer according to the comparator output so as to maintain the output voltage constant (number of twin of primary reduces) ie, OLTC will function according to the error signal (Vjy,,,) a8 shown in Fig. 1.17. If the number of turns of primary reduces to a value equal to the actual input, (volts per tum) the output will be maintained constant. ii) In case of input voltage is more than the rated specified value of the primary, OLTC will increase the number of turns of primary according to the output of the comparator. Since the number of turns of primary increases to a value equal to the actual input, (volts per turn) the output will be maintained constant. So Potential = transformer Power transformer Comparator fitted with OLTC Reference value (Vaer) Fig. 1.17 One line diagram of OLTC The above concept can be explained by means of a simple one line diagram. Note: Number of tums can be adjusted only to a specified value. Beyond the specified value, OLTC will be either in maximum extreme or in minimum extreme position. (Voltage variation allowed may be + 10 % to - 25 % of the rated specified value of the primary voltage in step of 1.25 % of rated voltage of primary). Neutral CT's are provided in the neutral side of transformer for protection purpose (Neutral displacement relay). Step down transformers will be employed in sub-transmission and Distribution side of the power system to reduce the voltage level to 33|11|.415 kV and the current rating increases according to the capacity of transformer. In a modern utility system, the power may undergo four (or) five transformations between generator and the load point. For three winding transformer details refer Art. 1.7.3.5. 1.6.3 Transmission and Sub-transmission ‘The purpose of an overhead transmission network is to transfer electric energy from generating units at various locations to the load point through distribution system network. Transmission line also inter connect neighbouring utilities which permits not onlyPower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-18 and Modelling economic despatch of power within regions during normal conditions but also the transfer of power between regions during emergencies. In India we are following Indian Standard specifications (BIS). 66 kV is the standard sub-transmission voltage. 110 kV/132 kV, 220 KV 400 kV, (line to line) are the standard transmission level of voltage followed in our country and 220 kV and above referred as Extra High Voltage Transmission System. In our country we have also energized DC Transmission, (+ 500 kV) for the transfer of energy over a very long distance (Chandrapur NTPC Power Project). + 500kV DC transmission is economical only when the Distance is > 800 km. The DC transmission links so far used mostly are based on the factors like long river crossing, frequency conversions and asynchronous ties between large a.c. systems. To give an approximate idea of economic distance of transmission using d.c. is that for 400 km of distance the power to be transmitted should be atleast 100 MW. In the Fig. 1.15 shows an elementary diagram of transmission and distribution system. HLV. transmission lines are terminated in substations, which are called High-voltage substation, receiving substations or primary substations. The function of some substations is switching circuits in and out of service, they are referred as switching stations. Ring main substations are used in major cities in every state to avoid power interruptions to the consumer when the supply is cut-off due to reasons like problems in distributions end, power failure at one end, equipment failure ete. At the primary distribution the voltage is stepped down and is fed to major industrial consumers and further stepped down to a value more suitable for the next part of the journey towards the load. The portions of the transmission system that connects the HV substation through step down transformers to the distribution substation are called the sub transmission network some large industrial consumers may be served from the sub-transmission system. Capacitor banks and reactor banks are usually installed in the substations for Reactive Power Compensation and to maintain the rated transmission line voltage constant 1.6.4 Distribution The primary distribution lines are usually in the range of 11 kV tc 33 kV and supply the load in a well-defined geographical area. Some small industrial customers are served directly by the primary feeders. The secondary distribution network reduces the voltage for utilization by commercial, large building, residential consumers. The secondary distribution serves most of the customers at level of 415 V, 344 wire/ 230 V, single phase 3 wire. Distribution systems are both overhead and underground and the protection for the LT lines are provided on HT side of Distribution Transformers. In residential and LT installations fuses and MCB'S are provided to take care off protection of the system.Power System - An Over Power System Analysis 1-19 and Modelling 1.6.5 Loads As for as Industries and commercial loads are concerned, most of the loads are of Inductive in nature (3) Induction Motors, Pumps, Lighting, Air conditioner ete.) These loads are function of voltage, frequency and form a major part of the system load. Commercial and residential loads consists of largely lighting, heating and cooling. These loads are independent of frequency and consumes reactive power. Since the loads are inductive in nature, the power factor value decreases that is as and when inductive load included in the circuit ‘P’ value decreases and ‘Q’ value increases (we will discuss in detail in the forth coming chapter 2). But PF should be maintained between 0.95 to 1. So capacitors are connected in parallel to such loads to improve the power factor and maintain voltage stability at the load end. In factories synchronons motors are operated with the field over excited to make the PF to unity. Quality of power must be maintained from the generation point to load point. Quality of power refers to the following parameters. 4) Rated frequency and rated voltage must be maintained throughout power system. ii) Harmonics in the waveform should be eliminated. iii) Power factor should be maintained between 0.95 to 1 at the load point. iv) Power loss should be minimised to a considerable low value. v) More than the rated voltage will affect the performance of the electrical apparatus and leads to failure or reduces the life of the apparatus. vi) Perfect protection system at every stage of power system should be maintained at all seasons. The power must be made availeble to the consumers on demand at all the time. The greatest value of load during a 24 hours period is called peak or maximum demand. In order to assess the usefulness of the generating plant the load factor is defined, Average load Peak load — The load factor The load factor may be given for a day, a week, a month and a year. The annual lnad factor is the most useful, since a year represents a full cycle of time. Average Load x 24 Hours ~ Peak Load x 24 Hours Daily load Factor Energy consumed during 24 Hours Peak Load x 24 Fours ‘The annual lead factor is Total annual energy Annual load factor = Fear Load x 8760 HoursPower System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-20 and Modelling There are few other factors used by utilities. Utilization factor is the ratio of maximum demand to the installed capacity and plant factor is the ratio of annual energy generation to the peak capacity multiplied by 8760 hours. The factors indicate how well the system capacity is utilized and operated 1.7 Per Phase Analysis ‘The current in the neutral of the balanced star connected loads are shown in Fig, 1.17(a) and is given by In =lhtly tle =0 Since there will not be any flow of current through a neutral line wire, impedance parameter is not a great significance. For a neutral line impedance of any value can be replaced for any other value including short circuit and an open circuit. A line of zero impedance is included between the two neutral points. The balanced power system problems are then solved on a “per-phase” basis. By viewing the figure, (Fig. 1.17(a)) , it shows a single phase circuit with neutral is connected in series with Z, and Z,, ln c Fig. 1.17 (a) ¥ connected generator supplying balanced Y connected load By using Delta to star transformation, a Delta connected load can be transferred to star. When the load is balanced the impedance of each limb of the star is one third the impedance of cach limb of the Delta and the circuit is modelled by a single phase equivalent circuit.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 4-21 and Modelling Fig. 1.17 (b) Single phase circuit for per phase analysis 1.7.1 Generator Representation Consider a circuit model for three phase synchronous generator as shown in Fig.1.18(a) Let us assume that the machine is rotating at a constant speed current I,. The balanced 3 phase circuit gives the steady state operation of the machine. with constant field oA Fle (Rj Xn) Fig. 1.18 (a) 3 phase synchronous machine circult model Taking ‘al phase as reference of the machine then the per phase equivalent circuit is drawn as below. R iXum Fig. 1.18 (b)Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-22 and Modelling In practice E, can not be measured under load and so it is preferable to choose the V,, as reference. The phase equivalent are v, =|V,) 20; 1 |I,| 2-0 (inductive lagging PF) By referring the equivalent circuit diagram Vv, = E,-1, (R+iXin] fa = B.-L, Ry i], OX where E, = Generated voltage at no load 1,R, = Armature resistance drop jol, Xyyq = Reactance drop [self and mutual] (@X1y =OX, +OXy) = Xy Since 'R' is very very small compared to synchronous reactance (R<< & A more convenient form of expression for voltage and current is obtained by introducing hyperbolic functions. By rearranging the equation 145 we get. oe (SS Yon GeA] an }: ti (= ee (1.45) < 4Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 4-25 and Modelling These can be rewritten after introducing hyperbolic function as V, = V_ cosh % + Iq Ze sinhyx I = Ty cosh w+ Vag sin hx +o (ti48) c When x = 1; V, = Vs ;1, = Is v, coshy Ze sinh] ry, Sila 4 na 5 ws» (147) 1] > go sink costal | ty Here A = D=cos hl B= Zo=sinhl w= (1.48) C= sinha In case [V, I, ]is known [V, Iq] can be easily found by inverting equation 147 (e]-(% a]fi] we-scen 1.7.2.2 Equivalent Network of Long Line (x - Model) Ip ht Fig. 1.20 x equivalent circuit of transmission line From the Fig. 1:20 we can write Vs = Va +(x + Vr Yaz) 2s = (1+ Z, Yr) Ve + Z, Ty «+ (1.50) Ig = [In + Ve Yeo] + Ve Yu wo (1.51) Substituting V, from equation 1.50 in equation 1.51 and simplifying we get Is = [(%u + Yar) + (Ze Yor Yoo)| Ve + (0+ Ze Yuu) I (1.52) If equations 1.50 and 1.52 are to be identical to equation 1.46 we must have.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-26 and Modelling 2, = -. (1.53) Ya = (1.54) (1+ Z, ¥%) = cos hal = (1.55) , _ cosh yl wl Hence Xe = Fang 77 ONE -- (1.56) Equations (1.53) and (1.56) can be rearranged as sinh yl sinh 71 Zn= Zyl = ZI = OS; we = 7) vw wl _ (ure tanh [> — nf Ale - ann 2 vy) | (2h oe z z Since Zz and y = zy The equivalent. = representation is therefore given in Fig. 121 The terms Z, and Y, can be calculated to any degree of accuracy desired from the tables for hyperbolic functions. Power series expansion —_with calculation up to two (or) three terms will give acceptable accuracy. Fig. 1.21 ‘P" requirement of Transmission line _ 7 sinh yl Z = Zi] oF yl tanh (y!/2) 2/2) sinh x = cosh x =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System - An Overview Power System An: Modelling The tap ratio can either be a real number or a complex number. In the latter case, the transformers are called phase shifting transformers, because the voltage on the two side of the transformers differ in magnitude as well as phase. 1.7.33 Representation of Transformer with Nominal Turns Ratio Consider a transformer with turns ratio a : 1. This can be represented as an ideal auto transformer in series with an admittance. Let p-q represents the input and output buses of the transformer. The ideal auto transformer is shown between ‘p' and 't’ buses while the series admittance is shown between t and q as shown in Fig. 1.26 (a). Fig. 1.26 (a) Transformer with Nominal Turns Ratio ® ® lb lg = a + Fig. 1.26 (b) Equivalent Il network model Let Ij, is the current flowing from 't' to 'q’ from the Fig. 1.26 (a). From the Fig. 1.26 (a), Tq = Mm - Va) Y py swe (1.62) The terminal current at p - V4) Jel we (1.63) But ‘The terminal current at ‘q’ is similarly (%, = v) Fag ww. (1.64)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-34 and Modelling oO V, = Primary winding V, = Secondary voltage Vy = Tertiary winding voltage Fig. 1.28 Representation of three winding transformer ‘The following parameters can be measured experimentally Z, = impedance of primary winding. Z, = impedance of secondary winding referred to primary. Z, = Impedance of tertiary winding referred to primary. Zp, = Leakage impedance of primary with secondary short circuited but tertiary open. Z,, = Leakage impedance of primary with secondary open circuited but tertiary short circuited Zi, = Leakage impedance of secondary with tertiary short circuited but primary open. Suppose Z’, were referred to primary side then we 24 [Re] % Let the equivalent circuit for the transformer be sought in the form as shown in Fig. 1.29 with Z,,Z, and Z, all referred to primary side. Fig. 1.29 Equivalent circult of three winding transformaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System - An Overview Power System Analysis 1-38 and Modelling Zz, 19.63 uu. val f = Satu = “> = 0.03245 p.u. pau. value of Zpy = jth = Te pu. To calculate the value of Z., (in 0/ ph) from test (iii) (KV)g on secondary circuit (KV)yq) = 132 kV (MVA), on secondary circuit (MVA)jqq) = 15 MVA nid idee’ kV) 2 To find Base eh = Wee _ (132 _ 11.616 2/phase of primary cirucit 148 / V3 38 Zactuai (2 in Q / phase) = = 0.2605 Q / Phase (Secondary Y connected) Zu value of Z,.on | the base of secondary circuit, To convert the above mentioned Zpy value of Z, from existing base (secondary) to primary circuit base (KV) paia ]? [OMVA) neve Zp ow) * Zara fees] * VR 0.0224 x [Hey {F = 0.029866 p.u. z st To calculate Z, Z, and Z, £ 1 Zy = Z[Zpy Zp ~Ze] = 5 [ GO4I6 + 0.08245 - 0.029866] = 0.022092 p.u. i ll 1 Ze 31Z,. +Zy-Zy]= 3 [ 0.0416 + 0.029866 — 0.03245] = 0.019508 p.u. 1 ” Zi = GlZy +Ziy ~Zyul = 5 [ 0.03245 + 0.029866 - 0.0416] = 0.010358 p.u. The equivalent circuit of three winding transformer (single phase star connected) is as shown below only reactance consideredaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.ii - 42)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-4 - Per Unit Quantities From the Impedance diagram we understood the following 1. AC. rotating machines such as generators and motors are represented by a voltage source in series with internal impedance (R + j X). 2. Loads L, and L, (which are having lagging power factors) are represented by Impedance which is the combination of resistance and inductive reactance in series. 3. Transformers are represented by their impedances and the shunt admittance representing the magnetising current of a transformer is usually omitted in power system studies. 4, A short line is represented by its series impedance. However medium and long lines are represented by nominal r circuits and very long lines are represented by equivalent circuits. If the resistance components of the impedances are neglected, an impedance diagram reduces to a reactance diagram. Some times the values are expressed in percentage. However it is preferable to use per unit values. The reactance diagram is used for fault calculations. ‘The following are the approximations made while constructing reactance diagram when the system in balanced i) Following parameters /equipments need not be considered and can be omitted. a) all static loads. b) resistance of transformers, transmission lines and load. ©) Shunt Admittance of each Transformer and capacitance of the transmission lines. ii) Shunt branches in the equivalent circuit of the transformers are neglected. iii) The neutral to ground impedance of the generator is neglected for symmetrical fault. iv) Induction motors are ignored in computing the current, a few cycles after the fault occurs. Fig. 24 shows the reactance diagram of the power system corresponds to the impedance diagram shown in Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.4 Reactance diagram corresponds to impadance diagram shown in Fig. 2.3aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-8 ~Per Unit Quantities Solution : Given data Base VA = 10000 VA Base voltage = 1000 volts 10000 Hence Base current = yyy = 10 and Base impedance = 00 = 1000 ‘The transformer reactance referred to the primary side is. _ (roe, referred ") ( Primary Voltage j High voltage sid ee pivvoliage ede reactance the secondary side} * | Secondary Voltage 1000)? * 5x( oe = 802 High voltage side reactance _ 80 _ yg "Base impedance = jog = OPP Note : From the problems discussed in the solved example 2.4 and 25 we may conclude that the p.u. reactance of the Transformer calculated either considering Primary side or secondary side the values for both the cases will be one and the same. 2.4.1 Per unit System Applied to Single Phase Circuits Voltage, current, Volt-Ampere and impedance are the major parameters that determines the base values. Selection of base values for any two of them determines the base values of the remaining two. Let Base Apparent Power = |S,| = (kVA), Base Voltage = | V,| = (kV), Base current = |1,| = 1, Base impedance = |Z,| = Z, l@VA)g] = [Vp Bo) ~» 28) w= (29) Thus from the above equations 2.8 and 2.9 if any two of the four quantities are specified, the other two may be evaluated immediately. Thus we may express base impedance (Z,,) in more convenient form. Equation 2.8 can be rewritten as,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-12 Per Unit Quantities Zn (ot “VI os pu.(new) = (2.23) Re-arranging the above equation 2.23 we get OV¥ as MYA Db new Zz =Z Pees pean ad pu (now) mod “ye” ON A)y ag (2.24) 2.7 Merits and De-merits of Per Unit System 1. Manufacturer usually specify the impedance of a device or machine in percentage or p.u. on the base of the name plate rating 2. In a system composed of numerous circuits connected by Power ‘Transformers operating at different voltage levels, per unit quantities come in very handy for calculations of voltages, currents ete ; 3. When expressed in p.u. the equivalent impedance of a Transformer whether referred to primery or secondary is the same if proper base values are selected. (The p.u. impedance is the same on the two sides of Transformers.) 4. Per unit data representation yields important information about relative magnitudes of various quantities such as voltage, current, power and impedance. 5. When expressed in p.u., system parameters tend to fall in relatively narrow numerical ranges. Therefore any erroneous data can be easily identified. 6. The advantages of p.u. impedances are more keenly felt with large number of circuits. 7. The per unit systems are ideal for the computerized analysis and simulation of complex power system problems. De-merits The de-merits of per unit systems are 1, Some equations that hold in the unscaled case are modified when sealed into p.u. factors such as V3 and 3 are removed or added by the method. 2. Equivalent circuit of the components are modified making them some what more abstract. Some times these shifts that are clearly present in the unscaled circuit vanish in the p.u. circuit. 2.8 Network Reductions -A/A Transformation Modern power system consist of large number of transmission lines interconnecting the generating stations to form a super power network which includes a number ofaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-16 - Per Unit Quantities (kV)§_ 0.17225 (MVA), 01 Base impedance per phase (Z,) = kV /415V = 1.722259 = 3 A T de @ cut impe one Zion = (20 + 08) x 08 2 of feeder ae 3 = (0.16 + j 0.64) @ / phase é p.u. impedeance} 3 _ Acutal impedance (6c) of feeder purDa ~ “Base impedance 80 kW _ 0.164) 0.64 0.9 PF © T7835 Fig. 2.7 = 0.093 + j 0.371607 p.u. Given that P = 80 kW and pf = cos = 09 sin 9 = sin (cos”' 0.9) = 0.43589 tan @ = S89 _ 0.43589 _ 5 seuay 09 (415)? x 10° 172.225 Load impedance), _ per phase © = Poi ~ BO — j3874578 ~ 86.888804 [_ 25.842 = 1.9375 | 25.842 Ziufuy = 174378 + j 0.84455 O/phase pou valueof |, _ Load impedance 2, _ 1.74378+ j 0.84455 load impedance[“ Ups) ~ Base impedance ~ Z, ~ T7225 Zug ~ (1.0125 + j 0.4904) pu. wm Example 2.10 : A generator is rated 1000 MVA, 33 KV. Its star connected winding has a reactance of 0.9 pu. Find i) Ohmic value of reactance of the winding if the generator is working in a circuit for which the bases are specified as 250 MVA, 22 kV i) The p.u. value of reactance of generator winding on the specified base. Solution : (kV), = 33 KV (MVA), = 1000 MVA Zp = 09 pu. ‘To find actual reactance : (MYA), Zpy = Zx ye ™ (kV),aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.resentation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-20 ~ Per Unit Quantities HT voltage rating = Base kV on LT side x ‘TT voltage rating Base kV on HT side of transformer T, =x Tere 3. pony Be in di Z, = (KV) = (32) _ 65.696.0 ave impedance 2, = Tyra = aR = Actual te Per unit reactance of Transmission line = Actual reactance __ 30 _ 9 43044 p.u. Base reactance 69.696 Reactance of Transformer T, LT voltage rating SF SiC ASO aa = Base kV on HT side x > 98° TANS. Base kV on LT side of transformer T; = Base kV on HT side x Fr Chtage rating = 132« SS... 6.6kV 132 The new p.u. reactance) _ (KV)y aut FP [OMVADy new of Transformer T; © PDO), new (MVA)s ota By above using equation 132)? 250 Zou ¢new) = 0.05 x (3) x (3 0.05 pu Note : We can also consider secondary voltage as base value. Reactance of Synchronous Motor M,, M, and M, The new p.u reactance of motor M, = 0.1 x ( ? y The new p.u. reactance of motor M, = 0.2 x (3) x (2 ) = 0.6666 pu. The new p.u reactance of motor M, = 0.25 x Reactance diagram Xr x Xz Fig. 2.12aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-24 - Per Unit Quantities hm> Example 2.14: Draw the reactance diagram using a base of 50 MVA and 13.8 kV on generator G, for the diagram given below : (AU : May/June-2006; Nov/Dec.-2007) Ya A = i800 5 20 kV & 1-8 po oH 3 xX" = 20% e ‘Section 1 j10.0 . = 20MVA 25 MVA Section 2 13.8 kV eee ‘e 13.8/220 220% Xo | 2 A Ye | ¥ 35 MVA Tz 3x10 MVA Xo to%. se Saanew X= 10% 30MVA 1BKV Ye X" = 20% Fig. 2.16 Solution : Let the Base MVA 50 MVA and Base kV be 13.8 KV Reactance of Generator (G1) 2 [MVA) Generator Gy (New p.u. reactance) = Xp. oo fee fava | kV, OVA aa Vn new Reactance of Trasnformer T, Transformer T, x xf Mp oia 7 f(MVA),, #610" Vga | LOVA)e as 2 50 j{B)-o2ps (new p.u.reactance) = 01 +( Reactance of Transformer T, Here Transformer T, is three single phase transformer bank with primary voltage rating (phase to earth) star connnected 127 kV and secondary Delta connected 18 kV. so, to convert phase voltage to line voltage multiply star connected primary voltage by V3. Now the transformer T, voltae ratio is 127 x J3 / 18 KV. is OV yaa P [OAD ‘Transformer T, (New p.u. reactance) : X,. ao [Eo * Mavay 220 _Y (50) 1 (inn | “(5 | = 0.16667 p.u.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-28 - Per Unit Quantities Load : This can be represented as constant current load pf of load = 0.9 lagging pf angle = — (cos 0.9) = -25.842° Complex load power = 15 2~25.842° Actual load in MVA _ 15 2~25.842 Px. value of load (power) = GO = 5 = 06 £~25.842 Actual load voltage _ 20 Pa, value of load voltage = eS otage = 3g = 0.666567 pu. Let ‘T’ and ‘V’ are load current and load voltage in p.u. We know that Vx I = p.u. value of load (power) p.u. value of load _ 0.6 Z -25.842 we 0.66667 I= = 09 2-25.82 pu. = (081 ~ j 0.3923) p.u. “ Reactance diagram The reactance diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2.19. 0.1344 p.u. {0.05 p.u. 0.17926 pu. 1=0.92-25842 BESS $0500 Le 3 L 19 v= 0667 pw. 3° gi 0.06722 p.u. 9 Fig. 219aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-32 - Per Unit Quantities The entire system is represented per phase, the new points of the generators being connected to ref. bus (values marked are in p.u.) © © imp Example 2.18 : Obtain the per unit impedance (reactance) diagram of the power system shown in Fig. 2.24 Yer ay at A Ho} Load ” tL} Load '8" Fig. 2.24 One line representation of a simple power system Generator No 1 BUMVA, 105kV, — X% Generator No2 : 15 MVA, 6.6 KV, xy Generator No3 : 25 MVA, 6.6 KV, X%, = 0.56.2 Transformer T; 9: 15 MVA, 33/11 KV, X = 15.2 Q/ Phase (HT side) Transmission line 20.5 Q./ phase Transformer Ty: 18 MVA, 33/6.2 kV, X = 16 9 / phase (HT side) Load A 2 15 MW, 11 kV, 0.9 pf lagging Load B : 40 MW, 6.6 KV, 0.85 pf lagging (AU: April/May-2005, Nov/Dec.-2005) Solution : We shall make some further simplifying assumptions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-36 ~Per Unit Quantities © oto 3 Line é oto @ I (kV)g = 33kV I (kV)g = 220 kV 4 (kVp = 11k { Fig. 2.29 By using the Formula Z,.. aw we se | ane ] we can found out new values for all the equipment which is as follows et = j02x(% 3) «(Gp )-s95 pm for generator 0 j0.375 pu. New p.u.reactance| 33 (100 of Transformer T, |= 1035) «(3 3) (0 } New p.u reactance} 220 F_ (100 of Transformer T, } =) 05 “(a) «(a \e {85 pat New p.u. reactance] (i) 100 of motor “ (r)(8 is ioe To find Base impedance| _ (kv)}___ (220)? 484.0 of Transmission line ~ (MVA), © 100" Reactance Diagram J0.378 pu J0.10381 pu J0.5 pu |_Ref.Bus Fig. 2.30aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-40 = Per Unit Quantities Solution : Let us choose (MVA), = 50 MVA (KV), = 11kV Reactance of generator G, : (Vy ] [MYA new Xpuicr) = Xuan fee VA a = j0.25 8] 3] = j 0.625 p.u. Reactance of transformer T, : Xouage= ioase( 38) (3): j 0.472165 pu. Reactance of transformer T, : | 50)_, = i015+(ipSaues ) (3 }= oats pa. Note : (KV) ,ga = 1273 = 220 kV x paul) (2) gygey = X29 = 175.3623 KV Reactance of generator 2 (G,) : . 18_ YF (50 Xue) = 10254 lh) ($8) = 008570aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Representation of Power System Power System Analysis 2-4 ~ Per Unit Quantities oy 02 oF ©-4 Lo1—@) 150 a 4 j60 z ot ”v A Te: be XS 4 Fig. 2.37 Synchronous motor : 30 MVA, 18 kV X” = 20% 3 phase Y-Y transformer : 10 MVA, 138 / 20 kV X” = 10% 3 phase Y-A transformer : 15 MVA, 138 / 118 kV X = 10% A three winding three phase, 68 MVA, transformer is connected as follows : Winding 1: 120 LV Y 68 MVA rating 3.2kV A 34 MVA rating B.2KV 8 34 MVA rating 3: Three short circuit tests revealed the following percent reaciances. All values are on a 34 MVA base. Xq = 0161 pu. X,y = 0.161 pu. Xp = 0.346 pu. 4a) Find the px. impedance of the three winding equicalent circuit on 34 MVA base.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.(2 - 48)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-4 Power Flow Analysis Where (i - j) element of Y, is the negative of the sum of the admittances connected between nodes (i and j) and it is called as transfer admittance Dd yy +other admittance connected to bus ‘i! (n = Number of buses) ay w= (36) The (i - i) element is the sum of all admittance connected to node (i) and is called as self admittance. Yj = Gy + By (Complex or rectangular form) = Yj; 20; (Polar form) The bus admittance matrix is obtained through the node-voltage equations. Consider the power system where impedances are provided interms of per unit on a common MVA base. Usually resistance is neglected. The nodal equation are based on Kirchhoff’s current law. The total number of equation depend on the number of buses in the system. Consider a 4 bus system, with impedances consisting of two generators as shown in Fig. 3.2 below. Fig. 3.2 The circuit is redrawn with admittances and transforming the current sources, thus we get,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-8 Power Flow Analysis V,= 120 jos a) (2) 50) =_S4 Fig. 3.8 Half line charging | Tap position Susceptance B1 (p.u.) Solution : The network solution is obtained through the admittance diagram as given below. -j 1.6667aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-12 Power Flow Analysis Ye of_—>—J]Jo Yi Yy roo Ze OFYo Fig. 3.10 (b) » Current from bus (i) to bus () is given by ly = yy Vi - Vi) + vio Vi --(3.23) and Ii = yy Vi - Wty Y (3.24) «. The power from bus i to j SVG and S = YT in The total line loss in the line i - j is given by Sy Loss) = Sy + Sj Pi toss + jQi,toss = Vi fy (Vi - Vi) + Yio Vil + Vj ly (Vj - Vi) + Yo Vil Thus we can find out the solution for load flow analysis using Gauss-Seidal method. But the rate of convergence is very slow and it can be improved by providing a factor called the acceleration factor a. Using this acceleration factor, the voltage solution iteration can be reduced by ViRPD Vv) 4 D — vib The acceleration factor value depends on the system and is usually in the range between 1.4 and 1.7.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-16 Power Flow Analysis Real Reactive Negative | Negative Positive | Positive Either net power (or) generated and load powers will be specified. Gauss-Seidal Power Flow Problems ‘mm> Example 3.2 : Consider the three bus system, where bus 1 is the slack bus. The line and bus data is given as. Bus data Bus number Base MVA : 100 MVA Line data baste] cone ee 0.05 0.02 0.01 0.025 0.034] 0.05 300 MW lo.025+)0.04 —_0.02440.01} _» ys9 mvaR 9 40 V3 = 1.0420? Q3 = 10420205 Fig. 3.12aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-20 Power Flow Analysis Using QY) we can find V? pgh (2) FE eva Vt ve VE vo vO. 3 ° Ya * ¥a2 20-j05 ? ‘ ‘ , Tore 0.000gs + (11236-}17.98)(1.06+ 0.0) + (40—}20)(09852—j 0.0099) 11236-51798 + 40-720 VQ = 1.0410 - j 0.0035 Since | V,| is constant, only the imaginary part is used to calculate the V?. v® = vQ) = 1.04 -j 0.0035 The process is continued. But since the difference is smaller, we can take this value as. V, = 0.989 —j 0.0099 = 0.989 - 0.5735° p.u. V3 = 1.04 -j 0.0035 = 1.04 Z 0.1928" pu. From equation (3.15), We can find out S = FR ~jQ. = WM (yi2+yi3)-¥2 V2 -Yis Val S, = P ~ jQ; = 1.1093 -j 1.3621 Sy = 20+j05 The line flows are obtained as S2 = Vi Ib Ta = Yan (Vi ~ V2) = In = (0.7588 —j 0.9647) p.u. Siz = 0.8044 + j 1.0226 Sx = Vo Ij = 0.7592 - j 0.9473 Sis = Vilis Us = yas (Vi ~ Vs) = Sis = 03049 + j 0.3395 I, = 0.2877-j0.3203 Sy = V3 Ih = - 02874 -j 03142aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-24 Power Flow Analysis The process is continued. But since the difference is smaller, we can take this value as V, = 1.03 + j 0.0047 = 1.03 20.26" V3 = 0.9931 -j 0.0162 = 0.993 2 -0.9345 From equation (3.15), we can find out 8 = R-jQ = WM De tysl-yn Ve-ys Vs) = 0513 -j 0.1022 S_ = 200 -j 107.88 The line flows are obtained as Sy = - 17.347 -j 21.135 (MW) Spy = 0.17419 + j 0.21423 (pu) Si = 68.644 + j 31.951 Su = ~ 67.331 ~j 29.436 Sy = 213.745 + j 97.281 Syp = ~ 208.027 - j 89.483 The line losses are Siz = 0.072 + j 0.287 Sus = 1314 +j 1916 Sis = 5.718 +5 7.798 wm Example 3.4: Consider the two bus system, where bus and line data are provided as given below. Bus data Base MVA : 100 MVAaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-28 Power Flow Analysis 2) For P-V bus QS) = -img V3 OVS) ly. $Y t¥ul-yaVi-¥aV9?-yu VEU) QW = - img (1.0892 —j 1.1110) = 1.1110 Using Q%), find vf). pet 39? Os ty aVi tynV) ty ave v0 yo = Yatyntyn vi} = 1.0337 + j 0.00886 v@® = f@.03)? + (0.00886)? = 1.03 VS) = 1.03 + j 0.0089 (3) For P-Q bus prt jose ‘ tya Ve + ya VP) + yes VP? vp = _ Ya + Ya + Yo = (1.0152 - j 0.0078) p.u. Iteration 2 () For P-Q bus Pie =jQx* PEE ty Wit yes VO + yn VP y@ - 2 s Yat ya t+ Yu 0.9826 - j 0.00235 (2) For P-V bus QP = ~img (ViOV) tye + ¥0tyul-yanVa-¥e VP -yu VW QY = - img { 1.5916 - 0.4975} = 0.4975 pu. Using QY, find Vv). Pst -jQ? woo tyaM tye V+ ya VI? yo = —Ys e Yat yn +¥uaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-32 Power Flow Analysis P -1Q = pita | Salli es +s] = Livy Villy +3) (3.32) ma — The real part SIMI {¥4) | Vil cos (04 + 5) ~ 3) (3.33) in and Ys [Vj] sin (; + 8 - 8) (3.34) z. Equations (3.33) and (3.34) are functional equation of a power system network ie. equation (3.33) is a function interms of real power and equation (3.34) is a function of network interm of imaginary power. These equations are non linear because of the cosine and sine function. The important variables in each of these function are the voltage magnitudes and the phase angle between voltages (5). Now we can expand these equation using Taylor's series with an initial guessed values and neglecting higher order terms. Remember for a load bus (P-Q bus), two equations are given by equation (3.33) and (3.34) and for a P-V bus, one real power equation is given. :. When we expand with respect to: voce magnitude and phase angle @ we get, ar, ar oP, oP, ©), FP so) 4 (0) (0) (0), yO = {+ Sp avs 38 +. +e AQ + Sra IVS + +a Ive B and 1), Ringo , GQ ps0) Qi 910) (0) 9Q: (9) AD + Seba + SE aa + + TE + jy |+. eal Al Vsl = Q, = (3.35) where f, = Function in real power p 8, = 0 (For slack bus) £ and £0 are initial guessed values when voltages are set initially. rp - 6 sap Oe ! (3.36) ~ =aQ0 Q = fy) = AQ; where P, = Py** (Power scheduled) sy = Pf! (Power calculated)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-40 Power Flow Analysis The power mismatch equation is given by, 1.4439] _ [9.7920 2.74397 [ a5 0.3080} ~ |-2.8561 9.4080] | av. 8. 9.7920 2.74397" [~ 1.4439 Avg? | ~ [2.8561 9.4080] |- 0.3080. The solution is obtained by taking inverse of 2 x 2 matrix and multiplying with changes in AP and AQ. «The change in angle and voltage is obtained as, Abs? = - 0.1274 avi = ~0.0714 941 ~ 0.0275 Tnverse of J la 0286 0.0980 | ‘The new bus voltage and angle after first iteration are 80 = 8 + a8” =0-0.1274 = - 01274 vi = vi? + avi? = 1- 00714 = 0.9286 Second iteration The value of real and reactive power are obtained as, Pf = -13719 Qe) = - 0.4042 «The power residuals are calculated as AP?) = py - pf? =-15 + 1.3719 = - 0.1281 ao! = Qs - Qf) =-05 + 0.4042 = - 0.0958 To find the element of the Jacobian matrix, we have to find oP, = =.* = 8.6817 Ja = 558 OP; Jan = a = 11225 a Jan = SS = - 3.7862 222 _ 5.4799 Jan = 5e2aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-45 Power Flow Analysis The change in angle and voltage is obtained as, Ad” = 0.0319 A860 = - 0.0263 av? = - 0.1735 13.4422 -82407 -16.4796 -82407 284412 25.4223 16.4796 26.5787 27.5578 | x " 0.07933 0.0361 0.0141 } Inverse of x = | 0.0351 0.0349 -0.0112/ -0.0136 0.0120 0.0171 | The new bus voltage and angle after first iteration is, 8 = 8? + a8{ = 0 + 0.0139 = 0.0319 3) = a? + a6)? =0 + ( - 0.0263) = - 0.0263, vl) = vO + ave = 1- 0.1735 = 0.8265 Second iteration The expression for real and reactive power is given by, Pi? = 3.9396 PY = - 5.0155 QY = - 3.3524 «The power residual are calculated as, AP!) = psc — pl) = 4 ~ 3.9396 = 0.0604 ap?) = Pgh — PO - 6 + 5.0155 = - 0.9845 QW = Qs - OW =-4 + 3.3524 = - 0.6476aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-49 Power Flow Analysis 40.6711, 1.1619 17.1499[21112 23.7759] 1.8850 Vous = | 17.149912.1112 68,7198L.06723 52.9999) 2.5830 | 23.7759 11,8850 52,9999| 25830 72,8365|- 0.7700 The required power mismatch is given by, y PJ Siz f Jon] [48 Matrix position AP; } a | 2 7 p, | =f Jue | Jas] /455 Bus number Hoe Represents Js of power mismatch Jor Soe AV,] 322 (1) To find, Api”, AQ” and apt” «From equations (3.33) and (3.34) Pi) = — 1.4298 = | Vall Yaul| Vy) cos (O25 + 8 ~ 82) + | Va|? | Yaa} cos (022 ) + 1Val| Yas}| Va] cos (O23 + 85 ~ 82) QS” = -{Val| Yarll Vl sin (On. +3, ~ 8.) -| Val] Yo! sin(@z2) ~| Vall Yasl| Val sin(@x3 + 83 ~ 82) = - 14420 PAY = | V4il Yar] Vil cos(@q, + 8 ~ 85) + [Vall Yul] Veleos(@az + 82 ~ 83) + {V5}? | Yss| €08(0.5) = 0.6149 The power residuals are calculated as, aPh? = psh — pl? =~ 2.2 4 1.4298 = - 0.7702 Apt? = px — pl = 170.6149 = 1.0851 aQ® = Qs - QM =-12 + 1.4420 = 0.2420 To find the elements of the Jacobian matrix we have to find, 4 ar, ee . Jian = ye =1 Vall Yall Vai sin (@ar + 8 ~ 82) + [Val] Yasll Val sin (@,3 + 8s — 3_) = 44.2398 P. 5 hia = 3gr *1Vall Yall Val sin (85 + 83 - 8) = — 28.6514 4aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.System Analysis 3-53 Power Flow Analysis °.The line flows can be obtained as Sy = 6214 + j 107.26 Sq, = — 58.038 - j 100.422 Sy, = - 161.435 ~j 21.347 Say = 165.748 + j 24.043 Sis = — 2.176 + j 106.707 S4, = 3494 - j 102.652 4 3.8 Fast Decoupled Power Flow Solution The algorithm is simpler, faster and reliable than the Newton-Raphson method The method requires lower storage requirement than the Newton’s method. Usually, the transmission lines have high 7 ratio ie. X >> R. Therefore two approximation are made a) Real power change AP is more sensitive to AS (phase angle) b) Reactive power charge AQ is more sensitive to voltage magnitude than A & «The power mismatch equation can be set with J, and J, matrix set to zero. «The equation (3.39) can be represented as, AP] _ J; O}f a8 [iol = ff alla 4.43) oP | AP =J a6=[35) a3 ‘ on (3.8) agai, atv! =[ 29] atv These equations require less time compared to other methods available. J, is Found as ap, Tivlpaly sin (6; + 8; -5;) (a jet It can also be represented as a, _ se DIvill sll sin (04 + 8; - 6) i Iai Add and subtract L¥i[ {Yall Vi sin (04) in RHS.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.3-57 Power Flow Analysis Find the line currant For P-V & P-Q bus form and obiain AS without line charging capacitors A8= 6 [4P] and aiso find the line |(Remember |Vj is already divided in the previous step)) flows and line losses Display the result For P-Q bus form and obtain AjVi A\V,=-[BT' 40-8 T"140] (Remember |V/ is already divided in the previous step) Set bus count Calculate ADP sas” Fig. 3.27(a)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 3-61 Power Flow Analysis The power residuals are calculated as, AP! = ph — pl) =— 1 + 0.1494 = - 0.8506 p.u. 4Q = Qs" — QW =— 03 + 0.6004 = 0.3004 p.u. ‘The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is given by a As?) = -| = -[-0.0410] x - 0.8277 = - 0.0339 tl ! 1 fag® av?) = -[py" x |5 =? 2 [5°] Tal = -[- 0.0410] x [rae = 0.0410 x 0.2923 = 0.0120 The new bus voltage at second iteration are given by 48%? = 0.009 + ( - 0.0339) = - 0.0249 AV!) = 1.0277 + (0.012) = 1.0397 Third iteration The expression for real and reactive power is given by, PO = - 0.6572 QY = 0.8223 ‘The power residuals are calculated as APS) = Pyh — p?) =1 40.6572 =-0,3428 4Q9%) = Qs" -QP =-03-0.8223 =-1.1223 The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is given by (2) 48? = -[B}? x (eraa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power Systom Analysis 3-74 The fast decoupled power flow algorithm is gives by, fart iyo at) el 0.0377 —0.0154 0.0063] [- 0.4856 "0.0108" 48) | = - By Val = -|-0.0154 -0.0267 -0.0109] | 0.9426 | = | 0.0056 ast) a —0.0063 -0.0109 -0.0265| |-1.1197 — 0.0224 APs = [ve | AQ”) aleve ips [vp | 0.0288 0 [er [een ani =- =- = av AQ? 0 -0.0220}| 0.3196 | ~ | 0.0070 ol [ve The new bus voltages and angles at second iteration are 8) = — 0.0190 - 0.0108 = — 0.0298 82 = — 0.0044 + 0.0056 = 0.0012 8f = 0.0071 - 0.0224 = - 0.0153 Vf) = 1.0110 — 0.0223 = 0.9887 vO) = 1.0364 + 0.0070 = 1.0434 The slack bus power is calculated as, P, = 2.1105 Q, = 14162 Q; = - 0.8920 The line flows are obtained as Sj. = 1.19059-j 0.8334 Sq) = - 10792 + j 0.74565 $1 = 0.21559 ~ j 39.525 Say = — 0.21108 + j 0.38804aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-2 Fauit Analysis - Balanced Fault The three phase fault is the severest of all types of fault and thus imposes the most severe fault current on the short circuited line which must be protected within a short period of time. Symmetrical fault analysis is, of course, simpler to carry out. It is important to determine the value of system voltages and currents during fault conditions and corresponding MVA fault level. So that the protective devices (switchgear components) may be set to detect the fault and isolate the faulty section of the system from the remainder of the system as quickly ‘as possible so as to minimize the harmful effects of such contigencies. Experience in the operation of transmission lines has shown that ultra-high-speed reclosing breakers successfully reclose after most faults. Of those cases where reclosing of circuit breaker is not successful, many are caused by permanent fault where reclosure would be impossible regardless of the interval between opening and closing. A power network comprises of synchronous generators, transformers, lines and loads. Though the operating conditions at the time of fault are important, the loads can be neglected during fault, as voltage dip is very low so that currents drawn by loads can be neglected in comparison to fault currents The magnitude of the fault currents depend on the internal impedance of the generator plus the impedance of the intervening circuit, The reactance of a generator under short circuit condition is not constant. The reactance of the circuit model of the machine changes in the first few cycles from a low subtransient reactance to a higher transient value, finally settling at a still higher synchronous steady state value. Depending upon the arc interruption time of circuit breakers, a suitable reactance value is used for the circuit model of synchronous generators for short circuit analysis. For the purpose of fault studies, the generator behaviour can be divided into three stages. 1) The subtransient period 2) The transient period 3) Steady state period Subtransient exists for a period of few cycles from the instant of short circuit followed by transient period appears for another few cycles. With less magnitude compared with subtransient and finally settling at a still higher synchronous (steady state) value called the steady state period. In a modem large interconnected power system, heavy currents will flow through the fault which must be interrupted much before the steady state conditions are established. ‘The maximum current that a breaker has to carry momentarily is the peak value of short circuited current which must also be determined.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-6 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault ne 1) short circuit is double the value of maximum symmetrical short circuit current ( Tr If such a condition exists in a transmission line then the effect is called doubling effect. LARA VWI AY a sin (0- a) Maximum {ppp momentary current ing As pointed out earlier, modern day circuit breakers are designed to interrupt the current in the first few cycles (within 5 cycles = 100 msec). With reference to the Fig. 4.2 it means that when the current is interrupted, the DC off-set (i,) has not yet died out and so contributes to the current to be interrupted. Rather than computing the value of the DC off-set at the time of interruption (because of its highly complexity), the symmetrical short circuit alone is calculated. 4.3.2 Transients due to Short Circuit in a 3-Phase Alternator at No-load Consider a three phase alternator running on no-load. Under steady state short circuit conditions, the armature reaction of a synchronous machine produces a demagnetizing flux. The effect of armature reaction is modelled as a reactance X, in series with inducedaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-10 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Xf, is the direct axis subtransient reactance. is the per phase no load voltage (rms). 4.3.3 Internal Voltages of Synchronous Machine under Loaded Condition 4.3.3.1 Three Phase Synchronous Generator So far we have discussed the short circuit of a synchronous machine assumed to be operating without load prior to the occurance of short circuit. Now we are going to see the methods of computing short circuit current when short circuit occurs under loaded conditions. Consider a circuit model of a synchronous generator (operating under steady state condition) connected to a bus as shown in the Fig. 4.5 (a) with voltage V,, and [,, be the voltage and current delivered by the generator to the bus. Let F, be the induced em-f. under loaded condition and X, is the direct axis synchronous reactance of the machine. When short circuit occurs at the terminals of the machine while delivering power, the circuit will behave as shown in Fig. 45 (a), (b) and (c). For subtransient, transient and steady state conditions (X", , X'y,Xy). ig Bus lop Bus L 3 L, Von} 2 Von] Q | D a | D @) (b} () Fig. 4.5 E, Xy should be replaced by Et and X', in case of subtransient state and E’, and X‘, in case of transient state. Here E% is the internal voltage during subtransient period and Ey is the intemal voltage during transient period. E Vop +) XG Top E, = Vopti Xa lop 4.11) E, = VoptiXa lop Note that the values of Ey and E, are functions of prefault load current. So Ej and Ej, have to be estimated for each value of load current (I, ).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-14 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault capacity or fault level of the bus. The short circuit capacity is defined as the product of the magnitude of prefault voltage and post fault current. Higher the short circuit capacity of the bus the more it is able to maintain its voltage in case of a fault on any other bus. Fault current is the ratio of system voltage to impedance (or reactance) as seen from fault point, the short circuit capacity is inversely propotional to system impedance (or reactance) as seen from fault point. For a bus which is infinitely strong, (or) which has infinite short circuit capacity, will have zero equivalent impedance. Such a bus is known as “infirite bus". Such a bus is able to maintain constant voltage irrespective of where the short circuit takes place except for a short circuit on the bus itself when its voltage will reduce to zero, A system having high short circuit capacity has a higher degree of voltage stability than the one with a low short circuit capacity. 4.6 Balanced Three Phase Fault This type of fault is defined as the simultaneous short circuit across all the three phases. This type of fault occurs infrequently, as for example a clamp connecting all the three phases to earth which has been made safe for maintenance, is accidentally made alive. But it is the most severe type of fault encountered because the network is balanced. It is solved on a per phase basis. The other two phases carry identical currents except for the phase shift. It is an important type of fault in that, it results in an easy calculation and generally, a pessimistic answer. The circuit breaker rated MVA breakup or interrupting capacity is based on 3 phase fault MVA. Since CB's are manufactured in preferred standard rating, high precision is not necessary when calculating the 3 phase fault level at a point in a power system. In previous chapter it was shown that the reactance of the synchronous generator under short circuit condition is a time varying quantity, and for network analysis these reactances were defined During short circuit the subtransient reaction X‘, will appear for first one and half cycles followed by transient reactance X', for next three and half cycles and synchronous reactance X4 thereafter. It is not always easy to decide which reactance to use, since short circuit current depends on the time operation of protective system. Generally, the sub-transient reactance is used for determining the interrupting capacity of the circuit breakers. In fault studies required for relay setting and coordination, transient reactance is used, Transient reactance is used in typical transient stabilities also. If the fault impedance is zero, the fault is referred to as the bolted fault (or) the solid fault. The faulted network can be solved determined conveniently by any of the following method. i) Using network reduction technique ii) Using Thevenin’s theorem iii) By forming bus impedance matrix.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-18 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Buses (Transmission system) ‘Then by direct application of the theorem, we conclude that the fault current simply equals. wo (4.27) w- (4.28) where V! - prefault voltage of bus j. Z,, - Thevenin's impedance measured into the network from bus ‘j’ with all active sources are made zero. Since we have neglected the prefault currents, : The voltages at all buses are 1.0 p.u. Thus we have Vo = Eand we may write the above equation (4.27) as = ge pu (4.29)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-22 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault the i'* bus is I, and all impedances are expressed in per unit on a common MVA base. From the Fig. 4.12 we can write the matrix equation as Vv, Zy 2g «« Ze] fl] Va) |Z Zea se Zog [Ip (4.32) Zi V, = n ‘Al Zag oe Zax| IL Or simply Vays = [Znus ]tous The prefault bus voltages are obtained from the power flow solution and are represented by the column vector. V,(0) v2 (0) Vous(0) = a (4.33) V,(0) V,,(0), Let a three phase fault occur in bus if through a fault impedance Z,. The prefault voltage at i* bus be V,,. Let the prefault condition be represented by a source of value Vp; as shown in Fig. 4.13 (a). The fault condition can be represented by a source of — Vpp in series with prefault voltage source as shown in Fig. 4.13 (b). o— TH —1—_ REFERENCE REFERENCE (a) Prefault condition (b) Fauited condition Fig. 4.13 Due to this fault all other bus voltages will change. Let the change in the bus voltage be AV,,AV, ....AV,,. The bus voltage changes caused by the fault in this circuit are represented by the column vector.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-26 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Once a tree for a graph has been defined, the remaining elements are referred to as links. The total links in a graph is called a co-tree. I = e-n+l e-b = e-(n-1) = (4.49) where ‘e’ is the total number of elements in a graph. ‘Tis the total number of lines in a co-tree. A loop that contains one link is called a basic loop. A cut-set is a minimal set of branches that, when cut, divides the graph into two connected sub graphs. A fundamental cut-set is a cut-set that contains only one branch. Fig. 4.14 (a) (b) shows a tree of a graph with the tree branches highlighted by heavy lines and the co-tree links by dotted lines. For the network shown in the Fig. 4.15 below. Fig. 4.14 Graph, a selected tree and a co-tree for the network of Fig. 4.15 below. Fig. 4.15 Starting with a single element, the bus impedance matrix can be built up and the process continued untill all nodes and elements are included.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Powar System Analysis 4-30 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault The added link modifies the old current I, to (I,-I,) and the old current I, to (14 +1:) as shown in the Fig. 4.18 (a) and the network equation becomes V, V2 V, | | | | | U NV, By writing the network equation for V, and V, from the matrix, we get Vy = Zp by +Z py Ly ot Zpp (Ipal,) +Zpq (Iq +h) + + Zp Tn w+ (4.63) Va = Zap Uy Ziggy Lat ot Zap (Ip Uy) +Z gg (Ip tr) +--+ Zan En (4.64) From the above equation find out V, —V,. VarVp = (Zar ~Zps) + (Zea -Zpe) ba +--+ (Lap Zpp) Ip tt (Zag ~Zpa) Uy + -* (Zan Zpn) In +(Z5q +Z pp +Zgq-2Z pq) by 0 ws (4.65) Equation in (4.63), (4.64) and (4.65) results in n+1 simultaneous equations which can be written in matrix form as ry ] ay Vp 1 y, 1 + (4.66 (a))aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-34 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault 4.10.3 Type 3 : Modification (Adding of a link between an existing bus with reference bus) This can be treated as an extension of type 2 modification. When a link is added between a existing node and a reference node which is as shown in the Fig. 4.21. This case follows from Fig. 4.21 by connecting bus 'p’ to the reference bus ‘o' by setting V, = 0. Fig. 4.21 Adding a link Zy 1, ™ Zap vy : ou : |e zoiw w= (4.78) Va Yq apenas, iC pn | Zap tpg [La Eliminate 1, in the set of equations contained in the matrix operation apply V, =0 above using node elimination method. 0 = Zo y +Zpq Ly t+ Zn In +(Zppt pq) Iq or = [Zp1 14 Zp dato Zon In] ~~ (4.79) Now Moe Zyl +Zy ly +..+ Zig In +Zip ly Substitute the value of I, V, =Zy 1, +Zy 1, +-.+Zy, 1, he 7S En LZ pp Ly tt Zpq 1) (4.80) pet pq By separating values interms of I, ,1, and 1, we getaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-38 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Solved Examples ym Example 4.1: A synchronous generator and motor are rated for 20 MVA ; 11 kV and both have subtransient reactance of 15%. The line connecting them has a reactance of 20% on the base of mackine rating. The motor is drawing 15 MW at 0.8 pf lagging. The terminal voltage of the motor is 10.8 kV. When a symmetrical three phase fault occurs at motor terminals, calculate the sub-transient current in generator, motor and at the fault point. Solution : Data given Power capacity of generator and motor = 20,000 kVA Voltage rating of generator and motor = 11 kV Sub-transient reactance of generator and motor (X%,): 15 % Reactance of the line = 20 % Power of motor at the time of short circuit : 15000 KW Power factor = 0.8 pf lagging The terminal voltage of motor = 10.8 kV 20% 20 MVA, 11 kV 15 MW 0.8 lag Fig. 4.23 Circuit model 4 102 Xtine xg Faun 7! 18 en En a Fig. 4.24 Base value Take base values : (MVA), = 20 MVA (kV), = 11 kVaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-46 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault A , jo15 j015 ©) Aor —aear— 08165 (b) ‘ jo.4st122 ©) (©) Fig. 4.33 Fault level = 2.2167 p.u. (ox) 2.2167 x 200 (i.e.) 443.34 MVA Total fault supplied by two generators = — j 2.2167 = 3499.09 = 7756.4328 2-90 Amps. (756.4328 £- 90°)x j 0.54 jO3+j 05d = 4986.278 Z- 90° Amps From circuit model fault current supplied by G, |Iiccp] = 4986 kA (77564328 £-90)xj03 O3+] 054 Fault current supplied by G = 270.1545 Z~ 90° Amps [Iucca] = 277 KA 1403)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-54 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Reactance of Generator = j 0.15 p.u. Reactance of Transformer = j 0.10 p.u. Reactance of Motor = jor(2)=i 1.0 each The circuit model of the system for fault calculation is as shown in Fig. 4.42. j1.0 41.0 j0.2 j0.1 j1.0 le “BTS —$ BHT $V} j1.0 j1.0 j03 LOTT SOS + j1.0 1e® i1.0 pe = i Fig. 4.42 The system being initially on no load the generator and motor induced emf are identical. The above circuit can therefore be reduced to that [03 |] j 1.0 |] j1.0 |] j 1:0} |] j1.0 = -j 0.157895 |] j 10 = - j 0.13636 1 Fault current (in pat.) = Tyrazqzq =~ j 73333 pu. 251000 Base current (J,) = = 2091.85 Amy %) = BXE5 - Fsclactuay = 7-3333* 2091.85 = 15340.22 Amps The sub—transient current through the fault } PAS HOIA SASSER From the Fig. 4.42 the current through the circuit breaker is 1 (053) = 6.33333x 2091.85 = 13248.38 Amps —j 63333 pu. Veep) = Tyepy = 13.248 kA.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-61 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault ‘ump Examplo 4.11: A 60 MVA, Y connected 11 KV synchronous generator is connected to a 60 MVA, 11/132 kV, WY transformer. The subtransient reactance X‘, of the generator is 0.12 p.u. on @ 60 MVA base. While the transformer reactance is 0.1 p.u. on the same base. The generator is unloaded. When a symmetrical fault is suddenly placed at point 'P’ as shown in Fig. 4.50. Find the sub-transient symmetrical fualt current in p.u. amperes and actual amperes on both sides of transformer. Phase to neutral voltage of the generator at no load is 1.0 p.. (AU : April/May-2005) AV /132 kV -—3 B @ry) Fig. 4.50 Solution : Data given E=10pu Xi = 012 pu, X, = 01 pa is gE ee et crassa Base VA _ _60x10° Base load on L.V. side = i lg ere = 3149.2 Amps. ¥3x Base Y3x11x10* P 60x10° Base load on FLV. side = 7°" 7-3 = 2624 Amps Actual |I’] on 11 kV side = 3149.24.54 = 142974 Amps = 143 kA Actual |I"| on 132 kV side = 4.54% 262.4 = 1191.3 Amps = 1.19 kA mm Example 4.12: Two generating stations A and B having short circuit capacities of 1800 MVA and 1200 MVA respectively are operating at 11 KV which are linked by an interconnected line having a reactance of 0.3362 Q/pl. Determine the short circuit capacity of each station. Solution : (MVA)g = 1800 MVA Xg = 100% = 1 p.u. (Assumed reactance of generating station 1)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-68 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Solution : a) Considering fault at bus 3 : By switching on an impedance Z, at bus 3 the fault is simulated which is shown in Fig. 4.60. The above problem can be solved using Thevenin's method. Circuit model : Fig. 4.60 Take base MVA as 100 MVA. In this problem the generated emfs are assumed equal to the rated value, all the prefault bus voltages are equal to 1.0 p.u. That is V,(0) = V,(0)=V4(0) = 1.0 pu. = ¥3(0) LO = az, Where Z.3, is the Thevenin's impedance viewed from the faulted bus and Z, is the fault impedance (which is given as 0.15 p.u). To find Thevenin's impedance the following steps to be followed. Step 1: Convert delta formed buses 1, 2 and 3 to an equivalent star which is shown in the Fig. 4.61 and this can further be reduced as shown in Fig. 4.61 (a) to (c). Combining parallel branches, Thevenin's impedance is = j 035 +j 03 = 0.65 ‘The fault current can be calculated from the Fig. 4.61 (c).aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-72 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault ¥, (0) 1.0 L® = Zea, * joms7 405 ~~) 229508 pu. By using current division between two generators are 1, (F) = 0.742857 x ~ j 2.29508 j 1.6393 pa lon = Fpg 1 (P = 0.285714 x —j 2.29508 = — j 0.65574 pr For the bus voltage changes from Fig. 4.63 (b) we get AV, = 0 -( 04) (-j 1.6398) = - 0.65572 p.u. AV, = 0-(j04)(-j 0.65574) = - 0.262296 pu. AV, = —0.65572+(j0.6) (A) - 0.459 p.u. To find bus voltages during fault can be obtained from the Fig. 4.63 (b). VA(F) = V0) +4, V2 (B) = Vz (0)+AV, = 1.0 - 0.262296 = 0.7377 pu. V3(F) = V3(0)+AV, = 1.0 ~ 0.459 = 0.0541 pu The short circuit current in the lines are 0 - 0.65572 = 0.34428 p.u. +j 04371 pu. j 0.21858 p.u. V2(F)-V3(F) _ 0.7377 -0541 2x5 “09 In (F) = =~ j 0.21856 p.u. nm Example 4.16 : A 3-phase fault with a fault impedance of Z, = 0.15 pu occurs at bus 3, bus 2 and bus 1 in the network of example of 4.15. Using the bus impedance matrix method compute the fault current, the bus voltages and the line currents during the fault. Solution : The bus impedance matrix is obtained by finding the inverse of the bus admittance matrix. We know that the i" diagonal element of the bus admittance matrix is the sum of all admittances connected to the bus ‘i’ and the ij" off diagonal element is the negative of the admittance between buses i and j.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-76 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault j04 0 jO4) [ j0.09412 -jo.09412 j 0.09412 zoe") =] 0 jod 0 |-|-j0.09412 j0.09412 ~j 0.09412 jos o j13] | j0.09412 -jo.09412 jo.09412 0.30588 j 0.09412 j 0.30588 = |} 0.09412 j 0.30588 j 0.09412 j 0.30588 j 0.09512 j 1.20588 Step 5: Finally we add link 5, j 0.9 between node q = 3 and node p = 2 from we have Zy Zs 23 -Zy zo .| 22 Zy3 Zy-Zn ad 25, Zs5 Zs -Zy Zy Zn Zy-Zy Zy | 0.30588 0.09412 j 0.30588 0.21176 j0.09412 j0.30588 j0.09412 -j0.21176 j 0.30588 j0.09412 j 1.20588 j 1.11176 j0.21176 -j0.21176 j 111176 2.22352 Zyy = 223+ Zy +Z yy —2Zyq = j 0.9 + j 0.30588 + j 1.20588 - 2 j (0.09412) Zyy = j 2.22352 azazt 1 j0.21176 } and WZ, = Tamas2 40.2117 [j0.21176 -j0.21176 1.11176] j 1.11176 [ j0.020167 —j0.020167 j 0.10588 = |-j0.020167 j 0.020167 —j0.10588 | jo.10ses 0.10588 j 0.55588 The new bus impedance matrix is 0.30588 j 0.09412 0.30588 j0.02167 -j 0.020167 j 0.10588 = |j0.09412 j 0.30588 j0.09412|~ |-j0.020167 0.020167 —j 0.10588 j 0.30588 j0.09412 {1.20588 j0.10588 —-j 0.10588 j 0.55588 j 0.28421 0.114287 j02 j0.114287 j 0.285713 j02 j02 j0.2 50.65. 0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-80 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Ypus = 1 jis. 5 3.3334 ] [j0.696 0.658 j0.629 (aus! * 5 11.6667 6.6667 |= |j0.658 j0754 j 0.677 3.3334 6.6667 -10.66667 j0.629 j0.677 0.713 im Example 4.20: Using bus building algorithm method, determine Zpys for the network shown in Fig. 4.70 below where the impedance labelled are shown in per unit. (Nov./Dee.-2007, R2004) Fig. 4.70 Solution : Draw tree as shown in Fig. 4.70(a). in which links are shown as dotted. Step1: Add element Z,9 that is j 1.0 element between node q = 1 and reference node (0). Ze = G10) Step2: Add element Z, _ 9 that is j 20 element between node q = 2 and reference node (0). j1.0 0 0 520 Fig. 4.70(a) (2) Za, = Step 3: Before proceeding with joing j 0.12 element with reference node, it is advisable to connect link j 0.4 between q = 2 and node p = 1 a [RO 0 AO) Zag = 2m = Zar ~Zra Ze =| 0 j20 20) Za =Zy=Zy -Zy 1.0 20 j34 | Zyy=Zy, +Zqy -2Lyy +249aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Circuit model Ref.Bus. Fig. 4.72(b) Base value Take base value as (MVA)g = 25 MVA (kV)g = 11 kV (MVA), _ 25x10° Base current (I,) " Actual value of prefault _ voltage at the faulted point/ “™ ~ p-u. value of prefault voltage at fault point(V,,,) Load MVA = pau. value of load MVA (S,,) = pu. value of load current |; | = _ Actual value = = = 1312.16 Ai V3xKV, Y3x11 mee 10.6 kV = ns = 0.963636 pu. Base value Real power 15 _ ie ee Loat MVA _ 3019 oa Base MVA ~ 25 ~ ** P’ Sm 1.2 Vin 7 0.95363636 ~ 12453 pu. From the data we know that the load current lags the terminal voltage of motor by an angle 60° while taking terminal voltage of motor Vyq, as reference vector. Vim = 0.963636 {0° p.u. I, = 1.2453 [60 Prefault condition By referring circuit model, we can divide it into two equations (i) upto Vig (ii) Vim to E‘,. By applying Kirchhoff's law on equation (i) above, we get,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-88 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault ot 2197 Za Moditeation type 4 Zeus | Zap~Za0 ' (Link between two existing buses} - i i 2 oy ZeaNy2~ Za) where Zy = 2yq+Zpp +Zqq Ziq Zy Ziq ‘ 1 |22 2, ZB = 258 “ze “| [Zip Zig np Zag Zon . Zo Exercise 1. A portion of a power system is shown in Fig. 4.74 which also shows the ratings of the generators and the transformer and then percent reactances. A symmetrical short circuit appears on a feeder 'F'. Find the values of the reactance 'X' (in percent) such that the short circuit MVA does not exceed 300 MVA. 15 MVA 20% 10MVA 20% 35 MVA, 10% Fig. 4.74 fAns. : 30%] 2. For the system shown in Fig. 4.75. Calculate the short circuit MVA at “A” and at "B*. 20 kVA jee 30 kVA 5% AV KV & (3+j12)2 To bed 10 kVA 07% Fig. 4.75 3. The one line diagram of a simple 3 bus power system is shown in Fig. 4.76. Each generator is represented by an EMF behind the subtranssient reactance. All the impedances are expressed in p-t on a common MVA base. All resistances and shunt capacitances are neglected the generatorsaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 4-92 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault 20. A 36 transmission line operating at 33 KV and having a resistance of 5 © and reactance of 200 is connecied to the generating station through 15,000 MVA step up transformer connected to the bus bars are two attenuators one of 10,000 kVA with 10% reactance and another of 5000 kVA with 75% reactance. Calculate short circuit KVA for a symmetrical fault betzween phases at the load end of the transmission line. 21. Two synchronous motors are connected to the bus of a large system through short transmission line as shown in Fig. 4.79 the ratings of oarious components are Line : 0.05 9 reactance ‘Motor each : 1 MVA, 440 V, 0.1 pats. transient reactance Large systent : S.C. MVA at ils bus at 440 V is 8. When the motors are operated at 400 V, calculate the S.C. current (symmetrical) fed into a 30 {fault at motor bus. Motors Motor bus Fig. 4.79 22. For the radial network shown in Fig. 4.30 30 fault occurs at ‘F’. Determine fault current. 10 MVA 20% Reactance 10.MIVA 12.5% Reactance 171 kv Bus Transformer 10 MYA 10% — OHlineZ=6+j 102 a3 kV Transformer 25 MVA 8%, eT —— sew Q Z=05+)0150 ” Freee Fig. 4.80 23. With the help of @ detailed flow chart and algorithm explain how a symmetrical fault con be analysed using Zp. State the assumption, if any. 24, A 1250 kVA, 5000 V generator with X; = 0.08 pu supplies a purely resistive load of 1000 kW at rated voltage. The load is connected directly across the terminals of the generator, If all the 3 phases of the load are short circuited simultaneously. Find the initial symmetrical current in the ‘generator.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 5-2 ‘Symmetrical Components 5.2 Symmetrical Components Fundamentals In accordance with FORTESCUE'S theorem symmetrical components allow unbalanced phase quantities such as currents and voltages to be replaced by three seperate balanced symmetrical components / phasors. Positive sequence components Positive sequence components consisting of three phasors equal in magnitude but may be spaced 120° with respect to each other and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors (ie) if the phasors are labelled a,,b, and c, respectively, and if the altemating quantities they represent, reach their maximum values in the same order a, followed by b, followed by c,, they are said to have positive sequence. Negative sequence components Negative sequence components consisting of three phasors a,,b, and c, which are equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having the phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors. That is, they follow each other in reverse order. a, followed by c, followed by b, they ave said to have negative sequence. Zero sequence components In case of zero sequence components three phasors may be of equal magnitude and in phase with each other. (ie.) With zero phase displacement from each other. Since the alternating quantities they represent, will each reach its maximum value at the same instant, they are said to have zero sequence a,b, and cy groups of phasors representing these three types of symmetry as shown in Fig. 5.1 (a. b, c). é Negative \ Positive bp. Sequence a, gesuence al Zero sequence Be Byes a ° o-—__ ef & (a) (b) (ce) Fig. 5.1 5.3 The Sequence Operator “a” To deal with unbalanced problem in general, and to assist in defining the relationships between phase voltages and also phase currents, we use sequence operator like ‘j’ which turns a phasor through 90° used in electrical engineering. A similar operator, which will turn a phasor through 120°, can also be of value particularly in three phase system.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 5-6 ‘Symmetrical Components V, = 3 (v, +27 Vy+aV.) Ve = 50.4% +V) Similarly these relations for currents are given as L FQ. tatyra? 1) wn (6.15) F(+a? rat) - (6.16) I 3. +I, +1) 6.17) In the equations above V,,V, and V, may be the line to ground voltages, line to neutral voltages, line to line voltages at a point in the network. Similarly the three currents could be phase currents, line currents, the currents flowing into a fault from the line conductors etc. Equations (6.12) to (5.14) shows that no zero-sequence components exist if the sum of the unbalanced phasors is zero. Since the sum of the line to line voltage phasors in a 3 phase system is always zero. Zero sequence components are never present in the line voltages regardless of the degree of unbalance. The sum of the three line-to-line neutral voltage phasors is not necessarily zero and voltages to neutral may contain zero sequence components. 5.3.3 Power Considerations The total complex power in a 3 phase circuit is Pp u V, 1, cos$, +V, fy, C08, +V, 1, cos 4. (5.18) 4 V, 1 +¥p tele [0% +V2+Vo)(h +h +1) + [(e? Vira V2+Vo) (a? h tals +o)] + [ev +a? Vy +Vp) (al, +a? Ip +19)] Taking first term on the RHS if solved (Vy #V2+Vp)(hy t1y #1p) = Vy Ly + V2 In + Vp Ig #1 My + Vy [y+ Vz+1, + Vp Ip + Vo ly + Vp ly Expanding second term on the RHS u a? V,-a7 I, +a? V,-al,+a? V, I, #aV,-a7 1, +aV,-al, +aVy ‘Ip + Vy a2 ty taly:Vo + Vo Toaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 5-42 Symmetrical Components (KV) y guy = 67.1186 kV kV), 67.1186)* Base impedance Z, = ese e = 150.16355 2 A Li 5 ctualimpedance 150 ggg g P.u. reactance of transmission line = 5-7 cedance” pane 5016355 So Positive and negative sequence | Xz.) = 0.999 2 reactance of transmission line | Xj, = 0.99.2 = 19978 pu. 635% p-u. value of zero sequence 300 reactance of transmission linef “T( ~ Sequence reactance of synchronous motor M, LT Voltage rating Base kV on LT side of transformer T, = Base kV on HT side x == — “BOB HT Voliage rating 14.75 = 67.1186 x ee F 15 kV (KV), gee = IS KV kV P T(MVA New p.u. reactance of Motor M, = Xp, (ois) * [we] x [OV ADe new CRY) ose LOMVA), aia = 02x [334 5 30 x ()= 0.330755 p.u. The reactance specified above is for both positive and negative sequence of motor M, For zero sequence reactance 13.64 J HaBSSE, bo }- Xm = 0.08 x 7 = 0.1323 p.u. Sequence reactances of synchronous motor M, Ne )-U. ti lew p.u. sacanes | - 02x (HEY « (3 of motor M, i5 5) SESE Bui ‘The above value calculated is for both positive and negative sequences values. 13.64 30)_ osx ( is J. (3) 0.2646 p.u. For zero sequences for motor M, (New base) i? : Base impedance Z, = mee =O) 2750 yeaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.47 Symmetrical Components Power System Analysis wm} Example 5.12 : Draw the zero sequence diagram for the system whose one line diagram is shown below. {AU : Nov/Dec.-2007, R 2004, 6 Marks) Ty 13, N 3 & Q Tu Ww g 6 Zz Ss 4 ee oY Y B T; T, Ym a.2%e , Ya Y 3 2 g - M RP s} Vv x = & Ya Ts Te = A A T u Yorn G3 Fig. 5.41 Solution : oy OO} (0) n Xn gq Xn w Xm z a (ed o) 0) 0) }W—e P m Xt p Xne y Xt x 3x2, FOOT A8GGS + WHIT —- ot qr js (0) {oy X15 Xt6 a 3 Ms 33%y G2 u x REF. BUS Fig. 5.41(a)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 5-51 Symmetrical Components Negative Sequence Network (2) (2) 2) CG Xz H Xs Pp Xe, a . 5 Fig. 5.43 (b) Zero Sequence Reactance Diagram (0 (0) ) - © ,8 ,# 5 + B20 2 59» : : FE M N ’ @) 0) 0 io 5 Ma dt, x R (0) x? xs Be 63 JK 3x, Ret, bus Fig. 5.43 (c) Formulas a = e! = cos 120 + j sin 120 = -05 + j 0.866 2 e) = cos (-120) + j sin (-120) = -05 -j 0.866 = axat ae Myo 1aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 6-32 Fault Analysis - Unbalanced Fault ~ [(-} 0.66667) x 50.5] = - 0.3333 p.u. ~ [(- j 0.66667) x j 0.5] =~ 0.3334 p.u. 1 1] (cae «| | osssa| u 3334 — 0.33334 —j 0.57735 + 0.166667 — j 0.28868 — [0.86603 =1.2-120 ~ 0.33334 ~ 0.333334 + j 0.57735 + 0,1666667 + j 0.2886752 = 0.5 + j 0.86603 = 12120 hum Example 6.11: A 3 phase generator rated 15 MVA, 13.2 kV has a solidly earthed neutral Its positive, negative and zero sequences impedance are 10%, 20% and 50% respectively. Resistance are negligible. (@) What value of ‘x’ must be placed in the neutral of the generator to restrict the fault current to ground to rated line current for a double line to ground fault ? (b) What will be the magnitude of the line currents when the ground current is restricted as above ? (o) As the reactance in the neutral 1 indefinitely increased, what are the limiting values of the line currents ? Solution : Data given : Rated capacity of alternator: 15 MVA. Rated voltage 1 132 kV. Z = 05 pu. Z = 0lpu. Z = 02pu. To find : (a) X, value to restrict the fault current equal to rated line current {b) Value of | 1, | when ground current is restricted to line current (©) °"X" increased indefinitely, find limiting values of 1, during L - L - G fault _ 3EZ, _ 3x 120" x j0.2 2, Z,+ 2) Z, +202, 2, Z,+ Z, (Z, + Z) (a) j06 "ZZ, (B+ ZZ, oF j0.6 a =0.02 + j0.3(0.5 + 3X,) |p] = 1.0 pu. sr (-0.02-0.15+ j09 X,) =aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 6-60 - Unbalanced Fault Efpeus = Ets + 4 B® pus (6.24) Where | 4 Eins = Zius lise (6.25) Where E'fS.,,) is the column vector of the unknown bus voltage after the fault. em EM 20) ww (6.26) she Ee by and Eis bus voltages. is the column vector of the unknown prefault bus voltages ie. open circuit abe EY © EY [Ee] “0 s~- (6.27) abe ENO and the unknown bus currents when fault occurs at any bus “p" will be 0 0 0 abe . Too) = | w= (6.28) _ pate PO 0 0 Since prefault currents are neglected and therefore for a fault at the bus 'p’ have only currents i.e. fault current at the bus ‘p’ only will flow. The three phase bus impedance matrix which include ground as reference will be abe a abe abe at at ae zea ae zie) Bit abe abe abe abe abe abe 2y 2 2x 2p Zxn- 1) Zin gee yaw LE se LSE xem Zoey Ze ae abe abe ate abe ate | ~~ (6.29) zy Zr 23 Z3p Zee) Zon abe abe abe abe abe Ze Sela Ziriys ve Zielyp oe Zeon» Zien zie ogee zie Ze |aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 6-65 Unbalanced Fault Vig - 20 19 19 = -feage (6.59) os Vig - ZO 1 1 = - an : ++-(6.60) 2 + 32, Where Z{?, Z and Z\ are the diagonal elements in the "i" bus of the corresponding bus impedance matrix and the fault current is 1) 21419 ---(6.61) 6.7.4 Bus Voltages and Line Current during Fault Using the sequence components of the fault current the symmetrical components of the i* bus during fault are obtained. O _ gz Vir) = O-ZGIh vi, = vi zn 6.62) VQ = 0-217 Where V(), is the prefault phase voltage at bus '. The phase voltage during fault are vp save? «--(6.63) ‘The symmetrical components of fault current in line j and 'm’ is given by O_o — Yn 7Vaw Zn ya vy, a Vig “Yee @ = ws. (6.64) o Tim O 2 os Where 2\), buses ‘ and 'm’, having obtained the symmetrical components of line currents. the phase fault current in line '! to ‘mn’ is = Ae = Aue +--(6.65) © @ 5 , . 2 and 2° are the zero, positive, negative sequence impedance between se Inaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 6-83 Fault Analysis - Unbalanced Fault (a? -a)Za +a? -1)Z0 Zo4+Zi +Za 3E, Mo # + yea, BIE L-L Fault Conditions: 1, = 0, Ip = -Te Ve = VetZde Vo = In=0 either 1) =-h (or) hy =-h Vo M =E.-Zih Va = -Zah ___Ea | W3E. h* 742.42; Ih = ~jv3h le= 7a Zy L+L-G Fault Conditions: 1, = 0, Vo = Ve = Z(Ip +Te) Vi = Ve I, = Ipth+h =0 Vo-Vi = 32 jlo [te = Wo + Ue pe rahe | E, (Zo +Z2+ 320) 1 = fea ha) 0 Zot 3Zy 1 Lola +ZiZ2 + ZoZz + 3Z (Zi +Za) a 22 L-G fault using Zpus O21 22) ve ( and 1 A 12 HO <1 IP = ay arpa gg,’ 2 7 SN” and aap L-L fault using Zpus 1 =0 Ms L-+L-G fault using Zpus Vio) @ 200 4] Ze? +3Z0) 20420 +32,aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 6-88 Fault Analysis - Unbalanced Fault z. 28. 29. 30. 31. ‘A 30 33 kV, 37.5 MVA alternator is connected to a 33 KV OH line which develops an earth fault on one phase at the remote end. The positive, negative, zero sequence reactance of the alternator are 0.18, 0.12 and 0.1 pu. of its rating while those for the line are 6.3, 63 and 12.6 Q per conductor. Find - a) the fault current b) L-neutral voltages at alternator terminals, 11 kV, 10 MVA alternator of 36 with solidly earthed neutral point supplies a feeder. The relevant impedances of the alternator and feeder in ohim are given. If the L-L fault occurs at the far end of the feeder calculate the faul! current. Sequence Generator (p.u.) | Feeder (ohm / phase) Positive p12 j10 Negative 40.8 j1.0 Zero j30 | nc A 50 MVA, 11 kV, 36 allernator with solidly grounded neutral when subjected to different types of feult gave the following fault currents. Find pu values of sequence reactance. 3 phase fault - 1820 A L-L fault - 2590 A L-G - 4130.A The line current in amperes in phases a, b and c respectively are (500+ j150) A, (100-j600) A ; (300+ j600)A. Find the symmetrical components of current. Discuss the step by step method of formation of bus impedance matrix / Yous. Q0gaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-4 Stability The power transferred in the above case as shown in Fig. 7.1 (a) is a function of 6 between the rotors of two machines. The angular separation is due to three components. i) Generator internal angle 8, - The angle between rotor of alternator and the stator rotating magnetic field. (In this case rotor angle leads the stator rotating magnetic field by an angle &) ii) Terminal voltage angle 5; - The angle between the generator terminal voltage and the motor terminal voltage. (In this case angle of terminal voltage of generator leads the angle of terminal voltage of motor by an angle &;.) iii) Motor internal angle 3,, - The angle between rotor of synchronous motor and the stator rotating field. In this case revolving magnetic field leads the rotor angle by an angle 5). ‘Transmission al Synchronous ‘Synchronous generator ‘motor Fig. 7.1 (a) Single line diagram En Er Xe ai Xu —i Eg Ew Fig. 7.1 (b) Ideal model Fig. 7.1 (b) shows the ideal model of an electrical power system that can be used to determine the power versus angle relationship. Here synchronous generator synchronous motor are represented by their internal voltage in series with synchronous reactance and transmission line is represented by its reactance (resistance and capacitance are of no significance). For analysis purposes, the synchronous reactance and the internal voltage of synchronous machine is equal to the excitation voltage. Fo Xe Oe | 2 Xy Em Fig. 7.1 (c) Phasor diagramaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-8 Stability 46 Stable = Positive Ts ~ Positive Tp ae Non-oscillatory Instability ~ Negative Ts ~ Positive Tp oL___.t (a) With constant field voltage a8 Stable = Positive Ts = Postive Tp oL____+t 454 Oscillatory 48 Instabiity = Positive Ts ~ Negative Tp Tp oL__.t (b) With excitation control Fig. 7.2 7.4.2 Transient Stability “Transient stability’ refers to the max. flow of power possible through a point without losing the stability. With sudden and large change in the network conditions such as faults by sudden large increment of loads. The resulting system response involves large excursions of generator rotor angles and is influenced by the non-linear power angle relationship. Both the severity of the disturbance and initial state condition of the system on which stability depends, The system jis altered, so that the post disturbance steady state operation differs from the pre-disturbance state of the disturbance.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-15 Stability 7.7 Mid Term and Long Term Stability The term long term and mid term stability are the new concept in power system stability which was introduced recently as a result of the need to deal with problems associated with the dynamic response of power sysiems. Severe systems ups large excursions of voltage, frequency and power flows that thereby invoke the actions of slow processes, controls and protections not modelled in conventional transient stability studies. ts result in Long term stability analysis assumes that inter machine synchronising power oscillations have damped out, the result being uniform system frequency. The focus is on the slower and longer duration phenomenon that accompany large scale system upsets and on the resulting large sustained mismatches between generation and consumption of active and reactive power. These phenomena include transformer saturation, off-nominal frequency effects on loads, automatic generation control and power plant and transmission system protection and controls. The mid term response represent the transition between short-time and long term responses. In mid term stability studies, synchronising power oscillations between machines (including the effect of the slower phenomenon) is the main focus. Typical range of time periods are as follows : Short term : 0 to 10 sec. Mid term : 10 sec toa few minutes. long term : a few minutes to 10's of minutes. The distinction between mid term and long term stability is primarily based on the phenomenon being analyzed and the system representation used particularly with regard to fast transients and inter machine oscillation, rather than the time period involved. Generally, the long term and mid term stability problems are associated with inadequacies in equipment responses, poor co-ordination of control and protection equipment. Long term stability is usually concerned with system response to major disturbances that involve contigencies beyond the normal system design criteria. This may entail cascading and splitting of power system into a number of separate segment with generators in each segments that remaining in synchronism. Whether or not each segment will reach an acceptable state of operating equilibrium with minimal loss of load is the question of stability in this case. It is determined by the overall response of the segment as evidenced by it mean frequency rather than the relative motion of machines. The system and unit protection may leads to collapse of the segment as a whole or in part in an extreme case due to adverse situation. Dynamic analysis of voltage stability requiring simulation of the effect of transformer tap changing generator over excitation protection and VAR limits which is included in long term and mid term stability as other applications. Inter machine oscillations are not important in this case. However some of the fast dynamics can not be neglected.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-22 Stability which is the result previously obtained as in the equation 7.16. 7.11 Dynamics of a Synchronous Machine Angular momentum about a fixed axis is defined as the product of moment of inertia about that axis and the associated angular velocity, just as linear momentum is the product of mass and linear velocity. M = Jo,, watt/rad/sec* The unit specified is not practically convenient. When dealing with large machines and small angles. So the unit adopted for M is mega joule - second per electrical radian (MW-s? / elect. rad). We know that 2x electrical rad / sec Mechanical rad/sec = where ‘P’ is the no of poles. The kinetic energy of the rotor at synchronous machine is, KE. . Joz,«10°° MJ (7.20) where J = Rotor moment of inertia in kg-m? Synchronous speed in rad (mech) / see But (F)e%m rotor speed in elect. rad/sec and ‘P’ is the no of poles Kineti = 1/)(2) ox10-*]o,- 2 721 ic energy = 5|1( 7] «10% | w, = 5 Mo, 2) 2 where Moment of inertia M =1(3) ©,%10°° MPS / electrical radians “H” an important constant and very useful in stability studies. The angular momentum and kinetic energy varies widely with the machine rating and type of prime mover, but the per unit value of the kinetic energy at synchronous speed remains approximately constant for a given type of machine. Thus is the inertia constant “H” and is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy at rated speed to the rated apparent power of the machincal i. ‘Stored energy in mega joules at synchronous speed ‘Machine rating in MVA(G) «VO A relation between M and H is derived as follows, GxH = Stored energy in mega Joules .. (7.23)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-30 Stability Under transient condition X4 9X4 ty+Atis given by dx| X= Xp tAX > Xqt At w= (779) Ace xg The Euler method is equivalent to use the first two terms of the Taylor series expansion for x around the point (xp, ty) A 37 Co) + .. (7.80) . At A = Xp th to) AT (0) + For determining x =x, corresponding to t=t,, we can take another short time step At and determine x, corresponding to ty =t; +A as follows et Sl cat (781) a values of ‘x’ can be determined corresponding to different values of ‘t’. This method consider only the first derivative of ‘x’ and is therefore referred to as a first order method. For sufficient accuracy At has to be small for each step. This will increase round off errors. The defect of this method is that it is assumed a constant slope over the entire interval At.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-53 Stability ad => At = (w(t)~e) At Sat eto owen At - (Re (P,, -P, wy} At k, = foW+h log) At a {3PM (6 +h a)} at ky = fo +h/.)-2xf] At nf ‘ tn {P,, =P, (8 +k,,.)) At = flo) +ly)-ey] At 210, -P, @ +k) At Step 3: Compute the change in state vector. Ad = 2 (k, +2k,+2k,+k,) Aw) = FU +21, +21, +h) Step 4: Compute 8°89 and oft’ 8 atrad = a gaat at 49 2 GO, rg Step 5: t=t+At;if t> tau go to next step otherwise go to step 2. Step 6 : Terminate computation Solved Examples ump Example 7.1: A 6 pole 30 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz generator has an intertia constant of H =12 kW-sKVA, supplying power at 0.85 pf lag. When a fault reduces the electric power output by 30 %. Find the accelerating torque at the time of fault occurs. Neglect the losses and assume the generator input to be constant. Solution : Data given: No. of poles (N) = 6 Generator capacity (S) = 30 MVA Rated voltage (V) = 11 KVaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-57 Stability To find : a) The kinetic energy (Wx) is Mega-Joule at rated speed. b) Inertia constant ‘H’. ©) Inertia constant ‘M’ in MJ-sec/electrical deg, 4) M in per unit on 100 MVA base. Formula used : 2 _22nf) _ ant p/2p P P Kinetic energy of the rotor W, hyo}, watts-sec (or) Joule ae ; Mao, (J-s/electrical radian) H _ Wee Inertia constant H = Caggr = or s = >= = 222.2222 MVA Kinetic energy = 5 2 (@) (Wee) = frost = 2842446 MJ (b) Inertia constant H = = 12.791 MJ/MVA S 2 or © M = 0.26319 MJ/electrical degree (a) on a base of 100 MVA _ 0.26319 ~~ T00 = 0,0026319 p.u. ‘mm Example 7.6 : A generator “X’ is rated at 60 Hz, 100 MW, 125 MVA, 3600 r.p.m. and has an inertia constant H = 14 MJ/MVA. The corresponding data for another generator ‘Y’ is rated for 60 Hz, 80 MW, 88.8889 MVA, 1200 rp.m., H = 8 MI/MVA. i) If these two generators operate in parallel in a power station. Calculate ‘H’ for the equivalent generator on a base of 100 MVA. ii) If the power station is connected to another power station which has two of each type of generator calculate ‘H’ for the equivalent generator connected to an infinite busaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-61 Stal Further integrating intervals 35 oe 05 Te 7 26954, 8" = 1.3177 8 = (13177 t)? =1.73634 t? This is the change in rotor angle. Here 5 = 1.73634x(0.16)* = 0.0444503 rad = 2.547 electrical degree But # = 6.94537 V6 = J6.94537 J0.0444503 = 0.55563 rad/sec 0.55% % 1 pair of poles * Ips. x 60 =rp.m)] 0.555631 x 4X60 = 2.653 p.m. Rotor end at the end of 8 cycles = 120f + 2.653 = 1502.653 rp.m. ‘> Example 7.9: The single line diagram of Fig. 7.25 below shows a generator connected through parallel transmission line to a large systems considered as an infinite bus. The machine is delivering 1.0 p.u. power and both the terminal voltage and the infinite bus voltage are 1.0 pu. The values of the reaciances mentioned against each equipment in the Fig. 7.25 is on a common base system. Determine the synchronizing power coefficient if the machine is operating at 5=34446° when it is subjected to a slight temporary electrical system disturbance. Also determine the frequency and period of oscillation of the machine rotor if the disturbance is removed before the prime-mover responds. Take H = 5 MJ/MVA. Solution : Data given : j02 jos ic g é Infinite bus Xig =] 02 j04 E=10pu. Fig, 7.25 Transient reactance of the machine (X,) = j 0.2 pu. Leakage reactance of the transformer (X,) = j 0.2 pw Reactance of the transmission line (Xy,) = j 04 eachaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-67 Stability Voltage behind transient E = 1.20°4j0.3(1 -j 0.1943) = 1.301 2-2 . 568° |E K (System healthy) Pag = MET «P1039 «4.397 pu, im Example 7.12 : A 2-pole 50 Hz, 11 kV turbo alternator has a ratio of 100 MW, power factor 0.85 lagging. The motor has a moment of inertia of 10000 kg-m*. Calculate H and M. (AU, + Nov/Dec.-2004) Solution : Data given : Output = 100 MW Power factor = 0.85 lagging No of poles(?) = 2 Frequency (f) = 50 Hz Voltage (v) = 11 kV Moment of Inertia (M) = 10, 000 kg-m? output on MVA = ie = 117.65 MVA 2 Kinetic energy stored = 3MtGe > pescannn{ 250} = 493.4 MJ Tae = 41945 MJ/MVA Ha (Kineticenengystored ) 4984 ~ MVA “T1765 GH _ 117.65%41945 180 ~ ~ (80x50) 0.0548 190 =3.14 MJ e’/ sec (G= MVA rating of the machine) 0.0548 MJ-s/rad-sec im Example 7.13 : A synchronous reactance of 1.1 p.u. is connected to an infinite bus of V = 10 p.u. through transformer and a line of total reactance of 0.4 p.u. The generator no load voltage is 1.1 pt. and its inertia constant is H = 5 MW-sec/MVA. The resistance and machine damping may be assumed negligible. The system frequency is 60 Hz. Calculate the ‘frequency of natural oscillations if the generator is loaded to (i) 60 % and (ii) 85 % of its ‘maximum power limit.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-78 Stability Be = 0-3, = M—223843 = 157.6157" = 2.751 radians We know critical clearing angle is Be = cos [-cosby +(n-28,)sin 35) t.. = cos”! [-cos (22.3843) + (3.14 ~2 0.391) sin 22.3843) = cos”! [+0.0266834] =91.53° = 1.5975 radians The critical clearing time is PRR -* mEP,, _ [RBG5975-0391) _ [ISS0E _ ~V~ 3dx50x0.9 — ~ V1di 3 ~ 9966 sec ii) The power angle curve before the occurrence of fault is Prat = 2.58105 sin 6 The generator is operating at the initial power angle 5, = 22.3843. The fault occurs jos at a point ‘F’ at the middle of one line so fr the equivalent reactance diagram is shown as under. The transfer reactance fault may be Qo found by converting delta to star and add 1145 () the reactances connected in series with each clement of star limb and then again converted to delta which is shown clearly Fig. 7.3 in step by step in Fig. 7.45 (c) and (4) 1a. 7:38(0) 40.25 j0.2 40.15 112 & Qi Fig. 7.38(c)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-87 Stability tb) j0.1667 «® i“ 3 Ov %=119 (e Fig. 7.46 Equivalent circuit for the system Pre fault(P,,_a) Post fault (Pic) Post fault During the fault (Py, 5) 8 Fig. 7.47aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-91 Stability I = 62.83(1.5-1.2 sin 1.16149)x 0,02 = 0.5015371 Ae ¥ [(0.13002)+ (2x 0.1359727) + (2x 0.1346495) + 0:1409233] 0.13536 8 = 87 +487 = 1.026 + 0.13536 = 1.16136 radians > 8 " $1(0.595277))+(2%0.5472338) + (2x0.545168) + 0.5015371] = 0,5469362 oF = 7.0479 rad/sec ii) This problem can also be solved by modified Euler's method. The equation to be solved are 3 = @,(t)-20F @ = 6283 (15-12 sind) The first step is to determine derivatives at t = 0. (0) = 0 and @= 6283(1.5-1.2 sin 0.524) = 56.547 8M = + 20 ae 0.524 + 0.0 = 0.524 of) = 56.547 x 0.02 = 1.13094 Since there is no change in 8 the value of E}"' remains same and hence power generated remains same. Again evaluate derivative of 5 and angular velocity as evaluated above. 8 = 113094 = 56.547 Average value of derivatives. bn = O01 1804 = 0.56547 = 56.547 $Y = 56.547 New estimate of the variables. 80) = 0.524 +(0.56547« 0.02) = 0.5353 and of = 0.0+ (56.547 0.02) = 1.13094aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis 7-100 Stability Critical clearing time X= Predictor step at Corrector step Exercise 1. A 60 Hz four pole turbo generator rated 30 MVA, 13.2 kV has an inertia constant H = 12 kW-secfkV. Determine the kinetic energy stored in the rotor at synchronous speed. Determine the acceleration if the input less than the rotational losses is 30000 HP and the electric power developed is 20000 kW. If the acceleration computed for the generator is constant for a period of 15 cycles. Determine the change in torque angle in that period and the rpm. at the end of 15 cycles. Assume that the generator is synchronized with a large system and has no accelerating torque before the 15 cycle period begins. 2. A synchronous machine having synchronous reactance of 08 pau. based on its own rating is connected via transmission line to an infinite bus. The line has a reactance of 0.2 p.x. based on the ‘machine rating. The internal emf. of the machine is kept at 1.2 p.u. a) Compute the pull out power if the machine is operating as a generator. b) What is the terminal voltage at the moment of pull-out ? ©) Determine the magnitude and direction of the reactive power at both generator terminal and infinite bus at the moment of pull-out. 4d) Is the current overloaded at pull-out ? 3. For the power system shown in Fig. 7.50. Find the maximum steady state power transfer where (2) the static capacitor is connected (b) static capacitor is replaced by an inductive reactor of the same value. All the per unit values shown in the diagram are based on the generator rating. X=04 . Generator A900 geo JEg|=1.0 o+¢e] 3 wa JE, |=15 Xy= 1.0 Xqy 20.1 Xq= 10 aaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analy Stability 2B. 29, 2. 31. Derive swing equation for a multi machine power system taking damping into account. State assumptions. How is this equation useful in power system analysis ? A 5 phase alternator having an inertia constant H = 5 seconds and transient reactance of 0.25 ptt. delivers 0.25 pu. power over two parallel transmission lines each having a reactance of 0.2 pat. The other end of the transmission line may be assumed to be an infinite bus having a voltage of 120°, The voltage behind transient reactance of the generator is 1.025 pu. A 3 phase short circuit occurs at the middle of one of the lines and is cleared in 0.2 second by simultancous operating of CB’s at both ends of fault line. Compute swing curve from t~0" second to t = 03 second nse At =0.1 see apply Runga-Kutta method. A large 3 phase cylindrical rotor generator is delivering 10 p.u. power to an infinite bus through a transmission network. The maximum power which can be transferred for prefault, during fault and post fault conditions is 1.8 p.u. 0.4 p.u. and 13 pu. Find the critical clearing angle. A power station has 4 identical sets each rated 50 MVA, and each having an inertia constant of 5 MIMVA. A second power station has 3 sets each of 100 MVA and each having an inertia constant of 3 MJ/MVA. If the two stations are tied together at one end of a long tie-line, calculate the inertia constant of a single equivalent set on a base of 100 MVA. A 3 phase 50 MVA 50 He generator has an angular momentum of 0.05 MJs/elec. degree and is loaded to 0.8 p.u. It is feeding an infinite bus through a transmitting network. The maximum power limit before, during and after fault clearing are 5, 2 and 4 p.u. respt. Plot the swing curve for sustained fault. Qo00aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P-5 Power System - An Overview and Modelling Q13 The base kV and base MVA of a S-phase transmission line is 33 kV and 10 MVA respectively calculate the base current and base impedance ? Ans. : a Base current, I, = =e = SE = 175 Amps » "PBR, VB KV, V3 x 33 e . _ (Me)? = 337 Base impedance, 2, = “Caz ~ = “jy = 1089 phase Q.14 What is impedance and reactance diagram ? Ans. : The impedance diagram is the equivalent circuit of power system in which the various components of power system are represented by their approximate or simplified equivalent circuits. The impedance diagram is used for load flow studies. The reactance diagram is the simplified equivalent circuit of power system in which the various components are represented by their reactances. The reactances diagram can be obtained from impedance diagram if all the resistive components are neglected. The reactance diagram is used for fault calculations. Q.15 What are the factors that need to be emitted for as impedance diagram to reduce it to a reactance diagram ? (OR) What are the approximations made in reactance diagram ? Ans. : The neutral reactance are neglected. Shunt branches in the equivalent circuits of transformers are neglected. The resistance are neglected. All static loads and induction motors are neglected. The capacitance of the transmission lines are neglected. Pe Fe Ss Q.16 Give equations for transforming base KV on LV side to HV side of transformer and HV side of transformer to LV side. HT voltage rating Ans. = Base kV on HT side = Base KV on LT side x 218° “UNS LT voltage rating LT voltage rating Base kV on LT side = Base kV on HT side x —~° “8° “°°08. HI voltage rating Q.17 What is bus ? Ans. : The meeting point of various components in a power system is called a bus. the bus is a conductor made of copper or aluminum having negligible resistance. The buses are considered as points of constant voltage in a power system.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P-12 The load flow equation of Gauss-Seidal method is given by, where, VE" and Vf = (K+1)" and K"* iteration voltage of bus-p respectively vi"! and VK = (K+1)" and k"® iteration voltage of bus-q respectively. Q19 When the generator bus is treated as load bus ? Ans. : If the reactive power of a generator bus violates the specified limits then the generator bus is treated as load bus. Q20 What will be the reactive power and bus voltage when the generator bus is treated as load bus ? ‘Ans. : When the generator bus is treated as load bus, the reactive power of the bus is equated to the limit it has violated, and the previous iteration value of bus voltage is used for calculating current iteration value. Q.21 What is accelertion factor in Gauss-Seidal method ? (April/May-2004) Ans. : The acceleration factor is a numerical multipler which is used to increase the rate of convergence in an iterative process. The previous value at the bus is multiplied by the acceleration factor to obtain a correction to be added to previous values. The best value is 1.6. Q22 Discuss the effect of acceleration factor in the load flow solution algorithm. How will you account for voltage controlled buses in this algorithm ? Ans. : In load flow solution by iterative methods, the number of iterations can be reduced if the correction voltage at each bus is multiplied by some constant. The multiplication of the constant will increase the amount of correction to bring the voltage closer to the value it is approaching. The multipliers that accomplish this improved convergence are called acceleration factors. An acceleration factor 1.6 is normally used in load flow problems. Studies may be made to determine the best choice for a particular system. The acceleration factor is a real quantity and it modifies the magnitude of voltage alone. Since in voltage controlled bus, the magnitude of bus voltage is not allowed to change, the acceleration factor is not used for voltage controlled bus.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P-23 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Q.19 Define short ciruit interrupting MVA of a circuit breaker ? (April/May-2008) Ans, : The short circuit interruption MVA of a circuit breaker is the volt-amperes (power) flowing through it at the moment of opening its contacts due to a fault. It is estimated by the following equations. Short circuit interrupting, MVA = ¥3{Vpol{Te.| Where, Vy = Magnitude of the voltage at the fault point in kV. Iq, = Magnitude of line value of short circuit interrupting current at the fault in kA. Vonipuy = Magnitude of prefault voltage at the fault point in p.u. Viupuy = Magnitude of short circuit interrupting current at the fault in p.u. Q.20 What is meant by doubling effect ? Ans. : If a symmetrical fault occurs, when the voltage wave is going through zero the maximum momentory short circuit current will be double the value of maximum symmetrical short circuit current. This effect is called doubling effect. Q.21 Define DC off-set current ? Ans, : The unidirectional transient component of short-circuit current is called D.C. off-set current. Q.22 How the circuit breakers can be selected ? @lov/Dec.-2007, R 2004) Ans. : Circuit breakers can be selected based on the system short circuit current in rm, duration of short circuit rated voltage, time for opening, peak making current etc. Q.23 Write the equation to find the fault current in bus K and changing voltage in other buses due to a 3-phase fault in bus-K using bus impedance matrix. Vor Ans.: The fault current in bus-K, 1, = > kk Where, Vps, = Prefault voltage in bus-K (normally 1 pu.) The change in bus-q voltage due to a 3-phase faults in bus-K. AVq = -Ty 2, for q = 12.0aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.TT Power System Analysis P-27 Fault Analysis - Balanced Fault Long Answered Question _ Q1 Explain the procedure for making short-circuit studies of a large power system networks using digital computers. (Nov/Dec.-2004, 10 Marks) Ans. : Refer section 4.11. Q00aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P.34 Fault Analysis - Unbalanced Fault Q2 Derive the relationship to determine the fault current for a line-to-line fault on an unloaded generator. Draw an equivalent network showing the interconnection of sequence of networks to simulate line-to-line fault. (Nov/Dec.-2006, May/fune-2007, May/June-2007 - R 2004 16 Marks) : Refer section 6.3. Derive the expression for fault current in single line to ground fault on an unloaded generator. Draw an equivalent network showing the interconnection of networks to simulate L-G fault. (Nov.-Dec.-2007, 16 Marks) : Refer section 6.2. Explain the step by step procedure for systematic fault analysis using bus impedance matrix. (May/June-2007, 16 Marks) : Refer section 6.8. gooaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P-38 Stability 3p is the mechanical power. @, is the synchronous speed. Q.12 What is meant by classical stability model and classical stability studies ? Ans. : The system stability model based on assumptions (edge the complexity of system modelling) is called the classical stability model p and the studies which use this model are called classical stability studies. 13 What is multi machine stability ? Ans. : If a system has any number of machines, then each machine is listed for stability by advancing the angular position, 5 of its internal voltage and noting whether the electric power output of the machine increases (or) decreases. If it increases, (ie) if 9P,/28, > 0 then machine 'n' is stable. If every machine is stable then the system having any number of machine is stable Q.14 What is meant by an infinite bus ? Ans. : The connection or disconnection of a single machine on a large system would not affect the magnitude and phase of the voltage and frequency. Such a system of constant voltage and constant frequency regardless of the load is called infinite busbar system or infinite bus. Q.15 What are the assumptions made in multi machine stability to reduce the complexity of system model ? Ans. : The assumptions are a. The mechanical power input to each generator is constant. Saliency of generators are neglected and the transient generator model will be chosen. c. The emf. behind transient reactance will remain constant throughout the post fault period d. All resistances and damping torques are neglected. Q.16 List the assumptions made in multi machine stability studies ? Ans. : The assumptions made are ‘The mechanical power input to each machine remains constant during the entire period of the swing curve computation. b. Damping power is negligible. c. Each machine may be represented by a constant transient reactance in series with a constant transient voltage.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Power System Analysis P-44 Stability Ans. : Kinetic energy, Eye = 5 Mo, Where, M= #8 and o, =2nf - i HS =HS= = B, = 5 HB anf =Hs=9%20=180 My Q.38 Find the frequency of oscillation fer a synchronous coefficient of 0.6, inertia constant, H = 4 and system frequency of 50 Hz. Ans. : Frequency of oscillation = iS Where, C = Synchronizing coefficient M = Inertia constant in p.u Given that, C=06 H_o4 af x 50 = 00255 p.u. «Frequency of oscillation 4.85 rad / sec. = +8 = 0.772 Hz. 2p Q.39 State the causes of voltage instability. (April/May-2004) Ans. : The causes of voltage instability are i) Stalling of asynchronous loads. ii) Loss of synchronism between synchronous machines. Q40 In a3 machine system having ratings S; , $; and S3 & inertia constants My , Mz and ‘Ms, What is the inertia constant M and H of the equivalent system. (NovJDec.-2004) Ans.: x, _(SiMi+S2Mz+53M3) 5, _ 7 £Meg a =| 5, +S) +55 aS where Sy = Base MVA rating Q.41 Write any two assumptions made to simplify the transient stability problems. (Nov./Dec.-2005) Ans. : i) The machine has cylindrical rotor. The direct axis reactance X, is equal to the quadrature axis reactance X,. ii) Bach machine may be assumed to supply an infinite bus.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Model Question Paper Time : 3 Hours] [Maximum Marks : 100 Qa Q2 Q3 Q4 Qs Q6 Q7 Qs Qs Q.10 Q.11 a) PART A - (10 x 2 = 20 Marks) Answer ALL questions. What is off-nominal turns ratio ? What is single line diagram ? How a load flow study is performed ? Define positive sequence and negative sequence impedance. Define : Voltage control bus. Why the neutral grounding impedance Z,, appears as 3Z,, in the zero sequence equivalent circuit ? The Z,,. method is very suitable for fault studies on large power system why ? Write down symmetrical component transformation matrix. List out any two factors that affects the steady state and transient stability. Mention the use of equal area criterion to investigate sudden loss of one parallel lines. PART B - (5 x 16 }0_ Marks) ’) Draw the reactance diagram for the power system shown in Fig. 1. The ratings of generator, motor and transformers are given below. Neglect resistance and use a base of 50 MVA 138 kV in the 40 Q line. [12] ii) Write a short notes on p.u. system. (4 (P - 51)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Model Question Paper Time : 3 Hours) [Maximum Marks : 100 PART A - (10 x 2 = 20 Marks) Answer ALL questions. Q1 State the advantages of p.u. system. Q2 What is @ tap changing transformer and what are the types of tap changing transformers ? Q3 What is accelerating factor ? Q4 What is the need for slack bus ? Q5 Define short circuit capacity. Q6 — What is meant by sub transient, transient period in a short circuit of a power system? Q7 — What are the advantages of using symmetrical components ? Q8 Draw sequence network and inter connection for a line-to-line fault. Q9 List out salient features of Runge-Kutta method. Q10 Define - swing curve. What is the use of swing curve ? PART B - (5 x 16 = 80 Marks} Q.11 a) Write in detail about the per phase analysis of very long line and long transmission line. (16) OR b) ) Draw the p.u. impedance diagram for the power system shown in Fig. 1. Neglect resistance, and use a base of 100 MVA, 220 kV in 50 & line. The ratings of generator, motor and transformer are Generator 40 MVA, 25 kV X%, = 20% Motor 50 MVA, 11 kV X%, = 30% Y-Y transformer 40 MVA, 33/220 X43 = 15% (P - 55)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Model Question Paper Time : 3 Hours) [Maximum Marks : 100 Qa Q2 Q3 Q4 Qs Q6 Q7 Q8 Q9 Q.10 Q.11 a) PART A - (10 x 2 = 20 Marks) Answer ALL questions. What is impedance and reactance diagram ? Write a short note on generator representation. State the advantages and disadvantages of (any two points) Gauss-Seidel method ? How the convergence of N-R method is speeded up ? What is meant by doubling effect ? How symmetrical faults are analyzed ? What are the methods used for reducing short circuit current ? What are the observations made from the analysis of faults ? Given an expression for swing curve. Explain each term along with their units. Hew will the transient stability limit of power system can be improved ? PART B - (5 x 16 = 80 Marks) i) Fig. 1 shows the schematic diagram of a radial transmission system. The ratings and reactances of the various components are shown therein. A load of 60 MW at 0.9 pf lagging is tapped from the 66 KV substation which is to be mainiained at 60 KV. Calculate the terminal voltage of the synchronous machine represent the transmission line and the transformers by series reactances only. {12 ii) State the approximations made in constructing reactance diagram. lay {P - 59)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Peay De cee ee Cn nore ny Ne ec eS eee ee Nera eee ee Transformer model - Line model - The per unit system - Change of base. aaron Came eae nee Mo gc ee eee tet eter oe Se ed i ee ee tee er eee eee ee oe ae tng nee eee on toe ee a ee eee en erent ee Cee ee cn es etn © Fault Analysis-symmetrical Components & Unbalanced Fault ee ue Rea eee ed ee ec een ca ese ete) ground fault- Line fault - Double line to ground fault - Unbalanced fault analysis using bus impedance ae Cece Basic concepts and definitions - Rotor angle stability - Voltage stability - Mid term and long term stability Se ee eRe eo eter a eee ee Nee eee ae ur ie eat eee ea eT eT Euler method - Runge - Kutta methods. Second Revised Edition 2009 Price INR 295/- ISBN 978-81-8431-561-5 NL Technical Publications pune BARU Uo me are ee a Ce Telefax : +91 (020) 24495496/97, Email : technical@vtubooks.com MS een A UL Lele) eRe)