GAS DYNAMICS AND am eye PR ra aga gg lad Pee eed SLABS, (CHENNAI, TRICHY & TIRt (erect LedGas Dynamics And | Jet Propulsion | (For V Semester Mechanical Engineering) S. SENTHIL, M-Tech (T -Madras), MBA. (Ph.D). ; “Assistant Professor Department of Mechanical Engineering Mailam Engineering College Mailam, Tindivanam (T.K), Villupuram (D.T) E-mail: senthil_jit@yahoo.com ‘ Author of: Heat and Mass Transfer Unconventional Machining Process | Applied Thermodynamics i S$. AGORAM avi FOUNDER LAKSHM! PUBLICATIONS ‘AR. PUBLICATIONS A.RS. PUBLICATIONS Arpakkam, Sirkali, Nagapattinam Dist. Pin - 609 111 @ Strength of Materials $ Introduction of Finite Element Analysis Engineering Economics and Cost Analysis, Entrepreneurship Development A.R.S, PUBLICATIONS ‘No.1L, Veerabathra Nager, Part-II, Mambakiam Road, Medavakkam, Chennai-601 100, Tamil Nadu, INDIA. Phone: 044-65397467, 04142-251098 Mobile: 98436 16861, 98400 25186, 90037 55174, 94433 51098First Edition: August 2004 Second Edition: June 2005 Third Revised Edition: June 2006 Fourth Edition: Fifth Revised Edition: June 2008 th Edition: June 2009 © All Rights Reserved by the Author No part of this publication can be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the author. Price: Rs. 270/- Published by and copies can be had from Head Office: ARS. PUBLICATIONS No.|, Veerabathra Nager, Part — Il Mambakkam Road, Medavakkam Chennai — 600 100, Tamil Nedu, INDIA. Phone: 044 ~ 65397467, Mobile: 98400 25186 e-mail: lak_pub@yahoo.com Branch Office: A.R.S, PUBLICATIONS Arpakkam (P.O), Sirkali (Taluk) Nagapattinam District Tamil Nadu - 609 111, INDIA. Phone : 04364 ~291130 Cell : 98436 16861, 9003755174, 94433 51098 Printed at: Sekar Oftset Printers, 168 Big Street, Triplicane, Chennai-600 005. Dedicated to my Beloved Students1am pleased to bring out my sth edtion of “Gas Dynamics. and Jet Propulsion” for Engineering and Technology students. This book is based om the latest Anna University Syllabus for ¥ Semester Mechanical Branch ofall Engineering Colleges. All universiy problems have beon added under each wit, which will enable the students to score high smarts inthe University examination. 1 am extremely grateful to my Honourable Chairman Thine N. Kesavan D.Com, MA, Beloved Director Thiru M. Dhanasekaran, MA, BEd, D.Ag, DIET, and Secretary Thiru, V. Subramanian for ‘his immediate approval and constant encouragement to bring out this book J thant my Principal Prof. ¥. Hangovan, M.Tech, Ph.D. for _ving me general suggestions and ideas while writing this book ‘My sincere thanks to Thiru. A. Durai, B.E., Thiru. A. Ramakrishnan and Thiru. A. Ramesh of “A.R.S. Publications” for their involvement to ‘make this publication suocessfu. Any errors, omissions and suggestions for the improvement of this book are most welcome. 5S. SENTHIL ANNA UNIVERSITY SYLLABUS. ME1303 : GAS DYNAMICS AND JET PROPULSION For V Semester Mechanical Engineering 1, COMPRESSIBLE FLOW ~ FUNDAMENTALS Energy and momentum equations for compressible fhuid lows, vatious regions of flows, reference velocities, stagnation state, velocity of sound, criticl states, Mack number, critical Mach number, types of waves, Mach cone, Mech angle effect of Mach number on compressibility 2, FLOW THROUGH VARIABLE AREA DUCTS Tsentropie flow through variable area ducts, T-s and h-s diagrams for nozzle tnd diffuser flows, area ratio as a function of Mech number, mass flow rate through nozates and ditfusers, effect of fection in ow through nozzles, 3. FLOW THROUGH CONSTANT AREA DUCTS Flow in constant area ducts with fiction (Faso flow) ~ Fenno curves and anno flow equation, variation of low properties, variation of Mach number with ut length, {sothermal flow wit fiction in constant ares ducts: Flow in constant area ducts with heat transfer (Rayleigh flow), Rayleigh line and Rayleigh flow equation, variation of flow properties, maximum heat transfer 4, NORMAL SHOCK Governing equations variation of flow parameters like slatic pressure, static ‘emperature, density, stagnation pressure and entropy across the neemal shock, Prandtl - Meyer equation, impossibility of shock in subsonic flows, flow in ‘convergent and divergent nozzle with shock, ormal shock in Faano and Rayleigh flows, flow with oblique shock (elementary treatment only), 5. PROPULSION Aircraft propulsion ~ types of jt engines ~ energy flow through jet engines, study of turbojet engine components — gifuser, compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and exhaust systems, performance of turbo jet engines ~ trust, thrust power, propulsive and overall efiiencies, thrust augmentation in turbo jet engine, ram jt and pulse jt engines Rocket propulsion ~ rocket engines thrust equation — effective jet velocity Specific impulse ~ cocket engine performance, solid and liquid propellant comparison of diferent propulsion systems. ooCONTENTS } UNIT ~1: COMPRESSIBLE FLOW- ____ FUNDAMENTALS. TA. Tntroduction sen 1 12, Gas Dynamics non 13. Types of Fluid Flow . 14 Steady Flow Energy Equation «0 15, Steady Flow Energy Equation for Turbo machines uc 1 1.6. Steady Flow Energy Equation for Nozzle and Diffuser..1.6 17. Velocity of Sound (2) 1.8. Derivation of Aceoustie Velocity (or) Sound Velocity (a) 19. Mach Number... 1.10, Stagnation State LIL. Stagnation Enthalpy (ig) 1.12. Stagnation Temperature (Tq) 13. Stagnation Pressure (9¢) oo 1.14, Stagnation Density (Pp)... 115. 1.16. LIT. Reference Velocities. 118. Characteristic Mach Number (or) Critica 149. Crocco Number (C,) 1.20. Bernoulli Equation. 1.21. Effect of Mach Number on Compressibiit 1.22, Mach Cone, Mach Angle, Mach Waves... 123. Formulae Used. 124. Solved Problems. 125. University Solved Problems.. 126. Solved Derivations. 1.27. Two Mark Questions and Answers. UNIT If ISENTROPIC FLOW THROUGH VARIABLE, AREA DUCTS. 2a. Introduction . 2.2, Adiabatie Process. {©2_Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion 2.3, Isentropie Process. 24 Comparison of Isentropie and Ad 2:5 Mach Number Variation for Variable Area. 2.6. Expansion in Nozzle 29. Diffuse 2:10, Critieal Temperature (*), Critica Critieal Density (9*) 241, Area Ratio as a Funetion of Mach Number.. 2112. Impulse Function (or) Wall Force Funetion.. 213, Mass Flow Rate in terms of Pressure Ratio.. 2.14, Mass Flow Rate in terms of Area Ratio. 215. Mass Flow Rate in terms of Mach Numbe 2.16. Flow Throngh Nozzles... seeeeses 20) 2.16.1. Convergent Nozze ..n- : 2.162. Convergent Divergent NozZl€ un 217. Flow through Diffuse ZA8. Formulae Used... 219. Solved Problems.. 221. Solved Derivations. 222, Two Mark Questions and Answer: FLOW THROUGH CONSTANT AREA DUCTS. 34-3253, With Heat Transfer UNIT- 1 Zi, Flow in Constant Area Ducts V (Rayleigh Flow).. 34 Introduction 1 Rayleigh Curve... Fundamental Equations .... semen 33 Continuity Equation. eB Momentum Equation 34 Mach Number 35 ENergY-cannnnsninennnnns 13.6 Impulse Function . 36 3.1.9, Stagnation Pressure. : By 3.1.10. Static Temperature.-11, Stagnation Temperature. 2. De sity nn . Change of Entropy. 4, Heat Transfer : 5. Variation of Flow Parameter and Maximum Heat Transfer 3.116, Solved Problems. 3.117. Solved University Problems. Solved Derivations mene . Two Mark Questions and Answers. 3.2. Flow in Constant Area Duets with Friction and Heat Transfer (anno Flow).. 3.2.1. Introduction 3.22. Fanno Line (0:) Curve 3.23. Fanno Flow Equations... 3.24, Solution of Fanno Flow Equ 3.2.5. Variation of Flow Properties. ‘Temperature. Stagnation Pressure. Impulse Function - ENITOPY sere . + Variation of Mach Number with Duet Length nnn 3148 2.14. Isothermal Flow with Friction 4 3.2.15. Solved Problems. saves BAST 3.2.16. University Solved Problems.. 3.184 3.2.17. Solved Derivations wn 3.246 3.2.18, Two Mark Questions and Answers. 3.248. “A, Normal Shock Waves. 4.1.1. Introduction 4.12. Prandtl — Mayer Relation.. 4.13. Down Stream Mach Number (M,). 4.14, Static Pressure Ratio aeross the Shock 4.1.5. Static Temperature Ratio across the Shock |. Supersonic Wind Tunnels... . Formulae Used. . Solved Problems. |. Solved University Problems. . Solved Derivations . Two Mark Questions and Answer . Diffuser, . Compressor, . Turbine... . Nozzle. Velocity of Sound across the Shock. Rankine ~ Hugoniot Equation, Stagnation Pressure Ratio across the Shock ‘Change in Entropy across the Shock Strength of Shock Wave... Oblique Shock Waves.. Intecduction Flow through Oblique Shock Waves... Formulae Used... Introduction Classification of Jet Propulsion. Classification of Air Breathing Engines Ramjet Engine i Pulsejet Engine Turbojet Engine . TurboProp Engine., ‘Turbofan Engine ‘Component Efficiencies ‘Combustion Chamber. ‘Thrust sone 5.28 Jet Thrust 5.28 Propeller Thrust. 529 3. Effective Speed Ratio... 530 Specific Thrust... sue 530 ‘Thrust Specific Fuel Consumption (TSF)... 531contents CS gered sese te seeeeee ee seeeeceeeeneeC vere coe 531 531 Specific Impulse wenn Propulsive Efficiency 3. Thera Efficienc; Overall Efficiency. Solved Problems University Solved Problems. . Two Mark Questions & Answer 5. Review Questions. Rocket Propulsion. Introduction Classification of Rocket Engines. Liquid Propellant Rocket Engine. Liquid Propellant... Properties of Liquid Propellants Liguid Propellant Feed System Gas Pressure Feed System. ‘Turbo Pump Feed System. Combustion... i Solid Propeliant Rocke! Engine. Solid Propellants . Properties of Solid Propellants Hybrid Propellant Rocket Ensne. Hybrid Propellant... ‘Nuclear Rocket Engine Electrical Rocket Engine Are Plasma Rocket Engine . 3. Ton Rocket Engine ‘Magneto Plasma Rocket Engine . Solar Rocker Theory of Rocket Propulsion. Losses in Rocket Engine.. Efficiencies eonnnnen |. Rocket Applications... Formulae Used... Solved Problems University Solved Problems. Two Mark Questions & Answers. Review Question (1 COMPRESSIBLE FLOW - FUNDAMENTALS SS 4.4. INTRODUCTION [A fluids defined as a substance which continuously deforms und the action of shearing forces. Liquids and gases are termed as fluids. “The study of finids at rest is known as fluid staties. The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are Mm considered, is known as fluid kinema ‘The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are al: considered, is known as fluid dynamics. 4,2, GAS DYNAMICS Gas dynamics deals withthe sty of maton of gases and is effec It aiffers from fluid dynamics. Gas dynamies considers thermal or chemi cffects while Quid dynamics these effects are generally excluded. 4.3. TYPES OF FLUID FLOW “The fluid flow is classified as follows 1. Steady and Unsteady flows Uniform and Nonuniform flows Laminar and Turbutant flows 2 3 4, Compressible and incompressible flows 5. Rotational and Irotational flows 6. One dimensional flow, Two dimensional flow and Th dimensional flow. Are a :2 Gas Dynamies and Jet Propulsion 1. Steady and Unsteady flows ‘Steady flow is that type of flow, in which the uid characterisites like velocity, pressure and density at a point do not change with time. Unsteady flow is that type of low, in which the fuid characteristics like velocity, pressure and density at 2 point changes with respect to time. 2. Uniform and Non-uniform flows. Uniform flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity of fluid particles at all sections are equal Non-uniform flow is that type of flow, in which the velocity of fluid particles at all sections are not equal 3. Laminar and Turbulant flows Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of | flow the uid moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth and continuous path. Jn turbulant flow, the fuid particles move in very irregular paths, 4. Compressible and incompressible flows Compressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the ‘uid changes from point to point, ie. density is not constant forthe fluid. Density, p # constant Examples : Gases, vapours Incompressible flow is that type of flow in which the density of the ‘uid is constant Density, 9 = constant Example : Liquids 5, Rotational and irrotational flows Rotational flow is thet type of flow in which the fluid particles owing, along stream lines and also rotate about their own axis, Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1 Irrotational flow is that type of flow in which the fluid particles flowing along stream lines but do not rotate about their own axis, 6. One dimensional, Two dimensional and Three dimensional flows. ‘One dimensional flow is that type of flow in which the flow parameter such as velocity is function of time and one space co-ordinate (x) only. In tis type of flow the stream lines may be represented by straight lines “Two dimensional flow is thattype of flow in which the low parameter such as velocity isa function of time and two space e0-ordinates (x,y) onl. In tis type of flow the siream lines may be represented by a curve, ‘The flow of liquid whose stream lines may be represented in space slong three mutually perpendicular axis (x, y and 2) is called three dimensional flow. 4.4 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION From first aw of Thermodynamics, we know that the total energy “entering the system is équal to total energy leaving the system. This law is, applicable to the steady flow systems. Outlet (2) Inet (1) 2 fe eee LEE 2 | Datum level Fig Ld1.4 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion ‘Consider an open system through which the working substance flows sa stosdy rate as shown in fig.1.1. The working substance entering the system at (1) and leaves the system at (2) Let, Py ~ Pressure of the working substance entering the system (vim?) yy — Specific volume of the working substance entering the system (m3/kg) oy — Velocity of the, working substance entering the system (ov) U, = Specifie internal energy of the working substance entering the system (kg) 2, = Height above the datum level for inlet in (m). bas ¥2s€ Uzand Z, ~ Corresponding values for the working substance leaving the system, Q ~ Heat supplied to the system (I/kg) W_ = Work delivered by the system (J/kg). ‘Total energy entering the system. = Potential energy (82) 2) Kinetic energy ( : Internal eneray (U) Flow energy (Py ¥1) Heat (Q) Compressible Flow = Fundamentals 15 “Total energy leaving the system = Potential energy (@22) 2 Kinotie energ of) #(§ intemal enerey (U9) Flow energy (P2 2) Work (W) From first law of Thermodynamics, ‘Tota energy entering the system = Total energy leaving the syste ei) aut (F}u +pimt@ 2) i +a, + [Spo renew | 3 [awe enso-wn [A= Use ‘Tie above equation is known as steady flow energy equation. 4,8 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION FOR TURBO MACHINES. ‘Most of the compressible flow turbomachines such as turbines @ compressors are classified as adiabatic machines. In these machines the is no heat transfer takes place and change in potential energy (Z ~ 23} also nezligibe. So, apply Q-0, 2-2 = 0 in Equation (1.1).4.6 STEADY FLOW ENERGY EQUATION FOR NOZZLE AND DIFFUSER Nozzle is a device which increases the velocity and decreases the pressure of working substance. Diffuser is a device which increases the pressure and decreases the velocity of the w forking substance. In these systems 1. There is no work is done by the system Le. W= 0 2. There is no heat transfer takes place 3. Change in potential energy is negligible ie. 22 = eZ Apply these conditions in Equation (1.1). ic. Qr0 apes 4.7 VELOCITY OF SOUND (a) ‘The velocity with which sound waves propagate in a medium is called velocity of sound (2), Sound waves are generated due to infinitesimally small pressure disturbances. ‘The velocity of sounds given by a= WRT ~3) Compressible Flow — Fundamentals 1.7 1.8 DERIVATION OF ACOUSTIC VELOCITY (or) SOUND VELOCITY (a) Sound waves are infinitely small pressure disturbances. The speed ‘with which sound propagates in a medium is called speed of sound and is denoted by‘. fan infinitesimal disturbance is created by the piston, as shown in fig 1.2, the wave propagates through the gas at the velocity of sound relative to the gas into which the disturbance is moving, | Distance P Pressure Distance Fig. 1.2 Propagation of an infinitesimal wave in a constant area duct In the case the stagnant gas at pressure ‘p’ on the right appears to flow towards the left with velocity a. When the flow has passed through the wave to the left its pressure is raised to p + dp and the velocity is lowered toa~ de,1.3 Gas Dynamics and Jet Propulsion ‘Apply momentum equation for this process. Alp -(p+dp)} = m ((@-de)-a] = Aip~p=dp}=pAale-de-a] (1s me pAc, Heree™a = m= Aa} = [reac] ----(4) From continuity equation fr the two sides ofthe wave m= pAa= (p+ dp) (@-de)A => pAa= A fap —pde+ adp — dpde] = pa [pa~ pe +adp —dpde} The term dpde is negligible = pam pa-pde +adp Substituting Equation (B) in Equation (A) (A> dp lady) xa = aép peat rd - [8 For Isentropic flow ce ap” YT = |e on [E- vim ‘Sound velocity (or) accoustic velocity (2) = /7RT -@) 4.9 MACH NUMBER ‘The Mach number is an index ofthe ratio between inertia force and elastic force velocity of sound (a). ve ee K where P = Density of the fluid e- Velocit pad KA Tnertis force Elastic foree A= Flow area K — Bulk Modulus Compressible Flow ~ Fundamemals 1.9 ofthe fluid ‘This relation gives another important definition of Mach numbe i.e, the Mach number is defined as the ratio ofthe fluid velocity (e) 1 th: We know that rep Velocity of sound, a= /7RT > z May ViRT a4)