NicoleDoherty,GinaHan,SophieZacharakis,JenniferZhang AnnotatedBibliography PrimarySources(48) "19460131,ExclusiveInterviewWithU.S.ProsecutorJusticeRobertH.Jackson."Interview byHaroldBurson.HaroldBurson.com.N.p.,3Oct.2011.Web. <http://haroldburson.com/nuremberg.html>. ThisisaninterviewconductedwithU.S.prosecutorJusticeRobertH.Jackson.Sinceitisa primarysource,itshowsthedirectopinionsandviewsofJusticeJackson.Intheinterview, JusticeJacksonoftenspeaksaboutthemeasuresthatweretakentomakesurethatthetrials werenotseenasunfairbythefutureleadersorhistorians.Jacksonsays,TheAmericancase isfoundedoncapturedGermandocuments...Also,Jacksonacknowledgesthatinthefuture, theremaybeaggressorsthatendupwinningawar,andthusgetawaywiththeiraggression, buthealsofollowsupwiththefactthattheAlliesshouldnotrefusetoprosecutethosewhoare caughtbecauseothersequallyguiltymayescapeprosecution.

Jacksonemphasizestheimpact ofthetrialstothefuture,andprecedentthattheysettouseruleoflawandcreatemoraland legalbarriersagainstaggressivewar.JacksontreatstheNurembergtrialsasaresponsibilityof theAllies,aresponsibilitytosetanexampleforfuturegenerations,anexamplesetinruleoflaw, ratherthanvengeance. "BackgroundandPreparationfortheNurembergTrials."Archive.adl.org.AntiDefamation League,2006.Web.29Sept.2013. <http://archive.adl.org/education/dimensions_19/section1/background.asp>. ThissecondarysourcediscussessuchpracticalprocessesofthetrialsastheRightsofthe Defendantstodefense,assistanceofcounsel,crossexamination,andhavingaccesscopiesof theindictmentinalanguagetheyunderstood.Inadditiontothesespecifics,itprovidesa longspanningoverviewofthetrials,beginningwiththeHolocaustandendingwiththetwelve trialsatNurembergfollowingthoseoftheInternationalMilitaryTribunal.Italsoprovides severalquotesfromvarioushistoriansandprofessorsdiscussingtheeffectsoftheNuremberg Trialsonmoderninternationallaw.Thisinformationonspecificlegalconductallowsustomake judgementsonhow"fair"thetrialswere.Thisknowledgeonthemanneroftheproceedings allowustojudgeifthetrialswereafairexecutionofaresponsibility,ora"rigged"caseof Victor'sJustice.ThisispublishedontheAntiDefamationLeaguewebsite,andintendedforthe generalpublic. Birkett,Justice."InternationalLegalTheoriesEvolvedatNuremberg."International Affairs23.3(1947):31725.JSTOR.Web.12Oct.2013. ThisisaprimarysourcewrittenbyJusticeBirkett,analternateBritishjudgeattheNuremberg trials.BecauseofhisBritishbackgroundandhisrelativelyprominentroleinthetrials,itcanbe

expectedthathisopinionisproAlliesandalsoproNuremberg.Inthedocument,Birkett defendsthetrialsandcountersthecriticismsthatapplytoNuremberg.First,heliststhecharges madeagainstthetrials,inordertocountereachofthem.Then,hestatesthatthesetupofthe Nurembergtrialswasjustifiedbyarticle227intheTreatyofVersailles.Tothecriticismthatthe Courtonlyhadvictoriouspowers,Birkettwritesthattohaveneutralpowersinsteadwouldbe impracticalbecauseoftheextralanguagebarriers,andnotonlythat,buttheneutralpowers wouldbedifficulttofind,sincethewarinvolvedsomanydifferentcountries.Healsostatesthat thetrialswerefairbecausethedefendantshadthebestGermancounseltodefendthem.In responsetothecriticismofthelackoftruedocumentationofthelegalityofthechargeslaid downatNuremberg,hestatesthatinternationallawisnotcreatedbyasovereignbody,andis notastaticthing.And,tothecriticismofthebasisofthetrialsinexpostfactolaw,hequotes theLeagueofNationsandtheKelloggBriandpact.Essentially,hebelievesthatthetrialswere conductedwiththehigheststandardsofinternationallaw.However,Birkettdoescontend thattheLondonCharteronlyappliedtotheAxispowers,whichisafallacyofthetrialsandtheir legacy.Thisdocumentisrelevantbecauseitprovidesargumentsinfavorofthetrials,stating thattheAllieswerefairlyfulfillingaresponsibility. Burson,Harold."19451120,Session1."Germany.TS.TheAmericanForcesNetwork, Nuremberg.HaroldBurson.com.3Oct.2011.Web. <http://haroldburson.com/nuremberg.html>. ThissourcewasascriptforanewsbroadcastwrittenbyHaroldBursonaboutthefirstdayof theNurembergTrials.Itisaprimarysourceandwrittentobeabroadcast,thusshouldbe relativelyobjective.However,BursonsAmericanrootscouldleadhimtoseethetrialsina proAlliesway.Inthescript,Bursondescribesthegeneralsettingofthecourthouseandthe trials,describeseachofthedefendantsbriefly,andrecountsaninterviewwithoneoftheguards attheTrials.Thissourcehelpsshowtheimportanceandsignificancethatthetrialsheldback then.Thewholescenedescribedinthesourceisveryanticipatory,withonlyafewwhowere fortunateenoughtogetoneofthefewticketsallottedtothesightseersofthetrials.Burson alsoarticulatesthattheNurembergTrialswereoftencalledthemostsignificanttrial[s]inthe historyoftheworld,furtheremphasizingtheTrialssignificance. Burson,Harold."19451121,Session2."1945.TS.TheAmericanForcesNetwork, Nuremberg.HaroldBurson.com.3Oct.2011.Web. <http://haroldburson.com/nuremberg.html>. ThisisanotherscriptwrittenbyHaroldBursonabouttheNurembergtrials.Thisprimary documentprovidesarelativelyclearandobjectiveviewofthetrials,especiallysinceitwas writtentobeanewsbroadcast.However,theAmericanaffiliationsthatBursonandthatthe AmericanForcesNetworkcouldcreateasmallbias.Mostimportantly,thisdocumentshows theimportance,ofouroverarchingideaforthisproject,thetruelegalityofthecrimes.Onthe secondsession,afteranopeningaddress,therewasimmediatelyadefensepleachallengingthe legalityoftheTribunaltojudgetoprisoners.Thisideacomesupagaininthissessionalone, withJusticeJacksonexplainingthelegalityofthecase,citingpactsthatoutlawedaggressivewar thatweresignedbytheGermans.Accordingtothisbroadcast,JusticeJacksonalsomakesit

clearthatthecrimesthattheindividualscommittedcouldnothavebeenindictediftheywerenot partoftheoverallplantowageaggressivewar.Apparently,Germansareontrialnot becausetheylostthewarbutbecausetheystartedit.Lastly,thisdocumentnotonlyshows thesignificanceofthequestionofthelegalityofthetrials,alongwithprovidinginformationon howthetrialswereexecuted,butitalsoshowstheimportanceofthetrialsthemselves.The trialsweremuchanticipated,andmetwithexcitement. "CharteroftheInternationalMilitaryTribunal."EncyclopediaofGenocideandCrimes AgainstHumanity.Ed.DinahL.Shelton.Vol.3.Detroit:MacmillanReferenceUSA, 2005.12031207.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ThissourceistheCharteroftheInternationalMilitaryTribunal.Itisaprimarysource,which meansthatithasnotbeenalteredbyanyothersecondaryhistorianspointofview.Althoughit waswrittenattheLondonConference,inthepresenceofonlythefourvictoriouscountriesof WWII(theUnitedStates,theUnitedKingdom,France,andtheSovietUnion),thedocument wasratifiedbyothercountries.ThedocumentbasicallysetsuptheInternationalMilitary Tribunal,liststhecrimesthatagrouporindividualcanbeconvictedof(suchasCrimesagainst Peace),statesthegeneralprinciplesthatwillguidetheIMT,attemptstomakethetrialsfair, describesthetrialprocessandtheIMTspowers,delineateshowdefendantswillbesentenced, andexplainshowtheexpenseswillbepaidfor.Thedocumentisquiteusefulnotonlybecause itisprimary,andthusuncorrupted,butalsobecauseitgivesinsightintothepointofviewofthe victors. "ConventionBetweentheUnitedStatesofAmericaandOtherPowers,RelatingtoPrisonersofWar July27,1929."TheAvalonProject.YaleUniversity,n.d.Web.19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentismorecommonlyknownbythename"TheGenevaConvention(1929.)"It enteredintoforceonJune19,1931,andconcernedthetreatmentofPrisonersofWarandthe wounded.ItwasaresponsetotheFirstWorldWar,andalongwiththetheHague Conventionsof1899and1907,servedastreatiesexistingpreviouslytothestartofWorldWar TwowhichcouldbeusedintheNurembergTrials.Alinktothefulltextofthisdocumentcan befoundonourwebsiteonthepage,"InternationalLawPriortotheTrials,"inthesection, "TheExistingTreaties." "Convention(II)withRespecttotheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandandItsAnnex:Regulations concerningtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand.TheHague,29July1899."Opbw.org. N.p.,n.d.Web.19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentisfeaturedonourwebsiteunderalinkonthe"HistoryofInternationalLaw" page.ItwascreatedattheFirstHagueConventionin1899,andoutlineshowprisonersofwar mustbetreatedinwaronland.ItenteredintoforceonthefourthofSeptember,1900.Itwas oneofthetreatiesexistingprevioustothestartofWorldWarTwounderwhichGermanymight legallybetried,withouttheissueofexpostfactolaw,intheNurembergtrials. "Convention(IV)RespectingtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandandItsAnnex:Regulations

concerningtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand.TheHague,18October1907." Opbw.org.N.p.,n.d.Web.19Feb.2014. Thisdocumentisfeaturedonourwebsiteunderalinkonthe"HistoryofInternationalLaw" page.ItwascreatedattheSecondHagueConventionin1907,andservesasaconfirmationof theverysimilar"Convention(II)withRespecttotheLawsandCustomsofWaronLandand itsannex:RegulationsconcerningtheLawsandCustomsofWaronLand.TheHague,29July 1899."whichwaspassedattheFirstHagueConventioneightyearsearlier.Itwasratifiedbyall ofthemajorpowers,andservedasyetanothertreatyunderwhichGermanycouldbetriedat theNurembergTrials,whichexistedpriortothestartofWorldWarTwo. Czechoslovakia.OfficialNewsAgency.PunishmentofWarCriminals.ByJaroslavSvansky. London:n.p.,1943.TrumanLibrary.Web.16Nov.2013. ThiswasastatementbroadcastedbytheCzechoslovakMinisterofJustice,JaroslavSvansky, ontheOfficialNewsAgencyonNovember28,1943.HewasamemberofCzechoslovakia's GovernmentinExile,whichwasstatingtheirplanforbringingjusticeandpunishmenttowar criminals.Heannouncedintentionstoinstituteretroactivelaws(expostfactolaws)andto enactspeciallawsforthosewhoweresimplyvictims,andnot"theauthorsorwillingassistants ofcriminalactionsbytheenemy."TheintentionsoftheCzechoslovakiangovernmentarea helpfulcomparisontotheactionsoftheIMT.Bothhadintentionsofusingexpostfactolaws, althoughtheIMTbelieveddidnotbelieveinexcusingcrimesofindividuals.Adifferent perspectiveonprosecutionhelpstoshedlightonthevictor'sjusticev.responsibilityissue. "CONVENTIONWITHRESPECTTOTHELAWSANDCUSTOMSOFWARONLAND (HAGUE,II)(29July1899)."LawsandCustomsofWaronLand(HagueII)July29, 1899.29,TheHague,TheNetherlands.N.p.,1899.N.pag.TheAvalonProject:Lillian GoldmanLawLibrary.Web.29Sept.2013. <http://avalon.law.yale.edu/19th_century/hague02.asp>. IndescribingthegeneralallowedtermsofwaragreeduponbycountriesincludingGermany,this primarydocument,aspecificarticleoftheHagueConference,wasreferencedbyprosecutorsin theNurembergTrialstohelpconvictthedefendantsandwasthereforeanimportantdocument toreadtohelpoutlinetheTrialsinthehistoricalcontextonthestateofinternationallawin regardstothecustomsandlawsofwar. "TheCovenantoftheLeagueofNations."LeagueofNations.Proc.ofParisPeaceConference,10 Jan.1920,Paris.N.p.:n.p.,n.d.TheAvalonProject:LillianGoldmanLawLibrary.Web. 3Jan.2014.<http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp>. ThecharterforthecreationoftheLeagueofNationsoutlineditsmainprinciplesandisessential tounderstandingthecontextofinternationallawatthetimebeforethesecondworldwarand theTrials.TheCovenantoftheLeagueofNationswasthefirstattemptataninternational governingauthorityandthroughthereadingofitwithabackgroundinthecontextofthefailure oftheLeaguetopreventWorldWarII,thisprimarydocumentshedslightonthefundamental

problemsinauthorityandprocedurethattheLeaguehadfromthebeginning,somethingthatthe IMTandthecreationoftheUNseekedtoavoidinthefuture. "CrimesAgainstHumanity."LearningAbouttheHolocaust:AStudent'sGuide.Ed.Ronald M.Smelser.Vol.1.NewYork:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2001.134137.World HistoryInContext.Web.22Sept.2013. CrimesAgainstHumanityisanotherprimarysourcedocumentwrittenbytheInternational MilitaryTribunal.Inthisdocument,thetypesofinternationalwarcrimesandtheirdistinguishing characteristicsareexplicitlydescribed.Thedocumentisnotforgeneralwarcrimes,however, butspecificallyfortheNurembergTrials,astheNazisarementionedseveraltimes.And,since itwaswrittenbytheIMT,thecrimescouldbedescribedinaspecificwayastomakethe crimesoftheAlliedpowerspassable.Thedocumentalsorespondstothecriticsofthecrimes, thosewhostatethatthecrimesarenotcrimesbutratherpoliticalacts,bystatingthattheIMT wastryingtoprotectallhumanbeings...underallconditions,completelyindependentofwarlike events.ThedocumentprovidesinsightintothedefinitionsofcrimethattheNurembergtrials wereheldon,andtheIMTsjustificationoftheirdefinitionsofcrime. Dean,Gordon."Mr.JusticeJackson:HisContributionatNuremberg."AmericanBarAssociation Journal41.10(1955):91215.JSTOR.Web.9Oct.2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/25719366>. Theauthor,GordonDeananassistantunderChiefAmericanProsecutorRobertJackson duringtheTrialsinthissourcedescribesthecontributionoftheproceduresandphilosophies JacksonappliedtotheunprecedentedTrials.Deandescribesthetwomainpillarsoflaw philosophyJacksonappliedandthehistoricalsignificancehehadonthedevelopmentof internationallaw.ThearticleoffersinsightintoJacksonunderscoringtheresponsibilityandthe rightsthattheAllieshaveinholdingtheTrialsbyreferencingspecificinternationaltreatiesand bringingforththefactthatinternationallawhadnocontinuinginternationalauthority,andthe developmentofitatNurembergwasjust. Doman,NicholasR."TheNurembergTrialsRevisited."AmericanBarAssociation Journal.47.3(1961):26064.JSTOR.Web.27Sept.2013. TheNurembergTrialsRevisitedisaprimarysourcebyNicholasR.Domanandwas publishedintheAmericanBarAssociationJournalin1961.NicholasR.Domanwasa prosecutorattheNurembergtrials.Again,heisproAllies,anditshowsinhispointofview. ThearticleprovidesinformationonDr.vonKnieriemsbookabouttheNurembergtrials.Dr. vonKnieriemwastriedattheNurembergtrialsandfoundinnocent.Thisarticlecriticizeshis argument.Forexample,DomanpointsoutthatalthoughKnieriemisabletoconcedethatthe Germanywasacriminalstate(especiallyinthelateryearsofthewar)andtheprincipleof criminalresponsibilityandpunishability,hedoesnotmakeenoughofadifferencebetweenthe differenttypesofcrimesindictedatthetrials,suchascrimesagainstpeaceandcrimesagainst humanity.Thissourceisusefulbecauseitprovidesreasoningthatdefendsthetrialsand portraystheAlliespointofview,whichlionizesthetrialsasfulfillmentofaresponsibilityto

preservetherightsofhumanity. Ehard,Hans."TheNurembergTrialAgainsttheMajorWarCriminalsandInternationalLaw."The AmericanJournalofInternationalLaw43.2(1949):22345.JSTOR.Web.4Jan.2014. ThisprimarysourceisbyDr.HansEhard,alawyerandpoliticianduringtheeraofWorldWar II.Inthisdocument,Ehardiscriticalofthetrials,callingtheman"abuseofpower"andstating thatthelackofagreementoverwhat"aggressivewar"isbytheinternationalcommunityandthe lackofprecedentfrompriorinternationallawmakestheTrialsunlawful.Amidsthiscriticismof thetrials,hedoesconcedeandsaythat"Fromatechnicalpointofview,thetrialwasan importantaccomplishment."Heisstatingthatthemethods(andtechnicalities)oftheNuremberg Trialswereindeedaccordingtoaliberaljudicialsystemandwerefair,butthetrialsthemselves werebaseless.BecauseEhardwasaGermanlawyeratduringthistimeperiod,wecanexpect himtobeabigproNaziandtohaveageneralskewagainsttheNurembergTrialsandthe Allies.However,hedoesmakesomeimportantpointsabouttheNurembergTrials. Eisenhower,DwightD.LettertoGeneraloftheArmyGeorgeC.Marshall.15Apr.1945. EisenhowerPresidentialLibraryandMuseum.N.p.,n.d.Web.18Dec.2013. Thisprimaryletter,writtenbyGeneralDwightD.EisenhowertoGeneralGeorgeC.Marshallin 1945,mainlycontainsinformationonfuturewarplansandopinionsontheabilitiesandbehavior ofGeneralPatton.MoreimportanttoourpurposeswereEisenhower'sbriefreferencestohis visittoacamp,andthehorrorshewitnessedthere.HesaysthatGeneralPattonrefusedtoenter forfearthatitwouldmakehimsick,andrecommendsthatGeneralMarshallcomeandseeitfor himself.WefoundaquotebyEisenhowerinthisletterwhichweusedon"TheAtrocitiesof WorldWar2"pageofourwebsite.Hesaysinthequotethathewantedtoseethecampsto serveasfirsthandevidenceoftheatrocitieshewitnessed.Thisquotewasaperfectadditionto ourpage,andhelpedtogiveanauthoritativeandfirsthandvoiceinthediscussionofthe atrocitiescommittedbytheNazis. "EnactmentsandApprovedPapersoftheControlCouncilandCoordinatingCommittee."Enactments andApprovedPapersoftheControlCouncilandCoordinatingCommittee:MilitaryLegal Resources(FederalResearchDivision:CustomizedResearchAndAnalyticalServices, LibraryofCongress).N.p.,n.d.Web.21Sept.2013. <http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/enactmentshome.html>. Thisisacollectionofseveralvolumesofprimarydocumentsfrom1945to1948,including enactmentsandapprovedpapers,representingtheeffortoftheUK,US,SovietUnion,and FrancetoruleGermany.ThesearesuppliedonanofficialwebsiteoftheUSgovernment,which couldpossiblyhavemotivationtopresentinformationthatisfavorabletoUSactionsand involvement.Butastheyareprimarydocuments,thereisnoalteration.Theyareavailableas PDFsonapubliclyintendedwebsite.

Ferencz,Ben."TheReckoning:TheBattlefortheInternationalCriminalCourt."Interview.PBS.PBS, 14July2009.Web.22Sept.2013. <http://www.pbs.org/pov/reckoning/interview_ferencz.php>. ThisisaPBSinterviewconductedwithBenFerencz,oneoftheAmericanprosecutors,from July14,2009.HediscussestheentitlementthattheNazisfelttheyhad,butrealisticallylacked. Healsosaysthatheattemptedtocreateamorehumaneandpeacefulworldthroughlawduring thetrials.Itprovidesafirsthandviewoftheconductofthetrials,andwhyboththe prosecutorsanddefendantsmayhavefoundthetrialsfairorunfair.Italsodiscusseshowthe longtermintentionsofthetrials,whichwereaimingforanoverallmorepeacefulworld,as opposedtoshorttermvengeanceagainstNazis.AsitwasPublishedonPBSamongabroad selectionofinterviews,itwasintendedasasourceforthegeneralpopulation. Gaeth,Arthur.TheExecutionsatNuremberg.A&ETelevisionNetworks,10Oct.1946.Web.6 Oct.2013. ThisprimarysourceisanaudioclipofArthurGaethreportingforCombinedAmerican Network.HewitnessedthehangingsthatfollowedtheNurembergTrialsandhedescribedeach indetail.Thesignificantpartofthissourcewerethelaststatementssaidbythe10Naziswho werehanged.Thefinalwordsofthesecriminalsreflecttheirfinalthoughts.Someareregretful andhopefulforapeacefulfuture,whileothersareproudandstillstandbyHitlerandtheir actionsindeath.Hearingtheirfinalthoughtsshowswhohavecometopeacewiththetrialsand theiractionsandwhohasn't.WilhelmFrickshouts,"Idieinnocently,theverdictwaswrong!" Thissourceisusefulinseeingthedefendantsfinalreactionstothetrial.Thissourcegivesus contextandprimaryquotestouseasevidenceofthereactiontowhatmanyofthedefendants thoughtasunfairtrial. "GermanPolishAgreementofJanurary26,1934."TheAvalonProject.YaleUniversity,n.d.Web. 19Feb.2014. The"GermanPolishAgreement"alsoknownasthe,"GermanPolishNonAggressionPactof 1934,"wasanagreementtoavoidarmedconflictfortenyearsbetweenNaziGermanyandthe SecondPolishRepublic.GermanybrokethisagreementwhenitinvadedPolandonSeptember 1,1939.Thereisalinktothisdocumentonthe"TheAtrocitiesofWorldWarTwo"pageof ourwebsite,whereitasusedasanexampleofGermanybreakingagreements(likethisandthe KelloggBriandPactof1928)andwagingaggressivewar. Harris,Whitney."InterviewwithNurembergProsecutorWhitneyHarris:"IHadn'ttheSlightestIdeaof theScaleofGenocide""InterviewbyAnnetteLanger.SPIEGELONLINE.SpiegelOnline,18 Nov.2005.Web.22Sept.2013. <http://www.spiegel.de/international/interviewwithnurembergprosecutorwhitneyharrisihad nttheslightestideaofthescaleofgenocidea385694.html>. ThisisaninterviewconductedwithoneoftheprosecutorsoftheNurembergtrials,published online.AsaprosecutorfortheAllies,hisopinionstendtofavortheAllies'methodsandthe

trialsingeneral.HeprovidesafirsthandviewofthebrutalityoftheNazis,andarguesthatthe trialswere"withoutadoubt"fair.Healsocoversawiderangeoftopicsreachingfrom ideologicaldifferencesamongtheAllies,specificcharactertraitsofthedefendants,aswellas providespersonalopinionsonWorldWarIIandwaringeneral.Thisinterviewwaspublished onapublicwebsite,SpiegelOnline,andwasintendedforallofitsreaders. Heath,Trevor."CrimeinRetrospectNuremberg."TheAustralianQuarterly18.8(1946):7781. AustralianInstituteofPolicyandScience.Web.11Oct.2013. Thisjournalarticle,publishedbyTrevorHearthwhiletheNurembergTrialswerestillinsession inSeptemberof1946,exploresthelegalityofexpostfactolaws.Inhisconclusion,heargues thatthesidemorefavorabledependsentirelyuponopinioncraftedby"yourownhabitofmind" andnot"uponlogic."Hemakesseveralargumentsforbothsidesoftheargument, acknowledgingfirstlythatexpostfactolawsviolatelegaltheoryinmanycountries,andlegal factintheUSA.Healsoarguesthatthesocalled"internationallaw"iscomprisedofthe opinionsof"...FourPowers...ofaworldStatewhichtheyandtheyalonecompromise." However,healsoreferencesthefactthattheAllieshadnotimetocraftlawsbeforethewar, andthatthemoralneedtodealwithoffendersisgreaterthantheneedto"upholdsomevague ethicalprinciples."Incraftinganopiniononthefairnessofthetrials,allofhisargumentsare applicable.Butaswehavehadspecificconcernswithanddiscussionsonexpostfactolaws, hisstatementsontheminparticularhavebeenespeciallyhelpful. InternationalLawCommission.PrinciplesofInternationalLawRecognizedintheCharterof theNrnbergTribunalandintheJudgmentoftheTribunal.Rep.Vol.II.N.p.:United Nations,2005.YearbookoftheInternationalLawCommission.OfficeofLegalAffairs UnitedNations.Web. <http://untreaty.un.org/ilc/texts/instruments/english/draft%20articles/7_1_1950.pdf>. IndescribingtheprinciplesestablishedbytheNurembergPrinciplesandtheTrials,thisprimary documentfromtheinternationalorganizationoftheUnitedNationsprovidesinsightintothe changesthattheTrialsofferedininternationallawpertainingtowarcrimes.Thispublic documentcanbecomparedtopreviousinternationaltreatyandconventiondocumentstofurther describethedevelopmentininternationallawthattheTrialspresentedcomparedtothe previouslyestablishedlaws. Jackson,RobertH."AddressofHon.RobertH.JacksonOnAcceptingFirstAnnualCardozo MemorialAward."CardozoMemorialAward.MayflowerHotel,WashingtonD.C.21 Feb.1941.TheRobertH.JacksonCenter.RobertH.JacksonCenter,n.d.Web.5Jan. 2014. <http://www.roberthjackson.org/files/thecenter/files/bibliography/1940s/addressonacceptingc ardozoaward.pdf>. Writtenin1941,thisaddressbythechiefU.S.prosecutorofthe1945NurembergTrials

describeshisapproachtothedevelopmentofinternationallawandtheinfluencefromhis mentor,JusticeBenjaminCardozo,athisacceptanceoftheCardozoMemorialAward.Inthis addresshisviewpointonthedevelopmentoflawisexpressedbyhisstatementthatfreedoms werecontinuallyprotectedbythedevelopment,notstifling,oflaw.ThisistheviewthatJackson broughtwithhimtothedraftingoftheInternationalMilitaryTribunalCharteranditishelpful becauseitultimatelybroughtforththeTrialsandestablishedaneworderofinternationalcriminal justice. Jackson,RobertH."OpeningStatementNurembergTrials,1945."TheNuremberg Trials.Nuremberg,Germany.21Nov.1945.PBS.EducationalBroadcasting Corporation,2007.Web.29Sept.2013.<http://www.pbs.org/wnet/ supremecourt/personality/sources_document12.html>. TheopeningaddressoftheTrialsbyChiefProsecutorRobertH.Jacksonoutlinesthepurpose oftheTrialswithatheologicaljustificationandinsistenceonconvictionwithevidence.This primarydocumenthasgiveninsightintotheframeofmindofthelegalpersonsintheTrialandis helpfulinthefurtherjustificationoftheTrials,whereJacksondescribestheresponsibilitythe Alliesandhumanityhadtoprosecutethewarcriminals.Thoughsinceitisprimary,adistorted viewmightcomeaboutasJacksonwastheAmericanChiefProsecutor. Jackson,RobertH."NuremberginRetrospect:LegalAnswertoInternational Lawlessness."AmericanBarAssociationJournal35.10(1949):81316.JSTOR.Web. 27Sept.2013. ThissourceisaprimarysourcewrittenbyRobertH.Jackson,thechiefUnitedStates prosecutoratthetrials.Essentially,itexplainshowtheAllieswerelegallyjustifiedinholdingthe trials.Obviously,asoneoftheAmericanprosecutors,heisforNurembergtrials,andthe documentisquiteskewedtowardsthatopinion.Forexample,inonepartofthedocument,he statesthateventhecriticsmustadmitthattheNurembergtrialswerevaluablebecausetheyseta precedentforinternationallaw.Hequotesonecritic,Dr.HansEhard,whosaid,Wemust salutetheNurembergtrialasaguidepostforthefurtherdevelopmentofthelawofnations. AnotherpointwhenhedefendstheNurembergtrialsiswhenhetalksabouttheselectionof judges.HeclaimsthatbecauseofthewidescopeofWorldWarII,therewerefewneutral countriesleft,andthatformalneutralitywouldnotnecessarilyguaranteetrueneutralityin decisionsthecountrymightmake.Also,sinceAmerica,England,andFranceallhadand independentjudicialtraditionrely[ing]upontheindividualintegrity,detachmentandlearningof thejudgetoshapehisdecisionsratherthanuponthesourceofhiscommission,hisnationalityor hisclass,judgesfromthosecountrieswouldbewellsuitedfortheNurembergtrials.Asfor Sovietjudges,hestatesthattheSovietjudgealonecouldnotalterthefateofthetrials,andthus wasokay.Ascanbeseenfromthetwoexamples,Jacksonwassetondefendingthetrials,and theirlegalbasis.ThedocumentprovidesaclearviewoftheAlliespointofview. Jackson,RobertH.ReportofRobertH.JacksonUnitedStatesRepresentativeToThe InternationalConferenceonMilitaryTrials.Rep.London:n.p.,1945.Loc.gov.Web.

29Sept.2013.<http://www.loc.gov/rr/frd/Military_Law/pdf/jacksonrptmilitarytrials.pdf>. Thisprimarydocumentwasprivatelysubmittedasareporttothegovernmentin1945,andnot releasedtothepublicuntilFebruary,1949.InthePreface,Jacksonreportsontheeventsand decisionsoftheLondonConferencein1945.Hediscussesdisagreementsthroughoutthe conference,aswellasthecompromisesmadeinregardtothetrials'organization.Hisreport providesawindowintolegaldiscrepanciesthatlargelyexistedbetweentheUSandUK,and theSovietUnionandFrance.Bothgroupshaddifferentcourtstructures,andheexplainsthat conflictsaroseindiscussionsonhowanInternationalTrialshouldbeperformed.Intheend,the compromisesseemedtoworklargelyinfavoroftheaccused.Whenargumentsonhowthe defendantsshouldbeallowedtopresentevidenceandtestifyarose,theyweregiventhebenefits ofbothjudicialsystems.Thiswouldsupporttheargumentthatthetrialswereindeedfair,andin factweremorefairthanatrialofanyofthesecountriesindividuallywouldbe.Inadditiontothis, Jacksonalsoprovidesspecificinformationregardingtheagreedupondefinitionsofcrimes,the positiononpleasof"actsofstate,"privilegesofthedefendants,andstancesonevidence.The factthatJacksonworkedfortheUSgovernmentmustbenoted,asthismakesitmore necessarytodeterminewhetherparticularstatementsarebiased. "TheKelloggBriandPact,1928."OfficeoftheHistorian.U.S.DepartmentofState,n.d. Web.14Oct.2013. ThisprimarysourceistheKelloggBriandPact,whichwasagreementoftherenunciationof warasaninstrumentofnationalpolicy.Thispactwassignedbyseveralcountries,including Germany,in1928.Thisisasignificantdocumentbecauseitwasoneofthemainpiecesof evidencethattheAlliesusedfortheillegalityofCrimesagainstPeace.Itismentionedseveral timesasavalidreasontoindicttheNazisbytheNurembergtrialssupporters,includingin NuremberginRetrospect:LegalAnswertoInternationalLawlessness,byJusticeJackson. However,criticsofthetrialsalsopointoutthatthispactwasviolatedseveraltimesbythe SovietUnionaswell,andtheSovietswereneverindictedthewaytheNaziswere.Thispactis anessentialpartofourproject,sinceitcoulddictatewhetherornottheindictmentoftheNazis waslegallyviable. "MoscowDeclarationonAtrocitiesbyPresidentRoosevelt,Mr.WinstonChurchillandMarshalStalin, IssuedonNovember1,1943."Cvce.eu.N.p.,n.d.Web.19Feb.2014. Commonlyknownasthe"MoscowDeclarationof1943,"itsformalnameis,"Declarationof theFourNationsonGeneralSecurity."ItwassignedattheMoscowConferenceby representativesfromtheUnitedStates,UnitedKingdom,andSovietUnion,wheretheyclaimed thatthesethreenationsaswellasChinawouldcontinuetofighttheAxisPowers.Aquotefrom thisDeclaration,aswellasalinktothefulltext,isfeaturedonthe,"AtrocitiesofWorldWar Two"pageunderthe"Condemnation"section. "MotionAdoptedByAllDefenseCounsel,19November1945."TheAvalonProject.Yale University,n.d.Web.19Feb.2014.

Thisstatement,readatNurembergonthenineteenthofNovember,1945,wasdeliveredbyDr. Stahmeronbehalfofalloftheattorneysanddefendantspresentatthetrial.Stahmerservedas counselforthedefendantHermannGoering.Inthemotion,hediscussessomeofthemajor failuresoftheprosecution'scase.Onthe"Defense"pageofourwebsite,wespecifically referenceaquotebyStahmerwhichcriticizestheAllies'expostfactolawuse,whichhe considerstobeaviolationofthe"greatfundamentalprinciplesofthepoliticalsystems" possessedbythesignatoriesoftheCharterfortheTribunal. "ANONAGGRESSIONPACT."SundayTimes(Perth,WA:19021954)28Jan1934:1 Section:FirstSection.Web.6Jan2014<http://nla.gov.au/nla.newsarticle58713187>. ThisarticleinanAustralianNewspaperisaprimarysourcewrittendirectlyafterthe NonAggressionPactbetweenGermanyandPolandwassigned.ReportingthatthePact dependsontheKelloggBriandPactcondemnationofwarasanationalpolicy,thisarticleis insightfulinbuildingthecontextofwhichwarandinternationallawwereregardedtobefore WorldWarII.Inalargercontext,thissourcecanbeusedtounderstandhowunderdeveloped internationallawwasatthatpointbecauseofGermanyseventualinvasionofPolandin1939. NurembergTrialProceedings.Vol.1.1945.TheAvalonProject:NurembergWarCrimesTrial. Web.12Oct.2013. ThissourceprovidedinformationonthebasicRulesofProcedurefortheNurembergTrials. ThissourcehelpsustoaddresshowfairtheIMT'spoliciestowardsdefendantswere.Itshows thattheIMTmadeseveraleffortstogivethedefendantsasmuchopportunitytodefend themselvesastheymightreceiveinanyofthecountries'domesticcourtrooms.Amongother rules,itwasrequiredthatdefendantswerereceivecopiesoftheirindictmentsandotherofficial paperstranslatedintoalanguagetheyunderstoodatleast30daysbeforetheirtrial commenced.Italsoalloweddefendantstochoosetodefendthemselves,ortoreceiveeither chosenorassignedlegalcounsel.Italsostatedthatdefendantsmayapplyforwitnessesor documents,andthattheTribunalwouldattempttolocatethesesourcesforthedefendant.In addition,isstatessomeunrelatedrulesaboutthesecretariatandconductofthecourt.Asthis wasoriginallypublishedjustfortheIMT,itallowsustoseehowthetrialswerestructured,and howmuchofanefforttheIMTwastrulymakingtocreateatrialenvironmentthatwasfairto thedefendants,whethertheywereactuallytryingtoallowthemagenuinetrialorjustpointona showofvindictivejustice.

"NurembergWarCrimesTrial:RulesofProcedure."TheAvalonProject:NurembergWarCrimes Trial:RulesofProcedure.N.p.,n.d.Web.16Nov.2013. Thisdocument,establishedbytheCharterfortheTribunalandadoptedonthe29thof October,1945,outlinethebasicproceduralrulesforthetrialsthemselves.Specifically,it

discussestherequirementofadefendanttotakeanoathormakeadeclarationcustomaryin theirowncountry,aswellastherightsofdefendantstorequestwitnesses.Finally,it acknowledgesthattheTribunalhastherighttomakechangestotherulesatanytime"inthe interestoffairandexpeditioustrials." PrinciplesofInternationalLawRecognizedintheCharteroftheNurembergTribunalandin theJudgmentoftheTribunal.1950:n.p.,n.d.Web.05Oct.2013. <http://www.icrc.org/applic/ihl/ihl.nsf/Treaty.xsp?action=openDocument>. ThisPrimarysourceisthefirstpublicationrecognizingtheprinciplesofinternationallaw exercisedduringtheNurembergtrials.Ithassevenstatedprinciples,anddistinguishedseveral keyfacetsofinternationallaw.Mostnamelyinrelevancetoourquestionisthat"anyperson who...commitsacrimeunderinternationallawis...liabletopunishment"andthatan internationalcrimecanbecommittedevenifaninternalcrimeisnotbeingcommitted. Additionally,itstatesthataGovernmentofficialisstillresponsiblefortheirinternationalcrimes, andisalsounabletorelieveanyoneelsefromtheirresponsibilityunderinternationallaw.This veryclearlyshowsthat,despitethefactthatmanyofthedefendantstriedwereGovernment officialsoractingunderdirectordersfromthosewhowere,thatdidnotexemptthemfrom responsibilityintheeyesoftheIMT.Thisdocumentwaspublishedin1950,andisavailableto thepublic. "PunishmentandPreventionofWarCrimes."HumanandCivilRights:EssentialPrimary Sources.Ed.AdrienneWilmothLerner,BrendaWilmothLerner,andK.LeeLerner. Detroit:Gale,2006.3538.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ThisprimarysourcewaspublishedbytheLeagueofNationsonOctober10,1943.Thoughit waswrittenbeforetheNurembergTrialstookplace,thisdocumentgivesbackground informationandtouchesontheeventsthatleaduptothesetrials.TheLeagueproclaimswhat theybelieveisnecessarytodoinresponsetothecrimescommittedduringWorldWarII.This sourceissignificantbecauseitcontextualizestheopinionsoftheAlliesgoingintothetrials.It alsoidentifiestheresponsibilitiesthattheAlliesfelttheyhadinupholdinginternationallaw.This sourcegivesapreviewofthebiasthatlettowhatsomethoughttobeimproperexecutionsof justice. "PunishmentofWarCriminals."CrimeandPunishment:EssentialPrimarySources.Ed.K. LernerandBrendaLerner.Detroit:Gale,2006.136140.GlobalIssuesInContext. Web.12Sept.2013. PunishmentofWarCriminalswaswrittenbytheInternationalMilitaryTribunal.Becauseitis aprimarysource,thereisnooutsideinterpretationtoswaytheinformation.However,asthe documentwaswrittenbytheIMT,andtheIMTonly,itcouldbeinclinedtorepresenttheAllied powersinafavorablelight,andcouldbeskimmingoverinformationthatcouldprovethe NurembergTrialsavictorsjustice.Theprimarysourceportionofthesourcelooksintothe

trialofHermannGoering,oneofthemoreinfluentialNazileaders.Itliststhecourtshewas indictedon,theevidenceagainsthim(thereislittleevidenceforhimincludedinthedocument), andtheverdict(guilty).Thedocumentprovidesaviewintotheevidenceusedforindictmentby theIMT. "RomeStatuteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt."EncyclopediaofGenocideandCrimes AgainstHumanity.Ed.DinahL.Shelton.Vol.3.Detroit:MacmillanReferenceUSA, 2005.12581268.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ThisprimarysourceistheRomeStatueoftheInternationalCriminalCourt.Eventhoughit wasn'tadopteduntilJuly17th1998anditwasn'tenacteduntilJuly1st2002,thisdocumentstill containsimportantevidenceinthelegality,orthelackofit,oftheNurembergTrials.This documentenactsapermanentinternationalcourtsimilartotheInternationalMiliraryTribunal. Alsoincludedaredefinitionsofgencoide,warcrimesandcrimesagainsthumanity.Bylookingat thedocumentsthatenactedtheinternationallawsthatwereusedintheNurembergTrials,lack oflegalitycanbeproved.Thisevidenceiscrucialinprovingtheinfringementontherightsofthe defendantswhichdirectlytiesthisinformationtothetheme. Smith,Willis."TheNurembergTrials."AmericanBarAssociationJournal32.7(1946): 39096.JSTOR.Web.27Sept.2013. TheNurembergTrials,writtenbyWillisSmithfortheAmericanBarAssociationJournalis aprimarysourcethatrecountsthetrials.SmithwasatthetrialsasanobserverfortheAmerican BarAssociationunderWarDepartmentorders.BecauseSmithisAmerican,isrepresentingan Americanassociation,andispublishinginanAmericanjournal,hecouldbemorebiasedforthe Alliesandportraytheminabetterlight.However,becauseitisaprimarysource,itshouldstill beusefulinprovidinginsightintothethoughtsofAmericansonthetrials.Interestingly,Smith spendsafairamountoftimediscussingthetechnologyatthetrialsthatallowsthelanguagesto betranslatedforeveryone.Otherthanthat,hestatesthathehasnodoubtthatthedecisions madewillbeasfairandasjustashumanintelligence,uponitshighestplane,canproduce, makinghisprotrialopinionclear.HelionizestheIMT,sayingthatitisuniqueinitseffortsto improvetheadministrationofjusticeintheaffairsofhumankind.Smithalsowantsthe defendantstobecharged,asking,Cantherebeanycontentionthatthoseacts[thecrimesof thedefendants]wereinaccordwithcivilization?Healsodefendsthetrialsagainstthecriticism oftheexpostfactolaws.Throughthedocument,itisclearthatSmithseesthetrialsasjustand necessary,afactthatisnotsurprising,consideringthefactthatheisAmerican. Sprecher,DrexelA.InsidetheNurembergTrial:AProsecutor'sComprehensiveAccount.Vol.1. Lantham,MD:UniversityofAmerica,1999.Print. ThisprimaryaccountoftheNurembergTrialswaswrittenbyDrexelA.Sprecher,whowasa U.S.prosecutoratthetrials.Sprecher'saccountwassplitbetweentwobooks,withthisfirst volumefocusingmainlyontheeventsleadingupthetrial,aswellasthepresentationsmadeby theprosecution,includingthosemadebytheFrenchandtheSoviets.Theaccountsincluded informationonnearlyeveryfacetofthetrials,andhelpedtoprovideinformationinthe

recountingofevents,actions,andconflictshappeninginthetrials.Italsoprovidedsome authoritativefirsthandquotesthatwecoulduseincommunicatingideasonourwebsite. StatementonAtrocities.N.p.:n.p.,n.d.StatementonAtrocities.Web.29Sept.2013. <http://www.ibiblio.org/pha/policy/1943/431000a.html>. Thisstatement,jointlysignedbyPresidentRoosevelt,PrimeMinisterChurchillandPremier StalinisaprimarysourcepublishedaspartoftheMoscowConference'sJointFourNation DeclarationfromOctober,1943.Itisanofficialstatementreleasedtothegeneralpublicbythe alliedgovernmentswhichstatesthatallNazipartymembers,oranyonewhohasbeen responsiblefortakingaconsentingpartinthe"atrocities,massacresandexecutions"stated earlierinthedocumentwouldbejudgedandpunishedbythecountriesinwhichtheircrimes werecommitted.Itisexplicitlystatedtobeawarningbothtothosewhohavealready committedcrimes,andonewiththeintentionofdissuadinganyoneelsetojointheranksofthe Naziparty.ItsstatedintentionsdoperhapsswayfromtheactualconductoftheNuremberg trials,however,becauseitclaimsGermansoldierswhotakepart[inshootingorexecuting officers,hostaged,orpeasants]willknowtheywillbebroughtbacktothesceneoftheir crimesandjudgedonthespotbythepeopleswhomtheyhaveoutraged. Stresemann,Gustav."TheNewGermany."NobelLecture.OsloUniversity,Norway.29June 1927.TheOfficialWebsiteoftheNobelPrize.NobelMediaAB2013,n.d.Web.5Jan. 2014. <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/peace/laureates/1926/stresemannlecture.html>. StresemannsNobelPrizelectureprovidesfirsthandperspectiveontheaftermathofGermany afterWorldWarI.HewasacolaureateoftheNobelPeacePrizeforthereconciliationof GermanyandFrancein1926.Hisspeechholdsadescriptionofthevictorsjusticehandedout bytheAlliesandwasessentialinunderstandingthenormallyvagueconceptofvictorsjustice. Aconceptwhichwasimportantinunderstandingtheinternationalandlegalcontextforpostwar actionsbeforeWorldWarIIandtheNurembergTrials. Taylor,Telford.TheAnatomyoftheNurembergTrials:APersonalMemoir.NewYork:Knopf, 1992.Print. TheAnatomyoftheNurembergTrialsisaprimarysourcebook(orastheauthorcallsit,a personalmemoir)abouttheentiretyoftheNurembergTrials.ItiswrittenbyTelfordTaylor, whowastheassistanttoRobertH.Jackson.AlthoughTaylorisAmericanandwasonthe Alliedside,thebookisquiteimpartial,goingintogreatdepthaboutsomeofthefaultsofthe NurembergTrials(aswellasitsaccomplishments).And,althoughTaylorchoosestocallthe sourceapersonalmemoir,itprovidesextremelyvaluableinformationonthepointsofviewof otherindividualsinvolvedinthetrials,includingmanyoftheotherjusticesandtheprosecuted Nazis.

Taylor,Telford."TheNurembergWarCrimesTrials:AnAppraisal."ProceedingsoftheAcademyof PoliticalScience23.3(1949):1934.Web.11Oct.2013. ThisisajournalarticlewrittenbyTelfordTaylor,anAmericanprosecutorattheNuremberg Trials.Itwaswrittenin1949,onlyseveralyearsafterthetrialshadended.Init,hediscusses thetopicsofstudytheNurembergTrialshavecreatedforscholarsoflaw,science,andpolitical science,andhowtheywillaffectthefuture.AsanAmericaprosecutor,hecouldcertainlybe consideredbiasedtotheAllies'benefit,andassuchhedidnothesitatetoblatantlyreferto Germandoctorsas"stupid"forconsideringthattastemightbewhatmadesaltwaterpoisonous todrink.Aswearequestioningthefairnessofthetrialstothedefendants,hisspeculationon whetheritwastrulyaccuratefordefendantstopleadnecessityorduresswasrelevanttoour considerations.So,too,washisassertionthat,"Fromtheoutset,thefundamentalprincipleofall warcrimestrials,atNurembergandelsewhere,hasbeenthattheyareajudicialprocessforthe enforcementoflawwhichisbindingonallmen."AstheintentionsoftheAllieswiththe conductingoftheTrialsisoneofourcentralconsiderations,aprimaryopiniononthesubjectis certainlyaconstructiveonetohave. UnitedStates.Cong.WoodrowWilson.PresidentWilson'sFourteenPoints.PBS. Web.4Dec.2013.<http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/wilson/filmmore/fm_14points.html>. PresidentWilsonsFourteenPointspresentstheidealisticvisionofwhattheLeagueof NationswasmeanttobeandoffersthecontextinwhichtheLeaguewastobeintermsof internationallawandrelations.TheLeagueofNationsbeingthefirstinternationalgoverning authoritywhichultimatelyfailedinpreventingWorldWarIIwasimportanttounderstnadinits firstadvocates,Wilsons,vision.FourteenPointsconnectstotheprecedentofthe NurembergTrialsintheworldofinternationallawbybeingthestructureandcontexttheTrials foundthemselvesinduringthedraftingoftheIMT. "TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRights."UNNewsCenter.UN,10Dec.1948.Web.12 Nov.2013. TheUniversalDeclarationofHumanRightsisaprimarysourcethatwasadoptedbytheUNon December10,1948.Thisdocumentisessentialforitstatesrightsthatwerebornoutofthe NurembergTrialsandWorldWarTwoasawhole.Theserightsincludetherighttolife,liberty andthesecurityofpersonwithoutdistinctionofanykindincludingreligion,raceandpoliticalor otheropinion.ThisdocumentisextremelyimportantinanalyzingthelegacyoftheNuremberg Trials. UNGeneralAssembly.ConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocide. Vol.78.N.p.:UnitedNations,1948.TreatySer.Refworld.Web.14Dec.2013. TheConventiononthePreventionandPunishmentoftheCrimeofGenocideisanextremely

significantpublishedbytheUNGeneralAssembly.Thisconventionisadirecteffectofthe NurembergTrialsanditscontentsdefinerightsandresponsibilitiesregardingthetopicof genocide.InArticles1,2,and3thetermgenocideisclearlydefinedestablishingandprotecting rightsofthosewhomaybesubjectedtothiscrime.InArticles5,8,and12createa responsibilityofthesignatoriestoupholdthisConvention.InternationalCourts,similartothe InternationalMilitaryTribunal,arelistedasoptionstoexecutejusticeinArticles6and9.This primarysourceishelpfulinmappingthelegacyoftheNurembergTrials.

Secondary(52) "AboutICTR."UNICTR.UnitedNations,n.d.Web.04Jan.2014. <http://www.unictr.org/AboutICTR/GeneralInformation/tabid/101/Default.aspx>. ThisarticlecomesfromtheofficialwebsitefortheInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda, whichisaninternationaltribunalthatcameaftertheInternationalMilitaryTribunal.Thearticle containsinformationabouttheICTR,includingtheoriginsofthetribunal,theaimsofthetrials, andthejurisdictionunderwhichthecourtoperates.Becausethisarticlecomesfromtheofficial websiteoftheInternationalCriminalTribunalforRwanda,itisprobablyverybiased,not includinganyinformationthatwouldbeantagonistictowardtheICTR. "AbouttheICTY."ICTY.InternationalCriminalCourtfortheFormerYugoslavia,n.d.Web. 04Jan.2014.<http://www.icty.org/sections/AbouttheICTY>. ThisarticleisfromtheofficialICTYwebsite.TheICTYwasaninternationaltribunalthatcame afterNuremberg,andwhichwasinspiredbyNuremberg.Thispageoffersinformationabout theICTY,includingitsgoalsanditsaccomplishments.Becausethiscomesfromtheofficial websitefortheInternationalCriminalTribunalfortheformerYugoslavia,itwillmostdefinitely bebiased,onlystatingthepositivesabouttheICTY,andnotanyproblemsorissuesthatit mighthavehad. AdolfEichmannTrial:1961."GreatWorldTrials.Detroit:GaleResearch,1994.World HistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ThisisasecondarysourceaboutthetrialofAdolfEichmann,whichwasconductedabout fifteenyearsaftertheNurembergtrialsofficiallyended,inIsrael,acountrythatwasnonexistent duringtheNurembergtrials.However,thiscouldcausethissourcetopossiblybelessrelevant inourresearch.Havingthistrialmuchlatermightreduceanyinfluenceofvictorsjusticethat couldhavebeenpresentattheactualtrials,whichisamajorcomponentofourtopic. However,thissourcestillgivesgeneralfactsaboutthecase.But,itdoesnottakeapointof vieworopinionaboutit,asitonlyincludesfacts. Barrett,JohnQ.Telephoneinterview.2Jan.2014.

ProfessorBarrettisaprofessoroflawatSt.JohnsUniversityandisontheboardatthe RobertH.JacksonCenter.Heiscurrentlyworkingonabiographyabouttheheadprosecutor andwithhisspecializationinJacksonandlaw,Barrettwasextremelyhelpfulinunderstanding theframeworkoftheTrials.BarrettofferedinsightintohowJacksonandothersshapedthe InternationalMilitaryTribunalCharterandthelegalidealsthattheytookintotheprecedent settingNurembergTrials.ProfessorBarrettalsowashelpfulinsuggestingothersourcestoadd toourunderstandingofthelawbehindtheTrials. Bass,J,Gary.."Atrocity&legalism."Daedalus1(2003):73.eLibrary.Web.06Oct.2013. Inframingtheconnectionbetweeninternationaljusticeandmilitaryforce,Bassa professorofpoliticsandinternationalaffairsatPrincetonUniversityprovides historicalcontextincomparingtheexecutionofinternationaljusticeduringWorldWarI,World WarII,andthemorerecentconflictoftheWaronTerror.Thisscholarlyjournallinksthe responsibilityofenactingjusticeonaninternationalscaletoitsfeasibilitywithbruteforce. Producedpurelyforacademicreasons,thissource,whileitdoesbackthenecessityofforcefor internationaljusticetooccur,containsevidenceandregardseventswithfacts. Bassiouni,M.Cherif,RichardA.Falk,andYasuakiOnuma."Nuremberg:FortyYears After."AmericanSocietyofInternationalLaw80(1986):5968.JSTOR.Web.13 Oct.2013. Nuremberg:FortyYearsAfterisadocumentthatreflectsontheNurembergtrialslegacy.It isbrokenintothreemainsections,eachwrittenbyBassiouni,Falk,andOnuma.Bassiouni examinesboththemoralethicallegacy,andthesecond(andmoreimportant)whichexamines thelegallegacy.ThesecondsectiongoesintodetailaboutthelegalproblemsoftheNuremberg trials.Forexample,itstatesthatthedefenseofobediencetosuperiororderswasoften acceptedpriortotheTrials,butwasnotacceptedforsomereasonattheTrials.Bassiounithat theParisPact(theKelloggBriandPact)andtheLocarnoPactwerenotadequatetosatisfya rigorousinterpretationoftheprinciplesoflegalityintermsofcrimesagainstpeace.But,the sourcedoescontendthattheNurembergTrialsdidrelativelywellintermsofprocedural fairness.HeconcludesbystatingthatNurembergwasinpart"victors'vengeance"with referencetoalegalframework,butnotwithareferencetoamoralethicalone,whichisavery similarstatementtoourownthesis.InFalkssection,hedifferentiatesbetweenNurembergs achievementandNurembergsillusion.ThelatteristheideatheNurembergwouldprovide anewframeworkforthebehaviorofgovernmentsinrelationtowarandpeace,andinrelation tothetreatmentofcivilianpopulations.Hecriticizestheprecedentsetbythetrials,suchasthe lackofanylawagainstnuclearweapons(sincetheAllieshadusedthese).Falkstatesthatthe creationoftheillusionwasduetopostwaroptimism,andalsotogivetheNurembergtrialsa senseofjustice,sothattheapparentprecedentthatthetrialswereclaimedtohaveset justifiedthem.Insteadofsettingaformallegalprecedent,says,Falk,thetrueeffectofthe Nurembergtrialswasonthecivicconsciousnessofpeople.Onumaalsoagreeswiththe previoustwo,andstatesthatthelegacyofNuremberginastrictlegalsenseisrather dismal.Thissourceisessentialbecauseitprovidesinterestingevidenceagainstthetrials,and alsolooksathoweffectivetheNurembergtrialsreallywereatsettingaprecedentforfuture

internationallaw,whichwasoneoftheresponsibilitiesthattheAlliesweresupposedlyfulfilling withthetrials. Biddiss,Michael."Victors'justice?TheNurembergtribunal."HistoryToday.01May.1995: 40.eLibrary.Web.06Oct.2013. ThissourcedescribesthedifficultyofsettinguptheInternationalMilitaryTribunaltoprosecute warcriminalsandoutlinestheissuesthatunderminedthelegitimacyoftheTrials.The involvementoftheUSSR,thecrimesbytheAllies,andthelackofprecedenceforthechargeof conspiracyweredescribedtoapproachtheviewoftheTrailsasaformofVictorsJusticein regardsthetocourtproceedings.Thissecondaryanalysisfromareputabledatabaseprovides viewsabouttherightthattheAllieshadinprosecutingonthechargeofconspiracyandthe flawsinthecourtprocedures. Cronkite,Walter.ListeningInOntheNurembergTrials.N.d.WalterCronkite:History's Lessons.NPR,20Feb.2006.Web.29Sept.2013.Transcript. WalterCronkite,afamedCBSreporter,doesthispieceonaspecialseriescalledWalter Cronkite:history'slessonsonNPR.CronkitewasareportercoveringtheNurembergTrials makingthisaverysignificantsource.HegivesinsightontheTrialsaswellasintegratesoldclips ofhisreports,clipsofGoeringandothersintrial,andreadingsofLouisNizer.Nizerwasa famousAmericanattorneywhogaveaspeechattheTownMeetinginFebruaryof1944,which thereadingsarefrom,andwroteabook,WhattodowithGermany.Bothoftheseworks influencedtheshapingofalliedpolicy.Thissourceisusefulbecauseitisbyapersoninvolvedin theTrialsanditincludesprimaryclips.ThisradiopieceexplainsAmerica'sreasoningbehindan internationalcommissionholdingtrialsbylookingbackontheoutcomeofWorldWarOne.

"DefendantsintheMajorWarFiguresTrial."UMKC,n.d.Web.18Dec.2013. Thiswebsite,createdbytheUniversityofMissouriKansasCity,isasecondarysourcethat providedquotesstatedbymanyofthedefendantsattheoriginalNurembergTrials.Itwasmost usefulforitsquotebyAlfredJodl,whowastheChiefofOperationsfortheGermanHigh Command.Inoneofhisquotes,heclaimsthathewasshockedbymanyoftheaccusations madeincourt,andhadnoideathatanyofthemweregoingon.Thisfitperfectlyunderthe "DefenseofSuperior"ordersectionofour"Controversy"page.

Drumbl,Mark,andMelissaBlock."Nuremberg'sLegacy,60YearsLater."AllThings Considered.NPR.28Sept.2006.NPR.NPR.Web.05Oct.2013. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6161866>.Transcript. ThisradiopiecewasairedinSeptember2006.ThecommentatorMarkDrumbldiscusses moderngenocideprosecutions,andrelatesthemtostatementsabouttheNurembergTrials

relevanttoourpurposes.Hediscussesthefactthatmanyjobsrelatedtopropagatinggenocide (especiallyinthecasesoftheHolocaust)werejobspaidbystate,andthatcommittingcrimes becameacivicduty.Hisacknowledgementofthefactthefactthatcivilthreatismuchnearer andmoredauntingthaninternationalthreattoanindividualplayintoansweringthequestionof whetherindividualsdeservetobetriedforcommittingcrimestheywereorderedtocommit.He alsosaysthattheNurembergTrialsalonewerenotenoughto"reconstructshatteredsocieties." PublishedonNPR,thiswasintendedforageneralandpublicaudience. Feltman,BrianK."Legitimizingjustice:theAmericanpressandtheInternationalMilitary Tribunal,19451946."TheHistorian66.2(2004):300+.WorldHistoryInContext. Web.12Sept.2013. Thissecondarysource,byBrianK.Feltman,delvesintothesignificancethatthepressbrought tothisuncensoredtrial.Theauthorusesthelackofcensorshipasevidenceofshowingthetruth intheIMTandJackson'sgoalofholdingandimpartialtrialfocusedondefendingtherightsof thoseprosecuted.Thisarticlearguesonthesidethatbelievesthetrialswereagreat achievementinhistoryandthereforethissourceisextremelyhelpfulinunderstandingthatside. AtthesametimeitrecognizesthecriticsthatbelievetheNurembergTrialswereaprime exampleofvictor'sjustice.Feltmanusesmanyexcerptsfromprimarysourcestobackuphis argumentandexplorestheideathatthetrialsweremoreinfluentialonthefutureofinternational lawthantheindividualverdictsandthecrimescommittedintheHolocaust. Ferencz,Benjamin."TheHolocaustandtheNurembergTrials."UNChronicleDec.2005:26+. WorldHistoryInContext.Web.14Oct.2013. ThisarticleshowsthecontroversybetweentheintentionsofheadprosecutorJacksonandthe actuallegalityofthetrials.ItwasagreeduponbytheAlliestomaketheNurembergTrialsfair. Jacksonsaid,"Wemustneverforgetthattherecordonwhichwejudgethesedefendantstoday istherecordonwhichhistorywilljudgeustomorrow."TheAlliesandspecificallyJacksonfeltit wastheirresponsibilitytoholdafairtrialsyetoneofthefourcountsthatthedefendantswere convictedonwasbasedonexpostfactolaw.Aggressivewar,aftertheGeneralAssemblyof theUNin1946,wasdeemedaninternationalcrimechangingfrombeinganinternationalright. ThissourcedirectlyconnectstothethemeforitshowsevidenceofwhatJacksonthoughthis responsibilitywasandatthesametimesomeoftherightsthatweretakenawayfromthe defendants. Fichtelberg,Aaron."FairTrialsandInternationalCourts:ACriticalEvaluationoftheNuremberg Legacy."CriminalJusticeEthics28.1(2009):525.Web.8Oct.2013. InthisarticleFichtelbergdelvesintonotwhethertheNurembergtrialswerefairornot,but ratherwhyiswasimportantthattherewasafairtrialratherthanashowtrial,assuggestedby Stalin,orimmediateexecution,assuggestedbyChurchill.Fichtelbergarguesthateventhough thereasonsofattributingblame,tellingthestorysoitcanbeunderstoodbythegeneralpublic andrestoringthecommunitymaybereasonforafairtrialinadomesticsetting,thesamedoes

notgoforinternationalcontext.Theattributionofblameininternationaltrialsonlycoverthe leadersoftheeventswhilelettingthemajoritypeoplewhoactuallypulledthetriggerwalkfree. Tellingthestory,Fichtelbergargues,isnotthejobofaninternationalcourt.,butrathertheirjob istorenderjusticeandthatisall.Asforrestoringthecommunity,thepointofaninternational tribunalisthattheyarenotpartofthecommunityoftheaccused.Thereforeitbecomesharder forpeopletoacceptthefindingswhetherornotthetrialwasfair.AccordingtoFichtelberg,the onlyargumentinfavorofmakinginternationaltrials,suchasNuremberg,fairissothatthetrial canposeasarolemodelforothercountriesthatdonotrecognizetheruleoflaw.Thissourceis significantbecauseithelpsshapeourunderstandingofinternationallawandfairtrialsversus showtrialsorimmediateexecution.Fichtelberg'sargumentalsoconnectstothethemeof responsibilityashismainarguementisthattheAllieshadtheresponsibilitytobearolemodelof democracytoothercountries Finch,GeorgeA."TheSignificanceoftheNurembergTrials."ProceedingsoftheSectionof InternationalandComparativeLaw(AmericanBarAssociation)(1946):2228.JSTOR. Web.12Oct.2013.<http://www.jstor.org/stable/25742723>. ThisargumentpublishedbytheAmericanBarAssociationexaminestheclaimofactingunder ordersbythedefendantsandthelegalauthorityandtherightstheAlliesheldafterGermanys unconditionalsurrenderandduringprosecution.Inaddition,thissecondarysourceprovides informationaboutthehistoricalsignificanceoftheTrialsinthedevelopmentofthedefinitionof aggressionbythenewlyformedUnitedNations.Writtenin1946,thewidersignificanceofthe TrialsconnectiontothedevelopmentoftheUnitedNationsisunabletobewhollyanalyzed. Finch,GeorgeA."SuperiorOrdersandWarCrimes."TheAmericanJournalofInternational Law15.3(1921):44045.JSTOR.Web.27Oct.2013. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/2188006>. WrittenafterWorldWar1,FinchdescribesintheAmericanJournalofInternationalLaw thesituationofthesuperiorordersdefense,examiningtheclaimandopposingviewpoints throughmultiplecourtcases,includingtwodirectlyaftertheFirstWorldWar.Thisobjective sourceprovidescontexttoclaimofthedefenseduringtheNurembergTrials,asthereare conflictingviewsofwhethertheAllieshadtherighttoholdindividualsaccountableforthe crimesoftheNaziParty. Glueck,Sheldon.TheNurembergTrialandAggressiveWar.NewYork:A.A.Knopf,1946. Print. InthisbookGlueckarguesthelegalityofthewagingofaggressivewarcountintheNuremberg Trials.Hestatestheopposingargumentsandthenrebuttsusingevidenceofpastdocuments, treatiesandagreementsaswellasquotationsfromotherauthoritieswiththesameview.This sourceissignificantforitaddressesbothsidesoftheargumentofthelegalityofthiscount. Glueckcoverstheoppositionthatmarksthiscountasretroactiveandthengoesontoarguethat inthebasisofcustomarylawthisisnottrue.Additionally,Glueckdelvesintothequestionof whetherindividualscanbepunishedwhentheprecedingdocumentsmadeaggressivewara

crimeofasovereignstate.Hearguesthatifthesovereignstatedoesnotpunishitsindividualfor hisorhercriminalactioninregardstointernationallawthentheindividualcannolongerhide behindtheapplicationofinternationallawonlytohisorhersovereignstate.Thissourceis importantinunderstandingthecontroversyofthelegalityofthecountsintheNurembergTrials aswellasunderstandingwhatpastdocumentsareapplicabletointernationallawatthetime. Goldensohn,Leon,andRobertGellately.TheNurembergInterviews.NewYork:AlfredA. Knopf,2004.Print. Thisprimarysourcebookcontainsabridgedinterviewswithdefendantsandwitnessesofthe Nurembergtrials,conductedbyAmericanpsychiatristLeonGoldensohn.Inadditionto personalinterviewsandpsychiatricanalyses,italsocontainsanintroduction(secondarysource) byeditorRobertGellately.Theintroductioncontainsspecificinformationregardingthelayout andconductofthetrials,aswellasrelevantspeculationaboutthemotivationsofdifferent nationsforholdingthetrials,asopposedtoalternatecoursesofaction.Theindepthstructureof thisintroductionisincrediblyhelpfulinitsattentiontofinedetail,anddiscussionoftheincentives foreachnationtocallforsummaryexecutionsandlegitimatetrials,inturn.Italsodrawsand pointstoseveralotherprimarysourcedocuments,whichprovidedsomedirectionforfurther readingintoevenmoredetail. Goldstone,RichardJ."WorldPeacethroughJusticeAwardlecture."WashingtonUniversity GlobalStudiesLawReview8.4(2009):619+.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12 Sept.2013. ThissourceisalecturegivenbyRichardJ.Goldstone,whowaspresentattheNuremberg Trials.Eventhoughthatwasthecase,Goldstonechoosestofocusonthelegacyofthe NurembergTrialsandhowtheyaffectedinternationallawandrights.Goldstonepresentsan argumentportrayinghowtheNurembergtrialsaffectedinternationalcriminaljustice.Thissource focusesonthesignificanceoftheeffectsoftheNurembergTrials. Goodheart,A.L."QuestionsandAnswersconcerningtheNurembergTrials."TheInternationalLaw Quarterly1.4(1947):52531.Web.11Oct.2013. Inthisjournalarticle,Goodheart,whowasspokenbothacademicallyandnonacademicallyon thetrials,discussessomeofthequestionsmostfrequentlyaskedbylisteners.Hediscusses mainlyfacetsofthetrialspertainingtotheirfairnessandtheirnecessity.Hemakesthepointthat thetrialswerefairforthefactthatdefendantscouldsupplyevidence,judgeshadtojustifytheir verdicts,andintheend,threewereacquitted.Healsodiscussesdefenseofsuperiororderand theimportanteffectsofthetrials,butmostrelevanttoourprojectwashisdiscussionofexpost factolaw.Hemakesthepointthatviolationsofrulesofwar(whichwerelongestablished) wouldalonghavebeenenoughtotryandconvictdefendants.However,heexplainsthatex postfactolawscanonlybeconsideredunreasonableorunfairwhentheircriminalityisunclear ornotobviouswhentheyareviolated.InthecaseoftheNurembergTrials,heargued, genocidalcrimesandtheslaughteringofmillionsofinnocentswereobviouslycriminaleven

beforetheIMTmadeitthemlegallyso. "ICCAbouttheCourt."ICC.TheInternationalCriminalCourt,n.d.Web.04Jan.2014. <http://www.icccpi.int/EN_Menus/icc/about%20the%20court/pages/about%20the%20c urt.aspx>. ThisarticleisfromtheofficialwebsiteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt.Thearticlegives generalinformationontheInternationalCriminalCourtandtheRomeStatute,includingthedate thattheStatutewasadopted,thedatethatitofficiallywentintoforce(byratification),and informationonwhattheICCistryingtoaccomplish.Becausethearticlescomesdirectlyfrom theofficialwebsiteoftheInternationalCriminalCourt,itisprobablyverybiased,anddoesnot includeanyinformationthatisnegativetowardsthetrials "TheInfluenceOfTheNurembergTrialOnInternationalCriminalLaw."TheRobertH.Jackson Center.TheRobertH.JacksonCenter,n.d.Web.02Jan.2014. <http://www.roberthjackson.org/theman/speechesarticles/speeches/speechesrelatedto oberthjackson/theinfluenceofthenurembergtrialoninternationalcriminallaw/>. ThisdocumentisasecondarysourcefoundonRobertH.Jackson'swebsite(butwasnot actuallywrittenbyJackson,makingitasecondarysource).Thesourcegoesintotheinfluence thatNuremberghadoninternationalcriminallawandthedocuments,conventions,and internationaltribunalsthatfollowedNuremberg.Thedocumentstartsbydiscussingthe Nurembergtrials,thengoesontoothertribunalsanddocumentsthatwereestablishedbecause oftheprecedentthatNurembergcreated.BecausethissourcewasfoundonRobertH. Jacksonswebsite,itmightbeproAllies,andviewtheNurembergtrialsinamuchmore positivelightandmasktheinadequacies,butstillisaextremelyusefulsourceinfiguringoutthe influenceofNuremberg. "InternationalLaw."EuropeSince1914:EncyclopediaoftheAgeofWarandReconstruction. Ed.JohnMerrimanandJayWinter.Vol.3.Detroit:CharlesScribner'sSons,2006. 14331438.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ProvidingaconciseoverviewofthehistoryofinternationallawinEurope,thispublic,secondary sourcefromtheestablisheddatabaseofWorldHistoryInContextprovidesinformationabout thedifferentsectionsofinternationallawandthetreatiesandconventionsthatenactedthem. ThishelpsinpiecingtogetherthecontextofinternationallawpriortoWorldWarIIandwillhelp examinethelegalsituationspresentedintheaftermathofthewarwithregardtopreviously institutedlegalcustoms. KesslerHarris,Alice."FromRetributiontoRestoration."TheWomen'sReviewof Books16.6(1999):1516.JSTOR.Web.5Jan.2014.

<http://www.jstor.org/stable/4023127>. ThissourceisareviewofMarthaMinowsbookexaminingtheresponseaftermassviolence andgenocide,BetweenVengeanceandForgiveness.KesslerHarrisexaminesthethree coursesofactionthatMinowproposesasawaytoreacttotheaftermathofcollectiveviolence undertakenbylargeorganizationsorgovernmentsandproposesthatMinowincludeadeeper examinationthroughtheperspectiveofvictimsthatcontinuetobeshamedandpsychologically tormentedbytheircommunities,thevictimsofsexualassault.Minowfocusesonmakingknown theplightofthevictimsandreceivingjusticethroughlegaltribunalsortruthcommissions. Ultimatelythissourcewashelpfulinprovidinganinsightfulperspectiveonthevictimsandhow theycanbeaffecteddifferentlythroughthesepostviolenceresponses. Lang,Jr,AnthonyF."CrimeandPunishment:HoldingStatesAccountable."Ethics& InternationalAffairs2(2007):239.eLibrary.Web.06Oct.2013. Inacknowledgingtheambiguityofinternationaljusticeinholdingstatesorindividuals accountable,Lang,aprofessorattheUniversityofSt.Andrew,isabletoexaminethestructures necessaryforanenvironmentforeitherholdingindividualsorstatesaccountableforcrimes underinternationallaw.Thisanalysisishelpfulinestablishingcontextinwhichresponsibility wouldbeassignedinthepastandindifferentinternationalsituations.Also,thewayinwhichthe conflictinggoalsofstateswouldaffectthepersonorentitythatwouldbeprosecuted. Mallard,WilliamD.,Jr."NurembergAStepForward?"InternationalLawyer4.4(1970): 67381.Print. ThissourcewaswrittenbyWilliamD.MallardJr.in1970ontheNurembergtrials.Althoughit iswaspublishedalongtimeago,thatdoesnotmeanthatitisunusable,asitstillprovides valuableinformationonthedifferentschoolsofthoughtontheNurembergtrials.Itfocuseson thecredibilityofcallingaggressivewaracrimetoindicttheGermans,whetherinternational lawsshouldapplytonationsorindividuals,thefactthatmanyofthelawsusedtoconvictthe defendantswereexpostfactolaws,andthedefensethattheindividualsintrialwerejust obeyingsuperiororders.Heconcludesthataggressivewarwasrightfullyconsideredacrime, butmoreoftenagainstnationsthanindividualsandthatthedefensethatadefendantwasjust takingordersisnotapplicablewhenanindividualisobviouslybeingunlawful.Attheveryend, hestatesthateventhoughtheAlliescouldhavepossiblydoneunfairtrials,theywereabletoat theveryleastreplacethecommonvengeanceandsummaryexecutionsthatfollowedwarwith somesortoflaw. Marrus,MichaelR."TheNurembergtrial:fiftyyearsafter."TheAmericanScholar66.4(1997): 563+.StudentEdition.Web.6Oct.2013. Inthisarticle,MichealMarrusarguesthatwhiletheNurembergTrialsweren'tlegallyperfect,

justiceprevailedandtheimpactwasnecessary.Marrusgoesthrougheachcountaddressingthe problemsastoshowthecontradictingview.Hethengoesontoexplainwhytheseproblems andwhycriticsoftoday'salternativeproposalswerenotrelevantatthetimeoftheTrials.While therightsofthedefendantsmayhavebeennotfullyappreciatedduetoexpostfactolawandtu quoque,MarrusbelievesthattheAllieshadtheresponsibilitytopunishtheNazileaders.He alsoarguesthatduetotheGerman'sunconditionalsurrendertheAllieshadtherighttodealwith theNazileadersinwhateverfashiontheydeemedappropriate.Thus,thedefendantsshould havebeenexpectingnotrialatallandratherswiftexecutionwhichwatheAlliesalternative.This sourceputstheNurembergTrialsincontextasMarrustriestolookpasttheimperfectionsto presentanargumentthatencompassesthepositivehistoricalsignificanceofthisevent. Minow,Martha.BetweenVengeanceandForgiveness:facinghistoryaftergenocide andmassviolence.Boston:BeaconPress,1998.Print. Minow,DeanofHarvardsLawSchool,expertlyweavestogetherthemultipleforcesinvolved inpostwarjusticeinherdeepandclearanalysisoftheactionsofpeople,governmentsand organizationsdoafterthemassviolenceofwarsandconflicts.Thissourcewashelpfulin understandingthelegacyofinternationaltribunalsthatcarriedonafterthelandmarkNuremberg Trialsanddifferingconflictsandpostwaractionswereexamined. Neff,StephenC."AShortHistoryofInternationalLaw."InternationalLaw.Ed.MalcolmD. Evans.OxfordUniversityPress,2003.3158.PDFfile. ProfessorStephenNeffoutlinestheimportantpointsinthehistoryofinternationallaw, spanningfromthefirstdefinitionstheterminternationallawentailedandthroughtothe twentiethcentury.Thissourceprovidesthehistoricalcontextofthedevelopedlawwhich theNurembergTrialswereheldunder,inadditionwiththeprecedentstheTrialsbrought byactingasabroadandsubstantialtextofhistoricaldescriptionsofinternationallaw. "Nuremberg'sLegacy,60YearsLater."Perf.MarkDrumbl.ByMarkDrumbl.Hosted byMelissaBlock.AllThingsConsidered.HostedbyMelissaBlock,Robert Siegel,andAudieCornish.Natl.PublicRadio.2Oct.2006.Transcript. NationalPublicRadio.Web.2Dec.2013. <http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=6161866>. MarkDrumbl,professoroflawatWashingtonandLeeUniversity,provideshisargumentabout thelegacyoftheNurembergTrials.Inoutliningthelistofinternationalcrisesthatoccurredafter theTrials,suchasinRwandaandtheformerYugoslavia,Drumblarguesthattheidealsof individualpunishmentestablishedbytheTrialshavefailedtodeterviolencebroughtonbythe statebytheindividual,i.e.Rwanda.Thissourcecounterstheargumentoftriumphin

Nurembergslegacyandinsoprovidesadifferingperspectiveontheresponsibilitiesthatthe Trialsestablished. "TheNurembergTrials."Dir.andprod.MichaelKloft.Narr.JoeMorton.Episode #18.06.AmericanExperience.Prod.MarkSamels.PBS.WGBH,Boston,30Jan. 2006.Transcript.PBS.Web.6Oct.2013. <http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/nuremberg/filmmore/pt.html>. Thisfilm,whichwasaccessedasatranscript,containedspeciallywrittennarration,clipsfrom thetrials,andinterviewswithseveralsubjectsknowledgableaboutthetrials.Ithasseveral focuses,andseemstoreturnoftentoHermannGring.Butitprovidesseveralrelevantnotes, includingMarthaMinow'sstatementthattheAlliesagreed,"Itisnodefensetomurdertosay thatotherpeoplearemurdered."Alsodiscussedistherefusalofsomedefendantstoaccept blame,Gring'sinsistencethathisactionswereindefenseofhishomeland,andthatGringand hiswifethoughthewouldbesentencedtoapunishment"morebefittinghisrank"thandeathby hanging.Thisisevidencethatthedefendantswereperhapsnotexpectingtobetriedsoseverely astheywere,andthatmanyclaimed(andmostlikelytrulybelieved)thattheyshouldnotbe consideredguiltybecausetheywereactingunderordersofstatewhentheircrimeswere committed. "TheNurembergTrials."TheNurembergTrials.UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum,n.d. Web.12Sept.2013.<http://www.ushmm.org/outreach/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007722>. ThisisasecondarysourcewhichprovidesabasicoverviewoftheNurembergTrials.Italso providesshortoverviewsofthreeprominentdatesrelatedtothetrials:whenthecharterofthe IMTwasannounced,theindictmentofleadingNazis,andwhentheverdictwasgiven. However,itisnotanespeciallydetailedsource,andismorefactualthanspeculatory.Thisisa documentintendedforthegeneralpublic. Overy,Richard."MakingJusticeatNuremberg19451946."BBCNews.BBC,17Feb.2011. Web.29Sept.2013. Thissecondarysourcelooksintotheideaofvictorsjustice.ProfessorRichardOvery,the authorofthisarticle,isverycriticaloftheproceedingsoftheNurembergTrials.Overystates thattheInternationalMilitaryTribunalarbitrarilychosethedefendants,pointsoutthatthecrimes accusedwherenotcrimesatthetimeofaction,andarguesthattheprosecutionteamwas poorlyinformed.AllofthesepointscirulatearoundtheideathateventhoughtheAllies attemptedinupholdingtherightsofthedefendants,theyultimatleyfailedindoingso.Thissource ishelpfulforitshowsthepointofviewofonewhoiscriticaloftheTrials.WhileOverydoesfeel theAllieshadaresponsibilitytopunishthewarcriminalshedoesnotthinkthatthewaythe Trialswhereheldwerejustifiable.HepointsouttheerrorsintheTrialandhowitwasunfairthat theAllieswroteloopholesfortheirownactionsinthenewlaws.TokeeppositiveAllied relationshipstheothercountrieskeptquietaboutthecrimescommitedbytheSovietRegime. OveryarguesthatGoeringwasrightinhisquotewrittenonhisindictmentstatement,"'Thevictor willalwaysbethejudgeandthevanquishedtheaccused.'"

Paust,JordanJ.,andTelfordTaylor."[Introduction]."ProceedingsoftheAnnualMeeting (AmericanSocietyofInternationalLaw)80(1986):5659.JSTOR.Web.12Oct. 2013. Thissource,hastwoseparatesections,onecalledRemarksbytheChairman,JordanJ.Paust andtheothercalledRemarksbyTelfordTaylor.InPaustssection,hewritesabouttheeffect oftheNurembergtrials,andhowtheycreatedasenseofneedtocomplytointernationallaws, andtoseekoutandpersecutethosewhodonotcomply.Anothereffectthathenotesisthe increasingattentionpaidtocrimesofaggressionandcrimesthatgoagainsthumanrightsafter theNurembergtrials.PaustswritinggivesasenseoftheprecedentthatNurembergsetforthe future,andthemoralimplicationsthatitsetontheworld.InTelfordssection,hemainlywrites abouttheLondonCharterof1945,whatheclaimswastheessentialdocumentinexpanding internationallawinwar.Hestatesthatitsprecursor,theKelloggBriandpact,whichisoften usedtodefendthelegitimacyofthetrials,didnotfullycauseaggressivewartobethoughtofas acrime,sincein1944,theU.N.WarCrimesCommissioncouldnotagreeontheissue. Telfordssectionofthedocumentisimportantbecauseitprovidessomestrong counterargumentsforsomeproNurembergstatements,especiallyonesaboutthe KelloggBriandpact,whichisreferencedseveraltimesbyJusticeJacksonhimself,thatshould beexaminedcarefully. Picart,CarolineJoanS."AttemptingtoGoBeyondForgetting:TheLegacyoftheTokyoIMTand CrimesofViolenceAgainstWomen."U.ofPennsylvaniaEastAsiaLawReview7 (n.d.):n.pag.Web.2Jan.2014. ThissecondarysourcespeaksabouttheTokyoWarCrimesTrialsthattookplaceafterWorld WarTwoandtheNurembergTrials.Inthisarticle,Picartgoesintomuchdepthintothe relationshipbetweentheTokyoWarCrimesTrials,especiallyemphasizingthedifferencesinthe twotrialsandthetwotribunalsthatthetrialsstemmedfrom.However,shedoesconcedethat theNurembergTrialsandtheIntenationalMilitaryTribunaldiddirectlyimpactandinspirethe TokyoWarCrimesTrialsandtheTokyoIMT,althoughthetwotrialsandtribunalsmayhave endeduptobeslightlydifferentincontent.Becausethedocumentisasecondarysource,itis muchmorelikelytobeimpartialthensomeprimarysources,becausetheauthorismorelikely tobemoredetachedfromthewholeissue. Podgers,James."RememberingNuremberg."ABAJournal79.10(1993):8892.JSTOR.Web. 4Oct.2013. ThisarticleisasecondarysourcewrittenbyJamesPodgers,alawyerandassistanteditorofthe ABAJournal.ThearticleisaboutTelfordTaylor,aprosecutoratthetrials,and,accordingto thearticle,theAmericanlawyerthatspentthemosttimeatNuremberg.Thearticleemphasizes theTrialsimportance,particularlythenewconceptofillegalaggressivewar,whichtheTrials werefoundedon.Inthearticle,PodgerswritesaboutTaylorsrecollectionsofthetrials.One

ofthemostinterestingonesisofJusticeJacksonsshortcomings,whichcouldprovideevidence thatanswersthequestionofthelegalityofthetrials,ourmaintopic.Forexample,Justice Jacksonwas,accordingtoTaylor,unabletoputhim[Goering]onthecarpetwhile prosecutinghim.Tayloralsoadmitsthattheprecedentsetforaggressivewarasacrimewas notachievedneatly,statingthattheKelloggBriandPact,whichisoftencitedasevidencefor theillegalityofaggressivewar,didnotactuallystatethataggressioninwarwasillegalunder internationallaw.Also,PodgersaddsinthateventheUNhasyettoofficiallycallitacrime. ThissourceisimportantbecauseitintroducesTelford,anAmericanwhoexperiencedthe Nurembergtrials,andwouldobviouslyhaveabitofbiastowardstheAllies,butcanstilladmit thefallaciesoftheTrials.AlthoughTelfordstillseestheTrialstosomeextentasafulfillmentof aresponsibilitytosetaprecedent,hestillseeshowthisresponsibilitymighthavebeen underminedbyimperfectionsoftheTrials. Post,Ted."TheTrialoftheCentury."Editorial.Newsweek6Nov.1995:n.pag.Web.5Oct. 2013. Thisarticle,publishedinNewsweekin1995,discussesTheNurembergTrials.Theauthor,Ted Post,bringsupseveralquotesfromtheChiefAmericanProsecutor,RobertJackson,thatin manywaysjustifythetrials.Postquestionshowthedefendantscouldbefairlytriedfor committingcrimesthatwerenottechnicallycrimeswhentheywerecommitted.Hesuggestthat doingsocouldsignifyvengeanceasopposedtojustice.However,heincludesthequotefrom Jacksonthatchallengesthismindset,"Ifyouweretosayofthesementhattheyarenotguilty,it wouldbeastruetosaytherehasbeennowar,therearenoslain,therehasbeennocrime." Thisaddressesthedifficultconflictoverwhetherperformingthetrialswasunfairandunjustto thedefendants,andwhetherchoosingnottoholdthemwouldbejustasunfairandunjusttoall ofthosewhowerevictimsoftheircrimes. Radin,Max."JusticeatNuremberg."ForeignAffairs24.3(1946):36984.JSTOR.Web.13Oct. 2013.<http://www.jstor.org/stable/20029976>. Theauthor,Radin,examinesthepartsoftheargumentsagainsttheTrials,focusingonthe jurisdictionoftheAlliesandtheclaimoftheTrialsviolatingthelegaltheoryofexpostfacto.In alsoexaminingthespecificchargesagainstthedefendantsandhowlawandpublicopinion affectedtheinterpretationandphilosophiesoflaw,thisarticlepresentsanalysisofthe internationalrightspresentandinterpretedattheTrials.Ultimately,thissecondarysourcehelps inidentifyingthekeylegalinterpretationsthatshapedtheTrial. Rheinstein,Max.Rev.ofTheNurembergTrialsandAggressiveWar,byGlueckSheldon.The UniversityofChicagoLawReview14.2(1947):31921.JSTOR.Web.14Oct.2013. ThiscriticalreviewofSheldonGlueck'sTheNurembergTrialsandAggressiveWar,explains theviewsexpressedintheworkaswellasKnopf'sthoughts.Glueckarguesthattherewasan internationalcustomthatrecognizedaggressivewarasaninternationalcrimeamongcivilized nationsthusjustifyingthiscountintheNurembergTrials.Glueck'sevidenceincludedstatements fromtheHagueConventionsof1899and1907,theGenevaConventionof1923andthe

KelloggBriandPactof1928.Glueck'sarguesthatthesestatementshavedevelopedthe previouslystatedcustom.Knopf,ontheotherhand,arguesthatinactualitythecountof aggressivewarisbasedoffexpostfactolawandthattheNurembergtrialssetabadexample fortheeffortsofdemocratizingGermany.Thisreviewishelpfulinseeingtheopposingviews fromGluek'sbookaswellasunderstandingthatdeclaringdefendantsguiltyofaggressivewar wasaninfringementontheirrights.Theinformationinthissourcedirectlyrelatestothethemeof rightsorinthiscasethelackofthem. Rosen,Tove,ed."TheInfluenceOfTheNurembergTrialOnInternationalCriminal Law."TheJacksonCenter.RobertH.JacksonCenter,n.d.Web.6Oct.2013. <http://www.roberthjackson.org/theman/speechesarticles/speeches/ speechesrelatedtoroberthjackson/theinfluenceofthenurembergtrialoninternatio alcriminallaw/>. AnarticlefromTheJacksonCenter,anorganizationdedicatedtopreservingthelifeand recordsofChiefAmericanProsecutorRobertH.Jackson,thisframesthehistoricalsignificance oftheNurembergTrialsinthetermsofthedevelopmentininternationallawandjustice.By tracingitsdirectconnectiontotheRomeStatuteof1998andexaminingthehistoryofcrimes againsthumanityandwarcrimesininternationallaw,thissecondarysourceprovesitselftobe helpfulinunderstandingthespecificrightsexplicitlydevelopedattheTrialsandthe understandingoftheresponsibilityheldbytheinternationalcommunitydirectedstatedwith referencestoprimarydocuments. Sadat,LeilaNadya."TheNurembergParadox."TheAmericanJournalofComparativeLaw58.1 (2010):151204.JSTOR.Web.9Oct.2013.<http://ssrn.com/abstract=1408153>. ProfessorSadatprovidesaperspectiveontheincorporationsoftheNurembergprecedentsin FrenchandAmericandomesticlawsandalsodescribesthestateofinternationallawafterthe FirstWorldWar.ThissourceoutlinestheeffectofAmericanactionsinhinderingthe developmentofinternationallawafterWorldWarOneinadditionstooutliningthechargeof crimesagainsthumanity,ledbytheFrenchduringtheNurembergTrialsanditsappearances andlackofappearancesincourtsaftertheTrials.TheNurembergParadoxultimatelybrings forwardthecontextofinternationallawintermsoftheeffectscountrieshadonitgrowthand stagnationandclarifiesthejourneyofinternationallawbeforeandaftertheTrials. Scharf,MichaelP."HAVEWEREALLYLEARNEDTHELESSONSOFNUREMBERG." Address.NurembergandtheRuleofLaw:AFiftyYearVerdict.DeckerAuditorium,The JudgeAdvocateGeneral'sSchool,UnitedStatesArmy,Charlottesville,VA.17Nov.1997. Web.6Oct.2013. Thisaddress,givenbyMichaelP.Scharf,overviewsthefourcriticismsoftheNurembergTrials. HearguesthatwhencritiquingtheTrialsyoumustdoit,notaccordingtomodernstandards,but ratherinthehistoricalcontextofthetime.Whilemanycriticshavethoughtupalternativestothe Trials,Scharfsaystheyonlyalternativeconsideredatthetimewasexecution.Sharfwritesthat

thefirstcritiqueoftheTrailsarethatbecausethetribunalwascomposedofrepresentativesfrom theAllies,thereisthreatofvictor'sjustice.Second,expostfactolawwasused.Third,the prosecutorswereallowedtointroduceexparteaffidavitsagainstthedefendants.Lastly,the Trialsdidnotgivetherighttoappeal.Thissourcewashelpfulinunderstandingtheunfairaspects oftheTrialsthatimposedontherightsofthedefendants.Theinformationinthisaddresshelps formulateanarguemeantthatdirectlyconnectstothemeofrightsandresponsibilities. Shnayerson,Robert."JudgmentatNuremberg."SmithsonianOct.1996:124+.WorldHistory InContext.Web.22Sept.2013. ThissecondarysourceisanarticleprintedintheSmithsonianwrittenbyRobertShnayerson. ThisarticledescribestheNurembergTrialsasheroicforseekingjusticeimpartially,insteadof seekingvengeance.ShnayersondelvesintoJackson'sprosecutionanddescribesmany examplesiftheevidenceheusedagainsttheaccused.It'sarticlealsolooksatthedefenseof thosetried.Becauseofitsrichexamplesanddescriptions,thissourceishelpfulinunderstanding thenutsandboltsofthetrial.Thoughitstartsoutbycelebratingthesetrials,thearticlethen becomesmorefactual.ThemixofopinionsandfactsallowsthereadertoseetheTrialsthrough theperspectiveofsomeonewhofocussesontheAlliesresponsibilitytotryingthewarcriminals ratherthantherightsofthedefendants. Sigal,Clancy.AJewishSoldierWitnessesNuremberg.N.d.MorningEdition.NPR,02Oct. 2006.Web.29Sept.2013.Transcript. CommanderClancySigaloftheAmericanarmy,shareshisexperienceattheNurembergTrials onMorningEditiononNPR.SigalwastheonlyJewinhisunitandhesnuckawaytoattendthe Trials.HisintentionwastolookGoeringintheeyesandshoothim.Uponhisarrivalhewas forcedtocheckhisweaponbeforeenteringthecourtroom.Sigalreflectsonhisexperience, expressinghishatredtowardsGoeringandtheNaziRegime.Thisperspectiveisfascinatingfor SigalisnotonlyanAmericansoldier,butalsoaJew.Hisshareshowhisperspectivechanges fromplanningtomurderGoeringtobeinggladthathedidn'tandfindingpridethat,"wefoundit inourselvestogivetheworstmendueprocess."ThissourceissignificantforitleadstoSigal's autobiographyandshowsaglimpseofhowhethoughtitwashisresponsibilitytokillGoering goingintothetrial,butcomingoutofthetrailhewasproudtohaverespectedGoering'sright, thusconnectingtothethemeofresponsibility. "SpecialCourtforSierraLeone:ABOUT."SpecialCourtforSierraLeone.N.p.,n.d.Web. 04Jan.2014.<http://www.scsl.org/ABOUT/tabid/70/Default.aspx>. ThiswebpageisoffoftheofficialwebsiteoftheSpecialCourtforSierraLeone.Thiscourtis oneofthemanythatwasinfluencedbyNurembergslegacy.Thewebpageoffersgeneral informationabouttheCourt,includinggoalsoftheCourt.Becausethiswebpageispartofthe officialwebsitefortheSpecialCourtforSierraLeone,itcanbeexpectedthattheinformation onthepageisbiased,andmightignoreanypossibleflawsandproblemsofthecourt. However,itstillisusefulforprovidingbasicinformationontheCourt.

"TrialsoftheWarCriminals."LearningAbouttheHolocaust:AStudent'sGuide.Ed.Ronald M.Smelser.Vol.4.NewYork:MacmillanReferenceUSA,2001.6984.WorldHistory InContext.Web.12Sept.2013. ThissecondarysourcedescribedthegeneralproceedingsoftheNurembergTrials,the SubsequentNurembergTrials,theKrasnodarTrials,theBergenBelsenTrials,theZyklonB Trials,andthetrialsinGermanyandPoland.Ithelpedinestablishingthesituationaroundthe trials.Also,pertinentinternationaltreatiesandconventionswerereferencedandintroducedand willultimatelyhelpininvestigatingtheinternationalrightinholdingthetrialsthroughfurther research.Incomingfromanestablisheddatabasewithbothprimaryandsecondarysourcesin thebibliography,thispublicdocumentisreliableandmeanttoobjectivelyeducate. UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseum."InternationalMilitaryTribunalAt Nuremberg."HolocaustEncyclopaedia.UnitedStatesHolocaustMemorial Museum,10June2013.Web.12Sept.2013. <http://www.ushmm.org/wlc/en/article.php?ModuleId=10007069>. AsanarticlefromtheUnitedStatesHolocaustMemorialMuseumthispublicsourceis reliableandforeducationalpurposes.Theinformationisbackupbyotherarticlessuchasinthe WorldHistoryinContextdatabaseandprovidesadescriptionoftheNurembergTrialsand thejudgesandattorneywhowereinvolved.Theinformationaboutthelegalcounselprovided moreinformationtothoroughlyinvestigatethecourtproceedings,whichwillhelpindetermine howthetrialsproceededunderinternationallaw. "VictorsJustice:WereNazisTriedforWarCrimesSubjectedtoVictorsJustice?"Historyin Dispute.Ed.TandyMcConnell.Vol.11:TheHolocaust,19331945.Detroit:St.JamesPress, 2003.252263.WorldHistoryInContext.Web.12Sept.2013. Byprovidingthreedifferingviewpointsandjustificationscollectedfromcollegeprofessors,this secondarysourceprovidesinformationaboutcourtproceedingsandinsightintothevaluesand actionsoftheAllies,mostnotablytheUnitedStatesandtheSovietUnion.Fromacredible database,thispublicsourcewouldhavenoreasontodistort.Thecriticsofthetrialproposethat theUSshiftedthetrialstobenefittheirresistancetothespreadofSovietpowerwhile supporterscitemultipletreatiesenactedbeforethewar.Bypresentingdifferingargumentsand perspectivesintothetrials,thissourcehashelpedbetterourargumentbyeitherthelackofor clearconnectionsofevidence. Walkinshaw,RobertB."TheNurembergandTokyoTrials:AnotherStepToward InternationalJustice."AmericanBarAssociationJournal35.4(1949): 299302.JSTOR.Web.9Oct.2013. <http://www.jstor.org.ezproxy.bpl.org/stable/25716817>. ThisexceptfromtheAmericanBarAssociationJournalwaspublishedin1946and

commentsonthehistoricalsignificanceoftheTrialsintheprecedentitsetfortheprosecutionof internationalcrimes.Inalsoexaminingthechargeofaggressivewarandtherelationship betweeninternationalcustomsandthelegalstructurethatispresentinsideastate,this secondaryanalysisprovidesafocusedperspectiveontherightspresentduringandinforming theTrials.AsitisfromalegaljournalonlyafewyearsaftertheTrialsconcluded,thissource alsoincludesinsightintohowsomelawyerssawthelegalsituationduringanddirectlyafterthe Trials. Wilkes,DonaldE."TheTrialoftheCenturyAndofAllTime,PartOne."FlagpoleMagazine10 July2002:8.Web.6Oct.2013. Thisarticle,writtenbyProfessorDonaldE.WilkesJr.,arguesthattheNurembergTrialswas thegreatesttrialofthecentury.Hedoesthisbyportrayingthevastnessofthetrialbymeansof statingthefactsofthelengthofthetranscripts,theamountofevidence,thenumberofpeopleon theprosecutionteam,thelengthofthetrial,thenumberofwitnessesandmore.Wilkesthen goesontoarguethatthereisevidenceforpronouncingdefendantsguiltyofallormanyofthe fourcounts.Thissourceisusefulbecauseitshowsthesignificanceoftheevidencethat convictedthedefendants.Italsogivesushistoricalcontextbystatingthefactsandthenumbers. ThissourcealsorelatestothethemeofrightsandresponsibilitieswhenWilkesgoesintothe rightoftheAlliesduetotheGermansunconditionalsurrenderinaschoolhouseinReims, France. Wippman,David."TheInternationalCriminalCourt."ThePoliticsofInternationalLaw.Ed.Christian ReusSmit.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress,2004.15188.Print.CambridgeStudiesin InternationalRelations96. Asasecondarysourcefullofcompilationsofessaysaboutdifferentaspectsofinternationallaw, thisbookhasprovidedinsightonthedifferingtheoriesandperspectivesontheroleinternational law,jurisdiction,consentandect,whichishelpfulincategorizingpastinternationaltreatiesby jurisdictionandpoliticalinterestsandinexaminingargumentsquestioningthelegalityofthe NurembergTrials.PublishedbytheprestigiousCambridgeofUniversity,thispublicsourceis intendedforeducationandhasnoreasontodistort. Wyzanski,CharlesE."Nuremberg:AFairTrial?ADangerousPrecedent."TheAtlantic.N.p., 1Apr.1946.Web.29Sept.2013. ThisarticlewaswrittenbyAmericanfederaljudge,CharlesE.Wyzanskiin1946.Wyzanski critizestheTrials,notforpunishingthedefendants,butforhowtheywentaboutdoingit.The articlegoesthrougheachofthefourcounts,identifyingthelegalproblems.Accordingto Wyzanski,Count3,warcrimes,haslimitedissuesbecausethemurderandtortureofwar criminalshadbeeninternationallyestablishedasacrimeatTheHagueConferenceof1907. Additionally,WyzanskifindsnoproblemwiththeInternationalMilitaryTribunalnotrecognizing superiorordersasadefensebecauseallGerman,French,Russian,BritishandAmericancourts settlethisopenquestionmoreoftenthannotinthesameway.InregardstoCount4,crimes againsthumanity,thedefinitiongivenintheindictmentusesloosetermsofinternational

conventionsbutitneverspecifiesacertaintreatyinwhichtheseconventionsarestated Wyzanskisaysthereisn'tone.Thiscountusesexpostfactolaw,whichisagainstthe fundamentalsofinternationallaw.Italsogoesagainstanotherfundamentalconceptof"*nullum crimenetnullapoenasinelege*nocrimeandnopenaltywithoutanantecedentlaw." WyzanskicriticizesCount2,crimesagainstpeace,becausethoughithadbeenoutlawed,ithad onlybeenoutlawedforsovereignstatesnotindividuals.Otherproblemsarealsoapparent. Lastlyincount1,conspiracy,Wyzanskiarguesthatitisridiculousforamemberofa governmentthatisbeingaccusedofconspiracy,toberesponsibleforeveryactionthat governmenthasdone.Thissourceisextremelyusefulinunderstandingthesidecriticalofthe Trials,itsfairnessanditsprotectionofdefendant'srightsbecauseWyzanskigivesadetailed explanationoftheproblemswitheachcountaswellasidentifyingoverallissuesoftheTrials.