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Congresso da APG
Minicurso: Introduo ao R
Parte 2
00.1-
Introduo Referncias Nenadic, O., Zucchini, W., Statistical Analysis with R http://www.statoek.wiso.uni-goettingen.de/mitarbeiter/nenadic.html Faraway, Julian J., Practical Regression and Anova using R http://www.maths.bath.ac.uk/~jjf23/book/ Ribeiro Jr., Paulo Justiniano, Curso sobre o programa computacional R http://leg.ufpr.br/Rpira/Rpira/
0.2-
11.1-
Distribuies de Probabilidade Introduo Dada uma varivel aleatria X, existem duas funes relevantes associadas: Caso X seja contnua, a distribuio de probabilidade acumulada,
FX ( x ) , e a
fX ( x) =
d FX ( x ) dx
FX ( x ) =
f X ( u ) du
f X ( u ) du = 1
Exemplo 1:
X ~ exp(2)
f X ( x ) = 2e 2 x , x > 0
FX ( x ) = 1 e 2 x
2 . 0
1 . 5
1 . 0
0 . 5
0 . 0
0.0
1.0 x
2.0
3.0
0 . 0 0.0
0 . 2
0 . 4
0 . 6
0 . 8
1 . 0
1.0 x
2.0
3.0
Caso X seja discreta, a distribuio de probabilidade acumulada, funo de probabilidade, f X x j , em que x j { x1 , x2 ,..., xn } .
FX x j , e a
( )
( )
FX x j = P X xj
FX x j = Exemplo 2:
( )
fX xj = P X = xj
( )
xn
( ) f (u ) u=x
X
xj
u = x1
f X (u ) = 1
1 X ~ binomial (10, ) 2
X {0,1, 2,...,10}
10 1 1 f X ( k ) = P [ X = k ] = 1 k 2 2 50 1 FX ( k ) = P [ X k ] = j =0 j 2
k
10 k
10 1 = k 2
10
50
0 .2 5
0 .2 0
0 .1 5
0 .1 0
F x 0 .0 5 0 .0 0 0 2 4 x 6 8 10 0 .0 0 0 .2 0 .4
fx
0 .6
0 .8
1 .0
4 x
10
As funes disponveis no R para distribuies de probabilidades compreendem duas partes: a) Um prefixo (primeira letra) determina a ao tomada pela funo d densidade de probabilidade p probabilidade acumulada q quantil r amostra aleatria b) Um sufixo (restante do nome) identifica a distribuio
Exemplos:
> rnorm(10) [1] -0.1940739 1.3084103 -0.5032871 -1.1976513 -1.6180376 -1.2097209 [7] -0.8758033 -0.5817017 0.2427872 -1.4026841
> rnorm(10, 5, 2) [1] 4.214025 6.426099 3.844926 6.324220 8.446865 5.357674 5.170518 5.706036 [9] 1.291295 5.859870
1.2-
distribuio aproximadamente Normal de parmetros = n p e 2 = n p (1 p ) . Vamos verificar essa afirmao graficamente para n = 30 e p = 1 2 .
fx 0.00 0 0.05
0.10
0.15
10
15 x
20
25
30
A comparao no to boa se p
p = 0.05 .
Seja
fx [1 :8 ]
0 .0 0
0 .0 5
0 .1 0
0 .1 5
0 .2 0
0 .2 5
0 .3 0
0 .3 5
3 x[1:8]
1.3-
Teorema Central do Limite Se X 1 , X 2 ,..., X n so cpias independentes de uma mesma varivel aleatria X de
Vamos comprovar graficamente. Gerar amostras da U ( 0, 2 ) , Exp (1) , Gama ( 2, 2 ) e Cauchy (1,1) e plotar os histogramas de X n :
na = 10000 # n = 100 # u = vector("numeric",na) # e = u # g = u # c = u # for (i in 1:na){ u[i] = mean(runif(n,0,2)) e[i] = mean(rexp(n)) g[i] = mean(rgamma(n,2,2)) c[i] = mean(rcauchy(n,1,1)) } par(mfrow=c(1,2)) x = seq(-2,4,0.1) yu = dunif(x,0,2) nmero de amostras tamanho de cada amostra mdias das amostras da uniforme mdias das amostras da exponencial mdias das amostras da gama mdias das amostras da cauchy
ye = dexp(x) yg = dgamma(x,2,2) yc = dcauchy(x,1,1) plot(x,yu,type="l",main="Uniforme(0,2)") hist(u,main="Mdia da Uniforme(0,2)") plot(x,ye,type="l",main="Exponencial(1)") hist(e,main="Mdia da Exponencial(1)") plot(x,yg,type="l",main="Gama(2,2)") hist(g,main="Mdia da Gama(2,2)") plot(x,yc,type="l",main="Cauchy(1,1)") hist(c,main="Mdia da Cauchy(1,1)")
Uniforme(0,2)
0 . 5
M dia da Uniforme(0,2)
3 0 0 0
0 . 1
0 . 0
-2
1 x
5 0 0
1 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 2 0 0 0 2 5 0 0
0 . 3
0 . 4
0 . 2
F r e q u e n c y
y u
0.8
1.0 u
1.2
Exponencial(1)
1 .0
Mdia da Exponencial(1)
0 .6
F r e q u e n c y
0 .4
0 .0
0 .2
-2
1 x
0 0.6
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
y e
1 5 0 0
0 .8
0.8
1.0 e
1.2
1.4
Gama(2,2)
2 5 0 0 0 . 6 F r e q u e n c y y g 0 . 4 0 . 2 0 . 0 -2 0 1 x 2 3 4 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 5 0 0 2 0 0 0
M dia da Gama(2,2)
0.8
1.0 g
1.2
Cauchy(1,1)
0 . 3 0
M dia da Cauchy(1,1)
0 . 2 0
0 . 2 5
F r e q u e n c y
y c
0 . 1 5
0 . 0 5
0 . 1 0
-2
1 x
0 0
2 0 0 0
4 0 0 0
6 0 0 0
e+00
4 c
e+05
Reamostrando a Cauchy e abandonando amostras cuja mdia tenha valor absoluto maior que 10:
M dia da Cauchy(1,1)
0 . 2 5
0 . 2 0
F r e q u e n c y
y c
0 . 1 5
0 . 1 0
0 . 0 5
-2
1 x
0 -10
5 0 0
1 0 0 0
1 5 0 0
2 0 0 0
2 5 0 0
-5
0 c
10
1.4
G = n x1 x2 ...xn
n n = xi i =1
= exp
1
1 n log ( xi ) n i =1
[,1] [,2] [,3] [,4] [,5] [1,] 1 1 1 1 1 [2,] 2 2 2 2 2 [3,] 3 3 3 3 3 [4,] 4 4 4 4 4 [5,] 5 5 5 5 5
rm(z,lixo) z z = lixo(x)
1.5
Isto funciona:
for (x in 1:5){ y = x^2 print(c(x,y)) }
2-
Grficos em R
2.1#
0 .0
0 .1
0 .2
fx
0 .3
0 .4
-4
-2
0 x
2.2-
?plot()
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
2.3 -
Colorindo os grficos
col col col col = = = = "blue") "green") "red") "cyan")
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0
-4
-2
0 x
0.0 -4
0.1
0.2
fx
fx
0.3
0.4
-2
0 x
2.4 -
-4
-2
-4
-2
0 varivel aleatria X
-4
-2
0 varivel aleatria X
-4
-2
0 varivel aleatria X
-4
-2
0 varivel aleatria X
x = seq(0,1,0.1) y = (1-x)^2 + rnorm(length(x),0,0.2) plot(c(0,1),c(-0.2,1.2),type="n") points(x,y,pch=16) m1 = lm(y~x) y1 = m1$coef[1]+m1$coef[2]*x lines(x,y1,col="red") text(0.7, 0.95, expression(bold(m1)*":"*hat(y)[1]== hat(beta)[0] + hat(beta)[1]*"x"),col="red") x2 = x^2 m2 = lm(y~x+x2) y2 = m2$coef[1]+m2$coef[2]*x+m2$coef[3]*x2 lines(x,y2,col="blue") text(0.7, 0.85, expression(bold(m1)*":"*hat(y)[1]== hat(beta)[0] + hat(beta)[1]*"x" + hat(beta)[2]*"x"^2),col="blue")
1.0
1.2
c(-0.2, 1.2)
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
^ + ^ x ^ = m1:y 1 0 1 ^ + ^ x+ ^ x2 ^ = m1:y 1 0 1 2
0.0
0.2
0.4 c(0, 1)
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.2
c(-0.2, 1.2)
-0.2 0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.2
0.4 c(0, 1)
0.6
0.8
1.0
2.5
Grficos 3D
volcano
Z
volcan o