DSTT 1

I HC QUC GIA H NI
NGUYN HU VIT HNG
Gio trnh
I S TUYN TNH
(L thuyt v bi tp)
Bi tp ln mn cu trc
TEX
L Hong Long A08232, Trn Quang Bn A08361 TM18 - I HC THNG LONG H Ni, Thng 12 nm 2008
Mc lc
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 Tp hp . . . . . . . . Quan h v nh x . . Lc lng ca tp hp Nhm, Vnh v Trng Trng s thc . . . . Trng s phc . . . . a thc . . . . . . . . Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Trang . . 7 . . 10 . . 14 . . 15 . . 21 . . 23 . . 28 . . 33 37 37 41 45 51 53 56 58 63 63 68 77 81 87
Chng 1. Khng gian vect 1.1 Khi nim khng gian vct . . . . . . . 1.2 c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh 1.3 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vct . 1.4 Khng gian con - Hng ca mt h vct 1.5 Tng v tng trc tip . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Khng gian thng . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.7 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chng 2. Ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh 2.1 Ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 nh x tuyn tnh . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Ht nhn v nh ca ng cu . . 2.4 Khng gian vct i ngu . . . . 2.5 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chng 3. nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh 93 3.1 Cc php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

i
Mc lc
3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10
nh thc ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin . . . . . . . . . . . nh thc ca t ng cu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cc tnh cht su hn ca nh thc . . . . . . . . . nh thc v hng ca ma trn . . . . . . . . . . . . H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Quy tc Cramer . . . . H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Phng php kh Gauss Cu trc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh . . . Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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96 100 103 106 111 112 114 118 120 127 127 131 133 137 140 146 152 152 162 173 179 182 189 189 192 197 200 204 205
Chng 4. Cu trc ca t ng cu 4.1 Vct ring v gi tr ring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Khng gian con n nh ca cc t ng cu thc v phc 4.3 T ng cu cho ho c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 T ng cu ly linh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Ma trn chun tc Jordan ca t ng cu . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chng 5. Khng gian vect Euclid 5.1 Khng gian vct Euclid . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 nh x trc giao . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Php bin i lin hp v php bin i i xng 5.4 Vi nt v khng gian Unita . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chng 6. Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng 6.1 Khi nim dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng 6.2 a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc . . . . . . 6.3 Hng v hch ca dng ton phng . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Ch s qun tnh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Dng ton phng xc nh du . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Chng 7. i s a tuyn tnh 211 7.1 Tch tenx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

ii i s tuyn tnh
7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6
Cc tnh cht c bn ca tch tenx i s tenx . . . . . . . . . . . . i s i xng . . . . . . . . . . i s ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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215 217 221 226 234 236
Ti liu tham kho
Li ni u
heo dng lch s, mn i s tuyn tnh khi u vi vic gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh. V sau, c th hiu thu o cu trc ca tp nghim v iu kin mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c nghim, ngi ta xy dng nhng khi nim tru tng hn nh khng gian vct v nh x tuyn tnh. Ngi ta cng c nhu cu kho st cc khng gian vi nhiu thuc tnh hnh hc hn, trong c th o di ca vct v gc gia hai vct. Xa hn, hng nghin cu ny dn ti bi ton phn loi cc dng ton phng, v tng qut hn phn loi cc tenx, di tc ng ca mt nhm cu trc no . Ngy nay, i s tuyn tnh c ng dng vo hng lot lnh vc khc nhau, t Gii tch ti Hnh hc vi phn v L thuyt biu din nhm, t C hc, Vt l ti K thut... V th, n tr thnh mt mn hc c s cho vic o to cc gio vin trung hc, cc chuyn gia bc i hc v trn i hc thuc cc chuyn ngnh khoa hc c bn v cng ngh trong tt c cc trng i hc. c hng trm cun sch v i s tuyn tnh c xut bn trn ton th gii. Chng ti nhn thy c hai khuynh hng ch yu trong vic trnh by mn hc ny. Khuynh hng th nht bt u vi cc khi nim ma trn, nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh, ri i ti cc khi nim tru tng hn nh khng gian vct v nh x tuyn tnh. Khuynh hng ny d tip thu. Nhng n khng cho php trnh by l thuyt v nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh bng mt ngn ng c ng v p . Khuynh hng th hai trnh by cc khi nim khng gian vct v nh x tuyn tnh trc, ri p dng vo kho st nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh. u im ca phng php ny l cao v p trong tnh nht qun v cu trc ca cc i tng c kho st. Nhc im ca n l khi xt tnh c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh, tht ra ngi ta phi i mt vi vic gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh. Cch trnh by no cng c ci l ca n. Theo kinh nghim ca chng ti th nn chn cch trnh by th hai cho cc sinh vin c kh nng t duy tru tng tt hn v c mc ch hng ti mt mt bng kin thc cao hn v ton.
2
Mc lc
Cun sch ny c chng ti bin son nhm mc ch lm gio trnh v sch tham kho cho sinh vin, sinh vin cao hc v nghin cu sinh cc ngnh khoa hc t nhin v cng ngh ca cc trng i hc khoa hc t nhin, i hc s phm v i hc k thut. Cun sch c vit trn c s cc bi ging v i s tuyn tnh ca ti trong nhiu nm cho sinh vin mt s khoa ca trng i hc Tng hp (nay l i hc khoa hc T nhin) H Ni v ca mt s trng i hc s phm. c bit, ti ging gio trnh ny trong 3 nm hc 1997 - 1998, 1998 - 1999, 1999 - 2000 cho sinh vin cc ngnh Ton, C, L, Ho, Sinh, a cht, Kh tng thu vn... ca Chng trnh o to C nhn khoa hc ti nng, i hc khoa hc T nhin H Ni. Chng ti chn khuynh hng th hai trong hai khuynh hng trnh by ni trn. Tt nhin, vi i cht thay i, cun sch ny c th dng ging i s tuyn tnh theo khuynh hng trnh by th nht. T tng cu trc c chng ti nhn mnh nh mt mch ca cun sch. Mi i tng u c nghin cu trong mi tng quan vi nhm cc php bin i bo ton cu trc ca i tng : Kho st khng gian vct gn lin vi nhm tuyn tnh tng qut GL(n, K ), khng gian vct Euclid v khng gian vct Euclid nh hng gn lin vi nhm trc giao O(n) v nhm trc giao c bit SO(n), khng gian Unita gn lin vi nhm unita U (n)... Kt qu phn loi cc dng ton phng ph thuc cn bn vo vic qu trnh phn loi c tin hnh di tc ng ca nhm no (tuyn tnh tng qut, trc giao...). Theo kinh nghim, chng ti khng th ging ht ni dung ca cun sch ny trong mt gio trnh tiu chun v i s tuyn tnh cho sinh vin cc trng i hc, ngay c i vi sinh vin chuyn ngnh ton. Cc ch v dng chun tc Jordan ca t ng cu, dng chnh tc ca t ng cu trc giao, vic a ng thi hai dng ton phng v dng chnh tc, i s tenx, i s i xng v i s ngoi... nn dng ging chi tit cho cc sinh vin cao hc v nghin cu sinh cc ngnh Ton, C hc v Vt l. Chng ti c gng bnh lun ngha ca cc khi nim v u khuyt im ca cc phng php c trnh by. Cui mi chng u c phn bi tp, c tuyn chn ch yu t cun sch ni ting ``Bi tp i s tuyn tnh'' ca I. V. Proskuryakov. nm vng kin thc, c gi nn c rt k phn l thuyt trc khi lm cng nhiu cng tt cc bi tp cui mi chng. Vic s dng cun sch ny s c bit thun li nu ngi c coi n l phn mt ca mt b sch m phn hai ca n l cun i s i cng ca cng tc gi, do Nh xut bn Gio dc H Ni n hnh nm 1998 v ti bn nm 1999. Tc gi chn thnh cm n Ban iu hnh Chng trnh o to C nhn
i s tuyn tnh
Mc lc
khoa hc ti nng, i hc Khoa hc t nhin H Ni, c bit l Gio s m Trung n v Gio s Nguyn Duy Tin, to mi iu kin thun li tc gi ging dy cho sinh vin ca Chng trnh trong ba nm qua v vit cun sch ny trn c s nhng bi ging . Tc gi mong nhn c s ch gio ca cc c gi v ng nghip v nhng thiu st kh trnh khi ca cun sch.
H Ni, 12/1999
i s tuyn tnh
TM18 Nhm 9 Trn Quang Bn A08361 & L Hong Long A08232
y l bi tp ln mn H thng TEXc thc hin bi chng ti , L Hong Long & Trn Quang Bn, vo nhng thng cui nm 2008 vi TEXLive 2007. A Nguyn thy cun sch ny l c bin dch bng L TEX, tuy nhin do xu A th hin ti chuyn dn v s dng L TEX 2 t hiu qu cao hn trong vic trnh by cc trang sch. Thy Nguyn Quc Thng, hc tr ca tc gi Nguyn Hu Vit Hng, l ngi trc tip dng chng trnh dch trn C thng dng hi A l bison v flex chuyn t vn bn g trn Word ra L TEX. Thy Nguyn Quc Thng giao cho chng ti, nhm 9, thc hin nhim v cch mng ny. Khi chng ti cng thc hin cc cng vic nh thy Nguyn Quc Thng lm nhng vi ngn ng hin i hn, l C % thng qua CsTools47m. Ti, L Hong Long, chu trch nhim vit chng trnh dch t vn bn ch c th dch A A bng L TEXkiu c sang vn bn c th bin dch bng L TEX 2 hin i trong khi ngi ng s Trn Quang Bn c nhim v vit thm cc m un to hnh c c cun sch nhiu mu sc. Hm nay, 00:46,Sunday 3rd April, 2011, khng phi l ngy chng ti np bn bo co mn H thng TEX. Chiu ngy 29-3-2011, lc 18h41, thy Nguyn Quc Thng lin h vi ti qua Yahoo!, v cho bit l cun sch m chng ti thc hin b li chng 2, mt s nh l v v d b y xung cui chng sau phn bi tp. Thy cng cho bit l 1 s bn sinh vin hc mn i s tuyn tnh hc k 2 nhm 2 nm hc 2010-2011 sau khi i in bn thng 11 nm 2008 phn nh vic ny vi thy nn thy yu cu ti sa li ch khim khuyt . Vic chnh sa ch tn khong 2 pht, trong 1 pht dng ti khi ng h thng bin dch, 5 giy sa li m cc bn ch ra v phn thi gian cn li A bin dch. chnh l sc mnh ca L TEXvi TEXLive 2009. Chng ti tin rng bn c s cm thy thch th vi nhng trang tr nho nh
5
Mc lc
v nhng ni dung ton hc su sc m cun sch em li.
L Hong Long, hoanglong1712@yahoo.com Trn Quang Bn, bontq@yahoo.com H Ni, 01:34,Sunday 3rd April, 2011
i s tuyn tnh
Kin thc chun b

him v ca chng ny l trnh by di dng gin lc nht mt s kin thc chun b cho phn cn li ca cun sch: Tp hp, quan h, nh x, nhm, vnh, trng, a thc... Trng s thc s c xy dng cht ch 5. Nhng v cc tnh cht ca n rt quen thuc vi nhng ai hc qua chng trnh trung hc ph thng, cho nn chng ta vn ni ti trng ny trong cc v d cc tit 1 - 4.. . . .
0.1 Tp hp Trong tit ny, chng ta trnh by v tp hp theo quan im ca "L thuyt tp hp ngy th". C th, tp hp l mt khi nim "nguyn thu", khng c nh ngha, m c hiu mt cch trc gic nh sau: Mt tp hp l mt s qun t cc i tng c cng mt thuc tnh no ; nhng i tng ny c gi l cc phn t ca tp hp . (Tt nhin, m t ni trn khng phi l mt nh ngha ca tp hp, n ch din t khi nim tp hp qua mt khi nim c v gn gi hn l "qun t". Tuy vy, bn thn khi nim qun t li cha c nh ngha.) Ngi ta cng thng gi tt tp hp l "tp". c mt s v d, chng ta c th xt tp hp cc sinh vin ca mt trng i hc, tp hp cc xe ti ca mt cng ty, tp hp cc s nguyn t ... Cc tp hp thng c k hiu bi cc ch in hoa: A, B, C, ..., X, Y, Z ... Cc phn t ca mt tp hp thng c k hu bi cc ch in thng: a, b, c, ..., x, y, z... ni x l mt phn t ca tp hp X , ta vit x 2 X v c l "x thuc X ". Tri li, ni y khng l phn t ca X , ta vit y 4 X , v c l "y khng thuc X ". xc nh mt tp hp, ngi ta c th lit k tt c cc phn t ca n. Chng hn, A = J0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9K. Ngi ta cng c th xc nh mt tp hp bi mt tnh cht c trng P (x) no
7
Mc lc
ca cc phn t ca n. Tp hp X cc phn t x c tnh cht P (x) c k hiu l X = Jx P (x)K, hoc l X = Jx : P (x)K.
Nu mi phn t ca tp hp A cng l mt phn t ca tp hp X th ta ni A

V d 0.1.1 N Z Q R = = = =
Jx Jx Jx Jx
x l s t nhinK, x l s nguyn K, x l s hu tK, x l s thcK.
l mt tp hp con ca X , v vit A P X . Tp con A gm cc phn t x ca X c tnh cht P (x) c k hiu l A = Jx 2 X P (x)K. Hai tp hp X v Y c gi l bng nhau nu mi phn t ca tp hp ny cng l mt phn t ca tp hp kia v ngc li, tc l X P Y v Y P X . Khi ta vit X = Y . Tp hp khng cha mt phn t no c c k hiu bi 0, v c gi l tp rng. Ta quy c rng 0 l tp con ca mi tp hp. Tp hp rng rt tin li, n ng vai tr nh s khng trong khi lm ton vi cc tp hp. Cc php ton hp, giao v hiu ca hai tp hp c nh ngha nh sau. Cho cc tp hp A v B . Hp ca A v B c k hiu bi A ; B v c nh ngha nh sau: Giao ca A v B c k hiu bi A : B v c nh ngha nh sau: A : B = Jx x 2 A v x 2 B K. Hiu ca A v B c k hiu bi A B v c nh ngha nh sau: A B = Jx x 2 A v x 4 B K. Nu B P A th A B c gi l phn b ca B trong A, v c k hiu l CA (B ). Cc php ton hp, giao v hiu c cc tnh cht s cp sau y:
8 i s tuyn tnh
A ; B = Jx x 2 A hoc x 2 B K.
0.1. Tp hp
Phn phi: A : (B ; C ) = (A : B ) ; (A : C ), A ; (B : C ) = (A ; B ) : (A ; C ).
Giao hon: A ; B = B ; A, A : B = B : A.
Kt hp: (A ; B ) ; C = A ; (B ; C ), (A : B ) : C = A : (B : C ).
Cng thc De Morgan: X (A ; B ) = (X A) : (X B ), X (A : B ) = (X A) ; (X B ).
Gi s Ai l mt tp hp vi mi i thuc mt tp ch s I (c th hu hn hay v hn). Khi , hp v giao ca h tp hp JAi Ki2I c nh ngha nh sau:

i2I i2I
Ai = Ai =
Jx x 2 Ai vi mt i no trong I K, Jx x 2 Ai vi mi i 2 I K.
X ( X ( Ai ) = Ai ) = (X Ai ), (X Ai ).
Ta c dng tng qut ca cng thc De Morgan:

i2I i2I i2I i2I
Vic s dng qu rng ri khi nim tp hp dn ti mt s nghch l. Mt trong s l nghch l Cantor sau y. Ta ni tp hp X l bnh thng nu X 4 X . Xt tp hp Nu X 2 X th theo nh ngha ca X , n l mt tp bnh thng. Do , theo nh ngha tp bnh thng, X 4 X . Tri li, nu X 4 X , th X l mt tp khng bnh thng, v do X 2 X . C hai trng hp u dn ti mu thun. trnh nhng nghch l loi nh vy, ngi ta s khng dng khi nim tp hp ch "nhng thc th qu ln". Ta s ni "lp tt c cc tp hp", ch khng ni "tp hp tt c cc tp hp". Theo quan nim ny X ch l mt lp ch khng l mt tp hp. V th, ta trnh c nghch l ni trn. Phn cn li ca tit ny c dnh cho vic trnh by s lc v lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti. Ta thng cn phi pht biu nhng mnh c dng: "Mi phn t x ca tp hp X u c tnh cht P (x)". Ngi ta quy c k hiu mnh nh
i s tuyn tnh 9
X = JX X l tp bnh thngK.
Mc lc
sau:
(x 2 X,
P (x).
Dy k hiu trn c c l "Vi mi x thuc X , P (x)". K hiu ( c gi l lng t ph bin. Tng t, ta cng hay gp cc mnh c dng: "Tn ti mt phn t x ca X c tnh cht P (x)". Mnh ny c quy c k hiu nh sau:
,x 2 X,
P (x).
Dy k hiu c c l "Tn ti mt x thuc X , P (x)". K hiu , c gi l lng t tn ti. Mnh "Tn ti duy nht mt phn t x ca X c tnh cht P (x)" c vit nh sau: ,!x 2 X, P (x). Lng t ph bin v lng t tn ti c mi quan h quan trng sau y. Gi P l ph nh ca mnh P . Ta c
(x 2 X, P (x) ,x 2 X, P (x), ,x 2 X, P (x) (x 2 X, P (x).

Chng ti ngh c gi t chng minh nhng khng nh trn xem nh mt bi tp.
0.2 Quan h v nh x Tch trc tip (hay tch Descartes) ca hai tp hp X v Y l tp hp sau y: X Y = J(x, y ) x 2 X, y 2 Y K.
Trng hp c bit, khi X = Y , ta c tch trc tip X X ca tp X vi chnh n.

nh ngha 0.2.1 Mi tp con R ca tp hp tch X X c gi l mt quan h hai ngi trn X . Nu (x, y ) 2 R th ta ni x c quan h R vi y , v vit xRy . Ngc li, nu (x, y ) 4 R th ta ni x khng c quan h R vi y , v vit xRy .
Chng hn, nu R = J(x, y ) 2 Z Z x chia ht cho y K, th 6R2, nhng 5R3. Cc quan h tng ng thng c k hiu bi du .
10 i s tuyn tnh
0.2. Quan h v nh x
nh ngha 0.2.2 Quan h hai ngi R trn X c gi l mt quan h tng ng nu n c ba tnh cht sau y: (a) Phn x: xRx,
(x 2 X .
(b) i xng: Nu xRy , th y Rx, (c)
(x, y 2 X . Bc cu: Nu xRy, y Rz , th xRz, (x, y, z 2 X .
Gi s l mt quan h tng ng trn X . Lp tng ng theo quan h ca mt phn t x 2 X c nh ngha nh sau: B 0.2.3 Gi s l mt quan h tng ng. Khi , vi mi x, y cc lp [x] v [y ] hoc trng nhau, hoc ri nhau (tc l [x] : [y ] = 0). [x] = Jy
2X
x y K P X.
2 X,
Chng minh: Gi s [x] : [y ] 0. Ta s chng minh rng [x] = [y ]. Ly mt phn t z 2 [x] : [y ]. Ta c x z v y z . Do tnh i xng ca quan h tng ng, x z ko theo z x. Gi s t 2 [x], tc l x t. Do tnh bc cu, z x v x t ko theo z t. Tip theo, y z v z t ko theo y t. Ngha l t 2 [y ]. Nh vy, [x] P [y ]. Do vai tr nh nhau ca cc lp [x] v [y ], ta cng c bao hm thc ngc li, [y ] P [x]. Vy [x] = [y ]. Theo b ny, nu y 2 [x] th y 2 [x] : [y ] 0, do [x] = [y ]. V th, ta c th dng t lp tng ng ch lp tng ng ca bt k phn t no trong lp . Mi phn t ca mt lp tng ng c gi l mt i biu ca lp tng ng ny. D dng thy rng X l hp ri rc ca cc lp tng ng theo quan h . (Ni cch khc, X l hp ca cc lp tng ng theo quan h , v cc lp ny ri nhau.) Ngi ta cng ni X c phn hoch bi cc lp tng ng.
nh ngha 0.2.4 Tp hp cc lp tng ng ca X theo quan h c gi l tp thng ca X theo v c k hiu l X / .
Ta ni X c sp ton phn (hay tuyn tnh) bi quan h nu vi mi x, y 2 X , th x y hoc y x. Khi c gi l mt quan h th t ton phn (hay tuyn tnh) trn X . Chng hn, trng s hu t Q l mt tp c sp ton phn i vi quan h th t thng thng. Mt v d khc: nu X l tp hp tt c cc tp con ca mt tp A no , th X c sp theo quan h bao hm. y khng phi l mt th t ton phn nu tp A cha nhiu hn mt phn t.
i s tuyn tnh 11
Mc lc
V d 0.2.5 Gi s n l mt s nguyn dng bt k. Ta xt trn tp X = Z quan h sau y:
= J(x, y) 2 Z Z
x y chia ht cho nK.
R rng l mt quan h tng ng. Hn na x y nu v ch nu x v y c cng phn d trong php chia cho n. V th, Z / l mt tp c ng n phn t : Z/ = J[0], [1], ..., [n 1]K. N c gi l tp cc s nguyn modulo n, v thng c k hiu l Z /n. nh ngha 0.2.6 Gi s l mt quan h hai ngi trn X . N c gi l mt quan h th t nu n c ba tnh cht sau y: (a) Phn x: x x,
(x 2 X .
y v y z , th x x th x = y, z, y, y
(b) Phn i xng: Nu x (c) Bc cu: Nu x
(x, y 2 X . (x, y, z 2 X .
y , ta ni x
Tp X c trang b mt quan h th t c gi l mt tp c sp. Nu x ng trc y , hay x nh hn hoc bng y .
By gi ta chuyn qua xt cc nh x. Ngi ta thng m t cc nh x mt cch trc gic nh sau. Gi s X v Y l cc tp hp. Mt f t X vo Y l mt quy tc t tng ng mi phn t x 2 X vi mt phn t xc nh y = f (x) 2 Y . nh x c k hiu bi f : X Y. Tt nhin m t ni trn khng phi l mt nh ngha cht ch, v ta khng bit th no l mt quy tc. Ni cch khc, trong nh ngha ni trn quy tc ch l mt tn gi khc ca nh x. Ta c th khc phc iu bng cch a ra mt nh ngha chnh xc nhng hi cng knh v nh x nh sau. Mi tp con R ca tch trc tip X Y c gi l mt quan h gia X v Y . Quan h R c gi l mt t X vo Y nu n c tnh cht sau: vi mi x 2 X c mt v ch mt y 2 Y cho (x, y ) 2 R. Ta k hiu phn t duy nht l y = f (x). Khi R = J(x, f (x)) x 2 X K. nh x ny thng c k hiu l f : X Y v quan h R c gi l th ca nh x f . Cc tp X v Y c gi ln lt l tp ngun v tp ch ca nh x f . Tp hp f (X ) = Jf (x) x 2 X K c gi l tp gi tr ca f .
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0.2. Quan h v nh x
Gi s A l mt tp con ca X . Khi , f (A) = Jf (x) x 2 AK c gi l ca A bi f . Nu B l mt tp con ca Y , th f 1 (B ) = Jx 2 X f (x) 2 B K c gi l nghch nh ca B bi f . Trng hp c bit, tp B = Jy K ch gm mt im y 2 Y , ta vit n gin f 1 (y ) thay cho f 1 (Jy K).
nh ngha 0.2.7 (a) nh x f : X (x, x 2 X ) th f (x) f (x ). Y c gi l mt n nh nu vi mi x
x ,
(b) nh x f : X Y c gi l mt ton nh nu vi mi y phn t x 2 X sao cho f (x) = y .
2Y
tn ti (t nht) mt
(c) nh x f : X Y c gi l mt song nh (hay mt tng ng mt-mt) nu n va l mt n nh va l mt ton nh.
Gi s f : X Y l mt song nh. Khi , vi mi y 2 Y tn ti duy nht phn t x 2 X sao cho f (x) = y . Ta k hiu phn t x nh sau: x = f 1 (y ). Nh th, tng ng y x = f 1 (y ) xc nh mt nh x, c k hiu l f 1 : Y X v c gi l nh x ngc ca f . Hin nhin, f 1 cng l mt song nh, hn na (f 1 )1 = f . Cho cc nh x f : X Y v g : Y Z . Khi nh x h : X Z c xc nh bi h(x) = g (f (x)), (x 2 X, c gi l nh x tch (hay ) ca f v g , v c k hiu l h = gf hoc h = g f. Chng ti ngh c gi t chng minh hai mnh sau y.
Mnh 0.2.8 Hp thnh ca hai n nh li l mt n nh. Hp thnh ca hai ton nh li l mt ton nh. Hp thnh ca hai song nh li l mt song nh.
Gi idX : X
X l trn X , c xc nh nh sau idX (x) = x,
(x 2 X.
Mnh 0.2.9 (i) Gi s f : X Y v g : Y Z l cc nh x. Khi , nu gf l mt n nh th f cng vy; nu gf l mt ton nh th g cng vy. (ii) nh x f : X Y l mt song nh nu v ch nu tn ti mt nh x g : Y cho gf = idX , f g = idY . X sao
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13
Mc lc
0.3 Lc lng ca tp hp i vi cc tp hp hu hn, khi cn xt xem tp no c nhiu phn t hn, ngi ta m s phn t ca chng. Nhng ng tc n gin y khng thc hin c i vi cc tp c v hn phn t. so snh "s lng phn t" ca cc tp v hn, ngi ta tr li vi cch lm ca ngi nguyn thu khi cha bit m. C th l, nu mun xem s ru tay c cho mi ngi mt chic hay khng ngi ta pht cho mi ngi mt chic ru, tc l lp mt tng ng gia tp hp ngi v tp hp ru.
nh ngha 0.3.1 Ta ni tp hp X cng lc lng vi tp hp Y nu tn ti mt song nh t X vo Y .
R rng quan h cng lc lng l mt quan h tng ng. Gi s tp A c n phn t. iu ny c ngha l c mt tng ng mt-mt gia cc phn t ca A vi cc s t nhin 1, 2, 3, ..., n. Ni cch khc, A c n phn t nu v ch nu n cng lc lng vi tp hp J1, 2, 3, ..., nK. Sau y chng ta s kho st lp cc tp hp v hn c "t phn t nht", l cc tp m c.
nh ngha 0.3.2 Tp X c gi l m c nu n cng lc lng vi tp hp N cc s t nhin.
Chng hn, Z l mt tp m c. Tht vy, nh x f : N bi cng thc f (2n 1) = n + 1, f (2n) = n (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
Z xc nh
l mt song nh. Tng t, tp hp cc s t nhin chn v tp hp cc s t nhin l u l cc tp m c. Cc v d trn cho thy mt tp v hn c th c cng lc lng vi mt tp con tht s ca n. Ta c Chng minh: Gi s A = Ja1 , a2 , a3 , ...K l mt tp
Mnh 0.3.3 Mi tp con v hn ca mt tp m c cng l mt tp m c.
m c, v B l mt tp con v hn ca A. Gi i1 l s t nhin nh nht

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0.4. Nhm, Vnh v Trng
sao cho ai1 2 B , i2 l s t nhin nh nht sao cho ai2 2 B Jai1 K. Mt cch quy np, in l s t nhin nh nht sao cho ain 2 B Jai1 , ai2 , ..., ain1 K... Bng cch , cc phn t ca B c xp thnh mt dy v hn B = Jai1 , ai2 , ..., ain , ...K. Ni cch khc, c mt song nh N m c. B t n tng ng vi ain . Nh th B
Mnh 0.3.4 Tch trc tip ca hai tp m c cng l mt tp m c.
Chng minh: Khng gim tng qut, ta ch cn chng minh N N l m c. Ta xp tt c cc phn t (a, b) ca N N thnh mt dy v hn bng cch sau. Trc ht ta xp cp (a, b) vi a + b = 2. Gi s xp xong cc cp (a, b) vi a + b = n 1, ta xp tip cc cp (a, b) vi a + b = n, trong cp (a, b) c xp trc cp (a , b ) nu a + b = a + b = n v a a . Nh vy, N N l mt tp m c. H qu 0.3.5 Tp hp Q cc s hu t l mt tp m c. Chng minh: Ta s chng minh tp hp Q + cc s hu t dng l m c. Do Q = Q ; J0K ; Q + cng lc lng vi Z = N ; J0K ; N , trong Q l tp hp cc s hu t m v N l tp hp cc s nguyn m. V th Q l m c. Mi s hu t dng c biu th duy nht di dng mt phn s p q , trong p, q 2 N v cp p, q nguyn t cng nhau. Tng ng p (p, q ) l mt song q nh t Q + ln mt tp con ca tch trc tip N N . Do , theo hai mnh trn th Q + l mt tp m c. Chng ta tha nhn kt qu sau y, v mun chng minh n ta cn mt hiu bit su sc hn v cc s thc.
Mnh 0.3.6 Tp hp R cc s thc l mt tp khng m c. Ngi ta ni tp hp cc s thc c lc lng continum.
0.4 Nhm, Vnh v Trng Cc khi nim nhm, vnh v trng c gii thiu trong tit ny ch dng mc dng cho cc din t trong phn sau ca cun sch.
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Mc lc
Gi s G l mt tp hp. Mi nh x
:GG
c gi l mt php ton hai ngi (hay mt lut hp thnh) trn G. nh ca cp phn t (x, y ) 2 G G bi nh x s c k hiu l x y , v c gi l tch hay hp thnh ca x v y .
nh ngha 0.4.1 Mt nhm l mt tp hp khc rng G c trang b mt php ton hai ngi tho mn ba iu kin sau y: (G1) Php ton c tnh kt hp: (x y ) z = x (y z ),
(x, y, z 2 G. (x 2 G.
(G2) C mt phn t e 2 G, c gi l phn t trung lp, vi tnh cht x e = e x = x, (G3) Vi mi x 2 G, tn ti phn t x
2 G, c gi l nghch o ca x, sao cho x x = x x = e.
Nhn xt: Phn t trung lp ca mt nhm l duy nht. Tht vy, nu e v e u l cc phn t trung lp ca nhm G th e = e e = e . Vi mi x 2 G, phn t nghch o x ni mc (G3) l duy nht. Tht vy, nu x1 v x2 l cc phn t nghch o ca x th x1 = x1 e = x1 (x x2 ) = (x1 x) x2 = e x2 = x2 . Trong nhm c lut gin c, tc l xy =xz xz =yz y = z, x = y.
Tht vy, c lut gin c, ch cn nhn hai v ca ng thc x y = x z vi nghch o x ca x t bn tri, v nhn hai v ca ng thc x z = y z vi nghch o z ca z t bn phi. Nu php ton c tnh giao hon, tc l x y = y x,
16
(x, y 2 G,
i s tuyn tnh
th G c gi l mt nhm giao hon (hay ). Theo thi quen, lut hp thnh trong mt nhm abel thng c k hiu theo li cng " + ". Hp thnh ca cp phn t (x, y ) c k hiu l x + y v c gi l tng ca x v y . Phn t trung lp ca nhm c gi l phn t khng, k hiu 0. Nghch o ca x (xc nh bi iu kin (G3)) c gi l phn t i ca x, k hiu (x). Trng hp tng qut, php ton trong nhm thng c k hiu theo li nhn " ". Hp thnh ca cp phn t (x, y ) c k hiu l x y , hay n gin xy , v c gi l tch ca x v y . Phn t trung lp ca nhm c gi l phn t n v. Phn t nghch o ca x c k hiu l x1 . V d: (a) Cc tp hp s Z , Q , R lp thnh nhm abel i vi php cng. (b) Cc tp Z = J1K, Q = Q vi php nhn.
J0K, R = R J0K lm thnh nhm abel i
(c) Ta nh ngha php cng trong Z /n nh sau: [x] + [y ] = [x + y ]. D kim tra rng php ton ny khng ph thuc i biu ca cc lp tng ng [x] v [y ]. Hn na, Z /n cng vi php cng ni trn lp thnh mt nhm abel. (d) Mi song nh t tp hp J1, 2, ..., nK vo chnh n c gi l mt php th (hay php hon v) trn n phn t. Tp hp Sn tt c cc php th trn n phn t lm thnh mt nhm i vi php hp thnh cc nh x ( )(i) = ( (i)),
(, 2 Sn, 0
n.
Sn c gi l nhm i xng trn n phn t. y l mt nhm khng abel khi n 2. (Xem chi tit Chng III.) (e) Trong Chng II chng ta s kho st mt lp nhm khng abel rt quan trng i vi mn i s tuyn tnh, l nhm GL(V ) cc bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin trn khng gian vct V .
nh ngha 0.4.2 Gi s G v G l cc nhm (vi php ton vit theo li nhn). nh x :G G c gi l mt ng cu nhm nu (xy ) = (x)(y ), i s tuyn tnh
(x, y 2 G.
17
Mc lc
Nhn xt: ng cu nhm chuyn n v e ca G thnh n v e ca G : (e) = e . N cng chuyn phn t nghch o ca x thnh phn t nghch o ca (x): (x1 ) = (x)1 ,
(x 2 G.
nh ngha 0.4.3 cu nhm.
(a) Mt ng cu nhm ng thi l mt n nh c gi l mt n
(b) Mt ng cu nhm ng thi l mt ton nh c gi l mt ton cu nhm. (c) Mt ng cu nhm ng thi l mt song nh c gi l mt ng cu nhm.
Nu c mt ng cu nhm gia G v G th ta ni G ng cu vi G v vit G G . V d: (a) Php nhng i : Z nhm. (b) Php chiu pr : Z cu nhm. Q nh ngha bi cng thc i(x) = x l mt n cu Z /n xc nh bi cng thc pr(x) = [x] l mt ton
(a) nh x m exp : R R + , exp(x) = ex l mt ng cu t nhm cng cc s thc R vo nhm nhn cc s thc dng R + . By gi ta chuyn sang kho st cc vnh v trng. Vnh R c gi l giao hon nu php nhn ca n c tnh giao hon: xy = yx,
(x, y 2 R.
Vnh R c gi l c n v nu php nhn ca n c n v, tc l c phn t 1 2 R sao cho: 1x = x1 = x, (x 2 R. Cc khi nim n cu vnh, ton cu vnh, ng cu vnh c nh ngha tng t nh i vi trng hp nhm. Chng hn, php nhng Z P Q l mt n cu vnh. Php chiu pr : Z Z /n l mt ton cu vnh.
18 i s tuyn tnh
nh ngha 0.4.4 Mt vnh l mt tp hp R 0 c trang b hai php ton hai ngi, gm php cng +:RR R, (x, y ) x + y, v php nhn
:RR
R, (x, y )
xy,
tho mn ba iu kin sau y: (R1) R l mt nhm abel i vi php cng. (R2) Php nhn c tnh cht kt hp: (xy )z = x(yz ),
(x, y, z 2 R.
(R3) Php nhn phn phi v hai pha i vi php cng: (x + y )z = xz + yz, z (x + y ) = zx + zy,
(x, y, z 2 R.
V d 0.4.5 (a) Cc tp hp s Z , Q l cc vnh giao hon v c n v i vi cc php ton cng v nhn thng thng. Tp hp s t nhin N khng l mt vnh, v n khng l mt nhm i vi php cng. (b) Ta nh ngha php nhn trn nhm cng Z /n cc s nguyn modulo n nh sau: [x][y ] = [xy ],
(x, y 2 Z /n.
Php nhn ny khng ph thuc i biu ca cc lp [x] v [y ]. N bin nhm cng Z /n thnh mt vnh giao hon v c n v, c gi l vnh cc s nguyn modulo n. (c) Trong Chng II ta s xt mt lp vnh c bit quan trng i vi mn i s tuyn tnh, l vnh M (n n, K ) cc ma trn vung cp n vi cc phn t trong trng K .
Phn t x trong mt vnh c n v R c gi l kh nghch nu tn ti phn t x 2 R sao cho xx = x x = 1. D chng minh rng phn t x c tnh cht nh vy nu tn ti th duy nht. N c k hiu l x1 . Vnh Q l mt trng. Vnh s nguyn Z khng l mt trng, v cc s khc 1 u khng kh nghch trong Z . Trng s hu t Q l mt trng c sp i vi th t thng thng. Di y ta s xt xem khi no th vnh Z /n l mt trng. Tri li, nu t ng thc ab = 0 (vi a, b 2 R) suy ra hoc a = 0 hoc b = 0, th vnh R c gi l khng c c ca khng.
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nh ngha 0.4.6 Gi s R v R l cc vnh. nh x : R vnh nu (x + y ) = (x) + (y ), (xy ) = (x)(y ), (x, y nh ngha 0.4.7 Mt vnh giao hon, c n v 1 u kh nghch c gi l mt trng.
R c gi l mt ng cu
2 R.
0 sao cho mi phn t khc 0 trong n
Vnh Z /6 c c ca khng, bi v [2] 0, [3] 0 v [2][3] = [6] = [0] = 0. Ni chung, nu n l mt hp s th Z /n c c ca khng. Tht vy, v n l mt hp s cho nn n = rs trong 0 r, s n. Khi , [r] 0, [s] 0 v [r][s] = [n] = [0] = 0. Chng minh: Gi s K l mt trng, a v b l cc phn t thuc K vi ab = 0. Nu a 0 th a kh nghch. Ta c b = 1b = (a1 a)b = a1 (ab) = a1 0 = 0. Vy K khng c c ca khng. Chng minh: Nu n l mt hp s th Z /n c c ca khng, do khng l mt trng. Gi s n = p l mt s nguyn t. Mi phn t khc khng trong Z /p u c dng [q ] trong i biu q tho mn iu kin 0 q p. Khi p v q nguyn t cng nhau, v th c cc s nguyn k v sao cho kp + q = 1. Hay l [][q ] = [1] [kp] = [1] trong Z /p. iu ny c ngha l [q ] kh ngch, v [q ]1 = []. Trng Z /p thng c k hiu l F p . Trong vnh Z /n c hin tng sau y: 1 + 1 + + 1 = 0.
n
Chuyn ny khng xy ra trong cc vnh Z v Q . Ta i ti nh ngha sau y. V d: Char(Z ) = Char(Q ) = 0, Char(Z /n) = n, vi mi s nguyn dng n. Chng minh: t m 1 = 1 + 1 + + 1 2 K . Gi s n = Char(K ) l mt
m
hp s vi phn tch n = rs (0
20
r, s
n). D thy rng n 1 = (r 1)(s 1) = 0.

i s tuyn tnh
0.5. Trng s thc
nh ngha 0.4.8 Gi s l mt quan h th t trn trng K . Khi K c gi l mt trng c sp i vi th t nu cc iu kin sau y c tho mn: (a) Nu x (b) Nu x y th x + z y v 0 y + z , vi mi z yz .
2 K; 0, b 0 sao cho ab = 0 th ta ni R c
z th xz
nh ngha 0.4.9 Nu vnh R cha cc phn t a c ca khng.
V trng K khng c c ca khng, nn hoc (r 1) = 0 hoc (s 1) = 0. iu ny mu thun vi nh ngha ca c s, v r v s l cc s t nhin nh hn n.
0.5 Trng s thc Tt c cc hc tr tt nghip trung hc ph thng u tnh ton thun thc vi cc s thc. Th nhng, nu hi h "S thc l g?" th chc chn h s khng tr li c. Tht ra, l mt vn rt kh. Trong tit ny, chng ta s xy dng trng s thc R nh l mt "b sung" ca trng s hu t Q , nhm gii quyt tnh trng kh x m Pythagore gp t hn 2000 nm trc, l: Nu ch dng cc s hu t th ng cho ca mt hnh vung n v s khng c di. Ni cch khc, khng tn ti s hu t a tho mn h thc a2 = 2. Tht vy, gi s a c dng phn s ti gin p q , vi 2 2 2 p, q 2 Z , q 0, khi ( p q ) = 2. Hay l p = 2q . T suy ra p l mt s 2 chn. Ta t p = 2p1 trong p1 2 Z . ng thc trn tr thnh 2p2 1 = q . Do q cng l mt s chn. iu ny mu thun vi gi thit ni rng p q l mt phn s ti gin. nh ngha sau y c gi t mt nhn xt trc gic l: mi lt ct vo "ng thng s thc" u "chm" phi mt s thc duy nht. Chng hn, tp hp sau y (c k hiu bi 2) l mt lt ct trong Q : 2 := Jr
2Q
r2
2 K. r K.
i vi mi s hu t r, ta xt lt ct sau y r = Js 2 Q s
rng r = min(Q r ). Tt nhin, mi lt ct hu t u c dng r vi mt s hu t r no .

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Mnh 0.4.10 Mi trng u l mt vnh khng c c ca khng. Mnh 0.4.11 Z /n l mt trng nu v ch nu n l mt s nguyn t.
Tp hp cc lt ct c sp th t theo quan h sau y. Php cng cc lt ct c nh ngha nh sau. D dng kim tra li rng tp hp + trong nh ngha ni trn l mt lt ct trong Q . Vi mi lt ct tn ti duy nht mt lt ct, c k hiu l , sao cho + () = () + = 0 . Lt ct ny c nh ngha nh sau:
= Jr r 2 (Q
), r khng l s nh nht trong Q K.
Chng ta gp mt s kh khn v k thut khi nh ngha tch hai lt ct. trnh nhng kh khn , chng ta a ra khi nim gi tr tuyt i. Tt nhin 0 vi mi , hn na = 0 khi v ch khi = 0. Gi s v l cc lt ct vi 0 , 0 . Khi tp hp sau y l mt lt ct, c gi l tch ca v , v c k hiu l : = Q ; Jrs r
2 , r
0, s 2 , s
0K.
By gi tch ca hai lt ct bt k c nh ngha nh sau: nh l sau y c chng minh khng my kh khn, nhng i hi mt lao ng t m. nh l 0.5.1 Tp hp R c trang b hai php ton cng v nhn ni trn l mt trng c c s bng 0. Trng ny c sp i vi th t . nh x Q R,r r l mt n cu trng bo ton th t. Trn c s nh l ny, mi lt ct trong Q c gi l mt s thc. Mi lt ct hu t r c ng nht vi s hu t r. Mi lt ct v t c gi l mt s v t. So vi trng s hu t Q th trng s thc R u vit hn tnh . din t tnh ca R ta cn nh ngha lt ct trong R . Bn c hy so snh nh ngha sau y vi nh ngha 5.1 v lt ct trong Q . Theo nh ngha, lt ct trong Q l hu t hay v t tu theo tp hp Q c phn t nh nht hay khng. Ni mt cch trc gic, cc lt ct v t khng "chm" phi phn t no ca Q . Mt trong nhng biu hin ca tnh ca trng s thc l mi lt ct trong R u "chm" phi mt s thc no . C th, ta c
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0.6. Trng s phc
nh ngha 0.4.12 Cho R l mt vnh c n v. Nu c s nguyn dng n sao cho 1 + 1 + + 1 = 0, th s nguyn dng nh nht c tnh cht c gi l c s ca
n
vnh R. Ngc li, nu khng c s nguyn dng n no nh th th ta ni R c c s bng 0. c s ca R c k hiu l Char(R). Mnh 0.4.13 Nu K l mt trng th Char(K ) hoc bng 0 hoc l mt s nguyn t.
nh l 0.5.2 (Tnh ca trng s thc). Vi mi lt ct trong R , phn b ca n R lun lun c phn t nh nht. Chng minh: t := : Q . Khi l mt lt ct trong Q . Ni cch khc, l mt s thc. D dng chng minh rng vi mi s 2 v mi t 2 R , ta c s t. Kt hp iu vi s kin khng c phn t ln nht, ta suy ra 4 . V th = min(R ). Chng ta tr li vi bi ton o di ca ng cho ca hnh vung n v. S (lt ct) v t 2 := Jr 2 Q r2 2K chnh l s thc tho mn phng trnh X 2 = 2. Mt cch tng qut, c th chng minh c rng nu chn mt n v di th mi on thng u c di l mt s thc no . Ngc li, mi s thc u l di ca mt on thng c hng no .
0.6 Trng s phc M u tit trc, chng ta chng minh rng phng trnh X 2 2 = 0 khng c nghim hu t. chnh l im khi u cho vic xy dng trng s thc R nh l mt "b sung" ca trng s hu t Q , nhm tm nghim cho phng trnh . C mt tnh trng tng t l phng trnh X 2 + 1 = 0 khng c nghim thc, bi v bnh phng ca mi s thc u khng m. thot ra khi tnh trng ny, ta cn "m rng" trng s thc R bng cch xy dng thm "cc s mi". Ta gi i l mt k hiu hnh thc (tc mt "s mi") l nghim ca phng trnh ni trn, tc l i2 = 1. Ta mun thc hin c mi php ton cng, tr, nhn v chia (cho cc s khc 0) sau khi ghp thm i vo trng s thc R . iu ny dn ta ti vic chp
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nh ngha 0.5.1 (Dedekind). Tp hp cc s hu t c gi l mt lt ct (trong Q ) nu: (a) 0, Q , (b) Nu r
2 , v s 2 Q , s
r, th s 2 ,
(c) khng c phn t ln nht. nh ngha 0.5.2 Gi s l mt lt ct. Nu c s nh nht trong tp hp Q th c gi l mt lt ct hu t. Tri li, nu khng c s nh nht trong tp hp Q th c gi l mt lt ct v t.
nhn cc "s mi" dng a + bi, trong a, b 2 R . Tp hp cc s nh vy khp kn i vi bn php ton ni trn. Tht vy, s dng h thc i2 = 1 ta c: (a + bi) (c + di) = (a + c) (b + d)i, (a + bi)(c + di) = (ac bd) + (ad + bc)i, a + bi (a + bi)(c di) = c + di c 2 + d2 ac + bd (bc ad)i = 2 + 2 , c + d2 c + d2 (vi c + di 0, tc l c 0 hoc d 0). Tuy nhin, vn cn mt cu hi: "Vy i l ci g ?". trnh tnh trng kh s ny ta hy ng nht a + bi vi cp s thc (a, b). Nhng phn tch trn dn ta ti nh ngha sau y. Mnh sau y c kim tra mt cch d dng. Phn t trung lp i vi php cng l 0 = (0, 0). n v ca php nhn l 1 = (1, 0). Nghch o ca s phc (a, b) 0 l (a, b)1 = (
b ). a , a2 + b2 a2 + b2
Nhn xt: Theo nh ngha, hai s phc (a, b) v (c, d) bng nhau nu v ch nu a = c, b = d. Ta c (a, 0) + (b, 0) = (a + b, 0), (a, 0)(b, 0) = (ab, 0). Ni cch khc, nh x :R a
24
C, (a, 0)
i s tuyn tnh
0.6. Trng s phc
nh ngha 0.5.3 Gi s , l cc lt ct. Ta ni (hay ) nu 0. Ta ni (hay ) nu hoc = . Mt lt ct c gi l dng hay m tu theo n ln hn hay nh hn lt ct 0 .
nh ngha 0.5.4 Gi s , l cc lt ct. Khi lt ct sau y c gi l tng ca v , k hiu l + : + = Jr + s r 2 , s 2 K.
l mt n cu vnh. V th, ta c th ng nht s thc a 2 R vi s phc c dng (a, 0). Khi tp hp cc s thc R c ng nht vi tp hp cc s phc dng J(a, 0) a 2 R K. Ngi ta ni trng s thc R l mt trng con ca trng s phc C . t i = (0, 1) 2 C . Ta c i2 = (0, 1)(0, 1) = (1, 0) 1. Nh th, ta c "vt liu" xy dng "s mi" i. Ta gi i l n v o. Mi s phc z = (a, b) c th vit di dng
z = (a, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) = a + bi.
trong a, b 2 R . l dng i s ca s phc. Ta gi a l phn thc ca z , k hiu a = Rez , cn b l phn o ca z , k hiu Imz . S phc z m Imz = 0 chnh l mt s thc. S phc z c Rez = 0 c gi l mt s thun o. By gi ta xt biu din hnh hc ca cc s phc. Trn mt phng xt mt h trc to Descartes vung gc Oxy . S phc z = a + bi c biu din trn mt phng bi im M c to (a, b), hoc i t im gc to O ti im M . Cng cc s phc chnh l bi vc t OM cng cc vct tng ng vi chng.
i s tuyn tnh 25
Mc lc
nh ngha 0.5.5 Gi tr tuyt i (cn gi tt l tr tuyt i) ca lt ct l lt ct sau y:
nu nu
0, 0.
nh ngha 0.5.6 Gi s , l cc lt ct. Khi lt ct sau y c gi l tch ca v , k hiu l :
nu ( ) nu
0 , 0 ,
0 hoc 0 hoc
0 , 0 ,
0 , 0 .
y
6 >
z = M (a, b)
b O a
-
Mt phng to c gi l mt phng phc. Cc s thc c biu din trn trc Ox, c gi l trc thc. Cc s thun o c biu din trn trc Oy , c gi l trc o. Php i xng qua trc thc c gi l php lin hp phc. C th hn, ta c Ta d dng kim tra li rng , z+t = z +t . zt = z t Phn cui ca tit ny c dnh cho vic kho st dng lng gic ca s phc. Dng lng gic c bit thun tin cho vic nng ln lu tha v khai cn cc s phc. Gi s z = a + bi 0 (tc l a2 + b2 0). Ta c = a b z = a2 + b2 ( 2 + i). a + b2 a2 + b2
26 i s tuyn tnh
0.6. Trng s phc
nh ngha 0.5.7 Ta k hiu bi R tp hp tt c cc lt ct trong Q . nh ngha 0.5.8 Tp hp cc s thc c gi l mt lt ct (trong R ) nu: (a) 0, R , (b) Nu r
2 , v s 2 R , s
r, th s 2 ,
(c) khng c phn t ln nht.
Ta t r = a2 + b2 v nhn xt rng tn ti gc xc nh sai khc 2k (k 2 Z ) sao cho b a , sin = . a2 + b2 a2 + b2 Khi z = r(cos + i sin ). Gi s z = z (cos + i sin ), t = t (cos + i sin ). Khi cos = zt = z t [(cos cos sin sin ) + i(sin cos + cos sin )] = z t (cos( + ) + i sin( + )). Ni cch khc zt = z t , arg (zt) = arg (z ) + arg (t), trong iu kin c ng thc cui l arg (z ) v arg (t) c nh ngha. Ni ring, ta c z n = ( z (cos + i sin ))n = z n (cos n + i sin n). c bit, vi z = 1, ta c Cng thc Moivre: (cos + i sin ))n = cos n + i sin n. Tip theo, ta xt bi ton khai cn bc n ca s phc z , tc l tm tt c cc s phc u sao cho un = z . Nu z = 0 th u = 0 l li gii duy nht. Nu z 0, ta t z = z (cos + i sin ) v tm u di dng u = u (cos + i sin ). Ta c un = z u n (cos n + i sin n) = z (cos + i sin ) un = z, n = + 2k (k 2 Z ) u = =
=
n
+2k n
z (cn s hc), (k 2 Z ).
27
i s tuyn tnh
Mc lc
nh ngha 0.6.1 Mt cp c th t hai s thc (a, b) c gi l mt s phc. Tp hp tt c cc s phc c k hiu bi C : C = J(a, b) a, b 2 R K. Ta nh ngha cc php ton cng v nhn cc s phc nh sau: (a, b) + (c, d) = (a + c, b + d), (a, b)(c, d) = (ac bd, ad + bc). Mnh 0.6.2 Tp cc s phc C cng vi hai php ton cng v nhn nh ngha trn lp nn mt trng c c s bng khng.
Nh vy, c ng n cn bc n ca mi s phc z 0, ng vi cc gi tr k = 1, 2, ..., n 1. Cc cn ny lp nn n nh ca mt a gic u n cnh vi tm ti gc to . Ni ring, c ng n cn bc n ca n v 1, l k = cos 2k 2k + i sin (k = 1, 2, ..., n 1). n n
Cn k c gi l mt cn nguyn thu bc n ca 1 nu mi cn bc n ca 1 u l mt lu tha no ca k . iu ny xy ra khi v ch khi k v n nguyn t cng nhau. Tt c cc cn bc n ca mi s phc z u nhn c bng cch nhn mt cn nh th vi tt c cc cn bc n ca n v. Vic kho st cc cn phc cho thy trng s phc "phong ph" hn rt nhiu so vi trng s thc. Tr li xt phng trnh X 2 + 1 = 0, ta bit rng n c ng hai nghim phc (i), l cc cn bc hai ca (1). Trong tit sau ta s thy trng s phc cung cp " nghim" cho tt c cc a thc h s phc.
0.7 a thc Chng ta trnh by y mt cch hiu trc gic nht v a thc. Gi s K l mt trng. Biu thc hnh thc f (X ) = an X n + an1 X n1 + + a1 X + a0 , trong a0 , a1 , .., an s trong K .
28
2 K , c gi l mt a thc ca X (hay bin X ) vi h

i s tuyn tnh
0.7. a thc
nh ngha 0.6.3 S phc z = a bi c gi l lin hp ca s phc z = a + bi, trong a, b l cc s thc. nh ngha 0.6.4 S thc khng m r = a2 + b2 c gi l mun ca s phc z = a + bi, k hiu r = z ; cn gc c gi l ca z , k hiu = arg z . Argument ca s phc z = 0 khng c nh ngha.
Nu an 0 th ta ni f (X ) c n, v vit deg f (X ) = n; cn an c gi l h s bc cao nht ca f (X ). Nu a0 = a1 = = an = 0 th f (X ) c gi l a thc 0, v c coi l c bc bng &. Tp hp cc a thc n X vi h s trong K c k hiu l K [X ]. Ta trang b cho tp hp ny hai php ton cng v nhn nh sau: Php cng: (an X n + + a0 ) + (bm X n + + b0 ) := an X n + + am+1 X m+1 + (am + bm )X m + + (a0 + b0 ), ( y ta gi s khng gim tng qut n Php nhn: m).
(an X n + + a0 )(bm X n + + b0 ) := cn+m X n+m + + c0 , trong ck =

i+j =k
ai bj .
Mnh 0.7.1 K [X ] cng vi hai php ton ni trn lp nn mt vnh giao hon, c n v, khng c c ca khng vi c s CharK [X ] = CharK .
Chng minh: Nhn xt rng i vi cc a thc f (X ) v g (X ) ta c deg(f (X )g (X )) = deg f (X ) + deg g (X ). Tnh cht ny dn ti s kin K [X ] khng c c ca khng. Cc khng nh cn li ca mnh u d kim tra. Ta tha nhn nh l sau y. nh l 0.7.1 (Php chia Euclid vi d). Gi s f (X ) v g (X ) 0 l cc a thc ca vnh K [X ]. Khi tn ti duy nht cc a thc q (X ) v r(X ) trong K [X ] sao cho f (X ) = g (X )q (X ) + r(X ), trong deg r(X )
i s tuyn tnh
deg g (X ).
29
Mc lc
Cc a thc q (X ) v r(X ) c gi tng ng l thng v phn d trong php chia f (X ) cho g (X ). Nu r(X ) = 0, tc l f (X ) = g (X )q (X ), ta ni f (X ) chia ht cho g (X ) trong K [X ], hoc g (X ) l mt c ca f (X ) trong K [X ]. Phn t c 2 K c gi l mt nghim ca a thc f (X ) = an X n + + a1 X + a0 nu f (c) = an cn + + a1 c + a0 = 0 2 K . Ta c nh l sau y lin h gia nghim v tnh chia ht ca a thc. nh l 0.7.2 (Bzout). a thc f (X ) 2 K [X ] nhn c 2 K l mt nghim nu v ch nu tn ti mt a thc q (X ) 2 K [X ] sao cho f (X ) = (X
c)q(X ).
trong q (X ), r(X ) 2 K [X ] v deg r(X ) deg(X c) = 1. Nh th, deg r(X ) hoc bng 0 hoc bng &. Trong c hai trng hp r(X ) u l a thc hng, r(X ) = r 2 K . Ta c 0 = f (c) = (c c)q (c) + r = r. Vy r = 0. T f (X ) = (X
Chng minh: Nu f (X ) = (X c)q (X ) th f (c) = (c c)q (c) = 0 2 K . Do c l mt nghim ca f (X ). Ngc li, gi s c l mt nghim ca f (X ). Ta chia f (X ) cho a thc khc khng (X c): f (X ) = (X c)q (X ) + r(X ),
c)q(X ).
nh ngha 0.7.2 Phn t c 2 K c gi l mt nghim bi k ca a thc f (X ) nu f (X ) chia ht cho (X c)k , nhng khng chia ht cho (X c)k+1 trong K [X ].
V d: a thc f (X ) = X (X 1)2 c cc nghim X = 0 vi bi 0 v X = 1 vi bi 2.

nh ngha 0.7.3 a thc f (X ) 2 K [X ] c gi l trn K nu n c bc dng v nu n khng tha nhn mt phn tch no c dng f (X ) = g (X )h(X ), trong cc a thc g (X ), h(X ) 2 K [X ] u c bc nh hn deg f (X ). Mt a thc c gi l kh quy trn K nu n khng bt kh quy trn K .
Ni cch khc, a thc f (X ) 2 K [X ] l bt kh quy trn K nu n c bc dng v ch chia ht cho cc a thc bc dng c dng kf (X ) 2 K [X ], trong k 2 K J0K. V d:
30 i s tuyn tnh
0.7. a thc
(1) Mi a thc bc nht u bt kh quy. (2) a thc bc hai bt kh quy trn K nu v ch nu n v nghim trong K . (3) a thc bc ln hn 1 c nghim trong K th khng bt kh quy trn K (4) a thc X 2 2 bt kh quy trn Q nhng kh quy trn R . (5) a thc X 2 + 1 bt kh quy trn R , nhng kh quy trn C . Chng ta tha nhn nh l sau y, ni v tnh ng i s ca trng s phc. nh l 0.7.3 (nh l c bn ca i s hc). Mi a thc bc dng vi h s phc u c nghim phc. Ni cch khc, mt a thc h s phc l bt kh quy trn C khi v ch khi n l mt a thc bc nht. Nh vy, nu f (X ) 2 C [X ] c bc n th n tha nhn phn tch f (X ) = an (X
z1) (X zn)
trong an 0 l h s bc cao nht ca f (X ), v z1 , ..., zn l cc s phc no . Cho ti nay, mi bit ca nh l ny u mang bn sc Tp, Hnh hc hoc Gii tch. Cha c mt chng minh thun tu i s no cho nh l ny. Nhc li rng tam thc bc hai h s thc aX 2 + bX + c khng c nghim thc nu v ch nu bit thc ca n = b2 4ac 0. Mt ng dng ca nh l c bn ca i s hc l khng nh sau y. nh l 0.7.4 Mt a thc h s thc l bt kh quy trn R nu v ch nu n hoc l mt a thc bc nht hoc l mt a thc bc hai vi bit thc m. Hn na, mi a thc f (X ) 2 R [X ] u tha nhn phn tch f (X ) = an (X x1 )k1 (X xr )kr (X 2 + b1 X + c1 )1 (X 2 + bs X + cs )s ,
s trong an l h s bc cao nht ca f (X ), r i=1 ki + j =1 j = n = deg f (X ), x1 , ..., xr l cc s thc v cc tam thc bc hai h s thc (X 2 + bi X + ci ) u khng c nghim thc.
Chng minh: R rng mi a thc h s thc bc nht hoc bc hai vi bit thc m u bt kh quy trn R . Khng nh ngc li c bao hm trong phn tch cn tm cho mi a thc f (X ) ni trong nh l.
i s tuyn tnh 31
Mc lc
Gi x1 , ..., xr l tt c cc nghim thc ca f (X ) vi bi tng ng bng k1 , ..., kr . Ta c f (X ) = an (X
x1)k (X xr )k P (X ),
1 r
trong P (X ) l mt a thc h s thc nhng khng c nghim thc. Gi s z1 l mt nghim phc ca P (X ), khi z 1 cng l mt nghim ca P (X ). Tht vy, P (X ) c dng P (X ) = dm X m + + d1 X + d0 , i = di . D thy rng trong dm , ..., d0 l cc s thc, tc l d 0 = P (z1 ) = = = =
m + + d z + d dm z 1 1 1 0 m z m + + d 1 z 0 d 1 + d 1 m dm z 1 + + d1 z 1 + d0 P ( z1 ).
z1)P1(X ). T P ( z1 ) = ( z1 z1 )P1 ( z1 ) = 0. V z1 khng phi l s thc, nn ( z1 z1 ) 0. Do P1 ( z1 ) = 0 .

Theo nh l Bzout P (X ) = (X nh l Bzout mt ln na cho P1 (X ) ta nhn c P (X ) = (X
p dng
z1)(X z 1 )Q(X ),
= X 2 (z1 + z 1 )X + z1 z 1 2 = X 2(Re(Z1 )X + z1 2
trong Q(X ) l mt a thc. Nhn xt rng (X
z1)(X z 1 )
l mt tam thc bc hai h s thc nhng khng c nghim thc. Do tnh duy nht ca php chia a thc P (X ) cho a thc X 2 2(Re(Z1 )X + z1 2 trong cc vnh R [X ] v C [X ], ta kt lun Q(X ) cng l mt a thc h s thc. N khng c nghim thc v P (X ) cng vy. Nh th, c th lp li nhng lp lun trn vi Q(X ) thay cho P (X ). Bi v deg Q(X ) deg P (X ), cho nn ta nhn c phn tch ca f (X ) nh ni trong nh l bng cch quy np theo deg P (X ).
32
i s tuyn tnh
0.8. Bi tp
0.8 Bi tp 1. Chng minh cc tnh cht kt hp, giao hon, phn phi ca cc php ton hp v giao trn tp hp. Chng minh cng thc i ngu De Morgan cho hiu ca hp v giao ca mt h tu cc tp hp. 2. Chng minh rng (b) A = (A B ) ; (A : B ), (a) (A B ) ; (B A) = 0 A = B,
(d) A : (B C ) = (A : B ) (A : C ), (e) A ; (B A) = (A ; B ), (f) A (A B ) = A : B .
(c) (A B ) ; (B A) = (A ; B ) (A : B ),
3. Chng minh rng
0, (b) (A C ) : (B D) = (A : B ) (C : D). 4. Gi s f : X Y l mt nh x v A, B P X . Chng minh rng (a) f (A ; B ) = f (A) ; f (B ), (b) f (A : B ) P f (A) : f (B ), (c) f (A B ) Q f (A) f (B ).
Hy tm cc v d chng t rng khng c du bng cc mc (b) v (c). 5. Cho nh x f : X Y v cc tp con A, B
(a) (A B ) : (B A) 0
A:B
P Y . Chng minh rng
(b) f 1 (A : B ) = f 1 (A) : f 1 (B ), (c) f 1 (A B ) = f 1 (A) f 1 (B ). 6. Chng minh hai mnh v nh x cui 2. 7. Xt xem nh x f : R R xc nh bi cng thc f (x) = x2 3x + 2 c phi l mt n nh hay ton nh hay khng. Tm f (R ), f (0), f 1 (0), f ([0, 5]), f 1 ([0, 5]).
i s tuyn tnh 33
(a) f 1 (A ; B ) = f 1 (A) ; f 1 (B ),
Mc lc
8. Gi s A l mt tp gm ng n phn t. Chng minh rng tp hp P (A) cc tp con ca A c ng 2n phn t. 9. Chng minh rng tp hp R + cc s thc dng c lc lng continum. (Gi : Xt nh x exp : R R + , vi exp(x) = ex .) 10. Cho hai s thc a, b vi a b. Chng minh rng khong s thc (a, b) = Jx 2 R a x bK c lc lng continum. (Gi : Xt nh x : x (a, b) R + xc nh bi (x) = a xb .) 11. Mt s thc c gi l mt s i s nu n l nghim ca mt phng trnh a thc no vi cc h s nguyn. Chng minh rng tp cc s i s l mt tp m c. T suy ra rng tp hp cc s thc khng phi l s i s l mt tp v hn khng m c. 12. Lp bng cng v bng nhn ca vnh Z /n vi n = 12 v n = 15. Da vo bng, tm cc phn t kh nghch i vi php nhn trong hai vnh . 13. Gi (Z /n) l tp hp cc phn t kh nghch i vi php nhn trong Z /n. Chng minh rng (Z /n) = J[x] x v n nguyn t cng nhauK. 14. Cho R l mt vnh c n v. Gi R l tp hp cc phn t kh nghch i vi php nhn trong R. Chng minh rng R l mt nhm i vi php nhn ca R. 15. Cho R l mt vnh c n v 1 0 v cc phn t x, y rng (a) Nu xy v yx kh nghch th x v y kh nghch. (b) Nu R khng c c ca khng v xy kh nghch th x v y kh nghch. 16. Cho R l mt vnh hu hn. Chng minh rng (a) Nu R khng c c ca khng th n c n v v mi phn t khc khng ca R u kh nghch. (Gi : Cc php nhn bn phi hoc bn tri vi mt phn t c nh khc khng u l cc song nh R R.) (b) Nu R c n v th mi phn t kh nghch mt pha trong R u kh nghch. 17. Chng minh rng tp hp cc s thc Q ( 2) = Ja + b 2 a, b 2 Q K lp nn mt trng vi cc php ton cng v nhn thng thng.
34 i s tuyn tnh
2 R. Chng minh
0.8. Bi tp
18. Chng minh rng cc trng Q ( 2) v Q ( 3) khng ng cu vi nhau. 19. Chng minh rng nu s phc z
4 R th trng gm cc phn t c dng R (z ) = Ja + bz a, b 2 R K
trng vi trng s phc C . 20. Chng minh rng cc trng C v Z /p, vi p nguyn t, khng l trng c sp ton phn i vi bt k th t no. 21. Chng minh rng nh x : R C xc nh bi cng thc (x) = cos x + i sin x l mt ng cu t nhm R vi php cng vo nhm C vi php nhn. Tm tp gi tr ca . ng cu c phi l mt ton cu hay mt n cu khng? 22. Chng minh rng i vi s phc z : z=z z = z z 2 R, z l thun o.
23. Khi no th tch ca hai s phc l mt s thc? Khi no th tng v tch ca hai s phc u l s thc? 24. Tnh i77 , i99 , i57 , in , (1 + i)n vi n 2 Z . 25. Chng minh cc ng thc (1 + i)8n = 24n , (1 + i)4n = (1)n 22n , (n 2 Z ). 26. Chng minh rng nu z + z 1 = 2 cos trong 2 cos n, vi mi n 2 N . 27. Tnh 1 2i (a) , 4 + 3i (1 i)n (b) , (1 3i)n
2 R th zn + zn =
(1 + 3i)n (c) . (1 + i)n+1
28. (a) Tm dng lng gic ca s phc (1 + itg)/(1 itg), (b) Trn mt phng phc, tm tp hp cc im tng ng vi
Jz = (1 + ti)/(1 ti) t 2 R K.
29. ng thc sau y c ng khng
i s tuyn tnh
ns
zs =
z , trong z
2 C , n, s 2 N ?
35
Mc lc
30. (a) Tm cc cn bc ba ca 1 + i, v 1
(b) Tm cc cn bc n ca i, 1 i, v 1 +
3i . 3i .
31. Chng minh rng tng ca tt c cc cn bc n ca mt s phc bt k u bng 0. 32. Phn tch cc a thc sau y thnh cc nhn t bt kh quy trong cc vnh R [X ] v C [X ]: (b) X 3 X 2 X (a) X 3 + 3X 2 + 5X + 3,
2.
33. Chng minh rng a thc X 3m + X 3n+1 + X 3p+2 chia ht cho a thc X 2 + X + 1, vi mi m, n, p nguyn dng. 34. Tm tt c cc b ba nguyn dng m, n, p sao cho a thc X 3m X 3n+1 + X 3p+2 chia ht cho a thc X 2 X + 1.
36
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 1
Khng gian vect
i tng ban u ca mn i s tuyn tnh l vic gii v bin lun cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh. Tuy vy, c th hiu thu o iu kin m bo cho mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh c nghim v cu trc nghim ca n, ngi ta a ra khi nim khng gian vct v khi nim ny tr thnh mt trong nhng tr ct ca mn i s tuyn tnh. Khng gian vct sau c s dng ph bin trong mi lnh vc ca ton hc. . . . .
1.1 Khi nim khng gian vct Trong sut chng ny, ta lun gi s K l mt trng. Cc phn t ca V c gi l cc vct, cc phn t ca K c gi l cc v hng. Bn tin u ni rng V l mt nhm abel i vi php cng. Cc tin (V5) - (V7) ni rng php nhn vi v hng c tnh phn phi i vi php cng v hng, phn phi i vi php cng vct v c tnh cht ca mt "tc ng''. Tin (V8) ni rng php nhn vi v hng c chun ho. Mt khng gian vct trn K cn c gi l mt K -khng gian vct, hay n gin: mt khng gian vct, nu K r. Khi K = R , V c gi l mt khng gian vct thc. Khi K = C , V c gi l mt khng gian vct phc. V d 1.1.2 (a) Cc vct t do trong hnh hc s cp vi cc php ton cng vct v nhn vct vi s thc lp nn mt khng gian vct thc. (b) Tp hp cc a thc K [X ] (ca mt n X , vi h s trong K ) vi php cng a thc v php nhn a thc vi v hng thng thng lp nn mt khng gian vct trn trng K .
37
Chng 1. Khng gian vect
nh ngha 1.1.1 Tp hp V b hai php ton, gm (a) Php cng vct:
0 c gi l mt khng gian vct trn K nu n c trang

+: V V (, )
V + ,
(b) Php nhn vct vi v hng:
:
K V (a, )
V a;
Cc php ton ny tho mn nhng iu kin (hoc tin ) sau y: (V1) (V2) (V3) (V4) (V5) (V6) (V7) (V8) ( + ) + = + ( + ), ,0 2 V : 0 + = + 0 = , ( 2 V, , 2 V : + = + = 0, + = + , (a + b) = a + b, a( + ) = a + a, a(b) = (ab), 1 = ,
(, , 2 V, ( 2 V, (, 2 V, (a, b 2 K , ( 2 V, (a 2 K , (, 2 V, (a, b 2 K , ( 2 V, ( 2 V.
(c) K l mt khng gian vct trn chnh n i vi php cng v php nhn ca trng K . R va l mt Q -khng gian vct va l mt R -khng gian vct. C l mt khng gian vct ng thi trn cc trng Q , R v C. (d) Tp hp J0K gm ch mt vct 0 l mt khng gian vct trn mi trng K , vi cc php ton tm thng 0 + 0 = 0, a0 = 0,
(a 2 K . 2
(e) Gi K n l tp hp gm tt c cc hng n-thnh phn (x1 , ..., xn ) vi xi K . N lp nn mt K -khng gian vct vi hai php ton sau y: (x1 , ..., xn ) + (y1 , ..., yn ) = (x1 + y1 , ..., xn + yn ), a(x1 , ..., xn ) = (ax1 , ..., axn ), a 2 K. x1 . (f) Gi K n l tp hp gm tt c cc ct n-thnh phn . . , vi xi xn
38
2 K.
i s tuyn tnh
1.1. Khi nim khng gian vct
N cng lp nn mt K -khng gian vct vi hai php ton sau y: x1 y1 x1 + y1 x1 ax1 . = . . . . , . . . a . . + . . . . = . . xn yn xn + yn xn axn x1 . trnh by cho gn, chng ta s i khi k hiu vct . . bi (x1 , ..., xn )t . xn (g) Mt ma trn m hng, n ct vi cc phn t trong K l mt bng c dng a11 a12 ... a1n a21 a22 ... a2n , (aij )mn = . . ... . am1 am2 ... amn trong aij 2 K . Gi M (m n, K ) l tp hp tt c cc ma trn m hng, n ct vi cc phn t trong K . N lp nn mt K -khng gian vct vi hai php ton sau y: (aij )mn + (bij )mn = (aij + bij )mn , a(aij )mn = (aaij )mn . Chng ta s nghin cu k hn v cc ma trn chng sau. (h) Tp hp C [a, b] cc hm thc lin tc trn on [a, b] gian vct thc vi cc php ton thng thng (f + g )(x) = f (x) + g (x), (af )(x) = af (x). (i) Gi s V v W l cc K -khng gian vct. Khi , V W cng l mt K -khng gian vct i vi cc php ton nh ngha nh sau (v, w) + (v , w ) = (v + v , w + w ) a(v, w) = (av, aw), trong a 2 K , v, v 2 V, w, w 2 W . Khng gian V trc tip ca cc khng gian V v W
P R l mt khng
W c gi l tch
Gi s V l mt khng gian vct. Cc tnh cht sau y c suy ngay t nh ngha ca khng gian vct.
i s tuyn tnh 39
(1) Phn t trung lp ca php cng 0 khng.
2V
l duy nht. N c gi l vct
Tht vy, gi s 01 cng l mt phn t trung lp ca php cng trong V . Khi 0 + 01 = 01 (v 0 l trung lp) = 0 (v 01 l trung lp). Vy 0 = 01 . (2) Vi mi vct 2 V , phn t i tho mn tin (V3) l duy nht. N s c k hiu l ().
cng l mt phn t i ca . Khi Tht vy, gi s 1
= 0 + = (v l mt phn t i) ( + ) + 1 1 1 ) (theo tin (V1)) = + ( + 1 l mt phn t i). = + 0 = (v 1

Ta nh ngha: = + ( ). (3) Ta c cc quy tc gin c v chuyn v: + =+ + = = , = .
. Nh vy, = 1
Tht vy, cng ( ) vo hai v ca ng thc + = + v cng ( ) vo hai v ca ng thc + = ta thu c iu phi chng minh. (4) 0 = 0 v a0 = 0. Tht vy, 0 + 0 = 0 = (0 + 0) = 0 + 0. T , theo lut gin c, 0 = 0. Tng t, a0 + 0 = a0 = a(0 + 0) = a0 + a0. Cng theo lut gin c, ta c a0 = 0. (5) Nu a = 0 (vi a 2 K , 2 V ), th hoc a = 0 hoc = 0. Tht vy, gi s a 0, nhn hai v ca ng thc cho vi a1 c = 1 = (a1 a) = a1 (a) = a1 0 = 0.
2 K ta
40
i s tuyn tnh
1.2. c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh
(6) (a) = a() = (a), Tht vy,
(a 2 K , 2 V .
T , (a) = (a). Tng t, Do , a() = (a). (7) (

m i=1 ai )( n j =1 j )
a + (a) = (a + (a)) = 0 = 0. a + a() = a( + ()) = a0 = 0.
m i=1
n j =1 (ai j ).
ng thc ny c th c chng minh bng quy np theo m v n, trn c s s dng cc tin (V5) v (V6).
1.2 c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh Trong sut tit ny ta lun gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K .
nh ngha 1.2.1 (T hp tuyn tnh, biu th tuyn tnh) (a) Mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vct 1 , ..., n
n
2V
l mt biu thc dng
ai i = a1 1 + + an n ,
i=1
trong ai
2 K.
(b) Gi s = a1 1 + + an n 2 V . ng thc c gi l mt biu th tuyn tnh ca qua cc vct 1 , ..., n (hoc qua h vct (1 , ..., n )). Khi c ng thc , ta ni biu th tuyn tnh c qua 1 , ..., n .
Nhn xt: Mt vct c th c nhiu biu th tuyn tnh khc nhau qua mt h vct. Ta ni h (1 , ..., n ) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., m ) nu mi vct i , trong 1 i n, biu th tuyn tnh c qua (1 , ..., m ). Gi s h (1 , ..., n ) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., m ), v h (1 , ..., m ) biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., k ). Khi , r rng (1 , ..., n ) cng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., k ). Nu h (1 , ..., n ) c lp (hoc ph thuc) tuyn tnh, ta cng ni cc vct 1 , ..., n c lp (hoc ph thuc) tuyn tnh. ng thc a1 1 + + an n = 0 c gi l mt rng buc tuyn tnh gia cc vct 1 , ..., n . Nu a1 = = an = 0 th ta gi rng buc
i s tuyn tnh 41
nh ngha 1.2.2 (c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh.) (a) H (1 , ..., n ) c gi l c lp tuyn tnh nu h thc a1 1 + + an n = 0 ch xy ra khi a1 = = an = 0. (b) H (1 , ..., n ) c gi l ph thuc tuyn tnh nu n khng c lp tuyn tnh.
l tm thng. Theo nh ngha, h (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh nu v ch nu mi rng buc tuyn tnh gia 1 , ..., n u l rng buc tm thng. H (1 , ..., n ) ph thuc tuyn tnh khi v ch khi c cc v hng a1 , ..., an 2 K khng ng thi bng 0 cho a1 1 + + an n = 0, ngha l c mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng gia cc vct 1 , ..., n . V d 1.2.3 (a) Trong khng gian cc vct t do ca hnh hc s cp, h 2 vct l c lp tuyn tnh nu v ch nu chng khng ng phng, h 3 vct l c lp tuyn tnh khi v ch khi chng khng ng phng, h 4 vct bt k lun lun ph thuc tuyn tnh. (b) Trong khng gian R 2 , cc vct e1 = (1, 0), e2 = (0, 1) c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, h thc a1 e1 + a2 e2 = (a1 , a2 ) = (0, 0) Vi mi 2 R 2 , cc vct e1 , e2 , ph thuc tuyn tnh. Tht vy, nu = (a, b) th ae1 be2 = 0. (c) Hy xt xem cc vc t sau y c lp hay ph thuc tuyn tnh trong C 3 : 1 = (5, 3, 4), 2 = (3, 2, 3), 3 = (8, 3, 1). Ta mun tm xem c hay khng mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng gia cc vct , tc l c hay khng cc s phc x1 , x2 , x3 khng ng thi bng 0 sao cho: x1 (5, 3, 4) + x2 (3, 2, 3) + x3 (8, 3, 1) = (0, 0, 0).
42 i s tuyn tnh
xy ra khi v ch khi a1 = a2 = 0.
1.2. c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh
Phng trnh vct tng ng vi h phng trnh

5x1 + 3x2 + 8x3 = 0 3x1 + 2x2 + 3x3 = 0 4x1 + 3x2 + 1x3 = 0.
H phng trnh ny c th gii bng cch kh thng thng. Trc ht, nhn phng trnh cui ln lt vi (8) v (3) ri cng vo cc phng trnh th nht v th hai, ta thu c:

27x1 9x1
4x1
21x2 = 0 7x2 = 0 + 3x2 + x3 = 0.
Hai phng trnh u ca h ny tng ng vi nhau. Do , mt nghim khng tm thng ca h ny l: x1 = 7, x2 = 9, x3 = 1. Nh vy, ba vct cho ph thuc tuyn tnh. Nhn xt: T v d trn ta thy rng vic xt xem mt h vct c lp hay ph thuc tuyn tnh c a v vic gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht. Tng t, vic xt xem mt vct c biu th tuyn tnh c hay khng qua mt h vct c a v vic gii mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh (ni chung khng thun nht). L thuyt tng qut v h phng trnh tuyn tnh s c trnh by Chng III ca cun sch ny. Cc tnh cht sau y l h qu trc tip ca cc nh ngha. Cc tnh cht: (1) H mt vct () ph thuc tuyn tnh nu v ch nu = 0. Tht vy, v 1 0 = 0 l mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng, nn h (0) ph thuc tuyn tnh. Ngc li, gi s () ph thuc tuyn tnh, tc l c a 0 sao cho a = 0. Nhn hai v vi a1 ta c = (a1 a) = a1 (a) = a1 0 = 0. (2) Vi n 1, h (1 , ..., n ) ph thuc tuyn tnh nu v ch nu mt vct no ca h biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vct cn li ca h. Tht vy, gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng a1 1 + + an n = 0.
i s tuyn tnh 43
Nu ai
1 0, ta nhn hai v ca ng thc trn vi a i v thu c
i =
j i
1 a ) . (ai j j
Ngc li, nu i biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., i1 , i+1 , ..., n ), tc l c cc v hng bj sao cho i = b1 1 + + bi1 i1 + bi+1 i+1 + + bn n , th ta c rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng b1 1 + + bi1 i1 + (1)i + bi+1 i+1 + + bn n = 0. Do , h (1 , ..., n ) ph thuc tuyn tnh. (3) Mi h con ca mt h c lp tuyn tnh cng l mt h c lp tuyn tnh. Tht vy, gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh. Xt mt rng buc tuyn tnh bt k ai1 i1 + + aik ik = 0 gia cc vct ca mt h con (i1 , ..., ik ). Ta coi n l mt rng buc tuyn tnh i ai i = 0 gia cc vct (1 , ..., n ) bng cch chn ai = 0 vi mi i i1 , ..., ik . Bi v h (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh, nn tt c cc h s ca rng buc u bng 0: a1 = a2 = = an = 0. Do , h con (i1 , ..., ik ) c lp tuyn tnh. Mt cch pht biu khc ca tnh cht trn l nh sau: (4) Mi h vct cha mt h con ph thuc tuyn tnh cng l mt h ph thuc tuyn tnh. Ni ring, mi h cha vct 0 u ph thuc tuyn tnh. (5) Gi s h (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh. Khi h (1 , ..., n , ) ph thuc tuyn tnh nu v ch nu biu th tuyn tnh c qua (1 , ..., n ). Trong trng hp , biu th tuyn tnh ny l duy nht. Tht vy, nu (1 , ..., n , ) ph thuc tuyn tnh, th c mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng Khi , b 0, v nu tri li th c mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng a1 1 + + an n = 0 gia cc vct ca h c lp tuyn tnh
44 i s tuyn tnh
a1 1 + + an n + b = 0.
1.3. C s v s chiu ca khng gian vct
(1 , ..., n ). iu ny v l. V b 0, nn ta c biu th tuyn tnh sau y ca qua (1 , ..., n ): =

n
(b1 ai )i .
i=1
Ngc li, mi biu th tuyn tnh nh th

n
=
i=1
bi i
u dn ti mt rng buc tuyn tnh khng tm thng n i=1 bi i = 0 gia cc vt ca h (1 , ..., n , ). . Do , h ny ph thuc tuyn tnh. Gi s c hai biu th tuyn tnh ca qua h (1 , ..., n ): = b1 1 + + bn n = b1 1 + + bn n . Khi 0 = (b1 b1 )1 + + (bn bn )n . Do (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh, nn h thc trn ko theo b1 = b1 , , bn = bn . Nhn xt 1.2.4 Cc khi nim t hp tuyn tnh, biu th tuyn tnh, c lp tuyn tnh, ph thuc tuyn tnh c m rng cho h tu (c th c v hn vct) nh sau. Gi s (i )i2I l mt h vct tu ca K -khng gian vct V . Mt t hp tuyn tnh ca h ny l mt tng i2I ai i trong ai 2 K , v hu ht (c th tr mt s hu hn) ai u bng 0. Nh th, tng ny tht ra l mt tng hu hn, v do c ngha trong V . Trn c s , cc khi nim biu th tuyn tnh, c lp tuyn tnh, ph thuc tuyn tnh c nh ngha i vi h . V d: Trong khng gian vct cc a thc K [X ], h v hn vct (1, X, X 2 , ...) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh.
1.3 C s v s chiu ca khng gian vct S chiu ca mt khng gian vct l ch s o "ln'', "thoi mi'' ca khng gian vct .
i s tuyn tnh 45
nh ngha 1.3.1 (a) Mt h vct ca V c gi l mt h sinh ca V nu mi vct ca V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua h . (b) Mt h vct ca V c gi l mt c s ca V nu mi vct ca V u biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua h ny.
Nh vy, mi c s u l mt h sinh. Di y ta s nghin cu su hn mi quan h gia cc khi nim h sinh, c s v c lp tuyn tnh. Ta cn thut ng sau y: Mt h vct ca khng gian V c gi l c lp tuyn tnh cc i nu n c lp tuyn tnh v nu thm bt k vct no ca V vo h th h mi thu c tr thnh ph thuc tuyn tnh. nh l 1.3.1 Cho h hu hn cc vct (1 , ..., n ) ca V . Khi cc khng nh sau y l tng ng: (i) (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V . (ii) (1 , ..., n ) l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh ca V . (iii) (1 , ..., n ) l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh cc i ca V . Chng minh: (i) (ii) : (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V nn n l mt h sinh ca V . Hn na, vct 0 c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua (1 , ..., n ): 0 = 01 + + 0n . Ni cch khc, h thc a1 1 + + an n = 0 tng ng vi a1 = a2 = = an = 0. iu ny c ngha l h (1, ..., n) c lp tuyn tnh. (ii) (iii) : Mi vct 2 V u biu th tuyn tnh c qua (1 , ..., n ), cho nn h (1 , ..., n , ) ph thuc tuyn tnh. (iii) (i) : V h (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh cc i nn mi vct 2 V u biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., n ). Ni cch khc, h ny sinh ra V . Biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct 2 V qua h c lp tuyn tnh (1 , ..., n ) l duy nht.
nh ngha 1.3.2 Khng gian vct V c gi l hu hn sinh nu n c mt h sinh gm hu hn phn t.
nh l 1.3.2 Gi s V J0K l mt khng gian vct hu hn sinh. Khi , V c mt c s gm hu hn phn t. Hn na, mi c s ca V u c s phn t bng nhau.
46 i s tuyn tnh
nh ngha 1.3.3 (i) S phn t ca mi c s ca K -khng gian vct hu hn sinh V J0K c gi l s chiu (hay th nguyn) ca V trn trng K , v c k hiu l dim V , hoc r hn dimK V . Nu V = J0K, ta quy c dim V = 0. (ii) Nu V khng c mt c s no gm hu hn phn t th n c gi l mt khng gian vct v hn chiu.
Trn c s kt qu ny, ta i n nh ngha sau y. chun b cho vic chng minh nh l trn, ta cn b sau y. B 1.3.4 Trong khng gian vct V , gi s h vct (1 , ..., r ) c lp tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , ..., s ). Khi r s. Chng minh: Theo gi thit, c mt biu th tuyn tnh V h (1 , ..., r ) c lp tuyn tnh, nn 1 0. Do , c t nht mt v hng ai 0. Khng gim tng qut, ta gi s a1 0. Khi , 1 biu th tuyn tnh c qua h (1 , 2 , ..., s ):
1 1 = a 1 1 n 1 (a 1 ai )i .
1 = a1 1 + + as s
(ai
2 K ).
i=2
Nh vy, h (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua h (1 , ..., s ); h th hai li biu th tuyn tnh qua h (1 , 2 , ..., s ). H qu l (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , 2 , ..., s ). Ta s chng minh rng (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i , i+1 , ..., s ) vi mi i minJr, sK (sai khc mt php nh s li cc vct 1 , ..., s ). Tht vy, trn ta chng minh khng nh ny cho i = 1. Gi s khng nh c chng minh cho i. Ta s chng minh n cn ng cho i + 1, nu s ny minJr, sK. Theo gi thit quy np, i+1 biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i , i+1 , ..., s ): C t nht mt v hng cj 0, bi v nu tri li th i+1 biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i ), iu ny tri vi gi thit h (1 , ..., r ) c lp tuyn tnh. Nu cn th nh s li cc vct i+1 , ..., s , ta c th gi s m khng gim tng qut ci+1 0. Kt hp iu ny vi ng thc trn ta c mt biu th tuyn tnh ca i+1 qua (1 , ..., i+1 , i+2 , ..., s ). V (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i , i+1 , ..., s ), h ny li biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i+1 , i+2 , ..., s ), nn (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., i+1 , i+2 , ..., s ).
i s tuyn tnh 47
i+1 = b1 1 + + bi i + ci+1 i+1 + + cs s .
Nu r s, p dng iu va c chng minh vi i = s, ta khng nh (1 , ..., r ) biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., s ). iu ny mu thun vi tnh c lp tuyn tnh ca h (1 , ..., r ). Nh vy, ta c r s. Chng minh nh l 7.2.5. Gi s (1 , ..., s ) l mt h sinh hu hn ca V . V V J0K, nn c vct 0 trong V . H gm mt vct khc khng (1 ) c lp tuyn tnh. Nu h ny khng c lp tuyn tnh cc i, th c h (1 , 2 ) c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s (1 , ..., r ) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh trong V . H ny biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., s ). Theo B 1.3.4, ta c r s. Nh th qu trnh chn cc vct 1 , 2 , ... thu c mt h c lp tuyn tnh phi dng li sau mt s hu hn bc. Ta c mt h vct (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong V , vi n s. Theo nh l 1.3.1, h ny l mt c s ca V . Gi s (1 , ..., m ) cng l mt c s ca V . V (1 , ..., n ) c lp tuyn tnh v biu th tuyn tnh c qua (1 , ..., m ), nn theo B 1.3.4, ta c n m. Tro i vai tr ca hai c s ni trn, ta cng c m n. Nh vy, m = n. V d 1.3.5 (a) K n l mt K -khng gian vct n chiu. Cc vct sau y lp nn mt c s, c gi l c s chnh tc ca khng gian K n : 1 0 0 0 1 0 e1 = . , e2 = . , ..., en = . . . . . . . . 0 0 1 Tht vy, vct 0 thc
2 K n l vct c mi thnh phn bng 0 2 K , v th h

a1 a2 . . . an = 0 0 . . . 0
a1 e1 + + an en =
xy ra khi v ch khi a1 = a2 = = an = 0. Nh vy, h (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) c lp tuyn tnh trong K n . H ny sinh ra K n , bi v mi vct = (b1 , b2 , ..., bn )t u c biu th tuyn tnh = b1 e1 + b2 e2 + + bn en . (b) C l mt C -khng gian vct 1 chiu vi c s (1). ng thi C cng l mt R -khng gian vct 2 chiu vi c s (1, i), trong i l n v
48 i s tuyn tnh
o. iu ny suy t ch mi s phc z u c biu th duy nht di dng z = a + bi, trong a, b 2 R . Mt cch tng qut C n l mt khng gian vct thc 2n chiu. (c) ng thng s thc R l mt khng gian vct v hn chiu trn trng s hu t Q . Tht vy, gi s phn chng (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca R trn Q . Mi phn t 2 R c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht = a1 1 + + ann vi ai 2 Q . Tng ng R Q n, (a1, ..., an) l mt song nh. Do R c lc lng m c. iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn chng.
Mnh 1.3.6 Gi s V l mt khng gian vct hu hn sinh. Khi , mi h sinh ca V u cha mt c s. Mi h c lp tuyn tnh trong V u c th b sung tr thnh mt c s ca V . Nu dim V = n, th mi h c lp tuyn tnh gm n vct ca V u l mt c s.
Chng minh: Gi s l mt h sinh ca V . Gi l mt h c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong . Khi biu th tuyn tnh qua , v do V cng biu th tuyn tnh qua . Nh th l mt h sinh c lp tuyn tnh, tc l mt c s ca V . (Theo B 1.3.4, c hu hn phn t. C th hn, s phn t ca khng vt qu s phn t ca mi h sinh hu hn ca V .) Gi s (1 , ..., i ) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh trong V . Nu h ny khng c lp tuyn tnh cc i th c th b sung cc vct i+1 , i+2 , ... h thu c vn c lp tuyn tnh. Qu trnh ny phi dng li sau mt s hu hn bc, bi v theo nh l 7.2.5, dim V &. Ta thu c h (1, ..., n) c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong V , tc l mt c s ca V . Nu dim V = n, th mi h c lp tuyn tnh gm n vct (1 , ..., n ) u cc i. Thy vy, gi s phn chng c th thm vo h mt vct n+1 no ca V sao cho h thu c vn c lp tuyn tnh. Khi , h (1 , ..., n+1 ) biu th tuyn tnh qua mt c s (1 , ..., n ) no ca V , cho nn theo B 1.3.4, ta c n + 1 n. iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn chng. Vy, theo nh l 1.3.1, (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V . Trong sut gio trnh ny, nu khng ni g ngc li, chng ta ch nghin cu cc khng gian vct hu hn chiu. Nhn xt: Ngi ta chng minh c rng, trong mt khng gian vct v hn sinh (tc l khng hu hn sinh), hai c s bt k u c cng lc lng. Nhng mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh c cng lc lng vi c s th khng nht thit l mt c s. Chng hn, h vct (1, X, X 2 , ...) l mt c s ca K -khng gian vct K [X ]. H (X, X 2 , X 3 , ...) c lp tuyn tnh v c cng lc lng vi c s
i s tuyn tnh 49
(1, X, X 2 , ...), nhng khng phi l mt c s ca K [X ], bi v a thc 1 khng biu th tuyn tnh c qua h . Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct V . Mi vct 2 V c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht = a1 1 + + an n , ai
2 K.
nh ngha 1.3.7 (To ). B v hng (a1 , ..., an ) xc nh bi iu kin = i ai i c gi l to ca vct trong c s (1 , ..., n ). V hng ai c gi l to th i ca trong c s .
Gi s v c to trong c s (1 , ..., n ) tng ng l (a1 , ..., an ) v (b1 , ..., bn ). Khi , t tnh c lp tuyn tnh ca (1 , ..., n ) suy ra rng = nu v ch nu (a1 , ..., an ) = (b1 , ..., bn ). Tht vy, = khi v ch khi = (a1 b1 )1 + + (an bn )n = 0. iu ny xy ra nu v ch nu a1 = b1 , ..., an = bn . Hn na, + c to l (a1 + b1 , ..., an + bn ) v k c to l (ka1 , ..., kan ), (k 2 K ), trong h c s (1 , ..., n ). By gi ta xt xem to ca mt vct trong nhng c s khc nhau c lin h vi nhau nh th no. Gi s (1 , ..., n ) cng l mt c s ca khng gian vct V . Mi vct j biu th tuyn tnh c qua c s (1 , ..., n ), tc l c cc v hng cij cho
n
j =
i=1
cij i ,
(j = 1, ..., n).
Gi s c to l (a1 , ..., an ) v (b1 , ..., bn ) tng ng trong cc c s (1 , ..., n ) v (1 , ..., n ). Ta c

n
= =
bj j
j =1 n n
bj cij i
j =1 i=1 n n n
(
i=1 j =1
cij bj )i =
i=1
ai i .
Do tnh duy nht ca to ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ), ta nhn c

n
ai =
j =1
cij bj ,
(i = 1, ..., n).
i s tuyn tnh
50
1.4. Khng gian con - Hng ca mt h vct
Ngi ta gi h thc ni trn l cng thc i to khi i c s. Ma trn C = (cij )nn c gi l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s (1 , ..., n ). Cng thc i to s c din t di mt hnh thc d tip nhn hn nh khi nim tch ca cc ma trn, s c nghin cu chng sau.
1.4 Khng gian con - Hng ca mt h vct Gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K . Chng ta quan tm n nhng tp con ca V c tnh cht l chng cng lp nn nhng khng gian vct i vi cc php ton l thu hp ca nhng php ton tng ng trn V . Ta c nh ngha hnh thc sau y:
nh ngha 1.4.1 Tp con khng rng W P V c gi l mt khng gian vct con ca V nu W khp kn i vi hai php ton trn V , ngha l nu + 2 W, a 2 W,
(, 2 W, (a 2 K , ( 2 W.
Nhn xt: Khi , W vi hai php ton l hn ch ca hai php ton trn V cng l mt khng gian vct trn K . Tht vy, cc tin (V1), (V4), (V5), (V6), (V7), (V8) nghim ng vi mi phn t ca V , nn cng nghim ng vi mi phn t ca W . Ta ch cn kim tra li cc tin (V2), (V3) ni v s tn ti ca cc phnt 0 v phn t i. V W 0, nn c t nht mt phn t 2 W . Khi 0 = 0 2 W . Phn t 0 2 V ng vai tr phn t 0 2 W . mt khc, vi mi 2 W , ta c () = (1) 2 W . cng chnh l phn t i ca trong W . V d 1.4.2 (a) J0K v V l hai khng gian vct con ca V . Chng c gi l cc khng gian vct con tm thng ca V . (b) ng thng s thc R l mt R -khng gian vct con ca mt phng phc C . (c) Tp hp cc a thc bc n l mt khng gian vct con ca K [X ].
(d) Khng gian C 1 [a, b] cc hm kh vi lin tc trn [a, b] l mt khng gian vct con ca khng gian cc hm lin tc C [a, b].
i s tuyn tnh 51
(e) Gi s m
n. Khi tp hp cc vct c dng x1 . . . xm , 0 . . . 0
trong x1 , ..., xm 2 K , l mt khng gian vct con c s chiu bng m ca khng gian K n .
Mnh 1.4.3 Nu W l mt khng gian vct con ca V th dim W dim W = dim V xy ra khi v ch khi W = V . dim V . ng thc
Chng minh: V W l mt khng gian vct con ca V , nn mi h c lp tuyn tnh trong W th cng c lp tuyn tnh trong V . Do dim W dim V . ng thc dim W = dim V xy ra khi v ch khi mi c s ca W cng l mt c s ca V . iu ny tng ng vi W = V . Chng
Mnh 1.4.4 Giao ca mt h bt k (c th v hn) cc khng gian vct con ca V li l mt khng gian vct con ca V .
minh: Gi s JVi Ki2I l mt h cc khng gian con ca V . V mi Vi khp kn i vi php cng vct v php nhn vct vi v hng, nn giao ca chng :i2I Vi cng c tnh cht .
nh ngha 1.4.5 Gi s X l mt tp con ca khng gian vct V . Giao ca tt c cc khng gian vct con ca V cha X c gi l khng gian vct con ca V sinh bi X v c k hiu l L(X ).
T nh ngha suy ngay ra rng L(X ) l khng gian vct con nh nht ca V cha X . Hai trng hp c bit l L(0) = J0K v L(W ) = W i vi mi khng gian vct con W ca V . Chng minh: Tp hp cc t hp tuyn tnh ca cc phn t ca X tt nhin l mt khng gian vct con cha X . Mt khc, mi t hp tuyn tnh ca cc phn t ca X u nm trong mi khng gian vct con cha X . Vy tp hp cc t hp tuyn tnh ca cc phn t ca X chnh l khng gian vct con b nht ca V cha X . Ta gi mt tp con ca X l c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong X nu tp c lp tuyn tnh v nu thm bt k vct no ca X vo tp th ta thu c mt tp ph thuc tuyn tnh.
52 i s tuyn tnh
1.5. Tng v tng trc tip
Mnh 1.4.6 Gi s X 0. Khi L(X ) l tp hp cc t hp tuyn tnh ca cc phn t ca X . Ni ring, nu X = J1 , ..., k K th L(1 , ..., k ) = J
k
ai i ai
i=1
2 K K.
nh ngha 1.4.7 S chiu ca khng gian L(X ) c gi l hng ca tp (hoc h) vct X v c k hiu l rank(X ).
Mnh sau y ch ra cch tnh hng ca mt tp vct trong thc hnh.

Mnh 1.4.8 Hng ca tp vct X bng s vct ca mi tp con c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong X .
Chng minh: Nu tp con A c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong X th mi phn t ca X biu th tuyn tnh qua A, do mi phn t ca L(X ) cng vy. Ni cch khc A cng l c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong L(X ). Vy s phn t ca A l s chiu ca khng gian vct L(X ). H qu 1.4.9 Hai tp con c lp tuyn tnh cc i trong X c cng s phn t. Nhn xt: Trong Chng III, Nhn xt 8.2, chng ta s gii thiu mt phng php n gin, d thc hnh tnh hng ca mt h vct trong K n hoc K n . Phng php ny da trn nhn xt l hng ca mt h vct khng thay i sau cc php bin i s cp. Ngi ta dng cc php bin i s cp a h vct cho v dng "tam gic trn''. S cc phn t khc 0 trn ng cho ca "tam gic'' ny chnh l hng ca h vct.
1.5 Tng v tng trc tip Gi s W1 , ..., Wm l cc khng gian vct con ca V . Tp hp W1 + + Wm = J1 + + m i hin nhin lp nn mt khng gian vct con ca V . Mi vct ca W1 + + Wm c th vit di dng Cch vit ny ni chung khng duy nht. Chng hn, nu W1 : W2 J0K, th mi vct 2 W1 : W2 J0K c hai biu th = + 0 = 0 + , trong vct th nht trong tng thuc W1 cn vct th hai trong tng thuc W2 .
i s tuyn tnh 53
2 Wi, i = 1, ..., mK 2 Wi.
= 1 + + m ,
nh ngha 1.5.1 Khng gian vct W1 + + Wm c gi l tng ca cc khng gian W1 , ..., Wm . N cng c k hiu bi m i=1 Wi . nh ngha 1.5.2 Nu mi vct trong tng W1 + + Wm u vit c duy nht di dng = 1 + + m , vi i 2 Wi (i = 1, ..., m) th W1 + + Wm c gi l tng trc tip ca cc khng gian W1 , ..., Wm , v c k hiu l W1 < < Wm .
nh l 1.5.1 W1 + + Wm l tng trc tip ca W1 , ..., Wm nu v ch nu mt trong hai iu kin tng ng sau y c tho mn: (ii) Wi : ( (i) Wi : (
j i Wj ) j i Wj )
= J0K, = J0K,
(i = 1, ..., m), (i = 1, ..., m 1).
Chng minh: Gi s W1 + + Wm l mt tng trc tip. Khi iu kin (i) c tho mn. Tht vy, gi s phn chng c ch s i sao cho Wi : ( Gi dng
j i
Wj ) J0K. V
0 l mt vct ca giao .
=
j i
j i Wj ,
nn c th vit di
j , j
2 Wj .
Ta t i = , v thu c hai cch biu thi khc nhau ca 0 di dng tng ca nhng phn t ca Wi : 0 = 1 + + m = 0 + + 0. iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn chng. R rng iu kin (i) ko theo iu kin (ii). Gi s iu kin (ii) c tho mn. Nu 2 W1 + + Wm c hai biu th = 1 + + m = 1 + + m , vi i , i
2 Wi, th 1 1 =
(j j ) 2 W1 : (
j 1 j 1
Wj ) = J0K.
Do 1 = 1 v 2 + + m = 2 + + m . Lp li qu trnh lp lun trn c 2 = 2 , ..., m = m . Vy W1 + + Wm l mt tng trc tip.

54 i s tuyn tnh
1.5. Tng v tng trc tip
nh l 1.5.2 Gi s U v W l cc khng gian vct con ca mt khng gian vct hu hn chiu V . Khi dim U + dim W = dim(U + W ) + dim(U
: W ).
Chng minh: Gi s (1 , ..., r ) l mt c s ca U : W . (Nu U : W = J0K, th ta coi r = 0.) Ta b sung h ny c mt c s (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s ) ca U v mt c s (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., t ) ca W . Ta s chng t rng (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s , 1 , ..., t ) l mt c s ca U + W . R rng (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s , 1 , ..., t ) l mt h sinh ca U + W . chng minh l mt h c lp tuyn tnh, ta gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh a1 1 + + ar r + b1 1 + + bs s + c1 1 + + ct t = 0, trong ai , bj , ck
2 K . Vct a1 1 + + ar r + b1 1 + + bs s = c1 1 ct t c11 ctt = d11 + + dr r .
va thuc U (do biu thc v tri), va thuc W (do biu thc v phi), nn n thuc U : W , v do biu th tuyn tnh qua 1 , ..., r :
Ta vit li ng thc ny nh sau d1 1 + + dr r + c1 1 + + ct t = 0. V h (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., t ) c lp tuyn tnh, nn c1 = = ct = d1 = = dr = 0. Do a1 1 + + ar r + b1 1 + + bs s = 0. H vct (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s ) cng c lp tuyn tnh, cho nn a1 = = ar = b1 = = bs = 0. Kt hp iu ny vi cc h thc c1 = = ct = 0 ta suy ra h vct (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s , 1 , ..., t ) c lp tuyn tnh, v do n l mt c s ca U + W . m s vct ca cc c s xy dng cho U, W, U : W, U + W , ta c dim(U + W ) = r + s + t = (r + s) + (r + t) r = dim U + dim W dim(U : W ). H qu 1.5.3 dim(U
i s tuyn tnh
< W ) = dim U + dim W.

55
nh ngha 1.5.4 Nu V = U < W th W c gi l mt phn b tuyn tnh ca U trong V , v dim W = dim V dim U c gi l i chiu ca U trong V .
Gi s V = U < W . Khi mi vct v 2 V c th vit duy nht di dng v = u + w, trong u 2 U , w 2 W . Ta nh ngha mt nh x prU : V U, prU (v ) = u. N c gi l php chiu ca V ln U theo phng W . Php chiu prW ca V ln W theo phng U c nh ngha tng t. Php chiu c cc tnh cht sau: prU (v + v ) = prU (v ) + prU (v ), (v, v 2 V, prU (av ) = aprU (v ), (a 2 K , v 2 V.
1.6 Khng gian thng Gi s W l mt khng gian vct con ca khng gian V . Ta nh ngha quan h trn V nh sau:
2 W.
D dng kim tra li rng l mt quan h tng ng, tc l mt quan h c ba tnh cht phn x, i xng v bc cu. Tp thng ca V theo quan h c k hiu l V /W . Lp tng ng ca phn t 2 V c k hiu l [], hoc + W . Ta trang b cho V /W hai php ton sau y: [] + [ ] = [ + ], (, 2 V, a[] = [a], (a 2 K , 2 V.
Mnh 1.6.1 Hai php ton ni trn c nh ngha khng ph thuc vo vic chn i biu. Hn na, V /W c trang b hai php ton l mt K -khng gian vct.
nh ngha 1.6.2 Khng gian vct V /W c gi l khng gian thng ca V theo khng gian con W . 56 i s tuyn tnh
1.6. Khng gian thng
Chng minh Mnh 1.6.1. Gi s [] = [ ], [ ] = [ ], ngha l W, 2 W . Khi , v W l mt khng gian vct con, cho nn ( + ) ( + ) = ( ) + ( ) 2 W. iu ny chng t rng [ + ] = [ + ]. Tng t, nu [] = [ ], tc l 2 W , th a a = a( ) 2 W.
iu ny c ngha l [a] = [a ]. Phn t trung lp ca php cng trong V /W chnh l [0] = 0 + W . Phn t i ca [] chnh l []. D dng kim tra rng cc tin khc v khng gian vct c tho mn cho khng gian V /W . Hai trng hp c bit ca khng gian thng l V /V = J0K, V /J0K = V. nh l 1.6.1 dim V /W = dim V
dim W.
Chng minh: Gi s (1 , ..., r ) l mt c s ca W . (Nu W = J0K th ta coi r = 0.) Ta b sung h vct ni trn c mt c s (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s ) ca V . Ta s chng minh rng ([1 ], ..., [s ]) l mt c s ca V /W . Gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh b1 [1 ] + + bs [s ] = [0]. iu ny c ngha l b1 1 + + bs s qua c s chn ca W :
2 W . V th vct biu th tuyn tnh
b1 1 + + bs s = a1 1 + + ar r . V h (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s ) c lp tuyn tnh, nn a1 = = ar = b1 = = bs = 0. Nh th, h ([1 ], ..., [s ]) c lp tuyn tnh. Mt khc, r rng ([1 ], ..., [s ]) l mt h sinh ca khng gian V /W . Tht vy, mi vct 2 V biu th tuyn tnh qua (1 , ..., r , 1 , ..., s ): = c1 1 + + cr r + d1 1 + + ds s V c1 1 + + cr r (ci , dj
2 K ).
2 W , cho nn [] = [d1 1 + + ds s ] = d1 [1 ] + + ds [s ].
57
i s tuyn tnh
Nh vy, mi vct [] 2 V /W u biu th tuyn tnh c qua ([1 ], ..., [s ]). m s vct ca cc c s xy dng cho W, V, V /W ta c dim V /W = s = (r + s) r = dim V Ta nh ngha nh x :V V /W, () = [] = + W. v gi n l php chiu t V ln V /W . Php chiu c nhng tnh cht sau y: ( + ) = () + ( ), (, 2 V, (a) = a (), (a 2 K , 2 V. Trong chng sau chng ta s nghin cu mt cch c h thng nhng nh x c hai tnh cht nh th. Chng c gi l cc nh x tuyn tnh.
dim W.
1.7 Bi tp 1. Xt xem cc tp hp sau y c lp thnh K -khng gian vct hay khng i vi cc php ton thng thng (c nh ngha theo tng thnh phn): (a) Tp hp tt c cc dy (x1 , ..., xn ) 2 K n tho mn iu kin x1 + + xn = 0.
(b) Tp hp tt c cc dy (x1 , ..., xn ) 2 K n tho mn iu kin x1 + + xn = 1. (c) Tp hp tt c cc dy (x1 , ..., xn ) x n = 1 .
K n tho mn iu kin x1 =
(d) Tp hp tt c cc dy (x1 , ..., xn ) 2 K n tho mn iu kin x1 = x3 = x5 = , x2 = x4 = x6 = . (e) Tp hp cc ma trn vung (aij )nn i xng cp n, ngha l cc ma trn tho mn aij = aji , vi 1 i, j n. 2. Tp hp tt c cc dy (x1 , ..., xn ) 2 R n vi tt c cc thnh phn x1 , ..., xn u nguyn c lp thnh mt R -khng gian vect hay khng?
58 i s tuyn tnh
1.7. Bi tp
3. Vi cc php ton thng thng, Q c l mt R -khng gian vct hay khng? R c l mt C -khng gian vct hay khng? 4. Chng minh rng nhm Z khng ng cu vi nhm cng ca bt k mt khng gian vct trn bt k trng no. 5. Chng minh rng nhm abel A i vi php cng + c th tr thnh mt khng gian vct trn trng F p nu v ch nu px = x + x + + x = 0,
p
(x 2 A.
6. Xt xem cc vct sau y c lp hay ph thuc tuyn tnh trong R 4 : (b) 1 = (1, 1, 0, 1), 2 = (1, 0, 1, 1), 3 = (3, 1, 2, 1). (a) e1 = (1, 2, 1, 2), e2 = (0, 1, 2, 3), e3 = (1, 4, 1, 2), e4 = (1, 0, 1, 3).
7. Chng minh rng hai h vct sau y l cc c s ca C 3 . Tm ma trn chuyn t c s th nht sang c s th hai: e1 = (1, 2, 1), e2 = (2, 3, 3), e3 = (3, 7, 1); e1 = (3, 1, 4), e2 = (5, 2, 1), e3 = (1, 1, 6). 8. Chng minh rng hai h vct sau y l cc c s ca C 4 . Tm mi lin h gia to ca cng mt vct trong hai c s : e1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), e2 = (1, 2, 1, 1), e3 = (1, 1, 2, 1), e4 = (1, 3, 2, 3); e1 = (1, 0, 3, 3), e2 = (2, 3, 5, 4), e3 = (2, 2, 5, 4), e4 = (2, 3, 4, 4). 9. Xt xem cc tp hp hm s thc sau y c lp thnh khng gian vct i vi cc php ton thng thng hay khng? Nu c, hy tm s chiu ca cc khng gian . (b) Tp C & (R ) cc hm thc kh vi v hn trn R . (c) Tp C 0 (R ) cc hm thc lin tc trn R . (d) Tp cc hm thc b chn trn R . (e) Tp cc hm f : R (f) Tp cc hm f : R (g) Tp cc hm f : R R sao cho supx2R f (x) 1. R tho mn iu kin f (0) = 0. (a) Tp R [X ] cc a thc ca mt n X .
R tho mn iu kin f (0) = 1.
(h) Tp cc hm thc n iu trn R .

i s tuyn tnh 59
10. nh ngha hai php ton cng v nhn vi v hng trn tp hp V = J(x, y ) 2 R nh sau: (x, y ) + (u, v ) = (x + u, yv ), ((x, y ), (u, v ) 2 V, a(x, y ) = (ax, y a ), (a 2 R , (x, y ) 2 V. Xt xem V c l mt khng gian vct thc i vi hai php ton khng. Nu c, hy tm mt c s ca khng gian y. 11. Ma trn chuyn t mt c s sang mt c s khc thay i th no nu: (a) i ch hai vct trong c s th nht? (b) i ch hai vct trong c s th hai? (c) t cc vct trong mi c s theo th t hon ton ngc li? 12. Cho a l mt s thc. Chng minh rng hai h vct (1, X, X 2 , ..., X n ) v (1, (X a), (X a)2 , ..., (X a)n ) l cc c s ca khng gian R [X ]n cc a thc h s thc vi bc khng vt qu n. Tm ma trn chuyn t c s th nht sang c s th hai. 13. Tm cc to ca a thc f (X ) = a0 + a1 X + + an X n trong hai c s ni trn. 14. Cho khng gian vct con L ca khng gian R [X ]. Chng minh rng nu L cha t nht mt a thc bc k vi mi k = 0, 1, ..., n nhng khng cha a thc no vi bc ln hn n th L chnh l khng gian con R [X ]n tt c cc a thc vi bc khng vct qu n. 15. Chng minh rng tp hp cc vct (x1 , ..., xn ) 2 R n tho mn h thc x1 + 2x2 + + nxn = 0 l mt khng gian vct con ca R n . Tm s chiu v mt c s cho khng gian vct con . 16. Tm tt c cc F 2 -khng gian vct con mt v hai chiu ca F 3 2 . Gii bi 3 ton tng t i vi khng gian F p , trong p l mt s nguyn t. 17. Chng minh rng cc ma trn vung i xng cp n vi cc phn t trong trng K lp thnh mt khng gian vct con ca M (n n, K ). Tm s chiu v mt c s cho K -khng gian vct con . 18. Chng minh rng cc ma trn vung (aij )nn phn i xng cp n, ngha l cc ma trn tho mn aij = aji , vi 1 i, j n, lp thnh mt khng gian vct con ca M (n n, K ). Tm s chiu v mt c s cho K -khng gian vct con .
60 i s tuyn tnh
R
0K
1.7. Bi tp
19. Gi s V1 P V2 l cc khng gian vct con ca V . Chng minh rng dim V1 dim V2 , ng thc xy ra khi v ch khi V1 = V2 . Khng nh cn ng hay khng nu V1 v V2 l cc khng gian vct con bt k ca V? 20. Gi s V1 , V2 l cc khng gian vct con ca V . Chng minh rng nu dim V1 + dim V2 dim V th V1 : V2 cha t nht mt vct khc khng. 21. Vi gi thit nh bi tp trc, chng minh rng nu dim(V1 + V2 ) = dim(V1 : V2 ) + 1 th V1 + V2 trng vi mt trong hai khng gian con cho, cn V1 : V2 trng vi khng gian con cn li. Tm hng ca cc h vct sau y: 22. 1 = (1, 2, 0, 1), 2 = (1, 1, 1, 0), 3 = (1, 0, 1, 0), 4 = (1, 3, 0, 1). 23. 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 3, 1, 3), 3 = (1, 2, 0, 2), 4 = (1, 2, 1, 2), 5 = (3, 1, 3, 1). Tm c s ca tng v giao ca cc khng gian vct con sinh bi cc h vct 1 , ..., k v 1 , ..., sau y: 24. 1 = (1, 2, 1), 2 = (1, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 3, 3), 1 = (2, 3, 1), 2 = (1, 2, 2), 3 = (1, 1, 3).
25. 1 = (1, 2, 1, 2), 2 = (2, 3, 1, 0), 3 = (1, 2, 2, 3), 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 3, 0, 4). 26. 1 = (1, 1, 0, 0), 2 = (0, 1, 1, 0), 3 = (0, 0, 1, 1), 1 = (1, 0, 1, 0), 2 = (0, 2, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 2, 1, 2). 27. Chng minh rng vi mi khng gian vct con V1 ca V tn ti mt khng gian vct con V2 ca V sao cho V = V1 < V2 . Khng gian V2 c xc nh duy nht hay khng? 28. Chng minh rng khng gian C n l tng trc tip ca khng gian vct con U xc nh bi phng trnh x1 + x2 + + xn = 0 v khng gian vct con V xc nh bi phng trnh x1 = x2 = = xn . Tm hnh chiu ca cc vct trong c s chnh tc ca C n ln U theo phng V v ln V theo phng U . 29. Cho K l mt trng c c s khc 2. Chng minh rng khng gian M (n n, K ) cc ma trn vung cp n l tng trc tip ca khng gian S (n) gm cc ma trn i xng v khng gian A(n) gm cc ma trn phn i xng. Tm hnh chiu ca ma trn C 2 M (n n, K ) ln S (n) theo phng A(n) v ln A(n) theo phng S (n).
i s tuyn tnh 61
30. Gi K [X ]n l K -khng gian vct cc a thc vi h s trong K c bc n. Tm khng gian thng K [X ]n /K [X ]m v s chiu ca n khi m n.
62
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 2
Ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh
u trc ca cc khng gian vct ch l r khi chng ta nghin cu chng khng phi nh nhng i tng ring r, m tri li t chng trong mi lin h vi nhau. Cng c dng xc lp mi lin h gia cc khng gian vct l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Ngn ng gip cho vic m t c th cc nh x tuyn tnh l cc ma trn. . . . .
2.1 Ma trn Gi s K l mt trng tu .

nh ngha 2.1.1 Mi bng c dng ... a1n ... a2n , ... . ... amn
a11 a12 a21 a22 A= . . am1 am2
trong aij 2 K (1 i m, 1 j n), c gi l mt ma trn m hng (hay dng) n ct vi cc phn t trong K . Nu m = n, th ta ni A l mt ma trn vung cp n. Vct hng (ai1 , ai2 , ..., ain ) c gi l hng th i ca ma trn A. Vct ct (a1j , a2j , ..., amj )t c gi l ct th j ca ma trn A.
Ma trn ni trn thng c k hiu gn l A = (aij )mn . Tp hp tt c cc ma trn m hng, n ct vi cc phn t trong K c k
63
Chng 2. Ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh
hiu l M (m n, K ), hay M at(m n, K ). Ta nh ngha hai php ton cng v nhn vi v hng trn M (m n, K ) nh sau: a11 ... a1n b11 ... b1n a11 + b11 ... a1n + b1n a21 ... a2n b21 ... b2n a21 + b21 ... a2n + b2n , . ... . + . ... . = . ... . am1 ... amn bm1 ... bmn am1 + bm1 ... amn + bmn a11 a12 ... a1n aa11 aa12 ... aa1n a21 a22 ... a2n aa21 aa22 ... aa2n = , (a 2 K ). a . . ... . . . ... . am1 am2 ... amn aam1 aam2 ... aamn
Mnh 2.1.2 M (m n, K ) c trang b hai php ton ni trn l mt khng gian vct trn trng K vi s chiu bng dim M (m n, K ) = m n.
Chng minh: D dng kim tra khng nh M (m n, K ) l mt K -khng gian vct. Lu rng phn t trung lp ca php cng trong M (m n, K ) l 0 0 ... 0 0 = . . ... . , 0 0 ... 0 v phn t i ca A = (aij )mn l A = (aij )mn . chng minh khng nh v s chiu ca M (m n, K ) ta xt ma trn Eij (1 i m, 1 j n) gm ton phn t 0, loi tr phn t duy nht bng 1 nm trn giao ca hng i v ct j . Gi s A = (aij )mn 2 M (m n, K ). Ta c
m n
A=
i=1 j =1
aij Eij . n) l mt h sinh ca M (m n, K ). Mt
Nh vy h (Eij 1 i m, 1 j khc, mi rng buc tuyn tnh

m n
bij Eij = 0
i=1 j =1
ko theo B = (bij )mn = 0. Tc l bij = 0 vi mi i, j . iu ny chng t (Eij 1 i m, 1 j n) c lp tuyn tnh. Cho hai ma trn A = (aij ) 2 M (m n, K ), B = (bjk ) 2 M (n p, K ). nh ngha ny c minh ha bng hnh v sau y:
64 i s tuyn tnh
2.1. Ma trn
nh ngha 2.1.3 Tch AB ca ma trn A v ma trn B l ma trn C = (cik ) 2 M (m p, K ) vi cc phn t c xc nh nh sau

n
cik =
j =1
aij bjk ,
(1
m, 1
p).

V d:
a b c x t ax + by + cz at + bu + cv d e f y u = dx + ey + f z dt + eu + f v . g h i z v gx + hy + iz gt + hu + iv
Nhn xt: iu kin nh ngha c ma trn tch AB l s ct ca A = s hng ca B. C th xy ra trng hp tch AB th nh ngha c, m tch BA th khng. Trng hp c bit, khi A v B u l cc ma trn vung cp n th c hai tch AB v BA u nh ngha c. Nhng ni chung AB BA. Chng hn, vi n = 2, ta c ) ( )( ) )( ) ( ) ( ( 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 . 0 0 = 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Cc ng thc sau y c hiu theo ngha: nu mt v c xc nh th v kia cng vy v hai v bng nhau. (AB )C = A(BC ), A(B1 + B2 ) = AB1 + AB2 , (A1 + A2 )B = A1 B + A2 B. Chng ta chng minh ng thc th nht. Hai ng thc cn li c xem nh nhng bi tp.
i s tuyn tnh 65
Gi s A = (aij )mn , B = (bjk )np , C = (ck )pq . Khi phn t nm hng i ct ca ma trn (AB )C l
p n
(
k =1 j =1
aij bjk )ck .
Cn phn t nm hng i ct ca ma trn A(BC ) l

n p
aij (
j =1 k =1
bjk ck ).
Hin nhin c hai phn t ni trn u bng

n p
aij bjk ck .
j =1 k =1
V iu ng vi mi i, , nn (AB )C = A(BC ). Nhng nhn xt ni trn dn ta ti khng nh sau y cho cc ma trn vung.
Mnh 2.1.4 Tp hp cc ma trn vung M (n n, K ) cng vi cc php ton cng v nhn ma trn lp thnh mt vnh c n v. Vnh ny khng giao hon nu n 1.
Lu rng phn t n v ca vnh M (n n, K ) l ma trn sau y 1 0 ... 0 0 1 ... 0 E = En = . . ... . . 0 0 ... 1 N c gi l ma trn n v cp n.
nh ngha 2.1.5 Ma trn A 2 M (n n, K ) c gi l mt ma trn kh nghch (hoc ma trn khng suy bin) nu c ma trn B 2 M (n n, K ) sao cho AB = BA = En . Khi , ta ni B l nghch o ca A v k hiu B = A1 .
Nhn xt rng nu A kh nghch th ma trn nghch o ca n c xc nh duy nht. Tht vy, gi s B v B u l cc nghch o ca A. Khi B = BEn = B (AB ) = (BA)B = En B = B . Trong chng sau chng ta s ch ra mt iu kin cn v rt n gin cho mt ma trn vung l kh nghch.
66 i s tuyn tnh
2.1. Ma trn
, ..., ) ca khng Mnh 2.1.6 Gi C l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s (1 n gian vct V . Khi , C l mt ma trn kh nghch, vi nghch o l ma trn chuyn C t , ..., ) sang c s (1 , ..., n ). c s (1 n
Sau y l v d v mt lp cc ma trn kh nghch. Chng minh: Gi s C = (cij ), C = (cij ). Ta c
= j
cij i =
i=1 i=1
cij
k =1
= cki k
(
k =1 i=1
. cki cij )k
V biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vt qua c s l duy nht, nn ta nhn c

n i=1
cki cij = kj =
1 nu k = j, 0 nu k j.
Ngha l C C = En . Tng t, tro i vai tr ca hai c s cho nhau, ta c CC = En . Nh vy, C kh nghch v C 1 = C . Nhn xt: Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct V , v C = (cij ) , ..., ) xc nh l mt ma trn vung cp n v kh nghch. Khi h vct (1 n n bi j = i=1 cij i cng l mt c s ca V . Tht vy, nu C = (cij ) l ma trn nghch o ca C th j = n i=1 cij i . Do (1 , ..., n ) l mt h sinh ca V . H ny c s phn t ng bng s chiu ca V , nn n l mt c s ca V . Tt nhin, C chnh l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s , ..., ). (1 n Trong ngn ng tch ma trn, s kin C l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) , ..., ), tc l h ng thc = n cij i (j = 1, ..., n), c sang c s (1 n j i=1 vit gn nh sau ... ) = ( ... )C. (1 1 n n Hn na, nu =
n i=1 xi i
n j =1 xj j ,
th ta c x1 . . . = (1 ... n ) xn x1 . . . . xn
x1 ... ) . . = (1 . = (1 ... n )C n xn
Do biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct qua c s l duy nht, nn x1 x1 . . . . . =C . . xn xn

i s tuyn tnh 67
nh ngha 2.1.7 Ta k hiu bi GL(n, K ) tp hp tt c cc ma trn kh nghch trong M (n n, K ). Mnh 2.1.8 GL(n, K ) lp thnh mt nhm i vi php nhn cc ma trn.
Chng minh: Trc ht ta chng minh rng GL(n, K ) khp kn i vi php nhn ma trn. Gi s A, B 2 GL(n, K ). Khi , tn ti cc ma trn A1 , B 1 2 M (n n, K ). Ta c (AB )(B 1 A1 ) = A(BB 1 )A1 = AEn A1 = AA1 = En , (B 1 A1 )(AB ) = B 1 (A1 A)B = B 1 En B = B 1 B = En .
Nh vy, AB cng kh nghch, hn na (AB )1 = B 1 A1 . Ta bit rng php nhn cc ma trn vung (ni ring php nhn cc ma trn trong GL(n, K )) c tnh kt hp. Phn t trung lp (n v) i vi php nhn trong GL(n, K ) chnh l ma trn n v En 2 GL(n, K ). Theo nh ngha ca GL(n, K ), mi ma trn trong n u c nghch o. Hin nhin, nghch o A1 ca mi ma trn A 2 GL(n, K ) cng l mt phn t ca GL(n, K ).
nh ngha 2.1.9 Hai ma trn vung A, A 2 M (n n, K ) c gi l ng dng nu c mt ma trn kh nghch C 2 GL(n, K ) sao cho A = C 1 AC .
D thy rng ng dng l mt quan h tng ng. Trong tit sau chng ta s chng minh rng mi lp tng ng ca cc ma trn theo quan h ng dng c t tng ng mt i mt vi mt t ng cu tuyn tnh ca mt khng gian vct hu hn chiu no .
2.2 nh x tuyn tnh Gi s V v W l cc khng gian vct trn trng K . Nhn xt rng hai iu kin trong nh ngha nh x tuyn tnh tng ng vi iu kin sau: f (a + b ) = af () + bf ( ),
(, 2 V, (a, b 2 K .
Cc tnh cht sau y ca nh x tuyn tnh c suy ngay t nh ngha. Gi s f : V W l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Khi , ta c
68 i s tuyn tnh
2.2. nh x tuyn tnh
nh ngha 2.2.1 (nh x tuyn tnh). nh x f : V W c gi l mt nh x (hoc r hn, mt nh x K -tuyn tnh), nu f ( + ) = f () + f ( ), f (a) = af (), vi mi , 2 V v mi v hng a 2 K . nh x tuyn tnh cng c gi l ng cu tuyn tnh, hay ng cu cho n gin.
(1) f (0) = 0. Tht vy, f (0) = f (0 + 0) = f (0) + f (0). Theo lut gin c, f (0) = 0. (2) f () = f (), ( 2 V . Tht vy, f () + f () = f ( + ()) = f (0) = 0. Do , f () = f ().
(3) f (a1 1 + +an n ) = a1 f (1 )+ +an f (n ), (a1 , ..., an V. ng thc ny c th c chng minh bng quy np.
2 K , (1, ..., n 2
V L(V, W ) cha nh x 0, nn L(V, W ) 0. Ta trang b cho L(V, W ) hai php ton cng v nhn vi v hng c nh ngha nh sau (f + g )() = f () + g (), (af )() = af () 2 V, a 2 K , vi mi f, g 2 L(V, W ). D dng kim tra li rng L(V, W ) l mt K -khng gian vct i vi hai php ton . nh l sau y ch ra mt tnh cht quan trng ca nh x tuyn tnh. nh l 2.2.1 Mi nh x tuyn tnh t V vo W c hon ton xc nh bi nh ca n trn mt c s. Ni r hn, gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V , cn 1 , ..., n l cc vct bt k ca W . Khi , tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh f : V W sao cho f (i ) = i (i = 1, 2, ..., n). Chng minh: S tn ti: Nu = a1 1 + + an n , th ta t f () = a1 1 + + an n . D dng th li rng f : V (i = 1, 2, ..., n).
i s tuyn tnh
W l mt nh x tuyn tnh, v f (i ) = i
69
V d 2.2.2 (a) nh x 0 : V nh x tuyn tnh. (b) nh x ng nht idV : V (c) o hm hnh thc
W xc nh bi cng thc 0() = 0 vi mi 2 V l mt V, idV () = l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
d : K [X ] dX
K [X ],
d (an X n + + a1 X1 + a0 ) = nan X n1 + + a1 dX l mt nh x tuyn tnh. (d) Php lin hp phc c : C C, z z l mt nh x R -tuyn tnh, nhng khng phi l mt nh x C -tuyn tnh. Thy vy,
1 = c(1) = c(i2) ic(i) = i(i) = 1.

(e) Gi s A = (aij ) 2 M (m n, K ). Khi nh x : Kn A x1 . . . xn l mt nh x tuyn tnh. (f) Cc php chiu pri : V1 V2 Vi , pri (v1 , v2 ) = vi
m K ,
x1 . A . . xn
l cc nh x tuyn tnh, vi i = 1, 2. (g) Gi s W l mt khng gian vct con ca V . Khi php chiu :V V /W, () = [] = + W l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
70
i s tuyn tnh
2.2. nh x tuyn tnh
nh ngha 2.2.3 Gi s V v W l cc K -khng gian vct. Tp hp tt c cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo W c k hiu l L(V, W ) (hoc Hom(V, W )).
Tnh duy nht: Nu f v g l cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo W vi f (i ) = g (i ) = i (i = 1, 2, ..., n), th vi mi = a1 1 + + an n , ta c

n n n n
f () = f (
i=1
ai i ) =
i=1
ai f (i ) =
i=1
ai g (i ) = g (
i=1
ai i ) = g ().
nh ngha 2.2.4 Mt ng cu (tuyn tnh) f : V W ng thi l mt n nh c gi l mt n cu (tuyn tnh). Mt ng cu (tuyn tnh) ng thi l mt ton nh c gi l mt ton cu (tuyn tnh). Mt ng cu (tuyn tnh) ng thi l mt song nh c gi l mt ng cu (tuyn tnh).
Nu f : V W l mt ng cu, th f 1 : W V cng l mt ng cu; n c gi l nghch o ca f . Do mi ng cu cn c gi l mt ng cu kh nghch. Nu c mt ng cu f : V W , th ta ni V ng cu vi W v vit V W . Quan h l mt quan h tng ng. Nhn xt rng ng cu f : V W l mt ng cu nu v ch nu c mt ng cu g : W V sao cho gf = idV v f g = idW . Khi , g = f 1 . Tht vy, nu f l mt ng cu th f 1 f = idV , f f 1 = idW . Ngc li, nu c mt ng cu g : W V sao cho gf = idV , f g = idW , th f va l mt n cu (do gf = idV ), va l mt ton cu (do f g = idW ). V th, f l mt ng cu. Khi , nhn hai v ca ng thc gf = idV vi f 1 t bn phi, ta thu c g = f 1 .
Mnh 2.2.5 Gi s V v W l cc khng gian vct hu hn chiu. Khi V
W
dim V = dim W.
Chng minh: Gi s V W , tc l c mt ng cu tuyn tnh f : V W. Khi , nu (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V th (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) l mt c s ca W . Tht vy, mi vct 2 W c dng = f () vi no trong W . V c biu th tuyn tnh = a1 1 + + an n , nn = f () = f (a1 1 + + an n ) = a1 f (1 ) + + an f (n ). Nu cn c biu th tuyn tnh = b1 f (1 )+ + bn f (n ), th = f 1 ( ) = b1 1 + +bn n . V (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V cho nn a1 = b1 , ..., an = bn .
i s tuyn tnh 71
Nh vy, mi vct biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua h (f (1 ), ..., f (n )), nn h ny l mt c s ca W . Ni ring, dim V = dim W . Ngc li, gi s dim V = dim W = n. Chn cc c s (1 , ..., n ) ca V v (1 , ..., n ) ca W . nh x tuyn tnh duy nht : V W c xc nh bi (1 ) = 1 , ..., (n ) = n l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. Tht vy, nghch o ca l nh x tuyn tnh : W V c xc nh bi iu kin (1 ) = 1 , ..., (n ) = n . Tng ng t mi nh x tuyn tnh vi ma trn ca n m ta sp nh ngha l mt v d in hnh v ng cu tuyn tnh. Nh ng cu ny m ngi ta c th tnh ton c th vi cc nh x tuyn tnh. Gi s V v W l cc K -khng gian vct vi cc c s tng ng l W (1 , ..., n ) v (1 , ..., m ). Theo nh l 2.2.1, nh x tuyn tnh f : V c xc nh duy nht bi f (1 ), ..., f (n ). Cc vct ny li c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua c s (1 , ..., m ) ca W :
m
f (j ) =
i=1
aij i
(j = 1, ..., n),
trong aij 2 K . Ni gn li, nh x tuyn tnh f : V W c xc nh duy nht bi h thng cc v hng Jaij 1 i m, 1 j nK, chng c xp thnh ma trn sau y: ... a1n ... a2n = (aij )mn . ... . ... amn
a11 a12 a21 a22 A= . . am1 am2
Ta gi A l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V W trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ) v (1 , ..., m ). Nu vct c to (x1 , ..., xn ) trong c s (1 , ..., n ) th to ca f () trong c s (1 , ..., m ) c tnh bng cng thc
n
yi =
j =1
aij xj
(i = 1, 2, ..., m).
i s tuyn tnh
72
2.2. nh x tuyn tnh
Tht vy,
m n n
yi i = f () = f (
i=1 n j =1
xj j ) =
j =1 m
xj f (j )
= =
xj
j =1 i=1 m n
aij i aij xj )i .
(
i=1 j =1
V biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct thuc W qua c s (1 , ..., m ) l duy nht, nn ta thu c cng thc xc nh (y1 , ..., ym ) qua ma trn A v (x1 , ..., xn ) ni trn. Trong ngn ng tch ma trn, s kin A = (aij )mn l ma trn ca nh x tuyn tnh f : V W trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ) v (1 , ..., m ), tc l h ng thc f (j ) = m i=1 aij i (j = 1, ..., n) c quy c vit nh sau: a11 a12 ... a1n a21 a22 ... a2n . (f (1 ) ... f (n )) = (1 ... m ) . . ... . am1 am2 ... amn Cng thc tnh to (y1 , ..., ym ) ca f () trong c s (1 , ..., m ) qua to (x1 , ..., xn ) ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ) c din t li trong ngn ng ma trn nh sau: y1 x1 a11 a12 ... a1n . a21 a22 ... a2n . . . = . . ... . . ym am1 am2 ... amn xn nh l 2.2.2 nh x t tng ng ng cu f vi ma trn ca n A = M (f ) trong mt cp c s c nh ca V v W l mt ng cu tuyn tnh t L(V, W ) ln M (m n, K ). Ni ring, dim L(V, W ) = dim V dim W . Chng minh: Gi s trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ) ca V v (1 , ..., m ) ca W cc ng cu f v g c cc ma trn tng ng l A = (aij )mn v B = (bij )mn . tc l:
m
f (j ) =
i=1 m
aij i , bij i ,
i=1
g (j ) =
i s tuyn tnh
(j = 1, ..., n).
73
Khi
m
(f + g )(j ) = (af )(j ) =
(aij + bij )i ,
i=1 m
aaij i ,
i=1
(j = 1, ..., n).
Nh vy, ma trn ca f + g l A + B , ma trn ca af l aA (trong cp c s cho). Ni cch khc M (f + g ) = M (f ) + M (g ), M (af ) = aM (f ). Cc h thc ny chng t rng php t tng ng mi ng cu vi ma trn ca n trong mt cp c s c nh l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Mt khc, theo nh l 2.2.1, nh x ni trn l mt song nh. Tm li, l mt ng cu tuyn tnh.
Mnh 2.2.6 Nu f : V W v g : W cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Z l cc nh x tuyn tnh, th gf : V Z
Chng minh: Tht vy, ta c gf (a + b ) = g (af () + bf ( )) = a(gf )() + b(gf )( ), vi mi a, b 2 K v mi ,
2V.
Mnh 2.2.7 Gi s ng cu f c ma trn A trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., m ) v ng cu g c ma trn B trong cp c s (1 , ..., m ), (1 , ..., ). Khi , ma trn ca ng cu gf trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., ) chnh l ma trn tch BA.
Chng minh: Theo gi thit, ta c

m
f (i ) =
j =1
aji j , bkj k .
k =1
g (j ) =
74
i s tuyn tnh
2.2. nh x tuyn tnh
T , do g l mt nh x tuyn tnh, ta c
m m
(gf )(i ) = g (
j =1 m
aji j ) =
j =1
aji g (j )
m
=
j =1
aji
k =1
bkj k =
(
k =1 j =1
bkj aji )k .
Gi C = (cki )n l ma trn ca gf trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., ). Khi
(gf )(i ) =
k =1
cki k .
V biu th tuyn tnh ca (gf )(i ) qua c s (1 , ..., ) l duy nht, nn ta thu c
m
cki =
j =1
bkj aji ,
(1
, 1
n).
H ng thc ny tng ng vi ng thc ma trn C = BA. Nu mt trong hai v ca cc ng thc sau y gia cc nh x tuyn tnh l c ngha th v kia cng vy. Khi , ta c cc ng thc (d kim tra): h(gf ) = (hg )f, g (f1 + f2 ) = gf1 + gf2 , (g1 + g2 )f = g1 f + g2 f.
nh ngha 2.2.8 Mi ng cu (tuyn tnh) t khng gian vct V vo chnh n c gi l mt t ng cu (tuyn tnh) ca V . Mt t ng cu ca V ng thi l mt ng cu c gi l mt t ng cu ca V . Khng gian vct tt c cc t ng cu ca V c k hiu l End(V ). Tp hp tt c cc t ng cu ca V c k hiu l GL(V ).
D dng kim tra li rng End(V ) l mt vnh i vi hai php ton cng v nhn (hp thnh) cc t ng cu. N c gi l vnh cc t ng cu ca V . Vnh ny c n v l idV v khng giao hon nu dim V 1. cho gn, ta s gi ma trn ca f 2 End(V ) trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., n ) l ma trn ca f trong c s (1 , ..., n ).
i s tuyn tnh 75
nh l 2.2.3 Gi s V l mt K -khng gian vct vi dim V = n. Khi nh x t tng ng mi t ng cu f 2 End(V ) vi ma trn ca n M (f ) trong c s (1 , ..., n ) l mt ng cu vnh t End(V ) vo M (n n, K ). Chng minh: y l mt h qu trc tip ca nh l 2.2.2 v Mnh 3.4.3. Nhn xt rng f 2 End(V ) l mt ng cu nu v ch nu tn ti ng cu g 2 End(V ) sao cho gf = f g = idV . Khi g = f 1 . Do nhn xt ny ta d dng kim tra rng GL(V ) l mt nhm i vi php nhn l php hp thnh cc nh x. GL(V ) c gi l nhm tuyn tnh tng qut ca khng gian vct V . Theo nh l 2.2.3, f 2 End(V ) l mt ng cu nu v ch nu M (f ) 2 M (n n, K ) l mt ma trn kh nghch. Tng ng f M (f ) ni trong nh l 2.2.3 c m t trong biu sau: End(V ) ng cu vnh M (n n, K )
^ ^
GL(V ) ng cu nhm GL(n, K ).
Mnh 2.2.9 Gi s A l ma trn ca t ng cu f : V V trong c s (1 , ..., n ), v , ..., ). Khi , ma trn ca f trong C l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s (1 n , ..., ) l C 1 AC . c s (1 n
, ..., ) Chng minh: C l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s (1 n ca khng gian vct V , ngha l ta c ... ) = ( ... )C. (1 1 n n
Nhn hai v ca ng thc trn vi C 1 t bn phi, ta thu c
... )C 1 . (1 ... n ) = (1 n
T ng cu f
2 End(V ) c ma trn l A trong c s (1, ..., n), ngha l

(f (1 ) ... f (n )) = (1 ... n )A.
i s tuyn tnh
76
2.3. Ht nhn v nh ca ng cu
V f l mt ng cu, cho nn ta c
) ... f ( )) = (f ( ) ... f ( ))C (f (1 1 n n = (1 ... n )AC ... )C 1 AC. = (1 n

Do tnh duy nht ca biu th tuyn tnh ca mi vct qua mt c s, cho nn , ..., ). C 1 AC chnh l ma trn ca f trong c s (1 n Mt h lun trc tip ca mnh trn l nh sau. H qu 2.2.10 Hai ma trn vung ng dng vi nhau nu v ch nu chng l ma trn ca cng mt t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct trong cc c s no ca khng gian ny.
2.3 Ht nhn v nh ca ng cu Chng ta m u tit ny bng nhn xt n gin sau y.

Mnh 2.3.1 Gi s f : V W l mt ng cu. Khi , nh bi f ca mi khng gian vct con ca V l mt khng gian vct con ca W . Nghch nh bi f ca mi khng gian vct con ca W l mt khng gian vct con ca V .
Chng minh: Gi s T l mt khng gian vct con ca V . Khi , f (T ) 0, bi v n cha vct 0. Hn na, nu , l nhng vct ca f (T ) th chng c dng = f (), = f ( ), trong , 2 T . Khi , v f l mt ng cu, cho nn vi v hng bt k a 2 K , ta c + = f () + f ( ) = f ( + ) 2 f (T ), a = af () = f (a) 2 f (T ). Vy f (T ) l mt khng gian vct con ca W . By gi gi s U l mt khng gian vct con ca W . Khi , f 1 (U ) 0, bi v n cng cha vct 0. Nu , 2 f 1 (U ) th f (), f ( ) 2 U . V f l mt ng cu, cho nn vi mi v hng a 2 K , ta c f ( + ) = f () + f ( ) 2 U, f (a) = af () 2 U V th + v a 2 f 1 (U ). Vy f 1 (U ) l mt khng gian vct con ca V .
i s tuyn tnh 77
nh ngha 2.3.2 Gi s f : V
W l mt ng cu.
(i) Ker(f ) = f 1 (0) = Jx 2 V f (x) = 0K P V c gi l ht nhn (hay hch) ca f . S chiu ca Ker(f ) c gi l s khuyt ca f . (ii) Im(f ) = f (V ) = Jf (x) x 2 V K P W c gi l nh ca f . S chiu ca Im(f ) c gi l hng ca f v c k hiu l rank(f ).
Ht nhn v l nhng khng gian vct c bit quan trng i vi vic kho st ng cu . Chng c nh ngha nh sau. Hai nh l sau y nu nhng iu kin cn v mt ng cu l mt ton cu hay mt n cu. nh l 2.3.1 ng cu f : V dim W . W l mt ton cu nu v ch nu rank(f ) =
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha, f l mt ton cu nu v ch nu Im(f ) = W . V Im(f ) l mt khng gian vct con ca W , cho nn ng thc ni trn tng ng vi rank(f ) := dim f (V ) = dim W . Tht vy, nu f (V ) = W th hin nhin dim f (V ) = dim W . Ngc li, gi s dim f (V ) = dim W ; do f (V ) l mt khng gian vct con ca W , nn mi c s ca f (V ) cng l mt h c lp tuyn tnh trong W vi s phn t bng dim f (V ) = dim W . Ni cch khc, mi c s ca f (V ) cng l mt c s ca W . Vy f (V ) = W . nh l 2.3.2 i vi ng cu f : V ng: (i) f l mt n cu. (ii) Ker(f ) = J0K. (iii) nh bi f ca mi h vct c lp tuyn tnh l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh. (iv) nh bi f ca mi c s ca V l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh. (v) nh bi f ca mt c s no ca V l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh. (vi) rank(f ) = dim V . Chng minh: (i) (ii) : Gi s 2 Ker(f ). Khi f () = f (0) = 0. V f l mt n cu, cho nn = 0. Do Ker(f ) = J0K.
78 i s tuyn tnh
W cc iu kin sau y l tng
2.3. Ht nhn v nh ca ng cu
(ii) (iii) : Gi s (1 , ..., k ) l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh trong V . Nu c mt rng buc tuyn tnh gia cc nh bi f ca cc phn t
k
ai f (i ) = 0 (ai
i=1
2 K ),
k th f ( k i=1 ai i ) = 0. V Ker (f ) = J0K, cho nn i=1 ai i = 0. T , ta c a1 = = ak = 0, bi v h vct (1 , ..., k ) c lp tuyn tnh. Nh th, h (f (1 ), ..., f (k )) cng c lp tuyn tnh. Cc suy lun (iii) (iv ), (iv ) (v ) u hin nhin. (v ) (vi) : Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V sao cho (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) l mt h c lp tuyn tnh. R rng h ny sinh ra f (V ). Ta c
rank(f ) = dim f (V ) = rank(f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = n = dim V. (vi) (i) : Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V . Ta c rank(f ) = rank(f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = dim V = n, cho nn h vct (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s = = i bi i v f () = f ( ). Khi , 0 = f () f ( ) = f ( ) = f (
i i ai i ,
(ai bi )i =
i
(ai bi )f (i ).
T a1 = b1 , ..., an = bn , bi v (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) c lp tuyn tnh. iu ny c ngha l = . Vy f l mt n cu. nh l 2.3.3 (nh l v ng cu cc khng gian vct). Gi s f : V W l mt ng cu. Khi , nh x f : V /Ker(f ) W , xc nh bi f ([]) = f (), l mt n cu. N cm sinh ng cu f : V /Ker(f ) Im(f ). Chng minh: Trc tin, cn chng t rng f c nh ngha khng ph thuc vic chn i biu ca lp []. Tht vy, nu [] = [ ], th 2 Ker(f ). Ni cch khc f ( ) = 0, hay l f () = f ( ). V f l mt ng cu, nn d dng kim tra f cng l mt ng cu. Gi s f ([]) = f ([ ]), tc l f () = f ( ); khi f ( ) = 0. V th 2 Ker(f ), ngha l [] = [ ]. iu chng t rng f l mt n cu. Hn na, t nh ngha ca f ta c Im(f ) = Im(f ). Cho nn, nu xt f nh mt ng cu t V /Ker(f ) ti Im(f ) th l mt ng cu. H qu 2.3.3 i vi ng cu bt k f : V W , ta c
dim V = dim Ker(f ) + dim Im(f ).

i s tuyn tnh 79
Chng minh: Theo nh l trn, ta c dim Im(f ) = dim Im(f ) = dim V /Ker(f ) = dim V H qu 2.3.4 Gi s f : V vct con U ca V , ta c
dim Ker(f ).
W l mt ng cu. Khi , vi mi khng gian dim f (U ) dim U.
Ni cch khc, nh x tuyn tnh khng lm tng chiu ca cc khng gian vct. Chng minh: Xt hn ch f
U
ca nh x f trn khng gian vct con U , ta c dim Im(f U ) = dim f (U ).
dim U = dim Ker(f U ) + dim Im(f U )
H qu 2.3.5 Gi s f : V V l mt t ng cu ca khng gian vct hu hn chiu V . Khi , cc khng nh sau y l tng ng: (i) f l mt ng cu. (ii) f l mt n cu. (iii) f l mt ton cu. Chng minh: Theo nh l 2.3.2, f l mt n cu nu v ch nu dim Ker(f ) = 0. Mt khc, theo nh l 2.3.1, f l mt ton cu khi v ch khi dim Im(f ) = dim V . Theo H qu 2.3.3, hai iu kin ni trn tng ng vi nhau. Do , chng cng tng ng vi s kin f l mt ng cu. Nhn xt: H qu trn khng cn ng nu V l mt khng gian vct v hn chiu. Tht vy, ng cu : K [X ] K [X ] n (X ) = X n+1 (n = 0, 1, 2...) l mt n cu nhng khng l mt ton cu. Ngc li, ng cu : K [X ] K [X ] n (X ) = X n1 (n = 0, 1, 2...), trong quy c X 1 = (1) = 0, l mt ton cu nhng khng l mt n cu. Trn c s h qu ni trn, cc nh l 2.3.1 v 2.3.2 cho ta hng lot iu kin mt t ng cu tuyn tnh ca mt khng gian vct hu hn chiu l mt ng cu. nh l sau y cho ta mt phng php tnh hng ca cc ng cu.
80 i s tuyn tnh
2.4. Khng gian vct i ngu
nh ngha 2.3.6 (Hng ca ma trn). Gi s A l mt ma trn m hng n ct vi cc phn t trong trng K . Hng ca h n vct ct ca A trong K m c gi l hng ca ma trn A v c k hiu l rankA.
nh l 2.3.4 Gi s ng cu f : V s no ca V v W . Khi :
W c ma trn l A trong mt cp c
rankf = rankA. Chng minh: Gi s f c ma trn l A trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ) ca V v (1 , ..., m ) ca W . Theo nh ngha, ta c rankf = dim Im(f ) = rank(f (1 ), ..., f (n )). V (1 , ..., m ) l mt c s ca W cho nn nh x :W
m
bj j
j =1
K m, b1 . . . bm
l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. (Tht vy, nh x chuyn c s (1 , ..., m ) thnh c s chnh tc ca K m .) ng cu a f (i ) vo ct th i ca ma trn A, bi v a1i m . . f (i ) = aji j . . j =1 ami V cc ng cu tuyn tnh u bo ton hng ca mi h vct, nn ta c rankf = rank(f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = rankA.
2.4 Khng gian vct i ngu chnh ca tit ny l ta c th nghin cu mt khng gian vct thng qua tp hp tt c cc hm tuyn tnh trn khng gian ny. Ni mt cch nm na, tp hp cc hm nh th lp nn ci gi l khng gian vct i ngu, n c th coi l "nh i xng qua gng'' ca khng gian vct cho. Gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K .
i s tuyn tnh 81
nh ngha 2.4.1 Khng gian V = L(V, K ) cc nh x tuyn tnh t V vo K c gi l khng gian vct i ngu ca V . Mi phn t ca V c gi l mt dng tuyn tnh trn V.
Ta bit rng V l mt khng gian vct vi s chiu bng dim V = dim V dim K = dim V. Nh th V V nu dim V &. iu ny khng cn ng nu V l mt khng gian vct v hn chiu. Tnh khng t nhin ca ng cu ni trn s c tho lun phn sau ca tit ny. Gi s f : V W l mt ng cu. Ta nh ngha nh x f : W V bi cng thc sau y (f ())() = (f ()),
( 2 W , ( 2 V.
Ta s ch ra rng f l mt ng cu t W vo V . Tht vy, vi mi v hng a, b 2 K v mi , 2 W ta c f (a + b )() = = = = (a + b )(f ()) a(f ()) + b (f ()) af ()() + bf ( )() (af () + bf ( ))().
H thc ny ng vi mi 2 V , nn ta thu c f (a + b ) = af () + bf ( ). iu ny chng t f l mt ng cu.

nh ngha 2.4.2 f : W W. V c gi l ng cu (hay nh x) ca ng cu f : V
Nu ta k hiu gi tr ca dng tuyn tnh 2 V trn vct N, O 2 K , th cng thc dng nh ngha f c th vit li thnh
V bi
N, f ()O = Nf (), O.
ngha ca tnh i ngu c thy r trong cch din t ny. Ngi ta gi nh x N, O : V V K l php ghp cp i ngu. l mt nh x , tc l n tuyn tnh vi tng bin khi c nh bin cn li.
82 i s tuyn tnh
Gi s V c s chiu bng n, vi mt c s l (1 , ..., n ). Trn c s nh , ..., 2 V bi h iu kin sau l 2.4, ta nh ngha cc dng tuyn tnh 1 n y: , nu i = j, Ni, jO = ij = 1 0, nu i j.
, ..., ) l mt c s ca Mnh 2.4.3 Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V . Khi (1 n V .
Chng minh: Tht vy, mi
2 V tha nhn biu th tuyn tnh sau y:

n
Nj , Oj.
j =1
chng t iu ta ch cn chng minh rng hai v c gi tr nh nhau trn cc vct ca c s (1 , ..., n ). Tht vy
n
Nj , Oj(i) =
=
Nj , Oij
(1 i n).
j =1
j =1
Ni, O = (i),
, ..., ) sinh ra khng gian vct n chiu V . Do Nh th, h gm n vct (1 n , h ny l mt c s ca V .

, ..., ) ca khng gian V c gi l c s i ngu vi c s nh ngha 2.4.4 C s (1 n (1 , ..., n ) ca khng gian V .
Ta c ng cu tuyn tnh V
n
V =
n i=1
=
i=1
ai i
. ai i
ng cu ny khng t nhin, v n ph thuc vo c s (1 , ..., n ) chn. Tuy vy, ng cu V V , bin thnh , trong c xc nh bi h thc sau N, O = N, O, ( 2 V , l mt ng cu t nhin, v n c nh ngha khng ph thuc vo c s. chng minh rng tng ng ni trn l mt ng cu, cn th li rng (a + b ) = a + b ,
i s tuyn tnh
(a, b 2 K , (, 2 V.
83
Tht vy, h thc trn c chng minh bng cc ng thc sau, trong l phn t bt k trong V :
N, (a + b )O
= Na + b, O = aN, O + bN, O = aN, O + bN, O = N, a + b O.
ch ph thuc vo . Ngc li, ch c xc nh khi chn mt c s ca V v ph thuc vo c s ny. Tuy vy, ta c th coi = ( ) , trong , i ngu th nht c ly theo mt c s (1 , ..., n ) no ca V , , ..., ) ca V . Mi cn i ngu th hai c ly theo c s i ngu (1 n php i ngu nh th u ph thuc vo c s chn, nhng kt qu ca hai ln i ngu lin tip th li khng ph thuc bt k c s no. chng minh ng thc trn ta gi s
n
0. iu v l ny bc b gi thit phn chng. Nhn xt 2.4.5 Vi mi 2 V , phn t 2 V c xc nh hon ton v

ng thc ny chng t
Nhn xt rng dim V = dim V = dim V . V th, chng minh rng tng ng V V ni trn l mt ng cu, ta ch cn chng t n l mt n cu. Ni r hn, ta ch cn chng minh rng nu = 0 th = 0. Gi s phn chng 0. Ta chn mt c s (1 , ..., n ) ca V sao cho 1 = . Khi , ta c , vi = 1 O = N , O. 1 = N, 1 1
=
i=1
ai i .
n i=1 ai (i ) .
Khi , = c
n i=1 ai i ,
v ( ) = = =
Theo nh ngha ca , ta
Nj, O
Gi s c biu th tuyn tnh
N, jO n N aii, jO = aj .

i=1 n i=1
=
84
) . bi (i
i s tuyn tnh
Khi ta c
Nj, O =
=
N ,
j n i=1
n i=1
) O bi (i
bi ji = bj .
T suy ra aj = bj vi j = 1, 2, ..., n. Kt qu l = ( ) . Ta cn nh ngha sau y trc khi pht biu nh l chnh ca tit ny.
nh ngha 2.4.6 Chuyn v ca ma trn A = (aij ) M (n m, K ) c xc nh bi h thc at ji = aij
2 M (m n, K ) l ma trn At = (atji) 2
(i = 1, ..., m, j = 1, ..., n).
Ni mt cch khng hnh thc, chuyn v mt ma trn A tc l vit cc vct hng ca n thnh cc vct ct ca ma trn mi At . Khi , cc vct ct ca A cng tr thnh cc vct hng tng ng ca At . Mt h qu trc tip ca nh ngha trn l (At )t = A, vi mi ma trn A. V d: 2 8 . 5 4
1 1 1 0 3 1 9 8 4 =1 0 2 8 5 4 3
1 9 8 4
nh l 2.4.1 Gi s ng cu f : V W c ma trn l A trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., m ). Khi , ng cu i ngu f : W V c ma trn , ..., ), ( , ..., ). l At trong cp c s (1 m 1 n Chng minh: V f c ma trn l A trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ), (1 , ..., m ), cho nn m f (j ) =
k =1
akj k
(j = 1, ..., n).
Theo nh ngha ca nh x i ngu, ta c
Nj , f (i)O
= =
Nf (j ), iO m N akj k , iO = aij .

k =1
i s tuyn tnh
85
S dng cng thc c a ra trong chng minh Mnh 2.4.3 p dng cho vct = f (i ), ta thu c f (i ) = =
j =1 n
Nj , f (i)Oj
. aij j
j =1 n
Mt khc, gi B = (bji ) 2 M (n m, K ) l ma trn ca f trong cp c s , ..., ), ( , ..., ), ta c (1 m 1 n f ( ) =

i n j =1
. bji j
, ..., ), cho nn Vct f (i ) c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua c s (1 n
bji = aij , (i = 1, ..., m, j = 1, ..., n).
iu ny c ngha l B = At . nh l sau y cho thy cc khi nim n cu v ton cu l i ngu vi nhau. nh l 2.4.2 Gi f : W W . Khi : V l ng cu i ngu ca ng cu f : V
(i) f l mt n cu nu v ch nu f l mt ton cu. (ii) f l mt ton cu nu v ch nu f l mt n cu. (iii) f l mt ng cu nu v ch nu f l mt ng cu. c gi hy t tm mt chng minh trc tip cho nh l ny. Trong chng sau ta s chng minh rng rankA = rankAt , i vi mi ma trn A. Kt hp ng thc vi nh l 2.4.1 ta s c mt chng minh gin tip cho nh l ni trn.
86
i s tuyn tnh
2.5. Bi tp
2.5 Bi tp 1. Tnh tch ca hai ma trn sau y: 0 4 7 1 2 1 7 6 1 0 8 3 0 1 9 6 Tnh cc ly tha sau y 2. ( cos sin
2
8 7 8 0 3 8 9
5
4 5 5 . 8 4 8 9
sin
cos
)n ,
1 0
)n .
3.
k a1 0 ... 0 0 a2 ... 0 . . ... . . 0 0 ... an 1 0 0 . 0 1 1 0 . 0 0 1 1 . 0 0 0 1 . 0 ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 . 1 n1 .
4.
5. Cho hai ma trn A v B vi cc phn t trong K . Chng minh rng nu cc tch AB v BA u c ngha v AB = BA, th A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp. 6. Ma trn tch AB s thay i th no nu ta (a) i ch cc hng th i v th j ca ma trn A ? (b) cng vo hng th i ca A tch ca v hng c vi hng th j ca A? (c) i ch cc ct th i v th j ca ma trn B ? (d) cng vo ct th i ca B tch ca v hng c vi ct th j ca B ? 7. Vt ca mt ma trn vung l tng ca tt c cc phn t nm trn ng cho chnh ca ma trn . Chng minh rng vt ca AB bng vt ca BA.
i s tuyn tnh 87
8. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp, vi AB BA, th
A2 + 2AB + B 2, (b) (A + B )(A B ) A2 B 2 .

(a) (A + B )2 9. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn vung vi AB = BA th (A + B )n = An + nAn1 B + n(n 1) n2 2 A B + ... + B n . 2
10. Hai ma trn vung A v B c gi l giao hon vi nhau nu AB = BA. Chng minh rng A giao hon vi mi ma trn vung cng cp vi n nu v ch nu n l mt ma trn v hng, tc l A = cE trong c 2 K v E l ma trn n v cng cp vi A. 11. Ma trn vung A c gi l mt ma trn cho nu cc phn t nm ngoi ng cho chnh ca n u bng 0. Chng minh rng ma trn vung A giao hon vi mi ma trn cho cng cp vi n nu v ch nu chnh A l mt ma trn cho. 12. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma trn cho vi cc phn t trn ng cho chnh i mt khc nhau, th mi ma trn giao hon vi A cng l mt ma trn cho. 13. Gi D = diag(a1 , a2 , ..., an ) l ma trn cho vi cc phn t trn ng cho chnh ln lt bng a1 , a2 , ..., an . Chng minh rng nhn D vi A t bn tri c ngha l nhn cc hng ca A theo th t vi a1 , a2 , ..., an ; cn nhn D vi A t bn phi c ngha l nhn cc ct ca A theo th t vi a1 , a2 , ..., an . 14. Tm tt c cc ma trn giao hon vi ma trn sau y: 3 1 0 0 3 1 . 0 0 3 ( 15. Chng minh rng ma trn A = a b c d ) tho mn phng trnh
X 2 (a + d)X + (ad bc) = 0. 16. Chng minh rng i vi mi ma trn vung A, tn ti mt a thc khc khng f (X ) sao cho f (A) = 0. Hn na, mi a thc c tnh cht u
88 i s tuyn tnh
2.5. Bi tp
l bi ca mt a thc f0 (X ) nh th, c xc nh duy nht bi iu kin: h s ca s hng bc cao nht ca n bng 1. (a thc f0 (X ) vi tnh cht ni trn c gi l a thc ti thiu ca ma trn A.) 17. Gi s n khng chia ht cho c s p ca trng K . Chng minh rng khng tn ti cc ma trn A, B 2 M (n n, K ) sao cho AB BA = En . 18. Gi s A l mt ma trn vung cp 2 v k l mt s nguyn minh rng Ak = 0 nu v ch nu A2 = 0. 19. Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp hai A sao cho A2 = 0. 20. Tm tt c cc ma trn vung cp hai A sao cho A2 = E2 . 21. Gii phng trnh AX = 0, trong A l ma trn vung cp hai cho cn X l ma trn vung cp hai cn tm. 22. Tm ma trn nghch o (nu c) ca ma trn ( ) a b A= . c d 23. Gi s V = V1 < V2 , trong V1 c c s (1 , ..., k ), V2 c c s (k+1 , ..., n ). Tm ma trn ca php chiu ln V1 theo phng V2 trong c s (1 , ..., n ). 24. Chng minh rng nu V = V1 < V2 , th V ng cu vi tch trc tip V1 V2 . 25. Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht t ng cu f : R 3 R 3 chuyn cc vct 1 = (2, 3, 5), 2 = (0, 1, 2), 3 = (1, 0, 0) tng ng thnh cc vct 1 = (1, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 1, 1), 3 = (2, 1, 2). Tm ma trn ca f trong c s chnh tc ca khng gian. 26. T ng cu f ca khng gian vct K n chuyn cc vct c lp tuyn tnh 1 , ..., n tng ng thnh cc vct 1 , ..., n . Chng minh rng ma trn M (f ) ca f trong mt c s no (e1 , ..., en ) tho mn h thc M (f ) = BA1 , trong cc ct ca ma trn A v ma trn B l to tng ng ca cc vct 1 , ..., n v 1 , ..., n trong c s (e1 , ..., en ). ) ( a b (a) t bn tri, (b) 27. Chng minh rng php nhn vi ma trn A = c d t bn phi l cc t ng cu ca khng gian cc ma trn vung cp hai. Hy tm ma trn ca t ng cu trong c s gm cc ma trn sau y: ) ) ( ) ( ) ( ( 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 . , , , 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
i s tuyn tnh 89
2. Chng
28. Chng minh rng o hm l mt t ng cu ca khng gian vct cc a thc h s thc c bc khng vt qu n. Tm ma trn ca t ng cu trong cc c s sau y: (a) (1, X, ..., X n ), (b) (1, (X
c) c), ..., (Xn !
), trong c l mt hng s thc.
29. Ma trn ca mt t ng cu trong c s (e1 , ..., en ) thay i th no nu ta i ch cc vct ei v ej ? 30. T ng cu f c ma trn 1 3 2 1 2 0 5 2 0 1 3 1 1 2 1 3
trong c s (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ). Hy tm ma trn ca f trong c s (e1 , e1 + e2 , e1 + e2 + e3 , e1 + e2 + e3 + e4 ). 31. T ng cu c ma trn 15 20 8
11 15 7
5 8 6
trong c s (e1 , e2 , e3 ). Hy tm ma trn ca trong c s gm cc vct 1 = 2e1 + 3e2 + e3 , 2 = 3e1 + 4e2 + e3 , 3 = e1 + 2e2 + 2e3 . 32. ng cu : C 3 C 3 c ma trn 1 18 15 1 22 20 1 25 22
trong c s gm cc vct 1 = (8, 6, 7), 2 = (16, 7, 13), 3 = (9, 3, 7). Tm ma trn ca trong c s gm cc vct 1 = (1, 2, 1), 2 = (3, 1, 2), 3 = (2, 1, 2). 33. Chng minh rng cc ma trn ca mt t ng cu trong hai c s ca khng gian l trng nhau nu v ch nu ma trn chuyn gia hai c s giao hon vi ma trn ca ng cu cho trong mi c s ni trn.
90 i s tuyn tnh
2.5. Bi tp
34. T ng cu
trong c s gm 1 = ( ) 4 6 (1, 2), 2 = (2, 3), v t ng cu 2 End(R 2 ) c ma trn 6 9 trong c s gm 1 = (3, 1), 2 = (4, 2). Tm ma trn ca + trong c s (1 , 2 ). ( ) 2 1 35. T ng cu 2 End(R 2 ) c ma trn trong c s gm 1 = 5 3 ( ) 1 3 (3, 7), 2 = (1, 2), v t ng cu 2 End(R 2 ) c ma trn 2 7 trong c s gm 1 = (6, 7), 2 = (5, 6). Tm ma trn ca trong c s chnh tc ca R 2 . 36. Gi s t ng cu : V V tho mn h thc 2 = . Chng minh rng V = Im() < Ker(). 37. Cho cc t ng cu ,
2 End(R 2) c ma trn
3 5 4 3
2 End(V ).
(a) Phi chng nu = 0 th = 0? (b) Phi chng nu = 0 v = 0 th hoc = 0 hoc = 0? 38. Gi s v l cc t ng cu ca khng gian vct hu hn chiu V . Chng minh rng l mt ng cu nu v ch nu v l cc ng cu. Khi ( )1 = 1 1 . 39. K hiu vt ca ma trn vung A l T r(A). Chng minh rng nh x T r : M (n n, K ) K, A T r(A) l mt ng cu. Tm mt c s ca ht nhn ca T r. 40. Chng minh rng vt ca hai ma trn ng dng bng nhau. (T ngi ta nh ngha vt ca mt t ng cu l vt ca ma trn ca n trong c s bt k ca khng gian.) 41. Chng minh rng nu tch ma trn AB c ngha th (AB )t = B t At . T suy ra rng ma trn vung A kh nghch nu v ch nu At kh nghch, v khi (At )1 = (A1 )t .
i s tuyn tnh 91
42. Cho cc ng cu f : V W v g : W gia cc ng cu i ngu: (gf ) = f g . T suy ra rng ng cu f : V W V kh nghch, v khi
Z . Chng minh mi lin h
W kh nghch nu v ch nu f :
(f )1 = (f 1 ) . 43. Chng minh rng nh x L(V, W ) cu tuyn tnh. L(W , V ), f f l mt ng
92
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 3
nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh
nh thc l mt cng c hu hiu gii cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh, v gp phn gii quyt hu ht cc bi ton nh lng cng nh nh tnh trong i s tuyn tnh. . . . .
3.1 Cc php th
nh ngha 3.1.1 Mi song nh t tp J1, 2, ..., nK vo chnh n c gi l mt php th bc n. Tp hp tt c cc php th bc n c k hiu bi Sn .
Sn cng vi php hp thnh cc nh x lp thnh mt nhm, c gi l nhm i xng bc n. Nhm ny c n! phn t. Nu 2 Sn , ta thng biu th n di dng ) ( 1 2 ... n . = (1) (2) ... (n) Gi s x1 , x2 , ..., xk l cc phn t i mt khc nhau trong tp hp J1, 2, ..., nK. Ta k hiu bi (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) php th gi nguyn cc phn t khc x1 , x2 , ..., xk , v tc ng trn cc phn t nh sau: x1 x2 , x2 N c gi l mt xch di k trn tp nn Jx1 , x2 , ..., xk K. Xch (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) c gi l mt xch ca php th nu tc ng nh (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) trn cc phn t x1 , x2 , ..., xk . (Tuy nhin, c th tc ng khng tm thng trn cc phn t khc x1 , x2 , ..., xk .)
93
x3 , ..., xk1
xk , xk
x1 .
Chng 3. nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh
Mnh 3.1.2 Mi php th 2 Sn u l tch ca tt c cc xch khc nhau ca n. Cc tp nn ca cc xch ny l cc tp con ri nhau ca J1, 2, ..., nK.
Chng minh: Vi mi x1 2 J1, 2, ..., nK, nu (x1 ) = x1 th (x1 ) l mt xch ca . Tri li, nu (x1 ) x1 , ta t x2 = (x1 ). Gi s x1 , x2 = (x1 ), ..., xk = (xk1 ) l nhng phn t i mt khc nhau, cn (xk ) trng vi mt trong cc phn t x1 , x2 , ..., xk . Ta khng nh rng (xk ) = x1 . Tht vy, nu (xk ) = xi vi i 1, th (xk ) = (xi1 ). Do xi1 = xk . iu ny mu thun vi gi thit rng x1 , x2 , ..., xk i mt khc nhau. Nh th (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) l mt xch ca . Mi phn t ca tp J1, 2, ..., nK u thuc mt tp con, l tp nn ca mt xch no ca . Hai tp con nh th nu c mt phn t chung th phi trng nhau. Tht vy, phng trnh (x) = y hon ton xc nh y theo x v x theo y (do l mt song nh).
nh ngha 3.1.3 Php i ch hai phn t khc nhau i, j phn t khc c gi l mt php th s cp.
2 J1, 2, ..., nK v gi nguyn cc
Ni cch khc, mt php th s cp l mt xch di bng hai: (i, j ).

Mnh 3.1.4 Mi php th cp n u l tch ca mt s php th s cp. (Ni khc i, cc php th s cp sinh ra nhm Sn .)
Chng minh: p dng Mnh 3.1.2, ta ch cn chng minh mnh ny cho cc xch. Ta d kim tra li rng (x1 , x2 , ..., xk ) = (x1 , x2 , ..., xk1 )(xk1 , xk ) = = (x1 , x2 )(x2 , x3 ) (xk1 , xk ). Trong , php th bn phi tc ng trc. Ta gi cp s Ji, j K P J1, 2, ..., nK l mt nghch th ca nu (i) (j ) (j ) 0. Nh vy, sgn( ) bng +1 hay 1 tu tri du vi i j , tc l nu (i) ij theo s nghch th ca l chn hay l. ) ( 1 2 3 4 c ba nghch th l J1, 4K, J2, 4K v J3, 4K, cho nn V d: = 2 3 4 1 sgn( ) = 1. Chng minh: Gi s i j v ) ( 1 2 ... i ... j ... n . = 1 2 ... j ... i ... n
94 i s tuyn tnh
3.1. Cc php th
nh ngha 3.1.5 Du ca php th
2 Sn l s sau y (i) (j ) 2 J1K. sgn( ) = ij ij
Tch ny chy trn mi cp s (khng c th t) Ji, j K P J1, 2, ..., nK. nh ngha 3.1.6 c gi l mt php th chn nu sgn( ) = 1, n c gi l mt php th l nu sgn( ) = 1.
Khi , tt c cc nghch th ca l
Ji, kK vi mi k m i k j J, j K vi mi m i j. Vy c tt c (j i) + (j i 1) = 2(j i) 1 nghch th, do l mt

php th l. nh l 3.1.1 sgn() = sgn()sgn(), vi mi , 2 Sn . Chng minh: V l mt song nh, cho nn khi Ji, j K chy mt ln qua mi cp (khng c th t) trong J1, 2, ..., nK th J(i), (j )K cng chy mt ln qua mi cp nh th. Do sgn() = Ta c sgn() = ((i)) ((j )) ij ij (i) (j ) ((i)) ((j )) = sgn()sgn(). = ( i ) ( j ) i j ij ij ((i)) ((j )) (i) (j ) = . i j ( i ) ( j ) ij ij
H qu 3.1.8 Mt php th l chn hay l tu theo n l tch ca mt s chn hay l cc php th s cp. Nhn xt: C nhiu cch vit mt php th thnh tch cc php th s cp, chng hn (i, j ) = (i, j )3 . Nhng tnh chn l ca s nhn t trong tch l khng thay i.
i s tuyn tnh 95
Mnh 3.1.7 Mi php th s cp u l mt php th l.
3.2 nh thc ca ma trn Cho mt ma trn vung A = (aij )nn vi cc phn t trong trng K .
nh ngha 3.2.1 nh thc ca ma trn A, c k hiu bi det A hoc A , l phn t sau y ca trng K det A = A = sgn( )a(1)1 a(n)n .
Sn
Nu A l mt ma trn vung cp n th det A c gi l mt nh thc cp n.
Tng v phi ca ng thc trn c tt c Sn = n! s hng. V d: (a) nh thc cp 1: det(a) = a, (b) nh thc cp 2: det ( )
(a 2 K .
= a11 a22 a21 a12 .
a11 a12 a21 a22
(c) nh thc cp 3: a11 a12 a13 det a21 a22 a23 = a31 a32 a33
a11 a22 a33 + a21 a32 a13 + a31 a12 a23 a11a32a23 a21a12a33 a31a22a13.
Trn thc t ngi ta khng trc tip dng nh ngha tnh cc nh thc cp n 3, v vic ny qu phc tp. Di y, chng ta s tm hiu nhng tnh cht c bn ca nh thc. T , ta s nhn c nhng phng php tnh nh thc hiu qu v tit kim sc lao ng hn so vi cch trc tip dng nh ngha. Gi j 2 K n l vct ct th j ca ma trn A, v coi det A l mt hm ca cc vct 1 , ..., n . Ta vit det A = det(1 , ..., n ). nh thc c 3 tnh cht c bn di y.
96 i s tuyn tnh
3.2. nh thc ca ma trn
Tnh cht 1 (a tuyn tnh): nh thc ca ma trn l mt hm tuyn tnh vi mi ct ca n, khi c nh cc ct khc. Tc l: det(1 , ..., aj + bj , ..., n ) = a det(1 , ..., j , ..., n )+ b det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ), vi mi a, b 2 K , 1 , ..., j , j , ..., n Chng minh: K hiu a1j . j = . , anj Ta c det(1 , ..., aj + bj , ..., n ) =
2Sn
2 K n, j = 1, ..., n.
b1j . j = . . bnj sgn( )a(1)1 (aa(j )j + bb(j )j ) a(n)n sgn( )a(1)1 a(j )j a(n)n sgn( )a(1)1 b(j )j a(n)n
= a
2 Sn
+b
2 Sn
= a det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ) + b det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ). Tnh cht 2 (Thay phin): Nu ma trn vung A c hai ct bng nhau, th det A = 0. Chng minh: Gi s i = j vi i j , tc l aki = akj (1 k n. Theo nh ngha det A = sgn( )a(1)1 a(i)i a(j )j a(n)n .
2Sn
Ta ghp cc s hng trong tng thnh tng cp sgn( )a(1)1 a(i)i a(j )j a(n)n sgn( )a(1)1 a(j )i a(i)j a(n)n ,
vi
trong = , y l php th s cp i ch (i) v (j ). Hin nhin ta c sgn( ) = sgn( ), a(1)1 a(i)i a(j )j a(n)n = a(1)1 a(j )i a(i)j a(n)n . Nh th det A l mt tng c cc cp s hng i nhau. Vy det A = 0.
i s tuyn tnh 97
Tnh cht 3 (Chun ho): nh thc ca ma trn n v bng 1: 1 0 ... 0 0 1 ... 0 det En = det . . ... . = 1. 0 0 ... 1 Chng minh: K hiu eij ch phn t nm hng i ct j ca En . Ta c

eij = Theo nh ngha det En =

2Sn
1 nu i = j, 0 nu i j.
sgn( )e(1)1 e(n)n .
Tng ny ch c ng mt s hng khc khng, ng vi php th ng nht (1) = 1, ..., (n) = n. Du ca php th ny bng 1. Nh vy det En = 1 1 1 = 1. Nhn xt 3.2.2 Trong tit sau ta s chng t rng nh thc l hm duy nht trn cc ma trn vung c 3 tnh cht ni trn. H qu 3.2.3 (i) (Tnh phn i xng ca nh thc). Nu i ch hai ct ca mt ma trn th nh thc ca n i du: det(..., i , ..., j , ...) = det(..., j , ..., i , ...). (ii) Nu cc vct ct ca mt ma trn ph thuc tuyn tnh th nh thc ca ma trn bng khng. Ni ring, nu ma trn c mt ct bng 0 th nh thc ca n bng 0. (iii) Nu thm vo mt ct ca ma trn mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc ct khc th nh thc ca n khng thay i. Chng minh: (i) Theo cc tnh cht c bn ca nh thc, ta c 0 = det(..., i + j , ..., i + j , ...) = det(..., i , ..., i , ...) + det(..., j , ..., j , ...) + det(..., i , ..., j , ...) + det(..., i , ..., j , ...). Hai nh thc u tin ca v phi bng 0, do tnh thay phin ca nh thc. T ta thu c det(..., i , ..., j , ...) = det(..., j , ..., i , ...).
98 i s tuyn tnh
3.2. nh thc ca ma trn
(ii) Gi s ct j ca ma trn A l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc ct cn li: j =

ij
ai i .
Theo tnh cht a tuyn tnh ca nh thc, ta c det A =

ij
ai det(..., i , ..., i , ...).
Mi nh thc v phi u c hai ct bng nhau, v th det A = 0. (iii) Theo phn (ii) ta c det(1 , ..., j + ij ai i , ..., n ) = det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ) + det(1 , ..., = det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ) + 0 = det(1 , ..., j , ..., n ).
ij
ai i , ..., n )
Trong 5 ta s chng minh rng cc tnh cht ca nh thc i vi cc hng cng tng t cc tnh cht ca nh thc i vi cc ct, nh ni trong h qu trn. Mt phng php tnh nh thc c hiu qu l ng dng nhng tch cht bin i ma trn thnh mt ma trn tam gic c cng nh thc. Chng ta s tnh nh thc ca ma trn tam gic trong v d sau y. V d: Ma trn A c gi l mt ma trn tam gic trn nu n c dng a11 a12 ... a1n 0 a22 ... a2n , A= . . ... . 0 0 ... ann trong aij = 0 vi i j . Tng t, A c gi l mt ma trn tam gic di nu aij = 0 vi i j . Ma trn tam gic trn v ma trn tam gic di c gi chung l ma trn tam gic. Chng minh rng, nu A l mt ma trn tam gic cp n th det A = a11 a22 ann . Li gii: Ta s ch xt trng hp A l mt ma trn tam gic trn. i vi ma trn tam gic di, chng minh hon ton tng t. Theo nh ngha nh thc, ta c det A = sgn( )a(1)1 a(n)n .
2 Sn
V A l mt ma trn tam gic trn, nn iu kin a(1)1 c th khc khng l (1) 1, do (1) = 1. Gi s quy np rng iu kin a(1)1 a(i1)i1
i s tuyn tnh 99
c th khc khng l (1) = 1, ..., (i 1) = i 1. Khi , a(1)1 a(i)i ch c th khc khng nu (1) = 1, ..., (i 1) = i 1 v (i) i. V l mt song nh, nn iu kin ni trn ko theo (i) = i. Nh th, s hng duy nht c kh nng khc khng trong det A l s hng ng vi php th ng nht (1) = 1, (2) = 2, ..., (n) = n. Hin nhin, du ca php th bng 1 (v n khng c nghch th no c). T suy ra det A = a11 a22 ann .
3.3 nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin

nh ngha 3.3.1 Gi s V v W l cc khng gian vct trn trng K . nh x :V
V
k
ln
c gi l (hay ni r hn: k -tuyn tnh) nu n tuyn tnh vi tng thnh phn trong tch V V khi c nh cc thnh phn cn li, tc l nu (1 , ..., ai + bi , ..., k ) = a(1 , ..., i , ..., k ) + b(1 , ..., i , ..., k ), vi mi a, b 2 K , 1 , ..., k , i
2V
v vi mi i = 1, ..., k .
Nu W = K th c gi l mt dng k -tuyn tnh trn V . V d: Gi s 1 , ..., k : V K l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Khi :V
V
k ln (1 , ..., i , ..., k ) = 1 (1 ) k (k )
l mt dng k -tuyn tnh trn V .

nh ngha 3.3.2 nh x k -tuyn tnh : V
V
W c gi l nu
(1 , ..., i , ..., j , ..., k ) = 0, khi i = j , vi cp ch s i j no .
V d:
100 i s tuyn tnh
3.3. nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin
(a) nh x ng nht khng 0 : V phin. (b) nh thc det : K n phin.
V
W l k -tuyn tnh v thay
Kn
K l mt hm n-tuyn tnh v thay
Mnh 3.3.3 Gi s l mt nh x k -tuyn tnh thay phin. Khi (i) c tnh , tc l (1 , ..., i , ..., j , ..., k ) = (1 , ..., j , ..., i , ..., k ), vi mi 1 , ..., k
2V
v mi cp ch s i j .
(ii) Nu h 1 , ..., k ph thuc tuyn tnh th (1 , ..., k ) = 0.
Chng minh: Mnh c chng minh bng cch lp li cc lp lun trong chng minh H qu 3.2.3. Nhn xt 3.3.4 Nu Char(K ) 2 th mt nh x a tuyn tnh : V V W l thay phin khi v ch khi n phn i xng. Tht vy, theo mnh trn, tnh phn i xng l h qu ca tnh thay phin. Ngc li, gi s phn i xng, tc l (1 , ..., i , ..., j , ..., k ) = (1 , ..., j , ..., i , ..., k ), vi mi 1 , ..., k
2V
v mi cp ch s i j . Ly i = j , ta c
(1 , ..., i , ..., i , ..., k ) = (1 , ..., i , ..., i , ..., k ). T 2(1 , ..., i , ..., i , ..., k ) = 0. V Char(K ) 2 cho nn ng thc trn ko theo (1 , ..., i , ..., i , ..., k ) = 0. iu ny c ngha l c tnh thay phin. Nu Char(K ) = 2 th tnh thay phin mnh hn tnh phn i xng. Khi nim nh thc nh mt hm a tuyn tnh thay phin ca cc vct ct ca mt ma trn vung c tng qut ho nh sau. Gi s dim V = n v = (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V . Gi s j = n i=1 aij i , ni cc khc (1 ...n ) = (1 ...n )A,
i s tuyn tnh 101
nh ngha 3.3.5 Ta gi det A l nh thc ca h vct 1 , ..., n trong c s (hay i vi c s ), v k hiu l det (1 , ..., n ).
trong A = (aij )nn . Nh vy det (1 , ..., n ) = det A =

2Sn
sgn( )a(1)1 a(n)n ,
trong j = n i=1 aij i . Theo 2 th det l mt dng n-tuyn tnh thay phin trn V . K hiu bi n (V ) tp hp tt c cc dng n-tuyn tnh thay phin trn V . N lp nn mt khng gian vct trn K i vi php cng nh x v nhn nh x vi v hng c nh ngha nh sau: ( + )(1 , ..., n ) = (1 , ..., n ) + (1 , ..., n ), (a)(1 , ..., n ) = a(1 , ..., n ), vi mi ,
2 n(V ), a 2 K . 2 n(V ).

ain n in )
in
nh l 3.3.1 Nu dim V = n th dim n (V ) = 1. Hn na, nu = (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca V , th (det ) l mt c s ca n (V ) . Chng minh: Ta bit det 2 n (V ) . Gi s n i=1 aij i (j = 1, ..., n), ta c
n n
Vi mi j =
(1 , ..., n ) = (
i1
ai1 1 i1 , ...,
=
i1 ,...,in
ai1 1 ain n (i1 , ..., in ).
Nu c hai trong cc ch s i1 , ..., in bng nhau, th s hng tng ng bng 0, do c tnh thay phin. V vy, tng ch cn ly trn cc b ch s i1 , ..., in i mt khc nhau. Khi , mi b ch s i1 , ..., in xc nh mt php th 2 Sn bi cng thc (1) = i1 , (2) = i2 , ..., (n) = in . Do c tnh phn i xng, nn (i1 , ..., in ) = ((1) , ..., (n) ) = sgn( )(1 , ..., n ). T (1 , ..., n ) =
2Sn
sgn( )a(1)1 a(n)n (1 , ..., n )
= (1 , ..., n )det (1 ...n ).

102 i s tuyn tnh
3.4. nh thc ca t ng cu
Nh th, sai khc det mt nhn t (1 , ..., n ) 2 K . Vy det l mt h sinh ca khng gian n (V ) . Do tnh chun ho ca nh thc, nn det 0. V th, h gm mt vct (det ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct n (V ) . H qu 3.3.6 (Tnh duy nht ca nh thc). nh thc det l hm duy nht t tp hp cc ma trn vung M (n n, K ) vo K c cc tnh cht a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun ho ni 2. Chng minh: Chn e = (e1 , ..., en ) l h c s chnh tc ca K n . Nu coi nh thc ca ma trn A l mt hm ca cc vct ct 1 , ..., n ca n, th det A = dete (1 , ..., n ). Ni cch khc det = dete . Gi s : M (n n, K ) K l mt hm a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun ho theo ngha ni 2. Ta cng coi (A) l hm ca cc ct ca A, nh vy 2 n (K n ) . Theo nh l 3.3.1, = (e1 , ..., en )dete = (e1 , ..., en ) det . Nhng c chun ho, tc l (e1 , ..., en ) = 1, cho nn = det. H qu 3.3.7 det A trong K n .
0 nu v ch nu cc vct ct ca A c lp tuyn tnh
Chng minh: Nu cc vct ct 1 , ..., n ca A ph thuc tuyn tnh, th theo H qu 3.2.3 ta c det(1 , ..., n ) = 0. Ngc li, gi s 1 , ..., n c lp tuyn tnh. Khi = (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca K n . Gi e = (e1 , ..., en ) l c s chnh tc ca K n . Khi det = dete lp nn mt c s ca n (K n ) . Ta c det = c det, (c 2 K ).
Do c det(1 , ..., n ) = det (1 , ..., n ) = det En = 1. Vy det A = det(1 , ..., n ) 0.
3.4 nh thc ca t ng cu Mi phn t 2 n (V ) c th c coi l mt php o "th tch'' c hng trong V . C th, (1 , ..., n ) c xem nh "th tch'' ca hnh hp n chiu ta trn cc vct 1 , ..., n .
i s tuyn tnh 103
Vi quan im th nh thc ca mt t ng cu f : V V chnh l h s gin n th tch ca cc hnh hp n-chiu sau php bin i f . nh l sau y ni r iu . nh l 3.4.1 Gi s f 2 End(V ), trong V l mt K -khng gian vct n chiu. Khi , c duy nht mt phn t c k hiu l det(f ) 2 K sao cho (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = det(f )(1 , ..., n ), vi mi 2 n (V ) v mi 1 , ..., n
2V.
nh ngha 3.4.1 Ta gi det(f ) l nh thc ca t ng cu f .
Chng minh nh l 3.4.1. Chn bt k mt phn t dim n (V ) = 1, cho nn ( ) l mt c s ca n (V ) . K xc nh nh sau Xt nh x : V V

n
0 trong n(V ). V
ln
(1 , ..., n ) = (f (1 ), ..., f (n )). V f tuyn tnh, v a tuyn tnh thay phin, nn cng l a tuyn tnh thay phin, tc l 2 n (V ) . Nh vy, c d 2 K sao cho = d . Mt khc, v ( ) l mt c s ca n (V ) , cho nn vi mi 2 n (V ) ta c = c vi mt v hng no c 2 K . Do (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = c (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = c(1 , ..., n ) = cd (1 , ..., n ) = d(1 , ..., n ). ng thc ni trong nh l c nghim ng i vi hng s det(f ) = d khng ph thuc . Nh vy, ta ch ra s tn ti ca det(f ). chng minh tnh duy nht ca det(f ), ta chn = . ng thc (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = det(f )(1 , ..., n ) ko theo = det(f ) . Do biu th tuyn tnh ca qua c s ( ) l duy nht, nn det(f ) xc nh duy nht. nh l sau y cho thy mi lin h gia nh thc ca t ng cu vi nh thc ca ma trn, ng thi ch ra mt phng php tnh nh thc ca t ng cu. nh l 3.4.2 Nu t ng cu f : V ca V , th det(f ) = det A.
104
V c ma trn l A trong mt c s no
i s tuyn tnh
3.4. nh thc ca t ng cu
Chng minh: Gi = (1 , ..., n ) l c s ca khng gian V trong f c ma trn l A. Ta c f (j ) = n i=1 aij i . Ni cch khc (f (1 )...f (n )) = (1 ...n )A. Chn = det
2 n(V ), v p dng nh l 3.4.1, ta c
det(f ) = det(f ) det En = det(f )det (1 , ..., n ) = det (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = det A. H qu 3.4.2 Nu A v B l cc ma trn ca t ng cu f : V nhng c s khc nhau, th det A = det B . nh l 3.4.3 (i) det idV = 1. (ii) det(gf ) = det(g ) det(f ), (f, g 2 End(V ). Ni ring, nu f kh nghch th det(f 1 ) = (det(f ))1 . Chng minh: (i) i vi mi 2 n (V ) , ta c (idV (1 ), ..., idV (n )) = 1 (1 , ..., n ), vi mi 1 , ..., n 2 V . Do , theo nh ngha ca nh thc ca t ng cu, det(idV ) = 1. (ii) Nu 2 n (V ) , th det(gf )(1 , ..., n ) = (gf (1 ), ..., gf (n )) = det(g )(f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = det(g ) det(f )(1 , ..., n ), vi mi 1 , ..., n 2 V . Do det(gf ) = det(g ) det(f ). Nu f kh nghch th tn ti f 1 2 End(V ) sao cho f f 1 = idV . T det(f ) det(f 1 ) = det(f f 1 ) = det(idV ) = 1. H qu l det(f 1 ) = (det(f ))1 . nh l 3.4.4 T ng cu f : V 0. V l mt ng cu nu v ch nu det(f ) V trong
Chng minh: Gi s = (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct V . Gi C l ma trn ca f trong c s : (f (1 ) ... f (n )) = (1 ... n )C. Ni cch khc, C l ma trn m vct ct th j ca n l vct to ca f (j ) trong c s (1 , ..., n ).
i s tuyn tnh 105
Ta c det(f ) = det(f ) det En = det(f )det (1 , ..., n ) = det (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) = det C. Nhn xt rng, f l mt ng cu tuyn tnh nu v ch nu (f (1 ), ..., f (n )) l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh. iu ny tng ng vi s kin h vct ct ca C c lp tuyn tnh, tc l tng ng vi det C = det(f ) 0.
3.5 Cc tnh cht su hn ca nh thc Tit ny dnh nghin cu su thm cc tnh cht ca nh thc ca ma trn. nh l 3.5.1 Gi s A, B
2 M (n n, K ). Khi
(i) det(AB ) = det A det B. (ii) A kh nghch nu v ch nu det A 0. Hn na det(A1 ) = (det A)1 .
Chng minh: (i) l mt h qu ca cc nh l 3.4.2 v 3.4.3. (ii) l mt h qu ca nh l 3.4.4 v ca phn (i). nh l 3.5.2 (nh thc ca ma trn chuyn v). det(At ) = det A,
(A 2 M (n n, K ).
t sgn( )at (1)1 a (n)n
Chng minh: Gi s A = (aij )nn , At = (at ij )nn . Theo nh ngha nh thc, ta c det(At ) = =
2 Sn 2 Sn
sgn( )a1(1) an(n) .
Nu k = (j ), th j = 1 (k ), v aj(j ) = a1 (k)k . t = 1 . Bi v = id, cho nn sgn = sgn . Hn na, khi chy mt lt trn Sn th 1 cng chy mt lt trn Sn . Do det(At ) =
2Sn
sgn( )a(1)1 a(n)n (theo nh ngha).

i s tuyn tnh
= det A
106
3.5. Cc tnh cht su hn ca nh thc
Theo nh l trn, tt c cc tnh cht ca nh thc i vi cc ct ca n vn ng i vi cc hng ca n. Chng hn, nh thc l mt hm a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun ho i vi cc hng ca n... By gi ta xt bi ton tnh nh thc cp n thng qua cc nh thc cp nh hn. Cho A = (aij ) 2 M (n n, K ) v k l mt s nguyn bt k tho mn 1 k n. Xt hai b ch s 1 1 i1 j1 i2 j2

ik jk
n, n.
Cc phn t nm trn giao ca cc hng i1 , ..., ik v cc ct j1 , ..., jk ca ma trn A lp nn mt ma trn cp k (c gi l mt ma trn con cp k ca A), v nh j1 ,...,jk thc ca ma trn con , c k hiu l Di , c gi l mt nh thc con 1 ,...,ik cp k ca A. Nu xo tt c cc hng i1 , ..., ik v cc ct j1 , ..., jk th phn cn li ca ma trn A lp nn mt ma trn vung cp n k , m nh thc ca n c k hiu j1 ,...,jk j1 ,...,jk . l Di1 ,...,ik v c gi l nh thc con b ca Di 1 ,...,ik
j1 ,...,jk Ta gi (1)s(I,J ) Di1 ,...,ik l phn b i s ca Di , trong s(I, J ) = 1 ,...,ik (i1 + + ik ) + (j1 + + jk ). j1 ,...,jk
nh l 3.5.3 (Khai trin Laplace). Gi s chn ra k ct (tng ng, k hng) trong mt nh thc cp n (1 k n). Khi , nh thc cho bng tng ca tt c cc tch ca cc nh thc con cp k ly ra t k ct (tng ng, k hng) chn vi phn b i s ca chng. Ni r hn, ta c: (i) Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo k ct j1 jk : det A =
i1
j1 ,...,jk Di1 ,...,ik ; (1)s(I,J ) Di 1 ,...,ik j1 ,...,jk ik
(ii) Cng thc khai trin nh thc theo k hng i1 det A =

j1
ik :
j1 ,...,jk (1)s(I,J ) Di Di1 ,...,ik . 1 ,...,ik j1 ,...,jk jk
Chng minh: Ta s ch chng minh cng thc khai trin Laplace theo k hng. T , p dng nh l 3.5.2, ta thu c cng thc khai trin theo k ct. Trc ht, ta chng minh cng thc khai trin Laplace theo k hng c bit i1 = 1, i2 = 2, ..., ik = k . K hiu vct ct th j ca ma trn A l j . Vi mi b ch s 1 j1 jk n, ta gi j1 , ..., j l b ch s J1, 2, ..., nK Jj1, ..., jk K c xp theo
i s tuyn tnh 107
th t tng dn: 1 Xt hm sau y
j1

j
n.
j1 ,...,jk
(A) = (1 , ..., n ) =
j1
j1 ,...,jk (1)s(I,J ) D1 ,...,k D 1,...,k . jk
D thy rng l mt hm a tuyn tnh i vi 1 , ..., n . j1 ,...,jk Nu A = En (ma trn n v), th D1 ,...,k 0 nu v ch nu j1 = 1, j2 =
1,...,k 2, ..., jk = k . Khi D1 ,...,k = 1 v D 1,...,k = 1. Do , c tnh chun ho, tc l (En ) = 1. Ta s chng minh c tnh thay phin. Trc ht gi s r = r+1 . Ly mt s hng bt k trong tng xc nh j1 ,...,jk , nu jt = r, jt+1 = r + 1 th D1 ,...,k = 0; cn nu ju = r , ju+1 = r + 1 1,...,k
th D1,...,k = 0 (trong c hai trng hp, nh thc tng ng bng 0 v c hai ct bng nhau). Cc s hng cn li c ghp thnh tng cp: s hng c = r + 1 c ghp vi s hng c jt = r + 1, j = r (cc ch s jt = r, ju u khc ca hai s hng ny nh nhau). Khi , hai s hng c ghp cp c phn j1 ,...,jk j1 ,...,jk s(I,J ) D1 tri nhau (v ch ,...,k D 1,...,k bng nhau (v r = r+1 ), v c du (1) s jt ca chng tng ng bng r v r + 1). Do chng l cc phn t i nhau. Tm li, (1 , ..., n ) = 0 nu r = r+1 vi r bt k (1 r n). T , theo phng php dng chng minh H qu 3.2.3, ta c vi mi 1 , ..., n 2 K n v mi r (1 r n). By gi ta s chng minh rng c tnh thay phin, tc l (1 , ..., r , ..., s , ..., n ) = 0, nu r = s vi cp ch s r s bt k. Tht vy, ta ln lt hon v s vi s1 ri vi s2 ,... a s v v tr ca r+1 . Ta c (1 , ..., r , ..., s , ..., n ) = (1)sr1 (1 , ..., r , s , ..., n ) = 0, (1 , ..., r , r+1 , ..., n ) = (1 , ..., r+1 , r , ..., n ),
j1 ,...,jk
bi v r v s ng k nhau trong v gia. Theo H qu 3.3.6, nh thc l hm duy nht trn cc ct ca ma trn c cc tnh cht a tuyn tnh, thay phin v chun ho, cho nn det(1 , ..., n ) = (1 , ..., n ). chnh l cng thc khai trin Laplace theo k hng i1 = 1, ..., ik = k .
108 i s tuyn tnh
3.5. Cc tnh cht su hn ca nh thc
Cui cng, ta xt trng hp k hng ty I = (i1 , ..., ik ). K hiu I = (1, ..., k ). Ta ln lt hon v hng i1 vi (i1 1) hng ng trc n ( a hng i1 v hng 1 v gi nguyn v tr tng i ca cc hng cn li), ri li ln lt hon v hng i2 vi (i2 2) hng ng trc n... Cui cng, ln lt hon v hng ik vi (ik k ) hng ng trc n. Sau php bin i , cc hng i1 , ..., ik c a v cc hng 1, ..., k v v tr tng i ca cc hng cn li c gi nguyn. Ma trn A c bin i thnh ma trn A vi det A = (1)(i1 1)++(ik k) det A . Ta cng c (1)s(I,J ) = (1)(i1 ++ik )(1++k) (1)s(I ,J ) , j1 ,...,jk j1 ,...,jk Di (A) = D1 ,...,k (A ), 1 ,...,ik
j1 ,...,jk j1 ,...,jk
Di1 ,...,ik (A) = D1,...,k (A ).
Dng khai trin Laplace theo k hng 1, ..., k ca ma trn A , ta c det A = (1)(i1 1)++(ik k) det A = (1)(i1 ++ik )(1++k)
j1 j1 ,...,jk (1)s(I ,J ) D1 ,...,k (A )D 1,...,k (A ) j1 ,...,jk jk j1 ,...,jk
=
j1
j1 ,...,jk (1)s(I,J ) Di (A)Di1 ,...,ik (A). 1 ,...,ik jk
nh l c hon ton chng minh. V d: Tnh nh thc Vandermonde 1 x1 x2 1 2 1 x2 x2 Dn = . . . 1 xn x2 n

1 ... xn 1 1 ... xn 2 . ... . 1 ... xn n

Li gii: Ta lm cho hu ht cc phn t trn hng cui ca nh thc tr thnh bng khng bng cch ly ct th (n 1) nhn vi xn ri cng vo ct n, sau ly ct th (n 2) nhn vi xn ri cng vo ct (n 1),..., cui cng ly ct th nht nhn vi xn ri cng vo ct 2. Sau bin i , ta thu c 1 x1 xn x1 (x1 xn ) 1 x2 xn x2 (x2 xn ) Dn = . . . 1 xn1 xn xn1 (xn1 xn ) 1 0 0

2 ... xn 1 (x1 xn ) 2 ... xn 2 (x2 xn ) . ... . 2 (x x ) ... xn n n1 n1 ... 0

i s tuyn tnh
109
Khai trin Laplace theo hng th n, ri a cc tha s chung ca mi hng ra ngoi du nh thc, ta c 1 x1 x2 1 2 1 x x 2 2 Dn = (1)n+1 (x1 xn )(x2 xn ) (xn1 xn ) . . . 2 1 xn1 xn1 T ta thu c cng thc truy ton Dn = (xn x1 )(xn x2 ) (xn xn1 )Dn1 . Xut pht vi D1 = 1, v bng quy np s dng cng thc trn, ta c Dn =
i j

2 ... xn 1 2 ... xn 2 . ... . 2 ... xn n1

(xi xj ).
Mt ng dng quan trng ca khai trin Laplace l cng thc tnh ma trn nghch o. nh l 3.5.4 Nu ma trn vung A = (aij ) 2 M (n n, K ) c nh thc khc 0 th A kh nghch v a 11 ... a n1 1 . ... . , A1 = det A a 1n ... a nn trong a ij l phn b i s ca aij . Chng minh: K hiu ma trn ni trong nh l l B . Theo nh l Laplace v khai trin det A theo hng i, ta c Hn na, vi mi j i, xt ma trn thu c t A bng cch thay hng j bi hng i v gi nguyn cc hng khc, k c hng i. Ma trn ny c hai hng i v j u bng (ai1 , ..., ain ). Do , nh thc ca n bng 0. Khai trin Laplace nh thc ny theo hng j , ta c ai1 a j 1 + + ain a jn = 0, ai1 a i1 + + ain a in = det A,
(i.
(i j.
Kt hp hai ng thc trn, ta thu c AB = En . Tng t, bng cch p dng khai trin Laplace theo ct, ta c BA = En . Tm li, A kh nghch, v A1 = B . Trong phn sau, chng ta s gii thiu mt phng php khc tm ma trn nghch o bng cch gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh.
110 i s tuyn tnh
3.6. nh thc v hng ca ma trn
3.6 nh thc v hng ca ma trn Chng ta nh ngha hng ca mt ma trn l hng ca h vct ct ca n. nh l sau y cho php tnh hng ca ma trn thng qua nh thc. ng thi n t c s cho khng nh: hng ca ma trn cng bng hng ca h vct hng ca ma trn . nh l 3.6.1 Gi s A l mt ma trn m hng, n ct vi cc phn t trong trng K . Khi , hng ca ma trn A bng cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con khc 0 ca A. Ni r hn, rankA = r nu c mt nh thc con cp r ca A khc 0, v mi nh thc con cp r (nu c) ca A u bng 0. Chng minh: Vic i ch cc ct r rng khng lm thay i rankA. Vic i ch cc hng cng vy, bi v i ch cc hng tng ng vi vic i ch cc to ca cc vct ct trong K n , l mt ng cu tuyn tnh ca K n . Mt khc, i ch cc hng v cc ct ca A cng khng lm thay i cp cao nht ca cc nh thc con ca A. V th, cho d trnh by v khng gim tng qut, ta c th gi s nh thc con cp r gc tri trn ca A khc 0, v mi nh thc con cp (r + 1) ca A u bng 0. Khi , r ct u tin ca A c lp tuyn tnh. (Nu tri li, th nh thc cp r gc tri trn ca A bng 0.) Ta s chng minh rng ct th j ca A, k hiu j , biu th tuyn tnh qua r ct u tin, vi r j n. lm iu , vi mi i tho mn 1 i m, ta xt nh thc sau y: a11 ... a1r a1j . ... . . det ar1 ... arr arj . ai1 ... air aij nh thc ny lun bng 0. Tht vy, nu 1 i r, th nh thc c 2 hng bng nhau; cn nu r i m, th n l mt nh thc con cp (r + 1) ca A. Khai trin Laplace nh thc ny theo hng cui, v gi k l phn b i s ca aik , ta c 1 ai1 + + r air + aij = 0. y = j 0, v l nh thc con cp r gc tri trn. Lu rng 1 , ..., r , u khng ph thuc vo i. T 1 r 1 r . Theo nh ngha hng ca ma trn, rankA = r.
i s tuyn tnh 111
j =
H qu 3.6.1 Hng ca mt ma trn bng hng ca h cc vct hng ca n. Chng minh: Ta c rankA = rankAt (theo nh l 6.3.4) = Hng ca h vct ct ca At = Hng ca h vct hng ca A.
3.7 H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Quy tc Cramer Mt h thng c dng

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1 ........................................... am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = bm ,
trong aij , bi l cc phn t cho trc trong trng K , c gi l mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh gm m phng trnh vi n n x1 , ..., xn . K hiu x1 b1 . , = . . A = (aij )mn , x = . . xn bm Khi , h phng trnh ni trn c th vit di dng phng trnh vct Ax = . Mt nghim ca h ny l mt vct x0 2 K n sao cho Ax0 = . Mt h phng trnh c t nht mt nghim c gi l mt h phng trnh tng thch. H phng trnh Ax = 0 c gi l h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht lin kt vi h Ax = . Theo kinh nghim, ta cm nhn rng h phng trnh tuyn tnh Ax = c nghim duy nht nu s phng trnh ca h bng s n, v khng c phng trnh no ca h l "h qu'' ca cc phng trnh khc. iu ny c din t chnh xc trong nh ngha sau y.
nh ngha 3.7.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh Ax = c gi l mt h khng suy bin (hay mt h Cramer) nu n c s phng trnh bng s n (ni cch khc, nu A l mt ma trn vung) v nu det A 0.
112
i s tuyn tnh
3.7. H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Quy tc Cramer
nh l 3.7.1 H phng trnh tuyn tnh khng suy bin Ax = c mt nghim duy nht, c tnh bng cng thc xj = det Aj , det A (1 j n),
trong Aj l ma trn nhn c t ma trn A bng cch thay ct th j bi ct h s t do . Chng minh: V det A 0, nn A l mt ma trn kh nghch. Khi Ax = A1 Ax = A1 x = A1 .
Theo nh l 5.4, ta c
a 11 ... a n1 1 . ... . , A1 = det A a 1n ... a nn
trong a ij l phn b i s ca aij trong det A. T x = A1 c ngha l xj = 1 ( a1j b1 + a 2j b2 + + a nj bn ) det A det Aj = , (1 j n). det A
ng thc cui nhn c bng cch khai trin Laplace nh thc ca Aj theo ct th j . . V d: Gii h phng trnh sau y:

x x 2x 2x
+ y + y + y + 3y
+ 3z + 5z + 3z + 11z
+ + + +
4t 2t 2t 5t
= = = =
3
1 3 2.
Li gii: Trc ht ta tnh nh thc ca ma trn h s 1 1 det A = 2 2 0 = 1 1

1 3 1 5 1 3 3 11
1 4 0 2 = 0 2 5 0
1 0 1 1 2 2
3 2 3 5

4 2 6 3

2 3 5
2 6 3

0 2 = 0 2 1 5

2 9 3

= (1)3+1
2 9
= 2(9)2(2) = 14.
113
i s tuyn tnh
Theo quy tc Cramer, h phng trnh c nghim duy nht 1 3 1 1 5 3 1 3 2 3 11 x= det A

3
4 2 2 5 4 2 2 5

=

z=
1 1 2 2
1 3 1 1 1 3 3 2 det A
28 14 = 2,

y=

1 1 2 2
3
3 1 5 3 3 2 11 det A
4 2 2 5

14 = 1, 14
t=
1 1 2 2
1 3 1 5 1 3 3 11 det A
3
1 3 2
0 14 = 0,
14 14 = 1.
3.8 H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Phng php kh Gauss Phng php Cramer ch p dng c cho cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh khng suy bin (ni ring, cc h ny c s phng trnh bng s n). Th nhng rt nhiu h phng trnh tuyn tnh m ngi ta gp li suy bin. Phng php kh Gauss, m ta s trnh by di y, c u im l c th p dng cho h phng trnh tuyn tnh ty . Nhc im ca phng php ny l khng a ra c thng tin no v nghim ca h phng trnh trc khi gii xong h . Ni dung ca phng php kh Gauss nh sau. Ta gi hai h phng trnh l tng ng nu nghim ca h ny cng l nghim ca h kia v ngc li. Nhn xt rng nu ta p dng cc php bin i sau y, c gi l cc php bin i s cp, trn mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh, ta nhn c mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng ng vi h ban u. (1) i ch hai phng trnh ca h. (2) Nhn mt phng trnh ca h vi mt v hng khc 0 thuc trng K . (3) Cng vo mt phng trnh mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc phng trnh khc trong h. By gi ta xt mt h phng trnh tuyn tnh tng qut

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn = b1 .......................................... am1 x1 + am2 x2 + + amn xn = bm .

i s tuyn tnh
114
3.8. H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Phng php kh Gauss
Ta gi A = (aij )mn l ma trn cc h s, v a11 a12 a21 a22 A= . . am1 am2 ... a1n ... a2n ... . ... amn

b1 b2 . bm
l ma trn cc h s m rng ca h phng trnh ni trn. Gi s c mt h s no aij 0. Khng gim tng qut (nu cn, i ch cc phng trnh v nh s li cc n) ta c th coi a11 0. Khi , nhn ai1 phng trnh th nht vi ( a ) ri cng vo phng trnh th i (i = 2, ..., m), 11 ta nhn c h phng trnh tng ng c dng

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + + a1n xn a22 x2 + + a2n xn ................................. am2 x2 + + amn xn
= b1 = b2 = . = bm .
Lp li lp lun trn i vi h con gm (n 1) phng trnh cui vi cc n x2 , ..., xn . Sau mt s hu hn bc, h phng trnh Ax = c a v mt h tng ng, vi ma trn m rng c dng a 11 ... ... b 1 0 a 22 ... ... b2 . . ... ... . rr ... br , 0 0 ... a 0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 br+1 . . ... . . ... . . 0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 bm trong a ii 0 (i = 1, ..., r), v cc du k hiu cc phn t c th khc 0 trong trng K . Nu mt trong cc v hng br+1 , ..., bm khc 0, th h phng trnh v nghim. Nu br+1 = = bm = 0, th h phng trnh c nghim. Hn na, mi nghim ca h phng trnh u c th nhn c bng cch gn cho xr+1 , ..., xn nhng gi tr tu thuc trng K (nu n r), ri gii duy nht x1 , ..., xr theo nhng gi tr gn cho xr+1 , ..., xn . (C th, xr c tm t phng trnh th r,..., x1 c tm t phng trnh th nht.)
i s tuyn tnh 115
V d: Gii h phng trnh

x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 2x4 x1 + 5x2 9x3 + 8x4 2x1 + 7x2 + 3x3 + x4 5x1 + 18x2 + 4x3 + 5x4
= 3 = 1 = 5 = 12. h phng trnh trn tng = = = = = = = = 3 2 1 3 3 1 0 0
Li gii: Dng phng php kh Gauss, ta thy ng vi x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 2x4 2x2 14x3 + 10x4 x2 7x3 + 5x4 3x2 21x3 + 15x4

x1 + 3x2 + 5x3 2x4 x2 7x3 + 5x4 0x2 + 0x3 + 0x4 0x2 + 0x3 + 0x4

x1 = 6 26x3 + 17x4 x2 = 1 + 7x3 5x4 x3 , x4 tu .
Nhn xt 3.8.1 cho gn, trong qu trnh gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh, ta ch cn ghi nhn s bin i ca ma trn h s suy rng. Chng hn trong v d trn, ta ch cn vit 1 3 5 2 3 1 3 5 2 3 1 5 9 8 1 0 2 14 10 2 2 7 3 1 5 0 1 7 5 1 5 18 4 5 12 0 3 21 15 3 1 3 5 2 3 x1 = 6 26x3 + 17x4 0 1 7 5 1 x2 = 1 + 7x3 5x4 0 0 0 0 0 x3 , x4 tu . 0 0 0 0 0 Nhn xt 3.8.2 Tng ng vi cc php bin i s cp trn h phng trnh tuyn tnh l cc php bin i s cp trn ma trn. l cc php bin i thuc mt trong cc dng sau y (1) i ch hai hng (hoc hai ct) ca ma trn. (2) Nhn mt hng (hoc mt ct) ca ma trn vi mt v hng khc 0.
116 i s tuyn tnh
3.8. H phng trnh tuyn tnh - Phng php kh Gauss
(3) Cng vo mt hng (hoc mt ct) mt t hp tuyn tnh ca cc hng (tng ng: cc ct) khc. D thy rng cc php bin i s cp khng lm thay i hng ca ma trn. Nhn xt ny dn ti mt cch tnh hng ca ma trn rt c ch trong thc hnh. C th l, mi ma trn A = (aij )mn sau mt s hu hn php bin i s cp u c th a v mt ma trn dng (tam gic trn suy rng) a 11 ... ... 0 a 22 ... ... . . ... ... rr ... , 0 0 ... a 0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 . . ... . . ... . 0 0 ... 0 0 ... 0 trong a ii 0 (i = 1, ..., r), v cc du k hiu cc phn t c th khc 0 trong trng K . Bng cch trc tip dng nh ngha ca hng hoc dng nh l 6.1, ta d thy rng hng ca ma trn ni trn bng r. Nhn xt 3.8.3 Phng php kh Gauss c ng dng vo vic tm ma trn nghch o. Gi s cn tm nghch o ca ma trn A = (aij ) 2 M (n n, K ) nu nh n kh nghch. Ta xt h phng trnh
n
aij xj = yi
j =1
(i = 1, ..., n).
Khi , A kh nghch nu v ch nu h phng trnh trn c nghim vi mi v phi y1 , ..., yn . Hn na, nu nghim ca h c cho bi cng thc
n
xi =
j =1
bij yj
(i = 1, ..., n),
th ma trn nghch o ca A chnh l A1 = (bij )nn . (Cng thc biu th tng minh x1 , ..., xn qua y1 , ..., yn c th c tm bng cch dng phng php kh Gauss.) : Kn Tht vy, ta xt php bin i tuyn tnh A K n, x Ax. N c ma n trn l A trong c s chnh tc ca K . H phng trnh Ax = y c nghim l mt ng cu tuyn tnh, iu ny xy ra khi v vi mi y nu v ch nu A ch khi A kh nghch. Hn na, ta c Ax = y tng ng vi x = A1 y . Do A1 = (bij )nn .
i s tuyn tnh 117
3.9 Cu trc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh Ta xt cc h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht v khng thun nht lin kt vi nhau Ax = 0 v Ax = , trong A = (aij )mn 2 M (m n, K ), 2 K m . Nh vy, c hai h phng trnh ni trn u gm m phng trnh v n n.
nh l 3.9.1 Tp hp L tt c cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht Ax = 0 l mt khng gian vct con ca K n , c s chiu tho mn h thc dim L = n rankA. Chng minh: Ta xt nh x tuyn tnh : Kn A x K m, Ax.
l mt khng gian vct con ca K n . Hn na, v nh x R rng L = KerA c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc ca cc khng gian vct K n tuyn tnh A v K m , cho nn = dim K n dim ImA dim L = dim KerA = n rankA. nh l 3.9.2 Gi s L l khng gian vct con gm cc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht Ax = 0, v x0 l mt nghim ca h Ax = . Khi tp hp cc nghim ca h Ax = l Chng minh: y 0 l mt nghim ca h Ax = nu v ch nu y 0 x0 l mt nghim ca h Ax = 0, tc l nu v ch nu y 0 x0 2 L. Bao hm thc cui cng tng ng vi y 0 2 x0 + L.
nh ngha 3.9.1 Vi cc gi thit ca nh l trn, x0 c gi l mt nghim ring ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh khng thun nht Ax = . Cn x0 + , vi 2 L, c gi l nghim tng qut ca h phng trnh .
x0 + L = Jx0 + 2 LK.
nh l 3.9.3 (Tiu chun Kronecker - Capelli). H phng trnh tuyn tnh Ax = c nghim khi v ch khi rankA = rankA, trong a11 a12 ... a1n b 1 A= . . ... . . am1 am2 ... amn bm
118 i s tuyn tnh
3.9. Cu trc nghim ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh
l ma trn cc h s m rng ca h. Chng minh: Gi j l vct ct th j ca A, cn l vct ct t do (tc l ct cui cng ca A. Ta c rankA = rank(1 , ..., n ) rank(1 , ..., n , ) = rankA.
Du bng xy ra nu v ch nu biu th tuyn tnh qua cc vct 1 , ..., n . 0 Gi x0 1 , ..., xn l cc h s ca biu th , tc l

0 = x0 1 1 + + x n n . 0 t H thc ny tng ng vi vic x0 = (x0 1 , ..., xn ) l mt nghim ca h phng trnh Ax = .
i s tuyn tnh
119
3.10 Bi tp Thc hin cc php nhn sau y, vit cc php th thu c thnh tch ca nhng xch ri rc v tnh du ca chng. ( )( ) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 1. . 2 4 5 1 3 4 3 5 1 2 ( )( ) 1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5 2. . 3 5 4 1 2 4 3 1 5 2 3. (1, 2)(2, 3) (n, n 1). 4. (1, 2, 3)(2, 3, 4)(3, 4, 5) (n 2, n 1, n). 5. Cho hai cch sp thnh dy a1 , a2 , ..., an v b1 , b2 , ..., bn ca n s t nhin u tin. Chng minh rng c th a cch sp ny v cch sp kia bng cch s dng khng qu n 1 php th s cp. 6. Vi gi thit nh bi trn, chng minh rng c th a cch sp ny v cch sp kia bng cch s dng khng qu n(n 1)/2 php chuyn v tr ca hai phn t ng k nhau. 7. Cho v d v mt cch sp n s t nhin u tin thnh dy sao cho dy ny khng th a v dy sp t nhin bng cch dng t hn n 1 php th s cp. 8. Bit s nghch th ca dy a1 , a2 , ..., an bng k . Hy tm s nghch th ca dy an , an1 , ..., a1 . 9. Tnh cc nh thc sau y 2 3 (a) 4 3

5 4 9
4 7 8 2 5
3 5 , 5 3
3 2 (b) 5 4

3 2 5
5 5 4 4 8 5
6 . 7 6

10. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng cch a v dng tam gic: 1 1 (a) 1 . 1
120

2 0 2 . 2
3 3 0 . 3
... ... ... ... ...
n n n , . 0
i s tuyn tnh
3.10. Bi tp
a0 x (b) 0 . 0

a1 a2 ... an x 0 ... 0 x x ... 0 , . . ... . 0 0 ... x
a1 x1 0 (c) . 0

a2 a3 ... an x2 0 ... 0 x2 x3 ... 0 . . . ... . 0 0 ... xn
11. Tnh nh thc ca ma trn vung cp n vi phn t nm hng i ct j bng i j . 12. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng phng php rt ra cc nhn t tuyn tnh: 1 2 3 1 x+1 3 (a) 1 2 x+1 . . . 1 2 3

... n ... n ... n , ... . ... x + 1
1+x 1 1 1 1 1x 1 1 . (b) 1 1 1+y 1 1 1 1 1y

13. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng cch s dng cc quan h hi qui: a1 b1 a1 b2 (a) a1 b3 . a1 bn

a1 b2 a2 b2 a2 b3 . a2 bn
a1 b3 a2 b3 a3 b3 . a3 bn
... ... ... ... ...
a1 bn a2 bn a3 bn , . an bn
a0 y 1 (b) 0 . 0

a1 a2 ... an x1 0 ... 0 y2 x2 ... 0 . . . ... . 0 0 ... xn
14. Tnh cc nh thc sau y bng cch biu din chng thnh tng ca cc nh thc no : x + a1 a2 a3 a1 x + a2 a3 (a) a1 a2 x + a3 . . . a1 a2 a3 Tnh cc nh thc sau y:

... an ... an ... an , ... . ... x + an
x1 a1 (b) a1 . a1

a2 x2 a2 . a2
a3 a3 x3 . a3
... ... ... ... ...
an an an . . xn
15.
a1 x1 x2 1 a2 x2 x2 2 . . . an xn x2 n
1 ... xn 1 1 ... xn 2 . ... . n1 ... xn

i s tuyn tnh
121

3 1 x2 1 x1 3 1 x2 2 x2 16. (a) . . . 3 1 x2 n xn
... xn 1 ... xn 2 , ... . ... xn n
1 x1 x2 1 1 x2 x2 2 (b) . . . 1 xn x2 n

1 xs+1 ... xs 1 1 +1 s1 ... x2 xs 2 ... . . 1 xs+1 ... xs n n

... xn 1 ... xn 2 . ... . ... xn n
17.
1 x1 (x1 1) x2 1 (x1 1) 1 x2 (x2 1) x2 2 (x2 1) . . . 2 1 xn (xn 1) xn (xn 1) 1 + x1 1 + x2 1 1 + x2 1 + x2 2 . . 1 + xn 1 + x2 n
1 ... xn 1 (x1 1) n1 ... x2 (x2 1) . ... . n1 ... xn (xn 1)

18.

... 1 + xn 1 n ... 1 + x2 . ... . ... 1 + xn n
19.

1 cos 1 cos 21 1 cos 2 cos 22 . . . 1 cos n cos 2n x1 y1 1 + x1 y2 1 + x2 y1 x2 y2 . . 1 + xn y1 1 + xn y2
... cos(n 1)1 ... cos(n 1)2 . ... . ... cos(n 1)n

20.

... 1 + x1 yn ... 1 + x2 yn . ... . ... x n yn
21. Dy Fibonacci l dy s bt u vi cc s hng 1, 2 v mi s hng, k t s hng th ba, u bng tng ca hai s hng ng ngay trc n. Chng minh rng s hng th n ca dy Fibonacci bng nh thc cp n sau y:

1 1 0 . 0
1 1 1 . 0
0 1 1 . 0
0 0 1 . 0
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 . 1
0 0 0 . . 1

22.

(a1 + b1 )1 (a1 + b2 )1 (a2 + b1 )1 (a2 + b2 )1 . . 1 (an + b1 ) (an + b2 )1
... (a1 + bn )1 ... (a2 + bn )1 . ... . 1 ... (an + bn )

i s tuyn tnh
122
3.10. Bi tp
23. Tnh nh thc sau y bng cch vit n thnh tch ca hai nh thc:

s0 s1 s2 s1 s2 s3 s2 s3 s4 . . . sn sn+1 sn+2
... sn1 ... sn ... sn+1 ... . ... s2n1
1 x , x2 . xn
k k trong sk = xk 1 + x2 + + xn .
24. Chng minh rng

a1 an an1 . a2
a2 a1 an . a3
a3 a2 a1 . a4
... an ... an1 ... an2 = f (1 )f (2 ) f (n ), ... . ... a1
trong f (X ) = a1 + a2 X + + an X n1 v 1 , 2 , ..., n l cc cn bc n khc nhau ca 1. 25. Dng khai trin Laplace chng minh rng nu mt nh thc cp n c cc phn t nm trn giao ca k hng v ct xc nh no u bng 0, trong k + n, th nh thc bng 0. 26. Gii h phng trnh sau y bng phng php Cramer v phng php kh: 3x1 + 4x2 + x3 + 2x4 + 3 3x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 + 5x4 + 6 6x1 + 8x2 + x3 + 5x4 + 8 3x1 + 5x2 + 3x3 + 7x4 + 8 = = = = 0, 0, 0, 0.
27. Chng minh rng mt a thc bc n trong K [X ] c hon ton xc nh bi gi tr ca n ti (n + 1) im khc nhau ca trng K . Tm v d v hai a thc khc nhau cng bc n nhn cc gi tr bng nhau ti mi im ca K , nu s phn t ca K khng vt qu n. Gii cc h phng trnh sau y bng phng php thch hp: 28. ax + by + cz + dt bx + ay + dz ct cx dy + az + bt dx + cy bz + at = = = = p, q, r, s.
123
i s tuyn tnh
29.
30. t sn (k ) = 1n + 2n + + (k 1)n . Hy thit lp phng trnh

n1 1 k n = 1 + Cn sn1 (k ) + + Cn s1 (k ) + s0 (k )
n1 n xn + a1 xn1 + a2 1 an2 + + a1 x1 + a1 n1 n xn + a2 xn1 + a2 2 an2 + + a2 x1 + a2 ................................................................ n1 n xn + an xn1 + a2 n an2 + + an x1 + an
= = . =
0, 0, . 0.
v chng minh rng

n2 n3 k n Cn Cn n2 n3 k n1 Cn 1 Cn1 n3 1 k n2 0 Cn 2 sn1 (k ) = . . . n! 2 k 0 0 k 0 0

1 ... Cn 1 ... Cn 1 1 ... Cn 2 ... . 1 ... C2 ... 0
1 1 1 . . 1 1
(1)n1 Bn 2 3 31. Xt khai trin exx = 1 + b x + b x + b x + . Ta t b = 1 2 3 2 n 1 (2n)! , trong Bn c gi l s Bernoulli th n. Chng minh rng

Bn = (1)n1 (2n)!
1 2! 1 3! 1 4!
1
1 2! 1 3!
0 1
1 2!
.
1 (2n+1)!
.
1 (2n)!
.
1 (2n1)!
0 0 1 .
1 (2n2)!
... ... ... ... ...

0 0 0 , .
1 2!

v ch ra rng

b2n1 =
1 2! 1 3! 1 4!
1
1 2! 1 3!
0 1
1 2!
.
1 (2n)!
.
1 (2n1)!
.
1 (2n2)!
0 0 1 .
1 (2n3)!
... ... ... ... ...
0 0 0 .
1 2!
=0
vi mi n
1. ex = 1 a1 x + a2 x2 a3 x3 + ,
32. Din t h s an trong khai trin
nh mt nh thc cp n, t tnh nh thc thu c. 33. Khng dng ma trn, hy chng minh trc tip rng det(f ) = det(f ), trong f l ng cu i ngu ca f , vi mi t ng cu f : V V.
124 i s tuyn tnh
3.10. Bi tp
34. Tnh hng ca cc ma trn sau y bng phng php bin i s cp v phng php dng nh thc con: 3 1 3 2 5 2 1 3 2 4 5 3 2 3 4 (b) (a) 4 2 5 1 7 , 1 3 5 0 7 . 2 1 1 8 2 7 5 1 4 1 35. Tm gi tr ca sao cho ma trn sau y c hng thp nht 3 1 1 4 4 10 1 1 7 17 3 . 2 2 4 3 36. Tm hng ca ma trn sau y nh mt hm ph thuc : 1 1 2 2 1 5 . 1 10 6 1 37. Chng minh rng nu hng ca mt ma trn bng r th mi nh thc con nm trn giao ca bt k r hng c lp tuyn tnh v r ct c lp tuyn tnh ca ma trn u khc 0. l ma trn ph hp (gm 38. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n 1 v A nh nhng phn b i s ca cc phn t) ca A. Hy xc nh rankA mt hm ca rankA. 39. Chng minh rng nu cc vct i = (ai1 , ai2 , ..., ain ) 2 R n tho mn iu kin ajj
ij
(i = 1, 2, ..., s; s
n),
aij , th chng c lp tuyn tnh.
40. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn cng s hng v s ct th rank(A + B ) rank(A) + rank(B ).
41. Chng minh rng mi ma trn c hng r c th vit thnh tng ca r ma trn c hng 1, nhng khng th vit thnh tng ca mt s t hn r ma trn c hng 1. 42. Chng minh cho cc ma trn vung cp n bt k A v B : rank(A) + rank(B ) n
i s tuyn tnh
rank(AB )
minJrank(A), rank(B )K.

125
43. Chng minh rng nu A l mt ma trn vung cp n sao cho A2 = E , th rank(A + E ) + rank(A E ) = n. 44. Tm ma trn nghch o ca cc ma trn sau y bng phng php nh thc v phng php bin i s cp: 1 2 1 2 0 1 3 3 8 0 4 (a) 2 3 5 , (b) 2 2 4 3 . 3 5 7 3 8 1 6 Nghin cu tnh tng thch ca cc h phng trnh sau, tm mt nghim ring v nghim tng qut ca chng: 45. 3x 2y + 5z + 4t = 2, 6x 4y + 4z + 3t = 3, 9x 6y + 3z + 2t = 4. 8x + 6 y + 5 z + 2 t 3x + 3 y + 2 z + t 4x + 2 y + 3 z + t 3x + 5 y + z + t 7x + 4 y + 5 z + 2 t = = = = = 21, 10, 8, 15, 18.
46.
126
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 4
Cu trc ca t ng cu
c ch ca chng ny l tm cho mi t ng cu (trong trng hp c th c) mt c s ca khng gian, sao cho trong c s t ng cu c ma trn n gin, c th l cng gn ma trn cho cng tt. . . . .
4.1 Vct ring v gi tr ring Gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K , v f : V V l mt t ng cu ca V . Vic nghin cu f trn ton khng gian V i khi gp kh khn, v V qu ln. Ngi ta mun trnh iu bng cch hn ch f ln mt s khng gian con no U ca V . Nhng cho hn ch vn cn l mt t ng cu ca U th khng gian con ny phi c tnh cht c bit ni trong nh ngha sau y.
nh ngha 4.1.1 Khng gian vct con U ca V c gi l mt khng gian con n nh i vi f (hay mt khng gian con f -n nh) nu f (U ) P U .
i khi ngi ta cng ni cho gn rng U l mt khng gian con n nh, nu f r. Mt s ti liu dng thut ng khng gian con bt bin trong trng hp ny. Chng ti cho rng thut ng khng gian con n nh chnh xc hn. Cn thut ng khng gian con bt bin i vi f dng ch khng gian con sau y: V f := Jv i vi t ng cu f : V f -n nh: J0K, V, Kerf, Imf .
2V
f (v ) = v K.
V bt k, cc khng gian con sau y u l
127
Chng 4. Cu trc ca t ng cu
Nu may mn c cc khng gian con f -n nh U1 v U2 sao cho V = U1 < U2 , th f1 = f U1 v f2 = f U2 u l cc t ng cu. Mi vct v 2 V c th vit duy nht di dng v = u1 + u2 , trong u1 2 U1 , u2 2 U2 , v f (v ) = f (u1 ) + f (u2 ). Khi vic nghin cu t ng cu f trn V c th qui v vic nghin cu cc t ng cu fi ca Ui (i = 1, 2). Ni r hn, nu f1 c ma trn A trong c s (e1 , ..., em ) ca U1 , v f2 c ma trn B trong c s (em+1 , ..., en ) ca U2 , th f c ma trn A 0 0 B trong c s (e1 , ..., em , em+1 , ..., en ) ca V . Nh th, det f = det f1 det f2 . Ni ring, f l mt ng cu tuyn tnh nu v ch nu f1 v f2 cng l cc ng cu tuyn tnh. Tuy vy, mt khng gian con n nh ni chung khng c phn b tuyn tnh cng l mt khng gian con n nh. Sau y l mt v d. Gi s V l mt khng gian vct 2 chiu trn K vi mt c s gm hai vct v . T ng cu f : V V c xc nh bi f () = 0, f ( ) = . Khi U = L() l khng gian con f -n nh mt chiu duy nht ca V . c gi hy t chng minh iu ny xem nh mt bi tp. Mt cu hi c t ra l lm th no tm cc khng gian con n nh i vi mt t ng cu cho? ng tic l khng c mt phng php chung no lm iu trong trng hp tng qut. Sau y ta s xt mt trng hp ring c bit th v, c nhiu ng dng trong Vt l v C hc. l trng hp cc khng gian con n nh mt chiu. Gi s L l mt khng gian con f -n nh mt chiu. Gi s 2 L l mt vct khc 0. Khi () l mt c s ca L. V f (L) P L, cho nn c mt v hng 2 K sao cho f () = . Ngc li, nu c mt vct 0 v mt v hng 2 K sao cho f () = , th L = L() l mt khng gian con f -n nh mt chiu. Ta i ti nh ngha sau y. Nh vy vic tm cc khng gian con n nh mt chiu tung ng vi vic tm cc vct ring.
128 i s tuyn tnh
4.1. Vct ring v gi tr ring
nh ngha 4.1.2 Gi s f l mt t ng cu ca K -khng gian vct V . Nu c vct 0 v v hng 2 K sao cho f () = , th c gi l mt gi tr ring ca f cn c gi l mt vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring . nh ngha 4.1.3 Gi s l mt gi tr ring ca t ng cu f : V V . Khng gian vct Ker(f idV ) gm vct 0 v tt c cc vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring c gi l khng gian con ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring .
Nhn xt rng cc vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring cng vi vct 0 lp nn khng gian vct con Ker(f idV ). Vn t ra l lm th no tm cc vct ring v cc gi tr ring ca mt t ng cu? Nhn xt rng l mt gi tr ring ca f nu v ch nu Ker(f idV ) J0K. iu ny tng ng vi det(f idV ) = 0. Ni cch khc, l mt nghim ca a thc det(f XidV ) vi n X . V sao ta c th khng nh det(f XidV ) l mt a thc ca X ? Gi s s chiu ca V bng n, v f c ma trn l A trong mt c s no (e1 , ..., en ) ca V . Khi ng cu (f XidV ) c ma trn l (A XEn ) trong c s ni trn. V th det(f XidV ) = det(A XEn ). Nu A = (aij )nn , th a11 X a12 a21 a22 X det(A XEn ) = . . an1 an2

... a1n ... a2n ... . ... ann X
r rng l mt a thc bc n ca n X .
nh ngha 4.1.4 a thc bc n ca mt n X vi h s trong K Pf (X ) = det(f c gi l a thc c trng ca t ng cu f . a thc bc n ca mt n X vi h s trong K PA (X ) = det(A XEn ) c gi l a thc c trng ca ma trn A. Nghim ca a thc ny c gi l gi tr ring ca A.
XidV )
Nhng lp lun trn chng minh mnh sau y:

i s tuyn tnh 129
Mnh 4.1.5 V hng 2 K l mt gi tr ring ca t ng cu f : V V nu v ch nu l mt nghim ca a thc c trng det(f XidV ) = det(A XEn ) ca f .
Trong thc hnh, tm gi tr ring v vct ring ca mt t ng cu f ngi ta lm nh sau: Bc 1: Tm ma trn A ca f trong mt c s tu (e1 , ..., en ) ca V . Bc 2: Tnh a thc c trng det(A XEn ). Bc 3: Gii phng trnh a thc bc n i vi n X : det(A XEn ) = 0. Bc 4: Gi s l mt nghim ca phng trnh . Gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht suy bin

(a11 )x1 a21 x1 . an1 x1
+ a12 x2 + (a22 )x2 . . + an2 x2
+ + . +
... a1 n xn ... a2 n xn ... . ... (ann )xn
= = . =
0 0 . 0.
0 t Gi s x0 = (x0 1 , ..., xn ) l mt nghim khng tm thng ca h ny. Khi , 0 = x0 1 e1 + + xn en l mt vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring . V d: T ng cu f ca khng gian vct thc 3 chiu V c ma trn l 4 5 2 A = 5 7 3 6 9 4
trong c s (e1 , e2 , e3 ). Hy tm cc gi tr ring v cc vct ring ca f . Li gii: a thc c trng ca f l

4X 5 6
5 2 7 X 3 9 4 X

= X 2 ( X
1).
Vy f c cc gi tr ring l 1 = 2 = 0, 3 = 1. Vi 1 = 2 = 0, h phng trnh 4x 5y + 2z = 0 5x 7y + 3z = 0 6x 9y + 4z = 0
c nghim khng tm thng x = a, y = 2a, z = 3a trong a 0. Vy a(e1 + 2e2 + 3e3 ) vi a 0 l vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring bng 0.
130 i s tuyn tnh
4.2. Khng gian con n nh ca cc t ng cu thc v phc
Vi 3 = 1, h phng trnh

3x 5y + 2z = 0 5x 8y + 3z = 0 6x 9y + 3z = 0
c nghim khng tm thng x = a, y = a, z = a trong a 0. Vy a(e1 + e2 + e3 ) vi a 0 l vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring bng 1. Trong thut ton 4 bc tm vct ring v gi tr ring ni trn, bc 3 l kh hn c. Ni chung, ta khng bit phng trnh det(A XEn ) = 0 c nghim hay khng, v nu c th tm bng cch no.
Mnh 4.1.6 Gi s U l mt khng gian vct con n nh i vi t ng cu f : V V. Gi f : V /U V /U , f [] = [f ()] l ng cu cm sinh bi f . Khi , a thc c trng . ca f bng tch cc a thc c trng ca f U v ca f
Chng minh: Chn mt c s bt k (e1 , ..., em ) ca U ri b sung n nhn c mt c s (e1 , ..., em , ..., en ) ca V . V U l mt khng gian con n nh i vi f cho nn ma trn ca f trong c s ni trn c dng ( ) B C A= , 0 D trong B l ma trn ca f U trong c s (e1 , ..., em ). V [e1 ] = = [em ] = 0 trong c s ([em+1 ], ..., [en ]). R trong V /U cho nn D chnh l ma trn ca f rng det(A XEn ) = det(B XEm ) det(D XEnm ). Ni cch khc, ta c Pf (X ) = Pf U (X )Pf(X ).
4.2 Khng gian con n nh ca cc t ng cu thc v phc Trong tit ny, ta s xt hai trng hp c bit, trong K l trng s thc hay trng s phc, c thm nhng thng tin b sung v nghim ca cc a thc vi h s trong nhng trng y. V mi a thc h s phc u c nghim phc, nn ta c nh l sau y. nh l 4.2.1 Mi t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct phc u c t nht mt gi tr ring, v do c t nht mt khng gian con n nh mt chiu.
i s tuyn tnh 131
Chng minh: Gi s t ng cu f : V V ca khng gian vct phc V c ma trn l A trong mt c s no (e1 , ..., en ) ca V . V C l mt trng ng i s nn phng trnh a thc vi h s phc Pf (X ) = det(A XEn ) = 0 c t nht mt nghim phc, k hiu l . Xt h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht (A En )x = 0, trong x l mt n vct ct gm n thnh phn phc. V det(A En ) = 0 nn h ni trn c nghim khng tm thng n 0 t 0 n x0 = (x0 1 , ..., xn ) 2 C . Khi = i=1 xi ei l mt vct ring ng vi gi tr ring . Cc a thc h s thc c th khng c nghim thc, nhng lun lun c nghim phc. iu l c s ca nh l sau y. nh l 4.2.2 Mi t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct thc u c t nht mt khng gian con n nh mt hoc hai chiu. Chng minh: Gi s V l mt khng gian vct thc, v t ng cu f : V V c ma trn l A = (akj ) trong mt c s no (e1 , ..., en ) ca V . Khi a thc c trng Pf (X ) = det(A XEn ) l mt a thc vi h s thc. Nu phng trnh det(A XEn ) = 0 c mt nghim thc th f c vct ring, do n c khng gian con n nh mt chiu. Tri li, gi s phng trnh det(A XEn ) = 0 khng c nghim thc. Gi = a + ib l mt nghim phc khng thc ca n, y i l n v o, a, b 2 R , b 0. Ta xt h phng trnh tuyn tnh thun nht suy bin h s phc (A En )z = 0,
0 0 t trong z l mt n vct ct gm n thnh phn. Gi z 0 = (z1 , ..., zn ) 2 C n l 0 0 mt nghim khng tm thng ca h . Gi s zj = x0 j + iyj , (j = 1, 2, ..., n). Ta c n 0 j =1 akj zj n 0 0 j =1 akj (xj + iyj )

0 = zk 0 = (x0 k + iyk ) (k = 1, ..., n)
0 0 akj x0 j = axk byk 0 0 0 j akj yj = bxk + ayk . n 0 j =1 yj ej

t =
n 0 j =1 xj ej ,
f () f ( ) = b + a .
2 V . Cc h thc trn tng ng vi = a b
Ngha l L = L(, ) l mt khng gian con n nh ca f . Ta khng nh rng dim L(, ) = 2. Gi s tri li dim L(, ) 2. V z 0 0, cho nn hoc
132 i s tuyn tnh
4.3. T ng cu cho ho c
0 hoc 0. Do dim L(, ) = 1. Nh th L l mt khng gian con f -n nh mt chiu, ni cch khc f c mt gi tr ring thc. iu ny mu thun vi gi thit phng trnh c trng det(A XEn ) = 0 khng c nghim thc.
Mnh 4.2.1 Mi t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct thc s chiu l u c t nht mt khng gian con n nh mt chiu.
Chng minh: Nu khng gian vct V c s chiu n l, th a thc c trng Pf (X ) ca mi t ng cu f cng c bc l, c th l bng n. Do a thc ny c t nht mt nghim thc. Tht vy, gi s tri li Pf (X ) khng c mt nghim thc no. Nhn xt rng nu z = a + ib l mt nghim ca Pf (X ) th lin hp phc ca n z = a ib cng vy. Hai nghim ny phn bit, v z khng l mt s thc. Nh vy, n nghim phc ca Pf (X ) c ghp thnh tng cp lin hp vi nhau. V th n l mt s chn. iu ny mu thun vi gi thit. Ta chng minh a thc c trng Pf (X ) c t nht mt nghim thc. Vy f c t nht mt gi tr ring thc. Do , n c t nht mt khng gian con n nh mt chiu. V d: Php quay mt phng R 2 xung quanh gc ta mt gc c ma trn trong c s chnh tc l ( ) cos sin A= . sin cos a thc c trng ca php quay ny l

cos X sin = (cos X )2 + sin2 = X 2 2 cos X + 1. sin cos X

Bit thc = cos2 1 = sin2 0 nu k . V th, php quay mt phng R 2 xung quanh gc ta mt gc khng c vct ring nu k . Tuy nhin, nu ta xt t ng cu f ca C 2 cng c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc, th a thc c trng ca f cng l a thc ni )Vy f c hai ( trn. 1 gi tr ring phc l 1,2 = cos i sin . D thy rng i l cc vct ring ca f ng vi cc gi tr ring ni trn.
4.3 T ng cu cho ho c Chng ta vn gi s V l mt khng gian vct trn trng K .

i s tuyn tnh 133
nh ngha 4.3.1 T ng cu f ca khng gian vct V c gi l cho ho c nu c mt c s ca V gm ton nhng vct ring ca f . Ni cch khc, f cho ho c nu ma trn ca n trong mt c s no ca V l mt ma trn cho.
Gi A 2 M (n n, K ) l ma trn ca f trong mt c s bt k ca V . T nh ngha ta suy ngay ra rng f l cho ho c nu v ch nu c mt ma trn kh nghch C 2 M (n n, K ) sao cho C 1 AC l mt ma trn cho. Ni cch khc, f l cho ho c nu v ch nu A ng dng (trn K ) vi mt ma trn cho.
nh ngha 4.3.2 Ma trn A 2 M (n n, K ) ng dng (trn K ) vi mt ma trn cho c gi l cho ho c (trn K ).
Theo nh ngha, A cho ho c nu v ch nu mi ma trn ng dng vi n cng cho ho c. Vic tm mt c s (nu c) ca V gm ton nhng vct ring ca f c gi l vic cho ho t ng cu f . Vic tm mt ma trn kh nghch C (nu c) sao cho C 1 AC l mt ma trn cho c gi l vic cho ho ma trn A. nh l sau y s cho mt iu kin cho s cho ho. nh l 4.3.1 Gi s 1 , ..., k l cc vct ring ca t ng cu f : V V ng vi nhng gi tr ring i mt khc nhau 1 , ..., k . Khi , cc vct 1 , ..., k c lp tuyn tnh. Chng minh: nh l c chng minh bng quy np theo k . Vi k = 1, vct ring 1 0, nn h ch gm mt vct 1 c lp tuyn tnh. Gi s quy np rng nh l c chng minh cho h gm k 1 vct. By gi ta gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh
trong a1 , ..., ak
2 K . Tc ng f vo hai v ca ng thc trn, ta nhn c a1 f (1 ) + + ak f (k ) = a1 1 1 + + ak k k = 0.

a1 (1 k )1 + + ak1 (k1 k )k1 = 0.
a1 1 + + ak k = 0,
Nhn ng thc th nht vi k ri tr vo ng thc th hai, ta c
Theo gi thit quy np, cc vct 1 , ..., k1 c lp tuyn tnh, cho nn a1 (1 k ) = = ak1 (k1 k ) = 0.
134
i s tuyn tnh
4.3. T ng cu cho ho c
T , do i k
0 (i = 1, ..., k 1), nn a1 = = ak1 = 0.
Thay cc gi tr vo ng thc u tin, ta thu c ak k = 0. V vct ring k 0, nn ak = 0. Tm li a1 = = ak1 = ak = 0. iu ny chng t h vct 1 , ..., k l mt h c lp tuyn tnh. H qu 4.3.3 Gi s V1 , ..., Vk l cc khng gian con ring ca t ng cu f :V V ng vi nhng gi tr ring i mt khc nhau 1 , ..., k . Khi , tng V1 + + Vk l mt tng trc tip. Chng minh: Theo nh l trn Vi : (
j i
Vj ) = J0K,
vi mi i = 1, ..., k . Vy, tng V1 + + Vk l mt tng trc tip. H qu 4.3.4 (i) Nu dim V = n v t ng cu f : V i mt khc nhau, th f cho ho c. V c n gi tr ring
(ii) Nu ma trn A 2 M (n n, K ) c n gi tr ring i mt khc nhau trong K , th A cho ho c trn K . Chng minh: Gi 1 , ..., n l h gm n vct ring ng vi n gi tr ring i mt khc nhau ca f . Theo nh l trn, l mt h c lp tuyn tnh. V dim V ng bng s vct ca h, cho nn h ny lp nn mt c s ca V . Nh vy f v ma trn ca n trong c s bt k ca V cho ho c. Nhn xt: H qu ni trn ch nu mt iu kin , m khng phi l iu kin cn cho s cho ho. Tht vy, t ng cu f = idV c gi tr ring = 1 vi bi n, nhng idV ng nhin cho ho c. nh l sau y l mt thi cc khc ca iu kin cho s cho ho. N ch ra rng mi php chiu ln mt khng gian con no u cho ho c, mc d cc php chiu ny ch c th c cc gi tr ring bng 0 hoc 1, thng l vi bi rt ln. nh l ny cng ng thi cho mt tiu chun nhn bit cc php chiu. nh l 4.3.2 Gi s t ng cu f : V cho ho c. V c tnh cht f 2 = f . Khi f
Chng minh: t U = Imf v W = Kerf . Ta s chng minh rng V = U <W v f = prU l php chiu t V ln U theo phng W . Trc ht, nhc li rng
i s tuyn tnh 135
U v W l cc khng gian con f -n nh. Gi s 2 U : W . V 2 W , nn f () = 0. Mt khc 2 U = Imf , nn = f ( ) vi no thuc V . Ta c f () = f (f ( )) = f 2 ( ) = f ( ) = . Kt hp hai s kin trn, ta c = f () = 0. Vy U : W = J0K. Mi vct 2 V u c th phn tch = f ( ) + ( f ( )), trong f ( ) 2 U v f ( ) 2 W . Thy vy, f ( f ( )) = f ( ) f 2 ( ) = f ( ) f ( ) = 0. Tm li, ta chng minh rng V = U < W . Gi s (e1 , ..., em ) l mt c s ca U , ( y m = 0 nu U = J0K). Trong phn trn ta ch ra rng f U = idU . V th cc vct e1 , ..., em u l vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring bng 1. Gi s (em+1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca W , ( y n m = 0 nu W = J0K). V W = Kerf , nn cc vct em+1 , ..., en u l vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring bng 0. Bi v V = U < W , cho nn (e1 , ..., em , em+1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca V gm ton nhng vct ring ca f . iu ny c ngha l f cho ho c. nh l sau y a ra iu kin cn v cho s cho ho. nh l 4.3.3 T ng cu f ca K -khng gian vct n chiu V cho ho c nu v ch nu hai iu kin sau y c tho mn: (i) a thc c trng ca f c nghim trong trng K : Pf (X ) = (1)n (X
1)s (X m)s
1
trong 1 , ..., m l cc v hng i mt khc nhau trong K . (ii) rank(f
iidV ) = n si (vi i = 1, ..., m).
Chng minh: Gi s f cho ho c. C th hn, gi s ma trn ca f trong mt c s no ca V l mt ma trn cho D vi s1 phn t trn ng cho bng 1 ,..., sm phn t trn ng cho bng m , trong 1 , ..., m i mt khc nhau, v n = s1 + + sm . Khi Pf (X ) = PD (X ) = (1 X )s1 (m X )sm = (1)n (X 1 )s1 (X m )sm .
136 i s tuyn tnh
4.4. T ng cu ly linh
Nhn xt rng ma trn (D i En ) l mt ma trn cho, vi si phn t trn ng cho bng i i = 0, cc phn t cn li bng j i 0 (vi j i no ). V th rank(f
iidV ) = rank(D iEn) = n si,
vi i = 1, ..., m. Ngc li, gi s cc iu kin (i) v (ii) c tho mn. Xt khng gian con ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring i : Vi = Ker(f i idV ) (i = 1, ..., m). Ta c
iidV ) = n rank(f iidV ) = si. Theo H qu 4.3.3, tng V1 + + Vm l mt tng trc tip, vi s chiu bng s1 + + sm = n. Vy tng bng ton b khng gian V : V = V1 < V2 < < Vm .
dim Vi = dim Ker(f Ly mt c s bt k (ei1 , ..., eisi ) ca Vi (vi i = 1, ..., m). Khi (e11 , ..., e1s1 , ..., em1 , ..., emsm ) l mt c s ca V gm ton nhng vct ring ca f . Nh vy f cho ho c.
4.4 T ng cu ly linh Khng phi bt k t ng cu no cng cho ho c. Tuy th, vi nhng gi thit nh, ngi ta c th a ma trn ca mt t ng cu v mt dng rt gn vi dng cho, c gi l dng chun tc Jordan. i vi mi t ng cu, dng ny c xc nh duy nht, sai km th t ca cc khi khc 0 trn ng cho. Cho f : V V l mt t ng cu ca V . Gi s ta c phn tch V = V1 < < Vr , trong mi Vi l mt khng gian con f -n nh. Gi s thm rng t ng cu f Vi c ma trn l Ji trong c s (ei1 , ..., eisi ) ca Vi . Khi , ma trn ca f trong c s (e11 , ..., e1s1 , ..., er1 , ..., ersr ) ca V c dng (ng) cho khi sau y, c gi l tng trc tip ca cc ma trn J1 , ..., Jr : J1 0 ... 0 . . ... 0 J2 ... 0 J1 < < Jr := . . ... . ... . . . . . 0 0 ... Jr
i s tuyn tnh 137
Trong tit ny, chng ta s nghin cu mt lp cc t ng cu f m ma trn ca n trong mt c s no c dng cho khi nh trn, vi cc khi Ji tht "n gin''. l lp cc t ng cu lu linh.
nh ngha 4.4.1 (i) T ng cu ca K -khng gian vct V c gi l ly linh nu c s nguyn dng k sao cho k = 0. Nu thm vo k1 0, th k c gi l ca . (ii) C s (e1 , ..., en ) ca V c gi l mt c s xyclic i vi nu (e1 ) = e2 , (e2 ) = e3 , ..., (en ) = 0. (iii) Khng gian vct con U ca V c gi l mt khng gian con xyclic i vi nu U c mt c s xyclic i vi .
Nhn xt rng mi t ng cu lu linh u c gi tr ring duy nht bng 0. Tht vy, gi s c bc lu linh bng k . Theo nh ngha, tn ti vct sao cho k1 () 0 v k () = 0. Nh th = k1 () chnh l mt vct ring ca ng vi gi tr ring bng 0. Ngc li, gi s l mt vct ring ca ng vi gi tr ring . Ta c () = , do k () = k . V k l bc lu linh ca nn k = 0. Do k = 0. V l mt vct ring, nn 0. T suy ra = 0. Hn na, (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s xyclic i vi nu v ch nu ma trn ca trong c s ny c dng 0 0 0 ... 0 0 1 0 0 ... 0 0 0 1 0 ... 0 0 . . . ... . . . 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 0 0 ... 1 0 nh l 4.4.1 Gi s l mt t ng cu ly linh ca khng gian vct hu hn chiu V . Khi , V phn tch c thnh tng trc tip ca cc khng gian con xyclic i vi . Hn na, vi mi s nguyn dng s, s khng gian con s chiu xyclic i vi trong mi phn tch nh th l khng i, v bng rank(s1 ) 2rank(s ) + rank(s+1 ). Chng minh: Gi k l bc ly linh ca . t Vi = ki (V ), ta thu c dy khng gian vct lng nhau: V = Vk
Q Vk1 Q Q V1 Q V0 = J0K.
j i k c cc tnh cht
Ta s xy dng cc khng gian vct con Vij vi 1 sau y:

138
i s tuyn tnh
4.4. T ng cu ly linh
(1) Vnj : Vnj (3) Vn = <1
(2) Ker( Vn ) = V11 < V22 < < Vnn (1

j j i n Vi
Vnj1 (n
1, j = 1, 2, ..., n 1), n k ),
(1
k ).
Ta t V11 = V1 v d dng kim tra li 3 tnh cht trn vi n = 1. Gi s xy dng c cc khng gian Vij vi 1 j i n tho mn cc tnh cht ni trn. V Vn : Vn Vn1 l mt ton nh, nn c th chn n1 1 cc khng gian Vn , ..., Vn sao cho Vnj : Vnj
Vnj1 , (j = 1, ..., n 1).
Tip theo, ta chn Vnn l mt phn b tuyn tnh ca Ker( Vn1 ) trong Ker( Vn ). Nh vy, ta c Ker( Vn ) = Ker( Vn1 ) < Vnn = V11 < V22 < < Vnn . Khi , c th chng minh ng thc sau bng quy np theo n: ( 1 j ) ( j) V n = <n V < < V 1 j i n j =1 n i < Ker ( Vn ). Kt hp hai ng thc trn ta thu c Vn = < 1 Nh vy h khng gian con Vij vi 1 np theo i. Xt dy cc khng gian vct Vkj
j j i n Vi .
k c xy dng bng quy
Vkj1
Vjj+1
Vjj
0,
trong cc mi tn u ch cc hn ch ca ng cu . Nhn xt rng mi vct e 0 trong Vkj c t tng ng vi mt khng gian con xyclic (k j + 1) chiu i vi , vi mt c s xyclic gm cc vct sau y: (e, (e), ..., kj (e)). Nh th Vkj < Vkj1 < < Vjj l tng trc tip ca mt s hu hn khng gian con xyclic (k j + 1) chiu i vi . (S khng gian trong tng ny bng dim Vkj .) Do j j j V = V k = <k j =1 (Vk < Vk 1 < < Vj )
i s tuyn tnh 139
l tng trc tip ca mt s hu hn khng gian con xyclic i vi . Gi s V = <i Wi l mt phn tch ca V thnh tng tc tip ca cc khng gian con xyclic i vi . V mi Wi u l mt khng gian -n nh, cho nn rank() =
i
rank( Wi ).
Nu Wi l mt khng gian m chiu xyclic i vi th d thy rng

rank(s T rank(
s1 Wi )
Wi )
m s nu s 0 nu s
m, m.

2rank(
Wi )
+ rank(
s+1
Wi )
1 nu s = m, 0 nu s m.
V th, vi mi s nguyn dng s, rank(s1 ) 2rank(s ) + rank(s+1 ) chnh l s khng gian con s chiu xyclic i vi trong mi phn tch ca V .
4.5 Ma trn chun tc Jordan ca t ng cu By gi ta gi s f : V V l mt ng cu bt k, khng nht thit ly linh. Vi mi 2 K , ta xt tp R = J 2 V : ,m = m() sao cho (f
idV )m() = 0K.
l mt khng gian vct con, bi v n l hp ca mt dy cc khng gian vct con lng vo nhau
&
R =
m=1
Ker(f
idV )m.
V f giao hon vi f idV , cho nn R l mt khng gian con n nh i vi f . Tht vy, nu 2 R th c m 0 sao cho (f idV )m () = 0. Do
idV )mf () = f (f idV )m() = f (0) = 0. Nhn xt rng R J0K nu v ch nu l mt gi tr ring ca f . Tht vy, nu l mt gi tr ring ca f , th khng gian con ring P = Ker(f idV )
(f
140 i s tuyn tnh
4.5. Ma trn chun tc Jordan ca t ng cu
nh ngha 4.5.1 Gi s l mt gi tr ring ca f . (a) R c gi l khng gian con ring suy rng ng vi gi tr ring . (b) dim P v dim R c gi tng ng l s chiu hnh hc v s chiu i s ca gi tr ring .
l mt khng gian con ca R : P P R . Ngc li, gi s 2 R J0K, chn m l s nguyn dng nh nht sao cho (f idV )m () = 0. Khi = (f idV )m1 () 0 l mt vct ring ca f ng vi gi tr ring , bi v (f idV )( ) = 0. Mnh sau y gii thch mt phn ngha ca nhng thut ng ny.
Mnh 4.5.2 Nu l mt gi tr ring ca t ng cu f : V ca xem nh nghim ca a thc c trng ca f . V th dim R bng bi
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha ca khng gian con ring suy rng, ng cu (f idV ) R l lu linh. Do , p dng nh l 4.4.1 cho (f idV ) R , ta c th chn mt c s ca R sao cho trong c s ma trn ca f R c dng cho khi, vi cc khi trn ng cho c dng 0 0 ... 0 0 1 0 ... 0 0 0 1 ... 0 0 . . . ... . . . 0 0 0 ... 0 0 0 0 ... 1 T suy ra a thc c trng ca f
R
Pf R (X ) = ( X )dim R . Theo Mnh 1.6, ta c Pf (X ) = Pf R (X )Pf(X ) = ( X )dim R Pf(X ),
l ng cu cm sinh bi f trn khng gian thng V /R . V th, nu trong f gi s l bi ca xem nh nghim ca a thc c trng ca f , th dim R s. Gi s phn chng dim R s. Khi l mt nghim ca Pf(X ). Gi ng vi gi tr ring . Khi f [] = []. [] 2 V /R l mt vct ring ca f Ngha l c vct 2 R sao cho f () = + . Do = (f idV )() 2
i s tuyn tnh 141
R . V th, c s nguyn m sao cho (f idV )m () = 0, ngha l 2 R . iu ny mu thun vi gi thit [] 0 trong V /R , v l mt vct ring. Tm li, ta c dim R = s. nh l sau y l mt tng qut ho ca H qu 4.3.4. nh l 4.5.1 (Dng chun Jordan ca ma trn ca t ng cu tuyn tnh). Gi s t ng cu f ca K -khng gian vct n chiu V c a thc c trng Pf (X ) phn tch c thnh cc nhn t tuyn tnh trong K [X ], tc l Pf (X ) = (1)n (X
1)s (X m)s
1
trong 1 , ..., m l nhng v hng i mt khc nhau trong K . Khi , V phn tch c thnh tng trc tip cc khng gian con ring suy rng ng vi nhng gi tr ring 1 , ..., m : V = R1 < < Rm , y dim Rk = sk . Hn na, V c mt c s sao cho ma trn ca f trong l tng trc tip ca cc khi Jordan cp s c dng k 0 0 ... 0 0 1 k 0 ... 0 0 0 1 k ... 0 0 Js,k = . . . ... . . . 0 0 0 ... k 0 0 0 0 ... 1 k S khi Jordan cp s vi phn t k trn ng cho bng rank(f
k idV )s1 2rank(f k idV )s + rank(f k idV )s+1.
Ma trn ny c xc nh duy nht bi f sai khc th t sp xp cc khi Jordan trn ng cho chnh. Ma trn ni trong nh l trn c gi l ma trn dng chun Jordan ca t ng cu f . Chng minh: Ta s chng minh nh l theo nhiu bc. Bc 1: Gi s l cc gi tr ring ca f . V cc ng cu (f idV ) v (f idV ) giao hon vi nhau, nn ta c ng cu (f
idV ) R
: R
R .
Ta s chng minh rng l mt ng cu. V R hu hn chiu, cho nn ch cn chng minh ng cu ni trn l mt n cu. Gi s phn chng tn ti
142 i s tuyn tnh
vct 2 R J0K sao cho (f idV )() = 0. Theo nh ngha ca khng gian con ring suy rng, c s nguyn dng m sao cho = (f idV )m1 () 0, (f idV )( ) = (f idV )m () = 0.
idV ) v (f idV ) giao hon vi nhau, cho nn (f idV )( ) = (f idV )(f idV )m1 () = (f idV )m1 (f idV )() = 0. Kt hp hai ng thc trn ta c f ( ) = = . V , nn ng thc
V cc ng cu (f trn dn ti = 0. Mu thun ny bc b gi thit phn chng. Bc 2: Ta chng t rng R1 + + Rm l mt tng trc tip trong V . lm iu , ta chng minh rng vi mi i 2 Ri J0K, h vct (1 , ..., m ) c lp tuyn tnh. Khng nh hin nhin ng vi m = 1. Gi s qui np iu ng vi m 1. Xt mt rng buc tuyn tnh bt k m i=1 ai i = 0 vi cc h s ai 2 K . Chn s nguyn dng k sao cho (f m idV )k (m ) = 0. Tc ng (f m idV )k vo hai v ca rng buc tuyn tnh ni trn, ta thu c
m1
ai (f
i=1
midV )k (i) = 0,
trong , theo Bc 1, cc vct i = (f m idV )k (i ) u khc khng trong Ri vi mi i = 1, ..., m 1. Do , theo gi thit qui np, cc vct c lp tuyn tnh, ngha l a1 = = am1 = 0. Thay cc gi tr ny vo rng buc tuyn tnh ban u, ta c am m = 0. T , v m 0, nn am = 0. Vy h vct (1 , ..., m ) c lp tuyn tnh. Bc 3: V = R1 < < Rm . Tht vy, theo Mnh 4.5.2, dim Ri = si . Do , iu phi chng minh c suy t ng thc sau ( ) dim R1 < < Rm =
m
si = n = dim V.
i=1
Bc 4: Bi v (f k idV ) lu linh trn Rk , cho nn theo nh l 4.4.1 th f Rk c ma trn dng chun Jordan trong mt c s no ca Rk . Mt khc, V = R1 < < Rm , cho nn f c ma trn dng chun Jordan trong mt c s no ca V .
i s tuyn tnh 143
Bc 5: Theo Bc 1, vi mi k i , ng cu hn ch (f Ri Ri l mt ng cu. V th, ta c rank(f

s 1 k idV ) s R 2rank(f k idV ) R
i i
k idV ) R
i
+ rank(f
+1 k idV ) s R = 0.
Kt hp iu ny vi ng thc V = R1 < < Rm v mt ln na p dng nh l 4.4.1, ta thy trong mi ma trn dng chun Jordan ca f , s khi Jordan cp s vi phn t k trn ng cho chnh bng rank(f = rank(f
k idV )s1 2rank(f k idV )s + rank(f k idV )s+1 1 s s+1 k idV ) s R 2rank(f k idV ) R + rank(f k idV ) R .
k k k
V s ny nh nhau i vi mi ma trn dng chun Jordan ca f , cho nn hai ma trn nh vy ch khc nhau th t ca cc khi Jordan trn ng cho. Mt trng hp ring quan trng ca nh l trn l h qu sau y. H qu 4.5.3 Nu K l mt trng ng i s (chng hn K = C ), th mi t ng cu ca mt K -khng gian vct u c ma trn dng chun Jordan trong mt c s no ca khng gian. V d: Tm dng chun Jordan trn trng s thc ca ma trn sau y 3 4 0 2 4 5 2 4 A= 0 0 3 2 . 0 0 2 1 Li gii: Trc ht ta tm a thc c trng ca A: 3X 4 det(A XE4 ) = 0 0

4 0 5 X 2 0 3X
0 2
a thc ny c nghim thc 1 = 2 = 1, 3 = 4 = 1. Vy, ma trn A ng dng trn trng s thc vi mt ma trn Jordan J . Cc khi Jordan ca ma trn J ny c cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1 hoc 1, v c cp ti a bng 2 (l bi ca cc gi tr ring 1 v 1). Vi 1 = 2 = 1, ta c 1 2 0 1 2 4 0 2 4 6 2 4 = rank 2 2 3 1 2 = 3, rank(A1E4 ) = rank 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2 0 0 1 1 0 0 2 2
144 i s tuyn tnh
2 4 2 = (X 1 X
1)2(X + 1)2.
bi v ma trn ny suy bin, v c nh thc con cp 3 gc tri trn khc 0. Hn na, 2 1 2 0 1 3 4 3 4 2 3 1 2 = rank 4 4 5 4 5 = 2, rank(A1E4 )2 = rank 4 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 bi v hai hng cui ca ma trn bng 0, v nh thc cp 2 gc tri trn khc 0. Nh th, s khi Jordan cp 1 ca ma trn Jordan J vi phn t trn ng cho bng 1 l rank(A 1E4 )0 2rank(A 1 E4 )1 + rank(A 1 E4 )2 = 4 6 + 2 = 0. Kt hp iu vi s kin = 1 l nghim kp ca a thc c trng ca A, ta suy ra J cha ng mt khi Jordan cp 2 vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1. Tng t, vi 3 = 4 = 1, ta c 4 4 0 2 2 2 0 1 4 4 2 4 = rank 2 2 2 1 2 = 3, rank(A+1E4 ) = rank 0 0 4 2 0 0 2 1 0 0 2 0 0 0 1 0 bi v l mt ma trn suy bin v nh thc con cp 3 gc phi di ca n khc 0. Tip theo, 2 2 2 0 1 0 0 3 2 2 2 1 2 = rank 4 0 0 2 1 = 2. rank(A+1E4 )2 = rank 4 0 0 2 1 0 0 5 2 0 0 1 0 0 0 2 1 Nh th, s khi Jordan cp 1 ca ma trn Jordan J vi phn t trn ng cho bng -1 l rank(A + 1E4 )0 2rank(A + 1 E4 )1 + rank(A + 1 E4 )2 = 4 6 + 2 = 0. T , v = 1 l nghim kp ca a thc c trng ca A, ta suy ra J cha ng mt khi Jordan cp 2 vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 1. Tm li, dng chun Jordan ca ma trn A l 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 J = 0 0 1 0 . 0 0 1 1
i s tuyn tnh 145
4.6 Bi tp 1. Tm gi tr ring v vct ring ca cc t ng cu c ma trn sau y trong mt c s no ca khng gian: 2 1 2 4 5 2 (b) 5 7 3 , (a) 5 3 3 , 6 9 4 1 0 2 1 3 3 1 3 4 (c) 2 6 13 , (d) 4 7 8 , 1 4 8 6 7 7 1 0 0 0 3 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 , (e) ( f ) 0 0 0 0 3 0 5 3 . 1 0 0 1 4 1 3 1 2. Chng minh rng nu t ng cu ca khng gian vct n chiu V c n gi tr ring khc nhau v l mt t ng cu giao hon vi , th mi vct ring ca cng l mt vct ring ca v c mt c s gm ton vct ring ca n. 3. Xc nh xem nhng t ng cu c cho bi cc ma trn sau trong mt c s no ca khng gian vct V c cho ho c khng. Nu c, hy xc nh c s trong ma trn ca t ng cu c dng cho v xc nh ma trn ny. 1 3 1 6 5 3 (a) 3 5 1 , (b) 3 2 2 , 3 3 1 2 2 0 4 3 1 2 1 1 1 1 5 8 5 4 1 1 1 1 , ( d ) (c) 6 12 8 5 . 1 1 1 1 4 3 2 2 1 1 1 1 4. Cho ma trn cp n A= 0 0 . 0 1 0 0 . 1 0 ... ... ... ... ... 0 1 . 0 0 1 0 . 0 0 .
146
i s tuyn tnh
4.6. Bi tp
Tm ma trn kh nghch T sao cho B = T 1 AT l mt ma trn cho, v tm B . 5. Ma trn A c cc v hng a1 , a2 , ..., an nm trn ng cho th hai (theo th t t hng mt ti hng n) cn tt c cc phn t khc bng 0. Tm iu kin A cho ho c. 6. Tm gi tr ring v vct ring ca t ng cu xc nh bi php o hm trong khng gian vct cc a thc h s thc c bc khng vt qu n. 7. Chng minh rng nu t nht mt trong hai ma trn A v B kh nghch, th cc ma trn tch AB v BA ng dng vi nhau. Tm v d v cc ma trn A, B sao cho AB khng ng dng vi BA. 8. Tm tt c cc ma trn ch ng dng vi chnh n m thi. 9. Ma trn B nhn c t ma trn A bng cch i ch cc hng i v j ng thi i ch cc ct i v j . Tm ma trn khng suy bin T sao cho B = T 1 AT . 10. Chng minh rng ma trn A ng dng vi ma trn B nhn c t A bng php i xng qua tm ca n. 11. Gi s (i1 , i2 , ..., in ) l mt php th bt k ca (1, 2, ..., n). Chng minh rng cc ma trn sau ng dng: ai1 i1 ai1 i2 ... ai1 in a11 a12 ... a1n a21 a22 ... a2n v B = ai2 i1 ai2 i2 ... ai2 in . A= . . . ... . . ... . an1 an2 ... ann ain i1 ain i2 ... ain in Cc ma trn sau y c ng dng vi nhau hay khng ? 12. 3 2 A=2 6 1 2 13.
5 10 3
6 20 v B = 6 32 4 20
34 51 . 32 13 70 4 19 4 20

119 34 . 35
147
4 6 A=1 3 1 2
i s tuyn tnh
15 5 , 4
1 B = 2 1
3 6 4
3 13 , C = 8
14. Chng minh rng cc h s ca a thc c trng ca ma trn A c th m t nh sau: A XE = (X )n + c1 (X )n1 + c2 (X )n2 + + cn , trong ck l tng ca tt c cc nh thc con chnh cp k ca ma trn A. (Mt nh thc con c gi l chnh nu cc ch s hng v cc ch s ct ca n trng nhau.) 15. Gi s p 0 l bi ca 0 xem nh nghim ca a thc c trng ca ma trn vung A cp n. Gi r l hng ca ma trn (A 0 E ). Chng minh rng 1 n r p. 16. Chng minh rng cc gi tr ring ca ma trn nghch o A1 bng nghch o ca cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A (k c bi). 17. Chng minh rng cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A2 bng bnh phng ca cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A (k c bi). 18. Chng minh rng nu 1 , ..., n l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A v f (X ) l mt a thc th f (1 ), ..., f (n ) l cc gi tr ring ca ma trn f (A). 19. Chng minh rng nu A v B l cc ma trn vung cng cp th cc a thc c trng ca cc ma trn AB v BA trng nhau. 20. Tm cc gi tr ring ca ma trn xyclic a1 a2 a3 an a1 a2 A= an1 an a1 . . . a2 a3 a4 ... an ... an1 ... an2 . ... . ... a1
21. Tm cc gi tr ring ca ma trn cp n sau y 0 1 0 0 ... 0 1 0 1 0 ... 0 A= 0 1 0 1 ... 0 . . . . ... . 0 0 0 0 ... 1 Tm dng chun Jordan ca cc ma trn sau y:
148
0 0 0 . 0
i s tuyn tnh
4.6. Bi tp
22.
1 3 3 2 6 15 (a) 1 1 5 , (b) 2 6 13 , 1 4 8 1 2 6 1 3 4 a 0 0 (c) 4 7 8 , (d) 0 a 0 (vi a 0). 6 7 7 a 0 a 3 1 (a) 3 4 0 1 0 0 5 1 3 1 0 0 . 0
23.
1
0 0 3 , 1
3 4 (b) 0 0 0 0 1 . 0 0 0 0 . 4 0 0 a . 0 0 ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 0 0 0 . n 0 0 0 . a 0 0 0 0 . 0
4 0 5 2
0 0 0 0 0 . 1 .
2 4 . 3 2 2 1
24.
1
1 0 . 0 1 1 1 . 1 0 0 0 . 0 a
0 1 1 . 0 0 2 2 . 2 a 0 0 . 0 0 0 0 3 . 3 0 a 0 . 0 0
25.
. . ,
26.
27.
trong a12 a23 an1 n
0.
a a12 a13 ... a1n 0 a a23 ... a2n 0 0 a ... a3n . . . ... . 0 0 0 ... a
i s tuyn tnh
149
28. Gi s K l mt trng ng i s. Chng minh rng ma trn A vi cc phn t trong K l ly linh (tc l Ak = 0 vi mt s nguyn dng k no ) nu v ch nu tt c cc gi tr ring ca n bng 0. 29. Chng minh rng mi ma trn ly linh khc 0 u khng cho ho c. 30. Tm dng chun Jordan ca ma trn ly ng A (tc l ma trn vi tnh cht A2 = A). 31. Chng minh rng mi ma trn i hp A (tc l ma trn vi tnh cht A2 = E ) u ng dng vi mt ma trn cho. Tm dng ca cc ma trn cho . 32. Chng minh rng mi ma trn tun hon A (tc l ma trn vi tnh cht Ak = E , vi mt s nguyn dng k no ) u ng dng vi mt ma trn cho. Tm dng ca cc ma trn cho . 33. Cho A l mt khi Jordan cp n a 0 A= . 0 0 0 . . a
1 a . 0
0 1 . 0
... ... ... ...
Chng minh rng gi tr ca a thc f (X ) khi thay X = A c hco bi cng thc sau y f (n1) (a) f (a) f (a) ... (n1)! f (a) 1! 2! (a) f (n2) (a) 0 f (a) f 1! ... (n2)! . f (A) = . . . ... . 0 0 0 ... f (a)
34. Tm dng chun Jordan ca bnh phng ca mt khi Jordan vi 0 nm trn ng cho chnh. 35. Tm dng chun Jordan ca ma trn sau y vi cp n a 0 1 0 ... 0 0 a 0 1 ... 0 A= . . . . ... . . 0 0 0 . ... a 3.
36. Chng minh rng mi ma trn vung vi cc phn t trong mt trng ng i s u c th vit thnh tch ca hai ma trn i xng m mt trong hai ma trn y khng suy bin.
150 i s tuyn tnh
4.6. Bi tp
37. Chng minh rng nu ma trn A c dng ng cho khi A1 0 ... 0 0 A2 ... 0 , A= . . ... . 0 0 ... As trong A1 , A2 , ..., As l cc ma trn vung, v f (X ) l mt a thc ca n X th f (A1 ) 0 ... 0 0 f (A2 ) ... 0 . f ( A) = . . ... . 0 0 ... f (As ) 38. Cho A l mt ma trn vung cp n vi cc phn t trong mt trng ng i s K . Gi 1 , 2 , ..., n l cc gi tr ring (k c bi) ca A. Chng minh rng nu f (X ) l mt a thc vi cc h s trong K th det f (A) = f (1 )f (2 ) f (n ).
i s tuyn tnh
151
Chng 5
Khng gian vect Euclid
u trc khng gian vct cho php din t cc khi nim nh c lp tuyn tnh v ph thuc tuyn tnh, tp sinh, hng, c s v to , khng gian con k chiu (ng thng, mt phng)... Tuy nhin cu trc ny cha cho php ni n cc khi nim mang ni dung hnh hc nhiu hn nh di ca vct v gc gia hai vct... din t nhng khi nim ny, ngi ta cn cu trc khng gian vct Euclid.. . . . Cc khng gian vct loi c bit ny khng nh ngha c trn mt trng c s ty . V th trong hu nh ton b chng ny ta ch xt cc khng gian vct (trn trng s) thc. Tit cui ca chng s c dnh xt nhng thay i cn thit khi chuyn sang khng gian vct phc.
5.1 Khng gian vct Euclid Nhc li rng, trong hnh hc s cp, tch v hng ca hai vct c nh ngha bng tch ca di hai vct v csin ca gc xen gia chng. D thy rng, ngc li, di ca vct v gc xen gia hai vct c th biu th qua tch v hng. Ngi ta nhn thy rng, a nhng khi nim ny vo cc khng gian vct tru tng, vic trc tip tru tng ho cc khi nim di ca vct v gc xen gia hai vct kh hn nhiu so vi vic tru tng ho khi nim tch v hng. V th, trc ht chng ta nghin cu khi nim tch v hng. Ri s dng n nh ngha di ca vct v gc xen gia hai vct. Gi s E l mt khng gian vct thc. Nhc li rng mt hm :EE R
c gi l song tuyn tnh nu n tuyn tnh i vi tng bin khi c nh bin

152
5.1. Khng gian vct Euclid
cn li. Mi hm song tuyn tnh nh th c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn E .

nh ngha 5.1.1 (i) Dng song tuyn tnh : E E (, ) = (, ), (ii) c gi l dng nu (, ) 0, (iii) c gi l xc nh dng nu n dng v (, ) = 0 = 0. R c gi l i xng nu
(, 2 E. ( 2 E.
(iv) Mt dng song tuyn tnh, i xng v xc nh dng trn E c gi l mt tch v hng trn E .
Tch v hng trn khng gian E thng c k hiu l N, O:
N, O :
EE (, )
R N, O.
S thc N, O c gi l tch v hng ca hai vct v . Nhng iu kin N, O l mt tch v hng c lit k nh sau: Tnh song tuyn tnh = N1 , O + N2 , O, = aN, O, = N, 1 O + N, 2 O, = aN, O, Tnh i xng = N, O, Tnh xc nh dng 0, (, ) = 0 = 0.
N1 + 2, O Na, O N, 1 + 2O N, a O N, O N, O
vi mi , i , , j
2 E, a 2 R .
nh ngha 5.1.2 Khng gian vct thc E cng vi mt tch v hng trn E c gi l mt khng gian vct Euclid.
Mi khng gian vct con F ca khng gian vct Euclid E c trang b mt tch v hng, l thu hp ca tch v hng cho trn E . V th F cng l mt khng gian vct Euclid. N c gi l mt khng gian vct Euclid con ca E . By gi ta nh ngha di ca vct v gc gia hai vct trong mt khng gian vct Euclid.
i s tuyn tnh 153
Chng 5. Khng gian vect Euclid
V d 5.1.3 (a) Khng gian cc vct t do hc hnh hc s cp l mt khng gian vct Euclid vi tch v hng thng thng
N, O =
cos (, ).
(b) Gi s E l mt khng gian vct thc n chiu v (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca n. C th nh ngha mt tch v hng trn E nh sau. Nu = i xi ei , = i yi ei , th ta t
N, O =
xi yi .
i=1
n Ni ring, nu E = ..., en ) l c s chnh tc ca R n , th tch v hng (e1 , e2 , R v y1 x1 . . ca hai vct = . , = . c nh ngha l . . yn xn
N, O =
xi yi .
i=1
N c gi l tch v hng chnh tc trn R n . Nhn xt rng theo cch ny mi c s ca E cho php xc nh trn E mt tch v hng. Hai tch v hng xc nh bi hai c s khc nhau th ni chung khc nhau. (c) Gi s E = C [a, b] l khng gian cc hm thc lin tc trn [a, b]. Cng thc
Nf, gO =
f (x)g (x)dx,
a
f, g
2 C [a, b]
xc nh mt tch v hng trn khng gian v hn chiu C [a, b]. Tnh lin tc ca cc hm trong C [a, b] c dng chng minh tnh xc nh dng ca dng song tuyn tnh (f, g ) Nf, gO.
Nhn xt rng, ngc li, tch v hng cng c hon ton xc nh bi di vct. Tht vy
N, O = 1 J + 2 2
2
K.
nh nghi c gc gia hai vct, ta cn mnh sau y. Chng minh: Ta c Nt + , t + O 0, (t 2 R . Hay l t2 N, O + 2tN, O + N, O 0, (t 2 R . V tri l mt tam thc bc hai i vi t. N khng m vi mi gi tr ca t, cho nn = N, O2 N, ON, O 0.
154 i s tuyn tnh
nh ngha 5.1.4 Gi s E l mt khng gian vct Euclid vi =tch v hng N, O. Khi , di (hay chun) ca vct 2 E l s thc khng m = N, O. Mnh 5.1.5 (
N, O
(, 2 E.
N, O2 N, ON, O. N, O
n
=
Khai cn hai v ca bt ng thc, ta c
N, O N, O =
= C B B A
Trong R n vi tch v hng chnh tc, bt ng thc trn c dng

n
xi yi
i=1
xi
C B B 2A
n 2, yi
(xi, yi 2 R .
(, ) v c
i=1
i=1
nh ngha 5.1.6 Gc gia hai vct khc khng v c k hiu bi xc nh duy nht bi cc iu kin sau
, O cos (, ) = N , 0 (, ) .
Ta coi gc gia vct 0 v mt vct khc l khng xc nh. Nh vy, N, O = 0 nu v ch nu hoc l t nht mt trong hai vct , bng 0, hoc l (, ) = 2. Chng minh: Ta c
V Cc tnh cht c bn ca di vct c lit k trong mnh sau y. Chng minh: Cc phn (i) v (ii) c suy ngay t nh ngha ca di vct. (iii) Theo bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz ta c +
2
N + , + O = N, O + 2N, O + N, O. , cho nn N, O = 0. Do + 2 = 2 + 2 .
N + , + O = N, O + 2N, O + N, O
2 + 2 + 2 = ( + )2 .
.
i s tuyn tnh 155
nh ngha 5.1.7 Hai vct , k hiu l , nu
2 E c gi l vung gc (hay trc giao) vi nhau, v c N, O = 0.

, th
2
Mnh 5.1.8 (nh l Pythagore) Nu +
= 2 + 2.
Khong cch t vct ti vct c nh ngha nh sau: d(, ) = . Hm khong cch c nhng tnh cht c bn sau y: (i) d(, ) 0, d(, ) = 0 (ii) d(, ) = d(, ) (iii) ( d(, ) d(, ) + d(, )
(, 2 E,
= .
(, 2 E. (, , 2 E.
Chng minh: (i) Gi s (e1 , ..., ek ) l mt h trc giao v khng cha vct 0. Gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh a1 e1 + + ak ek = 0. Nhn v hng hai v vi ek , v s dng gi thit ej ej vi i j , ta c:
V ek
0, nn Nek , ek O
0 = Na1 e1 + + ak ek , ek O = a1 Ne1 , ek O + + ak Nek , ek O = ak Nek , ek O. a1 e1 + + ak1 ek1 = 0.
0. Do ak = 0. T ta thu c rng buc
Lp li lp lun trn vi k c thay bi k 1, ta thu c ak1 = 0. Cui cng ta thu c a1 = a2 = = ak = 0. Vy h (e1 , ..., ek ) c lp tuyn tnh. (ii) Ta c
ei ej , ei ej
O = e 1e Nei, ej O = i j
0, 1,
nu i j, nu i = j.
Mt c s ca E ng thi l mt h trc chun c gi l mt c s trc chun. nh l sau y ni ln tnh ph bin ca c s trc chun.
156 i s tuyn tnh
Mnh 5.1.9
(i)
0, =0
( 2 E,
= 0.
(ii) a = a
(a 2 R , ( 2 E.
+ + ,
(iii) (Bt ng thc tam gic)
(, 2 E.
nh ngha 5.1.10 (i) H vct (e1 , ..., ek ) ca khng gian vct Euclid E c gi l mt h trc giao nu cc vct ca h i mt vung gc vi nhau, tc l
Nei, ej O = 0,

nu i j.
(ii) H vct (e1 , ..., ek ) c gi l mt h trc chun nu n l mt h trc giao v mi vct ca h u c di bng 1, tc l
Nei, ej O =
0, 1,
nu i j, nu i = j.
nh l 5.1.12 Mi khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu u c c s trc chun. Chng minh: nh l c chng minh bng php trc giao ho Shmidt. Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s bt k ca khng gian vct Euclid E . Trc giao ho Shmidt l php dng mt c s trc giao (e1 , ..., en ) ca E vi tnh cht sau L(e1 , ..., ek ) = L(1 , ..., k ), (k = 1, 2, ..., n). Sau , ta chun ho (e1 , ..., en ) thu c mt c s trc chun ca E . Ta t e1 = 1 . Nh th L(e1 ) = L(1 ). Gi s xy dng c h trc giao (e1 , ..., ei1 ) sao cho L(e1 , ..., ek ) = L(1 , ..., k ), Tip theo, ta tm ei di dng ei = i1 e1 + + ii1 ei1 + i , trong i1 , ..., ii1 l i 1 s thc c xc nh bi i 1 iu kin ei e1 , ..., ei ei1 . Tc l

(k = 1, 2, ..., i 1).
Nei, e1O
..... Nei, ei1O
= i1 Ne1 , e1 O + Ni , e1 O = 0 . .......... . . = ii1 Nei1 , ei1 O + Ni , ei1 O = 0.

157
i s tuyn tnh
Mnh 5.1.11
(i) Mi h trc giao khng cha vct 0 u c lp tuyn tnh.

ek ek
1 (ii) Nu h vct (e1 , ..., ek ) l trc giao v khng cha vct 0, th h ( e , ..., e1 chun.
) l trc
H ny c nghim duy nht ik =
Ni, ek O Nek , ek O
(k = 1, 2, ..., i 1).
V i khng nm trong khng gian L(e1 , ..., ei1 ) = L(1 , ..., i1 ), cho nn ei = i1 e1 + + ii1 ei1 + i
Hn na, theo ng thc trn i L(1 , ..., i ). Kt hp iu vi gi thit L(e1 , ..., ei1 ) = L(1 , ..., i1 ), ta c L(e1 , ..., ei ) = L(1 , ..., i ). Qu trnh ny tip din cho ti i = n. H gm n vct trc giao e1 , ..., en sinh ra khng gian n chiu E . Vy h l mt c s trc giao ca E . Cui cng, chun ho c s trc giao ny nh lm phn (ii) ca mnh trc, ta thu c mt c s trc chun ca E . V d: Trc giao ho h vct sau y trong khng gian R 4 vi tch v hng (nh ngha nh c s) chnh tc: 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0), 2 = (2, 1, 0, 0), 3 = (3, 2, 1, 0), 4 = (4, 3, 2, 1). Li gii: Ta t e1 = 1 = (1, 0, 0, 0). Vct th hai c tm di dng e2 = 21 e1 + 2 , trong 21 =
0. 2 L(e1, ..., ei), v ei 2 L(e1, ..., ei1, i) =
Vy e2 = 2e1 + 2 = 2(1, 0, 0, 0) + (2, 1, 0, 0) = (0, 1, 0, 0). Vct th ba c tm di dng e3 = 31 e1 + 32 e2 + 3 , trong 31 =
N2, e1O = 1.2 = 2. Ne1, e1O 1.1
N3, e1O = 1.3 = 3, Ne1, e1O 1.1 N3, e2O = 1.2 = 2. 32 = Ne , e O 1.1
2 2
158
i s tuyn tnh
Vy e3 = 3e1 2e2 + 3 = (0, 0, 1, 0). Tng t, e4 = 41 e1 + 42 e2 + 43 e3 + 4 , trong
N4, e1O = 1.4 = 4, Ne1, e1O 1.1 N4, e2O = 1.3 = 3, 42 = Ne2, e2O 1.1 N4, e3O = 1.2 = 2. 43 = Ne3, e3O 1.1 Nh th e4 = 4e1 3e2 2e3 + 4 = (0, 0, 0, 1).
41 =
Tm li, h (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ) chnh l c s chnh tc ca R 4 . Mnh sau y cho thy c s trc chun gip cho vic tnh tch v hng c d dng.
Mnh 5.1.13 Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian vct Euclid E . Khi , nu = i ai ei , v = i bi ei , th
N, O = a1b1 + + anbn.
Chng minh: Do tnh song tuyn tnh ca tch v hng, ta c
N, O = N
i
ai ei ,
j
bj ej O =
i,j
ai bj Nei , ej O.
V (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun, cho nn
N, O =
i
ai bi Nei , ei O =
i
ai bi .
nh ngha 5.1.14 Gi s U v V l cc khng gian vct con ca khng gian vct Euclid E. (i) Ta ni vct 2 E vung gc (hay trc giao) vi U , v vit u 2 U. (ii) Ta ni U vung gc (hay trc giao) vi V , v vit U u v, V , nu U , nu u vi mi
(u 2 U, (v 2 V.
Do tnh i xng ca tch v hng, nu U V th V U . Khi U : V = J0K. Tht vy, nu 2 U : V th N, O = 0, do = 0. Khi , tng U + V l mt tng trc tip, U < V . N c gi l tng trc giao ca U v V , v c k hiu l U < V .
i s tuyn tnh 159
Gi s U1 , ..., Uk l cc khng gian con ca E i mt trc giao vi nhau: Ui Uj vi i j . D thy rng Ui ( j i Uj ), cho nn Ui : (
j i
Uj ) = J0K,
(i = 1, ..., k ).
Do , tng U1 + + Uk l mt tng trc tip.

nh ngha 5.1.15 Tng trc tip ca cc khng gian con i mt trc giao vi nhau U1 , ..., Uk c gi l mt tng trc giao, v c k hiu l U1 < < Uk .
Nu (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca E th E phn tch c thnh tng trc giao E = L(e1 ) < < L(en ).
nh ngha 5.1.16 Gi s U l mt khng gian vct con ca E . Khi U = J 2 E c gi l phn b trc giao ca U trong E . UK
D thy rng U cng l mt khng gian vct con ca E .

Mnh 5.1.17 Gi s U l mt khng gian vct con ca khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu E . Khi , (U ) = U , v E c th phn tch thnh tng trc giao E = U < U .
Chng minh: Chn mt c s trc giao (e1 , ..., em ) ca U , v b sung n c mt c s (e1 , ..., em , m+1 , ..., n ) ca E . p dng php trc giao ho Shmidt cho c s , ta thy m vct u ca c s khng thay i, bi v chng trc giao sn ri. Kt qu l ta thu c mt c s trc giao (e1 , ..., em , em+1 , ..., en ) ca E . Cc vct em+1 , ..., en trc giao vi mi phn t trong c s (e1 , ..., em ) ca U , cho nn chng trc giao vi U . V th, em+1 , ..., en 2 U . Hn na, nu l mt vc t bt k ca U , ta xt khai trin ca n theo c s (e1 , ..., en ) ca E : = a1 e1 + + an en . Do tnh trc giao ca c s ni trn, ta thu c: a1 =
N, e1O = 0, ..., a = N, emO = 0. m Ne1, e1O Nem, emO
H qu l biu th tuyn tnh qua (em+1 , ..., en ). Kt hp iu ny vi vic em+1 , ..., en 2 U , ta suy ra (em+1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca U .
160 i s tuyn tnh
T , lp lun tng t ta thy: nu U , th biu th tuyn tnh qua (e1 , ..., em ), tc l 2 U . Nh vy, (U ) = U . Cui cng, ta c phn tch trc giao E = L(e1 , ..., em ) < L(em+1 , ..., en ) = U
<
U .
By gi ta tr li vi ch khong cch trong khng gian vct Euclid. Khong cch t tp con A ti tp con B ca E c nh ngha nh sau: d(A, B ) =
2A, 2B
inf
d(, ).
Ni ring, nu A ch gm mt phn t th ta s k hiu n gin d(JK, B ) bi d(, B ). Nh vy d(, B ) = inf d(, ). Tp + U = J + u u 2 U K, trong U l mt khng gian vct con ca E c gi l phng song song vi U v i qua . Ta s xt trng hp c bit khi A v B l nhng phng song song vi cc khng gian vct con U v V .
Mnh 5.1.18 Gi s = v + v , trong v
2B
2 V, v 2 V
. Khi
d(, + V ) = v . Tng qut hn, nu = t + t , trong t 2 (U + V ), t d( + U, + V ) = t .
2 (U + V )
, th
Chng minh: R rng d(, +V ) l mt trng hp c bit ca d( +U, +V ) vi U = J0K. Theo nh ngha d( + U, + V ) = t u v = t
u2U,v 2V
inf d( + u, + v ) =
u2U,v 2V
inf
+uv .
2 (U + V ). Ta c + t = t + ( t + t ). V ( t + t ) = t + t 2 (U + V ), nn t ( t
l Pythagore, ta c + t 2 = t
2
+ t ). Theo nh
2
+ t + t
V th d( + U, + V ) = inft 2(U +V ) + t = t . Gi tr nh nht ny t c vi t = t .

i s tuyn tnh 161
V d: Trong khng gian R 4 vi tch v hng chnh tc, tm khong cch t = (2, 4, 4, 2) ti phng B xc nh bi h phng trnh x + 2y + z t = 1, x + 3y + z 3t = 2. Li gii: R rng = (0, 1, 1, 0) 2 B . Vy B = + V , trong V l khng gian cc nghim ca h phng trnh thun nht x + 2y + z t = 0, x + 3y + z 3t = 0. Do , V l khng gian sinh bi hai vct h s ca h phng trnh trn: V = L((1, 2, 1, 1), (1, 3, 1, 3)). Gi s = (2, 3, 3, 2) = v + v , trong v 2 V, v 2 V . Khi v tha nhn phn tch v = r(1, 2, 1, 1) + s(1, 3, 1, 3) = (r + s, 2r + 3s, r + s, r 3s). V th, vct v = v = (2, 3, 3, 2) (r + s, 2r + 3s, r + s, r 3s) = (2 r s, 3 2r 3s, 3 r s, 2 + r + 3s) tho mn h phng trnh xc nh V . Tc l (2 r s) + 2(3 2r 3s) + (3 r s) (2 + r + 3s) = 3 7r 11s = 0, (2 r s) + 3(3 2r 3s) + (3 r s) 3(2 + r + 3s) = 2 11r 20s = 0. T r = 2, s = 1. Thay cc gi tr vo v ta c d(, B ) = v = (1, 1, 1, 1) = 2.
5.2 nh x trc giao nghin cu cu trc ca cc khng gian vct Euclid, ngi ta cn s dng cc nh x khng ch bo ton cc php ton trn vct, m cn bo ton tch v hng.
nh ngha 5.2.1 Gi s E v E l cc khng gian vct Euclid. nh x f : E E c gi l mt nh x nu n l mt nh x tuyn tnh v n bo ton tch v hng, ngha l:
Nf (), f ( )O = N, O, (, 2 E.
162 i s tuyn tnh
5.2. nh x trc giao
Mnh 5.2.2 Nu f : E E bo ton tch v hng th n l mt nh x tuyn tnh, v do l mt nh x trc giao.
Hin nhin l mi nh x trc giao u bo ton d di ca cc vct: f ( ) = ,
( 2 E. 2 E . V
Chng minh: t = f (a + b ) af () bf ( ) vi a, b 2 R , , f bo ton tch v hng, nn vi mi 2 E , ta c
N, f ( )O
= = =
Nf (a + b ) af () bf ( ), f ( )O Nf (a + b ), f ( )O aNf (), f ( )O bNf ( ), f ( )O Na + b, O aN, O bN, O = 0.
Nh th trc giao vi mi vct c dng f ( ), do trc giao vi mi t hp tuyn tnh ca cc vct c dng f ( ). Ni ring, . T suy ra = 0, hay l f (a + b ) = af () + bf ( )
(a, b 2 R , (, 2 E.
Mnh 5.2.3 Gi s E v E l cc khng gian vct Euclid. Khi nh x tuyn tnh f :E E l mt nh x trc giao nu n bin mi c s trc chun ca E thnh mt h trc chun ca E .
Chng minh: Nu (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca E th
Nf (ei), f (ej )O = Nei, ej O =
1, nu i = j, 0, nu i j.
Vy (f (e1 ), ..., f (en )) l mt h trc chun ca E . (N c th khng phi l mt c s ca E nu s chiu ca E ln hn n.) Ngc li, gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca E , v (f (e1 ), ..., f (en ))
i s tuyn tnh 163
l mt h trc chun ca E . Khi , vi mi =
i ai ei ,
j bj ej ,
ta c
Nf (), f ( )O
= = =
Nf ( N
i i,j i
ai ei ), f (
j
bj ej )O bj f (ej )O
ai f (ei ),
j
ai bj Nf (ei ), f (ej )O =
i
ai bi
(do tnh trc chun ca h(f (e1 ), ..., f (en )) = =
ai ei ,
i j
bj ej O
N, O.
Nh vy, f l mt nh x trc giao.

Mnh 5.2.4 Mi nh x trc giao u l mt n cu tuyn tnh. Ni ring, nu : E E l mt t ng cu trc giao ca mt khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu E , th l mt ng cu tuyn tnh.
Chng minh: Gi s f : E E l mt nh x trc giao. Nu f () = 0 th = f () = 0, nn = 0. Nh th Kerf = J0K. Do f l mt n cu tuyn tnh. Nu : E E l mt nh x trc giao, th dim E = dim Im + dim Ker. Vy dim E = dim Im. Do , l mt ton cu. Phn trn ca mnh khng nh l mt n cu. Tm li, l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. Theo mnh trn th mi nh x trc giao h : E E u l mt ng cu t E vo Im(h). Hn na, mi ng cu trc giao f : E Im(h) u c dng f = h, trong l mt t ng cu trc giao ca E . Tht vy, ch cn ly = h1 f : E E. Nh vy, vic nghin cu cc nh x trc giao c th quy v vic nghin cu cc t ng cu trc giao (hay cn c gi l cc php bin i trc giao).
Mnh 5.2.5 Tp hp O(E ) cc php bin i trc giao ca mt khng gian vct Euclid E lp nn mt nhm i vi php hp thnh cc nh x. l mt nhm con ca nhm GL(E ) tt c cc t ng cu tuyn tnh ca E .
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha ca php bin i trc giao, nu f, g f g 2 O(E ).

164
2 O(E ) th
i s tuyn tnh
5.2. nh x trc giao
Gi thit thm h 2 O(E ). Hin nhin ta c (f
g) h = f (g h).
Phn t idE 2 O(E ) l n v ca php nhn trong O(E ). Tht vy, vi mi f 2 O(E ) ta c idE f = f idE = f. nh x ngc f 1 ca f f 1 2 O(E ), v ta c
2 O(E ) cng l mt php bin i trc giao, tc l

f
f 1 = f 1 f = idE .
Mi php bin i trc giao u l mt t ng cu tuyn tnh, ngha l O(E ) P GL(E ). Hn na, php nhn trong O(E ) l thu hp ca php nhn trong GL(E ). Vy O(E ) l mt nhm con ca GL(E ).
nh ngha 5.2.6 O(E ) c gi l nhm bin i trc giao ca khng gian vct Euclid E .
Mnh sau y l hin nhin

Mnh 5.2.7 Nu l mt php bin i trc giao ca E th n bin mi c s trc chun thnh mt c s trc chun. Ngc li, nu t ng cu : E E bin mt c s trc chun no thnh mt c s trc chun th l mt php bin i trc giao.
Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca khng gian vct Euclid E , v A l ma trn chuyn t c s sang mt c s no (1 , ..., n ) ca E . Nh vy (1 ...n ) = (e1 ...en )A. iu kin cn v h (1 , ..., n ) cng l mt c s trc chun ca E l
Ni, j O
= =
N
k n k =1
aki ek ,
k
akj ek O (i, j = 1, ..., n).
aki akj = ij
Ni cch khc At A = En .
nh ngha 5.2.8 Ma trn thc A vung cp n c gi l trc giao nu At A = En , ni cch khc, nu h vct ct ca A l mt h trc chun trong R n vi tch v hng chnh tc. i s tuyn tnh 165
Mnh 5.2.9 Gi s A l ma trn chuyn t mt c s trc chun (e1 , ..., en ) sang mt c s no (1 , ..., n ). Khi , (1 , ..., n ) cng l mt c s trc chun nu v ch nu A l mt ma trn trc giao. Mnh 5.2.10 Gi s A l mt ma trn thc, vung cp n. Khi , cc tnh cht sau y l tng ng: (i) A trc giao. (ii) A kh nghch v A1 = At . (iii) H vct hng ca A l trc chun trong R n vi tch v hng chnh tc, hay l AAt = En .
Theo phn tch trn, ta chng minh khng nh sau y: Chng minh: Gi s At A = En . Khi (det A)2 = det(At A) = det En = 1. Do ma trn A kh nghch. Nhn hai v ca ng thc At A = En vi A1 t bn phi, ta thu c At = At AA1 = En A1 = A1 . By gi li nhn hai v ca ng thc At = A1 vi A t bn tri, ta nhn c AAt = En . Nh vy ta chng minh rng (i) (ii) (iii). Suy lun ngc li c tin hnh hon ton tng t.
Mnh 5.2.11 Nu l mt php bin i trc giao ca E th ma trn ca n trong mi c s trc chun ca E l mt ma trn trc giao. Ngc li, nu c ma trn trong mt c s trc chun no ca E l mt ma trn trc giao th l mt php bin i trc giao.
Chng minh: Gi s l mt php bin i trc giao v (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trc chun ca E . Khi ((e1 ), ..., (en )) cng l mt c s trc chun. Gi A l ma trn ca trong c s (e1 , ..., en ). Khi , A chnh l ma trn chuyn t c s (e1 , ..., en ) ti c s ((e1 ), ..., (en )). Theo Mnh 5.2.9, A l mt ma trn trc giao. Ngc li, nu c ma trn A trong mt c s trc chun no (e1 , ..., en ) l mt ma trn trc giao, th cng theo Mnh 5.2.9 ((e1 ), ..., (en )) = (e1 , ..., en )A l mt c s trc chun. Do , l mt php bin i trc giao. H qu 5.2.12 Tp hp O(n) cc ma trn trc giao cp n lp nn mt nhm i vi php nhn ma trn. l mt nhm con ca nhm GL(n, R ) cc ma trn thc cp n kh nghch. Chng minh: C nh mt c s trc chun (e1 , ..., en ) ca khng gian vct Euclid n chiu E . Khi , mi phn t 2 O(E ) c t tng ng 1-1 vi
166 i s tuyn tnh
5.2. nh x trc giao
ma trn ca n A ton, ngha l
2 O(n) trong c s ni trn. Tng ng ny bo ton php

A = A A .
V O(E ) l mt nhm, nn O(n) cng vy. Ngoi ra, ta c GL(E )

^
GL(n, R )
^
O(E )
O(n).
nh ngha 5.2.13 O(n) c gi l nhm cc ma trn trc giao cp n.
Mnh 5.2.14 Nu A l mt ma trn trc giao th det A = 1.
Chng minh: T ng thc AAt = En , ta c 1 = det En = det(AAt ) = det A det At = (det A)2 . Kt qu l det A = 1.
Mnh 5.2.15 SO(E ) = J 2 O(E ) det = 1K v SO(n) = JA cc nhm con tng ng ca O(E ) v O(n).
2 O(n) det A = 1K l
Chng minh: Nu ,
2 SO(E ) th 2 O(E ) v det( ) = det det = 1 1 = 1. Nh th, theo nh ngha, 2 SO(E ). Nu 2 SO(E ) th 1 2 O(E ) v
det(1 ) = (det )1 = 11 = 1. T 1 2 SO(E ). Tm li SO(E ) l mt nhm con ca nhm O(E ). Trng hp SO(n) c chng minh tng t. Kt qu l ta c biu sau y:
i s tuyn tnh
167
GL(E )
^
GL(n, R )
^
O(E )
^
O(n)
^
SO(E )
SO(n) .
SO(E ) c gi l nhm bin i trc giao c bit ca E , cn SO(n) c gi l nhm cc ma trn trc giao c bit cp n. By gi ta xt cu trc ca mt php bin i trc giao.
Mnh 5.2.16 Nu l mt php bin i trc giao, th mi gi tr ring (nu c) ca u bng 1. Cc khng gian con ring P1 () v P1 () (nu c) ca (ng vi cc gi tr ring 1 v 1) trc giao vi nhau.
Chng minh: Gi s l mt vct ring ng vi gi tr ring ca , ngha l () = . Ta c
N, O = N(), ()O = N, O = 2N, O. V 0, nn 2 = 1. Do , = 1. Gi s 2 P1 (), 2 P1 (). Ta c N, O = N(), ( )O = N, O = N, O. T N, O = 0 v .

Mnh 5.2.17 (i) A 2 O(1) nu v ch nu A = (1). (ii) A 2 O(2) nu v ch nu A l mt trong hai ma trn dng sau y ( ) ( ) cos sin cos sin A1 = , A2 = . sin cos sin cos Ma trn A1 cho ho c nu v ch nu = k vi k 2 Z . Ma trn A2 lun cho ho c nh mt ma trn trc giao. Ni r hn, tn ti Q 2 O(2) sao cho ( ) 1 0 1 Q A2 Q = . 0 1
Chng minh: (i) A = (a) 2 O(1) nu v ch nu a2 = 1, tc l a = 1.

168 i s tuyn tnh
5.2. nh x trc giao
( (ii) Gi s A =
a c b d
) . Khi , A 2 O(2) nu v ch nu
a2 + b2 = 1, c2 + d2 = 1, ac + bd = 0. Hai ng thc cui chng t (c, d) l nghim duy nht ca h phng trnh tuyn tnh khng suy bin ax + by = 0, cx + dy = 1. Theo quy tc Cramer, ta c ( ( ) ) 0 b a 0 det det c 1 1 d b a c= = ,d = = . det A det A det A det A Ta xt hai trng hp: Trng hp 1: det A = 1. Khi c = b, d = a. Kt qu l ( ) a b A= , vi a2 + b2 = 1. b a t a = cos , b = sin , ta thu c ( cos A= sin
sin
cos
) .
Trng hp 2: det A = 1. Khi c = b, d = a, v ) ( a b , vi a2 + b2 = 1. A= b a t a = cos , b = sin , ta c A= ( ) .
a thc c trng ca A bng X 2 2 cos X + 1. N c nghim thc nu v ch nu = sin2 0, hay l = k vi k l mt s nguyn. Khi ( ) 1 0 A= . 0 1
cos sin
sin cos
a thc c trng ca A l ( ) cos X sin det = X 2 (cos2 +sin2 ) = X 2 1 = (X 1)(X +1). sin cos X
i s tuyn tnh 169
Vy A c hai gi tr ring l 1 v 1. Gi s l php bin i trc giao ca R 2 c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc. Gi v l cc vct ring c di bng n v ca ng vi cc gi tr ring 1 v 1. Ta bit rng . Vy (, ) l mt c s trc chun ca R 2 . Nu Q l ma trn chuyn t c s chnh tc ca R 2 sang c s (, ) th Q 2 O(2) v ( ) 1 0 Q1 AQ = . 0 1 Php bin i trc giao ca khng gian vct Euclid hai chiu E c ma trn dng ( ) ( ) cos sin cos sin , hoc sin cos sin cos trong mt c s trc chun no c gi th t l php quay gc xung quanh gc to v php i xng trc.
Mnh 5.2.18 Gi s l mt php bin i trc giao ca khng gian vct Euclid E . Khi , nu U P E l mt khng gian vct con -n nh th U cng vy.
Chng minh: U : U U l mt php bin i trc giao, nn n l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. Ni ring, (U ) = U . Vi mi u 2 U , c mt t 2 U no sao cho u = (t). Gi s v 2 U . Ta c Ngha l (v ) 2 U . Chng minh: p dng mnh trc v nh rng mi php bin i tuyn tnh thc u c khng gian con n nh mt hoc hai chiu, ta nhn c phn tch trc giao E = U1 < < Um , trong mi Ui l mt khng gian con -n nh mt hoc hai chiu. By gi ta p dng Mnh 2.17 cho Ui . Nh rng mi php i xng trc hoc php quay gc k u c th cho ho c. V th, c ma trn nh ni trong mnh trong mt c s trc chun no ca E . H qu 5.2.21 Vi mi ma trn trc giao A cp n, c mt ma trn trc giao Q cng cp n sao cho Q1 AQ = Qt AQ l ma trn trc giao dng chnh tc. V d: Tm dng chnh tc B ca ma trn trc giao 2 1 2 A=
N(v), uO = N(v), (t)O = Nv, tO = 0.
3 2 3 1 3
3
2 3 2 3
. 1 3
3 2 3
170
i s tuyn tnh
5.2. nh x trc giao
Mnh 5.2.19 Gi s 2 O(E ), trong E hu hn chiu. Khi , tn ti mt c s trc chun ca E sao cho ma trn ca trong c s ny c dng ( ) ( ) cos 1 sin 1 cos r sin r Ep < (Eq ) < < < sin r cos r sin 1 cos 1 =

1 .. . 1
0 , .. . cos r sin r sin r cos r
1 1
0 .. .
cos 1 sin 1
sin 1
cos 1
trong 1 , ..., r l nhng s thc khc k (k
2 Z ). sin r
)
nh ngha 5.2.20 Ma trn ni Mnh 5.2.19 ( ) ( cos 1 sin 1 cos r Ep < (Eq ) < < < sin 1 cos 1 sin r c gi l ma trn trc giao dng chnh tc.
cos r
v ma trn trc giao Q sao cho B = Q1 AQ. Li gii: Trc ht ta tm a thc c trng ca A: 2 1 2 X 3 3 3 2 2 = (X 1 PA (X ) = det 3 3 X 3 1 2 2 3 3 3 X
1)(X 2 X + 1).
a thc ny c 3 nghim: X1 = 1, X2,3 = 12 3i . Gi l php bin i tuyn tnh ca R 3 c ma trn l A trong c s chnh tc. Vct ring e1 = (x, y, z )t ca ng vi gi tr ring X1 = 1 l nghim ca h phng trnh

2 2 (3 1)x 1 3y + 3z = 0 2 2 1 3 x + ( 3 1)y 3 z = 0 1 2 3 x+ 2 3 y + ( 3 1)z = 0.
i s tuyn tnh
171
T suy ra x = y = z . Nu ta i hi thm e1 c di n v th x = y = z = 13 . Ta chn e1 = ( 13 , 13 , 13 )t . Tip theo, ta xt khng gian -n nh hai chiu ng vi cc nghim phc lin hp X2,3 = 12 3i ca PA (X ). Mun th, ta tm nghim phc ca h phng trnh: 2 2 (3 1+2 3i )x 1 3y + 3z = 0 1+ 3i 2 x + (2 )y 1 3 3 2 3z = 0 1+ 3i 1 2 2 3 x + 3 y + ( 3 2 )z = 0. H ny c h nghim ph thuc mt tham s phc t: x = 2t, y = (1 + 3i)t, z = (1 3i)t.
Chn t = 1 v tch ring phn thc v phn o ca vct nghim, ta thu c hai vct e2 = (2, 1, 1)t , e3 = (0, 3, 3)t . Hai vc t ny trc giao vi nhau. Ta chun ho chng c mt h trc chun : 1 1 2 1 1 t e2 = ( , , ) , e3 = (0, , )t . 3 6 6 2 2 Theo chng minh nh l IV.2.2 ta c ( ((e2 ) (e3 )) = (e2 e3 ) ) .
23
1 2
3 2 1 2
Nh vy, trong c s trc chun (e1 , e2 , e3 ) php bin i c ma trn dng chnh tc 1 0 0 3 1 B=0 2 2 . 0 23 1 2 Ma trn chuyn Q t c s chnh tc ca R 3 sang c s trc chun (e1 , e2 , e3 ) chnh l ma trn trc giao vi cc ct l cc vct ta ca e1 , e2 , e3 : 2 1 3 0 13 1 1 Q= 3 . 6 2
1 3 1 6
12
Hin nhin l B = Q1 AQ.

172 i s tuyn tnh
5.3. Php bin i lin hp v php bin i i xng
5.3 Php bin i lin hp v php bin i i xng nh ngha c php bin i lin hp, ta cn b sau y. B 5.3.1 Gi s : E R l mt dng tuyn tnh trn khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu E . Khi tn ti duy nht vct 2 E sao cho (x) = Nx, O vi mi x 2 E . Chng minh: Tnh duy nht: Gi s c cc vct , (x) = Nx, O = Nx, O, Khi Nx, O = 0 vi mi x 2 E . Ni ring 2 = N , O = 0. Do = . S tn ti: Nu = 0 th ta chn = 0. Ngc li, nu Im() = R . Ta c dim E = dim Ker + dim R .
2 E sao cho
(x 2 E.
0, th
K hiu n = dim E , ta c dim Ker = n 1. Do , khng gian (Ker) c s chiu bng 1. Gi e 2 (Ker) l mt vct vi di n v e = 1. Nh th, e 0, v (Ker) = L(e). Ta t = (e) e 2 E . Mi x 2 E u c phn tch x = te + z (t 2 R , z 2 Ker). Ta c
Nx, O
= Nte + z, (e) eO = Nte, (e) eO = t(e)Ne, eO = t(e) = (te) = (te + z ) = (x).
H qu 5.3.2 Gi s E l mt khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu. Khi nh x f : E E t tng ng mi vi f 2 E xc nh bi h thc f (x) = Nx, O, l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. Chng minh: R rng f xc nh bi h thc trn l mt dng tuyn tnh trn E . Hn na, d kim tra rng

(x 2 E
f+ = f + f , , 2 E, fa = af , a 2 R , 2 E.
173
i s tuyn tnh
Ni cch khc, f : E E l mt nh x tuyn tnh. S tn ti v tnh duy nht ca vct ni b trc chng t f l mt ng cu. nh x f c gi l ng cu chnh tc gia E v E . N c nh ngha khng ph thuc vo c s ca E . Nu ta vit f (x) di dng Nx, f O, trong N, O : E E R l ghp cp i ngu gia E v E , th h thc xc nh f tr thnh Nx, fO = Nx, O. Nh th, ng cu f cho php ng nht ghp cp i ngu gia E v E vi tch v hng trong E . By gi gi s : E E l mt php bin i tuyn tnh. Vi mi c nh trong E , tng ng E R N(), O
l mt dng tuyn tnh trn E . Do , theo B 5.3.1, c duy nht phn t c k hiu l ( ) trong E sao cho
N(), O = N, ( )O.
Ta d kim tra li rng nh x : E l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
nh ngha 5.3.3 c gi l php bin i lin hp ca .
E ( )
Php bin i lin hp c nhng tnh cht sau y:

Mnh 5.3.4 Vi mi ,
2 L(E, E ), a 2 R , ta c
(i) ( + ) = + , (a) = a . (ii) ( ) = . (iii) ( ) = . (iv) Nu kh nghch th cng vy, v (1 ) = ( )1 . 174 i s tuyn tnh
Chng minh: Ta ch chng minh tnh cht (iii). Cc phn cn li c coi nh bi tp. Theo nh ngha, vi mi , 2 E , ta c
N(), O = N, ()( )O.

Mt khc
.
N(), O = N(), ( )O = N, ( )O. V N, ( ) ( )O = N, ( )O vi mi , 2 E , cho nn ta c ( )
Mnh 5.3.5 Nu A l ma trn ca trong mt c s trc chun no ca E , th At l ma trn ca trong cng c s y.
Chng minh: Gi s v c ma trn ln lt l A = (aij ) v B = (bij ) trong c s trc chun (e1 , ..., en ) ca E . Ta c
N(ej ), eiO = N
Tng t
akj ek , ei O =
n k =1
akj Nek , ei O = aij .
k =1
Nej , (ei)O = N(ei), ej O = bji iu kin N(ej ), ei O = Nej , (ei )O tng ng vi aij = bji vi mi i, j , hay
l B = At . nh ngha sau y a ra mt lp cc nh x tuyn tnh quan trng.
nh ngha 5.3.6 (i) Php bin i tuyn tnh : E i xng (hay t lin hp) nu = , tc l E c gi l mt php bin i
N(), O = N, ( )O, (, 2 E.
(ii) Ma trn vung A c gi l i xng nu A = At .
H qu 5.3.7 Nu php bin i tuyn tnh : E E l i xng th ma trn ca n trong mi c s trc chun ca E l ma trn i xng. Ngc li, nu php bin i tuyn tnh c ma trn i xng trong mt c s trc chun no ca E th l i xng. Chng minh: Ta dng cc k hiu ca mnh trc. Khi , i xng (tc l = ) nu v ch nu A = At .
i s tuyn tnh 175
Mnh 5.3.8 Cc khng gian con ring ng vi nhng gi tr ring khc nhau ca mt php bin i i xng l trc giao vi nhau.
Chng minh: Gi s v l cc vct ring ca php bin i i xng ng vi cc gi tr ring khc nhau v . Ngha l () = , ( ) = ( ). Ta c
N(), O N, O ( )N, O N, O
= N, ( )O = N, O = 0 = 0.
Mnh 5.3.9 Mi gi tr ring ca mt ma trn thc i xng bt k u l s thc.
Chng minh: Gi s A = (aij ) l mt ma trn thc i xng bt k, c cp n. Gi s l mt nghim phc ca phng trnh c trng det(A XEn ) = 0. H phng trnh n j =1 aij xj xi = 0 (i = 1, ..., n) c nh thc det(A En ) = 0, nn h c mt nghim phc khng tm thng (b1 , ..., bn ). Tc l
n
aij bj = bi
j =1
(i = 1, ..., n).
Nhn hai v ca ng thc trn vi lin hp phc bi ca bi ri cng li theo i, ta c

n n n
aij bj bi =
i,j =1 i=1
bi bi = (
i=1
bi 2 ).
2 H s n i=1 bi l mt s thc, nn chng minh l thc ta ch cn chng minh v tri cng l mt s thc. Ta c n i,j =1 aij bj bi
= = =
n i,j =1 aij bj bi n i,j =1 aji bj bi n i,j =1 aij bi bj
n i,j =1 aij bj bi
(do A i xng) n = i,j =1 aij bj bi .
B 5.3.10 Gi s l mt php bin i i xng ca E . Nu U l mt khng gian vct con -n nh ca E th U cng vy.
176 i s tuyn tnh
Chng minh: Nu u 2 U th (u) 2 U . Vi mi v Do (v ) 2 U .
Nu, (v)O = N(u), vO = 0.
2U
, ta c
nh l 5.3.11 Php bin i tuyn tnh ca khng gian vct Euclid hu hn chiu E l i xng nu v ch nu c mt c s trc chun ca E gm ton nhng vct ring ca . Chng minh: Nu E c mt c s trc chun gm nhng vct ring ca th ma trn ca trong c s l mt ma trn cho, v do i xng. V th i xng. Ngc li, gi s i xng, ta s chng minh bng quy np theo n = dim E rng c mt c s trc chun ca E gm ton nhng vct ring ca . Kt lun l hin nhin vi n = 1, v khi mi vct khc 0 trong E u l vct ring ca . Gi s quy np rng kt lun ng vi mi khng gian c s chiu nh hn n. Theo Mnh 5.3.9, c mt gi tr ring thc 1 . Gi e1 l mt vct ring c di bng 1, ng vi gi tr ring 1 . Khi L(e1 ) l mt khng gian vct con -n nh. Theo b trn, khng gian L(e1 ) cng l -n nh. Ngoi ra, ta c dim L(e1 ) = dim E 1 = n 1 n. Theo gi thit quy np, c mt c s trc chun (e2 , ..., en ) ca L(e1 ) gm ton nhng vct ring ca . Khi (e1 , e2 , ..., en ) l c s trc chun ca E cng gm ton nhng vct ring ca . H qu 5.3.12 Mi ma trn thc i xng u cho ho c nh cc ma trn trc giao. C th hn, nu A l mt ma trn thc i xng, th tn ti ma trn trc giao Q cho B = Q1 AQ = Qt AQ l mt ma trn cho. Chng minh: Chn mt khng gian vct Euclid E s chiu n, l s hng v s ct ca ma trn A. Gi l t ng cu ca E nhn A lm ma trn trong mt c s trc chun no (e1 , ..., en ) ca E . Khi l mt php bin i i xng, v A l i xng. Theo nh l 5.3.11, c mt c s trc chun (1 , ..., n ) ca E gm ton nhng vct ring ca . Ma trn B ca trong c s ny tt nhin l mt ma trn cho. By gi gi Q l ma trn chuyn t c s trc chun (e1 , ..., en ) sang c s trc chun (1 , ..., n ). Khi , Q l mt ma trn trc giao. Hn na, ta c B = Q1 AQ = Qt AQ.
i s tuyn tnh 177
V d: Tm mt ma trn trc giao Q lm cho ho ma trn i xng sau y: 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 A= 1 1 1 1 . 1 1 1 1 Li gii: Trc ht ta tm a thc c trng ca A: 1X 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 = (X det 1 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1 X
2)3(X + 2).
H ny c h nghim ph thuc mt tham s x = y = z = t. Vct e4 = 1 1 1 1 t , 2 , 2 , 2 ) tho mn h phng trnh v c di bng n v. ( 2 Tip theo, ta tm cc vct ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring 1 = 2 = 3 = 2: x x + y + z + t 0 y xyzt 0 (A 2E4 ) z = x y z t = 0 . t xyzt 0 H ny tng ng vi ch mt phng trnh Nu chn x = y th z = t. Ta mun tm cc vct ring c di bng n 1 . T y ta c v, tc l x2 + y 2 + z 2 + t2 = 2x2 + 2z 2 = 1. Do x2 + z 2 = 2 th chn hai vct ring c lp tuyn tnh e1 , e2 vi cc to tng ng l
1 1 x1 = y1 = z1 = 2 , t1 = 2 , 1 1 v x2 = y2 = t2 = 2 , z2 = 2 .
Sau , ta tm vct ring ca A ng vi gi tr ring 4 = 2: x 3x + y + z + t 0 y x + 3y z t 0 (A + 2E4 ) z = x y + 3z t = 0 . t x y z + 3t 0
x y z t = 0.
May mn, hai vct ny trc giao vi nhau. (Nu tri li, ta tin hnh trc giao ho chng). Cui cng, ta tm vct ring e3 ng vi = 2 bng cch i hi n trc giao vi hai vct e1 , e2 , tc l tho mn thm hai phng trnh

x + y + z t = 0, x + y z + t = 0.
178
i s tuyn tnh
5.4. Vi nt v khng gian Unita

1 Ngoi ra, ta mun e3 = 1. T , e3 c cc to x3 = z3 = t3 = 1 2 , y3 = 2 . Ma trn cn tm Q c cc vct ct chnh l cc vct ring (e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 ):
Q=
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Ta c
2 0 B = Q1 AQ = Qt AQ = 0 0
0 2 0 0
0 0 2 0
0 0 . 0 2
5.4 Vi nt v khng gian Unita Trong tit ny ta ni vi nt v nhng thay i cn thit khi nghin cu vic o di ca cc vct trong mt khng gian vct phc. Trong nhng khng gian nh th, ta khng nh ngha c khi nim gc gia hai vct bt k. Tuy th, khi nim trc giao th vn c ngha. Gi s E l mt khng gian vct phc.
nh ngha 5.4.1 Mt hm : E E mn hai iu kin sau y: (1) tuyn tnh i vi bin th nht: (1 + 2 , ) = (1 , ) + (2 , ) (a, ) = a (, ), (2) l mt hm lin lp i xng: (, ) = (, ), trong (, ) l lin hp phc ca (, ). C c gi l mt dng Hermit trn E nu n tho
(1, 2, 2 E, (a 2 C , , 2 E.
(, 2 E,
Mi dng Hermit u lin hp tuyn tnh i vi bin th hai. Tc l (, 1 + 2 ) = (, 1 ) + (, 2 ) (, b ) = b (, ),

i s tuyn tnh
(, 1, 2 2 E, (b 2 C , , 2 E.
179
Tht vy: (, 1 + 2 ) = = (, b ) = = (1 + 2 , ) = (1 , ) + (2 , ) (1 , ) + (2 , ) = (, 1 ) + (, 2 ). (b, ) = b (, ) b (, ) = b (, ).
c bit, ly = , ta c (, ) = (, ). V th, (, ) l mt s thc, vi mi 2 E .

nh ngha 5.4.2 Dng Hermit c gi l mt tch v hng nu n c tnh xc nh dng: (, ) 0, (, ) = 0
( 2 E,
= 0.
Khng gian vct phc E cng vi mt tch v hng cho trn E c gi l mt khng gian Unita.
Khi (, ) c gi l tch v hng ca v , v thng c k hiu bi N, O. Nhn xt: Khng th nh ngha tch v hng trn khng gian vct phc nh mt dng song tuyn tnh, i xng v xc nh dng. L do n gin l v khng tn ti mt dng nh vy. Tht th, nu N, O l mt dng song tuyn tnh, i xng v xc nh dng th
Na, aO = a2N, O, (a 2 C , 2 E. Nu N, O l mt s thc dng th a2 N, O khng thc, chng hn vi a =
i,
trong i l n v o. V d: Khng gian C n l mt khng gian Unita vi tch v hng chnh tc nh ngha nh sau: N, O = x1y1 + + xnyn, trong = (x1 , ..., xn )t , = (y1 , ..., yn )t . = Trong khng gian Unita E , s thc khng m = N, O c gi l di ca vct . Bt ng thc Cauchy-Schwarz vn cn ng trong cc khng gian Unita. , O Tuy th, t s N ni chung l mt s phc m khng l s thc, nn ta khng nh ngha c gc gia hai vc t khc 0 bt k.
180 i s tuyn tnh
5.4. Vi nt v khng gian Unita
Mc du vy, ta vn ni trc giao vi v vit nu N, O = 0. Mi khng gian unita u c c s trc chun. iu ny c th c chng minh bng cch trc giao ho Shmidt mt c s tu ca E xy dng mt c s trc giao, ri chun ho c mt c s trc chun ca E .
nh ngha 5.4.3 T ng cu f : E E c gi l mt bin i unita nu f bo ton tch v hng: Nf (), f ( )O = N, O, (, 2 E.
Mt php bin i tuyn tnh l unita nu v ch nu n bin mi c s trc chun thnh mt c s trc chun. Gi s A = (aij ) l mt ma trn phc vung cp n. Ma trn ph hp phc A = (a ij ) ca A c nh ngha nh sau: a ij = aji .
nh ngha 5.4.4 A c gi l mt ma trn unita nu AA = A A = En .
Ma trn chuyn gia hai c s trc chun bt k ca E l mt ma trn unita. Mt php bin i tuyn tnh l unita nu v ch nu ma trn ca n trong mi c s trc chun ca E l mt ma trn unita. Khc vi cc php bin i trc giao, mi php bin i unita u cho ho c. iu ny l h qu ca tnh ng i s ca trng s phc. Mi gi tr ring ca mt php bin i unita u c mun bng 1.
nh ngha 5.4.5 Php bin i tuyn tnh f : E E c gi l t lin hp nu
Nf (), O = N, f ( )O,
(, 2 E.
Ma trn A c gi l t lin hp nu A = A . Mt php bin i tuyn tnh l t lin hp nu v ch nu ma trn ca n trong mi c s trc chun ca E l mt ma trn t lin hp. Mi php bin i t lin hp ca E u c mt c s trc chun ca E gm ton nhng vct ring ca n. Mi gi tr ring ca cc php bin i t lin hp u thc. H qu l mi ma trn t lin hp A u c mt ma trn unita C sao cho C AC = C 1 AC l ma trn cho, vi cc phn t trn ng cho u thc.
i s tuyn tnh 181
5.5 Bi tp 1. Chng minh rng cc vct (1, 2, 2, 3) v (2, 3, 2, 4) trc giao vi nhau. B sung h vct thu c mt c s trc giao ca khng gian.
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2. B sung h gm 2 vct ( 1 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 ) v ( 2 , 2 , 2 , 2 ) thu c mt c s trc chun ca khng gian.
3. Dng php trc giao ho xy dng mt c s trc giao ca khng gian con sinh bi cc vct sau y: (2, 1, 3, 1), (7, 4, 3, 3), (1, 1, 6, 0), (5, 7, 7, 8). 4. Tm mt c s trc giao cho phn b trc giao U ca khng gian con U trong R 4 sinh bi cc vct sau y: 1 = (1, 0, 2, 1), 2 = (2, 1, 2, 3), 3 = (0, 1, 2, 1). 5. Khng gian vct con U c xc nh bi h phng trnh 2x1 + x2 + 3x3 3x1 + 2x2 3x1 + x2 + 9x3

x4 = 0, 2x4 = 0, x4 = 0.
Tm h phng trnh xc nh phn b trc giao U ca U trong R 4 . 6. Xc nh hnh chiu trc giao ca vct = (4, 1, 3, 4) ln khng gian con U sinh bi cc vct 1 = (1, 1, 1, 1), 2 = (1, 2, 2, 1), 3 = (1, 0, 0, 3). 7. Xc nh hnh chiu trc giao ca vct = (7, 4, 1, 2) ln khng gian con U xc nh bi h phng trnh 2x1 + x2 + x3 + 3x4 = 0, 3x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 + x4 = 0, x1 + 2x2 + 2x3 9x4 = 0. 8. Tm khong cch t vct = (2, 4, 4, 2) ti phng c xc nh bi h phng trnh: x1 + 2x2 + x3 x1 + 3x2 + x3
182

x 4 = 1, 3x4 = 2.
i s tuyn tnh
5.5. Bi tp
9. Chng minh rng khong cch d t vct ti phng + U , trong U l khng gian con c c s (1 , ..., k ), nghim ng cng thc d2 = y G(1 , ..., k , ) . G(1 , ..., k )
G(1 , ..., k ) = det(Ni , j O)kk
l nh thc Gram (cn gi l nh thc Gram - Shmidt) ca h vct (1 , ..., k ). 10. Tm khong cch gia hai phng + U v + V , trong = (4, 5, 3, 2) = (1, 2, 1, 3), khng gian con U sinh bi cc vct (1, 2, 2, 2) v (2, 2, 1, 2), v khng gian con V sinh bi cc vct (2, 0, 2, 1) v (1, 2, 0, 1). 11. Cho cc vct v trong khng gian vct Euclid E . Chng minh rng: (a) = a vi s thc no a v bng 0; (b) = a vi s thc no a v bng . 0 nu v ch nu gc gia hai vct 0 nu v ch nu gc gia hai vct
12. Chng minh rng gc gia vct vi cc vct 2 L, trong L l mt khng gian vct con, t gi tr nh nht khi l hnh chiu vung gc 0 ca ln L. ng thc cos (, ) = cos (, 0 ), trong 2 L, xy ra nu v ch nu = a0 vi s thc no a 0. 13. Ta gi gc gia v hnh chiu vung gc ca n ln L l gc gia v L (xem bi tp trc). Tm gc gia = (1, 0, 3, 0) v khng gian con L sinh bi cc vct sau y: (5, 3, 4, 3), (1, 1, 4, 5), (2, 1, 1, 2). 14. Cho mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh (e1 , ..., ek ) v hai h vct trc giao (f1 , ..., fk ) v (g1 , ..., gk ) sao cho cc vct fs v gs biu th tuyn tnh c qua cc vct e1 , ..., es (vi s = 1, 2, ..., k ). Chng minh rng fs = as gs trong as l mt s thc khc khng (s = 1, 2, ..., k ).
i s tuyn tnh 183
15. Xt tch v hng sau y trong khng gian R [X ]n cc a thc thc c bc khng vt qu n:
Nf, gO =
1
f (X )g (X )dX.
Chng minh rng nu p dng qu trnh trc giao ho vo c s (1, X, ..., X n ) ca khng gian ni trn th ta thu c h a thc ch khc vi cc a thc Legendre sau y cc nhn t thc khc khng: 1 dk [(X 2 1)k ], k k 2 k ! dX vi (k = 1, 2, ..., n). Tm cc nhn t . P0 (X ) = 1, Pk (X ) = 16. Chng minh rng nh thc Gram G(1 , ..., k ) = det(Ni , j O)kk khng thay i sau qu trnh trc giao ho. C th, gi s (e1 , ..., ek ) l kt qu ca qu trnh trc giao ho p dng cho h vct (1 , ..., k ). Khi G(1 , ..., k ) = G(e1 , ..., ek ) = Ne1 , e1 ONe2 , e2 O Nek , ek O.
=
(Trn c s , ngi ta gi hp vi cc cnh 1 , ..., k .)
G(1 , ..., k ) l th tch k -chiu ca hnh
17. Chng minh rng cc vct 1 , ..., k c lp tuyn tnh nu v ch nu G(1 , ..., k ) 0. 18. Chng minh rng nu (e1 , ..., ek ) l kt qu ca qu trnh trc giao ho p dng cho h vct (1 , ..., k ) th ek 2 = G(1 , ..., k ) , G(1 , ..., k1 )
vi k = 1, 2, ..., n. (nh thc Gram ca mt h gm khng vct c qui c coi l bng 1.) 19. Chng minh bt ng thc 0 G(1 , ..., k ) 1
2
k 2 ,
trong du bng xy ra bt ng thc th hai nu v ch nu cc vct 1 , ..., k i mt trc giao hoc t nht mt trong cc vct bng 0. 20. Chng minh bt ng thc G(1 , ..., k , 1 , ..., ) G(1 , ..., k )G(1 , ..., ), trong du bng xy ra nu v ch nu
Ni, j O = 0
184
(i = 1, ..., k ; j = 1, ..., )
hoc mt trong cc vct 1 , ..., k , 1 , ..., bng 0.

i s tuyn tnh
5.5. Bi tp
21. Cc c s (e1 , ..., en ) v f1 , ..., fn ) ca mt khng gian vect Euclid c gi l nghch o ca nhau nu
Nei, fj O =
1 nu i = j, 0 nu i j.
Chng minh rng tn ti duy nht c s nghch o i vi mi c s (e1 , ..., en ). 22. Cho hai h vct (1 , ..., k ) v (1 , ..., k ) ca mt khng gian vct Euclid E . Chng minh rng tn ti mt t ng cu trc giao ca E sao cho (i ) = i (i = 1, 2, ..., k ) nu v ch nu cc ma trn Gram ca hai h vct trng nhau: (Ni , j O)kk = (Ni , j O)kk . 23. Php bin i trc giao c ma trn l A nh di y trong mt c s trc chun no . Hy tm mt c s trc chun sao cho ma trn B ca trong c s c dng chnh tc, v tm ma trn B : 1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 2 1 1 1 1 . , ( b ) A = (a) A = 2 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 0 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 24. Tm dng chnh tc B ca ma trn trc giao A sau y v ma trn trc giao Q sao cho B = Q1 AQ: 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 1 1 1 3 3 3 2 2 1 2 2 2 2 . , (b) A = 1 1 (a) A = 1 1 3 3 3 1 2 2
3
2 1 2
2 1 2
2 1 2
2 1 2
25. Chng minh ton b Mnh 5.3.4. 26. Gi s (e1 , e2 ) l mt c )s trc chun ca mt phng v t ng cu c ( 1 2 trong c s gm f1 = e1 v f2 = e1 + e2 . Tm ma trn A = 1 1 ma trn ca t ng cu lin hp trong cng c s (f1 , f2 ). 27. Php bin i tuyn tnh ca khng gian vct Euclid R 3 c ma trn l 1 1 3 A = 0 5 1 2 7 3 trong c s gm cc vct f1 = (1, 2, 1), f2 = (1, 1, 2), f3 = (1, 1, 0). Tm ma trn ca php bin i lin hp trong cng c s .
i s tuyn tnh 185
28. Tm ma trn ca php bin i lin hp trong c s chnh tc ca R 3 nu bin cc vct 1 = (0, 0, 1), 2 = (0, 1, 1), 3 = (1, 1, 1) tng ng thnh cc vct 1 = (1, 2, 1), 2 = (3, 1, 2), 3 = (7, 1, 4). 29. Cho mt phn tch ca khng gian vct Euclid E thnh tng trc tip ca hai khng gian con: E = U1 < U2 . Gi l php chiu ln U1 theo phng U2 . Chng minh rng E = U1 < U2 , v l php chiu ln U2 theo phng U1 . 30. Chng minh rng nu U l mt khng gian con n nh i vi php bin i tuyn tnh th U l mt khng gian con n nh i vi php bin i lin hp . 31. Chng minh rng hai php bin i tuyn tnh lin hp vi nhau c cng a thc c trng. 32. Chng minh rng nu php bin i tuyn tnh c ma trn A trong c s (e1 , ..., en ) th php bin i lin hp c ma trn At trong c s nghch o vi c s ni trn. 33. Gi s U = (Ni , j O)nn l ma trn Gram ca c s (1 , ..., n ). Chng minh rng ma trn A ca php bin i tuyn tnh v ma trn B ca php bin i lin hp trong c s ni trn lin h vi nhau bi cng thc: (a) B = U 1 At U i vi khng gian vct Euclid; (b) B = U 1 At U i vi khng gian unita. T suy ra iu kin cn v l mt php bin i t lin hp. 34. Gi s U l ma trn Gram ca mt c s no ca khng gian v A l ma trn ca php bin i tuyn tnh trong c s . Tm ma trn ca php bin i lin hp trong cng c s ni trn, cho bit 3 1 2 1 2 0 U = 1 1 1 , A = 2 0 3 . 2 1 2 0 1 3 35. Gi l php chiu ln U1 theo phng U2 (hoc php phn x qua U1 theo phng U2 ). Chng minh rng l i xng nu v ch nu cc khng gian con U1 v U2 trc giao. 36. Cho php bin i tuyn tnh xc nh bi ma trn A sau y trong mt c s trc chun no ca khng gian. Tm mt c s trc chun gm
186 i s tuyn tnh
5.5. Bi tp
nhng vct ring ca v ma trn ca n trong c s y: 17 8 4 11 2 8 (a) A = 2 2 10 , (b) A = 8 17 4 . 8 10 5 4 4 11 37. Chng minh rng khng gian vct Euclid E c mt c s trc chun gm cc vct ng thi l cc vct ring ca hai php bin i i xng v nu v ch nu hai php bin i ny giao hon vi nhau. 38. Chng minh rng mi t ng cu ca mt khng gian vct Euclid u c th phn tch thnh = 1 1 v = 2 2 , trong 1 , 2 l cc php bin i i xng c mi gi tr ring u dng, cn 1 , 2 l cc php bin i trc giao. Chng minh rng mi cch phn tch ni trn u duy nht. 39. Phn tch cc ma trn sau y theo cc cch ni bi trc: ( ) 4 2 2 2 1 (a) A = , (b) A = 4 4 1 . 2 1 2 4 2 40. Chng minh rng php bin i i xng l xc nh dng (tc l N(), O 0 vi mi 0) nu v ch nu cc h s ca a thc c trng ca n X n + c1 X n1 + + cn u khc khng v an du; Hn na, l khng m (tc l N(), O 0 vi mi ) nu v ch nu c mt ch s k sao cho c0 = 1, c1 , ..., ck khc khng v an du, cn ck+1 = = cn = 0. 41. Chng minh rng nu v l cc php bin i i xng, trong xc nh dng, th cc gi tr ring ca varphi u thc. 42. Chng minh rng nu v l cc php bin i i xng vi cc gi tr ring khng m v mt trong hai php bin i l khng suy bin th cc gi tr ring ca varphi u thc v khng m. 43. Chng minh rng mi php bin i i xng khng m c hng r u l tng ca r php bin i i xng khng m c hng 1. 44. Php bin i ca khng gian Euclid E c gi l phn i xng nu = . Chng minh rng l phn i xng nu v ch nu ma trn ca n trong mi c s trc chun ca khng gian u l ma trn phn i xng.
i s tuyn tnh 187
45. Chng minh rng nu khng gian U n nh i vi php bin i phn i xng th phn b trc giao U ca n cng vy.
188
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 6
Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng
i dung chnh ca chng ny l phn loi tt c cc dng song tuyn tnh i xng v cc dng ton phng trn khng gian vct thc hu hn chiu.. . . .
6.1 Khi nim dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng Gi s V l mt khng gian vct thc.
nh ngha 6.1.1 nh x : V V R c gi l mt dng song tuyn tnh trn V nu n tuyn tnh vi mi bin khi c nh bin cn li; tc l (1 + 2 , ) (a, ) (, 1 + 2 ) (, a ) = = = = (1 , ) + (2 , ), a (, ), (, 1 ) + (, 2 ), a (, ),
vi mi , i , , j 2 V, a 2 R . Dng song tuyn tnh c gi l i xng nu (, ) = (, ) vi mi ,
2V.
Nhn xt: c hon ton xc nh bi H . Tht vy, ta c ( + , + ) = (, ) + (, ) + (, ) + (, ) = (, ) + 2 (, ) + (, ).

189
Chng 6. Dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng
nh ngha 6.1.2 Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn V . Khi nh x H : V R xc nh bi H () = (, ) c gi l dng ton phng trn V ng vi dng song tuyn tnh i xng .
T , ta nhn c (, ) = 1 [ ( + , + ) (, ) (, )] 2 1 = [H ( + ) H () H ( )]. 2
V th, c gi l dng cc ca dng ton phng H .

V d 6.1.3 (a) (x, y ) = xy l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vct V = R . Dng ton phng ng vi l H (x) = x2 . (b) Mi tch v hng trn V l mt dng song tuyn tnh, i xng v xc nh dng. Dng ton phng ng vi n chnh l H ( ) = 2 .
Gi s V l mt khng gian vct thc hu hn chiu, v (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s ca n. Nu = i xi i , = j yj j , th

n
(, ) = (
i
xi i ,
j
yj j ) =
i,j =1
xi yj (i , j ).
( )n Nh vy, hon ton c xc nh bi b cc gi tr (i , j ) i,j =1 . ( )n Ta xt ma trn A = (aij )n = ( , ) . Dng l i xng nu v i j i,j =1 i,j =1 ch nu A l mt ma trn i xng. Tht vy, nu i xng th aij = (i , j ) = (j , i ) = aji , vi mi i, j , nn A i xng. Ngc li, nu A i xng th
n n
(, ) =
i,j =1 n
xi yj (i , j ) =
i,j =1 n
aij xi yj
=
i,j =1
aji xi yj =
i,j =1
aij yi xj = (, ),
i s tuyn tnh
190
6.1. Khi nim dng song tuyn tnh v dng ton phng
( ) nh ngha 6.1.4 Ma trn A = (aij )nn = (i , j ) nn c gi l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh (hoc ma trn ca ca dng ton phng H ng vi ) trong c s (1 , ..., n ).
vi mi , 2 V , tc l i xng. K hiu cc vct ct to ca v bi x1 . , x= . y = . xn
y1 . . . yn
.
n i,j =1 aij xi yj
ng nht ma trn vung cp mt xt Ay vi phn t duy nht n, ta c

n
ca
(, ) =
i,j =1
aij xi yj = xt Ay.
Ta gi l biu thc to ca ca dng song tuyn tnh trong c s (1 , ..., n ). Cng nh vy, biu thc
n
H () =
i,j =1
aij xi xj = xt Ax
c gi l biu thc to ca ca dng ton phng H trong c s (1 , ..., n ). Mnh sau y cho thy ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh thay i th no khi i c s.
Mnh 6.1.5 Gi s A v B l ma trn ca dng song tuyn tnh (hay cng vy, ca dng ton phng H ) tng ng trong cc c s (1 , ..., n ) v (1 , ..., n ). Nu C l ma trn chuyn t c s (1 , ..., n ) sang c s (1 , ..., n ) th ta c B = C t AC.
Chng minh: K hiu A = (aij )nn , B = (bij )nn , C = (cij )nn , ta c bk = (k , ) = (

i n
cik i ,
j n
cj j ) cik aij cj ,
=
i,j =1
cik cj (i , j ) =
i,j =1
vi mi k, . chnh l phn t nm hng k ct ca ma trn C t AC . iu ny tng ng vi B = C t AC.

i s tuyn tnh 191
6.2 a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng (khng nht thit xc nh dng) trn khng gian vct thc V v H l dng ton phng ng vi n. Khi nim -trc giao sau y l mt tng qut ho ca khi nim trc giao i vi mt tch v hng trong khng gian vct Euclid. i vi cc vct , 2 V , nu (, ) = 0 th ta ni -vung gc (hay -trc giao) vi , v k hiu . Lu rng, v khng nht thit xc nh dng, nn rt c th vi mt s vct 0 no .
nh ngha 6.2.1 C s (1 , ..., n ) ca V c gi l mt c s -trc giao (hay H -trc giao, hay n gin, trc giao, khi v H r) nu (i , j ) = 0,
(i j.
iu ny tng ng vi s kin ma trn A ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ) l mt ma trn cho, hay cng vy, biu thc to ca dng ton phng H ng vi trong c s c dng
n
H () =
i=1
ai x2 i,
y ai = aii . Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s -trc giao. Khi , sau mt php hon v cc phn t trong c s (nu cn), biu thc ta ca dng ton phng H tng ng vi trong c s ny c dng
2 2 2 H ( ) = a1 x2 1 + + ap xp ap+1 xp+1 ap+q xp+q ,
trong ai 0(0 i p + q, 0 p + q n). Biu thc ny c gi l dng chnh tc ca dng ton phng H = H . Ta "chun ho'' c s (1 , ..., n ) bng cch t i = Khi =
i xi i
1 i (i = 1, ..., p + q ), i = i (i ai =
i yi i ,
p + q ).
trong p + q ).
yi =
ai xi (i = 1, ..., p + q ), yi = xi (i
Biu thc to ca H trong c s mi (1 , ..., n ) l

2 2 2 2 H () = y1 + + yp yp +1 yp+q .
192
i s tuyn tnh
6.2. a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc
Biu thc ny c gi l dng chun tc ca dng ton phng H = H .
nh l 6.2.1 Tn ti mt c s -trc giao cho mi dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vct thc hu hn chiu V . Chng minh: Gi A l ma trn ca trong mt c s no (1 , ..., n ). V A l mt ma trn i xng thc, nn tn ti ma trn trc giao Q sao cho B = Q1 AQ = Qt AQ l mt ma trn cho. Gi (1 , ..., n ) l c s m ma trn chuyn t (1 , ..., n ) sang n l Q. Khi , theo Mnh 6.1.5, B l ma trn ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ). V B l mt ma trn cho, nn (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s -trc giao.
H qu 6.2.2 Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn mt khng gian vct Euclid E . Khi , tn ti mt c s trc chun ca E ng thi l mt c s -trc giao. Chng minh: Ta lp li chng minh ca nh l trc, nhng xut pht t mt c s trc chun no (1 , ..., n ) ca E . Tn ti ma trn trc giao Q sao cho B = Q1 AQ = Qt AQ l mt ma trn cho. chnh l ma trn ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ) xc nh bi iu kin ma trn chuyn t (1 , ..., n ) sang c s l Q. V B l mt ma trn cho, nn (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s -trc giao. V Q trc giao, cho nn (1 , ..., n ) cng l mt c s trc chun ca E . C th nhn h qu ni trn t mt kha cnh khc. Theo cch nhn ny h qu khng nh c th a ng thi hai dng ton phng, trong c mt dng xc nh dng, v dng cho trong cng mt c s. By gi ta trnh by Phng php Lagrange a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc. Phng php ny tin li hn trong thc hnh so vi phng php c trnh by trong chng minh nh l 6.2.1. Gi s dng ton phng H c cho trong mt c s no (1 , ..., n ) bi biu thc H ( ) =
ij
aij xi xj ,
(aij = aji ).
Ta xt 3 trng hp sau y. Trng hp 1: Gi s aii 0 vi i no . Sau mt php nh s li cc phn

i s tuyn tnh 193
t ca c s (1 , ..., n ) nu cn, ta c th gi s a11

n
0. Khi
H =
a11 (x2 1
+ 2x1
n
a1i xi ) + (nhng s hng khng cha x1 ) a 11 i=2
= a11 (x1 + = trong

2 a11 y1
a1i 2 xi ) + (mt dng ton phng ca x2 , ..., xn ) a 11 i=2

n
+
k,=2

bk, yk y
(bk = bk ),
y1 = x 1 + yk = x k
n a1i i=2 a11 xi ,
(k = 2, 3, ..., n)
l mt php bin i to khng suy bin. Vic a H v dng chnh tc c quy v vic a dng ton phng H = n k,=2 bk, yk y ca (n 1) bin v dng chnh tc. iu ny c th thc hin bng quy np. Trng hp 2: Mi aii = 0 (i = 1, ..., n) nhng c aij 0(i j ). khng gim tng qut ta gi s a12 0. Thc hin php bin i to khng suy bin x1 = y1 + y2 , x2 = y1 y2 , xk = yk (k = 3, ..., n), ta c T H=
ij 2 2 2a12 x1 x2 = 2a12 (y1 y2 ).
aij xi xj =
ij
bij yi yj
2 c h s ca y1 l 2a12 0. Ta tr v trng hp 1 xt. Trng hp 3: Mi aij = 0 (i, j = 1, ..., n). Khi H c dng chnh tc trong bt k c s no ca khng gian V . V d: Chng minh rng mt trong hai dng ton phng sau y 2 2 H = 8x2 1 28x2 + 14x3 + 16x1 x2 + 14x1 x3 + 32x2 x3 , 2 2 K = x2 1 + 4x2 + 2x3 + 2x1 x3
l xc nh dng. Tm mt php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin a dng v dng chun tc, ng thi a dng cn li v dng chnh tc. Li gii: Ta s theo st cc bc ca chng minh H qu 6.2.2.
194 i s tuyn tnh
6.2. a dng ton phng v dng chnh tc
Dng phng php Lagrange a K v dng chnh tc, ta nhn thy K xc nh dng, bi v
2 2 2 2 2 K = x2 1 + 4x2 + 2x3 + 2x1 x3 = (x1 + x3 ) + 4x2 + x3 .
Trc ht ta a K v dng chun tc bng php i bin y1 = x1 + x3 , y2 = 2x2 , y3 = x3 . Khi

2 2 2 H = 8 y1 7y2 + 8 y3 + 8y1 y2 2y1 y3 + 8y2 y3 , 2 2 2 K = y1 + y2 + y3 .
Ma trn ca H trong c s mi ng vi cc bin y1 , y2 , y3 l 8 4 1 A = 4 7 4 . 1 4 8 Ci kh ca bc tip theo l phi tm mt php bin i tuyn tnh a H v dng chnh tc nhng khng lm thay i dng chun tc ca K . Ta s tm mt bin i nh th trong lp cc bin i trc giao. lm iu , trc ht ta tnh a thc c trng ca ma trn A ca dng ton phng H : 8X 4 1 det(A XE3 ) = det 4 7 X 4 = (X 9)2(X + 9). 1 4 8X a thc ny c 3 nghim thc k c bi X1 = X2 = 9, X3 = 9. Ta tm cc vct ring ng vi cc gi tr ring X1 = X2 = 9 (ca t ng cu ca R 3 c ma trn A trong c s chnh tc) bng cch gii h phng trnh tuyn tnh = 0 x + 4 y z 4x 16y + 4z = 0 x + 4 y z = 0 . H ny tng ng vi phng trnh u tin ca h. Ta chn 2 nghim c lp tuyn tnh ca n: 1 = (1, 0, 1)t , Trc giao ho h gm hai vct ni trn: e1 = 1 , e2 = 2 + e1 ,
i s tuyn tnh 195
2 = (0, 1, 4)t .
trong c xc nh duy nht bi iu kin e1
Kt qu l e2 = 2 + 2e1 = (2, 1, 2)t . Ta chun ho hai vct e1 , e2 , tc l chia mi vct cho di ca n, thu c: e1 = ( e2 1 1 , 0, )t , 2 2 2 1 2 = ( , , )t . 3 3 3
N 2 , e1 O 4 = 2 . = = Ne1, e1O 2
e2 :
Tip theo, ta tm vct ring ng vi gi tr ring X3 = h phng trnh tuyn tnh

9 bng cch gii
17x + 4y z = 0 4x + 2y + 4z = 0 x + 4y + 17z = 0.
H ny c hng bng 2, nn khng gian nghim ca n c s chiu bng 1, v c sinh bi vct sau y: e3 = (1, 4, 1)t . Chun ho vct ny, ta thu c e3 = ( 1 3 2 , 2 2 1 t ). , 3 3 2
V A l mt ma trn i xng, nn h (e1 , e2 , e3 ) l mt c s trc chun ca R . Xt ma trn trc giao vi cc ct (theo th t) l e1 , e2 , e3 : 1 2 1

3
Q=
12
3 1 3 2 3
3 2 2 2 3 1 3 2
chnh l ma trn ca php bin i trc giao ca R 3 bin c s chnh tc thnh c s (e1 , e2 , e3 ). Trong c s mi (e1 , e2 , e3 ), dng K vn c ma trn n v, bi v Qt E3 Q = Q1 Q = E3 ; cn H c ma trn cho, vi cc phn t trn ng cho chnh l cc gi tr ring ca A: 9 0 0 Qt AQ = 0 9 0 . 0 0 9
196 i s tuyn tnh
6.3. Hng v hch ca dng ton phng
Ni cch khc, sau php i bin thc hin bi ma trn Q:

z1 = z2 = z3 =
1 y 2 1
+2 3 y2 + +
1 3 y2 2 3 y2
1 y 2 1
1 y 3 2 3 2 2 3 y3 1 y 3 2 3
biu thc ca cc dng ton phng H v K nh sau:

2 2 H = 9z1 + 9z2 9z32, 2 2 2 K = z1 + z2 + z3 .
Th cc biu thc ca yi theo xi vo zi , ta thu c s ph thuc tng minh ca cc bin mi vo cc bin ban u:

z1 = z2 = z3 =
1 x 2 1
+4 3 x2 +
2 3 x2 4 3 x2
12 x1 +

2 2 3 x3 2 2 3 x3 2 3 x3 .
chnh l php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin phi tm. Nhn xt rng nghim ca bi ton trn khng duy nht. Tht vy, c nhiu php bin i khc nhau a K v dng chun tc; cng c nhiu cch khc nhau chn c s trc chun ca R 3 gm ton nhng vct ring ca ma trn A.
6.3 Hng v hch ca dng ton phng Gi s l mt dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vct thc V . c c s su sc cho vic nh ngha hng v hch ca , ta xy dng nh x tuyn tnh lin kt f = f : V V bng iu kin sau: y N, O ch php ghp cp i nhu gia V v V . Do tuyn tnh i vi bin th nht, nn theo B V.3.1, f ( ) hon ton xc nh vi mi 2 E . V tuyn tnh i vi bin th hai, nn f l mt nh x tuyn tnh.
Mnh 6.3.1 Ma trn ca trong mt c s (1 , ..., n ) trng vi ma trn ca f = f trong , ..., ). cp c s i ngu (1 , ..., n ) v (1 n
f ( )() = N, f ( )O := (, ),
(, 2 V,
Chng minh: Gi s vct
+ + x . = x1 1 n n
i s tuyn tnh 197
2V
, ..., ) nh sau c phn tch qua c s (1 n
Tc ng c hai v ln i ta c xi = Ni , O. Kt qu l
+ + N , O . = N1 , O1 n n
Gi A = (aij ) l ma trn ca trong c s (1 , ..., n ) v A = (bij ) l ma trn , ..., ). Theo nh ngha ma trn ca ca f trong cp c s (1 , ..., n ) v (1 n mt nh x tuyn tnh . f (j ) = bij i
i
Ta c
vi mi i, j . Do A = A .
bij = Ni , f (j )O = (i , j ) = aij ,
nh ngha 6.3.2 (i) Hng ca dng song tuyn tnh i xng (hay hng ca dng ton phng H tng ng) l hng ca nh x tuyn tnh lin kt vi n f . (ii) Nu rankH = dim V , th dng ton phng H v dng cc ca n c gi l khng suy bin. Tri li, nu rankH dim V , th H v c gi l suy bin.
Theo mnh trn, hng ca hay ca H bng hng ca ma trn ca chng trong c s bt k ca V . Nu W l mt khng gian vct con ca V th H W cng l mt dng ton phng trn W . Lu rng H (hoc ) c th khng suy bin trn V nhng li suy bin trn mt khng gian con no ca V . y l im khc nhau cn bn gia cc dng song tuyn tnh v cc dng tuyn tnh. V d: Dng ton phng c biu thc to trong mt c s no H = x2 y 2 khng suy bin trn khng gian 2 chiu, v ma trn ca n trong c s l ) ( 1 0 . 0 1 Nhng H = (x y )(x + y ) suy bin trn cc khng gian con mt chiu xc nh tng ng bi cc phng trnh x = y v x = y .
nh ngha 6.3.3 Khng gian vct sau y c gi l hch hay ht nhn ca dng song tuyn tnh i xng (hoc hch ca dng ton phng H tng ng): V 0 = Kerf = J 2 V (, ) = 0, (
2 V K.
V f l mt nh x tuyn tnh, nn V 0 l mt khng gian vct con ca V .

198 i s tuyn tnh
6.3. Hng v hch ca dng ton phng
Gi s T v U l cc khng gian vct con ca V . Ta ni T vung gc (hay trc giao) vi U theo ngha , v vit T U nu t u, vi mi t 2 T, u 2 U . Nu T : U = J0K v T U , th tng trc tip T < U c gi l mt tng -trc giao (hoc H -trc giao), v c k hiu l T < U . (Lu rng nu suy bin th iu kin T U khng ko theo T : U = J0K.) Theo nh ngha, ta c V 0 V .
Mnh 6.3.4 Gi V 0 l hch ca dng song tuyn tnh i xng trn khng gian vct V . Khi rank = dim V dim V 0 . Hn na, nu W l mt phn b tuyn tnh ca V 0 trong V , th tng -trc giao ca V 0 v W .
W
khng suy bin v V l
Chng minh: Ta xt nh x tuyn tnh f : V V lin kt vi . Theo nh l v mi lin h gia hng v s chiu ca ht nhn ca mt nh x tuyn tnh, ta c rankf = dim V dim Kerf . Theo nh ngha rank = rankf v V 0 = Kerf , cho nn rank = dim V
dim V 0.
By gi gi s W l mt phn b tuyn tnh ca V 0 trong V , tc l V = V 0 < W . Hin nhin V 0 W , bi v V 0 V . Ta ch cn phi chng minh W l khng suy bin. Gi s phn chng W suy bin. Theo phn trn ca mnh , hch W 0 ca W c s chiu bng Ly mt vct bt k 2 W 0 J0K, ta c (, ) = 0, ( 2 W. Mt khc, theo nh ngha V 0 , ta c (, ) = 0, ( 2 V 0 . V V = V 0 < W , nn dim W 0 = dim W
rank W
0.
( 2 V. Ngha l 2 V 0 . T 2 V 0 : W = J0K, vy = 0. iu v l ny bc b
(, ) = 0,
gi thit phn chng. H qu 6.3.5 Dng song tuyn tnh khng suy bin khi v ch khi hch ca n bng 0. Chng minh: Hch V 0 ca c s chiu bng dim V 0 = dim V
rank.
khng suy bin ngha l rank = dim V . iu ny xy ra nu v ch nu dim V 0 = 0, tc l tng ng vi V 0 = J0K.

i s tuyn tnh 199
6.4 Ch s qun tnh Khi nim dng ton phng xc nh dng tht ra c nh ngha chng khng gian vct Euclid. Sau y ta t nh ngha trong mi lin h vi mt s khi nim lin quan. Trong tit ny chng ta s chng minh tnh duy nht ca dng chun tc ca mt dng ton phng. Ni cch khc, mi dng ton phng c a v cng mt dng chun tc trong nhng c s khc nhau ca khng gian. Gi s H l mt dng ton phng trn khng gian vct thc V .
nh ngha 6.4.1 (i) H c gi l dng nu H () 0 vi mi 2 V .
(ii) H c gi l xc nh dng nu n khng m v H () = 0 = 0.
(iii) H c gi l m (tng ng: xc nh m) nu H l dng (tng ng: xc nh dng).
Ta cng ni dng cc ca H l khng m, khng dng, xc nh dng, xc nh m nu H l nh th. nh l 6.4.1 (nh l Sylvester v ch s qun tnh). Gi s H l mt dng ton phng trn V . Khi V tha nhn mt phn tch H -trc giao V = V+ < V < V0 , trong H V+ xc nh dng, H V xc nh m, H V0 = 0. Trong bt k phn tch no nh vy th V0 l hch ca H , dim V+ = p, dim V = q l nhng hng s.
nh ngha 6.4.2 Ta gi p l ch s qun tnh dng, q l ch s qun tnh m v cp s (p, q ) l ch s qun tnh ca dng ton phng H (hay ca dng cc tng ng vi H ). Hiu s p q c gi l k s ca H (hay ca ).
Chng minh nh l 6.4.1: Gi s trong c s (e1 , ..., en ) ca V dng ton phng H c dng chun tc
2 2 2 H () = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q ,
200
i s tuyn tnh
6.4. Ch s qun tnh
vi = x1 e1 + + xn en . Ta t V+ = L(e1 , ..., ep ), V = L(ep+1 , ..., ep+q ), V0 = L(ep+q+1 , ..., en ). Khi , r rng H V+ xc nh dng, H V xc nh m, H V tha nhn phn tch H -trc giao: V = V+ < V < V0 , iu ny c suy ra t ch dng cc ca H c xc nh bi cng thc (, ) = x1 y1 + + xp yp xp+1 yp+1 xp+q yp+q , vi = x1 e1 + + xn en , = y1 e1 + + yn en . By gi ta hy xt mt phn tch H -trc giao (tc l -trc giao) bt k no V = V+ < V < V0 , trong H V+ xc nh dng, H V xc nh m, v H V0 = 0. Trc ht ta chng minh rng V0 = V 0 l hch ca . Gi s 2 V0 , v V+ V0 , V V0 , cho nn (, ) = 0, Hn na, v H
V0 V0
= 0. Hn na,
( 2 V+ < ( 2 V0 .
V .
= 0, nn
V0
= 0, tc l
(, ) = 0, Gp c hai kt lun trn li, ta c (, ) = 0,
( 2 V
= V+ < V < V0 .
Theo nh ngha ca hch ca dng song tuyn tnh, ta thu c 2 V 0 , tc l V0 P V 0 . Mt khc, gi s = + + + 0 2 V 0 , trong + 2 V+ , 2 V , 0 2 V0 . V 2 V 0 , nn ta c 0 = (, + ) = (+ + + 0 , + ) = (+ , + ). ng thc ny cng vi gi thit H V+ xc nh dng dn ti + = 0. Tng t, = 0. Do , = 0 2 V0 . V iu ng vi mi 2 V 0 , cho nn V 0 P V0 . Hai bao hm thc ngc nhau V0 P V 0 v V 0 P V0 chng t V0 = V 0 . By gi gi s V c hai phn tch H -trc giao nh trn
< V < V 0. V = V+ < V < V 0 = V+

i s tuyn tnh 201
Ta s chng minh
Gi s phn chng p p . V p + q = p + q = dim V dim V 0 , nn q q . = p + q + dim V 0 dim V . Bi vy, c vct Do dim(V+ < V 0 ) + dim V . Khi H () 0 v 2 (V+ < V 0 ) (ta khc khng 2 (V+ < V 0 ) : V . l mt nhn mnh iu kin V+ V 0 ). Mt khc, H () 0 v 2 V mu thun. Do vai tr i xng ca hai phn tch ca khng gian V , gi thit p p cng dn ti mu thun. Vy p = p , do q = q . H qu 6.4.3 (Dng to ca nh l Sylvester) Gi s dng ton phng H c a v dng chun tc trong hai c s khc nhau, nh sau
2 2 2 H () = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q 2 2 2 2 = y1 + + yp yp +1 yp +q .
= p p = dim V+ = dim V+ = q. q = dim V = dim V
Khi p = p , q = q l cc ch s qun tnh dng v m ca H , cn dim V (p + q ) l s chiu ca hch ca H .
nh ngha 6.4.4 Hai dng ton phng H v K trn khng gian vct thc V c gi l tng ng nu c mt t ng cu tuyn tnh : V V sao cho H () = K (()).
thc s l mt quan h tng ng. H qu 6.4.5 Hai dng ton phng trn khng gian vct thc V tng ng vi nhau nu v ch nu chng c cng ch s qun tnh. Chng minh: Gi s hai dng ton phng H v K tng ng, tc l c mt t ng cu tuyn tnh : V V sao cho H () = K (()). Gi s H c dng chun tc trong c s (e1 , ..., en ), ni r hn
2 2 2 H () = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q ,
vi = x1 e1 + + xn en . V l mt ng cu tuyn tnh, nn h vct 1 = (e1 ), ..., n = (en ) cng lp nn mt c s ca V . t = () = x1 (e1 ) + + xn (en ) = x1 1 + + xn n . Ta c

2 2 2 K ( ) = K (()) = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q .
202
i s tuyn tnh
6.5. Dng ton phng xc nh du
Vy H v K c cng ch s qun tnh. Ngc li, gi s H v K c cng ch s qun tnh (p, q ). Gi (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s trong H nhn dng chun tc
2 2 2 H () = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q ,
vi = x1 e1 + + xn en . Gi s (1 , ..., n ) l mt c s trong K nhn dng chun tc

2 2 2 2 K ( ) = y1 + + yp yp +1 yp+q ,
vi = y1 1 + + yn n . Gi l t ng cu ca V chuyn c s (e1 , ..., en ) thnh c s (1 , ..., n ). Khi , nu = x1 e1 + + xn en , th () = x1 1 + + xnn. V th, ta c

2 2 2 H () = K (()) = x2 1 + + xp xp+1 xp+q .
Nh th, hai dng ton phng H v K tng ng. Theo h qu trn, mi lp tng ng cc dng ton phng trn khng gian vct thc n chiu c t tng ng mt-mt vi mt cp s nguyn khng m (p, q ) sao cho p + q n. Vy, s cc lp tng ng ca cc dng ton phng trn khng gian vct thc n chiu bng (n + 1) + n + + 1 = (n + 1)(n + 2) . 2
Nhn xt 6.4.6 Ta ni i iu v cc dng song tuyn tnh v cc dng ton phng (trn khng gian vct) phc. Mi dng ton phng H trn khng gian vct phc V u a c v dng chnh tc trong mt c s no ca khng gian: 2 2 H () = a1 z1 + + a r zr , ai 2 C , trong r = rankH n = dim V . V mi s phc u c cn bc hai, nn mi dng ton phng phc H u a c v dng chun tc:
2 H () = t2 1 + + tr ,
trong t1 , ..., tn l to ca trong mt c s no ca V . Nh vy, cc dng ton phng phc c c trng hon ton bi hng ca n. Do , c tt c (n + 1) lp tng ng ca cc dng ton phng phc di tc ng ca nhm t ng cu GL(V ).
i s tuyn tnh 203
nh ngha 6.5.1 Gi s A l mt ma trn vung. Cc nh thc con chnh ca A l cc nh thc gc tri trn, bao gm ( ) a11 a12 det(a11 ), det , ..., det A. a21 a22
6.5 Dng ton phng xc nh du nh l 6.5.1 (Sylvester) Gi s dng ton phng H trn khng gian vct hu hn chiu V c ma trn A trong mt c s no . Khi (i) H l xc nh dng nu v ch nu mi nh thc con chnh ca A u dng. (ii) H l xc nh m nu v ch nu mi nh thc con chnh cp chn ca A u dng, v mi nh thc con chnh cp l ca A u m. Gi l dng cc ca H , v (e1 , ..., en ) l c s ca khng gian V trong H c ma trn l A. K hiu Vk = L(e1 , ..., ek ) (k = 1, ..., n). Nu H xc nh dng hoc xc nh m th H Vk khng suy bin vi mi k = 1, ..., n. Lp li qu trnh trc giao ho Shmidt ta c b sau. B 6.5.2 Gi s hn ch ca H trn mi Vk = L(e1 , ..., ek ) u khng suy bin (k = 1, ..., n). Khi h vct (1 , ..., k ) xy dng bi quy np

1 = e1 , k = ek
k 1 (ek ,i ) i=1 H (i ) i
l mt c s -trc giao ca Vk (k = 1, ..., n). Chng minh nh l 6.5.1: Trong c s -trc giao (1 , ..., n ), H c ma trn cho H (1 ) 0 ... 0 0 H (2 ) ... 0 . B= . . ... . 0 0 ... H (n ) Gi Ak (tng ng Bk ) l ma trn nm giao ca k hng u v k ct u ca A (tng ng ca B ). Khi Ak v Bk l ma trn ca H Vk tng ng trong cc c s (e1 , ..., ek ) v (1 , ..., k ). Gi Ck l ma trn chuyn t c s th nht sang c s th hai, ta c t Bk = Ck Ak C k .
204 i s tuyn tnh
6.6. Bi tp
Theo B 6.5.2, Ck l mt ma trn tam gic trn vi cc phn t trn ng t = 1. H qu l cho bng 1. V th det Ck = det Ck det Ak = det Bk = H (1 ) H (k ) (k = 1, ..., n).
H l xc nh dng khi v ch khi H (k ) 0 vi mi k = 1, ..., n, tc l nu v ch nu det Ak 0 (k = 1, ..., n). H l xc nh m khi v ch khi H (k ) 0 vi mi k = 1, ..., n, tc l nu v ch nu det Ak m vi mi k l v det Ak dng vi mi k chn (k = 1, ..., n). V d: nh thc Gram-Shmidt ca h vct (u1 , ..., uk ) trong khng gian vct Euclid E c nh ngha nh sau: Nu1, u1O Nu1, u2O ... Nu1, uk O Nu2 , u1 O Nu2 , u2 O ... Nu2 , uk O . G(u1 , ..., uk ) = det . . ... . Nuk , u1O Nuk , u2O ... Nuk , uk O Nu vct uj biu th tuyn tnh qua nhng vct cn li ca h th ct th j ca nh thc l mt t hp tuyn tnh ca nhng ct cn li. Vy, nh thc Gram-Shmidt ca mt h vct ph thuc tuyn tnh th bng 0. Ngc li, nh thc Gram-Shmidt ca mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh lun lun dng. Tht vy, nu (u1 , ..., uk ) l mt h vct c lp tuyn tnh th ma trn (Nui , uj O)k i,j =1 chnh l ma trn ca tch v hng trong c s (u1 , ..., uk ) ca khng gian L(u1 , ..., uk ). V tch v hng cm sinh mt dng ton phng xc nh dng, nn theo nh l 6.5.1 G(u1 , ..., uk ) 0.
6.6 Bi tp Tm dng chun tc ca cc dng ton phng sau y trn trng s thc:
2 2 1. x2 1 + x2 + 3x3 + 4x1 x2 + 2x1 x3 + 2x2 x3 .
2. x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x1 x4 + x2 x3 + x2 x4 + x3 x4 . Tm dng chun tc ca cc dng ton phng sau y v nhng php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin a dng cho v dng chun tc:
i s tuyn tnh 205

2 2 3. 2x2 1 + 18x2 + 8x3 12x1 x2 + 8x1 x3 27x2 x3 .
4.
2 2 12x2 1 3x2 12x3 + 12x1 x2 24x1 x3 + 8x2 x3 .
a cc dng ton phng sau y v dng chnh tc vi h s nguyn bng cch s dng cc php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin vi h s hu t:
2 2 5. 2x2 1 + 3x2 + 4x3 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 3x2 x3 . 2 2 2 6. 1 2 x1 + 2x2 + 3x4 x1 x2 + x2 x3 x3 x4 .
Tm php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin a dng ton phng H v dng ton phng K :
2 2 7. H = 2x2 1 + 9x2 + 3x3 + 8x1 x2 4x1 x3 10x2 x3 , 2 2 2 + 3 y2 + 6 y3 4y1y2 4y1y3 + 8y2y3. K = 2 y1
2 2 8. H = 3x2 1 + 10x2 + 25x3 12x1 x2 18x1 x3 + 40x2 x3 , 2 2 K = 5 y1 + 6 y2 + 12y1 y2 . 2 2 9. H = 5x2 1 + 5x2 + 2x3 + 8x1 x2 + 6x1 x3 + 6x2 x3 , 2 2 2 K = 4 y1 + y2 + 9y3 12y1y3.
a cc dng ton phng sau y v dng chnh tc v biu th cc n mi qua cc n c: 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.
n 2 i=1 xi n i j
n i j
xi xj .
xi xj .
n1 i=1 xi xi+1 . n i=1 (xi n i j
+x s)2, trong s = x +x + n i j xi xj .

1 2
15. Cho dng ton phng

2 2 2 H = f1 + f2 + + fp fp2+1 fp2+2 fp2+q ,
trong f1 , ..., fp+q l cc dng tuyn tnh thc ca cc bin x1 , ..., xn . Chng minh rng ch s qun tnh dng ca H khng vt qu p v ch s qun tnh m ca n khng vt qu q . 16. Chng minh rng nu c th a mi dng ton phng H v K v dng kia bng mt php bin i tuyn tnh (khng nht thit kh nghch) th cc dng ny tng ng vi nhau.
206 i s tuyn tnh
6.6. Bi tp
17. Cc dng ton phng sau y c tng ng vi nhau trn trng s thc hay khng:
2 2 H = x2 1 + 4x2 + x3 + 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 , 2 2 2 K = y1 + 2 y2 y3 + 4y1 y2 2y1 y3 4y2 y3 , 2 L = 4z1 z22 z32 4z1z2 + 4z1z3 + 18z2z3.
18. Tm hng v k s ca dng ton phng thc H nu n tng ng vi H bi mt php bin i tuyn tnh thc khng suy bin. 19. Tm s lp tng ng ca cc dng ton phng thc n n c k s bng s cho. 20. Chng minh rng iu kin cn v mt dng ton phng H vit c thnh tch ca hai dng tuyn tnh l: (a) i vi trng s thc: hng ca H khng vt qu 2, v nu hng ca H bng 2 th k s ca n bng 0. (b) i vi trng s phc: hng ca H khng vt qu 2. 21. Chng minh rng dng ton phng thc H xc nh dng nu v ch nu ma trn ca n c th vit di dng A = C t C , trong C l mt ma trn thc khng suy bin. 22. Chng minh rng trong mt dng ton phng thc xc nh dng mi h s ca cc bnh phng ca cc n u l s dng; nhng iu kin khng mt dng ton phng l xc nh dng. 23. Chng minh rng: (a) iu kin cn v ma trn i xng A vit c di dng A = C t C , trong C l mt ma trn thc khng suy bin l cc nh thc con chnh ca A u dng. (b) iu kin cn v ma trn i xng A vit c di dng A = C t C , trong C l mt ma trn vung thc l cc nh thc con chnh ca A u khng m. Hn na, nu hng ca A bng r th hng ca C cng vy, ngoi ra ta c th chn C vi r hng u c lp tuyn tnh v cc hng cn li bng 0. Tm tt c cc gi tr ca tham s cho dng ton phng sau y xc nh dng:
2 2 24. x2 1 + x2 + 5x3 + 2x1 x2 2x1 x3 + 4x2 x3 .
i s tuyn tnh
207

2 2 25. x2 1 + 4x2 + x3 + 2x1 x2 + 10x1 x3 + 6x2 x3 .
26. Ta gi hp thnh ca hai dng ton phng H = n i,j =1 aij xi xj v K = n n i,j =1 bij xi xj l dng ton phng (H, K ) = i,j =1 aij bij xi xj . Chng minh rng: (a) Nu H v K khng suy bin th (H, K ) cng vy. (b) Nu H v K xc nh dng th (H, K ) cng vy. Tm mt php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin a mt trong hai dng ton phng sau y v dng chun tc ng thi a dng cn li v dng chnh tc, vit r biu thc ca cc dng thu c:
2 2 27. H = 8x2 1 28x2 + 14x3 + 16x1 x2 + 14x1 x3 + 32x2 x3 , 2 2 K = x2 1 + 4x2 + 2x3 + 2x1 x3 .
28. H = 2x2 4 + x1 x2 + x1 x3 2x2 x3 + 2x2 x4 , 2 2 2 2 K=1 4 x1 + x2 + x3 + 2x4 + 2x2 x4 .

3 2 2 2 29. H = x2 1 + 2 x2 2x3 + x4 + 2x1 x2 + 4x1 x3 , 5 2 2 2 K = x2 1 + 4 x2 + x3 + x4 + 2x2 x3 . 2 30. H = x2 1 15x2 + 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 + 6x2 x3 , 2 2 K = x2 1 + 17x2 + 3x3 + 4x1 x2 2x1 x3 14x2 x3 .
31. Cho cp dng ton phng H v K , trong K xc nh dng. Xt php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin bt k a K v dng chun tc, ng thi a H v dng chnh tc
2 2 H = 1 y1 + + n yn .
Chng minh rng cc h s 1 , ..., n c xc nh duy nht sai khc th t. Hn na, chng l cc nghim ca phng trnh a thc det(AXB ) = 0 vi n X , trong A v B l cc ma trn tng ng ca H v K trong cng mt c s no ca khng gian. C th a cp dng ton phng sau y v dng chnh tc bi cng mt php bin i tuyn tnh thc khng suy bin hay khng?
2 32. H = x2 1 + 4x1 x2 x2 , 2 K = x2 1 + 6x1 x2 + 5x2 . 2 33. H = x2 1 + x1 x2 x2 , K = x2 1 2x1 x2 .
208
i s tuyn tnh
6.6. Bi tp
34. Cho cp dng ton phng xc nh dng H v K . Gi s php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin th nht a K v dng chun tc, ng thi a 2 H v dng chnh tc H = n i=1 i yi v php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin th hai a H v dng chun tc, ng thi a K v dng chnh tc 2 K= n i=1 i zi . Tm mi lin h gia cc h s 1 , ..., n v 1 , ..., n . 35. Ta ni cc cp dng ton phng (H1 , K1 ) v (H2 , K2 ), trong K1 v K2 xc nh dng, l tng ng nu c mt php bin i tuyn tnh khng suy bin a H1 v H2 ng thi a K1 v K2 . Chng minh rng iu kin cn v hai cp dng trn tng ng l tp hp nghim (k c bi) ca hai phng trnh det(A1 XB1 ) = 0 v det(A2 XB2 ) = 0 trng nhau. y Ai v Bi l ma trn tng ng ca Hi v Ki trong cng mt c s ca khng gian.
2 36. Chng minh rng dng chnh tc n i=1 i yi m dng ton phng H c th a v c nh mt php bin i trc giao c xc nh duy nht sai khc th t ca cc bin. Hn na cc h s 1 , ..., n l cc nghim ca a thc c trng ca ma trn A ca dng H .
Tm dng chnh tc m dng ton phng sau y c th a v nh mt php bin i trc giao. Vit biu thc tng minh ca php bin i . 37. 38.
n 2 i=1 xi n i j
n i j
xi xj .
xi xj .
39. Hai dng ton phng c gi l tng ng trc giao nu dng ny c th a v dng kia nh mt php bin i trc giao. Chng minh rng iu kin cn v hai dng ton phng tng ng trc giao l cc a thc c trng ca cc ma trn ca chng trng nhau. 40. Chng minh rng mi ma trn i xng thc A u c th vit di dng A = Q1 BQ, trong Q l mt ma trn trc giao v B l mt ma trn ng cho thc. 41. Chng minh rng mi gi tr ring ca mt ma trn thc A u thuc on [a, b] nu v ch nu dng ton phng vi ma trn (A E ) xc nh dng vi mi a v xc nh m vi mi b. 42. Gi s A v B l cc ma trn i xng thc. Chng minh rng nu cc tr ring ca A u thuc on [a, b] v cc tr ring ca B u thuc on [c, d] th cc gi tr ring ca ma trn A + B u thuc on [a + c, b + d].
i s tuyn tnh 209
43. Chng minh rng mt dng ton phng khng suy bin c th a v dng chun tc nh mt php bin i trc giao nu v ch nu ma trn ca n trong mt c s no l mt ma trn trc giao. 44. Chng minh rng ma trn ca mt dng ton phng xc nh dng l trc giao nu v ch nu dng ton phng l tng ca cc bnh phng. Hy din t s kin ny bng thut ng ma trn. 45. Chng minh rng mi ma trn khng suy bin thc A c th vit mt cch duy nht di dng A = QB , trong Q l mt ma trn trc giao v B l mt ma trn tam gic trn vi cc phn t dng trn ng cho chnh. 46. Chng minh rng: (a) Mi ma trn thc khng suy bin A u c th vit di hai dng A = Q1 B1 v A = B2 Q2 , trong Q1 , Q2 l cc ma trn trc giao v B1 , B2 l cc ma trn i xng thc vi cc nh thc con chnh dng. Mi cch vit u duy nht. (b) Mi ma trn phc khng suy bin A u c th vit di hai dng A = Q1 B1 v A = B2 Q2 , trong Q1 , Q2 l cc ma trn unita v B1 , B2 l cc ma trn t lin hp, c cc nh thc con chnh dng. Mi cch vit u duy nht.
210
i s tuyn tnh
Chng 7
i s a tuyn tnh
rong chng ny, chng ta trnh by cc cu trc a tuyn tnh ca i s tuyn tnh. Vt xa ra ngoi khun kh ca i s tuyn tnh, cc cu trc ny tm c nhiu ng dng trong C hc v Vt l, trong Hnh hc vi phn, Gii tch trn a tp v L thuyt biu din nhm... . . . . chun b cho vic trnh by chng ny, ta cn my nh ngha sau y.
nh ngha 7.0.1 Mt i s trn trng K l mt K -khng gian vct A c trang b mt php nhn : A A A, (, ) tho mn nhng iu kin sau: (a) A cng vi php cng vct v php nhn lp thnh mt vnh. (b) Cc php nhn vi v hng v php nhn ca A lin h vi nhau bi h thc (a) = (a ) = a( ), vi mi a 2 K , ,
2 A.
Tp con khc rng B P A c gi l mt i s con ca i s A nu n va l mt khng gian vct con va l mt vnh con ca A. Cho cc i s A v A . nh x : A A c gi l mt ng cu i s nu n va l mt ng cu khng gian vct va l mt ng cu vnh.
Chng hn, K -khng gian vct cc ma trn vung M (n n, K ) vi php nhn ma trn l mt i s trn trng K .
nh ngha 7.0.2 Gi s A l mt i s trn K . Khng gian vct con B mt ian ca i s A nu n c tnh cht hp th, tc l nu: vi mi 2 A,
P A c gi l
2 B,
2 B,
2 B.
211
Chng 7. i s a tuyn tnh
Chng hn, tp cc ma trn tam gic trn vi cc phn t trn ng cho bng 0 l mt ian ca i s ma trn M (n n, K ). D thy rng, nu B l mt ian ca i s A th khng gian thng A/B tr thnh mt i s, gi l i s thng, vi php nhn nh ngha nh sau: ( + B )( + B ) = ( ) + B. Nn tng ca cc cu trc a tuyn tnh l khi nim tch tenx ca cc khng gian vct.
7.1 Tch tenx Gi s L, M, N l cc khng gian vct trn trng K . nh x : L M N c gi l nu (1 + 2 , ) (a, ) (, 1 + 2 ) (, a ) = = = = (1 , ) + (2 , ), a(, ), (, 1 ) + (, 2 ), a(, ),
vi mi , 1 , 2 2 L, , 1 , 2 2 M, a 2 K . Ni cch khc, nh x song tuyn tnh l mt nh x tuyn tnh vi mi bin khi c nh bin kia. Gi F (L M ) l tp hp tt c cc hm c gi hu hn t L M vo trng K , tc l cc hm ch khc 0 ti mt s hu hn im no ca L M . Tp hp ny lp nn mt K -khng gian vct i vi cc php ton cng v nhn vi v hng c nh ngha theo gi tr ca hm, c th nh sau: (f + g )(, ) = f (, ) + g (, ), (af )(, ) = af (, ), vi mi f, g 2 F (L M ), a 2 K , (, ) 2 L M . Mi phn t (, ) 2 L M c t tng ng vi mt hm, cng k hiu l (, ) 2 F (L M ) c nh ngha nh sau: (, ) : L M (, ) ( , ) K, 1, 0, (( , ) (, ).
Gi s f 2 F (L M ) l hm ch khc 0 trn tp hu hn J(i , i ) i vi f (i , i ) = ai . D thy rng f=

212
i2I
2 I K,
ai (i , i ).
i s tuyn tnh
7.1. Tch tenx
Nh vy, mt cch trc gic, ta c th hiu F (L M ) l tp hp cc tng hnh thc c gi hu hn ca cc phn t trong L M vi h s trong K . Gi H l khng gian vct con ca F (L M ) sinh bi cc phn t c dng sau y: (1 + 2 , ) (1 , ) (2 , ), (a, ) a(, ), (, 1 + 2 ) (, 1 ) (, 2 ), (, a ) a(, ), trong , 1 , 2
2 L, , 1, 2 2 M, a 2 K .
nh ngha 7.1.1 Ta gi khng gian vct thng F (L M )/H l tch tenx ca cc khng gian L v M . N c k hiu bi L > M , hoc chi tit hn L >K M .
nh ca phn t (, ) bi php chiu chnh tc F (L M ) k hiu l > . Nh vy > = [(, )] := (, ) + H. Theo nh ngha ca khng gian con H , ta c (1 + 2 ) > (a) > > (1 + 2 ) > (a ) trong , 1 , 2 = = = = 1 > + 2 > , a( > ), > 1 + > 2 , a( > ),
L > M c
2 L, , 1, 2 2 M, a 2 K . Ni cch khc, nh x t:LM L>M nh ngha bi cng thc t(, ) = > l mt nh x song tuyn tnh.
Tch tenx c xy dng nhm mc ch tuyn tnh ho cc nh x song tuyn tnh. iu ny c ni r trong nh l sau y. nh l 7.1.1 (Tnh ph dng ca tch tenx). Vi mi nh x song tuyn tnh :LM N , tn ti duy nht nh x tuyn tnh h : L > M N lm giao hon biu LM
R t h
L>M
N,
i s tuyn tnh 213
tc l = h t.
Chng minh: Ta thc trin nh x thnh nh x : F (L M ) bi cng thc ( ai (i , i )) = ai (i , i ).

i2I i2I
N xc nh
R rng l mt nh x tuyn tnh. Hn na, do l song tuyn tnh cho nn H P Ker . Tht vy
vi mi , 1 , 2 2 L, , 1 , 2 2 M, a 2 K . Do H P Ker , nh x tuyn tnh cm sinh nh x tuyn tnh h : L > M := F (L M )/H h[x] = (x), N
((1 + 2 , ) (1 , ) (2 , )) = (1 + 2 , ) (1 , ) (2 , ) = 0, ((a, ) a(, )) = (a, ) a(, ) = 0, ((, 1 + 2 ) (, 1 ) (, 2 )) = (, 1 + 2 ) (, 1 ) (, 2 ) = 0, ((, a ) a(, )) = (, a ) a(, ) = 0,
y [x] = x + H l lp ca phn t x bt k trong F (L M ). Vi mi 2 L, 2 M , ta c
V th = h t. Tip theo, ta chng minh tnh duy nht ca h. Gi s h : L > M N cng l mt nh x tuyn tnh tho mn h thc = h t = h t. Nh th h = h trn Im(t). Khng gian F (L M ) c sinh bi cc phn t c dng (, ), do L > M := F (L M )/H c sinh bi cc phn t c dng (, ) + H = > = t(, ). Ni cch khc, Im(t) sinh ra khng gian L > M . Cc nh x tuyn tnh h v h bng nhau trn Im(t), nn chng bng nhau trn ton khng gian L > M . Gi L(L, M ; N ) l khng gian vct cc nh x song tuyn tnh t LM vo N . nh l 7.1.1 cho php xy dng mt nh x L(L, M ; N ) L(L > M, N ) bng cch chuyn thnh h. l mt ng cu tuyn tnh: H qu 7.1.2 L(L, M ; N ) L(L > M, N ).
(, ) = (, ) = h[(, )] = h( > ) = h(t(, )).
Tch tenx ca hai nh x tuyn tnh c nh ngha nh sau. Gi s f : L N v g : M P l cc nh x tuyn tnh. D thy rng nh x f
g :LM (f g )(, )
N > P, = f () > g ( ), 2 L,
2M
i s tuyn tnh
214
7.2. Cc tnh cht c bn ca tch tenx
l song tuyn tnh. Do , theo nh l 7.1.1, tn ti duy nht mt nh x c N > P c tnh cht (f > g )( > ) = f () > g ( ). k hiu l f > g : L > M nh x f > g c gi l tch tenx ca f v g .
7.2 Cc tnh cht c bn ca tch tenx Trong cc mnh sau y, gi s L, M, N l cc khng gian vct trn trng K .
Mnh 7.2.1 (Tnh kt hp). Tn ti duy nht mt ng cu tuyn tnh (L > M ) > N sao cho ( > ) >
L > (M > N ),
> ( > ) vi mi 2 L,
2 M, 2 N .
Chng minh: Ta xt nh x : (L > M ) N L > (M > N ) xc nh bi (( > ), ) = > ( > ). D kim tra li rng l mt nh x song tuyn tnh i vi cc bin > v . Theo nh l 7.1.1, tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh h : (L>M )>N L>(M >N ) sao cho h(( > )> ) = >( > ), vi mi 2 L, 2 M, 2 N . Tng t, tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh k : L > (M > N ) (L>M )>N sao cho k (>( > )) = ( > )> , vi mi 2 L, 2 M, 2 N . Nh vy, kh : (L > M ) > N (L > M ) > N l mt nh x tuyn tnh tho mn kh(( > ) > ) = ( > ) > , vi mi 2 L, 2 M, 2 N . Ni cch khc, kh trng vi nh x ng nht id trn tp cc vct c dng ( > ) > ; l mt tp sinh ca khng gian (L > M ) > N . Do kh = id, bi v c hai u l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Lp lun tng t, ta c hk = id. Hai ng thc kh = id v hk = id chng t rng h l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. Mnh ny cho php ta nh ngha tch tenx L1 > L2 > > Ln ca n khng gian vct L1 , L2 , ..., Ln . Chng ti ngh c gi t chng minh ba mnh di y, xem nh nhng bi tp.
Mnh 7.2.2 (Tnh giao hon). Tn ti duy nht mt ng cu tuyn tnh L>M sao cho > > vi mi 2 L,
M > L,
2 M.
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i s tuyn tnh
Mnh 7.2.3 (Tnh "c n v"). Tn ti duy nht ng cu tuyn tnh
sao cho a >
>a
>K L L >K K a vi mi a 2 K , 2 L.
K (L < M ) > N L > (M < N )
L,
Mnh 7.2.4 (Tnh phn phi).

(L > N ) < (M > N ), (L > M ) < (L > N ).
H qu 7.2.5 Gi s (1 , ..., m ) v (1 , ..., n ) l cc c s tng ng ca cc khng gian vct L v M . Khi , h vct (i j 1 i m, 1 j n) l mt c s ca khng gian vct L > M . Ni ring
dim(L > M ) = dim L dim M.
Chng minh: Theo nh ngha ca c s, ta c cc ng cu tuyn tnh L <m i=1 K i M p dng hai mnh k trn, ta c L>M
n (<m i=1 K i ) > (<j =1 K j ) n <m i=1 <j =1 (K i ) > (K j ) n <m i=1 <j =1 K (i > j ).
<n j =1 K j .
ng thc ny chng t h vct (i j 1 i m, 1 j n) l mt c s ca khng gian vct L > M . Cc v d sau y gii thiu mt s ng cu chnh tc lin quan n tch tenx.
V d 7.2.6 Nu L1 , ..., Ln l cc khng gian vct hu hn chiu th
L 1 > > Ln
(L1 > > Ln).
Bng php quy np, ta ch cn kim chng v d ny cho n = 2. Gi s f1 : L1 K , f 2 : L2 K l cc nh x tuyn tnh. Xt hp thnh ca nh x f1 > f2 : L1 > L2 K > K vi ng cu tuyn tuyn tnh : K > K K, a > b ab, ta c (f1 > f2 ) 2 (L1 > L2 ) . Tng ng
L 1 L2 (f1 , f2 )
(L1 > L2 ) , (f1 > f2 )
216
i s tuyn tnh
7.3. i s tenx
hin nhin l mt nh x song tuyn tnh. Theo nh l 7.1.1, c duy nht mt (L1 > L2 ) sao cho h(f1 > f2 ) = (f1 > f2 ). nh x tuyn tnh h : L 1 > L2 nh x h chnh l ng cu phi tm.
V d 7.2.7 L > M
L(L, M ).
Xt nh x song tuyn tnh L M (f, ) L(L, M ), [ f () ],
trong f 2 L , 2 L, 2 M . Theo nh l 7.1.1, nh x ni trn cm sinh mt nh x tuyn tnh duy nht L > M f > l mt ng cu tuyn tnh.
V d 7.2.8 L(L > M, N ) L(L, L(M, N )).
L(L, M ), [ f () ].
Ta bit rng L(L > M, N ) L(L, M ; N ). nh x L(L, M ; N ) f trong f L(L, L(M, N )), [ [ f (, )]],
2 L(L, M ; N ), 2 L, 2 M , chnh l ng cu tuyn tnh cn tm.
7.3 i s tenx Vi mi K -khng gian vct L, ta xt tch tenx

q Tp (L) = L > > L > L > > L . p q
q (L) c gi l mt tenx kiu (p, q ) hay l nh ngha 7.3.1 Mi phn t ca khng gian Tp mt tenx p ln thun bin v q ln phn bin trn khng gian L.
i s tuyn tnh
217

q Ta c th ng nht Tp (L) vi (L > > L > L > > L ) . V th, mi p q
tenx p ln thun bin v q ln phn bin c ng nht vi mt nh x a tuyn tnh L L L L K.

p q
Cc ng cu tuyn tnh ni trong cc Mnh 7.2.1 v 7.2.2 cho php xc nh ng cu tuyn tnh chnh tc (c c bng cch tro i th t cc nhn t)
q p : ( L > > L > L > > L)

p q
>
(L > > L > L > > L) L > > L > L > > L .
p+p q +q p q
Ta vit gn ng cu ni trn di dng

q q q p : Tp (L) > Tp (L)
q +q Tp +p (L).
Xt tng trc tip H cc nh x Jq p 0 p, q
&K xc nh mt nh x tuyn tnh : T (L) > T (L) T (L).

T (L), ( > ).
q T (L) = <& p,q =0 Tp (L).
Ni cch khc, T (L) c trang b mt php nhn nh ngha nh sau: T (L) T (L) (, )
nh l sau y c kim nghim khng my kh khn. nh l 7.3.1 T (L) l mt i s trn trng K .

nh ngha 7.3.2 T (L) c gi l i s tenx ca khng gian vct L.
0 i s tenx T (L) c hai i s con hin nhin, l T (L) = <& p=0 Tp (L) q v T (L) = <& q =0 T0 (L). Hn ch ca tch ca T (L) trn cc i s con ny n gin ch l vic "vit lin" cc tenx vi nhau. V th, tch ca cc i s con ny c k hiu n gin bi >.
218
i s tuyn tnh
7.3. i s tenx
Tip theo, ta xt biu thc to ca mt tenx. Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct L. Trong l thuyt tenx, cho gn ngi ta thng k hiu c s i ngu vi (e1 , ..., en ) l (e1 , ..., en ). l c s ca L c xc nh bi iu kin sau y:
N, O : L L Nej , eiO
K, =
i j
1, nu i = j, 0, nu i j.
Theo H qu 7.2.5, h vct sau y lp nn mt c s ca khng gian vct q Tp (L): ( i ) e 1 > > eip > ej1 > > ejq 1 i1 , ..., ip , j1 , ..., jq n . Nh vy, mi tenx T T =
i1 ,...,ip ,j1 ,...,jq
2 Tpq (L) c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht

Ti11,...,ipq ei1 > > eip > ej1 > > ejq ,
j ,...,j
trong Ti11,...,ipq
j ,...,j
2 K l cc to ca T trong c s ni trn.
Du tng trong cng thc trn qu cng knh. n gin ho, ngi ta t ra qui c c in sau y. Quy c 7.3.3 Trong cc php tnh vi tenx, ta s khng vit (m hiu ngm) du tng trong trng hp tng c ly theo mt cp ch s ging nhau, trong c mt ch s trn v mt ch s di. Theo qui c ny th cng thc trn c th vit li nh sau: T = Ti11,...,ipq ei1 > > eip > ej1 > > ejq .
j ,...,j j Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) cng l mt c s ca L, v A = (aj ), trong a l phn t nm hng j ct ca ma trn A, l ma trn chuyn t (e1 , ..., en ) sang (e1 , ..., en ), ngha l e = aj ej .
1 n 1 n Gi B = (bk i ) l chuyn v ca ma trn chuyn t (e , ..., e ) sang (e , ..., e ), i ngha l ek = bk i e . Ta c j k k k i i = Ne , ek O = Naj ej , bi e O = a bi Nej , e O k i i k = aj bi j = a bi .
iu ny tng ng vi ng thc ma trn BA = En . Hay l B = A1 .

i s tuyn tnh 219
Gi s biu thc to ca tenx T trong c s mi l

q k1 T = Tk11 > > ekp > e1 > > eq . ,...,kp e
,...,
Ta c
j1 k1 i1 q q p ip T = Tk11 ,...,kp (bi1 e ) > > (bip e ) > (a1 ej1 ) > > (aq ejq ) k j j k
,...,
q k1 p 1 q i1 ip 1 = aj 1 aq bi1 bip Tk1 ,...,kp e > > e > ej1 > > ejq .
,...,
Do tnh duy nht ca to ca mt vct trong mt c s, ta nhn c

q k1 p 1 q 1 Ti11,...,ipq = aj 1 aq bi1 bip Tk1 ,...,kp .
j ,...,j
,...,
l cng thc i to ca tenx. Sau y l cc v d v mt vi tenx quan trng. V d 7.3.4 (a) Ma trn v nh x tuyn tnh: Theo V d 7.2.7, khng gian cc 1 nh x tuyn tnh L(L, L) c ng nht vi tch tenx L > L = T1 (L). Mi phn t f ca n vi biu thc to
j f = ai j e > ei
c ng nht vi nh x tuyn tnh f : L f (ej ) = ai j ei .
L xc nh bi
i Ni cch khc, ma trn A = (ai j ) vi phn t aj nm hng i ct j chnh l ma trn ca nh x f trong c s (e1 , ..., en ). 0 (b) Tenx mtrc: Theo H qu 7.1.2 v V d 7.2.6, tch tenx T2 (L) = L >L c ng nht vi khng gian (L > L) L(L, L; K ) cc nh x song tuyn tnh t L L vo K . Mi phn t ca n
g = gij ei > ej c ng nht vi dng song tuyn tnh g : L L g (ei , ej ) = gij . Hm g l i xng nu v ch nu gij = gji vi mi i, j . Gi s K = R , hm g i xng v ma trn Gram-Shmidt G = (gij ) c cc nh thc con chnh u dng. Khi , tenx g l mt tch v hng trn L. N c gi l mt tenx mtrc.
220 i s tuyn tnh
K xc nh bi
7.4. i s i xng
(c) Tenx cu trc i s: Theo H qu 7.1.2 cng cc V d 7.2.6 v 7.2.7, 1 tch tenx T2 (L) = L > L > L c ng nht vi khng gian cc nh x L(L > L, L) L(L, L; L). Mi phn t ca tch tenx
i j m = mt ij e > e > et
c ng nht vi mt nh x tuyn tnh m : L > L m(ei > ej ) = mt ij et .
L xc nh bi
nh x ny trang b cho L mt cu trc i s nu v ch nu n c tnh kt hp, ngha l: m(m(ei > ej ) > ek ) = m(ei > m(ej > ek )), vi mi i, j, k . ng thc ny tng ng vi
t mt ij mtk = mit mjk ,
vi mi i, j, k, . Ni cch khc, mi tenx m tho mn h thc trn c ng nht vi mt cu trc i s trn khng gian vct L. N c gi l mt tenx cu trc i s trn L.
7.4 i s i xng Trong cc cch nh ngha khc nhau ca khi nim tenx i xng v i s i xng, chng ta chn cch khng ph thuc vo c s ca trng K . Ta vn gi s L l mt khng gian vct trn trng K . q Gi Aq l khng gian vct con ca T q (L) := T0 (L) sinh bi cc vct c dng 1 > > q (1) > > (q) , trong 1 , ..., q
2 L, 2 Sq (nhm i xng trn q phn t).

S q (L) := T q (L)/Aq
nh ngha 7.4.1 Khng gian thng
c gi l lu tha i xng cp q ca L. Mi phn t ca S q (L) c gi l mt tenx i xng trn L.
cho gn, ta k hiu L(q) := L > L (q ln).

i s tuyn tnh 221
nh ngha 7.4.2 Gi s M l mt K -khng gian vct. nh x a tuyn tnh : L(q) c gi l nu (1 , ..., q ) = ((1) , ..., (q) ), vi mi 1 , ..., q
2 L , 2 Sq .
Hp thnh ca nh x a tuyn tnh chnh tc t = tq : L(q) T q (L), t(1 , ..., q ) = 1 > > q v php chiu tuyn tnh = q : T q (L) S q (L) l nh x a tuyn tnh = q : L(q) S q (L), (1 , ..., q ) = (1 > > q ). Theo nh ngha ca lu tha i xng S q (L), nh x c tnh i xng. Hn na, cp (, S q (L)) c tnh cht ph dng sau y: Vi mi nh x a tuyn tnh i xng : L(q) M trong M l mt K -khng gian vct bt k, tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh h : S q (L) M lm giao hon biu L
(q ) R h
S q (L)
M, tc l = h . & q D kim tra li rng A = <& q =0 Aq l mt ian ca i s T (L) = <q =0 T (L). Do , q & q S (L) := T (L)/A = <& q =0 T (L)/Aq = <q =0 S (L) l mt i s trn K .
nh ngha 7.4.3 S (L) c gi l i s i xng ca khng gian vct L.
Tch ca hai phn t x 2 S q (L) v y 2 S r (L) c k hiu bi x y , hoc n gin bi xy 2 S q+r (L). Chng minh: Gi : L(q) L(r) L(q+r) l nh x t nhin
((1, ..., q ), (q+1, ..., q+r )) = (1, ..., q , q+1, ..., q+r ).
Ta c biu giao hon sau y:

222 i s tuyn tnh
7.4. i s i xng
Mnh 7.4.4 (1 , ..., q ) (q+1 , ..., q+r ) = (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ), vi mi 1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r
2 L.
>
-
L(q) L(r)
tq tr
L(q+r)
tq+r
T (L) T (L)
q r q r
? -T q +r (L) q+r
S (L) S (L)
q r
? - S q +r (L)
trong ">" l tch ca i s T (L), "" l tch ca i s S (L). Nh th
(q r )(tq tr ) = q+r tq+r .

Mt mt, ta c
(q r )(tq tr )((1, ..., q ),
(q+1 , ..., q+r )) = (q r )(1 > > q , q+1 > > q+r ) = ((1 , ..., q ), (q+1 , ..., q+r ) = (1 , ..., q ) (q+1 , ..., q+r ).
Mt khc q+r tq+r ((1 , ..., q ), = = = Mnh c chng minh. H qu 7.4.5 (1 , ..., q ) := (1 > > q ) = 1 q , vi mi 1 , ..., q (q+1 , ..., q+r )) q+r tq+r (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ) q+r (1 > > q > q+1 > > q+r ) (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ).
2 L.
223
Chng minh: H qu c chng minh bng quy np theo q .

i s tuyn tnh
Vi q = 1, ng thc (1 ) := (1 ) = 1 c suy trc tip t nh ngha ca . Gi s h qu c chng minh cho q 1. Theo mnh trn ta c (1 , ..., q ) = (1 , ..., q1 ) (q ) = (1 q1 ) q = 1 q .
Nh vy, h qu cng ng i vi q .
Mnh 7.4.6 xy = yx vi mi x 2 S q (L), y
2 S r (L).
Chng minh: Trc ht xt trng hp x = 2 S 1 (L) = L, y = L. Theo nh ngha, > > 2 A2 . Do
2 S 1(L) =
= ((, ) (, )) = t((, ) (, )) = ( > > ) = 0 2 S 2 (L). (1 q )(1 r ) = (1 r )(1 q ),
chng minh xy = yx ta ch cn chng t rng vi mi 1 , ..., q , 1 , ..., r 2 L. Theo Mnh 7.4.4 v phn u ca chng minh mnh ny, ta c th tro i th t tng i vi tng j m tch khng thay i. Mnh c chng minh. nh l 7.4.1 Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca K -khng gian vct L. Khi h vct sau y lp nn mt c s ca khng gian vct S (L): ( i1 ) n e1 ei : i , ..., i 0 . 1 n n Hn na, i s S (L) ng cu vi i s a thc trn n phn t e1 , ..., en , ngha l S (L) K [e1 , ..., en ]. Chng minh: Gi K [X1 , ..., Xn ] l i s a thc ca n n, v (K [X1 , ..., Xn ])q l khng gian con cc a thc thun nht bc q . Ta xt nh x a tuyn tnh : L(q) (K [X1 , ..., Xn ])q xc nh bi h thc (ej1 , ..., ejq ) = Xj1 Xjq . V i s K [X1 , ..., Xn ] giao hon, nn i xng. Do tnh ph dng ca S (q) , tn ti nh x tuyn tnh hq : S (q) (K [X1 , ..., Xn ])q sao cho hq (ej1 ejq ) = Xj1 Xjq . V cc i s S (L) v K [X1 , ..., Xn ] u giao hon, nn h thc trn c th vit li thnh i1 in in 1 hq (ei 1 e n ) = X1 Xn ,
224 i s tuyn tnh
7.4. i s i xng
trong i1 + + in = q . hq l mt ton cu, bi v theo cng thc trn mi n thc bc q ca cc bin X1 , ..., Xn u thuc nh ca hq . Mt khc, theo 7.2.5 v Mnh ) 7.4.6, ( i1 H qu (q ) in khng gian S (L) c sinh bi h vct e1 en : i1 + + in = q . Do , dim S (q) (L) dim(K [X1 , ..., Xn ])q .V th, ton cu hq l mt ng cu. H qu l h = <hq : S (L) K [X1 , ..., Xn ] cng l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. T Mnh 7.4.4 suy ra rng h(xy ) = h(x)h(y ). Vy h l mt ng cu i s. nh l c chng minh. Mi nh x tuyn tnh f : L M cm sinh mt ng cu i s S (f ) : S (L) S (M ). l tng trc tip ca cc ng cu thnh phn S q (f ) : S q (L) S q (M ), (0 q &), c nh ngha nh sau. Xt nh x a tuyn tnh i xng q (f ) : L(q) S S q (M ), q (f )(1 , ..., q ) = f (1 ) f (q ). S Do tnh ph dng ca S q (L), tn ti duy nht nh x tuyn tnh S q (f ) : S q (L) q (f ) = S q (f ) , trong : L(q) S q (M ) sao cho S S q (L) l nh x a tuyn tnh i xng chnh tc. Ta thu c biu thc tng minh cho S q (f ) : q (f )(1 , ..., q ) S q (f )(1 q ) = S q (f )((1 , ..., q )) = S = f (1 ) f (q ), vi mi 1 , ..., q 2 L. D dng kim tra li rng S (gf ) = S (g )S (f ), vi mi cp nh x tuyn tnh f :L M, g : M N . Hn na S (idL ) = idS (L) . Nhn xt 7.4.7 Nu Char(K ) = 0, ngi ta c mt cch khc nh ngha lu tha i xng S q (L) nh sau. Ton t i xng ho S : T q (L) T q (L)
l nh x tuyn tnh c nh ngha bi h thc S (1 > > q ) := 1 (1) > > (q) . q ! 2S
q
V Char(K ) = 0 cho nn q ! kh nghch trong trng K , vi mi q 2 N . D dng chng minh rng S 2 = S . Xt khng gian nh ca ton t thay phin ho q (L) := Im(S ) P T q (L). S
i s tuyn tnh 225
q (L) nu v ch nu x = S (x). Nh vy, x 2 T q (L) l mt phn t ca S Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu Char(K ) = 0 th php hp thnh l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. ng cu ny chuyn S (1 > > q ) thnh 1 q . Do , trong nhng lnh vc m trng K lun lun l trng s thc hoc trng s phc, ngi ta thng dng nh ngha sau y: S q (L) := Im(S ) P T q (L), 1 q := S (1 > > q ). q (L) P T q (L) S
S q (L) = T q (L)/Aq
7.5 i s ngoi Cng ging nh tit trc, trong cc cch nh ngha khc nhau ca khi nim ly tha ngoi v i s ngoi, chng ta chn cch khng ph thuc vo c s ca trng K . Gi Bq l khng gian vct con ca T q (L) sinh bi cc phn t c dng 1 > > q trong i = j vi cc ch s i j no .
nh ngha 7.5.1 Khng gian thng q (L) := T q (L)/Bq c gi l lu tha ngoi bc q ca L.
nh ngha 7.5.2 Gi s M l mt K -khng gian vct. nh x a tuyn tnh : L(q) c gi l thay phin nu (1 , ..., q ) = 0, vi mi 1 , ..., q
2 L trong i = j vi cc ch s i j no .
Hp thnh ca nh x a tuyn tnh chnh tc t = tq : L(q) T q (L), t(1 , ..., q ) = 1 > > q v php chiu tuyn tnh = q : T q (L) q (L) l nh x a tuyn tnh
= q : L( q ) q (L), (1 , ..., q ) = (1 > > q ).

226 i s tuyn tnh
7.5. i s ngoi
Theo nh ngha ca lu tha ngoi, l mt nh x thay phin. Hn na, cp (, q (L)) c tnh ph dng sau y: Vi mi nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin : L(q) M , trong M l mt K -khng gian vct bt k, tn ti duy nht mt nh x tuyn tnh h : q (L) M lm giao hon biu L(q)
R h
q (L)
M, tc l = h . D thy rng B = <& q =0 Bq l mt ian ca i s T (L). Do
& q q (L) := T (L)/B = <& q =0 T (L)/Bq = <q =0 (L)

l mt i s trn K .
nh ngha 7.5.3 (L) c gi l i s ngoi ca khng gian vct L.
Tch trong (L) ca 2 q (L) v 2 r (L) c k hiu l q+r (L), v c gi l tch ngoi ca v .
Mnh 7.5.4 (1 , ..., q ) (q+1 , ..., q+r ) = (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ),
vi mi 1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r
2 L.
q+r (L) l (hn ch ca) tch trong
Chng minh: Gi : q (L) r (L) i s (L). Ta c biu giao hon L(q) L(r)
tq tr
>
L(q+r)
tq+r
T q (L) T r (L)
q r
? -T q +r (L) q+r
q (L) r (L)
i s tuyn tnh
? - q +r (L)
,
227
T Mt mt, ta c
(q r )(tq tr ) = q+r tq+r .
(q r )(tq tr )((1 , ..., q ), (q+1 , ..., q+r )) = (q r )(1 > > q , q+1 > > q+r ) = ( (1 , ..., q ), (q+1 , ..., q+r )) = (1 , ..., q ) (q+1 , ..., q+r ). Mt khc q+r tq+r ((1 , ..., q ), = = = Mnh c chng minh. H qu 7.5.5 (1 , ..., q ) := (1 > > q ) = 1 vi mi 1 , ..., q (q+1 , ..., q+r )) q+r tq+r (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ) q+r (1 > > q > q+1 > > q+r ) (1 , ..., q , q+1 , ..., q+r ).
2 L.
q ,
Chng minh: H qu c chng minh bng quy np theo q . Vi q = 1, ng thc (1 ) := (1 ) = 1 c suy trc tip t nh ngha ca . Gi s h qu c chng minh cho q 1. Theo mnh trn ta c (1 , ..., q ) = (1 , ..., q1 ) (q ) = (1 q1 ) q = 1 q . Nh th, h qu cng ng i vi q .
Mnh 7.5.6 = (1)qr vi mi
2 q (L), 2 r (L).
Chng minh: Trc ht xt trng hp = 2 1 (L) = L, = L. Ta s chng minh rng = , =
2 1(L) =
Tht vy, theo nh ngha ca 2 (L) ta c 0 = ( + ) ( + ) = = + .

228
= 0. Do +
i s tuyn tnh
7.5. i s ngoi
chng minh (1
= (1)qr
ta ch cn chng t rng
q )
(1
r ) = (1)qr (1
r )
(1
q ),
vi mi 1 , ..., q , 1 , ..., r 2 L. Theo Mnh 7.5.4 v phn u ca chng minh mnh ny, mi ln tro i th t tng i vi tng j ng st n th tch ngoi i du. bin i 1 q 1 r thnh 1 r 1 q ta cn thc hin qr ln tro i nh th. Mnh c chng minh. Mt h qu hin nhin ca mnh trn l
(q) = sgn()1 q , vi mi 1 , ..., q 2 L, 2 Sq . Trn c s , ta c nh l sau y.

(1) nh l 7.5.1 (i) q (L) = 0 vi mi q n = dimK L. (ii) Gi s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt c s ca khng gian vct L. Khi , vi 0 q n, h vct sau y lp thnh mt c s ca khng gian vct q (L): ( ) ei1 eiq : 1 i1 iq n . ( ) n Ni ring, dimK q (L) = . q Chng minh: Do tnh a tuyn tnh ca tch , khng gian vct q (L) c sinh bi cc vct ei1 eiq , vi 1 i1 , ..., iq n. (i) Nu q n th trong mi phn t nh vy c t nht hai ch s no bng nhau: is = it vi s t. V th, tt c cc phn t ni trn u bng 0. Do q (L) = 0. (ii) Nu q = n, theo l thuyt nh thc, c duy nht mt nh x a tuyn tnh, thay phin det : L(q) K sao cho det(e1 , ..., en ) = 1. Do , tn ti duy nht nh x tuyn tnh det : q (L) K sao cho det(e1 en ) = 1. T suy ra h ch gm mt vct e1 en l mt c s ca khng gian vct q (L). Nh th dim q (L) = 1. By gi xt trng hp 1 q n. Gi s c mt rng buc tuyn tnh a(i) ei1
(i)

iq
eiq = 0, n, a(i) 2 K . Vi mi b ch s jq , ta chn jq+1 , ..., jn sao cho

229
trong (i) = (i1 , ..., iq ), 1 i1 c nh (j ) = (j1 , ..., jq ) tho mn j1

i s tuyn tnh
(j1 , ..., jq , jq+1 , ..., jn ) l mt hon v no ca (1, 2, ..., n). Nhn ngoi hai v ca ng thc trn vi ejq+1 ejn ta thu c mt tng vi hu ht cc s hng ei1 eiq ejq+1 ejn bng 0, v c cc ch s trng lp, loi tr mt s hng duy nht vi cc ch s khng trng lp a(j ) ej1
ejq
ejq+1
ejn = 0.
Hay l a(j ) e1 en = 0. Do a(j ) = 0. ( ) Nh vy, h vct ei1 eiq : 1 i1 iq n c lp tuyn tnh trong q (L). nh l c chng minh. Mi nh x tuyn tnh f : L M cm sinh mt ng cu i s (f ) : (L) (M ). l tng trc tip ca cc ng cu thnh phn q (f ) : q (L) q (M ), (0 q &), c nh ngha nh sau. Xt nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin q (f ) : L(q) q (M ), q (f )(1 , ..., q ) = f (1 )
f (q ).
Do tnh ph dng ca q (L), tn ti duy nht nh x tuyn tnh q (f ) : q (L) q (f ) = q (f ) , trong : L(q) q (M ) sao cho q (L) l nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin chnh tc. Ta thu c biu thc tng minh cho q (f ) : q (f )(1
q ) = = =
q (f )( (1 , ..., q )) q (f )(1 , ..., q ) f (1 ) f (q ),
vi mi 1 , ..., q 2 L. D kim tra li rng (gf ) = (g )(f ), vi mi cp nh x tuyn tnh f :L M, g : M N . Hn na (idL ) = id(L) . Nhn xt 7.5.7 Nu Char(K ) = 0, ngi ta c mt cch khc nh ngha lu tha ngoi q (L) nh trnh by di y. Cch ny thng c cc nh gii tch v hnh hc vi phn a dng. Ton t thay phin ho Alt : T q (L) T q (L)
l nh x tuyn tnh c nh ngha bi h thc Alt(1 > > q ) :=

230
1 (sgn )(1) > > (q) . q ! 2S

q
i s tuyn tnh
7.5. i s ngoi
iu kin Char(K ) = 0 m bo cho q ! kh nghch trong trng K . D dng th li rng Alt2 = Alt. Xt khng gian nh ca ton t thay phin ho q (L) := Im(Alt) P T q (L). q (L) nu v ch nu = Alt( ). Nh th, 2 T q (L) l mt phn t ca Ngi ta chng minh c rng, nu Char(K ) = 0 th php hp thnh q (L) P T q (L)
q (L) = T q (L)/Bq
l mt ng cu tuyn tnh. ng cu ny chuyn Alt(1 > > q ) thnh 1 q . V th, trong Gii tch hoc Hnh hc vi phn (l lnh vc m trng K lun lun l R hoc C ), ngi ta thng dng nh ngha sau y: 1 q (L) := Im(Alt) P T q (L), q := Alt(1 > > q ).
nh ngha 7.5.8 Gi L l khng gian i ngu ca L. Khi mi phn t ca q (L ) c gi l mt q -dng (ngoi) trn L.
Mnh sau y gii thch cu trc ca khng gian cc q -dng ngoi.

Mnh 7.5.9 Nu L l mt K -khng gian vct hu hn chiu th q (L ) q (L) , trong v phi l khng gian i ngu ca q (L).
Chng minh: Nhn xt rng nh x Lq (L )q ((1 , ..., q ), (1 , ..., q ) K det(Ni , j O)
l a tuyn tnh thay phin i vi cc bin 1 , ..., q , ng thi cng a tuyn tnh thay phin i vi cc bin 1 , ..., q . ( y Ni , j O l gi tr ca j trn vct i .) V th, n cm sinh nh x song tuyn tnh
(1
q (L) q (L ) q , 1 q )
K det(Ni , j O).
nh x ny cho php xem mi phn t ca q (L ) nh mt dng tuyn tnh trn q (L), tc l nh mt phn t ca q (L) .
i s tuyn tnh 231
Gi e1 , ..., en l mt c s ca L v e1 , ..., en l c s i ngu ca L . S dng php ng nht ni trn ta thy c s (ej1 ejq j1 jq ) chnh l i ngu ca c s (ei1 eiq i1 iq ). Tht vy, (ei1
eiq , ej1
ejq )
det(Neik , ej O).
V phi bng 1 khi v ch khi i1 = j1 , ..., iq = jq v bng 0 trong cc trng hp khc. Nh th q (L ) q (L) . V d 7.5.10 Xt khng gian vct thc L = R n vi c s chnh tc (e1 , ..., en ):

e1 e2 . en
= = . =
(1, 0, ..., 0)t , (0, 1, ..., 0)t , ................ (0, 0, ..., 1)t .
Gi (dx1 , ..., dxn ) l c s i ngu ca (R n ) c xc nh bi h iu kin sau i dxi (ej ) = j , (1 i, j n). (Cch k hiu ny c c s t L thuyt vi phn ca hm nhiu bin.) Ta xt khng gian q (R n ) q (R n ) cc q -dng trn R n . N c mt c s l h vct sau y ( i ) dx 1 dxiq 1 i1 ... iq n . Mi vct
2 q (R n) c biu th tuyn tnh duy nht qua c s : = ai ,...,i dxi dxi ,
1 q 1 q
1 i1 ... iq n
y ai1 ,...,iq 2 R . Trng hp c bit khi q = n, khng gian n (R n ) c s chiu bng 1, vi c s gm phn t duy nht dx1 dx2 Theo ng cu chnh tc n (R n ) n (R n ) nu trong chng minh Mnh 7.5.9, n-dng dx1 dxn c ng nht vi nh x tuyn tnh n (R n ) R xc nh bi iu kin chun ho (dx1
dxn .
dxn )(e1
en ) = det(dxj (ei )) = 1. R , cng n ).
Ta nh ngha nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin duy nht (R n )(n) c k hiu l dx1 dxn , bng cng thc sau y (dx1
232
dxn )(1 , ..., n ) = (dx1
dxn )(1
i s tuyn tnh
7.5. i s ngoi
Theo l thuyt nh thc dx1
dxn = det .
Tht vy, c hai v u l nh x a tuyn tnh thay phin duy nht (R n )(n) R tho mn iu kin chun ho. Do tnh a tuyn tnh thay phin, mi phn t 2 n (R n ) c th xem nh mt thc o th tch nh hng n chiu trn R n m gi tr (1 n ) l th tch ca hnh hp n chiu c hng ta trn cc vct 1 , ..., n . Gi s U l mt tp m trong R n . Mi hm kh vi v hn t U vo q (R n ) c gi l mt q -dng vi phn trn U . Nh th, mi q -dng vi phn trn U c biu th duy nht di dng (x) =
1 i1 ... iq n
ai1 ,...,iq (x)dxi1
dxiq ,
trong ai1 ,...,iq (x) l cc hm kh vi v hn theo bin x 2 U . Khng gian cc q -dng vi phn trn U dc k hiu l q (U ). Ni cch khc ) q (U ) = C & (U, q (R n ) .
i s tuyn tnh
233
7.6 Bi tp 1. Chng minh chi tit cc khng nh v tch tenx trong cc V d 2.6, 2.7 v 2.8. 2. Cho e1 , ..., en l mt c s ca L v e1 , ..., en l c s i ngu ca L . Mi tenx kiu (1, 1) c dng to nh sau
j f = ai j e > ei . i Gi A = (ai j ) l ma trn vi phn t aj nm hng i ct j . Hy tm cng thc m t s thay i ca A khi i c s.
3. Vi gi thit nh bi trn, mi tenx kiu (2, 0) c dng to nh sau g = gij ei > ej Gi G = (gij ) l ma trn vi phn t gij nm hng i ct j . Hy tm cng thc m t s thay i ca G khi i c s. 4. Gii quyt vn tng t vi bi tp trn cho cc tenx kiu (0, 2). 5. Gi s tenx hai ln thun bin g c ma trn G = (gij ) trong c s (e1 , ..., en ) l mt ma trn kh nghch. Xt tenx hai ln phn bin g 1 xc nh nh sau g 1 = g ij ei > ej , trong g ij l phn t ca ma trn G1 . Chng minh rng ma trn ca hai tenx ni trn trong hai c s i ngu bt k u l cc ma trn nghch o ca nhau. 6. Cho t ng cu f : L L ca K -khng gian vct hu hn chiu L. Hy din t hm F : L L K xc nh bi cng thc F (, ) = (f ()) nh mt tenx. So snh cc to ca tenx ny trong mt c s vi ma trn ca f trong cng c s y. 7. Tm s chiu ca tch i xng S q (L) bit rng dim L = n. 8. Gi s f : L L l mt t ng cu ca khng gian vct n chiu L. Khi n (f ) : n (L) n (L) l php nhn vi mt v hng. Chng minh rng n (f ) = det(f ). 9. Gi s L l mt khng gian vct n chiu trn trng K v f : L L r r l mt t ng cu. Gi r (f ) = T r (f ) l vt ca t ng cu (f ) : r (L) r (L) (xem bi tp 40 Chng II). Chng minh rng det(id + f ) =
r 0
r ( f ) .
i s tuyn tnh
234
7.6. Bi tp
Ni ring, ta c 0 (f ) = 1, 1 (f ) = T r(f ), n (f ) = det(f ), r (f ) = 0 (vi r n). Hy din t r (f ) theo cc h s ca a thc c trng ca f. 10. Gi s f : L M l mt ng cu gia cc khng gian vct hu hn chiu trn trng K . S dng php i ngu trong chng minh Mnh 7.5.9 gia cc khng gian r (L), r (M ) v r (L ), r (M ), hy chng minh rng ng cu r (f ) : r (M ) r (L ) l i ngu ca ng cu r (f ) : r (L) r (M ).
i s tuyn tnh
235
Ti liu tham kho

[1] G. Birkhoff v S. MacLane, Tng quan v i s hin i, (Bn dch ting Vit), NXB H v THCN, H Ni, 1979. [2] I. M. Gelfand, Bi ging i s tuyn tnh,(Bn ting Nga), Nauka, Moskva, 1971. [3] Nguyn Hu Vit Hng, i s i cng,, NXB Gio dc, H Ni, 1999 (Ti bn). [4] A. I. Kostrikin v YU. I. Manin, i s v Hnh hc tuyn tnh, NXB i hc Moskva, Moskva, 1980. [5] A. I. Kostrikin, Nhp mn i s , NXB Nauka, Moskva, 1977 (Ting Nga). [6] A. G. Kurosh, Gio trnh i s cao cp, NXB Nauka, Moskva, 1971 (Ting Nga). [7] on Qunh (ch bin), Gio trnh i s tuyn tnh v Hnh hc gii tch, NXB i hc Quc Gia H Ni

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I HC QUC GIA H NI

NGUYN HU VIT HNG

Chng 3. nh thc v h phng trnh tuyn tnh 93 3.1 Cc php th . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 3.7 3.8 3.9 3.10

Chng 7. i s a tuyn tnh 211 7.1 Tch tenx . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212

7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6

Cc tnh cht c bn ca tch tenx i s tenx . . . . . . . . . . . . i s i xng . . . . . . . . . . i s ngoi . . . . . . . . . . . . Bi tp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

215 217 221 226 234 236

Ti liu tham kho

TM18 Nhm 9 Trn Quang Bn A08361 & L Hong Long A08232

v nhng ni dung ton hc su sc m cun sch em li.

Kin thc chun b

ca cc phn t ca n. Tp hp X cc phn t x c tnh cht P (x) c k hiu l X = Jx P (x)K, hoc l X = Jx : P (x)K.

Nu mi phn t ca tp hp A cng l mt phn t ca tp hp X th ta ni A

x l s t nhinK, x l s nguyn K, x l s hu tK, x l s thcK.

Cng thc De Morgan: X (A ; B ) = (X A) : (X B ), X (A : B ) = (X A) ; (X B ).

Gi s Ai l mt tp hp vi mi i thuc mt tp ch s I (c th hu hn hay v hn). Khi , hp v giao ca h tp hp JAi Ki2I c nh ngha nh sau:

Ta c dng tng qut ca cng thc De Morgan:

(x 2 X, P (x) ,x 2 X, P (x), ,x 2 X, P (x) (x 2 X, P (x).

Trng hp c bit, khi X = Y , ta c tch trc tip X X ca tp X vi chnh n.

(b) i xng: Nu xRy , th y Rx, (c)

(x, y 2 X . Bc cu: Nu xRy, y Rz , th xRz, (x, y, z 2 X .

V d 0.2.5 Gi s n l mt s nguyn dng bt k. Ta xt trn tp X = Z quan h sau y:

x y chia ht cho nK.

(b) Phn i xng: Nu x (c) Bc cu: Nu x

Tp X c trang b mt quan h th t c gi l mt tp c sp. Nu x ng trc y , hay x nh hn hoc bng y .

(b) nh x f : X Y c gi l mt ton nh nu vi mi y phn t x 2 X sao cho f (x) = y .

(c) nh x f : X Y c gi l mt song nh (hay mt tng ng mt-mt) nu n va l mt n nh va l mt ton nh.

X l trn X , c xc nh nh sau idX (x) = x,

Chng hn, Z l mt tp m c. Tht vy, nh x f : N bi cng thc f (2n 1) = n + 1, f (2n) = n (n = 1, 2, 3, ...)

m c, v B l mt tp con v hn ca A. Gi i1 l s t nhin nh nht

0.4. Nhm, Vnh v Trng

Mnh 0.3.4 Tch trc tip ca hai tp m c cng l mt tp m c.

(G2) C mt phn t e 2 G, c gi l phn t trung lp, vi tnh cht x  e = e  x = x, (G3) Vi mi x 2 G, tn ti phn t x

2 G, c gi l nghch o ca x, sao cho x  x = x  x = e.

0.4. Nhm, Vnh v Trng

J0K, R  = R J0K lm thnh nhm abel i

nh ngha 0.4.3 cu nhm.

(a) Mt ng cu nhm ng thi l mt n nh c gi l mt n

0.4. Nhm, Vnh v Trng

 0 sao cho mi phn t khc 0 trong n

n). D thy rng n 1 = (r 1)(s 1) = 0.

0.5. Trng s thc

nh ngha 0.4.9 Nu vnh R cha cc phn t a c ca khng.

V trng K khng c c ca khng, nn hoc (r 1) = 0 hoc (s 1) = 0. iu ny mu thun vi nh ngha ca c s, v r v s l cc s t nhin nh hn n.

rng r = min(Q r ). Tt nhin, mi lt ct hu t u c dng r vi mt s hu t r no .

), r khng l s nh nht trong Q K.

0.6. Trng s phc

nh ngha 0.5.1 (Dedekind). Tp hp cc s hu t c gi l mt lt ct (trong Q ) nu: (a)  0,  Q , (b) Nu r

0.6. Trng s phc

nh ngha 0.5.4 Gi s , l cc lt ct. Khi lt ct sau y c gi l tng ca v , k hiu l + : + = Jr + s r 2 , s 2 K.

z = (a, b) = (a, 0) + (b, 0)(0, 1) = a + bi.

nh ngha 0.5.5 Gi tr tuyt i (cn gi tt l tr tuyt i) ca lt ct l lt ct sau y:

nh ngha 0.5.6 Gi s , l cc lt ct. Khi lt ct sau y c gi l tch ca v , k hiu l :

0.6. Trng s phc

(c) khng c phn t ln nht.

2 K , c gi l mt a thc ca X (hay bin X ) vi h

(an X n + + a0 )(bm X n + + b0 ) := cn+m X n+m + + c0 , trong ck =

V d: a thc f (X ) = X (X 1)2 c cc nghim X = 0 vi bi 0 v X = 1 vi bi 2.

Gi x1 , ..., xr l tt c cc nghim thc ca f (X ) vi bi tng ng bng k1 , ..., kr . Ta c f (X ) = an (X

z1)P1(X ). T P ( z1 ) = ( z1 z1 )P1 ( z1 ) = 0. V z1 khng phi l s thc, nn ( z1 z1 )  0. Do P1 ( z1 ) = 0 .

trong Q(X ) l mt a thc. Nhn xt rng (X

(d) A : (B C ) = (A : B ) (A : C ), (e) A ; (B A) = (A ; B ), (f) A (A B ) = A : B .

(G2) C mt phn t e 2 G, c gi l phn t trung lp, vi tnh cht x e = e x = x, (G3) Vi mi x 2 G, tn ti phn t x

2 G, c gi l nghch o ca x, sao cho x x = x x = e.

J0K, R = R J0K lm thnh nhm abel i

0 sao cho mi phn t khc 0 trong n

rng r = min(Q r ). Tt nhin, mi lt ct hu t u c dng r vi mt s hu t r no .

nh ngha 0.5.1 (Dedekind). Tp hp cc s hu t c gi l mt lt ct (trong Q ) nu: (a) 0, Q , (b) Nu r

z1)P1(X ). T P ( z1 ) = ( z1 z1 )P1 ( z1 ) = 0. V z1 khng phi l s thc, nn ( z1 z1 ) 0. Do P1 ( z1 ) = 0 .

0 c gi l mt khng gian vct trn K nu n c trang

cng l mt phn t i ca . Khi Tht vy, gi s 1

= 0 + = (v l mt phn t i) ( + ) + 1 1 1 ) (theo tin (V1)) = + ( + 1 l mt phn t i). = + 0 = (v 1

1 0, ta nhn hai v ca ng thc trn vi a i v thu c

(1 , ..., n ). iu ny v l. V b 0, nn ta c biu th tuyn tnh sau y ca qua (1 , ..., n ): =

Sau y l v d v mt lp cc ma trn kh nghch. Chng minh: Gi s C = (cij ), C = (cij ). Ta c