Valentina Gutierrez Stacy Joslin US History E February 6, 2014 Affirmative Action Policies History has shown that civil

rights laws have not been sufficient to expel discrimination. Even after the ruling made in 1954, during Brown v. Board of Education, there continued to exist a large disparity between the number of educational opportunities for minority and white students. During the Brown v. Board of Education suit, the Supreme Court made the decision that segregating school age children on the basis of race was contrary to the 14th amendment, which guarantees everybody equal protection under the law, and the mindset of separate but equal adopted after Plessy v. Ferguson was unconstitutional in schools. The gap was clear in 1955, when, only five percent of undergraduate students, one percent of law students, and two percent of medical students in the country were African American (Affirmative Action: Overview). Consequently in 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson issued an executive order that mandated that all government contractors take affirmative action toward prospective minority employees in all aspects of hiring and employment" (Civil Rights Timeline). According to the National Conference of State Legislatures: Affirmative action policies are those in which an institution or organization actively engages in efforts to improve opportunities for historically excluded groups in American society. Affirmative action policies often focus on employment and education. In institutions of higher education, affirmative action refers to admission policies that provide equal access to education for those groups that have been historically excluded or underrepresented, such as women and minorities.

Affirmative Action policies continue to affect college acceptances and job hirings by increasing the number of minorities in these institutions. President John F. Kennedys decision to make Executive Order 11246 (which is a decree that holds the full force of the law and is subject to assessment by the Supreme Court) helped make the Affirmative Action policies pivotal historical moments. His order required employers to hire workers without discrimination based on their race, color, or country of origin. In 1965, President Lyndon B. Johnson made another executive order that commanded employers to hire and treat workers equally during all times of employment, without regard to race, color, sex, or national origin. Unquestionably, Kennedy and Johnsons determination to bring equal opportunity to minority groups in the United States affected the entire country because their resolutions carried the entire power of the law. Although President John F. Kennedys executive order paved the road for President Johnsons later order, Johnsons decision contributed the most to the lasting impact that Affirmative Action had on the country. On June 4, 1965, Johnson delivered the Commencement Address at Howard University, in which he explained the importance of Affirmative Action. According to President Lyndon B. Johnson, equal opportunity is essential, but not enough, not enough. Men and women of all races are born with the same range of abilities. But ability is not just the product of birth. Ability is stretched or stunted by the family that you live with and the neighborhoods you live in, by the school you go to and the poverty or the richness of your surroundings. It is the product of a hundred unseen forces playing upon the little infant, the child, and finally the man." (As quoted by Equal Opportunity is Not Enough). Through his speech, he created support for Affirmative Action, and shortly after, colleges and universities began adopting similar recruitment policies, and over time the enrollment rates for African American

and Latino students increased steadily (National Conference of State Legislature). The decision made by President Johnson continues to affect the lives of minorities and majority students. In order to close the gap, educational institutions implemented similar versions of Affirmative Action policies into their acceptance policies that have considerably affected the racial makeup of the student body. According to data from the National Center on Education Statistics in 2011, 69 percent of white high school graduates immediately enrolled in college, compared to 65 percent of African American graduates and 63 percent of Hispanic graduates (As cited by the National Conference of State Legislature). This is a 9% increase in the enrollment of African American students in only 4 years. This shows that there has been a general increase in the number of minority students who are accepted into establishments of higher education. These statistics prove that Affirmative Action policies have increased the number of minorities in colleges and universities. Affirmative Action continues to affect the population today. The decision to take affirmative action in the workforce has increased the total of minority citizens in employment. According to a report from the U.S. Labor Department, affirmative action has helped 5 million minority members and 6 million White and minority women move up in the workforce (As quoted by Ten Myths About Affirmative Action). Similarly, another study found that companies that were forced to implement goals based on the Affirmative Action policies, added Black and female officials and managers at twice the rate of noncontractors (Ten Myths About Affirmative Action). On account of the decisions made by President Kennedy and later President Johnson, minorities have been given equal opportunities in employment. The Affirmative Action bill has brought to the surface a number of policies that have

brought the entire concept of equal opportunity for minorities under debate. For example, in 1974, California State Legislature put into a place a number of policies meant to speed the process of integration in California schools. One of the resolutions essentially called for racial quotas, ordering the University of California to match the racial composition of its student body to that of each year's graduating high school class by 1980 (Challenging Race Sensitive Admissions Policies). Resolutions like these, in which a specific number of minority students were supposed to be admitted, did in fact increase the number of minority students, however, it also led to the debate against Affirmative Action because of reverse discrimination, which is seen as discrimination against the majority group, especially when policies appear to favor or give privileges to members of a historically disadvantaged group. In 1978, the Supreme Court heard the case of Allan Bakke, a white student, who argued that his civil rights had been violated when the University of California Medical College at Davis refused to admit him. Although Bakke did not meet requirements for regular admission, his undergraduate record and test scores were superior to those of most or all of the students admitted under a special admissions program for racial minorities (As quoted by Eyes On the Prize: Press). Therefore, the Supreme Court ruled that he should be admitted. The Powell Decision also stated that schools could no longer use racial quotas (Challenging Race Sensitive Admissions Policies). Likewise, similar decisions were made outside of California. In 1996, the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals nullified a University of Texas Law School admissions policy that sought certain percentages of black and Latino students (Challenging Race Sensitive Admissions Policies). Although Affirmative Action has increased the number of minorities in educational institutions and workplaces, it faced backlash after years of being put into operation. Despite controversy, Affirmative Action policies are still in place today with the goal of

creating diversity. President John F. Kennedy and later President Lyndon B. Johnsons decision to force Affirmative Action by law has led to the increase of minorities in college, universities, and the workforce. Furthermore, their steps aided the civil rights movement for the cessation of discrimination against members of groups who are historically disadvantaged. It continues to affect society today as courts all over the country question the necessity of college admissions that take race into consideration, therefore making it a pivotal event in history.

Works Cited "Affirmative Action: Overview." Affirmative Action: Overview. National Conference of State Legislature, June 2013. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "The Bakke Case & Affirmative Action." PBS. PBS, 23 Aug. 2006. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "A Brief History of Affirmative Action." A Brief History of Affirmative Action. Office of Equal Opportunity and Diversity, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "Challenging Race Sensitive Admissions Policies." Frontline. PBS, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "Equal Opportunity Is Not Enough." PBS. PBS, 23 Aug. 2006. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "Ten Myths About Affirmative Action." Understanding Prejudice. Understanding Prejudice, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014.