System Analysis and Design

System Analysis and Design Syllabus
SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

Module 1: Data and Information (3)
Types of information: operational, tactical, strategic and statutory – why do we need
information systems – management structure – requirements of information at different
levels of management – functional allocation of management – requirements of
information for various functions – qualities of information – small case study.
Module 2: Systems Analysis and Design Life Cycle (3)
Requirements determination – requirements specifications – feasibility analysis – final
specifications – hardware and software study – system design – system implementation –
system evaluation – system modification. Role of systems analyst – attributes of a
systems analyst – tools used in system analysis
Module 3: Information gathering (3)
Strategies – methods – case study – documenting study – system requirements
specification – from narratives of requirements to classification of requirements as
strategic, tactical, operational and statutory. Example case study
Module 4: Feasibility analysis (3)
Deciding project goals – examining alternative solutions – cost – benefit analysis –
quantifications of costs and benefits – payback period – system proposal preparation for
managements – parts and documentation of a proposal – tools for prototype creation
Module 5: Tools for systems analysts (3)
Data flow diagrams – case study for use of DFD, good conventions – leveling of DFDs –
leveling rules – logical and physical DFDs – software tools to create DFDs
Module 6: Structured systems analysis and design (3)
Procedure specifications in structured English – examples and cases – decision tables for
complex logical specifications – specification oriented design vs procedure oriented
design
Module 7: Data oriented systems design (3)
Entity relationship model – E-R diagrams – relationships cardinality and participation –
normalizing relations – various normal forms and their need – some examples of
relational data base design.
Module 8: Data input methods (3)
Coding techniques – requirements of coding schemes – error detection of codes –
validating input data – input data controls interactive data input
Module 9: Designing outputs (2)
Output devices – designing output reports – screen design – graphical user interfaces –
interactive I/O on terminals.
V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/1

Module 10: Object oriented systems modeling (4)

What are objects? – Why objects? – Objects and their properties – classes – inheritance –
polymorphism – how to identify objects in an application – how to model systems using
objects – some cases of object oriented system modeling
Module 11: Control – audit and security of information systems (4)
Audit and security of information systems – why controls are needed – objectives of
control – techniques used in control – auditing information systems – auditing around,
through and with the computer – testing information systems – types of tests – how to
generate tests – security of information systems – disaster recovery – business process
continuity
Module 12: Systems analysis and design in the era of electronic commerce (3)
B2B, B2C and C2C e-commerce – advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce. E-
commerce system architecture – physical networks, logical network, World Wide Web,
web-services – html, XML.
Module 13: Electronic data interchange (2)
EDI standards – virtual private networks – XML and EDI.
Module 14: Security of e-commerce transactions, firewalls (3)
Encryption methods – symmetric and asymmetric encryption – digital signature –
certifying authorities for signatures – legal status of e-commerce transactions
Module 15: Payment systems in e-commerce (2)
Cheque payment, credit card payments, e-cash payments.
Module 16: Complete system analysis and design case studies (5)
A system for journal acquisition in libraries – walk through the entire life cycle

Lecture Plan
Hours Total
Modules Learning Units per topic Hours
1. Data and 1. Types of information: operational, tactical, 0.5
Information strategic and statutory
2. Why do we need information systems,
management structure, requirements of 1
information at different levels of management 3
3. Functional allocation of management, 1
requirements of information for various
functions
4. Qualities of information– small case study 0.5
2. Systems 5. Systems Analysis and Design life Cycle:
Analysis and Requirements determination, requirements 1
Design Life specifications 3
Cycle 6. Feasibility analysis, final specifications,
hardware and software study, system design, 1
system implementation, system evaluation,
system modification.
7. Role of systems analyst – attributes of a 1
systems analyst – tools used in system analysis
3. Information 8. Information gathering, strategies, methods 1
gathering 9. Case study/documenting study, system
requirements specification, from narratives of 3
requirements to classification of requirements 2
as strategic, tactical, operational and statutory.
Example case study
4. Feasibility 10. How to formulate project goals and quantify 1
analysis them
11. Examining alternative solutions and evaluating
proposed solutions 3
a) Technical feasibility 1
b) Operational feasibility
c) Economic feasibility
12. Cost benefit analysis, Documenting feasibility 1
report
5. Tools for 13. Developing Data Flow Diagrams (DFD)
systems analysts a) What are DFDs?
b) Symbols used in DFD 1.5
c) Rules of data flow 3
d) Good style in drawing DFD
14. Describing systems with DFD & Leveling 1
DFD
15. Logical & Physical DFDs 0.5

6. Structured 16. Structured English specification 1

systems analysis 17. Decision table based specification 1
and design 18. Detecting
19. Incompleteness
20. Ambiguity
21. Contradictions 1 4.5
22. Redundancy
23. in decision table specification
24. Eliminating redundancy in specifications 1
25. Decision trees for specification 0.5
7. Data oriented 26. Entity-relationship (E-R) modeling 1
systems design 27. of data elements of an application
28. Organization of data as relations 0.5
29. Normalization of relations 1 5
30. Creation of logical relational database 1
31. Objectives of database management system 1
(DBMS)
32. Overview of DBMS 0.5
8. Data input 33. Data input methods, coding techniques, 1
methods requirements of coding schemes
34. Error detection of codes, validating input data 1 3
35. Input data controls interactive data input 1
9. Designing 36. Designing outputs, output devices, designing 1
outputs output reports
37. Screen design, graphical user interfaces, 1 2
Interactive I/O on terminals.
10. Object 38. Object oriented systems modeling 0.5
oriented systems 39. What are objects? Why objects? 0.5
modeling 40. Objects and their properties, classes, 1
inheritance, polymorphism
4
41. How to identify objects in an application, how 1
to model systems using objects
42. Some cases of object oriented system 1
modeling
11. Control- 43. Control, audit and security of information 0.5
audit and system
security of 44. Why controls are needed, objectives of control, 0.5
information techniques used in control
systems 45. Auditing information systems, auditing 1 4
around, through and with the computer
46. Testing information systems, types of tests, 1
how to generate tests

47. Security of information systems, disaster 1

recovery, business process continuity
12. Systems 48. Systems analysis and design in the era of 0.5
analysis and electronic commerce
design in the era 49. B2B, B2C and C2C e-commerce, advantages 0.5
of electronic and disadvantages of e-commerce. 4
commerce 50. E-commerce system architecture 1
51. Physical networks, logical network, world 2
wide web, web-services – html, XML
13. Electronic 52. Electronic data interchange, EDI standards 1
data interchange 53. Virtual private networks – XML and EDI. 1 2
14. Security of e- 54. Security of e-commerce transactions, firewalls,
commerce encryption methods, symmetric and 1.5
transactions, asymmetric encryption, 3
firewalls 55. Digital signature, certifying authorities for 1.5
signatures, legal status of e-commerce
transactions
15. Payment 56. Payment systems in e-commerce, cheque
systems in e- payment, credit card payments, e-cash 2 2
commerce payments.
16. Complete 57. Complete system analysis and design case
system analysis studies, a system for journal acquisition in 5 5
and design case libraries, walk through the entire life cycle
studies

MODULE 1
INFORMATION FOR MANAGEMENT

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
There are 4 alternative answers to each question. One of them is correct. Pick
the correct answer. Do not guess. A key is given at the end of the module for you
to verify your answer
LEARNING UNIT 1
1.1 Information is
(a) Data (b) Processed Data
(c) Manipulated input (d) Computer output
1.2 Data by itself is not useful unless

(a) It is massive
(b) It is processed to obtain information
(c) It is collected from diverse sources
(d) It is properly stated
1.3 For taking decisions data must be

(a) Very accurate (b) Massive
(c) Processed correctly (d) Collected from diverse sources
1.4 Strategic information is needed for

(a) Day to day operations
(b) Meet government requirements
(c) Long range planning
(d) Short range planning
1.5 Strategic information is required by
(a) Middle managers

(b) Line managers
(c) Top managers
(d) All workers
1.6 Tactical information is needed for
1.7 Tactical information is required by

(a) Middle managers
(b) Line managers
(c) Top managers
(d) All workers
1.8 Operational information is needed for

1.9 Operational information is required by

(a) Middle managers
(b) Line managers
(c) Top managers
(d) All workers
1.10 Statutory information is needed for

1.11 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is strategic

(a) Decision on introducing a new model
(b) Scheduling production
(c) Assessing competitor car
(d) Computing sales tax collected
1.12 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is tactical

1.13 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is operational
1.14 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is statutory

1.15 In a hospital information system the following type of information is strategic

(a) Opening a new children’s ward
(b) Data on births and deaths
(c) Preparing patients’ bill
(d) Buying an expensive diagnostic system such as CAT scan
1.16 In a hospital information system the following type of information is tactical

(a) Opening a new children’s’ ward
1.17 In a hospital information system the following type of information is

operational
1.18 In a hospital information system the following type of information is statutory
LEARNING UNIT 2
1.19 A computer based information system is needed because

(i) The size of organization have become large and data is massive
(ii) Timely decisions are to be taken based on available data
(iii) Computers are available
(iv) Difficult to get clerks to process data
(a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (i) and (ii)

(c) (i) and (iv) (d) (iii) and (iv)
1.20 Volume of strategic information is

(a) Condensed
(b) Detailed
(c) Summarized
(d) Irrelevant
1.21 Volume of tactical information is

(a) Condensed
(b) Detailed
(c) Summarized
(d) relevant
1.22 Volume of operational information is

(a) Condensed
(b) Detailed
(c) Summarized
(d) Irrelevant
1.23 Strategic information is
(a) Haphazard
(b) Well organized
(c) Unstructured
(d) Partly structured
1.24 Tactical information is

(a) Haphazard
(b) Well organized
(c) Unstructured
1.25 Operational information is

(a) Haphazard
(b) Well organized
(c) Unstructured
LEARNING UNIT 3
1.26 Match and find best pairing for a Human Resource Management System
(i)Policies on giving bonus (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Absentee reduction (v)Tactical information
(iii)Skills inventory (vi)Operational Information
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (ii) and (iv)
(d) (iii) and (v)
1.27 Match and find best pairing for a Production Management System
(i) Performance appraisal of machines (iv)Strategic information to decide on
replacement
(ii)Introducing new production (v)Tactical information technology
(iii)Preventive maintenance schedules (vi)Operational information for
machines
(a) (a)(i) and (vi)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (i) and (v)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
(i) Performance appraisal of machines (iv)Strategic information to decide on
replacement
machines
(a) (iii) and (vi)

(b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (ii) and (v)
(d) None of the above
1.29 Match and find best pairing for a Materials Management System
(i) Developing vendor performance (iv) Strategic information measures
(ii) Developing vendors for critical (v) Tactical information items
(iii)List of items rejected from a vendor (vi)Operational information
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (iii) and (iv)
(d) (ii) and (vi)
(i)Developing vendor performance (iv)Strategic information measures
(ii)Developing vendors for critical (v)Tactical information items
(a) (i) and (iv)

(b) (i) and (vi)
(c) (ii) and (iv)
(d) (iii) and (v)
(a) (i) and (vi)

(b) (iii) and (vi)
(c) (ii) and (vi)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
1.32 Match and find best pairing for a Finance Management System
(i)Tax deduction at source report (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Impact of taxation on pricing (v)Tactical information
(iii)Tax planning (vi)Operational information
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (iii) and (vi)
(c) (ii) and (v)
(d) (ii)) and (iv)
(i)Budget status to all managers (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Method of financing (v)Tactical information
(iii)Variance between budget and (vi)Operational information expenses
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (iii) and (vi)
(c) (ii) and (v)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
1.34 Match and find best pairing for a Marketing Management System
(i)Customer preferences surveys (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Search for new markets (v)Tactical information
(iii)Performance of sales outlets (vi)Operational information
(a) (i) and (iv)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (iii) and (vi)
(d) (ii) and (v)
(a) (iii) and (iv)

(b) (i) and (vi)
(c) (i) and (v)
(d) (iii) and (v)
1.36 Match and find best pairing for a Research and Development Management
System
(i)Technical collaboration decision (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Budgeted expenses Vs actuals (v)Tactical information
(iii)Proportion of budget to be (vi)Operational information allocated to
various projects
(a) (i) and (iv)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (iii) and (vi)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
System
various projects
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (iii) and (v)
(c) (ii) and (v)
(d) (i) and (vi)
1.38 Organizations are divided into departments because
(a) it is convenient to do so
(b) each department can be assigned a specific functional responsibility
(c) it provides opportunities for promotion
(d) it is done by every organization
1.39 Organizations have hierarchical structures because
(a) it is convenient to do so
(b) it is done by every organization
(c) specific responsibilities can be assigned for each level
(d) it provides opportunities for promotions
1.40 Which of the following functions is the most unlikely in an insurance company.
(a) Training
(b) giving loans
(c) bill of material
(d) accounting
1.41 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a university

(a) admissions
(b) accounting
(c) conducting examination
(d) marketing
1.42 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a purchase section of

an organization.
(a) Production planning
(b) order processing
(c) vendor selection
(d) training
1.43 Which is the most unlikely function of a marketing division of an organization.
(a) advertising
(b) sales analysis
(c) order processing
(d) customer preference analysis
1.44 Which is the most unlikely function of a finance section of a company.

(a) Billing
(b) costing
(c) budgeting
(d) labor deployment
LEARNING UNIT 4
1.45 Match quality of information and how it is ensured using the following list
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(i) Accurate (iv) Include all data

(ii) Complete (v) Use correct input and processing rules
(iii)Timely (vi) Include all data up to present time
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (ii) and (vi)
(c) (iii) and (vi)
(d) (i) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED

(iii) Timely (vi) Include all data up to present time
(a) (ii) and (v)

(b) (ii) and (vi)
(c) (ii) and (iv)
(d) (iii) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(i)Up-to-date (iv) Include all data to present time

(ii) Brief (v) Give at right time
(iii) Significance (vi) Use attractive format and understandable
graphical charts
(a) (i) and (v)

(b) (ii) and (vi)
(c) (iii) and (vi)
(d) (i) and (vi)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(i)Up- to-date (iv) Include all data to present time

(ii)Brief (v) Give at right time
graphical charts
(a) (i) and (iv)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (iii) and (iv)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(i)Brief (iv) Unpleasant information not hidden

(ii)Relevant (v) Summarize relevant information
(iii) Trustworthy (vi) Understands user needs
(a) (i) and (iv)

(b) (ii) and (v)
(c) (iii) and (vi)
(d) (i) and (v)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(iii)Trustworthy (vi) Understands user needs
(a) (ii) and (vi)

(b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (iii) and (v)
(d) (ii) and (iv)
1.51 The quality of information which does not hide any unpleasant information is
known as
(a) Complete
(b) Trustworthy
(c) Relevant
1.52 The quality of information which is based on understanding user needs

(a) Complete
(b) Trustworthy
(c) Relevant
LEARNING UNIT 5
1.53 Every record stored in a Master file has a key field because
(a) it is the most important field
(b) it acts as a unique identification of record
(c) it is the key to the database
(d) it is a very concise field
1.54 The primary storage medium for storing archival data is

(a) floppy disk
(b) magnetic disk
(c) magnetic tape
(d) CD- ROM
1.55 Master files are normally stored in

(a) a hard disk
(b) a tape
(c) CD – ROM
(d) computer’s main memory
1.56 Master file is a file containing

(a) all master records
(b) all records relevant to the application
(c) a collection of data items
(d) historical data of relevance to the organization
1.57 Edit program is required to

(a) authenticate data entered by an operator
(b) format correctly input data
(c) detect errors in input data
(d) expedite retrieving input data
1.58 Data rejected by edit program are

(a) corrected and re- entered
(b) removed from processing
(c) collected for later use
(d) ignored during processing
1.59 Online transaction processing is used because

(a) it is efficient
(b) disk is used for storing files
(c) it can handle random queries.
(d) Transactions occur in batches
1.60 On-line transaction processing is used when

i) it is required to answer random queries
ii) it is required to ensure correct processing
iii) all files are available on-line
iv) all files are stored using hard disk
a) i ,ii b) i, iii c) ii ,iii, iv d) i , ii ,iii
1.61 Off-line data entry is preferable when

i) data should be entered without error
ii) the volume of data to be entered is large
iii) the volume of data to be entered is small
iv) data is to be processed periodically
a) i, ii b) ii, iii c) ii, iv d) iii, iv
1.62 Batch processing is used when

i) response time should be short
ii) data processing is to be carried out at periodic intervals
iii) transactions are in batches
iv) transactions do not occur periodically
a) i ,ii b) i ,iii,iv c) ii ,iii d) i , ii ,iii
1.63 Batch processing is preferred over on-line transaction processing when

i) processing efficiency is important
ii) the volume of data to be processed is large
iii) only periodic processing is needed
iv) a large number of queries are to be processed
a) i ,ii b) i, iii c) ii ,iii d) i , ii ,iii
1.64 A management information system is one which

(a) is required by all managers of an organization
(b) processes data to yield information of value in tactical management
(c) provides operational information
(d) allows better management of organizations
1.65 Data mining is used to aid in

(a) operational management
(b) analyzing past decision made by managers
(c) detecting patterns in operational data
(d) retrieving archival data
1.66. Data mining requires

(a) large quantities of operational data stored over a period of time
(b) lots of tactical data
(c) several tape drives to store archival data
(d) large mainframe computers
1.67 Data mining can not be done if

(a) operational data has not been archived
(b) earlier management decisions are not available
(c) the organization is large
(d) all processing had been only batch processing
1.68. Decision support systems are used for

(a) management decision making
(b) providing tactical information to management
(c) providing strategic information to management
(d) better operation of an organization
1.69 Decision support systems are used by

(a) line managers.
(b) top-level managers.
(c) middle level managers.
(d) system users
1.70. Decision support systems are essential for

(a) day–to-day operation of an organization.
(b) providing statutory information.
(c) top level strategic decision making.
(d) ensuring that organizations are profitable.
Key To Objective Questions
1.1 b 1.2 b 1.3 c 1.4 c 1.5 c 1.6 d
1.7 a 1.8 a 1.9 b 1.10 b 1.11 a 1.12 c
1.13 b 1.14 d 1.15 d 1.16 a 1.17 c 1.18 b
1.19 b 1.20 a 1.21 c 1.22 b 1.23 c 1.24 d
1.25 b 1.26 b 1.27 c 1.28 a 1.29 a 1.30 c
1.31 b 1.32 c 1.33 d 1.34 c 1.35 c 1.36 a
1.37 b 1.38 b 1.39 c 1.40 c 1.41 d 1.42 a
1.43 c 1.44 d 1.45 a 1.46 c 1.47 c 1.48 a
1.49 d 1.50 a 1.51 b 1.52 c 1.53 b 1.54 c
1.55 a 1.56 b 1.57 c 1.58 a 1.59 c 1.60 b
1.61 c 1.62 c 1.63 d 1.64 b 1.65 c 1.66 a
1.67 a 1.68 c 1.69 b 1.70 c

System Analysis and Design / Data and Information Motivation
Motivation
Large number of jobs today for computer science and engineering graduates is in
creating information systems for managing organizations we thus need methods to
design complex systems.
Students should know what information is and how it is different from data.
Should know types of information needed to manage organizations.
Should know nature of organizations and their structure to design appropriate
information system.
Should know management structure and needs of each level of management.
Should know functional areas of management information needs for each area.
V. Rajaraman/IISc. Bangalore //V1/July 04/1

MODULE 1
1.1 Data and Information, types of information : Operational, tactical,

strategic, Statutory
1.2 Why do we need information systems, management structure,
requirements of information at different levels of management
1.3 Functional allocation of management, requirements of information
for various functions.
1.4 Qualities of information
1.5 Varieties of information system
Systems Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman

MOTIVATION
Large number of jobs today for computer science

and engineering graduates is in creating information
systems for managing organizations
Students should know what is information and how

it is different from data
Should know types of information needed to

manage organizations
Systems Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 1 of 50

MOTIVATION
Should know nature of organizations and their

structure to design appropriate information system.
Should know management structure and needs of

each level of management
Should know functional areas of management and

information needs for each area

LEARNING GOALS
1. Distinction between Data and Information

2. Description of types of Information: Tactical,
Operational, Strategic, Statutory.
3. Division of Management into different hierarchical
levels.
4. Type of Information needed at different levels of
management.
5. Division of organizations into several functional
areas and their information requirements
6. Attributes of Information.

DATA AND INFORMATION
DATA : Raw Material

Data collection costs money
Collect only necessary and sufficient data
Data is generally used by machines
Data is useless unless it is processed to
create INFORMATION
1.1.1 System Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 4 of 50

INFORMATION : Processed data

Data processed by machines giving information
Information is used to run an organization efficiently
Information used by managers to initiate actions

EXAMPLE OF INFORMATION
NEEDED BY A SHOPKEEPER
Daily sales account

List of low stock items to be re-ordered
List of overstock items
Long overdue payments
Profit and loss account
Used to streamline day to day operations called

Operational information

EXAMPLE OF INFORMATION NEEDED
BY A SHOPKEEPER (CONTD)
Slow or fast moving items

Reliable supplier of items
Sales trends
Used to improve profitability of shop called

Tactical information

Whether to stock different varieties of items

Whether to diversify
Whether to start a new branch in a different
locality
Whether to start an e-shop
Information to expand business and explore
new opportunities
Known as Strategic Information

Income tax account

Sales tax account
Used to provide information to the government
Known as Statutory Information

TYPES OF INFORMATION
STRATEGIC : Needed for long range

planning and directions. This is less structured.
TACTICAL : Needed to take short range

decisions to improve profitability and performance.

OPERATIONAL : Needed for day to day operations

of the organization.
Eg: Daily Sales, Billing.
STATUTORY : Needed by law to sent to government

authorities.
Eg: Sales tax return.

MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY AND
INFORMATION NEEDS
Volume of Type of
Information Information
Strategic-
Long range planning
Low Unstructured Top
condensed Managers
Tactical
Medium Moderately Middle Short range improvement
moderately structured Managers
processed
Highly Line managers Operational
Large structured Day to day policies
Detailed Reports

NEED FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Increasing size of organizations thus data volume

increases
Timely processing for fast action
Better competitiveness with better information
. Increasing of complexity of organizations require
innovative processing
Distributed organizations
Same data can be processed in different ways

MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
Chief Executive (Strategical)
(Tactical)
Human
Production Marketing Materials Finance
Resource
manager manager manager manager
manager
(Operational)
Line managers

MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE (CONTD)
TOP MANAGEMENT
Chief Executive known as CEO
Executive Directors for each functional areas such as

Production, Finance, HRD etc.
Take strategic decisions

MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
General managers, divisional managers,Vice presidents etc
Each functional area may have 2 to 3 middle level

managers reporting to top management
Take Tactical decisions

LINE MANAGERS
Group managers, Assistant Group managers, Assistant

managers
Each functional area may have several line managers

reporting to middle level managers.
Take Operational decisions

FUNCTIONAL AREAS
PRODUCTION
MARKETING
MATERIALS – purchase, stores
FINANCE –Accounts
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT(HRD)
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)

FUNCTIONAL AREAS
All organizations need not have identical functional areas

However some are common such as
- MARKETING
- FINANCE
- HUMAN RESOURCE DE VELOPMENT(HRD)

Production Management
Strategic Information
Yearly and monthly production quotas and alternate

schedules
Policies on machine replacement, augmentation,
and modernization.
Identifying best product mix.

Tactical Information
Identifying and controlling areas of high cost.

Identifying critical bottlenecks in production.
Identifying alternate production schedules
based on tools, machines etc.
Performance measures of machines to decide
replacement.

Operational Information
Monitoring up to date production information
by examining assemblies, detecting likely
shortages and giving early warning.
Scheduling better production dynamically.
Preventive maintenance schedules.
Monitoring tool, machine and personnel
availability

Marketing Management
Search for new markets and marketing

strategies.
Analysis of competitors strategy.
Technology and demographic forecasts and

product changes.

Advertising techniques and analysis of their

impact.
Customer preference surveys.
Correlation of prices and sales.
Sales force deployment and targets.
Exploring alternate marketing channels.
Timing of special sales campaigns.

Sales analysis by regions,customer class, sales

person.
Sales target versus achievement.
Market share and trends.
Seasonal variations.
Effect of model changes.
Performance of sales outlets
Costs of campaigns and benefit.

Material Management
Developing vendors for critical items.

Determining optimal levels of inventory
Determining proportion of material needed
Reducing varieties of inventory.

Material Management
Developing vendor performance measures.
Determining optimal reorder levels.
Determining issues of items to shops versus
standard needs.
Controlling high value of inventory.
Determining impact on material cost and
procurement with design changes and new
product introduction.

Material Management
List of excess & deficient items received.

List of items rejected.
Critical items received.
Stores in transit and in inspection.
Value of inventory in hand.
Goods received, rejected and issued.

Finance Management
Methods of financing.
Pricing policies.
Tax planning.

Finance Management
Variations between budget and expenses.

Large outstanding payments/Receipts.
Credit and payment status.
Cost increases and pricing.
Impact of taxation on pricing

Finance Management
Periodic financial report.

Budget status to all functional managers.
Tax returns.
Share transfers.
Profit and loss account.
Payments and receipts.
Payroll,provident fund accounts.

Human Resource Management
Long range human resource requirements.

at different levels.
Policies on human resource development and training
Policies on personnel welfare and facilities

Performance appraisal.
Demographic make-up of personnel and its
impact on retirement.
Production incentives.
Morale of personnel.
Absentee reduction.
Leave and overtime policies.
Personnel deployment policies.

Routine assessment.
Skills inventory.
Loan/advances and recoveries.
Leave record.

Research Design & development Management
Which products are to be developed?

What types of improvements are required?
What long range research is more promising?
What technical collaboration would be appropriate?

Setting intermediate goals.

Checking availability of equipment &
appropriate selection
Determining proportions of resources to be
allocated to different projects.
Deployment of personnel to projects.
Information on similar and related research
projects undertaken by other companies

Progress against goals.
Budgeted expenses versus actual expenses.
Status of outstanding orders for equipment and

components.

QUALITIES OF INFORMATION
Quality How to ensure quality
Accurate Ensure correct input

and processing rules.
Complete Include all data.
Timely Give at right time

Trustworthy Do not hide unpleasant

information.
Relevant Understand user needs.
Brief Summarize relevant

information.

Up-to-date Include all data up to

present time.
Significance Use attractive format &

graphical charts.

VARIETIES OF INFORMATION
SYSTEMS
Business Data processing

– Operational information
Management information system
– Tactical information
Decision support system(DSS)
– strategic information

Business data processing system
Enter data to be processed

Edit, check input data
Control check to see if the data is correct and
reasonable
Store clean data as an organized data base in a storage

Business data processing
There are 2 methods of business data processing

1. On-line transaction processing(OLTP)
2. Batch processing
OLTP is used for query processing and rapid actions to requests

Example: Finding balance in one’s bank account
Booking railway tickets
Batch processing used for periodic data processing of massive data
Example: Processing university exam results at the end of each
semester
Payroll computation each month

Online transaction processing
Database (or master file) available online on disk

Request in specified format accepted from requestor
Check request for validity
Retrieve record from database
Take appropriate action

Batch processing
Collect a batch of requests

Key in
Validate
Create request file
Called transaction file
Update master file using transaction file
Create result file
Print responses for requests

OLTP Vs BATCH
Response time - OLTP FAST

Throughput
(No of transaction/unit time) - BATCH HIGH
Enquiry systems - ONLINE
Periodic processing - BATCH
• Once a day - STORES ISSUES

• Once a month - PAYROLL

MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
Analyse outputs of routine data processing using

statistical or operations research tools
Eg: -Observe periodic demands by statistical analysis &

use for tactical decisions
-Use operations research tools to decide product mix

using demand and cost data to maximize profit

DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEM
Unstructured and difficult to obtain precise information

Use of analytical and simulation models
Aids to conceptualise through graphs ,animation etc
Use of archival data to infer trends and rules
Some artificial intelligence tools may be used

Data mining a useful tool

What is data mining?
Data collected during routine data processing archived
over a long period-massive amount(Tera Bytes)
Some hypothetical rules guessed by experienced managers
and correlated with archival data-called data mining

Example of data mining

From archival data a rule guessed by managers
that in some months there are long waiting lists for sleeper
berths is verified-Data mining gives precise quantitative data
Action
Increase number of sleeper coaches
or
Introduce special trains
Unexpected results of analysis of archival data more
valuable for DSS

MODULE 1
Motivation
Large number of jobs today for computer science and engineering graduates
is in creating information systems for managing organizations. Students
should know what is information and how it is different from data, should
know nature of organizations and their structure to design appropriate
information system, should know management structure and needs of each
level of management & should know functional areas of management and
information needs for each area
LEARNING UNIT 1
Data and Information, types of information : Operational,

tactical, strategic, Statutory
DATA is a raw material with which we begin. Collecting data costs money
and hence one must collect necessary and sufficient data. Data is generally
used by machines and is useless unless it is processed to create
INFORMATION.
INFORMATION is Processed data, used by managers to initiate actions and

to run the organization efficiently. The data processed by machines gives
information
STRATEGIC : Needed for long range planning and directions. This is less
structured.
TACTICAL : Needed to take short range decisions to improve profitability

and performance.
OPERATIONAL : Needed for day to day operations of the organization.

Eg: Daily Sales, Billing.
STATUTORY : Needed by law to sent to government authorities.

Eg: Sales tax return.
MANAGEMENT HIERARCHY AND INFORMATION NEEDS
Volume of Type of
Information Information
Strategic-
Low
Unstructured Top Long range planning
condensed
Managers
Medium
moderately Moderately Tactical
structured Middle Short range improvement
processed
Managers
Large Highly Operational

Detailed Reports structured Line managers Day to day policies
LEARNING UNIT 2
Why do we need information systems, management structure,

requirements of information at different levels of management
NEED FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Information systems are needed when timely processing for fast action is
needed, same data has to be processed in different ways and when
organizations require innovative processing.
MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE
Chief Executive (Strategical)
Production Marketing Materials Finance Human

manager manager manager manager Resource
manager
Line managers
Functional areas of management are as follows:

PRODUCTION
MARKETING
MATERIALS – purchase, stores
FINANCE –Accounts
HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT(HRD)
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (R&D)
A Production Management
The following type of information is needed in production management:
Strategic Information:
1)Yearly and monthly production quotas and alternate schedules
2)Policies on machine replacement, augmentation and modernization.
3)Identifying best product mix.
1)Identifying and controlling areas of high cost.
2) Identifying critical bottlenecks in production.
3) Identifying alternate production schedules based on tools, machines etc.
4) Performance measures of machines to decide replacement.
1)Monitoring up to date production information by examining assemblies,
detecting likely shortages and giving early warning.
2) Scheduling better production dynamically.
3) Preventive maintenance schedules.
4) Monitoring tool, machine and personnel availability
B Marketing Management
1) Search for new markets and marketing strategies.
2) Analysis of competitors strategy
3) Technology and demographic forecasts and product changes
Tactical Information:
1)Advertising techniques and analysis of their impact.
2)Customer preference surveys.
3)Correlation of prices and sales.
4)Sales force deployment and targets.
5)Exploring alternate marketing channels.
6)Timing of special sales campaigns.
Operational Information:
1) Sales analysis by regions, customer class, sales person.
2) Sales target versus achievement.
3) Market share and trends.
4) Seasonal variations.
5) Effect of model changes.
6) Performance of sales outlets
7) Costs of campaigns and benefit.
C Material Management
1) Developing vendors for critical items
2) Determining optimal levels of inventory
3) Determining proportion of material needed
4) Reducing varieties of inventory
1) Developing vendor performance measures.
2) Determining optimal reorder levels.
3) Determining issues of items to shops versus
4) standard needs.
5) Controlling high value of inventory.
6) Determining impact on material cost and
7) procurement with design changes and new
8) product introduction.
1) List of excess & deficient items received.
2) List of items rejected.
3) Critical items received.
4) Stores in transit and in inspection.
5) Value of inventory in hand.
6) Goods received, rejected and issued.
D Finance Management
1) Methods of financing.
2) Pricing policies
3) Tax planning.
1) Variations between budget and expenses.
2) Large outstanding payments/Receipts.
3) Credit and payment status.
4) Cost increases and pricing.
5) Impact of taxation on pricing
1) Periodic financial report.
2) Budget status to all functional managers.
3) Tax returns.
4) Share transfers.
5) Profit and loss account.
6) Payments and receipts.
7) Payroll,provident fund accounts.
E Human Resource Management
1) Long range human resource requirements at different levels.
2) Policies on human resource development and training
3) Policies on personnel welfare and facilities
1) Performance appraisal.
2) Demographic make-up of personnel and its impact on retirement.
3) Production incentives.
4) Morale of personnel.
5) Absentee reduction.
6) Leave and overtime policies.
7) Personnel deployment policies.
1) Routine assessment.
2) Skills inventory.
3) Loan/advances and recoveries.
4) Leave record.
System Analysis and Design / Data and Information Multiple Choice Questions
1.1 Information is
a. Data
b. Processed Data
c. Manipulated input
d. Computer output
1.2 Data by itself is not useful unless
a. It is massive
b. It is processed to obtain information
c. It is collected from diverse sources
d. It is properly stated
1.3 For taking decisions data must be
a Very accurate
b Massive
c Processed correctly
d Collected from diverse sources
1.4 Strategic information is needed for
a Day to day operations
b Meet government requirements
c Long range planning
d Short range planning
1.5 Strategic information is required by
a Middle managers
b Line managers
c Top managers
d All workers
1.6 Tactical information is needed for
1.7 Tactical information is required by

a Middle managers
b Line managers
c Top managers
d All workers
1.8 Operational information is needed for
1.9 Operational information is required by
a Middle managers
b Line managers
c Top managers
d All workers
1.10 Statutory information is needed for
1.11 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is strategic
a Decision on introducing a new model
b Scheduling production
c Assessing competitor car
d Computing sales tax collected
1.12 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is tactical
1.13 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is operational


1.14 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is statutory
1.15 In a hospital information system the following type of information is strategic
a Opening a new children’s ward
b Data on births and deaths
c Preparing patients’ bill
d Buying an expensive diagnostic system such as CAT scan
1.16 In a hospital information system the following type of information is tactical
a Opening a new children’s’ ward
operational
statutory

1.19 A computer based information system is needed because

(i) The size of organization have become large and data is massive
(ii) Timely decisions are to be taken based on available data
(iii) Computers are available
(iv) Difficult to get clerks to process data
a (ii) and (iii)
b (i) and (ii)
c (i) and (iv)
d (iii) and (iv)
1.20 Volume of strategic information is
a Condensed
b Detailed
c Summarized
d Irrelevant
1.21 Volume of tactical information is
a Condensed
b Detailed
c Summarized
d relevant
1.22 Volume of operational information is
a Condensed
b Detailed
c Summarized
d Irrelevant
1.23 Strategic information is
a Haphazard
b Well organized
c Unstructured
d Partly structured
1.24 Tactical information is
a Haphazard

b Well organized
c Unstructured
d Partly structured
1.25 Operational information is
a Haphazard
b Well organized
c Unstructured
d Partly structured
1.26 Match and find best pairing for a Human Resource Management System
(i)Policies on giving bonus (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Absentee reduction (v)Tactical information
(iii)Skills inventory (vi)Operational Information
a (i) and (v)
b (i) and (iv)
c (ii) and (iv)
d (iii) and (v)
(i) Performance appraisal of machines (iv)Strategic information to decide
on replacement
machines
a (i) and (vi)
b (ii) and (v)
c (i) and (v)
d (iii) and (iv)
(i) Performance appraisal of machines (iv)Strategic information to decide
on replacement


machines
a (iii) and (vi)
b (i) and (iv)
c (ii) and (v)
d None of the above
(i) Developing vendor performance (iv) Strategic information
measures
(ii) Developing vendors for critical (v) Tactical information items
a (i) and (v)
b (ii) and (v)
c (iii) and (iv)
d (ii) and (vi)
a (i) and (iv)
b (i) and (vi)
c (ii) and (iv)
d (iii) and (v)
a (i) and (vi)
b (iii) and (vi)
c (ii) and (vi)
d (iii) and (iv)

(i)Tax deduction at source report (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Impact of taxation on pricing (v)Tactical information
(iii)Tax planning (vi)Operational information
a (i) and (v)
b (iii) and (vi)
c (ii) and (v)
d (ii)) and (iv)
(i)Budget status to all managers (iv)Strategic information
(ii)Method of financing (v)Tactical information
(iii)Variance between budget and (vi)Operational information expenses
a (i) and (v)
b (iii) and (vi)
c (ii) and (v)
d (ii) and (iv)
a (i) and (iv)
b (ii) and (v)
c (iii) and (vi)
d (ii) and (v)
a (iii) and (iv)
b (i) and (vi)
c (i) and (v)

d (iii) and (v)

System
(iii)Proportion of budget to be (vi)Operational information allocated
to various projects
a (i) and (iv)
b (ii) and (v)
c (iii) and (vi)
d (iii) and (iv)
System
various projects
a (i) and (v)
b (iii) and (v)
c (ii) and (v)
d (i) and (vi)
1.38 Organizations are divided into departments because
a it is convenient to do so
b each department can be assigned a specific functional responsibility
c it provides opportunities for promotion
d it is done by every organization
1.39 Organizations have hierarchical structures because
a it is convenient to do so
b it is done by every organization
c specific responsibilities can be assigned for each level
d it provides opportunities for promotions

1.40 Which of the following functions is the most unlikely in an insurance

company.
a Training
b giving loans
c bill of material
d accounting
1.41 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a university
a admissions
b accounting
c conducting examination
d marketing
1.42 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a purchase section of
an organization.
a Production planning
b order processing
c vendor selection
d training
1.43 Which is the most unlikely function of a marketing division of an
organization.
a advertising
b sales analysis
c order processing
d customer preference analysis
1.44 Which is the most unlikely function of a finance section of a company.
a Billing
b costing
c budgeting
d labor deployment
QUALITY HOW ENSURED


(iii)Timely (vi) Include all data up to present time
a (i) and (v)
b (ii) and (vi)
c (iii) and (vi)
d (i) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(iii) Timely (vi) Include all data up to present time
a (ii) and (v)
b (ii) and (vi)
c (ii) and (iv)
d (iii) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED

(i) Up-to-date (iv) Include all data to present time
(ii) Brief (v) Give at right time
graphical charts
a (i) and (v)

b (ii) and (vi)
c (iii) and (vi)
d (i) and (vi)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(i)Up- to-date (iv) Include all data to present time
(ii)Brief (v) Give at right time


graphical charts
a (i) and (iv)
b (ii) and (v)
c (iii) and (iv)
d (ii) and (iv)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(iii) Trustworthy (vi) Understands user needs
a (i) and (iv)
b (ii) and (v)
c (iii) and (vi)
d (i) and (v)
QUALITY HOW ENSURED
(iii)Trustworthy (vi) Understands user needs
a (ii) and (vi)
b (i) and (iv)
c (iii) and (v)
d (ii) and (iv)
1.51 The quality of information which does not hide any unpleasant information
is known as
a Complete
b Trustworthy
c Relevant
d None of the above
1.52 The quality of information which is based on understanding user needs

a Complete
b Trustworthy
c Relevant
d None of the above
1.53 Every record stored in a Master file has a key field because
a it is the most important field
b it acts as a unique identification of record
c it is the key to the database
d it is a very concise field
1.54 The primary storage medium for storing archival data is
a floppy disk
b magnetic disk
c magnetic tape
d CD- ROM
1.55 Master files are normally stored in
a a hard disk
b a tape
c CD – ROM
d computer’s main memory
1.56 Master file is a file containing
a all master records
b all records relevant to the application
c a collection of data items
d historical data of relevance to the organization
1.57 Edit program is required to
a authenticate data entered by an operator
b format correctly input data
c detect errors in input data
d expedite retrieving input data
1.58 Data rejected by edit program are
a corrected and re- entered

b removed from processing

c collected for later use
d ignored during processing
1.59 Online transaction processing is used because
a it is efficient
b disk is used for storing files
c it can handle random queries.
d Transactions occur in batches
1.60 On-line transaction processing is used when
i) it is required to answer random queries
ii) it is required to ensure correct processing
iii) all files are available on-line
iv) all files are stored using hard disk
a i ,ii
b i, iii
c ii ,iii, iv
d i , ii ,iii
1.61 Off-line data entry is preferable when
i) data should be entered without error
ii) the volume of data to be entered is large
iii) the volume of data to be entered is small
iv) data is to be processed periodically
a i, ii
b ii, iii
c ii, iv
d iii, iv
1.62 Batch processing is used when
i) response time should be short
ii) data processing is to be carried out at periodic intervals
iii) transactions are in batches
iv) transactions do not occur periodically

a i ,ii
b i ,iii,iv
c ii ,iii
d i , ii ,iii
1.63 Batch processing is preferred over on-line transaction processing when
i) processing efficiency is important
ii) the volume of data to be processed is large
iii) only periodic processing is needed
iv) a large number of queries are to be processed
a i ,ii
b i, iii
c ii ,iii
d i , ii ,iii
1.64 A management information system is one which
a is required by all managers of an organization
b processes data to yield information of value in tactical management
c provides operational information
d allows better management of organizations
1.65 Data mining is used to aid in
a operational management
b analyzing past decision made by managers
c detecting patterns in operational data
d retrieving archival data
1.66 Data mining requires
a large quantities of operational data stored over a period of time
b lots of tactical data
c several tape drives to store archival data
d large mainframe computers
1.67 Data mining can not be done if
a operational data has not been archived
b earlier management decisions are not available

c the organization is large

d all processing had been only batch processing
1.68 Decision support systems are used for
a Management decision making
b Providing tactical information to management
c Providing strategic information to management
d Better operation of an organization
1.69 Decision support systems are used by
a Line managers.
b Top-level managers.
c Middle level managers.
d System users
1.70 Decision support systems are essential for
a Day–to-day operation of an organization.
b Providing statutory information.
c Top level strategic decision making.
d Ensuring that organizations are profitable.

Key to Objective Questions
1.1 b 1.2 b 1.3 c 1.4 c 1.5 c 1.6 d
1.7 a 1.8 a 1.9 b 1.10 b 1.11 a 1.12 c
1.13 b 1.14 d 1.15 d 1.16 a 1.17 c 1.18 b
1.19 b 1.20 a 1.21 c 1.22 b 1.23 c 1.24 d
1.25 b 1.26 b 1.27 c 1.28 a 1.29 a 1.30 c
1.31 b 1.32 c 1.33 d 1.34 c 1.35 c 1.36 a
1.37 b 1.38 b 1.39 c 1.40 c 1.41 d 1.42 a
1.43 c 1.44 d 1.45 a 1.46 c 1.47 c 1.48 a
1.49 d 1.50 a 1.51 b 1.52 c 1.53 b 1.54 c
1.55 a 1.56 b 1.57 c 1.58 a 1.59 c 1.60 b
1.61 c 1.62 c 1.63 d 1.64 b 1.65 c 1.66 a
1.67 a 1.68 c 1.69 b 1.70 c

MODULE 1

WORKED EXAMPLES
1.1) If an information system were to be designed for a hospital, what would be

the strategic and tactical information?
Strategic information in hospital

1.Cost-benefit of a new expensive diagnostic instrument. (Such as CAT scanner).
2. Long-term forecasts for opening a ward for old age patients.
3.Technical developments in routine diagnostic instruments and decision to
upgrade existing instruments.
Tactical information in hospital

1.Optimum replacement periods and use of expensive instruments.
2.Optimum level of drugs to be stocked keeping in view expiry dates of drugs.
3.Operation theatre utilization data for improved performance
1.2) For a hospital information system what would be the

Operational information required?
1. List of patients discharged, admitted in every department.

2. Occupancy of beds and schedules for admission of patients.
3. Absenteeism data of nurses and technicians.
4. Operation theatre allotment and schedules.
1.3) What is statutory information?

What statutory information is expected from a hospital?
Information and reports that are required by law to be sent to the government
authority is called statutory information.
Statutory Information for Hospital

1. Birth and death records.
2. Infectious diseases record.
3. Profit and loss account.
1.4) What type of Statutory information is to be provided by a
small-scale industry?
Any information required by law to be sent to government authorities such as:

1. Income Tax returns
2. Sales tax returns
3. Excise duty
4. Employee state Insurance
1.5) Is up-to-date information always timely? If not, give an example of up-to-

date but not timely information?
No, it is not necessary that up-to-date information is always timely.

For example giving the correct information about the casualties
and the damage caused due to earthquake after a week.
Another example is delivering a newspaper dated 16 June with information
Up-to-date a week late.
Module 1: Data and Information
1.1 Distinguish between data and information. Give two examples of data and
information obtained by processing data.
1.2 Give two examples of non-arithmetic data processing.
1.3 What is the main difference between strategic and tactical information? If an
information system is to be designed for a hospital, what would be the strategic
and tactical information?
1.4 What is operational information? In what way is it different from strategic
information? For hospital information system what would be the operational
information required?
1.5 What is statutory information? What statutory information is expected from a
hospital?
1.6 What type of statutory information is to be provided by a small scale industry?
1.7 What would you think are the strategic, tactical and operational information
needed by an Electric Power Generation Corporation?
1.8 What would be the strategic, tactical and operational information needs of a State
Road Transport Corporation?
1.9 What do you think are the functional management areas in a large University?
1.10 What do you think are the functional management areas in a large student hostel?
1.11 What would be the strategic, tactical and operational management responsibility
assignments in a large hostel? What type of information would be needed for
managing the kitchen of the hostel?
1.12 Give an example of incomplete information.
1.13 What is the difference between accuracy and trustworthiness of information?

1.14 Is uptodate information always timely? If not, give an example of uptodate but not
timely information.
1.15 Does an attractive format of a report necessarily imply that it is relevant?
1.16 Why are organizations divided into departments and sections?
1.17 What are the primary functions of a marketing department of an organization?
1.18 In what ways do different departments in an organization interact? Give an
example.
1.19 Enumerate some functions which are common among many organizations.
1.20 Enumerate some functions which are common between a hostel and a hospital.
1.21 Explain how data will be processed to meet the functional requirements of a
purchase department.
1.22 Explain how data will be processed in a bank when a cheque is presented by a
customer and payment made to him (assume that the bank uses computers).
1.23 Why is editing important in data entry?
1.24 What is the difference between on-line transaction processing and batch
processing?
1.25 When is batch processing preferred?
1.26 What is the basic difference between business data processing systems and MIS?
1.27 What type of information is provided by MIS?
1.28 What is the difference between MIS and DSS?
1.29 What will an MIS provide in a marketing function?
1.30 What will a DSS provide in a marketing function?
1.31 What do you understand by archival data? How can archival data be used?
1.32 What is data mining? Give an example of data mining.

System Analysis and Design/Information for Management Case Study
INFORMATION PROCESSING FOR A STORE - AN OVERVIEW – A Small
Case Example
In what follows we will present a broad overview of how data is processed to meet the
functional requirements of a store. The presentation below will be an overview.
The important functions of a store are:
• to keep an up to date ledger containing stock positions,
• cater to requisitions for issue of items from the store,
• initiate reorder of items whose stock is below a specified limit,
• update stock register when items are received, and
• answer enquiries regarding availability of items in stores.
In a computer based system the stock ledger is organized in a suitable form for easy
updating and retrieval and recorded on a magnetic disk. Magnetic disk storage is the
primary storage medium for storing large data bases. This is due to the fact that any
record can be directly accessed. Magnetic tapes are used primarily as a back-up storage
unit for keeping copies of data on disk. Tapes are also useful for storing old files and for
interchanging files between different computers.
In order to create a stock ledger for a computer-based system it is necessary to first assign
unique codes for each item in the store. The unique code assigned to each item is known
as the key of the item record and identifies the record. After that it is necessary to find
out what data fields are needed for each item in the stock. The fields are determined by
working backwards, that is, first asking what outputs are needed and based on that
V. Rajaraman/IISc M1/V1/July 2004/1

determining the data needed. The fields are organized as a record and stored in a data
base. This data base is the primary or master file for the store. (It is the computer
readable version of a stock ledger used in a store). Once the record format for each item
in the store is determined, one record is created for each item in the store. These records
are entered manually by a data entry operator who enters the records using a keyboard of
a terminal connected to the computer. This is called on-line data entry. Data may also
be entered on a separate computer such as Personal Computer (PC) and stored on a
floppy disk. This is called off-line data entry.
In off-line data entry the data entry machine is a low cost machine. If the volume of data
to be entered is very large, then a number of machines can be used and data prepared,
checked and corrected. As opposed to this, an on-line data entry method uses terminals
connected to the computer. In such a case the computer should be timeshared. On-line
data entry is appropriate for inserting, deleting or correcting some records in fields.
The data on floppy disk can then be transferred to the disk connected to the computer.
Off-line entry is used when the data base is very large and the computer used is a server
or a mainframe computer. If the data base is small, the PC itself may be used for data
entry and for data processing.
Before data is stored in the disk-file it must be ensured that any errors made during data
entry is detected and corrected. This is done by a program called an edit program and a

control total checking program. Such programs are essential to ensure the validity of data
in a master file.
A procedure similar to the one used to create the master file is also used to keep the data
in the master file up-to-date when new items are received or new stock of items already
in the ledger are received. Table 1 summarizes the operations performed for other
functions. The format of a record for entering requests uses the same item codes assigned
in creating the master file. Other fields are determined based on what outputs are needed.
In this case a reasonable format for requests is:
(item code, item name, quantity requested)
Table 1 Operations Performed in Stores Information Processing
1. Create stock ledger

• Codify items
• Determine data fields needed for each item
• Create a record for each item
• Organize the records as a data base
2. Issues/Reorder
• Codify items
• Determine data fields required in each request
• Determine data fields required for each issue
• Create record format for requests and issues
• Create record format for reorder
3. Receipts
• Codify items
• Determine data fields required in each receipt
• Create record format for receipts
4. Enquiry
• Codify items
• Record format for enquiry
• Record format for response
The record format for a reorder request would be: item code, item name)

( The quantity to be reordered is normally stored in the file maintained by the Purchase
department)
The record format for issues would be : (item code, item name, quantity requested,
quantity issued)
The request record is entered through a keyboard by a requester. It is checked for
validity by a program. A valid request is forwarded to a retrieval program which
retrieves the data on the requested item from the Master file on disk. The item code in
the request is used as the key for retrieval. If the requested number of items is available,
then an issue slip is printed; otherwise a reorder request is printed. Care must, however,
be taken to ensure that once a reorder is requested it is not requested again till the item
reordered is taken into stock. Each request slip processed by the computer is called a
transaction. If each request is processed as and when it arrives and the terminal on which
the request is entered is connected to the computer, then the processing method is called
On-Line Transaction Processing (OLTP).
There is another method of processing requests. A number of requests arriving during a
day (for example) are collected and formed into a batch. The data in such a batch can be
keyed-in off-line and a floppy disk created. This floppy disk can then be used to enter
requests on the computer which has the Master file. The entire batch is processed and
outputs are printed. This mode of processing is called batch processing. Batch
processing is usually more efficient. It, however, is not as timely as on-line processing.
In operations such as payroll processing which is done periodically, batch processing is
more appropriate.

Enquiry system is normally an on-line transaction processing system as it is the most
natural way of answering users' queries. In an enquiry system also, a user's query is first
checked for validity of item code, etc. before it is processed.
A variety of information systems used in practice are primarily on-line transaction
processing systems. Common examples are airlines and railway ticket reservation
systems. Designing such systems require special care to ensure that response to enquiries
are fast and that the system has a “hot standby” if there is a failure. High reliability is
required as failures can be catastrophic (imagine many persons getting the same berth
reserved on a train). Similarly reliability and availability is essential in on-line banking
systems.
MIS and DSS for Stores
The processing methods presented in the last para are for routine data processing. The
information they provide is operational information. The system required to obtain
tactical information require further processing. Such systems are known as Management
Information Systems (MIS). In the stores processing case study, some tactical decisions
would be: at what stock level should reorder be initiated? How much should be
reordered? These are determined based on data such as rate of issue of each item, time
needed for delivery from date of order, transport cost, storage cost, shelf life, and loss
incurred if an item is out-of-stock. These data have to be collected separately over a
period of time, often as a byproduct of a routine data processing system. In the stores case
daily issues of some critical items can be abstracted and the average issue can be
computed. Data on delivery times, transport cost etc. can be separately collected. Well

known methods of operations research can then be used to compute stock level for
initiating reorder and the optimal quantity to be reordered.
Operational data collected over a period of time is called data archives and the process
of collecting it is called data archiving. With the availability of massive disks in which
terabytes (1012 bytes) of data can be stored, it has become feasible to analyse the
archived data. Analyzing archived data to observe patterns which assist in management
decision making is called data mining. A stores manager may, based on his experience,
think that in the months of October, December and April the sale of sugar is very high
compared to other months. This conjecture maybe verified by data mining. In data
mining a rule is formulated which may say that in October sugar sale is 1.5 times the
average, in December it is 1.3 times normal and in April it is 1.4 times normal. This rule
may be verified within a specified margin of error by examing the data archive. If the
rule turns out to be correct, a manager will be able to decide how much sugar is to be
stocked in these months. This is a simple example of the use of archival data and data
mining to assist in tactical management.
As another example of tactical information requirement, let us consider the question of
fixing credit limits for customers. In order to arrive at this, the following inputs would be
useful:
• Customer details such as income, occupation etc.
• Customer payment history
• Volume of purchase by customer
• Outstanding dues (if any) from the customer.

Using these one may formulate some rules to arrive at the credit limits and also predict
their possible effect such as:
• anticipated effect on sales caused by varying credit limits
• anticipated loss/profit due to credit limits.
By analyzing the impact of credit limits as specified above, a decision may be arrived at
to fix credit limits.
The primary point to note is that one has to formulate a model and sometimes simulate a
system to obtain tactical information. The operational information from routine
processing becomes an input to obtain tactical information.
Strategic information is obtained through what are known as Decision Support Systems
(DSS). In the stores example a strategic decision would be to reduce variety in inventory
by discontinuing some items in store, deciding what new items to introduce in the store,
and when to open a new branch. Decisions such as these require provisions for a variety
of data transformations and representations.
Strategic information is often unstructured. Strategic decisions are made after trying to
answer questions such as "What will be the profit if I take a decision and what will be the
long range loss if I don't take it?". In a complex decision many parameters will be
involved. Identifying these and predicting their impact on a decision needs judgements
coupled with analysis. For example, taking a strategic decision of whether to open a new
branch or not would require the following information:
• Projected demands in the new branch
• Impact on current branch
• Pricing in new branch

• Competition in new location
• Profitability of new branch
These have to be provided using analytical and simulation model known as decision
support models. These models are more difficult to evolve than those needed in tactical
information development. Decision support systems should also provide aids to the
manager for conceptualization such as charts, graphs, etc. They should also provide
facilities to ask a variety of queries on the data base. A variety of summary reports
should be made available on request. The overall purpose of decision support systems
is to aid in strategic, unstructured decision making. Developing such systems is much
more difficult than developing operational systems. They, however, are the ones
required by the top management of organizations.

MODULE 1
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Most of the material in this chapter has been taken from the book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems” and the accompanying Self-Study guide written
by V.Rajaraman and published by Prentice Hall of India, new Delhi (2002)
(Permission of publisher taken).
2. The following books have a good treatment of Information Systems:
(i) Systems Analysis and Design, by K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, Pearson

Education (Asia) India reprint 2003
Chapter 1 pp.1 to 4 and Chapter 2 pp. 29 to 45 deal with the topic of
understanding organizations. The examples are more relevant to U.S.A. rather
than our country.
(ii) Modern System Analysis and Design, by J.A.Hoffer, George J.F. and
Valacich J.S., Pearson Education (Asia) Indian Reprint 2002.
pp.15-17 have a very short treatment of what we give in Module1
(iii)Information Systems Today by LiJessup and J.Valacich, Prentice Hall of

India, 2003.
Chapter 6, pp.168 to 198 deal with organizational structure.
(iv) Management Information Systems (The Manager’s View), by R.Schultheis

and M.Sumners, Tata McGraw Hill, 1999.
Part III pp.356 to 457 have a very detailed discussion of operational, tactical and
strategic management and appropriate information systems.
(v) Management Information Systems, by K.E.Laudon and J.P.Laudon, Pearson

Education Asia, Indian Reprint 2004.
Chapter 2, pp. 36 to 71 cover the topics discussed in Module in great detail.
SUMMARY OF MODULE 1
1. Data and information are not synonymous. Information is processed data. Data
may be processed by performing arithmetic operations on them. Data may also be
processed by reorganizing them by applying appropriate rules such as sorting,
merging, selection, matching, filtering etc.
2. Information requirements for managing organizations may be classified as
strategic, tactical and operational.
3. Strategic information is needed for long range planning. It is less structured and
difficult to obtain by processing raw data.
4. Tactical information is used to take short range decisions and for better control of
the functioning of the organization. It requires complex and ingenious processing
of data.
5. Operational information is used for day-to-day management of organizations. It is
obtained by simple processing of data, it is well structured, and more voluminous.
6. Statutory information consists of reports to be sent to government by law.
7. Management of organizations is divided functionally. Depending on the size of
the organization, each function maybe delegated to different managers.
8. Large organizations would have a hierarchical management structure with top
level managers, middle level managers and line managers.
9. Top level managers are expected to make policies and need strategic information.
Middle level mangers direct and control the functioning of organization to achieve
optimal performance and need tactical information. Line managers supervise day-
to-day operations and steer operations to meet targets set by middle level
managers. They need operational information.
10. The primary functional areas of many organizations are: Human Resource
Development, Production, Materials, Finance, Marketing and Research, Design
and Development.
Organizations are divided into many departments, each with a specific set of
11.
functions.
12. Even though an organization may have some specialized functions, many
functions such as Accounts, Human resource development, Stores, Purchase are
common among organizations.
13. Each function in an organization needs operational, tactical and strategic
information.
14. The information given to managers must be accurate, complete and trustworthy. It
must also be uptodate and timely. It must be relevant, brief, attractively presented
and its significance understandable.
15. Operational data is codified and stored in a Master file (or a central data base).
16. A request for retrieving a record from a Master file is called a transaction.
17. The method of processing data in which transactions are grouped together and
processed as a batch is called batch processing.
18. The method of processing data in which transactions are processed by a computer
as and when they arise is called On-Line Transaction Processing (OLTP).
19. Routine data processing systems (DPS) are used to obtain operational information.
These are normally repetitive. We may call this operational information system.
20. Data abstracted from routine data processing are further processed using well
thought out rules to obtain tactical information. Such systems are called
Management Information Systems (MIS).
21. Information from multiple sources in an organization are normally presented in
summarised forms such as graphs and charts to aid top management to take
strategic decisions. Such systems are called Decision Support Systems (DSS).
22. Data used in operational data processing is normally stored in many organizations
as back up or for legal reasons. These are called data archives.
23. The archived data may be analysed to obtain tactical and strategic information.
This is called data mining.

MODULE 2
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN LIFE

CYCLE
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
There are 4 alternative answers to each question. One of them is correct. Pick the
correct answer. Do not guess. A key is given at the end of the module for you to
verify your answer
LEARNING UNIT 1
2.1 The major goal of requirement determination phase of information system

development is
a) determine whether information is needed by an organization
b) determine what information is needed by an organization
c) determine how information needed by an organization can be provided
d) determine when information is to be given
2.2 Information requirements of an organization can be determined by

a) interviewing managers and users and arriving at the requirements based on consensus
b) finding out what similar organizations do
c) telling organization what they need based on your experience
d) sending a questionnaire to all employees of the organization
2.3 It is necessary to prioritize information requirements of an organization at the

requirements determination phase as
a) it is always good to prioritize
b) there are conflicting demands from users
c) there are constraints on budgets, available time, human resource and requirement
d) all good organization do it
2.4 Requirement specification is carried out
a) after requirements are determined
b) before requirements are determined
c) simultaneously with requirements determination
d) independent of requirements determination
2.5 The role of a system analyst drawing up a requirements specification is similar

to
a) architect designing a building
b) a structural engineer designing a building
c) a contractor constructing a building
d) the workers who construct a building
2.6 It is necessary to consult the following while drawing up requirement

specification
a) only top managers
b) only top and middle management
c) only top, middle and operational managers
d) top, middle and operational managers and also all who will use the system
2.7. In order to understand the working of an organization for which a computer

based system is being designed, an analyst must
a) look at only current work and document flow in the organization
b) discuss with top level and middle level management only
c) interview top, middle, line managers and also clerks who will enter data and use the
system
d) only clerical and middle level staff who have long experience in the organization and
will be users of the system
LEARNING UNIT 2
2.8. A feasibility study is carried out

a) after final requirements specifications are drawn up
b) during the period when requirements specifications are drawn up
c) before the final requirements specifications are drawn up
d) at any time
2.9. The main objective of feasibility study is
a) to assess whether it is possible to meet the requirements specifications
b) to assess if it is possible to meet the requirements specified subject to constraints of
budget, human resource and hardware
c) to assist the management in implementing the desired system
d) to remove bottlenecks in implementing the desired system
2.10. It is necessary to carry out a feasibility study as

a) top management can not ensure that a project is feasible before calling a system
analyst
b) top management is not sure what they want from the system
c) even though top management is in favor of the system, technology may not be mature
for implementation
d) all organizations do it
2.11. Feasibility study is carried out by

a) managers of the organization
b) system analyst in consultation with managers of the organization
c) users of the proposed system
d) systems designers in consultation with the prospective users of the system
2.12. Initial requirements specification is

a) not changed till the end of the project
b)continuously changed during project implementation
c) only a rough indication of the requirement
d) changed and finalized after feasibility study
2.13. Final specifications are drawn up by

a) system analyst in consultation with the management of the organization
b) the managers of user organization
c) system analyst in consultation with programmers
d) system designers along with users
2.14. The main goal of arriving at a final specification is

a) to tell the organization’s managers how the system will function
b) to tell the organization’s managers what the proposed system will achieve in a
language understood by them
c) to compute the cost of implementing the system
d) to assist in designing the system
2.15. The final specifications are arrived at
a) after feasibility study
b) during feasibility study
c) just before implementation phase
d) when the system is being designed
2.16. System approval criteria are specified

a) when the final specifications are drawn up
c) during the requirements specifications stage
d) during system study stage
2.17 System test plan is specified

a) when the final specifications are drawn up
c) during the requirements specifications stage
d)during system study stage
2.18. Hardware study is required

a) to find out cost of computer system needed
b) to determine the type of computer system and software tools needed to meet the final
system specification
c) to make sure that the system does not become obsolete
d) to find how to implement the system
2.19. Hardware study is carried out

a) after the final system is specified
b) at the requirements specification stage
c) before the requirements are specified
d) whenever management decides it is necessary
2.20. System design is carried out

a) as soon as system requirements are determined
b) whenever a system analyst feels it is urgent
c) after final system specifications are approved by the organization
d) whenever the user management feels it should be done
2.21. The primary objective of system design is to

a) design the programs, databases and test plan
b) design only user interfaces
c) implement the system
d) find out how the system will perform
2.22. The primary objective of system implementation is
i) to build a system prototype
ii) to train users to operate the system
iii) to implement designed system using computers
iv) write programs, create databases and test with live data
a) i, iii b) i, ii, iii c) ii ,iii d) ii, iv
2.23. During system implementation the following are done

i) programs are written and tested with operational data
ii) user documentation is created and users trained
iii) programmers are recruited and trained
iv) the system is tested with operational data
a) i and iii b) ii and iii c) ii and iv d) i, ii & iv
2.24. System evaluation is carried out

a) after the system has been operational for a reasonable time
b) during system implementation
c) whenever managers of user organization want it
d) whenever operational staff want it
2.25. The main objective of system evaluation is

a) to see whether the system met specification
b) to improve the system based on operational experience for a period
c) to remove bugs in the programs
d) to asses the efficiency of the system
2.26.Systems are modified whenever

a) user’s requirements change
b) new computers are introduced in the market
c) new software tools become available in the market
d) other similar organization modify these system
2.27. The main objective of system modification is

a) to use the latest software tools
b) to meet the user’s new/changed needs
c) to use the latest hardware
d) to have the most modern system
2.28. To easily modify the existing system it is necessary to

a) use good software tools
b) use the best hardware available
c) design the system which can be changed at low cost
d) keep the programming team happy
2.29 .It is necessary to design an information system to easily accommodate change,

because
a) new computers are introduced every year
b) new computer languages become popular every year
c) organizations’ requirements change over a period of time
d) systems need continuous debugging
2.30. Changing an operational information system is

a) impossible
b) expensive and done selectively
c) never required
d) usually done
LEARNING UNIT 3
2.31. System analysts have to interact with

i) managers of organizations
ii) users in the organization
iii) programming team
iv) data entry operator
a) iii and iv b) i, ii and iii c) ii, iii and iv d) ii and iii
2.32. The primary responsibility of a systems analyst is to

a) specify an information system which meets the requirements of an organization
b) write programs to meet specifications
c) maintain the system
d) meet managers of the organization regularly
2.33. The responsibilities of a system analyst include

i) defining and prioritizing information requirement of an organization
ii) gathering data, facts and opinions of users in an organization
iii) drawing up specifications of the system for an organization
iv) designing and evaluating the system
a) i and ii b) i, ii and iv c) i, ii, iii and iv d) i, ii and iii
2.34 The most important attribute of a systems analyst is
a) excellent programming skills
b) very good hardware designing skills
c) very good technical management skills
d) very good writing skills
2.35 Among the attributes of a good systems analyst the following are essential
i) knowledge of organization
ii) analytical mind
iii) ability to communicate orally
iv) excellent mathematical abilities
a) i and ii b) i, ii and iii c) i, ii and iv d) i, iii and iv
2.36 Among the attributes of a systems analyst the following are most important
i) knowledge of computer systems and currently available hardware
ii) good interpersonal relations
iii) broad knowledge about various organizations
iv) very good accountancy knowledge
a) i, iii and iv b) i and iii c) i, ii and iv d) i, ii and iii
2.37. Managers in organizations should not design their own systems as

a) systems have to interact with other systems
b) they do not have the special skills necessary to design systems
c) it is not their job
d) they are always very busy
2.38 Systems analyst should use software tools in their work as

a) all analysts use them
b) they assist in systematic design of systems
c) they are inexpensive
d) they are easily available
2.1 b 2.2 a 2.3 c 2.4 a 2.5 a 2.6 d
2.7 c 2.8 c 2.9 b 2.10 c 2.11 b 2.12 c
2.13 a 2.14 b 2.15 a 2.16 a 2.17 a 2.18 b
2.19 a 2.20 c 2.21 a 2.22 d 2.23 d 2.24 a
2.25 b 2.26 a 2.27 b 2.28 c 2.29 c 2.30 b
2.31 b 2.32 a 2.33 d 2.34 c 2.35 b 2.36 d
2.37 b 2.38 b
MODULE 2
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN LIFE CYCLE
Contents
2.1 Systems Analysis and Design life Cycle: Requirements
determination, requirements specifications
2.2 Feasibility analysis, final specifications, hardware and

software study, system design, system implementation,
system evaluation, system modification.
2.3 Role of systems analyst, attributes of system analyst, tools

used in system analysis

MOTIVATION
Designing Information system for an organization is a

very complex job.
Students should know how to logically divide a complex

job into smaller manageable steps.
Each step must have a logical beginning and end and

must be self contained.
System Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 1 of 23

MOTIVATION
Division of large jobs into logical steps will

• Enable one to assess progress at the end of each step
• Steps may be assigned to persons with
specialized competance
• Allocation of human and financial resources
appropriate for each step can be planned

LEARNING GOALS
1. Nine Steps in designing Information Systems.
2. Tasks performed in each step.
3. Nature of tasks performed by Systems Analysts.
4. The attributes of Systems Analysts.
5. The tools used by Systems Analysts.

LIFE CYCLE OF SYSTEMS
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Steps involved in Analysis and Design

1. Requirements Determinations
2. Requirements Specifications
3. Feasibility Analysis
4. Final Specifications
5. Hardware Study
6. System Design
7. System Implementation
8. System Evaluation
9. System Modification

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 1 : Requirements Determination
Arrived at by a consensus among managers
Priorities among applications determined
Pick high priority applications.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 2 : Requirements Specification
Known as System Requirements Specification (SRS)

Understand the existing System
Applications where a system is required are listed
Arrive at the specifications of the users’ Requirements
after discussions with the user
A system may encompass several applications

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 3 : Feasibility Analysis
Formulate Goals of the system and quantify goals
Find alternative methods of meeting the goals
For each alternative assess resources needed
- Human Resources
- Time and Money
- Equipment needed
Assess cost of each alternative
Find the best alternative method subject to resource constraints

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 4 : Final Specifications
Specifications would state what the system would

achieve.
Specification drawn up are improved for
implementation.
SRS written- given to user and agreement
reached

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 5 : Hardware Study
Determine Hardware and Software required

to execute the application.
Determine Response time,Volume of data to
be processed, Frequency of reports etc & then
pick the hardware.

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 6 : System Design
Logical Design of the System

Objects Identified
Database Designed
Program Specification drawn up
Implementation Plan Drawn up
Test Plan

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 7 : System Implementation
Write Programs
Create Database
Document System
Train Users
Trial run of the system
Test and Accept

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 8 : System evaluation
Find out from Users whether the System

meets specified requirements.
List areas of dissatisfaction and find reasons
Suggest if there has to be any improvements to
the system

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Step 9 : System Modification
Fix errors
Add/Delete features as required by users
Tune the System
Continuously monitor system and assess

performance

System Life Cycle Diagram
Revised Prioritized
User Requirements Specifications
Requirements
Requirements Requirements Feasibility
Determination Specification Analysis
Decision to Test Plan
Design Information Feasibility
System Logical Functional Study
Design Specifications System
System System
Implementation Design Specification
Analysis
System Configuration Physical
Data Requirements
System
Evaluation Hardware
Study Budget & schedule
Revised
Requirements
System
Maintenance Improved System
2.2.8 14 of 23
ROLE OF SYSTEMS ANALYST
Defining Requirements
- Involves Interviewing Users
Prioritizing Requirements
- Obtain Users Consensus
Fact Gathering
- Data, Facts, Opinions of Managers
- Lower level Users should be consulted

Analysis and evaluation

- Arrive at appropriate system
Solving problems
- Hazy requirements converted into specific
requirements
- Suggest many alternative solutions
- Quantify cost and benefits

Drawing up specifications
- FUNCTIONAL SPECIFICATIONS
- Understood by users and programmers

- Accepted by users
- Precise and detailed
- Account for possible changes

SYSTEM DESIGN
Logical design of system
- Objects identification
- Normalizing database
- Test plan
Design must be modular to accommodate change

Evaluating Systems
- Evaluation after use for sometime
- Plan periodicity for evaluation
- Modify as needed

ATTRIBUTES OF A SYSTEMS ANALYST
KNOWLEDGE OF ORGANISATION
- Knowing user’s jargon & practices
- Know Management functions.
KNOWLEDGE OF COMPUTERS AND

SOFTWARE
- Knowledge of system design tools
- Keep abreast of modern developments

GOOD INTERPERSONNAL RELATIONS
- Need to work as team member

- Lead smaller teams
- Interface with programmers & Users
- Motivator.
ABILITY TO COMMUNICATE
- Oral Presentation
- Report Writing
- Answer queries

ANALYTICAL MIND
- Problem solving attitude
- Ability to assess trade offs
- Sound commonsense
- Curiosity to learn about new organizations
BREADTH OF KNOWLEDGE
- Broad Liberal Knowledge
- Variety of jobs to be tackled in diverse organizations

TOOLS USED BY SYSTEMS ANALYST
Data Flow Diagram

Decision Tables
Modeling Language such as UML
Normalization of Databases
Testing tools
ISO/CMM procedure manuals

MODULE 2
Contents
1. MOTIVATION AND LEARNING GOALS
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Systems Analysis and Design life Cycle: Requirements
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Feasibility analysis, final specifications, hardware and
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Role of systems analyst, attributes of system analyst, tools
5. References
MOTIVATION
Students should know how to logically divide a complex job into smaller
manageable steps. Each step must have a logical beginning and end and
must be self contained. Division of large jobs into logical steps will enable
one to assess progress at the end of each step, each step may be assigned to
persons with specialized competence, and allocation of human and financial
resources appropriate for each step can be planned.
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of this module u will know:
1. Nine Steps in designing Information Systems.

2. Tasks performed in each step.
3. Nature of tasks performed by Systems Analysts.
4. The attributes of Systems Analysts.
5. The tools used by Systems Analysts.
LEARNING UNIT 1
Systems Analysis and Design life Cycle: Requirements

LIFE CYCLE OF SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Steps involved in Analysis and Design
1.Requirements Determinations
2.Requirements Specifications
3.Feasibility Analysis
4.Final Specifications
5.Hardware Study
6.System Design
7.System Implementation
8.System Evaluation
9.System Modification
1.Requirements Determination:
This is arrived at by a consensus reached among managers in the

organization. Priorities among applications are determined and high priority
applications are selected.
2.Requirements Specifications
This is known as System Requirements Specification (SRS). Applications

where a system is required are listed, and specifications of the users
requirements are arrived at after discussion with the user.
LEARNING UNIT 2
Feasibility analysis, final specifications, hardware and

3. Feasibility Analysis
Formulate Goals of the system and quantify them. Find alternative methods
of meeting the goals and for each alternative assess resources needed like
Human Resources, Time and Money, Equipment needed etc. Assess cost of
each alternative and find the best alternative
4.Final Specifications
Specifications would state what the system would achieve. Specifications

drawn up are then improved for implementation. SRS is written, which is
then given to user and agreement is reached
5.Hardware Study
Determine Hardware and Software required to execute the application.

Determine Response time, Volume of data to be processed, Frequency of
reports etc & then pick the hardware.
6.System Design
A logical Design of the System is implemented. Objects are identified,

Database is designed, and program specification and implementation plan is
drawn up.
7.System Implementation
In this phase programs are written, Database is created, user operational

document is created, users are trained and the system is tested with
operational data
8.System Evaluation
Find out from Users whether the System meets the specified requirements.
List areas of dissatisfaction and find reasons, suggest if there has to be any
improvements to the system
9.System Modification
Fix the errors, add/delete features as required by users, tune the system and
continuously monitor system and assess performance.
LEARNING UNIT 3
Role of systems analyst, attributes of system analyst, tools

The following are roles of systems analyst:
1. Defining Requirements: Involves Interviewing Users

2. Prioritizing Requirements: Obtain Users Consensus
3. Fact Gathering: Data, Facts and opinions of Managers are gathered,
Lower level Users should also be consulted
4.Analysis and evaluation -Arrive at appropriate system
5. Solving problems: Hazy requirements converted into specific
requirements, suggest many alternative solutions, and quantify cost and
benefits
6.Drawing up specifications: Draw up specifications which are understood
by users and programmers, which are accepted by users and which are
precise and detailed.
7. System design: Logical design of system is implemented and the design
must be modular
8.Evaluating Systems: Evaluate the system after it has been used for
sometime, Plan the periodicity for evaluation and modify the system as
needed
Knowledge of organisation
Knowledge of computers and software
Good interpersonal relations
Ability to communicate
Analytical mind
Breadth of knowledge
TOOLS USED BY SYSTEMS ANALYST
Data Flow Diagram

Decision Tables
Modeling Language such as UML
Normalization of Databases
Testing tools
ISO/CMM procedure manuals
REFERENCES
Most of the material in the module is adapted from Chapter 3 of Analysis
and Design of Information Systems by V.Rajaraman published by Prentice
Hall of India 2002 with permission from publisher.
1. Information Systems Today by L.Jessup and J.Valacich. Topics in

this module treated from a slightly different perspective in Chapter
8, pp.240 to 256.
2. K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, Systems Analysis and Design,

Pearson Education Asia, Indian Reprint 2002. pp.16-17 have a
very brief treatment of Systems Analysists’ role and Systems
Development life cycle.
3. Modern Systems Analysis and Design by J.E.Hoffer, J.F.George

and J.Valacich treat life cycle in pp.18-25. Role of various stake
holders in systems development is covered in pp.11 to 15.
4. Information Systems, S.Alter, Pearson Education Asia 2000 looks

at life cycle from a different perspective on pp. 4 to 16.
System Analysis and Design/Information Gathering Multiple Choice Questions
Systems Analysis and Design Life Cycle
2.1 The major goal of requirement determination phase of information system

development is
a. determine whether information is needed by an organization
b. determine what information is needed by an organization
c. determine how information needed by an organization can be provided
d. determine when information is to be given
2.2 Information requirements of an organization can be determined by
a. interviewing managers and users and arriving at the requirements based on
consensus
b. finding out what similar organizations do
c. telling organization what they need based on your experience
d. sending a questionnaire to all employees of the organization
2.3 It is necessary to prioritize information requirements of an organization
at the requirements determination phase as
a. it is always good to prioritize
b. there are conflicting demands from users
c. there are constraints on budgets, available time, human resource and
requirement
d. all good organization do it
2.4 Requirement specification is carried out
a. after requirements are determined
b. before requirements are determined
c. simultaneously with requirements determination
d. independent of requirements determination
2.5 The role of a system analyst drawing up a requirements specification is
similar to
a. architect designing a building
b. a structural engineer designing a building
c. a contractor constructing a building
V. Rajaraman/IISc. Bangalore M2/V1/July 04/1

d. the workers who construct a building

2.6 It is necessary to consult the following while drawing up requirement
specification
a. only top managers
b. only top and middle management
c. only top, middle and operational managers
d. top, middle and operational managers and also all who will use the
system
2.7 In order to understand the working of an organization for which a computer
based system is being designed, an analyst must
a. look at only current work and document flow in the organization
b. discuss with top level and middle level management only
c. interview top, middle, line managers and also clerks who will enter data
and use the system
d. only clerical and middle level staff who have long experience in the
organization and will be users of the system
2.8 A feasibility study is carried out
a. after final requirements specifications are drawn up
b. during the period when requirements specifications are drawn up
c. before the final requirements specifications are drawn up
d. at any time
2.9 The main objective of feasibility study is
a. to assess whether it is possible to meet the requirements specifications
b. to assess if it is possible to meet the requirements specified subject to
constraints of budget, human resource and hardware
c. to assist the management in implementing the desired system
d. to remove bottlenecks in implementing the desired system
2.10 It is necessary to carry out a feasibility study as
a. top management can not ensure that a project is feasible before calling a
system analyst
b. top management is not sure what they want from the system

c. even though top management is in favor of the system, technology may

not be mature for implementation
d. all organizations do it
2.11 Feasibility study is carried out by
a. managers of the organization
b. system analyst in consultation with managers of the organization
c. users of the proposed system
d. systems designers in consultation with the prospective users of the system
2.12 Initial requirements specification is
a. not changed till the end of the project
b. continuously changed during project implementation
c. only a rough indication of the requirement
d. changed and finalized after feasibility study
2.13 Final specifications are drawn up by
a. system analyst in consultation with the management of the organization
b. the managers of user organization
c. system analyst in consultation with programmers
d. system designers along with users
2.14 The main goal of arriving at a final specification is
a. to tell the organization’s managers how the system will function
b. to tell the organization’s managers what the proposed system will achieve
in a language understood by them
c. to compute the cost of implementing the system
d. to assist in designing the system
2.15 The final specifications are arrived at
a. after feasibility study
b. during feasibility study
c. just before implementation phase
d. when the system is being designed
2.16 System approval criteria are specified
a. when the final specifications are drawn up


c. during the requirements specifications stage
d. during system study stage
2.17 System test plan is specified
a. when the final specifications are drawn up
c. during the requirements specifications stage
d. during system study stage
2.18 Hardware study is required
a. to find out cost of computer system needed
b. to determine the type of computer system and software tools needed to
meet the final system specification
c. to make sure that the system does not become obsolete
d. to find how to implement the system
2.19 Hardware study is carried out
a. after the final system is specified
b. at the requirements specification stage
c. before the requirements are specified
d. whenever management decides it is necessary
2.20 System design is carried out
a. as soon as system requirements are determined
b. whenever a system analyst feels it is urgent
c. after final system specifications are approved by the organization
d. whenever the user management feels it should be done
2.21 The primary objective of system design is to
a. design the programs, databases and test plan
b. design only user interfaces
c. implement the system
d. find out how the system will perform
2.22 The primary objective of system implementation is
i) to build a system prototype

ii) to train users to operate the system

iii) to implement designed system using computers
iv) write programs, create databases and test with live data
a. i, iii
b. i, ii, iii
c. ii ,iii
d. ii, iv
2.23 During system implementation the following are done
i) programs are written and tested with operational data
ii) user documentation is created and users trained
iii) programmers are recruited and trained
iv) the system is tested with operational data
a. i and iii
b. ii and iii
c. ii and iv
d. i, ii & iv
2.24 System evaluation is carried out
a. after the system has been operational for a reasonable time
b. during system implementation
c. whenever managers of user organization want it
d. whenever operational staff want it
2.25 The main objective of system evaluation is
a. to see whether the system met specification
b. to improve the system based on operational experience for a period
c. to remove bugs in the programs
d. to asses the efficiency of the system
2.26 Systems are modified whenever
a. user’s requirements change
b. new computers are introduced in the market
c. new software tools become available in the market

d. other similar organization modify these system

2.27 The main objective of system modification is
a. to use the latest software tools
b. to meet the user’s new/changed needs
c. to use the latest hardware
d. to have the most modern system
2.28 To easily modify the existing system it is necessary to
a. use good software tools
b. use the best hardware available
c. design the system which can be changed at low cost
d. keep the programming team happy
2.29 It is necessary to design an information system to easily accommodate
change, because
a. new computers are introduced every year
b. new computer languages become popular every year
c. organizations’ requirements change over a period of time
d. systems need continuous debugging
2.30 Changing an operational information system is
a. impossible
b. expensive and done selectively
c. never required
d. usually done
2.31 System analysts have to interact with
i) managers of organizations
ii) users in the organization
iii) programming team
iv) data entry operator

a. iii and iv
b. i, ii and iii
c. ii, iii and iv
d. ii and iii
2.32 The primary responsibility of a systems analyst is to
a. specify an information system which meets the requirements of an
organization
b. write programs to meet specifications
c. maintain the system
d. meet managers of the organization regularly
2.33 The responsibilities of a system analyst include
i) defining and prioritizing information requirement of an organization
ii) gathering data, facts and opinions of users in an organization
iii) drawing up specifications of the system for an organization
iv) designing and evaluating the system
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iv
c. i, ii, iii and iv
d. i, ii and iii
2.34 The most important attribute of a systems analyst is
a. excellent programming skills
b. very good hardware designing skills
c. very good technical management skills
d. very good writing skills
2.35 Among the attributes of a good systems analyst the following are essential
i) knowledge of organization
ii) analytical mind
iii) ability to communicate orally
iv) excellent mathematical abilities
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iii

c. i, ii and iv
d. i, iii and iv
2.36 Among the attributes of a systems analyst the following are most
important
i) knowledge of computer systems and currently available hardware
ii) good interpersonal relations
iii) broad knowledge about various organizations
iv) very good accountancy knowledge
a. i, iii and iv
b. i and iii
c. i, ii and iv
d. i, ii and iii
2.37 Managers in organizations should not design their own systems as
a. systems have to interact with other systems
b. they do not have the special skills necessary to design systems
c. it is not their job
d. they are always very busy
2.38 Systems analyst should use software tools in their work as
a. all analysts use them
b. they assist in systematic design of systems
c. they are inexpensive
d. they are easily available

2.1 b 2.2 a 2.3 c 2.4 a 2.5 a 2.6 d
2.7 c 2.8 c 2.9 b 2.10 c 2.11 b 2.12 c
2.13 a 2.14 b 2.15 a 2.16 a 2.17 a 2.18 b
2.19 a 2.20 c 2.21 a 2.22 d 2.23 d 2.24 a
2.25 b 2.26 a 2.27 b 2.28 c 2.29 c 2.30 b
2.31 b 2.32 a 2.33 d 2.34 c 2.35 b 2.36 d
2.37 b 2.38 b

Systems Analysis and Design Life Cycle
2.1 Who do you think should participate in determining the information requirements of
a student’s hostel?
• Warden of hostel
• Hostel Superintendent
• Accountant
• Student Representatives
• Principal of college is consulted at the beginning
2.2 What is the difference between information requirement determination and
specification?
• Information requirement determination attempts to find out what strategic,
tactical, operational information is needed to effectively manage an
organization.
• Information specification defines the manner in which the information will
be presented and what analyzed data it
2.3 Why is feasibility analysis necessary before designing a system?
Feasibility analysis mean to analyze whether there is a reasonable chance of the
project succeeding given the constraints of computing equipment, human
resources, data availability i.e. before investing money and time one should
know what resources are needed for it to succeed and whether the resources are
available. If the resources are limited, then the goals to be met by the system can
be curtailed. One should have a quantitative and qualitative idea of cost of the
system and what benefits one may gain from the system.
2.4 What benefits do you expect if an information system for a hostel is designed?
• Mess bills will be promptly generated and can give itemized details of
extras.
• Can control mess expenses by finding out consumption of various items
against an average.
• Can try to optimize daily menus based on cost of vegetables etc.
• Can find out the names of the students with large dues left and sending
them reminders.
• Can quickly find out which student stays in which room and his home
address when needed.
2.4) What activities will you carry out during implementation of a hostel
information System?
1. PROGRAMS WRITTEN FOR

• Mess accounting
• Billing
• Stores control
2. DATABASE CREATED
• Students
• Mess stores
• Mess finance
3.TRAINING
Hostel office staff will be trained to input data and generate queries
4.DOCUMENTATION
Documentation of the system will be created.
5.TESTING
The computerized system will be operated in parallel with the manual system
and tested.
2.6) When should a system be evaluated?
A rough thumb rule is to evaluate a system when the "transients” die down and it
reaches a quasi "steady-state". Transients are caused by changes made due to
errors in the system and when some minor changes are introduced. Normally a
system is evaluated after being in use for 6 months, but this period may
vary according to the application.
2.7) Are excellent programmers necessarily excellent system analysts? Justify

your answer.
An Programmer is not necessarily an excellent system analyst. A programmer is

given clear specification and designs efficient programs. He need not have good
communication skills and inter-personal relations. A programmer works with
clear specifications whereas an analyst has to arrive at clear specifications from
fuzzily stated requirements.
2.8) Why should a systems analyst be able to communicate well?
He has to understand users’ requirements mostly by interviewing them and thus

he has to ask the right questions, listen carefully and summarize orally the gist of
conversation. He also must be able to present and explain orally to the users
the system designed by him and clarify doubts they may have after the oral
presentation. His main job is to interact with the management, users’ and the
programmers so it is obvious that he must possess good communication skills.
QUESTION BANK
MODULE 2
2.1 How are information requirements arrived at in an organization?
2.2 Who do you think should participate in determining the information requirements
of a student hostel?
2.3 As a student what information would you consider as important in a students
hostel?
2.4 What is the difference between information requirement determination and
specification?
2.5 Specify the information requirement you stated in answer to Exercise 2.3
2.6 What do you understand by the term consensus?
2.7 Why is feasibility analysis necessary before designing a system?
2.8 In designing an information system for a hostel what constraints should be taken
into account during feasibility analysis?
2.9 What benefits do you expect if an information system for a hostel is designed?
2.10 What factors are taken into account in arriving at the final specifications of an
information system?
2.11 What should be the important characteristics of the final specifications?
2.12 What are the inputs and outputs of the system design phase?
2.13 What activities are carried out in the system implementation phase?
2.14 What activities will you carry out during implementation of a hostel information
system?
2.15 When should a system be evaluated?

2.16 What are the characteristics of a good information system?
2.17 What special skills should a systems analyst possess?
2.18 Why should a systems analyst be able to communicate well?
2.19 Are excellent programmers necessarily excellent systems analysts? Justify your
answer.
2.20 List eight tasks performed by systems analysts.
2.21 List six desirable attributes of a systems analyst.
2.22 Should managers design their own systems? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of such a decision?
2.23 What are the tools currently available to design systems? What are the
advantages of using these tools?

MODULE 2
REFERENCE BOOKS
Most of the material in the module is adapted from Chapter 3 of Analysis and Design of
Information Systems by V.Rajaraman published by Prentice Hall of India 2002 with
permission from publisher.
1. Information Systems Today by L.Jessup and J.Valacich. Topics in this
module treated from a slightly different perspective in Chapter 8, pp.240 to
256.
2. K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, Systems Analysis and Design, Pearson
Education Asia, Indian Reprint 2002. pp.16-17 have a very brief treatment of
Systems Analysists’ role and Systems Development life cycle.
3. Modern Systems Analysis and Design by J.E.Hoffer, J.F.George and
J.Valacich treat life cycle in pp.18-25. Role of various stake holders in
systems development is covered in pp.11 to 15.
4. Information Systems, S.Alter, Pearson Education Asia 2000 looks at life cycle
from a different perspective on pp. 4 to 16.

SUMMARY OF MODULE 2
1. There are nine distinct phases in the development of an information system.

These phases constitute what is known as the system life cycle.
2. A summary of what is done in each phase and the outputs obtained at the end of
each phase is given below:
Phase What is Done During this Phase End Product of this

Phase
1. Requirements Determine requirements to be met by the Set of requirements

determination system being contemplated and their priorities.
2. Requirements Draw up understandable plan of what the Detailed
specification system will provide as outputs. Determine specifications of
needs and priority by consensus among end information to be
users. provided (revised
user requirement)
3. Feasibility Taking into account available resources Feasibility document
analysis such as human, computer, time and money specifying resource
find whether specified requirements can be needs and
met. availability,
expected cost vs.
benefits of system.
4. System Obtain functional specification based on Functional
specification revised user requirements and feasibility specification. Budget,
analysis time schedule.
Physical
requirements such as
storage and
processor.
5. Hardware study Determine hardware requirements for Hardware
system configuration - disk
space, CPU power.
6. System design Logical design of programs, design of data Logical design of
bases, test and implementation plan. programs, data bases
and test plan
7. System Writing programs, creating data bases, Programs, data bases
implementation testing programs and operation plans. user manual and
Documenting system. Training users. Data operational manual.
conversion if needed. Installing system.
Trial of system and parallel runs with
existing system. Tests to accept system.
8. System Find out from users if system meets their Evaluation report
evaluation needs with suggestion for
improvement
9. System Change system, adding or deleting features Improved system
modification/mai to satisfy users (modified) needs. containing
ntenance modifications and
improvements.
3. It should be remembered that in a design one may have to go back to an earlier

phase in the design based on results obtained in a later phase. The phases are
primarily intended an milestones to assess progress in design.
4. A systems analyst should interact with managers, users, and application

programmers in designing a system.
5. A systems analyst must, through discussions with users, determine their

information requirements, interact with them during the design phase and explain
to them what the system will provide. He must assign priorities among different
requirements, analyze and evaluate existing systems and improve them. An
analyst must be able to identify and solve management problems in organizations,
draw up specifications and oversee implementation. An analyst should evaluate
the designed system and modify it if needed.
6. A good system analyst must know the operation and management structure of
diverse organizations, must understand both hardware and software features of
computers, must exhibit good interpersonal relations, be able to express his/her
thoughts well, and be capable of life-long learning.
7. A system analyst should know the use of tools such as data flow diagrams,
decision tables, prototyping systems, spread-sheets, data base systems, report
generators and graphics systems.
MODULE 3
INFORMATION GATHERING
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
There are 4 alternative answers to each question. One of them is correct.

Pick the correct answer. Do not guess. A key is given at the end of the
module for you to verify your answer
LEARNING UNIT 1
3.1.1 Information is gathered for computerization during

a) requirements determination phase
b) systems design phase
c) implementation phase
d) feasibility phase
3.1.2 Information is gathered by a system analyst in order to

a) find out whether a computer based system is required
b) find out how the organization works
c) find out how the current system works and what is expected from a new computer
based system
d) find out who will use the system
3.1.3 The most difficult information to gather in an organization is

a) that which is known to only few persons in an organization
b) that which is not written down in an organizational manuals
c) company confidential information
d) what is consumed as obvious by the managers in an organization
3.1.4 Gathering information in large and complex organizations is difficult and

takes time because
i) it is necessary to consult a large number of persons at various levels of hierarchy in the
organization
ii) one has to examine the current system in detail
iii) a clear strategy has to be evolved to gather information
iv) it is necessary to use an information flow model of an organization
a) i and iii b) iii and iv c) i and ii d) ii and iv

3.1.5 A strategy to gather information consists of
i) identifying information sources
ii) using information flow model of organization
iii) examining systems of other organizations
iv) rely on ones experience
a) i and ii b) i and iii c) ii and iv d) ii and iii
3.1.6 The following are good sources of information to design a system

i) forms and documents used in the organization
ii) users of the proposed system
iii) procedure manuals of the organization which explains how various activities of the
organization are carried out
iv) annual report of the organization
a) i ,ii and iii b) i, ii and iv c) i and ii d) i and iii
3.1.7 It is necessary to interview top level managers as the first step in information
gathering
a) otherwise you will not get cooperation
b) they can give you an overview of the organization and specify objectives of the system
c) they are usually not available
d) the number of persons to be interviewed at top level is small
3.1.8 It is necessary to gather

a) quantitative information only as qualitative information is usually biased
b) both qualitative and quantitative information
c) qualitative information only as it is easily available
d) qualitative information only as quantitative information is usually not correct
3.1.9 Among information gathering methods, interviewing is essential as

a) it gives an opportunity to question the interviewees and clarify details and doubts the
analyst may have
b) it can be easily arranged
c) it is recommended by senior analysts
d) it is necessary to meet everyone in the organization
3.1.10 All information required can be gathered in
a) one interview
b) two interviews
c) several interviews
d) several interviews and group discussions
3.1.11 Interviews are essential to gather

a) quantitative information
b) qualitative information
c) facts and figures
d) statistical information
3.1.12 During interviews an analyst must

a) gather information on user requirements, procedures and practices
b) tell the user what is good for organization
c) tell the user how to run the organization
d) tell the user what is wrong with the organization
3.1.13 It is good idea for a system analyst

a) to define the objectives of the information system
b) to tell the users what the objectives should be
c) to let the user formulate the objectives of the information system being designed
d) not to worry about the objective during the interviews
3.1.14 The following should be avoided during interviews with users

a) interrupting a user when something is not clear
b) taking note
c) using computer jargon
d) not laughing when user jokes
3.1.15 The following manners should be observed during interviews

i) make prior appointment for interviews
ii) not prolong interview beyond 30 to 40 minutes
iii) take notes after obtaining permissions
iv) interrupt the user often to show you are listening
a) i, ii and iv b) i, ii and iii c) i and ii d) i, iii and iv
3.1.16 It is a good idea to prepare for an interview by

i) studying background material and going with queries and checklist
ii) finding out what a user likes
iii) recapitulating and summarizing what transpired in previous interview(s)
iv) finding out what a user dislikes
a) i and ii b) ii and iv c) i and iii d) i, ii and iv
3.1.17 Sending questionnaires are the good means of gathering

a) quantitative data
b) qualitative data
c) both quantitative and qualitative data
d) data from top management
3.1.18 Questionnaires are used when

i) a large number of people’s responses are required
ii) manual data processing is required
iii) when a small number of people’s response is required
iv) it is difficult to personally interview people
a) i and ii b) ii and iii c) iii and iv d) i and iv
3.1.19 In order to get fast response when questionnaires are sent

i) the questionnaire must be simple to answer
ii) the questionnaire should be comprehensive
iii) the questionnaire should be short
iv) the questionnaire should be long
a) i, ii b) ii, iv c) i, iii d) i, iv
3.1.20 Besides interviewing following methods help in gathering facts

i) studying systems used by similar organization for the same purpose
ii) reading case studies reported for similar organization
iii) sending letters to all managers of the organization
iv) sending letters to the clients of the organization
a) i, ii iii b) i and ii c) i and iii d) iii and iv

LEARNING UNIT 2
3.2.1An organization requests an information system to be designed when

(a) there is a change in management
(b) it is dissatisfied with the current system as it does not meet their information
requirement
(c) the current system has been working for 2 years
(d) new software tools are introduced in the market
3.2.2The purpose of designing an information system is to

(a) modernize the functioning of an organization
(b) reduce the number of people employed by an organization
(c) provide operational, tactical and strategic information to efficiently manage an
organization
(d) improve the day-to-day working of an organization
3.2.3 The expansion of SRS is

(a) System Requirements Specification
(b) System Resources Statement
(c) Statement of Reliability of System
(d) Standard Requirements Statement
3.2.4 System Requirements Specification is developed by

(a) users of the proposed system
(b) top level managers of an organization
(c) examining the functioning of similar organizations
(d) systems analyst after information gathering phase in consultation with users
3.2.5 The main objective of System Requirements Specification is to

(a) enable a systems analyst to satisfy himself and the user that they have
mutually understand the user’s information requirements
(b) write down the requirements clearly
(c) estimate the cost of developing the system
(d) to make sure that it is possible to develop the system
3.2.6 Graphical tools used to arrive at SRS are:

(i) Data Flow Diagrams
(ii) Program Flow Charts
(iii) System Flow Charts
(iv) Document Flow Diagrams
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iii
(c) i and iv (d) ii and iv
3.2.7 Document Flow Diagrams are used to depict

(a) how and when documents flow in the organization
(b) various offices/entities of an organization and the documents as well as
physical items which flow between these entities
(c) what documents flow in an organization
(d) how documents are generated and flow in an organization
3.2.8 Document flow diagrams are usually developed during

(a) System design phase
(b) Feasibility study
(c) Implementation phase
(d) Fact gathering phase
3.2.9 Document flow diagrams are developed by

(a) systems analyst
(b) programmers
(c) system designers
(d) users and managers of an organization
3.2.10 In a document flow diagram entities are represented by

(a) circles
(b) rectangles with rounded edges
(c) diamond shaped boxes
(d) rectangles
3.2.11 In a document flow diagram a dashed line with an arrow depict

(a) flow of documents
(b) control flow
(c) flow of materials
(d) data flow
3.2.12 In a document flow diagram a solid line with an arrow depicts

(a) flow of documents
(b) control flow
(c) flow of materials
(d) data flow
3.2.13 In a document flow diagram arrows are necessary to depict

(a) how documents flow
(b) direction of flow of documents
(c) when documents flow
(d) whether documents flow or not
3.2.14 Data flow diagrams are used to depict
(a) how and when data flows in an organization
(b) what documents flow in an organization
(c) what data flows between entities and how they are processed
(d) how data are generated and flow in an organization
3.2.15 Data flow diagrams are usually developed during

(a) system design phase
(b) feasibility study
(c) implementation phase
(d) systems analysis phase
3.2.16 Data flow diagrams are developed by

(a) systems analyst
(b) programmers
(c) system designers
(d) users and managers of an organization
3.1.1 a 3.1.2 c 3.1.3 d 3.1.4 c 3.1.5 a 3.1.6 a
3.1.7 b 3.1.8 b 3.1.9 a 3.1.10 d 3.1.11 b 3.1.12 a
3.1.13 c 3.1.14 c 3.1.15 b 3.1.16 c 3.1.17 a 3.1.18 d
3.1.19 c 3.1.20 b 3.2.1 b 3.2.2 c 3.2.3 a 3.2.4 d
3.2.5 a 3.2.6 c 3.2.7 b 3.2.8 d 3.2.9 a 3.2.10 d
3.2.11 c 3.2.12 a 3.2.13 b 3.2.14 c 3.2.15 d 3.2.16 a

MODULE 3
Contents
3.1 Strategy to gather information

3.2 Methods of gathering information
3.3 Case study –hostel information system
3.4 Systems requirements specifications
3.5 Classifications of requirements to operational,tactical,strategic

MOTIVATION
The Information system designed for an organization
must meet the requirements of the end users
of the organization.
To obtain what an end user expects from the Information
System the designer must gain complete knowledge of
the organization’s working.
It is important for the student to know the information
gathering techniques so that no information is
overlooked and the nature and functions of an
organization are clearly understood
Systems Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 1 of 30 of module3

MOTIVATION
The main purpose of gathering information is to determine

the information requirements of an organization
Information requirements are often not stated precisely

by management
Analyst’s responsibility to prepare a precise Systems
Requirements Specifications understood(SRS) by
users
SRS document is a vital document before starting a
project

LEARNING GOALS
Strategy to gather information for computerization.
Various sources of information.
Methods of searching for information.
Interviewing techniques to gather information from

line managers to top management.
Methods of consensus for formulating requirements.

LEARNING GOALS
Use of document flow diagrams to depict flow of

documents in an organization
Specification of Operational,Tactical and strategic

information which will be provided by the system
Use of dataflow diagrams to specify flow of records

and how they will be processed to create reports

INFORMATION GATHERING STRATEGIES
Identify Information sources
Evolve a method of obtaining information from

the identified sources.
Use Information flow model of organization.

INFORMATION SOURCES
Users of System
Forms and Documents used in the organization
Procedure manuals, rule books etc.
Reports used by the organization
Existing computer programs(If Any).

INFORMATION SOURCES
Interviews are very important

Use organization chart
Understand the importance of the people who
operate the system-Clerks,Line managers.
Gather information from Middle level persons who
have lot of experience
Gather both qualitative and quantitative
information & Observe how the organization works.
INFORMATION GATHERING METHODS
Searching for information
Individual Interviews
Group discussions
Several Interviews needed.

PLANNING AN INTERVIEW
Make a list of people to be interviewed and in what order

Plan and note down a list of questions to be asked
Plan several interviews with same person-mainly to
clarify doubts
Interview groups as appropriate

INTERVIEWING TECHNIQUE
Make appointment
Allot time
Read background material
State purpose of interview
Be punctual and pay attention to what user says
Do not use computer jargon
SystemsAnalysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 10 of 30 of module3

Obtain both quantitative and qualitative Information

Discriminate between essential and desirable requirements
State what you understand and get it confirmed
Do not prolong interview
Summarize information gathered and get it checked by the
interviewee

USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires useful for statistical data collection

Useful when large number of persons have to respond
Make questionnaires short
Design questionnaires by enumerating objectives and
data needed to meet the objectives
Several follow-ups/personal interviews may be required to
get questionnaires back from respondents

INFORMATION GATHERING OTHER METHODS
Existing system(If any)

Systems in similar organization
Observe workflow in workplace
Case repository in own organization

SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
System requirements specification specifies what

Information requirements will be provided.
It does not specify how the system will be designed
SRS is obtained after excessive discussions with the
user.
Developing SRS is most important and difficult task of
a Systems analyst

How SRS is Developed
Analyst examines the current system if any.

Analyst finds out the shortcomings of the system as
seen by the user.
Analyst’s aim is to develop SRS which is
understandable by the user and which can be used for
detailed design of the system.

Ideal characteristics of SRS
Complete and Unambiguous.
Specifies operational,tactical, and strategic
information requirements
Eliminates possible later disputes between users
and Analyst
Uses Graphical aids understood by users who are
not computer literate and will also be useful in
design.
Jargon Free.
FROM WORD STATEMENT TO SRS
• Narratives of requirements by users too long and imprecise

• Needs conversion to precise specifications
• Step1: Analyse statement
Step2: Identify physical entities such as vendors,
receiving office, Inspection office etc.
Step3:Identify documents which are received/sent by
each office
Step4:Draw a physical document

DEVELOPING A DOCUMENT FLOW DIAGRAM
EXAMPLE WORD STATEMENT

“Our company receives many items from several vendors each
accompanied by a delivery note.A receiving office receives the
item and checks the delivery note with corresponding order.
Any discrepancy is reported to purchase office.The items received
along with items received note (with details of items) is sent to the
inspection office.”
ENTITIES IDENTIFIED-Vendors,Receiving office,Inspection office
DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED-Delivery note,discrepancy note,Items
Received note.
Using these a document flow diagram is drawn

Graphical Specification Tools

Physical document flow diagram.
Logical Data flow Diagram (abbreviated as DFD)
Document flow diagram depicts various entities or offices &
documents generated/transmitted by these entities
Entities represented by Rectangles, Document flow by lines,
direction is shown by arrows.
Document flow lines are labeled by name of the document
Dashed lines used to depict flow of physical items.
Document flow diagram depicts various entities and documents
generated and/or transmitted by these entities
DOCUMENT FLOW DIAGRAM
Delivered Items
Vendor Receiving Inspection office

Office
Delivery note Items
Discrepancy Received
note note
Purchase Office
Entities in the Document flow diagram given above are Vendor, Receiving
office, Inspection office and purchase office
Documents are:Delivery note,items received note and discrepancy note
Physical flows are delivered items

DOCUMENT FLOW DIAGRAM (CONTD)
Delivered Items Delivered Items
Vendor Receiving Inspection office

Office
Delivery note Items
Discrepancy Received
note note
Purchase Office
The diagram is interpreted as follows:

1) Vendors deliver items to receiving office accompanied by a delivery note
2) Receiving Office sends items to inspection office along with an items
received note
3) Receiving office sends discrepancy note to Purchase office
ENTITIES: Vendor,Receiving office,Inspection office and purchase office
DOCUMENTS : Delivery note,Items received note and discrepancy note

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM (DFD)
DFD also has entities and data flows

Besides this DFD specifies processing
performed by some of the entities
Data flow diagrams specify which entities
generate documents
Details of documents and their flow
Processing performed by some entities
Data stores which are referred while
processing data and in which processed data
may be written or stored

Inspection
Receiving Items Office
Vendor Process
Delivery Received
note note
Orders Purchase
Office
Discrepancy
note
•Entities are, originators of data and “consumers” of data
•Vendor,Inspection office and purchase office are entities in the above
diagram
•Data flows are delivery note,items received note and discrepancy note
•A circle is used to depict a process
•A pair of parallel lines depict a store

DATA FLOW DIAGRAM (CONTD)
Inspection
Vendor Process
Delivery Received
note note
Orders Purchase
Office
Discrepancy
note
1) Data in a store may be read by a process
2) Processed data may also be written in a store
3) Circles depicting process are detailed separately using “ Structured English
Algorithms” Or decision tables
4) Data flows are expanded to detail the data elements
5) Contents of the data stores are also detailed

DATA ELEMENTS IN DATA FLOW & STORE
Delivery note:
Order no,Vendor code,Vendor name and address,Item name,
Item code,Delivery date,Quantity supplied,units.
Items Received note:
Order no,Item name,Item code,Delivery date,quantity
supplied,units.
Discrepancy note:
Order no,Vendor code,Vendor name and address,Item name,
Item code,Order date, Delivery date,quantity supplied,units,
excess/deficiency,No of days late/early.
Receiving office order file
Order no,Order date,Item name,Item code,Vendor code,Vendor
Name and address,Quantity ordered,delivery period.

PROCESSING RULE
English statement
1. Compare order no in delivery note with that in order file. If no
match return item to vendor.
2. If order no matches then compare item codes, if no match return
item to the vendor.
3. If order number matches compare qty delivered with quantity
ordered. If excess or deficient send discrepancy note to purchase
office.
4. If order number matches compare date of delivery with expected
date.If late or early send discrepancy note to purchase office.
5. In case3 and case4 send items received note to inspection office
The above statements are shown to the user for his approval.

OPERATIONAL,TACTICAL AND STRATEGIC
INFORMATION
For this simple examples are:
OPERATIONAL: Automatic checking of delivery against order and

create discrepancy note.Note discrepancy (if any) of each order.
TACTICAL:Evolve vendor performance index based on discrepancy

in supplies and quality inspection.
STRATEGIC:Use performance index to decide proportion of order for

an item to be placed with each vendor.Develop new vendors if all
existing vendors performance are poor.

STEPS IN SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
Study
User stated current
requirements system
Physical document flow diagram
Design
Logical
system
Logical data flow diagram
New
System New logical
Feasibility DFD
document model
Descriptive
Statement of Data Dictionary
Information Processing
rules

MODULARIZING REQUIREMENTS
SPECIFICATIONS
SRS Document
SRS Document now consists of:

Document flow diagrams(as many as needed).
Data Flow Diagrams.
Data elements of each data flow and Data Store

MODULARIZING REQUIREMENTS
SPECIFICATIONS
SRS Document ( Continued)
Processing rules carried out in each circle of DFD.

A descriptive statement of operational,tactical,strategic
information will be provided
A data dictionary which consolidates all data elements
in the document and data store.

MODULE 3
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Information gathering, strategies, methods
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
System requirements specification, classification of
requirements as strategic, tactical, operational and statutory
4. References
MOTIVATION
The Information system designed for an organization must meet the

requirements of the end users of the organization. To obtain what an end
user expects from the Information System the designer must gain complete
knowledge of the organization’s working. It is important for the student to
know the information gathering techniques so that no information is
overlooked and the nature and functions of an organization are clearly
understood. The main purpose of gathering information is to determine the
information requirements of an organization. Information requirements are
often not stated precisely by management. It is the analyst’s responsibility to
prepare a precise Systems Requirements Specifications (SRS), which is
easily understood (SRS) by users, as SRS document is a vital document
before starting a project
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of this module you will learn:

Strategy to gather information for computerization.
Various sources of information.
Methods of searching for information.
Interviewing techniques to gather information from line managers to top
management.
Methods of consensus for formulating requirements.
LEARNING UNIT 1
Information gathering, strategies, methods
INFORMATION GATHERING STRATEGIES
A strategy should be evolved by the analyst to gather information. The

strategy consists of identifying information sources, evolving a method of
obtaining information from the identified sources and using an information
flow model of organization
INFORMATION SOURCES
The main sources of information are users of the system, forms and
documents used in the organization, procedure manuals, rule books etc,
reports used by the organization and existing computer programs(If Any).
INFORMATION GATHERING METHODS
Searching for information

Information can be gathered by interviewing top-level management, middle
level management and operational staff. Besides Interviews group
discussions also help the analyst to gather information. It is not possible to
obtain all information in a single interview, more than one interview is thus
required.
PLANNING AN INTERVIEW
Before starting the interview the analyst must make a list of people to be
interviewed and in what order, plan and note down a list of questions to be
asked, plan several interviews with same person-mainly to clarify doubts
and interview groups as appropriate.
There are some guidelines to ensure a successful interview:
Make an prior appointment with the person to be interviewed and meet him
at the allotted time. Read background material and go prepared with the
checklist. State purpose of interview. Be punctual and pay attention to what
user says. Do not use computer jargon. Obtain both quantitative and
qualitative Information. Discriminate between essential and desirable
requirements. State what you understand and get it confirmed. Do not
prolong interview and summarize the information gathered by you during
the interview and verify this with the user
USE OF QUESTIONNAIRES
Questionnaires are useful for collecting statistical data. Sometimes the

questionnaires are not promptly replied and several follow-ups/personal
interviews may be required to get questionnaires back from respondents
But if the questionnaires are short the probability of getting the reply is high
When data has to be collected form large number of people questionnaires
are useful.
OTHER METHODS OF INFORMATION GATHERING
Other methods of information search are:
Systems used in other similar organization

Observe workflow in workplace
Repository of systems developed for similar organizations available.
LEARNING UNIT 2
System requirements specification, classification of

requirements as strategic, tactical, operational and statutory
SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION (SRS)
SRS is obtained after excessive discussions with the user.

System requirements specification specifies what Information requirements
will be provided. It does not specify how the system will be designed.
Developing SRS is most important and difficult task of a Systems analyst
How SRS is developed

Analyst examines the current system, finds out the shortcomings of the
system as seen by the user. He then develops an SRS which is
understandable by the user and which can be used for detailed design of the
system.
Ideal characteristics of SRS

Complete and Unambiguous.
Specifies operational, tactical, and strategic information requirements
Eliminates possible later disputes between users and Analyst
Uses Graphical aids understood by users who are not computer literate and
will also be useful in design.
Jargon Free.
DEVELOPING A DOCUMENT FLOW DIAGRAM
EXAMPLE WORD STATEMENT

“Our company receives many items from several vendors each accompanied
by a delivery note. A receiving office receives the item and checks the
delivery note with corresponding order. Any discrepancy is reported to
purchase office. The items received along with items received note (with
details of items) is sent to the inspection office.”
ENTITIES IDENTIFIED-Vendors, Receiving office, Inspection office

DOCUMENTS IDENTIFIED-Delivery note, discrepancy note, Items
Received note.
Using these a document flow diagram is drawn
Delayed Items Delivered Items
Vendor Receiving Inspection

Office office
Delivery note Items
Received
Discrepancy note Indicates Physical
note flow of items
Indicates Documents
Purchase
Office
The diagram is interpreted as follows:
1) Vendors deliver items to receiving office accompanied by a delivery note
2) Receiving Office sends items to inspection office along with an items
received note
3) Receiving office sends discrepancy note to Purchase office
ENTITIES: Vendor, Receiving office, Inspection office and purchase
office
DOCUMENTS: Delivery note, Items received note and discrepancy note
DFD has entities and data flows, DFD specifies processing performed by
some of the entities. It specifies which entities generate documents and also
indicate their flow. Data stores which are referred while processing data and
in which processed data may be written or stored are also represented in the
Diagram
Inspection
Receiving Office
Process Items
Vendor Received
Delivery
note note
Orders Purchase
Office
Discrepancy
note
•Entities are, originators of data and “consumers” of data

•Vendor, Inspection office and purchase office are entities in the above
diagram
•Data flows are delivery note, items received note and discrepancy note
•A circle is used to depict a process
•A pair of parallel lines depict a store
Data elements in the data flow:
Delivery note:
Order no,Vendor code,Vendor name and address,Item name, Item
code,Delivery date,Quantity supplied,units.
Items Received note:

Order no,Item name,Item code,Delivery date,quantity,supplied,units.
Discrepancy note:
Order no,Vendor code,Vendor name and address,Item name, Item
code,Order date, Delivery date,quantity supplied,units, excess/deficiency,No
of days late/early.
Receiving office order file

Order no,Order date,Item name,Item code,Vendor code,Vendor Name and
address,Quantity ordered,delivery period.
PROCESSING RULE
The statements given below are shown to the user for his approval.
English statement
1.Compare order no in delivery note with that in order file. If no match
return item to vendor.
2.If order no matches then compare item codes, if no match return item to
the vendor.
3. If order number matches compare qty delivered with quantity ordered. If
excess or deficient send discrepancy note to purchase office.
4. If order number matches compare date of delivery with expected date. If
late or early send discrepancy note to purchase office.
5.In case3 and case4 send items received note to inspection office
MODULARIZING REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATIONS
SRS Document now consists of Document flow diagrams(as many as

needed), Data Flow Diagrams, Data elements of each data flow and Data
store, processing rules carried out in each circle of DFD, a descriptive
statement of operational,tactical,strategic information will be provided,
a data dictionary which consolidates all data elements in the document and
data store.
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material including the case study has been adapted
from Chapter 4, Analysis and Design of Information Systems by
V.Rajaraman published by Prentice Hall of India 2002 with
permission from publisher.
2. Systems Analysis and Design, by K.E.Kendell and J.E.Kendell

published by Pearson Education Asia 2002 discuss in detail fact
gathering in pp.117-196. They cover interviewing, questionnaire
use and observing an organization very thoroughly.
MODULE 3
WORKED EXAMPLES
3.1) Describe the general strategy an analyst should use to gather information.
Strategy consists of
i)identifying information sources.
ii)evolving a method of obtaining information from the identified source.
iii)using an information flow model of the organization
3.2) What are the main sources of information of an organization.
i) Users of systems.
ii) Forms and documents used in the organization.
iii) Procedure manuals and rule books (if any).
iv) Internal reports.
v) Any computer program of existing system.
3.3) How should an analyst prepare before an interview?
i) Make prior appointment with the person to be interviewed and

inform the purpose of the interview, and how much time you would require.
ii) An interview should be brief and not exceed 40 minutes.
iii)read the background material and go prepared with a checklist.
3.4) Are there some guidelines for good interviewing? Give reasons.
Yes. The guidelines for good interviewing are like

i)system analyst should state the purpose of the interview again to brush of the
problem.
ii) He should try to avoid using computer jargon because the person may not be
conversant with the technical terms.
iii)He should present good manners and introduce himself before taking
interview. If any thing is not understood it should be asked immediately to
avoid later confusion
3.5) When should questionnaires be used?
When quantitative data from number of persons is to be collected. Short

Questionnaires elicit quick response. Follow up needed to get questionnaires
back.
3.6) Before interviewing the chief warden, what checklist did the system analyst
make?
The checklist made by the system analyst before interviewing is
i) Find out what aspects of hostel operations he wants to analyze and improve.
ii) Find out why he wants this and what benefits he foresees.
iii) Find out his priorities.
iv) Find out how early he wants the system.
v) Find out about organization of the hostel administration.
vi) Find out with whom else he wants me to talk.
vii) Find out if any documentation on existing procedure exist.
5.8 What are the initial two steps followed by a systems analyst when he is requested
to design an information system?
Step 1: Find out what are the information requirements of the users of the system.
Step 2: Find out how these are at least partially met by the current systems used
in the organization.
3.9 What graphical tools are useful to a systems analyst to understand user’s
requirements?
• Document flow diagram
• Data flow diagram
3.10A hostel warden states the following requirements for a hostel information
system:
“Our hostel has 500 rooms and 4 messes. Currently, there are 1000 students in all
in 2-seated rooms. They eat in any one of the messes but can get a rebate if they
inform and do not eat for at least 4 consecutive days. Besides normal menu, extra
items are entered in the extras book. At the end of the month a bill is prepared
based on the normal daily rate and extras and given to each student. We find that
bill preparation is delayed. We are also not able to keep proper track of payments
and billing for extras. We need a system to streamline this.”
Obtain a document flow diagram for the problem described above.
a, b, c, d, represent students’ attendance and extras record.
Fig. 3.10 Figure for Solution 3.10

3.11 What are operational, tactical, and strategic information needed for Exercise
3.10?
Operational
• Regular billing
• Find if bills paid within specified period
• Total earnings
• Daily rate
Tactical
• Habitual late payments by students
• Predict days with large absentees and adjust food cooked
• Most popular extras
Strategic
• Extras pricing to reduce daily rates
• Whether to give rebate for absence
• Closing down mess on some days
System Analysis and Design/Information gathering Question Bank
QUESTION BANK
3.1 Describe the general strategy an analyst should use to gather information.
3.2 What are the main sources of information in an organization?
3.3 What are the methods of gathering information?
3.4 Why are interviews essential in gathering information?
3.5 How should an analyst prepare before an interview?
3.6 Are group discussions useful in information gathering? Give reasons.
3.7 Are there some guidelines for good interviewing? State them.
3.8 What is the advantage of using a questionnaire in fact gathering?
3.9 When should questionnaires be used?
3.10 When should questionnaires be not used?
3.11 State as many sources of information as you can think of.
3.12 What is the last step in information gathering?

MODULE 3
CASE STUDY - HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM – Fact Gathering and
Requirements Determination
System analyst's diary: "I was called at 9 a.m. today (18 March 04) by the chief Warden
of Raman Hostel, Prof.V.Ramakrishna. He wants to examine if computers can help in
hostel administration. I made an appointment to meet him tomorrow at 10 a.m. in the
hostel office. I told him I will need 40 minutes to get an overview of his requirements".
I made the following checklist before meeting him.
Checklist
• Find out what aspects of hostel operation he wants to analyze and improve.
• Find out why he wants this and what benefits he foresees.
• Find out his priorities
• Find out how early he wants the system.
• Find out about the organization of the hostel administration.
• Find out who else he wants me to talk to.
• Find out if any documentation on existing procedures exists.
I met Prof.V.Ramakrishna at 10 a.m. on 19 March 04 in his office in the hostel and asked
his permission to take notes. The summary of my notes which I made and sent to him on
20 March 04 for his comments are:
• The total mess expenses are divided among members. Policy is set by the Chief
Warden in consultation with a student mess committee.

• He wants correct mess bills to be prepared and despatched within 5 days of the end
of the month to the accounts office for collection.
• He wishes to know which students have large unpaid bills.
• He is eager to control inventories to minimize stock.
• He intents to control issue of stores to cooks to minimize wastage.
• He wants to do some planning about purchase of vegetables and fruits to
minimize cost and wastage.
• He desires to have an up-to-date data base of students in hostel.
• The primary objective is to minimize students' mess bills, reduce outstanding
payments, and have ready information about residents.
• The priority order of the Chief Warden is: control inventory, control stores issues,
ensure speedy bill collection, student data base.
• He would like a new system to be implemented within 4 months.
• The organization chart of the hostel is given in Fig.3.1
• The Chief Warden wants me to talk to assistant wardens, mess supervisors and
students' mess committee members.
• There is no procedure manual. Most operation are done routinely using a
commonsense approach.
Professor Ramakrishna agreed that my notes, on the whole, reflected our conversation.
He added that the number of residents in the hostel was 400, all staying in single rooms.
He further indicated that he could afford to install a Personal Computer if benefits can
justify cost. I then made an appointment to meet Dr.M.N.Swamy, the assistant warden

on 23 March 04 at 4 p.m. in his office. I requested half an hour of his time for
discussions. I made the following checklist before meeting him:
• Find out details of accounting and billing procedure currently used.
• Ascertain his ideas about the current system and improvements
• Try to know his ideas on deployment of personnel if a computer is used.
The following notes were prepared by me on 23 March 04 evening. I used the jottings in
my notebook made with Dr.Swamy's permission on 23 March 04 during the interview.
Dr.Swamy is in-charge of all hostel accounts and is assisted by Mr.R.Sampath whose
responsibilities are to collect mess dues from residents and issue receipts, prepare
cheques for vendors' payments and keep petty cash account. Besides Mr.Sampath, there
is Mr.K.S.Iyengar, an accountant, who keeps accounts of (a) daily purchases for the
mess, (b) periodical purchases for mess, and (c) employees salaries (total around 30
employees).
Presently there are three purchase payment procedures. These are:
Monthly payment. Milk, green vegetables, meat, bread, butter, and confectionery are
delivered daily. A delivery chalan with a bill is given. Delivery is checked by mess
supervisor (Mr.Viswam) and the bill is sent to Mr.Iyengar. The rates are checked by the
mess secretary (elected by residents) against market rates and negotiated with the vendor.
The bill with the negotiated rate are filed by Mr.Iyengar and a copy given to the vendor.

At the end of the month they are verified by the secretary and Dr.Swamy, and payment
by cheque made to vendors.
Cash payment. Items such as gas, coal, kerosene, dry fruits are received at random and
immediate cash payment is made. Similarly, cash payment is made for cartage of goods
and for cleaning of grains. Cash payment bill copy is kept by Mr.Iyengar as authorised
by Dr.Swamy. Cash is paid by Mr.Sampath who keeps the cash accounts.
Biweekly payment. Once in two weeks items such as sugar, grain, pulses, condiments,
etc. are purchased from the wholesale market by a group consisting of mess secretary,
Mr.Iyengar and Mr.Viswam. Rates are fixed by negotiations and bulk delivery is made
to the hostel. Delivered quantities are checked by Mr.Viswam and bills filed by
Mr.Iyengar. Bills are approved by Dr.Swamy, and the payments are made within two
weeks by cheque.
The mess bill is calculated by Mr.Iyengar and his assistant Mr.Singh. To find the daily
rate, the total expenses are divided by the sum of the number of students who have their
food in the mess every day. If the total expenses are say Rs.5,60,000, and 400 students
eat on the first day, 395 on the second, and 406 on the third day, etc., then
Daily rate = Rs.5,60,000 (400 + 395 + 406 + … for 30 days)
= Rs.5,60,000/12043
= Rs.46.50

Currently, the manual calculation of bills takes over 6 days and many errors are found.
Bills do not go on time to students. This needs a better system.
Students are allowed to claim rebate if they do not eat for 2 days consecutively in the
mess, provided they give minimum 3 days notice in writing in the register kept with the
mess supervisor. Students can bring guests for meals and they have to enter the number
of guests for meals (not more than 4 at a time) in a register. They can also order "extras"
such as milk and eggs, which are entered in a register. Such entries from a daily register
are transferred to another students extras/guests/rebate register which has one page for
each student, and all entries for a student are written date-wise in this by Mr.Singh. This
register is used in calculating individual bills.
Dr.Swamy feels that this procedure complicates bill preparation. The student body wants
this facility to be continued. Dr..Swamy feels that if a proper system is designed,
Mr.Iyengar and Mr.Singh can be easily trained to use it, as both are intelligent and also
know typing.
The above notes were sent to Dr.Swamy who approved them. He added that a speedier
and accurate billing method with full details will be welcomed by students. Currently
full details of extras/guests are not provided in the bill as manual entry is too slow.
Further follow-up with students who have not paid their mess bill is currently not
methodical.

I then decided to meet Dr.Prasad who is the assistant warden in charge of mess affairs. I
fixed a meeting with him on 24 March 04 at 3 p.m. Before the interview the following
points were noted in the checklist:
• Find out how items are issued to cooks each day
• Find out if any inventory control is exercised
• Find out how wastage is reduced
• Find out his ideas for an improved system and its operation.
The following notes were prepared by me after the interview and sent to Dr.Prasad on 25
March 04. (Dr.Prasad oversees the work of Mr.Viswam, the mess manager, Mr.Garg, the
store keeper, and coordinates with the student mess committee).
Dr.Prasad is very unhappy with the way the inventory is controlled. The store keeper
waits till an item is exhausted and only then he tells the mess manager about this. It leads
to many trips to the city to order items and piecemeal arrival of items, leading to high
travel/transport cost. Rs.8000 is spent in this which can be considerably reduced. Items
are issued by the mess manager to the cooks based on nominal number of students in the
hostel. Proper care is not taken to reduce issues to cooks when many students are absent.
This leads to wastage. Over 100 different items are stocked in the store and a systematic
technique of replenishing stock should be used. Mess bill could be reduced by bulk
purchase of non-perishable items when their cost is low. This is not done. Dr.Prasad
feels that use of a computer in inventory control and issue control can be very effective.

The above notes were approved by Dr.Prasad who suggested that I should meet the
secretary of the student mess committee Mr.A.Pramod. I found Mr.Pramod in his room
in the hostel on 26th morning and he invited me to have a breakfast meeting. (Mr.Pramod
was elected secretary 8 months ago and has 4 more months in his current term. He wants
improvements within that period). He reiterated the points made by Dr.Prasad and
Dr.Swamy on the need to systematize issues, inventory and billing. He pointed out one
of the main difficulties he faced. Currently the bill is calculated at the end of the month.
Till then he has no idea of what the daily rate will be. Very often the daily rate goes up
sharply from say Rs.46 to Rs.54 which the students do not like. This leads to hasty
economy measures in the mess without proper knowledge of the areas in which these
measures will be effective. The student body would like to have uniform rates. This can
be ensured if estimates of daily rates are available at the end of each week. If the rate
tends to become high, some planned economy can be effected. Weekly adjustment can
lead to uniform rates. The daily menu is decided by the mess manager in consultation
with the mess secretary. Currently it is somewhat repetitive. Students joke" It is beans
curry and therefor it is Wednesday". There must be some way of randomizing menus,
keeping nutritional balance, variety of items and of effectively using seasonal low cost
vegetables, thereby reducing the mess bill. He thinks aloud whether some operations
research techniques can be used in this problem. I am somewhat intrigued by this
suggestion.

I summarized the above discussion and sent it to the mess secretary and Dr.Prasad for
their comments. I next met employees of the mess to get their views. I met Mr.Viswam,
the mess manager on 27 March morning. He explained his responsibilities as :
• Preparing daily menu based on advise from the mess committee.
• Preparing an "issue list" of items and quantities for each meal and sending it to the
hostel store for issue to the kitchen.
• Preparing a "return list" of items and quantities not used during the day by the
cooks to the store.
• Stock register updating based on issue and return list.
• Keeping track of rebates to students absent from mess and extras taken by
students which are to be separately charged. Relate rebates to stores issue.
• Ordering items when stock level is low. In practice, however, ordering is done
only when an item is exhausted. As delivery at door may be delayed, unnecessary
special trips are made to do cash pruchases.
Mr.Viswam felt that some help in automatically preparing issue list based on number of
persons who will eat in the mess will be very helpful. He would also appreciate assistance
in error free recording of rebates and extras. An automatic warning mechanism when
stocks become low would be useful. Consolidation of purchases to reduce trips would be
desirable.
A summary of the above discussion was sent to Mr.Viswam for his comments.

Next I met Mr.Mathews, the assistant mess manager. His responsibilities include
supervising mess staff and day-to-day maintenance of the hostel. He also assists the
warden in room allotment by keeping a list of available rooms, preferences, applications
for change of rooms etc. He feels that mess bill preparation is time consuming as it takes
a week. Room allotment, on the other hand, is not difficult and the current system is
satisfactory.
I then met Mr.Garg, the store-keeper. He keeps the stores stock register and helps the
mess manager in preparing the issue and return lists. He prepares lists of items to be
bought and monitors quality of supplies.
I finally held a group meeting with the chief Warden, assistant wardens, mess manager,
assistant manager, mess secretary, accountant and store-keeper. I showed the data and
document flow diagrams (Figs. 3.2-3.4) prepared by me and got their approval. I then
listed the critical needs which various persons identified. These are given in Table 3.1.
Based on this a consensus was reached on what aspects needed.
Table 3.1 Critical Needs Identified by Various Persons
• Mess bills to be despatched within 5 days to students.
• Identify large outstanding bills from students.
• Correct billing of extras and rebates to students.
• Weekly calculation of daily rate.
• Prompt payment to vendors.

• Issue of exact quantities of items to cooks based on menu and number of students.
• Reducing menu repetitions.
• Keeping a nutritionally balanced menu and minimizing cost.
• Forecasting requirement of stores based on menu and students.
• Consolidating purchases to reduce frequent trips for purchase and reducing cartage
charges.
• Student data base.
Computerization, and priority among them was also determined. The following priority
list was prepared as system to be computerised.
Preparation of mess bill
Stores issue and ordering system
Menu planning
Data base of hostel residents.
They requested me to begin a feasibility study and provide a cost-benefit analysis of the
above systems.
End of Fact Gathering and Requirements Specification Phase.

MODULE 3
CASE STUDY - HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM – Fact Gathering and
Requirements Determination
System analyst's diary: "I was called at 9 a.m. today (18 March 04) by the chief Warden
of Raman Hostel, Prof.V.Ramakrishna. He wants to examine if computers can help in
hostel administration. I made an appointment to meet him tomorrow at 10 a.m. in the
hostel office. I told him I will need 40 minutes to get an overview of his requirements".
I made the following checklist before meeting him.
Checklist
• Find out what aspects of hostel operation he wants to analyze and improve.
• Find out why he wants this and what benefits he foresees.
• Find out his priorities
• Find out how early he wants the system.
• Find out about the organization of the hostel administration.
• Find out who else he wants me to talk to.
• Find out if any documentation on existing procedures exists.
I met Prof.V.Ramakrishna at 10 a.m. on 19 March 04 in his office in the hostel and asked
his permission to take notes. The summary of my notes which I made and sent to him on
20 March 04 for his comments are:
• The total mess expenses are divided among members. Policy is set by the Chief
Warden in consultation with a student mess committee.
1
• He wants correct mess bills to be prepared and despatched within 5 days of the end of
the month to the accounts office for collection.
• He wishes to know which students have large unpaid bills.
• He is eager to control inventories to minimize stock.
• He intents to control issue of stores to cooks to minimize wastage.
• He wants to do some planning about purchase of vegetables and fruits to minimize
cost and wastage.
• He desires to have an up-to-date data base of students in hostel.
• The primary objective is to minimize students' mess bills, reduce outstanding
payments, and have ready information about residents.
• The priority order of the Chief Warden is: control inventory, control stores issues,
ensure speedy bill collection, student data base.
• He would like a new system to be implemented within 4 months.
• The organization chart of the hostel is given in Fig.3.1
• The Chief Warden wants me to talk to assistant wardens, mess supervisors and
students' mess committee members.
• There is no procedure manual. Most operation are done routinely using a
commonsense approach.
Professor Ramakrishna agreed that my notes, on the whole, reflected our conversation.
He added that the number of residents in the hostel was 400, all staying in single rooms.
He further indicated that he could afford to install a Personal Computer if benefits can
justify cost. I then made an appointment to meet Dr.M.N.Swamy, the assistant warden
2
on 23 March 04 at 4 p.m. in his office. I requested half an hour of his time for
discussions. I made the following checklist before meeting him:
• Find out details of accounting and billing procedure currently used.
• Ascertain his ideas about the current system and improvements
• Try to know his ideas on deployment of personnel if a computer is used.
The following notes were prepared by me on 23 March 04 evening. I used the jottings in
my notebook made with Dr.Swamy's permission on 23 March 04 during the interview.
Dr.Swamy is in-charge of all hostel accounts and is assisted by Mr.R.Sampath whose
responsibilities are to collect mess dues from residents and issue receipts, prepare
cheques for vendors' payments and keep petty cash account. Besides Mr.Sampath, there
is Mr.K.S.Iyengar, an accountant, who keeps accounts of (a) daily purchases for the
mess, (b) periodical purchases for mess, and (c) employees salaries (total around 30
employees).
Presently there are three purchase payment procedures. These are:
Monthly payment. Milk, green vegetables, meat, bread, butter, and confectionery are
delivered daily. A delivery chalan with a bill is given. Delivery is checked by mess
supervisor (Mr.Viswam) and the bill is sent to Mr.Iyengar. The rates are checked by the
mess secretary (elected by residents) against market rates and negotiated with the vendor.
The bill with the negotiated rate are filed by Mr.Iyengar and a copy given to the vendor.
3
At the end of the month they are verified by the secretary and Dr.Swamy, and payment
by cheque made to vendors.
Cash payment. Items such as gas, coal, kerosene, dry fruits are received at random and
immediate cash payment is made. Similarly, cash payment is made for cartage of goods
and for cleaning of grains. Cash payment bill copy is kept by Mr.Iyengar as authorised
by Dr.Swamy. Cash is paid by Mr.Sampath who keeps the cash accounts.
Biweekly payment. Once in two weeks items such as sugar, grain, pulses, condiments,
etc. are purchased from the wholesale market by a group consisting of mess secretary,
Mr.Iyengar and Mr.Viswam. Rates are fixed by negotiations and bulk delivery is made
to the hostel. Delivered quantities are checked by Mr.Viswam and bills filed by
Mr.Iyengar. Bills are approved by Dr.Swamy, and the payments are made within two
weeks by cheque.
The mess bill is calculated by Mr.Iyengar and his assistant Mr.Singh. To find the daily
rate, the total expenses are divided by the sum of the number of students who have their
food in the mess every day. If the total expenses are say Rs.5,60,000, and 400 students
eat on the first day, 395 on the second, and 406 on the third day, etc., then
Daily rate = Rs.5,60,000 (400 + 395 + 406 + … for 30 days)
= Rs.5,60,000/12043
= Rs.46.50
4
Currently, the manual calculation of bills takes over 6 days and many errors are found.
Bills do not go on time to students. This needs a better system.
Students are allowed to claim rebate if they do not eat for 2 days consecutively in the
mess, provided they give minimum 3 days notice in writing in the register kept with the
mess supervisor. Students can bring guests for meals and they have to enter the number
of guests for meals (not more than 4 at a time) in a register. They can also order "extras"
such as milk and eggs, which are entered in a register. Such entries from a daily register
are transferred to another students extras/guests/rebate register which has one page for
each student, and all entries for a student are written date-wise in this by Mr.Singh. This
register is used in calculating individual bills.
Dr.Swamy feels that this procedure complicates bill preparation. The student body wants
this facility to be continued. Dr..Swamy feels that if a proper system is designed,
Mr.Iyengar and Mr.Singh can be easily trained to use it, as both are intelligent and also
know typing.
The above notes were sent to Dr.Swamy who approved them. He added that a speedier
and accurate billing method with full details will be welcomed by students. Currently
full details of extras/guests are not provided in the bill as manual entry is too slow.
Further follow-up with students who have not paid their mess bill is currently not
methodical.
5
I then decided to meet Dr.Prasad who is the assistant warden in charge of mess affairs. I
fixed a meeting with him on 24 March 04 at 3 p.m. Before the interview the following
points were noted in the checklist:
• Find out how items are issued to cooks each day
• Find out if any inventory control is exercised
• Find out how wastage is reduced
• Find out his ideas for an improved system and its operation.
The following notes were prepared by me after the interview and sent to Dr.Prasad on 25
March 04. (Dr.Prasad oversees the work of Mr.Viswam, the mess manager, Mr.Garg, the
store keeper, and coordinates with the student mess committee).
Dr.Prasad is very unhappy with the way the inventory is controlled. The store keeper
waits till an item is exhausted and only then he tells the mess manager about this. It leads
to many trips to the city to order items and piecemeal arrival of items, leading to high
travel/transport cost. Rs.8000 is spent in this which can be considerably reduced. Items
are issued by the mess manager to the cooks based on nominal number of students in the
hostel. Proper care is not taken to reduce issues to cooks when many students are absent.
This leads to wastage. Over 100 different items are stocked in the store and a systematic
technique of replenishing stock should be used. Mess bill could be reduced by bulk
purchase of non-perishable items when their cost is low. This is not done. Dr.Prasad
feels that use of a computer in inventory control and issue control can be very effective.
6
The above notes were approved by Dr.Prasad who suggested that I should meet the
secretary of the student mess committee Mr.A.Pramod. I found Mr.Pramod in his room
in the hostel on 26th morning and he invited me to have a breakfast meeting. (Mr.Pramod
was elected secretary 8 months ago and has 4 more months in his current term. He wants
improvements within that period). He reiterated the points made by Dr.Prasad and
Dr.Swamy on the need to systematize issues, inventory and billing. He pointed out one
of the main difficulties he faced. Currently the bill is calculated at the end of the month.
Till then he has no idea of what the daily rate will be. Very often the daily rate goes up
sharply from say Rs.46 to Rs.54 which the students do not like. This leads to hasty
economy measures in the mess without proper knowledge of the areas in which these
measures will be effective. The student body would like to have uniform rates. This can
be ensured if estimates of daily rates are available at the end of each week. If the rate
tends to become high, some planned economy can be effected. Weekly adjustment can
lead to uniform rates. The daily menu is decided by the mess manager in consultation
with the mess secretary. Currently it is somewhat repetitive. Students joke" It is beans
curry and therefore it is Wednesday". There must be some way of randomizing menus,
keeping nutritional balance, variety of items and of effectively using seasonal low cost
vegetables, thereby reducing the mess bill. He thinks aloud whether some operations
research techniques can be used in this problem. I am somewhat intrigued by this
suggestion.
7
I summarized the above discussion and sent it to the mess secretary and Dr.Prasad for
their comments. I next met employees of the mess to get their views. I met Mr.Viswam,
the mess manager on 27 March morning. He explained his responsibilities as :
• Preparing daily menu based on advise from the mess committee.
• Preparing an "issue list" of items and quantities for each meal and sending it to the
hostel store for issue to the kitchen.
• Preparing a "return list" of items and quantities not used during the day by the cooks
to the store.
• Stock register updating based on issue and return list.
• Keeping track of rebates to students absent from mess and extras taken by students
which are to be separately charged. Relate rebates to stores issue.
• Ordering items when stock level is low. In practice, however, ordering is done only
when an item is exhausted. As delivery at door may be delayed, unnecessary special
trips are made to do cash purchases.
Mr.Viswam felt that some help in automatically preparing issue list based on number of
persons who will eat in the mess will be very helpful. He would also appreciate assistance
in error free recording of rebates and extras. An automatic warning mechanism when
stocks become low would be useful. Consolidation of purchases to reduce trips would be
desirable.
A summary of the above discussion was sent to Mr.Viswam for his comments.
8
Next I met Mr.Mathews, the assistant mess manager. His responsibilities include
supervising mess staff and day-to-day maintenance of the hostel. He also assists the
warden in room allotment by keeping a list of available rooms, preferences, applications
for change of rooms etc. He feels that mess bill preparation is time consuming as it takes
a week. Room allotment, on the other hand, is not difficult and the current system is
satisfactory.
I then met Mr.Garg, the store-keeper. He keeps the stores stock register and helps the
mess manager in preparing the issue and return lists. He prepares lists of items to be
bought and monitors quality of supplies.
I finally held a group meeting with the chief Warden, assistant wardens, mess manager,
assistant manager, mess secretary, accountant and store-keeper. I showed the data and
document flow diagrams (Figs. 3.2-3.4) prepared by me and got their approval. I then
listed the critical needs which various persons identified. These are given in Table 3.1.
Based on this a consensus was reached on what aspects needed.
Table 3.1 Critical Needs Identified by Various Persons
• Mess bills to be despatched within 5 days to students.
• Identify large outstanding bills from students.
• Correct billing of extras and rebates to students.
• Weekly calculation of daily rate.
• Prompt payment to vendors.
9
• Issue of exact quantities of items to cooks based on menu and number of students.
• Reducing menu repetitions.
• Keeping a nutritionally balanced menu and minimizing cost.
• Forecasting requirement of stores based on menu and students.
• Consolidating purchases to reduce frequent trips for purchase and reducing cartage
charges.
• Student data base.
Computerization, and priority among them was also determined. The following priority
list was prepared as system to be computerised.
Preparation of mess bill
Stores issue and ordering system
Menu planning
Data base of hostel residents.
They requested me to begin a feasibility study and provide a cost-benefit analysis of the
above systems.
End of Fact Gathering and Requirements Specification Phase.
10
MODULE 3
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Most of the material including the case study has been adapted from Chapter
4, Analysis and Design of Information Systems by V.Rajaraman published by
Prentice Hall of India 2002 with permission from publisher.
2. Systems Analysis and Design, by K.E.Kendell and J.E.Kendell published by
Pearson Education Asia 2002 discuss in detail fact gathering in pp.117-196.
They cover interviewing, questionnaire use and observing an organization
very thoroughly.
Mini Project Suggestion (Module 3)
1. Talk to your medical shop owner and find out what his information requirements
are. Divide it into operational, tactical, strategic and statutory components.
Describe how his operational and tactical information needs could be satisfied if
he installs a PC.
2. Go to a small hospital or nursing home in your neighbourhood and find out what
their information needs are. Classify them into operational, tactical, statutory and
strategic components.
3. Talk to your college registrar/administrative officer and staff. Find out their
information needs. How are they currently fulfilled?

SUMMARY OF MODULE 3
1. It is necessary to gather all relevant information about an organization as a first step
in systems analysis.
2. The steps followed in gathering information are to first identify information sources
and then find an appropriate method of obtaining information from each identified
source.
3. The most important source of information, both qualitative and quantitative, are the
users of the system at all levels.
4. Other secondary sources are forms and reports used by the organization and any
procedure manual or book of rules.
5. Information is gathered from top down. An overview is obtained at the top. Details
are obtained from those at the working level. Gaining the confidence of working
level users is vital for the success of any project.
6. Interviewing techniques have to be learnt by an analyst as he or she has to conduct a
large number of interviews.
7. The key to a successful interview is to observe good manners, have an open mind,
and encourage the person being interviewed to reveal all important details.
8. Distribution of questionnaires is not a substitute for interviews. Questionnaires are
most useful when quantitative data are to be gathered from a large number of
persons.
MODULE 4
FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
There are 4 alternative answers to each question. One of them is correct. Pick the correct
answer. Do not guess. A key is given at the end of the module for you to verify your
answer
LEARNING UNIT 1
4.1.1 Pick quantified goals from those given below

(i) payment should be made promptly
(ii) payment should be made before 5th of every month
(iii) the age of the persons should be below 35
(iv) the person to be recruited should be middle aged
(a) i and ii (b) i and iii
(c) ii and iii (d) ii and iv
4.1.2 Quantification of goals is required because

(a) without quantification no work can be done
(b) when goals are quantified it is possible to verify unambiguously whether they
have been fulfilled
(c) goals have to be quantified for a good system
(d) it facilitates designing a good system
4.1.3 Quantification of goals is done by

(a) converting subjective goal statements to ones with numbers
(b) converting subjective goal statements to objective goal statements
(c) converting objective goal statements to subjective goal statements
(d) removing all adjectives in a goal statement
4.1.4 Quantified version of the statement: “The inventory should be reduced
substantially“ is
(a) the inventory should be reduced effectively
(b) the inventory should be reduced significantly
(c) the inventory should be reduced very much
(d) the inventory should be reduced by 25%
4.1.5 Goals are identified by

(a) finding the deficiencies in the current system
(b) observing the current system
(c) analyzing competitor’s system
(d) finding the advantages in the current system
4.1.6 Deficiencies in a system are pinpointed by identifying

(i) missing function
(ii) excessive cost of operation
(iii) poor management
(iv) poor operation
(a) i and iii (b) i and ii
(c) i and iv (d) ii and iii
4.1.7 Goals are identified by
(a) discussion with all concerned
(b) pinpointing unsatisfactory performance
(c) finding poor management
(d) examining a variety of documents
4.1.8 Characteristics of good goals are that they

(i) are quantified
(ii) improve quality
(iii) are realizable within the constraints of the organization
(iv) aim at an ideal system
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iv
(c) ii and iii (d) i and iii
4.1.9 Goals should be agreeable to

(a) top management
(b) project leader
(c) all concerned, both management and operational staff
(d) programmers
4.1.10 Goals should be broken down to sub-goals as it
(a) expedites system design
(b) provides a convenient target to aim at during system design
(c) is recommended by experienced analysts
(d) is good idea to use
LEARNING UNIT 2
4.2.1 During feasibility analysis it is necessary to examine several alternative

solutions because
(i) a comparison of alternatives will lead to a cost-effective solution
(ii) a pre-conceived single solution may turn out to be unimplementable
(iii) it is always good to examine alternatives
(iv) management normally looks at alternatives
(a) i and iii (b) i and iv
(c) i and ii (d) ii and iv
4.2.2 A computer-based information system
(a) may require some tasks to be done manually
(b) should not have any manual tasks
(c) is always fully automated
(d) may use only computers
4.2.3 Among alternative solutions for an information system one may consider
(a) PC based solutions only
(b) an improved manual system
(c) only client-server based solutions as they are popular now-a-days
(d) whatever management decides
4.2.4 By technical feasibility of a solution we mean that

(a) technology is available to implement it
(b) persons are available to implement it
(c) persons have technical ability to implement it
(d) funds are available to implement it
4.2.5 By operational feasibility we mean

(a) the system can be operated nicely
(b) the system is unusable by operators
(c) the system can be adapted by an organization without major disruptions
(d) the system can be implemented
4.2.6 By economic feasibility of a system we mean that

(a) it is economical to operate
(b) it is expensive to operate
(c) it will be cost-effective if implemented
(d) finances are available to implement the system and it will be cost-effective
4.2.7 A solution is said to be feasible for implementation if
(i) it is cost-effective and finance is available to implement it
(ii) technology is available to implement it
(iii) it can be adapted to work in an organization’s environment
(iv) it has been implemented in another organization
(a) ii and iii (b) i, ii and iii
(c) i and iv (d) i, ii and iv
LEARNING UNIT 3
4.3.1 A cost-benefit analysis is performed to assess

(a) economic feasibility
(b) operational feasibility
(c) technical feasibility
(d) all of the above
4.3.2 The primary objective of cost-benefit analysis is

(a) to find out direct and indirect cost of developing the information system
(b) to determine the tangible benefits of the information system
(c) to determine if it is economically worthwhile to invest in developing the
information system
(d) to determine the intangible benefits of the information system
4.3.3 A cost-benefit analysis is performed as a part of

(a) system design
(b) system specification
(c) system performance assessment
(d) feasibility analysis
4.3.4 A cost benefit analysis consists of

(i) finding the direct and indirect cost of developing, implementing and running
the system
(ii) finding out the tangible and intangible benefit of the system
(iii) finding the investment to be made in the system
(iv) finding the profit which will accrue from the system
(a) iii and iv (b) i and iv
(c) ii and iii (d) i and ii
4.3.5 The tangible benefits in the following list are
(i) savings due to reducing investment
(ii) savings due to sending bills faster and consequent early collection
(iii) providing better service to the customers
(iv) improving quality of company’s products
(c) iii and iv (d) i and iii
4.3.6 The intangible benefits in the following list are

(i) savings due to reducing investment
(ii) savings due to sending bills faster and consequent early collection
(iii) providing better service to the customers
(iv) improving quality of company’s products
4.3.7 Intangible benefits are

(a) not very important
(b) as important as tangible benefits
(c) the most important benefits
(d) irrelevant in feasibility study
4.3.8 Pick the indirect cost from the following

(a) cost of new forms
(b) cost of training analysts and users
(c) cost of software to be brought
(d) cost of fact gathering
4.3.9 In payback method one finds out

(a) the period necessary to invest the cost of the system
(b) the time required for the full benefits to accrue
(c) the time at which benefits exceed cost
(d) whether the system is able to payback amount invested
4.3.10 In simple payback method one

(a) accounts for interest payments on benefits
(b) ignores interest payments
(c) only accounts for interest on capital investments
(d) only accounts for interest on recurring expenses
4.3.11In designing a system it is found that the cost of the system was Rs
1,50,000 and the benefit is Rs 10,000 per month. The interest is 1% per
month; the payback period using payback method with interest is
(a) 14 months
(b) 17 months
(c) 15 months
(d) 20 months
4.3.12 In designing a system it is found that the cost of the system was Rs
month; the payback period using the present value method is
(a) 14 months
(b) 17 months
(c) 15 months
(d) 20 months
4.3.13 In present value method one has to account for

(a) interest rate prevalent at a given time
(b) exchange rate prevalent at a given time
(c) sales tax rate prevalent at a given time
(d) both income and sales tax rates prevalent at a given time
4.3.14 At the end of the feasibility study the systems analyst

(a) meets the users for a discussion
(b) gives a summary feasibility report to the management
(c) gives a systems proposal to management
(d) tells the top management if the system is not feasible
4.3.15 The most important parts of a feasibility report are

(i) cost-benefit analysis
(ii) statement of the objective of the proposed system
(iii) who will supply equipment for implementing the system
(iv) organizational changes needed to successfully implement the system
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii and iii
(c) i and iv (d) i, ii and iv
4.3.16 A detailed system proposal is prepared by a systems analyst if

(a) management is not clear about what the system will do
(b) the analysts feels it is necessary to convince the management
(c) management approves the feasibility report
(d) the analyst feels it will be a challenging system to implement
4.3.17 The main objectives of a detailed system proposal are to
(i) convince management about the benefits of the proposed system
(ii) explain in detail to the management what to expect from the system and at
what cost
(iii) have a detailed plan on what the system will do and how it will be
implemented
(iv) make sure that it is possible to implement the system
(c) i and iv (d) ii and iv
4.3.18 The following are the most important points of a detailed system
proposal
(i) who will supply and install the required equipment
(ii) cost-benefit analysis
(iii) comparison of alternative solutions
(iv) implementation plan
(a) i, ii and iii (b) i, iii and iv
(c) ii, iii and iv (d) ii and iii
KEY TO OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
4.1.1 c 4.1.2 b 4.1.3 a 4.1.4 d 4.1.5 a 4.1.6 b

4.1.7 b 4.1.8 d 4.1.9 c 4.1.10 b 4.2.1 c 4.2.2 a
4.2.3 b 4.2.4 a 4.2.5 c 4.2.6 d 4.2.7 b 4.3.1 a
4.3.2 c 4.3.3 d 4.3.4 d 4.3.5 a 4.3.6 c 4.3.7 b
4.3.8 d 4.3.9 c 4.3.10 b 4.3.11 c 4.3.12 b 4.3.13 a
4.3.14 b 4.3.15 d 4.3.16 c 4.3.17 b 4.3.18 c
MODULE 4
Learning Units
4.1 How to formulate project goals and quantify them
4.2 Examining alternative solutions and evaluating proposed
solutions
a) Technical feasibility
4.3 Cost benefit analysis.Documenting feasibility report.
System Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman

MOTIVATION
• Before a management decides to implement a computer

based system they should know the goals which will be
met by the system
•These goals should primarily be quantitative goals so
that when the system is implemented it is possible to
compare quantitatively the achievements with the
original goals set.
•Analysts should also be able to estimate what hardware
and human resources will be needed to implement a
system to meet the goals
MOTIVATION
• Analyst must examine alternative methods to
implement the system and their resource needs.
•A cost-benefit analysis should be carried out for each
alternative and given to the management
•This analysis will be essential for a management to
decide which solution they would like to implement
•Feasibility of meeting goals with available technology
and human resource and cost/benefit are important
parameters for informed management decision making.

LEARNING GOALS
• How to formulate the goals to be met by the information system to

be designed
•How to quantify the goals
•How to obtain alternative solutions to satisfy the goals
•How to assess the feasibility of implementing alternative solutions.
•How to compute cost vs benefits of each alternative feasible solution
•How to prepare a system proposal for the potential users of the
system

The following are the results of the Information gathering

phase:
Deficiency of the current system are found

Consensus is arrived at on requirements
SRS Document is prepared
4.1.1 Systems Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman 4 of 30

STEPS IN FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
• Note down deficiencies in current system found while
preparing SRS Document
• Set goals to remove deficiencies
• Quantify Goals
• Find alternative solutions to meet goals
• Evaluate feasibility of alternative solutions taking into
account constraints on resources.
• Rank order alternatives and discuss with user.
• Prepare a system proposal for management approval
Define the goals and sub-goals of the proposed system
Quantify the goals and sub-goals from the verbal
statement of goal
For example: Send bill soon after month end
Quantified statement of the same goal:
Send bill within 5 days of month end
Find out whether it is possible to meet these goals.
Determine the cost of meeting each goal
Find cost benefit if quantified
GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING GOALS
Identify the deficiency by pinpointing

-Missing Functions
-Unsatisfactory performance
-Excessive cost of operations
Set Goals to remove deficiency and provide competitive
advantage

CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOAL
Must be quantified
Realizable with the constraints of the organization and
the system
Broken down into Sub-Goals
Agreeable to all concerned
In general goals must not only remove deficiency but
also give a system which is superior to those of the
competitors of the organization

CASE STUDY-HOSTEL INFORMATION
SYSTEM
(Detailed description of case is given in module3)

DEFICIENCIES OF CURRENT SYSTEM IDENTIFIED
MISSING FUNCTIONS
1.1 Stores requirement not forecast
1.2 Purchases not consolidated
1.3 Daily rate calculation not frequently updated
1.4 Menu not planned for balanced nutrition and low cost

SYSTEM
DEFICIENCIES (BAD PERFORMANCE)

UNSATISFACTORY PERFORMANCE
2.1 Billing not accurate and prompt
2.2 Student bills not itemized
2.3 Stores issue to cooks arbitrary
2.4 Payments to vendors not prompt
2.5 Large variations in mess bills every month

SYSTEM
DEFICIENCIES (HIGH OPERATIONAL COST)

3.1Unpaid and long outstanding bills from students
3.2 Extras and rebates not reflected in stores issues
3.3 Frequent small purchases at high cost
3.4 High transport cost due to not consolidating
stores requirements

SYSTEM
FORMULATIOIN OF GOALS
MAIN GOALS
Ml . Send bill to students within 5 days of the end of

month
M2. Control inventory of items in stores & issues to
cooks to bring down mess bill by 10%
M3. Balance menu to meet nutritional requirements
M4. Cost of new menu not to exceed current cost

SYSTEM
FORMULATION OF SUB-GOALS
S1.1 Itemize bills showing extras and rebates with dates
S1.2 Ensure less than 5% variations of bills from month
to month
SI.3 Bills not paid within 10 days of issue brought to the
attention of chief warden
S1.4 Update daily rates every day
Main goals M1 and sub-goals S1.1,S1.2,S1.3 remove
deficiencies 1.3,2.1,1.2.2,2.5,3.1
SYSTEM
FORMULATIOIN OF SUB-GOALS
S2.1 Ensure payment to vendors within five days of supply of items
S2.2 Maximum 4 trips per month for purchases. Cartage less than 1%
of item cost
S2.3 Reduce inventory level. Level not more than 10% of
requirements in a month
S2.4 Issue to cooks every day not to exceed 5% of calculated values
Main goals M1& sub-goals above remove deficiencies
1.1,1.2,2.3,2.4,3.2,3.3,3.4

EXAMINING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
A: Improve manual system
B: Use PC based periodic update system
C: An on-line system with server and several clients

SOLUTION A: MANUAL SYSTEM
Manual System may be improved as follows

• Keep up-to-date running total of extras and rebates for each student
• Use look up table to find material needed each day based on number
of extras
• Cost each day's issue and keep running total
• Calculate standard quantities needed and use for vendor order
• Track student payments to find overdue payments
• Solution does not ensure reduction in bill variations and prompt
payment to vendors
• Solution not scalable to large student population
SOLUTION B
Use a single PC to
• Prepare students bills-itemize bills
• Prepare number of members who will eat for next two days
• Alert warden when bill not paid within 10 days of issue
• Vendor order generation
• Inventory control of store
• Menu planning

SOLUTION B
PC configuration needed based on data base sizes

PC with 20 MB disk, 1.2 MB floppy sufficient
However minimum configuration available today(2004) is
PC with 128 MB main memory, 40 GB disk 1.2MB floppy
& CD R/W costs Rs. 25,000.Systems software(Windows
XP+MSOffice+anti-virus) will cost around Rs.25,000.
Total cost=Rs 50,000
Need PC+ printer+uninterrupted power supply cost Rs.
70,000
SOLUTION C
• Use a server which is accessed by 3 clients one each in the

mess, the stores and the accounts sections; perform on-line
transaction processing.
• Advantage: Up to the minute status can be found
•Number of transactions small and does not justify 4
computers
•Solution unnecessarily expensive and rejected

EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
• Determine Technical feasibility of each solution,in other

words is technology mature to implement a solution
• Determine Operational feasibility of each solution.In
other words,for a given organizational structure will the
solution fit in.Will it provide right information at the right
time to users
• Determine Economic feasibility of each solution.In other
words, are finances available to implement system?Will it
be cost effective?Will the money spent be recovered by
savings or by better services to users

TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL
FEASIBILITY
•Solution B is selected for further consideration

• It is technically feasible as PC of necessary configuration
is easily available.
• It is also operationally feasible as clerks in hostel office
can be easily trained to use a PC. The necessary problems
will be written by system analyst/ programmer hired for
this purpose.

COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
• Needed to find economic feasibility of proposed solution

• Objective to find whether returns by implementing a system
justify the cost
• Found by listing all costs direct and indirect
• Direct cost- Cost of computer, software, space, human resource,
material,travel, training etc.
• Indirect cost- Time spent by persons and data gathering
• Benefit- Tangible- measurable
Intangible- better management
-better user satisfaction
BENEFITS
Direct - Savings due to reduced inventory, early collection

of outstanding payments, reduced wastage,faster
production, increased production
Indirect –Increased work done with same human resource
Intangible - better service to customers
- superior product quality
- accurate,reliable,timely and up-to-date
strategic,tactical and operational information to
management
COST – BENEFITS ANALYSIS
CASE STUDY OF HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM
COST : PC,UPS,Printer+Systems analyst+programmer
Capital 70,000 +60,000 =1,30,000
Cost(Recurring) : Stationery, maintenance,floppy etc.
Rs. 2000 per month
Benefits : - Inventory reduction 5% of mess bill of 400 students
Daily rate=Rs 45
Savings= 45*0.05*30*400=Rs 27,000
- Transport cost saving=Rs 800 per month
- Savings due to early payment
=material cost*1.2%=37.5*400*30*0.012=Rs 5400
- Savings due to early collection =40*1350*0.01=Rs 540
COST – BENEFITS ANALYSIS
Direct saving=33740
Indirect benefit : student satisfaction due to itemized bill,
predictable daily rate,better menu
Net Direct Saving per month= 33740-2000
=R31740
Total capital cost=l,30,000

PAY BACK PERIOD
SIMPLE: Cost 1,30,000

Saving 31,740 per month
Cost recovered in 130000/31740 = 4.1 months
Using interest on capital:
Monthly interest=0.015* 1,30,000
=Rs 1950 per month
Saving per month=31740-1950=29790
PRESENT VALUE METHOD
Accounts for the fact that a benefit accruing n months later

will be lower today as the money if available today would
have earned interest
If r = Interest rate in % per month.
n = number of months
x = benefit
Present value of benefit accruing n months later is:
Present value = x/(1+r)n

COST-BENEFIT
Present Value method
This account for the fact that benefits each month will also earn interest
Month Cost Net-Benefit present value cumulative Benefit
of Benefit
0 1,30,000 0 0
1 31,740 31271 ace@applabs.net
31271
2 31,740 30809 62080
3 31,740 30354 92434
4 31,740 29905 122339
5 31,740 29463 151802
This also give us less than 5 months as pay back period

STRUCTURE OF EXCUTIVE SUMMARY
Feasibility report
•What the proposed system will achieve
•Who will be involved in operating the system
•Organizational changes to implement system
•List of benefits of the system
•Cost of system - Capital +Recurring
•Cost-benefit analysis

SYSTEM PROPOSAL STRUCTURE
•Introduction with outline of proposal
•Data flow diagram of existing system
•Modified DFD of proposed system
•Discuss alternative solutions
•List new equipment to be installed (if any)
•Technical,operational feasibility of analysis
•Cost- Benefit analysis
•New procedures, human resources and training needed
•Anticipated problems
•Implementation plan
MODULE 4
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
How to formulate project goals and quantify them
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Examining alternative solutions and evaluating proposed solutions
a) Technical feasibility
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Cost benefit analysis. Documenting feasibility report
5. REFERENCES
MOTIVATION
Before a management decides to implement a computer based system they
should know the goals which will be met by the system. These goals should
primarily be quantitative goals so that when the system is implemented it is
possible to compare quantitatively the achievements with the original goals
set. Analysts should be able to estimate what hardware and human resources
will be needed to implement a system to meet the goals. Analyst must
examine alternative methods to implement the system and their resource
needs. A cost-benefit analysis should be carried out for each alternative and
given to the management. This analysis will be essential for a management
to decide which solution they would like to implement. Feasibility of
meeting goals with available technology and human resource and
cost/benefit are important parameters for informed management decision-
making.
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of this module you will know

• How to formulate the goals to be met by the information system to be
designed
•How to quantify the goals
•How to obtain alternative solutions to satisfy the goals
•How to assess the feasibility of implementing alternative solutions.
•How to compute cost vs benefits of each alternative feasible solution
•How to prepare a system proposal for the potential users of the system
LEARNING UNIT 1
How to formulate project goals and quantify them
STEPS IN FEASIBILITY ANALYSIS
•Note down deficiencies in current system found while preparing SRS

Document
•Set goals to remove deficiencies
•Quantify Goals
•Find alternative solutions to meet goals
•Evaluate feasibility of alternative solutions taking into account constraints
on resources.
•Rank order alternatives and discuss with user.
•Prepare a system proposal for management approval
Quantify the goals and sub-goals from the verbal statement of goal
For example: Send bill soon after month end
Quantified statement of the same goal:
Send bill within 5 days of month end
Find out whether it is possible to meet these goals.
Determine the cost of meeting each goal
Find cost benefit if quantified
GUIDELINES FOR SEARCHING GOALS
Identify the deficiency by pinpointing missing functions, unsatisfactory

performance and excessive cost of operations. Set Goals to remove
deficiency and provide competitive advantage
CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOAL
Must be quantified, realizable with the constraints of the organization and

the system, broken down into Sub-Goals, agreeable to all concerned, in
general goals must not only remove deficiency but also give a system which
is superior to those of the competitors of the organization.
CASE STUDY-HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM

(For details of this Case Study see Chapter 5 page 46-58 of book “Analysis
and design of Information Systems”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,2002
by V.Rajaraman)
MISSING FUNCTIONS
1.1 Stores requirement not forecast
1.2 Purchases not consolidated
1.3 Daily rate calculation not frequently updated
1.4 Menu not planned for balanced nutrition and low cost
UNSATISFACTORY PERFORMANCE
2.1 Billing not accurate and prompt
2.3 Student bills not itemized
2.3 Stores issue to cooks arbitrary
2.4 Payments to vendors not prompt
2.5 Large variations in mess bills every month
DEFICIENCIES (HIGH OPERATIONAL COST)

3.1Unpaid and long outstanding bills from students
3.2 Extras and rebates not reflected in stores issues
3.3 Frequent small purchases at high cost
3.4 High transport cost due to not consolidating stores requirements
FORMULATIOIN OF GOALS
MAIN GOALS
Ml . Send bill to students within 5 days of the end of month

M2. Control inventory of items in stores & issues to cooks to bring down
mess bill by 10%
M3. Balance menu to meet nutritional requirements
M4. Cost of new menu not to exceed current cost
FORMULATION OF SUB-GOALS
S1.1 Itemize bills showing extras and rebates with dates
S1.2 Ensure less than 5% variations of bills from month to month
SI.3 Bills not paid within 10 days of issue brought to the attention of chief
warden
S1.4 Update daily rates every day
Main goals M1 and sub-goals S1.1,S1.2,S1.3 remove deficiencies

1.3,2.1,1.2.2,2.5,3.1
S2.1 Ensure payment to vendors within five days of supply of items

S2.2 Maximum 4 trips per month for purchases. Cartage less than 1% of
item cost
S2.3 Reduce inventory level. Level not more than 10% of requirements in a
month
S2.4 Issue to cooks every day not to exceed 5% of calculated values
Main goals M1& sub-goals above remove deficiencies
1.1,1.2,2.3,2.4,3.2,3.3,3.4
LEARNING UNIT 2
Examining alternative solutions and evaluating proposed solutions

EXAMINING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM
ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
A: Improve manual system
B: Use PC based periodic update system
C: An on-line system with server and several clients
SOLUTION A: MANUAL SYSTEM

Keep up-to-date running total of extras and rebates for each student, use look
up table to find material needed each day based on number of extras,
calculate standard quantities needed and use for vendor order, track student
payments to find overdue payments. Solution does not ensure reduction in
bill variations and prompt payment to vendors, solution not scalable to large
student population
SOLUTION B: USE PC BASED PERIODIC UPDATE SYSTEM
Use a single PC to prepare students bills and to itemize bills, prepare a list of
number of members who will eat for next two days, alert warden when bill is
not paid within 10 days of issue. Use a PC to generate Vendor order,
Inventory control of store and Menu planning.
The PC configuration needed based on data base sizes is:

PC with 20 MB disk, 1.2 MB floppy is sufficient. However minimum
configuration available today(2004) is PC with 128 MB main memory, 40
GB disk 1.2MB floppy & CD R/W costs Rs. 25,000.Systems software
(Windows XP, MSOffice, anti-virus) will cost around Rs.25,000.
So, the Total cost is Rs 50,000.
But a PC with printer and uninterrupted power supply costs Rs. 70,000
SOLUTION C: AN ON-LINE SYSTEM WITH SERVER AND
SEVERAL CLIENTS
Use a server which is accessed by 3 clients one each in the mess, the stores
and the accounts sections; perform on-line transaction processing. The
advantage is up to the minute status can be found
EVALUATING ALTERNATIVE SOLUTIONS
Determine Technical feasibility of each solution, in other words is

technology mature to implement a solution. Determine Operational
feasibility of each solution. In other words, for a given organizational
structure will the solution fit in. Will it provide right information at the right
time to users? Determine Economic feasibility of each solution. In other
words, are finances available to implement system? Will it be cost effective?
Will the money spent be recovered by savings or by better services to users.
TECHNICAL AND OPERATIONAL FEASIBILITY

Solution B is rejected, as it does not meet most of the requirements. Solution
C is rejected, as it is a high cost solution.
Solution B is selected for further consideration. It is technically feasible as
PC of necessary configuration is easily available. It is also operationally
feasible as clerks in hostel office can be easily trained to use a PC.
System analyst/ programmer hired for this purpose will write the necessary
problems.
LEARNING UNIT 3
Cost benefit analysis. Documenting feasibility report.
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS
This is done to find economic feasibility of proposed solution and to find
whether returns by implementing a system justify the cost. This is found by
listing direct and indirect costs
Direct cost- Cost of computer, software, space, human resource, material,

travel, training etc.
Indirect cost- Time spent by persons and data gathering
BENEFITS
Tangible benefits are measurable.
Direct benefits are savings due to reduced inventory, early collection of
outstanding payments, reduced wastage, faster production, increased
production.
Indirect benefit is increased work done with same human resource.
Intangible benefits are like better service to customers, superior product
quality, accurate, reliable, timely and up-to-date strategic, tactical and
operational information to management
COST BENEFIT ANALYSIS
CASE STUDY OF HOSTEL INFORMATION SYSTEM
COST : PC,UPS,Printer+Systems analyst+programmer

Capital 70,000 +60,000 =1,30,000
Cost(Recurring) : Stationery, maintenance,floppy etc.

Rs. 2000 per month
Benefits : - Inventory reduction 5% of mess bill of 400 students

Daily rate=Rs 45
Savings= 45*0.05*30*400=Rs 27,000
- Transport cost saving=Rs 800 per month
- Savings due to early payment
=material cost*1.2%=37.5*400*30*0.012=Rs 5400
- Savings due to early collection =40*1350*0.01=Rs 540
Direct saving=33740
Indirect benefit : student satisfaction due to itemized bill,
predictable daily rate, better menu
Net Direct Saving per month= 33740-2000
= 31740
Total capital cost=l,30,000
PAY BACK PERIOD
SIMPLE: Cost 1,30,000

Saving 31,740 per month
Using interest on capital:

Monthly interest=0.015* 1,30,000 =Rs 1950 per month
Saving per month=31740-1950=29790
PRESENT VALUE METHOD

Accounts for the fact that a benefit accruing n months later will be lower
today as the money if available today would have earned interest
If r = Interest rate in % per month.
n = number of months
x = benefit
Present value of benefit accruing n months later is:
Present value = x/(1+r)n
COST-BENEFIT
Present Value method
This accounts for the fact that benefits each month will also earn interest
Month Cost Net-Benefit present value cumulative Benefit

of Benefit
0 1,30,000 0 0
1 31,740 31271 31271
2 31,740 30809 62080
3 31,740 30354 92434
4 31,740 29905 122339
5 31,740 29463 151802
This also give us less than 5 months as pay back period
STRUCTURE OF EXCUTIVE SUMMARY

Feasibility report
•What the proposed system will achieve
•Who will be involved in operating the system
•Organizational changes to implement system
•List of benefits of the system
•Cost of system - Capital +Recurring
•Cost-benefit analysis
SYSTEM PROPOSAL STRUCTURE

•Introduction with outline of proposal
•Data flow diagram of existing system
•Modified DFD of proposed system
•Discuss alternative solutions
•List new equipment to be installed (if any)
•Technical,operational feasibility of analysis
•Cost- Benefit analysis
•New procedures, human resources and training needed
•Anticipated problems
•Implementation plan
REFERENCES
1. This module is based on Chapter 6, “Feasibility Analysis”, of the book Analysis

and Design of Information Systems by V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of India. Parts
of the the book have been used in case studies.
2. J.E.Kandall and J.E.Kandall, Systems Analysis and Design, 5th Edition, Pearson
Education (Asia) 2003. Part of Chapter 3 pp.55-63 deal with feasibility analysis.
It is reasonably well treated but does not have any quantitative examples.
3. R.Schultheis and Mary Summer, Management Information Systems, Tata

McGraw Hill, 1999. Very short treatment of feasibility analysis as part of system
Life Cycle (pp.544-545).
4. S.Alter, Information Systems, 4th Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi,
2002. A brief discussion of feasibility analysis presented on pp.481 as part of
traditional life cycle method. In the same chapter there is a brief discussion of
prototype method which is used when users are not able to state their
requirements clearly.
5. K.C.Laudon and J.P.Laudon, Management Information Systems, Pearson

Education Asia, New Delhi, 2004. Very brief discussion (one para only) on
p.390)
6. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George and J.S.Valacich, Modern Systems Analysis and Design,

Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi 2002. Has a good discussion of feasibility.
study on pp.168 to 181. Besides Technical, operational and Economic feasibility
they also include other parameters which are schedule, legal/contractual and
political feasibility which arise when one tries to develop a system.
System Analysis and Design/ Feasibility Analysis Multiple Choice Questions
4.1 Pick quantified goals from those given below

(i) payment should be made promptly
(ii)payment should be made before 5th of every month

(iii) the age of the persons should be below 35
(iv)the person to be recruited should be middle age
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and ii
d. ii and iv
4.2 Quantification of goals is required because
a. without quantification no work can be done
b. When goals are quantified it is possible to verify unambiguously whether
they have been fulfilled
c. Goals have to be quantified for a good system
d. it facilitates designing a good system
4.3 Quantification of goals is done by
a. converting subjective goal statements to ones with numbers
b. converting subjective goal statements to objective goal statements
c. converting objective goal statements to subjective goal statements
d. removing all adjectives in a goal statement
4.4 Quantified version of the statement: “The inventory should be reduced
substantially“ is
a. the inventory should be reduced effectively
b. the inventory should be reduced significantly
c. the inventory should be reduced very much
d. the inventory should be reduced by 25%
4.5 Goals are identified by
a. finding the deficiencies in the current system
b. observing the current system
c. analyzing competitor’s system
d. finding the advantages in the current system

4.6 Deficiencies in a system are pinpointed by identifying

(i)missing function
(ii)excessive cost of operation
(iii)poor management
(iv)poor operation
a. i and iii
b. i and ii
c. i and iv
d. ii and iii
4.7 Goals are identified by
a. discussion with all concerned
b. pinpointing unsatisfactory performance
c. finding poor management
d. examining a variety of documents
4.8 Characteristics of good goals are that they
(i)are quantified
(ii)improve quality
(iii)are realizable within the constraints of the organization
(iv)aim at an ideal system
a. i and ii
b. ii and iv
c. ii and iii
d. i and iii
4.9 Goals should be agreeable to
a. top management
b. project leader
c. all concerned, both management and operational staff
d. programmers
4.10 Goals should be broken down to sub-goals as it
a. expedites system design
b. provides a convenient target to aim at during system design

c. is recommended by experienced analysts

d. is good idea to use
4.11 During feasibility analysis it is necessary to examine several alternative
solutions because
(i)a comparison of alternatives will lead to a cost-effective
solution
(ii)a pre-conceived single solution may turn out to be
unimplementable
(iii)it is always good to examine alternatives
(iv)management normally looks at alternatives
a. i and iii
b. i and iv
c. i and ii
d. ii and iv
4.12 A computer-based information system
a. may require some tasks to be done manually
b. should not have any manual tasks
c. is always fully automated
d. may use only computers
4.13 Among alternative solutions for an information system one may consider
a. PC based solutions only
b. an improved manual system
c. only client-server based solutions as they are popular now-a-days
d. whatever management decides
4.14 By technical feasibility of a solution we mean that
a. technology is available to implement it
b. persons are available to implement it
c. persons have technical ability to implement it
d. funds are available to implement it
4.15 By operational feasibility we mean
a. the system can be operated nicely

b. the system is unusable by operators

c. the system can be adapted by an organization without major disruptions
d. the system can be implemented
4.16 By economic feasibility of a system we mean that
a. it is economical to operate
b. it is expensive to operate
c. it will be cost-effective if implemented
d. finances are available to implement the system and it will be cost-
4.17 A solution is said to be feasible for implementation if
(i)it is cost-effective and finance is available to implement it

(ii)technology is available to implement it
(iii)it can be adapted to work in an organization’s environment
(iv)it has been implemented in another organization
a. ii and iii
b. i, ii and iii
c. i and iv
d. i, ii and iv
4.18 A cost-benefit analysis is performed to assess
a. economic feasibility
b. operational feasibility
c. technical feasibility
d. all of the above
4.19 The primary objective of cost-benefit analysis is
a. to find out direct and indirect cost of developing the information system
b. to determine the tangible benefits of the information system
c. to determine if it is economically worthwhile to invest in developing the
information system
d. to determine the intangible benefits of the information system
4.20 A cost-benefit analysis is performed as a part of

a. system design
b. system specification
c. system performance assessment
d. feasibility analysis
4.21 A cost benefit analysis consists of
(i)finding the direct and indirect cost of developing,

implementing and running the system
(ii)finding out the tangible and intangible benefit of the system
(iii)finding the investment to be made in the system
(iv)finding the profit which will accrue from the system
a. iii and iv
b. i and iv
c. ii and iii
d. i and ii
4.22 The tangible benefits in the following list are
(i)savings due to reducing investment
(ii)savings due to sending bills faster and consequent early
collection
(iii)providing better service to the customers
(iv)improving quality of company’s products
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iii
4.23 The intangible benefits in the following list are
(i)savings due to reducing investment
(ii)savings due to sending bills faster and consequent early
collection
(iii)providing better service to the customers
(iv)improving quality of company’s products

a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iii
4.24 Intangible benefits are
a. not very important
b. as important as tangible benefits
c. the most important benefits
d. irrelevant in feasibility study
4.25 Pick the indirect cost from the following
a. cost of new forms
b. cost of training analysts and users
c. cost of software to be brought
d. cost of fact gathering
4.26 In payback method one finds out
a. the period necessary to invest the cost of the system
b. the time required for the full benefits to accrue
c. the time at which benefits exceed cost
d. whether the system is able to payback amount invested
4.27 In simple payback method one
a. accounts for interest payments on benefits
b. ignores interest payments
c. only accounts for interest on capital investments
d. only accounts for interest on recurring expenses
4.28 In designing a system it is found that the cost of the system was Rs
month; the payback period using payback method with interest is
a. 14 months
b. 17 months
c. 15 months
d. 20 months

4.29 In designing a system it is found that the cost of the system was Rs
month; the payback period using the present value method is
a. 14 months
b. 17 months
c. 15 months
d. 20 months
4.30 In present value method one has to account for
a. interest rate prevalent at a given time
b. exchange rate prevalent at a given time
c. sales tax rate prevalent at a given time
d. both income and sales tax rates prevalent at a given time
4.31 At the end of the feasibility study the systems analyst
a. meets the users for a discussion
b. gives a summary feasibility report to the management
c. gives a systems proposal to management
d. tells the top management if the system is not feasible
4.32 The most important parts of a feasibility report are
(i)cost-benefit analysis
(ii)statement of the objective of the proposed system
(iii)who will supply equipment for implementing the system
(iv)organizational changes needed to successfully implement the
system
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iii
c. i and iv
d. i, ii and iv
4.33 A detailed system proposal is prepared by a systems anal
a. management is not clear about what the system will do
b. the analysts feels it is necessary to convince the management
c. management approves the feasibility report

d. the analyst feels it will be a challenging system to implement

4.34 The main objectives of a detailed system proposal are to
(i)convince management about the benefits of the proposed
system
(ii)explain in detail to the management what to expect from the
system and at what cost
(iii)have a detailed plan on what the system will do and how it will
be implemented
(iv)make sure that it is possible to implement the system
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i and iv
d. ii and iv
4.35 The following are the most important points of a detailed system
proposal
(i)who will supply and install the required equipment
(ii)cost-benefit analysis
(iii)comparison of alternative solutions
(iv)implementation plan
a. i, ii and iii
b. i, iii and iv
c. ii, iii and iv
d. ii and iii

4. 1 c 4.2 b 4.3 a 4.4 d 4.5 a 4.6 b

4.7 b 4.8 d 4.9 c 4.10 b 4.11 c 4.12 a
4.13 b 4.14 a 4.15 c 4.16 d 4.17 b 4.1 8 a
4.19 c 4.20 d 4.21 d 4.22 a 4.23 c 4.24 b
4.25 d 4.26 c 4.27 b 4.28 c 4.29 b 4.30 a
4.31 b 4.32 d 4.33 c 4.34 b 4.35 c

MODULE 4
WORKED EXAMPLES
4.1 What is the difference between main goals and sub-goals? Illustrate with an
example.
Main goal is based on a primary objective and sub-goals are secondary or
subsidiary which are related to the main objective.
For example, the main goal and sub-goals of an inventory control system may be
as follows:
Main goal: Reduce total inventory cost by 10%
Sub-goals: (i) Find out items which are 50% above buffer level to take
appropriate action.
(ii)Find out items whose cost is 50% above average cost for closer
control.
4.2 Is it essential to use computers in all information systems?

No. Better systematization may sometimes be adequate to meet goals. However
with the reduction in the cost of computers most organizations use computers.
4.3 Distinguish between technical, operational, and economic feasibility.

A solution is technically feasible if technology is available to implement it. It is
operationally feasible if it can fit in within the existing organization with only
small changes. It is economically feasible if the investment made leads to
adequate returns. A solution which requires, say, a large mainframe computer
available in the market is technically feasible but may not be economically
feasible due to high cost of the computer relative to expected benefits. It may not
be operationally feasible due to lack of trained people to program the computer.
4.4 Give an example of a solution which is technically feasible, but not

operationally feasible.
It is technically feasible to computerize services in a bank by installing PCs with
clerks who can be trained to operate it. It is operationally not feasible in certain
banks due to agreement between management and union which do not allow use
of computers for certain customer services.
4.5 Is it essential that an operationally feasible solution should be technically
feasible? Discuss with examples.
No. A computerized enquiry system where enquiries are made using a telephone
and answers are automatically spoken out is operationally feasible. It is not
technically feasible due to non-availability of speaker independent natural speech
recognition technology.
4.6 Is it essential to have tangible benefits to justify an information system? If

your answer is no, justify your answer by giving an example.
No. A ticket reservation system in railways has not much tangible benefits.
However, intangible benefits such as customer satisfaction, and ease of checking
daily cash collection are sufficient reasons to implement the system.
4.7 A project costs Rs. 2 lakhs and the net benefits are Rs. 50,000 (1st year), Rs.
80,000 (2nd year), Rs. 90,000 (3rd year), Rs. 70,000 (4th year), Rs. 50,000 (5th
year) and Rs. 30,000 (6th year). Assuming 10% interest rate, would you
proceed with your project if your criterion is cost-benefit?
Year Cost Benefit Current value Cumulative

benefit
0 200,000 – – –
1 – 50,000 45,454 45,454
2 – 80,000 66,116 111,570
3 – 90,000 67,618 179,188
4 – 70,000 47,811 226,999
As payback period is 4 years, it is decided to proceed with the project.
4.8 A manager states the following as goals of a production planning system:

1. Reduce stocks of semi-finished products.
2. Provide better information for the production planning
3. Prevent overproduction.
How would you quantify the goals? How would you obtain sub-goals and
quantify them if appropriate?
(i) Goal: Reduce stocks of semi-finished products by 10%.
Sub-goal: Classify semi-finished products as due to non-availability of part,
non-availability of machine, non-availability of tool.
(ii) Goal: Give a table giving requirement of each product.
Sub-goal: Prepare list of tools needed and when they will be needed.
Prepare maintenance schedules of machines.
(ii) Goal: Ensure that production is not more than 5% of estimated demand of
each item.
4.9 A university administrator calls a systems analyst to improve the
administration of sponsored research projects. The main problems are delay
in obtaining latest financial position to project co-ordinators, reconciliation
of advances given to co-ordinators, prompt demands not sent to sponsors to
collect promised grants and lack of information to answer following
questions:
Which areas of research get maximum grants?
Which agency aids which type of projects?
What trends can be seen in the nature of grants?
Now:
1. Classify the above problems into missing functions, unsatisfactory perfor-
mance and excessive cost of operation.
2. How would you set the goals to meet the deficiencies?
3. How would you quantify them?
1.
(i) Missing Function: Analysis of types of grants and grant-giving agencies.
(ii) Unsatisfactory Performance: Delay in obtaining financial statements; non-
reconciliation of advances.
(iii) Excessive cost: Loss due to delay in receipt of grants (loans may have to be
taken to meet expenses).
2.
(i) Goals to improve performance
— Ensure financial statements are sent each month.
— Ensure reminders on advances are sent each month.
(ii) Goals to reduce cost
— Bring to the attention of accounts officer grants overdue by 10 days.
— Send reminder ad pre-receipt 10 days before grant is due.
(iii) Goals to incorporate missing functions
— Codify research areas and granting agencies.
— Introduce uniform formats to classify grants.
— Create a database of all possible granting agencies and their areas of
research.
3.All goals are quantified in 2.
Sub-goals
— Send list of periodicals received to interested readers within 2 days of
arrival of periodicals.
— Send for binding loose periodicals within 4 weeks of arrival of last issue.
(ii) A Fully manual using cardex system.
B Using a PC and a periodicals management information system.
C Using the central computing in the university and a remote terminal system
in the library dedicated to periodicals management.
4.10 What operational, tactical and strategic information should be provided by
the mess billing system mentioned in the text (case study)?
The information that will be provided to management by the mess billing system
is:
Operational
– Each student’s bill details.
– Details of inventory held.
– Details of issues to stores.
– Details of trips to town.
– Details of expenses each day.
Tactical
– Number of days taken to despatch bills after end of month.
– Variation of daily rate from month to month.
– Bills to students unpaid for 10 days after issue.
– Bills from vendors unpaid for 5 days.
– Inventory level of an item if 10% above average
– Issues to cooks if 5% above normal.
– Nutrition values of menus.
Strategic
– Daily rate seasonal trends.
– Extras/rebates and trends to enable better inventory planning.
Information on menu preferences.
System Analysis and Design/Feasibility Analysis Question Bank
QUESTION BANK 4
4.1 When are the goals of a project specified?
4.2 How are goals determined?
4.3 What should be the characteristics of goals?
example.
4.5 Once the goals are formulated, what is the next step followed by a system
analyst?
4.7 Distinguish between technical, operational and economic feasibility.
4.8 What do you understand by the term feasibility study of a solution?
4.9 Give an example of a solution which is technically feasible, but not operationally
feasible.
4.10 Give an example of a technically feasible solution which is not economically
feasible.
4.11 Give an example of an operationally feasible solution which is not economically
feasible.
4.13 What is the difference between tangible and intangible benefits?
4.14 Give examples of tangible and intangible benefits.
4.15 For the problem of periodical information system (Exercise 4.23 below), specify
tangible and intangible benefits.
4.16 What is meant by cost-benefit analysis?
V. Rajaraman/IISc. Bangalore M4//V1/July 04/1

4.17 A system costs Rs.1 lakh to install and Rs.10,000 per month as recurring
expenses. The benefit per year is Rs.1.5 lakhs. Assuming an interest rate of 12%,
what is the pay back period of the investment?
How does inflation affect pay back period?
Is it essential to have tangible benefits to justify an information system? If you
answer is no, justify your answer by giving an example.
4.18 A project costs Rs.2 lakhs and the net benefits are Rs.50,000 (1st year), Rs.80,000
2nd year),Rs.90,000 (3rd year), Rs.70,000 (4th year), Rs.50,000 (5th year), and
Rs.30,000 (6th year). Assuming 10% interest rate, would you proceed with this
project if your criterion is cost/benefit?
4.19 A manager states the following as the goals of a production planning system:
1 Reduce stock of semi-finished products.
2 Provide better information for the production planning.
3 Prevent overproduction.
How would you quantify the goals? How would you obtain sub goals and
4.20 A university administrator calls a systems analyst to improve the administration
of sponsored research projects. The main problems are delay in obtaining latest
financial position to project coordinators, reconciliation of advances given to
coordinators, prompt demands not sent to sponsors to collect promised grants and
lack of information to answer following questions:

Now:
1. Classify the above problems into missing functions, unsatisfactory
performance and excessive cost of operation.
2. How would you get goals to meet the deficiencies?
4.21 A library receives 1300 journals of varying periodicities. The journals received
have to be recorded and displayed. Action has to be taken when journals are not
received in time or lost in mail. Unless request for replacement is sent quickly, it
may not be possible to get the replacement. Periodicals have to be ordered at
different times during the year and subscriptions renewed in time. Late payment
of subscription may lead to non-availability of earlier issues or paying higher
amounts for those issues. Current manual system is not able to meet these
requirements.
1. Specify what should be the goals and sub-goals of an information system for
ordering periodicals.
2. Quantify these goals.
3. Suggest alternative means of achieving the goals specified by you.
4.22 What operational, tactical, and strategic information should be provided by the
mess billing system mentioned in the text? (Case study).
4.23 When is a detailed system proposal prepared? What are the contents of a system
proposal?

System Analysis and Design/Feasibility Analysis Case Study
CASE STUDY – System Proposal

On a request from the Chief Warden of the student hostel, a study was initiated to find
out how the operation of the hostel could be improved by implementing better
information system. After lengthy discussion with various personnel in the hostel, it was
concluded that the problem which had to be tackled on a high priority basis was a better
information system for billing, accounting, inventory control and stores issues in the
students' mess. The deficiencies identified in the current system are as given below.
1. Missing functions.
1.1 Forecasting of stores requirements not done.
1.2 Purchases not consolidated.
1.3 Daily rate calculation not updated frequently.
1.4 Menu not planned for balanced nutrition and low cost.
2. Unsatisfactory performance.
2.1 Billing not accurate and prompt.
2.2 Student bills not itemized.
2.3 Stores issues to cooks not systematic.
2.4 Payments to vendors not prompt.
2.5 Large variations in mess bills every month.
3. Excessive cost of operations due to the following:
3.1 Unpaid long outstanding bills from students.
3.2 Extras and rebates not reflected in stores issues.
3.3 Frequent unplanned visits to city to buy out-of-stock items.
3.4 High transport cost (small purchases at high cost) due to not consolidating
stores requirements.

These deficiencies are to be removed in the proposed information system.
Goals of the proposed system. The main quantified goals and the sub-goals of the
proposed system are as given below:
Main goal
M1 Send the bills to students within 5 days of the end of the month.
Sub-goals
S1.1 Itemize bills indicating extras and rebates with dates.
S1.2 Ensure less than 5% variation of bills from month to month.
S1.3 Bring to the attention of the Chief Warden the bills which are not paid within 10
days of issue.
S1.4 Update daily rate. Calculate bills every day.
The main goals and sub-goals to remove deficiencies 1.1, 1.2, 2.3, 2.4 and 3.2-3.4
(mentioned above) are given below:
Main goal
M2 Control inventory of items and issues to cooks so as to bring down mess bill by
10%.
Sub-goals
S2.1 Ensure payment to vendors within five days of supply of items.
S2.2 Make sure that at most four trips per month are made to the town for purchase and
consequently transport cost is less than 1% of item cost.
S2.3 See that inventory levels are not more than 10% of monthly requirements.
S2.4 Make sure that cooks do not get more than 5% of calculated requirements.
Goals to add function 1.4.

Main Goals
M3.1 Balanced menu to meet nutritional requirements.
M3.2 Cost of food not to exceed current cost.
Sub-goal
S3.1 Randomize menu.
Alternative solutions examined. Three alternative solutions were examined. These are
given below:
Solution A: Improve the current manual system by improving procedures.
Solution B: Use a single PC in the hostel office
Solution C: Use three small client computers in the mess, stores and accounts office and
connect to a server in the hostel office.
Comparison of Solutions:
Solution A is feasible but is not scalable. In other words if the number of students
increase the system will be difficult to implement. It requires meticulous attention to
details by clerks. It is thus rejected.
Solution C is very expensive as it needs four computers. It does provide on-line updates
but this is not necessary in this problem.
Selected solution. Solution B is selected as it is technically and operationally feasible.
The cost/benefit of Solution B to assess economic feasibility is given below:
Consider Solution B of the hostel mess management problem. The direct costs are:
1. Cost of PC, printer, uninterrupted power supply and system software (Windows
XP Office 2000, anti virus and Turbo C) = Rs.70,000.
2. Cost of space (nil). No extra space allocated.

3. Cost of systems analysts/Programmers/Consultants for 3 months = Rs.60,000/-
4. Recurring costs:: Stationery cost, floppy cost, Maintenance/Electricity =
Rs.2000/- per month).
5. One time cost = Rs.1,30,000/-
Benefits (Direct savings)
1. Savings per month due to inventory reduction and wastage
= 5% of mess bill of 400 students
= 2.25 * 400 * 30
= Rs.27,000/-
(Assume Rs.45 bill per day per student. Savings per day is 2.25 per student. 30
days in a month).
2. Savings in transport cost (estimate) Rs.800 per month.
3. Savings due to early payment to vendors
= 1.2% of total billing to vendors
=37.5 * 400 * 30 * 0.012
= Rs.5400/- per month
(Rs.37.50 per day is assumed to be material cost in mess bill)
4. Savings due to better collection (40 defaulting students, 1% interest per month)
= 40 * 1350 * 0.01
= Rs.540 per month
Intangible benefits
1. Student satisfaction due to itemized bills and less variation.

2. Better menu planning
Total benefits = Rs.33740 per month
Recurring cost = Rs.2000 per month
Net benefit per month = Rs.31,740
Total capital cost = Rs.1,30,000/-
New equipment to be installed. PC and printer with the following features:
Hardware
IBM compatible PC
256 MB main memory
1.2MB floppy drive
40 GB hard disk
15" colour monitor
132 character 80 cps dot printer
Software Windows XP Operating System
MS Office 2000
antivirus software
Turbo C
Infrastructure 500 VA, Uninterrupted Power Supply
Need a dust-free room to locate PC
Benefits expected. (These were as given earlier)
Cost of the system. As calculated earlier, the cost of the new system will be
Capital cost hardware system software = Rs. 70,000
System analysis/design cost = Rs.60,000

Recurring cost = Rs. 2000 per month
New procedures to be implemented. Using simple pay back method and assuming 1%
interest per month we obtain the Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Cost-benefit –Present value method
Month Cost Net Benefit Present Value Cumulative

of benefit Present Value
0 1,30,000 - - -
1 31740 31426 31426
2 31740 31115 62541
3 31740 30806 93347
4 31740 30502 123849
5 31740 30200 154049
We see that the cumulative benefit exceeds cost of the system by the fifth month.
Thus we conclude that the proposed system is economically beneficial.
The subsystems involved in this solution are now described.
(i) Billing subsystem. An extras/rebates register will be maintained in the mess
for students to enter the requests. One page per student is assigned. The
register entries are codified for the use of computer processing. The register
pages are printed on the computer each month and stapled together and kept
in the mess for entries by students. Entries in the register are keyed into the
PC each day by the mess clerk. A program will check whether sufficient
notice has been given for rebates, whether number of days rebate asked is as
per rules. The data entered is used by a program to create a summary
statement giving expected number of meals to be prepared 48 hours from
now. This is passed on to the mess manager to control issues. This program
also updates each students' record with details of extras and dates of absence.

(ii) Subsystems in billing system. Subsystem for finding meals to be cooked.
INPUT: Extras/rebate requests of each student each day.
PROCEDURE
• Check each input record to see if rebate is admissible and extras are
correct.
• Enter admissible rebates and extras in student billing file.
• Find number of meals to be cooked two days from now. Print note to mess
manger.
OUTPUT: Note to mess manager giving number of members and meals to be
cooked 48 hours from now. (This subsystem runs daily on the PC)
(iii) Subsystem for mess bill calculation.
INPUT: Items issued each day (perishable and non-perishable)
PROCEDURE:
• From items issued each day find total expenses each day.
• Accumulate daily expense and add fixed overhead (salaries etc.)
• Using number of members calculate up-to-date daily rate.
• Using student billing information file an expense file, calculate the
itemized bill for each student at the end of the month.
• Enter in student billing file.
OUTPUT: Itemized bills to students.
(Updating daily rate is run each day whereas student billing system is run
once a month).

(iv) Subsystem for unpaid bills
INPUT: Payments information.
PROCEDURE
• Enter all payments in student billing file.
• Five days after last date for payment, examine this file and create a list of
students with unpaid bills.
OUTPUT: List of overdue bills sent to Chief Warden
(This system runs once a month)
The billing system described above satisfies main goal M1 and sub-goals S1.1
and S1.3. To satisfy sub-goal S1.2, the mess secretary who gets an updated
daily rate each day must adjust menu, using a menu planning system.
(i) System for stores issue and control
Subsystem for stores issues to cooks
INPUT
• Menu for (today's date + 2 i.e., if today's date is 20.04.03 menu is given
for 22.04.03).
• Number of meal to be cooked for (today's date + 2).
PROCEDURE: Using inputs find items to be issued on (today's date + 2).
OUTPUT: Items to be issued on (today's date + 2) sent to mess manager.
Subsystem for inventory control
INPUT: Daily use of stores items, perishables and vendor supplies.
PROCEDURE

• Based on past month's total consumption of each item, estimate
consumption of current month. Add 2 days consumption as buffer.
• Work out minimum amount (=4 days needs) of all critical items.
• Decide on order quantities, and place orders.
• When goods come in, check in order file and update inventory if items
accepted.
• Send the cheques to vendors on item acceptance.
• Update stores inventory after each issue.
• When critical items go below minimum level inform mess manager
OUTPUTS
• Orders to vendors
• Cheques to vendors
• Low item stock message to mess manager
(This system is run once a day)
This system satisfies main goal M2 and sub-goals S2.1-S2.4.
ii. System for menu planning
INPUT
• No. of items in menu
• Alternative for each item
• Cost of each item
• Maximum cost.
PROCEDURE
• Reduce total cost by trying alternative items in menu.

• Try an optimization package such as Linear Programming.
• Rank menus by cost and keep 14 different menus for each meal.
• Randomize menus each week.
OUTPUT: Balanced menu at reduced cost.
(This system is run once a month)
This system satisfied main goals M3.1, M3.2 and sub-goal S3.1.
Anticipated problems. Procedures should be set up to regularly back up all files and
store billing information on floppy disks. Power failure may lead to difficulties, if it is
very frequent. Hostel management may consider installing higher capacity batteries for 1
hour back up for the uninterrupted power supply system.
Implementation plan. Implementation may begin with the billing system first. It may be
followed by stores issues and inventory control and finally menu planning (see Table
below).
Table 4.2 Implementation Plan

Start Time Time Design Implement Test Parallel Run
Schedule in Manual
weeks System
0 Billing 3 3 1 4
system
0+3 week Stores issue 4 3 2 3
system
0+6 week Inventory 4 3 2 3
system
0+12 week Menu 5 3 2 2
planning

Conclusions
The proposed system will cost Rs.1,30,000 capital cost and will pay for itself within the
first five months of operation. It will meet all the main goals approved by the wardens
and can be implemented within 3 months. We are confident that it will fully meet the
expectations of the management.

System Analysis and Design/Feasibility Analysis Pointers
References

p.390)
Study on pp.168 to 181. Besides Technical, operational and Economic feasibility

SUMMARY OF MODULE 4
1. The goals of a project are formulated after gathering facts and having discussions
with users.
2. Goals are set by identifying deficiencies such as missing functions, unsatisfactory
performance or excessive cost of operation.
3. Goals must be quantified, realizable, agreed to by users and then broken down into
sub-goals.
4. After setting goals we look at alternative methods of meeting these goals.
5. Each alternative method is broadly formulated by specifying the inputs, outputs and
procedures to be used. Both manual and computer-based procedures are described.
6. How each method will meet the goal is examined.
7. Next the feasibility of implementing each method is examined.
8. A method must be technically, operationally and economically feasible.
9. Technical feasibility examines whether technology is available to carry out the
project.
10. Operational feasibility examines whether the proposed method can fit in with existing
operations or is easy to operate with a modified system.
11. Economic feasibility examines whether the returns (in terms of benefits from the
project) are commensurate with the cost of the project.
12. It is necessary to examine both tangible and intangible benefits of each alternative
solution before picking a solution.

13. At the end of feasibility analysis, a document consisting of an executive summary on
the feasibility of the project is submitted to the management which requisitioned the
study.
14. The executive summary will highlight what the proposed system will achieve, who
will be involved in operating the proposed system, the organizational changes needed
for successfully implementing the system, the estimated cost of the system and the
benefits which will accrue by using the system.
15. The detailed proposal will have the following items:
(i) An introduction with outline of proposal
(ii) A DFD of existing system
(iii) A modified DFD of proposed system
(iv) Alternative solutions
(v) Any new equipment to be installed
(vi) Cost/Benefit analysis
(vii) New procedures to be adopted with responsibility assigned to persons
(viii) Any anticipated problems
(ix) Implementation plan with time schedules

QUESTION BANK 4
4.1 When are the goals of a project specified?
4.2 How are goals determined?
4.3 What should be the characteristics of goals?
example.
4.5 Once the goals are formulated, what is the next step followed by a system
analyst?
4.7 Distinguish between technical, operational and economic feasibility.
4.8 What do you understand by the term feasibility study of a solution?
4.9 Give an example of a solution which is technically feasible, but not operationally
feasible.
4.10 Give an example of a technically feasible solution which is not economically
feasible.
4.11 Give an example of an operationally feasible solution which is not economically
feasible.
4.13 What is the difference between tangible and intangible benefits?
4.14 Give examples of tangible and intangible benefits.

4.15 For the problem of periodical information system (Exercise 4.23 below), specify
tangible and intangible benefits.
4.16 What is meant by cost-benefit analysis?
4.17 A system costs Rs.1 lakh to install and Rs.10,000 per month as recurring
expenses. The benefit per year is Rs.1.5 lakhs. Assuming an interest rate of
12%, what is the pay back period of the investment?
4.18 How does inflation affect pay back period?
4.19 Is it essential to have tangible benefits to justify an information system? If you
answer is no, justify your answer by giving an example.
4.20 A project costs Rs.2 lakhs and the net benefits are Rs.50,000 (1st year), Rs.80,000
(2nd year),Rs.90,000 (3rd year), Rs.70,000 (4th year), Rs.50,000 (5th year), and
Rs.30,000 (6th year). Assuming 10% interest rate, would you proceed with
this project if your criterion is cost/benefit?
4.21 A manager states the following as the goals of a production planning system:
1. Reduce stock of semi-finished products.
2. Provide better information for the production planning.
3. Prevent overproduction.
How would you quantify the goals? How would you obtain sub goals and
4.22 A university administrator calls a systems analyst to improve the administration
of sponsored research projects. The main problems are delay in obtaining latest
financial position to project coordinators, reconciliation of advances given to

coordinators, prompt demands not sent to sponsors to collect promised grants
and lack of information to answer following questions:
Now:
1. Classify the above problems into missing functions, unsatisfactory
performance and excessive cost of operation.
2. How would you get goals to meet the deficiencies?
4.23 A library receives 1300 journals of varying periodicities. The journals received
have to be recorded and displayed. Action has to be taken when journals are
not received in time or lost in mail. Unless request for replacement is sent
quickly, it may not be possible to get the replacement. Periodicals have to be
ordered at different times during the year and subscriptions renewed in time. Late
payment of subscription may lead to non-availability of earlier issues or paying
higher amounts for those issues. Current manual system is not able to meet these
requirements.
1. Specify what should be the goals and sub-goals of an information system for
ordering periodicals.
2. Quantify these goals.
3. Suggest alternative means of achieving the goals specified by you.

4.24 What operational, tactical, and strategic information should be provided by the
mess billing system mentioned in the text? (case study).
4.25 When is a detailed system proposal prepared. What are the contents of a system
proposal?
MODULE 4
CASE STUDY – System Proposal
On a request from the Chief Warden of the student hostel, a study was initiated to find
out how the operation of the hostel could be improved by implementing better
information system. After lengthy discussion with various personnel in the hostel, it was
concluded that the problem which had to be tackled on a high priority basis was a better
information system for billing, accounting, inventory control and stores issues in the
students' mess. The deficiencies identified in the current system are as given below.
1. Missing functions.
1.1 Forecasting of stores requirements not done.
1.2 Purchases not consolidated.
1.3 Daily rate calculation not updated frequently.
1.4 Menu not planned for balanced nutrition and low cost.
2. Unsatisfactory performance.
2.1 Billing not accurate and prompt.
2.2 Student bills not itemized.
2.3 Stores issues to cooks not systematic.
2.4 Payments to vendors not prompt.
2.5 Large variations in mess bills every month.
3. Excessive cost of operations due to the following:
3.1 Unpaid long outstanding bills from students.
3.2 Extras and rebates not reflected in stores issues.
3.3 Frequent unplanned visits to city to buy out-of-stock items.

3.4 High transport cost (small purchases at high cost) due to not consolidating
stores requirements.
These deficiencies are to be removed in the proposed information system.
Goals of the proposed system. The main quantified goals and the sub-goals of the
proposed system are as given below:
Main goal
M1 Send the bills to students within 5 days of the end of the month.
Sub-goals
S1.1 Itemize bills indicating extras and rebates with dates.
S1.2 Ensure less than 5% variation of bills from month to month.
S1.3 Bring to the attention of the Chief Warden the bills which are not paid
within 10 days of issue.
S1.4 Update daily rate. Calculate bills every day.
The main goals and sub-goals to remove deficiencies 1.1, 1.2, 2.3, 2.4 and
3.2-3.4 (mentioned above) are given below:
Main goal
M2 Control inventory of items and issues to cooks so as to bring down mess bill
by 10%.
Sub-goals
S2.1 Ensure payment to vendors within five days of supply of items.
S2.2 Make sure that at most four trips per month are made to the town for
purchase and consequently transport cost is less than 1% of item cost.
S2.3 See that inventory levels are not more than 10% of monthly requirements.
S2.4 Make sure that cooks do not get more than 5% of calculated requirements.
Goals to add function 1.4.
Main Goals
M3.1 Balanced menu to meet nutritional requirements.
M3.2 Cost of food not to exceed current cost.
Sub-goal
S3.1 Randomize menu.
Alternative solutions examined. Three alternative solutions were examined. These are
given below:
Solution A: Improve the current manual system by improving procedures.
Solution B: Use a single PC in the hostel office
Solution C: Use three small client computers in the mess, stores and accounts office and
connect to a server in the hostel office.
Comparison of Solutions:
Solution A is feasible but is not scalable. In other words if the number of students
increase the system will be difficult to implement. It requires meticulous attention to
details by clerks. It is thus rejected.
Solution C is very expensive as it needs four computers. It does provide on-line updates
but this is not necessary in this problem.
Selected solution. Solution B is selected as it is technically and operationally feasible.
The cost/benefit of Solution B to assess economic feasibility is given below:
Consider Solution B of the hostel mess management problem. The direct costs are:
1. Cost of PC, printer, uninterrupted power supply and system software (Windows
XP Office 2000, anti virus and Turbo C) = Rs.70,000.
2. Cost of space (nil). No extra space allocated.
3. Cost of systems analysts/Programmers/Consultants for 3 months = Rs.60,000/-
4. Recurring costs:: Stationery cost, floppy cost, Maintenance/Electricity =
Rs.2000/- per month).
5. One time cost = Rs.1,30,000/-
Benefits (Direct savings)
1. Savings per month due to inventory reduction and wastage
= 5% of mess bill of 400 students
= 2.25 * 400 * 30
= Rs.27,000/-
(Assume Rs.45 bill per day per student. Savings per day is 2.25 per student. 30
days in a month).
2. Savings in transport cost (estimate) Rs.800 per month.
3. Savings due to early payment to vendors
= 1.2% of total billing to vendors
=37.5 * 400 * 30 * 0.012
= Rs.5400/- per month
(Rs.37.50 per day is assumed to be material cost in mess bill)
4. Savings due to better collection (40 defaulting students, 1% interest per month)
= 40 * 1350 * 0.01
= Rs.540 per month

Intangible benefits
1. Student satisfaction due to itemized bills and less variation.
2. Better menu planning
Total benefits = Rs.33740 per month
Recurring cost = Rs.2000 per month
Net benefit per month = Rs.31,740
Total capital cost = Rs.1,30,000/-
New equipment to be installed. PC and printer with the following features:
Hardware
IBM compatible PC
256 MB main memory
1.2MB floppy drive
40 GB hard disk
15" colour monitor
132 character 80 cps dot printer
Software Windows XP Operating System
MS Office 2000
antivirus software
Turbo C
Infrastructure 500 VA, Uninterrupted Power Supply
Need a dust-free room to locate PC
Benefits expected. (These were as given earlier)
Cost of the system. As calculated earlier, the cost of the new system will be
Capital cost hardware system software = Rs. 70,000
System analysis/design cost = Rs.60,000
Recurring cost = Rs. 2000 per month
New procedures to be implemented. Using simple pay back method and assuming 1%
interest per month we obtain the Table 4.1
Table 4.1 Cost-benefit –Present value method
Month Cost Net Benefit Present Value Cumulative

of benefit Present Value
0 1,30,000 - - -
1 31740 31426 31426
2 31740 31115 62541
3 31740 30806 93347
4 31740 30502 123849
5 31740 30200 154049
We see that the cumulative benefit exceeds cost of the system by the fifth month.
Thus we conclude that the proposed system is economically beneficial.
The subsystems involved in this solution are now described.
(i) Billing subsystem. An extras/rebates register will be maintained in the mess
for students to enter the requests. One page per student is assigned. The
register entries are codified for the use of computer processing. The register
pages are printed on the computer each month and stapled together and kept
in the mess for entries by students.
Entries in the register are keyed into the PC each day by the mess clerk. A
program will check whether sufficient notice has been given for rebates,
whether number of days rebate asked is as per rules. The data entered is used
by a program to create a summary statement giving expected number of
meals to be prepared 48 hours from now. This is passed on to the mess
manager to control issues. This program also updates each students' record
with details of extras and dates of absence.
(ii) Subsystems in billing system. Subsystem for finding meals to be cooked.
INPUT: Extras/rebate requests of each student each day.
PROCEDURE
• Check each input record to see if rebate is admissible and extras
are correct.
• Enter admissible rebates and extras in student billing file.
• Find number of meals to be cooked two days from now. Print note
to mess manger.
OUTPUT: Note to mess manager giving number of members and meals to
be cooked 48 hours from now.
(This subsystem runs daily on the PC)
(iii) Subsystem for mess bill calculation.
INPUT: Items issued each day (perishable and non-perishable)
PROCEDURE:
• From items issued each day find total expenses each day.
• Accumulate daily expense and add fixed overhead (salaries etc.)
• Using number of members calculate up-to-date daily rate.
• Using student billing information file an expense file, calculate the
itemized bill for each student at the end of the month.

• Enter in student billing file.
OUTPUT: Itemized bills to students.
(Updating daily rate is run each day whereas student billing system is run
once a month).
(iv) Subsystem for unpaid bills
INPUT: Payments information.
PROCEDURE
• Enter all payments in student billing file.
• Five days after last date for payment, examine this file and create a list of
students with unpaid bills.
OUTPUT: List of overdue bills sent to Chief Warden
(This system runs once a month)
The billing system described above satisfies main goal M1 and sub-goals S1.1
and S1.3. To satisfy sub-goal S1.2, the mess secretary who gets an updated
daily rate each day must adjust menu, using a menu planning system.
(i) System for stores issue and control
Subsystem for stores issues to cooks
INPUT
• Menu for (today's date + 2 i.e., if today's date is 20.04.03 menu is given
for 22.04.03).
• Number of meal to be cooked for (today's date + 2).
PROCEDURE: Using inputs find items to be issued on (today's date + 2).
OUTPUT: Items to be issued on (today's date + 2) sent to mess manager.

Subsystem for inventory control
INPUT: Daily use of stores items, perishables and vendor supplies.
PROCEDURE
• Based on past month's total consumption of each item, estimate
consumption of current month. Add 2 days consumption as buffer.
• Work out minimum amount (=4 days needs) of all critical items.
• Decide on order quantities, and place orders.
• When goods come in, check in order file and update inventory if items
accepted.
• Send the cheques to vendors on item acceptance.
• Update stores inventory after each issue.
• When critical items go below minimum level inform mess manager
OUTPUTS
• Orders to vendors
• Cheques to vendors
• Low item stock message to mess manager
(This system is run once a day)
This system satisfies main goal M2 and sub-goals S2.1-S2.4.
ii. System for menu planning
INPUT
• No. of items in menu
• Alternative for each item
• Cost of each item

• Maximum cost.
PROCEDURE
• Reduce total cost by trying alternative items in menu.
• Try an optimization package such as Linear Programming.
• Rank menus by cost and keep 14 different menus for each meal.
• Randomize menus each week.
OUTPUT: Balanced menu at reduced cost.
(This system is run once a month)
This system satisfied main goals M3.1, M3.2 and sub-goal S3.1.
Anticipated problems. Procedures should be set up to regularly back up all files and
store billing information on floppy disks. Power failure may lead to difficulties, if it is
very frequent. Hostel management may consider installing higher capacity batteries for 1
hour back up for the uninterrupted power supply system.
Implementation plan. Implementation may begin with the billing system first. It may
be followed by stores issues and inventory control and finally menu planning (see Table
below).
Table 4.2 Implementation Plan
Start Time Time Design Implement Test Parallel Run

Schedule in Manual
weeks System
0 Billing 3 3 1 4
system
0+3 week Stores issue 4 3 2 3
system
0+6 week Inventory 4 3 2 3
system
0+12 week Menu 5 3 2 2
planning
Conclusions
The proposed system will cost Rs.1,30,000 capital cost and will pay for itself within the
first five months of operation. It will meet all the main goals approved by the wardens
and can be implemented within 3 months. We are confident that it will fully meet the
expectations of the management.

Annoted References

p.390)
Study on pp.168 to 181. Besides Technical, operational and Economic feasibility
MODULE 5
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
5.1.1 In a DFD external entities are represented by a

(a) rectangle
(b) ellipse
(c) diamond shaped box
(d) circle
5.1.2 A data flow can

(a) only emanate from an external entity
(b) only terminate in an external entity
(c) may emanate and terminate in an external entity
(d) may either emanate or terminate in an external entity but not both
5.1.3 A rectangle in a DFD represents

(a) a process
(b) a data store
(c) an external entity
(d) an input unit
5.1.4 External Entities may be a

(a) source of input data only
(b) source of input data or destination of results
(c) destination of results only
(d) repository of data
5.1.5 By an external entity we mean a
(a) unit outside the system being designed which can be controlled by an analyst
(b) unit outside the system whose behavior is independent of the system being
designed
(c) a unit external to the system being designed
(d) a unit which is not part of a DFD
5.1.6 A data store in a DFD represents

(a) a sequential file
(b) a disk store
(c) a repository of data
(d) a random access memory

(a) only enter a data store
(b) only leave a data store
(c) enter or leave a data store
(d) either enter or leave a data store but not both
5.1.8 A data cannot flow between a store and

(i) a store
(ii) a process
(iii) an external entity
(c) ii and iii (d) ii
5.1.9 Data cannot flow between two data stores because

(a) it is not allowed in a DFD
(b) a data store is a passive repository of data
(c) data can get corrupted
(d) they will get merged
5.1.10 Data cannot flow from an external entity to an external entity because
(a) it will get corrupted
(b) it is not allowed in DFD
(c) an external entity has no mechanism to read or write
(d) both are outside the context of the system
5.1.11 The following portion of a DFD is not correct as

(a) there is no output data flow from the process
(b) there are three data flow inputs to the process
(c) there is no external entity
(d) there is no data store
Quantity
Cost/unit 4.0
Billing
Process
Discount

(a) there are many data flows out of the process
(b) there are no input data flows to the process
(c) the output does not go to an external entity
Out of stock
Order to 4.0
vendor Billing Too much stock
Proces
5.1.13 The following portion of DFD is wrong as

(a) it has only one input
(b) it writes and reads from the same data store
(c) the process name is missing
(d) output data flows to two external entities
bill Customer
Invoice
Supplier
Advice
Book
Inventory
5.1.14 The following process diagram in a DFD is incorrect because
(a) the process is a single decision
(b) the process is not specified correctly
(c) there are too many input data flows
(d) the process does not refer to a data store
Gross pay>Min.taxable pay
Gross pay
2.0
Compare
Gross pay<=Min.taxable pay
Minimum
taxable pay
5.1.15 The following portion of a DFD is incorrect because

(a) the processes do not refer to a data store
(b) there is a loop between the two processes
(c) the processes are not specified correctly
(d) this structure is disallowed in a DFD
Gross pay
Employee record
1.0 2.0
Find next Calculate
pay tax
Tax deduction
Get next record
Deductions statement
5.1.16 Data flow in a DFD must have

(i) an arrow showing direction of flow of data
(ii) a meaningful name
(iii) a label such as: xyz
(iv) no arrows as they are confusing
(a) i and iii (b) ii and iv
(c) iii and iv (d) i and ii
LEARNING UNIT 2
5.2.1 A context diagram

(a) describes the context of a system
(b) is a DFD which gives an overview of the system
(c) is a detailed description of a system
(d) is not used in drawing a detailed DFD
5.2.2 A context diagram is used

(a) as the first step in developing a detailed DFD of a system
(b) in systems analysis of very complex systems
(c) as an aid to system design
(d) as an aid to programmers
5.2.3 By levelling a DFD we mean

(a) splitting it into different levels
(b) make its structure uniform
(c) expanding a process into one with more sub-processes giving more detail
(d) summarizing a DFD to specify only the essentials
5.2.4 A DFD is normally levelled as

(a) it is a good idea in design
(b) it is recommended by many experts
(c) it is easy to do it
(e) it is easier to read and understand a number of smaller DFDs than one large
DFD
5.2.5 A DFD is levelled by

(a) examining complex processes in a DFD and expanding them into new DFDs
with more processes which are easy to understand
(b) merging a number of simple processes in a DFD into a complex processes in a
new DFD
(c) expanding the functions of a number of external entities into simpler functions
(d) splitting a number of data flows into simpler data flows
5.2.6 When a DFD is levelled no new

(a) data stores may appear
(b) external entities may appear
(c) processes may appear
(d) data flows may appear
5.2.7 When a DFD is levelled
(a) new external entities may be required
(b) no new processes are allowed
(c) no new data flows are allowed
(d) new data stores may be necessary and are allowed
5.2.8 When a DFD is levelled it is a good idea not to

(a) be concerned about the number of new processes at the next level
(b) allow more than 5 to 10 new processes at the next level for each expanded
process
(c) allow new data stores at the next level
(d) allow any new processes at the next level
5.2.9 When a process is expanded during levelling

(a) data flows entering it are replaced
(b) all data stores used by it are replaced
(c) all data flows entering it must also enter the levelled DFD
(d) all external entities used by it are replaced
LEARNING UNIT 3
5.3.1 Before developing a logical DFD it is a good idea to

a) develop a physical DFD
b) develop a system flow chart
c) determine the contents of all data stores
d) find out user’s preferences
5.3.2 A physical DFD specifies

(a) what processes will be used
(b) who generates data and who processes it
(c) what each person in an organization does
(d) which data will be generated
5.3.3 A physical DFD

(a) has no means of showing material flow
(b) does not concern itself with material flow
(c) can show only stored material
(d) can show the flow of material
5.1.1 a 5.1.2 c 5.1.3 c 5.1.4 b 5.1.5 c 5.1.6 c

5.1.7 c 5.1.8 a 5.1.9 d 5.1.10 d 5.1.11 a 5.1.12 b
5.1.13 c 5.1.14 a 5.1.15 b 5.1.16 d 5.2.1 b 5.2.2 a
5.2.3 c 5.2.4 d 5.2.5 a 5.2.6 b 5.2.7 d 5.2.8 b
5.2.9 c 5.3.1 a 5.3.2 b 5.3.3 d
MODULE 5
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
Learning Units
5.1 Developing Data Flow Diagrams(DFD)

a) What are DFDs?
b) Symbols used in DFD
c) Rules of data flow
5.2 Describing systems with DFD & Levelling DFDs
5.3 Logical & Physical DFDs
System Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman

LEARNING GOALS
In this module we will learn

1. What are Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)?
2. Why they are useful?
3. How are they developed?
4. How to level DFDs?
5. Good style conventions in developing DFDs
6. Difference between Logical and Physical DFDs
7. Tools available to draw DFDs

MOTIVATION
WHY DFD ?
Provides an overview of
-What data a system processes
-What transformations are performed
-What data are stored
-What results are produced and where they flow

MOTIVATION
WHY DFD ?
Graphical nature makes it a good communication tool

between
-User and analyst
-Analyst and System designer
Structure of DFD allows starting from a broad overview

and expand it to a hierarchy of detailed diagrams

DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
WHAT ARE DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS?
DFDs models the system by depicting

External entities from which the data flows and
where results terminate
Processes which transform data flows
Data stores from which the data are read or into
which data are written by the processes.

SYMBOLS USED IN DFD
PROCESS
Stores demand
note 1.
STORES Issue Advice
Delivery slip
A circle represents a process

Straight lines with incoming arrows are input data flows
Straight lines with outgoing arrows are output data flows
Processes are given serial numbers for easy reference
Labels are assigned to Data flow.These aid documentation

SYMBOLS USED IN DFD
EXTERNAL ENTITIES
Order
Invoice
VENDOR Customer
Bill
A Rectangle represents an external entity

They either supply data or receive data
They do not process data

SYMBOLS USED IN DFD
DATA STORES
Inventory Writing Reading

A Data Store is a repository of data
Data can be written into the data store
This is depicted by an incoming arrow
Data can be read from a data store
This is depicted by an outgoing arrow
External entity cannot read or write to the data store
Two data stores cannot be connected by a data flow
RULES OF DATA FLOW
• Data can flow from

-external entity to process
-process to external entity
-process to store and back
-process to process
• Data cannot flow from

-external entity to external entity
-external entity to store
-store to external entity
-store to store
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
An alternate notation is often used

3 Label
A Process
Store Name
Issue
A Data store DS1 Inventory Name
Label

GOOD STYLE IN DRAWING DFD
Use meaningful names for data flows, processes and

data stores.
Use top down development starting from context
diagram and successively levelling DFD
Only previously stored data can be read
A process can only transfer input to output.It cannot

create new data
Data stores cannot create new data
DESCRIBING A SYSTEM WITH A DFD
An entire system is represented by one DFD which gives

the system’s overview
It is called a context diagram
It gives little detail & is also known as the top level DFD
Context diagram of mess management is shown in the

next transparency

CONTEXT DIAGRAM OF MESS
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Extras Note
Students Vendors
Requisitions
Payments
Payments Supplies
Mess
Bills Management Mess secretary
Daily rate
System
Menu
Perishable
Items Item needed
Each day Overdue Bills
Mess manager Overdue Chief warden
Payments
• Observe this diagram gives very little detail

LEVELLING DFD
A context diagram gives an overview

It should be split into major processes which give
greater detail.
Each major process is further split to give more detail.
Each major process is further split to give more detail

WHY LEVEL DFD?
If a DFD is too detailed it will have too many data

flows and will be large and difficult to understand
Start from a broad overview. Expand to details - Idea

similar to using procedures and linking these with a main
program
Each DFD must deal with one aspect of a big system

EXPANDED DFD FOR HOSTEL MESS
MANAGEMENT
Mess
Students Secretary Chief Warden
Payments Update daily

rate Unpaid bills
Itemized bills at end 1 Items used each day

of month Billing
system
Extras/Rebates
Student billing
Expenses Information + bills
No of meals Mess manager
(today +3)
• Going to next process (Continued in next slide)
EXPANDED DFD FOR HOSTEL MESS MANAGEMENT
•Continued Low stock (today+2)
Items to be issued
2 (today +2)
Vendor supplies Mess
Stores issue
Vendors and
Order non- Items used Manager
Control today
perishable system
Menu
(today +2)
Vendor data
Stores
inventory
Order data Mess
Secretary
Perishable order 3 Vegetables and perishable
Perishable requisition
Orders ordering
Vendor data
(perishable)
(perishable)
EXPANDED DFD-BILLING SYSTEM
Payments
Itemized 1.2
bills Calculate Unpaid
Bills 1.3 bills Chief
Mess Student’s
bills Reconcile warden
Secretary
payments
Students data
Extras/Rebates Students data
Daily rate average
1.4 (upto date)
Find no 1.1
Of meals Calculate
No of meals to cook Daily rate
(today + 2)
Expenses data
Mess
Students data Manager Items rate data
• Observe numbering of processes
LEVELLING RULES
If process p is expanded, the process at the next

level are labeled as p.1,p.2 etc.
All data flow entering or leaving p must also enter or
leave its expanded version.
Expanded DFD may have data stores
No external entity can appear in expanded DFD
Keep the number of processes at each level less
than 7.

ILLEGAL CONSTRUCTS IN DFD
No loops are allowed in DFD

A process cannot be a pure decision
Actual rate > Standard rate
Actual daily rate
Compare
Standard daily rate Actual rate <= Standard rate
A single data flow should not be split into many flows
with different labels
No data flow allowed between data stores

Record
Get students Calculate
extra/rebates Bill
record Ask for next record
Extra/rebate store
• Not correct as loop is formed
LEVELLING EXAMPLES
Low stock item
(today +2) No of meals to
be cooked
Mess manager (today +2)
Items to be used
on (today +2)
Items issued
Low message stock

2
Stores issue
Order for items Mess secretary
and
Menu for
control system
(Today +2)
Vendor supplies
Order
Stores inventory Vendor

Vendor
Stores issue control system process

LEVELLING EXAMPLES
2.1
2.2
Inventory update
Mess manager Create order
And
Low stock for vendor
Items used low stock warning
today item
Items needed
From 2.3
Vendor Stores inventory Order Vendor data
supplies
Vendor
Order to vendor
2.3 2.4
Calculate Items Check Item
needed availability
Mess secretary Items needed Low stock items
Menu
(today +2) (today+2)
No of meals to Stores
(today +2) inventory

LEVELLING EXAMPLES
Top
Ext A Ext B
Level process
Ext A 1 2 4 Ext B
F1 F4
Process 1 Process 2
Ext A 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3
F1
1.3
3.1 3.2 3.4 Ext B 4.3 4.1 4.2
F4
3.3

LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL DFD
DFD’S considered so far are called logical DFDs

A physical DFD is similar to a document flow
diagram.
It specifies who does the operations specified by
the logical DFD
Physical DFD may depict physical movements of the
goods
Physical DFDs can be drawn during fact gathering
phase of a life cycle
PHYSICAL DFD FOR ENCASHING CHEQUE
Cash
Token
Clerk
Verify A/C Cashier
Signature Verify Token
Customer Cheque Update Cheque with Take Signature
Token Balance Token number
Store cheques Entry in

Day Book
Bad Cheque
Customer
Accounts

LOGICAL DFD FOR CHEQUE ENCASHMENT
Check Cheque with

Retrieve Store
Cheque Balance, Token
Customer Token no
Issue
Record & cheques
token
Token Slip Cheque store

Or cheque With token no.
Cheque Customer
accounts
Search Update
Customer & match Daily
token Cheque with cash book
token
Token Slip Day book
Cash

MODULE 5
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Developing Data Flow Diagrams(DFD)
a) What are DFDs?
b) Symbols used in DFD
c) Rules of data flow
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Describing systems with DFD & Levelling DFDs
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Logical & Physical DFDs
5. References
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
MOTIVATION
DFD provides an overview of what data a system processes, what

transformations are performed, what data are stored, what results are
produced and where they flow. Graphical nature makes it a good
communication tool between
-User and analyst
-Analyst and System designer
Structure of DFD allows starting from a broad overview and expands it to a
hierarchy of detailed diagrams
LEARNING GOALS
1.What are Data Flow Diagrams (DFDs)?

2.Why they are useful?
3.How are they developed?
4.How to level DFDs?
5.Good style conventions in developing DFDs
6.Difference between Logical and Physical DFDs
7.Tools available to draw DFDs
LEARNING UNIT 1
Developing Data Flow Diagrams(DFD)
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS
DFDs models the system by depicting external entities from which the data
flows and where results terminate, processes which transform data flows,
data stores from which the data are read or into which data are written by the
processes.
SYMBOLS USED IN DFD
PROCESS
Stores demand
note 1.
STORES
Issue Advice
Delivery slip
A circle represents a process

Straight lines with incoming arrows are input data flows
Straight lines with outgoing arrows are output data flows
Processes are given serial numbers for easy reference
Labels are assigned to Data flow. These aid documentation
EXTERNAL ENTITIES
Invoice
Order
VENDOR Customer
Bill
A Rectangle represents an external entity. They either supply data or receive

data. They do not process data
DATA STORES
Inventory Writing Reading

A Data Store is a repository of data
Data can be written into the data store and this is depicted by an incoming
arrow.
Data can be read from a data store and this is depicted by an outgoing arrow
External entity cannot read or write to the data store. Two data stores cannot
be connected by a data flow
RULES OF DATA FLOW
•Data can flow from

-external entity to process
-process to external entity
-process to store and back
-process to process
• Data cannot flow from

-external entity to external entity
-external entity to store
-store to external entity
-store to store
GOOD STYLE IN DRAWING DFD
Use meaningful names for data flows, processes and data stores.
Use top down development starting from context diagram and
successively levelling DFD
Only previously stored data can be read
A process can only transfer input to output.It cannot create new data
Data stores cannot create new data
LEARNING UNIT 2
Describing systems with DFD & Levelling DFDs

An entire system is represented by one DFD which gives the system’s
overview . It is called a context diagram. It gives little detail & is also known
as the top level DFD.
Context diagram of mess management is shown
Extras Note
Students Vendors
Requisitions
Payments
Payments Supplies
Mess
Bills Manage Mess
ment Daily rate Secretary
Menu
Perishable
Items Item needed
Each day Overdue Bills
Mess manager Overdue Chief warden
Payments
Note: This diagram gives very little detail
LEVELLING DFD
A context diagram gives an overview, it should be split into major processes

which give greater detail. Each major process is further split to give more
detail. Each major process is further split to give more detail
WHY LEVEL DFD?
If a DFD is too detailed it will have too many data flows and will be large
and difficult to understand. Therefore start from a broad overview. Expand
the details - Idea similar to using procedures and linking these with a main
program. Each DFD must deal with one aspect of a big system
EXPANDED DFD FOR HOSTEL MESS MANAGEMENT
Students Mess Chief Warden

Secretary
Payments Update daily

rate Unpaid bills
1
Itemized bills at end Items used each day
Billing
of month
Extras/Rebates
Student billing
Expenses Information + bills
No of meals Mess manager

(today +3)
•Going to next process (Continued in next page)
Continued Low stock (today+2)
Items to be issued
2 (today +2) Mess
Vendor supplies Manager
Stores issue
Vendors and
Order non- Control Items used
perishable system today
Menu
(today +2)
Vendor data
Stores
inventory Order data
Mess
Secretary
Perishable order
3
Perishable Vegetables and perishable
ordering requisition
Orders
(perishable) Vendor data
(perishable)
LEVELLING RULES
If process p is expanded, the process at the next level are labeled as p.1,p.2
etc.
All data flow entering or leaving p must also enter or leave its expanded
version.
Expanded DFD may have data stores

No new external entity can appear in expanded DFD
Keep the number of processes at each level less than 7.

No loops are allowed in DFD
A process cannot be a pure decision
Actual daily rate Actual rate > Standard rate
Compare
Standard daily rate Actual rate <= Standard rate

A single data flow should not be split into many flows with different labels
No data flow allowed between data stores
Record
Get students
extra/rebates Calculate
record Bill
Ask for next record
Extra/rebate store
Above DFD not correct as loop is

formed
LEVELLING EXAMPLES
Ext A Top Ext B

Level
process
Ext B
Ext A 1 2 4
F1 F4
3
Process 1 Process 2
Ext A 1.1 1.2 1.4 2.1 2.2 2.3
F1
1.3
3.1 3.2 3.4

Ext B 4.3 4.1 4.2
LEARNING UNIT 3
F4
3.3 Logical & Physical DFDs
LOGICAL AND PHYSICAL DFD
DFD’S considered so far are called logical DFDs.

A physical DFD is similar to a document flow diagram. It specifies who
does the operations specified by the logical DFD. Physical DFD may depict
physical movements of the goods. Physical DFDs can be drawn during fact
gathering phase of a life cycle.
PHYSICAL DFD FOR ENCASHING CHEQUE
Cash
Token
Clerk Cashier
Verify A/C Verify Token
Signature Take
Update Signature
Balance
Cheque
Customer Cheque with
Token number
Token
Store cheques Entry in

Day Book
Bad Cheque
Customer
Accounts
LOGICAL DFD FOR CHEQUE ENCASHMENT
Retrieve Cheque with

Check Store
Customer Cheque Token
Balance, Token no
Record Issue &
token cheques
Token Slip
Cheque store
Or cheque
With token no.
Cheque Customer
accounts
Search Update
Customer & match Daily
token cash
Cheque with book
token
Token Slip
Day book
Cash
REFERENCES
1. This module is based on Chapter 7 of Analysis and Design of

information systems, V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
2002.
2. Ian Sommerville, “Software Engineering”, 5th Edition, Addison-

Wesley, 1996, has a brief discussion of Data Flow Models on pp.101
to 103.
3. T.DeMarco, “Structured Analysis and System Specification”,

Yourdon Press, 1978. this book written by the original developer of
DFD modeling is a well written book. It is a good reference book.
4. E.Yourdon, “Modern Structured Analysis”, Prentice Hall of India,

New Delhi, 1996. Chapter 9 (pp.139 to 187) is a good treatment of
Data Flow Diagrams. All the topics covered in this module are
discussed in this chapter.
5. Hoffer, J.A., George, J.F. and Valacich J.S., “Modern Systems

Analysis and Design”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New
Delhi, 2002. Chapter 8 (pp.241 to 271) has a good treatment of
DFDs with a running example of a quick service restaurant. Different
types of DFDs and logical checking of DFDs are discussed well.
6. K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, “Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th

Edition, Pearson Eduation Asia, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 9 is
devoted to Data Flow Diagrams (pp.241 to 285). Has a number of
problems at the end of the chapter which are quite interesting.
System Analysis and Design / Tools for Systems Analysts Multiple Choice Questions
5.1.1 In a DFD external entities are represented by a

(a) rectangle
(b) ellipse
(d) circle
(a) only emanate from an external entity
(b) only terminate in an external entity
(c) may emanate and terminate in an external entity
(d) may either emanate or terminate in an external entity but not both
5.1.3 A rectangle in a DFD represents
(a) a process
(b) a data store
(c) an external entity
(d) an input unit
5.1.4 External Entities may be a
(a) source of input data only
(b) source of input data or destination of results
(c) destination of results only
(d) repository of data
5.1.5 By an external entity we mean a
(a) unit outside the system being designed which can be controlled by an analyst
(b) unit outside the system whose behavior is independent of the system being
designed
(c) a unit external to the system being designed
(d) a unit which is not part of a DFD
5.1.6 A data store in a DFD represents
(a) a sequential file
(b) a disk store
(c) a repository of data
(d) a random access memory
(a) only enter a data store
(b) only leave a data store
(c) enter or leave a data store
(d) either enter or leave a data store but not both
5.1.8 A data cannot flow between a store and
(i) a store
(ii) a process
(iii) an external entity
(a) i and iii
(b) i and ii
(c) ii and iii
(d) ii
5.1.9 Data cannot flow between two data stores because

(a) it is not allowed in a DFD

(b) a data store is a passive repository of data
(c) data can get corrupted
(d) they will get merged
5.1.10 Data cannot flow from an external entity to an external entity because
(a) it will get corrupted
(b) it is not allowed in DFD
(c) an external entity has no mechanism to read or write
(d) both are outside the context of the system
(a) there is no output data flow from the process
(b) there are three data flow inputs to the process
(c) there is no external entity
Quantity
Cost/unit 4.0
Billing
Process
Discount

(a) there are many data flows out of the process
(b) there are no input data flows to the process
(c) the output does not go to an external entity
Out of stock
Order to 4.0
vendor Billing Too much stock
Proces
5.1.13 The following portion of DFD is wrong as

(a) it has only one input
(b) it writes and reads from the same data store
(c) the process name is missing
(d) output data flows to two external entities

bill Customer
Invoice
Supplier
Advice
Book
Inventory
5.1.14 The following process diagram in a DFD is incorrect because

(a) the process is a single decision
(b) the process is not specified correctly
(c) there are too many input data flows
(d) the process does not refer to a data store
Gross pay>Min.taxable pay
Gross pay
2.0
Compare
Gross pay<=Min.taxable pay
Minimum
taxable pay
5.1.15 The following portion of a DFD is incorrect because

(a) the processes do not refer to a data store
(b) there is a loop between the two processes
(c) the processes are not specified correctly
(d) this structure is disallowed in a DFD
Gross pay
Employee record
1.0 2.0
Find next Calculate
pay tax
Tax deduction
Get next record
Deductions statement
5.1.16 Data flow in a DFD must have

(i) an arrow showing direction of flow of data
(ii) a meaningful name
(iii)a label such as: xyz
(iv) no arrows as they are confusing

(a) i and iii

(b) ii and iv
(c) iii and iv
(d) i and ii
5.2.1 A context diagram
(a) describes the context of a system
(b) is a DFD which gives an overview of the system
(c) is a detailed description of a system
(d) is not used in drawing a detailed DFD
5.2.2 A context diagram is used
(a) as the first step in developing a detailed DFD of a system
(b) in systems analysis of very complex systems
(c) as an aid to system design
(d) as an aid to programmers
5.2.3 By levelling a DFD we mean
(a) splitting it into different levels
(b) make its structure uniform
(c) expanding a process into one with more sub-processes giving more detail
(d) summarizing a DFD to specify only the essentials
5.2.4 A DFD is normally levelled as
(a) it is a good idea in design
(b) it is recommended by many experts
(c) it is easy to do it
(d) it is easier to read and understand a number of smaller DFDs than one large DFD
5.2.5 A DFD is levelled by
(a) examining complex processes in a DFD and expanding them into new DFDs with
more processes which are easy to understand
(b) merging a number of simple processes in a DFD into a complex processes in a
new DFD
(c) expanding the functions of a number of external entities into simpler functions
(d) splitting a number of data flows into simpler data flows
5.2.6 When a DFD is levelled no new
(a) data stores may appear
(b) external entities may appear
(c) processes may appear
(d) data flows may appear
5.2.7 When a DFD is levelled
(a) new external entities may be required
(b) no new processes are allowed
(c) no new data flows are allowed
(d) new data stores may be necessary and are allowed
5.2.8 When a DFD is levelled it is a good idea not to
(a) be concerned about the number of new processes at the next level
(b) allow more than 5 to 10 new processes at the next level for each expanded process

(c) allow new data stores at the next level

(d) allow any new processes at the next level
5.2.9 When a process is expanded during levelling
(a) data flows entering it are replaced
(b) all data stores used by it are replaced
(c) all data flows entering it must also enter the levelled DFD
(d) all external entities used by it are replaced
5.3.1 Before developing a logical DFD it is a good idea to
a) develop a physical DFD
b) develop a system flow chart
c) determine the contents of all data stores
d) find out user’s preferences
5.3.2 A physical DFD specifies
(a) what processes will be used
(b) who generates data and who processes it
(c) what each person in an organization does
(d) which data will be generated
5.3.3 A physical DFD
(a) has no means of showing material flow
(b) does not concern itself with material flow
(c) can show only stored material
(d) can show the flow of material

5.1.1 a 5.1.2 c 5.1.3 c 5.1.4 b 5.1.5 c 5.1.6 c

5.1.7 c 5.1.8 a 5.1.9 d 5.1.10 d 5.1.11 a 5.1.12 b
5.1.13 c 5.1.14 a 5.1.15 b 5.1.16 d 5.2.1 b 5.2.2 a
5.2.3 c 5.2.4 d 5.2.5 a 5.2.6 b 5.2.7 d 5.2.8 b
5.2.9 c 5.3.1 a 5.3.2 b 5.3.3 d

MODULE 5
DATA FLOW DIAGRAMS

WORKED EXAMPLES
5.1 What is the main merit of DFD?

The main merit of DFD is that it provides an overview of what data flows in a
system, what transformations are done on the data, what files are used and where
results flow.
5.2 What is the role of DFD as a documentation aid?

It is a good documentation aid which is understood by both programmers and
non-programmers (i.e., laypersons). As DFD specifies only what processes are
performed and not how they are performed it is easily understood by a non-
programming user.
5.3 What is a context diagram?

A diagram giving an entire system’s data flows and processing with a single
Process (circle) is called a context diagram.
5.4 What do you understand by levelling of DFD?

A context diagram is expanded into a number of inter-related processes. Each
process may be further expanded into a set of inter-connected sub processes. This
procedure of expanding a DFD is known as levelling.
5.5 What is a physical DFD?

A physical DFD specifies from where data flows and who processes the data and
to whom the processed data is sent.
5.6 In what way is physical DFD useful?

It is easy to develop during fact gathering stage of systems analysis. Such a
physical DFD is easily understood by a lay user who can verify the DFD drawn
by an analyst and tell whether such a DFD corresponds to a particular operation
taking place in an organization. Physical DFD is the starting point for developing
the logical DFD.
5.7 What are the mistakes in each of the DFDs of Fig. 5.7(a)–5.7(e)? Correct
these mistakes.
Employee No
1
Compute
Fig 5.7(a) Gross pay
Gross pay
Hours worked
Leave granted
Fig 5.7(b)
1
Check if
Application returned
Employee leave
available
&update
Leave application
Fig 5.7(c)
1 Store
Compute amount Employee
net pay paid
Gross Net pay Pay
pay cheque
Deductions Net pay & deductions

Fig 5.7(d)
a b e
A 1 2 B
P1 P2
c
d
3 C
P3
f
Roll No and student

Fig 5.7(e) Marks Pass
Find out
if pass or
fail
Fail
(i) To compute gross pay we need hours worked and hourly wage rate. This data
flow is missing.
(ii) A data flow cannot have two arrows pointing in opposite directions. A
separate data flow line should be drawn for “application returned”.
(iii) A data flow connects two distinct data stores without an intermediate
processing step. (See also answer to Exercise 7.5)
(iv) Process P2 has all input data flow and no output data flow.
(v) The same data flow cannot be given two names.
System Analysis and Design / Tools for Systems Analysts Question Bank
QUESTION BANK
5.1 What is the difference between an external entity and a process in a DFD?
5.2 What are the main merits of using a DFD?
5.4 What is the difference between a source and a sink in a DFD?
5.5 Why is data flow between data stores not allowed in DFD?
5.6 Is data flow allowed between an external entity and a data store. If your answer is
"no", explain why.
5.8 What do you understand by leveling of DFD?
5.9 What is the main difference between a flow chart and a DFD?
5.10 What do you understand by top down development of a DFD?
5.12 What is the difference between a physical and a logical DFD?
5.14 Prepare physical and logical DFDs for the following activities:
i. Issuing out a book from the library
ii. Returning a book to the library
iii. Getting a ticket reserved for a train journey
iv. Getting an item issued from a store
v. Getting your mark-sheet from a University office.
5.15 Admission procedure in a University is as follows:
An advertisement is issued giving essential qualifications for the course, the last date

System Analysis and Design / Tools for Systems Analysts Question Bank
for receipt of application, and the fee to be enclosed with the application. A clerk in
the Registrar's office checks the received applications to see if mark-sheet and fee are
enclosed and sends valid applications to the concerned academic department. The
department checks the application in detail and decides the applicants to be admitted,
those to be put in the waiting list, and those rejected. Appropriate letters are sent to
the Registrar's office which intimates the applicant. Give physical and logical DFDs
corresponding to the above problem.
5.16 A magazine is published monthly and is sent by post to its subscribers. Two months
before the expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the subscribers. If subscription
is not received within a month, another reminder is sent. If renewal subscription is not
received up to two weeks before the expiry of the subscription, the subscriber's name
is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber informed. Obtain logical DFDs
for this problem
5.17 Obtain a flowchart for Exercise 5.17 and state in what way it differs from the DFD.
5.18 Obtain a physical DFD for a simple payroll system described below. A list of
employees with their basic pay is sent to a clerk. He calculates the gross pay using
standard allowances which are known for each pay slab. Deduction statements such
as loan repayment, subscription to association etc. are also sent to another clerk who
matches these slips with the slips of gross pay and calculates net pay. This slip is used
by a third clerk to write out pay cheques for each employee and sent to respective
employees. The total pay bills paid are also computed.
5.19 If the procedure of Exercise 5.19 is to be computerised, obtain a logical DFD for the
computer-based system.

System Analysis and Design / Tools for Systems Analysts Pointers
Annotated References
1. Ian Sommerville, “Software Engineering”, 5th Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1996,

has a brief discussion of Data Flow Models on pp.101 to 103.
2. T.DeMarco, “Structured Analysis and System Specification”, Yourdon Press,
1978. this book written by the original developer of DFD modeling is a well
written book. It is a good reference book.
3. E.Yourdon, “Modern Structured Analysis”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
1996. Chapter 9 (pp.139 to 187) is a good treatment of Data Flow Diagrams. All
the topics covered in this module are discussed in this chapter.
4. Hoffer, J.A., George, J.F. and Valacich J.S., “Modern Systems Analysis and
Design”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2002. Chapter 8
(pp.241 to 271) has a good treatment of DFDs with a running example of a quick
service restaurant. Different types of DFDs and logical checking of DFDs are
discussed well.
5. K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, “Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition,
Pearson Eduation Asia, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 9 is devoted to Data Flow
Diagrams (pp.241 to 285). Has a number of problems at the end of the chapter
which are quite interesting.

SUMMARY OF MODULE 5
1. Data flow diagrams (DFDs) are used to depict the flow and transformation of data
in an information processing system.
2. DFDs give an overview to an analyst specifying where data originates, how it is
processed and where the results go.
3. DFDs act as a graphical communication aid between a user and an analyst. It is
also useful as a communication aid between an analyst and a system designer.
4. The procedure to develop a DFD starts with one DFD giving an overview of the
system to be de designed. This is called a context diagram.
5 The context diagram is expanded into a series of DFDs, each describing a specific
function. This method of top down analysis and breaking down DFDs to give
more and more detail is known as levelling.
6. Some style convention is developing DFDs are:
i. Data flows, processes and data store must have meaningful names.
ii. A DFD should not have more than 7-9 processes.
iii. A DFD should not have any loops, crossing lines or pure decisions as
processes.
iv. Data should be conserved in a DFD.
7. In practice, DFDs are used for representing logical data flow and processing of
data. It is, however, useful to evolve a logical DFD after first developing a
physical DFD which shows the persons performing various operations and how
data flows between persons performing operations.

QUESTION BANK MODULE 5
5.1 What is the difference between an external entity and a process in a DFD?
5.2 What are the main merits of using a DFD?
5.4 What is the difference between a source and a sink in a DFD?
5.5 Why is data flow between data stores not allowed in DFD?
5.6 Is data flow allowed between an external entity and a data store. If your answer is
"no", explain why.
5.8 What do you understand by levelling of DFD?
5.9 What is the main difference between a flow chart and a DFD?
5.10 What do you understand by top down development of a DFD?
5.12 What is the difference between a physical and a logical DFD?
5.14 Prepare physical and logical DFDs for the following activities:
i. Issuing out a book from the library
ii. Returning a book to the library
iii. Getting a ticket reserved for a train journey
iv. Getting an item issued from a store
v. Getting your marksheet from a University office.
5.15 Admission procedure in a University is as follows:

An advertisement is issued giving essential qualifications for the course, the last
date for receipt of application, and the fee to be enclosed with the application. A
clerk in the Registrar's office checks the received applications to see if marksheet
and fee are enclosed and sends valid applications to the concerned academic
department. The department checks the application in detail and decides the
applicants to be admitted, those to be put in the waiting list, and those rejected.
Appropriate letters are sent to the Registrar's office which intimates the applicant.
Give physical and logical DFDs corresponding to the above problem.
5.16 A magazine is published monthly and is sent by post to its subscribers. Two
months before the expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the subscribers. If
subscription is not received within a month, another reminder is sent. If renewal
subscription is not received up to two weeks before the expiry of the subscription,
the subscriber's name is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber
informed. Obtain logical DFDs for this problem
5.17 Obtain a flowchart for Exercise 5.17 and state in what way it differs from the
DFD.
5.18 Obtain a physical DFD for a simple payroll system described below. A list of
employees with their basic pay is sent to a clerk. He calculates the gross pay
using standard allowances which are known for each pay slab. Deduction
statements such as loan repayment, subscription to association etc. are also sent to
another clerk who matches these slips with the slips of gross pay and calculates
net pay. This slip is used by a third clerk to write out pay cheques for each
employee and sent to respective employees. The total pay bills paid are also
computed.
5.19 If the procedure of Exercise 5.19 is to be computerised, obtain a logical DFD for
the computer-based system.

Annotated References
1. Ian Sommerville, “Software Engineering”, 5th Edition, Addison-Wesley, 1996,

has a brief discussion of Data Flow Models on pp.101 to 103.
2. T.DeMarco, “Structured Analysis and System Specification”, Yourdon Press,
1978. this book written by the original developer of DFD modeling is a well
written book. It is a good reference book.
3. E.Yourdon, “Modern Structured Analysis”, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi,
1996. Chapter 9 (pp.139 to 187) is a good treatment of Data Flow Diagrams. All
the topics covered in this module are discussed in this chapter.
4. Hoffer, J.A., George, J.F. and Valacich J.S., “Modern Systems Analysis and
Design”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2002. Chapter 8
(pp.241 to 271) has a good treatment of DFDs with a running example of a quick
service restaurant. Different types of DFDs and logical checking of DFDs are
discussed well.
5. K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall, “Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition,
Pearson Eduation Asia, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 9 is devoted to Data Flow
Diagrams (pp.241 to 285). Has a number of problems at the end of the chapter
which are quite interesting.
6.
MODULE 6
PROCESS SPECIFICATION
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
6.1.1 Structured English is used to describe

(a) how programs are to be written
(b) processes in a DFD in a reasonably precise manner
(c) how DFDs are used in data processing
(d) data flows in DFD
6.1.2 Structured English is a

(a) structured programming language
(b) description of processes in simple English
(c) method of describing computational procedures reasonably precisely in
English
(d) natural language based algorithmic language
6.1.3 The objective of using structured English is to

(a) describe computational procedures reasonably precisely which can be
understood by any user
(b) expand a DFD so that a user can understand it
(c) develop algorithms corresponding to processes in a DFD
(d) ease writing programs for DFDs
6.1.4 Structured English description of processes

(i) should be understandable to a user of a computer based system
(ii) should be understandable to a programmer
(iii) can be descriptive in nature
(iv) should be translatable by a compiler
(a) i and iii (b) ii and iv
(c) i, ii and iv (d) i and ii
6.1.5 A decision table is
(a) a truth table
(b) a table which facilitates taking decisions
(c) a table listing conditions and actions to be taken based on the testing of
conditions
(d) a table in a Decision Support System
6.1.6 A decision table

(a) has a structured English equivalent representation
(b) cannot be represented using structured English
(c) does not have an equivalent algorithmic representation
(d) cannot be used to represent processes in a DFD
6.1.7 A decision table is preferable when the number of

(a) conditions to be checked in a procedure is small
(b) conditions to be checked in a procedure is large
(c) actions to be carried out are large
(d) actions to be carried out are small
6.1.8 Select from the following list which are appropriate to use in structured
English description of a process
(i) process inventory records
(ii) find the sum of outstanding billed amounts
(iii) check if outstanding amount >= Rs. 5000
(iv) check if stock is low
(c) iii and iv (d) ii and iii
6.1.9 Structured English statements must be

(a) short and clear
(b) specified quantitatively
(c) specified qualitatively
(d) detailed and descriptive
6.1.10 Select statements from the following list which may be used in structured
English
(i) if marks are too low fail student
(ii) if marks >=60 enter first class
(iii) if average height select candidate
(iv) if weight < 40 kg. reject candidate
(c) iii and iv (d) ii and iv
6.1.11 Select correct decision structures from the following
(i) if total marks>=75
then enter distinction in student record
end if
(ii) if total marks >=50
then enter pass in student record
else enter fail in student record
end if
(iii) if total marks >=60
then enter first class in student record
else if total marks>= 50
then enter second class in student record
else
enter fail in student record
end if
end if
(iv) if attendance <30%
then
do not admit in examination
else
(a) ii and iii (b) i and ii
(c) iii and iv (d) i and iv
6.1.12 The following structured English procedure is incorrect because

if balance in account <=0
then
{issue exception note to dept.
mark “stop future issues” in
departments record}
else
if balance in account <minimum balance
then
{ issue item to dept.
issue warning to dept.}
end if
end if
(a) end if in second if is not needed
(b) nesting of ifs is not correct
(c) no action is specified when balance in account >=minimum balance
(d) the value of minimum balance is not specified
6.1.13 The following structural English is incorrect because
case (income slab)
Income slab =1 : tax= 10%
Income slab =2 or 3 : tax= 20%
end case
(a) no action is specified for income slab of 4
(b) income slab has to be rupees
(c) income slab =2 or 3 is wrong
(d) number of cases is too small
6.1.14 The following structured English procedure is incorrect because

case (code)
Code=2 : if purchase amount >=5000
then discount=5%
Code=1 : discount=2%
then discount =2%
else if code=4
then discount =5%
end if
None of the above codes : discount=0
end case
(a) code=2 should appear after code=1
(b) if statement cannot be used within a case
(c) code=4 should not be used in the action for code=3
(d) The statement is correct
6.1.15 The following while structure is wrong because

balance =500
while balance <=1000 do
Write (amount due – balance)
Read next record
end while
(a) read must appear before write
(b) this loop will never terminate
(c) no read allowed in a loop
the contents of next record is not known
LEARNING UNIT 2
6.2.1 Structured English description of data processing is a

(a) non-procedural specification
(b) procedural specification
(c) purely descriptive specification
(d) very imprecise specification
6.2.2 Decision table description of data processing is

(a) non-procedural specification
(b) procedural specification
(c) purely descriptive specification
(d) very imprecise specification
6.2.3 In the following word statement the conditions are:

“if a student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics and 40 marks or more in
English he passes the examination, otherwise he fails”
(a) student passes the examination
(b) student fails the examination
(c) student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics
(d) student mathematics marks >= 50 and student English marks >= 40
6.2.4 In the following word statement the actions are

“if a student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics and 40 marks or more in
English he passes the examination, otherwise he fails”
(i) student passes the examination
(ii) student fails the examination
(iii) student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics
(iv) student mathematics marks >= 50 and student English marks >= 40
(c) ii and iii (d) iii and iv
6.2.5 In a limited entry decision table the condition stub

(a) lists X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
(b) lists the conditions to be tested
(c) has Y or N or – entries
(d) lists the actions to be taken
6.2.6 In a limited entry decision table the condition entries

(a) list X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
(b) list the conditions to be tested
(c) have Y or N or – entries
(d) list the actions to be taken
6.2.7 In a limited entry decision table the action stub
(a) lists X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
(b) lists the conditions to be tested
(c) has Y or N or – entries
(d) lists the actions to be taken
6.2.8 In a limited entry decision table the action entries

(a) list X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
(b) list the conditions to be tested
(c) have Y or N or – entries
(d) list the actions to be taken
6.2.9 In a limited entry decision table the condition entries may be

(a) Y or N only
(b) Y, N or –
(c) A binary digit
(d) Any integer
6.2.10 In a limited entry decision table a—entry against a condition signifies that
(a) the outcome of testing the condition is irrelevant
(b) it is an important condition
(c) the condition should be tested
(d) the condition is a Boolean condition
6.2.11 A rule in a limited entry decision table is a

(a) row of the table consisting of condition entries
(b) row of the table consisting of action entries
(c) column of the table consisting of condition entries and the corresponding
action entries
(d) columns of the tables consisting of conditions of the stub
6.2.12 The conditions in the condition stub of a limited entry decision table
(a) must be in sequential order
(b) must be in the order in which they are to be tested
(c) may be in any order
(d) must be in the order in which they are to be executed
6.2.13 The actions in the action stub of a limited entry decision table
(a) must be in sequential order
(b) must be in the order in which they are to be tested
(c) may be in any order
(d) must be in the order in which they are to be executed
6.2.14 A X against an action in an action row signifies that the
(a) action is not to be taken
(b) action is to be taken
(c) action is important
(d) action is not important
6.2.15 A—against an action in an action row signifies that the

(a) action is not to be taken
(b) action is to be taken
(c) action is important
(d) action is not important
6.2.16 An extended entry decision table has

(a) only Y, N or – entries
(b) entries which extend the condition
(c) questions asked extended into the condition entry part of the table
(d) only numerical entries
6.2.17 An extended entry decision table

(a) has no limited entry equivalent
(b) cannot be replaced by a table with only Y, or – entries
(c) may have Yes, No answers to conditions
(d) can always be converted to an equivalent limited entry decision table
6.2.18 An extended entry decision table is

(a) very difficult to understand
(b) quite concise compared to a limited entry decision table developed for the
same task
(c) large compared to a limited entry table developed for the same task
(d) is not very often used
6.2.19 A mixed entry decision table

(a) may have some conditions with Y, N, or – entries
(b) may not have any Y, N, or – entry
(c) may have only non-numerical entries
(d) may mix numerical and non-numerical entries
Given a decision table “test” shown below
R1 R2 R3
C1 Y N Y
C2 N – Y
A1 X –– Decision table–“test”
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
Answer the following questions:
6.2.20 Rule R1 is interpreted as follows:

(a) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A2
(b) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A1 and then action A2
(c) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A3 and then action A1
(d) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A1 and then action A3
6.2.21 Rule R3 is interpreted as follows:

(a) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A1 and A2
(b) If C1 is TRUE or C2 is TRUE then perform action A3
(c) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A1 or A2
(d) If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A3
6.2.22 Structured English equivalent of the decision table “test” are given below
(i) if C1 TRUE
then if C2 TRUE
then do A3
else do A1 and A3
end if
else do A2
end if
(ii) if C1 FALSE
then do A2
else if C2 TRUE
then do A3
else do A1 and A3
end if
end if
(iii) if C2 TRUE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A3
else do A2
end if
else do A1 and A3
end if
(iv) if C2 FALSE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A1 and A3
else do A2
end if
else do A3
end if
Which of the following are correct?
(c) iii and iv (d) ii and iv
6.2.23 Structured English equivalents of decision table “test” are given below. Pick
the right ones
(i) if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then R=1 end if
if C1 FALSE then R=2 end if
if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then R=3 end if
case (R)
R=1; perform actions A1 and A3
R=2; perform action A2
end case
(ii) if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then perform actions A1, A3 end if
if C1 FALSE then perform action A2 end if
if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then perform action A3 end if
(iii) case (C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE) Rule R1
case (C1 FALSE) Rule R2
case (C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE) Rule R3
end case
(iv) if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then do Rule R3 end if
if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then do Rule R1 end if
if C1 TRUE then do Rule R2 end if
6.2.24 The Elementary Rule Decision Table equivalent of decision table “test” is
(a) C1 Y N Y
C2 N N Y
A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
(b) C1 Y N Y
C2 N Y Y
A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
(c) C1 Y N N Y
C2 N N Y Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X –
A3 X – – X
(d) C1 Y N N Y
C2 N N Y Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X – –
A3 X – X X
LEARNING UNIT 3
6.3.1 The decision table “test” is

(a) ambiguous
(b) contradictory
(c) incomplete
(d) complete
Answer the following referring to the decision table “test2”
R1 R2
C1 : x <= 50 N –
C2 : x >= 70 – N
A1 X –
A2 – X
Decision Table: “test2”
6.3.2 Decision table “test2” is

(a) really incomplete
(b) complete
(c) apparently incomplete
(d) apparently complete
6.3.3 Decision table “test2”

(a) has a real ambiguity
(b) has an apparent ambiguity
(c) is logically correct
(d) is incomplete
C1 N –
C2 – N
A1 Y –
A2 – Y
DECISION TABLE “testing”
6.3.4 Decision table “testing” can be made complete

(i) by putting an ELSE rule
(ii) is as it is complete and does not need any more rules
(iii) by specifying actions when C1 = Y and C2 = Y
(iv) by specifying actions when C1 = N and C2 = N
(a) (i), (ii) (b) (i), (iii)
(c) (ii), (iii) (d) (ii), (iv)
6.3.5The K-map equivalent of decision table “test2” is
C1 C1
a) Y N b) Y N
C2 C2
Y A1 Y A1 A2
N A2 A1 N A2 A1
c) C1 d) C1
Y N Y N
C2 C2
Y A1 Y A1
N A2 A1,A2 N A2 A2
6.3.6 The decision table equivalent of the following structured English statement
is
if C2 TRUE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A3
else do A2
end if
else do A1 and A3
end if
(a) C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N –
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
(b) C2 Y Y N
C1 Y N N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
(c) C1 Y N –
C2 Y Y N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
(d) C1 Y N Y
C2 Y Y N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
6.3.7 The decision table equivalent of the following structured English statement is
then {issue exception note to dept. and mark “stop future issues”}
else if balance in account <min. balance
then {issue item to dept.
else {issue item to dept.}
end if
end if
C1=balance in account <=0;

C2=balance in account < min. balance
A1=issue exception note and mark “no future issues”
A2=issue item to dept
A3=issue warning to dept.
(a) C1 Y N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –
(b) C1 Y N N Y
C2 N Y N Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X X
A3 – X – –
(c) C1 N N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –
(d) C1 Y N Y
C2 N Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –
6.3.8The decision table given in answer (a) of question 9.4.3 is
(a) incomplete
(b) apparently ambiguous
(c) has contradictory specifications
(d) logically complete
6.3.9 The rule C1=Y, C2=Y in the decision table given in answer (a) of question
6.3.7 is
(a) logically impossible
(b) logically possible
(c) has no action specified
(d) has multiple actions specified
6.3.10 If min. balance > 0 then the rule C1=Y, C2= – in the decision table given in
answer (a) of question 6.3.7 may be replaced by the rule
(a) C1=Y, C2=N
(b) C1=Y, C2=Y
(c) C1= –, C2=Y
(d) C1= –, C2=N
LEARNING UNIT 4
6.4.1 The actions of a decision table are mapped on a K-map shown below:
The boxes marked X denote impossible rules
C1C2
C3 NN NY YY YN
Y A1 A1 A2
N A1 A2 A2
The rule for action A1 may be represented by the following minimal Boolean expression
(a) C1.C2 + C1.C2.C3

(b) C1.C2.C3 + C1.C3
(c) C1.C3 + C2
(d) C1.C3 + C2.C1
6.4.2 The following decision table may be replaced by its best equivalent shown
below:
C1 N N N N Y Y Y Y
C2 N N Y Y Y Y N N
C3 Y N N Y Y N N Y
A1 X – – X – – X X
A2 – X X – X X X X
(a) C1 N N Y Y
C2 – – Y N
C3 Y N – –
A1 X – – X
A2 – X X X
(b) C1 – Y N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 N – Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
(c) C1 N – Y N Y
C2 – Y Y – N
C3 N N – Y –
A1 – – – X X
A2 X X X – X
(d) C1 Y N N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 – N Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
6.4.3 The following decision table may be replaced by its best equivalent shown
below:
C1 N Y Y N N Y N Y N N Y Y N Y N Y
C2 N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
C3 N N Y Y N N Y Y N Y N Y N N Y Y
C4 N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
A1 X X X X – – – – – – – – – – – –
A2 – – – – X X X X – – – – – – – –
A3 – – – – – – – – X X X X – – – –
A4 – – – – – – – – – – – – X X X X
(a) C1 Y N N N N Y – –
C2 N N – – N N Y Y
C3 – – N Y – – N Y
C4 N N Y Y Y Y N N
A1 X X – – – – – –
A2 – – X X – – – –
A3 – – – – X X – –
A4 – – – – – – X X
(b) C2 N Y N Y
C4 N Y Y N
A1 X – – –
A2 – X – –
A3 – – X –
A4 – – – X
(c) C1 – N Y – –
C2 – N N Y –
C3 N – – – Y
C4 N Y Y Y N
A1 X – – – X
A2 – – – X –
A3 – X X – –
A4 X – – – X
(d) C2 – N Y –
C3 – – – Y
C4 N Y Y N
A1 X – – X
A2 – – X –
A3 – X – –
A4 X – – X
Given the decision table “test 3”answer the following questions:

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
x>=20 Y Y Y Y N N N N
x<=30 Y Y N N Y Y N N
y>=x Y N Y N Y N Y N
A1 X X X X – – – –
A2 – – – – X X – –
A3 – – – – – – X X
6.4.4 (a) Rules R7, R8 are logically impossible

(b) Rules R5, R6 are logically impossible
(c) Rules R3, R4 are logically impossible
(d) Rules R1, R2 are logically impossible
6.4.5 Pick the correct equivalent of “test 3”

(a) C1 Y N (b) C1 Y N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X –
A2 – X A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 – – X
(c) C1 Y Y N N (d) C1 Y N N
C3 N Y N Y C2 – Y N
C2 – – – –
A1 X X – – A1 X – –
A2 – – X X A2 – X –
A3 – – X
6.4.6 The decision table “test 3“ is
(a) incomplete
(b) ambiguous
(c) incorrect
(d) has redundancies
6.4.7 The decision table equivalent of the following Boolean expression is
A1= C3.C1.C2 + C2.C3.C1
A2= C1.C3 + C3.C2.C1+ C1.C2.C3
(a) C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X
(b) C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N N N N
C3 Y Y – Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X
(c) C2 Y Y Y N N
C1 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X
(d) C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 X X X X X
6.4.8 A decision table “test 4” is given below
C1 Y Y N – – N Y N
C2 Y – N Y – N N –
C3 Y Y Y – Y N N N
C4 – Y – Y N – – N
A1 X X X – – – – –
A2 – – – X X – – –
A3 – – – – – X X –
? – – – – – – – I
where I indicates impossible rule
The contradictory rules are

(a) YYYY, NYYY, NNYY
(b) YYYN, NYYN, NNYN
(c) YYYY, YYYN, NNYN
(d) There are no contradictory rules
6.4.9 In “test 4” the contradictory actions are:
(a) A1, A3
(b) A1, A2
(c) A2, A3
(d) A2, I
6.4.10 In “test 4” missing rule is:

(a) NYNN
(b) NYYN
(c) YYNN
(d) YNYN
6.4.11 If in “test 4” the rules where the contradictory actions or unspecified actions
are present, the action is replaced by A2 only, the reduced decision table
using impossible rules also for reduction is:
(a) C1 – – – – – N
C2 N – Y Y – N
C3 Y Y – Y N N
C4 Y N Y – N –
A1 X – – – – –
A2 – X X X – –
A3 – – – – X X
(b) C1 N Y – – – N N
C2 N N Y Y – – N
C3 Y Y N Y Y N N
C4 Y Y Y – N N –
A1 X X – – – – –
A2 – – X X X – –
A3 – – – – – X X
(c) C1 – – – – N
C2 N – Y – N
C3 Y Y – N N
C4 Y N Y N –
A1 X – – – –
A2 – X X – –
A3 – – – X X
(d) C2 N Y – N
C3 Y – Y N
C4 Y – N –
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X –
A3 – – – X
6.5.1 Decision Trees are preferred when

a) Too many conditions need to be tested
b) Sequencing of testing conditions is important
c) When there are many loops to be performed
d) When too many actions are to be taken
6.5.2 Decision Tables are preferred when

6.5.3 Structured English is preferred when
6.5.4 The objective of using decision trees is to

a) Expand a DFD so that a user can understand it
b) To specify sequence of conditions to be tested and actions to be taken
c) Describe a computational procedure that can be easily understood by a person
c) Use it as a tool in decision support system
6.5.5 Decision trees are superior to decision tables when

a) The number of conditions to be tested is very large
b) When sequence of testing conditions is not particularly important
c) When sequence of testing conditions is not particularly important
c) When a large number of actions are to be specified
6.5.6 Logical correctness of a specifications can be systematically checked by

a) Using decision trees
b) Using structured English
c) Using DFD’s
d) Using decision tables
6.5.7 The decision tree equivalent of the following structured English is
if C2 then
if C1
then A3
else A2
endif
else A1,A3
endif
A3
Y
Y C2
a) N A2
C1
N A1, A3
Y A3
b)
Y C1
A2
C2 N
A1
N Y
C1
N A3
Y A3
Y C1
c) N A2
C2
A1, A3
N
A2
d) C1
A3
C2
A1A3
6.5.8 Decision tables are better then Decision trees when

a) Conditions are to be isolated from actions in a word statement
b) Condition sequences are to be found from a word statement
c) Logical correctness of a word statement is to be established
d) Large number of actions is to be performed
6.5.9 The decision table equivalent of the Decision tree of choice (a) of 6.5.7 is
a)
C2 Y N N Y
C1 N Y N Y
A1 X - X -
A2 - X X -
A3 X - - X
b)
C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N -
A1 - - X
A2 - X -
A3 X - X
c)
C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N Y
A1 - - X
A2 - X -
A3 X - X
d)
C1 Y Y N
Else
C2 Y N Y
A1 - - X Error
A2 - X -
A3 X - X
6.1.1 b 6.1.2 c 6.1.3 a 6.1.4 d 6.1.5 c 6.1.6 a

6.1.7 b 6.1.8 d 6.1.9 b 6.1.10 d 6.1.11 a 6.1.12 c
6.1.13 a 6.1.14 c 6.1.15 b 6.2.1 b 6.2.2 a 6.2.3 d
6.2.4 a 6.2.5 b 6.2.6 c 6.2.7 d 6.2.8 a 6.2.9 b
6.2.10 a 6.2.11 c 6.2.12 c 6.2.13 d 6.2.14 b 6.2.15 a
6.2.16 c 6.2.17 d 6.2.18 b 6.2.19 a 6.2.20 d 6.2.21 d
6.2.22 b 6.2.23 a 6.2.24 c 6.3.1 d 6.3.2 c 6.3.3 a
6.3.4 b 6.3.5 c 6.3.6 c 6.3.7 a 6.3.8 d 6.3.9 b
6.3.10 b 6.4.1 c 6.4.2 a 6.4.3 b 6.4.4 a 6.4.5 a
6.4.6 d 6.4.7 a 6.4.8 c 6.4.9 b 6.4.10 c 6.4.11 d
6.5.1 b 6.5.2 a 6.5.3 c 6.5.4 b 6.5.5 c 6.5.6 d
6.5.7 c 6.5.8 c 6.5.9 b
MODULE 6
Learning Units
6.1 Structured English specification
6.2 Decision table based specifications
6.3 Detecting
-Incompleteness
-Ambiguity
-Contradictions
-Redundancy
in decision table specification
6.4 Eliminating redundancy in specifications
6.5 Decision trees for specifications

LEARNING GOALS
In this module we will learn

1. How to use structured English to precisely specify
processes
2. The terminology used in structured English
3. Terminology of decision tables and how it is used to
specify complex logic
4. How to detect errors in decision table specifications
5. Terminology and use of decision trees
6. Comparison of structured English, decision tables and
decision trees

MOTIVATION
Before designing a system an analyst must clearly

understand the logic to be followed by each process
block in a DFD
An analyst’s understanding must be cross checked

with the user of the information system.
A notation is thus needed to specify process block in

detail which can be understood by a user.

MOTIVATION
Notation used must be appropriate for the type of the

application to be modelled.
Different notations are needed to represent repetition

structures,complex decision situation and situations
where sequencing of testing of conditions is important

MOTIVATION
For complex logical procedures a notation is needed

which can also be used to detect logical errors in the
specifications.
A tabular structure for representing logic can be used

as a communication tool and can be automatically
converted to a program.

Once a DFD is obtained the next step is to precisely

specify the process.
Structured English, Decision tables and Decision Trees
are used to describe process.
Decision tables are used when the process is logically

complex involving large number of conditions and
alternate solutions
Decision Trees are used when conditions to be tested
must follow a strict time sequence.
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
Structured English is similar to a programming

language such as Pascal
It does not have strict syntax rules as programming
language
Intention is to give precise description of a process
The structured English description should be

understandable to the user

STRUCTURED ENGLISH
if customer pays advance

then
Give 5% Discount
else
if purchase amount >=10,000
then
if the customer is a regular customer
then Give 5% Discount
else No Discount
end if
else No Discount
end if
end if

DECISION TABLE-EXAMPLE
Same structured English procedure given as decision table
CONDITIONS RULE1 RULE2 RULE3 RULE4

Advance payment made Y N N N
Purchase amt >=10,000 - Y Y N
Regular Customer? - Y N -
ACTIONS
Give 5% Discount X X - -
Give No Discount - - X X

DECISION TABLE-EXPLANATION
Conditions are questions to be asked

‘Y’ is yes,’N’ is no & ‘-’ is irrelevant
A ‘X’ against the action says the action must be
taken
A ‘-’ against the action says the action need not
be taken
Rule 2 in decision table DISCOUNT states:
if no advance payment and purchase amount >=10000

and regular customer then give 5% discount
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
Imperative sentences- Actions to be performed should be
precise and quantified
Good Example: Give discount of 20%
Bad Example: Give substantial discount
Operators -Arithmetic : +, -, /, *
Relational : >, >=, <, <=, =, !=
Logical : and, or, not
Keywords : if, then, else, repeat, until, while, do, case,
until, while, do, case, for, search, retrieve, read, write
Delimiters – {, }, end, end if, end for

DECISION TREE-EXAMPLE
The structured English procedure given in 6.1.3 is expressed as a

Decision tree below
Give 5% Discount
Y Y Give 5% Discount
C1 C3
N Y N
No Discount
C2 N
No Discount
C1: Advance payment made Y = Yes

C2: Purchase amount >=10,000 N = No
C3: Regular Customer

STRUCTURED ENGLISH-DECISION STRUCTURES
If condition
then
{ Group of statements }
else
end if
Example: if(balance in account >= min.balance)

then honor request
else reject request
end if

STRUCTURED ENGLISH-CASE STATEMENT
Case (variable)
Variable = P: { statements for alternative P}
Variable = Q: { statements for alternative Q}
Variable = R: { statements for alternative R}
None of the above: { statements for default case}
end case
Example : Case(product code)

product code =1 : discount= 5%
product code =2 : discount =7%
None of the above : discount=0
end case

STRUCTURED ENGLISH-REPETITION STRUCTURE
for index = initial to final do

{ statements in loop }
end for
Example : Total =0
for subject =1 to subject =5 do
total marks=total marks +marks(subject)
write roll no,total marks
end for

STRUCTURED ENGLISH-WHILE LOOP
while condition do
end while
Example : while there are student records left to do

read student record
compute total marks
find class
write total marks, class, roll no
end while

EXAMPLE
Update inventory file
for each item accepted record do

{ search inventory file using item code
if successful
then { update retrieved inventory record;
write updated record in inventory file using accepted record}
else { create new record in inventory file;
enter accepted record in inventory file}
end if
end for

DECISION TABLE-MOTIVATION
A procedural language tells how data is processed
Structured English is procedural
Most managers and users are not concerned how data is processed-
they want to know what rules are used to process data.
Specification of what a system does is non-procedural.
Decision Tables are non-procedural specification of rules used in

processing data

ADVANTAGES OF DECISION TABLE
•Easy to understand by non-computer literate users and managers
•Good documentation of rules used in data processing.
•Simple representation of complex decision rules .
•Tabular representation allows systematic validation of

specification
detection of redundancy,incompleteness & inconsistency of rules
•Algorithms exist to automatically convert decision tables to

equivalent computer programs.
• Allows systematic creation of test data

METHOD OF OBTAINING DECISION TABLE
FROM WORD STATEMENT OF RULES
EXAMPLE
A bank uses the following rules to classify new accounts

If depositor's age is 21 or above and if the deposit is Rs 100 or more,
classify the account type as A If the depositor is under 21 and the deposit
is Rs 100 or more, classify it as type B If the depositor is 21 or over and
deposit is below Rs 100 classify it as C If the depositor is under 21 and
deposit is below Rs 100 do-not open account
Identify Conditions: Age >= 21 Cl

Deposits >= Rs 100: C2
Identify Actions : Classify account as A, B or C

Do not open account

DECISION TABLE FROM WORD STATEMENT
Condition Stub
CODITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4

C1 : Age >= 21 Y N Y N
C2: Deposit >=100 Y Y N N
ACTIONS
A1: Classify as A X - - -
A2: Classify as B - X - -
A3: Classify as C - - X -
A4: Do not open

Account - - - X
Action Stub

DECISION TABLE NOTATION EXPLAINED
CONDITION
STUB CONDITION ENTRIES
ACTION
ACTION ENTRIES
STUB
RULE
• 4 Quadrants-demarcated by two double lines

•CONDITION STUB LISTS ALL CONDITIONS TO BE CHECKED
•ACTION STUB LISTS ALL ACTIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT
•LIMITED ENTRY DECISION TABLE:ENTRIES ARE Y or N or -.Y-YES,N-
NO,-IRRELEVANT(DON’T CARE)
•X against action states it is to be carried out.
•-against action states it is to be ignored.
•Entries on a vertical column specifies a rule

DECISION TABLE NOTATION -CONTD
•ORDER OF LISTING CONDITIONS IRRELEVANT

i.e. CONDITIONS MAY BE CHECKED IN ANY ORDER
•ORDER OF LISTING ACTIONS IMPORTANT
•ACTIONS LISTED FIRST CARRIED OUT FIRST
SEQUENTIAL EXECUTION OF ACTIONS
•RULES MAY BE LISTED IN ANY ORDER

INTERPRETING DECISION TABLE-ELSE RULE
R1 R2
C1: Is applicant sponsored Y Y ELSE
C2: Does he have min Y Y
qualification
C3: Is fee paid? Y N
A1: Admit letter X - -

A2: Provisional Admit
letter - X -
A3: Regret letter - - X
Interpretation
R1: If applicant sponsored and he has minimum qualifications
and his fee is paid –Send Admit letter
R2: If applicant sponsored and has minimum qualifications

and his fee not paid send provisional admit letter
ELSE: In all cases send regret letter.The else rule makes a decision table complete
DECISION TABLE FOR SHIPPING RULES
R1 R2 R3 R4
C1: Qty ordered <= Quantity Y Y N N
in stock?
C2: (Qty in stock-Qty
ordered)<=reorder level N Y - -
C3: Is the partial - - Y N
shipment ok?
A1:Qty shipped=Qty ordered X X - -
A2:Qty shipped=Qty in stock - - X -
A3:Qty shipped=0 - - - X
A4:Qty in stock=0 - - X -
A5:Back order=qty ordered-
qty shipped - - X X
A6:Initiative reorder procedure - X X X

A7: Qty in stockÅQty in stock X X - -
-Qty shipped

EXTENDED ENTRY DECISION TABLE
Condition Entries not necessarily Y or N
Action entries not necessarily X or -
Extended Entry Decision Tables(EEDT) more concise
EEDT can always be expanded to LEDT
Example R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
C1 : Product code 1 1 1 1 1 2
C2 : Customer code A B A B C -
C3 : Order amount <=500 <=500 >500 >500 - -
Discount = 5% 7.5% 7.5% 10% 6% 5%

MIXED ENTRY DECISION TABLE
Can mix up Yes, No answers with codes
Rl R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Cl : Product code = 1? Y Y Y Y N
C2: Customer code = A B A B C -
C3: Order amount < 500? Y Y N N - -
Discount = 5% 7 5% 7 5% 10% 6% 5%
Choice of LEDT, EEDT, MEDT depends on ease of communication with user,

software available to translate DTs to programs, ease of checking etc.

LINKED DECISION TABLE
Decision table 1 Decision table 2
Salary point=6 N e Salary point>2 N N N Y

Conduct OK? Y l 1 yr as class 1 Y N - -
Diligence OK? Y s officer
Efficiency OK? Y e Departmental test Y - N -
Passed?
Go to table 2 X - Advance to next
No promotion - X salary point X - - -
No promotion - X X -
Decision table3 Go to Table3 - - - X
Complete departmental Y
Course else
Y 1.Observe that one can branch between
1 yr since last increment
tables
Advance to next salary X - 2. Whenever complex rules are given it
point
No promotion - X is a good idea to break them up into
manageable parts
LOGICAL CORRECTNESS OF DECISION TABLE
Consider decision table DTI:
Rl R2
Cl: x>60 Y -
C2:x<40 - Y
We can expand decision table by
Al X - replacing each –by Y & N
A2 : - X
DT2: R11 R12 R21 R22
Cl: x>60 Y Y N Y
C2:x<40 Y N Y Y A rule which has no – is an
Elementary rule
Al X X - -
A2 : - - X X
DT2 is an Elementary Rule Decision Table (ERDT)

(CONTD)
A decision table with 1 condition should have 2 elementary rules

Each elementary rule must be distinct
Each elementary rule must have distinct action
If a decision table with k conditions does not have 2k rules specified
it is said to be incomplete
For example : DT2 does not have the elementary rule C1:N, C2:N.
It is thus incomplete.
If the decision table has the same elementary rule occurring more
than once it is said to have multiplicity of specifications
For Example:In DT2 The rule C1:Y,C2:Y occurs twice.Thus it has
multiplicity of specification

(CONTD)
If action specified for multiple identical rules are different then it
is called ambiguous specifications
DT2 has an ambiguity.Rules R11 and R21 are identical but have
different actions
Ambiguity may be apparent or real
It is said to be apparent if the rule leading to the ambiguity is

logically impossible
For example,(x>60)=Y and (x<40)=Y cannot occur simultaneously.

Thus in DT2 rules R11 and R22 are apparently ambiguous rules
Apparently ambiguous rules is not an error

(CONTD)
If an apparently ambiguous specification is real then it is a

contradiction
For example : If C1:(X > 60) = Y and C2:(X > 40) = Y then X = 70
will satisfy both inequalities.
As two actions are specified for (Cl = Y, C2 = Y) and they are
different the rule is really ambiguous and is called Contradictory
Specification.

(CONTD)
• If all 2k elementary rules are not present in a k condition decision

table is said to be incomplete.
•DT2 (PPT 6.3.1) is incomplete as rule C1:N, C2:N is missing
•Rule C1=N, C2:=N is logically possible as C1=N is X<=60

and C2=N is X >= 40. A value of X = 50 will make C1=N,C2=N
Thus DT2 has a real incomplete specification
•A decision table which has no real ambiguities or real

incompleteness is said to be logically correct
•A decision table with logical errors should be corrected

USE OF KARNAUGH MAPS
KARNAUGH map abbreviated K-map is a 2 dimensional diagram

with one square per elementary rule
The k-map of DT2 is
C1 N Y
C2
? Al
N
Y A2 A1,A2
If more than one action is in one square it is an ambiguous rule

If a square is empty it signifies incomplete specification

Structured English procedure:
If carbon content<0.7
then if Rockwell hardness>50
then if tensile strength>30000
then steel is grade 10
else steel is grade 9
end if
end if
Decision table-Grading steel
end if C1:Carbon content <0.7 Y Y Y N Y N N N
C2:Rockwell hardness>50 Y Y N N N Y Y N
C3 tensile strength>30000 Y N N N Y Y N Y
Grade 10 9 8 7 ? ? ? ?

KARNAUGH MAPS – GRADING STEEL
C1 C2
C3 NN NY YY YN
N 7 ? 9 8
Y ? ? 10 ?
The 3 conditions are independent
The decision table is thus incomplete
Observe that in the Structured English specifications

the incompleteness is not obvious

DECISION TABLE-ARREARS MANAGEMENT
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
C1:Payment in current month Y N N - - -

>min.specified payment
C2:Payment in current month>0 - Y Y - N N
C3:Any payment in last 3 months - - - N Y Y
C4: Actual arrears > 3(min.
Specified payment per month) - Y N Y N Y
A1 : Send letter A X - - - - -
A2 : Send letter B - X - - - -
A3 : Send letter C - - X - - -
A4 : Send letter D - - - X - X
A5 : Send letter E - - - - X -

KARNAUGH MAP
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN
? A3 A1 A1*
NY A4 A2A4+ A1A4+ A1A4* K – Map for decision table
YY A4 A2 A1 A1A4*
YN A5 A3 A1 A1A5*
C1 : x>m C2:x>0 C3:y>0 C4:z>3m m>0
C3,C4 independent of C1,C2 C1,C2 dependent
C1: Y C2: Y x>m, x>0 possible
C1: Y C2: N x>m, x<=0 not logically possible
C1: N C2: Y x<=m,x>0 possible
C1: N C2: N x<=m,x<=0 possible
Thus C1,C2,C3 C4:NNNN incomplete specification
BOXES MARKED * NOT LOGICALLY POSSIBLE
Rules C1 C2 C3 C 4 : NYNY and YYNY logical errors
Errors to be corrected after consulting users who formulated the rules
CORRECT DECISION TABLE
• If users say that for rules C1C2C3C4:NYNY AND YYNY

(marked with + in k-map) the action is A4 and for
C1C2C3C4:NNNN also it is A4, the corrected map is
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN
A4 A3 A1
NY A4 A4 A4 Impossible rules
YY A4 A2 A1
YN A5 A3 A1

CORRECTED DECISION TABLE
C1 Y Y Y N N N N Y N N N N
C2 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
C3 N Y Y Y N Y N N Y N N Y
C4 N Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y N N
Action A1 A1 A1 A2 A3 A3 A4 A4 A4 A4 A4 A5
Question: Can the number of rules be reduced

Answer : Yes, by combining rules with the same action
Action A1 can be represented by the Boolean expression:
C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3C4 = C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3 (C4+C4)

=C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3 = C1C2C4 + C1C2C3
REDUNDANCY ELIMINATION
•Redundancy can be eliminated by systematically applying

four identities of Boolean Algebra
• These identities are
A + A=1
l.A = A
A+A=A
1+A=1
•K-map assists in identifying Boolean terms in which One or
more variables can be eliminated
•K-map is constructed in such a way that two boxes which
are physically adjacent in it are also logically adjacent

KARNAUGH MAP REDUCTION
C1 C2 C1 C2
NN NY YY YN C3 C4 NN NY YY YN
C3 C4 A4
NN NN
A4 A4 A4 A4 A4
NY NY
YY YY
YN YN
A4=C1C2C3(C4+C4)=C1C2C3 A4=C3C4(C1C2+C1C2+C1C2+C1C2)=C3C4
•Combining 2 adjacent boxes eliminates 1 variable

•First and last columns of k-map are logically adjacent
•First and last rows are also logically adjacent

C1C2 C1C2 C1C2
NN NY YY YN C3 C4 NN NY YY YN
C3 C4 C3 C4 NN NY YY YN
A1 A1 A2 A2
NN NN NN
A1 A1 A2 A2 A3 A3
NY NY NY
A1 A1 A2 A2 A3 A3
YY YY YY
A1 A1 A2 A2
YN YN YN
A1=(C3C4+C3C4+C3C4+C3C4).(C1C2+C1C2)=C2(C3+C3)=C2
A2=(C1C2+C1C2)(C3C4+C3C4+C3C4+C3C4)=C2
A3=C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4
=C2C3C4(C1+C1)+C2C3C4(C1+C1)
=C2C4(C3+C3)=C2C4

REDUCING DECISION TABLES-USE OF K-MAP
This is the K-map corresponding to DT of 6.3.12
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN Boxes marked X correspond to impossible rules.
NN A4 A3 A1 They can be used if they are useful in reducing rules
A4 A4 A4 Using k-map reduction rules we get

NY
YY A4 A2 A1 A1 : C1C4+C1C3
A2 : C1C2C3C4
YN A5 A3 A1 A3 : C1C2C4
A4 : C3C4+C2C3+C2C4
A5 : C2C3C4

REDUCING DECISION TABLES
REDUCED DECISION TABLE for DT of 6.3.12
C1: Payment in current month > Y Y N N - - - -

min specified payment
C2: Payment in current month>0 - - Y Y - N N N
C3: Any payment in last 3 months - Y Y - N N - Y
C4: Actual arrears> 3(minimum specified
payment per month) N - Y N Y - Y N
A: Send letter A X X - - - - - -
B: Send letter B - - X - - - - -
C: Send letter C - - - X - - - -
D: Send letter D - - - - X X X -
E: Send letter E - - - - - - - X

EXAMPLE-REDUCTION OF RULES IN WORD
STATEMENT
Rules : Insure Driver if following rules are satisfied
1. Drivers annual income > 20000 & is married male

2. Drivers annual income > 20000 & is married and over 30
3. Drivers annual income <= 20000 & she is married female
4. Driver is male over 30
5. Driver is married and age is not relevant
Else do not insure
Conditions:
C1 : Annual income > 20000
C2 : Male
C3 : Married
C4: Age > 30
Action: Insure or do not insure

DECISION TABLE FOR INSURANCE RULES
Cl : Annual income> 20000 Y Y N - - E

C2: Male Y - N Y - L
C3: Married Y Y Y - Y S
C4: Age > 30 - Y - Y N E
A1:Insure X X X X X -
A2 :Do not insure - - - - - X
C1C2
NN NY YY YN
C3C4
NN
NY A1 A1
A1=C3+C2.C4
YY A1 A1 A1 A1
A1 A1 A1 A1
YN

REDUCED DECISION TABLE
- Y
C2 : Male
C3 : Married Y - ELSE
C4 : Age > 30 - Y
Al : Insure X X -
A2 : Do not Insure - - X
Reduced rules : Insure if married or male over 30

Observe 5 rules simplified to 2 and 1 condition removed

DECISION TREES
Used when sequence of testing condition is important
It is more procedural compared to Decision tables

EXAMPLE – DECISION TREE TO BOOK TRAIN
TICKET
Book by II AC on 4/8/04 if available else book by II AC on 5/8/04.If both not
available book by sleeper on 4/8/04 if available else book on
5/8/04 by sleeper.If none available return.
Y Book II AC
C1 Book II AC
N Y
C2 Book sleeper
N Y
C3 Book ticket
N Y
C1: Is II AC ticket available on 4/8/04 C4
C2: Is II AC ticket available on 5/8/04 N
C3: Is sleeper available on 4/8/04
Return
Observe in the tree sequencing of conditions which is important in this example

DECISION TREES
Decision trees are drawn left to right

Circles used for conditions
Conditions labelled and annotation below tree
Conditions need not be binary
For example:
>=60
GRADE A
C1
>=50
GRADE B
>=40
GRADE C
else
GRADE F
Sometimes Decision trees are more appropriate to

explain to a user how decisions are taken

DECISION TREES
Decision tree for decision table of 6.2.9 [Slide number 25]

YES Discount=7.5%
C3 NO
A Discount=5%
C2 B YES Discount=10%
1 C3
NO Discount=7.5%
C1 C
Discount=6%
2 Discount=5%
C1: PRODUCT CODE
C2 : CUSTOMER CODE
C3: ORDER AMOUNT >500?
• Observe that the 3 alternatives for connection C2 shown as three branching

lines
SOME PEOPLE FIND DECISION TREE EASIER TO UNDERSTAND

DECISION TREES
Decision tree equivalent of structured English procedure of 6.3.7
(SLIDE 37) is given below
NO Grade 7
C1
Grade 8
YES NO
C1
YES Grade 9
NO
C1
YES
C1 : Carbon < 0.7 Grade 10
C2 : Rockwell hardness > 50
C3: Tensile strength > 3000
• Observe incompleteness evident in the equivalent Decision Table is not evident

in the Decision tree
• If the testing sequence is specified and is to be strictly followed the Decision tree
is simple to understand.

COMPARISON OF STRUCTURED ENGLISH,
DECISION TABLES AND DECISION TREES
CRITERION STRUCTURED DECISION DECISION

FOR ENGLISH TABLES TREES
COMPARISON
ISOLATING
CONDITIONS NOT GOOD BEST GOOD
& ACTIONS
SEQUENCING
CONDITIONS GOOD NOT BEST
BY PRIORITY GOOD
CHECKING FOR
COMPLETENESS
NOT GOOD BEST GOOD
,
CONTRADICTIO
N&
AMBIGUITIES

WHEN TO USE STRUCTURED ENGLISH,DECISION
TABLES AND DECISION TREES
Use Structured English if there are many loops and actions

are complex
Use Decision tables when there are a large number of

conditions to check and logic is complex
Use Decision trees when sequencing of conditions is important

and if there are not many conditions to be tested

MODULE 6
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Structured English specification
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Decision table based specifications
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Detecting
-Incompleteness
-Ambiguity
-Contradictions
-Redundancy
in decision table specification
5. LEARNING UNIT 4
Eliminating redundancy in specifications
6. LEARNING UNIT 5
Decision trees for specifications
7. REFERENCES
MOTIVATION
Before designing a system an analyst must clearly understand the logic to be

followed by each process block in a DFD. An analyst’s understanding must
be crosschecked with the user of the information system. A notation is thus
needed to specify process block in detail, which can be understood by a user.
Notation used must be appropriate for the type of the application to be
modelled. Different notations are needed to represent repetition structures,
complex decision situation and situations where sequencing of testing of
conditions is important. For complex logical procedures a notation is needed
which can also be used to detect logical errors in the specifications. This is
called Decision Table. A tabular structure for representing logic can be
used as a communication tool and can be automatically converted to a
program.
LEARNING GOALS
1.How to use structured English to precisely specify processes

2.The terminology used in structured English
3.Terminology of decision tables and how it is used to
specify complex logic
4.How to detect errors in decision table specifications
5.Terminology and use of decision trees
6.Comparison of structured English, decision tables and
decision trees
LEARNING UNIT 1
Structured English specification
Once a DFD is obtained the next step is to precisely specify the process.
Structured English, Decision tables and Decision Trees are used to describe
processes. Decision tables are used when the process is logically complex
involving large number of conditions and alternate solutions. Decision trees
are used when conditions to be tested must follow a strict time sequence.
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
Structured English is similar to a programming language such as Pascal. It

does not have strict syntax rules as in programming languages as the
intention is only to give precise description of a process. The structured
English description should be understandable to the user.
Example:
if customer pays advance
then
Give 5% Discount
else
if purchase amount >=10,000
then
if the customer is a regular customer
then Give 5% Discount
else No Discount
end if
DECISION TABLE-EXAMPLE
else No Discount
Same structured Englishend if

procedure given as decision table
end if
CONDITIONS RULE1 RULE2 RULE3 RULE4
Advance payment made Y N N N
Purchase amt >=10,000 - Y Y N
Regular Customer? - Y N -
ACTIONS
Give 5% Discount X X - -
Give No Discount - - X X
DECISION TABLE-EXPLANATION
Conditions are questions to be asked

‘Y’ is yes,’N’ is no & ‘-’ is irrelevant
A ‘X’ against the action says the action must be taken
A ‘-’ against the action says the action need not be taken
Rule 2 in decision table DISCOUNT states:

if no advance payment and purchase amount >=10000
and regular customer then give 5% discount
In Structured English, imperative sentences, actions to be performed should

be precise and quantified
Good Example: Give discount of 20%
Bad Example: Give substantial discount
The operators and keywords in Structured English are as follows:
Operators -Arithmetic : +, -, /, *
Relational : >, >=, <, <=, =, !=
Logical : and, or, not
Keywords : if, then, else, repeat, until, while, do, case,
until, while, do, case, for, search, retrieve, read, write
Delimiters – {, }, end, end if, end for
The structured English procedure given above is expressed as a Decision

tree below
Give 5% Discount
Y Y Give 5% Discount
C1 C3
N Y N
No Discount
C2
N
No Discount
C1: Advance payment made Y = Yes

C2: Purchase amount >=10,000 N = No
C3: Regular Customer
STRUCTURED ENGLISH-DECISION STRUCTURES

If condition
then
else
end if
Example: if(balance in account >= min.balance)

then honor request
else reject request
end if
STRUCTURED ENGLISH-CASE STATEMENT
Case (variable)
Variable = P: { statements for alternative P}
Variable = Q: { statements for alternative Q}
Variable = R: { statements for alternative R}
None of the above: { statements for default case}
end case
Example : Case(product code)

product code =1 : discount= 5%
product code =2 : discount =7%
None of the above : discount=0
end case
STRUCTURED ENGLISH-REPETITION STRUCTURE

for index = initial to final do
end for
Example : Total =0
for subject =1 to subject =5 do
total marks=total marks +marks(subject)
write roll no,total marks
end for
STRUCTURED ENGLISH-WHILE LOOP
while condition do
end while
Example : while there are student records left do

read student record
compute total marks
find class
write total marks, class, roll no
end while
EXAMPLE
Update inventory file

for each item accepted record do
{ search inventory file using item code
if successful
then { update retrieved inventory record;
write updated record in inventory file using accepted record}
else { create new record in inventory file;
enter accepted record in inventory file}
end if
end for
LEARNING UNIT 2
Decision table based specifications
ADVANTAGES OF DECISION TABLE

Easy to understand by non-computer literate users and managers. Good
documentation of rules used in data processing. Simple representation of
complex decision rules. Tabular representation allows systematic validation
of specification detection of redundancy, incompleteness & inconsistency of
rules. There exist algorithms to automatically convert decision tables to
equivalent computer programs.
METHOD OF OBTAINING DECISION TABLE

FROM WORD STATEMENT OF RULES
EXAMPLE
A bank uses the following rules to classify new accounts
If depositor's age is 21 or above and if the deposit is Rs 100 or more,
classify the account type as A If the depositor is under 21 and the deposit
is Rs 100 or more, classify it as type B If the depositor is 21 or over and
deposit is below Rs 100 classify it as C If the depositor is under 21 and
deposit is below Rs 100 do-not open account
Identify Conditions: Age >= 21 Cl
Deposits >= Rs 100: C2
Identify Actions : Classify account as A, B or C
Do not open account
DECISION TABLE FROM WORD STATEMENT

Condition Stub
CODITIONS Rule 1 Rule 2 Rule 3 Rule 4
C1 : Age >= 21 Y N Y N
C2: Deposit >=100 Y Y N N
ACTIONS
A1: Classify as A X - - -
A2: Classify as B - X - -
A3: Classify as C - - X -
A4: Do not open

Account - - - X
Action Stub
DECISION TABLE NOTATION EXPLAINED
CONDITION
STUB CONDITION ENTRIES
ACTION
ACTION ENTRIES
STUB
• 4 Quadrants-demarcated by two double lines
• CONDITION STUB LISTS ALL CONDITIONS TO BE CHECKED
• ACTION STUB LISTS ALL ACTIONS TO BE CARRIED OUT
• LIMITED ENTRY DECISION TABLE:ENTRIES ARE Y or N or -.Y-
YES,N- NO,-IRRELEVANT(DON’T CARE)
• X against action states it is to be carried out.
• - against action states it is to be ignored.
• Entries on a vertical column specifies a rule
•order of listing actions important while order of listing conditions is not
important
•actions listed first carried out first
sequential execution of actions
•rules may be listed in any order
INTERPRETING DECISION TABLE-ELSE RULE
C1: Is applicant sponsored? Y Y
C2: Does he have min Y Y ELSE

Qualification?
C3: Is fee paid? Y N
A1: Admit letter X - -

A2: Provisional Admit
letter - X -
- - X
Interpretation
R1: If applicant sponsored and he has minimum qualifications
and his fee is paid –Send Admit letter
R2: If applicant sponsored and has minimum qualifications
and his fee not paid send provisional admit letter
ELSE: In all other cases send regret letter.The else rule makes a decision
table complete
DECISION TABLE FOR SHIPPING RULES
R1 R2 R3 R4
C1: Qty ordered <= Quantity Y Y N N

in stock?
C2: (Qty in stock-Qty
ordered)<=reorder level N Y - -
C3: Is the partial shipment ok? - - Y N
A1:Qty shipped=Qty ordered X X - -

EXTENDED ENTRY DECISION TABLE
Condition Entries not necessarily Y or N

Action entries not necessarily X or - Extended Entry Decision
Tables(EEDT) more concise
EEDT can always be expanded to LEDT
Example R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
C1 : Product code 1 1 1 1 1 2
C2 : Customer code A B A B C -
C3 : Order amount <=500 <=500 >500 >500 - -
Discount = 5% 7.5% 7.5% 10% 6% 5%
MIXED ENTRY DECISION TABLE
Can mix up Yes, No answers with codes
Rl R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
Cl : Product code = 1? Y Y Y Y Y N
C2: Customer code = A B A B C -
C3: Order amount < 500? Y Y N N - -
Discount = 5% 7.5% 7.5% 10% 6% 5%

Choice of LEDT, EEDT, MEDT depends on ease of communication with
user. Softwares are available to translate DTs to programs.DT’s are easy to
check.
LINKED DECISION TABLE
Decision table 1 Decision table 2

Salary point=6 N e Salary point>2 N N N Y
Conduct OK? Y l 1 yr as class 1 Y N - -
Diligence OK? Y s officer
Efficiency OK? Y e Departmental test Y - N -
Passed?
Go to table 2 X -
No promotion - X Advance to next X - - -
salary point
No promotion - X X -
Decision table3 Go to Table3 - - - X
Complete departmental Y
Course else
1 yr since last increment Y
1.Observe that one can branch between tables
2. Whenever complex rules are given it is a good idea to break them up into
manageable parts
Consider decision table DTI:
Rl R2
Cl: x>60 Y -
C2:x<40 - Y
We can expand decision table by
replacing each –by Y & N
Al X -
A2 : - X
DT2: R11 R12 R21 R22
Cl: x>60 Y Y N Y
C2:x<40 Y N Y Y
A rule which has no – is an
Al X X - - Elementary rule
A2 : - - X X
DT2 is an Elementary Rule Decision Table (ERDT)

From this table we see that the rule YY has two contradictory actions. Thus we need to
examine the table further and make sure it is not a serious mistake. Also the rule
C1=C2=N is missing which needs further examination
LEARNING UNIT 3
Detecting- Incompleteness, Ambiguity,Contradictions & Redundancy in

decision table specification
LOGICAL CORRECTNESS OF DECISION TABLE (CONTD)
A decision table with 1 condition should have 2 elementary rules, each

elementary rule must be distinct, each elementary rule must have distinct
k
action, if a decision table with k conditions does not have 2 rules specified
it is said to be incomplete.
For example : DT2 does not have the elementary rule C1:N, C2:N. It is thus
incomplete.
If the decision table has the same elementary rule occurring more than once
it is said to have multiplicity of specifications
For Example: In DT2 The rule C1:Y,C2:Y occurs twice. Thus it has
multiplicity of specification.
If action specified for multiple identical rules are different then it is called
ambiguous specifications
DT2 has an ambiguity. Rules R11 and R22 are identical but have
different actions. Ambiguity may be apparent or real. It is said to be apparent
if the rule leading to the ambiguity is logically impossible
For example,(x>60)=Y and (x<40)=Y cannot occur simultaneously.
Thus in DT2 rules R11 and R22 are apparently ambiguous rules
Apparently ambiguous rules is not an error
If an apparently ambiguous specification is real then it is a
contradiction
For example : If C1:(X > 60) = Y and C2:(X > 40) = Y then
X = 70 will satisfy both inequalities.
As two actions are specified for (Cl = Y, C2 = Y) and they are
different the rule is really ambiguous and is called Contradictory
Specification.
If all 2k elementary rules are not present in a k condition decision

table is said to be incomplete.
DT2 is incomplete as rule C1:N, C2:N is missing
Rule C1=N, C2:=N is logically possible as C1=N is X<=60
and C2=N is X >= 40. A value of X = 50 will make C1=N,C2=N
Thus DT2 has a real incomplete specification
A decision table which has no real ambiguities or real incompleteness is said
to be logically correct. Decision table with logical errors should be corrected
KARNAUGH map abbreviated K-map is a 2 dimensional diagram with one

square per elementary rule
The k-map of DT2 is
C1 N Y
C2
? Al
N
Y A2 A1,A2
If more than one action is in one square it is an ambiguous rule

If a square is empty it signifies incomplete specification.
Structured English procedure:

If carbon content<0.7
then if Rockwell hardness>50
then if tensile strength>30000
then steel is grade 10
end if
end if
end if
DT3:
Decision table-Grading steel
C1:Carbon content <0.7 Y Y Y N Y N N N

C2:Rockwell hardness>50 Y Y N N N Y Y N
C3 tensile strength>30000 Y N N N Y Y N Y
Grade 10 9 8 7 ? ? ? ?
KARNAUGH MAPS – GRADING STEEL
C1 C2
C3 NN NY YY YN
N 7 ? 9 8
? ? 10 ?
Y
Observe that the fact that the specification is incomplete is obvious in the
Decision table whereas the structured English specification seems complete
which is not.
DT4: DECISION TABLE-ARREARS MANAGEMENT
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6
C1:Payment in current month Y N N - - -
>min.specified payment
C2:Payment in current month>0 - Y Y - N N
C3:Any payment in last 3 months - - - N Y Y
C4: Actual arrears > 3(min.
Specified payment per month) - Y N Y N Y
A1 : Send letter A X - - - - -
A2 : Send letter B - X - - - -
A3 : Send letter C - - X - - -
A4 : Send letter D - - - X - X
A5 : Send letter E - - - - X -
KARNAUGH MAP
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN ? A3 A1 A1*
NY A4 A2A4+ A1A4+ A1A4*
YY A4 A2 A1 A1A4*
C1
A5: x>m C2:x>0 C3:y>0
A3 C4:z>3m A1 m>0 A1A5*
YN C3,C4 independent of C1,C2 C1,C2 dependent
C1: Y C2: Y x>m, x>0 possible
C1: Y C2: N x>m, x<=0 not logically possible
C1: N C2: Y x<=m,x>0 possible
C1: N C2: N x<=m,x<=0 possible
Thus C1,C2,C3 C4:NNNN incomplete specification
BOXES MARKED * NOT LOGICALLY POSSIBLE
Rules C1 C2 C3 C 4 : NYNY and YYNY logical errors
Errors to be corrected after consulting users who formulated the rules
CORRECT DECISION TABLE
If users say that for rules C1C2C3C4:NYNY AND YYNY

(marked with + in k-map) the action is A4 and for
C1C2C3C4:NNNN also it is A4, the corrected map is
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN A4 A3 A1
IMPOSSIBLE
NY A4 A4 A4 RULES
YY A4 A2 A1
A5 A3 A1
YN
CORRECTED DECISION TABLE DT4
C1 Y Y Y N N N N Y N N N N
C2 Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y N N N N
C3 N Y Y Y N Y N N Y N N Y
C4 N Y N Y N N Y Y Y Y N N
Question: Can the number of rules be reduced?
Answer : Yes, by combining rules with the same action
Action A1 can be represented by the Boolean expression:

C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3C4 = C1C2C3C4 + C1C2C3 (C4+C4)
=C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3 = C1C2C4 + C1C2C3
LEARNING UNIT 4
Eliminating redundancy in specifications
REDUNDANCY ELIMINATION
Redundancy can be eliminated by systematically applying four identities of

Boolean Algebra
These identities are

C1C2
NN NY YY YN NN NY YY YN
C3 C4 C3 C4 NN NY YY YN C3 C4
A1 A1 A2 A2
NN NN NN
A1 A1 A2 A2 A3 A3
NY NY NY
A1 A1 A2 A2 A3 A3
YY YY YY
A1 A1 A2 A2
YN YN YN
A3=C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4+C1C2C3C4
=C2C3C4(C1+C1)+C2C3C4(C1+C1)
=C2C4(C3+C3)=C2C4
REDUCING DECISION TABLES-USE OF K-MAP

C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN A4 A3 A1
NY A4 A4 A4
YY A4 A2 A1
YN A5 A3 A1
Boxes marked X correspond to impossible rules.
They can be employed if they are useful in reducing rules
Using k-map reduction rules we get
A1 : C1C4+C1C3
A2 : C1C2C3C4
A3 : C1C2C4
A4 : C3C4+C2C3+C2C4
A5 : C2C3C4
REDUCING DECISION TABLES
C1: Payment in current month > Y Y N N - - - -

min specified payment
C2: Payment in current month>0 - - Y Y - N N N
C3: Any payment in last 3 months - Y Y - N N - Y
C4: Actual arrears> 3(minimum specified
payment per month) N - Y N Y - Y N
A: Send letter A X X - - - - - -
B: Send letter B - - X - - - - -
C: Send letter C
EXAMPLE-REDUCTION OF RULES-IN WORD - -STATEMENT
X - - - -
D: Send letter D - - - - X X X -
E: Send letter
Rules E Driver if following rules are- satisfied
: Insure - - - - - - X
1.Drivers annual income > 20000 & is married male
2.Drivers annual income > 20000 & is married and over 30
3.Drivers annual income <= 20000 & she is married female
4.Driver is male over 30
5.Driver is married and age is not relevant
Else do not insure
Conditions:
C1 : Annual income > 20000
C2 : Male
C3 : Married
C4: Age > 30
Action: Insure or do not insure
DECISION TABLE FOR INSURANCE RULES

Cl : Annual income> 20000 Y Y N - - E
C2: Male Y - N Y - L
C3: Married Y Y Y - Y S
C4: Age > 30 - Y - Y N E
A1:Insure X X X X X -
A2 :Do not insure - - - - - X
C1C2
NN NY YY YN
C3C
NN
NY A1 A1
A1=C3+C2.C4
YY A1 A1 A1 A1
A1 A1 A1 A1
YN
REDUCED DECISION TABLE
C2 : Male - Y
C3 : Married ELSE
Y -
C4 : Age > 30 - Y
Al : Insure X X -
A2 : Do not Insure LEARNING UNIT 5
- - X
Decision trees for specifications

Reduced rules : Insure if married or male over 30
DECISION
Observe TREES to 2 and 1 condition removed
5 rules simplified
Decision Trees is used when sequence of testing condition is important. It is
more procedural compared to Decision tables.
EXAMPLE – DECISION TREE TO BOOK TRAIN TICKET

Book by II AC on 4/8/04 if available else book by II AC on 5/8/04.If both
not available book by sleeper on 4/8/04 if available else book on 5/8/04 by
sleeper. If none available return.
Y Book II AC
C1
Book II AC
N Y
C2 Book sleeper
N Y
C3 Book sleeper
N Y
C4
N
Return
C1: Is II AC ticket available on 4/8/04

C2: Is II AC ticket available on 5/8/04
Observe in the tree sequencing of conditions which is important in this

example
CONDITIONS
Decision trees are drawn left to right

Circles used for conditions
Conditions labelled and annotation below tree
Conditions need not be binary
For example:
GRADE A
>=60
C GRADE B
>=50
GRADE C
>=40
else GRADE F
Sometimes Decision trees are more appropriate to explain to a user how
decisions are taken
COMPARISON OF STRUCTURED ENGLISH, DECISION TABLES

AND DECISION TREES
CRITERION FOR STRUCTURED DECISION DECISION

COMPARISON ENGLISH TABLES TREES
ISOLATING
CONDITIONS & NOT GOOD BEST GOOD
ACTIONS
SEQUENCING
CONDITIONS BY GOOD NOT GOOD BEST
PRIORITY
CHECKING FOR
COMPLETENESS, NOT GOOD BEST NOT GOOD
CONTRADICTION
WHEN TO USE STRUCTURED ENGLISH,DECISION TABLES AND
DECISION TREES
Use Structured English if there are many loops and actions are complex
Use Decision tables when there are a large number of conditions to check
and logic is complex
Use Decision trees when sequencing of conditions is important and if there

are not many conditions to be tested
REFERENCES
1. V.Rajaraman, “Analysis and Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition,

Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2002. Most of the material in this module is
based on Chapter 8 and 9 of the above book. The book is perhaps the only one
which has extensive discussion on error detection in Decision Tables.
2. K.E. Kendall and J.E.Kendall, “Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition,
Pearson Education Asia, Delhi, 2003. Has a brief discussion of structured
English, Decision Tables and Decision Trees (pages 353 to 369). Website
www.prenhall.com/kendall has a lot of support material and case study for
students.
3. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George, J.S.Velacich, “Modern Systems Analysis and Design”,

Third Edition, Pearson Education Asia, 2002. Chapter 7 (pages 282 to 303) cover
the topics in this module. The book has a number of interesting case studies and a
good problem set. The web site http://prenhall.com/hoffer has material to assist
students who use this text book.
4. E.Yourdon “Modern Structured Analysis”, Prentice Hall of India, 1996. Chapter
11 (pages 203 to 232) describes structured English and Decision Tables. There is
a larger set of exercises at the end of the chapter.
System Analysis and Design/Structured Systems Analysis and Design Multiple Choice Questions
6.1 Structured English is used to describe

a. how programs are to be written
b. processes in a DFD in a reasonably precise manner
c. how DFDs are used in data processing
d. data flows in DFD
6.2 Structured English is a
a. structured programming language
b. description of processes in simple English
c. method of describing computational procedures reasonably precisely
in English
d. natural language based algorithmic language
6.3 The objective of using structured English is to
a. describe computational procedures reasonably precisely which can be
understood by any user
b. expand a DFD so that a user can understand it
c. develop algorithms corresponding to processes in a DFD
d. ease writing programs for DFDs
6.4 Structured English description of processes
(i) should be understandable to a user of a computer based system
(ii) should be understandable to a programmer
(iii) can be descriptive in nature
(iv) should be translatable by a compiler
a. i and iii
b. ii and iv
c. i, ii and iv
d. i and ii
6.5 A decision table is
a. a truth table
b. a table which facilitates taking decisions
c. a table listing conditions and actions to be taken based on the testing of
conditions

d. a table in a Decision Support System

6.6 A decision table
a. has a structured English equivalent representation
b. cannot be represented using structured English
c. does not have an equivalent algorithmic representation
d. cannot be used to represent processes in a DFD
6.7 A decision table is preferable when the number of
a. conditions to be checked in a procedure is small
b. conditions to be checked in a procedure is large
c. actions to be carried out are large
d. actions to be carried out are small
6.8 Select from the following list which are appropriate to use in structured
English description of a process
(i)process inventory records
(ii)find the sum of outstanding billed amounts
(iii)check if outstanding amount >= Rs. 5000
(iv)check if stock is low
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iii
6.9 Structured English statements must be
a. short and clear
b. specified quantitatively
c. specified qualitatively
d. detailed and descriptive
6.10 Select statements from the following list which may be used in structured
English
(i)if marks are too low fail student
(ii)if marks >=60 enter first class
(iii)if average height select candidate

(iv)if weight < 40 kg. reject candidate

a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iv
6.11 Select correct decision structures from the following
(i)if total marks>=75

then enter distinction in student record
end if
(ii) if total marks >=50
then enter pass in student record
else enter fail in student record
end if
(iii) if total marks >=60
then enter first class in student record
else if total marks>= 50
then enter second class in student record
else
enter fail in student record
end if
end if
(iv) if attendance <30%
then
do not admit in examination
else
a. ii and iii
b. i and ii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iv

6.12 The following structured English procedure is incorrect because

then
{issue exception note to dept.
mark “stop future issues” in
departments record}
else
if balance in account <minimum balance
then
{ issue item to dept.
end if
end if
a. end if in second if is not needed
b. nesting of ifs is not correct
c. no action is specified when balance in account >=minimum balance
d. the value of minimum balance is not specified
6.13 The following structural English is incorrect because
case (income slab)

Income slab =2 or 3 : tax= 20%
end case
a. no action is specified for income slab of 4
b. income slab has to be rupees
c. income slab =2 or 3 is wrong
d. number of cases is too small

6.14 The following structured English procedure is incorrect because
case (code)
then discount=5%
Code=1 :discount=2%
Code=3 :if purchase amount >=4000
then discount =2%
else if code=4
then discount =5%
end if
None of the above codes : discount=0
end case
a. code=2 should appear after code=1
b. if statement cannot be used within a case
c. code=4 should not be used in the action for code=3
d. The statement is correct
6.15 The following while structure is wrong because
balance =500
while balance <=1000 do
Write (amount due – balance)
Read next record
end while
a. read must appear before write
b. this loop will never terminate
c. no read allowed in a loop
d. the contents of next record is not known
6.16 Structured English description of data processing is a
a. non-procedural specification
b. procedural specification

c. purely descriptive specification

d. very imprecise specification
6.17 Decision table description of data processing is
a. non-procedural specification
b. procedural specification
c. purely descriptive specification
d. very imprecise specification
6.18 In the following word statement the conditions are:“if a student gets 50
marks or more in mathematics and 40 marks or more in English he
passes the examination, otherwise he fails”
a. student passes the examination
b. student fails the examination
c. student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics
d. student mathematics marks >= 50 and student English marks
6.19 In the following word statement the actions are“if a student gets 50 marks
or more in mathematics and 40 marks or more in English he passes the
examination, otherwise he fails”
(i)student passes the examination
(ii)student fails the examination
(iii)student gets 50 marks or more in mathematics
(iv)student mathematics marks >= 50 and student English
marks >= 40
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and iii
d. iii and iv
6.20 In a limited entry decision table the condition stub
a. lists X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
b. lists the conditions to be tested
c. has Y or N or – entries
d. lists the actions to be taken

6.21 In a limited entry decision table the condition entries

a. list X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
b. list the conditions to be tested
c. have Y or N or – entries
d. list the actions to be taken
6.22 In a limited entry decision table the action stub
a. lists X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
b. lists the conditions to be tested
c. has Y or N or – entries
d. lists the actions to be taken
6.23 In a limited entry decision table the action entries
a. list X or – corresponding to actions to be executed
b. list the conditions to be tested
c. have Y or N or – entries
d. list the actions to be taken
6.24 In a limited entry decision table the condition entries may be
a. Y or N only
b. Y, N or –
c. A binary digit
d. Any integer
6.25 In a limited entry decision table a—entry against a condition signifies
that
a. the outcome of testing the condition is irrelevant
b. it is an important condition
c. the condition should be tested
d. the condition is a Boolean condition
6.26 A rule in a limited entry decision table is a
a. row of the table consisting of condition entries
b. row of the table consisting of action entries
c. column of the table consisting of condition entries and the
corresponding action entries

d. columns of the tables consisting of conditions of the stub

6.27 The conditions in the condition stub of a limited entry decision table
a. must be in sequential order
b. must be in the order in which they are to be tested
c. may be in any order
d. must be in the order in which they are to be executed
6.28 The actions in the action stub of a limited entry decision table
a. must be in sequential order
b. must be in the order in which they are to be tested
c. may be in any order
d. must be in the order in which they are to be executed
6.29 A X against an action in an action row signifies that the
a. action is not to be taken
b. action is to be taken
c. action is important
d. action is not important
6.30 A—against an action in an action row signifies that the
a. action is not to be taken
b. action is to be taken
c. action is important
d. action is not important
6.31 An extended entry decision table has
a. only Y, N or – entries
b. entries which extend the condition
c. questions asked extended into the condition entry part of the table
d. only numerical entries
6.32 An extended entry decision table
a. has no limited entry equivalent
b. cannot be replaced by a table with only Y, or – entries
c. may have Yes, No answers to conditions
d. can always be converted to an equivalent limited entry decision tabl

6.33 An extended entry decision table is

a. very difficult to understand
b. quite concise compared to a limited entry decision table developed for
the same task
c. large compared to a limited entry table developed for the same task
d. is not very often used
6.34 A mixed entry decision table
a. may have some conditions with Y, N, or – entries
b. may not have any Y, N, or – entry
c. may have only non-numerical entries
d. may mix numerical and non-numerical entries
Given a decision table “test” shown below
R1 R2 R3
C1 Y N Y
C2 N – Y
A1 X –– Decision table–“test”
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
Answer the following questions:

6.35 Rule R1 is interpreted as follows:
a. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A2
b. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A1 and then
action A2
c. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A3 and then
action A1
d. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is FALSE then perform action A1 and then
action A3
6.36 Rule R3 is interpreted as follows:

a. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A1 and A

b. If C1 is TRUE or C2 is TRUE then perform action A3
c. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A1 or A2
d. If C1 is TRUE and C2 is TRUE then perform action A3
6.37 Structured English equivalent of the decision table “test” are given below
(i) if C1 TRUE
then if C2 TRUE
then do A3
else do A1 and A3
end if
else do A2
end if
(ii) if C1 FALSE
then do A2
else if C2 TRUE
then do A3
else do A1 and A3
end if
end if
(iii)if C2 TRUE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A3
else do A2
end if
else do A1 and A3
end if
(iv)if C2 FALSE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A1 and A3

else do A2
end if
else do A3
end if
Which of the following are correct?

a. i and iii
b. i and ii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iv
6.38 Structured English equivalents of decision table “test” are given below.
Pick the right one
(i)if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then R=1 end if

if C1 FALSE then R=2 end if
if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then R=3 end if
case (R)
R=1; perform actions A1 and A3
end case
(ii)if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then perform actions A1,

A3 end if
if C1 FALSE then perform action A2 end if
if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then perform action A3 end
if
(iii)case (C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE) Rule R1

case (C1 FALSE) Rule R2
case (C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE) Rule R3
end case
(iv)if C1 TRUE and C2 TRUE then do Rule R3 end if

if C1 TRUE and C2 FALSE then do Rule R1 end if

if C1 TRUE then do Rule R2 end if
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and iii
d. iii and iv
a. The Elementary Rule Decision Table equivalent of decision table “test” is
C1 Y N Y
C2 N N Y
A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 X– X
b.C1 Y N Y
C2 N Y Y
A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
c. C1 Y N N Y
C2 N N Y Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X –
A3 X– – X

d. C1 Y N N Y
C2 N N Y Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X – –
A3 X – X X
6.39 The decision table “test” is

a. ambiguous
b. contradictory
c. incomplete
d. complete
Answer the following referring to the decision table “test2”
R1 R2
C1 : x <= 50 N –
C2 : x >= 70 – N
A1 X –
A2 – X
Decision Table: “test2”

6.40 Decision table “test2” is
a. really incomplete
b. complete
c. apparently incomplete
d. apparently complete
6.41 Decision table “test2”
a. has a real ambiguity
b. has an apparent ambiguity
c. is logically correct

d. is incomplete
C1 N –
C2 – N
A1 Y –
A2 Y
DECISION TABLE “testing”–
6.42 Decision table “testing” can be made complete

(i)by putting an ELSE rule
(ii)is as it is complete and does not need any more rules
(iii)by specifying actions when C1 = Y and C2 = Y
(iv)by specifying actions when C1 = N and C2 = N
a. (i), (ii)
b. (i), (iii)
c. (ii), (iii)
d. (ii), (iv)
6.43 The K-map equivalent of decision table “test2” is
C1 C1
a. Y N b. Y N
C2 C2
Y A1 Y A1 A2
N A2 A1 N A2 A1

c. C1 d. C1
Y N Y N
C2 C2
Y A1 Y A1
N A2 A1,A2 N A2 A2
6.44 The decision table equivalent of the

following structured English statement is
if C2 TRUE
then if C1 TRUE
then do A3
else do A2
end if
else do A1 and A3
end if
a. C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N –
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
b. C2 Y Y N

C1 Y N N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
c. C1 Y N –
C2 Y Y N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
d. C1 Y N Y
C2 Y Y N
A1 – – X
A2 – X –
A3 X – X
6.45 The decision table equivalent of the following structured English

statement is

then{issue exception note to dept. and mark “stop future issues”}
else if balance in account <min. balance
then {issue item to dept.

else {issue item to dept.}

end if
end if
C1=balance in account <=0;

C2=balance in account < min. balance
A1=issue exception note and mark “no future issues”
A2=issue item to dept
A3=issue warning to dept.
a. C1 Y N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –
b. C1 Y N N Y
C2 N Y N Y
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X X
A3 – X – –
c. C1 N N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –

d. C1 Y N Y
C2 N Y N
A1 X – –
A2 – X X
A3 – X –
6.46 The decision table given in answer (a) of question 9.4.3 is
a. incomplete
b. apparently ambiguous
c. has contradictory specifications
d. logically complete
6.47 The rule C1=Y, C2=Y in the decision table given in answer (a) of
question 6.3.7 is
e. logically impossible
f. logically possible
g. has no action specified
h. has multiple actions specified
6.48 If min. balance > 0 then the rule C1=Y, C2= – in the decision table given
in answer (a) of question 6.3.7 may be replaced by the rule
i. C1=Y, C2=N
j. C1=Y, C2=Y
k. C1= –, C2=Y
l. C1= –, C2=N
6.49 The actions of a decision table are mapped on a K-map shown be
The boxes marked X denote impossible rules
C1C2
C3 NN NY YY YN
Y A1 A1 A2
N A1 A2 A2

The rule for action A1 may be represented by the following minimal

Boolean expression
a. C1.C2 + C1.C2.C3
b. C1.C2.C3 + C1.C3
c. C1.C3 + C2
d. C1.C3 + C2.C1
6.50 The following decision table may be replaced by its best equivalent
shown below:
C1 N N N N Y Y Y Y
C2 N N Y Y Y Y N N
C3 Y N N Y Y N N Y
A1 X – – X – – X X
A2 – X X – X X X X
a. C1 N N Y Y
C2 – – Y N
C3 Y N – –
A1 X – – X
A2 – X X X
b. C1 – Y N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 N – Y –
A1 – – X X

A2 X X – X
c. C1 N – Y N Y
C2 – Y Y – N
C3 N N – Y –
A1 – – – X X
A2 X X X – X
d. C1 Y N N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 – N Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
6.51 The following decision table may be replaced by its best equivalent shown
below:
C1 N N N N Y Y Y Y
C2 N N Y Y Y Y N N
C3 Y N N Y Y N N Y
A1 X – – X – – X X
A2 – X X – X X X X
a. C1 N N Y Y
C2 – – Y N
C3 Y N – –
A1 X – – X
A2 – X X X

b. C1 – Y N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 N – Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
c. C1 N – Y N Y
C2 – Y Y – N
C3 N N – Y –
A1 – – – X X
A2 X X X – X
d. C1 Y N N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 – N Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
6.52 C1 N N N N Y Y Y Y
C2 N N Y Y Y Y N N
C3 Y N N Y Y N N Y
A1 X – – X – – X X

A2 – X X – X X X X
a. C1 N N Y Y
C2 – – Y N
C3 Y N – –
A1 X – – X
A2 – X X X
b. C1 – Y N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 N – Y –
A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
c. C1 N – Y N Y
C2 – Y Y – N
C3 N N – Y –
A1 – – – X X
A2 X X X – X
d. C1 Y N N Y
C2 – – – N
C3 – N Y –

A1 – – X X
A2 X X – X
6.53 Given the decision table “test 3”answer the following questions:
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8
x>=20 Y Y Y Y N N N N
x<=30 Y Y N N Y Y N N
y>=x Y N Y N Y N Y N
A1 X X X X – – – –
A2 – – – – X X – –
A3 – – – – – – X X
a. Rules R7, R8 are logically impossible
b. Rules R5, R6 are logically impossible
c. Rules R3, R4 are logically impossible
d. Rules R1, R2 are logically impossible
6.54 Pick the correct equivalent of “test 3”
a. C1 Y N b. C1 Y N N
C2 – Y N
A1 X –
A2 – X A1 X – –
A2 – X –
A3 – – X
c. C1 Y Y N N d. C1 Y N N
C3 N Y N Y C2 – Y N
C2 – – – –
A1 X X – – A1 X – –
A2 – – X X A2 – X –

A3 – – X
6.55 The decision table “test 3“ is

a. Incomplete
b. Ambiguous
c. Incorrect
d. .has redundancies
6.56 The decision table equivalent of the following Boolean expression is
A1= C3.C1.C2 + C2.C3.C1
A2= C1.C3 + C3.C2.C1+ C1.C2.C3
a. C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X
b. C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N N N N
C3 Y Y – Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X

c. C2 Y Y Y N N
C1 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 – – X X X
d. C1 Y Y Y N N
C2 Y N – N N
C3 N Y Y Y N
A1 X X – – –
A2 X X X X X
6.57 A decision table “test 4” is given below
C1 Y Y N – – N Y N
C2 Y – N Y – N N –
C3 Y Y Y – Y N N N
C4 – Y – Y N – – N
A1 X X X – – – – –
A2 – – – X X – – –
A3 – – – – – X X –
? – – – – – – – I
where I indicates impossible rule
The contradictory rules are

a. YYYY, NYYY, NNYY

b. YYYN, NYYN, NNYN

c. YYYY, YYYN, NNYN
d. There are no contradictory rules
6.58 In “test 4” the contradictory actions are:
a. A1, A3
b. A1, A2
c. A2, A3
d. A2, I
6.59 In “test 4” missing rule is:
e. NYNN
f. NYYN
g. YYNN
h. YNYN
6.60 If in “test 4” the rules where the contradictory actions or

unspecified actions are present, the action is replaced by A2 only, the
reduced decision table using impossible rules also for reduction is:
a. C1 – – – – – N
C2 N – Y Y – N
C3 Y Y – Y N N
C4 Y N Y – N –
A1 X – – – – –
A2 – X X X – –
A3 – – – – X X
b. C1 N Y – – – N N

C2 N N Y Y – – N
C3 Y Y N Y Y N N
C4 Y Y Y – N N –
A1 X X – – – – –
A2 – – X X X – –
A3 – – – – – X X
c. C1 – – – – N
C2 N – Y – N
C3 Y Y – N N
C4 Y N Y N –
A1 X – – – –
A2 – X X – –
A3 – – – X X
d . C2 N Y – N
C3 Y – Y N
C4 Y – N –
A1 X – – –
A2 – X X –
A3 – – – X
6.61 Decision Trees are preferred when
a. Too many conditions need to be tested
b. Sequencing of testing conditions is important
c. When there are many loops to be performed
d. When too many actions are to be taken

6.62 Decision Tables are preferred when

a. Too many conditions need to be tested
6.63 Structured English is preferred when
a. any conditions need to be tested
6.64 The objective of using decision trees is to
a. Expand a DFD so that a user can understand it
b. To specify sequence of conditions to be tested and actions to be taken
c. Describe a computational procedure that can be easily understood by a
person
d. Use it as a tool in decision support system
6.65 Decision trees are superior to decision tables when
a. The number of conditions to be tested is very large
b. When sequence of testing conditions is not particularly important
c. When sequence of testing conditions is not particularly important
d. When a large number of actions are to be specified
6.66 Logical correctness of a specifications can be systematically checked by
a. Using decision trees
b. Using structured English
c. Using DFD’s
d. Using decision tables
6.67 The decision tree equivalent of the following structured English is
if C2 then
if C1
then A3

else A2
endif
else A1,A3
endif
A3
Y
Y C2
a. N A2
C1
N A1, A3
Y A3
b.
Y C1
A2
C2 N
A1
N Y
C1
N A3
Y A3
Y C1 N A2
c.
C2
A1, A3
N
A2
C1
d.
A3
C2
A1A3
6.68 Decision tables are better then Decision trees when

a. Conditions are to be isolated from actions in a word statement
b. Condition sequences are to be found from a word statement
c. Logical correctness of a word statement is to be established
d. Large number of actions is to be performed
6.69 The decision table equivalent of the Decision tree of choice (a) of 6.5.7 is
a.
C2 Y N N Y
C1 N Y N Y
A1 X - X -
A2 - X X -
A3 X - - X
b.
C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N -
A1 - - X
A2 - X -
A3 X - X
c.
C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N Y
A1 - - X
A2 - X -
A3 X - X
d.
C1 Y Y N
C2 Y N Y
A1 - - X
A2 - X - Error
A3 X - X

6.1 b 6.2 c 6.3 a 6.4 d 6.5 c 6.6 a
6.7 b 6.8 d 6.9 b 6.10 d 6.11 a 6.12 c

6.13 a 6.14 c 6.15 b 6.16 b 6.17 a 6.18 d
6.19 a 6.20 b 6.21 c 6.22 d 6.23 a 6.24 b
6.25 a 6.26 c 6.27 c 6.28 d 6.29 b 6.30 a
6.31 c 6.32 d 6.33 b 6.34 a 6.35 d 6.36 d
6.37 b 6.38 a 6.39 c 6.40 d 6.41 c 6.42 a
6.43 b 6.44 c 6.45 c 6.46 a 6.47 d 6.48 b
6.49 b 6.50 c 6.51 a 6.52 b 6.53 a 6.54 a
6.55 d 6.56 a 6.57 c 6.58 b 6.59 c 6.60 d
6.61 b 6.62 a 6.63 c 6.64 b 6.65 c 6.66 d
6.67 c 6.68 c 6.69 b

MODULE 3
WORKED EXAMPLES
6.1 A bank has the following policy on deposits: On deposits of Rs. 5000 and
above and for three years or above the interest is 12%. On the same deposit
for a period less than 3 years it is 10%. On deposits below Rs. 5000 the
interest is 8% regardless of the period of deposit. Write the above process
using
(i) Structured English
(ii) A decision table
(i) for each deposit do

if deposit >=5000
then if period >= 3 years
then interest =12%
else interest =10%
end if
else interest =8%
end if
end for
(ii)
Deposit >= 5000 Y Y N
Period >= 3 years Y N –
Interest 12 10 8
6.2 An organization maintains an employee file in which each record has

following data:
{ Employee No., employee name, employee gross pay}.
It has been decided to increase the pay as per the following formula:
For pay of Rs. 1000 or less increase 15%.
For pay of more than Rs. 1000 but up to Rs. 2500 increase 10%.
For pay over Rs. 2500 increase 5%.
(i) Write a structured English processing rule corresponding to the above
policies.
(ii) Express the policies as a decision table.
(i)
While employee records left in file do
Read Number, name , gross pay
if gross pay <=1000
then increase = gross pay * 0.15
else if gross pay <= 2500
then increase = gross pay * 0.1
else increase = gross pay * .05
end if
end if
Gross pay = gross pay + increase
Write Number, name, gross pay
end while
(ii) While employee records left in file do

Read Number, name, gross pay
do Table
Gross pay <= 1000 Y N N
Gross pay <= 2500 – Y N
Percent increase 15 10 5
end table
Gross pay = gross pay*(1+percent increase/100)
end while
6.3 An offshore gas company bills its customers according to the following rate
schedule:
First 500 litres Rs. 10 (flat)
Next 300 litres Rs. 1.25 per 100 litres
Next 30,000 litres Rs. 1.20 per 100 litres
Above this Re. 1.00 per 100 litres
The input record has customer identification, name and address, meter
reading, past and present. Write a structured English procedure to obtain a
bill for the customer.
While record left in customer file do

Read customer id, name, address, past meter reading, new meter reading
Consumption = new meter reading – old meter reading
if consumption <= 500 then charge =10
else if consumption <=800
then charge = 10 + (consumption – 500) * 0.0125
else
if consumption <= 30800
then charge = 13.75
+(consumption – 800) * 0.012
else
if consumption <=130800
then charge = 373.75 + (consumption – 30800) * 0.011
else charge = 1473.75 + (consumption – 130800) * 0.01
end if
end if
end if
end if
write customer id, name, address, past meter reading, new meter reading,
consumption, charge
end while
6.4 Refer to users requirements stated in exercise 6.4 of Question bank. Develop
the processing rules in structured English for the stores process shown in Fig.
5.8.
for each customer requisition do
if (qty. requested < qty. in stock ) then
{
qty. issued = qty. requested.
qty. in stock = qty. in stock – qty. issued
send( customer id , qty. issued ) to accounts process}
end if
if (qty. in stock <= reorder level) then
send reorder request to purchase.
end if
if (qty. requested = qty. in stock) then

{
qty. issued = qty. requested
qty in stock = 0;
send (customer id, qty issued) to accounts
send reorder request to purchase }
end if
if (qty. requested > qty. in stock) then

if (partial qty. acceptable)
then {
qty issued = qty. requested
qty in stock = 0;
send (customer id , qty issued) to accounts
send reorder request to purchase.
write (customer id, (qty. requested – qty. issued ))
in file}
else
{qty. issued = 0;
send reorder request to purchase
write (customer id, qty requested) in back order file }
end if
end if
end for
for each item (with specified item code and qty. accepted note) received from
inspection do
qty. in stock ( item code)
= qty. in stock ( item code) + qty. accepted
end for
6.5 Refer to Exercise 6.4 in Question Bank. Develop the processing rules in
structured English for the purchase process of Fig. 5.9.
for each discrepancy note received from the receiving office do
{ intimate specified vendor
enter discrepancy in the discrepancy file }
end for
for each goods rejected note received from the inspection office do
{ intimate specified vendor
enter rejected items note in items rejected file }
end for
for each reorder advice or new requisition received for an item from stores do
{ Refer to item file to find vendor details and order qty.
send order to specified vendor
enter order in order file }
end for
6.6. State the processing rules in structured English for the various processes in
the data flow diagram for the hostel DFD described in Module 5
Mess Process
for each absence note do
Read student charge record from student charge file (using student number
as key)
Add absence days to absence field
Write student charge record in student charge file
end for
for each extras note do
Read student charge record
Append extras code and quantity to record
Write student charge in student charge file
end for
Billing Process
While student charge records left in student charge file do
Read student charge record from student charge file
No. of days to charge = no. of days in a month – no. of days absent.
Monthly charge = no. of days to charge * daily rate
Total extras charge = 0
for each extra item do
extras charge (code) = extra qty. * charge (code)
end for
Add extra charge to total extra charge
Amount to be billed = no. of days to charge * daily rate + total extras
charge
Student bill record = student charge record + daily rate, no. of days
charged, monthly charge, extras charge (code) , total extras charge ,
grand total to pay
Write student bill record
end while
(Note: It is assumed that the daily rate, no. of days in a month and extras charge
for each extras code is stored in the billing process as an internal data record.)
Payment Reconciliation Process

for each student Bill record do
Store student Bill record in Bill file
end for
for each payment received do
Read bill record of student from Bill file
if amount paid = grand total to pay
then balance due = 0
else balance due = (grand total to pay – amount paid)
Store bill record in unpaid bill file
end if
end for
On payment due date, (due date + 10), (due date + 20) do
While records left in unpaid Bill file do
if balance due > 0
then send overdue notice,
end if
end while
On (payment due date + 30) do
While records left in unpaid bill file do
if balance due > 0
then send message to warden
end if
end while
6.7 The policy followed by a company to process customer orders is given by the
following rules:
(i) If the customer order <= that in stock and his credit is OK, supply his
requirement.
(ii) If the customer credit is not OK do not supply. Send him an intimation.
(iii) If the customer credit is OK but items in stock are less than his order,
supply what is in stock. Enter balance to be sent in back-order file.
Obtain a decision table for above policy
Order <= stock Y Y N N

Credit OK Y N Y N
Supply order X – – –
Credit not OK
Do not supply – X – X
Supply stock – – X –
Enter (order – stock)
In back Order file – – X –
Observe that the last rule is not specified in the statement of rules. This has been
added to complete the table.
6.8 Obtain a decision table to decide whether on a given date an employee in an

organization has completed one year’s service or not.
Let date of joining be DJ/MJ/YJ (Day/Month/Year)
Let today’s date be DT/MT/YT (Day/Month/Year)
If (YT – YJ) >1 =1 =1 E
If (MT – MJ) – >0 =0 L
S
If (DT – DJ) – – >= 0 E
One year’s service Yes Yes Yes No

6.9 Obtain a decision table corresponding to the structured English procedure given
in worked example 6.4of decision table
for each customer requisition do decision table
decision table
qty requested < qty in stock Y – – – Y
qty requested = qty in stock – Y – – –
qty requested > qty in stock – – Y Y –
(qty in stock – qty requested) Y – – – N
<= reorder level
Partial order OK? – – N Y –
qty issued = qty requested X X – – X

qty issued = qty in stock – – – X –
qty in stock = (qty in stock – qty issued) X – – – X
qty in stock = 0 – X – X –
Send customer id,qty issued to account process X X – X X
qty issued = 0 – – X – –
Send reorder request to purchase process X X X X –
Write (customer id, qty requested – qty issued)
in back order file – – – X –
Write (customer id, qty requested) in back
order file – – X – –
for each item with specified item code and qty accepted note
received from inspection do
qty in stock ( item code) =
qty in stock ( item code) + qty. accepted
end for
6.10 Obtain a decision table for an automatic stamp vending machine with the
following specifications:
(i) To dispense 20, 15, 10, 5 paise stamps
(ii) To accept 50, 25, 10, 5 paise coins
(iii) Do not return change if it is necessary to return more than two coins of
the same denomination. In such a case return the customer’s coin and
turn on “no change” light.
The machine should dispense a stamp, the right amount of change tendered,
no stamp available, no change available, etc.
Table 1: Select Stamp
Amount tendered < Stamp cost = Stamp cost > Stamp cost –
Stamp requested available? – Y Y N
Amount insufficient X – – –
Return amount X – – X
‘No stamp’ light on – – – X
Dispense stamp – X X –
Go to Table 2 – – X –
Stop X X – X
Table 2: Make Change

Amount tendered 50 50 50 50 50 50 50 25 25 25 25 25 25 10
Stamp cost 20 20 15 15 10 5 5 20 15 15 10 5 5 5 E
25 ps. Available? >=1 – >=1 >=1 >=1 >=1 >=1 – – – – – – – L
10 ps. Available? – >=2 >=1 – >=1 >= 2 >=1 – >=1 – >=1 >=2 >=1 – S
5 ps. Available >=1 >=2 – >=2 >=1 – >=2 >=1 – >=2 >=1 – >=2 >=1 E
No of 25 ps. Returned 1 – 1 1 1 1 1 – – – – – – – –
No of 10 ps. Returned – 2 1 – 1 2 1 – 1 – 1 2 1 – –
No of 5 ps. Returned 1 2 – 2 1 – 2 1 – 2 1 – 2 1 –
Dispense stamp X X X X X X X X X X X X X X –
No. change light on – – – – – – – – – – – – – – X
Return amount – – – – – – – – – – – – – – X
Stop X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X
6.11 Obtain the decision table to be used by a person to enter the office of a manager.
The conditions to be checked are:
Door open? Ring sign on? Enter sign on? Door locked?
The actions a person takes are:
Ring bell, enter, wait, leave.
After obtaining the decision table, ensure that it has no logical errors and
that it is in minimal form.
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15 R16
C1: Door open? N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C2: Ring sign on? N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
C3: Enter sign on? N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
C4: Door locked? N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
Ring bell – – – – X – X – – ? – ? X ? X ?
Enter – – X – – – X – – ? X ? – ? X ?
Wait – – – – X – – – – ? – ? X ? – ?
Leave X X – X – X – X X ? – ? – ? – ?
A1 A1 A2 A1 A3 A1 A4 A1 A1 A2 A3 A4
Rules R10, R12, R14, R16 have conditions “Door open” and “Door locked”
simultaneously true. These rules are thus impossible. Observe these are four
distinct actions. The table is mapped on a K-map (Fig. S6.11)
NN NY YY YN
NN A1 A3 A3 A1
NY A1 A1
YY A1 A1
YN A2 A4 A4 A2
Fig S6.11 k-map for solution 6.11
Decision table with redundancies removed

Decision Table with removed (Condition C1 redundant)
C2: Ring on? – N N Y Y
C3: Enter on? – N Y N Y
C4: Door locked? Y – N N N
Ring bell – – – X X
Enter – – X – X
Wait – – – X –
Leave X X – – –
A1 A1 A2 A3 A4
6.12 In installment buying where payments are made on a weekly basis the action taken on
“an account goes into arrears” is a crucial aspect of the operation. Table
S6.12 illustrates a simplified arrears procedure. Answer the following
questions:
(i) Are all elementary rules logically possible?
(ii) Is the table complete?
(iii) Has the table any ambiguities?
(iv) Are there logical errors in the table? If yes, point them out.
(v) Use reasonable assumptions and correct the table.
(vi) Remove any redundancies in the corrected table (Table S6.12).
Table S6.12 A Simplified Arrears Procedure

C1: This week’s cash > weekly rate Y Y N N – – – – –
C2: This week’s cash > 0 – – Y Y – – N N N
C3: Any cash during last month – – – – N N Y Y Y
C4: Arrears . >2 * weekly rate – – Y N – – N Y –
C5: Arrears >4 * weekly rate N Y N – N Y – N Y
Send arrears letter A – X – – – – – – –
Send arrears letter B – – X – – – – – –
Send arrears letter C – – – – X – – – –
Send arrears letter D – – – – – – – X –
Notify accounts X – – X – – X – –
Take special action – – – – – X – – X
A1 A2 A3 A1 A4 A5 A1 A6 A5
K-map for the decision table

C1C2 C1C2
NN NY YY YN C3C4 NN NY YY YN
C3C4
A4 A1 A1
NN A4 A4 NN
NY A4 A3 A1 A5 A5 A2
A4 A4 NY
A5
YY A6 A3 A1 YY A5 ? A2
YN A1 A1 A1 YN
C5 = N C5=Y
Fig S6.12
Assume weekly rate >0

Impossible rule: C1 = Y C2 = N
Impossible rule: C4 = N C5 = Y
K- map (Fig. S 9.10) has incompleteness marked by ?
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
N Y Y Y Y
Logically contradictory rules

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
N Y N N N
N Y N Y N
Y Y N N N
Y Y N Y N
Y Y N Y Y
If in all these cases we take action to notify accounts (Action A1) then the K- map becomes the
one shown in Fig. S9.11
A1 = C3. C4 + C1 . C5 + C2 . C3 . C5 + C1 . C3 + C1 . C2 . C3 . C5
A2 = C1 . C3 . C5
A3 = C1 . C2 . C3 . C4 . C5
A4 = C2 . C3 . C5
A5 = C1 . C3 . C5 + C2 . C4 . C5
C1C2
A6 = C2 . C3 . C4 . C5
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN A4 A1 A1
NY
A4 A1 A1
YY A6 A3 A1
YN A1 A1 A1
C5=N
Fig S.6.13
C1C2
C3C4 NN NY YY YN
NN
NY
A5 A5 A1
YY A5 A1 A2
YN
C5=Y
FigS6.14
C1: This week’s cash > weekly rate – Y – Y N Y N – N – –

C2: This week’s cash > 0 – – Y – Y – Y N – N N
C3: Any cash during last month Y – N N Y Y Y N N – Y
C4: Arrears . > 2 * weekly rate N – – – – – Y – – Y Y
C5: Arrears > 4 * weekly rate – N N – Y Y N N Y Y N
Send arrears letter A – – – – – X – – – – –
Send arrears letter B – – – – – – X – – – –
Send arrears letter C – – – – – – – X – – –
Send arrears letter D – – – – – – – – – – X
Notify accounts X X X X X – – – – – –
Take special action – – – – – – – – X X –
following rules:
(i) If the customer order ≤ that in stock and his credit is OK, supply his
requirement.
(iii) If the customer credit is OK but items in stock are less than his order, supply
what is in stock. Enter the balance to be sent in a back-order file.
Obtain a decision table for the above policy.
C1 : Customer order <= Item in the stock
C2 : Customer credit ok
Y Supply requirement
C2
Y Do not supply send intimation

N
C1 Supply what is in the stock. Enter balance in
N the back order file
C2 Y
N
Do not supply send intimation
6.14 Obtain a decision tree to be used by a person to enter the office of a manager.
After obtaining the decision table, ensure that it has no logical errors and that it is
in minimal form.
C1 : Door open
C2 : Ring sign on
C3 : Enter sign on
C4 : Door locked
Ring bell and enter
Y
C3
Y
N Ring bell and wait
C2 Y
Y Enter
N C3
N
C1
C4 N Leave
N
Y Leave
Observe that C1 is not relevant and not clear in the Decision tree
6.15 A University has the following rules for a student to qualify for a degree with
Physics as the main subject and Mathematics as the subsidiary subject:
(i) he should get 50% or more marks in Physics and 40% or more marks in
Mathematics.
(ii) If he gets < 50% marks in Physics, he should get 50% or more marks in
Mathematics. He should, however, get at least 40% marks in Physics.
(iii) If he gets < 40% marks in Mathematics and 60% or more marks in Physics,
he is allowed to reappear in Mathematics examination only so that he can
qualify.
Obtain a decision tree for the above problem
Pass
Y
C2
Y Appear in mathematics
Y
N C4
C1 N Fail
Y Pass
Y C5
N
C3 N Fail
N
Fail
Pass
>=50
>=50 >=40
C2 Pass
< 40
Repeat math
C1
>=40
>=60
< 40
Fail
(An incorrect tree. This is not correct as rule ii not correctly interpreted)
C1 : Physics Marks
C2 : Math marks
C3 : Math marks >=50%
CORRECTED DECISION TREE
Pass
C2 Fail
>=50
Pass
C1 >=40 C3
Fail
>=60
Pass
C2
Repeat math
<40
Fail
6.16 You want to go to Delhi from Bangalore. There are three flights per day; early
morning, late morning and evening. You would like to go on 21.4.04 by early
morning flight. If it is not available you will take the late morning flight or evening
flight in that order. If neither is available you are willing to take any flight on
22.4.04 but prefer early and late morning flights., Obtain a decision tree for this
word statement. Is decision table suitable for this problem? If not why?
Book ticket
Y
C1 Book ticket
N C2 Y
Book ticket
N C3 Y
Book ticket
N C4 Y
Book ticket
N Y
C5
Book ticket
N C6 Y
N No ticket available
C1 : Is ticket available on early morning flight on 21/4/04

C2 : Is ticket available on late morning flight on 21/4/04
C3 : Is ticket available on evening flight on 21/4/04
C4 : Is ticket available on early morning flight on 22/4/04
C5 : Is ticket available on late morning flight on 22/4/04
C6 : Is ticket available on evening flight on 22/4/04
System Analysis and Design / Structured Systems Analysis and Design Question Bank
QUESTION BANK – MODULE 6

6.1 A bank has the following policy on deposits: On deposits of Rs.5000 and above
and for three years or above the interest is 12%. On the same deposit for a
period less than 3 years it is 10%. On deposits below Rs.5000 the interest is 8%
regardless of the period of deposit. Write the above process using
i. Structured English
ii. A decision table
6.2 An organization maintains an employee file in which each record has the
following data:
(Employee No., employee name, employee gross pay).
For pay of Rs.1000 or less increase 15%
For pay of more than Rs.1000 but up to Rs.2500 increase 10%.
For pay over Rs.2500 increase 5%.
i. Write a structured English processing rule corresponding to the above
policies
ii. Express the policies as a decision table.
6.3 An offshore gas company bills its customer according to the following rate
schedule:
Next 300 litres Rs.1.25 per 100 litres
Next 30,000 litres Rs.1.20 per 100 litres
Above this Rs.1.00 per 100 litres.
The input record has customer identification, name and address, meter reading,
past and present. Write a structured English procedure to obtain a bill for the
customer.
6.4 A narrative of a user’s requirements in an organization is given below:
"Our company receives a number of items from many vendors and they are
received at the receiving office. As we receive over 1000 items a day it is now
virtually impossible for the receiving office to check whether the vendor has
supplied items against an order, or sent a wrong item and inform the purchase
office. We are also not able to find out if there are excesses or deficiencies in
delivery and whether the vendor adhered to the delivery schedule as per the
order. The items received at the receiving office are sent for physical inspection.
The physical inspection consists of checking whether the quantities stated in the
delivery note agree with the physical count, whether the item is the correct one
ordered, and a check on the quality of item. We would like to keep a record of
rejections due to bad quality, incorrect items, excess/deficient supply etc.,
determined during inspection. This will enable us to assess vendors' reliability to
guide us in placing orders in the future, besides keeping track of supplies. Items
cleared by the inspection office are taken into the inventory by the stores office
which keeps a ledger of items stocked and quantity available of each item.
Customers send requisitions to the stores. The stores fulfill the requests based
on availability and update the ledger. Currently we are not able to meet some of
our customers' requests. We would like to incorporate automatic reordering by

our purchase office if the inventory level of an item is low. We would also like
to keep track of unfulfilled requests and meet them when items reach the store.
Currently we are not able to pay our vendors promptly due to delays in payment
order reaching our accounts office. We would like to rectify this. We would
also like to bill our customers promptly and keep track of customers' payments"
Develop the processing rules in structured English for the office receiving the
goods specified in the user’s requirements.
6.5 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the inspection process of
the user’s requirements stated in Exercise 6.4
6.6 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the purchase process of
the user’s requirements stated in Exercise 6.4.
6.7 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the accounting process
stated in Exercise 6.4
6.8 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the stores process stated
in Exercise 6.4
following rules:
requirement.
supply what is in stock. Enter the balance to be sent in a back-order file.


organization has completed one year's service or not.
6.11 Obtain a decision table for an automatic stamps vending machine with the
(iii) Do not return change if it is necessary to return more than two coins of the
same denomination. In such a case return the customer's coin and turn on
"no change" light.
The machine should dispense a stamp, the right amount of change, no stamp
available, no change available signals etc.
6.12 Obtain a decision table to be used by a person to enter the office of a manager.
in minimal form.
Mathematics.
qualify.
(a) obtain an EEDT for the rules
(b) obtain an LEDT for the rules
check the logical correctness of the decision table
6.14 In instalment buying where payments are make on a weekly basis the action taken
on "an account goes into arrears" is a crucial aspect of the operaiton. Table P6.14
illustrates a simplified arrears procedure. Answer the following questions:
(vi) Remove any redundancies in the corrected table (Table 6.)
6.15 Obtain a decision tree for Exercise 6.9.

6.16 Obtain a decision tree for exercise 6.13. Is it possible to find out missing rules if
any in a decision tree representation.

6.18 Explain in what types of problems you will use a decision tree approach rather
than a decision table approach.
morning flight. If it is not available you will take the late morning flight. If neither
is available you are willing to take any flight on 22.4.04 but prefer early and late
morning flights., Obtain a decision tree for this word statement. Is decisiont able
suitable for this problem? If not why?
6.20 Explain in what types of problemsyou will prefer Structured English process
specification rather than decision tree.
Table P.6.14 A simplified Arrears Procedure
C1: This week's cash > weekly Y Y N N − − − − −
rate
C2: This week's cash > 0 − − Y Y − − N N N
C3: Any cash during last month − − − − N N Y Y Y
C4: Arrears > 2 * weekly rate − − Y N − − N Y −
C5: Arrears > 4 * weekly rate N Y N − N Y − N Y
Send arrears letter A − X − − − − − − −

Send arrears letter B − − X − − − − − −
Send arrears letter C − − − − X − − − −
Send arrears letter D − − − − − − − X −
Notify accounts X − − X − − X − −
Take special action − − − − − X − − X
A1 A2 A3 A1 A4 A5 A1 A6 A5

System Analysis and Design / Structured Systems Analysis and Design Pointers
References

English, Decision Tables and Decision Trees (pages 353 to 369). Website
students.

SUMMARY OF MODULE 6
1. Procedures are used to transform input data into processed results.
2. Procedure can be described in natural English. Such a description is often

ambiguous due to impreciseness of natural English.
3. Structured English attempts to describe verbal statements made in natural
English more precisely.
4. Precision is obtained by using ideas of logic and block structuring as in
programming languages.
5. Decision tables are more appropriate when a large number of conditions are to
be checked in arriving at a set of actions.
6. In structured English a number of key words are used for representing commonly
used operations. Some important keywords are; search, retrieve, if, then, else,
do, case, while, for.
7. The important control structures used to describe a process are: Selection
structure (using if then else or case), loop structure (using for, while and repeat
unitl).
8. Decision tables specify actions to be performed for each combination of results

obtained by testing a set of conditions relevant in a problem.
9. Decision tables are used for communicating and documenting complex decision
procedures.
10. In order to obtain a decision table from a word statement, we first isolate in each
sentence a part which specifies the conditions and another part which specifies
the actions to be performed, based on the result of testing the conditions.
Conditions are then grouped in one or more table and the rules are formulated.
11. It is not advisable to have more than four or five conditions per decision table. If
there are many conditions they are grouped and a set of tables are formulated and
linked.
12. Limited Entry Decision Tables (LEDT) use only Y or N answers to conditions.
13. In Extended Entry Decision Tables (EEDT) conditions are formed by combining
the statement in the condition stub with that in the condition entry part of the
decision table. EEDTs are more concise.
14. A decision table is said to be complete if it has all possible distinct elementary
rules. If any rule is missing it is incomplete.
15. If no values can be assigned to the condition variables leading to the missing
rules then the decision table is said to be apparently incomplete. Otherwise it is
really incomplete.
16. If an elementary rule has more than one action specified, then the decision table
is said to be ambiguous. If the elementary rule is logically impossible, then the
ambiguity is apparent; otherwise, it is real.
17. A decision table with real ambiguity or incompleteness has a logical error which
should be corrected.
18. Incompleteness and ambiguity are easily specified by using a two-dimensional

diagram onto which a decision table is mapped. The diagram is called a
Karnaugh may (K-map).
19. K-maps are also useful to detect redundant rules.
20. Using basic ideas of Boolean algebra and K-maps, unnecessary conditions and
unnecessary rules are eliminated. The number of conditions to be tested in each
rule can also be minimized by using K-maps.
21. Pre-processors are available to automatically convert decision tables to program

in a programming language.
22. Decision trees are used when sequencing of conditions is important and
conditions are to be tested in order of their priority.
23. Structures English is appropriate when a problem has complex actions and many
loops. Decision tables are appropriate when there are a large number of
conditions to be tested and the logic is complex. Decisiion trees ae preferred
when sequencing of conditions is important.
6.1 A bank has the following policy on deposits: On deposits of Rs.5000 and above
and for three years or above the interest is 12%. On the same deposit for a
period less than 3 years it is 10%. On deposits below Rs.5000 the interest is 8%
regardless of the period of deposit. Write the above process using
i. Structured English
ii. A decision table
6.2 An organization maintains an employee file in which each record has the
following data:
i. Write a structured English processing rule corresponding to the above
policies
ii. Express the policies as a decision table.
6.3 An offshore gas company bills its customer according to the following rate
schedule:
customer.
6.4 A narrative of a user’s requirements in an organization is given below:

"Our company receives a number of items from many vendors and they are
received at the receiving office. As we receive over 1000 items a day it is now
virtually impossible for the receiving office to check whether the vendor has
supplied items against an order, or sent a wrong item and inform the purchase
office. We are also not able to find out if there are excesses or deficiencies in
delivery and whether the vendor adhered to the delivery schedule as per the
order. The items received at the receiving office are sent for physical inspection.
The physical inspection consists of checking whether the quantities stated in the
delivery note agree with the physical count, whether the item is the correct one
ordered, and a check on the quality of item. We would like to keep a record of
rejections due to bad quality, incorrect items, excess/deficient supply etc.,
determined during inspection. This will enable us to assess vendors' reliability to
guide us in placing orders in the future, besides keeping track of supplies. Items
cleared by the inspection office are taken into the inventory by the stores office
which keeps a ledger of items stocked and quantity available of each item.
Customers send requisitions to the stores. The stores fulfill the requests based
on availability and update the ledger. Currently we are not able to meet some of
our customers' requests. We would like to incorporate automatic reordering by
our purchase office if the inventory level of an item is low. We would also like
to keep track of unfulfilled requests and meet them when items reach the store.
Currently we are not able to pay our vendors promptly due to delays in payment
order reaching our accounts office. We would like to rectify this. We would
also like to bill our customers promptly and keep track of customers' payments"
Develop the processing rules in structured English for the office receiving the
goods specified in the user’s requirements.
6.5 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the inspection process of
the user’s requirements stated in Exercise 6.4
6.6 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the purchase process of
the user’s requirements stated in Exercise 6.4.
6.7 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the accounting process
stated in Exercise 6.4
6.8 Develop the processing rules in Structured English for the stores process stated
in Exercise 6.4
following rules:
requirement.
supply what is in stock. Enter the balance to be sent in a back-order file.
organization has completed one year's service or not.
6.11
Obtain a decision table for an automatic stamps vending machine with the
"no change" light.
6.12 Obtain a decision table to be used by a person to enter the office of a manager.
in minimal form.
Mathematics.
qualify.
(a) obtain an EEDT for the rules

(b) obtain an LEDT for the rules
(c) check the logical correctness of the decision table
6.14 In instalment buying where payments are make on a weekly basis the action taken
on "an account goes into arrears" is a crucial aspect of the operaiton. Table P6.14
illustrates a simplified arrears procedure. Answer the following questions:

(vi) Remove any redundancies in the corrected table (Table 6.)
6.16 Obtain a decision tree for exercise 6.13. Is it possible to find out missing rules if
any in a decision tree representation.
6.18 Explain in what types of problems you will use a decision tree approach rather
than a decision table approach.
morning flight. If it is not available you will take the late morning flight. If neither
is available you are willing to take any flight on 22.4.04 but prefer early and late
morning flights., Obtain a decision tree for this word statement. Is decisiont able
suitable for this problem? If not why?
6.20 Explain in what types of problemsyou will prefer Structured English process
specification rather than decision tree.
Table P.6.14 A simplified Arrears Procedure

C1: This week's cash > weekly Y Y N N − − − − −
rate
C2: This week's cash > 0 − − Y Y − − N N N
C3: Any cash during last month − − − − N N Y Y Y
C4: Arrears > 2 * weekly rate − − Y N − − N Y −
C5: Arrears > 4 * weekly rate N Y N − N Y − N Y
Send arrears letter A − X − − − − − − −

Send arrears letter B − − X − − − − − −
Send arrears letter C − − − − X − − − −
Send arrears letter D − − − − − − − X −
Notify accounts X − − X − − X − −
Take special action − − − − − X − − X
A1 A2 A3 A1 A4 A5 A1 A6 A5
References

English, Decision Tables and Decision Trees (pages 353 to 369) . Website
students.


MODULE 7
DATA INPUT METHODS

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
7.1.1 A data dictionary has consolidated list of data contained in
(i) dataflows (ii) data stores
(iii) data outputs (iv) processes
(a) (i) and (iii)

(b) (i) and (ii)
(c) (ii) and (iv)
(d) (i) and (iv)
7.1.2 A data dictionary is useful as
(i) it is a documentation aid

(ii) it assists in designing input forms
(iii) it contains al data in an application including temporary data used in
processes
(iv) it is a good idea in system design
(a) (i) and (ii)
(b) (i) and (iv)
(c) (i),(ii) and (iii)
(d) (i) and (iv)
7.1.3 By metadata we mean
(a) very large data

(b) data about data
(c) data dictionary
(d) meaningful data
7.1.4 A data dictionary is usually developed
(a) At requirements specification phase

(b) During feasibility analysis
(c) When DFD is developed
(d) When a datadase is designed
7.1.5 A data dictionary has information about
(a) every data element in a data flow

(b) only key data element in a data flow
(c) only important data elements in a data flow
(d) only numeric data elements in a data flow
7.1.6 A data element in a data dictionary may have
(a) only integer value

(b) no value
(c) only real value
(d) only decimal value
7.1.7 A data element in a data flow
(i) may be an integer number

(ii) may be a real number
(iii) may be binary
(iv) may be imaginary
(a) (i),(ii),(iv)
(b) (iii),(iv),(ii)
(c) (i),(ii),(iii)
(d) (i) and (ii)
LEARNING UNIT 2
7.2.1 It is necessary to carefully design data input to a computer based system

because
(a) it is good to be careful
(b) the volume of data handled is large
(c) the volume of data handled is small
(d) data entry operators are not good
7.2.2 Errors occur more often when

(a) data is entered by users
(b) data is entered by operators
(c) when data is handwritten by users and entered by an operator
(d) the key board design is bad
7.2.3 Good system design prevents data entry errors by

(i) Designing good forms with plenty of space to write in block capitals
(ii) By giving clear instructions to a user on how to fill a form
(iii) Reducing keystrokes of an operator
(v) Designing good keyboard
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i, ii, iv

(c) i, ii (d) iii and iv
7.2.4 In on-line data entry it is possible to

(a) Give immediate feedback if incorrect data is entered
(b) Eliminate all errors
(c) Save data entry operators time
(d) Eliminate forms
7.2.5 The main problems encountered in off-line data entry are:

(i) Data are entered by operators
(ii) Data entered by hand in forms batched and forms may be missed or
misread
(iii) Errors are detected after a lapse of time
(iv) Data are entered by users

7.2.6 In interactive data input a menu is used to
(a) enter new data
(b) add/delete data
(c) select one out of many alternatives often by a mouse click
(d) detect errors in data input
7.2.7 In interactive data input a template is normally used to

(a) enter new data
(b) add/delete data
7.2.8 In interactive data input terminal commands are normally used to

(a) enter new data
(b) add/delete data
LEARNING UNIT 3
7.3.1 Data inputs which required coding are

(a) fields which specify prices
(b) key fields
(c) name fields such as product name
(e) fields which are of variable length
7.3.2 Key fields are normally coded

(i) as they provide a unique identification
(ii) as they are used for retrieving records
(iii) as they facilitate cross referencing between applications which use the
key
(iv) as it is useful
(a) i and ii (b) i and iv

(c) ii and iii (d) i and iii
7.3.3 A code is useful to represent a key field because

(a) it is a concise representation of the field
(b) it is usually done by all
(c) it is generally a good idea
(e) it is needed in database design
7.3.4 By the term “concise code” we understand that the code
(a) conveys information on item being coded
(b) is of small length
(c) can add new item easily
(e) includes all relevant characteristics of item being coded
7.3.5 By the term “expandable code” we understand that the code

(e) includes all relevant characteristics of item being coded
7.3.6 By the term “meaningful code” we understand that the code

(e) includes all relevant characteristics of item being code
7.3.7 By the term “comprehensive code“ we understand that the code

(d) includes all relevant characteristics of item being coded
7.3.8 A concise code is necessarily

(a) precise
(b) meaningful
(c) comprehensive
(d) difficult
7.3.9 Serial numbers used as codes are

(i) concise
(ii) meaningful
(iii) expandable
(iv) comprehensive
(c) ii and iv (d) i and iii
7.3.10 Block codes are

(i) concise
(ii) meaningful
(iii) expandable
(iv) comprehensive
7.3.11 Group classification codes are

(i) concise
(ii) meaningful
(iii) expandable
(iv) comprehensive
(c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv
7.3.12 Significant codes are

(i) concise
(ii) meaningful
(iii) expandable
(iv) comprehensive
(c) ii, iii and iv (d) i, ii and iv
7.3.13 In significant codes some or all parts of the code

(a) are meaningful
(b) are usable
(c) are significant
(d) represent values
7.3.14 Errors in codes are detected by

(a) proper design of code
(b) introducing redundant digits/characters designed to detect errors
(c) making the code concise
(d) making the code precise
7.3.15 Design of error detecting codes requires good

(a) knowledge of mathematics
(b) statistical mechanics
(c) statistics of errors normally committed during data entry
(d) Boolean algebra
7.3.16 A modulus-11 check digit is used to detect error in

(a) alphanumeric codes
(b) numeric codes
(c) hexadecimal codes
(d) serial number code
7.3.17 A modulus-11 check digit will detect

(i) single transcription errors
(ii) single transposition errors
(iii) multiple digit transcription errors
(iv) and correct a single error
(c) i and ii (d) iii and iv
7.3.18 A modulus-17 check will detect single transcription errors in

(a) alphanumeric codes
(b) hexadecimal codes
(c) decimal numerical codes
(d) serial number codes
7.3.19 For modulus-11 check digit to detect a single transposition errors the
(a) weights should all be distinct
(b) weights may all be equal and > 0
(c) weights should be less than 8
(d) weights should all be > 0 and distinct
7.3.20 For modulus-11 check digit to detect a single transcription errors

(a) weights should all be distinct
(b) weights may all be equal and > 0
(c) weights should be less than 8
(d) weights should all be > 0 and distinct
7.3.21 Modulus-11 check digit for the code 45672 is

(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) 2 (d) 3
7.3.22 Modulus-11 check digit for the code 85672 is

(a) 0 (b) 1
(c) X (d) 3
7.3.23 For modulus-11 check digit to detect single transposition or single

transcription error the number of digits in the codes should not exceed
(a) 9 (b) 10
(c) 11 (d) 99
7.3.24 Modulus-17 check character for the hexadecimal code AB4567 is

(a) F (b) D
(c) 1 (d) 0
7.3.25 Sequence numbering of records is used to

(i) Identify each record uniquely
(ii) Track a missing record in a batch of records
(iii) Count number of records
(iv) Sort the records
(a) i, ii (b) i, ii, iii
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) i and iv
7.3.26 A batch control record uses

(i) Batch totals of selected fields
(ii) A simple count of number of records in a batch
(iii) Modulus-11 check digit of each key field
(iv) Totals of selected fields of record totalled for the batch
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii, iv
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) iii and iv
7.3.27 A record total uses

(a) batch totals of selected fields
(b) count of numbers of records
(c) modulus-11 check digit sum of all fields
(d) total of selected fields of a record
7.3.28 If a field is known to represent an angle of a triangle, radix used to check

should be
(a) 90 (b) 60
(c) 180 (d) 360
7.3.29 If a field is known to represent days of a month, radix used to check should
be
(a) 30 (b) 31
(c) 28 (d) 29
7.3.30 Radix check for a field representing year is

(a) possible
(b) not possible
(c) not relevant
(d) may be tried
7.3.31 An appropriate range check for marks in an examination paper whose

maximum marks 100 is
(a) 100
(b) 0 to 100
(c) – 99 to +99
(d) 99
7.3.32 An appropriate range check for month field in a date is

(a) 12
(b) –12 to 12
(c) 1 to 12
(d) 0 to 12
7.3.33 An appropriate range check of age of a tenth standard student in a high

school is
(a) 5 to 15
(b) 10 to 25
(c) 8 to 20
(d) 3 to 18
7.3.34 Reasonableness checks for monthly mess bill of a student if daily rate is
Rs. 40 is
(a) 1200
(b) 12000
(c) 120
(d) 2400
7.3.35 Batch control totals will detect

(i) incorrect data entry of a field
(ii) missing record
(iii) data records out of order
(iv) inconsistent data
(c) ii, iii and iv (d) iii and iv
7.3.36 If records are out-of-order then error may be detected by

(a) batch control totals
(b) radix check
(c) sequence number check
(d) range check
7.3.37 In payroll record a reasonable inter-field relationship check is to relate

salary field with
(a) age field
(b) department field
(c) designation field
(d) increment field
7.1.1 b 7.1.2 c 7.1.3 b 7.1.4 c 7.1.5 a 7.1.6 b

7.1.7 c 7 .2.1 b 7.2.2 c 7.2.3 a 7.2.4 a 7.2.5 c
7.2.6 c 7.2.7 a 7.2.8 b 7.3.1 b 7.3.2 d 7.3.3 a
7.3.4 b 7.3.5 c 7.3.6 a 7.3.7 d 7.3.8 a 7.3.9 d
7.3.10 b 7.3.11 c 7.3.12 c 7.3.13 d 7.3.14 b 7.3.15 c
7.3.16 b 7.3.17 c 7.3.18 b 7.3.19 d 7.3.20 b 7.3.21 b
7.3.22 c 7.3.23 b 7.3.24 b 7.3.25 c 7.3.26 b 7.3.27 d
7.3.28 c 7.3.29 b 7.3.30 b 7.3.31 b 7.3.32 c 7.3.33 c
7.3.34 d 7.3.35 a 7.3.36 c 7.3.37 c
System Analysis and Design/ Data Oriented Systems Design Motivation
Motivation
When a DFD is developed we have knowledge of all data elements required by an
application.
Data dictionary lists all data elements but does not say anything about
relationships between data elements.
Relationships are needed to logically group data elements into related sets or
tables.
Such an organization
o Reduces data duplication
o Simplifies adding, deleting and updating data
o Simplifies retrieval of desired data
Logical databases give conceptual model..
Logical databases need to be stored in physical media such as a hard disk for use
by applications.
A system is needed to map the logical database to a physical medium, which is
transparent to an application program..
Database management systems achieve this purpose.

MODULE 7
DATA INPUT METHODS
LEARNING UNITS
7.1 Data Dictionary : its development and use
7.2 Data input methods : Batch and Interactive
7.3 Coding technique for unique data representation.

LEARNING GOALS
1. The need for a data dictionary for an application

2. How to develop a data dictionary for an
application
3. Design of forms and screens for data input.
4. Need and methods of coding data elements.
5. Coding schemes for automatic error detection
while inputting data
6. Need for and design of input data validation
methods.

MOTIVATION
During systems analysis it is essential for an analyst

to decide the necessary and sufficient data for
designing an application.
DFD gives the dataflows and stores of a system
Individual data elements of dataflows and stores can
be catalogued
Such a catalogue with description of each element
and their types will be an invaluable aid while
designing a system.

MOTIVATION
A catalogue will also bring out if any data is

duplicated/missed
A catalogue will also be an invaluable documentation
of a system
Such a catalogue is called Data dictionary-It is
actually metadata,i.e.,data about data.

MOTIVATION
After data dictionary is designed one needs to

determine how the data is to be input.
Data input methods depend on whether the data is
filled in by customers in forms manually and later input
by data entry operators or data is directly input by users
on PC’s.
We thus need to understand both these methods.

MOTIVATION
Unless data input is correct, results will be unreliable
Information systems normally have a large volume of data
Because of large volume special controls are needed to ensure
correctness of data input - otherwise it is difficult to find which data
is incorrect
Thus it is important to design appropriate data input methods to
prevent errors while entering data
Key data elements are important to identify records.They need to
be unique,concise and understandable by users.Thus we need to
study methods of coding key data element

WHAT IS DATA DICTIONARY
Data dictionary is a catalogue of all data used in an

application, their names, type and their origin.
In other words it is data about data which is called
metadata
Data dictionary gives a single point reference of data
repository of an organization
It is thus an important documentation which would be
useful to maintain a system

HOW IS DATA DICTIONARY DEVELOPED?
Starting point is DFD

Example :
Consider the Receiving office process described in Module 3.
DFD is reproduced below.
Inspection
Vendor Process
Delivery Received
note note
Orders Purchase
Office
Discrepancy
note
We will recall the word statement from requirement specification now.

WORD STATEMENT OF REQUIREMENTS
Vendor sends items with a delivery note while

fulfilling an order (along with the physical items) to a
receiving office.
Receiving office compares a delivery note against

order placed.If there is a discrepancy a discrepancy note
is sent to purchase office.
Actual items received note is sent to the inspection

office along with items received.

DATA ELEMENTS IN DATA FLOW
From word statement we derive data elements in each data flow.
1. Delivery note
Order no,Vendor name,Vendor address,item name,delivery date,quantity

supplied,units
Item name and Vendor name may not be unique to ensure uniqueness
we assign unique codes for them.Name is however still kept to aid
people.
Thus delivery note is:
Delivery note = Order no + Vendor code + Vendor name + Vendor address +

item code + item name + delivery date + quantity supplied + units.

Discrepancy note : Order no + Vendor code + Vendor name +

Vendor address + item code + item name + delivery date +
quantity supplied + units + excess/deficiency + no of days
late/early.
Items received note = Delivery note
Data in data store
Order records = order no + vendor code + vendor name +

vendor address + item code + item name + order date + qty
ordered + units + delivery period.

DATA DICTIONARY FORMAT
Data dictionary gives in detail the characteristics of a data element.

Typical characteristics are:
Data name : Should be descriptive and self explanatory.This

will help in documentation and maintenance
Data description : What it represents
Origin : Where the data originates
e.g. input from forms, comes from receiving office, keyed in by user
etc.
Destination : Where data will flow and will be used (if any)
Data Type : numeric, alphanumeric,letters(or text),binary(0 or 1;
True or False),Integer, Decimal fixed point, real(floating point),
currency unit, date

TYPICAL CHARACTERSTICS OF DATA
ELEMENTS(CONTD)
Length : no of columns needed
Limits on value : (if relevant)

e.g. upper and lower bounds of value (age>0,<100)
Remarks : (if any)

EXAMPLE OF DATA DICTIONARY ENTRY
Name : Order number

Description : Used to identify order given to vendor
Origin : Part of delivery note from vendor
Destination : Receiving process
Data type : Numeric Integer
Length : 8 digits
Limits on value : >000,<=99999999
Actual value not relevant.Used only as unique identifier
Remarks: It is a key field.

EXAMPLE OF DATA DICTIONARY ENTRY(CONTD
Name : Delivery date

Description : Date item is to be delivered
Origin : Part of delivery note from vendor.Is also in orders data
store which is input to receiving process
Length : 8 digits
Limits on value : Date field in the form DDMMYYYY.
Should satisfy constraints of a date in calendar
Remarks: Blank fields not allowed.
e.g.05082004 is ok but not 582004

DATA DICTIONARY USES
Data dictionary can be enormous in size.Requires careful

development. However,it is centralized reference document.
Invaluable resource to design

•Input forms and screens
•Data checking programs
•Process specification
•Database
Very useful in understanding and maintaining system

DATA INPUT METHODS
ON-LINE - User directly Enters data using screen

prompts
OFF-LINE -Forms filled by users- for example-
candidates for admission to a college fill forms
Data from forms keyed in by a data entry operator

ERROR SOURCES
Errors in on-line data entry due to poor screen design. System
should inform the user immediately when wrong data is input
Errors in off-line data entry due to bad form design and human
errors by users and data entry operator
System should prevent user making mistakes by
•Good form design by leaving enough space for writing legibly
•Clear instructions to fill form
System should prevent data entry operator making mistakes by
•Good form design
•Reducing key strokes
•Immediate error feedback
OFF LINE DATA ENTRY - PROBLEMS
Forms batched
Desirable for the machine to give message when
input is wrong.Not always possible
Error found after elapse of time
Need good controls to automatically detect and if
possible correct errors

BATCH DATA ENTRY
Data entered Keyboard Data validation

in forms Input file program
Data entry
Error
Input batch
batch
Update
Error program
report
Data processing
Output report Data
program
store

BATCH DATA ENTRY
Name
Address
Bad design : Tendency will be to fill
name on top line. Not enough space for
letters of address
Tick as applicable
Individual
Bad design : Choices are not codified.
Hindu undivided family
Data entry operator will be confused.
Parent/Guardian of minor

BATCH DATA ENTRY
Enter date Enter date
Day month Year
(Bad design)
(Good design)
Enter time Enter time

Hr Min Sec
(Good design) (Bad design)

BATCH DATA ENTRY
Enter name and address using capital letters Use one box for each alphabet
Tick any of the following
Shri Smt Kum

1 2 3
Name
Only address (do not
Repeat name)
Pin
I am applying as:
Tick one of the boxes below
Hindu undivided Parent or guardian

Individual
family Of minor
Clear instructions . Enough space for entry manually.Data entry operator can be
simple instructions for data entry

COMPUTER READABLE FORMS
As manual data input from forms are slow and expensive

attempts have been made to automate form reading using
scanners
Needs hand writing recognition and correct form alignment –

Not very successful
However if forms require just darkening some pre-defined

areas they can be machine read and interpreted.
Example – Multiple choice questions in exams where specific

boxes are darkened based on the choice.

INTERACTIVE DATA INPUT
Advent of PC’s and client/server model in computer

networks, interactive data input is now widely used
Advantages are instant response when data is input so

that errors are immediately corrected.
Flexibility in screen design which minimizes manual

effort
Use of mouse and icons simplifies pre-determined

choices of data

Three main models of interactive data input :
Menus
Templates
Commands

MODELS OF DATA INPUT
MENUS
User presented several alternatives and asked to type his/her
choice
EXAMPLE
SELECT ALTERNATIVE
Type 1 For entering new student record

Type 2 For deleting student record
Type 3 For changing student record
Your choice

TEMPLATE
Template analogous to form

Has features to reject incorrect data input using built-in program
User friendly visual presentation
Example
Roll no
Name
FIRST NAME/INTIALS LAST NAME
Dept code CE CS ME EE IT
CODES
Year
Hostel code A B C D
Pre-programmed to reject incorrect Roll no,Dept code,Year, Hostel code

Interactive commands guides user through alternatives
Example
Computer : Did you request deletion of record ?
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Give student roll no
User : 56743
Computer : Is name of the student A.K.Jain?
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Is he 1st year student
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Shall I delete name?
User :Y

Normally all three models will occur together in

application .In other words Menu, Forms and
Commands are not mutually exclusive
Graphical user interface design very rich area-

languages such as Visual Basic simplifies design of user
interface
We have given only a flavor of the topic

WHY DO WE NEED CODES?
NEED FOR CODING
UNIQUE IDENTIFIER
-Example Roll no instead of name
CROSS REFERENCING BETWEEN APPLICATIONS
-unique Roll no may be used in examination
records,accounts, health centre
EFFICIENT STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
- Codes concise- a long name will have a shorter
roll no

WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD
CODE?
CONCISE - Smallest length to reduce storage and data input

effort
EXPANDABLE - Add new members easily
MEANINGFUL- Code must convey some information about
item being coded
COMPREHENSIVE - Include all relevant characteristics of
item being coded
PRECISE - Unique, unambiguous code

WHAT METHODS DO WE USE TO CODE
1) SERIAL NO: Assign serial number to each item

2) BLOCK CODES: Blocks of serial numbers assigned to different categories.
3) GROUP CLASSIFICATION CODE- Groups of digits/characters assigned for
different characteristics
Roll no 87 1 05 2 465
Year Term Dept Status Serial no

admitted admitted UG/PG In dept
(use meaningful characters) 87 1 CS UG 465
4) SIGNIFICANT CODES - Some or all parts given values

Roll no BA 1 95 C B R
Banian Male Chest size Cotton Color Style

cms (blue) (Round neck)

CHARACTERSTICS OF CODES
Characteristics
Codes Concise Expandable Meaningful Comprehensive Precise
SERIAL NO Yes Yes No No Yes
BLOCK Moderate Yes No No Yes

CODES
GROUP No Yes Yes Yes Yes

CLASSIFICA-
TION CODE
SIGNIFICANT No Yes Yes Yes Yes
CODE

ERROR DETECTION CODE
Incorrect data entry can lead to chaos

Mistakes occur as volume of data processed is large
Need to detect and if possible correct errors in data entry
Error detected by introducing controlled redundancy in
codes
Error control digits added based on statistics of types of
errors normally committed during data entry

MODULUS 11 CHECK DIGIT SYSTEM
Error detection digit added at the end of a numeric code

Code designed in such a way as to detect all single transcription and single
transposition errors which is 95% of all errors
Single transcription error-Æ49687Æ48687

Single transposition errorÆ 45687Æ48657
Given code 49687 modulus check digit obtained as follows:Multiply each digit by
Weights of 2,3,4 etc starting with least significant digit
7*2+8*3+6*4+9*5+4*6=131
131/11=11,remainder 10; or 131 mod (11) =10;
(11-10)=1 append it to the code
The code with check digit=496871
If remainder is 1 then append(11-1)=10 code as X

ERROR DETECTION
496871 486871
Correct code Code as entered
Error detection - 1*1 + 7*2 + 8*3 + 6*4 + 8*5 + 4*6

= 127/11 Remainder != 0 => Error
496871 416879
Error detection - 9*1 + 7*2 + 8*3 + 6*4 + 1*5 + 4*6
= 100/11 Remainder != 0 => Error

WHY DOES MODULUS 11 CHECK DIGIT WORK
Given dn,dn-1,……..d1 where d1 is the check digit

n
(∑Widi )mod N=0 by design
i=1
What should be the values of N & Wis
Single transcription error: dk become t
n n
(∑Widi )= (∑Widi ) + t Wk - Wk dk
i=1 i=1
As (∑Widi ) mod N=0 (t-dk ) Wk mod N = 0

(t- dk ) Wk =p.N where p is any integer
Conditions
1. 0<Wk<N
2. As [t-dk] < 10 and Wk < N, N>10
3. Product of integer not a prime => N a prime
4. Smallest prime > 10 =11 => N=11

Single transposition error

Let dk and dm get interchanged
n
[ ∑ Wi,di + (dkWm + dmWk - dkWk - dmWm )] mod N = 0
i=1
Or(dk-dm)(Wm-Wk) = p.N
1. (Wm - Wk) = 0 => Weights distinct
2. (dk- dm)< 10 If N> 10 equation satisfied
3. If N prime product cannot be prime
therefore N =11 satisfies conditions

OTHER CHECKING SYSTEMS
USE MODULO N CHECK WITH N PRIME > LARGEST CODE

CHARACTER VALUE
FOR HEXADECIMAL CODES SYMBOLS = 16, N =17
FOR ALPHANUMERIC CODES 26 LETTERS
10 DIGITS
36 SYMBOLS
Therefore N=37.

VALIDATING INPUT DATA
WHEN LARGE VOLUME OF DATA IS INPUT

SPECIAL PRECAUTIONS NEEDED TO VALIDATE
DATA
VALIDATION CHECKS :
SEQUENCE NUMBERING - detects missing record
BATCH CONTROL - Use batch totals
DATA ENTRY AND VERIFICATION-Dual input
RECORD TOTALS-Add individual values for checking
MODULUS 11 CHECK DIGIT

CHECKS ON INDIVIDUAL FIELDS
Radix errors - For example seconds field cannot exceed

60,month field cannot exceed 12
Range check - Fields should be within specified range
Reasonableness check - Telephone bill cannot be more
than 10 times average bill of last few months
Inconsistent data - For example : 31-04-99
Incorrect data- Batch total checks this
Missing data - Batch control data checks this
Inter field relationship check -
For example - Student of 8th class cannot have age > 25

MODULE 7
DATA INPUT METHODS
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Data Dictionary : its development and use
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Data input methods : Batch and Interactive
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Coding technique for unique data representation.
5. References
DATA INPUT METHODS
MOTIVATION
During systems analysis it is essential for an analyst to decide the necessary
and sufficient data for designing an application. DFD gives the dataflows
and stores of a system. Individual data elements of dataflows and stores can
be catalogued. Such a catalogue with description of each element and their
types will be an invaluable aid while designing a system. A catalogue will
also bring out if any data is duplicated/missed. A catalogue will also be an
invaluable documentation of a system. Such a catalogue is called Data
dictionary-It is actually metadata, i.e., data about data. After data dictionary
is designed one needs to determine how the data is to be input. Data input
methods depend on whether the data is filled in by customers in forms
manually and later input by data entry operators or data is directly input by
users on PC’s. We thus need to understand both these methods.
Unless data input is correct, results will be unreliable. Information systems

normally have a large volume of data. Because of large volume special
controls are needed to ensure correctness of data input - otherwise it is
difficult to find which data is incorrect. Thus it is important to design
appropriate data input methods to prevent errors while entering data. Key
data elements are important to identify records. They need to be unique,
concise and understandable by users. Thus we need to study methods of
coding key data element
LEARNING GOALS

1.The need for a data dictionary for an application
2.How to develop a data dictionary for an application
3.Design of forms and screens for data input.
4.Need and methods of coding data elements.
5.Coding schemes for automatic error detection while inputting data
6.Need for and design of input data validation methods.
LEARNING UNIT 1
Data Dictionary : its development and use
WHAT IS DATA DICTIONARY

Data dictionary is a catalogue of all data used in an application, their names,
type and their origin. In other words it is data about data which is called
metadata. Data dictionary gives a single point reference of data repository
of an organization. It is thus an important documentation which would be
useful to maintain a system
HOW IS DATA DICTIONARY DEVELOPED?
The Starting point of developing a data dictionary is a DFD.

Example:
Consider the Receiving office DFD.
Inspection
Receivin Office
g Items
Vendor Received
Delivery Process
note note
Orders Purchase
Office
Discrepancy
note
WORD STATEMENT OF REQUIREMENTS FOR THE ABOVE DFD
Vendor sends items with a delivery note while fulfilling an order (along
with the physical items) to a receiving office.
Receiving office compares a delivery note against order placed. If there is
a discrepancy a discrepancy note is sent to purchase office.
Actual items received note is sent to the inspection office along with items
received.
From word statement we derive data elements in each data flow.
Order no,Vendor name,Vendor address,item name,delivery date,quantity

supplied,units
Item name and Vendor name may not be unique. To ensure uniqueness
we assign unique codes for them. Name of item is however still kept as
it is to aid
people.
Thus delivery note is:
Delivery note = Order no + Vendor code + Vendor name + Vendor address
+ item code + item name + delivery date + quantity supplied + units.
Discrepancy note : Order no + Vendor code + Vendor name + Vendor

address + item code + item name + delivery date + quantity supplied + units
+ excess/deficiency + no of days late/early.
Items received note = Delivery note
Data in data store
Order records = order no + vendor code + vendor name + vendor address +

item code + item name + order date + qty ordered + units + delivery period.
TYPICAL CHARACTERSTICS OF DATA ELEMENTS(CONTD)
Data dictionary gives in detail the characteristics of a data element.
Typical characteristics are:
Data name : Should be descriptive and self explanatory.This will help in

documentation and maintenance
Data description : What it represents
Origin : Where the data originates
e.g. input from forms, comes from receiving office, keyed in by user
etc.
Destination : Where data will flow and will be used (if any)
Data Type : numeric, alphanumeric,letters(or text),binary(0 or 1; True or
False), Integer, Decimal fixed point, real(floating point), currency unit, date
Length : no of columns needed
Limits on value : (if relevant)
e.g. upper and lower bounds of value (age>0,<100)
Remarks : (if any)
EXAMPLE OF DATA DICTIONARY ENTRY

1)
Name : Order number
Description : Used to identify order given to vendor
Origin : Part of delivery note from vendor
Length : 8 digits
Limits on value : >000,<=99999999
Actual value not relevant.Used only as unique identifier
Remarks: It is a key field.
2)
Name : Delivery date
Description : Date item is to be delivered
Origin : Part of delivery note from vendor.Is also in orders data store which
is input to receiving process
Length : 8 digits
Limits on value : Date field in the form DDMMYYYY.
Should satisfy constraints of a date in calendar
Remarks: Blank fields not allowed.
e.g.05082004 is ok but not 582004
DATA DICTIONARY USES
Data dictionary can be enormous in size. Requires careful development.

However, it is centralized reference document. It is an invaluable resource to
design input forms, screens, data checking programs, process specification
and database. It is very useful in understanding and maintaining system
LEARNING UNIT 2
Data input methods : Batch and Interactive
ON-LINE - User directly Enters data using screen prompts
OFF-LINE -Forms filled by users- for example-candidates for admission to

a college fill forms
ERROR SOURCES
Errors in on-line data entry due to poor screen design. System should
inform the user immediately when wrong data is input
Errors in off-line data entry due to bad form design and human errors by
users and data entry operator.
Using a form which leaves enough space for writing legibly and has clear
instructions prevents user from making mistakes.
OFF LINE DATA ENTRY – PROBLEMS
It is not always possible for the machine to give message when input is
wrong, error may be found after elapse of time period. Therefore good
controls to automatically detect and if possible correct errors is required.
BATCH DATA ENTRY
Data
Data entered Keyboard Input file validation
in forms Data entry program
Error
Input batch
batch Update
Error
report program
Data Data
Output report processing store
program
Name
Address
Bad design : Tendency will be to fill name on top line.
Not enough space for letters of address
Bad design : Choices are not codified.

Tick as applicable Data entry operator will be confused .
Individual
Hindu undivided family
Parent/Guardian of minor
Enter date Enter date
Day month Year
(Bad design)
(Good design)
Enter time Enter time

Enter name and address using capital letters Use one box for each alphabet
Hr Min Sec
Tick any of the following

Shri (Good Smtdesign) Kum (Bad design)
1 2 3
Name
Only address (do not
Repeat name)
Pin
I am applying as:
Tick oneClear
of the boxes below
instructions. Enough space for entry manually.
Individual Hindu undivided Parent or guardian

family
COMPUTER READABLE FORMS Of minor
As manual data input from forms are slow and expensive, attempts have
been made to automate form reading using scanners, but this needs hand
writing recognition and correct form alignment, which is not always
successful. However, if forms require just darkening some pre-defined
areas they can be machine read and interpreted.
Example – Multiple choice questions in exams where specific boxes are
darkened based on the choice.
Advent of PC’s and client/server model in computer networks, interactive
data input is now widely used
Advantages are instant response when data is input so that errors are
immediately corrected, flexibility in screen design which minimizes manual
effort. And use of mouse and icons simplifies pre-determined choices of data
Three main models of interactive data input :
Menus
Templates
Commands

MENUS
User presented several alternatives and asked to type his/her choice
EXAMPLE
SELECT ALTERNATIVE
Type 1 For entering new student record

Type 2 For deleting student record
Type 3 For changing student record
Your choice
TEMPLATE
Template is analogous to form. It has features to reject incorrect data input

using built-in program and is user friendly
Example
Roll no
Name
FIRST NAME/INTIALS LAST NAME
Dept code
CE CS ME EE IT
Year
Hostel code
A B C D
Pre-programmed to reject incorrect Roll no,Dept code,Year, Hostel code
Interactive commands guides user through alternatives
Example
Computer : Did you request deletion of record ?
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Give student roll no
User : 56743
Computer : Is name of the student A.K.Jain?
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Is he 1st year student
Type Y or N
User :Y
Computer : Shall I delete name?
User :Y
Normally all three models will occur together in application .In other words
Menu, Forms and Commands are not mutually exclusive. In Graphical user
interface design use of languages such as Visual Basic simplifies design of
user interface.
LEARNING UNIT 3
Coding technique for unique data representation.
WHY DO WE NEED CODES?

UNIQUE IDENTIFIER
-Example Roll no instead of name
CROSS REFERENCING BETWEEN APPLICATIONS

-unique Roll no may be used in examination records, accounts,
and health centre
EFFICIENT STORAGE AND RETRIEVAL
- Codes concise- a long name will have a shorter roll no
WHAT ARE THE REQUIREMENTS OF A GOOD CODE?

CONCISE - Smallest length to reduce storage and data input effort
EXPANDABLE - Add new members easily
MEANINGFUL- Code must convey some information about item being
coded
COMPREHENSIVE - Include all relevant characteristics of item being
coded
PRECISE - Unique, unambiguous code
WHAT METHODS DO WE USE TO CODE
1) SERIAL NO: Assign serial number to each item

2) BLOCK CODES: Blocks of serial numbers assigned to different
categories.
3) GROUP CLASSIFICATION CODE- Groups of digits/characters
assigned for different characteristics
Roll no 87 1 05 2 465
Year Term Dept Status Serial no

admitte admitte UG/PG In dept
(use meaningful characters) 87 1 CS UG 465
4) SIGNIFICANT CODES - Some or all parts given values
Roll no BA 1 95 C B R
Cotton Color Style

Banian Male Chest size
(blue) (Round neck)
cms
CHARACTERSTICS OF CODES
Characteristics
Codes Concise Expandable Meaningful Comprehensive Precise
SERIAL NO Yes Yes No No Yes
BLOCK CODES Moderate Yes No No Yes
GROUP No Yes Yes Yes Yes

CLASSIFICA-
TION CODE
SIGNIFICANT No Yes Yes Yes Yes

CODEERROR DETECTION CODE
Incorrect data entry can lead to chaos.Mistakes occur as volume of data

processed is large. Therfore its necessary to detect and if possible correct
errors in data entry. Error can be detetected by introducing controlled
redundancy in codes.
MODULUS 11 CHECK DIGIT SYSTEM

Error detection digit added at the end of a numeric code
Code designed in such a way as to detect all single transcription and single
transposition errors which is 95% of all errors
Single transcription error- 49687 48687
Single transposition error 45687 48657
Given code 49687 modulus check digit obtained as follows:
Multiply each digit by
Weights of 2,3,4 etc starting with least significant digit
7*2+8*3+6*4+9*5+4*6=131
131/11=11,remainder 10; or 131 mod (11) =10;
(11-10)=1 append it to the code
The code with check digit=496871
If remainder is 1 then append(11-1)=10 code as X
Given dn,dn-1,……..d1 where d1 is the check digit
n
(∑Widi )mod N=0 by design
i=1
What should be the values of N & Wis
Single transcription error: dk become t
n n
(∑Widi )= (∑Widi ) + t Wk - Wk dk
i=1 i=1
As (∑Widi ) mod N=0 (t- dk ) Wk mod N = 0

OTHER
(t- dk ) WCHECKING SYSTEMS
k =p.N where p is any integer
Use modulo n check with n prime > largest code character value
Conditions
For hexadecimal codes symbols = 16, n =17
• For0<Wk<N
alphanumeric codes 26 letters
• As [t-dk] < 10 and Wk < N, N>10
• 10 digits
Product of integer not a prime => N a prime
• Smallest prime > 10 =11 => N=11
36 symbols
Therefore n=37.
VALIDATING INPUT DATA
When large volume of data is input special precautions are needed to

validate data
validation checks methods:
sequence numbering - detects missing record
batch control - use batch totals
data entry and verification-dual input
record totals-add individual values for checking
modulus 11 check digit
CHECKS ON INDIVIDUAL FIELDS
Radix errors - For example seconds field cannot exceed 60,month field
cannot exceed 12
Range check - Fields should be within specified range
Reasonableness check - Telephone bill cannot be more than 10 times
average bill of last few months
Inconsistent data - For example : 31-04-99
Incorrect data- Batch total checks this
Missing data - Batch control data checks this
Inter field relationship check -
For example - Student of 8lh class cannot have age > 25
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this module has been adapted from the book
“Analysis and Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by
V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of India, 2003. Chapter 5 (pp. 49-52) and
Chapter 11 (pp.154-170).
2. Good material on Data Dictionary is found in K.E.Kendall and

J.E.Kendall , “Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition, Pearson
Education Asia, 2003.Chapter 10 on Data Dictionaries. Chapter 16
Designing Effective Input.
System Analysis and Design/Data Oriented Systems Design Multiple Choice Questions
7.1 A data dictionary has consolidated list of data contained in

(i) dataflows (ii) data stores
(iii) data outputs (iv) processes
a. (i) and (iii)

b. (i) and (ii)
c. (ii) and (iv)
d. (i) and (iv)
7.2 A data dictionary is useful as
(i) it is a documentation aid
(ii) it assists in designing input forms
(iii) it contains al data in an application including temporary data used in

processes
(iv) it is a good idea in system design
a. (i) and (ii)

b. (i) and (iv)
c. (i),(ii) and (iii)
d. (i) and (iv)
7.3 By metadata we mean
a. very large data
b. data about data
c. data dictionary
d. meaningful data
7.4 A data dictionary is usually developed
a. At requirements specification phase
b. During feasibility analysis
c. When DFD is developed
d. When a datadase is designed
7.5 A data dictionary has information about
a. every data element in a data flow
b. only key data element in a data flow
c. only important data elements in a data flow
d. only numeric data elements in a data flow
7.6 A data element in a data dictionary may have
a. only integer value
b. no value
c. only real value
d. only decimal value

7.7 A data element in a data flow
(i) may be an integer number
(ii) may be a real number
(iii)may be binary
(iv)may be imaginary
a. (i),(ii),(iv)
b. (iii),(iv),(ii)
c. (i),(ii),(iii)
d. (i) and (ii)
7.8 It is necessary to carefully design data input to a computer based system
because
a. it is good to be careful
b. the volume of data handled is large
c. the volume of data handled is small
d. data entry operators are not good
7.9 Errors occur more often when
a. data is entered by users
b. data is entered by operators
c. when data is handwritten by users and entered by an operator
d. the key board design is bad
7.10 Good system design prevents data entry errors by
(i) Designing good forms with plenty of space to write in

block capitals
(ii)By giving clear instructions to a user on how to fill a form

(iii)Reducing keystrokes of an operator
(iv)Designing good keyboard
a. i, ii, iii
b. i, ii, iv
c. i, ii
d. iii and iv
7.11 In on-line data entry it is possible to
a. Give immediate feedback if incorrect data is entered
b. Eliminate all errors
c. Save data entry operators time
d. Eliminate forms
7.12 The main problems encountered in off-line data entry are:
(i)Data are entered by operators

(ii)Data entered by hand in forms batched and forms may be missed

or misread
(iii) Errors are detected after a lapse of time
(iv)Data are entered by users
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and iii
d. iii and iv
7.13 In interactive data input a menu is used to
a. enter new data
b. add/delete data
c. select one out of many alternatives often by a mouse click
d. detect errors in data input
7.14 In interactive data input a template is normally used to
a. enter new data
b. add/delete data
7.15 In interactive data input terminal commands are normally used to
a. enter new data
b. add/delete data
7.16 Data inputs which required coding are
a. fields which specify prices
b. key fields
c. name fields such as product name
d. fields which are of variable length
7.17 Key fields are normally coded
a. i and ii
b. i and iv
c. ii and iii
d. i and iii
7.18 A code is useful to represent a key field because
a. it is a concise representation of the field
b. it is usually done by all
c. it is generally a good idea
d. it is needed in database design
7.19 By the term “concise code” we understand that the code
a. conveys information on item being coded
b. is of small length
c. can add new item easily
d. includes all relevant characteristics of item being coded
7.20 By the term “expandable code” we understand that the code


7.21 By the term “meaningful code” we understand that the code
d. includes all relevant characteristics of item being code
7.22 By the term “comprehensive code“ we understand that the code
7.23 A concise code is necessarily
a. Precise
b. Meaningful
c. Comprehensive
d. Difficult
7.24 Serial numbers used as codes are
(i) concise
(ii ) meaningful
(iii) expandable
(iv) comprehensive
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. ii and iv
d. i and iii
7.25 Block codes are
(i)concise
(ii )meaningful
(iii)expandable
(iv)comprehensive
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iii
7.26 Group classification codes are
(i)concise
(ii)meaningful
(iii) expandable

(iv)comprehensive
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iii
c. ii, iii and iv
d. i, ii and iv
7.27 Significant codes are
(i)concise
(ii)meaningful
(iii )expandable
(iv)comprehensive
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iii
c. ii, iii and iv
d. i, ii and iv
7.28 In significant codes some or all parts of the code
a. are meaningful
b. are usable
c. are significant
d. represent values
7.29 Errors in codes are detected by
a. proper design of code
b. introducing redundant digits/characters designed to detect errors
c. making the code concise
d. making the code precise
7.30 Design of error detecting codes requires good
a. knowledge of mathematics
b. statistical mechanics
c. statistics of errors normally committed during data entry
d. Boolean algebra
7.31 A modulus-11 check digit is used to detect error in
a. alphanumeric codes
b. numeric codes
c. hexadecimal codes
d. serial number code
7.32 A modulus-11 check digit will detect
(i)single transcription errors
(ii)single transposition errors
(iii)multiple digit transcription errors
(iv)and correct a single error
a. i and iii
b. i and iv
c. i and ii
d. iii and iv

7.33 A modulus-17 check will detect single transcription errors in

a. alphanumeric codes
b. hexadecimal codes
c. decimal numerical codes
d. serial number codes
7.34 For modulus-11 check digit to detect a single transposition errors
a. weights should all be distinct
b. weights may all be equal and > 0
c. weights should be less than 8
d. weights should all be > 0 and distinct
7.35 For modulus-11 check digit to detect a single transcription errors
a. weights should all be distinct
b. weights may all be equal and > 0
c. weights should be less than 8
d. weights should all be > 0 and distinct
7.36 Modulus-11 check digit for the code 45672 is
a. 0
b. 1
c. 2
d. 3
7.37 Modulus-11 check digit for the code 85672 is
a. 0
b. 1
c. X
d. 3
7.38 For modulus-11 check digit to detect single transposition or single
transcription error the number of digits in the codes should not exceed
a. 9
b. 10
c. 11
d. 99
7.39 Modulus-17 check character for the hexadecimal code AB4567 is
a. F
b. D
c. 1
d. 0
7.40 Sequence numbering of records is used to
(i)Identify each record uniquely
(ii)Track a missing record in a batch of records
(iii)Count number of records
(iv) Sort the records
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i and iv

7.41 A batch control record uses

(i)Batch totals of selected fields
(ii)A simple count of number of records in a batch
(iii)Modulus-11 check digit of each key field
(iv)Totals of selected fields of record totalled for the batch
a. i and ii
b. i, ii, iv
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. iii and iv
7.42 A record total uses
a. batch totals of selected fields
b. count of numbers of records
c. modulus-11 check digit sum of all fields
d. total of selected fields of a record
7.43 If a field is known to represent an angle of a triangle, radix used to check
should be
a. 90
b. 60
c. 180
d. 360
7.44 If a field is known to represent days of a month, radix used to check should
a. 30
b. 31
c. 28
d. 29
7.45 Radix check for a field representing year is
a. Possible
b. not possible
c. not relevant
d. may be tried
7.46 An appropriate range check for marks in an examination paper whose
maximum marks 100 is
a. 100
b. 0 to 100
c. – 99 to +99
d. 99
7.47 An appropriate range check for month field in a date is
a. 12
b. –12 to 12
c. 1 to 12
d. 0 to 12
7.48 An appropriate range check of age of a tenth standard student in a high
school
a. 5 to 15
b. 10 to 25

c. 8 to 20
d. 3 to 18
7.49 Reasonableness checks for monthly mess bill of a student if daily rate is
Rs. 40 is
a. 1200
b. 12000
c. 120
d. 2400
7.50 Batch control totals will detect
(i)incorrect data entry of a field
(ii)missing record
(iii) data records out of order
( iv)inconsistent data
a. i and ii
b. i, ii and iii
c. ii, iii and iv
d. iii and iv
7.51 If records are out-of-order then error may be detected by
a. batch control totals
b. radix check
c. sequence number check
d. range check
7.52 In payroll record a reasonable inter-field relationship check is to relate
salary field with
a. age field
b. department field
c. designation field
d. increment field


7.1 b 7.2 c 7.3 b 7.4 c 7.5 a 7.6 b
7.7 c 7 .8 b 7.9 c 7.10 a 7.11 a 7.12 c 7.13
c 7.14 a 7.15 b 7.16 b 7.17 d 7.18 a
7.19 b 7.20 c 7.21 a 7.22 d 7.23 a 7.24
d 7.25 b 7.26 c 7.27 c 7.28 d 7.29 b 7.30
c 7.31 b 7.32 c 7.33 b 7.34 d 7.35 b 7.36 b
7.37 c 7.38 b 7.39 b 7.40 c 7.41 b 7.42 d
7.43 c 7.44 b 7.45 b 7.46 b 7.47 c 7.48 c 7.49 d
7.50 a 7.51 c 7.52 c

MODULE 7
DATA INPUT METHODS

WORKED EXAMPLES
7.1 What is the purpose of data validation program?

To detect errors which may have been made by a data entry operator in entering
data from forms into a computer’s secondary memory. The detected errors are
then corrected to ensure that data file has no errors.
7.2 What are the main principles used in designing forms for data entry?
(i) Reduce human efforts in filling forms
(ii) Minimize possibility of errors in entering data from forms into a computer’s
secondary memory
(iii)Minimize effort in entering data from forms into a computer’s secondary
memory.
7.3 Design a form to be used by a salesman to report to the office about the sales
executed by him at different customer locations
See Table below
A Salesperson Form
Sales Person
Your name : M . R A M A M U R T H Y
Your code : M R 4
Your budget code: 1 2
Sales details D D M M Y Y
Date:
Item Code Description Qty. Sold Price
K 2 4 8 Toilet soap 256 3.50

J 4 6 8 Detergent cake 468 2.25
P 7 6 4 Liquid soap bottles 28 8.45
Enter Totals 752 14.20
Customer details
Customer name:
Customer code:
Customer address:
PIN
Mode of payment (Tick code)
1 CASH 2 CHEQUE 3 BILL
7.4 Is concise code comprehensive? If not, why?

No. In a concise code the aim is to keep the length of the code small whereas in a
comprehensive code it is to include as much information as possible about the
entity being coded.
7.5 Is meaningful code necessarily comprehensive?

No. Meaningful code aids in recognizing the entity being coded whereas a
comprehensive code tries to include as much information as possible about the
entity being coded. For example BICYCLE 24 indicates a 24 inch height cycle. It
is meaningful. A code such as
BC 24 G R HERO 2684
Describes 24-inch bicycle, which is for gents, red in color, manufactured by Hero
with serial number 2684.
7.6 What is the advantage of serial number code? Why is it not normally used?
It is concise, expandable and precise. It is not meaningful or comprehensive and
thus not often used.
7.7 Design a group classification code to code (i) motor vehicles, (ii) music cassettes,
and (iii) books.
(i) Motor vehicles

Types of Year of Engine Brand Serial no.
vehicle manufacture CC
2 alphabets 4 digits 4 digits 3 alphabets 7 digits
Mnemonic codes
Vehicle types code Manufacturer Code
Two wheeler TW Bajaj BAJ
Three wheeler RW Telco TEL
Private car PC Leyland LEL
Taxi TA Maruti MAR
Bus BU Ambassador AMB
Vespa VSP
Fiat FAT
Honda HDA
Sample code: PC 19 88 800 MAR 0056789
(ii) Music cassettes

Types of music Nature of music Type Publisher code Serial no.
2 alphabets 2 alphabets 1 digit 3 digits 4 digits
Mnemonic codes
Music type Code Nature of music Code
Classical North CN Instrumental IN
Classical South CS Vocal VO
Classical West CW Orchestra OR
Film North FN Chorus CH
Film South FS
Film West FW
Pop North PN Type Code
Pop South PS Mono 1
Pop West PW Stereo 2
Publisher code: 3 digits, Serial no.: 4 digits.
Example: FNIN14506784
(iii) Books
ISBN code is a good example.
Area Publisher Book no. Check digit
U.S. code 8 digits (Total)
U.K.
Germany, Publishers publishing a small number of books have a long
U.S.S.R. etc. publisher code and smaller no. of digits for book no.
Example: 0 | 87692 | 617 | 0
7.8 Give an example of significant code. Are significant codes expandable?

Code for a shirt
SH 40 95 58
Shirt Collar size Chest size Sleeve size

(Cm) (Cm) (Cm)
Yes.
7.9 Add a modulus-11 check digit to the codes (i) 48467 (ii) 96432 and (iii)
87646257.
Check digits are respectively
(i) 9 (ii) 8 (iii) 3.
7.10 Modulus–37 check is suitable for alphanumeric codes. Add a modulus-37

character to the codes (i) 4AB9W (ii) XBY483 and (iii) CAZ4642.
(i) 2 (ii) N (iii) N.
7.11 If modulus-11 check digit system is to generate detection of multiple identical

digit transcription error (i.e., a code such as 45565 is wrongly entered as
48868), what should be constraints on the weights?
A digit t becomes x for weights wq, wr, ws.
Let wi be the weights.
n
∑ widi = p.N if no error
i=1
n n
∑ widi = ∑ widi + (wq+ wr+ ws)t =p.N
i=1 i=1
i == q,r,s
The condition for detecting error is
(wq + wr + ws)(x – t) == p.N
Therefore,
(wq + wr + ws) == p.N
Sum of any subset of weights should not be equal to 11 or a multiple of 11.
Possible only for codes less than 4 digits long, including check digit.
7.12 A see-saw error is one in which one digit of the code is increased by x and
another decreased by x. For example, 486732 becoming 456762. When can
modulus-N check detect such errors?
Let the kth digit become (dk + t) and qth digit (dq – t)
∑n
Weighted sum = i =1 widi + wkt – wqt with these errors condition is
∑n
i =1 widi + t(wk – wq) == p.N
Satisfied if (i) wk == wq
(ii) N is prime
(iii) |wk – wq| < N
These are satisfied if wk = wq, wk, wq > 0 and wk, wq < N.
Therefore all weights are distinct
7.13 Why is it useful to assign sequence numbers for data records? What are the
types of errors detected by sequence numbering?
Can trace missing records using sequence numbers. Records out of sequence can
be detected. Excess records (with duplicate sequence numbers) can be detected.
7.14 A set of data records for student examination results has the following
format:
Roll No. Name Marks (out of 100)
Paper 1 Paper 2 Paper 3 Paper 4
Design for these records a batch control record and a record control field
and other appropriate checks for the fields
Batch control record
(i) No. of records in batch
(ii) Sum of marks in papers 1 to 4
(iii) No. of records with marks in papers 1 to 4 >=60
(iv) No. of records with marks in papers 1 to 4 < 40
Record check (i) Sum of marks in papers 1 to 4, (ii) No. of papers in record with
marks >= 60
Other checks for the fields
(i) Modulus-11 check for Roll no.
(ii) Each marks field <= 100, >= 0
(iii) Sum field <= 400
(iv) Flag record with marks in any paper >= 80 and another paper <= 30.
7.15 What is the difference between range check and radix check?
Range gives maximum allowable value for a field as determined by the analyst.
For example in one paper if maximum marks is 50, range check will use 50 and if
it is 100 in another it will use 100 as range. Radix is however an invariant. No. of
hours/day are always 24 and is universally known.
7.16 Give some examples of fields where reasonableness check would be applicable.
If normal electricity consumption of a consumer is 250 kWh/month, a value of
1500 kWh in a month will be considered unreasonable. Other examples are:
(i) Deductions in a paybill
(ii) Price/unit of some items
(iii)Qty. ordered in comparison to normal averages.
7.17 Give some examples of inter-field relationship checks

Employee status vs. salary
Age vs. marital status (Age <= 12 cannot normally be married)
Age vs. Education
7.18 Design a dialogue hierarchy for entering data on customers (of a

manufacturer).
Select Menu alternative
1 2 3
New customer Delete customer Change customer

details
Enter details Enter details Details to be changed
Verify
OK No New New Status

name address change
Delete Manual
0 1 2 3
Individual Retailer Distributor Wholesale
7.19 Design a dialogue hierarchy and the screens for a system used to reserve
seats in long distance buses.
Select Menu alternative
1 2 3
Reservation Cancellation Change of date
Queries to customer Queries to customer Queries to customer

1. Destination 1. Destination 1. Destination
2. Date 2. Date 2. Date
3. Time 3. Time 3. Time
4. No. of seats 4. No. of seats 4. New date
5. Display position 5. Display refund 5. New time
of seats (status) 6. No. of seats
6. Enter selection 7. Display position
7. Display ticket 8. Enter selection
9. Display excess charge
Screen 1
Reservation 1 Cancellation 2 Change of date 3
Screen 2 reservation commands
• What is your destination ? • Queries on terminal

Mercara User responses
• Date of journey?
260589
• Time of bus
0830
• How many seats?
• Adults 2 • child 1
• Screen display Front
(Seats in bus)
1 2 3 4
Entrance 5 6 already
booked
7 8 9 10
11 12 13 14
15 16 17 18
19 20 21 22
23 24 25 26
27 28 29 30 31 32
•
Which seats do you want ?

19 20 21
• Ticket display
DESTINATION DATE TIME SEAT Nos. FARE

MERCARA 260589 0830 19 20 21 Rs. 140
System Analysis and Design / Data Oriented Systems Design Question Bank
Question Bank – 7
7.1 What is a data dictionary?
7.2 Why is a data dictionary necessary?
7.3 What are the main advantages of creating a data dictionary?
7.4 What data about a data element is stored in a data dictionary?
7.5 For the requirements statement given in PPT 7.1.3 (Vendor supplying items to a
company) develop the data dictionary entry for vendor code, vendor name and
vendor address.
7.6 What is the difference between on-line and off-line data entry?
7.7 Why are input data records divided into batches for off-line data entry?
7.8 What is the purpose of a data validation program?
7.10 A good and a bad design for entering date in a form is given in Section PPT
7.2.5 and 7.2.6. What are the reasons for saying that one of them is good and the
other bad?
executed by him at different customer locations.
7.12 What is the main difference between menus, templates and command modes of
interactive data entry? When is each of these modes appropriate?
7.13 Design a dialogue hierarchy for entering data on customers (of a manufacturer).
7.14 Design a dialogue hierarchy and the screens for a system used to reserve seats in
long distance buses.
7.15 Why are data fields coded in an information system?

7.16 Can the name of a person be used as a code, for say, his bank account? If not,
why?
7.17 What are the requirements of a good coding scheme?
7.18 Is a concise code comprehensive? If not, why?
7.19 Is a meaningful code necessarily comprehensive?
7.20 Is a comprehensive code necessarily meaningful?
7.21 Is a precise code necessarily concise?
7.22 What is the advantage of a serial number code? Why is it not normally used?
7.23 What is the main advantage of block codes?
7.24 Design a group classification code to code (i) motor vehicles,, (ii) music
cassettes, and (iii) books
7.25 Is a group classification code meaningful?
7.26 Give an example of a significant code. Are significant codes expandable?
7.27 Add a Modulus-11 check digit to the codes (i) 48467, (ii) 96432, and (iii)
87646257.
7.28 Modulus-37 check is suitable for alphanumeric codes. Add a modulus-37
character to the codes (i) 4AB9W, (ii) XBY483, and (iii) CAZ4642.
7.29 The following code was entered by an operator:449632. The last digit is a
modulus-11 check digit. Is this code correct?
7.30 If a code uses hexadecimal digits, what should be N if the modulus-N check digit
system is to be used with such codes? What are the allowable weights if single
transcription and transposition errors are to be detected?

digit transcription error (i.e., a code such as 45565 is wrongly entered as 48868),
what should be the constraints on the weights?
modulus N check detect such errors?
7.34 What is the purpose of batch control record? What is the type of information
contained in a batch control record?
A set of data records for student examination results has the following format:
Roll no. Name Marks (out of 100)
Design for these records a batch control record and a record control field and any
other appropriate checks for the fields.
7.35 Give some example of fields for which a radix error check is appropriate.
7.36 What is the difference between range check and a radix check?
7.37 What are the appropriate range checks for the age of individuals in an employee
file, a high school student file, and height of students in a student file.
7.39 Give some examples of inter-field relationship checks.


System Analysis and Design /Data Oriented Systems Design Pointers
References
1. Most of the material in this module has been adapted from the book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of
India, 2003. Chapter 5 (pp. 49-52) and Chapter 11 (pp.154-170).
2. Good material on Data Dictionary is found in K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall ,
“Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition, Pearson Education Asia, 2003.
Chapter 10 on Data Dictionaries. Chapter 16 Designing Effective Input.

Summary Module 7
1. Data dictionary is a catalogue of all data used in an application. Each entry in the
dictionary has the name of the data, its type, origin, destination, range of
values,length and where used.
2. It is useful as a documentation and assists in maintaining systems and also in
designing data input.
3. Data dictionary is developed using data flows in a DFD and contents of data
stores in DFD
4. Data may be input to a computer off-line or on-line. In on-line entry a user enters
data interactively via a video terminal connected to the computer. In off-line data
entry data filled in forms are entered by operators in a separate PC or a data entry
machine.
5. Off-line data entry is suitable if the number of records is very large.
6. In off-line data entry, batches of data are formed and entered. They are checked
by a validation program and the corrected records are stored in a file.
7. To reduce errors in input, it is essential to carefully design the forms used for
entering data.
8. For interactive data input, special screens are designed on video terminals for easy
data entry. Errors in data entry are instantly detected by a validation program
during data entry and can be immediately corrected.
9. Common methods of interactive data input is by use of menus, templates and
interactive commands for data entry.

10. A menu method is used to pick one out of many alternatives, a template method
to enter new data, and a command method to add and delete data.
11. These methods are combined to provide a user the most appropriate technique for
a particular type of interactive data entry.
12. Important data elements are coded. Codes are necessary for unique identification,
easily cross-referencing and efficient storage and retrieval.
13. There are many methods for coding. An ideal code must be concise, expandable,
meaningful, comprehensive and precise. It is not possible to incorporate all these
ideal features in a code.
14. Codes are classified as: (i) Serial number codes, (ii) Block codes, (iii) Group
classification codes, and (iv) Significant codes. Group classification codes and
Significant codes are most meaningful, expandable, precise and comprehensive.
They are, however, not concise, Serial and Block number codes are more concise.
They are also precise and expandable but are not meaningful and comprehensive.
15. Any error made in entering important data fields such as account codes and
identification codes must be detected during data entry.
16. The most common errors made during data entry are: a single digit is incorrectly
entered or any two digits in the code are interchanged. These errors are called
respectively single transcription and transposition errors and account for 96% of
all data entry errors.
17. Given a code, the digits in it starting from the last digit are multiplied by weights
2, 3, 4, etc., and the products are added. The sum is divided by 11. The
remainder is subtracted from 11. This number (which is called a check digit) is
appended as the last digit of the code. The code constructed in this way is called
a midulus-11 check digit code.
18. After data entry the digits in the code starting from the last digit are multiplied by
weights 1, 2, 3, 4, etc., and the products are added. The sum is divided by 11. If
the remainder is not zero then there is an error in the code.
19. Modulus-11 check digit code guarantees detection of all single transcription and
transposition errors. It also detects 95% of all other errors.
20. It is essential to design good data validation programs to prevent data entry errors
from corrupting files of input data. Validation programs need information for
detecting errors. This information is provided by controls exercised during data
preparation.
21. Important control mechanisms are; giving unique sequence numbers to each data
record, providing a batch control record containing a count of number of records
and a total of one of the fields..
22. The same data is entered by two different persons and compared to reduce
transcription errors.
23. Besides this, individual data fields are checked using information on their range
of allowed values, range of reasonable values, and relationships between different
fields. Batch control provides information to detect incorrect values entered,
missing records, and data in the wrong sequence.
24. With the advent of Personal Computers, remote terminals connected to a
computer and local computer networks, considerable amount of data is entered in
files interactively.
Question Bank – 7
7.1 What is a data dictionary?
7.2 Why is a data dictionary necessary?
7.3 What are the main advantages of creating a data dictionary?
7.4 What data about a data element is stored in a data dictionary?
7.5 For the requirements statement given in PPT 7.1.3 (Vendor supplying items to a
company) develop the data dictionary entry for vendor code, vendor name and
vendor address.
7.10 A good and a bad design for entering date in a form is given in Section PPT
7.2.5 and 7.2.6. What are the reasons for saying that one of them is good and the
other bad?

why?
87646257.



References
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of
India, 2003. Chapter 5 (pp. 49-52) and Chapter 11 (pp.154-170).
2. Good material on Data Dictionary is found in K.E.Kendall and J.E.Kendall ,
“Systems Analysis and Design”, 5th Edition, Pearson Education Asia, 2003.
Chapter 10 on Data Dictionaries. Chapter 16 Designing Effective Input.
MODULE 8
LOGICAL DATABASE DESIGN

OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
8.1.1 An entity is
(a) a collection of items in an application
(b) a distinct real world item in an application
(c) an inanimate object in an application
(d) a data structure
8.1.2 Pick entities from the following:

(i) vendor
(ii) student
(iii) attends
(iv) km/hour
8.1.3 A relationship is
(a) an item in an application
(b) a meaningful dependency between entities
(c) a collection of related entities
(d) related data
8.1.4 Pick the relationship from the following:

(a) a classroom
(b) teacher
(c) attends
(d) cost per dozen
8.1.5 Pick the meaningful relationship between entities
(a) vendor supplies goods
(b) vendor talks with customers
(c) vendor complains to vendor
(d) vendor asks prices
8.1.6 The entity set is a

(a) set of entities
(b) collection of different entities
(c) collection of related entities
(d) collection of similar entities
8.1.7 Pick entity set from the following

(a) all vendors supplying to an organization
(b) vendors and organizations they supply
(c) vendors and transporters
(d) a vendor supplying to many organizations
8.1.8 Attributes are

(i) properties of relationship
(ii) attributed to entities
(iii) properties of members of an entity set
(a) i (b) i and ii
(c) i and iii (d) iii
8.1.9 The attributes of relationship teaches in teacher teaches course should be

(a) teacher code, teacher name, dept, phone no
(b) course no, course name, semester offered, credits
(c) teacher code, course no, semester no
(d) teacher code, course no, teacher name, dept, phone no
8.1.10 The expansion of E-R diagram is

(a) Entity-Relationship diagram
(b) Entity-Relative diagram
(c) Entity-Relation diagram
(d) Entity-Rationalized diagram
8.1.11 In an E-R diagram entities are represented by

(a) circles
(b) rectangles
(d) ellipse
8.1.12 In an E-R diagram relationship is represented by
(a) circles
(b) rectangles
(d) ellipse
8.1.13 Entities are identified from the word statement of a problem by

(a) picking words which are adjectives
(b) picking words which are nouns
(c) picking words which are verbs
(d) picking words which are pronouns
8.1.14 Relationships are identified from the word statement of a problem by

8.1.15 One entity may be

(a) related to only one other entity
(b) related to itself
(c) related to only two other entities
(d) related to many other entities
LEARNING UNIT 2
8.2.1 By relation cardinality we mean

(a) number of items in a relationship
(b) number of relationships in which an entity can appear
(c) number of items in an entity
(d) number of entity sets which may be related to a given entity
8.2.2 If an entity appears in only one relationship then it is

(a) a 1:1 relationship
(b) a 1:N relationship
(c) a N:1 relationship
(d) a N:M relationship
8.2.3 If an entity appears in N relationships then it is
8.2.4 If an entity appears in not more than 5 relationships then it is a
(a) 1:1 relationship
(b) 1:5 relationship
(c) 5:1 relationship
(d) 5:5 relationship
8.2.5 A pilot can fly three types of planes and a plane can be piloted by any qualified
pilot. The pilot-plane type relationship is
(a) N:3
(b) 3:N
(c) 1:3
(d) 3:1
8.2.6 A student can take not more than 5 subjects in a semester. The number of
students allowed in a subject in a semester is not more than 40. The student
– subject relationship is:
(a) 5:40
(b) 40:5
(c) N:5
(d) 40:M
8.2.7 The following E-R diagram is interpreted as follows:
(a) A doctor treats upto N patients
(b) A doctor treats exactly N patients
(c) A doctor may treat upto N patients; Some doctors may not treat any patients
(d) A doctor will treat patients based on some conditions
Doctor
Treat
Patients
8.2.8 A relation is
(a) an entity
(b) a relationship
(c) members of a relationship set
(d) members of an entity set or a relationship set
8.2.9 Rows of a relation are called

(a) tuples
(b) a relation row
(c) a data structure
(d) an entity
8.2.10 The rows of a relation

(a) must be in specified order
(b) may be in any order
(c) in ascending order of key
(d) in descending order of key
8.2.11 The columns of a relation

(c) with key field in first column
(d) with largest width column last
8.2.12 Relations are used in logical database design because

(i) sound theory of relations facilitates systematic design of relational
databases
(ii) they are very popular
(iii) they are flat files and easy to store and retrieve from computer’s
memory
(iv) E-R diagrams allow design of relations
LEARNING UNIT 3
8.3.1 Normalization is a process of restructuring a relation to

(a) minimize duplication of data in a database
(b) maximize duplication of data to ensure reliability
(c) make it of uniform size
(d) allow addition of data
8.3.2 Normalization of database is essential to
(i) avoid accidental deletion of required data when some data is deleted
(ii) eliminate inconsistencies when a data item is modified in the database
(iii) allows storage of data in a computer’s disk
(iv) use a database management system
8.3.3 The process of normalization

(a) is automatic using a computer program
(b) requires one to understand dependency between attributes
(c) is manual and requires semantic information
(d) is finding the key of a relation
8.3.4 The following relation is not normalized because

Roll no Name Courses taken
Course No Dept Sem
4568 A.B Moni CS 101 C.S. 1
EE 545 E.E. 2
Phy 325 Physics 1
4894 R. Chamnlal Phy 101 Physics 1

Chem202 Chemistry 2
Math 103 Math. 1
CS 101 C.S. 1
4954 R. Gupta CS 101 C.S. 1
(a) It is difficult to store due to non–uniform size of the attributes

(b) Roll no. 4568 have 3 course line whereas Roll no. 4954 has only one course
line
(c) The composite attribute (CS 101, C.S., 1) is repeated
(d) Some item lines have composite attributes
8.3.5 The relation given in Exercise 10.4.4 may be converted to 1 NF relation by

(a) eliminating composite attributes
(b) eliminating common attributes
(c) duplicating common attributes as many times as lines in corresponding
attributes
(d) putting composite attributes in a separate table
8.3.6 A relation is said to be in 1NF if
(a) there is no duplication of data
(b) there are no composite attributes in the relation
(c) there are only a few composite attributes
(d) all attributes are of uniform type
8.3.7 The number of normal forms which has been proposed and discussed in the
book are
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
8.3.8 A relation which is in a higher normal form

(a) implies that it also qualifies to be in lower normal form
(b) does not necessarily satisfy the conditions of lower normal form
(c) is included in the lower normal form
(d) is independent of lower normal forms
8.3.9 Given an attribute x, another attribute y is dependent on it, if for a given x

(a) there are many y values
(b) there is only one value of y
(c) there is one or more y values
(d) there is none or one y value
8.3.10 An attribute y may be functionally dependent on

(i) a composite attribute x,y
(ii) a single attribute x
(iii) no attribute
(c) ii and iii (d) iii
8.3.11 A second Normal Form (2 NF) relation should

(a) be in 1 NF
(b) not have a composite key
(c) not have attributes dependent on key attribute
(d) not have attributes dependent on one another
8.3.12 A relation is said to be in 2 NF if

(i) it is in 1 NF
(ii) non-key attributes dependent on key attribute
(iii) non-key attributes are independent of one another
(iv) if it has a composite key, no non-key attribute should be dependent on
part of the composite key
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i and ii
(c) i, ii, iv (d) i, iv
8.3.13 Given the following relation
vendor order (vendor no, order no, vendor name, qty supplied, price/unit) it is not
in 2 NF because
(a) it is not in 1 NF
(b) it has a composite key
(c) non-key attribute vendor name is dependent on vendor no. which is one part
of the composite key
(d) Qty supplied and price/unit are dependent

vendor order (vendor no, order no, vendor name, qty supplied , price/unit)
the second normal form relations are
(a) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
qty (qty supplied, price/unit)
order (order no, qty supplied)
(b) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
order (order no, qty supplied, price/unit)
(c) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
vendor order (vendor no, order no)
(d) vendor (vendor no, vendor name, qty supplied, price/unit)
vendor order (order no, vendor no)
8.3.15 A third Normal Form (3 NF) relation should

(a) be in 2 NF
(b) not have complete key
(c) not be 1 NF
(d) should not have non-key attributes depend on key attribute

(i) it is in 2 NF
(ii) non-key attributes are independent of one another
(iii) key attribute is not dependent on part of a composite key
(iv) has no multi-valued dependency
8.3.17 Given the following relation it is not 3 NF because

Student (roll no, name, course no, course max. marks, year of study,
address)
(b) it does not have composite key
(c) non-key attributes course no and course max. marks are functionally
dependent
(d) it has more than 3 non-key attributes
address)
The corresponding 3 NF relations are
(a) student (roll no, name, year of study, address)
course (course no, course max. marks)
(b) student ( roll no, name, year of study, address)
student (roll no, course no)
(c) student (roll no , name, address)
year (roll no, year of study)
(d) student (roll no, name, address)
course (course no, course max. marks, year of study)
8.3.19 Boye Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is needed when

(a) two non-key attributes are dependent
(b) there is more then one possible composite key
(c) there are two or more possible composite overlapping keys and one attribute
of a composite key is dependent on an attribute of another composite key
(d) there are two possible keys and they are dependent on one another
8.3.20 A relation is said to be in BCNF when

(a) it has overlapping composite keys
(b) it has no composite keys
(c) it has no multivalued dependencies
(d) it has no overlapping composite keys which have related attributes
8.3.21 A 3 NF relation is converted to BCNF by

(a) removing composite keys
(b) removing multivalued dependencies
(c) dependent attributes of overlapping composite keys are put in a separate
relation
(d) dependent non-key attributes are put in a separate table
8.3.22 BCNF is needed because

(a) otherwise tuples may be duplicated
(b) when a data is deleted tuples may be lost
(c) updating is otherwise difficult
(d) when there is dependent attributes in two possible composite keys one of the
attributes is unnecessarily duplicated in the tuples
8.3.23 Given the relation
Supplier(s_id, p_order, s_name, qty)
Given that there is a unique s_name for each s_id and that s_id, p_order is a
composite key, find the correct statement among the following:
(i) this relation is a BCNF
(ii) this is 3 NF relation
(iii) this is a 2 NF relation
(iv) this is a 1 NF relation
(c) i and iv (d) i and iii
8.3.24 Given the relation of Exercise 10.7.5 it is reduced to the following BCNF
relation
(a) Supplier (s_ids, s_name)
Purchase (s_id, p_order, qty)
(b) Supplier (s_id, s_name)
Purchase (p_order, qty)
(c) Purchase (s_id, p_order)
Supplier (s_name, qty)
(d) Supplier (s_id, s_name, qty)
Purchase (s_id, p_order)
8.3.25 Fourth normal form (4 NF) relations are needed when

(a) there are multivalued dependencies between attributes in composite key
(b) there are more than one composite key
(c) there are two or more overlapping composite keys
(d) there are multivalued dependency between non-key attributes
8.3.26 A 3 NF relation is split into 4 NF

(a) by removing overlapping composite keys
(b) by splitting into relations which do not have more than one independent
multivalued dependency
(c) removing multivalued dependency
(d) by putting dependent non-key attribute in a separate table
8.3.27 A relation project guidance

Project Guidance(professor, project, student no. st-name, dept)
A professor can give many projects to many students
A project will have many students
A project may be guided by many professors
The 4 NF relation corresponding to this are
(a) Prof_Project (professor, st_name, dept)
Proj_stud (project, student no.)
(b) Prof_stud (professor, student no)
Proj_stud (project, student no)
Student (student no, st_name, dept)
(c) Student (student no, st_name, dept)
Professor(professor, project)
(d) Professor( professor, project, dept)
8.3.28 The project guidance relation of Exercise 10.8.3 needs further normalization
to 5 NF because
(a) There are too many multivalued dependencies
(b) Multivalued dependency and simple dependency are mixed in the 4 NF
relation
(c) Spurious tuples got introduced when the 4 NF relations are combined due to
the fact that a professor can guide only specified projects
(d) 4 NF relations have composite keys
8.3.29 5 NF relations equivalent to the relation of Exercise 10.8.3 are

(a) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
Proj_stud ( project, student_no)
Prof_proj (professor, project)
Student (student_no, st_name, dept)
(b) Professor (professor, professor details)
Project (project no, project details)
(c) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
(d) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
Stud_proj (student_no, project)
LEARNING UNIT 4
8.4.1 The ORDER PLACED FOR relation in Mini-case example 1 has the
composite key order no, item code because
(a) item code has a multivalued dependency with order no.
(b) the non-key attributes are dependent on the composite key order no, item
code
(c) if order no is the only key we cannot find qty. ordered, price/unit, delivery
time
(d) if item code is the only key we cannot find order no. uniquely
8.4.2 The relation SUPPLIES in Mini-case example 1 of Section 10.10 requires
normalization because
(a) it has a composite key with three attributes
(b) the non-key attributes are dependent on part of composite key
(c) the attributes item code and order no of the composite key have multivalued
dependency
(d) vendor code and order no have a multivalued dependency
8.4.3 TEACHES-COURSES relation in Mini-case example 2 is in

(a) 3 NF. Does not need any further normalization
(b) BCNF
(c) 4 NF
(d) unnormalized form
8.4.4 TEACHER-STUDENT relation in Mini-case example 2 is required because

(a) it is in 3 NF
(b) it has a multivalued key
(c) it has a composite key with multivalued dependency relation
(d) Without this relation database is incomplete and some queries cannot be
answered
LEARNING UNIT 5
8.5.1 By redundancy in a file based system we mean that
(a) unnecessary data is stored
(b) same data is duplicated in many files
(c) data is unavailable
(d) files have redundant data
8.5.2 Data integrity in a file based system may be lost because
(a) the same variable may have different values in different files
(b) files are duplicated
(c) unnecessary data is stored in files
(d) redundant data is stored in files
8.5.3 Data availability is often difficult in file based system

(a) as files are duplicated
(b) as unnecessary data are stored in files
(c) as one has to search different files and these files may be in different update
states
(d) redundant data are stored in files
8.5.4 Management policy changes are difficult to implement in a file based system
because
(a) relating data in different files is difficult
(c) redundant data are stored
(d) unnecessary data is stored
8.5.5 Some of the objectives of a database management system are to

(i) minimize duplication of data
(ii) ensure centralized management control of data
(iii) ease retrieval of data
(iv) maintain a data dictionary
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii and iv
(c) i and iii (d) i, ii and iii
8.5.6 A database is a
(a) collection of files
(b) collection of inputs and outputs of application
(c) collection of related data necessary to manage an organization
(d) data resource of an organization
8.5.7 A database models data so that it is

(a) appropriate for application
(b) independent of application program
(c) optimized for most frequent applications
(d) optimized for all applications
8.5.8 A database should be designed to allow providing

(a) different views of portions of data requested by an application
(b) data only to selected applications as decided by an organization
(c) a uniform view of data to all applications
(d) data to all applications
8.5.9 The abbreviation DBMS stands for

(a) Data Base Manipulation System
(b) Data Bank Manipulating System
(c) Data Base Management System
(d) Data Bank Management System
8.5.10 A DBMS is
(a) another name for database system
(b) independent of a database
(c) dependent on application programs
(d) is a set of procedures which manage a database
8.5.11 A DBMS
(a) is a set of procedures
(b) manages a database
(c) is a set of procedures to manage a database to provide data as required by
applications
(d) provides data to applications
8.5.12 One of the main objectives of a DBMS is to

(a) Create a database for an organization
(b) Facilitate sharing of a database by current and future applications
(c) Allow sharing application programs
(d) Replace file based systems
8.5.13 Database is
(a) an important resource of an organization
(b) not relevant to existing programs
(c) not relevant for future programs
(d) not as good as files as there is redundancy
8.5.14 By data independence we mean application programs

(a) do not need data
(b) may be developed independent of data
(c) may be developed without knowing the organization of data
(d) may be developed with independent data
8.5.15 Data independence allows

(i) no changes in application programs
(ii) change in database without affecting application programs
(iii) hardware to be changed without affecting application programs
(iv) system software to be changed without affecting application programs
(a) i, ii (b) ii, iii
(c) ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iv

(a) sharing the same database by several applications
(b) extensive modification of applications
(c) no data sharing between applications
(d) elimination of several application programs
8.5.17 Among objectives of DBMS are ensuring
(i) data integrity
(ii) data redundancy
(iii) data security
(iv) easy data retrieval
(a) i, ii (b) i, iii
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii
8.5.18 DBMS
(a) does not allow replication of data
(b) allows controlled replication of data if it improves performance
(c) does not allow common data to be duplicated
(d) does not allow replication as it adversely affects reliability
8.5.19 By data integrity we mean

(a) maintaining consistent data values
(b) integrated data values
(c) banning improper access to data
(d) not leaking data values
8.5.20 Data integrity is ensured by

(a) good data editing
(b) propagating data changes to all data items
(c) preventing unauthorized access
(d) preventing data duplication
8.5.21 By data security in DBMS we mean
(a) preventing access to data
(b) allowing access to data only to authorized users
(c) preventing changing data
(d) introducing integrity constraints
8.5.22 DBMS must implement management controls to

(i) control access rights to users
(ii) implement audit trail when changes are made
(iii) allow data to be used extensively in the organization
(iv) duplicate databases
(c) iii, iv (d) i, iv
LEARNING UNIT 6
8.6.1 An E-R modelling for given application leads to

(a) conceptual data model
(b) logical data model
(c) external data model
(d) internal data model
8.6.2 A conceptual data model is converted using a Relational Data Base

Management System to a
(a) logical data model
(b) external data model
(c) internal data model
(d) an entity-relation data model
8.6.3 A subset of logical data model accessed by programmers is called a

8.6.4 When a logical model is mapped into a physical storage such as a disk store
the resultant data model is known as
(d) disk data model
8.6.5 A DBMS has the following components

(i) a data definition language
(ii) a query language
(iii) a security system
(iv) audit trail
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iv
8.6.6 A check pointing system is needed

(a) to ensure system security
(b) to recover from transient faults
(c) to ensure system privacy
(d) to ensure system integrity
8.6.7 A database administrator
(a) administers data in an organization
(b) controls all inputs and all outputs of programs
(c) is controller of data resources of an organization
(d) controls all data entry operators
8.6.8 The responsibilities of a database administrator includes

(i) maintenance of data dictionary
(ii) ensuring security of database
(iii) ensuring privacy and integrity of data
(iv) obtain an E-R model
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) ii, iii, iv
8.6.9 Access right to a database is controlled by

(a) top management
(b) system designer
(c) system analyst
(d) database administrator
8.6.10 The sequence followed in designing a DBMS are

(a) physical model conceptual model logical model
(b) logical model physical model conceptual model
(c) conceptual model logical model physical model
(d) conceptual model physical model logical model
8.6.11 Designing physical model of DBMS requires information on

(i) data volume
(ii) frequency of access to data
(iii) programming language used
(iv) secondary memory characteristics
8.6.12A good database design

(i) caters primarily to current needs
(ii) caters to current and future needs as organizations grow
(iii) has to be modified when hardware is upgraded
(iv) ensures data security
(c) ii, iv (d) iii, iv
8.6.13 A good database design
(i) is expandable with growth and changes in organization
(ii) easy to change when software changes
(iii) ensures data integrity
(iv) allows access to only authorized users
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii
8.1.1 b 8.1.2 c 8.1.3 b 8.1.4 c 8.1.5 a 8.1.6 d

8.1.7 a 8.1.8 c 8.1.9 c 8.1.10 a 8.1.11 b 8.1.12 c
8.1.13 b 8.1.14 c 8.1.15 d 8.2.1 b 8.2.2 a 8.2.3 b
8.2.4 b 8.2.5 a 8.2.6 b 8.2.7 c 8.2.8 d 8.2.9 a
8.2.10 b 8.2.11 b 8.2.12 b 8.3.1 a 8.3.2 b 8.3.3 b
8.3.4 d 8.3.5 c 8.3.6 b 8.3.7 d 8.3.8 a 8.3.9 b
8.3.10 a 8.3.11 a 8.3.12 c 8.3.13 c 8.3.14 c 8.3.15 a
8.3.16 c 8.3.17 c 8.3.18 b 8.3.19 c 8.3.20 d 8.3.21 c
8.3.22 d 8.3.23 d 8.3.24 a 8.3.25 a 8.3.26 b 8.3.27 b
8.3.28 c 8.3.29 a 8.4.1 a 8.4.2 c 8.4.3 a 8.4.4 d
8.5.1 b 8.5.2 a 8.5.3 c 8.5.4 a 8.5.5 d 8.5.6 c
8.5.7 b 8.5.8 a 8.5.9 c 8.5.10 d 8.5.11 c 8.5.12 b
8.5.13 a 8.5.14 c 8.5.15 c 8.5.16 a 8.5.17 c 8.5.18 b
8.5.19 a 8.5.20 b 8.5.21 b 8.5.22 a 8.6.1 a 8.6.2 a
8.6.3 b 8.6.4 c 8.6.5 c 8.6.6 b 8.6.7 c 8.6.8 b
8.6.9 d 8.6.10 c 8.6.11 d 8.6.12 c 8.6.13 c
System Analysis and Design / Data Input Methods Motivation
Motivation
During systems analysis it is essential for an analyst to decide the necessary and
sufficient data for designing an application.
DFD gives the data flows and stores of a system
Individual data elements of data flows and stores can be catalogued
Such a catalogue with description of each element and their types will be an
invaluable aid while designing a system.
A catalogue will also bring out if any data is duplicated/missed
A catalogue will also be an invaluable documentation of a system
Such a catalogue is called Data dictionary-It is actually metadata, i.e., data about
data.
After data dictionary is designed one needs to determine how the data is to be
input.
Data input methods depend on whether the data is filled in by customers in forms
manually and later input by data entry operators or data is directly input by users
on PC’s.
We thus need to understand both these methods.
Unless data input is correct, results will be unreliable
Information systems normally have a large volume of data
Because of large volume special controls are needed to ensure correctness of data
input - otherwise it is difficult to find which data is incorrect
Thus it is important to design appropriate data input methods to prevent errors
while entering data

System Analysis and Design / Data Input Methods Motivation
Key data elements are important to identify records. They need to be unique,
concise and understandable by users. Thus we need to study methods of coding
key data element

MODULE 8
Learning Units
8.1 Entity-relationship(E-R) modelling of data elements of an
application.
8.2 Organization of data as relations
8.3 Normalization of relations
8.4 Creation of logical relational database
8.5 Objectives of database management system(DBMS)
8.6 Overview of DBMS.

LEARNING GOALS
In this module we will learn:
1. The Entity-Relationship(ER) modelling to develop a conceptual model of

data.
2. How to organize data required in an application as relations
3. The need for normalizing relations
4. The various normal forms and their relevance
5. How to normalize relations to successive higher normal forms to form a
relational database
6. The need for an integrated database in organizations
7. The goals of Data Base Management systems (DBMS)
8. The structure and organization of DBMS.

MOTIVATION
When a DFD is developed we have a knowledge of

all data elements required by an application
Data dictionary lists all data elements but does not say
anything about relationships between data elements
Relationships are needed to logically group data

elements into related sets or tables

MOTIVATION
Such an organization
- Reduces data duplication

- Simplifies adding, deleting and updating data
- Simplifies retrieval of desired data

MOTIVATION
Logical databases give conceptual model.

Logical databases need to be stored in physical media
such as a hard disk for use by applications
A system is needed to map the logical database to a
physical medium which is transparent to an application
program.
Database management systems achieve this purpose

LOGICAL DATABASE DESIGN-INTRODUCTION
Purpose to develop conceptual model of data
This model specifies relationships among data items
Using this, raw data are organized into tables of related data
These tables are organized in such a way that:
a) duplication of data is reduced
b) operations of adding,deleting, changing
data(together know as updating data) is simplified and
systematized
c) systematization reduces accidental errors
d) Retrieval of data is facilitated
Collection of these tables are called the database for the

application

Loosely one may call organization of related data put in a table as a

“RELATION“
Systematization by which related data are put in a table is called

“NORMALIZATION”
A method called entity-relationship analysis facilitates creation of

relations

ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL
ENTITY: SPECIFIES DISTINCT REAL WORLD ITEMS IN AN

APPLICATION
For example: vendor,item,student,course,teachers
RELATIONSHIP: MEANINGFUL DEPENDENCIES BETWEEN

ENTITIES
For example: vendor supplies items

teacher teaches courses
Relationships are underlined above

ENTITY SETS
An entity set is collection of similar entities
Examples : * Set of all vendors of an organization is a vendor set
* Set of all items in a store is an item set
Every member of an entity set is described by its attributes

ATTRIBUTES
Attributes specify properties of members of entity set

Attributes also specify properties of relationships
Examples:
Entity : Vendor
Attributes : vendor code,vendor name,address
Relationship : supplies
Attributes : vendor code, item code,order no., qty. supplied,date of
supply,price/unit

ENTITES AND ATTRIBUTES
Example
Entity : Teacher
Attributes : Teacher code,teacher name,department,building,room
no,phone no.
Relationship : Teaches
Attributes : Teacher code,Course no,course name,semester offered,
credits, prerequisites

ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM
Some entities depend on one another
For example: entity vendor and entity items are related as vendors supply items
These relationships are described by entity-relationship diagrams (or ER
diagrams)
In an ER diagram entities are represented by rectangles and relationships by
diamond shaped boxes
EXAMPLES
VENDOR ORDERS
ENTITY PLACED
SUPPLIES WITH
RELATIONSHIP
ENTITY
ITEMS VENDOR

HOW TO IDENTIFY ENTITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
No algorithms to identify entities and relationship
When a word statement is used to describe an applications

nouns normally are entities and verbs relationships
Students attend courses
Noun Verb Noun

ENTITY RELATIONSHIP ENTITY
Teachers teach Courses
Noun Verb Noun


ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS
ONE ENTITY MAY BE RELATED TO MANY OTHER
ENTITIES BY MULTIPLE RELATIONSHIPS
Order no
Order date
ORDERS
Order no
Order no Placed Placed Vendor code
Item code for with Item code
Qty ordered
Price/unit
Item code Vendor code

Item name items vendors Vendor name
address
Underlined attributes are unique identifiers

RELATION CARDINALITY
•Relation cardinality - number of relationships in which an entity can appear
•An entity may appear in
- Only one relationship or
- In fixed number of relationships or
- In a variable number of relationships
V1
Vendor1 supplies
i1 items il,i3,i5
i2
V2 i3 Vendor2 supplies
i4 items il and i2
V3 i5
Vendor3 supplies
Vendor supplies items i4 and i5
items
Observe a vendor can supply many items
Observe also that many vendors can supply the same item

RELATION CARDINALITY REPRESENTATION
vendor vendor
N N
supplies supplies A vendor cannot supply more
6 than 6 items
M
N vendors can supply a
items items given item
vendor
2 An item cannot be supplied by more than 2 vendors
supplies
M
items

EXAMPLES
Teacher id
teacher Name
Dept
1 address
Teacher id
advises student id
N Student id
Name
students Dept
address
1 Teacher advises N students

Observe that in the advises relationship the identifier need not be
composite
If it is N : M relationship then the relationship will have the
identifier of both participating entities sets
EXAMPLES (CONTD)
Not all teachers may be required to advise

A teacher can advise not more than 3 students
Represented by ER diagram , small open circle specifies that some
teachers may not participate in advises relationship
Teacher
advises
students

WHY IS FINDING CARDINALITY NECESSARY
The identifier of the relationship will be composite if cardinality is

N:M
It will be single if cardinality is 1:M
If an entity has attached to it ,not all entities in the set may be
present in the relationship
Will be useful later in designing data base

RELATIONS
Entity sets and relationship sets are useful in designing data bases
Entity - relationship sets may be put as a table of values. This is
called a relation
Relation name is entity name
A row of a relation has a member of an entity or a relationship set

EXAMPLES OF A RELATION
VENDOR CODE VENDOR NAME ADDRESS
1456 Ram & co 112, 1st cross Bangalore-12

1685 Gopal & sons 452,4th main, Delhi-8
1284 Sivaraj brother 368 M.G Road, Pune-8
1694 Gita ltd 495 N.S.C Road,Calicut
RELATION name:Vendor(same name as entity name)

RELATION ATTRIBUTES: vendor code, vendor name address
Row of relation is called a tuple
In a RELATION rows can be in any order

columns can be of any order
No two rows are identical

No two columns are identical
RELATION NOTATION
Relation is an entire table
However a concise notation used
Notation uses: relation name and attributes
Vendor relation:
Vendor(Vendor code, Vendor name,address )
Relation Relation Relation attributes

name Identifier

EXAMPLES OF RELATIONS
Item (Item code, Item name)
Supplies (vendor code, Item code ,order no ,
qty supplied ,date of supply ,price/unit)
Relationship
Teacher (Teacher_id ,name ,dept ,address )
Advises (Teacher_id ,student_id)
Student (Student_id ,name ,dept ,,address)
Bold faced attributes are key attributes

WHY RELATION ?
Ease of storage of entity set as flat file in a computer's storage

Sound theory of relations allows systematic design of relational
data base
Theory of normalizing relations
Reduces duplication of data
Tries to eliminate errors in adding, deleting, altering items in a
data base
Simplifies retrieval of data

NORMALIZING RELATIONS
What is normalization of relations ?

Why normalize relations ?
How are relations normalized ?
Normalizing is the process of restructuring relations to a form
which:-
* Minimizes duplication of data in a database
* Operations of adding, deleting,modifying data in a database
do not lead to inconsistent data in a database
* Retrieval of data simplified

WHY NORMALIZE ?
A collection of relations relevant for an application constitute a

relational database
Relations are normalized to ensure that:
Collection of relations do not unnecessarily hold duplicate data
When a data item is modified it is modified in all relations
where it appears - no inconsistency is there
When data is deleted accidentally, required data is not deleted
Simplifies retrieval of required data

HOW ARE RELATIONS NORMALIZED ?
UNNORMALIZED RELATION
Order no order date Item lines
Item code Qty Price/unit
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

4627 38 60.20
3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
4627 30 60.20
1788 04111999 4627 40 60.20
1. Observe order for many items
2. Item lines has many attributes-called composite attributes
3. Each tuple has variable length
4. Difficult to store due to non-uniformity
5. Given item code difficult to find qty-ordered
6. Called Unnormalized relation

FIRST NORMAL FORM
Identify composite attributes
Convert composite attributes to individual attributes
Duplicate common attributes as many times as lines in composite attribute
Every attribute describes single property -no composite attribute
Some data duplicated
This is called First normal form (1NF) also called flat file
FIRST NORMAL FORM – 1NF
Order No Order date Item code Qty Price/unit
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40
1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 04111999 4627 40 60.20
HIGHER NORMAL FORMS
First normal form is first essential step in normalization
Higher normal forms known as 2NF,3NF,BCNF,4NF,5NF exist
Each is an improvement of the preceding one
A higher normal form also satisfies requirements of a lower normal
form
5NF
4NF
BCNF
3NF
2NF
1NF

HIGHER NORMAL FORMS
Higher normalization steps based on :

Detecting dependence between attributes
Identifying key attributes
Detecting multivalued dependency between attributes

FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
•Given X,Y as two attributes in a relation
•Given X if only one value of Y corresponds to it then Y is
functionally dependent on X
X Y
e.g. Given Item code - Item name known
Therefore Item code Item name
•Functional dependence may be based on a composite attribute
X,Z Y
composite attribute
Order no. ,item code ---------Æ Qty , price
composite attribute

DEPENDENCY DIAGRAM
Student (Roll no, name, address, dept., year of study )
Name
Address
Roll no
Department
Called relation key
Year of study
Roll no. determines uniquely values of all other attributes in the relation
Therefore it is called a key

DEPENDENCY DIAGRAM
Qty.supplied
Vendor code
Item code Date of supply
Price/unit
Composite key
Composite key enclosed in one box in diagram

WHY NORMALIZE RELATIONS-REVISITED
To ensure that while operating on data base we do not

- Lose data
- Introduce inconsistencies
Operations on data base

Insertion of new data should not force leaving blank fields for
some attributes
Deletion of a tuple should not delete vital information
Updating - changing value of an attribute should be possible
without exhaustively searching all tuples of relation

EXAMPLE TO SHOW NEED FOR
NORMALIZATION
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40
1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 04111999 4627 40 60.20
INSERTION : Enter new item with code 3945 and price 30.50 for which no order has been
placed. Inserted tuple will have no values(i.e have to be left blank) for order no and order date
DELETION: If order no1886 is deleted the fact that item code 4629 costs 20.25 is lost
UPDATE: If price of item 4627 is changed,all instances of this item code

have to be changed by exhaustive search-errors possible

IDEAL NORMALIZATION
At the end of normalization a normalized relation
Should have no data values duplicated in rows
Every attribute in a row must have a value
Deletion of a row must not lead to accidental

loss of information
Adding a row should not affect other rows
A value of an attribute in a row can be changed independent of

other rows

SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF)
A relation is in 2NF if
It is in 1NF
Non key attributes functionally dependent on key attribute
If key composite then no non-key attribute can functionally
depend on one part of the key.

2NF FORM NORMALIZATION-EXAMPLE
INF : itemorder (Order no,Item code, Order date,Qty,Price/unit)
Composite key
Order date
Dependency diagram Order no
Item code Qty
Price/unit
Not in 2NF as non key attribute dependent on part of a key attribute(Price/unit dependent
on Item code)
2NF relations are Order(order no,order date)

Prices(item code,price/unit)
Order details(order no,item code,qty)
Observe a single 1NF relation split into three 2NF relations

2NF FORM
1 NF Orders Relation
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40
1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 04041999 4627 40 60.20
2 NF Relations
ORDERS ORDER DETAILS PRICES

Order No Order date Order No Item code Qty Item code Price/unit
1456 26021999 1456 3687 52 3687 50.40
1886 04031999 1456 4627 38 4627 60.20
1788 04041999 1456 3214 20 3214 17.50
1886 4629 45 4629 20.25
1886 4627 30
1886 4627 40

ADVANTAGES OF 2NF
* NON KEY ATTRIBUTES WHOLLY DEPENDENT ON KEY

Repetition of order date removed
If order 1886 for item 4629 is cancelled the price/unit is
lost in INF as the whole tuple would be deleted
In 2NF item price not lost when order 1886 for item 4629
cancelled. Only row 4 in order details deleted
Duplication of data in a relation is not there

THIRD NORMAL FORM
Relation in 2NF
There is functional dependence between some Non-key attributes
This needs further normalization as the non-keys being dependent
leads to unnecessary duplication of data
EXAMPLE
Student( Roll no, name, dept, year, hostelname )
- If students in a given year are all put in one hostel then year and the hostel are
functionally dependent
- Year implies hostel-hostel name unnecessarily duplicated
- If all students of the year 1 changed to another hostel many tuples need change

NORMALIZATION TO 3NF
Student( Roll no, name, dept, year )
Hostel (year, hostel)
This is in 3NF
Example : Employee (empcode,name,salary,project no,termination
date of project)
* termination date (non-key attribute)
Dependent on project no. another non-key attribute
•Thus needs normalization
3NF relations : Employee(empcode,name,salary,projectno)
Project( Projectno ,termination date of project)

Passenger(Ticket code,Passenger name,Train no,Departure

time,Fare)
Train no. and departure time are non-key attributes and are
functionally dependent
3NF Relations :
Passenger(Ticket code ,Passenger name,Train no, Fare)
Train details (Train no., departure time)

BOYCE-CODD NORMAL FORM
Assume
* Relation has more than 1 possible key
* Keys composite
* Composite keys have common attribute
* Non-key attributes not dependent on one another
Thus relation in 3NF, still there could be problems due to
unnecessary duplication and loss of data accidentally

EXAMPLE
EXAMPLE
Professor (Prof code, Dept, Head of Dept, Percent time)
RELATION
Professor code Dept Head of dept Percent time
P1 Physics Ghosh 50
P1 Maths Krishnan 50
P2 Chem Rao 25
P2 Physics Ghosh 75
P4 Physics Ghosh 70
Observe two possible composite keys (Prof code, Dept) or (Prof
code,Head of Dept)
Observe Head of dept name is repeated
If professor P2 resigns the fact that Rao is Head of Chemistry is lost as lines
3 & 4 will be deleted
EXAMPLE (CONTD)
The dependency diagrams are:
Prof code Percent time

Dept Head of Dept
Dept Head of Dept
Head of Dept Percent time
Prof code Dept
Percent time a Prof.spends in the department is dependent on Prof code and Department
Head of Dept depends on department

NEED FOR BCNF
Observe the given relation is in 3NF as non key attributes are

independent of one another and wholly dependent on key
However there are problems pointed out
Problem due to the fact that there are two possible composite
keys
An attribute of one of the composite key depends on a attribute
of the other possible composite key
This leads to the problem indicated

NORMALIZING TO BCNF
•Identify the dependent attributes in the possible composite keys

•Remove them and create anew relation
EXAMPLE
Composite keys
1. Prof code ,Dept 2. Prof code,Head of Dept
Dependency : Dept Head of dept
New relations
Professor (Prof code, Dept, Percent time )
Department ( Dept, Head of Dept)

NORMALIZED BCNF RELATIONS
Professor code Dept Percent time Dept Head of Dept

Physics Ghosh
P1 Physics 50
Maths Krishnan
P1 Maths 50 Chem Rao
P2 Chem 25
P2 Physics 75
P3 Maths 100
P4 Maths 30
P4 Physics 70
Observe there is no redundancy
If P2 resigns information of Head of dept of chemistry is not lost

FOURTH NORMAL FORM
Needed when there are multi-valued dependencies
Example : (Vendor, Project, Item) relations

Assumptions :
-A vendor capable of supplying many items to many projects
-A project needs many items
-Project may order the same item from many vendors
Vendor Items V
Item
P
Project
Multivalued dependency
Vendor-Project-Item supply capability relation

FOURTH NORMAL FORM (CONTD)
Vendor code Project code Item code
VI PI I1
VI PI I2
VI P3 I1
VI P3 I2
V2 PI I2
V2 PI I3
V3 PI I1
V3 P2 I1
Problems
•Item I1 duplicated for VI and also for V3
•If VI is to supply to project P2 but the item to be supplied is not decided
there will be blank in item column
Relation in BCNF but still has above problem and need normalization to 4NF
•Split vendor-project-item relation into two relations

•Resulting relation must have not more than one independent multivalued
dependency
RESULTING RELATIONS
Vendor Item Project Item

VI 11 P1 I1
VI 12 P1 I2
P1 I3
V2 12 P2 I1
V2 13 P3 I1
P3 I2
V3 11
OBSERVE NO UNNECESSARY DUPLICATION

NEED FOR 5NF
In 4NF relations vendor capability to supply items and projects

need for items are there.
They are obtained by splitting the given relation
Looking at relation project-item we see that project P2 requires
item I1
From vendor item relation we see that I1 is supplied by V1.
This would lead us to infer that(V1,P1,I1)must be a tuple in the
original relation but it is not.In other words V1 does not supply
item I1 to project P2.
This spurious tuple has occurred because vendor V1 may not be
allowed to supply item I1 to project P2
Similarly another spurious tuple is (V3,P3,I1)
We thus need a third relation which specifies the vendors who
are allowed to supply to projects

OBTAINING 5NF RELATIONS
We add a third relation to the two 4NF relations
This is vendor-project relation shown below

VENDOR CODE PROJECT NO
V1 P1
V1 P3
V2 P1
V3 P1
V3 P2
With this relation added we will not get the spurious tuples (V1,P2,I1),(V3,P3,I1)
The two 4NF relations together with the vendor-project relation called 5NF relations
obtained by decomposing the original vendor-project-item relation which has a BCNF
relation

EXAMPLES OF DATA BASE DESIGN
ORDER - VENDOR - ITEMS ORDERED EXAMPLE IN CASE

STUDY
Information on dependencies given :
•Orders for item placed with many vendors
•A given order no is only to one vendor
•Many items supplied against a given order no
•A vendor has capacity to supply many items but only some items may
be ordered Orders
Placed Placed
ER - DIAGRAM for with
Items Vendors
Supply

RELATIONS-UNNORMALIZED
1. ORDERS(Order no,Order date)
2. ORDERS PLACED FOR(Order no,item code,qty ordered,delivery time allowed)
3. ORDERS PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code,item code)
4. VENDOR(Vendor code,vendor name,vendor address)
5. ITEM( item code,item name,price/unit)
6. SUPPLIES(vendor code,item code,order no,qty.supplied,date of supply)
NORMALIZATION:
Relation 1,4,5 are in 3NF and need no change
Relation 2 has a composite key,attributes of composite key not related.
Non key attributes dependent on composite key,need no change.
Relation 3: order no and item code have multivalued dependency.Relation2
already has order no,item code as composite key.Relation 3 is reduced to:
7.ORDER PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code)

NORMALIZATION OF SUPPLIES RELATION
Consider relation 6 :
6. SUPPLIES (vendor code, item code, order no, qty supplied, date of
supply)
•It has a composite key with three attributes
•Attributes item code and order no have multi-valued dependency as
many items can be supplied in one order
•Need normalization to 4NF
Normalized to
8. ACTUAL SUPPLIES (order no, item code, qty supplied, date of supply)
9. VENDOR CAPABILITY (vendor code, item code )
The second relation may have items not yet ordered with a vendor but which
could be supplied by vendor
The Normalized relations are : 1,2,4,5,7,8,9
STUDENT-TEACHER-COURSES EXAMPLE
Information on dependence
•A teacher may teach more than one course in a semester
•A teacher belongs to only one dept.
•A student may take many courses in a semester
•A course may have many sections taught by different teachers
E-R Diagram
Teacher Students
M K
Teaches Attends
N P
Courses

RELATION-UNNORMALIZED
1 TEACHER (Teacher code,teacher name, address, rank, dept)

2 TEACHER_COURSES (Teacher code,Course no,no of students, section no )
3 COURSE (Course no , semester taught ,Course name, credits)
4 STUDENT (Student no, student name, dept, year )
5 STUDENT COURSES (Student no, Course no, semester no )
a)Relations 1,3,4 in 3NF
b)Relations 2 and 5 have multi-attribute key which has multi-valued dependency but do not need
normalization
c)However information on which teacher teaches a given student a specified course cannot be
found from relations 1 to 5
Therefore Add relation
6 TEACHER_STUDENT (Teacher code, Student no, Course no)
THIS SET NORMALIZED

CONCLUSIONS
We have seen how data relevant to applications are organized

logically into set of relations
The process of normalization depends on the semantics, i.e,

meanings of data and an understanding of how various data
elements are related
It is thus a human intensive activity-it cannot be automated

CONCLUSIONS (CONTD)
In most problems in practice one is satisfied with 3NF.Higher

normal forms are theoretically important and in some cases
becomes essential.
There is a mathematical theory which underpins the idea of

relations and normalization giving it a sound basis. We have not
discussed it in this module.
A full fledged course in Data Base will describe in detail the

mathematical basis and methods of querying a database

PROBLEMS WITH FILE BASED SYSTEMS
If programs and files independently developed for each application in the

organization it leads to the following problems
DATA REDUNDANCY-Some data may be duplicated in many files.

e.g.: Address of customer
LACK OF DATA INTEGRITY- Duplicated data may be different in
different files (New address in one file and old address in another file)
DATA AVAILABILITY- May require search of number of files to access a
specified data
CONTROL BY MANAGEMENT-Difficult as data scattered across files.
All files should be accessed to find specified data
Aim of data base management systems is to reduce above problems

DATABASE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
DATA BASE - A Collection of related data necessary to manage

an organization (Excludes transient data)
- Models data resource and is independent of
applications
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT-
- A set of procedures that manage the database and
provides access to the database in the form required by
the application program

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Application1
Database
Database Management
Application2 System
DBMS Organized collection of data
Application1 for several applications
Procedures to provide data

in the form required by
applications. Applications
need not know physical organization
of data

OBJECTIVES OF A DATABASE
MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Data is an organizational resource. It should be

collected, validated, protected, logically organized and
stored with controlled redundancy. This is the
organizational database
One of the main objectives of DBMS is to facilitate
sharing of a database by current and future applications
DBMS must ensure data independence for programs

OBJECTIVES OF DBMS
Data independence to be provided to application programs

Data independence allows
-Change of database without affecting application programs
-Change of hardware or system software without affecting
application programs
-Sharing of data by different applications by providing views
appropriate for the application

OBJECTIVES OF DBMS
Control of Redundancy - Avoid unnecessary duplication

Relations between data items specified
Data integrity - Preserve consistency of data values
Data Security - Permit access to data to authorized users only
Performance - Provide timely information when needed
Ensure management control on addition, deletion, change and
dissemination of data

OVERVIEW OF DBMS
Data needs of current and possible future applications determined

Using E-R data modelling conceptual data model found
Converted to relations if Relational DBMS used
- called logical data model
Application programmers access subset of logical data model
- called external data model
•Logical model mapped to physical model for storage in disk store
- called internal model
•External data model kept invariant

VARIOUS TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING
DBMS
Current 1
applications 2
Conceptual logical
p model model Internal
Future q
Applications
Model
1
Application 2 External Database
programs p Model
q

COMPONENTS OF DBMS
Data Definition Languages (DDL) to define conceptual, logical

and external models
Data manipulation and query language called Structured Query
Language (SQL)
Features to implement security
Checkpointing and roll back recovery procedures
Record of accesses. Audit trail of changes

DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
Database Administrator’s responsibilities
Controller of data recourse

Ensure integrity,security and privacy
Maintenance of data dictionary
Coordination of development and maintenance of data
base
Determining access rights

STEPS IN DESIGNING DATABASE
INPUTS DESIGN STEPS
Design conceptual model

E-R Diagram based on existing Of database
and potential applications
Design logical model of User
Data base Feedback
Features of DBMS to be used to improve
Design physical model of database

Data on frequency of access, volume
Additions/deletion
Evaluate performance of physical
model
Implement

CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOOD DATA BASE
DESIGN
Satisfy current and future needs of organization
Cater to unanticipated user requirements in the best possible way
Expandable with growth and changes in organization
Easy to change when hardware and software change
Ensure data security by allowing only authorized persons to access

and modify database

MODULE 8
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Entity-relationship(E-R) modelling of data elements of an
application.
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Organization of data as relations
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Normalization of relations
5. LEARNING UNIT 4
Creation of logical relational database
6. LEARNING UNIT 5
Objectives of database management system(DBMS)
7. LEARNING UNIT 6
Overview of DBMS
8. References
MOTIVATION
When a DFD is developed we have knowledge of all data elements required

by an application,data dictionary lists all data elements but does not say
anything about relationships between data elements. Relationships are
needed to logically group data elements into related sets or tables.
Such an organization reduces data duplication, simplifies adding, deleting
and updating data and simplifies retrieval of desired data
Database management systems achieve the purpose of mapping the logical
database to a physical medium which is transparent to an application
program.
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of this module you will learn
1.The Entity-Relationship(ER) modelling to develop a conceptual model of

data.
2.How to organize data required in an application as relations
3.The need for normalizing relations
4.The various normal forms and their relevance
5.How to normalize relations to successive higher normal forms to form a
relational database
6.The need for an integrated database in organizations
7.The goals of Data Base Management systems (DBMS)
8.The structure and organization of DBMS.
LEARNING UNIT 1
Entity-relationship(E-R) modelling of data elements of an

application.
Loosely one may call organization of related data, put in a table as a

“RELATION“. Systematization by which related data are put in a table is
called “NORMALIZATION”. A method called entity-relationship analysis
facilitates creation of relations.
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP MODEL
ENTITY: Specifies distinct real world items in an application
For example: vendor, item, student, course, teachers
RELATIONSHIP: Meaningful dependencies between entities
For example: vendor supplies items

teacher teaches courses
Relationships are underlined above
ENTITY SETS
An entity set is collection of similar entities
Examples : * Set of all vendors of an organization is a vendor set
* Set of all items in a store is an item set
Every member of an entity set is described by its attributes

ATTRIBUTES
Attributes specify properties of members of entity set & also specify
properties of relationships
Examples:
Entity : Vendor
Attributes : vendor code, vendor name, address
Relationship : supplies
Attributes : vendor code, item code,order no., qty. supplied,date of
supply,price/unit
ENTITES AND ATTRIBUTES
Example
Entity : Teacher
Attributes : Teacher code,teacher name,department,building,room no,phone
no.
Relationship : Teaches
Attributes : Teacher code,Course no,course name,semester offered, credits,
prerequisites
ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM
Some entities depend on one another, for example, entity vendor and entity
items are related as vendors supply items. These relationships are described
by entity-relationship diagrams (or ER diagrams). In an ER diagram entities
are represented by rectangles and relationships by diamond shaped boxes
VENDOR ORDERS
ENTITY
SUPPLIES PLACED
WITH
RELATIONSHIP
ITEMS VENDOR
ENTITY
HOW TO IDENTIFY ENTITIES AND RELATIONSHIPS
When a word statement is used to describe applications, nouns normally are
entities and verbs relationships.
Students attend courses
Noun
Noun Verb
Teachers teach Courses
Noun Verb Noun

ENTITY-RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAMS
One entity may be related to many other entities by multiple relationships
Order no
ORDERS Order date
Order no
Order no Placed Placed Vendor code
Item code for with Item code
Qty ordered
Price/unit
RELATION CARDINALITY
Item code
Vendor code
Item name items vendors
Relation cardinality - number of relationships in which an entity can appear.
Vendor name
An entity may appear in- Only one relationship or in fixed number of address
relationships or in a variable number of relationships .
V1 i1 Vendor1 supplies items
il,i3,i5
i2
i4 il and i2
i4 and i5
Vendor supplies items
Observe a vendor can supply many items, and also that many vendors can
supply the same item
RELATION CARDINALITY REPRESENTATION
A vendor can
supply upto A vendor cannot supply more
M items than 6 items
N vendors can supply a
given item
vendor vendor
N N
supplies supplies
N vendors
M can supply a 6
given item
items items
vendor
2
supplies An item cannot be supplied by more than 2 vendors
A vendor cannot supply more than M items
M
items
WHY IS FINDING CARDINALITY NECESSARY
1. The identifier of the relationship will be composite if cardinality is

N:M
2. It will be single if cardinality is 1:M
3. Will be useful later in designing data base
LEARNING UNIT 2
Organization of data as relations

RELATIONS
Entity sets and relationship sets are useful in designing data bases.
Entity - relationship sets may be put as a table of values. This is called a
Relation. Relation name is entity name. A row of a relation has members of
its attributes. The column headings are the names of the attributes.
EXAMPLES OF A RELATION
VENDOR CODE VENDOR NAME ADDRESS
1456 Ram & co 112, 1st cross Bangalore-12

1685 Gopal & sons 452,4th main, Delhi-8
1284 Sivaraj brother 368 M.G Road, Pune-8
1694 Gita ltd 495 N.S.C Road,Calicut
RELATION name:Vendor(same name as entity name)

RELATION ATTRIBUTES: vendor code, vendor name, address
Row of relation is called a tuple. In a RELATION rows and columns can be

in any order. No two rows and two columns are identical.
RELATION NOTATION
Relation is an entire table
Vendor relation:
Vendor (Vendor code, Vendor name, address )
Relation Relation Relation attributes

name Identifier
WHY RELATION ?
Entity set can be easily stored as a flat file in a computer's storage
Sound theory of relations allows systematic design of relational data base,
reduces duplication of data, tries to eliminate errors in adding, deleting,
altering items in a data base and simplifies retrieval of data.
LEARNING UNIT 3
Normalization of relations
NORMALIZING RELATIONS
Normalizing is the process of restructuring relations to a form which: -

Minimizes duplication of data in a database
Operations of adding, deleting, modifying data in a database
do not lead to inconsistent data in a database
Retrieval of data simplified
WHY NORMALIZE ?
Relations are normalized to ensure that, collection of relations do not
unnecessarily hold duplicate data. It is easy to modify a data item as it gets
modified in all relations where it appears and hence no consistency is there.
When data is deleted accidentally, required data does not get deleted. It also
simplifies retrieval of required data.
HOW ARE RELATIONS NORMALIZED ?
UNNORMALIZED RELATION
Order no order date Item lines

Item code Qty Price/unit
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

4627 38 60.20
3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25

1.Observe order for many items 4627 30 60.20
1788 2.Item lines has
04111999 4627 attributes40
many attributes-called composite 60.20
3.Each tuple has variable length
4.Difficult to store due to non-uniformity
5.Given item code difficult to find qty-ordered and hence called
Unnormalized relation
FIRST NORMAL FORM

Identify the composite attributes, convert the composite attributes to
individual attributes. Duplicate the common attributes as many times as lines
in composite attribute. Every attribute now describes single property and
not multiple properties, some data will be duplicated. Now this is called First
normal form (1NF) also called flat file.

1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40
1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 04111999 4627 40 60.20
HIGHER NORMAL FORMS
First normal form is first essential step in normalization. Higher

normal forms known as 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF, 5NF also exist.
Each is an improvement of the preceding one. A higher normal
form also satisfies requirements of a lower normal form
5NF
4NF
BCNF
3NF
2NF
1NF
Higher normalization steps are based on :
Detecting dependence between attributes

Identifying key attributes
Detecting multivalued dependency between attributes
FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCY
Given X,Y as two attributes in a relation

Given X if only one value of Y corresponds to it then Y is functionally
dependent on X
X Y
e.g. Given Item code - Item name known
Therefore Item code Item name
Functional dependence may be based on a composite attribute

X,Z Y
composite attribute
Order no. ,item code --------- Qty , price

composite attribute
DEPENDENCY DIAGRAM
Student (Roll no, name, address, dept., year of study )
Name
Address
Roll no
Department
Called relation key

Year of study
Roll no determines uniquely values of all other attributes in the relation,

therefore it is called a key.
Qty.supplied
Vendor
Item code Date of supply
Price/unit
Composite key
WHY NORMALIZE RELATIONS-REVISITED
We normalize relations to ensure the following:
While operating on data base we do not lose data or introduce
inconsistencies. Insertion of new data should not force leaving blank fields
for some attributes. We do not delete vital information during update. In a
normalized relation it is possible to change the values of the attribute
without exhaustively searching all tuples of the relation.
EXAMPLE TO SHOW NEED FOR NORMALIZATION
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 INSERTION : 04111999
Enter new item with4627
code 3945 and40price 30.5060.20
for which no
order has been placed. Inserted tuple will have no values (i.e have to be left
blank) for order no and order date
DELETION: If order no1886 is deleted the fact that item code 4629 costs
20.25 is lost
UPDATE: If price of item 4627 is changed, all instances of this item code
have to be changed by exhaustive search-errors possible
IDEAL NORMALIZATION
At the end of normalization a normalized relation
Should have no data values duplicated in rows

Every attribute in a row must have a value
Deletion of a row must not lead to accidental loss of information
Adding a row should not affect other rows
A value of an attribute in a row can be changed independent of other rows
SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF)
A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF, non-key attributes are functionally

dependent on key attribute and if there is a composite key then no non-key
attribute is functionally depend on one part of the key.
2NF FORM
1 NF Orders Relation
1456 26021999 3687 52 50.40

1456 26021999 4627 38 60.20
1456 26021999 3214 20 17.50
1886 04031999 4629 45 20.25
1886 04031999 4627 30 60.20
1788 04041999 4627 40 60.20
2 NF Relations
ORDERS ORDER DETAILS

Order No Order date Order No Item code Qty PRICES
Item code Price/unit
1456 26021999 1456 3687 52
3687 50.40
1886 04031999 1456 4627 38
4627 60.20
1788 04041999 1456 3214 20
3214 17.50
1886 4629 45
NON KEY ATTRIBUTES WHOLLY DEPENDENT ON KEY
Repetition of order date removed.

If order 1886 for item 4629 is cancelled the price/unit is lost in INF as the
whole tuple would be deleted.
In 2NF item price not lost when order 1886 for item 4629 cancelled. Only
row 4 in order details deleted.
Duplication of data in a relation is not there.
THIRD NORMAL FORM
A Relation in 2NF may have functional dependency between some Non-key

attributes. This needs further normalization as the non-keys being dependent
leads to unnecessary duplication of data. Normalization to 3NF ensures that
there is no functional dependency between non-key attributes.
EXAMPLE
Student (Roll no, name, dept, year, hostelname )
- If students in a given year are all put in one hostel then year and the hostel
are functionally dependent
- Year implies hostel-hostel name unnecessarily duplicated
- If all students of year 1 are moved to another hostel many tuples need to be
changed.
Student( Roll no, name, dept, year )

Hostel (year, hostel)
This is in 3NF
Example :1
Employee (empcode,name,salary,project no,termination date of project)
* termination date (non-key attribute)
Dependent on project no. another non-key attribute
•Thus needs normalization
3NF relations : Employee(empcode,name,salary,projectno)
Project( Projectno ,termination date of project)
Example:2
Passenger(Ticket code,Passenger name,Train no,Departure time,Fare)
Train no. and departure time are non-key attributes and are functionally
dependent
3NF Relations :
Passenger(Ticket code ,Passenger name,Train no, Fare)
Train details (Train no., departure time)
BOYCE-CODD NORMAL FORM
Assume
* Relation has more than 1 possible key
* Keys are composite
* Composite keys have common attribute
* Non-key attributes not dependent on one another
Thus though the relation is in 3NF, still there could be problems due to
unnecessary duplication and loss of data accidentally.
EXAMPLE
Professor (Prof code, Dept, Head of Dept, Percent time)
RELATION
Professor code Dept Head of dept Percent time
P1 Physics Ghosh 50
P2 Chem Rao 25
P2 Physics Ghosh 75
P4 Physics Ghosh 70
Observe two possible composite keys (Prof code, Dept) or

(Prof code,Head of Dept)
Observe Head of dept name is repeated
If professor P2 resigns the fact that Rao is Head of Chemistry is lost as
lines 3 & 4 will be deleted
The dependency diagrams are:
Prof code Percent time
Dept Head of Dept
Dept Head of Dept
Percent time
Head of Dept
Dept
Prof code
Percentage time a Prof. spends in the department is dependent on Prof code
and Department
Head of Dept depends on department
NEED FOR BCNF
Observe the given relation is in 3NF as non key attributes are independent of
one another and wholly dependent on key. However there are problems due
to the fact that there are two possible composite keys, and attribute of on of
the composite key depends on a attribute of other possible composite key
NORMALIZING TO BCNF
•Identify the dependent attributes in the possible composite keys

•Remove them and create a new relation
EXAMPLE
Composite keys
1.Prof code ,Dept 2. Prof code,Head of Dept
Dependency : Dept Head of dept

New relations
Professor (Prof code, Dept, Percent time )
Department ( Dept, Head of Dept)
NORMALIZED BCNF RELATIONS
Professor code Dept Percent time

P1 Physics 50
P1 Maths 50 Dept Head of Dept
P2 Chem 25 Physics Ghosh
P2 Physics 75 Maths Krishnan
P3 Maths 100 Chem Rao
P4 Maths 30
FOURTH NORMAL FORM
4NF is needed when there are multi-valued dependencies
Example :
(Vendor, Project, Item) relations

Assumptions :
-A vendor capable of supplying many items to many projects
-A project needs many items
-Project may order the same item from many vendors
Vendor-Project-Item supply capability relation
Vendor Item
Project
Multivalued dependency
V
Item
Vendor code Project code Item code
VI PI I1
VI PI I2
VI P3 I1
VI P3 I2
V2 PI I2
V2 PI I3
V3 PI I1
V3 P2 I1
Problems
•Item I1 duplicated for VI and also for V3

•If VI is to supply to project P2 but the item to be supplied is not decided
there will be blank in item column
Solution:
•Split vendor-project-item relation into two relations

•Resulting relation must have not more than one independent multivalued
dependency
RESULTING RELATIONS
Project Item
Vendor Item
VI I1
VI I2 P1 I1
V2 I2 P1 I2
V2 I3 P1 I3
V3 I1 P2 I1
P3 I1
P3 I2
Vendor Capability Project needs
OBSERVE NO UNNECESSARY DUPLICATION
NEED FOR 5NF
In 4NF relations vendor capability to supply items and projects need for
items are there.
They are obtained by splitting the given relation
Looking at relation project-item we see that project P2 requires item I1
From vendor item relation we see that I1 is supplied by V1.
This would lead us to infer that(V1,P1,I1)must be a tuple in the original
relation but it is not.In other words V1 does not supply item I1 to project P2.
This spurious tuple has occurred because vendor V1 may not be allowed to
supply item I1 to project P2
Similarly another spurious tuple is (V3, P3, I1)
We thus need a third relation which specifies the vendors who are allowed
to supply to projects
Additional relation for 5NF
Vendor Project
V1 P2
V1 P3
V2 P1
V3 P1
V3 P2
Vendors permitted for projects
The above relation is in addition to the two relations of 4NF.

LEARNING UNIT 4
Creation of logical relational database
EXAMPLES OF DATA BASE DESIGN
ORDER - VENDOR - ITEMS ORDERED EXAMPLE IN CASE STUDY

Information on dependencies given :
•Orders for item placed with many vendors
•A given order no is only to one vendor
•Many items supplied against a given order no
•A vendor has capacity to supply many items but only some items maybe
ordered from him at a particular time
ER - DIAGRAM
Orders R
N
Placed
Placed
with S
for
M
Items P Q
Vendors
Supply
EXAMPLES OF UNNORMALIZED RELATIONS
1.ORDERS(Order no,Order date)
2.ORDERS PLACED FOR(Order no,item code,qty ordered,delivery time
allowed)
3.ORDERS PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code,item code)
4.VENDOR(Vendor code,vendor name,vendor address)
5.ITEM( item code,item name,price/unit)
6.SUPPLIES(vendor code,item code,order no,qty.supplied,date of supply)
NORMALIZATION:
Relation 1,4,5 are in 3NF and need no change
Relation 2 has a composite key,attributes of composite key not related.
Non key attributes dependent on composite key,need no change.
Relation 3: order no and item code have multivalued dependency.Relation2
already has order no,item code as composite key.
Relation 3 is reduced to:

7.ORDER PLACED WITH(order no,vendor code)
NORMALIZATION OF SUPPLIES RELATION
Consider relation 6 :
6.SUPPLIES (vendor code, item code, order no, qty supplied, date of
supply)
•It has a composite key with three attributes
•Attributes item code and order no have multi-valued dependency as
many items can be supplied in one order
• And hence need normalization to 4NF
Normalized to
8. ACTUAL SUPPLIES (order no, item code, qty supplied, date of
supply)
9. VENDOR CAPABILITY (vendor code, item code )
The second relation may have items not yet ordered with a vendor but which
could be supplied by vendor
The Normalized relations are : 1,2,4,5,7,8,9
STUDENT-TEACHER-COURSES EXAMPLE
Information on dependence
•A teacher may teach more than one course in a semester
•A teacher belongs to only one dept.
•A student may take many courses in a semester
•A course may have many sections taught by different teachers
E-R Diagram
Teacher Students
M K
Teaches Attends
N
P
Courses
RELATION-UNNORMALIZED
1 TEACHER (Teacher code,teacher name, address, rank, dept)

2 TEACHER_COURSES (Teacher code,Course no,no of students,
section no )
3 COURSE (Course no , semester taught ,Course name, credits)
4 STUDENT (Student no, student name, dept, year )
5 STUDENT COURSES (Student no, Course no, semester no )
a)Relations 1,3,4 in 3NF
b)Relations 2 and 5 have multi-attribute key which has multi-valued
dependency but do not need normalization
c)However information on which teacher teaches a given student a specified
course cannot be found from relations 1 to 5
Therefore Add relation
6TEACHER_STUDENT (Teacher code, Student no, Course no)
THIS SET IS NORMALIZED
CONCLUSIONS
We have seen how data relevant to applications are organized logically

into set of relations
The process of normalization depends on the semantics, i.e, meanings of

data and an understanding of how various data elements are related
It is thus a human intensive activity-it cannot be automated
In most problems in practice one is satisfied with 3NF.Higher normal

forms are theoretically important and in some cases becomes essential.
There is a mathematical theory which underpins the idea of relations and

normalization giving it a sound basis. We have not discussed it in this
module.
A full fledged course in Data Base will describe in detail the mathematical
basis and methods of querying a database
LEARNING UNIT 5
Objectives of database management system(DBMS)
PROBLEMS WITH FILE BASED SYSTEMS
If programs and files independently developed for each application in the

organization, it leads to the following problems
DATA REDUNDANCY-Some data may be duplicated in many files.

e.g.: Address of customer
LACK OF DATA INTEGRITY- Duplicated data may be different in
different files (New address in one file and old address in another file)
DATA AVAILABILITY- May require search of number of files to access
a specified data
CONTROL BY MANAGEMENT-Difficult as data scattered across files.
All files should be accessed to find specified data
Aim of data base management systems is to reduce above problems
DATABASE AND DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
DATA BASE is a collection of related data necessary to manage

an organization (Excludes transient data).It models a data resource and is
independent of applications
DATA BASE MANAGEMENT-is a set of procedures that manage the
database and provides access to the database in the form required by
the application program
Application1
Database Database
Management
System
Application2 DBMS Organized collection of data for several
applications
Application1
Procedures to provide data

in the form required by
applications. Applications
need not know physical organization
of data
OBJECTIVES OF A DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
Data is an organizational resource. It should be collected, validated,

protected, logically organized and stored with controlled redundancy. This is
the organizational database
One of the main objectives of DBMS is to facilitate sharing of a database
by current and future applications
DBMS must ensure data independence for programs
Data independence to be provided to application programs
Data independence allows
-Change of database without affecting application programs
-Change of hardware or system software without affecting application
programs
-Sharing of data by different applications by providing views
appropriate for the application
Control of Redundancy - Avoid unnecessary duplication
Relations between data items specified
Data integrity - Preserve consistency of data values
Data Security - Permit access to data to authorized users only
LEARNING UNIT 6
Overview of DBMS.
OVERVIEW OF DBMS
Data needs of current and possible future applications determined

Using E-R data modelling conceptual data model found
Converted to relations if Relational DBMS used
- called logical data model
Application programmers access subset of logical data model
- called external data model
•Logical model mapped to physical model for storage in disk store
- called internal model
•External data model kept invariant
VARIOUS TERMS USED IN DESCRIBING DBMS
Current 1
application 2 Conceptual logical
model Internal
p model Model
Future q
Applications
1
2
External Database
Application
programs
Model
p
q
COMPONENTS OF DBMS
Data Definition Languages (DDL) to define conceptual, logical
and external models
Data manipulation and query language called Structured Query
Language (SQL)
Features to implement security
Checkpointing and roll back recovery procedures
Record of accesses. Audit trail of changes
DATABASE ADMINISTRATOR
Database Administrator’s responsibilities are controlling of data recourse, to

ensure integrity, security and privacy, maintenance of data dictionary,
coordination of development and maintenance of data base and determining
access rights
CHARACTERSTICS OF A GOOD DATA BASE DESIGN
Satisfy current and future needs of organization
Cater to unanticipated user requirements in the best possible way
Expandable with growth and changes in organization
Easy to change when hardware and software change
Ensure data security by allowing only authorized persons to access

and modify database
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this module has been adapted from the book
“Analysis and Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by
V.Rajaraman. Chapter 10 Logical Data Base Design, pp.130 to 153.
Chapter 12 , Data Base Management Systems, pp. 171 –1719.
2. Good treatment of E-R Modelling and Normalization may be found in

the book “Introduction to Systems analysis and Design”, by
I.T.Hawryszkiewycz, Prentice Hall of India, 1989.
3. For those interested in detailed study of Data Base Design and

DBMS, the following books are standard texts:
1, R.Elmasri and S.B.Navathe, Fundamentals of Data Base Systems,
4th Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2004.
2. T.Connolly and C.Begg, Dta Base Systems, 3rd Edition, Pearson
Education Asia, New Delhi, 2003.
System Analysis and Design/ Logical Database Design Multiple Choice Questions
8.1.1 An entity is
(a) a collection of items in an application
(b) a distinct real world item in an application
(c) an inanimate object in an application
(d) a data structure
8.1.2 Pick entities from the following:
(i) vendor
(ii) student
(iii) attends
(iv) km/hour
8.1.3 A relationship is
(a) an item in an application
(b) a meaningful dependency between entities
(c) a collection of related entities
(d) related data
8.1.4 Pick the relationship from the following:
(a) a classroom
(b) teacher
(c) attends
(d) cost per dozen
8.1.5 Pick the meaningful relationship between entities
(a) vendor supplies goods
(b) vendor talks with customers
(c) vendor complains to vendor
(d) vendor asks prices
8.1.6 The entity set is a
(a) set of entities
(b) collection of different entities
(c) collection of related entities
(d) collection of similar entities
8.1.7 Pick entity set from the following
(a) all vendors supplying to an organization
(b) vendors and organizations they supply
(c) vendors and transporters
(d) a vendor supplying to many organizations
8.1.8 Attributes are
(i) properties of relationship
(ii) attributed to entities
(iii) properties of members of an entity set
(a) i (b) i and ii
(c) i and iii (d) iii
8.1.9 The attributes of relationship teaches in teacher teaches course should be

(a) teacher code, teacher name, dept, phone no

(b) course no, course name, semester offered, credits
(c) teacher code, course no, semester no
(d) teacher code, course no, teacher name, dept, phone no
8.1.10 The expansion of E-R diagram is
(a) Entity-Relationship diagram
(b) Entity-Relative diagram
(c) Entity-Relation diagram
(d) Entity-Rationalized diagram
8.1.11In an E-R diagram entities are represented by
(a) circles
(b) rectangles
(d) ellipse
8.1.12 In an E-R diagram relationship is represented by
(a) circles
(b) rectangles
(d) ellipse
8.1.13 Entities are identified from the word statement of a problem by
8.1.14 Relationships are identified from the word statement of a problem by
8.1.15 One entity may be
(a) related to only one other entity
(b) related to itself
(c) related to only two other entities
(d) related to many other entities
8.2.1 By relation cardinality we mean
(a) number of items in a relationship
(b) number of relationships in which an entity can appear
(c) number of items in an entity
(d) number of entity sets which may be related to a given entity
8.2.2 If an entity appears in only one relationship then it is

8.2.3 If an entity appears in N relationships then it is

8.2.4 If an entity appears in not more than 5 relationships then it is a
(a) 1:1 relationship
(b) 1:5 relationship
(c) 5:1 relationship
(d) 5:5 relationship
8.2.5 A pilot can fly three types of planes and a plane can be piloted by any qualified
pilot. The pilot-plane type relationship is
(a) N:3
(b) 3:N
(c) 1:3
(d) 3:1
8.2.6 A student can take not more than 5 subjects in a semester. The number of
students allowed in a subject in a semester is not more than 40. The student
– subject relationship is:
(a) 5:40
(b) 40:5
(c) N:5
(d) 40:M
8.2.7 The following E-R diagram is interpreted as follows:
(a) A doctor treats upto N patients
(b) A doctor treats exactly N patients
(c) A doctor may treat upto N patients; Some doctors may not treat any patients
(d) A doctor will treat patients based on some conditions
Doctor
Treat
Patients

8.2.8 A relation is
(a) an entity
(b) a relationship
(c) members of a relationship set
(d) members of an entity set or a relationship set
8.2.9 Rows of a relation are called
(a) tuples
(b) a relation row
(c) a data structure
(d) an entity
8.2.10 The rows of a relation
(c) in ascending order of key
(d) in descending order of key
8.2.11 The columns of a relation
(c) with key field in first column
(d) with largest width column last
8.2.12 Relations are used in logical database design because
(i) sound theory of relations facilitates systematic design of relational
databases
(ii) they are very popular
(iii) they are flat files and easy to store and retrieve from computer’s
memory
(iv) E-R diagrams allow design of relations
8.3.1 Normalization is a process of restructuring a relation to
(a) minimize duplication of data in a database
(b) maximize duplication of data to ensure reliability
(c) make it of uniform size
(d) allow addition of data
8.3.2 Normalization of database is essential to
(i) avoid accidental deletion of required data when some data is deleted
(ii) eliminate inconsistencies when a data item is modified in the database
(iii) allows storage of data in a computer’s disk
(iv) use a database management system
8.3.3 The process of normalization
(a) is automatic using a computer program
(b) requires one to understand dependency between attributes

(c) is manual and requires semantic information

(d) is finding the key of a relation
8.3.4 The following relation is not normalized because
Roll no Name Courses taken
Course No Dept Sem
4568 A.B Moni CS 101 C.S. 1
EE 545 E.E. 2
Phy 325 Physics 1
4894 R. Chamnlal Phy 101 Physics 1

Chem202 Chemistry 2
Math 103 Math. 1
CS 101 C.S. 1
4954 R. Gupta CS 101 C.S. 1
(a) It is difficult to store due to non–uniform size of the attributes
(b) Roll no. 4568 have 3 course line whereas Roll no. 4954 has only one course
line
(c) The composite attribute (CS 101, C.S., 1) is repeated
(d) Some item lines have composite attributes
8.3.5 The relation given in Exercise 10.4.4 may be converted to 1 NF relation by
(a) eliminating composite attributes
(b) eliminating common attributes
(c) duplicating common attributes as many times as lines in corresponding
attributes
(d) putting composite attributes in a separate table
8.3.6 A relation is said to be in 1NF if
(a) there is no duplication of data
(b) there are no composite attributes in the relation
(c) there are only a few composite attributes
(d) all attributes are of uniform type
8.3.7 The number of normal forms which has been proposed and discussed in the
book are
(a) 3 (b) 4
(c) 5 (d) 6
8.3.8 A relation which is in a higher normal form
(a) implies that it also qualifies to be in lower normal form
(b) does not necessarily satisfy the conditions of lower normal form
(c) is included in the lower normal form
(d) is independent of lower normal forms
8.3.9 Given an attribute x, another attribute y is dependent on it, if for a given x
(a) there are many y values
(b) there is only one value of y
(c) there is one or more y values
(d) there is none or one y value

8.3.10 An attribute y may be functionally dependent on

(i) a composite attribute x,y
(ii) a single attribute x
(iii) no attribute
(c) ii and iii (d) iii
8.3.11A second Normal Form (2 NF) relation should
(a) be in 1 NF
(b) not have a composite key
(c) not have attributes dependent on key attribute
(d) not have attributes dependent on one another
(i) it is in 1 NF
(ii) non-key attributes dependent on key attribute
(iii) non-key attributes are independent of one another
(iv) if it has a composite key, no non-key attribute should be dependent on
part of the composite key
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i and ii
(c) i, ii, iv (d) i, iv
vendor order (vendor no, order no, vendor name, qty supplied, price/unit) it is not
in 2 NF because
(b) it has a composite key
(c) non-key attribute vendor name is dependent on vendor no. which is one part
of the composite key
(d) Qty supplied and price/unit are dependent
vendor order (vendor no, order no, vendor name, qty supplied , price/unit)
the second normal form relations are
(a) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
qty (qty supplied, price/unit)
order (order no, qty supplied)
(b) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
(c) vendor (vendor no, vendor name)
vendor order (vendor no, order no)
(d) vendor (vendor no, vendor name, qty supplied, price/unit)
vendor order (order no, vendor no)
8.3.15A third Normal Form (3 NF) relation should
(a) be in 2 NF
(b) not have complete key
(c) not be 1 NF
(d) should not have non-key attributes depend on key attribute

8.3.16A relation is said to be in 3 NF if

(i) it is in 2 NF
(ii) non-key attributes are independent of one another
(iii) key attribute is not dependent on part of a composite key
(iv) has no multi-valued dependency
8.3.17 Given the following relation it is not 3 NF because
address)
(b) it does not have composite key
(c) non-key attributes course no and course max. marks are functionally
dependent
(d) it has more than 3 non-key attributes
8.3.18Given the following relation
address)
The corresponding 3 NF relations are
(a) student (roll no, name, year of study, address)
(b) student ( roll no, name, year of study, address)
student (roll no, course no)
(c) student (roll no , name, address)
year (roll no, year of study)
(d) student (roll no, name, address)
course (course no, course max. marks, year of study)
8.3.19 Boye Codd Normal Form (BCNF) is needed when
(a) two non-key attributes are dependent
(b) there is more then one possible composite key
(c) there are two or more possible composite overlapping keys and one attribute
of a composite key is dependent on an attribute of another composite key
(d) there are two possible keys and they are dependent on one another
8.3.20 A relation is said to be in BCNF when
(a) it has overlapping composite keys
(b) it has no composite keys
(c) it has no multivalued dependencies
(d) it has no overlapping composite keys which have related attributes
8.3.21 A 3 NF relation is converted to BCNF by
(a) removing composite keys
(b) removing multivalued dependencies
(c) dependent attributes of overlapping composite keys are put in a separate
relation

(d) dependent non-key attributes are put in a separate table

8.3.22 BCNF is needed because
(a) otherwise tuples may be duplicated
(b) when a data is deleted tuples may be lost
(c) updating is otherwise difficult
(d) when there is dependent attributes in two possible composite keys one of the
attributes is unnecessarily duplicated in the tuples
8.3.23 Given the relation
Supplier(s_id, p_order, s_name, qty)
Given that there is a unique s_name for each s_id and that s_id, p_order is a
composite key, find the correct statement among the following:
(i) this relation is a BCNF
(ii) this is 3 NF relation
(iii) this is a 2 NF relation
(iv) this is a 1 NF relation
(c) i and iv (d) i and iii
8.3.24 Given the relation of Exercise 10.7.5 it is reduced to the following BCNF
relation
(a) Supplier (s_ids, s_name)
Purchase (s_id, p_order, qty)
(b) Supplier (s_id, s_name)
Purchase (p_order, qty)
(c) Purchase (s_id, p_order)
Supplier (s_name, qty)
(d) Supplier (s_id, s_name, qty)
Purchase (s_id, p_order)
8.3.25 Fourth normal form (4 NF) relations are needed when
(a) there are multivalued dependencies between attributes in composite key
(b) there are more than one composite key
(c) there are two or more overlapping composite keys
(d) there are multivalued dependency between non-key attributes
8.3.26 A 3 NF relation is split into 4 NF
(a) by removing overlapping composite keys
(b) by splitting into relations which do not have more than one independent
multivalued dependency
(c) removing multivalued dependency
(d) by putting dependent non-key attribute in a separate table
8.3.27 A relation project guidance
Project Guidance(professor, project, student no. st-name, dept)
A professor can give many projects to many students
A project will have many students
A project may be guided by many professors
The 4 NF relation corresponding to this are

(a) Prof_Project (professor, st_name, dept)

Proj_stud (project, student no.)
(b) Prof_stud (professor, student no)
Proj_stud (project, student no)
(c) Student (student no, st_name, dept)
Professor(professor, project)
(d) Professor( professor, project, dept)
8.3.28 The project guidance relation of Exercise 10.8.3 needs further normalization
to 5 NF because
(a) There are too many multivalued dependencies
(b) Multivalued dependency and simple dependency are mixed in the 4 NF
relation
(c) Spurious tuples got introduced when the 4 NF relations are combined due to
the fact that a professor can guide only specified projects
(d) 4 NF relations have composite keys
8.3.29 5 NF relations equivalent to the relation of Exercise 10.8.3 are
(a) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
Proj_stud ( project, student_no)
(b) Professor (professor, professor details)
Project (project no, project details)
(c) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
(d) Prof_stud (professor, student_no)
Stud_proj (student_no, project)
8.4.1 The ORDER PLACED FOR relation in Mini-case example 1 has the
composite key order no, item code because
(a) item code has a multivalued dependency with order no.
(b) the non-key attributes are dependent on the composite key order no, item
code
(c) if order no is the only key we cannot find qty. ordered, price/unit, delivery
time
(d) if item code is the only key we cannot find order no. uniquely
8.4.2 The relation SUPPLIES in Mini-case example 1 of Section 10.10 requires
normalization because
(a) it has a composite key with three attributes
(b) the non-key attributes are dependent on part of composite key
(c) the attributes item code and order no of the composite key have multivalued
dependency
(d) vendor code and order no have a multivalued dependency

8.4.3 TEACHES-COURSES relation in Mini-case example 2 is in

(a) 3 NF. Does not need any further normalization
(b) BCNF
(c) 4 NF
(d) unnormalized form
8.4.4 TEACHER-STUDENT relation in Mini-case example 2 is required because
(a) it is in 3 NF
(b) it has a multivalued key
(c) it has a composite key with multivalued dependency relation
(d) Without this relation database is incomplete and some queries cannot be
answered
8.5.1 By redundancy in a file based system we mean that
(a) unnecessary data is stored
(b) same data is duplicated in many files
(c) data is unavailable
(d) files have redundant data
8.5.2 Data integrity in a file based system may be lost because
(a) the same variable may have different values in different files
(c) unnecessary data is stored in files
(d) redundant data is stored in files
8.5.3 Data availability is often difficult in file based system
(a) as files are duplicated
(b) as unnecessary data are stored in files
(c) as one has to search different files and these files may be in different update
states
(d) redundant data are stored in files
8.5.4 Management policy changes are difficult to implement in a file based system
because
(a) relating data in different files is difficult
(c) redundant data are stored
(d) unnecessary data is stored
8.5.5 Some of the objectives of a database management system are to
(i) minimize duplication of data
(ii) ensure centralized management control of data
(iii) ease retrieval of data
(iv) maintain a data dictionary
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii and iv
(c) i and iii (d) i, ii and iii
8.5.6 A database is a
(a) collection of files
(b) collection of inputs and outputs of application
(c) collection of related data necessary to manage an organization
(d) data resource of an organization

8.5.7 A database models data so that it is

(a) appropriate for application
(b) independent of application program
(c) optimized for most frequent applications
(d) optimized for all applications
8.5.8 A database should be designed to allow providing
(a) different views of portions of data requested by an application
(b) data only to selected applications as decided by an organization
(c) a uniform view of data to all applications
(d) data to all applications
8.5.9 The abbreviation DBMS stands for
(a) Data Base Manipulation System
(b) Data Bank Manipulating System
(c) Data Base Management System
(d) Data Bank Management System
8.5.10 A DBMS is
(a) another name for database system
(b) independent of a database
(c) dependent on application programs
(d) is a set of procedures which manage a database
8.5.11 A DBMS
(a) is a set of procedures
(b) manages a database
(c) is a set of procedures to manage a database to provide data as required by
applications
(d) provides data to applications
8.5.12 One of the main objectives of a DBMS is to
(a) Create a database for an organization
(b) Facilitate sharing of a database by current and future applications
(c) Allow sharing application programs
(d) Replace file based systems
8.5.13 Database is
(a) an important resource of an organization
(b) not relevant to existing programs
(c) not relevant for future programs
(d) not as good as files as there is redundancy
8.5.14 By data independence we mean application programs
(a) do not need data
(b) may be developed independent of data
(c) may be developed without knowing the organization of data
(d) may be developed with independent data
(i) no changes in application programs
(ii) change in database without affecting application programs

(iii) hardware to be changed without affecting application programs

(iv) system software to be changed without affecting application programs
(c) ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iv
(a) sharing the same database by several applications
(b) extensive modification of applications
(c) no data sharing between applications
(d) elimination of several application programs
8.5.17 Among objectives of DBMS are ensuring
(i) data integrity
(ii) data redundancy
(iii) data security
(iv) easy data retrieval
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii
8.5.18 DBMS
(a) does not allow replication of data
(b) allows controlled replication of data if it improves performance
(c) does not allow common data to be duplicated
(d) does not allow replication as it adversely affects reliability
8.5.19 By data integrity we mean
(a) maintaining consistent data values
(b) integrated data values
(c) banning improper access to data
(d) not leaking data values
8.5.20 Data integrity is ensured by
(a) good data editing
(b) propagating data changes to all data items
(c) preventing unauthorized access
(d) preventing data duplication
8.5.21 By data security in DBMS we mean
(a) preventing access to data
(b) allowing access to data only to authorized users
(c) preventing changing data
(d) introducing integrity constraints
8.5.22 DBMS must implement management controls to
(i) control access rights to users
(ii) implement audit trail when changes are made
(iii) allow data to be used extensively in the organization
(iv) duplicate databases
(c) iii, iv (d) i, iv
8.6.1An E-R modelling for given application leads to


(b) logical data model
(c) external data model
(d) internal data model
8.6.2A conceptual data model is converted using a Relational Data Base
Management System to a
(a) logical data model
8.6.3A subset of logical data model accessed by programmers is called a
8.6.4When a logical model is mapped into a physical storage such as a disk store the
resultant data model is known as
(d) disk data model
8.6.5A DBMS has the following components
(i) a data definition language
(ii) a query language
(iii) a security system
(iv) audit trail
8.6.6A check pointing system is needed
(a) to ensure system security
(b) to recover from transient faults
(c) to ensure system privacy
(d) to ensure system integrity
8.6.7 A database administrator
(a) administers data in an organization
(b) controls all inputs and all outputs of programs
(c) is controller of data resources of an organization
(d) controls all data entry operators
8.6.8 The responsibilities of a database administrator includes
(i) maintenance of data dictionary
(ii) ensuring security of database
(iii) ensuring privacy and integrity of data
(iv) obtain an E-R model


8.6.9 Access right to a database is controlled by
(a) top management
(b) system designer
(c) system analyst
(d) database administrator
8.6.10 The sequence followed in designing a DBMS are
(a) physical model conceptual model logical model
(b) logical model physical model conceptual model
(c) conceptual model logical model physical model
(d) conceptual model physical model logical model
8.6.11 Designing physical model of DBMS requires information on
(i) data volume
(ii) frequency of access to data
(iii) programming language used
(iv) secondary memory characteristics
8.6.12A good database design
(i) caters primarily to current needs
(ii) caters to current and future needs as organizations grow
(iii) has to be modified when hardware is upgraded
(iv) ensures data security
8.6.13 A good database design
(i) is expandable with growth and changes in organization
(ii) easy to change when software changes
(iii) ensures data integrity
(iv) allows access to only authorized users
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii


8.1.1 b 8.1.2 c 8.1.3 b 8.1.4 c 8.1.5 a 8.1.6 d
8.1.7 a 8.1.8 c 8.1.9 c 8.1.10 a 8.1.11 b 8.1.12 c
8.1.13 b 8.1.14 c 8.1.15 d 8.2.1 b 8.2.2 a 8.2.3 b
8.2.4 b 8.2.5 a 8.2.6 b 8.2.7 c 8.2.8 d 8.2.9 a
8.2.10 b 8.2.11 b 8.2.12 b 8.3.1 a 8.3.2 b 8.3.3 b
8.3.4 d 8.3.5 c 8.3.6 b 8.3.7 d 8.3.8 a 8.3.9 b
8.3.10 a 8.3.11 a 8.3.12 c 8.3.13 c 8.3.14 c 8.3.15 a
8.3.16 c 8.3.17 c 8.3.18 b 8.3.19 c 8.3.20 d 8.3.21 c
8.3.22 d 8.3.23 d 8.3.24 a 8.3.25 a 8.3.26 b 8.3.27 b
8.3.28 c 8.3.29 a 8.4.1 a 8.4.2 c 8.4.3 a 8.4.4 d
8.5.1 b 8.5.2 a 8.5.3 c 8.5.4 a 8.5.5 d 8.5.6 c
8.5.7 b 8.5.8 a 8.5.9 c 8.5.10 d 8.5.11 c 8.5.12 b
8.5.13 a 8.5.14 c 8.5.15 c 8.5.16 a 8.5.17 c 8.5.18 b
8.5.19 a 8.5.20 b 8.5.21 b 8.5.22 a 8.6.1 a 8.6.2 a
8.6.3 b 8.6.4 c 8.6.5 c 8.6.6 b 8.6.7 c 8.6.8 b
8.6.9 d 8.6.10 c 8.6.11 d 8.6.12 c 8.6.13 c

MODULE 8

WORKED EXAMPLES
8.1 What is an entity? Give examples of entities.
Entities specify distinct real world items, in an application, e.g., employees,

books, cars, fan, chair etc .
8.2 In what ways is an attribute different from an entity?
Attributes are specific properties of entities. For example, the attributes of the
entity car is (Registration no., chassis no., engine no., h.p., no. of seats, model,
manufacturer).
8.3 What do you understand by a 1 to 1, 1 to many, many to many relationships?

Give an example for each.
If for every value of an attribute A in a relation there is a unique value of an

attribute B in another relation then A and B are dependent 1 to 1.
If for each A there are N values of B, then A and B are 1:N.
Finally if for each value of A there are M values of B and for each B there are N
values of A, then A and B are M:N related.
Example of 1 to 1 relationship
A student can enroll in only one dept.
Student id dept. id
Example of 1 to many
A teacher teaching 3 courses
1:3
Teacher id Course id
Example of many to many
Students take 4 courses
Each course can have 40 students
N:M
Student id Course id
8.4 What is the difference between a relation and a relationship?
Relationship depicts the dependency or connection between two entities. A relation
is a flat table.
8.5 What is normalization of a relation?

Normalization is a procedure used to transform a set of relations into another set
which has the following desirable properties:
1. Duplication of data in database is minimized.
2. Operations of adding, deleting, modifying data in a database do not lead to
inconsistent data in database.
3. Retrieval of data is simplified
8.6 Why should relations be normalized?

Normalization ensures that data in the database are not unnecessarily duplicated. It
also ensures that addition and deletion of entity rows(or tuples) or change of
individual attribute values do not lead to accidental loss of data or errors in database.
Normalization also simplifies retrieval of data from a database.
8.7 What is functional dependency?

Let X and Y be two attributes of a relation. Given a value of X, if there is only one
value of Y corresponding to it then Y is functionally dependent on X.
8.8 What is the key attribute in a relation?

If an attribute X in a relation is such that the value of all the other attributes are
uniquely determined by the value of X, then X is the key attribute of the relation.
8.9 What is the difference between a 2 NF and a 3 NF relation?

In 2 NF all non-key attributes are dependent on the key attribute. No non-key
attribute should be dependent in a part of a composite key. There may be a
dependency between non-key attributes. Such a dependency is not allowed in 3 NF
relation.
8.10 When is BCNF required?

If there is a dependency between attributes of two overlapping multi-attribute keys
the relation needs to be normalized to BCNF. It implies that a relation needing
BCNF has more than one candidate key.
8.11 When are 4 NF and 5 NF required?

When there is more than 1 independent multi-valued dependency between attributes
in a relation then 4 NF and 5 NF are required.
8.12 What is the difference between 4 NF and 5 NF?
5 NF adds one more relation with attributes which have multi-valued dependency in
the 4 NF relation.
8.13 Develop E-R diagram for the following:
(i)Customer withdraws money from his account.
(ii)Students write examinations.
(iii)Students attend classes.
(iv)Professors write books.
(v)Driver drives a car.
Customer Student Student
Withdraws Writes Attends

from exam in
Account Subject Classes
(i) (ii) (iii)
Professor Driver
Writes Drives
Books Cars
(iv) (v)
8.14 For Question 8.13, obtain relations for each entity. Normalize the relations
(i) CUSTOMER (A/c no., name, address, type of account)
WITHDRAW (A/c no., amount withdrawn, date)
ACCOUNT (A/c no., A/c type, balance amount)
(ii) STUDENT (Roll no., name, address, dept., year)
WRITES EXAM (Roll no., subject no., exam date, attempt no.)
SUBJECT (Subject no., name, taught in sem., pre-requisites)
(iii) STUDENT (Roll no., name, address, dept., year)
ATTENDS (Roll no., course no., semester, calendar year)
CLASSES (course no., teacher id., time of class, location of class)
(iv) PROFESSOR (Professor id., name, address, affiliation)
(Affiliation gives the University he is working in and the department in that
University)
WRITES (Professor id., book id., book name, year written)
BOOKS (Book id., book name, authors, publisher, no. of pages, price, year
of publication)
(book id. Is standardized as ISBN no. in India)
(v) DRIVER (License no., name, address, type, validity, date of license)
DRIVES (License no., registration no.)
CAR (Registration no., manufacturer, model, year, horse power, chassis
no., body no., no. of seats)
Relations (i), (ii), (iv) are already in normal form.

Relation (iii) has multi-valued dependency if we assume that
a course may be taught by many teachers
a teacher can teach many courses
a student may attend many courses
We should add relations
TEACHER-COURSE (Teacher id., course no., roll no.)
In relation (v), non-key attributes are dependent in the relation CAR as given
manufacturer and model of car, the horse power is known. We thus split CAR
into two relations as shown:
(i) CAR REGISTRATION(Registration no., manufacturer, model, year,
chassis no., body no. )
(ii) CAR PARTICULARS(Manufacturer, model, year, horse power, no. of
seats)
8.15 For the following word statement, obtain E-R diagram and relations. Use
any reasonable assumptions. “A machine shop produces many parts which it takes
on contract. It employs many machinists who operate any of the machines. A part
needs working on only one machine. A record is kept on the quantity of material
needed for producing each part. The production of each part is tracked by giving a
job number, start time and end time and machinist identification.”
PART(Part no., part name, material type, qty. needed)
PART-MACHINE(Part no., machine no., time needed on machine)
MACHINE(Machine no., machine name, details of machine)
MACHINISTS(Machinist id., name, wage)
MACHINE ASSIGNMENT(Machine no., machinist no., part no., start time,
end time)
N
Parts
Made by Made
using
M 1
N M
Machinists Operate on Machines
8.16 Admission procedure in a university is as follows:

An advertisement is issued giving essential qualifications for the course, the
last date for receipt of application, and the fee to be enclosed with the
application. A clerk in the registrar’s office checks the received applications to
see if marksheet and fee are enclosed and sends valid applications to the
concerned academic department. The department checks the application in
detail and decides the applicants to be admitted, those to be put in the waiting
list, and those rejected. Appropriate letters are sent to the Registrar’s office
which intimates the applicant. Obtain an E-R diagram and a set of relations
for the above problem statement.
Assumptions:
1. An applicant sends separate applications for each course.
2. A clerk (or case worker) in Registrar’s office verifies several applications
3. Several case workers are there in Registrar’s office
4. The department has only one person who decides the result on scrutiny of
application
APPLICANT(Applicant no., Applicant name, address)
SENDS(Applicant no., Application no.)
APPLICATION(Application no., dept no., fee paid, marks)
APPLICATION-SCRUTINY(Application no., dept no.)
DEPARTMENT(Dept no., Dept name, no. of student)
APPLICATION-REPLY(Application no., dept no., admit)
Applicant
Sends
Sends
reply to
Applications Scrutinized Department

by
8.17 A magazine is published monthly and is sent by post to its subscribers. Two
months before the expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the
subscribers. If subscription is not received within a month, another
reminder is sent. If renewal subscription is not received up to two weeks
before the expiry of the subscription, the subscriber’s name is removed from
the mailing list and the subscriber informed. Obtain an E-R diagram and
relations for the above problem statement.
SENT TO(Rem. Id., subscriber id., date due, amount due)
REMINDER(Rem. Id., reminder no, date due) Can be merged as 1:1
relationship given below:
REMINDER(Rem. Id., subscriber id.,reminder no, date due, amount due)
SUBSCRIBER(Subscriber id., name, address, subscription expiry date)
SUBSCRIBER-PAYMENT(Subscriber no., cheque no., date, amount
received)
1
Subscribers
Sent to
Pays
1 1
Subscription Remainders
8.18 What are the advantages and disadvantages of systems using separate
Data files?
Main advantage is efficiency. Individual applications can be efficiently
implemented using minimal storage and processing time. Disadvantages of using
individual files for applications are listed in summary points 16,17,18 and 19.
8.19 What do you understand by the term data integrity?

If a data field is stored in different files with different values there is no data
integrity. For example, if a student’s address in the department’s file is different
from that in the hostel file then there is no data integrity.
8.20 Students’ records in a University are kept by various sections: Hostel, Health
Centre, Academic Office, major departments, Accounts Section and Library.
If each of these sections maintains its own file-based system for processing, what
problems do you foresee? Give examples.
Student’s identity number may be different in different files and it will be difficult
to link them. If a student’s home address changes he should notify each
section independently to change his address. If a management decision is taken that
if a student’s hostel dues are not paid he will not be given grade card, it is difficult
to implement this decision unless the information from hostel is sent to academic
section. If the identification in hostel is different from that in academic office, then
correlating the records would be very difficult. Stored data is redundant as it is
repeated at many places.
8.21 What are the basic objectives in evolving a database for an organization?
Share data between applications. Minimize redundancy in data. Maintain
consistency of data values. Protects data. Prevent unauthorized insertion,
deletion and alteration of data. Ensure ready access to needed data.
8.22 What do you understand by the term data independence?

By data independence we mean that an application programmer need not know the
physical format and storage of data to use the data in an application.
8.23 Distinguish between issues of privacy and security in a database?

Data security is concerned with protecting access to data. Authorization levels for
updating, retrieving different data elements are specified. Protection against
accidental loss of data is planned. Data privacy is concerned with preventing use of
individual’s data without his/her permission.
8.24 What is the difference between a conceptual model and a logical model of a
database?
A conceptual model of a database specifies the data needs for current and future
applications. It also specifies the entities and relationships among entities. A logical
data model formats the data as a relational model, hierarchical model or network
model.
8.25 What is RDBMS?

In relational DBMS relations are used to represent the logical data model.
8.25 What are the responsibilities of a Database Administrator (DBA) in an

organization?
A database administrator is responsible for ensuring integrity, security and privacy
of data.
System Analysis and Design/Data Input Methods Question Bank
QUESTION BANK
8.2 What is a relationship? In what way is it different from an entity?
8.3 In what way is an attribute different from an entity?
Give one example for each.
8.8 What is a functional dependency?
8.9 What is a key attribute in a relation?
8.10 What is the difference between a 2NF and a 3NF relation?
8.12 When are 4NF and 5NF required?
8.13 What is the difference between 4NF and 5NF?
Customer withdraws money from his account
Students write examinations.
Students attend classes
Professors write books
Driver drives a car
8.15 Draw an E-R diagram showing the cardinality for the following:
(i) A bill is sent to a customer. A customer can receive many bills.

(ii) A clerk works in a bank. The bank has many clerks
(iii) A part is used in many products and a product uses many parts.
(iv) Students apply for seats in colleges. Each student can atmost get one seat.
A college has many seats. A student can send many applications.
(v) A car is owned by a person. The person can own many cars.
8.16 For Exercise 8.14, obtain relations for each entity. Normalize the relations.
8.17 For the following word statement, obtain E-R diagram and relations. Use any
reasonable assumptions. "A machine shop produces many parts which it takes on
contract. It employs many machinists who operate any of the machines. A part
needs working on only one machine. A record is kept on the quantity of material
needed for producing each part. The production of each part is tracked by giving
a job number, start time and end time and machinist identifications".
8.18 For the problem on library, periodical management stated in Exercise 4.23
(Module 4), obtain E-R diagrams and relations. Make any reasonable
assumptions and state the assumptions.
8.19 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.15 (Module 5) obtain the E-R diagram
and relations for the problem.
8.20 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.16 (Module 5), obtain the E-R diagram
and a set of relations by using the diagram
8.21 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.18(Module 5), obtain the E-R diagrams
and relations .
8.22 What are the advantages and disadvantages of systems using separate data files?

8.24 If redundant data is stored can it lead to data integrity problem?
8.25 Student's records in a University are kept by various sections: Hostel, Health
Centre, Academic Office, major departments, Accounts Section and Library. If
each of these sections maintains its own file-based system for processing, what
8.26 Define a database of an organization.
8.27 What is the difference between a database and a Database Management System
(DBMS)?
8.30 What advantages are available to a programmer from data independence?
8.31 Draw an analogue between the advantages of high level language programming
and data independence of application programs.
8.32 How can data integrity be maintained in a database?
8.33 Distinguish between issues of privacy and security in a database.
8.34 What is the role of E-R diagrams in database design?
database?
8.36 What is an internal model of a DBMS?
8.37 What data models are used by application programs in a database oriented
system?
8.38 Why is a DBMS divided into three layers, namely, conceptual model, logical
model, and internal model?

8.39 How is data independence of application programs ensured in a DBMS?
8.40 What is RDBMS?
organization?
8.42 What are the ideal features of a database system?
8.43 Are DBMS relevant to Personal Computers (PCs)?

System Analysis and Design/Data Input Methods Case Study
Mini Case Example 1
We will illustrate the method used to obtain an E-R diagram with an example. Usually an
imprecise statement of the needs of an organization is given by the management. We now
give a sample of such a statement. This is to be used to obtain an E-R diagram.
User's narrative of requirements: "Our company receives a number of items from
many vendors and they are received at the receiving office. As we receive over 1000
items a day it is now virtually impossible for the receiving office to check whether the
vendor has supplied items against an order, or sent a wrong item and inform the purchase
office. We are also not able to find out if there are excesses or deficiencies in delivery
and whether the vendor adhered to the delivery schedule as per the order. The items
received at the receiving office are sent for physical inspection. The physical inspection
consists of checking whether the quantities stated in the delivery note agree with the
physical count, whether the item is the correct one ordered, and a check on the quality of
item. We would like to keep a record of rejections due to bad quality, incorrect items,
excess/deficient supply etc., determined during inspection. This will enable us to assess
vendors' reliability to guide us in placing orders in the future, besides keeping track of
supplies. Items cleared by the inspection office are taken into the inventory by the stores
office which keeps a ledger of items stocked and quantity available of each item.
Customers send requisitions to the stores. The stores fulfill the requests based on
availability and update the ledger. Currently we are not able to meet some of our
customers' requests. We would like to incorporate automatic reordering by our purchase
office if the inventory level of an item.

We would also like to keep track of unfulfilled requests and meet them when items reach
the store. Currently we are not able to pay our vendors promptly due to delays in payment
order reaching our accounts office. We would like to rectify this. We would also like to
bill our customers promptly and keep track of customers' payments".
The E-R diagram for the problem is:
orders
Placed Placed
for with
items vendors
Supplies
The relations are:
ORDER (order no.., order date)
ORDER PLACED FOR (order no., item code, qty. ordered, delivery time allowed)
ORDER PLACEDWITH (order no.. vendor code, item code)
VENDOR (vendor code, vendor name, vendor address)
ITEM (item code, item name, price/unit)
SUPPLIES (vendor code, item code, order no., qty.supplied, date of supply).
The key attribute(s) are in bold letter(s) in each relation.

Let us examine whether the relations are in normal form. ORDERS and ORDER
PLACED FOR are simple relations. In the relation ORDER PLACED WITH, the key is
the composite attributes order no., vendor code and item code. However, the entity item
code is not needed in the ORDER PLACED WITH relation. Given an order no., all the
items supplied against this order can be found from ORDER PLACED FOR relation. The
vendor with whom the order has been placed can be found from the ORDER PLACED
WITH relation given below as each order no., has only one vendor.
ORDER PLACED WITH (order no., vendor code)
The two relations ORDER PLACED WITH and ORDER PLACED FOR have composite
keys. The non-key fields are not related to one another. In a key more than one attribute,
the individual attributes are not functionally dependent. Thus these two relations are in
normalized form and do not need any further change. The relations VENDOR and ITEM
are simple and are in normalized form. The relation SUPPLIES is, however, not
normalized. vendor code and order no., are functionally dependent. There is a
multivalued dependency between vendor code and item code as a vendor can supply
many items. We thus split the relations into two relations.
ACTUAL VENDOR SUPPLY (order no., item code, qty.supplied, date of supply)
VENDOR SUPPLY CAPABILITY (vendor code, item code)
Observe that the relation VENDOR SUPPLY CAPABILITY will have a (vendor code,
item code) table without a vendor having supplied any item. The relation ORDER
PLACED WITH will have a tuple only when a vendor actually supplies an item.

Minicase Example 2
Let a database contain the following: Teacher code, Teacher’s name, Teacher’s address,
rank, department, courses taught by the teacher, course name, credits for course, no.of
students in the class, course taught in semester no., student no., name, dept., year, and
courses taken in semesters no. The following information is given on dependencies.
• A teacher may teach more than one course in a semester
• A teacher is affiliated to only one department
• A student may take many courses in a semester
• The same course may have more than one section and different sections will be taught
by different teachers.
• A course may be taught in more than one semester
An entity relationship diagram for this problem is given below. The relations
corresponding to the E-R diagram are:

Teacher Studnet
M K
Teaches Attends
N P
Courses
An E-R diagram for teacher database
TEACHER (Teacher code, teacher’s name, teacher’s address, rank, dept.)
TEACHES COURSES (Teacher code, course no., semester no., no.of students, section
no)
COURSE (course no., semester no., course name, credits)
STUDENT (student no., student’s name, dept., year)
STUDENT –COURSES (student’s no., course no., semester no.)
TEACHER relation has only one key. All non-key attributes are functionally dependent
only on the key. There is no functional dependency among non-key attributes. Thus the
relation is normalized in 3NF (No higher NFs are applicable).
STUDENT relation is also, similarly, in 3NF. In the COURSE relation, course name
could also be a key. The relation is in 3NF and no further normalization is required. The
relations TEACHES COURSES and STUDENT-COURSES have multiattribute keys, but

the relations themselves are in normal form. The only point which is not clear, from these
relations, is the relation between teacher and student. This has been missed in the E-R
diagram. The relationship is between the teacher, courses taught and students. In other
words, we should be able to answer the question “which teacher is teaching course no.X
to student no. Y in Semester 2?” Let us add a relation.
TEACHER-STUDENT (Teacher code, student no., course no.)
In this relation Teacher code and course no. have a multivalued dependency. Similarly,
Teacher code and student no. as well as student no. and course no. have multivalued
dependency. However, TEACHES COURSES (Teacher code, course no., semester no.,
no.of students, section no.) and STUDENT COURSES (student no., course no.,
semester no) relations are already in the database. Thus the relation TEACHER-
STUDENT as it is specified above is sufficient to give the idea that student Y takes
course X from Teacher Z.

System Analysis and Design/Data Input Methods Pointers
References
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by V.Rajaraman. Chapter 10
Logical Data Base Design, pp.130 to 153. Chapter 12 , Data Base Management
Systems, pp. 171 –1719.
2. Good treatment of E-R Modelling and Normalization may be found in the book
“Introduction to Systems analysis and Design”, by I.T.Hawryszkiewycz, Prentice
Hall of India, 1989.
3. For those interested in detailed study of Data Base Design and DBMS, the
following books are standard texts:
1, R.Elmasri and S.B.Navathe, Fundamentals of Data Base Systems, 4th Edition,
Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2004.
2. T.Connolly and C.Begg, Dta Base Systems, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education
Asia, New Delhi, 2003.

SUMMARY OF MODULE 8
1. A conceptual model of data used in an application is obtained by using an entity
relationship model (E-R model).
2. Entities specify distinct real world items in an application, relationships
represent dependencies between entities, and attributes specify properties of
entities and relationships.
3. Entity set describes items which are similar. Students, courses, teachers are
examples of entity sets.
4. Examples of relationship are students attend courses, Teachers teach courses.
“Attend” and “teach” are relationships.
5. E-R models have the facility to describe 1 to 1, 1 to many, many to many,
conditional and optional relationships.
6. E-R models assist in designing relational databases.
7. A relation is a table which depicts an entity set. Each column in the relation
corresponds to an attribute of the entity. Each row contains a member of the
entity set.
8. A relational database consists of a collection of relations relevant for a specified
application.
9. Relations in a database are normalized. Normalization is a procedure used to
transform a set of relations into another set which has some desirable properties.
10. Normalization ensures that data in the database are not unnecessarily duplicated.
It also ensures that addition and deletion of entity rows (or tuples) or change of
individual attribute values do not lead to accidental loss of data or errors in
database.
11. Normalization is performed by first converting a relation so that all entities are
simple. This results in a relation said to be in First Normal Form (INF).
12. Successive normalization steps are carried out to meet the objectives stated in
point 10.
13. The successive normal forms are called 2NF, 3NF, BCNF, 4NF and 5NF.
14. A summary of how normalization steps are carried out is shown in the table
below.
Summary of Normalization Steps
Input Relation Transformation Output relation
All relations Eliminate variable length INF

records. Remove
multiattribute lines in table
INF relation Remove dependency of 2NF
non-key attributes on part of
a multiattribute key
2NF Remove dependency of 3NF
non-key attributes on other
non-key attributes
3NF Remove dependency of an BCNF
attribute of a multiattribute
key on an attribute of
another (overlapping)
multiattribute key
BCNF Remove more than one 4NF
independent multivalued
dependency from relation
by splitting relation
4NF Add one relation relating 5NF
attributes with multivalued
dependency to the two
relations with multivalued
dependency
15. Traditionally, application programs were written after designing data files
appropriate to the application.
16. As organizations require many application programs and these applications need
some common data, it is found that the same data is stored in many files, thereby
wasting storage space.
17. Waste of storage space is not the only problem. The same data (such as an
address of an individual) may be in different forms in different files, leading to
confusion.
18. As data is scattered in many files, it is difficult to correlate them and use them for
various applications.
19. When requirements change, the application programs and the entire data
organization may have to be changed. Such a change is time consuming and
expensive.
20. Instead of designing independent files for different applications, it is better to
design a common database which can be used for all current applications and
applications expected to be implemented in the future.
21. A database constitutes the data resource of an organization. It incorporates not
only data but also relationships between data items. It is modelled not for specific
current applications, but all current and potential applications.
22. A Database Management System (DBMS) is a set of procedures that manage a
database and provide application programs access to the database in a form
requested by the applications programs.

23. A good DBMS allows sharing of data among applications. Sharing of data is
possible if application programs can be written without having a knowledge of
data representation, location or access. In other words, application programs
should be free to have their own view of data by DBMS.
24. Other major objectives of DBMS are to minimize storage of redundant data,
maintain consistency of data values, ensure validity of stored data, protect data,
prevent unauthorized access, control insertion, deletion and alteration of data and
ensure fast access to data required by application programs.
25. To use a DBMS, a conceptual model of data needed for current and future
applications is designed. E-R modelling is useful for this. The conceptual model
is next converted to a logical model appropriate for the DBMS. For RDBMS,
normalised relations constitute the logical model.
26. The physical data model is then designed to ensure good performance. User's
view of data for application is primarily the logical view.

QUESTION BANK - MODULE 8
8.2 What is a relationship? In what way is it different from an entity?
8.3 In what way is an attribute different from an entity?
Give one example for each.
8.8 What is a functional dependency?
8.9 What is a key attribute in a relation?
8.10 What is the difference between a 2NF and a 3NF relation?
8.12 When are 4NF and 5NF required?
8.13 What is the difference between 4NF and 5NF?
Driver drives a car

8.15 Draw an E-R diagram showing the cardinality for the following:
(ii) A clerk works in a bank. The bank has many clerks
(iv) Students apply for seats in colleges. Each student can atmost get one
seat. A college has many seats. A student can send many applications.
8.16 For Exercise 8.14, obtain relations for each entity. Normalize the relations.
8.17 For the following word statement, obtain E-R diagram and relations. Use any
reasonable assumptions. "A machine shop produces many parts which it takes
on contract. It employs many machinists who operate any of the machines. A
part needs working on only one machine. A record is kept on the quantity of
material needed for producing each part. The production of each part is tracked
by giving a job number, start time and end time and machinist identifications".
8.18 For the problem on library, periodical management stated in Exercise 4.23
(Module 4), obtain E-R diagrams and relations. Make any reasonable
assumptions and state the assumptions.
8.19 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.15 (Module 5) obtain the E-R diagram
and relations for the problem.
8.20 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.16 (Module 5), obtain the E-R diagram
and a set of relations by using the diagram
8.21 For the problem statement of Exercise 5.18(Module 5), obtain the E-R diagrams
and relations .
8.22 What are the advantages and disadvantages of systems using separate data files?
8.24 If redundant data is stored can it lead to data integrity problem?
8.25 Student's records in a University are kept by various sections: Hostel, Health
8.26 Define a database of an organization.
8.27 What is the difference between a database and a Database Management System
(DBMS)?
8.30 What advantages are available to a programmer from data independence?
8.31 Draw an analogue between the advantages of high level language programming
and data independence of application programs.
8.32 How can data integrity be maintained in a database?
8.33 Distinguish between issues of privacy and security in a database.
8.34 What is the role of E-R diagrams in database design?
database?
8.36 What is an internal model of a DBMS?
8.37 What data models are used by application programs in a database oriented
system?
8.38 Why is a DBMS divided into three layers, namely, conceptual model, logical
model, and internal model?
8.39 How is data independence of application programs ensured in a DBMS?
8.40 What is RDBMS?
organization?
8.42 What are the ideal features of a database system?
8.43 Are DBMS relevant to Personal Computers (PCs)?

Module 8
Mini Case Example 1
We will illustrate the method used to obtain an E-R diagram with an example. Usually
an imprecise statement of the needs of an organization is given by the management. We
now give a sample of such a statement. This is to be used to obtain an E-R diagram.
User's narrative of requirements. "Our company receives a number of items from
many vendors and they are received at the receiving office. As we receive over 1000
items a day it is now virtually impossible for the receiving office to check whether the
vendor has supplied items against an order, or sent a wrong item and inform the purchase
office. We are also not able to find out if there are excesses or deficiencies in delivery
and whether the vendor adhered to the delivery schedule as per the order. The items
received at the receiving office are sent for physical inspection. The physical inspection
consists of checking whether the quantities stated in the delivery note agree with the
physical count, whether the item is the correct one ordered, and a check on the quality of
item. We would like to keep a record of rejections due to bad quality, incorrect items,
excess/deficient supply etc., determined during inspection. This will enable us to assess
vendors' reliability to guide us in placing orders in the future, besides keeping track of
supplies. Items cleared by the inspection office are taken into the inventory by the stores
office which keeps a ledger of items stocked and quantity available of each item.
Customers send requisitions to the stores. The stores fulfill the requests based on
availability and update the ledger. Currently we are not able to meet some of our
customers' requests. We would like to incorporate automatic reordering by our purchase
office if the inventory level of an ite
We would also like to keep track of unfulfilled requests and meet them when items
reach the store. Currently we are not able to pay our vendors promptly due to delays in
payment order reaching our accounts office. We would like to rectify this. We would
also like to bill our customers promptly and keep track of customers' payments".
The E-R diagram for the problem is:
orders
Placed Placed
for with
items vendors
Supplies
The relations are:
ORDER (order no.., order date)
ORDER PLACED FOR (order no., item code, qty. ordered, delivery time allowed)
ORDER PLACEDWITH (order no.. vendor code, item code)

VENDOR (vendor code, vendor name, vendor address)
ITEM (item code, item name, price/unit)
SUPPLIES (vendor code, item code, order no., qty.supplied, date of supply).
The key attribute(s) are in bold letter(s) in each relation.
Let us examine whether the relations are in normal form. ORDERS and ORDER
PLACED FOR are simple relations. In the relation ORDER PLACED WITH, the
key is the composite attributes order no., vendor code and item code. However, the
entity item code is not needed in the ORDER PLACED WITH relation. Given an
order no., all the items supplied against this order can be found from ORDER
PLACED FOR relation. The vendor with whom the order has been placed can be
found from the ORDER PLACED WITH relation given below as each order no., has
only one vendor.
ORDER PLACED WITH (order no., vendor code)
The two relations ORDER PLACED WITH and ORDER PLACED FOR have
composite keys. The non-key fields are not related to one another. In a key more
than one attribute, the individual attributes are not functionally dependent. Thus these
two relations are in normalized form and do not need any further change. The
relations VENDOR and ITEM are simple and are in normalized form. The relation
SUPPLIES is, however, not normalized. vendor code and order no., are
functionally dependent. There is a multivalued dependency between vendor code and
item code as a vendor can supply many items. We thus split the relations into two
relations.
ACTUAL VENDOR SUPPLY (order no., item code, qty.supplied, date of supply)
VENDOR SUPPLY CAPABILITY (vendor code, item code)
Observe that the relation VENDOR SUPPLY CAPABILITY will have a (vendor
code, item code) table without a vendor having supplied any item. The relation
ORDER PLACED WITH will have a tuple only when a vendor actually supplies an
item.
Minicase Example 2
Let a database contain the following: Teacher code, Teacher’s name, Teacher’s
address, rank, department, courses taught by the teacher, course name, credits for
course, no.of students in the class, course taught in semester no., student no., name,
dept., year, and courses taken in semesters no. The following information is given on
dependencies.
• A teacher may teach more than one course in a semester
• A teacher is affiliated to only one department
• A student may take many courses in a semester
• The same course may have more than one section and different sections will
be taught by different teachers.
• A course may be taught in more than one semester
An entity relationship diagram for this problem is given below. The relations
corresponding to the E-R diagram are:

Teacher Studnet
M K
Teaches Attends
N P
Courses
An E-R diagram for teacher database
TEACHER (Teacher code, teacher’s name, teacher’s address, rank, dept.)
TEACHES COURSES (Teacher code, course no., semester no., no.of students, section
no)
COURSE (course no., semester no., course name, credits)
STUDENT (student no., student’s name, dept., year)
STUDENT –COURSES (student’s no., course no., semester no.)
TEACHER relation has only one key. All non-key attributes are functionally dependent
only on the key. There is no functional dependency among non-key attributes. Thus the
relation is normalized in 3NF (No higher NFs are applicable).
STUDENT relation is also, similarly, in 3NF. In the COURSE relation, course name
could also be a key. The relation is in 3NF and no further normalization is required. The
relations TEACHES COURSES and STUDENT-COURSES have multiattribute keys, but

the relations themselves are in normal form. The only point which is not clear, from
these relations, is the relation between teacher and student. This has been missed in the
E-R diagram. The relationship is between the teacher, courses taught and students. In
other words, we should be able to answer the question “which teacher is teaching course
no.X to student no. Y in Semester 2?”. Let us add a relation.
TEACHER-STUDENT (Teacher code, student no., course no.)
In this relation Teacher code and course no. have a multivalued dependency. Similarly,
Teacher code and student no. as well as student no. and course no. have multivalued
dependency. However, TEACHES COURSES (Teacher code, course no.,semester
no.., no.of students, section no.) and STUDENT COURSES (student no., course no.,
semester no) relations are already in the database. Thus the relation TEACHER-
STUDENT as it is specified above is sufficient to give the idea that student Y takes
course X from Teacher Z.

References
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, by V.Rajaraman. Chapter 10
Logical Data Base Design, pp.130 to 153. Chapter 12 , Data Base Management
Systems, pp. 171 –1719.
2. Good treatment of E-R Modelling and Normalization may be found in the book
“Introduction to Systems analysis and Design”, by I.T.Hawryszkiewycz, Prentice
Hall of India, 1989.
3. For those interested in detailed study of Data Base Design and DBMS, the
following books are standard texts:
1, R.Elmasri and S.B.Navathe, Fundamentals of Data Base Systems, 4th Edition,
Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2004.
2. T.Connolly and C.Begg, Dta Base Systems, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education
Asia, New Delhi, 2003.

MODULE 9
OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEM
MODELLING
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
9.1.1 Computer systems are designed by

(a) simplifying requirements of system
(b) breaking of the system into smaller self-contained co-operating subsystems
(c) breaking up the systems into independent parts
(d) modular design
9.1.2 Functions and procedures are

(a) not useful in designing computer systems
(b) old fashioned and they are not useful
(c) useful in designing computer systems
(d) have side effects which require special care if they are used as subsystems
9.1.3 A subsystem of a complex system must specify

(a) what task it performs
(b) how it performs a task
(c) with which subsystems it co-operates
(d) how it co-operates with other systems
9.1.4 A subsystem of a complex system must
(i) know how other subsystems perform their task
(ii) know what tasks other subsystems perform
(iii) know what task it performs and other subsystems perform to access its
data
(iv) know how to send requests to other systems for getting tasks done by
them
9.1.5 A subsystem of a complex system

(i) should be reusable in other complex system
(ii) must not be able to inherit the properties of other subsystems
(iii) must have clearly specified responsibilities
(iv) must know the stimuli to which it should respond
(a) i, ii, iii (b) ii, iii, iv
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iv
9.1.6 By polymorphism of a subsystem we mean

(a) it should be reusable
(b) it should have polymorphic data types
(c) it should accept generic commands and interpret appropriately
(d) it should morph polygons
9.1.7 The advantages of object-oriented modelling are

(i) it allows easy integration of subsystems
(ii) it promotes reuse of code written earlier
(iii) it allows modification of some objects by other objects
(iv) it allows data structures in objects to be modified by other objects
(c) ii, iii (d) i, iv
9.1.8 Objects are

(i) tangible entities
(ii) intangible entities
(iii) transient entities
(iv) uniquely identifiable
9.1.9 A class is
(a) a group of objects
(b) template for objects of a particular type
(c) a class of objects
(d) a classification of objects
9.1.10 All objects have
(i) attributes
(ii) states
(iii) a set of operations
(iv) a unique identity
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, iv
9.1.11 In UML diagram of a class

(a) state of object cannot be represented
(b) state is irrelevant
(c) state is represented as an attribute
(d) state is represented as a result of an operation
9.1.12 Attributes are assigned value

(a) when operations are performed on an object
(b) when instances of objects are defined
(c) when methods are invoked
(d) when classes are identified
9.1.13 The following are intangible entities which can be defined as objects
(i) a motor car
(ii) a bank account
(iii) an aircraft
(iv) a linked list
(a) i, ii (b) ii, iv
(c) iii, iv (d) ii, iii, iv
9.1.14 A query operation on a object

(a) has side effect
(b) has no side effects
(c) changes the state of an object
(d) is not allowed
9.1.15 An instance of an object is created by a

(a) query operation
(b) update operation
(c) constructor operation
(d) open operation
9.1.16 An update operation in an object instance

(a) updates the class
(b) has no side effects
(c) deletes an instance
(d) alters values of attribute(s) of an object instance
9.1.17 In object-oriented design
(a) operations and methods are identical
(b) methods specify algorithms whereas operations only state what is to be done
(c) methods do not change values of attributes
(d) methods and constructor are same
9.1.18 By abstraction in object-oriented modelling we mean picking

(a) only attributes appropriate to model an object
(b) only operations
(c) both operation and attributes with operations appropriate to model an object
(d) the appropriate abstract data type
9.1.19 By encapsulation in object-oriented modelling we mean

(a) encapsulating data and programs
(b) hiding attributes of an object from users
(c) hiding operations on object from users
(d) hiding implementation details of methods from users of objects
9.1.20 Encapsulation in object-oriented modelling is useful as

(a) it allows improving methods of an object independent of other parts of system
(b) it hides implementation details of methods
(c) it allows easy designing
(d) encapsulates attributes and operations of object
9.1.21 Objects may be viewed as

(a) clients in a system
(b) servers in a system
(c) as both clients and servers in a system
(d) neither as clients nor as servers in a system
9.1.22 Inheritance in object-oriented system is used to

(a) create new classes from existing classes
(b) add new operations to existing operations
(c) add new attributes to existing attributes
(d) add new states to existing states
9.1.23 Inheritance in object-oriented modelling can be used to

(a) generalize classes
(b) specialize classes
(c) generalize and specialize classes
(d) create new classes
9.1.24 When a subclass is created using inheritance the resulting class
(a) may have only attributes of parent class
(b) may have only operations of parent class
(c) may have new operations only in addition to those in parent class
(d) may have new attributes and new operations in addition to those of the parent
class
9.1.25 By polymorphism in object-oriented modelling we mean

(a) the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct classes
(b) the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct classes knowing only
their common properties
(c) use of polymorphic operations
(d) use of similar operations to do similar things
9.1.26 A polymorphic operation

(a) has same name
(b) has same name but uses different methods depending on class
(c) uses different methods to perform on the same class
(d) uses polymorphic method
LEARNING UNIT 2
9.2.1 Given a word statement of a problem potential objects are identified by

selecting
(a) verb phrases in the statement
(b) noun phrases in the statement
(c) adjectives in the statement
(d) adverbs in the statement
9.2.2 Given a word statement of problem potential operations appropriate for

objects are identified by selecting
(a) verb phrases in the statement
(b) noun phrases in the statement
(c) adjectives in the statement
(d) adverbs in the statement
9.2.3 Objects selected to model a system

(i) must be essential for functioning of the system
(ii) must have all attributes which are invariant during operations of a
system
(iii) must have attributes relevant for performing services of object
(iv) must be able to perform assigned services
9.2.4 An object is selected for modelling a system provided
(a) its attributes are invariant during operation of the system
(b) its attributes change during operation of the system
(c) it has numerous attributes
(d) it has no attributes relevant to the system
9.2.5 An object is considered an external entity in object-oriented modelling if

(a) its attributes are invariant during operation of the system
(b) its attributes change during operation of the system
(c) it has numerous attributes
(d) it has no attributes relevant to the system
LEARNING UNIT 3
9.3.1 Object-oriented system modelling using CRC method gives

(a) Java programs for the system
(b) C++ programs for the system
(c) Classes of the system, their responsibilities and collaborating classes
(d) Objective C programs for the system
9.3.2 The expansion of the acronym CRC is

(a) Collecting Responsibilities Classes
(b) Collaborating with Relevant Classes
(c) Class Responsibilities and Collaborators
(d) Creating Relevant Classes
9.3.3 In CRC based design a CRC team consists of

(i) one or two user’s representatives
(ii) several programmers
(iii) project coordinators
(iv) one or two system analysts
9.3.4 A class index card contains besides class name

(i) superclasses and subclasses
(ii) short description of class
(iii) collaborators
(iv) private responsibilities of class
(v) contract(s) with collaborators
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i, iii, iv, v
(c) i, ii, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, iv and v
9.3.5 The CRC modelling primarily requires
(i) identifying classes and their responsibilities
(ii) identifying collaborators of each class and their responsibilities
(iii) developing a collaboration graph
(c) ii, iii (d) i, ii, iii
9.1.1 b 9.1.2 d 9.1.3 c 9.1.4 c 9.1.5 c 9.1.6 c

9.1.7 a 9.1.8 d 9.1.9 b 9.1.10 d 9.1.11 c 9.1.12 b
9.1.13 b 9.1.14 b 9.1.15 c 9.1.16 d 9.1.17 b 9.1.18 c
9.1.19 d 9.1.20 a 9.1.21 c 9.1.22 a 9.1.23 c 9.1.24 d
9.1.25 b 9.1.26 b 9.2.1 b 9.2.2 a 9.2.3 c 9.2.4 b
9.2.5 a 9.3.1 c 9.3.2 c 9.3.3 c 9.3.4 d 9.3.5 d
System Analysis and Design /Designing Outputs Motivation
Motivation
Presenting results of processing in an attractive and easily understood form is

important
Management requires these reports to initiate actions and thus the significance of
outputs must be easily perceived
Must be aware of new output devices being introduced to use them appropriately
Must also be aware of changes in output delivery with the emergence of systems
such as intranets/internet.
Must also cater to newer applications such as e-commerce which uses the World
Wide Web.

MODULE 9
OBJECT ORIENTED SYSTEM MODELLING
Learning Units
9.1 Objects and their properties
9.2 Identifying objects in an application
9.3 Modelling systems with object

MOTIVATION
Information Systems are becoming very complex

We thus need methods to design complex systems
Main method is to break up a large system into a
number of cooperation components and designing each
component or subsystem separately
Question: How do we do this?
The main purpose of this module is to answer this
question

DESIRABLE PROPERTIES OF COMPONENTS
Each subsystem or component must

• Have clearly defined responsibility
• Acts when requested by an "order"
• How the component does its task need not be known to other
components
• What the component does should be known

(CONTD)
• Components must be general enough to be reusable
• Variety of components should be reduced-this is facilitated

by allowing components to inherit properties of other
components
• Another aid to genaralize the function of a component is to
allow generic commands which make components do their
task
• This is called POLYMORPHISM

OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING
Use of component oriented design

• Facilitates changes in the system at low cost
• Promotes reuse of components
• Problem of integrating components to configure
large system simplified
•Simplifies design of distributed systems

OBJECT AND THEIR PROPERTIES
All tangible entities in an application can normally be modelled

as objects
For example: A student,a cycle,a train ticket
Some intangible entities may also be modelled as objects

For example: a bank account, stack data structure
Objects with similar meaning and purpose grouped together as

CLASS
A member of a class is an object instance

CHARACTERSTICS OF OBJECTS
All objects have attributes

Example : student : Name
Roll no
Address
Year
Department
All objects have a state
Example Ticket : reserved, waiting list
Student : present, absent

All objects have set of OPERATIONS which can

be performed on them
Operations determine object behavior
Example : Admit student
Cancel ticket

CLASS DIAGRAM – UML NOTATION
Universal Modelling Language (UML) is an industry standard

notation to represent a class
Example of UML notation for a Class
Vendor CLASS NAME

Vendor id
Name LIST OF ATTRIBUTES
Address
Vendor type
Add vendor
Delete vendor OPERATIONS OR (METHODS)
Find address
Change address
Find vendor type

INSTANCE DIAGRAM – UML NOTATION
Shows an object instance's attributes and values

EXAMPLE
Class name
Object name and its
A 2546 : VENDOR Class name
VENDORNAME = AD SINGH & CO

Vendor id VENDOR TYPE = DISTRIBUTOR
Attributes and their
VENDOR ADDRESS = 5, MALL
values
ROAD,KANPUR
208001

OPERATION TYPES ON OBJECTS
Constructor-creating new instances of a class

Deleting existing instance of class
Example : add new vendor
Query - accessing state without changing value
- has no side effects
Example : find vendor address

Update - changes value of one or more attributes

- affect state of object
- has side effects
example : change address of vendor
Implementation of operations on objects called
methods

IMPLEMENTATION OF CLASSES
TERMINOLOGY USED IN OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING

ABSTRACTION
Picking necessary operation and attributes to specify objects
ENCAPSULATION
Hiding implementation details of methods from outside world
ENCAPSULATION AlSO KNOWN AS INFORMATION HIDING
INFORMATION HIDING ALLOWS IMPROVEMENT OR MODIFICATION OF
METHODS USED BY OBJECTS WITHOUT AFFECTING OTHER PARTS OF A
SYSTEM

VIEW OF OBJECTS AS CONTRACTORS
1) Objects can be thought of contractors who carry out assigned

contracts for clients
2) Clients need not know how the contractor carries out its
contracts
3) Contractors can modify/improve methods they use to carry

out contracts without “informing” clients
4) External interface presented to clients remain same

INHERITANCE
New classes are created from current classes by using the idea of
inheritance
New classes inherit attributes and/or operations of existing
classes
Inheritance allows both generalisation and specialisation in
modelling
Specialisation - given student class, arts students and science
student are two subclasses
-Subclasses inherit properties of parents and in addition may
have their own special attributes and operations

EXAMPLE OF INHERITANCE
Class name College student

Roll no
Attributes Name
Address
Year of study
Operations Admit
Promote
Science student Class Name Arts student

Roll no
Name Roll no
Address Name
Year of study Attributes Address
Department Year of study
Laboratory name Department
Admit Admit
Promote Operations Promote
Calculate laboratory fee Calculate field trip fee

GENERALISATION/SPECIALISATION
Given a class Eye surgeon we can generalize it to surgeons which

will inherit most of the attributes and operations of the eye surgeon
A general class School, will inherit many properties of middle

school, primary school
Given a class Doctor we can obtain subclasses : Surgeon, Physician,

General Practitioner, Consulting Doctor.All these will inherit many
properties of doctor and will have their own new attributes and
operations

POLYMORPHISM
By polymorphism we mean ability to manipulate objects of

different distinct classes knowing only their common properties
Consider classes hospital & school
For both the operation admit will be meaningful
- they will be interpreted differently by each class
Advantage of polymorphism is ease of understanding by a
client
A client gives a generic request - each contractor interprets
and executes request as appropriate to the circumstances

IDENTIFYING OBJECTS
Simple method
- identify nouns in Requirements specification. These are potential
objects
- Identify verbs in requirements specification. These are potential
operations

CRITERIA FOR PICKING OBJECTS
1) We remind that an object class has many objects as members
2) Wherever there is no possibility of confusion we use them

synonymously
3) Objects should perform assigned services.In other words they

must have responsibilities specified by us.
4) Objects must have relevant attributes which are necessary

to perform service. Attributes must have Non-Null values.

5) A class must be essential for functioning of the system
6) Must have common set of attributes and operations

which are necessary for all occurrences of the objects in
the class
7) Objects should be independent of implementation of the

system.

HOW TO SELECT OBJECTS
1) Potential objects selected from word statement primarily by

examining
noun phrases
2) All Noun phrases need not be objects
3) If there are some objects whose attributes do not change during

the functioning of
a system we reject them
-They are probably external entities
4) We will illustrate selecting objects using examples

EXAMPLE 1 –WORD STATEMENT
ESSENTIALS OF AN ADMISSION PROCESS TO A

UNIVERSITY ARE
Applicants send applications to a university registrar’s office
A clerk in the registrar's office scrutinizes applications to see if

mark list is enclosed and fee paid
If scrutiny successful applications passed on to the relevant

department

Departmental committee scrutinizes applications sent to

it.Applications are ranked. Depending on the seats available decides
to admit, wait list or reject.The application is returned with the
message to the registrar’s office clerk.
Registrar's office clerk informs the applicant the result of his

applications

EXAMPLE 1 –IDENTIFICATION OF OBJECTS
POTENTIAL OBJECTS
1. APPLICANT
2. APPLICATION
3. REGISTRAR’S OFFICE CLERK
4. DEPARTEMENTAL (COMMITTEE)
How to select relevant objects?

Decision based on answers to following questions
Does it have attributes?
Are operations performed on the attributes?

EXAMPLE 1 –IDENTIFICATION OF OBJECTS
ANSWERS FOR EXAMPLE 1

1. Applicant has attributes. However no operations performed on it.It is not
an object in this problem.
2. Application has attributes operations are performed using attributes of
application.Result conveyed to applicant.Admit it as an object
3. Registrar’s office clerk has attributes,performs operations on application,
attributes and not on clerk’s attributes.Thus reject.
4. Department taken as potential object.It has attributes.Operations are
performed using attributes. Operations are performed using attributes of
application object and also using attributes of department.Thus admit
department as an object

ATTRIBUTES AND OPERATIONS PERFORMED
BY IDENTIFIED OBJECTS
CLASS NAME CLASS NAME
APPLICATION DEPARTEMENT
ATTRIBUTES ATTRIBUTES
APPLICATION NUMBER DEPARTMENT CODE
APPLICANT NAME DEPARTMENT NAME
APPLICANT ADDRESS COURSE
MARKS SHEET NO OF STUDENTS TO BE
FEE PAID RECEIPT ADMITTED
DEPT. APPLIED CODE NO ON WAIT LIST
APPLN STATUS MIN. ENTRY QUALIFICATION
CLERK CODE STATUS OF APPLICATION
OPERATIONS
OPERATIONS
SCRUTINIZE
SEND APPLICATION TO DEPT
SEND RESPONSE SCRUTINIZE APPLICATION
ADMIT/W.L/REJECT TO SEND APPLICATION STATUS
APPLICANT

EXAMPLE 2 : RECEIVING ITEMS ORDERED
ABSTRACT OF WORD STATEMENTS
Receiving office receives several items from vendors

Receiving office checks delivery note against orders and detects
excess/deficient deliveries if any
Discrepancy note (if any) sent to purchase office
Receiving office sends items received note to inspection office
Inspection office physically inspects items received and accepts good
items.Bad items returned to vendor
Items accepted note sent to stores office
Discrepancy note sent to purchase office
Stores office updates inventory based on items accepted note
Stores office sends taken into stock report to the accounts office for payment
to vendor
Accounts office sends payments to vendors
Candidate objects underlined

PICKING RELEVANT OBJECTS
POTENTIAL OBJECTS (UNDERLINED IN LAST PPT) ARE:
1. RECEIVING OFFICE 2. ITEMS 3. VENDORS 4. DELIVERY NOTE

5. ORDERS 6. DISCREPANCY NOTE 7. PURCHASE OFFICE
8. ITEMS RECEIVED NOTE 9.INSPECTION OFFICE 10. ACCEPTED ITEMS
NOTE 11. STORES OFFICE 12. INVENTORY 13. GOODS TAKEN IN STOCK
REPORT 14. ACCOUNTS OFFICE 15. PAYMENT VOUCHER
OBJECTS NOT RELEVANT TO THIS APPLICATION

Items
Orders
Inventory As no operations on these
Goods taken in stock
Payment voucher
RELEVANT OBJECTS
Receiving office – Even though its own attributes are not relevant,its functional
attributes are important.These are:
-Delivery note and order to vendor
It thus derives its attributes from these

RELEVANT OBJECTS
VENDORS
No operations on this object are needed in this application.However its
attributes are necessary as the Accounts office makes payment to vendors
CLASS : VENDORS
ATTRIBUTES :
Vendor code
Vendor name
Vendor address
VENDOR is actually an external object.We have thus given only attributes relevant
to this application.In general design one would usually define this object more
comprehensively

ATTRIBUTES OF DELIVERY NOTE AND ORDER
TO VENDOR
CLASS : ORDER TO VENDOR

CLASS : DELIVERY NOTE
Attributes : Attributes :
Receiving clerk id Order no
Order no Vendor code
Vendor code Item code
Delivery date Item name
Item code Qty ordered
Qty supplied Units
Units Price/Unit
Order date
Delivery period

RECEIVING OFFICE OBJECT
Receiving office is selected as an object.Its attributes are attributes derived from

delivery note and order to vendor
The class diagram is give below
CLASS
RECEIVING OFFICE
Is Part of Is Part of
DELIVERY ORDER TO
NOTE VENDOR

CLASS : RECEIVING OFFICE
Attributes : Derived as shown in the previous slide
Operations :
Compare order no,item code, qty,etc in delivery note
with that in order to vendor
Send discrepancy note (if any) to purchase office and
vendor.If no discrepancy send delivery note to purchase
Send delivery note to inspection office(object)

OTHER RELEVANT OBJECTS
CLASS : STORES OFFICE
Attributes : Attributes of inspection office + qty in stock
Operations :
Update inventory by adding no of items accepted to qty
in stock
Send advice to accounts object to make payment for qty
accepted

NEXT OBJECT IS INSPECTION OFFICE
CLASS : INSPECTION OFFICE

Attributes : Derived attributes from delivery note + no of
items accepted
Operations :
Send information an accepted items to store and
accounts
Send discrepancy note( if any) to purchase office and
vendor

OTHER OBJECTS ARE
CLASS : ACCOUNTS OFFICE

Attributes : Derived from inspection office attributes +
price/unit of item
Operations :
Calculate amount to be paid
Print cheque
Request vendor object for vendor address
Print vendor address label
Dispatch payment to vendor
Intimate Purchase office of payment

OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING-CRC METHOD
Steps in object oriented modelling
1) Find objects and their classes

2) Determine responsibilities of each object
3) State responsibilities, that is, actions. It can can carry out on
its own using its knowledge
4) Determine objects with whom they collaborate.
5) State contracts each object assigns to its collaborations
6) A collaborator either performs a requested action or gives
information
7) Document each class – its responsibilities,its collaborators
and their
responsibilities
8) Develop an object interaction/collaboration graph

CRC TEAM IDEA
CRC TEAM : user's representative

System analyst(s)
project coordinator
RESPONSIBILITY : Identify objects

Specify responsibility
Specify collaborators and their
responsibilities
Prepare a card for each class called class index cards

CRC METHODOLOGY
1. Make CRC Card for each class
CRC CARD
CLASS NAME :
SUPER CLASSES AND SUBCLASSES :
SHORT DESCRIPTION OF CLASS :
COLLABORATORS :
PRIVATE RESPONSIBILITIES OF CLASS :
CONTARCTS WITH COLLABORATORS :
Develop a graph to show interaction between classes

CRC MODEL - EXAMPLE
For Example1 of last learning unit the CRC model is given below
Class : APPLICATION
Super class : None
Sub class : None
Collaborators : DEPARTEMENT
Description : This class represents applications received for
admission to a university
Private Responsibilities :
Scrutinize : Applications are scrutinized to see if fee is paid and marks
sheet is enclosed. If yes, applications is sent to department class.Else a
rejected letter is sent to the applicant
Contract(s) and Collaborator(s):
Forward application to department : When it passes scrutiny else
send reject to applicant
Send letter to applicant : When Department notifies decision
(Admit,Reject,Waitlist) send appropriate letter to the applicant

CRC MODEL – EXAMPLE (CONTD)
Class : DEPARTMENT
Super class : None
Sub class : None
Collaborators : APPLICATION
Description : This class represents departments whose responsibility
is to admit, reject or place an waiting list on application
Rank order applications based on selection criteria.Mark in
application:admitted,rejected or in waiting list depending o available
seats

Send reply to applicationclass on admitted, rejected or wait list

COLLABORATION GRAPH
Examine application
CLASS CLASS
Admit/reject/wait list APPLICATION DEPARTMENT
Application status
Applicant
COLLABORATION GRAPH FOR EXAMPLE2
Delivery CLASS CLASS

Inspect
RECEIVING OFFICE INSPECTION OFFICE
Vendor Payment Update
Delivery copy Inventory
Discrepancy note
CLASS CLASS CLASS

PURCHASE OFFICE Payment ACCOUNTS OFFICE Make STORES OFFICE
copy payment

MODULE 9
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Objects and their properties
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Identifying objects in an application
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Modelling systems with object
5. References
MOTIVATION
Information Systems are becoming very complex, we thus need methods to

design complex systems. Main method is to break up a large system into a
number of cooperation components and designing each component or
subsystem separately. How do we do this? The main purpose of this module
is to answer this question.
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of this module you will know:
1. What are objects.

2. Why is it necessary to identify objects in an application.
3. How to identify objects given requirement specifications.
4. How objects are used to model information system.
LEARNING UNIT 1
Objects and their properties

Each subsystem or component must
• Have clearly defined responsibility
• Act when requested by an "order"
• How the component does its task need not be known to other
components
• What the component does should be known
• Components must be general enough to be reusable
• Variety of components should be reduced-this is facilitated by
allowing components to inherit properties of other components
• Another aid to generalize the function of a component is to allow
generic commands which make components do their task. This is
called POLYMORPHISM
OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING
Use of component oriented design facilitates changes in the system at low

cost, promotes reuse of components, problem of integrating components to
configure large system will be simplified. It also simplifies design of
distributed systems.
OBJECT AND THEIR PROPERTIES
All tangible entities in an application can normally be modelled as objects

For example: A student,a cycle,a train ticket
Some intangible entities may also be modelled as objects

For example: a bank account, stack data structure
Objects with similar meaning and purpose grouped together as CLASS.

And a member of a class is an object instance.
All objects have attributes
Example : student : Name
Roll no
Address
Year
Department
All objects have a state
Example Ticket: reserved, waiting list
Student: present, absent
All objects have set of OPERATIONS which can be performed on

them. Operations determine object behavior
Example : Admit student
Cancel ticket
CLASS DIAGRAM – UML NOTATION
Universal Modelling Language (UML) is an industry standard notation to

represent a class
Example of UML notation for a Class
Vendor CLASS NAME
Vendor id
Name
Address LIST OF ATTRIBUTES
Vendor type
Add vendor
Delete vendor
Find address OPERATIONS OR (METHODS)
INSTANCE DIAGRAM – UML NOTATION
Change address
Find vendor
Shows type
an object instance's attributes and values
EXAMPLE Class name
Object name and its

Class name
A 2546 : VENDOR
VENDOR ID = A2546
Vendor id VENDORNAME = AD SINGH & CO
VENDOR TYPE = DISTRIBUTOR Attributes and their
VENDOR ADDRESS = 5, MALL values
ROAD,KANPUR
208001

Constructor-creating new instances of a class and deleting existing
instance of class
Example : add new vendor
Query - accessing state without changing value, has no side effects

Example : find vendor address
Update - changes value of one or more attributes & affect state of object
Example : change address of vendor
Implementation of operations on objects called methods
IMPLEMENTATION OF CLASSES
TERMINOLOGY USED IN OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING
ABSTRACTION Picking necessary operation and attributes to specify

objects
ENCAPSULATION Hiding implementation details of methods from
outside world, it is also known as information hiding. Information hiding
allows improvement or modification of methods used by objects without
affecting other parts of a system
VIEW OF OBJECTS AS CONTRACTORS
1) Objects can be thought of contractors who carry out assigned

contracts for clients
2) Clients need not know how the contractor carries out its contracts
3) Contractors can modify/improve methods they use to carry out contracts

without “informing” clients
4) External interface presented to clients remain same
INHERITANCE
New classes are created from current classes by using the idea of
inheritance.They inherit attributes and/or operations of existing classes.
Inheritance allows both generalisation and specialisation in modelling
Specialisation - given student class, arts students and science student are two
subclasses, subclasses inherit properties of parents and in addition may have
their own special attributes and operations.
EXAMPLE OF INHERITANCE
Class name College student

Roll no
Attributes Name
Address
Year of study
Operations Admit
Promote
Science student Class Name Arts student

Roll no
Name Roll no
Address Name
Year of study Attributes Address
Department Year of study
Laboratory name Department
Admit Admit
Promote Operations Promote
Calculate laboratory fee Calculate field trip fee
GENERALISATION/SPECIALISATION
Given a class Eye surgeon we can generalize it to surgeons which will

inherit most of the attributes and operations of the eye surgeon
A general class School, will inherit many properties of middle school,
primary school
Given a class Doctor we can obtain subclasses : Surgeon, Physician, General

Practitioner, Consulting Doctor.All these will inherit many properties of
doctor and will have their own new attributes and operations
POLYMORPHISM
By polymorphism we mean ability to manipulate objects of different distinct

classes knowing only their common properties,
Consider classes hospital & school
For both the operation admit will be meaningful, but they will be interpreted
differently by each class. Advantage of polymorphism is ease of
understanding by a client. A client gives a generic request - each contractor
interprets and executes request as appropriate to the circumstances
LEARNING UNIT 2
Identifying objects in an application

IDENTIFYING OBJECTS
Simple method
- identify nouns in Requirements specification. These are potential objects
- Identify verbs in requirements specification. These are potential operations
1)We remind that an object class has many objects as members
2)Wherever there is no possibility of confusion we use them synonymously
3)Objects should perform assigned services. In other words they must have
responsibilities specified by us.
4)Objects must have relevant attributes which are necessary to perform

service. Attributes must have Non-Null values.
5)A class must be essential for functioning of the system
6)Must have common set of attributes and operations which are necessary
for all occurrences of the objects in the class
7)Objects should be independent of implementation of the system.
HOW TO SELECT OBJECTS
1) Potential objects are selected from word statement primarily by

examining noun phrases
2) All Noun phrases need not be objects
3) If there are some objects whose attributes do not change during the
functioning of a system we reject them. They are probably external entities

ESSENTIALS OF AN ADMISSION PROCESS TO A UNIVERSITY
ARE
Applicants send applications to a university registrar’s office
A clerk in the registrar's office scrutinizes applications to see if mark list is

enclosed and fee paid
If scrutiny successful applications passed on to the relevant department
Departmental committee scrutinizes applications sent to it. Applications

are ranked. Depending on the seats available decides to admit, wait list or
reject. The application is returned with the message to the registrar’s office
clerk.
Registrar's office clerk informs the applicant the result of his applications
POTENTIAL OBJECTS
1. APPLICANT
2. APPLICATION
3. REGISTRAR’S OFFICE CLERK
4. DEPARTEMENTAL (COMMITTEE)
1. Applicant has attributes. However no operations performed on it. It is

not an object in this problem.
2. Application has attributes operations are performed using attributes of
application. Result conveyed to applicant. Admit it as an object
3. Registrar’s office clerk has attributes, performs operations on
application’s attributes and not on clerk’s attributes. Thus reject.
4. Department taken as potential object. It has attributes. Operations are
performed using attributes. Operations are performed using attributes of
application object and also using attributes of department. Thus admit
department as an object
ATTRIBUTES AND OPERATIONS PERFORMED BY IDENTIFIED

OBJECTS
APPLICATION DEPARTEMENT
ATTRIBUTES ATTRIBUTES
APPLICATION NUMBER DEPARTMENT CODE
APPLICANT NAME DEPARTMENT NAME
APPLICANT ADDRESS COURSE
MARKS SHEET NO OF STUDENTS TO BE
FEE PAID RECEIPT ADMITTED
DEPT. APPLIED CODE NO ON WAIT LIST
APPLN STATUS MIN. ENTRY QUALIFICATION
CLERK CODE STATUS OF APPLICATION
OPERATIONS OPERATIONS
SCRUTINIZE
SEND APPLICATION TO DEPT SCRUTINIZE APPLICATION
SEND RESPONSE SEND APPLICATION STATUS
ADMIT/W.L/REJECT TO APPLICANT
EXAMPLE 2 : RECEIVING ITEMS ORDERED

ABSTRACT OF WORD STATEMENTS
Receiving office receives several items from vendors
Receiving office checks delivery note against orders and detects
excess/deficient deliveries if any
Discrepancy note (if any) sent to purchase office
Receiving office sends items received note to inspection office
Inspection office physically inspects items received and accepts good
items.Bad items returned to vendor
Items accepted note sent to stores office
Discrepancy note sent to purchase office
Stores office updates inventory based on items accepted note
Stores office sends taken into stock report to the accounts office for
payment to vendor
Accounts office sends payments to vendors
PICKING RELEVANT OBJECTS

POTENTIAL OBJECTS ARE:
1. RECEIVING OFFICE 2. ITEMS 3. VENDORS 4. DELIVERY NOTE

5. ORDERS 6. DISCREPANCY NOTE 7. PURCHASE OFFICE
8. ITEMS RECEIVED NOTE 9.INSPECTION OFFICE
10. ACCEPTED ITEMS NOTE 11. STORES OFFICE
12. INVENTORY 13. GOODS TAKEN IN STOCK REPORT
14. ACCOUNTS OFFICE 15. PAYMENT VOUCHER
OBJECTS NOT RELEVANT TO THIS APPLICATION
Items
Orders
Inventory
Goods taken in stock
Payment voucher
RELEVANT OBJECTS
Receiving office – Even though its own attributes are not relevant, its
functional attributes are important. These are:
-Delivery note and order to vendor
It thus derives its attributes from these
RELEVANT OBJECTS
VENDORS
No operations on this object are needed in this application. However its
attributes are necessary as the Accounts office makes payment to vendors
CLASS : VENDORS
ATTRIBUTES :
Vendor code
Vendor name
Vendor address
VENDOR is actually an external object.We have thus given only attributes

relevant to this application.In general design one would usually define this
object more comprehensively
ATTRIBUTES OF DELIVERY NOTE AND ORDER TO VENDOR
CLASS : DELIVERY NOTE CLASS : ORDER TO VENDOR

Attributes :
Receiving clerk id Attributes :
Order no Order no
Vendor code Vendor code
Delivery date Item code
Item code Item name
Qty supplied Qty ordered
Units Units
Price/Unit
Order date
Delivery period
Receiving office is selected as an object. Its attributes are attributes derived
from delivery note and order to vendor
The class diagram is given below
CLASS
RECEIVING OFFICE
Is Part of Is Part of
DELIVERY ORDER TO
NOTE VENDOR
CLASS : RECEIVING OFFICE
Attributes : Derived as shown above
Operations :
Compare order no,item code, qty,etc in delivery note with that in
order to vendor
Send discrepancy note (if any) to purchase office and vendor.If no
discrepancy send delivery note to purchase
Send
OTHERdelivery note to inspection
RELEVANT OBJECTS office(object)
CLASS : STORES OFFICE
Attributes : Attributes of inspection office + qty in stock

Operations :
Update inventory by adding no of items accepted to qty in stock
Send advice to accounts object to make payment for qty accepted
CLASS : INSPECTION OFFICE
Attributes : Derived attributes from delivery note + no of items accepted
Operations :
Send information on accepted items to store and accounts
Send discrepancy note( if any) to purchase office and vendor
CLASS : ACCOUNTS OFFICE
Attributes : Derived from inspection office attributes + price/unit of item
Operations :
Calculate amount to be paid
Print cheque
Request vendor object for vendor address
Print vendor address label
LEARNING UNIT 3
Modelling systems with object
OBJECT ORIENTED MODELLING-CRC METHOD

Steps in object oriented modelling
1) Find objects and their classes

2) Determine responsibilities of each object
3) State responsibilities, that is, actions. It can carry out on its own using its
knowledge
4) Determine objects with whom they collaborate.
5) State contracts each object assigns to its collaborators
6) A collaborator either performs a requested action or gives information
7) Document each class – its responsibilities,its collaborators and their
responsibilities
8) Develop an object interaction/collaboration graph
CRC TEAM IDEA

CRC TEAM : user's representative
System analyst(s)
project coordinator
RESPONSIBILITY : Identify objects

Specify responsibility
Specify collaborators and their
responsibilities
Prepare a card for each class called class index cards
CRC METHODOLOGY
1. Make CRC Card for each class
CRC CARD
CLASS NAME :
SUPER CLASSES AND SUBCLASSES :
SHORT DESCRIPTION OF CLASS :

Develop a graph to show interaction between classes
CRC MODEL – EXAMPLE1
Class : APPLICATION
Super class : None
Sub class : None
Collaborators : DEPARTEMENT
Private Responsibilities
Description :
: This class represents applications received for admission to a university
Scrutinize : Applications are scrutinized to see if fee is paid and marks sheet is enclosed.
If yes, applications is sent to department class.Else a rejected letter is sent to the applicant
Forward
CRC application to department(CONTD)
MODEL – EXAMPLE : When it passes scrutiny else send reject to applicant
Send letter to applicant : When Department notifies decision (Admit,Reject,Waitlist)
send appropriate letter to the applicant
Class : DEPARTMENT
Super class : None
Sub class : None
Collaborators : APPLICATION
Description : This class represents departments whose responsibility is to admit, reject or

place an waiting list on application
Rank order applications based on selection criteria mark’s in application:admitted,rejected
or in waiting list depending o available seats

Send reply to applicationclass on admitted, rejected or wait list
COLLABORATION GRAPH
Examine application
CLASS CLASS
APPLICATION DEPARTMENT
Admit/reject/wait list
Application status
Applicant
COLLABORATION GRAPH FOR EXAMPLE2 : Receiving items ordered by a company
CLASS CLASS
Delivery RECEIVING OFFICE INSPECTION OFFICE
Inspect
Vendor Payment
Delivery copy Update
Inventory
Discrepancy note
CLASS
PURCHASE OFFICE CLASS CLASS
ACCOUNTS OFFICE Make STORES OFFICE
Payment payment
copy
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this module has been taken from the book
“Analysis and Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition,
V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 13,
Object Oriented System Modelling (pp.180-199)
2. There are several standard books on object oriented modeling for

those who want to study deeper. Some of these are:
(i) I.Jacobson et.al “Object Oriented Software Engineering”,
Pearson Education Asia, 1998
(ii) David Colemen et.al “Object Oriented Development”,
Prentice Hall, Inc., N.J., WA,1999
(iii) J.Rumbaugh et.al “Object Oriented Design and
Applications”, Benjamin Cumming, U.S.A., 1991
System Analysis and Design/ Object-Oriented System Modeling Multiple Choice Questions
9.1 Computer systems are designed by

a. simplifying requirements of system
b. breaking of the system into smaller self-contained co-operating
subsystems
c. breaking up the systems into independent parts
d. modular design
9.2 Functions and procedures are
a. not useful in designing computer systems
b. old fashioned and they are not useful
c. useful in designing computer systems
d. have side effects which require special care if they are used as
subsystems
9.3 A subsystem of a complex system must specify
a. what task it performs
b. how it performs a task
c. with which subsystems it co-operates
d. how it co-operates with other systems
9.4 A subsystem of a complex system must
a. ii, iii
b. ii, iv
c. iii, iv
9.5 A subsystem of a complex system
(i)should be reusable in other complex system
(ii)must not be able to inherit the properties of other
subsystems
(iii)must have clearly specified responsibilities
(iv)must know the stimuli to which it should respond
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. i, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv

9.6 By polymorphism of a subsystem we mean

a. it should be reusable
b. it should have polymorphic data types
c. it should accept generic commands and interpret appropriately
d. it should morph polygons
9.7 The advantages of object-oriented modelling are
a. i, ii
b. i, iii
c. ii, iii
d. i, iv
9.8 Objects are
(i)tangible entities
(ii)intangible entities
(iii)transient entities
(iv) uniquely identifiable
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
9.9 A class is
a. a group of objects
b. template for objects of a particular type
c. a class of objects
d. a classification of objects
9.10 All objects have
(i) attributes
(ii) states
(iii)a set of operations
(iv) a unique identity
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv

c. i, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv
9.11 In UML diagram of a class
a. state of object cannot be represented
b. state is irrelevant
c. state is represented as an attribute
d. state is represented as a result of an operation
9.12 Attributes are assigned value
a. when operations are performed on an object
b. when instances of objects are defined
c. when methods are invoked
d. when classes are identified
9.13 The following are intangible entities which can be defined as objects
(i) a motor car
(ii) a bank account
(iii) an aircraft
(iv) a linked list
a. i, ii
b. ii, iv
c. iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv
9.14 A query operation on a object
a. has side effect
b. has no side effects
c. changes the state of an object
d. is not allowed
9.15 An instance of an object is created by a
a. query operation
b. update operation
c. constructor operation
d. open operation

9.16 An update operation in an object instance

a. updates the class
b. has no side effects
c. deletes an instance
d. alters values of attribute(s) of an object instance
9.17 In object-oriented design
a. operations and methods are identical
b. methods specify algorithms whereas operations only state what is to be
done
c. methods do not change values of attributes
d. methods and constructor are same
9.18 By abstraction in object-oriented modelling we mean picking
a. only attributes appropriate to model an object
b. only operations
c. both operation and attributes with operations appropriate to model an
object
d. the appropriate abstract data type
9.19 By encapsulation in object-oriented modelling we mean
a. encapsulating data and programs
b. hiding attributes of an object from users
c. hiding operations on object from users
d. hiding implementation details of methods from users of objects
9.20 Encapsulation in object-oriented modelling is useful as
a. it allows improving methods of an object independent of other parts of
system
b. it hides implementation details of methods
c. it allows easy designing
d. encapsulates attributes and operations of object
9.21 Objects may be viewed as
a. clients in a system
b. servers in a system

c. as both clients and servers in a system

d. neither as clients nor as servers in a system
9.22 Inheritance in object-oriented system is used to
a. create new classes from existing classes
b. add new operations to existing operations
c. add new attributes to existing attributes
d. add new states to existing states
9.23 Inheritance in object-oriented modelling can be used to
a. generalize classes
b. specialize classes
c. generalize and specialize classes
d. create new classes
9.24 When a subclass is created using inheritance the resulting class
a. may have only attributes of parent class
b. may have only operations of parent class
c. may have new operations only in addition to those in parent class
d. may have new attributes and new operations in addition to those of the
parent class
9.25 By polymorphism in object-oriented modelling we mean
a. the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct classes
b. the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct classes knowing
only their common properties
c. use of polymorphic operations
d. use of similar operations to do similar things
9.26 A polymorphic operation
a. has same name
b. has same name but uses different methods depending on class
c. uses different methods to perform on the same class
d. uses polymorphic method
9.27 Given a word statement of a problem potential objects are identified by
selecting

a. verb phrases in the statement

b. noun phrases in the statement
c. adjectives in the statement
d. adverbs in the statement
9.28 Given a word statement of problem potential operations appropriate for
objects are identified by selecting
a. verb phrases in the statement
b. noun phrases in the statement
c. adjectives in the statement
d. adverbs in the statement
9.29 Objects selected to model a system
(i)must be essential for functioning of the system
(ii)must have all attributes which are invariant during
operations of a system
(iii)must have attributes relevant for performing services of
object
(iv) must be able to perform assigned services
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. i, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv
9.30 An object is selected for modelling a system provided
a. its attributes are invariant during operation of the system
b. its attributes change during operation of the system
c. it has numerous attributes
d. it has no attributes relevant to the system
9.31 An object is considered an external entity in object-oriented modelling
a. its attributes are invariant during operation of the system
b. its attributes change during operation of the system
c. it has numerous attributes
d. it has no attributes relevant to the system

9.32 Object-oriented system modelling using CRC method gives

a. Java programs for the system
b. C++ programs for the system
c. Classes of the system, their responsibilities and collaborating classes
d. Objective C programs for the system
9.33 The expansion of the acronym CRC is
a. Collecting Responsibilities Classes
b. Collaborating with Relevant Classes
c. Class Responsibilities and Collaborators
d. Creating Relevant Classes
9.34 In CRC based design a CRC team consists of
(i) one or two user’s representatives
(ii) several programmers
(iii) project coordinators
(iv) one or two system analysts
a. i, ii
b. i, iii
c. i, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv
9.35 A class index card contains besides class name
(i) superclasses and subclasses
(ii) short description of class
(iii)collaborators
(iv)private responsibilities of class
(v)contract(s) with collaborators
a. i, ii, iii
b. i, iii, iv, v
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv and v
9.36 The CRC modeling primarily requires
(i)identifying classes and their responsibilities

(ii)identifying collaborators of each class and their

responsibilities
(iii)developing a collaboration graph
a. i, ii
b. i, iii
c. ii, iii
d. i, ii, iii

9.1 b 9.2 d 9.3 c 9.4 c 9.5 c 9.6 c

9.7 a 9.8 d 9.9 b 9.10 d 9.11 c 9.12 b
9.13 b 9.14 b 9.15 c 9.16 d 9.17 b 9.18 c
9.19 d 9.20 a 9.21 c 9.22 a 9.23 c 9.24 d
9.25 b 9.26 b 9.27 b9.28 a 9.29 c 9.30 b

9.31 a 9.32 c 9.33 c 9.34 c 9.35 d 9.36 d

MODULE 9
OBJECT-ORIENTED SYSTEM
MODELLING
WORKED EXAMPLES
13.1What is object-oriented modelling?

Object-oriented modelling is a methodology of analyzing requirements of a
system with the aim of identifying subsystems with the following desirable
properties:
(a) Each subsystem should have clearly specified responsibility of performing a
part of overall task.
(b) Other parts of the subsystem should not have to know how a subsystem
performs the task assigned to it, rather they should only know what task a
subsystem does
(c) Each subsystem should be self-contained and independent
(d) Each subsystem should know what other subsystems do and how to send
requests to them for assistance so that it can cooperate with them to get its
own job done
(e) Subsystem should hide from outside world the data it uses
(f) The subsystem should be designed to be reusable
13.2 Why is object-oriented modelling used in practice?

Object-oriented modelling is used in practice as it
• Facilitates changing of system to improve functionality during the system life
time
• Facilitates reuse of code of each of the subsystems used to design the large
system
• Facilitates integrating subsystems into a large system
• Facilitates design of distributed systems
13.3 When is objected-oriented modelling particularly useful?

An object-oriented modelling is particularly useful in the following situations:
• It is required to change an existing system by adding new functionality
• While designing large system and it is found that it can be designed as a
collection of existing reusable objects
13.4 Define an object.
An object is an entity, which is uniquely identifiable and permanent relative to the
life time cycle of an application. It may be tangible or intangible. Examples of
tangible objects are bus, student etc. Examples of intangible objects are bank
account, queue data structure etc.
13.5 What is the difference between a class and an object?

A class can be termed as a group of objects having similar behavior and similar
attributes. A class is a template or blueprint, which defines all the properties and
attributes that an object belonging to it possess. An object is a particular instance of a
class. Each object has values assigned to its attributes.
13.6What are subclasses and superclasses? Give examples of each of these

Subclasses are classes which have some common attributes and operations
inherited from parent class. The parent class is called superclass.
There may be more than one superclass for a subclass. Though the operations in
subclasses are same as superclasses but they may be interpreted in a different
way. A subclass overrides the functionality of superclass.
For example, if class furniture is a superclass then its subclasses are tables,
chairs, cots etc.
A vehicle is a superclass and its subclasses may be cycle, scooter, car, buses etc.
13.7 What do you understand by information hiding? Why is it resorted to in

designing information systems? How is it achieved?
Information hiding is the way of hiding the implementation details of an object
from the outside world. Any changes in the way the operations are performed by
an object is not visible to the client and vice-versa. An object can change the code
used by it without affecting the functionality of client. It is achieved by specifying
the operations which an object can perform and publicising them.
13.8 What do you mean by inheritance in object-oriented systems? Why is it

useful? Give an example of inheritance.
Inheritance is a technique by which the properties and attributes of a class are
inherited by a subclass. With inheritance we can refine the subclasses by adding
some new attributes and functionality.
For Example, the Employee class shown below is the superclass and the classes
Salesman and Accounts_Assistant are inherited classes.
Class name Employee
Attributes Emp_no
Emp_name
Address
Date_of_joining
Operations Calculate_salary()
Calculate_incometax()
Salesman class name Accounts Assistant
Emp_no Emp_no
Emp_name Emp_name
Address Attributes Address
Date_of_joining Date_of_joining
Dept. Dept.
Sell_product() Operations Accounts_of_purchased_ items()

Calculate_commsn() Generate_salary_bill()
13.9What do you understand by the term polymorphism in object-oriented system?

Why is it useful? Give an example of polymorphism.
By polymorphism we mean , the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct
classes using only knowledge of their common property.
For example: An operation reservation would be interpreted appropriately by a
class describing a train using rules relevant to the railway. The same operation
reservation would be interpreted differently by another class representing an
airline.
13.11Pick objects and model the following requirements statement using the object.
“A magazine is printed monthly and posted to its subscribers. Two months
before the expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the subscribers. If
subscription is not received within a month, another reminder is sent. If
renewal subscription is not received upto two weeks before the expiry of the
subscription, the subscriber’s name is removed from the mailing list and
subscriber is informed”.
Class: Magazine Publishing Company
Attributes:
Magazine_id, Sub_id
Company_address
Magazine_name
Operations:
Request_subscn( magazine_id)
Class: Subscription Accounts

Attributes:
Magazine_id
Sub_id
Sub_address
Subcn_exp_date
Subscn_amount
Operations:
Send_first_reminder(sub_id)
Send_second_reminder(sub_id)
Delete_subscriber(sub_id)
Update_subscriber_account(sub_id)
Magazine Publishing Company Class
Class: Magazine Publishing Company

Superclass: None
Subclass: None
Collaborators: Subscription Accounts
Description: The class represents the company, which prints many magazines
monthly and sends magazine with magazine_id to the subscription accounts
class
Private responsibilities:
Request_subscn_accounts processing
Delete the subscriber’s name from the mailing list and send
acknowledgement
Contract(s) with collaborator(s):
Dispatch the receipt after receiving the money
Subscription Accounts Class
Class: Subscription Accounts

Superclass: None
Subclass: None
Collaborators: Magazine Publishing Company
Description: This class processes subscription accounts
Private responsibilities: Send Subscription, reminders, update subscribers
Contractor(s) and Collaborators:
Send confirmation along with money for subscription
Send acknowledgement after receiving magazine
Class Class
Magazine_publishing Magazine_subscn_acc Send ack
company Send the ounts Send cheque
magazine Request_Subscn
and mag_id
Subscriber
Collaboration graph
13.12Give brief requirements specification for a bus ticket reservation system.

Model it using objects.
For making reservation for a bus a passenger has to fill-up a form, which has field
specifications like name, address, date of journey, destination etc. After filling up
the form the ticket is issued from the counter after checking for the availability of
the seats. A passenger has an option to cancel his ticket.
The two classes taken here are ticket class and bus class. The ticket class sends
a message to bus class regarding the availability of seats and gets the confirmation
from the bus class.
Class: Ticket
Attributes: Bus_No
Ticket_No
Date_of_issue
Date_of_journey
Starting_Point
Destination
Passenger_Name
Fare
Departure_Time
Checkin_Time
Operation: Issue_ticket()
Cancel_ticket()
Query()
Class: Bus
Attributes: Bus_No
No_of_Seats
Availability
Route_No
Operation: Confirm()
Class: Passenger
Attributes: Passenger_Name
Address
Ph. No
Date_of_Journey
Bus_No
Route_No
Operation: Booking_Ticket()
Ticket Class
Class: Ticket
Superclass: None
Subclass: None
Collaborators: Bus, Passenger
Description: Issue ticket to the passenger
Issue the ticket to the passenger if it is confirmed
Cancel the ticket and return the money
Contractor(s) and collaborator(s)
Send the query to Bus class for getting the status
Passenger Class
Class: Passenger
Superclass: None
Subclass: None
Collaborator(s): Bus
Description: This class gets the details about availability of bus and seats
Contractor(s) and Collaborator(s):
Send query to the bus class to get the bus no. and the availability of bus
and seats
Bus Class
Class: Bus
Superclass: None
Subclass: None
Collaborator(s): passenger, Ticket
Description: Send the information regarding status of bus and seats
Contractor(s) and collaborator(s):
Send the confirmation regarding the availability of seats and bus to the
passenger and ticket class
Get the status of the bus

Passenger Bus
Book the
ticket
Get the status of the bus
Cancel
Ticket
Confirm
Collaboration graph
System Analysis and Design /Object Oriented System Modeling Question Bank
Question Bank
9.1 What is object oriented modelling?
9.2 Why is object oriented modelling used in practice?
9.3 When is object oriented modelling particularly useful
9.4 Define an object
9.5 What is the difference between a class and an object
9.6 What are subclasses and superclasses. Give examples of each of these.
9.7 What do you understand by information hiding? Why is it resorted to in designing
information systems? How is it achieved?
9.8 What do you mean by inheritance in object oriented systems? Why is it useful?
Give an example of inheritance.
9.9 What do you understand by the term polymorphism in object oriented system?
9.10 How do you select objects from a requirement specification. Given the following
requirement statement, select potential objects.
A list of employers with their basic pay is sent to a clerk. He calculates the gross
pay using standard allowances which are known for each pay slab. Deduction
statements such as loan repayment, subscription to association etc., are also sent
to another clerk who matches these slips with the slips of gross pay and calculates
net pay. This step is used by another clerk to write out pay cheques for each
employee and sent to respective employees. The total pay bills computed is also
computed".

System Analysis and Design /Object Oriented System Modeling Question Bank
9.11 Pick objects and model the following requirements statement using objects. "A
magazine is printed monthly and posted to its subscribers. Two months before the
expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the subscribers. If subscription is not
received within a month, another reminder is sent . If renewal subscription is not
received upto two weeks before the expiry of the subscription, the subscriber's
name is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber informed".
9.12 Give a brief requirement specification for a bus ticket reservation system. Model
it using objects.

System Analysis and Design /Object Oriented System Modeling Pointers
References
1. Most of the material in this module has been taken from the book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 13, Object Oriented System Modelling (pp.180-
199)
2. There are several standard books on object oriented modeling for those who want
to dwell deeper. Some of these are:
(i) I.Jacobson et.al “Object Oriented Software Engineering”, Pearson
Education Asia, 1998
(ii) David Colemen et.al “Object Oriented Development”, Prentice Hall,
Inc., N.J., WA,1999
(iii) J.Rumbaugh et.al “Object Oriented Design and Applications”,
Benjamin Cumming, U.S.A., 1991.

SUMMARY of Module 9
1. Complex systems are designed by breaking down such systems into a number of
cooperating subsystems which are reasonably independent and self-contained.
2. One method of design is to use what are known as objects as subsystems.
3. The main motivation for using object oriented modelling is the realisation that
individual objects may be modified without affecting the other parts of the
system.
4. Objects also promote their reuse in many systems.
5. An object is an entity which is uniquely identifiable and is permanent relative to
the life time scale of an application. All objects have attributes and state. A set of
operations are defined for each object which determines their behaviour.
6. Objects collaborate by responding to requests from other objects to carry out
specified operations.
7. Objects having similar meaning and purpose may be grouped together to form a
class. A class may be considered as a template for objects of a particular type.
8. Special properties of objects are encapsulation, inheritance and polymorphism.
9. Encapsulation is the hiding of implementation details of an object from the clients
who use the services provided by an object.
10. A class A may have attributes and operations which are identical to another class
B in addition to its own attributes and operations. In such a case class A is said to
inherit operations and attributes of class B.
11. Using inheritance a hierarchy of classes may be constructed where children
inherit some of the properties of their parents in addition to their own properties
1
12. An important concept in modelling using objects is polymorphism.
Polymorphism is the ability to manipulate objects of different distinct classes
using only knowledge of their common property.
13. To model an information system using objects the requirements specification is
examined and all nouns in it are picked as potential objects.
14. From among potential objects the relevant ones appropriate for modelling are the
ones which have specific responsibilities and essential for the functioning of the
system.
15. Having identified objects and their responsibilities the next step is to find the
objects with whom they collaborate
16. A documents is prepared for each class giving its own responsibilities, its
collaborators and their responsibilities.
17. A graph showing pictorially the classes and their mutual collaboration completes
object oriented modeling.
2
Question Bank – Module 9
13.1 What is object oriented modelling?
13.2 Why is object oriented modelling used in practice?
13.3 When is object oriented modelling particularly useful
13.4 Define an object
13.5 What is the difference between a class and an object
13.6 What are subclasses and superclasses. Give examples of each of these.
13.7 What do you understand by information hiding? Why is it resorted to in
designing information systems? How is it achieved?
13.8 What do you mean by inheritance in object oriented systems? Why is it useful?
Give an example of inheritance.
13.9 What do you understand by the term polymorphism in object oriented system?
13.1 How do you select objects from a requirement specification. Given the following
computed".
3
13.1 Pick objects and model the following requirements statement using objects. "A
magazine is printed monthly and posted to its subscribers. Two months before
the expiry of subscription, a reminder is sent to the subscribers. If subscription is
not received within a month, another reminder is sent . If renewal subscription is
not received upto two weeks before the expiry of the subscription, the subscriber's
name is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber informed".
13.1 Give a brief requirements specification for a bus ticket reservation system. Model
it using objects.
4
References
1. Most of the material in this module has been taken from the book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, V.Rajaraman, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi, 2003. Chapter 13, Object Oriented System Modelling (pp.180-
199)
2. There are several standard books on object oriented modeling for those who want
to dwell deeper. Some of these are:
(i) I.Jacobson et.al “Object Oriented Software Engineering”, Pearson
Education Asia, 1998
(ii) David Colemen et.al “Object Oriented Development”, Prentice Hall,
Inc., N.J., WA,1999
(iii) J.Rumbaugh et.al “Object Oriented Design and Applications”,
Benjamin Cumming, U.S.A., 1991
5
MODULE 10
DESIGNING OUTPUTS
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
answer
LEARNING UNIT 1
10.1.1 A line printer

(i) prints an entire line at a time
(ii) is a non-impact printer
(iii) allows multiple copies to be taken at a time
(iv) prints one character at a time
10.1.2 A dot matrix printer

(i) prints an entire line at time
10.1.3 An inkjet printer

10.1.4 A laser printer
10.1.5 A laser printer

(i) gives a better quality printout compared to inkjet printer
(ii) is less expensive than an inkjet printer
(iii) is more expensive than a dot matrix printer
(iv) gives a better quality printout compared to dot matrix printer
(c) i, ii, iv (d) i, iii, iv
10.1.6 An audio output unit

(a) can speak out small range of digits and specified words
(b) is not used in information system
(c) is very expensive and is thus not used
(d) is normally used to give only background music
LEARNING UNIT 2
10.2.1 While designing output report it is important to keep the following in mind:
(i) volume of output
(ii) potential users
(iii) current users
(iv) periodicity of output
(c) i, ii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, iv
10.2.2 Outputs needed by top-managers are

(a) summary reports with good grouping
(b) exception reports
(c) detailed reports
(d) expected reports
10.2.3 Outputs needed by middle level managers are

10.2.4 Outputs needed by operational managers are
LEARNING UNIT 3
10.3.1 Reports headings are used as

(a) it is good practice
(b) it helps in reading and understanding a report
(c) it is required by management
(d) it is a good documentation aid
10.3.2 Report footing is

(a) same as report heading
(b) the label printed at the end of each page
(c) the label printed at the end of each control group
(d) the label printed at the end of a report
10.3.3 Page footing is

(b) the labels printed at the end of each page
(c) the labels printed at the end of each control group
(d) the labels printed at the end of a report
10.3.4 Control footing is

(b) the labels printed at the end of each page
(c) the labels printed at the end of each control group
(d) the labels printed at the end of a report
10.3.5 Control footings are printed because

(a) it is required in documentation
(b) it is suggested by management
(c) it summarizes information in logically grouped items
(d) it is necessary for error detection
10.3.6 Good report allows one to
(i) read it from left to right and top to bottom
(ii) read it from any point
(iii) find out easily the beginning and end of the report
(iv) printed it in one page
10.3.7 Print chart is

(a) a printed chart
(b) one which is filled in by an analyst while formatting a report
(c) prepared by users
(d) printed by computer
LEARNING UNIT 4
10.4.1 Screens normally have

(a) 70 columns and 24 lines
(b) 80 columns and 20 lines
(c) 80 columns and 24 lines
(d) 72 columns and 22 lines
10.4.2 Designing screens uses principles

(a) which are unique
(b) similar to those used for printed reports
(c) different from those used for printed reports
(d) which are well specified
10.4.3 Buttons which can be clicked using a mouse are placed in screens as
(a) they are convenient to use
(b) it is the modern trend
(c) large number of buttons can be used
(d) using a keyboard is error prone
10.4.4 Bar charts are used when

(a) it is required to illustrate geographical distribution of data
(b) relative distribution of data in specified categories is to be shown
(c) percent use of resources under various heads is to be shown
(d) trends as a function of time is to be illustrated
10.4.5 Pie charts are normally used when

10.4.6 X-Y graphs are normally used when
10.1.1 b 10.1.2 c 10.1.3 a 10.1.4 a 10.1.5 d 10.1.6 a

10.2.1 d 10.2.2 a 10.2.3 b 10.2.4 c 10.3.1 b 10.3.2 d
10.3.3 b 10.3.4 c 10.3.5 c 10.3.6 b 10.3.7 b 10.4.1 c
10.4.2 b 10.4.3 a 10.4.4 b 10.4.5 c 10.4.6 d
System Analysis and Design / Object Oriented Systems Modeling Motivation
Motivation
Information Systems are becoming very complex.
We thus need methods to design complex systems.
Main method is to break up a large system into a number of cooperation
components and designing each component or subsystem separately.
Question: How do we do this?
The main purpose of this module is to answer this question.

MODULE 10
DESIGNING OUTPUTS
Contents
10.1 Output Devices
10.2 Objectives of output design
10.3 Design of output reports
10.4 Design of screens and graphics

LEARNING GOALS
•Review characteristics of devices used to output

information from computers
•Objectives of output design
•Design of reports
•design of screens
•Role of graphics in output design

MOTIVATION
• Presenting results of processing in an attractive and easily

understood form is important
• Management requires these reports to initiate actions and thus
the significance of outputs must be easily perceived
• Must be aware of new output devices being introduced to use
them appropriately
• Must also be aware of changes in output delivery with the
emergence of systems such as intranets/internet.
• Must also cater to newer applications such as e-commerce which
uses the world wide web.

OUTPUT DEVICES
•HARD COPY DEVICES - PRINTERS

•SOFT DEVICES - VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES
TEXT
AUDIO - SPEECH SYNTHESISER

•MULTIMEDIA
GRAPHICS
VIDEO

HARD COPY DEVICES
Printers used when - there is large volume of data

- several copies normally needed
Types of printers
Line Printers
• Impact Dot matrix character printers
Laser printer
• Non-Impact
Inkjet printer

PRINTER CHARACTERSTICS
LINE PRINTERS
-LARGE VOLUME OUTPUT
-FAST - ENTIRE LINE PRINTED
-MULTIPLE COPIES
-HIGH CAPITAL COST BUT LOW RUNNING COST
DOT MATRIX PRINTERS

- SLOW
- INEXPENSIVE ( PER COPY COST)
- MULTIPLE COPIES WITH CARBON PAPER
- POOR GRAPHICS

INKJET PRINTERS
-CHARACTERS + GRAPHICS
-MULTICOLOUR
-CAPITAL COST LOW COMPARED TO LASER PRINTER
-RECURRING COST HIGH
LASER PRINTERS
-CHARACTERS + GRAPHICS
-MULTICOLOUR EXPENSIVE
-EXCELLENT QUALITY
-CAPITAL COST HIGH
- RECURRING COST LOWER THAN INKJET

SOFT COPY MEDIA
• Used to distribute manuals, massive reports, user

documents, software
FLOPPY DISK
CDROM
Alternatives
DVD ROM
FLASH MEMORY
(SEMI CONDUCTOR)

SOFT COPY MEDIA (CONTD)
• FLOPPY DISK
- Inexpensive
- Easy to mail/transport
- Low capacity –1.4MB
- Read/write
- Contact recording – number of
read/writes limited

• CDROM
- Inexpensive Medium
- Read only cheaper/safer
- High capacity – 600MB
- Easy to transport/mail
- Primarily used for Text/Graphics
• DVDROM
- Very high capacity – upto 8GB
- Easy to transport
- Useful for storing high quality video such as full
length movies

• FLASH MEMORY
- Read/Write
- Small size and weight
- No moving parts thus very reliable
- Needs USB port on PC
- Size 128KB to 2GB
- Low Power needs
- Expensive

SPEECH OUTPUT DEVICES
• Audio such as beeps used for alerting users

• Device used is a speaker
- Very small and inexpensive for beeps
- Inexpensive for speech quality
• Useful when eyes are busy,for example, while
driving,pilots etc.
• Pre-recorded speech is output in such cases
• Text-to-speech also useful for giving instructions where
manuals cannot be read.

OBJECTIVES OF OUTPUT DESIGN
While designing output format and picking output

devices the following should be taken into account
•The user group
•Proposed use
•Volume of output
•Periodicity of output
•Timely delivery when required

NATURE OF OUTPUT REPORTS
•TOP MANAGEMENT
- Summary highlighting important results
Graphical Output – Pie charts

- Bar charts
-Maps
Needed for strategic management

•MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
- Exception reports
- Reduced output volume

- Needed for tactical management

• OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT
- DETAILS NEEDED
For example
-Payroll
-Grade sheets
-Cheques

PERIODICITY OF OUTPUT REPORTS
(CONTD)
• TOP MANAGEMENT
-Whenever there are any significant changes
-Give option to ask for specific details
-Periodic quarterly
• MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
-Send daily exceptions
-Provide summary on terminal with option to look at
greater details on request

(CONTD)
-Regular periods
-Periods depend on application
-Example : Payroll monthly

DESIGNING OF OPERATIONAL OUTPUT
REPORTS
Structure of a report - Headings

•Report heading
•Page heading - appears in each page
•Detailed heading for each column
•Set of records forming a logical group
called control group and is given a control
heading

DESIGNING OF OPERATIONAL OUTPUT
REPORTS (Contd)
Structure of a report - Footings

•Labels used to describe information contained in a
control group are called control footings
•Labels printed at the end of each page of a report is
called page footing
• Label used to give the control information for the whole
report is called final control footing
•Label printed at the end of the entire report is called
report footing

EXAMPLE OF TERMINOLOGY
Report heading INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE - ACADEMIC ROLL LIST
Page heading ROLL LIST OF STUDENTS SEM 1/2000-2001
Control heading LIST OF STUDENTS IN AEROSPACE ENGG DEPT
Roll No Name
97101115 A.B.BHATTACHARYA
Detail lines 97101125 A.K.CHANDRA
97101135
. R.K.GUPTA
..
97201198 P.R.RAO
Control footing TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS
Roll No Name
97102105 A.C.ARVIND
97102121
. L.S.BHATIA
..
97102131 P.R.ZAVERI
Control footing TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS IN CHEMICAL ENGG.DEPT = 63
Final control TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS IN SEM 1/200-2001 = 852
footing
Report footing END OF IISc BANGALORE ROLL LIST FOR SEM 1/2000-2001

PRINT CHART
• Print chart used by analyst to develop paper report

format
• Languages available to describe format of report and a
report generation program creates report

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING
REPORTS
•Should be able to read left to right, top to bottom

•Easy to find important items such as keys
•All pages numbered and has heading. Report date essential
•All columns labelled
•Keep essential details only
•Proper use of control footings
•Page and report footing useful
•Space for end of report signature if needed

DESIGN OF SCREENS
•Screen display convenient for interactive use

•Screen size normally smaller than printer - usually 80 cols per
line and 24 lines per screen
•Principle of layout similar
–Primarily ease of reading
•Provision made at bottom of screen to continue, get details or
exit
•Nowadays screens are designed with buttons which can be
clicked using a mouse to get details, continue or exit from screen

EXAMPLES OF SCREENS
SCREEN FOR GENERAL STUDENT INFORMATION
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE

STUDENT INFORMATION SYSTEM
ROLL NO NAME DEPT YEAR

9501325 A.B.BHATTACHARYA AEROSPACE ME 1
9602415 A.P.DAS CSA Ph.D
9602325 P.GANAPATHY EE M.Sc
9701425 G.HARI MET ME II
9702112 H.JAI SINGH CIVIL Ph.D
DETAILS CONTINUE EXIT
CLICK BUTTON AS REQUIRED

EXAMPLES OF SCREENS
SCREEN FOR DETAILED STUDENT INFORMATION

05-05-2000
ROLL NO 9701425
NAME G.HARI
YEAR ME II
GUARDIAN P.GANESHAN
ADDRESS 41 OLIVER STREET
MYLAPORE
MADRAS 600 004
DETAILS RETURN

BUISNESS GRAPHICS
SHOWS INFORMATION IN PICTORIAL FORM WHICH IS

EASY TO UNDERSTAND
USUAL PICTURES ARE
•BAR CHARTS - RELATIVE DISTRIBUTION EASY TO SEE
•PIE CHARTS - %USE OF RESOURCES EASY TO SEE
•X-Y GRAPHS - TRENDS EASY TO SEE
•MAPS - GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION EASY TO SEE

USE OF GRAPH
140
Total sales of textiles (in lakhs)
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 85 86 87 88 89 90
Year

BAR CHART
350
300
No of employees
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Age

PIE CHART
Dividends Equipment
10%
15%
Tax
R& D 10%
5%
Misc
15%
Interest payment
15%
Raw material
20%
Salaries
20%

PIE CHART
Dividends Equipment
10%
15%
Tax
R& D 10%
5%
Misc
15%
Interest payment
15%
Raw material
20%
Salaries
20%

MODULE 10
DESIGNING OUTPUTS
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Output Devices
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Objectives of output design
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Design of output reports
5. LEARNING UNIT 4
Design of screens and graphics
6. REFERENCES
DESIGNING OUTPUTS
MOTIVATION
Presenting results of processing in an attractive and easily understood form
is important as management requires these reports to initiate actions and thus
the significance of outputs must be easily perceived. One must be aware of
new output devices being introduced to use them appropriately, also be
aware of changes in output delivery with the emergence of systems such as
intranets/internet. Must also cater to newer applications such as e-commerce
that uses the world wide web.
LEARNING GOALS

•Review characteristics of devices used to output information from
computers
•Objectives of output design
•Design of reports
•design of screens
•Role of graphics in output design
LEARNING UNIT 1
Output Devices
1) HARD COPY DEVICES – PRINTERS
2) SOFT DEVICES - VIDEO DISPLAY DEVICES
TEXT
AUDIO - SPEECH SYNTHESISER

3) MULTIMEDIA
GRAPHICS
VIDEO
HARD COPY DEVICES
Printers used when there is large volume of data and several copies are
normally needed
Types of printers
Line Printers
Impact
Dot matrix character printers
Laser printer
Non-Impact
Inkjet printer
LINE PRINTERS
-Large volume output
-fast entire line printed
-multiple copies
-high capital cost but low running cost
DOT MATRIX PRINTERS
- Slow
- inexpensive ( per copy cost)
- multiple copies with carbon paper
- poor graphics
INKJET PRINTERS
- Characters + graphics
- multicolour
- capital cost low compared to laser printer
- recurring cost high
LASER PRINTERS
-Characters + graphics
-multicolour expensive
-excellent quality
-capital cost high
- recurring cost lower than inkjet
SOFT COPY MEDIA
Used to distribute manuals, massive reports, user documents, etc
FLOPPY DISK
CDROM
Alternatives
DVD ROM
FLASH MEMORY
• FLOPPY DISK (SEMI CONDUCTOR)
- Inexpensive
- Easy to mail/transport
- Low capacity –1.4MB
- Read/write
- Contact recording – number of read/writes limited
• CDROM
- Inexpensive Medium
- High capacity – 600MB
- Easy to transport/mail
- Primarily used for Text/Graphics
• DVDROM
- Very high capacity – upto 8GB
- Easy to transport
- Useful for storing high quality video such as full
length movies
• FLASH MEMORY
- Read/Write
- Small size and weight
- No moving parts thus very reliable
- Needs USB port on PC
- Size 128KB to 2GB
- Low Power needs
- Expensive
SPEECH OUTPUT DEVICES

• Audio such as beeps used for alerting users
• Device used is a speaker
- Very small and inexpensive for beeps
- Inexpensive for poor speech quality
• Useful when eyes are busy, for example, while driving, pilots etc.
• Pre-recorded speech is output in such cases
• Text-to-speech also useful for giving instructions where manuals cannot be
read.
LEARNING UNIT 2
Objectives of output design
While designing output format and picking output devices the following
should be taken into account
•The user group
•Proposed use
•Volume of output
•Periodicity of output
•Timely delivery when required
•TOP MANAGEMENT
- Summary highlighting important results
- Graphical Output – Pie charts
- Bar charts
-Maps
Needed for strategic management
•MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
- Exception reports
- Reduced output volume
- Needed for tactical management
•OPERATIONAL MANAGEMENT
- Details needed
for example :payroll, grade sheets, cheques
• TOP MANAGEMENT
-Whenever there are any significant changes
-Give option to ask for specific details
-Periodic quarterly
• MIDDLE MANAGEMENT
-Send daily exceptions
-Provide summary on terminal with option to look at greater details on
request
-Regular periods
-Periods depend on application
-Example : Payroll monthly
LEARNING UNIT 3
Design of output reports
DESIGNING OF OPERATIONAL OUTPUT REPORTS
Structure of a report
- Headings
•Report heading
•Page heading - appears in each page
•Detailed heading for each column
•Set of records forming a logical group called control group and is given a
control heading
Structure of a report
- Footings
•Labels used to describe information contained in a control group are called
control footings
•Labels printed at the end of each page of a report is called page footing
• Label used to give the control information for the whole report is called
final control footing
•Label printed at the end of the entire report is called report footing
EXAMPLE OF TERMINOLOGY
Report heading INDIAN INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE - ACADEMIC ROLL LIST

Page heading
Roll No Name
97101115 A.B.BHATTACHARYA
ROLL LIST OF STUDENTS SEM 1/2000-2001
Control heading LIST OF STUDENTS IN AEROSPACE ENGG DEPT
Control footing TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS IN AEROSPACE ENG DEPT=68

LIST OF STUDENTS IN CHEM ENGG DEPT
Roll No Name
97102105 A.C.ARVIND
97102121 L.S.BHATIA
.
.
97102131 P.R.ZAVERI
Control footing TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS IN CHEMICAL ENGG.DEPT = 63
Final control
footing TOTAL NO OF STUDENTS IN SEM 1/200-2001 = 852
Report footing END OF IISc BANGALORE ROLL LIST FOR SEM 1/2000-2001
PRINT CHART
Analyst to develop paper report format uses print chart.

Languages are available to describe format of report and a report generation
program creates report
GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF DESIGNING REPORTS
1. Should be able to read from left to right, top to bottom
2. Easy to find important items such as keys
3. All pages numbered and has heading. Report date is essential
4. All columns should be labelled
5. Keep essential details only
6. Proper use of control footings
7. Page and report footing useful
8. Space for end of report signature if needed
LEARNING UNIT 4
Design of screens and graphics

DESIGN OF SCREENS
Screen display must be convenient for interactive use. Screen size is usually
80 cols per line and 24 lines per screen. Provision must be made at bottom of
screen to continue, get details or exit.Nowadays screens are designed with
buttons which can be clicked using a mouse to get details, continue or exit
from screen
EXAMPLES OF SCREENS
SCREEN FOR GENERAL STUDENT INFORMATION

ROLL NO NAME DEPT YEAR
9501325 A.B.BHATTACHARYA AEROSPACE ME 1
9602415 A.P.DAS CSA Ph.D
9602325 P.GANAPATHY EE M.Sc
9701425 G.HARI MET ME II
9702112 H.JAI SINGH CIVIL Ph.D
DETAILS CONTINUE EXIT
CLICK BUTTON AS REQUIRED

SCREEN FOR DETAILED STUDENT INFORMATION

05-05-2000
ROLL NO 9701425
NAME G.HARI
YEAR ME II
GUARDIAN P.GANESHAN
ADDRESS 41 OLIVER STREET
MYLAPORE
DETAILS MADRAS 600 004RETURN
BUISNESS GRAPHICS
Shows information in pictorial form which is easy to understand
Usual pictures are
•bar charts - relative distribution easy to see
•pie charts - %use of resources easy to see
•x-y graphs - trends easy to see
•maps - geographical distribution easy to see
USE OF GRAPH
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Year
BAR CHART
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Age
PIE CHART
Dividends Equipment
15% 10%
R& D Tax
5% 10%
Misc
15% Interest payment
15%
Raw material
20%
Salaries
20%
References
1. Most of the material is taken from Chapter 14 of the text book

“Analysis and Design of Information Systems” by V.Rajaraman, 2nd
Edition, Prentice Hall of India, New Delhi.
2. There is a good coverage of this type in Kendall and Kendall “System

Analysis and Design”, Pearson Education Asia, 2003, Chapter 15,
pp.478-496.
3. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George, J.S.Valachich, “Modern Systems Analysis

and Design”, 3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2002,
discusses forms and reports design in Chapter 13, pp.432 to 450.
Designing dialogues and graphical user interfaces is discussed in
Chapter 14, pp. 460 to 490. Companion web site is
prenticehall.com/hoffer for multiple choice questions etc.
System Analysis and Design/ Designing Outputs Multiple Choice Questions
10.1 A line printer

a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iii
10.2 A dot matrix printer
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iii
10.3 An inkjet printer
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iii
10.4 A laser printer
(i)prints an entire line at a time
(ii)is a non-impact printer
(iii)allows multiple copies to be taken at a time


a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. iii and iv
d. ii and iii
10.5 A laser printer
(i)gives a better quality printout compared to inkjet printer
(ii)is less expensive than an inkjet printer
(iii)is more expensive than a dot matrix printer
(iv)gives a better quality printout compared to dot matrix printer
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i, ii, iv
d. i, iii, iv
10.6 An audio output unit
a. can speak out small range of digits and specified words
b. is not used in information system
c. is very expensive and is thus not used
d. is normally used to give only background music
10.7 While designing output report it is important to keep the following in
mind:
(i) volume of output
(ii)potential users
(iii)current users
(iv) periodicity of output
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. i, ii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, iv
10.8 Outputs needed by top-managers are
a. summary reports with good grouping

b. exception reports
c. detailed reports
d. expected reports
10.9 Outputs needed by middle level managers are
c. detailed reports
d. expected reports
10.10 Outputs needed by operational managers are
c. detailed reports
d. expected reports
10.11 Reports headings are used as
a. it is good practice
b. it helps in reading and understanding a report
c. it is required by management
d. it is a good documentation aid
10.12 Report footing is
a. same as report heading
b. the label printed at the end of each page
c. the label printed at the end of each control group
d. the label printed at the end of a report
10.13 Page footing is
b. the labels printed at the end of each page
c. the labels printed at the end of each control group
d. the labels printed at the end of a report
10.14 Control footing is
b. the labels printed at the end of each page

c. the labels printed at the end of each control group

d. the labels printed at the end of a report
10.15 Control footings are printed because
a. it is required in documentation
b. it is suggested by management
c. it summarizes information in logically grouped items
d. it is necessary for error detection
10.16 Good report allows one to
(i)read it from left to right and top to bottom
(ii)read it from any point
(iii)find out easily the beginning and end of the report
(iv) printed it in one page
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and iii
d. iii and iv
10.17 Print chart is
a. a printed chart
b. one which is filled in by an analyst while formatting a report
c. prepared by users
d. printed by computer
10.18 Screens normally have
a. 70 columns and 24 lines
b. 80 columns and 20 lines
c. 80 columns and 24 lines
d. 72 columns and 22 lines
10.19 Designing screens uses principles
a. which are unique
b. similar to those used for printed reports
c. different from those used for printed reports
d. which are well specified

10.20 Buttons which can be clicked using a mouse are placed in screens as
a. they are convenient to use
b. it is the modern trend
c. large number of buttons can be used
d. using a keyboard is error prone
10.21 Bar charts are used when
a. it is required to illustrate geographical distribution of data
b. relative distribution of data in specified categories is to be shown
c. percent use of resources under various heads is to be show
d. trends as a function of time is to be illustrated
10.22 Pie charts are normally used when
c. percent use of resources under various heads is to be shown
10.23 X-Y graphs are normally used when
c. percent use of resources under various heads is to be shown

10.1 b 10.2 c 10.3 a 10.4 a 10.5 d 10.6 a
10.7 d 10.8 a 10.9 b 10.10 c 10.11 b 10.12 d
10.13 b 10.14 c 10.15 c 10.16 b 10.17 b 10.18 c

10.19 b 10.20 a 10.21 b 10.22 c 10.23 d

MODULE 10
DESIGNING OUTPUTS
WORKED EXAMPLES
10.1 What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers? Give an
example of each type of printer.
Impact printers depend on a print head striking a carbon ribbon to transfer a
character print on a paper. Non-impact printer does not have a print head.
Characters are transferred on paper by a xerographic process. A line printer is an
impact printer. A laser is a non-impact printer.
10.2 For what types of outputs are video display units appropriate? What is the
main difference in characteristics between video display units and printers?
VDU is useful for interactive editing, on-line display of answers to queries, etc. A
line printer is used for hard copy reports to be stored and distributed to a number
of people.
10.3 What type of output will you use for the following:
(i) Strategic management
(ii) Tactical management
(iii) Operational management
(i) Strategic: Graphs, summaries, pie charts, etc.
(ii) Tactical: Summary reports, exception reports, low volume printing.
Graphical aids are also used to supplement.
(iii) Operational: Detailed printouts. High volume reports.
10.4 What is report generator?
Report generators convert report specifications given in a high level language to
formatted printed reports.
10.5 What is the main difference between the design of an output screen for a
video terminal and a page layout for a printer?
Display screen size is smaller. As it is on-line, a user has to actively participate in
using the display. Thus instructions must be given to users in a display on what to
do next.
10.6 Pick the appropriate graphics for the following applications:
(i) Relative enrollment of students in various departments in a University.
(ii) Growth of student strength in a department over a period of 10 years.
(iii) Sales percent of a product in 6 years of a country.
(iv) Proportion of total revenue of a state from direct taxes, indirect taxes,
public loans, land revenue, income from public sector companies, and
miscellaneous receipts.
(v) Engineering colleges established in different parts of a country
(i) Pie chart
(ii) Bar chart or trend chart
(iii) Pie chart
(iv) Pie chart
(v) Map of India with data showing colleges in each region.
System Analysis and Design/Designing Outputs Question Bank
Question Bank
10.1 What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers? Give an example
of each type of printer?
10.2 What is the speed range of a line printer? What is the speed range of a character
printer?
10.3 For what types of outputs are video display units appropriate? What is the main
difference in characteristics between video display units and printers?
a. Strategic management
b. Tactical management
c. Operational management
10.5 When is a detailed printed output appropriate?
10.6 What is the difference between off-line and on-line output presentation?
10.7 What are the various headings used in a report? Why are they required?
10.8 What is a print chart? How is it used? Prepare a print chart for stores data
processing system.
10.9 Why are control footings used in printed reports?
10.10 What is a report generator?
10.11 List the important points to keep in mind while designing the format of a report.
10.12 What is the main difference between the design of an output screen for a video
terminal and the page layout for a printer?
10.13 What do you understand by business graphics?
10.14 Pick the appropriate graphics presentation for the following applications:
a. Relative enrollment of students in various departments in a University.
b. Growth of student strength in a department over a period of 10 years.
c. Sales percent of a product in 6 regions of a country.
d. Proportion of total revenue of a state from direct taxes, indirect taxes, public
loan, land revenue, income from public sector companies, and miscellaneous
receipts.
e. Engineering colleges established in different parts of a country.
10.15 When is color presentation of graphics useful? Give examples.

System Analysis and Design/ Designing Outputs Pointers
References
1. Most of the material is taken from Chapter 14 of the text book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems” by V.Rajaraman, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi.
2. There is a good coverage of this type in Kendall and Kendall “System Analysis
and Design”, Pearson Education Asia, 2003, Chapter 15, pp.478-496.
3. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George, J.S.Valachich, “Modern Systems Analysis and Design”,
3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2002, discusses forms and
reports design in Chapter 13, pp.432 to 450. Designing dialogues and graphical
user interfaces is discussed in Chapter 14, pp. 460 to 490. Companion web site is

SUMMARY of Module 10
1. The most commonly used output devices are printers, video display terminals and
audio output devices.
2. Printers are of two types, line printers and character printers. For large volume
printing, line printers are most appropriate. Character printers are useful for low
volume printing. They also provide simple graphics output. Multiple copies can be
taken using carbon paper.
3. Inkjet and laser printers are non-impact printers. Laser printers provide high quality
printing and are mostly used in desk top publishing (DTP) system. Both inkjet and
laser printers can display graphics output.
4. Capital cost of inkjet printers is small but its running cost is high. Laser printers on
the other hand cost more but printing cost per page is lower.
5. Video displays are normally used for on-line display of information. They are
interactive and a user has to be instructed how to get appropriate information.
6. Audio outputs are becoming popular with the advent of inexpensive speech
synthesizers. Currently audio output is used in enquiry systems to answer simple
queries.
7. Auido outputs are essential when eyes are otherwise busy.
8. Before designing a report and deciding on the output device to be used, one must ask
for whom it is intended, its proposed use, and its volume and frequency.
9. Reports for top management must be brief, preferably graphical, and convey
information for strategic management.
1
10 Reports for middle management must not contain details. Exceptions should be
. printed or displayed to assist in tactical management.
11 Routine outputs such as payslips, address labels, etc., are massive and periodic and
are printed on a line printer or character printer depending on the volume to be
printed.
12 Every report must have a report heading, page heading, heading for fields, details
lines and control information. Pages should be numbered and the date of creation of
the report printed at the top of the report.
13 A print chart is used to specify the format of a report. Report headings, page
headings, the columns in the printer where they appear in a report are specified by
the print chart.
14 Report generator systems are available in languages such as COBOL. These are
useful to convert report specifications to printed reports.
15 The layout of information on video display screens is also specified using similar
principles. The main difference is the need to instruct a user to select appropriate
displays.
16 With current technology Graphical User Interfaces are easy to design. They should
be used wherever they are appropriate.
17 Graphical outputs are easy to obtain on video terminals, inkjet and laser printers.
Graphs, bar charts, pie charts and maps are easy to draw and should be used as
appropriate.
2
10.1 What is the difference between impact and non-impact printers? Give an
example of each type of printer?
10.2 What is the speed range of a line printer? What is the speed range of a character
printer?
10.3 For what types of outputs are video display units appropriate? What is the main
difference in characteristics between video display units and printers?
(i) Strategic management
(ii) Tactical management
iii. Operational management
10.5 When is a detailed printed output appropriate?
10.6 What is the difference between off-line and on-line output presentation?
10.7 What are the various headings used in a report? Why are they required?
10.8 What is a print chart? How is it used? Prepare a print chart for stores data
processing system.
10.9 Why are control footings used in printed reports?
10.10 What is a report generator?
10.11 List the important points to keep in mind while designing the format of a report.
10.12 What is the main difference between the design of an output screen for a video
terminal and the page layout for a printer?
10.13 What do you understand by business graphics?
3
10.14 Pick the appropriate graphics presentation for the following applications:
(iii) Sales percent of a product in 6 regions of a country.
public loan, land revenue, income from public sector companies, and
(v) Engineering colleges established in different parts of a country.
10.15 When is colour presentation of graphics useful? Give examples.
4
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material is taken from Chapter 14 of the text book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems” by V.Rajaraman, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of
India, New Delhi.
2. There is a good coverage of this type in Kendall and Kendall “System Analysis
and Design”, Pearson Education Asia, 2003, Chapter 15, pp.478-496.
3. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George, J.S.Valachich, “Modern Systems Analysis and Design”,
3rd Edition, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2002, discusses forms and
reports design in Chapter 13, pp.432 to 450. Designing dialogues and graphical
user interfaces is discussed in Chapter 14, pp. 460 to 490. Companion web site is
5
MODULE 11
DOCUMENTS ON WEB
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
11.1.1 Internet is
(a) a local computer network
(b) a world wide network of computers
(c) an interconnected network of computers
(d) a world wide interconnected network of computers which use a
common protocol to communicate with one another
11.1.2 The facilities available in the internet are

(i) electronic mail
(ii) remote login
(iii) file transfer
(iv) word processing
(c) i, ii, iv (d) ii, iii and iv
11.1.3 Internet requires

(a) an international agreement to connect computers
(b) a local area network
(c) a commonly agreed set of rules to communicate between computers
(d) a World Wide Web
11.1.4 Each computer connected to the internet must

(a) be an IBM PC
(b) have a unique IP address
(c) be internet compatible
(d) have a modem connection
11.1.5 IP address is currently
(a) 4 bytes long
(b) available in plenty
(c) 6 bytes long
(d) not assigned as it is all used up
11.1.6 IP addresses are converted to

(a) a binary string
(b) alphanumeric string
(c) a hierarchy of domain names
(d) a hexadecimal string
11.1.7 Internet addresses must always have atleast

(i) a country name or organization type
(ii) internet service provider’s name
(iii) name of organization
(iv) name of individual
(v) type of organization
(c) i, iii (d) ii, iii, iv, v
11.1.8 Internet uses

(a) Packet switching
(b) Circuit switching
(c) Telephone switching
(d) Telex switching
11.1.9 Internet data is broken up as

(a) fixed length packets
(b) variable length packets
(c) not packetized
(d) 64 bytes packets
11.1.10 Internet packet data structure consists of

(i) source address
(ii) destination address
(iii) serial number of packets
(iv) message bytes
(v) control bits for error checking
(vi) path identification bits
(a) i, ii, iii (b) i, ii, iii, iv
(c) i, ii, iii, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi
11.1.11 The packets of an internet message
(a) take a predetermined path
(b) take a path based on packet priority
(c) go along different paths based on path availability
(d) take the shortest path from source to destination
11.1.12 The time taken by internet packets

(a) can be predetermined before transmission
(b) are same for all packets
(c) may be different for different packets
(d) is irrelevant for audio packets
11.1.13 By an intranet we mean

(a) a LAN of an organization
(b) a Wide Area Network connecting all branches of an organization
(c) a corporate computer network
(d) a network connecting all computers of an organization and using the
internet protocol
11.1.14 By an extranet we mean

(a) an extra fast computer network
(b) the intranets of two co-operating organizations interconnected via a
secure leased line
(c) an extra network used by an organization for higher reliability
(d) an extra connection to internet provided to co-operating organizations
11.1.15 World Wide Web

(a) is another name for internet
(b) world wide connection for computers
(c) a collection of linked information residing on computers connected by the
internet
(d) a collection of world wide information
11.1.16 Among services available on the World Wide Web are

(i) Encryption
(ii) HTTP
(iii) HTML
(iv) Firewalls
(c)iii and iv (d) i and iv
11.1.17 A world wide web contains web pages
(a) residing in many computers
(b) created using HTML
(c) with links to other web pages
(d) residing in many computers linked together using HTML
11.1.18 A web page is located using a

(a) Universal Record Linking
(b) Uniform Resource Locator
(c) Universal Record Locator
(d) Uniformly Reachable Links
11.1.19 A URL specifies the following:

(i) protocol used
(ii) domain name of server hosting web page
(iii) name of folder with required information
(iv) name of document formatted using HTML
(v) the name of ISP
(a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) ii, iii, iv, v
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, v
11.1.20 A search engine is a program to search

(a) for information
(b) web pages
(c) web pages for specified index terms
(d) web pages for information using specified search terms
‘
LEARNING UNIT 2
11.2.1 HTML stands for

(a) Hyper Text Making Links
(b) Hyper Text Markup Language
(c) Higher Textual Marking of Links
(d) Hyper Text Mixer of Links
11.2.2 HTML is similar to a

(a) word processing language
(b) screen editor
(c) scripting language
(d) search engine
11.2.3 Desirable properties of a website are
(i) a meaningful address
(ii) Help and search facilities
(iii) Links to related sites
(iv) Features to allow users to give feedback
(v) Hosting on a mainframe
(c) i, ii, iii, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, v
11.2.4 HTML uses
(a) pre-specified tags

(b) user defined tags
(c) tags only for linking
(d) fixed tags defined by the language
11.2.5 HTML tags define
(a) The data types of elements of document

(b) Presentation of specified elements of a document
(c) The contents of the document
(d) The structure of the document
11.2.6 The tag used in HTML to link it with other URL’s is:
(a) <A>
(b) <H>
(c) <U>
(d) <L>
11.2.7 The tags used for specifying fonts in HTML are
(i) <B>
(ii) <I>
(iii) <U>
(iv) <L>
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (i),(ii) and (iii)

11.2.8 It is possible to display pictures (i.e, images) in HTML specification by using
the tag.
(a) <GR src = Picture file>

(b) <PIC src =Picture file>
(c) <IMG src =Picture file>
(d) <GIF src=Picture file>
11.2.9 SGML stands for
(a) Standard Generalized Markup Language

(b) Structured General Markup Language
(c) Standard Graphics Mapping Language
(d) Standard General Markup Links
11.2.10 HTML and XML are markup languages
(a) Specially development for the web

(b) Are based on SGML
(c) Are versions of SGML
(d) Independent of SGML
11.2.11 XML stands for
(a) Extra Markup Language

(b) Excellent Markup Links
(c) Extended Markup Language
(d) Extended Marking Links
11.2.12 XML uses
(a) user define tags

(b) pre-defined tags
(c) both predefined and user-defined tags
(d) Extended tags used in HTML and makes them powerful
11.2.13 In order to interpret XML documents one should
(a) Use standardized tags

(b) Have a document type definition which defines the tags
(c) Define the tags separately
(d) Specify tag filename
11.2.14 The advantages of XML over HTML are
(i) It allows processing of data stored in web-pages

(ii) It uses meaningful tags which aids in understanding the nature of a
document
(iii) Is simpler than HTML
(iv) It separates presentation and structure of document
(a) (i),(ii) and (iii) (b) (i),(ii) and(iv)
(c ) (ii),(iii) and (iv) (d) (i),(iii) and (iv)
11.2.15 XSL definition is used along with XML definition to specify
(a) The data types of the contents of XML document

(b) The presentation of XML document
(c) The links with other documents
(d) The structure of XML document
11.2.16 XLL definition is used along with XML to specify

11.2.17 DTD definition is used along with XML to specify

11.1.1 d 11.1.2 b 11.1.3 c 11.1.4 b 11.1.5 a 11.1.6 c

11.1.7 c 11.1.8 a 11.1.9 b 11.1.10 c 11.1.11 c 11.1.12 c
11.1.13 d 11.1.14 b 11.1.15 c 11.1.16 b 11.1.17 d 11.1.18 b
11.1.19 a 11.1.20 d 11.2.1 b 11.2.2 a 11.2.3 b 11.2.4 d
11.2.5 b 11.2.6 a 11.2.7 a 11.2.8 c 11.2.9 a 11.2.10 b
11.2.11 c 11.2.12 a 11.2.13 b 11.2.14 b 11.2.15 b 11.2.16 c
11.2.17 a
MODULE 11
DOCUMENTS ON WEB
Learning Units
11.1 The internet and the world wide web
11.2 Documents and the world wide web

Learning Goals
The basic technology used to build the internet

How the world wide web uses the internet
How documents are specified using HTML
The distinction between presentation and structure of
documents
How documents are specified in XML

Motivation
We examined in the last module how documents are formatted and

printed using a computer.
Documents in that context meant results computed by a computer
In a more general context one should look at also documents which
are to be disseminated via the world wide web.
Besides dissemination one should also consider possibility of
reading values from documents stored in remote computers and
processing them for various purposes
The need to exchange documents electronically and processing
them have gained importance since the emergence of e-commerce

Motivation (Contd)
To understand the need to distribute documents

electronically we should first understand how computers
are connected together and communicate in an orderly
fashion among themselves
Thus we will first examine very briefly the internet and
the world wide web which uses the internet infrastructure

Computer Networks
Now-a-days no computer has an isolated existence

Computers in an organization are interconnected by
local area networks (LAN)
Home computers are connected to Public Switched
Telephone Network (PSTN) which provide a connection
to an Internet Service Provider (ISP)
LANs of organizations connected to LANs of other
organizations via PSTN using routers

Logical Network-internet
•Internet is the network of networks and interconnects millions of

computers all over the world
•Internet is used to exchange electronic mail, exchange files and
log into remote computers
•Common set of rules used by computers connected to the internet
to communicate - called Internet Protocol (IP)
•Each computer connected to the internet has a unique address
called IP address
•IP address is 4 bytes long
•IP addresses are a scarce resource

Internet-continued
• IP address converted to strings of characters which are easy to
remember
• Group of characters combined as domains
• In the address rajaram@serc.iisc.ernet.in
in – Top most domain –country code
ernet – Internet Service Provider (ISP) in country
serc –Department within organization-name assigned by
organization
rajaram – Name of the user in department – assigned by
department
• Hierarchy of addressing facilitates expansion

Internet -Continued
•Internet breaks up messages sent from source to destination
into a number of packets
•Packet structure :
CONTROL SERIAL NO SOURCE DESTINATION
BITS FOR OF THE ADDRESS ADDRESS MESSAGE
CHECKING PACKET
HEADER (20 bytes) PAYLOAD

(upto 1KB)
•Packets need not be of fixed length. Maximum length of

a packet is 1 KB
•Message packetised to allow different packets to go
along different paths - called packet switching

Packet Switching – Advantages And Disadvantages
Each packet can pick free (cheapest) path to take

Finally packets reassembled using serial no.
Packet switching less expensive and adaptive as faulty paths can
be avoided
Major disadvantage of packet switching is the difficulty in
predicting time taken by different packets to travel from source to
destination

Packet Switching – Advantages And Disadvantages
Variable packet delivery time does not matter for e-mail and text
files
Speed unpredictability however reduces effectiveness of audio
and video traffic
Major advantage – diverse machines and LAN’s may be
interconnected if they use common protocol called TCP/IP

Intranet And Extranet
A network of computers within an organization using TCP/IP

protocol an use all internet facilities such as e-mail, file transfer,
remote login etc –called an intranet or corporate intranet
Two corporate intranets may be interconnected using a leased line
from PSTN – such a network is called an extranet
Extranet between cooperating organizations can provide internet
services such as e-mail,file transfer among them

World Wide Web Services
• World Wide Web (WWW) is a world wide multimedia

information service available on the internet
• www contains web pages – created using a language called

HTML (Hyper Text Markup Language)
• HTML has features to embed links within web pages to

point to other pages – we can thus navigate through links and
search for required information

World Wide Web
• Web page located using a scheme known as Uniform
Resource Locator(URL)
Example of URL
http://www.freesoft.org/connected/index.html
Domain name Folder with Required document formatted

Protocol used Of server Required Using hypertext markup
Having web page information language
• Web browsers is a program on one’s PC used to search

for required information

Search Engines
•Browsers use search engines - that is programs which will

navigate web pages using links
•Navigation based on search terms given by user
•All organizations now maintain web pages t o establish
their "web presence"
•Web presence important to publicize organization for
primarily advertising their services

What Is A Document?
A document has three parts

1. CONTENT: The string of characters normally coded in ASCII or
UNICODE
- A document now-a-days also includes, besides text,
pictures, audio and video-all bit strings when digitized.
- We will however be primarily concerned with textual data
in this module.
2. PRESENTATION: How the data looks like to a human user-

presentation may be on a video screen or on paper.
3. STRUCTURE: Helps interpretation of data by a computer

Information such as type of data (Numeric,
Alphanumeric) and its nature, for example an invoice, a
purchase order, a recipe etc.

How Are Documents Processed By Computers
Text processors add special annotations primarily to help format

the resulting print outs
Examples are: Paragraphing, Font selection, Placing titles,
pagination,Tabulation etc.
Examples: WORD, TEX etc.
These are primarily presentation aids which take raw content and
transform them to neat looking documents when displayed on
VDU screen or printed on paper.
They have no idea of the type of document and what they mean.

Text Processing By Computers
Word processors primarily used for applications such as

-Preparation of manuals
-Preparation of catalogues
-Routine office correspondence
-Desk top publishing
Report Generators (Discussed in Module10) are special variety

which use a special language to generate and format reports.
These are primarily for linear texts and not meant for linked text
known as hypertext

Documents On World Wide Web
In the world wide web documents located in many computers are

linked
Each document called a web page. Each web page has a unique
path to retrieve it.
Documents to be used in web pages need special annotations or

markups mainly for formatting and for linking them to other
documents in the web
These annotations are called MARKUPS.

Documents On World Wide Web
As documents on the world wide web are linked to many

documents they are called hypertext.
The markup used to link documents called Hyperlink.
Web pages are retrieved from the host computers where they are
located by a program called web browser running on a client.
Clients use a communication protocol called Hyper Text Transfer

Protocol (HTTP) to retrieve web pages
HTTP recognizes a language called Hyper Text Markup

Language (HTML)

Hyper Text Markup Language
An HTML Document has the following general layout
<HTML Version =“4.0”> {Version optional}

<HEAD>
<!….The headings and their tags are placed here….>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<!….Elements such as text with formatting
tags,links,tables,images etc go here……>
</BODY>
</HTML>
( ! Is symbol used for comments)

Example Of An Html Documents
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE> Description of a book on Information Technology </TITLE>
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1> Introduction o Information technology </H1>
<H2> A first level book in I.T </H2>
<P> Publisher : <I> Prentice – Hall of India </I></P>
<P> Year of publication: <B> 2003 </B></P>
</BODY>
</HTML>

Display Of Html Document
When the document is viewed using a browser it will appear as shown

below
Introduction to Information technology
A first level book in I.T
Publisher : Prentice – Hall of India

Year of publication: 2003

Explanation Of Tags In Html
<HTML> tells it is an HTML document

End of HTML documents is indicated by </HTML>
<HTML version = “4.0” > version optional
<TITLE> used to identify the document in the browsers title bar
and is stored as the bookmark of this document
<H1>,<H2> indicate headings. <H1> to <H6> available H1
highest size bold face and H6 lowest
<P> indicates paragraphing
<I> Italics and <B> bold face font
<Observe all tags in this example here has end tag indicated by
</tag>
Stand alone tags are also there in HTML.

Linking Documents
HTML can link to documents in other files.For Example to link

an image we use :
<IMG src = “mypicture.gif”>
IMG indicates image and src the source (Observe the tag IMG
is standalone and does not have end tag </IMG>
HTML has feature to list items with serial number or bullets
HTML can also display tables and forms
HTML is as rich as some word processors.

Hyperlinking Html Documents
HTML allows a web page to refer to other web pages
When a reference link in the page is clicked the browser switches

to the referenced site.
The specification is
<A href = “ http:// www.iisc.ernet.in”></A>
where A is called anchor tag.
Linking can also be to other files

.
Automatic conversion of word documents to HTML is possible
using a tool

Shortcomings Of Html
HTML is the earliest markup language which made it possible to
retrieve documents stored in the world wide web
HTML is primarily to facilitate presentation of contents of a web

page.
HTML does not have any means of specifying what the documents
represents. Is it an invoice? A purchase order, book description etc.
It also has no means of specifying the type of data to allow

manipulation of data by browser.
We thus need a markup language which is richer and is more

descriptive of structure of a document and what it represents

EXtensible Markup Language
A document has CONTENT, it has a STRUCTURE and it needs to
be PRESENTED for ease of reading
Word processors and HTML emphasize presentation of content and

have no means of specifying structure (or what the data actually
represents)
XML is a new markup language which is capable of specifying

what a document really represents
XML is a proper subset of an international standard known as

STANDARD GENERALISED MARKUP LANGUAGE (SGML).It
is open standard and not proprietary

Parts Of XML System
XML defines the structure of a document
Unlike HTML it has tags which are user defined.This allows easy
understanding of the nature of the document and assists in its
processing.
Formatting and presentation are not part of XML unlike HTML

which has tags for bold face,italics etc.This is delegated to a
companion language called XSL (Extensible Style Language)
Linking documents to create hypertext is also not integrated in

XML unlike HTML where tag <A> is a general purpose linking tag.
Much more powerful linking is enabled by separating it to a
companion language called XLL (Extensible Link Language).

Example Of XML Document
• A purchase order is represented in XML as below
< purchase_order >

< order_no > B55567 </order_no>
< date>
< year > 2004 </year>
< month > 10 </month>
< day > 9 </day>
</date>
<purchaser>
<name> ABC Traders </name>
<address>
<street> 201 MG Road </street>
<city> Bangalore </city>
<pin_code> 560001 </pin_code>
</address>
</purchaser>

Example Of XML Document (Contd)
<item>
<item_name> C Programming </item_name>
<item_code> ISBN 81-203-0859-X </item_code>
<quantity> 50 </quantity>
</item>
<supplier>
<name> P-H India </name>
</supplier>
</purchase_order>

Example Of XML Document
Observe that the tags used have a syntax similar to HTML. The
tags are, however, meaningful to a human reader
The XML definition clearly brings out the structure of an

invoice.
However to interpret such a document and process it by a

computer a companion document called Document Type
Definition (DTD) is needed.
DTD has its own syntax . We give DTD for this XML document
in the next transparency.

Document Type Definition (DTD)
DTD of XML document of 11.2.15 is given below
DTD Statements
<! ELEMENT purchase order (entry +) >
<! ELEMENT order_no (#PC DATA) >
<! ELEMENT date (year, month ,day)
<! ELEMENT year (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT month(#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT day (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT purchaser (name,address)>
<! ELEMENT name (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT address (street,city,pin-code)>
<! ELEMENT street (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT city (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT pin-code (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT item (item_name,item_code,quantity)>
<! ELEMENT item_name (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT item_code (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT quantity (#PC DATA)>
<! ELEMENT supplier (name)>
<! ELEMENT name(#PC DATA)>

Explanation Of Document Type Definition
Each statement in DTD declares the elements of XML program
<! ELEMENT purchase order (entry +) > states that purchase order is the
top level element with one or more entry following it
2 statements are introduced at the start of XML definition which specifies

the version of XML and the file name of DTD specification
Assuming DTD is in a file purchase_order.dtd the declarations are

<? XML Version =“1.0”>
<! DOCTYPE purchase_order SYSTEM “purchase order.dtd”>
The tags used in XML definition are then specified.

Explanation Of Document Type Definition
<! ELEMENT order_no (#PC DATA) specifies that the tag

order_no is a string of characters.
<! ELEMENT date (year,month,day) specifies that the tag date

is a higher level tag which consists of three tags- year, month
and day.
The description of each of the next level tags follow,

for example:
<! ELEMENT year (#PC DATA) declares year as a string of
characters.
The rest of DTD is self explanatory

Some Application Of XML
XML’s main use is in creating documents for the World Wide

Web which can be retrieved by browsers at client computers.
User defined tags give several advantages including use in
- Push Technology – In this application time varying data

specified by users e.g. Hourly stock prices of specified shares
are automatically sent to the client’s browser
- Online banking – A standard XML format known as

financial exchange initiative is used to obtain information such
as bank statements.

Some Application Of XML
Software and database updates
XML adaptable to many natural languages such as Kannada

as it uses Unicode standard.
Use in Scientific Publications – Markup languages based on

XML have been developed for chemistry – CML (Chemistry
Markup Language) and MML (Mathematical Markup
Language)

MODULE 11
DOCUMENTS ON WEB
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
11.1.1 Internet is
(a) a local computer network
(b) a world wide network of computers
(c) an interconnected network of computers
(d) a world wide interconnected network of computers which use a
common protocol to communicate with one another
11.1.2 The facilities available in the internet are

(i) electronic mail
(ii) remote login
(iii) file transfer
(iv) word processing
(c) i, ii, iv (d) ii, iii and iv
11.1.3 Internet requires

(a) an international agreement to connect computers
(b) a local area network
(c) a commonly agreed set of rules to communicate between computers
(d) a World Wide Web
11.1.4 Each computer connected to the internet must

(a) be an IBM PC
(b) have a unique IP address
(c) be internet compatible
(d) have a modem connection
11.1.5 IP address is currently
(a) 4 bytes long
(b) available in plenty
(c) 6 bytes long
(d) not assigned as it is all used up
11.1.6 IP addresses are converted to

(a) a binary string
(b) alphanumeric string
(c) a hierarchy of domain names
(d) a hexadecimal string
11.1.7 Internet addresses must always have atleast

(c) i, iii (d) ii, iii, iv, v
11.1.8 Internet uses

(a) Packet switching
(b) Circuit switching
(c) Telephone switching
(d) Telex switching
11.1.9 Internet data is broken up as

(a) fixed length packets
(b) variable length packets
(c) not packetized
(d) 64 bytes packets
11.1.10 Internet packet data structure consists of

(i) source address
(iii) serial number of packets
(iv) message bytes
(v) control bits for error checking
(vi) path identification bits
(c) i, ii, iii, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi
11.1.11 The packets of an internet message
(a) take a predetermined path
(b) take a path based on packet priority
(c) go along different paths based on path availability
(d) take the shortest path from source to destination
11.1.12 The time taken by internet packets

(a) can be predetermined before transmission
(b) are same for all packets
(c) may be different for different packets
(d) is irrelevant for audio packets
11.1.13 By an intranet we mean

(a) a LAN of an organization
(b) a Wide Area Network connecting all branches of an organization
(c) a corporate computer network
(d) a network connecting all computers of an organization and using the
internet protocol
11.1.14 By an extranet we mean

(a) an extra fast computer network
(b) the intranets of two co-operating organizations interconnected via a
secure leased line
(c) an extra network used by an organization for higher reliability
(d) an extra connection to internet provided to co-operating organizations
11.1.15 World Wide Web

(a) is another name for internet
(b) world wide connection for computers
(c) a collection of linked information residing on computers connected by the
internet
(d) a collection of world wide information
11.1.16 Among services available on the World Wide Web are

(i) Encryption
(ii) HTTP
(iii) HTML
(iv) Firewalls
(c)iii and iv (d) i and iv
11.1.17 A world wide web contains web pages
(a) residing in many computers
(b) created using HTML
(c) with links to other web pages
(d) residing in many computers linked together using HTML
11.1.18 A web page is located using a

(a) Universal Record Linking
(b) Uniform Resource Locator
(c) Universal Record Locator
(d) Uniformly Reachable Links
11.1.19 A URL specifies the following:

(i) protocol used
(v) the name of ISP
(a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) ii, iii, iv, v
(c) i, iii, iv (d) i, ii, iii, v
11.1.20 A search engine is a program to search

(a) for information
(b) web pages
(c) web pages for specified index terms
(d) web pages for information using specified search terms
‘
LEARNING UNIT 2
11.2.1 HTML stands for

(a) Hyper Text Making Links
(b) Hyper Text Markup Language
(c) Higher Textual Marking of Links
(d) Hyper Text Mixer of Links
11.2.2 HTML is similar to a

(a) word processing language
(b) screen editor
(c) scripting language
(d) search engine
11.2.3 Desirable properties of a website are
(i) a meaningful address
(ii) Help and search facilities
(iv) Features to allow users to give feedback
(v) Hosting on a mainframe
(c) i, ii, iii, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, v
11.2.4 HTML uses
(a) pre-specified tags

(b) user defined tags
(c) tags only for linking
(d) fixed tags defined by the language
11.2.5 HTML tags define
(a) The data types of elements of document

(b) Presentation of specified elements of a document
(c) The contents of the document
(d) The structure of the document
11.2.6 The tag used in HTML to link it with other URL’s is:
(a) <A>
(b) <H>
(c) <U>
(d) <L>
11.2.7 The tags used for specifying fonts in HTML are
(i) <B>
(ii) <I>
(iii) <U>
(iv) <L>
(a) (i) and (ii) (b) (i) and (iii)
(c) (ii) and (iv) (d) (i),(ii) and (iii)

11.2.8 It is possible to display pictures (i.e, images) in HTML specification by using
the tag.
(a) <GR src = Picture file>

(b) <PIC src =Picture file>
(c) <IMG src =Picture file>
(d) <GIF src=Picture file>
11.2.9 SGML stands for
(a) Standard Generalized Markup Language

(b) Structured General Markup Language
(c) Standard Graphics Mapping Language
(d) Standard General Markup Links
11.2.10 HTML and XML are markup languages
(a) Specially development for the web

(b) Are based on SGML
(c) Are versions of SGML
(d) Independent of SGML
11.2.11 XML stands for
(a) Extra Markup Language

(b) Excellent Markup Links
(c) Extended Markup Language
(d) Extended Marking Links
11.2.12 XML uses
(a) user define tags

(b) pre-defined tags
(c) both predefined and user-defined tags
(d) Extended tags used in HTML and makes them powerful
11.2.13 In order to interpret XML documents one should
(a) Use standardized tags

(b) Have a document type definition which defines the tags
(c) Define the tags separately
(d) Specify tag filename
11.2.14 The advantages of XML over HTML are

(ii) It uses meaningful tags which aids in understanding the nature of a
document
(iii) Is simpler than HTML
(iv) It separates presentation and structure of document
(a) (i),(ii) and (iii) (b) (i),(ii) and(iv)
(c ) (ii),(iii) and (iv) (d) (i),(iii) and (iv)
11.2.15 XSL definition is used along with XML definition to specify

11.2.16 XLL definition is used along with XML to specify

11.2.17 DTD definition is used along with XML to specify

11.1.1 d 11.1.2 b 11.1.3 c 11.1.4 b 11.1.5 a 11.1.6 c

11.1.7 c 11.1.8 a 11.1.9 b 11.1.10 c 11.1.11 c 11.1.12 c
11.1.13 d 11.1.14 b 11.1.15 c 11.1.16 b 11.1.17 d 11.1.18 b
11.1.19 a 11.1.20 d 11.2.1 b 11.2.2 a 11.2.3 b 11.2.4 d
11.2.5 b 11.2.6 a 11.2.7 a 11.2.8 c 11.2.9 a 11.2.10 b
11.2.11 c 11.2.12 a 11.2.13 b 11.2.14 b 11.2.15 b 11.2.16 c
11.2.17 a
System Analysis and Design/Documents On Web Multiple Choice Questions
11.1 Internet is
a. a local computer network
b. a world wide network of computers
c. an interconnected network of computers
d. a world wide interconnected network of computers which use a common

protocol to communicate with one another
11.2 The facilities available in the internet are

(i) electronic mail
(ii) remote login
(iii)file transfer
(iv)word processing
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iv
d. ii, iii and iv
11.3 Internet requires
a. an international agreement to connect computers
b. a local area network
c. a commonly agreed set of rules to communicate between computers
d. a World Wide Web
11.4 Each computer connected to the internet must
a. be an IBM PC
b. have a unique IP address
c. be internet compatible
d. have a modem connection
11.5 IP address is currently
a. 4 bytes long

b. available in plenty
c. 6 bytes long
d. not assigned as it is all used up
11.6 IP addresses are converted to
a. a binary string
b. alphanumeric string
c. a hierarchy of domain names
d. a hexadecimal string
11.7 Internet addresses must always have at least

a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. i, iii
d. ii, iii, iv, v
11.8 Internet uses
a. Packet switching
b. Circuit switching
c. Telephone switching
d. Telex switching
11.9 Internet data is broken up as
a. fixed length packets
b. variable length packets
c. not packetized

d. 64 bytes packets
11.10 Internet packet data structure consists of

(i)source address
(iii)serial number of packets
(iv)message bytes
(v)Control bits for error checking
(vi) Path identification bits
a. i, ii, iii
b. i, ii, iii, iv
c. i, ii, iii, iv, v
d. i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi
11.11 The packets of an internet message
a. take a predetermined path
b. take a path based on packet priority
c. go along different paths based on path availability
d. take the shortest path from source to destination
11.12 The time taken by internet packets
a. can be predetermined before transmission
b. may be different for different packets
c. is irrelevant for audio packets
11.13 By an intranet we mean
a. a LAN of an organization
b. a Wide Area Network connecting all branches of an organization
c. a corporate computer network
d. a network connecting all computers of an organization and using the internet

protocol

11.14 By an extranet we mean
a. an extra fast computer network
b. the intranets of two co-operating organizations interconnected via a secure

leased line
c. an extra network used by an organization for higher reliability
d. an extra connection to internet provided to co-operating organizati
11.15 World Wide Web
a. is another name for internet
b. world wide connection for computers
c. a collection of linked information residing on computers connected by the

internet
d. a collection of world wide information
11.16 Among services available on the World Wide Web are

(i)Encryption
(ii)HTTP
(iii)HTML
(iv)Firewalls
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iv
11.17 A world wide web contains web pages
a. residing in many computers
b. created using HTML
c. with links to other web pages
d. residing in many computers linked together using HTML
11.18 A web page is located using a

a. Universal Record Linking
b. Uniform Resource Locator
c. Universal Record Locator
d. Uniformly Reachable Links
11.19 A URL specifies the following:

(i) protocol used
(v) the name of ISP
a. i, ii, iii, iv
b. ii, iii, iv, v
c. i, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iii, v
11.20 A search engine is a program to search
a. for information
b. web pages
c. web pages for specified index terms
d. web pages for information using specified search terms
11.21 HTML stands for
a. Hyper Text Making Links
b. Hyper Text Markup Language
c. Higher Textual Marking of Links
d. Hyper Text Mixer of Links
11.22 HTML is similar to a
a. word processing language
b. screen editor

c. scripting language
d. search engine
11.23 Desirable properties of a website are

(i)a meaningful address
(ii)Help and search facilities
(iv)Features to allow users to give feedback
(v)Hosting on a mainframe
a. i, ii, iii
b. i, ii, iii, iv
c. i, ii, iii, iv, v
d. i, ii, iii, v
11.24 HTML uses
a. pre-specified tags
b. user defined tags
c. tags only for linking
d. fixed tags defined by the language
11.25 HTML tags define
a. The data types of elements of document
b. Presentation of specified elements of a document
c. The contents of the document
d. The structure of the document
11.26 The tag used in HTML to link it with other URL’s is:
a. <A>
b. <H>
c. <U>
d. <L>

11.27 The tags used for specifying fonts in HTML are
(i) <B>
(ii) <I>
(iii) <U>
(iv) <L>
a. (i) and (ii)
b. (i) and (iii)
c. (ii) and (iv)
d. (i),(ii) and (iii)
11.28 It is possible to display pictures (i.e, images) in HTML specification by

using the tag.
a. <GR src = Picture file>
b. <PIC src =Picture file>
c. <IMG src =Picture file>
d. <GIF src=Picture file
11.29 SGML stands for
a. Standard Generalized Markup Language
b. Structured General Markup Language
c. Standard Graphics Mapping Language
d. Standard General Markup Link
11.30 HTML and XML are markup languages
a. Specially development for the web
b. Are based on SGML
c. Are versions of SGML

d. Independent of SGML
11.31 XML stands for
a. Extra Markup Language
b. Excellent Markup Links
c. Extended Markup Language
d. Extended Marking Links
11.32 XML uses
a. user define tags
b. pre-defined tags
c. both predefined and user-defined tags
d. Extended tags used in HTML and makes them powerful
11.33 In order to interpret XML documents one should
a. Use standardized tags
b. Have a document type definition which defines the tags
c. Define the tags separately
d. Specify tag filename

11.34 The advantages of XML over HTML are
(ii) It uses meaningful tags which aids in understanding the nature
of a document
(iii)Is simpler than HTML
(iv)It separates presentation and structure of document
a. (i),(ii) and (iii)
b. (i),(ii) and(iv)
c. (ii),(iii) and (iv)
d. (i),(iii) and (iv)
11.35 XSL definition is used along with XML definition to specify

a. The data types of the contents of XML document
b. The presentation of XML document
c. The links with other documents
d. The structure of XML document
11.36 XLL definition is used along with XML to specify
11.37 DTD definition is used along with XML to specify

11.1 d 11.2 b 11.3 c 11.4 b 11.5 a 11.6 c

11.7 c 11.8 a 11.9 b 11.10 c 11.11 c 11.12 c
11.13 d 11.14 b 11.15 c 11.16 b 11.17 d 11.18 b
11.19 a 11.20 d 11.21 b 11.22 a 11.23 b 11.24 d
11.25 b 11.26 a 11.27 a 11.28 c 11.29 a 11.30 b
11.31 c 11.32 a 11.33 b 11.34 b 11.35 b 11.36 c
11.37 a

MODULE 11
DOCUMENTS ON WEB
WORKED EXAMPLES
11.1 What do you understand by an IP address? How is an IP address

represented numerically?
An IP address is an unique address required by a computer interface to access the
internet. Presently an IP address is a 4 byte address and is expressed in what is
known as the dotted decimal format like 144.16.68.201.
11.2 What is a domain name? How are e-mail addresses assigned?

Since IP addresses are represented numerically which is difficult to remember,
these addresses are converted into a string of characters for ease of remembering.
These addresses are grouped into domains.
On the Internet, a domain consists of a set of network addresses. This domain is
organized in levels. The top level identifies geographic location or purpose
commonality (for example, .in for India, .com for commerce and .edu for
education). The second level identifies a unique place within the top level domain
and is, in fact, equivalent to a unique address on the Internet (or IP). Lower levels
of domain may also be used.
Domain addresses are assigned by an international authority known as Internet
Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers (ICANN).
11.3 What is packet switching? What are the advantages of packet switching?
Why is packet switching used in internet communication?
Packet switching is the technique in which data are transmitted through
communication links as a set of packets. A message is broken into a number of
packets. The packets are stored in routers along the path and forwarded to other
routers when communication link is free.
Here the message is broken into packets to reduce the transmission cost. The
transmission is faster and fault-tolerant, in the sense that if a line is not working
or free the stored packets can be sent along another line.
11.4 What is extranet? Give an example of an extranet

An Extranet is private connection of intranets and leased lines from public
telecommunication system to share part of business’s information or operations
with suppliers, vendors, partners, customers, or other businesses.
We can call it as a “private internet”
Companies can use extranet to:
(a) Exchange large volumes of data using Electronic data Interchange(EDI)
(b) Share product catalogs exclusively with wholesalers or those “in the trade”
(c) Collaborate with other companies on joint development efforts
(d) Jointly develop and use training programs with other companies
An example of extranet is one which connects an automobile manufacturer with
supplies of ancilliaries such as batteries, tyres, brakes etc. Another example is
banknet connecting banks.
11.6 What is the world wide web? In what way is it different from internet?
The world wide web is the global multimedia information service available on
the internet. It consists of linked web pages.
The internet helps in facilitating the functionality of www. Internet is a physical
network of computers where www is a service provided using the internet.
11.7 What is the role of HTML in web page design? Give a HTML code to
display
Introduction to e-Commerce
This is a new book
HTML has features to embed with web pages pointing to other web pages. It has
features for adding images, different colors etc. and also you can develop a very
good and attractive web page to attract customers which is the basic need of e-
Commerce.
The html code to display the information is given below:
<html>
<head>
</head>
<body>
<h1>Introduction to e-Commerce</h1>
<p> This is a <b> new book </b> </p>
</body>
<html>
11.8 What is a URL? Explain the various parts of an URL?

A URL stands for Uniform Resource Locator. A URL is the address of a
(resource) accessible on the Internet. The type of resource depends on the
Internet application protocol.
In the URL http://www.entertainment.msn.com/movie.html the http stands for
protocol to be used i.e., here hyper text transfer protocol. The www.msn.com
preceded by:// is the address (called domain name) of computer, which is
permanently connected to the internet. The entertainment is one directory. Under
entertainment directory the file for information on movie is movie.html.
The protocol can be http, ftp (file transfer protocol).
The com stands for commercial organization.
Similarly there are different domains like edu, net etc., which are universally
agreed as of specific type.
11.9 What is a hyperlink? How do you link an image file to a HTML document?
An image or portion of text on a Web page that is linked to another Web page,
either on the same site or in another Web site is an Hyperlink. Clicking on the link
will take the user to another Web page, or to another place on the same page.
The specification for linking an image file to a HTML document is

<A href = “image file name”>< /A> where <A> is called the anchor tag.
11.10 What is XML? In what way is it superior to HTML?

XML or Extended Markup Language a subset of a SGML (Standard Generalized
Markup Language), is a new markup language that is capable of specifying what a
document really represents, unlike HTML which emphasizes on presentation of
the content and no means of specifying structure.
XML uses tags which are user defined, while HTML uses tags which are
predefined by the language.
Formatting and presentation are not part of XML unlike HTML which has tags
for bold face, italics etc. This is delegated to a companion language called XSL
(Extensible Style Language)
Linking documents to create hypertext is also not integrated in XML unlike

HTML where tag <A> is a general purpose linking tag. Much more powerful
linking is enabled by separating it to a companion language called XLL
(Extensible Link Language).
11.11 What language do you use to format XML documents?

Formatting is not a part of XML. This is delegated to a companion language
called XSL (Extensible style language)
System Analysis and Design/Documents On Web Question Bank
Question Bank
11.5 A good and a bad design for entering date in a form is given in Section 11.1.
What are the reasons for saying that one of them is good and the other bad?
why?

87646257.
11.25 Why is it useful to assign sequence numbers for data records? What are the types
of errors detected by sequence numbering?
11.27 A set of data records for student examination results has the following format:


System Analysis and Design/Documents On Web Pointers
References
1. Most traditional books on Systems Analysis and Design do not discuss HTML
and XML and documents on the web.
2. HTML is discussed in Wall D.A., using world wide web, 2nd edition, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 1996.
3. Detailed Presentation of XML may be found in the book by Sean McGrath,
“XML by Example”, Prentice Hall, Inc., N.J., U.S.A., 1998.
4. D.Box, A.Skonnard and J……, “Essential XML”, Pearson Education Asia, New
Delhi 2000.
5. Using HTML.4, XML and JAVA 1.2, Eric Ladd et.al , Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, 1999.
6. HTML 4.0 specifications may be found in http://www/w3.org/TR/html40

machine.
entering data.
2, 3, 4, etc., and the products are added. The sum is divided by 11. The remainder
is subtracted from 11. This number (which is called a check digit) is appended as
the last digit of the code. The code constructed in this way is called a midulus-11
check digit code.
preparation.
16. Besides this, individual data fields are checked using information on their range of
allowed values, range of reasonable values, and relationships between different
17. With the advent of Personal Computers, remote terminals connected to a computer
and local computer networks, considerable amount of data is entered in files
interactively.
20. A menu method is used to pick one out of many alternatives, a template method to
enter new data, and a command method to add and delete data.

why?

87646257.


REFERENCES
1. Most traditional books on Systems Analysis and Design do not discuss HTML
and XML and documents on the web.
2. HTML is discussed in Wall D.A., using world wide web, 2nd edition, Prentice
Hall of India, New Delhi, 1996.
3. Detailed Presentation of XML may be found in the book by Sean McGrath,
“XML by Example”, Prentice Hall, Inc., N.J., U.S.A., 1998.
4. D.Box, A.Skonnard and J……, “Essential XML”, Pearson Education Asia, New
Delhi 2000.
5. Using HTML.4, XML and JAVA 1.2, Eric Ladd et.al , Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, 1999.
6. HTML 4.0 specifications may be found in http://www/w3.org/TR/html40

MODULE 12
CONTROL,AUDIT AND SECURITY OF

INFORMATION SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
12.1.1 Control in design of an information system is used to

(a) inspect the system and check that it is built as per specifications
(b) protect data from accidental or intentional loss
(c) ensure that the system processes data as it was designed to and that the results
are reliable
(d) ensure privacy of data processed by it
12.1.2 Controls are necessary in information systems as

(i) massive amounts of data are processed and human errors are expected in
data entry
(ii) accidental errors can lead to loss of money and credibility in a system
(iii) to protect the system from virus attack
(iv) data may be lost due to disk crashes
(c) i and iv (d) ii and iii
12.1.3 The major objectives of control are

(i) guard against frauds in data entry/processing
(ii) check clerical handling of data before it enters a computer
(iii) to provide a method to trace the steps and find where error has occurred
(iv) automatically correct errors in data entry/processing
(a) i, ii and iv (b) i, ii, iii and iv
(c) i, ii and iii (d) i and iii
12.1.4 Organizational measures in control mean
(a) a set of well organized methods
(b) assignment of appropriate responsibilities to individuals in data processing in
an organization
(c) proper organization of data
(d) creation of an organization for controlling system
12.1.5 Proof figures are used to check

(i) arithmetic errors in processing
(ii) data entry errors in processing
(iii) loop errors in program
(iv) proof of program correctness
(c) ii and iv (d) iii and iv
12.1.6 A proof figure is

(a) a figure used to prove the correctness of data entry
(b) an additional data entered with each record to facilitate detection of arithmetic
error
(c) a number used during data entry
(d) a modulus-11 check digit
12.1.7 A two way check

(a) calculates the same quantity in two different ways and compares them for
equality
(b) calculates the quantities and compares them for equality
(c) checks a data item in two different ways
(d) enters data two times and cross-checks them
12.1.8 A two-way check is used to

(i) check program correctness
(ii) find data entry errors
(iii) find multiplication errors
(iv) find arithmetic error in processing
(c) ii and iv (d) i and iv
12.1.9 A relationship check
(a) is concerned with checking a relation
(b) uses an entity-relationship model for checking
(c) finds out if a relationship is satisfied in computation
(d) uses the fact that a known relationship exists between two data elements and
checks if it is satisfied during computation
12.1.10 A check-point procedure

(a) checks program correctness at certain points
(b) divides a program into smaller parts
(c) breaks a programs into portions at the end of each of which a check point
program is executed
(d) finds points in a program where it is convenient to check it
12.1.11 At each check-point

(i) quantities such as control totals and proof figures are checked for
correctness
(ii) process state is stored in secondary storage
(iii) a program halts for check by programmers
(iv) a self-checking system is invoked by the analyst
(a) i and iv (b) ii and iii
(c) i and ii (d) i and iii
LEARNING UNIT 2
12.2.1 Audit in the design of information system is used to

(a) inspect the system and check that it is built as per specifications
(b) protect data from accidental or intentional loss
are reliable
12.2.2 Auditing of information systems is primarily required to ensure that

(i) all input records are correct and are included in processing
(ii) the system has ample protection against frauds
(iii) the processing performance is reliable
(iv) the system is developed at low cost
(a) i and ii (b) iii and iv
(c) ii and iii (d) i, ii and iii
12.2.3 By auditing around the computer we mean
(a) the inputs and the corresponding outputs are compared and checked for
correctness
(b) the programs and procedures are checked for correctness
(c) special synthetic data is input and outputs checked for correctness
(d) programs are written to check the functioning of the computer hardware
12.2.4 By auditing with a computer we mean

correctness
12.2.5 By auditing through the computer we mean

correctness
12.2.6 An audit trail is established in a system to

(a) detect errors in a system
(b) enable auditing of a system
(c) localize the source of an error in a system
(d) trail a program
12.2.7 Some audit and control procedures in a system

(i) detect and correct errors in programs
(ii) selectively print records in a system which meet certain criteria
(iii) examine credit and debit balances in an accounting system and check if
they balance
(iv) provide a facility to trace a variable value through processing steps and
print intermediate values when required
(c) i, ii, iii (d) ii, iii, iv
12.2.8 It is advisable for an auditor to require an operational information system to

(i) keep logs of all system runs and people involved
(ii) ensure that the programs and system operation are well documented
(iii) ensure that no changes are allowed
(iv) ensure that the inputs and batch controls are properly designed
(c) i, ii, iv (d) i, ii
12.2.9 In auditing with a computer
(a) auditing programs are designed and used to check a system
(b) the hardware of the computer is thoroughly checked for malfunctions
(c) system software is thoroughly checked to ensure error free operations
(d) auditors check system with a computer
12.2.10 Some of the features of audit package used to check systems are:
(i) facility to total specified items based on some criteria
(ii) extracting items based on some criteria for checking
(iii) check-pointing and restart facility
(iv) hardware faults recovery
LEARNING UNIT 3
12.3.1 By information system testing we mean

(a) testing an information system correctly
(b) determining whether a system is performing as per specifications
(c) determining whether a system is performing optimally
(d) ensuring proper function of a system
12.3.2 The main objectives of testing are

(i) when correct inputs are fed to the system the outputs are correct
(ii) when incorrect inputs are fed to the system they are detected and rejected
(iii) the requirement specifications are correct
(iv) verify that the controls incorporated in the system function correctly
12.3.3 The scope of the system test includes

(a) both computerized and manual procedures
(b) only test of computer procedures
(c) computerized procedures, manual procedures, computer operations and
controls
(d) mainly computerized procedures and operations controls
12.3.4 Program tests use test data to
(i) exercise all paths taken by a program
(ii) test loop counters
(iii) test with values which change state of logical variables
(iv) comprehensively exercise program
12.3.5 By string test we mean

(a) a test which tests operations with strings
(b) a string of tests on programs
(c) Test on related programs
(d) The output of a program is sent as input to related program(s) to see if data is
transferred correctly
12.3.6 Parallel runs are used

(a) during regular operation of an information system
(b) when a system is initially implemented
(c) whenever errors are found in a computerized system
(d) whenever management insists
12.3.7 The purpose of parallel run is to

(a) to see whether outputs of a newly computerized system matches those of
currently running manual or legacy system
(b) have redundancy for reliability
(c) test an operational information system
(d) test a system being newly designed
LEARNING UNIT 4
12.4.1 Security in the design of information system is used to

(a) inspect the system and check that it is built as per the specifications
(b) protect data and programs from accidental or intentional loss
are reliable
12.4.2 By security of an information system we mean protecting
(i) data from accidental or intentional damage or loss
(ii) programs from accidental or intentional corruption or loss
(iii) programs and data from unauthorized disclosure or change
(iv) individual private data from disclosure
(c) i, ii, iii (d) i, ii, iii, iv
12.4.3 It is necessary to protect information system from the following risks:

(i) natural disasters like fire, floods etc
(ii) disgruntled employees
(iii) poorly trained employees
(iv) hackers
(v) industrial spies
(vi) data entry operators
(a) ii, iii, iv, v (b) i, ii, iii, iv, v
(c) i, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi
12.4.4 The following measures are taken to ensure security of information systems:
(i) duplicate copies of data/programs are kept in a different place preferably
in fire-proof vault
(ii) password protection is used to prevent unauthorized access
(iii) no one is allowed to alter data in the database
(iv) no one is allowed alter programs
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii, iii
(c) ii, iii, iv (d) iii and iv
12.4.5 Some security measures commonly used are

(i) data encryption
(ii) logging of all accesses to an information system and recording changes
made (if any)
(iii) data compression
(iv) copying of files
(a) ii and iii (b) i and iii
12.4.6 To protect a system from viruses one should

(i) not allow unauthorized use of floppy disks
(ii) scan viruses in files received via a network or floppies
(iii) isolate a system from networks
(iv) install a roll-back recovery program in the system
(c) ii and iv (d) i, iii, iv
12.4.7 A firewall is used in a system connected to a wide area network to
(a) prevent spread of fire in the network
(b) prevent unauthorized access by hackers
(c) to scan for viruses in files
(d) to extinguish fire spreading via network cables
12.1.1 c 12.1.2 a 12.1.3 c 12.1.4 c 12.1.5 a 12.1.6 b

12.1.7 a 12.1.8 c 12.1.9 d 12.1.10 c 12.1.11 c 12.2.1 a
12.2.2 d 12.2.3 a 12.2.4 c 12.2.5 b 12.2.6 c 12.2.7 d
12.2.8 c 12.2.9 a 12.2.10 b 12.3.1 b 12.3.2 d 12.3.3 c
12.3.4 b 12.3.5 d 12.3.6 b 12.3.7 a 12.4.1 b 12.4.2 c
12.4.3 d 12.4.4 a 12.4.5 c 12.4.6 b 12.4.7 b
System Analysis and Design/ Control – audit and Security of Motivation
Information Systems
Motivation for Controls

It is very important to ensure the reliability of reports produced by an information
system
If unreliability is seen by users the entire credibility of the system is lost
Ensuring reliability is not difficult for small systems but when a system has to
handle massive data it is a challenge
Systematic controls are thus essential when a system is designed
Motivation for Audits
Many organizations are now entirely dependent on computer based information
system
These information systems contain financial data and other critical procedures
It is essential to protect the systems against frauds and ensure that sound
accounting practices are followed
It is necessary to trace the origin and fix responsibilities when frauds occur
Audit methods primary purpose is to ensure this.
Motivation for Testing
Systems contain many individual subsystems
Usually sub-systems and programs are individually tested
However when a whole system is integrated unforeseen errors may be seen
Thus before releasing a system the entire operational system should be tested for
correctness and completeness
Motivation for Security
Systems contain sensitive data about the organization and also about persons
working in the organization
Sensitive data should be protected from spies, thieves or disgruntled employees.
Thus access should be carefully controlled and provided only on a need to know
basis
When computers are networked corruption/erasure may take place due to viruses
Services may be disrupted due to denial of service attacks
Thus systems should be designed with appropriate security measures.

System Analysis and Design/ Control – audit and Security of Motivation
Information Systems
Motivation for Disaster Recovery
Organizations depend on Information systems for their entire operations
It is thus essential to ensure continuity of service when unforeseen situations
such as disk crashes, fires, floods and such disasters take place.
Thus it is essential to ensure quick recovery from disasters and ensure
continuity of service.

MODULE 12
CONTROL AUDIT AND SECURITY OF
INFORMATION SYSTEM
Learning Units
12.1 Controls in Information systems

12.2 Need and methods of auditing Information systems
12.3 Testing Information systems
12.4 Security of Information systems

LEARNING GOALS
Why controls are necessary in Information systems

Methods of controlling Information systems
How controls are introduced in Information systems
Why Information systems need auditing
How are systems audited
The methods used to test Information systems
How the security of an Information system is ensured

MOTIVATION FOR CONTROLS
It is very important to ensure the reliability of reports

produced by an information system
If unreliability is seen by users the entire credibility of
the system is lost
Ensuring reliability is not difficult for small systems but
when a system has to handle massive data it is a challenge
Systematic controls are thus essential when a system is
designed

MOTIVATION FOR AUDITS
Many organizations are now entirely dependent on

computer based information system
These information systems contain financial data and
other critical procedures
It is essential to protect the systems against frauds and
ensure that sound accounting practices are followed
It is necessary to trace the origin and fix responsibilities
when frauds occur
Audit methods primary purpose is to ensure this.

MOTIVATION FOR TESTING
Systems contain many individual subsystems

Usually sub-systems and programs are individually
tested
However when a whole system is integrated unforeseen
errors may be seen
Thus before releasing a system the entire operational
system should be tested for correctness and completeness

MOTIVATION FOR SECURITY
Systems contain sensitive data about the organization and also
about persons working in the organization
Sensitive data should be protected from spies, thieves or
disgruntled employees.
Thus access should be carefully controlled and provided only on
a need to know basis
When computers are networked corruption/erasure may take
place due to viruses
Services may be disrupted due to denial of service attacks
Thus systems should be designed with appropriate security
measures.

MOTIVATION FOR DISASTER
RECOVERY
Organizations depend on Information systems for their entire
operations
It is thus essential to ensure continuity of service when
unforeseen situations such as disk crashes,fires,floods and such
disasters take place.
Thus it is essential to ensure quick recovery from disasters and
ensure continuity of service.

CONTROL AUDIT AND SECURITY
OF INFORMATION SYSTEM
• CONTROL- Method to ensure that a system processes

data as per design and that all data is included and are correct
• AUDIT AND TESTING - Ensure that the system is built

as per specifications and that processed results are correct.
Protect systems from frauds.
• SECURITY- Protection of data resources,programs,and

equipment from illegal use,theft,vandalism,accidents,
disasters etc.

NEED OF CONTROLS
• Information systems handle massive amounts of data

– accidents such as not including some data can cause
serious damage
• Incorrect data entry can lead to high monetary losses
• Credibility in the information system may be lost if
errors are found in operational systems

OBJECTIVES OF CONTROLS
•To make sure data entering the computer are correct

•Check clerical handling of data before it is input to a
computer
•Provide means of detecting and tracing errors which
occur due to bad data or bad program
•Ensure legal requirements are met
•To guard against frauds

CONTROL TECHNIQUES
• ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
Well defined responsibility for input preparation, delivery
output use, operation and maintenance
- Changes in program and data (if any) should be

documented
- Performance of task and recording must be
by different persons to prevent frauds

CONTROL TECHNIQUES
• INPUT PREPARATOIN CONTROL

-Sequence numbering
-Batch controls
-Data entry and verification
-Record totals
-Self checking digits, (Covered in Module 7)

PROCESSING CONTROLS
PROOF FIGURES –An additional data element introduced to

detect data entry/processing error
Example:item code,qty supplied,cost/unit,proof cost(proof cost is
additional data introduced.
Proof cost=(H-cost/unit)where H is a constant > maxcost
Check if H ∑ qty = ∑qty *proof cost + ∑qty * cost/unit
If two sides are not equal, there is an error.

PROCESSING CONTROLS
TWO WAY CHECK – Calculate same qty in two different ways
and they should be equal
Example : ∑gross pay - ∑deductions = ∑net pay
RELATIONSHIP CHECK –We know relation between
variable.
Example : Rebate total = ∑Sales * discount percent
CHECKPOINT RESTART – Periodical storing of process
state. If there is a failure roll back to saved state and restart
computation.
CHECK POINTS also useful to check intermediate results in
long and complex calculations.Region where an error occurred can
thus be isolated
AUDITING OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
Ensure computer based financial and other
information reliable
Ensure all records included while processing
Ensure protection from frauds

AUDIT METHODS
AUDITING AROUND COMPUTER

Take sample inputs and manually apply processing rules and
compare outputs with computer outputs
AUDITING THROUGH THE COMPUTER

-Establish audit trail which allows examining selected
intermediate results
-Control totals provide intermediate checks

Facility to trace transaction value and print

intermediate results
Selective printing of records meeting criteria specified by
the auditor
For example :Inactive accounts,overactive accounts,
accounts with high balance
Comparing credit and debit balances
Ensure logs are kept of who did what in critical data
entry and processing to fix responsibility.Called an Audit
trail.
Auditor’s own check inputs and expected outputs.

AUDITING WITH THE COMPUTER
Use special audit packages to check system
Audit package allows
Extracting data based on the specified criterion for
inspection(e.g. Students with wide disparity in marks in
two subjects)
Totaling specified subset of data for check
Procedure to check sale discounts
Process with independent data file created by auditor
and verify to see if system is as per specification

SYSTEM TESTING
OBJECTIVES
To ensure the entire system will perform as per
specification
Ensure system meets users requirements
Verify if controls function as intended
To make sure incorrect inputs,incorrect processing
and incorrect outputs (if any) will be detected during
operation
Should include both computer based and manual
processes
Remember that system testing is done before a system is
released as ready for operation

CLASIFICATION OF SYSTEM TESTS
•PROGRAM TESTS
-Program tests with test data
- Normally individual modules tested then integration test
done
- Test boundary conditions
- Test using loop counts
•SYSTEM TESTS
-Results from a program fed as input to a succeeding
program
- a string of programs run one after another
SYSTEM TESTING (CONTD)
• SYSTEM TESTS
-All programs in a complete system are tested together as a
whole.Tested using unreasonable data and non key data
besides normal test data for whole system
• PILOT TESTS
-Use data from manual system to test system when it is first
implemented. If it is modification of earlier computer based
system use data and output from that system

SYSTEM TESTING (CONTD)
• PARALLEL RUNS
-Run both manual and computer based systems with same
live data and see if both give identical results
-If it is re-engineered (i.e.,Modified) system run both old
and new systems and compare results

SECURITY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
Security means protection of data from accidental or

intentional modification, destruction or disclosure to
unauthorised persons
POTENTIAL THREATS TO SECURITY
Natural disasters such as fire, floods, earthquakes
Accidents such as disk crashes, file erasure by
inexperienced operators
Theft/erasure of data by disgruntled employees

SECURITY OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS
POTENTIAL THREATS TO SECURITY (CONTD)
Frauds by changing programs, data by employees

Industrial espionage
Viruses/Worms
Hackers who break into systems connected to the
internet
Denial of service attacks by flooding with mail

HOW TO PROTECT DATA/PROGRAMS
Regular back up of data bases every day/or week

depending on the time criticality and size
Incremental back up at shorter intervals
Backup copies kept in safe remote location
-particularly necessary for disaster recovery
Duplicate systems run and all transactions mirrored if it
is a very critical system and cannot tolerate any disruption
before storing in disk.
Physical locks
Password system
Biometric authentication (Eg: Finger print)

Encrypting sensitive data/programs

Identification of all persons who read or modify
data and logging it in a file
Training employees on data care/handling and
security
Antivirus software
Firewall protection when connected to internet

DATA SECURITY, PRIVACY AND
INTEGRITY
Data security is concerned with protecting data from
erasure,theft,unauthorized access and unauthorized
modifications
Data privacy is concerned with protecting data regarding

individuals from being accessed and used without the
permission/knowledge of concerned individuals
Data integrity is concerned with the quality and

reliability of raw as well as processed data

DATA SECURITY, PRIVACY AND
INTEGRITY
Security does not imply privacy or integrity
Privacy controls need specific law against disclosure of

personal data
Ultimately data and system integrity most important

MODULE 12

INFORMATION SYSTEM
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
Controls in Information systems
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Need and methods of auditing Information systems
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Testing Information systems
5. LEARNING UNIT 4
Security of Information systems
6. References
INFORMATION SYSTEM
MOTIVATION FOR CONTROLS
It is very important to ensure the reliability of reports produced by an

information system. If users see unreliability the entire credibility of the
system is lost. Ensuring reliability is not difficult for small systems but when
a system has to handle massive data it is a challenge. Systematic controls are
thus essential when a system is designed.
MOTIVATION FOR AUDITS
Many organizations are now entirely dependent on computer based

information system. These information systems contain financial data and
other critical procedures. It is essential to protect the systems against frauds
and ensure that sound accounting practices are followed. It is necessary to
trace the origin and fix responsibilities when frauds occur. Audit methods
primary purpose is to ensure this.
MOTIVATION FOR TESTING

Systems contain many individual subsystems. Usually sub-systems and
programs are individually tested. However when a whole system is
integrated unforeseen errors may be seen. Thus before releasing a system the
entire operational system should be tested for correctness and completeness.
MOTIVATION FOR SECURITY
Systems contain sensitive data about the organization and also about persons
working in the organization. This data should be protected from spies,
thieves or disgruntled employees. Thus access should be carefully controlled
and provided only on a need to know basis. When computers are networked
corruption/erasure may take place due to viruses. Services may be disrupted
due to denial of service attacks. Thus systems should be designed with
appropriate security measures.
MOTIVATION FOR DISASTER RECOVERY
Organizations depend on Information systems for their entire operations. It

is thus essential to ensure continuity of service when unforeseen situations
such as disk crashes, fires, floods and such disasters take place. Thus it is
essential to ensure quick recovery from disasters and ensure continuity of
service.
LEARNING GOALS
At the end of the module you will learn:
Why controls are necessary in Information systems

Methods of controlling Information systems
How controls are introduced in Information systems
Why Information systems need auditing
How are Information systems audited
The methods used to test Information systems
How the security of an Information system is ensured
LEARNING UNIT 1
Controls in Information systems
CONTROL AUDIT AND SECURITY OF INFORMATION SYSTEM
• CONTROL- Method to ensure that a system processes data as per design

and that all data is included and are correct
• AUDIT AND TESTING - Ensure that the system is built as per

specifications and that processed results are correct. Protect systems from
frauds.
• SECURITY- Protection of data resources, programs, and equipment from

illegal use, theft, vandalism, accidents, disasters etc.
NEED OF CONTROLS
Information systems handle massive amounts of data – accidents such as not

including some data can cause serious damage. Incorrect data entry can lead
to high monetary losses. Credibility in the information system may be lost if
errors are found in operational systems.
OBJECTIVES OF CONTROLS
To make sure data entering the computer are correct, check clerical handling
of data before it is input to a computer. Provide means of detecting and
tracing errors that occur due to bad data or bad program. Ensure that all legal
requirements are met.
CONTROL TECHNIQUES
• ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
Well-defined responsibility for input preparation, delivery, output use,
operation and maintenance. Changes in program and data (if any) should be
documented. Performance of task and recording must be by different persons
to prevent frauds.
• INPUT PREPARATOIN CONTROL

-Sequence numbering
-Batch controls
-Data entry and verification
-Record totals
-Self checking digits
PROCESSING CONTROLS
PROOF FIGURES –An additional data element introduced to detect data

entry/processing error
Example:item code,qty supplied,cost/unit,proof cost(proof cost is additional
data introduced).
Proof cost=(H-cost/unit)where H is a constant > maxcost
Check if H * qty = ∑qty *proof cost + ∑qty * cost/unit
If two sides are not equal, there is an error.
TWO WAY CHECK – Calculate same qty in two different ways and they
should be equal
Example : ∑ gross pay - ∑deductions = ∑net pay
RELATIONSHIP CHECK –We know relation between variable.

Example : Rebate total = ∑Sales * discount percent
CHECKPOINT RESTART – Periodical storing of process state. If there
is a failure roll back to saved state and restart computation.
CHECK POINTS also useful to check intermediate results in long and
complex calculations. Region where an error occurred can thus be isolated
LEARNING UNIT 2
Need and methods of auditing Information systems
AUDITING OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

OBJECTIVES
Ensure computer based financial and other information reliable
Ensure all records included while processing
Ensure protection from frauds
AUDIT METHODS
AUDITING AROUND COMPUTER : Take sample inputs and manually
apply processing rules and compare outputs with computer outputs
AUDITING THROUGH THE COMPUTER : Establish audit trail
which allows examining selected intermediate results. Control totals provide
intermediate checks

Facility to trace transaction value and print intermediate results
Selective printing of records meeting criteria specified by the auditor
For example :Inactive accounts, overactive accounts, accounts with high
balance
Comparing credit and debit balances
Ensure logs are kept of who did what in critical data entry and processing
to fix responsibility. Called an Audit trail.
Auditor’s own check inputs and expected outputs.
AUDITING WITH THE COMPUTER

Use special audit packages to check system
Audit package allows
Extracting data based on the specified criterion for inspection (e.g.
Students with wide disparity in marks in two subjects)
Totaling specified subset of data for check
Procedure to check sale discounts
Process with independent data file created by auditor and verify to see if
system is as per specification
LEARNING UNIT 3
Testing Information systems
OBJECTIVES
To ensure the entire system will perform as per specification
Ensure system meets users requirements
Verify if controls function as intended
To make sure incorrect inputs, incorrect processing and incorrect outputs
(if any) will be detected during operation
Should include both computer based and manual processes
Remember that system testing is done before a system is released as ready
for operation
CLASIFICATION OF SYSTEM TESTS

•PROGRAM TESTS
-Program tests with test data
- Normally individual modules tested then integration test
done
- Test boundary conditions
- Test using loop counts
•SYSTEM TESTS
-Results from a program fed as input to a succeeding program
- a string of programs run one after another
-All programs in a complete system are tested together as a whole. Tested
using unreasonable data and non key data besides normal test data for whole
system
• PILOT TESTS
-Use data from manual system to test system when it is first implemented.
If it is modification of earlier computer based system use data and output
from that system
• PARALLEL RUNS
-Run both manual and computer based systems with same live data and see
if both give identical results
-If it is re-engineered (i.e.,Modified) system run both old and new systems
and compare results
LEARNING UNIT 4
Security of Information systems
Security means protection of data from accidental or intentional

modification, destruction or disclosure to unauthorised persons
POTENTIAL THREATS TO SECURITY
Natural disasters such as fire, floods, earthquakes

Accidents such as disk crashes, file erasure by inexperienced operators
Theft/erasure of data by disgruntled employees
Frauds by changing programs, data by employees
Industrial espionage
Viruses/Worms
Hackers who break into systems connected to the internet
Denial of service attacks by flooding with mail
SECURITY MEASURES
Regular back up of data bases every day/or week depending on the time
criticality and size
Incremental back up at shorter intervals
Backup copies kept in safe remote location
-particularly necessary for disaster recovery
Duplicate systems run and all transactions mirrored if it is a very critical
system and cannot tolerate any disruption before storing in disk.
Physical locks
Password system
Biometric authentication (Eg: Finger print)
Data/Programs can be protected in the following ways:

Encrypting sensitive data/programs
Identification of all persons who read or modify data and logging it in a file
Training employees on data care/handling and security
Antivirus software
Firewall protection when connected to internet
DATA SECURITY, PRIVACY AND INTEGRITY
Data security is concerned with protecting data from erasure, theft,

unauthorized access and unauthorized modifications.
Data privacy is concerned with protecting data regarding individuals from
being accessed and used without the permission/knowledge of concerned
individuals
Data integrity is concerned with the quality, reliability and trustworthiness
of raw as well as processed data
Security does not imply privacy or integrity
Privacy controls need specific law against disclosure of personal data
Ultimately data and system integrity most important
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this module has been taken from Chapter 15,
Control, Audit and Security of Information in the book “Analysis and
Design of Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India,
2002, by V.Rajaraman.
2. M.Bishop, Computer Security, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi,

2003. It is an comprehensive book cover 1000 pages) which discusses
security in great details. Going through the contents pages (pp.vii to
xxx) will give a student a glimpse of various aspect of security, audit
and integrity of information systems.
3. D.A. Watne, P.B.B. Turney, Auditing EDP Systems, Prentice Hall

Inc. N.J., U.S.A., 1990, is an extensive treatment of auditing
information systems.
System Analysis and Design/Control, Audit And Security Multiple Choice Questions
Of Information System
12.1 Control in design of an information system is used to

a. inspect the system and check that it is built as per specifications
b. protect data from accidental or intentional loss
c. ensure that the system processes data as it was designed to and that the
results are reliable
d. ensure privacy of data processed by it
12.2 Controls are necessary in information systems as
(i) massive amounts of data are processed and human errors are expected in data
entry
(ii) accidental errors can lead to loss of money and credibility in a system
(iii) to protect the system from virus attack
(iv) data may be lost due to disk crashes
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. i and iv
d. ii and iii
12.3 The major objectives of control are
(i)guard against frauds in data entry/processing
(ii)check clerical handling of data before it enters a computer
(iii)to provide a method to trace the steps and find where error has
occurred
(iv)automatically correct errors in data entry/processing
a. i, ii and iv
b. i, ii, iii and iv
c. i, ii and iii
d. i and iii
12.4 Organizational measures in control mean
a. a set of well organized methods
b. assignment of appropriate responsibilities to individuals in data
processing in an organization
c. proper organization of data

d. creation of an organization for controlling system

12.5 Proof figures are used to check
(i) arithmetic errors in processing
(ii)data entry errors in processing
(iii)loop errors in program
(iv)proof of program correctness
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. ii and iv
d. iii and iv
12.6 A proof figure is
a. a figure used to prove the correctness of data entry
b. an additional data entered with each record to facilitate detection of
arithmetic error
c. a number used during data entry
d. a modulus-11 check digit
12.7 A two way check
a. calculates the same quantity in two different ways and compares them for
equality
b. calculates the quantities and compares them for equality
c. checks a data item in two different ways
d. enters data two times and cross-checks them
12.8 A two-way check is used to
(i)check program correctness
(ii)find data entry errors
(iii)find multiplication errors
(iv)find arithmetic error in processing
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. ii and iv
d. i and iv

12.9 A relationship check

a. is concerned with checking a relation
b. uses an entity-relationship model for checking
c. finds out if a relationship is satisfied in computation
d. uses the fact that a known relationship exists between two data elements
and checks if it is satisfied during computation
12.10 A check-point procedure
a. checks program correctness at certain points
b. divides a program into smaller parts
c. breaks a programs into portions at the end of each of which a check point
program is executed
d. finds points in a program where it is convenient to check it
12.11 At each check-point
(i)quantities such as control totals and proof figures are checked
for correctness
(ii)process state is stored in secondary storage
(iii)a program halts for check by programmers
(iv)a self-checking system is invoked by the analyst
a. i and iv
b. ii and iii
c. i and ii
d. i and iii
12.12 Audit in the design of information system is used to
a. inspect the system and check that it is built as per specifications
b. protect data from accidental or intentional loss
12.13 Auditing of information systems is primarily required to ensure the
(i)all input records are correct and are included in processing
(ii)the system has ample protection against frauds

(iii)the processing performance is reliable

(iv)the system is developed at low cost
a. i and ii
b. iii and iv
c. ii and iii
d. i, ii and iii
12.14 By auditing around the computer we mean
a. the inputs and the corresponding outputs are compared and checked for
correctness
b. the programs and procedures are checked for correctness
c. special synthetic data is input and outputs checked for correctness
d. programs are written to check the functioning of the computer har
12.15 By auditing with a computer we mean
correctness
d. programs are written to check the functioning of the computer hardware
12.16 By auditing through the computer we mean
correctness
d. programs are written to check the functioning of the computer hardware
12.17 An audit trail is established in a system to
a. detect errors in a system
b. enable auditing of a system
c. localize the source of an error in a system
d. trail a program
12.18 Some audit and control procedures in a system
(i)detect and correct errors in programs

(ii)selectively print records in a system which meet certain

criteria
(iii)examine credit and debit balances in an accounting system
and check if they balance
(iv)provide a facility to trace a variable value through
processing steps and print intermediate values when required
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i, ii, iii
d. ii, iii, iv
12.19 It is advisable for an auditor to require an operational information
system to
(i)keep logs of all system runs and people involved
(ii)ensure that the programs and system operation are well
documented
(iii)ensure that no changes are allowed
(iv)ensure that the inputs and batch controls are properly
designed
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. i, ii, iv
d. i, ii
12.20 In auditing with a computer
a. auditing programs are designed and used to check a system
b. the hardware of the computer is thoroughly checked for malfunctions
c. system software is thoroughly checked to ensure error free operations
d. auditors check system with a computer
12.21 Some of the features of audit package used to check systems are:
(i)facility to total specified items based on some criteria
(ii) extracting items based on some criteria for checking
(iii)check-pointing and restart facility

(iv) Hardware faults recovery

a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
12.22 By information system testing we mean
a. testing an information system correctly
b. determining whether a system is performing as per specifications
c. determining whether a system is performing optimally
d. ensuring proper function of a system
12.23 The main objectives of testing are
(i)when correct inputs are fed to the system the outputs are
correct
(ii)when incorrect inputs are fed to the system they are detected
and rejected
(iii)the requirement specifications are correct
(iv) verify that the controls incorporated in the system function
correctly
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
12.24 The scope of the system test includes
a. both computerized and manual procedures
b. only test of computer procedures
c. computerized procedures, manual procedures, computer operations and
controls
d. mainly computerized procedures and operations controls
12.25 Program tests use test data to
(i) exercise all paths taken by a program
(ii)test loop counters

(iii)test with values which change state of logical variables

(iv)comprehensively exercise program
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
12.26 By string test we mean
a. a test which tests operations with strings
b. a string of tests on programs
c. Test on related programs
d. The output of a program is sent as input to related program(s) to see if
data is transferred correctly
12.27 Parallel runs are used
a. during regular operation of an information system
b. when a system is initially implemented
c. whenever errors are found in a computerized system
d. whenever management insists
12.28 The purpose of parallel run is to
a. to see whether outputs of a newly computerized system matches those of
currently running manual or legacy system
b. have redundancy for reliability
c. test an operational information system
d. test a system being newly designed
12.29 Security in the design of information system is used to
a. inspect the system and check that it is built as per the specifications
b. protect data and programs from accidental or intentional loss
12.30 By security of an information system we mean protecting
(i)data from accidental or intentional damage or loss

(ii)programs from accidental or intentional corruption or loss

(iii)programs and data from unauthorized disclosure or change
(iv)individual private data from disclosure
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. i, ii, iii
d. i, ii, iii, iv
12.31 It is necessary to protect information system from the following
(i)natural disasters like fire, floods etc
(ii)disgruntled employees
(iii)poorly trained employees
(iv)hackers
(v)industrial spies
(vi)data entry operators
a. ii, iii, iv, v
b. i, ii, iii, iv, v
c. i, iv, v
d. i, ii, iii, iv, v, vi
12.32 The following measures are taken to ensure security of information
systems:
(i)duplicate copies of data/programs are kept in a different place
preferably in fire-proof vault
(ii)password protection is used to prevent unauthorized access
(iii)no one is allowed to alter data in the database
(iv)no one is allowed alter programs
a. i and ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. ii, iii, iv
d. iii and iv
12.33 Some security measures commonly used are
(i)data encryption

(ii)logging of all accesses to an information system and

recording changes made (if any)
(iii)data compression
(iv)copying of files
a. ii and iii
b. i and iii
c. i and ii
d. ii and iv
12.34 To protect a system from viruses one should
(i)not allow unauthorized use of floppy disks
(ii)scan viruses in files received via a network or floppies
(iii)isolate a system from networks
(iv)install a roll-back recovery program in the system
a. i and iii
b. i and ii
c. ii and iv
d. i, iii, iv
12.35 A firewall is used in a system connected to a wide area network to
a. prevent spread of fire in the network
b. prevent unauthorized access by hackers
c. to scan for viruses in files
d. to extinguish fire spreading via network cables

12.1 c 12.2a 12.3 c 12.4 c 12.5 a 12.6 b
12.7 a 12.8 c 12.9 d 12.10 c 12.11 c 12.12 a
12.13 d 12.14 a 12.15 c 12.16 b 12.17 c 12.18 d
12.19 c 12.22 a 12.21 b 12.22 b 12.23 d 12.24 c
12.25 b 12.26 d 12.27 b 12.28 a 12.29 b 12.30 c

12.31 d 12.32 a 12.33 c 12.34 b 12.35 b

MODULE 12
CONTROL OF INFORMATION SYSTEMS

AUDIT AND SECURITY
WORKED EXAMPLES
12.1 A college has 1500 students whose final examination results are declared
using computer processing. There are 5 subjects, each carrying 100 marks.
Classes are awarded as follows: Marks 60 or above I Class, 50 or above II
Class, below 50 Fail. Devise an appropriate control scheme for processing
results.
Control Measures
(i) Organizational measures. Each examiner who grades papers sends a
separate list for batches of 50 students, number of students getting >= 60,
number getting >= 50 and number below 50.
Data entry is done by a person different from the one who enters control
information. Control total check from the computer is seen by the head
examiner and compared with information on each batch sent by different
examiners.
(ii) Input preparation control. Roll nos. appended with self-checking digit
using modulus-11 system.
Records stored roll no. wise and sequence checked while processing.
Total no. of records in each batch is counted and entered in the control
record.
Each mark entered is checked if it is <=100 or >= 0.
If marks in subject P is <= 10 and subject K >= 90 such records are marked
and retrieved for inspection.
(iii) Control totals. Make batches of 50. For each batch, total marks in a specified
subject. In another subject count no. of students with marks >= 60 and enter
no. in control record. Count total records.
Processing Control
Proof figure. In each student record one more field is added which is (100 –
marks in subject 2). In processing in each batch this field is added together. The sum
of subject 2 marks is also got as control total in each batch. Let N be the no. of
records in each batch. Then sum of (100 – marks in subject 2) + sum of marks in
subject 2 = 100 * N. This is checked. Checkpoint restart is provided during
processing after every 150 seconds.
12.2 What is an audit trail?
Audit trail provides the means of pinpointing where an error occurred once an
error is detected.
12.3 What is the difference between control and audit?

Controls are essential to enable an auditor to check the correctness of a system.
An auditor checks whether controls put in a system are adequate.
12.4 What is an audit package? Enumerate some of the important features of an

audit package.
An audit package is a program developed by an auditor to check whether
processing is done by a system as per specifications. Audit packages have features
to
(i)Extract data satisfying a specified criterion.
(ii) Total specified fields for inspection.
(iii) Check specified selected fields for inspection.
(iv) Check totals of specified sets with certain characteristics.
(iv) Matching data files with an auditor’s own file.
12.5 What is the purpose of security measures in an information system?

Security measures are used to protect data and programs from accidental loss or
theft. They also protect the system from unauthorized access, unauthorized
change or copying.
12.6 What is the difference between security and privacy? Do secure systems
ensure privacy?
Security is concerned with protecting data and programs of organizations. Privacy
is concerned with the need of secrecy of data regarding individuals. For example
data on payroll may be secure if it is properly protected from fire, corruption etc. If
an authorized person who has access to this
12.7 What is the difference between security measures and control measures?
The security measures are to protect data whereas controls are to ensure that all
data is processed and processed data is correct.
12.8 Is a password system sufficient to ensure security of access to files?

No. Passwords can be broken by sustained effort. Double protection is slightly
better. In this case two different passwords should be used. After the first
password is accepted a second password is needed. Data stored may also be
transformed and stored using a secret code (called encryption).
12.9 How can privacy be ensured in an information system?
By proper legal protection given to individuals data. Requiring an individual’s
written permission to divulge data on him/her.
12.10 Why are system tests necessary?

System tests are necessary to ensure that a system conforms to specifications
during operation, meets user requirements, controls function effectively, and its
outputs are correct.
12.11 What are the objectives of system tests?

The main objectives of system testing are:
• To ensure that during operation the system will perform as per specifications.
• To make sure that the system meets users’ requirements during operation.
• To verify that the controls incorporated in the system function as intended.
• To see that when correct inputs are fed to the system the outputs are correct.
• To make sure that during operation, incorrect input, processing and outputs
will be detected.
12.12 What is the difference between a pilot test and a parallel test?
In pilot test a set of transactions which have been run on present system are
collected. Results of their processing on the existing manual system are also kept.
This set is used as test data when a computer-based system is initially developed.
The two results are matched. The reason for any discrepancy is investigated to
modify the new system.
In parallel tests, both manual and computer-based systems are run simultaneously
for a period of time and the results from the two systems are compared. It is good
method for complex systems but is expensive.
why?

87646257.


REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this module has been taken from Chapter 15, Control,
Audit and Security of Information in the book “Analysis and Design of
Information Systems”, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall of India, 2002, by V.Rajaraman.
2. M.Bishop, Computer Security, Pearson Education Asia, New Delhi, 2003. It is an
comprehensive book cover 1000 pages) which discusses security in great details.
Going through the contents pages (pp.vii to xxx) will give a student a glimpse of
various aspect of security, audit and integrity of information systems.
3. D.A. Watne, P.B.B. Turney, Auditing EDP Systems, Prentice Hall Inc. N.J.,
U.S.A., 1990, is an extensive treatment of auditing information systems.

machine.
entering data.
2, 3, 4, etc., and the products are added. The sum is divided by 11. The remainder
is subtracted from 11. This number (which is called a check digit) is appended as
the last digit of the code. The code constructed in this way is called a midulus-11
check digit code.
preparation.
16. Besides this, individual data fields are checked using information on their range of
allowed values, range of reasonable values, and relationships between different
17. With the advent of Personal Computers, remote terminals connected to a computer
and local computer networks, considerable amount of data is entered in files
interactively.
20. A menu method is used to pick one out of many alternatives, a template method to
enter new data, and a command method to add and delete data.

MODULE 13
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

LEARNING UNIT 1
13.1.1 By Electronic Commerce we mean:

(a) Commerce of electronic goods
(b) Commerce which depends on electronics
(c) Commerce which is based on the use of internet
(d) Commerce which is based on transactions using computers connected by
telecommunication network
13.1.2 For carrying out B2B e-Commerce the following infrastructure is essential:
(i) World Wide Web
(ii) Corporate network
(iii) Electronic Data Interchange standards
(iv) Secure Payment Services
(v) Secure electronic communication link connecting businesses
(c) ii, iii, iv, v (d) i, ii, iii, iv, v
13.1.3 For carrying out B2C e-Commerce the following infrastructure is essential:
(i) World Wide Web
(a) i, iv (b) i, iii, iv
(c) ii, iii (d) i, ii, iii, iv
13.1.4 For carrying out C2C e-Commerce the following infrastructure is essential:
(i) World Wide Web
(a) i and ii (b) ii and iv
(c) i (d) i and iv
13.1.5 Advantages of B2C commerce are

(i) Business gets a wide reach to customers
(ii) Payment for services easy
(iii) Shop can be open 24 hours a day seven days a week
(iv) Privacy of transaction always maintained
(c) i and iii (d) iii and iv
13.1.6 B2C commerce

(a) includes services such as legal advice
(b) means only shopping for physical goods
(c) means only customers should approach customers to sell
(d) means only customers should approach business to buy
13.1.7 Advantages of B2C commerce to customers are

(i) wide variety of goods can be accessed and comparative prices can be
found
(ii) shopping can be done at any time
(iii) privacy of transactions can be guaranteed
(iv) security of transactions can be guaranteed
13.1.8 Disadvantages of e-Commerce in India are

(i) internet access is not universally available
(ii) credit card payment security is not yet guaranteed
(iii) transactions are de-personalized and human contact is missing
(iv) cyberlaws are not in place
(c) i, ii, iii (d) i, ii, iii, iv
LEARNING UNIT 2
13.2.1 Electronic Data Interchange is necessary in

(a) B2C e-Commerce
(b) C2C e-Commerce
(c) B2B e-Commerce
(d) Commerce using internet
13.2.2 EDI requires

(a) representation of common business documents in computer readable form
(b) data entry operators by receivers
(c) special value added networks
(d) special hardware at co-operating Business premises
13.2.3 EDI standards are

(a) not universally available
(b) essential for B2B commerce
(c) not required for B2B commerce
(d) still being evolved
13.2.4 EDIFACT is a standard

(a) for representing business forms used in e-Commerce
(b) for e-mail transaction for e-Commerce
(c) for ftp in e-Commerce
(d) protocol used in e-Commerce
13.2.5 EDIFACT standard was developed by

(a) American National Standard Institute
(b) International Standard Institute
(c) European Common Market
(d) United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
13.2.6 ANSI X.12 is a standard developed by

(a) American National Standard Institute
(b) International Standard Institute
(c) European Common Market
(d) United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
13.2.7 In B2B e-Commerce
(i) Co-operating Business should give an EDI standard to be used
(ii) Programs must be developed to translate EDI forms to a form accepted
by application program
(iii) Method of transmitting/receiving data should be mutually agreed
(iv) It is essential to use internet
13.2.8 EDI use

(a) requires an extranet
(b) requires value added network
(c) can be done on internet
(d) requires a corporate intranet
13.2.9 EDI over internet uses

(a) MIME to attach EDI forms to e-mail messages
(b) FTP to send business forms
(c) HTTP to send business forms
(d) SGML to send business forms
13.2.10 For secure EDI transmission on internet

(a) MIME is used
(b) S/MIME is used
(c) PGP is used
(d) TCP/IP is used
13.2.11 EDI standard

(a) is not easily available
(b) defines several hundred transaction sets for various business forms
(c) is not popular
(d) defines only a transmission protocol
LEARNING UNIT 3
13.3.1 By security in e-Commerce we mean

(i) Protecting an organization’s data resource from unauthorized access
(ii) Preventing disasters from happening
(iii) Authenticating messages received by an organization
(iv) Protecting messages sent on the internet from being read and
understood by unauthorized persons/organizations
(c) iii, iv (d) i, iii, iv
13.3.2 A firewall is a
(a) wall built to prevent fires from damaging a corporate intranet
(b) security device deployed at the boundary of a company to prevent
unauthorized physical access
(c) security device deployed at the boundary of a corporate intranet to protect it
from unauthorized access
(d) device to prevent all accesses from the internet to the corporate intranet
13.3.3 A firewall may be implemented in

(a) routers which connect intranet to internet
(b) bridges used in an intranet
(c) expensive modem
(d) user’s application programs
13.3.4 Firewall as part of a router program

(a) filters only packets coming from internet
(b) filters only packets going to internet
(c) filters packets travelling from and to the intranet from the internet
(d) ensures rapid traffic of packets for speedy e-Commerce
13.3.5 Filtering of packets by firewall based on a router has facilities to

(i) prevent access to internet to some clients in the intranet
(ii) prevent access at certain specified times
(iii) filter packets based on source or destination IP address
(iv) prevent access by certain users of the internet to other specified users of
the internet
(a) i, iii (b) i, ii, iii
13.3.6 Main function of proxy application gateway firewall is

(a) to allow corporate users to use efficiently all internet services
(b) to allow intranet users to securely use specified internet services
(c) to allow corporate users to use all internet services
(d) to prevent corporate users from using internet services
13.3.7 Proxy application gateway

(i) acts on behalf of all intranet users wanting to access internet securely
(ii) monitors all accesses to internet and allows access to only specified IP
addresses
(iii) disallows use of certain protocols with security problems
(iv) disallows all internet users from accessing intranet
13.3.8 A hardened firewall host on an intranet
(i) has a proxy application gateway program running on it
(ii) allows specified internet users to access specified services in the intranet
(iii) initiates all internet activities requested by clients and monitors them
(iv) prevents outsiders from accessing IP addresses within the intranet
13.3.9 A hardened firewall host on an Intranet is

(a) a software which runs in any of the computers in the intranet
(b) a software which runs on a special reserved computer on the intranet
(c) a stripped down computer connected to the intranet
(d) a mainframe connected to the intranet to ensure security
13.3.10 By encryption of a text we mean

(a) compressing it
(b) expanding it
(c) scrambling it to preserve its security
(d) hashing it
13.3.11 Encryption is required to

(i) protect business information from eavesdropping when it is transmitted
on internet
(ii) efficiently use the bandwidth available in PSTN
(iii) to protect information stored in companies’ databases from retrieval
(iv) to preserve secrecy of information stored in databases if an
unauthorized person retrieves it
13.3.12 Encryption can be done

(a) only on textual data
(b) only on ASCII coded data
(c) on any bit string
(d) only on mnemonic data
13.3.13 By applying permutation (31254) and substitution by 5 characters away

from current character (A Æ F , B Æ G etc..) the following string
ABRACADABRA becomes
(a) FGWCAAADRBF
(b) RABCAAADRBF
(c) WFGHFFFIWGF
13.3.14 The following ciphertext was received. The plaintext was permuted using
permutation (34152) and substitution. Substitute character by character +3
(A Æ D, etc). The plain text after decryption is:
Cipher text : PDLJDLXHVQC
(a) MAIGAIUESNZ
(b) IAMAGENIUSZ
(c) LDPDJHPLXVZ
(d) IAMAGENIUSC
13.3.15 By symmetric key encryption we mean

(a) one private key is used for both encryption and decryption
(b) private and public key used are symmetric
(c) only public keys are used for encryption
(d) only symmetric key is used for encryption
13.3.16 The acronym DES stands for

(a) Digital Evaluation System
(b) Digital Encryption Standard
(c) Digital Encryption System
(d) Double Encryption Standard
13.3.17 DES works by using

(a) permutation and substitution on 64 bit blocks of plain text
(b) only permutations on blocks of 128 bits
(c) exclusive ORing key bits with 64 bit blocks
(d) 4 rounds of substitution on 64 bit blocks with 56 bit keys
13.3.18 DES
(i) is a symmetric key encryption method
(ii) guarantees absolute security
(iii) is implementable as hardware VLSI chip
(iv) is a public key encryption method
13.3.19 DES using 56 bit keys

(a) Cannot be broken in reasonable time using presently available computers
(b)Can be broken only if the algorithm is known using even slow computers.
(c) Can be broken with presently available high performance computers.
(d)It is impossible to break ever.
13.3.20 Triple DES uses
(a) 168 bit keys on 64-bit blocks of plain text
(b) Working on 64-bit blocks of plain text and 56 bit keys by applying DES
algorithm for three rounds.
(c) Works with 144 bit blocks of plain text and applies DES algorithm once.
(d) Uses 128 bit blocks of plain text and 112 bit keys and apply DES
algorithm thrice.
13.3.21 Triple DES

(a) Cannot be broken in reasonable time using presently available
computers.
(b)Can be broken only if the algorithm is known using even slow computer.
(c) Can be broken with presently available high performance computers.
(d) It is impossible to break ever.
13.3.22 Triple DES

(ii) guarantees excellent security
(iii) is implementable as a hardware VLSI chip
(iv) is public key encryption method with three keys.
13.3.23 Public key encryption method is a system

(a) which uses a set of public keys one for each participant in e-Commerce
(b) in which each person who wants to communicate has two keys; a private key
known to him only and a public key which is publicized to enable others to
send message to him
(c) which uses the RSA coding system
(d) which is a standard for use in e-Commerce
13.3.24 Public key system is useful because

(a) it uses two keys
(b) there is no key distribution problem as public key can be kept in a commonly
accessible database
(c) private key can be kept secret
(d) it is a symmetric key system
13.3.25 In public key encryption if A wants to send an encrypted message to B

(a) A encrypts message using his private key
(b) A encrypts message using B’s private key
(c) A encrypts message using B’s public key
(d) A encrypts message using his public key
13.3.26 In public key encryption system if A encrypts a message using his private
key and sends it to B
(a) if B knows it is from A he can decrypt it using A’s public key
(b) Even if B knows who sent the message it cannot be decrypted
(c) It cannot be decrypted at all as no one knows A’s private key
(d) A should send his public key with the message
13.3.27 Message can be sent more securely using DES by

(a) encrypting plain text by a different randomly selected key for each
transmission
(b) encrypting plain text by a different random key for each message
transmission and sending the key to the receiver using a public key system
(c) using an algorithm to implement DES instead of using hardware
(d) designing DES with high security and not publicizing algorithm used by it
13.3.28 DES and public key algorithm are combined

(i) to speed up encrypted message transmission
(ii) to ensure higher security by using different key for each transmission
(iii) as a combination is always better than individual system
(iv) as it is required in e-Commerce
13.3.29 A digital signature is

(a) a bit string giving identity of a correspondent
(b) a unique identification of a sender
(c) an authentication of an electronic record by tying it uniquely to a key only a
sender knows
(d) an encrypted signature of a sender
13.3.30 A digital signature is required

(i) to tie an electronic message to the sender’s identity
(ii) for non repudiation of communication by a sender
(iii) to prove that a message was sent by the sender in a court of law
(iv) in all e-mail transactions
(a) i and ii (b) i, ii, iii
13.3.31 A hashing function for digital signature
(i) must give a hashed message which is shorter than the original message
(ii) must be hardware implementable
(iii) two different messages should not give the same hashed message
(iv) is not essential for implementing digital signature
13.3.32 Hashed message is signed by a sender using

(a) his public key
(b) his private key
(c) receiver’s public key
(d) receiver’s private key
13.3.33 While sending a signed message, a sender

(a) sends message key using public key encryption using DES and hashed
message using public key encryption
(b) sends message using public key encryption and hashed message using DES
(c) sends both message and hashed message using DES
(d) sends both message and hashed message using public key encryption
13.3.34 The responsibility of a certification authority for digital signature is to

authenticate the
(a) hash function used
(b) private keys of subscribers
(c) public keys of subscribers
(d) key used in DES
13.3.35 Certification of Digital signature by an independent authority is needed

because
(a) it is safe
(b) it gives confidence to a business
(c) the authority checks and assures customers that the public key indeed belongs
to the business which claims its ownership
(d) private key claimed by a sender may not be actually his
LEARNING UNIT 4
13.4.1 The Secure Electronic Transaction protocol is used for

(a) credit card payment
(b) cheque payment
(c) electronic cash payments
(d) payment of small amounts for internet services
13.4.2 In SET protocol a customer encrypts credit card number using

(a) his private key
(b) bank’s public key
(c) bank’s private key
(d) merchant’s public key
13.4.3 In SET protocol a customer sends a purchase order

(a) encrypted with his public key
(b) in plain text form
(c) encrypted using Bank’s public key
(d) using digital Signature system
13.4.4 One of the problems with using SET protocol is

(a) the merchant’s risk is high as he accepts encrypted credit card
(b) the credit card company should check digital signature
(c) the bank has to keep a database of the public keys of all customers
(d) the bank has to keep a database of digital signatures of all customers
13.4.5 The bank has to have the public keys of all customers in SET protocol as it
has to
(a) check the digital signature of customers
(b) communicate with merchants
(c) communicate with merchants credit card company
(d) certify their keys
13.4.6 In electronic cheque payments developed, it is assumed that most of the

transactions will be
(a) customers to customers
(b) customers to business
(c) business to business
(d) banks to banks
13.4.7In cheque payment protocol, the purchase order form is signed by purchaser
using
(a) his public key
(b) his private key
(c) his private key using his signature hardware
(d) various public keys
13.4.8 In the NetBill’s protocol for small payments for services available in the
internet.
(i) the customer is charged only when the information is delivered
(ii) the vendor is guaranteed payment when information is delivered
(iii) the customer must have a certified credit card
(iv) the customer must have a valid public key
13.4.9 In NetBill’s protocol for small payments for internet services

(i) Key to decrypt information is sent to customer by NetBill only when
there is enough amount in debit account
(ii) The vendor supplies the key to NetBill server when he receives payment
(iii) Checksum of encrypted information received by customer is attached to
his payment order
(iv) Vendor does not encrypt information purchased by customer
13.4.10 In Electronic cash payment

(a) a debit card payment system is used
(b) a customer buys several electronic coins which are digitally signed by coin
issuing bank
(c) a credit card payment system is used
(d) RSA cryptography is used in the transactions
13.4.11 In Electronic cash payment

(i) a customer withdraws “coins” in various denominations signed by the
bank
(ii) the bank has a database of issued coins
(iii) the bank has a database of spent coins
(iv) the bank cannot trace a customer
13.1.1 d 13.1.2 c 13.1.3 a 13.1.4 c 13.1.5 c 13.1.6 a
13.1.7 a 13.1.8 c 13.2.1 c 13.2.2 a 13.2.3 b 13.2.4 a
13.2.5 d 13.2.6 a 13.2.7 b 13.2.8 c 13.2.9 a 13.2.10 b
13.2.11 b 13.3.1 d 13.3.2 c 13.3.3 a 13.3.4 c 13.3.5 b
13.3.6 b 13.3.7 b 13.3.8 c 13.3.9 b 13.3.10 c 13.3.11 d
13.3.12 c 13.3.13 c 13.3.14 b 13.3.15 a 13.3.16 b 13.3.17 a
13.3.18 c 13.3.19 c 13.3.20 b 13.3.21 a 13.3.22 b 13.3.23 b
13.3.24 b 13.3.25 c 13.3.26 a 13.3.27 b 13.3.28 a 13.3.29 c
13.3.30 b 13.3.31 c 13.3.32 b 13.3.33 a 13.3.34 c 13.3.35 c
13.4.1 a 13.4.2 b 13.4.3 d 13.4.4 c 13.4.5 a 13.4.6 c
13.4.7 c 13.4.8 d 13.4.9 b 13.4.10 b 13.4.11 b
System Analysis and Design / Electronic Commerce Motivation
Motivation
With the emergence of internet and the world wide web new methods of carrying
out business transactions using the world wide web began to be explored.
Electronic Commerce emerged as a very important application of the world wide
web.
Today it is difficult to find an isolated computer. Computers in an organization
are interconnected to form intranets and intranets of the cooperating organizations
are interconnected to form extranet.
It is cheaper and faster to carry out business transactions within an organization
and among organizations electronically using the network connection.
Thus it is important to understand how business transactions are carried out
electronically reliably and securely
When designing information systems it is essential to understand the emerging
web based transactions
A number of organizations are exploring how to carry out all day-to-day
operations electronically using the intranet in a so-called paperless system
It is thus important for a student to understand how to design such systems

MODULE 13
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Learning Units
13.1 What is E-Commerce?

13.2 Electronic Data Interchange
13.3 Security of E-Commerce
13.4 Payment in E-Commerce

Learning Goals
The basics of Electronic Commerce abbreviated as e-commerce

The advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce
Architecture of e-commerce systems
Electronic Data Interchange in e-commerce
The need for security in e-commerce transactions and how to
ensure it
How Electronic payment schemes work in e-commerce.

Motivation
With the emergence of internet and the world wide web new
methods of carrying out business transactions using the world wide
web began to be explored.
Electronic Commerce emerged as a very important application of
the world wide web.
Today it is difficult to find an isolated computer. Computers in an
organization are interconnected to form intranets and intranets of the
cooperating organizations are interconnected to form extranet.

Motivation (Contd)
It is cheaper and faster to carry out business transactions within an
organization and among organizations electronically using the
network connection.
Thus it is important to understand how business transactions are
carried out electronically reliably and securely
When designing information systems it is essential to understand
the emerging web based transactions
A number of organizations are exploring how to carry out all day-
to-day operations electronically using the intranet in a so-called
paperless system
It is thus important for a student to understand how to design such
systems
What Is Electronic Commerce
DEFINITION
•Sharing Business Information, Maintaining Business relationships and
conducting business transactions using computers connected to a
Telecommunication Network is called E-Commerce
CLASSIFICATION
•CLASSIFIED AS : BUSINESS TO BUSINESS (B2B)
BUSINESS TO CUSTOMER (B2C)
CUSTOMER TO CUSTOMER (C2C)

E-commerce Applications-example
•RETAIL STORES - Books, Music
•AUCTION SITES
•COOPERATING BUSINESSES –Placing orders,paying invoices
etc.
•ELECTRONIC BANKING
•BOOKING TICKETS - TRAINS, CINEMA, AIRLINES
•ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING
•FILLING TAX RETURNS WITH GOVERNMENT DEPT.

Business To Business E-commerce
Public switched telephone network
LAN of buisness2 LAN of buisness1
PSTN or
LEASED LINE
Vendor Purchase store accounts
Local computers
Local computers
• Local LAN of business would normally follow TCP/IP protocol of internet and
is called corporate intranet
• Purchase order entered by business1 in its PC and electronically dispatched to
vendor (by e-mail)
• Vendor acknowledges electronically the order
• Vendor dispatches goods(physically) and delivery note electronically to business1

B2B E-commerce (Contd)
•Business 1 can compare delivery note against order -both are in

computer readable form
•Discrepancy note(if any) can be immediately sent to the vendor
•Business 1 can carry out all local transactions using its LAN
•Local transactions are inventory update by stores - advice to
accounts to pay for goods taken into stock
• Accounts can make payment electronically to Vendor

Implementing B2B E-commerce-
requirements
1. Agreed on formats for Purchase order, delivery note, payment

order etc. Standard known as EDI (Electronic Data Interchange
Standard) is used to send documents electronically
2.Each Business must have corporate intranet and the two nets
are connected by PSTN or leased line
3. Transactions must be secure - particularly if PSTN is used
4.Secure electronic payment methods are required

Steps In B2C E-commerce
1. Customer uses a browser and locates vendor or he has vendor's web page
address
2. Sees Vendor's web page listing of items available, prices etc
3. Customer selects item and places order. Order may include credit card details
or may be cash on delivery
4. Vendor checks with credit card company customer’s credit
5. Credit card company OKs transaction
6. Vendor acknowledges Customer’s order and gives details of delivery date,
mode of transport, cost etc
7. Vendor orders with distributor who ships item to vendor's warehouse from
where item supplied to customer
8. Customer's credit card company debits his account, credits vendor's account
and sends bill to customer for payment

Customer to Customer E-Commerce
Customer1 Internet Customer2
Wants to sell Item 1 Wants to buy Item 1
Broker’s website
•Advertises - "for sale"
•Brings together buyer and seller
•Transports items
•Collects fee from both Seller
&Buyer

Advantages Of E-commerce
1. Buying/selling a variety of goods and services from one's home or

business
2. Anywhere, anytime transaction
3. Can look for lowest cost for specific goods or service
4. Businesses can reach out to worldwide clients - can establish
business partnerships

5. Order processing cost reduced

6. Electronic funds transfer faster
7. Supply chain management is simpler, faster, and cheaper using
e-commerce
- Can order from several vendors and monitor supplies.
- Production schedule and inventory of an organization can be
inspected by cooperating supplier who can in-turn schedule their
work.

Disadvantages Of E-commerce
1. Electronic data interchange using EDI is expensive for small

businesses
2. Security of internet is not very good - viruses, hacker attacks can
paralise e-commerce
3. Privacy of e-transactions is not guaranteed
4. E-commerce de-personalises shopping.People go shopping to
meet others - window shop and bargain

E-commerce System Architectures
LOGICAL LAYERS SERVICES IN LAYER
Application layer B2B,B2C,C2C
Middleman services Hosting services,value added nets
payment services,Certificates
Secure messaging Encryption,EDI,Firewalls
World wide web services HTTP,HTML,XML,OLE
Software agents
Logical network Intranet,internet,extranet
Physical network PSTN,LAN,Bridges,routers
Layered architecture

Electronic Data Interchange
•Computer readable forms for business documents such as
invoices, purchase orders, delivery notes needed in B2B e-
commerce so that e-documents can be exchanged.
•Essential to eliminate manual data entry which is error prone
• Essential to agree on common formats for commonly used
forms.
•Electronic data interchange (EDI) standard gives specifications
for commonly used standard business forms
•Currently two standards are available for EDI forms
• It is possible to adapt these standards for documents which use
XML for specification.

EDI Standards
•ANSI X.12 standard proposed by American National

Standards Institute
•EDIFACT (Electronic Data Interchange For Administration
Commerce and Trade) standardized by United Nations
Economic Commission for Europe for international trade
•EDIFACT used in India for government transactions -
customs, central excise etc.

EDI Transactions in B2B E-commerce
•Cooperating businesses agree on EDI standard

•Programs needed to translate data received in EDI
format to a form needed by the application program
•Method of sending/receiving data between businesses
to be agreed on - is it PSTN, Extranet or VAN (value
added network) service ?
•Important to ensure reliable, guaranteed and secure
receipt of electronic documents by intended receiver

EDI Using Value Added Network Service
•VAN provides post box for all subscribers
•Guarantees delivery
•Open 24 hours, 7 days a week
•Provides security, acknowledgement, audit trails for
transactions, non repudiation by users
•Some VAN’S provide conversion of EDI forms to
application format
•Disadvantage high cost. Used by large businesses - may
not be cost-effective for smaller businesses

EDI Using Internet
• Cheaper method for use by small business is to use XML for EDI
and e-mail,instead of VAN
• Establish EDI form standard - XML appropriate – Document Type
Definition(DTD) publicised using organization’s web page-
cooperating business can use a DTD to interpret XML documents.
•Use MIME (multipurpose internet mail extension) to attach EDI
forms to e-mail messages

EDI Using Internet
• Can use Simple Mail Transfer Protocol(SMTP) of internet

• If secure transmission needed use S/MIME (Security enhanced
MIME) which uses encryption and digital signature –(We will
describe encryption and digital signature later in this module)
• If very long document or many documents are to be sent together
File Transfer Protocol (FTP) may be more appropriate.

EDI Standard
•Defines several hundred transaction sets

corresponding to each type of business document such
as invoice, purchase order etc.
•Defines data segments - corresponding to groups of
data elements such as purchase order line
•Defines data elements - which are individual fields
such as price, quantity etc

Security In E-commerce
•Transactions between organizations take place in many e-commerce
applications using the Internet
•Internet is widely accessible and insecure as eavesdropping is
possible
•Need to protect company confidential information from snoopers
•We need to protect a company's network from unauthorised entry -
both hardware and software techniques used
•When an organization receives a message it has to be sure from
whom it came and whether the message is authentic and not changed
by an unauthorised person
•We thus need a digital signature which can be used in a court of law

Network Security Using Firewall
•Firewall is a security device deployed at the boundary of an
organization' s network to protect it from unauthorised external access
•It links an organization's intranet to the internet and restricts the type
of traffic that it will pass, thus providing security
•Simple firewalls may be implemented in some routers, called packet
filtering firewalls, they pass only some packets based on simple
specified criteria such as
-Type of access (such as email, ftp, telnet as determined by
TCP port number)
-Direction of traffic
-Source or destination IP address
-Time of day
Proxy Application Gateway
•Primarily for allowing members of an organization on
corporate intranet to access internet facility ensuring
organizational discipline and security
•Proxy application program running on a firewall machine is
the one which acts on behalf of all members of an organization
wanting to use the internet
•This program monitors all requests - allows access to only
designated addresses outside, limits use of certain browsers
and disallows use of some protocols with known security holes
•Proxy application program may also be allowed to run on
some user's machine who have authorization for internet use

Hardened Firewalls With Proxy Application
Gateway
•Any one from inside or outside an organization give their user id,
password, service required to the firewall machine which acts as
one's proxy (ie.does ones work on his behalf)
•Proxy firewall is now server to the requestor's desktop PC and
also a client to some other requested service acting on requestor's
behalf
•Firewall needs proxy agent for each service requested such as
FTP, HTTP, TELNET etc

Hardened Firewalls With Proxy Application
Gateway
•Now proxy firewall is the initiator of all sessions and thus knows
every activity - thus ensuring security
•Firewall with a proxy function replaces the source address of
transaction requestor with its own IP address
-this ensures that others on internet see only firewall's IP
address - all other IP addresses of organization are hidden

Data Encryption With Secret Keys
•Data sent via a public network may be accessed and
used by unauthorized persons
•Thus necessary to scramble it so that even if one
accesses it, it cannot be understood
•Similarly data stored in data bases accessible via
internet should be scrambled
•Method of scrambling known as encryption
•Method of unscrambling known as decryption

Plain Text And Ciphertext
•Plain text is data in its natural form
•Encryption is taking data in any form(Text, Audio,Video

etc.) and transforming it to another form which cannot be
understood
•Transformed data is known as cryptogram or cipher text

Example Text Encryption
Start plaintext THIS IS A MESSAGE X
Block plaintext (5character blocks) THISI SAMES SAGEX
Transpose characters with 4Æ1
permutation (4 1 2 5 3) STHII ESASM ESAXG

Substitute character by
the one 4 letters away WXLMM IWEWQ IXEBK
(eg AÆE,ZÆD)
Cipher text
This is an example of two transformations - permutation followed by substitution
The keys are permutation function and substitution function

Symmetric Encryption.
PLAINTEXT (m1,m2…mn )
CIPHER TEXT (c1 c2, c3….cn )
Where ci = k( Ti (mi) ) In which Ti is permutation of ith character
and k is substitution.
•Decryption by applying same transformations in reverse on cipher
text.
•This method called symmetric key encryption as encryption and
decryption performed using same key.
•Normally the encryption/decryption algorithm is publicised. Only
key is secret.

Symmetric Encryption
• Problem is to ensure secrecy of key when it is sent to partner.

• If the key is to be sent to many partners need for separate key for
each partner.Directory of who was sent which key is to be kept and
used for each transaction.Directory should be secure.
• If large number of partners are there key distribution very difficult.
• Advantage of symmetric key is easy and fast to transform plain
text to cipher text.

Digital Encryption Standard
DES - Proposed by IBM in 1975

Standardised by US Govt in 1977
Reasonably secure
It is a combination of permutation and substitution on blocks of
64 bits. A message is broken up into 64 bit blocks and each
block is separately encrypted.

#General idea used in DES

M = PLAINTEXT 01101100 11011000 11011010
K = KEY 10101111 00101100 01011011
E= M+K 11000011 11110100 10000001 encryption
M= E + K 01101100 11011000 11011010 decryption
See simplicity of Transformation using Exclusive OR

Digital Encryption Standard Algorithm
Before applying DES the text is split up into the 64 bit blocks.
DES applied on each 64 bit block.
Encryption method
Step 1: Apply an initial permutation on a block.Result is B=IP(P)
where P is the 64 bit block IP Initial Permutation function and
B the result.
Step 2: Split B into 32 bit blocks
Li = leftmost 32 bits
Ri = rightmost 32 bits.
Step 3: Pick a 56 bit key. Permute it
Step 4: Left circular shift it by 1 bit giving K1.

Step 5: Perform a complex sequence of operations and obtain

X1 = F(R1,K1) (The complex set of operations include table look up
and dropping bits).
Step 6: Find R2 = L1 + X1
Step 7: Set L2 = R1
Repeat steps 2 to 7 16 times to get B16 = L16,R16
Step 8: Apply inverse of initial permutation on B16
The result is the encrypted block

• In summary the DES encryption applies the following
transformation 16 times.The ith round transformation are
Li+1= Ri
Ri+1= Li + F(Ri,Ki)
• Each round has a different key Ki
• For Decryption the process of encryption is reversed.The

encrypted block is permuted using IP-1.On this
transformations are applied starting with K16 and going to
K1 last.The keys and F are same as those used in encryption
process.
• The encryption process uses simple binary operations.
They can thus be realised in hardware as an integrated
circuit chip.
• DES chips are inexpensive. Key externally fed.
• The complex encryption algorithm is explained using two

block diagrams in the next two transparencies.

64 bit block of plain text DES Encryption Block 56 bit key
Diagram
IP Initial Permutation
L1 R1 Permute
R
O K1 Left circular
U F P1 shift
N
D
+
1 L1 + F(R1,K1)
L2 R2 Permute
R
O K2
U F P2 Left circular
N . shift
D . .
2
+ L2 + F(R2,K2) . .
. .
L3 . R3
K16 . . Left circular
.
P16 shift
.
+
.
L16 R16
IP-1 Inverse of Initial permutation

(F is a complex function involving two table look ups and dropping bits of
K1 to get 32 bits for bitwise Exclusive OR of L1 and F(K1,R1) )
64 bit Cipher text 38 of 92
Details of One Round of DES Encryption
64 bit Plain Text 56-bit key
Permute Permute
32 bits 32 bits 28 bits 28 bits
L1 R1 KL KB Left Shifts
K1
Round1 L1
F(R1,K1)
Permute
+ and
48 bits Contract
L2 R2
KL KB For next key
.
. Repeat 15 more times
.
.

DES Chip
64
Input block DES 64 Encrypted
CHIP Block
Key
56
• Observe that from initial key others are derived by circular

shifts
• Decryption chip inputs encrypted block and key and the output
is decrypted block

DES - Discussion
• Cryptanalysis is technique for breaking a code, given
samples of encrypted messages.
• If plain text also known it is somewhat easier.
• DES code can be broken if key is found.
• The easiest method of breaking a code is by brute force of

trying out all possible keys to decrypt message.

DES - Discussion
• With increase in speed of computers it has now been shown that

DES key can be found in less than 12 hrs with a fast computer (1
Million decryption per microsecond)
• Thus DES is practically useless now (original DES was invented in

mid 70s)
• New more secure symmetric encryption algorithm is needed
• An extension of DES called triple DES is shown to be more secure.

Triple DES
• Triple DES uses three different keys and three executions of DES
algorithm.
• The algorithm is
Cipher text = Ek3 [Dk2 [Ek1 [Plain Text]]]
where Ek[X] = DES Encryption of X using key K
and Dk[X] = DES Decryption of X using key K
• Remember that in DES Decryption of encrypted plain text with a

different key is almost same as another encryption.
•This is true as encryption and decryption use the same algorithm

Triple DES
• To decrypt cipher text we reverse the operations.
Plain text = Dk1[Ek2 [Dk3[Cipher Text]]]
BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF TRIPLE DES

Encryption
K1 K2 K3
Plain text Cipher text
(64 bit block) E D E (64bit block)
Decryption
K3 K2 K1
Cipher text E D E Plain text

Triple DES(Contd)
• Using DES thrice is equivalent to having a DES key length of 168
bits.
• Brute force method to break triple DES with 106 decrypts per micro
second will take 5.9 X 10 30 years!
• Even at 1012 fold increase in computer speed will make triple DES
secure against brute force attacks to break code
• The only reason D is used as middle step in triple DES is to allow

data encrypted using single DES hardware.In this case K3=K2=K1
(Single key used) (See block diagram)

Triple DES(Contd)
• Triple DES will be quite popular for a foreseeable future as it is

very secure, can be realised by simple hardware.
• Triple DES has two disadvantages

1. It is slow to implement in software
2. It uses 64 bit blocks.
• Thus new standards were explored.

Requirements of Symmetric Key Cryptography
Algorithm(NIST) –Advanced Encryption System(AES)
• National Institute for Standards Technology put out a call for

proposals for new crypto system with following requirements.
• Must provide a high level of security (i.e. difficult to decrypt in

finite time)
• Must be completely specified and easily understood.
• Security must reside in key – Not in algorithm

• Must be available for all users
• Adaptable for use in diverse applications e.g.credit cards
• Implementable economically in electronic devices
• Must be efficient to use as both software and hardware
• Must allow one to validate it.

• Must be exportable
• No trap door
• Must use 128 blocks and key lengths of 128,192 or 256 bits
depending on the level of security desired.
• In October 2000 it announced the selection of an algorithm –

called Rijin dael(Pronounce RAIN DOLL) as new Advance
Encryption Standard (AES)
•Details may be found in www.nist.gov/aes

Public Key Encryption
•In Private Key Encryption transmission of key without compromising not easy
•It is necessary to assign different private key to each business partner. When this is
done a directory of keys should be kept which should be secret.This is difficult.
•Only secure way is to change the private key every time a message is sent
•Public Key Encryption eliminates the key distribution problem
•There is a pair of keys for each organization - A Private Key and its Public Key
•If A wants to send message to B, A encrypts the message with B's Public Key
When message is received by B he decrypts it with his Private Key
A Plain
ENCRYPT DECRYPT
Plain
B
Cipher
text text text
B’s Public B’s Private
Key Key
SENDER A RECEIVER B

RSA Code Details.”R” Wants To Find His
Public And Private Keys
1. Pick large primes p and q. Let n =p * q
2 Find ø = (p-l)*(q-l)
3 Find e relatively prime to Ø, i.e. gcd(ø,e)=1; 1<e<ø. {e,n} is R's
Public Key
4 Find a number d which satisfies relation
(d * e) mod (ø) =1
{d,n} is R’s Private key

RSA Code Details.”R” Wants To Find His
Public And Private Keys
5. Let plain text = t. Encrypt t using R’s public key.
Encryption = te (mod n) = c (cipher text)
6. Decryption cd (mod n) =t
(Both n and e should be known to encrypt.Similarly both n and d
should be known to decrypt)

Example Of RSA Use
• This example is a toy example to illustrate the method.In practice
the primes p and q will be very large – each at least 300 digits
long to ensure security.
RSA Algorithm
1. Pick as prime numbers p=3,q=11

n = p * q=33
Note : The message to be encrypted should be smaller than 33.If
we do letter by letter encryption of English alphabets (A to Z Æ 1
to 26) this is OK
2. Ø = (p-1) x (q-1) = 2 x 10 = 20

Example Of RSA Use
RSA Algorithm (Contd)
3. Pick a number relatively prime to 20.

We pick 7. The Public key of R = {7,33}
4. To pick private key of R find d from relation (d x e)mod(ø) = 1

(d x 7) mod (20) =1
This gives d =3
Therefore, the private key of R = {3,33}

Applying RSA Algorithm
1. Let the message be CODE
If we use code C=3, O=14,D=4,E=5
The message is 3,14,4,5
2. We will encrypt one letter at a time

Thus cipher of plain text 3 is
3e mod (n) =37 mod(33)
37 mod (33) =2187 mod (33)=9
(14)7 mod (33) = 105413504mod(33)=20
(4)7 mod (33) =16384 mod (33) =16
(5)7 mod (33) =78125 mod(33) = 14
3. Thus cipher text = 9,20,16,14

4. Decryption : cd mod (n) d=3,n=33

93 mod (33) = 729 mod(33) = 3
203 mod(33) = 8000 mod(33)=14
163 mod(33) = 4096 mod(33) =4
143 mod(33) = 2744 mod(33) =5
We see that we get the original text 3,14,4,5

Discussion on RSA
• The security RSA encryption is dependent on the fact that
factorising a large prime number to its factors is very difficult.
• RSA algorithm is symmetric.In other words if a plain text is encoded

by the private key of S, the sender, it can be decrypted using the
public key of R, the receiver (We will find later that this symmetry
property is used in creating digital signature)
•Example using S’s keys

S’s Private key = {3,33}
S’s Public key = {7,33}

Discussion on RSA
• If we encrypt a plain text using S’s private key and send it to R,R
must be able to decrypt it with S’s public key.
•Assume Plain text is encrypted with S’s private key and get cipher
text = (14)3 mod (33)=5
•Decrypting with S’s Public key we get

(5)7 mod (33)
=78125 mod(33)
={(2367 x 33) + 14} mod (33)
=14

DISCUSSION – RSA Vs DES
•RSA Public key has two keys – a private secret key and a
public open key.
•RSA implemented as a program (software) It is
computationally complex to encode plain text and decode
cipher text using RSA
•DES Same key for encryption and decryption It is a single
key system - Also called symmetric key system

•DES computationally simple-implemented in hardware -

thus very fast
•Each communication between two businesses can use a
different key –provided key is securely exchanged
•If key can be sent separately encrypted using RSA, then
a recipient can use this to decrypt DES encrypted
message.
•We look next at combining DES and RSA.

Combining RSA And DES
KEY RECOVERED
ENCRYPT DECRYPT KEY
Public key Of the Private key Of the

SENDER RECEIVER
receiver receiver
PLAIN
PLAIN TEXT TEXT
DES DES
CIPHER
TEXT
Advantages:
• Key is sent along with the plain text. Encrypted using RSA
• Key small-fast to encrypt/decrypt
• Each transaction using DES can have a different key- higher security and
also fast.Key directory not needed.

Digital Signature
REQUIREMENTS
•Needed to ensure that a message received from say "A" is indeed
from him
•Signature should be tied to the message sent by "A"
SENDING STEP
•Sender sends key using RSA system
•Sender sends plain text "M" using DES
•Receiver decrypts cipher text using DES and the key received
from sender call it "MR"

Digital Signature
•Sender hashes plain text "M' using a hashing function - let the
hashed text be "H"
•Hashed text "H" encrypted by sender using his Private key
•DS is his signature as H encrypted with his private key
•DS decrypted by receiver using sender's Public key and obtains
"H"

Digital Signature (Contd)
Authentication step
•Receiver hashes “MR" using hash function and gets“HR"
•Receiver compares “H" with “HR"
•If they match then it is a signed authenticated plain text
•TM is signed as sender has encrypted the hashed text using his
private key which he only knows.If H=(MR)(HASHED) = HR
where MR is the received message then MR must have been sent by
sender. He cannot repudiate.

Signing A Message Using Digital Signature
R’s Private key R’s Public key
KE
K
ENCRYPT DECRYPT Forgery
K
K
M ME MR
SENDER ENCRYPT DECRYPT RECEIVER
no
DS
Hash ENCRYPT DECRYPT Equal Hash
H H HR
S’s Private key S’s Public key yes
Signature OK
Accept M

Certificate Authority For Digital Signature
•As the hashed message in Digital Signature system is decrypted

using senders public key,this key must be certified as belonging to
sender by an independent authority
•Certification needed to ensure authenticity of public keys of
organizations as public key is used to verify signature
•Certification authority keeps data base of public keys of
organizations participating in e-commerce after verifying their
credentials.
•Potential business partners can authenticate public keys by
sending request to certifying authority who certifies after receiving
a fee for his services

Electronic Payment Systems
• In any commercial transaction payment is an integral part for
goods supplied.
•Four types of payments may be made in e-commerce they are
•Credit card payments
•Electronic cheque payments
•Micro or small payments for internet based services such as music
download.
•Electronic-cash payments
Each of these requires a different system of payment. We will
examine first credit card payments.

Review Of Manual Credit Card Payment
Four parties are invoked in credit card payments.

They are:
• Customer having a credit card
• Merchant accepting credit cards (such as VISA, MASTER
CARD etc)
• Bank which issues credit cards to customers and collects
payments from customers

•Acquirer which is financial institution that establishes an

account with a merchant,validates credit card information sent
electronically by merchant and authorises sale based on
customer’s credit status.
• Acquirer accepts credit cards of several card companies and
guarantees payment to merchants.
•Acquirer gets reimbursed by bank issuing credit card.

Sequence Of Transactions In Manual Credit
Card Payment
Step 1: Customer presents credit card after purchase. Merchant
swipes it on his special phone and enters amount
Step 2: Data from merchant’s terminal goes to acquirer via a

private telephone line
Step 3: Acquirer checks with the issuing bank validity of card

and credit-available

Sequence Of Transactions In Manual Credit
Card Payment
Step 4: Acquirer authorizes sale if all OK and sends approval
slip which is printed at merchant’s terminal.
Step 5: Merchant takes customer’s signature on the slip-verifies

it with the signature on card and delivers the goods.
Step 6: The acquirer pays the money to merchant and collects it

from the appropriate issuing bank. The bank sends monthly
statement to customer and collects outstanding amount.

Block Diagram Of Steps In Credit Card
Transaction
Step1
Customer Merchant
Step5
Step 4 Step2 Step6
Step3
Acquirer Issuing bank
Step3
Step6
Steps correspond to that given in previous 2 PPT’s

Credit Card In E-commerce
Main Problems
1. Main Problem is: if a merchant had only a web presence, a

Customer needs to be reassured that the merchant is genuine.
2. Customers Signature cannot be physically verified.Customer

needs electronic signature.
3. Secrecy of credit card number has to be ensured.
4. Dispute settlement mechanism must be worked out.

Secure Electronic Transaction Protocol
• Standardised credit card payments in e-commerce by major
card companies such as Visa, MasterCard etc.
• To use SET protocol it is assumed that
1. Each party involved in e-commerce transaction has a
public and private key.A public key encryption is used.
2. All parties have their public keys certified.
3. A standard hashing algorithm is used to create message

digest for signature verification.

Main Features
• Customers credit card number is not revealed to a merchant.

It is revealed only to the acquirer who authorises payment.
• Purchase invoice details are not revealed to the acquirer.Only

the credit card number and total amount are revealed to him
• Purchase invoice + credit card number is digitally signed by

the customer.In case of a dispute an arbitrator can use this to
settle the dispute.
(Computer protocol runs to 262 pages and may be found in
www.ibm.com/redbook/SG244978)

DUAL SIGNATURE SCHEME
• Dual signature scheme is an innovation in SET protocol
Steps followed in the protocol are:

1. Customer purchase information has 3 parts
(i) Purchase Order (PO)
(ii) Credit Card Number(CCN)
(iii) Amount to be paid
2. Merchant should know (PO + Amount)=POA
3. Acquirer should know (CCN+Amount)=CCA

4. Hash POA using standard Hash algorithm such as RSA’s

MD5.Call it POD.
5. Hash CCA using MD5. Call it CCD
6. Concatenate POD and CCD.Call it (POD||CCD)
7. Hash (POD||CCD) giving PPD

8. PPD is encrypted using Private key of customer.This is

customer’s digitally signed purchase order
DS = Encrypt (PPD) with CPRK
CPRK is Private key of customer. This is sent to merchant by
customer.DS is called Dual Signature as a private key is used to
sign two separate digests concatenated together.
9. POA separately encrypted by customer using merchant’s public

key and sent to merchant
10. Merchant decrypts it using his private key.He thus gets

Purchase order +Amount

11. CCD and DS also sent to merchant. From CCD merchant

cannot find CCN.
12. Merchant can decrypt DS using customer’s public key and get
PPD. Customer must have a certified public key for verification.
13. Merchant can compute H(POD||CCD)

If H(POD||CCD)=PPD,then customer’s signature is OK.
14. Merchant forwards to acquirer CCA,POD,DS each separately

encrypted using acquirer’s public key.

15. Acquirer’s forwards to bank.
16.Bank finds CCN and Amount.Verifies balance amount.Bank

also verifies customer’s digital signature using CCD,POD and
DS.If all OK acquirer is informed.
17. Acquirer OK’s transaction to merchant
18. Merchant supplies item.Gets payment from acquirer.Bank

collects from customer.

Dual Signature System
To Merchant
POA
C P.O+Amount Hash POD
U
S PPD
Concatenate Hash Encrypt DS
T
O
M C.C No + POD||CCD
Hash CCD Private key Dual
E Amount CCA Of customer signature
R
CPRK
To Bank
POA: (Purchase Order + Amount)

POD: Purchase Order Digest
CCA: (Credit card + Amount)
CCD: (Credit card + Amount)Digest
|| : Concatenation operator which strings together POD and CCD
PPD : Purchase Payment Digest
CPRK: Private Key of Customer

- Step1 : [(POA)EM + (CCA)EB + CCD +DS] to Merchant
- Step2 : Merchant sends [(CCA)EB + DS + POD] to Acquirer
- Step3 : Acquirer sends (CCA)EB + DS +POD to Bank.
- Bank finds (CC No. + amount) sees if OK
Computes H(CCD||POD)
Decrypts DS with customer’s public key
If (DS)CPK = H(CCD || POD) Signature verified
- Step4 : OK to acquirer if credit and signature OK
- Step5 : Ok to Merchant
Merchant finds H(H(POA) || CCD)=PPD
Decrypts DS with public key of customer.If match signature verified.
- Step6 : Sends delivery details
- Step7 : Bill to customer

Merchant
Step 1 Step5 Step2
Step6
Step3
Customer Acquirer Bank
Step4
Step 7

Step1: Customer fills Purchase order, amount and credit card number
in his PC. A software in PC strips it into two parts Purchase Order +
Amount (POA), Credit Card No. + Amount(CCA)
POA is encrypted using merchants.
Public key and CCA with bank’s public key.These are sent with
customer’s public key certificates, CCD and DS. Merchant verifies DS.
Step2: Merchant forwards to acquirer DS and CCD (These are encrypted

using acquirer’s public key)
Step3: Acquirer forwards to bank. Bank decrypts CCA with its private
key.Checks validity of credit card and balance. If OK informs acquirer

Step4: Acquirer OK’s transaction to merchant and credits merchant's
account.
Step5: Merchant accepts customer’s order and proceeds to dispatch

items.
Step6: At the end of the month bank sends bill to customer.
(All these done by clicks of mouse button)
85 of 92
13.4.19 Systems Analysis And Design © V. Rajaraman
Electronic Cheque Payment
•Most cheque based transactions will be between businesses -thus special hardware
attached to PC’s for signing payments
•Signature encrypted by hardware
•All public keys of business partners authenticated by certifying agencies
Steps in transaction
1 Purchaser sends purchase order and payment advice signed with his private key
to vendor.He also sends his public key certificate encrypted with vendor's public key
to vendor
2 Vendor decrypts with his private key, checks certificate and cheque, attaches
deposit slip, encrypts with bank's public key and sends it to bank. he also sends his
public key certificate
3 Bank checks signatures, credits and clears cheque
4 Credit advice goes to vendor,& consolidated debit advice sent to purchaser
periodically
Clearing Cheque Payment Electronically
Purchaser Vendor
Order form
Signature Card Signature Card
Order Credit
Debit Advice Advice
Cheque
Signature
Certificate
Deposit slip
Secure Envelope Cheque
Purchaser’s Clearing Vendor’s Signature
Bank House Bank Certificates
Deposit Endorsement
Cheque Certificate

Payments Of Small Amounts On Internet
NETBILL'S PROPRIETARY SYSTEM
•Customer charged only when information delivered
•Vendor guaranteed payment when information delivered
•Netbill is the intermediary
MAJOR STEPS
•When customer accepts quote for information, vendor sends encrypted
information without key to customer
•Payment order sent to vendor with checksum of information obtained. It is
signed by customer
•Vendor sends to NET BILL copy of purchase order and the key for decryption
•NET BILL checks credit of customer. If ok it sends key to customer. Credits
vendor account and debits customer account. Key sent to customer to decrypt
information
•Customer decrypts information
Paying for Small Internet Transactions
1
2
Customer 3 Vendor
4
7
1. Request for information. 5
2. Quote 6
3. Order
4. Encrypted Text
Net Bill’s
5. Customer Bill+key Server
6. Ok to vendor
7. Key to customer
Customer’s Net Bill’s Vendor’s
Bank Credit in Server Batch Bank
Account Payment

Electronic Cash
•Cash for small payments
•Cash preserves anonymity
•Cash should not be traceable
We will discuss only traceable cash payments
STEPS
1.Customer withdraws coins in various denominations signed by bank
STRUCTURE------> serial no, denomination, signature of bank
Bank stores issued coins copy
2.Customer pays vendor using signed coins
3.Bank checks whether it is current or spent
4.If current it authorises dispatch of goods and credits vendor account with
electronic coins
Electronic Cash(contd)
• Cheaper than credit card transaction

• DES normally used for these transaction as it is cheap
and amounts involved is small

Electronic Cash Payment
5
Amt ID Signature
Customer Vendor
2
10 1568 86ABC
5 6789 86ABC 4
1 Yes 3
OK?
Bank
Spent Coins
1. Withdraw
2. Pay Amt ID
3. Check if OK . .
4. Replying OK . .
5. Accept order

MODULE 13
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
What is E-Commerce?
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
4. LEARNING UNIT 3
Security of E-Commerce
5. LEARNING UNIT 4
Payment in E-Commerce
6. REFERENCES
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
Motivation
With the emergence of internet and the world wide web new methods of
carrying out business transactions using the world wide web began to be
explored. Electronic Commerce emerged as a very important application of
the world wide web. Today it is difficult to find an isolated computer.
Computers in an organization are interconnected to form intranets and
Intranets of the cooperating organizations are interconnected to form
extranet. It is cheaper and faster to carry out business transactions within an
organization and among organizations electronically using the network
connection. Thus it is important to understand how business transactions are
carried out electronically reliably and securely. When designing information
systems it is essential to understand the emerging web based transactions. A
number of organizations are exploring how to carry out all day-to-day
operations electronically using the intranet in a so-called paperless system. It
is thus important for a student to understand how to design such systems.
Learning Goals
At the end of this module you will know:
The basics of Electronic Commerce abbreviated as e-commerce

The advantages and disadvantages of e-commerce
Architecture of e-commerce systems
Electronic Data Interchange in e-commerce
The need for security in e-commerce transactions and how to ensure it
How Electronic payment schemes work in e-commerce.
LEARNING UNIT 1
What is E-Commerce?
DEFINITION
Sharing business information, maintaining business relationships and
conducting business transactions using computers connected to a
telecommunication network is called E-Commerce
CLASSIFICATION
CLASSIFIED AS : BUSINESS TO BUSINESS (B2B)
BUSINESS TO CUSTOMER (B2C)
CUSTOMER TO CUSTOMER (C2C)
E-commerce Applications-example
•RETAIL STORES - Books, Music

•AUCTION SITES
•COOPERATING BUSINESSES –Placing orders, paying invoices etc.
•ELECTRONIC BANKING
•BOOKING TICKETS - TRAINS, CINEMA, AIRLINES
•ELECTRONIC PUBLISHING
•FILLING TAX RETURNS WITH GOVERNMENT DEPT.
Business To Business E-commerce
Public switched telephone network

LAN of buisness2 LAN of buisness1
PSTN or
LEASED
LINE
Vendor Purchase store accounts
Local computers Local computers
• Local LAN of business would normally follow TCP/IP protocol of internet

and is called corporate intranet
• Purchase order entered by business1 in its PC and electronically dispatched
to vendor (by e-mail)
• Vendor acknowledges electronically the order
• Vendor dispatches goods (physically) and delivery note electronically to
business1
•Business 1 can compare delivery note against order -both are in computer
readable form
•Discrepancy note(if any) can be immediately sent to the vendor(business 2)
•Business 1 can carry out all local transactions using its LAN
•Local transactions are inventory update by stores - advice to accounts to
pay for goods taken into stock
• Accounts can make payment electronically to Vendor
Implementing B2B E-commerce-requirements
1.Agreed on formats for Purchase order, delivery note, payment order etc.
Standard known as EDI (Electronic Data Interchange Standard) is used to
send documents electronically.
2.Each Business must have corporate intranet and the two nets are connected
by PSTN or leased line.
3.Transactions must be secure - particularly if PSTN is used.
4.Secure electronic payment methods are required.
Steps In B2C E-commerce

1. Customer uses a browser and locates vendor or he has vendor's web
page address
2. Sees Vendor's web page listing of items available, prices etc
3. Customer selects item and places order. Order may include credit
card details or may be cash on delivery
4. Vendor checks with credit card company customer’s credit
5. Credit card company OKs transaction
6. Vendor acknowledges Customer’s order and gives details of delivery
date, mode of transport, cost etc
7. Vendor orders with distributor who ships item to vendor's warehouse
from where item supplied to customer
8. Customer's credit card company debits his account, credits vendor's
account and sends bill to customer for payment.
Customer to Customer E-Commerce
Customer Customer
1 Internet 2
Wants to sell Item 1 Wants to buy Item 1
Broker’s website
•Advertises - "for sale"
•Brings together buyer and seller
•Transports items
•Collects fee from both Seller &Buyer
1. Buying/selling a variety of goods and services from one's home or

business
2. Anywhere, anytime transaction
3. Can look for lowest cost for specific goods or service
4. Businesses can reach out to worldwide clients - can establish business
partnerships
5. Order processing cost reduced
6. Electronic funds transfer faster
7. Supply chain management is simpler, faster, and cheaper using e-
commerce
- Can order from several vendors and monitor supplies.
- Production schedule and inventory of an organization can be inspected
by cooperating supplier who can in-turn schedule their work.
Disadvantages Of E-commerce
1. Electronic data interchange using EDI is expensive for small businesses
2. Security of internet is not very good - viruses, hacker attacks can paralise
e-commerce
3. Privacy of e-transactions is not guaranteed
4. E-commerce de-personalises shopping. People go shopping to meet others
- window shop and bargain
E-commerce System Architectures
LOGICAL LAYERS SERVICES IN LAYER
Application layer B2B,B2C,C2C
Middleman services Hosting services, value added nets

payment services, Certificates
Secure messaging Encryption, EDI, Firewalls
World wide web services HTTP, HTML, XML, OLE

Software agents
Logical network Intranet, internet, extranet
Physical network PSTN, LAN, Bridges, routers
Layered architecture
LEARNING UNIT 2
•Computer readable forms for business documents such as invoices,

purchase orders, delivery notes needed in B2B e-commerce so that e-
documents can be exchanged.
•Essential to eliminate manual data entry, which is error prone
•Essential to agree on common formats for commonly used forms.
•Electronic data interchange (EDI) standard gives specifications for
commonly used standard business forms
•Currently two standards are available for EDI forms
•It is possible to adapt these standards for documents which use XML for
specification.
EDI Specification
Defines several hundred transaction sets corresponding to each type of
business document such as invoice, purchase order etc. Defines data
segments - corresponding to groups of data elements such as purchase order
line. Defines data elements - which are individual fields such as price,
quantity etc
EDI Standards
•ANSI X.12 standard proposed by American National Standards Institute
•EDIFACT (Electronic Data Interchange For Administration Commerce and
Trade) standardized by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
for international trade
•EDIFACT used in India for government transactions - customs, central
excise etc.
EDI Transactions in B2B E-commerce

•Cooperating businesses agree on EDI standard.
•Programs needed to translate data received in EDI format to a form needed
by the application program.
•Method of sending/receiving data between businesses to be agreed on - is it
PSTN, Extranet or VAN (value added network) service?
•Important to ensure reliable, guaranteed and secure receipt of electronic
documents by intended receiver.
EDI Using Value Added Network Service
VAN provides post box for all subscribers, guarantees delivery and is open
24 hours, 7 days a week. Provides security, acknowledgement, audit trails
for transactions, non repudiation by users. Some VAN’S provide conversion
of EDI forms to application format. Disadvantages are it has high cost, that
may not be cost-effective for smaller businesses
EDI Using Internet

Cheaper method for use by small business is to use XML for EDI and e-
mail, instead of VAN. Establish EDI form standard - XML appropriate –
Document Type Definition (DTD) publicised using organization’s web
page-cooperating business can use a DTD to interpret XML documents.
Use MIME (multipurpose internet mail extension) to attach EDI forms to e-
mail messages. Can use Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) of internet
If secure transmission needed use S/MIME (Security enhanced MIME)
which uses encryption and digital signature –(We will describe encryption
and digital signature later in this module). If very long document or many
documents are to be sent together File Transfer Protocol (FTP) may be more
appropriate.
LEARNING UNIT 3
Security of E-Commerce
Transactions between organizations take place in many e-commerce

applications using the Internet. Internet is widely accessible and insecure as
eavesdropping is possible. Hence, there is need to protect company
confidential information from snoopers.
We also need to protect a company's network from unauthorised entry.

When an organization receives a message it has to be sure from whom it
came and whether the message is authentic and not changed by an
unauthorised person. We thus need a digital signature which can be used in a
court of law.
Network Security Using Firewall

Firewall is a security device deployed at the boundary of an organization' s
network to protect it from unauthorised external access. It links an
organization's intranet to the internet and restricts the type of traffic that it
will pass, thus providing security. Simple firewalls may be implemented in
some routers, called packet filtering firewalls, they pass only some packets
based on simple specified criteria such as
-Type of access (such as email, ftp, telnet as determined by
TCP port number)
-Direction of traffic
-Source or destination IP address
-Time of day
Proxy Application Gateway
Proxy application program running on a firewall machine is the one which
acts on behalf of all members of an organization wanting to use the internet.
This program monitors all requests - allows access to only designated
addresses outside, limits use of certain browsers and disallows use of some
protocols with known security holes. Proxy application program may also be
allowed to run on some user's machine who have authorization for internet
use.
Hardened Firewalls With Proxy Application Gateway
Any one from inside or outside an organization give their user id, password,
service required to the firewall machine which acts as one's proxy (ie.does
ones work on his behalf). Proxy firewall is now server to the requestor's
desktop PC and also a client to some other requested service acting on
requestor's behalf. Firewall needs proxy agent for each service requested
such as FTP, HTTP, TELNET etc. Now proxy firewall is the initiator of all
sessions and thus knows every activity - thus ensuring security. Firewall
with a proxy function replaces the source address of transaction requestor
with its own IP address
-this ensures that others on internet see only firewall's IP
address - all other IP addresses of organization are hidden
Data Encryption With Secret Keys

Data sent via a public network may be accessed and used by unauthorized
persons. Thus it is necessary to scramble it so that even if one accesses it, it
cannot be understood. Similarly data stored in data bases accessible via
internet should be scrambled. Method of scrambling is known as encryption.
Method of unscrambling is known as decryption.
Plain Text And Ciphertext
•Plain text is data in its natural form

•Encryption is taking data in any form(Text, Audio,Video etc.) and
transforming it to another form which cannot be understood
•Transformed data is known as cryptogram or cipher text
Example Text Encryption
Start plaintext THIS IS A MESSAGE X
Block plaintext (5character blocks) THISI SAMES SAGEX
Transpose characters with 4Æ1
permutation (4 1 2 5 3) STHII ESASM ESAXG
Substitute character by
the one 4 letters away WXLMM IWEWQ IXEBK
(eg AÆE,ZÆD)
Cipher text
This is an example of two transformations - permutation followed by substitution

The keys are permutation function and substitution function
Symmetric Encryption
PLAINTEXT (m1,m2…mn )
CIPHER TEXT (c1 c2, c3….cn )Where ci = k( Ti (mi) ) In which Ti is
permutation of ith character and k is substitution.
Decryption by applying same transformations in reverse on cipher text.
This method called symmetric key encryption as encryption and decryption
performed using same key. Normally the encryption/decryption algorithm is
publicised. Only key is secret. Problem is to ensure secrecy of key when it is
sent to partner. If the key is to be sent to many partners need for separate key
for each partner. Directory of who was sent which key is to be kept and used
for each transaction. Directory should be secure. If large number of partners
are there key distribution becomes very difficult. Advantage of symmetric
key is easy and fast to transform plain text to cipher text.
DES - Proposed by IBM in 1975

Standardised by US Govt in 1977
It is a combination of permutation and substitution on blocks of
64 bits. A message is broken up into 64 bit blocks and each
block is separately encrypted.
#General idea used in DES

M = PLAINTEXT 01101100 11011000 11011010
K = KEY 10101111 00101100 01011011
E= M⊕K 11000011 11110100 10000001 encryption
M= E ⊕ K 01101100 11011000 11011010 decryption
Before applying DES the text is split up into the 64 bit blocks.
DES applied on each 64 bit block.
Encryption method
Step 1: Apply an initial permutation on a block.Result is B=IP(P)
where P is the 64 bit block IP Initial Permutation function and
B the result.
Step 2: Split B into 32 bit blocks
Li = leftmost 32 bits
Ri = rightmost 32 bits.
Step 3: Pick a 56 bit key. Permute it
Step 4: Left circular shift it by 1 bit giving K1.
Step 5: Perform a complex sequence of operations and obtain
X1 = F(R1,K1) (The complex set of operations include table look up
and dropping bits).
Step 6: Find R2 = L1 + X1
Step 7: Set L2 = R1
Repeat steps 2 to 7 16 times to get B16 = L16,R16
Step 8: Apply inverse of initial permutation on B16
The result is the encrypted block
In summary the DES encryption applies the following transformation 16
times.
The ith round transformation are
Li+1= Ri
Ri+1= Li ⊕ F(Ri,Ki)
Each round has a different key Ki
For Decryption the process of encryption is reversed. The encrypted block is
permuted using IP-1.On this transformations are applied starting with K16
and going to K1 last. The keys and F are same as those used in encryption
process.
The encryption process uses simple binary operations. They can thus be
realised in hardware as an integrated circuit chip. DES chips are
inexpensive. Key is externally fed.
Details of One Round of DES Encryption
DES Chip
64
Input block DES 64
Encrypted
CHIP Block
Key
56
Observe that from initial key others are derived by circular shifts
Decryption chip inputs encrypted block and key and the output is decrypted block
DES - Discussion
Cryptananalysis is technique for breaking a code, given the samples of
encrypted messages. If plain text also known it is somewhat easier.
DES code can be broken if key is found. The easiest method of breaking a
code is by brute force of trying out all possible keys to decrypt message.
With increase in speed of computers it has now been shown that DES key
can be found in less than 12 hrs with a fast computer (1 Million decryption
per microsecond). Thus DES is practically useless now (original DES was
invented in mid 70s). New more secure symmetric encryption algorithm is
needed. An extension of DES called triple DES is shown to be more secure.
Triple DES
Triple DES uses three different keys and three executions of DES
algorithm.
The algorithm is
Cipher text = Ek3 [Dk2 [Ek1 [Plain Text]]]
where Ek[X] = DES Encryption of X using key K
and Dk[X] = DES Decryption of X using key K
Remember that in DES Decryption of encrypted plain text with a different

key is almost same as another encryption. This is true as encryption and
decryption use the same algorithm.
To decrypt cipher text we reverse the operations.

Plain text = Dk1[Ek2 [Dk3[Cipher Text]]]
BLOCK DIAGRAMS OF TRIPLE DES
K3
Cipher text
D E (64bit block)
K1
D E Plain text
Using DES thrice is equivalent to having a DES key length of 168 bits.
Brute force method to break triple DES with 106 decrypts per micro second
will take 5.9 X 10 30 years! Even at 1012 fold increase in computer speed
will make triple DES secure against brute force attacks to break code
The only reason D is used as middle step in triple DES is to allow decryption
of data encrypted using single DES hardware. In this case K3=K2=K1
(Single key used) (See block diagram)
Triple DES will be quite popular for a foreseeable future as it is very secure,
can be realised by simple hardware. Triple DES has two disadvantages
1. It is slow to implement in software
2. It uses 64 bit blocks.
Thus new standards were explored.
Requirements of Symmetric Key Cryptography Algorithm(NIST) –
Advanced Encryption System(AES)
• National Institute for Standards Technology put out a call for proposals for
new crypto system with following requirements.
• Must provide a high level of security (i.e. difficult to decrypt in finite time)
• Must be completely specified and easily understood.
• Security must reside in key – Not in algorithm
• Must be available for all users
• Adaptable for use in diverse applications e.g.credit cards
• Implementable economically in electronic devices
• Must be efficient to use as both software and hardware
• Must allow one to validate it.
• Must be exportable
• No trap door
• Must use 128 blocks and key lengths of 128,192 or 256 bits depending on
the level of security desired.
• In October 2000 it announced the selection of an algorithm – called Rijin

dael(Pronounce RAIN DOLL) as new Advance Encryption Standard (AES)
•Details may be found in www.nist.gov/aes

Public Key Encryption
In Private Key Encryption transmission of key without compromising not

easy. It is necessary to assign different private key to each business partner.
When this is done a directory of keys should be kept which should be secret.
This is difficult. Only secure way is to change the private key every time a
message is sent. Public Key Encryption eliminates the key distribution
problem. There is a pair of keys for each organization - A Private Key and
its Public Key. If A wants to send message to B, A encrypts the message
with B's Public Key When message is received by B he decrypts it with his
Private Key .
RSA Code Details.”R” Wants To Find His Public And Private Keys
1. Pick large primes p and q. Let n =p * q

2 Find ø = (p-l)*(q-l)
3 Find e relatively prime to Ø, i.e. gcd(ø,e)=1; 1<e<ø. {e,n} is R's Public
Key
4 Find a number d which satisfies relation
(d * e) mod (ø) =1
{d,n} is R’s Private key
5. Let plain text = t. Encrypt t using R’s public key.
Encryption = te (mod n) = c (cipher text)
6.Decryption cd (mod n) =t
(Both n and e should be known to encrypt. Similarly both n and d should be
known to decrypt)
Example Of RSA Use
This example is a toy example to illustrate the method. In practice the

primes p and q will be very large – each at least 300 digits long to ensure
security.
RSA Algorithm
1.Pick as prime numbers p=3,q=11

n = p * q=33
Note : The message to be encrypted should be smaller than 33.If we do
letter by letter encryption of English alphabets (A to Z as 1 to 26) this is OK
2. Ø = (p-1) x (q-1) = 2 x 10 = 20
3.Pick a number relatively prime to 20.
We pick 7. The Public key of R = {7,33}
4.To pick private key of R find d from relation (d x e)mod(ø) = 1
(d x 7) mod (20) =1
This gives d =3
Therefore, the private key of R = {3,33}
1.Let the message be CODE

If we use code C=3, O=14,D=4,E=5
The message is 3,14,4,5
2.We will encrypt one letter at a time

Thus cipher of plain text 3 is
3e mod (n) =37 mod(33)
37 mod (33) =2187 mod (33)=9
(14)7 mod (33) = 105413504mod(33)=20
(4)7 mod (33) =16384 mod (33) =16
(5)7 mod (33) =78125 mod(33) = 14
3.Thus cipher text = 9,20,16,14
4. Decryption : cd mod (n) d=3,n=33

93 mod (33) = 729 mod(33) = 3
203 mod(33) = 8000 mod(33)=14
163 mod(33) = 4096 mod(33) =4
143 mod(33) = 2744 mod(33) =5
We see that we get the original text 3,14,4,5

Discussion on RSA
• The security RSA encryption is dependent on the fact that factorising a

large prime number to its factors is very difficult.
• RSA algorithm is symmetric. In other words if a plain text is encoded by

the private key of S, the sender, it can be decrypted using the public key of
R, the receiver (We will find later that this symmetry property is used in
creating digital signature)
•Example using S’s keys

S’s Private key = {3,33}
S’s Public key = {7,33}
• If we encrypt a plain text using S’s private key and send it to R,R must be
able to decrypt it with S’s public key.
•Assume Plain text is encrypted with S’s private key and get cipher text =
(14)3 mod (33)=5
•Decrypting with S’s Public key we get

(5)7 mod (33)
=78125 mod(33)
={(2367 x 33) + 14} mod (33)
=14

•RSA Public key has two keys – a private secret key and a public open key.
•RSA implemented as a program (software) It is computationally complex to
encode plain text and decode cipher text using RSA
•DES Same key for encryption and decryption. It is a single key system -
Also called symmetric key system
•DES computationally simple-implemented in hardware - thus very fast
•Each communication between two businesses can use a different key –
provided key is securely exchanged
•If key can be sent separately encrypted using RSA, then a recipient can use
this to decrypt DES encrypted message.
Combining RSA And DES
Advantages:
• Key is sent along with the plain text. Encrypted using RSA
• Key is small-fast to encrypt/decrypt
• Each transaction using DES can have a different key- higher security and
also fast.Key directory not needed.
Digital Signature
REQUIREMENTS
•Needed to ensure that a message received from say "A" is indeed from him
•Signature should be tied to the message sent by "A"
SENDING STEP
•Sender sends key using RSA system
•Sender sends plain text "M" using DES
•Receiver decrypts cipher text using DES and the key received from sender
call it "MR"
•Sender hashes plain text "M' using a hashing function - let the hashed text
be "H"
•Hashed text "H" encrypted by sender using his Private key
•DS is his signature as H encrypted with his private key
•DS decrypted by receiver using sender's Public key and obtains "H"
Authentication step
•Receiver hashes “MR" using hash function and gets “HR"
•Receiver compares “H" with “HR"
•If they match then it is a signed authenticated plain text
•TM is signed as sender has encrypted the hashed text using his private key
which he only knows.If H=(MR)(HASHED) = HR where MR is the
received message then MR must have been sent by sender. He cannot
repudiate.
Signing A Message Using Digital Signature
Certificate Authority For Digital Signature
•As the hashed message in Digital Signature system is decrypted using

senders public key, this key must be certified as belonging to sender by an
independent authority
•Certification needed to ensure authenticity of public keys of organizations
as public key is used to verify signature
•Certification authority keeps data base of public keys of organizations
participating in e-commerce after verifying their credentials.
•Potential business partners can authenticate public keys by sending request
to certifying authority who certifies after receiving a fee for his services
LEARNING UNIT 4
Payment in E-Commerce
In any commercial transaction payment is an integral part for goods

supplied. Four types of payments may be made in e-commerce they are
•Credit card payments

•Electronic cheque payments
•Micro or small payments for internet based services such as music
download.
•Electronic-cash payments
Each of these requires a different system of payment.

Four parties are invoked in credit card payments.
They are:
• Customer having a credit card
• Merchant accepting credit cards (such as VISA, MASTER CARD etc)
• Bank which issues credit cards to customers and collects payments from
customers
•Acquirer which is financial institution that establishes an account with a
merchant, validates credit card information sent electronically by merchant
and authorises sale based on customer’s credit status. Acquirer accepts credit
cards of several card companies and guarantees payment to merchants.
Acquirer gets reimbursed by bank issuing credit card.
Sequence Of Transactions In Manual Credit Card Payment
Step 1: Customer presents credit card after purchase. Merchant swipes it on

his special phone and enters amount
Step 2: Data from merchant’s terminal goes to acquirer via a private

telephone line
Step 3: Acquirer checks with the issuing bank validity of card and credit-
available
Step 4: Acquirer authorizes sale if all OK and sends approval slip which is
printed at merchant’s terminal.
Step 5: Merchant takes customer’s signature on the slip-verifies it with the

signature on card and delivers the goods.
Step 6: The acquirer pays the money to merchant and collects it from the
appropriate issuing bank. The bank sends monthly statement to customer and
collects outstanding amount.
Block Diagram Of Steps In Credit Card Transaction
Credit Card In E-commerce
Main Problems
1.Main Problem is: if a merchant had only a web presence, a Customer

needs to be reassured that the merchant is genuine.
2.Customers Signature cannot be physically verified. Customer needs

electronic signature.
3.Secrecy of credit card number has to be ensured.
4.Dispute settlement mechanism must be worked out.

To use SET protocol it is assumed that

1. Each party involved in e-commerce transaction has a
public and private key.A public key encryption is used.
2. All parties have their public keys certified.
3. A standard hashing algorithm is used to create message

digest for signature verification.
Main Features
•Customers credit card number is not revealed to a merchant. It is revealed

only to the acquirer who authorises payment.
•Purchase invoice details are not revealed to the acquirer.Only the credit
card number and total amount are revealed to him
•Purchase invoice + credit card number is digitally signed by the customer.In

case of a dispute an arbitrator can use this to settle the dispute.
(Computer protocol runs to 262 pages and may be found in
www.ibm.com/redbook/SG244978)
DUAL SIGNATURE SCHEME

Dual signature scheme is an innovation in SET protocol
Steps followed in the protocol are:

1. Customer purchase information has 3 parts
(i) Purchase Order (PO)
(ii) Credit Card Number (CCN)
(iii) Amount to be paid
2. Merchant should know (PO + Amount)=POA
3. Acquirer should know (CCN+Amount)=CCA
4. Hash POA using standard Hash algorithm such as RSA’s MD5. Call it
POD.
5. Hash CCA using MD5. Call it CCD
6. Concatenate POD and CCD. Call it (POD||CCD)
7. Hash (POD||CCD) giving PPD
8. PPD is encrypted using Private key of customer. This is customer’s

digitally signed purchase order
DS = Encrypt (PPD) with CPRK
CPRK is Private key of customer. This is sent to merchant by customer.
DS is called Dual Signature as a private key is used to sign two separate
digests concatenated together.
9. POA separately encrypted by customer using merchant’s public key and

sent to merchant
10. Merchant decrypts it using his private key. He thus gets Purchase order
+Amount. He can hash it and get POD
11. CCD and DS also sent to merchant. From CCD merchant cannot find
CCN.
12. Merchant can decrypt DS using customer’s public key and get PPD.
Customer must have a certified public key for verification.
13. Merchant can compute H(POD||CCD)

If H(POD||CCD)=PPD,then customer’s signature is OK.
14. Merchant forwards to acquirer CCA,POD,DS each separately encrypted

using acquirer’s public key.
15. Acquirer’s forwards to bank.
16.Bank finds CCN and Amount.Verifies balance amount.Bank also verifies

customer’s digital signature using CCD,POD and DS.If all OK acquirer is
informed.
17. Acquirer OK’s transaction to merchant

18. Merchant supplies item.Gets payment from acquirer.Bank collects from
customer.
Dual Signature System
EM: Public key of Merchant

EB: Public key of bank
(POA) EM is encrypted value with merchant’s public key
POA: (Purchase Order + Amount)
POD: Purchase Order Digest
CCA: (Credit card + Amount)
CCD: (Credit card + Amount)Digest
|| : Concatenation operator which strings together POD and CCD
PPD : Purchase Payment Digest
CPRK: Private Key of Customer, CPK: Public Key of customer
- Step1 : [(POA)EM , (CCA)EB , CCD ,DS] to Merchant
- Step2 : Merchant sends [(CCA)EB , DS , POD] to Acquirer
- Step3 : Acquirer sends (CCA)EB + DS +POD to Bank.
- Bank finds (CC No. + amount) using its private key sees if OK
Computes H(CCD||POD)
Decrypts DS with customer’s public key
If (DS)CPK = H(CCD || POD) Signature verified
- Step4 : OK to acquirer if credit and signature OK
- Step5 : Ok to Merchant
Merchant finds H(H(POA) || CCD)=PPD
Decrypts DS with public key of customer. If it gives PPD signature verified.
- Step6 : Sends delivery details
- Step7 : Bill to customer
Step1: Customer fills Purchase order, amount and credit card number
in his PC. A software in PC strips it into two parts Purchase Order + Amount
(POA), Credit Card No. + Amount(CCA)
POA is encrypted using merchant’s public key and CCA with bank’s public
key.These are sent with customer’s public key certificates, CCD and DS.
Merchant verifies DS.
Step2: Merchant forwards to acquirer DS and CCD (These are encrypted

using acquirer’s public key)
Step3: Acquirer forwards to bank. Bank decrypts CCA with its private
key.Checks validity of credit card and balance. If OK informs acquirer
Step4: Acquirer OK’s transaction to merchant and credits merchant's

account.
Step5: Merchant accepts customer’s order and proceeds to dispatch items.
Step6: At the end of the month bank sends bill to customer.

(All these done by clicks of mouse button)
Electronic Cheque Payment
Most cheque based transactions will be between businesses -thus a special
hardware is attached to PC’s for signing payments. Signature is encrypted by
hardware. All public keys of business partners authenticated by certifying
agencies.
Steps in transaction
1. Purchaser sends purchase order and payment advice signed with his
private key to vendor.He also sends his public key certificate
encrypted with vendor's public key to vendor
2. Vendor decrypts with his private key, checks certificate and cheque,
attaches deposit slip, encrypts with bank's public key and sends it to
bank. he also sends his public key certificate
3. Bank checks signatures, credits and clears cheque. Credit advice

goes to vendor, and consolidated debit advice sent to purchaser
periodically
Clearing Cheque Payment Electronically
Payments Of Small Amounts On Internet
NETBILL'S PROPRIETARY SYSTEM
•Customer charged only when information delivered

•Vendor guaranteed payment when information delivered
•Netbill is the intermediary
MAJOR STEPS
•When customer accepts quote for information, vendor sends encrypted
information without key to customer
•Payment order sent to vendor with checksum of information obtained. It is
signed by customer
•Vendor sends to NET BILL copy of purchase order and the key for
decryption
•NET BILL checks credit of customer. If ok it sends key to customer.
Credits vendor account and debits customer account. Key sent to customer
to decrypt information
•Customer decrypts information
Paying for Small Internet Transactions

Electronic Cash
•Cash for small payments
•Cash preserves anonymity
•Cash should not be traceable
•Cheaper than credit card transaction
•DES normally used for these transaction as it is cheap and amount involved
is small
Traceable cash payments

STEPS
1.Customer withdraws coins in various denominations signed by bank
STRUCTURE------> serial no, denomination, signature of bank
Bank stores issued coins copy
2.Customer pays vendor using signed coins
3.Bank checks whether it is current or spent
4.If current it authorises dispatch of goods and credits vendor account with
electronic coins
Electronic Cash Payment
REFERENCES
1. Most of the material in this chapter are taken from Chapter 16,
Electronic Commerce of the book Analysis and Design of Information
Systems (2nd edition) by V.Rajaraman, Prentice-Hall of India, New
Delhi,2004
2. There are many books on E-Commerce, which describe E-Commerce

in detail.
Among these are:
E.Awad, Electronic Commerce, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi
2002.This book takes managers perspective and not very strong on
technology aspects of E-Commerce. All the examples have a strong
American bias as the book is primarily intended for students in
America. The language is clear but the book is verbose.
What can be said in 100 pages is said in 400 pages as it includes all
kinds of gossip not relevant to students wanting the learn the subject.
3. D.Minoli and E.Minoli, Web Commerce Technology Handbook, Tata

McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1999.This book is strong in technology and
has wide coverage.
4. W. Stallings, Network Security Essentials, Pearson Education Asia,

New Delhi,2001. Has good presentation on DES, Triple DES, RSA
and SET protocol.
5. Most traditional Systems Analysis and Design book such as the one
by Kendall and Kendall do not separately discuss E-Commerce, they
have a cursory treatment at various places in the book.
System Analysis and Design/Electronic Commerce Multiple Choice Questions
13.1 By Electronic Commerce we mean:

a. Commerce of electronic goods
b. Commerce which depends on electronics
c. Commerce which is based on the use of internet
d. Commerce which is based on transactions using computers connected by
telecommunication network
13.2 For carrying out B2B e-Commerce the following infrastructure is
essential:
(i) World Wide Web
(v)Secure electronic communication link connecting businesses
a. i, ii, iii
b. ii, iii, iv
c. ii, iii, iv, v
d. i, ii, iii, iv, v
13.3 For carrying out B2C e-Commerce the following infrastructure is essential
(i) World Wide Web
a. i, iv
b. i, iii, iv
c. ii, iii
d. i, ii, iii, iv
13.4 For carrying out C2C e-Commerce the following infrastructure is essential
(i) World Wide Web


(v)Secure electronic communication link connecting businesses
a. i and ii
b. ii and iv
c. i and iii
d. i and iv
13.5 Advantages of B2C commerce are
(i) Business gets a wide reach to customers
(ii) Payment for services easy
(iii)Shop can be open 24 hours a day seven days a week
(iv)Privacy of transaction always maintained
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i and iii
d. iii and iv
13.6 B2C commerce
a. includes services such as legal advice
b. means only shopping for physical goods
c. means only customers should approach customers to sell
d. means only customers should approach business to buy
13.7 Advantages of B2C commerce to customers are
(i)wide variety of goods can be accessed and comparative prices
can be found
(ii) shopping can be done at any time
(iii)privacy of transactions can be guaranteed
(iv)security of transactions can be guaranteed
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iv

13.8 Disadvantages of e-Commerce in India are

(i) internet access is not universally available
(ii) Credit card payment security is not yet guaranteed
(iii) Transactions are de-personalized and human contact is missing
(iv) Cyberlaws are not in place
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i, ii, iii
d. i, ii, iii, iv
13.9 Electronic Data Interchange is necessary in
a. B2C e-Commerce
b. C2C e-Commerce
c. B2B e-Commerce
d. Commerce using internet
13.10 EDI requires
a. representation of common business documents in computer readable forms
b. data entry operators by receivers
c. special value added networks
d. special hardware at co-operating Business premises
13.11 EDI standards are
a. not universally available
b. essential for B2B commerce
c. not required for B2B commerce
d. still being evolved
13.12 EDIFACT is a standard
a. for representing business forms used in e-Commerce
b. for e-mail transaction for e-Commerce
c. for ftp in e-Commerce
d. protocol used in e-Commerce
13.13 EDIFACT standard was developed by
a. American National Standard Institute

b. International Standard Institute

c. European Common Market
d. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
13.14 ANSI X.12 is a standard developed by
a. American National Standard Institute
b. International Standard Institute
c. European Common Market
d. United Nations Economic Commission for Europe
13.15 In B2B e-Commerce
(i) Co-operating Business should give an EDI standard to be used
(ii) Programs must be developed to translate EDI forms to a form accepted
by application program
(iii) Method of transmitting/receiving data should be mutually agreed
(iv) It is essential to use internet
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv
13.16 EDI use
a. requires an extranet
b. requires value added network
c. can be done on internet
d. requires a corporate intranet
13.17 EDI over internet uses
a. MIME to attach EDI forms to e-mail messages
b. FTP to send business forms
c. HTTP to send business forms
d. SGML to send business forms
13.18 For secure EDI transmission on internet
a. MIME is used
b. S/MIME is used

c. PGP is used
d. TCP/IP is used
13.19 EDI standard
a. is not easily available
b. defines several hundred transaction sets for various business forms
c. is not popular
d. defines only a transmission protocol
13.20 By security in e-Commerce we mean
(i) Protecting an organization’s data resource from unauthorized access
(ii)Preventing disasters from happening
(iii) Authenticating messages received by an organization
(iv) Protecting messages sent on the internet from being read and understood by
unauthorized persons/organizations
a. i, ii
b. ii, iii
c. iii, iv
d. i, iii, iv
13.21 A firewall is a
a. wall built to prevent fires from damaging a corporate intranet
b. security device deployed at the boundary of a company to prevent
unauthorized physical access
c. security device deployed at the boundary of a corporate intranet to protect
it from unauthorized access
d. device to prevent all accesses from the internet to the corporate intranet
13.22 A firewall may be implemented in
a. routers which connect intranet to internet
b. bridges used in an intranet
c. expensive modem
d. user’s application programs
13.23 Firewall as part of a router program
a. filters only packets coming from internet

b. filters only packets going to internet

c. filters packets travelling from and to the intranet from the internet
d. ensures rapid traffic of packets for speedy e-Commerce
13.24 Filtering of packets by firewall based on a router has facilities to
a. i, iii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv
13.25 Main function of proxy application gateway firewall is
a. to allow corporate users to use efficiently all internet services
b. to allow intranet users to securely use specified internet services
c. to allow corporate users to use all internet services
d. to prevent corporate users from using internet services
13.26 Proxy application gateway
(i) acts on behalf of all intranet users wanting to access interne securely
(ii)monitors all accesses to internet and allows access to only specified IP addresses
(iii) disallows use of certain protocols with security problems
(iv) disallows all internet users from accessing intranet
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv
13.27 A hardened firewall host on an intranet
(i) has a proxy application gateway program running on it
(ii)Allows specified internet users to access specified services in the intranet
(iii) Initiates all internet activities requested by clients and monitors them
(iv) prevents outsiders from accessing IP addresses within the intranet
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv

13.28 A hardened firewall host on an Intranet is

a. a software which runs in any of the computers in the intranet
b. a software which runs on a special reserved computer on the intranet
c. a stripped down computer connected to the intranet
d. a mainframe connected to the intranet to ensure security
13.29 By encryption of a text we mean
a. compressing it
b. expanding it
c. scrambling it to preserve its security
d. hashing it
13.30 Encryption is required to
(i) protect business information from eavesdropping when it is transmitted on internet
(ii)efficiently use the bandwidth available in PSTN
(iii) to protect information stored in companies’ databases from retrieval
(iv) to preserve secrecy of information stored in databases if an unauthorized person
retrieves it
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. iii and iv
d. i and iv
13.31 Encryption can be done
a. only on textual data
b. only on ASCII coded data
c. on any bit string
d. only on mnemonic data
13.32 By applying permutation (31254) and substitution by 5 characters away
from current character (A Æ F , B Æ G etc..) the following string
ABRACADABRA becomes
a. FGWCAAADRBF
b. RABCAAADRBF
c. WFGHFFFIWGF

d. None of the above

13.33 The following ciphertext was received. The plaintext was permuted using
permutation (34152) and substitution. Substitute character by character +3
(A Æ D, etc). The plain text after decryption is: Cipher text :
PDLJDLXHVQC
a. MAIGAIUESNZ
b. IAMAGENIUSZ
c. LDPDJHPLXVZ
d. IAMAGENIUSC
13.34 By symmetric key encryption we mean
a. one private key is used for both encryption and decryption
b. private and public key used are symmetric
c. only public keys are used for encryption
d. only symmetric key is used for encryption
13.35 The acronym DES stands for
a. Digital Evaluation System
b. Digital Encryption Standard
c. Digital Encryption System
d. Double Encryption Standard
13.36 DES works by using
a. permutation and substitution on 64 bit blocks of plain text
b. only permutations on blocks of 128 bits
c. exclusive ORing key bits with 64 bit blocks
d. 4 rounds of substitution on 64 bit blocks with 56 bit keys
13.37 DES
(ii)guarantees absolute security
(iii) is implementable as hardware VLSI chip
(iv) is a public key encryption method
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii

c. i and iii
d. iii and iv
13.38 DES using 56 bit keys
a. Cannot be broken in reasonable time using presently available computers
b. Can be broken only if the algorithm is known using even slow computers.
c. Can be broken with presently available high performance computers.
d. It is impossible to break ever.
13.39 Triple DES uses
a. 168 bit keys on 64-bit blocks of plain text
b. Working on 64-bit blocks of plain text and 56 bit keys by applying DES
algorithm for three rounds.
c. Works with 144 bit blocks of plain text and applies DES algorithm once.
d. Uses 128 bit blocks of plain text and 112 bit keys and apply DES
algorithm thrice.
13.40 ripple DES
a. Cannot be broken in reasonable time using presently available computers.
b. Can be broken only if the algorithm is known using even slow computer.
c. Can be broken with presently available high performance computers.
d. It is impossible to break ever.
13.41 Triple DES
a. is a symmetric key encryption method
b. guarantees excellent security
c. is implementable as a hardware VLSI chip
d. is public key encryption method with three keys.
13.42 Public key encryption method is a system
a. which uses a set of public keys one for each participant in e-Commerce
b. in which each person who wants to communicate has two keys; a private
key known to him only and a public key which is publicized to enable
others to send message to him.
c. which uses the RSA coding system.
d. which is a standard for use in e-Commerce.

13.43 Public key system is useful because

a. it uses two keys.
b. there is no key distribution problem as public key can be kept in a
commonly accessible database.
c. private key can be kept secret.
d. it is a symmetric key system.
13.44 In public key encryption if A wants to send an encrypted message
a. A encrypts message using his private key
b. A encrypts message using B’s private key
c. A encrypts message using B’s public key
d. A encrypts message using his public key
13.45 In public key encryption system if A encrypts a message using his private
key and sends it to B
a. if B knows it is from A he can decrypt it using A’s public key
b. Even if B knows who sent the message it cannot be decrypted
c. It cannot be decrypted at all as no one knows A’s private key
d. A should send his public key with the message
13.46 Message can be sent more securely using DES by
a. encrypting plain text by a different randomly selected key for each
transmission
b. encrypting plain text by a different random key for each message
transmission and sending the key to the receiver using a public key system
c. using an algorithm to implement DES instead of using hardware
d. designing DES with high security and not publicizing algorithm used by it
13.47 DES and public key algorithm are combined
(i) to speed up encrypted message transmission
(ii)to ensure higher security by using different key for each transmission
(iii) as a combination is always better than individual system
(iv) as it is required in e-Commerce
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii

c. iii and iv
d. i and iv
13.48 A digital signature is
a. a bit string giving identity of a correspondent
b. a unique identification of a sender
c. an authentication of an electronic record by tying it uniquely to a key only
a sender knows
d. an encrypted signature of a sender
13.49 A digital signature is required
(i) to tie an electronic message to the sender’s identity
(ii)for non repudiation of communication by a sender
(iii) to prove that a message was sent by the sender in a court of law
(iv) in all e-mail transactions
a. i and ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv
13.50 A hashing function for digital signature
(i) must give a hashed message which is shorter than the original message
(ii)must be hardware implementable
(iii) two different messages should not give the same hashed message
(iv) is not essential for implementing digital signature
a. i and ii
b. ii and iii
c. i and iii
d. iii and iv
13.51 Hashed message is signed by a sender using
a. his public key
b. his private key
c. receiver’s public key
d. receiver’s private key

13.52 While sending a signed message, a sender

a. sends message key using public key encryption using DES and hashed
message using public key encryption
b. sends message using public key encryption and hashed message using
DES
c. sends both message and hashed message using DES
d. sends both message and hashed message using public key encryption
13.53 The responsibility of a certification authority for digital signature is to
authenticate the
a. hash function used
b. private keys of subscribers
c. public keys of subscribers
d. key used in DES
13.54 Certification of Digital signature by an independent authority is needed
because
a. it is safe
b. it gives confidence to a business
c. the authority checks and assures customers that the public key indeed
belongs to the business which claims its ownership
d. private key claimed by a sender may not be actually his
13.55 The Secure Electronic Transaction protocol is used for
a. credit card payment
b. cheque payment
c. electronic cash payments
d. payment of small amounts for internet services
13.56 In SET protocol a customer encrypts credit card number using
a. his private key
b. bank’s public key
c. bank’s private key
d. merchant’s public key
13.57 In SET protocol a customer sends a purchase order

a. encrypted with his public key

b. in plain text form
c. encrypted using Bank’s public key
d. using digital Signature system
13.58 One of the problems with using SET protocol is
a. the merchant’s risk is high as he accepts encrypted credit card
b. the credit card company should check digital signature
c. the bank has to keep a database of the public keys of all customers
d. the bank has to keep a database of digital signatures of all customers
13.59 The bank has to have the public keys of all customers in SET protocol as
it has to
a. check the digital signature of customers
b. communicate with merchants
c. communicate with merchants credit card company
d. certify their keys
13.60 In electronic cheque payments developed, it is assumed that most of the
transactions will be
a. customers to customers
b. customers to business
c. business to business
d. banks to banks
13.61 In cheque payment protocol, the purchase order form is signed by
purchaser using
a. his public key
b. his private key
c. his private key using his signature hardware
d. various public keys
13.62 In the NetBill’s protocol for small payments for services available in the
internet.
(i) the customer is charged only when the information is delivered
(ii)the vendor is guaranteed payment when information is delivered

(iii) the customer must have a certified credit card

(iv) the customer must have a valid public key
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
13.63 In NetBill’s protocol for small payments for internet services
(i) Key to decrypt information is sent to customer by NetBill only when there is
enough amount in debit account
(ii) The vendor supplies the key to NetBill server when he receives payment
(iii) Checksum of encrypted information received by customer is attached to his
payment order
(iv) Vendor does not encrypt information purchased by customer
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. i, ii, iv
13.64 In Electronic cash payment
a. a debit card payment system is used
b. a customer buys several electronic coins which are digitally signed by coin
issuing bank
c. a credit card payment system is used
d. RSA cryptography is used in the transactions
13.65 In Electronic cash payment
(i) a customer withdraws “coins” in various denominations signed by the bank
(ii)the bank has a database of issued coins
(iii) the bank has a database of spent coins
(iv) the bank cannot trace a customer
a. i, ii
b. i, ii, iii
c. i, ii, iii, iv
d. ii, iii, iv

13.1 d 13.2 c 13.3 a 13.4 c 13.5 c 13.6 a

13.7 a 13.8 c 13.9 c 13.10 a 13.11 b 13.12 a
13.13 d 13.14a 13.15 b 13.16 c 13.17 a 13.18 b
13.19 b 13.20 d 13.21 c 13.22 a 13.23 c 13.24 b
13.25 b 13.26 b 13.27 c 13.28 b 13.29 c 13.30 d
13.31 c 13.32 c 13.33 b 13.34 a 13.35 b 13.36 a
13.37 c 13.38 c 13.39 b 13.40 a 13.41 b 13.42 b 13.43 b
13.44 c 13.45 a 13.46b 13.47 a 13.48 c 13.49 b 13.50
c 13.51 b 13.52 a 13.53 c 13.54 c
13.55 a 13.56 b 13.57 d 13.58 c 13.59 a 13.60 c
13.61 c 13.62 d 13.63 b 13.64 b 13.65 b

MODULE 13
ELECTRONIC COMMERCE
WORKED EXAMPLES
13.1 Explain B2B e-Commerce using an example of a book distributor who

stocks a large number of books, which he distributes via a large network
of book sellers. Assume that the distributor has stocks of books of a large
number of publishers and book sellers order books as and when their
stock is low.
Distributors give 1 month’s time to booksellers for payment
Distributor’s
Reminder if bill not paid within one warehouse
Book month (14)
Warehouse of Received(6)
Bookseller
Acknowledge order and send bill(5)
Stock goes Enquire
below level(1) Availability (2) Distributor’s
Bookseller website
Display various books(3)
Cheque sent
Places order (4) after Ok’s
verification of Cheque
Send cheque(7) seller’s public (11)
key certificates
Receipt to
Book supplied to seller(13) Distributor’s (8)
bookseller (6) bank
Send cheque for clearance (9)
Credit to distributor’s Ok’s clearance (10) Clearing house

bank A/C (13)
Book seller’s
bank Debit advice to book
seller’s bank (12)
Information flow (Normally electronically)

Physical item flows
13.2 Explain B2C e-Commerce of a customer reserving airline tickets from his
home
or place of work.
B2C e-Commerce involves the business between an individual and an
organization.
For the case given in question, the customer has to visit the site of the travel
agency or a broker and get the status of the availability of tickets. If ticket is
available he/she will book the ticket and input the credit card details. He/She
will be given the details of delivery of ticket.
The block diagram below depicts the total process
(8) Acknowledge order and sends ticket
(1) Request Service

Customer Website of
travel agency
(2) Display information on various
flights (5) Ok’s Credit
(4) Credit card card
(3) Places order with credit card details
(8) Bill to details
Customer
Travel agency’s Credit Card companies

bank A/C computer
(7) Debit advice

giving credit card no
(8) Credit to travel
agency’s A/C
Customer’s
Bank
13.3 Explain C2C e-Commerce with an appropriate example
Here the selling and purchasing is carried out between two individuals. One
is a seller and the other is a buyer. The items are usually used items,
collector’s items such as stamps/coins or antiques. The seller posts the
description of the item and the expected price of the item on a web site
maintained by a company which acts as a middle man or broker.
For example: Consider a company Y which acts as a broker. Suppose an
indivi-dual A has to sell some items, so it will post the description of the
items in Y’s site. A person B is interested to purchase some items, then
he/she will visit Y’s site.
Here we can have three cases.
Case I:
The broker Y can just acts as an advertising agency and make the two
persons meet each other and carry out further transaction. For this it gets
some commission from both the parties.
This is described in the block diagram below:
Negotiations are made and deal is finalized (5)
Places order (6)
Send the mail id of A(4)
Request for
items (3)
Post Description of
Website of Y items (1)
Display items
(2) A
B
Case II:
The broker Y can act as an advertising agency, make the two persons
negotiate the price. Then Y takes all responsibilities until the item is
delivered. For this it gets some commission from both the parties.
Negotiations are made and deal is finalized (5)
Pays the amount received

Places order with credit card details(7) after taking commission(13)
Send the mail id of A(4)
Communication regarding
the price settled (6)
Request for
items (3) Post Description of
Display items
(2) A
B
Acknowledge order
(10) Ok’s credift
Send credit card(9)
card details
(8)
Credit Card
companies
Y’s Bank A/C computer
Shiping
Advice (11)
Credit to Y’s Debit advice giving
Bill sent to A/C (11) Credit card no (9)
B(12)
B’s bank
Items delivered to B (11) Y’s warehouse
Physical items flow

Case III:
The broker Y can act as an advertising agency and displays items posted by
the seller with prices. Both the buyer and seller will not have knowledge of
each other. Y takes all responsibilities until the item is delivered. For this he
gets some commission from both the parties.
Pays the amount received

Places order with credit card details(4) after taking commission(12)
Request for
items (3) Post Description of
Display items
(2) A
B
Acknowledge order
(7) Ok’s credift
Send credit card(6)
card details
(5)
Credit Card
companies
Y’s Bank A/C computer
Shiping
Advice (9)
Credit to Y’s Debit advice giving
Bill sent to A/C (11) Credit card no (8)
B(11)
B’s bank
Items delivered to B (10) Y’s warehouse

Physical items flow
13.4 What do you understand by EDI? Is EDI used in B2C or B2B e-
Commerce? Why is EDI important in e-Commerce?
EDI stands for Electronic Data Interchange. It is a standard electronic
format used for purchase orders, invoices etc. When such electronic forms
are received they can be interpreted correctly by recipient’s computer
program and used.
EDI is used in B2B e-Commerce . It is important in e-Commerce because
there is no manual intervention and data transfer is faster. As the format is
agreed between two organizations, communication is simple.
13.5 What is VAN? What services do VANs provide? What are the
advantages and disadvantages of VAN?
VAN stands for Value Added Networks which provide services to
Businesses which are members
VANs provide post boxes for each of its subscribers who want to use their
services. Some VANs provide conversion of forms to standard EDI format.
The disadvantage of VAN services is high cost.
13.6 Why is security important in e-Commerce? What are the security issues
to be taken into account while designing a security system for e-
Commerce?
Since in e-Commerce the transaction and communication takes place
between two entities using PSTN, security issue is important.
The different security issues that are taken into account , while designing
a security system for e-Commerce are given below:
• As internet connects several networks one has to be sure that
unauthorised persons do not gain access to the company’s
confidential information. Both hardware and software solutions are
needed to ensure this.
• The communication between companies should be protected from
snoopers.
• When a company receives a message, it must be sure from whom it
has come. In electronic communication system there should be
digital signature so that the receiver knows that it has come from an
authorised business. It should also ensure that the authentication of
digital signature must be maintainable in a court of law in case of
disputes.
13.7 What is a firewall? What are the functions of a firewall?

A firewall is a set of related programs , located at a network gateway server
that protects the resources of private network from other networks.
Basically firewall, working closely with a router program, filters all
network packets to determine whether to forward them toward their
destination.
The different functions of firewall are:
• Protection from vulnerable service
• Control access to site system
• Concentrated security
• Enhance privacy
• Logging and statistics on Network use and misuse
13.8 What is a hardened firewall host? What are its functions? In what way is
it different from proxy application gateway?
The hardened firewall is a computer that will require inside or outside users
to connect to the trusted applications in it before connecting to external
world.
The major functions of hardened firewall are:
• Security processes are concentrated on one machine
• Names of systems on LAN, e-mail address etc., are hidden from
outsiders
• Network service management is simplified by locating services such
as ftp, e-mail, search engines etc., in the firewall machine.
The difference between hardened firewall and proxy application gateway
is that for hardened firewall the inside or outside users are required to
connect to the trusted application in firewall machine before connecting to
any machine. All the information will pass through this computer, hence it
is more secure.
13.9 Given a plain text:

THIS IS A SAMPLE SENTENCE FOR ENCRYPTION.
Apply the permutation (231564) and the substitution: (letter Æ letter +
6 ) and obtain the cipher text.
Step 1: write the message in block of 6 characters
THISIS ASAMPL ESENTE NCEFOR ENCRYP TION
Step 2: follow permutation(231564)
HITISS SAAPLM SEETEN CENORF NCEYPR TION
Step 3: make substitution (Letter Æ Letter + 6)
NOZOYY YGGVRS YKKZKT IKTUXL TIKEVXZOUT
13.10 What is DES? Explain what DES does when the following hexadecimal
plain text is input to a DES hardware.
A1907FBCD986543201FED14E890ABCA5
DES is a symmetric cryptographic algorithm. It is a block cipher, and
encrypts data in 64-bit blocks. The same algorithm and key are used for
both encryption and decryption.
The key length is 56 bits. The key is usually expressed as a 64-bit
number, but every eighth bit is used for parity checking and is ignored.
These parity bits are the least-significant bits of the key bytes.
After the initial permutation, the block is broken into a right half and a
left half, each 32 bits long. Then there are 16 rounds of identical operations,
called Function f, in which the data are combined with the key. After the
sixteenth round, the right and left halves are joined, and a final permutation
(the inverse of the initial permutation) finishes off the algorithm.
In each round as shown in the figure (page 210) the key bits are shifted,
and then 48 bits are selected from the 56 bits of the key. The right half of
the data is expanded to 48 bits, combined with 48 bits of a shifted and
permuted key via an XOR, then again converted to 32 new bits, and
permuted again. These four operations make up Function f. The output of
Function f is then combined with the left half via another XOR. The result
of these operations becomes the new right half; the old right half becomes
the new left half. These operations are repeated 16 times, making 16 rounds
of DES.
If Bi is the result of the ith iteration, Li and Ri are the left and right halves
of Bi, Ki is the 48-bit key for round i, and f is the function and does all the
substituting and permuting and XORing with the key, then a round looks
like:
Li = Ri – 1
Ri = Li – 1 ⊕ f(R i – 1, Ki)
For more information on DES please refer to book “APPLIED

CRYPTOGRAPHY” written by Bruce Schneier.
Plain Text
IP
Lo Ro
⊕ f
K1
L1 =R0 R1=L1⊕ f(R1,K2)
⊕ f
K2
L2 =R1 R2=L1⊕ f(R1,K2)
L15 =R14 R15=L14⊕ f(R14,K15)
⊕ f
K16
R16=L15⊕ f(R15,K16) L16 =R15
IP-1
Cipher text
13.11 What do you understand by symmetric key cryptography? What are
the main advantages and disadvantages of symmetric key
cryptography?
The cryptography in which the same key is used for encryption and
decryption and known to both parties while exchanging information is
known as symmetric key or private key cryptography.
The disadvantage of this method is , the difficulty in securely distributing
the keys to authorised
13.12 What is public key encryption? In what way is it different from private
key encryption? Why is it important in e-Commerce?
The encryption in which two keys are used for encryption and decryption is
called public key encryption. One of these keys is known as public key
which is available to anyone wanting to send encrypted message.
It is different from private key encryption in the sense that it uses two
keys. One key is used for encryption and other is used for decryption. A
private encryption, on the other hand uses one key for both encryption and
decryption.
Public key system is important in e-Commerce because the public key of
an organization is publicized globally. The customers encrypt a message
using receiving organization’s public key, which is decrypted by the
receiving organization using its private key. Similarly the organization
encrypts the message using particular customer’s public key which is then
decrypted by the customer using their private key.
With this secure communication can be established which is an important
aspect of e-Commerce.
13.13 What are the main differences between DES based encryption and
RSA based encryption? Is it possible to combine these two systems? If
so explain how?
The main difference between DES based encryption and RSA based
encryption is
• DES uses a single key for both encryption and decryption whereas
RSA uses two keys for the same
• DES is faster as it is implemented through hardware
• RSA is secure but slow since it uses complex computational
procedure. Breaking the key is not easy
Yes, one can combine the two keys. DES can be used to encrypt/decrypt
messages using one key. The key itself can be sent using RSA.
persons.
13.14 Give a block diagram of a system for transmitting a signed purchase
order from business 1 to business 2.
See Fig. 16.13 of text.
13.15 What types of electronic payment systems are required in e-

Commerce? Why are there different types of payment systems?
Explain the necessary characteristics of each type of payment system
and give an example each of where it is used.
The different types of electronic payment systems required in e-Commerce
are: cash payments, credit card payments and cheque payments.
Each of these payments have their own advantages and disadvantages
Cash payment is used for small transactions and mostly used for C2C e-
Commerce
Credit card is used for middle size transactions and mostly used for B2C
e-Commerce
Cheque payment system is used for voluminous transactions and mostly
used for B2B e-Commerce
The characteristics of e-Cash or electronic cash payments are:
• e-Cash must have monetary value
• e-Cash must be interoperable i.e., exchangeable for other e-cash,
paper-cash, goods and services
• It must be storable and retrievable
The characteristics of credit card transactions are:
• The credit card number entered by the customer should be encrypted
• The merchant should not have the knowledge of the credit card
number of the customer
The characteristics of cheque payment are:
• Both the parties involved in business should have public key
certificates
• The cheque should be cleared by a clearing house before any
transaction occurs
Necessary dedicated hardware device is required for signing and encrypting
the order.
13.16 Explain SET protocol used in credit card transactions. What is the
main interesting aspect of SET protocol which gives confidence to
customers transacting business using the internet?
See Sec 16.6.1 steps 1 to 7
The main interesting aspect of SET protocol which gives the confidence
to the customer is that the merchant does not know the credit card number
of the customer.
13.17 What are the main characteristics of cash payment in contrast with
cheque payment? Why are governments not sympathetic to large cash
transactions in e-Commerce?
Cash payments are used in C2B applications which involve small payments
whereas cheque payment system is generally used in B2B applications in
which higher amount of transactions are carried out.
Cheque payments are much more secure and traceable compared to cash
payments.
A sophisticated scheme called transaction blinding has been invented, using
which cash payments cannot be traced. As governments do not like
untraceable large cash transactions it is not sympathetic to large cash
transactions in e-Commerce.
13.18 Explain how cash transactions take place in e-Commerce. What special
precautions should be taken by a bank to ensure that a customer does
not double spend the same electronic coins issued to him/her?
Cash Transaction in e-Commerce
A customer can withdraw “coins” in various denomination from his bank
and keeps in his PC. The withdrawal takes place by the customer giving a
serial number and denomination of each coin and requesting his bank to
digitally sign it. The signed coins are of the form:
(serial no., denomination, signature of bank).
The bank will store a copy of issued coins. The customer pays a vendor by
cash by sending the signed coin. The vendor sends it to the issuing bank (or
to his bank which may deal with the issuing bank via a clearing house). The
bank checks whether it has been signed by it and not yet spent. If it is OK it
informs the vendor, who now can despatch the goods. The bank transfers
the cash to the vendor’s account. The coin is stored in the “spent amount
database” of the bank so that if the coin is presented again it can be
dishonored.
Bank manages “spent amount database” which stores the information about
the coin spent by the customer. If the customer tries to reuse the coin bank
can easily trace it out from the “spent amount database”.
QUESTION BANK
13.1 Define E-commerce. What are the different types of E-commerce?
13.2 Explain B2B E-Commerce using an example of a book distributor who stocks a
large number of books, which he distributes via a large network of book sellers.
Assume that the distributor has stocks of books of a large number of publishers
and book sellers order books as and when their stock is low. Distributors give 1
month's time to booksellers for payment.
13.3 Explain B2C E-Commerce of a customer reserving airline tickets from his
home or place of work.
13.4 Explain C2C E-Commerce with an appropriate example.
13.5 List the advantages and disadvantages of E-Commerce
13.6 Explain the system architecture of E-Commerce by looking at it as a set of
layers with the physical network at the bottom layer and applications at the top
layer.
13.7 Define internet. Why is internet important in E-Commerce?
13.8 What do you understand by EDI? Is EDI used in B2C or B2B E-Commerce?
Why is EDI important in E-Commerce?
13.9 What are two major EDI standards used in E-Commerce? Which is the
standard accepted for Government transactions in India?
13.10 What is VAN? What services do VANs provide? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of VAN?
13.11 If internet is to be used for EDI which mail standard is used?
13.12 If email is to be used to exchange EDI between two businesses what are the
points on which they should agree?
13.13 Why is security important in E-Commerce? What are the security issues to be
taken into account while designing a security system for E-Commerce?
13.15 What is packet screening? Which hardware device performs packet screening?
13.16 What is a proxy application gateway? What are the functions of this gateway?
13.17 What is a hardened firewall host? What are its functions? In what way is it
different from proxy application gateway?
Apply the permutation (231564) and the substitution: (letter Æ letter + 6 ) and
obtain the cipher text.
13.19 What is DES? Explain what DES does when the following hexadecimal plain
text is input to a DES hardware.
13.20 What do you understand by symmetric key cryptography? What are the main
advantages and disadvantages of symmetric key cryptography?
13.21 What is public key encryption? In what way is it different from private key
encryption? Why is it important in E-Commerce?
13.22 What are the main differences between DES based encryption and RSA based
encryption? Is it possible to combine these two systems? If so explain how?
13.23 Given two prime numbers 23 and 41 design a RSA system. Explain with an
example how it works.

13.24 What is a digital signature? Why is it necessary in E-Commerce? What are the
necessary conditions a hash function used in digital signature should satisfy?
13.25 Give a block diagram of a system for transmitting a signed purchase order from
business 1 to business 2.
13.26 What is a certifying authority? Why is a certifying authority required in E-
Commerce? How does a certifying authority performs its tasks?
13.27 What types of electronic payment systems are required in E-Commerce? Why
are there different types of payment systems? Explain the necessary
characteristics of each type of payment system and give an example each of
where it is used.
13.28 Explain SET protocol used in credit card transactions. What is the main
interesting aspect of SET protocol which gives confidence to customers
transacting business using the internet?
13.29 In using SET protocol who has to keep a data base of public keys of all
customers? How does the customer assured that he will not be double charged
for the same item purchased?
13.30 What are the main differences between electronic cheque payment and credit
card payment in E-Commerce? Explain cheque transaction protocol used in E-
Commerce.
13.31 Why is a different payment system needed for small payment for internet
services? Explain how one such system functions. How does the system make
sure that payment is made only after information for which payment has been
made is actually delivered to the customer?

13.32 What are the main characteristics of cash payment in contrast with cheque
payment? Why are governments not sympathetic to large cash transactions in
E-Commerce?
13.33 Explain how cash transactions take place in E-Commerce. What special
precautions should be taken by a bank to ensure that a customer does not double
spend the same electronic coins issued to him/her?

References
1. Most of the material in this chapter are taken from Chapter 16, Electronic
Commerce of the book Analysis and Design of Information Systems (2nd edition)
by V.Rajaraman, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi,2004
2. There are many books on E-Commerce, which describe E-Commerce in detail.

Among these are:
E.Awad, Electronic Commerce, Prentice-Hall of India, New Delhi 2002.This
book takes managers perspective and not very strong on technology aspects of E-
Commerce. All the examples have a strong American bias as the book is primarily
intended for students in America. The language is clear but the book is verbose.
What can be said in 100 pages is said in 400 pages as it includes all kinds of
gossip not relevant to students wanting the learn the subject.
3. D.Minoli and E.Minoli, Web Commerce Technology Handbook, Tata McGraw-

Hill, New Delhi, 1999.This book is strong in technology and has wide coverage.
4. W. Stallings, Network Security Essentials, Pearson Education Asia, New

Delhi,2001. Has good presentation on DES, Triple DES, RSA and SET protocol.
5. Most traditional Systems Analysis and Design book such as the one by Kendall
and Kendall do not separately discuss E-Commerce, they have a cursory
treatment at various places in the book.
SUMMARY OF MODULE 13
1. The sharing of business information, maintaining business relationships and
conducting business transactions by using telecommunication networks is usually
defined as Electronic Commerce.
2. E-commerce is normally categorised as Business to Business (B2B), Business to
Customer (B2C) and Customer to Customer (C2C)
3. The major advantages of E-Commerce are anytime, anywhere transaction,
reduction in cost of transactions, reduction in time to market products, faster inter-
business transaction and faster transfer of funds.
4. The major disadvantages of E-commerce are poor security of transactions unless
special precautions are taken, loss of privacy, lack of legislation to settle disputes
and menace of hackers.
5. E-Commerce architecture consists of the following layers:
The lowest layer in the physical network which may be a LAN connected by
unshielded twisted pair wires, Public Switched Telephone Networks, WAN using
optical fibre etc. The next layer is the logical network such as internet, intranet and
extranet (all of which use TCP/IP protocol). Resting on this is the world wide web
and services on it such as web pages, browsers, and search engines. Above this is
Deleted: r
the security layer which deals with encryption, digital signatures etc. Resting on
this are Electronic Data Interchange and Electronic payment services. All these
layers are necessary to write application systems.
1
6. At the physical level most organizations use local area networks using unshielded
Deleted: ck po
twisted pair cables and Ethernet protocol. The cheapest method of interconnecting
organizations is to use Public Switched Telephone Network.
7. Internet is the most important logical network which enables E-Commerce. The
internet protocol called TCP/IP is universally used. Organizational private
networks which use TCP/IP protocol are called intranets. Organizational intranets
are often connected by a private secure communication link. Such a network is
called an Extranet.
8. World wide web is a global multimedia information service available on the

Deleted: prepared using hyper text
markup language.
internet. It supports web pages .
Deleted: ¶
9. Web pages are located using a scheme known as Universal Resource Locator
(URL) which is its address. Web browsers are used to locate web pages.
10. Web pages are created using a language known as hypertext markup language
Deleted: html
(HTML). Words can be picked and tagged to connect the page with other related Deleted: mpile
pages.
Deleted: which
11. It is imperative for every organization to have a website in today's internet world to
publicise their functions. The page must be attractively designed and updated
regularly.
12. Electronic Data Interchange (EDI) is essential in E-Commerce. EDI replaces
printed forms by a standard electronic format which can be interpreted correctly by
computer programs of cooperating businesses.
2
Deleted: Network
13. EDI standards have been published by American National Standards Institute and
Deleted: -Commerce
by United Nations Economic Commission for Europe. The United Nations Deleted: n
standard is called EDIFACT and may become the standard for international
commerce.
14. Value Added Network Services provide electronic post boxes to their clients to
exchange EDI documents. They guarantee security and delivery of documents.
They also provide services to convert an organization's forms to standard format
such as EDIFACT.
Deleted: le
15. If internet is used for exchanging business documents Secure Multipurpose Internet
Mail Extension (S/MIME) standard is recommended.
16. An organizaion's intranet is connected to the internet via a proxy server or a

Deleted: f
hardware unit. This is called a firewall . Firewall protects an organization's
computers from unauthorised intruders.
17. Messages exchanged between organizations using the internet can be easily tapped
by eaves droppers. It is thus necessary to scramble them to prevent eavesdroppers
from understanding the messages. It is done by encrypting messages.
18. Message (plain text) is encrypted by transposing characters of the plain text by a
specified permutation and substituting characters by other characters. The
encrypted text is called ciphertext.
19. This general idea is used in a standard encryption method called Digital Encryption
Standard(DES). DES encrypts 64 bit blocks with a 56 bit key.
3
20. DES has been implemented as a hardware device. DES hardware may be attached
Deleted: it
to a computer's output port so that messages sent from the computer are encrypted.
The receiver can decrypt it if he is given the key.
21. A system in which the encrypting and decrypting keys are same is called a
symmetric key system.
22. The main problem with a symmetric key system is the need to distribute the key
Deleted: It is, however, fast.
securely to all participating businesses. Symmetric key encryption/decryption is
fast.
23. Two key based system called RSA system does not require distributing secret keys.
It has two keys for each participant in the communication, a private key and a
public key. If A wants to send a message to B, A encrypts the message using B's
public key. B decrypts it using his private key. Thus there is no key distribution
problem. It is, however, slower than the symmetric key system.
24. RSA system is based on the fact that it is difficult to factor two prime components
Deleted: when
from their product, particularly, when the prime numbers are large. Deleted: is known
Deleted: RSA system is symmetric.
25. In RSA system, a message encrypted with a private key, can be decrypted with Deleted: other words
Deleted: is
the corresponding public key. This is used in digital signature.
4
26. In order to sign a message the sender hashes the message with a known algorithm
to get a message digest MD. MD is encrypted with the sender's private key and
sent to the intended receiver. Let us call it MDe. The message itself is encrypted
with a symmetric key and sent. The recipient decrypts the message and computes
the message digest MD using the known hashing algorithm. He then decrypts the
Deleted: it
encrypted message digest MDe using the sender's public key. If (MDe) decrypted =
MD then the message is not a forgery as only the sender knows his private key.
This signature ties the signature to the message and cannot be repudiated by the
sender.
27. To ensure that public keys of organizations do belong to them there are certification
authorities which check the legitimacy of organizations and issue public key
certificates.
28. In E-Commerce payments are made as credit card payments, cheque payments or
cash payments . Besides this a system to make small payments for information
Deleted: downloads
goods (such as files, books etc.) downloaded from the internet is needed.
Deleted: k
29. Credit card payments are made using a protocol called Secure Electronic
Transaction (SET protocol). It uses RSA system and digital signatures.
30. Cheque payments are made between organizations using digitally signed cheques
and public key certificates issued by a certifying authority.
5
31. Payment for small transactions is made using digital coins issued by banks to
Deleted: csutomer's
customer after debiting the customer's account. A digital coin consists of amount,
identification number and banks signature. These coins are given in exchange for
goods. The bank reimburses the vendor after checking its signature and ensuring
that the coin has not been spent earlier.
32. A system called NetBill has been proposed for small payment for information
services on the internet. It ensures that a key is given to a customer for decrypting
information only after payment is received by the vendor. It also guarantees
delivery of contracted information by the vendor.
6
Formatted
QUESTION BANK
13.1 Define E-commerce. What are the different types of E-commerce?
13.2 Explain B2B E-Commerce using an example of a book distributor who stocks a
large number of books, which he distributes via a large network of book sellers.
Assume that the distributor has stocks of books of a large number of publishers
and book sellers order books as and when their stock is low. Distributors give 1
month's time to booksellers for payment.
13.3 Explain B2C E-Commerce of a customer reserving airline tickets from his
home or place of work.
13.4 Explain C2C E-Commerce with an appropriate example.
13.5 List the advantages and disadvantages of E-Commerce
13.6 Explain the system architecture of E-Commerce by looking at it as a set of
layers with the physical network at the bottom layer and applications at the top
layer.
13.7 Define internet. Why is internet important in E-Commerce?
7
13.8 What do you understand by EDI? Is EDI used in B2C or B2B E-Commerce?
Why is EDI important in E-Commerce?
13.9 What are two major EDI standards used in E-Commerce? Which is the
standard accepted for Government transactions in India?
13.10 What is VAN? What services do VANs provide? What are the advantages and
disadvantages of VAN?
13.11 If internet is to be used for EDI which mail standard is used?
13.12 If email is to be used to exchange EDI between two businesses what are the
points on which they should agree?
13.13 Why is security important in E-Commerce? What are the security issues to be
taken into account while designing a security system for E-Commerce?
13.15 What is packet screening? Which hardware device performs packet screening?
13.16 What is a proxy application gateway? What are the functions of this gateway?
13.17 What is a hardened firewall host? What are its functions? In what way is it
different from proxy application gateway?
13.19 What is DES? Explain what DES does when the following hexadecimal plain
text is input to a DES hardware.
8
13.20 What do you understand by symmetric key cryptography? What are the main
advantages and disadvantages of symmetric key cryptography?
13.21 What is public key encryption? In what way is it different from private key
encryption? Why is it important in E-Commerce?
13.22 What are the main differences between DES based encryption and RSA based
encryption? Is it possible to combine these two systems? If so explain how?
13.23 Given two prime numbers 23 and 41 design a RSA system. Explain with an
example how it works.
13.24 What is a digital signature? Why is it necessary in E-Commerce? What are the
necessary conditions a hash function used in digital signature should satisfy?
13.25 Give a block diagram of a system for transmitting a signed purchase order from
business 1 to business 2.
13.26 What is a certifying authority? Why is a certifying authority required in E-
Commerce? How does a certifying authority performs its tasks?
13.27 What types of electronic payment systems are required in E-Commerce? Why
are there different types of payment systems? Explain the necessary
characteristics of each type of payment system and give an example each of
where it is used.
13.28 Explain SET protocol used in credit card transactions. What is the main
interesting aspect of SET protocol which gives confidence to customers
transacting business using the internet?
9
13.29 In using SET protocol who has to keep a data base of public keys of all
customers? How does the customer assured that he will not be double charged
for the same item purchased?
13.30 What are the main differences between electronic cheque payment and credit
card payment in E-Commerce? Explain cheque transaction protocol used in E-
Commerce.
13.31 Why is a different payment system needed for small payment for internet
services? Explain how one such system functions. How does the system make
sure that payment is made only after information for which payment has been
made is actually delivered to the customer?
13.32 What are the main characteristics of cash payment in contrast with cheque
payment? Why are governments not sympathetic to large cash transactions in
E-Commerce?
13.33 Explain how cash transactions take place in E-Commerce. What special
10
11
MODULE 14
CASE TOOLS
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
answer
1. The expansion of CASE tools is:

(a) Computer Assisted Self Evaluation
(b) Computer Aided Software Engineering
(c) Computer Aided Software Environment
(d) Core Aids for Software Engineering
2. CASE tools are used by industries to

(i) Improve productivity of their software engineers
(ii) Reduce time to develop applications
(iii)Improve documentation
(iv)Automate system analysis

(c) i, ii, and iii (d) ii and iii
3. The following are the disadvantages of CASE tools
(i) Some tools are expensive

(ii) All software engineers need to be trained to use these tools
(iii) A lot of time is wasted in using the tools
(iv) Software developed using CASE tools are of poor quality
(a) i, ii, iii, iv (b) iii and iv

(c) ii, iii, and iv (d) i and ii
4. CASE tools are useful
(a) only during system design stage
(b) during all the phases of system life cycle
(c) only for system documentation
(d) only during system analysis stage
5. CASE tools have the following advantages

(i) they integrate the development done during each phase of system
development
(ii) they permit effective communication with users
(iii) they are useful as communication aids with users of the system
(iv) they are useful in estimating cost of changes in system requested by users
6. CASE tools are

(a) A Set of rules to be used during system analysis and design
(b) Program, packages used during system analysis and design
(c) A set of tools used by analysts
(d) Needed for use case development.
7. By open domain CASE tools we mean

(a) tools available in open domain
(b) software packages which can be downloaded form the internet
(c) software packages to aid each phase of the systems analysis and design
which can be downloaded free of cost from the internet
(d) source codes of CASE tools
8. Open domain CASE tools

(a) are better than commercial tools
(b) are not very useful
(c) do not usually have very good user interface but are otherwise useful
(d) are full of bugs

(a) always provide the source code
(b) are available for use only for a limited period
(c) never provide the source code
(d) are usually object files available for unrestricted use with on-line help files

(a) are available for almost all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
(b) are available only for drawing DFD’s
(c) are no available to document SRS
(d) creating data dictionaries
11. CASE tools are classified often as
(a) Classical and Modern CASE tools
(b) Upper and lower CASE tools
(c) Source and Object CASE tools
(d) Object oriented and Structured CASE tools
12. Upper CASE tools are used

(a) for developing DFD’s
(b) for screen design
(c) during all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
(d) for converting structured English procedures to source code into a
language such as C
13. Lower CASE tools are used for

(a) for developing DFD’s
(b) for screen design
(c) during all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
(d) for converting structured English procedures to source code into a
language such as C
14. Lower CASE tools are used for

(a) develop graphical user interface
(b) for converting decision tables to source programs
(c) for generating test cases
(d) for developing use cases
15. The current standard tool for designing object oriented systems is called
(a) Unified Modelling Language
(b) Booch Modelling Language
(c) Object Modelling Language
(d) Class, responsibilities and collaborators language
KEYS
1. b
2. c
3. d
4. b
5. ?
6. b
7. c
8. c
10 a
11 b
12 a
13 d
14 b
15 a
MODULE 14
CASE TOOLS
Learning Units
14.1 CASE tools and their importance

14.2 Some CASE tools and their use

Learning Goals
What are CASE tools?

Why are they important in systems analysis and design?
When are they used?
How are they used?

Motivation
Industries routinely use CASE tools as productivity aid to reduce

time to develop systems.
A student should know what these tools are and how they are
useful
The intention of this module is not to make you an expert in the
use of these tools but to make you aware about them and their
importance in industrial practice

CASE Tools and their importance
CASE tools stand for Computer Aided Software Engineering tools

As the name implies they are computer based programs to increase
the productivity of analysts
They permit effective communication with users as well as other
members of the development team.
They integrate the development done during each phase of a
system life cycle.
They assist in correctly assessing the effects and cost of changes so
that maintenance cost can be estimated.

Available CASE tools
• Commercially available systems provide tools (i.e computer program

packages) for each phase of the system development life cycle. A
typical package is Visual Analyst which has several tools integrated
together.
• Tools are also in the open domain which can be downloaded and used.
They do not usually have very good user interfaces.

• System requirements specification documentation tool

• Data flow diagramming tool
• System flow chart generation tool
• Data dictionary creation
• Formatting and checking structured English process logic

•Decision table checking

• Screen design for data inputting
• Form design for outputs.
• E-R diagramming
• Data base normalization given the dependency information

When are tools used
• Tools are used throughout the system design phase

• CASE tools are sometimes classified as upper CASE tools and
lower CASE tools.
• The tools we have described so far are upper CASE tools
• Tools are available which will generate computer screen code
from higher level descriptions such as structured English and
decision tables,They are called lower CASE tools

Object Oriented System Design Tools
• Unified Modelling Language is currently the standard

• UML tool set is marketed by Rational Rose a company whose
tools are widely used.
• This is an expensive tool and not in our scope in his course.

How to use the tools
• Most tools have a user’s guide which is given as help files along
with the tool
•Many have FAQ’s and search capabilities
•Details on several open domain tools and what they do is given

as notes.

MODULE 14
CASE TOOLS
Contents
2. LEARNING UNIT 1
CASE tools and their importance
3. LEARNING UNIT 2
Some CASE tools and their use
4. REFERENCES
CASE TOOLS
MOTIVATION
Industries routinely use CASE tools as productivity aid to reduce time to

develop systems. A student should know what these tools are and how they
are useful. The intention of this module is not to make you an expert in the
use of these tools but to make you aware about them and their importance in
industrial practice.
LEARNING GOALS
What are CASE tools?

Why are they important in systems analysis and design?
When are they used?
How are they used?
LEARNING UNIT 1
CASE Tools and their importance
CASE tools stand for Computer Aided Software Engineering tools. As

the name implies they are computer based programs to increase the
productivity of analysts. They permit effective communication with users
as well as other members of the development team. They integrate the
development done during each phase of a system life cycle and also assist
in correctly assessing the effects and cost of changes so that maintenance
cost can be estimated.
Commercially available systems provide tools (i.e computer program

packages) for each phase of the system development life cycle. A typical
package is Visual Analyst which has several tools integrated together. Tools
are also in the open domain which can be downloaded and used. However,
they do not usually have very good user interfaces.
Following types of tools are available:
System requirements specification documentation tool

Data flow diagramming tool
System flow chart generation tool
Data dictionary creation
Formatting and checking structured English process logic
Decision table checking
Screen design for data inputting
Form design for outputs.
E-R diagramming
Data base normalization given the dependency information
When are tools used
Tools are used throughout the system design phase. CASE tools are
sometimes classified as upper CASE tools and lower CASE tools. The tools
we have described so far are upper CASE tools
They are tools which will generate computer screen code from higher level
descriptions such as structured English and decision tables, such tools are
called lower CASE tools
Object Oriented System Design Tools

Unified Modelling Language is currently the standard. UML tool set is
marketed by Rational Rose a company whose tools are widely used.
This is an expensive tool and not in our scope in his course.
LEARNING UNIT 2
How to use the tools
•Most tools have a user’s guide which is given as help files along with the
tool
•Many have FAQ’s and search capabilities
•Details on several open domain tools and what they do is given below.
I. SYSTEM FLOWCHART AND ER-DIAGRAM GENERATION

TOOL
Name of the tool: SMARTDRAW
URL: This Software can be downloaded from: http://www.smartdraw.com. This is a

paid software, but a 30-day free trial for learning can be downloaded.
Requirements to use the tool: PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. The latest
versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and about 20MB of free space.
What the tool does: Smartdraw is a perfect suite for drawing all kinds of diagrams
and charts: Flowcharts, Organizational charts, Gantt charts, Network diagrams, ER-
diagrams etc.
The drag and drop readymade graphics of thousands of templates from built-in libraries
makes drawing easier. It has a large drawing area and drawings from this tool can be
embedded into Word, Excel and PowerPoint by simply copy-pasting. It has an extensive
collection of symbols for all kinds of drawings.
How to use: The built-in tips guides as the drawing is being created. Tool tips
automatically label buttons on the tool bar.
There is online tutorial provided in:
http://www.smartdraw.com/tutorials/flowcharts/tutorials1.htm
http://www.ttp.co.uk/abtsd.html
II. DATA FLOW DIAGRAM TOOL
Name of the tool: IBMS/DFD
URL: This a free software that can be downloaded from: http://viu.eng.rpi.edu
Requirements to use the tool: The following installation instructions assume that
the user uses a PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. Additionally, the instructions assume
the use of the latest versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. To download
the zip files & extract them you will need WinZip or similar software. If needed
download at http://www.winzip.com.
What the tool does: The tool helps the users draw a standard data flow diagram (a
process-oriented model of information systems) for systems analysis.
How to use: Double click on the IBMS icon to see the welcome screen. Click
anywhere inside the welcome screen to bring up the first screen.
Under "Tools" menu, select DFD Modeling. The IBMS will pop up the Data Flow
Diagram window. Its menu bar has the File, Edit, Insert, Font, Tool, Window and Help
options. Its tool box on the right contains 10 icons, representing (from left to right and top
to bottom) pointer, cut, data flow, process, external entity, data store, zoom-out, zoom-in,
decompose, and compose operations, respectively.
Left click on the DFD component to be used in the toolbox, key in the information
pertaining to it in the input dialogue box that prompts for information.
To move the DFD components: Left click on the Pointer icon in the tool box, point to the
component, and hold Left Button to move to the new location desired in the work area.
To edit information of the DFD components: Right click on the DFD component. The
input dialogue box will prompt you to edit information of that component.
Levelling of DFD: Use the Decompose icon in the tool box for levelling
To save the DFD: Under File menu, choose Save or SaveAs. Input the name and
extension of the DFD (the default extension is DFD) and specify folder for the DFD to be
saved. Click OK.
III. TOOL TO CONVERT DECISION TABLE TO STRUCTURED
ENGLISH
Name of the tool: COPE
URL: This is a free tool and should be worked online at

http://www.cs.adelaide.edeu.au/users/dwyer/examples.html
What the tool does: Cope is a program that converts decision tables to Cobol source
statements
How to use: The general arrangement of a Cope decision table is shown in Example
below. This table consists of a heading and four rows. The first two rows are conditions,
and the last two are actions. A condition row consists of a number of entries followed by
the word is and a Cobol condition. An action row consists of a series of entries followed
by a Cobol statement.
Example:
YYNN is A = 0.
YNYN is B = 0.
XX - - Move 0 to C.
-XXX Add 1 to C.
Type in the Decision table in the text area provided (each line should start with 6 blanks
and an asterisk), click on “Generate Cobol” to obtain the Cobol statements of the
Decision table.
There is online help provided at:

http://www.cs.adelaide.edu.au/users/dwyer/COPE-MAN.html#RTFToC1
Another tool (to be worked online) for program code generation from Decision table can
be found at
http://dtable.projxonline.com/Default.aspx
Note: The tools to convert Decision Tables to Structured English is not available.
IV. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
DOCUMENTATION TOOL
Name of the tool: ARM
URL: The tool can be downloaded without cost at

http://sw-assurance.gsfc.nasa.gov/disciplines/quality/index.php
What the tool does: ARM or Automated Requirement Measurement tool aids in
writing the System Requirements Specifications right. The user writes the SRS in a text
file, the ARM tool scans this file that contains the requirement specifications and gives a
report file with the same prefix name as the user’s source file and adds an extension of
“.arm”. This report file contains a category called INCOMPLETE that indicate the words
and phrases that are not fully developed.
Requirements to use the tool : PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. The latest
versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and about 8MB of free space.
How to use the tool : On clicking the option Analyze under File menu and selecting
the file that contains the System Requirements Specifications, the tool processes the
document to check if the specifications are right and generates a ARM report.
The WALKTHROUGH option in the ARM tool assists a user by guiding him as to how
to use the tool apart from the HELP menu. The README.doc file downloaded during
installation also contains description of the usage of this tool.
V. A TOOL FOR SCREEN DESIGN AND DATA INPUTTING
Name of the tool: Visual Basic
URL: http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=bf9a24f9-b5c5-
48f4-8edd-cdf2d29a79d5&displaylang=en
What the tool does: This tool is used to create the graphical user interface (GUI) to
describe the appearance and location of interface elements, you simply add prebuilt
objects into place on screen.
Help: http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-
us/vbcon98/html/vbconpart1visualbasicbasics.asp
VI A TOOL FOR DESIGNING AND MANIPULATING

DECISION TABLES
Name of the tool: Prologa V.5
URL: http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa
Note: This tool can be downloaded from the above given URL, after obtaining the
password.
What the tool does: The purpose of the tool is to allow the decision maker to construct
and manipulate (systems of) decision tables. In this construction process, the features
available are automatic table contraction, automatic table optimization, (automatic)
decomposition and composition of tables, verification and validation of tables and
between tables, visual development, and rule based specification.
References:
1. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George and J.S.Valacich “Modern Systems Analysis

and Design”, Pearson Education Asia,New Delhi,2002
Chapter 4 “Automated Tools for Systems Development” has a good
discussion of CASE tools.
2. G.Booch, J.Rumbaugh, I.Jacobson; “The Unified Modelling

Language User Guide”, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, KGG
authentic Introduction to Rational Commercial tools for Object
oriented modelling
3. URL’s of various available CASE tools

(a) System flowchart and Er-diagram generation tool: Smartdraw
http://www.smartdraw.com
(b) Data flow diagram tool: IBMS/DFD

http://viu.eng.rpi.edu
(c) Tool to convert decision table to structured english: COPE

(d) System Requirements Specification documentation tool: ARM

(e) A tool for screen design and data inputting: Visual Basic
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=b
f9a24f9-b5c5-48f4-8edd-cdf2d29a79d5&displaylang=en
(f) A tool for creation, manipulation and checking of decision

tables:Prologa v.5
http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa
System Analysis and Design/Case Tools Multiple Choice Questions
14.1 The expansion of CASE tools is:

a. Computer Assisted Self Evaluation
b. Computer Aided Software Engineering
c. Computer Aided Software Environment
d. Core Aids for Software Engineering
14.2 CASE tools are used by industries to
(i) Improve productivity of their software engineers
(ii) Reduce time to develop applications
(iii) Improve documentation
(iv) Automate system analysis
a. i and ii
b. i and iii
c. i, ii, and iii
d. ii and iii
14.3 The following are the disadvantages of CASE tools
(i) Some tools are expensive
(ii) All software engineers need to be trained to use these tools
(iii) A lot of time is wasted in using the tools
(iv) Software developed using CASE tools are of poor quality
a. i, ii, iii, iv
b. iii and iv
c. ii, iii, and iv
d. i and ii
14.4 CASE tools are useful
a. only during system design stage
b. during all the phases of system life cycle
c. only for system documentation
d. only during system analysis stage
14.5 CASE tools have the following advantages
a. they integrate the development done during each phase of system
development

b. they permit effective communication with users

c. they are useful as communication aids with users of the system
d. they are useful in estimating cost of changes in system requested by users
14.6 CASE tools are
a. A Set of rules to be used during system analysis and design
b. Program, packages used during system analysis and design
c. A set of tools used by analysts
d. Needed for use case development.
14.7 By open domain CASE tools we mean
a. tools available in open domain
b. software packages which can be downloaded form the internet
c. software packages to aid each phase of the systems analysis and design
which can be downloaded free of cost from the internet
d. source codes of CASE tools
14.8 Open domain CASE tools
a. are better than commercial tools
b. are not very useful
c. do not usually have very good user interface but are otherwise useful
d. are full of bugs
a. always provide the source code
b. are available for use only for a limited period
c. never provide the source code
d. are usually object files available for unrestricted use with on-line help files
a. are available for almost all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
b. are available only for drawing DFD’s
c. are no available to document SRS
d. creating data dictionaries
14.11 CASE tools are classified often as
a. Classical and Modern CASE tools

b. Upper and lower CASE tools

c. Source and Object CASE tools
d. Object oriented and Structured CASE tools
14.12 Upper CASE tools are used
a. for developing DFD’s
b. for screen design
c. during all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
d. for converting structured English procedures to source code into a
language such as C
14.13 Lower CASE tools are used for
a. for developing DFD’s
b. for screen design
c. during all phases of system analysis and design life cycle
d. for converting structured English procedures to source code into a
language such as C
14.14 Lower CASE tools are used for
a. develop graphical user interface
b. for converting decision tables to source programs
c. for generating test cases
d. for developing use cases
14.15 The current standard tool for designing object oriented systems is called
a. Unified Modeling Language
b. Booch Modeling Language
c. Object Modeling Language
d. Class, responsibilities and collaborators language

1. b 2.c 3. d 4.b 6 .b 7.c 8.c 10.a 11.b 12 .a 13.d 14 .b

15.a

MODULE 14
CASE TOOLS
WORKED EXAMPLES
14.1 What is the expansion of CASE tools?

CASE tools stand for Computer Aided Software Engineering tools.
14.2 What are the advantages of using CASE tools?

The advantages of CASE tools are as follows:
1. CASE tools are software packages, which allows software engineers to
develop systems faster.
2. CASE tools also assist in better communication among members of a team
developing a system. They improve communication between team
members and users of the system
3. Use of CASE tools result in better documentation of systems
4. CASE tools also assist in correctly assessing the effects and cost of changes
requested by users during system development and maintenance
5.
System Analysis and Design/Case Tools Question Bank
Exercises
1. Use a DFD diagramming to draw DFD’s for the following:

Admission procedure in a University. An advertisement is issued giving essential
qualifications for the course, the last date for receipt of application, and the fee to
be enclosed with the application. A clerk in the Registrar’s office checks the
received applications to see if marksheet and fee are enclosed and sends valid
applications to the concerned academic department. The department checks the
application in detail and decides the applicants to be admitted, those to be put in
the waiting list, and those rejected. Appropriate letters are sent to the Registrar’s
office which intimates the applicant. Give physical and logical DFDs
corresponding to the above problem.
2. Use a DFD diagramming to draw DFD’s for the following:
A magazine is published monthly and is sent by post to its subscribers. Two
the subscriber’s name is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber
informed. Obtain logical DFDs for this problem.
3. Use a CASE tool to format and check structured English processing rules for the
following:
An organization maintains an employee file in which each record has following
data:
{ Employee No., employee name, employee gross pay}.
For pay of Rs. 1000 or less increase 15%.
For pay of more than Rs. 1000 but up to Rs. 2500 increase 10%.
For pay over Rs. 2500 increase 5%.
(i) While employee records left in file do
Read Number, name , gross pay
if gross pay <=1000
then increase = gross pay  0.15
else if gross pay <= 2500
then increase = gross pay  0.1
else increase = gross pay  .05
end if
end if
Gross pay = gross pay + increase
end while
(ii) While employee records left in file do
Read Number, name, gross pay
do Table
Gross pay <= 1000 Y N N
Gross pay <= 2500 – YN
Percent increase 15 10 5

end table
Gross pay = gross pay (1+percent increase/100)
end while
4. Use a structured English process description tool to obtain Structured English
description for the following:
An offshore gas company bills its customers according to the following rate
schedule:
Next 300 litres Rs. 1.25 per 100 litres
Above this Re. 1.00 per 100 litres
past and present.
5. Obtain system flow chart using appropriate tools for Exercises 3 and 4 above.
6. Use Decision Table checking tool to check the following Decision table.
R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 R6 R7 R8 R9 R10R11R12R13R14 R15R16
C1: Door open? N N N N N N N N Y Y Y Y Y Y Y Y
C2: Ring sign on? N N N N Y Y Y Y N N N N Y Y Y Y
C3: Enter sign on? N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y N N Y Y
C4: Door locked? N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y N Y
Ring bell – – – – X – X – – ? – ? X ? X ?
Enter– – X – – – X – – ? X ? – ? X ?
Wait – – – – X – – – – ? – ? X ? – ?
LeaveX X – X – X – X X ? – ? – ? – ?
A1 A1 A2 A1 A3 A1 A4 A1 A1 A2 A3 A4
7. Use Decision Table checking tool for the following Decision table
C1: This week’s cash > weekly rate – Y – Y N Y N – N – –
C2: This week’s cash > 0 – – Y – Y – Y N – N N
C3: Any cash during last month Y – N N Y Y Y N N – Y
C4: Arrears . > 2 * weekly rate N – – – – – Y – – Y Y
C5: Arrears > 4 * weekly rate – N N – Y Y N N Y Y N
Send arrears letter A – – – – – X – – – – –
Send arrears letter B – – – – – – X – – – –
Send arrears letter C – – – – – – – X – – –
Send arrears letter D – – – – – – – – – – X
Notify accounts X X X X X – – – – – –
Take special action – – – – – – – – X X –
8. Use ER-Diagramming tool to solve the following
(i) Customer withdraws money from his account.
(ii) Students write examinations.
(iii)Students attend classes.
(iv) Professors write books.

(v) Driver drives a car.

9. Use ER-Diagramming tool to solve the following
(ii) A clerk works in a bank. The bank has many clerks.
(iv) Students apply for seats in colleges. Each student can atmost get one seat.
A college has many seats. A student can send many applications.
10. Use ER-Diagramming tool to solve the following:
Use any reasonable assumptions. “A machine shop produces many parts which it
takes on contract. It employs many machinists who operate any of the machines.
A part needs working on only one machine. A record is kept on the quantity of
material needed for producing each part. The production of each part is tracked by
giving a job number, start time and end time and machinist identification.”
11.Design an input screen using a tool to reserve tickets in a long distance bus.
12.Design an input screen using a tool to enter examination marks of students. Each
record has Roll no, Name, Marks in all subjects, total and class.

System Analysis and Design/Case Tools Pointers
References:
1. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George and J.S.Valacich “Modern Systems Analysis and Design”,

Pearson Education Asia,New Delhi,2002
Chapter 4 “Automated Tools for Systems Development” has a good discussion of
CASE tools.
2. G.Booch, J.Rumbaugh, I.Jacobson; “The Unified Modelling Language User
Guide”, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, KGG authentic Introduction to
Rational Commercial tools for Object oriented modelling

(b) Data flow diagram tool: IBMS/DFD http://viu.eng.rpi.edu

(d) System Requirements Specification documentation tool: ARM http://sw-

assurance.gsfc.nasa.gov/disciplines/quality/index.php
http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=bf9a24f9-
b5c5-48f4-8edd-cdf2d29a79d5&displaylang=en
(f) A tool for creation, manipulation and checking of decision tables:Prologa

v.5 http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa

Module 14
Summary
1. CASE is an acronym for Computer Assisted Software Engineering

2. CASE tools are readymade computer programe, which assist a system
analyst and applications programmer to increase his/her productivity
tools
3. Besides improving productivity thus also provide better interaction
among members of a system development team.
4. CASE tools allow tracking of progress of projects.
5. They also aid in assessing cost and time needed to effect changes in a
system.
6. There are both commercial and open domain tools to assist in all
phases of a system analysis and design life cycle.
7. Commercial tools are expensive. They however have better user
interfaces and customer support.
8. For object oriented systems analysis and design Universal Modelling
Language (UML) is the correct standard.
9. A tool for Object oriented analysis using UML is marketed by a
company named Rational Rose and is the most popular tool set used
by industry.
10. In the notes we have given the URL’s of a number of open domain
tools, which can be tried by students.
References:
1. J.A.Hoffer, J.F.George and J.S.Valacich “Modern Systems Analysis

and Design”, Pearson Education Asia,New Delhi,2002
Chapter 4 “Automated Tools for Systems Development” has a good
discussion of CASE tools.
2. G.Booch, J.Rumbaugh, I.Jacobson; “The Unified Modelling

Language User Guide”, Addison Wesley, Reading, MA, USA, KGG
authentic Introduction to Rational Commercial tools for Object
oriented modelling

(b) Data flow diagram tool: IBMS/DFD

http://viu.eng.rpi.edu

(d) System Requirements Specification documentation tool: ARM

http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=b
f9a24f9-b5c5-48f4-8edd-cdf2d29a79d5&displaylang=en
(f) A tool for creation, manipulation and checking of decision

tables:Prologa v.5
http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa
System Analysis and Design/Case Study Learning Objectives
Learning Objectives
In this module we will learn using two examples
How an informal description of a problem is analyzed to obtain a more formal

specification of requirements.
How various techniques learnt in the rest of the modules of this course are
integrated to develop a complete information system to meet requirements
specifications.
How an information system is documented.
V. Rajaraman/IISc. Bangalore //V1/Sep 05/1

MODULE 15
CASE STUDY
Learning Units
15.1 Analysis and design of a journal acquisition system
15.2 Analysis and design of a data processing system for small hotel

Learning Goals
In this module we will learn using two examples
1. How an informal description of a problem is analyzed to

obtain a more formal specification of requirements
2. How various techniques learnt in the rest of the modules
of this course are integrated to develop a complete
information system to meet requirements specifications
3. How an information system is documented

MOTIVATION
1. It is necessary at the end of a course to understand how

various techniques learnt as separate modules can be
used together in some full case studies. This integrated
the learning experience
2. By following the case study analysis and design a

student will learn how to go through a step-by-step
process and finally document the designed step.

System Analysis and Design/Case Study Question Bank
Exercises
1. Passenger Reservation System

Assume that ABC Bus Corporation has approached you for computerizing their bus
reservation system for various destinations originating from Bangalore. The Corporation
has currently about 1000 buses spread over 60 routes operating from Bangalore to
various places. Of them, 700 are regular, 200 are semi-luxury, and remaining are super
deluxe buses. The seating capacity are 48, 42 and 36, respectively.
The Corporation would like to have at least one week advance reservation. The details
required to be provided by the passenger would be date of journey, starting point,
destination, number of seats (half or full), concession required, if any, route no., and
departure time of the service. If seats are available, your system should be able to provide
enquiry services in a variety of ways to help the passenger take a decision.
What is the route nos., which halt at the place requested by the passenger either
as a final destination or as an intermediate point?
Whether seats are available by same route no. but at a different departure time.
Whether seats are available by a different route no. on the same day.
The earliest date on which seats are available for a place by a given route no.
The cost of travel by various categories of buses (namely, ordinary, deluxe, etc)
to a destination by various routes.
The above are some of the questions that could be asked by the customer.
Two seats are reserved VIPs and/or emergency quota. However , if nobody turns up for
the same, upto half an hour before the departure, the seats are allotted to those in the
waiting list according to priority.
Concessions are given in respect of students during summer vacation. Thus they need to
pay only 50% of the actual fare. Employees and their eligible family members may travel
free once a year, by producing the appropriate identity cards. Your system must verify
that the total distance travelled by such a person does not exceed 3000km. Seats are not
allowed for half ticket but a seat may be allotted for half tickets issued.
You system should provide a facility for cancellation. 10% of the fare shall be forfeited if
the cancellation is done atleast two days prior to the journey. 20% shall be forfeited if the
cancellation is done one day prior to the journey but not more than two days, 25% if done
8 hours and 40% for less than half an hour and up to half an hour after departure of the
bus. In all other cases the amount is forfeited. The reservation fee of Rs. 5 is always non-
refundable. Journey can be postponed/advanced subject to availability of seats by the
same route at most once at no extra cost.
Your system would have to maintain a database of various routes originationg from
Bangalore and the fare by each of them for various categories of buses to various
destinations. Frequently the Corporation revises the fares and your system should
accommodate this. Assume that more than one counter is simultaneously active for
reservation/cancellation.
2. Hostel Information System
Assume that your college hostel authorities have approached you for developing a
computerized information system that can handle hostel room allotments and keep track
of them.
V. Rajaraman/IISc. Bangalore M15/V1/Sep 05/1

You are quite familiar with the hostels. As first step, catalogue the details such as various
hostels, their capacities, types of rooms, i.e., single/double/spacious double/married
students apartments etc. Assume a suitable figure for ladies hostel also. Since the number
of rooms are less than the number of students, some students have to share a room.
Assume that research students are given priority, followed by M.E. and B.E students.
Married students are given married students apartments, if available; else they fall into
general pool.
Find out how many students join/leave every year in each of the college programmes. A
student is allotted a room on joining as follows: If the student is married and married
students hostel is available and all others senior to him in his category have been allotted
an apartment; else he gets only single/double/spacious double room.
If the student is unmarried; or he is married but no married students apartment is
available, he gets either a single/spacious double/ double room, i.e., if a single
room is available and all others senior to him in this category (viz., Research/
M.E/B.E) have been allotted the same, he also gets a single room; else he has to
be given a spacious double room. If that also is not available then allot him a
double room. Priorities based on course (Research, M.E., B.E) and within that
date of joining is to be maintained so as to give a student a better room as and
when it is available. Your system should maintain a list of hostels, rooms and
details and should be able to,
Give the lists of available rooms, those occupied, those likely to become free,
etc.,
Intimate students as and when their priorities increase about the new rooms
which are available and handle room allotments,
Prepare a list of students who do not vacate their rooms even after the last date of
vacating their rooms after their course is over, and
Allow students to change rooms within the same class either mutually or to any
other vacant room of the same class.
3. Hospital Automation
Consider the operation of a medium size hospital. Patients data are stored and retrieved.
Further, data about the various types of and number of wards/beds/operation theatres
available and allotment of wards to patients are also maintained. The hospital authorities
are interested in computerizing this information.
The hospital has three types of operation theatres: A, B and C, respectively used for
major, minor and small operations, respectively. Wards are of two types: general and
special. General wards have capacities of 4 and 8 beds while special wards are either
single or double beds. The hospitals also has a maternity ward with 25 rooms, each of
which can accommodate 2 beds. The hospital has 20 general wards of capacity 4 and 30,
general wards of capacity 8. It has 20 special wards with 2 beds each and 10 special
wards with single bed. Moreover, the hospital has an intensive care unit with a 5-bed
capacity.
The charges are given in the table below(Rs.).

General Special Maternity
4-bed 8-bed Single Double
200 150 400 300 250
Intensive care unit costs Rs. 1000/- per day.

The doctor notes down the clinical details on the patient’s card, which contains the
following details. The name of the patient, address, date of visit, doctor’s name etc.
If the patient has to be admitted, other details such as bed no., ward no., type, and date of
admission are noted. If the patient has been recommended or desires a special ward but is
currently not available, he may be admitted in a general ward and later transferred when a
bed is available.
Operation costs are not fixed and are determined on a case by case basis. When the
patient is discharged, the bed charges should be computed. To this should be added costs
of medicine, treatment, consultation fees, operation charges if any, and laboratory
charges. Assume that another subsystem of hospital information system gives you these
details and is available.
Your system will have to compute equipment charges for those used by patients.
Whenever an equipment is used by the patient, the details are noted. Assume that the
available equipment are X-ray machine, infra red radiation generation machine, scanner,
ultrasound machine, etc. The charges are based on number of exposures incase of X-ray
at Rs.50 per exposure. The others are based on number of hours of usage, at Rs. 100, 150,
and 200, respectively
All the above costs are to be added and presented in final bill. Your system should keep
track of patients data, history ward/equipment usage to calculate other costs, ward/bed
allotted or otherwise, operation theatre used.
The following problems are encountered by the hospital:
Currently the hospital is not able to keep track of the free/allotted wards/beds and
their details due to frequent shifting of the patients, difficulty in tracking both
wardwise and patientwise.
Patients data, especially history is also difficult to extract.
Your system should be able to provide the following information:
Details of a patient such as when a patient was admitted, his or her charges,
facilities used, date of discharge, etc.
State of beds/wards, free/occupied etc.
4. Insurance
The Bangalore divisional office of XYZ Insurance Corporation of India desires to have
computerized information system and has approached you for developing the same.
Assume that the Corporation offers 2 types of policies, namely, endowment and money-
back. The endowment policy operates as follows: the policy holder pays premium until
the maturity of the policy or his death, at which time the sum assured and bonus is paid to
the holder or the nominee respectively.

The money-back scheme differs in that 25% of the sum assured is paid back to the holder
after expiry of every quarter of the policy term. For instance, consider a policy for 20
years and Rs. 50,000 sum assured. Rs.12,500 would be paid back to the holder at the
expiry of 5,10 and 15 years, respectively. At the maturity of the policy the remaining
Rs12500 and the bonus would be payable. In case of death the remaining amount of the
sum assured and bonus would be paid back to the nominee. Assume that the Bangalore
division has 100,000 policy holders and 150,000 policies of which 20,000 are money
back.
(i) Endowment policy. The premium to be paid is worked out based on age of the
person proposed and the term of the policy. The sample table given below
shows the annual premium payable (in Rs.) for an assured sum of Rs. 1000.
The sum assured should be a multiple of Rs.1000 and the minimum is
Rs10,000.The minimum term is 15 years. The minimum age at entry is 18 and
the maximum is 45.Premium can be paid monthly, quarterly, half-yearly, or
annually. Form tables for the above cases using these data as guideline. While
designing the tables keep in mind that the total premium paid should be
slightly lower incase of annual mode of payments, and the highest premium
should be for monthly payments, and the highest premium should be for
monthly payment.
Age at entry 18 25 30 35
Policy term
15 years 70 72 74 76.25
20 years 52 53 54 56
25 years 41 42 42.75 44
30 years 34 34.5 35 -
(ii) Money –back policy. The premiums are much higher than the endowment
case. Typically they would be Rs 10-20 more for every Rs 1000 sum assured.
The Amount paid as bonus by the Corporation on maturity is currently Rs.65
per Rs 1000 sum assured. This amount may be revised every year by the
Corporation depending on the profits. This holds for both types of policies.
Policies may lapse if the holder does not pay the premium for more than to
two years. However, it can be paying penalty charges if the period of lapse
does not exceed five years.
The Corporation has divided Bangalore division into 15 zones for its
convenience. Each zone has a zonal manager. The Corporation also has
several agents to procure business. A proposer of a policy may do so only
through an authorized agent. These agents report to the zonal manager. Every
zone has a number of agents allotted, typically ranging from 10 to 20. Every
agent must procure a minimum of 10 customers and a policy value
(combined) of at least Rs.1.5 lakhs in order to retain his agency. Agents get
commission as follows: 25% and 5% in every subsequent year. Your system
should keep track of zones, agents, policy holders and their details. In addition

to operational information, your system should handle queries such as the

following:
Which agents perform consistently well/badly?
Which areas can be assigned to more agents and which have already too
many?
Which type of policies perform well/badly?
5. Book Publisher’s Assistant
This system attempts to help a book publisher in maintaining details about his books,
customers, receipts/payments, etc. A book may be published afresh or it could be a new
Edition or just reprint. The copyright may belong to either the author(s) or publisher. The
publisher may reprint any number of copies if he holds the copyright. If the author holds
the copyright, he may publish only as much as is asked by the author. Further, the
publisher may have to pay royalty in such a case for every book sold.
Various book sellers, libraries, institutions, etc., order books. If the required number of
copies is available the publisher sends the books and updates his stock level. If they are
not available, he may send a partial consignment provided it is acceptable to the
customer. Payments may be either cash/credit, subject to suitable credit limits. The
publisher may decide to reprint a popular book if he holds the copyright. Otherwise he
approaches the author for consent. The author may also revise it and the publisher brings
out a new edition.
Assume that the publisher has published roughly 10,000 books of various titles in various
subjects and that roughly 100 new books are oublished every year and that 100 new
editions are also brought each year. Assume that 200 reprints of various books are also
published. The minimum number of copies published is 1000. On an average about 5000
copies of each book is published.
Your system should provide the following information:
A list of various customers, libraries, etc., placing orders has to maintained, with
relevant details.
For each customer the list of books ordered with details such as cost, address of
customer, date of order, date of delivery, qty.delivered, etc.
Details of reprints, new editions of books.
Details of current stock, books and their quantity in publication etc.
Books published by an author.
List of books in a given subject
The books that get sold out fast, the authors who are popular, etc.
The publisher would also like to send a list of new books published every year to
various customers/libraries, etc., with relevant details such as title and author.

A BRIEF OUTLINE OF ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF
SYSTEM FOR ROOM BOOKING IN A HOTEL
STATEMENT OF PROBLEM
This project addresses the information required by a hotel to book rooms and clear the
bills of customers. The hotel decides to computerize room booking and customer
checkout formalities. The hotel has various types of rooms. It wants to allow booking
online through the internet besides normal booking by phone, letter and also spot booking
on arrival of the customer. The hotel management is willing to invest in a PC with
internet connection. It is also willing to train the staff at the reception desk to handle
computerized booking. It is unwilling to invest in local network in the hotel, which would
allow on-line updating of customer charges. Customer bills are sent from restaurant,
laundry etc to the reception desk accountant for manual updating of accounts. As the
hotel is small with only 177 rooms, this is feasible.
A FACT GATHERING AND REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
i) Hierarchy chart of the organization
Manager
Hotel Staff
Front desk House keeping Restaurant Communication Accounts office

receptionist staff staff systems
ii) List of persons to be interviewed
Manager
Front desk receptionist
Accounts staff
ii) Questions to be asked
a) What are the various rooms and their details?

b) What are the rates applicable to each type of room?
c) Is advance booking like booking via internet, phone etc to be allowed?
d) What are the facilities provided by the hotel?
e) Is the utilization of these considered as extra charges or is it included along with
the room charges?
f) What are the functions of the front desk receptionist?
g) What communications services are provided?
h) How many days ahead of stay can a room be reserved?
i) Can companies book rooms on credit and clear the bills when sent to them?
j) Can a person extend his stay?
k) What if the customer does not turn up even after he books?
iii) Records of Discussion:
a) The hotel has rooms in the first, second and third floor.
b) Rooms may be regular/deluxe/suite type and can be either single/double/triple.
c) Suite types are double or triple occupancy.
d) Rooms may or may not be air-conditioned.
e) All deluxe/suite types are always air-conditioned
f) The no of rooms and booking rates are shown below:
Rates per day (Rs) and No of rooms in each floor
Regular Deluxe Suite

Rate No. of rooms Rate No. of rooms Rate No. of rooms
AC Single 150 50 30 20 250 30 40 40 - - - -

Non-AC Single 100 75 - - - - - - - - - -
AC Double 250 20 30 30 400 40 20 20 500 10 30 20
Non-AC Double 175 30 10 10 - - - - - - - -
AC Triple 350 10 15 15 600 05 10 10 700 03 05 07
Non-AC Triple 275 10 05 05 - - - - - - - -
Floor G F S G F S G F S
g) Facility for online booking on the internet is to be provided. Form specifying the
customer details, room request, date of arrival, duration of stay, credit card details
etc has to be filled and submitted, and the hotel management should be able to
respond immediately.
h) A room can be booked a week well in advance with an advance payment.

Advanced booking by a company for its employees is allowed. But this requires
an advance of 50% of estimated charge to be paid. The customer can cancel
anytime up to 5:00 pm, the day prior to arrival. No cancellation charge applies,
the advance amount is refunded, unless you cancel after this time, in which case
the cancellation fee equivalent of one night’s stay, is charged.
i) The check-in and checkout time for the customer is 2:00pm. He is allowed to stay
1hr after the checkout time without any charge. After that (provided the room is
not booked), he is charged with a rent of ½ a day
j) Booking by phone is to be provided. In this case also credit card details are to be
provided and the hotel should be able to confirm reservation immediately.
k) The customer books the room and does not turn up, he also does not intimate the
hotel for canceling of rooms, then his advance amount is forfeited.
l) If the customer wants to extend his stay beyond 7 days, he needs to pay at least
50% of his current amount balance, then he is eligible for extension.
m) If the customer wants to reduce his stay, he need to inform the hotel staff 1day
prior to the checkout time, otherwise his money will not be refunded.
n) If the customer is averse to giving his credit card details on the Internet he could
download the reservation form and send the completed form through FAX along
with credit card details.
o) The facilities provided by the hotel which the customer can avail are bar,
restaurants, room services, laundry services, travel packages, swimming pool,
rooms with computers and internet connection for surfing, shopping mall, parking
garage for overnight or short term parking, communication systems like
telephone, fax, room service, extra beds and ATM counter.
p) The modes of payments are credit card or cash or billing to companies. When the
customer checks out his/her bills include in addition to room charges extra
charges for facilities used by him such as telephone, telex, fax services, extra
beds, laundry services and Internet surfing.
q) The customer is allowed to extend his stay provided the room is vacant and is not
been booked by any other customer on the same dates.
r) The responsibility of the front office which should have access to the computer
are:
(i) Room booking
(ii) Collating all bills (such as room rent, room service, restaurant,
communications) of a customer and charging it to customers room
account.
(iii) Preparing consolidated bill for a customer and collecting amount due
on departure or charging to credit card or sending it to the company
booking accommodation
(iv) After sending bill to company follow up on payment of bill.
(v) Reconciling credit card bills with payments credited to hotel’s account
by credit card issuing bank (periodically normally once a month)
(vi) When a bill is paid and a customer checks out of the hotel immediately
inform housekeeping to get the room cleaned and ready for the next
occupant.
(vii) When housekeeping phones and says the room is ready include in the
vacant rooms list
iv) Document flow diagram
Not available, list of available rooms

Request for room
reservation through
Web/Phone/letter/spot
request/company request Checks
CUSTOMER FRONT END AVAILABLE
OFFICE ROOMS IN
Customer EACH FLOOR
Updates
details
Response to request
Informs ready
status of the
room
HOUSE
KEEPING STAFF Informs about the exit
Customer Informs about
details the bill
settlement
Accept after
CREDIT CARD checking validity
Advance/Payment /CASH EXIT/CASH
COUNTER
Room rent +Extra charges for
Avails FACILITIES use of facilities
Invoice/ Receipt of cash payment
The outputs of the Document flow diagram:

a) List of available rooms in each floor
b) Generation of invoice, including the room rent and extra charges of the facilities
availed.
c) Updating of the available room list after a customer vacates.
B SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
(i) Detailed DFD Avails
Confirms Room reservation

Room Not Available
List of available rooms
Requests for 1. 3.
room/Exit request Processing Facilities
CUSTOMER a room
reservation
request
Records Checks
availability
List of facilities
Receipt/ and its cost details
Customer Available
Invoice
details Rooms
Informs the ready

status of the room
Confirms room Informs vacating
reservation rooms House keeping
Updates staff
/Informs about the Available
exit rooms
Advance/Payment Checks
Validity of the
Confirms Room 2. credit card
reservation Payment Confirms
Section
Bills for
use of Invoices
Inform about the
facilities for use
allotment
Room
request Company
database
Customer
Room rates accounts
Invoice
Company Update customer
Payments
customer accounts
4.
Receipt/Remainder Reconciliation
Intimate about of accounts
unreconciled accounts Update
Bank
Credit card Reconciled
payment accounts
The functions of the each process in the DFD are as follows:
Functions of Process1
a. When a particular room request is obtained from the customer via Internet
browser or phone or fax, checks if the requested room is available from
the AVAILIABLE ROOM database (Room No, Type of room, Rent,
Status).
b. If the requested room is available CUSTOMER DETAILS (Customer

name, Type of room, Contact Address, Credit card No, Date of Arrival,
Date of leaving) is recorded, saved in the database so that Process2 can
access it. Inform the customer about the room allotment, after Process2
sends the confirmation of allotment.
c. If the requested room type is not available intimate the customer so

that he could ask for an alternate room or try elsewhere.
d. If the customer is been sponsored by a company check for the availability

of the room from the database and confirm the allotment if available.
Obtain the customer details and inform about the allotment to the
Process2.
e. The check-in and checkout time for the occupant is 2:00pm. The customer
is allowed to stay 1 hr after the checkout time without cost, after which he
is charged with ½ day charge. Inform Process2 for the transactions.
f. If there is request for exit from the customer, inform Process 2
g. Informs the house keeping staff upon exit of a customer, so that the
room can be made ready for the next occupant.
h. Upon cancellation of room reservation or reducing the number of

days of stay request, intimate Process2, so that it can take care of
forfeit charges.
i. If the customer requires an extension, check whether the room is not

allotted to some other customer and hence is vacant. If it is vacant
and is not booked by any other customer, provide extension for stay,
otherwise deny the request.
j. Incase of a customer’s request to extend his stay after 7 days, the

customer is asked to pay 50% of his current account balance,
provided the room is vacant and is not booked by any other
customer. Inform Process 2. Allot the room after confirmation
obtained form Process 2.
k. If the customer does not turn up after advance booking of the room
and does not send and cancellation request he is forfeited with the
advance amount. Inform Process 2 for payment transactions.
Functions of Process 2
a. For the customer who is sponsored by a company maintain his accounts in

a COMPANY DATABASE (Customer Name, Company, Type of room,
Contact Address, Date of Arrival, Date of leaving).
b. Collect advance payment from the customer either by cash or by credit

card based on the room rates and advance payment conditions. If credit
card, checks for the validity of the credit card and confirms him about the
room allocation.
c. Maintains customer’s accounts in CUSTOMER ACCOUNTS database

(Room no, Advance, Extra charges, Forfeited cost, Total).
d. Send the customer receipt of the current transactions.
e. Updates the AVAILABLE ROOM list in the database after allotment.
f. Inform Process 1 about the confirmation of room request.
g. At the time of the ordinary customer’s checkout, give the customer the
INVOICE (Customer Name, Date of Arrival, Date of Departure, Room
type, Room rent, Name of facility, Date when used, Facility cost, Last
Date of Payment, Total) and collect dues.
h. Incase of a customer who wants to extend his stay, even after 7 days of his
stay in the hotel, provide him an invoice of the current balance account
and request him to pay 50% of the dues. After payment, update the
account database and inform Process1.
i. Confirm Process1 about the exit of the customer and update the available
room database
j. Incase of cancellation, the customer can cancel anytime up to 5:00 pm, the
day prior to arrival. No cancellation charge applies, the advance amount is
refunded, unless you cancel after this time, in which case the cancellation
fee equivalent of one night’s stay, is charged.
k. If the customer wants to reduce his stay he has to inform the hotel staff 1
day prior to the checkout time, otherwise his money is not refunded.
l. Incase of a customer who has not turned up after advance booking of the
room, he is forfeited with advance amount.
Functions of Process 3:
a. Updates the customer accounts database by the details of FACILITIES

(Room no, Facility details, Cost) availed by the customer and its
corresponding charges. Sends invoices to Process 2 for updating
customer’s accounts.
Functions of Process 4:
a) Send the invoice to the company at the time of exit of customer stating the
deadline within which the due is to be settled.
b) Provide a receipt after the settlement of the dues.
c) Update the CUSTOMER ACCOUNTS database.
d) Update the RECONCILED ACCOUNTS (customer name, organization
name, room number, duration of stay, total amount) database.
e) Send a remainder to company if the accounts are not settled within the
specified deadline
f) Inform the bank about unreconciled credit card payments.
The structured English description of each process is given below:
Procedure for process1
(a)
for every room request obtained from a customer do
check if the requested room is available
if the requested room is available then
record the customer details.
Inform the customer of the room allotment after Process2 confirms it.
else
intimate the customer about the non-availability of the room
end for
(b)
for every room request obtained from a company on behalf of a customer do
check if the requested room is available
if the requested room is available then
Inform the company of the room confirmation
Record the company customer details.
Inform Process2 about the allotment.
else
Intimate the company about the non-availability of the room;
end for
(c)
for every exit request by the customer do
Inform process2 about exit request;
end for
(d)
for every room exit info obtained do
Inform the house keeping staff so that the room can be made ready for the next
occupant;
end for
(e)
for every cancellation of room request obtained do
Inform Process2 about the cancellation;
end for
(f)
for every request for extension obtained by the customer do
Check whether the room is vacant and is not booked by any other customer;
if the room is vacant then

accept the request for extension;
else
deny the request;
end if
if the customer is been staying in the hotel for 7 days and requires extension then
Inform Process2 for 50% of due settlement;
Allot the room to the customer after confirmation obtained from Process2;
end if
end for
(g)
for every customer who does not turn up after advance booking of the room do
Inform Process2;
end for
(a)
for every room allotment request obtained from a customer do
receive an advance payment by the customer
if the mode of payment is credit card then

check for the validity of the card
inform Process1 about the confirmation;
Send the customer the receipt of current transaction;
else if mode of payment is cash then

Collect the advance cash
Inform Process1 about the confirmation;
Send the customer the receipt of current transaction;
else
State as room not allotted;
end if
end for
if the room is allotted then

Create the customers account to maintain the customer’s transactions;
Update the customer accounts database;
end if
(b)
for room allotment information obtained by Process1 about the company customer do
Record the details in the company database
Update the customer accounts;
end for
(c)
for every extension request obtained form Process1 then
Send the invoice to customer asking him to pay 50% of the current balance;
After payment, update the customer accounts database;
Inform Process1 to confirm allotment;
end for
(d)
for every exit request obtained do
if he if not a company customer then
Give the customer the invoice by getting details from the customer’s account;
Collect the payment;
Update the available room database;
Inform Process1 about the exit;
else if he is an company customer then
Inform Process4 about the exit
end if
end for
(e)
for every cancellation request obtained form Process1 do
if it is within 5:00 pm and one day prior to the arrival then
No cancellation fee is charged;
Cancel the booked rooms;
Update available room database;
else
Charge the customer with the cost equal to one nights stay;
Issue the cancellation receipt;
Update the customer account database;
end if
end for
(f)
for every customer who has not turned up after booking the room do
forfeit his advance amount;
Issue the receipt;
Update the available room database;
end for
(g)
for every customer at the time of checkout do
if the customer wants to stay 1 hr after checkout time then
the customer is not charged;
else
charge him with ½ a days charge after 1 hour;
end if
end for
Procedure for process3:
(a)
for facilities availed by the customer do
update the customer’s account by the price of the facility made use of;
end for
Procedure for process4:
(a)
for every company customer who is exiting from the hotel do
Send the invoice specifying the deadline within which the dues are to be paid to the
company;
if the mode of payment is cheque, and is within the dead line then
collect the invoice payment;
update the customer’s account;
update reconciled accounts database;
provide a receipt of the current transaction;
else
Send the remainder to the company;
end if
if the mode of payment is credit card then

collect the invoice payment from Bank;
update the customer’s account;
update reconciled accounts database;
else if amount from the bank has not reached the hotel within the deadline then
intimate the bank about the unreconciled amount
Send a remainder to the company
end if
end for
ER DIAGRAM 1
Customer Num
Customer Name
Customer Customer type
Date of arrival
Duration
Address
Customer Num
Request Room type
Date of arrival
Duration
Room Num
Room type
Rooms Check-in time
Checkout time
Cost/day
ER DIAGRAM 2
Room Num
Room type
Rooms Check-in time
Checkout time
Cost/day
Room num
Allocated Customer num
to
Customer Num
Customer Name
ER DIAGRAM 3 Date of arrival
Duration
Address
Customer Num
Customer Name
Date of arrival
Duration
Address
Customer num
Facility Num
Avails
Date of use
Facility Num
Facility name
Facilities Facility Cost
Facility Details
ER DIAGRAM 4 (At the time of Exit)
Customer Num
Customer Name
Customer type
Customer Date of arrival
Duration
Address
Customer Num
Invoice Num
Pays Last date for
payment
Invoice Num
Invoice Customer Num
Date of payment
Customer Name
Date of Arrival
Date of departure
Room Num
Room type
Room rent
Facility Num
Name of facility
Date when used
Facility cost
Advance paid
Total
ER DIAGRAM 5
Customer Num
Invoice Num
Last Date of payment
Customer Name
Date of Arrival
Outstanding Date of departure
Invoices Room Num
Room type
Room rent
Facility Num
Name of facility
Date when used
Facility cost
Advance paid
Total
Invoice Num
Customer Num
Sent to Last date for
payment
Customer Num
Customer Customer Name
Customer type
Date of arrival
Duration
Address
ER-DIAGRAM 6 (Incase of cancellation of room and when the customer does not turn
up after booking the room, or when he is reducing his duration of stay)
Receipt Num
Cancellation Customer Num
Receipt Customer Name
Advance paid
Check-in time
Checkout time
Forfeited cost/ Cancellation fee
Balance amount
Receipt Num
Sent to Customer Num
Customer Num
Customer Name
Date of arrival
Duration
Address
Normalized relations
Customer : Customer Num, Customer Name, Date of arrival, Duration, Address,
Customer type.
Room: Room Num, Room type, Check-in time, checkout time, Room cost/day
Customer-room relation : Customer Num, Room Num
Facilities: Facility Num, Facility name, Facility Cost
Customer-facility relation: Customer Num, Facility Num, Date of Use
Invoice : Invoice Num, Customer Num, Customer Name, Date of Arrival, Date of
Departure, Room type, Room rent, Name of facility, Date when used, Facility
cost, Last Date of Payment, Total.
Customer-pays-Invoice relation: Customer Num, Invoice Num, Last date of payment
USER INTERFACE
MAIN MENU
1. MENU A: BOOKING
2. MENU B: PAYMENT SECTION
3. MENU C: FACILITIES
4. MENU D: EXIT
5. MENU E: RECONCILIATION
6. MENU F: EXTENSIONS
1. MENU A: BOOKING
a) Types and cost of rooms
b) Conditions for booking
c) Request for customer details
d) Check for the availability of the room
e) Respond to the customer
f) Exit from MENU A
2. MENU B: PAYMENT SECTION

a) Accept advance payment (after checking validity if necessary)
b) Send confirmation of room allocation
c) Add the customer to the customer accounts database
d) Update the Available room database
e) Exit from MENU B
3. MENU C: FACILITIES
a) List of Facilities and cost details
b) Update customer account
c) Exit from MENU C
4. MENU D: EXIT
a) Send the invoice
b) Accept full payment
c) Update the Available room database
d) Inform house keeping staff
e) Exit from MENU D
5. MENU E: RECONCILIATION
a) Send the invoice
b) Accept cheque or credit card mode of payment
c) Provide a dead line for the payment
d) Send remainder if not paid within the dead line
6. MENU F: EXTENSIONS
a) Forfeit amount on cancellation
b) Display invoice
c) Print invoice
d) Update available room database
e) Exit from MENU E
CONTROL AUDIT AND TEST PLAN
USE CASE: Room reservation
Goal in context: A customer requests for a room and is allocated if available.
Primary Actor: Customer
Level: User Goal level
Precondition: Advance online booking requires that the customer has a valid credit card
and an advance payment is required if the booking is via phone. Booking on arrival
requires, if the requested room is available, 50% of the room rent to be paid.
Success Guarantees: Room requested is available and credit card must be valid incase of
advanced booking.
Failure: The requested room is not available; the Customer can select form the available
list of rooms.
Trigger: Customer sends a request for room reservation.
Scenario:
1.Customer initiates the requests.
1a. The customer can send an online request. Form specifying the customer details,
room request, date of arrival, duration of stay, credit card details etc has to be filled and
submitted, and the hotel management would respond as quickly as possible after
checking the validity of the credit card.
1b. The customer can book the room via phone. But this requires a deposit of room
rent for 1 or 2 nights be sent within 10 days to guarantee the reservation.
1c. The customer can book a room by going to the hotel personally and is allocated
the room if available and asked to pay an advance amount.
1d. Advanced booking by a company for its employees is allowed. But this requires
an advance of 50% of estimated charge to be paid.
2. Front desk receptionist checks for the list of available rooms, if available records
customer details.
2a. If the requested room is not available the customer is intimated and he could
book a room from the available list.
2b. Intimate the Payment section when there is request from the customer for exit.
2c. If the customer request for an extension check if the room is not booked by any
other customer, agree for the extension for not allotted otherwise deny the request for
extension.
2d. Incase of the customer who would like to extend his stay after staying for 7 days in
the hotel, he has to pay 50% of his current account balance.
2e. Incase of cancellation, the customer can cancel anytime up to 5:00 pm, the day
prior to arrival. No cancellation charge applies, the advance amount is refunded, unless
you cancel after this time, in which case the cancellation fee equivalent of one night’s
stay, is charged.
2e. For a customer who has booked the room in advance but has not occupied, advance
amount is forfeited.
3. Accounts staff in the payment section manages/accepts the advance payment and
confirms room allocation after checking the validity of the credit card, if the payment was
via credit card.
3a. The Payment section maintains the customer accounts and this includes along with
room charges and advance payment, the extra charges of the facilities the customer has
availed, such as telex, telephone, fax services, extra beds, laundry services, internet
surfing, shopping mall and bar and restaurant.
3b. Upon intimation about the customers exit, sends invoice to him, after deducting his
advance payment.
3c. Cheque or Credit card mode of payment is accepted if the customer is from a
company
3d. A deadline is mentioned within which the payment has to be made, otherwise a
remainder is sent.
4. The House keeping staff is informed so that the room can be made ready for the
next occupant, after the customers exit.
5. If the customer wants to reduce his stay, he need to inform the hotel staff 1day prior
to the checkout time, otherwise his money will not be refunded.
Extensions:
1. The check-in and checkout time for the customer is 2:00pm. He is allowed to stay
1hr after the checkout time without any charge. After that (provided the room is not
booked), he is charged with a rent of ½ a day
2. The customer is informed if the room requested is not available and he could book
another from the available list.
3. If the customer finds unsafe to book via internet he could download the reservation
form and send the completed form through FAX along with photocopy of both sides of
the credit card.
4. Bookings made must be guaranteed immediately with a credit card to reserve the
room.
Channel to Primary Actor: The customer can book the room personally. Advanced
booking can be made via Internet browser, Phone or FAX.
Test plan:
1. Enter a room number, which is already allotted, during booking and see the
response.
2. Enter a room number, which is not allotted and see the response.
3. Enter an invalid credit card number and check the response.
4. Create payment transactions scenarios and see the result.
5. Use the facilities options and see if it’s updating the customer accounts.
6. Check the response when the customer exits
7. Check if the remainder is sent, when the deadline for payment is not met.
IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
1. Design the input screen

2. Create a database of available rooms, their cost and their status
3. Create a database for customer details
4. Create customer accounts database
5. Integrate all database and processes designed
6. Test each process designed using sample data
7. Create transactions to check the various processes mentioned in the test plan.
8. Create user manual
9. Create systems manual
10. Design user’s feedback form and system review plan
DATA DICTIONARY
Customer
Customer Num: Num(10), Primary Key
Holds the Unique Customer Number
Customer Name:
First Name: char (50)
Last Name: char (50)
Holds the name of the Customer
Customer Address:
Has information about the customers address
Street: char (50)
City: char (50)
State: char (50)
Zip: num (50)
Phone: num (50)
Email: varchar (50)
Date of arrival: Varchar (10)

Has the date when the customer arrived to the hotel in the form DD/MM/YYYY
Duration: Num(3)
This field contains the duration of the customers stay
Customer Type: Num(1), Not Null

Two types of customers
1Æ Company Customer
2Æ Ordinary Customer
Facilities
Facility Num: Num(2), Primary Key

Holds the serial number of each facility
Facility Name: Char(50)

Holds the name of the facility provided by the hotel.
[The list of facilities provided by the hotel is as follows:
Telephone, telex, fax services, extra beds, laundry services, internet surfing and
Restaurant].
Facility Cost: Num(7)

Contains the cost charged for each facility
Room
Room Num: Num(3), Primary Key

This field contains the room number
Room type: Char(1)

The room types can be as follows:
AC Single
Non-AC Single
AC Double
Non-AC Double
AC Triple
Non-AC Triple
Room cost/day: Num(3)

Contains the cost of the room charged on daily basis
Check-in time: Varchar(7)

Records the time when the customer checked into the room
Checkout time: Varchar(7)

Record the time when the customer checked out of the room
Rooms available: Num(3)

Has a record of Number of room currently available
Invoice
Invoice Num: Num (10), Primary Key

Contains a unique Invoice number
Customer Num: Num(10)

Holds the customer number

Has the date when the customer arrived to the hotel
Date of departure: Varchar (6)

The date when the customer leaves the hotel
Room type: Char (1)
AC Single
Non-AC Single
AC Double
Non-AC Double
AC Triple
Non-AC Triple
Room rent: Num (3)

Name of facility: Char (2)

Restaurant].
Date when used: Varchar (10)

Holds the date when the facility was used in the format DD/MM/YYYY
Facility cost: Num(3)

Last date of payment: Varchar (10)

The date within which the payment has to be made in the format
DD/MM/YYYY
Advance paid: Num(6)
Advance amount paid by the customer.
Total: Num(8)
The gross amount that the customer has to pay
Outstanding invoices

Invoice Num: Num (10), Primary Key

Last date of payment: Varchar (10)

The date within which the payment has to be made in the format
DD/MM/YYYY
Customer Name:

Has the date when the customer arrived to the hotel
Date of departure: Varchar (6)

The date when the customer leaves the hotel
Room Num: Num(3), Primary Key
This field contains the room number
Room type: Char(1)
AC Single
Non-AC Single
AC Double
Non-AC Double
AC Triple
Non-AC Triple
Room rent: Num (3)

Name of facility: Char (2)

Restaurant].
Date when used: Varchar (10)

Holds the date when the facility was used in the format DD/MM/YYYY
Facility cost: Num(3)

Total: Num(8)
Cancellation Receipt
Receipt Num: Num (10), Primary Key


Customer Name:

Forfeited cost/ Cancellation fee: Num(6)
Contains the cost the customer will be charged upon cancellation of the booked room.
Balance: Num(8)
CASE STUDY 1
A SYSTEM FOR JOURNAL ACQUISITION
Statement of Problem
A small library in an educational institution subscribes to 300 journals. It is desired to

automate the journal acquisition and subscription system. We will follow the steps given
in Table1 to analyze and design the system. The first step in design is fact gathering. The
outcome of fact gathering is given below.
FACT GATHERING AND REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
i) Hierarchy chart of the organization
LIBRARIAN
DEPUTY LIBRARIAN JOURNAL

ORGANIZATION
Programmer Library assistant
ii) List of persons to be interviewed
a. Librarian overall incharge of library

b. Deputy Librarian incharge of journal acquisition
c. Library Assistant who assists deputy librarian
ii) Questions to be asked
a. Why is the computer-based system being considered?

b. What are the basic objectives of the proposed system?
c. What is the volume of data to be processed?
d. What is the frequency of processing?
e. What are the benefits expected from the system?
iii) Records of Discussion:
a. About 300 journals are subscribed by the Library, with periodicity varying from
half yearly, monthly and quarterly
b. The journals mostly come from abroad by surface mail and take approximately
three months to reach from the date of dispatch
c. Loss of journals in mail and delay on publication is also noticed
d. If a journal is missed and a request for replacement is sent promptly the publisher
normally sends the duplicate copy free of charge
e. If the request is not sent promptly then it would be difficult to get the free copy
f. Most subscriptions are to be sent in November well ahead of start of new year.
g. As foreign exchange payment is involved, renewal an payment is required to be
made in advance
Currently the entire system is manual and is done by two scientific assistants. They
handle approximately 50 journals per week. It is found that follow up of journal
acquisition is time consuming and error prone. It is felt that follow up will be easier and
faster if a PC is used. As the volume of transactions is not large a standard PC
configuration (P4 or AMD processor, 128 MB main memory, 40GB disk, CDROM,
floppy disk, 15’’ monitor, standard key board, Windows2000, MSOffice) will be quite
adequate. A programmer will develop all the application software in 2 or 3 months. The
system is cost effective and is feasible. A detailed feasibility analysis is not essential in
the problem.
The basic objectives of the system are:
a. To follow up regularly receipt of journals, promptly detect delay in receipt of an

issue and send a reminder to the journal publisher
b. To follow up with the publisher to send invoice for journal subscription well ahead
of time
c. To renew subscriptions of journal promptly
d. To print out each week a list of journals received to be displayed so that users
know of the arrival of journals
e. To answer queries about the status of subscription, receipts, missing issues, etc, of
any journal in the collection
The main benefits expected by using the computer–based systems are

a. Prompt follow-up with publishers to get replacement of missing issues of journals
b. Prompt renewal of subscription and follow up with accounts section. This will
avoid late payment of subscription and consequent cancellation of subscription
and missing/late issues.
c. Ability to answer enquiries about receipt of journals
d. Analyze budget for journals, allocation of money to different disciplines.
iv) Document flow diagram
Journal order and cheque

Remainder for journals
Remainder for invoice
Invoice Invoice
Publisher Receiving Journal
Office Processing
Journals Received group
Journal
Information
Journals
Library Journal received list Invoice +

Indent reference +
cheque
Indent
Accounts
Purchase section
section Invoice
copy
Journals for binding list

The outputs required from the system and frequencies of outputs are described below:
a. List of journals received - each week

b. List of completed volumes ready to be bound – Once a year.
c. Journal renewal with subscription to publishers - Before Nov 30 , each year
starting on November 1.
d. Reminder to publishers on non-receipt of journal – Aperiodic
e. Indents for journal procurement to be sent to Accounts section – Before Nov1
each year starting Oct 1
Feasibility of the system

We saw that the system is fairly simple and straightforward to implement and can be
done with just 1 PC. The benefits here have already been listed. The cost is just that of a
PC with system software and applications. It is around Rs 35,000 at 2005 prices.
SYSTEM SPECIFICATIONS
(i) Detailed DFD

Request for missing journal issue
3
Generate
reminder
Journals not
received
Journal publisher
master
2
1 Update
Publisher Check with Library
journals
order Received received and Weekly list office
Received
journal details print
journal details
Journals
Request ready for
for binding
invoice Journal Journal Journal
master expected Received file
4
Renewal Purchase Accounts
process section section
Invoice for Generate Payment
renewal Indent authorization
Journal 5
master Journal Send Draft details
publisher Payment with invoice
master copy
Payments detail with Invoice copy
Journal Journal
Journal publisher payment
master master Detail file
The functions of the each process in the DFD are as follows:
Process 1:
1. When a journal is received check journal ordered master

2. Generate details of journal received (journal identity, name, volume, issue
no, month) and send details to Process 2.
Process 2:
1. Enter journal received detail in journal received file

2. Print list of journals received during a week
3. Check list of journals expected with the journals received file. Send the
list of journals expected and not received to process 3
4. When all issues of journal expected during the year have been received,
send the information to journal binding section of the library
Process 3:
1. Using the journals not received list, generate reminders to the publishers
and request replacement
Process 4:
1. In September, October and November check whether an invoice is received

from the publisher for journal due for renewal in that month. If not, send
request for invoice to the publisher.
2. When an invoice is received from the publisher, generate an indent to be
sent to the purchase section
Process 5:
1. When payment details with invoice copy are received from accounts, update
entry in journal master file, enter payment information in payment detail file
and mail payment detail with a copy of invoice to the publisher
The structured English description of each process is given below:
for each journal received do

Enter journal identification code, volume and issue no.
if journal is in ordered file then
Retrieve journal details from master file and send details to Process2;
else
Give message “Journal not in master. Check identification code entered”;
end for
for each journal received transaction sent by process1 do

Enter journal received file;
Print journal received in weekly list;
end for
Send list of journals received during week to the library.
At the end of each month
for each journal expected during the month do
Search in journal received file;
if not in file then send journal identification, volume no, and
not received transaction to process 3;
end for
At year end
for each journal in journal received file do
if all issues of volume received
then print journal details in binding list
end for
Send list to library
for each journal received note from process2 do

using journal identification find publisher details from Journal-publisher master file;
print letter requesting replacement to publisher;
end for
At the end the month

for each invoice received from the publisher do
Search journal master file to find journal details;
Search publisher master file to find publisher details;
Generate indent and send to purchase section;
Enter journal ordered information in journal master file;
end for
for each payment detail received from accounts section with invoice copy do
Enter payment details in payment detail file;
Enter paid information in Journal master file;
Send payment details with invoice to publisher;
end for
DATABASE DESIGN
(i) Data about journals: Journals id, Journal code (ISSN), journal
name, vol no, periodicity, parts per number, subject code,
language, publisher identification, time allowed for delivery,
year of first issue ordered renewed upto year.
(ii) Data about subscription details : Journal identification, date of
invoice to be sent, yearly subscription, currency of subscription,
date when subscription sent, subscriber code, amount in rupees,
subscription amount in foreign country, invoice no, order no,
draft no, draft date, bank name
(iii) Data about publisher/agent supplying journal: Publisher
identification, Publisher’s name, address, agent or publisher.
The entity-relationship diagram for the application is shown below:
1 Publisher 1
Expected Publishes Ordered

from from
N
1 N
Journals
The publisher-journal relationship is one-to-many.
The normalized relations are given below.
Journal: Journal id, journal name, journal ISSN, subject code, language, key words,
number per volume, parts per volume, month of first number, year first ordered, renewed
upto year.
Publisher/Agent: Publisher id, publisher’s name, address, agent or publisher, publisher

type.
Journal-publisher relation: Journal-id, publisher id
Journals Expected: Journal-id, vol, no, first no, month, periodicity, expected delay.
Journals received: Journal-id, vol, no of issues in vol, no of issues received, last issue no
received.
Journal payment details: Journal id, vol, order no, order date, publisher’s invoice no,
invoice date, foreign currency amount, rupee amount, draft no, draft date, bank no.
The relations needed by each process in the DFD:
Process Relations to be read Relations to be written
1. Journal expected
2. Journal Journal received

Journal expected
3. Journal-publisher
Publisher
4. Journal-publisher
Publisher
Journal
5. Journal-publisher Journal payment details

Journal
(iv) Data encoding: All journals have a standard international code
known as ISSN that can be used. In our design a simple serial
number is used as a code to reduce data entry. In this case this is
acceptable as the number of journals is quite small.
MENUS FOR DATA INPUT
MAIN MENU
AUTOMATED SERIALS CONTROL SYSTEM LIBRARY “XYZ”
A> ORDER PROCESSING

B> JOURNAL MAINTENANCE
C> SUPPLIER MASTER MAINTENANCE
D> QUERY
E> EXIT
ENTER YOUR OPTION
MENU A : ORDER PROCESSING
1. ADD/DELETE JOURNAL
2. REQUEST FOR INVOICE OR REMAINDER
3. INPUT INVOICE
4. PRINT INDENT LIST
5. ENTER PAYMENT DETAILS
6. PRINT PAYMENT DETAILS
7. EXIT
ENTER YOUR OPTION
MENU B: JOURNAL MAINTEINANCE
1. UPDATE JOURNAL INFORMATION

2. ENTER JOURNAL RECEIVED DETAILS
3. PRINT REMINDERS
4. EXIT
ENTER OPTION AND PRESS RETURN
MENU C: MAINTAINING PUBLISHER MASTER

1. ADD PUBLISHER NAME
2. DELETE PUBLISHER NAME
3. MODIFY PUBLISHER DETAILS
4. EXIT
ENTER OPTION AND PRESS RETURN
MENU D: ENQUIRY OR PRINTING
ENQUIRY PRINT OPTION
DISPLAY
A. RECEIVED JOURNALS 1 LIST JOURNALS YEARWISE
B. LIST OF JOURNALS BY KEYWORD 2 LIST JOURNALS ALPHABETICALLY
3 LIST NEW JOURNALS
4 LIST JOURNALS BY LANGUAGE
5 LIST JOURNALS BY KEYWORD
6 LIST JOURNALS BY SUBJECT
7 PUBLISHER LIST
8 MAILING LIST
9 BINDING LIST
ENTER YOUR OPTION AND PRESS Esc
CONTROL, AUDIT AND TEST PLAN
Control plan
1. Check whether duplicate copies of an issue of a journal have been received
2. Check whether invoice amount and order amount match
3. Check on Nov 30 whether total number of periodicals for which renewal
subscriptions sent equals number of titles in the subscription list
Audit plan
1. Compare total order amount with total payment amount (draft volumes)
2. Check that no duplicate renewals here been sent when duplicate invoices
from publisher is received.
Test plan:
1. Enter a wrong journal code and see the response
2. Enter a correct journal code and see the response
3. Enter a wrong journal volume and see the response
4. Enter a few journal codes expected in a month and see the response
5. Create a journal not received transaction and see the result of processing
6. Try giving year end message and see the effect
7. Create payment details transaction and enter to see the effect
8. The input screens must have prompts and messages if incorrect data is
entered.
IMPLEMENTATION PLAN
1. Codify journals being subscribed

2. Create a master database of journals with details
3. Codify publishers and agents who supply journals
4. Create a master database of publishers with addresses
5. Create journal id, publisher id, database
6. Based on knowledge of delays in delivery, enter in journal expected relation the
expected delay
7. Create a sample set of weekly, monthly and year-end transaction
8. Create transactions corresponding to receiving draft from accounts for
subscription payment.
9. Design screens for data input and query answering
10. Test each process using sample data
11. Integrate all processes and databases
12. Create user manuals
13. Create system manuals
14. Design user’s feedback forms and system review plan
(i) System’s manual: A one page instruction is prepared on how to use the
system. As the system is interactive with screens and prompts, no
extensive user manual is needed
(ii) User’s feedback form: This form should be designed to obtain user’s
opinion on ease of use, ease of data input, quality of screens and
system response time
(iii) Review plan: The system is to be reviewed at the end of one year.
AVAILABLE CASE TOOLS
I. SYSTEM FLOWCHART AND ER-DIAGRAM

GENERATION TOOL
Name of the tool: SMARTDRAW
URL: This Software can be downloaded from: http://www.smartdraw.com. This is a paid

software, but a 30-day free trial for learning can be downloaded.
Requirements to use the tool: PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. The latest versions of
Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and about 20MB of free space.
What the tool does:
Smartdraw is a perfect suite for drawing all kinds of diagrams and charts:
Flowcharts, Organizational charts, Gantt charts, Network diagrams, ER-diagrams etc.
The drag and drop readymade graphics of thousands of templates from built-in libraries
makes drawing easier. It has a large drawing area and drawings from this tool can be
embedded into Word, Excel and PowerPoint by simply copy-pasting. It has an extensive
collection of symbols for all kinds of drawings.
How to use:
The built-in tips guides as the drawing is being created. Tool tips automatically
label buttons on the tool bar.
There is online tutorial provided in:
http://www.smartdraw.com/tutorials/flowcharts/tutorials1.htm
http://www.ttp.co.uk/abtsd.html
II. DATA FLOW DIAGRAM TOOL
Name of the tool: IBMS/DFD
URL: This a free software that can be downloaded from: http://viu.eng.rpi.edu
Requirements to use the tool: The following installation instructions assume that the
user uses a PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. Additionally, the instructions assume the
use of the latest versions of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. To download the
zip files & extract them you will need WinZip or similar software. If needed download at
http://www.winzip.com.
What the tool does: The tool helps the users draw a standard data flow diagram (a
process-oriented model of information systems) for systems analysis.
How to use: Double click on the IBMS icon to see the welcome screen. Click anywhere
inside the welcome screen to bring up the first screen.
Under "Tools" menu, select DFD Modeling. The IBMS will pop up the Data Flow
Diagram window. Its menu bar has the File, Edit, Insert, Font, Tool, Window and Help
options. Its tool box on the right contains 10 icons, representing (from left to right and top
to bottom) pointer, cut, data flow, process, external entity, data store, zoom-out, zoom-in,
decompose, and compose operations, respectively.
Left click on the DFD component to be used in the toolbox, key in the information
pertaining to it in the input dialogue box that prompts for information.
To move the DFD components: Left click on the Pointer icon in the tool box, point to the
component, and hold Left Button to move to the new location desired in the work area.
To edit information of the DFD components: Right click on the DFD component. The
input dialogue box will prompt you to edit information of that component.
Levelling of DFD: Use the Decompose icon in the tool box for levelling
To save the DFD: Under File menu, choose Save or SaveAs. Input the name and
extension of the DFD (the default extension is DFD) and specify folder for the DFD to be
saved. Click OK.
III. TOOL TO CONVERT DECISION TABLE TO
STRUCTURED ENGLISH
Name of the tool: COPE
URL: This is a free tool and should be worked online at

What the tool does: Cope is a program that converts decision tables to Cobol source
statements
How to use: The general arrangement of a Cope decision table is shown in Example
below. This table consists of a heading and four rows. The first two rows are conditions,
and the last two are actions. A condition row consists of a number of entries followed by
the word is and a Cobol condition. An action row consists of a series of entries followed
by a Cobol statement.
Example:
YYNN is A = 0.
YNYN is B = 0.
XX - - Move 0 to C.
-XXX Add 1 to C.
Type in the Decision table in the text area provided (each line should start with 6 blanks
and an asterisk), click on “Generate Cobol” to obtain the Cobol statements of the
Decision table.
There is online help provided at:

http://www.cs.adelaide.edu.au/users/dwyer/COPE-MAN.html#RTFToC1
Another tool (to be worked online) for program code generation from Decision table can
be found at
http://dtable.projxonline.com/Default.aspx
Note: The tools to convert Decision Tables to Structured English is not available.
IV. SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS SPECIFICATION
DOCUMENTATION TOOL
Name of the tool: ARM
URL: The tool can be downloaded without cost at

What the tool does: ARM or Automated Requirement Measurement tool aids in writing
the System Requirements Specifications right. The user writes the SRS in a text file, the
ARM tool scans this file that contains the requirement specifications and gives a report
file with the same prefix name as the user’s source file and adds an extension of “.arm”.
This report file contains a category called INCOMPLETE that indicate the words and
phrases that are not fully developed.
Requirements to use the tool : PC running Windows 95, 98 or NT. The latest versions
of Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator, and about 8MB of free space.
How to use the tool : On clicking the option Analyze under File menu and selecting the
file that contains the System Requirements Specifications, the tool processes the
document to check if the specifications are right and generates a ARM report.
The WALKTHROUGH option in the ARM tool assists a user by guiding him as to how
to use the tool apart from the HELP menu. The README.doc file downloaded during
installation also contains description of the usage of this tool.
V. A TOOL FOR SCREEN DESIGN AND DATA INPUTTING
Name of the tool: Visual Basic
URL: http://www.microsoft.com/downloads/details.aspx?FamilyID=bf9a24f9-b5c5-
48f4-8edd-cdf2d29a79d5&displaylang=en
What the tool does: This tool is used to create the graphical user interface (GUI) to
describe the appearance and location of interface elements, you simply add prebuilt
objects into place on screen.
Help: http://msdn.microsoft.com/library/default.asp?url=/library/en-
us/vbcon98/html/vbconpart1visualbasicbasics.asp
VI A TOOL FOR DESIGNING AND MANIPULATING

DECISION TABLES
Name of the tool: Prologa V.5
URL: http://www.econ.kuleuven.ac.be/prologa
Note: This tool can be downloaded from the above given URL, after obtaining the
password.
What the tool does: The purpose of the tool is to allow the decision maker to
construct and manipulate (systems of) decision tables. In this construction process, the
features available are automatic table contraction, automatic table optimization,
(automatic) decomposition and composition of tables, verification and validation of
tables and between tables, visual development, and rule based specification.
TEST EXAMPLES
Module1
1. What would be the strategic, operational and tactical needs of a State Road
Transport Corporation?
2. What do you think are the functional management areas in a large Students
hostel?
3. Explain how data will be processed in a bank when a cheque is presented by a

customer and payment made to him (assume the bank uses computers)
Module2
4. What benefits do you expect if an information system for a hostel is designed?
5. In designing an information system for a hostel what constraints should be taken

into account during feasibility analysis?
Module3
6. A hostel warden states the following requirements for a hostel information

system: "Our hostel has 500 rooms and 4 messes. Currently, there are 1000
students all in 2 seated rooms. They eat in any one of the messes but can get a
rebate if they inform and do not eat for at least 4 consecutive days. Besides
normal menu, extra items are also given to students when they ask for it.
Such extras are entered in an extras book. At the end of the month a bill is
prepared based on the normal daily rate and extras and given to each student. We
find that bill preparation is delayed. We are also not able to keep proper track of
payments and billing for extras. We need a system to streamline this". Obtain a
document flow diagram for the problem described above.
Module4
7. Is it essential that an operationally feasible solution should be technically

8. A system costs Rs.1 lakh to install and Rs.10,000 per month as recurring
expenses. The benefit per year is Rs.1.5 lakhs. Assuming an interest rate of 12%
per annum, what is the pay back period of the investment?
9. A project costs Rs.2 lakhs and the net benefits are Rs.50,000 (1st year), Rs.80,000
(2nd year),Rs.90,000 (3rd year), Rs.70,000 (4th year), Rs.50,000 (5th year), and
Rs.30,000 (6th year). Assuming 10% per annum interest rate, would you proceed
with this project if your criterion is cost/benefit?
Module5
10. A magazine is published monthly and is sent by post to its subscribers. Two
the subscriber's name is removed from the mailing list and the subscriber
informed. Obtain logical DFDs for this problem and also a flowchart.
11. Obtain a physical DFD for a simple payroll system described below. A list of
employees with their basic pay is sent to a clerk. He calculates the gross pay
using standard allowances which are known for each pay slab. Deduction
statements such as loan repayment, subscription to associations etc. are also sent
net pay. This slip is used by a third clerk to write out pay cheques for each
employee and sent to respective employees. The total net pay amount paid and
bills paid are also computed.
12. If the procedure of the above problem is to be computerised, obtain a logical DFD
for the computer-based system.
Module6
13. An organization maintains an employee file in which each record has the
following data:
(i) Write a structured English processing rule corresponding to the above policies
(ii) Express the policies as a decision table.
14. An offshore gas company bills its customer according to the following rate
schedule:
The input record has customer identification, name and address, meter readings,
customer.
15. Obtain a decision table for an automatic stamps vending machine with the
"no change" light.
16. You want to go to Delhi from Bangalore. There are three flights per day; early
morning flight. If it is not available you will take the late morning flight. If
neither is available you are willing to take any flight on 22.4.04 but prefer early
and late morning flights., Obtain a decision tree for this word statement. Is
decisiontable suitable for this problem? If not why?
Module7
17. Design a form to be used by a salesman to report to the office about sales
executed by him at different customer locations
18. Design a group classification code to code (i) motor vehicles,, (ii) music cassettes,
and (iii) books
19. Add a Modulus-11 check digit to the codes (i) 48467, (ii) 96432, and (iii)
87646257.
20. Modulus-37 check is suitable for alphanumeric codes. Add a modulus-37

21. What is the purpose of batch control record? What is the type of information
22. Design a dialogue hierarchy and the screens for a system used to reserve seats in
Module8
23. Develop E-R diagram for the following:

Driver drives a car
23. Student's records in a University are kept by various sections: Hostel, Health
Module9
24. How do you select objects from a requirement specification? Given the following
computed".
25. Give a brief requirements specification for a bus ticket reservation system. Model
it using objects.
Module10
26. Prepare a print chart for stores data processing system.
27. Pick the appropriate graphics presentation for the following applications:

(iii) Sales percent of a product in 6 regions of a country.
public loan, land revenue, income from public sector companies, and
Module11.
28. Give a HTML code to display

Introduction to e-Commerce
This is a new book
29. Give an example of an extranet
Module12
30. A college has 1500 students whose final examination results are declared using
computer processing. There are 5 subjects, each carrying 100 marks. Classes are
awarded as follows:
Marks60 or above, I class
Marks 50 or above, II class
Marks below 50, Fail
Device an appropriate control scheme for processing results.
31. Design a proof figure for the above example.
Module13
32. Given a plain text:
33. How does DES hardware encrypt the following hexadecimal plain text
34. Given two prime numbers 23 and 41 design a RSA system
35. Explain how cash transactions take place in E-Commerce. What special

System Analysis and Design

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

System Analysis and Design

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

System Analysis and Design Syllabus

SYSTEM ANALYSIS AND DESIGN

V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/1

Module 10: Object oriented systems modeling (4)

V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/2

V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/3

6. Structured 16. Structured English specification 1

V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/4

47. Security of information systems, disaster 1

V.Rajaraman/IISc, Bangalore V1/1-6-04/5

INFORMATION FOR MANAGEMENT

1.2 Data by itself is not useful unless

1.3 For taking decisions data must be

1.4 Strategic information is needed for

1.5 Strategic information is required by

(a) Middle managers

1.7 Tactical information is required by

1.8 Operational information is needed for

1.9 Operational information is required by

1.10 Statutory information is needed for

1.11 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is strategic

1.12 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is tactical

1.14 In motor car manufacturing the following type of information is statutory

1.15 In a hospital information system the following type of information is strategic

1.16 In a hospital information system the following type of information is tactical

1.17 In a hospital information system the following type of information is

1.19 A computer based information system is needed because

(a) (ii) and (iii) (b) (i) and (ii)

1.20 Volume of strategic information is

1.21 Volume of tactical information is

1.22 Volume of operational information is

1.24 Tactical information is

1.25 Operational information is

(a) (i) and (v)

(a) (a)(i) and (vi)

(a) (iii) and (vi)

(a) (i) and (v)

(a) (i) and (iv)

(a) (i) and (vi)

(a) (i) and (v)

(a) (i) and (v)

(a) (i) and (iv)

(a) (iii) and (iv)

(a) (i) and (iv)

(a) (i) and (v)

1.39 Organizations have hierarchical structures because

1.41 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a university

1.42 Which of the following functions is most unlikely in a purchase section of

1.44 Which is the most unlikely function of a finance section of a company.

(i) Accurate (iv) Include all data

(a) (i) and (v)

(i) Accurate (iv) Include all data

(a) (ii) and (v)

(i)Up-to-date (iv) Include all data to present time

(a) (i) and (v)

(i)Up- to-date (iv) Include all data to present time

(a) (i) and (iv)

(i)Brief (iv) Unpleasant information not hidden

(a) (i) and (iv)

(a) (ii) and (vi)

1.52 The quality of information which is based on understanding user needs

1.54 The primary storage medium for storing archival data is

1.55 Master files are normally stored in

Should know types of information needed to manage organizations.

Should know nature of organizations and their structure to design appropriate

Should know management structure and needs of each level of management.

Large number of jobs today for computer science

Students should know what is information and how

Should know types of information needed to

Should know nature of organizations and their

Should know management structure and needs of

Should know functional areas of management and

Daily sales account

Slow or fast moving items

Whether to stock different varieties of items

Income tax account

STRATEGIC : Needed for long range

TACTICAL : Needed to take short range

OPERATIONAL : Needed for day to day operations

STATUTORY : Needed by law to sent to government