Lifestyle Chemistry 1.

The use of a substance depends on its physical and chemical properties identify that solutions, colloids and suspensions occur in a wide range of consumer products explain that mixtures can be solutions that contain dissolved substances and are uniform throughout suspensions containing particles that settle out, or form layers, quickly colloids with particles that remain suspended for long periods of time and include liquid-in-liquid (emulsions) oil-in-water water-in-oil gas-in-liquid (foams) Mixtures - contain two or more pure substances in any proportions - components are not chemical joined together - each component keeps its own properties - components can be separated using a physical technique such as sieving or filtering - do not have definite properties because their composition varies - no new substances form - particles of each substance are distributed between particles of the other substance - vegemite, soy sauce, lemonade, coffee, milk, shampoo, sunscreen, paint Solutions - are transparent - formed when one substance (solute) dissolves into another substance (solvent) dissolved ions or molecules - individual particles of the solute are evenly spread out (dispersed) through the solvent - water and alcohol are commonly used solvents - in a solution, particles of solute and solvent are similar in size very small - soft drink, cordial, shampoo Suspensions - insoluble particles of one or more of the substances will settle out on standing from the liquid component of the mixture into distinct layers - contain large insoluble particles (able to be seen with naked eye) which spread out evenly throughout the liquid component is the mixture is shaken but never dissolve - large insoluble particles are commonly solids (eg. soil in water, milo in cold milk) but may be liquid (eg. oil in water) - large enough to be seen - muddy water, salad dressing, calamine lotion, paint Colloids - mixtures containing insoluble particles that are intermediate in size between those of suspensions and solutions - insoluble particles of one of the substances are spread throughout the other substance and remain suspended indefinitely - smoke, mayonnaise, moisturising cream, milk, whipped cream, toothpaste homogeneous - mixture that is uniform in composition and appearance throughout - individual components cant be seen - mixture not uniform in composition and appearance throughout - components are distinguishable and can sometimes be easily seen - component of colloid that is insoluble evenly spread throughout the other component and remains suspended for long periods of time - component of colloid through which the dispersed phase is uniformly suspended

heterogeneous

dispersed phase

dispersed medium

Colloids encountered Type of colloid general name gas-in-liquid gas-in-solid foam foam

dispersed phase gas gas

dispersed medium liquid solid

example whipped cream, shaving cream marshmallow, Styrofoam, sponge fog, deodorant, spray-on-tan

liquid-in-gas

aerosol

liquid

gas

solid-in-liquid liquid-in-liquid

sol emulsion

solid liquid

liquid liquid

toothpaste mayonnaise, sunscreen

property size of particles can mixture be seen through

solution <0.000001mm very small transparent

suspension >0.001mm opaque (cloudy) when first formed, however some suspensions may separate into a clear layer and an opaque layer over time yes

colloid 0.000001 0.001mm opaque

can mixture be separated by filtering do some particles settle out on standing does mixture scatter light beam as it is shone through (Tyndall effect) appearance immediately after mixing

no

no

no

yes

no

no

yes

yes

homogenous, transparent

appearance a long time after mixing examples

homogeneous, transparent nail polish remover, Listerine, Windex

some suspensions may look uniform (depending on how vigorous the mixing is) but other suspensions may look heterogeneous heterogeneous Mylanta (indigestion antacid), cloudy ammonia

homogeneous, opaque

opaque, homogeneous lotions, milk

explain surface tension in terms of the forces experienced by particles at the surface of a liquid

Surface tension - a property of liquids where the molecules of the exposed surface tend to get pulled downwards into the body of the liquid this gives rise to a skin-like effect on the surface of the liquid - it is caused by an imbalance between the forces of adhesion and the forces of cohesion acting on the liquid molecules on the surfaces of the liquid - forces of adhesion are forces of attraction between molecules of different substances eg. water to glass (high), water to air (low), water to wax (low), mercury to glass (low) - forces of cohesion are forces of attraction between molecules of the same substance eg. water to water, air to air molecules at surface do not have identical molecules on all sides they have air molecules above them and water molecules to the sides and below them water molecules are more strongly attracted to other water molecules than they are to air molecules causes molecules at surface to be pulled downwards toward the rest of the liquid causing it to form a film on its surface meniscus forms at surface of liquid in a glass container because forces of cohesion between liquid molecules are different than forces of adhesion between liquid and glass (water is more strongly attracted to glass than to each other) surfactant surface-acting agent that lowers surface tension of liquid lowers hydrogen bonding (cohesive forces) of water force acting on surface of liquid, tending to keep area of surface as small as possible

Comparing the surface tension of water and methylated spirits

count number of drops in 5ml of water or find volume in 100 drops of water repeat with a clean dry pipette using methylated spirits

describe surfactants as substances that affect the surface tension of a liquid

Surfactants - surface tension influences the ability of a liquid to be absorbed by or to wet a porous surface - a surface said to be wet when the molecules of the liquid are attracted to the molecules of the surface material - a surfactant surface active agent is a substance which can reduce the surface tension of a liquid, allowing a surface to be wetted - detergents are a commonly used surfactant a surfactant a molecule with a small polar (charged) head and a long non-polar tail

when added to water, the polar head bury themselves in between the water molecules and their non-polar tails tend to be as far away from the water as they can be as a result of the hydrophobic nature of the tails, the surfactant molecules tend to concentrate on the waters surface

since the surfactant molecules prefer the water surface, they disrupt the forces of cohesion between the water molecules at the surface of the water as a result, the surface tension is reduced to about a quarter of the original value means that water droplets will spread far more readily and wet surfaces more easily

identify that a wide range ofsubstances are used daily as part ofour food, our hygiene, and maintenance of our health

process and analyse information to identify the range of chemicals used in everyday living including detergent lubricant pesticide solvent metal cleaner body hygiene chemicals cosmeticand outline any precautions that may be needed in the use and handling of these chemicals

Type of chemical and its purpose detergent (surfactant cleaner) - removes dirt and grease from clothing, and grease and food from crockery, etc lubricant - allows metal parts in cars and engines to move smoothly past one another pesticide - chemicals that kill other living organisms considered to be of detrimental value by humans (eg. weedicide, herbicide, insecticide, fungicide, rodenticide) solvent - chemicals that dissolve other chemicals

Examples Pine O Cleen, Ajax

Precautions - do not mix with other detergents or chemicals - avoid breathing in spray - do not treat garment while wearing - avoid contact with skin and eyes - use with adequate ventilation - if swallowed, do not induce vomiting - keep away from heat, flames or sources f ignition - store in dry cool place - wear rubber gloves and wash hands after use to prevent contact with eyes and skin - do not inhale dust and use in well ventilated areas - do not store in direct sunlight - withholding period do not pick edible fruits one day after spraying - toxic - wear gloves to avoid skin contact - flammable; avoid open flames - use in well ventilated areas

WD-40, Dry Glide

Antex Granules (controls ants), PestOil (insect spray)

metal cleaner - removes tarnish from metals such as chrome on cars or silverware in the home body hygiene chemicals - chemicals that control harmful microbes from inhabiting the surface of the body as well as prevent the production of offensive odours by these microflora cosmetics - chemicals used to enhance the beauty of a person (appearance, scent, etc)

Household kerosene, Graffiti remover, methylated spirits Brasso (metal polish)

avoid open flames do not swallow keep out of reach of children may be toxic

Dove beauty bar, Palmolive

- do not swallow - avoid contact with eyes; rinse with water if in contact - discontinue use if irritate skin

Nivea for Men shaving cream

- protect from sunlight, do not expose to 0 temperatures exceeding 50 C - do not spray on flames keep away from ignition sources - dont pierce of burn - dangerous to inhale - should not be taken when pregnant - should not be taken if you have a stomach ulcer, impaired kidney function or are allergic to aspirin, ibuprofen or other antiinflammatory medicines

pharmaceuticals - drugs and medicines used to treat illness and help maintain health

Daktarin (athletes foot), Nurofen

use first-hand or secondary sources to gather, process, analyse and present information to identify

Advantages of products being suspensions liquid antacid Mylanta - fine powder of the active ingredient MgCO 3 is suspended in water - mixture is shaken well before use so that the active ingredient is uniformly distributed through the mixture before it is ingested

examples of suspensions and colloids and outline one advantage of a mixture being in each form

advantage of taking the antacid as a suspension is that the taste of the drug is less noticeable in suspension (than in solution) due to the drug being less soluble in suspension

cup of tea - tea leaves are added to boiling water and allowed to sit for a while so that soluble colours and flavours are dissolved into the boiling water - insoluble tea leaves can then be easily separated by filtering (sieve, teabag) or by gravitation (sedimentation) so that the unpalatable tea leaves are removed from the liquid to drink calamine lotion - allows insoluble powdered active ingredient to be distributed over insect bites as a very thin even film - liquid component then evaporates off the skin, leaving behind the powder to cover the bite and relieve itching - if it just powder uneven, doesnt stick to skin well pharmaceutical suspensions - dispersion of drugs in a finely divided form, in water, oily liquids or in a gas swallowed, applied topically or inhaled (eg. aerosol suspensions) - suspension is an easy way to administer insoluble or sparingly soluble drugs to infants and elderly who have difficulty swallowing drugs in tablet form - absorbed more rapidly than same drug swallowed in tablet form - if a drug is required to be absorbed more slowly, it can sometimes be prepared in an insoluble form administered as a suspension benefit of being released over a longer period of time in body, avoiding having to administer drug more frequently - avoids bitter taste of soluble form - prolongs time of action of drug Advantages of products being colloids mayonnaise (emulsion, specifically an oil-in-water emulsion) - it is easier to use because it doesnt need to be shaken before use whereas salad dressing does need to shaken - the smooth texture and uniform, opaque, creamy colour provides an attractive appearance that enhances for its aesthetic appeal and allows it to be evenly spread spray-on tan (aerosol, liquid-in-gas) - allows us to uniformly distribute the coloured tanning liquid over the skin so that the artificial tan is more even and looks more attractive - it is much easier to spray the liquid onto the body as a colloidal aerosol than to try and apply the pure concentrated tanning liquid over the skin

plan, select appropriate equipment or resources for and perform a first-hand investigation to produce a range of suspensions and colloids that are used by consumers including beaten or whisked eggs salad dressing (oil/vinegar) mayonnaise

Whisked egg whites - mixture colloid foam (gas-in-liquid)

Whisked whole egg - mixture colloid emulsion (oil-in-water)

Mayonnaise 1. place 1 yolk, 2tsp vinegar and 1tsp mustard into a bowl and beat until light and creamy 2. whilst whisking, slowly add oil drop by drop 3. add seasoning and other ingredients - mixture colloid emulsion (oil-in-water) 200mL:20mL water

Salad dressing - mixture short-term: temporary emulsion, long-term: suspension (overall suspension)

Nesquik - mixture suspension (sediment), solution (change in colour)

Raspberry cordial - mixture solution (transparent light beam bigger than particle so can pass through)

Other consumer products - freshly squeezed whole orange juice suspension - pulp-free orange juice solution - spray-on deodorant aerosol; colloid (liquid through gas) - paint suspension (oil on top)

perform first-hand investigations to

Showing that water causes tension - dip wire loop into soapy water, making sure that both halves of the loop have a thin soap film that

demonstrate the effect of surface tension on: the shape of liquid drops the formation of menisci the ability of some insects to walk on water

stretches across them use a pin to pop one half of the soap film observe what happens to the piece of thread use pin to pop the other half of the soap film and observe what happens to the thread

The shape of liquid drops - smear a thin layer of Vaseline across one half of a clean glass slide - using a glass dropper, place a drop of water onto each half of the slide - observe the shape of the drop in each case repeat using methylated spirits then oil

The formation of menisci - half-fill 5 measuring cylinders (10ml, 25ml, 50ml, 100ml, 1000ml) with water - using a hand lens, observe the relative shape and size of the meniscus formed in each - meniscus of water is more noticeable in a thin tube because water is attracted to the glass sides rising higher in the tube

The ability of some insects to walk on water - fill a clean beaker with water - place a razor blade very gently onto the surface of the water - notice what happens to the shape of water surface around the razor blade

The effect of a surfactant on surface tension - add a couple of drops of detergent to the beaker from above

Shape of water droplets as it free-falls - carefully turn a tap on so that a water droplet hangs from it - observe the shape gently hit the tap to make the drop fall off observe the shape of the water drop as it falls through the air - tries to form a spherical shape because water has high surface tension cohesive forces between water molecules are strong

Shape of meniscus formed when mercury is in contact with glass - use a hand lends to observe the shape of the meniscus in a mercury thermometer

Capillary action - glass attracts water molecules strongly enough to pull a thin column of water up through a narrow tube (capillary tube) made of glass capillary action - the narrower the tube, the further the water rises because the weight of water needing support is less - water, alcohol and other liquids can be drawn up through narrow gaps by capillary action - materials like blotting paper and cotton wool which soak up liquids contain tiny air spaces which liquids can move by capillary action soil and porous rocks also contain air spaces and they absorb water in the same way - in walls and floors of houses, capillary action would cause rising damp through bricks and concrete is steps were not taken to prevent it there are air spaces in concrete and brickwork - in new houses, a waterproof sheet of polythene is laid in concrete base to stop upward movement of water from the ground waterproof layer is set into outer brick walls just above ground level, called a damp course made from mixture of felt and bitumen 2. A wide range of cleaning products are made from colloids and surfactants state the relationship between the properties of an emulsion and the types of molecules present Emulsion - mixtures of two immiscible liquids such as oil and water with one the liquids indefinitely suspended as very small droplets throughout the other liquid - mixture contains an emulsifying agent that stabilises the mixture polar substance that has an uneven distribution of charge over its length eg. water, salt (NaCl), sugar, methylated spirits, food dye

non-polar substance that has an even distribution of charge along its length eg. oil, kerosene, turpentine, grass stains, dirt

dissolving like dissolves like polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents but not non-polar solvents

non-polar solutes dissolve in non-polar solvents (but not in polar solvents) eg. oil-based paints dissolve in turps (or kerosene or petrol) but not water

outline the purpose of the emulsifying agent in a range of consumer cleaning products

Purpose of an emulsifying agent - to assist two immiscible substances such as oil and water to mix and form a stable colloidal mixture (stable so that it does not become a suspension over time) - the emulsifying agent allows oil to be dispersed as very small droplets throughout water or vice versa: ~ oil-in-water oil droplets dispersed in water ~ water-in-oil water droplets dispersed in oil - emulsifying agent is also called an emulsifier - a molecule of an emulsifying agent looks like this:

polar head has an uneven distribution of charge so that parts of it are more negative than others or parts of it are positive than others hydrophilic or lipophobic, hydrophobic or lipophilic non-polar tail has an even distribution of charge over its length so that no parts are more positive or negative than others emulsifier disperses oil as small droplets through water because its polar head is attracted to polar water molecules while the non-polar tail attaches to the non-polar oil molecules emulsifier keeps oil particles dispersed throughout water because each droplet of oil is coated with polar heads of emulsifier molecule and since polar heads of emulsifier molecules all have the same charge they repel each other, preventing oil droplets from recombining and keeps them suspended throughout the water

water on its own is not very efficient cleaning agent if it is required to deal with non-polar stains/ dirts emulsifiers are an ingredient in household cleaning products so that they can allow oil and dirt (non-polar) to become dispersed in water as small droplets so that it can easily wash away with more water significantly improves the cleaning ability of water a detergent (or soap) molecule consists of a long hydrocarbon chain at one end (tail) which is nonpolar and a chemical group at the other end (head) which is polar

explain why an oil-water mixture quickly forms layers after it has been shaken - oil is non-polar whilst water is polar consequently, they are immiscible as only like dissolves like - they form layers due to their differences in densities

identify that soaps and detergents are emulsifying agents and surfactants

Soaps and detergents - detergents improve the cleaning properties of water - there are two types of detergents: ~ soapless detergents (synthetic detergents developed during WWII from petroleum) ~ soapy detergents (soapy detergents that were developed 2000 years ago from fats and oils) soapy detergents - fats and oils reacted with either sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide soapless detergents - hydrocarbon chain from petroleum reacted with sulfuric acid

made from

structure

properties

- readily biodegradable - can be hard to dissolve in water - deteriorates with age - forms a precipitate that settles out as a scum - does not lather well in hard water

effect in hard water

- biodegradable when made with an unbranched structure - readily dissolves in water - do not deteriorate with age - stays dissolved in hard water - lathers reasonably well in hard water

Detergent molecule - able to emulsify oil, grease and dirt because of their chemical structure - has a non-polar hydrocarbon chain which is a hydrophobic tail and a polar charged unit which is a hydrophilic head surfactant a chemical that works at the surface of a substance to reduce the surface tension between liquids or between a liquid and a solid improves the ability of a substance to wet, mix or spread over another substance emulsifier a chemical that allows substances to remain mixed together when they would not normally do so keeps very small particles of an insoluble substance permanently suspended throughout a liquid with which the first substance is immiscible allows the insoluble substance to be solubilised making its removal easier Practical Shake vigorously and measure depth of foam in mm - soapy detergent (Lux bar) 2cm - soapless detergent (kitchen washing liquid, laundry liquid) 11cm - result - soapless detergents produce more foam than soapless detergents Add universal indicator, shake, observe the colour and estimate pH using UI colour chart - soapy (Lux bar) purple, 9.5 - naturally basic (can be beneficial as it kills acidic bacteria) - soapless (kitchen washing liquid) green, 7 - neutral - soapless (laundry, liquid wash for hands) orange-yellow, 6 - made to be acidic to suit pH of skin

Add calcium chloride/ magnesium chloride solution, shake, observe relative amount of precipitate - soapy (Lux bar) milky, cloudy (white precipitate forms) - soapless clear, colourless - soapy detergents form precipitates with calcium and magnesium whereas soapless does so minimally Add HCl solution, shake and observe for precipitate

soapy white precipitate forms soapless clear, colourless

explain why cleaning agents must be surfactants and emulsifiers

Surfactant - cause surface active agents lower surface tension at the interface between two substances - effect allows two immiscible liquids to better wet one another - because (why/how) the surfactant molecules reduce the strength of the attractive forces of cohesion between molecules of the same liquid and thus water molecules (also oil molecules) are less strongly attracted to one another so they spread out more easily important in cleaning agents as water and oil must be in contact with one another for the water to be able to wash away the oil

soluble compound that reduces surface tension of liquids, or reduces surface tension between two liquids or between a liquid and solid concentrate at interface between substances increase spreading, mixing and wetting properties of substances

Emulsifying agents - cause emulsifiers allows substances to remain mixed together when they dont normally do so - effect emulsifier helps disperse oil/ dirt in small droplets uniformly throughout water, enables droplets to remain dispersed rather than rejoining (re-coalescing) back together and then settling back onto the now clean object - because (why/how) non-polar tail readily buries into non-polar oil while its polar head is readily attracted to polar water molecules small droplets of oil can then remain uniformly dispersed because the polar heads of the emulsifier molecules all carry the same charge so they repel one another important in cleaning agents because oil must be lifted off the object being cleaned and then be suspended in water so that it can be easily rinsed off the object

define the term biodegradable

Biodegradable - is the ability of a material to be broken down, by a group of biological organisms (decomposers) into various other compounds that are harmless - decomposers necessary component of a balanced ecosystem present in natural waters and sediments, encouraged in sewage treatment works

discuss the biodegradability of

Biodegradability of soaps/soapless detergents 1. rate at which cleaning agent biodegrades

soapsand soapless detergents

Australian standard for biodegradability requires 80% of mixture to be degraded within 21 days if the product is to carry the label biodegradable soapless detergents did not originally degrade in the environment and their residues remained in waterways and water treatment plants persistent mounds of foam, making water become toxic to small organisms living in water due to presence of branched hydrocarbon chains scientists changed their structure to hasten their rate of biodegrading unbranched hydrocarbon chains were introduced broken down by microbes at rates similar to soap were also shown to perform 10% more efficiently for heavy-duty washing purposes soaps tend to biodegrade easily because they are naturally made and can therefore, be broken down naturally (animal fat can decompose naturally) biodegrading rapidly allows environments to remain relatively stable without large changes organisms can survive and reproduce without much hindrance

2. impacts on environment of cleaning agent not biodegrading rapidly - soaps can form a gel when left sitting in a moist environment phosphates - soapless detergents contain phosphates and other builders whose role is to help it clean more effectively - breakdown of phosphorus complexes in detergent wastewater creates freely available phosphates which can contribute to an oversupply of phosphate in waterways and cause an imbalance of aquatic ecosystem ~ excessive algae growth can be carcinogenic, toxic acute (short-term severe) and chronic (long term low level) ~ decomposer organisms that require oxygen can increase depletes amount of oxygen dissolved in water excessively large numbers of decomposers can reduce oxygen levels to the extent where other aquatic organisms die from lack of oxygen (decomposers grow in response to increase in food phosphates) surfactants - both are surfactants so they reduce the surface tension of water reduced ability for waterdwelling insects such as water striders to walk on water as the surface of water no l onger forms a film which they can walk on - the waterproof (waxy) layer that coats the leaves and stems of plants can become no longer effective results in dehydration and diseases as the waxy coating cannot preserve water and prevent entrance of bacteria foam - soapless detergents tend to form a foam when water containing them is agitated unsightly and if they persisted in the environment for long periods of time, normal bacteria cannot cope with this type of detergent fresh water supplies were too affected by foam in the past 3. products of biodegradation - some breakdown products of detergents can behave like plant or animal hormones and disrupt normal functioning of organisms disrupting reproductive cycle; ecosystem - non-biodegradable substances can also accumulate in the food chain

perform a first-hand investigation to prepare an emulsion and compare its properties to those of a solution and suspension

Preparing an emulsion Materials Chemical reagents - oil - water - detergent - methylene blue, Sudan III mixture Apparatus - 4 test tubes each with a lid (same size and shape) - pipettes/ droppers - test tube rack - measuring cylinder

Method control 1 1. one test tube was added with 5mL of oil and another with 5mL of water 2. both test tubes were added with a very small amount of the dye mixture (mixed in equal proportions of Sudan III and methylene blue) 3. observed colour and recorded results control 2 4. one test tube was added with 5mL of oil and 5mL of water and a small amount of dye mixture 5. the test tube was shaken vigorously and observations were made and recorded independent 6. another test tube was added with 5mL of oil, 5mL of water and 3mL of detergent as well as the same amount of dye mixture 7. observations were made and recorded Results - test tube with oil alone red - test tube with water alone blue - test tube containing a mixture of oil and water separated into two layers (red at the top and blue at the bottom) - emulsion test tube with oil, water, detergent even uniform pale blue colour, with some red dots on glass (oil droplets attracted to glass) ~ blue water layer at the bottom remains hasnt been emulsified since the proportions of water to oil to detergent is not exact so some water is left ~ dyes were powdered and mixed using a mortar and pestle 1 tspn of Sudan III, 1 tspn of methylene blue, uniformly distributed (equal amounts equal chance of it dissolving) is a valid way of confirming type of emulsion

plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to gather information about the properties of different emulsions and use available evidence to compare those properties process and present diagrammatic information to describe the effects of soaps, skin cleansers and shampoos on the solubility of oil

Emulsions - a mixture of two immiscible liquids such as oil and water where one liquid is suspended in the other liquid indefinitely - liquid that has been broken up into small droplets dispersed phase - other liquid throughout which the first liquid is suspended in continuous phase/ dispersion medium - are a specific type of colloid (mixtures with particles that remain suspended for long periods of time - to create an emulsion of oil and water, an emulsifying agent is added that enables one of insoluble liquids to be uniformly suspended as small droplets throughout other liquid keeps dispersed phase suspended as tiny droplets, prevents droplets from re-joining together - two types of emulsions; oil-in-water, water-in-oil Oil-in-water emulsions - oil droplets are suspended throughout water - homogeneous (uniform) appearance - opaque appearance - very smooth, creamy texture - long term staility - usually soluble in water - often feels non-greasy when applied to skin - feel cool when applied to skin water doesnt absorb into skin but it evaporates off leaving think film of oil which does through skin; physical energy, heat allows water to change state) - often have a low viscosity (seems runny) - conducts electricity to a small extent - dissolve water soluble dyes such as food colouring and methylene blue - does not dissolve oil soluble dyes such as Sudan III

Water-in-oil emulsions - water droplets are suspended throughout oil - homogeneous appearance - opaque appearance - long-term stability - very smooth, creamy texture - generally insoluble in water - may feel greasy when applied to skin - feel warm when applied to skin - often have a high viscosity (seems thick) - poor-non conductors of electricity - does not dissolve water soluble dyes - dissolves oil soluble dyes (Sudan III)

Consumer products - uniform appearance looks attractive consumers prefer not to see a layer of oil floating on top of other ingredients - texture and mouth feel are improved when suspensions are emulsified Practical Safety precautions - safety glasses, rubber gloves (dye stains skin) - water/ oil soluble dye is chosen so that it is non-toxic - non-toxic items are tested (consumer products are considered to be non-toxic) Method 1. make a mixture of an oil soluble powdered dye and a water soluble powdered dye by thoroughly mixing together equal quantities of methylene blue (water soluble) and Sudan III (oil soluble) 2. add oil to a depth of 2cm to a medium test tube and add water to a depth of 2cm to another test tube 3. add a very small amount of dye powder mixture to each test tube and agitate vigorously to thoroughly mix observe colour and record observations ~ measure out a very small quantity of powdered dye mixture by using end of a flat toothpick (1/8 of rice grain) 4. place a small amount (1/4 -1/2 tspn) of a household emulsion onto a watch glass add a small amount of dye powder mixture using the flat end of a toothpick and mix in thoroughly observe colour and record 5. place a small amount (1/4 tspn) of same household emulsion into a large test tube, add water to a depth of 4cm and shake vigorously observe to see whether the emulsion mostly dissolves 6. repeat steps 4-5 with the remaining household emulsions Results oil red water blue Household emulsion Colour with dye mixture Solubility in water Appearance (uniformity, opaque) Feel Type of emulsion

milk margarine peanut butter mayonnaise Cancer Council ultrascreen water resistant Ombra everyday non-ghosting sunscreen Olay complete face cream Cutex hand and nail cream hair gel Auscreen nongreasy sunscreen lotion - runny Bronza tanning liquid Dove rich nourishing body milk anti-aging cream

blue purple-red orange-red blue pink-red

yes partially no yes no

all appears uniform, opaque

non-greasy greasy greasy non-greasy greasy

o/w w/o w/o o/w w/o

blue

yes

non

o/w

blue blue blue pale blue

yes yes partially yes

non non non non

o/w o/w o/w o/w

blue red

yes partially

non greasy

o/w w/o

blue

no

non

o/w

Viscosity method 1. 10 circles of the same diameter were drawn horizontally onto glass 2. a small sample of each emulsion (equal volumes) were smeared onto each circle 3. the glass was tilted vertically and each emulsion was allowed to run down the glass 4. observations were made and recorded results - average pH of skin care products 5.92 ~6 - pH range of skin care products 5-7.5 - average pH of hair care is 5.39 ~ 5.5 - pH range of hair care products 4.0-6.5 discussion - since the skins average pH is 5.5 the products tested are suited for use as they also have an average pH around that area - method is valid since the universal indicator was tested beforehand which confirms that the colour change does correspond with the change in acidity/ pH but by estimating the numerical pH value, the results become invalid and thus, unreliable - results obtained in parts B and C are unreliable since it has not been repeated and thus, does not show consistency

3. Cleaning productsusedon the humanbody must becompatiblewiththe physical andchemicalproperties of theskin

identify the role of the skin as an organ to separate the body fromthe external environment an organ assisting in bodytemperature control an organ to protect against entryby disease-causing organisms

Functions of skin - protects us from the outside environment - helps regulate body temperature - receives sensory information through touch receptors - excretes water, salts and other substances - forms an important part of our immune system Protection - skin is a physical barrier against damage by external objects protects body from infection by microbes - melanin in skin absorbs the suns UV radiation and prevents it harmful effects on underlying tissue - skin prevents dehydration because it is waterproof it releases water in a controlled manner Regulation of body temperature - control of body temperature assisted by skin sweat glands, blood vessels, muscles near surface, fat layers below skin - high temperature sweat glands release sweat, evaporation of sweat from skin has a cooling effect blood vessels dilate allowing more blood near the skins surface so heat radiates away - cool temperature sweat glands stop producing sweat blood vessels constrict or narrow to limit the amount of blood moving near the surface so that heat lost through radiation is reduced - muscles near surface start working automatically to produce more heat by shivering - adipose (fat) tissue insulates tissue below skin against heat loss Sensation - skin contains receptors for pain, heat, cold (heat loss), itch and pressure in low layers of dermis - sensitive touch receptors are located in epidermis - more sensory receptors in hairless areas of skin such as fingertips and lips these areas are especially sensitive Excretion - skin excretes sweat which contains salts, water, small amounts of urea, lactic acid, amino acids - oil glands secrete mainly fatty acids and protein fragments - chemicals excreted are acidic selective microflora can live on skin Defence against disease - skin is part of bodys defence against invasion by pathogens (disease-causing microbes) - Langerhans cells special type of immune cell (phagocytes) in epidermis engulf and break down foreign particles, remains of dead cells and disease-causing microorganisms entering the body, then transport them to the lymph nodes to be destroyed - dermis contains other phagocytes - microbes that normally inhabit various parts of the skin help protect it from invasion by other harmful microbes

define the term microflora and discuss the role of the microflora on skin in different parts of the body

Microflora - microscopic organisms such as bacteria, fungi, protozoa, viruses - in the human body, microflora refers to micro-organisms that live on or in the body thereare hundreds of different types of micro-organisms - some are beneficial, some can be harmful (eg. fungus that causes tinea) - very favourable conditions for microflora moist areas eg. under armpits between the toes and around external sex organs - 10 000 microbes occupy each square centimetre of skin with more in moister areas - microflora (mostly bacteria) feed on sweat, sebum and dead skin cells - sweat does not smell the smell is a by-product produced by bacteria found on the moister areas of the body as they feed on the sweat moist areas get smelly Roles of harmless microflora - to keep the numbers of harmful microbes in balance do this by occupying the skin space, leaving little or no room for harmful microbes to reproduce and grow, helpful microbes also out-compete incoming pathogens for food resources - to produce acids that lower skin pH many disease-causing microbes do not survive well in low pH (highly acidic) environment some harmless microflora (Propionibacterium species, Staphylococcus epidermis) produce acidic by-products (propionic acid) as they breakdown food resources

discuss the role of microflora 1. compete for space and resources with other microbes that invade the skin helps keep the size of the population of pathogenic (bad) microbes small 2. microflora produce acidic waste products (eg. propanoic acid) that lower the pH of skin helps keep population of pathogenic microbes smaller 3. can cause skin infection such as tinea (athletes foot), eczema (over-zealous washing causes this) 4. can cause bad body odour as microbes use sweat as a food source and produce smelly waste products Healthy people - have a balance between normal microflora and conditions that exist in particular parts of the body - skin is an effective physical and chemical barrier to invasion by harmful micro-organisms unbroken skin provides the physical barrier - acid coating provides a chemical barrier coating (acid mantle) is the result of a mixture of natural oils and sweat (natural oils called the sebum, are supplied to skin by sebaceous glands) both oil and sweat are slightly acidic - population of helpful microflora can survive very well in normal skin conditions - disease conditions result if balance is disturbed disturbances include changes in diet, use of strong soaps, cuts or stress - skin has slightly acidic pH of 4.5-6.5 - slight acidity gives the skin its natural protection against certain bacteria and fungi detergents - hair and skin need to be clean soaps can briefly remove natural acid protection of skin - many detergents and some soaps are alkaline (pH 9.5-11) raises pH of skin - can dry and irritate skin raised pH and drying tend to destroy skin microflora but for most people, skin pH returns to normal relatively quickly - skin microflora also returns to normal numbers and variety of microbes since the normal washing of skin with soap and water never removes all micro-organisms protective barrier provided by helpful skin microflora is quickly restored - resistance of natural skin flora to removal from skin is desirable since this population of flora helps keep pathogenic organisms in check Eczema - people with eczema tend to have a raised skin pH - cannot easily return to an acid pH after washing with soap/ detergent - skin may remain in an alkaline state for a long time - helpful skin microflora do not survive well in these alkaline conditions results in skin being open to infection or irritation Problems - harmful micro-flora can occur around hair follicles, oil and sweat glands as well as skin breaks (cuts, scratches) areas where physical barrier provided by the skin can be broken - antiseptic cream are used to help skin protect the body from infection by harmful microflora - surgeons are particularly susceptible to eczema and other skin irritations because they must scrub their skin thoroughly with soaps before surgery to ensure that they dont transfer pathogenic microbes to the patient during surgery they must also scrupulously clean their skin after surgery to ensure they dont transfer micro-organisms from patient to others - surgeons need to ensure infection free skin strong germicides such as betadine and surgical scrubbing are used Products - used in hair and skin are designed to take into account body chemistry - important to not destroy the balance of microflora that survive on skin - people who suffer particular skin conditions need to be careful about the products they use - in some cases, chemicals su Issue 1:the skin produces substances (sweat, sebum, dead skin cells) that are used by microbes waste substances (by-products) produced by the action of microflora are different to the original substances ~ adv fatty acids are produced by action of microflora on sebum, sweat and dead skin cells they lower the skins pH, making it less hospitable for pathogenic microbes; happens over entire skin surface

~ disadv sweat, produced when excited, nervous or fearful contains a protein-rich fluid that when used by some of the microflora produce bad odours more likely to be produced in moister regions of body such as armpits, between toes and groin area Issue 2:microflora require space, a food source, water and oxygen to survive on the skin competition for these resources is strong ~ adv microflora, adapted to survive drier, acidic conditions of skins surface use food resources that are available very effectively enabling populations of them to flourish reduces availability of food resources and skin space for pathogenic microbes that tend to be less well adapted to drier, acidic conditions out-compete most pathogens ~ disadv disturbances to skin such as cuts and abrasions instantaneously increase resource available for microflora (beneficial and detrimental) to utilise and flourish results in over-abundance of pathogenic microbes, increasing risk of disease until such time as bodys system can overcome them infections are more likely ~ disadv in moister areas of body such as toes, the composition of microflora population may alter as a consequence of the changed nature of resources available for microbial use fungi become more dominant athletes foot is caused by fungus, tinea grow best in dark, moist conditions; infected areas become red and inflamed, skin may peel, with itchiness Issue 3:frequent washing of skin, especially hands, alters balance between beneficial and detrimental microbes # disadvresults in skin with higher pH than normal due to: ~ soaps naturally tend to alkaline (pH 9.5-11) (unless soap has been specially formulated to have a lower pH such as Sebamed) ~ size of microflora population that helps acidify skins surface, is temporarily reduced makes it more difficult for resident population of microflora to survive since conditions are not ideal washing removes some resident population of microflora (more frequent wash, the smaller the population of microbes becomes as it does not have sufficient time to re-establish itself) reduce size of population of microflora, leaving skin more susceptible to colonisation by pathogenic microbes

discuss the term pH in terms of its ability to describe the acidity of a substance

pH of skin - refers to acidity or alkalinity (basicity) of a substance - pH is a measure of the concentration of hydrogen ions in a solution - a number on a scale from 0 to 14 - at pH 7, the substance is neutral (neither acidic or basic) - once the pH of a substance moves lower than pH 7, substance is described as acidic lemon juice, orange juice, soft drink, fluids in stomach, vinegar - once pH is above 7, substance is described as alkaline detergents, oven cleaner, blood, fluids in small intestine - the closer a pH value is to 0, the more acidic the substance is - the closer a pH value to 14, the more alkaline (basic) the substance is - a pH of 2 means that the substance is ten times (x 10) more acidic than a substance that has pH of 3 and is 100 x more acidic than substance with pH 4 - a pH of 5 means that the substance is ten times (x10) less acidic than a substance that has a pH of 4 and is 100 x less acidic than a substance with pH 3 - examined by testing a substance commonly done using pH indicators (liquid or paper socked in indicator) that change colour at specific pH vale - universal indicator mixture of a number of indicators so that different pH from 4 to 11 can be distinguished - can be measured by measuring concentration of hydrogen ions using a pH meter or pH probe attached to a data logger - pH of skin, on average, lies in range 4.5 to 6.0 - skin pH differs throughout parts of body, higher where greater concentrations of microflora tend to be found

explain the relationship between thenatural pH of the skin and the action

Structure of skin - skin consists of at least two types of tissue working together to perform a common function - below surface is a complex of sweat and oil glands, hair follicles, blood vessels, nerves and muscle tissue held together by tough connective tissue called collagen

of microflora natural oil produced by glands inthe skin perspiration

healthy collagen soluble collagen since it can absorb and hold moisture below collagen is a layer of fat and muscle which provides some contour and acts as a cushion and insulation

Epidermis - uppermost layer of tightly packed cells has a number of sub-layers - new cells are made in the lowest layer of the epidermis from where they push older cells up towards the skins surface - protects body from invasion and infection, helps seal in moisture several layers of living cells which then topped by sheets of dead cells - constantly growing with new cells being produced at base quickly die and are pushed up to surface by arrival of new ones - upper dead cells only need water to ensure theyre kept plump and smooth, lower level of living cells are fed by blood supply from underneath - keratinocytes make up 90% of the cells in epidermis produces protein keratin these cells mature and move towards surface of skin, they die from lack of nutrients and oxygen since there is no blood supply to the epidermis - as they die, they fill up with fibrous keratin, releasing wa terproof lipid called glycolipid it surrounds dead keratinocytes at surface forms bodys waterproof outer coating - dead cells are dry and pack together like tiles on a roof continually flake off skin when it is rubbed against objects - loss of dead cells from the surface stimulates the lower parts of the epidermis to produce more cells - 10% of epidermal cells are melanocytes produce skin pigment melanin, distribute it to other skin cells giving skin much of its colour - exposure to the Suns rays stimulates melanocytes to produce melanin, which absorbs UV light from the Sun and protects the body from its harmful effects - Merkel cells are epidermal cells concentrated in areas such as fingertips assocated with nerve endings in the dermis and are a type of touch receptor - Langerhan cells in epidermis are made in bone marrow and are involved in bodys immune response Dermis - lower layer of skin, contains fewer cells than epidermis composed entirely of living cells - composed mostly of connective tissue containing the proteins elastin and collagen which give skin its elasticity and strength - dermal cells called fibroblasts make elastin and collagen - phagocytes, a type of immune cell, are also present in the dermis - there are blood vessels which feed vital nutrients to these areas - most important function of dermis is respiration countless tiny blood vessels or capillaries end here in finely drawn networks from where they feed outer skin layer also determine tone of skin - lower layers of dermis are cells that produce adipose or fatty tissue that lies immediately below the skin (in subcutaneous region) - adipose tissue consists mainly of cells filled with fats and oils that assist in insulation and protection as well as providing an energy reserve - dermal papillae dome-shaped structures at top of dermis and immediately below epidermis create ridges in skin and are prominent in fingers where they form fingerprints - blood vessels in papillae supply nutrients and oxygen to new cells in epidermis - blood in capillaries also plays an important role in temperature regulation # blood vessels ~ skin is richly supplied with many small capillaries blood carries away excess heat when we are hot and removes heat by constricting blood vessels when we are cold # sweat glands ~ coiled sweat glands connect through ducts to the skin surface sweat contains some wastes such as salts and other chemicals and has some antimicrobial properties ~ more concentrated and stronger-smelling under arms, between legs ~ as sweat evaporates it helps cool the body # hair ~ each hair grows form a bulb-shaped root deep in the skin ~ at the end of hair are nerves to tell us if hair is touched ~ muscles can make the hair stand on end goose bumps # oil glands

~ next to hair produce a fatty substance (sebum) that makes our skin slightly oily ~ largest of these glands are on side of nose oil helps control loss of moisture through the skin # senses ~ skin contains nerves that allow us to detect touch, pressure, temperature, pain Acne - glands in skin (often at base of hairs) produce an oily substance that helps stop the hair from drying and keeps the skin soft - too much oil produced by gland can become blocked acne - blackhead is produced when some of this oil hardens on contact with air - if bacteria gain entry, then pus-filled pimples are formed Lower dermis/ Sub-dermis - various glands such as oil and sweat glands originate in lower dermis - they rise to surface of skin to eliminate waste matter - acts as cushion for rest of skin - contains finely distributed muscles of skin which regulate body temperature - attach skin to underlying bone and muscle tissues supplying it with blood vessels and nerves - it stores fat which serves as padding and insulation for body Skin appendages - structures embedded in skin and include hair, nails, several types of glands - lowest layer of epidermis grows down into dermis forming sweat glands and hair follicles - sweat gland consists of a coiled tube that opens at a pore on the skin surface ~ cells lining the tube extract watery fluid from surrounding capillaries, fluid contains dissolved salts and small amounts of other substances it moves up to surface of skin where it evaporates ~ regulate body temp. when sweat evaporates from surface of skin, temperature of skin drops - hair follicles deep pits in which hair grows, shaft of hair forms at base of follicle ~ shaft of hair forms at base of follicle, it is nourished by blood vessels in a papilla that extends into follicle and for a short distance, into root of hair ~ cells of hair shaft quickly fill with keratin and die - sebaceous gland open into one side of a hair follicle, occur largely on face, back, chest and scalp, developing during puberty - sebum secreted by glands, consists of fat, cholesterol, proteins and inorganic salts prevents drying of skin and hair and replication of harmful bacteria ~ blackheads form when excess sebum is produced and may become infected

Explain the relationship between the natural pH of skin action of microflora, natural oil produced by glands in the skin, perspiration - the natural pH of the skin is between 4.5- 6.5 with 5.5 being the average skin pH the acidic nature of the skins surface helps protect us from pathogenic micro-organisms - the acidic pH of the skin is caused by: ~ sebum produced by sebaceous gland, has an acidic pH which contributes to the skins natural acidity this is because sebum is made up of 50% fats, 20% oils, 5% fatty acids with the rest mostly water, fatty acids help to give the skin its slightly acidic pH ~ microflora resides on skins surface breaking down sebum, dead skin cells and sweat as food source some species eg. Propionibacterium acnes and Staphylococcus epidermis produce fatty acids as waste products of their metabolic processes which are acidic in nature and contribute to the skins low pH ~ perspiration (sweat) contributes to natural acidic pH of skins surface since it is a weak salt solution that may also contain small quantities of proteins and fatty acids such as lactic acid and propionic acid sweat is slightly acidic perspiration is 99.5% water which acts as a solvent for hydrogen ions which produce the acidic properties Perspiration - a mechanism body uses to control temperature as sweat evaporates, it cools body - like oil glands, sweat glands secrete their fluids onto the hair follicles oil glands are found wherever hair grows on body Microflora - skin can defend us form bacteria and other microflora as : ~ the top layers of cells are dry and packed closely together dryness and lack of places to hide in this first line of defence makes it unsuitable for bacteria ~ salty secretions from sweat glands create an environment that can cause some bacteria to lose water by osmosis high salt concentration means water from inside the bacteria diffuses out, dehydrating them - colonisation of skin by harmless bacteria makes it hard for dangerous bacteria to get a foothold normal microflora out-compete incoming pathogen for food resources and living spaces - normal microflora help reduce pH of skin slightly acidic (4-6) helps deter coloniation by disesasecausing bacteria as many can survive only in narrow pH range near neutral - acidic conditions of skin are caused by secretions from sweat glands, skin oil, breakdown of fatty acids by bacterium called Staphylococcus epidermis higher concentrations of this bacteria; more acidic

identify and explain the use ofcommon components of body soaps,cleansers and shampoos and the

Body products - laws around the world make it compulsory for manufacturers to list the ingredients used in their products found in small print on the back label and lists the ingredients used in order of quantity from most to least (exception to this may be water) - soaps, shampoos and cleaners all contain emulsifying agents primary function is to lift away oils,

reason for their use

dirt and other contaminants but other components of shampoos, soaps and cleansers can differ greatly Reason for the inclusion of the component detergent (surfactant + emulsifier) explanation for inclusion of component - increases the products wetting ability, and allows oil and dirt to be washed away Component/ ingredient

solvent

preservative

- allows other ingredients to dissolve so that they are uniformly distributed throughout the product allows them to be uniformly applied to body - prevents growth of bacteria and fungi so that the product will have a longer shelf life

ammonium (or sodium) laurethsulfate ammonium (or sodium) lauryl sulfate sodium tallowate sodium cocoate sodium palm kernelate cocamidopropylbetaine water

pH regulator

odour regulator

viscosity regulator

lather booster/ foam stabiliser

humectant

pearling agent

moisturiser

conditioning agent

fragrance

- alters pH of product to make it more acidic so that it better matches pH of skin and hair - masks smell of chemicals used to manufacture product most of the chemicals have unpleasant odours - increases thickness (or viscosity) of product so that it is less runny and easier to handle - increases amount of lather that the product produces, increasing aesthetic appeal - more lather does not make the cleanser work any better but consumers often falsely associate amount of lather with cleansing ability of the product - remains as a layer on skin causing water to be attracted to the outer skin layer from inner layers of skin makes outer skin layer look plumper and healthier - changes solution from being transparent to opaque with a pearllike sheen to make it more visually appealing to the consumer - places a layer of an oily substance over skin helping to prevent it drying out - adds different electrical charges to hair so that it does not become flyaway and puts water resistant substances onto the hairs to make them smoother and easier to comb - gives product its distinctive smell that allows consumers to make an

methylparaben propylparaben EDTA (disodium, trisodium or tetrasodim) phenoxyethanol sodium benzoate methylchloroisothiazolinane citric acid lactic acid fragrance

sodium chloride cocamide MEA glycerine cocamide DEA lauramide DEA

propylene glycol glycerine polyethylene glycol

glycol distearate

lanolin petroleatum glycol distearate quarternium 15 panthenol lavender extract fragrance

colouring agent

instant association with the specific product helps give a unique identity to product - add colour to increase visual aesthetics

pigment yellow 13 FD&C yellow no. 6

perform a first-hand investigation to examine prepared slides of human skin

Microscope

Steps for setting up a microscope 1. plug in the microscope and turn on its light source 2. place a prepared slide on the stage 3. turn the nosepiece to set the objective lens on the low power magnification (x4) 4. while looking from the side, wind up the stage as high as it will go without touching the slide 5. look through the eyepiece, down the tube and slowly wind the coarse focus knob until the image comes into focus 6. adjust the fine focus knob to clearly focus the image Discussion: # To adjust the microscope to increase the magnification of specimen being observed objective lens is adjusted (from low to medium to high), the focus knob is adjusted to clearly focus the image # biological diagrams - use pencil, drawn as outlines only - keep proportions the same - clearly label cross-section of human skin # eye piece has magnification of 12.5X and low power objective lens has a magnification of 4X ~ total magnification is 12.5 x 4 = 50 # prepared slides ~ freshly prepared slides are unclear (cannot be cut thinly with precision), infection spread of diseases ~ prepared slides are stained so that different parts of skin can be distinguished, observed clearly

perform first-hand investigations to measure the pH values of a range of skin and hair products

Aim to determine the average pH and the range of pH values of a variety of skin and hair products Method Part A ensuring that universal indicator solution is valid to use for estimating pH 1. place a small amount of the pH=7 buffer solution into a clean test tube (1-2cm) 2. add 3 drops of universal indicator solution, swirl to mix 3. observe its colour and record 4. estimate the pH using a UI colour chart, record the estimated pH 5. repeat steps 1-4 using pH=10 buffer solution 6. repeat steps 1-4 using pH=4 buffer solution if available 7. collect and collate results for steps 1 through 6 from the other groups in the class Part B estimating the pH of skin care products 1. place a small sample (enough to cover a 5cent coin) of the skin care product onto a watch glass (2 watch glasses per student) 2. add 3 drops of universal indicator solution, mix evenly using a toothpick 3. observe its colour and record 4. estimate the pH using a UI colour chart, record the estimated pH 5. repeat steps 1-4 with another skin care product 6. collate results from other students in the class

Part C estimating the pH of hair care products ~ same method as above except using hair care products Results Part A group 1 2 3 4

pH 4 red red red red

pH 7 green green green green

pH 10 purple purple purple purple

Part B and C Skin products Substance being tested Lanoline cream Florilla toning lotion Olay complete Neutrogena body Sorbolene Cream vitamin E Cutex hand and nail Dove Nourishing body Sunsense face milk No frills crme wash Anti-aging cream Auscreen kids lotion SPF 30 Johnsons ph 5.5 body lotion Hair products Substance V05 deep nourishing shampoo V05 conditioner Family shampoo Decore shampoo S. conditioner Sunsilk shampoo, conditioner Ego hair science shampoo Papillon conditioner Sunsilk lively blonde leave-in cream

Colour of UI when added orange orange peach pale green pale orange orange-red green lime green pale orange bright yellow pale orange peachy orange orangey yellow

estimated pH 5.5 5.0 7.0 5.5 5.0 7.0-7.5 6.5-7.0 5.5 6.5 5.5 6.0 6.0

Colour of UI peachy peachy yellow orange-red dark peach orange orange reddish-orange pale orange

estimated pH 5.0 5.5 6.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 6.0 4.0-4.5 5.5

Organic shampoo, conditioner Nizoral 1% anti-dandruff V05 hair putty Sunsilk conditioning mist leave-in conditioner

peach orange orange-peach yellow red-orange

5.5 6.0 5.0-5.5 6.5 5.0

average pH of skin care products 5.9 pH range of skin care products 5-7.5 average pH of hair care products 5.4 pH range of hair care products 4-6.5 since the skins average pH is 5.5 the products tested above are suitable for use on skin as they match (so do not provide an environment that kills all natural microbes on skin); average pH of skin care product is 6 which lies in skin pH range method is valid since UI was tested beforehand using buffer solution ensures that indicator would give a close to perfect pH estimate, ensuring that indicator changes colour only due to pH of skin care product also only using a few drops of UI means that pH of product would not change since UI itself is a weak acid; using too much results in mixture being more acidic than it is results are unreliable since it has not been repeated does not show consistency

identify data sources, plan, choose equipment or resources for, and perform a first-hand investigation to test the manufacturers claim(s) on a commercial product such as soap, shampoo or shower gel and use the available evidence to analyse theresults and discuss the validity of the claim(s)

In order to sell products, manufacturers need to describe their products. The description will state a number of facts and probably make some claims about the product. Some of these facts/ claims will be: - absolutely true eg. ingredients list - able to be tested scientifically eg. pH of 6.0 - advertising jargon that is difficult or impossible to test scientifically eg. pH balanced ~ the commercial product Lacura Face Care Day Cream ~ fact/ claim that can be tested in laboratory oil-in-water ~ other facts/ claims made by manufacturer about the product reduces appearance of wrinkles, protects skin from free radicals in environment, slows sign of aging, suitable for all types of skin, provide energy for skin cells, stimulates natural function of skin Aim to test the manufacturers claim of Lacura Day Cream that it is an oil -in-water emulsion Materials needed toothpicks, watch glasses or Petri dishes, oil, water, water-soluble and oil-soluble dyes, the product to be tested Method 1. mix equal quantities (1 tsp of methylene blue powder and 1tsp of Sudan III powder) until uniform appearance (mortar and pestle finely ground into a powder) 2. fill a test tube with oil and another with water in equal amounts (3cm) 3. add equal quantities of the powder using a toothpick to each test tube (add an eighth of a rice grain) 4. add a small sample or substance onto a watch glass and an eighth of a grain amount of powder to the cream sample and mix evenly 5. observe colour and record 6. collate the results from other groups that have performed the same experiment Results Group 1 2 3 4 5

Colour of dye blue blue blue blue blue

Type of emulsion o/w o/w o/w o/w o/w

Control water; blue, oil; red Conclusion the manufacturers claim that the Lacura Cream is an oil-in-water emulsion is true

Discussion - independent variable type of emulsion - dependent variable colour of dye - variables dye mixture that dissolves to produce a blue colour (due to methylene blue) in water and a red colour (due to Sudan III) in oil, type of emulsion (oil-in-water or water-in-oil) - control test tube with oil, another with water (in equal amounts) added with the same dye mixture (composed of equal proportions of each dye) confirms that dye is responsible for change in colour of the different chemical (oil or water) - reliability experiment was repeated over 5 times and the results show consistency - minimise hazards, wastage of resources small amount of cream is used (a dollop) and one tsp of dye mixture - validity presence of control ensures that method is valid, it measures what is intended (what type of emulsion it is) - observations that support the claim that the product is an emulsion uniform, homogeneous in appearance, opaque

4. The nature of a solvent plays an important role in the application of a mixture identify water and alcohol as commonly used solvents Water and alcohol as solvents - solvent liquid used to dissolve another substance (solute) to form a solution - water and alcohol are the solvents commonly used for cosmetics and external medications - cosmetics are products used to enhance a persons appearance - external medications are products used to deliver drugs to the skin/ hair or to the body via the skin with the ultimate aim of curing or reducing symptoms of an illness/ medical condition property state at room temp viscosity boiling point pH toxicity colour water liquid low ~ runny but easy to spread on skin 0 100 C ~ low, evaporates off skin 7 nil colourless ~ no impact on skin colour, doesnt leave residual colour on skin odourless none no yes other polar substances alcohol liquid low 78 C 6-6.5 (pH neutral) low when externally applied but can irritate sensitive skin colourless
0

explain the relationship between the properties of solvents and their use in cosmetics and external medications

odour flammability ability to penetrate skin polarity what it dissolves

slight odour yes consider safety no non polar end, polar end (dissolves water, oil together) small polar substances, small nonpolar substances

Solvents - dissolved substances are evenly distributed in a solution a solution is an effective medium for distributing substances over the surface of body or internally when swallowed - solutions carry dissolved substance as tiny particles that can be readily absorbed through skin or digestive system ~ must not penetrate skin Water - polar molecules attract other polar molecules or ions in ionic compounds - cheap, readily available and has no toxicity when ingested or applied to skin Organic solvents - carbon-based solvents are referred to as organic since they derive from living things - alcohol ethanol polar and non-polar molecule

generally non-toxic to skin, when alcohol is used as solvent for topical applications evaporates quickly to leave a uniform covering of the applied medication or cosmetic on the skin methylated spirits, paint stripper, paint thinner, turpentine, nail varnish, dry-cleaning fluids, degreasers

Choosing a solvent - it must dissolve the active ingredients without interfering with their action on the target area - it must not harm the skin or its associated tissue - it should not penetrate the skin or its pores Effective action on skin - cosmetics protect skin form harmful or aging effects of external environment, improve health of skin - water is used as a solvent in foundation cream since it doesnt interfere with its colour and texture able to be applied evenly if alcohol is used it would evaporate more quicly, drying skin and impeding the even distribution of the foundation - alcohol is used with or without water as solvent in skin toners and aftershaves its effect is mildly antiseptic, astringent (draws skin tissue together to tighten pores) and cooling - medications have active ingredients which are dissolved in alcohol since it distributes it evenly throughout surface (eg. head lice lotions)

Skin safety - water and alcohol do not harm the skin neutral pH so do not interfere with skins natural slightly acidic pH - alcohol is a mild antiseptic which means it kills bacteria Skin penetrability - neither alcohol or water penetrate the skin carry ingredients to surface of skin which is the only level at which they are effective - skin cleansers can clean pores and surface of skin but cannot reach lower layers of epidermis - in the case of medication, while alcohol and water do not penetrate skins surface their active ingredients may Safe handling and storage - all organic solvents are toxic to some degree to human body - should be used in well-ventilated area, fumes should not be breathed in causes nose, throat irritation - stored where they are unlikely to come in contact with flame or sparks

identify cosmetics and external medications where water is the solvent identify cosmetics and external medications where alcohol is the solvent

cosmetics

external medication

Solvent water - shampoo - conditioners - moisturisers - hand creams - non-water proof mascara - antidandruff shampoo - betadine (iodine) - saline solution (eyewash) - hydrocortisone (inflammation)

alcohol - perfume - aftershave - lip balm - vaseline - rubbing alcohol (antiseptic, antibacterial lotion) - tincture of iodine - insect repellents - sanitising hand gel - stingose (for stings, bites) - spray-on bandaid

~ iodine not water soluble (dissolve in oil then dilute in water) ~ ointments oil-based ~ saline solution is used to sterilise

identify data sources,

Subdermal implants

gather, process, analyse and present information from secondary sources to identify how subdermal implants release their medication into the body

devices placed under the skin the subdermal layer to deli9ver drugs to the body that are needed for long-term treatment of medical conditions subdermal implants release medication into the body: ~ slowly ~ continuously ~ in small doses ~ long-term two of the types of implants a) matchstick-sized hollow polymer (plastic) rods filled with a drug that diffuses out of the rod or the rod slowly degrades/ erodes and releases the drug embedded in it b) a silicone reservoir, placed beneath the skin, into which the dru g is injected. A pump in the device then pushes the drug into the body (eg. for insulin)

some medications that are delivered to the body via subdermal implants include: ~ progesterone (to prevent pregnancy) ~ insulin (to treat diabetes) ~ nitroglycerin (to prevent angina heart attack)

subdermal implant is inserted under the skin

medication diffuses our of the implant and dissolve into the bloodstream

medication is transported around the body via the bloodstream

medication diffuses out of the bloodstream to act on the target organ Delivering medication to the body - traditional form of taking drugs is to take a capsule or tablet - when tablet is taken, drug concentration rises, reaches a maximum then falls - a second tablet causes the same rise, peak and fall in the concentration of medicine in the bloodstream - problematic as preferred concentration is not maintained and the peaks may occur at toxic levels

Sustained or time release systems are methods of drug delivery that are becoming more common micro encapsulation, dermal patches, and subdermal implants Advantages of sustained release systems - increased effectiveness ~ because the drug is delivered more efficiently, smaller doses are needed ~ this causes less potential damage to the body - more patient friendly ~ take much of responsibility associated with drug treatments out of patients hands improve consumer convenience and thus, consumer compliance - rapid identification of medication in emergency - avoids gastrointestinal absorption (pH effects, enzymatic activity, drug interactions) some drugs are destroyed in stomach and intestines before they can be absorbed - avoids first-pass effect (drug deactivation by digestive and liver enzymes) blood that leaves the stomach and intestine must first pass liver before it is carried to other parts of body function of liver is to remove foreign chemicals from blood Subdermal implants - implantable systems are designed to deliver drugs directly into blood stream at a controlled rate

a wide variety of chemicals have been used in an attempt to promote the penetration of drugs chemicals that promote absorption include surfactants and solvents such as alcohol are used to deliver antipsychotic drugs to treat schizophrenia, synthetic hormones for contraceptive purposes, drugs for osteoporosis therapy, anti-inflammatory drugs and drugs to treat cancer an implant consists of drug embedded in a polymer matric it is surgically planted into body

Norplant - an implantable birth control system uses a non-degradable polymer (synthetic plastic) called Silastic to contain the contraceptive Levonorgestrel - Silastic doesnt break down so the drug is released by diffusion through the polymer - Six Silastic rods each about 30mm long are inserted below the skin in the upper arm it gradually releases the drug over a period of 5 years - Drug diffuses out of each rod at a slow, continuous, steady rate and is absorbed into bloodstream for circulation around the body Valera Hydron Implant - used to deliver the drug, histrelin used to treat prostate cancer - the Hydron implant, a subcutaneous drug delivery reservoir is inserted into the upper arm - the small flexible cylinder is made of a non-biodegradable polymer, hydrogel, the same as that used in soft contact lenses - it employs micro-pores for drug diffusion into bloodstream - the rate of drug release is determined by the specific polymer blend, the design features of the implact and the solubility of the drug being delivered 5. The solubility of materials used in drugs has an effect on the way in which the body responds to them identify the parts of the digestive system Function of the digestive system - break down complex molecules into smaller, simpler molecules that are soluble so that they can be absorbed by the digestive system into the circulatory system where they are circulated Main types of food and the end products of digestion - carbohydrates sugars - fats (solid), lipid (liquid) glycerol + fatty acids - proteins amino acids - water - vitamins and minerals

outline the role of the stomach and the small intestine in breaking down food

Part of digestive system teeth salivary glands

Function - physically break up food into small particles/ pieces - produces an enzyme which starts the chemical digestion/ break down of carbohydrates into glucose - lubricates food so it can pass down the oesophagus more easily - coats the surface of food so that it forms a layer that prevents pH change from stomach juices, allowing salivary enzymes to continue working - carries food from mouth to stomach - produces hydrochloric acid and an enzyme called pepsin which digests/ breaks down proteins into amino acids - has 3 flaps which churn food around physically - starts chemical digestion of proteins pepsin/ protease break down proteins into shorter chain of amino acids (small intestine completes this break down into amino acids) - mechanical churning for physical breakdown increase SA of food for more efficient digestion - secretes intestinal enzymes to digest food - completes the digestion of food - absorbs digested food through its walls into blood vessels and lymphatic vessels (lymph system picks up fats since fat and water are immiscible so cannot be transported in blood) - to complete chemical digestion of proteins (using proteases), carbohydrates (using carbohydrases) and lipids (using lipases) - breakdown into simple soluble molecules so that they can be absorbed into bloodstream - undigested (mostly fibre) foods pass out of the body as faeces - absorbs water and some vitamins and minerals - ring of muscle at the end of the large intestine - controls the release of faeces - produces bile (emulsifying agent oil broken into small droplets suspended in liquid; increase SA so that enzymes can attack it more efficiently) - bile emulsifies fats (concentrated source of energy) into small droplets so they can be digested - produces pancreatic enzymes to digest food into the small intestine - stores bile until it is needed

oesophagus/ food pipe stomach

small intestine

large intestine anus liver

pancreas gall bladder

Villi - increases surface area of small intestine so that the maximum amount of nutrients can be absorbed into the bloodstream as materials move through the digestive system

~ digestion occurs in mouth, stomach, small intestine ~ digested food is absorbed in the small intestine undigested food passes out of large intestine through anus ~ carbohydrates glucose, simple sugars ~ proteins amino acids ~ fats 3 fatty acids, glycerol

discuss the difference in pH of the stomach and the small intestine

pH of stomach and small intestine - pH of stomach is 3 (low, 2-3) whereas the small intestine is 8 (high, 8-9) - stomach has a lower pH of 2 because the lining of the stomach secretes hydrochloric acid - small intestine has a high pH because NaHCO3, present in the pancreatic and intestinal juices secreted by the pancreas/ small intestine, is basic - stomach is acidic because pepsin (enzyme responsible for protein digestion) works best in acidic conditions - small intestine is basic since enzyme secreted by pancreas/ small intestine (trypsin) that completes the digestion of proteins, carbohydrates and fats work best in basic conditions issue 1 source of pH ~ stomach 2-3, HCl released by gastric cells in stomach lining ~ small intestine 8-9; sodium bicarbonate secreted from pancreas issue 2 optimal operation of enzymes ~ different protein digesting enzymes are activated in the differing environments ~ in the stomach, pepsin is secreted in an inactive form and converted into an active enzyme when mixed with hydrochloric acid ~ in the small intestine, trypsin (released by linings of small intestine) and chymotrypsin (released by pancreas) are secreted in an inactive form and activated in basic conditions issue 3 absorption of drugs ~ acidic drugs such as aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid ASA) are absorbed faster and more efficiently from the stomach into the bloodstream because of its low pH ~ the acidic conditions force the aspirin molecule to being its most non-polar form which is lipidsoluble thus it can more easily move through the non-polar, lipid-rich cell membranes - weak acid (in equilibrium), when HCl from stomach combines with drug, it forces equil. to the right (non-polar side) eg. Quinidine (anti-malarial drug) ~ basic drugs are not readily absorbed into the blood from the stomach because they stay in their polar form ~ however they are better absorbed from the small intestine because the basic conditions make the drugs non-polar and thus more fat-soluble [basic drug] + OH basic drug-OH (ionic polar form) (non-polar molecule)
+ -

explain why a knowledge of the solubility of materials can be used to design drugs for specific tasks

Solubility 0 - the number of grams of solute that dissolves in one litre of the solvent, at 25 C - factors affecting solubility include particle size, temperature, acidity of solute (pH), nature of the solvent (pH) - a drug is a chemical substance not normally required by the body which alters the biological functioning of the body - aim of pharmaceutical companies is to design a drug so that it is as specific in its action as possible, with as few side effects as possible, so the delivery system to be used must be considered when designing a drug Drug and solubility of materials - most drugs are given orally as tablets or capsules mainly for convenience, economy , stability and patient acceptance - if drugs are taken as solid form they must break up before the active ingredient is available for

absorption break-up converts drug molecules from solid state to suspension in a liquid so that they can be dissolved a tablet needs to break up into granules then into fine particles and then it eventually dissolves the break-up of the solid form greatly increases the surface area of the drug in contact with digestive juices increases amount of drug dissolved and absorbed various substances (lubricants, surfactants, binders, dispersants) are added to the tablet or capsule to assist with break-up, dissolving and absorption the availability of a drug for absorption decreases in the following order solutions, suspensions, capsules/ compressed tablets (regardless of shape) and finally, coated tablets (slow-release/ enteric-coated) different drugs perform different tasks to design drugs for specific tasks it is helpful to have a knowledge of the solubility of the materials used and the solubility of drugs solubility is the amount of the solute that can dissolve in a given amount of solvent

A knowledge of solubility is important because solubility affects: ~ how quickly a drug acts ~ the ability of the drug to pass through the body membranes ~ where the drug dissolves ~ how long the drug dosage acts these factors affect the method of administration, the site of administration, the frequency of administration and the rate of absorption Fast-acting drugs - eg.pain killers - to develop a fast-acting, pain-killing drug the designer needs to identify and select minerals that are very soluble - this allows the pain killing drug to be quickly dissolved by the body and be transported to the appropriate area to relieve a person of pain Movement through membranes - to move through the wall of cells (eg. through the skin or through the lining of the stomach/ small intestine) the drug needs to be oil-soluble - to be transported by the blood, the drug needs to be water-soluble - the designer needs to select chemicals that can change from being oil-soluble to water-soluble - an understanding of solubility is thus needed Enteric-coated tablets - some tablets must be allowed to pass through stomach before they release their drug into intestines the acids in stomach can destroy the drug (eg. insulin) or the drug irritates the stomach lining (eg. aspirin) - materials need to be used to prevent the tablet or capsule dissolving in the stomach - Cartia is a tablet containing aspirin designed for the long term use of aspirin as a blood-thinning agent has an enteric coating that delays breakdown of capsule until the tablet reaches the small intestine because the coating will only dissolve in basic conditions - aspirin has an irritating effect on the lining of the stomach - since Cartia is taken over a period of time (potentially for the rest of life) it is better to avoid the irritation of the stomach but when aspirin is used as a pain killer, the aim is for rapid relief and thus the drug is best absorbed via the stomach - short term irritation of the stomach is acceptable to ensure the rapid pain relief Slow release tablets - designed to release a drug slowly, producing a longer effect increase time the drug acts - only a fraction of the total dose if released immediately producing an effective level to begin with - the remaining dose is usually released at a constant rate to maintain the effective level an optimum level of the drug can be maintained in the blood stream for a longer period of time - it means that there is a better patient compliance taking one tablet once a day is easier than four times a day - extend paracetomol tablets provide relief from pain over an 8 hour period Some drugs need to be insoluble - antacids such as Mylanta contains magnesium carbonate or magnesium hydroxide which is insoluble and is not designed to be absorbed from the digestive tract - the target of this medication is the stomach to neutralise excess stomach acid

the substances in the antacid reacts with stomach contents to decrease the level of acidity in the stomach

Some drugs are degraded in the digestive system - pure penicillin, when ingested, is degraded (broken down) because it is very sensitive to stomach acid and the protein-digesting enzyme found in the stomach - drug designers have produced an altered form the original material that wont be degraded in the stomach, a semi-synthetic form called ampicillin - this form with an altered chemical structure is resistant to stomach acid it is able to absorbed into the bloodstream so that it can fight bacteria a knowledge of solubility is needed since the material used to make the tablet or capsule depends on where and how the drug is absorbed ~ tablets for a fast acting drug needs to be very soluble ~ sustained release tablets need to be made from materials which dissolve slowly ~ tablets that are meant to bypass the stomach must not dissolve in acids

account for the absorption of a drug and its action on/in the body in terms of its solubility

Solubility of drugs their absorption and action For a drug to be effective, it needs to be: - absorbed - distributed through the body - interact with receptors in the target area (act on the body) solubility can refer to the solubility of the drug itself or the chemical carrier of the drug absorption is the movement of a drug from the site of administration into the blood in the blood the drugs either dissolve in blood plasma or attached to proteins in the blood at the site of action the drug becomes attached to a receptor compound to carry out its function

Factors that affect absorption include: - the route and site of administration if there is a greater flow of blood at the site of drug administration, the drug will be absorbed more quickly - drug solubility (the faster a drug dissolves the faster it can be absorbed) non-polar drug molecules are absorbed across cell membranes more quickly because they are lipid-soluble - the surface area of the absorbing surface (a larger surface area permits faster absorption most absorption of oral medication takes place in the small intestine because of its very large surface area) Oral intake of drugs - the drug must be water-soluble and therefore dissolve in the stomach or small intestine before absorption can occur - the drug must then cross several cell membranes of the stomach and/ or intestine walls to reach the circulatory system (capillary blood vessel) these membranes are mainly made up of lipids (a group of fat-like substances) to cross this barrier the drug needs to be lipid-soluble (needs to be non-polar), in water-soluble form drugs cannot pass through the lipid membranes - once in the blood the drug needs to be in a water-soluble form for transport around the body alternatively, the drug is transported in the blood attached to a protein molecule - finally, at the site of action the drug may need to move across cell membranes again it may need to return to its lipid-soluble form to pass across this biological barrier Other methods of drug delivery follow similar steps ~ the drug or the chemical transporting the drug generally need to be both water-soluble (polar) and lipid-soluble (non-polar) to be absorbed, transported and to finally act on the body ~ eg. for intravenous injection of drugs directly into the vein, the drug must be water soluble ACCOUNT ~ drug a chemical substance used in the diagnosis, treatment or prevention of a medical condition ~ absorption the movement of a substance across a cell membrane (by means of diffusion or osmosis) ~ solubility the amount of solute that dissolves in a given volume of solvent (g/L0 important aspects of solubility include the amount that dissolves and the rate at which it dissolves factors affecting solubility include: i) nature of solute - polar or non-polar, acidic or basic, small molecule or large molecule

ii) nature of solvent iii) solute particle size (influences surface area) iv) temperature (influences rate) Specific examples 1. Mylanta ~ Al(OH)3, a base, neutralises stomach acid insoluble in water, not absorbed into body/ bloodstream (only acts in stomach) - used as an antacid to neutralise stomach acids and reduce heartburn and indigestion - the active ingredient is a base which neutralises the stomach acid through a chemical reaction (acid + base salt + water) - the active ingredient (aluminium hydroxide) is insoluble in water, this means that it cannot be absorbed from the digestive system into the circulatory system this is ideal since it is designed to work in the stomach 2. Skin Therapy Oil (BioOil) Vitamin E oil used to reduce the appearance of scars and stretch marks ~ liquid, easy to spread even distribution ~ dissolve vitamin E into dermal layer where collagen is made; cell membrane is made of phospholipid layer, in order to get through, it must be fat soluble vitamin E is a fat-soluble vitamin which is dissolved into Canola oil this has two benefits: i) a solution forms uniform composition; even distribution of the drug ii) is able to move through cell-membrane (from the skins surface down to the dermal layer) since cell membranes are comprised of a phospholipid layer (ie. fatty, like dissolves like) the vitamin E then acts on the cells to increase collagen production hence reducing scarring 3. Betadine an antiseptic liquid that contains a water-soluble form of iodine iodine is toxic to bacterial cells (therefore kills them), it is also toxic to mammalian cells and thus, contact with living human cells should be avoided being in a water-based solution has two benefits: i) a solution is formed (uniform composition, uniformly spread over skin) ii) the solution does not penetrate through the skin since the cell membrane are a fatty layer (like dissolves like) this is good: bacteria on the skins surface area killed healthy living human cells are not in contact with the toxic iodine quicker healing

identify that the manner of administration of a drug may be related to its solubility

Means of administering drugs - orally capsule, tablet, liquid - injection intravenous (should be water-soluble) not directly into bloodstream since it can cause air bubbles - rectal inside lining of rectum is thin allowing it to absorb quickly into bloodstream (suppository) - nasal membrane lining if also thin, can be sprayed into nose - sublingual tablet under tongue, its membrane is very thin so allows instant absorption, relief - topical external cream applied on surface of skin eg. deep heat medication absorbs into skin - eye drops eye is about 7g, its thin moist membrane allows for ideal conditions for dissolution, absorption ~ live detoxifies, inactivates drugs takes a long time before it reaches area of pain so it can be administered differently ~ drug solubility depends on how it is administered topical; fat soluble ~ hormones are proteins so they cannot be digested since proteins are broken down losing its purpose, must be intravenously injected Method of application intravenous subdermal implant Example anaesthetics female hormone contraceptive vitamin E oil Explanation - water soluble to dissolve in blood plasma (so it can be transported in blood) - fat soluble to diffuse to surrounding muscle cells (eg. castor oil) - applied to skin, designed to enhance ability to

topical (surface)

betadine

transdermal patches

Nicorate Nicabate

produce collagen in cells - fat soluble (Canola oil) so it can penetrate epidermis to reach living cells below - water soluble (not oil soluble since iodine is toxic to humans so it shouldnt be absorbed into living cells) kills germs on skin - fat soluble so it can be absorbed through skin, reducing cravings

Routes of Drug Administration - oral tablets, capsules, solutions, syrup elixirs, suspensions, powders - sublingual (under the tongue) tablets, lozenges - intravenous injection, intra muscular injection solutions, suspensions - transdermal (through skin) ointments, creams, pastes, powders, aerosols, lotions, patches - conjunctiva (eyes) eye drops, suspensions, ointments - nasal (inhalation) drops, sprays, inhalants, ointments - rectal ointments, suppositories Oral - the most common way of administering medicine - they are soluble, eventually dissolved somewhere in the digestive tract and then absorbed (except insoluble antacids that act in the stomach) - many substances are poorly soluble in the digestive system (low water solubility) strategies to increase water solubility; reducing the size of drug particles, dissolving the drug in another solvent (alcohol or detergents) or combining the drug with a carrier molecule - large drug molecules (eg. insulin, growth hormone) present a different delivery problem these complex proteins and peptides are commonly delivered by injection, they are generally watersoluble but cannot be delivered orally since it can be destroyed by the protein-digesting enzymes in the digestive system - there has been progress in delivering some of these macromolecules via an inhaler (to pulmonary blood system) The absorption of drugs from tablets and capsules is affected by factors such as its ~ solubility ~ particle size ~ chemical form ~ crystalline structure if the drug is not soluble, is damaged or made inactive by the stomach, takes too long to reach the appropriate site for action, it may be necessary to find an alternative path into the body injections, rectal administration, transdermal patches, gas via lungs Solubility of different tablet dispensing forms Tablet - combinations of drug, binders and other substances compressed into hard masses that can disintegrate in water - a tablet must first disintegrate and then dissolve so that it is in soluble form - it is then absorbed, usually down a concentration gradient by diffusion - tablets tend to be soluble in water and/or acidic conditions which would be encountered immediately after ingestion Tablet slow-release - formulation of slow-release tablet allows it to dissolve slowly over time - the medication is released gradually as it travels through the digestive tract allows for appropriate concentration of the drug to be maintained over a longer period of time Tablet Enteric-coated - tablet is covered in a coating that doesnt dissolve in acid conditions so that the tablet passes through the stomach unaltered - the tablet then dissolves in the small intestine because its coating is soluble in basic conditions - once in the small intestine the active ingredient of medication is released ready for absorption across the intestinal walls

gather, process and analyse information from first-hand or secondary sources to relate the significance of solubility of a medication to its action on /in the body

Capsule - contain a gelatine coating (shell) enclosing the active ingredient - the gelatine coating must first dissolve before the active ingredient can be released to dissolve and then be absorbed since gelatine is a protein, this occurs quickly in the acidic environment of the stomach

identify vitamins that are water-soluble and those that are fatsoluble

Vitamins - vitamins are essential to all living things since they are important in the manufacture of enzymes - there are 13 different types of vitamins and can be classified as: ~ fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) stored in fatty tissues in body (can overdose) ~ water-soluble includes B complex (8 varieties; B1, B2, B12) and C