Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks
www.thegeekstuff.com
Table of Contents
Introduction........................................................... 7 About the Author.................................................... 8 Copyri ht ! "isclai#er............................................ $
%ersion.............................................................................. $
&ore e'ooks fro# The (eek )tuff..........................10

'ash 101 Hacks............................................................... 10 )ed and A*k 101 Hacks................................................... 11 +a ios Core..................................................................... 1, %i# 101 Hacks................................................................. 1-
Chapter 1. /o*erful C" Co##and Hacks................10

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack 1. ,. -. 0. 3. 4. "efine C" 'ase "irectory 1sin C"/ATH ...............10 1se C" Alias to +a2i ate 1p the "irectory.............13 /erfor# #kdir and cd 1sin a )in le Co##and ....18 To le 'et*een "irectories ................................. 1$ &anipulate "irectory )tack.................................. ,0 Auto#atically Correct &istyped "irectory +a#es . ,-
Chapter ,. 5ssential Linux Co##ands ...................,0

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack 7. (rep Co##and ................................................... ,0 8. 6e ular 5xpression in (rep.................................. ,4 $. 7ind Co##and .................................................... ,$ 10. )uppress )tandard 8utput and 5rror &essa e ....-1 11. 9oin Co##and ................................................... -, 1,. Chan e the Case ............................................... -1-. :ar s Co##and ................................................ -0 10. )ort Co##and .................................................. -3 13. 1ni; Co##and .................................................. -7 14. Cut Co##and ................................................... -8 17. )tat Co##and .................................................. -$ 18. "iff Co##and ................................................... 01 2
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack
1$. ,0. ,1. ,,. ,-. ,0. ,3. ,4. ,7.
"isplay Total Connect Ti#e of 1sers ...................0, 5xecute Co##ands in the 'ack round ...............0)ed 'asics < 7ind and 6eplace 1sin 6e 5x ........03 A*k Introduction = /rint 5xa#ples ..................... 30 %i# 5ditor +a2i ation 7unda#entals ..................34 Ch#od Co##and 5xa#ples................................ 40 %ie* &ultiple Lo 7iles in 8ne Ter#inal ..............4, Less Co##and................................................... 40 > et 5xa#ples ................................................. 48
Chapter -. ))H Co##ands and Tips.......................74

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack ,8. ,$. -0. -1. -,. "ebu ))H Client )ession .................................. 74 To le ))H )ession usin ))H 5scape Character . 77 "isplay ))H )ession )tatistics ........................... 78 Chan e 8pen))H )ecurity 8ptions......................7$ Transfer All /uTT? )essions................................ 83
Chapter 0. "ate &anipulation ............................... 87

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack --. -0. -3. -4. -7. )et )yste# "ate and Ti#e ................................. 87 )et Hard*are "ate and Ti#e .............................88 "isplay "ate and Ti#e in a )pecific 7or#at ........8$ "isplay /ast "ate and Ti#e ............................... $0 "isplay 7uture "ate and Ti#e ............................$1
Chapter 3. /)1@ /),@ /)-@ /)0 and /68&/TAC8&&A+".............................................. $Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack -8. -$. 00. 01. 0,. 0-. 00. /)1 < "efault Interaction /ro#pt .......................$/), < Continuation Interacti2e /ro#pt ...............$0 /)- < /ro#pt 1sed by )elect Co##and...............$3 /)0 < /ro#pt to /refix Tracin 8utput ................$7 /68&/TAC8&&A+" .......................................... $8 Custo#iBe 'ash /ro#pt 1sin /)1...................... $$ Colorful 'ash /ro#pt 1sin /)1........................100
Chapter 4. Archi2e and Co#pression....................10$

Hack 03. Cip Co##and 'asics ........................................ 10$ Hack 04. Cip Co##and Ad2anced Co#pression...............111 3
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack
07. 08. 0$. 30. 31.
/ass*ord /rotection of Cip files ....................... 11Tar Co##and 5xa#ples ................................... 11Co#bine Bip@ bBip, *ith Tar ...........................113 'C is 5aByD 'BE Co##and 5xa#ples..................114 Cpio 5xa#ples ................................................. 1,0
Chapter 7. Co##and Line History ....................... 1,0

Hack 3,. 'ash Co##and Line History 5xa#ples..............1,0 Hack 3-. History 6elated 5n2iron#ent %ariables..............1,8 Hack 30. History 5xpansion 5xa#ples ............................ 1--
Chapter 8. )yste# Ad#inistration Tasks...............1-4

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack 33. 34. 37. 38. 3$. 40. 41. 4,. 4-. 40. 43. 44. 47. 48. 4$. 70. /artition 1sin fdisk......................................... 1-4 7or#at a /artition 1sin #ke,fsk ....................1-8 &ount a /artition ............................................ 100 7ine Tune a /artition 1sin tune,fs ..................100 Create a )*ap 7ile )yste#................................ 10, Create a +e* 1ser............................................ 10Create a +e* (roup ........................................ 103 )etup ))H /ass*ordless Lo in in 8pen))H .......104 1se ssh<copy<id Alon >ith ssh<a ent ..............107 Crontab 5xa#ples............................................ 10$ )afe 6eboot 8f Linux 1sin &a ic )ys6; Fey ....131 Linux /arted Co##and 5xa#ples ..................... 136sync Co##and 5xa#ples ............................... 140 Chkconfi Co##and 5xa#ples..........................14$ Ho* to )etup Anacron...................................... 170 I/Tables 6ules 5xa#ples .................................. 178
Chapter $. Install /acka es.................................. 181

Hack Hack Hack Hack 71. 7,. 7-. 70. ?u# Co##and 5xa#ples.................................. 181 6/& Co##and 5xa#ples.................................. 180 apt<E Co##and 5xa#ples................................. 188 Install fro# )ource........................................... 1$0
Chapter 10. LA&/ )tack...................................... 1$,

Hack 73. Install Apache , *ith ))L.................................. 1$, 4
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack
74. 77. 78. 7$. 80. 81. 8,. 8-.
Install /H/ fro# )ource ................................... 1$4 Install &y)GL .................................................. 1$$ Install LA&/ )tack............................................ ,00 Install :A&//.................................................. ,10 )ecure ?our Apache >eb )er2er ....................... ,1, Apachectl and Httpd Tips.................................. ,14 )etup Apache %irtual Host Confi uration...........,,6otate Apache Lo s 7iles.................................. ,,3
Chapter 11. 'ash )criptin .................................. ,,8

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack 80. 83. 84. 87. 88. 5xecution )e;uence of .bashAE files..................,,8 'ash 786 Loops 1sin C Like )yntax ................,-, "ebu a )hell )cript......................................... ,-0 Guotin ........................................................... ,-4 6ead "ata 7ile 7ields Inside a )hell )cript ........,-7
Chapter 1,. )yste# &onitorin

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack
and /erfor#ance..,-$
8$. 7ree Co##and................................................. ,-$ $0. Top Co##and ................................................. ,00 $1. "f Co##and ................................................... ,0$,. "u Co##and ................................................... ,00 $-. Lsof Co##ands ............................................... ,03 $0. %#stat Co##and ............................................ ,07 $3. +etstat Co##and ........................................... ,08 $4. )ysctl Co##and .............................................. ,31 $7. +ice Co##and ................................................ ,3, $8. 6enice Co##and ............................................. ,30 $$. Fill Co##and .................................................. ,34 100. /s Co##and.................................................. ,38 101. )ar Co##and ................................................ ,40
?our )upport is Appreciated ................................ ,40

'ash 101 Hacks ............................................................. ,40 )ed and A*k 101 Hacks ................................................. ,40 +a ios Core - ............................................................... ,43 %i# 101 Hacks .............................................................. ,43 5
Linux 101 Hacks
10 A#aBin
and 5ssential Linux 'ooks ................. ,44
5xtended 6eadin ............................................... ,4$

&ore Linux Articles........................................................ ,70
Thank ?ou........................................................... ,71
Linux 101 Hacks
Introduction
There are only 10 types of people in the world those who understand binary, those who dont, and those who understand gray code Geek
There are total of 101 hacks in this book that will help you build a strong foundation in inu!. "ll the hacks in this book are e!plained with appropriate inu! command e!amples that are easy to follow. This book contains 12 chapters. #hapters 1 $ 3 e!plain %pen&&' tips and tricks( #) command hacks( and se*eral essential inu! commands including grep( find and many more. #hapters 4 $ 6 co*er date manipulation( inu! command prompt customi+ation( archi*e and compression commands. #lear e!amples are pro*ided. #hapter , $ - e!plain critical inu! sysadmin tasks( package installation on *arious distros( and bash command line history with clear e!amples #hapter 10 . 12 co*er "/0 stack installation and se*eral inu! system monitoring and performance commands with practical e!amples.
" note on the e!amples1 /ost e!amples are identified in the following way.
5xa#ple "escription
Lines of code for you to type, with the result you will see on screen. "dditional clarification or discussion will appear below the code section in plain te!t. ,
Linux 101 Hacks
About the Author

23m 4amesh 5atara6an( author of The 7eek &tuff blog thegeekstuff.com and numerous ebooks including this one. 2 ha*e done e!tensi*e programming in se*eral languages and # is my fa*orite. 2 ha*e done a lot of work on the infrastructure side including inu! system administration( )8"( 5etworking( 'ardware and &torage 9:/#;. 2 also de*eloped passworddragon.com < a free( easy and secure password manager that runs on =indows( inu! and /ac. "part from this inu! 101 'acks e8ook( 2>*e also published the following ebooks1 ?im 101 'acks 5agios #ore 3 &ed and "wk 101 'acks 8ash 101 'acks
2f you ha*e any @uestions while reading this book( don>t hesitate to reach out to me. Aou can connect with me on the following1 Twitter 9Bthegeekstuff; Cacebook page
2f you want to write to me directly( use this contact form to reach out to me.
Linux 101 Hacks
Copyri ht ! "isclai#er
#opyright E 200- . 2011 $ 4amesh 5atara6an. "ll rights reser*ed. 5o part of this book may be reproduced( translated( posted or shared in any form( by any means. The information pro*ided in this book is pro*ided Fas isF with no implied warranties or guarantees.
%ersion
%ersion 1.0 2.0 "ate 12 $ Ceb $ 20016 $ 5o* . 2011 6e2isions Cirst :dition &econd :dition
Linux 101 Hacks
&ore e'ooks fro# The (eek )tuff

'ash 101 Hacks
=hen you are working on a inu! en*ironment( does any of the following sound familiar to youG Aou are spending significant amount of time doing tasks manually( without knowing how to automate those tasks effecti*ely using scripts. Aou are e!ecuting set of commands to complete a task( and retyping the same commands manually with different *alues to complete similar tasks. Aou are ha*ing a good understanding of all inu! commands( but struggling to put them together in a shell script to accomplish a task.
8ash is the default shell on inu!. 2f you are spending lot of time on inu! en*ironment( you should master the 8ash command line features to become efficient. "part from being an interacti*e shell( 8ash is also a scripting language( which allows you to automate your tasks using 8ash shell scripting. 8ash 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on both 8ash command line and shell scripting( that will help you understand e*erything you need to know about 8ash.
Get Your Copy of: Bash 101 Hacks eBook http://www.the eekstuff.co!/"ash#101#hacks#e"ook/
10
Linux 101 Hacks
)ed and A*k 101 Hacks

2f you are spending lot of time on H52I J inu!( the following might sound familiar to you. Aou are manually making the same edits on multiple files. &ometimes the same edits are manually repeated on files on different ser*ers. Aou are constantly *iewing large log files 9or data files;( manually looking for certain lines that contain certain patterns. %nce you find those lines( you are manually copying and pasting a few rele*ant fields from those lines for reporting purposes. Aou are constantly dealing with te!t files( and spending a lot of time manually manipulating the te!t files.
2f you are spending lot of time on H52I J inu!( you3ll be manipulating te!t files fre@uently. Aou may be making the similar edits on multiple configuration files on one or more ser*ers. Aou may be digging huge log files 9or data files; looking for certain information. &ed and "wk 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on *arious ad*anced &ed and "wk features( that will help you understand e*erything you need to know about &ed and "wk.
Get Your Copy of: $ed and %wk 101 Hacks eBook http://www.the eekstuff.co!/sed#awk#101#hacks#e"ook/
11
Linux 101 Hacks
+a ios Core
2f you are a sysadmin( dba( network administrator( or someone who is responsible for keeping the 2T infrastructure up and running( the following might sound familiar to you. Aou don3t know when you3ll run out of disk space( or when the ser*er will go down( or when the database will crash( or when one of the critical ser*ices running on the ser*er will fail. Aou are worried that right people 9or team; are not getting notified about the ser*er or ser*ices issues at the right time. Aou 9or your team; are constantly working on finding and fi!ing issues as they show up.
Aou should implement a robust monitoring solution that will notify you when there is an issue. 2t should also notify the right people at the right time about a potential issue( e*en before it becomes critical. 5agios #ore 3 e8ook is the only guide you3ll e*er need to get your 2T infrastructure monitored using 5agios #ore( and it will help you to understand e*erything you need to know to implement 5agios #ore 3.
Get Your Copy of: &a ios Core eBook http://www.the eekstuff.co!/na ios#core#e"ook/
12
Linux 101 Hacks
%i# 101 Hacks

2f you are spending lot of time on H52I J inu! en*ironment( it is essential to become comfortable with the ?im editor. 2f you are putting off mastering the ?im editor for a later day because learning ?im editor is not intuiti*e( friendly( or fun < you are not alone. ?im editor is *ery powerful editor that will make you e!tremely producti*e once you take some time to learn and understand its features. 2f you are like most people( you would like to ha*e a structured way of learning this powerful editor and take ad*antage of all its features. ?im 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on *arious ad*anced ?im features that will make you fast and producti*e in the ?im editor. :ach hack pro*ided in this e8ook is *ery crisp and easy to understand. The practical e!amples will show you e!actly how to use a particular ?im feature.
Get Your Copy of: 'i! 101 Hacks eBook http://www.the eekstuff.co!/(i!#101#hacks#e"ook/
13
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 1. /o*erful C" Co##and Hacks

cd is one of the most fre@uently used commands during a H52I session. The 6 cd command hacks mentioned in this chapter will boost your producti*ity instantly and make it easier to na*igate the directory structure from command line.
Hack 1. "efine C" 'ase "irectory 1sin C"/ATH

2f you are fre@uently performing cd to subdirectories of a specific parent directory( you can set the #)0"T' to the parent directory and perform cd to the subdirectories without gi*ing the parent directory path as e!plained below. ) pwd /ho!e/ra!esh ) cd !ail #"ash: cd: !ail: &o such file or directory *Note: +he a"o(e cd is lookin current directory, ) e-port C./%+H0/etc ) cd !ail /etc/!ail *Note: +he a"o(e cd is lookin under current directory, ) pwd /etc/!ail for !ail under /etc and not for !ail directory under
14
Linux 101 Hacks
To make this change permanent( add e!port #)0"T'KJetc to your LJ.bashMprofile &imilar to the 0"T' *ariable( you can add more than one directory entry in the #)0"T' *ariable( separating them with 1 ( as shown below. e-port C./%+H0.:1:/etc:/(ar
This hack can be *ery helpful under the following situations1 %racle )8"s fre@uently working under N%4"# :M'%/:( can set the #)0"T' *ariable to the oracle home Hni! sysadmins fre@uently working under Jetc( can set the #)0"T' *ariable to Jetc )e*elopers fre@uently working under pro6ect directory JhomeJpro6ects( can set the #)0"T' *ariable to JhomeJpro6ects :nd.users fre@uently accessing the subdirectories under their home directory( can set the #)0"T' *ariable to L 9home directory;
Hack ,. 1se C" Alias to +a2i ate 1p the "irectory

=hen you are na*igating up a *ery long directory structure( you may be using cd ..O..O with multiple ..O3s depending on how many directories you want to go up as shown below. ) !kdir #p /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) cd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) cd ../../../../ 15
Linux 101 Hacks
) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure
2nstead of e!ecuting cd ..J..J..J.. to na*igate four le*els up( use one of the following four alias methods1
&ethod 1. +a2i ate up the directory usin
H..nI
2n the e!ample below( ..4 is used to go up 4 directory le*el( ..3 to go up 3 directory le*el( ..2 to go up 2 directory le*el. "dd the following alias to your LJ.bashMprofile and re.login. alias ..02cd ..2 alias ..302cd ../..2 alias ..402cd ../../..2 alias ..502cd ../../../..2 alias ..602cd ../../../../..2
) cd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) ..5 *Note: use ..5 to ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/ o up 5 directory le(el,
&ethod ,. +a2i ate up the directory usin
only dots
2n the e!ample below( P.. 9fi*e dots; is used to go up 4 directory le*el. Typing 5 dots to go up 4 directory structure is really easy to remember( as when you type the first two dots( you are thinking Qgoing up one directoryR( after that e*ery additional dot( is to go one le*el up.
16
Linux 101 Hacks
&o( use P. 9four dots; to go up 3 directory le*el and .. 9two dots; to go up 1 directory le*el. "dd the following alias to your LJ.bashMprofile and re.login for the P.. 9fi*e dots; to work properly. alias ..02cd ..2 alias ...02cd ../..2 alias ....02cd ../../..2 alias .....02cd ../../../..2 alias ......02cd ../../../../..2 ) cd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) ..... *Note: use ..... 7fi(e dots8 to ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/ o up 5 directory le(el,
&ethod -. +a2i ate up the directory usin consecuti2e dots
cd follo*ed by
2n the e!ample below( cdP.. 9cd followed by fi*e dots; is used to go up 4 directory le*el. /aking it 5 dots to go up 4 directory structure is really easy to remember( as when you type the first two dots( you are thinking Qgoing up one directoryR( after that e*ery additional dot( is to go one le*el up. &o( use cdP. 9cd followed by four dots; to go up 3 directory le*el and cdP 9cd followed by three dots; to go up 2 directory le*el. "dd the following alias to your LJ.bashMprofile and re.login for the abo*e cdP.. 9fi*e dots; to work properly. alias cd..02cd ..2 alias cd...02cd ../..2 alias cd....02cd ../../..2 alias cd.....02cd ../../../..2 alias cd......02cd ../../../../..2
1,
Linux 101 Hacks
) cd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) cd..... *Note: use cd..... to ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure o up 5 directory le(el,
&ethod 0. +a2i ate up the directory usin nu#ber
cd follo*ed by
2n the e!ample below( cd4 9cd followed by number 4; is used to go up 4 directory le*el. alias cd102cd ..2 alias cd302cd ../..2 alias cd402cd ../../..2 alias cd502cd ../../../..2 alias cd602cd ../../../../..2
Hack -. /erfor# #kdir and cd 1sin Co##and
a )in le
&ometimes when you create a new directory( you may cd to the new directory immediately to perform some work as shown below. ) !kdir #p /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4 ) cd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4 ) pwd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4
1D
Linux 101 Hacks
=ouldn3t it be nice to combine both mkdir and cd in a single commandG "dd the following to the .bashMprofile and re.login. ) (i ."ash9profile function !kdircd 78 : !kdir #p 2;<2 == e(al cd 2>2>;;)>22? @
5ow( perform both mkdir and cd at the same time using a single command as shown below1 ) !kdircd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4 *Note: +his creates the directory and cd to it auto!atically, ) pwd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4
Hack 0. To
le 'et*een "irectories
Aou can toggle between the last two current directories using cd . as shown below. ) cd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep ) cd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4 ) cd ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep
) cd ) pwd /t!p/su"dir1/su"dir3/su"dir4 1-
Linux 101 Hacks
) cd ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep
Hack 3. &anipulate "irectory )tack

Aou can use directory stack to push directories into it and later pop directory from the stack. Collowing three commands are used in this e!ample. dirs1 )isplay the directory stack pushd1 0ush directory into the stack popd1 0op directory from the stack and cd to it
)irs will always print the current directory followed by the content of the stack. :*en when the directory stack is empty( dirs command will still print only the current directory as shown below. ) popd #"ash: popd: directory stack e!pty ) dirs 1 ) pwd /ho!e/ra!esh
'ow to use pushd and popdG et us first create some temporary directories and push them to the directory stack as shown below. ) !kdir /t!p/dir1 ) !kdir /t!p/dir3 ) !kdir /t!p/dir4 ) !kdir /t!p/dir5 20
Linux 101 Hacks
) cd /t!p/dir1 ) pushd . ) cd /t!p/dir3 ) pushd . ) cd /t!p/dir4 ) pushd . ) cd /t!p/dir5 ) pushd . ) dirs /t!p/dir5 /t!p/dir5 /t!p/dir4 /t!p/dir3 /t!p/dir1 *Note: +he first directory 7/t!p/dir58 of the dir co!!and output is always the current directory and not the content fro! the stack.,
"t this stage( the directory stack contains the following directories1 /t!p/dir5 /t!p/dir4 /t!p/dir3 /t!p/dir1
The last directory that was pushed to the stack will be at the top. =hen you perform popd( it will cd to the top directory entry in the stack and remo*e it from the stack. "s shown abo*e( the last directory that was pushed into the stack is JtmpJdir4. &o( when we do a popd( it will cd to the JtmpJdir4 and remo*e it from the directory stack as shown below. ) popd 21
Linux 101 Hacks
) pwd /t!p/dir5 *Note: %fter the a"o(e popd, directory $tack Contains: /t!p/dir4 /t!p/dir3 /t!p/dir1, ) popd ) pwd /t!p/dir4 *Note: %fter the a"o(e popd, directory $tack Contains: /t!p/dir3 /t!p/dir1, ) popd ) pwd /t!p/dir3 *Note: %fter the a"o(e popd, directory $tack Contains: /t!p/dir1, ) popd ) pwd /t!p/dir1 *Note: %fter the a"o(e popd, directory $tack is e!ptyA, ) popd #"ash: popd: directory stack e!pty
22
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 4. Auto#atically Correct &istyped "irectory +a#es

Hse shopt .s cdspell to correct the typos in the cd command automatically as shown below. 2f you are not good at typing and make lot of mistakes( this will be *ery helpful. ) cd /etc/!all #"ash: cd: /etc/!all: &o such file or directory ) shopt -s cdspell ) cd /etc/!all ) pwd /etc/!ail *Note: By !istake, when B typed !all instead of !ail, cd corrected it auto!atically,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: C C. Co!!and Hacks
23
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter ,. 5ssential Linux Co##ands

Hack 7. (rep Co##and
grep command is used to search files for a specific te!t. This is incredibly powerful command with lots of options. $ynta-: rep *options, pattern *files,
Ho* can I find all lines #atchin fileJ
a specific key*ord on a
2n this e!ample( grep looks for the te!t Sohn inside JetcJpasswd file and displays all the matching lines. ) rep Dohn /etc/passwd
Es!ith:-:10F3:10F3:Dohn $!ith:/ho!e/Es!ith:/"in/"ash Edoe:-:10F4:10F4:Dohn .oe:/ho!e/Edoe:/"in/"ash
%ption .*( will display all the lines e!cept the match. 2n the e!ample below( it displays all the records from JetcJpassword that doesn>t match Sohn. +ote. There are se*eral lines in the JetcJpassword that doesn3t contain the word Sohn. %nly the first line of the output is shown below. ) rep #( Dohn /etc/passwd
E"ourne:-:10F5:10F5:Dason Bourne:/ho!e/E"ourne:/"in/"ash
Ho* #any lines #atched the text pattern in a particular fileJ

2n the e!ample below( it displays the total number of lines that contains the te!t Sohn in JetcJpasswd file. 24
Linux 101 Hacks
) 3
rep #c Dohn /etc/passwd
Aou can also get the total number of lines that did not match the specific pattern by passing option .c*. ) 4G rep #c( Dohn /etc/passwd
Ho* to search a text by i norin
the caseJ
0ass the option .i 9ignore case;( which will ignore the case while searching. ) rep #i Eohn /etc/passwd
Es!ith:-:10F3:10F3:Dohn $!ith:/ho!e/Es!ith:/"in/"ash Edoe:-:10F4:10F4:Dohn .oe:/ho!e/Edoe:/"in/"ash
Ho* do I search all subdirectories for a text #atchin specific patternJ
Hse option .r 9recursi*e; for this purpose. 2n the e!ample below( it will search for the te!t FSohnF by ignoring the case inside all the subdirectories under JhomeJusers. This will display the output in the format of Ffilename1 line that matching the patternF. Aou can also pass the option .l( which will display only the name of the file that matches the pattern. ) rep #ri Eohn /ho!e/users
/ho!e/users/su"dir1/letter.t-t:Dohn, +hanks for your contri"ution. /ho!e/users/na!e9list.t-t:Dohn $!ith /ho!e/users/na!e9list.t-t:Dohn .oe ) rep #ril Eohn /root 25
Linux 101 Hacks
/ho!e/users/su"dir1/letter.t-t /ho!e/users/na!e9list.t-t
Additional Grep Examples: Get a Grip on the GrepA H 16 /ractical Grep Co!!and I-a!ples +he /ower of J Co!!ands H Jcat, Jless, J rep, Jdiff I-a!ples K Linu- Grep LM, Grep %&., Grep &L+ Lperator I-a!ples
Hack 8. 6e ular 5xpression in (rep

4egular e!pressions are used to search and manipulate the te!t( based on the patterns. /ost of the inu! commands and programming languages use regular e!pression. This hack e!plains how to use most fre@uently used reg.e! operators in 7rep command.
'e innin
of line K L M
2n grep command( caret &ymbol T matches the e!pression at the start of a line. 2n the following e!ample( it displays all the line which starts with the 5o* 10. i.e "ll the messages logged on 5o*ember 10. ; rep 2N&o( 102 !essa es.1 s134 ntpd*3351,: ti!e reset O0.1KK5KG s
&o( 10 01:13:66
&o( 10 01:1K:1K s134 ntpd*3351,: synchroniPed to LLC%L708, stratu! 10 &o( 10 01:1F:5G s134 ntpd*3351,: synchroniPed to 16.1.14.14, stratu! 4 &o( 10 14:31:3C s134 ntpd*3351,: ti!e reset O0.15CCC5 s 26
Linux 101 Hacks
&o( 10 14:36:5C s134 ntpd*3351,: synchroniPed to LLC%L708, stratu! 10 &o( 10 14:3C:3K s134 ntpd*3351,: synchroniPed to 16.1.14.14, stratu! 4
The T matches the e!pression in the beginning of a line( only if it is the first character in a regular e!pression. T5 matches line beginning with 5.
5nd of the line K NM

#haracter N matches the e!pression at the end of a line. The following command will help you to get all the lines which ends with the word QterminatingR. ; rep 2ter!inatin .;2 !essa es dae!on dae!on
Dul 13 1K:01:0G clone!e kernel: Qernel lo ter!inatin . Lct 3F 0C:3G:65 clone!e kernel: Qernel lo ter!inatin .
Crom the abo*e output you can come to know when all the kernel log has got terminated. Sust like T matches the beginning of the line only if it is the first character( N matches the end of the line only if it is the last character in a regular e!pression.
Count of e#pty lines K LN M

Hsing T and N character you can find out the empty lines a*ailable in a file. QTNR specifies empty line. ; rep #c 2N;2 !essa es anaconda.lo
!essa es:0 anaconda.lo :4 The abo*e commands displays the count of the empty lines a*ailable in the messages and anaconda.log files.
2,
Linux 101 Hacks
)in le Character K.M

The special meta.character Q.R 9dot; matches any character e!cept the end of the line character. et us take the input file which has the content as follows. ; cat input 1. first line 3. hi hello 4. hi Pello how are you 5. cello 6. aello C. eello K. last line
5ow let us search for a word which has any single character followed by ello. i.e hello( cello etc.( ; rep 2.ello2 input
3. hi hello 4. hi Pello how are you 5. cello 6. aello C. eello 2n case if you want to search for a word which has only 4 character you can gi*e grep .w QP.R where single dot represents any single character.
Cero or #ore occurrence KEM

The special character QUR matches +ero or more occurrence of the pre*ious character. Cor e!ample( the pattern 31U3 matches +ero or more 31V. The following e!ample searches for a pattern Qkernel1 UR i.e kernel1 and +ero or more occurrence of space character.
2D
Linux 101 Hacks
rep 2kernel: R.2 R
!essa es.5:Dul 13 1K:01:03 clone!e kernel: %C/B: /CB interrupt for de(ice 0000:00:11.0 disa"led !essa es.5:Lct 3F 0C:3G:5G clone!e kernel: %C/B: /S#+i!er BL /ort: 0-100F !essa es.5:Lct 3F 0C:41:0C "to(!FK1 kernel: sda3 sda4 sda: sda1
!essa es.5:Lct 3F 0C:41:0C "to(!FK1 kernel: sd 0:0:0:0: %ttached scsi disk sda . . 2n the abo*e e!ample it matches for kernel and colon symbol followed by any number of spacesJno space and Q.R matches any single character.
Additional Grep Reg-Ex Examples: Me ular I-pressions in Grep Co!!and with 10 I-a!ples H /art B %d(anced Me ular I-pressions in Grep Co!!and with 10 I-a!ples H /art BB
Hack $. 7ind Co##and

find is fre@uently used command to find files in the H52I filesystem based on numerous conditions. et us re*iew some practice e!amples of find command. $ynta-: find *pathna!es, *conditions,
Ho* to find files containin
a specific *ord in its na#eJ
The following command looks for all the files under Jetc directory with mail in the filename. 2-
Linux 101 Hacks
) find /etc #na!e 2R!ailR2
Ho* to find all the files
reater than certain siBeJ
The following command will list all the files in the system greater than 100/8. ) find / #type f #siPe O100S
Ho* to find files that are not #odified in the last x nu#ber of daysJ
The following command will list all the files that were modified more than 60 days ago under the current directory. ) find . #!ti!e OC0
Ho* to find files that are #odified in the last x nu#ber of daysJ
The following command will list all the files that were modified in the last two days under the current directory. ) find . H!ti!e #3
Ho* to delete all the archi2e files *ith extension E.tar. B and reater than 100&'J
0lease be careful while e!ecuting the following command as you don3t want to delete the files by mistake. The best practice is to e!ecute the same command with ls $l to make sure you know which files will get deleted when you e!ecute the command with rm. ) find / #type f #na!e R.tar. P #siPe O100S #e-ec ls #l :@ >? ) find / #type f #na!e R.tar. P #siPe O100S #e-ec r! #f :@ >?
30
Linux 101 Hacks
Ho* to archi2e all the files that are not #odified in the last x nu#ber of daysJ
The following command finds all the files not modified in the last 60 days under JhomeJ6smith directory and creates an archi*e files under Jtmp in the format of ddmmyyyyMarchi*e.tar. ) find /ho!e/Es!ith #type f #!ti!e OC0 T -ar s tar #c(f /t!p/Udate VOWdW!WYV9archi(e.tarU
Additional Find Examples: So!!y, B found itA X 16 /ractical Linu- Yind Co!!and I-a!ples .addy, B found itA, 16 %weso!e Linu- Yind Co!!and I-a!ples 7/art38
Hack 10. )uppress )tandard 8utput and 5rror &essa e

&ometime while debugging a shell script( you may not want to see either the standard output or standard error message. Hse Jde*Jnull as shown below for suppressing the output.
)uppress standard output usin
O Pde2Pnull
This will be *ery helpful when you are debugging shell scripts( where you don3t want to display the echo statement and interested in only looking at the error messages. ) cat file.t-t Z /de(/null ) ./shell#script.sh Z /de(/null
31
Linux 101 Hacks
)uppress standard error usin
,O Pde2Pnull
This is also helpful when you are interested in *iewing only the standard output and don3t want to *iew the error messages. ) cat in(alid#file#na!e.t-t 3Z /de(/null ) ./shell#script.sh 3Z /de(/null
+ote. %ne of the most effecti*e ways to use this is in the crontab( where you can suppress the output and error message of a cron task as shown below. 40 1 R R R co!!and Z /de(/null 3Z=1
Hack 11. 9oin Co##and

Soin command combines lines from two files based on a common field. 2n the e!ample below( we ha*e two files $ employee.t!t and salary.t!t. 8oth ha*e employee.id as common field. &o( we can use 6oin command to combine the data from these two files using employee.id as shown below. ; cat e!ployee.t-t 100 Dason $!ith 300 Dohn .oe 400 $anEay Gupta 500 %shok $har!a ; cat "onus.t-t 100 ;6,000 300 ;600 400 ;4,000 500 ;1,360 32
Linux 101 Hacks
; Eoin e!ployee.t-t "onus.t-t 100 Dason $!ith ;6,000 300 Dohn .oe ;600 400 $anEay Gupta ;4,000 500 %shok $har!a ;1,360
Hack 1,. Chan e the Case

Con2ert a file to all upper<case
; cat e!ployee.t-t 100 Dason $!ith 300 Dohn .oe 400 $anEay Gupta 500 %shok $har!a ; tr a#P %#J [ e!ployee.t-t 100 D%$L& $SB+H 300 DLH& .LI 400 $%&D%Y G\/+% 500 %$HLQ $H%MS%
Con2ert a file to all lo*er<case

; cat depart!ent.t-t 100 YB&%&CI 300 S%MQI+B&G 400 /ML.\C+ .I'ILL/SI&+ 500 $%LI$ 33
Linux 101 Hacks
; tr %#J a#P [ depart!ent.t-t 100 finance 300 !arketin 400 product de(elop!ent 500 sales
Hack 1-. :ar s Co##and

!args is a *ery powerful command that takes output of a command and pass it as argument of another command. The following are some practical e!amples on how to use !args effecti*ely. 1. =hen you are trying to delete too many files using rm( you may get error message1 JbinJrm "rgument list too long $ inu!. Hse !args to a*oid this problem. find 1 #na!e ]R.lo ^ #print0 T -ar s #0 r! #f
2. 7et a list of all the U.conf file under JetcJ. There are different ways to get the same result. Collowing e!ample is only to demonstrate the use of !args. The output of the find command in this e!ample is passed to the ls $l one by one using !args. ) find /etc #na!e 2R.conf2 T -ar s ls Hl
3. 2f you ha*e a file with list of H4 s that you would like to download( you can use !args as shown below. ) cat url#list.t-t T -ar s w et Hc
4. Cind out all the 6pg images and archi*e it. 34
Linux 101 Hacks
) find / #na!e R.Ep i!a es.tar. P
#type f #print T -ar s tar #c(Pf
5. #opy all the images to an e!ternal hard.dri*e. ) ls R.Ep T -ar s #n1 #i cp :@ /e-ternal#hard# dri(e/directory
Hack 10. )ort Co##and

&ort command sorts the lines of a te!t file. Collowing are se*eral practical e!amples on how to use the sort command based on the following sample te!t file that has employee information in the format1 e!ployee9na!e:e!ployee9id:depart!ent9na!e.
; cat na!es.t-t I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin %le- Dason:300:$ales Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent $anEay Gupta:500:$upport &isha $in h:600:$ales
&ort a te!t file in ascending order ; sort na!es.t-t %le- Dason:300:$ales I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent &isha $in h:600:$ales $anEay Gupta:500:$upport
&ort a te!t file in descending order 35
Linux 101 Hacks
; sort #r na!es.t-t $anEay Gupta:500:$upport &isha $in h:600:$ales Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin %le- Dason:300:$ales
&ort a colon delimited te!t file on 2nd field 9employeeMid; ; sort #t: #k 3 na!es.t-t I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin %le- Dason:300:$ales Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent $anEay Gupta:500:$upport &isha $in h:600:$ales
&ort a tab delimited te!t file on 3rd field 9departmentMname; and suppress duplicates ; sort #t: #u #k 4 na!es.t-t I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent %le- Dason:300:$ales $anEay Gupta:500:$upport
&ort the passwd file by the 3rd field 9numeric userid; ; sort #t: #k 4n /etc/passwd T !ore root:-:0:0:root:/root:/"in/"ash "in:-:1:1:"in:/"in:/s"in/nolo in dae!on:-:3:3:dae!on:/s"in:/s"in/nolo in ad!:-:4:5:ad!:/(ar/ad!:/s"in/nolo in 36
Linux 101 Hacks
lp:-:5:K:lp:/(ar/spool/lpd:/s"in/nolo in
&ort JetcJhosts file by ip.address ; sort #t . #k 1,1n #k 3,3n #k 4,4n #k 5,5n /etc/hosts 13K.0.0.1 localhost.localdo!ain localhost 1G3.1CF.100.101 de(#d".the eekstuff.co! de(#d" 1G3.1CF.100.103 prod#d".the eekstuff.co! prod#d" 1G3.1CF.101.30 1G3.1CF.101.31 de(#we".the eekstuff.co! de(#we" prod#we".the eekstuff.co! prod#we"
#ombine sort with other commands ps =ef Q sort 1 &ort the output of process list ls <al Q sort R0n 1 ist the files in the ascending order of the file. si+e. i.e sorted by 5th filed and displaying smallest files first. ls <al Q sort R0nr 1 ist the files in the descending order of the file.si+e. i.e sorted by 5th filed and displaying largest files first.
Hack 13. 1ni; Co##and

Hni@ command is mostly used in combination with sort command( as uni@ remo*es duplicates only from a sorted file. i.e 2n order for uni@ to work( all the duplicate entries should be in the ad6acent lines. The following are some common e!amples. 1. =hen you ha*e an employee file with duplicate entries( you can do the following to remo*e duplicates. ; sort na!esd.t-t T uni_ ; sort Hu na!esd.t-t
3,
Linux 101 Hacks
2. 2f you want to know how many lines are duplicates( do the following. The first field in the following e!amples indicates how many duplicates where found for that particular line. &o( in this e!ample the lines beginning with "le! and :mma were found twice in the namesd.t!t file. ; sort na!esd.t-t T uni_ Hc 3 %le- Dason:300:$ales 3 I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin 1 Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent 1 &isha $in h:600:$ales 1 $anEay Gupta:500:$upport
3. The following displays only the entries that are duplicates. ; sort na!esd.t-t T uni_ Hcd 3 %le- Dason:300:$ales 3 I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin
Hack 14. Cut Co##and

#ut command can be used to display only specific columns from a te!t file or other command outputs. The following are some of the e!amples. )isplay the 1st field 9employee name; from a colon delimited file ; cut #d: #f 1 na!es.t-t I!!a +ho!as %le- Dason Sadison Mandy $anEay Gupta &isha $in h
3D
Linux 101 Hacks
)isplay 1st and 3rd field from a colon delimited file ; cut #d: #f 1,4 na!es.t-t I!!a +ho!as:Sarketin %le- Dason:$ales Sadison Mandy:/roduct .e(elop!ent $anEay Gupta:$upport &isha $in h:$ales
)isplay only the first D characters of e*ery line in a file ; cut #c 1#F na!es.t-t I!!a +ho %le- Das Sadison $anEay G &isha $i
/isc #ut command e!amples cut <d. <f1 PetcPpass*d )isplays the uni! login names for all the users in the system. free Q tr <s S S Q sed SPL&e#PDdS Q cut <dT T <f, )isplays the total memory a*ailable on the system.
Hack 17. )tat Co##and

&tat command can be used either to check the statusJproperties of a single file or the filesystem. )isplay statistics of a file or directory. ; stat /etc/!y.cnf Yile: U/etc/!y.cnfV 3-
Linux 101 Hacks
$iPe: 45C Blocks: 1C BL Block: 50GC .e(ice: F01h/305Gd Bnode: 3KGF6C \id: 70/root8 %ccess: 70C55/#rw#r##r##8
re ular file Links: 1 Gid: 70/root8
%ccess: 300G#01#01 03:6F:40.000000000 #0F00 Sodify: 300C#0C#01 30:53:3K.000000000 #0K00 Chan e: 300K#03#03 15:1K:3K.000000000 #0F00 ; stat /ho!e/ra!esh Yile: U/ho!e/ra!eshV $iPe: 50GC directory .e(ice: F04h/3061d Blocks: F Bnode: 663150G BL Block: 50GC Links: K Gid:
%ccess: 70K66/drw-r#-r#-8 7501/ra!esh8
\id: 7501/ra!esh8
%ccess: 300G#01#01 13:1K:53.000000000 #0F00 Sodify: 300G#01#01 13:0K:44.000000000 #0F00 Chan e: 300G#01#0G 13:0K:44.000000000 #0F00
)isplay the status of the filesystem using option $f ; stat #f / Yile: 2/2 B.: 0 &a!elen: 366 +ype: e-t3/e-t4 %(aila"le: Blocks: +otal: 36KG56K 1FKCGGF $iPe: 50GC Bnodes: +otal: 1410K30 Yree: 300F03K Yree: 1316FG3
Additional Stat Examples: \ni- $tat Co!!and: How +o Bdentify Yile %ttri"utes
40
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 18. "iff Co##and

diff command compares two different files and reports the difference. The output of the diff command is *ery cryptic and not straight forward to read. $ynta-: diff *options, file1 file3
>hat *as #odified in #y ne* file *hen co#pare to #y old fileJ

The option .w in the diff command will ignore the white space while performing the comparison. 2n the following diff output1 The lines abo*e ...( indicates the changes happened in first file in the diff command 9i.e nameMlist.t!t;. The lines below ...( indicates the changes happened to the second file in the diff command 9i.e nameMlistMnew.t!t;. The lines that belong to the first file starts with W and the lines of second file starts with X.
) diff #w na!e9list.t-t na!e9list9new.t-t 3c3,4 [ Dohn .oe ### Z Dohn S .oe Z Dason Bourne
Additional Di
Examples:
+op 5 Yile .ifference +ools on Linu- H .iff, Colordiff, `diff, 'i!diff
41
Linux 101 Hacks
'isual Yile .iff with 'i!diff H Bt .oes Sake a .ifferenceA
Hack 1$. "isplay Total Connect Ti#e of 1sers

"c command will display the statistics about the user3s connect time.
Connect ti#e for the current lo
ed in user
=ith the option $d( it will break down the output for the indi*idual days. 2n this e!ample( 23*e been logged in to the system for more than 6 hours today. %n )ec 1st( 2 was logged in for about 1 hour. ; ac Hd .ec .ec .ec .ec +oday 1 3 4 5 total total total total total 1.0F 0.GG 4.4G 5.60 C.10
Connect ti#e for all the users

To display connect time for all the users use $p as shown below. 0lease note that this indicates the cumulati*e connect time for the indi*idual users. ; ac #p Eohn !adison sanEay nisha ra!esh total 40G.31 4.C5 0.0C FF.1K 106.G3 111.53
42
Linux 101 Hacks
Connect ti#e for a specific user

To get a connect time report for a specific user( e!ecute the following1 ; ac #d sanEay Dul %u $ep $ep 3 36 4 5 total total total total total total total 13.F6 6.06 1.04 6.4K F.16 1.53 3.G6
.ec 35 .ec 3G +oday
Hack ,0. 5xecute Co##ands in the 'ack round

Aou can use one of the 5 methods e!plained in this hack to e!ecute a inu! command( or shell script in the background.
&ethod 1. 1se !
Aou can e!ecute a command 9or shell script; as a background 6ob by appending an ampersand to the command as shown below. ; ./!y#shell#script.sh =
&ethod ,. +ohup
"fter you e!ecute a command 9or shell script; in the background using Y( if you logout from the session( the command will get killed. To a*oid that( you should use nohup as shown below. ; nohup ./!y#shell#script.sh =
&ethod -. )creen Co##and

"fter you e!ecute a command in the background using nohup and Y( the command will get e!ecuted e*en after you logout. 8ut( you cannot 43
Linux 101 Hacks
connect to the same session again to see e!actly what is happening on the screen. To do that( you should use screen command. inu! screen command offers the ability to detach a session that is running some process( and then attach it at a later time. =hen you reattach the session later( your terminals will be there e!actly in the way you left them earlier.
&ethod 0. At Co##and
Hsing at command you can schedule a 6ob to run at a particular date and time. Cor e!ample( to e!ecute the backup script at 10 a.m tomorrow( do the following. ; at #f "ackup.sh 10 a! to!orrow
&ethod 3. >atch Co##and

To e!ecute a command continuously at a certain inter*al( use watch command as shown below. ; watch df #h
Additional !ac"ground #ommand Examples: B , Y , =, Ctrl#J H 6 I-a!ples to Sana e \ni- Back round Do"s \ni- &ohup: Mun a Co!!and or $hell#$cript I(en after You Lo out $creen Co!!and I-a!ples: Get Control of Linu- / \ni+er!inal at, at_, atr!, "atch Co!!ands usin G I-a!ples
44
Linux 101 Hacks
Mepeat \ni- Co!!ands or $hell#$cripts e(ery & seconds
Hack ,1. )ed 'asics < 7ind and 6eplace 1sin 6e 5x

This hack e!plains how to use sed substitute command QsR. The Zs3 command is probably the most important in Zsed3 and has a lot of different options. The Zs3 command attempts to match the pattern space against the supplied 4:7:I0[ if the match is successful( then that portion of the pattern space which was matched is replaced with 4:0 "#:/:5T. &ynta!1 )sed V%..MI$$s/MIGIa//MI/L%CISI&+/YL%G$V filena!e )sed V/%++IM&s/MIGIa//MI/L%CISI&+/YL%G$V filena!e s is substitute command J is a delimiter 4:7:I0 is regular e!pression to match 4:0 "#:/:5T is a *alue to replace
C "7& can be any of the following 1 g 4eplace all the instance of 4:7:I0 with 4:0 "#:/:5T n #ould be any number(replace nth instance of the 4:7:I0 with 4:0 "#:/:5T. p 2f substitution was made( then prints the new pattern space. i match 4:7:I0 in a case.insensiti*e manner. w file 2f substitution was made( write out the result to the gi*en file. 45
Linux 101 Hacks
=e can use different delimiters 9 one of B \ [ 1 ; instead of J
et us first create thegeekstuff.t!t file that will be used in all the e!amples mentioned below. ; cat the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Guides 1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc. 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 ) %dditional Y%b$ C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. etc.
)ubstitute >ord HLinuxI to HLinux<1nixI 1sin
sed sPP
2n the e!ample below( in the output line Q1. inu!.Hni! &ysadmin( inu! &cripting etcR only first inu! is replaced by inu!.Hni!. 2f no flags are specified the first match of line is replaced. ; sed Vs/Linu-/Linu-#\ni-/V the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Guides 1. Linu-#\ni- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc. 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu-#\ni6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 ) %dditional Y%b$ C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. etc.
46
Linux 101 Hacks
)ubstitute all Appearances of a >ord 1sin
sed sPP
The below sed command replaces all occurrences of inu! to inu!.Hni! using global substitution flag QgR. ; sed Vs/Linu-/Linu-#\ni-/ V the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Guides 1. Linu-#\ni- $ysad!in, Linu-#\ni- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc. 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu-#\ni6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 ) %dditional Y%b$ C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. etc.
)ubstitute 8nly ,nd 8ccurrence of a >ord 1sin
sed sPP,
2n the e!ample below( in the output line Q1. inu! &ysadmin( inu!.Hni! &cripting etc.R only 2nd occurrence of inu! is replaced by inu!.Hni!. ; sed Vs/Linu-/Linu-#\ni-/3V the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Guides 1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu-#\ni- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc. 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 ) %dditional Y%b$ sed C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. 5. `rite Chan es to a Yile and /rint the Chan es \sin s// pw etc.
The e!ample below has substitution with three flags. 2t substitutes all the occurrence of inu! to inu!.Hni! and prints the substituted output as well as written the same to the gi*en the file. 4,
Linux 101 Hacks
; sed #n Vs/Linu-/Linu-#\ni-/ pw outputV the eekstuff.t-t 1. Linu-#\ni- $ysad!in, Linu-#\ni- $criptin 5. $tora e in Linu-#\ni; cat output 1. Linu-#\ni- $ysad!in, Linu-#\ni- $criptin 5. $tora e in Linu-#\ni6. $u"stitute Lnly `hen the Line Satches with the /attern \sin sed etc. etc.
2n this e!ample( if the line matches with the pattern Q.R( then it replaces all the characters from Q.R with the empty. ; sed V/>#/s/>#.R// V the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Guides 1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 ) %dditional Y%b$ C. ìndows etc.
"elete Last : +u#ber of Characters 7ro# 5ach Line 1sin sed

This sed e!ample deletes last 3 characters from each line. ; sed Vs/...;//V the eekstuff.t-t ) Bnstruction Gui 1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL e 4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity e 4D e
Linux 101 Hacks
5. $tora e in Li 6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila" ) %dditional Y C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot e
5li#inate Co##ents 1sin
sed
)elete all the comment lines from a file as shown below using sed command. ; sed #e Vs/).R//V the eekstuff.t-t etc.
1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc.
4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. F. Ili!inate Co!!ents and I!pty Lines \sin sed
2n the following e!ample( there are two commands separated by ][3 Cirst command replaces the lines starting with the ^ to the blank lines &econd command deletes the empty lines. ; sed #e Vs/).R//?/N;/dV the eekstuff.t-t etc.
1. Linu- $ysad!in, Linu- $criptin 3. .ata"ases # Lracle, !y$bL etc.
4. $ecurity 7Yirewall, &etwork, Lnline $ecurity etc8 5. $tora e in Linu-
4-
Linux 101 Hacks
6. /roducti(ity 7+oo !any technolo ies to e-plore, not !uch ti!e a(aila"le8 C. ìndows# $ysad!in, re"oot etc. G. Con(ert .L$ newlines 7CM/LY8 to \ni- for!at \sin sed
5li#inate HT&L Ta s fro# file 1sin
sed
2n this e!ample( the regular e!pression gi*en in the sed command matches the html tags and replaces with the empty. ; sed #e Vs/[*NZ,RZ// V +his ["Z is [/"Z an [iZe-a!ple[/iZ. +his is an e-a!ple.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: $ed +utorial: Yind and Meplace +e-t Bnside a Yile \sin Me IAdditional Sed Su$stitution Examples: %d(anced $ed $u"stitution I-a!ples
Hack ,,. A*k Introduction = /rint 5xa#ples

This hack e!plains the fundamental awk working methodology along with , practical awk print e!amples.
A*k Introduction and /rintin
8perations
"wk is a programming language which allows easy manipulation of structured data and the generation of formatted reports. "wk stands for the names of its authors Q"ho( =einberger( and _ernighanR 50
Linux 101 Hacks
The "wk is mostly used for pattern scanning and processing. 2t searches one or more files to see if they contain lines that matches with the specified patterns and then perform associated actions. &ome of the key features of "wk are1 "wk *iews a te!t file as records and fields. ike common programming language( "wk has *ariables( conditionals and loops "wk has arithmetic and string operators. "wk can generate formatted reports "wk reads from a file or from its standard input( and outputs to its standard output. "wk does not get along with non.te!t files.
&ynta!1 awk V/search pattern1/ :%ctions@ /search pattern3/ :%ctions@V file
2n the abo*e awk synta!1 search pattern is a regular e!pression. "ctions $ statement9s; to be performed. se*eral patterns and actions are possible in "wk. file $ 2nput file. &ingle @uotes around program is to a*oid shell not to interpret any of its special characters.
A*k >orkin
&ethodolo y
1. "wk reads the input files one line at a time. 2. Cor each line( it matches with gi*en pattern in the gi*en order( if matches performs the corresponding action. 3. 2f no pattern matches( no action will be performed. 4. 2n the abo*e synta!( either search pattern or action are optional( 8ut not both. 51
Linux 101 Hacks
5. 2f the search pattern is not gi*en( then "wk performs the gi*en actions for each line of the input. 6. 2f the action is not gi*en( print all that lines that matches with the gi*en patterns which is the default action. ,. :mpty braces with out any action does nothing. 2t wont perform default printing operation. D. :ach statement in "ctions should be delimited by semicolon. et us create employee.t!t file which has the following content( which will be used in the e!amples mentioned below. ; cat e!ployee.t-t 100 300 400 500 600 +ho!as Dason $anEay &isha Mandy Sana er .e(eloper $ysad!in Sana er .B% $ales +echnolo y +echnolo y Sarketin +echnolo y ;6,000 ;6,600 ;K,000 ;G,600 ;C,000
"efault beha2ior of A*k

8y default "wk prints e*ery line from the file. ; awk V:print?@V e!ployee.t-t 100 300 400 500 600 +ho!as Dason $anEay &isha Mandy Sana er .e(eloper $ysad!in Sana er .B% $ales +echnolo y +echnolo y Sarketin +echnolo y ;6,000 ;6,600 ;K,000 ;G,600 ;C,000
2n the abo*e e!ample pattern is not gi*en. &o the actions are applicable to all the lines. "ction print with out any argument prints the whole line by default. &o it prints all the lines of the file with out fail. "ctions has to be enclosed with in the braces.
52
Linux 101 Hacks
/rint the lines *hich #atches *ith the pattern.

; awk V/+ho!as/ Z /&isha/V e!ployee.t-t 100 500 +ho!as &isha Sana er Sana er $ales Sarketin ;6,000 ;G,600
2n the abo*e e!ample it prints all the line which matches with the ]Thomas3 or ]5isha3. 2t has two patterns. "wk accepts any number of patterns( but each set 9patterns and its corresponding actions; has to be separated by newline.
/rint only specific field

"wk has number of built in *ariables. Cor each record i.e line( it splits the record delimited by whitespace character by default and stores it in the Nn *ariables. 2f the line has 4 words( it will be stored in N1( N2( N3 and N4. N0 represents whole line. 5C is a built in *ariable which represents total number of fields in a record. ; awk V:print ;3,;6?@V e!ployee.t-t +ho!as ;6,000 Dason ;6,600 $anEay ;K,000 &isha ;G,600 Mandy ;C,000 ; awk V:print ;3,;&Y?@V e!ployee.t-t +ho!as ;6,000 Dason ;6,600 $anEay ;K,000 &isha ;G,600 Mandy ;C,000
2n the abo*e e!ample N2 and N5 represents 5ame and &alary respecti*ely. =e can get the &alary using N5C also( where N5C represents last field. 2n the print statement ](3 is a concatenator. 53
Linux 101 Hacks
InitialiBation and 7inal Action

"wk has two important patterns which are specified by the keyword called 8:725 and :5). &ynta!1 BIGB& : %ctions@ :%C+BL&@ ) %ction for e(eryline in a file I&. : %ctions @ ^ is for comments in "wk "ctions specified in the 8:725 section will be e!ecuted before starts reading the lines from the input. :5) actions will be performed after completing the reading and processing the lines from the input.
; awk VBIGB& :print 2&a!e>t.esi nation>t.epart!ent>t$alary2?@ Z :print ;3,2>t2,;4,2>t2,;5,2>t2,;&Y?@ Z I&.:print 2Meport Generated>n##############2? Z @V e!ployee.t-t &a!e +ho!as Dason $anEay &isha Mandy .esi nation .epart!ent Sana er .e(eloper $ysad!in Sana er .B% $ales +echnolo y +echnolo y Sarketin +echnolo y $alary ;6,000 ;6,600 ;K,000 ;G,600 ;C,000
Meport Generated ##############
2n the abo*e e!ample( it prints headline and last file for the reports. 54
Linux 101 Hacks
7ind the e#ployees *ho has e#ployee id

; awk V;1 Z300V e!ployee.t-t 400 500 600 $anEay &isha Mandy $ysad!in Sana er .B% +echnolo y Sarketin +echnolo y ;K,000 ;G,600 ;C,000
reater than ,00
2n the abo*e e!ample( first field 9N1; is employee id. &o if N1 is greater than 200( then 6ust do the default print action to print the whole line.
/rint the list of e#ployees in Technolo y depart#ent

5ow department name is a*ailable as a fourth field( so need to check if N4 matches with the string QTechnologyR( if yes print the line. ; awk V;5 1/+echnolo y/V e!ployee.t-t 300 400 600 Dason $anEay Mandy .e(eloper $ysad!in .B% +echnolo y +echnolo y +echnolo y ;6,600 ;K,000 ;C,000
%perator L is for comparing with the regular e!pressions. 2f it matches the default action i.e print whole line will be performed.
/rint nu#ber of e#ployees in Technolo y depart#ent

The below e!ample( checks if the department is Technology( if it is yes( in the "ction( 6ust increment the count *ariable( which was initiali+ed with +ero in the 8:725 section. ; awk VBIGB& : count00?@ ;5 1 /+echnolo y/ : countOO? @ I&. : print 2&u!"er of e!ployees in +echnolo y .ept 02,count?@V e!ployee.t-t &u!"er of e!ployees in +ehcnolo y .ept 0 4
55
Linux 101 Hacks
Then at the end of the process( 6ust print the *alue of count which gi*es you the number of employees in Technology department.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: %wk Bntroduction +utorial H K %wk /rint I-a!ples Additional A%" Examples: \nderstand %wk 'aria"les with 4 /ractical I-a!ples F /owerful %wk Built#in 'aria"les H Y$, LY$, M$, LM$, &M, &Y, YBLI&%SI, Y&M K /owerful %wk Lperators I-a!ples 7\nary, Binary, %rith!etic, $trin , %ssi n!ent, Conditional, Me #I- %wk Lperators8 %`Q %rrays I-plained with 6 /ractical I-a!ples
Hack ,-. %i# 5ditor +a2i ation 7unda#entals

5a*igation is a *ital part of te!t editing. To be *ery producti*e( you should be aware of all possible na*igation shortcuts in your editor. This hack e!plains the following D ?i J ?im na*igation options. 1. ine na*igation 2. &creen na*igation 3. =ord na*igation 4. &pecial na*igation 5. 0aragraph na*igation 6. &earch na*igation 56
Linux 101 Hacks
,. #ode na*igation D. 5a*igation from command line
Line +a2i ation

Collowing are the four na*igation that can be done line by line. k $ na*igate upwards 6 $ na*igate downwards l $ na*igate right side h $ na*igate left side
8y using the repeat factor in ?2/ we can do this operation for 5 times. Cor e!ample( when you want to go down by 10 lines( then type Q106R. =ithin a line if you want to na*igate to different position( you ha*e 4 other options. 0 $ go to the starting of the current line. T $ go to the first non blank character of the line. N $ go to the end of the current line. gM $ go to the last non blank character of the line.
)creen +a2i ation

Collowing are the three na*igation which can be done in relation to te!t shown in the screen. ' $ 7o to the first line of current screen. / $ 7o to the middle line of current screen. $ 7o to the last line of current screen. ctrl`f $ Sump forward one full screen. ctrl`b $ Sump backwards one full screen ctrl`d $ Sump forward 9down; a half screen ctrlù $ Sump back 9up; one half screen 5,
Linux 101 Hacks
)pecial +a2i ation

Aou may want to do some special na*igation inside a file( which are1 5\ $ 7o to the 5th percentage line of the file. 57 $ 7o to the 5th line of the file. 7 $ 7o to the end of the file. ZR $ 7o to the position where you were in 5%4/" /%): while last closing the file. ZT $ 7o to the position where you were in 25&:4T /%): while last closing the file. g $ 7o to the beginning of the file.
>ord +a2i ation

Aou may want to do se*eral na*igation in relation to the words( such as1 e $ go to the end of the current word. : $ go to the end of the current =%4). b $ go to the pre*ious 9before; word. 8 $ go to the pre*ious 9before; =%4). w $ go to the ne!t word. = $ go to the ne!t =%4).
=%4) $ =%4) consists of a se@uence of non.blank characters( separated with white space. word $ word consists of a se@uence of letters( digits and underscores. :!ample to show the difference between =%4) and word 1-2.16D.1.1 $ single =%4) 1-2.16D.1.1 $ se*en words.
/ara raph +a2i ation

5D
Linux 101 Hacks
a $ 7o to the beginning of the current paragraph. 8y pressing a again and again mo*e to the pre*ious paragraph beginnings. b $ 7o to the end of the current paragraph. 8y pressing b again and again mo*e to the ne!t paragraph end( and again.
)earch +a2i ation

Ji $ &earch for a pattern which will you take you to the ne!t occurrence of it. Gi $ &earch for a pattern which will you take you to the pre*ious occurrence of it. U . 7o to the ne!t occurrence of the current word under the cursor. ^ . 7o to the pre*ious occurrence of the current word under the cursor.
Code +a2i ation

\ $ 7o to the matching braces( or parenthesis inside code.
+a2i ation fro# Co##and Line

?im `5 filename1 7o to the 5th line of the file after opening it. (i! O10 /etc/passwd
?im `Jpattern filename1 7o to the particular pattern3s line inside the file( first occurrence from first. 2n the following e!ample( it will open the 4:")/: file and 6ump to the first occurrence of the word QinstallR. (i! O/install MI%.SI
?im `Gpatten filename1 7o to the particular pattern3s line inside the file( first occurrence from last. 2n the following e!ample( it will open the 4:")/: file and 6ump to the last occurrence of the word QbugR. (i! Oc"u MI%.SI 5-
Linux 101 Hacks
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: F Issential 'i! Iditor &a(i ation Yunda!entals &ore 'im Examples: 'i! search and replace H 13 powerful find and replace e-a!ples. How +o add "ook!arks inside the 'i! editor How +o record and play inside the 'i! editor Correct spellin Iditor !istakes auto!atically inside the 'i!
Hack ,0. Ch#od Co##and 5xa#ples

This hack e!plains how to use symbolic representation with chmod. Collowing are the symbolic representation of three different roles1 u is for user( g is for group( and o is for others.
Collowing are the symbolic representation of three different permissions1 r is for read permission( w is for write permission( ! is for e!ecute permission.
60
Linux 101 Hacks
The following are few e!amples on how to use the symbolic representation on chmod.
Add sin le per#ission to a filePdirectory

#hanging permission to a single set. ` symbol means adding permission. Cor e!ample( do the following to gi*e e!ecute permission for the user irrespecti*e of anything else1 ; ch!od uO- filena!e
Add #ultiple per#ission to a filePdirectory

Hse comma to separate the multiple permission sets as shown below. ; ch!od uOr, O- filena!e
6e#o2e per#ission fro# a filePdirectory

The following e!ample remo*es read and write permission for the user. ; ch!od u#r- filena!e
Chan e per#ission for all roles on a filePdirectory

The following e!ample assigns e!ecute pri*ilege to user( group and others 9basically anybody can e!ecute this file;. ; ch!od aO- filena!e
&ake per#ission for a file sa#e as another file Kusin referenceM

2f you want to change a file permission same as another file( use the reference option as shown below. 2n this e!ample( file2Vs permission will be set e!actly same as file1Vs permission. ; ch!od ##reference0file1 file3
61
Linux 101 Hacks
Apply the per#ission to all the files under a directory recursi2ely

Hse option .4 to change the permission recursi*ely as shown below. ; ch!od #M K66 directory#na!e/
Chan e execute per#ission only on the directories Kfiles are not affectedM
%n a particular directory if you ha*e multiple sub.directories and files( the following command will assign e!ecute permission only to all the sub.directories in the current directory 9not the files in the current directory;. ; ch!od uOa R 5ote1 2f the files has e!ecute permission already for either the group or others( the abo*e command will assign the e!ecute permission to the user.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: K Ch!od Co!!and I-a!ples for Be inners Additional chmod Examples: Be inners Guide to Yile and .irectory /er!issions 7 u!ask, ch!od, read, write, e-ecute 8
Hack ,3. %ie* &ultiple Lo Ter#inal
7iles in 8ne
Typically you may open multiple terminals to *iew tail .f of multiple files. Cor e!ample( if you want to *iew "pache errorMlog and accessMlog at the same time you may do the following in two different terminals. 62
Linux 101 Hacks
%n one terminal1 ; tail #f error9lo
%n another terminal1 ; tail #f access9lo
8ut( waitc =ouldn3t it be nice if you can e!ecute multiple uni! tail command in single terminal using one of the following methodsG ; !ulti#tail.sh error9lo 7or8 ; tail #f /(ar/lo /syslo #f /(ar/lo /auth.lo access9lo
This hack e!plains two methods on how to e!ecute multiple inu! tail .f at the same time in single terminal.
&ethod 1. Custo# )hell )cript K*ith 1nix tail co##andM

#reate the multitail.sh as shown below. ; (i !ulti#tail.sh )A/"in/sh ) `hen this e-its, e-it all "ack trap Vkill ;7Eo"s #p8V IaB+ ) iterate throu h the each for file in 2;<2 do 63 i(en file na!es, round process also.
Linux 101 Hacks
) show tails of each in "ack round. tail #f ;file = done ) wait .. until C+MLOC wait
5ow( open multiple files using this new shell script as shown below. ; ./!ulti#tail.sh error9lo access9lo
&ethod ,. )tandard Linux tail co##and

The latest *ersion of the Hni! tail command supports multiple .f as shown below. ; tail #f /(ar/lo /syslo #f /(ar/lo /auth.lo
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: 4 Sethods +o 'iew tail #f output of Sultiple Lo Yiles in Lne +er!inal
Hack ,4. Less Co##and

2 personally prefer to use less command to *iew files 9instead of opening the file to *iew in an editor;. ess is similar to more command( but less allows both forward and backward mo*ements. /oreo*er( less don3t re@uire to load the whole file before *iewing. Try opening a large log file in ?im editor and less < you3ll see the speed difference.
64
Linux 101 Hacks
The na*igation keys in less command are similar to ?im editor. This hack e!plains less command na*igation and other operations which will make you a better command line warrior.
)earch +a2i ation

%nce you3*e opened a log file 9or any file; using less file.name( use the following keys to search. 0lease note that the match will be highlighted automatically by default. Hse the following shortcut for the less command forward search 1 J $ search for a pattern which will take you to the ne!t occurrence. n $ for ne!t match in forward 5 $ for pre*ious match in backward
Hse the following shortcut for the less command backward search 1 G $ search for a pattern which will take you to the pre*ious occurrence. n $ for ne!t match in backward direction 5 $ for pre*ious match in forward direction
Tip1 2f you don>t bother about which direction the search is happening( and you want to search file path( or H4 ( such as QJhomeJrameshJR( you can use backward search 9Gpattern; which will be handy as you don3t want to escape slashes each time. $earch /ath Bn forward: />/ho!e>/ra!esh>/ Bn "ackward: c/ho!e/ra!esh/
)creen +a2i ation

Hse the following screen na*igation commands while *iewing large log files. #T4 `C $ forward one window 65
Linux 101 Hacks
#T4 `8 $ backward one window #T4 `) $ forward half window #T4 `H $ backward half window
Line na2i ation

2n a smaller chunk of data( where you want to locate particular error( you may want to na*igate line by line using these keys1 6 $ na*igate forward by one line k $ na*igate backward by one line
8ther +a2i ations

The following are other na*igation operations that you can use inside the less pager. 7 $ go to the end of file g $ go to the start of file @ or dd $ e!it the less pager
)i#ulate tail <f inside less pa er = /ress 7

%nce you3*e opened a file using less command( any content that is appended to the file after that will not be displayed automatically. 'owe*er( you can press C less command will show the status ]waiting for data]. This is as similar to ]tail .f3.
Count #a ic
&imilar to ?im editor na*igation command( you can gi*e 106 to scroll 10 lines down( or 10k to go up by 10 lines. 106 $ 10 lines forward. 10k $ 10 lines backward. #T4 `7 $ show the current file name along with line( byte and percentage statistics.
66
Linux 101 Hacks
8ther useful Less Co##and 8perations

* $ using the configured editor edit the current file. h $ summary of less commands Ypattern $ display only the matching lines( not all.
&arked na2i ation

=hen you are *iewing a large log file using less command( you can mark a particular position and return back to that place again by using that mark. ma $ mark the current position with the letter ]a3( ]a $ go to the marked position ]a3.
&ultiple file pa in
/ethod 11 Aou can open multiple files by passing the file names as arguments. ; less file1 file3
/ethod 21 =hile you are *iewing file1( use 1e to open the file2 as shown below. N less file1 :e file3
5a*igation across files1 =hen you opened more than two files 9 for e.g $ less U ;( use the following keys to na*igate between files. 1n $ go to the ne!t file. 1p $ go to the pre*ious file.
Any Questions?
6,
Linux 101 Hacks
.iscuss it here: Less Co!!and: 10 +ips for Iffecti(e &a(i ation Additional (ess Examples: Lpen = 'iew 10 .ifferent Yile +ypes with Linu- Less Co!!and
Hack ,7. > et 5xa#ples

wget utility is the best option to download files from internet. wget can pretty much handle all comple! download situations including large file downloads( recursi*e downloads( non.interacti*e downloads( multiple file downloads etc.( This hack e!plains how to use wget for *arious download scenarios using 15 awesome wget e!amples.
"o*nload )in le 7ile *ith * et

The following e!ample downloads a single file from internet and stores in the current directory. ; w et http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3
=hile downloading it will show a progress bar with the following information1 \age of download completion 9for e.g. 31\ as shown below; Total amount of bytes downloaded so far 9for e.g. 1(213(5-2 bytes as shown below; #urrent download speed 9for e.g. 6D.2_Js as shown below; 4emaining time to download 9for e.g. eta 34 seconds as shown below;
6D
Linux 101 Hacks
)ownload in progress1 ; w et http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3 $a(in to: Ustr-36#0.G.3.1.tar."P3.1V CF.3Q/s eta 45s
41W *00000000000000000Z 1,314,6G3
)ownload completed1 ; w et http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3 $a(in to: Ustr-36#0.G.3.1.tar."P3V KC.FQ/s in 66s
100W*0000000000000000000000Z, 4,F63,4K5
300G#0G#36 11:16:40 7CF.K QB/s8 # Ustr-36#0.G.3.1.tar."P3V sa(ed *4F634K5/4F634K5,
"o*nload and )tore >ith a "ifferent 7ile na#e 1sin * et <8

8y default wget will pick the filename from the last word after last forward slash( which may not be appropriate always. >ron . Collowing e!ample will download and store the file with name1 downloadMscript.phpGsrcMidK,,01 ; w et http://www.(i!.or /scripts/download9script.phpc src9id0KK01
:*en though the downloaded file is in +ip format( it will get stored in the file as shown below. ; ls download9script.phpcsrc9id0KK01 6-
Linux 101 Hacks
Correct. To correct this issue( we can specify the output file name using the .% option as1 ; w et #L ta list.Pip http://www.(i!.or /scripts/download9script.phpcsrc9id0KK01
)pecify "o*nload )peed P "o*nload 6ate 1sin li#it<rate
* et =
=hile e!ecuting the wget( by default it will try to occupy full possible bandwidth. This might not be acceptable when you are downloading huge files on production ser*ers. &o( to a*oid that we can limit the download speed using the $limit.rate as shown below. 2n the following e!ample( the download speed is limited to 200k ; w et ##li!it#rate0300k http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3
Continue the Inco#plete "o*nload 1sin
* et <c
4estart a download which got stopped in the middle using wget .c option as shown below. ; w et #c http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3
This is *ery helpful when you ha*e initiated a *ery big file download which got interrupted in the middle. 2nstead of starting the whole download again( you can start the download from where it got interrupted using option .c +ote. 2f a download is stopped in middle( when you restart the download again without the option .c( wget will append .1 to the filename automatically as a file with the pre*ious name already e!ist. 2f a file with .1 already e!ist( it will download the file with .2 at the end.
,0
Linux 101 Hacks
"o*nload in the 'ack round 1sin
* et <b
Cor a huge download( put the download in background using wget option .b as shown below. ; w et #" http://www.openssK.or /repos/tar"alls/str-36# 0.G.3.1.tar."P3 Continuin in "ack round, pid 1GF5. Lutput will "e written to Uw et#lo V.
2t will initiate the download and gi*es back the shell prompt to you. Aou can always check the status of the download using tail .f as shown below. ; tail #f w et#lo $a(in to: Ustr-36#0.G.3.1.tar."P3.5V 1W C6.6Q 6Ks 6W FC.CQ 56s KW 1F3S 5Cs GW 6K.GQ 5Ks 0Q ...... ........ ......... .......... 160Q .......... ............. .......... 360Q .......... ............. .......... 400Q .......... ............. ..........
&ask 1ser A ent and "isplay * et like 'ro*ser 1sin * et =user<a ent
&ome websites can disallow you to download its page by identifying that the user agent is not a browser. &o you can mask the user agent by using $user.agent options and show wget like a browser as shown below. ; w et ##user#a ent02SoPilla/6.0 7a11? \? Linu- iCFC? en# \$? r(:1.G.0.48 Gecko/300F0G351C Yirefo-/4.0.42 \ML#+L# .L`&LL%.
Test "o*nload 16L 1sin
* et =spider
=hen you are going to do scheduled download( you should check whether download will happen fine or not at scheduled time. To do so( copy the line e!actly from the schedule( and then add $spider option to check. ,1
Linux 101 Hacks
; w et ##spider .L`&LL%.#\ML
2f the H4 gi*en is correct( it will say ; w et ##spider download#url $pider !ode ena"led. Check if re!ote file e-ists. H++/ re_uest sent, awaitin response... 300 LQ Len th: unspecified *te-t/ht!l, Me!ote file e-ists and could contain further links, "ut recursion is disa"led ## not retrie(in .
This ensures that the downloading will get success at the scheduled time. 8ut when you had gi*e a wrong H4 ( you will get the following error. ; w et ##spider download#url $pider !ode ena"led. Check if re!ote file e-ists. H++/ re_uest sent, awaitin response... 505 &ot Yound Me!ote file does not e-ist ## "roken linkAAA
Aou can use the spider option under following scenarios1 #heck before scheduling a download. /onitoring whether a website is a*ailable or not at certain inter*als. #heck a list of pages from your bookmark( and find out which pages are still e!ists.
Increase Total +u#ber of 6etry Atte#pts 1sin
* et =tries
2f the internet connection has problem( and if the download file is large there is a chance of failures in the download. 8y default wget retries 20 times to make the download successful.
,2
Linux 101 Hacks
2f needed( you can increase retry attempts using $tries option as shown below. ; w et ##tries0K6 .L`&LL%.#\ML
"o*nload &ultiple 7iles P 16Ls 1sin
> et <i
Cirst( store all the download files or H4 s in a te!t file as1 ; cat Z download#file#list.t-t \ML1 \ML3 \ML4 \ML5
5e!t( gi*e the download.file.list.t!t as argument to wget using .i option as shown below. ; w et #i download#file#list.t-t
"o*nload a 7ull >ebsite 1sin
* et =#irror
Collowing is the command line which you want to e!ecute when you want to download a full website and made a*ailable for local *iewing. ; w et ##!irror #p ##con(ert#links #/ ./LLC%L#.BM ÌB$B+I# \ML $mirror 1 turn on options suitable for mirroring. .p 1 download all files that are necessary to properly display a gi*en 'T/ page. $con*ert.links 1 after the download( con*ert the links in document for local *iewing. .0 .J %#" .)24 1 sa*e all the files and directories to the specified directory.
,3
Linux 101 Hacks
6eUect Certain 7ile Types *hile "o*nloadin reUect
1sin
* et =
Aou ha*e found a website which is useful( but don3t want to download the images you can specify the following. ; w et ##reEect0 if ÌB$B+I#+L#BI#.L`&LL%.I.
Lo
#essa es to a lo
file instead of stderr 1sin
* et <o
=hen you wanted the log to be redirected to a log file instead of the terminal. ; w et #o download.lo .L`&LL%.#\ML
Guit "o*nloadin * et <G
>hen it 5xceeds Certain )iBe 1sin
=hen you want to stop download when it crosses 5 /8 you can use the following wget command line.
; w et #b6! #i YBLI#`HBCH#H%$#\ML$
5ote1 This @uota will not get effect when you do a download a single H4 . That is irrespecti*e of the @uota si+e e*erything will get downloaded when you specify a single file. This @uota is applicable only for recursi*e downloads.
"o*nload 8nly Certain 7ile Types 1sin

Aou can use this under following situations1 )ownload all images from a website )ownload all *ideos from a website )ownload all 0)C files from a website
* et <r <A
; w et #r #%.pdf http://url#to#we"pa e#with#pdfs/
,4
Linux 101 Hacks
7T/ "o*nload >ith * et

Aou can use wget to perform CT0 download as shown below. "nonymous CT0 download using =get ; w et ftp#url
CT0 download using wget with username and password authentication. ; w et ##ftp#user0\$IM&%SI ##ftp#password0/%$$`LM. .L`&LL%.#\ML
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: ` et .ownload Guide ìth 16 I-a!ples
,5
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter -. ))H Co##ands and Tips

Hack ,8. "ebu ))H Client )ession
&ometimes it is necessary to *iew debug messages to troubleshoot any &&' connection issues. pass .* 9lowercase *; option to the ssh as shown below to *iew the ssh debug messages. :!ample without &&' client debug message1 ; ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost.e-a!ple.co! warnin : Connectin to re!otehost.e-a!ple.co! failed: &o address associated to the na!e
:!ample with &&' client debug message1 ; ssh #( #l Es!ith re!otehost.e-a!ple.co! de"u : $shConfi /sshconfi .c:3F4F/ssh39parse9confi 9e-t: Setaconfi parsin stopped at line 4. de"u : $shConfi /sshconfi .c:C4K/ssh9confi 9set9para!9(er"ose: $ettin (aria"le ]'er"oseSode^ to ]Y%L$I^. de"u : $shConfi /sshconfi .c:4140/ssh9confi 9read9file9e-t: Mead 1K para!s fro! confi file. de"u : $sh3/ssh3.c:1K0K/!ain: \ser confi usin defaults. 7Looked for ]/ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh3/ssh39confi ^8 de"u : Connectin 7$LCQ$ not used8 file not found,
to re!otehost.e-a!ple.co!, port 33d
,6
Linux 101 Hacks
warnin : Connectin to re!otehost.e-a!ple.co! failed: &o address associated to the na!e
Hack ,$. To le ))H )ession usin 5scape Character
))H
=hen you3*e logged on to the remotehost using ssh from the localhost( you may want to come back to the localhost to perform some acti*ity and go back to remote host again. 2n this case( you don3t need to disconnect the ssh session to the remote host. 2nstead( follow the steps below. 1. ogin to remotehost from localhost1 localhost; ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost
2. 5ow you are connected to the remotehost1 re!otehost;
3. To come back to the localhost temporarily( type the escape character L and #ontrol.d. =hen you type L you will not see that immediately on the screen until you press W#ontrol.dX and press enter. &o( on the remotehost in a new line enter the following key strokes for the below to work1 LW#ontrol.dX re!otehost; )*+ *1,O $topped ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost
localhost;
4. 5ow you are back to the localhost and the ssh remotehost client session runs as a typical H52I background 6ob( which you can check as shown below1 ,,
Linux 101 Hacks
localhost; ,o$s *1,O $topped ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost
5. Aou can go back to the remote host ssh without entering the password again by bringing the background ssh remotehost session 6ob to foreground on the localhost. localhost; g -.
ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost re!otehost;
Hack -0. "isplay ))H )ession )tatistics

To get some useful statistics about the current ssh session( do the following. This works only on &&'2 client. 1. ogin to remotehost from localhost. localhost; ssh #l Es!ith re!otehost
2. %n the remotehost( type ssh escape character L followed by s as shown below. This will display lot of useful statistics about the current &&' connection. re!otehost; *Note: +he 1s is not (isi"le on the co!!and line when you type., re!ote host: re!otehost local host: localhost re!ote (ersion: $$H#1.GG#Lpen$$H94.Gp1 local (ersion: $$H#3.0#4.3.G.1 $$H $ecure $hell co!pressed "ytes in: 160C unco!pressed "ytes in: 1C33 ,D
Linux 101 Hacks
co!pressed "ytes out: 5GGK unco!pressed "ytes out: 611F packets in: 16 packets out: 35 rekeys: 0 %l orith!s: Chosen key e-chan e al orith!: diffie#hell!an# roup1#sha1 Chosen host key al orith!: ssh#dss Co!!on host key al orith!s: ssh#dss,ssh#rsa %l orith!s client to ser(er: Cipher: aes13F#c"c S%C: h!ac#sha1 Co!pression: Pli" %l orith!s ser(er to client: Cipher: aes13F#c"c S%C: h!ac#sha1 Co!pression: Pli" localhost;
Any /uestions? .iscuss it here: $$H Client co!!ands
Hack -1. Chan e 8pen))H )ecurity 8ptions

%pen&&' options are controlled through the JetcJsshJsshdMconfig file. This hack e!plains the , default options in sshdMconfig file that you should change.
,-
Linux 101 Hacks
2n sshdMconfig( the lines that start with ^ are comments. Cor those options that uses the default *alues( the sshdMconfig file contains a commented line with the option and its default *alue. This makes it easier for us( as we can see the %pen&&' option name and the default *alue without ha*ing to lookup somewhere else. Cor e!ample( sshdMconfig file contains the following commented line. This indicates that the 0ubkey"uthentication option contains QyesR as the default *alue. ; rep #i pu"key /etc/ssh/sshd9confi
)/u"key%uthentication yes
2f you like to change this( you should remo*e the comment and change the *alue 9from yes to no; as shown below. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi /u"key%uthentication no
2 showed the abo*e only as an e!ample. Aou don3t need to change the default *alue of 0ubkey"uthentication option( as allowing public key authentication is good. Aou don3t need to modify any of the default *alues in the sshdMconfig file e!cept the , options mentioned in this hack.
"isable 6oot Lo in K/er#it6ootLo inM

8y default you can ssh to the ser*er as root. 2t is best not to allow root to login directly to the ser*er. 2nstead( you should login to the system as your account and then do ]su .3 to login as root. 2f you ha*e multiple sysadmins in your organi+ation( and if they all login to the ser*er directly as root( you might not know which sysadmin logged in as root. 2nstead( if you disable login as root( sysadmins are D0
Linux 101 Hacks
forced to login as their account first( before they can do ]su .3( this makes the auditing easier. "dd the following entry to sshdMconfig to disable root to login to the ser*er directly. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi /er!itMootLo in no
Allo* 8nly )pecific 1sers or (roups KAllo*1sers Allo*(roupsM

8y default anybody who is authenticated successfully are allowed to login. 2nstead you can restrict which users 9or groups; you allow to login to the system. This is helpful when you ha*e created se*eral user accounts on the system( but want only few of them to login. This is also helpful when you are using 52&( open )"0 9or some other e!ternal system; for authentication. :*ery user in your company might ha*e account on 52&( %pen )"0 etc. 8ut( on a specific ser*er you want only few of them to login. Cor e!ample( on production system you want only sysadmins to login. "dd the following entry to the sshdMconfig file to allow only specific users to login to the system. 2n the e!ample below only ramesh( 6ohn and 6ason can login to this system. Hsernames should be separated by space. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi %llow\sers ra!esh Eohn Eason
"dd the following entry to the sshdMconfig file to allow only the users who belong to a specific group to login. 2n the e!ample below only users who belong to sysadmin and dba group can login to the system. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi D1
Linux 101 Hacks
%llowGroups sysad!in d"a
"eny )pecific 1sers or (roups K"eny1sers "eny(roupsM

2nstead of allowing specific users 9or groups;( you can also deny specific users or groups. "dd the following entry to the sshdMconfig file to deny specific users to login to the system. 2n the e!ample below c*s( apache( 6ane cannot login to this system. Hsernames should be separated by space. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi .eny\sers c(s apache Eane
"dd the following entry to the sshdMconfig file to deny users who belong to a specific group to login. 2n the e!ample below users who belong to de*elopers and @a group cannot login to the system. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi .enyGroups de(elopers _a
+ote. Aou can use combination of all the "llow and )eny directi*es. 2t is processed in this order1 )enyHsers( "llowHsers( )eny7roups( and finally "llow7roups
Chan e ))H" /ort +u#ber K/ortM

8y default ssh runs on port 22. /ost of the attackers will check if a ser*er is open on port 22( and will randomly use brute force to login to the ser*er using se*eral username and password combination. 2f you change the port ^ to something different( others need to know e!actly what port to use to login to the ser*er using ssh. The e!ample below uses port 222 for ssh. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi /ort 333 D2
Linux 101 Hacks
Crom your logs 9J*arJlogJsecure;( if you see lot of in*alid logins using ssh for accounts that don3t e!ist on your system( from the ip.address that you don3t recogni+e( it might be some brute.force attack. Those kind of ssh in*alid login will stop( if you change the port number. 0lease note that this causes little incon*enience to your team who login to the system( as they need to know both the ip.address and the port number.
Chan e Lo in (race Ti#e KLo in(raceTi#eM

=hen you ssh to a ser*er( you ha*e 2 minutes to login. 2f you don3t successfully login within 2 minutes( ssh will disconnect. 2 minutes time to login successfully is too much. Aou should consider changing it to 30 seconds( or may be 1 minute. "dd the following entry to the sshdMconfig file to change the login grace time from 2 minutes to 1 minute. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi Lo inGrace+i!e 1!
6estrict the Interface KI/ AddressM to Lo in KListenAddressM

2f you ha*e multiple interfaces on the ser*er that are configured to different ip.address( you might not want e*erybody to login to the ser*er using all those ip.address. et us assume that you ha*e the following 4 interfaces on the ser*er1 eth0 $ 1-2.16D.10.200 eth1 $ 1-2.16D.10.201 eth2 $ 1-2.16D.10.202 eth3 $ 1-2.16D.10.203 D3
Linux 101 Hacks
8y default ssh will listen on all of the abo*e ip.addresses. 2f you want users to login only using ip.address 200 and 202( do the following in your sshdMconfig ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi Listen%ddress 1G3.1CF.10.300 Listen%ddress 1G3.1CF.10.303
"isconnect ))H *hen no acti2ity KClientAli2eInter2alM

%nce you3*e successfully logged in to the system( you might want to get disconnected when there are no acti*ities after ! number of minutes. This is basically idle timeout. 2n 8ash( you can achie*e this using T/%HT *ariable. 2n %pen&&'( this can be achie*ed by combining #lient"li*e#ount/a! and #lient"li*e2nter*al options in sshdMconfig file. #lient"li*e#ount/a! $ This indicates the total number of checkali*e message sent by the ssh ser*er without getting any response from the ssh client. )efault is 3. #lient"li*e2nter*al $ This indicates the timeout in seconds. "fter ! number of seconds( ssh ser*er will send a message to the client asking for response. )eafult is 0 9ser*er will not send message to client to check.;.
2f you want ssh client to e!it 9timeout; automatically after 10 minutes 9600 seconds;( modify the sshdMconfig file and set the following two parameters as shown below. ; (i /etc/ssh/sshd9confi Client%li(eBnter(al C00 Client%li(eCountSa- 0
D4
Linux 101 Hacks
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: K .efault Lpen$$H $ecurity Lptions that You $hould Chan e
Hack -,. Transfer All /uTT? )essions

2f you want to connect from a =indows machine to a inu! ser*er( you need to use one of the &&' clients. 0uTTA is hands.down the best &&' client for =indows. 2t3s light.weight with a single putty.e!e file and nothing else to install. 2f you ha*e not used 0uTTA earlier( you may want to download 0uTTA software from the official 0uTTA download page before e!ploring these 0uTTA tricks.
&o2e /utty sessions to another co#puter

0uTTA stores all the session information in =indows registry. %n the source machine( e!port the 0uTTA session registry information as shown below. C:Z re edit /e 2WuserprofileW>desktop>putty#re istry.re 2 HQIY9C\MMI&+9\$IM>$oftware>$i!ontatha!
Transfer this putty.registry.reg file from source machine to destination machine. %n the destination machine( import the 0uTTA &&' session registry( by right mouse.click on the putty.registry.reg and click on ]/erge3. This will transfer all the 0uTTA session information from one windows system to another.
"elete All /uTT? )essions To ether

=hen you are swapping an old computer with a new computer( you may end.up transferring all 0uTTA sessions to new computer. %nce you3*e D5
Linux 101 Hacks
transferred all 0uTTA sessions( e!ecute Qputty .cleanupR from the command line as shown below. C:Zputty #cleanup
This will display a warning message. #lick on ]Aes3 to wipe.out all 0uTTA session and random seed files from the =indows registry. This is a better process to delete all sa*ed 0uTTA sessions from =indows registry instead of deleting one.by.one from the 0uTTA session list.
&ore 0u112 1ips: +ur"ochar e /u++Y with 13 /owerful %dd#Lns 10 %weso!e /u++Y +ips and +ricks You /ro"a"ly .idn^t Qnow I-tre!e Sakeo(er \sin /u++Y Connection Sana er
D6
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 0. "ate &anipulation

Hack --. )et )yste# "ate and Ti#e
To change the system date use1 ) date :!!ddhh!iyyyy.ss@ mm $ /onth dd $ )ate hh $ 24 hour format mi $ /inutes yyyy $ Aear ss $ seconds
Cor e!ample( to set system date to San 31st 200-( 1011- p.m( 53 seconds ) date 0141331G300G.64
Aou can also change system date using set argument as shown below. ) date 0141331G300G.64 ) date OWYW!Wd #s 2300G01412 ) date #s 201/41/300G 33:1G:642 ) date #s 241 D%& 300G 33:1G:642 ) date set0241 D%& 300G 33:1G:642
D,
Linux 101 Hacks
To set the time only1 ) date OW+ #s 233:1G:642 ) date OW+Wp #s 210:1G:64/S2
Hack -0. )et Hard*are "ate and Ti#e

8efore setting the hardware date and time( make sure the %& date and time is set appropriately as shown in pre*ious hack. &et the hardware date and time based on the system date as shown below1 ) hwclock Hsystohc ) hwclock ##systohc Hutc
Hse hwclock without any parameter( to *iew the current hardware date and time1 ) hwclock
#heck the clock file to *erify whether the system is set for HT#1 ) cat /etc/sysconfi /clock JL&I02%!erica/Los9%n eles2 \+C0false %MC0false
DD
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack -3. "isplay "ate and Ti#e in a )pecific 7or#at

The following are different ways of displaying the current date and time in *arious formats1 ; date +hu Dan 1 0F:1G:34 /$+ 300G
; date ##date02now2 +hu Dan 1 0F:30:06 /$+ 300G
; date ##date02today2 +hu Dan 1 0F:30:13 /$+ 300G
; date ##date0V1GK0#01#01 00:00:01 \+C O6 hoursV OWs 1F001 ; date VOCurrent .ate: W!/Wd/WyWnCurrent +i!e:WH:WS:W$V Current .ate: 01/01/0G Current +i!e:0F:31:51 ; date O2Wd#W!#WY2 01#01#300G ; date O2Wd/W!/WY2 01/01/300G ; date O2W%,WB Wd WY2 +hursday,Danuary 01 300G
D-
Linux 101 Hacks
The following are the different format options you can pass to the date command1 \) date 9mmJddJyy; \d day of month 901..31; \m month 901..12; \y last two digits of year 900..--; \a locale3s abbre*iated weekday name 9&un..&at; \" locale3s full weekday name( *ariable length 9&unday..&aturday; \b locale3s abbre*iated month name 9San..)ec; \8 locale3s full month name( *ariable length 9Sanuary..)ecember; \' hour 900..23; \2 hour 901..12; \A year 91-,0P;
Hack -4. "isplay /ast "ate and Ti#e

The following are *arious ways to display a past date and time1 ; date ##date0V4 seconds a oV +hu Dan 1 0F:3K:00 /$+ 300G
; date ##date021 day a o2 èd .ec 41 0F:3K:14 /$+ 300F ; date ##date021 days a o2 èd .ec 41 0F:3K:1F /$+ 300F ; date ##date021 !onth a o2 Son .ec 1 0F:3K:34 /$+ 300F
-0
Linux 101 Hacks
; date ##date021 year a o2 +ue Dan 1 0F:3K:3F /$+ 300F
; date ##date02yesterday2 èd .ec 41 0F:3K:45 /$+ 300F ; date ##date0210 !onths 3 day a o2 +hu Ye" 3F 0F:3K:51 /$+ 300F
Hack -7. "isplay 7uture "ate and Ti#e

The following e!amples shows how to display a future date and time. ; date +hu Dan 1 0F:40:0K /$+ 300G
; date ##date0V4 secondsV +hu Dan 1 0F:40:13 /$+ 300G
; date ##date0V5 hoursV +hu Dan 1 13:40:1K /$+ 300G
; date ##date0Vto!orrowV Yri Dan 3 0F:40:36 /$+ 300G
; date ##date021 day2 Yri Dan 3 0F:40:41 /$+ 300G
; date ##date021 days2 Yri Dan 3 0F:40:4F /$+ 300G
; date ##date023 days2 -1
Linux 101 Hacks
$at Dan
4 0F:40:54 /$+ 300G
; date ##date0V1 !onthV $un Ye" 1 0F:40:5F /$+ 300G
; date ##date0V1 weekV +hu Dan F 0F:40:64 /$+ 300G
; date ##date023 !onths2 $un Sar 1 0F:40:6F /$+ 300G
; date ##date023 years2 $at Dan 1 0F:41:04 /$+ 3011
; date ##date02ne-t day2 Yri Dan 3 0F:41:10 /$+ 300G
; date ##date02#1 days a o2 Yri Dan 3 0F:41:16 /$+ 300G
; date ##date02this èdnesday2 èd Dan K 00:00:00 /$+ 300G
-2
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 3. /)1@ /),@ /)-@ /)0 and /68&/TAC8&&A+"

Hack -8. /)1 < "efault Interaction /ro#pt
The default interacti*e prompt on your inu! can be modified as shown below to something useful and informati*e. 2n the following e!ample( the default 0&1 was QOs.O*ONR( which displays the shell name and the *ersion number. et us change this default beha*ior to display the username( hostname and current working directory name as shown below. #"ash#4.3; e-port /$102>u<>h >wZ 2
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cd /etc/!ail ra!esh<de(#d" /etc/!ailZ *&ote: /ro!pt chan ed to 2userna!e<hostna!e current#dirZ2 for!at,
Collowing 0&1 codes are used in this e!ample1 Ou $ Hsername Oh $ 'ostname Ow . Cull pathname of current directory. 0lease note that when you are in the home directory( this will display only L as shown abo*e
5ote that there is a space at the end in the *alue of 0&1. 0ersonally( 2 prefer a space at the end of the prompt for better readability. /ake this setting permanent by adding e!port 0&1KROuBOh OwX R to either .bashMprofile 9or; .bashrc as shown below.
-3
Linux 101 Hacks
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z (i 1/."ash9profile ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z (i 1/."ashrc *&ote: %dd e-port /$102>u<>h >wZ 2 to one of the a"o(e files,
Hack -$. /), < Continuation Interacti2e /ro#pt

" *ery long command can be broken down to multiple lines by gi*ing O at the end of the line. The default interacti*e prompt for a multi.line command is QX Q. et us change this default beha*ior to display Qcontinue.XR by using 0&2 en*ironment *ariable as shown below. ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z !yisa!chk ##silent ##force ##fast ##update#state > Z ##key9"uffer9siPe0613S ##sort9"uffer9siPe0613S > Z ##read9"uffer9siPe05S ##write9"uffer9siPe05S > Z /(ar/li"/!ys_l/"u s/R.SYB *Note: +his uses the default 2Z2 for continuation pro!pt, ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$302continue#Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z !yisa!chk ##silent ##force ##fast ##update#state > continue#Z ##key9"uffer9siPe0613S ##sort9"uffer9siPe0613S > continue#Z ##read9"uffer9siPe05S ##write9"uffer9siPe05S > continue#Z /(ar/li"/!ys_l/"u s/R.SYB *Note: +his uses the !odified 2continue#Z 2 for continuation pro!pt, -4
Linux 101 Hacks
2 found it *ery helpful and easy to read( when 2 break my long commands into multiple lines using O. 2 ha*e also seen others who don3t like to break.up long commands.
Hack 00. /)- < /ro#pt 1sed by )elect Co##and

Aou can define a custom prompt for the select loop inside a shell script( using the 0&3 en*ironment *ariable( as e!plained below.
)hell script and output >ITH81T /)-.

ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat ps4.sh select i in !on tue wed e-it do case ;i in !on8 echo 2Sonday2?? tue8 echo 2+uesday2?? wed8 echo 2èdnesday2?? e-it8 e-it?? esac done ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z ./ps4.sh 18 !on 38 tue 48 wed 58 e-it )c 1 Sonday )c 5
-5
Linux 101 Hacks
*Note: +his displays the default 2)c2 for select co!!and pro!pt,
)hell script and output >ITH /)-.

ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat ps4.sh /$402$elect a day 71#58: 2 select i in !on tue wed e-it do case ;i in !on8 echo 2Sonday2?? tue8 echo 2+uesday2?? wed8 echo 2èdnesday2?? e-it8 e-it?? esac done ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z ./ps4.sh 18 !on 38 tue 48 wed 58 e-it $elect a day 71#58: 1 Sonday $elect a day 71#58: 5 *Note: +his displays the !odified 2$elect a day 71#58:2 for select co!!and pro!pt,
-6
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 01. /)0 < /ro#pt to /refix Tracin 8utput

The 0&4 shell *ariable defines the prompt that gets displayed( when you e!ecute a shell script in debug mode 9using set .!; as shown below.
)hell script and output >ITH81T /)0.

ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat ps5.sh set #echo 2/$5 de!o script2 ls #l /etc/ T wc #l du #sh 1 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z ./ps5.sh OO echo V/$5 de!o scriptV /$5 de!o script OO ls #l /etc/ OO wc #l 354 OO du #sh /ho!e/ra!esh 5FQ /ho!e/ra!esh the
*Note: +his displays the default 2OO2 while tracin output usin set #-,
)hell script and output >ITH /)0.

The 0&4 defined below in the ps4.sh has the following two codes1 N0 . indicates the name of script N 25:5% . displays the current line number within the script
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat ps5.sh -,
Linux 101 Hacks
e-port /$50V;0.;LB&I&LO V set #echo 2/$5 de!o script2 ls #l /etc/ T wc #l du #sh 1 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z ./ps5.sh ../ps5.sh.4O echo V/$5 de!o scriptV /$5 de!o script ../ps5.sh.5O ls #l /etc/ ../ps5.sh.5O wc #l 354 ../ps5.sh.6O du #sh /ho!e/ra!esh 5FQ /ho!e/ra!esh
*Note: +his displays the !odified 2:script#na!e@.:line# nu!"er@O2 while tracin the output usin set #-,
Hack 0,. /68&/TAC8&&A+"

8ash shell e!ecutes the content of the 04%/0TM#%//"5) 6ust before displaying the 0&1 *ariable. ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /MLS/+9CLSS%&.02date OWH:WS:W$2 33:0F:53 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z *Note: +his displays the /MLS/+9CLSS%&. and /$1 output on different lines,
2f you want to display the *alue of 04%/0TM#%//"5) in the same line as the 0&1( use the echo .n as shown below.
-D
Linux 101 Hacks
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /MLS/+9CLSS%&.02echo #n *;7date O WH:WS:W$8,2 *33:0F:61,ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z *Note: +his displays the /MLS/+9CLSS%&. and /$1 output on the sa!e line,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Bash $hell: +ake Control of /$1, /$3, /$4, /$5 and /MLS/+9CLSS%&.
Hack 0-. Custo#iBe 'ash /ro#pt 1sin
/)1
"isplay userna#e@ hostna#e and basena#e of directory in the pro#pt

The 0&1 in this e!ample displays following three information in the prompt1 Ou $ Hsername Oh $ 'ostname O= $ 8ase name of the current working directory
#"ash#4.3; e-port /$102>u<>h >`Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cd /etc/!ail ra!esh<de(#d" !ailZ
--
Linux 101 Hacks
"isplay current ti#e in the pro#pt

2n the 0&1 en*ironment *ariable( you can directly e!ecute any inu! command( by specifying in the format N9linu!Mcommand;. 2n the following e!ample( the command N9date; is e!ecuted to display the current time inside the prompt. ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102>u<>h *>;7date OWH:WS:W$8,Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" *11:0G:6C,Z
Aou can also use Ot to display the current time in the hh1mm1ss format as shown below1 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102>u<>h *>t,Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" *13:53:66,Z
Aou can also use OB to display the current time in 12.hour amJpm format as shown below1 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102*><, >u<>hZ 2 *05:13 /S, ra!esh<de(#d"Z
"isplay output of any co##and in the pro#pt

Aou can display output of any inu! command in the prompt. The following e!ample displays three items separated by e 9pipe; in the command prompt1 Oc1 The history number of the command Oh1 hostname NkernelM*ersion1 The output of the uname .r command from NkernelM*ersion *ariable ONG1 &tatus of the last command
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z kernel9(ersion0;7una!e #r8 100
Linux 101 Hacks
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102>AT>hT;kernel9(ersionT>;cZ 2 5K4Tde(#d"T3.C.36#15.fcG.iCFCT0Z
Create your o*n pro#pt usin 2ariable
the a2ailable codes for /)1
Hse the following codes and create your own personal 0&1 inu! prompt that is functional and suites your taste. Oa an "&#22 bell character 90,; Od the date in Q=eekday /onth )ateR format 9e.g.( QTue /ay 26f; O)aformatb . the format is passed to strftime93; and the result is inserted into the prompt string[ an empty format results in a locale.specific time representation. The braces are re@uired Oe an "&#22 escape character 9033; Oh the hostname up to the first part O' the hostname O6 the number of 6obs currently managed by the shell Ol the basename of the shell3s terminal de*ice name On newline Or carriage return Os the name of the shell( the basename of N0 9the portion following the final slash; Ot the current time in 24.hour ''1//1&& format OT the current time in 12.hour ''1//1&& format OB the current time in 12.hour amJpm format O" the current time in 24.hour ''1// format Ou the username of the current user O* the *ersion of bash 9e.g.( 2.00; O? the release of bash( *ersion ` patch le*el 9e.g.( 2.00.0; 101
Linux 101 Hacks
Ow the current working directory( with N'%/: abbre*iated with a tilde O= the basename of the current working directory( with N'%/: abbre*iated with a tilde Oc the history number of this command O^ the command number of this command ON if the effecti*e H2) is 0( a ^( otherwise a N Onnn the character corresponding to the octal number nnn OO a backslash Og begin a se@uence of non.printing characters( which could be used to embed a terminal control se@uence into the prompt Oh end a se@uence of non.printing character
1se bash shell function inside /)1 2ariable

Aou can also in*oke a bash shell function in the 0&1 as shown below. ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z function httpdcount : Z Z @ ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102>u<>h *UhttpdcountU,Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" *13,Z *Note: +his displays the total nu!"er of runnin processes, httpd ps au- T rep httpd T rep #( rep T wc #l
Aou can add the following line to your LJ.bashMprofile or LJ.bashrc to make this change permanent1 ; (i ."ash9profile function httpdcount : ps au- T rep httpd T rep #( 102 rep T wc #l
Linux 101 Hacks
@ e-port /$10V>u<>h *UhttpdcountU,Z V
5ote1 Aou can also use Qpgrep httpd e wc $lR instead of the Qps au! e grep httpd e grep .* grep e wc $lR in the abo*e httpdcount function.
1se shell script inside /)1 2ariable

Aou can also in*oke a shell script inside the 0&1 *ariable. 2n the e!ample below( the LJbinJtotalfilesi+e.sh( which calculates the total filesi+e of the current directory( is in*oked inside the 0&1 *ariable. ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat 1/"in/totalfilesiPe.sh for filesiPe in ;7ls #l . T do let totalsiPe0;totalsiPeO;filesiPe done echo #n 2;totalsiPe2 ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /%+H0;/%+H:1/"in ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z e-port /$102>u<>h *>;7totalfilesiPe.sh8 "ytes,Z 2 ra!esh<de(#d" *645 "ytes,Z cd /etc/!ail ra!esh<de(#d" *1CKGGK "ytes,Z *Note: +his e-ecutes the totalfilesiPe.sh to display the total file siPe of the current directory in the /$1 pro!pt, rep 2N#2 T awk V:print ;6@V8
Aou can also write the LJbinJtotalfilesi+e.sh as shown below without the for loop. 103
Linux 101 Hacks
ra!esh<de(#d" 1Z cat 1/"in/totalfilesiPe.sh ls #l T awk V/N#/ : su!O0;6 @ I&. : printf su! @V
Hack 00. Colorful 'ash /ro#pt 1sin

Chan e fore round color of the pro#pt
/)1
)isplay prompt in blue color( along with username( host and current directory information . Hse the following is for light blue prompt1 ; e-port /$102>e*0?45!>u<>h >wZ >e*! 2
Hse the following for dark blue prompt1 ; e-port /$102>e*1?45!>u<>h >wZ >e*! 2 Oeg . 2ndicates the beginning of color prompt ![ym . 2ndicates color code. Hse the color code *alues mentioned below. Oegm . indicates the end of color prompt
#olor #ode Table1 8lack 0[30 8lue 0[34 7reen 0[32 #yan 0[36 4ed 0[31 0urple 0[35 8rown 0[33 104
Linux 101 Hacks
g5ote1 4eplace 0 with 1 for dark colorh /ake the color change permanent by adding the following lines your LJ.bashMprofile or LJ.bashrc ; (i 1/."ash9profile $+%M+CLLLM0V>e*0?45!V? I&.CLLLM02>e*0!2 e-port /$102;$+%M+CLLLM>u<>h >wZ ;I&.CLLLM2
Chan e back round color of the pro#pt

#hange the background color by specifying Oegacodebm in the 0&1 prompt as shown below. Hse the following for ight 7ray background1 ; e-port /$102>e*5K!>u<>h >wZ >e*! 2
Co#bination of back round and fore round

Hse the following for ight 8lue foreground and ight 7ray background ; e-port /$102>e*0?45!>e*5K!>u<>h >wZ >e*! 2
"dd the following to your LJ.bashMprofile or LJ.bashrc to make the abo*e background and foreground color permanent. ; (i 1/."ash9profile $+%M+YGCLLLM0V>e*0?45!V? $+%M+BGCLLLM02>e*5K!2 I&.CLLLM02>e*0!2 e-port /$102;$+%M+YGCLLLM;$+%M+BGCLLLM>u<>h >wZ ;I&.CLLLM2
0lay around by using the following background color and choose the one that match your taste1 105
Linux 101 Hacks
Oeg40m Oeg41m Oeg42m Oeg43m Oeg44m Oeg45m Oeg46m Oeg4,m
"isplay #ultiple colors in the pro#pt

Aou can also display multiple colors in the same prompt. "dd the following function to your LJ.bashMprofile function pro!pt : local BL\I02>*>044*0?45!>,2 local .%MQ9BL\I02>*>044*1?45!>,e local MI.0e>*>044*0?41!>,e local .%MQ9MI.0e>*>044*1?41!>,e local &L9CLLLM0e>*>044*0!>,e case ;+IMS in -ter!RTr-(tR8 +B+LIB%M0^>*>044,0?>u<>h:>w>00K>,^ ?? R8 +B+LIB%M0e2 ?? esac /$10e>u<>h *>t,Z e /$10e;:+B+LIB%M@> ;BL\I>u<>h ;MI.*>t,Z;&L9CLLLM e /$30^continue#Z ] /$50^;0.;LB&I&LO ] 106
Linux 101 Hacks
Aou can re.login for the changes to take effect or source the .bashMprofile as shown below. ;. ./."ash9profile ; pro!pt ra!esh<de(#d" *14:03:14,Z
Chan e the pro#pt color usin
tput
Aou can also change color of the 0&1 prompt using tput as shown below1 ; e-port /$102>*;7tput "old8;7tput set" 58;7tput setaf K8>,>u<>h:>w ; >*;7tput s r08>,f
tput #olor #apabilities1 tput setab g1.,h . &et a background color using "5&2 escape tput setb g1.,h . &et a background color tput setaf g1.,h . &et a foreground color using "5&2 escape tput setf g1.,h . &et a foreground color
tput Te!t /ode #apabilities1 tput bold . &et bold mode tput dim . turn on half.bright mode tput smul . begin underline mode tput rmul . e!it underline mode tput re* . Turn on re*erse mode tput smso . :nter standout mode 9bold on r!*t; tput rmso . :!it standout mode tput sgr0 . Turn off all attributes 10,
Linux 101 Hacks
#olor #ode for tput1 0 $ 8lack 1 $ 4ed 2 $ 7reen 3 $ Aellow 4 $ 8lue 5 $ /agenta 6 $ #yan , . =hite
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Bash $hell /$1: 10 I-a!ples to Sake Your Linu- /ro!pt like %n elina Dolie Additional tput Examples: G \&Ba / Linu- tput I-a!ples: Control Your +er!inal Color and Cursor
10D
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 4. Archi2e and Co#pression

Hack 03. Cip Co##and 'asics
Ho* to Bip #ultiple filesJ
synta-: Pip :.Pip file#na!e@ :file#na!es@
) Pip (ar#lo #files.Pip /(ar/lo /R addin : (ar/lo /acpid 7deflated F1W8 addin : (ar/lo /anaconda.lo addin : (ar/lo /anaconda.-lo addin : (ar/lo /"oot.lo 7deflated KGW8 7deflated K4W8 7deflated F3W8 addin : (ar/lo /anaconda.syslo
addin : (ar/lo /audit/ 7stored 0W8 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /"oot.lo .1 7deflated 50W8 addin : (ar/lo /"oot.lo .3 7deflated 53W8 addin : (ar/lo /"oot.lo .4 7deflated 50W8 addin : (ar/lo /"oot.lo .5 7deflated 50W8
Ho* to Bip a directory and itVs files recursi2elyJ

) Pip #r (ar#lo #dir.Pip /(ar/lo / updatin : (ar/lo / 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /wt!p 7deflated KFW8 addin : (ar/lo /scrollkeeper.lo 7deflated G5W8 addin : (ar/lo /rp!pk s.4 7deflated CFW8 addin : (ar/lo /spooler 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /cron.3 7deflated G0W8 10-
Linux 101 Hacks
addin : (ar/lo /spooler.1 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /spooler.5 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /httpd/ 7stored 0W8 addin : (ar/lo /rp!pk s.1 7deflated CFW8 addin : (ar/lo /anaconda.lo 7deflated KGW8 addin : (ar/lo /secure.3 7deflated G4W8
Ho* to unBip a E.Bip co#pressed fileJ

) unPip (ar#lo .Pip %rchi(e: (ar#lo .Pip inflatin : (ar/lo /acpid inflatin : (ar/lo /anaconda.lo inflatin : (ar/lo /anaconda.syslo inflatin : (ar/lo /anaconda.-lo creatin : (ar/lo /audit/
To see a detailed output during un+ip pass the $* option as shown below. ) unPip #( (ar#lo .Pip %rchi(e: (ar#lo .Pip Len th Sethod $iPe Matio .ate +i!e ######## ###### ####### ##### 4CG F1W KGW 1G1C .efl:& (ar/lo /acpid CMC#43 #### #### &a!e ###### e3ffdc0c 45cc04a1
03#0F#0F 15:3K 03#03#0K 15:36
1465C .efl:& 3G00 (ar/lo /anaconda.lo skip.. KCF0 .efl:& (ar/lo /wt!p.1 511
G6W
13#40#0F 10:66 110
feFKCeeG
Linux 101 Hacks
50GF1 .efl:& K4G6 (ar/lo /aor .0.lo ######## 5150CGG1 6C files
F3W
03#0F#0F 15:3F ### G4W
C4FCaG6e
####### 3F0G33G
Ho* to list a content of Bip file *ith unco#pressin

) unPip #l (ar#lo .Pip %rchi(e: Len th ######## 1G1C 1465C ..skip.. 50GF1 50GF1 ######## 5150CGG1 03#0F#0F 15:3F 03#0F#0K 15:6C (ar/lo /aor .0.lo (ar/lo /aor .0.lo .old ####### 6C files (ar#lo .Pip .ate #### +i!e #### &a!e #### (ar/lo /acpid (ar/lo /anaconda.lo
itJ
03#0F#0F 15:3K 03#03#0K 15:36
Hack 04. Cip Co##and Ad2anced Co#pression

There are 10 le*els of compression pro*ided by +ip command. e*el 0 is the lowest le*el( where it 6ust archi*es the file without any compression. e*el 1 will perform little compression. 8ut( will be *ery fast. e*el 6 is the default le*el of compression.
111
Linux 101 Hacks
e*el - is the ma!imum compression. This will be slower when compared to default le*el. 2n my opinion( unless you are compressing a huge file( you should always use le*el -.
2n the e!ample below( 2 used e*el 0( default e*el 6( and e*el compression on a same directory. &ee the compressed file si+e yourself. ) Pip (ar#lo #files#default.Pip /(ar/lo /R ) Pip #0 (ar#lo #files#0.Pip /(ar/lo /R ) Pip #G (ar#lo #files#G.Pip /(ar/lo /R ) ls #ltr #rw#r##r## 1 root root (ar#lo #files#default.Pip #rw#r##r## 1 root (ar#lo #files#0.Pip #rw#r##r## 1 root (ar#lo #files#G.Pip root root 3F1K35F Dan 51516401 Dan 36F3C10 Dan 1 14:06 1 14:06 1 14:0C
%alidate a Bip archi2e

&ometime you may want to *alidate a +ip archi*e without e!tracting it. To test the *alidity of the +ip file( pass option $t as shown below. ) unPip #t (ar#lo .Pip %rchi(e: (ar#lo .Pip LQ LQ LQ
testin : (ar/lo /acpid testin : (ar/lo /anaconda.lo testin : (ar/lo /anaconda.syslo skip... testin : (ar/lo /wt!p 112
LQ
Linux 101 Hacks
testin : (ar/lo /wt!p.1 testin : (ar/lo /aor .0.lo
LQ LQ
5o errors detected in compressed data of *ar.log.+ip.
Hack 07. /ass*ord /rotection of Cip files

0ass the option $0 to the +ip command to assign a password to the +ip file. ) Pip #/ !ysecurepwd (ar#lo #protected.Pip /(ar/lo /R
The abo*e option is good if you are using the command inside a shell. script for background 6obs. 'owe*er( when you are performing the compression interacti*ely on the command.line( you don3t want the password to be *isible in the history. &o( use the option $e as shown below to assign the password. ) Pip #e (ar#lo #protected.Pip /(ar/lo /R Inter password: 'erify password: updatin : (ar/lo /acpid 7deflated F1W8 updatin : (ar/lo /anaconda.lo 7deflated KGW8
=hen you are uncompressing a password protected file( it will ask for the password as shown below. ) unPip %rchi(e: (ar#lo #protected.Pip (ar#lo #protected.Pip
*(ar#lo #protected.Pip, (ar/lo /acpid password:
Hack 08. Tar Co##and 5xa#ples

tar command 9tape archi*e; is used to con*ert a group of files into an archi*e. 113
Linux 101 Hacks
&ynta!1 tar *options, *tar#archi(e#na!e, *other#file#na!es,
Ho* can I create a sin le backup file of all files and subdirectories under #y ho#e directoryJ
The following command creates a single archi*e backup file called myMhomeMdirectory.tar under Jtmp. This archi*e will contain all the files and subdirectories under JhomeJ6smith. %ption c( stands for create an archi*e. %ption * stands for *erbose mode( displays additional information while e!ecuting the command. %ption f indicates the archi*e file name mentioned in the command.
) tar c(f /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar /ho!e/Es!ith
Ho* do I 2ie* all the files inside the tar archi2eJ

%ption t will display all the files from the tar archi*e. ) tar t(f /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar
Ho* do I extract all the files fro# a tar archi2eJ

%ption ! will e!tract the files from the tar archi*e as shown below. This will e!tract the content to the current directory location from where the command is e!ecuted. ) tar -(f /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar
Ho* do I extract tar. B files to a specific directoryJ

) tar -(fP /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar. P HC /ho!e/ra!esh
114
Linux 101 Hacks
Additional 1ar Examples: +he \lti!ate +ar Co!!and +utorial with 10 /ractical I-a!ples
Hack 0$. Co#bine

Ho* to use
Bip@ bBip, *ith Tar
Bip *ith tarJ
"dd option + to the tar command when dealing with tar.g+ compressed file. ) tar c(fP /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar. P /ho!e/Es!ith ) tar -(fP /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar. P ) tar t(fP /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar. P 5ote1 Hsing g+ip is faster when compared to b+ip2.
Ho* to use bBip, *ith tarJ

"dd option 6 to the tar command when dealing with tar.b+2 compressed file. ) tar c(fE /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar."P3 /ho!e/Es!ith ) tar -(fE /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar."P3 ) tar t(fE /t!p/!y9ho!e9directory.tar."P3 5ote1 Hsing bi+p2 gi*es higher le*el of compression when compared to g+ip.
115
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 30. 'C is 5aByD 'BE Co##and 5xa#ples

b+ip2 command is used for compression and decompression of files. The main ad*antage of b+ip2 is the best compression si+e. b+ip2 *s g+ip1 b+ip2 will compress better than g+ip. &peed of b+ip2 is somewhat slower than g+ip and +ip. b+ip2 pro*ides high rate of compression with reasonable speed.
There are se*eral inu! b+ commands a*ailable to manipulate the b+ip2 files. This hack e!plains *arious b+ commands with 6 practical e!amples.
Co#pressin
a file usin
bBip,
=hen you compress a file using b+ip2 command( it creates a compressed file with U.b+2 e!tension as shown below. ; "Pip3 trace ; ls #l trace."P3 #rw#r##r## 1 root root 651CK Dan 34 300G trace."P3
)earch operation in bBip, file usin
bB rep
b+grep command is used to search for a string or a pattern 9regular e!pression; on b+ip2 compressed files. b+grep will apply grep to data from files in the b+ip2 format without re@uiring on.disk decompression. &o all the options of a grep command will be applied for b+grep also. &ynta!1 "P rep rep#options #e pattern filena!e 116
Linux 101 Hacks
2n the below e!ample( trace.b+2 is a compressed trace file which is of si+e 5D/. ; "P rep #i 2CL&$LLI0.R2 3010#10#11+0F:50:3F.100 3010#10#11+0F:50:3G.KK3 3010#10#11+0F:50:6F.150 3010#10#11+0F:51:3K.65K 3010#10#11+0F:51:6K.GC3 3010#10#11+0F:53:3F.4G3 3010#10#11+0F:53:6K.K31 trace."P3 s71CGF68: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K0418: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K0GG8: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K1C58: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K3448: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K3G58: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0 s71K54G8: CL&$LLI0/de(/pts/0
2f b+grep is not there( you ha*e to decompress the file manually and do a grep on that( where b+grep does this process internally and gi*es you the re@uired output. b+egrep and b+fgrep commands will apply egrep and fgrep operation on b+ip2 files respecti*ely.
%ie* the bBip, file usin
bBcat
2f you want only to read the compressed file without decompressing it( use the b+cat command as shown below. ; "Pcat trace."P3 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:53 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/ C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ 7LpC60#168 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:5K 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/ C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ 7LpC60#168 Metry. 7LpC61#338 .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9C 7LpC60#168 . 11,
Linux 101 Hacks
. b+cat command displays the uncompressed content into standard output file for the users to *iew the content.
/a in
bBip, co#pressed file *ith bBless ! bB#ore
b+less and b+more command allows you to *iew the content of b+ip2 compressed files page by page. b+more works on files compressed with b+ip2 and also on uncompressed files. ; "Pless trace."P3 ; "P!ore trace."P3 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:53 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/ C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ 7LpC60#168 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:5K 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/ C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ 7LpC60#168 Metry. 7LpC61#338 .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/.L/C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9C 7LpC60#168 . . ##Sore##
Co#pare bBip, files usin
bBc#p
Aou can compare two b+ip2 compressed file using b+cmp command. 2t internally uses cmp command to compare the content of the compressed contents. 'ere you can see the output of comparison of the two normal files and compressed files. 11D
Linux 101 Hacks
; c!p $yste!.t-t.001 $yste!.t-t.003 $yste!.t-t.001 $yste!.t-t.003 differ: "yte 30, line 3 ; "Pc!p $yste!.t-t.001."P3 $yste!.t-t.003."P3 # /t!p/"Pdiff.cs _G4303G differ: "yte 30, line 3
7ind the difference bet*een t*o bBip, files usin
bBdiff
2n inu!( diff command will compare two files and gi*e you the lowdown on 6ust how different they are. 2f you gi*e b+2 files to diff command( it will not be in a position to e!plain the difference. Cor b+ip2 compressed files( b+diff command gi*es the differences of two b+ip2 compressed files as shown below. ; "Pdiff $yste!.t-t.001."P3 $yste!.t-t.003."P3 3c3 [ 0: IMM: Son $ep 3K 13:1G:45 3010: s711164/1106F350C58: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C65: una"le to e-tend inde- L/C9L/.L/Ca 9%&&L9&\S "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9B&.Ia1 ### Z 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:53 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/. L/C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9C 5,6c5 [ Metry. 7LpC61#338 [ .ata"ase: LM%#01C65: una"le to e-tend indeL/C9L/.L/Ca9%&&L9&\S "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9B&.Ia1 ### Z 0: IMM: èd $ep 33 0G:6G:5K 3010: s711164/5KK63CKKKG5C508: *chk9s_lcode.scp:G3,: .ata"ase: LM%#01C64: una"le to e-tend ta"le L/C9L/. L/C9HB$+9SI$$%GI$ "y C5 in ta"lespace L/C9C
11-
Linux 101 Hacks
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: "Pip3, "P rep, "Pc!p, "Pdiff, "Pcat, "Pless, "P!ore e-a!ples
Hack 31. Cpio 5xa#ples

cpio command is used to process archi*e files 9for e!ample( U.cpio or U.tar files;. cpio stands for Qcopy in( copy outR. cpio performs the following three operations. 1. #opying files to an archi*e 2. :!tracting files from an archi*e 3. 0assing files to another directory tree cpio takes the list of files from the standard input while creating an archi*e( and sends the output to the standard output.
Create E.cpio Archi2e 7ile

Aou can create a U.cpio archi*e that contains files and directories using cpio .o* ; cd o"Eects ; ls file1.o file3.o file4.o ; ls T cpio #o( Z /t!p/o"Eect.cpio
120
Linux 101 Hacks
"s seen abo*e( the ls command passes the three ob6ect filenames to cpio command and cpio generates the ob6ect.cpio archi*e.
5xtract E.cpio Archi2e 7ile

cpio e!tract1 To e!tract a gi*en U.cpio file( use cpio .i* as shown below. ; !kdir output ; cd output ; cpio #id( [ /t!p/o"Eect.cpio
Create E.cpio Archi2e *ith )elected 7iles

The following e!ample creates a U.cpio archi*e only with U.c files. ; find . #ina!e R.c #print T cpio #o( Z/t!p/c9files.cpio
Create E.tar Archi2e 7ile usin
cpio <7
=e already know how to use the tar command effecti*ely. )id you know that you can also use cpio command to create tar files as shown belowG ; ls T cpio #o( #H tar #Y sa!ple.tar
"s seen abo*e( instead of redirecting the standard output you can mention the output archi*e filename with the option .C.
5xtract E.tar Archi2e 7ile usin
cpio co##and
Aou can also e!tract a tar file using cpio command as shown below. ; cpio #id( #Y sa!ple.tar
121
Linux 101 Hacks
%ie* the content of E.tar Archi2e 7ile

To *iew the content of U.tar file( do the following.
; cpio #it #Y sa!ple.tar
Create a E.cpio Archi2e *ith the 8ri inal files that a )y#bolic Link /oints
cpio archi*e can be created with the original files that a symbolic link is referring to as shown below. ; ls T cpio #oL( Z/t!p/test.cpio
/reser2e the 7ile &odification Ti#e *hile restorin
E.cpio
The modification time of the files can be preser*ed when we are restoring the cpio archi*e files as shown below. ; ls T cpio #o!( Z/t!p/test.cpio
Copy "irectory Tree fro# 8ne to Another

cpio allows you to copy one directory contents into another directory without creating an intermediate archi*e. 2t reads the file list from the standard input and pass it to the target directory. The e!ample below copies the files and sub.directories of ob6ects directory into JmntJout directory. ; !kdir /!nt/out ; cd o"Eects ; find . #depth T cpio #p!d( /!nt/out
2n the abo*e e!ample1 122
Linux 101 Hacks
cpio option .p makes cpio to use pass through mode. 2ts like piping cpio .o into cpio .i. cpio option .d creates leading directories as needed in the target directory.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Linu- cpio I-a!ples: How to Create and I-tract cpio %rchi(es 7and tar archi(es8 Additional cpio Examples: How to 'iew, Sodify and Mecreate initrd.i! Co!!and \sin cpio
123
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 7. Co##and Line History

Hack 3,. 'ash Co##and Line History 5xa#ples
=hen you are using inu! command line fre@uently( using the history effecti*ely can be a ma6or producti*ity boost. 2n fact( once you ha*e mastered the 15 e!amples that 23*e pro*ided here( you3ll find using command line more en6oyable and fun.
)earch the history usin
ControlR6
2 strongly belie*e that this may be your most fre@uently used feature of history. =hen you3*e already e!ecuted a *ery long command( you can simply search history using a keyword and re.e!ecute the same command without ha*ing to type it fully. 0ress #ontrol`4 and type the keyword. 2n the following e!ample( 2 searched for red( which displayed the pre*ious command Qcat JetcJredhat.releaseR in the history that contained the word red. ) *&ote: /ress CtrlOM fro! the co!!and pro!pt, which will display the re(erse#i#search pro!pt as shown "elow, 7re(erse#i#search8Ured]: cat /etc/redhat#release *&ote: /ress enter when you see your co!!and, which will e-ecute the co!!and fro! the history, ) cat /etc/redhat#release Yedora release G 7$ulphur8
&ometimes you want to edit a command from history before e!ecuting it. Cor e.g. you can search for httpd( which will display ser*ice httpd stop from the command history( select this command and change the stop to start and re.e!ecute it again as shown below. 124
Linux 101 Hacks
) *&ote: /ress CtrlOM fro! the co!!and pro!pt, which will display the re(erse#i#search pro!pt, 7re(erse#i#search8Uhttpd]: ser(ice httpd stop *&ote: /ress either left arrow or ri ht arrow key when you see your co!!and, which will display the co!!and for you to edit, "efore e-ecutin it, ) ser(ice httpd start
6epeat pre2ious co##and ;uickly usin #ethods
0 different
&ometime you may end up repeating the pre*ious commands for *arious reasons. Collowing are the 4 different ways to repeat the last e!ecuted command. 1. Hse the up arrow to *iew the pre*ious command and press enter to e!ecute it. 2. Type cc and press enter from the command line 3. Type c.1 and press enter from the command line. 4. 0ress #ontrol`0 will display the pre*ious command( press enter to e!ecute it
5xecute a specific co##and fro# history

2n the following e!ample( 2f you want to repeat the command ^4( e!ecute c4 as shown below. ) history T !ore 1 3 4 5 ) A5 cat /etc/redhat#release 125 ser(ice network restart e-it id cat /etc/redhat#release
Linux 101 Hacks
Yedora release G 7$ulphur8
5xecute pre2ious co##and that starts *ith a specific *ord

Type c followed by the starting few letters of the command that you would like to re.e!ecute. 2n the following e!ample( typing cps and enter( e!ecuted the pre*ious command starting with ps( which is ]ps au! e grep yp3. ) Aps ps au- T root 1CG5K rep yp 0.0 0.1 4C61C 13C5 c $l 14:10 0:00 yp"ind
Clear all the pre2ious history usin
option <c
&ometime you may want to clear all the pre*ious history. 'owe*er you may still want to keep the history mo*ing forward. ) history #c
)ubstitute *ords fro# history co##ands

=hen you are searching through history( you may want to e!ecute a different command but use the same parameter from the command that you3*e 6ust searched. 2n the e!ample below( the cc1N ne!t to the *i command gets the argument from the pre*ious command to the current command. ) ls anaconda#ks.cf anaconda#ks.cf ) (i AA:; (i anaconda#ks.cf
126
Linux 101 Hacks
2n the e!ample below( the cT ne!t to the *i command gets the first argument from the pre*ious command 9i.e cp command; to the current command 9i.e *i command;. ) cp anaconda#ks.cf anaconda#ks.cf ) (i AN (i anaconda#ks.cf anaconda#ks.cf ."ak
)ubstitute a specific ar u#ent for a specific co##and

2n the e!ample below( ccp12 searches for the pre*ious command in history that starts with cp and takes the second argument of cp and substitutes it for the ls .l command as shown below. ) cp 1/lon na!e.t-t /really/a/(ery/lon /path/lon # filena!e.t-t ) ls #l Acp:3 ls #l /really/a/(ery/lon /path/lon #filena!e.t-t
2n the e!ample below( ccp1N searches for the pre*ious command in history that starts with cp and takes the last argument 9in this case( which is also the second argument as shown abo*e; of cp and substitutes it for the ls .l command as shown below. ) ls #l Acp:; ls #l /really/a/(ery/lon /path/lon #filena!e.t-t
12,
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 3-. History 6elated 5n2iron#ent %ariables

"isplay TI&5)TA&/ in history usin HI)TTI&5786&AT
Typically when you type history from command line( it displays the command^ and the command. Cor auditing purpose( it may be beneficial to display the timestamp along with the command as shown below. ) e-port HB$++BSIYLMS%+0^WY W+ ] ) history T !ore 1 3 4 5 300F#0F#06 1G:03:4G ser(ice network restart 300F#0F#06 1G:03:4G e-it 300F#0F#06 1G:03:4G id 300F#0F#06 1G:03:4G cat /etc/redhat#release
5ote1 Aou can also setup the following alias to *iew the recent history commands. alias h10Vhistory 10V alias h30Vhistory 30V alias h40Vhistory 40V
Control the total nu#ber of lines in the history usin HI)T)IC5

"ppend the following two lines to the .bashMprofile and relogin to the bash shell again to see the change. 2n this e!ample( only 450 command will be stored in the bash history. ) (i 1/."ash9profile HB$+$BJI0560 HB$+YBLI$BJI0560 12D
Linux 101 Hacks
Chan e the history file na#e usin
HI)T7IL5
8y default( history is stored in LJ.bashMhistory file. "dd the following line to the .bashMprofile and relogin to the bash shell( to store the history command in .commandlineMwarrior file instead of .bashMhistory file. 23m yet to figure out a practical use for this. 2 can see this getting used when you want to track commands e!ecuted from different terminals using different history file name. ) (i 1/."ash9profile HB$+YBLI0/root/.co!!andline9warrior
5li#inate the continuous repeated entry fro# history usin HI)TC8+T68L

2n the following e!ample pwd was typed three times( when you do history( you can see all the 3 continuous occurrences of it. To eliminate duplicates( set '2&T#%5T4% to ignoredups as shown below. ) pwd ) pwd ) pwd ) history T tail #5 55 56 5C 5K pwd pwd pwd history T tail #5
*Note: +here are three pwd co!!ands in history, after e-ecutin pwd 4 ti!es as shown a"o(e, ) e-port HB$+CL&+MLL0i noredups ) pwd 12-
Linux 101 Hacks
) pwd ) pwd ) history T tail #4 6C 6K 6F e-port HB$+CL&+MLL0i noredups pwd history T tail #5
*Note: +here is only one pwd co!!and in the history, e(en after e-ecutin pwd 4 ti!es as shown a"o(e,
5rase duplicates across the *hole history usin HI)TC8+T68L

The ignoredups shown abo*e remo*es duplicates only if they are consecuti*e commands. To eliminate duplicates across the whole history( set the '2&T#%5T4% to erasedups as shown below. ) e-port HB$+CL&+MLL0erasedups ) pwd ) ser(ice httpd stop ) history T tail #4 4F 4G 50 ) ls #ltr ) ser(ice httpd stop 130 pwd ser(ice httpd stop history T tail #4
Linux 101 Hacks
) history T tail #C 46 4C 4K 4F 4G 50 e-port HB$+CL&+MLL0erasedups pwd history T tail #4 ls Hltr ser(ice httpd stop history T tail #C ot
*Note: +he pre(ious ser(ice httpd stop after pwd erased,
7orce history not to re#e#ber a particular co##and usin HI)TC8+T68L

=hen you e!ecute a command( you can instruct history to ignore the command by setting '2&T#%5T4% to ignorespace "5) typing a space in front of the command as shown below. 2 can see lot of 6unior sysadmins getting e!cited about this( as they can hide a command from the history. 2t is good to understand how ignorespace works. 8ut( as a best practice( don3t hide purposefully anything from history. ) e-port HB$+CL&+MLL0i norespace ) ls Hltr ) pwd ) ser(ice httpd stop of ser(ice, to
*Note: +here is a space at the "e innin i nore this co!!and fro! history, ) history T tail #4 131
Linux 101 Hacks
CK CF CG
ls Hltr pwd history T tail #4
"isable the usa e of history usin
HI)T)IC5
2f you want to disable history all together and don3t want bash shell to remember the commands you3*e typed( set the '2&T&2d: to 0 as shown below. ) e-port HB$+$BJI00 ) history ) *Note: History did not display anythin ,
I nore specific co##ands fro# the history usin HI)TI(+865

&ometimes you may not want to clutter your history with basic commands such as pwd and ls. Hse '2&T275%4: to specify all the commands that you want to ignore from the history. 0lease note that adding ls to the '2&T275%4: ignores only ls and not ls .l. &o( you ha*e to pro*ide the e!act command that you would like to ignore from the history. ) e-port HB$+BG&LMI0epwd:ls:ls Hltr:e ) pwd ) ls ) ls #ltr ) ser(ice httpd stop ) history T tail #4 KG F0 e-port HB$+BG&LMI0epwd:ls:ls #ltr:e ser(ice httpd stop 132
Linux 101 Hacks
F1
history
*Note: History did not display pwd and ls,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: 16 I-a!ples +o Saster Linu- Co!!and Line History
Hack 30. History 5xpansion 5xa#ples

Hsing history e!pansion you can pick a specific command from the history( e!ecute it as it is( or modify it and e!ecute it based on your needs. The c starts the history e!pansion. DD 4epeats the pre*ious command D10 4epeat the 10th command from the history D<, 4epeat the 2nd command 9from the last; from the history Dstrin 4epeat the command that starts with QstringR from the history DJstrin 4epeat the command that contains the word QstringR from the history Lstr1Lstr,L &ubstitute str1 in the pre*ious command with str2 and e!ecute it DD.N 7ets the last argument from the pre*ious command. Dstrin .n 7ets the nth argument from the command that starts with QstringR from the history.
DJstrin
5xa#ple
et us assume that you>*e e!ecuted the following command at some point and it is somewhere in the history. ; /usr/local/apache3/"in/apachectl restart
133
Linux 101 Hacks
ater when you want to e!ecute the same command( if you try the following it will fail because it is looking for a line that starts with QapacheR. ; Aapache #"ash: Aapache: e(ent not found
'owe*er if you do the following( it will look for any command that contains the string QapacheR and e!ecute it as shown below. ; Acapache /usr/local/apache3/"in/apachectl restart
Lstr1Lstr,L 5xa#ple
&ometimes you might check whether a file e!ists using a @uick ls command as shown below. ; ls /etc/sysconfi /network
%nce you *erify that the file e!ists( to *iew the content of the file using *i( you don>t need to type the whole file name again. 2nstead do the following( which will replace the word >ls> in the pre*ious command with the word >*i> and e!ecute the command. ; NlsN(i (i /etc/sysconfi /network
DD.N 5xa#ple
2n this e!ample( the following command takes a copy of the JetcJpasswd file to the home directory as passwd.bak. ; cp /etc/passwd /ho!e/ra!esh/passwd."ak
%nce you create the backup of the file( if you want to open the backup file( you don>t need to type the whole backup file name again. 2nstead( 134
Linux 101 Hacks
you can use the last argument of the pre*ious command along with >*i> command as shown below. ; (i AA:; (i /ho!e/ra!esh/passwd."ak
0lease note that Qc1NR is e!actly same as Qcc1NR. &o( the abo*e e!ample can also be e!ecuted as shown below. ; (i A:; (i /ho!e/ra!esh/passwd."ak
Dstrin .n 5xa#ple
=hen you e!ecute a command that has multiple arguments 9as shown in the tar command e!ample below;( you can e!tract only a specific argument from it for later use. ; tar c(fP 1/sysconfi .tar. P /etc/sysconfi /R
5ow if you want to ls the newly created tar.g+ file( you can do the following( which will take the 2nd argument of the pre*ious tar command. ; ls #l Atar:3 ls #l 1/sysconfi .tar
Additional !ash 3istory Expansion Examples: 16 Linu- Bash History I-pansion I-a!ples You $hould Qnow
135
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 8. )yste# Ad#inistration Tasks

Hack 33. /artition 1sin fdisk
"fter you3*e installed brand new disks on your ser*er( you ha*e to use tools like fdisk to partition it accordingly. Collowing are the 5 typical actions 9commands; that you can e!ecute inside fdisk. n $ 5ew 0artition creation d $ )elete an e!isting partition p . 0rint 0artition Table w $ =rite the changes to the partition table. i.e sa*e. @ $ iuit the fdisk utility
Create a partition
2n the following e!ample( 2 created a Jde*Jsda1 primary partition. ) dis" 4de54sda
Co!!and 7! for help8: p .isk /de(/sda: 3FK.0 GB, 3FK006454K55 "ytes 366 heads, C4 sectors/track, 45FG4 cylinders \nits 0 cylinders of 1C0C6 R 613 0 F3363F0 "ytes .e(ice Boot $tart Ind Blocks Bd $yste!
Co!!and 7! for help8: n Co!!and action e e-tended 136
Linux 101 Hacks
p p
pri!ary partition 71#58
/artition nu!"er 71#58: . Yirst cylinder 71#45FG4, default 18: \sin default (alue 1 Last cylinder or OsiPe or OsiPeS or OsiPeQ 71#45FG4, default 45FG48: \sin default (alue 45FG4
Co!!and 7! for help8: % +he partition ta"le has "een alteredA Callin $yncin ioctl78 to re#read partition ta"le. disks.
%erify that the partition

) fdisk /de(/sda Co!!and 7! for help8: p
ot created successfully
.isk /de(/sda: 3FK.0 GB, 3FK006454K55 "ytes 366 heads, C4 sectors/track, 45FG4 cylinders \nits 0 cylinders of 1C0C6 R 613 0 F3363F0 "ytes .e(ice Boot /de(/sda1 $tart 1 Ind 45FG4 Blocks 3F03KKGG1 Bd F4 $yste! Linu-
Co!!and 7! for help8: /
13,
Linux 101 Hacks
Additional
dis" Examples:
K Linu- fdisk Co!!and I-a!ples to Sana e Hard .isk /artition
Hack 34. 7or#at a /artition 1sin
#ke,fsk
"fter partitioning the disks( it is still not ready for usage( as we need to format the disk. "t this stage( if you try to *iew the disk information( it will gi*e the following error message indicating that no *alid superblock is present. ) tune3fs #l /de(/sda1 tune3fs 1.46 73F#Ye"#30058 tune3fs: Bad !a ic nu!"er in super#"lock while tryin open /de(/sda1 CouldnVt find (alid filesyste! super"lock. to
To format the disk( use mke2fs as shown below. ) !ke3fs /de(/sda1
Aou can also pass the following optional parameter to the mke2fs. .m 0 1 reser*ed.blocks.percentage $ This indicates the percentage of the filesystem blocks reser*ed for the root user. )efault is 5\. 2n the following e!ample( it is set to 0. .b 40-6 1 block.si+e specified in bytes. ?alid *alues are 1024( 204D and 40-6 bytes per block.
) !ke3fs #! 0 #" 50GC /de(/sda1 !ke3fs 1.46 73F#Ye"#30058 13D
Linux 101 Hacks
Yilesyste! la"el0 L$ type: LinuBlock siPe050GC 7lo 038 Yra !ent siPe050GC 7lo 038 306455 inodes, K00CG5GK "locks 0 "locks 70.00W8 reser(ed for the super user Yirst data "lock00 Sa-i!u! filesyste! "locks0K14041CF 314G "lock roups roup, 43KCF fra !ents per roup roup 43KCF "locks per GC inodes per
$uper"lock "ackups stored on "locks: 43KCF, GF405, 1C4F50, 33G4KC, 3G5G13, F1G300, FF5K4C, 1C06C43, 3C6530F, 50GC000, KGC3C35, 1134G535, 305F0000, 34FFKFK3 `ritin `ritin done inode ta"les: done super"locks and filesyste! accountin infor!ation:
+his filesyste! will "e auto!atically checked e(ery 43 !ounts or 1F0 days, whiche(er co!es first. \se tune3fs #c or #i to o(erride.
The abo*e command will create an e!t2 filesystem. To create an e!t3 file system do the following1 ) !kfs.e-t4 /de(/sda1 ) !ke3fs HE /de(/sda1
13-
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 37. &ount a /artition

"fter creating a partition and formatting( you can mount it to a mount point. Cirst create a directory where the partition should be mounted. ) !kdir /ho!e/data"ase
/ount the file system. ) !ount /de(/sda1 /ho!e/data"ase
To automatically mount the filesystem after the reboot( add the following entry to the JetcJfstab /de(/sda1 /ho!e/data"ase e-t4 defaults 0 3
Hack 38. 7ine Tune a /artition 1sin
tune,fs
Hse the tune2fs $l Jde*Jsda1 to *iew the filesystem information as shown below. ) tune3fs #l /de(/sda1 tune3fs 1.46 73F#Ye"#30058 Yilesyste! (olu!e na!e: Last !ounted on: Yilesyste! \\B.: """"aaaaae11 Yilesyste! !a ic nu!"er: Yilesyste! re(ision ): Yilesyste! features: sparse9super .efault !ount options: Yilesyste! state: /ho!e/data"ase [not a(aila"leZ f134566C#e134#1345#a"cd# 0-IY55 1 7dyna!ic8 resiPe9inode filetype 7none8 not clean 140
Linux 101 Hacks
Irrors "eha(ior: Yilesyste! L$ type: Bnode count: Block count: Meser(ed "lock count: Yree "locks: Yree inodes: Yirst "lock: Block siPe: Yra !ent siPe: Meser(ed G.+ "locks: Blocks per Bnodes per roup: roup: roup: roup: Yra !ents per
Continue Linu10G5G13 15014FGG5 0 1CF5F5F1 1015GCG 0 305F 305F 613 1C4F5 1C4F5 13F F +ue Dul +hu %u Yri Dan 3 30 +ue Dul 1 00:0C:04 300F 16663000 7C !onths8 $at .ec 3K 34:0C:04 300F 0 7user root8 0 7 roup root8 11 13F tea 13456F3G#134C#5134#Gaaa# id: 1 00:0C:04 300F 31 06:6F:36 300F 3 16:50:4C 300G
Bnode "locks per Last !ount ti!e: Last write ti!e: Sount count:
Yilesyste! created:
Sa-i!u! !ount count: Last checked: Check inter(al: &e-t check after: Meser(ed "locks uid: Meser(ed "locks Yirst inode: Bnode siPe: .efault directory hash: .irectory Hash $eed: ccccc1343G3"
141
Linux 101 Hacks
Aou can also use the tune2fs to tune the e!2Je!t3 filesystem parameter. Cor e!ample( if you want to change the Cilesystem *olume name( you can do it as shown below. ) tune3fs #l /de(/sda1 T Yilesyste! (olu!e na!e: rep (olu!e /ho!e/data"ase
) tune3fs #L data"ase#ho!e /de(/e!cpowera1 tune3fs 1.46 73F#Ye"#30058 ) tune3fs #l /de(/sda1 T Yilesyste! (olu!e na!e: rep (olu!e data"ase#ho!e
Hack 3$. Create a )*ap 7ile )yste#

#reate a file for swap usage as shown below. ) dd if0/de(/Pero of0/ho!e/swap#fs "s01S count0613 613O0 records in 613O0 records out ) ls #l /ho!e/swap#fs #rw#r##r## fs 1 root root 64CFK0G13 Dan 3 34:14 /ho!e/swap#
Hse mkswap to setup a inu! swap area in the JhomeJswap.fs file that was created abo*e. ) !kswap /ho!e/swap#fs
&etting up swapspace *ersion 1( si+e K 536D66 k8 %nce the file is created and has been setup for inu! swap area( it is time to enable the swap using swapon as shown below. 142
Linux 101 Hacks
) swapon /ho!e/swap#fs
"dd the following line to JetcJfstab and reboot the system for the swap to take into effect. /ho!e/swap#fs swap swap defaults 0 0
Additional S%ap Examples: 3 àys to %dd $wap $pace \sin dd, !kswap and swapon
Hack 40. Create a +e* 1ser

Add a ne* user = 'asic #ethod
&pecify only the user name. ) useradd Es!ith
Add a ne* user *ith additional /ara#eter

Aou can also specify the following parameter to the useradd .c 1 )escription about the user. .e 1 e!piry date of the user in mmJddJyy format
) adduser #c 2Dohn $!ith # Lracle .e(eloper2 #e 13/41/0G Es!ith
?erify that the user got added successfully. ) rep Es!ith /etc/passwd
Es!ith:-:610:610:Dohn $!ith # Lracle .e(eloper:/ho!e/Es!ith:/"in/"ash 143
Linux 101 Hacks
Chan e the user pass*ord

) passwd Es!ith Chan in password for user Es!ith. &ew \&Ba password: B%. /%$$`LM.: it is "ased on a dictionary word Metype new \&Ba password: passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.
Ho* to identify the default 2alues used by useraddJ

Collowing are the default *alues that will be used when an user is created. ) useradd H. GML\/0100 HLSI0/ho!e B&%C+B'I0#1 Ia/BMI0 $HILL0/"in/"ash $QIL0/etc/skel
Additional 6ser #reation Examples: +he \lti!ate Guide to Create \sers in Linu- / \ni+he \lti!ate Guide for Creatin $tron /asswords
144
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 41. Create a +e* (roup

Create a ne* de2eloper
) roupadd de(elopers
roup
?alidate that the group was created successfully. ) rep de(eloper /etc/ roup
de(elopers:-:611:
Add an user to an existin
roup
Aou cannot use useradd to modify an e!isting user( as you3ll get the following error message. ) useradd #G de(elopers Es!ith useradd: user Es!ith e-ists ) user!od # de(elopers Es!ith
%alidate the users

)
roup *as #odified successfully
rep Es!ith /etc/passwd
Es!ith:-:610:611:Lracle .e(eloper:/ho!e/Es!ith:/"in/"ash ) id Es!ith uid06107Es!ith8 ) id06117de(elopers8 roups06117de(elopers8
rep Es!ith /etc/ roup
Es!ith:-:610: de(elopers:-:611:Es!ith
145
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 4,. )etup ))H /ass*ordless Lo in in 8pen))H

Aou can login to a remote inu! ser*er without entering password in 3 simple steps using ssky.keygen and ssh.copy.id as e!plained in this e!ample. ssh.keygen creates the public and pri*ate keys. ssh.copy.id copies the local.host3s public key to the remote.host3s authori+edMkeys file. ssh. copy.id also assigns proper permission to the remote.host3s home( LJ.ssh( and LJ.sshJauthori+edMkeys.
)tep 1. Create public and pri2ate keys usin on local<host

Es!ith<local#host; ssh#key en Generatin pu"lic/pri(ate rsa key pair. Inter file in which to sa(e the key 7/ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa8:*Inter key,
ssh<key< en
Inter passphrase 7e!pty for no passphrase8: */ress enter key, Inter sa!e passphrase a ain: */ess enter key, Your identification has "een sa(ed in /ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa. Your pu"lic key has "een sa(ed in /ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa.pu". +he key fin erprint is: 44:"4:fe:af:G6:G6:1F:11:41:d6:de:GC:3f:f3:46:fG Es!ith<local#host
)tep ,. Copy the public key to re#ote<host usin copy<id
ssh<
Es!ith<local#host; ssh#copy#id #i 1/.ssh/id9rsa.pu" re!ote#host Es!ith<re!ote#host^s password: 146
Linux 101 Hacks
&ow try lo in into the !achine, with fssh ]re!ote# hostê, and check in: .ssh/authoriPed9keys to !ake sure we ha(en^t added e-tra keys that you weren^t e-pectin .
+ote. ssh.copy.id appends the keys to the remote.host3s .sshJauthori+edMkey.
)tep -. Lo in to re#ote<host *ithout enterin pass*ord

Es!ith<local#host; ssh re!ote#host
the
Last lo in: $un &o( 1C 1K:33:44 300F fro! 1G3.1CF.1.3 *Note: $$H did not ask for password., Es!ith<re!ote#host; *Note: You are on re!ote#host here,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: 4 $teps to /erfor! $$H Lo in ìthout /assword \sin ssh#key en = ssh#copy#id
Hack 4-. 1se ssh<copy<id Alon a ent

1sin ssh<copy<id alon
>ith ssh<
*ith the ssh<addPssh<a ent
=hen no *alue is passed for the option .i and 2f LJ.sshJidentity.pub is not a*ailable( ssh.copy.id will display the following error message. Es!ith<local#host; ssh#copy#id #i re!ote#host
14,
Linux 101 Hacks
/usr/"in/ssh#copy#id: IMMLM: &o identities found
2f you ha*e loaded keys to the ssh.agent using the ssh.add( then ssh. copy.id will get the keys from the ssh.agent to copy to the remote.host. i.e( it copies the keys pro*ided by ssh.add . command to the remote. host( when you don3t pass option .i to the ssh.copy.id. Es!ith<local#host; ssh#a ent ;$HILL Es!ith<local#host; ssh#add #L +he a ent has no identities. Es!ith<local#host; ssh#add Bdentity added: /ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa 7/ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa8 Es!ith<local#host; ssh#add #L ssh#rsa %%%%B4&PaC1yc3I%%%%BBw%%%bI%sDBIBL-ftEFa$-Sa4dFtCD(SKG. aHrt/h+Yp_KkBIS\&P%pny-sHpH1tb/Lw00 /ho!e/Es!ith/.ssh/id9rsa Es!ith<local#host; ssh#copy#id #i re!ote#host Es!ith<re!ote#host^s password: &ow try lo in into the !achine, with fssh ]re!ote# hostê, and check in: .ssh/authoriPed9keys to !ake sure we ha(en^t added e-tra keys that you weren^t e-pectin . *Note: +his has added the key displayed "y ssh#add #L,
Three &inor Annoyances of ssh<copy<id

Collowing are few minor annoyances of the ssh.copy.id. 1. "efault public key. ssh.copy.id uses LJ.sshJidentity.pub as the default public key file 9i.e when no *alue is passed to option .i;. 2nstead( 2 wish it uses idMdsa.pub( or idMrsa.pub( or identity.pub as default keys. i.e 2f any one of them e!ist( it should copy that to 14D
Linux 101 Hacks
the remote.host. 2f two or three of them e!ist( it should copy identity.pub as default. 2. The a ent has no identities. =hen the ssh.agent is running and the ssh.add . returns QThe agent has no identitiesR 9i.e no keys are added to the ssh.agent;( the ssh.copy.id will still copy the message QThe agent has no identitiesR to the remote.host3s authori+edMkeys entry. 3. "uplicate entry in authoriBedAkeys. 2 wish ssh.copy.id *alidates duplicate entry on the remote.host3s authori+edMkeys. 2f you e!ecute ssh.copy.id multiple times on the local.host( it will keep appending the same key on the remote.host3s authori+edMkeys file without checking for duplicates. :*en with duplicate entries e*erything works as e!pected. 8ut( 2 would like to ha*e my authori+edMkeys file clutter free.
Hack 40. Crontab 5xa#ples

Hsing cron you can e!ecute a shell.script or inu! commands at a specific time and date. Cor e!ample a sysadmin can schedule a backup 6ob that can run e*ery day.
Ho* to add a Uob to the cronJ

) cronta" He 0 6 R R R /root/"in/"ackup.sh
This will e!ecute JrootJbinJbackup.sh at 5 a.m e*ery day.
"escription of Cron fields

Collowing is the format of the crontab file. :!inute@ :hour@ :day#of#!onth@ :!onth@ :day#of#week@ :full#path#to#shell#script@ minute1 "llowed range 0 $ 5hour1 "llowed range 0 $ 23 day.of.month1 "llowed range 0 $ 31 14-
Linux 101 Hacks
month1 "llowed range 1 $ 12. 1 K Sanuary. 12 K )ecember. )ay.of.week1 "llowed range 0 $ ,. &unday is either 0 or ,.
Crontab exa#ples
1. 4un at 12101 a.m. 1 minute after midnight e*eryday. This is a good time to run backup when the system is not under load. 1 0 R R R /root/"in/"ackup.sh
2. 4un backup e*ery weekday 9/on $ Cri; at 1115- p.m. 6G 11 R R 1,3,4,5,6 /root/"in/"ackup.sh
Collowing will also do the same. 6G 11 R R 1#6 /root/"in/"ackup.sh
3. :!ecute the command e*ery 5 minutes. R/6 R R R R /root/"in/check#status.sh
4. :!ecute at 1110 p.m on 1st of e*ery month 10 14 1 R R /root/"in/full#"ackup.sh
5. :!ecute 11 p.m on weekdays. 0 34 R R 1#6 /root/"in/incre!ental#"ackup.sh
Crontab 8ptions
The following are the a*ailable options with crontab1 crontab $e 1 :dit the crontab file. This will create a crontab( if it doesn3t e!ist 150
Linux 101 Hacks
crontab $l 1 )isplay the crontab file. crontab .r 1 4emo*e the crontab file. crontab .ir 1 This will prompt user before deleting a crontab.
Additional #ron Examples: Linu- Cronta": 16 %weso!e Cron Do" I-a!ples How to Mun Cron I(ery 6 Sinutes, $econds, Hours, .ays, Sonths Cron 's %nacron: How to $etup %nacron on Linu- 7ìth an I-a!ple8
Hack 43. )afe 6eboot 8f Linux 1sin )ys6; Fey
&a ic
The magic &ys4@ key is a key combination in the inu! kernel which allows the user to perform *arious low le*el commands regardless of the system3s state. 2t is often used to reco*er from free+es( or to reboot a computer without corrupting the filesystem. The key combination consists of "lt`&ys4@`commandkey. 2n many systems the &ys4@ key is the printscreen key. Cirst( you need to enable the &ys4@ key( as shown below. echo 212 Z /proc/sys/kernel/sysr_
List of )ys6; Co##and Feys

The following are the command keys a*ailable for "lt`&ys4@`commandkey1 151
Linux 101 Hacks
]k3 $ _ills all the process running on the current *irtual console. 3s3 $ This will attempt to sync all the mounted file system. ]b3 . 2mmediately reboot the system( without unmounting partitions or syncing. ]e3 $ &ends &27T:4/ to all process e!cept init. ]m3 $ %utput current memory information to the console. ]i3 . &end the &27_2 signal to all processes e!cept init
]r3 . &witch the keyboard from raw mode 9the mode used by programs such as I11;( to I "T: mode. 3s3 $ sync all mounted file system. ]t3 . %utput a list of current tasks and their information to the console. ]u3 . 4emount all mounted filesystems in readonly mode. ]o3 $ &hutdown the system immediately. ]p3 $ 0rint the current registers and flags to the console. ]0.-V . &ets the console log le*el( controlling which kernel messages will be printed to your console. ]f3 . =ill call oomMkill to kill process which takes more memory. ]h3 $ Hsed to display the help. 8ut any other keys than the abo*e listed will print help.
=e can also do this by echoing the keys to the JprocJsysr@.trigger file. Cor e!ample( to re.boot a system you can perform the following. echo 2"2 Z /proc/sysr_#tri er
/erfor# a )afe reboot of Linux usin
&a ic )ys6; Fey
To perform a safe reboot of a inu! computer which hangs up( do the following. This will a*oid the fsck during the ne!t re.booting. i.e 0ress "lt`&ys4@`letter highlighted below. un6aw 9take control of keyboard back from I11; t5rminate 9send &27T:4/ to all processes( allowing them to terminate gracefully;( 152
Linux 101 Hacks
k2ll 9send &272 immediately;(
to all processes( forcing them to terminate
)ync 9flush data to disk;( 1nmount 9remount all filesystems read.only;( re'oot.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: $afe Me"oot Lf Linu- \sin Qey Sa ic $ysM_
Hack 44. Linux /arted Co##and 5xa#ples

0arted is a 75H utility( which is used to manipulate the hard disk partitions. Hsing parted( you can add( delete( and edit partitions and the file systems located on those partitions. Aou can also clone partitions. This hack e!plains - practical parted command e!amples. >arnin . 0arted utility manipulates the hard disk partition table and sa*es the changes immediately. &o( don3t delete( modify( add( or do anything to your partition( if you don3t know what you are doing. Aou will lose your datac There is no undo button for your rescuec
)elect the hard disk to be parted

=hen you e!ecute parted command without any argument( by default it selects the first hard disk dri*e that is a*ailable on your system. 2n the following e!ample( it picked Jde*Jsda automatically as it is the first hard dri*e in this system.
153
Linux 101 Hacks
) parted G&\ /arted 3.4 \sin /de(/sda èlco!e to G&\ /artedA +ype VhelpV to (iew a list of co!!ands. 7parted8 +o choose a different hard disk, use the select co!!and as shown "elow. 7parted8 select /de(/sd"
2t will throw the following error message when it doesn3t find the gi*en hard disk name. Irror: Irror openin Metry/Cancelc y /de(/sd": &o !ediu! found
"isplay all /artitions 1sin
print
Hsing the print command( you can *iew all the a*ailable partitions in the selected hard disk. The print command also displays hard disk properties such as model( si+e( sector si+e and partition table as shown below. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 154 +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
Linux 101 Hacks
6 K F C G
3CCGB 3CGGB 3K0GB 4CCGB 4K0GB
3CGGB 3K0GB 4CCGB 4K0GB 600GB
3CF3SB 635SB GC.FGB 4GGGSB 140GB
lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical
e-t5 e-t5 l(! linu-#swap7(18 e-t5
Create /ri#ary /artition in )elected H"" 1sin
#kpart
mkpart command is used to create either primary or logical partition with the &T"4T and :5) disk locations. The below e!ample creates partition with si+e around 1578. The &T"4T and :5) points passed to the mkpart command are in the units of /8s. 7parted8 !kpart pri!ary 10C 1C1KG
Aou can also enable boot option on a partition as shown below. inu! reser*es 1.4 or 1.3 partition number for primary partition and the e!tended partition starts from number 5. 7parted8 set 1 "oot on
Create Lo ical /artition in )elected H"" 1sin
#kpart
Hse mkpart command to create a new partition of a specific si+e. This will create the partition of a specific type such as primary( logical or e!tended without creating the file system. 8efore creating the partition( e!ecute a print command to *iew the current layout. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos
155
Linux 101 Hacks
&u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F
$tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB
Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB
$iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB
+ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical
Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t3 dia "oot
Hse mkpart to create a new logical partition with 12,78 si+e as shown below. 7parted8 !kpart lo ical 4K3K4K 600000
:!ecute the print command to *iew the new layout as shown below. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F G $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4K4GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB 600GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB 13KGB 156 +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t3 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
Linux 101 Hacks
7parted8
Create a 7ile )yste# on /artition 1sin
#kfs
2f you use fdisk command to partition your hard disk( you need to e!it the fdisk utility( and use the mkfs e!ternal program to create a file system on the partition. 'owe*er using parted utility( you can also create filesystem. Hse the parted3s mkfs command to create a file system on a partition. Aou should be careful while doing this( as all the e!isting data in the partition will be lost during the file system creation. The supported filesystems in parted are e!t2( mips( fat16( fat32( linu!.swap( reiserfs 9if libreiserfs is installed;. et us change the file system of partition number D 9that is shown in the print output below; from e!t4 to e!t2 file system. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t5 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
15,
Linux 101 Hacks
4C5GB
600GB
14CGB
lo ical
e-t5
"s shown below( use the mkfs command to change the file system type of partition number D. mkfs command will prompt you for partition number and file system type. 7parted8 !kfs àrnin : +he e-istin file syste! will "e destroyed and all data on the partition will "e lost. .o you want to continuec Yes/&oc y /artition nu!"erc F Yile syste! typec *e-t3,c e-t3
:!ecute the print command again( to *erify that the file system type for partition number D was changed to e!2. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F G $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB 600GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB 14CGB 15D +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t3 e-t5 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
Linux 101 Hacks
7parted8
Create /artition and 7ilesyste# to ether 1sin
#kpartfs
Hsing mkpartfs parted command( you can also create a partitions with a specific filesystem. This is similar to mkpart( but with the additional feature of creating file system on a partition. 8efore mkpartfs following is the layout of the partitions. 7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
2n the following e!ample( mkpartfs will create a new fat32 partition of si+e 12,78. 7parted8 !kpartfs lo ical fat43 4K3K4K 600000
"s you see below( the partition number - is successfully created. 15-
Linux 101 Hacks
7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F G 7parted8 $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4K4GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB 600GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB 13KGB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical fat43 l"a e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
6esiBe /artition fro# 8ne )iBe to Another 1sin
resiBe
Hsing resi+e parted command( you can increase or decrease the partition si+e of a partition as shown in the e!ample below. 7parted8 resiPe G $tartc Indc *4K4GB,c 4K4GB *600GB,c 560GB
"s shown abo*e( parted command will always warn whene*er you are attempting to do something dangerous 9i.e 1 rm( resi+e( mkfs;. The si+e of partition - is actually reduced from 12,78 to ,,78. ?erify that the partition is resi+ed properly using the print command as shown below. 160
Linux 101 Hacks
7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F G $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4K4GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB 560GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB KK.4GB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical fat43 l"a e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
0arted allows you to type unambiguous abbre*iation for commands like QpR for print( QselR for select(etc.
Copy "ata fro# 8ne /artition to Another 1sin
cp
The entire data from one partition can be copied to another partition using the cp command. Aou should also remember that the content of the destination will be deleted before copy starts. /ake sure that the destination partition has enough si+e to hold the data from the source partition. Hsing the QpR command 9print; to display the current partition layout. 7parted8 p Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB 161
Linux 101 Hacks
/artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F G 10 $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4K4GB 5C1GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB 560GB 600GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 345GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB KK.4GB 4G.3GB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t3 fat43 e-t3 l"a Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
2t is recommended to unmount both source and destination partition before doing copy. 2n this e!ample we are going to copy the content from partition D to partition 10. The following shows the content of the corresponding partitions before copy. ) !ount /de(/sdaF /!nt ) cd /!nt ) ls #l total 63 #rw#r##r## 1 root root #rw#r##r## 1 root root ) u!ount /!nt ) !ount /de(/sda10 /!nt ) cd /!nt ) ls #l total 5F 162 0 3011#0G#3C 33:63 partF 30 3011#0G#3C 33:63 test.t-t
Linux 101 Hacks
#rw#r##r## 1 root root
0 3011#0G#3C 33:63 part10
Hse the parted cp command to copy partition D to partition 10 as shown below. 7parted8 cp F 10 rowin file syste!... G6W 7ti!e left 00:4F8
The following shows the content of the partition 10 after the copy. "s you see below( the content of partition D is copied o*er 9o*erwritten; to the partition 10. ) !ount /de(/sda10 /!nt ) cd /!nt ) ls #l total 63 #rw#r##r## 1 root root #rw#r##r## 1 root root 0 3011#0G#3C 33:63 partF 30 3011#0G#3C 33:63 test.t-t
5ote1 =hen you copy across partitions of different filesystem9for e!ample src 1 e!t2 and dst 1 e!t4;( the destination partition3s file system is actually con*erted to the file system of source partition 9i.e 1 e!t2; .
6e#o2e /artition fro# a )elected Hard "isk 1sin
r#
To delete an unwanted or unused partition( use the parted rm command and specify the partition number as shown below. 7parted8 r! /artition nu!"erc G 7parted8
"s you see below( the partition number - is now deleted. 163
Linux 101 Hacks
7parted8 print Sodel: %+% `.C `.6000B/'+#K 7scsi8 .isk /de(/sda: 600GB $ector siPe 7lo ical/physical8: 613B/50GCB /artition +a"le: !sdos &u!"er 1 3 4 5 6 C K F $tart 105GkB 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 3CCGB 41CGB 435GB 455GB Ind 10CSB 16.FGB 3CCGB 600GB 41CGB 435GB 455GB 4C5GB $iPe 106SB 16.KGB 361GB 34GB 60.0GB KGGGSB 30.0GB 30.0GB +ype pri!ary pri!ary pri!ary e-tended lo ical lo ical lo ical lo ical e-t5 linu-#swap7(18 e-t5 e-t3 Yilesyste! Yla s fat1C ntfs ntfs dia "oot
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: G Linu- /arted Co!!and I-a!ples H !kpart, !kpartfs, resiPe partitions
Hack 47. 6sync Co##and 5xa#ples

rsync stands for remote sync. rsync is used to perform the backup operation in H52I J inu!. rsync utility is used to synchroni+e the files and directories from one location to another in an effecti*e way. 8ackup location could be on local ser*er or on remote ser*er.
164
Linux 101 Hacks
I#portant features of rsync

)peed1 Cirst time( rsync replicates the whole content between the source and destination directories. 5e!t time( rsync transfers only the changed blocks or bytes to the destination location( which makes the transfer really fast. )ecurity1 rsync allows encryption of data using ssh protocol during transfer. Less 'and*idth1 rsync uses compression and decompression of data block by block at the sending and recei*ing end respecti*ely. &o the bandwidth used by rsync will be always less compared to other file transfer protocols. /ri2ile es1 5o special pri*ileges are re@uired to install and e!ecute rsync
&ynta! 1 ; rsync options source destination
&ource and destination could be either local or remote. 2n case of remote( specify the login name( remote ser*er name and location.
)ynchroniBe T*o "irectories in a Local )er2er

To sync two directories in a local computer( use the following rsync .+*r command. ; rsync #P(r /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/ /root/te!p "uildin s(a.-!l s(B.-!l . sent 3C4F6 "ytes recei(ed 10GF "ytes speedup is 1.C4 65GCC.00 "ytes/sec total siPe is 55FCK file list ... done
2n the abo*e rsync e!ample1 165
Linux 101 Hacks
.+ is to enable compression .* *erbose .r indicates recursi*e
5ow let us see the timestamp on one of the files that was copied from source to destination. "s you see below( rsync didn3t preser*e timestamps during sync. ; ls #l /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/s(a.-!l /root/te!p/s(a.-!l #r##r##r## 1 "in "in G5G Dun 1F 300G /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/s(a.-!l #r##r##r## 1 root "in G5G $ep 3 300G /root/te!p/s(a.-!l
/reser2e ti#esta#ps durin

4ecursi*e mode 0reser*es symbolic links 0reser*es permissions 0reser*es timestamp 0reser*es owner and group
)ync usin
rsync <a
rsync option .a indicates archi*e mode. .a option does the following(
5ow( e!ecuting the same command pro*ided in e!ample 1 98ut with the rsync option .a; as shown below1 ; rsync #aP( /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/ /root/te!p/ "uildin ./ s(a.-!l s(B.-!l . sent 3C5GG "ytes recei(ed 1105 "ytes speedup is 1.C4 166 6630C.00 "ytes/sec total siPe is 55FCK file list ... done
Linux 101 Hacks
"s you see below( rsync preser*ed timestamps during sync. ; ls #l /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/s(a.-!l /root/te!p/s(a.-!l #r##r##r## 1 root "in G5G Dun 1F 300G /(ar/opt/installation/in(entory/s(a.-!l #r##r##r## 1 root "in /root/te!p/s(a.-!l G5G Dun 1F 300G
)ynchroniBe 8nly 8ne 7ile

To copy only one file( specify the file name to rsync command( as shown below. ; rsync #( /(ar/li"/rp!//u"keys /root/te!p/ /u"keys sent 53 "ytes recei(ed 134F0 "ytes speedup is 0.GG 465G.15 "ytes/sec
total siPe is 133FF
)ynchroniBe 7iles 7ro# Local to 6e#ote

rsync allows you to synchroni+e filesJdirectories between the local and remote system. ; rsync #a(P /root/te!p/ the eekstuff<1G3.1CF.300.10:/ho!e/the eekstuff/te!p/ /assword: "uildin ./ rp!/ rp!/Basena!es rp!/Conflictna!e sent 16F103C1 "ytes "ytes/sec recei(ed 513 "ytes 16, 3543511.34 file list ... done
Linux 101 Hacks
total siPe is 56406G6F
speedup is 3.FK
=hile doing synchroni+ation with the remote ser*er( you need to specify username and ip.address of the remote ser*er. Aou should also specify the destination directory on the remote ser*er. The format is usernameBmachinename1path "s you see abo*e( it asks for password while doing rsync from local to remote ser*er. &ometimes you don3t want to enter the password while backing up files from local to remote ser*er. Cor e!ample( 2f you ha*e a backup shell script( that copies files from local to remote ser*er using rsync( you need the ability to rsync without ha*ing to enter the password. To do that( setup ssh password less login as we e!plained earlier.
)ynchroniBe 7iles 7ro# 6e#ote to Local

=hen you want to synchroni+e files from remote to local( specify remote path in source and local path in target as shown below. ; rsync #a(P the eekstuff<1G3.1CF.300.10:/(ar/li"/rp! /root/te!p /assword: recei(in rp!/ rp!/Basena!es . sent 50C "ytes "ytes/sec recei(ed 16F10340 "ytes speedup is 3.FK 3543506.65 file list ... done
total siPe is 56406G6F
16D
Linux 101 Hacks
Additional RS2N# Examples: How to Backup Linu-c 16 rsync Co!!and I-a!ples C rsync I-a!ples to I-clude Sultiple Yiles and .irectories usin e-clude#fro!
Hack 48. Chkconfi
Co##and 5xa#ples
#hkconfig command is used to setup( *iew( or change ser*ices that are configured to start automatically during the system startup. This hack contains , practical e!amples that e!plains how to use the chkconfig command.
Check )er2ice )tartup status fro# )hell )cript

=hen you e!ecute chkconfig command only with the ser*ice name( it returns true if the ser*ice is configured for startup. The following code snippet shows how to check whether a ser*ice is configured for startup or not from a shell script. ) (i check.sh chkconfi chkconfi network == echo 2&etwork ser(ice is confi ured2 Eunk == echo 2Dunk ser(ice is confi ured2
) ./check.sh &etwork ser(ice is confi ured
Aou can also specifically check whether it is configured for a particular run le*el or not. ) (i check1.sh chkconfi network ##le(el 4 == echo 2&etwork ser(ice is confi ured for le(el 42 16-
Linux 101 Hacks
chkconfi network ##le(el 1 == echo 2&etwork ser(ice is confi ured for le(el 12 ) ./check1.sh &etwork ser(ice is confi ured for le(el 4
%ie* Current )tatus of )tartup )er2ices

The $list option displays all the ser*ices with the current startup configuration status. ) chkconfi a"rtd 0:off acpid 0:off atd ... 0:off ##list 1:off 1:off 1:off 3:off 3:off 3:off 4:on 4:off 4:on 5:off 5:off 5:on 6:on 6:off 6:on C:off C:off C:off
To *iew only the ser*ices that are configured to be started during system startup( do the following. 0lease note that this assumes that your system startup le*el is 3. chkconfi ##list T rep 4:on
To *iew the startup configuration of a particular ser*ice( grep the output of ]chkconfig $list3 for that ser*ice. chkconfi ##list T rep network
Add a ne* )er2ice to the )tartup

Hse $add option to add a specific ser*ice to the list of ser*ices that will be started during system reboot. The following e!ample shows how to add a new ser*ice 9for e!ample( iptables; to the list of ser*ices that needs to be started. The ]chkconfig $ add3 command will also turn on le*el 2( 3( 4 and 5 automatically as shown below. 1,0
Linux 101 Hacks
) chkconfi ) chkconfi ) chkconfi
##list T
rep ipta"les
##add ipta"les ##list T 0:off rep ipta"les 1:off 3:on 4:on 5:on
ipta"les 6:on C:off
+ote. Qchkconfig $addR only adds an e!isting ser*ice to the list of startup. 2f the ser*ice doesn3t e!ist( you should first install it before adding it to the system startup list. =hile this is pretty ob*ious( it is worth to mention it( as a newbie might make this mistake.
6e#o2e a )er2ice 7ro# )tartup List

The following e!ample shows that ip6tables ser*ices is configured for startup. ) chkconfi ipCta"les ##list T 0:off rep ipCta"les 3:off 4:on 5:off 6:off C:off
1:off
To remo*e it from the startup list( use the $del option as shown below. ) chkconfi ) chkconfi ##del ipCta"les ##list T rep ipCta"les
Turn<on or Turn<off a )er2ice for a )elected 6un Le2el

&ometimes you might not want to delete the whole ser*ice. 2nstead( you might 6ust want to turn the flag on or off for a particular run le*el 9for a particular ser*ice;. The following e!ample will turn off nfser*er ser*ice for le*el 5 ) chkconfi ##le(el 6 nfsser(er off 1,1
Linux 101 Hacks
Aou can also combine multiple le*els. The following e!ample will turn off nfsser*er for both le*el 3 and 5. ) chkconfi ##le(el 46 nfsser(er off
)cript 7iles under rc.d )ubdirectories

=hene*er you add or remo*e a ser*ice from chkconfig control( it does the following under the JetcJrc.d sub.directories. =hen chkconfig $add command is e!ecuted( it creates a symbolic link file to start and stop the ser*ice under corresponding rc directory. =hen chkconfig $del command is e!ecuted( it remo*es the symbolic link file from the corresponding rc directory. The following e!ample shows that !inetd is enabled for both run le*el 3 and 5. &o( !inetd will ha*e two files under rc3.d directory( and two files under rc5.d directory. The file that starts with _ is used during shutdown 9_ stands for kill;. The file that starts with & is used during startup 9& stands for start;. ) chkconfi -inetd ##list T 1:off rep -inetd 3:off 4:on 5:off 6:on C:off
0:off
-inetd "ased ser(ices: ) cd /etc/rc.d/rc4.d ) ls T rep -inetd Q0F-inetd $15-inetd ) cd /etc/rc.d/rc6.d 1,2
Linux 101 Hacks
) ls T
rep -inetd
Q0F-inetd $15-inetd
rcx.d "irectory Chan es for Add 8peration

=hen you add a new ser*ice to chkconfig control( the default run le*els for that ser*ice will be turned on automatically( and files will be created under the corresponding rc! directories. Cor e!ample( if the nfsser*er ser*ice doesn3t e!ist in the chkconfig control( no nfsser*er ser*ice startup files would be present under JetcJrc.dJrcU.d directories as shown below. ) chkconfi nfsser(er ##list T 0:off 1:off rep nfsser(er 3:off 4:off 5:off 6:off C:off
) ls /etc/rc.d/rc4.d T ) ls /etc/rc.d/rc6.d T
rep nfsser(er rep nfsser(er
"fter you add the nfsser*er ser*ice( you3ll see the symbolic links under these directories. ) chkconfi nfsser(er ) cd ##add nfsser(er 0:off 1:off 3:off 4:on 5:off 6:on C:off
/etc/rc.d/rc4.d rep nfsser(er
) ls #l T
lrw-rw-rw- 1 root root 13 3011#0C#1F 00:63 Q0Fnfsser(er #Z ../nfsser(er lrw-rw-rw- 1 root root 13 3011#0C#1F 00:63 $15nfsser(er #Z ../nfsser(er
1,3
Linux 101 Hacks
) cd /etc/rc.d/rc6.d ) ls #l T rep nfsser(er lrw-rw-rw- 1 root root 13 3011#0C#1F 00:63 Q0Fnfsser(er #Z ../nfsser(er lrw-rw-rw- 1 root root 13 3011#0C#1F 00:63 $15nfsser(er #Z ../nfsser(er
=hen you turn off the ser*ice either using $del option or $le*el option( the corresponding symbolic link file under rc!.d directory will be deleted as shown below. ) chkconfi ##le(el 6 nfsser(er off T rep nfsser(er
) ls /etc/rc.d/rc6.d
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: K Linu- chkconfi Co!!and I-a!ples H %dd, Me!o(e, 'iew, Chan e $er(ices
Hack 4$. Ho* to )etup Anacron

"nacron is the cron for desktops and laptops. "nacron does not e!pect the system to be running 24 ! , like a ser*er. =hen you want a background 6ob to be e!ecuted automatically on a machine that is not running 24 ! ,( you should use anacron. Cor e!ample( if you ha*e a backup script scheduled e*eryday at 11 0/ as a regular cron 6ob( and if your laptop is not up at 11 0/( your backup 6ob will not be e!ecuted.
1,4
Linux 101 Hacks
'owe*er( if you ha*e the same 6ob scheduled in anacron( you can be sure that it will be e!ecuted once the laptop come back up.
Anacrontab 7or#at
Sust like how cron has JetcJcrontab( anacron has JetcJanacrontab. JetcJanacrontab file has the anacron 6obs mentioned in the following format. period delay Eo"#identifier co!!and
7ield 1 is 6ecurrence period. This is a numeric *alue that specifies the number of days. 1 $ daily , $ weekly 30 $ monthly 5 $ This can be any numeric *alue. 5 indicates number of days 5ote1 Aou can also use ]Bmonthly3 for a 6ob that needs to be e!ecuted monthly.
7ield , is "elay. This indicates the delay in minutes. i.e I number of minutes anacron should wait before e!ecuting the 6ob after the the machine starts. 7ield - is 9ob identifier. 2t is the name for the 6ob3s timestamp file. 2t should be uni@ue for each 6ob. This will be a*ailable as a file under the J*arJspoolJanacron directory. This file will contain a single line that indicates the last time when this 6ob was e!ecuted. ) ls #1 /(ar/spool/anacron/ test.daily cron.daily cron.!onthly cron.weekly 1,5
Linux 101 Hacks
) cat /(ar/spool/anacron/test.daily 3011060K
7ield 0 is co##and. #ommand or shell script that needs to be e!ecuted. Sust like shell scripts( comments inside anacrontab file starts with ^
Anacron 5xa#ple
The following e!ample e!ecutes the JhomeJsathiyaJbackup.sh script once in e*ery , days. %n the day when the backup.sh 6ob is supposed to e!ecuted( if the system is down for some reason( anacron will e!ecute the backup.sh script 15 minutes after the system comes back up 9without ha*ing to wait for another , days;. ) cat /etc/anacronta" K 16 test.daily /ho!e/sathiya/"ackup.sh /"in/sh
)TA6TAH816)A6A+(5 and 6A+"8&A"5LA?

The abo*e e!ample indicates that the backup.sh script should be e!ecuted e*ery day( with a delay of 15 mins. i.e =hen the laptop was started( e!ecuted it only after 15 minutes. =hat happens when the laptop or desktop was not shutdownG =hen does the 6ob gets e!ecutedG This is specified by the &T"4TM'%H4&M4"57: en*ironment *ariable in the JetcJanacrontab file. 8y default this is set to 3.22 in the file. This indicates the time range from 3 a.m to 10 p.m.
1,6
Linux 101 Hacks
rep $+%M+ /etc/anacronta"
$+%M+9HL\M$9M%&GI04#33
%n top of the user defined delay specified in the 2nd field of the JetcJanacrontab file( anacron also randomly adds ! number of minutes. The ! is defined by the 4"5)%/M): "A *ariable in the JetcJanacrontab file. 8y default this is set to 45 in the file. This means that anacron will add ! minutes 9randomly picked from 0 and 45;( and add this to the user defined delay. ) rep M%&.LS /etc/anacronta"
M%&.LS9.IL%Y056
Cron %s Anacron
#ron and anacron has its own ad*antages and disad*antages. )epending on your re@uirement( use one of them. Cron /inimum granularity is minute 9i.e Sobs can be scheduled to be e!ecuted e*ery minute; #ron 6ob can be scheduled by any normal user 9 if not restricted by super user #ron e!pects system to be running 24 ! ,. 2f a 6ob is scheduled( and system is down during that time( 6ob is not e!ecuted. 2deal for ser*ers Anacron /inimum granularity is only in days
"nacron can be used only by super user 9 but there are workarounds to make it usable by normal user ; "nacron doesn3t e!pect system to be running 24 ! ,. 2f a 6ob is scheduled( and system is down during that time( it start the 6obs when the system comes back up. 2deal for desktops and laptops 1,,
Linux 101 Hacks
Hse cron when a 6ob has to be e!ecuted at a particular hour and minute
Hse anacron when a 6ob has to be e!ecuted irrespecti*e of hour and minute
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Cron 's %nacron: How to $etup %nacron on Linu- 7ìth an I-a!ple8
Hack 70. I/Tables 6ules 5xa#ples

"elete 5xistin 6ules
8efore you start building new set of rules( you might want to clean.up all the default rules( and e!isting rules. Hse the iptables flush command as shown below to do this. ipta"les #Y 7or8 ipta"les ##flush
)et "efault Chain /olicies

The default chain policy is "##:0T. #hange this to )4%0 for all 250HT( C%4="4)( and %HT0HT chains as shown below. ipta"les #/ B&/\+ .ML/ ipta"les #/ YLM`%M. .ML/ ipta"les #/ L\+/\+ .ML/
=hen you make both 250HT( and %HT0HT chain3s default policy as )4%0( for e*ery firewall rule re@uirement you ha*e( you should define two rules. i.e one for incoming and one for outgoing.
1,D
Linux 101 Hacks
2n all our e!amples below( we ha*e two rules for each scenario( as we3*e set )4%0 as default policy for both 250HT and %HT0HT chain. 2f you trust your internal users( you can omit the last line abo*e. i.e )o not )4%0 all outgoing packets by default. 2n that case( for e*ery firewall rule re@uirement you ha*e( you 6ust ha*e to define only one rule. i.e define rule only for incoming( as the outgoing is "##:0T for all packets.
'lock a )pecific ip<address

8efore we proceed further will other e!amples( if you want to block a specific ip.address( you should do that first as shown below. #hange the Q!.!.!.!R in the following e!ample to the specific ip.address that you like to block. BLLCQ9+HB$9B/02-.-.-.-2 ipta"les #% B&/\+ #s 2;BLLCQ9+HB$9B/2 #E .ML/ This is helpful when you find some strange acti*ities from a specific ip. address in your log files( and you want to temporarily block that ip. address while you do further research. Aou can also use one of the following *ariations( which blocks only T#0 traffic on eth0 connection for this ip.address. ipta"les #% B&/\+ #i eth0 #s 2;BLLCQ9+HB$9B/2 #E .ML/ ipta"les #% B&/\+ #i eth0 #p tcp #s 2;BLLCQ9+HB$9B/2 #E .ML/
Allo* ALL Inco#in
))H
incoming ssh connections on eth0
The following rules allow " interface.
ipta"les #% B&/\+ #i eth0 #p tcp ##dport 33 #! state ##state &I`,I$+%BLB$HI. #E %CCI/+ ipta"les #% L\+/\+ #o eth0 #p tcp ##sport 33 #! state ##state I$+%BLB$HI. #E %CCI/+
1,-
Linux 101 Hacks
Allo* Inco#in
))H only fro# a )pecific +et*ork
The following rules allow incoming ssh connections only from 1-2.16D.100.I network. ipta"les #% B&/\+ #i eth0 #p tcp #s 1G3.1CF.100.0/35 ##dport 33 #! state ##state &I`,I$+%BLB$HI. #E %CCI/+ ipta"les #% L\+/\+ #o eth0 #p tcp ##sport 33 #! state ##state I$+%BLB$HI. #E %CCI/+
2n the abo*e e!ample( instead of J24( you can also use the full subnet mask. i.e Q1-2.16D.100.0J255.255.255.0f.
Additional 701a$les Examples: 36 Sost Yre_uently \sed Linu- B/+a"les Mules I-a!ples B/+a"les +a"les, Chains, Mules Yunda!entals How to %dd Yirewall Mules Bnco!in and Lut oin Mule I-a!ples
1D0
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter $. Install /acka es

Hack 71. ?u# Co##and 5xa#ples
2nstalling( remo*ing( and updating packages is a typical acti*ity on inu!. /ost of the inu! distributions pro*ides some kind of package manager utility. Cor e!ample( apt.get( dpkg( rpm( yum( etc. %n some inu! distributions( yum is the default package manager. Aum stands for Aellowdog Hpdater /odified.
Install a packa e usin
yu# install
To install a package( do ]yum install packagename3. This will also identify the dependencies automatically and install them. The following e!ample installs postgres@l package. ) yu! install post res_l.-FC9C5 Mesol(in Bnstall .ependencies 3 /acka e7s8
Bs this ok *y/&,: y Munnin +ransaction : post res_l#li"s#G.0.5#6.fc16.-FC9C5 : post res_l#G.0.5#6.fc16.-FC9C5 1/3 3/3
Bnstallin Bnstallin
8y default ]yum install3( will prompt you to accept or decline before installing the packages. 2f you want yum to install automatically without prompting( use .y option as shown below. ) yu! #y install post res_l.-FC9C5 1D1
Linux 101 Hacks
1ninstall a packa e usin
yu# re#o2e
To remo*e a package 9along with all its dependencies;( use ]yum remo*e package3 as shown below. ) yu! re!o(e post res_l.-FC9C5
/acka e post res_l.-FC9C5 0:G.0.5#6.fc16 will "e erased Bs this ok *y/&,: y Munnin Irasin +ransaction : post res_l#G.0.5#6.fc16.-FC9C5 1/1
1p rade an existin
packa e usin
yu# update
2f you ha*e a older *ersion of a package( use ]yum update package3 to upgrade it to the latest current *ersion. This will also identify and install all re@uired dependencies. ) yu! update post res_l.-FC9C5
)earch for a packa e to be installed usin
yu# search
2f you don3t know the e!act package name to be installed( use ]yum search keyword3( which will search all the packages that matches the ]keyword3 and display it. The following e!amples searches the yum repository for all the packages that matches the keyword ]firefo!3 and lists the a*ailable packages. ) yu! search firefoLoaded plu ins: lan packs, presto, refresh#packa ekit 00000000000000 &/$ Satched: firefo- 0000000000000000000000 firefo-.-FC9C5 : SoPilla Yirefo- è" "rowser no!e#do#plu ins#firefo-.-FC9C5 !oPilla#firetray#firefo-.-FC9C5 !oPilla#ad"lockplus.noarch : SoPilla Yirefo- e-tension !oPilla#noscript.noarch : SoPilla Yirefo- e-tension 1D2
Linux 101 Hacks
5ame and summary matches only( use Fsearch allF for e*erything.
"isplay additional infor#ation about a packa e usin info
yu#
%nce you search for a package using yum search( you can use ]yum info package3 to *iew additional information about the package. The following e!amples displays additional information about the samba.common package. ) yu! info sa!"a#co!!on.iCFC Loaded plu ins: lan packs, presto, refresh#packa ekit %(aila"le /acka es &a!e %rch Ipoch 'ersion Melease $iPe Mepo $u!!ary \ML License : sa!"a#co!!on : iCFC : 1 : 4.6.11 : K1.fc16.1 : G.G S : updates : Yiles used "y "oth $a!"a ser(ers and clients : http://www.sa!"a.or / : G/L(4O and LG/L(4O
.escription : $a!"a#co!!on pro(ides files necessary for "oth the ser(er and client
Additional 26& Examples: 16 Linu- Yu! Co!!and I-a!ples H Bnstall, \ninstall, \pdate /acka es
1D3
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 7,. 6/& Co##and 5xa#ples

40/ command is used for installing( uninstalling( upgrading( @uerying( listing( and checking 40/ packages on your inu! system. 40/ stands for 4ed 'at 0ackage /anager. =ith root pri*ilege( you can use the rpm command with appropriate options to manage the 40/ software packages. et us take an rpm of /ys@l #lient and run through all our e!amples.
Installin
a 6/& packa e 1sin
rp# <i2h
40/ filename has packagename( *ersion( release and architecture name. Cor e!ample( 2n the /y&i .client.3.23.5,.1.i3D6.rpm file1 /y&i .client $ 0ackage 5ame 3.23.5, $ ?ersion 1 $ 4elease i3D6 $ "rchitecture
=hen you install a 40/( it checks whether your system is suitable for the software the 40/ package contains( figures out where to install the files located inside the rpm package( installs them on your system( and adds that piece of software into its database of installed 40/ packages. The following rpm command installs /ys@l client package. ) rp! #i(h Sy$bL#client#4.34.6K#1.i4FC.rp!
/reparin ...))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W, 1:Sy$bL#client)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W,
1D4
Linux 101 Hacks
rpm command and options .i 1 install a package .* 1 *erbose .h 1 print hash marks as the package archi*e is unpacked.
Aou can also use dpkg on )ebian( pkgadd on &olaris( depot on '0.HI to install packages.
Guery all the 6/& /acka es usin
rp# <;a
Aou can use rpm command to @uery all the packages installed in your system. ) rp! #_a cdrecord#3.01#10.K.el6 "lueP#li"s#4.K#1.1 setarch#3.0#1.1 . . .@ @uery operation .a @ueries all installed packages
To identify whether a particular rpm package is installed on your system( combine rpm and grep command as shown below. Collowing command checks whether cdrecord package is installed on your system. ) rp! #_a T rep VcdrecordV
Guery a /articular 6/& /acka e usin
rp# <;
The abo*e e!ample lists all currently installed package. "fter installation of a package to check the installation( you can @uery a particular package and *erify as shown below. ) rp! #_ Sy$bL#client Sy$bL#client#4.34.6K#1 1D5
Linux 101 Hacks
) rp! #_ Sy$bL packa e Sy$bL is not installed
5ote1 To @uery a package( you should specify the e!act package name. 2f the package name is incorrect( then rpm command will report that the package is not installed.
Guery 6/& /acka es in a 2arious for#at usin ;ueryfor#at
rp# =
4pm command pro*ides an option $@ueryformat( which allows you to gi*e the header tag names( to list the packages. :nclose the header tag with in ab. ) rp! #_a ##_ueryfor!at VW:na!e#W:(ersion@#W:release@ W :siPe@>nV cdrecord#3.01#10.K 13435 "lueP#li"s#4.K#1.1 6C45 setarch#3.0#1.1 3466C4 . .
>hich 6/& packa e does a file belon
toJ = 1se rp# <;f
et us say( you ha*e list of files and you would want to know which package owns all these files. rpm command has options to achie*e this. The following e!ample shows that JusrJbinJmys@laccess file is part of the /y&i .client.3.23.5,.1 rpm. ) rp! #_f /usr/"in/!ys_laccess Sy$bL#client#4.34.6K#1
1D6
Linux 101 Hacks
Locate docu#entation of a packa e that o*ns file usin rp# <;df

Hse the following to know the list of documentations( for a package that owns a file. The following command( gi*es the location of all the manual pages related to mys@l package. ) rp! #_df /usr/"in/!ys_laccess /usr/share/!an/!an1/!ys_l.1. P /usr/share/!an/!an1/!ys_laccess.1. P /usr/share/!an/!an1/!ys_lad!in.1. P /usr/share/!an/!an1/!ys_ldu!p.1. P /usr/share/!an/!an1/!ys_lshow.1. P .d 1 refers documentation.
Infor#ation about Installed 6/& /acka e usin
rp# <;ip
rpm command pro*ides a lot of information about the installed packages. ) rp! #_ip Sy$bL#client#4.34.6K#1.i4FC.rp! &a!e 'ersion Melease Group $iPe $i nature /acka er \ML $u!!ary : Sy$bL#client Melocations: 7not relocata"le8 : 4.34.6K : 1 'endor: Sy$bL %B Build .ate: Son 0G Dun 3004 Build Host: "uild.!ys_l.co! License: G/L / LG/L
Bnstall .ate: : 640610G : 7none8 : LenP Gri!!er
: %pplications/.ata"ases
: http://www.!ys_l.co!/ : Sy$bL # Client
.escription : +his packa e is a standard Sy$bL client. .i 1 *iew information about an rpm .p 1 specify a package name
1D,
Linux 101 Hacks
List all the 7iles in a /acka e usin
rp# <;lp
To list the content of a 40/ package( use the following command( which will list out the files without e!tracting into the local directory folder. ; rp! #_lp o(pc#3.1.10.rp! /usr/"in/!ys_laccess /usr/"in/!ys_ldata /usr/"in/!ys_lper! . . /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in @ 1 @uery the rpm file l 1 list the files in the package p 1 specify the package name
List the "ependency /acka es usin
rp# <;6/
To *iew the list of packages on which this package depends( ) rp! #_Mp Sy$bL#client#4.34.6K#1.i4FC.rp! /"in/sh /usr/"in/perl
Additional R0& Examples: M/S Co!!and: 16 I-a!ples to Bnstall, \ninstall, \p rade, buery M/S /acka es
Hack 7-. apt<E Co##and 5xa#ples

)ebian based systems 9including Hbuntu; uses apt.U commands for managing packages from the command line.
1DD
Linux 101 Hacks
This hack( using "pache 2 installation as an e!ample( e!plains how to use apt.U commands to *iew( install( remo*e( or upgrade packages.
apt<cache search. )earch 6epository 1sin
/acka e +a#e
2f you are installing "pache 2( you may guess that the package name is apache2. To *erify whether it is a *alid package name( you may want to search the repository for that particular package name as shown below. The following e!ample shows how to search the repository for a specific package name. ; apt#cache search Napache3; apache3 # %pache H++/ $er(er !etapacka e
dpk
<l. Is the /acka e Already InstalledJ
8efore installing a package( you may want to make sure it is not already installed as shown below using dpkg .l command. ; dpk #l T rep #i apache
apt< et install. Install a /acka e

Cinally( install the package using Qapt.get installR as shown below. ; sudo apt# et install apache3 *sudo, password for ra!esh: +he followin &I` packa es will "e installed:
apache3 apache3#!p!#worker apache3#utils apache3.3#co!!on li"apr1 li"aprutil1 li"p_6 0 up raded, K newly installed, 0 to re!o(e and 3C not up raded.
1D-
Linux 101 Hacks
apt< et re#o2e. "elete a /acka e

Hse Qapt.get purgeR or Qapt.get remo*eR to delete a package as shown below. ; sudo apt# et pur e apache3 7or8 ; sudo apt# et re!o(e apache3
Additional apt-8 #ommand Examples: How +o Sana e /acka es \sin apt# et, apt#cache, apt# file and dpk Co!!ands 7 ìth 14 /ractical I-a!ples 8
Hack 70. Install fro# )ource

&ometimes you might ha*e to download the source code of an application and install it from the source. This hack e!plains how to install from source. Aou should always refer to the 25&T" or 4:")/: file that is located in the downloaded application package for any application specific installation instructions.
"o*nload and unBip the packa e

Typically the source code you download will be compressed in a U.tar.g+ or U.tar.b+2 format. 2f the source code you>*e downloaded is in the format application.tar.g+( use the following command to uncompress it . tar -(fP application.tar. P
1-0
Linux 101 Hacks
2f the source code you>*e downloaded is in the format application.tar.b+2( use the following command to uncompress it. tar -(fE application.tar."P3
Confi ure
%nce you uncompress the source tar file( it will create a subdirectory in the name of the application. #) to this directory. cd application
)o a .Jconfigure ..help which will display all application specific configuration options that are a*ailable to you. ./confi ure ##help
2n most cases( you can 6ust do .Jconfigure which will use all default *alues to perform the configuration. This will perform necessary pre.re@ checks. This will also generate the /akefile re@uired for the installation. ./confi ure
&ake and Install

/ake command will use the /akefile created from the abo*e step and create the application binary e!ecutable. !ake
Cinally( do >make install> which will install the application in the appropriate location. !ake install
1-1
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 10. LA&/ )tack

Hack 73. Install Apache , *ith ))L
This hack pro*ides step by step instructions on how to install "pache 2 with modMssl. 2 prefer to install "pache from source( as it gi*es me more fle!ibility on e!actly what modules 2 want to enable or disable( and 2 can also upgrade or apply patch immediately after it is released by the "pache foundation.
"o*nload Apache
)ownload "pache from httpd.apache.org. The current stable release is 2.2.1,. %nce you get the direct H4 to download the latest stable *ersion of "pache( use wget as shown below to download it directly to you ser*er. cd 1 w et http://www.en .lsu.edu/!irrors/apache//httpd/httpd# 3.3.1K.tar. P tar -(fP httpd#3.3.1K.tar. P
Install Apache *ith ))LPTL)

?iew all a*ailable "pache installation and configuration options as shown below. cd httpd#3.3.1K ./confi ure ##help
To install an "pache module( you would typically say $enable.amodule. nameb. Cor e!ample( to install && with "pache( it is $enable.ssl. To install ldap module( it is $enable.ldap. 1-2
Linux 101 Hacks
To uninstall any default module that comes with "pache( you would typically say $disable.amodule.nameb. Cor e!ample( to disable basic authentication in "pache( it is $disable.auth.basic 2n this e!ample( we will install "pache with all default modules( with addition of $enable.ssl 9to install modMssl for && support;( and $enable. so( which helps to load modules in "pache during run.time *ia the )ynamic &hared %b6ect 9)&%; mechanism( rather than re@uiring a recompilation. ./confi ure ##ena"le#ssl ##ena"le#so !ake !ake install
+ote. 8y default the abo*e installs "pache under JusrJlocalJapache2. 2f you like to change this location( use $prefi! option in the .Jconfigure.
5nable ))L in httpd.conf

"pache configuration file httpd.conf is located under JusrJlocalJapache2Jconf. Hncomment the httpd.ssl.conf 2nclude line in the JusrJlocalJapache2JconfJhttpd.conf file. ) (i /usr/local/apache3/conf/httpd.conf Bnclude conf/e-tra/httpd#ssl.conf
?iew the httpd.ssl.conf to re*iew all the default && configurations. Cor most cases( you don3t need to modify anything in this file. (i /usr/local/apache3/conf/e-tra/httpd#ssl.conf
The && certificate and key are re@uired before we start the "pache. The ser*er.crt and ser*er.key file mentioned in the httpd.ssl.conf needs to be created before we mo*e forward. 1-3
Linux 101 Hacks
) e rep Vser(er.crtTser(er.keyV httpd#ssl.conf $$LCertificateYile 2/usr/local/apache3/conf/ser(er.crt2 $$LCertificateQeyYile 2/usr/local/apache3/conf/ser(er.key2
Create ser2er.crt and ser2er.key file

Cirst( 7enerate the ser*er.key using openssl. cd 1 openssl enrsa #des4 #out ser(er.key 1035
The abo*e command will ask for the password. /ake sure to remember this password. Aou need this while starting your "pache later. 2f you don3t pro*ide a password( you3ll get the following error message. 3516:error:3F0CG0C6:li"7508:\B9set9result:result too s!all:ui9li".c:F5G:You !ust type in 5 to F1G1 characters
5e!t( generate a certificate re@uest file 9ser*er.csr; using the abo*e ser*er.key file. openssl re_ #new #key ser(er.key #out ser(er.csr
Cinally( generate a self signed ssl certificate 9ser*er.crt; using the abo*e ser*er.key and ser*er.csr file. openssl -60G #re_ #days 4C6 #in ser(er.csr #si nkey ser(er.key #out ser(er.crt
Cor more details refer to1 'ow To 7enerate && _ey( #&4 and &elf &igned #ertificate Cor "pache
1-4
Linux 101 Hacks
Copy the ser2er.key and ser2er.crt

#opy the ser*er.key and ser*er.crt file to appropriate "pache configuration directory location. cd 1 cp ser(er.key /usr/local/apache3/conf/ cp ser(er.crt /usr/local/apache3/conf/
)tart the apache and 2erify ))L

&tart the "pache as shown below. /usr/local/apache3/"in/apachectl start
This will prompt you to enter the password for your pri*ate key. %pache/3.3.1K !od9ssl/3.3.1K 7/ass /hrase .ialo 8 $er(er www.e-a!ple.co!:554 7M$%8 Inter pass phrase: LQ: /ass /hrase .ialo successful.
8y default "pache && runs on 443 port. %pen a web browser and *erify that you can access your "pache using https1JJayour.ip.addressb
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: How +o Bnstall %pache 3 with $$L on Linu- 7with !od9ssl, openssl8 Additional Apache 7nstall Examples: How +o Generate $$L Qey, C$M and $elf $i ned Certificate Yor %pache 1-5
Linux 101 Hacks
Bnstall %pache 3 fro! $ource on Linu-
Hack 74. Install /H/ fro# )ource

"ll inu! distributions comes with 0'0. 'owe*er( it is recommended to download latest 0'0 source code( compile and install on inu!. This will make it easier to upgrade 0'0 on an ongoing basis immediately after a new patch or release is a*ailable for download from 0'0. This hack e!plains how to install 0'05 from source on inu!.
/rere;uisites
"pache web ser*er should already be installed. 4efer to my pre*ious post on 'ow to install "pache 2 on inu!. 2f you are planning to use 0'0 with /y&i ( you should ha*e /y &i already installed.
"o*nload /H/
)ownload the latest source code from 0'0 )ownload page. #urrent stable release is 5.2.6. /o*e the source to JusrJlocalJsrc and e!tract is as shown below. ) "Pip3 #d php#6.3.C.tar."P3 ) tar -(f php#6.3.C.tar
Install /H/
?iew all configuration options a*ailable for 0'0 using .Jconfigure $.help 9two hyphen in front of help;. The most commonly used option is $. prefi!Kainstall.dir.nameb to install 0'0 on a user defined directory. ) cd php#6.3.C ) ./confi ure ##help 2n the following e!ample( 0'0 will be compiled and installed under the default location JusrJlocalJlib with "pache configuration and /y&i support.
1-6
Linux 101 Hacks
) ./confi ure ##with#ap-s30/usr/local/apache3/"in/ap-s ##with#!ys_l ) !ake ) !ake install ) cp php.ini#dist /usr/local/li"/php.ini
Confi ure httpd.conf for /H/

/odify the JusrJlocalJapache2JconfJhttpd.conf to add the following1 [YilesSatch 2>.ph7p*3#C,cTt!l8;2Z $etHandler application/-#httpd#php [/YilesSatchZ
/ake sure the httpd.conf has the following line that will get automatically inserted during the 0'0 installation process. LoadSodule php69!odule !odules/li"php6.so
4estart the apache as shown below1 ) /usr/local/"in/apache3/apachectl restart
%erify /H/ Installation

#reate a test.php under JusrJlocalJapache2Jhtdocs with the following content ) (i test.php [cphp phpinfo78? cZ
7o to http1JJlocal.hostJtest.php ( which will show a detailed information about all the 0'0 configuration options and 0'0 modules installed on the system.
1-,
Linux 101 Hacks
Trouble shootin
durin
installation
5rror 1. configure1 error1 !ml2.config not found1 =hile performing the .Jconfigure during 0'0 installation( you may get the following error1 ) ./confi ure ##with#ap-s30/usr/local/apache3/"in/ap-s ##with#!ys_l Confi urin checkin checkin checkin e-tensions whether to ena"le LBBaSL support... yes li"-!l3 install dir... no for -!l3#confi path... not found. /lease check your
confi ure: error: -!l3#confi li"-!l3 installation.
2nstall thelib!ml2.de*el and +lib.de*el as shown below to the fi! this issue. ) rp! #i(h /ho!e/downloads/linu-#iso/li"-!l3#de(el#3.C.3C# 3.1.3.0.1.i4FC.rp! /ho!e/downloads/linu-#iso/Pli"#de(el# 1.3.4#4.i4FC.rp! /reparin ...))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W, 1:Pli"#de(el))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) * 60W, 3:li"-!l3#de(el)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W,
5rror ,. configure1 error1 #annot find /y&i header files. =hile performing the .Jconfigure during 0'0 installation( you may get the following error1 ) ./confi ure ##with#ap-s30/usr/local/apache3/"in/ap-s ##with#!ys_l checkin for Sy$bL \&Ba socket location... /(ar/li"/!ys_l/!ys_l.sock confi ure: error: Cannot find Sy$bL header files under yes. &ote that the Sy$bL client li"rary is not "undled any!oreA
1-D
Linux 101 Hacks
2nstall the /y&i .de*el.community package as shown below to fi! this issue. ) rp! #i(h /ho!e/downloads/Sy$bL#de(el#co!!unity#6.1.36# 0.rhel6.i4FC.rp! /reparin ...)))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W, 1:Sy$bL#de(el#co!!unity))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Bnstruction Guide to Bnstall /H/6 fro! $ource on Linu-
Hack 77. Install &y)GL

/ost of the inu! distro comes with /y&i . 2f you want use /y&i ( my recommendation is that you download the latest *ersion of /y&i and install it yourself. ater you can upgrade it to the latest *ersion when it becomes a*ailable. This hack e!plains how to install the latest free community edition of /y&i on inu! platform.
"o*nload the latest stable release of &y)GL

)ownload my&i from mys@l.com . 0lease download the community edition of /y&i for your appropriate inu! platform. 2 downloaded the Q4ed 'at :nterprise inu! 5 40/ 9!D6;R. /ake sure to download /y&i &er*er( #lient and Q'eaders and librariesR from the download page. /y&i .client.community.5.1.25.0.rhel5.i3D6.rpm /y&i .ser*er.community.5.1.25.0.rhel5.i3D6.rpm /y&i .de*el.community.5.1.25.0.rhel5.i3D6.rpm
2f you want to remo*e the e!isting default /y&i that came with the inu! distro ( do the following. )o not perform this on an system where the /y&i database is getting used by some application. 1--
Linux 101 Hacks
*local#host,) rp! #_a T !ys_l#6.0.33#3.1.0.1
rep #i !ys_l
!ys_lclient10#4.34.6F#5.MHIL5.1 *local#host,) rp! #e !ys_l ##nodeps warnin : /etc/!y.cnf sa(ed as /etc/!y.cnf.rp!sa(e *local#host,) rp! #e !ys_lclient10
Install the do*nloaded &y)GL packa e

2nstall the /y&i &er*er and #lient packages as shown below.
*local#host,) rp! #i(h Sy$bL#ser(er#co!!unity#6.1.36# 0.rhel6.i4FC.rp! Sy$bL#client#co!!unity#6.1.36# 0.rhel6.i4FC.rp! /reparin ...))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W, 1:Sy$bL#client#co!!unity))))))))))))))))))))))))))) * 60W, 3:Sy$bL#ser(er#co!!unity))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W,
This will also display the following output and start the /y&i daemon automatically. /LI%$I MISISBIM +L $I+ % /%$$`LM. YLM +HI Sy$bL root \$IMA +o do so, start the ser(er, then issue the followin co!!ands: /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in #u root password Vnew#passwordV /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in #u root #h !edica3 password Vnew# passwordV %lternati(ely you can run: /usr/"in/!ys_l9secure9installation
200
Linux 101 Hacks
$tartin Gi(in
Sy$bL.*
LQ
!ys_ld 3 seconds to start
2nstall the Q'eader and ibrariesR that are part of the /y&i .de*el packages. *local#host,) rp! #i(h Sy$bL#de(el#co!!unity#6.1.36# 0.rhel6.i4FC.rp! /reparin ...))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W, 1:Sy$bL#de(el#co!!unity )))))))))))))))))))))))))) *100W,
5ote1 =hen 2 was compiling 0'0 with /y&i option from source on the inu! system( it failed with the following error. 2nstalling the /y&i . de*el.community package fi!ed this problem in installing 0'0 from source. confi ure: error: Cannot find Sy$bL header files under yes. 5ote that the /y&i client library is not bundled anymorec
/erfor# post<install security acti2ities on &y)GL.

"t a bare minimum you should set a password for the root user as shown below1 *local#user,) /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in #u root password VSy3$ecure;/asswordV
The best option is to run the mys@lMsecureMinstallation script that will take care of all the typical security related items on the /y&i as shown below. %n a high le*el this does the following items1 #hange the root password 4emo*e the anonymous user )isallow root login from remote machines 201
Linux 101 Hacks
4emo*e the default sample test database
*local#host,) /usr/"in/!ys_l9secure9installation &L+I: M\&&B&G %LL /%M+$ LY +HB$ $CMB/+ B$ MICLSSI&.I. YLM %LL Sy$bL $IM'IM$ B& /ML.\C+BL& \$IA /LI%$I MI%. I%CH $+I/ C%MIY\LLYA Inter current password for root 7enter for none8: LQ, successfully used password, !o(in Chan e the root passwordc *Y/n, Y &ew password: Me#enter new password: /assword updated successfullyA Meloadin pri(ile e ta"les.. ... $uccessA on...
Me!o(e anony!ous usersc *Y/n, Y .isallow root lo in re!otelyc *Y/n, Y Me!o(e test data"ase and access to itc *Y/n, Y Meload pri(ile e ta"les nowc *Y/n, Y installation should now "e secure. +hanks for usin Sy$bLA
%erify the &y)GL installation.

Aou can check the /y&i installed *ersion by performing mys@l .? as shown below1 *local#host,) !ys_l #'
202
Linux 101 Hacks
!ys_l 'er 15.15 .istri" 6.1.36#rc, for redhat#linu-# nu 7iCFC8 usin readline 6.1
#onnect to the /y&i database using the root user and make sure the connection is successful. *local#host,) !ys_l #u root #p Inter password: !ys_lZ
Collows the steps below to stop and start /y&i *local#host,) ser(ice !ys_l status Sy$bL runnin 7136FF8 * LQ ,
*local#host,) ser(ice !ys_l stop $huttin down Sy$bL. * LQ ,
*local#host,) ser(ice !ys_l start $tartin Sy$bL. * LQ ,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: Howto Bnstall Sy$bL on LinuAdditional &ySQ( 7nstall Examples: How to Bnstall Sy$bL .ata"ase \sin Yu! roupinstall
203
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 78. Install LA&/ )tack

2nstalling "/0 stack using yum is *ery easy and takes only minutes. This is a good option for beginners who don3t feel comfortable installing from source. "lso( 2nstalling "/0 stack using yum is a good choice( if you want to keep things simple and 6ust use the default configuration.
Install Apache usin

) rp! #_a T
?u#
rep httpd
2f the abo*e command did not return anything( install apache as shown below ) yu! install httpd
?erify that "pache got installed successfully ) rp! #_a T rep #i http
httpd#tools#3.3.G#1.fcG.i4FC httpd#3.3.G#1.fcG.i4FC
:nable httpd ser*ice to start automatically during system startup using chkconfig. &tart the "pache as shown below. ) chkconfi httpd on
) ser(ice httpd start $tartin httpd: * LQ ,
Install &y)GL usin
?u#
Aum is *ery smart to identify all the dependencies and install those automatically. Cor e!ample( while installing mys@l.ser*er using yum( it also automatically installs the depended mys@l.libs( perl.)82( mys@l( perl.)8)./y&i packages as shown below. 204
Linux 101 Hacks
) yu! install !ys_l#ser(er
0artial output of the abo*e yum install mys@l.ser*er command1 .ependencies Mesol(ed +ransaction $u!!ary 00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Bnstall \pdate Me!o(e 6 /acka e7s8 0 /acka e7s8 0 /acka e7s8
+otal download siPe: 16 S Bs this ok *y/&,: y Munnin +ransaction : !ys_l#li"s : perl#.BB : !ys_l : perl#.B.#Sy$bL : !ys_l#ser(er *1/6, *3/6, *4/6, *5/6, *6/6,
Bnstallin Bnstallin Bnstallin Bnstallin Bnstallin Co!pleteA
?erify whether /y&i got installed properly. ) rp! #_a T rep #i !ys_l
php#!ys_l#6.3.C#3.fcG.i4FC !ys_l#li"s#6.0.61a#1.fcG.i4FC !ys_l#ser(er#6.0.61a#1.fcG.i4FC perl#.B.#Sy$bL#5.006#F.fcG.i4FC !ys_l#6.0.61a#1.fcG.i4FC 205
Linux 101 Hacks
) !ys_l #' !ys_l 'er 15.13 .istri" 6.0.61a, for redhat#linu-# nu 7i4FC8 usin readline 6.0
#onfigure /y&i to start automatically during system startup. ) chkconfi !ys_ld on
&tart /y&i ser*ice. ) ser(ice !ys_ld start
The first time when you start mys@ld( it will gi*e additional information message indicating to perform post.install configuration as shown below. BnitialiPin Bnstallin Yillin Sy$bL data"ase: Sy$bL syste! ta"les... LQ
help ta"les... LQ
+o start !ys_ld at "oot ti!e you ha(e to copy support#files/!ys_l.ser(er to the ri ht place for your syste! /LI%$I MISISBIM +L $I+ % /%$$`LM. YLM Sy$bL root \$IM A $tart the ser(er, then issue the followin co!!ands: /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in #u root password Vnew#passwordV /usr/"in/!ys_lad!in #u root #h de(#d" password Vnew# passwordV %lternati(ely you can run: /usr/"in/!ys_l9secure9installation
206
Linux 101 Hacks
$tartin Sy$bL: * LQ ,
/erfor# &y)GL post<installation acti2ities

"fter the mys@l installation( you can login to mys@l root account without pro*iding any password as shown below. ) !ys_l #u root !ys_lZ
To fi! this problem( you need to assign a password to mys@l root account as shown below. :!ecute mys@lMsecureMinstallation script( which performs the following acti*ities1 "ssign the root password 4emo*e the anonymous user )isallow root login from remote machines 4emo*e the default sample test database
) /usr/"in/!ys_l9secure9installation
0artial output of mys@lMsecureMinstallation script1 Inter current password for root 7enter for none8: LQ, successfully used password, !o(in $et root passwordc *Y/n, Y &ew password: *&ote: Inter the !ys_l root password here, Me#enter new password: /assword updated successfullyA Me!o(e anony!ous usersc *Y/n, Y .isallow root lo in re!otelyc *Y/n, Y Me!o(e test data"ase and access to itc *Y/n, Y 20, on...
Linux 101 Hacks
Meload pri(ile e ta"les nowc *Y/n, Y ... $uccessA
?erify the /y&i post.install acti*ities. 5ow root access without password is denied. ) !ys_l #u root IMMLM 1056 73F0008:%ccess denied for user VrootV<VlocalhostV7usin password:&L8
Test database is not a*ailable anymore. ) !ys_l #u root #p Inter password: !ys_lZ show data"ases? O####################O T .ata"ase T O####################O T infor!ation9sche!a T T !ys_l T O####################O 3 rows in set 70.00 sec8
Install /H/ usin
?u#
) yu! install php
0artial output of yum install php1 .ependencies Mesol(ed +ransaction $u!!ary 20D
Linux 101 Hacks
00000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Bnstall \pdate Me!o(e 4 /acka e7s8 0 /acka e7s8 0 /acka e7s8
+otal download siPe: 4.F S Bs this ok *y/&,: y Munnin +ransaction : php#co!!on : php#cli : php *1/4, *3/4, *4/4,
Bnstallin Bnstallin Bnstallin Co!pleteA
?erify that php got installed successfully. ) rp! #_a T rep #i php
php#cli#6.3.C#3.fcG.i4FC php#6.3.C#3.fcG.i4FC php#co!!on#6.3.C#3.fcG.i4FC
2nstall /y&i module for 0'0. ) yu! install php#!ys_l
0artial output of yum install php.mys@l1 .ependencies Mesol(ed +ransaction $u!!ary 0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000 Bnstall 3 /acka e7s8 20-
Linux 101 Hacks
\pdate Me!o(e
0 /acka e7s8 0 /acka e7s8
+otal download siPe: 154 k Bs this ok *y/&,: y Munnin +ransaction : php#pdo : php#!ys_l *1/3, *3/3,
Bnstallin Bnstallin Co!pleteA
2f you need additional 0'0 modules( install them using yum as shown below. ) yu! install php#co!!on php#!"strin php#-!l php# d php#!crypt php#de(el
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: How +o Bnstall Lr \p rade L%S/ \sin Yu!
Hack 7$. Install :A&//

To run *arious open source applications you might ha*e to install "pache( /y&i ( 0'0( and 0erl 9or some combination of these;. Cor those who ha*e difficulties installing and configuring these separately( I"/00 might be helpful. I"/00 is "pache distribution that contains /y&i ( 0'0 and 0erl. Aou really don3t need to worry about configuring /y&i ( 0'0( or 0erl for "pache. Sust install I"/00( and e*erything is already pre.built and ready to go. 2t is that easyc 210
Linux 101 Hacks
"lso( I"/00 is a*ailable for inu!( =indows( /ac %&( and &olaris.
"o*nload :A&//
)ownload I"/00 from !ampp in sourceforge.
Install :A&//
:!tract the tar file under Jopt directory. ) cd /opt ) tar -(Pf -a!pp#linu-#1.K.4a.tar. P
)tart or stop :A&//

&tart !ampp. 2t starts all the !ampp ser*ices. ) /opt/la!pp/la!pp start
&top !ampp. 2t stops all the !ampp ser*ices. ) /opt/la!pp/la!pp stop
)tart particular :A&// ser2ice

&tart a particular ser*ice by specifying the name of the ser*ice along with start. Cor e!ample( following starts only "pache 9along with 0'0;. ) /opt/la!pp/la!pp startapache a%S//: $tartin %pache with $$L 7and /H/68... &ote: \se start!ys_l in the ar u!ent to start only !ys_l
)top particular ser2ice

&imilar to start( you can also stop a particular ser*er. Cor e!ample( following stops only /y&i .
211
Linux 101 Hacks
) /opt/la!pp/la!pp stop!ys_l a%S//: $toppin Sy$bL...
:A&// Confi uration file

#onfiguration files are a*ailable under JoptJlamppJetcJ. &ome of the !ampp config files are httpd.conf( my.cnf( php.ini.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: a%S//: Iasy %pache, Sy$bL, /H/, /erl Bnstall
Hack 80. )ecure ?our Apache >eb )er2er

2f you are a sysadmin( you should secure your "pache web ser*er by following the tips mentioned in this hack.
6un Apache as separate user and
roup
8y default( apache might run as nobody or daemon. 2t is good to run apache in its own non.pri*ileged account. Cor e!ample1 apache. #reate apache group and user. roupadd apache useradd #d /usr/local/apache3/htdocs # /"in/false apache apache #s
/odify the httpd.conf( and set Hser and 7roup appropriately. ) (i httpd.conf \ser apache Group apache 212
Linux 101 Hacks
"fter this( if you restart apache( and do ps .ef( you3ll see that the apache is running as QapacheR 9:!cept the 1st httpd process( which will always run as root;. ) ps #ef T root apache apache apache apache apache rep #i http T awk V:print ;1@V
6estrict access to root directory K1se Allo* and "enyM

&ecure the root directory by setting the following in the httpd.conf [.irectory /Z Lptions &one Lrder deny,allow .eny fro! all [/.irectoryZ
2n the abo*e1 %ptions 5one $ &et this to 5one( which will not enable any optional e!tra features. %rder deny(allow $ This is the order in which the Q)enyR and Q"llowR directi*es should be processed. This processes the QdenyR first and QallowR ne!t. )eny from all $ This denies re@uest from e*erybody to the root directory. There is no "llow directi*e for the root directory. &o( nobody can access it.
213
Linux 101 Hacks
)et appropriate per#issions for conf and bin directory

bin and conf directory should be *iewed only by authori+ed users. 2t is good idea to create a group( and add all users who are allowed to *iewJmodify the apache configuration files to this group. et us call this group1 apacheadmin #reate the group. roupadd apachead!in
"llow access to bin directory for this group. chown #M root:apachead!in /usr/local/apache3/"in ch!od #M KK0 /usr/local/apache3/"in
"llow access to conf directory for this group. chown #M root:apachead!in /usr/local/apache3/conf ch!od #M KK0 /usr/local/apache3/conf
"dd appropriate members to this group. 2n this e!ample( both ramesh and 6ohn are part of apacheadmin ) (i /etc/ roup apachead!in:-:1131:ra!esh,Eohn
"isable "irectory 'ro*sin

2f you don3t do this( users will be able to see all the files 9and directories; under your root 9or any sub.directory;. Cor e!ample( if they go to http1JJayour.ipbJimagesJ and if you don3t ha*e an inde!.html under images( they3ll see all the image files 9and the sub. directories; listed in the browser 96ust like a ls .1 output;. Crom here( they 214
Linux 101 Hacks
can click on the indi*idual image file to *iew it( or click on a sub. directory to see its content. To disable directory browsing( you can either set the *alue of %ptions directi*e to Q5oneR or Q.2nde!esR. " $ in front of the option name will remo*e it from the current list of options enforced for that directory. 2nde!es will display a list of a*ailable files and sub.directories inside a directory in the browser 9only when no inde!.html is present inside that folder;. &o( 2nde!es should not be allowed. [.irectory /Z Lptions &one Lrder allow,deny %llow fro! all [/.irectoryZ 7or8 [.irectory /Z Lptions #Bnde-es Lrder allow,deny %llow fro! all [/.irectoryZ
"onVt allo* .htaccess

Hsing .htaccess file inside a specific sub.directory under the htdocs 9or anywhere outside;( users can o*erwrite the default apache directi*es. %n certain situations( this is not good( and should be a*oided. Aou should disable this feature. Aou should not allow users to use the .htaccess file and o*erride apache directi*es. To do this( set Q"llow%*erride 5oneR in the root directory. [.irectory /Z 215
Linux 101 Hacks
Lptions &one %llowL(erride &one Lrder allow,deny %llow fro! all [/.irectoryZ
Additional Apache 3ardening Examples: 10 +ips to $ecure Your %pache è" $er(er on \&Ba / Linu-
Hack 81. Apachectl and Httpd Tips

"fter you ha*e installed "pache2( if you want to use apachectl and httpd to it3s ma!imum potential( you should go beyond using start( stop and restart. The - practical e!amples pro*ided in this hack will help you to use apachectl and httpd *ery effecti*ely. "pachectl acts as &ys? init script( taking arguments like start( stop( restart and status. 2t also acts as front.end to httpd command( by simply passing the command line arguments to httpd. &o( all the commands you e!ecute using apachectl( can also be e!ecuted directly by calling httpd.
/ass different httpd.conf filena#e to apachectl

Typically you3ll modify the original httpd.conf to try out different "pache directi*es. 2f something doesn3t work out( you3ll re*ert back the changes. 2nstead of playing around with the original httpd.conf( copy it to a new httpd.conf.debug and use this new httpd.conf.debug file with "pache for testing purpose as shown below using option .f. ) apachectl #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u ) httpd #k start #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u
216
Linux 101 Hacks
*&ote: you can use either apachectl or httpd as shown a"o(e, ) ps #ef T rep http
root 360F0 1 0 34:3C 00:00:00 /usr/s"in/httpd #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u apache 360GG 360F0 0 34:3F 00:00:00 /usr/s"in/httpd #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u *&ote: ps shows the httpd runnin file, with httpd.conf.de"u
%nce you are satisfied with the changes and "pache runs without any problem with httpd.conf.debug( you can copy the changes to httpd.conf and start the "pache normally as shown below. ) cp httpd.conf.de"u ) apachectl stop ) apachectl start ) ps #ef T root start dae!on start rep httpd 1 0 34:3F 00:00:00 /usr/s"in/httpd #k 0 34:3F 00:00:00 /usr/s"in/httpd #k usin the httpd.conf
36115
36116 36115
*&ote: ps indicates that the httpd is runnin default confi file,
1se a te#porary "ocu#ent6oot *ithout #odifyin httpd.conf

This is *ery helpful( when you are trying out different layout for your website and don3t want to modify the original files under the default )ocument4oot. Take a copy of your original )ocument4oot directory 9J*arJwwwJhtml; to a new temporary )ocument4oot directory 9J*arJwwwJhtmlMdebug;. /ake all your changes under this temporary )ocument4oot directory 9J*arJwwwJhtmlMdebug; and start the "pache with this temporary directory as shown below using option .c. 21,
Linux 101 Hacks
) httpd #k start #c 2.ocu!entMoot /(ar/www/ht!l9de"u /2
2f you want to go back to original configuration using the default )ocument4oot 9J*arJwwwJhtml;( simply restart the "pache as shown below. ) httpd #k stop ) apachectl start
Increase the Lo Le2el te#porarily

=hile you are debugging an issue( you can change the og e*el of the "pache temporarily( without modifying the og e*el directi*e in the httpd.conf as shown below using option .e. 2n this e!ample( the og e*el is set to debug. ) httpd #k start #e de"u *$un %u 1K 14:64:0C 300F, *de"u , !od9so.c735C8: loaded !odule auth9"asic9!odule *$un %u 1K 14:64:0C 300F, *de"u , !od9so.c735C8: loaded !odule auth9di est9!odule
0ossible *alues you can pass to option .e are1 debug( info( notice( warn( error( crit( alert( emerg
"isplay the #odules co#piled inside Apache usin <l

) httpd #l Co!piled in !odules: core.c prefork.c http9core.c !od9so.c
option
21D
Linux 101 Hacks
"isplay both static and dyna#ic #odule loaded by Apache

=hen you pass option .l( to httpd( it will display only the static modules. 0assing option ./( will display both static and shared modules as shown below. ) httpd #S Loaded Sodules: core9!odule 7static8 !p!9prefork9!odule 7static8 http9!odule 7static8 so9!odule 7static8 auth9"asic9!odule 7shared8 auth9di est9!odule 7shared8 authn9file9!odule 7shared8 authn9alias9!odule 7shared8 $ynta- LQ
)ho* all accepted directi2es inside httpd.conf

This is like an e!tended help for httpd( which will display all the httpd.conf directi*es and the places where they are *alid. Cor a specific directi*e( it tells all the possible *alues and where it can be used inside the httpd.conf. This can be *ery helpful( when you want to @uickly know about a particular "pache directi*e. ) httpd #L Hostna!eLookups 7core.c8 2on2 to ena"le, 2off2 to disa"le re(erse .&$ lookups, or 2dou"le2 to ena"le dou"le#re(erse .&$ lookups %llowed in R.conf anywhere $er(erLi!it 7prefork.c8 Sa-i!u! (alue of Sa-Clients for this run of %pache %llowed in R.conf only outside [.irectoryZ, [YilesZ or [LocationZ
21-
Linux 101 Hacks
Qeep%li(e 7http9core.c8 `hether persistent connections should "e Ln or Lff %llowed in R.conf only outside [.irectoryZ, [YilesZ or [LocationZ LoadSodule 7!od9so.c8 a !odule na!e and the na!e of a shared o"Eect file to load it fro! %llowed in R.conf only outside [.irectoryZ, [YilesZ or [LocationZ
%alidate the httpd.conf after #akin
chan es
Hse option .t to *alidate whether there are any issues with a specific "pache configuration file. 2n the e!ample shown below( it displays that there is a problem at line 14D in the httpd.conf.debug. modMauthMbasicso is missing a . 9period; before the so. ) httpd #t #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u httpd: $ynta- error on line 15F of /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.de"u : Cannot load /etc/httpd/!odules/!od9auth9"asicso into ser(er: /etc/httpd/!odules/!od9auth9"asicso: cannot open shared o"Eect file: &o such file or directory Lnce you fi- the issue, it will display $ynta- LQ. ) httpd #t #f conf/httpd.conf.de"u $ynta- LQ
"isplay the httpd build para#eters

Hse option .? 9upper.case ?;( to display "pache *ersion number and all the parameters that are used while building the "pache. ) httpd #' $er(er (ersion: %pache/3.3.G 7\ni-8 220
Linux 101 Hacks
$er(er "uilt: $er(er loaded: %rchitecture: $er(er S/S: threaded: forked: no
Dul 15 300F 16:4C:6C %/M 1.3.13, %/M#\til 1.3.13 43#"it /refork
$er(erVs Sodule Sa ic &u!"er: 30061116:16 Co!piled usin : %/M 1.3.13, %/M#\til 1.3.13
yes 7(aria"le process count8
$er(er co!piled with.... #. %/%CHI9S/S9.BM02ser(er/!p!/prefork2 #. %/M9H%$9$I&.YBLI #. H++/.9MLL+02/etc/httpd2 #. $\IaIC9BB&02/usr/s"in/sue-ec2 #. .IY%\L+9/B.LLG02lo s/httpd.pid2 #. .IY%\L+9$CLMIBL%M.02lo s/apache9runti!e9status2 #. .IY%\L+9LLCQYBLI02lo s/accept.lock2 #. .IY%\L+9IMMLMLLG02lo s/error9lo 2 #. %/9+Y/I$9CL&YBG9YBLI02conf/!i!e.types2 #. $IM'IM9CL&YBG9YBLI02conf/httpd.conf2 ...
2f you want display only the "pache *ersion number( use the option .* 9lower.case *; as shown below. ) httpd #( $er(er (ersion: %pache/3.3.G 7\ni-8 $er(er "uilt: Dul 15 300F 16:4C:6C
Load a specific #odule only on de#and.

&ometimes you may not want to load all the modules in the "pache. Cor e.g. Aou may want to load ldap related modules to "pache( only when you are testing )"0. This can be achie*ed as shown below. 221
Linux 101 Hacks
/odify the httpd.conf and add 2f)efine directi*e called load.ldap 9you can name this anything you want;. [Bf.efine load#ldapZ LoadSodule ldap9!odule !odules/!od9ldap.so LoadSodule authnP9ldap9!odule !odules/!od9authnP9ldap.so [/Bf.efineZ
=hen you are testing ldap and would like to oad the ldap related modules( pass the load.ldap to %ption .)( as shown below1 ) httpd #k start #e de"u #.load#ldap #f /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.de"u *$un %u 1K 15:15:6F 300F, *de"u , !od9so.c735C8: loaded !odule ldap9!odule *$un %u 1K 15:15:6F 300F, *de"u , !od9so.c735C8: loaded !odule authnP9ldap9!odule *&ote: /ass #.load#ldap, to load the ldap !odules into %pache,
) apachectl start *&ote: $tart the %pache nor!ally, if you donVt want to load the ldap !odules.,
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: G +ips to \se %pachectl and Httpd like a /ower \ser
222
Linux 101 Hacks
Hack 8,. )etup Apache %irtual Host Confi uration

1nco##ent httpd<2hosts.conf in httpd.conf
2f you3*e installed "pache 2 from source( by default( the following line will be commented in the httpd.conf file. Hncomment this line. ) (i /usr/local/apache3/conf/httpd.conf Bnclude conf/e-tra/httpd#(hosts.conf
)etup 2irtual hosts

/odify the httpd.*hosts.conf as shown below to setup named.based *irtual host setting for two hosts. 5ame?irtual'ost U1D0 $ 2ndicates that all the name.based *irtual hosts will be listening on the default port D0 W?irtual'ost U1D0X WJ?irtual'ostX $ :nclose all the apache configuration parameters for each and e*ery *irtual host between these ?irtual'ost tags. "ny apache directi*es can be used within the *irtualhost container. 2n the following e!ample( we are setting up *irtual host for thegeekstuff.com and top5freeware.com listening on the same port D0. &o( there will be two W?irtual'ost U1D0X WJ?irtual'ostX( one for each website. =hen you go to thegeekstuff.com( the files under JusrJlocalJapache2JdocsJthegeekstuff will be ser*ed by "pache[ and the accessMlog and errorMlog for this site will go under JusrJlocalJapache2JlogsJthegeekstuff
) (i /usr/local/apache3/conf/e-tra/httpd#(hosts.conf &a!e'irtualHost R:F0 ['irtualHost R:F0Z $er(er%d!in ra!esh<the eekstuff.co! .ocu!entMoot 2/usr/local/apache3/docs/the eekstuff2 $er(er&a!e the eekstuff.co! 223
Linux 101 Hacks
$er(er%lias www.the eekstuff.co! IrrorLo Custo!Lo [/'irtualHostZ ['irtualHost R:F0Z $er(er%d!in ra!esh<top6freeware.co! .ocu!entMoot 2/usr/local/apache3/docs/top6freeware2 $er(er&a!e top6freeware.co! $er(er%lias www.top6freeware.co! IrrorLo Custo!Lo [/'irtualHostZ 2lo s/top6freeware/error9lo 2 2lo s/top6freeware/access9lo 2 co!!on 2lo s/the eekstuff/error9lo 2 2lo s/the eekstuff/access9lo 2 co!!on
Check %irtualHost Confi uration )yntax

?erify *irtual configuration synta! using Qhttpd .&R as shown below. =hen e*erything is setup properly( it 6ust displays Q&ynta! %_R. ) /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd #$ 'irtualHost confi uration: $ynta- LQ
=hen something is not configured properly( it will display warning message( including Qdirectory does not e!itR message as shown below. ) /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd #$ àrnin : .ocu!entMoot */usr/local/apache3/docs/top6freeware, does not e-ist àrnin : IrrorLo does not e-ist $ynta- LQ */usr/local/apache3/lo s/the eekstuff,
224
Linux 101 Hacks
6estart the Apache and test

) /usr/local/apache3/"in/apachectl restart
5ow( when you go to thegeekstuff.com 9or www.thegeekstuff.com;( the apache will ser*e the files from JusrJlocalJapache2JdocsJthegeekstuff directory. =hen you go to top5freeware.com 9or www.top5freeware.com;( the same apache running on the same ser*er will ser*e the files from JusrJlocalJapache2JdocsJtop5freeware directory. Sust to reiterate( for the name.based *irtual host to work properly( the )5& entry for both these websites should be pointing to the same e!ternal ip.address of the physical ser*er where the "pache webser*er is running.
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: How +o $etup %pache 'irtual Host Confi uration 7ìth I-a!ples8
Hack 8-. 6otate Apache Lo s 7iles

This hack e!plains how to rotate the apache accessMlog and errorMlog files. "dd the following file to JetcJlogrotate.d directory. ) (i /etc/lo rotate.d/apache /usr/local/apache3/lo s/access9lo /usr/local/apache3/lo s/error9lo : siPe 100S co!press 225
Linux 101 Hacks
datee-t !a-a e 40 postrotate /usr/"in/killall #H\/ httpd ls #ltr /usr/local/apache3/lo s T !ail #s 2;HL$+&%SI: %pache restarted and lo files rotated2 ra!esh<the eekstuff.co! endscript @
5ote1 4efer to our logrotate tutorial 9with 15 e!amples; that e!plains more details about how to use logrotate options. 2n the abo*e JetcJlogrotate.dJapache e!ample1 si+e 100/ $ %nce the accessMlog( and errorMlog reaches 100/( it will be rotated. Aou can also use 100k 9for _b;( 1007 9for 78;. 2nstead of si+e( you can also rotate apache logs using fre@uency 9daily( weekly( monthly;. compress $ 2ndicates that the rotated log file will be compressed. 8y default this uses g+ip. &o( the rotated file will ha*e .g+ e!tension. datee!t . "ppends the date in AAAA//)) format to the rotated log files. i.e 2nstead of accessMlog.1.g+( it creates accessMlog. 20110616.g+ ma!age . 2ndicates how long the rotated log files should be kept. 2n this e!ample( it will be kept for 30 days. postrotate and endscript $ "ny commands enclosed between these two parameter will be e!ecuted after the log is rotated.
I#portant. %nce you rotate the log files( you want apache to write the new log messages to the newly created accessMlog and errorMlog. &o( you need to send the 'H0 signal to the apache as shown here. /ake sure to do JusrJbinJkillall .'H0 httpd( which will restart the apache after rotating the log files 94ead more about kill;.
226
Linux 101 Hacks
"lso( you might want to send an email to yourself indicating that the log file is rotated( along with the output of ls .ltr command as the body of the email. i.e "dd the following between QpostrotateR and QendscriptR option 9after the killall command;. ls #ltr /usr/local/apache3/lo s T !ail #s 2;HL$+&%SI: %pache restarted and lo files rotated2 ra!esh<the eekstuff.co!
The JetcJcron.dailyJlogrotate script runs e*eryday that will perform log rotate of all the files as specified in the JetcJlogrotate.conf and all the file under JetcJlogrotate.d directory. "fter adding the abo*e JetcJlogrotate.dJapache file( for testing purpose( you can manually call the logrotate script as shown below. ) /etc/cron.daily/lo rotate
%nce the log files are rotated( do a ls to *erify them. "s we e!plained abo*e( the rotated log files will be kept for 30 days. ) ls /usr/local/apache3/lo s access9lo error9lo access9lo #30110K1C. P error9lo #30110K1C. P
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: How to Motate %pache Lo Additional (ogrotate Examples: +he \lti!ate Lo rotate Co!!and +utorial with 10 I-a!ples 22, Yiles in Linu-
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 11. 'ash )criptin

Hack 80. 5xecution )e;uence of .bashAE files
This hack e!plains the se@uence in which the following files are e!ecuted1 JetcJprofile LJ.bashMprofile LJ.bashrc LJ.bashMlogin LJ.profile LJ.bashMlogout
5xecution se;uence for interacti2e lo in shell

Collowing pseudo code e!plains the se@uence of e!ecution of these files. e-ecute /etc/profile BY 1/."ash9profile e-ists +HI& e-ecute 1/."ash9profile IL$I BY 1/."ash9lo in e-ist +HI& e-ecute 1/."ash9lo in IL$I BY 1/.profile e-ist +HI& e-ecute 1/.profile I&. BY I&. BY I&. BY
=hen you logout of the interacti*e shell( following is the se@uence of e!ecution1 22D
Linux 101 Hacks
BY 1/."ash9lo out e-ists +HI& e-ecute 1/."ash9lo out I&. BY
0lease note that JetcJbashrc is e!ecuted by LJ.bashrc as shown below1 ) cat 1/."ashrc if * #f /etc/"ashrc ,? then . /etc/"ashrc fi
5xecution se;uence for interacti2e non<lo in shell

=hile launching a non.login interacti*e shell( following is the se@uence of e!ecution1 BY 1/."ashrc e-ists +HI& e-ecute 1/."ashrc I&. BY
5ote1 =hen a non.interacti*e shell starts up( it looks for :5? en*ironment *ariable( and e!ecute the file.name *alue mentioned in the :5? *ariable.
Test the se;uence of execution

%ne of the ways to test the se@uence of e!ecution is by adding different 0&1 *alues to these files and re.login to the shell and see which 0&1 *alue got picked up by the inu! prompt. "lso( earlier we discussed about how to use 0&1 to make your inu! prompt both functional and stylish. 1. JetcJprofile gets e!ecuted. "dd following 0&1 line to JetcJprofile and re. login to make sure the inu! prompt changes to the 0&1 *alue set inside the JetcJprofile.
22-
Linux 101 Hacks
rep /$1 /etc/profile
/$102/etc/profileZ 2 *&ote: re#lo in to see the pro!pt chan e as shown "elow, Last lo in: $at $ep 3K 1C:54:6K 300F fro! 1G3.1CF.1.3 /etc/profileZ
0lease make sure LJ.bashMprofile doesn3t ha*e any 0&1 for the abo*e to work properly. 2. LJ.bashMprofile gets e!ecuted1 "dd following 0&1 to LJ.bashMprofile( LJ.bashMlogin( LJ.profile and LJ.bashrc. 4e.login to make sure the inu! prompt changes to the 0&1 *alue set inside the LJ.bashMprofile as shown below. /etc/profileZ rep /$1 1/."ash9profile
e-port /$1021/."ash9profileZ 2 /etc/profileZ rep /$1 1/."ash9lo in
e-port /$1021/."ash9lo inZ 2 /etc/profileZ rep /$1 1/.profile
e-port /$1021/.profileZ 2 /etc/profileZ rep /$1 1/."ashrc
e-port /$1021/."ashrcZ 2 *&ote: \pon re#lo in, it e-ecuted /etc/profile first and 1/."ash9profile ne-t. $o, it took the /$1 fro! 1/."ash9profile as shown "elow. Bt also did not e-ecute 1/."ash9lo in, as 1/."ash9profile e-ists, Last lo in: $at $ep 3K 1C:5F:11 300F fro! 1G3.1CF.1.3 1/."ash9profileZ
230
Linux 101 Hacks
3. LJ.bashMlogin gets e!ecuted. 4ename the .bashMprofile to something else. 4e.login to make sure the inu! prompt changes to the 0&1 *alue set inside the LJ.bashMlogin as shown below. 1/."ash9profileZ !( ."ash9profile "ash9profile9not9used *&ote: \pon re#lo in, it e-ecuted /etc/profile first. $ince it cannot find 1/."ash9profile, it e-ecuted 1/."ash9lo in, Last lo in: $at $ep 3K 1C:60:66 300F fro! 1G3.1CF.1.3 1/"ash9lo inZ
4. LJ.profile gets e!ecuted. 4ename the .bashMlogin to something else. 4e.login to make sure the inu! prompt changes to the 0&1 *alue set inside the LJ.profile as shown below. 1/."ash9lo inZ !( ."ash9lo in "ash9lo in9not9used *&ote: \pon re#lo in, it e-ecuted /etc/profile first. $ince it cannot find 1/."ash9profile and 1/."ash9lo in, it e-ecuted 1/.profile, Last lo in: $at $ep 3K 1C:6C:4C 300F fro! 1G3.1CF.1.3 1/.profileZ
5. LJ.bashrc gets e!ecuted for non.login shell testing. :!ecuting QbashR at the command prompt will gi*e another non.login shell( which will in*oke .bashrc as shown below. 1/.profileZ "ash *&ote: +his displays /$1 fro! ."ashrc as shown "elow., 1/."ashrcZ e-it *&ote: %fter e-itin lo in shell, fro! non#lo in shell, we are "ack to
231
Linux 101 Hacks
1/.profileZ
Any Questions? .iscuss it here: I-ecution se_uence for ."ash9profile, ."ashrc, ."ash9lo in, .profile and ."ash9lo out
Hack 83. 'ash 786 Loops 1sin
C Like )yntax
The second form of bash for loop is similar to the ]#3 programming language for loop( which has three e!pressions 9initiali+ation( condition and update;. for 77 e-pr1? e-pr3? e-pr4 88 do co!!ands done 8efore the first iteration( e!pr1 is e*aluated. This is usually used to initiali+e *ariables for the loop. "ll the statements between do and done are e!ecuted repeatedly as long as the *alue of e!pr2 is T4H:. "fter each loop iteration( e!pr3 is e*aluated. This is usually used to increment a loop counter.
The following e!amples show how to use this synta! in the bash for loop.
Loop usin
C<)tyle
7enerate and display 5 random numbers using the bash #.style for loop1 ; cat for10.sh for 77 i01? i [0 4? iOO 88 do 232
Linux 101 Hacks
echo 2Mando! nu!"er ;i: ;M%&.LS2 done ; ./for10.sh Mando! nu!"er 1: 34430 Mando! nu!"er 3: 60K0 Mando! nu!"er 4: 16303
Infinite Loop 1sin
'ash 7or
=hen you don>t pro*ide the start( condition( and increment in a #.style for loop( it will e!ecute fore*er. Aou need to press #trl.# to stop the loop. ; cat for11.sh i01? for 77 ? ? 88 do sleep ;i echo 2&u!"er: ;77iOO882 done
5ote1 )on3t forget you will need to press #trl.# to break from this e!ample1 ; ./for11.sh &u!"er: 1 &u!"er: 3 &u!"er: 4
Incre#ent T*o %alues 1sin
Co##a in C<style for loop
2n the bash c.style loop( in addition to incrementing the *alue that is used in the condition( you can also increment some other *alue or perform some other action. 2n both the initiali+ation section and the increment section of the #.style for loop( you can use multiple statements separated with a comma. This e!ample uses i for control and manipulates 6 separately1 233
Linux 101 Hacks
; cat for13.sh for 77i01, E010? i [0 6 ? iOO, E0EO688 do echo 2&u!"er ;i: ;E2 done ; ./for13.sh &u!"er 1: 10 &u!"er 3: 16 &u!"er 4: 30 &u!"er 5: 36 &u!"er 6: 40
Additional !ash For (oop Examples: 13 Bash Yor Loop I-a!ples for Your Linu- $hell $criptin
Hack 84. "ebu
a )hell )cript
To debug a shell script use set $!* inside the shell script at the top.
)hell script *ith no debu

; cat filesiPe.sh )A/"in/"ash
co##and.
for filesiPe in ;7ls #l . T do
rep 2N#2 T awk V:print ;6@V8
let totalsiPe0;totalsiPeO;filesiPe done echo 2+otal file siPe in current directory: ;totalsiPe2
234
Linux 101 Hacks
8utput of )hell script *ith no debu

; ./filesiPe.sh
co##and.
+otal file siPe in current directory: C63
)hell script *ith "ebu
co##and inside.
"dd set $!* inside the shell script now to debug the output as shown below. ; cat filesiPe.sh )A/"in/"ash set #-( for filesiPe in ;7ls #l . T do let totalsiPe0;totalsiPeO;filesiPe done echo 2+otal file siPe in current directory: ;totalsiPe2 rep 2N#2 T awk V:print ;6@V8
8utput of )hell script *ith "ebu

; ./fs.sh OO ls #l . OO rep VN#V OO awk V:print ;6@V O for filesiPe in V;7ls #l . T ;6@V>VV8V O let totalsiPe0O1KF O for filesiPe in V;7ls #l . T ;6@V>VV8V O let totalsiPe01KFO3F6 O for filesiPe in V;7ls #l . T ;6@V>VV8V O let totalsiPe05C4O1FG
co##and inside.
rep 2N#2 T awk V>VV:print
O echo V+otal file siPe in current directory: C63V 235
Linux 101 Hacks
+otal file siPe in current directory: C63
5xecute )hell script *ith debu
option.
2nstead of gi*ing the set $!* inside the shell script( you can also pro*ide that while e!ecuting the shell script as shown below. ; "ash #-( filesiPe.sh
Hack 87. Guotin

echo statement without any special character. ; echo +he Geek $tuff +he Geek $tuff
:cho statement with a special character [ . semi.colon is a command terminator in bash. 2n the following e!ample( QThe 7eekR works for the echo and Q&tuffR is treated as a separate inu! command and gi*es command not found. ; echo +he Geek? $tuff +he Geek #"ash: $tuff: co!!and not found
To a*oid this you can add a O in front of semi.colon( which will remo*e the special meaning of semi.colon and 6ust print it as shown below. ; echo +he Geek>? $tuff +he Geek? $tuff
)in le Guote
Hse single @uote when you want to literally print e*erything inside the single @uote. :*en the special *ariables such as N'%&T5"/: will be print as N'%&T5"/: instead of printing the name of the inu! host. 236
Linux 101 Hacks
; echo VHostna!e0;HL$+&%SI ? Sessa e0>; is \$.V Hostna!e0;HL$+&%SI ? is \$.
Current \ser0Uwhoa!iU ?
Current \ser0Uwhoa!iU ? Sessa e0>;
"ouble Guote
Hse double @uotes when you want to display the real meaning of special *ariables. ; echo 2Hostna!e0;HL$+&%SI ? Sessa e0>; is \$.2 Hostna!e0de(#d" ? Current \ser0Uwhoa!iU ?
Current \ser0ra!esh ? Sessa e0; is \$.
)ouble @uotes will remo*e the special meaning of all characters e!cept the following1 N 0arameter &ubstitution. Z 8ack@uotes ON iteral )ollar &ign. Oj iteral 8ack@uote. OF :mbedded )ouble@uote. OO :mbedded 8ackslashes.
Hack 88. 6ead "ata 7ile 7ields Inside a )hell )cript

This e!ample shows how to read a particular field from a data.file and manipulate it inside a shell.script. Cor e!ample( let us assume the employees.t!t file is in the format of aemployee.nameb1aemployee.idb1 adepartment.nameb( with colon delimited file as shown below. ; cat e!ployees.t-t I!!a +ho!as:100:Sarketin 23,
Linux 101 Hacks
%le- Dason:300:$ales Sadison Mandy:400:/roduct .e(elop!ent $anEay Gupta:500:$upport &isha $in h:600:$ales
The following shell script e!plains how to read specific fields from this employee.t!t file. ; (i read#e!ployees.sh )A/"in/"ash BY$0: echo 2I!ployee &a!es:2 echo 2###############2 while read na!e e!pid dept do echo 2;na!e is part of ;dept depart!ent2 done [ 1/e!ployees.t-t
"ssign e!ecute pri*ilege to the shell script and e!ecute it. ; ch!od uO- read#e!ployees.sh ; ./read#e!ployees.sh I!ployee &a!es: ############### I!!a +ho!as is part of Sarketin depart!ent %le- Dason is part of $ales depart!ent Sadison Mandy is part of /roduct .e(elop!ent depart!ent $anEay Gupta is part of $upport depart!ent &isha $in h is part of $ales depart!ent
23D
Linux 101 Hacks
Chapter 1,. )yste# &onitorin /erfor#ance

Hack 8$. 7ree Co##and
and
free command displays all the necessary information about system physical 94"/; and swap memory. $ynta-: free *options,
>hat is the total 6A& on #y syste#J

2n the e!ample below( the total physical memory on this system is 178. The *alues displayed below are in _8. ) free total Se!: 1045C35 $wap:3041C0F used free 31CCCF 0 3041C0F shared 0 "uffers 1K514C F1KG6C cached C16FG3 100CCGC 3KG3F
#/O "uffers/cache:
>hat is the total #e#ory on #y syste# includin and )*apJ

2n the following command1 option m displays the *alues in /8
6A&
option t displays the QTotalR line( which is sum of physical and swap memory *alues option o is to hide the buffersJcache line from the abo*e e!ample.
) free H!to total Se!: 1010 used GF4 free shared 3K 230 "uffers 1K0 cached C01
Linux 101 Hacks
$wap: +otal:
1GF4 3GG5
0 GF4
1GF4 3011
Hack $0. Top Co##and

top command displays real time information about *arious performance metrics of the system such as #0H oad( /emory Hsage( 0rocesses list etc. $ynta-: top *options,
Ho* to 2ie* #y current syste# status includin usa eJ
C/1
:!ecute top without any option from the command line( which will display the output shown below. The top command output will keep displaying the real.time *alues( until you press Q#ontrol ` cR or @ to e!it from the command output. ) top top # 14:10:14 up 1K1 days, 30:31, a(era e: 0.01, 0.06, 0.00 +asks: 1G5 total, 0 Po!"ie Cpu7s8: 0.CW us, 0.0W hi, 0.0W si 4 users, load
1 runnin , 1G4 sleepin , 0.KW sy, 0.0W ni, GF.KW id,
0 stopped, 0.0W wa,
Se!: 1045C35k total, 1K5650k "uffers $wap: free, 3041C0Fk total, C16G05k cached /M &B 16 httpd
100K530k used, 0k used,
3K305k free, 3041C0Fk
/B. \$IM CLSS%&. 11G13 apache 0.3 0:5C.46
'BM+
MI$
$HM $ WC/\ WSIS 14! 4G1C $
+BSIO 1
0 41F3F
240
Linux 101 Hacks
1G3GG oracle 0.3 0:00.04 114GF Es!ith 0.5 0:04.0K
1G oracle 1C perl
0 0
3KG! 10K!
1F! 3F!
1K! $ C505 $
1 0
Ho* to read the output of the top co##and sho*n abo2eJ

ine 1 QtopR( indicates that the system has been up and running for 1,1 days. ine 2 QTasksR( displays the total number of processes along with a breakdown of running( sleeping( stopped and +ombie processes count. ine 3 Q#pu9s;R displays the current #0H utili+ation of the system. 2n this e!ample( #0H is -D.,\ idle ine 4 Q/emR and line 5 Q&wapR pro*ides the memory information. This is the same information from the free command. The rest of the lines display all the acti*e processes on the system( sorted default by #0H usage 9\#0H column;. i.e the most #0H intensi*e processes will be displayed on the top by default.
There are se*eral command line options and interacti*e options a*ailable for top commands. et us re*iew couple of essential options for top command.
Ho* to identify the #ost #e#ory intensi2e processesJ

=hile the output of the top command displayed( press C( which will display the following message and show all fields a*ailable for sorting( press n 9which is for sorting the processes by /emory; and press enter. This will display the processes in the top output sorted by memory usage. Current $ort Yield: Q for window 1:.ef
&elect sort field *ia field letter( type any other key to return 241
Linux 101 Hacks
Ho* to add additional fields Kfor e. . C/1 Ti#eM to the top outputJ
=hile the top command is running( press f( which will display the following message and show all fields a*ailable for display( press l( which will add the #0H Time to the display columns in the top output. Current Yields: 1:.ef %IHBLb+`Q&S"cdf Eplrsu(yPa for window
Toggle fields *ia field letter( type any other key to return
Ho* to et the full path na#e and para#eters of the runnin processesJ
=hile the top command is running( press c( which will display full pathname of running processes as shown below in the command column. i.e 2nstead of httpd( it displays JusrJlocalJapache2JbinJhttpd. /B. \$IM CLSS%&. 11G13 apache 0.3 0:5C.46 /M &B 'BM+ MI$ $HM $ WC/\ WSIS +BSIO 1
16 0 41F3F 14! 4G1C $ /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd
Ho* to 2ie* the indi2idual C/1s in the top co##andJ

=hile the top command is running( press 1 9number one;( which will display the performance data of the indi*idual #0Hs on that machine as shown below. top # 14:10:14 up 1K1 days, 30:31, a(era e: 0.01, 0.06, 0.00 +asks: 1G5 total, 0 Po!"ie Cpu0 : 10.3W us, 0.0W hi, 0.0W si Cpu1 : G.CW us, 0.0W hi, 0.0W si Cpu3 : 1.4W us, 0.0W hi, 0.0W si 4 users, load 0 stopped, 0.4W wa, 0.0W wa, 3.4W wa,
1 runnin , 1G4 sleepin , 3.CW sy, F.0W sy, 1.4W sy, 0.0W ni, FC.FW id, 0.0W ni, F3.5W id, 0.0W ni, G6.0W id,
242
Linux 101 Hacks
Cpu4 : 0.0W us, 0.0W hi, 0.0W si
0.0W sy,
0.0W ni, 100.0W id,
0.0W wa,
Se!: 1045C35k total, 1K5650k "uffers $wap: free, 3041C0Fk total, C16G05k cached
100K530k used, 0k used,
3K305k free, 3041C0Fk
Additional 1op #ommand Examples: 16 /ractical Linu- +op Co!!and I-a!ples +op on $teroids H 16 /ractical Linu- H+L/ I-a!ples How +o Capture \ni- +op Co!!and Lutput to a Yile in Meada"le Yor!at BY+L/ Guide: .isplay &etwork Bnterface Bandwidth \sa e on Linu-
Hack $1. "f Co##and

df command 9disk free; displays the amount of total and free disk space a*ailable on the mounted filesystems. $ynta-: df *options, *na!e,
Ho* #uch (' of disk space is free on #y syste#J

Hse df .h as shown below. %ption .h displays the *alues in human readable format 9for e!ample1 _ for _b( / for /b and 7 for 7b;. 2n the sample output below( J filesystem has 1,78 of disk space a*ailable and JhomeJuser filesystem has ,078 a*ailable. ) df Hh Yilesyste! $iPe \sed %(ail \seW Sounted on 243
Linux 101 Hacks
/de(/sda1 /de(/sd"1
C5G 14KG
55G CKG
1KG K0G
K4W 5GW
/ /ho!e/user
>hat type of filesyste# do I ha2e on #y syste#J

%ption .T will display the information about the filesystem Type. 2n this e!ample J and JhomeJuser filesystems are e!t2. %ption .a will display all the filesystems( including the 0 si+e special filesystem used by the system. ) df #+ha Yilesyste! /de(/sda1 /de(/sd"1 none none none none +ype e-t3 e-t3 proc sysfs de(pts t!pfs $iPe C5G 14KG 0 0 0 3.0G \sed 55G CKG 0 0 0 0 %(ail \seW 1KG K0G 0 0 0 3.0G K4W 5GW # # # 0W / /ho!e/user /proc /sys /de(/pts /de(/sh! Sounted on
Hack $,. "u Co##and

du command 9disk usage; will print the file space usage for a particular directory and its subdirectories.
Ho* #uch space is taken by #y ho#e directory and all its subdirectoriesJ
2n the following e!ample( option .s stands for summary only. i.e it displays only the total si+e of JhomeJ6smith and not the indi*idual si+es of all the subdirectories inside the JhomeJ6smith. %ption .h displays the information in a human readable format. i.e _ for _8( / for /8 and 7 for 78. The L indicates the user home directory. This command is same as Qdu .sh JhomeJ6smithR ) du #sh 1 430S /ho!e/Es!ith
244
Linux 101 Hacks
To get the subdirectories under JhomeJ6smith listed( e!ecute the abo*e command without the s option.
Hack $-. Lsof Co##ands

sof stands for ls open files( which will list all the open files in the system. The open files include network connection( de*ices and directories. The output of the lsof command will ha*e the following columns1 #%//"5) process name. 02) process 2) H&:4 Hsername C) file descriptor TA0: node type of the file ):?2#: de*ice number &2d: file si+e 5%): node number 5"/: full path of the file name.
%ie* all open files of the syste#

:!ecute the lsof command without any parameter as shown below. ) lsof T !ore CLSS%&. /B. init init 1 1 \$IM root root root Y. cwd rtd t-t !e! +Y/I .BM .BM MIG MIG MIG .I'BCI F,1 F,1 F,1 F,1 F,1 $BJI 50GC 50GC 43CF5 &L.I &%SI 3 / 3 / GF4101
init 1 /s"in/init
init 1 root /li"/ld#3.4.5.so
10C4GK 1CCKGF 1565F03 1CCKGG
init 1 root !e! /li"/tls/li"c#3.4.5.so
245
Linux 101 Hacks
init 1 root !e! /li"/li"sepol.so.1 init 1 root !e! /li"/li"selinu-.so.1 skippedd
MIG MIG
F,1 F,1
64K4C 6C43F
1C4GC5 1CCF11
The lsof command by itself without may return lot of records as output( which may not be *ery meaningful e!cept to gi*e you a rough idea about how many files are open in the system at any gi*en point of *iew as shown below. ) lsof T wc #l 40G4
%ie* open files by a specific user

Hse lsof $u option to display all the files opened by a specific user. ) lsof Hu ra!esh (i K1G0 ra!esh 5K61GC /"in/(i t-t MIG F,1 5K5C0F
sshd K1C4 ra!esh 4u B/(C 160FF3C4 +C/ de(#d":ssh#Za"c#13#13#13#13.socal.res.rr.co!:3C41 7I$+%BLB$HI.8
" system administrator can use this command to get some idea on what users are e!ecuting on the system.
List 1sers of a particular file

2f you like to *iew all the users who are using a particular file( use lsof as shown below. 2n this e!ample( it displays all users who are currently using *i. ) lsof /"in/(i CLSS%&. (i /B. \$IM Y. t-t +Y/I .I'BCI MIG 246 $BJI &L.I &%SI K36F root F,1 5K5C0F 5K61GC /"in/(i
Linux 101 Hacks
(i
K400 ra!esh t-t
MIG
F,1 5K5C0F 5K61GC /"in/(i
Hack $0. %#stat Co##and

Cor a typical performance monitoring all you need is only *mstat command. This display memory( swap( 2%( system and cpu performance information. The following command e!ecutes *mstat e*ery 1 second for 100 times. ) (!stat 1 100 procs ###########!e!ory########## ###swap## #####io#### ##syste!## ####cpu#### r in 0 0 0 0 100K 0 0 111K 0 0 100K " 0 0 0 46G 6KK 4CC swpd free cs us sy id wa "uff cache si 0 0 0 0 so 0 0 0 0 "i 0 0 0 0 "o 3 0 0 0
0 3F3130 14510F 6KGK013 0 100 0 0 3F3130 14510F 6KGK013 0 0 100 0 0 3F3130 14510F 6KGK013 0 0 100 0 0 3F3130 14510F 6KGK013 0 0 100 0
%#stat procs )ection

r field1 Total number of runnable process b field1 Total number of blocked process
&e#ory section
&wpd field1 Hsed swap space Cree field1 "*ailable free 4"/ 8uff field1 4"/ used for buffers #ache field1 4"/ used for filesystem cache 24,
Linux 101 Hacks
)*ap )ection
&i field1 "mount of memory swapped from disk per second &o field1 "mount of memory swapped to disk per second
I8 )ection
8i field1 8locks recei*ed from disk 8o field1 8locks sent to disk.
)yste# )ection
2n field1 5umber of interrupts per second. #s field1 5umber of conte!t switches per second.
C/1 )ection
Hs field1 Time spend running user code. 9non.kernel code; &y field1 Time spent running kernel code. 2d field1 2dle time. =a field1 Time spent waiting for the 2%
Additional 5mstat Examples: 35 iostat, (!stat and !pstat I-a!ples for Linu/erfor!ance Sonitorin
Hack $3. +etstat Co##and

5etstat command displays the network related information such as network connections( routing tables( interface statistics. Collowing are few e!amples on how to use netstat command.
24D
Linux 101 Hacks
"isplay Acti2e Internet Connections and do#ain sockets usin netstat

) netstat Han %cti(e Bnternet connections 7ser(ers and esta"lished8 /roto Mec(#b $end#b Local %ddress tcp 0 0 0.0.0.0:6CCC tcp 0 0 0.0.0.0:111 tcp 0 0 0.0.0.0:50FC skipped.. %cti(e \&Ba do!ain sockets 7ser(ers and esta"lished8 /roto MefCnt Yla s /ath uni- 3 * %CC , /t!p/.font#uni-/fsK100 uni- 3 * %CC , /t!p/. d!9socket uni- 3 * %CC , </t!p/fa!#root# +ype $+MI%S $+MI%S $+MI%S $tate LB$+I&B&G LB$+I&B&G LB$+I&B&G B#&ode KFG5 GCC3 10FGK Yorei n %ddress 0.0.0.0:R 0.0.0.0:R 0.0.0.0:R $tate LB$+I& LB$+I& LB$+I&
"isplay Acti2e Connections *ith /rocess I" and /ro ra# +a#e
This could be *ery helpful to identify which program has initiated a specific network connection. ) netstat #tap %cti(e Bnternet connections 7ser(ers and esta"lished8 /roto Mec(#b $end#b Local %ddress $tate /B.//ro ra! na!e tcp LB$+I& tcp LB$+I& 0 0 0 R:nrpe 1C3KK/-inetd Yorei n %ddress R:R R:R
0 localhost.localdo!ain:s!tp K3C4/send!ail: acce
24-
Linux 101 Hacks
tcp 45 0 localhost.localdo!ain:65331 localhost.localdo!ain:50FG CLL$I9`%B+ 3GFF1/httpd tcp 0 431C de(#d":ssh cpe#KC#G5# 316#165.soca:5CF3 I$+%BLB$HI. 11K1K/sshd: ra!esh
"isplay 6outin
Table
) netstat H#route Qernel B/ routin 1G3.1CF.1.0 R 1C3.355.0.0 R default 1G3.1CF.1.1 ta"le Gen!ask 366.366.0.0 0.0.0.0 Yla s S$$ irtt Bface 0 0 0 0 0 0 eth0 eth0 eth0 \ \G 366.366.366.0 \ .estination Gateway
"isplay 6A> net*ork statistics

) netstat ##statistics ##raw Bp: 110F0454 total packets recei(ed 0 forwarded 1 with unknown protocol 0 inco!in packets discarded packets deli(ered 1104KK55 inco!in Bc!p: 6KK146 BCS/ !essa es recei(ed C5 input BCS/ !essa e failed. BCS/ input histo ra!: destination unreacha"le: 64K ti!eout in transit: C6 source _uenches: 3 echo re_uests: 6KC5KC echo replies: 13 250
111GGKC4 re_uests sent out
Linux 101 Hacks
ti!esta!p re_uest: 4 address !ask re_uest: 4 6F166F BCS/ !essa es sent 0 BCS/ !essa es failed BCS/ output histo ra!: destination unreacha"le: 60KG echo replies: 6KC5KC ti!esta!p replies: 4
&isc +etstat Co##ands

^ netstat $.tcp $.numeric ist of T#0 connection to and from the machine. ^ netstat ..tcp ..listening $.programs )isplay T#0 port that the ser*er is listening on along with the program that is listening on that particular port. ^ netstat $rn# )isplay the routing cache
Additional Netstat Examples: 10 &etstat Co!!and I-a!ples
Hack $4. )ysctl Co##and

inu! kernel parameter can be changed on the fly using sysctl command. &ysctl helps to configure the inu! kernel parameters during runtime. ) sysctl Ha de(.cdro!.autoclose 0 1 fs._uota.writes 0 0 kernel.ctrl#alt#del 0 0 kernel.do!ainna!e 0 7none8 251
Linux 101 Hacks
kernel.e-ec#shield 0 1 net.core.so!a-conn 0 13F net.ip(5.tcp9window9scalin net.ip(5.tcp9w!e! 0 50GC net.ip(C.route.!tu9e-pires 0 C00 sunrpc.udp9slot9ta"le9entries 0 1C (!."lock9du!p 0 0 0 1 1C4F5 1410K3
&odify Fernel para#eter in PetcPsysctl.conf for per#anent chan e

"fter modifying the kernel parameter in the JetcJsysctl.conf( e!ecute sysctl $p to commit the changes. The changes will still be there after the reboot. ) (i /etc/sysctl.conf ) sysctl Hp
&odify kernel para#eter te#porarily

To temporarily modify a kernel parameter( e!ecute the following command. 0lease note that after reboot these changes will be lost. ) sysctl Hw :(aria"le#na!e0(alue@
Hack $7. +ice Co##and

_ernel decides how much processor time is re@uired for a process based on the nice *alue. 0ossible nice *alue range is1 .20 to 20. " process that has a nice *alue of .20 is *ery high priority. The process that has a nice *alue of 20 is *ery low priority. Hse ps a!l to display the nice *alue of all running process as shown below. ) ps a-l 252
Linux 101 Hacks
Y \B. /B. +BSI CLSS%&. 5 0 1 0:1K init *6,
//B. /MB 0 1C 45
&B 0 1G
'$J 31K3 0 0
M$$ `CH%& 663 #
$+%+ ++Y $ c c c
1 0 4 1 4:1F *ksoftir_d/0, 1 0 10 0:01 *e(ents/0, 1
0 ksofti $& 0 worker $[
6 #10
5 0 6156 1 36 10 43135 1F6G3 # $&s c 0:0F /usr/"in/python /usr/"in/rhn#applet# ui ##s!#client# id default5 5 0 615K 6153 1C 0 463F C05 # 0:00 /s"in/pa!9ti!esta!p9check #d root 1 604 1K663 51F0 1C 0 1530F 4G30 # 0:01 /ho!e/www/apache3/"in/httpd #f /ho!e/www/apache3/conf/httpd.conf #k start $ $ c c
Ho* to assi n a lo* priority to a shell<scriptJ Khi her nice 2alueM

2n the e!ample below( when 2 started the nice.test.sh script in the background( it took the nice *alue of 0. ; ./nice#test.sh = *4, 1400G ; ps a-l T rep nice#test GK3 wait $ pts/1
0 60G 1400G 13FC4 1K 9 5C63 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
*Note: Cth colu!n with (alue 0 is the nice.,
5ow( let us e!ecute the same shell script with a different nice *alue as shown below. ; nice #10 ./nice#test.sh = *1, 1401C 253
Linux 101 Hacks
; ps a-l T
rep nice#test GCF wait $& pts/1
0 60G 1401C 13FC4 40 .9 534C 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
*Note: Cth colu!n with (alue 10 is the nice (alue for the shell#script.,
Ho* to assi n a hi h priority to a shell<scriptJ KLo*er nice 2alueM

2n the following e!ample( let us assign a nice *alue of .10 9minus 10; to the nice.test.sh shellscript. ; nice ##10 ./nice#test.sh = *1, 14031 ; nice: cannot set priority: /er!ission denied
5ote1 %nly root user can set a negati*e nice *alue. ogin as root and try the same. 0lease note that there is a double dash before the 10 in the nice command below. ) nice ##10 ./nice#test.sh = *1, 140C0 ) ps a-l T rep nice#test GC5 wait $[ pts/1
5 0 140C0 14035 10 #10 64FF 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
*Note: Cth colu!n with (alue #10 is the nice (alue of the shell#script.,
Hack $8. 6enice Co##and

4enice alters the scheduling priority of a running process. 254
Linux 101 Hacks
Ho* to decrease the priority of a runnin KIncrease niceM
processJ
2n the e!ample below( an e!isting shell.script is running at nice *alue of 10. 96th column in the ps output; ; ps a-l T rep nice#test GCF wait $& pts/1
0 60G 14356 1431C 40 .9 6355 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
To increase the nice *alue 9thus reducing the priority;( e!ecute the renice command as shown below. ; renice 1C #p 14356 14356: old priority 10, new priority 1C ; ps a-l T rep nice#test GCF wait $& pts/1
0 60G 14356 1431C 4C .: 6355 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
*Note: &ow, the Cth colu!n of the nice#test.sh 7/B. 143568 shows the new nice (alue of 1C.,
Ho* to increase the priority of a runnin K"ecrease niceM
processJ
2n the e!ample below( an e!isting shell.script is running at a nice *alue of 10. 96th column in the ps output; ; ps a-l T rep nice#test GCF wait $& pts/1
0 60G 14365 1431C 40 10 5513 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
2n increase the priority( gi*e a lower nice *alue as shown below. 'owe*er( only root can increase the priority of a running process( else you3ll get the following error message. ; renice 6 #p 14365 255
Linux 101 Hacks
renice: 14365: setpriority: /er!ission denied Lo in as root to increase the priority of a runnin process ; su # ) renice 6 #p 14365 14365: old priority 10, new priority 6 ) ps a-l T rep nice#test GCF wait $& pts/1
0 60G 14365 1431C 36 ; 5513 0:00 /"in/"ash ./nice#test.sh
*Note: +he Cth colu!n now shows a lower nice (alue of 6 7increased priority8,
Hack $$. Fill Co##and

kill command can be used to terminate a running process. Typically this command is used to kill processes that are hanging and not responding. $ynta-: kill *options, *pidsTco!!ands,
Ho* to kill a han in
processJ
Cirst( identify the process id of the particular process that you would like to kill using the ps command. %nce you know the process id( pass it as a parameter to the kill command. The e!ample below shows how to kill the hanging apache httpd process. 0lease note that typically you should use Qapachectl stopR to stop apache. ) ps au- T rep httpd '$J M$$ ++Y $+%+ $+%M+
\$IM /B. WC/\ WSIS +BSI CLSS%&. apache $ 411FC Dul3C 0.0 0:50
1.C 34K4C 1K66C c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd
256
Linux 101 Hacks
apache $
411FK Dul3C
0.0 0:4K
1.4 30C50 15555 c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd
) kill 411FC 411FK
0lease note that the abo*e command tries to terminate the process graciously by sending a signal called &27T:4/. 2f the process does not get terminated( you can forcefully terminate the process by passing a signal called &27_2 ( using the option .- as shown below. Aou should either be the owner of the process or a pri*ileged user to kill a process. ) kill #G 411FC 411FK
"nother way to kill multiple processes easily is by adding the following two functions to the .bashMprofile. function ps rep 78 : ps au- T @ function pster! 78 : * ;:)@ #e_ 0 , == echo 2usa e: ;Y\&C&%SI $+MB&G2 == return 0 local pid pid0;7ps a- T ;1 @V8 rep 2;12 T rep #( rep T awk V: print rep 2;12 T rep #( V repV
echo #e 2ter!inatin kill #$BG+IMS ;pid @
V;1V / process7es8:>n;pid2
5ow do the following( to identify and kill all httpd processes. ) ps rep http 25,
Linux 101 Hacks
\$IM /B. WC/\ WSIS +BSI CLSS%&. apache $ apache $ 411FC Dul3C 411FK Dul3C 0.0 0:50 0.0 0:4K
'$J
M$$ ++Y
$+%+ $+%M+
1.C 34K4C 1K66C c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd 1.4 30C50 15555 c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd
) pster! httpd ter!inatin 411FC 411FK VhttpdV / process7es8:
Additional <ill Examples: 5 àys to Qill a /rocess H kill, killall, pkill, -kill
Hack 100. /s Co##and

ps command 9process status; will display snapshot information of all acti*e processes. $ynta-: ps *options,
Ho* to display all the processes runnin

Hse Fps au!F( as shown below. ) ps au- T !ore \$IM /B. WC/\ WSIS +BSI CLSS%&. root Dun3K apache Dul3C 1 0:00 411FC 0:50 0.0 init *6, '$J 0.0
in the syste#J
M$$ ++Y 3055
$+%+ $+%M+ 6FF c $s $
0.0 1.C 34K4C 1K66C c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd 25D
Linux 101 Hacks
apache Dul3C
411FK 0:4K
0.0 1.4 30C50 15555 c /usr/local/apache3/"in/httpd
Aou can also use Fps .ef e moreF( to get a similar output
/rint the /rocess Tree

Aou can use either ps a!uf or ps $e6' to display processes in a tree format. The tree structure will help to *isuali+e the process and it3s parent process immediately. Cor clarity purpose( few columns ha*e been cut.off in the output below. ) ps a-uf root root root root root root root root root 611 611 Lct15 Lct15 Lct15 Lct15 Lct15 Lct 15 .ec04 .ec33 34:46 34:46 0:00 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote 0:00 0:00 0:00 0:01 0:00 >9 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote >9 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote >9 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote >9 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote >9 /opt/'M+$ralus/"in/"ere!ote
0:01 /usr/local/s"in/sshd 1:0F /usr/local/s"in/sshd 0:00 0:00 >9 /usr/local/s"in/sshd >9 #"ash >9 ps a-uf
5ote1 Aou can also use pstree command to display process in tree structure.
%ie* /rocesses 8*ned by a /articular 1ser

The following command displays all the process owned by inu! user. name1 oracle. ; ps \ oracle /B. ++Y $+%+ +BSI CLSS%&. 25-
Linux 101 Hacks
6015 c K135 c F30C c FF63 c FF65 c FG11 c
$s $s $s $s $s $s
0:01 /oracle/"in/tnslsnr 0:00 ora9_0039!ed 0:00 ora9cE_09!ed 0:01 ora9p!on9!ed 0:00 ora9psp09!ed 0:03 oracle!ed 7LLC%L0&L8
%ie* /rocesses 8*ned by Current 1ser

Collowing command displays all the process owned by the current user. ; ps \ ;\$IM /B. ++Y 1043G c 10440 pts/1 10465 pts/3 10640 pts/1 $+%+ $ $s $sO MO +BSI CLSS%&. 0:00 sshd: ra!esh<pts/1,pts/3 0:00 #"ash 0:00 #"ash 0:00 ps \ ra!esh
Additional 0S Examples: K /ractical /$ Co!!and I-a!ples for /rocess Sonitorin
Hack 101. )ar Co##and

&ar commands comes with the sysstat package. /ake sure sysstat is installed. 2f you don3t ha*e sar installed on your system( get it from &ysstat pro6ect. &ar is an e!cellent monitoring tool that displays performance data of pretty much e*ery resource of the system including #0H( memory( 2%( paging( networking( interrupts etc.(
260
Linux 101 Hacks
&ar #ollects( 4eports 9displays; and &a*es the performance data. et us look at all the three aspects separately
)adc < )yste# acti2ity data collector

JusrJlibJsadc 9&ystem acti*ity data collector; command collects the system data at a specified time inter*al. This uses the daily acti*ity data file that is located under J*aJlogJsaJsagddh( where dd is the current day.
)a1 shell<script
JusrJlibJsa1 in.turn calls the JusrJlibJsadcs. sa1 is in*oked from the crontab as shown below. 4un this e*ery 5 minutes or 15 minutes depending on your need. 2 prefer to schedule it for e*ery 5 minutes in the cron tab as shown below. R/6 R R R R root /usr/li"/sa/sa1 1 1
)a, shell<script
JusrJlibJsa2 is a shell script that will write a daily report in the J*arJlogJsaJsagddh file( where dd is the current day. 2n*oke the sa2 from the crontab once a day at midnight. ) 6G 34 R R R root /usr/li"/sa/sa3 H%
5ote1 JetcJcron.dJsysstat files comes with the sysstat package that includes some default *alue for the sa1 and sa2( which you can change accordingly.
"isplay C/1 )tatistics usin

) sar Hu
)ar Co##and
Linu- 3.C.G#53.ILs!p 7de(#d"8 13:00:01 %S Widle 13:06:01 %S G6.56 C/\ all Wuser 4.K0 Wnice 0.00
01/01/300G Wsyste! 0.F6 Wiowait 0.00
261
Linux 101 Hacks
13:10:01 %S G5.1C 13:16:01 %S G6.11 13:30:01 %S G5.G4 13:36:01 %S G6.34 13:40:01 %S G6.34 $kipped.. %(era e: all G5.3G
all all all all all
5.6G 4.G0 5.0C 4.FG 4.FG
0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00 0.00
1.1G 0.G6 1.00 0.FK 0.FK
0.0C 0.05 0.01 0.00 0.00
5.6C
0.00
1.00
0.16
5ote1 2f you need a break down of the performance data for the indi*idual #0H3s( e!ecute the following command. ) sar #u #/ %LL
"isplay "isk I8 )tatistics usin

) sar Hd Linu- 3.C.G#53.ILs!p 7de(#d"8 13:00:01 %S 13:06:01 %S 13:10:01 %S $kipped.. %(era e: %(era e: de(3#0 de(F#1 .I' de(3#0 de(F#1
sar co##and
01/01/300G tps 1.C6 5.0F rd9sec/s 1.3F F.11 wr9sec/s 56.54 31.F1
5.CC 1.FG
130.KK 4.1K
CG.56 F.03
262
Linux 101 Hacks
"isplay net*orkin
)tatistics usin
sar co##and
) sar #n .I' T !ore Linu- 3.C.G#53.ILs!p 7de(#d"8 01/01/300G r-"yt/s 36.41 101CG.K5 13:00:01 %S BY%CI r-pck/s t-pck/s t-"yt/s r-c!p/s t-c!p/ s r-!cst/s 13:06:01 %S 34.44 0.00 13:10:01 %S 131KF.6K lo 0.0 0 0.1K 0.00 0.1C
eth0 0.00
63.G3 0.00
64.C5 0.00
) sar #n $LCQ T!ore Linu- 3.C.G#53.ILs!p 7de(#d"8 13:00:01 %S 13:06:01 %S 13:10:01 %S 13:16:01 %S totsck 60 60 64 tcpsck 14 14 14 01/01/300G udpsck 4 5 6 rawsck 0 0 0 ip#fra 0 0 0
Additional SAR Examples: 10 \seful $ar 7$ysstat8 I-a!ples for Linu- /erfor!ance Sonitorin
263
Linux 101 Hacks
?our )upport is Appreciated

2f you liked this inu! 101 hacks free ebook( and would like to thank me and support The 7eek &tuff blog( purchase the following e8ooks1
'ash 101 Hacks

8ash is the default shell on inu!. 2f you are spending lot of time on inu! en*ironment( you should master the 8ash command line features to become efficient. "part from being an interacti*e shell( 8ash is also a scripting language( which allows you to automate your tasks using 8ash shell scripting. 8ash 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on both 8ash command line and shell scripting. Get Your Copy of: Bash 101 Hacks eBook
)ed and A*k 101 Hacks

2f you are spending lot of time on H52I J inu!( you3ll be manipulating te!t files fre@uently. Aou may be making the similar edits on multiple configuration files on one or more ser*ers. Aou may be digging huge log files 9or data files; looking for certain information. &ed and "wk 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on *arious ad*anced &ed and "wk features( that will help you understand e*erything you need to know about &ed and "wk. Get Your Copy of: $ed and %wk 101 Hacks eBook
264
Linux 101 Hacks
+a ios Core Aou should implement a robust monitoring solution that will notify you when there is an issue. 2t should also notify the right people at the right time about a potential issue( e*en before it becomes critical. 5agios #ore 3 e8ook is the only guide you3ll e*er need to get your 2T infrastructure monitored using 5agios #ore( and it will help you to understand e*erything you need to know to implement 5agios #ore 3.
Get Your Copy of: &a ios Core 4 eBook
%i# 101 Hacks

?im editor is *ery powerful editor that will make you e!tremely producti*e once you take some time to learn and understand its features. 2f you are like most people( you would like to ha*e a structured way of learning this powerful editor and take ad*antage of all its features. ?im 101 'acks is a downloadable e8ook that contains 101 practical e!amples on *arious ad*anced ?im features that will make you fast and producti*e in the ?im editor.
Get Your Copy of: 'i! 101 Hacks eBook
265
Linux 101 Hacks
10 A#aBin 'ooks
and 5ssential Linux
Cor further reading on inu!( 2 recommend the following books. The 10 inu! books mentioned here by no means are comprehensi*e or authoritati*e list. 8ut( these 10 8ooks are few of my fa*orites that 2 en6oyed reading o*er the years and 2 strongly belie*e will enhance your technical abilities on inu!( if you ha*e not read them yet. 1. ))H@ The )ecure )hell@ by "aniel 9. 'arrett@ 6ichard 5. )il2er#an and 6obert (. 'yrnes. This is hands.down the best book on &&'. This book e!plains both theoretical and practical aspects of &&'. Hsing &&' as an end.user is fairly straight forward . 8ut( configuring &&' as an administrator is comple! and in*ol*es a detailed understanding of &&'. This is a must read for any system administrator. The e!amples in this book show e!actly what needs to be done differently for the different fla*ors of &&' such as &&'1( &&'2 and %pen&&'. 2. 5ssential )yste# Ad#inistration@ by Wleen 7risch. This is an e!cellent book for those who like to become a Hni! &ystem "dministrator. This book co*ers all the typical system administration tasks. This is a perfect companion when you are dealing with multiple fla*ors of Hni!( as it has e!amples for "2I( Cree8&)( '0.HI( inu!( &olaris and Tru64. 23*e used the pocket *ersion of this book < :ssential &ystem "dministration 0ocket 4eference( when 2 was managing multiple fla*ors of Hni! systems at the same time. 3. Linux )er2er Hacks@ %olu#e 8ne@ by 6ob 7licken er. 100 awesome practical hacks packed in one book. &etup a inu! test bed and try out all these hacks. These hacks are neatly grouped into different sections < &er*er 8asics( 4e*ision #ontrol( 8ackups( 5etworking( /onitoring( &&'( &cripting( and 2nformation &er*ers. %nce you3*e mastered these hacks( you should absolutely read inu! &er*er 'acks( ?olume Two( by =illiam *on 'agen and 8rian Sones( which has 100 inu! hacks focused on authentication( monitoring( security( performance and connecti*ity. 4. "+) and 'I+"@ by Cricket Liu and /aul AlbitB. &e*eral years ago( 2 configured my first )5& by reading online documentation. 2 brought this book to understand how )5& 266
Linux 101 Hacks
and 825) works. 23*e already upgraded this book twice when a newer edition was released. This should definitely be in your library( if you are a serious system administrator. 5. 1nderstandin the Linux Fernel@ by "aniel 'o2et and &arco Cesati. 2f you are a serious de*eloper on inu! en*ironment or a sysadmin( this is a must read. This books e!plains the inner workings of the inu! _ernel 2.6 in a structured and logical way. This talks about how _enel handles the /emory /anagement( 0rocess scheduling( 2J% architecture and 8lock de*ices. %*erall this book is a treat for geeks who are curious to e!plore what is under the hood of inu!. 6. The A>F /ro ra##in Lan ua e@ by Alfred %. Aho@ 'rian >. Ferni han@ /eter 9. >einber er. This is a classic book written written by the authors of "wk. 2f you are dealing with te!t based data files on inu! en*ironment( mastering "wk will help you to @uickly create scripts to automate your data file manipulation 6obs. ,. Linux Cookbook@ by Carla )chroder. This book co*ers inu! features from both users and system administrators point of *iew. There are two chapters dedicated for installing and managing software on 40/.based system and )ebian. 2f you use 4ed'at( the inu! 0ocket 7uide( by )aniel S. 8arrett is an e!cellent addition to your library( which co*ers all the essential inu! command with a sample usage. D. Linux 7ire*alls@ by &ichael 6ash. To build a secure inu! system( you must read this book. There are @uiet few books out there for iptables. 8ut( this one talks specifically about the fundamentals of how to configure an 2ntrusion )etection &ystem using iptables( psad and fwsnort. 2f you want a comprehensi*e handy reference of all the things iptables can do with specific e!amples( inu! 2ptables 0ocket 4eference( by 7regor 5. 0urdy is the best. -. Linux Ad#inistration Handbook@ by 52i +e#eth@ (arth )nyder and Trent 6. Hein. )uring my early days of system administration( 23*e referred this book fre@uently. This is pretty detailed book with close to 1000 pages and 30 chapters that are nicely grouped together in three high le*el sections < 8asic "dministration( 5etworking and 8unch %3 &tuff. 10. 'e innin 1buntu Linux@ by Feir Tho#as and 9ai#e )ica#. Cor those who like to transition from =indows to 26,
Linux 101 Hacks
inu!( install Hbuntu inu! on one of your old laptop or desktop and get this book. 2 strongly belie*e in spreading the news about inu! to those who don3t use it. 2f you want any of your lo*ed ones or friends to learn inu!( install Hbuntu on an old laptop and gi*e this book as a gift to them. They3ll definitely be *ery thankful to you.
&ore Recommended !oo"s: Yor %dditional Linu- and Lpen $ource Melated Books that B reco!!end, (isit +he Geek $tuff Book $tore at %!aPon
26D
Linux 101 Hacks
5xtended 6eadin
Collowing are few articles from the The 7eek &tuff blog for your e!tended reading. #heck out The 7eek &tuff "rchi*es section for more articles. 1. 50 inu! &ysadmin Tutorials 2. 50 /ost Cre@uently Hsed inu! #ommands 9=ith :!amples; 3. Hni! & #ommand1 15 0ractical :!amples 4. Turbocharge 0uTTA with 12 0owerful "dd.%ns 5. wget Tutorial1 15 "wesome :!amples to )ownload Ciles from 2nternet 6. 0ing Tutorial1 15 :ffecti*e 0ing #ommand :!amples ,. 5agios . :nterprise /onitoring &olution 5agios Sumpstart 7uide /onitor =indow &er*er /onitor inu! &er*er /onitor 5etwork &witch /onitor ?05 )e*ice Crom open&&' to open&&' Crom open&&' to &&'2 Crom &&'2 to &&'2
D. 0erform &&' and &#0 without entering password1
-. 'ello =orld :!amples 9 earn a programming language; 10. H52I &ed Tips and Tricks 11. Hbuntu Tips and Tricks 12. /y&i Tutorials 13. 0ostgre&i Tutorials 14. ?i J ?im Tips and Tricks ?im /acro Tutorial1 'ow To 4ecord and 0lay 'ow To Hse ?im as 0erl 2): and #J#`` 2): "utomatic =ord #ompletion in ?im 26-
Linux 101 Hacks
15. 3 &teps to "dd #ustom 'eader to a Cile Hsing ?im 16. The Hltimate 7uide for #reating &trong 0asswords 1,. 6 &teps to &ecure Aour 'ome =ireless 5etwork 1D. Cirefo! "dd.%n1 'ire , 0ersonal 8odyguards to 8rowse 2nternet &ecurely 1-. Tripwire Tutorial1 inu! 'ost 8ased 2ntrusion )etection &ystem 20. /idnight #ommander 9mc; 7uide1 0owerful Te!t based Cile /anager for Hni!
&ore Linux Articles

2 publish inu! and %pen &ource articles on an on.going basis on The 7eek &tuff blog. To get inu! Tips( 'owTos( 7uides and Tutorials on an on.going basis( subscribe to The 7eek &tuff blog. 2f you subscribe( you will get new articles posted on T7& website directly to your inbo! or to your 4&& reader.
$u"scri"e to recei(e free Linu- tutorials directly to your e!ail in"o- re ularly.
2,0
Linux 101 Hacks
Thank ?ou
2 hope you found the Linux 101 Hacks e8ook helpful. 2 sincerely appreciate all the support gi*en by you and other regular readers of my thegeekstuff.com blog. Aou ha*e encouraged me in more ways than you know. 2f you liked this e8ook( and would like to support me( consider buying my other e8ooks1 8ash 101 'acks &ed and "wk 101 'acks ?im 101 'acks 5agios #ore 3
2f you ha*e any suggestions( or feedback( or @uestions while reading this ebook( don>t hesitate to reach out to me. Aou can connect with me on the following1 Twitter 9Bthegeekstuff; Cacebook page
2f you want to write to me directly( you can use this contact form to reach out to me.
6a#esh +ataraUan rameshBthegeekstuff.com
2,1

Linux 101 Hacks

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linux 101 Hacks

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Linux 101 Hacks

&ore e'ooks fro# The (eek )tuff..........................10

Chapter 1. /o*erful C" Co##and Hacks................10

Chapter ,. 5ssential Linux Co##ands ...................,0

Linux 101 Hacks

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack

1$. ,0. ,1. ,,. ,-. ,0. ,3. ,4. ,7.

Chapter -. ))H Co##ands and Tips.......................74

Chapter 0. "ate &anipulation ............................... 87

Chapter 4. Archi2e and Co#pression....................10$

Linux 101 Hacks

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack

07. 08. 0$. 30. 31.

Chapter 7. Co##and Line History ....................... 1,0

Chapter 8. )yste# Ad#inistration Tasks...............1-4

Chapter $. Install /acka es.................................. 181

Chapter 10. LA&/ )tack...................................... 1$,

Linux 101 Hacks

Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack Hack

74. 77. 78. 7$. 80. 81. 8,. 8-.

Chapter 11. 'ash )criptin .................................. ,,8

Chapter 1,. )yste# &onitorin

?our )upport is Appreciated ................................ ,40

Linux 101 Hacks

and 5ssential Linux 'ooks ................. ,44

5xtended 6eadin ............................................... ,4$

Thank ?ou........................................................... ,71

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

About the Author

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

&ore e'ooks fro# The (eek )tuff

Linux 101 Hacks

)ed and A*k 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

%i# 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

Chapter 1. /o*erful C" Co##and Hacks

Hack 1. "efine C" 'ase "irectory 1sin C"/ATH

Linux 101 Hacks

Hack ,. 1se C" Alias to +a2i ate 1p the "irectory

Linux 101 Hacks

) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure

&ethod 1. +a2i ate up the directory usin

&ethod ,. +a2i ate up the directory usin

Linux 101 Hacks

&ethod -. +a2i ate up the directory usin consecuti2e dots

Linux 101 Hacks

&ethod 0. +a2i ate up the directory usin nu#ber

Hack -. /erfor# #kdir and cd 1sin Co##and

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

) cd ) pwd /t!p/(ery/lon /directory/structure/that/is/too/deep

Hack 3. &anipulate "irectory )tack

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

Hack 4. Auto#atically Correct &istyped "irectory +a#es

Any Questions? .iscuss it here: C C. Co!!and Hacks

Linux 101 Hacks

Chapter ,. 5ssential Linux Co##ands

Ho* can I find all lines #atchin fileJ

>hat as #odified in #y ne file *hen co#pare to #y old fileJ