INTRODUCTION TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

Abnormal Psychology is the application of the methods, concepts, principles and findings of
general psychology primarily the psychology of perception, learning and development and social
psychology to deviant behaviors and experiences. Abnormal psychology is an attempt to
understand and explain the abnormal in the framework of the normal and general.

Abnormality is those set of behaviors or thought processes which are commonly agreed to be
bizarre, unusual or odd .People who hear voices or think they are Christ or are subject to
uncontrollable fits of violence or depression seem to be obviously emotionally disturbed.
The best current definition of abnormal behavior, and by extension, mental disorder, is one that
contains several characteristics. The definition of mental disorder presented in the current
American diagnostic manual, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth
Edition, Text Revision (DSM-IV-TR), includes a number of characteristics essential to the
concept of abnormal behavior. In DSM-IV-TR, mental disorder is defined as:

A clinically significant behavioral or psychological syndrome or pattern that occurs in an

individual and that is associated with present distress (e.g., a painful symptom) or disability (i.e.,
impairment in one or more important areas of functioning) or with a significantly increased risk
of suffering, death, pain, disability, or an important loss of freedom. In addition, this syndrome or
pattern must not be merely an expectable and culturally sanctioned response to a particular
event, for example, the death of a loved one. Whatever its original cause, it must currently be
considered a manifestation of a behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunction in the
individual (American Psychological Association, APA, 2000; p. xxxi

Personal Distress
One characteristic used to define some forms of abnormal behavior is personal distress—that is, a
person’s behavior may be classified as abnormal if it causes him or her great distress. Felicia felt
distress about her difficulty with paying attention and the social consequences of this difficulty—
that is, being called names by other schoolgirls. Personal distress also characterizes many of the
forms of abnormality considered in this book—people experiencing anxiety disorders and
depression suffer greatly. But not all abnormal behaviors cause distress. For example, an
individual with antisocial personality disorder, may treat others coldheartedly and violate the law
without experiencing any guilt, remorse, anxiety, or other type of distress. And not all behavior
that causes distress is abnormal—for example, the distress of hunger due to religious fasting or
the pain of childbirth.

Disability
Disability, that is, impairment in some important area of life (e.g.,work or
personal relationships) can also be used to characterize abnormal behavior.
For example, substance-related disordersare defined in part by the social or
occupational disability (e.g., serious arguments with one’s spouse or poor
work performance) created by substance abuse. Being rejected by peers, as
Felicia was, is also an example of this characteristic. Phobias can produce
both distress and disability—for example, if a severe fear of flying prevents
someone living in California from taking a job in New York. Like distress,
however, disability alone cannot be used to define abnormality, because
some, but not all, disorders involve disability.
For example, the disorder bulimia nervosa involves binge eating and
compensatory purging
(e.g., vomiting) in an attempt to control weight gain but does not necessarily
involve disability. Most individuals with bulimia lead lives without impairment,
while bingeing and purging in private. Other characteristics that might in
some circumstances be considered disabilities—such as being short if you
want to be a professional basketball player—do not fall within the domain of
abnormal psychology. As with the characteristic of statistical infrequency, we
do not have a rule that tells us which disabilities belong in our domain of
study and which do not.
Violation of Social Norms
In the realm of behavior, social norms are widely held standards (beliefs and
attitudes)that people use consciously or intuitively to make judgments about
where behaviors are situated on such scales as good–bad, right–wrong,
justified–unjustified, and acceptable–unacceptable. Behavior that violates
social norms might be classified as abnormal. For example, the repetitive
rituals performed by people with obsessive-compulsive disorder and the
conversations with imaginary voices that some people with schizophrenia
engage in are behaviors that violate social norms. José’s dropping to the floor
at the sound of a popping balloon does not fit within most social norms. Yet
this way of defining abnormal behavior is both too broad and too narrow. For
example, it is too broad in that criminals and prostitutes violate social norms
but are not usually studied within the domain of psychopathology; and it is
too narrow in that highly anxious people typically do not violate social norms
but are a focus of psychopathologists.
Also, of course, social norms vary a great deal across cultures and ethnic
groups, so behavior that clearly violates a social norm in one group may not
do so at all in another.
For example, in some cultures but not in others it violates a social norm to
directly disagree with someone. In Puerto Rico, José’s behavior would not
likely have been interpreted in the same way as it would be in the United
States. Important issue of cultural and ethnic diversity as it applies to the
descriptions, causes, and treatments of mental disorders.

Dysfunction
In an influential and widely discussed paper, Wakefield (1992) proposed that
mental disorders could be defined as harmful dysfunction. It is important to
note that this definition has two parts: a value judgment (“harmful”) and an
objective, scientific component—the (“dysfunction”). A judgment that a behavior
is harmful requires some standard, and this standard is likely to depend on social
norms and values, the characteristic just described.
Dysfunctions are said to occur when an internal mechanism is unable to perform
its natural function—that is, the function that it evolved to perform. By grounding
this part of the definition of mental disorder in evolutionary theory, Wakefield
hoped to give the definition scientific objectivity.
Numerous critics have argued that the dysfunction component of Wakefield’s
definition is not so easily and objectively identifiable in relation to mental
disorders (e.g., Houts, 2001; Lilienfeld & Marino, 1999). One difficulty is that the
internal mechanisms involved in mental disorders are largely unknown; thus, we
cannot say exactly what may not be functioning properly. Wakefield (1999) has
tried to meet this objection by, in part, referring to plausible dysfunctions rather
than proven ones. In the case of Jack, for example, hallucinations (hearing
voices) could be construed as a failure of the mind to “turn off” unwanted
sounds. Nevertheless, we have a situation in which we judge a behavior or set of
behaviors to be harmful and then decide that the behavior represents a mental
disorder because we believe it is caused by a dysfunction of some unknown
internal mechanism. Clearly, like the other definitions of abnormality, Wakefield’s
concept of harmful dysfunction has its limitations.
The broader concept of dysfunction as indicated in the DSM-IV-TR definition of
mental disorder refers to behavioral, psychological, or biological dysfunctions
that are supported by our current body of evidence. This broadening does not
entirely avoid the problems that Wakefield’s definition suffers from, but it is an
attempt that formally recognizes the limits of our current understanding.

CRITERIAS OF NORMALITY AND ABNORMALITY

Normal is average: The Statistical Definition

A common sense approach to the problem of definition has been to label normal those behaviors
or traits which are frequent, typical or commonly occur in most persons. The term abnormal is
then applied to any forms of behavior ( including thoughts and feelings) which are infrequent ,
atypical or very rare in the experience of most persons. In psychology one can be to emotionally
responsive or not responsive enough. A student can be so anxious that his performance on exams
is disrupted or show so little anxiety that he has no motivation to study. It is the middle range of
scores and associated attitudes which is considered normal ; all else is abnormal. Thus , the
statistical criterion of abnormality has a strong appeal for the psychologist who is eager to put
abnormal psychology on a firmly scientific basis.

Normalcy is Personal Comfort

A second approach equates normalcy with the personal comfort felt by the individual.If he is
relatively untroubled and indifferent to his inner state and to the impression he makes on others,
or if he manifests a state of wellbeing and euphoria, he is normal no matter how deviant his
behavior appears to observers. In the absence of universally accepted , external criteria, a
person’s subjective state seems as good as any other . If a person feels good, how is anyone else
to “prove” that he is disturbed.
Normalcy is Social Conformity
From birth on, the individual lives in a social framework. Society expects him to conform to its
standards with certain permitted exceptions. He is rewarded if he conforms and punished if he
does not. The criterion of social nonconformity emerges from these considerations : an individual
is deemed abnormal to the degree that he fails to conform to social standards and expectations.

CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND ABNORMALITY

One of the main problems with the idea of defining abnormality as statistical infrequency,
deviation from ideal mental health or deviation from social norms is the fact that none of these
criteria copes well with cultural variations. The idea of cultural relativism suggests that beliefs
about abnormality differ between cultures and sub-cultures. What may be considered as perfectly
acceptable behaviour in one culture may be seen as abnormal in another. Researchers have only
recently begun to consider the implications of multi-cultural experiences on health and illness
(including physical health).

Western culture makes a number of assumptions about psychological states, for example that:

• Physical and psychological components of a disorder are separate and the emotional
aspects are normally given primacy.
• Mental illness is caused by psychological conditions and might be treated by
psychological processes.
• An individual self exists which is experienced as whole, continuous over time, distinct
and unique.

Cultural variations in the experience of mental disorders

One of the reasons that definitions of abnormality vary considerably from culture to culture is that
there are differences in the way that people experience mental disorders. For instance, cultures
outside the West do not necessarily conceive of internal emotional experiences as separate from
bodily experiences and may focus more on physical ailments than psychological distress. Thus a
Chinese person may complain of a stomach-ache rather than depression.
Some groups and sub-cultures value showing their emotions, whereas others emphasise
containment. For example, the British are expected to avoid displays of emotion and to ‘keep a
stiff upper lip’.

Some cultures emphasize the religious or spiritual aspects of mental illness. For example, an
Afro-Caribbean person might seek a religious solution to a psychological problem. Some cultures
treat religiously induced trance-like states as acceptable spiritual experiences, while others may
see the same behaviour as a symptom of mental illness. It may be seen as a sign of weakness to
ask for help from a mental health practitioner. Others, such as Asian culture, believe that
problems should be dealt within the family and it would be disrespectful to discuss personal and
family problems with a stranger.

Many cultures have a much more fluid view of the self and of reality. For example, an American
Indian who hears the voice of a recently deceased relative calling from the afterworld would view
this as a perfectly normal experience, whereas a European person may see this as a hallucination.

Cultural bias in diagnosis

Within attempts to define and classify abnormality, cultural biases exist. For example, Puerto
Ricans have a unique way of reacting to stressful situations which includes symptoms such as
heart palpitations, faintness and seizure-like episodes. These are often misdiagnosed as signs of
severe mental disturbance due to a lack of knowledge of the culture (Guaraccia et al., 1990). In
Britain and the USA, black males are more likely to be treated as criminals and sent to prison
rather than be diagnosed as mentally ill. If they show symptoms of alcohol and drug abuse, they
are more likely to be diagnosed as psychotic than are white males.

Cultural differences must not be confused with effects that are due to poverty or poor education.

Disorders are a product of cultures

Definitions of mental disorders are also influenced by the fact that there are some disorders that
are highly specific to particular cultures. The values and stresses of modern Western life have
created more and different disorders that did not exist before. People might consider going to a
therapist because they have a vague sense of lack of fulfilment and consider this to be
pathological.
Even with disorders that are considered to be universal (e.g. depression, schizophrenia, manic-
depression, certain types of anxiety disorder and dementia), there are cultural differences in the
way that symptoms are expressed.

Eating disorders mainly exist in Westernised, middle-class communities. In Catholic and Islamic
cultures, where suicide is considered to be a sin, there are relatively low suicide rates whereas in
Japan suicide is considered an honorable response to perceived shame. The conclusion from
studies of cultural differences is that expression of symptoms and help-seeking behavior vary
greatly between cultures. Research has shown significant differences in the extent to which ethnic
groups use mental health services.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DEVIANCE AND PSYCHOPATHOLOGY

. "Pathological" situations are those of an especially foreboding nature such as nuclear holocausts or
death camps--crises of a different magnitude than simple "deviance" or "dysfunction" might connote.
Kavolis (1969) proposed "destructiveness" as an objective basis upon which to redefine the concept
of pathology. Destructiveness is manifest in behavior damaging to life, health and sense of identity.
Modern efforts to define basic human rights by agencies like the U.N. fit this tradition. The discipline
of social psychology should seek objective indices of destructiveness and the characteristics of social
structure that produce pathology. In both of these approaches deviance might or might not be
pathological. Other sociologists take the position that the concept of pathology is value laden and
there can never be agreement on defined pathological states. For example, the whole (society) may
be healthy at the expense of the parts and vice versa. The overall society can function effectively in
war or in the production of goods while its members can be subjugated or exploited. There also may
be conflict in what is good for the persistence or expansion of the system and that, which maximizes
individual satisfactions. In society, unlike biological organisms, the health or well being of one sector
may be dependent on the ill health of another. Few, if any, of society's actions benefits everyone in
the society. There are always conflicting interests, and the definition of normalcy depends on the
perspective that is applied. Those who benefit most by the existing social arrangements see
persistence as a value and therefore "normal" and disruptions as "pathological". Those who stand to
benefit from change see the existing system as "pathological". Since society can be organized in an
infinite number of ways, no one set of relations can be seen as necessary or "normal".

MENTAL HEALTH PROFESSIONALS

As views of mental illness and abnormal behavior have evolved, so, too, have the professions
associated with the field. Professionals authorized to provide psychological services include
clinical psychologists, counseling psychologists, psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, and social
workers. In this section, we discuss these different types of clinicians, the different types of
training they receive, and a few related issues.
Clinical psychologists- must have a Ph.D. or Psy.D. degree, which entails 4 to 7 years of
graduate study. Training for the Ph.D. in clinical psychology is similar to that in other
psychological specialties, such as developmental or cognitive neuroscience. It requires a heavy
emphasis on research, statistics, neuroscience, and the empirically based study of human and
animal behavior. As in other fields of psychology, the Ph.D. is basically a research degree, and
candidates are required to write a dissertation on a specialized topic. But candidates in clinical
psychology learn skills in two additional areas, which distinguishes them from other Ph.D.
candidates in psychology.
First, they learn techniques of assessment and diagnosis of mental disorders; that is, they learn the
skills necessary to determine whether a person’s symptoms or problems indicate a particular
disorder. Second, they learn how to practice primarily verbal means of helping troubled
individuals change their thoughts, feelings, and behavior to reduce distress and to achieve greater
life satisfaction. Students take courses in which they master specific techniques under close
professional supervision; then, during an intensive internship, they gradually assume increasing
responsibility for the care of patients.

Psychiatrists hold an M.D. degree and have had postgraduate training, called a residency, in
which they have received supervision in the practice of diagnosis and pharmacotherapy
(Administering psychoactive medications). By virtue of the medical degree, and
in contrast with psychologists, psychiatrists can function as physicians—giving physical
examinations, diagnosing medical problems, and the like. Most often, however, the only
aspect of medical practice in which psychiatrists engage is prescribing , chemical compounds that
can influence how people feel and think. Psychiatrists may receive some training in
psychotherapy as well, though this is not a strong focus of training.
A psychoanalyst receives specialized training at a psychoanalytic institute. The program usually
involves several years of clinical training as well as the in-depth psychoanalysis
of the trainee. Until recently most U.S. psychoanalytic institutes required of their graduates
an M.D. and a psychiatric residency. Nowadays, one need not even have a doctoral degree
in psychology to gain admission. It can take up to 10 years of graduate work to become a
psychoanalyst.
Social workers have an M.S.W. (master of social work) degree. Training programs are
.than Ph.D. programs, typically requiring 2 years of study. The focus of training
is on psychotherapy. Those in social work graduate programs do not receive training in
psychological assessment.
A highly diverse group of people can be called psychopathologists. These people conduct
research into the nature and development of the various disorders that their therapist
colleagues try to diagnose and treat. Psychopathologists may come from any number of
disciplines;
some are clinical psychologists, but the educational backgrounds of others range
from neuroscience to developmental psychology. What unites them is their commitment
to the study of how mental disorders develop. Since we still have much to learn about
psychopathology, the diversity of backgrounds and interests is an advantage, for it seems
clear that major advances will be made in many areas.

APPROACHES TO ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

THE PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH

The term “psychodynamic” refers to the incessant struggle among various aspects of
personality .As such ,psychonanalytic theory exemplifies a psychodynamic perspective in
that it gives a prominent role to the complex interplay among processes of personality that
compete or wrestle with each other for control over the person’s behavior. The theory was
founded by Sigmund Freud in Germany

Levels of Consciousness: The Topographical Model.

Freud employed a topographical model of Personality organization. According to this model,
psychic life can be represents by three levels of consciousness-the conscious, the
preconscious and the unconscious

1)The conscious level consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a
given moment in time. Freud insisted that only a small part of mental life(thoughts,
perceptions, feelings, memories) is contained in the realm of consciousness.
2)The preconscious level encompasses all experiences that are not conscious at the moment
but which can easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a minimum of
effort. In Freud’s view the preconscious bridges the conscious and unconscious regions of the
mind
3)The unconscious level is the storehouse for primitive instinctual drives plus emotions and
memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been repressed, or
unconsciously pushed into the unconscious mind. For Freud, such unconscious material is
responsible for everyday behavior

The Anatomy of Personality Structure

During the early 1920’s Freud revised his conceptual model of mental life and introduced 3
basic structures:

1)Id-It refers exclusively to the primitive, instinctive and inherited aspects of personality. The
id functions entirely in the unconscious and is closely tied to instinctual biological urges
(eat ,sleep, defecate)that energize our behavior .The id obeys the pleasure principle i.e.
Immediate tension reduction thereby manifesting itself in an impulsive, irrational and
narcissistic manner regardless of the consequences. Freud identified two mechanisms the id
employs to rid the personality of tension
a)Reflex Actions-The id responds automatically to sources of irritation, thereby promptly
removing tension which the irritant elicits
b)Primary Processes-The id forms a mental image of an object previously associated with
satisfaction of a basic need.

2)The Ego-The ego is the decision making component of the psychic apparatus that seeks to
express and gratify the desires of the id in accordance with the constraints imposed by the
outside world. It obeys the Reality Principle, the aim of which is to preserve the integrity by
suspending instinctual gratification until either an appropriate outlet or environmental
condition that will satisfy the need is found.. Through secondary processes, the ego is able to
establish appropriate courses of action to satisfy instinctual needs without endangering the
safety of the individual and/or others.

3)The Superego-In order for a person to function effectively in society, he must acquire a
system of values, norms ,and ethics that are reasonably compatible with that society. These
 are acquired through the process of “socialization” and in terms of the structural model of
psychoanalysis, are developed through the formation of a superego. Freud divided the
superego into two subsystems
a)The conscience-is acquired through the use of punishment by the parents. It is concerned
with things that parents say are “naughty” behaviour and for which the child is reprimanded.
It includes the capacity for punitive self-evaluation ,moral prohibitions,and guilt feelings
b)The Ego Ideal-is the rewarding aspect of the superego is the ego-ideal. It is derived from
whatever the parents approve or value and leads the individual to pursue standards of
excellence which, if achieved, generate a sense of self-esteem and pride.

Instincts
Freud depicted human motivation as based entirely on energy aroused from body’s tissue
needs. In Freudian theory ,mental representations of these bodily excitations reflected in the
form of wishes are termed instincts. Instincts are therefore innate bodily states of excitation
that seek expression and tension release
Freud recognized the existence of two basic groups of them-life and death instincts.

Eros-or life instinct includes all those forces that serve to maintain vital life processes and
ensure the propagation of the species
Thanatos-or death instinct underlies all the manifestations of cruelty ,aggression,
suicide, and murder

All instincts have 4 features:

a)Source-The bodily condition or need from which it arises
b)Aim-The aim of an instinct is always to abolish or reduce the excitation deriving fro its
need
c)An object-refers to any person or thing in the environment or within the individual’s own
body that provides the satisfaction of an instinct
d)An impetus-refers to the magnitude of energy,force,or pressure that is used to satisfy or
gratify the instinct .

Personality Development: The Psychosexual stages

Freud hypothesized a series of 5 sequential stages of personality
development:oral,anal,phallic and genital. A period of latency ,normally occurred between
 the ages of 6 or 7 and the onset of puberty, was included by Freud in the overall scheme of
development, but technically speaking, it is not a stage. All the stages are closely associated
with erogenous zones, sensitive areas of the body surface that function as sites for the
expression of libidinal urges.
The term psychosexual emphasizes that the major factor underlying human development is
the sexual instinct as it progresses from one erogenous zone to another over the course of a
person’s life. according to this theory, at any particular point in the developmental sequence
some region of the body seeks objects or activities to produce pleasurable tension. The table
below summarizes the stages of psychosexual development identified by Freud.

The logic of this formulation was explained by Freud in terms of 2 factors frustration and
overindulgence. In the case of frustration, the child’s psychosexual needs are thwarted by the
mothering one and thus fail to be optimally gratified. In overindulgence, the parents provide
little or no incentive for the child to master internal functions. He also introduced the concept
of regression i.e. reverting to an earlier stage of psychosexual development and displaying
the childish behavior appropriate to that period.

ANXIETY
Anxiety is an ego function which alerts the person to sources of impending danger that must
be counteracted or avoided. As such, anxiety enables the person to react to threatening
situations in an adaptive way(Freud,1926)

STAGE AGE RANGE LIBIDINAL FOCUS DEVELOPMENTAL

TASKS
ORAL 0-18 MONTHS Mouth(sucking, biting, Weaning(from breast or
chewing) bottle).Separation from
mothering one
ANAL 1.5-3 YRS Anus(retaining or exp Toilet training(self control)
elling faeces)
PHALLIC 3-6 YRS Genitals(masturbating) Identifying with same-sex
adult role model
LATENCY 6-12 YRS None(sexually dormant) Expanding social/peer
contacts
GENITAL PUBERTY Genitals(becoming Establishing caring
ONWARD heterosexually intimate) relationships; contributing to
society through work
Types of Anxiety
Based on the sources of threat to the ego(the outside environment, the id, and the
superego),psychoanalytic theory identifies 3 types of anxiety.

a)Realistic Anxiety-The emotional response to threat and perception of real dangers in the
external world(e.g. dangerous animals)
b)Neurotic Anxiety-An emotional response to the threat that unacceptable id impulses will
become conscious is called neurotic anxiety.
c)Moral Anxiety-When the ego is threatened by punishment from the superego,the ensuing
emotional response is called moral anxiety.

EGO DEFENSE MECHANISMS

The major psychodynamic functions of anxiety are to help the person avoid conscious
recognition of unacceptable instinctual impulses and to allow impulse gratification in
appropriate ways at appropriate times. Ego defense mechanisms help to carry out these
functions as well as to protect the person from overwhelming anxiety. Some principal defense
strategies are reviewed below.

Repression-It is the process of excluding distressing thoughts and feelings from

consciousness. As a result. repressing individuals are neither aware of their own anxiety-
provoking conflicts nor do they remember emotionally traumatic past events

Projection-the process by which the person attributes unacceptable internal thoughts, feelings
and behaviors to other people or to the environment. Projection thus enables a person to
blame someone or something else for his or her own shortcomings.

Displacement-The expression of an instinctual impulse is redirected from a more threatening

person or object to a less threatening one

Rationalization-It refers to “fallacious reasoning” in that it misinterprets irrational behavior

in order to make it appear rational and thus justifiable to oneself and others.
 Reaction Formation-Sometimes the ego can guard against a forbidden impulse by expressing
its opposite on both thought and behavior.

Regression-This involves reverting to immature and childlike patterns of behavior. It is a way

of alleviating anxiety by retreating to an earlier period of life that was more secure and
pleasant.

Sublimation-It enables the person adaptively to divert impulses so that they may be
expressed via socially approved thoughts or actions.

Denial-When someone refuses to acknowledge that an unpleasant event has occurred, he or

she is engaging in denial.

Evaluation
Criticism

1)Method of Data Collection-Freud used observation of his own patient .No controlled
experiments. His patients did not represent the general population

2)Criticism for definition of terms. Freud’s concepts were difficult to be operationally defined
such as quantifying psychic energy,Oedipus-electracomplex

Contributions
1)Expansion of Psychology’s domain-His was the 1st comprehensive theory of personality
wherein he extended psychology’s domain by studying the relationship among unconscious
motivations, dreams and anxiety
2)Freud made much of normal behavior, comprehensible. Understanding of such day to day
phenomena as dreams, forgetfulness, slip of tongue mistakes, ego defense mechanisms was made
possible.

POST- FREUDIAN DEVELOPMENT

 Subsequent theorists called Neo-Freudians have given attention to social determinants, and
conscious reality. The theories developed in this period are characterized by less prominent
roles to sexual and aggressive tendencies of Id and expansion of the concept of ego.
Carl Jung
Jung developed the concept of analytical psychology. He claimed that there is a collective
unconscious also. Its contents are archetypes or primordial images. They are due to heredity.
Some examples of archetypes include God, The mother Earth and the young potent hero et al.
Jung proposed that the human psyche includes conscious as well as a covert or shadow
aspect, that is unconscious. An individual’s personal growth involves an unfolding of this
shadow and its gradual integration with the rest of the personality into a meaningful coherent
life pattern.
Alfred Adler
In his theory known as individual psychology Adler believed that behavior is purposeful and
goal directed. He thought that everyone of us has the capacity to choose and create. Our goals
are the sources of motivation. The goals that provide security and help to overcome
inferiority complex or feelings of inadequacy that are from childhood.
Karen Horney
She argued that the differences between females and males were largely the results of social
factors, not because of any innate inferiority among the females. According to her each sex
has attributes admired by the other and neither should be viewed as superior or inferior. The
psychological disorders were not caused by the fixation of psychic energy but from disturbed
interpersonal relationship during childhood.
Erik Erikson
He offered a framework to understand the needs of people in relation to society in which they
grow, learn and later make their contributions. He argued that development occurs throughout
the life span. Erikson’s theory has 8 stages of development which are as given in the table
Stage Age Crisis Adequate Inadequate Successful
Resolution Resolution development
leads to
1 0 to 1.5 years Trust v/s Basic sense of Insecurity, Hope
Mistrust safety, security, anxiety
Ability to rely on
forces outside self
2 1.5 to 3 years Autonomy Perception of self as Feelings of Willpower
v/s shame agent; capable of inadequacy
and doubt controlling one’s about self-
own body and control, control
making things of events
 happen
3 3 to 6 years Initiative v/s Confidence in Feeling of lack Purpose
Guilt oneself as being of self worth
able to initiate and
create
4 6 years to Industry v/s Adequacy in basic Lack of self Competence
puberty Inferiority social and confidence,
intellectual skills; feelings of
acceptance by peers failure
5 Adolescence Identity Comfortable sense Sense of self Fidelity
v/s of self as a person as
role both unique and fragmented
confusion socially accepted ,shifting
,unclear sense
of self
6 Early Intimacy Capacity for Feeling of Love
childhood v/s closeness and aloneness,
Isolation commitment to loneliness,
others separation,
denial of
intimacy needs
7 Middle Generativity Focus of concern Self-Indulgent
Care
Adulthood v/s beyond oneself, to concerns; lack
Stagnation family,society,futur of future
e orientation
generations
8 Late Integrity v/s Sense of Feelings of Wisdom
Adulthood Despair wholeness,basic futility,
satisfaction with life disappointment

Erikson considered each stage as involving a crisis. He viewed development as a life-long

process. In this process ego identity is central. His concept of identity crisis of adolescent has
drawn considerable attention. Erikson believed that “human personality in principle develops
according to steps pre-determined in the growing person’s readiness to be driven toward, to
be aware of, and to interact with a widening social radius”. Thus young people must generate
for themselves some central perspective and direction that gives them a meaningful sense of
unity and purpose

THE DISPOSITIONAL APPROACH

Many personologists have emphasized the understanding of personality in terms of
the dispositional qualities or tendencies that reside within the individual. Gordon
Allport, one of the most influential advocates of the dispositional perspective believed
 that each person is unique and that person’s uniqueness an best be captured by
specifying his or her particular personality traits. Allport (1937) proposed a precise definition
of personality which read as follows;” Personality is the dynamic organization within the
individual of those psychophysical systems that determine his characteristic behavior and
thought”
The dispositional approach to personality asserts that no two people are completely alike.
Any one person behaves in a consistent and different fashion for all others Allport’s
explanation for this is found in his concept of trait which he regarded as the most valid ”unit
of analysis” for representing what people are like and how they differ fro one another
behaviorally”. Allport defined a trait as a “neuro-psychic structure having the capacity to
render many stimuli functionally equivalent, and to initiate and guide equivalent
(meaningfully consistent) forms of adaptive and expressive behavior” .
A trait is what accounts for the more permanent ,enduring ,trans-situational features of our
behavior. It is a vital ingredient of our “personality structure” Allport(1937) proposed 3 types
of personal dispositions:
Cardinal Dispositions
A cardinal disposition is one that is so pervasive that almost everything a person does can be
traced to its influence. This highly generalized disposition cannot remain hidden unless it is a
trait such as seclusiveness, where its possessor might become a hermit whose dispositions
would be known to no one
Central dispositions
Less pervasive but still quite generalized characteristics of the person are called central
dispositions-the so called building blocks of personality. As such they represent those
tendencies n the person’s behavior that others can readily discern.
Secondary Dispositions
Traits that are less conspicuous, less generalized, less consistent and thus less relevant to the
definition of personality are called secondary dispositions. food and clothing preferences,
specific attitudes and situatonally determined characteristics of the person would be classified
under this rubric.

Evalauation
Criticisms
1) With exception of the field of expressive behavior, this theory has not been an efficient
generator of propositions for empirical test
 2 Many psychologists feel that one reason the theory has difficulty in making predictions is
that the concept of functional autonomy is not susceptible to empirical demonstration.

Contributions
1 Allport’s emphasis upon active ego functions and the concept of functional autonomy
are highly congruent with recent developments in psychoanalytic ego psychology
2 Its plentiful novel features must have consequences for future developments in
psychological theorizing

RAYMOND CATTELL:A Trait Theory of Personality.

Cattell’s theory seeks to explain the complicated transactions between the personality system and
the more inclusive sociocultural matrix of the functioning organism. He is convinced that an
adequate theory of personality must take into account the multiple traits that comprise the
personality, the extent to which these traits are genetically and environmentally determined.
According to Cattell(1965),personality is that which permits us to predict what a person will do in
a given situation. He classified traits into several ways:

1) Surface Traits v/s Source Traits

2) Constitutional v/s Environmental –Mold traits
3)Ability, Temperament and Dynamic Traits
4) Common v/s Unique Traits

Evaluation
Criticism
1)Cattell’s theory has been overlooked by many personality psychologists and is virtually
unknown among the general public
2)Cattell’s work is couched in technical language and thus difficult to understand.

Contribution
1)His research touched almost every issue in personality theory
2)His efforts to construct a theory based on precise measurement techniques
HANS EYESENCK:A Trait-Type Theory of Personality
The essence of Eyesenck’s theory is that the elements of personality can be arranged
hierarchically. In this scheme, certain supertraits or types, such as extraversion, exert a powerful
influence over behavior. In turn he sees each of these supertraits as being comprised of several
component traits. The component traits either are more superficial reflections of the underlying
type dimension or are specific qualities that contribute to that dimension. Finally traits are
composed of numerous habitual responses, which, in turn are derived from a multitude of specific
responses.

Basic personality types

Eyesenck(1947,1952) found two basic type dimensions that he labeled as introversion-
extraversion and neuroticism-stability
Evaluation
Criticism

Contribution
1)He is regarded by many psychologists as a first-rate scholar who is highly creative in his
attempts to establish a scientific model of personality structure and functioning.
2)He stressed the need for rigorous measurement as the cornerstone for constructing a sound
theory of personality.

THE LEARNING-BEHAVIORAL APPROACH

Personality from the learning perspective consists of all the tendencies a person has acquired over
the course of a lifetime. The learning-behavioral approach thus concerns itself with the person’s
overt actions as determined by his/her life experiences.
B.F.Skinner formulated this approach to studying personality which involves the discovery of
the unique pattern of relationships between the behavior of an organism and its reinforcing
consequences
Classical conditioning
Ivan Pavlov through his famous experiment discovered that if a previously neutral stimulus is
repeatedly paired with the UCS(unconditioned stimulus),eventually the neutral stimulus acquires
the capacity to elicit UCR(unconditioned response) when it is presented alone without the UCS.
PHASE OPERATIONS TECHNICAL TERMS
Pre-Experimantal 1.Dog in harness on several Habituation
occasion
2.Exposure to bell-
sound(initially neutral
stimulus)
3.One end of a tube grafted in

Experimental Trial
a dog’s jaw and the other in a
glass jar
Trial1:Paired representation of Neutral stimulus
sound bell followed by food ---Unconditioned
and saliva secretion. stimulus(US)

Trial 2: “ US-Unconditioned
Response(UR)
Trial 3: “ Conditioning or acquisition
trials
Test Trials Presentation of sound of bell Conditioned Stimulus(CS)
only and measurement of -conditioned Reponse(CR)
saliva secreted

Respondent behavior is skinner’s version of Pavlovian or classical conditioning. He also called it

Type S conditioning to stress the significance of the stimulus that comes before and elicits the
response.

Operant conditioning
This type of conditioning was first investigated by B.F. Skinner. Operants are those behaviors or
responses which are emitted by animals and human beings voluntarily and are under their
control. Skinner called it as ‘Type R conditioning. That is, a behavior is followed by a
consequence and the nature of the consequence modifies the organism’s tendency to repeat the
behavior in future .If the consequences are favorable for the organism, then the likelihood of the
operant being emitted again in the future is thereby increased. When this happens, the
consequence is said to be reinforcing and the operant response which has been affected by the
reinforcement has been conditioned. This is termed as positive reinforcement
Alternatively. if response outcomes are unfavorable then the likelihood of the operant occurring
again has decreased. This is called as negative reinforcement.
Punishment-Punishment refers to any aversive stimulus or event whose presentation follows and
depends on the occurrence f some operant response. Instead of strengthening the response it
follows, punishment decreases the probability that the response will occur. the intended purpose
of punishment is to induce people not to behave in certain ways.
Negative Reinforcement-It is the process whereby the organism terminates. escapes or avoids an
aversive stimulus .Any behavior that prevents an aversive state of affairs thereby tends to increase
in frequency and is said to be negatively reinforced.
In Skinner’s system, the tendency of reinforced behavior to extend to a variety of related settings
is called stimulus generalization. Behavior strengthened in one situation is likely to recur when
the organism encounters other situations that resemble the original one.
Stimulus discrimination, the opposite of generalization is the process of learning how to repond
appropriately in various environmental settings. Discrimination is acquired through through
reinforcement of response in the presence of some stimuli and nonreinforcemnt of them in the
presence of other stimuli.

Evaluation
Criticisms
1)An adequate understanding of human behavior must involve more than a slavish application of
the experimental methods of physical science
2)The investigation underlying this theory have been carried out on animal species that is
phylogenetically far removed from and manifestly different in many crucial aspects from the
human species.
Contributions
1)The biggest contribution is in the careful detail with which this position represents the learning
process. S-R theory provides a model to be emulated by other theoretical positions
2)The S-R theorists have a better sense of the nature and function of the theory in any empirical
discipline than any other group of personality theorists.

THE HUMANISTIC APPROACH

Humanistic psychology offers a radically different picture of our species. Personologists claim
that human beings are intrinsically good and self –perfecting. According to this view, it is human
nature to move consistently in the direction of personal growth, creativity and self-sufficiency
,unless there are extremely strong environmental conditions to the contrary .

Abraham Maslow
Abraham maslow is generally acknowledged as the foremost spokesperson for humanistic
personality theory.Maslow believed that people are motivated to seek personal goals that make
their lives rewarding and meaningful.As one general type of need is satisfied ,another surface s
and commands the person’s attention and efforts.He proposed that all human needs are innate and
that they are systematically arranged in an asending hierarchy of priority.
Underlying this scheme is the assumption that lower-order needs ,prepotent needs must be
relatively satisfied before the person can be aware of or motivated y higher order needs.
Gratification of needs lower in the hierarchy allows for awareness of and motivation by needs
higher in the hierarchy.

Evaluation
Criticism
1) Too many exceptions-Too many people seem to be highly productive and creative even though
their basic needs do not seem to have been satisfied. Although Maslow noted such exception, he
did little to account for them.
2)Unscientific Approach-Maslow has been accused of using uncontrolled and unreliable research
techniques, basing his conclusions about self actualizing people on a small sample of people
accepting a valid the conscious self-reports of his subjects.
Contribution
1)It vastly increased psychology’s domain by starting the study on healthy humans
2)Maslow’s theory has been highly influential in the areas of education, business, religion and
child rearing.

Carl Roger’s Self Theory

The most important idea proposed by Rogers is that of fully functioning person. People want to
become such persons and move in this direction. Rogers believed that one’s mental health is
related to the degree of congruence or match between our self-concept and life experiences. If our
self-concept is consistent with actual life-experiences, we ourselves will be congruent and we will
be well adjusted. The opposite is true when there is little or no overlap between the two. Thus, we
learn that significant others will approve of us only when we behave in certain ways and express
certain feelings. This situation needs creation of an atmosphere of unconditional positive regard.
Thus, a person is accepted irrespective of what they say or do. Such a condition is created in a
client-centered therapy.

CONGRUENCE in a well-adjusted individual

INCONGRUENCE in a poorly adjusted individual

Evaluation
Criticism
1)Overly simplistic and optimistic approach. Real people, say critics, experience hate as much as
love and are often motivated by sexual desires.
2)Important aspects of Personality ignored or denied. Rogers essentially dismissed the darker side
of human nature. He also said very little about the development of personality.

Contributions
1)Alternative, Positive view of humans, Rogers helped to illuminate a facet of human nature that
was previously obscure.
2)Applied Value-Rogers person-centered psychology has been applied in such diverse areas as
religion,nursing,dentistry etc.

EXISTENTIAL APPROACH

Largely dispensing with psychological constructs and theories about personality, the existential
approach characterizes human beings as creatures of continual change and transformation, living
essentially finite lives in a context of personal strengths and weaknesses as well as opportunities
and limitations created by their environment. With attention given to this entire context of the
client's life, the existential approach is all about exploring meaning and value and learning to live
authentically -- that is, in accordance with one's own ideals, priorities and values. Authentic living
means being true to oneself and honest about one's own possibilities and limitations, continually
creating one's own identity even in the face of deep uncertainty about everything in the future
except for the eventual arrival of our own death. Authentic living means living deliberately,
rather than by default. The role of the existential therapist is really to facilitate the client's own
encounter with themselves, to work alongside them in the job of exploring and understanding
better the client's values, assumptions and ideals. The therapist is concerned to engage seriously
with what matters most to the client, to avoid imposing their own judgements, and to help the
client to elucidate and elaborate on their own perspective, with an ultimate view to the client's
being able to live life well and in their own way.

In the course of exploring the client's world, the therapist may appeal to a 4-part framework
encompassing the client's existence in the physical dimension of the natural world, the body,
health and illness; the social dimension of public relationships; the psychological or personal
dimension, where we experience our relationship with ourselves as well as intimacy with others;
and the spiritual dimension of ideals, philosophy and ultimate meaning.

The existential approach seeks clarity and meaning in all these dimensions and thus, in a sense, it
begins with a significantly broader view of human existence than those approaches which focus
on specific psychological mechanisms or which focus on the self as a meaningful entity,
separable from its relations and interactions with the surrounding world.

Evaluation

Criticisms

1)more narrow than some other approaches in terms of the client set whose concerns it can most
successfully address

2)Clients who are less inclined to examine and explore their personal assumptions and ideals, or
who would like to achieve immediate relief of specific psychological symptoms -- as well as
those who would like advice or diagnosis from their counsellor -- will probably find less value in
existential counselling.

Contributions

1) clients who view their problems as challenges of living, rather than symptoms of
psychopathology, and clients who are genuinely attracted to increasing self awareness
and self examination, will be well served by existential counselling
 2) it begins with a significantly broader view of human existence than other approaches

COGNITIVE APPROACH

Psychology was institutionalised as a science in 1879 by Wilhelm Wundt who found the first
psychological laboratory. His initiative was soon followed by other European and American
Universities. These early laboratories, through experiments, explored areas such as memory and
sensory perception, both of which Wundt believed to be closely related to physiological processes
in the brain. The whole movement had evolved from the early philosophers, such as Aristotle and
Plato. Today this approach is known as Cognitive Psychology.

Cognitive Psychology revolves around the notion that if we want to know what makes people
tick then the way to do it is to figure out what processes are actually going on in their minds. In
other words, psychologists from this perspective study cognition which is ‘the mental act or
process by which knowledge is acquired.’ The cognitive approach is concerned with “mental”
functions such as memory, perception, attention etc. It views people as being similar to
computers in the way we process information (e.g. input-process-output). For example, both
human brains and computers process information, store data and have input an output procedures.
This had led cognitive psychologists to explain that memory comprises of three stages: encoding
(where information is received and attended to), storage (where the information is retained) and
retrieval (where the information is recalled). It is an extremely scientific approach and typically
uses lab experiments to study human behaviour. The cognitive approach has many applications
inlcuding cognitive therapy and eyewitness testimony.

BIOLOGICAL APPROACH

We can thank Charles Darwin (1859) for demonstrating in the idea that genetics and evolution
play a role in influencing human behaviour. Theorists in the biological perspective who study
behavioural genomics consider how genes affect behaviour. Now that the human genome is
mapped, perhaps, we will someday understand more precisely how behaviour is affected by the
DNA we inherit. Biological factors such as chromosomes, hormones and the brain all have a
significant influence on human behaviour, for example gender.

The biological approach believes that most behaviour is inherited and has an adaptive (or
evolutionary) function. For example, in the weeks immediately after the birth of a child, levels of
testosterone in fathers drop by more than 30 per cent. This has an evolutionary function.
Testosterone-deprived men are less likely to wander off in search of new mates to inseminate.
They are also less aggressive, which is useful when there is a baby around.

Biological psychologists explain behaviours in neurological terms, i.e. the physiology and
structure of the brain and how this influences behaviour. Many biological psychologists have
concentrated on abnormal behaviour and have tried to explain it. For example biological
psychologists believe that schizophrenia is affected by levels of dopamine (a neurotransmitter).
These findings have helped psychiatry take off and help relieve he symptoms of the mental illness
through drugs. However Freud and other disciplines would argue that this just treats the
symptoms and not the cause. This is where health psychologists take the finding that biological
psychologists produce and look at the environmental factors that are involved to get a better
picture

Evaluation

Criticisms

It's reductionist, which leads to the following criticisms:

(a) If someone comes to you with depression is it any use to them to tell them that their serotonin
receptors are not functioning properly?
(b) Mind/body problem 1: psychology has great influence on physiology (stress and illness)
(c) Mind/body problem 2: sensation is not necessarily the same as perception
(d) Consciousness: what is it, where is it and is it any use finding it?
(e) What about free will? Biological approach advocates determinism

Contributions

If we know the physiological basis of some aspects of behaviour (e.g. depression) then we can
treat the problem using drugs, which could solve the problem entirely if it's simply a
straightforward chemical imbalance. Plus, some aspects of physiology and anatomy are very
useful when it comes to diagnosing brain damage etc.

Approaches Conclusion
Therefore, in conclusion, there are so many different approaches to psychology to explain the
different types of behaviour and give different angles. No one approach has explanatory powers
over the rest. Only with all the different types of psychology which sometimes contradict one
another (nature-nurture debate), overlap with each other (e.g. psychoanalysis and child
psychology) or build upon one another (biological and health psychologist) can we understand
and create effective solutions when problems arise so we have a healthy body and healthy mind.

The fact that there are different approaches represents the complexity and richness of human (and
animal) behaviour. A scientific approach, such as behaviourism or cognitive psychology, tends to
ignore the subjective (i.e. personal) experiences that people have. The humanistic approach does
recognise human experience, but largely at the expense of being non-scientific in its methods and
ability to provide evidence. The psychodynamic approach concentrates too much on the
unconscious mind and childhood. As such it tends to lose sight of the role of socialisation (which
is different in each country) and the possibility of free will. The biological approach reduces
humans to a set of mechanisms and physical structures that are clearly essential and important
(e.g. genes). However, it fails to account for consciousness and the influence of the environment
on behaviour.

REFERENCES
1. Rosen Ephraim, Fox Ronald E., Gregory Ian.(1972).Abnormal Psychology. Second
Edition. Philadelphia and London : W. B. SAUNDERS COMPANY

2. Coleman James C.(1976).Abnormal Psychology and Modern Life. Fifth Edition. United
States of America : Scott, Foresman and Company

3. Carson Robert C, Butcher James N.(2007). Abnormal Psychology.13th Edition. South

Asia : Pearson Education Inc

4. Sarason Irwin G. (1972). Abnormal Psychology-the problem of maladaptive behavior.

New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

5. Hall C.S., Lindzey G.R., Campbell, J.B. (1997). Theories of Personality . Fourth edition.
New York: John Wiley & Sons

6.