Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Human
Performance
and Limitations
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CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5
CHAPTER 6
CHAPTER 7
CHAPTER 8
CHAPTER 9
CHAPTER 10
CHAPTER 11
CHAPTER 12
Sleep
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................12-1
The Danger of Fatigue .....................................................................................................................12-1
Vigilance Effects ..............................................................................................................................12-1
Causes of Pilot Fatigue ....................................................................................................................12-2
Symptoms of Pilot Fatigue ...............................................................................................................12-2
Sleep and Sleep Deprivation............................................................................................................12-2
Sleep Credit/Deficit ..........................................................................................................................12-4
Sleep................................................................................................................................................12-6
Sleep Disorders ...............................................................................................................................12-7
Sleep Loss and Microsleep ..............................................................................................................12-7
Insomnia ..........................................................................................................................................12-7
Sleepwalking and Sleeptalking ........................................................................................................12-8
Sleep Apnoea ..................................................................................................................................12-8
Narcolepsy .......................................................................................................................................12-8
Sleep Hygiene..................................................................................................................................12-8
Napping............................................................................................................................................12-9
Drugs ...............................................................................................................................................12-9
Sleeping Tablets ..............................................................................................................................12-9
Melatonin .........................................................................................................................................12-9
Circadian Dysrhythmia – Jet Lag .....................................................................................................12-9
CHAPTER 13
Stress
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................13-1
Stress...............................................................................................................................................13-1
Effects of Stress...............................................................................................................................13-2
Stress is Cumulative ........................................................................................................................13-2
Psychological Stressors ...................................................................................................................13-4
Effects of Stress...............................................................................................................................13-6
CHAPTER 14
CHAPTER 15
CHAPTER 16
CHAPTER 17
Communication
Communication ................................................................................................................................17-1
Effective Communication .................................................................................................................17-1
The Cost of Effectiveness ................................................................................................................17-2
Results of Poor Communication.......................................................................................................17-2
The good transmitter ........................................................................................................................17-2
The good receiver ............................................................................................................................17-2
Types of Communication .................................................................................................................17-3
Written Communication....................................................................................................................17-3
Visual and Pictorial Ambiguity..........................................................................................................17-3
Verbal Communication.....................................................................................................................17-4
Social Skills......................................................................................................................................17-4
Body Language................................................................................................................................17-4
Verbal Behaviour .............................................................................................................................17-5
Listening...........................................................................................................................................17-5
Non-verbal Response ......................................................................................................................17-7
Verbal Response .............................................................................................................................17-8
Closed Question ..............................................................................................................................17-8
Open Question.................................................................................................................................17-8
Leading Question.............................................................................................................................17-8
Limiting Question .............................................................................................................................17-9
Understanding..................................................................................................................................17-9
Active Listening................................................................................................................................17-9
The art of effective listening .............................................................................................................17-9
Status, Role and Ability ..................................................................................................................17-10
Status.............................................................................................................................................17-10
Role ...............................................................................................................................................17-10
Ability .............................................................................................................................................17-10
Atmosphere....................................................................................................................................17-10
Communication summary ..............................................................................................................17-11
CHAPTER 18
CHAPTER 19
Leadership / Followership
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................19-1
Leadership Qualities ........................................................................................................................19-1
Leadership Skills..............................................................................................................................19-1
The Person Goal (P/G) Model..........................................................................................................19-2
Leadership - The Leader..................................................................................................................19-4
Qualities Approach...........................................................................................................................19-4
Situations Approach .........................................................................................................................19-5
Effective Leadership ........................................................................................................................19-5
Attitudes to Leadership ....................................................................................................................19-6
Ineffective Leadership ......................................................................................................................19-7
CHAPTER 20
Decision Making
Decision Making Process.................................................................................................................20-1
Reaction to Decision Making............................................................................................................20-1
Making and Taking Decisions ..........................................................................................................20-1
Decision Making Models ..................................................................................................................20-2
Group Versus Individual Decision Making........................................................................................20-3
Influences on Decision Making ........................................................................................................20-4
Summary..........................................................................................................................................20-5
CHAPTER 21
CHAPTER 22
CHAPTER 23
Automation
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................23-1
Flight Crew Functions ......................................................................................................................23-2
Human Factors Concepts in Design ................................................................................................23-3
CHAPTER 24
Introduction
Flight safety is one of the major objectives of the ICAO and considerable progress has been
made in the past few years. However, additional improvements are needed as it has long
been known that approximately 75% of accidents result from less than optimum human
performance. This indicates that any advance in the field of Human Performance will have a
significant impact on the improvement of flight safety.
This was recognized by the ICAO Assembly which adopted a resolution on "Flight Safety and
Human Factors" in 1986. As a follow up to the Assembly Resolution, the Air Navigation
Commission formulated the following objective for the task:
"To improve safety in aviation by making States more aware and responsive to the
importance of human factors in civil aviation operations through the provision of
practical human factors material and measures developed on the basis of
experience in States"
Human behaviour and performance are cited as factors in the majority of aircraft accidents.
To decrease accident rates, Human Factors in aviation must be better understood and the
knowledge more broadly applied. The improvement of awareness in Human Factors presents
the international aviation community with the single most significant opportunity to make
aviation safer.
The human animal has only been flying since the early 1900's. In the quest for more safety in
aviation, attention has been focused on the obvious deficiencies of man and machine. Since
the early beginnings of flight, great technological advances have been made making aircraft
much safer. But what about the human? Has he been forgotten?
This subject deals with the Human Factors that are considered the most important in aviation.
The information given should help in the understanding of the human animal and, hopefully,
help make aviation safer.
Human error is, by far, the most extensive cause of accidents and incidents in what is now a
technologically complex area. Some of the latest accident statistics show that 65% of all
accidents in Public Transport aviation have been attributed to flight crew error. It also
indicates that for the approach and landing phase of flight, which accounts for 6% of total
flight exposure time and 49% of all accidents, flight crew error is cited in 70% as a casual
factor.
Note: Loading, Taxi and unload are allocated 2% of the flight time. No accidents
are reported in this phase.
Studies have shown that pilot disregard of rules is the most common cause of approach and
landing accidents, other causes cited are:
The industry need for Human Factors is based on the interaction between the following:
Almost everyone involved in Public Transport aviation, from the design of an aircraft to its
operation, is concerned with the human element; all need some basic Human Factors
training. An Airline will continuously publish bulletins on technical subjects that are likely to be
effective because both flight crew and technical personnel realise the importance to the safety
of the operation. A similar bulletin on Human Factors topics is unlikely to generate the same
response and comprehension unless training is given to the importance of the subject. All
airline staff should be exposed to a general level of Human Factors education. Better
education means that the Human Element becomes more aware of human performance
capabilities and limitations.
Studies indicate that if all sources are included in aircraft accident statistics then 80 - 90% are
attributable to human error in one form or another
Unfortunately, the pilot is also the most vulnerable to outside influences that can adversely
affect performance.
Human Factors is not a single discipline, it draws information from all of the following areas:
The above is not a comprehensive list, other disciplines engaged in Human Factors activities
include:
¾ Education
¾ Physics
It is helpful to use models to aid in the understanding of Human Factors; this allows a gradual
approach in the understanding of all factors. The SHEL concept is one such model (Edwards
1972) that lends itself to the aviation environment. The name is derived from the initial letters
of the model Software, Hardware, Environment and Liveware. The idea of the model is to
establish the concept of a man/machine - environment.
H L
H
Liveware
Hardware
E Environment
S L E S Software
L
For a basic understanding of the SHEL model consider a football game. Start with the central
L, and then look at the match between interfaces:
The interfaces are not straight edged. Remember that a perfect match is never achievable in
real life – is there a perfect football team that never loses?
Input Characteristics The sensory systems that collect information for the
brain
(Physiology, Psychology and Biology).
The liveware (Pilot) is the hub of the SHEL model. The rest of the model must be adapted and
matched to this central component.
Liveware – Hardware Cockpit design – will there ever be a perfect flight deck? This
interface is the area considered when an aircraft is designed - yet why does the pilot
still have problems with the layout and use of equipment
On the BAC 1-11 flap/gear levers next to each other so that inadvertent
operation became a common occurrence.
Liveware – Liveware The interface between people. Poor interaction means poor
crew effectiveness. This relates to all aspects of an airline operation. Any person
dealing with a flight must be considered in this area. Flight crew human factors
training attempts to minimise the mismatches that occur with this interface.
Human Error
Mismatches occur with the interfaces of the SHEL model as no human is perfect. Even
though aircraft have developed technologically over the last 50 years the human being has
not evolved at the same rate. New equipment can surpass the human capability to effectively
operate it. All humans make mistakes - All pilots make mistakes. But remember, not all
mistakes lead to disasters. The simple error model below illustrates the effect a pilot can have
on a flight:
The F28 accident at Dryden, Ontario, in March 1989 is a good example of how this model
works. On the face of it, this was a clear cut case of pilot error. The immediate cause of the
crash was the failure of the flight crew to obtain adequate protection against wing icing prior to
departure. The inquiry yielded a 6 volume report; probably the most exhaustive air accident
report ever. The conclusion:
“The accident was not the result of one cause but of a combination of several
related factors. Had the system operated effectively, each of the factors might
have been identified and corrected before it took on significance. This accident
was the result of a failure in the air transportation system as a whole.”
PILOT ⇒ ERRORn
Remedy
ERRORn ⇒ DISASTER
Remedy
Pilot Error
The phrase Pilot Error is peculiar to aviation; there is no equivalent in the civilian world -
Doctor Error, Engineer Error etc. The phrase is “falling from grace” especially with the advent
of better Human Factors training. However, there is a need to evaluate the human response
to the above error progression. Crew Resource Management (CRM), Multi-Crew Co-
operation (MCC) and Human Factors training all play a role in ensuring the safety of the
aircraft, crew and passengers. CRM and MCC are discussed in a later chapter.
The conventional way to represent the role of Human Factors in accidents is to count each
accident where there was clear human error involvement. Looking at fatal accidents, if we list
the human factors contributions to these fatalities, the top 4 causes are:
To further explain the error model the James Reason Swiss Cheese Model is used.
To explain the Frank Bird model we can break down the above diagram into a what is termed
the Swiss Cheese Model. Aviation can be broken into two failure areas:
We cannot prevent the latent conditions, we can only make them visible to those who manage
and operate the system. All decisions, even the good ones, will have a downside for
someone, somewhere in the system. The resident pathogens are more difficult and this is
where the model, shown below, is important.
The resident pathogens may lie dormant for years. All pilots make errors. Put this with the
immediate mental precursors of an error - distraction, preoccupation, forgetfulness --then the
sequence of the Error model is being put into place. All that is needed is for the resident
pathogens to occur together (Errorn). Then the holes in each part of the model line up and the
accident will occur (Sequence a). Where the errors occur and the holes are not matched then
the sequencing will stop - and no accident will occur (Sequence b).
Manufacture
Development of technical
Sequence b servicing procedures
Implementation of
SOP's
Sequence a
Accident
A totally confidential reporting system about Human Factors incidents that do not get
reported. CHIRP is a charitable company run from RAE Farnborough. Similar schemes are
run on behalf of the national Civil Aviation Authorities throughout the world. CHIRP is outside
the control of the CAA. Feedback, a 3 monthly magazine, is produced that covers a wide
range of Human Factors topics such as:
This system relies on the honest reporting of any incident or occurrence. Flight Crew, Cabin
Crew, Engineers and ATC controllers can make reports. For Example:
All went according to plan and I still felt fine as we set off from Europe for the UK (0300L).
Due to the overlap of duty times we had three pilots on the flight deck and as always there
was more stimulation and conversation than usual and I didn't start to feel jaded until the last
90 minutes of flight. With one hour to go I really started to feel tired but thought I should be
able to last the flight without falling asleep. At the top of descent my eyes closed for the first
time and I was in somewhat of a dozy state during the descent. I still felt, however, that I
could make a big final effort during the last 10 minutes of the flight when there was more
activity. Going downwind for landing, the approach checks, RT calls and then the flap setting
did increase the activity but I simply felt worse than ever. Commands/actions were followed
immediately by falling asleep again. On final approach I found myself being woken up as the
Captain was asking for gear down, flaps etc. When we finally landed I felt dreadful and
possibly the worst in many years of flying.
There are obvious safety implications from this incident not the least of which was my driving
home (0830L) afterwards. The irony of the situation was that the two pilots in discretion had
been accommodated by crewing and felt fine whereas I was still within my allowed FDP and
felt like death. I think that standby duties during late evening/early morning are almost
impossible to rest and prepare for properly but can be acceptable with good rostering. I swear
I will never accept an early morning duty followed by late evening standby on the roster again.
Learning Styles
Learning "Parrot Fashion" was once the only form of learning in most schools. Nowadays, this
system has changed to one where the student is expected to learn, understand and apply the
material taught. This is no different in ab-initio pilot training, you will be presented with
copious amounts of material to help you pass your groundschool exams. But what is essential
to pass the exams?
The following is written for a full time student but the revision techniques apply to all.
However, the means of study and revision note taking apply to Distance Learning. Students
have to develop a method of copying the information that a lecturer is trying to pass on. This
is usually done by note taking. Taking notes does help people remember what was said, and
taught, in lectures. To ensure that notes are effective takes practice; it is not an easily
acquired skill. The initial difficulty any student has is to decide what to write down. A student
cannot write down everything that is said; how do you sift out the wheat from the chaff? This
chapter is designed to help a student make notes of value such that revision is made easier.
Common Problems
¾ The student has no control over how fast the lecturer delivers the lesson.
¾ How much material does the student need to write down; in note taking, more is
not necessarily better.
¾ Too much detail means little time is spare for thinking about what is being taught.
Taking detailed, accurate notes, requires the student to pay attention to everything that is
said. Therefore, the time that a student needs to think about what notes to take is as
important as the time that attention is paid to what the lecturer is saying. Remember,
borrowing notes is never as effective as writing the notes during a lecture. The starting point
for any note taking must be the building of an effective framework from which to work.
Note Framework:
Subject Heading. The lecturer will always write or state the lesson
objective. This must be the starting point.
Sub Heading. The lecture will be split up into minor topics each with its own
explanations.
Review of Notes
Notes should be made by making connections with all the related material (MUD). It is
important to review any notes as soon as possible after they have been taken. If this review is
done at an early stage it is possible to relate them to text book material. Remember, the notes
have to be used at a later date for revision.
Methods of Learning
As examinations approach, the student needs to be able to recall and use the information that
has been taught.
Common Problems Unsuccessful students try to read the material straight off:
Revision Style
Revision Method
To help with revision the SQ3R method can be used. This method of revision is a successful
way for remembering textbook material. The SQ3R way of learning is:
SURVEY Do not begin by reading the material. Look at the subject headings,
bold type headings or italic terms. Obtain an idea of how much material is to be learnt
or discussed. Decide on how to split the text into easily learnt packages.
QUESTION Before reading each section ask yourself questions about what is to
be learnt.
READ Read the text. Think about the material as it is read. Ask questions of
understanding and complete calculations if necessary. If text is not understood - DO
NOT PROCEED. Ask for help at this stage, from other course members or staff
members. Make sure all the material is understood before progressing to the next
part of the revision package.
RECITE At the end of each major section recite the major points to yourself.
Do not skip over any areas. As you become more familiar with the information being
presented, then the temptation is to miss out large chunks of material that you think
you know.
REVIEW The most important section. Review all the material learnt by using
reciting or questioning techniques. Using other course members, in question and
answer sessions, helps to reinforce all the material learnt.
Make sure that you take breaks during the learning process. Revision can be tedious,
especially if there is a lot of text to be learnt. Short breaks every hour make sure that you stay
refreshed during the toil. Do not revise one subject a night, this will lead to boredom; aim to
revise 2 or more subjects.
Sleep
Individuals require differing amounts of sleep. The older you are the less sleep you require.
However, people in learning situations do require regular sleep patterns. An integrated flying
course requires a student to both fly and carry out an intensive ground school phase.
Pressures are such that students start to disrupt their sleep by late night study or worry. Sleep
is covered in more detail during the later stages of HPL, this small section is designed to help
make a student comfortable in his new environs.
¾ Make the room comfortable - pictures on walls, personal possessions. These all
make an area feel comfortable - more like home.
¾ No strenuous exercise immediately before going to bed. This means no physical
or mental exercise.
¾ A high level of study activity should be avoided immediately before trying to
sleep.
¾ Ensure that after working there is sufficient time to relax. The brain needs time to
wind down.
¾ Keep the room ventilated - not too warm, not too cold.
¾ Do not drink too much alcohol. Alcohol induces a coma like sleep where there is
no body refreshment.
¾ Try a warm milky drink - NOT COFFEE or tea.
¾ Light reading or listening to music can help relax the mind and body.
Do not jump into bed, straight after finishing studying, and expect to fall asleep immediately. If
you find that you are not sleeping well try to stay in bed where it is warm. There is some
suggestion that you will get some relaxation and body revitalisation even whilst lying down.
Finally DON'T worry.
The Atmosphere
The Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the atmosphere which is held in
place by the force known as gravity. The mixture of the atmosphere remains constant and is
found to cover the earth up to 30 000 ft at the poles and 60 000 ft at the equator. The
boundary of the atmosphere is known as the tropopause.
30 000 ft
60 000 ft
Outer Space – No
Molecules
Standard atmospheric pressure, or barometric pressure, is the weight or force exerted by the
atmosphere at any given point. This pressure is expressed in different forms by the method of
measurement such as pounds per square inch (psi), millimetres of mercury (HG) and inches
of mercury. Millimetres of mercury (mm/HG) are used in these notes.
Continual fluctuations of temperature and pressure in the atmosphere create problems for
engineers and meteorologists who require a fixed standard of reference for aircraft. This
standard is known as the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA). Conditions throughout the
atmosphere for all latitudes, seasons, and altitudes are averaged and published by ICAO. The
resultant standard atmosphere has specified sea level temperature and pressure and specific
rates of change of temperature and pressure with height.
The divisions of the atmosphere are primarily physical or meteorological in nature. From
meteorology we are familiar with both the troposphere and the stratosphere; both of which are
important to the aviator and aviation. To look at the Physiological Effects associated with flight
the atmosphere can be split into four zones:
Physiological Zone This area extends from sea level to approximately 12 000 ft.
It represents the area of the atmosphere to which the human body is more or less
adapted. Only minor physiological problems exist when flying within this zone. Pilots
who go higher than their acclimatized levels notice common symptoms such as
middle ear blockage and sinus blockage difficulties, shortness of breath, dizziness
and headache. Above this zone we are in an environment to which our body is
unaccustomed.
Physiological Deficient Zone Existing from 12 000 ft to 50 000 ft this zone, along
with the previous zone, is the area in which most flying takes place. Oxygen
deficiency becomes an ever increasing problem as we ascend due to the reduced
atmospheric pressure.
Partial Space Equivalent Zone This zone extends from 50 000 ft to 120 nm,
where pressure changes become very small. The problems for flight over 50 000 ft
are the same as those encountered in space. Sealed cabins, pressure suits are
Total Space Equivalent Zone True space, this zone extends outwards from 120 nm.
The physiological problems of this zone are similar to the previous zone.
Oxygen 20.94%
Nitrogen 78.08%
CO2 0.03%
Other gases 1%
These proportions remain the same at all levels within the troposphere and up to an altitude
of 60 000 ft. ICAO has defined the standard atmosphere which assumes:
Pressure 1013.2mb
Temperature 15ºC
Density 1225 gm/cubic metre
The temperature lapse rate of 1.98ºC/1000 ft continues up to 36 090 ft. Above this altitude the
temperature remains constant at –56.5°C.
Pressure falls 1 hPa per 30 ft gained in the lower levels of the atmosphere (acceptable in the
first 5000 ft)
A temperature change of 3°C or a 10 hPa change in pressure will change the density by 1%.
500
PRESSURE
(mmHg) 400
300
200
100
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
ALTITUDE (x1000 FEET)
Gas Laws
The human body is adapted for life at sea level. If exposed to an altitude of 40 000 ft then a
person will become unconscious in a few seconds and dead a few minutes later. Knowledge
of the gas laws is essential in explaining the effects of reduced Barometric Pressure on the
body.
Boyle’s Law For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature (T), the pressure (P)
is inversely proportional to the volume (V). If the pressure on a gas decreases, its
volume increases and vice versa. This law, when applied to the body, explains the
expansion of gases trapped within the body in areas such as the middle ear, sinuses
and gastro-intestinal tract.
PxV=C
Where: P Pressure
V Volume
C Constant.
Charles’s Law If the volume of a gas remains constant, the pressure will
vary directly with the temperature.
Algebraically PV = RT or
PV
/T = R
P Absolute pressure
V Volume
R Universal gas constant
Dalton’s Law In a mixture of gases, the pressure exerted by one of the gases is the
same as it would exert if it alone held the same volume. From this the partial pressure
of oxygen in the atmosphere can be derived for any altitude, since the pressure at
that altitude can be measured and the proportion of oxygen in the atmospheric air is
constant. This is of great importance to aviation especially when we discuss Hypoxia.
To determine the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture we use the following:
Where Ptotal represents the total pressure of the mixtures of gases and ppA, ppB, or ppC
represents the partial pressure of each gas in the mixture.
Graham’s Law A gas of high pressure will exert a force towards a region of
lower pressure and if a membrane separating these regions of unequal pressure is
permeable or semi-permeable, the gas of higher pressure will pass through the
membrane into the region of lower pressure. This will continue until the unequal
regions are nearly equal in pressure. This law explains the transfer (diffusion) of
oxygen, CO2 and other gases from one part of the body to another.
Henry’s Law The amount of gas in solution varies directly with the pressure of that
gas over the solution. When the pressure of a gas over liquid decreases, the amount
of gas dissolved in the liquid will also decrease, or vice versa. This gas law is
applicable when Decompression Sickness is discussed when Nitrogen comes out of
the blood.
General Gas Law A combination of Boyle’s Law and Charles’s Law where P
and T signify absolute pressure and temperature, respectively.
P1V1 = P2V2
T1 T2
The general gas law applies to "ideal" gases where the molecules are assumed to be
perfectly elastic. For practical purposes we accept that the law applies to all gases.
To live, the human being must produce heat and energy from food eaten. Eaten food is
converted into simple food products and transferred to the tissues by the blood. It is then
oxidized to provide this heat and energy. To oxidize the food, oxygen has to be supplied to
the living cells in the body. The waste product, carbon dioxide, is then carried away from the
tissues and expelled from the body. This process is respiration. The definition of respiration is
given below:
Respiration
Breathing In Inspiration
Breathing Out Expiration
GAS
EXCHANGE
AIR
TRACHEA
BRONCHUS ALVEOLI
CAPILLARY
NETWORK
BRONCHIOLE
When a human breathes, air is drawn in through the mouth or nose to the Pharynx. The
Pharynx, which is found at the back of the throat, warms, humidifies and filters the air before it
passes down the trachea into the two bronchi. The bronchi split into the bronchiole tree as the
air passes into the lungs. The lungs are set inside the chest cavity, or thoracic cavity,
wrapped in an airtight sac called the pleura. At the ends of each branch of the bronchiole tree
are air sacs, alveoli. These air sacs are very small and are surrounded by capillaries which
are small blood vessels. The thin walls of the alveoli and capillaries allow oxygen to diffuse
into the blood and CO2 into the alveoli. The lungs in the average man can hold approximately
6 litres of air, a woman, 4 litres.
Tidal Volume The volume of air breathed in and out in a single breath. When
resting this is approximately 500 cm3
The chest cavity is surrounded by the ribs on the sides and separated from the abdominal
cavity by the diaphragm, a large flat sheet of muscle. The chest cavity has only one opening.
Any change in volume to the chest cavity will ventilate the airspace in the lungs. The chest
size is altered by a muscular action that raises and lowers the diaphragm and by contraction
and relaxation of the muscles between the ribs.
Inspiration and expiration circulate air in and out of the lungs efficiently.
4 8
1 5
3 7
INSPIRATION EXPIRATION
1 RIBS RAISED 5 RIBS RETURN
2 DIAPHRAGM DEPRESSED 6 DIAPHRAGM RELAXES
3 LUNGS EXPAND 7 LUNGS RETURN TO ORIGINAL VOLUME
4 AIR DRAWN IN 8 AIR EXPELLED
Gaseous Exchange
The constant turnover of air provides the mechanism for both O2 to diffuse into the blood and
CO2 to diffuse into the lungs.
This gaseous exchange can be explained by looking at the partial pressure each gas exerts.
In air outside the lungs the partial pressure of O2 is 160 mmHg. Carbon Dioxide has a low
partial pressure in outside air of approximately 0.3 mmHg. The difference in pressure of these
gases between the alveoli and the blood is how the gaseous exchange between the lungs
and the bloodstream occurs.
¾ Blood entering the lungs has a lower ppO2 than the alveolar air, so oxygen
diffuses into the blood
TRACHEA
(WINDPIPE)
RESPIRATORY
BRONCHIOLE
CO 2
CO 2 O2
PULMONARY O2
ARTERY LUNG
CO 2
O2
CO2 O2
BRONCHI
ALVEOLI BROCHIOLES
PULMONARY
VEIN
DEOXYGENATED BLOOD
OXYGENATED BLOOD
Most of the oxygen is taken into the blood, and carried, by the protein haemoglobin.
Haemoglobin is found within the red blood cells and is an Iron rich compound. The
Haemoglobin bond ensures that the body can receive enough Oxygen for the body’s needs. If
blood diffused directly into the blood solution only, then the body would be starved of
sufficient Oxygen necessary for the human to survive. Oxygen remains bound to the
haemoglobin until it reaches the tissues of the body, an area of low oxygen tension. This
oxygen is then released into the tissues to oxidize food. About 95% of the oxygen is
transported by haemoglobin, as an oxy-haemoglobin bond, and the remainder is diffused
directly into the blood solution. Some Carbon Dioxide binds to the haemoglobin but the
majority diffuses into the blood and is carried in solution as carbonic acid. Both Oxygen and
Carbon Dioxide bind weakly to the Haemoglobin as a strong bond would result in difficulties in
releasing the gases to either the tissues or the lungs.
Control of Breathing
Control of breathing is centred in the respiratory centre of the brain. The human requires no
conscious effort to breathe; although the rate of breathing can be altered voluntarily.
Inspiration is the active phase of breathing; expiration the passive phase. The rate and depth
of breathing can be adjusted to meet any change in the consumption of oxygen and expiration
of carbon dioxide.
During respiration:
Any increase in the CO2 concentration in the blood stimulates an increase in the ventilation
rate. As blood flows through muscle capillaries the dissociation of oxy-haemoglobin to release
oxygen is increased by:
Too little CO2 causes the blood to become more alkaline and the pH value to rise. The human
body maintains the equilibrium within narrow limits, any shift in the blood pH and ppCO2 levels
are sensed by the respiratory centres of the brain. When unusual levels occur, chemical
receptors trigger the respiratory process to help return the ppCO2 and pH levels to normal
limits. For the uptake of O2 by the blood and the release of that O2 to tissues the extreme
limits of the pH of the body are regarded to be 7.2 to 7.6.
The brain monitors the levels of both carbon dioxide and oxygen in order to make any
changes in the respiration rate.
The circulatory system is concerned with the transportation of blood throughout the body. The
blood has the following functions:
The circulatory system centres on a muscular pump - the heart. The heart is a hollow organ
with a wall made of three layers:
The Ventricles The left ventricle, which pumps blood around the body, has a
much thicker wall than the right ventricle, which only pumps blood to the lungs
Separation of the Atria and the Ventricles The atria and ventricles are
separated by the atrio-ventricular valves:
Tricuspid Valve Separates the right atrium from the right ventricle
Mitral Valve Separates the left atrium from the left ventricle
Right Atrium Two veins enter the right atrium, the inferior vena cava and the
superior vena cava. These veins bring blood back to the heart from all of the body
except the lungs. Blood from the right atrium passes into the right ventricle and then
into the pulmonary artery to the lungs
Left Atrium Blood from the four pulmonary veins runs into the left atrium. This
blood is passed into the left ventricle which is connected to the main artery which
passes blood to all parts of the body except the lungs. This main artery is known as
the Aorta
The blood is circulated around the body by a network of flexible tubes, the blood vessels
Arteries Strong, muscular and elastic walled vessels, arteries carry mainly
oxygenated blood. All arteries flow away from the heart. The exception is the
pulmonary artery which carries de-oxygenated blood from the heart to the lung.
Blood is a complex tissue made of different kinds of cells, free proteins, other chemicals and
factors and water.
The average adult has about 6 litres of blood circulating in the body. Blood consists of a clear
yellow fluid (plasma) and solids. Approximately 90% of the plasma is water, in which other
substances are dissolved or suspended. The most important solids in suspension are
Red blood cells The red blood cells are formed in the bone marrow and
contain a red pigment, haemoglobin. This is also the protein that carries oxygen to
the tissues. Haemoglobin is an iron-containing compound. The iron that is in the
haemoglobin molecule is responsible for the chemical affinity of haemoglobin for
Oxygen and Carbon Monoxide.
White Blood cells Several kinds of cells found in the blood are colourless or
white in appearance. All of these cells play a role in protecting the body from disease.
The white blood cells are formed from “stem cells” found in the bone marrow. These
cells mature into the specialized forms that protect the body from infection. Although
these white cells are located in the blood, they function as part of the body’s immune
system.
Platelets Platelets help the blood clot. When a blood vessel is severed or torn
the damaged ends constrict and retract in order to minimize blood loss. Almost
immediately the blood that is escaping from the damaged vessel begins to clot.
Platelets congregate at the site of the injury and release clotting factors. These
clotting factors start to convert one of the blood substances, fibrinogen, into the
protein, fibrin. Fibrin forms a dense weblike structure that in turn traps more platelets.
This forms into a jelly like clot taking about 10 minutes. As the clot hardens it begins
to shrink, releasing a watery substance, serum. The serum carries antibodies to
combat infection and specialized cells that begin the process of repair.
Together the above cells account for 45% of the blood’s total volume the remainder is called
plasma.
Plasma Plasma is a yellow, slightly alkaline fluid consisting of 90% water and
10% solid matter. The composition of the plasma is controlled mainly by the kidneys,
these solids include:
Blood Circulation
¾ Blood from the right atrium is pumped into the right ventricle
¾ From the right ventricle the blood goes into the pulmonary artery which carries
blood to the lungs
¾ In the capillaries of the lungs, gaseous exchange occurs:
¾ The freshly oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium of the heart via the
pulmonary veins
¾ The left atrium empties into the left ventricle which is connected to the aorta
¾ Contraction of the left ventricle forces blood into the aorta, the major artery which
is connected to the rest of the body save the lungs
¾ The aorta divides into arteries that carry the blood to the tissues. These arteries
divide into capillaries which give off the oxygen and take up carbon dioxide before
the blood returns to the heart
¾ All blood returning to the heart collects in the superior or inferior vena cava which
feed directly into the right atrium
AORTA
PULMONARY
ARTERY LUNG
LUNG VENAE
CAVA PULMONARY
E VEIN
LEFT
ATRIUM
RIGHT
ATRIUM
LEFT VENTRICLE
RIGHT VENTRICLE
LIVER
INTESTINE
HEPATIC PORTAL VEIN
KIDNEYS
LEGS
As the blood passes through the body the following organs carry out the following functions:
Stomach Nutrition from food is picked up and carried along to the tissues
Introduction
Oxygen 21%
Nitrogen 78%
Other gases 1%
As altitude increases, pressure and density decrease and the amount of Oxygen available to
the red blood cells decreases.
Water Vapour Ever present in the atmosphere, water vapour content varies
depending upon the climatic conditions. In the lungs, the
alveolar air is always saturated with water vapour. This
accounts for 6% of the volume of air in the lungs at sea level.
These gases have to be taken into account when considering the amount of Oxygen available
to the respiration process. At sea level, because of the amount of water vapour and CO2, the
volume of Oxygen in the lungs available for the respiration process is reduced to 14.5%.
Tracheal air
When inhaled air is drawn into the respiratory passages, it becomes saturated with water
vapour and is warmed to body temperature. This water vapour has a constant pressure of 47
mmHg at normal body temperature. This is regardless of the barometric pressure. The
inspired gases available for the respiration process are reduced by the amount of water
vapour present.
Alveolar Air
The tracheal air enters the lungs and Oxygen and CO2 are exchanged in the respiration
process. The expired air has less Oxygen and more carbon dioxide content. The partial
pressure of O2 (ppO2) in the alveoli varies with the CO2 partial pressure. A constant,
ppO2(tr) = (P - ppH2O(tr)) x F
In the transition from tracheal air to alveolar air, the ppO2 is reduced and ppCO2 is increased.
We assume that the ppN2 remains constant.
Example At 10 000 feet the air pressure is 523 mm Hg, using 21% as the
percentage O2. What is the alveolar partial pressure of O2?
ppO2(tr) = (P - ppH2O[tr]) x F
ppO2(alv) = 99.96 mm Hg - 40 mm Hg = 60 mm Hg
Forms of Hypoxia
Oxygen Requirements
As altitude increases, the percentage of Oxygen that needs to be added to the gas a pilot
breathes needs to increase to ensure that the alveolar partial pressure is maintained.
The above figures refer to the actual height. Modern aircraft are pressurised to a cabin
altitude of approximately 6 - 8000 ft. The temperature is easily controlled and mental functions
can be retained. Some older people or those who suffer from respiratory disease may suffer
from Hypoxia at these levels. In an ideal world, the aircraft would be pressurised to sea level.
In reality this is impracticable because of the weight and strength parameters that would have
to be achieved.
Hypoxia
Hypoxia occurs when the Oxygen available in the blood supply is insufficient to meet body
tissues needs. The greatest risk of Hypoxia to a pilot is normally a result of a rise in altitude
associated with a fall in pressure. Early signs of Hypoxia are related to the higher mental
functions and are similar to those of alcohol. The rate of onset depends on the altitude:
15 000 ft The signs and symptoms are relatively slow in onset and difficult to
detect.
40 000 ft The signs and symptoms are so quick that an individual may not
recognise what is happening.
In 1979 a Beech Super King Air was flying westwards at FL 310 along the south coast of
England on a conversion exercise. As it approached Exeter the crew asked ATC for
permission to practise an emergency descent. This was granted and they were instructed to
execute a right hand turn and contact Exeter ATC as they initiated descent. The crew
acknowledged this instruction, adding that they 'would be out of contact for a few seconds as
they would be donning masks and things'. Shortly afterwards the aircraft entered a turn to the
left, which became a left orbit. The aircraft continued to orbit left for the next 6 hours, slowly
During the investigation into the accident it was discovered that the training captain had,
whilst conducting such flights with previous students, actually depressurised the aircraft and
Oxygen masks had been really necessary. Examination of the wreckage revealed that the
pilots had donned their masks but that the mask hoses had not been fully connected to the
Oxygen supply system. Further testing in an identical aircraft depressurised at FL 300, with
descent initiated as soon as the test commenced, revealed that a doctor taking his mask off at
such an altitude was rendered incapable after 15 seconds and unconscious after 30 seconds.
In this accident when the crew were breathing air these test times would have been reduced
by a significant amount, causing rapid onset of Hypoxia with death following in a few minutes.
Mild Hypoxia may produce a state similar to drunkenness. More serious cases will result in
coma. All episodes of Hypoxia are damaging to tissues. If exposure is prolonged then
damage may be permanent; the most vulnerable area being the brain. At normal body
temperatures the brain is unable to tolerate total lack of Oxygen for more than 3 minutes
without irreversible damage. The symptoms of Hypoxia are many and individuals will differ in
their reactions to the onset. The symptoms are listed below:
Impaired Judgement Lack of self-criticism. The sufferer is usually the last person
to see any deterioration in performance.
Sensory Loss Colour vision is affected very early in the onset of Hypoxia.
Touch becomes dull,hearing becomes limited and spatial
orientation problems may occur.
Hyperventilation As a pilot begins to suffer from the onset of Hypoxia the need
for Oxygen results in a tendency to overbreathe.
Stages of Hypoxia
There are four stages of Hypoxia which vary according to the altitude and the severity of
symptoms.
Indifferent Stage Night vision shows the effects of Hypoxia. A loss of 40% of
night vision can be experienced at altitudes as low as 4000 ft.
Disturbance Stage The body can no longer compensate for the Oxygen
deficiency. Occasionally, pilots become unconscious from Hypoxia without
undergoing the subjective symptoms; Fatigue, sleepiness, dizziness, headache,
breathlessness, and euphoria are the symptoms most often reported. However, the
symptoms above are all valid.
Susceptibility to Hypoxia
Time The longer the pilot is without Oxygen the greater the effect.
Exercise Exercise increases the need for the body to produce more energy.
Hence, the need for more Oxygen.
Illness Illness increases the demands on the body’s need for energy..
Fatigue Tiredness and fatigue lower the body’s resistance to the onset of
Hypoxia.
Drugs/Alcohol Hypoxia impairs the body’s higher mental functions. Drugs and
alcohol have a similar effect. The combination of the two has an
obvious cumulative effect.
“The time available to a pilot to recognise the development of Hypoxia and do something
about it”
An aircraft not equipped with Oxygen should not fly at altitudes above 10 000 feet for
extended periods of time. Specific time and altitude restrictions are stated in JAR-OPS. An
unpressurised aircraft should not exceed 14 000 ft without supplemental Oxygen being used.
The respiratory controls of the body react to the amount of CO2 in the blood. During exercise
the body uses more Oxygen and more CO2 is produced. This means that an excess of CO2
will be present in the blood. The respiratory centre, in the brain, reacts to this surplus and the
rate of breathing increases in both depth and rate. This increase in breathing rate removes
the excess CO2 from the body. Once this excess is removed the breathing rate returns to
normal.
Hyperventilation is an increase in the rate of breathing which removes carbon dioxide from
the body faster than is required. This induces a lowering of the acidity of the body.
Hyperventilation may be a side effect of Hypoxia, but the following can induce an attack:
Symptoms of Hyperventilation
The symptoms of Hypoxia and Hyperventilation are so similar that to differentiate between
them can be difficult. Use the following guidelines:
Below 10 000 ft Hypoxia should not be a problem except in those people who
are old or have respiratory problems. The rate and depth of
breathing should be slowed down. If hyperventilation is
identified as the problem then re-breathing the expired air
Cabin Decompression
Cabin pressurisation failures can occur at any time during flight. The rate of loss of pressure
can be:
¾ Very slow which allows time for a pilot to recognise and deal with the problems
promptly, or
¾ Very rapid if the decompression is due to the loss of a door or window.
During a rapid decompression there will be a sudden explosive bang and the cabin will fill with
fog, dust and flying debris. The fog occurs due to the rapid drop in temperature and the
change in Relative Humidity. Normally the ears will clear automatically. Belching and the
passage of intestinal gas will occur. Air escapes from the lungs through the mouth and nose.
In such a case the crew are immediately exposed to the following problems;
¾ Hypoxia
¾ Cold
¾ Decompression Sickness
Oxygen is needed to avoid Hypoxia and a descent is required to a safe altitude below 10 000
ft. Where structural damage has occurred, the descent must be made at a rate that the
damage allows. Emergency descents are not normally made in Public Transport aircraft for a
rapid decompression as supplementary Oxygen is provided.
During rapid decompression the cabin altitude may rise above aircraft altitude due to a venturi
effect. Aerodynamic suction occurs where the air on the outside, passing over the defect in
the hull pulls air out of the cabin. The difference between cabin and aircraft altitude can differ
by as much as 5000 ft.
If flying in a pressurised aircraft, which has a rapid decompression, then the Time of Useful
Consciousness will be reduced. The rapid reduction of pressure in the aircraft will affect the
body. Oxygen is exhaled from the lungs due to this pressure change. The partial pressure of
In the event of a decompression or suspected pressure loss the first action that the crew must
take is to ensure a sufficient oxygen supply by donning their own oxygen masks.
Any air or gas contained within the body will expand or contract with any change in pressure.
Climb
Lungs and Intestine Gas collects along the gastro-intestinal tract because of:
The gas in the stomach or intestines expands during a rapid decompression. If this
gas is not released to the atmosphere, severe pain can be experienced. Damage to
the lungs, or even rupturing (pneumothorax - air between the lung and chest wall) can
occur if pressure changes are extreme. Normally the rib cage will protect the
respiratory system.
Teeth Good dentistry ensures that teeth are filled correctly and the oral health of the
pilot is maintained to a high standard. Poor oral hygiene can result in abscesses, poor
dentistry can lead to air pockets being left in filled teeth; both can cause pain during a
decompression due to the expansion of gases.
Decompression Sickness
Decompression sickness is caused by inert gases, mainly nitrogen, coming out of solution
into the body's tissues due to exposure to reduced atmospheric pressure. When breathing air
at sea level, the body is normally saturated with nitrogen. When the ambient pressure is
reduced by increasing altitude, the body becomes super-saturated with nitrogen. Some of this
nitrogen can come out of solution as bubbles in joints, the skin or the chest. Depending on the
location, and the extent of bubble formation, the symptoms can vary. The common names for
Decompression Sickness and the location in the body are listed below:
Altitude Cabin altitudes greater than 18 000 ft. Above 25 000 feet the
chances of suffering from decompression sickness are greatly
increased.
Duration The longer a person is at altitude the more likely the chance of
decompression sickness
Rate of Climb The faster the rate of climb the faster the onset.
Exercise The parts of the body that are most used in exercise are those that
are most susceptible.
Re-exposure
Flying within 24 hours of suffering from Decompression Sickness will increase a pilot’s
susceptibility of contracting the problem again. 48 hours should be the minimum time allowed
to elapse before flying again.
¾ Descend immediately
¾ Land as soon as possible.
¾ Use 100% Oxygen.
¾ Keep the patient warm.
¾ Recompression in a barometric chamber may be required after landing.
¾ Do not rub affected parts.
Diving before flight increases the risk of Decompression Sickness. If compressed air is used
under pressure, the body's store of nitrogen is increased. As an ascent is made, nitrogen
comes out of solution - thus causing Decompression Sickness. Do not fly within 24 hours
of SCUBA diving.
Decompression Sickness can occur as low as 6000 ft after diving. Modern passenger jets are
pressurised to altitudes between 6 - 8000 ft.
Descent
The ear and the sinuses are parts of the body that suffer most in the descent.
Sinuses
FRONTAL SINUS
MAXILLARY SINUS
The frontal sinuses are in the brow of the forehead above the eyes. The maxillary sinuses are
larger cavities in the cheek bones. Other sinuses are found in the deeper bones of the skull,
separating the nasal passages and the floor of the skull. The sinuses are lined with mucous
membrane and are connected to the nasal cavity by small openings. These openings, sinus
canals, allow the air pressure to be equalised to the atmosphere. The sinus canals vent air to
the atmosphere as the altitude increases. The lining of the canals is made up of a soft
mucous membrane which expands when a person is suffering from colds or flu. Air can still
vent to the atmosphere in the climb; but in the descent the inward passage of air is
impossible. During the descent, severe pain and injury can result. This is known as a sinotic
barotrauma or Barosinusitis.
The Ear
The ear has three main areas which are discussed in detail in a later chapter:
¾ Outer ear
¾ Middle ear
¾ Inner ear
Below
Atmospheric
Pressure
Atmospheric
Pressure
Ear Drum
Eustachian
pulled inwards
Tube blocked
Colds or flu can cause the soft tissue, of the Eustachian tube, to expand. Therefore, in a
descent the ear cannot equalise the middle ear pressure to the outside pressure. Severe pain
and injury (possible rupturing of the ear drum) can occur. This is the otic barotrauma or
Barotitis Media.
Prevention
¾ Cold
¾ Flu or
¾ Hay fever.
Introduction
A delicate subject to all of us because once qualified, you are going to spend your working life
in close contact with other pilots. To this end the problems of body odour and bad breath have
to be discussed. Simple courteous acts such as brushing the teeth, bathing daily and using
deodorants should be first nature.
As an airline pilot you are the representative of your company and the consideration of dress
and habits must also be addressed. Appearing clean and tidy for duty give the appearance
that you are the professional pilot.
Of more importance is how you stay healthy. A pilot requires a medical certificate in order to
exercise the privileges of the licence.
The Civil Aviation Authorities of certain European States have agreed common
comprehensive and detailed aviation requirements, referred to as the Joint Aviation
Requirements (JAR).
Joint Aviation Requirements for Flight Crew Licensing (JAR-FCL) relate to flight crew
licensing. ICAO Annex 1 gives the standards and recommended practices for personnel
licensing and has been used to provide the structure of the JAR-FCL.
JAR-FCL and ICAO Annex 1 both require a licence applicant to demonstrate theoretical
knowledge of human performance limitations relevant to licence sought.
JAR-FCL Part 3 details the medical requirements for each licence. This document details the
requirements for obtaining and maintaining a medical certificate. ICAO documents provide the
basic structure for the JAR requirements. Additions are made where necessary by making
use of existing European regulations.
Medical Fitness
Fitness
The holder of a medical certificate shall be mentally and physically fit to exercise safely the
privileges of the applicable licence.
In order to apply for or to exercise the privileges of a licence, the applicant or holder shall hold
a medical certificate issued in accordance with the provisions of JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical)
and appropriate to the privileges of the licence.
Aeromedical Disposition
After completion of the examination the applicant shall be advised whether fit, unfit or referred
to the authority. The authorized medical examiner (AME) shall inform the applicant of any
condition(s) (medical, operational or otherwise) that may restrict flying training and/or the
privileges of any licence issued. In the event that a restricted medical certificate is issued
which limits the holder to exercise PIC privileges only when a safety pilot is carried; the
authority will give advisory information for use by the safety pilot in determining their function
and responsibilities.
Licence holders or student pilots shall not exercise the privileges of their licences, related
ratings or authorizations at any time when they are aware of any decrease in their medical
fitness which might render them unable to exercise safely those privileges and they shall
without undue delay seek the advice of the authority or AME when becoming aware of:
Every holder of a medical certificate issued in accordance with JAR-FCL Part 3 (Medical) who
is aware of:
shall inform the authority in writing of such injury or pregnancy, and as soon as the period of
21 days has elapsed in the case of illness. The medical certificate shall be deemed to be
suspended upon the occurrence of such injury, or the elapse of such period of illness, or the
confirmation of the pregnancy, and
¾ In the case of injury or illness the suspension shall be lifted upon the holder being
medically examined under arrangements made by the authority and being
pronounced fit to function as a member of the flight crew, or upon the authority
exempting, subject to such conditions as it thinks fit, the holder from the
requirement of a medical examination, and
Fitness to Fly
You are the judge as to whether you are fit to fly. Illnesses that are trivial on the ground can
cause that fatal accident in the air. With the availability of new “over the counter” drugs
problems such as:
become important.
A medical certificate is the most important attachment to the licence; lose it – lose the job.
Most pilots neglect the body for many reasons, favourites are:
¾ Poor diet
¾ Lack of fitness
¾ Alcohol intake
¾ Drug Intake
¾ Smoking, and
¾ Ignorance
Blood Pressure
The maximum arterial pressure is achieved when the left ventricle contracts to force blood out
of the heart. Known as the Systolic Pressure, this is the pressure at which the blood leaves
the heart through the Aorta. When the heart relaxes, the pressure in the left ventricle will fall
and the valve from the heart is closed off. Elastic recoil in the Aorta and the arteries maintains
the pressure so that a steady flow of blood is achieved towards the capillaries.
Blood Flow
The minimum pressure in the arteries is the Diastolic Pressure. This pressure reflects the
resistance of the small arteries and capillaries to the blood flow. This resistance is the load
against which the heart must work.
Hypertension
If the systolic and diastolic pressures are high when the body is at rest then this is an
indication that the heart is working hard at pumping blood. This high blood pressure increases
the risk of stroke and coronary heart disease especially when the blood pressure is higher
than 140/90. Long term hypertension imposes strain on the cardio-vascular system that in
turn can lead to heart failure.
The cause of high blood pressure is generally unknown but can be linked to:
Hypertension has a reputation as the silent killer because of the lack of warning of impending
heart failure or heart attack.
Orthostatic Hypotension
Orthostasis means upright posture, and hypotension means low blood pressure. Orthostatic
hypotension consists of symptoms of dizziness, faintness or light-headedness that appear on
standing, and are caused by low blood pressure. Symptoms that often accompany orthostatic
hypotension include chest pain, trouble holding the urine, impotence, and dry skin from loss
through sweating.
Blood pressure is maintained by a combination of several factors. The heart is the central
pump, and a weak or irregular heart can cause orthostasis. Conditions such as arrhythmia
heart failure, deconditioning, and pregnancy are examples where the heart may not be able to
provide an adequate blood pressure. The heart pumps blood, and if there is too little blood
volume (anaemia, dehydration, dialysis), the pressure drops. The blood vessels in the body
also can constrict to raise blood pressure, and if this action is paralysed, blood pressure may
Both Hypo- and Hypertension can lead to the loss of a pilot’s licence.
Coronary heart disease (CHD) kills an estimated 10 000 000 people worldwide. CHD is a
general term that refers to any disease that results in a restriction or blockage of the coronary
blood supply to part of the hearts wall. Any restriction or blockage causes a partial or total
deprivation of oxygen to the affected part. This may cause death in the muscle cells. Any
sudden irreversible damage of this kind is termed a myocardial infarction. Where a large part
of the heart is affected then a person may die. If only a small region is affected then the
person may make a complete recovery.
The first two branches of the aorta are the left and right coronary arteries. These vessels
spread out over the surface of the heart and divide into a dense network of capillaries
supplying the muscle of the atria and ventricles.
Aorta
Coronary
Arteries
Atherosclerosis
The build up of a fatty material in the lining of the coronary arteries causes them to narrow.
Initially the fatty material lines the inner coat of the artery wall. As time passes, lipid and
cholesterol molecules from the blood enlarge the fatty material. Eventually, calcium deposits
harden this fatty material. The larger these deposits become, the more the restriction in the
blood vessel. The heart has to work harder to force blood through the arteries which in turn
may cause the blood pressure to rise.
If a clot breaks loose it follows the blood flow until it reaches a narrower blood vessel.
This can severely restrict or even stop the blood flow. This blockage causes the heart
muscle to be starved of oxygen and leads to a myocardial infarction. Sudden and
severe heart pain results which may be fatal.
Heart Failure The blockage of a main coronary artery leads to gradual damage of
heart muscle with the result that the heart becomes weaker and fails to pump blood
efficiently.
¾ Family history
¾ Smoking
¾ Raised blood pressure
¾ Raised blood cholesterol
¾ Lack of exercise
¾ Diabetes
By avoiding the main risk factors the risk of CHD can be minimised. You can help yourself by:
¾ Stopping smoking
¾ Leading a less stressful lifestyle
¾ Being careful with the diet, eating a low cholesterol and low fat diet
¾ Keeping your weight to a normal Body Mass Index
¾ Exercising at least three times a week for a minimum of 20 minutes. The exercise
must be vigorous enough to double the pulse rate.
Tests do not give an accurate indication of the health of the coronary arteries. An ECG can
give some indication of the electrical activity of the heart muscle to show abnormalities such
as an infarct, or narrowing of the arteries. For partial blockages arteriography would have to
be used.
Stroke
A stroke occurs when the blood supply to an area of the brain is cut off. Two types of stroke
can occur:
Haemorrhagic An artery in the brain bursts so that blood leaks into brain
tissue – a brain haemorrhage, or
Anaemia
A blood deficiency involving an abnormal reduction of the haemoglobin content of the red
blood cells. These are the cells that carry oxygen to the various locations of the body. Those
who are anaemic develop symptoms caused by the inadequate delivery of oxygen to their
body tissues. Symptoms include low energy, dizziness, shortness of breath, pallor and
digestive disorders.
Obesity
Any food that is eaten in excess of that required is stored as fat. Obesity is associated with a
high fat intake in the diet and lack of exercise. Obesity increases the risk of developing the
following diseases:
¾ Diabetes
¾ Hypertension
¾ Coronary heart disease
¾ Arthritis
¾ Cancer – especially of the colon, rectum, prostrate in men and uterus, cervix and
breast in women
¾ Stroke
Obesity also increases the likelihood of developing hernia, varicose veins and gallstones.
Obesity is defined as when a person:
BMI Category
Male Female
< 20 < 19 Underweight
20 – 25 19 - 24 Acceptable
> 25 – 30 >24 - 29 Overweight
> 30 > 29 Obese
Effects of Obesity
Diabetes Diabetes is a metabolic disorder that changes the way the body
breaks down sugars and starches. In normal people insulin, which is a hormone
produced in the pancreas, helps to convert sugar to energy. This is stored by the
body cells or used instantaneously. Diabetes is diagnosed as:
Gout Gout is a disorder in where the body produces an excessive amount of uric
acid or where the kidneys are unable to eliminate the uric acid formed. The uric acid
is deposited in tissues and joints in the form of needle like crystals. This causes
inflammation, swelling and severe pain. Joints most often include the knee, ankle,
foot, hand, hip, and shoulder. Attacks can begin suddenly and the joint becomes
inflamed, swollen, red and tender. If left untreated the problem can last for weeks.
Exercise
Exercise does not help a person lose weight although it is an excellent way to reduce the risk
of CHD. To be effective exercise has to be regular:
Hypoglycaemia
A condition where the sugar content of the blood has fallen to a dangerously low level.
Symptoms include;
Initially the brain and nervous systems are affected which manifest as personality changes
such as:
¾ Anger
¾ Lack of ability to exercise judgement
¾ Poor decision making
Hypoglycaemia can occur as a result of a diabetic taking an overdose of insulin. In fit people
hypoglycaemia can occur when:
Where public health control is poor personal protection from Tropical Diseases must rely on
preventive measures and personal hygiene.
The term tropical disease refers to diseases or conditions encountered in areas with high
temperature and humidity. This is assumed to be an area bounded by the Tropics of Cancer
and Capricorn.
Tropical diseases are well understood. They are preventable and curable by modern drugs. If
proper attention is given to personal hygiene combined with simple safeguards, there is no
reason why problems should occur. Flight crew have to be alert and must follow:
Water
Contaminated drinking water is one of the most frequent sources of intestinal infection such
as:
¾ Diarrhoea
¾ Dysentery
¾ Typhoid and paratyphoid fevers
¾ Cholera
¾ Schistosomiasis and worm infections.
These can develop into chronic diseases for which the cure is difficult. All can be prevented if
sensible precautions are taken with regard to water and food. Do not:
To purify water boil it for 3 - 5 minutes. Hot tea or coffee and undiluted citrus fruit drinks are
also safe. If water cannot be boiled purify with a chemical tablet. Drinks from well-reputed
manufacturers that are bottled under strict licensing control are usually safe. Outdoor
swimming in salt water is safe, except where beaches are next to freshwater outlets.
Freshwater can be the source of serious tropical disease and bathing should be avoided.
Most diseases caused by contaminated water may also be acquired from contaminated food.
This is the principal source of simple diarrhoea and food poisoning. In tropical countries it is
not unusual for human excreta to be used as fertiliser. Irrigation of crops is by the use of open
springs or sewers. Do not eat raw vegetables or fruit unless you peel them yourself. Avoid
salads as they are usually washed in the local water. Milk and milk products can also be the
cause of certain ailments.
Food poisoning is a general term applied to some gastrointestinal infections. The risk to flight
safety is by the sudden onset of incapacitating symptoms. Food poisoning does occasionally
occur on board aircraft or during flight and flight crew should not consume food from the same
source prior to or during a flight.
Diarrhoea
Diarrhoea (travellers’ diarrhoea) is a worldwide illness where the body excretes watery stools.
The rapid dehydration that occurs may cause serious flight safety problems.
Cholera
Cholera is an acute enteric infection caused by Vibrio Cholerae. Spread by the intake of water
and foods contaminated by the excrement of infected persons. Untreated, mortality may
exceed 50 per cent. Control is by purification of water supplies and proper sewage disposal.
Cholera vaccine provides some protection for a period of six months.
Infection is by cysts from faeces of infected persons and is transmitted by hand to mouth,
polluted water, and contaminated raw vegetables. Severe complications can affect the liver
and lungs. The disease may be encountered anywhere in the world.
High temperatures, humidity and long hot seasons ensure that insects flourish in tropical
environments. Exposure to insects is predominantly due to outdoor or primitive living
conditions. Insects can affect the health of a person in the following manner:
The most important of mosquito-borne diseases is malaria. Mosquitoes require blood in order
to reproduce. Other important mosquito-borne diseases include:
¾ Yellow fever
¾ Dengue Fever
¾ Filariasis
Malaria
Malaria is an acute recurrent, febrile disease characterised by chills followed by high fever
and sweating. The incubation period is usually eight to nine days but can be up to 12 months.
Deaths due to malaria are reported every year among international travellers. These occur
because:
Malaria still kills more people than any other tropical disease.
Biting flies are responsible for dissemination of bartonellosis, pappataci fever and
Leishmaniasis that may be prevalent in certain tropical areas.
Tsetse flies are vectors of trypanosomiasis (African sleeping sickness) in central Africa.
Other Insects
Assassin bugs (Reduviidae) are vectors of Chagas disease found in Central and South
American areas.
Fleas are vectors of plague, murine or endemic typhus and some tapeworms.
Ticks are vectors of such diseases as Rocky Mountain spotted fever, Q fever, Colorado tick
fever, encephalitis and tularaemia, and can cause tick paralysis. Soft ticks transmit relapsing
fevers.
Hepatitis
Inflammation of the liver caused by infectious or toxic agents. Infectious agents include
viruses, spirochetes protozoa and bacteria. The incubation period is two to six weeks and the
infection can be prevented by immune serum globulin injections.
Immunisations
Medical requirements for immunisation of flight crew on international flights differ from country
to country. Requirements are usually company dependent.
Rabies
Rabies is an infectious fatal disease spread to humans by the bite of an infected animal. The
incubation period for rabies is between 3 weeks to 120 days. The disease is nearly always
fatal unless a vaccine is given. Stay away from all animals especially cats and dogs. Rabies is
a common problem in many countries around the world.
In the 1950s the link between smoking and lung cancer was recognised. In the 1960’s,
smoking was found to be a risk factor in CHD. Tobacco smoke is composed of:
Approximately 85% of smoke in a room is sidestream smoke. Most of the 4000 different
chemicals in cigarette smoke are found in a higher concentration in the sidestream smoke
than the mainstream smoke. This must put others as well as the smoker at a greater risk of
developing smoking related diseases. This is known as passive smoking.
Three main components of cigarette smoke pose a threat to the human being:
¾ Tar
¾ Carbon Monoxide
¾ Nicotine
Tar is implicated in the blocking of the bronchiole tree and tarring of the alveoli. Sufferers
experience difficulty in breathing because of the blockage of the airways and the progressive
destruction of the alveoli. The blockage of the airways is caused by chronic bronchitis. Where
Chronic Bronchitis The cleaning action of the lungs is inhibited by the tar in
tobacco smoke. As the tar passes through to the lungs through the airways more
mucus is secreted. This mucus accumulates in the bronchiole tree and may block the
passage of air. Any dirt, bacteria or virus will collect in the mucus – this is the cause
of what is known as “smoker’s cough”.
Emphysema Where the lung is affected by chronic bronchitis infection will become
more commonplace. Inflammation occurs and an enzyme called elastase is
produced. This enzyme destroys the elasticity of the alveoli which eventually burst.
Thus there is less surface area for any gaseous exchange. In extreme cases a
person will need continuous oxygen to stay alive.
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a product of the incomplete combustion of carbon compounds and
is absorbed by inhalation. The relative toxicity of CO increases with altitude. Carbon
Monoxide (CO) is absorbed by the blood in the alveoli and competes with oxygen for
haemoglobin. The haemoglobin has a greater affinity for the CO than it does oxygen
(approximately 200 times). The stable compound carboxy-haemoglobin is formed and
because of this the amount of oxygen available for absorption is reduced by as much as 10%.
CO is deadly; being colourless, odourless and tasteless. It has a four hour half-life in air.
Carbon monoxide does not naturally occur in any quantity in the atmosphere. Its effects can
be cumulative and are not easily corrected. Oxygen does not bring quick relief and several
days may be required to rid the body completely of carbon monoxide. The presence of carbon
monoxide results in hypoxia where it can have the same effect as an altitude increase of 8 to
10 000 feet.
The symptoms of carbon monoxide poisoning are headache, dizziness, weakness, nausea,
rapid heart beat, respiratory failure and death. After death a person shows a redness in the
lips and cheeks.
Nicotine
Nicotine stimulates the sympathetic nervous system by reducing the diameter of the arteries
which stimulates the release of adrenaline from the adrenal glands. Nicotine is absorbed into
the blood and will reach the brain within a few seconds. The release of adrenaline increases
the heart rate and blood pressure. The narrowing of the arteries decreases the blood supply
to the extremities such as the hands and feet. This lack of Oxygen can lead to the amputation
of limbs due to the onset of gangrene.
The term drug is a difficult one to define; in the widest sense a drug is a chemical substance
which is taken into the body or applied to the skin. More commonly the term is used to
describe substances which interfere with some aspect of the body’s metabolism. These drugs
are taken to alter the:
General Health
The person who, for whatever reason, does not feel well should not fly. General discomfort is
not conducive to safe flying.
Self-medication is also hazardous and the best recommendation to flyers is not to take any
drug and fly. Drugs and flying do not mix. The side effects of most medications can be
disabling in the air. If illness or pain requires treatment then a pilot will not perform normal
flying tasks well.
Drugs
The safest rule is to take no medicine while flying, except on the advice of an authorised
medical examiner. The condition for which the drug is required may be hazardous to flying.
Specific drugs associated with aircraft accidents are:
Legitimate medications taken for minor ailments can jeopardise safe flight by their subtle or
unpredictable effects on the pilot. This includes both prescribed medications and over-the-
counter medicines.
Allergic Reactions
Some people may experience an exaggerated or allergic reaction to a medicine. The allergic
response to a drug can arise unexpectedly and dramatically causing incapacitation.
Synergistic Effects
When a drug is taken in combination with another drug the total effect may be exaggerated.
Drugs may have side effects which contribute to pilot error, and accidents. Some are listed
below:
Nasal decongestants Can cause nasal burning and stinging, sneezing and
increased nasal discharge.
Aspirin Side effects include, irregular body temperature, variation in rate and
depth of respiration, hypoxia and hyperventilation, diarrhoea, gastrointestinal
problems and decreased clotting ability of the blood.
Antacids Allow the formation of carbon dioxide at altitude that can cause acute
abdominal pain due to the distension of the stomach.
Barbiturates and Pain Killers Used to relieve anxiety or reduce pain. These drugs
suppress mental alertness.
Alcohol
Alcohol can produce subtle effects on the perception and performance abilities of a pilot.
There is no known threshold level for these effects.
Alcohol, taken even in small amounts, produces a dulling of judgement which results in:
Unit of Alcohol
Alcohol is absorbed very rapidly into the blood and tissues of the body. The body metabolises
alcohol at the rate of one to one and a half units per hour. Binge drinking increases this time
drastically.
Alcohol is also absorbed into the fluid of the inner ear. The fluid metabolises alcohol much
slower than the rest of the body causing problems with the vestibular system.
The presence of alcohol in the blood interferes with the normal use of oxygen by the tissues
causing histotoxic hypoxia. Because of reduced pressure at high altitudes and the reduced
ability of the haemoglobin to absorb oxygen, the effect of alcohol in the blood during flight at
high altitudes, is much more pronounced than at sea level. The effects of one drink are
magnified 2 to 3 times over the effects the same drink would have at sea level.
The operator ensures that no person enters an aeroplane when under the influence of alcohol
or drugs where the safety of the aeroplane or its occupants is likely to be endangered.
¾ Consume alcohol less than 8 hours prior to the specified reporting time for flight
duty or the commencement of standby
¾ Commence a flight duty period with a blood alcohol level in excess of 0.2 promille
¾ Consume alcohol during the flight duty period or whilst on standby
If large amounts of alcohol are consumed then the period should be increased to over 24
hours.
The following are the recommended Health Council limits for alcohol:
If a man’s intake is more than 6 units per day/30 units per week, women 4 units per day/20
units per week, then there is a greater than 50% chance of an alcohol related illness.
Alcoholism
Alcoholism is a disease. Of the many definitions given the World Health Organisation
definition is most accepted:
Physical Problems
Problems include:
The use of alcohol as a relaxant is widely used by flight crew. The odd social drink will not
affect a person’s well being. Large amounts of alcohol induce a coma like sleep where both
the slow wave and REM sleep are badly affected. Prolonged use of alcohol will induce
extreme fatigue because of the lack of proper sleep.
Toxic Materials
All pilots will be exposed to a variety of chemical agents that are toxic. A general knowledge
of the effects of these materials is required.
Toxicology
The study of the nature and mechanism of toxic effects of substances on living organisms and
other biological systems.
Toxic materials can affect any organ of the body. The major organs that can be affected are
the lungs, liver, kidney, skin, eyes, nervous system, reproductive system, heart and immune
systems.
Exposure may occur during handling, storage, or engine maintenance. It may be inhaled or
absorbed. AVGAS fumes are an upper respiratory irritant. Rapid vaporisation of AVGAS can
cause chemical skin burns if next to the body.
JP4-JP5
JP4 and JP5 are jet engine fuels; JP4 is 65% kerosene and 35% gasoline, while JP5 is
kerosene. They may cause headache, nausea, confusion, drowsiness. Prolonged skin
exposure can lead to second degree burns.
Ethylene Glycol
Used in antifreeze, hydraulic fluids, condensers and heat exchangers. Ingestion can be fatal.
Methyl Alcohol
Methyl alcohol causes disturbances of vision, headache, vertigo, nausea and vomiting. Methyl
alcohol is found in de-icing fluid. If drunk in large amounts then blindness can occur.
A constituent chemical used fire extinguishers. Absorb by inhalation and skin absorption.
CBM is considered safe for flight crew.
Halon
Halon is a generic term meaning halogenated hydrocarbon. The gas is a CNS depressant.
Used as a flooding agent to extinguish fires in simulator buildings.
Hydraulic Fluid
Hydraulic fluid is petroleum based and inflammable. When burned, phosgene is formed. This
toxic gas affects the respiratory system. Inhalation is possible when a hydraulic line breaks
under pressure.
Plastics
Plastic burns to CO and other toxic gases. Absorption is through inhalation. Burning plastic
creates a black, choking, toxic smoke that quickly incapacitates.
Mercury is a metal liquid at room temperature. The vapour can be absorbed by inhalation
Incapacitation
In-flight pilot incapacitation is known to have caused accidents and occurs frequently enough
for flight crew to train for the possible consequences.
A sudden loss of consciousness disqualifies a pilot from holding a flight crew licence. An
explanation is given as to the difference between Fits and Faints. One may impose a
permanent loss of licence; the other suspension or restrictions.
The term fit (seizure) is usually reserved for some manifestation of epilepsy. Faint (syncope)
refers to a change of consciousness caused by disturbance of the brain’s blood supply.
Epilepsy
Epilepsy is just a collective term for a set of symptoms caused by electrical activity in the
brain and often classified as minor or major. An EEG (electroencephalogram) test, recording
routine brain activity, will often detect epilepsy. The fit is usually termed:
Petit Mals A minor attack which lasts for a few seconds and is associated with
loss of attention
Faint
Faints are more common because an otherwise healthy person may faint from shock, loss of
blood, stress, lack of fluid or food. The basic mechanism of a faint is a sudden reduction of
the blood's oxygen supply to the brain.
¾ Shock
¾ Loss of blood
¾ Hypoglycaemia
¾ Stress
Where the cause of fainting can be identified then it will not normally affect a person’s fitness
to fly. There is a possibility that restrictions may be made on the licence eg two pilot operation
only.
Gastroenteritis
Gastroenteritis is generally caused by food poisoning and is most common in travellers. The
symptoms are nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, abdominal cramps and fever. The conditions are
usually short lived and a pilot is unfit to fly whilst he is affected. The symptoms usually settle
within 2 – 3 days. However, if the problems last longer than 72 hours a doctor must be
consulted.
Acceleration
The body is able to withstand the effects of acceleration up to certain thresholds. These
thresholds depend upon both the intensity and duration that the forces are applied. Normally,
acceleration is divided into 2 areas:
Impact acceleration forces that last less than one second. The forces the body can withstand
are directly related to its own strength:
¾ In the vertical axis the body can withstand 25G
¾ In the fore and aft axis 45G
¾ In the lateral (side) axis 10-15G
Forces that last more than one second. As a human being we are used to the effects of
gravity. When we fly we are subject to the acceleration forces that can be applied when flying
the aircraft. The value of long term acceleration is usually given as either “positive G” or
“negative G”.
Positive G Perceived as an increase in body weight, the more the G pulled the
harder it becomes to move freely. If enough G is pulled then organs can be displaced
from their normal position. As seen earlier we measure the blood pressure in the
upper arm as this equates to the blood pressure in the heart. If we were standing it
would be fair to say that the blood pressure in the head will be less than that in the
heart and that the blood pressure in the feet will be greater than that in the heart. If G
is applied then the blood pressure in the head will be reduced because the force will
drive the blood to the lower half of the body. The blood supply can be cut off meaning
that the eyes and the brain are starved of blood. As G increases we notice the effect
on the eyes firstly by greyout (gradual greying of the vision) and followed by
unconsciousness. Greyout will appear at approximately 3.5G if the pilot is totally
relaxed. By using straining manoeuvres the delay of greyout and unconsciousness
can be up to 7-8G. The military use G-suits to help the pilot in long term acceleration.
¾ Hypoxia
¾ Hyperventilation
¾ Heat
¾ Low blood sugar
¾ Smoking
¾ Alcohol
Negative G The effects of negative G are the opposite of those for positive G.
Negative G manoeuvres in an aircraft are much more uncomfortable than positive G
manoeuvres. Facial pain can be experienced and in extreme cases small blood
vessels can burst. Negative G is associated with the term “redout”, where the lower
eyelid is pushed up under the eye. Maximum negative G is considered as –3G and
then for short periods only.
Motion Sickness
Although motion sickness is uncommon among experienced pilots it does occur. It can
jeopardises your flying efficiency especially when concentration is needed eg Instrument
Flying. Student pilots are more susceptible to the effects of motion sickness which is caused
when the body is subjected to a real or apparent motion that is unfamiliar.
Motion sickness is caused by continued stimulation of the inner ear which controls balance.
Symptoms are progressive and include problems such as:
In extreme cases if the air sickness becomes severe a pilot can be incapacitated.
Do not fly if taking anti-sickness drugs. These drugs affect the central nervous system and
reduce a pilot’s efficiency. When suffering from airsickness the following may help:
Introduction
All living cells require energy. This is obtained from the digestion of food. Food has to be
eaten to provide the human body with the required energy. Foods fall into three distinct
categories:
¾ Carbohydrates
¾ Fats and oils
¾ Proteins
To form a complete diet, mineral salts, vitamins, trace elements, water and roughage (fibre)
are also required. The amount of food taken must supply enough energy to:
Carbohydrates are compounds that contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen and are the most
immediate source of energy found in the body. Carbohydrates are:
¾ Simple sugars
¾ Complex sugars
¾ Starch
All carbohydrates are converted to glucose by the body. If carbohydrates are not available in
the body then poisonous substances, ketones, are produced. Carbohydrates are required to
carry out the satisfactory oxidation of fats in the body. Foods high in carbohydrates include
bread, rice and potatoes. When eaten in excess, carbohydrates are converted and stored in
the body as fats.
Fats also contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; but less oxygen than carbohydrates. Fats
produce energy by oxidation, however, for every 2 grams of fat it takes 1 gram of
carbohydrates to carry out this process. Fats are less bulky than carbohydrates and for the
same weight produce twice as much energy. However, fats do take much longer to digest
than carbohydrates.
Proteins
Proteins, like fats and carbohydrates, contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen as well as
nitrogen and sulphur. They are essential for the diet as they produce amino acids which help
the body build up new protoplasm.
Protoplasm All human beings consist of microscopic units, known as cells. These
cells are made up in part by a living matter, protoplasm.
Amino Acids The acids that form the component parts of proteins.
First Class Proteins Those proteins found in meat, fish, eggs, milk and cheese.
These foods contain all the essential amino acids.
Second Class Proteins The foods, like vegetables, that do not carry all, or are poor
in, the essential amino acids.
Diet
Our diet has to be adequate to supply all our energy needs. When planning a diet, the amount
of energy produced by different foodstuffs should be taken into account. To survive, the body
must produce:
The whole energy requirement of the body could be provided by carbohydrates. This would
most probably be indigestible because of the bulk required. Proteins, as they may be used as
a source of energy, could also provide the body's total energy requirement. However, to
satisfy our needs, approximately 5 kg of meat would have to be consumed daily - quite an
expense. Fat alone will not give us our energy requirements as we also need carbohydrates
to break it down into a usable form.
Generally when people talk about a balanced diet, all three forms of food have to be eaten. A
suggested diet could include:
Both mineral salts and vitamins are essential for the complete diet and a healthy body.
Mineral Salts
All of us realise that we require an intake of common salt, sodium chloride. In addition,
numerous other minerals are essential for the body to function correctly.
Calcium Important for the formation of teeth and bone and required for muscle
contraction. Nearly 30% of our bone is calcium. Calcium is present in most tissue
fluids, green vegetables and milk.
Phosphorus Phosphorus combines with calcium to form calcium phosphate, an
essential salt in the formation of healthy bones and teeth. Phosphorus is found in
certain proteins.
Sodium Helps keep the osmotic balance of the body as well as aiding muscle
function and the conduction of nerve impulses.
Sodium Chloride Taken into the body in the form of common salt. Sodium chloride
is an important constituent of our blood. The osmotic pressure and tissue fluid are
both regulated by its presence. Sodium chloride is also necessary to provide the
stomach with the material to form hydrochloric acid, an essential fluid within the
stomach. Salt can be excreted by both the kidneys and the skin, as sweat. If the body
loses a large amount of salt then it must be replaced to maintain body equilibrium.
Iodine Iodine is necessary for the correct function of the thyroid glands. These
glands control the body's metabolism and growth.
Zinc A constituent of some enzymes, and is involved in wound healing and the
functioning of insulin.
Vitamins
Vitamins are essential, in small quantities, for the normal functioning of the metabolism of the
body. The major vitamins are:
Vitamin A Vitamin A provides for the proper functioning of the retina in the eye.
Found in milk, fat, butter, liver, oils, egg and green vegetables. When Vitamin A is
deficient:
Vitamin B Complex A large group of water soluble vitamins found in yeast, liver,
milk, green vegetables and flour. Three of the vitamins are found to be essential in
the human diet, Vitamins B1 , B2 and Nicotinic Acid. Lack of Vitamin B1 can cause
diseases such as Beri Beri. Lack of Nicotinic Acid causes Pellagra, a disease
characterised by inflammation of the mouth and skin and mental impairment.
Vitamin C Vitamin C helps the proper functioning of the skin and mucous
membrane. Found in fresh fruits and very lightly cooked vegetables. Lack of Vitamin
C causes scurvy, a disease in which bleeding occurs in all parts of the body.
Vitamin D A fat soluble vitamin found in cod liver oil, egg, butter and cream. The
body can produce its own Vitamin D by exposure to sunlight. Lack of Vitamin D leads
to the onset of rickets in children, a disease where the bones of the body become
deformed. In adults, osteomalacia can result, or softening of the bones. Without
Vitamin D, calcium and phosphorus cannot combine to form calcium phosphate which
is essential for healthy bones and teeth.
Trace Elements
Other elements fluorine, manganese, cobalt, zinc and copper are required in minute
quantities for special purposes.
For a complete diet, a person must also take in water and roughage. Water is an essential
constituent of protoplasm, and is necessary for the balance of body fluids; the body is in effect
70% water. Because water is continually lost from the body in sweat, urine and respiration,
continuous replacement is required to avoid dehydration.
Roughage is the indigestible part of food and is passed through the stomach and the gastro-
intestinal tract. If roughage is allowed to remain in the alimentary canal for any period of time
then poisonous toxins can be produced which eventually pass into the blood.
Digestion
Before food can be utilised by the body it has to be converted into soluble diffusable
substances. These substances must be able to pass through the walls of our small intestines
into our blood stream. The preparation of food for absorption, and the excretion of waste, is
the process known as digestion. This takes place in the Alimentary Canal; a long canal that
begins at the mouth and ends at the anus.
Mouth
The mouth is an oval cavity with an opening to the outside. It consists of two parts:
¾ The outer part which is the space outside the teeth and within the lips and cheeks
¾ The inner part or true cavity of the mouth
Teeth
Within the mouth are the teeth. Each tooth is covered by enamel, a hard substance containing
phosphate and calcium. Under this enamel is a thick layer of bony substance, Dentine. After
losing the temporary milk teeth, each jaw has:
Salivary Glands
¾ Parotid glands
¾ Sub-maxillary glands
¾ Sub-lingual glands
Food is divided up into small pieces by the teeth and mixed with saliva, which flows out of the
salivary glands. Saliva flows as two secretions:
¾ A flow due to a mental stimulus ie the watering of the mouth due to the sight or
smell of food.
¾ A second flow when the food is in the mouth
Saliva is a colourless, slimy liquid which is slightly alkaline. Consisting mainly of water, it also
contains salts, Mucin and Ptyalin. The saliva has important digestive functions:
To the back of the mouth is a cone shaped cavity, 12 - 14 cm long, the pharynx. This leads
into the oesophagus which is approximately 25 cm long. The oesophagus lies between the
trachea and spinal column. Passing through the thorax, the oesophagus goes through the
diaphragm and enters the abdomen, joining the stomach at the cardiac orifice.
Food is passed down the oesophagus by a muscular action, peristalsis. This is a wave like
relaxation and contraction of the muscular walls of the oesophagus.
Stomach
The stomach is located in the abdomen, immediately below the diaphragm. The size of the
stomach varies with the amount of food it contains.
Food arrives in the stomach from the oesophagus. The presence of the food stimulates the
gastric glands into secreting gastric juices. The gastric juices are clear, colourless and
strongly acidic, which:
¾ Digest proteins
¾ Allow the acid contents of the stomach to kill any germs
¾ Clot any milk products
The food is converted into a semi-liquid mass, acid chyme. Gradually, the acid chyme is
allowed to flow into the duodenum, the first stage of the small intestine. The gradual flow of
food is necessary as the acidity of the food needs to be made alkaline by the fluids of the
duodenum.
The small intestine is approximately 6 m long and consists of the duodenum and the coiled
part. The duodenum is approximately 25 cm long and circles the pancreas. Openings into the
duodenum come from:
The long coiled part of the small intestine lies in the central and lower part of the abdomen
When the acid chyme enters the duodenum a hormone called secretin is produced. This
hormone pours into the blood and stimulates the pancreas to secrete its juices.
At the same time, the acid chyme stimulates the intestinal glands to:
¾ Secrete intestinal juice which converts the acid chyme into a digestible form.
¾ Stimulates the gall bladder into emptying its bile. Bile is produced in the liver and
stored in the gall bladder. A yellowish-green fluid, bile is purely an excretory
substance which is produced from broken down red blood corpuscles. Bile is
important to digestion as it helps emulsify fats. Bile also acts as a weak antiseptic
lubricating the contents of the duodenum.
Large Intestine
The small intestine joins the large intestine, which is approximately 1.5 m long. The large
intestine extends from the ileum to the anus and is divided into 3 sections:
The Caecum The caecum is a large sac, from which the appendix hangs. The
appendix is important in vegetable eating animals for the digestion of cellulose. In
man it has no function.
The Colon The first part of the colon runs up the right lumbar region. Just below
the liver it turns across the front of the abdomen and then descends to the left lumbar
region of the abdomen.
The Rectum and Anus The colon becomes the rectum, a tube approximately 12 cm
long. The last 3 cm of the rectum is known as the anal canal. The opening to the
exterior is called the anus, an area protected by the sphincter muscles.
Undigested food passes, in a liquid state, from the small intestine into the large intestine. In
the large intestine, water is absorbed into the blood, faeces are formed and the mass
becomes more solid. Movement along the large intestine is by peristalsis. The faeces take
approximately 16 hours to move along the large intestine.
Defaecation
The Liver
The liver is the largest gland in the body, weighing approximately 1.5 Kg. During respiration,
when the diaphragm is depressed, the liver is compressed. This compression aids the
circulation of blood through the organ. For this reason, exercise is important for the correct
functioning of the liver. Connected to the upper surface of the liver is the gall bladder.
Pancreas
Insulin circulates around the body in the blood. Without insulin, no glycogen can be stored in
the liver and glucose cannot be released to produce energy.
Insulin
Without insulin the body cannot get its energy by the oxidation of sugars. Fats and amino
acids are converted in to glucose, but this form of glucose cannot be stored, and is thus
excreted by the kidneys. In effect, the body wastes away. The disease that results from this
lack of insulin is known as diabetes.
During the activity of the body, waste substances are produced. Accumulation of these
substances can be harmful and so they must be excreted from the body. There are three
excretory organs within the body:
The Skin The body excretes by the process of sweating out water and mineral
salts.
The Kidneys and Other Urinary Organs These organs excrete nitrogenous
waste, mineral salts and water.
The Lungs The lungs excrete CO2, water and other waste products of
respiration.
The Skin The outer covering of the body consists of two layers:
Sweat Glands Sweat glands continuously give out water which contains small
quantities of salts and organic matter. This sweat is not normally seen as it
evaporates as it is formed.
Protection The skin is the outer layer of the body and as such protects the inner
organs.
Sense Proprioceptive receptors are found in the skin. These nerve sensors give us
the senses of touch and temperature recognition.
The Kidneys
Urine, containing nitrogenous waste, is produced in the kidneys. These waste substances are
extracted from the blood continuously. The urine is passed to the bladder, which is emptied
through the urethra.
The kidneys:
Micturation
Micturation is the action of passing urine from the bladder to the exterior. Pressure is built up
within the bladder by the continuous collection of urine. Once a certain pressure is reached,
then the urge to micturate is felt.
Heat Production
Heat is produced by the cells of the body, particularly the muscles and the liver. Blood leaving
the liver is warmer than that entering. It is the blood leaving the liver that distributes these
heat gains to the body.
Heat Loss
The Skin Heat loss varies dependant upon blood flow and sweat.
Heat loss from the faeces, urine and respiration cannot be controlled by the body. Heat loss
from the skin is controlled by the temperature of the body:
¾ If the body is cold, the blood vessels in the skin constrict, blood flow is reduced,
and heat loss is reduced.
Fever
Where a rise in body temperature occurs, a person may have become infected, and fever
may result. The symptoms of fever are:
¾ Initially, the skin becomes dry and heat production is increased. Shivering and a
chilled feeling may soon follow.
¾ As the fever advances, the skin becomes hot and flushed and profuse sweating
occurs.
¾ Headache and generalised aches and pains are experienced.
Heat Stroke
A condition that can occur suddenly when the body heat regulation mechanism fails and the
sweat glands cease to function properly. Symptoms include:
¾ Headache
¾ Confusion and restlessness
¾ Hot, flushed possibly dry skin
¾ High body temperature
Introduction
Vision is the most dominant sense, the eyes are approximately 25 times more sensitive than
any other organ in the body. Although good vision is essential for pilots and is tested during
the medical assessment of a pilot; perfect eyesight is not required.
The eyeball lies in a bony socket within the skull (the orbit) with two eyelids which protect and
clean the surface of the eye. The eyeball is connected to the skull by 6 muscles, which move
the eye up and down and from side to side.
PUPIL
IRIS
LENS
RETINA OPTIC
CORNEA
NERVE
Light is refracted by the transparent cornea at the front of the eye onto the lens. The lens then
focuses the remaining light onto the retina. The lens can vary its focal length by the
movement of the ciliary muscle which surrounds the lens. By using a process of contraction
and relaxation the lens’ focal length is varied. This is the process which allows the eye to
focus on both near and far objects.
¾ 70% of the focussing process is refraction as light passes through the Cornea
¾ 30% of the focussing process is carried out by the variable focus lens
The retina, the light sensitive covering on the inside of the eye, contains two types of photo-
receptor cells:
Cones Colour sensitive the cones are associated with both vision in good
light and fine detail.
The focal point of the retina is called the fovea, this area contains cones and no rods. This is
the point of highest visual acuity. Decreasing numbers of cones and increasing numbers of
rods occur as the distance from the fovea increases. Colour discrimination is limited to small
areas around the central fovea.
Both rods and cones are connected to the brain by nerve fibres (neurones) which then
combine to form the optic nerve. Each cone has a single neurone; clusters of rods share the
same neurone. The nerve fibres combine as the optic nerve, the blind spot.
After detection of light on the cones or rods nerve impulses travel along the optic nerve to the
optic chiasma. This is where the optic nerves from both eyes meet. From the chiasma the
impulses travel to an area of the brain known as the visual cortex, where the information from
the eyes is interpreted into a usable message.
Visual Acuity
Visual acuity is the ability to perceive shape and detail. The highest visual acuity occurs when
the retinal image is focused within 2° of the fovea. Light focused on the retina away from the
fovea is less well defined and visual acuity falls rapidly towards the periphery of the eye.
Peripheral vision is sensitive to movement but in order to distinguish detail an object must be
looked at directly.
VISUAL ACUITY
6/12
6/60
60 40 20 0 20 40 60
DEGREES AWAY FROMFOVEA
Relative visual acuity is measured by the Snellen's Test. A test type card is placed at 6
metres and the test is based on what a normal eye can see at that distance:
6:6 Vision The ability to see at 6 metres what an average individual can see at 6
metres – average vision.
6:4 Vision The ability to see at 6 metres what an average individual can see at 4
metres - better than average vision.
6:20 Vision The ability to see at 6 metres what an average individual can see at
20 metres - worse than average vision.
Clarity of Vision
Clarity of vision does not fully depend on visual acuity. External factors that can affect a
persons clarity of vision include:
¾ Time of day
¾ Size, shape and contrast of an object with relation to its surroundings
¾ The distance an object is from the viewer
¾ Relative motion to the viewer
¾ Visibility – whether clear or hazy
Depth Perception
¾ A change in the refractive power of the lens to enable the eye to focus, and
¾ A change in the convergence of the eyes - binocular vertege.
For the brain to make judgement of depth certain cues are used:
Cues to distance estimation and depth perception are easy to recognise when pilots use
vision under good illumination. As the light level decreases, the ability to judge distance
accurately is degraded and the eyes become more vulnerable to illusions. Pilots can judge
distance at night if they understand the problems in obtaining accurate cues to distance
estimation and depth perception. A pilot normally uses subconscious factors to determine
distance where either single or a variety of cues is used. Accurate estimates of distance can
be gained if the pilot is aware of the factors to be aware of. Cues to distance or depth
perception are either monocular or binocular.
Stereoscopic Vision
The human being is able to focus both eyes on a single object. This is called stereoscopic
vision. Each eye sees an object at a slightly different angle (binocular cues). The images seen
are merged together and the human being sees a three dimensional object.
Stereoscopic vision does not play a major role in depth perception over a distance of 12 m,
beyond this range other static and dynamic cues are used.
Binocular Cues
Binocular cues depend on the slightly different view each eye has of an object. Consequently,
binocular perception is of value only when the object is close enough to make a difference in
the viewing angle of both eyes. When flying, most distances outside the cockpit are so large
that the binocular cues are of little value. Binocular cues operate on a more subconscious
level than the monocular cues.
Monocular Cues
Several monocular cues aid in distance estimation and depth perception such as:
¾ Geometric perspective
¾ Motion parallax
¾ Retinal image size and
¾ Aerial perspective.
Where an object appears to have a different shape when viewed at varying distances and
from different angles. The types of geometric perspective are explained in the following
paragraphs.
Binocular vision is not essential for flying - there are one eyed airline pilots.
Motion Parallax
Considered the most important cue in depth perception. Motion parallax is the apparent,
relative motion of stationary objects when viewed by an observer moving across the
landscape. Near objects appear to move past; distant objects seem to move in the direction of
motion or remain fixed. The rate of apparent movement depends on the distance the observer
is from the object. For example, when driving a Go-cart the ground underneath appears to be
moving fast; when flying at altitude the ground underneath seems to move slowly. Motion
parallax can cause problems to pilots taxiing:
A pilot who changes from a low cockpit height aircraft will taxy at a specific speed. The
ground movement outside is one cue he takes his taxiing speed from. If the pilot changes to a
high cockpit aircraft he will tend to taxy too fast as he uses the relative speed of the ground as
his cue for the taxy speed.
An image focused on the retina is perceived by the brain to be of a certain size. The factors
that aid in determining distance using the retinal image are explained below:
The nearer an object is to the observer, the larger its retinal image. The brain adapts to
estimate the distance of familiar objects by using the size of their retinal image. The diagram
500 metres
Eye
30 ft
10°
1000 metres
Eye
5° 30 ft
Terrestrial Association
Comparison of objects, such as an airport with an aircraft flying, will help to determine the
relative size and apparent distance of the object from the observer. Objects associated
together are judged to be at approximately the same distance. In the diagram below, an
aircraft that is observed near an airport is judged to be in the traffic pattern and, therefore, at
approximately the same distance as the airport.
When objects overlap, the overlapped object is farther away as shown in the picture below.
G-FIND must be the closest of the aircraft as it obscures the aircraft behind.
The clarity of an object and the shadow cast by it are perceived by the brain and are cues to
estimating distance. To determine distance with these aerial perspectives, most pilots use the
areas discussed below:
Fading Colours or Shades Objects viewed through haze, fog, or smoke are
less distinct and appear to be at a greater distance than they really are. If an object is
seen more distinctly in clear air it appears to be closer than it actually is.
Position of Light Source and Direction of Shadow All objects cast a shadow if
lit. The direction of the shadow depends on the position of the light source. If the
shadow is toward the observer, the object is closer than the light.
Emmetropia
The healthy state of the eye when fully relaxed. Parallel rays of light are focused on the retina.
NORMAL
In short sightedness the eye is longer than normal and this results in an image focusing in
front of the retina. Accommodation (focusing) by the lens cannot overcome this deficiency.
Distant objects will be out of focus, with close up vision being satisfactory. To correct short
sightedness a concave lens is used.
In long sightedness a shorter than normal eye results in the image being focused behind the
retina.
Close up vision is blurred yet long distance vision is usually clear. To correct long sightedness
a convex lens is used.
Presbyopia
Close up vision deteriorates with increasing age. Hardening of the lens in people over 40
results in a mild form of long sightedness. This is known as presbyopia. Difficulty in reading
fine print in poor light is normally the first sign of the onset of presbyopia. Half Moon
spectacles are used to correct the defect; corrections for middle and distant vision can be
made by using bifocal, trifocal or even quadrifocal lenses.
Hardening of the lens may also result in clouding of the lens. This clouding is associated with
cataract formation. Pilots with early cataract problems may see an eye chart, but can have
difficulty in bright light. Due to the scattering of light as it enters the eye this sensitivity may be
disabling under certain circumstances. Any clouding of the eye should be investigated
immediately.
Astigmatism
An optical defect caused by abnormalities to the surface of the cornea or lens. In a healthy
state the cornea is spheroidal, like a football. The astigmatic cornea is oval shaped, like a
rugby ball. Errors caused by astigmatism can be corrected by a cylindrical lens.
Spectacles
Variable focus lenses are an alternative to bifocal or multifocal lenses. There is no clear
demarcation between upper distance vision to near vision correction in the lower portion of
the lens. Distortion also occurs near the periphery of vision. Because of these problems
varifocal lenses are not advised for use in flying.
Contact Lenses
Contact lenses provide better peripheral vision and are not subject to misting. There are a
some problems associated with flying with contact lenses. The cornea does not have its own
blood supply and obtains oxygen from the ambient air, the contact lens may starve the cornea
Before a medical certificate can be annotated approving the wearing of contact lenses the
applicant must provide a report from an ophthalmologist or contact lens practitioner. If all
requirements are met then the use of contact lenses is approved; the certificate usually
carries an annotation stating that a pair of ordinary spectacles must be carried in flight whilst
the contact lenses are being worn.
Bifocal contact lenses, for the correction of presbyopia, are unsuitable for flying.
During a rejected take-off in a B747 the flight engineer lost visual co-ordination between the
throttles and EPR gauges and advised the captain that the number three engine was losing
thrust. The cause of the engineer’s action was attributed to his multifocus lens spectacles
which he was wearing for the first time.
The above example shows the importance of wearing the correct spectacles and the time it
takes the eye to adapt to them.
Radial Keratotomy
Radial keratotomy is a surgical procedure that creates multiple radial, spoke-like incisions on
the cornea of the eye to produce better visual acuity. Glare sensitivity can be a complication
of the procedure which may be troublesome at night. Other complications include fluctuating
visual problems because of corneal swelling and increased susceptibility to injury. Possible
long-term complications of this procedure are unknown and no pilot should undergo the
treatment.
People with normal colour vision can distinguish up to 120 different colours and over 1000
differing shades of these colours. 8% of the male population and 1% of the female population
cannot distinguish between red and green. There are 4 types of red/green colour blindness:
Colour vision is affected in people who do not have colour blindess by:
Normal colour vision is not essential for flying. However, there is a need to be able to
distinguish between red, green and white lights in order to comply with:
Night Vision
If the amount of light entering the eye changes then any initial coarse adjustment is made by
the iris to close or open the pupil which allows more or less light into the eye. Because the
pupil has only a limited capacity a second process is required. Chemical changes which
involve both the rods and cones take place. As light intensity decreases colour discrimination
of the cones is difficult. It is at this stage that the rods, which are sensitive to low level
illumination take over vision from the cones. The rods contain a pigment, visual purple
(Rhodopsin) which is bleached by bright light. The chemical change takes a finite time as the
light decreases. This dark adaptation time is approximately:
Best night vision is achieved after this 30 minute adaptation period. Night vision is lost
immediately when the eye is exposed to bright light. The major factors that affect night vision
are:
Other factors include, age, alcohol intake, illness and the use of stimulants
When the eyes are not tracking a moving target they move in a series of jerks called a
saccade. This movement takes approximately 1/3 second. As a result of saccadic eye
movements, it is not possible to make voluntary, smooth eye movements while scanning
featureless areas.
Autokinesis A problem that occurs because of the saccadic movement of the eye.
If a person stares at a single point of light such as a star then after about 5 to 10
seconds the star will appear to move. This can appear to the pilot as another aircraft
in the sky.
Very high levels of light are encountered at high altitude, especially when an aircraft is flying
over a flat sheet of cloud. Two parts of the light spectrum can cause damage to the eye:
Blue Light Long term exposure may cause cumulative damage to the retina.
When flying at altitude, at night or above cloud where there is no definite pattern of earth or
sky to focus upon, the eye adopts a resting focus of 1 - 2 metres away. Distant objects have
to be relatively large to be seen. Effort is needed to refocus the eye on infinity. In order to see
objects outside the flight deck the eyes should be focussed on objects such as the wing tips
or clouds.
Glare
Glare is caused when flying above a layer of cloud or flying into a low sun. The brightness
contrast outside and inside the cockpit can make it difficult to read the instrument panel.
Photochromatic lenses are now commonly used by pilots but these adapt to ambient light
slowly. A problem may occur when changing from bright light to relatively darker backgrounds
Sunglasses
Cumulative damage to the retina can occur over a number of years due to glare. Good quality
sunglasses give protection by filtering out both blue and ultra violet light.
Flickering Light
Bright flickering light can cause epileptic type fits. Helicopter passengers have suffered fits
because of the rotor blades turning in bright sunlight and causing a flicker effect. An individual
may feel uneasy or suffer discomfort in this flicker environment. Precautions can be taken by
a sufferer such as wearing sunglasses. It is possible that the warning symptoms of mental
unease or discomfort can last for a few minutes, but this cannot be relied upon. The following
suggestions are made with reference to flickering light:
¾ Wear sunglasses.
¾ Turn away from the sun to reduce the flicker effect.
¾ Land immediately.
Passengers Affected passengers are usually on the sunny side of the aircraft. To
reduce flicker effect:
¾ Wear sunglasses.
¾ Cover adjacent windows.
¾ Cover or close the eyes.
¾ Move to a seat which is not affected by the sun.
Introduction
This chapter discusses the problems of visual illusions. Vestibular illusions are discussed in a
later chapter.
Who needs instruments he said, with perfect eyesight like me? My approach seems just right,
he thought one black night and calmly flew into the sea.
Anon
Spatial Orientation
Changes occur as we grow from being a baby into early childhood. Gradually a baby learns
about the forces that affect our orientation in the world. From that early age we begin to
understand the force of gravity (G) and how it always acts vertically down. It is later in life that
we learn that the force of gravity exerts a force of 1G, and that our visual horizon is horizontal
with this force.
¾ The eyes
¾ The vestibular system in the inner ear
¾ The proprioreceptive sensors in the skin that confirm our position with the
vestibular and vision senses – “seat of the pants”
To determine visual orientation other factors are taken into account, some of which are listed
below:
Problems with spatial orientation begin with the eye – brain interface. “Seeing is believing” is
often used, unfortunately, the eye does not always transmit enough information to the brain
for us to interpret the truth. When dealing with Human Information Processing (HIP) we shall
use the term “perception”. This part of the HIP process is built on past experience and
expectation. So we can say in some instances that the eye is confused because perception
has made its best attempt at telling us the truth.
Within the picture is an old lady and a young lady. Once unlocked it is difficult to concentrate
on just one of the depictions in the diagram.
In both pictures you have been given no depth clue. The next diagrams are included for
interest and rely on you believing that the flat plane is in fact 3-dimensional.
The two line diagrams are viewed as perspective drawings and the central two lines are seen
as curves. Both lines are straight and parallel.
Sight is the most powerful sense. However, in the diagrams above, you have been easily
deceived into believing what is obviously false.
In the next pages we look at how this deficiency translates into the airborne environment.
Spatial Disorientation
Since the 1920’s when the Royal Air Force designed the first blind flying panel the problems
of instrument flying have been recognised. The standard “T” of instruments that you use in
modern aircraft was in fact developed in 1927. By training and technological innovation, the
number of accidents attributed to disorientation has fallen over the past few years. It must be
remembered that if the power of vision is removed then the pilot will lose control of the
aircraft. The USAF demonstrated this by using a simple test. Three experienced pilots flew
simple manoeuvres with their visual and instrument clues removed. The results in the
diagram below show that in straight and level flight control could only be maintained for
approximately 60 seconds.
Landing
During training to take-off and land a pilot determines his position with reference to cues
around the airfield. These can include:
No pilot will use all the cues all of the time, unconscious attention is paid to their own
individual “favourites” that are cultured during training. When one or more of the cues is
removed or altered then difficulty in landing or taking-off may occur.
Width of Runway
The pilot uses the PAPI or VASI system to judge the visual angle of approach at most
airfields. Where these aids are not available then the pilot has to revert to basic visual cues
taught in training.
Assuming that the above diagram is for the same width runway a pilot should have no
problems in believing that:
¾ If the aircraft is low then the runway appears flat and short
¾ If the aircraft is high that the runway appears long and thin.
The considerations change when the three runways have a different width. For example, if the
first runway is very wide, the middle runway is normal and the one on the right is very narrow.
All the approaches could in fact be normal for their respective runway width.
Approach
During a 3° approach the angle between the pilot’s eye and the touchdown point must be 3°.
Visual Horizon
3°
Visual
Touchdown
Point
The pilot aims the aircraft at the touchdown point and as it approaches the runway, just before
landing the ground seems to flow away from a central visual impact point.
The visual impact point and the touchdown point are different. The aircraft will touch down on
the runway before the visual impact point. Landing cues are used as the aircraft gets nearer
the ground, these include the apparent:
Where the runway slopes to the threshold, or the terrain slopes into a level runway, the pilot
may misinterpret his approach height. The diagrams below give both the side view and the
view of the runway that the pilot may expect.
Normal Approach
The pilot sees the “correct” picture for the runway and the correct approach path is made.
View of
Runway
Runway Slopes Up
With a runway that has an upslope, the pilot will see the runway as long and thin and may
believe that he is too high. A possible action is to correct to what the pilot believes is the
correct approach path, which will involve the aircraft descending and possibly landing short.
View of
Runway
A runway with a downslope will be seen as short and fat. The pilot may believe that the
aircraft is too low and fly the aircraft high to achieve what he believes is the correct approach.
The aircraft will be high with the possibility of landing long.
As the aircraft approaches the runway the terrain appears to be too close to the aircraft. The
feeling is one of being too low and the aircraft is climbed.
Apparent
Height
Real Height
The impression on the approach is that the aircraft is high because the terrain appears to be
too far away. The aircraft may be descended in this case.
Lean on Cloud
Clouds are not like the visual horizon that a pilot flies to. It is possible for the cloud to have
slope. Pilots who believe that the cloud is level are liable to align the aircraft with the horizon
given by the cloud and sky.
Lean on Sun
A partial visual illusion because the aircraft is in cloud. Where an aircraft is flying close to the
top of cloud it is possible to make out the position of the sun. The pilot interprets this
brightness as the sun being vertically above the aircraft. The sun is rarely directly above and
in the diagram below it is positioned to the left of the pilot. In this case the aircraft is banked
left to bring the aircraft into the perceived vertical position.
During night flying accidents occur because the pilot’s visibility is determined by the greatest
distance that lit obstacles can be seen. Darkness degrades or eliminates most of the visual
cues so depth perception is degraded or totally removed. Lit objects are seen at a greater
distance at night than by day. When a pilot approaches a runway over terrain that does not
have any lights such as desert or water judgement becomes difficult – known as the Black
Hole Effect.
Where an approach is made over unlit terrain such as water or desert the pilot sees the
runway lights at a greater distance than the runway would be seen during the day. The
perception is that the aircraft is high on the approach to the runway. Under these conditions it
is possible to misjudge the approach and land short of the runway. At night bright lights and
good visibility lead to an under-estimation of the distance. Conversely low light and poor
visibility lead to an over-estimation of the distance.
A pilot on a “Black Hole” approach varies the descent profile by reference to the visual
perspective this can also be aggravated by other factors (Kraft and Elworth):
¾ A brightly lit runway will make the runway appear closer than it really is. This may
cause the pilot to descend early.
¾ Flying in clear air at night, brightly lit objects appear closer than they really are.
¾ If the horizon is obscured scattered lights can be mistaken for stars. This can give
the pilot the sense that the aircraft is nose high and a correction nose down is
made.
¾ If the horizon is obscured then the distant lights of a city may make the horizon
seem to be lower than it actually is.
¾ Rain on the windshield can convince a pilot that he is too high due to the
refraction of light. It is possible that an error of 200 ft per nautical mile can occur.
¾ When an airport is viewed through a rain shower the runway lights bloom and
appear bigger than they really are causing the pilot to believe that the aircraft is
high.
¾ Flying over a dark sea at night when no stars are visible it is possible that the pilot
may misinterpret fishing boat lights below the aircraft as stars. The misconception
is that the aircraft is upside down and the pilot rolls the aircraft to put these “stars”
above him.
Reaction Time
Where an aircraft is approaching head on the retinal size of the approaching aircraft is small
until a short time before impact. Where a target is moving across the visual field the “pick up”
time is much shorter.
3 SEC ½°
1.5 SEC/1°
.75 SEC/2°
.38 SEC/4°
.1 SEC/ VERY BIG INDEED
In the diagram below two aircraft on a collision course are on a constant bearing at a constant
speed.
If the constant bearing is maintained and there is no relative motion then aircraft B will be
stationary in aircraft A’s visual field. The movement needed to stimulate the rods is absent
and the pilot in aircraft A will not see aircraft B until shortly before the collision. The aircraft
subtends such a small angle on the retina till it is within 0.4 seconds of impact. Probably too
late for any corrective action.
Visual Acuity
Visual acuity has been described as the capacity of the eye to resolve detail. The acuity
across the eye reduces rapidly as soon as we are more than 2° away from the fovea.
Blind Spot
The eye has a Blind Spot. In normal vision a person does not notice any deterioration in
vision because of the position of the blind spot. Compensation is made by the saccadic
motion (a jerk/rest cycle of 1/3 second) of the eye. The saccadic movement can be
demonstrated by the following experiment. On a dark clear night, stand still and concentrate
on a single bright star, after 5 to 10 seconds the star will start to move. A process known as
Autokinesis.
As the picture gets closer the aircraft will disappear and then re-appear.
Introduction
The outer and middle ear react to vibration and are solely involved in hearing. The inner ear is
divided into two parts:
Semi-circular
Ossicles Canals
Otoliths
Cochlea
Tympanic
Membrane
(Ear Drum)
Eustachian Tube
The middle ear is an air filled cavity and connected to the back of the nasal passage by the
Eustachian Tube. This tube provides the means of equalising pressure between the outer ear
and the middle ear.
Noise
Sound vibrations or pressure waves (noise) have two variable factors which directly affect any
damage to the ear:
Sound intensity is usually registered in decibels (dB). A list of sounds and their noise rating
are given below:
0 dB Threshold of hearing.
15 dB Whisper.
30 dB Conversation.
45 dB Conversation in a busy office.
60 dB An orchestra playing loud music.
90 dB Pneumatic drill.
120 dB Piston aircraft engine a few feet away.
125 dB Disco.
130 dB Jet aircraft noise a few feet away.
150 dB Jet aircraft with afterburner selected.
If the hearing system is subjected to noises in excess of 85 dB temporary hearing loss can
occur. Where there is exposure above 85 dB for more than 8 hours a day over a long period
permanent hearing loss may occur. Excessive exposure to noises above 120 dB for several
hours a day for 3-6 months will cause Noise Induced Hearing Loss (NIHL) or deafness. With
noises above 120 dB:
Conductive Deafness
This damage can often be repaired and does not necessarily result in hearing loss; if
permanent hearing loss occurs it is known as conductive deafness.
Cochlea
Damage to the cochlea is more serious and can be irreversible. Cochleal implants are
possible and these return some of the hearing loss. The cochlea is full of sensitive
membranes connected to nerve ends which respond to vibrations. This vibration generates
movement in the nerve impulses which the brain translates as sound.
If the membranes in the cochlea are “over vibrated” then they can be permanently damaged.
These hairy membranes are bent over permanently and are unable to recover. High
frequency acuity is usually the first area of the auditory range to be lost; known as high tone
deafness.
Hearing protection is simple and should be used by pilots. The effects of jet engines,
engineering sheds, car noise, discotheques or even personal stereos can damage the
hearing. Ear defenders (ear muffs) or ear plugs are very effective in attenuating (weakening)
noise:
Presbycusis
Presbycusis is the loss of hearing that gradually occurs in most individuals as they grow older.
Hearing loss is a common disorder associated with aging. About 30-35% of adults between
the ages of 65 and 75 years have some hearing loss.
Age reduces the effectiveness of the auditory system; high frequency acuity is usually
affected first.
Vibration
Vibration affects both the visual and psychomotor performance. Where frequencies between
1 – 20 Hz are experienced the following physical symptoms may occur:
1 – 4 Hz Breathing problems
4 – 10 Hz Possible chest and stomach pains
8 – 12 Hz Lumbar region pains
10 – 20 Hz Headaches and possible eyestrain
¾ The semi-circular canals which detect angular accelerations of the body, and
¾ The otolith organs, the utricle and saccule, which detect linear acceleration or
deceleration.
There are three fluid filled semi-circular canals in each ear. The canals are set in three planes
at right angles to each other and are named the Lateral Canal, the Anterior Canal and the
Posterior Canal.
SEMICIRCULAR
CANALS
AUDITORY
NERVE
SACCULE
COCHLEA
At the base of each canal is a sensory organ, the cupola. The cupola is a saucer shaped
valve anchored at one end to the semi-circular canal, detecting movements of the fluid it
contains. These movements are turned into electrical signals - since there are 3 canals at
right angles the brain can use these signals to give 3-dimensional information to help control
balance and tell us which way up we are.
During any lateral motion the fluid in the canal begins to move. The cupula is then deflected in
the direction of fluid movement.
When rotation stops the fluid within the canals, because of the inertia, will cause a deflection
of the cupula in the opposite direction.
Since the semi-circular canals are at right angles to one another the forces of acceleration in
yaw, pitch and roll can be detected.
In the absence of visual cues, the brain will interpret these stimuli as:
¾ Acceleration as movement
¾ Simple acceleration
¾ Changes of acceleration
¾ Constant velocity
In general terms, the semi-circular canals sense any angular movement by the body.
Otoliths
The otoliths are sensitive to linear movement and the force of gravity. The two Otoliths,
positioned below the semi-circular canals in the inner ear are made of calcium carbonate.
Movement in a linear sense can give a false impression of climbing or descending.
The Leans
A term used to describe a false sensation of bank when the aircraft is, in level flight. This
illusion can occur in both VFR and IFR flight:
Somatogravic Illusion
Somatogravic illusions occur when the Otoliths are stimulated by a linear acceleration. When
standing still the perception is that gravity acts vertically down. In the Somatogravic Illusion
any accelerating force can cloud this perception.
When short term linear acceleration is experienced then the pilot can easily distinguish
between that and gravity. If the acceleration is long term, as an aircraft accelerating, the brain
is unable to distinguish between the resultant acceleration and the acceleration due to gravity.
The acceleration is combined with that of gravity to give a resultant force.
Force (F)
Resultant (R)
Gravity (G)
During a prolonged visual turn the pilot knows that the aircraft is turning because of the visual
clues given by the instruments and the visual horizon. If the visual clues are taken away, the
pilot will still sense the turn because of the stimulation of the fluid in the semi-circular canals.
As soon as a steady turn is achieved the fluid in the semi-circular canals reaches an
equilibrium and the cupola returns to the normal position. The pilot loses all sense of a turn
and the perception is that the aircraft is flying straight and level.
R
G
Where:
F Inertial force of radial acceleration
G Gravity
R Resultant force
Perceived
Resultant
Force
R
G
Where the speed is linear and there is no acceleration the pilot will sense the forces below.
Up
Down
G G G
Acceleration
Up
Pitch Up
F
F F
R
R G Down R G
G
Where:
F Inertial Force due to Acceleration/Deceleration
G Gravity
R Resultant Force
Even a brief acceleration, such as a catapult launch (5g for 2-3 seconds), can give rise to an
apparent nose-up attitude of 5°, which may take a minute or more to die away.
Conversely, during a sustained deceleration such as applying airbrakes, the aircraft may
appear to pitch down.
Deceleration
Up
Pitch Down
F F
Down F
R G
G R
G R
The somatogravic illusion can occur during take-off or on a missed approach and is a
particular danger at night or in poor visibility. The natural response of any pilot is to counteract
the pitch up sensation by pitching the aircraft nose down. This increases the acceleration
because of the unloading of stick forces and the sensation becomes worse. The more the
pitch down the greater the sensation of pitch up and hence the worsening of the illusion.
Note: If an aircraft is fitted with an air driven artificial horizon, as the aircraft
accelerates, the indications given will support the somatogravic illusion ie a pitch up
indication.
G-Excess Illusion
A sensation of angular movement can be induced in a turning aircraft. The movement of the
head in a turn when looking down at the instrument side panel can induce a tumbling
sensation. Neither the movement, whether forward or backward, nor the rate, is consistent
between individuals. Experiments have shown that a forward head movement in pitch made
during a pull up from a dive produces a sensation of tumbling forward in pitch. The illusion
occurs because of:
The apparent movement and transient displacement of light sources in the external visual
scene may be interpreted by the aviator as a change in aircraft attitude, Alternatively, the
apparent movement of an isolated light may be misinterpreted as the light of another aircraft.
In normal flight the lights of the runway appear to be below the aircraft.
Horizontal
As the aircraft accelerates the resultant force gives the illusory movement of the lights
upwards. The pilot may assume this is a nose down change in attitude and counteract with a
pitch up to what he believes is a safe attitude. The perception is in the opposite direction to
that of the somatogravic illusion but is produced by the same change in the direction of the
resultant force vector.
ACCELERATION
Apparent upward
motion of lights
Elevator Illusions
Visual illusions can occur when there is a change in the magnitude of the vertical forces.
These are termed Elevator Illusions, as they were first experienced in the high speed lifts built
in America in the 1920’s. In an updraught the gravity vector increases and there is a
sensation of moving up. This is confirmed by an apparent up movement of the visual field.
The converse happens in a downdraught.
Vertigo is defined as an illusory sense of turning. Unfortunately, the term has now become
synonymous with spatial disorientation. Somatogravic and oculogravic refer to linear motion,
for angular or rotating motion the terms somatogyral and oculogyral are used:
Somatogyral Illusion
The semi-circular canals sense angular acceleration. During a prolonged turning manoeuvre
at constant angular speed such as:
¾ A co-ordinated turn
¾ A sustained roll, or
¾ A spin
Roll Right
Cupola
Angular Cupola Returns to
Motion Starts Deflection Normal
Position
The initial sensation of a right turn will be lost after approximately 15-30 seconds. This
depends upon:
Figures given by the USAF state that, for a typical spin pilots will be unable to perceive
rotation by purely vestibular means after 15-30 seconds. Spin direction can be determined
from the blurred view of the outside world or by checking cockpit instruments.
Roll Left
Cupola
Recovery Cupola Returns to
Starts Deflection Normal
Position
The sensation of turn in the recovery is in the opposite direction to that of the spin. This
illusion occurs when the pilot is deciding whether the rotational component of the spin has
ceased so that the recovery can be completed. The only reliable means of detection is
reference to the visual references or instruments. If the rotation has been fast vision may
have been degraded. It normally takes a pilot several seconds after the spin has ceased, for
full visual acuity to be restored.
The presence of false sensations and impaired vision can cause problems in the spin
recovery. The pilot may sense that the spin has stopped before the full recovery is complete.
If the pilot tries to pull the aircraft out of the dive then the aircraft may be overstressed.
After recovering correctly, the pilot may make believe that the spin is now in the opposite
direction. By attempting a recovery the aircraft may re-enter the original spin. This may result
in a graveyard spin, the aircraft repeating the cycle several times.
Oculogyral Illusions
Where impairment of visual acuity is caused by rotation, the semi circular canals may pass
illusory signals to disorientate the pilot. These take the form of apparent motion and errors in
the position of visual objects.
Not a problem in well defined visual conditions, but if external cues are poor, illusions can
persist for a few minutes. When the rotational movement has stopped a light that can be seen
clearly will appear to rotate with the observer.
Complex motion will stimulate more than one semi-circular canal simultaneously. This can
cause interactive sensations causing spatial disorientation. Interactive illusions involving the
Head movements made during the initial part of a turn, do not give any false sensations,
because the semi-circular canals sense the movement correctly. During this time, each canal
senses the angular velocity correctly. The imposed rotation and the angular motion of the
head are sensed correctly.
Any movement of the head after this initial period can result in the cross-coupling of the
senses and the illusion occurs. Turning the head to change a radio frequency or Squawk is a
common cause of Coriolis.
Pressure Vertigo
Pressure Vertigo is caused by pressure changes within the middle ear normally when clearing
the ears in the climb or in the descent. The vertigo sensed is intense, with blurring of vision
and apparent movement of the visual field. The duration is short and will last no longer than
10-15 seconds.
Summary of Disorientation
Prevention
Aircraft Factors:
Instrumentation:
Quality of displays.
Instruments which can be read quickly and un-ambiguously by night and day.
Instruments adequate for manoeuvres and conditions expected.
Reliability.
Clear malfunction indication,
Use of head up displays to assist transfer from external to internal cues and
reduce head movements.
Display should reduce perceptual conflict when external cues are uncertain.
Flightdeck:
Preventative Advice:
Do Not Fly:
¾ With an upper respiratory tract infection (common cold, ear or sinus infection).
¾ Under the influence of drugs or alcohol.
¾ When mentally or physically debilitated for any reason.
Make your first flight after a period off flying a simple VMC sortie. Experience does not make
you immune.
¾ You can dispel persistent minor illusions (eg leans) by redirecting attention to
other aspects of flying.
¾ When suddenly confronted with strong illusory sensations:
¾ Get on instruments
¾ Maintain instrument reference and correct scan pattern
¾ Control aircraft to make instruments display desired flight pattern
¾ Don’t mix external visual and instrument references
¾ Seek help if disorientation persists, from co-pilot, ground control, etc.
Introduction
The effects of high altitude have already been detailed in an earlier chapter. The aim of this
chapter is to detail the effects of other high altitude problems such as:
Radiation
JAR OPS lays out rules with respect to Cosmic Radiation. The only aircraft affected is
Concorde.
All aeroplanes operated above 15 000 m (49 000 ft) — radiation indicator All
aeroplanes intended to be operated above 15 000 m (49 000 ft) carry equipment to
measure and indicate continuously the dose rate of total cosmic radiation being
received and the cumulative dose on each flight. The display unit of the equipment
shall be readily visible to a flight crew member.
Cosmic radiation consists of particulate radiation and photons produced when charged
particles interact with the nitrogen, oxygen and other constituents of the earth's atmosphere.
These charged particles enter the solar system and produce secondary radiation known to us
as cosmic radiation. The sun continuously ejects charged particles. In normal conditions the
charged particle from the sun is too weak to enter the atmosphere and has no effect on the
public transport flight crew. At certain times, the solar particles have enough energy to
penetrate the atmosphere and substantially increase the dose equivalent rate at these
altitudes.
The earth's magnetic field deflects a large percentage of the charged particles approaching
the earth. This protection is most effective at the geomagnetic equator near the geographic
equator. At the magnetic equator the lines of force are nearly parallel to the surface of the
earth and provide a shield which repels the charged particles. Where the magnetic lines of
force are perpendicular to the surface of the earth the shielding effect is minimum. This is
found at the magnetic poles. Tests show that the dosage rate over the poles is twice that of
the equator. Most airlines operate great circle routes over the poles.
Cancer is the main risk from exposure to Cosmic Radiation. Although low, the risk for flight
crew is there. For 1000 flight crew who fly the Atlantic between London and New York for 20
years it is perceived that 6 will die because of work related cancer. In the normal population of
1000 people, approximately 250 would be expected to die of cancer.
Hereditary risk is also possible. Where a parent has been exposed to radiation it is possible
that a child will inherit any radiation induced genetic defects.
Ozone
Ozone is a highly toxic gas. In small amounts it is an irritant to the lungs. If large amounts are
inhaled then it is deadly. Stratospheric ozone is formed by the action of ultraviolet light on
oxygen. Ozone is found in large quantities around 115 000 ft. The amount of Ozone reduces
as the altitude is reduced. Below 40 000 ft there is little or no free ozone in the atmosphere.
At the altitudes that Concorde cruises it is possible, in Polar Regions, that the Ozone content
of the atmosphere can reach 1 - 2 parts per million (ppm). This Ozone still has to penetrate
the pressurized cabin. Ozone is destroyed by heat and by the catalytic action of materials
such as nickel. To totally destroy the Ozone bond the temperature required is 400°C. The air
in the cabin pressurization system is heated above this temperature thus removing the Ozone
before the air is used in the cabin.
Problems may occur when the engine power is reduced for the descent. Tests have shown
that the content of Ozone in the cabin can reach a level of no more than 0.5 ppm. The length
of exposure and the low concentration of the gas have no long lasting effect.
Humidity
Water Vapour
Water vapour is always present in the atmosphere as a gas. The concentration of this gas
varies dependent on the climate and conditions. The body needs to have a moist atmosphere
to function normally. To function correctly the lungs need to be constantly moist. The amount
of water vapour in the atmosphere is measured in terms of Relative Humidity.
Relative Humidity
Relative Humidity is the amount of water vapour present in the atmosphere and is measured
as a percentage.
Temperature is the major determining factor. Warm air can hold more water vapour than cool
air. Air at high altitudes is cold and therefore holds less water vapour than air at low altitude.
Humidity Control
Humidifiers provide a means of increasing the moisture content of the air received into the
system when operating at high altitudes. This reduces the discomfort caused by the action of
excessively dry air.
Humidifiers are normally located in the fuselage ducting just down-stream of the heating and
refrigeration equipment.
Pressurisation
Pressurised Cabins
Modern transport aircraft are pressurized to a cabin altitude of between 6000 to 8000 ft. This
gives the passenger and crew:
Most modern aircraft have a rate of climb in the order of 2000-3000 fpm, for comfort the cabin
pressure changes at a rate of about 150-300 ft/min. This allows the body to equalize pressure
slowly and comfortably as the aircraft climbs. Some people may still have problems with ears
blocking or gas expansion in the stomach and intestines. Cabin pressurisation is taken from
the engine compressor, it is then cooled and fed into the cabin. The pressure level is then set
by controlling the rate of escape of the compressed air from the cabin by means of a
barometrically operated relief valve.
Aircraft oxygen systems provide diluted or 100 percent oxygen for breathing. JAR-OPS
determines certain criteria for aircraft on high altitude flights.
Pressurized aeroplanes introduced into service on or after 1 July 1962 and intended to be
operated at flight altitudes where the atmospheric pressure is less than 376 hPa are equipped
with a device to provide positive warning to the pilot of any dangerous loss of pressurization.
Oxygen Regulator
Flight crew use an oxygen regulator to control the flow of oxygen into the oxygen mask. This
reduces the oxygen pressure to a breathable level. Regulators may include diluter demand for
diluting the supplemental oxygen with ambient air to extend the duration of the oxygen supply
or automatic positive pressure for flights above 30 000 feet. Continuous flow regulators are
used for portable oxygen bottles and in some passenger cabin systems.
¾ A pressure gauge
¾ A flow indicator, and
¾ An air valve lever.
Most operate in the altitude range from 0 to 37 500 ft. Oxygen is delivered to the pilot in
response to breathing. The regulator provides either an air oxygen mixture, or 100 percent
oxygen, depending upon the mode of operation selected.
Oxygen masks
Flight crew use a full face mask which provides a seal to the outside atmosphere. In
conditions where cabins are filled with smoke this is thought to be essential. Passenger
oxygen masks are not as efficient. The mask delivers 100% oxygen continuously. There is no
seal to the outside atmosphere and as such there is no smoke protection.
Sleep
Introduction
The aviation industry is a 24-hour activity in order to meet the demands of the modern world.
Flight crew are required to support this 24 hour operation. With the demands of both long and
short haul operations fatigue in aviation is recognised as a serious safety concern. Fatigue
and lack of sleep may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made. Pilots routinely
experience fatigue throughout their aviation careers and many crewmembers consider it an
occupational hazard. Commercial pressure is ever increasing and these demands with the
ever present “press on itis” quickly fatigue even the most fit pilots. Sleep is a real concern
and this section outlines:
Fatigue is a danger to both the long haul and the short haul pilot. Because of its insidious
nature an individual does not initially feel the onset of fatigue. A fatigued pilot may not be
aware of the gradual and cumulative effect and consequently, may be unaware that their
performance has become degraded. Because of the slow onset the pilot may not recognize
the degradation of his performance.
A fatigued pilot loses the ability to self criticize and is more willing to accept inaccurate flying
and poor judgment. As fatigue increases, decision making skills are lost with a slowing down
of the whole thinking process. Information may have to be checked and checked again
because of these problems. Reaction time is increased, irritability and mood swings easily
block communication and hamper teamwork.
Apathy eventually sets in and the fatigued pilot becomes indifferent to the outcome of the
flight and the operational performance.
Where a person goes without sleep for up to 24 hours the effects are similar to those of
having up to 8 units of alcohol.
Vigilance Effects
Any task that requires vigilance is suspect to the effects of fatigue. Fatigue can be described
as:
Short Term Fatigue (Acute) The effects of normal everyday living. Acute fatigue
is the tiredness a person feels after physical or mental strain. Co-ordination and
Long Term Fatigue (Chronic) If sufficient recovery time is not allowed between
bouts of acute fatigue then chronic fatigue may occur. The only recovery is a
prolonged period of rest. During chronic fatigue performance and judgement can
lower to a dangerous level.
Other factors do have an effect, but the above may be taken as the main causes.
We know when we are fatigued, but can we recognize it in others. A few symptoms are listed
below:
Coffee, concentration or will power do not get rid of fatigue. They may delay the onset but the
normal result is one of worsening the effect.
Chronobiology is the scientific name for the study of biorhythms. The human body follows
certain biological rhythms some of which have a period of 24 hours, these are termed
One of the most studied of Circadian Rhythms, that is useful to pilots, is the sleep/wake
rhythm. The body's temperature is approximated at 37°C. During a 24 hour period it cycles
between 36.2°C and 36.9°. The sleep/wake cycle is bound to this change in body
temperature:
In the diagram below the time of minimum temperature and maximum temperature are
annotated on the body temperature cycle. Note that there is a dip in the temperature after the
lunch time period.
Body
Temperature
Minimum
36.5°C
0500 Time of Day
Maximum
1800
Post Lunch
Dip
This sleep/wake cycle is controlled by the body’s internal clock. In America deprivation tests
were carried out on an individual in a room with no time clues such as light or dark. Initially
allowed a clock the individual was asked to rise at 9 am each day. After 3 days the clock was
removed. Initially the person woke at 9 am. On subsequent days the waking time was delayed
by one hour – on day 4 waking at 10 am, day 5 at 11 am etc.
0 6 12 18 24
TIME OF DAY
The circadian rhythm of the body has adjusted to 25 hours, a condition known as free run.
The body is contracted into a 24 hour day by the constraints of our working lives. We react to
the night and day and to other time clues known as Zeitgebers (German for time giver)
The problems of the body temperature cycle and the circadian rhythms do have an affect on
the pilot.
Sleep Credit/Deficit
Using a simple system of allowing +2 points for every hour asleep and -1 point for every hour
awake we can show how easy it is for the body to go into sleep debt. The system is not
infallible, as it does not take into account:
During a normal night if we assume that an individual has 8 hours sleep then when they wake
they will have amassed +16 points. If that individual then stays awake for 16 hours then they
will lose –16 points. Thus finishing the day with 0 points. On subsequent days the same
occurs and the points score never goes below the 0 line – the individual is in sleep credit.
+8
SLEEP
CREDIT
0
00 00 0800 1600 0000 0800 1600 0000 0800 1600 0000
SLEEP
DEFICIT
-8
-16
0
00 00 0800 1600 0000 0800 1600 0000 0800 1600 0000
SLEEP
DEFICIT
-8
-16
By the time the third shift is started the sleep credit is 0 before they start work. Now translate
this to the pilot on a flight in the early hours of the morning with little to do but monitor the
autopilot. Most pilots use coffee to stop sleep but this is only a short term measure.
The precise functions of sleep are not fully understood. Experiments have shown that sleep
has a restorative function for both the body and the mind. Sleep has been investigated
extensively over the last sixty years and much is known of its nature.
The recording of these three measurements has shown scientists that the body initially goes
through four linked stages of sleep termed quiet sleep. During these 4 stages there is a
gradual slowing of the brain’s activity as the body goes into a deeper sleep. Stages 3 and 4 of
quiet sleep are known as slow-wave sleep because the EEG records little or no brain activity.
Following the Quiet Sleep is another stage of sleep called REM (rapid eye movement) sleep.
Also known as Paradoxical sleep. During this sleep:
¾ The EEG records similar brainwaves to those recorded when someone is awake
¾ The EOG records rapid eye movements (hence REM sleep) as if searching for
something
¾ The EMG records total muscle relaxation; the mind is awake but the body is
asleep – hence the term paradoxical sleep
Quiet sleep is thought to be body restorative and that REM sleep allows the brain to store
what has been learned during that day and also to check and create new neural pathways.
The evidence supporting this theory is that children (and adults who are in learning situations)
show a higher REM sleep percentage than average.
Each full cycle of sleep takes approximately 90 minutes, successive cycles showing
increasing amounts of REM sleep. In general, during a normal 8 hours sleep, the first four
hours are mainly slow-wave sleep (body-restorative) and the latter four hours mainly REM
sleep (mind-restorative). If the first four hours (slow-wave) or the second four hours (REM)
sleep are interrupted then both are made up on the next night.
CYCLE
STAGES 1-4
SLEEP
REM SLEEP
TIME OF DAY 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6
Sleep Disorders
¾ Microsleep
¾ Insomnia
¾ Sleepwalking and sleeptalking
¾ Sleep Apnoea
¾ Narcolepsy
Any loss of sleep will begin a sleep debt. Fitful sleep overnight may also produce the same
effect. Sleep debt is only cured by sleep.
Microsleeps are uncontrolled spontaneous episodes of sleep that last for a few seconds up to
a few minutes. During a microsleep a person becomes detached from reality and will be
unresponsive to outside influences.
Insomnia
Symptoms include:
Common in childhood and less common but present in some adults are sleepwalking
(somnambulism) and sleeptalking (somniloquism). Neither are a health hazard but excessive
cases need investigation.
Sleep Apnoea
A condition which affects people who snore excessively, especially those who are overweight.
During sleep the snoring affects the back passages of the throat and air can be cut off from
the lungs for a short period. The person effectively stops breathing. In extreme cases a
person could die. The condition is treated by the use of a mask which the sufferer wears
during the night. Air is passed through the mask by a compressor which ensures a positive
pressure in the throat at all times.
Narcolepsy
The inability to stay awake. Sufferers have the tendency to fall asleep at any time whether
they are tired or not.
Sleep Hygiene
Individuals require differing amounts of sleep. The older you are the less sleep you require.
People in learning situations do require a regular sleep pattern. When studying the pressures
are such that late night study or worry can disrupt the sleep pattern. But a few helpful hints
are given below:
Most people feel tired during their waking hours. Napping is a way of refreshing the body
quickly and efficiently. In experiments it has been shown that a short nap can be as
restorative as a longer period of sleep.
Drugs
To sleep or to stay awake some pilots will resort to drugs. To stay awake the most common
drug used is Caffeine; the antidote for sleepiness being a strong, black coffee. To relax and
sleep alcohol is used.
Sleeping Tablets
With normal medication, cold and flu remedies induce drowsiness because of their nervous
system depressant action. Some drugs can remain in the system for hours and affect
performance the next day. The half-life of a drug is an important factor that pilots must take
account of. The half-life of a drug is the time it takes for a drug to decay to one half of its peak
concentration. Half-life figures are not available publicly. In order to ensure that any drug you
are using is safe always consult a GP before use. Sleeping tablets have a long half-life and
can affect a waking person for a few hours after rising out of bed. Newer sleeping drugs are
always coming onto the market and before use a doctor should be consulted. Contrary to a lot
of opinion, sleeping tablets are only meant as a short term sleeping problem fix.
Melatonin
Abnormal shift work can result in a cumulative sleep debt. Longhaul pilots have the added
problem of their body adjusting to new time zones. New Zeitgebers confuse the body ie new
light/dark, new meal cues as time zones are crossed. For the long haul pilot it is better to be
travelling westwards than eastwards. Westwards travel involves a lengthening of the day and
The body’s Circadian Rhythms adjust at different rates at between 1 – 1½ hours per day for
every hour’s difference in time zone. The result of this slow resynchronization is that you may
find yourself beginning the next leg of your flight before your biorhythms have resynchronized.
It is estimated that some long haul pilots spend their entire flying careers suffering from
Circadian Dysrhythmia and only adjust fully when on extended periods of leave or illness.
Method 1 Stay awake for 2 hours after landing; then rest/sleep for 4 hours; then
sleep for 8 hours before reporting for duty.
Method 2 If the lay over is less than 24 hours then remain on the original time
zone cues.
Stress
Introduction
Stress affects all human beings. It is the perception of what the stress is that determines
whether the human copes. Overstress a person and their ability to reason and function
correctly is reduced. Not enough stress will cause boredom and complacency. The right
amount of stress and optimum performance levels are achieved.
Stress
The strain and pressure that is exerted on a human can be related to the scientific use of the
term where effectively a body is bent and eventually breaks if overstressed.
Stress is present in all humans. It is important to accept that in all walks of life that we all
suffer some stress whether good or bad. The pilot needs to be aware of the problems of
stress and how to cope with the rigours it puts the body through. This helps the person
recognise the negative impact on performance caused by overstress such as:
¾ Fatigue
¾ Personal problems, and
¾ High workload
Remember, the pilot is his own worst enemy. Peer pressure over the years has instilled in
most pilots a fear that admission of overload is a weakness.
The stress that the body is subjected to can be broken down into three areas. Remember that
these problems may be singular or cumulative, for simplicity we look at each separately.
Physical Environment we live in; conditions such as, noise, vibration and
stages of hypoxia
Emotional The domestic, social and emotional factors related to living. Work
related activity such as leadership or decision making.
Chronic Stress The long term demands of a person’s lifestyle such as work,
health or domestic security
Acute Stress Short term stress caused by the issues of the day.
Effects of Stress
Acute stress is dealt with by the body immediately. Adrenaline is released into the
bloodstream and charges the body:
A condition known as the "fight or flight" syndrome. This allows the person to react quickly to
a given situation.
Chronic stress is different, the body has to take a long term view of the stress that it is being
put under. Chronic stress can make a situation that we normally cope with difficult. Chronic
stress will exaggerate the effects of acute stress and in the long term threatens a person’s
health.
Stress is Cumulative
Long term stress over a period of time can affect the individual’s ability to perform in stressful
situations. In a pilot this can result in:
¾ Inaccurate flying
¾ Communication difficulties
¾ Leadership and command problems
A simple model like the one shown below can help describe the effects of stress.
Stress
Stressor Stress Mediation
Reaction
Where:
The interaction of stressors and the resultant stress reactions are not straightforward. We all
react differently to different stresses in life. What seems minor to one person may be a life
crisis in another.
To misquote Kipling:
“if you can keep your head when all around you are losing theirs, you don't understand the
problem!”
Any stress reaction is related directly to the evaluation of the stress and the perceived ability a
person has in coping. Solely psychological these are our stress mediators and can be good
or bad depending on our perception of the problem.
Stress
Stressor Stress Mediation
Reaction
Change Physical
Coping Skills
Frustration Psychological
Perception of Stress
Conflict Emotional
Predictability
Pressure
Boredom
Trauma
Listed are some of the major stressors in life. These pass through a mediation phase that
then is felt by the body as a stress reaction.
Mediation should lessen the effect of stress. As we learn to cope with the R/T and flying the
aircraft at the same time both become inbuilt into our sub-conscious and are no longer
worried about.
Example Assume that you are on an approach to London Heathrow. The weather is
poor. The cloud base is on the ground, the crosswind is on limits.
One week later you are flying into London Heathrow in exactly the same
conditions.
If you succeeded last time stress mediation will have taken place and you will
not be so worried about the approach and most probably you will make a
good approach again.
If you failed last time your brain will be telling you that you failed last time and
that you can’t do it. In this case mediation is worse and you will most likely
fail.
Psychological Stressors
The stressors that are related in the simple stress model can be experienced as shown
below.
Conflict Domestic or work, conflict can make the life of the sufferer
miserable.
¾ Medicals
¾ Training and line checks
¾ Time schedules and late passengers
¾ Other crew members
¾ Company pressure
¾ Fatigue etc
Effects of Stress
Stress affects our motivation and performance. Small amounts of stress are needed to make
the body move. This can be related in a simple performance/ arousal graph. As the amount
of stress increases we are initially:
Optimum
Arousal
Performance
Loss
Performance
Low
Arousal
Arousal
¾ In a low arousal state. This can be thought of as just waking up or being over
fatigued. The central nervous system is not functioning fully and any information
processing is slow and inaccurate. Motivation to react to stimuli is low and the
body is inattentive. Think about what your actions are when you wake to the
alarm clock. Get up straight away or press the snooze button?
¾ As the day progresses the arousal increases as does the performance. Under
optimum conditions the central nervous system is functioning correctly. To carry
out complicated tasks the body needs to be in this state of optimum arousal:
¾ One where a task will stimulate and interest the brain but not be so
complicated so as to push us into an overload situation.
Stress reactions are the physical, psychological or emotional response to the stressor. The
reactions are not independent of each other but can be interrelated. For simplicity each is
discussed separately.
Think of what happens to you when you have a sudden shock. Pulse and breathing become
rapid, possible sweating and trembling. The fight or flight syndrome is an animal reaction to
danger and results in the release of certain hormones (Adrenaline and Nor-adrenaline) into
the bloodstream. The commands to release these hormones come from the Sympathetic
Branch of the Autonomic Nervous System. As the danger passes, the Parasympathetic
Branch calms the body down.
The long term effects of stress are better explained by the General Adaptation Syndrome.
Resistance
Alarm Exhaustion
The Resistance Stage Once mediation has taken place the body prepares a
resistance phase. This is a time limited phase as the body can only cope with so
much.
Stress is related as the way that a person feels and responds to a situation. These feelings
are divided into three simple categories:
Domestic Stress
The one stress we all suffer from at some stage in life. By using the LCU table you can
determine how life is affecting you. Domestic stress does affect the workplace no matter who
you are.
The body reacts in differing ways to cope with stressors. Both psychological and physiological
responses are made:
Coping Skills
To cope with stress the person needs to accept that a stress is causing problems. The next
stage is to choose a coping strategy that best helps. Some coping is carried out
subconsciously. If the sub-conscious does not work then there are strategies that can be
adopted. To cope with a stress the person must accept that they are under stress and want
to do something about it.
Set Goals Find the stressors and stress reactions that need to be
attacked
Evaluation Check to see if the plan is working. If not, try again or revise
the plan.
Religion The help of the church and someone to talk to is a good way of
helping with stress
Counselling Not only professional counselling but talking with a friend can help.
Stress Management
The way that a person decides to cope with a stress. To carry out stress management the
person must first accept that stress is causing a problem.
It is easy to recognize the signs of stress in oneself, but what about others?
If a person does not manage stress, stress will manage the person. Life events do not create
stress; the perception of the stress is created in our minds. The source must be identified
before it can be addressed and reduced or eliminated.
Make a plan and stick to it. The aim is to control or to eliminate the effects of stress. Be
realistic and practical. This may call for you to be flexible and willing to adapt. Rest is
essential as a tired mind and body give quickly. Humour and perseverance help.
Introduction
The nervous system is a communication system which allows the body to adapt itself to an
ever changing environment. It includes:
¾ The eye
¾ The ear
¾ The organs of taste in the mouth
¾ The epithelium in the nose which is sensitive to smell
¾ The sense organs of the skin and muscles which are sensitive to touch
Cell Body
Axon
The basic unit of the nervous system is the neurone (nerve). The neurone consists of:
¾ A cell body
¾ Dendrites which conduct nerve messages to the cell body
¾ The axon, a slender thread which conducts nerve messages away from the cell to
the central nervous system
The brain and spinal cord make up the central nervous system, a collection of neurones
connected to each other by dendrites and axons.
The brain is the master controller of the body, more complex than any computer. Consisting
of a mass of nervous tissue the brain is responsible for:
¾ Our senses
¾ How we learn
¾ Our memory
Specific areas of the brain monitor and control the different areas of the body. The Cerebrum,
the largest division of the brain, is where information processing occurs. The Cerebellum is
the structure of the brain that helps a person maintain their balance while standing. Below the
cerebrum and cerebellum lies the brain stem; this connects the brain to the spinal cord.
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is nearly cylindrical and runs down the middle of the vertebrae of the spine.
Peripheral nerves emerge in pairs from the spinal cord and pass to all parts of the body. Like
telephone cables they are capable of relaying both incoming and outgoing signals. These
nerves can be grouped into three divisions:
¾ Sensory nerves
¾ Motor nerves
¾ Autonomic nervous system
Sensory Nerves
Sensory nerve fibres carry information received by the senses to the brain. Sensory nerves
are designed to detect stimuli from:
¾ Touch
¾ Pressure
¾ Pain
¾ Temperature
¾ Position
Motor Nerves
Motor nerves carry the orders sent by the brain to the muscles. The motor system controls the
body's motor functions or more simply, movement. Motor nerves are attached to the muscles
of the body, impulses are sent from the brain which signal the muscle to contract or extend,
placing the skeleton into the position required. If more control is needed then more motor
nerves are required eg in finger control. The majority of the motor nerves are voluntary. This
means that a person must think about moving a muscle.
The autonomic nervous system supplies those organs of the body that are not under the
control of the will eg contraction of intestinal muscles to push food along. There are two
divisions of the autonomic system:
¾ Sympathetic system
¾ Parasympathetic system
The two systems effectively work against each other sending opposite signals to the organs:
¾ If the heart is beating too slowly the sympathetic system will send signals to
increase the heart rate
Introduction
During the day a person makes hundreds of decisions. Flying an aircraft is no different, the
pilot must use his decision making skills continuously. An American diplomat once said:
The pilot, unfortunately, cannot follow this course of action as the aircraft will eventually run
out of fuel. The use of information and decision making is a complicated process. The neural
pathway through the brain where information is received, a decision taken and a response
executed are too complicated for this course. A simple model of what is called Human
Information Processing (HIP) follows.
Sense
Stimulus Receptor
Sight Eyes
Sound Ears
Taste Tongue
Touch Proprioreceptive System
This raw energy is unusable to the brain and needs to be converted (transduced) into
electrical impulses.
Transduction
Iconic Memory Visual sensory store which lasts for 0.5 to 1 second
Echoic Memory Auditory sensory store which lasts for 2 to 8 seconds
Once there is enough processing capacity in the brain then the information is passed on to
the area of perception.
Attention is paid during each of the following processes. The amount of attention that can be
paid to each piece of information is limited as will be seen later in this chapter.
Perception
Perception is the process by which the brain recognises and interprets the transduced
stimulus which has been held in the short term sensory memory. In the perceptive stage the
mind starts to build up a mental model.
This entails building a 3-D model which builds pictures in our minds of:
¾ Where we are
¾ Where we are going
¾ Where we have been
It is true to say that our mental model is our conceptual way of understanding:
¾ What an object is
¾ How that object works
¾ What effect that object is going to have in our life
Transduction
Unfortunately, once we have reached the perceptive process it is difficult for us to change our
minds. It is at this stage that the human being is most likely to fall into the problem of
Confirmation Bias.
Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias is part of the human error process that occurs when a false perception is
made. It is a situation where a person has made a decision and only believes information that
confirms that decision. Any contradictory information is ignored.
For example:
In a two engined aircraft where there is a burning smell in the cockpit. If one engine is
shut down and the burning smell goes then it might be fair to assume that the correct
engine has been shut down.
If in the above case the conditioning system is taking air from both engines then the
burning smell might have gone for another reason and the incorrect engine shut
down. In this case the pilot may be tempted to believe that he has shut the correct
engine down and Confirmation Bias has been started.
Decision and
Response
If an immediate response is required then the brain replies on impulse using the “ultra short
memory”. This memory can retain sensory inputs for about a second. This does depend on
external factors such as strength of impression.
In the ultra-short term memory, material is processed very quickly according to its current
importance. Importance or priorities will vary from person to person and with the situation.
Cocktail party effect is one way that the brain uses this ultra short memory. A crowded Friday
night bar where you are in conversation with friends. You are concentrating on your group
when a person behind you says your name. Without altering expression you immediately
change your attention to the other group.
Both terms are frequently used. Consider the following. If a pilot hears a warning bell on a
flight deck then they will probably react in one of two ways:
¾ Switch off the sound in which case an immediate response has been made.
¾ Hold the information in memory whilst a search is made in order to identify the
problem.
Transduction
Decision and
Response
When the brain accesses the short or long term memory system the short term memory will
store information for a short time.
Used to retain information that is not needed in the long term memory, the short term memory
only retains information for a limited period and its capacity is limited to:
¾ 7± 2 unrelated items of information that can be held for approximately 10-20 seconds
unless active rehearsal is used to retain the information.
¾ A process called “chunking” can increase the number of items.
Short term memory is prone to interference and any interruption can and will cause the loss of
information.
For example:
You need to phone a person but do not know the number. You look it up in the phone
book and start rehearsing it as you go to the phone. Before getting to the phone you
are interrupted for about 30 seconds by something. The short term memory loses the
phone number and you have to start all over again.
Environment Capture
The short term memory is prone to a problem known as environment capture. A frequently
operated skill in the same environment (a habit) where the pilot has not made a conscious
decision to operate the skill.
For example:
When flying in the traffic pattern. Pilots who delay undercarriage selection somehow
have this information dislodged from the working memory especially if the delay is by
some form of interruption like ATC instructions. The event will generate a standard
response from what becomes a boring activity, flying several uneventful circuits. The
pilot may make the final gear down call because he always makes it at this time. The
mental model is completed and the pilot believes he has selected gear down. Only
when the aircraft scrapes down the runway does the pilot realise that he has failed to
select the gear.
Semantic Memory This is the store associated with what we know and do: the
understanding of a word; how to fly an aircraft; facts - London is the capital of
England.
This area of the brain stores all the information that is learnt, including that
information we will never use. If a word or fact is forgotten it is because the neural
pathways are forgotten, not that the information is lost. The information is stored in an
area of the brain that has not been accessed for a long time.
In eye witness reports episodic memory can have problems. Think about the
reporting of aircraft crashes:
Other problems occur with the “expert” witness. A pilot witnessing an aircraft crash
has expectations of what was happening in the cockpit and will relate these as what
he saw. A non-expert witness is more likely to give a better account. Children give the
best eye witness reports as their episodic memory has not yet developed.
Motor Memory
When a new action is learnt then it initially seems difficult. Like riding a two wheel bike for the
first time. Piloting is exactly the same, initial impressions of flying, ATC etc seem to make the
task impossible when training is started. Like most actions which are well practised flying is
eventually executed by a motor programme. Non conscious actions are used to fly the aircraft
whilst talking on the radio uses conscious thought through the decision and response
channel. The motor programme is by-passing the central decision and response channel.
Decision and
Response
Response
Execution
A motor programme can be used when an action has been well practised and is repetitive.
The performance of this action becomes automatic and no conscious thought need be
applied. The process by which motor programmes operate is complex but as soon as the
flying becomes difficult eg landing, the central decision and response channel has to be used
to fly the aircraft.
Action Slip
The advantages of using motor memory is obvious, as it extends our capabilities. Action slip
is an error process that is caused by the brain using motor memory.
For example:
Pouring a cup of tea, whilst watching TV, and then adding sugar to the cup. If there is
some distraction on the TV we can find ourselves pouring tea into the sugar bowl.
The action of pouring the tea is being carried out by a motor programme, with no
conscious thought being applied. With the distraction the process of pouring the tea
carries on and we start pouring the tea into the sugar bowl because the brain thinks it
has progressed to the sugar stage, or:
BAC 1-11; My first officer was flying the leg. After T/O I carried out the usual checks. Brakes,
U/C up, PAX notices off etc. Weather lovely, blue sky. W/V 270/18, temp +30C! At 1500 ft I
Response Execution
Once the memory has been used the brain has to make a response. How appropriate the
response depends upon the pressure that a person perceives that he is under. The following
apply to decision making in all walks of life:
¾ If a delay is dangerous then a person will feel that they are under pressure to
make a quick decision
¾ Quick decisions are usually made before all information is processed
¾ Where there is stress then a fast but less accurate response is made
¾ Sound stimulates the mind better than sight
¾ Where a person plans for the expected then it is possible that if there is any
change then pressure will make the brain reply with the planned response
A crew planning for runway 13 from take off to landing. Only when they
contact tower is runway 31 given as the landing runway yet they still land on
runway 13.
¾ An old person may react more slowly than a young person yet the response is
usually more accurate
Attention
Selective Attention
Selective attention is where inputs are sampled and given a priority. Detailed processing can
only be carried out on one complex task. If there are too many demands on the attention then
information will be lost.
Divided Attention
Divided attention can be used to carry out two tasks that do not overload the HIP.
Motor programmes, which are run with no conscious thought, can be consciously checked by
a pilot who diverts his attention away from the major task in order to check a sequence of
operation.
Stress focuses the attention processes. Thus to complete a task, under stress, we focus
entirely on that task in hand. This is always to the detriment of other problems.
Response Behaviour
Once a response has to be made the brain will use one of the three response behaviours.
Skill based behaviours are procedures acquired through practice and that are executed
without conscious thought. Skill based behaviour is obtained in two distinct manners:
¾ Concentration on the individual parts of a skill, giving them attention, until practice
makes the individual processes second nature.
¾ Practising the whole skill with concentration on the final product. Eventually a
motor programme is made which carries out the skill based response.
¾ The skill is not easily explained to others. This may cause difficulties if a pilot
wishes to pass on the skill.
¾ If the skill needs to be modified then the component parts must be broken down
and re-learnt.
Because of the uses of motor programmes in skill based response a pilot operating a skill
makes the decision to do so and then has the attention to monitor the task. But if a distraction
is introduced then the pilot may make an inadvertent operation. Environment Capture can
also occur in skill based response.
All actions need to be consciously checked, especially those that are using sub-conscious
thought.
The errors of skill do not normally happen to the student pilot; they happen to a pilot with
experience.
Rule based behaviour uses the short and long term memory to carry out actions. Rule based
behaviour is stored in the long term memory and involves the use of the central decision and
response channel. By using conscious thought the error problems that occur with motor
memory skills are bypassed.
Simulator, procedural training or similar work that involves the use of Flight Reference Cards
and checklists or plates are examples of this type of behaviour. The only problem relates to
the well known saying:
Knowledge based behaviour is based on the reasoning powers that a person can use to
arrive at a decision. The pilot is able to use his own thinking processes to evaluate and then
reach a decision.
Feedback
When carrying out a task then we must continuously monitor the consequences of our
actions. To enable the information to be processed, both internal and external feedback
mechanisms are used.
Introduction
“Stay ahead of the Aircraft”. How many flight instructors have used this term to tell a student
to think about his flying? Does he mean that the student’s Situational Awareness is lacking?
Why does a well motivated crew, in an aircraft fitted with all the latest equipment, fail to
perform at a critical point during a flight?
Situational Awareness
It is difficult to define personal or crew situational awareness. Below are some definitions that
other people have used:
The above definitions are really definitions for the single crew. For the crew:
To help build situational awareness we need to build a 3 D model which pictures in our mind:
¾ Where we are
¾ Where we are going, and
¾ Where we have been
There are numerous factors that affect Situational Awareness. The diagram below lists but a
few:
Task Crew
Aircraft
Intent
Dynamics of Goals
Standard Behaviour
the Situation Constraints Individual Behaviour
Performance
Resources
System Status
Sensors
Avionics
Situational
Awareness
The mental model that a pilot prepares is created by both experience and expectation. It is
therefore, a perception of events. The problem with perception – has the pilot picked up the
reality of the situation or is it imagination?
To ensure that the crew situational awareness is equal all crewmembers must remember that:
There is a need for an accurate perception of the factors and conditions that affect the aircraft
and flight crew before, during and after the flight.
¾ Fatigue
¾ Loss of sleep
¾ Boredom
Arousal Defined as “to awaken from sleep”. In the aviation sense it can be
taken as maintaining preparedness for a task. As seen in the chapter on stress a high
level of arousal is needed for optimum performance. It is fair to state that a high
arousal state requires a high vigilance state. Low arousal leads to low vigilance and
very poor performance.
The pilot requires the skills of not only coping with what is happening now but with the skills of
anticipating what is going to happen in the near future. This can be broken down into three
Situational Awareness Levels:
There are limits to how much a pilot can see and hear at the same time. Monitoring is an art
where the pilot needs to be aware of the present needs and be able to ignore the unwanted.
Easy to say – difficult to act upon.
Let us look at some techniques that can move us towards this goal.
Attention is like a searchlight. It can be focussed in one direction. Attention can become so
narrow that a pilot can ignore all outside influences to ensure that he concentrates on the task
in hand. Narrowly focused attention is useful when solving difficult problems. But who is flying
the aircraft?
It is easy to fall into the problem of being sidetracked. These distractions have to be sorted
into those that matter and those that don’t. Distraction is an easy way to fall into the first
stages of an error chain.
To fall behind the task in hand is one of a pilot’s worst nightmares. In this level the pilot needs
to evaluate and comprehend the numerous inputs associated with the flying job in hand. In
addition to monitoring inputs there must be comprehension as well. This allows the pilot to
have a Situational Awareness of the task in hand.
The majority of problems in this category come from difficulties with automation. To stay on
top of the situation we must utilise all sources of information.
The pilot not only needs the awareness of what is happening now but needs to be able to
anticipate what is going to happen in the future.
This stage ensures that crews have the same awareness of a problem and can both work to
the same goal. The crew that anticipates usually stays away from the problems that high
workload situation brings.
Pilot Considerations
“What if” is the question a pilot should continuously ask. This question can help in the
management of the cockpit environment which includes Situational Awareness. Both pilots
need the knowledge of “what”, “where”, “when”, and “who” during any portion of a flight.
Briefing/Debriefing
A NASA study showed that those crews that brief and debrief a flight are much more effective
than those who don’t. Both briefing and debriefing allow pilot’s to plan the sortie. This plan is
the initial basis on which Situational Awareness is built. The brief is the initial sharing of
knowledge.
By monitoring, another crewmember’s mistakes can be quickly recognised and dealt with.
SOPs help by designating the responsibilities of both the pilot flying and the pilot non-flying.
Each pilot will have certain responsibilities but must also monitor the situation with the other
pilot.
Communication
Introduction
Information, thoughts and feelings are exchanged in a readily and clearly understood manner
Communication
Effective Communication
On the flight deck the pilots need to communicate ideas, concerns and information effectively.
How effectively this is done depends not only on the sender but the receptiveness of the
receiver. Do not assume that everything you say is clearly and immediately understood. The
opposite is often true. Hearing is not synonymous with understanding and without
understanding there is no effective communication.
Effective communication is vital for the safe conduct of flight operations, but, what is effective
communication? How can we define it?
Consider other words beginning with the same 6 letters, ie., community, communism,
communion, communal etc, all imply sharing. Communication could be defined as the sharing
of information. We are concerned, however, with effective communication. Is the sharing of
information, therefore, enough for us to have communicated effectively?
Any message starts with a sender. It is eventually received by the receiver. To be effective
this message must be sent and received with the minimum of change to its meaning.
All communications have a price. To ensure that the message has been correctly received a
check of understanding must be carried out.
Look at the Company angle rather than the flight deck, what are the results of poor
communication?
Low Production By poor rostering you fail to fly an economic number of hours
for the company. Such as missing a flight to Inverness
because the company failed to ring you.
Apathy "Well they didn't tell me about the 0630 Inverness shuttle last
week, who knows if they will bother this week".
Grapevine Abounds "I hear Captain Bloggs is for the chop for missing the
0630 to Inverness ".
The key to good communication is whether the sender is a good transmitter and the message
is sent to a good receiver.
Communication comes in many forms: verbal, written, pictorial etc. Each type of
communication needs to be looked at separately to discover the positive and negative
aspects.
Written Communication
Written communication is provided to the pilot in many forms such as; checklists; JAR-FCL
OPS; UKAIP; Ops Manuals; letters; memo's etc. The advantages of written communication
is obvious; letters and memos can be distributed quickly; checklists and publications can be
amended quickly if mistakes occur. Negative aspects are that the communication is
impersonal; it is one-way and subject, therefore, to ambiguity and misinterpretation; no
check of understanding can be carried out; is the document up to date? Written
communications have to be well structured and simple to use to be effective.
Think of an insurance policy and all the small print. The length of sentence and the legalese
used may mean that you have forgotten what you first read before you get to the end of the
sentence. Survey has shown how the number of words in a sentence affect understanding:
Shortening the sentence does not mean that the sentence is any easier to understand. Think
of the double meaning of both the sentences below:
If you find any of our goods unsatisfactory you should see our Manager!
The Area Manager has passed all water used in our batteries.
Pictures tell a thousand words. Yet in the chapter on visual illusion we can see how easy it is
to become confused.
In 1979, an Air New Zealand DC10 flew inexplicably (seemingly) into the side of a
13 000 ft active volcano in Antarctica. The weather in the area was declared
VMC; the aircraft was in controlled flight; there was no alarm expressed by the
crew recorded on the cockpit voice recorder, so why did the DC10 crash? Visual
ambiguity in true whiteout conditions was a major causal factor.
Verbal communication is face to face and with body language aids the interpretation of a
message. Most verbal communication is two-way, allowing questions to be asked to achieve
clarity. Verbal communication can be ambiguous and because there is no written record may
be difficult to refer to.
Social Skills
Social skills refers to the basic behavioural mechanisms that we use between each other.
One of the main areas is body language.
Body Language
There has been a lot written on the term body language. Below are listed some of the
general principles that help to maintain good relations on the flight deck.
In the diagram below the way that we carry out normal communication is shown in a pie-
graph. Note how little attention is paid to the words and how much is paid to the body
language.
Normal Communication
7% The words
Eye Contact Do you believe someone who constantly looks away from
you while you are talking to them? Not only does it show a lack of interest in the
conversation but is rude. Staring on the other hand can be used as a form of
aggression.
Facial Expression We all show happiness, sadness, content etc with our facial
expression. On the flight deck it is easy to show contempt, disgust etc.
Body Orientation and Posture The way that you sit, the way that you place
your body in respect to others communicates your feelings towards them. Crossed
arms, crossed legs all give different messages.
Verbal Behaviour
The way in which words are said holds nearly as much importance as body language. The
emotions are easily betrayed by the speed, pitch and tone of the voice. Suffice to say that the
words themselves mean little in a general conversation.
As soon as the crew are on a flight deck then there is a block to the normal communication
state. As soon as the flight crew enter high workload areas of flight then the communications
are forced and the body language takes on a much lesser importance.
Forced Communication
It is at the high workload times that most communications errors that cause accidents are
made. It is important that the pilot realises that:
Listening
40% of our day is spent listening and is a most vital area of communication. We all think that
we are good listeners but do we listen or do we hear? All too often the “noise” does not
¾ We speak at approximately 125 words per minute, maximum 180 words per
minute
¾ We have the capacity to listen at 500 words per minute
Wandering Waiting for a key word and when it comes up, taking the
conversation into another area of interest
Turning Off The receiver does not listen because it is felt that the message is not
important.
Listening is a skill. How many times have you been accused of hearing only those things that
you wish to hear?
I know you thought you understood what I said; but what bothers me is that what you heard is
not what I meant
The reasons behind poor listening lie in the Human Information Processing system itself. The
only way that we can converse quickly is by our perception process playing a guessing game
as we will see below. The brain attempts to guess what the other person is about to say, in
order that an answer can be prepared.
Reply
Person 1
Level of
Attention
Listening Planning
Person 2
Evaluating
To be a good listener then active listening needs to be practised. The process of active
listening can be split into 4 stages:
Stage 1
Stage 2
¾ Understanding begins
¾ The listener starts to concentrate
Stage 3
Stage 4
Non-verbal Response
¾ To obtain information
¾ To obtain information or views
¾ To show interest
¾ To check understanding
There are four types of popular question. Two are acceptable in an aviation environment, two
are not.
Closed Question
A question that invites a simple yes or no answer. This question is good for:
¾ Obtaining information
¾ Giving information
¾ Checking understanding
Open Question
Leading Question
Understanding
Once a question has been asked then there must be a degree of understanding. Remember,
that compliance is the norm in the human. Compliance is the psychological term which
describes a person's tendency to prefer to agree rather than disagree. The answer to our
question will invariably be yes, even if there is no understanding of the subject.
By use of the first two questions above there is the chance that effective communications can
be maintained. Remember the following that Rudyard Kipling wrote:
Use them to phrase your question and you are part of the way there.
Active Listening
¾ Passive
¾ Giving agreement or disagreement
¾ Judgmental
¾ Argumentative
Being an effective listener takes practice and a sincere effort on behalf of the listener.
Status
The relationship between the two can be defined as leadership/followership. In status, the
captain has no difficulty in questioning the first officer; can the same be said about the
transfer of information the other way? The problem can be exacerbated when the captain is a
training captain and the first officer is just starting his career.
When crew are of an equal status, such as two Captains flying together or two Flying
Instructors, even two students. Those of equal status are reluctant to question the ability of
the other; there is a reluctance to appear to be taking over.
Role
The role of a pilot changes continually dependent on whether he is the handling or non-
handling pilot. Pilots are reluctant to take control in situations that appear to be dangerous
because they do not wish to show a lack of faith in the other.
Ability
We consider other pilots by our judgement of their ability. The Captain may well be a good
commander, but if we consider him a poor pilot then our relationship with him will be coloured.
Atmosphere
A good flight deck is one that has the right atmosphere created by both crewmembers. This
leads to effective 2-way communications. The atmosphere is created by:
Communication summary
¾ An active listener
¾ A good questioner
¾ A clear and concise orator
Introduction
All people are different. Unfortunately, this can and does complicate our working life. We
begin to notice differences from an early age:
The differences in personality and behaviour that we show in everyday life are important in
aviation. Especially important are the behavioural traits we show when first meeting someone.
We all want a pleasant flight deck atmosphere. We all want to be sympathetic to other
peoples needs. A friendly relaxed flight deck atmosphere helps to:
Working Relationships
The most important aspect of flightdeck operations is the relationship built up between the
pilots. As a human we constantly:
A pilot though is not only concerned with the building of relationships with other pilots. From
the minute they are at work, the process of building relationships start with:
In communications it was shown how important the way that words are said and body
language are. The importance of the following cannot be underestimated as well:
¾ First impressions
¾ Personality clash
¾ Cultural or religious differences
It is important that the pilot recognises the following traits to help flight deck communications:
¾ A person's personality
¾ A person’s style and their attitude to life
By recognising the above traits there is the chance to respond positively and enhance the
flight deck relationship.
Intelligence
There are no selection criteria for a person to train to be a pilot. There may be a selection
procedure within a company when sponsorship is involved but most pilots self improve and
hence are not selected.
Intelligence does not affect whether you can become a pilot or not. But, what is intelligence?
A great deal of work has gone into defining and quantifying the subject. Intelligence Quota
(IQ) tests are the benchmark most people think of when assessing intelligence. Unfortunately,
intelligence is sometimes mixed with the general world wise traits of the human.
Personality
Personality can be described as the inner person. It is personality that makes you the
individual that you are. Personality is:
¾ Family
¾ Friends
Once the formative years have passed personality is fixed. However, it can be changed by a
traumatic influence such as brain damage after a car crash.
Assessment
There are times when it is necessary to assess a person's suitability for a task. This is
normally achieved in three ways:
By using the factor analysis technique, a valid questionnaire for assessing personality traits is
constructed and this builds a profile of that individual. One such questionnaire being the
Myers-Briggs profile which is widely used within the aviation industry.
Behaviour
Behaviour is similar to the clothes we choose to wear. Think of the clothes you would wear at
the following two occasions:
¾ A funeral
¾ A barbecue
Behaviour is very much the same. You choose your behaviour to a particular situation like the
clothes you wear. If you choose your behaviour, then you are responsible for your behaviour.
Unfortunately, you are judged on the way that others see you.
First Impressions Last You never get a second chance to make a first
impression
Behaviour Breeds Behaviour If you shout at someone, they will normally shout
back
We all have a picture of what we think we are. This picture is composed of certain values
such as:
¾ Thoughts
¾ Attitudes
¾ Moral values, and
¾ Commitments
These values are influenced by our past experiences and expectations on life. These can
include events that are both successes and failures. This includes the way that others have
reacted to these events especially during our formative years. We live to these values and
more importantly judge others with these values.
Defence Mechanisms
To help in our self opinion we employ inbuilt defence mechanisms. These also help us in our
coping strategies against stress.
The defence mechanisms are set to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality
by the emphasis of a more positive quality. In stress coping they may reduce tension by
accepting and developing a less preferred but more attainable lifestyle.
These defence mechanisms can also relegate the blame for such problems as shortcomings
or mistakes by attributing them to others. The student pilot who fails a test blames the
instructor for not teaching the correct techniques.
Denial
We are all guilty of turning our back on the unpleasant side of life. With pilots it is the
embarassment of watching our own errors when played back on a video screen. Remember
“Errare Humanum Est”. No pilot has ever flown a perfect sortie, flying is a continuous
correction of errors.
Introversion and extroversion are diametrically opposite. The prefix ‘intro’ means into or
toward, and ‘extro’ means from or away. Introverts turn inwards to their own thoughts and
can be viewed as shy or being socially reserved. Extroverts turn their thoughts outwards,
demonstrating gregarious behaviour and confidence.
Introversion and extroversion are personality traits formed by deeply held beliefs. Behaviour
is affected by introversion and extroversion, and although it is possible to alter ones behaviour
through activity and training, the effects are generally short lived, with deep rooted personality
traits emerging when fatigued or under pressure. Most of us fall somewhere into the middle
ground of introversion and extroversion with a slight preference one way or the other. In
An extreme introvert would try to avoid unnecessary contact with others, preferring to be left
to their own devices, not being challenged by those around them. The true introvert would be
happy with his or her lot, enjoying solitude and rarely seeking self improvement. Extreme
introversion is usually coupled with a lack of confidence and self-empathy.
To enable a person to change their behaviour by choice, first they must alter their beliefs.
This can be more difficult than it sounds. Rarely can an individual change their beliefs to alter
their behaviour over a long term. The first step is to become aware of the behaviour that they
feel requires changing. This must then be linked to the relevant belief that causes the
behaviour. Once the belief and behaviour have been identified, the individual must accept the
required change, and this may involve a period of denial followed by anger. Only then can an
individual change their personality.
Beliefs, personality traits and behaviour can be altered by external circumstances. Indeed, an
individual’s beliefs and personality traits will change with time as they experience life, and it is
these experiences that will alter behaviour. The most obvious changes occur following life
threatening or near death experiences and can be very dramatic, but every thing that one
sees hears and does will have an impact on behaviour no matter how small.
Behavioural Styles
Past experience and expectation can have an influence on our behaviour. Behaviour is
influenced not only by the accumulation of these experiences but also by the attitudes and
awareness of maintaining a friendly relaxed attitude within the flight deck
Relationship Oriented The first consideration is the feelings of others, which rank
high in the Decision Making process. A person who is high relationship oriented and
low task oriented is considered to have a caring or nurturing style of behaviour.
Task Oriented The first consideration is given to the task or goal in the Decision
Making process. A person who is high task oriented and low relationship oriented is
considered to have an aggressive style of behaviour.
Assertive Behaviour
Assertive behaviour has a bad reputation mainly because of its association with aggression.
In some ways aggression is a hostile act. It can be argued that an assertive person intends to
hurt or injure, maybe even destroy another. In truth, assertion is a device used to ensure that
the maximum potential for reaching a goal has been attained. In some ways the following
define assertiveness:
¾ Improper
¾ Provocative
¾ Unusual in certain cases
The above feelings are felt by people who are subject to over-assertive action. Their reactions
can be categorised into three areas:
¾ Discomfort
¾ Resentment
¾ Retaliation
In its most vulgar form assertiveness can be used as an unscrupulous device to extract total
obedience. To achieve “the norm” a person must ask certain questions of themselves. The
most important being “What do I understand as the meaning of assertiveness?”. We can split
assertive behaviour into three categories:
Aggression Doing things in such a way that other peoples rights are violated
Assertion Doing things in such a way that other peoples rights are not violated
Following are listed a few advantages and disadvantages of each behavioural style.
Aggressive
Advantages Disadvantages
The less aggressive do what the aggressive Others resent the aggressive
wants Retaliation is always likely after aggressive
The aggressive can get the admiration of behaviour
other people In the long term people revolt against the
The aggressive feels all powerful aggressive
It is fair to say that a lack of confidence in oneself will usually lead to non-assertive behaviour.
The pilot must be able the express an opinion and be able to influence others without
aggression.
Non assertive action combined with low confidence lead to misunderstanding and
resentment.
Body Language
The importance of body language and assertiveness is summarised in the next few
paragraphs:
Aggressive
Non-Assertive
Assertive
Assertive Behaviour
Assertive behaviour, takes the best of aggressiveness (without the put-down negatives) and
the best of non-assertiveness (without loss-of-self.). Assertive action is a genuine direct
communication of ideas, wants and needs. Put with conviction a position can be expressed
strongly without domination.
Assertive behaviour becomes easier the more it is used. When we respect these rights in
ourselves, we are also more likely to act in a manner that respects these rights in others.
Aggressive behaviour denies the rights of others and non-assertive behaviour overlooks
these rights in ourselves.
Leadership / Followership
Introduction
Leadership is a term which applies to the whole flight deck. For there to be a leader there
must also be a follower. True leadership and command must not be confused; command is
normally assigned where as leadership is an acquired art. All flight crew must recognise their
own leadership responsibility in the decision making process.
Leadership is a way of focussing and motivating a group in order to achieve the task. On the
flight deck the commander, as the designated leader, has the authority and responsibility for
the flight. In modern public transport operations the pilot flying can be termed a functional
leader; one who carries out a specialised task on a temporary basis.
Leadership Qualities
Normally a leader should be one step ahead of his team; too far ahead and the team can be
lost.
The effective leader has to use the ideas and actions in such a way that they influence the
thoughts and behaviours of the team. The leader is the pivot through which change and
influence are implemented.
Leadership Skills
Leadership skills begin developing as soon as a pilot sits on a flight deck for the first time.
These skills are determined by certain factors which can be good or bad depending upon the
formative years on the flight deck.
Regulation of the flow of Information The leader must be able to regulate the flow
of information, ideas and suggestions. The leader can either be the commander or
the pilot flying in this case.
Decision Making
One way of depicting interaction is to construct a model where the dimensions are people-
orientation (P) and goal-orientation (G).
P+G- P+G+
Goal
Acceptable Behaviour
P-G- P-G+
Unacceptable Behaviour
In this model we are looking at the balance between the concern for achieving the goal (G)
and the concern for people (P).
P+G- Democratic Leader The friendly leader who has little concern for the
task. Conflict resolution is kept to a minimum where others are left to have their
own way. The types of word that describe the democrat are:
¾ Reactive
¾ Understanding
¾ Sensitive
¾ Nice
¾ Protective
All are commendable but in extreme can lead to a dysfunctional flight deck.
P-G- Timeserver Other names applied to this type of leader are laissez-faire or
autonomous leader. This type of leader cares little for the job or for the people in
it. This style of leadership generates the poorest team performance because of
the willingness to accept poor leadership styles by:
¾ Rule bending
¾ Failure to achieve or trying to achieve objectives
¾ Low morale within the team
¾ Indifference
¾ Apathy
¾ Passiveness
¾ Overbearing
¾ Autocratic
¾ Dictatorial
¾ Tyrannical
¾ Ruthless
P+G+ Ideal Leader By definition this person must be assertive. Concerned for
both the goal and the person this leader will earn the respect and commitment of
the team. The atmosphere enables all to contribute ideas which are recognised
and considered. Traits observed are:
¾ Constructive
¾ Straightforward
¾ Direct
¾ Expressive
¾ Assertive
Wherever a group of people are found certain expectations exist of the person in charge of
that group. What makes an effective leader? The old saying:
Some people are born with the aptitude for leadership, but they are few in number. But how
is leadership taught?
Qualities Approach
By examining the personal qualities (PQ's) of born-leaders it is possible to define the qualities
that made them effective. The result is a list of those qualities that give both a positive and a
negative relationship. Below is a table summarising the percentage of positive and negative
relationships between personality traits and leadership. Adapted from Mann (1959)
From all the qualities seen there is no positive way of teaching which combinations are
effective and those which are not.
Situations Approach
Following the failure of the PQ's theory, an alternative, the situations approach, was fielded.
It stated that leaders were born for situations; people like Winston Churchill.
In all leadership programmes where a situations approach to leadership was adapted it was
found that, where a person was appointed at random to be the leader, after a short period the
others in the group started to behave as if the appointed leader was the natural leader. If, the
leader is appointed such as on the flight deck then the foundations for leadership have been
laid; the leader still needs to be effective.
Effective Leadership
Decision Making Decisions are based on the situation at that time. All
information is used and a logical decision making sequence
is used to form the solution (DECIDE).
Enthusiasm Where the leader is committed then the follower will usually
give their best.
Attitudes to Leadership
The likes and dislikes of a human being that can destroy the effective team at any time. Most
are formed from personal belief about situations or events. Most attitudes are from the
subconscious and are apparent in the behaviour that we show.
Anti Authority The person who hates anybody telling them what to do.
Where this person regards rules and regulations as stupid or
unnecessary then an unsafe cockpit atmosphere can be
engendered. All pilots have the prerogative to question
authority if they think it necessary.
Impulsive The flying “arms in the cockpit” type. The person who has to
react to any problem immediately. The lack of thought can in
extreme cases cause Confirmation Bias.
Resignation The “Who cares” or “What’s the use” pilot. The pilot who
does not believe that they make any difference to the
situation. This type will follow the more assertive pilot which
may lead to the acceptance of unreasonable risks.
Ineffective Leadership
Most captains do not use this style of leadership. Most will develop a very shallow cross flight
deck gradient which encourages the assertiveness of others.
Decision Making
Decision Making can be broken down into a series of steps or actions that the pilot follows:
¾ The recognition that there is a problem. Note that no action is taken at this stage
¾ The gathering of information in order to assess the situation. This is undertaken
by all crewmembers
¾ The information required and where that information can be located needs to be
established. How this information can be verified is set at this stage
¾ The options that are identified and the alternative solutions are now risk
evaluated. Advantages and disadvantages are weighed to give the best solution
¾ Decision implementation and any actions are executed. Remember, doing
nothing can be an action
¾ Review the consequences by use of feedback. Evaluation and revision may be
necessary
The following actions are not a comprehensive list of addressing the decision making
problem. The intent is to give a logical safe progression to a problem:
There are very few situations in an aircraft that require an immediate decision. There is not
an infinite time period in which a problem can be solved; the aircraft will eventually run out of
fuel. Therefore, certain principles need to be applied to decision making. They can be
described as below:
Conflict Resolution Commitment to a plan of action and being able to resolve this
with other members of the crew
Decision Making All decisions must be explained. At this stage, why there was
rejection of any plans must also be explained
Most airlines use simple acronyms to ensure that a logical process, like the above, is
followed. British Airways use DODAR.
¾ Diagnosis
¾ Options
¾ Decide
¾ Assign
¾ Review
It does not matter what model is used, all have the same intent and format. All are closed loop
situations which allow a continuous evaluation of the problem and its consequences.
Detect
Estimate
Choose
Identify
Evaluate Do
Estimate The decision making team have to estimate the significance of the
change to the flight
Identify The team identifies actions that will control the change
A crew as opposed to an individual will usually make a better decision. It is one reason why
committees are formed. A crew working as a team, where knowledge and experience are
combined, can be very effective. To be effective all must be confident and comfortable in
raising doubts or opinions. Each crewmember must be confident that their opinion is a valued
one.
Certain factors have to be taken into account where group or individual pressure can
influence pre-decision thinking. These factors are listed below.
Compliance Most people will tend to comply with decisions rather than question
them.This is true when the decision is made by someone of a perceived higher
status. Compliance can also occur when a person has disagreed with a previous
decision and does not wish to seem obstructive.
Conformity Peer pressure. A person will tend to conform with the group's
decision because they wish to be the same as the rest of the team. If 2 or more
people have given an answer to a problem then it is likely that a third will give the
same answer. Status affects conformity. Differences must be voiced at this time.
Confirmation Bias Confirmation Bias is the natural tendency for a person to accept
information which agrees with their ideas about what is happening and to reject that
information which does not agree, as spurious.
Other factors affect the decision making processes of a pilot. These are more social
influences than the effects of the above:
Attitude What does the term “Safe Pilot” mean. Is it someone who is over
cautious or someone who weighs up all eventualities and their
outcome. Attitude is a part of the mind you as a pilot put to all
Summary
Decision making depends upon evidence given to us by certain senses, it is based upon:
¾ Our expectations and desires which can distort the perceived information
¾ Any erroneous mental modelling in building our situational awareness
No matter how we perceive a problem it is essential that in the decision making process we
always hold an open mind. We must:
Introduction
For example:
Human error is attributed as the main cause factor in 65 – 75% of all aviation accidents. Each
accident can be said to be the activation of an error chain being activated.
The knowledge of how an error chain works or how to mitigate the effects of human error are
essential to the modern pilot.
No pilot flies a perfect sortie. It could be said that a flight is a sequence of errors occurring
one after another. Each error being linked like a chain. In most cases the links of the chain
are broken by the pilot correcting each or most errors which leads to a safe flight. Where the
links of the chain are not severed then the error progression is followed and an accident is
possible.
SAFE FLIGHT
POSSIBLE ACCIDENT
Because of the nature of flying there is always the possibility of errors occurring. The error
chain is a result of human error and should not be linked with flying alone. Three levels of
human error can be classified:
Error Errors occur because of incorrect actions. The incorrect action can
be based on either correct or incorrect information flow. Because the
error is an action it is classed as the most dangerous form of human
error.
Slip By letting the person who made the slip know that the error has been
made.
Error By using two flight crew who are alert to the possibility of errors
occurring. However, each pilot must be capable of using assertive
action to alert others that an error has been made.
To ensure that the above are carried out some form of error management process is required.
James Reason suggested that to be effective that any error management system would have
to cover the following:
The Operator Any person who is involved with the operation of the aircraft
The Flight Deck The pilots and their interaction with the aircraft
Group Attitudes
Peer Pressure Doubts are suppressed because of the need to be part of the group
and the pressure of wanting to be “one of the boys”
Vulnerability Risky Shift, where team members agree to the more adventurous
approach
In Chapter 1 the SHEL Model was introduced as a conceptual model of human interaction.
H L
H
Liveware
Hardware
E Environment
S L E S Software
L
The interfaces are frequent sources of error because of the mismatch between the central
Liveware and the outer components of the model:
Certain clues can be used to identify and break the links of any error chain. For simplicity the
error chain can be broken into two areas:
Operational Errors
No One Flying the During all stages of flight the aircraft’s progress needs
Aircraft to be monitored. If the aircraft is left to its own devices
then accidents can and will happen.
Human Errors
There will be other component parts to the operational and human errors outlined above. The
ones shown are the main areas of the error chain that need to be broken.
To break the Error Chain the crew first has to detect the presence of a problem. Action needs
to be taken in order to ensure a safe flight:
Introduction
As a learner you have probably never thought about the principles that may affect your
learning. In general there are certain principles that guide us in how we learn. These can be
split into two areas:
A training programme is usually devised to suit a training need. In this case Human
Performance and Limitations as part of the JAR-FCL theoretical knowledge course. Most of
our learning process is either theoretical or practical:
¾ We are given a subject to learn and then apply the knowledge practically
We use these notes to pass the Human Performance Examination
Kolb (1984) further expanded this process into a learning cycle. This is just a simplified model
which represents a person’s process of learning.
Evaluation Delivery of
of the training
programme
Assessment of the
individual
This model is not as complicated as it looks. The learning cycle can be joined at any point and
the circle completed.
The Kolb cycle can be further simplified by cutting down to four elements.
Experience
Preparation Reflection
Theory
Theory Not many people are natural theorists. In most cases we all use other
peoples ideas to help with our own instruction. This is a stage where new information
is taken in and compared with what we already know.
Preparation A planning stage. When a new piece of information has been learnt
then the information is normally reflected upon. Once this reflection has occurred then
it is time to move on to the next point in the cycle.
Honey and Mumford redesigned the Kolb Learning Cycle to produce a model of learning
styles.
Experience
Activist
Preparation Reflection
Pragmatist Reflector
Theory
Theorist
The Kolb cycle is modified by linking it to the 4 types of person who are happiest working at a
particular stage of learning.
Activist The type of person who enjoys things as they happen and look
forward to an experience with enthusiasm. The activist will rush into
things without thinking of any drawbacks. The people who use this
learning style prefer to be centre stage where the action is. Once the
activity is completed they become bored. This type of person likes to
learn through games, teamwork etc.
Theorist A person who learns by rote. The theorist is very much a vertical
learner with little lateral thinking. Most of us are not born as logical
thinkers and the process of theory has to be learned in itself. The
theorist learns by rules, using the rules. This is a very effective way of
learning because this style leads to learning accuracy.
Pragmatist The person who is happy putting an idea into practice. This learning
style describes the person who gets on with the job and is only
interested if it works. This is the practical down to earth workman who
enjoys learning from life’s experiences.
Flexible Learning
By looking at the above styles it is easy to categorize yourself or others. In most cases we all
use a mixture of the styles to get “our balanced form of learning style”. The knowledge of your
or other peoples learning styles can help on the flight deck in the understanding necessary to
achieve an effective team.
Maslow (1943)
To satisfy the human needs there is an order of priority. Maslow introduced a triangle of
human needs. The lower order motives are aroused first and must be satisfied first. Once a
need is satisfied then the next level in the hierarchy can be satisfied. The triangle of needs
starts with basic physiological needs up to those related to ego. Eventually the person
reaches self-fulfilment. The hierarchy of needs is shown in the diagram below.
3
Belonging and Affection Needs (friendship and
love)
Reference: The Manual of Learning Styles, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford
Peter Honey
Ardingly House
10 Linden Avenue
Maidenhead
Berkshire
SL6 6HB
Automation
Introduction
Since the introduction of the basic instrument flying T designed by the Royal Air Force in
1927, manufacturers have been developing systems that reduce pilot workload.
Air
Attitude Altimeter
Speed
Director
Indicator
Horizontal Rate of
Machmeter Situation Climb
Indicator
The above instrument panel has now been developed into the glass cockpit designs that
pilots in modern aircraft have become accustomed to. A simple design is shown below. Note
that the basic T is still adhered to.
ATTITUDE
ATTITUDE
ALTITUDE
AIRSPEED
AIRSPEED
VERTICAL SPEED
17 18 19
16 20
15 21
HEADING 180
Part of the problem of difficulty in reading and understanding instruments can be shown with
the three pointer altimeter below:
100
0 FEET
9 1000 FEET 1
10000 FEET FEET
8 2
7 3
6 60000FT
1013 4
The primary functions of the flight crew must be taken into account. Most designers and
manufacturers take into account the following when designing aircraft automatics:
Automation has to be seen as a partial, or even total replacement, of the pilot. Obviously, the
amount of pilot – machine interface depends upon the level of automation required.
The advance in computer technology has meant a rapid advance in cockpit automation.
There are obvious benefits in the new technology but there are still serious accidents where
flight crew management of the systems is inadequate. Corrections are made for these
deficiencies, as a problem is uncovered. The most significant areas where there is a
breakdown are:
Training Training can cover the essentials of operating the system in normal
flight; but is the training sufficient to operate the system in a degraded mode. Over
use of the computer can result in a degradation of the pilot’s flying skills, especially on
NDB approaches.
Design Philosophy There is still the perennial problem of the designer not
consulting the pilot. There must be consultation to ensure that problem areas can be
dealt with before manufacture. Radical changes have occurred over the last few
years with the introduction of concepts such as side stick control.
Information Management Too much information can confuse and overload the
pilot. The time taken to input information means less time to the tasks of lookout and
communications. In some aircraft deciding what to display can distract from the task
in hand.
Industry Requirements
To ensure that the implementation of new systems meets the performance standards required
industry must follow certain guidelines:
To ensure that the operation remains safe and that for both normal and emergency
procedures the pilots carry out the required task:
Normal Operations All selections and actions are checked by both pilots. One
pilot actions the other pilot checks. It must always be remembered:
Automation Summary
There are both advantages and disadvantages to automation. Whether you are for or against
the automation of the flight deck it must always be remembered that both the computer and
the human being are not infallible. Listed below are some of the advantages and
disadvantages:
Advantages
¾ Performs most of the control tasks allowing the pilot to perform other
higher mental functions
¾ Removes the human element from day to day performance
¾ Can reduce the crew size
¾ Better control of systems making the aircraft more economic
Disadvantages
A recent FAA survey listed the main contributory factors in automated aircraft accidents:
¾ Pilot’s who have an insufficient knowledge of the systems they are using
¾ Confusion involved when not knowing the mode of flight
Note that most of the above are problems with the human element. Automation at its best
should help the pilot; at its worst it kills. To make the best of the systems provided the pilot
needs to be both trained and motivated to operate at a high performance level.
Introduction
From the beginning of flying to the present day the majority of accidents have been attributed
to the pilot. The term “pilot error” has been used to categorise all accidents possible. In the
last few years this term is becoming less predominant and the term “human error” is
becoming more common.
Using the statistics for the First World War it is not surprising that so many pilots crashed
because of human error
8% 2%
Pilot Error
Technical Defect
Enemy Action
90%
4% 7%
16% Human Error
Technical Defect
Weather
ATC
73%
What is CRM?
We have been flying for over 90 years, why CRM now? The concept of CRM is not new but it
remains a fact that accidents related to external sources have decreased, whilst accidents
attributed to human weaknesses have increased.
The value of these programmes can be shown by using real incidents. One of the best
examples is the Sioux City DC-10 accident. Captain Al Haynes and his team were faced with
a hopeless situation when his United Airlines DC-10 suffered a loss of all three hydraulic
systems at FL 370. The crew used all resources available in the air and on the ground while
manoeuvring the DC-10 by differential thrust from the two remaining engines. A crash landing
was done at Sioux City airport saving 186 of the 296 passengers. Commander Haynes
commented:
"United started something called CRM in 1980. It really helped us. We would not have made it
without it".
The list of critical situations where good human performance and teamwork saved the day is
lengthy. There have been many accidents where the cockpit and cabin crew’s hard efforts
have saved many lives. CRM training has already proved its value many times.
CRM training can only be considered fully effective when it comes to light as improved
everyday behaviour through practical actions.
CRM and Human Factors training for airline crew members is now mandatory.
ICAO detailed certain markers that define what CRM is and is not. CRM Training is:
CRM is not, and never will be, a substitute for the mechanical skills of flying. It is here to help
you understand what is required in the modern day airliner
CRM Loop
Approximately 70% of air accidents are caused by human error and problems occur because
of four main failings.
¾ Communications
¾ Situational Awareness
¾ Problem Solving/Decision making
¾ Leadership/Followership
¾ Stress Management
¾ Interpersonal Skills
¾ Critique
JAR-FCL now requires a pilot to undergo MCC training before the first type is annotated to an
licence. The MCC skills required to work together in a multi-crew environment are difficult to
distinguish between those required for CRM. The regulations however, do make a clear
distinction between CRM and MCC. JAR-FCL requires MCC training before the first type
rating is issued. JAR-OPS requires CRM training on a continuous yearly training basis. CRM
training is often given to both pilots and other personnel.
Listed below are some of the advantages of multi-crew operations versus single pilot
operations, MCC helps to enhance these skills:
Disadvantages are usually the fault of the crew not because of the deficiencies in the system:
The use of the multi-crew concept is required by regulations for many aircraft and it has
proved itself as a fundamental tool in achieving safe and efficient operations of aircraft.