INTERMEDIATE FREQUENCY:

Definition:

In communications and electronic engineering, an intermediate frequency (IF) is a

frequency to which a carrier frequency is shifted as an intermediate step in transmission
or reception. The intermediate frequency is created by mixing the carrier signal with
a local oscillator signal in a process called heterodyning, resulting in a signal at the
difference or beat frequency. Intermediate frequencies are used in superheterodyne radio
receivers, in which an incoming signal is shifted to an IF for amplification before final
detection is done. There may be several such stages of intermediate frequency in a
superheterodyne, which is called double (or triple) conversion.

Uses and Functions:

Intermediate frequencies are used for three general reasons. At very high ( gigahertz)
frequencies, signal processing circuitry performs poorly. Active devices such as
transistors cannot deliver much amplification (gain) without becoming unstable.
Ordinary circuits using capacitors and inductors must be replaced with cumbersome
high frequency techniques such as striplines and waveguides. So a high frequency
signal is converted to a lower IF for processing.

A second reason to use an IF, in receivers that can be tuned to different stations, is
to convert the various different frequencies of the stations to a common frequency
for processing. It is difficult to build amplifiers, filters, and detectors that can be tuned
to different frequencies, but easy to build tunable oscillators. Superheterodyne
receivers tune in different stations simply by adjusting the frequency of the local
oscillator on the input stage, and all processing after that is done at the same
frequency, the IF. Without using an IF, all the complicated filters and detectors in a
radio or television would have to be tuned in unison each time the station was
changed, as was necessary in the early tuned radio frequency receivers.

But the main reason for using an intermediate frequency is to improve frequency
selectivity. In communications circuits a very common task is to separate signals or
components of a signal that are close together in frequency. This is called filtering.
Some examples are, picking up a radio station among several that are close in
frequency, or extracting the chrominance subcarrier from a TV signal. With all known
filtering techniques the filter's bandwidth increases proportionately with the
frequency. So a narrower bandwidth and more selectivity can be achieved by
converting the signal to a lower IF and performing the filtering at that frequency.

The most commonly used intermediate frequencies are 10–70 MHz in the satellite
and radar world. However, the intermediate frequency can range from 10–100 MHz.
Intermediate frequency (IF) are generated by mixing the RF and LO frequency
together to create a lower frequency called IF. Most of the ADC/DAC operates in low
sampling rates, so input RF must be mixed down to IF to be processed. Intermediate
frequency tends to be lower frequency range compared to the transmitted RF
frequency. However, the choices for the IF are most depending on the available
components such as mixer, filters, amplifiers and others that can operate at lower
frequency. There are other factors involved in deciding the IF frequency, because
lower IF is susceptible to noise and higher IF can cause clock jitters.

Commonly used intermediate frequencies

Television receivers: 30 MHz to 900 MHz

Analogue television receivers using system M: 41.25 MHz (audio) and 45.75 MHz
(video). Note, the channel is flipped over in the conversion process in an intercarrier
system, so the audio IF frequency is lower than the video IF frequency. Also, there is
no audio local oscillator, the injected video carrier serves that purpose.

FM radio receivers: 5.5 MHz, 10.7 MHz, 98 MHz. In double-conversion

superheterodyne receivers, often a first intermediate frequency of 1.6 MHz is used,
followed by a second intermediate frequency of 470 kHz.

AM radio receivers: 450 kHz, 455 kHz, 460 kHz, 465 kHz, 470 kHz, 475 kHz, 480 kHz

Satellite uplink-downlink equipment: 70 MHz, 950-1450 Downlink first IF

Terrestrial microwave equipment: 250 MHz, 70 MHz

Radar: 30 MHz

RF Test Equipment: 310.7 MHz, 160 MHz, 21.4 MHz

RADIO FREQUENCY

Definition:

Radio frequency (RF) is a frequency, or rate of oscillation, of electromagnetic radiation

within the range of about 3 Hz to 300 GHz. This range corresponds to the frequency
of alternating current electrical signals used to produce and detect radio waves. Since
most of this range is beyond the vibration rate that most mechanical systems can
respond to, RF usually refers to oscillations in electrical circuits.

Special properties of RF electrical signals

Electrical currents that oscillate at RF have special properties not shared by direct
current signals. One such property is the ease with which they can ionize air to
create a conductive path through air. This property is exploited by 'high frequency'
units used in electric arc welding, although strictly speaking these machines do not
typically employ frequencies within the HF band. Another special property is an
electromagnetic force that drives the RF current to the surface of conductors,
known as the skin effect. Another property is the ability to appear to flow through
paths that contain insulating material, like the dielectric insulator of a capacitor. The
degree of effect of these properties depends on the frequency of the signals.

Frequencies

Name Symbol Frequency Wavelength Applications

Extremely Directly audible when converted to

low ELF a 3–30 Hz k 100–10 Mm sound (above ~20 Hz), communication
frequency with submarines

Super low Directly audible when converted to

SLF b 30–300 Hz j 10–1 Mm
frequency sound, AC power grids (50–60 Hz)

Ultra low c 300– Directly audible when converted to

ULF i 1000–100 km
frequency 3000 Hz sound, communication within mines

Directly audible when converted to

Very low
VLF d 3–30 kHz h 100–10 km sound (below ~20 kHz; or ultrasound
frequency
otherwise)

Low AM broadcasting, navigational beacons,

LF e 30–300 kHz g 10–1 km
frequency lowFER, amateur radio

Navigational beacons, AM
Medium f 300–
MF f 1000–100 m broadcasting, amateur radio, maritime
frequency 3000 kHz
and aviation communication

High Shortwave, amateur radio, citizens'

HF g 3–30 MHz e 100–10 m
frequency band radio, skywave propagation

Very high VHF h 30– d 10–1 m FM broadcasting, amateur radio,

frequency 300 MHz broadcast television, aviation, GPR,
 MRI

Broadcast television, amateur radio,

mobile telephones, cordless telephones,
Ultra high i 300–
UHF c 100–10 cm wireless networking, remote keyless
frequency 3000 MHz
entry for automobiles, microwave
ovens, GPR

Wireless networking, satellite links,

Super high
SHF j 3–30 GHz b 10–1 cm amateur radio, microwave links,
frequency
satellite television, door openers

Microwave data links, radio astronomy,

Extremely
amateur radio, remote sensing,
high EHF k 30–300 GHz a 10–1 mm
advanced weapons systems, advanced
frequency
security scanning

FILTER:

Definition:

In signal processing, a filter is a device or process that removes from a signal some
unwanted component or feature. Filtering is a class of signal processing, the
defining feature of filters being the complete or partial suppression of some aspect
of the signal. Most often, this means removing some frequencies and not others in
order to suppress interfering signals and reduce background noise. However, filters
do not exclusively act in the frequency domain; especially in the field of image
processing many other targets for filtering exist.

Classification of filters:

There are many different bases of classifying filters and these overlap in many
different ways, there is no simple heirarchical classification. Filters may be;

analog or digital

discrete-time (sampled) or continuous-time

linear or non-linear

passive or active type of continuous-time filter

infinite impulse response (IIR) or finite impulse response (FIR) type of discrete-time
or digital filter

The frequency response can be classified into a number of different bandforms

describing which frequencies the filter passes (the passband) and which it rejects
(the stopband);

Low-pass filter – low frequencies are passed, high frequencies are attenuated.

High-pass filter – high frequencies are passed, Low frequencies are attenuated.

Band-pass filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are passed.

Band-stop filter or band-reject filter – only frequencies in a frequency band are

attenuated.

Notch filter – rejects just one specific frequency - an extreme band-stop filter.

Comb filter – has multiple regularly spaced narrow passbands giving the bandform
the appearance of a comb.

All-pass filter – all frequencies are passed, but the phase of the output is modified.

NOTCH FILTER:

Definition:

A Notch filter is a filter that passes all frequencies except those in a stop band
centered on a center frequency. A closely related Knowledgebase item discusses
the concept of the Q of a filter. This Knowledgebase item focuses on high Q notch
filters - the type that eliminate a single frequency or narrow band of frequencies. A
closely related type of filter - a band reject filter, is discussed in a separate
knowledgebase item. The amplitude response of a notch filter is flat at all
frequencies except for the stop band on either side of the the center frequency. The
standard reference points for the roll-offs on each side of the stop band are the
points where the amplitude has decreased by 3 dB, to 70.7% of its original
amplitude.

In signal processing, a band-stop filter or band-rejection filter is a filter that

passes most frequencies unaltered, but attenuates those in a specific range to very low
levels. It is the opposite of a band-pass filter. A notch filter is a band-stop filter with
a narrow stopband (high Q factor). Notch filters are used in live sound reproduction
(Public Address systems, also known as PA systems) and in instrument amplifier
(especially amplifiers or preamplifiers for acoustic instruments such as acoustic
guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier, etc.) to reduce or prevent feedback, while
having little noticeable effect on the rest of the frequency spectrum. Other names
include 'band limit filter', 'T-notch filter', 'band-elimination filter', and 'band-reject
filter'.

Typically, the width of the stopband is less than 1 to 2 decades (that is, the highest
frequency attenuated is less than 10 to 100 times the lowest frequency attenuated).
In the audio band, a notch filter uses high and low frequencies that may be only
semitones apart.

DETECTOR:

Definition:

-electronic equipment that detects the presence of radio signals or radioactivity

A detector is a device that recovers information of interest contained in a modulated

wave. The term dates from the early days of radio when all transmissions were in
Morse code, and it was only necessary to detect the presence (or absence) of a radio
wave using a device such as a coherer without necessarily making it audible.

Amplitude modulation detectors

• Envelope detector

One major technique is known as envelope detection. The simplest form of envelope
detector is the diode detector that consists of a diode connected between the input and
output of the circuit, with a resistor and capacitor in parallel from the output of the
circuit to the ground. If the resistor and capacitor are correctly chosen, the output of
this circuit will approximate a voltage-shifted version of the original signal.

An early form of envelope detector was the cat's whisker, which was used in the
crystal set radio receiver.

• Product detector

A product detector is a type of demodulator used for AM and SSB signals. Rather than
converting the envelope of the signal into the decoded waveform like an envelope
detector, the product detector takes the product of the modulated signal and a local
oscillator, hence the name. This can be accomplished by heterodyning. The received
signal is mixed, in some type of nonlinear device, with a signal from the local
oscillator, to produce an intermediate frequency, referred to as the beat frequency,
from which the modulating signal is detected and recovered.

Frequency and phase modulation detectors

AM detectors cannot demodulate FM and PM signals because both have a constant
amplitude. However an AM radio may detect the sound of an FM broadcast by the
phenomenon of slope detection which occurs when the radio is tuned slightly
above or below the nominal broadcast frequency. Frequency variation on one
sloping side of the radio tuning curve gives the amplified signal a corresponding
local amplitude variation, to which the AM detector is sensitive. Slope detection
gives inferior distortion and noise rejection compared to the following dedicated FM
detectors that are normally used.

• Phase detector

A phase detector is a nonlinear device whose output represents the phase difference
between the two oscillating input signals. It has two inputs and one output: a
reference signal is applied to one input and the phase or frequency modulated
signal is applied to the other. The output is a signal that is proportional to the phase
difference between the two inputs.

In phase demodulation the information is contained in the amount and rate of phase
shift in the carrier wave.

• The Foster-Seeley discriminator

The Foster-Seeley discriminator is a widely used FM detector. The detector consists

of a special center-tapped transformer feeding two diodes in a full wave DC rectifier
circuit. When the input transformer is tuned to the signal frequency, the output of
the discriminator is zero. When there is no deviation of the carrier, both halves of
the center tapped transformer are balanced. As the FM signal swings in frequency
above and below the carrier frequency, the balance between the two halves of the
center-tapped secondary are destroyed and there is an output voltage proportional
to the frequency deviation.

• Ratio detector

The ratio detector is a variant of the Foster-Seeley discriminator, but one diode
conducts in an opposite direction. The output in this case is taken between the sum
of the diode voltages and the center tap. The output across the diodes is connected
to a large value capacitor, which eliminates AM noise in the ratio detector output.
While distinct from the Foster-Seeley discriminator, the ratio detector will similarly
not respond to AM signals, however the output is only 50% of the output of a
discriminator for the same input signal.

• Quadrature detector

In quadrature detectors, the received FM signal is split into two signals. One of the
two signals is then passed through a high-reactance capacitor, which shifts the phase
of that signal by 90 degrees. This phase-shifted signal is then applied to an LC
circuit, which is resonant at the FM signal's unmodulated, "center," or "carrier"
frequency. If the received FM signal's frequency equals the center frequency, then
the two signals will have a 90-degree phase difference and they are said to be in
"phase quadrature" — hence the name of this method. The two signals are then
multiplied together in an analog or digital device, which serves as a phase detector;
that is, a device whose output is proportional to the phase difference between two
signals. In the case of an unmodulated FM signal, the phase detector's output is —
after the output has been filtered; that is, averaged over time — constant; namely,
zero. However, if the received FM signal has been modulated, then its frequency will
vary from the center frequency. In this case, the resonant LC circuit will further shift
the phase of the signal from the capacitor, so that the signal's total phase shift will
be the sum of the 90 degrees that's imposed by the capacitor and the positive or
negative phase change that's imposed by the LC circuit. Now the output from the
phase detector will differ from zero, and in this way, one recovers the original signal
that was used to modulate the FM carrier.

This detection process can also be accomplished by combining, in an exclusive-OR

(XOR) logic gate, the original FM signal and a square wave whose frequency equals
the FM signal's center frequency. The XOR gate produces an output pulse whose
duration equals the difference between the times at which the square wave and the
received FM signal pass through zero volts. As the FM signal's frequency varies from
its unmodulated center frequency (which is also the frequency of the square wave),
the output pulses from the XOR gate become longer or shorter. (In essence, this
quadrature detector converts an FM signal into a pulse-width modulated (PWM) signal.)
When these pulses are filtered, the filter's output rises as the pulses grow longer
and its output falls as the pulses grow shorter. In this way, one recovers the original
signal that was used to modulate the FM carrier.

• Other FM detectors
[7]
Less common, specialized, or obsolescent types of detectors include :

Travis[8] or double tuned circuit discriminator using two non-interacting tuned

circuits above and below the nominal center frequency

Weiss discriminator which uses a single LC tuned circuit or crystal

Pulse count discriminator which converts the frequency to a train of constant

amplitude pulses, producing a voltage directly proportional to the frequency.

Phase-locked loop detector

The phase-locked loop detector requires no frequency-selective LC network to

accomplish demodulation. In this system, a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) is phase
locked by a feedback loop, which forces the VCO to follow the frequency variations of
the incoming FM signal. The low-frequency error voltage that forces the VCO's
frequency to track the frequency of the modulated FM signal is the demodulated
audio output.