You are on page 1of 7

108

CHAPTER 2

3. The high- and low-pass RC filters are


quencies from data signals.

passive circuits used to block undesired fre-

4. Operational amplifiers (op amps) are a special signal-conditioning building block


around which many special-function circuits can be developed. The device was demonstrated in applications involving amplifiers, converters, linearization circuits, integrators, and several other functions.

PROBLEMS

2.1 2.2

Section 2.2 Derive Equation (2.1) for general circuit loading. The unloaded output of a sensor is a sinusoid at 200 Hz and 5 V rms amplitude. Its output impedance is 2000 + 6007. lf a0.22- pF capacitor is placed across the output as a load, what is the sensor output rms voltage amplitude? Section 2.3

2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7

A sensor resistance varies from 520 to 2500 O. This is used for R1 in the divider of Figure 2.4, along with R2 : 500,f} and % : 10.0 V. Find (a) the range of the divider voltage, Vp and (b) the range of power dissipation by the sensor. Prepare graphs of the divider voltage versus transducer resistance for Example 2.2 and Problem2.3. Does the voltage vary linearly with resistance? Does the voltage increase or decrease with resistance? Show how the bridge offset equation given as Equation (2.7) can be derived from Equation (2.6). Derive Equation (2.t0) for the bridge circuit Th6venin resistance. A Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Figure 2.5, nulls with R1 : 227 O, Rz : M8 O, and R3 : I4l4 '0. Find Ra.

2.8 A

2.9

sensor with a nominal resistance of 50 O is used in a bridge with : Rz : 100 f,), V : 10.0 V, and Rr : 100-,f} potentiometer. It is necessary to resolve 0.1-O changes of the sensor resistance. a. At what value of R3 will the bridge null? b. What voltage resolution must the null detector possess? A bridge circuit is used with a sensor located 100 m away. The bridge is not lead

Rr

compensated, and the cable to the sensor has a resistance of 0.45

nulls with R1 :3400O,R2 :3aA5 O, and

Rl:

O/tt.The bridge

1560O. What is the sensor

2.10

2.ll A

The bridge in Figure 2.5 has Rr : 250 O, Rr : 500 O, 1.5 V. The detector is a galvanometer with R6 : 150 O. a. Find the value of R2 that will null the bridge. b. Find the offset current that will result if R2 : 190 O.

resistance?

& _ 340 f,1, and V --

current balance bridge, shown

Rz

1k f,l, Ra

590 f,), Rs

10 Cl,

in Figure 2.8, has resistances of Rr : andV : 10.0 V.

-I
ANALOG STGNAL CONDTTTONTNG

| 10e

a. Find the value of R3 that nulls the bridge with no current. b. Find the value of R, that balances the bridge with a current of 0.25 mA. 2.12 A potential measurement bridge, such as that in Figure 2.9, has V : 10.0 V, Rr : Rz : Rr : 10 kO. Find the unknown potential if the bridge nulls with
Ra

9'73 kO'
as capacitors nulls when Cr
0.31;r.rF, and C3 250 mH'

2,13 An ac Wheatstone bridge with all arms


Cz :

0.4 pF,

2.14

0.27 pF. Find Ca. The ac bridge of Figure 2.48 nulls with R1

Lz :

: I kO. Rz :

2 kO,

R:

100 O, and

a. Find the values of Ro and La. b. If the circuit is excited by a 5-V rms, I -kHz oscillator, find

2.15 2.16 2.17 2.18 2.19 2.20

the offset voltage for Lo: 510 mH. c. What are the amplitudes of the in-phase and quadrature (90') components of the offset voltage? Develop a low-pass RC filter to attenuate 0.5 MHz noise by 97Vo. Specify the critical frequency, values of R and C, and the attenuation of a 400-Hz input signal. A low-pass RC filter has f. : 3.5 kHz. Find the attenuation of a 1-kHz signal. A high-pass RC filter must drive 120 Hz noise down to l%o. Specify the filter critical frequency, values of R and C and the attenuation of a 30-kHz signal. A high-pass filter is found to attenuate a I -kHz signal by 20 dB. What is the critical frequency? Design a band-pass filter with critical frequencies of 100 Hz and l0 kHz, respectively. Use a resistance ratio of 0.05. Draw a semilog graph like that in Figure 2.21

showing voltage output to input from l0 Hz to 100 kHz. A sensor output needs to feed an amplifier with a l0-kO input impedance. There is significant noise in the range of 4 to 5 kHz. The data spectrum lies below 200 Hz.

FIGURE 2.48 ac bridge for Problem 2.14.

=110

| CHAPTER

2.21

2.22

Design a low-pass filter for use between the sensor and the amplifier that reduces the data by not more than I Vo.By how much is the noise reduced? A telephone line will be used to carry measurement data as a frequency-modulated signal from 5 to 6 kHz. The line is shared with voice data below 500 Hz, and switching noise occurs above 500 kHz. Design a band-pass RC filter that reduces the voice by 80Vo and the switching by 90Vo. Use a resistance ratio of r : 0.02. What is the effect on the passband frequencies? A single line is multiplexed to carry sensor signals in a frequency range below I kHz and communication signals ranging from 10 to 50 kHz. There is a large noise component at 4.5 kHz from a turbine in the plant. Design a twin-T notch filter for the 4.5-kHz noise. Evaluate the effect on sensor and communication signals.

Section 2.5

2.23 2.24 2.25 2.26

Show how op amps can be used to provide an amplifier with a gain of +100 and an input impedance of 1.5 kO. Show how this can be done using both inverting and

noninverting configurations. Specify the components of a differential amplifier with a gain of 22. Using an integrator with RC : l0 s and any other required amplifiers, develop a voltage ramp generator with 0.5 V/s. Signal-conditioning analysis shows that the following equation must relate output voltage to input voltage:

Vu, : 3.35 V"

2.68

2.27 2.28 2.29 2.30 2.31

Design circuits to do this using (a) a summing amplifier and (b) a differential amplifier. Adifferential amplifierhas Rz : 470 kO and R, : 2.7 kO. When V, : Vt: 2.5Y the output is 87 mV. Find the CMR and CMRR. Derive Equation (2.41) for the instrumentation amplifier of Figdre 2.37. Design an instrumentation amplifier like that of Figure 2.37 with switch-selectable gains of l, 10, 100, and 1000. Show the complete circuit using 741opamps, pin connections, and input offset adjustment. A control system needs the average of temperature from three locations. Sensors make the temperature information available as voltags, 7r, V2, and V3. Develop an op amp circuit that outputs the average of these voltages. Use an inverting amplifiea an integrator, and a summing amplifier to develop an output voltage given by

Vo,,: l}V^ * 2.32

V,ndt

Develop a voltage-to-current convener that satisfies the requirement .I : 0.0021 %. If the op amp saturation voltage is t12 V and the maximum current delivery is 5 mA, find the maximum load resistance.

\
ANALOG StcNAL COND|T|ON|NG Section 2.6

| 111

2.33 AbridgecircuithasRl : R:: R+: l20Oand l/:

l0.0V.Designasignal-

conditioning system that provides an output of 0.0 to 5.0 V as Rj varies from 120 to 140 O. Plot Vo,,, versus R.,. Evaluate the linearity.

2.34

2.35 2.36 2.37 2.38

2.39 2.40

Develop signal conditioning for Example 2.2 so an output voltage varies from 0 to 5 V as the resistance varies from 4 to 12 kO. Develop signal conditioning for Problem 2.3 so the output voltage varies from 0 to 5 V as the resistance varies from 520 to 2500 f,), where 0 V corresponds to 520 O. A sensor varies from I to 5 kO. Use this in an op amp circuit to provide a voltage varying from 0 to 5 V as the resistance changes. A process signal varies from 4 to 20 mA. The setpoint is 9.5 mA. Use a current-tovoltage converter and a summing amplifier to get a voltage error signal with a scale factor of 0.5 V/mA. Sensor resistance varies from 25 to 1.5 k0 as a variable changes from c,.,.,1n to cmax. Design a signal-conditioning system that provides an output voltage varying from -2 to +2V as the variable changes from min to max. Power dissipation in the sensor must be kept below 2.5 mW. A pressure sensor outputs a voltage varying as 100 mV/psi and has a2.5- k,f) output impedance. Develop signal conditioning to provide 0 to 2.5 V as the pressure varies

from 50 to 150 psi. A system is needed to measure flow, which continuously cycles between 20 and 30 gallmin with a period of 30 s. The required output is a voltage varying from -25 to +2.5 V for the cycling flow range. The sensor to be used has a transfer function of \@ volts, where Q is in gaVmin, and an output impedance of 2.0 kf,). Tests show that the output of the sensor has 60 Hz noise of 0.8 V rms. Design a signalconditioning system, including noise filtering, and evaluate your design as follows. a. Plot output voltage versus flow, and comment on the linearity.

b. Determine

the noise on the output as percent FS.

SU PPLEMENTARY PROBLEMS
Figure 2.49 shows a system proposed as a scale for weighing. The basic sensor is a resistor, R',,, that linearly converts weight to resistance; for 0.00 lb, it nominally has a resistance of I l9 O, and at299lb it has a resistance of 127 O. The bridge offset voltage is amplified by a differential amplifier and sent to a DVM whose voltage, by design, will equal the weight (i.e., a weight of 134 lb should resulr in a voltage of 1.34 V so the DVM will read 134\. Neat, huh? The purpose of the resistor combination in the bridge is to allow resetting the bridge to zero using the variable resistor, R.-. This will allow compensation for changes of Rp, or any of the other resistors for that matter. The next three questions are related to this
system.

112

| CHAPTER 2

0.00-to 2.99-V DVM


(decimal suppressed)

All resistors in ohms (O)

FIGURE 2.49 Circuit for supplementary problems.

S2.1

Consider first only the bridge circuit in Figure 2.49. a. What value of R. will be required to null the bridge at 0.00 lb? b. For what minimum and maximum values of Rs' can the bridge be nulled

using R.? c. What offset voltage, A% results when the weightis299lb (assuming the bridge is nulled at 0.01b)? 52.2 Let us consider the amplifier of Figure 2.49 next. a. Find the gain, K so that the DVM indicates the weight but in volts (i.e., when the weight is 299 lb, the voltmeter reads 2.99 Vs). b. Provide the circuit for a differential amplifier that can provide this gain. Specify the resistors in the amplifier circuit. Show how the amplifier inputs are connected to bridge points a and b to give the right output polarity. S2.3 Let's evaluate how well the system in Figure 2.49 works and propose a change. a. First suppose the weight is 150Ib. What will the DVM read? Therefore, what is the error in lb? Suppose the scale is exact at 0.00 lb and 299lb but has errors at 150Ib. Why is there an error? b. Change the gain so the reading is exact at 150Ib. Now specify the error at 0 lb (which no one weighs) and299lb (which few people weigh). c. Prepare a plot of voltage reading versus weight. 52.4 Figure 2.50 shows how a single wire can be used to carry measurement data at the same time. This is done by modulating two widely different carrier frequencies with data and using filters to extract the data at the receiving end. Suppose one data channel is a modulated signal of 1.0 to 1.5 kHz and the other is a modulated signal of 50 to 55 kHz. Design the extraction filters using simple RC filters such that the data loss

ANALOG STGNAL COND|TION|NG

| 113

Signal 2

FIGURE 2.50 System for Problem 52.4.

is restrictedto0.T0T (3 dB, or 50Vo power) in the data signals. How much amplitude

S2.5

52.6

crossover results? (What is the amplitude ratio of the 50-55 kHz in the l-1.5-kHz channel and vice versa?) A humidity sensor resistance varies linearly from 250 kO to 120 kO as humidity varies from 0Vo to l0OVo. Power dissipation in the sensor must be kept below 100 pW. Design analog signal conditioning to provide a voltage of 0.00 to 1.00 V as the humidity varies from 0Vo to l0OVo. In some cases, we need amplifiers that have high gain when the input voltage is low and decreasing gain as the input voltage increases. So this is an amplifier whose gain depends upon the input voltage! An op amp circuit such as that in Figure 2.51 can provide this response. Here diodes are used to isolate feedback

resistors via their forward voltage drop until the output voltage rises above predefined levels. For the circuit in Figure 2.51, assume the forward voltage drop of the diodes is 1.4 V (i.e., they do not begin to conduct until the voltage across them is above 1.4 V). Prepare a plot of output voltage versus input voltage for this circuit. (Hint: When diode D1 begins to conduct, the output must be -1.4 V and this effectively just puts the 100-kO resistors in parallel.)

FIGURE 2.51 Nonlinear amplifier using diodes for Problems 52.6 and 52.7.

100

ko

D1

114

CHAPTER 2

1.4

1.3
1.2

l.l
I
0.9 0.8

Voltage 0.7
0.6
0.5

0.4
0.3 0.2 0.1 0

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4


Pressure (psi)

4.5

FIGURE 2.52 Voltage versus pressure for Problem 52.7.

52.7

Circuits such as Figure 2.51 can also be used to provide some degree of linearization. To see this, consider a sensor whose output voltage varies nonlinearly with input pressure by the equation V(p) : 0.035p2. This response is shown in Figure 2.52. Now, assume the sensor voltage is provided as input to the circuit in Figure 2.51. Determine the output voltage over the pressure range, and plot Vou, versus p.
You will see that the resulting voltage is more nearly linear.

You might also like