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Home StudentResources Chapter11:TheItalianRenaissance

The Italian Renaissance

ChapterSummary

ChapterSummary
I. ACivicProcession GentileBellinispaintingTheProcessionoftheRelicoftheHolyCrossrecountsvisuallythemiraculous healingofayoungboyduetotheinterventionofthepatronsaintofVenice.Morethantheevent,thecity itselfanditsurbansocietyareglorifiedintheworkofart. II. RenaissanceSociety A. Introduction TheRenaissancewasinitiatedinthemidstofthedevastationoftheBlackDeath.UnliketheMiddle Ages,theRenaissanceplacedparticularvalueontherenewalofclassicalartformsandliteratureand ontheimportanceoftheindividual.AssociatedwithItalymorethananyotherregionofEurope,the Renaissanceinitiatedaperiodofdramaticchange.Theentireagecanbesubdividedintothree phases:from1350to1400duringwhichdiscoveryofancienttextsandexperimentationwithnew artformstookplace1400to1500typifiedbypoliticalstabilityintheItaliancitystatesandthe creationofarecognizablecultureand1500to1550dominatedbyforeigninvasionandthe diffusionoftheItalianRenaissancetotherestofwesternEurope. B. TheUrbanEnvironment ItalywasdistinguishedfromtherestofEuropebythedegreeofitsurbanization.Notonlywere sevenofthetenlargestEuropeantownslocatedintheItalianpeninsula,buttheregionalsowas dottedwithnumeroussmallertownsaswell.Surroundingeachcitywasaruralareathatservedas asupplieroffoodstuffsandasaregionofrecruitmentfortheurbanpopulation.Thecitiesservedas centralmarketsfortheproduceoftheiragriculturalhinterlands.Intheaftermathoftheplague, Italiancitiesweresmallerthantheirpreplaguecounterparts.Despitethediminutionofthe population,urbanspacewascrowdedwithmen,markets,animals,andagriculturalproducts.The socialorganizationoftownsdifferedfromthecountryside,wheresocialstatuswasdeterminedby onesrelationshiptotheland.Inthecity,socialdistinctionwasdeterminedbyoccupationand membershipinguilds,communalorganizationsthatimposedmonopoliesoftradeorproduction.At thetopoftheguildstructurewerewholesalemerchants,bankers,andpublicadministrators. Fartherdownthesocialscalewereretailmerchantsandskilledcraftsmen.Atthebottomwerethose men,unskilledandunderemployedlaborers,whowerenotguildmembers.Urbansocietywas typifiedbyahugegulfbetweenrichandpoor.InFlorence,tenpercentofthepopulationheldninety percentofallwealthinthecity.SuchdisparitieswerecommoninRenaissancecities. C. ProductionandConsumption DemographicsshapedthechangeinmarketforcesintheearlyRenaissance.Between1350and 1400,theplagueandsubsequentaftershockscontinuedtodepressthepopulationofallareas.Asa result,thevalueoflaborincreased.Intheshortrun,theagriculturallaborersdisposablewealth thatamountleftafterthepurchaseofnecessitieswentup.Simultaneously,investmentinthe traditionalfashion,inlandandintheclothindustry,broughtdiminishedreturnsforwealthy capitalistsinthecities.Boththepoorandtherich,eachgroupwithgreateramountsofdisposable wealth,turnedtothepurchaseofluxuries.Suchpurchaseseasedthepsychologicalburdenofthe plagueandaidedinescapingtheincreasingburdensoftaxation.Producersrespondedtothesudden demandforluxuriesbyexpandingmarketsinsilks,jewelry,importedfoodstuffs,andartobjects.In asense,thecultureoftheRenaissancewasthecreationoftheplague. D. TheExperienceofLife LifeinaRenaissancecitycouldbehard,particularlyforthepoor.Childrenofthepooroftenfailedto survivechildhood.Forthoseyoungwhosurvived,maleswereapprenticedandfemalesweresent outasdomesticservants.Childrenofthewealthyweremorelikelytosurvivepasttheirearlyyears. TherewasnostandardforRenaissancefamilies.Mostwereprobablynuclearinstructure,butthere wereexamplesofseveralgenerationsgrandparents,siblings,grandchildren,andservantsliving underasingleroof.Evennuclearhouseholdsoftencontainedservants.Olderchildrenweredealt withaseconomicresourcesandutilizedtoincreasetheeconomicfortunesofthehousehold.Sons werenormallyapprenticedatagetenorthereafter.Daughtersfortunesweredeterminedbythe

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abilityofthefamilytoarrangeforadowry.Youngwomenwithdowriesweremarriedandentered thehouseholdoftheirhusbandsuntilsuchtimeasthenewcouplehadsufficientwealthtoestablish aseparatehousehold.Thosewithoutdowrieswerehiredoutasdomesticservantsorentered convents.Womencommonlyweremarriedataroundagetwentytomentenormoreyearstheir seniors.Marriedlifeforwomennormallyinvolvedsuccessivepregnancies.Onlydeathandtheage differentialbetweenmenandwomenlimitedfamilysize.Menmarriedmuchlaterinlife,afterlong supervisioninthehouseholdsofothermales.Somemalesneverwereabletoestablishindependent households.Delayedhouseholdformationmayhaveledtosexualfrustrationandeven homosexuality.Menwhodidsuccessfullyestablishindependenthouseholdsenjoyedcomplete authorityoverthoseundertheirroofs.DeathwasacompanionoftheRenaissancehousehold. Frequentoutbreaksoftheplagueandlackofmedicalknowledgeensuredannualharvestsofthose withoutnaturaldefensesoftentheveryyoungandadolescents.Famineandstarvationwereless significantcausesofdeath. E. TheQualityofLife Despitetheplague,thequalityoflifeforsurvivingcitizensoftheRenaissancemayhaveimproved. Lifespansincreasedforsurvivorsasaresultofmoreplentifulfoodsuppliesandmorevarieddiets. Socialandpoliticalcohesionalsoincreasedascitizenscametodependonagreatervarietyofsocial supportgroups.Kinshipgroupsweresupplementedbyguilds,neighborhoodorganizationseither familialorecclesiasticalandgodparenting.TheChurchremainedcentraltoRenaissancesociety. Thefundamentalsymbolsofdailyritualwerederivedfromecclesiasticalsources.Thecalendarofthe Churchcontinuedtoestablishtherhythmsofurbanlife.Evenspatialrelationshipswithintowns weredependentonthelocationofindividualchurchesandparishboundaries.Theextenttowhich Renaissancecitizenswereabletoexpresssocialsolidaritywiththecityinwhichtheyresidedcanbe observedintheworksofartproducedwithintheshopsandschoolsofItaly.Inmanycases,worksof artwereexpressionsofcivicpride. III. RenaissanceArt A. Introduction TheartoftheRenaissanceowedasmuchtothesocialsysteminwhichtheartistslivedandworked astotheindividualgeniusandtechniquesoftheartists.Wealthwithinthecitiespermittedthe creationofpublicworksofartbuildingsandmonumentalsculpture.Thecelebrationofthe individualandtheexistenceofdisposablewealthledtoasuddeninterestinportraiture.Renaissance artwasalsotheproductofasystemofeducationbasedontheprinciplesofthecraftguilds. Studentsworkedasmembersofshopswherewealthypatronscontractedspecificworksofart.It was,inshort,abusiness.MostRenaissanceartistsbecameskilledinmorethanoneareaof expertise.ThegreatgeniusesoftheRenaissancewereequallyrenownedfortheirarchitectural, sculptural,andpaintedworks. B. AnArchitect,aSculptor,andaPainter TheearlyRenaissanceproducedthreeartisticmasterswhodominatedtheirrespectivefields. Brunelleschicombinedclassicalarchitecturalmotifsinparticularthedomeandroundwindowswith conceptsalreadypresentinlateGothicarchitecturetoproducearadicallynewstyle.Hisgreatest triumphwasthedomeatopthecathedralinFlorence.Insculpture,Donatellowasthemost importantearlyRenaissanceinnovator.Again,Donatelloimpressedclassicalconceptsoftheideal formonthesculptureofthelaterGothicperiod.Amonghiscontributionswasarenewedinterestin theequestrianmonumentalstatue,acommonfeatureofpublicartinantiquity.Masaccio introducedthemathematicalscienceoflinearperspectivetoRenaissancepainting.Hisinnovation gavepaintingstheillusionofthreedimensionalspace. C. RenaissanceStyle By1450theinnovationsofMasaccio,Donatello,andBrunelleschihadproducedarecognizable Renaissancestyle,nowheremoreapparentthaninFlorence.Forthemiddleperiodofthe Renaissance,thegreatestarchitectwasLeonBattistaAlberti.HecontinuedBrunelleschistechnique ofutilizingbasicgeometricformsaccordingtoEuclideantheorems.Albertinotonlyworkedin monumentalscale,butalsotransferredthenewstyletodomesticscale.Nosculptorofthemiddle periodsurpassedtheartisticachievementsofDonatello,butthereweremanypaintingmasters. PierodellaFrancescasurpassedMasacciosstudyoflinearperspective,possiblyundertheinfluence ofAlbertisgeometricstudiesinarchitecture.SandroBotticelliintroducedagreatersenseof romanticismandemotionthanthemorerigorouslygeometricpainters.Betterknownstillwas

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LeonardodaVinci.Amasterofcomposition(TheLastSupper)andportraiture(LaGiocondaorthe MonaLisa),Leonardoalsowasamasterofscientificspeculation. D. Michelangelo ThemostcompletemasteroftheRenaissancewasMichelangeloBuonarrotisculptor,painter,poet andarchitect.AsonofawealthyFlorentinefamily,Michelangelounderwentthecustomarytraining asanapprenticeinanartisticshoppatronizedbyLorenzodeMedici.Hisperiodofapprenticeship, twoyears,wasremarkablybrief.DuringhisstudieshemayhavebeeninfluencedbyNeoplatonist philosopherswhoalsoenjoyedLorenzodeMedicispatronage.Followinghisapprenticeship, MichelangeloembarkedonacareerthattookhimfirsttoRomeandthenbacktoFlorence.Between 1496and1504hecreatedtwomasterpiecesofsculpture,thePietaandDavid.Theexpressiveness andmajestyofthetwoworksguaranteedtheartistsfame.Athirdwork,thepaintingscoveringthe ceilingoftheSistineChapelinRome,establishedMichelangeloasapainteraswellasasculptor.In somewaysthemostimpressiveachievementoftheSistineChapelwasMichelangelosabilityto maketheroundedsurfaceoftheceilingappearflatwhenthefrescoeswereviewedfromthefloor. Michelangelosmasterpiecescontinuedthroughouthiscareer,butthecrowninggloryofhislifewas thecompletionofthedomeforSt.PetersCathedral,theseatofSt.Petersgrave.Thebuildingof thedomewasconsideredanarchitecturalimpossibility,butMichelangelosolvedtheloadbearing problemsandintegratedthestructureintothealreadycompletedbaseofthecathedral. Renaissanceartwasanexpressionofthesocietythatwasresponsibleforitscreation.Itmergedthe renewedtasteforclassicalmodelswiththeremnantsofmedievalart.Acontemporaryobserverwas abletolistovertwohundredmajorartistsoftheperiod. IV. RenaissanceIdeals A. Introduction Renaissancethoughtwasembodiedinthescholarlyapproachcalledhumanism.LikeRenaissance art,humanismentailedthesynthesisofclassicalliteraryformsintotheeducationalsystem.Those responsiblefortherecoveryandinterpretationofclassicaltextswerereferredtoashumanists. Whilehumanismdidincludetopicsthatcouldbeconsideredsecularinnatureanddidoftendwellon theaccomplishmentsofman,therewasnothingantireligiousinthehumanisticcurriculum.Many humanistsappliedthestudyofclassicallanguagestoecclesiasticaltexts,includingtheBible. B. HumanistsandtheLiberalArts Attheheartofhumanisticeducationwasthestudyofancienttexts,particularlyGreekworks.After thefallofConstantinopletotheTurksin1453,ItalybecamethecenterofGreekstudies. HumanismalsodepartedfromScholasticisminthepointsofemphasiswithinthecurriculum. Humanistsplacedimportanceongrammar,rhetoric,moralphilosophy,andhistory.Oftheancient authors,Cicerowasmostfavoredasamodelforhumanisticstudies.Petrarchwasresponsiblefor theelevationofCicerotothehumanisticpedestal.Petrarchsmostimportantsuccessor,Leonardo Bruni,concentratedonthestudyofthetextsofthetwomajorGreekphilosophers,Platoand Aristotle.BruniwasoneofthefoundersoftheinfluentialFlorentinePlatonicAcademy.LorenzoValla wasfamedforhisstudyofphilology,thestudyoftheoriginofwords.Rigorouslyutilizingthe humanisticstudyofphilology,VallainvalidatedthepapacysclaimstosecularauthorityinItalyby provingthesocalledDonationofConstantineaforgery.Humaniststendedtobepoliticalactivists. LeonBattistaAlbertiwroteatractproposingproperfamilylifestylesintheurbansetting.Evenmore influentialwastheworkofBaldesarCastiglione.IntheCourtierCastiglionedefinedthequalities necessaryforthesuccessfulmemberoftherulingelite.TheCourtierwasbothabookofetiquette andpoliticalscience. C. RenaissanceScience Renaissancescientificinquiryemphasizedtherecoveryofancienttextsandtheircorrectionbased onobservation.InthebiologicalsciencestherecoveryoftheworksofHippocratesledtogreater interestinanatomyandadvancesinthesettingofbrokenbones.Thetreatmentofdiseasewas heavilyinfluencedbytheworkofGalenwhichexplaineddiseaseasanimbalanceofbodilyhumors. Atthesametimenewengineeringtechniquesdevelopedthroughthesearchforsolutionsto practicalproblemsbyRenaissancecraftsmenandartistsworkingonthebuildingprojectsofthe Renaissance. D. MachiavelliandPolitics

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InThePrinceNiccoloMachiavelliportrayedtheidealcharacteristicsofarulingprinceinRenaissance Italy.Hisworkhasbeeninterpretedastheblueprintforpowerpoliticswithoutregardtopublic benefit.Thesonofarelativelypoorlawyer,Machiavellireceivedahumanisticeducationbefore enteringpublicserviceintheFlorentinegovernment.Heservedprimarilyasadiplomatuntilhis dismissalfromofficeandsubsequentbanishment.Inexilehecomposedhisliteraryworks,including ThePrince.Machiavellisdissectionoftheproperuseofpowerisbasedonclassicalmodelsdrawn fromhistory.Itisentirelysecularinmood.Thesoleconcernoftherulerismaintainingpower withoutreferencetoethics.Rulerswereadvisedtoconquer,murder,anddeceiveinordertorestore theancientempire. V. ThePoliticsoftheItalianCityStates A. Introduction TheItalianpeninsulawasdottedwithcitystates.Theeconomicsupremacyofthecitieswasaresult oftheirpositionastridethetraderoutesbetweenEastandWest.Eachstatewasapoliticalentity thatcompetedpoliticallyandmilitarilywithitsneighbors. B. TheFivePowers FivepoliticalunitsdominatedtheaffairsofItaly.Inthefarsouth,hereditarymonarchsruledthe kingdomofNaples,includingtheislandofSicily.Inthemiddleofthefifteenthcentury,thekingdom felltotheSpanishmonarchsofAragon.JustnorthofthekingdomofNapleslaythePapalStates, technicallyruledfromRome.WithinthePapalStateswerenumeroussemiindependentcities seekingtodistancethemselvesfromecclesiasticalgovernment.Thelastthreepoliticalpowerswere citystatesofnorthernItaly.FlorenceandVenicewererepublics.Theformerwasinland.Thelatter wasamaritimerepublic,dependentonseapower,andonlylaterdevelopingdominanceoverits landlockedneighbors.ThelastofthegroupwasMilan,governedbyasinglearistocraticfamily.Until 1450,thepoliticalaffairsoftheItalianpeninsulawerechaotic.Foreigninvasions,internal insurrectionsandpoliticalrivalries,andintercitywarfaredestroyedanysemblanceoforder.After themiddleofthefifteenthcentury,internalorderwasachievedthroughthedevelopmentof increasinglycentralizedgovernments.Therepublicssawtheemergenceofpowerfulelitesthat gainedcontrolovertheelectoralprocesses.InMilan,FrancescoSforzaestablishedanewmilitary government.ThesuccessionoftheAragonesetothethroneofNaplesbroughtorderintheSouth. Finally,theendoftheGreatSchismallowedthepopestorestoretheirauthoritywithinthePapal States.Restorationofinternalorderledtothecreationofadiplomaticbalanceofpowerwithinthe peninsula.Sincethehiringofmercenarysoldier,calledcondottieri,wasexpensive,theItalianstates useddiplomacyasbothadefensiveandoffensiveweapon.SforzasoverthrowoftheViscontiin MilanledtothePeaceofLodiandtheallianceofMilanwithFlorence.VenicealliedwithNaples. C. Venice:ASeaborneEmpire Venicesprosperitywasbasedonitsmilitaryandcommercialcontroloftheseas.Fromthetenth century,VeniceenjoyedaprivilegedpositioninByzantinetrade.Allofthelucrativetradecoming intothecityfromtheeasthadtobecarriedonVenetiangalleys.Therepublicangovernment controlledallmerchantcontractsinsuchawaythatmany,ratherthanafew,prospered.Venetian governmentwasalsointendedtodistributepoweramongmany.Astrictlyregulatedoligarchy, powerwasrestrictedtothosefamiliesabletosecuremembershipintheGreatCouncil.Fromthe approximately2,500menwhoweremembersoftheGreatCouncil,allpublicofficerswerechosen. Termsofpublicservicewerebrief,andeventhehighestofficesweredistributedevenlyamongall membersoftheGreatCouncil.VenicewasabletocreateanenormousoverseasempireintheEast alongthelinesofitstraderoutestotheByzantineEmpire.Inthefifteenthcentury,Venicebeganto extenditscontroltothewestintotheItalianpeninsula.Inpart,thecreationofalandempirewas tobalancethelossofeasterntradeassociatedwiththefallofConstantinople. D. Florence:SpinningClothintoGold TheFlorentineeconomywasbasedonthecommercialsuccessesofitsnumerousbankinghouses andontheindustrialcapacityofitswoolencrafts.Thecalamitiesofthemidfourteenthcentury endedprosperityformanybankingfamiliesandfortheclothindustry.EligibilityfortheFlorentine governmentdependedonguildmembership.Asthenumberofguildmasterswasfew,the governmentinFlorence,asinVenice,wasanoligarchicrepublic.LeadersamongFlorentinefamilies wereabletocreatepowerfulfactionsandtocontrolaccesstopublicoffice.Inthefourteenthand fifteenthcenturies,theMedicifamilywasabletosecuredominationoftheFlorentinegovernment. TheMediciwereapowerfulbankingfamilywhosememberswerecloselyassociatedaspatronswith

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theculturalrevivaloftheRenaissance.ThemostfamousofthefamilywasLorenzotheMagnificent. Himselfaproductofahumanisticeducation,Lorenzoexcelledatdiplomacy.Hewasabletomaintain thebalanceofpowerintheItalianpeninsula,althoughhisconcentrationonpoliticalaffairs permittedhisbankinghousetocollapse.Inthelongrun,thesuccessoftheMedicipoliticalfaction corruptedthesenseofrepublicanisminFlorence. E. TheEndofItalianHegemony,14501527 DuringtheRenaissance,Italyenjoyedapolitical,cultural,andeconomichegemonyoverwestern Europe.ThepoliticalempiresofthefivemajorstatesofItalyweretenuous.Theywereimmediately threatenedbytheexpansionoftheOttomanEmpireunderMehmedII.ConquerorsoftheByzantine Empire,theOttomansrapidlyextendedtheircontroltotheBalkanpeninsulaandtoGreece.The OttomansposedamostdirectthreattotheVenetians,wholosttheirseaborneempireintheEast. DespitetheOttomanchallenge,theItalianstateswereunabletoovercometheirindividual differences.Instead,theyplungedintoaninternecineconflictthatdestroyedtheequilibriumof politicalpowerinItaly.WarsbetweentheItalianstatesbroughtforeignintervention.CharlesVIIIof FranceinalliancewithMilansuccessfullyconqueredmostofnorthernItaly.Inresponse,the defeatedpowersbroughtinSpainandtheHolyRomanEmperortooffsettheinfluenceofthe French.ThemythofItalianpowerwasdestroyedintheItalianWars.

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