LINIQIJETECHNOCRATS

TESTING& WELDING OF NON-DESTRUCTIVE SCHOOL

MAGNETIC PARTICLE TESTING

LEVEL- I/ LEVEL- II

S.H.DESTTPANDE
ASNTLEVEL- III

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OFFICE; R-EGD, UMQUETECHNOCRATS NO,9153 NO.47, P.O.BOX
MAGADI ROAD STINKADAKATTE - 560091 BANGALORE - 080- 3486659 13489140 PH.NO. -080-3485374 FAX

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EMAIL - weldaids@yahoo.com

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o o o o ( I Nl a q E o a a CLE EXAMINATI ON C PARTI MAGN ETI o o o INTRODUCTION o method may be used for FERROMAGNETIC The Magneticparticleexamination on or near- surfaces' o & otherdiscontinuities cract<s to detect materials o intothreegroups' canbe grouped materials Metallic

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FERRo-MAGNETICMATER|ALS-Materialswhichgetstrong|yattractedtomagne linesof force' an easypathfor magnetic ii"to. a provide etc' Nickel - lron'Cobalt, Examples to magnets& - Materials which get weaklyattracted MATERIALS PARAMAGNETIC linesof force' pathfor magnetic piouiO" a reluctant etc' TANTALUM LITHIUM' MOLYBDENUM' Examples- MAGNESIUM, ano oo by magnets get weaklyrepelled - Materials which MATERIALS DIAMAGNETIC linesof force' any pathfor magnetic noi proviOe GOLDetc' SILVER, ExamPles- COPPER, IN CAN BE USEDVERY SUCCESSFULLY EMMINATION PARTICLE MAGNETIC .FERROMAGNETIC' MATERIALS. an areato be magnetizing involves EXAMINATION PARTICLE MAGNETIC In principle, will form to the surface.The particles particles tli.."gn"ii" and,apptytng examined, in the disiortion cause patternson the surface*n"i" cia"t s or other discontinuities

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Magnetic by qualified be interpreted nearthe test surface, ""n "nO technicians.

on or of disconiinuities thenature retated_to rn"l,i p"tt"msare. Inspection Particle

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THEORY in it which are magneticatly hqye to considered is Eachmaterial lgveraf-11-l!3reas oriented Wlgn a magnetrc Theseare ranaomty similar.Theseare calledobfvrntNs' on whetherthe materialis oin"t"ntrv-oepenJins ootuin''o'il'ii tn" applied, is filed NEr Ic NETIc or DIAMAG ir Ic, PARAMAG N|-ACN ;; RR-o ? APPLIED FIELD HOWIS MAGNETIC domainsr'e" tlid to containmagnetic - All materials MAGNETISM 1f" OF annulledas THEORY all domains'gets ln: O"tliJrv t"g""tl" fields' -"1::tdbf an external behavelike individuat magnetic H"*"i'"1i1 oistno'li""i] randomlv material' are the tl:::l* of they o"p"noingon the nature way g", on"nr.l'in a particular thesedomains

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Fig l the north & south poles combine ferromagnetic in that, -materials' causetne tt can be seen suchalignments Concepiually' effect ,nong';i"Ji"tic producing tooether, PoLES' pdr-rs " a sourH :;Y.ilil'il.iXn6nrH & LIKEPOLESREPELEACHOTHER. ATTRAC;;;LH OTHER POLES UN-LIKE Page2of 37

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REPEL A T T R A C IT

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Fig'2

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ji5tJ?::*"#"jl'i,il'',ilf Dependinsonthestrensth;ilT i:Elili:[{jl'* rrom-Ie^ iE"u" ,'";U;; t"e ir" l::j,.:!;j;ui:i."J ffilt.iffiil?iT"; ":t"iJi"" point,i" g:'9; a-nv tnemasnet
inruence much how :lil""}!:'lf":$:'.'oiiii,'H;; determtnes point Thisproperty
at"that SThENG+i
hasat thatPoint linesof force. Theyare concepiual these of properties Thereare somespecific & AT THE NORTHPOLE MAGNET THE OF FORCE]'EAVE LINES i\ MAGNETIC 'ile:EN;Ln PoLE'

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F&"'$''ILI i) Hl5N#P.*F,li$\,"+'5J'5i3+3$iI' t8,flt'^?il-H

t.g-;ii'0" count)' & Direction

CROS$EACHOTHER' THEYNEVER

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Vector Fieid f)iitgrain

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r- oNlo(|E o o ExamPlesa Variousmateria|saredifferentfromeachotherintheirmagneticbehavior.Theterms o used to describetheseare o i)PERMEAB|L|TY-The..easewithwhichamagneticflledisestablished'..inth o field' of a magnetrc

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to theestablishment or amount [Ell!'3io*at - opposition mut"rl"it; ;iui'i a certain oi-tt't" l'friiiv r'rli RETENTIvITY ts removeo' filedt-"o*iitt magnetic whenthe external

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filed magnetic aftertheexternal v)coERctVEroRce.-rnereversemagnetizingforcenecessarytoremove filed magnetic ot residual "flct

STEEL H|GHCARBON PERMEABILITY LOW CARBONSTEEL HIGH LOW LOW LOW LOW LOW

in thematerial or r"-g;"ti.t retained rrancruiri3ili'--+n"""r"""t RES|DUAL is remove-d'

HIGH nElucrnuce HIGH dEienrvrrv HIGH MAcNETISM nEsiounrHIGH HEiir-mvrw FoRcE HIGH CoeCsrve

LOW

|tcanbeobservedftomlheabovetab|ethatmateria|scanwide|ydifferinvarious magnetic ProPerties. Thereareothercharaderisticsofmagnetic|inesofforce.Theyare. lines of force can pack themselves magnetic the materials' permeable ln highly i) densely' n, r+ nf the rhc magnel maonet at the northpole'they lookfor least a of out are force of iit On"" tit" lines "t pathto the southpole' resistance

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ln a horseshoeshaped the linesof force Magnet & enter leavethe northPole pole. the south magnetisable Theyattract onlyat north& southpoles. material
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magnet, In a cylindrical never force of lines the leavethe magnet.

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FIELD IS EHI IREl.Y

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in lf thereare cracks shown' as the magnet force of lumP the lines the crackto cause across field' a leakage

FI LO WILL LAKACE TIC ATIf,ACI T.|AC8 P,IIICLES

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evendefects Sometimes' can . . the magnet inside fluxoutsloe causeleakage whichcan.. the magnet, materials

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OF MEASUREMENT UNITS to the per unitareaat rightangles frux magnetic of lines of to the no. refers FluxDensity of the fluxlines Direction / m2 GAUSS = 10aWebers
passlngthro' 1 TESLA= 1oE Lines of force pointof interest' m2area aroundthe

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o GURRENT EFFecT oF ELECTRIG MAGNETTG o fietdis is!ssed erect.c,ty whenever a !|rfi:Y[t"ruti$r?l;"#33l3lli aroundthe conot JlXTSl"1:ffi oroduced o TESTING' PARTICLE in MAGNETIC useful very is property This a RIGHTHANDRULE o termlnal' to negative terminal positive from flow to is considered current Electrical o o o a FORCE. , Ai o t' -=? ./ \ \ r \ :, \r, a a

l TESLA= 104Guass = 104Linesof force/ m1 GAUSS

i*rydffii:tr* {iffi #rfr#fl f#:ffi

7r-<-(\.
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l0 DIREC TSc t CURREIiI

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O FI H f ON D I f l E CIT FILO uAGNEIIC ) (LINLS O FF O R C

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LEFTHANDRULE

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InelectronictheoryofElectricity,thedirectionofe|ectronf|owisfrom-ivetermin ivetermina|'Thatis,erectronnowisinoppositedirectiontoconventiona|curren ie' RULEis applicable LEFTHAND In thiscase, WITHOUR LEFTHANDIN CUNDUCTOR CARRYING THE CURRENT IF WE HOLD OF FLOW OF IS POITTIUCIN THE D1RECTION iHJT'NE SUCHA WAY THATTTTE THECONDUCTOR.

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AROUND wnnpp_ro & THEOrH;n"Fir'rcEns ELECTRONS OF THE THEDIRECTION INDICATE OFrr-rEtiHiN FiII-CENS THEDIRECTION
OF FORCE. LINES FOR LINES DIRECTION NOTETHAT BOTHTHE RULESGIVETHE SAME PLEASE OF FORCE. OF MAGNETISATION METHODS

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Usingtheprincip|eofexistenceofamagneticfi|edaroundacurrentcarryingconduc can Deusedfor magnetizationSomeof them are' varioustechniques 1. 2. 3. 4. s;. 1. PRODMAGNETISATION LONGITUDINALMAGNETISATION MAGNETISATION CIRCUI.AR YOKEMAGNETISATION MULTIDIREcTIoNALMAGNETISATIoN PRODMAGNETISATION are electriccurrent is passed through two prods which ln prod magnetization, since tr;-t""t surface,using an electric power source. held pressed as shownin the is CIRCULAR "g;Ji tiie pto, magnetiJfield is passed,iit""gh current Fig.10.

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T I O N SA R E S H O W NB E L O W -

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CLRR'ST

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PPOOS

Fig.10

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Thetwoprodscanbeconneciedtotheendsofth etestpiece&m ag net ized.EVenthe current the to fierd is perpendicular ;" th; magnetic the magneiicfieto is circJra*i, carryingconductor. Seesketchbelow to ensurecurrent switchis builtintothe prodhandles control a remote To avoidarcing, positioned' i;;*tch"d oninly afterthe prodsarefirmly should nol be very high 1o prevent The open circuit voltage of the power source are also low O C'V power possibility of electric.no"x' Sind weldingpowersources welding machine. However' they can O" u""O-*iGin-ine &pacity of the producers, are jeneraltybuiltwithmuchlowerOCVS' MT equipments modern is relatedto PROD currentand the magnitude The currentto be usedis Direct/ rectified

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8"generallv' exceeds never sPAclNG

using is calculated magnetization for adequate requirement Current < 3/4"' foj t!f, d component 10 Amps/ inchof prodspacing 90-1 >

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3/4"' r oo-iis Atiip. / inchoi prodspaciigtor thk of component or lo geometry component a93,1moOate maybe.require$ of prodspacing Reduction io of magnettc < 3,,is rarelyusedas the banding pnoii'Spacing sensitivity. increase withindications' interferes particles so that a propercontactis easlly The tips of the prodsare madeof soft materials dressed. & thepiodtipscanbe readily ""ni"Go 9 of 37 Page

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MAGNETISATION LONGITUDINAL to the field will be perpendicular When curreni is passedthrougha coil, magnetic longitudinally' the coil placedinside andwillenteia testspecimen of curreni direction

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Whenanumberofturnsexistinacoil,eachturnproduces|inesoffluxofitsowni t w o t u r n s c o i | s w i | l p r o d u c e t w i c e t h e l i n e s o f f l u x a s a o n eused' -turncoi|.Astandardc be could turns or less more though even oi5tums, g"n"iifly consists OF THE COIL $URFACE AT THE INSIDE FIELDIS GREATEST THE MAGNETIC shou|dbe near the inner surfaceof the coil. coNcLUS|oN : Partsfor lnspection magnetization' OrnebiOCnECTtFlEDCUR{ENTshallbe usedfor longitudinal based a component for be calculated or cunentrequiredcan field strengtn The required D of the component' on the lengihL & Diameter PARTSWITH L/D > 4. Amoere-turns= 35.000 (UD\+2 i.e'' max length in morethanone position be examined should the component lf L> 18',, 'l = S" even for longer to be examinedin a srngleshot is l s". The value of L comoonents. diagonal' parts, D is the max cross- section For non-cylindrical Page10 of 37

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usinga magnetized is to be longitudinal Exampte1 - A partof 16"length& 2" diameter ? the cunentrequired 5 turncoilcalculate LID= 1612-8>4 :: = 35000 = Ampere-turns LID+2 3500 35000 8+2 = 35000 10

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No.,of turns= 5 = Ampere turns = required Current No.,of turns 3500 = 5 700Amps.

usinga magnetised is to be longitudinal & 2" diameter Example2 - A partof 24" length the currentrequired? 5 turn coil calculate of part= 24" > 18" Length twice. The parthasto be magnetized L = ' 1 8 "0 = 2 " UD-1812=9>4 Ampereturns= @.QQ UD+2 = 5 No.,of turns Amperes=Ampere-turns No.,of turns PARTSWITH UD between2 & 4. Ampere-turns = 45000 UD = 35000 9+2 3200 = 35000 11 = 3200approx.

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640Amps.

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& 4" dlameteris to be Example 3 - A part of 12" length

magnetizedusrng a longitudinal

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required' thecurrent calculate

= 3 LtD= 12"t4"

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= 45900 AmPere-turns= 4?0:90 U D o - turns = 15000 AmPere = Amperc-:-tulns current required No.of turns 1.9Pq c = 3000A

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value' be + 10%of calculated should testing for used The currentactualty MAGNETISATION CIRCULAR by two methods can be inducedin a slecimefl Circularmagnetizatlon CONTACT-TECHNIQUE r HEADSHOT/ DIRECT

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TECHNIQUE CONTACT HEADSHOT' D]RECT

the Part to be examined' passing bv is accomplished t]:?ll,iltounn will get inducedcircularlY Magnetization

Themagnetichnesor''ux'wnic-nareperpendiculartorl

the sPecimen' around

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Bings Direct Contacl Method ot Magnetiring

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usedfor cunentis usedfor this technique.The current Direct/ rectified -

magneiizatron

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- sectional diagonalin a plane tl"S*.?t::L:i:.ts components' ln case of non-circular to ine citectiohof cunentflow is considered oft"i^cLi"i can also be by PERTMETER obtained diniension shapes,.the ooo some of case the rn 3 14 current' tne magneiizaiion usedto determine TECHNIQUE CONDUCTOR CENTRAL

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Fig 13 by.passingthro' a cential conductor technique this in accomplished is Magnetization pid'""t a circular.magnetic conouctor

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in! tne which around closeto the inside located U'e ""JiiJi"s "ompon"nit cl-nductorsnoutJ t#;;li'.}n; magnetizes which fietd. partslikerings/ cylrnders rnr.iltn"iqr" L-"*ti*."rv u.efulfor of the cyrincler. surface carcurated is.to b-e_ requiieomagnetization ,"q;;;;;;biaining current The bores. / is used lf morethanone ;t'l^n':::tduCtor p'J"io"S t"in"i contacl theDirect using wouldhaveto be required the then condlctor' centrai tne in used is turn "tp"i"g" bYto theno.,of turns' divided
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YOKEMETHOD producedis lonqitudinal Yoke is essentially magnetization the method, this ln eitherbe a periranentmagnetor magnetlsm f"n tugnut"'li shaped horseshoe coil carryingcurrent' in the soft f'on noi="tfto" by a multiturn produced

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yoke is used- Above Thismethodisextremetyusefu|for''deteclionofdiscontinuitiesopentothesurface JireJ cu'renteteciiomagnetic #;;ii altemating this technique, to direcicurrent yokes / permanent superior are *"?nilir"l 6 mm thk., alternating magnet YokesMAGNETISATION MULTI- DIRECTIONAL pu"nt by high amperag" q:Y:: accomplished is magnetization Multi directional rapid succession The tn"'g'.t"d o1"-^?1,;'time'in tnuil'" circuits three ooerating ;it"nt is to producean overall magnetizilg alternating rapidly these effectof combined in the comPonent' magnetizatlon for magnetization'.The current current. rectified / P ,*?9. longitudinal Three phase, full wave usiig tne"appropriate establisheO be to crrcuit.is eacn for reouirement principles' magnetization "itirt"t Page14 of 37

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CURRENT MAGNETISING

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/ Sec' (AC)of 50 cycles Current as Alternate Mostpoweris transmitted to transmitted particle testingis quitelow comOgre! for magnetic required -"U.ing' The voltage bring about this reductionIn transformeis O"esigneO efficiently po*.r. .can substantially particletestingequipment in magnetic voltaoe. The reduceouoriug""r of theseequipments' of operation *nitiUut" to the safety only This leadsto a situation of the condudors tendsto flowin the surface AC current with.AC cunent also are strongonly at the surface fieldsasiociated where magnetic suited for detectionof surface and rapidlv reduce rnwards' Hence,AC is best is as shownin Fig AC waveform ;;;;"^til;iii".. A tvpical

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F i g .1 5 it tendsto provide timesin a second, several direction cnanges current Sincea|ternate mobileand hencehelps to the magnetrc'Fu'ti"f *ni"h makesthemmore an aoitation "i, fieldsmoreclearly' showleakage tnem-to of AC currentby variousmethods by rectificatior can be obtained CURRENT DIRECT half of iio-J"i, inu"ti"rs etc' -The methodin which bottom like usingbridgecircuits, waveform and the Half-waverectification i* each cycle is eliminated "alled "iiog"in"i p.O""to is discontinuous Paoe15 of 37

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CURRENT HALF. WAVEDIRECT

Fig.16 AC & DC and is very useful in advantages some has DC wave with such half :Mh Such fieldproduced of magnetic perietration ot Jepin r il particle t"sting maonetic eliminated is almost ,ii;* iin" iil'iiaiion ot nc waie forms is substantiaily warTeforms

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cURRENT iur-i wnveDlREcr

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Fig 17 waveform by reversingthe bottom half of the obtained be waveform.can of type This fullwaverectification. it called n' thaneliminatlng rather of "nit the surfaceis improved'but mobility from field magnetic of penetration The deothof

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F i g .1 8 the 3 plraseshavinga lag between 3-individual of consist Even 3-phasepower,(which rectified current offers the highest wave Full t""titi"O wave ohases) can be full defects' lvins

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ofdeep n"ipi']lnJ"i""tion otten

LOOP HYSTERISIS in of matenal lf we Placea Piece

8. iFLUx OENSITYI

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F O R C EO F {AIA6NETIZING P O L A R I T Y7 0 I ] . , OPP OSTTE

( \ l A G NE T t Z l t l 6 FORCE}

oF ogPOSlTE * ,rau* or"t'tt TO8.I POLARITY

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field & measurethe flux densitycausedby it in the material,we can A magnetic increase fieldon the material.lf we gradually Ofthe magnetic the influence understand But increasing. keeps in the steelalso developed field,the flux density the magnetic flux field will no longerproduceincreased in the magnetic beyonda point,increase of the shape point. the shows OA the saturation in ihe matelal. Thisis called density is what this bbtainedif a graphwere lo be drawn. In a typicalAC waveform, curue the current When the 1o in Quarter. keeps increasing happenswhen AC iuirent also.reduces density in the secondhalf,the flux (Mignetizing forceH) keepsreducing path. When currentbecomes the original than retracing path rather the AB but tottows but a finitevalue. This flux not zero, is half,the flux density zero at the end of second in startsincreasing Whenthe current FLUXDENSITY. the RESIDUAL is called density till such time it the flux densitykeepsreducing in the 3'dquarter, direction the reverse 'C' as the currentkeeps increasing direction reachesO at point and then reverses further. When the curfentteachesmax.,the flux densitywould have reachedthe point 'D'. tn the fourthquarter, the when the currentstartsfallingin the reversedirection' againin thefirstquafterof the second increasing starts current DE. \A/hen curvefollows cycle,the curvetracsEFA. the flux density thatthereis a lag between aboveshows LOOPdescribed HYSTERISIS force. in the partandthe magnetizing

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magnetism Residual
OIN5ITYI B+ (FLUX

R C I V EF O R CE COE

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TI5M R S I O U ^ LM A 6 N E

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F i g2 l field'& requiring highresidual high having q:n::llitv' marerial ' a magnels "permanent A, represents Fioure making for torce.Sucj'niateriatJarJsrited a 6ighcoercive

high q:'ile:!:"$oL'iilHJ";fH?'3?Es;:::[: amateriarhavins Brepresents Fisure -' g n etti

tos '"'i""n ffi l'%"T'l;; ;:tTfi T'::: "" :: Jil%,*"l,[3'"J l.i:,*J'."'

demagnetized. fromthe abovediscussion' conclusions We candrawthe followtng 1. When electricityis passedthrougn currenl in themlagselectric lnauceO

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magnetic fielc

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of force lose the abilityto a$ractlrnes materials POINT' BeyondSATURATION further. o POINT are characteristrcs SATURATION HIGH & HIGH PERMEABILTY easily& sufficiently thatcanget magnetized materials FORCT COERCIVE RESIDUAI HIGH / l-lE*lD^:,H|GH H|GH RELUCTANCE in them' retainmagnetism in"i""n materiatt ot arecharacieristics
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reluctance& materialsdiffer in their permeability, DifferentFerro-magnetic particle to magnetic theirsuitability will determine forceandtheirvalues coercive testing.

CONDUCTORS THROUGH CURRENT ELECTRIC EFFECT OF PASSING We also typesof conductors. on various Now,we needio studythe effectof electricity passed thro' iypes of currentare when different what happens need to understand fieldinduced wherethe magnetic to determine are veryimportant them. Theseaspects would be TESTING PARTICLE & hencewherethe MAGNETIC in the part is highest mosteffective, 1. D.C. CARRYING CONDUCTOR SOLID NON-MAGNETIC

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like copper.the conductor where D.c. current is passingthrougha non-magnetic it. in & around fieldexists howmagnetic sketchbelowshows

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CONDUCTOR in sollD NON-MAGNETIC is introduced D.C. current As magnetizing i) ii) iii) ZERO' is always of the conductor at the centre fieldinduced Magnetic upto its suriace. incfeases linearly filedstrength magnetic within the conductor, the valueis the highest. At the surface, the magneticfield strengthreducesinverselywith the surface, the outside fromthe centreof the conductordistance

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D'C. - MAGNETIC CARRYING SOLIDCONDUCTOR FERRO

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flowsthroughFerro- magneticconductor, D.C.current As magnetizing i) i;) iii) iv) stillZERO. is always of the conductor at the centre fieldinduced Magnetic linearly increases field strength magnetic conductor, Witiin tne Ferro-magnetic of the on the permeability valuedepending butio a muchhigher uptoits surface, conductor. Ferro-magnetic dropsto the same value as what would the valueimmediately At the surface, conductor' havebeenin the caseof a non-magnetic from with the distance inversely field reduces magnetic the the surface, Outside of ihe conductor. the centre of37 Page21

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D'C. CARRYING CONDUCTOR HOLLOW NON-MAGNETIC

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WHERE R r RAOT(JS F - FIELOAI IHE SURFACE THER2R FROM THE CEIfiEN IHE FIELO WII 8E I-FTC 2

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AsmagnetizingD.C.Currentflowsthro'non-magneticho||owconductor, ,) ii) centre) is always Magneticfield insidethe entire hollowsportion (including ZERO. from zero at the increases the field linearly conductor, Insidethe non-magnetic at the surfaceof the non-magnetic insidewall of nofl6* portionto maximum conductor. conductorsurface,the field strengthreduces Away from the non-magnetic fromcentre' with the distance inversely

iii)

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D'C' CARRYING CONDUCTOR - MAGNETIC HOLLOW FERRO

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Fig.25 conductor' Ferro-magnetic hollow flowsthrough D.Ccurrent As magnetizing zero' is always fieldat the centre The generated i) field exisis as you move magnetic growing slow a hollow.portion' Insidethe ii) the materlal towards

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i i i ) | n t h e s o l i d p o r t i o n o f t h e h o | | o w f e r r o - m a permeability) gneticcond uctor,magneticfie|dgro linearly' t"i;tdependingin at a rapidpaceto nigi't " downto a lowervalue a Opgs vertically highest is field magnetic surface, At the iv) fromthe centre' the distance and,then ,t",t, o'oppinginv"rs"ty'*itn Page23 ol 37

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A'c' coNDUcroRCARRYING NON-MAGNETIC soLlD/ HoLLOW

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Fig' 26 conductor' non-magnetic thro'solid/hollow flows Cunent A.C' magnetilng As centre)will alwaysoe (including hole the of wall inner the upto field Magnetic i) ZERO.
ii)

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iii)Outsidethesurface,magneticfielddropsinverselywiththedistancefrom centre. Page24 of 37

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A'C' CARRYING . MAGNETIC CONDUCTOR FERRO SOLID/ HOLLOW

PEA( FLUXOEI{SITY

O CF L U X OISTRIEUTIOH FIfLO SIRENCTX ^C FLUX 0r5IRr8ulr0H

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srtL8^R
Field Dislrlbtrtloo In and Around a Hollow MagnetlcConductorCarrylng AC

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A C., conductor carrying flowsthro'ferro-magnetic A.C.Current Whenmagnetizing 1. 2. also fieldwhichis growing the centre) willhavenegligible portion (including Hollo very slowly. the field rapidlyincreases conductor, of Ferro-magnetic at the surface Suddenly falls to a value and rapidly on permeability) to a very high value(depending to p = 1, just outsidethe surface corresponding with fieldwill drop inversely the magnetic As you moveawayfrom the surface, fromthe centre. the distance

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: conclusions We candrawihe following

1.

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in is restricted to mainlythe surfaceof the conductor field produced Magnetic whenA C Currentis used. conductor bothferro & non - magnetic is always conductor at the centreof a currentcarrying fieldproduced Magnetic conductor). for A.C.& D.C.as alsosolid& hollow ZERO(both the is alwaysthe highestat the surfaceof conductor, field produced Magnetic & D C' in bothA C of the material on the permeability peai valuedep'ending

2.

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field exists in the hole of a hollow Ferro increasing A very week & sheggishly condudor. magnetic

testing is alwaysto locate the object io be tested in the Our aim in magneticparticte to getgoodresults' fieldparticle highest FLUIDS & SUSPENSION PARTICLES OF MAGNETIC PROPERTIES basedon the mediumin which they are canied to the are classified Magneticparticles part. DRYPARTICLES WET PARTICLESin air Carried in Carried

i) water

ii) oil

as i) Visible& ii) Fluorescent can alsobe classified Magneticparticles

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Page26 of 37

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(|Nto(JE
DRYPARTICLES Magnetic particles can differfrom each otherin i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Permeability of the material Retentively of thematerial Sizeof particles Shape of particles Density of particles Mobility of particles Visibility of particles & Contrast withthe inspection surface.

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We have to leam that 1. 2. The magnetic particte posstBLE pERMEABlLlry. shouldhave the HTGHEST Thiswillenable weekleakage fieldsto be detected by the particles. The magnetic particles shoutdhave the LowEST posslBlE RETENTtvtry. High retentively leadsto clumping of particles affecting their mobility, a neavy backgroundand subsequenfly a reduction of sensitivit!. lt would aiso stick to the surfaceaftertestingis over due to residualmagnetism and hence make POST CLEANING DEFFICULT. PARTICLE slZE shouldbe the LowEST slZE possibte.An extremety fine size would causeclumpingdue to moistureor rough surfaceof the objectinspected. An elitremelycoarse particlewould be difficultto be caried. would noi collect enoughleakage fluxto causeindication etc. PARTICLE SHAPE is bestwhena combination of globular & elongated particles are used. Globularparticleswould provide maximumflexibilityin uniform dispersalof particlesover the test surfacewhereas long, slender particles provide stronger poles for thesameleakage field. lf the surface to be testedis rough,morelong and slenderparticles shouldbe used,but rounded particles wouldbe suitable for smoothsurfaces. A suitable COMPROMISE needs to be madebetween boththe abovefactors. 5. DENslry oF THE PARTTCLES should be the {owestoossibleso that the particles havea higher chance of floating without setiling.

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of the particles MOBILITY shouldbe highestso that they stand a higherchance evenweekleakage of catching fieldseffectively. 7. & CONTRAST VlSlBlLlTY of the particles depends of the particles, on the colour the colourof the inspection surface, the amount& type of lighting in which it is seen. Dry particles are generally available in blackand red,and, can also be madein yellow and shades of greyby pigmentation. Dry particles can alsobe madewith fluorescent coatings so thattheycanbe obseryed underblacklightor UV light IT IS NOTADVISABLE TO RECYCLE DRYPARTICLES WET PARTICLES All the above considerations stated above are also applicabtefor wet particles. In addition, wet particles can be used in muchfiner sizes becausethey are now caried in a liquidmedium.The fluidity of the liquidaddsto the mobility without of the particles, fear of clumping. Few properties of the liquidalso shouldbe considered additionally whenwet particles are used. '1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Liquid should be odourless. Liquidshouldhavea highflashpoint of the liquidshouldbe lowest. (Generally Viscosity 3-5 centistockes). Liquidshouldnot be conosiveto either magneticparticlesor to ihe Inspection surface. to the skinof the operator. Liquidshouldnot be reactive Suitableconditioners may have to be added to improve mobilityof particles addition of through wettingagents,rust inhibitors, dispersing agents& anti-foam agents.

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Havingunderstood the variousproperties of liquidcarriers,it is now important to know that bath concentration is very important. Too stronga bath may hide few indications due to a heavybackground & too week a bath may providetoo less particlesto locate all leakage fields. The best methodof determing ideal bathconcentration is to carryout experiments on a specimen havingknowndiscontinuities.

Page28 of 37

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TESf. BATHCONCENTRATION can be measured in what is knownas a SETTLING particlescan be In this test, 100 ml of the welfagitated liquidcontaining magnetic allowedto settlein a pear- shapedcentrifuge.The volumeof solid that settlesout after 30 mins. (considered long enoughfor mostparticlesto settle)can be read out from the graduatedcylindricalportion at the bottom. lt is generallypossible to differentiate magneticparticles& other dirt particles,which settle becauseof colour difference& densitydifferences.

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FLUORSCE}iI

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Acceleration of thistest is possible by forcingparticles to settlequicklythrough the use of.either a magnetic fietd/ through the use of a CENTRIFUGE. ihis iecrrniqieis often adopted whencontinuous particle Magnetic testing hasto be caniedout on largeno., of components. IT IS POSSIBLE TO RECYCLETHE WET BATH BY ADDING MORE SOLID PARTICLES WHENTHEYARE LOST FLUORESCENT PARTICLES Fluorescent particles are nothingbut dry powderparticles, which have beencoatedwith somesuitable fluorescent materials and are readily available as such. Fluorescent particlesare designedto receive light energy (from special bulbs called BLACKLIGHT / u.v. LTGHT) in rhe range ot eoS A" wav6 tbngtnano give out visible light. when this is donein the dark,the presence of particlesis iery cleaily indicated. The characteristics describedearlier for dry & wet powders are also applicable to fluorescent particles. . However, much finer particlescan be used in both the drv & wet methodas they can be easilyspottedin dark becauseof their brilliantglow. Dryfluorescent particle testingis not verycommonand is usedonly in a limitedrange of applications. wet fluorescent particletestingis very commonas the brilliantglow allows much lower concentration of particlesto be used aid the wet methodalso allows use of very fine particles. combination of these two fac{ors gives the advantage of HlGHEsr SENSITMIryIN WET FLUORESCENT MAGNETIE PARTICLE TESTING. BLACKLIGHT/ ULTRAVIOLET LIGHT sourceof Ultraviolet light (also called black light). $_mercury 9rc lamp is a convenient \Mren used with speciallydesjo.ngd filters, a narrow band'of Ultraviolet tignt 6f approximately.3650 A" (1A' = 10 cm) wave is emifted.A lengthCRAcKEDFILTER would also allow UNDESIRABLE ULTMVIOLET LTGHT to come out, and, hence should be avoided. Thesewavelengths are absorbedby the fluorescentmaterialand visible lightis givenout by them. The amount of height that is requiredby the operatorfor getting a clear view of the indication is presently thoughtto be around1500p WCm2 (microwatts/ sq. Cm.)at the inspedion surface. However,up to 3000 p wcm2 can be used for verv critical Page30 of 37

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inspection. Inspectors shouldacclimatize to dark condition for at least5 mins.& black light should be on for at least 5 mins, to stabilize before viewing is done. U-LTMVIOLET lightquantum can be measured usinga specially designed-UV ttcHt Relevant Specification should be consulted before using the ibove values for |yFTFR lightintensity as lhe samecan vary fromspecification to specificatJon. INDICATIONS & THEIRINTERPRETATION An indication is an accumulation particles of magnetic on the inspection surface that is f ormedduringinspection. Indication can be of threetypes RELEVANT, NON-RELEVANT,

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&

FALSE

RELEVANT INDICATIONS are thoseindication whichcan be attributed to errorsmacte duringor after metalprocessing. NON-RELEVANT INDICATIONS are not attributed to enors in materials. but are due to leakages fluxeswhichare disturbed. Theseindications bearno relation to the errorsin the part. FALSElNDlcATloNSare thosein whichthe magnetic particles are held by gravityor surfaceroughness withoutany magnetic attraction. One of the mostcommon,problems of magnetic particle testingis the classification of ' indications into one of the abovethreecatelories. Givenbeloware a few typicalexamples & their interpretation. 1particles Excessive are foundadhering to corners, ridgesetc. with the magnetic particles standing 1 to the surface. 2. Thisis non-relevant indication causedby excessive magnetizing currentin longitudinal magnetization.

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Regularpatterns of ironpowderall aroundthe surfaceeverywhere. This is a non-relevant indicationcaused by excessivecunent in circular magnetization. Page31 of37

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at edgesof millscalesticking to the inspection. Buildup of particles stoppage of particles indication due to mechanical This is a non-relevant permeability steel& scale. difference between as wellas magnetic

threads, keywaysetc.,alsomaycauseindications Paftconfiguration likesplices, with their & should be associated indications These are non-relevant physical shapes.

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properties like HAZ in lo suddenchangesin magnetic whichare attributable Indication portions (case also carburising) heat treated welds,dissimilar basemetals,differently indication. causeNON-RELEVANT MAGNETICWRITING goodresidual they can are to be tested, having magnetism materials Whenmagnetized when In such conditions, tested using residual magnetism. be first magnetized & then parts touch each other, they alter the leakage flux pattems. When tested, some to these changeswill appear. These are non-relevant indications conesponding when re-tested avoidingthesecontacts. indications whichdis-appear & the nature we needto know the natureof materials lndications, In the caseof relevant of defectscausedduringthose operations. Then we will be able to say what kind of we expect. lt is necessaryfor us to know the various defects,which can indications occur in process like welding, casting, forging, pressing, forming etc. These are describedseparately. Studentsare advised to acquire good working knowledge of these phenomenon by a thoroughstudy. ADEQUACY OF FIELD items, it is are used on complexengineering When variousmethodsof magnetization or not. in the material magnetic are introduced to say adequate lines impossible whether too countthem. We need linesnor is it possible It is not possible to seethe magnetic existswhere the test is that of ensuring adequate field strength some indirectmethod by the use of beingcaniedout. Thiscan be accomplished i) ii) iii) Fieldlndicator Magnetic Pie-shaped and, flawshims, Artificial - Fieldprobe. Hall- effect Tangential Page32 of 37

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The aim of magnetization is alwaysto introduce adequatelines of flux to produce satisfactory indications. lt should not be too lowto misssomeindications nor to highto cause inelevantindications which would then mask the true indications. The factors whichaffectthe required fieldstrength are size,shape& natureof the part,techniqueof magnetization, used for testing,coatingpresenton the surface,expected technique type of discontinuities & theirprobable permeability location, & reluctance of the part, permeability particles of magnetic etc. However, basicguideline to be followed for FIELDADEQUACY CHECKis that,when one of the indicators is usedunderactualtest conditions, it shouldshow evidenceof existence of sufficient field. PIE SHAPED MAGNETIC PARTICLE FIELD INDICATOR

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Eighl lo\ir:.bon neet pie sect;ons f!rnaceo.ared t o q e t h r n d c o p p . p t a l e d

{19.1 mm ro :5.1mm,

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N o n l e r . o u sh a ^ d t e ! l e n g r ha n d . h a p e Nohterrous truoions

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shownaboveessentially consists of eightsections made of The indicator of pie-shape low c steelfurnacebrazedtogether to form an octagon. lt is them copperplated, io be examined is positioned so that the copper When this indicator on the surface platedsurfaceis awayfrom the inspection surface. The fleld strengthis considered particles linesof magnetic appearacrossthe adequate if " one or moreclearly defined particles field''. indicator when magnetic are applied simultaneously with the magnetic TEST. Thisis a GO NO GO QUALITATIVE ARTIFICIAL FLAWSHIMS

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GENERA! NOTE: Abov6 .16 exampl6g ol :dificial ll.w shimi used in m.9ne!ic pattbl. inspcction .yrtem vcrilicsrion {not drawn to scate). Ths 6him5.re mede of low c:rbon steel ilo05 rteel loitl. Thc./rificill fl.w i: tchod o. ma.hinod on one i;de of th. foil to. dcpah o,30.Jaot thc loil thicl(ncls.

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Page 34 of 37

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The shimsshownaboveare madeof low - c steelfoil & the artificial flaw is etchedon the sidebf a foil to a depthof 30%of the foilthk. Theseshimsare to be placedon the area to be inspectedsuch that artificialflaws face the Inspectionsurface. When magneticparticlesare appliedsimultaneously with the magnetic field "a clearlydefined Iinerepresenting 30%depthshould on the othersides. appear - FIELD HALL. EFFECT TANGENTIAL PROBE A gaussmeterand the aboveprobecan be usedfor measuring the peak value of a tangential filed. The probe shall be positioned on the Inspection surfacesuch that maximum field strength is determined. Whenthe measured field is 30G to 60 G with the magnetizing forceON,thefieldis considered adequate. PROCEDURES, EVALUATION & RECORDS PROCEDURES particle procedures Magnetic should contain at leastthe following : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. shapes Material & sizeto be examined. - 100o/o Extentof examinaiion or otherwise. Magnetic technique employed. io be usedfor magnetization. Equipment preparation. Surface Type & concentration of magneticpowder to be used - Manufacture,Brand. etc. Colour WET/ DRYmethod. - AC / DC & Amperage Magnetization culrent (if measurable). Demagnetization procedure, if required.

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Procedure maycontain anyadditional information likefieldadequacy checkrequirement etc.,whichwill helpthe operator conectlyperform the test. EVALUATION Evaluation consistsof inspecting the surfaceto be inspectedand classifying the indiCationsinto FALSE, NON RELEVANT& RELEVANTINDICATIoNS. After classifying,relevantindications are to be comparedwith the acceptancestandards governing the Inspection, whichnormaily are the DESIGNCODEfor Ex. ASME Sec. Vlll Div.1.Acceptance for Magnetic standards Particle Examination are given in the SPECIFICATIONS booksupplied. Page35 of 37

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t a I O t, a I Ci studentsare advised to studysimirar acceptance standards from BS, DrN,Jrs, etc., to familiarize themselves withtheserequirements. RECORDTNG OF lNDtcATroNs Normally recording of indications are done by marking out the indicalonson a Drg. / Sketch of the mmponent inspected. 5."J.::"t, other methodsare often used to record & preserve the indicationwhen

TAPETRANsFERTEcHNIQUE

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paperwhere all otherinformation is documented. STRIPPABLE LACQUER

JffJl'lflillin'""rT,1fl:i:ii".H?:,.,1,,X$T'jlT::",#

strippabre racquer is sprayed on to theindication in.severar thinrayers.on drying, the strip canbe pulled outandstored along withall otherintoimation pertaining to li*u"t

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pHorocRApHy [s5'#1flf,9fiflt":phs of indication asfound oncomponents is arso a userur wayor

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DEMAGNETISATION ail aspects particre of Magnetic Examination, it is important l1l:s-!:rll to rearnrhe rmportance of Demagnetization andalsohowit canG accomplished. of high. retentivity, substantiar residuar [l:I?r"g*Jicof materiars, fierdcan remain after completion examination. inis mav iiriJrrerl *ith subsequent processing rike machining, werding etc.Forexampre,.during ma;nining, chipsmaytendto stickto the poorsurface y-?t ,pi"T causing nniin- or"ring *"iiing, the magnetic field can cause arc blowteading to werding d."f-".ar magdtic tia"r.ing o"ui"Eiu'rrJioiwetaing, __rr devicemay not worksatisiactoriry. r-r"*""Er,-iJra'gnetization may not be important proce$sing y!-"l.tl" Lo_s.e_oyent is neat ireitment-'aboue the cuRlE potNT of the porNTis thatt,emperature material-CURIE iuove wnichierromag-neil ,I"iLr. ror"
Page36 of 37

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their.magnetic properties. Therefore, it is very important that examination procedures should clearly specify if demagnetization is required. The various methods possible of demagnetizalion are i) Withdrawal fromA,C.Coil lf we passthe partto be demagnetized thro'on A.c. coil; the magnetic 'ihrs fieldwill be varyingin direction continuously and also varyingin intensity, oppos,ng residual magnetic field. Thisis a veryfast& efficient way of demlgnetizatron. ii) DecreasingAlternatingcurrent lf a decreasing alternating currentis passed,then the opposing magnetic field willeliminate the remnant magnetism. lll) Demagnetization yokescanbe done. In thismethod, using ihe yokeis placedon the surface,moved. around& then slowly withdrawnfrom the object cusing a reduction in thefielo Reversing Direct current is another efficient method for demagnetizing components which have been magnetized by D.c. method. ThJ specia-l equipment periodically changes the direction oi D.c. currentand also reduces the cunentgradually

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A PARTBEFORE DEMAGNETTSATTON. riris nerpsin-"i.'J"'ting tn" extent of demagnetization effectivelv.

probrems. rr rs ALWAYS PREFERABT-E fo r_or.r"criuoiruar_r_v 9g.vgLgq_r1.ing MAGNETISE

All these methodsare effectiveand can be used dependingand availability of equipment& ease of operation. lt is to be rememberectnat ctnculARLy MAGNETISED COMPONENTS DO NOT EASILY SHOWEVIDENCE OF NESIOUNI FIELDS. lf defectsbecomeopen on subsequent processing teakagenetoi couta

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Page37 of 37

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ARTICLE 7
T-710 T-'t20 T_730 'f -'7 31 "t-740 T-?-s0 T-?51 T-152 r-/)J T-'154 T-'t56 'r',760 T-761 T- 1 6 2 'I'-763 T-770 'r_17 | '1"712 T-17 3 1'-'/lI 't -17 5 'I-t76 1'7'7'1 1.1',/8 T-780 1'-'79C T-79I lfigutcs T , 7 5 3 ..1 I T-753.1.2 T-,475.2

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E.f,amination Medium, -. . .. . . .. . , Requirements....... Surface Condirioning Procedure Requiremeots ... ,. . . ,.. .. . , , . Method of Examination........ T e c h n i q ua en s dM a t e r i a l s , . . . . . . Magnetizing Field Adequacy and Direction R e c t i f i eC du r r e n t . . . , . . . . .
Demagnctization P o s G e x a m i n a t iC o ln eaning .........., C a l i b r a t i oo nf E q u i p m e n r . _ . . .] ..... F r e q u e n co yf C a l i b r a t i o n . . . -. . , . . L i f t i n gP o w e ro f y o k e s. , . . . . . . . . Examination. Direc(ion of Magnetization. . . . - . . . . . ExaminationCoverage. . _. .. .. . _. Loo8itudinalMagnctizarion Tcchnique. . . -..,,.. Circular Magnetization Technique...,.
Y^kF T'.hni^,'.

131 t3l l3t t3r t31 t32 t32 t32 t32 )33 t34 t34 t34 134 134 t34 t34 134
l]4 134

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Multidircctionlrl Mngnctizxtion Tcchniquc. . , . . . . . , .

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Mulridirecrional Magnerizarion Techniquc Skerch ...

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Single-Turn and Two-Tum CentralConductor Technique. ......

133 133

h{andatory Appendices

AppcndixI I . 7I O t-120 t-'72r t'731) r-750

MagneticPanicleExaminarion on Coared FerriticMaterialsUsing the AC Yoke Technique Scopc. .......,....Cener. a.l. . . , P c r s o n nQ cu l n l i l i c a r .i , .......,.. -,. o. n Equiprncnt. --. . . Proccdurc/Techniquc 129

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t-751. t-752 J-753 r-'770 t.?80 I-790 Appendix II

Coating Thickness Measurcment.... . Procedu D remonstrat . i-o . .n. .. . . . , . Procedure .,,,......... Qualificarion Examination ......., Evaluation. . . ,, , . .. . Documentat oe nc o . d .. /i R s. . . - . . , . , . . . . . Glossary of Termsfor MagnericParricle Examinarion Scope.. . . . . . . . . . . . . CeneralRequirements Requirements . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . _.. (MFL) Examinarion MagneticFIux Leakage Scop .............. References C e n e r.a .. l,........ Pcrsonn cu l a l i f i c a tR cn q u i r c n r c_ n._ ts. Q io Equipmeo equiremen s.., . .t . Qtu a l i n c a t i R oo Wri(cn Procedu requireme R . .n .t .s ... Equipmer(.. . . . . . . . . Requirements .,.,,.. Calibration Examination ., .. . . . Evaluation. ......,.. Docuq,entation. .....

.....,...........,..

t3g 139 l3g 139 139 139 139 l3g 140 140

rr-7 to
-170 II-730 Appendix III III-7IO l .1I I t-720 t-'721 lI-'122

nr.723 n-730 Iu-740

I -?60 I|-'710 IIt-780 I II- 790

t4l t4l l4l l4l l4l ..,...,,....,....,, ............... l4l .,.....,.....,....., I4l t42 143 143 -...--...._........ t43 143 l4l

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F'igure tlt-']22

Requiremenrs of an MFL Examinalion

Nonmandatory Appendix

Appendix A A-720 A-730 A-750 A-790

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ARTICLE 7 MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION

T.?IO SCOPE
T.730 EQUIPMENT

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When specified by the referencing CodeSection, the magneticparticle examination techniques described in this Anicle shall be used.In general, this Anicle is in conformance with SE-709, Standard Guidefor Magnetic I'il(iclc l:xirnri[ation. This docunentprovides dctails' 10 be considered in the procedures used. When this Articte is specifiedby a referencingCode particlemethoddescribed Section,the magnetic in this Anicle shall be usedtogetherwith Anicle l, General Requiremeots. Definitionof termsusedin this Anicle arc in MandatoryAppendixIL

A suitable and appropdate means for producilg the necessarymagnetic flux in the part shall be employed, using one or ..nore of the teciiniques listed in T-752 and described in T-770-

T-731

Examination lt{edium

T-720

GENERAL

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The magneticparticleexamination methodmay be applied to detect cracksand olher discontinuities on or near the surfaces of fermmagnetic matedals.The sensitivity is greatestfor surfacediscontinuities and diminishes rapidly with inoeasing depth of subsurface discontinuitiesbelow the surface.Typical types of discontinuities that can be detededby this melhodare cracks,laps, seams,cold shuts,and laminations. In principle, this method involves magnetizing an area to be examined,and applying fenomagneticparticles (the examinations medium) to the surface,The particles wilt form pattemson the surfacewherecracks andotherdiscontinuities in the normal cause distortions magnetic Reld.Thesepatterns arc usuallycharacteristic of the type of discontinuity thar is detected. Whichever technique is usedto produce the magnetic flux in the part, maximumsensitivitywill be to linear discontinuities to the lines of oriented perpendicular flux. For optimum effectiveness all types in detecting of discontinuities, each area should be examinedat lcasttwice,with thelinesof flux duiing oneexamination approximately perpendicular to the linesof flux during the other. r3l

The Snety divideC fenonagnetic panicles used for the examinationshall meet the following rcquirements. (a) Particle Typcs. The pil icles shall be trcatcd pigrnents,nonfluoresccnt to impan color (fluorescent pigments, in order to nrakethenrhighly visible or both) (contrasting) against the background of the surface being exan]ined. (b) Particles. Dry and llet panicles, including wet vehicles, pa(icle suspension aod particleconcentrations shall be in accordancewith SE-709. (c) TemperatureLimitations. Pa(icles sltall be used wirhin the tmperature range limitations set by the manufacturer.Altematively, particles may be used outproviding the side the manufacturet'srecommerldations procedure is qualified in accordance with Anicle l, T-150.

"T-740 T:741

REQUIREMENTS Surface Conditioning

T-741.1 Preparation (a) Satisfactory resulr are usuxlly obtained when or as-rolled, as-cast, the surfaces are in the as-welded. by However,surfacepreparation as-forged conditions. whcrc surfacc grindingor machining may be ncccssary due to discontinuinegularities could maskindications ities. (b) Priorto magnetic particle thc surface exanrination, aredswithin at least to be examined and all adjacent I in. (25 mrn) shall be dry and ftee of all dirt, oi), or grease, welding flux and spatter, lint, scale,.

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T-741.r
2OOISECTIONV T-752 Techniques and Materials T-753.1.2

orher extraneous matter that could interfere with the examinarion. , (c) Cleaning may be accor,rplishedusing detergents, organis solvents, descaling solutions, paint removers, vapor degreasing, sand or grit blasting, or ultasonic cleaning methods. (dJ If coatings are left on the pan in the area being examined, it must be demonstratedthat indications can be detected through the existing maximum coating thickness applied. When AC yoke techniqueis used,the demonsfation must be in accordancewith Mandatory Appendix I of this Article. T-741.2 Surface Contrast Enhancement. When coatings are applied temporarily to uncoated surfaces onll, in amounts sufficient to enhanceparticle contrast, it nust be demonstratedthat indications can be detecred through the enhancementcoatlng.
NOTE: Rcfer ro T-150(a) for tuidanic for the dcmonstrationrcquired in T-7Jl.l(d) and T-741,2.

The fenomagneaicparticles used as an exanrination medium shall be either wet or dry, and may be either fluorescentor nonnuorescent. One or nrore of the following five ntagnetization tethniques shall be used: (a) prod techaique; (D) longitudinal magnetization rechnique; (c) circular magnetizationtechnique; (d) yoke technique; (e) multidirectiooal nragnetizariontechnique.

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T-753

Magnetizing Field Adequacy and Direction

0l

.T.750

PROCEDURE REQUIREMENTS

Magnetic particle examination shall be performed io accordance with a written prccedure. Eaclr procedure shall include at least the following information, as applicable: (d) the materials. shapes, or sizes to be examined, and the extent of the examination; (b) magnetization techniques to be used; (c) equipment to be used for magnetization; (d) surface preparation (finishing and cleaning); (e.) type of fenomagnetic particles to be used: manufacturer, color, wet or dry, etc.; fJ maxirnum allowable tempetature for ferromagnetic particles to be used: per manufacturerrecommendation or by qualification; (g) magnetization cunents (type and arnperage); {hJ d(rrnagnetization; (i) post-examination cleaning.

T-753,1 Magnetic Field ittequacy. Tbe applied magnetic field shall have sufncient strength to produce satisfactory indications, but it shall not be so strong that it causes the masking of relevant indications by nonrelevant accumulations c,f magneticpilrticlcs. Factors that infiuencethe required field strengthincludc thc size, shape,and materialpermeability of the panl tlte techniqueof magnetizatian; coatings;the n)ethod oi pa.ticle application; and the typeand locationof discontinuitiesto be detected. When it is necessary ro veril1, the adequacyof magnetic field strengdr,it shall be verifiedby using one or more of the followinc three mcthods. T-753.1.f Pie-Stapcd l\{agnctic Particle }'icld Indicator. The indicator, shorvn in Fig, T-753.1 , l, shall be positionedon the surface to be examined, such that d|e copper-plated side is arvay from the inspected surface, A suitable field strength is indicated when a clearly defined line (or lines) of magneric particles form(s) across the copper facc of the indicator rvhen the magneticpafticlesare appliedsimultaneously wi(h the magnetizingforce. When a clearly defined line of particlesis not formed, the nragnetizingtechnique sball be changedas needed.Pie-rype indicators are besl used with dry panicle procedures. T-753.1.2 Artificial Flarv Shims.The shim. shown in Fig. T-753.1.2,shall be attrchedto the surihce to be examined, such that the anificial flaw side of thc shim is toward the inspcc(ed surt'rce. A suitablc lleld strength is indicated when a clerrly delined line (or lines) of magneticpanicles, representing the 30% depth flaw, appea(s) on the shinr face when nragneticparticles are appliedsimultaneously wilh the milgnetizingfbrce. When a clearlydefinedline of pirrticles is not fonned, the magnelizilgtechniquc shall hc charged as nccdcd.

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T-751

Method of Examination

Examinaaionshall be done by the continuousmethod; that is, the olagnetizing current remains on while the examinationmedium is being appliedand while excess of the examinutionmedium is beins removed.

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T.753.t.2

ARTICLE 7 Eight low c..bon lteEl pie aectioni lurnacg b{gad to9elhe. and copper plated E

MAGNETIC PARTICLEEXAMINATION

T-754

, +l F- 0.002 in. (0.0s mmr ii msin. l l f , o(.0 .12 sm ) m l(+

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Section A-A

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lensrh.nd shape \-Nonfsrrouttrunions

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Copperplaie0.010in. t 0.001in. (0.25 mm t 0.025mml thick . TYp6c 1/, in. (3.175 mmJ

IT

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mm} {0.015

section a-A

in n)-.1i f- o(oo2 oosmm) Di"isio In ll

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F I G .T . 7 5 3 . I . 1 P I E . S H A P E D M A G N E T IP C ARTICLE FIELD I ND I C A T O R

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0.005 in. (0,1?m 5 m) in. .O0oO 1 0 . 0 1m 5ml

Typ R

Shirn-typeindicatorsare best used with wet particle procedures. T-753,1.3Hall.Effect Tangential-Field Probe.A gaussmeter probeshali and Hall-Effecttangential-field be used for measuring the peak ralue of a tangential field. The probe shall be positioned on the surface to be examined,such that the maximunr field strength is determined. A suitable field stren$his indicated when the measured neld is within the rangeof 30 G to 60 G (2.4 Mm-' to 4.8 ?:Am-l) while the magnetizing force is being applied.See Afiicle ?, Nonmandatory AppendixA. T-753.2 Magnetic Field Directlon. The direction of magnetization shallbe determined by particle indications obtainedusing an indicatoror shimsas shownin Fig. T-753.1.1 or Fig. T-753.1.2. When a clearlydefined line of particlsis not formedin the desired dircction, the magnetizing technique shall be changed as needed. T-753.2.1For multidirectional_magnetization technique.s, the orientation of the lines of flux shall be in at least two nearly perpendicular' directions.When clcarlydefinedlinesof particles arenot formedin at least two nearly perpendicular directions,the mignetizing techniqueshall be changed as needed.

GENERAL NOTE:
A L r o v es r e e x . m p l e s o l a r t i l i c i s l l l s w s h i m s ! s e d i n m a g n e t i c perlicle ingpection sygtem verificstion (nol drawn ta scal). . Ths rhims Bre made of low carbon sleel 11005steel loil). The lrtificisl flw ir tchsd or mschined on ohe 3ide of the loil to . depth of 3096otth6 foil th;clnctr.

F I G .T . 7 5 3 . I , 2A R T I F I C I AF LL A WS H I I V I S

T-7533 Determinationof the adequacyand direction of magnetizing fields using magnetic field indicators or artificial flaws are only permitted when specifically referencedby the magnetizing technique in T-774.2(c'l., ^t-7 74.2(d), T-775. I (bX3), T -7 75.2(a), T-775.2(b), and

T-754

Rectified Current

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(a) Whenever direct current is required rectificd current nay be used.The rectified current for magnc(ization (full-wave rectifled) current, shall be either three-phase or single phase (half-wave rec(ilied) cunent. (/r) The amperage required with threc-phasc, fullwave rectified current shall bc verilied bv mcasuring the nverage current.

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T-754

2001sEcTIoN v

T-173.2

(half(c) The amperage requiredwith single-phase wave rectified)cunent shall bc verifiedby measuring half the avera8e currentoutputduringlhe conducting cycleonly. (d) When measurirg half-wave rectified curent with readings shall be multiplied a direct cuncnt test meter, by two.

(c, Each direct cufient or pennanent nagnetic yoke shall have a lifting power of at least a0 lb (18.1 kg) al the naximum pole spacingthat will be used. (d) Each weight shall be weighed with a scale from a and sterciled with the applicable reputablemanufacturer nominal weight prior to frrst use. A weight need only be verified again if damaged in a manner that could have caused ootential loss of material.

T-755

Demagnetization
T-763 Gaussmeters Hall-Erfect probe gaussmeten used to verify magnetizing 6eld strength in accordance with T-753 shall tre calibrated at least once a yerr o: whencvcr thc equipmenthas beensubjectedto a najor repair, periodic overhaul, or damage.If equipment has not been i use for a year or more, calibration shall be done prior to first use.

When residualmagnetism in fte pan couldinterfere processing or usage,(he pan shall with subsequent any time after completionof the be demagnetized
cxanllnairon.

T-756

Post-cxamination Cleaning

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When postexamination cleaningis requiredby the procedurc, it shouldbe conducted as soonas ptactical that doesnot adverscly affectlhe pan. using a process

T-770 "f.760
T-761

BXAMINATION Direction of Magr.etization

CALIBRATION OF EQUIPMENT
Frequency nf Calibration

T-77|

(a) Frequency. Each piece of magnetizingequipment with an amrueter shall be calibrated at least once a year, or whenever the equipment has been subjected to major electric repair, periodic overhaul, or damage. If equipment has not been in use for a year ot more, calibration shall be done prior to first use. (b) Procedure. The accuracyofthe unit's meter shall to a national be verified annually by equipmenttraceable standard. Comparative readings shall be taken for at least three different current output levels encompassing the usable range, (c) Tolerance. The unit's meter reading shall not -fuu scale, relrrdve to deviate by more than ilo% of the actual current value as shown by the test meter,

examinations shall be perforrned At lerst two separate on each area.During the secondexaminalion,the llnes peqrendicular of magneticflux shall be approxinrately A dillerent to those used during the Rrst exan)ination. techniquefor magnetizationmay be used for the second examination. 'T:772

Examination Coverage

All examinationsshall be conducted with sufllcient field overlap to ensure 1007ocoverage at the requlred sensitivity (T-753).

T-773

Prod Tcchnique

T-762

Lifting Power of Yokes

(aJ Prior to use, the nagnetizing power of electromagnetic yokes shall have been checked within the past yar. The magnetizing Power of permanedtmagnetic yokes shall be checked daily prior to use. The Inagnetizing power of all yqkes shall be checkedwhenever the yoke has been danrlged or repaired. (D) Each alternating curent electromagnetic yoke shall have a lifting power of al least l0 lb (4.5 kg) that will be used t the mrxinrunt pole .spacing |]4

T-773.1 Magnetizing Procedure. Fo. the prod techby portableptod is accomplished nique,magnetizalion type electrical contacts pressed:rgainst the surface in the area to be examined. To aloid arcing, a rerl]ote control switch, which may be built into the prod hrndlcs, shall be provided to pennit lhe currcnt to bc lurncd on after the prods have been properly positioned. T-7?3.2 Magnetizing Current. Direct or rectified cunent shall be used. The currcnt shall magnetizing be 100 (minirnunr) amp/in. (3.9 amp/mnr) to 125 (maximurn) rnrp/in. (4.9 arnp/nlnl) of prod spircingli)r l4 sections in. (i9 nrrn) thick or greater.For scctions

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T-77 3,2

ARTICLE 7 -

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION

T.7?5.1

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lessthan % in. (19 mm) thick the cunentshallbe 90 (4'3amP/mm) of (3.5amp/mm) lo I l0 amp/in' anrp/in. prod spacing. shallnoterceed T-773.3Prod Spacing'ProdsPacing may be used to 8 in. (?03 mm). Shorter spacirg the area of accommodate the geomelric timitations but Prod sensitivity, the or to increase being examined not usually (76 are mm) of less than 3 in. spacings the particles around practical due to bandingof the drcssed' and clean kept prods.The prod tips shall be currcnt If the open circuit voltageof the magnetizing aluminum steel, or V, lead, sourceis greaterthan 25 to (ratlrerthan copper)tippedprodsare recomnended eramined' part being on th avoid copperdeposits 'l'-774 LongitudinalMagnetizationTechniqu

as within tl0% of,the ampere'tums'value determined follows: = Ampere-turns 45,000

Ic) If the area to be magnetized extends beyond 6 in. on either side of the coils, field adequacy shall be demonshated using the magnetic field indicator per

T-'153.

(d) For large Parts due to size and shape, the magnetizing current shall be 1200 ampere-tums to 4500 amDe;turns. The field adequacyshall be demonstrated using artificibl flaw shims or a pie-shaped nagnetic field indicator in accordancewith T-753 A Hall-Effect shatl not be used with encirclingcoil probe gaussmeter magnetization tecitniques'. T-774.3 Magnetizing Current' The current required to obtain the necessarynragnetizing field strengrlr shal) be determired by dividing the ampere-turns obt ined in in steps (a) or (b) rbove hy the ntrnrberof lttrns the coil as follows: (meterreading)= 3l91il!!j Amperes For example,if a 5-turn coil is used rnd the 'rnlperc tums required are 5000' use 5000 5 (t 107c) 1000amperes

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T-774.1 Magnetizing Procedure.For this technique, by passing arnent magnetizationis accomplished (or cables) that is fixed coil a rdulti+um through of the part to be pan section the or wmppedaround field magneiic a longitudinal This produces "*"niine.l. coil. of the the axis parallelto coil is used,the part shall be If a lixed, prewound This coil duringinspection of the the side nhced rterr is nore opening coil tLe when irnportance is of special areaof the Part' thao l0 times the cross-sectional T-774.2MagneticField Strength.Director retified by partsexamined current shall be usedto magnetize be shall this technique. The required field strengih D diameter the calculatedbasedon the lengthL and (b), as established or with (a), of the part in accordance in sections in (c), Glow. t-ongparc shallbe examined not to exceedl8 in. (45? mm)' and l8 in' (457 mm) shall be used for the part L in calculatingthe requircd pans,D shall be the For noncylindrical field strength. diagonal. maximum cross-sectional (a) Parts With L/D RatiosEqual to or Greater Than cunent shall be within tlO% of 4. The magnetizing as follows: value determined the ampere-tums' = 35'000 Ampcre-rums G/Df z has For example,a part l0 in. long x 2 in. diameter {n L/D ralio of 5. Therefore,
25 aYlI)

T-775

Circularl\tagnetizationTechnique

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(D Pa s Wirh L/D Ratios lzss That 4 but Not shall be amPcre-lums LessThut 2. The nragnetizing

T-775.1 Dircct Contact Technique magFor this technlque' Procedure. (a) Magnetizing through current passing by n"ii-tiotii. acco:mplished the part to be examined'This producesa cit'cular to perPendicular masneticfield that is apProximately part in the the directionof curent flou' (b) MagnetizingCurrent' Dircct or rectified (halfcurwave rectifiedor full-waverectified)magnetrzrng rent shall be used. (1) The cunentshallbe 300 amp/in (l2A/rnnt) to 800 amp/in.(3lA/mm) of outerdiametcr' other than round shapes (2) Partswith geontetric in I phnc al diagona) cross-sectional with the greatest thc detertDine shall flow cufient the right angles to (b)(l) above' in to be used inches for (bXl) ctnnot required (J) If the cunentlevels shall be obtajnatrle current be obtained,the nuxinrunl
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2001 sEcTtoNv

T -717.2

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F I G .T . 7 7 5 . 2S I N G L E - T U R A N DT W O . T U R N C E N T R AC L O N D U C TT OE R CHNIQUE

used and the field adequacy shall be demonstratedin accordance with T-753. 'l'.775.2 Ccntral ConductDr Technique (a) Megnetiai,lg Procedure. For this technique, a ccnlrirl conduclor is uscd to examinethe intemal surfaccs of cylindrically or ring-shaped parts.The centralconductor tcchnique nlay also be used for examining the outside surfacesof these shapes.Where large diameter cylinders arc to be exanlined. the conductor shal be positioned close to the intemal surface of the cylinder. When the conductor is not centered,the circumference of the cylinder shall be examinedin iFcrements. Fild strength measurements in accordancewith T-753 shall be used to detemtine the extent of the arc that may be examinedfor each conductorposition. Barsor cables, passed through the bore of a cylinder, may be used to induce circular magnetization. (b) Magnetizing Current."lhe field strengthrequired shall be equal to rhar detern ined in T-775.1(b) for a single-tum central conductor. The magnetic field will Increasein proportion to the number of times the central conductor cable passes through a hollow part. For example, if 6000 ampercs are required to examine a prrt using a single cantral conductor,then 3000 amperes are required when 2 tums of the throughrable arc used, and 1200 amperes are required if 5 tums are used (see Fig. ^l-7'15.2). When the central conductor technique is used, magnetic lield adequacy shall be verified using a magnetic particle field indicator in nccordance with T-?53. 'f-776 'l-776.1 Yoke Technique

T-776.2 Magnetizing Procedure. For this technique alternating or direct current electromagneticyokes, or lrrrnaneat magnet yokes, sball be used, NOTET Excep( for m:rrcrials or tcssin lhicknirss. Z in. (6 nrnr)
r l t c r n r t i n g c u . r ( n t y o l i s a r e s u n c r i i nr , , J r ( , 1 d r t c f l n : , n c r n r r l . n . l yokes ofequal lifiing power far lhe derecrionofsurface disco rilllrilies.

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^t-7^t7

Multidirectional Nlagnctizrtion Technique

T-777.1 Magnetizing Procedure.For tJristechniquc magnetization is accomplished by high amperage porver packs operating as many as three circuits that are energized one at a time in rapid succession. The eflcct of these rapidly alternating mlgnetizing currenrs is to roduce an ovenll magnettzationof the part in multiple directions. Circular or longitudinalmagnericfieldsmay be generatedin any combination using rhe various 'f-774 techniques describedin and't-775, T-777.2 M^gnetlc Field Strength. Only three phase, full-wave rectifred cunent shall be used (o magnetize lhe pan, The initial magnetizingcurrenr requiremenls for eachcircuit shall be esrablished usingthe previously described guidelines(see T-774 and T-77-5). The adcquacyof the magneticfield shalJbe demonstr:rred using artificial naw shims or a pic-shapcdnu_qneric particlc field indicatorin accordance with T-753. A Il ll,Eftccr probe gaussrnctershall not bc used to nreasureficld adequacyfor thc multidirectionalmagletizalion tcchnique. An adequate lield shall be obtainedin rr lcrsr two nenrlyperpendicular directions, and rhe field inreosities shall be bllanced so tl'tr( a stronq lield iD onc direction does not overwhelm the field in rhc olhcr direction. For areas where adcquute licld slrelgtlts crnno( be dentonstrated, additional nta{nctic Dilrliclc

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Application. This method shrll only be xpplied to derect discontinuilies that are open to the surfaceof thc pan.

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"t-777.2

ARTICLE ? -

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION

T-791

techniques shall be used to obtain the requiredtwodirectional coverage.

once every 8 hr, and wheneverthe work station is changed. T-780 EVALUATION

T-778
01

Interprebtion

T-778.1 Nonfluorescentpafticles. With nonfluorescentpanicles, theexamination is performed usingvisible light. A minimumlight intensity of 100 fc O000 Lx) rs requrredto ensureadequate sensitivityduring the examinationand evaluation of indications. Ttre light source,technique used, td Iight levet verification is required to be detnonstrated one time' documented, and maintained on file.

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particls, With nuorescnt T-778.2 Fluo..,escent Darticlesrhe examination is performed usingan ultraviolet light, called black light. The examination shall be performed as follows: T.790 RECORDS (a) It shall be performedin a darkenedarea. "t-791 (6) Tlre examiner shall be in the darkenedarea for Multidirectional Masnetization at least5 min prior to prforming TechniqueSketch the examination to ennble his eyes to adaptaodarkviewing.If theexaminer A teclrniquc sketch shallbe prcpared for erch diflcrcrr wearsglasses or lenses, $ey shallnotbe photosensitive. geometryexamined, showingthe oart georuetry, cable (c) The black light shallbe allowedto warm up for aflangement and connections, magnetizing current for a minimum of 5 min prior to usi: or measurement of eachcircuit,and the areas of examination whereadethe intensiryof the ultravioletlight emitted. quatefield strengttls are obtained.Partswith repctirive (dJ The black light intensiry shall be measured with geometries, but differentdimensions, rnaybe exanrined a black light meter.A minimumof 1000pWlcm2 on using a single sketchprovidedthat rhe magneticlield the surface of thepartbeingexamined shallbe required. strength is adequate when demonstmtcd in accordance ' with T-771.2. Thc black lighr intensityshall be measured at Ieast

(a) AII indications shall be evaluated in termsof the acceptance standfidsof the referencing Code Section. (r) Discontinuities orl or near the surfaceare indicated by retefltion of theexamination medium. However, localizedsurface inegularities due to machining marks or other surface conditionsmay producefalse indicati.ons. .(c) Broadareas of particlcaccumulation, which mlght mask indicationsfrom discontinuides, are prohibited, and such aleasshall be cleanedand re-examined.

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ARTICLE 7 MANDATORY APPENDICES
APPENDIX I _ MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATIONON COATED FERRITIC MATERIALS USING THE AC YOKE TECHNIQUE r.7r0 scoPE
examithe Magnetic Padicle This Appendixprovides applinationmethodology re4luircments and equipment on cablefor performing examination MagneticParticle coatedferritic materials.
fa) identiication of surface confrgurationsto be examined, including coating materials,maximum qualified coating thickness,and product forms (e.g., base material or welded surface) (b) surface condition requirements and preparation methods {c) manufacturer and model of AC yoke (d) manufacturer and type of magnetic particles (e) minimum and rnaximum yoke leg separation (/) method of measuring coating thickness (g) identificationofthe stepsin perfornling thc cxarnirlation ([J minimum ligitting aod AC yoke lilting power (asnreasured in accordancc $'i1hProccdurc requirements QualificationI-752) (i) methodsof identifying fla* indicationsand discriminatirigbetweenflaw indicationsand nonrelevant indications (e.g., magnetic writing or panicle heid by surface irregularities) f) instructionsfor identi6cation and conlirnation of suspectedflaw indications , (t) recording riteria (/J personnel qualificationrequirentents (nrJ reference to the procedurequalincation records (u) method of verifying that the yoke lifting power and the illumination source used in the production examinatiol are at least as great as specified.

l-720 t-721

GENERAL PersonnelQualification

Personnel qualification requirementsshall be in accordance with the referencing Code Section.

I-730

EQUIPMENT

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equipment shall be in acI-730.1 The magnetizing cordance with Anicle ?. is used,a I-730.2 W}en the dry powdertechnique powderblower shallbe utilizedfor powder application. particleapplicators shall not be used Hand squeezed when the dry powdertechnique is utilized. I-730.3 Magnetic particlesshall contrastwifi the conrponent background. 1.730.4 Nonconductive materials suchasplasticshim coatings s(ocknray be usedto simulatenonconductive qualification. for procedure and personnel

I-751

Coating Tltickness N{easurement

1.7-50

PROCEDURE/TECHNIQUE

l-750.1 Proccdurc in shall b Performed Mngnctic paniclc exantination Iccorduce with ir writtcn procedure. The procedure shirll includc thc following:

The proceduredemonstrationand perfornrrnce of ol'the by rreasuremcot exarninations shall be preceded coxting thickness in the areas to bc cxanti ed. If lhc an eddy current techn'que coating is noncondsclive, If the may be used to nreasure the coatinBthicknesscoating is conductive,a nlagnetic coating thickness with ASTM l) technique shall be used in accordance 1186. Coating neasurenlenlequipntenlshall be uscd lictu rer's inwith the equipment nra,ru in accordance struclions.Co.lting thickness nlersurentcntsshill be trken at the intersections of a 2 in. (il mnr) nrrximunl

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I.75r

ARTICI.E 7 _ MANDATORY APPENDICES

II-?IO

grid pattemover tlie areaof examination and at least one-halfthe maximumyoke leg separation beyondthe examination area.The thickness shall be the meanof threeseparate readings within Z in. (6 mm) of each intersection.

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t-7sz

Procedure Demonstrstion

before anil after coating. The coating thickness is qualified when the length of rhe indi;ation on the coated surface is at least 50% of the length of the conespondingindicationprior to coating. {h) Requalificaiion of the procedure is required for a decreasein either the AC yoke lifting power or the illumination level, or for an increase in the coatins thickness.

The procedureshall be demonstrated to th: saGfaction of rheInspector in accordance with therequiremenls of the referencins CodeSection. I-753 ProcedureQualification

t-770

EXAMINATION

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(a) A qualification specirnen is required. The specimen shall be of similargeometry or weld profile and contain at least one surfacecrack no longer than the maximum flaw sizeallowed in theapplicable acceptance criteria,The mabrial usedfor the specimn shall be the samespecifrcation andheattreatment as the coated fenomagnetic nraterial to beexamined. As an alternative to tl)c materialrequirement, other materials and heat treatments may be qualifiedprovided; (/) The measured yokemaximumlifting forceon the matcrialto be exrmined is equalto or greater than rhemaximum specimen lifting forceon the qualification naterial.Both valrres shallbe determined with thesame or comparable equipment and shall be documented as rcquircd in paragraph (c). (2) All therequiremens (6) thmugh of paragraphs (g) are nret for rhe altemate material. (r) Examine the uncoated specimenin the most unfavorable orienration expected duringtheperformance of the productionexamination. (c) Documert rhe measured yoke maximumlifting power, illuminarionlevels,and the resul$. (d) Measure the maximum coatingthickness on the itemto becxamined in accordance with lhe requirements of l-751. (e) Coatthe specimen with the same typeof coating, conduitiveor nonconductive, to themaximum thickness measuredon the productionircm to be examined. Altern tcly, nonconductive shim stock may be usedto simulate nonconductive coatings. (, Ex nlinc thecoated specinren i:r the mostunfavorable orient tior cxpectedduring the performance of thc productionexanlinrtion. Documentthe measurcd yokc rurxirnurn lifting power,illumination level,and
cxilrtliniltionrcsults. (8) Conrplre lhc lcngth of the indication resulting front thr' longest lllw no longer than the maximum flaw sizc alkrwcd by the applicablc acceptance criteria, t39

(a) Surfaces to be examined, and all adjacent areas within at least I in. (25 mm), shall be free of all din, grease, lint, scale, welding flux and spatter, oil, and loose, blistered, flaking, or peeling coating. (b) Examine the coated item in accordancewith the qualified procedure.

I.7EO

EVALUATION

If an indication greater than 507o of the maximum allowable flaw size is detected, the coating in the area of th6 indicationshall be removedand the examination rcDeated.

l:790

DOCUMENTATION/ITECOITDS

Procedure qualification documentation shall include the following: (a) identification of the procedure ' (r) identificationof the personnel performing and witnessing the qualification (c) description and drawingsor sketches of the qualification specimen, including coating !hickness measurements and ffaw dimensions (d,) equipment and materials used (e) illumination level and yoke lifting power (/J qualification results, includin-s maximunr coating thickness and flaws detected.

APPENDIX II - GLOSSARY OIT TERMS FOR MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION It-710 SCOPE
This Mandatory Appendix is used for tlrc purlx)sc of estabiishin-q stflndardterrns ald dclinition of (crrlts

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I-7 tO 2OOISECTIONV II-?30

whicn appear in Anicle 7, Magnetic Particle Examination.

II.7ZO

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

{a/ The StandardTerminologyfor Nondestructive (ASTM E f3l6) has been adoptedby Examinations the Committee as SE-I316. (6) SE-1316Sectionl0 providesthe definitionsof termslisted in II-730(a). (c) For general terms, such as Indication, Flaw, Discotttittuity, Evaluation, e!c.,refer to Article I, Mandatory AppendixI. (d.)Paragraph II-730(b)provides I list of termsand definitions, which are in additionto SE-1316and are Code specific.

II.73O

REQUIREMENTS

(a) The following SE-1316terms are used in conjunction with (his Article: ampereturns, black light, central conductor, circular magnetization,demagnetization, dry powdeq full-*ave direct currenl half-wave current, longitudinal magnetization, magnetic field, magnetic ' field strength, magnetic particle examination, magnetic particle lield indicator, magnetic particles, multidirectional magnetization,permanentmagnet,prods, sensitivity, suspension, yoke.

(b) The following Code terms are used in coniunction with ahisAnicle: black ligh, intensit! - a quantitative expressionof ultraviolet inadiance &agnetic Jlax - the consept that the magnelic Reld is flowing along the lines of force suggeststhat these lines are thereforc "flux" lines, and they are called magneiic flux. The strengrh of rhe field is deflned by the number of flux lines crossing a unit area taken at right angles to the direction of the lines. recirted. magnetic curuent - by means of a device called a rectifier, which permits current to flow in one directiononly, alternating current can be convcncdlo unidirectional curent. This differs fronr direct cunenr in that the cunent yalue varies r.rom a steady level. This variation may be extreme, as in the case of the half-wave rectified single phase AC, or slighr, as in the case of three-phaserectified AC. half-wave recfirted current AC when a singlephase altemating current is rectioed in the simplest manner, the reverse of the cycle is blockcdout en(ircly. The rcsult is .r pulsating unidirccfionalcurrcnt with intervals when no current at all is flowing. This is often referred to as "half-wa\:e" or pulsatinE direct cunent. lll-wave rec fed cuuc,ll - \\,hen the reverse half of the cycle is turned around to flow in the same direction as the forward half. The result is full-wave rectifiedcurrent,Three-phase ahernatingcunent when full-wave rectificd is unidirectional\r,irh very little pulsation; only a ripple of varying voltagedistinguishes it from straightDC single-phase, full rectifiedcunent is usuallynol enrployed for magnetic particleexamination.

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ARTICLET_APPENDIXIII MAGNETIC F'LTIX LEAKAGE (MFL) EXAMINATION

the component to be exarnined. The plate shall have notches"drilled holes, or other discontinuities machined the MagneticFlux lrakage This Appendix describes into the bottom side of the plate, as slrown in Figure (MFL) examinationmethod equipment rcquirements lll-7?2. Ttle depths and widths of artificial discontinuapplicablefor perfonning MFL examinations on coated ities should be similar to the sizes and physical characanduncoated materials ferromagnetic from one surface. teristics of disconrinuitics to bc detccted. If coatinSs examinaMFL is generally usedasa postconstruction or temporary coverings will be present during the the co[ditionof platematerials, tion merhod to evaluate examination, the reference plate shall be coated oi such as storage tank floors and piping for conosion covered with the coatings or coverc representativeof or other forms of degadation.Other imperfectionsthat the maximum thicknessthat will be encounteredduring nray be detbctedare cracks,seams, dents,laps, and the examination. etc. nonnlctallic inclusions, The (b) System Verifcatiott and Functiort C,ftecfts. manufacturct's verifrcationprocedureshall be conducted initially to ersure that the system is functioning as III-71I References designed.The functional check shall be made by scanwhen the MagneticFlux Leakage ning the reference plate over the range of scanning of Arlicle method speedsto be utilized during the exanina(ion, Equipment 7, Appendix III is specified Code by a referencing settings shall be documented. with Section,the MFL methodshall be usedtogether (c) Performance Confrnatiott. A functional chcck Articlc l, General Requirements. shall be conducted at the beginning and end of each examination, every eight hours, or when equipment has malfunctioned and been repaired. If it is determined ITI.72O GENERAL that the equipment is not functioning proper)y, needed lll-721 PersonnelQualificationRequlrements , adjuslmentsshall be made and all areasexamined since the last performance check shall be re-inspected

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for The user of ahisAppendixshall be responsible docunrentcd training,qualification, and cenificationof perpersonnel performing MFL examination. Personnel tirmring supplenrental examinations. suchas ultrasonic (UT) examinations, shall be qualifiedin accordance u,ith the referencing CodeSection lll-722 Equipment QualificationRequirements

llI-723

WrittnProcedureRequirements

III-723.1 Requlremnts. Magnetic Flux Leakageexamination shall be performed in accordance witb a written procedurethat shall, as a minimunr, contlir) the requirements listed in Table III-723. The written procedure shall establish a single value, or rrrrge ol values, for each requirement. as a nriniIII-723.1.1 The procedureshall address, matereference mum, the identification of imperfections, rials used to set up equipment,location and rnlpping of imperfections,and ihe extent of coveragc. Thc procedureshall addresslhe 6cld strengthof the nrl-stets, of tllc and thc oFcr.ation the functioningof the sensors rnethods thill unit. Other exatlrination signal-processing shilll will be used to supptemcnt the MFL exanliDntion be identified in the procedurc.

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by shall be demonstrated The equipment operation the unit verification and funcsuccessfully completing lion tcstsoutlined as follows: shall lu) Rq[erencePlate. All MFL examinations hrve a rcferenceplale to ensure the equipmentts pcrfornring with thd manufacturer's speciin lccordance ficiltions,prior to use,The reference plateshall consist of a Dlale that is madeliom a mrterid of the same produclform, and cornposition as nonriirlthickncss,
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Plate Hole Thickness Number

2001 sEcrroN v
Number of Steps
4 Step Size Diametet D1 Diameter Diameter Diameter D4

III-730
Diameter D5

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NCE PLATE DIMENSIONS FIG.III.722 MFL REFERE

III-723.2 ProcedurcQualification.Whenprocedure in cf a requirement is specified, a change qualification variablefrom Table III-723, identifiedas an essential rhe specifiedvalue, or rangeof values,shall require A changeof of the written procedure. rcqualification variable from identified nonessential as a reqlirement a doesnot require valueor rangeof values, rhe specified All changes of the written procedure. rcqualification the value variables from or nonessential esscnLial of by the written procedure or mnge of valuesspecified to the written shall requircrevisionof or an addendum procedute.

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III-723 TABLE REQUIREMENTS OFAN MFL EXAMINATION RE UD PROCE

NonEssential Essential Variable Variable

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Requirement

III.7]O

EQUIPMENT

or sensor Thq equipnent shall consistof magnets, A rcference electronic circuitry. lrray, andrelated selrsor indicrtor, such as a ruled scale or linear array of shouldbe usedto light enitting diodes, illunrinated the apProximale lateral for idenrifying providca mearrs nrry bedesigred Theequipment position of indicatiors. scanning or may be molordriven.Software filr rllaDual andchdracterin detection to assist r lry bc inco4rtltitted izrrLiorr 0I discorttinuitics.

lVanufacturer/l\Iodel quipment and Model Sensor Type;Vlanufacturer X Range Scanning Speed/Speed (Remote Technique Scanning Control/l\ranual) 0verlap Lift-off I\Iaterial examined Thickness and Dimensions lvlaterial Range Maierials Plateand Calibration Reference Equipment/Fixture5 Scanning DataRecording Equipment Software Evaluation of lndications Sorface Conditioning Coating/Sheet

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I-740 III-7.10 REQUIREMENTS

ARTICLE 7 -

MANDATORY APPDNDICES

l-790

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(a) The surface shall be cleanedof alf loose scale and debris that could interferewith the examinaiion and nrovement of the scanner. The surfaceshouldbe sufficientlyflat to minimizeexcessive changes in liftoff and vibration. Altemate rechniques will be required to handle variables erceeding those specified in the pfocedure. (b) Cteaning may be accomplished using bigh-pressure water blast or by sandblasting. IF the materialis coated and the coaling is not removed, it shall be demonstrated that the MFL equipmentcan detect the specined imperfections through the maximum thickness of the coating. fc) If a temporarysheelor coatingis appliedbetween tl)c scanncrand plate to provide a smooth surface, for example, on a heavily pitted suface, it must be dcmonstrated that the equipment can find the specified inrperfections throughthe maximumthickness of the temporary sheetor coating.

procedure. Typical examples of inaccessibleareas in storage tanks are lap welds and comer wclds adjacent to the shell or other obstructions, such as roof colurnns and sumps. (c, Imperfections detected with MFL during this procedureshall be confirmed by supplementalexamination. Supplementalexaminations shall be performcd in accordancewith written procedures, (d) Where detection of linear imperfections is required, an additional scan sirall be performed in a direction approximatelyperpendicularto the initial scanning direction.

III-780

EVALUATION

All indications in accordancc shxll be evaluated with the referencing Code Sectior.

III-790

DOCUMENTATION

III.760

CALItrRATION

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The MFL equipment shall be recalibrated aqnually and whcneverthe equipmentis subjected to major danrage following requiredrepairs.If equipmenthas not bcen in use for a year or more, calibrationshall be done prior to first use.

III.77O

EXAMINATION

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(aJ Areasto be examined shallbe scanned in accordancc with the written procedure. Each pass of the sensingunit shall be ovedapped in accordance with the wdtten procedure, (r) The unit shall be scannedmanually or by a motor driven system. Otherexamination metbods may be usedto providecoverage in areasnot accessible to MFL examinations, in accordance with the wdtten

A report of the exarj].in:rtion sball contain the following infonnation: (a) plate material spccification, nominal wall rhickness,pipe diameter,as applicable. (r) description, such as dra\\'ing/sketches, documenting areas examined, andlor areas inaccessible; (c) identification of the proccdureused for the exami, Ilation; (d.)system detection sensirivity (minimum size of imperfections detectable); (e) Iocation, depth, and type of all imperfectionsthat meet or exceed the reponing criteria; (/) examination personnel identiry, and, wlrel required by referencing Code Section, qualification level; {g) model and serial number of equipnent utilized for fte examination, including supplementalequipment; (ft) date and time of examination; (, date and time of performance verification checksi (r) supplementalmethods utilized and referencedto associatedreoorts.

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ARTICLE 7 NONMANDATORY APPENDIX

APPENDIX A _ MEASUREMENT OF TANCENTIAL rIELD STRENGTH WITH GAUSSMETERS A-?IO SCOPE
4.750 PROCEDURE

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This Nonmandatory Appendix is usedfor thepurpose cstablishing procedures of andequipment specifications for mersuring the tangentialapplied magneticfield strength,

A-72{I

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

Pcrsonnel qualificarion requirements shallbe in ac. with Article l. cordancc equipment Caussmeters andrelated shallbe calibrated in accordance with T-?63 of Article 7. paniDcfinitions:standard terminology for magnetic presented clc cxaminations is in SE-1316.

A.730

EQUIPMENT

Caussme(er having the capabilityof being set to read peak values of field intensity. The frequency of the gaussmeter shall be at least 0 Hz to response 300 Hz. Th Hall.Effecttangpntial field probe shouldbe no largerthan 0.2 in. (5 mm) by 0.2 in. (5 mm) and shoutdhtve a nraximum centerlocation0.2 in. (5 mm) lionr the pan surface. Probeleadsshall be shielded or hvisrcdto prevcntreading errorsdueto voltageinduced duringthc largcfield changes encounlered duringmaglctjc Firniclc examinations.

Care must be exercisedwhen measuringthe tangential applied field strengthsspecified in T-753.1.3,The plane of the probe must be perpendicular to the surfircc of the part at the location of measurementto within 5 deg. This may be difficult to accomplish by hand orientation. A jig or fixture may be used to ensure this orientation is achieved and mainlained. The direction and magnitude of the trngential field on the pan surfacecan be detcrnrined by placing thc Ilall-Effect tangcntialfield probc on thc prn surlace in the area of interest. The direcLion of the fieid can be determinedduring the application of the nragnetizing ficld by rotating thc tangentirl ficld probe whilc in contact with the part until the highest ficld reading is obtained on the Gaussmeter. The orientation of the probe,when the highestfield is obtained,$,ill indicrtc rbe field djrecrionat that point. Gaussnreters cannotbc used to determine the adequacy of magnetizing lields techniques. and coil magnetization for multidirectional O[ce adequatefield strength h?s been demonstrated 'with artificialflaw shirns,Gausslnetcr rcadingsnray bc used at the location of shim attachnrenton identical pans or similar configurations to verify ficld intensity and direction.

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A.790

DOCUMENTATION/RECORDS

Documentation should include thc following: (a) equipmentmodel and probe description; (D) sketchor drawing shorvingrvhereneasurenrcnts are madel and {c) field intcnsity and dircction of ncasurcmcnt.

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STANDARD GUIDE FOR

MAGNETIC PARTICLE EXAMINATION
sE-709
(I&ntical with ASTM Spcincation E 709-95) .

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l.l This guidedescribcs techniques for both dry and wet magneticparticle eramination,a nondestructive methodfor detectingcracksand other discontinuitiesat or nearthe surfacein fenomagneticmaterials.Magnetic particleexamination may be appliedto raw material, semifinished material (biIets, blooms, castings, and forgings), finished material and welds, regardlessof heat trcatmentor lack thereof.It is useful for preventive maintenance examination. l' l,l This g'ride is intendedas a refernceto aid procedures in the preparation of specifications/standards, and techniques. 1,2 This guideis alsoa rcference ftat may be used as follows: 1,2.1 To establisha means by which magnetic particle examinadonprocedues recommendedor rcquired by individual organizations can be reviewed to evaluate their applicability and completeness. I.2.2 To aid in theorganization of the facilities and pcrsonnel particleexamination, concemed in magnetic 1.2.3 To airl in the preparation of procedures dealing with the examinationof materials and parts. This guide describes magneticparticle examination techniquesthat arc recommended for a great variety of sizes and shapesof feqomagnetic materials and widely varying examination rcquirements. Sincethere differcncesin both procedurcand are many acceptable technique, the explicitrequLements shouldbe covered (seSe.tion 2l). by a written procdure suggest, or specify 1.3 This guidedoesnot indicate, acceptance standard'i for partVpieces examinedby these It should be pointed out, however,that techniques.

after indications have been produced, they must bc interpreted or classified and then evaluated. For this purpose there should be a separatecode, spgcincation, or a specific agreementto define the type, size, location, degree of alignment and spacing, area concentration, in and orientationof indications that arc unacceptablc a specific part versus those wbich need not be removed before part acceptance.Conditions where rework cr repair are not permitted should be specified. 1.4 This guidc describesthc use of the following magnetic particle nethod techniques. 1.4.1 Dry magnetic powder (see 8.3), 1.4.2 Wet magnctic particle (see 8.4), 1.4.3 Magnetic slurry/paint magnetic panicle (see 8.4.8). and 1.4.4 Polymer magnetic particle (see 8.4-8). l-S Personnel Qualification - Personnelperfoiming examination to this guide shal!be qualifiedand cenified in accordance with ASNT Qualification and Certification of NDT Personncl, or SNT-TC-lA, or MIL-STD-410 for military purposes, or as specified in the contract or purchase order. 1,6 NondestntctiveTestingAgency- lf a nondestructive testing agency as describedin PracticeE 543 is used to perform the examination,the testing agency of PracticeE 543. shall neet the requirements 1.7 Table of Contents:
Scopc ScopDescription A Reference Documen( for PMs No( Covered Acceplaoce Standards MagneticParticle MethodTechniques Personnel Qualilic:uions SECTION I I.l 1.2 t.3 1.4 t.5

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sE.709
Testing Agcncy Nonostructiv Tablc of Contenls sI Units SaftYCaveat Documents Refcrenced ASTM Slandards SAE Documenls ASNT Documenls U.s. GovemmantDoclrmcntg OSHA Documenr TcrminoloBY of Guide SummatY Ptinciple Methitd Magnedzalion Typcs of Magnetic Pa4iclessnd Th.ir Usc Evaiuatiooof lndications Typicat MaSnlicPanicle lndicdions Significarc and Usc E4uiPmcnt Type" PortabilitY Yokes Prods BlackLiSht Verification Equipment ErrnlinalionAlca LiSlrtlnlcttsityfor Enmination Houskepmg PlrticleMaGials Magnetic TYPes Particle I'anicleChar.clristlcs Dry Pdicles Systems Wel Panicle Pan Preparation Cencral Surface Clcrojng Erarnjnal:on of Opradons Sequencc andEstablishing PanicleAPPlication Sequencing MagnclicFlur Field 'Iypesof Magne(izing Currents TYPes IlasicCurrenl Techniques PJn [la8netizatron Coverage Ex;!mination Directilnd lndircctMagnetization Techniquc a Magnctization Choosing of MagnelicFields Direction Field vs Magnetic Orientation Discontinuity Direslioo CirculatMagnedzation ToroidalMagnetizalion Magrctization LonSituditut MaSnctization luultidircciional FieldSuenglh N{aSnclic !'ield Strengths tltsgnctizinS Field Strngt-hs EltrbtjshinS Fields MaSnctic for Establishing Cuidclines Applic:rlion of Dry and Wet Magnelic Panicles Panicles Dry Magnciic APplication wet Panicle Slurry/Prinls Magnelic Polymers Mag$etic of Indications Inlerpretation

2001sECtloN V
1.6 1.8 1.9 2 2.1 2.2
vslid Indicadoos RccotdiDgof Indications Meansof Recording hfomation AccompanYins Demagnetrzalion Applicability Mctlods Dcmagnedzarion E)dentof Dematnelizition Po$ ExaminstiotrClcaning Panicle Remolal Meansof Paniclc Rcmoval Evaluationof SystearPerformance/Sensitivity CoDtributingFac$s add Calibralion of Equipment Main@narrcc EquipmentCh4k3 ExaminatiodAra Light lrvel CoDtrol Dry Palicle Qua.lityControl Tesls wct Psnicle Quality Contiol Tesb ConEol Baifi Charactcristics Verifying Syst m PerfomEnce Proccdures Wdtteo hdedule Writte[ Rports Standrrds Accptance SafclY Precisiooend Bias Keywords l6-l l'1 t? , 1 17.2 IE l8.l

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18.3 l9 t9.l 19.2 20 20.1 20_3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.1 20,8 21 2l.l 2t.7

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4.1

4.3 4.4 4.6 5 6 6.1

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6.4 6.5 6.6 1 1.1 1.2 8 8.1 8.2 8.3 E.4 9 9.1 ot l0 l0-l ll tl.l
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1.8 The numerical values shown in inch-pound units are to be regardedas the standard.SI units are provided for informatior only. 1.9 This standanl does not purport n aMress oll concerns, iJ any' associatedwith its use' of the sa.fety of the user of this stdndard to ii is the' reisponsibility a d establish afpropriate saJcry and heahh practices litnitatiotts delermine the applicability oJ regulalory lo use. ,prior 2. ReferencedDocumnts

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l4 14-I 14.3
l5 I5.l t5.2 15.4 l6

2.1 ASTM Standards: D 93 Test Methods for Flash Point by Pensky-Martens Closed Tester D 96 Test Methods for Water end Sedimentin Crude Oil by Centrifuge Method (Field Procedure) D l?9 Test Method for Sulfur in Petroleum Products (General Bomb Method) ,145 D Test Method for Kinematic Viscosity of Transparent and Opaque Liquids (and the Calculation of Dynamic ViscositY) D 808 Test Method for Chlorine in New and UsedPctro(Bornb Method) leum Products for Liquid PenetrantExarnination Method E 165 Test Evaluating Agencies that Pedorln for E 543 Practice Testing Nondestluctive Examinations E l3l6 Terminologyfor Nondestructive 494

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ARTICLE 25 -

MAGNETIC PARTICLE STANDARDS 43 Magnetization:

sE.709

2.2 Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE): Aerospace Mateials Specifcations: AMS 2641 VehicteMagnericParticle Inspecrion Ll American Societyfor NondestrTtctive Testing: SNT-TC-IA Recomrnended hactice MagneticParticle Method ASNT Qualification andCertification of NDT Personnel 2.4 U.S. CovemmentPublicationt: FED-STD 313 Material Safety Daa Sheetsheparation andthe Submission of MIL-STD-4IO Nondestructive Testing Personnel QualiRcationand Crnifi cation MIL-STD- 1949MagneticParticleInspection, Merhodof 2.5 OSHA Document: 29CFRl9l0.l?00 Hazard Communication

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4.3.1 Ways to Magnetize- A ferromagneticmaterial can be magfietized either by passing an electric cunent through the material or by placing the material within a magnetic field originated by an extemal source. The entire mass or a ponion of the mass can be magnetizedas dictated by size and equipment capacity or need. As prviously noted, the discontinuity must interrupt the normal path of the magnetic fietd lines. If a discontinuity is open to the surface,the ffux leakage will be a( the maximum for that particular disconrinuity. When that same discontiruit) is below the surface,flux leakageevidcnt on the surface will be tess. Practically, discontinuities must be open to the surface, to create sufficient0ux leakage to accumulatc magnetic particlcs. 4,3.2 Field Direction If a disconrinuily is oriented parallel to the magnetic field lines, it may be essentiallyundetectable. Therefore, since discontinuities may occur in any orientation, it may be necessaryto magnetize the part or arer of interest twice or morc scquentially in dilfercnt dircctionsby thc sunrcnrcthod or a combination of merhods(see Section 13) to induce magneticfield lines in a suitabledirectionin order to perform an adequatecxamination-

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Terminologr

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3.1 For dennidonsof terms used in the Dractice. rclcr to Terminology E l3t6

4.

Summary of Guide

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4.3.3 Field Strength - The magnetic field must 4.1 Principle - The magnetic parricle method is be of sutficient strengthro indicate those discontinuiries basedon the principlethat magnetic field lines when which are unacceptable, yet must not be so strong that present in a fenomagneticmaterial, wil! be distorted an excss panicles of is accumulated loca)ly thereby by a change in material continuity, such as a sharp (see Section l4). masking relevant indicarions dimensional change or a discontinuity. If the discontinu. ity is open to or close to the surfaceof a magnetized 4.4 Types of Mrgnetic Panicles and Their IJse material,flux lines will be distortedat the surface,a There are various types of magnetic paflicles available conditiontermedas "flux leakage."Whenfine magnetic ' for use in magnetic particle examination. They are paniclesare distributed over the sreaof the discontinuity available as dry powders (fluorescent and nonfluoreswhile the flux leskage exists, they will be held in place cent) ready for use as supplied (see 8.3), powder and the accumu.lation of paflicles will be visible under (fluorescentand nonfluorescent) concentrates for dispertheproperlighting conditions. While therear variations sion in water or suspending light petroteum distillates in the magnedcpariicle method,they all arc dependent (see 8.4), magnetic slurries/paints(see 8.4.?), and magon this principle, that magnetic particleswill be retained netic polymer dispersions (see 8.4.8). at the locations of rnagneticflux leakage.

4.2 Method - While this practice permits and describes many variables in. equipment, materials, and procedures, thereare tllle stepsessential !o the method: 4-2.1 The part must be magnerized, 4,2.2 Magnetic particlesof the type designatedin theconlracVpurchase order/specification mustti applied while the pan is magletized. 4.23 Any accumulation of magneticparticlesmust be observed, interpreted, and evaluated.
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4.5 Evaluatian of Indications - When the rr)arerjfll to be examined has been properly magnetized, the magnetic particles have been properly applied, and the excess particles proprly removed, there will be accumularions of magnetic particles at the points of flux leakage.Tilese accumulations show the distortion of the magnetic field and arc called indications.Without disturbing the particles, the indications must be examined, classified, interpretedas to cause,comparcd with the acceptance standards, and a decision made concerning the disposition of the material that con(ains (h i|ldication.

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sE-709 4.6 TypicalMagnetic ParticleIndications:
4.6.1 Surface Discontinuities - Surface discontinuities, with few exceptions, produce sharp, distinct p:rttcrns (see Annex A). 4.6.2 Near-SurJace Discontinuities - Near-surface discontinuities produce less distinct indications rhan those open to the surface.The patlems are broad, rather than sharp, and the particles arc less tightly held (see Annex A).

20Jl sEcTloN v
on oil drilling platforms and oil production platforms offshore are examples of a ho.stile environment. - Yokes are usually C-shapedelectromag63 Yo&es nets which induce a magnetic feld between the poles (legs) and are used for local magnetization (Fig. l). Many portable yokes have articulated legs (poles) that allow the legs to be adjusledto contaci inegular surfaces or two surfacs that join at an angle. 63,1 Pernanent Magnets - Permalent magnets are available but their use may be restrictedfor many applications.Permanent magnetscan lose thet magnetic field generating capacity by being panially demagnetizcd by a strongcr flux lleld, being darnaged, or droppcd. ln addition, the panicle mobility, created by AC and half-wave rectifredcurrent pulsationsin electromagnetic yokes, is not presenl Particles, steel filings, chips, and scale clinging to the poles can create a housekeeping problem. 6.4 Prods - Prodsare used for local magnetizations, see Fig,2. The prod tips rhat contactthe piece should bc alunrinunr, coppcr braid,or coppcr pads rathcr than solid copper- With solid copper tips. accidental arcjng during prod placement or removal can cause copper penetrationinto the surface whicb may result in metaf lurgical damage (softening, hardening, cracking, etc.). voltages Sec 12.3.1.1(a). Open-circuit shouldnot cxcccd

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5.

Significance and Use

5.I Thc magnetic panicle method of nondeskuctive cxanrinirtionindicatesthe presenceof surfaceand nearthai can be magnesurllcc discontinuitics in r.'raterials tizcd (fenomagnctic). This method can be used for production examination of partvcomponents or structures nd for field applications where portability of equipment and accessibility to the area to be examined are factors. The ability of the method to find small can bc enhancedby using fluorcscent discontinuities parriclessuspe[dedin a suitablevehicle and by inboducing a magnetic field of the proper strength whoJe oricnrarion is as close as possiblc !o 90" to lhc dircction of thc suspecteddiscontinuity (see 4.3.2). Making the surface smootber improves mobility of the magnetic panicles under the influence of the magnetic field to collect on lhe surface where magnetic flux leakage occur:s,

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6. Equipment
6.4,l Remote Control Switch - A rsmote-coltro] switch, which may be built irto the prod handles, should be provided to permit the current to be tumed on after the prods haye been propedy placed and to tum it off before the prods are removed in order Lo minimize arcing (arc bums). [See 12.3.1.1(a).] 6,5 Black Light - The black light must be capable of developing the required wavelengthsof 330 to 390 nm with an inlensity at lhe examination surface that satisfes 7.1.?. Wavelengths at or near 365 nm shall predominate.Suitable fihers should remove lhe cxtrancous visible light emiltedby black lights (violet or blue 405 and 435-nm Hg lines and greenish-yellow577-nn Hg line). Some high-intensity black light bulbs may emit unacceptable anounts of greenish-yellow light which may cause fluorescent indications to becomc invisible. A drop, greatertban t09o, in line voltagc grealerthan rl0% can causea changein black lighl output with consequent incoDsistent perfornrance. A

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6,1 Types- There are a numberof rypesof equipfor magnetizing ferromagnetic partsand mentavailable components, With fte exception of a permanent magnet, requires a powersource capable of delivall equipment eringrherequired levelsto produce themagnetic current the sizesof cables and field. The cunent useddictates the capabili:yof relays,switchingcontacts, meters and rectifier if the power sourceis altemating curent. 6.2 Porrability - Portability,which includesthe ability to hand carry the equipment, can be obtained l'rom yokes.Their size limi6 their ability to provide fieldsthatcanbe obtained tlie Dragnelic from equipment purpose with largercunentflows.General mobile equipnrentwhich may be truck mounted is usuallydesigned either for use with prods on the endsof two cables or with only the cableswhich arc attlchedto the piece beingexamined, threaded throughan openingin it or wrappcdaround it. Mobility is limited by the cable rnd sizeand the environment. Underwater examination
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ARTICII

25 -

MACNETIC PARTICLE STANDARDS

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FIEID CRACK SHOWl.l I AGNETIC BY POWDET fROMYOKE

(a) . (b)

METHOD OFPARTMAGNETIZATION FIG.1 YOKE

(e) Plod Mrgnctirat'ron

(b) Copper-Bmided Tip Prods

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AREAMAGNETIZATION PROD FIG.2 LOCALIZED USING TEC HN I Q U E

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2001 sEcrloN v
are basically finely divided ferromagnetic materials which have been treated to impart color (fluorescen! and nonfluorescent) in order to make them highly visible (contrasting) against the background of the surface being examined. The particles are designed for use either as a free flowing dry powder or for suspension at a given concentration in a suitable liquid medium. 8.2 Particle Charactenstics - The magnetic particles must have high permeabitity to allow easeof magnetizing and atuaction to the discontinuity and low retertivity so they will not be attracled (rnagnetic agglomeration) to each other. Control of particle size and shape is required to obtain consistentresults.The particlesshould be nontoxic, free from rust, grease, paiflt, dirt, and other deleterious materials that might inturfere wilh their use; see 20.5 and 20.6. Both dry and wet particles arc consideredsafe when used in accordancewith the manufacturer's instructions. They gencrally afford a very low hazard potential with regard to flammability and toxicity. 8.3 Dry Particles Dry magnetic powdcrs irre designed to be used as supplied and are applied by spraying or dusting directly onto the surface of the part being examined. They are generally used on an expendable basisalthough the particles may be collected and reused. However, to maintain panicle size and control possible contamination, this is not a normal practice. Dry powders may also be used under extreme environmen@l conditions. They are not affected by coldi thereforeexaminationcan be carried out at temperatures that would thicken or fieeze wet baths- They are also hea! resistant; some powders may be usable ,at tempenture$up to 600'F (315'C). Some colored, organic coatings applied to dry particles to improve corltrast lose their color at temperatures this high, making the contrast less effective. Fluorescent dry particles cannot be used at this high a temperature; the manufacturershould be cortt,acted for the temperature limitaticn or tests should be run. 8.3.1 Advantages - The dry magnetic particle technique is generally superior to the wet technique for detection of near-surface discontinuities: (a) 1br large objects when using portable equipment for locll magnetization;(b) superior particle mobility is obtained for relatiyely deep-seated flaws half-wave rectified current as the magnetizing source; (c) ease of removal. 8.3.2 Disadvantages- The dry magnetic panicle (a) cannotbe usedin conlinedareaswithout technique; proper safety breathing apparatus; (b) Probability of Deection (POD) is appreciably less than tlte wet technique for fine surface discontinuities; (c) difficult to

constant voltagetransformershouldbe usedwherethere greaterat1fln of voltagechanges is evidence l0%. 6.6 Equipnent Verifcation 7. Examination Area See Section 20.

7.7 Light Intensiryfor Examination - Magnetic indicationg found using nonfluorescentparticles are examined under visible lighL Indicatioffifound using fluorescent particies musl be examined under black (ultraviolet) light. This requires a darkenedare3 with accompanying conull of the visible light i ensity. 7,1,1 Visible Ught Intensity -; Thc intensiayof the visible light at the surface of the parr/workpiece cxamination shouldbe a minimumof 100 undergoing ( 1000lux). The inaensity foot candles visible of ambient light in the darkened areawherenuorescent magnetic paniclesexamination is performed shouldnot exceed (20 lux). 2 foot candlcs '1.1.1.1Ficld h$pectionsFor some field usingnorr0uorescent puticles, inspections visiblelight intensities as low as 50 foot candles(500 lux) may be uscd when agreedon by the contracting agency. 7.1.2 Black (Ultraviolet)Light: - The black light 7,1.2.1Black Light Intensity intensityat the examination surfaceshall be not less than 1000 pWcnr' when measured witr a suitable blacklight meter. - Allow the black BlackLight Wanz-?p 7,1.2.2 lighr to warm up for a minimum of 5 min prior to its useor mcasuremena of the intensitv of,the ultraviolet light entitt?d. 7.1.3 Daft Areo Eyeldaptation - It is recomrnended that the inspector be in tbe darkened areafor at least 3 min prior to examiningparts using black lighl so dlat his eyes will adapt to dark viewing. Caution - Photochromic or permanently tintedlensos wonr during shall not be examinction. - The examinatiolr 1.2 Housekeepi;tg area should br:kcpt frcc of intcrfering debris. If fluorescent materials irrc involved, the arca should also be kept free of objectsnot rclatedto the part/piece lluore5cent being exarnincd. 8. Particle Materials IVlagnetic

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8.1 Partitle TJpes- The particlesusedin either dry or wet magneticpanicle examination techniques
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ARTICI F 25 _ MAGNETIC PARTICLE STANDARDS

sE.709

usein overheadnagnetizing positions;(d).no evidence exists of complete cwerage of pafi surfac as with the wet techniquei (e) lower production rates car be expectedwith the dry techniqueversus tbe wet technique; and (f) ir is diffic lt to adapt to any type of automotive system. E33 NonfluorescmtCororu- Alihough dry magnetic particle powdercan be almost any color, the most frequently elnployed colon are light gay, blaclq red, or yellow. The choice is generallybasedon maximum contrastwith the surface0obe erarnined.The examination is donc uniler visible light. 83A Fluorescmt - Fluorescent dry magnetic particlesarc also available,but are not in gcneral use primarily becauseof rheir higher cost and us limitations. They requirc a black light sourceand a da*ened work area. TheseFquiremen6 are not often available in the field-type location where dry magneticpanicle examinationsare especiallysuitable. - Wet magneticparticles 8.4 Wet Particle SysrenLs in a vehicle suchas water are designedto be suspended for or light petroleumdistillate at a given concentration application to the testsuface by flowing, sprafing,or pouring. They are available in both fluorescentand In somecasesthe panicles nonfluorescent concenbates. vehicle by the supare prcmixed with the suspending plier, but usually the particles are supplied as a dry concentrateor paste concenfite which is mif,ed \tith the distitlare or waler by the user. The suspensions are normally used in wet horizontal rnagnetisparticle equipment in which the suspension is retdinedin a reservoirand recirculatedfor continuoususe. The suspension may also be used on an expendablebasis dispensed from an aerosol. 8.4.1 Primary Use - Becausethe paiicles used are smaller. wet me$od techniquesare generallyused to locate smaller discontinuitiesthan the dry method is usedfor. The liquid vehiclesusedwill not Perform satisfactorilywhen their viscosity exceeds5cSt (5 If the suspension mm2/s;at the operatingtemperaturc. vehicle is a hydrocarbon,its ffash point limits the top is usually requhcdto temperaturc. Mixing equipment keep wet method particlesuniformly in suspension. 8.42 Where Used- T\i wet fluorcscentmethod usually is performedindoos or in areaswherc shelter and ambientlight level can be controlledand where proper application equipmentis available. 8,43 Color - Fluorescentwet method panicles glow a bright greenish-yellow when vicwed underblack particlesare usually black or light. Nonfluorescent

reddishbrown,although othercolon are available. The color often chosenfor any given examination should Because be one lhat contrashmost with the tesl surface, is invariablyhigherwith fluorescent materials, contrast examinations. theseare utilized in most wet process 8,4.4 Suspension Vehicles- Generallythe parti(low-viscosity) cles are suspended in a light petroleum distillate or conditioned water. (If sulfur or chlorine Iimits are specified, use Test MethodsD 129 and D to determine their values. 808 E.4.4.1Petoleum Distillates- l,ow-viscosity light petroleumdisiillatesvehicles(AMS 2641 Type both fluorescent I or equal) are ideal for suspending paflicles andarecomrnonly andnonnuorescent magnetic employed. - Two significanladvantages (l) Advantages for the use of petroleumdistillate vehiclesare: (a). the particles in petroaresuspended anddispersed magnetic without the useof conditioning leum distillatevehicles provide agents; and(b) the petroleum distillatevehicles a measureof corrosionprotectionto parts and the used, equipment - Principal disadvantages (2) Disadvantages are therefore, and essential, availability. It is flammability to select and maintain readily avrilable sourcesof supply of petroleumdistillate vehiclesthat have as high a flash point as practicablelo avoid possible flammability problems. - Petroleum (3) Charucteristics distillatevehicles in wet particle examination should magnetic to be used (d) ' possess not exceed following: viscosity should the 3.0 cst (3 mm'/s) at 100'F (38"C) and not morc tha\ at which 5.0 cSt (5 mm'A) at the lowesttemPerature will in accordance be used;when tested the vehicle with Test Method D 445, in order not to impede point, (b) minimum flash 20.?.1), particle mobility(see in accordance Methods D 93, when tested with Test to fire (93'C) minimize in ordr shoutd be 200'F to (see20.'7.2), (c) odorlessl not objectionable hazards (d) if with ffuoresinherent used fluorescence user, low thatis, it should significantly notinterferc centpanicles; (see particle with the fluoresceni indications 20.6.4.1), (e) and nonreactive; should not degradesuspended particles. 8.4.4,2 tl/ater Vehicles wirh Conditionhg - Water may be usedas a suspension vehicle Agents particles provided conditioning for wet magnetic suitable agents are addedwhich provideproperwet dispersing, for the pafis being in additionto conosionprotection tested and the equipment in use.Plainwaterdoesnot dispersesome types of magneticparticles,does not

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sEcfloN v 2001
Becauseof the

by brush before the part is magnetized. andequipment. andis corrosive.to wetall surfaces, Parts high viscosity, the material does not rapidly run off of magnetic On thc other hand, water suspensions surfaces,facilltating the inspection of vertical or,overparticles are safer to use since they are nonflammable. head surfaces.The vehicles may be combustible, but' of the conditioning The selectionand concentration the fire hazard is very low. Other hazards are very by lhe paniclemanuagentshouldbe as recommended similar to those of the oil and water vehiclespreviously propertiesfor facturer.The foltowing are recommended descdbed. *ater vehicles containing conditioning agentsfor use with wet magnetic patticle examination: 8.4.8 Polymer-Based S)sleru - The vehicle used (1) Weuing Characterislics - The vehicle should in the magnetic polymer is basically a liquid polymer that is, wet the surface havegood wetting characteristics; tbe magneticparticles and which cures which disPerses to be tested, give even, complete coverage without to an elastic solid in a given period of time, forming evidence of dewetting the test surface. Smooth test fixed indications. Viscosity limits of standardwet techsurfaces require that a ,greaterpercentageof wening nique vehicles do not apPly. Care should be exercised agent be added than is required for rough surface. in ha,rdling these Polymer materials.Use in accordance (see20.7.3). Nonionic wetting agentsare recommended with manufacturer's instructions and Precautions'This (2) Suspension Chdracteristics- Impart good distechnique is particularly applicable to examine areas persability; that is, thoroughly disperse the magnetic of limited visual accessibility, such as bolt holes. of particleagglomeration. without evideqce particles, (3) Foaming- Minimizefoaming;that is' it should with foamwhich would interfere excessive not produce Part PreParation 9. to form scum indicationformationor causeParticles -T\e surfaceof the part to be examined 9.1 Generai,l with the foam. clean,dry' aod frJe ofcontaninants should be essentially (4) Conosiveness- It should not corrode pafis to grease, loose rust, Ioose mill sand, oil, dirt, such as in which it is used. be testedor the equipment liot, thick scale, loose mill Paint, welding flux./slag, (5) Viscosity Linit - The viscosityof the condirestrict that might splatter and weld Parlicle movement. (ionedwater shouldnot exceeda maximumviscosity dry applying 15.1.2 about See Particlesto a damP/wet of 3 cSt (3 mmz/s)at 100'F (38'C) (see20.?.1) area, such as a weld, local testing a When sudace. - The conditioned water should (6) Fluorescence to be examined' as surface to the adjacent the arcas parfor use with fluorescent if intended not lluoresce mus! also be clcancd padies, contracting by the agreed ticles. of indicadons' dete-ction permit to necessary to extert lhe - The conditioned watershould (7) Nonreactivencss parmagnetic of the suspended not causedeterioration 9.1'l NonconductiveCoatings- Thin nonconducticles. in the order of 0-02 to , tive coatings, such as paint water (8) WaterpH - The pH of the conditioned 0.05 mm (1 or 2 mil) will not normally interfere with should not be less than 6.0 or exceed10.5. the formation of indications,but they must be removed watershouldbe essen' (9) Odor - The conditioned at all points where electrical contact is to be made for tially odorless. direct magnetization. Indirect tnagnetization does not

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of WetMagrelic ParticleSus' 8.4,5Concentratibn of suspended concentration bath initial pensiott The or as rccombe as specified particles should llagnetic be checked should and manufaclurer by the nrended at and maintained measurements volume settling by thc basis lf a daily on conccntntion thc spcci{icd lest results proPerly, is not maintained concentration grcatly (see 20.6). vary can 8.4.6 Application. of Wet Magnelic Particles ( s e c1 5 . 2 ) , - Another 8.4,7 Magtetic Slurry/Paint.Systen6 slurry/ magnetic is the vehicle type of examination which flakelike in a heavy oil of paint type consisting applied is normally The material panicles aresuspended.
500

require electrical corlnct with the part/piece.SeeSection 17.2. lf a nonconductingcoating/Plaringis left on the area to be examined that has a thickness grea(er tharr thxt discon(i0.05 mm (2 mil), it must bc denlonstrated nuities can be detectedthrough the nlaximum thickness applicd. 9.1.2 ConductiveCoathgs - A conductivecoatrng (such as chrome plating and heavy mill scaleon wroughl products resultirg from hot forming oPerations) can coatings mask discontinuitiesAs with nonconductive cin bc that thc discontinuitics it must be demonstratcd detected through the coatirig. 9.1.3 ResiclualMagnetic Fieds - If thc paru piccc holCs a residual magnetic lield from a previous

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ARTICLE 25 _ MAGNETIC PARTICI-E STANDARDS

, sE-709

magnetization that will interferewith the examination. the pan must be demagnetized. See Sectionlg. 9.2 Cleaning Examination Surface _ Cleanine of the test surfacemay be accomplished by deterglns, organic solvents,or mechanica-l means.As-welded. as_ rolled, as-cast,or as-forged surfacesare generally satisfactory,but if the surface is unusuallynonuniform, as with burned-insand or a very rough weld deposit. rnterpretation may be difficult because of mechanical enftapment of the magnetic parficles. In caseof doubt, any questionable areashouldbe recleaned artdfeexamined (see9-l). An exrensive presentation of applicable cleaningmethodsis described in Annex Al of Test MethodE 165. 9.2.1 Plugging and Masking Small Holes and. - Unless Openings prohibited by the purchaser, snall openings and oil holesleadingto obscure passages or cavities can be pluggedor maskedwith a suitable nonabrasivematerial v/hich is readily removed. In the caseof engineparts,the materialmust be soluble in oil. Effectivemasking mustbe usedto protectcomponents that maybe damaged by contact with the particles or particlesuspension. 10, Sequence of Operations l0.l Sequencing Particle Application and.Establish_ ing MagneticFlux Field- The sequence of operationin magnetic particleexamination applies to therelationship between the timing and application of panicles and establishing the magnetizing flux field.Two basictechniques apply,rhatis, continuous (seel0,l.l and 10.1.2) andresidual(see 10.1.3), both of which arc commonlv employedin industry. 10.1.7 Continuous - Continuous Mdpnetizarion magnetization is employed for mostap,plicalions utilizing either dry or wet particles and shoutd be used unlessspecifically prohibited in the conract, purchase order, or specincation. The sequence of operationfor thedry andthewet continuous magnetization techniques are significantly different and are discussedseparately in l0.l.l.l and10.1.1.2. .Tech_ 10.1,1.7Dry ContiniousMagnetization ni4le - Unlike a wet suspension, dry particlestose mosr of dleir mobility when they contactthe surface of a part. Therefore,it is imperative that the part/area of interest be under theinfluence of theapplied magnetic field while the paniclesare still airbomeand free to be attractedto leakagefields. This dictatesthat the flow of magnetizing cunent be initiatedDrior to the rpplication of dry magnetic particles and rerminated

after the applicationof powder has ben completed andanyexdess hasbeen blownoff. Magnetizing cunents of the half-waverectified altematingand unrectified AC provide additional particle mobility on the surface of the part, Examination with dry particlesis usually 'carried out in conjunction with prod-typelocalizei magnetizations, and buildupof indications is observed as the particles are being applied. 70.1,12 Wet ContinuousMagnetization Technique - Tlnlewet continuousmagnetization technique generally applies to those parts processed on a horizonial wet q/pe unit. In practice, it involvesbathingthe part with the examination mediumto providean abundant sowce of suspended panicles on the surfaceof the part and terminating the bath application immediately prior to cutting off of the magnctizing current.The durationof ahemagnetizing cunent is typicallyon the orderof '/2s with two or moresbotsgiven to tbe part, lD.l.lJ Polymeror Slurry Continuous Magneti_ zation Technique- Prolongedor repeatd periods of magnetization areoftennecessary for polymeror slurrybasesuspensions because of slowerinherent magnetic particle mobility in the high-viscosity suspension ve_ hicles. 10.1.2 True Continuous Magnetization Technique- In ihis technique, the magnetizing cuFentis sustained throughout both the processing and exarr.ination of $e Daft. 10.1.3ResidualMagnetization Techniques: l0.l3.l ResidualMagnetization- In this technique, the examinationmedium is appliedafter the magnetizing force has been discontinued. It can be used only if the materialbeing testedhas datively high retentivityso the residualleakagefield will be of sufflcientstrengthto attact and hold the panicles andproduce indications. This technique maybe advanh_ geousfor integration with productionor handlingrequirements or for intentionally limiring the sensitivjty of the examination. It has found wide use examinins pipe and rubular goods. Unlessdemonsrrations wiri typicalpartsindicate thatthe residual fieldhassufficient strengthto producerelevantindications of discontinu_ ities (see20.8)when the fielti is in properorientation, the continuous methodshouldbe used. 10.1.3.2Current euick Break - Equipment, full-waverectifiedAC, for residual magnetization must be designed to providea consistent quick breakof the magnetizing cunent.

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value measured utilized and average as "magnetizing
culTent."

11.7.3 Full-Wave RectirtedAltemdting Current Full-wave rectifiedalternatingcurrent may utilize singleor three-phase cufient. Three-phase current has the advantageof lower line amperagewhereassingle-phase equipment is less expensive.Full-wave rcctified AC is commonly used when the rcsidual method is to be employed. With the continuous method, full-wave rectified AC is used for rnagnetization of coated and plated parts. Because particle movement, either dry or wet is noticeably slower, precautionsmust be taken !o ensure that sufficient time is allowed for formation of indications. 17.1.4Direct Current (DC) - A bank of batteries or a DC generatorploduce a.dire{t magnetizingcunelt. They have largely given way to half-wave rectified or full-wave rectified AC except for a few specialized applications, primarily because of battery cost and mailtenance. One such example is the charging of a bank of capacitors, which on discharge is used to establiJh a residual rnagnetic 6eld in tubing, casing, line pipe, and drill pipe. '12.

F I G .3 C O I LM A G N E T I Z A T I O N

11.

Typcs of Magnctizing Currents

77.1 Basic Current Types - The four basic types of current used in magnetic panicle examination to cstablish part magnetization are altemating current. single phasehalf-wave rectified altemating current, fullwave rectified alternating current, and for a special application,DC. lL.l.l Ahernating Current (AC) *Pan magnetization with alternating current is preferred for .hose applications where examination requirements call for the detection of discontinuities,such as fatigue cracks, that are open to the surface. Associated with AC is a "skin elfect" that conlines the magnetic field t or near to the surface of a part, In contrast, both halfwaye rectilied alternatirrgcunent and full-wave rectified altemating cunen'r produce a magnetic field having rnaximum penetratingcapabilitieswhich should be used when near-surface discontinuitiesare of concem. Alternating current is also extensivelyused for the demagnetizaticn of parts after exami^ution. The through-coil technique is normally used for this purpose due to its simple, fa:t nature.Se Fig.3. 77.1.2 Half-Wave Rectiled Auernating Current Half-wave rcctifred altemating cturcnt is fiequently used in conjunction with dry panilles and localized rnagnetization(for example, prods or.yokes) to achieve sorne depth of penetation for detection of typical discoltinuities found in weldmentsand ferrous castings. As with AC for magnetization,single-phasecunent is 502

Part Msgnetiz:tion Techniques

l2,I Examination Coverage All examinations should be conducted with sufficient area overlap to assurethe required coverageaf the specifiedsensitivity has been obtained. L2.2 D'rrect and Indirect Magnetization - A part can be magnetized either directly or indirectly. For direct magnetizatlonthe magnetizing current is passed directly through the part creadng a circular magnetic field in the part. With indirect magnetizirtiontechniques a magnetic field is inducedin the part which can create a circularft.oroidal, longirudinal, or multidirectional magnetic neld in the pan. The techniquesdescribedin 20.8 for verifuing that the magneticflelds have the anticipated direction and strength should be employed. This is especiallyimportant when using the multidircction tech, nique to examine complex shapes. 12.3 Choosing a Magnerilation Technique - The choice of direct or indirect magnetization witl dependon such factors as size, configuration,or easeof processing, Table I compares tbe advantagesand limitations of the various methods of part magnetization, 12.3.1 Diruct Contact Magnetizatior - For direcr magnetization,physical contact nust be made between the ferromagnetic part and the current carrying elec-

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ARTICLE 25 _ MAGNETIC PARTICLE STANDARDS

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TABLE T ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OFTHE VARIOUS A PART WAYSOF MAGNETIZTNG

iilagnetizing Technique and Materlal Forrh (see I. DirectCootactPart Magnetiration Advantage! Lirnitations

r2.3.r)
Head/Tailstock Contact 3mall parts(castings/ Solid/ relatlvely pieces) forgings,machined that can be processed wet unit on a horizontal 1. Fasl ea5ytechnique 2. Circular magnetic field5urround5 currentpath, 3. Goodsensitivity to surface and nearsurface discontinulties, 4. Simpleas wll as relatively complex partscan usuallybe easilyprocessed with one or moreshots. path is conducive 5. Complete magnetic to maximizing residual characteristics of material. l Largesurfaceareascan be procesred and examined in relatively short ltme. if poor l. Possibility of arc burn5 contact conditions exist. in 2. Longpartssho!ldbe magnetiaed bathapplication sections to facilitate without rgorting to an overlylong currentshot.

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Large casUngs and forgings

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]. Highamperage requirments (16 000 to 20 000 A) dictate specialDC porlersupplY. to outside 1. Effective fieldlimited surface and cannotbe usedfor inside diameter examinalionto electrical 2 . Ends mirst be conductive of carrying contacts andcapable excessive required currentwithouL heat.Cannot on oil country be used of possibility tubulargoods because o{ arc b!rn!. voltaqe requirements increase a5 lengthincreases dueto greater impedance of cableaod part. 2. Endsmust be conductive to electrical of carrying contactand capable required currentwithoutexcessive heat. I at 1 . only smallareacanbe examined 2 . Arc burnsdue to poor contact. t . Sudacemlst be dry whendry powdefis beingused. 4 . Prod spacing musi be in accordance level. with the magnetizin9 current

partssuch pipe/hollow Cylindrical as tubinq, shafq etc.

l. Entlre length canbe circularly fiagnetized by contacting, endto end.

Long solidpartssuchas billets,bars,shafts, etc.

Entire lengthcan be circslarly magnetized by\contacting/ endto end. Curent requirements are independent of length. No end loss.

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Prods: Welds

1. Circular fieldcanbe selectively directed to wld area by prod placement. 2. In coniunctlon with half-wave rectifiedalternatlng currentand dry poMerr provldes excellent sensitivity to subsudace discontinuities as well as sudacetype. and 3. Flexible/ in that prodt cables, powerpackscan be broughtio examination site.

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rABLE 1 (CONT'D) AOVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OFTHE VARIOUS WAYSOF MAGNETIZING A PART
Magnetizing Technique and Material Form
L a f g ec a i t , n g s o r f o r g i n g s

Advantages 1. Entire surface areacanbe exanined in small increments usingnominal current values. 2. Circularfield can be concentfated in specific areasthat historically afe pfoneto discontin!lties. 3. Equipment can be brought lo the locationof partstriat are difflcult to +. ilohiunction with hatf-wave rectlfiedalternating currentand dry powd!r, provldes excellent sehsitjvity to nearsurface sub6urface type discontinuities that ar diftic!lt to locateby other methods.

Llmltations
1. Coverage of larye surface area requires a multiplicityof shots that can be verytame-consuoing. 2. Possibility of arc burnsdueto poor contaci-Su#aceshouldbe dry when dry powder lJ bingused.

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(see IL lndirect Part L4a9ntiration 12.3.2) Ccniral Conductof partshaving lvliscellaneous holes through whicha conductor canbe ptaced such as: Bearing race Hollow cylinder Gear Large nut Large clevis Pipecouplinq, casing/tubing L No electrical contactto part and possibility of arc burnseliminated, 2- Circumferentially directed magnetic field is gene/ated in all surfaces (inside surrounding the conductor diameter, faces,etc.). 3- Idealfor thosecases where the re5idual method is applicable. 4. Light wEight partscan.be suppoded by the cntralconductor, 5. Multipleturnsmay be usedto reduce currantreqrirrad. L No eleclricalcontactof part requrrc0. 2. Insidediameter as well as oltside diameter examinatioo. 3, Entire length of pad circularly ma9neti2ed. qoodsensitivity 1- Provides for detection of di5continuities located on internalsurfaces, 1- All generally longitudinal surfaces are longitudinally magnetized to effectively locatetransverse discootiouities. 1 L0ngitudinal fieldeasily attained by means ol cablewrapping. 1 . Sizeof conductor must be ampleto carry requtred culrent. Ideaily,conductor shouldbe centralty located within hote, 3- La/gerdiameters requirerepeated magnetization Withconductor against insidediarneter and rotationof part processes. between Wherecontinuous magnetization technique is being employe4 examination i5 requlred after eachmagnetization. outsidesurface sensitivity may be somewhat less lhan that obtained on the inside surface for largediameter and ertrernely heavywajl.

Tubular typepartssuch as: Pipe/Casting Tubing Hollow shaft

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Largevalvebodies and similar parts

1- outsidesurface sensitivity maybe somewhat less than that obtained on the insidediameter for heavy wall. 1. Lengthmaydictatemuttipleshotas coil is repositioned.

Coil/Cable Wrap Miscellaneous medi!m,sjzed partswhere the predonrinates length such as a crankshaft Large castings, tofginqs, or shafting

1. lvlultiple magnetization may be required dueto configuration of part.

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, TABLE T (CONT'D) ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS OFTHE VARIOUS WAYSOF MAGNETIZING A PART
Magnctizlng Technique aid Materlal Fo n
lvliscellaneous small parts

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Advantaget
1.. Easyand fast, especially whre resldual magnetizatlon ls appllcable, 2, No electrlcal contat. 3. Relatively complerpartscanusually be proces5ed with sarneea5e as those with slmple crosrsection.

Limltatloni l. L/D (length/diameter) ratio importantconslderation in determining adequacy of arnpere. turns. 2. EtfecliyeUD ratio.a, be alteredby . utilizingpieces of similarcrosssectional area. 3. Usesmallercoil for morc intense field. 4. Sensitivity diminlshes at endsof part dueto genefalleakage field pattern. 5. Quickbfeakdesirable to minlmize end effecton shortpartswith low UD ratio, 1- Laminated core required through ring, 2. fype ol magnetizinq cu ent must be compatible with method, 3. other conductod encirclinq field must be avoided. 4, Largediafietersrequire speciaj consideration. l. For small.diameter balls,limlted to residual magnetization.

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InducedCurrentFixtures Examination part for of ring-shaped ci t cuml erc ntial -type d]scontlnultj es.

1. Nq elecl.rlcal contact. 2. All sur{aces of part subjectd to torci dal.tyry magnettcfl etd. 3, Singleproce3s for 1.00o/o coveraqe, 4, Canbeautoruted,

Ball xamination

L No electrical contact. 2. 100% coverage for discontlnuities ln any direction with three4tep process and properorientation batween stqps, 3, Can be automated. l. No electrical aontact. 2. Goodsensitivity at or nearperiphery or rlm. 3. Sensltivity ln varloosarlas can be vrfled by coreor pole1iece selection, 1,. No electrlcal contact. e. Hbhly portable. 3, CanlocatE dlscontlnuities in any dlrcctlon with proper orlentation. 1. No el.ctrlcalcontact. 2. GoodsensltMty to directsurface dlsco'rtln0ltles. 3. Hlghlyportble. 4. Wet of dry technlque. 5. Altinatlng<lrrenttypecanalso seFre as demaqnetizer in some lnstances.

Disksand gears

l. 10070Coverage may requiretwo:step prccesswith cqre or pol-piece variatlon,or both. 2, Typeof nagnetizing currcntmust be compatible with pad geometry. l. Time consuming. 2. Must be systematjcally repositioned In view of randomdiscontinuity orientatlon. 1. Must be properlypositioned relative to orlentation or discontinuities. 2. Relatively contactmust be Eood established between pad and poles. part geometry 3. Complex may cause difficulty. 4. Poor sensitivity to subsurface-type discantinuities lxcept in isolated areas,

Yokes: Examlnatlon of largesurrace arca! fo/ surface-type discontlnuities. [4lscellaneous examlnatlon of Farts requirlng locallzedareas.

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lrodes connected to the power source. Both localized xrea magnetization and;verall pan magnetization are direct contact meals of part magnetization achieved through the use of prods, head and tailstock, clamps, aDd magoetic leeches. 12.3.2 Incalized Area Magnetization: 12.3,2.7 Prod Tecfu rgue - The prod el3ctrodes are first pressedfirmly against the test part [Fig. 2(a)]. The magnetizing current is lhen passed through the prods and into the area of the pan in contact with the prods. This establishesa circular magnetic field in the part dound aod between eacb prod electrode, sufficient to carry out a local magneticparticle examination(Figs. 2(c) and 2(d)). Caution: Extieme care should be taken to nraintain clean prod tips, to minimize heating at the point of coniact and to prevett arc burns and local overheating on the surface being examined since ihese may cause adverse effects on material properties.Arc bunrs cause rnelallurgical damage; if the tips are solid coppcr, copper penetration into the part may occur. Prods^ should not be used on machined surfacesor on aerospacecornponent pans. (.1) Unrectified AC limhs the prod technique to the detection of surface discontinuities.Half-wave rectifled AC is most desirable since it will detect both surface and near-surface discoltinuities, The prod technique gencral)y utilizes dry magnetic particle materials due to better particle mobility. Wet magnetic particles are not generally used with the prod techniquebecauseof poteDLialelectncal and flammability hazards. (2) Proper prod examinationrequiresa secondplacement with lhe prods rotated approximately 90' from the Rrst placernentto assurethat all existing discontinuities are revealed. Depending on the surface coverage requirements, ovedap between successiveprod placements may be necessary,On large suffaces,it is good practice to layout a grid for prod./yokeplacement 12.3,2,2 Manual Clamp/Magnetic kech Technique - Local areas of complex componentsmay be magnetized by electdcal contacts manually clampedor aLlachcdwith magnetic leechesto the part (Fig.4). As with prods, sufficient overlap may be necessaryif tesring of the contact location is required. 12.3,2.3 Overall Magnetization: It) Head an<1Tailstock Contud - Pans nray be clamped between two electrodes(such as a head and tailslock of hoizontal wet magneticparticle equipmenr) ind the magnetizing cunent applied directly 0rrough the pan (Fig. 5). The size and shape of the pan will 506

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FIG.4 DIRECT-CONTACT MAGNETIZATION THROUGH MAGNETIC LEECHCLAMP OF PART

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FIG.5 DIRECT CONTACT MAGNETIZATION THROUGH HEAD/TAILSTOCK

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STANDARDS ARTICLB25 _ MAGNETICPART1CLE

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MAGNETIZATION OVERALL CONTACT FIG,6 DIRECT

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dererminewhetherboth field directionscsn be oblained with such equipment. (2) Clanps.- The magnetizingcunent may .be appliedto lhe Gst pan by clampingthe currentcarrying to.tbe part, producing.acircular magnetic "i.anod"a field (Fig. 6). (3) Muttidirectional Magnetiution Technique With suitable circuitry, it is possible to produce a (oscillating) field in a partby selectively multidirectional vrithin the part betwen field magnetic the switching approximately90 positioned contactVclamps ele.trod; ' deg, apart. This permits building up indications.in- all tbe equivalent poisibie directionsandmaybe considered in two or more dirctions (Fig' 7)' On of magnetizing some complex shapesas many as 16 to 20 stePs equipment'With mav be requiredwith conventional to it is usuallypossible magnetization, muitidirectional than more reduce the magnetizing steps required by thut tbe wet continuousmethod be half. It is "r."nld used and that the magneticfield direction and rclative by oneor moreof the techniques intensitybe determined in 20.8' described 12.3.3Indirect Magnetizstion-lndiLtegt part magnetization involves the use of a preformed coil, cable to inducea magnetic yoke,or a centralconductor wrap,-Coil, are yoke magnetization cable wmp, and field. part in the refered to as longitudinalmagnetization (see13.3). 12.3.3'l Coil and CoiI Magnetiulion When are coil (Fig. 3) or cable wrap (Fig. 8) techniques
501

RALL FIG.7 MULTIDIRECTIONAL.OVE MAGNETIZATION

used, the magneticfield strengthis propoftionalto (see on simplegeomctry tums and depends ampere 14.3.2'). 123,3'2 Central Conductor, Induced Current of M\pnetization - Indirect circular magnetization

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CABLE MAGNETIZATION

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car be performed hollow pieces/parts by passingthe megnetizing currentthrougha centralconductor [Figs. 9(r) and 9(b)l or cableusedas a centralconductor or throughan inducedcur:ent fixture [Fig.9(c)]. 12.3.3.3YokeMagnetization- A m gneticfield canbe induccdinto a partby means of an electromagnet (seeFig. I ), where the part or a portion thereofbecomes the magnetic path betweenthe poles (actsas a keeper) piefercntially anddiscontinuities Aansverse to the alignmeirt of the pole piecesare indicaEd. Most yokes are energized by AC, half-wave rectifiedAC, or full-wave rectinedAC- A permanent magnet can also introduce a magneticfield in the part but its use is restricted (see 6.3.1).

- Circular magnetiza13.2 Circular Magnetization tion (Fig. l0) is the term used when electric current is passed through a part,or by useof a centralconductor (sen 12.3.3.2I tbrough a central opening in the pan, inducing a magneticfield at right angles to the current flow, 133 Toroidal Magnetization- When magnetizing a part wift a toroidal shape,such as a solid wheel or the disk with a centeropening,an inducedlield that is radial to the disk is most useful for the detedion of discontinuities in a ciramferential direction. In such applications this field nay be more effective than multiple shots acrossthe periphery. 13.4 lnngitudinal Magnetization - Longitudinal (FiC. ll) is the term used when a magrnagnetization netic neld is georated by an electric current passing through a multi[lln, Fig. 12, or laminated coil, Fig. 13, wbich enclosstbe part or section of the pan to be examined. - T\e magnedc l3S Multidirectiotul Magnetization fields may b inducdin the part by passing current throughthe part from difrrent directions (see 12.3.?.3 and Fig, l4). Anifcial flaws, circular shims, or known defectssiould be usd ro establishmasnetic field direction.

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13. Direction of Magnetic Filds 13,1 Disconrinuity Orientation vs. Msgnetic Field Direc ot - Silrce indications arenot normally obtaired wheo discontiouities are parallel to the magneticfield, and sinceindications may occurin various or unknown dircctionsin a pafl, eachpan must be magnetized in iLtleajtttwo directions approxirnalely at rigbt angles to each other as noted in 5,3.2. On someparts circular magnctization may be usedin two-or moredirections, wirile on othsrsboth circularand longitudinal magnetization xre used. A multidirectionat field can also be en ployed to achievepart magnetization in more than o n cd i r e c t i o n .
508

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MAGNETIZATION FIG.14 MULTIOIRECTIONAT

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EiShtLw C.rhm SrcclPic Scatiofi h,l!s Erirld ToSclhcr& Cqpcr ?bkd

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r=-t-d-rf-l \-,.........1-.1.-.<l----.4/--l

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FIG.15 MAGNETIC NELD INDICATOR

>.{-< D SddooA-A TtF C: Citcl.

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(3) Substantial processing advantags overdirct conparls. tact techniqueso1rring-shaped (4J In generat it is desirabieto centrally locate s central conductorto permit theentire circumference of the part to be processedat one time. the resulting field is concentricrelaiivc !o the axis of the picce and is maximum at the inside surfae, The shengthof the magneticfield shouldbe verifiedly the mearr discussed '"' in 20.8. With a centratly Iocarel oentrald;naictor, ttre magnetizing current'fequircmenb would be the same as a solid piece having lhe sameouBide diameter.
5t1

B iL-5 e iul {r,^ .r I

trl-D TtF R: Slot IEr ^ I C D E " O Dirdrrioo (,) 0.0Jnn Om, ,nm tu70.12 . (l) (D (D Tolcrn llnm I 0.0m1 nm I 0.0001Ed t00(nl nm tlmm +lmm tlmm

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(1, A Tocifi.d bt t'c ttr.Iulrdltl'. Thca. ditE&d(ru !! iot ctilicd' 3a. 20.4.8.

FIG.].6 TYPICAL SHIM DESIGNS SLOTTED

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than 3 in. (75 rnm) is usually not Practical due 1o banding of ihe particles around the prods' When theareaof examinationexceedsa width of one quarterot connecting from a centerline measured theProdspacing, should intensiry neld magnetic the tne'orod centers, examined' being t}te area of edges be'verifledat the (2) IJsing Yokzs- The field suength of a yoke (or p"*ro"ot ma8[et) can be empirically. d-"l""T-":.d " by'measuting its lifting power (see 20'3'6)' ff a Hall' eifect probels used, it sball be placed on tlre surface midwaY betwentbe Poles'
L43.2 Air'Corc Coit Langitudinal Magnetizo,ion - Longitudinal pa$ magnetization is produced bv oassins.aiurent through a multiturn coil encircling A ,fi"'p"" i" secdbn of the part to be examined' of the parallel to the axis magnetic freld is produced (NI) The unit of measurement is ampere tums "oii tums of (the actual amperage multiPlied by the number in the encircling coil or cable)' The effective field extends on either side of the coil a distance approxtmately equal to the radius of the coil being employed' rrot to I-ong prtl should bc cxatnincd in scctions l"ogth. There are four empirical lorgitudinal "xce'"d'this masnetizatio$iormulas employed for using encircling the formula ro be useddependingon the nll factor' coil-s, The formulas are included foi historical continuity only' If used its use should be limited to simple shaped use parts. It would be quicker and more accurate to and part a Oauss (Tesla) meter, lay its probe on the the rn""rur" ih" field rather than to calculate using foImulas. - In this case' 143.2'l Low Fill'Factor Cails coil the cross-sectionalarea of the fixed encircling pan sreatlv exceeds the cross-sectional area of the For proper part iless than l07o coil inside diameter) within magnetization,such parts should be ptaced well coil' the the coils and close to the inside wall of for With tbis low fill-faclor, adequate field strength eccentricallypositionedpans with a length-over'diamete: ratio (Vi) betweeo 3 and 15 is calculated from the foUowing equations: (I) Parts With low Fill-Factor Positioned Close to Inside lVall of CoiI: NI = Kt(UD\(xr09o) where: N = I = K = L = 512 (l )

|l

Central C,ondtrctor

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OF REGION EFFECTIVE FIG,17 APPROXTMATE CENTRAL AN OFFSET WHENUSING XAMINATTON TR HREADE BR AR) C O N D U C T( O

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(5) when using offset cental conducto6 the conductoi passing through the inside of the part is placed arai;st rri insklc wall of the part Thc cuncnt-shall I)c lrorn 12 A Pcr rntn of part diameter to 32 A Wr mm of part diameter (300 to 800 AJin') The diameter of the pan shall be taken as the largest distance between tlte any two points on tht outside circumferenceof (20 pet A AJin orn. Ccnerrly currcntswill be 500 (up to 800.A/ currenls ,nrn; o, lorv.i with the higher in.) being used to examine for inclusionsot to examlne low permeability alloys such as precipitation-hardening in steel;. For exatninations used to locate inclusions uP cu[ents' higher steels even DreciDitation-hardening io tobo e.lln. (40 A per mm) may be used'The distance along the part circumferencewhich may be effectively shall be taken as approximatelyfour times "xariined the diameter of the central conductor, as illustrated Fis. l?. The endre circumfercnce shall be examined for bv- rotating the pan on the conduclor, allowfig overLess overlap' aooroximately a l0% rnagneticfield t"o. different current levels, and larger effective regions presenceof suitable 1up to 360") may be used if the field levels is verified. 14.3'1.2 Localized Magnedzation: (t) Using Prods - With prods, tbe stength circular nagnetization is proportional to the amperageused but with the prod spacingand thickneisof tbe $ection variies lt is recommendedthat a magnetizing examined. bcing 1 in. (90 to ll0 AJ25-mm) of prod from cu..Jnt spacing should be used for materi4l 74 in' (19 mm) und over in thickness' Prolongedenergizingcycles may cause undesirable localized overheating'Prod spacing should not exceed 8 in. (200 mrn)' Prod spacing less

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number of nrms in the coil, coil cunent to be used, amperes (A)' 45 000 (empiricaily derived corstant)' parl length, in., (see Note)'

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,ARTICLE 25 _ MAGNETIC PARTICI.E STANDARDS

sE-709

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D = part diameter, in.i for hollow parts, see 14.3.2.4, and NI = amperetums. For example,a part 15 in. (38.1crn) long with 5-in. (12.7-cm) outside diameterbas an I/D iatio of l5l5 (NI = or 3. Accordingly, the ampereturn requirEment field strengthin the part 45 000/3) to provide adequate would be 15000 amperctums. If a five-tum coil or would cable is used, the coil amperagergquirements be (I = 15000/5) = 3000 A (*10%). A 500 turn coil would require30 A (tl0%). (2) Parts with a Low Fill-Factor Positioned in the Center of the Coil:

area of the coil to f = ratio of the cross-sectional the sross section of the part. For example,if of t0 in. (25.4 the coil has an insidediameter (a part cm) and bar) hasan outsidediameterof (12.2 5 in. cm) Y = tn{sf)/tt?.5)21=4 1432i High Fill-Factor Cails - In this case, whenfixedcoils or cablewrapsare usedandthe crossareaof the coil is less than twice the crosssecticnal area(includinghollow portions)of the part, sectional the coil has a high fill-factor. (,1)For Pans Within a High Fill-FactorPositioned Coil and for Partswith an UD ratio equal to or greater than 3: Nr = ;, : rvhere: ,lV = I = K = L = D = ivf = ^r(rto%) l\LJu) + z) (4)

M = xnt(6uD)- s)(+ro%l
where: N = / = K = R = L = D =

(2)

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numberof tums in the coil. coil cunent io b used,A, 43 000 (empiricallyderivedcorrtan0, in., coil radius, part length,in. (seeNote), pe diameter, in., fcr hollow parts (see 14.3.2.4), and. turns. N/ = ampere For example,a part 15 in. (38.1 cm) long with 5-in.' (12.7-cm)outsidediameter has a UD ratio of 15/5or 3. If a five-tum l2-in, diameter(6-in. radius) (30.8cm diameter[5.4-cm ndius)] coil or cable is used, (1) the amperetums rcquirement would be as follows: = $-iE'I) o, ' 19sa6 1,,7 t ( 6 x3 ) - 5 1 and (2) the coil amperagerequirementwould be as follows: -:-j--: ot 3 969A (tl0%) Fill-Factor Coils - Wlrcn 14.3.2.2Intermediate of the coil is greaterthan twice and the cross section the cross.section of lhe pstt being less than ten times examined: (Y- 2yg (10- Y)+ (NI)$ N, = (^ll)',r (3)
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number of tums in the coil or cablewrap. coil current, A, dedvedconstant), 35 000 (empirically pM length, in., partdiameter, in., and amperetums. of Eq 4 can be illusfated For example, the application (25.4 crn) long-with z-in. pan l0 in. a as followsi (5.08-cm)outsidediameterwould have an L/D fttio of NI : 35 000/ of 5 and arl ampetetum requirements (5 + 2) or 5M0 (xID%) rmPere lunts. If a fivetum coil or cable wrap is employed, the amperage requircment is 5000/5or 1000A (+10%).
Notc - Fo! l/D ratios lcss than 3, a Polc Picac (fcrrornagnetic lhe samediamctcras pa() shouldbc uscd ma(crialapprorimalely thc I-lD ratio or utilize an altemativ. magnetiza_ to cffectively incrcasc tion rndhod such as induced culrcn|. For I/D ratids 8rcatcr thao 15. a meximum IJD vahc of 15 should b uscd for all formulas

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143.L4 UD Ratiofor a Hollovl Piece- Wher caiculati$Ethe L/D ratio for a hollovr piece, D shall D"6 calcutated with an effectivediameter be replaced using: D,n= l(A,- A)ltt'lta where: areaof the part,and Ar = toralcross-sectional of = of the hollow Portion(s) area cross-sectional A, the Darl. 5t3

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where: for high fill-factor coils N/rrt = value of N1 calculated usingEq 4,..for low fill-factor coils lV4r = value of NI calculatd usingEq I or Eq 2, and

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sE.709 For a cylindricalpiece,this is equivalent to: D$,= t(oDl2- (tD)2ltn where: OD = outside diameter of thc cylinder, and /D = insidediameter of thecylinder.

2OOISECTIONV

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of indications while the powder is being appliedand alsowbile the excess is being removed. time Sufficient for indicationformation and examination should be allowedbetween successive magnetization cycles,

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15.2 WetParticle Application * WeI magneticparticles,fluorescent or nonfluorescent, suspended in a vehicle at a recommendedconcentrationmay be applied either by spraying or flowing over the areas to be 15. Application of Dry and Wet Magnetic inspectedduring the application of the magnetizing Particles field cunent (continuoustechnique)or after tuming off the current (residual tehnique).Proper se4uencing 15.7 Dry Magnetic Particles: of (part magnetization operation andtiming of bathapplicaI5.I.7 Ma4netic Fieldslor Dry Particles - Dry tion) is essentialto indication forrnalion and retention. magnetic powdeBaregenerally applied with the continFor the continuous technique multiple current shots uousmagretizing techniques utilizingAC or half-wave shouldbe applied.The last shor shouldbe applied, after rec(ifled AC. or yoke magrctization,A currentduration theparticle flow hasbeendiverted andwhile thepMicle of at least 72 s shouldbe used,The currentduration . bath is still on the part. A single shot may be sufficient. should be short enoughto preventany damage from Careshould be taken to prcvent damageto a part due overheating or from other causes. It shouldbe noted to ovefteatingor other causes. Sincefine or weakly thatAC andhalf-wave rertified AC impart better particle heldindications on highly finished or polishedsurfaces mobiliry to the powderthan DC or full-wavelectified maybe washed awayor obliterated, caremustbe taken AC. Dry magnetic powders arewidelyused for magnetic to prevent high-velocity flow over critical surfaces and particleexaminatiotof largepaftsas well ason localized to cut off the bath application before removing the areassuchas welds.Dry magnetic particles are widely magneticfield. Since a residual fleld has a lower usedfor oil field applicadons and are frequently userl intensity thana continuous field,lesspronounced indicain conjunction with capacitor discharge styleequipment tions tend to form. and the residualmethod. - Magnetic lSi Magnetic Slutry/Paintr slurry/paints 15.7.2 Dry Powder Application - Dry powders are applied part to the a with bmsh before or during shouldbe applied in sucha manner thata light uniform, part magnetization. Indicationsappearas a dark line dust'like coatingsettlesupon the surface of the panl agairsta light silvery background. Magneticslurry is piecewhile it is being nagnetized. Dry particles must ideal for oveftead or underwater magnetic particle not be appliedto a wet $urface; they will havelimited examination. mobility. Neithershouldthey be appliedwherethere is excessiv wind. The prefened application technique 15.4 Magnetic Polymers - Magnetic polymers are suspends the particlesin air in such a mannerthat applied to the testpafi as a liquid polymersuspension. they reach the part surfacebeing magnetized in a The part is then magnetized, the polymer is allowed uniform cloud with a minimum of force. Usually, to cure, arld the elastic coating is removed from the speciallydesigned powderblowersand hand powder test surfacefor examination, Care must be exercised applicators areemployed. (Figs.lb and4). Dry particles to ensurethat magnetization is completed within the should notbe applied by poudng, throwing, or spreading activemigration periodof &e polymerwhicb is usually with rhe fingers. about l0 mir. This method is particutarly applicabte to areasof limited visual accesssuch as bolt holes. 15.1.3frccss PowderRemoval Careis )reedcd Detailed application in both the applicationand removal of excessdry anduseinstructioos of themanufacturer shouldbe followed for optimumresults. powder-While the magnedzing curent is prcsent, care rnustbe exerciscd ro prevent the.removal of panicles attractedby a leakagefield that may prove to be a relcvant indication of a discontinuity. 16. Interpretation of Indications 15.L.4Near-surface Discontirtuities Powderpar - All valid indicarions L6.l Valid. Indications formed terns- ln orderto recognize the broad,fuzzy,wealily by magneticparticle examinadonare the result of held powderpatterns produced by near-surface disconmagnetic leakagefields, Indicationsmay be relevant tinuitis, it is essenhal to observe carefully theformation (16.l.l), nonrelevant (16.1.2), or false(16.1.3).
514

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sF-709

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- Relevantindications .16.l,l Relevdnt Indicatrbns are producedby leakagefields which are the rsult of discontinuities.Relevantinfications require evaluation ,igreed upon with regard-to the acceptance standards' agencyand the puithaser betweenthe manufacturerftest (seeAnnex Al). - Nonrelevint in16.1,2NonrelevantIndl:can'ons dications can occur singly or in pafternsas a rcsult of leakage fields createdby conditions that rcquire no evaluation such as changesin sction (like keyways and drilled holes),inhercntmaterialproperties(like the edge of a bimetallic weld), magnetic writing, etc, 16,1,3 False Indicartons- False indications arc forces,Examplesare psnicles not the result of magnetic held mechanicallyor by gravity ir shallow dePrssions or particles held by flst or scale on the surface. 17. Recording of Indications l7.l Mcans of Recording- When required by a records of the location, written procedure,perrnanent type, dircction, lengthG),and spacing(s)of indications may be madeby oneor moreof the following means. - Sketching and' the indication(s) l7.l.l Sketches their locations. 77.1.2 Transfer (Dry Powcler Only) - Covering tape, adhesive-backed the indication(s)with transparent removing the tape with the magnetic particle indication(s) adheringto il aDdplacing it on paper or other appropriatebackgroundmaterial indicating locations. , 17.13 Strippable Fihn (Dry Powder Only) Covering the indication(s)with a spray-on strippable film that fixes the indication(s) in place. Wlen the film is stripped from the part, the magnetic panicle indication(s) adhereto iL - Photographing the indica17.1.4 Photographing the tape,or the stdppablefilm rcprotions themselves, ductions of the indications. L7,15 Wium Reconk- Recordingthe location, length, orientalion, and number of indications. Infomiztion - A record of the 17.? Accomparying listed below as applicableshould procedureparameters the inspection results: accompany - Magneticparticlemethod MethodUsed 17.2.1 (dry, wet, fluorescenl etc.). 17.2.2 Magnetizin| Technique- Magnetizing residual). (continuous, true-continuous, technique

17,2.3 Current Type- Magnetnng cunent (AC, half-wave rectified or full-wave rectified AC, etc.)172,4 Field Direcrton - Direction of nagnetic etc.). field Qrod placement,cable wrap sequence, 172,5 FieA Strengrh- Magneticcurrentstrength [amperetums, amperesper millimehe (inch) of prod spacing,lifting force, etc.l. 18. Demagnetlzatlon material will la.l Applicability - All ferromagnetic rehin some residual magnetism,the strengthof which on the retentivity of the Part. Residual is dependeDt does not affect the mechanical magnetism ProPerties of the parL However, a residualneld may causechips, filing, scale, etc. to adhre to the surface affecting painting,or plating. machining operations, subsequent near part used in locations lhe will be if Additionauy, affect fields could instruments, high residual sensitive a strong Furthermore, of these inslruments. $e operation welded could to be arc magnetic field in a pan residual fields may also interfere Residual with welding. interfere Demagnetizapanicleexamination. with laier magnetic in the drawings, tion is required only if specified When required,an or purchaseorder. specification, andthe meamagnetizdtion level of residual acceptable 18.3. See suringmethodshall also be specified. -The ease of demagMethods Demagnetization 18.2 letization is dependenton the coercive force of the dated to high High retentivity is not necessarily metal. of the residualfield coerciveforce in that the strength is not always an indicatorof easeof demagnetizing. is accomplishedby subIn general, demagnetization jecdng the part to a field equal to or greater than that the Patt and in nearly the same used to magnetize the field direction reveming thencontinuously dircction, while gradually decreasingit to zero. lSLl Withdrawal from Altimating Current is to T\e fastestand most siqple technique Coil passthe part througha high intensityaltematingcurrent coil and then slowly withdraw the part from the field of the coil. A coil of 5000 to l0 000 ampere tums is usuallyfrom 50 to Line frequency is recommended. piece shouldenterthe currcnl The 60 Hz altemating andmovethrough distance coil from a lz-in. (300-mm) it steadilyand slowly until the pieceis at least36 in. (900 mm) beyondthe coil. Care shouldbe exercised to ensure that the part is entirely removed ftom the force is of the coil beforethe demagnetizing influence may have(he the demagnetizer otherwise discontinued, the part. This shouldbc effect of magnetizing reverse

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repeatedas necessaryto reduce the residual field to level. See 18.3.Smallpartsof complex an acceptable figumtion can ,be rotated and tumbled while passing throughthe field of rhe coil, 18.22 Decreasing Altemating Current- An alt'ernativ.etechniquefor paft demagnetization is subjecting the part to the field while graduallyrcducingits streogth to a desiredlevel. 18.23 DemagnetizingWith Yokes- Altemating current yokes may be used for local demagrretization by placing the poles on the surface, moving them aroundthe area,and slowly withdrawingthe yoke while it is still energized: 18.2,4 Reversing Direct Current - The part to be demagnetizedis subjectedto consecutivestepsof reversedand rcduced direct curent nugnetizationto a desired level. (This is the most effective processof large parL{in which the altematingcurdemagnetizing rent neld has insufncient penetrationto remove the intemalresidual magnetization.) This technique reqlires spccial equipment for revcrsing thecunentwhilesimultaneously reducingit in small increments. -.The effectiveness 18.3Extentof Demagnetization of the dcnragnetizing opcration can be indicated by the use of appropriate magneticfield indicators or feld strengthmelers.Caution: A part may retaina strong residualfield after having beencircularlymagnetized and exhibit little or no extemalevidence of 0ris [eld. Tberefore,the circular magnetization should be conductedbefore longitudinalmagnetizatioD if complete demagretization is'required. 18.3.1After demagnetization residual fieldsshould not exceed3 G (240 A;n-') anywhere in the piece, absolutevalue, unlessotherwiseagreedupon or as specined on the engineering drawingor in the contract, purchase order,or specification. 19, Post Examination Cleaning 19.7 Particle R?ftoval - Post-test cleaningis ne.essarywheremagnetic particlematerial(s) couldinterfere piocessing with subscquenl. or with service requirernents. The purchaser shouldspecifywhen post-test cleaning is nccdcdand the extentrequired. 19.2 Means of Particle Removal - Typical posttest clcaningtechniques employed arb: (a) the useof conrpressed air to blow off uowanteddry magnetic particlcs;(b) drying of wet particlesand subsequelt rernoval by brushing or with compressed air; (c) removal of wet particles by flushingwith solvent; and(d) olher
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suitable post-examination cleaning techniquesmay be used if they will not interfere with subsequent requirements. 20. Evaluation of System Performance/Sensitivity 20,1 Contributing Factors - The overall performanc/se$itivity of a magneticparticle examinationsystem is dependentupon the following: 20.1.1 Opirator capability, if a manual operation is involved, 20,1,2 Control of processsteps. 20.13 The particles or suspension, or both. 20.1.4 The equipmen(. 20.1,5Visible light level. 20.1.6 Black light monitodng where applicable. 20.1,7 Magnetic field sEength. 20,1,8Field dircctionof orientation. 20.1.9Residual field strength. 20,1.10 These factors should all bc controlled individually. 20,2 Meintenanceud Calibration of EquipmentThe magnetic particleequipment employedshouldbe maintained in properworking order at all times.The frequency of verification calibmtion, usuallyevery six months,see Table 2. or whenevera malfunctionis suspected, shouldbe spcified in the wdttenprocedures . of the testingfacility. Records of thechecks andresults provideusefulinformation for qualitycontrolpuryoses and should be maintained. In addition,any or all of the tests describedshould be performed whenever a malfunctionof the systemis suspected. Calibration tes(s shouldbe conducted in acrordance with the specifications or documentsthat arc applicable. 20.3 Equipment Checks- The following tests are recomrnended for ensuring the accuracy of magnetic particlemagnetizing equipment. - The equipment 20.3.1 Ammeter Accuracy meter readings shouldbe compared to thoseof a conuol test meter ilcorporating a shunt or cunent transfomer connected to monitor the output curren!. The accuracy of the entirecontroltest metera.rangement shouldbe verifiedat six-monthintervalsor asagreeduponbetween the purchaserand supplier by a meanstraceablto the National Instituteof Standards (NIST). andTechnology Comparative readings shall be takenat a minimumof

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ARTICLE 25 --. MAGNETIC PARTICLE STANDARDS

sE-?09

TABLE 2 RECOMMENDED VERIFICATION INTERVALS

Item LIghtingi Vlslble llght lntenslty BlacklightInterlilty Background vlsible llgtttIntansity SFtem performance uslngtest pleceor ring speclmen of FIg,18 concentration Wetparllcle MaximumTlme Reference ParaBetween .r Verlficatlonsr 9rapns
,f vJlek 1 v.leek 7.1.1

TABLE 3 MINIMUM YOKELIFTINGFORCE

Type Cure
AC DC

YokePoleLeESpacing luu to I)u mm 50 to 100mn (2 to 4 ln.) (4 & 6 in.)

45 N (l0 tb) r35 N (30 lb) 225N (s0lb)

1wek I day 8 h. or every shlft changa 1 weL I day

. 7.r-2 7.1.r 20,4,3 20.6

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Wetpartlcle contamlnation 20.6.4 Water breaktest 20.7.3 Equlpmnt callbratlodaheck: aacuracy 20.3,1 Ammeter 6 montrs 20-3-2 Tlmercontrol 6 months break 20.3.3 6 monthj Qutck virightcheck 20.3.6 Oead 6 months chec&s 20.4 Llghtmetar 6 no|(hs ! NOTE - Themaximum between verifications be tlme may extended whensubstantiated by actualtechnical stability/rellabillty data.

machineof which it is a part. For infinite current intervals settings at 500-A. conrol units(non-taiswitch), t10% from the shouldbe used.Variationsexceeding equipmentammeterreadingsindicate the equipment needsservice or repair. 20.3.5 Intemal Short Circuit Ctect - Magnetic for particleequipment shouldbe checkedperiodically set for internalshort circuiting.With the equipment anydeflection maximum amperage of theamrneoutput, activated with no conductor tcr when the cunen! is between the eontactsis an indication of an internal shon circuit. YokeLifting Force Test20.3.6Electromagnelic force of a yoke (or a permanent The magnetizing magnet)should be tested by determiningils lifting poweron a steelplate.SeeTable 3. The lifting force strenglhof the yoke. relates to the electromagnetic 20.3,7 Powder Blower - The performance of particles powder blowers usedto applythedry magnetic a at routine intervalsor whenever shouldbe checked made The check shouldbe is suspected. malfunction test part. The blower shouldcoat on a representative the area under test with a light, uniform dusrlike coating of dry magnetic particles and have sufficient particles withoutdisturbing forceto removethe excess Necesof indications. thosepaniclesthat are evidence Yelocity now air rate or saryadjustmelts to theblower's witb the manufachrrer's shouldbe madein accordance rerommendations, 20.4 ExaminationArea Light lzvel Contol: Visible Light Intensity- Light inlensity ?-0.4.1 at specified in the examination areashouldbe checked light meter at the surface with fte designated intervals parts Table 2. See of the being examined. 20,4.2Black (ultraviolet) Ught Intensity - Black light intensityand wavelengthst'ould be checkedat the specifledintervals but not to exceedone-week Reffectors inte als and whenevera bulb is changed. and lllters sbould be cleaneddailv and checkedfor

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threeoutputlevelsencompassing the usable rangeThq equipmenimeter readilg shall not deviateby more than tll% of full scalerelativeto the actualcurrent valuesas shown by the test meter. Caution: When measuringhalf-wave rectified AC, -the direct cunent reading of a conventionalDC test meter reading must be doubled. -equipment ' 20.3,2 Timer Conlrol Check - On utilizing a timer to controlthe durationof the current flow, the timer should be checked for accuracy as specified in Table 2 or whenever a malfunction is suspected. 20,33 Magnetic Field Quick Break Check- Qn featurc, thefunctioning equipment thathasa quickbreak of this circuit should be checkedand verified. This test may be performed using a suitable oscilloscope or a simple test device usually availablefrom the manufacturer. On electronic -powerpack or machines, indication of a "quick brcak" would faiiureto achieve exists in tie energizing indicatethat a malfunction. circuit. 20.3.4 Equipment Current Output Check - "fo ammethe continued accuracy of theequipment, ensure ter readingsat each hansformertap should be made combination.This acwith a calibratedarJlmeter-shurt cessoryis placed in series with the contacts.The eouiomentshunt should not be used to check the
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2ml SEC ON V from the Take a 100-mL portion of the suspension. and allow it lo settle hose or nozzle, dernagnetize 60 min with peroleum distillate for approximately suspensions or 30 min wift water-based suspensions The volume settlingout al the botlom beforereading. of the tube is indicativeof the particleconcentralion in the bath. 20.62 Sanple Interyretarlon- If the bath concentration is low in particlecontent,adda sufficientamount of panicle matedals[o obtain tl|e desiredconcenration; is high in particlecontent, add suffiif the suspension coocenhation. If the cient vehicleto obtainthe desired rather settledparticlesappearto be loose agglomerates than a solid layer, take a second sample.If still the particlesmay havebecomemagneagglomerated, tized; replacethe suspension. - For fluorescent particles, 20.6.3SettlingVolurzes settlingvolume (see 8.4.6) is from the recommended 0.1 to 0.4 rn]- in a 100-mLbath sampleand from 1.2 to 2.4 rnL per 100 mL of vehiclefor nonfluorescent p rticlesunless by thepaniclemanuotherwisc specificd facturer, - Both fluorescent 20.6,4 Bath Contaminatiort perisuspensions shouldbe checked andnonfluorescent odically for contaminants such as dirt, scale,oil, lint, pigment,water (in the caseof oil loose ffuorescent and panicleagg,omerates which car adsuspensions), particle of the magnetic verselyaffectthe performance processexanrination SeeTable 2.

or brokenUV filters integrity.See Table 2. Cracked shall be replacedimmediately.Defective bulbs which beforefurradiateUV,energy rnustalso be replaced use. ther - In order 21.5 Dry Particle Quality Contol T.trs performance from the to assureuniform and consistent dry magnetic powder selectedfor use, it is adYisable powdersbe certifiedor testcdfor that all incoming. establ-lshed with quality control standards conformance between the user ard supplier. 20.5.1Contamination: 20.5.1.1DegradationFactors - Dry magnetic particlesare generallyvery ruggedand performwith over a wide Process a i'igh degreeof consistency however,is susceptible Their performance, envelope. from such contaminants as moisture; to degradation grease, oil, rust and mill scalepanicles,nonmagnetic heat. panicles such as foundry sand, and excessive usually themselves will manifeit Thesecontaminants andparticle agglomin theform of particle colorchange will dctcrmine funher usc the degree of which eration, their dry Particles can lose of the powder.Over-heated color, therebyreducing the color contrastwith fte paft Panicle agglomeration andt,rushinderpartexamination. ' and can reduce particle rnobility during processing, at an may not be retained largepanicleagglomerates indication. 20.5.1,2 Ensuring ParticleQuality- To ensure effectsfrom possible contaminants, againstdeleterious performance/sensitivitv thata routine it is recommended (see20.8.3). test be conducted 20.6 Wet Particle Quality Contol Tests - The particlesuspensions following testsfor wet magnetic shouldbe conducled at smrtupand rt rcgularintervals to assureconsisten! perfotmaflce. See Table 2, Since bath contamirationwill occur as fte bath is used, monitoring the working barh at rgular intervalsis essential. 20.6.1Derermining Balh Concentation- Bath . are concentration and sometimes bath contamination its settling by measuring volrrmethrough determined the usc of a Test MethodD 96 pear-shapeJ centrifuge tubc with a l-nL stern(0.05-mL divisions) for fluoresor a [.5-mL stem(0.1-n[ cent particlesuspensions suspenbions. divisions)for nonfluorescent Beforesampling,the suspension be run tbrough the recircushould min to ensurethorough lating systemfor at least30 mixing of all particles on the which could haveseltled sunlpscreen and alongtlre sides or bottomof the tank-

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usingthe samematerials with a freshlymade-up sample ar with a(t unusedsamplefrom the original bath that was retainedfor this pulpose,If the "used" sample is noticeablymore fluorescent than the comparison the bath shouldb replaced. standard, - The graduaParticleContaminatlon 20.6.4.2 portion examined underblack ted of the tubeshouldbe is and light if the bath fluorcscent under visible light (for both fluorescent particles)for and nonfluorescent striations or bands, differences in color or appearance. Bandsor striations If the may indicatecontamination. total volume of the contaminates, including bandsor striationsexceeds30qo of the volume of magnetic panicles, (see or if the liquid is noticeably fluorescent 20.6.4.1), the bath shouldbe replaced.

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ARTICLE 25 *

MACNE'TICPARTICLESTANDARDS

sE.?09

20.6,5Particle Durabilit! - The durability of both particles the fluorescent andnonfluorescent magnetic in suspension should be checkd periodically!o effiure that the particles have not degradeddue to chemical attack from the suspending oil or conditioned water vehicles or mechanically degradedby the rotational forces of tbe recirculating pump in a wet horizonal . magnetic particle unil Fluorscentmagnetic panicle breakdown in particular can result in a decreasein sensitivity and an increase in nonmagneticfluorescent backgound. [,ost fluorescent pigmentcan producefalse indications that ca]l interfer with the examination process. 20.6,6 FluorescentBrightness- It is imporrant magneticpariicle thrt lhe brightnessof fluorsscent powderbe maintained level so that at the established indicationand background can be kept at a brightness relalivcly coirstantlevel. Variationsin contrastcan noticeably affecttestresults. I:ck of adequate contrast is generally caused by: 20.6.6,1An increase in conmmina(ion lcvcl of the vehicleincreasing backgmund fluorcscence, or 20.6.6.2 Lossof vehicle of evaporation, because increasing concentration, or . panicles. A 20.6.6.3Degradation of fluorescent changein contrastratio can be observed by using a test ring specimenwith an etchedsurface.

proper panicledispersion, wetting, protecandcorrosion tion. The water break test should be performedby floodinga part,similar in surface finish to thoseunder' test,with suspension, and then noting the appearance of the surfaceof the part after the flooding is stopped. lf the film of suspension is conlinuous and even all over the part, sufficientwettingagentis present. If the film of susSrension breaks,exposingbare surfaces of the part, and the suspensionforms many separate droplets more wetting agentii'iieeded on the surface, or the part has not beensufficientlycleaned. 20.7.4pH of Conditioned Water Vehicles- The pH of the conditioned water bath shouldbe between 6.0 and 10.5as detetmiiedby a suitable pH meteror sflccialpH papsr. 20.8 Verifiing SystemPerformance 20.8.1 Protluction Test Pans with Discontinuities - A practicalway to evaluate the performance and sensitivityof the dry or wet magneticparlicles or overall system pcrfornrancc, or both, is to usc represenhdve test parts with known discortinuities of thetypeandseverity normally encountered duringactual production However, inspection, tbe usefulness of such partsis limited because the orientation and magritude of the discontinuities cannotbe controlled. The use of flawedparts with grossdiscontinuities is not recommended. Caution - If s'rchpafis are used,they must be thoroughly anddemagnetized aftereachuse. cleaned

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- Failure to find 20,6.7 Performatce/Sensitivily 20.8.2 Fabdcated Test Parts with Discontinujn a pan or obtainthe specified a knowndiscontinuity testpartswith knowndisconilies- Often,production indications on the test ring (see 20,8.3) indicates a tinuities and severity of the type needed for evaluation . need for changing of the entire bath- If a pan was are not available.As an altemative,fabricatedtest used,it must havebeenultrasonically cleanedso that specimens with discontinuities of varying degrceand no fluorescent background when viewed canbe detected severitycrn be usedto provide an indicationof the under black light with a surface intensityof at lesst particleexamieffectiveness of the dry or wet magnetic 100pWcm?. If any background is notedthat interferes nationprocess, with eifter detectionor interFetation,the bath sbould 20.8.3 Test Plate - The magnedcparticle systm be drainedand a new suspension made. performance test plate shown in Fig. 18 is useful for 20.7 Bath CharacteristicsControl: testing of systems overallperformance usingprodsand yokes. 20.7.1 Viscority- The viscosityof the suspension slrould not exceed 5 mm?s1S.0 csg, at any temperature - The test (Ketos) 20,8.4 Test Ring Specimen at which the bath may be used,when testedin accord(Fig. 19) is also usedin evaluating ring specimen and ancewith Test MethodD 445. comparing and sensitivityof the overall performance both dry and wet, fluorescent and nonfluorescent mag20.7.2 Flash Point - \\e flash point of wet neticpanicletechniques usinga centralconductor magmagneticpanicle light petroleum distillate$uspensior netization technique. should be a minimumof 200'F(93'C);useTestMethod D 93. 20.8.4.1Test Ring Material - The tool steel (Ketos) 20,7.3 Water Bidak TeEt Water Conditioned ring shouldbe machined from AISI 0l material for Velticlcs- Properlyconditioned water will provide in accordance ring wichFig. 19. Eitherthe machined 5r9

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sE-709

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NorE 1-EDM = Electonic Dis.harge Machine. NorE z-FHB = Honghness Height Ratjng. NorE 3_Matenat shor-dd b lhe same lyp ss malerial to be tesred {a tow-alov steel dals is suitable lor aI bw-aloy sreet materiat to be testeo. Nor 4-f should be within ly. in. ot matedat to be tested uO io V. in. I = V. in. for malenat v. in. arE ovel, NoTE s-Ten notchE are cut by lh EOM p.ocossand 4r V. n. (3 mml tono. 5 lhfough 50 m s docp and 5 t 1 nxt wrde, NorE 6-Nolcnes are lo be t,tted fusn b tha sulaca $th a noflcondrctilo mateial, 6uci as epo{y. ro prelmr the rnechanrcat hotdrE ol th indicln6 medtum_

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F I G ,1 8 M A G N E T IP C A R T I C LS EY S T E M PERFORMAN C T EE S TP L A T E

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or the steel blank should be annealedat 1650.F (900.C), cooled 50"F (28'C) per hour to 1000"F (540"C1 and then air cooled to ambient rcmperature to give compara_ ble resuhs using sinrilar rings that have had the iame treatment. Material and heat treatment are imoonant variables, Experience indicates cont-rollingthe sofiness of the .ring by hardness (90 to 95 HRB) alsng ;g insufficient. 20.8.4.2 Using the Test Ring _ The test ring, Fig- 19, is circularJymagnetizedwith full-wave rectilie<i AC passing through a centml conductor with a I to It,/4-ir. (25 to 3l-mm) diatneterhole located in ahe ring. center.The conductor should have a length greater than 16 in. (400 mm). The cunentused, unless otherwisc ilgrccd upon by (he user and the particle rtunufacturer, shall be 1400 amps. For dry particlesrhe nrinimum lurnber of holes shown sball be folir. For wet Danicles tlre minimum number of holcs shqwn shalt be three. The ring cdge should be examined after I min with cirhcr black light or visible light, sce 20.4 depending on the type of prticles involved.
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20.8,5 Magnetic Field Indicators: . 'feld 20.8.5.1 "Pie" Field Indicaror - The magneric indicator shown in Fig. 15 rclies on rhe slots betweenthe pie shapedsegmelltsto show the presence and the approximate direction of the masnetic fieldA suitable field strengthis indicatedwhJr a clearlv defined line of magnetic panjcjes forms across the copper face of the indicator (rhe slots are against the piece) when the magnetic particles are applied simultaneously with lhe magnetizing force. Failure to obtain an indication can result from: (1) insufficienr nugnetic field, or (2) rhe magnetic propenies of the material being examined, or both.

20,85.2 Sloned Shint - Several tyDesof slofled shims exist. Three, shown in Fig- 16, simil.rr but nor identical, have been used by the Japanese for a number of years and are bcing manufac{ured in the Uniled States,Slor depths of 15, 30, and 60Z0 of thc shiD thickness can be obtained;the slots beinp chemicallv rrilled- The slotted side is placed in a'Io." "on,r.,

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ARTICLE 25 _ MAGNETIC PARTICLESTANDARDS

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NorE l-Allhole diarneters are!0.005in.(rO.Olcrn). Hote numbers I thru12 areopuonal. NorE z-Tdelance on theO distance is a0.OOS in.(!o_Ot). NoIe 3-Alldimensions afe+0.03 in,(lO.O8) rnI and2. or as noted Nor 4-All dimension areh irches,exceptas noredNorE s-Matedal is ANSI0l toot srelkom anneated roundstcrck. NorE 6-Tho rlngmaybhl veated as tolowst l"teat to 1{00ro 145ooF {760 to TgooclHotd arthistemperarwe foronehour. Cootro a,naximufi rateof4O;F/h (22"Ctr) tobelow1O0O'F (510oC). Fumace or aircoot to roomtemoe.ature Fini:h lhe ringto RMS25 and prorect trom coftosion.

F I G .1 9 T E S TR I N G

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with the piece. The linear (bar) slot is useful whcn ' 21. Procedures discontinuities are critical in a specificdirection.The 21.1Whenspecified a procedure should be writtenfor circular slot indicates the directionof maximumfield all magnetic particle examinations and should include as strengdr and the angular tolerance of sensitivity. It can a minimum the following information. A sketch is be used for developingmultidirectional magnetizing usuallyusedfor illustrating pan geometry, techniques, procedures.The radially slotted strip has been found and areasfor examination. This sketchmay also be most useful for pans with na]row spacesand small usedfor recording location of magnetic field inclicators radii.The truecontinuous (10.1.2) method of magnetiza- .and for recordinglocationof discontinuities. tion mustbe used, tbat is, the particles mustbe applied before the current flow is stopped. For dry powder 21.1.7 Area to be examined(entire part or speapplications, the excesspowder must be blown off cific area). beforethe currentstopsflowing. 21.1.2^fypeof magnetic panicle material(dry or 20.8.6Half-efect Probe - The Hall-effect probe wet, visible or fluorescent), or sensormeasures the tangenfialfild strength(in air 21.1.3Magneticparticleequipment, adjacentJo the part) of the magnetizingforce (H) and is calibrated in gauss. The sensormust be usedwith 21.1.4Pa surface preparation requirements, care. It must be kept close to the part surface. The 21.1.5Magnetizing (continuous, process true-conmanufacturer's instructions shoutdbe followed.These tinuous, rcsidual), instruments can be usedto detecta residualfield or measure fields prodfcedduring head shotsand shots 21.1.6Magnetizing current(alterntting, half-wave using a centml conductor. rectifiedAC, full-waverectifiedAC, direct),
521

slt-709

2001sEcTtoN v ?3.1,4Fire bath. Ignition of a petroleumdistillate

21.1.7 Means of establishing part magnetization (direct-prods,head/tailstock contact or cable wrap, indirecrcoil/cable wrap, yoke, celtral conductor, and so fonh), 21.1,8 Direction of magnetic field (circular ol longitudinal), 21.1,9 Sys|em performance/sensitivity checks, 2l.l.l0 Magneticfield srrength (ampere tums, field density, magnetizing force, and number and duration of application of magnetizing cunent;, 21.1.11Applicationof examination media, 21,1.12 Interpretationand evaluationof indications, 2l.l.l3 cr'rtena, Typc of rccords including ucccpUreject

23.15 Environnen - Doing magneticparticle examination whereflammable vaporsare present as in a petrochemical plant or oil rcflnery.Underwarer work has its own set of hazards. 2X,1.6Wet Floors - Slippingon a floor wetted with a particle suspension. 23.1J Shifting or Dropping of large Compo_ nents* Largecomponents, especially thoseon temporry supports, can shift during examination or fall while being lifted. In addition,operators shouldbe alen to the possibility of injury to body members beingcaught bencatha sling/chain or between hendytail srockand the piece. 23.1.8 UltravioletLight Exposure - Ultraviolet light in excess of 1000pWcm2 can adversely affect the eyesand skin. Safetygogglesdesigned to absorb UV wavelengthradiationarc suggested where high intensityblacklightis used. 23,1,9Materials and Concentrates - The sate handling of magneticpafticlesand concentrates are govemed by tbe supplier's MaterialSafetyDataSbeers (MSDS), TheMSDSconforming to 29 CFR 1910.t200 or equivalent must be provided by the supplierro any user and must be prepared in accordance witlr FEDsTD-313.

21.1.14 Demagnetizingtechniques, if required,and 2I.1.15 Post,examination cleaning,if required, 21.2 Wriuen Reports - Wdtten reports shall be prcpatcrl rs agrecd Lrponbetween the testi|rg agency/ dcpxr(nrent a|ld the purchaser/user AcccptrnccStandards 'lhe acceptabiliry of piuts examined by this ,' 22.1 nr,:1hodis tlot specified herein, Acceptancesnndards i|re a matter of agreementbetween the nranufacturer and the purchaserand should be stated in a referenced contract, specitcation, or code. 23. Salety 22.

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24. Precisionand Bias 24.1 The methodology described in the practice will producerepeatable resultsprovided: 24.1.1"fhe s&ength of $e magnetic flux field in the parvpiece is confirmed and, ?4.1.2'F\e field has the properorientationwitb respectto the discontinuities beingsought. 24.2 It mustbe recognized thatthe surface condition of the material beingexamined, thematerial's masnetic propenies, its shape,and controlof the facrors listed in 20.1 influence the resultsobtained.

23.1 Thoseinvolvedwith hands-on magnetic particle examinationexposureto hazardsinclude: 23.7.1 Electric Shockand Bzrzs _ Electric short crrcurts can cause shock and panicularly bums from tbe high ampcragesat relatively low voltages that are used- Equipmenr handling water suspensionsshould have good elctrical grounds. 23.7.2 Flying Particles - Magnetic panicles, par_ ticularly tlte dry ones, dirt, foundry sand, rust, and mill scale can enter the eyes and ears when they are blown off the part wrren applying them to a vertical or overheadsurfaceor when clealing an examinedsurface with compressedair. Dry panicles are easy to inhale irnd llte use of a dust respirator is rrtommended23.1.3 Falts - A fall from a scaffold or ladder if working on a large suucture in the field or shoo,

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25.

Keywords

25.1 dye; evaluation; examination; fluorescent; inspectior;magnetic panicle:nondestructive; ksting

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Al.

near surfacediscontinuity are shown in Figs. Al.1

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Indications of s Figs. Al.7 through Al.16.

comparison to surface itiscoatitruities; the:magnetic particleindications are broadratherthan -- sharpand the panicles are less tightly held, : Al.2 Wet Method: 47,2.1 Fluorescent- Indications of surface cracks, surface indications, and an indication of a

:, i. L1^i Dry l4ethod - Indications of surface cracks ar.e shownin Figs:41.17through A.1.23.

indicationsare shown in Figs. A1.4 Nonrelevant A1.26. A1.24 ftrough

CRACKS FIG.A1.1 INDICATIONS OF SURFACE (PRODUCED DC MAGNETIZATION) BY CENTRAL CONDUCTOR

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FIG.AI.E INDICATIONS OF SURFACE CRACKS (PRODUCED BY CENTRAL CONDUCTOR DC MAGNETTZATION)

FI6.AI3 INDICATIONS OFSURFACE CRACKS BYCENTRA,L CoNDUCTo& . (PRoDuGED . DCMAGNETIZATION)

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FTG. A1.4 SURFACE INDICATIONS (PRODUCED BY CENTRAL CONDUCTOR DC MAGNETIZATION)

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FIG.A1.5 INDICATIONS OF SURFACE CRACKS (PRODUCED BY CIRCULAR MAGNETIZATTON. DC CONTINUOUS)

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DISCONTINUITY FIG.AI.6 INDICATION.OF A NEAR-SURFACE (PRODUCED.BY MAGNETIZATION) PROD

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FIG.A1.7 INDICATIoIIS 0F SURFACE CRACKII'IG ( PRODUCED BY CENTML CONDUCTOR IVIAGNETIZATION, DCCONTINUOUS) .

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-ARTICLE

25 -

MAGNETTC PARTICLE STANDARDS

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ER A C K I N G F I G .A I . 8 I N D I C A T I O N OS F S U R F A CC (PRODUCE MAGNETIZATION, BD Y CIRCULA D IRECT R D CC O N T I N US O)U

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OF SURFACE CRACKS FIG.A1.9 INDICATIONS (PRODUCED CONDUCTOR BY CENTRAL DCCONTINUOUS) MAGNETIZATION,

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F I G .A I . I O I N D I C A T I O N OS FS U R F A C C E RACKS (PRODUCE BD YCIRCULA IR N D I R E CM T A G N E T I Z A T ID OC N) ,

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F I G .A I . 1 1 I N D I C A T I O N OS FA N E A R . S U R F A C E (T PY RODUCE DISCONTINUI BD Y C I R C U L AD RI R E C T MAG NE T I Z A T I O A NC , CONTINUOUS)

FIG.A1.I2 INDICATIONS OF NEAR.SURFACE P RODUCE INDICATIO( N S BD Y C I R C U L AD RI R E C T MAGNETIZATION, AC CONTIN UOUS)

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NDICATIOO NS FIG. A 1 . I 3 M A G N E T IR CI J B B EIR F . S U R F A CC E R A C KIS N AIRCRAF F T ASTENE R H OLES (PRODUCE BD Y YOKE M A G N E T I Z A T ID OC N, NI CONT UOUS)

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FIG.A1.I4 MAGNETIC INDICATIONS OF RUBBER FASTENER IN AIRCRAFT HOLES SURFACE CRACKS (PRODUCED BY YOKEMAGNETIZATION, DC CONTINUOUS)

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FIG.AI.15 MAGNETIC SLURRY INDICATIONS OF SURFACE CRACKS IN WELDMENT(PRODUCED BY YOKEIVIAGN ETIZATION, ACCONTTNU SO )U

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FIG.AI.16 MAGNETIC SLURRY INDICATIONS OF (PRODUCED SURFACE CRACKS BY YOKE MAGNETIZATION, A C C o N T tU N0 U S )

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OFA NEAR.SURFACE -..,FIG. AI.17 INDICATTONS

DrscoNTrNurry (pRoDUcED By pRoD NrncNeiizATroN, HWDC CoNT _' tuous)

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FI9._4!g rNDrcATroNs oF A NEAR-SURFACE DrSc0NTrNUtry ' (pRoDucED By pRoD MAGNErrzArroN, nwoccoriiii.ir]tiuii

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FIG. AT,19 INDICATION OFSURFACE CRACKS (PRODUCED BY CIRCULAR INDIRECT MAGNETIZATION, ACCONTIN UOUS)

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FIG.AT.2O INDICATION OFSURFACE CRACKS (PRODUCED 8Y PROD MAGNE ZATION, AC CONTINUOUS)

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C RACKS FS U R F A C E A1,2I INDICATIOO NS FIG. (PRODUCED BY PROD MAGNETIZATION, D CC O N T I N U O U S )

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CRACKS OF SURFACE FTG. A1.22 INDICATION3 (PRODUCED MAGNETIZATION, DIRECT BY CIRCULAR AC CoNTINU0US) 533

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FIG.AT.23 INDICATIONS OF SURFACE (PRODUCED CRACKS BY CENTRAL CONDUCTOR AC CONTIN MAGNETIZATION, UOUS}

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FIG.A1.24 NONRELEVANT TNDTCATIONS OF (PRODUCE MAGNETI CR I T I N G W BD Y DIRECT MAGNETIZATION, DCCONTINUOUS)

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ARTICIT 25 -

MAGNMC PARTICLE STANDARDS

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DUETO INDICATIONS FIG.AI.25 NONRELEVANT IN SECTION ONA SMALLPART CHANGE (PRODUCED LAR BY INDIRECT. CIRCU UoUS) MAGNETIZATIoN, QCC0NTIN

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OFJUNCTION INDICATTONS FIG.A1.26 NONRELEVANT (PRODUCED BY COIL MATERIALS BETWEEN DISSIMILAR MAGNETIZATION} DC RESIDUAL 535

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llognelic ParticleInspection
Revised by Art t indgren, MognofluxCorporation
MAGNETIC PARTICLE INSPECTION is a metliod of loca(ing surface and subsurtace dtsconlinuilies in ferromagnetic male_ rials. It depends on the fact that when the matenat or part under test is magoelized, magneticdiscontinuities that lie in a direc_ tion generally transverse to the direction of the magneticfield willcause a leakasefield to be formed at ard above the surface of the pan. The presenceof this leakagcfield, and theretorethe presenceofthe disconlinuitv. is detected by the use of finely divided fenomagnetrcpanicles applied over lhe surface. wrlh some ofthe particles beinggaLhered and held by lhe lealage field. This magnetically held colleclion ofpanicles forms an outline of the discontinuity and gnerally indicates its location, size. shape. and extent. Magnelic particles are applied over a surface a: dry porticles,oras wet particlesin a liquid carrier such as water or oil. Ferromagnetic malerials irrclude most of the iron, nickel, and cobalt alloys. Many of the precjpitation-hardening steels.such as l7-4 PH. l7-7 PH, and t5-4 pH srainless steels, are magnetic after aging. lhese matenals lose their ferromagneticpropenies above a characteristic tempeaature called the-Curiepoint. Although this temperature vanes for different materials, the Cude point for most ferromagnetic naterials is approximately 760 .C (1400 .F).

flef{rod Adv.rntaroo3 snd Llnrltotlone

Nonfenomagnetic materials cannot be inspected by magnetic panicle inspection, Such materials include aluminum allovs. magnesiumalloys. copper and coppcr alloys, lead,litanium and titaniumalloys,anu austenitic stainless steels. In addirion to the conventional magneric partlcle inspection methods described in this. anicle. there are seveml proprietary methods that employ ferromagnetic panicles on a magnetized testpiecc. Three of lhese methods-magnetic rubber inspectlon, magnetic printing. and magnelic parnrrng----are describedin the Appendir ro thrs anicle. Appli<otions. The principal industrial uses ot magnetic particle insDectionarc linal irspection. receiving iDspeclior, in-

processinspection and qualiry control. distinct. The deeperthe disconrinuitylies marn(enanc andoverhaul in the transotl- below the surface,the larger it must be to tation industries, plant andmachinery main- yield a readableindication and the more tenance,and inspectionof large c<rmpo- difnrult rhe discontinuityis to find by this nents. method, Althoughin.process particleinmagnetic Magnetic particle indications are prospection is usedlo detecrdiscontinuities duceddirectlyon the surface ofthe Dartand and imperfections in materials and partsas constitutemagneticpicturesof ac[ual disdrly as possiblg in the sequence of oDera- continuities. Thereis no electricalcircuiary lions.finatinspection is needed to e;sure or electronicreadout to be calibratedor that rejectable d!scontinuities or imp,grfge- kept in properoperating candirion,Skilled tions detrimental to the use or funciion of operatom cansomeomes makea reasonable the pan have not developed during pro- estimate of crack depth with sujlablcpowcessing. Duringreceiving inspection.-semi- ders and proper technique. Occasional finished purchased partsand raw materials monitoring of field inrensi(y in rhe pan is are inspected to detectany initially defec- Deedfdro ensureadequale ield srrengtfi. tive material.Magneticpanicle insDecuon Thereis liltle or no limitation on the size is extensively usedon incoming rod andbar or shapeof the pan beinginspected. Ordislocl, forying blanks,androughcastings. nanly, no elaborateprecleaning is neces_ ' The lransponation (rruck.;ail- sary,andcracksfilled with foreignmaterial industries road, and aircraft)have plannedoverhaul can be detected. schedulesat wbich critical pa.is are maglimitation.. Thereare certair lirnitations neticpanicleinspected for cracks.Planned to magnetic particleinspection the operator programs lnspection are also usedin keeo- must be awareof; for examnle,thin coating plant equipmentin oprationwithout ingsof paintandothernonmagnetic coverbreakdowns duringservice. Because ofsud- Ings.suchas plaring. adversely affectthe den and severestressapplications, Dunch- sensitivity of magnetic panicleinspction. press craflkshafts, frames,and flyivheels Otherlimitations arei are vulnerable to fatiguefailures.A safety requirement in manyplantsis theinspection a The methodcan be used only on ferro,t4g,eljc Daterjals of craoehooks;fatigueqacks developon . For bestresults,the magnetic fild musr the work-hardened insidesurfaces of cranc be.in a direction that will intercept the hookswhereconcentrated lifting loadsare principalplaneof the discontiruitt; this applied.The blading,shaft, and case of sometlmes requlrestwo or more sequensteamturbinesare examined for inciDient tial inspections with differentmagnetizafailureat planned downtimes. t|OnS Advontqgec, The magnetic particle following inspection is method is a sensitivemeansof lbcatine . D_emagnetization olten necessary smalland shallowsurface cracks in ferrol magnetic materials. lndications maybe pro- a Postgleaniflg to remove rmnanis of the magnetic particles clinging to the sudace ducedat cracksthat are largeenough to be seenwith the nakedeye, but exceedingly may sometimes be required after testing and demagnetization wide cracks will nor produce a particli r Exceedingly laage cuftenls are somepattern ifth surface opening is too widefor times-needed for very In1g6p2n. the particles to bridge. a care rs necessary to avoid local heating Discontinuities thatdo notactually break and burningof finishedpans or surfacei throughrhe surfaceare also indicaredin at the points of eleclricatcontact many cases by this method,althoushcer. Although magnetic particle indications tain limitations mustbe recognized ind unare easily seen, experience and skill are derstood. If a discontinuity is fine, sharp, and close to tbe sudace,such as a lonr: ' sometimes needed to judge their significance stringer of nonmerallic inclurions, a cleai indication can be produced. If the discontiSpecificolions ond slondords for magnuity l;esdeeper, the iodicarion wil be less netic pa.ticle inspection fiave been devel-

90 / tltethods of Nondestructive Evoluofion

procedures inspection for miliThe fieldssetup at cracksor otherphysestablishing io th9 surdiscontinuities andsupplies. American Soci- ical or magnetic taryequipment fields.The strength Testing Recommend- faceare calledleakage ety for Nondestructive field determines the numberof ed PracticeSNT-TC-IA is a guidc to the of a leakage that will gatherto form in-houseproce- magneticparticles employerfor establishing areformedat qualification, strongindications for training, andcertifica- indications; dures jobs requireappro- strong fields, weak indicationsat weak whose tiofl of personnel priate knowledge ofth principles undedying fields. The dcnsity of the magneticfield its stren8thand is partly govinspction they prform. determines the nondestructive emedby theshape, size, andmaterialofthe part beinginspected, Descrlpllon of piece Mcgnetized Bdr, A $traight of magfirgnellc Fleldr (bar magnet) hasa poleat netizedmaterial Magnetic fields are used in magnetic par- each end. Magnetic lines of force flow ticle inspecaion to reveal discontinuities. through the bar from the south pole to the lines of the magnetic Ferromagnetism is the property of some north pole, Because metals, chiefly iron and steel, to attract force within the bar magnetrun the lengthof magnethe bar, it is saidto be longiiudinally other pieces of ferromagnetic materials. A horseshomagnet will attract magdetic ma- tized or to containa longitudinalfield, lf a bar magnet is brokeninto two pieces terials to its ends, or poles. Magnetic lines ,a field with north and southpolesis of force, or flux, flow from the south pole leakage created.between the pieces, assho[,nin Fig. through the magnet to the north pole. Mognefired Ring, When a magnetic ma- 2(a). This field exists even if the fracture (Fig.2b).If the arebrought together terial is placed across the poles of a horse- surfaces shoe magnet having square ends, fo.ming a magnetis crackedbut n-Jibroken completely similarresultoccu.s.A closed or ringlike assembly, the lines of iII two, a somewhat edges force flow from the north pole through the north and a southpole form at opposite magnetic material to the south pole (Fig. of thc crack,just as thoughthe breakwere (Fig.2c), theiron This fieldattracts la). (Magnetic lines of force flow prefercn- complete tially through magnetic material rathef than particlesthat outline the cnck, The strenSlh poles will bedifferent fromthatofthe through nonmagnetic material or air.) The ofthese magnetic lines of force will be enclosed fully broken pieccsand will bc a function of ofthe crackandthe widthof theair within the ringlike assembly because no thedeDth extemal poles exist, and iron filings or gapaithe surface. Ihe direction of the mognetic field in magneticparticles dusted overthe assembly circuit is controlledby are not attracted to the magnet even though an electuomagnetic there are lines of magnetic force flowiog the direction of the flow of magnetizing through it. A ringlike part magnetizedin (his currentthroughthe part to be magnetized, lines of force are alwaysat manner is said to contain a circular magnet- The magnetic rightangles to the directionofcunent flow, ic fild that is wholly within the part. Ifone end ofthe magnet is not $quareand To remcmberthe dirgction taken by the linesof forcearounda conductor, an air gap exists between that end of the magnetic with that the conductor is grasped magnetand the magnetic material, the poles consider will still attract magneticmaterials. Magnet- the right hand so that the thumtr poin(s in of cunent flow. The tingers ic particles will cling to the poles and bridge the direction the gap between lhem, as shown in Fig. then Doint in the direction taken by the field linesof forcein the magnetic l(b). Any radial crack in a circularly mag- magnetic the conductor.This is known netized piece will create a north and a south surrounding .ule. magnetic pole at the edges of a crack. as the right-hand CirculqrMqgnelirqlion. Elgctriccurrent Magnetic particles will be attracted to the such poles created by such a crack, forming an passing through anystraightconductor a circularmagnetic indication of the discontinuity in the piece. as a wire or bar creates

S.he@tici of nogneri. linc, of fo.ce, (o) Hdroiho mogn.t with o bor c,f mosnelic mdrsridl acrois pol6, lormins o closed, rinelike dsMbly, *hich willnotonrqcr msneric podicles. (b) Ringlike wirh on oir gdp, ro whi<h mog.eti< @grer o!ffibly porlicl6 d.e ottrd.led r!r 'U' I '

and opedby severaltechnicalassociations divisionsof the U.S. Departmentof Defense. SectionsIII. V. and VIII of the ASME Boiler and PressureVessel Code containspecifications for nondestructive rnspection of the vessls. SeveralAerospace (publishedby the Material Specifications SocietyofAutomotiveEogineers) aodsta$dardsfrom the AmericanSocietyfor Testing and Materialscover magneticparticle inspection. various militarystandards include for vendors specificalions to followin

Fig.

pi&6 oI o b,oken bor mosner. (q) Moenei pi<e5 opo.r. (b) Mosnerpiee' toserhr (whichwould simuroieo {lw). (c) Lakose field ot :T:"ffJ.ld;:ftilhao

fflognetic Parlicle Inspection / 9I

'l'he fields producedby direct and alternatingcurrentdiffer in many respects, The with regardto magnetimportant difference ic particleinspectionis that the fields propenetrate ducedby directcurrentgenerally thecrosssection ofthe part, whilethe fields producedby alternatingcurrent are confined to the metalat or near the surfaceof the part, a phenomenon known as the skin effect.Therefore, alternating currentshould not be used in searchingfor subsurface discontinuities. DirectCurrent.The best sourceof direct current is the rectification of alternating (Fig. 5a) and current.Both the single-phase three-phase types of alternating current (Fig- 5b) are furnished commercially.By using rectifiers, the reversing alternating into unidirectional currentcanbe converted alternating current.and when three-phase cunent is rectifiedin this manner(Fig. 5c), the delivereddirect current is entirely the field around the conductor. When the conwrbu ori.ntorion!. (o) Ci.culor mognetilgiioi. (b) equivalent ductor of electric current is a ferromagnetic wijfi of straightdirect curent for purLongiludinolmogneri&iion. Soetsxf for dLcv3lion. posesof magnetis particle inspection. The material, the passage of cument induces a magnelicfield in the conductoras well as in only difference between rectified threealternating the surrounding space, A pan magnetizedin discontinuity.Discontinuities whose pre- phase currentandstraightdirect this manner is said to have a circularfield or dominantdirections,regardless of shape, cufient is a slightripple io the valueof the to be circularly magnetized,as shown in are at a 90' angle to the magneticfield rectifiedcurrent, amountingto only about Fie.3(a). producethe most pronounced indications 37oof the maximumcurrent value. alternatingcurrent is Mognetizotion. Whensingle-phase longitudinol Electris (F, G, and H, Fig. 4a). cuffeni can also be used to create a longimagnetized bar is shown passed through a simple rectifier, current A longitudinally to flow in one direction only. tudinal magnetic field in magnetic materials. ifl Fig.4(b).Discontinuities L, M, andN, is permitted field, Thereverse When electric current is passed through a whichareat about45o to the magnetic halfofeachcycleis completeout (Fig.5d). The result is coil ofone or more turns. a magnetic lield is would produce detectableindicationsas ly bloc.ked established leDgthwise or longitudinally, they would with a circularfield, Disconti- unidirectional current (called half-wave that is, it riseslrom within the coil, as shown in Fig, 3(b). Thc nuitisJ and K would displaypronounced current) that pulsates: nature and direction of the field around the indications, and weakindications wouldbe zro to a maximumand then droDsback to conductor that forms the turns of the coil produced P, Q, andR. zero. During the blocked-out reverse of at discontinuities produce longitudinal magnetization. Mognetizoiion Methods. In magnetic the cycle, no current flows, then the halfat a rate of the magneticparticles cycleforwardpulseis repeated, Effect of Flux Dire(tion. To form an particleinspection, indication, the magnetic field must ap- can be applid to the pan while the magne- 60 pulsesper second.A rectiller for alterproach a discontinuity at an angle great tizingcurrentis flowingor afterthe current nating current can also be connectedso enoughto causethe magneticIinesofforce hasceased, depending largelyon the reten- that the reversehalf of the cycle is turned to leave the part and returo after bridging tivity of the part, Th first techniqueis aroundand fed into the circuit flowing in the discontinuity. For best results. an in- known as the continuous method;the sec- the samedirection as the first half of the pulsirring tersection approaching 90' is desirable. ond, the residual cycle (Fig.5er. This produces method. For this reason. the direction, size. and remainingin ihe part direct current, but with no interval beIf the magnetism shape of the discontinuity are important. after the current has been turned off for a tweenthe pulses.Such current is referred does to as single-phase full-wave direct current The direction of the magnetic field is also period of time (residualmagnetism) important for optimum results, as is the not providea leakage field strong to or full-wavercctified single-phase alternatenough readable indications whenmagnet- ing current. strength of the field in the area of the produce There is a slight skin effect from the are appliedto the surface,the discontinuity, ic particles dur- pulsations of the currnt: but it is not proFigure 4(aj illustrates a condition in part mustbe continuously magnetized enough to havea serious impacton which the current is passed through the ingapplication ofthe particles, Consequent- nounced part, causing the formatian of a circular ly, thc residual method of the field, The pulsation canbe usedonly on the penetrations havingsufficientretentivity;usu- of the current is useful because it imparts field around the part, Under normalcircummaterials partistances, a discontinuity such as A in Fig. ally the harderthe maierial,the higherth someslightvibrationto lhe magnetic themseLves methodcan be cles,assisting themin arranging 4(a) would give no indication of its pres- retentivity.The continuous to form indications. Half-wave current, ence, becauseit is regular in shape and lies usedfor mostparts. with prods and dry parallel to the magnetic field. If the disconused in magnetization magneticparticles, provides the highest tinuity has an irregular shapebut is predom- megnefklng Currenl that are wholsensitivity for discontinuities inantLy parallel to the magnetic field, sucft as B, there is a good possibility that a weak Both direct cunent (dc) and alternating ly below the surface,sucbas thosein castindication would form. Where the predom- current (acl are suitable for magnelizing ingsand weldmcnts. inant direction of the discontinuity is at a pans for magnetic panicl inspection. Th Magnetization employingsurges of direct the strength 45' angle to the magnetic field, such as C, strength, direction, and distribution of mag- currentcan be usedto increas D. and E. the conditions are morc favorable netic fields are greatly afTectedby the type of magnetic fields; for example,a rectifier capableof continuouslydlivering 400-A for detection regardlessof the shape of the of current used for magnetization.

F is. 3 s:",:lidl(ff t :r;ii,1'1*n:s*'

ri g. c [$'";f,l;{ffi lifll :,'ji*;l":

92 / Methods of Nondeslructive Evaluotion

'v^y-

Idl

{e}

Fig.5ltr-*ri"g.'en|'4eforf.(d)singl.-Pfo!6-(b)Ih.*Pho*.G)Thr+Pl'dgre<lifi.d.(d)Ho|f.wdereGii{ied3ing|e.Phoe.(o)FU||-wqvor.lified,ing|Pho*

current can put out much more than 400 A for short intervals. ]'herefore, it is possible, by suitable current-control and switching devices, to pass a very high current for a short psriod (lcss than a second) and then reduce the current, without interupting it, to a much lower value. Alternoting (urrent, which must be single-phasewhen used directly for magnetizing purposes, is taken from commercial power lines and usually has a frequency of 50 or 60 Hz. When used for magnetizing, the line voltage is steppcd down, by means of tmnsformers, to the low voltages .equired. At lheie low voltages, magnetizing currents of several thousand amperes are often used. One problem encountered when altematrng current is used is that the resultant residual magnetismin the part may not be at a levcl as high as that of the magnetism generated by thc pcak currcnt of the ac cycle. This is becausethe level of rcsidual magnetism depends on where in the cycle the current was discontinued.

Powgr Sourcot
Early power sources wre general-purpose units designedto use either alternating or direct current for magnetization. When direct cunent was used. it was derived directly from a bank of storage batteries, and a carbon-pile rheostat was used to regulate current level. Subsequent advances in technology have made the storage battery obsolete as a power supply and have given rise to many innovations, especially in the area of cuarent control- Portable, mobile, and stationary equipment is currenlly available, and selectioo among these types depends on thc nature and iocation of tesling. Porloble eqvipment is available in light weight ( 16 to 40 kg, or 35 to 90 lb) power source units that can be readily taken to the inspection site. Cenerally, these portable units are designedto use ll5-, 230-, or 460-V alternating current and to supply magnctizing-cuncnt outputs of ?50 to 1500 A in half-wave or allernating current. Ma-

chinescapable of supplyinghalf-wavecurrent andaltemating currentandhavingcontinuouslyvariable(infinite)current control particleinspection canbe usedfor magnetic in a wide range of applications.Primary application of this equipmentis hand-held prod inspection utilizingthe half.waveoutput in conjunctionwith dry powder, In general,portableequipmentis designed to operatewith relativelyshort power supply cables, andthe output is very limited when it is necessary to uselongercables. The major disadvantageof portabl equipment is the limitd amountof current available.For the detctionof deep-lying discontinuities and for coverage of a large areawith one prod contact,a machine with higher-amperage output is required, Also, portableequipment cannot supply ihe fullwave direct current necessaryfor some inspections anddoesDot havethe accessoriesfoundon larger mobiie equipmenrMobile units are generallymountedon wheels to facilitate transportation to various inspection sites.Mobile equipmentusually

Mognetic PortiGle Inspection / 93

supplics half wave or alternating magnetizing-current outputs. [nspection of parts is accomplished with flexible cables, yokes, prod contacts, conlact clamps, and coils. Instrumeots and controls are mounted on the front of the unit- Magnetizing current is usually controlled by a remote-control switch connected to the unit by an electric cord. Quick-coupling connectors for connecting magnetizing cables are on the front of the unit. Mobile equipmentis usually powcrcd by single-phase,60-Hz alternating current (230 or 460 V) and has an output range of 1500to 6000 A. On some units, current control is provided by a powef-tap switch, which varies the voltage applied to the primary coil of the power transformer; most of these have either 8 or 30 steps of cu(ent control. However, current contaol on morc advanced units is provided either by solidstate phase control of the transformer or by use of a saturable-core reactor lo control the tmnsformer- Phasecontrol o[ the transformer is achieved by silicon-controlled rectifiers or triacs in series with the transforrner, A solid-state coDtrol circuit is u6ed to rapidly switch the ac supply on and off for conlrollcd fractionsof each cycle. A triac provides curent control in both directions, while a saturable-corereactor provides current controi in one direction only. In a circuit employing a saturable-core reactor to control magnetiziDg-current output, a silicon-controlled rectifier is used in conjunction with phase control to control a saturable-core rcactor that is in series with, and that controls the input to, the power transformer. Standard instruments and controls on mobile equipment are as followsi rent-offin succession,with the amount of Special-purpose stattionary units are dedemagnetizingcurrent reduced with each signed for handling and inspecting large quantities of similar items. Geoerally, consuccessivestep . Low-voltage high-amperagc alternating veyors, automatic markers, and alarm sysvari. tems are included in such units tc exDedite current providedby a continuously able curent control that affords complete the handling of parts. contaol of the demagnetization current from full-on to zero fiethodr of Ocner. Ing . Current-decay method, in which lowfognetlc fleldc voltage high-amperage alternating curof magoetrent is causcdto decayfrom some maxiOneof the basicrequirements is that the part undermum valuc to zero in an automatic and ic particleinspection so be properlymagnetized controlled manner. Because the entire goinginspection cycle can be completed in a few seconds, that the leakage fields createdby disconlithe current-decay method offers an ad- nuities will attract the magneticparticles. vantage over some of lhe more lime- Permanent servesomeusefulpurmagnets pose in this respect,but magnetization is consuming methods . Low-voltage high-amperage direct cur- generallyproducedby electromagnets or rent, with which demagnetization is ac- the magneticfield associated\tilh the flow of electriccurrent.Basically,magnetization complished by a motor-driven power{ap is derivedfrom the circular magnetic field switch in conjunction with means for generated when an electric cuarentflows reversing the current direction from pos- 'through a conductor.The directionof this itive to negative as the current is systemfield is dependent on the directionof curatically reduced in steps o[ curenlon periods followed by cunent-off periods rent flow, which can be determinedby

Slotionqr/ oquiprnenl can be obtaioed as either general-purpose or speciaL'purpose units. The general-purposeunit is primarily intended for use in the wet method and has a built-in tank that cortains the bath pump, which continuously agitates the bath and forces the fluid through hoses onto the part being inspected. Pneumatically operated contact heads, together with a rigid-type coil, provide capabilities for both circular and longitudinal magnetization. Self-containd ac or dc power suppliesare available in amperageratings from 2500to 10 000 A. Maximum opening between contact plates varies from 0.3 to 3,7 rn (l to 12 fl). Optional features that are available rna Ammeters ro indicate thc magnclizing clude self-regulaling current cootrol, autocurrent flowing thfough the yokes, prods, matic magnetizing circuit, automatic bath or coil as being alternatiog, half-wave, or applicator, steady rests for heavy pans, and direct curlent demagnetizingcircuitry. Other options are a Switchsfor controllinglhe magnetrzing curtains or hoods and an ult.aviolet light: or demagnetizingcurrent these are used during inspection with fluo. Pilot licht to indicate when frc'$/erto the rescent Particles. unit is on Stationary pofver packs serye as sources . Current control, either stelped or continmagnetizingcurreot to be of high-amperage uously variable, for controlling the used in conjunction with special fixtures or amount of magnetizing and demagnetiz- with cablelwrap or clamp-and-contactteching current niques. Rated output varies from a customo Remote-control cable receptaclethat prary 4000 to 6000 A to as high as 20 000 A. mits turning the ougnetizing cucrent on The higher-ampcrageunits are used ior the and off at some distance from the unit overall magnetization of large forgings or . Receptacles to permit the connection of castings that would otherwise rcquire systhe magnetizing-currentcables tematic prod inspection at much lower curas contained Built-in demagnetizers in rent levels. Sofie M hidircctional Magnelizing. mobile equipmenlfor magneticpanicle inspection are available that dcma8netize by units feature up to three output circuits that are systematically energized in rapid seone of four methods: quence, either electrically or mechanically, . Low-voltage high-amperage alternating for effectively magnetizinga part in several current with a motor-ddven power-tap directions in the same time frame. This switch, arrangedto automatically provide revealsdiscontinuitieslying in any direction periods of current-on aod periods ol curafter only a singlc processingstep,

applyingthedght-hand rulc (secthe section "Description of Magnetic Fields" in this anicle). Generalapplications, advantages, and limitationsof the various methodsof magnetizing parts for magneticparticleinspection are summarizedin Table l. Addi tiona.linformationcan be found in the anicle "MagneticFieldTesting"in this Volume.

Yokes There are two basictypes of yokes that purposarecommonly usedfor magnetizing es: pernanent-magnt and electfomagnetic yokes. Both are hand held and therefore quite mobile. Permonenf-mognelyokes are used for applications ofelectric powwherea source er is not availableot where arcing is not permissible (as in an explosive atmosphere)The limitationsof permanent-magnet yokesincludethe following: a Large areasor masses cannotb magnetized with enough s&engthto produce satisfactory crack indications . Flux densitycannotbe variedat wiLl . lf the magnetis very strong, it may be from a part difficult to separate . Parlicles possimay clingto lhe magnet, bly obscuring indicalions yokes(Fig. 6) consistof Eleclromognetic corc of soft a coil woundarounda U-shaped iron. The legs of the yoke can be either fixed or adjustable. Adjustablelegspermit changing the coltact spacingand the relairreg' trveangleof contactto accommodate parts. Unlike a pe.manentularly-shaped yoke gan magnetyoke, an electromagnetic readilybe switchedon or off. This featu.e makesit conveflientto apply and remove the yoke from the testpiece, yoke The designof an electromagnetic can be basedon the use of either direct or

94 / Merhods of Nondeslructive Evqluqtion

loble I Generol opplicotions, odvontoges, ond limiiqtions of lhe vorious mognelizing methods used in mqgnelic purticle inspertion
Coils Glngle o. mr liple loop) Mediun-size Fds whos lf,8th p.cdominat s, such a d crank,haft or All Bcn.rally longitudinat Pa.i should be cente.d in coil surfaces are longitudinally to maxihize lens(h efiectivcLy mgntized durinS a siven masneriad to locare rransvers disconrinuiries. shor. Length may diclate additioml shols ar coil k Longitudinal field easily a(ained by wmpping with a fleiible cible. Easy and fasl, especiall, Len9tb-t >dixnebr AD, IatjD is $hcrc 'cs'dual merhod is inFortur itr delermi.ing applicable. Nonconract adquacy ofnmDerclums; with Part Rlali!elY effective raliocsn be altc.cd by coftplx pans can usually urilizing piecesof similar arca. Seniitivily be processed wilh sane c.oss-sectionai diminishesat .nds of pan ase as simEle cross because of genral lala8e fild pattem. Quick break of cunent is d.simbl to minimize end llecr oo shon pans with low UD Btios. Multiple processingmay be required b{u'rse of paft shape. Diret m ict, clamps.nd clb15 LarSc surfacc areas can be inspecled in a rclatively shon lim. High ampeRge rquireme.ts (8fiJG20 0m A) diciate use of special di.ect cunent powr

Larse castinas and foreings

l-ar8s castings, forsings, or shafts Misell.n6l]l pafl\ small

Long tubular Fans such as tubine. pip. and hollow shafts

Etrtire lenglh can b Effectivc field is limitd to ouler ci.culady magnetized by surface so process cannot be conlacling endlo-end. used io inspect inner su.fac. Pa.t ends must b shaped to permit electrical conlacl and nusl be able to cary rquired current witbout excssiv

l-ong solidpartssuch Entirelensthcan be vollage requnmenK incrsse as asbillels,bars,and ci.cularlynagnetized by lensth incrcases bcaus of grater impdance of cable shafts contacling end-lo-end. requrribms atrd parl. Ends of parls must AmPe|aSe are independenl of IrEtb. have shape ltal permih No lossof magnetism a1 electrical co acl and must be
cap.ble of camyine required cunnt without excessive

lnsD.ction ot large No clcctrical con(act. TiDe consuming. Yoke must be surface arers for HiShly F).lable. Can systemalically rtosiliond to sudsc discontinuiries loca(e dhcontinuiries n, [xate discontinuiiics wnh .ny direction, with proper Endom onen(at'on. yoke orientaton Miscellaneous parts Yoke must be properly No electrical conlacr. positioned relative to rquirirg inspe.tion Good sensitivity to of localized areas surface .lkcontinuities orientation of discontinuily. Highly porlable. Wer Relativly good conracl mtrst or dry mcthod cnn be b eslablished betwcefl pa.t used. Alternating and poles of yokei complex part shap may c se cuFnl Yoke can dso srue as dmgnerizar dimculry. Poor sensitivity to in some crses. subsurfacedisco .uilis cxcept ir isolnled arcas

Miscellancous short No elctdcal contacr, so Size ofconductor musl be pans having holes thar possibrhty ol burninS ample to cany requifed through which a is liminated. current. Ideally, conductor onducto. cah be Cicunte.enttzlly directed sboujd b! clrlraily JaBled threaded, such !s wilhin hole. Laryeiianerr masnric tield is generatd in ail sudaces pans requr.e sevral setups barins rinss, hollow wilh conduclor near or cylindeB, sars, Iarge suroundiog lh outs, larS cleviscs, against inner surfacc and coDduclor. ldeal for pans dd pipe couplings which for the residual rolation of pad between method is applicable, selups. Where conlinuous Lishtweight parts can be method is being enployed, supported by the cnrml itrrpection is requiRd aftr conductor- Multiple turns can b u$ed to redDe the anount ofcLirenl rqu,red. lrrg tubular parls No elckical .onlact. Both Sensilivily of oule. surface to such as pip, rubins. insid (ID) and ourside indications may be softewhar (OD) surfaces cah be hollow shafts diminished reldive lo inael inspecred. Enrire lenSth surfac. fo. llrge-diamerer and of part is circularly magnerzeo. LarCe valve bodies and Good sensitivity to Sane ns for lon tubulff parts. similar pa.ls in.er'surfrce discontinuities ItlrEct contr.l, had lho( Possibilily of burnins part exisc Fast, easy process. Complet circular field il proper conlacl ondiliors surcunds entire cunnt afe nol nel, Long pa.ls should b inspcclcd in Plrth. C@d snsilivily to surface and nerr \u.t!e sections ro facililate baih d;scdlinoitics. Simple as applicarion wilhoul rcsoning well as latively complcx ro an excssivly long cudent pads can usutrlly be asily inspecrdwith one or more sh{1s-

welds, fo. cracks. Circuld field can be Only small ara catr be i.spected inclusions, opcn seleciively dkected ro at on tim. Arc bum can roots, or inadequale weld afea by prod resull f|om poor conlact. join{ p.nelEtion placement. ln conjunction Su.face must be dry when dry eith half-wale cunent and powd.r is beins usd. Prod dry powder. prcvides spacinS must bc in arcordance cxcellentsensilivirylo witbnagntizinS-cuucnt substrrfacea.d su.face level. dis@nlinuities. Prcds, csbles. and power packs can be broueht to inspection sne t-arge casrings o. Entire surface area 'ran be Coverlse of larSe surface areas inspectedin sdall fo.sings requirs a multiplicity of inc.emenls using nominal shots, which can be very line cunent values.Circular co.surnins. Arc burn can magnetic field can be result from poor conlact. concenrratedin sp.cific Surface must b dry when dry powder is being Lised. areaslikely to conrain disco.tinuilies. hods, cables.and !owe. !a.ks can be brouSil to th. inspecrionsile.

Rin8-shaped Laninated core is reqoired Dans, for No clcclrical conlacr. All circumfcreniial surfaces of pdt arc throueh dng to ehhance disconlinuities magnetic path. Type of subjecled to a loroidal magnctic lield. lmTo magnetizins cuftenr mrsl be cove.age is obtained in a compalibl with mustrelic sirsle dasnetizarion. Can hardnessor sofhess of metal b sutomated inspecled. Othcr conductors encirciing field musl b Balh No elecl.ical contacr. For small diamctcr balk, use is Prmits 1007.coverage limited to residual method of Ibr indicarionsof dhconmagnetizatior. linuiiies in any direclion by process usc ofa three-step wilh r6.ienralion of bull between stFs. Can be aulomatd No eleclrical contact. Good l00E cavemc roy rquire rensirivilyr' o. aear rwo-stcp pro.ers. Typ. of periphery or dn. magnetizing currenl must be Scnsitivity in various areas comprlible with magnctic can lx vaned by selec hardness or sofiness ol oetal lio. ofcorc or pole pice. inrpecled. In conjunction wilh hllf-savc curenl and dry powdfr. provid.r rrcellenlsnsilivily io disconiinuiticsly;0r just bclow rhe su.{2ce

Disks ard serrs

Solid. relatively small pafls (casl, forg.d, or machind) thar can be inspecled on a horizontal *ehelhod unil

lvlogneti. Porticle Inspection / 95

disks. andotherpanswith low l/l) ratios is discussed and illustrated in the section"InducedCurrent" in this article. 'l'he numbr of ampere-turns requiredto produce sufficient magnetizingforce tq a part adequately magnetize for inspection is givenby: (a/D) (Eq 1) N/ = 45 0(x) whereN is ahenumberof turns in the coil, 1 is the currentin amperes, and a/D is the length-to-diameter ratio of the part. When the pan is magnetized at this level by placing it on the bottomof the rould magnetizing coil, adjacentto the coil winding, the flux density will be about ll0 lineVmmr (70000 lines/in.'!). work has Experimental is shownthata flux density of I l0 lines/mm2 morethansatisfactory for mostapplications of coil magnetization and that 54 lines/mm2 (35(IdOlines/in.'?) is acceptable for all but the most critical applications. Whenit is desirable the part to magnetize it in the coil, Eq I becomes: by centering
43 000r (Eq 2)

ti.r yoke m

Elcctromogneticyoke sho*ing pcilion ond mog.elic fteld fo. tlE del,ectiono, dLconlinuitiot pomllel to Dii.o.tinuilie3 ocro$ o weld bed con be deteaed by plocirig tho .ontoct 3urfoer of lh. to ond on eitier ride of rh bod (Erori.g yoko dbour 90" fiom poririon shdn her).

altrnating current or both. The flux density ofthe magnetic field produced by the direct curent type can be changed by varying the amount of currflt in (he coil. The direct current type ofyoke has greaier penetration while the alternating current type concent6tes the magnetic field at the surfaceofthe testpiece, providing good sensitivity for the disclosure of surface discontiouities ovcr a relatively broad area. In general, discontinuities to be disclosed should be centrally located id the area belween pole pieces and oriented perpendicula. to an imagiDary line connecting them (Fig. 6). ExtraDeous lcakage fields in the immediate vicinity of the polcs cause an excessivebuildup ofmagnetic particles. In operation, the part completes the magnetic path fo. the flow ofmagnetic flux. The yoke is a source of magnetic flux, and the pan becomesthe preferential path completing the magnetic circuit betwecn the poles. (ln Fig. 6, only those portions of the flux lines near the Dolesare shown.) Yokes that use altemating current for magnetization have numerous applications and can also De used for demagnetization-

Coils
SingleJoop and multipleloop coils (conductors) are used for the longitudinal magnetization of componnts (Fig. 3b and 4b). The field within the coil has a definite direction, concsponding to the direction of the lines of force running througb it- The flux density passing through the inte.ior of the coil is proportional to the product ofthe cu.rent, I, in ampeaes,and the number of tums in the coil, N. Therefore, th magnetizing forco of such a coil can be varied by

changingeither the current or the number of turns in the coil. For larSe parts, a coil can be produced by winding several turns of a flexible cable around fhe part, tut care must be taken to ensure that no indications are concealed beneath the cable. Portablc magnetizing coils are available that can be pluggcd into an electrical outlet. These coils cao be uscd for the in-place inspection of shaftlike parts in railroad shops, aircraft mainlenance shops, and shops for automobile, truck, and tractor repair. Transvers cracks in spindles and shafts are easily detected with such coils. Mosf corls used for magnetizingare short, especially those wound on fixed frames. The relationship of the length of the part being inspectedto the width ofthe coil must be considgred. For a simple part, the effective overall distancethat can be inspected is 150to 230 mm (6 to 9 in.) on either side of the coil, Thus, a part 305 to 460 mm (12 to l8 in.) long can be inspected usinga normal coil approximately 25 mm (l in.) thick. In testing lonBer parts, either the pirrt must be moved at regular intervals through the coil or the coil must be moved along the part. The ease with which a part can be longitudinally magnetizedin acoil is significantly related aothe length-to-diameter(a/D) ratio ofthe part. This is due to the demagnetizing effect of the magnetic pols set up at the nds of the part. This demagnetizingeffcct is considerablefor L/D ratios of lessthan l0 to I and is very significa[t for ratios of less than 3 to l. Where the L/D ratio is extremely trnfavorable,pole pieces o[ similar crosssectionalaaeacan be idtroduced lo incrcas the length of the part and thus improve the LlD ratio, The magnetization of rings,

where/ is theradiusofthe coil in inches and p.r = 6LlD) - 5. Equation2 is applicable to partslhat are centered in the coil (coincidentwith thc coil axis)andthat havecross secaions constituting a low fill factor, that is, with a cross-sectional arealessthan l0 of the areaencircled by the coil. a bar. Whenusinga coil for magnetizing like part, strongpolarityat the endsof the part couldmasktransverse defects.An advantageous field in this area is assured on full wave,thrcephase. directcurrentunits by specialcircuitry known as "q!lick" or "fast" break.A "controlled" breakfeature on alternating current, half wave, and on full wave direct curTentunits single-phase providesa similaradvantageous field. Centrol Conducfors parts,it For manytubularor ring-shaped is advantagcous conducto use a sepaaate tor to carry the magnetizing current rather than the part itself. Such a conductor, commonlyrefered to as a centralconductor, is threadedthrough th inside of the pan (Fig. 7) and is a convenientmeans of circularly magnetizing a pan without the needfor makingdirect contactto the pan itself. Centralconductorsare madeof solid and tubular nonmagnetic and ferromaSnetic materials that are goodconductors of electricity. The basicrules regarding fields magnetic arounda circularconductorcarryingdirect culrnt are as follows: . The magnetic of field outsidea conductor uniform cross section is uniform along the lengthof tbe conducto. . The magnetic field is 90"to the pathotthe currentthroushthe conductor

96 / Merhods of Nondeslructive Evdluqtion

I r,roqn"r,.inq "r.*n,

<ondo<ld (|.t > 1.0) <orryins oltErrcrins cu,re . Se rer lor d'*irr5ion.

jT6i.J;,1il,i?tH5li::rff[:g;"i;f] rig.8 :$1il'j?J'j:.sr&jEli#;ji:':T,l*Jtr

-

decrease in flux density with increasidg distance follows the sarnecurve. 5olid Ferromognetic Conductor Corrying Alternoting Currenl. The distribution porh (o)ond lhort, hollow .ylindricol or rinetite porr3 (b) lor the dete.tio. of discontinuitieson intid. ond our.ide of the magnetic field in a solid ferromagrurlo.e! netic conductor carrying altcmating current is shown in Fig. 8(c), Outside the conouca The flux density outsidethe conductor .tor, the flux dnsity deareases along the variesinverselywith the radial distance samecurve as ifdirct current producedthe magnetizingforce; however, while the altcrfrom the centerof the conductor nating current is flowing, the field is conSolid Nonmognetic Conductor Corry- stantly varying in strength and direction. ing Direcl Current. Th disfibution of the Inside the conduclor, the flux density is magnetic field inside a nonmagnetic con- zero at the center and increasestoward the ductor. suchasa copper bar.whencarrying outsidc surface-slowly at first, then acceldirectcurrentis difTerent from the distribu- erating to a high maximum at the surfacetion externalto the bar, At ant point inside The flux dnsity at the surface is proporthe bar, the flux densityis the resultofonly tional to the permeability of the conductor thalponionof the current {hatis flowine in materiallhe melalbetween thepointand thece;ter Cenlrql Conduclor Enclored W;thin of thc bar, Therefore,the flux density in- Hollow Ferromogneti. Cylinder. When a creases linearly,from zero at the centerof ccntral conductor is used to magnetizea the bar to a maximum valueat the surface. hollow cylindrical part made of a ferromagOutside the bar, the flux densitydecreases netic matenal, the flux dcnsity is maximum along a curve, as shown in Fig. 8(a). In at the inside surfaceofthe pa (Fig, 9), The calculating flux densitiesoutsidethe bar. flux dedsity produced by the cuftent in the the currentcanbe considered to be concen- central conductor is maximum at the surtratedat the centerof the bar. If the radius face ofthe conductor (I/, in Fig. 9) and then ofthc bar is R andthe flux density, B, at the decreasesalong the same curve outside tne surface oi the bar is equalto the magnetiz- conductor, as shown in Fig. 8, through the ing force, IJ, then the flux density at a spacebetween the conductor and the inside distance 2R from the centerof the bar will surface of the part. At this surface, howevbeHl2: at 3R.H/3. andso on, er, the flux density is immediately increased Solid Ferromogneli( Condvclol Corry- by the permeability factor, p,, of the mateing DirectCunent, If the conductorcarry- rial of the part and then decrea$esto the ing direct current is a solid bar of steelor outer surface. Here the flux densit! again other ferromagnetic material,the samedis- drops to the same decreasingcurve it was tributionof magnetic fieid exirls as jn a following inside the part. similarnoomagnetic conductor, but the flux This method, thert, produces maximum density is muchgreater. Figure8(b)showsa Rux density at the inside surlace and thereconductorof the same diameter as that fore gives strongindications of discontinuishownin Fig. 8(a).The flux densityar rne ties on that surface. Sometimes these indicenteris zero, but at the surlaceit is IIIJ. cations may even appear on the outside whcrep is the materidl permeability of the surface of the part. The flux density in the magnctic mate.ial-(Permeability is the ease wall of the cylindrical part is the same with which a maierialacceptsmagnetism.) whether the central conductor is of magneG The actualflux density,therefore,may bc ic or nonmagneticmaterial, becauseit is the manytimesthat ifl a nonmagnetic bar. Just field external to the conductor that coostioutsidethe surfacc,however.the flux den- tutes the magnetizingforce for the paitsity dropsto exactlythc samevalueas that lfthe axis ofa centralconductor is Dlaced for the nonmagnetic conductor, and the along the axis of a hollow cylindricaL pan,

rig.z ffi"li,':iii f*l:'i"fr-'3,;i':,::i

the magnetic field in the palt will be concentricwith its cylindricalwall. However,if the central conductor is placed near one point on the inside circumference of the part, the flux density of the field in the cylindrical wall will be muchstronger at this pointandwill be weakeratthediametrically opposite point. In smallhollow cylinders,it is desirable that the conductorbe centrally placed so that a uniform field for the detection of discontinuities will exist at all poinrson the cylindrical surface. In larger-diametr tubes,rings,or pressure vesseis, however, thecurrentnecessary in the centrallyplaced conductorto produce lields of adequate strength for properinspection over the entire circumferencebecomes excessively rarge. An offsetcentral coalrrctor should then be used (Fig. l0)- When the conductor passingthrough the inside of the part is placedagainst an insidewall of the pan, the "Magnicunenllevels givenin the section tude of Applied Current" in this anicle applyexceptthat the diameter will be considered the sum of the diameter of the centralconductor and twice the wall thickness. The distance alongthe partcircumference(interioro. exterior)that is effectively magnetized wiLlbe taken as four times the diameter of the centralconductor.as illus-

Flur defiiry in ond troud o ho_ll@ cylinds Fio. 9 - mode g or moqhenc molenar *ith dn*l current tlowins throwh o nonmqsnetic c6l.ol co.du.lor

tndgnetic Porticle Inspectlon / 97

Tubular cross secrion

<cnlrol conductor i! eqlol to four tift6 rhe dioneie. o{

j*'f,"ffi .j,ii Fis.I o fff1?'l:,'S1""

trated io Fig, 10. The eotire circumfe.ence will be inspected by rotatingthe part on the conductor, allowing for approxidately a 107,magnetic fleld overlap. Tbe diarneter ofa centmlconductor is nof relatedto the inside diametero. the wall thickoessof the cylindrical part. Conducror sizeis usuallybased on its cunent-carrying capacity and ease of handlins. In some applications,conductorslargei than nat requiredfor current-carrying capacirycan be usedto facilitate centralizine theconductor within the Dart. Residualmtgnetization is usually employed wlrenever practicable becausethe background is minimized and cont.ast is For the complte inspection ofa complex . Suitablemagneticfields exist.irnly bethereforeenhancedAlso, residualmagne- part, rt may be necessary to attachclamps tweenand near the prod contactpoints. tizationis fasterand lesscritical than con- at severalpoints on the part or to wrap Thesepointsare seldommore than 305 tinuousnagnetization. cables aroundthe paft to orientfieldsin the mm (12 in-) apartand usuallymuch less; The central-conductor type of inspection proper directionsat all points on the surtherefore,it is sometimes necessary to is sometimes requiredon components hav- facc.This oftennecessitates several masncrelocatethe prodsso that the entiresuring parallelmultiple openings, suchas en- tizatrons. N{ultiple magnetizations canbe faceof a part can be inspected ginebtocks. Thg cylinders can be processed minimizedby usingthe o\,elall maSnetiza- . Inteference ol the extemal field that with a singlecentml conductorin the nor- tion melhod, multidirectionalmagnetiza- exists between the prods sometimes mal manner.However, a multiDlecentral- tion, or induced-current magnetization. makesobservationof pertinent indicaconductorfixtur can be desisnidthar entions ditlicult; the strength ofthe current ablesthe operatorto process-two or more Prod Contacis that can be usedis limited by this efiect adjacent cylinders at onetimewith the same For the inspection of largeand massive t Greatcaremust be taken to avoid burndegree ofsensitivityas ifprocessed individ- patts too bulky to be put into a unit havrng ing of the part undea the contactpoints. ually. In fact, in th a.eas betweentne clampingcontact heads,magnetization is Burningmay becaused by dirty contacts, ceniralconductors, the circularfields rein- oftendoneby usingprod contacts (Fig. 12) insufficientcontact pressure,or excesforce one anotherto enhance sensitivitv. to passthe currentdirectlythrough the part sive currents, The likelihood of such or througha local portionof it. Suchlocal damage greaton steelwlrn is particularly Direct-Contscl method contacts do not alwaysproducetrue circua carboncontent()f 0.3 to 0.4Vo or morc, For small pans having no openings lar fields.but they are very convenient and The heat under the contact points can through theinterior, circular masnetic ficlds practical for manypurposes. Prodconracts produce localspotsof very hard material are produced by direct contactio the part. are often usedin the magnetic particlelnthat can inrerfere with later operations, This is doneby clamping the pans between spection of largecastings ard weldmentssuch as machining-Actual cracks are contact heads (head shot), generally on a Advontoges. Prod contactsare widely somelimes producedby this heatingefbench unit (Fig. ll) that incorporates rhe usedandhavemanyadvantages. Easyportfect. Contactheatingis less tikely to be source ofthe current.A similarunit canbe abilitymakes themconvenient to usefor lne damaging to low-carbon steelsuchasthat usedto supplythe magnetizing currentto a field inspection of largetanks and welded usedfot structuralpurposes centralconductor(Fig. 7). structu.es. Sensitivity to defects lyingwholThe contacthcadsmustbeconstructed so ly below the su ace is greater with this Indu.ed Currcnl that the surfaces of the Dart are not method of magnetization thanwith anyothloduced cunent provides a conventenl damaged---ither physicallyby pressure or er, especiallywhen half-wavecurrent is methodof generating circumferential magstruclurallyby heat from arcing or from Dsedin conjunctionwith dry powder and netizingcurrentin ring-shaped pans withhiSh resisrance at the pointsof conracr. the continuous methodof magnetization. out makingelectricalcontact. This is acHeat can be especiallybamaging to hardlimitotioni. The use of prod conracrs complished by properly orienringrhe ring enedsurfaces suchas bearina races. involves some disadvantaees: within a magnetizing coil such that it links

ris. r r ffi$;ffi 'H5'Ji'Jfisit iil::i:"*ffi:"fil :e*lffi,HffiiHt'.",1"H'

98 / Melhods of Nondestructive Evoluolion

8couse ths rsgions ot rhe conioct poinE ore not mdsnelired, iwo oprotionr d.e required for tull @er qse. With the indued<'r.Gd mlhod. porl3 of lhis shope con be conpletely mosnerizd in one operolid.

F is. I 4 ffis5l"J.,11*,iIH,il"l: "c:#ff#

lndu<ed-.lrnr moficd <rf trEgE irins q ri.s{hop.d port. (o) Ring binq dosdsdnedion coreipo.ds tized by induced cu.re.l. Cursi to d*rsins nEgntizins cur.ent. (b) Reillliins inducd .@tent @d lqaidol nssaeti. tieu in o iM E:r 'U' t .l 'v

Gtr rU' gFeroted

r t | '

Shsle ond dable prod conto<8. Di*onlinuit,ss ors dotedcd by thc mqEri<{ield benren lh. prods.

or encloses lines of magnetic flux (flux linkage), as shown in Fig. l3(a). As the level of magnetic flux changes (increasesor decreases),a current flows around the ring in a directior opposjng the change in flux level, The rnagnitude of this current depends on the total flux linkages, rate offlux Iinkage changes, and the electrical impedance associatedwith the current path within the ring- Increasing the flux linkagesand the rate of change increases the magnitude of current induced in the ring, The circular field associated with this current takes the form of a taroidal magne(ic field that encompassesall surlace areas on the ring and that is conducive to the disclosureof circumferential types of discontinuities. This is showo schematicallyin Fig. 13(b). To enhance the total flux linkages, laminatcd soft iron pole pieces are usually inserted through the holc in the part a$ shown in Fig. l3(a). Direcl Versus Alternofing Curent. The choice of magnelizingcurrenl for the induced-current method depends on the magnetic properties of the part to be inspccted.

ln cases in which the residual method is applicable, such as for most bearing races or similar parls having high magnetic retentivity, direct current is used for magnetizing. The rapid interruption of this curfent, by quick-break circuitry, results in a mpid collapseofthe magneticflux and the genercircurferentially ation of a high-amperage, directed single pulse of current in the part. Therefore, the part is residually magnetized with a toroidal field, and the subsequent application of magletic particles will produce indications of circumferentially oriented discontiouities. Passingan alternating curent through a conductorwilt setup a fluctualing magnetic field as the level of magfletic flux Bpidly changes frorn a maximum value in one direction to an equal value in the opposite direction. This is similar to the current that would flow in a single-shorted-turnsecondary of a transformer.The alternatinginduced current, in conjunction with the con' tinuous method, rnders the mthod applicable for processingmagneticaliy sof(, or less retentive, parts. Applicdtior,|s. Thc induced-current method, in addition to eliminating the possibility of damagingthe part, is capable of rnagnetizing in one operation parts that would otherwise requiaemor than one head shot. Two examples of this type of part arc illus-

trated in Fig. 14 and 15. These parts cannot be completely processed by one head shot to disclose circumferential defects, because regionsat the contact point are not properly magnetized, Therefore, a two-step inspection process would be required for full coverage, with the part rotated approximately 90" prior to the secgnd step. OD tbe olher hand, the induced-current method provldes full coverage in one processing step. The pan shown in Fig, 15 presents disk-shaped an additional problem when the contact method is employed to disclose circumferentiaL defects near the rim. Even when a two-step process is mployd, as with the ring shown in Fig. 14, the primary current path through the disk may not develop a circularfield of amplemagnitudein the rim area.The induced current can be selectively concentratedin the rim area by proper pole picce sclection to provide lull coverage (rim area) in a single processing step. The pole pieces shown in Fig. l5(b) are hollow and cylindrical, with one on each side of the disk. These pole piecesdirect the magneLic flux through the disk such that the rim is the only ponion constituring a totally enclo\ing current path. Pole pieces used in conjunctio$ with this methodare prcferablycon\tructed of laminated ferromagneticmarerial lo minimize the {low of eddy currents within the pole pieces, which detract from the ioduced (eddy) current developed within the part being proessed. Poie pieces can also be made of rods, wire-filled nonconductive tubes, or thick-wall pipe saw cut to break up the eddy-current path, [o some cases, even a solid shaft protruding from on side of a gear or disk can be used as one of the pole preces. lnsprerion ofStecl 8.r/6. Direct contact is not frrmitted during the inspection of hardened, finished steel balls for heat (reating or grinding cracks, becausc of the highly polished surface finish. Thc discontinuitiesmay be orientcd in any direction, and l0l7a inspcctionofthc balls is required.The inducedcurrnt method can prcvide the required in-

tvlagnetic Forticle Inspe.tion / 99

slrfoce ol poe piece

(lol2) tit Bia t rU' rI J B tbl Cure.t porh, io o rimmed disl-'hoped port thot hos becn mosnetized by (o) hodahot dEsretiEiioi oid (b) iiduced-.urrenr moqneriroi,on

spection withoutdarnaging the surface finishThe Z/D ratio of l:1 for spheres is unfavorablefor magnetization with a coil; thcrcfore, polepieces laminated areused on each sideof the ballsto providea morefavorable configumtion for magnetizing. Because ot lhe h-lghly retentive natureof the material, residual magnetization with dircctcunent andquickbreakcircuitry is used for magnetizing the balls.The smallness of the heat-treating or grindingcracksand the high surface finish dictate thatthe inspection bea highly medium oil-suspendible material. Balls are inspected alongthe r-, ]-, and z-axes in three separateoperations.The for eachaxis consists of: operation a An induced-current shot . Bathing the ball with thc wet-particle soluuofl o Inspection while rotatingthe ball 360"

ture, or the entire operation can bc automated.

Permecbility of m.rgnotl. mole.lal.

is usedto referto The term permeability with whicha magnetic field or flux the ease circuit.For a can be set up in a magnetic givenmaterial, it is not a constant valuebut a ratio. At any given valueof magnetizing force, permeability, tr, is B/11,the ratio of flux density,l, to magnetizing force, I{. Severalpermeabilities have been defined, p.meability, permemaximum but material ability, effective (apparent)permeability, ar usedwith magand initial permeability netic particletesting. Moteriol permeobility is of inte.est in magneticparticleinspectionwith circular Materialpermeability magoetization. is the Rotationand reorientation can be accom- ratio of the flux density,B, to the magneplishedin a simple manuallyoperated fix- tizing force,f/, wherethe flux densityand
8 + ( f t u rd e n sr y )

when the force are measured magnetizing The flux pathis entirelywithin the material. force and the flux densitypromagnetizing point by ducedby that force are measured point for the cntire magnetization curve with a fluxmeterand a p.eparedspecrmen of material. Mqximum Permeobility. For magnetic particleinspection, the Ievel of magnetization is generally chosen to bejust belowthe curve for knee ol a normal magnetization materiallthe maximummate.ial the sDecific permeabilityoccurs near this point. For most elgineeringsteels,the maximummaterial permeability ranges from 0,06to 0.25 T/A . m ' (500to 2000G/Oe)or more.The 500 value is for 4oGseries steels. stainless permeability values Specific far the various materials engineering are not readilyavailable, but even if they were, they could be To a largeextent,the numerous misleading. the variations in rulesof thumbconsider permeability, of permeso that knowledge ability valuesis not a prerequisite for magnetic particleinspection. :f{ective (oppqrent} permeobiliry is the rario of the flux density in the part to the magnetizing force, when the magnetizing force is measured at the samepoint in the of the part. Effective permeability absenca is not solelya propertyof the material,bui is largelygoverned by the shapeof the part and is of prime importance for longitudinal magnetrzatlon. Iniriol permeobility is exhibited whn both the flux density,8, and the magnetizing force,F1,approach zero(Fig. l6a). With magnetizing force, the magnetic increasing along the virgin field in the pan increases loop. curve of the hysteresis

mlgneflc

lltrtercsls

// // / O ,/ {hoqil,z'^q rorceJ

lnoL flr\ o e n s' y sorud on Po''rr

(moqnerizinq lorce)

Fig.l6

RepE*.rotive mogietilolion (hydd6ir) rud. for a ferdds.eii. choris is lh 'ngin fiylreresir N'e. Se relr lor dir.u$ion.

rctriol. Dorhed lire in ooch ol thr

when magSomeferromagnetic materials, netized by bingintroduced into an external field,do not retum1oa completely unmagnetizedstatewhenremoved from that field. In must be subjected to a fact, thesematerials reversed field of a certain strengthto demagntizethm(discounting heating the material to a charaateristictempenture. called the Curie poi$t, above which the ferromagnetic deordering of atomicmoments is thermally stroyed, or mechanically workingthe materithe magnetization). Ifan extemal al to reduce rnanner fieldthatcanbe variedin a controlled (virto a completely demagnetized is applied gin)specimen andifinstrumentaaion for measuringthc magnetic induction withinthespeccurve of imen is at hand,the magnetization the materialcan be determined.A repre(hysteresis) cuwefo{ sentativemagnetization material is shownin Fig. 16. a ferromagnetic As shown in Fig. l6(a), starting at tte in the unmagorigin (O) with the specimen netized conditionand incrcasing the magnethe flux in tizingforcein smallincremenls. quite rapidly at first, the materialincreases

IOO / Methods ol Nondeslrurlive Evoluotion

then more slowly until it reaches a point beyond which any increase in the magnetiz, ing force does not increase the flux density, This is shown by the dashed(virgin) curve Od. In this condition.the specimenis said to be magnetically saturated. When the magnctizing force is gradually reduced to zero, curve db results (Fig. l6b). Tbe amount o[ magnetism lhat the steel retains at point b is called residual magnetism. B-. whe; the magnetizingcurrent is .evemed and gradually increased in value, the flux continues to diminish. The flux does not become zero until point c is reached, at which tim thc magnetizing force is represented by Oc (Fig, l6c), which graphically designates the caercive force, I1., in the ma(erial.Ferromagnelic malerialsretain a cenain amount of residual magnetism after being subjected to a magnetizing force. When the magnetic domains of a ferromagnetic material have been orienled by a mag' l.etizing force, some domains remain so orie.lted until an additioual force in the opposite direction causes them to retum to their original .andom orientation. This force is commonly referred to as coercive force. As the reversd field is increasedbeyond c, point d is reached (Fig. l6d). At this point, the specimen is again magnetically saturated, The magnetizing force is now decrasedto zero, and the de line is fomed and retains reve$ed-polarity residual mag-" n e t i s m , 8 , , i n t h e s p e c i m e nF . unher increasing lhe magnetizing force in the original direction completes the crrr'veefa.'lhe cycle is now complete, and the area within the loop abcdda is called the hysteresrs curve. The definite lag throughout the cycle between the magnetization force and the flux is called hysteresis. If the hysteresis loop is slender (Fig. l6e), the indication usually means that the material has low retentivitv (low residualfieldJand is easyto magnetizi (has low reluctance). A wide loop (Fig. l6f) indicates that the material has high reluctance and is difficult to magnetize.

ncgnelia Pnatlclet nnd Surpending llquids

Magnetic particles are classified according to the medium used to carry the pa.ticlcs to thc parl, The medium can be air (dry-partjcle metbod) or a liquid (welparticle method), Magnetic panicles can be made of any low-retentivity fedomagnetic material that is finely subdivided. The characteristics af tlis matrial, iocluding magnetic properties, size, shape, density, mobility, and degree of visibility and contrast, vary over wide ranges for dillercnt applications. Mognetic Properties. The particles used for magnetic particle inspection should have high magnetic permeability so that they can

by the low-level be readilymagnetized leak- freely and to form uniformly dispersed agefieldsthat occurarounddiscontiouities cloudsof powder that will spreadevenly and can be drawn by these fields to the over a surface is a necessary characteristic themselves discontinuities to form readable for rapid and effective dry-powdertesting. particles The fieldsat very fine disconti- Elongated indications. tend to mat in the containerand to be ejectedin unevenclumps, extremely weaknuitiesare sometimes Low coerciveforce and low retentivity but globular panicles flow freeLy and panicles.If high smoothly under similar conditions. The are desirable for magnetic in coercive force, wet particles become greatestsensitivityfor the forrnationof andform an objection- strongindications stronglymagnetized is providedby a blendof able backgrcund. In addition,the particles elongated and globularshapes. wet particles, will adhere to anysleel in thelankor piFjng they are suspendbecause of the unit and cause heavy settling-out ed in a liquid, move more slowly than do tend dry panicles to accumulate in leakage losses.Highly retentivewel partrcles to clump togetherquickly in large aggre- fields. Although the wet particles themgates Excessively on the test surface. largc seJves may be of any shape,they are fine havelow mobility, and and tend to agglomerate, clumpsof particles or clump, into aredistorted or obscured by the unfavorable shapes. These unfavorable indications shapes will line up into magnetically held heavy,coarse-grain backgrounds. evenwhentheleakage Dry paiicles havingcoerciveforce and elongated aggregates magnetized field is weak-This e{Iectcontributes to the high retentivitywould become or in first useandwould relativelyhigh sensitivity of fine wet partiduringmanufacture therfolebecomesmall,strongpermanent cles. Visibility ond controstare promotedby magnets.Onceoagfletized, thefuc{.ntrol by particles would be choosing with colorsthat are easy the weakfie!dsat discoltinuities by their tendency to stick magnet- to seeagainst the color ofthe surface of the subdued icallyto the testsudace whercvcr they first part beinginspected. The naturalcolor of powders touch. This would reducethe mobility of the metallic usedin thedry method the powderand would form a high tevelof is silver-gray,but pigmentsate used io which would reducecontrasl coior the particles. The colors of pa(icles background, for the wet method dilficultto see. are limited to the black andmakeindications Effe<r of Pqrticle Size. I-arge, heavy and red of the iron oxidescommonlyused particlesare not likely to be arrestedand as the basefor wet particles, For increasedvisibility, particles are heldby weakfieldswhensuchpalticlesare but fine partr coated with fluorescentpigment by the movingover a part surface, is The search for indications cleswill be heldby very weakfields.How- manufacturer. may also ad- conducted in totalor panialdarkness. using ever,exremely fine particles here to surfacc arcas where there are no ultravioletlight to activatethe fluorescent (especially if the surface is dyes. Fluorescentmagneticparticlesare discontinuitis for boththe wet and dry methods, rough) and form confusingbackgrounds. available particles are mole commonCoarscdry particlesfall too fast and are but fluorescent ofrthe partsurface without ly usedwith the wet method. likely to bounce fypes of Mogneti( Porti(les. The two attracted by the weakleakage fieldsat beiog parimperfections. Finerparticles canadhere to primarytypesof particles for magnetic fingerprints, rough su aces,and soiledor ticle inspectiooare dry panicles and wet particles, indications and eachtype is available in vardampareas, thusobscuring particles forthe wet method arc ious colorc and as fluorescentparticles. Magnetic in someliquid me- Particleselectionis principally influenced appliedas a suspension rnuchsmaller thanthose oya dium,ard pafticles canbe used.Whensuch . Location for the dty method ofthe discontinuity, that is, on is appliedover a surface,the a suspension the surface or beneath th surfa(e liquiddrains away,andthe film remaining . Sizeofthe if on thesurface discontinuity, on the surfacebecomesthinner. Coarse . Which iseasier lype(weror dry panicles) particleswould quickly becomestranded to apply The stranding of finer and immobilized. particles as a resultof the draining Dry particles, whenusedwith directcurawayof for dethe liguid occursmuch later, giving these rent for magnetization, are superior particles mobilityfor a sullicientperiodof tectingdiscontinuities lying wholly below fieldsandto the surface. current by leakage The useof alternating timeto be attracted accumulate andthusform true indications. with dry particles is excelleotfor rgvealing ciacksthata.e not exceedingly fine, Effect of Forlicle Shope, Long, slender surface panicles develop stronger potarity tban but is of little valuelor discontinuities even particles. globular Becaus ofthe attraction slightlybeneath the surface(Fig. 17). poles.these tiny. Wet particles arebetterthandry particles exhibiledby opposite vcry llnc surface which have pronounced for dclccting discontinuislenderparticles, thcmsefves tiesregafdle\s ofwhichformofmagnetizing north and southpoles,araange par- currentis used. Wet particles into stringsmorereadilythangLobular areoftenused ticles. The ability of dry particlesto flow with directcur.entto detectdiscontinuities

I
llidgneti. Particle Inspection / I Ol
e
E 21.3
034

E r0i

{V,
I

028 i 0r4 i 0 1000

^ ^

i5 0

r t-)
200 400 600 800
Magnerlzing c u r i e n r ,A

.t,

$rs, ond holf-wsw cvrronf for locoting delech dl voriolJ3 disloncr beld o lurfoe ty f,&tu oI th. dry-porticle <oniinuour hqg.etizing method. 5e ie Sor de*riplion of tBl .onditions.

Fis.r 7 :i.ffi:rru1,ffiT:ilJillill"Jtfl

thatliejust beneath the surface. The surface of a part can easilybe coveredwith a wet bath becausethe bath flows over and around surfacecontouls, This is not easily accomplished with dry powde$, Coloredpaniclesare usedto obtainmaximum contrastwith the surfaceof the part being inspected.Black standsout against (Fig. l8), and most light-coloredsurfaces gray against dark-coloredsurfaces.Red particles ale morevisiblethanblackor gray particlesagainstsilvery and polishedsurparticles,viewed under faces.Fluorescent ultraviolet light, provide the highestcofltrast and visibilityOry pdrticles are availablewith yellow, red,black,andgraypigmented coloringand with fluorescentcoatings. The magnetic properties and panicle sizesare similar in all colors, making them equally efficient, Dry particlesare most sensitive for useolt very rough surfacesand foi detec.ting flaws beneathth surface.They are ordinarily usedwith portable equipment. The reclamation and reuse of dry particles is not recommended. Air is used to carry the particlesto tfie surfaceof lhe part, and caremust be taken to apply the particlesconectly. Dry powders shouldbe appliedin such a way that they reach the magnetized surface in a uniform cloud with a minimumof motion. Whenthis is done,the particles comeunder the influenceof the leakagefields while suspended in air and have three-dimensionalmobility.This conditioncan be best achieved when the magnetized is surface vertical or overhead.When oarticlesare appliedto a horizontalor slopingsurface, they settledirectlyto the surface anddo not have the samedegree of mobility. Dry powderscan be appliedwith small rubber spray bulbs or speciallydesigned powderblowers.The air stream mechanical

,,ti,:,
li..

Fig.lsffi:jf9xt'j:"#';:;fri.di.otio.sofa.o|dshdino.os|ingwhensnU.dgrb|qcklight.cotJrte'yo of such a blower is of low velocity so that a cloud of ftowder is applied to the test area. can also deliver a light Mechanical blo\ryers stream of air for the gentle removal of excess powder. Powder that is forcibly applied is not free to be attracted by leakage parl in lields. Neither rolling a magnetized powder nor pouring the powder on the part is reqomme$ded . Wet podi.lei are best suited far the detection of fine discontinuities such as fatigue cracks. Wet panicles are commonly used in stationary equipment where the bath can .emain in use until contarninated. They are also used in field operations with portable equipment, but care must be taken to agitate the bath constantly. Wet particles are available in rcd and black colors or as fluorescent particles that fluoresce a blue-green or a bright yellowgreen color, The particles a.e supplied in the form of a paste or other type ofconcentrate that is suspended in a liquid to produce lhe coating bath. The liquid bath may be either water or a light petroleum distillate having specific properties- Both require conditioners to maintain propcr dispersion of the particles and to allow the particles the freedom of movemnt to form indications on the surfaces of Daats.These conditioners are usu-

ally incorporatedin the powder concentrates. OilSuspending tiquid. The oilusedasa suspendingliquid for magnetic particles should be an odorless,well-refinedlight ptroleum having distilla(e of low viscosity a low sulfur contentand a high flash point. The viscosityofthe oil shouldnot excecd3 (3 cst) as aested x 10-6m2ls at 40'C (100 'F) and must not exceed5 x 10-6 m'?/s (5 cst) when testedat the baahtempemture. (5 cst), the movement Above5 x 10-6m'?ls of the magneticparticles in the bath is sufficiently retarded to havea definiteeffect in reducing buildup,and thereforethe visibility, of an indicationof a small discontinuity. Partsshouldbe precleaned to remove oil andgrease because oil from the surface its accumulates in the bath and increases viscosity. Woter Suspending liquid. The use of water insteadof oil for magneticparticle wet-method bathsreducescostsand elimF natesbathflammability,Figuresl9 through 22 illustratethe effectiveness of water-base magneticparticle testing. Water-suspendible particleconcentraies includethe necessary wettingagents, dispersing agents, rust inhibitors,and antifoamagents. Waterbathsordinarilyshouldnot be used wherethe tempersture is below freezing.

lO2 / lYlethodsof Nondestructive Eydluotion

tor shock, and the equipment must be thoroughly and positively grounded. Also, electrolysis of parts of the unit can occur if preventive measures are not taken. Units specifically designed to be used with water as a suspnsoidare safe for the operator and minimize electrolytic corrosion. The .trength ol rhe borh is a major factor in determining the quality of the indicatioos obtained- The proDortion of paniclesin the bath mu;t be mainmagnetic tained at a uniform level. lf the concentration varies, the strngth of the indications will also vary, and the indications may be misinter?reted. Fine indications may be missed entirly with a weak bath. Too heavy a concentration of particles gives a confusing background and excessiveadherence of particles at extemal poles, thus interfering with clean-cut indications of extremely line discontinuities. The best method for ensuring optimum bath concentration for any given comblnation ofquipment, bath application, type of part, and discontinuities sought is to test the bath using parts with known discontidultres. Bath strength can be adjusted until satisfactory indications are obtained. This bath concentmtion can then be adopted as standard for those conditions. The concentration of the bath can be measured with reasonable accuracy with the settling test. In this test, 100rnl- (3.4 oz) of well-agitated bath is placed in a pearshapedcentrifuge tube. The volume ofsolid material that settles out after a Dredetermined interval (usually 30 min) is read on the graduated cylindrical part of the tube. Dirt in the bath will also settle and usually shows as a separate laycr on top of the oxide. The layer of dirt is usually casily discernible because it is different in color from the mqgnetic particles-

Fig.

Spindle defe.h Fcored Fcoled wittr withwqi.Fboe wqi'Fbo! | 9 ie$"j"r"'d3

mogneii. ponicle trrins- Conioi). o{ Cncb Chcmi.ol

glycol canbe employed Howver,ethylene to protectagainstreasonably low tempemtures. Care must be exercised,howevcr, because a high percentage of ethyleneglycol can impedepanicle mobility. For the inspection of largebillets, a solutioncon-

taininS threepartswater andone part antifreezehasbeensuccessfully used. Because wateris a conductor of eleclncity, unitsin whichwateris to be usedmust be de$igned to isolateall high-volrage circuits so as to avoidall pssibility of opera-

Ultrcvlolet

Llght

Fig. 2O Conp{Bior

vone mi(rerocks

rsveled

*ith wdrer-boe

mosEtic

porti.le resring, Cou.reiy ol Cir.te

A mercury-arc lamp is a convenient source ofultraviolet light, This type of lamp emits light whose spectrum has several intensity peaks within a wide band of wavelengths. When used for a specific purpose, emitted light is passed through a suitable filter so that only a relatively narrcw band of ultraviolet wavclengths is available. For example,a band in the long-waveultravio. let spectrum is used for fluorcscent liquid penetrant or magnetic particle inspection, fluorescence is the characteristic of an element or combination of elements to absorb the energy of light at one frequency and emit light of a different frequency. The fluorescent materials used in liouid oenctrant and magnetic particle inspection are combinations of elemcnts chosen to absorb light in the peak energy band of the mercury-arc lamp fitted with a Kopp glass filrgr. This peak occursat aboul 165 nm (36t0 Ar. The ability of fluorescent mate{ials to emit

MsgnGtic Pcrticle lnspeciion / lO3

Relevant indicalions are the result of errors made during or after metal processing. They may or may not be considered detects. A nonrelevant indication is one that is caused by flux leakage. This type of indication is usually weak and has no relation to a discontinuity that is considered to be a defect, Examples are magnetic writing, change in section due to part design, or a heat affected zone line in welding. ' False indicationt are those in which the particle pattems are held by gravity or surface roughness. No magnetic attraction is involved. A dir.ontinuity is any interuption in the normal physical configuration or composilion of a pan. lt may not be a defect. A defecl is any discontinuity that interferes with the utility or service of a palt. Interprelotion consists of determining the probable cause of an indication, and assigningit a discontinuity oame or labelEvolsotion involves determining whether an indication will be detrimental to the service ofa part. Jt is ajudgement based on a well-defined acceprreject standard that may be either written or verbal.

'E!'!,'

rt I -

'howins.rcck 0.25 hm 50 mm (2 in.) didm seo. rubisdodlo vot.r$or mdo.?licporlicli63rins (0.0098'i.) lons by 0.I mm (o.o(Min.) wid!. Cou.idy of CirclChloi@l Compo.y

Delecteble Dlr.ontlnultls3
The usefulness of magneticpanicle inspection for discontinuities or in the search imperfections on the types of disdepends continuities the methodis capableof finding. Of importanceare the size, shape, orientatian, of the discontinuand location ity with respect to its ability to produce leakage filds. Surfd.e Di3continuitier.The largestand most important categoryof discontinuity consistsof those that are exposedto the surface,Surfacecracks or discontinuities parti are effectivelylocatedwith magnetic cles. Surfacecracks are also rnore detrimentalto the servicelife of a component thanare subsurface andasa discontinuities, resultthey are morefrequntly the objectof inspection. particleinspection of is capable Magnetic locatingseams, and grindlaps, quenching ing cracks,and surface ruptures in castings, forgings,and weldments, The methodwill alsodetectsudacefatigue cracksdeveloped during service, Magnetizingand panicle application methodsmay be critical in cer. taitl cases,but in most applicationsthe rquirements are relativelyeasily met becauseleakage fields are usuallystrongand highly localized. For the successlul detection of a discontinuity,theremust be a field of sumcint strengthorintedin a generallyfavorable directionto producestrongleakagefields. For maximumdetectability, the field set up in the part shouldbe at right anglesto the (Fie. 3 length discontinuity of a suspected and4J.Thi\ i\ especially trueif (hediscon-

lal

(b)

in tlE leodineedse ond fillet oEs of o hyd.oploie ot rsvoledby woisr-t ss nagrElic r: rt k l D|e.tr r 1 l-' ' ^ ' pro r e l 6 t i n . ( o ) o v r o l l v i e v . ( b ) C l o ! - { r p o t f i l l s t o r e oPropelle. .Coorre.rolCi..leCh6ni@lCnpony

wavelengths the overallintensity light in the greenish-yellow of velopedthat measure depends on the inten- oflong-wave ultravioletlight only in a band the visiblespectrum sity of ultraviolerlight at the workpiece betweenJ00 to 400nm (3000to 4000A) and nearthepeakenergy surface. ln conlrastlo the harmfulultravio- thatare mostsensitive whichdam- band of. the mercury-a.clamp used for let light ofshorterwavelengths, read organssuchas the eyesand-theskin, fluorescent inspection. Thesemeteas ages per squar the black light of 165 nm (3650A) wave- the intensitylevelin microwatts lenglhsposesno suchhazards to the oper- centimetr(pwsm?). For aircraft-quality inspeclion, the minimumintenator and providesvisible evidenceof de- fluorescent is 1000 fects in materials, as shown in Fig.23 sity level of ultravioletillumination pwcmr. High-intensity125-Wultraviolet through28. that provideup to 5000 Early specificatiors required970 lx (90 bulbsare available ftc) of illumination at 380mm(15in.). at the workpiece surface pWcm'z with a photographic-type measured light to whitelight aswell llonrenclolure Ured In meter,whichresponds as ultraviolctlight. Because the ultraviolet fcanetlc Porllcle output of a mcrcury-arclamp decreases In3pocllon with age and with hours of service, the required intensityofthe desircd wavelength An indi.diion is an accumulation of magis often absent,althoughthe light meter netic panicles on the surface ofthe part that otherwise.Metershave beende- forms during inspection. indicates

lOa / methods ol Nondeslructiye Evsluqtion

field in the part. However,this effectis not parlicularlynoticeable beyondperhaps6.4 mm (ya in,) in depth. Il tle crack is nol clqse-lippedbut wide open a( the surfaqe, (opposition the reluctance to the establishmentof magnetic circuit) flux in a magnetic of th resultinglongerair gap reducesthe strengthof the leakagefield. This, combiDedwjth the inabiliry of the particlesto bridge the gap, usually results in a weaker indication. Detectabilitygenerallyinvolves a relationship between surface opening and depth.A surfacascratch,which may be as wide at the ludac as it is deep, usually does not produce a magnetic particle patit may do so at high levelsof .tem,although magnetizatiofl. Because of mally variables, it is not possibleto establishany exact values for this ralationship, but in general a surface depth whose is at least discontinuity ,:j Iive times its ope[ing at the surfacewill be detectabl, There are also limitations at the other extreme.For example,if the faces of a Conins viftd under bldd light lhdilE ttrong mognctic porticle indi@lio. with minirnal bockgrou.d !i^ t.l I rV' _v fluore'(en.e. Cou.t6y of r'bgnoflux Corpo'orid cmck are tightly forced togetherby compressive stresses, the almostcompleteabtrnuityis smallandfine, The characteristics Many incipientfatigue cracks and fine sence of an air gap may produce so littLe of a discontinuity its detection Srindillg cncks are less than 0.025 mm leakagcfield that no particleindicationrs that enhance (0.001 are: in grindin,) deepand havesurfaceopenings formed.Shallowcracksproduced of prhapsone-tenththat or less. Such ing or heattreatingand subsequently sub. lts depthis at right angles using)vet-method jected to strongcompression by thermalor to the surfac cracks arereadilylocated r lts width at the surfaceis small,so that magnetic particleinspection. The depthof other stresses usuallyproduceno magfletic the crack has a pronounced efflct on its particle indications. Sometimes,with carethe air gap it creates is small a lts length at the surface is large with detectability;the deeper the crack, the ful, maximum-sensitivity techniques, faint stronger respectto its width the indication for a givenlcvel of indications of suchcrackscanbe produced. . It is comparatively This is becausc the stronger deepin proportionto magnetization, One other type of discortinuity that greater the width of its surface leakagc distortion ofthe sometimes opening flux causes approachcs the lower limit of detectability is a forgingor rolling lap that, although emerges opento the surface, at ao acuteangle,In this cas,the leakage field produced may be quiteweakbecause of the smallangleof emergence and the resultant relativelyhigh reluctance of the actualai. gap; consequently, very little leakage flux lakesthe pathout th.oughthe surfscelip of gap. the lap to cross this high rluctance When lapsare being sought(usuallywhen newly forged parts are being inspected), high-sensitivity, suchas combining dc magnetizing with lhe wet fluorescent method,is desirable. Figure29 showstwo indications of forginglap$in a 1045 steelcranehook. A seamthat was found dunng the magnetic particleinspection of a forgd crane hook is shown in Fig. l0- The seam was present in the materialbeforethe hook was forged.The cold shut shownin Fig. 3l was found in the flange of a cast drum after machining. A faint indicationwas notedin the roughcasting,but the size of the cold shutwasnot known until aftermachining of the drum. The magnetic particleinspection of a 460 mm(18in.)diaminternally coupling splined reveaLed the indications shown in Fig. 12, oneofwhich was alongthe lusionzoneof a Porenriqlly &flgerols .rockr in q lown nowe/ blod rsvooled when fl@re3.enl mosoeiic porticlE ore F i g . 2 4 expared ro block lighr. Coortesy ot Mosmllux Coryqorion repair wcld. Routinc magneticparticlern-

IVlognetic Porticle
r:r_ .1':

Inspection

/ | O5

':-:il

deeplying discontinuities,Direct currnt yokes are effective if the discontinuityis close to the surface. Prod magntization usingdirect currentor half-wave currentis moreeffectivefor discontinuities deeperin the part.

llouelevcnl

Indic.rtion3

Nqnrclcvant indications are true pattems caused by leakage fields that do not result from the presence of flaws. Nonrelevant indicationshavs ssysml possible causes aDdthereforerequireevaluation,but they shouldnot be interpreted as flaws. Sources of Nonrelevont IndiGolions Panicle patterns thal yield nonrelevant indicationscan be the result of design, fabrication.or other causesand do not imply a conditionthat reduces the sftength or utility of the part- Because nonrelevant indications are true particlebuildups,they ar difficult to distinguishfrom buildups caused by flaws.Therefore, the investigator must be aware of designand fabrication conditions thatwouldcontribute to orcause nonrelevant indications. Porticle Adherence Due lo Excttiv. Mognetizing Force.One aypeof nonretevant indicationis that causedby panicle adherence at leakage fields aroundsharpcorners, ridges,or other surfaceirregularities when magnetized longitudinallywith too stronga magnetizing force, The use of too st.onga currentwith circularmanetization canproduce indications ofthe flux linesofthe extemal field- Both of the abovephenomena (excessive magnetizing force or excessive current) are clearly recognizedby experienccdopemlors by a and cao be eliminated reductionin the appliedmagnetizing force. Mill Scole. Tightlyadhcring mill scalewill causeparticlebuildup,not only because of mechanical adherence of but also because the difrerence permeability in magnetic betweenth steelandthe scale. In mostcases, this canbe detected visually,andadditional cleaning followedby retesting will confirm the absence of a true discontinuity. Contigvrqtionsthat resultin a restriction ot the magnetic field are a causeof nonrelevant indications. Typical restrictive configurationsare internal notches such as splines,threads,groovesfor indexing,o. keyways. Abrupt chonger in mognefic properfies, suchas thosebetween weld metaland basemetalor betweendissimilar basemetals, tesult in nonrelevant indications.Dependingon the degreeof change in the property,the particlepatternmay magnetic particles consistof looselyadhering or may b slrong and well defined- AgajD, it is necessary for the investigator to be awareof suchconditions.

fid

tt

fhoci@r

E|qgrti. podicl i.dicotioft ol qindld-anddrdwn drill .o3ins rlbi.s

thor rl'or3

shape of the discontinuity itself in relation to the sizeofthe pan in which it occursis a controlling factor,Therefore, the deeper the discontinuity lies$/ithina section, thelarger parit must be to be detected by magnetic ticle inspection. In considering thedetectability ofa discontinuity lying below the surface, of primary concem are the projectedarea presented as an obstruction to the linesof forceand the sharpness of thc distortion of the field prc ducd.It is helpfulto think of the magnetic field as flowing through the specihet like a $ream of water. A coin, on edgebelow the surfacand at right anglesto the surfaceand jn the flow, would causea sharDdisturbance Brovement of the water, but a straight round . Subsurface (those lying discontinuities stick placedat a similar depthand parallelto just beneath the surfaceof the part) the direction of flow would have very little . Deep-lying discontinuities effect.A ball or marbleof the samesizeasthe Subsurface drrco4riftlt7ies comprise coin would presentthe sameprojectedarea, thosevoids or nonmetallicinclusions that but would be much lesslikely to b detected lie just beneaththe surface.Nonmetallic thanthe coin becaus the flow lineswouldbe inclusions are presntin all steelproducts streamlines aroundthe sphereand the disturto somedegree.They occur as scattered bance crcated in the{ieldwouldbe muchless individual inclusions, or they may be sharp. aligned in long stringers. The orientationof the discontinuityis Thesediscontinuities are usuallyvery small and cannotbe anolher factor in de(ection. The coindetectedunlessthey lie very closeto me shapedobstructiondiscussed above was surface, they produce because highlylocal- considered to b 90' to the directionof the izedbut ratherweakfieldsnux. lf the samediscontinuity were inDeepJyingdiscontinuities in weldments clined,either venically or horizontally, at joint penetra- an angleof only 60 or 7(F,therewouldbe a maybe caused by inadequate tion, subsurfaceincomplte fusion, or noticeable difference in the amountof leakcracksin weld beadsbeneath the last weld agefield andtherefore in the strength ofthe beadapplied.In castings, they result from indication. would resultnot This differcnce inlemal cavities. shrinkage slaginclusions, only because the projectedarea would be or gaspockets. The depthto whichmagnet- reduced bul also because of a streamlinins ic particle testing can reach in locating effect,as wilh the sphereinternal discontinuitiescannot be estabThe strength anddirectionofthe magnetlishedin millimeters, because the sizeand ic field arealsoimDortant in the detection of

spectionof a 1.2 n (4 ft) diam weldment revealed cracksin the weldbetwcen the rim andweb, as shownin Fig. 33. lnlernol Discontinuities.The magnetic particlcmethodis capable of indicating the presence ofmany discontinuities that do not break the surface. Although radiography and ultrasonicmethodsare inherentlybetter for locating internal discontinuities, sometimes the shapeof the part, the location of the discontinuity,or the cost or availability ofthe equipment needed makes particlemethodmoresuitable. the magnetic The internaldiscontinuities that can be departicleinspection tectedby magnetic can be dividedidto two groups:

l06 / Merhods ot Nondestrucliye Eyoluotion

adhering andis easilyremovable evenduringcontinuous magnetization . Useof anothermethodof nondestructive inspection, such as ultrasonic (esting or radiography, to verify the presence of a subsurface defect The followingtwo examples illustratehow nonrelevant indications are used in nondestructivetestingto verify productquality. Exomple l: Nonrelevqnt lndicqtions in Electrir Molor Rotori. An instancewhere nonrelevant indications are usedio advantageis in theinspection of rotorsfor squirrel cageclectricmotols,Theserotors are usually fabricatedfrom laminationsmade of magnetic material, holes The conductor-bar are alignedduringassembly of the laminations.The gndringsandconductotbals are cast from an aluminumalloy in a single The integrityof the internalcast operation. aluminumalloy conductor bars must b checked to ensure that each is capable of carrying the required electrical current; voidsand intemalporositywould impair their electrical properties. Theserotorsare tested them by clampidg between the heads of a horizontalunit and processing themby the continuous method particles. usingwet magnetic The end rings distributethe magnetizing curfe t thrcugh each of the conductorbars.which coostitute pamllelpaths,All conductorbarsthat are soundand continuousproducebroad, pronounced, subsurface-typeindications on the outsidesurfaceof the rotor. The absenceof such indications is evidencethat the conductorbar is discontinuous or that its current-caflying capacityis greatly impaired.This is a direct departure from the customary inspection logic in that negative results,or lhe absence of indications,are indicative of defects. Exomple 2r Nonrelevqnl Inditqlions Pr*ent in Welding A537 Grode 2 Corbon Stel Wirh E80l8-Cl Weld Wire. Linear magneticparticle indicationshave frequentlybeen observedin the heat-affected zone of A537 grade 2 (quenchedjoined with 88018and{empered) materials Cl Qtho/o Nll weld wire. However. when liquidpeoetFntexaminatioos areas of these are performed, no indications are apparent. Four typs of welds were used in th investigation: . Weldi: a T-jointwith tillet weldson both sides(Fig"14) . weld 8.. a butt wld (Fig. 35) . Weld Ct a pickup simulaling a repair where a flt-up device had been torn off (Fie,36) . WeldD;a T-jointwith fillet weldson both sides,one of which contained a longitudinal crack(Fig. 37) The fourth sample was made in such a mannerthat it would containa linear discontinuityin or nearthe heat-affected zane.

Fis. 26*iiil*l#"fJ?.,alH[1':,T1i*;#i,'*TJi,.".:""jt':,'h"ffJ;tisi:"'
Mdgnetized writing is another form of non.elevant indication, Magnetic writing is usually associated with part5 displaying good residual characteristics i. the magneiized state. If such a part is contacted with a sharp edge of another (preferably magnetically soft) part, the residual field is locally reorienled, giving rise to a leakage field and consequently a magfletic particle indica(ion. For example, the point of a common nail can be used to write on a part susceptible to magneticwriting, Magnetic writing is not always easy to interpret, because the particles are loosely held and are fuzzy or iotermittent in appea.ance. If magnetic writing is suspected,it is only necessary to demagnetize the parts and retest. lf the indication was magnetic writing, it will not reappear, Additionol Sources. Some othcr condi, tions that cause nonrelevant indications ar

brazedjoints, voidsin fittdpans,andlarge gralns. Distinguishing ReleYont From Nonreleydnt lndications Thereare several techniques for differentiating betweenrelevantand nonrelvant indications: . Where or surface mill scale roughness is the probable cause,closevisual inspection of the surfacein the area of the discontinuity anduseof magnification up to ten diameters . Studyof a sketchor drawingof thc pan beingtestedto assistin locatingwelds, changes oashape in section, constricttons . Demagnetization and retesting . Carefulanalysis pattem. oftheparticle The particle pattem typicalofoonrelevant indications is usuallywide,loose,and lightly

Mognetic Pcrficle Inspection I lO7

,i,,.

:.,i1,.,.

.[.ff ris. re |ef {fl 5ti..TH:"TgisT

mogneti. porticle inspection,Dim ions givn in itlch!

Fis. 27 :rff:#1"'"*f#tr'trff

S*:'":t*'H.l

ro'o. ol r."tnai coord r6dd ropote''ior

rig. eof;,S1'"H''h*i'Ti'"Ji::ffJ.'f
. Weld C, Magnetic particle inspection a very looselyheld,fuzzy pattern showed over the entire pickup weld. The liquid producedno relepenetmnt examination vant indications.The etched cross sconly a minorslaginclusion. tionrevealed which had no baring on the magnetic pa.ticlepattemproduced . weld Dt Magnetic particle inspection showda tightly held, sharply defincd linear indicationalong one edge of the fillet with connectingsmall, transverse s'lud rhe linear indicalions *r owhe' at variouslocations. Fis. 28 *:[ls"TJ*,5HtrlHXti::n:'::J#:flimf"iflaaml in this examination The liquid penetrant the samepatternof indicaseproduced cations, The etched cross section reproduced no retvant indicalions. The Examination with magnetic particle and liqthroughthe toe a crackcompletely vealed etched cross section revealed no discon' uid penetrant inspection methods yielded of one leg of the fillet tinuities the following results:
. wel.l A: Magnetic particle inspction showedlooselyheld, slightlyfuzzy linear indications at the toes of the fillet, with the bottom edge showing the strongest pattcrn due to gravity and the configuration. The tiquid penctrant eKamination . Weld Bt Magnetic particle tnspectron showed loosely held, slightly fuzzy linear indications along both edges of the butt weld- The liquid penetrant examination produced no relevant indications- The itched cross section revealed no discontinuities

bein magletic properties The difference tween this parent material and the weld fieldsin the leakage magnetic metalcreates heat-affected zone ot metallic interfaceof thesematerialsduring a magneticparticle 'Ihis can result in magneticparinsgection.

l08 / Methods of Nondestructiye Eydludtion

Fis'3211?frl1Tl;1"#ff::T*T*;;lroree(ddsPrined@uPrinsrndicotion{ororrov;)inphoro
in.) ID by 22 mm (7sin.) thick ring madeof unhardened OI tool steel(0.40% C).The 12 holes. 1,8 mm (0.07 in,) in diameterand fype of Current spaced19 mm (% in.) apart, were drilled The elecJric currcDt used caD be either tbiough the ring parallel to the cylir,drical alternating cunent or some form of direct surfaceat increasing distancesfrom that current. This choice depends on whether surface.Tbe centerline distancesmnged the discontinuitiesare surfaceor subsurface from 1.8to 21.3mm (0.0?to 0.84in,), in of 1.8 mm (0.07in.). A central and. if subsurface. on the distance below increments particles, conductor, dry magnetic andconthe surface. Alternoting Current. The skin effect of tinuous magnetizatio[were used for this altemating current at 50 or 60 Hz limits its test.The threetypesof direct currentwere use to the detection ol discontinuities that straisht direc! current from batteries,threare open to the sudace or that are only a phas; rectified alterhating cuffent with rectifiedsingle-phase few thousandths of an illch below the sur- surge,and half-wave face. With alternating cudent at lower fre- 6&Hz altematingcurrent. The threshold quencies,the skin effect is lessprcnounced, values to givereadable ofcurrent necessary resulting in deeper penetration of the lines indicationsof the holes in the ring ar plottedin Fig. l?. of force. CureDt levelsasreadon the usualmeters The rapid reversal of the m4gnetic field were varied from the miTlimumneededto set up by alternating current imparts mobilholeI (1.8mm. or 0.07in., below ity to dry particles. Agitation of the powder indicate for eachtype ofcurrent,up to a helps it move to th area of leakage fields the surfacc) maximumof over 1000A. To producean and to form stronger indications. curThe strength of magnetization, which is indicationat hole I using alternating andat hole determined by the value of the peak current rent,about475A was required,
. Magnitude of applied currnt . Equipment at the top of the sine wave of the cycle, is 1.41 times that of the cuffent indicated on the meter- Atternatiog current meters indicate more neariy the averagecuFent for the cycle than the peak value. Obtaining an equivalent magnetizingeffct from straight direct currsni requires more power and heavier equipment, Direal <utenl. on the other hand, magnetizes the entire cross section more or less uniformly in a tongitudinal direction, and gradienl with a straight-line ofsLrcngth from a maximum at the surfacc to zero at the center of a bar in the case of circular magnetization. This effect is demonstrated in Fie- 8(a) and (b). Altemoting Currenl Versus Oirect Current. In an expedment desigfledto compare the eftectiveness of 60-Hz alternating current and three types of direct currcnt, 12 holes representin8 artificial defects were drilledin a 127mm (5 in.) OD by 32 mm ( 1/a

Fis.3r *:*g' gl,.I*.,i*""jlt%;l:

inrpsclion reled {oinl lndicoti@i of ihe cold 5htt in lfie

ticle indicationsin the heat-affected zone alongthe toe of the fillets, alongthe edges ofbutt welds,or over entireshallowpickup welds. The magneticparticle indications produced by metallic interface leakage fields afe readily distinguishedfrom indicationscaused by real discontinuities by their characteristicof being loosely held and slighdy fuzzy in appearance and by their location in or at the edge of the heataffected zone.

Generol Procedureg for ficanetlc Pcrllcls hrpectlon

In magnetic particle inspection, there are many variations in procedurethat critically affect the results obtained. These variations are necessary becausc of the many lypes of discontinuities that are sought atld the many types of fe(romagnetic mate als in which these discontinuities must be detected. Establishing a set of procedures for the magnetic particle inspection of a specific part requires that the part be carefully analyzed to determioe how its size and shape will affect the test rcsulls. The magnetic characterislics of the malerialand rhe size. shape, location, and direction ofthe expected discontinuity also affect the possible variations in the Drocedure- The items that must be considerid in establishing a set of procedures for thc magnetic particle inspection ofa specific part include: . . . . Type of current Type of magnetic particles Method of magnetization Direction of maenetization

F is. 33 li,:"11'*"i,flT:" !X',:[TL T.*

lvlagnetic Porti.le Inspection / lO9

l-ioinrweld of A537 grode 2 (que&fied dnd tdpcred) norer-Rrlioind with E8016-C| (2.5% Nil weld wire 3hditrg li.d. nosneri< porticle indi@tioni. wcld A/ ,hoM i. cror, sedion (o), wo, siorninod olong i ln9rh uri.g bof rhe (b) lquid Fndrd.r iNpctioi me$od ond $s (c) mo9.sri. podicls in3p.rion me*od. S le)( fot dircuGion. Coorrey of Chicogo Bridge & lrtu CornFony !.-r!'! I ?r v'

.ra Eutt weld o{ 4537 srod. ? (qen<hed dd rNF.r.4 Ktedd ioircd {ith ESolgCl (?-5% Ni) eld wiE ihdins $tlq rcgnetic Fni<le indicorion . weld B, Eirr:'' v' padiclsin3pc.ionmorhod, shos i. cr6, ,o.rion(o), wo! chscl.d urinsborhth. (b) liquidpemFo.l irpc.iion rttEd o.d the(.) mdgneric Sete{ fo. dkcu$ion. Colrrgsyof Chicdgo Bridge& tron Compony

(c)

roieriol ioind wi|ll E8018-cl (?.5% Ni) wsld wirewl|reo tii-up devi.hod beenrorn A pickup,simulotiig o repoi/oI 4537 grdde2 (quen.M ondrempe.ed) podkle ind'<orion3. rh@ing liner mogaeti( weld C, rhdn in .Est srion (d). {r <i*ted utingboth the (b) liquidpeehonl inspe<rion melhodond rh (c) mogneticpo.li.le in+Ectio. metfiod. Se ielr fo. diru$ioh. Courtery of Chicogo Bridge & lro. Conpony E:-

.lr,

I lO / Methods of Nondostruciiye

Evdludlion

lis: 37,l;lisfr-i1iif3',.:i"-,:"e'if,ff'#i*'."IE#rlE':|;i'**,*'*:li;'l,l';il:I*:'*l:""'[iff,1l::?'::'iH'J't
in.F.clion melhod ond the (c) hosneri. porticle inspction meihod. 5 lett for dii.uslion, Courtery of Chi(qoo Eridr & tron compony -

213-56 mm, or 0.14in., belowlhe surface). vides a leakage field strong enough to proovr 1000 A- Hole3 (5.33 mm, or 0.21in,, duce readable indications when particles below the surface)could not be revealed are applied of if the pan must be continuwith alternating cufient at any currentlevel ously magnetized while the particles are available.Indicationsat hole 2 were Dro- applied. ducedusing45GA straight directcurrent, Roridsql Mogneti3m, The procedure for 320-Adirectcurrentpreceded by a surgeof magnetic particle inspection with residual twice that amperage, and 250-A half-wave magnetism, using either wet or dry particurrnt.Indications were produced at hole cles, basically consists of two steps; establ2 (21.3 mm,or 0.84in.,belowthe surface) lishing a magnetic field in the part and using750-Ahalf-wave current,while 975-A subsequently applying the magnetic partistiaightdirectcurrentwas required for hole cles. The method can be used only on Farts 10(17.8 mm,or 0.70 in., below thesurface)- made ofmetals having suf,icient retentivity. The current levels neededto Droouce The residual magnetic field must be st.ong indications usingwet particlesweri some- enough to produce leakagefields at disconwhathigher.For example, an ildication for tinuities that in tum produce readable indihole I usingdirectcurrentandwet particles cations, This method is reliable only for requird approximately 440A, altdfor hole detecting surface discontinuities. 3, approximately 910 A. Over 625 A was Either the dry or the wet method of requiredto detect hole I using alternating applying particles can be used with residual curreot3nd wet particles. magnetization. With the wet method, the Thehardness of the te.rtpiece alsohadan magnetizedpans can either be immersed in effect on the current level necdedto pro- a gently agitated bath of suspendedmetallic duceindications, At a hardness of63 HRC, particles or flooded by a curtain spray. The to produce an indicationat hole 1, approx- time ofimmersion ofthe part in rhe bath can imately200A ofhalf-wavecurrent.300A of affect the strength of the indications. By direct current with surge, and 450 A of Ieaving the magnetized part in the bath or directcurrentwere neededFor hole3, the under th spray for a considerabletime, the currentlevelsneeded for the threetypesof leakagefields, even at fine discontinuities, curret( wereapproximately 1300, 1875, and can have time to attmct and hold the max2700A, respectively. Tests similar ro the imum number of particles. The location of one described abovehave been oerformed the discontinuityon the part as it is imon ring specimens madeof 1020 and 4130 mersed has an effect on particle buildup. (Ref l). steets Buildup will be greateston horizontal upper For the inspection of finishedDartssuch surfacesand will be lesson vertical surlaces as machined and groundshafts,aams,and and horizontal lower surfaces. Parts should gears ofprecisionmachir.ery, directcurrent be removed from the bath slowly because is frequentlyused. Alternatingcurrent is rapid removal can wash off indications held usedfor detecting fine cracksthat actually by weak leakagefieldsbreak the su.face, but di.ect cur.eot is Continuous Mognelism. In the continubetter for locating very fiflc nonmctallic ous mcthod, parts are continuously magnestringer! lyingjust benealh the surfacr. tized while magnetic particles arc applied to Method of Mognelizdtion The method of magnetization refers ro whether residual magnetism in the part prolhe surfaces being inspected, In the dryparticle continuous method, care must be taken not to blow away indications held by weak leakage fields. For this reason, the

magnetizing current is left on during the particles. removalof excess In the wet-particlecontinuousmethod, the liquid suspnsion containingthe magneticparticles part,andthe is appliedto ahe magnetizing current is applied simultaneously with completionof particle application. This prevents washing awayofindications held by weak leakagefields. For reliability of results, the wet continuous me(hod requires more attention to timing and greater aleiness on the part of the operator than the wet residualmethod. The continuousmethodcan be used on any metal that can be magnetized because in this methodresidualmagnetism and rctentivityare not as imponantin producing a leakage field at a discontinuity. This method is mandatoryfor inspectionof low-carbon steels or iron havinglittle or no retentivity. It is frequently usedwith alternating cu.rent on such metalsbecausethe ac field producesexcellentmobility of dry magnetic particles.Maximumsensitivityfor the detection of very fine discontinuitjes is achieved by immersingthe part in a wetparticlebath, passing the magnetizing current throughlhe pan for a shorttime during immersion,and leaving the current on as the part is removed and while the bath drainsfrom thc surface. Dirertion of ,tiogneiizdtion The shape andorientation ofthe suspected discontinuity in rlationto the shape and principalaxis of the part havea bearing on whetherthe part shouldbe magnetized in a circularora longitudinal directionor in both directions.The rule of thumb is that the cur.ett must be passed in a directionparailel to the discontinuity. lf the principal directionof the discontinuities is unknown. to dctect all discontinuities, both circular and longitudinal magnetizationmust be used;with the prod and yoke methods, the prodsor yoke must be repositioned at 90'

frlagnetic Porticle Inspe.tlon / lll The amouot of cu.rent for longitudinal portableequipment, bur the bath js usually magnetization with a coil is inirially derer- not recovered. mined by Eq I and2. For circular rnagoe(i- Moss ProductionMochinery. For rarge i,atron,rvhenmagnetizing by passing cur- lors of idenricalor closely similar parts, rent direcrlythrougha part, the current single-purpose magnetization-and-inspection should range from l2 to 3l A/mm(300 to t00 units or llxture\ onmulliple-purpose units can A/in.) of the di^.neterof the oart. The b used. diameteris definedas the largesidisrance between any two pointson the outsidecir- lnspeclion ol Hollow cumference ofthe part.Normally, thecurrent Cyllndrlccl Dortr used should (500 bc 20AJmm A,/in.) or lowcr, with thc highercurrentvaluesof uo to 31 Somehollow cylindrical parts requiri$g A/mm (800A/in.) usedto inspect for inctu- magneticparticle inspectionpresentdimsrons or to rnspect alloyssuchas precipita- cultiesin processing because of configuration-hardened steels.The prod methodof tlon, extraneous leakage field interference, magnetization usually requires4 to 4.92 requirements for noncontact of magnetizing prod units,the overalltime required,or low LlD A/mm(100 to 125 A"/in.) ofprod spacing. spacing should not be lessthan50mm (2 in.) ratro, Techniques for inspecting longpieces nor morerhan203mm (8 in.). of seamless tubing(oil well rubing), bu(twclded and longitudinallywelded carbon Equipment steelpipe or tubing, and a cylinder with a Seleqtion of equipment par- closed for magnetic end are described in the followins ticle inspection dpends on the size,shape, s e c t i o n s . ' number,and varietyof pans b be tested. Oil well rubing is madeof high-strength BenchUnitc. For the production inspec- steelusinghot finishingoperations and has tion of numerous pans that are relatively upset ends for specialthreading. The dissmallhut not oecessarily identical in shapc, contjnuitjes mosl erpectedare lolgifudjnala benchunit with contacthcads for circular ly oriented on themain bodyofthe tubeand magnetization, as well as a built-incoil for transversely oriented on the upsetends.For js commonly tbesereasons, fongjludjDafmagnetization, tle entire lengthof tie tube (Fig. l1). used is circula y magnetized and inspected for Portqble uhil5 using prods, yokes, or longitudinal-type discontinuities. Also, the hand-wrappedcoils may be most conve- dpset ends are longitudinally magnetized nientfor largeparts.Half-wave curent and andinspetted for transvers-tvDe diqcontidry particlesare often used with portable nuities. Tubesections are usuailyrnorethan equipfient.Wet paniclescan b usedwith 6 m (20 ft) lofls.

entiol (b) di!.onrinuitieg

rig. aaffiflf i[.ff#i:,'tiffii::,.: ;ii_f.l

from the first magnetizing positiod. The magnetic particle background held on a part by cxtraneous leakage fields is minimized when using the circular method of maenetizing becausethe field generally is;elfcontained within the Dan.

Msgnitude of Applied Current The amountof magnetized current or the numberof ampere-turns reededfor oDtrmum resurts is govemedby the typesandminrmum dimensions ofthe discontinuities thatmusroe located or by the typesandsizes of discontinuities thatcanbe tolerated.

j \ l

p o sr o n ' t

.t(

,-\\
\-_-,/,/

)tr

Ic) Ptod pdsir.hs lar dete.tln? l o n q i l ! dn o l d l s c o n n r ! ries pc ronll

v'er C C
o . ! r o r d e r e d i n gt o n g i t u d i n o l.) Prod po3'r dti s c o n t i n u i t i e s

(b I Comp ele wetd Iypes of {eld disconrinuir'es

Vier B B (d I Prod po5irion t rdeledinq lo c t r c utfe r renrio d lr s c o . l i n ! is l e

L D e l e c l i o no f r e l d d i 3 c o . l i n u i l i e st o r r p i o e I i . . n o n i n o l d i o . n e l e ro n d E m d l l r for der*tin o{ di<onri.oiri6 \-Dtection

v'! D D (liProdpos,nonsiordeieclnqcnclmterenJatd!.a.rinu|ies o l y e l d d i s c o n t i n u i r i efs o r p i p e t o . g e rt h o n I i . . n o n i . o t d i o m l e . rooi reld! dnd liMl wcld in corbon ,reel pip. Oiftnsioni si6 id incAi

Fig. 39 ,l"s*ri. p"ai"r" iBp<tion

;i constu6le-in*d

I l2 I t{elhods of Nondesiructive Evqluotion

An insulated centralconductor is usedto introduce circular magnelisminstead of passing the currntthroughthe materialby headcontacts.The centralconductorfacilitatesinspection ofthe insidesurface ofthe upset ends; the direct-contact method would not providethe requitedfield. The central-conductor technique usedfor circumferential magnetization of the tube body is illust.atedin Fig. 38(a)-The magnetic particles are appliedto the outside surface ofthe tube.The residual-magnetism tschnique is used. The currentdensityfor this test is usually 3l to 39 A/mm (800to Fig. 40 U! of o ceihol @nduclor lor th mosMiic porricle ldiing ofo cyli.dr with one 1000 A/in.) of tube diameter. The encircling-coiltechnique used to magnetize the upsetendsin the longitudinal directionis shownin Fig. 38(b).The resid- powder blowerwhilethemagnetizing cunent ual-magnetism technique is used.Both the is being applied. Ifthe indication at thefusron insideandoutsidesurfaces areinspected for zonecan be blown awaywith a hand-held powdcrblower, discontinuities, theiddication is nonrelevant. Welds in Cqrbon Steel Pipe. Magnetic The curent usedis approximately 1.9A/mm cotri.ss. for the forsins in (d), circuic I and 3 ore hod panicle inspeclion using theprodtechnique (100 A"/in.) of prod spacing. sholsond cn.uil2 is d @blewop. Fo.lh. codins in (b), is a reliablemethodofdetcting discontinu- Hollow cylindcrs clo3od ol one end, circoirs I and 3 ore cshql conducioB ond circun 2 i! o ities in consumable-insert root welds and suchas drawn shellsor forgedfluid-power final weldsin carbonsteelpipeup to 75 mm cylinders,can be magnetized circumferen(3 in.) in nominal diameter.(For larger- tially for the inspection power of longitudidal disGenerally, the higher-amperage pipe,lesstime-consuming diameter magnet- continuities using a headshot end-to-end. suppliesare of the dc type, Alternating ic particle techniquescan be used.)The Howevet,this technique does not provide current and half-wave are current supplies typsof diicontinuities for discontinuities on the inside limitedto outprrts of approximately 5000 to foundin root welds sensitivity are shownin Fig. 39(a), andthosefoundin surface. 6000A because of the reactiveimpedance final weldsare shownin Fig. 39(b). associated with thesetypes of As shownin Fig. 40, a centralconductor component Placement in sucha manner that theclosed current. Wet particlesare generallypreof the prods is imponant to canbe used ensure reliableinspection of the welds.Cir- end of the cylinder completes the culrerlt ferredasthe inspection mediumin the prescular magnetization, wet paniusedto checkfor lon- path.Also, the openend of the cylinderis enceof strongdq fieldsbecause gitudinal discontinuities,is accomplished accessible for the applicationof a wet- cles exhibit much more mobility on the by placingthe prods at 90" intervals(four particlebath to the iosidesurface,which surfaceof a part than dry particles.wet prodplacemcnts) directly.For thin-wall particles alsoreadilypermitfull coverage around the pipe,asshown canthenbe inspected of in Fig. 39(c).For pipslargerthan25mm (l cylinders, on the insidesur- largesurface discontinuities areas andare easyto applyto in.) in nominaldiameter,prods shouldbe facepioducesubsurface-type indications on intemalsurfaces. spaced aroundthe pipeat approximately The central-conductor Crone Hookr. The inspectionof craoe 50 the outsidesurface. mrn(2 in.) ifltervals,as shownin Fig. 39(). method tor magnetizationis advantagous hooks, as required by tbe Occupational Circumferentially oriented discontinuities when the inside diameteris too small to Safetyand Health Act, has focusedattenare revealed tion on cracks by placingthe prodsas shown permitdirect intemalviewing. in andotherdiscontinuitie\ in Fig, 39(d).The prodsare placedadjacent thesecomponents. Cranehooksare generto andon opposite paflicle inspected with elecally magnetis sides of the weldbeadto In3poctlon of Costlngs ensureflux flow acrossthc weld metal. If srd ;orglngt tromagnetic yokes having flexible legs. the circumferentialdistancebetweenthe Power supplies areI l5-v, 60-Hzalternating prods is greaterthan 75 mm (3 in.) when current.Stress areas Castingsand forgings may be difficult to cunent and half-wave positioned as shownin Fig. 39(d),the prods inspect because of their size and shape, in a cranehook are: shouldbe positioned as shownin Fig. 39(f). Extemal surfaces can usually be inspected . The andin bight(in tension) on both sides To ensureproper magnetizationJ the areas with prods; however, on large parts this can the throat (areaA, Fig. 42) inspected shouldoverlapapproximately 25 be time consuming, and inspection of rnte- . The area below the shank (in compresmm (l in.). Magnetic Farticl.es are appliedto rior surface$ may not be adequate. sion and tension)on four sides(arca B, the weld area while the current is on beHigh-amperage power supplies, in conFis, 42) caus of the low retentivityof carbonsteel. junction with flexible cable used with . The shank(in tension), mainly in threads A buildup of magneticparticlesin the clamps (as contact heads), central conducand fillet (areaC, Fig. 42) fusion-line creviceof the weld is indicative tors, or wrapping, can cffectively rcduce of either a subsurface discontinuityor a inspection time becauserelatively large arpanjThe steps involved in the magnetic nonrelevant indication because of the eas can be inspected with each processing cLe inspection ofcranehooksareasfollows: abruptchangein materialthickness and/or cycle, Figure 4l illustrates the direct-conthecrevicelike depression Remove dirt and oil from hook between the weld tact, cable-wrap, and central-conductor Detal ard the basemetal.However.a true techniques that can be used to inspect two Magnetize and anply particlesto areasA 'Ihe indication,as from incompletefusion be- relatively large parts. three circuits for and B in Fig.42, using a yoke and an ac tween the weld metal and the basemetal, each part can be appLiedon a singte-shot field paratlel to the axis of the hook particlepattern. basis or, if high-output multidirectional 3 . For hooks out of su.face, inspcct the would be a sharplydefined This patternwould be diffrcultifnot impos- equipment is available, can be combined shank (area C, Fig, 42), using a yoke and sibleto removeby blowingwith a hand-held into a single inspection cycle. an ac field parallel to the axis ofthe hook

Fis. 4r 5,m' :*ip;:'t.HtrIff,T"'j

fllcgnetic Porlicle Inspe.tion / l l3

sn*i o'er Fis. 42 Hrs#,frffiX;i*@ins

4. For hooksin service,inspectthe shank ultrasonically 5, Rcpeatsteps2 and 3 usinga dc ficld for subsurface indications The 50 kN (6 tonf) cranehook shownin from ajib craneafter Fig. 43 was removed an indication was found during magnetic particle inspection. The discontinuitywas found to be a deepforginglap. Sectioning a disconthe hook throughthe lap revealed tinuityabout 19mm (7ain.) deepin a 50mm (2 in.) squaresction(sectionA-A, in Fig. of the hook were made 43),All inspections field parallelto the hook with the magnetic axis, thus inspecting for transverse cracks Because and other discontinuities. of the depth of the lap, the defect was detected even though the field was parallelto its A suflicientfluxJeakage major dimension. field occurredat the surfaceto attractthe particles. magnetic Inspection ofa 90kN (10tonf)cranehook a forginglap in the arcabelowahe revealed shank. The lap was transver$e and was hole.A located in thefillet belowthe keeper fatiguecrackhad initiatedin the lap. Drive-Pinion shofr. An annual preveninspection was performed tive maintenance shaftshown on the largeforgeddrive-pinion of a largecrack in Fig, 44(a),and derection (arrows,Fig. 44b)in the fillet betwen the prcvented shaftandcoupling flange a costly weremagnetic parbreakdown. Threeareas ticle inspectedfor cracksr . Along the shaft . The fillet between the shaftand the coupling flange(cracked area,Fig. 44b) . At eachfillet in the wobblercoupling half (arrows,Fig. 44a) Inspectionwas conductedusing a portablepower sourcecapable of up to l50GA output in altematingcurrent or half-wave direct current,Doubleprod contacts and a 4/0 cable were used to introducethe mas-

SdionA-A

ond ection tfiroLl

rig. ls 3,[]iii:'i"fffi,f:i ffi#.itr;

h@k iho*iig d.pth of loP

netic lields in the shaft. The fillets in th for wobbler couplinghalf were inspected with doubleprod cootacts. discontinuities in inspecting the shaft The stepsinvolved were as follows: to be tested l Cleanall areas 2. wrap cabl around shaft and apply curInrent providing2900 ampere-turns. spectfor transverse cracksin the shaft portion 3.-Place prods across fillet at coupling flange(Fig. 44b)at spacing of 152to 203 mm (6 to I in.); apply 500'A curent, producing a circularfield perpendicular parto fillet- lnspectfor discontinuities alll to fillet 4. Place prods across fillet at flange on wobblercouplinghalf and acrossfillets in shaft portion (arrows, Fig. 44a) at spacingof 152to 203 mm (6 to 8 in.)l a circuapply 500-Acurrent,producing to the fillts. Inlar field perpendicular parallelto the spectfor discontinuities fillets Disk or Geor on Shcfl. A forgedor cast diskor gearofl a heavythroughshaftcanbe with a cableto form two opposing wrapped coils, as shownfor the disk in Fig, 45. The radialmagnetic coilsproduce two opposing fieldson eachsideof the disk. This typeof discontinuities circumferential field reveals

Fis. 44 H3;d,*"i"i$*Y"-:.jl'$#

noint.nonG mogncli. portkle intFs.tion p.. Feniivc (q) Driv.-Pinion shoh ond vanrd o cortly breoldon. o{ filler3 on cooplsr or3smblv; oro93 !t!cr', ldorioc wo6u.r @ph holf lhdl wd. inrpe.lsd. (b) Filler btwan rlEft ond couplins fbnsF it'owing qock (ol qrrowt found dorins impction

on the sides of the disk and transverse discontinuities in the shaft.Also, the shaft can be usedas a centralconductorfor the in purpose of locatingradialdiscontinuities discontinuities in the disk and longitudinal the shaft. from one In partswherethe shaftextends side only, a pole piece can be used to simulatea through shaft, The pole piece diam' the same should haveapproximately eter ar the shaft, on Y-shopedpqrts may not be procssed a horizontal wet-particleunit in such a mannerthat only one shot will be requi.ed This is true even for completeinspection, though stepsare taken to ensurethat the current is divided equallythrough the two upper legs of the Y. With equally divided will cu.rent, afi a.ea of no magnetization

I l4 / Merhods of Nondestructive Evoluolion

( l o r6 )

Fis.47 f**ir,i#;"vfi",j'1"1,"'fl',X
dinol rconeti< I'eld i. ths shoh ond o .odiol fEld in the dirt. U3i;9 rhe lhoft os o ccntrcl <ooduclor p(odued o .ir@lo. doonelic lisld in both lhe .hott ond rhe dbk

F is.4s3:1;ti" 1lffis#i:-;uJx'.t.itr

exist al the iunction of the two legs. A Y-shaped part can be processed in [wo steps using a conventional horizontal wetparticle unit, or it can be processed in one operation using a modified unit having a double headstock and special cuffent assurance magnetizing circuit.

hipoctlon

of Weldnents

Many weld defects are opn to the surface and are readily detectable by magnetic particle inspection with prods or yokes. For lpeciffed) wih pddiol pe4t'qlion Foduced no...lsnl the detection of subsurfacediscontinuiiies, ;osmli< portide indicqrioN whd hP<led uliig dc such as slag inclusions, voids, and inadequate joint penetration at the root of the weld, prod magnetizationis best, using halfwave curren(and dry powder. Yokes. using and in which an open root is pelmissible and altemating current, direct current, or half- almost always presenl. When half-wave wave current, are suitable for detecting current is used with prods, this open rool will probably be indicated on the weld sursudace discontinuities in weldments. The positioning of a yoke with respect to face. This nonrelevent indication can be the direction of the discontinuity sought is eliminated by using altemating current indifferent from the corresponding position- stead of half-wave current. A case in which nonrelevant magnetic ing of prods. Because the field traverses a path between the poles of the yoke. the panicle indications were found occurred at poles must be placed on opposite sides of the welded T-joints between six tubes and the weld bead to locate cracks parallel to the end plates of a complicated assembly the bead (Fig- 6), and adjacent to the bead (Fig. 46). The welds were made f.om the to locate tmnsverse cracks. Prods arc outside of the tubes only. Liquid penetrant spaced adjacent to the weld bead for paral- and radiographic inspections and metallolel cracks and on opposite srdesof the bead graphic examinationdiscloscdlhat (he inteerity of the welds was good. Investiga. for traosverse cracksFor applications in which holding the tions revealed that the depth of penetration proJ conlact( by hand is diflicult or liring. of the lield produced by dc magnetization prods incorporating magnetic clamps, or was sullicient to reveal the joint along the inside wall ofthe cylinder. Inspection by ac Ieeches,that magnetically hold the prods to the work are available, The prods carrying magnetization,which had less depth ofpenthe magnetizing current are held firmly to etration of the field, eliminated these indithe work by an electromagnet- Both prods cations. 'l'he detectability of subsurface discontican be attached by the magnets, or one of the prods can be held magnetically and the nuities in butt wlds between relatively thin plates can oftn be improved tiy positioning other by hand. There is one type of weld on which the a dc yoke on the side opposite the weLd penetrating power of half-wave current re- bead,a! shown in Fig. 47. Magneticpanisults in nonrelevant indications: a T-joint cles are applied along the weld bead. [mwelded from one or both $ides for which provement is achieved because of the abcomplete joint peoetration is not specified sence of extraneous leakage flux that

r;,*f"[1"*.r*Ttu"t is. 46 fiT.'J F

from lhe yoke pole piecnormallyemanales es. Techniques developed and used for the magnetic particle inspection of weldments are described in the two examples that follorr. Excmple 3: Mogneti. Porti.le In3Pecrion of Shielded Metol-Arc Welds in the Outer Hull of o Deep-SubmergenteVe$el Floot stru.lure. The outer hull of the float structure of a deep-submergence vessel was made of 3.2 mm (rh in.) thick steel plate and was butt welded using the shielded metalarc process. For magnetic particle inspection, the weld areas were magnelizd with prods. using a half'wave currenl of 3.9 AJmm (100 Mn-) of prod spacing.Dry, red magrteticparticles provided adequate sensitivity and color contrast for inspection. The crowns on the surfaces of the welds were removed with a flat chisel Neither grinding of the welds nor the use of pneumatic needle guns was permitled. The surlaceswere cleanedof painl. scale.and slag by sand or vapor blasting, The area to be insDected was shielded from air currents to pievent disturbing the magnetic particle indications. Magnetic particles were applied with a powder dispenser hand-held 305 to 381 mm (12 to 15 in.) fiom the weld at an angle of 30 to 45' to the surface of the plate along the axis of the weld. The powder dispenser was held stationary once it \4as positioned for each prod placement.The powder was allowed to float to the weld surface so that a very light dustlike coating of particles settled on Lhe surface being tested. Excessive application of magnetic particles required removalofall particles and reapplication. Longitudinal disconti[uities were detected by placing the prods at a 152 mm (6 in.) spacing parallel to the longitudinal axis of the weld and on the surface of the weld. Successive prod spacings overlapped approximately25 mm (l in.) to ensure complet coverage. Fot the detection of transverse discontinuities, prods were positioned at right angles to the weld axis, 75 to 152 mm (l to 6 in.) apart on each side of the weld, and at intervals not exceeding onefourth the prod spacing.

Mogneti. Pdrticle Inspection / | l5

Low-corbon sreel magnetographof this test is shown in Fig. 48(c). Longitudinal indications were observed in both the plate and the weld. Nonrelevant indications that the process was capable of detecting were established prior to inspecting the girder. AII the indications detected were verified as either false or nonrelevanl, signifying an absence of defects,

r 3 2 O( o p p r o , )

Inopection of Billert
intermeA billet is the last semifinished diate step betweenthe ingot and the finishedshape. Steelbilletsare rectangular or square and mngefrom 2600to 32 000mm? (4 to 49 in.'?)in cross-sectional area. The magneticparticle inspectionof billets requires to handle billets a largeunit equipped and 2.4to 50to 184 mm (2 to 77ain,) square setting 12m (8 to 40 ft) long.The amperage to 4000 unit shouldbe 1200 A. on the testing The discontinuities shownin Fig. 49 would indications unappear asbright fluorescent der ultravioletlight. Crqcksin billets appearas deep vertical breaksor separations in the surfaceof the steel. Arrowheadcracks (Fig. 49a) occur early in processing, usuallyas the resultof prima.ymill elongation ofan ingot containing a transversecrack. Longitudinal cracks (Fig. 49b)appear as relativelystraightlines in the directionof rolling,They are 0.3 m (l ft) or more in length and usuall)t occur " singlyor in smallnumbers. Seoms are longitudinal discontinuities that appearas light lines in the surfaceof the steelNormal seams(Fig. 49c) are similar to longitudinal cracks,but producelighter indications.Seams are normallyclosedtight canbc visuenough that no actual opening particle inally detected without magnetic spection.Seamshave a large number of possible some origins,somemechanicaland metallurgical. Brush seoms(Fig. 49d) are clusters of short(<102mm, or 4 in., long)seams that appearas thoughthey had beenpaintcdor Thesedefects are brushed onto the surface. usuallythe result of the removalof metal or scaling, from the steelsurface by scarfing exposingingot blowholes and subsurface porosity. They may range in depth from in.) andmay to 0.300 0.13to 7-6mm (0.005 occur either in zonesor acrossthe entire surface of the billet. Lqps (Fig. 49e)ar longitudinaldiscontinuitiesof varying severitythat are caused of by the formation of ribs or extensions metalduringhot rolling andthe subsequent Laps usufoldingoverofthese protrusions. ally ru.| at aclte aogtes to tbc surface. They often occur at oppositesidesof the billet andfrequentlyspanthe crtire lengthof the billet. 5.ob5 (Fig. 49f) appear as extraneous pieces of metal partiallyweldedto the sur-

(lof 2) locorion

Top

de.t ior di*ontinuilie!in the welds.(c) Mosrelosroph ol lield ured lo (hsd( to. di!.oniinuiri$in rop ploto, Nore diff.rent prod plocerent in (b) ond (.). Dineiliois siven ii inchi

rig. re f"';i1is#ilijtffi"*,i :tflff,l:iil.H":: r61j.TjJ.:!EJ.]?'#J."l.,jl,.tul: "fl

ment had been sandblasted in preparation for painting. The dry-powder, continuous-magnetization method was used with half-wave currnt. The current used was 1.9 to 5.9 AJmm (100to 150AJin.t of prod contact spacing, which was 152 mm (6 in,). Inspected were the fillet welds joining the top and bottom plates to the web plate (section A-A in Fig. 48), and all butt seam welds of the top, bottom. and web plates. The edges of the top and bottom plates were also inspected for discontinuities. All prod-contact points on the girder were ground to ensure good contact; prod locations arc shown in detail B in Fig. 48, During magnetic particle testing of the wclds, the prods were alternated on either side of the welds. A magnetographof the magnetic flux during inspection of a weld joining the top plate lo the web plate is shown in Fig. 48(b). [nspection of the edges ofthe top and bottom plates was performed by placing the prods parallel to the weld with contacts on the edge of the plalei a

Magnetic particle inspectionwas used insteadof radiography. Followingare the maximum radiographicaccphdce itandardsfrom whichthe magnetic particleprocedures were developed: . A linear or linearly disposed indication 1.6mm(/16 withits in.)or morein length, lengthat leastfour timesgreater than its width I A single indication longslag(subsurface) er than0,8 mm (r,i12 in.), andmultipleslag indications closertogetherthan 4.8 mm (%6in.) or totalingmorethan3,2 mm (|^ in.) in any 152 mm (6 in.) of weldlength . A clusterof four or more indications of anysizespaced within3.2mm(r in.) of eachother Exomple 4: Mognetic Pdrti.le Inspe.tion of o Girder Weldment for on Overheqd Crone. The girder weldmentfor an ovrheadcrane (Fig. 48a) was magnetic particle inspectedin the presence of the customer'srepresentative. Fabricationof the weldmentwascomDlete. andthe weld-

I l6 / Methods of Nondestrsctive Evoluqtion

Loading, processing,conveying, rotatiog or manipulating, demagnetization, and discharge can all be automated, which results in consistent and effortless processinS,The inspector can ilevole all ofhis time to actual visual inspection whr'le tbe machjne performs the other functions. Production rates are achieved by having the various functions performed simultaneously at different stations. Where applicable, the cost of automatic equipment can be justifid when compared to the number of manual uni(s needed for similar production rates. The cost and time required for manual inspection can be a factorin automating the process-For example,in billet inspection, everything is automated except the actual visual inspection and markiog of imperfections. Manual processing, inspection, and handling of such a product would be extremely costly and would not satisf!,the productio\ requirements. The use af automated magnetic particle inspection for bearing rollers, bearing rings, small parts. small castidgs, large couplings, crankshafts. and steelmill billetsis discussed in (hefolloq ing sections. Eeoring roller! are produced at substantial rates, and when magnetic panicle inspection is required, it must be conducted at a rate compatible with production, This usually requires automation of the process in such a firannerthat the various stagesare performedsimultaneou5ly at individualstations. The coltact method is common!], used for inspecting finished rollers for seams, quench cracks, and grinding cracks. This may involve either the continuous or the residual method, depending on roller material and inspeclion requirements. One design of automated equipment for the ultraviolet light that renderc the indica- inspecting bearing rollers by the continuous tions readable, The chain is inspected in magnetization meihod incorporates an in. sections using the following steps: dexing-turntable arrangement and utilizes two inspectors. The various functionsl. Remove all oil or greasefrom chain links magntization, bath application,inspection 2. Turn on current in coil and demagnetization-are pedormed simul3. Apply the wet fluorescent magnctic par- taneously at the various stations. Each inticle suspensionto each section while the spectorvisuallyinspects prothe previously section is in the magneticfield ofthe coil cessedroller in the filrure, and the roller i\ 4. Tum the current o{f after the susoension removed and placed on the demagnerizing stops flowi:ng and while the section to be oadle (if acceptable) or disposed of (if inspected is still in the magnetic field of defective). 'I'he inspector then places a new the coil roller in the fixture fo. subsequent pro5. Inspect the sectionunder ultraviolet light cessingand inspection by the other inspecfor transversediscontinuities in both the tor, Acceptable rollcrs are automatically weld and the link itself stripped from the cradle in tandcm, demag6. Continue until all sections have passed netized, and unloaded into or onto a suitthrough lhe coil in an upward direcrion able container. ard have been inspected The production rate of the uni! described above is approximately 1000parts pr hourA similarly designed unit, based on the Aotorin||led Equlp'rnent for residual method, utilizes four inspectors 3peclllc Appllcotlonc and has a capacity of 2000 pans per hour. The automatioo of magnetic particle rn- The residual mcthod permits thc use of a spection is often necessary to permit in- magnetizing-cunent shot of very shon duspection at the required production rate. ration(approxirnately 50 ms1.This minimiz-

F is.4e?xmtiTJi,tiii'Jff trJ::E::lf I i.iH*:,i';n6'*,il#i:(ril"J: fiHLT

faca of a steel billet. Two majot sources of scabs are the splashing of metal against the mold wall during teeming and the adherence of scarfing wash or fins to blooms after conditioning.

lnrpecllor ol Welded Ghofa Linke

Magnetic particle inspection is commonly used for malqtenance repair, preventive maintenance,and safety programs. The following procedure for the inspection afwelded chain links is a proven method and is suitable for safety programs in which priodic inspection is required. [n this procedure, a longitudinal field transverse to the weld will detect discontinuities in the weld and in the link itself. The continuous method, with wet fluorescent particles and ultraviolet light, is used. The chain is suspendedfrom the hook of a crane or hoist and pulled up th.ough a coil. Just below the coil, the magnetizing wet fluorescent magnetic particles are sprayed onto the chain. Above the coil is

Mogneti. Pdrticle Inspection | 117

magnetizirtion for the disclosure of longitudinaldefests, In oneautomated installation, a twin-lineunit performsthe requiredprocessing automatically usingcentmlconductors, Specialroller-typefixtures facilitate manual rotation during visual inspection, Whena defective couplingis encountered, the inspector merelydepresses a rejctbutton to direct that couplinginto a reject bin whenit reaches the unloading station. Cronkrhcfts, Varioustypesof automatic equipment are available for inspecting crankshafts on a productionbasis.Design varieswith crankshaft size and weight, inspectionprocessand rate, and facilities availablc for loading andunloading, Most of this equipmnt incorporates completely automaticprocessing andhandling on a based bv crc*3ive viluor bocksrornd noi* Fis. so i;HrrT+.;i'-:'J:'"1*"^'iili*il*,5'i:.ff*" fixturizd indexingconveyor. Some units use power-free fixtures to convey the crankshaft from the loadingstation to the es the heatgenerated at the pointsof con- nient means for tmnsporting the partsfrom processing statior by gravity raits, This tact by the l'low of magneti:ing cuffent, one stationto the other. A typicalarrange- permitsloading to be doneindependently of Where inspectionrequirements do not ment comprisesa horizontalwet-particle the processing and inspectioncycles and allow electrical contactwith the rollersdue unit anda conveyorized unit integrdted into the banking of uninspectedcrankshafts. to lhc fact that any hear generated at the a completeinspectionsystem.Combina- The inspectorcan draw crankshaftsfrom pointsof contactis objectionable, produc- tionsofthis typeareavailable for handling a the bank as required.Empty fixtures are tion unils based on the inducedcunent wide variety of parts, Variationssuch as automatically retumedto the loadingarea mthodcall be used. automaticmagnetization, automatic bath afterthe unloading operation hasbeencomEeoringring: can be completcly inspect- application, and controlsfor magnetizing a pleted. ed by a two-stepprocessinvolvingboth a part in severaldirectionsat virtually the Connecling Rods(Ref 2). Prior to macent.alconductor and induced current.The same time arealsoavailable. fixtur- chining, ferromagnetic parts such as conSpecial noncontact natureofboth magnetizing tech- ing may or may not be required, depending nectingrods usually have rough surfaces niquescan be very desirable when highly on productionrate and part configuration- with granular textureand sharpedges. The polished surfaces are present, Ratesof up to 900 parts per hour can be granular retains surface fluoaescent magnetThis process ulilizes automatic equip- achieved by sucharrangements. ic particles that are a sourceof high visual mentfor bearing-ring inspection on a highSmoll costingsmay warmntspecial con- background noiseand degrade the con(rast volumebasis.The designis basedon a sideration because of high-voluneinspec- of the crackindication.A smallcrack indimultiple-station, fixturized, indexing con- tion techniques as well as manpowerre- cation concealed by highbackground noise veyor. The fixtures are combination lami- quirements. For exarnple, the inspection of is extremely hard to detect(Fig. J0). natedpolesandcentralconductors. In both disk brakecaliprcastings couldhavebeen of a part attractmagnetic partiThe edges magnetizing methods,magoetizing currcdt accomplished using general-purposetwo- clesthat fluoresce brilliantly,The edgeindiis direct currntwith quick break,and the step productionequipmentmannedby a cationis bright,long, and thin, similarto a wet-particle residual methodis emptoyed. loader-operator (Fig. 5l). It is consequently andfour inspectors, but thc crackindication A bearing ring progresses through the useof a special-purpose unit for these cast- very hard to distinguish a crack iodication unit in the followingsequence: ings not only reducedmanpowerrequire- irom an edgeindication. One may say that mentsfrom five to three but also reduced edge location is a knownparameter: an edg l. Load indication canbe sorted out because its loca2- Magnetize using a central-conductor the requiredfloor space. The automated unit in- lion is known.However,this would requirc special-purpose shot an indexing-type corporated with that partsbe precisely positioned conveyor with tole.3. Apply bath of a crack indi4. Visually inspect for transverseindica- special fixtures, a half-wave automatic ancelessthanthe thickness processing three-circuit station,a lwo-man cation.This is very difficuh to achievein a trons ultraviolct light inspection booth,and dual high-volume production environment. In ad5. Replace on fixture demagnetizing coils. The specialfixtures dition,because it is possible thata crackmay 6, Magnelize usinginducedcurrent properlyoriented the casting for processing occuron the edge, cxcluding edgeindication 7. Applybath in addition to conveying through based the casting would leavecmcks undeon location L Visuallyinspect for circumferenrial indiLongitudinal pluscircula.mag- tectcdon the edges. the system. cations was providedby combining coilThus,ahelow contrastandthe uncertain9. Place oD gravity chute for final roll netizatiofl polesand contactheads. ty in distinguishing wound laminated edge indicationsfrom throughac demagnetizing coil and disa casting wasloaded In operation, ooto the crack irdicationsmake automation of fluocharge fixture, automaticallyprocessed, and in- rescentmagnelicparticle inspectiondiffiThosepartsthat arejudged deiectivc at one spected. Defective castings were dis- cult. To alleviatethese problems,a new of the two inspection stationsare immedi- chargedinto containerc;acceptable parts preimage-processing techrique was devel ately removed from the system. were placedon gravity chutesthat carried opedto rinsethe part immediately after it is Smoll porf can often be inspected on them throughdemagnetizing coiis into tote processcd with magnetic particlesand begeneral-purpose equipmentat production boxes. fore it is imaged. Figure52(a)showsa part ratesby separating the processing and inwith processed Lcrgecouplingsusedin conjunction particleswiththroughmagnetic spectionfunctioosand providinga conve- oil well tubing and casingrequirecircular out rinsing;Fig. 52(b)shawsthe samepart

CRACK INDICATION

I l8 / rftethods of Nondestructlve Evdluolion

left half of the imageis brighter than the by a right half. If the imageis thresholded grayvalue. imglobal-constant theresulting age (a crack indicationand bright backOn the groundnoise)is shownin Fig. 53(b). otherhand,Fig. 53(c)showsa binaryimage of thresholdirtg resulting from localadaptive parain the previous Fig. 53(a) as describd threshgraph.lt is notedthatlocal adaptiYe binaryimage. oldingyieldsa moreaccurate The algorithmto detect a crack from a on the lengthandthe binaryimageis based aspect ratio (width-to-lengthratio) of a crack. If both the length and the aspect criteria, a cmck is ratio meetthe specified detected,Figure 53(d)shows that a crack is detectedand that backgroundnoise is ignored. Exomple5: A len-Stotion RotoryToble Integrqred With o Mo.hine Vision System to DetoctCrocksin Conne.ting Rod5 (Ref 2). The basic block diagramof the visionsubsystem is shownin Fig.54. It consists of multiple uhraviolet strobe lamps,an optical filter, a lens, a chatgecoupled device (CCD) matrix camera,a framegrabber,and a microcomputer. The strobe lamDis a xpnon flash tube with a band-pass coupled ultravioletfilter to providenear-ultraviolet light. The near'ul' magnetfluorescent travioletlight energizs ic paniclesto emit visiblelight at a wav9as A), which srves lengthof 525nrn (5250 The opticalfilter mounta crackindication. ed behi.tdthe cametalens is a band-pass and green filter to passthe crack indication and ambient to filter out nar-ultraviolet light. Multiple lampsare used to provide lighting. uniformand intensified The CCD camerais a mafiix array with 404bt' 256 pixels. The frame grabberis a video digitizer and an image buffer. The (A,lD) digitizeris an 8-bit analog-to-digital convericrthat convertsthe video into 256 levelsof gray at a speedof 30 framesper

IDGI INDICATiOi'i

CRACK INDICATiOiI
Fig. 5| u@riqinrvin o 'onnedinsrcd cou'rry of Y'r' chu'Geno'ql ff*lf;Tonrondnedse-indkorio'r

after it is rinsed, Note that rinsing has removed tbe edse indicatioDs whire srmultaneously enhaniing the crack indication. The intensity of the fluorescent crack indication varies significantly because of the wide range ofcrack depth, the changeof concentration ofthe magnetic particle salution, and the uneven sensitivity of the sentheseinevitablevari. sor. To accommodate ations, a local adaptive{hresholding technique \ras developed and used in the crack-detection algorithm. The algorithm demarcates an image into regional locales with 16 by 16 pixels in each

gmy levcl of 16by 16 locale,The average pixels is calculated.The locale is then This ihresholdedby twice this a,/erage. simtchnique locale adaptive-thresholding pliliesa graylevel imageinro a binary im' age basedon relativeintensity.The technique thereby minimizes the intensity noiry problem andresults in a less variation digitizatianand binary image. Gray-scale in the article binary irnageare discussed "Maqhine Vision and Robotie lnspeciiqn in thisVolume, Systems" Figure 53(a)showsa digital imageof a rod with 256levelsof gray; the connecting

Fig,

52

I ."-.ai.s

rod pr@sFd

wirh mogneri( pddiclei ond iftsed.

(q) B{ore riNi.s. (b) Afrd rinsins. Coorteiy o{ Y.F Cheu, Gene.ol l\tot66 T*hdi@l Cent r

Mognelic Pdrticle Inspeciion / l l9

ris. saftfifii,ffii.fi:fiitT,ii.$$sff,tr$'h,fritii"aHiffi;*#1,[H:?J-T];Ti:,1'3fu1Hi?,i'trf.:
second. The irnage bulfer hasa capacityof storing512by 512pixels. The microcomputer is a l6.bit machine that analyzes the digital imageusingrhe digir,al imageprocessing technique previdescribed ously to rnakean inspection decisionAn accepy'reject decisionresulting from the inspectionis fcd into a programmable controller- The programmable controllercontrolsthe materialhandling subsystem, which wih unloadthe connecting rod at eitherthegoodrod stationor the feiectrod station
The mechanical subsystem is a ten-station rotary index table (Fig, 55). Each station on the table has a gripper, Every 3 s, the table indexes 36", drops 305 mm (12.0 in.), dwells,and rises305mm (12.0in,). The sequence of operations for inspcting the connecting rods is as follows: . Load stationi A magazine loader lifts a connecting rod from the accumulation conveyor lnto a gnppet . MdgnetAing statiot The rod is magnetized while immersed in the magnetic particle solution a Rinse station The rod is rinsed wrrn water to remove residual magnetic particles . Drain statio4'. Rinse water from the previous station is allowed to drip away to prevent intederence by water droplets with the vision inspection . Cameru station:'Ihe connccting rod is inspected by the vision subsystem e Wris:pin inspection station: Thc wristpin hole is checked by an optical sensor to ascertain its opening . Rkst inhibitor s,ation: The connecting rod is dipped into a bath of rust inhibitor to prevent rust formation an connecting rods . Painl idenllficatioi Jtdrior.: Color codes the defect-free rods a Unload and demagnetizestation: All defect-frec rods are demagnetizedand unloaded in a shipping container . Unload rcject station: All rejected rods are unloadedonto a table for finalinspection and disposition The sequencingfunctions of the ptocess are controlled by a programmablecontrol-

Go/ No go

crock dtetion Motor! Ie<hni6l

d'e.-l"*Jsn ris. sr :1ff5 :.;liL.s

3yelm- Source: Y.F. Cheo, ceos@' C.nier

ler. To ensure a reliable inspection,the programmable controlleralso monitorsthe magnetizing cuhent, the pressureof the rinsing water,andthe concentration levcl of the magnetic particlesolution.The machine is capableof inspcting 1200connecting rodspeahour. Typical examples of the system inspectron resultsare shownin Fig,56. Figure 56(a)shows a crack of averagesize, and Fig. 56(b)showsthat it is derecred. Steel-mill billers, are magneticparticle inspected to locate and markdiscontinuities that becomeelongated by the rolling prc. cess.Once located.discontiouities are removed by various meansto improve the quality of the subsequentlyrolled final prooucr. Usualpracticeis to circularly magnetize the billet by passing the current end to end and to test by the weFpartislecontinuous mthod.The equipmentrequired for performingthe handlingand processing functionsis somewhat differentfrom the normal inspection equipment. A typical billet inspection unit is capable ofhandlingbilletsup to 1?m (40ft) longand weighing as much as 1.8 Mg (4000 lb). Every aspectof handlingand processing is autamatic. The inspector is requiredonly to view and mark discernible indications. When the inspectionhas been completed, the inspector depresses a button to initEte processing of the nexi billet. One design incorporates a ferris wheel to rotatc rhe billtsat the insDection station.Two sroes of the bitlet are viewed while it is in rne upperposition,andthe remaining two sides become accessible whenthe billet is rotated to the lower position. Chain-sling billet

| 2O / Merhods of Nondeslru:tive Evaluqlion

e
(, e
}--_;=-l^

Direction ",.ii"' oot^ r ,rotation

'ffi

4 Drain

(b)

r i s. s s ffiffi

crc't Fis.s6 * flff:?if"d";3*. [i ii,i"i:T# ':il:'glL|"J"8ff,H;:jiHfl T.:inff*,gtonded'oins"ins-rod the oulomotdin3pction systm.Co{Jrto3y of Y.t. Cheu,
Generol ^loloB lfthniol C6lf

tumers are employedin other designsto performbillet rotation,

Demognetlzollon Afler lnrpecilon

All ferromagnetic materials, after having been magnetized, will retain a residual magnctic field to some degree.This field may be negligible in magnetically soft metals, but in harder metals it ma]' be comparable lo the intense fields associated with the sDecial alloys used for permanent magnetsAlthough it is time consuming and represents an additional expense, the demagnetization of pans after magnetic par{icle inspection is necessary in many cases, Dmagnetization may be easy or difficult, depending on the type of metal. Metals having high coercive force are the most dimcult to demagnetize-High retentivity is not necessarily related directly to high coercive force, so that the strength of the retained maSnetic field is not always an accurate indicator of the ease of demagnetizing. Reosons for Demognetizing. There are many reasonsfo. demagnetizinga part after magnetic particle inspection (or, for that matter, after magnetization for any other reason). Demagnetizationmay be necessary for the following reasons: . Ti part will be used in an area where a residual magnetic field will interfere with the operation of instruhents that are sensitive to magnetic fields or may affect lhe

This last reason may appear to conflict with the last item in the section "Reasons for Demagnetizing-" The establishmentofa longitudiDal field after circular magnetizat tion negates the circular field, becausc two fields in different directions cannot erist in the same part at the same time. If the magnetizing force is not of sufficient strenglh to establishthe longitudinal field, it a should bc increaied, or other steps should be taken to ensurethat the longitudinal field actually has beenesrablishedThe same is true in changing from longitudinal to circu. lar magnetization. lfthe two fields (longitudinal and circular) are applied simultane(hat is a ously, a field will be es(ablished vector combination of the two in both Reosonsfor Not Demognetiring. De- strength and direction. However, if the fields are impressed successivly, the last magnetization may not be necessary if: field applied, if it is strong enough to estab. Partsare madeof magnetically soft steel lish itself in the pan, will destroy the remahaving low retentivity; such pans will nent field from the previous magnetizalion, usuallybecome demagnetized as soonas If the magnetizing force last applied does they are removedfrom the magnetizing not equal or exceed the preceding one, the source lalter may remain as the dominant field. . The pais are subsequentlyhealed above The limits of demqgnetirqtion can be tbeir Cude point aDd consequently lose cansidered to be either the maximum extent their magnetic properties to which a part can be demagnetized by . The masnetic field is such that it will not available procedures or the level to which affect lhe function of the part in service the terrestrial field will Dermit it to becomc

accuracy incorporated of instrumentation in an assembly that contains the magnetized Dafl Duringsubsequent machining, chipsmay adhere beingmachincd to the sudace and adverselyaffect surfacefinish, dimensions.and tool life During cleaningoperations, chips may adhereto the surfaceand inlederewith subsequent suchaspainting operations or p]aung Abrasive particlesmay be attractedto magnetized partssuchas bearingsurfaces, bearingmceways, or gear teeth, resulting in abrasionor galling, or may obstructoil holesandgrooves DuriDgsomeelcctricarc-welding operafieldsmay tions,strong residual magnetic deflect the arc away from the point at which it shouldbe applied A rsidualmagnetic field in a part may interfere with remagnetization ofthe part at a field intensitytoo low to overcome the remanent field in the part

. The part is to be remagnetizedfor further magnetic particle inspection or for some secondary operation in which a magnetic plate or chuck may be used to hold the pan

,Ylognetic Porticle Inspection | 121

E

t/--

I
|

lll'. V/t
'.

./4

vr

I l I

( (
Fig. 57

2
)

ft:.,Tl:"d

rl'rr dGitycn6 dlri.g d!ftscti'dtion, F.oi.rd fron therFreresi!loop,serxrtor

demagnetized. Theselimits can be further currentis gradually reduced to zero. In the modifiedby the practicaldegree or limit of first method,the strength of the reversing demagnetization that is actuallydesircdor field is reduced by axially withdrawing the necessary, part from the coil (or the coil from the pan) There are a numberof ways of demag-,. andfor somcdistance beyond the endofthe netizinga part, {ll based on the principleof coil (or part) along that axial line. In the subjectingthe part to a field continually secondmethod,gradualdecayof the curreversing its directionandat the same time rent in the coil accamplishes the samereg.adually decreasing in strengthto zero sult. Passing a part throughan ac coil is (Fig. J7). The sine wave or curve of a usuallythe faster,preferred method. reversingcurrent at the bottornof Fig, 5? Small parts should not be loaded into is usedto generate the hysteresis loops,As baskets passed andthe baskets throughthe the current diminishesin value with each coil as a unit, bccause alternating current reversal, the loop tmces a smaller and will not penetrate into sucha massof parts smallerpath, The curve at the upper right andbecause only a few partson the outside of Fig. 57 represents (andtheseposthe flux densityin the edges will be demagnetized part as indicatedon the diminishinghys- sibly only panially demagnetized). Small loops.Bothcurrentandflux densi- partscan be demagnetized teresis in multiplelots ty curves are plotted against time, and only if theyare placed in a singlelayeron a whe[ the current reacheszero, the field tray that holds them apart and in a fixed remainingin the part will also have ap- positionwith their long axesparallel to the proached zero. axis of the coil. ln usinglhis principle, the magnetizing Largeparts are not effectively demagneforce must be high enoughat the start to tized with.60-Hz altrnatingcuftent, bethe coercive overcome forceandto reverse cause of its inabilityto penetrate. Altematfild initially in the part. Also, ing cunent with 2J-Hz frequencyis more the residual the incremental decrease betweensucccs- effective. sive reductionsin curent must be small Machines that providedecaying alternatenough so that the reverse magnetiziog ing currenthavea built-inmeans fo. autoforcewill be able,on eachcycle,to reverse matically reducing thc altrnating currentto the field remaining in the part from the last zero by the use of step-downswitches, ptevlousreversal. variable transformers, or satumble-core reDemognelirdtion With Alternoting actors. When decaying alternating currcnt Currenl.A commonmethod ofdemasnetiz- is used,the currentcan be passd dircctty ing smallto moderate-size partsis by pass- throughthe part insteadof througha coilingthemthrougha coil throughwhichalter- Passing thecurrentthrough the part is more nating cufienlat line frequency is passing effective on long, circularly magnetized (usually 50 to 60 Hz), Alternatively,rhe parts than the coil method,but does not alternating 6O-Hz currentis passed through overcome the lackofpenetmtion becaus of a coil with the part insidethe coil. and the the skin effect. unlessfrequencies much

16 mm (% in.) dioh lhroushhole in 24 nh ('%d i.-) rhicl D-6oc rtel plolo

F is. ss HTi?'*#iT#ii:"j',:'.9'fft# :

lower than 60 Hz are used. High fild strengthac demagnetizing coils are avail ablewith powerfactorcorrection,resulting in lower line surrent. Demognelizqtion With Di.e(t Cur.ent. Methodsof demagnetizing with direct current are essentially identicalin principleto just described the methods for alternating current, By usingreversing anddecreasing direct current,low-frequency are reversals possible, resultingin more completepenetration of evenlargecrosssections. A commonly usedfrequency is onereversal per second.It is a succssful meansof removing circularmagnetic fields,especially when the current is passed directly throughthe part and can be usedto demagnetizelargeparts. When a part in a coil is demagnetized using direct current at one per second, reversal the part remains in the coil for the durationof the entire cycle. OiGillqtingcircuiti area means ofobtaining a reversingdecayingcurrent for demagpurposes. netizing By connecting a largcapacitance of ahecorrect value across the demagnetizing coil, the coil becomespan of an oscillatory circuit. The coil is energized with directcurent; when the source of current is cut off, the aesonant resistance-inquctance{apacitance circuit oscillatesat its own resonant frquency,andthe currentgradually diminishes to zero. Yokes, either direct or altnnting current, providea portablemeansfor demagparts.The spacebetween netizing the poles of the yoke shouldbe suchthat the pans to be demagnetizcd will passbetwen them as

122 / Merhods of Nondcstructive Evoluotion loble 2 Applicobility of demognetizing melhods on lhe bosis of Port sire, mglql hqrdness, qnd production rqle
ods may require a light wipe with solvent to remove any secreted fluid. [imitotion!. The process is limited to the d,.{.} M.ol hrd|Brrr--Prodw.ion Er.lrl ?ld | I I T I 'Snrll detection of discontinuities on or near the tlrd td M.diuh Hish s.at Medium M.diun llm surfaces of parts made of ferromagnetic A N A A Coil, 6 G H za c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A metals, It can be used on nonmagnetic Coil. dc, 30-point reversinS step metals for surface topography testing only. N down . . . - . - . - . . . - . - . . - . . . . . . . . . N A A A N Tbrol8h cunenl, ac, lo-F)itrt s(ep In this application, surface conditions, tool N A A A A A A down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . N marks, and physical dimensions will be reN Tltrough currcnt, ac, ractor dec2y. . . N A A A A A A corded, but there will be no migration of Throu8h cunent, dc. lo-point magnetic particles. N r c v r s i ns 8t e pd o w n . . . . . . . . . . . . . N A A A A A N (b) N Yoke, a c .. - . . . . . - . . . . . . . . . . - . . . . , A N A A N A N Magnetic rubber inspection is not as fast (b) N reversin dg c......-...... -.- A N A A A A N Yok, as other inspection methods, becauscofthe (b) Us.d for 16,l arcas.nly N, ror applicabL, {il A. rpplicabl: time required to cure the rubber. This is of little disadvantage, however, when a large number ofparts are beilg inspected. By the re- time all the regions being inspected have With altemating Yokesusinglow-frequency current energized. snuglyaspossible. directcurrent,instead of alternating beenprepared, poured, and magnetized,the flowing in the coil of the yok, parts are versing passed betweenthe poles and withdrawn. current, are morc effectivein penetrating first replicas are usually cured and ready for The applicabilityof removal and examination. Yokescan be usedon largepa.ts for local largercross sections-

on pan size. methods. based demagnetization by placing the poleson the dernagnetizing andproduction rate,is giv- Procgdure hardness. surface, movingthem aroundthe area,and melal procedure The conventional usedin magthe[ withdrawingthe yoke while it is still en in Table2. neticrubber ilspectioncan be dividedinto threesteps: a Preinspection preparation of parts . Catalyzing, pouring,and magnetizing . Reviewarldinterpretation of curedreplicas Prein:pection prepqrolion consistsof cleaningthe part of loose dirt or other to methods in contaryrination. lt is often unnecssary inspection Several proprietary methods of magnetic othernondestructive particle inspection have been developed for certainproblemareas, remove paint, plating, or flame-sprayed Theseinclude: metal coating, but th removal of such specific applications. Three of these meth- . with limitedvisualaccessibility Regions coatingswill often intensifyany magnetic ods, which are described in this section, are a Coatedsurfaces indications. Coatings thicker than0.25mm magnetic rubber inspection, magnetic print- .Regions having diflicult-to-inspect (0.01in.) shouldalwaysbe removed,Th ing, and magnetic paintiDg. shapes and sizes preparea reservoirto hold . Indicationsrequiring magnificationfor next step is to the liquid rubber on the inspcctionarea. interpretation detction or lubber ltr3pecflor nlgnetlc with lhe useof alumiThisis accomplished The replica castingsfurnish evidenceof num foil, aluminumor plastic tubing,and Jcck D, Reynoldr. HenryJ. Weltnron, machiningquality, physical dimensions, plastictapefid pully lo sealthe reservoirs JohnE, Holkios, ond WilliomT. Koorlelo, and surfaceconditions.The replicascan against lakage. Cololyzing ond Pouring. The rubber Generol Dynomics Corporotion alsobe usedto detectand recordthe initicracksat select- inspection material must be thoroughly ationandgrowthof fatigue duringa fatiguetest.The repli- mixedbeforeuseto ensurea homogeneous Magneticrubber inspectionis a nonde- ed intervals Black-oxideparticlesareincludstructive inspectionmethod for detecting cas provide a permanentrecord of the dispersion. however. because the repLicased irl lhe inspection material.A measured discontinuities on or near the surfaces of inspection; partsmadeof ferromagnetic critical mea- quantityof curingagentsis stirredinto tbe metals-ln this shrinkslightlyduringstorage, particles, surements method,finely divided magnetic shouldbe madewithin 72 h af rubber. which is then transferredto the peri- DreDared for exlended reservair. dispersed in specially formulated roomtem- casting. Replicas stored perature curingrubber,areappliedto a test which is subsequently surface, magnetized. The particles are altractedto the flux fields with discontinuiries. associated Following loble 3 Flux density ond durolion of mqgnetizdtion {or voriour cure of the rubber (about I hl. the solid appli(aiions of mdgnetic rubber Inspoctlon replicacasting is removed from the part and -nud.chv------l examined,either visually or with a lowpower microscope,for concentrations of 50-r00 hd o t e s . . . . . . . . .... . . . . - . - . . . . . . - 5 - 1 0 magneticparticlesthat are indicationsol U n c o a t e t 2.5-5 2J-50 th-tvlltl discontinuities on or just bclow the surface C o a t eh t00-6d) do l e s-.. - . - . - . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 0 - t l 0 ( a ) . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . l J 1 5 0 Unqrate sd udaces of the testpiece. Method Advontcrges ond Limiiutions Advdnfoge3.Magnetic rubberinspection extends andcomplements thecapabilities of
t0 5 2 . .s. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . - . 5 - 4 / ) C o a t cs du r f a c e
(a)Flux d.nsity aBl liwlepnd

Appendix:Proprietoryilethods of tognetic PorticleInspection

t00 50 20 50 d)0

3 IO l0 l-60(a)

on thc thi.kness orrh. codtins.

Mogneti( Porli.le Inspection / | 23

Mognetizing.Continuous or residual mag- The technique, however, is less sensitive netism is theninduced into the partby using than the conventional magnetic rubber lnpennanent magnets, direct currentflowing spection method and is difticult to apply to through thepart,or dc yokes, coils,prods,or irregularly shaped surfaces. centmlconductors. Directcurrert yokesare preferred fo. mostapplications. Because the Use on Arecs of limired particlcsin the suspension magnetic must Visudl Accessibility migrate throughthe rubber,the durationof ofareasoflimited visualaccesExamples magnetism is usuallylongcrthanthat of the sibilitythat canbe magnetic rubberinspectparticle standard magnetic method. ed are hols and the inside surfaces of The minimumflux densityalongthe sur- tubular components. Holes with smalldifaceofthe test specimen is 2 mT (20G); the ameters, especially ifthey arethreaded, are higher the flux density, the shorter the vcry difficult to inspect by other nonderequircd duration. Optimum durationsof structive methods. The deeper the holeand magnetization vary with each inspection the smaller the diameter,the greaterthe task. Sometypical examples offlux densl- problem. Liquid penetrantaDd magnetic liesanddurations of magnetization aregiv- particlemethods areeachhighlydependent en in Tablc3. on the visualaccessibility of the part itself; As in the standardmagneticparticlemeth- therefore, they ar limited in suchapplicaod, cracksand other discontinuities are dis- tions. With the use of magneticrubber played more strongly when they lie perpen- inspction, however,the visibility restricdicular to the magnetic lincs of force, tion is removed because replicacastings can Therefore,the magnetizing currentshouldbc be taken from the iriaccessible areasand appliedfrom two directionsto increase relia- examined elsewhere underidealconditions bility.Thisis accomplished by magnetizing in without any visuallimitations. one direction, then movingthe magnetizing An application for theinspection of smallunit to change the field 9ff andrernagnetizing diameter holesis illushatedin Fig, 59. The on the same replica. Experiments have testpiec is a 4.0 mm (sh2in.) thick DSac shown that the second magnetization does steel aircraft longeroncontainingseveral not disturbparticls drawnto discontinuities groupsof three nutplateholes (Fig- 59a). during the first magnetization. oftwo rivet holes2.4 Eachgroupconsisted Review ond Interpretolion. Following mm (7i2irt.)in diameter anda mainhole6.4 curc,the replicas areremoved of a from the part mm (/.r in.) in diameter,Examination andexamined for concentration ofmagnetic replicaof onegroupof nutplateholes(Fig. panicles,which indicatesthe presence indications ofcracksin oneof ( 0 J of 59b)revealed discontinuities. This examinationis best the rivet holesand in the main hole. conductedwith a low-power microscope Blind holespresent a problemin conven(aboutsevento ten diameters) panicle inspection or in thoi wse 'tlosostk rubtier in3P<led. (b) Cu.ed nognelic and a high- tional magnetic intensitylight. Dudogthis examination, the liquid penetrantinspection.If the part is rubbr roplicd wifi indi.olion! (oro*!) of crockr in the topographyof the replica is noted; tool stationary, ihe inspection fluid will accumu- 6.4 mm (rZ ii.) diom rcin hole ond o 2.a mm (%z in.) in the testprece late at the bottom of the hole, preventing marks,scBtches, or gouges are revealed, Indications on a replica re- inspection is of that area.Anotherproblem movedfrom a 16mm (% in.) diamthrough directing adequate light into a blind holcfor trants are untuccessful unlessdiscontinuihole in 24 mm (r7roin.) thick D-6ac low- viewing. ties in the substratehave also broken the alloy ultrahigh-strength resrict inspec- surfaceof the coating. Even then, it is rteel plate are Similarvisibilityproblems shownin Fig. 58. of tubularcom- diflicult to determine tion of the insidesurfaces whethera liquid penAlternotive Protedure. Another Drooc- ponents, andthe etrantindication The longer the component resulted from cracksin the dure usedin magnetic rubberinspection tn- smallerits diameter,the more diffrcult it coatingor cracks in the coatingplus the volvesplacing a thin plastic film beaween and substrate. the becomes to illuminate the insidesurface Production ultrasonic techniques parti- have beensuccessfully test sudace and the .ubber. This can be to seethe arca of interest.Magnetic used to locatedisaccomplished by stretchinga sbeerof polyvi- cle, liquid penetrant,and borescope tech- continuities in coatedflat surfaces; howevnylidene chloride have limitedvaluein {hi\ type of er, their abiliry to detect srnalic.acks less overthetestarea andpaint- niques ing a thin layer of catalyzed Crooves.land5.and radical than2.54 mm or uncatalyzed application. in.) longby 0.0025 mmt0.100 overit. Thefilm santhenbe removed section rubber changes also limit the useot ultra- (0,0001 in.) wide in bare or coatedmaterial for indications immediately andexamined methods for the in- is poor to marginal. fol- sonicand radiographic lowingmagnetization, eliminating Because theneed The magnetic to spectionof inside surfaces, mostcoatings are nonmagnclic, wait for the rubbcrto cure. repli- it is possibleto use magneticparticleand rubbertechnique, howcver,provides In additionto providingimmediate ofsuch surfaces for examination magnetic in- cacastings to inspctferrubbe. techniques spectionresults,this techniquehas other after the rcplicashavebeenremoved from romagnetic lhrough the coarings. malerials aovantages: Som examplesof this Experiencehas shown that conventional the components, includemortarandgun barrels, magneticparticle techniquesalso become application o No damming is required pipe, tubing,and other hollow shafts. marginalifthe in.) coating is 0.10 mm(0.004 . Postinspection cieanupis easierbecause thick or greater. However,magnetic rubber the rubberneverdirectlycomes inspeclion intocon- Use on Cooted Surfaces ha5lhe capability of producing tact with the part muchthickercoalings. Coatings such as paint, plating, and indications through . Uncatalyzed rubbercan be reused metalshave al- Because flame- or plasma-sprayed of the weak leakagefield at the . Catalyzed rubbercan be usedif a perma- ways presented difficultiesin conventional surface.the oarticlesused io the convennentrecordis desired panicle methodare lightly nondeslructiveinspection. Liquid pene- tional magnetic

Fis.5e iliT.i:,:i[i,(:iJ'#:Jt"f3ili;]

| 24 / Methods of Nondeslructive Evdluolion

^rognctic rubL.r redid u*d to monild oo.k glwlt' in a hole dqnE big'r. iEting of o D{o< sieel oi.ooft po'1. Port tsoducd ot 45,a5 cycl6. (q) Iniliol .eplid of fie hole 5tl.}./ins o tool nd* (oua). (b) Repli@ mde ofler 35m fotisuo q.cle!. l nrly ot i.di.ori.n incrso!d ot lool nsk {lorer orrow), d.d d nelr indi.otion (upper (c) ,rcm.l.rs. (oros) otlw)Reprio mode ofi6 r.di@tbtu ioi*d, ond sro** o{ cro<* is wided. rc3 f,onn d (d) Replio n'ode ofi6 4500 cyd6. MdtE bisue @* (qffi), exiE{dins oll olons hole, is very a-xlern. E:rrJr 4 t vr

remain undisturbed until the rubber rs cured. Use on Difficult-to-lnspecl Shopee or Sizes Complex structures exhibiting varying contours, radical section changes, and surface rorrghness present conditions that make interpretation of data obtained by radiographic, magnetic particle, liquid penetranl. or ultmsonic inspection difficult because of changing film densitics, accumulation of excess fluids, and high background levels. As a result. discontinuities in such slructures frequently remain undetected. The magnetic rubber process minimires background levels od the cured replicas with little change in the intensity of any

ocl@ld. (o) vie* ol brocker with rvbber repli<o rF mwed. (b) Mocrogroph of repli.d ,howins c.o.k indi.olions in roob al teth

rig. 60ll?fi i; :is;Itr[:1f,1'.:,["''F*

attracled to the region of thc discontinuity. In the magneticrubber technique,the reduced particle attraction is compensatedfor by increasing the time of magnetization, up to severdl minutes, to ensurBsufficint particle accumulation- The attracted particles

crack indications. Typical items to which magnetic rubberinspection is applicable are multiple gears, internal and external threads, and rifling groovesin gunbarrels. particlefluid is applied Whenmaglletic to a threaded area,someof the liquid is held by surfacetensionin th threadroots(the most likely area for cracks). This excess fluid masksdefect indications,especially whenthe fluorescent methodis used.With the magneticrubber method, thread root cracksare displayed with little or no interferingbackground. Exomple 6: Mogneti< Rubber Inspe<tion of SplineTeethin on Aircmft-Flop A(iudtor. The processappliedto internal spline teethis illustrated in Fig- 60(a), which showsan aircraft-flap actuatorbracketwith

f{logneti( Pqrtlcle Inspection / | 25

offset the color of the test surface-The coating shouldbe free ofpuddles,runs,and signsof orangepeel. The coatingis dried beforeapplication curof the magnetiziog rent and particles. With the magnetizinS current on and properlyadjusted,the testpieceand magnetic printer are placed adjacentto each other, and dry printiu particlesare dusted on the test surface with a powder bulb applicatof. The testpiece andprinter canbe movedrelativeto eachother to obrainuniform printing. When a suitable print has formed,usuallyafter 6 to 12 s, the magneinterestduringfatiguetest monitoring. tizing current is tumed off. The excess parprinaing particles indications Discontinuity in magnetic magnelic can be removed Pdntlng with.agentlcair blast or gentletapping. ticle inspection often result from deep ficgnetlc print hasnot beenobtained, or tool markson the part surface, (U.3. P.|tont ?,24t,e, 6l If a suitable scratches the print canbeerased and it is dimcult ta distinguish them from with a dampsponge, curent cracks.Whenthe magnetic rubberreplicas OrlondoG. Molino,Rockwell Inlernotiondl and the application of magnetizing andprintingpa.ticlesrepeated. are viewedundermagnification, the topogIf a permaprinting is raphy of the surfaceis easily seen, and Magnetic employs a magnetizingnentrecordis needed, the printedsurface particles, from scratches indications and tool marks coil (printer), magnetic ande phs- sprayed with two coatsof clear plastic.To canbedistinguished fromcrackindications. tic coating ofthe surface of the tstpiece for assistin removingthe coating,a piece of and flaws. pressure-sensitive This distinctionmay preventthe unnces- the detectionof discontinuities clear plastictape can be The process to the printedsurface sary rejectionof partsfrom service, canbe usedon magnetic mat- applied after the clear rials that havvery low magnetic retentivi- plasticcoatinghasdried to the touch. CopSurface Evaluqtion ty. ies of magneticprintingscan be made by photographic The magnetizingcoil, or magneticprint- conventional Magnetic rubber replicas are rcproduccontactprinling printedrecord usingthe magnetic tions of the test surfaceand thereforedis- er, consists of a flat coil madeofatl electri- methods, play surfaceconditioos suchas .oughness, cal conductor, and it is conrected ro a asa Degative, A transpareDcy for projection printing tool marks,or othermachining power supply capable scratches, oi delivering6OHz purposes canbe madeby magnetic damage. or 5ervice Somesurface conditions alternating curent of highainperage at low on thc clear coating insteadof the white in holes,suchascircumferential tool marks, voltage. When the coil is energiled, a coating.White or clear nitroceliuloselacmagnetic field is distribut- quer can be usedin placeof the strippable are usuallynot harmful.Discontinuous tool strong,pulsating a coatings when a permanent, marks(from tool chatter)are stress nonstippable raisers ed alodgthe a,(isof the coil and producs print is required. and potentialsites ol crack initiation and vibratory effect on the testpieceand the magnetic printlng propagation. Axial tool marks,which may magneticparticles. This vib.atory efrect On some occasions, the magnetic grouptogetherin certainareasof result from a fluted reamer,are often not causesthe magneticpaiicles to stain or particles permittedin areasof high stress.Surface print the plastic coatingin regionswhere the part surface, reducing the p nting capaparticleshave been attractedby bilities studiesby magnetic rubberinspection can magnetic of the particles. Whenan aluminum permeability. to areas be applied otherthanholes,suchas changes in magnetic The mag- alloy plate,suchas 2024,is placedbeneath netic particlesare madeoi ferromagnetic the magnetizing rifling landsandgrooves. coil (with the coil between iron oxide(Fe3Oa) and are similarto those the aluminum alloy plateand the testpiece), Use for lotigue Tesl Monitoring particlein- the paniclesremainin constant usedfor conventional magneric dispersion, grouping. thuspreventing Magnetic rubber inspection has been spection. printed patternsare made A cimilor iniFection method (U.s. usedin the structurallaboratory for studies Magnetically the surfaceof the Patent 3,826,917) usesa coating,preferably of crackiniliation and propagarion during visibleby first spraying testing.Because fatigu with a white plasticcoating.The an organiccoating,containingfluorescent eachreplica casting testpiece recordof the inspection, particles,prefis a permanent it is coatingprovidesa contrasting background materialandnonfluorescent to compare in a liquid medium.Magconvenient the test resultsdur- and a surfaceon which the particlesprint. erablysuspended linesareestablished substantially ing variousincrements of a test program. After a print has been obtainedand ahe netic-flux the patterns perpendicular have been removed, to the suspected discontinuF Exomple7: Mognetic RubberInspec- particles with a clearplastic ties in the surfaceof the testpiece.The tion of Ai.troft StrucfurqlPqrt to Monitor canbe fixed by spraying thetwo coatings Steel Fotigue. An exampleaf the fatigue coatingBecause areofthe paniclesagglomerate and form indications part sarne testmonitoring ofan aircraftstructural composition, a singlefilm is formed, on the coaliDg adjaceoilo the discontinuiofD-6acsteelis shownin Fig-61.The within which the printed pattern is sand- ties.The testpiece made under ultrais inspectd testareawasa 4.8 mm lVroin.) diam,5.6 wiched. When dry; the coating can be violet light to locateand revealthe surface If a permanentrecord is mm (7rzin.) deephoie.A replicaofthe hole strippedfrom the surfaceof lhe testpiece discontinuities. plasticcoatingis of the test is shownin Fig. andusedas a permanent record. needed, a clear strippable at the beginning applied over the magneticindications of 6l(a). A few tool harks were notedat rnrs imperfections, and the resultiogcoating is time. After 3500cyclesof fatigueloading, Procedure anotherreplicaof the hole was made(Fig. The testpiece shouldbe cleaned so that it stdppedfrom the surface, 6lb). A comparison withtheoriginal replica is free ol dirt, moisture,oil, paint, scal, somenew discontinuity that can obscure showed indications and other materials a dis- AppliGdtions growing from the tool marks. After 4000 continuity printingcanbe usedfor inspectMagnetic or flaw.The whiteplastic coating materials ofeither highor cycles(Fig.61c),anotherreplica showed is sprayed onto the test suface in an ingferomagnetic a white backsround to low magnetic retentivityto detectany contbattheindications in lhe holewereincreas- amountto establish
ing and beginning to join together. This propagation continued until at 4500 cycles the crack extended through the entire hole (Fig. 6ld). A few cycleslater, the lcstpiece failed through th hole. Because lhe lest bole described above was located in an area that was obstructed 'tlagnif ication of Indicotions from view, nondestructiveinspection methThe examination of cast replicasunder ods.equiri g viewing the hole would have permitsdetection magnification ofcracksas been very difficult to perform. Moreover, short as 0.05 mm (0.002in.). Detectionof the hole was coated with flame.sprayed these small cracks is often important to aluminum, which would have further timitpermit easierrework of the part prior to ed the applicability of some nondestructivecrackpropagation. Thesecracksare alsoof inspection methods,

rubberreplica. the magnetic A macroscopic view of this replica(Fig. 60b) revealsseveral cracksin the roots of the splineteeth. The bmcket was madeof 4330steel.The splineteethwere 16mm (5/6 in.) long, with 24/48pitch.

126 / Melhods of Nondestructive Evolurrrlon

'l'hese 62(b). patterns are obtainable even after the stress has been removed. However, magnetic printing patterns can be obtained when a testDiece is under erasuc stress, but they are no longer obtainable when the stress is removed, These ohcnomena occur because of regions of-different magnelic permeability within a given resrprece. Crock Dete<fion, The magnetic prioting method is generally more sensitive in detecting cracks than liquid penetrants. No special orientation of the flux lines is needed to detect cracks at different aneles to each other, as is required in conventional magneticparticleinspection.Crack growlh in latigue and tension tests can be monrtored by making magnetic prints at intervals during the test. In a tensile test on an AM-350 steel tube specimen, changeswere revealed in contained areas ofretained austenite. Not only was gradual transformition noticed in the recorded aDDearance of the metallurgical detail but a d-i;tinct indication \+a5 recorded in rhe last print taken before fraclure. Some of the magnelic prints showed slress patterns at the ends of cracks. Merollurgi<ol detoi15 rot always obtainable by common rnacroetchingmethods are usually revealed by magnetic printi8g. These details include flow lines in extrusians and forgings, as well as stringers of retained austenite. The magnetic printing of an AM-350 steel tube is shown in Fig, 62(c). The white, riverlike areas are stringers of retained austenite; the presenceof retaioed austenite was confirmed by x-ray diffraction and metallographic examination. Heol-offeted rones adjacent to welds can be detected by magnetic printing. The heat-affected zons adjacent to the weld bead in PH l5-7 Mo stainless steel are shown in Fig. 62(d).This weld was subsequntly sectioned for magnetic printing and metallographicexamination, which verified the presence ofheat-affected zones.Fig!re 62(e) shows ferrite stringers in an essentially austenitic matrir, cast weld metal, heataffected zones, and an area where the magnelic print had been removed. The orint .hwn'etiderr.lind (ors).k) ^M_5so bod Gr a)ondwetd ,ruirruU., upp..-*sio" ii"..g*ii +".., *1,r," exhibil! a lhree-dimensional effect as il thc ira flwrr'ke o@i rhqrore.tringercof.eloined oqrenire.ond lowor.egioni, o nonpnnted dlE. {dj wetd beod;n pH weld area had not been machined. l5'7 Mo iroinle$lreel shr priir shdins

Fis.62 ;vFi'|ff l;*':[:ti.I tf i*iii*g*,$Tiii*l#::::.*1il: i6:H:3!6,,kiig

hsr.of{edd ron.5 (oros). (i of rhcmochined sorfir. of o pH r 5-7 r,rc '!::' reniresr.inse6inon s*nrio y oulreniri.morrix (oreoor A), rerd merot (or4 or s) 1':Tf: Tri*."r :l"yns ond ri odtoenr hsr<nered tons, (dr*s ot Ct), ond rurfoce whore prinrhodben rended (o.eo fia mogrelic

mrrgretic Polnting (U.t. Polent 3,rA6,34Gl

D. E. lorenzi, Mogno{lux Corporotion

Magnetic painting uses a visually conin the following sections. Etosrir ond plostic tielormotion, A re, trastlng magnetic particle slurry for flaw . Brored |loneyromb Ponel3. Figure 62(a) sponse to certain degrees of elastic and detection, A slurry concentratehaving a shows a magnetrc pnnt ot a brazed honey_ plastic deformation in some feffomagnetic consistency paint of is brush appliedto the comb panel made of PH l5-7 Mo stainless materialscan bc detected by m:rgncucpnnr- surface being inspccted. Brushing allows steel. Visible in.the print is the core partern ing. Indications of localizid plistic rlefor_ for the selective application of the material; otherwise invisible to the eye. Areas of lack mation (Luders lines) and the .seam weld in thc magnetic particles can be spread evenly ofattachment between core cells and facing an AM-]50 steel tuie are shown rn Fre_ and lhoroughLy over the test area of inrer-

dition that affects magneric permeability. 5ome lyprcal appllcatlon s of magnetic p.intingare illustrated in Fig. 62, and discussed

sheet, puddling of brazing alloy, add the face sheet seam weld havc been observed in magnetic prints of honeycomb panels.

Itlognetic Porticle Inspertion I 127

Fig.

53

*fiT5"f"id

indicotiotu or crockrin
Fig. 64 wa tt-.*-ni mosmri. point indiotio3 ot min't erindinsdock in rh. foc* of o tmll 3Pro.k.r

est. When the testpieceis subjectedto a force,flaws appearas magnetizing suitable contrastiqg black indications on a lightgray background, as illustrated by the cracksin the weld metal shownin Fig. 63. paint indications magnetic Wet fluorescent of minutegrindingcracksin the facesof a are shownin Fig. 64. These smallsprocket that is, indications are semipermanent; periodsof they remainintact for extended erasedby retime unlessintentionally brushing. ,Vlefhod Advdnldges paint slurry requires Magnetic no special with both the lightingaidsandis compatible continuousand the residual methodsof and,dependlt is nondrying magnetization. required, ing on the degreeof cleanliness carl be removedwith dry rags,papertowsolvents. els, or prepared cleaning Magneticpaint covers dark- and lightequally well. Consecoloredtest surfaces quently, the contrast betweenindication and baekgroundis iodependentof the testsurfacecolor. In contrastto dry magnetic particles,high wind velocities and wet test surfaccs do not constituteadverseinspecpaint. Magtion conditionswith magnetic on neticpaintcanbe appliedand processcd a testpiece completely immersed in water. prepminimalsurface The material requirss because ii can be aparationof testpieces plied directly over oily, rusty, plated, or paintedsurfaces with little or no degradaprovidedthe coatings tion of performance, thick. are not excessively paint is a siurry having Bcause magnetic the consislency of ordinarypaint, it can be appliedwith a brushto any test selectively regardless of its spatial orientation. surface, As a result,thereis no materialoverspray, with airborne and any problems associated magneticparticlesand/or liquid arc completely eliminated.This becomesa very

desirablefeature when magneticparticle inspectio$ must be performed on vertical surfaces. and overhead For applicationsthat requile the continuthe critical seous methodof magnctizatioo, of magnetic quencing the application between is eliminated particles andthe magnetization paintis applied before because the magnetic In addition, the is magnetized. the testpiece to emseprevious materialcan be rebrushed call be leprocessed results, andthetestpiece withoutadditional slurry. Perlormonce Magneticpaintingcan be used with all tchniques---{ircular, magnetizing standard coil, prods, and yokes, using ac or dc to the deis applicable magnetization-and (o) tection of surfaceas well as subsurface utilizesseflaws. The materialformuletion lective magneticparticles,in flake form, dispersedin a viscous,oily vehicle.The mdium viscosityof the oil-typesuspnding is chosento rstdcl substantiallateral moflakeswhile perbility of the fenomagnetic ofthe flakesat the mittingrotarymovement flaw site when acted upon by rnagnetic (Fig, 65). leakage.fields paintappears lightgrayin color Magnetic This when brush applied to a te6tpiece. ..'16"

Fig. 65

of rototion oI fldks of @snelSa}ffitic i. point ot tIe rii ol o di*driNiry

Ilw indi@ti; ldo* ieaicol line ner <nler) ond ho*s.ound. to)6.1 rotio, (b) l0,l rotio. Mosneri. Poinl ,iros dpplied ;y;y bore metol (opper bond odo$ iidicdtion) ond 06 o.l5 hn (0.006 in,), 0.30 mm (0.012 in.), qnd 0.,(6 mm (0.0t9 i..) lhick.eier ol lronsPornl

ris. ooffi,fl-]'"I,.: i$i,'1.''druT':

l2E / Methods of Nondestructive Eyqludtion

indicates that the flakes are oriented with their faces predominantly parallel to the surfaceand tend to reflect the ambient lisht. Becausethe flakes lend ro align themseives wilh a magneric leakagefield. lhey vinually stand on end when subjected to the leakate field associaled with a cracktikedisconrinuity. These edges.being relativelvpoor rellectors oflight, appear as dark, contras{ing lrnes against the light-gray background. Broad leakage fields result in corrispondingly broad dark areas. lo a . Th natureofthe indicaliondpends, slgn lcant extent, on the ratio ofoil-to-flake used in thr sJurry mix. The sandard mixture provides good contrast between indications and background as well as relatively long permanence. However, the concentra_ Ion can be diiuted. by increasins the oil_ to-flake ratio, to achieve greater i-ndicarrne sensitivjty (Fig. 66). Diluting the mixtur; resulls In some loss of conlrast and indica_ tion permanenee- Although the matedal is supplied having an oil-to-flake ratio of the

order of 6:1, ratios as high as Z0:l can be used.

REFERENCES

l. Mater.Eral.,Vol30 (No. l0), Oct 1972, p 2t9-228 Applicclions 2. Y.F. Cheu,Automatic Cmck Detection Becausemagletic painting is a recenr With Computer Vision and pattem Recdevelopment, field applications have beeo ognition of Magnetic Particle Indicalimited. However, extensive laboratorv tions,Mater. Eral,, Nov 1984 lestinghas produced favorableresultsand suggests that improvedtestingcapabililies REFERENCES can be realizedin the followins areasof SEI.ECTED application: . "Desgriptionand Applicationsof Magnetic-Rubber Inspection," General Dy. Inspection of welds in pipeiines. tank namicsCorooration cars, shipbuilding. pressure versels. and e J.E. Halkiai, W.T. Kaarleta,J.D. Reygeneral structural steelconstruction nolds,andH.J, Weltman,MRI-HeID for . Field inspectionof used drill pipe and Some Dfficult NDT Problems,Mater. tut'lng Eval.,Vol 3| (No. 9), Septtnl . Overhauland routinefield maintenance . "Inspecrion Process. Magnetic Rubber," on aircraft, trucks, buses,and railroad MIL-l-81387. Military Specification, equipment U.S. Air Force. Auc li72 a General industrialmainte[anceinsDec- . M, Pevar,New Magnetic Test Includes tion of structuralparts and equipment Stainless Steel,Prod. Eng., Vol 32 (No. comDonents p 6 ) , 6 F e b1 9 6 1 . 4l-43

tognetic tield fesfing

R.E. Beissner, Southwesf Reseqrch Institute MAGNETIC FIELD TESTING includes serveas illustrations ofthis typeofmagnetIf a sloais cut in the rod, as illustratedin some of the older and more widely used rc lesrln8. Fig. 1(b),the poles on the surfaceof this methodsfor the nondestructive evaluation The principles andtechniques of leakage slot arenow alsouncompensated andthereof materials. Historically, such methods field testingand magnetic characterization fore produce a localized magrietic field near havebeenin usefor more than 50 yearsin are described in the two sections that fol- the slot. This additional magnetic field, the examination of magneticmaterialsfor low. Thesesectionswill discussconcepts whichis represnted by the extm flux lines defects suchascracks. voids.or inclusions and methodsthat a.e essentialto an under- in Fig. l(b), is the leakagefield assocjated of foreign material. More reccndy, magnet- standingof the applications described in with the slot. ic methods for assessing other material later sectionsThe examples ofapplications Figurel, although adequate for a qualitaproperties,such as grain size, texture, or presnted in the third section will providea tive understanding of thc origin of leakage hardness, have receivedincreasingatten- brief overviewof the vafiety of inspection fields, doesnot pmvide an exact quantitation. Because of this diversionof applica- methods that fall underthe general heading tive description.The difficulty is thc asremains tions, it is natural to divid the field of of magnetic testing. sumptionthat the magnetization uniform when the flaw is introduced.In magneticmaterialstestinginto two parts, general, the this dosnot happen, one directed toward defect detectionand Prlnclpler because ol flognetlr presence the characterization andthe othcr aimedat ma- lonkrge of flaw the magnetic changes Fleld to.llng terialpropeniesmeasurements. field in the vicinity of the flaw, and this in This article is p.imarily concemed.with Origin ol Daled leokoge Fieldr The tum leadsto a changein magnetizationnear the first classof applications, namely,the origin of the flaw leakag field is illustrated the flaw, With regardto Fig. l, this means detection. classification, and sizingof ma- in Fig. l. Figure l(a) shows a uniformly that the strcng.lhs and orientationsof the terial flaws. However,an attempthasalso magnetized rod, which consists of a large elementary dipoles(magnets) actuallyvary beenmadeto provideat leastan introduc- number magnets aligned with from point to point in the vicinity of the ofelementary to tory descriptionof materialscharactcnza- the direction of magnetization. Insidethe flaw, and this variationalso contributes tion principles,alongwith a few examples material, ach magnetic pole is exactly theflaw leakage field. The end resultis that ofan adjacent the accumtedescriptionof a flaw leakage of applicationsThis is supplementd by compensated by the presence polarity,andthe net result field poses problem poleof opposite references to other review articls. a difricult mathematical All magneticmethodsof flaw detection is that interiorpolesdo not contdbute to the thatusuallyrequires a special-purpose comrely in some way on the detection and magnetic field outsidethe material.At the putercodefor its solulion. mcasurernnt of the rBagneticflux leakage surfaces,bowevet, mag$eticpgles are unErperimenlol fechnique. One of the produce apfield nearthe surface andtherefore a mag- first considerations of the material, which compensatcd in the experimental is caused leakage field methods by the presence of thc flaw. For netic field in the region sunoundingthe plicationof magnetic field in Fig. l(a) by is the generation this reason, magnetic are specimen. This is illustrated of a suitable magnetic testingtechnigues uncompensated ele- within the material-In someferromagnetic often describedas flux leakagefield or flux lines connecting penurbationmethods.The mag- mentarypoles. magnetic materials. the residualfield (th field that neticparticleinspection methodis one such flux leakagemethodthat derivesits name from the particularmethodusedto detect the leakagefield. Becausethe magnetic particlemethodis describdin the article "MagDetic Particlelnspection"in this Volume,the techniques discussed in this article will be limited to other forms of leakage field measulement. Although it is conceivable that leakage field fluctuations associated with metallurgical microstructure might be used in the analysis of materialproperties, the characterizationmethods now in use rely on bulk measurements of the hystereticproperties of material magnetization or of some related phenomenon. such as Barkhausen noise. Thc principles andapplications of magnetic presented characterization in thisarticleare EilskosEfcld'. io) frdsnoric flux lin.sofo mosnot wifiout o d.i6d. (b)l'rdsctic flu,(liGi r orisin of de6ect not intendd to be exhaustive, but ratherto ' 'ilt' ' of o mosnl w h o rurioo dle.l. Source,Ref I

l3O / Methods of Nondestructive Evoluotion

Circular
Face of rearch .oil prpendicuhr to s! rf3ce and preferably parallel ro crack

Steel in preience ol maqneric field to produce maqneriz:rion

D.////, //4
Line! ol hagnetic

1--.r/;

itux wirhin specamen lild Appliedmagnetic

Fis.

3 :*i g]g:Ryil'ene"

,'ine d sr'h

(d)

quiresthat the coil be in motionso that the flux throughthe coil changes with time. The principle is illustratedin Fig. 3, in which the coil is orientedso as to sense the change in flux parallelto the sudaceof thc specimen. )f the direction o[ coil motionis taken as r, then the inducedelectromotive force, E, in volts is givenby:
t r'&hod3 ol msEtirqtion, (l ) Heod-sld m*'od. (b) ^,idsnrtizotionwirh prod'. (c) /i{ds.erirotion rirh o centrol(ondu.ror.(d) Lonsihrd;nol mosn!t'!or,d. (.)Yok. nosn tirorion dB.lx t - 10-.N/dx tll

'tid 'rt'

remains after removal of an extemal mas, It is possible a magnetic to generate field netizing field) is ofren adequate for surface in a specimen eitherdirecdy or indirectly flaw detcction. In practice, however, resid- (Ref10'12). In directmagnetization, cunent ual magnetization is rarely used becauseuse is passed directlythrough the part.With the of an applied magnetizing field ensures that indirect approach, magnetization is induced the material is in a desired magnetic state by placing the partin a magnetic fieldthatis (which should be known and well cha.ac- generated by an adjacent currentsonductor terized) and because applied fields provide or wfmanent magnetThis can be done,for more flexibility (that is, one can produce a example, a conductor through by threading high or low flux density in the specimen as a hollowpar[ suchasa tubeor by passingan desired). electric cufient through a cable wound Experience has shown that control of the aroundthe pan. Methodsof magnetizing a strenglh and direction of the magnetization part both directly and indircctly are illuscan be useful in improving flaw detectability tratedschematically in Fig. 2. and in discriminating among difl'erent types The flaw leakage field can bc dctected offlaws (Ref I-9). In general, the magnrtude with one of several typesof magnetic field of the magoetization should be chosen to sedsors. Aside from the use of magnetic maximize the flaw leakagefield with respect particles, the sensors most oftn usedare to other field sources that might interfcre theinductive coilandtheHalleffecr device. with flaw detection; the optimum magneti, The inductiv coil sensor is basedun zalion is usually difnculr to dlermine in Faraday'slaw of induction,which states advanceofa test and is often approachedby lhat the voltageinduced in the coil is protrial-and-error The direc- portional experimentation. to lhe numberof turnsin the coil tion of the field should be perpendicular to multiplied by the timerate of change of the the largest flaw dimension to maximize the flux threading the cail (Ref l3). tt follows effect ofthe flaw on the leakase field. that detectionof a magnetosta(ic fie(d re-

where N is the number of tums ir the coil, A is its cross-sectional area, and B is the flux delsity, in Gauss, parallel to the surface of the part. Thus, the voltage induced in the coil is proportional to the gradient of the flux density along the direction of coil motion multiplied by the coil velocity. Figure 4 shows rhe flux density typical of the leakage field from a slot, along with the correspooding signal from a search coil oriented as rn Fig. 3. Unlike the inductiye coil, which provides a measure of the flux gradient, a Hall effect sensor diiectly measures the component of the flux itself in the dircction perDendicular to the sensitive area of the deviie (Ref l). Because(he .esponseof a Hall effect sensor does not depend on the motion ofthe probe, it can be scanoed over the surface to be inspected at any rate that is mechanically convenient. In this respect.thc Hall device has an advantage over the coil sensor because there is no need to maintain a constant scanoing speed duridg the inspection. On the other hand, Hall ellect sensors are morc difficult to fabricate. are somewhat delicate compared to inductive coil sensors, and require more complex lectronics.

Mognetic Field lesring / l3l

AP is equal to the depth, D, or a spheiical inclusioo

Eir '!l' sion {b) o 2 4 6 I 10 Posilionol corl. mm

't

DependeG of mdg*ri< risnol pol sepororion {o) on ile depth of o sphoricol inclu-

g*:';'.;'li"' * " Fts.4 ffi:T.lLll"d.

Othermagnet-ic fieldsensors thatareused lessoften in leakage field applicalions in(Ref l4), cludethe flux gatemagnetometer (Ref l5), magnetic magnetoresistive sensors rcsolancesensom(Ref 16), and magnetographicsensors (Ref l7), in whichthe magneticfield at the surfaceof a part is registeredon a magnetic tape pressed onto the sunace. ' Anolysisof LeokogeField Dolq. In most applications of the leakagefield method, thcreis a neednot only to detcctthe presence of a flaw but also to estimate its severity.This leadsto the problemof flaw characterization, that is, the dtermination of flaw dimensionsfrom an analysisof leakage field data. The most widely used method of flaw characterization is basedon the assumptionsthat the leakage field signalamplitude is proportional to the sizeofthe flaw (which usuallymeansits depth into the material) and that the signalamplitude can therefore be takenas a direct measurc of flaw severity. In situatioN where all flaws have approximately the sameshape andwherecalibration experiments show that the signal proportional amplitude is indeed to the slze pammeter of concem,this empiricalmethod of sizingworksquite well (Ref l8). There are, however,many situationsof interestwhere flaw shapesvary considerably and where signal amplitude is nor uniquely related to flaw depth,asis the case for conosionpits in steeltubing(Ref 19).In addition,differenttypes of flaws, such as cracks and pits, canoccurin the same part, ir which caseit becomes necessary to determinethe flaw typs presentas well as theirseverity.In suchcases, a morecareful analysis of the relationship btweensignal and flaw characteristics is requiredif seriouserrorsin flaw characterization are to be avoided.

One of the earliestattemptsto use a modelin the analysis of leakage theoretical on the analytic solution fielddatawasbased inclufor thc field perturbed by a spherical were sion (Ref 20, 2l). Two conclusions drawn from this analysis. First, when one the lakage measures flux component norof the pan, the centerof mal to the surface belowthe scanplaneat a theflaw is located equalto the peak-to-peak separadistance in the flaw signal(Fig.5), and tion distance second,the peak-to-peak signalamplitude to the flaw volume,A numis proportional restsof thesesizing ber of experimental ruleshaveconfirmed the predicted relationinclusionsin saeel ships for nonmagnetic parts(Ref 2l). Furthrtheoretical andexperimental data inclusionsand surfacepits for spheroidal haveshown,however, that the simple charrulesfor spherical do acterization inclusions not apply when the flaw shapdifferssignificantly from the ideal sphere.In such the signalamplitude cases, depnds on the lateralextentof the flaw andon its volume, on the basis andcharacterization of leakage becomes much morecomplifield analysis cated(Ref 19,22). Finally, there has ben at least one attemptto applyfinite-element of calculations fields to the development flaw leakage of rules for a more general charactedzation classof llaws. Hwang and Lord (Ref 23) performedmost of their computations for and suchas rectangular simplcflaw shapes, triaogular slots and inclusio$s, a$dfrom the a setof rulesfor estimating resultsdevised the depth,width,andangle ofinclinationof a flaw with respect to the surface of the part. One of their applications to a flaw of is shownin Fig. 6. complexshape The promising resultsobtained from the work of HwangandLord, as finite-element well asthe analytically based work on sphethat the estimation roidal flaws, suggest of from leakage flaw sizeand shape field data Anothernumerical is feasible. methodpoproblems to flux leakage tentiallyapplicable

.onfigurotion Blinot d tsom ific lakose ficld doro.

Fis. 6 fl ffid'ff'jg.n:: 1"!".fJlu,*",.ii

is the boundary integralmethod,which may prove useful in flaw characterization. Unfortunately, muchmorework must be done oIl both the theoretical basisand on erperimentaltestingbeforeit will be possible to analyze experimentalleakage field data with confidence in termsofflaw chamcterlstrcs.

Frlmlpler of flegnetic Chofir.toi|tatlon ol fioterlolr

Metollurgicol qnd Mognetic Propertii. The useofmagneticmeasurements to monpropertiesof ferr} itor the metallurgical magneticmaterials is based on the fact that phase, variablessuch as crystallographic chemicalcomposition, and microstructure, which determine of the physicalproperties materials, alsoaffecttheir magnetic charac(Ref24-26), teristics Someparameters, such as grain size and orientation, dislocation density, and th existenceof precipitates, arecloselyrelated sharacterto mcasurabl isticsof magnetic that is, to the hysteresis, behavior ofthe flux density,t, inducedin a field materialas a functionof the magnetic strength, 11. This relationship in princanbe understood ciple from the physical thory of magnetic domains(Ref 27). Magnetizationin a particular directionincreases as the domainsaligned in that direction $ow at the expnseof domainsalignedin other dirctions.Factorsthat impededomain growth also impede dislocation motion;hence at a very the connection, fundamental level, btweenmagneticandmechanicalpropertie!. Other magneticproperties,such as the which is the maxsaturation magnetization, imum value B can achieve, or the Curie

132 / l[erhods of Nondestructive Evdludtion

tions. Barkhausen noise is therefore deoendenl on microslruclure and can be used independently of hystercsis measurmnts, or in conjunction with such measurements, as another method of magnetic testing. The experimental arangement differs from that shown in Fig. 7 in that a single sensor coil, oriented to measur the flux normal to the surface ofthe specimen, is used instead of the Hall probe and the flux winding. The review articles and conference Droceedings cited above contain additionaldetail on experimeotal technique and a wealth of information orl the interpretation of hysteresis and Barkhausen data. However, it should b noted that test methods and data interpretation are often very specific to a particular classof alloy, and techniquesthat seem to work well for one type of material may be totally inappropriate for another. The analysis of magnetic characterization data is still la.gely empbicat in natqrc, and controlledtestingo[ a candidatetechnique with the specific alloy system of interest is advisable.

Appllccllonr
Flow Detection by the Flux Leokoge Method, Perhaps the'mostprevalent use-of the flux lakagemethod is the inspectiol of Fig. 7 r'p-r*,'r"t o"o|'gemerr tor trrrr6.i' r@p ,'Eso.e@Drs, so!'cal &r 32 ferromagntic tubula! goods, such as gas pipelines, down hole casing,and a variety ofother formsofsteelpiping(Ref35,36).In temperature at which therc is a transition to tial elemeuts are an electromagnet for gen- applications in the petroleum industry,the a nonmagnetic state, are less deFendent on eratingthe magnetizing field, a coil wound techniqueis highly developed, but details microstructure, but are sensitive to such around the specimen for measuring the time on inspection devicesand methods of data factors as crystal structure and chemical rateof change ofthe magnetic flux, 8, in the analysis are, for the most part, considered composition. Interst in the magnetic char- material, anda magnetic field sensor, in this p.oprietaryby the companies that provide actenzation of materials, principally steels, casea Hall effectprob,for measuring the inspection services. Still. the techniques derives from many such relationships be- magnetic field strength,/1, parallelto the currently in use have certain featurcsrn tween measurablemagnetic parametersand surfaceof the part. The signalgenrator common,and theseare exemplified by the metallurgical properties. These relatton- providesa low-frequencymagnetizing field , typical system described below. ships are, however, quite complicated in typically of the order of a few Hertz, and Thc deviceshownin Fig. 8 is an inspecgeneral, and it is ofrendifficult to derermine the output of the flux measuring coil is tion tool for large-diameter pipelines. Maghow or if a particular measurementor com, integrated over time to givethe flux density netizationis provided by a large electrobination of measurements can be used to in the material. In thearangement shownin magnetfitted with wire brushesto otrecr determine a p.operty of interest. Neverthe- Fig. ?, an additional feature is the provisron magnetic fluX from the electromagnet into less, the prospectof nondestructive moni- for applying a tensile loadto the specimen the pipe wall. To avoid spurious$iSnals tonog and quality control is an attractive for studiesof the efrectsof stresson lhe from hardspotsin the material,the magneone, and for this reason research on mae- hysteresis data,Wbenusinga rod specimen tizatior circuit is designedfor maximum netic materials characterizarion continuJs suchas ihis, it is important that th length- flux densityin the pipewall in an attemptto to be an active field. to-diameter ratio of the specimen be large magnetically the materialLeakage salu.ate It is not the purpose of this article to so as to minimize the effectsof strayfields field sensors between the oole are mounted explore such magnetic methods in depth, from the ends of the rod on the measure- pieces of the magnet in a circlearound the but simply to point out that it is an active mentsof I andIt. axis of the deviceto provide, as nearlyas branch of nondestructive magnetic testing. Another magneticmethod that uses a possible, full coverage of the pipe wall. In The more fundamental aspects of the rela- similararrangement is th measurement of most suchtools,the sensors are the inductionship between magnetismand metallurgy Barkhausen noise(Ref33, 34).As the mag- tive coil type, oriented to measure the axial are discussed in Ref26 and 28. EngineerinS netic field stren8h, 11,is variedat a very component of the lakagefield gradient. considerations are reviewed in Ref 24- The slow rate, discontinuous jumps in the mag- Dataa.e usuallyreco.ded on magdetic tape procecdings of various symposia also con- netization of the materialcan be obscrveq asthe system is propelled down a section of laln seveBl papers that provide a good duringcenain portions of the hysreresispipe. After the inspection, the recorded sigoveaview of thc current status of masnetic cycle.These jumps are associated with the nals are compared with thosefrom calibramaterials characterization (Ref 29-3l). growth of a seriesof magnetic sudden do- tion standards in an attempt to interpret tlaw Experimentol Technique3. A typical set- mainsthat have beentemporarily stopped indications in termsof flaw type and size. up tor measuringthe B-It characteristic of a from further growth by such obstacles as In additionto systems for inspecting rorod specimen is shown in Fig. 7, The essen, g.ain boundaries, precipitates, or disloca- tationallysymmetriccylindricalparts,flux

l ognetic Field lesring / 133

Fig.8rypi."tg"'piP.|iEi.!FdionPi9'f9toolconsi3rsofodritUnit,dnin!h.,.rBnto|ionihh.oidqenif3ecii6willtone|.G|.qn

leakageinspectionhas beenappliedto very irregular components,such as helicopter rotor blade D-spars(Ref 37),gearteeth (Ref (Ref 39). Sev38), and anillery projectiles applications eral of these special-purpose have involved only laboratory investigations. but in somecases instrusDcialized -been mentation systemshavc developed and fabricated for factory use. These systemsare uniqulyadapted to the particular involved,andin mostcases application only oneor at most several instrumentation systernshave beeDbuilt, Eyen in the caseof laboratory i vestigatiofls, special-purpose detectionprobe and magnetizing arrangements have been developcdfor specific applications. One such systemfor automated thread inspectionon drill pipe and collars is describcdin Ref40, The deviceconsists of an electromagnet and an array of sensors mountedoutsidea nonmagnetic cone that threads onto the tooljoint. The assembly is drivenin a helicalpathalongthe threads by a motorlcl'Jtch assembly. To minirize the flux signalvariations leakage caused by the threads,signalsfrom the sensorarray are differentially. compared The systemis capable of opemaing in a high field strength modefor the detection of cmcks and corrosionpits andalsoin a residual fieldmodefor the detection of other formsof damage. At last rcport, the system wasundergoing iteld testsand wasfound to offer advantages, in tems of ease of applicationand defect particletechdetection,over the magnetic niquenormailyusedfor threadinspection. The flux leakage methodis also finding applicationin the inspctionof ropesand cables made of strands of ferromagnetic material.Oneapproach is to inducemagnetization in the piece by meansof an encrclingcoil energized by a directcuoent (dc). With this method, onemeasures the leakage field associated with brokenstrands usinga Hall effectprobeor an auxiliarysensor coil, A complementary methodwith altemating current(ac),which is actuallyan eddy current test rather than flux leakage,is to lhe ac impedance measure in an variations

encircling coil caused by irregularities in the tizationin permeable in its vicinstructurcs cross-sectionalarca of the specimen, ity, such as steel rebars, cables, and (Ref 4l) describe stimrps, An array of Hall efect sensors Haynesand Underbakke practicalfield tests of an instrumentation distributedacrossthe bottom and sidesof system that utilizes both the ac and dc the beammeasures the field producedby methods. that instrumenta- magnetized They conclude structures within the beam.If a tion capable of a combination of inspection flaw is present in one of thesemagnetized techniques offersthe bestpossibility of de- structures, it will producea disturbance of tectingboth localized flawsandoverallloss the normalmagnetic field pattemassoiated of crosssection causcd by generalized cor- with the unflawed beam. Thus, the idea rosionandwear,Theyalsopresent detailed behind the MFD system is to searchthe information on the practicalcharacteristics surface ofthe beamfor field anomalies that of a commerciallyavailabledevice that makesuse of both the ac and dc methodsAnother area in which the flux leakage methodhasbeensuccessfully implemented is the i spection of rolling-element antiiric(Ref42-45). A schematic tiorlbearings illustrationof the method asappiiedto an inner bearingrace is shown in Fig. 9. In this application, the part is magnetized by an electromagnet, asindicated in Fig.9(a).The race is then rotatedby a spindlc,and the surlaceis scanned with an inductioncoil sensor,Typically, the race js rotatedat a surface speed of about2.3m/s(7.5fvs), and the activeportionofthe raceway is inspectindexing the sensor ed by incrementally Magnetizing fieldsare acrossthe raceway. applied in the radial and circumferential orientations. It hasbeenshownthat radial field inspection works best for surface field inspection flaws,while circumferential show$ greater sensitivity to Eubsurface flaws(Ref43).Datahavebeencollected on a laryenumber ofbearingracesto establish thecorrelation between leakage fieldsignats andinclusion depths and dimensions deter(Ref 44, mindby metallurgical sectioning 45), method Finally,the flux leakage hasalso been adaptedto the inspctionof steel in concretebeams(Ref 46, reinforcement 47).The basicfunctionofthe magnetic fiid (MFD) inspection disturbance equipment is to providemaps ofthe magnetic fieldacross the bottomandsidesof the beam.An electromagnet on an inspction cart, which is suspended on tracksbelowthe beam,pro- holion in rhe mogneri< ,tux or the ru.foae of 16 inft. videsa magnetic field that induces magne- ro@. (c) Probe rconii.s ths ,urfoc

F is. e l]iffi:"1%i[:T'?t*'i.:y6r*i:

134 / Merhods of Nondestructive Evoluction

Magdeli. rield slrengrh (,1/ ), Oe,sled -100 -s0 0 50 r00 Magneticleld strenglh (H), Oercled -100 -50 0 50 100

22

;
P O

'-. rii;3" I

1.Q

/ I "'-T )/"i^:0".""
I
B 4 0 4

nh

t0 o i

1 D

(, .
tr

42NRc

8 (b)

lilag.et c lied srrenglh (H), A/m x 1d

(H), A/mx 1d Magneliclield slrength

(.)

both artificial samplescontaining two layers of differeot carbon content and iDdustrial samplesin which carbon concentration varied smoothly with distance from the surface. It was shown that certain features ofboth Barkhausen noise and incremental permeability dara can be correlated \vith depth of decarburization, The Barkhausen noise melhodshoweda somewhalstrongerrensitivity to depth, but was useful ovcr a smaller range of depths than the incremental permeability method- It can be concluded that both methodsare useful,with the optimum choice depending on accuracy requirements and the expected depth of decarbufization.

(o)alsl410.roinl.$.t onhlare.Eis l@P ddrd .1.(b)saE /3103r.., Fig, I 0 5:fr":filf#ni@l hd.d.4s

nrrfnfNCes

1. R.E. Beissner.G.A. Matzkanin. and C.M. Teller, "NDE Applications of indicate the presencc offlaws in reinforcing 10,These datawereobtained in the absence Mag[eticLeakage Field Methods,"Resteelwithin the structure. port NTIAC-8G.1, ofappliedtensilestress with the experimenSouthwest Research A flaw, such as a brokenwire in a cable tal a.ranSemelt shownin Fig. 7. Specimens lnstitute, 1980 or a fracturedrebar,produces wereprepared a distinctive of differenthardness by tem- ?. G. Dobmann,MagneticLeakageFlux magnetic field anomaly that depends Techniques on the peringat differcnttemperalures. The grain in NDT: A Statcof the Art size of the discontinuily and its disrance size(ASTMNo. 7) wasthe same for all four Survey of the Capabilities for Defect from the sensor.Because the signalshape specimens Detectionaod Sizing, in Electromagusd in thesetests. Other data thatresults from suchan anomaly is known, showed,however,that grain sizahaslittle hetic Methodsof NDT, V,l.Lord, Ed., flaw detection is enhancedby searching effecton hysteretic behavior for the classes Gordonand Breach,1985 magnetic fierd records for specific signal of alloys studied. 3. P, Heiller and G. Dobmann,Physical that is, thoscthat are characteristic The main point illustratedin Fig. l0 is shapes, Analysis Methods of Magnetic Flux of discontinuities in rnagnetic materials. In that the mechanically harderspecimens Leakage.in ResearchTechniques of in the MFD system,this is aacomplished NDf, Vol IV, R.S. Sharpe,Ed., Acaby a the samealloy are alsoharderto magnetize: computer program that comparessignal that is, the flux density,r, obtainedat a demicPress,1980 shapes with typicalflaw signalshapes. for mechanically 4. F. F6rster, Magntic Findingsin the The Iargevalueof Il is smaller progam produces a comelation coefficient harderspecimens thanfor softer specimens. Fields of Nondestructive Magnetic that serves as a measure of similarityofthe For one alloy, AISI 410stainless LeakageField Inspection, NDT Iht., steel,the observedsignal shape to a tFical flaw hysteresis loop intersects p3 the I = 0 axisat Vol 19, 1986, signal shape. Flaw detection is therefore not iarger valuesof ff for the harder spesimo 5. F. Fd.ster, Magnetic Leakage Field only enhanced by signal shape discrimina- than for the softer specimen; that is, the Melhod of Nondestructive Tesring. tion but also automated by computerpro- coercive force is greater for the harder Mater- Eval., Vol 43, 1985, p I 154 cessing of the magnetic field data. material.Howevr,for lhe other material, 6. F. Fdrster, Magnetic Leakage Field I-aboratorytests have demonstrated forcedoesnot Methodof Nondestruciive (Part the SAE 4340steel,the coercive Testing abilityof the system to derectfracrure with hardness. This suggests 21,Mater. Eval-, Vol 41, 1985, p 1198 in chang that, steelrebars andcables in a largeprestressed ior the two alloys consideredhere, the 7. F. Fdrster.Nondestructive Insoecrron concretes[ructure(Ref 47). Also planned saturation flux densityprovidesa morereby the Method of MagneticLeakage are field lestsof the equipment in the in- liable measure of hardness than the coerFields, Theoreticaland Experimental spection of b.idge decksfor rcinforcemenr cive forc4. Foundations of lhe Deleciionof Surface corrosiondamage. Mayos e, a/. (Ref 48) used two quite Cracks of Finite and lnfinite DeDth. Nondertruciive Chorocterizdtion o{ diffrent techniques to measure thedepthof S o vJ . . N D T ,V o l 1 8 .1 9 8 2 p, 8 4 1 Moteriqls. Only two examples of magnetic surface decarburizationof steels. One 8. F. Forster.Theoreticaland ExDerimenmethods for monitoringmaterialproperties methodwas a variationof a standard tal Developments eddy in Magnetic Stray are given becausethe exampleschosen currenttest, with the difference Flux Techniques from stanfor DefectDetction, shouldsufficeto illustratethe typesofresrs dardpractice p 168-171 beingthat eddy currcntprobe Br, J. NDT.Nov 1975, that might be employed.Measurements wasmeasured of respoflse in the prescnce 9. J.R. Barton and F.N. Kusenberger, of a magnetic characteristics (-0.1 Hz) magneticfield. can,however, pro- low-frequency "Magnctic PerturbationInspectionto vide a wealthof data,and variousfearurcs This arrangement providesa measure Improve Reliability of High Strength of ofsuchdatacan yieldinformation on differ- incremental permeability, that is, the magSteel Components,"Paper 69-DE-58, ent materialpropertiesFor example, presented it has netic permeability corresponding to at a conference of the Design beendemonstrated that differentfeatures Engineering of chaogesin the appliedfield about some Division of ASME, New magnetic hysteresis datacan be interpreted quasistatic value.The secondmethodemYork, AmericanSocietyof Mechanical in termsof heat treatment and microstruc- ployed wasBarkhausen noisc analysis. Engineers, May l 9 ture, plastic deformation,residual stress, Depth of decarburization was analyzcd 10. R.C. McMaster. Nondeslr(ctivefesrand mechanical (Ref 25). hardness by varyingthe frequency of the excitation ing Nandbook,Vol Il, Section30, The An exarnpje of the effectsof mechanical field, thus changing the skin depth ir the RonaldPrcssCompaoy,19-59 hardncss on hysteresis datais shownin Fiq. material. Experimeflts werepedormed with I | - H.J. Bezer,Magnetic Methods of Non-

tvlsgnetl.

Field fe3rang / | 35

destructive Testing,Part I, Br. ,l- NDT, Properties of Steel,Mater, Eval., Yol vision, The Boeing Company,25 July ,14,1986, p 85-93;Part 2, Dec 1964, p 560 Sept 1964, p 1968 l@-l2z 25. D.C. Jiles,Evaluation ofthe Properties 39. R.D. Williams andJ.R. Banon,"Mag12. F,W. Dunn, MagneticParticleInspecandTreatment Steels of Ferromagnetic netic Perturbation Inspectionof Artiltion Fundamentals, Mater. Eval-, Dec UsingMagnetic Measurements, in Prolery Projectiles,"AMMRC CTR 77-23, 19'17 ceedings of the Second Naional SemiFinal Report,ContractDAAG46-76C, p 42-4'l 13. C.N. Owston,The MagneticLeakage nat on Nondcstructive Evaluationo!' 00?5,Army Materials and Mechanics Field Technique of NDT, ,Br."I. NDT, Ferromagnetic Materials, Dresser AlResearch Center,Sept 1977 p 162 Vol 16,1974, las, 1986 40. M.C. Moyerand B.A. Dale,An Auto Non-Destructive 14. F. Flirster, Yan lnspection 26. R.M.'Bozofth, Ferromagnetism, mated ThreadInspection Devicefor the of Tubingand RoundBillets by Means Nostrand,l95l Drilf String,in Proceedines of the First of LeakageFIux Probes,Br. J. NDT, 27. C. Kittel and J.K. Galt, Ferromagnetic Naltonal Seminar on Nondestructive lan 1977 DomainTheory,in SolidState Physics, I nipectionof Feftofiagne tic Mateiol s, , p 26-32 15. A. Michio and'1. Yamada, Silicon Vol 3, Academic Press,1970 MagDresser Atlas, 1984 netodiode, in Proceedings of the Sec- 28. S, Chikazuma and S.H. Charap,Ptys- 4t. H.H. Haynes and L.D. Underbakke, ond Conference on Solid StateDevices ics of Magnetism, "NondestructiveTest Equipment for JohnWiley & Sons, (Tokyo), 1970;supplementto J- Jpr. 1964 Wire Rope," ReportTN-1594, Civil Enp 9l-98 29. Proceedings gineering Soc-Appl. Phys.,Vol 40, 1971, of the 3rd Intemational Laboratory,Naval Construc16. B. Auld and C,M, Fortunko, "Flaw Symposium on Nondestructive tion BattalionCenter, 1980 CharccDetection With Ferromagnetic terization of Mal"ridl$, Springer-Ver- 42. J.R.Ba.ton, ResoJr., andP.L. J. Lankford, nanceProbes," Paperpresented lag,to be published at the Hampton, Advanced Nondestructive ARPTAFML Review of Progressin 10, Proceedings of the ThirdNationalSemTesting Methods for Bearing Inspecp 681 NDE, ScrippsInstitution inar on Nondestructive Etaluation of tion, Irdnr. S,,{8,Vol 81, 1972, Quantitirtive July 1978 of Oceanography, Ferromagnetic Materials, Atlas Wire- 43. F.N. Kusenbergerand J,R. Barton, 17. F. Fdrster,Dvelopmqnt in the Magneline Services, "Development of Diagnostic Test 1988 tographyof Tubes and Tube Welds, 31. D.O. Thompson and D.E. Chimenti, Equipmntfor InspctionAntifriction p 3M-308 Non-Deslt.Terr., Dec 1975, Fd,, Review oJProgtess in Qusntitative Bearings,"AMMRL CTR 7-13, Final 18. W. Stumm, Tube Testingby ElectroNDE, Vol 7, Plenum hess, 1988 Report,Conlract Nos. DAAC46-74-Cmagnetic NDE Methods-1,Nol,-Dertt. 32. H. Kwun and C-L- Burkhardt,Effects 0012 and DAAG,|G75-C-0001,U.S. p 251-256 Tesr.,Oct 1974, of Grain Size, Hardnessand Stresson Army Materials and Mechanics Re19.R.E. Beissner,6.L.Burkhardt. the Magnetic Hysteresis Loops of FerM.D. search Center,M^rch 1977 Kilman, and R.K. Swanson, Magnetic romagnetic Steels, ./. ,,{ppl.Phys., Vol 44. J.R. Barton and J. Laokford, "Magp 1576 Leakage FieldCalculations for Spheroi61, 1987, netic Perturbation Inspectionof Inncr daf Inciusions,in Prcceedings The of the 33. J.C. Mcclule and K. Schroeder. BearingRaces," NASA CR-2055, NaSecondNational Seminar on NondeMagnetic Barkhausen Effeat,CRCCrit, tional Aeronautics and SpaceAdminisp 45 structiveEvaluattion of Ferrcmagnetic Rev.SolidState Sd., Vol 6. 1976. tration,May 1972 Materials,Dresser Atlas, 1986 34. G.A- Matzkanin. R-E. Beissner. and 45, R.J. Parker,"Correlation of Magnetic 20. G.P. Hamwell,Ptinciplesof Elect city C.M. Teller, "The Barkhausen Effect Perturbation Inspection DataWith RollandM agnetism, 2nded., Mccraw-Hill, and lts Applications to Nondestructive ing-Element BearingFatigueResults," 1949 Evaluation," Report NTIAC-79-2, Paper73-Lub-37, AmericanSocietyof 21. C,G, Gardnerand F-N. Kusenberger, Southwest Research Institute,1979 Mechanical Engineers, Oct 1973 Quantitative Nondestructive Evalua- 35, P.E. Khalileev and P.A. Crigor'ev, 46- F.N. Kusenbergerand J.R, Barton, "Detectionof Flaws in Reinforcing tion by the Magnetic Field Penurbation Methodsof Testing the Conditionof Method, in Ptevention of Srracturul Underground Pipesin Main Pipelines Steel in Prestressed Concrete Bridge (Review), Failurc: TheRoteof Suantitative NonSor,.J. NDT, Vot l0 (No. 4), Members," lnterim Repofi on Contlact destrucliveEvaluation, T.D. Cooper, July-Augl9?4,p 418459 No. DOTFH-l l-8999,FederalHighway P.F. Packman, and B.G.W. Yee, Ed., 36. W.M. Rogers,New Methods for InAdministration, 1977 No. 5 in the Materials/Metalworking Placelnspectionof Pipelines,in Pro- 47. R.E, Beissner, C.E. McGinnis,and TechnologySeries,AmericanSociety ceedings of the l6th MechanicalWorkJ.R, Barton,"Laboratory Test of Mag(MFD) System for Metals,1975 ing and Steel Processing Confetence netic Field Disturbance (Dolton,IL), Iron and SteelSocietyol 22. M.J. SablikandR.E. Beissner, for Detectionof Flaws in Reinforcing Theory p 471-479 of Magnetic Leakage FieldsFrom ProAIME, 1974, Steel," Final Report qn Contract No. late and Oblate Spheroidal [nclusions, 37. J.A. Birdwell, F.N. Kusenbergr, and DTFH6I-80-C-00002, FederalHighway p 8437 J. Appl.Phys., Vol53, 1982, J.R. Barton,"Development of MaBnetAdministration, 1984 23. J.H. Hwang and W. Lord, Magretic ic Perturbation lnspection Systm 48. M, Mayos, S, Segalini,and M. Putig(A02CS005-1). for CH-46 Rotor LeakageField Signatures of Material nani, Electromagnetic Nondestructiv Discontinuities, in Proceedings of the Blades." P.A. No. CA375118. TechniEvaluation of SurfaceDecarburization TenthSymposium o|t NDE (SanAotocal SummaryRepoi for Vertol Divion Steels: Feasibilityand PossibleAp pfication, in Review o{ Progress in nio,TX), Southwest Research Institute, sion,TheBoeing Company, I I Oct 1968 1915 38. J.R. Barton,"Feasibility lnvestigation NDE,Y ol 6, D.O. ThompSuantitatiee 24. J.F. BussiCre. for Sun Cear Inspection," P.A. NAOn Line Measurement of sori and D.E- Chimenti, Ed., Plenum the Microstructure and Mechanical 380695, Summa.y Reportfor Vertol DiPress, 1987