FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY| i P| FIELD AND WAVE ELECTROMAGNETICS DAVID K. CHENG ‘SYRACUSE UNIVERSITY A ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY + Reading, Massachusetts rk, California, London’ ‘team enlace Sydney| i z ‘This book i in the APDISON;WESLEY SERIES IN ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING SPONSORING EDITOR: Tom Robbins PRODUCTION EDITOR: Marilee Sorotskin TEXT DESIGNER: Melinda Grbsser ILLUSTRATOR: Dick Morton PRODUCTION MANAGER: Herbert Nolan ‘The text ofthis book was composed in Times Roman by Syntax International Library of Congress Cataloging in Pobliction Data (Cheng, David K. (David Keun date~ Field and wave eletromigoetcn. Bibliography: p. 1. Electromagnetism, 2. Field thoy Physics) LT Qcr60.ce8 sora 5 seiz9 : ISBN 0201-01239.1 ‘AACR? ; Copstiaht © 1983 by Addison-Wesley Pelshing Company, ne Alig reser No part of his publication may be pprouee, sored in a trical system, of rae raed i Ay form erty any mans, exon meter meng ae ea ts Tihout he prior writen perma afte pusher, Fined inte Uae Sehenor rs Sioutaneouly in Canad : Plot SEER sn Ake 246] x | 341 Treztectromagnetic Mode! 24 Introduction ‘The electromagnetic model SI units and universal constants Review questions Introduction ‘Vector addition and subtraction Products of vectors 2-3.1 Scalar or dot product 243.2 Vector or cross product 2-33. Product of three vectors Orthogonal coordinate systems 2-4.1 Cartesian coordinates 2-42 Cylindrical coordinates 2-4.3 Spherical coordinates Gradient of a scalar field Divergence of a vector field Divergence theorein Curl of a vector field Stokes’s theorem, ‘Two nul identities 2-101 Identity 1 2-101 Identity 11 Helmholtz’s theorem Review questions Problems 10 u B B 1s 16 18 a 4 31 45 33 35 55 56 37 ci) ostatic Electric Field : x CONTENTS i 3-1 Introduction 3-2. Fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space 3-3. Coulomb's law 3.2.1. Electric figld due w a system of discrete charges 3-32. Electric feld due to a continuous distribution of charge 3-4 Gauss's law and applications 3-5. Electric potential 3-51 Electric potential due to a charge distribution 3-6 Condugtors in static electric field 347 Dielectrics in static electri field 3-7.1__ Equivalent charge distributions of polarized dielectries 3-8 Electric flux density and dielectric constant 3-811 Dielectric strength 3-9 Boundary conditions for electrostatic fields 3-10 Capacitance and gapacitors 3210.1 Series and parallel connections of capacitors 3-1 Electrostatic energy ang forces 3-111 Electrostatic energy in terms of field quantities 3-112 Electrostatic forces Review.questions Problems 4-1 Introduction i "4-2. Poisson's and Laplace's equations }-3 Uniqueness of elegtrostatic solutions i 4 Method of images = A 44.1 Point charge and conducting planes 4-42 Line charge and parallel «° conducting cylindgr = 4-4.3 Point charge and conducting sphere 65 Cy) B 15 8 2 84 9 9s 96 99 108 10s 109 44 47 120 123 126 128 133 133 139 141 142 148 14766 o 78 8 2 an 95 96 99 104 10s 109 114 7 120 123 126 128 133 133 . 139 14h 142 144 147 4-5 Boundary-value problems in Cartesian coordinates 4-6 Boundary-value problems in cylindrical coordinates 4-7 Boundary-value problems in spherical coordinates Review questions Problems 5-1. Introduction 5-2 Current density and Ohm's law 5-3 Electromotive force and Kirebhof’s voltage law 5-4 Equation of continuity and Kirchhof’s current law 5-5 Power dissipation and Joule’s law 5-6 Boundary conditions for current density 5-7. Resistance calculations Review questions Problems © static magnetic Fictds 6-1 Introduction 6-2 Fundamental postulates of magnetostatics in free space ‘Vector magnetic potential Biot-Savart's law and applications The magnetic dipole : 6-5.1 Scalar magnetic potential 6-6 * Magnetization ancl equivalent current densities 6-7 Magnetic field intensity and relative permeability 6-8 Magnetic circuits 6-9 Behavior of magnetic materials 6-10 Boundary conditions for magnetostatic fields 6-11 Induetances and Inductors 6-12 Magnetic energy 6-121 Magnetic energy in terms of field quantities 6 ee 6 conTeWTs xi 150 158 168 167 169 i 173 17 180 182 183 187 19 192 196 197 202 204 208 212 23 217 220 225 230 233 241 244255 257 259 268 269 2 24 281 283, 286 287 288 290 291 292 293 294 296 298 301 302 306 307 8-21 Transverse electromagnetic waves t 8-2.2 Polarization of plane waves Plane waves in conducting media i 8-31 Low-loss dielectire 1 8-3.2 Good conductor 8-3.3 Group velocity Flow of electromagnetic power and the Poynting vector | 8-4.1 Instantaneous and average power densities “Normal incidence at a plane conducting boundary ‘Oblique incidence at a plane conducting boundary 8-61 Perpendicular polarization 8-62 Parallel polarization, Normal incidence at a plane dielectric boundary Normal incidence at multiple dielectric interfaces 8-8.1 Wave impedance of total field 8-8.2 Impedance transformation with__ multiple dielectrics 8-9 Oblique incidence at a plane dielectric boundary 89.1 Total reflection 8-9.2 Perpendicular polarization 8-9.3 Parallel polarization, Review questions Problems 9 Theory and Applications of Transmission Lines 9-1 Introduction 9-2 Transverse electromagnetic wave along a parallel-plate transmission line 9-2.1 Lossy parallel-plate transmission lines 9-3. General transmission-line equations 9-3. Wave characteristics on an infinite ‘transmission line 9-32 Transmission-line parameters 9-33 Attenuation constant from power relations 9-4 Wave characteristics on finite transmission lines 9-4.1 Transmission lines as circuit elements 9-42 Lines with resistive termination CONTENTS — xiii 32 314 317 318 319 322 370 37 315 379 381 385 388 390 395 400xiv CONTENTS 9-43_Lines with abjtdry termination 404 41 an 9-44 Transmission-lne circuits |! 407 9-5. The Smith chart an oad 95.1, Smith-chart calculations for lossy lines 420 u 9-6 Transmission-ine impedance matching 42 ‘ “ 9-6. Impedance mateng by quarter, wave transformer! 423 u 9-62. Single-stub matching 426 un 9-63 Double-stub matching 41 Review questions | 435 u Problems : 437 : uu 10 Waveguides and Cavity Resonators ‘ : 0-1 Introduction 443 10-2 General wave behaviors along uniform " Buiding structures a4 10-2.1 Transverse electromagnetic waves 487 10-2.2 Transverse magietic waves 443 10-2.3 Transverse glectric waves 452 1 10-3 Parallel-plate wavepiide : : 456 10-3.1 TM waves betwiéen parallel plates 457 10-3.2 TE waves between parallel plates 461 10-3. Attenuation in beralie-pate waveguides 463 10-4 Rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.1 TM waves jn rectangular waveguides 467 10-4.2 TE waves in rectangular waveguides an - 10-43 Attenuog in rectangular waveguides 415 10-5. Dielectric waveguides 478 10-5.1 TM waves along detect stb a0 o 10-5.2 TE waves along a dielectric slab 483 << 7 10-6 Cavity resonators, 5 486 “10-61 TMynp modes 5 s 487 2 TE modes 488 10-6.3 Quality factor Si cavity resonator 490 Review questions : 493 Problems i 495an 420 “422 43 426 al 435 437 447 448 452 456 437 461 463 461 467 an 475 48 419 483 “7 8 490 493 495 11-1 Introduction 11-2 Radiation fields of elemental dipoles 11-21 The elemental electric dipole 11-2.2 The elemental magnetic dipole Anteana paticfff€ and artenna parameters’ Ni-4 This tinear antennas 11-41 The halt-wave aipole M1-5 Antenna arrays * 115.1 Two-element arrays 118.2 General uniform linear arrays 11-6 Receiving antennas 11~6.1 Internal impedance and directional pattern 11-6.2 Effective area 11-7 Some other antenna types 11-71 Traveling-wave antenna ——~— 41-72. Yagi-Uda antenna 11-73 Broadband antennas 1-8 Aperture Radiators References Review questions Problems Appendix A Symbols and Units A-1 Fundamental SI (rationalized MKSA) units A-2 Derived quantities A-3- Multiples and submultiples of units Appendix B Some Useful Material Constants B-1 Constants of free space B-2 Physical constants.of electron and proton 00 02 502 505 50? 515 517 518 521 327 $52 532 534 555 555. Answers to Sstected Problems ; i Index CONTENTS Relative permittivities Gite conan) Conductivities Relative permeabilities Back Endpapers Left. Gradient, divergence, cprl, and Laplacian operations Right: Cylindrical coordinates Spherical coordinates 556 556 357 559 560 14The many books on introductory electromagnetics can be roughly divided into two main groups. The first group takes the traditional development: starting with the experimental laws, generalizing them in steps, and finally synthesizing them in the form of Maxwells equations. This is an inductive approach. The second group takes the axiomatic development: starting with Maxwell's equations, identifying each with the appropriate experimental law, and specializing the general equations to static and time-varying situations for analysis. Ths i a deductive approach. A few books begin with a treatment of the special theory Pvelativity and develop all of electro. magnetic theory from Coulomb's law of force; but this approach requires the cussion and understanding of the special theory of relativity first and ‘best suited for a course at an advanced level Proponents of the traditional development argue that itis the way electromag netic theory was unraveled historically (from special experimental laws to Maxwell's equations), and that itis easier for the students to follow than the other methods 1 feel, however, that the way a body of knowledge was unraveled is not necessarily the best way to teach the sybject to students. The topics tend to be fragmented and cannot take full advantage ofthe conciseness of vector calculus, Students are puzzled at, and often form a mental block to, the subsequent introduction of gradient, d- vergence, and cur operations, Asa process for formulating in ceectromagnetic model, this approach lacks cohesiveness and elegance The axiomatic development usually begins with the set of four Maxwell's equa tions, either in differential or in integral form, as fundamental postulates. These are ‘equations of considerable complexity and are dificult to master. They are likely 10 cause consternation and resistance in students who are hit with all of them at the beginning of a book. Alert students will wonder about the meaning of the feld vectors and about the necessity and sufficiency of these general equations. At the initial stage students tend to be confused about the concepts ofthe electromagnetic model, and they are not yet comfortable with the associated mathematical manip- ulations. In any case, the general Maxwel’s equations are soon simplified to apply to static fields, which allow the consideration of electrostatic fields and magneto- static fields separately. Why then should the entire set of four Maxwell's equations be introduced at the outset?" perhapsvi PREFAC™ ‘ : - Traay be argued that Coulomb's law, though based on experimental evidence, Shargegre# Postlate’ Consider the two stiphlations of Coulomb's ans one tre aay eles re very small compared with their distance of sepuraton aeaits Feo between the charged bodies is inversely proportional to ine sree te st Gftance. The question arises regarding the fst stipulation: How stall wots ‘tacaed bodies be in ordar to be considered “very small” compared with hag dn asces aeguctice the:charged bodies cannot be of vans’ ag sizes (ea! poten Sparees). and theres dificulty in determing the"true” distance between the bocing of fnite dimensions. Far given body sizes the relative accuracy in dstence mesccne, rec eater when the separation is largér. Hoviever, practical consderatng. (weakness of force, existence of extraneous charged bodiss cle) seine noes Sistanee of separation in the laboratory, and experimental inaccuracies cannon og Snikely avoided. This lends to a more important question concerning the mere Sauare relation ofthe second stipulation, Even ithe charged bodies were of vanishing pomcgperimental measurements could not be of an infinite accuracy no meee accuracy (See Section 3-2), se tack builds the electromagnetic mode] using ain axiomatic approach in B7e st for static elecric folds (Chapter 3), them for siatie magnetic telee (Chapter Sh 2nd finally for time,varying fields leading to Maxwell's equations (Chapter 7). Ire nathematical basis foreach step is Helmholtz's theorem which tance tat Onstant if both its divergence and model in pec eeeited evprywhere. Thus, for the development of the sloteetanc Fer sru tee space iis boy necessary to defen single vector (namely the eens FEM tensity B) by specifying its divergenée and its curl as postulate il ate Raations in electrostatics for free space, including Coulamb’s law end Gagne Law, can be derivéd.ftom th¢ wo rather simple postulates. Relations ip weaned raiatsetn be developed through the concept of equivalent charge dictthucoee ot polarized dielectrics. : aa Similarly, forthe mggnétostatic model in. fre space it is necessary to define Calta single magnetic fuxidensty vector B by specifying its divereecce ance nn Ralana eestlatest all othgt formulas can be derived from these ts posts Relations in material media éan be developed thyough the concept of eecreclae Field rene aes OF cours! the validity of the postulates lies in thelr soil te yield results that pnform with experimental evidence. ro gme-varyie fields, the cleric and!imagngtic fel intensities are coupled. he GutlE postulate forthe electrostatic model mbt be modified to conten no Faraday's law, In addition, the curl B postulate fgr the magnetostatic model must also be modified inorder obs consisent withthe uation stecmne eei ental evidence, b's law: that the bration, and that de square of their ¥ small must the 24 with their dis. izes (ideal point tween two bodies istance measure. 4 considerations ssriet the usable racies cannot be sing the inverse- vere of vanishing aracy no matter ble for Coulomb square (not the 2TH uestion ok iy ae tic approach in fields (Chapter ns (Chapter 7), ch states that a divergence and xe electrostatic ly, the electric ates, All other ¥ and Gauss's ons in material listributions of ‘sary to define reenpand its wo f cutates Of alent hei? wwulty t0 S are coupled. conform with i¢ model must sity. We have, PREFACE vil then, the-four Maxwell's equations that constitute the electromagnetic model, 1 believe that this gradual development of the electromagnetic model based on Helmholtz’s theorem is novel, systematic, and more easily accepted by students. In the presentation of the material, I strive for lucidity and unity, and for smooth and logical flow of ideas. Many worked-out examples (a total of 135 in the book) are included to emphasize fundamental concepts and to illustraie methods for solving typical problems. Review questions appear at the end of each chapter 10 {est the students’ retention and videsstanding of the essertial material in the chapter. ‘The problems in each chapter are designed! reinforce sswlents’ comprehension of the interrelationships between the different quantities in the formulas, and to extend their abilitysof applying the formulas to solve practical problems. I do not believe in simple-minded drill-ype problems that accomplish little more than an exercise on a calculator, ‘The subjects covered, besides the fundamentals of electromagnetic fields, include theory and applications of transmission lines, waveguides and resonators, and fantennas and radiating systems. The fundamental concepts and the governing theory of electromagnetism do not change with the introduction of new clectromas- netic devices. Ample reasons and incentives for learning the fundamental principles of electromagnetics are given in Section 1-1. | hope that the contents of this booi, strengthened by the novel approach, will provide students with a secure and suf. ficient background for understanding and analyzing basic electromagneic phe- nomena as well as prepare them for more advanced subjects in electromagnetic theory. There is enough material in this book for a two-semester sequence of courses. Chapters I through 7 contain the material on fields, and Chapters 8 through 11 on waves and applications. In schools where there is only a one-semester course on electromagnetics, Chapters 1 through 7, plus the first four sections of Chapter 8 would provide a good foundation on fields and an introduction to waves :n un- bounded media. The remaining material could serve as a useful reference book on applications or as a textbook for a follow-up elective course. If one is pressed for time, some material, such as Example 2-2 in Section 2-2, Subsection 3-112 on electrostatic forces, Subsection 6~5.1 on scalar magnetic potential, Section 6-8 fon magnetic circuits, and Subsections 613.1 and 6=13.2 on maynetic forees and torques, may be omitted. Schools on a quarter system could adjust the material to be covered in accordance with the total number of hours assigned to the subject of electromagnetics ‘The book in its manuscript form was class-tested several times in my classes on clectromagnetics at Syracuse University. I would like to thank all of the students in those classes who gave me feedback on the covered material. { would aiso tike to thank all the reviewers of the manuscript who offered encouragement and valuable suggestions. Special thanks are due Mr. Chang-hong Liang and Mr. Bai-lin Ma for their help in providing solutions to some of the problems. Syracuse, New York D.K.C. January 1983ce INTRODUCTION Stated in a simple fashion, electromagnetics isthe study ofthe effects of electric charges, at rest and in miotion. From elementary physics we know there are two kinds of charges: positive and negative, Both positive and negative charges are sources of an lectric field, Moving charges produce a current, which gives rise to a magnet fel, Here we tentatively speak of electri fleld and magnetic field in a general wi efinitive meaings wll be attached to these terms later. A feld isa spatial distribution of a quantity, which may or may not be.a fuinetion of time. A time-varying electric field is accompanied by a magnetic field, and vce versa. In other words, time-varying leetric and megnetic fields are coupled, resulting in an electromagnet field. Under certain conditfons, time-dependent electromagnetic fields produce waves that radiate fom the souice. The concept of fields and waves is essential in the explanation of action at a distance. In this book, Field arid Wate Electromagnetics, we stay the Principles sind applications of the laws of electromagnetism that govern electro. ‘magnetic phenomena, Eleciromagnetits is of fundamental iniportinee to physicists and electrical engineers, Eléctromagnetic theory is indispensable in the understanding of the principle of atom smashers, cathode-ray ostilloscopes, radar, satellite communication, television reception, remote sensing, radio astronomy, microwave devices, optical fiber communication, instrument-landing systems, electromechanical energy con- version, and s@ on. Circuit concepts represent a restricted version, a special case, of electromagnetic coticepts. As we shall see in Chapigt 7, when the source frequency is very low so that thé dimensions of a conducting nétwork are much smaller than the wavelengib, We have a quasi-static situatior, which simplifies an electromagnetic problem ta drcll problem. However, we hasten {0 add that circuit theory is ill a highly developed, sophisticated discipline. It appliés to a different class of electrical engineering probletns, and itis certainly important in its own right. ‘Two situitions illustrate the inadequacy @f circult-theory concepts and the need of electromagnetic-ield concepts. Figure J-I depicts a monopole antenna ofthe type we sce on a jwilkie-talkie, Ol transmit, the source at the buse feeds the antenna with ‘Amessage-carrying current ai an appropriate cartier frequency. From a circuit-theory 12 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Incident condudting \ wal Fig. 1-1 Amonopoleantenna, * Fig. 1-2 An electromagnetic problem, Point of view, the source feeds into an open circuit because ‘he Upper tip of the antenna nay Gonnected to anything physically; hence no eurrent would flow and nothing ould happen. This viewpoint, of course, cannot explain why communication ean fe SSablished between walkie-talkies ata distance. Electromagnetic concepls moxt be used, We shall seein Chapter 11 that when the length ofthe antenna isan apprecisble part of the carrier wavelength a nonuniform curtent will ow along the open arded antenna, This current radiate a time-varying electromagnetic Fld in space, which an induce current in another antenna ata distance In Fig. 1-2 we show a situation where an electromagnetic wave is incident from fd yon large conducting wall containing a small hoe aperture) Electromagnexie felds wil exist om the right side of the wal at points, such as Pin the figure, thet ne Polunecessarily directly behind the aperture. Circuit theory is obviously insdesuate here forthe determination (or even the explanation ofthe existence) of the felon {Us situation in Fig. 1~2, however, represents a problem of practical importance oc ‘solution is relevant in evaluating the shielding effectiveness ofthe conducting wall Generally speaking, circuit theory deals with lumped-parameter systems Circuits consisting ‘of components characterized by lumped parameters such an resistances, inductanets, and eupacitances. Voltages and currents ate the mary {ostem variables. For DC circuit, the system variables are constants and the sows ming equations are algebraic equations. The system variables in AC circuile we {ime-dependent; they are scalar quantities and are independent of space coordinaree hs governing equations are ordinary differential equations. On the other hand, moet sigettomagnetc variables are functions of time as wells of space coordinates. Many are vectors with both a magnitude and a direction, and their representation and manipulation require a knowledge of vector algebra and vector calculus, Even ia Sati cases, the governing equations are, in general, partial diferential equations Ie ‘The Product ofthe wavelength and the fequeney ofan AC source isthe velocity of wave propagtion. Atheantenna snd nothing tion gan be pis et be appre “able pen aed pace, which cident from Tomagnetic are, that are inadequate e field at P. portance as, tucting wall, systems — sts such as the main 1d the gov- cireuits are ordinates, hand, most ate( any tation and Cin uations. It Propagation, 3 i } is essential that we aie equipped to hjfidle vector quantities and variables that dfe both time- aid shace-dependent, The fundamentals of vector algebra and veciée calculus will:be dveloped in Chaptet 2: Techniques for solving partial differential ‘equations aré heeled in dealing with cerctin types of electromagnetic problems, These techniques will bd discyssed in Chaptér 4. the importance of acquiring a facility in the use of these tnathematical tools in the study of electromagnetics cannot be overemphasized. | THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MoDEL ° + There are two ajproaches inthe developufent ot x scientific subject: the inductive ‘approach and thetleductive approach, Using the inductive approach, one follows te historical developinent ofthe subject, stating with the observations of some simple experiments nd ifring om thon laws af ores tps of snag from particular phesiomena to general pridciples. The deductive approach, on the other hand, postilatesia few fundumentalrelations for an idealized model. The Postulated relatids see axionns, from which particular laws and theoeeims ea he derived. The validity of the model and the axioms is verified by thoi ability to predict. consequences thalicheck with experimental observations. In this book we prefer to tse the deductive or axiomatic approach hegause it is more elegant and enables the development of the subjget of eestromngueltes in ainanrderty way. Ti aad model ws a or stubing & eee nae mun elt 10 world situations and be able to explain physical phenomena: otherwise, we would be engaged in mental exercises for no purpose, For example,a theoretical mode! could be built, from which one might obtain many mathematical relations: but, f these relations disagiee with observed results, the model is of no use. The mathematics may be correct, bt the underlying assumptions of ti€ model may be wrong or the implied approximations nlay not be justified. Three esséntial steps are involved. in building a theory on an idealized model First, some basic quantities germane to the dubject of study are defined. Second. the rules of operatiod:(the mathematics) of these quantities are specified. Thin. som fundamental relatipns are postulated. These postulates or laws are invariably based on numerous experimental observations acquired under controlled conditions and Synthesized by brant minds. A familiar example is the circuit theory built on a circuit model of ideal sources and pure resistnces, inductances, and capacitances lit this case the basic quantities are voltages (V), currents (7), resistances (R, inductances (L), and tapscitatoes (C); the rules of operations are those of algebra, ordinary differential equatigns, and Laplace transformation; and the findamental postulates are Kirchhof’ voltage and current laws. Many reitions and formulas can be derived {om this basically fathar simple model, and the reiponses of very elaborate networks can be determined. ‘The valldity and value of thie model have been amply demonstrated. Jn a like manner, an electromagnetic theory can be built on a suitably chosen electromagnetic model, Ia this section we shall take the first step of defining the basic4 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 Weanlities of electromagnetics. The second step, the rules of operation, encompasses Nector algebra, vector calculus, and partial differential equations. The fundamentals ot yestor algebra and vector caleulus willbe discussed in Chapter 2 (Vector Analysis) and the techniques for solving partial diferential equations will be introduced wher these equations aris ater inthe hook, The hid step the fundantental postulates sil Sr retented in thressubsicv in Chapters 3,0, and 7 ase deal with respectively, Staticelectric fields, steady magnetic ficlds and electromagnetic elds ‘The quantities in our eleciromgnetic model can be divided vuighly imut wo Rlegoris: source arid'eld quantities. The source of an electromagnetic held is cain ir sletic charges at rest or in motion, However, an electromagnetic eld may SAS @ Cedistribution of charges which will, in turn, change the fields hence, the Separation between the cause and the effect is not always so distinct. Ine Use the symbol q (sometimes 0) to denote eletrc charg. Electic charge is @ fundamental property of matter and it exists only in postive or negative integral ‘multiples of the charge on an eleeteon, «" e=-160x 10 (O, a-1 where Ezench physicist Charles A. de Coulomb, who formulated Coulomb's law i its (Coplomb’s law will be discussed in Chapter 3) A coulomb is a very large unit for eu charge; it takes 1/(.60 x 10") or 625 billion electrons to make apt C, In fac two LC charges 1m apart wil exert a force of approximately | millon too Sigh other Some other physical constants forthe electron are listed in Appenci B-2, mathematically by the equation of continuity, which we will discuss in Section $4 Ary formulation or solution ofan electromagnetic problem that violates the principle of conservation of electric charge must be incorrect. We recall that the Kicchhcirs Satrent law in circuit theory, which maintains that the sum ofall the currents leaving ‘junction must equal the sum of all the currentsntering the junction, is an assertion "tn 1962 Murray GettMann hypothesized quark asthe baie building blocks of matter. Quarks were Fen ria fo ca a fraction ofthe charge, «ofan electron: bit, to date thelr xstenes hag no oe ne fed experimental * The system of units wil be discussed in Section 1-3compasses damentals Analysis), seed when, lates, will spectively, 1 into two tie itd 5 cfield may henge, the charge is 2 ve integral wy) XY daf the in 88 as unit for zup -1C. nillion tons » Appendix onservation hat cece triccharges influence of tive charges tion of elec~ represented on 5-4 be principle Kirchhof' ents leaving an ytion vanes were Snot beea vere i i | iF L i | i | } t current density), osama jt ted i tpt no ane er assumption thiit there isto cumulation’ of cHllrge at the junction.) Although, in point ina discrete Manne, tese abrupt vatiatlons onan atomicseale are unimportant when we considetthe eldetomagnetic effect of large aggregates of charges. In cons i¢roscopic sense, electticcharge either does or does not exist at 4 structing a mactottopic or large-scale theory of electromagnetism, we find that the use of smoothed-dbt average density fuictidns yields very good results. (The same proach i used i mechanics where a smoothed-out mass density function is defin=*, in spite ofthe fact that mass is associated onl} with elementary particles in a discrete ‘manner on an atosific scale.) We define a voluhd charge densir,, p,as asource quantity as follows: ub am a = tin ici’, ws where isthe ambunt ofcharge in a very smill volume Av. How small should Av be? should be small enough to represent an accurate variation ofp, but large enough to contain a very arge nuniber of discrete charges. For example, an elemental cube with sides as small as 1 micron (10~® m or | jum) has a volume of 10-"* m?, which will still contain about 10"* 100 billion) atoms. A smoothed-out function of space coordinates 9, defined with such a small Av is expected to yield accurate macroscopic results for nearly all practical pirposes. : Jn some physial situations, an amount of charge Ay may be identified with an clement of surface As or an element ofline A¢-In such case, it wll be more appropriate to define a surface charge density, p,, oF a line charge density, Pe: (Cim’); a3) “Gim. sj Except for certain Special situations, charge densities vary from point to point; hence P,P and py ate it gereral, point functions of space coordinates. Current is the ate of change of charge with respect to time: that is da 4 Be Cor Ay ans) where / itself may be time-dependent. The unit of current is coulomb per second (C/s), which isthe sanié as ampere (A). A current must flow through a finite area (a con: ducting wire of afifite ctoss section, for instabce); hence itis not a point function. [4 electromagnetics, We define a vector point function volume current density (or simply, hich measures the amourtt of current flowing through a unit area ‘normal to the direction of current flow. The bold-faced J isa vector whose magnitudé is the current per unt aréa (A/m2) and whose direction isthe direction of current flow, We shall elaboraté on the relation between I and J in Chapter 5. For very good6 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC MODEL /1 conductors, high-frequency alternating currents are confined in the surface layer, in- stead of flowing throughout the interior of the conductor. In such cases there isa need. to define a surface current density J,, which is the current per unit width on the con- ductor surface normal to the direction of current flow and has the unit of ampere per meter(A/m). ‘There ars fo r fundamental vector field quantities in electromagnetics: electric Jisld intensity E,eleetrie flux density (or electric displacement) D, maint flus density B, and magnetic field intensity U "The definition and physical signilientice of these uantities will be expkained fally when they are introduced! iter in the book, AU this time, we want only to establish the following, Electric field intensity E is the only vector needed in discussing electrostatics (effects of stationary electric charges) in free space, and is defined as the electric force on a unit test charge. Electric displacement vector D is useful in the study of electric field in material media, as we shall see in Chapter 3. Similarly, magnetic flux density B is the only vector aeeded in discussing ‘magnetostatics (effects of steady electric currents) in free space, and is related to the magnetic force acting on a charge moving with a given velocity. The magnetic field intensity vector H is useful in the study of magnetic field in material media. The definition and significance of B and H will be discussed in Chapter 6. ‘The four fundamental electromagnetic field quantities, together with their units, are tabulated in Table 11, In Table 1-1, V/m is volt per meter, and T stands for tesla or volt-second per square meter. When there is np time variation (as in static, steady, Table 1-1 Electromagnetic Field Quantities Symbols and Unite for Field Quantities Field Quantity Symbol Unit Electric field intensity E vim bole | Blectric tux density D | cm? « (Electie displacement) | Magnetic tux density ® i Magnetic |____ Magnetic etd intensity H Alm or stationary cases), the electric field quantities E and D and the magnetic field ‘quantities B and H form two separate vector pairs. In time-dependent cases, however, electric and magnetic field quantities arc coupled; that is, time-varying E and D will sive rise 10 B and H, and vice versa. All four quantities are point functions; they are defined at every point in space and, in general, are functions of space coordinates. Material (or medium) properties determine the relations between E and D and between Band H. These relations are called the constitutive relations of a medium and will be examined later. : 13 UNVface layer, ine hereisa need hon the con- of ampere per tics: electric fe flux density ance of these ‘book. At this Es the only 1argest in fie displacement e shall see in in discussing elated to the vagnetic field Vang. The hay units, ands ws tesla static, steady, Unit vim Cin? T [3 field as Yever, E ang * will S3 lang are coordinates. and D and medium and SAND UNIVERSAL CONSTANTS 7 The principal objective of studying’ ‘elécttomagnetism is to understand the inter action between elargesvand currents at distance based on the elecromageene rodel, Fields-and' waves (lime- and spatedlependent fields) are basic consol and Ay “B= A-B, Since Ay,“ D = 0, s0 k Pein bY a vector is not wefined, and expressions such as K/A and B/A are meaningless, i 2-4 ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS wiephave indicated before that although the laws ofiléctromagnetism are invariant Gu Soardinate system, solution of practical problehs requtes thatthe veka derived from these laws be expressed in « coordinate syatem appropriate (0 the Bra eas ie iven problems, For example if we are to determine the electric feed and the a Beint in space, we at least need to describe the positon of the cores and the location of this point in a coordinate system, In a three-dimensional space a famiicc are pected a8 the intersection of three surfaceg Assume that the dhe Tenis ofsurlacesace described by u, = constant, = constant ae 4s = constant, Wher he o's need not all be lengths in the familar Cartesian or rectangle oe sansa Mis Ma, and ns correspond to x,y, and z respectively) Whee the sees Spaces are mutually perpendicular to bne another, we haven othoyoel eens Probleme noeorA! coordinate systems are not used hecause they complies Problems. (21a) (2-216) Ha, = ay 7 2-210) These three equations are not allindependent, as the spéeifcalion ofone ‘automatically implies the other two. We have, of equtse, ae aa, (2-22) and By RAG a ay rae (2-23) ny vector A can be writen asthe um of is components in the three orthogonal directions allows: " (2-24) , Sol a) »ACB nd B/A ace ’ sre invariant he relations siate to the slectre field F the source ‘onal space a at the three Sore 2 thes three Wen nate eomplieate inate system be the unit ectors. In a = vectors are 1a) ~ (2-21b) (2-21c) Momatically orth” ~wal (2-24) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 19 where the magnitudes of the three components, A, 4y,, ind A,,, may change with the location of A; that is, they may be functions of uy, up, and 1;. From Eq, 2-24) the magnitude of A is, Aa |Al= (43 +43, + 432 (2-25) Example 2-3 Given three vectors A, B, and C, obtain the expressions of (a) A~B, (b) A xB, and (co) C-(A x B) in the orthogonal curvilinear coordinate system (GH, ua, a) : Solution: First we write A, B and C in the orthogonal coordinates (a, és): A Aa + Aes + Magy B=a,2,,+4,,B,, + 4,2,,, Cm AC, + aCe + Coy A) ABS Ay, + aA + Ady) (Oy By, + 4,By, + 2,,8,,) = AY Ba + AnBus + AiBos in view of Eqs. (2-22) and (2-23), DY AK Bala A, + aha + tea) X (OB, + 8,,By, + 8, (Ana, = Ae Bu) Mylo, Ali) #8, (Asctay ~ AygBa) Be ay Mn, An A om) 1B, Bu, Bul Equations (2-26) ind (2-27) express, respectively, the dot and cross products of two vectors in orthogonal curvilinear coordinates. They are important and should be remembered. ©) The expression for C «(A x B) can be written down immediately by combining the results in Eqs. (2~26) and (2-27). CAR B)= Cu(AegBy ~ AgBu) + Co(AusBuy— A Bu) + CuldesBag~ AB) nC Cal My Aue (2-28) B, BB, Eq, (2-28) can be used to prove Eqs. (2-18) and (2-19) by observing that a permutation of the order of the vectors on the left side leads simply to a rearrange- ‘ment of the rows in the determinant on the right side. In veetor calculus (and in electromagnetics work), we are often required to Perform line, surface, and volume integrals. In each case we need to express the20 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 de = [dey + (des)? + (dest = [ily diy)? + (ha dig)? + hy dus)? (2-32) Fie iferenial volume do formed by ferential coordinate changes du, dus, and ‘usin directions a, a,,, and a,, respectively i (de, dé, d?,) oF de = hhgy di, diy dy 2-33) Later we will have occasion to express the current or fox flowing through a dilferental area. In such cases the cross-sectional area perpendicular to the cov ena or fox low must be used, and its convenient to consider the piffrential area a vector with a direction normal to the surface; that is, ds= ads] | (2-34) For instance, ifeurrent density J is not perpendicular io a differential area of a mag: nitude ds, the current, di flowing through ds must be the component of J nortnel > ‘he area multiplied by the area. Using the notation in Eq. 2-34), we can write simply dh J+ds a = Jea,ds, (2-35) In general orthogonal curvilinear coordinates, the diferentigl area ds, normal to the unit vector ay, is Aon ds, 8, (dt, des) Cis the symbol of the vector ¢ si the ‘ Th 2-44 Car spe syst The "Theane of the co- may not be a nige du into a (2-29) My and us 2 differential Be dl =rdp change in an ath changes:t (2-30) (3) shy (2-33) 2g through a > the current area a vector (2-34) ‘3 of mage Jnormal to “write simply Y-38) cormal to the Baa sa ae 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 21 or 1 = Aalishs dug du). (2-36) Similarly, the differential area normal to unit vectors a, and a, ar, respectively, sy = a,,(hyhs du, dus) (2-37) and 453 = a(t di, dus). | - + Many orthogonal coordinate systems exist; but we shall only be concerned with the three that are most common and most useful: 1. Cartesian (or rectangular) coordinates,t 2 Cylindrical coordinates, 3. Spherical coordinates. ‘These will be discussed separately in the following subsections, Cartesian Coordinates, (uy, tay a) = (x, 9 2) A point Pls, yx 2) in Cartesian coordinates is the intersection of three planes specified by x =x;, y= ys, and 2 = 2,, as shown in Fig, 2-9. It is a right-handed system with base vectors a, a,, and a, satisfying the following relations ax aysa, (2-384) a, xa, =a, The position vector to the point Pls, yu) is OP = a,x, +a, +0.2, (2-40) ‘A vector.A in Cartesian coordinates can be written as ! The term “Cartesian coordinates” is prefeted because the term “rectangular coordinates" customarily sasociated with two-dimensional geometry.22 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 y= y plane Fig.2-9 Cartesian coordinates, ~~ The dot product of two vectors A and Bis, from Eq, (2-26), AVB=A,B, + A,B, = Bi, (2-42) and the cross product of A and B is, from Eq. (2-27), AXB Az * A A, (2-43) ee a 8 Since x 9, and 2 are legyhs themselves, all three thetic coeicients are unity; that ih = ha = ha = 1. The exprsssons forthe diferental length, difereevel wor and differential volume afe — trom Eqs. (2-31), (2-36, 2-37) (0-38) and (2 39) respectively. z : 1g dx ta, dy + 8, de; (2-44) : » | dse=a,dyds f (2-45) * | as, as, do de (2-456) dx dy: (2-450) and do = dx dy dz. } (2-46)(2-43) 3 are unity; ential area, 1d (2-33) — (2-44) (2-46) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 23 Example 2-4 A scalar line integral of a vector field of the type is of considerable importance in both physics and electromagnetics. (IF isa force, the integral isthe work done by the force in moving from P, 10 P, along «speciied path; if Fis replaced by E, the electric feld intensity, then theiategra represents eo electromotive force.) Assume F = a,xy +a,(3x—y"), Evaluate the scalar line integral from P,(5, 6) to (3,3) in Fig: 2-10 a) along the diet path CD, P,P ss thon (6) along path @, P,4P,. Fig. 2-10" Paths of integration (Example 2-4) Solution: First we must write the dot product F + dé in Cartesian coordinates. Since this is a two-dimensional problem, we have, from Eq, (2~44), Fede = [aay + a,x — y?)]-(a, de +a, dy) = xy dx + Gx — yA) dy. 47) 1s important to remember that dé in Cartesian coordinates is aways given by Eq. (2-44) irespective of the puch or the direction of integration The liscton ot integration is taken care of by using the proper limits onthe integral 4) Along dreet path © — The equation ofthe path P,P, is — y= He) (2-48) This is easly obtained by noting from Fig. 2-10 that the slope ofthe lie P,P, is 2. Hence y = (xis the equation of the dashed line pasing through th orgia and parallel to P,P,..Since line P,P; intersects the x-axis at x = +1, its equation is that of the dashed line shifted one unit in the positive x-direction; it can be24 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 obtained by replacing x with ( ~ 1), We have fom Es. (2-47) and (2-48), Sere = [Fb de + Gx- yay] PaO Pea : 7 o Pax — part Pay +345 +27 = -10. In the integration with respect to y, the relation 3x = 2y +3 derived from Eq, (2-48) was used’ ) Along path @— This path has two straight-line segments: From P, to A:x=5,dx=0 \ Fede =(15 - y*)dy. > From A to Ps: y=3,dy = 0, Fede = 3x dx, Hence, Jr den'ftas—yyay+ fh 3eax Pan® J}us-y)ay+ [¥axae =18-24=-6.. * We see here that the value of the line integral depends on the path of integration. In such a case, we say that the vector field F is not conservative. 2-42 Cylindrical Coordinates © (lay tas ts) = (6 8,2) “In cylindrical coordinates a point P(r, 6, 21 is the intersection of a circular eylin- ical surface r = r,,a half-plane'cpntaining the z-axis and making an angle 4 = $, with the xz-plane, and a plane parallel to the xy-plage at z= z,. As indicated in Fig. 2-11, angle @ is measufed from the positive x-ax}s, and the base vector a, is tangential to the cylindrical qurface. The following right-hand relations apply: : (2-49a) ; (2-496) i Xa may, (2-496) a, x ay(2-48), " leriv.d trom integration, -eulareylin- angle d= 9, indicated in vera is wh (da) (2-496) (2-48) 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 25 Fig.2-11 Cylindrical coordinates Cylindrical coordinates are important for problems with long line charges or currents, and in places where cylindrical or circular boundaries exist, The two-dimensional Polar coordinates are a special case at = = 0. A vector in cylindrical coordinates is written as Ady + gy badly (2-30) The expressions for the dot and cross products of two vectors in cylindrical coordi- nates follow from Eqs. (2-26) and (2-27) directly. Two of the three coordinates, r and = (u, and us) are themselves lengths; hence ‘hy = hy = 1. However, @ is an angle requiring a metric coefficient hy = r to convert 6 to dfs. The general expression for a differential length in cylindrical coordinates is then, from Eq. (2-31); dem a, dr + age di + ade. es) ‘The expressions for differential areas and differential volume are ay dd de ‘ say dreds ay dr dp (2-820) and do=rdrdp dz. (2-53)26 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Fig. 2-12. A differential, Volume element in cylindrical coontinates. A typical differential volume element at a point (¢, 4, 2) resulting from differential changes dr, dé, and dz in the three orthogonal coordinate direétions is shown in Fig. 2-12. ‘A vector given in cylindrical coordinates can bé transformed into one in Cartesian coordinates, and vice versa. Suppose we want to express A= a,4, + agd, + a,d, in Cartesian coordinates; that ig, we want to write A as a,A, + a,4, + ad, and deter. mine 4. A,,and 4,, First of al, we note that 4,,the component ofA, isnot changed by the transformation from cylindrical to Cartesian coorginafs. To find , we equate the dot produets of both expressions of A with a,. Thus! Art Asay SA at Aaya, The term containing A, disappears here because a, - a, = 0. Referring to Fig. 2-13, ‘which shows the relative positions of the base vectors @,, a, a,, and a,, we see that Be = G08 8 2-54) and ag Re »(F+0) =Ssin', (2-55) Hence, 4 : AeA, 008 } — Ay sing. (2-56) 4 : + ig 2-13 Relations between Bean ananday. |» differential is shown in in @ysian not ehangedd 1, we equate > Fig 2-13, we see that (2-54) (2-55) (2-56) nN 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 27 Similarly, to find 4,, we take the dot products of both expressions ofA witha, 4, Ava, Aaya, + Asay ay, From Fig. 2-13, we find os ( -¢) Sting @-57 and 603 9. 2-58) It follows that Aysin } + Ay cos . (2-59) It is convenient to write the relations between the components ofa vector in Cartesian and cylindrical coordinates in a matrix form: [<]-[=* as | : | (2-6) 4.) Lo 0 Our problem is now solved except that the cos @ and sin @ in Eq, (2-60) should be Converted into Cartesian coordinates. Moreover, dy, Ag, and A, may themselves be functions of r, }, and. In that case, they too should be converted into functions of %; )s and z in the final answer, The following conversion formulas are obvious from Fig. 2-13. From cylindrical to Cartesian coordinates: x=roos$ (2-614) yersing (2-616) 2 (2-616) ‘The inverse relations (from Cartesian to cylindrical coordinates) ate (2-62a) (2-62) (2-62¢)28 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Example 2-5 Express the yector ‘ A= 2,(3 008 9) — agar + 9,5 in Cartesian coordinates, Solution: Using Eq. 2-60) girgetly, we have! - Ax}. [p0ady -sing 1 0773 cos 6} ‘ [rs es | “2 allo ovals or : A= a,(3 cos? $ + 2r sind) + a,(3 sin ¢ cos gh — 2r cos 4) + a,5° But, from Eqs. (2-61) and (262), x —™ cos 6 pV and sin @ = r+ Therefore, whic i Example 2-6 Given F = a,xy ~ a,2s, evaluate the scar line integral 2] [trea along the quarter-irle showin in Fig, 2-14 ui Fig. 2716 Pat ore integral (esl 2-6)2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 29 Solution: We shall solve this problem in two ways: first in Cartesian coordinates, then in cylindrical coordinates. + a) In Cartesian coordinates. From the given F and the expression for d@ in Eq (2-44), we have F dé = xy dx ~ 2edy. The equation oi the quarter-crcle ie x2 + y? = 90 s x, y $3). Therefore, [iR-ae =P xyo=3 ¥ dx—2 J) (I= ay P -[ IHF +950 af oxy a(t ) 2) In cylindrical coordinates. Here we first transform F into cylindrical coordinates. Tnverting Eq, (2-55), we have LE oS TE cos: sing OV [4] =|-sing cos 0} |, ° ° Ula. With the given F, Eq, (2-63) gives F) [ cose sing x us msing eos@ | |=241, FAL lho 0 Lo F = a,{xy cos — 2x sin 9) — ag(xy sin g + 2x c0s 4) which leads to For the-present problem the path of integration is along a quarter-circle of a radius 3, There is no change in r or = along the path (dr = O and d: = 0); hence Eq, (2-51) simplifies to ae dp and 3(ay sin $ + 2x cos 6) dp.30 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Because of the circular path, F, is immaterial tq the present integration. Along the path, x = 3 cos @uand y = 3 sin. Therefore. J2 de = fo? ~109 sin? # 089 + Bor #4 = -Hsin? 6 + @ + sin d cos ¢)| " =-9(143), : ‘which is the’ same as before, In this particular example, Fis givén in Cartesian coordinates and the path is circular. There is no compelling reasop to solve the problem in one oF the ether coordinates, We have shown the conversion of vectors an! the pracedtire of sation in both coordinates Example 2-7 Given . Gras over the surface ofa closed cylinder about the =-axis specified by z = +3andr = 2, as shown in Fig. 2-15, Solution: In connection with Eq. (2~34) we noted that the direction of ds is normal to the surface. This statement is actually imprecise because a ngrmal to a sutface can Point in either of two directions. No ambiguity would arise in Eq, (2-35), since the choice of a, simply determines the reference direction of currept low. In the present case, where F - ds is to be integrated over a clased surface (denoted by the circle on the integral sign), the direction of ds is always to be tiken 4p that of the outward ormal, Our problem is to carry ouf the surface integral Fig. 2-15 A cylindrical surface (Exapople 2-7. evaluate the scalar gurfacd Tmregral the a) » 9‘ration, Along. 6 the path is oF the other eof solution Si since the the present circle on @ outward i | I t ene 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 31 over the emir specified sac. Thi integral gives the net outard fu ofthe vector F through he enosd sure The inde in Fig 215 has the sures: the top fae the botom face, nd the side wall Se GPa Fender f Feast fi, Pade We evaluate the three integrals on the right side separately, DTopfee. r= 3ana, dsm rede rom Ea, 2-52); fh, Feads= JP faker ardp = 12, 9) Bottom face, == 3,4, Frags sky ds = rdr dg; Gon F* ‘which is exactly the same as the integral over the top face. 9) Side wall. dp de = 24h de (om Ea. 2-52 Joos Feads= [2 [Pky dé de 12a, $F ds 12th + 1k + 120k = 12a(k, + 2k). 2-43 Spherical Coordinates (44, tas ug) = (R, 0, AA point P(R,, 0, 4) in spherical coordinates is specified as the intersection of the following three surfaces: a spherical surface centered at the origin with a radius R Ri; @ right circular cone with its apex atthe origin, its axis coinciding with the axis32 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 7 4 Fig. 2-16 Spherical coordinates = and having a halfangle @ = 0,;and a half-plane containing the z-axis and making an angle @ = $1 with the xz-plane. The base vector ay at P is radial from the origin and is quite different from a, in cylindrical coordinates, the latter being perpendicular to the “The base vector ay lis in the = y plane and is tangential to the spherical Surface, whereas the base vector ag is the same as that in cylindrical coordinates, ‘These are illustrated in Fig, 2-16, Far a right-handed system we have ag kay (2-648) mx ay (2-64b) MX ey. (2-64) Spherical coordinates are important for problems jnvolving point sources and regions with spherical boundaries, When an observer is very far fram the source region of finite extent, the latter could be considered asthe origin ofa spherical ordinate system: and, asa result, suitable simplifying approximations could he male This ih the eason that spherical Goordinates ure used in solving antenna problems inthe hy fila A vector in spherical coordinates is written as As agdy + aA, + aA, (2-65) The expressions for the ot and crass products of wo vectors in spherigal coordinates can be obtained from Eqs. (2-26) and (2-27) i In spherical coordinates, only Ru) is a length. The other two coordinates, 0 and 6 (us and uy), are angles. Refere}ag 0 Fig. 2-17, where atypical differential volume clement is shown, we see that metrip coeicients hy = Rand hy = R sin 0 are required if The ent‘King an rub here dinates, 2-64a) 2-64) 640) Sand region dinate This is be far nates 8 ume tired reese, See 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 39 Fig. 2-17 dierent volume element in spherical Rind coordinates. SneemNert ao and dg into dé, and ds, Tespectively. The general expression for a ‘iflrential length is, from Eq, (2~31), [de = ae dR + aR dO + aR sin 0 ap. (2-66) ane e*pressions for differential areas and differential volume resulting from differ- ntial changes dR, d0, and dé in the theee coords directions are eR? sin 6 do dy wR sin dR ad | am adr dd | do = R? sin 0 aR dag, (2-68) For convenience the base vectors, metric Coefficients, and expressions for the differ- ential volume are tabulated in Table 2. J Actor given in spherical coordinates can be transo or cylindrical coordinates, and vice versa: From Fig, 2 and X= Rsin 8 cos 6 Y=RsinOsing 2= Roos34 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2- vi Table 2-1 Three Basic Orthogonal Coordinate Systems > Cartetian Cylindrical ‘Spherical Coordinates Coordinates Coordinates Coordinate-system Relations (6.2) (R06) Pas. Voctors. a a, a 4 he a, hy 1 1 t Metric Coefcients hy i , R hy 1 ' Rain ae be dy dz sind dR do dp Conversely, measurements in Cartesian coordinates can be transformed into those in spherical coordinates: Rae eye (2-70a) apy q O= tag Et (2-70b) eaten (2-100) Example 2-8 The position of a point P in spherical coordinates is (8, 120°, 330”), Specify its location (a) in Cartesiari coordinates, and (b) in, cylindrical coordinates, Solution: “The spherical coordinates 6f the given point are R= 8; 9 = 120°, and b= 330". i : ) In Cartesian coordinates. We use Eq: (2-694, bo x = 8 sin 120° 0s 330° = 6 y= 8 sin 129° fi:330° = -23" ' 2 = 800s 120" 4, Hence, the location of the point is F(6, +23, vector going from the origin to the point) is OP a6 42/3 ~ a4. 4), and the position vector (the w nord Exam ordins Soluti This i a poir all po, funeti defini: in gen produ Recali vector Oe. ¢erica vordinates 20,9) r R Rsing ‘wana Oo 2m) (2-706) (2-10) 20°, 330"). ordinates, 120°, and. tector (the saree 2-4/ ORTHOGONAL COORDINATE SYSTEMS 35 b) In cylindrical coordinates. The cylindrical coordinates of point P can be obtained by.applying Eqs. (2~62a, b,c) to the results in part (a), but they can be calculated directly from the given spherical coordinates by the following relations, which can be verified by comparing Figs. 2~11 and 2-16: Rain @-na) ono Gib) z= Roos. 2-119 We have P(4,/3, 330°, —4) ; and its position vector in cylindrical coordinates is OP = 943 - It js interesting to note here that the “position vector” of a point in cylindrical coordinates, unlike that in Cartesian coordinates, does not specify the position of the point exactly. Can you weite down the position vector of the point P in spherical coordinates? Example 2-9 Convert the vector A= agg + ayy + ad, into Cartesian co- ordinates, Suluion: Wn this problen we want (o write A inthe form ofA os aA, + aay + a This is very different from the preceding problem of converting the coordinates of a point. First of all, we assume that the expression of the given vector A holds for all points of interest and that all three given components 1g, ay and A, may fanctions of coordinate variables. Second, at a given point, Ay, 4g, and Ay wil ha definite numerical values, but these values that determine the direction of A will, in general, be entirely different from the coordinate values of the point. Taking dot product of A with a,, we have dy Ava, Lee Ag + Agdy ae + Aga, Recalling that aga, ay*a,, and a, a, yield, respectively, the component of unit Wectors ag, ay, and a, in the direction of a,, we find, from Fig. 2-16 and Eqs. (2-69a, b,c): q+ a, = sin 0 cos @ = —— 2-72) sin 008 § = ¢ Ay a, = cos 8 cos = a 2-73) VEG + PTF) agen, = sin pa = (74) vst ey36 VECTOR-ANALYSIS /2 Thus, i Ay ='Ag in 0 008 $ + Ay 008 8 cos $ — Ay sin d (2-75) Similarly, (2-16) and @m If Ag, Ag and A, are themselves functions of R, J, and @ they tqo need to be converted into functions of x,y, and z by the use of Eqs. (2~70a, 6, ¢). Equations (2-73), (2-76), and (2-77) disclose the fact that when a vector has a simple form in one coordinate system, its conversion into another coordinate system usually results in a more complicated expression. Example 2-10 Assuming that g.cloud of electrons copfined in a region between two spheres of radii 2and 5 cm hag.a charge density of x 1078 R cost = (C/m?), find the total charge contained in the region. Solution: We have = fow The given conditions of the problemi obviously point.to the use of spherical coordi- jon for dein Eq. (2-68), we perform a triple integration. O= Jo" [5 od aR? sin aR dQ do. ‘Two things are of importance here.’First, since p is givep in units of coulombs per cubic meter, the limits of integration for R must be converted to meters, Second, the full range of integration for 0 ig froni 0 to x radians, no from 0 to 2x radians. A litle reflection will convince ug that a halF-crce (nota fullcrele) rotated about the z-axis thr 2-5 GRA! An £ pos We ata tior oir rep : dep line chat the(2-75) 276 2-7) onverted (2-76), ante between Tevordi- a) imbs pee ‘ond, the Allie be axis 2-5/ GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD 37 through 2x tadians (6 rom Ot 2) generates sphere: We have Qa 31078 Ff [oe A cost sin 0a do dg Fo maa 6 (hg gly) sn 2c a 09 x 10°* [2*(—cos 8 vin26\ }| | cos! ¢ co L8z (uo), 3% 18 x 10-+f \ ° 2-5 GRADIENT OF A SCALAR FIELD In electromagnetics we have to deal with quantities that depend on both time and Position. Since three coordinate variables are involved in a three-dimensional spac We expect to encounter scalar and vector fields that are functions of four variables {6 ys tas Wy). In general, the fields may change as any one of the four variables changes, We now address the method for describing the space rate of change of a sealar field at a given time, Partial derivatives with respect to the three space-coordinate variables ‘tee involved andl, inasmuch as the rate of ehange may’be dilferent in different disses tions, a veetor is needed to detine the space rate of change of a scalar field at a eiven point and at a given time. Let us consider a scalar function of space coordinates V(u,, us, us), which may Fepresent, say, the temperature distribution in a building, the altitude ofa mountain ous terrain, or the electric potential in a region. The magnitude of V, in general, depends on the position of the point in space, but it may.be constant along certain lines or surfaces. Figure 2-18 shows two surfaces on which the magnitude of V is constant and has the values ¥, and V, + dV, respectively, where dV indicates a small change in V. We should note that constant-V surfaces need not coincide with any of the surfaces that define a particular coordinate system. Point P, is on surface V3 Pz Fig. 2-18 Concerning gradient ofa scala,38 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 isthe corresponding point on surface ¥ + dV along the normal vector da; and P, is 4 point close to P; along anpther vector dé x dn. For the same change dV” in V, the space rate of change, dV/d, is abviously greatest along dn because dn is the shortest distance between the two surfaces." Since the magnitude of dVjd? depends on the Girection of dé, AV isa directional derivative, We define the vector that represents both the magnitude and the direction of the maximum space rate of inrease ofa sealar 4s the gradient of that scalar, We write FA (2-78) | sraay For brevity it is customary to employ the operator del. represented by the symbol V and write VV in place of grad ¥, Thus, (2-79) We have assumed that dV is positive (an increase in V); it dV is negative (a decrease in V from P, to P,), VV will be negative in the a, direction, The directional derivative along dé is av _adVdn_ av Bind Hm * av =F MAY) a, (2-80) Fauation 280) states that the space rate of increase of fin thea, direction is equal {o the projection (the component) ofthe gradient of ¥ in that direction, We can tica write F a SIV) ae, (2-41) where dé = a, d¢. Now, dV.in Eq, (2-81) is the total diferential of V asa result ofa change in position (from P, to Fs in Fig, 2-18): it can be expressed in terms of the R,) centered at the origin, as shown in Fig. 2-22, Fig. 2-22 Aspherical shell, region (Example 2-15),48 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Solution: Here the specified region has two surfaces, at R= Ry and R= Ry, At outer surface: R = Ra, ds = agR3 sin 6.40 di; = J Jf ema sin 0.40 de = 4nkR} —agRi sin 6 dO.dd; Jz eR sin ddd w 40003, Actually, since the integrand is independent of 0 or in both cases, the integral of a constant over a spherical surface ‘s.simply the constant multiplied by the area of the surface (423 for the outer sprface and 4nR? for he inner surfac), and no integea, ion is necessary. Adding the two résults, we have (fps = ark th : — To find the volume integral we first determine V- F for an F that has only an Fq component La ROR Since V-F isa constant, its volume integral equais.the product ofthe constant and the volume, The volume of the shal region betweet the two spherical surfaces with radii R, and R, is 4n(R} + R})/3. Therefore, t Jp F de = 09 Fv» snice ~ 2, as before s ‘This example shows that the divergence theorem holds even when the volume has holes —that is, even when the volume is enclosed’ by-a multiply connected surface v 1 eis S Fea gg ih'Fa) (KR*) = 3k, 2-8 CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD In Section 2-6 we stated that a net outward flux of a vector A through a surface ‘bounding a volume indicates the prekence of a source. This source may be called a ow source and div A is a measure of the strength of the flow source. There is another kind of source, called vortex source, which causes a cifculation of. vector field around it, The net circulation (or simply circulation) ofa vector. field around a closed path is defined as the scalar line integral ofthe vector over the pajh. We have Cireuation ofA arbund contour 4) A ae @-11y Equation (2-112) if a mathematical efinition, The physical meaning of circulation depends on what kind of field the vector A represents. IPA is a force acting on an object its circulation willbe the work done by the force in moving the object once aro will bo«cenilofa fons an faces with volume surface, a surface zealled a another af ey reution fag on an cone ba I b 2-8/CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD 49 Fig. 2-23. Relation between ay af and dé in defining cur, around the contour; if A represen s an ci-:tric field intensity, then the circulation Will be an electromotive force aiound the closed path, as we shill see later in the- book. The familiar phenomenon of water whirling down a sink driin an example of 4 vortex sink causing a circulation of fluid velocity. A circulation of A may exist even when div A =O (when there is no flow source), Since circulation as defined in Eq, (2-112) isa line integral of a dot product, its value obviously depends on the orientation of the contour C relative to the vector A. In order to define a point function, which is a measure of the strength of 2 vortex Souree, we must make C very small and orient it in such a way that the circulation is 2 maximum. We define? —— [Cuta=voen im E[aagacee] qn words, Eq, (2-113) states that the curl of a vector field A, denoted by Cutt A or ¥ & A, 18a vector whose magnitude isthe maximum nei circulation of A per unit oreo as the area tends to zero and whose direction isthe normal direction of the area chen the area is oriented to make the net circulation maximum, Because the normal to an area can point in two opposite directions, we adhere to the right-hand rule that when the fingers of the right hand follow the direction of dé, the thumb points 10 the direction. This is illustrated in Fig. 2-23. Curl Ais a vector point function and ip Conventionally written as V x A (del cross A) although V is not to be considered a YeFtor Operator except in Cartesian coordinates. The component of ¥ x A in any other direction a, isa, -(V x A), which can be determined from the circulation por Unit arca nacmal to a, as the area approaches zero, ig Wx Jin, go(G, 4-4), where the direction of the line integration around the contour C, bounding arca 4s, and the direction a, follow the right-hand rule, (2-113) "ts books publihed in Europe the ur of Ais often called the rotation of A and written 2 ot A50 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 | Fig. 2-24 Determining (V x A). We now use Eq, (2-114) to find the three components of V x A in Cartesian Coordinates, Refer to Fig, 2-24 where a differential rectangttar area parallel to the s=xplane and having sides Ay gd Az is drawn about a typieal point Pty Wehavea, = a,and As, and 4, Thus, 1732 and the contour C, consists othe our side 1 1 : 2-115) (x A= lim oe (Baas A «) (2-115) In Cartesian coordinates A= a,4\+ 2,4, +,4, The contributions of the four sides to the line integral are 5 oy, (sos 94) (x0 wt, x) can be expanded as a Tajlor series: Side: dé 1 de As de = At where 4, +HOT, 2-116) s : 2 Soy rs (Ay), (Ay), ete. Thus, faa A def dao de where H.O.T, contains the fa 1 +Horha (tI) 2B hear zo) : a ») = Alta Yor 2) +HOT; 2-118) 7h {Asso ro 36)— : ia 2-119 G neCartesian Tel to the tn You Zo oD a 2-116) (2-117) (18) (2-119) 2-8/CURL OF A VECTOR FIELD: 51 Note that d¢ is the same forsides 1 and 3, but thatthe integration on side 1 is going bppward (a Az change in 2), while that on side 3 is going downward (a — Az change in 2). Combining Eqs. (2-117) and (2-119), we have La Ao ae (4e+n0n) Ay de (2-120) ‘The H.OLT. in Eg. (2-120) still contain powers of . Similarly, it may be shown sat f A-ae=(-Ze+noz)| ay ey ae a leato Substtusing Eqs. (2-120) and (2121) in'Eq, (2-115) and ‘noting that the higher ‘order terms tend to zer0 as dy —0, we obtain the x-component of V x 4 Wx A= a 22) wil reveal a cyclic order in x,y, and = and smponents of Vx A. The entive es an coordinates is AA close examination of Eq. (2 enable us 10 write down the = and for the curl of in Cartes Compared to the expression for V+ A in Eq. (2-100), that for ¥ x A in Eq, (2-123) is more complicated, as itis expected to be, because i is a vector with three compo ents, whereas VA is a scalar. Fortunately Eq, (2-123) can be remembered rather asily by arranging it in a determinantal form in the manner of the eross product exhibited in Eq, (2-43), O19 ‘The derivation of V x A in other coordinate systems follows the same procedure. However, it is more involved because in curvilinear coordinates not only A but also 4 changes in ragnitude asthe integration of Ade is carried cut on opposite sides of a curvilinear rectangle, The expression for V x A in general orthogonal curv Iinear coordinates (u,, 13, 13) is given below. Se ei ae Varad52. . VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 Itis apparent from Eq. (2-125) thak an operator form gannot be fotind here for the symbol V in order to consider YX A a cross prpduct, The expressions of Vx A i cylindrical and sphericat t8ordirlates can be easily obtained from Eq. (2-125) by ! using the appropriate u,, us, and ug and their metre cdeffciens h, hy, and hy, Example 2-16 Show that ¥ x A 20 if i 29.8] 3) A = aytk/r) in cylindrical gpordinates, where kis @ epnstimt, or i ¥) A= agf(R) in spherical epordinates, where f(R) is any. function of the radial | on ean distance R. 7 1 Solution oO \ yindrical coordinates the’ following apply: (ay. sts.) = (n 6 : rand hy = 1, We have. from Faq, 2-123). ; a ‘ 2} oO z e-129 As s b) In spherical coordinates the ‘following ¢ lig = Rand hy = R sin. Hence YEAS RrsinO/R 2 Le SAR RAgi: | Resin GA,| m™ and, forthe given A, i . ‘an aR sind | q fe ( Veda iy a . ( R sin] FR VR),for the oA 125) by he radial eo 2-9/STOKES'S THEOREN, 53 A curl-free vector ield is called an irrottional or a conservative field. We will See in the next chapter that an electrostatic field i irrotational (or conservative) The expressions for V x A given in Eqs. (2-126) and (2-127) for cylindrical and spherical + coordinates, respectively, will be useful for later reference, 2-9 STOKES's THEOREM For a very small diferental area As, bounded by a contour C,, the definition of Vx A in Eq, (2-113) leads to Woe Ah (async a-1a9 wai ba, (2-128) we ave taken the dot product of both sides of Eg, (2 with a sods, For an arbitrary sures 5, we can subdivide it mo mans. cy small ferential areas, Figure 2-25 shows such a scheme with dy) urs treed ifeential element. The ef side of Ea, (2~128) isthe fon ofthe vector ¥ 3A thea the area As, Adding the contributions ofall the iferenta areas tothe hus we hace fon 3. AY gy = fav x Ada (2-129) Now we sum up the fine integrals around the contours ofa the diferential elements represented bythe right side of Fg, (2-128, Sines the commen maccal ne ns own adjacent clementsis tavern in oppenitetctons yee toot onibution of athe conan rts the lnttoe tothe toa ne ee and only the eontibution from the extemal contour C boundie the eee remains ater the summation tia, (f Avde)= favae Combining Eas (2-123) and (2-130, we obtain he Stoke's theorem = Givxaredsag aut eu 30) Fig. 2-25 Subdivided area for Proof of Stoke's theorem.54 VECTOR ANALYSIS/2 : ! which states that the surface integral of the curl ofa vector field over an. open surface 1 &s equal co the closed line integral of the vector along the contour bounding the surface. AAs with the divergence theorems the validity of the limiting processes leading to the Stokes's theorem requires that the vector field A, as well as its frst derivatives, cxist and be continuous both an $ dnd along C., Stokes's theorem converts sutface integral of the curl of a vector tq'line integrai ofthe vector, and vice versa. Like the divergence theorem, Stoker's théorem is an importait identity in vectnr analysis, : and we will use it frequently ja ‘establishing other theurems ‘and relations in : sc magnetics. : Ifthe surface integral of V x A is carried over a dlosed surface, there will be no ie surface-bounding external contour, and Eq, (2-131) tells us that . Givxardsno (2-133) : for any closed surfice S. The poometey in Fig, 2-25 is efisen deliberately to en Phasize the fact that a nontrivial application of Stokesstheotem alsvays implies wn oe open surface with a rim. The simplest open surface. would be 2tw dimensional ? fe plane or disk with its circumference as the contour. We. emind ourselves here that i the directions of dé and ds (a) follow the right-hand rl, ia Example 2-17 Given F = a.xy~a.2x, vetfy Siokes's theorem over a quarter ex sireuiar disk with a radius 3,in the first quadraat, as was shown in Fig) 2-18 we (Example 2-6) 5 a Solution: Let us frst find the gurface integral of Vx F. From Eq, (2-130, i 240 TW at if % x w sy 22x Therefore he 2-101 tc [xref Fox aacan e J J { - Lip" -era]e ot LPRw=F+Ho- me “ 7 2 } f 3 2. ems +o ine 232, 2 : =) \O=F +9 sin sp] sur : ‘ =-9(1+4) i:1 surfce surface, ading to ivatives, + surface Like ensional at quar 214 2-10/TWO NULL IDENTITIES 55 11 is important to use the proper limits for the two variables of integration, We can imerchange the order of integration as fvmn-a- fli and get the same result. But it would be quite wrong if the 0 to 3 range were used as the range of integration for both x and y. (Do you know why’) For the line integral around ABO. we have already evaluated the part around the are from A to B in Example 2-6, : From B10 0:x = 0,and F< dé.= F(a, dy From 0 to A: y=0,andF-dé = F(a, dx -2+9) 4] dx dy = 0, xy dx = 0, Hence, Jaos¥ de [7 Fae ~9(1+2) from Example 2-6, and Stokes's theorem is verified Of course, Stokes's theorem has been established in Eq. (2-131) as a general identity; there is no need to use a particular example to prove it. We worked out the example above for practice on surface and line integrals. (We note here that both the veetor field «nd its first spatial derivatives age finite and esintinuous on the surface as well as on the contour of interest) 2-10 TWO NULL IDENTITIES Two identities involving, repeated del operations are of considerable importence in the study of electromagnetism, especially when we introduce potential functions ‘We shall discuss them separately below. Vx (WV) | (2-133) In words, the curl of the gradient of any scalar field is identically 2 of V and its frst derivatives everywhere is implied here.) Equation (2-133) cin be proveil readily in Cartesian coordinates by uit (2.89) for V and periovming Une indicated operations. In genecal, if we take the Surface integral of V x (VV) over any surface, the result is equal to the line integral of ‘VV around the closed path bounding thé surface, as asserted by Stokes's theorem: Ll xr =Guvvy-ae 2-101 Identity | 0. (The existence210.2 \ Pil 56 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 However, rom Eq, 2-81), i favy de =f ay = (2-135) ‘The combination of Eqs (2-134) an(2-135) states that the surface integral of Vx (°V) over any surface is zero. The integrand itself must therefore vanish, which leads to the identity in Eq. (2-133). Since a ordinate system is not specifi inthe deriva. tion. the identity is a general qne and is invariant with the choices of coordinate systems. i : A converse statement ¢/ Identity: I can be madé as fallows, If « > ctor field is curljree, then it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. Let a vector field be E. Then, if x E =O, we can define a scalar field V such that B= —vv. (2-136) ‘The negative sign here is unimportant as far as Identity I is concerned. (It is included in Eq. (2-136) because this relation conforms with a basic relation between electric ficld intensity E and electric scalar potential Fin electrostatics. which we will take up in the next chapter, At this stage itis immaterial what E and V represent.) We know from Section 2-8 that a curl-free vector field is a conservative field: hence an irrata- onal (a conservative) vector field cart always be expressed as the gradient of a scalar field. Identity : vex aso] | (2-137) bas Jn words, the divergence of the curl of any vector felis identically ero Equation (2-137), too, can be proved easily in Cartesian coordinates by using Eq, (2-89) for V and performing the indicated operations. We can prove it in general without regard to a coordinate system by taking the'volume integral of V«(V % A) on the left side. Applying the diverggnee theorem, wi have T¥ xin) do = Pv x Ay (2-138) Letus choose. orexample. the arbitrary volume V enclosed by a surface Sin Fig. 2-26 The closed surface 5 can be split into, two open surfaces, §, and S, connected by a common boundary which has been drawn twice as C,/and G2, We then apply Stokes's theorem to surface S, bounded by Cy; and surface 3 bounded by C,, and write the Tight side of Eq, (2-138) as an . +l ' QV A) dsm [Vm A)- ag ds +f (0H A) aga ds Ade ag Ande (2-139) aa He In Noe(2-135) Lot x ich leads ederiva- ordinate v fell & OF field 136) included reletcie take up veknow ues 2117) oy using “general (Wx a) (2-138) is fed bya Stokes's wi (2-139) i i at 2-11/HELMHOLTZ'S THEOREM 57 Fig.2-26 An arbitraty volume enclosed by surtice 5, ‘The nor~.als ay; and a,3 0 surfaces S, and 5, are cutward normals, and theit relations ‘with the path directions of C, and C, fellow the right-hand rule. Since the contours, C, and C; ate, in fact, one and the same common boundary between S, and S,, the {to line integrals on the right side of Eq. (2-139) traverse the same path in opposite directions. Their sum is therefore zero, and the volume integral of V- (V x A) on the left side of Eq, (2-138) vanishes. Because this is true for any arbitrary volume, the integrand itself must be zero, as indicated by the identity in Eq, (2-137) A converse statement of Identity 11 is as follows: Ifa vector field is divergenc then it cant be expressed as the curl of another vector field. Let a vector field be B. ‘This converse statement asserts that if V+ that 0, we can define a vector field A such Bovan (2-140) tion 2-6 we mentioned that a divergenecless field is also called a solenoidal field. Solenoidal fields re not associated with flow sourees ur sinks, The net outa flux of a solenoidal field theough any closed surface is zero, and the flux lines close ‘upon themselves, We are reminded of the circling magnet flux lines of a solenoid oF an inductor. As we will see in Chapter 6, magnetic fux density B is solenoidal and can be expressed as the curl of another vector field called magnetic vector potential A HELMHOLTZ’S THEOREM In previous sections we mentioned that a divergenceless field is solenoidal, and a curlfree field is irrotational. We may classify vector fields in accordance with theit being solenoidal and/or irrotational. A vector feld F is, 1, Solenoidal and irrotational if — ViF=0 and = Vx F=0, ENamples A static electric eld in a chargestive region, “2, Solenoidal but not irrotational if ViF=0 ‘and VxF #0, Example: A steady magnetic field in a current-carrying conductor,58 VECTOR ANALYSIS /2 : 3. Irrotational but not solenoidal if VxF=0 and VF #0. Example: A static electric field in a charged region. 4. Neither solenoidal nor irrotational if V-F #0 Vxi et Example: Anclectric eld ins rye medinn) witha rince-vgeyiaglinagactic eld, ‘The most general vector fed then has both a nonzero divergence andl a nonzero curl and can be considered as the sum ofa solenoidal fick snd an ero fee Helmbolt= Theorem: A vector field (eector punt Juction) is determined to within an additive constant if both its divergence and its curl are specified everywhere. In an unbounded region we assume that both the divergence and the curl of the vector field vanish at infinity. If the vector field is confined within a region bounded by a surface, then it is determined if its divergence and curl throughout the region, ‘as well as the normal component of the vector over the bounding surface, are given, Here we assume that the vector functfon is single-valued and that its derivatives are finite and continuous. Helmholtz’s theorem can be proved as a mathematical’theorem in a general way! For our purposes, we remind ourselves (sce Section 2-8) that the divergence of a vector is a measure of the strength of the flow source and that the curl of a vector is a measure of the strength of the yartex source. When the strengths of both the flow source and the vortex source are Specified, we expect that the vector field will be determined. Thus, we can decombgose a’ general vector fd F into an irrotational part F, and a solenoidal part F,: >: . Fi+k, 14) with t Vx Fy : (2-142a) IW Rak g (2-142b) and } A +F,=0 (2-143a) Vx F,=G, (2-143b) where g and G are assumed to be known! We have 2 VeF=¥rF=g : (2-144) and Vx Fa¥xF=G (2-145) Helmholtz’ theorem asserts that when g and G ate specified. the vector function F * Se, for instance G. Artken. Mathemarlcal Meth fr Pipscis Académie Pres (1966), Section 11S Sols a) »stiefield, erocurl, ld, ined 10 ruwhere rl of the rounded = region, net ol a Hie tae val be ional (2-141) 21424) 2-142) 2-144) 21436) 2-1) as action F ction 115 i & 5 ' : seamen: 211 /HELMOHLTZ's THEOREM 59 is determined. Since V- and Vx are differential operators, F must be obtained by integrating g and G in some manner, which will ead to constants of integration. The determination of these additive constants requires the knowledge of some boundary 1 Conditions. The procedure for obtaining F from given g and G is not obvious at this time; it will be developed in stages in later chapters. ‘The fact that F, is irrotational enables us to define a scalar (potential) function V, in view of identity (2-133), such that R= -w. 146) Similarly, identity (2-137) and Eq. (2-143a) allow the definition ofa vector (potential) function 4 such thet FaVxA Helmboltz’s theorem states that a general vector function F ean be written as the sum of the gradient of a scalar function and the curl of vector function, Thus, F=-VV+VxA (2-148) In following chapters we will rly on Helmboltz’s theorem as a basic element in the axiomatic development of electromagnetism. Example 2-18 Given a vector function Fe a,0 = 642) 1 alegs = 22) +cyortional to and in the direction of the F. TFB is measured in newtons{N) and charge q in coulonbs (C), then E is in newtons per coulomb (N/C), which is the same as volts per meter (Vjm). The test chargt of course, cannot be zero in practices as a matter of fact, it cannot be less than the charge on an electron, However, the finiteness of the test charge would not make the measured E differ appreciably from its calculated value if the test charge is smal enough not to disturb the charge distribution of the source. An inverse relation of Eq. (3-2) gives the force, F, on a stationary charge q in an electric field F. Fl (ie aE (Ny The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space specify the divergence and curl of E. They are and [vxe= 3-5) 0 ( In Fa. 3-4), p is the volume charge density (C/m?), and ¢p is the permittivity of {tee space, a universal constant.’ Equation (3-5) asserts that static elecri fields are Urevationt-wibercas Ba, (34) imple that a static eletrie Fld is nef solenoidal unless = 0. These two postulates are concise, simple, an independent of any coordinate system; and they can be used to derive all other relations, laws, and Sheoren in electrostatics! Suel isthe beuuty of the deductive, axiomatic approsch 1 The permit ote pace ga 5x 10°? (Fim) See Ba. (1-1)68 sraric ELecrmIc FieLos/y ‘i Equations (3~4) and (3-8) arg polit relations; that is, heythold at every point in space. They are referred to as thg diffetential form of the pastulates of electrostatics, since both divergence and curl operations involve spatial derivatives. In practical applications we are usually interested in jhe total field of an aggregate ora distribution of charges. This is more conveniently ‘obtained by an integral form of Eq, (3-4). Taking the volume integral of both sides of Eq. (3-4f over,an arbitrary volume V, we have cae t a [Lv Bde== fo de. 6-6 In view ofthe divergence theorem in Eq, (2-104), Eq. (3-6) becomes, - 0 few & on where Q is the total charge contained’ in volume V bounded by stitface 5. Equa- tion (3-7) is a form of Gauss's law, which states thai:the ¢ptal outward flux of the electric field intensity over any closed surface in free space is equal to the total charge enclosed in the surface divided by €q. Gauss's law is one of the most important relations examples. ‘An integral form can also be obtained for the url rplation in Eq. (3-5) by integrating V x E over an open surface and invoking $tokes’s theorem as expressed in Eq, (2-131), We have lectrostaties. We will discuss it further in Section 3-4, along with illustrative fecu ‘The line integra i performed over a cldsed contour C bounding an arbitrary surface: hhence C is itself arbitrary. As a matte of fact, the surface-does not even enter into Eq, 3-8), which asserts that the spalar line inteyral of phe state electric field imtensicy around any closed patk vanishes, This issimaply another Way of saying that Fis irrota- tional o conservative, Referring’to Fig. 3, we seg,that ff the seatar line integral -8) o : : & Fig, 3-0 An arbitrary of or Ec i 4+y point statics, >ractical ribution 46-4) lume ¥, C6) sy by 3-8) cr into sensity a 7 ' Meee BESS i uo { 3-3/ COULOMB'S LAW 69 & OfE over the arbitrary closed contour C,C is zero, then i [.,B-ae+ [E-demo 6-9) : or : “ i t fro Boa Eeue (6-10 Along C, Along Cs or Lr op Along Cy Alas C, Equation (3-11) says that the scalar ling inregral-of the ievokativinal B field is ine endent ofthe path; it lepends only ant the end points. As we shall see nt Sections a the integral in Eq. (3-11) represents the work done by the electric field in movin a unit charge from point P, to point P,:; hence Eqs.(3~8) and (3-9) imply a statemone of conservation of work or ene: electrostatic field. ‘The two fundamental postulates of electrostatics in free space ure repeated below because they form the foundation upon which we build the structure of electrostatics Postulates of Electrostaties in Free Space Differential Form Integeal Form | 3-3 COULOMB'S Law We consider the simplest possible electrostatic problem of a single point charge atest in a boundless fre space. In order to find the electric field intensity dco we draw a hypothetial spherical surface ofa radius R centered at. Since a poise charge has no preferred directions, its cletre field must be everywhere radial and has the same intensity at all points on the spherical surface. Applying Ea. (37) to Fig. 3-2) ave have : : feed Eng ds = Eq(4nR?) ' 4 tg ds = ae70 (9) Point charge attheoriin, (8) Point charge nat at he rin, Fig. 3-2 Pleovie fel imensity de ho point charg, Therefore, Br apEe=a— 5 (vim) (6-12) Beaten BR ORE Equation (312) tells us that the electric field imensity of a point charge isin the 5 ‘urward radial direction and hs a magnitude proportional to the charge and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the charge. This is a very important 1 ‘basic formula in electrostatics. It ig readily verified'that V x E = 0 for the E given in ‘ Eq. (3-12), F the charge q is not located at the origin ofa chosen coordinate system, suitable 1 changes should be made to the unit vector ay and thé distance R to reflect the locations k of the charge and of the point at which E is to be determined. Let the position vector of q be R’ and that of a field point P be R, as shown in Fig.'3-2(b). 71 Fq.(3-12), al 6-13) : ‘where ayp isthe unit vector drawn féom q to P. Since 7 R-R a : 3-14 c fe RT oi we have : 6-15 E Example 3-1. Determine the dei eld intend af 02,0, 25) due to point charge of +5 (nC) at 0(0.2, 01, ~2.) in ai. ll dimensions are in meters, : 4suitable >eations a vector from ) wf ue toa EN ' ' 3-3/coULOME's Law 71 Solution: "The position vector for the field point P R= OP = ~2,02~a23. " The position vector for the point charge Q is R20 = 0,02 40,01 - The difference is R-R= ~2,04~ 40.1402, which has a magnitude 2 RR] = [097 + (0.18 + 027} 0.458 Em, . Substituting in Eq. (315), we obtain 1 \or-Ry ane) JR}? s 5x 1079 . =O x OES Se (- 04 ~ 9,01 +0,02) p= 2145(~2,0873 — 2,0.218 + 0.0437) (V/mm) The aqntity within the parentheses iy the unit vector ayy = (R= RYIR— RL dan Ky hay a ntagnitude of 24.5 (Van, Note: The permittivity of air is essentially the same as that of the free space ens factor 1/(4x¢a) appears very froquently in electrostatics. From Eq, (I li) ne Know that €y = 1/(Hg).But sig = 4x x 10°" (H/m) in SI units: so 1 2 Reg fe 107 yF) 6-16) exactly. Ifwe use the approximate value. 3x 108 (my), then 1/(4z¢9)= 9 10° (my/F) jWhen a point charge g, is placed in the field of another point charge 4, at the abit foret Fra is experienced by q, due to electric field intensity E,, of ya 4, Combining Eqs. (3-3) and (3-12), we have — Equation{(317) isa mathematical form of Coulomb's law already stated in Section 3-1 in conjunction with Eq, (3-1). Note that the exponent on R is exactly 2, which is @ consequence of the fundamental postulate Eq. (3~4). In SI units the proportionality Constant k equals 1/(4ne), and the force is in newtons (N},72 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /3 sere Gathode Fig. 3-3 Electrostatic defection systemof a eathoderay svellegeaph (Fxample 3-2), Example 3-2 The electrostatje dellection system of a eathode-cay oscillograph is depicted in Fig. 3-3. Electrons from a heated cathode are given an initial velocity by a positively charged anode (not shown). The electrons enter at : = 0 into a region of deflection plates where a uniform electric field Ey = —a,£, is main- tained over a width w. Ignoring gravitational effects, ind the vertical deflection of the electrons on the fluorescent screen at = Solution: Since there is no forge in the z-direction in the z > 0 region, the horiz. velocity v is maintained. The field B, exerts a force on the electrons each carrying charge ~e, causing a deflection in the y direction. OE, i in the vertical direction, we have eb From Newton's second law of mot me eke where m is the mias of an electfon'Ijtegrating both sides, we obtain idy Wa ‘where the constant of integratfon is set to zero besause t, Oat r= 0. Integrating again, we have yo feet The consant of iteration it agin nro tense y= Oat ¢= 0. Note tat he electrons have a parabolic trajectory between the deflection plates. At the exit from the deflection plajes, f= w/t,” 80), 32 & Diserwte F 63-3/COULOMB'S LAW 73 oooltd) (2) When th stron ee i ' we Sie ces fe screen they have traveled a further horizontal distance — w/o seconds. During that time there is an additional ey w= w) 3-31 Electric Field due to a System of Discrete Charges Suppose in electrostatic field is ereated by a Gay. --» du located at diferent positions. Since electric field intensity isa linear fumes oy of (proportional to) agg/R?, the principle of superposition applies, and the tac Field at a point is the vector sum of the fields caused by all the individual cher Figm Ea, (15) we can write the electric intensity at i field point whose positon vector is Ras coup of n diserete point charges q, canying 1 Frey uk = mp on Aithough Ea. (3-18) is a succinct expression, itis somewhat inconvenient to we because ofthe need to add vectors of different magnitudes and directions {atu consider the simple case ofan electric dipole that consists ofa par of equal Lb and opposite charges, ++q and ~g, separated by a small distance, d, be shows ay Fig. 3-4 Let the center of the dipole coincide with the origin ofa spherical courcreare ‘stem. Then the E feld atthe point P isthe sum of the contributions due to +3 ‘erating r Fig. 3-4 Electric eld of a dipole,74 — stavic eLectnic FieLos/a and ~g. Thus, G-19) yes” mn m where the binomial expansion has been used and all terms containing the second and higher powers of (d/R) have bess! neglected. Similarly, for the second term on the right side of Eq. (3~19), we haye 3-20) (3-23) The derivation and interpretatiog of Fg, (3-24) reqpire the manipulation of Vector quantities. We can appreciate-that determining the electric field caused by three or more diserete charges will he even more tédion. In Section 2-5 we will introduce the concept of a scalur electric potential, with) whielr the electric. ele intensity caused by a distribution of charges can be found more easily ‘The electric dipole is an important entity in tle study of the electric field in dielectric media. We define the product of the charge q and the vector d (going from r ~qand +4) as the electric dipoly moment, p ped {equation (3-22) can then be rwrifn as 1a fsR-pa a], 32 aap? a 8?) 6-29 where the approximate sign (~) over the equal sign thas been left out for simplicity 3-37 Distr. atic Tr i6-19) 2 write (3-29) cts al eld in ng izom “ry wou apliciy, I 2-8/COULOMB'S LAW 75, Tethe dipole lies along the z-axis as in Fig. 34, then (see Eq, 2-77) Play cos 8 ~ ay sin 8) (3-25) ° R-p=Rpcos 0, 6-26) and Eq. (3~24) becomes Ba Past 2008 0+ a5 sin 0) (Vim). (3-27) Equation (3~27) gives the electric field intensity of an electric dipole in spherical Soordinates. We see that E of a dipole is inversely propattional to the cube of the distance R. This is reasonable because as R increases, the fields due to the clos. Spaced +q and —g tend to cancel each other more completely, thus decreasing more rapidly than that of single point charge. 3-3.2 Electric Field due to a Continuous Distribution of Charge The electric field caused by a continuous distribution of charge can be obtained integrating tsuperposing) the contribution of an element of charge over the listribution. Refer to Fig. 3-5, where a volume cha vet by distribution is shown. The ‘dinates, Swe a ilferentel clement of eharge behaves like a point charge, the contcibution of the charge p le ‘na differential volume element dv’ to the electric field intensity at the field point P is dv an oe 6-28) we ehuarige demty gC fas) es ftvtion ol the ce We have (3-29) Fig. 3-5. Electric field due to continuous charge distribution.or, since ay = R/R, ee : Teo Bae tv 0-29 ee eee Except for some especially simple! cases, the vector triple ihtegral in Eq. (3-29) or Eq, (3-20) is difficult to carry out because, in genetal,all'three quantities in the integrand (ag, p, and R) change with the location of the differential volume dv’ Ifthe charge is distributed on a:surface with a surface charge density p, (Cm, then the integration is to be carried out over the surface (not necessarily Sat). Thus — fa Pay av 3x Pm ype fee ha (Vom p ~ Pe ' an 2h deh 22) Fede vim), | 6-32) where 9, (Cim) is the line charge ‘density, and L’ the line (not necessarily straight) along which the charge is distributed. ' Example 3-3 Determine the eleciic field intensity of an infinitely long, straight. line charge of a uniform density gin air Solution: Let us assume that tHe line charge ligs along the z-axis as shown in Fig, 3-6. We are perfectly free to 6 this because the field obviously does not depend fon how we designate the line, Iriya accepted ewiventiom tase primed eunbnates {for source points and taprimed euairdanates for fll pings when there bs punsibly ‘of confusion.) The problem asks us to find the eldctFic field intensity at a point P. Which is at & distance r from the lie. Since the problem has a cylindrical symmetry Uthat is, the electric field is indeperident of the azimuth angle 6}. it would be most convenient to work with cylifdrical coordinates. We rewrité Eq. (3~32) as i R | E Felt Peale» Vim) (3-33) For the problem at hand pis constant and a line lement dd” is chosen to be at an arbitrary distance z' from the,Grigin. It is most important to remember that is the distance vector directed fipm the source to the field point, not the other way3-40) 5-29) of in the (Cim*), 0. Thus, stuaight) straight sssibilty point P, minetry be most lo heat F that R her way 3-a/couLoMB's Law 77 Fig. 3-6 An infinitely long struighcline charge around. We have 3-34) ‘The electri field, dE, due to the differential line charge element p, dé’ = p; dis where and 5b) In Eq. (3-35) we have decomposed dE into its components in the a, and a, directions. Ttis easy to see that for every p, dz’ at +7 theresa charge element p, ds’ at ~~”, which Will produce a dE with components dé, and —dE,. Hence the a, components will cancel in the integration process, and we only need to integrate the dE, in Eq, (3-354): ~~ or (3-36)78 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /9 Equation (3-36) is an important ‘result for an infinite line charge, Of course, no physical line charge is infinitely long; nevertheless, Eq (3~36) gives the approximate E field ofa long straight line charge ata point close to the line charge. 3-4 GAUSS’S LAW AND APPLICATIONS Gears’ aw flows dite from the vergence posta of detrosatic, Es. (3-4, by the application ofthe vergence theorems tas een died in Secon 3-3 2 a, OM and is vepeaed bere oh acount ots mporanse G-37) Gavos's law asserts that the total outward fla of the Befild over any: closed surface in free space is equal to the tou charge enclosed in the surface dicided by ¢y. We note that the surface $ can be any hypothetical (mathematical) closed surface chosen for convenience; it does not have to be. and usually is not, a physical surface Gauss’ law is particularly useful in determining the E-field of charge distributions with some symmetry conditions, such that ite normal component of the electric field intensity i constant over an enclose surface. ta such cases the surface integral on the Jef side of Eq, (3-37) would be very casy to evaluate, and Gauss's law would much more efficient way for fiiding the electrit field intensity than Eqs. (3-29) through (3-33), On the other hand. when symmetty conditions do not exist. Gauss's law would not be of much help, The essence of applying Gauss's law lies first in the recognition of symmetry conditions, and second in tha suitable choice of a surface over which the normal component of E resulting {rom a given charge distribution js. a constant, Such a surface js referred to as a Gaussian surface, This has principle ve use fo obi ig. (3.13) far pant ears Hhat possesses spherical sytnmetty consequently, « proper Gaussian surliee is the sistneg of w sphere centre at the point charge. Gauss'’s law equld ndt help in the derivgtion of Eq. (3-22) of (3-27) for an electric dipole, since a surfice about a separated pair of equal and opposite charges over which the normal component of E remains constant was not known. Example 3-4 Use Gauss's law to determine the electric field intensity of an infinitely long, straight, line charge of a uniform density py in-air. Solution: This problem wag solyed in Example 3~3 by using Eq. (3-32). Since the line charge is infinitely long, the resultant E field must be radial and perpendicular to the fine charge (E = a,£,}. and a component of E along the line cannot exis. With the obvious cylindrical symmetry, we construct a’eylindrical Gaussian surface of radius rand an arbitrary length L with the line charge as its axis, as shown in Fig. 3-7. On this surface, £, is constant, and ds = a,r d@ de (from Eq, 2-522). Weourse, no proximate £4, (3-4), tion 3-2 (3-37) 2 surface Wenote iosen for ns frie told tad be a ny vein the « surface bution, arineiple metry dat the 3-27) opposite known, finitely ino aiicwar ore sure 23). We separ 3-4 /GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 79 See | Infinitely lone uniform lige charge, er” Fig. 3-77 Applying Gauss's law fo an infinitely long line charge (Example 3-4}, have Qieae f [rast Tee's i no contribution from the top oF the Bottom-face of the eylinder because on sine fee d= aur drip but K hs no a-component there, making Eon Saetnly or the tun fae, ‘he total eharge encloned inthe uplante Oe ont Substitution into Eq. (3-37) gives us immediately : 2nrLk, 2nrLE, or fs obtained here + of the cylindrical Guassian surface hence we could have chosen a cylinder of 2 does not appear in the final expression. unit length. Feample 3-8 Determine the electre field intensity oan infinite planar cha se with 4 uniform siface charge density p, Solution: Ii clear thatthe Fld eawset by a hugged shewt ofan infinite extent is, poral to the sheet. Equation (3-31) eould be used to find E, but thn nents involve @ double integration between infinite limits of a general expression of 1/R?. Gauss’s law can be used to much advantage here.Ease ‘urface tna unitorm surface charge oc We choose as the Gaussian surfaee a reetang of an arbitrary area A equidistant from the planar charge, as shown in Fig. 3 Fig. 3-8 “ Applying Gause's law to an‘infnite planar charge (Example 3-5) lar box with top and bottom faces 8. ‘The sides of the box are perpendicular to the charged sheet. If the charged sheet coincides with the xy-plane, then or Evds= On the bottom face, the top face, (ae, “(a,ds)= ds E+ ds =(—a,£,):(—a, ds) = E, ds Since there is no contribution from the side faces, we have Gera 26, f,as= 28,4. ‘The total charge enclosed in the box i Q = pyA. Therefore, from which we obtain and 2B A =P, E Of course, the charged sheet may Aot coincide with the xy-plane (in which case we away from the sheet if p, is positive. id below the plane}, buf the E field always points,om faces ig 3-8, od sheet a > pints | 1 | I i SS \ : 3-47 GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 81 Example 3-6 Determine the E field caused by a spherical cloud of electrons with & volume charge density p = —p, for 0-< R b, : ‘olution: "First we recognize that the given source condition has spherical symmetry The proper Gaussian surfaces must therefore be concentric spherical surtaces, We ‘must find the E field in two regions, Refer to Fig. 3-9. a) 0 b outside the electron cloud. We obtain the same expression Tor f., Eds as in case (a. The total charge er.closed is : Consequently, eee 3g? — & ‘which follows the inverse squaré law and could have been obtained directly from Eq, (3-12), We observe that auiside the charged claud the E field is exactly the same as though the total charge is concentrated on a single point charge at the center, This is true, in general, for a spherically symmetrical charged repion oven though p is a function of R. The variation of Eq versus Ris plotted in Fig, 3-9, Note that the formal solution of this problem requires only a few lines, If Gaus®s law is not used, itis necessary (1) to choose a differential volume’ element arbitrarily located in the electron cloud, (2) to expres its vector distance Rito a field poitt jn 4 chosen coordinate.system, and (3) t6 perform a triple integration as indicated in Eq, (3-29). This is hopelessly involved process. The moral is: Tty to apply Guliss’s law if symmetry conditions exist for the given charge distribution 3-5 ELECTRIC POTENTIAL In connection with the null identity in Eq. (2-130) we poted that a curl-free vector field could always be expressed as the gradient of a sear field. This induces us to define a scalar electric potentql, ¥,such that. E=-w (3-38) because scalar quantities are easier to handle thal vectar quantities. It we can deter mine V more easily, then E cap be found by'a gradient dperation, which i a straight. forward process in an orthogonal coordinate systém. The reason for the inclusion of 4 negative signin Eq, (3-38) Will be explained presently,om faces 38, a points t i “onan oem RR et OE me rte Block 3-4/GAUSS'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 81 Example 3-6 Determine the E field caused by a spherical cloud of electrons with 8 volume charge density p = —p, for 0< R b, olution: | First we recognize that the given source condition has spherical symmetry. The proper Gaussian surfaces must therefore be concentric sphe! ‘must find the E field in two regions, Refer to Fig, 3-9, a) 0 Areoi* pom : Yaa WF (3-48) where = od. (The “approximafe” sign (~) has been dropped for simplicity.) ‘The E field can be obtained from — VV. In spherical coordinates we have ov ay = WV = a : aR i 5 Beep tH2 008 0 + ay sin 3-49 gsi 608 0 oy 3-49) Equation (3~49) is the same as Eq. (3-27), but has been ghiained by a simpler pro- cedure without manipulating ppsition vectors, Example 3-7 Make a two-dimensional sketch of the aguipotential lines and the electric field lines for an electrig dipole, Solution: The equation of an equipotential surfade of q charge distribution is ob- tained by setting the expressiop for V to equal a constaat. Since 4, d, and ¢y in (3~48) for an electric dipole ape fixed quantities, 2 consjant V requires a constant ratio (cos 0), Hence the equgtion for an equipotential serie is (3-50) Fis7) 134%) sler prow and the mn is ob- constant 6-50) Se 3-5/ ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 87 here cy is @ constant. By plotting R versus @ for various values of cy, we draw the solid equipotental lines in Fig. 3-14, In the range 0 < 8 < x/2.V is positive: R is maximum at @= 0 and zero at 6 = 90°. A mirror image is obtained in the range WSO nwhere Visnegative. The electric field lines or streamlivfes represent the direction of the E field in space. We set . de = KE, G-s) Fig. 3-14 Equipotenial and electric fed lines ofan electric dipole (Example 3-7)88 stavic ELeCTRIGHELDS/3 "> i £ i where k is a constant. In spherigal ¢oordinates, Eq. {3~5]) becomes (see Eq. 2-66). ag dR + a4R dO + aR pin Odd = Kinney + M6Ee + 2E.), (3-52) Which can be written 1 : aR_ Rd _ Rsinddd a 3-83) En ike Ey For an electric dipole, there is no Ey bomponent, and |, ak Rao * Teos ~ sind 4_ 2alsin 0) R sin” Integrating Eq. (3-54), we obtain ~ R= czsin* 6, (3-55) where c, is a constant. The electri field lines, having maxfma at 6 = 7/2, re dashed in Fig. 3-14, They are rotationally s}mmetrical abdut thg z-axis (independent of 6) and are everywhere normal to fhe equipotent ins. The electric potential due fo a.cpntinuous distribution of charge confined in a siven region is obtained by mi the contribution of an element of charge over the charged region. We have, ah jélume charge oat For a surface charge distribution, tS veg mM: f. 6-57) and, fora line charge, ‘i (3-58) Example 3-8 Obtain a formula’ for the elect i seudlncensiy on the axis of @ete hes : “Aes Se TARE SR Tea . S fs sibling aes a 5 Reg: S-5/ELECTRIC POTENTIAL 89 2-66). Solution: Although the disk has circular symmetry, we cannot visualize a surface 6-52) around it over which the normal component of E has a constant magnitude; hence ‘Gauss's law is not useful for the solution of this problem. We use Eq. (3-57), Working, ‘ith cylindrical coordinates indicated in Fig. 3-15, we have (6-53) ds! =r de dg! and R=JPar. ‘The electric potential at the point P(0, 0, 2) referring to the point at infinity is Pape po Vw Pe ft fe ae dg am tl Ll Res Be 602 4 5a) . Fella +0) 6-59) Therefore, 250 (3-603) red ina Ota seey], — 2<0, (3-600) "eg The determination of E fled at an off-axis point would be a much more diffcul problem. Do you know why? For very iargez, it is convenient to expand the second term in Eqs. (3-604) and (G-60b) into a binomial series and neglect the second and all higher powers of the ratio (6/23). We have sespyi (1 +2 ) ai-% or xis of a Fig. 3-15 A uniformly charged disk (Example 3-8) i |(G-61a) (3-616) ‘where Qis the total chargg on jhe disk. Hence, when the point of observation is very far away from the charged disk, the E field approximately follows the inverse square Jaw as if the total charge were goncentrated at a point Example 3-9 Obtain a formula for the electri field intensity along the axis of a uniform line charge of length, The uniform line-chargo density is p. Solution: For an infinitely lopg line charge, the E field'gan be determined readily by applying Gauss's law, as ig the solution to Fxamplg 3-4, However, for a line charge of finite length, as show in Fig. 16, we eannot cqnstruct a Gaussian surface cover which E- ds i constant. Gaus's law i therefore not useful here. Instead, we use Eq, (3~58] by taking an element of pharge dé” = ds’ at 2. The distance from the charge elehnent to the point P(O, 0, af along the axis ofthe line charge is ' Lt ze Here it is extremely important jp distinguish the position af the field point (unprimed coordinates) from the position gf the source point (primed coordinates). We integrate ReGie a> Fig. 3016 | A finite ine charge, of opform line density 9, Example 3). 3-6 ¢ ELECT61a) 3-61b) is very square surh =. The. he line primed teprate 3-6 / CONDUCTORS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD 91 ‘over the source region fag eg = fon [E sah ak (3-62) Snes 2) The E field at P is the negative gradient of V with respect to the unprimed field coordinates, For this problem,» alt Le de * eel? — LPT ‘The preceding two exampies iliusirate the procedure for deie finding V when Gauss’ law cannot be conveniently applied. However, we emphasize that, ifsymmetry conditions exis such that a Gaussian surface can be constructed over which E + ds is constant, it is always easier to determine E directly, The potential V. if desired, may be obtained from E by integration, E 3-6 CONDUCTORS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD So far we have discussed only the electric field of stationary charge distributions in free space or air. We now examine the field behavior in material media. In general, wwe classify materials according to their electrical properties into thrce types: cam ductors, semiconductors, and insulators (or dielectrics). In terms of the crude atomic ‘model of an atom consisting of a positively charged nucleus with orbiting electrons. the electrons in the outermost shells of the atoms of conductors ure very loosely held and migrate easily from one atom to another. Most metals belong to this group, The electrons in the atoms of insulators or dielectrics, however, are held firtnly to their orbits; they cannot be liberated in normal circumstances, even by the application of an external electric field. The electrical properties of semiconductors fall between those of conductors and insulators in that they possess a relatively small number of fcely movable charges, tn terms of the band theory of solids, we find that there are allowed energy bands for electrons, each band consisting of many closely spaced, discrete energy states. Between these energy bands there may be forbidden regions or gaps where no elec. trons of the-salid's atom can reside. Conductors have an upper ener band partially filled with electrons or an upper pais of overlapping bands that are partially filed so that the electons in these bands can move from one to another with only a small change in energy. Insulators or dielectrics are materials with a completely filled upper band, so conduction could not normally. occur because of the existence of a large energy gap to the next higher band. If the energy gap of the forbidden region 's relatively small, small amounts of external energy may be sufficient to excite the ¢lsctrons in the filled upper band to jump into the next band, causing conduction, Such materials are semiconductors.92 stanic ELecrnic Pieips (3 t The macroscopic electricl ploperty of a matérial medium is characterized by @ ‘constitutive parameter called conductivity, which we will define in Chapter 5, The definition of conductivity, hopejer, is not important in this chapter because we are not dealing with current flow and are now interested only in the behavior of static electric fields in material megla. Tn this section we examine the electric field and charge distribution both inside the bulk and on tHe surface df'a conductor. ‘Assume for the present that goime positive (oF negative)icharges are introduced in the interior of a conductof. An electric field will be get up in the conductor, the field exerting a force on the cRarges and making them mipve away from one another. This movement will continue until all the charges reach the conductor surface and redistribute themselves jn such a way that both thecharge and the field inside vanish, Hence, i Inside a Conductor (Pngier Static Conditions) =0 = (3-64) E=0 (3-65) When there isno charge in the fteior of conguctr(p 0 Emust be zero because, According to Gauss’ law, the Yoll outward eects uy thtgigh any closed eon ‘constructed inside the conductor trust vanish, Ty ‘The charge distribution ch the surface of @ conductpr depends on the shape of the surface. Obviously the chapges would not be in statg/of equilibrium if there were a tangential component of the electtc field intensity that proguces a tangential force and moves the charges. Therefore, inder static conditiogs the Field ona conductor surface is everywhere normal ta the surface. In othe? words, the surface of a conductor is am equipotential surface under static conditions.;As a, nutter of Tact since F.=0 everywhere inside a conduetbr, the whole conductor hus the same electrostatic Potential. A finite time is reupired for the charges to gpdistribute on a conductor Surface and reach the equilibrim: state. This time depends on the conductivity of the material, For a good capductge sich as copper, this time is in the order of 10-!°(s), 4 very brief transient. (This ppint will be elaborated in'Section 54.) Figure 3-17 shows an intepfage hetween a conductor pnd free space. Consider the contour abeda, which has ‘width ati = cd = Aw and. ‘he be-= da = Ah, Sides ab and ed are parallel to the intgrfaces Applying Eq.(3+8)f letting Ah—-0, and noting that E in a conductor aero, ye dain immediatly guaturnna fa 2-0, (3-6) which says thatthe eangential combdnen of the Ftd on a conductor surface is zero, In order to find E,, the | ‘cpniponent of E at'the ¢prfacg of the conductor, we ay ge 4 i si 75. The fstatie ld ayd odueed the nother. wee and vanish, surface ape of AU force ductor wluctor E=0 ‘static ductor of the 9, der the des ab noting oO (or, we | twig eg * a a Fit. 3-17 A conductenitee construct a Gaussian surface in the form of a thin pillbox with the top face in free space and the bottom face in the conductor where E = 0. Using Eq, (3-7), we obtain G, Eds = £, a5 = AS Ps % BaP 3-67) Hence, the normal com equal to the surface chan Space. Summa sponent of the E field at a conductor-free space boundary is irge density on the conductor divided by the permittvicy of free iging the boundary conditions at the conductor surface, we have Boundary Conditions at a Conductor-Free Space Interface E,=0 6-66) Eynk (3-67) = When an uncharged conductor is placed in a static electric field, the external field will cause loosely held electrons inside the conductor to move in a direction ‘pposite to that of the field and cause net positive charges to move in the direction of the field These induced free charges will distribute on the conductor surface and Create an indided field in such a way that they cancel the external field both inside the conductor and tangent to its surfice. When the surface charge distribution Teaches an equilibrium, all four relations, Eqs. (3-64) through (3-67), will hol! 4nd the conductor is again an equipotent body. Example 3-10 A positive point chat shell of an inner radius Rj and at of the radial distance R. ge Q is at the center ofa spherical conducting sn outer radius R,. Determine E and V as functions94» sTaviC ELECTRIC FiELDS (3 “4 > ‘Conducting shall Fig. 3-18 ‘Electr field intensity and potential valntiogg ofa point charge “+ at the genter pra conducting Sous Solution: The geometry of the Aroblem is shown ini Fig 3~18(a). Since there is spherical symmetry itis simplest jo use Gaus's law fo determine E and then find V by integration. There are three flistinet regions: (a) R > Rj, (b) R, < R< R,, and ( & < R, Suitable spherical Gaugsign surfaces will be eonsffucted in these regions Obviously, E = ayE in all three régions. 2) R> R, (Gaussian surge ):|. | j E O° = Eqidnk? = 2 ann? = E: 3-7 lew ELEGRICen find %, and gions, i 6-68) 3-7/ DIELECTRICS IN STATIC ELECTRIC FIELD 95 The B field is the same as that of @ point charge Q without the presence of the shell. The potential referring to the point at infinity is * Q Yn ~ JM en) dR = 20 o. (3-69) +b) Ris RR, (Gaussian surface S;): Because of Eq. (3-65), we know Eu 0. Since p = 0 in the conducting shell and since the total charge enclosed in surf ‘Sz must be zero, an amount of negative charge equal to —Q must be induced on the inner shell'surface at R = R. (This also means an amount of positive charge, equa! io +.¢ is induced on the outer shell surface at R = R,.) The von- Rys(b) Ry < R< Ry and (e) R < R,, Potent Wai found from the negative line integral of E, and polarization P is determined by the relation = D~ 6 E = e0fe, ~ DE. (3-99) The E, D, and P vectors have only radial components, Refer to Fig. 3-20(a), where ‘the Gaussian surfaces are not shown in otder to avoid cluttering up the figure a) R>R, ‘The situation inthis region is exactly the same as that in Example 3-10. We have, fom Eqs. (3-68) and (3-69), . From Eqs. (3-97) and (3-99), we obtain Day = €oER: (3-100) and Par (3-101), » Riser, The application of Gauss law inthis region gives us directly ~ @ 103 Freee R? Fae ae 7 e : Pam 72s (6-103) tne (1-2) 2, arSTATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS / 3 : ee Note that Daz has the sane expression as Dpj and Aiscontinuity at R & Ra Ip thi region, See Fly. 3-20 Field yuritions of 4 point chafge +9 at the center of a dielectf shit, (Example 3-11. that both Ey and Px have a 3-105)3-105) esa é base | 3-8 / ELECTRIC FLUX DENSITY AND DIELECTRIC CONSTANT 193 OR R,, the application of Gauss’s law yields the same expressions for E,, Dp, and Py in both regions: To hnd ¥5, we must add to V, at R = R, the negative line integral of Eqs Sl(-De-(-Derd} om The variations of ¢oE, and Dg versus R are plotted in Fig. 3~20(b). The difference (Dp ~€o£q) is Px and is shown in Fig. 3-20(c), The plot for V in Fig, 3~20(d) is a composite graph for ¥;, Vey and Vs in the three regions. We note that Dy is a con. tinuous curve exhibiting no sudden changes iit going from one medium to anotber and that Pg exists only in the dielectric region. It is instructive to compace Figs. 3-20(b) and 3-20(d) with, respectively, Figs. 3-18(b) and 3-18(c) of Example 3-11 From Eqs. (3-83) and (3-84) we find Polnen =P (—telpag = ~Prileen 1) 9 : -(: -2) ae 6-107) on the inner shel surface; (3-108) oon the outer sll surface; and p= -VeP 0 Bap ; agg Pad) = 0. (3-109) Equations (3-107), (3-108); and (3-109) indicate that there is no net polarization Volume charge inside the dielectric shell. However, negative polarization surface charges exist on the inner surface; positive polarization surface charges, on the outer3/3 104 stamic ELECTRIC Fig Tes ll eee Coon Maia Material" Dieldtre Sremath (Vm) Ar (atmospheric pressure) 3x 10° Mineral el 3 1six 108 Polystyrene: 1 moe 10° Rubber 25 x 108 Glass "30x 108 Mica 2 200% 10" surface. These surface charges produce an electric fold intensity that is directed radially inward, thus reducing the:E field in region 2 due to the point charge +Q at the center. lectric Strength We have explained that an glectic field causes small displacements of the bound charges in a dielectric material, resulting in polarization, If the electric field is very strong, it will pull electrons corupletely out of the mélecules, causing permanent dislocations in the molecular stricture. Free chagges will appear. The material will ‘become conducting, and large chérents may resijt. This phenomenon is called a dielectric breakdown. Tho magimh electric fila Yatenalty that a dielectric material can withstand without breakdavn is the dielecttic aft of the material. The approximate dieletrie strengths af some common ubsthnces are given in Table 3-1 ‘The dielectric strength of a mgterial must not be cénfused with its dielectric constant A convenient number to remember is that the iiafectrie strenpth af air it the atmospheric pressure is.) kV/mm. When the eleetrig held intensity exueeds Us value, air breaks down, Massive ionization takes! placg, and sparking (corona dis. charge) follows. Charge tendy to concentrate at sharp goint. In view of Eq. (3-67), the electri field intensity inthe immediate viinityofsgrp points is higher than that at points on a surface with q small curvature. This is,phe principle upon which a lightning arrester works. Disgharke through the sharp foints of a lightning arrester prevents damaging discharges through nearby ebjecte, The fact that the electric field intensity tends to be a at a point near tie sufface of a charged conductor with @ larger curvature i ltr i the following ekample Example 3-12 Consider, two spherical conductors, win radii, and by (b; > b,), which are connected by a copducting wire. The distange of separation between the conductors is assumed to belvety. large compated to 4 so that the charges on the spherical conductors may be'corkiered as uniformly istributed. A total charge Q aed i ed sii2 bu, 4s vpry manent ial will salled a wterial ‘al, The ble 3-1 sonstant. ir at the which a arrester lee onducwor by> by) ween the son the urge Q Fig. 3-21 Two connected conducting spheres (Example 3-12), is deposited on the spheres. Find (a) the charges on the two spheres, and (b) the electric field intensities atthe sphere surfaces. Solution a) Refer to Fig. 3-21. Since the spherical conductors are at the same potential, we have O_O Frecb, ~ Ineby - Oh Or by Hence the charges on the spheres are directly proportional to their radii. But, since : Q+0=9, we find and ee The electric field intensities are therefore inversely proportional to the radii being higher at the surface of the smaller sphere which has a larger curvature. 3-9 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS Electromagnetic problems often involve inedia with diferent physical properties and require the knowledge of the relations of the fild quanties at an interface ‘between two media, For instance, we may wish to determine how the E and D vectors‘ Fig. 3-22 “An intgrface + between tw mei. hanes in crossing an interface, We alseady know the boundary conditions that must Fr eitsied at a conductor-fre spac interface. These conditions have besn green Eas (3-66) and (3-67) We now consider an interiace batween tW0 general natin shovin in Fig. 3-22. : gis Construct a small path abcia with sides ab and of in media 1 and 2 respec. tively, both being parallel tothe inttace and equal fo Aw Equation (2-9) when g assumed to be valid for regions containing discontituous medja, is applica te che path? If we let sides be ='da = Ah approach zero, their pontibutions to the line integral of E around the path can beineelected, We have Gaus Boa a —LULUr— Therefore By; ‘ 5 Ex (Vim), 6-110 which states that the cangential ogprpouent of an E field is continuous across an inter- Jace. Ea, (3-110) simplifies to 4. (3-66) if one of the meqia is a conductor Whee ‘media I and 2 are dielectrica with: permittivities ¢, and’e, respectively, we have tee Pk B-1 aa In order to find a relation hetween the normal:components of the fields at a oundary, we construct « small pilltox with its top face ip medium | and boteons fice in medium 2, as was illustrat in Fig, 3-22. Thelfaces have an area AS, ood the ‘eight ofthe pillbox hs vanishingly small Applying Gaugs's law Ea, (3-99) tothe * See C.T. Tal, "On the present ion of Marwcits theory Proceetas of he JEEE, vol. 60, pp. 936-945, Asus 7 : me whe inte the bre whi we or Ree lee Sol orig inte‘3-8 / BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR ELECTROSTATIC FIELDS 117 pillbox, we have me psa (Dy +42 + Day) AS =a, "(D, —D,) AS =p, dS, 6-11) where we have used the relation a; = —ay,. Unit vectors a,, and a,, are, respectively, outward unit normals to media 1'and 2, From Eq. (3=112) we obtain Eq. (3~113) states that che normal component of D field is discontinuous across an interface where a surface charge exists—the amount of discontinuity being equal to the surface charge density, If medium 2 is a conductor, D; = 0 and Eq, (31136) - ,2°(D, —D) =p, I (G-113a) ; Diy Dan =p, (Cim’), (-1138) vat must | an given ‘ Where the reference unit normal is ourward from medium 2 media E i 2 whic becomes: re Din = Eve = Pos G14) the line Q : which simplifies to Eq. (3~67) when medium {is free space. : When two dilecris are in contact with no free charges athe interface, p, i we have i =D, 115) Ek or Din 2a GB 3 Ey = €2 Ean 116) 6-110) Recapitulating, we find the boundary conditions that must be satisfied for static ben : electric fields are as follows: 2 When i Taagetalcomponcas, Ey 5-10 Normal components, a,z(D; ~ D3) = py. @-1138) -t) waa EE Example 3=13~ A lucite shect (¢, = 3,2) is introduced perpendicularly in a uniform bottom, electric field E, = a,£, in free space. Determine E,, D,, and P; inside the lucite. cand 510 the Solution: We assume that the introduction ofthe lucite sheet does not disturb the original uniform electric field F,. The sitoation is depicted in Fig. 3-23. Since the i 4 interfaces are perpendicular to the electric feld, only the normal feld components need be considered. No freé charges exist. oe3-23 face set nw nom dks ell (sap 313, Boundary condition Eq, (3-114) at the left interface gives Di= aeoky There is no change in electric flux density across the interlate: The electric field intensity inside the lite sheet Mea, Br gDi=22D, ok t ‘The polarization vector is zaro outside the lucite sheet {P, = 0). Inside the sheet, ratlama(se ae aA, ny Clearly, a similar application of the boundary condition Eq. (3-114) on the right interface will yield the prigipal Bj and D, in thelrée dpace on the right ofthe lucite sheet. Does the solution an Problem chang if the original electric field is not uniform that i if By = af) ‘ re 4) fig ree Fig.3-24 Bauadafy conditions at the interface Between two dieletric ‘media (Example 3-44 : 3-10ried reloste dis not 3-10, elbacrrance AND CAPACITORS 109 i Example 3-14, Two diclectric media with permitivtes ¢, and ey are separated by acharge-fre¢ boundary as shown in Fig. 3-24. The electric field intensity in medium Lat the point P, has a magnitude £, and makes an angle «, with the normal. Deter tin themagnitudé and direction of theese ld intensity at point Ps iniechace, Solution: Two éqiations are needed to solv for two unknowns Ey, and Ey, After Ex, and E,, have been found, £, and x; will follow directly. Using Eqs. (3-110) and (3-115), we have : By sin ay = Ey sic ay o-117) and + « : re €2E 605 1, = €,B, 008 4. @-118) Division of Eq. (-L17) by Eq. (3-118) gives e —— (G-119) wana, ‘The magnitude of E, is Ey = VE} + E5, = (Ez sin a)" + (Ey cos ap a rea -[e. snag? +( te, omn) | @-120) By examining Fig, 3~24, can you tell whether ¢, is larger or smaller than €,” CAPACITANCE AND CAPACITORS From Section 3-6 we understand that a conductor in a static electric field is an equipotential body and that charges deposited on a conductor will distribute them selves on its surface in such @ way that the élecric field inside vanishes. Suppose the potential due to a charge Q is V. Obviously, increasing the total charge by some factor k would merely increase the surface charge density p, everywhere bythe same factor, without afecting the charge distribution because the conductor remains an equipotential body in a static situation. We may conclude from Eq, (3-S7) that the Potential of an isolated conductor is directly proportional to the total charge on it This may also be seen from the fact that increasing ¥ by a fuctor of & increases E = —VY by a factor ofk, Bu, ftom Eq, (3-67), E = ay/ey; it follows that p, and con- sequently the total charge Q will also increase by a factor of k. The ratio Q/V therefore110 stamic'eLectRic FieLos /3 remains unchanged, We write Mhere the constant of proportionality C is called the capacitance of the isolated fonducting body. The capacitance is the electric charge that must be added te ata ody per unit inrease in its electric potential. Is SI unit is coulomb per well ce farad (F) 3nd 72.00 the other. Several electric feld lines originating Irom positive cerses And terminating on negative charges are shown in Fig. 3-25, Note that the ed tines are perpendicular to the conductor sures, which ne equipotent surtnces Equation (3-121) applies here if V is taken to mean the potential difference betmecy 2 | oy iference Vz. A capacitor has a capacitance even when no voltage i appied wt 2nd Re free charges exist on its conductors. Capacitance C can be determiacd fron Fa. (3-122 by either (I) assuming a V3 and determining Q in terms of Vr or (2) ‘sssuming Q and determining V3 in erms of Q. At this stage, since we have not ye Fig. 3-25. A two-conductor capacitor.6-121) isolated to the volt, or + of two may be etween ductor ebvaraes he field vetween ao ductor y ofthe tential ad to it from or (2 not yet ncaa era enn i Ata ote arenes \ i 3-10 /CABACITANCE AND CAPACITORS 111 Studied the methods for solving boundary-value problems (which will be taken upin Chapter 4), we find C by the second method. The procedure is as follows: 1, Choose an appropriate coordinate system for the given geometry. 2. Assume chargés +0 and ~Q on the conductors. 3. Find E from Q by Eq. (3-114), Gausss lav, or other relations, 4, Find ¥,, by evaluating a from the conditctor carrying ~Q to the other carrying +0. 5. Find C by taking the ratio Q/M3 Example 3-15 _A parallel-plate capacitor consists of two parallel conducting plates of area S separated by a uniform distance d. The space between the plates is filed With a dielectric of a constant permittivity e, Determine the capacitance. Solution: cross section of the capacitor is shown in Fig, 3-26. It is obvious that the appropriate coordinate system to use is the Cartesian coordinate system, Follow. ing the procedure outlined above, we put charges +Q and —Q on the upper and lower conducting plates respectively. The charges are assumed to be uniformly distributed over the conducting plates with surface densities +p, and —p,, where From Eq. (3-114), we have 2,2, E a Yes" Which is constant within the diclectrcif the fringing ofthe electric field atthe edges of the plates is neglected. Now £(-4 2), Fig. 3-26 Cross section of paralletplate capacitor (Example 3-15,412. static ELecTRIC FieLDs/3 Therefore, for a parallel-plate capacitor, (3-123) which is independent of Q or For this problem we could have started by assuming a potential difference V;,. between the upper and lower plates. The electric field intensity between the plates is uniform and equals Ea -2,-3. The surface charge densities at the upper and lower conducting plates are +p, and — Py tespectively, where, in view of Eq, (3-67), Therefore, Q = p45 = (eSid)¥j2 and C = Q/Y, = eS/d, as before Example 3-16 A cylindrical capacitor consists of an inney Bonductor of radius a and an outer conductor whose inner radius is b The space Dewees he condacoar, is filed with a dielectric of peemitiviye, andthe length ofthe sapactes Dee mine the eapcitance ofthe capacitor Solution: “We use cylindrical coordinates for this problem. First we assume eharges #+@and —@ on the surface of the inner conductor and the inner surface of the outer conductor, respectively. The E field in the dielectric can be obtained by applying Gauss's law to a cylindrical Gaussian surface within the dielectric a b)and outer radi R,. Determine E everywhek. P3-10 Two infinitely long coaxial eylindrcal sufies, charge densities ,, nd py respectively. 8) Determine E eferywhere 4) What must be Ihe relation between and b in ord that E vanishes for ¢ > 8? P3=11 AL what values of @ does the component’? rie fel Intensity of a sirected dipole have no P3-12 Three charges +4. — = =a)2, respectively. 8) Determine ¥ dpd E ava distant point PLR, 0, @) ) Find the equatlons for equipotentil surfaces and size ©) Sketch a family of equipotencial lines and stceamlines. sind + are arcanged along 1 and (Such an arrangement of three charges is called a linear electrostatic quadrupole.) P.313 A finite tne ciacge of length L caries «uniform ine charge dens 8) Determine Vin the plane bisecting the line charge ) Determine E from p, directly by applying Coulomb's law ©) Cheek the answer in pat (b) with -¥V. P3-14 A charge Q is distributed uniformly over an L x L squae pla 4 point on the axis perpendicular to the plate, and through its center, PASIS A charge Qs lstibuted uniformly over the wallof a cccular tube of radius band height 4 Determine V and E on its exis 8) ata point outside the tube, the ) at point inside the tube, e. Deter ine V and E at P3-16 A simple classical model of an atom consists of a nucleus of 4 positive chante Ale surrounded by a spherical electron cloud of the same total negative charge. (Nis the atom ppumber and e is the electronic charge.) An external electric field E, will cause the nucleus so be Gisplaced a distance r, from the center ofthe electron cloud, this polarizing the atom, Assoming ‘uniform cage distribution within the electron cloud of radius bind r, P17 Determine the work done in carrying a ~2(uC) charge from P\(2, 1, —1) 0 Pals, 2, -1) in the field B= a, + aye 2) along the parabola x = 25%, ') along the straight line joining P, and 3,130 STATIC ELECTRIC FIELDS /3 P3-18 The polarization in a dielectric cube of side L centered at the origin is given by P= Plax +a,y +a) 1) Determine the surface and volute bound-charge densities b) Show thatthe total bound charge is zero P3-19 Determine the electric field intensity atthe center of a small spherical cavity cut out of a large block of dieietcic in which a polarization P exists. 3-20 Solve the following problems ) Find the breakdown voltage of a parallel-plate capacitor, assuming that conducting plates are $0 (mm) apart and the medium between them isa. ») Find the breakdown voltage ifthe entire space between the conducting plates filled with Plerislass, which has a dielectric constant 3 and a dielectric strength 20 (kenny, 6) Ifa 10mm) thick plexiglass is inserted between the plite, what isthe maxireum vokage ‘hat ean be applied to the plats without a breakdown’? P3-21 Assume that the = = 0 plane separates two lossless dielectric regions with ¢,, = 2 and 62 = 3. If we know that E, in egion | isa,2r —a,3x + a,(5 + 2), what do we also know about E, and D3 in region 2? Can we determine E and D, at any point ip region 2? Explain, P.3-22 Determine the boundary conditions fr the tangential and the Rarmal compos Patan interfue between two pe nts oF siclctrie media with dvleetrie constants €,, and, 3-23 What are the boundary conditions that must be satisfied by the electric potential at an imtenface between two perfect dielectrics with dielectric constants ,, and 6? P3-24 Diciccric lenses can be used to collimate cleciromagnetie fields. In Fig. 3-34, the left surface ofthe lens is that of a cireulareylinder, andthe tight surface is a plane. If E, at point Pry AS". 2) in region 1 is a,5 —a,3, what must be the dielectric constant of the lens in order ‘hal Ey in region 3 is parallel to the x-axis? ¢ o — o a 2 Fig. 3-34 Dielectric lens (Problem P26 3-25 The space between a parallel-pate capacitor of area $ is filed with a dielectric whose permittivity varies linearly frome, atone plate (y = 0) to; atthe other plate (y = d). Neslecting {tinging effect, find the eapacitance.ducting et with 4. the left 1 at point Sin order rie whose ‘Neelecting PROBLEMS 131 3-26 Consider the earth as a conducting phere of radius 637 (Mn) 4) Determine its eapacitance 5) Determine the maximum charge that can exist on it without eausing a breakdown of the Air surrounding i P3-27 Determine the capacitance of an isolated conducting sphere of radius 6 tha is coated with adieleetrie layer of uniform thickness d. The dlalectic has an electic susceptibility fe 3-28 A capacitor consiss of two concentric 5 pliercal shells of radii 8, and R,. The space between a is filled With a dielectric of relative permittivity from R, to A(R, and volume charge density p stored inthe following regions: 8) inside the sphere, ) outside the sphere (Check your results with those in Example 3-19, P3034 Find the electrostatic energy stored in the repion of space R > 6 around an electric dipole of moment p, 3-35 Prove that Eqs, (3-149) for stored electrostatic energy hold tre for any twe-conductor capacitor. i 2.3236 A paralelplate capacitor of width w, length L, ane separation ds partaly fled with « electric medium of dielectric constant «,795 shown in Fig’ 3-36. battery of Fs vale it oe ai sated tame ates 2) Find Dan pn ech on Fig 3-36 A puralepe camer Probiem P23) 3-37 Lag he rin of vial diaemen dev an exreion fr he fore betacen two pin chugs © and “Qstpured byron ne i 5-38 A pape cpaior of wih nth ad ean dhs a dei sn of permite the space betwen the pts The capers hare ioe es 8 hue inten Fig 3-31 Amin ta he esi tab seen oe shown teint ore atng on esas 2) wth he sich cose, he sich st pend ae, ea pe , tar 1-37 partially filled paralel-plate capacitor (Problem P.3~38)with radius conductor between, dl dieteetric lage WY by fi postion INTRODUCTION Electrostatic problems ate those which deal with the effects of electric charges at rest. These problems can present themselves in several different ways according to what is initially khown. The solution usually calls for the determination of electcie potential, electric field intensity, and/or electric charge distribution. If the ch distribution is given, both the electric potential and the electric field intensity bbe found by the formulas developed in Chapter 3, In many practical problems, however, the exact charge distribution is not known everywhere, and the formulas in Chapter 3 cannot be applied directly for finding the potential and ficld inten. sity. For instance, ifthe charges at certain disertte points in space and the potentials. of some conducting bodies ure given, it is rather dificult to find the distribution of surface charges on the conducting bodies and/or the electric field intensity ia space. When the conducting bodies have boundaries of a simple geometry, the ‘method of images may be used to great advantage, This method will be discussed in Section 4-4, In another type of problem, the potentials of all conducting bodies may be known, and we wish to find the potential and feld intensity in the surrounding space as well as the distribution of surface charges on the conducting boundaries. Differential equations must be solved subject to the appropriate boundary condi. tions. The techniques for solving partial aulferentjai equations in the various co- ordinate systems will be discussed in Sections 4-5 through 4-7. 4-2 POISSON'S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS In Section 3~8, we pointed out that Eqs. (3-93) and (3~5) are the two fundamental governing differential equations for electrostatics in any medium. These equations are repeated below for convenience, —, Eq. (3-93): - wep Eq. (3-5) “KE (0) 42) 133134 SOLUTION OF ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS / 4 The irrotational nature of E indicated by Eq, (4-2) enables us to define a scalar electric potential V, as in Eq, (3-38), Eq, (0-38): B= -w, 4-9 Ina linear and isotropic medium, D = cf, and Eq, (4-1) becomes Vee=p “9 Substitution of Eq (4-3) in Fg (4-4) yields Vl) =~, “5 where can be a function of position. Fora simple medium tha is, for a medium that is also homogeneous, esa constant and can then be taken out ofthe divergence operation, We have . — viv = 2, 9 In Eq. (4-6), we have introduced a new operator, V4, the Laplacian operator, which stands for “the divergence of the gradient of,” or W- V, Equation (4~6) is known as Poisson's equation; it states that the Laplacian (the divergence of the gradient) of V equals — p/e for « simple mediun, where ¢ is the permittivity of the medium (which is a constant) and p is the volume charge density (which may be a function of space coordinates), Since both divergence and gradient operations involve first-order spatial derivae tives, Poisson's equation is a second-order partial differential equation that holds at every point in space where the second-order derivatives exist. In Cartesian coordi- nates, Viva vy and Eq. (4-6) becomes (7) Similarly, by using Eqs. (2-86) and (2-102), we can easily verify the following exe pressions for V?V in cylindrical and spherical coordinates. Cylindrical coordinates (4-8)iretectrie 3) (4-4) (4-5) yediuim vergence 14-6) ter. sch known as cadienty of um (which ni of space fal deriva at holds at an coordi- Wow & (4-3) “4-2 / POISSON'S AND LAPLACE’S EQUATIONS 135 Spherical coordifates: vive tb (ov) 1a RORY eR) * Rind OS" The solution of Poiston’s equation in three dimensions subject to prescribed bound- ary conditions is, in beneral, not an easy task, At points in a Simple medium where there is no fee charge, p = 0 and Eq (4-6) reduces to : (4-10) whichis known as Laplace's equation, Laplace's equation occupies very important position in electromagnetics. [isthe governing equation for problems involving a Set of conductors, sich as capacitors, maintained at iferent potentials, Once is found from Eq. (4-10), Ecan bedetermined from —VV and thecharge dissivation ‘on the conductor surfaces can be determined from p, = €E, (Eq. 3-67), Example 4-1 The two plates of a parallel-plate capacitor are separated by a distance d and mainlained at potentials 0 and Vq. 28 shown in Fig, fel, Acsuncne negligible finging effect atthe edges, determine a) the potential at any point between the plates, and (b) the surface charge densities at the plates, Solution: 4) Laplace's equation isthe governing equatidn for the potential between the plates since p = 0 there. Ignoring the fringing effect ofthe electric field is tantamount to assuming that tt feld distribution between the plates i the same as though the plates were infinitely large and that there is no vatiation of V in the x and directions. Equation (4-7) then simplifies to ety) Where d?/dy? is used instead of 0°/¢y*, since y is the only space variable. 7 (Example 4-1),136 SOLUTION OF ELECT \Usi*"1c PROBLEMS / 4 Integration of Eq. (4-11) with respect to y gives aa where the constant of integration C, is yet to be determined, Integrating again, we obtain Vecy+e; 12) i ‘Two boundary conditions are required for the determination of the two constants of integration: Aty (4-138) (4-136) Substitution of Eqs. (4~13a) and (4-13b) in Eq, (4-12) yields immediately C, = Void and Cz = 0. Hence the potential at any point y between the plates is, fro Eq. (4-12), (14) ‘The potential increases linearly from y = 0 to y = d. by Inorder to find the surface charge densities, we must frst find E at the conducting plates at y= 0 and y= d. From Eqs. (4-3) and (4-14), we have wv % aan 2,4, (4-1 WING (4-15) which isa constant and is independent of y. Note that the direction of Eis opposite to the direction of increasing V. The surface charge densities at‘the conducting plates are obtained by using Eq. (3-67), At the lower plate, Pu =F Electric field lines in an electrostatic field begin from positive charges and end in negative charges.again, 4-13) onstants (4-134) (6-430) ao is, from adueting 15) opposite ducting, 4-2 / POISSON'S:AND LAPLACE’S ( QUATICNS 137 { i i Example 4-2 Detcfmine the E field both inside and outside a spherical cloud of electrons with a uniform volume charge density » = ~py for 0< R b by solving:Poisson’s and Laplace's équations for V. 1 Solution: We ceil hat this problem was dlved in Chapter 3 Example 3-6) by applying Gaus's law. We now use the samg problem to ilusteate the slution ot one-dimensional Poisson's and Laplace's equdtions, Since there are no variations in@and 6 directions, we are only dealing with unctions off in spherical coordinates 2) Inside the eloud t a OSRSb,p* po. In this region, Poison’s equation (V*¥; 4 —p/es) holds, Dropping 2/20 and 8/26 terms from Eq, (4-8), we have 1 8 (pad) _ po G ay w% OR) ~ ey which reduces to (+16) 7) Since E, cannot be infinite at R = 0, the integration constant C, in Eq, (4-17) must vanish, We obtain o 0) The formal procedure for doing so would be to solve Laplace’ equ coordinates in Cartesian @v ey ee ee which must hold for j > 0 except at the point charge. Th satisfy the following conditions: 1, At all points on the grounded conducting plans Vix, 2. At points very close to Q, the potential approaches that of the point alone; that is the potential is zero; that is, charge where R is the distance to Q. 3. At points very far from Q(x—+ +20, y+ +00, 0 proaches zero 1210.40) Grounded ane conductor (3) Phil arrangement (image charge) ++ (b) image charge and fed ins, Fig. 4-3 Point charge and grounded plane conductor.444 142 SOLUTION OF ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS / 4 4. The potential function is even with respect to the x and coordinates; that is, Vor a Mmx, 9,2) and Vix, ¥, 2) = Vix ys —2). It does appear difficult to construct a solution for V that will satisfy all of these conditions. From another point of view, we may reason that the presence of a positive charge Q at y = d would induce negative charges on the surface of the conducting plane, resulting in a surface charge density p,. Hence the potential at points above the conducting plane would be 9 fm Vix, y, 2) = — 5 las. Rede ead e IR, where R, is the distance from ds to the point under consideration and 5 is the surface ‘of the entire condueting plane. The trouble here is that p, must first be deteemined from the boundary condition I'(x.0, 2) = 0, Moreover, the indicated surface intezeal is difficult (0 evaluate even alter p, hay been determined at every point on the eon ducting plane, In the following subsections, we demonstrate how the method of images greatly simplifies these problems, Point Charge and Conducting Planes ‘The problem in Fig. ~3(a)is that of positive point charge, Q, located ata distance above a large plane conductor that is at zero potential If we remove the conductor ‘and replace it by an image point charge —Q at y = —d, then the potential ata point Px, ¥, 2) the y > O region is a ean where Itt (yar + pe, [etoeare eye, Itiseasy to prove by direct substitution (Problem P.4~Sa) that V(x, y, 2) in Eg, (4-37) satisfies the Laplace's equation in Eq. (4~36), and itis obvious that all four conditions listed after Eq, (4~36) are satistied, Therefore Eq, (4-37) isa solution of this problem: and, in view of the uniqueness theorem, itis the only solution. Electric field intensity E in the y > 0 region can be found easily from —V¥ with Eq. (4-37), It is exactly the same as that between two point charges, +Q and —0,5; that is, 1 of these 1 positive >educting ats above, termined e integral thon. et. of Tstanee d onductor ‘ta point (4-37) 4.(4-37) nds totem WW with and - 9, 143 i ro 2 ed (9) Physical arrangement. (&) Equvateatimage-charge arrangement ato a (©) Forces on charee@. Fig. 4-4 Point charg and perpendicular conductig planes, Speed a distance 2d apart, A few of the field tines are shown in Fig. 4~3(b). The Solution of this electrostatic problem by the method of im: bit if must be emphasized that the image charge is located outside the region a Mich the field is 10 be determined. In this problem the point charges + Q and --Q Giinel be used to edfculate the V or E in the y <0 region. As a mutter of fact bore Vand E are zero in the y <0 region. Can you bxplain that? It is readily seed that the electric field of a line charge p, above an infinite con- heting plane can be found from p and its image ~, (with the conducting plane removed) iaues is extremely simple; Example 4-3 A positive point charge @ is located at distances dy and dy, tes pectively, from two, grounded perpendicular conducting half-planes, as shown iq Fie. 4-4(a) Determihe the force on Q caused by the charges induced on the olution: A formal solution of Poisson's equation, subject to the zero-potential boundary condition at the conducting half-planes, would be quite diffeult’ Nog vn image charge ~Q in the fourth quadrant would mal [8 $40) satisties the zero-potential boundary condition on both half planes snd is electrically equivalent to the physical arrangement in Fig. 44(a) ‘Qesalive surface charges willbe induced on the halfplanes, but their effect on Q Gan be determined from that ofthe three image charges. Referring to Fig, (6) wwe have, forthe net force on Q, FoF +h +F,,144 SOLUTION OF EIcTROSTATIC PROBLEMS / 4 where —e ” dneg(2dy) * axed, Fs = pao dds ba 2y Tres OAF + GAPE OM + 4,2) Q a 1 dy 1 oe (arta a)* olartigps zh The electric potential and electzi field intensity at points in the first quadrant and the surface charge density induced on the two half-planes can also be found from the system of four charges. 4-4.2 Line Charge and Parallel Conducting Cylinder We now consider the problem of a line charge p, (C/m) located at a distance d from the axis of a parallel, conducting, circular cylinder of radius a. Both the line charge and the conducting cylinder are assumed to be infinitely long. Figure 45(a) shows a ross section of this arrangement, Preparatory to the solution of this problem by the method of images, we nots the following: (1) The image must be a parallel line charge inside the cylinder in order to make the cylindrical surface at r = a an equipotental Surface. Let us call this image line charge p,.(2} Because of symmetry with respect to the line OP, the image line charge must lie somewhere along OP, say at point P,, which is at a distance d from the axis (Fig, 4~Sb), We need to determine the two unknowns, p, and d, (@) Line charge and parallel conducting cylinder (b) Line eharg and its image. Fig. 4-5 Cross section of line charge an its image in a parallel conducting cireutar eylinderant and ad from zd from charge aby the charge votential respect roint P,, the two A 4 METHOD OF IMAGES 145, Asa ist apprbich, let us assume that! i : m4 Pe: (4-38) A this stage, Ei 4-85) i just tral solution (an intelligent gues) and we are aot sure that it wil old tue, We will on the one hand, posed sik tae eileen until we find that it ils to satisty the boundary conditions. On the other end Eq, (4~38) leads to 2 Jolution that does satisfy dll boundary conditions, then by the ‘nigueness theorenf If isthe only solution. Our néxt job will be to see whether ne can determined, The electric poiettil at a distance r from a line charge of density p, can be ‘obtained by integrating the electric field intensity E given in Eq, (3-36). 4-39) Note that the refeiene point for zero potential, ro, cannot be at infinity 6 Setting ra = 20 in Eq. (4-39) would make V infinite everywhere else. Let us leave ‘ro unspecified forthe time veing, The potential ata point on or outside the cylindrical Surface is obtained by ddding the contributions of and p,.In particular, ata point M ‘on the cylindrical surface shown in Fig. 4-S(b),we have (4-40) 1m Ea, (4-40) we have chosen, for simplicity, a point equidistant from p, and p, as the reference point fot zero potential so that the In ry terms cancel, Otberwice, a constant term should be included in the right side of Eq. (4~40), but it would ot affect what follows. Equipotential surfaces are specified by = Constant. {an equipotental Surface isto coincide with the cylindrical surftee (OTT = wth Point P, must be loetted in such a way as to make triangles OMP, and OPM simplen Note that these two tangles already have one common angle, z MOP, Pom P, should be choséiito make OMP, = OPM. We have PM _OF,_ OM PwFrom Eq, (4-42) we see that if (4-43) the image line charge — py, together with p,, will make the dashed cylindrical surface in Fig. 4~5(b) equipotential. As the point M changes its location on the dashed circle, both 7, and r will change; but their ratio remains a constant that equals a/d. Point is called the inverse point of P with respect to a circle of radius a. ‘The image line charge —p, can then replace the cylindrical conducting surface, and V and Eat any point outside the surface can be determined from the line charges be and —p,. By symmetry, we find that the parallel cylindrical surface surrounding the original line charge p, with radius a and its axis at a distance d to the right of P is also an equipotential surface. This observation enables us to calculate the capaci- tance per unit length of an open-wire transmission line consisting of two parallel conductors of circular cross section, Example 4-4 Determine the capacitance per unit length between two long, parallel, circular conducting wires of radius a. The axes of the wires are separated by a distance D. Solution: Refer to the cross section of the two-wire transmission line shown in Fig. 4-6. The equipotential surfaces of the two wires can be considered to have been generated by a pair of line charges p and-— p, separated by a distance (D ~ 24 4 — dj, The potential difference between the two wires is that between any two points on their respective wires. Let subscripts 1 and 2 denote the wires surrounding the equivalent line charges py and —p, respectively. We have, from Eqs. (4-40) and (4-42), Me Ind Brey ad Fig. 4-6 Cross section of two-wire transmission line and equivalent line charges (Example 4-4), i i } j(4-43) al surface vedcircle, vd. Point sure, e charges rounding fight of P recapac- o parallel, i pa tel, ae shown in hhave been 2) ‘0 points unding the 4-40) and 4-4/ METHOD CE IMAGES 147 - and, similarly, : 1 5 Hence the capaitaibe per unit length i Pe Rea =e, 4-44 2 — Va” ia ajay oe where § f ) =D~d=0-", ; a 4, a from which we obtalnt (D+ (DF aa), 45) ° Using Ba, (4-45) in Ba, (4-44), we have a a 1-46 in ((072a) + (Ra aT y cae Since _ In[x + JRE] = cosh* x for x > 1, Eq. (446) can be written alternatively as | im, | > cosh aa) id Conducting Sphere ‘The method of iitages can also be applied to solve the electrostatic problem of a point charge in the presence of a spherical conductor. Referring to Fis. 4-Tlal where a positive point charge Q is located at a distance d from the center ofa grounded conducting sphere of radius a (a < d), we now proceed to find the V and Eat points external to the sphefe. By reason of symmetry, we expect the image charge 0, to be a negative poifit charge situated inside the sphere and on the line joining 0 and @ Let it be at a distunee d; from 0. 1 is obvious that Q, cannot be equal to —Q, since —Q afiéthe original Q:do not make the spherical surface R = aa zero-potential surface as requiréd. (What would the zero-potential surface be if Q, = -Q?) We must, therefore, treat both dj and Q, as unknowns. {Te pie slaion d= (0 ~ JF i sired bese bth an dat aly much ‘ree tan a(@) Poin: charge and grounded conducting sphere. (©) Point charge and its image, Fig. 4-7, Point charge and its image in a grounded sphere, In Fig. 4-7(b) the conducting sphere has been replaced by the image point charge Q,. which makes the pot I points on the spherical surface R = « 7er0. At a typical point M, the potential caused by Q and Q, is Vy (4-48) which requires Constant, (4-49) Noting that the requirement or the ratio ri/r is the same as that in Eq. (4-41), we conclude from Eqs, (4~42), (4-43), and (4-49) that, or (4-50) and (4-51) The point Q, is, thus, the inverse point of Q with respect to a circle of radius a. The V and E of ail points external to the grounded sphére can now be calculated from the V and E caused by the two point charges Q and —aQ/d. Example 4~5 A point charge Q is at a distance d from the center of a grounded conducting sphere of radius a (a < d). Determine (a) the charge distribution induced ‘on the surface of the sphere, and (b) the total charge induced on the sphere.age point ace R=a (4-48) 9) 4-i), we (4-50) (4-1) iu Yhe drow Se grounded ‘induced + Solution: The'physicdl problem is that by the method oti alld dans The eletric potential V at an arbitrary VER, 0) where, by the law of cobines, Roa [Rs [*+() Note that 0 is measured from the I and Rb, 24-4 / METHOD OF IMAGES Hf anbeaf es saan Fig. 4-8 Diagram for computing induced charge distribution (Example 4-5), shown in| Fig. 4~7( imagts and replace the grounded sphere = wd Trom the center of the sph point P(R, 0) is (a). We solve the problem by the image charge 0, ere, as shown in Fig. 4-8. (4-52) ~ 2Rd cos} farts)” sm ine 00. The R-component ofthe electric fed intensity, E>, is Ex(R, 6) = VRB) (6-53) Using Eq. (4-82) n Bg, (4-53), we have R~deoso EAR, 0) ore aerating TRE + (e/a) ~ RIA) cas OP 2 Up rds rin the induced sure charge onthe sphere, west = in Eq (4-54) and evaluate P= cob 9), (4-59 which yields the following after Pm simplification Oda) 7 Frale F dP Bad cos i. Eq, (4-56) tells us that the induced surface charge is negative and that its magni- tude is maximum at @ = 0 and minimum at @ = x, as expected, by The total charge induced on the sphere is obtained by integrating p, over the surface of the sphere, We have | . 7 Total induced charge = fp, ds = f°" (* pyc? sin 0 d0 de @ ; me HGOr Ores 6-57) i We note that the total induced charge is exactly equal to the image charge Q, that replaced the sphere. Can you explain this? Ifthe conducting sphere is’electrically neutral and is not grounded, the image of @ point charge Q at a distance d from the center of the sphere would still be Q, at 4d, given, respectively, by Eqs. (4~S0) and (4-51) in order to make the spherical surface R= a equipotential. However, an additional point charge oe at the center would be needed to make the net charge on the replaced sphere 2er0 The electrostatic problem of a point charge Q in the presence of an electrically neutral sphere can then be solved as a problem with three point charges: Q' at R = 0, Q,at R= a2/d, and Q at R= d. 4-5 BOUNDARY-VALUE PROBLEMS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES ! i We have seen inthe preceding section thatthe method of images is very useful inf solving certain types of electrostatic problems involving free charges neat conducting | boundaries that are geometrically simple. However, if the probiem consists of a system of conductors maintained at specified potentials and with no free charges. it cannot be solved bythe method ofimage. This typeof problem requires he solution of Laplace's equation. Example 4~1 was such a problem where the electric potential ‘was a function of only one coordinate. Of course, Laplace's equation applied to three dimensions isa partial diferental equation, where the potential isin general. a fune- tion of all three coordinates. We will now develop a method for solving three dimensional problems where the boundaries, ovér which the potential or its normal : derivatjve is specified, coincide with the coordinate surfaces of an orthogonal, curvi- linear coordinate system. In such eases the solution can be expressed as a product of three one-dimensional functions, each depending separately on one coordinste variable only. The procedure is called the method of separation of variables. tbe Qy at cl surface here zero, lectrically aR= 4 useful in ondueting sists of charges, it resolution = potential sd to three tal, afune- ing shree- its Thal nal, ¢ “ke prodin. of soordinate 4-5 1 douNbam vALUE PROBLEMS IN CARTESIAN COORDINATES 151 ee ; fe mas Problems (cltstiontagnetic or otherwise) boverned by partial differential equa- ons wit + boundary conditions fare called, boundary-vale probioes Boundary-value prdblems for potential functions can be classed into thice pes, “,+4(1) Dirichlet problenfs, in which the value of the. potential is specified everywhere on "the boundaries; 2) Neuman problems, in whic the normal derivative ofthe recent is specified everyniiere on the boundaries; 3) Mixed boundary-talue problems ik Which the potential fs specified over some boundaries and the normal derivative ot the potentials specified over the remaining onts Different specified boundary cond tions will require the choice of different potehtial functions, but the procedure of solving these types df problems — that i, by tt method of separation of variables for the three types of problems isthe same, THe solutions of Laplace's equation are often called harmonlt: functions. Laplace's equation for scalar clectrc potential V in Cartesian coordinates is ay (4-58) To apply the method of separationof variables, we assume that the solution V( can be expressed as product in the following form r Yo y, XO HOIZE), (4-59) where X(x), Y(y), at 2) are functions, respeetively, of x), and : only, Substiuting Eq, (4-39) in Bq. (4-98) we have : d2X(x) @y( @Z(2) voz xz) 9 + xeory £20 Which, when divided through by the produt X61) > yields eal PX) 1 #Y) 1 #Zl2 eat VO) BF tz pew Note that each of the:three terms on th icf si of Eq. (4~60) isa function of only one eeeajnate variable ind that only ordinery 0° and Ob. In this region, the potential must decrease to zero as r—» oo. Terms containing the factor * cannot exist, and the appropriate form of solution is Veo) = y Var) SF ayrtsin nd. wun 4-7 IN si‘ot exist. Fsolution (4-112) specified EN & (4-113) nding the (s-14) sa wn directly Gis 9.113) (4-116) containing bee Yor fore gen “Late forn b, we note the following boundary conditions: V(b, 6) = 08 (4-132a) V(R, 0) = —Egz = ~EgR cos 0,» for Rb (4-132) Equation (4~132b) is a statement that the original Ey is not disturbed at points very far away from the sphere. By using Eq, (4131), we write the general solution as VR. O =) CAR? + BRP (Co 0, REb. (4-133) However, in view of Eq. (4~132b), all A, except 4, must vanish, and 4, = —E,, We have, from Eq, (4-133) and Table 4-2, VR, 8) = ~EoRP\(cos 8) + Y° B,R-"*P cos 6) — BoR™' + (BR? — EgR)cos 0+" BR-"*"Pcos 0), REO. (4-134) Actually the fist term on the right side of Eq, (4~134) corresponds tothe potential of a charged sphere. Since the sphere is uncharged, By =0, and Eq. (4—134) becomes vin, 0) = (2 — ER) ood SBR Jo060, REA (4-135) Now applying boundary condition (4~-132a) at R = b, we require eb) £080 +)” B,5-"*PJcos 8), from which we obtain By = E,b* and By=0, 22, ‘For this problem itis convenient to assume ¥ = 0 in the equatorial plane (9 = =/2, which leads ‘a M{b.0} = 0, since the surface of the conducting sphere it equipotent. (See Probe Pt 21 for M160) =H) REVIEVfollowing (41328). (4-132b), ints, Isolution wos (139 potential 1 (4-134) (4-135) REVIEW QUESTIONS er We have, diflly, rom Eq. (4-135, tee ’ b> “hee et -(@) Roose, R>b (6-136) we ty b) The electfic fiell intensity E(R, 0) for RS b can be easily determined from —VV(R, 8): { " , (4-137a) where (4-137) and ay 1 (2) ] sin 2b 370 [ 3] & R2b. wis The surfacé charhe density on the sphere can be found by noting YPMO= coal, = 3eo8y 605 9, (4-138) which is proportional to cos 0, being zero at 0 = n/2. Some equipotential and field lines are sketched in Fig. 4-14 In this chapter.wé have discussed the analytical solution of electrostatic problems by the method of image 25 and by ditectsolutioa of Laplace’ equation. The method of images is useful when charges exist near conducting bodies af a vinple antccee Patible geometry point charge nea & conducting sphere or an infinite comuatne Diane and line chatge vear a parallel conducting evlinder or parael condocnng lune, The soldtiod of Laplace's equation by the method of separation of rarabieg tequires that the bouhdaries coincide with cootdinate Testrct the usefuinéssof both methods. In practical problems we arc oltentaced ah more complicated bolindares, which are not amenable to neat analytical solations In such eases, we mus resort to approximate grphical or aumesial methods These methods are beyorid the scope of this book.’ fe surfaces. These requirements REVIEW QUESTIONS Rat Write Poisson's equation in vector notation 4) fora simple medium, ¥) fora linear and isotropic, but inhomogeneous medium, Ra-2._ Repeat li Cartesian coordinates both paris of RAI 1 See fr insiande BD. Popovie, Introductory Engicring Electromagnetics, Addison-Wesley Publishing o.(i970), Caper $.168 SOLUTION OF ELECTROSTATIC PROBLEMS / 4 RA-3. Write Laplace's equation for a simple medium r 8) in vector notation, _b) in Cartesian coordinates. R44 IFV*U = 0, why does it noi follow that U is identically zero? RAS A fixed voltage is connected across a paallel-plate capacitor. 1) Doss the letric fd intensity inthe space between the plates depend on the permitivity ofthe medium? 1) Does the electric ux density depend on the permittivity ofthe medium? Explain RA-6 Assume that fixed charges +0 and ~Q are deposited on the plates ofan isolated parallel- Plate capacitor 1) Does the electric field intensity inthe space between the plates depend on the permittivity ofthe medium? 1) Doss the electric ux density depend on the permittivity of the medium? Explain. RAAT Why is the electrostatic potential continuous at a boundary’? R4-8 State in words the uniqueness theorem of tectrostaties, ~~~ RA-9 What is the image of spherical cloud of electrons with respect to an infinite conducting plane? Re-10 Why cannot the point at infinity be used asthe point forthe zero reference potential for ‘a infinite line charge as it is for a point charge? What isthe physical reason for this difference? R411 What is the image ofan infinitely long line charge of density p, with respect toa parallel conducting circular cylinder? Ra-I2 Whereis the ero-potential surface ofthe two-wire transmission line in Fig. 4-67 ‘4-13 In finding the surface charge induced on a grounded sphere by a point charge, can we Set R= ain Eq. (4-52) and then evaluate p, by ~ 9 €Va, VOR? Explain, Re—14 What is the method of separation of variables? Under what conditions is it vseful in solving Laplace's equation’? RA-IS What are boundaryvate problems? 4-16 Canal thre eparatin cont and kn Cartesian coordinates be eal? Can they al be taney? apa RA-17 Can the separation constant kin the soliton ofthe twodimenionl Lape’ equa tion 37) be imagnasy? 54-18 What should we do o moll the solution in E4110 for Example 4-8 ithe nner ¢onductr ofthe coal ales rounded andthe outer sondicors hen pa RA-19 What should we do to modify the solution in Eq, (4-116) for Example 4-9 ifthe cone ducting circular eyinder is split vertically in two halves, with V = Yq for —n/2.< 6 < n)2 and =A Kylor a2

ermittivity condueting tential for oa parallel 1-67 ree, can We ie useful in ifthe inner atial 2? "ithe cote ven/and PROBLEMS PROBLEMS 169 4-20 Can functions (R, 6) = C,R cos @ and val 2) = C,R-* cos 0, where C, and C; are arbitrary constants, be dblutions of Laplace's equatiol in spherical coordinates? Explain i PA-1 The upper and lower conducting plates of a iarge Parallel-plate capacitor are separated bya distance dand malbiained at potentials Ye and Q respectively A diloses sab of delecos constant «and unifclfickessO8¢s placed over te ower plate, suming negliblefinging fect, dettcmine t : 2) the potential al cleric eld ditbution ine ier sa 3 the potential ad elects Feld dstbution ih the air space between the diletie slab and the upper plats, 6) the surface chdfge densities on the upper dd lower plates. PA-2. Prove that the scaler potential ¥ in Eq, (3-86) satisfies Poisson's equation; Eg, (4-6). P4-3 Prove that a potential function satisfying Laplace's equation ins given region possesses Fo maximum ot minimum within the region, Pad Vi ify that UR and Vy all? +)? 288, Where C, and C, are dtbitrary constants, are solutions of Laplace's equation, Pa-S Assume a point charge Q above an infinite conducting plane at y = 0 8) Prove that V(x»; 2) in Bq, (4-37) satisfies Laplace's equation if the conducting plane is ‘maintained at 2er0 potential ) What should tt expression for M(x, tial 2 ©) What isthe eltrostatie force of attraction between plane? 2) be ithe conducting plane has a nonzero pote: the charge Q and the conducting Pa-6 Assume that spice between the inner and outer conductors ofa long coaxial elindsiee! Structure is filled with atl electron cloud having a volume density of charge rfora a; +43) 7 PALI A straight conducting wire of radius ais parallet to and at height h from the surface of the earth, Assuming thatthe earth is perfecly conducting, determine the eapacitance per unit length between the wire and the earth, PA-I2. Apoint charge Qis located inside and at distanced from the centr ofa grounded spherical conducting shell of radius b (where b> d). Use the method of images to determine 2) the potential distribution inside the shell, 1) the charge density p, induced on the inner surface ofthe shel, PAMI3 Two dielectric media with dielectric constants ¢, and ¢; ae separated by a plane bound ary at x=0, as shown in Fig. 4-16. A point charge Q exists in medium 1 at distance d from the boundary. 2) Verily thatthe field in medium 1 can be obtained from Q and an image charge ~Q1, both acting in medium 1 -% +o: (image charge) (dosage charge) Metivm (a) | Medium 1) Fig. 4-16 Image charges in dielectric x0. media (Problem P.4-13).+ parallel stance D aad per spherieul aie m image charge +9, > reece esa Os in: Conse shoring bin ang Pin media ana 2 othr ele ny he get co 2 sd ofthe norma oiiponde af he Beg conal WHA Way shoul we iol the statics Fie dg ee Eamole Tithe boundary conditions on the top, boitém, in Fig. 4-10 are aVjdn = 07 tained at constant potentidt by? remae Consist the rectangust region shown in 1s. 4-10 a the eros section of an encton formed by for ennduatng toy Me etre {TAN De are grounded, and the op aed bane se Ate tnsintaned at eonsiaht porn 1 and Vy respectively. Determine the sone Wisteibution inside the enctosu ete Cots a metallic euingutr bo with sides He palm sure are grounded. The wep en is Yo, Determine the pot and b and height c. The side walls and Ssolated and kept at a constant poterint ential distHbution inside the bos Sine thtitely ong this, conducting eytindets, as shown in Fig. 4 cular eyinder of radius b is spi 17h guater the nol’. of FFs process and negative “te timerate of taper? it 5-2 / Cl me” YENSITY AND OHM'S LAW 173 ions move in a directidn opposite t6 the field, both contributing to a current-flow in the direction ofthe fel. An experimental model tan be set up in an electrolytic tank, with electrodes of propér geometrical shapes simulating the boundaries in electrostatic problems. The ifieasuréd potential distribution it the electrolyte is then the solution to Laplace's eqitition for diffcilt-to-solve analytie problems having complex bound aries in a homogeneous medium, Convection currelits aré the result of the motion of positively or negatively charged particles in a facuumn or rarefied gas. Familiar examples are electron beams inched eth ion oto are parison tanec Convection curtents, the result of hydrodynami motion involving a mass transport, are not governed by Ohm's law, ‘The mechagism of conduction currents is different from that of both electro currents and convection currents. In their norshal state, the atoms of a conductor occupy regular positions in a crystalline structure, The atoms consist of positively charged nuclei surrounded by electrons in a shel-like arrangement. The electrons in the inner shells are tightly bound to the nuclei and are not free to move away. The electrons in the outertiost shells of conductor atom do not completely fil the shells: they are valence or coddluction electrons, and are only very loosely bound to the nuclei ‘These latter electrons may wander from one atom to another in a random manner The atoms, on the d¥erage, remain eloctrically neutral, and there is no net drift motion of electrons. When an external electric field i applied on a conductor, an organized motion of the conduction electrons will result, producing an electric current, The average rift velocity of the cleetrans is very low (on the order of 10"? ~* ms) even Tor very good conductors, betause they collide with the atoms in the course of their motion, dissipating part of their kinetic energy as heat. Even with the drift motioh of conduction electrons, a conductor remains electrically neutral. Electr forcés prevent excess electrons from accumulating at any point in a conductor. We will sow analytically that the charge density in a conductor decreases exponentially with tthe. In a good conductor the charge density diminishes extremely rapidly toward ze70 as the state of equilibrium ls approached. 5-2. CURRENT DENSITY AND OHM's LAW Consider the steady motion of one kind of charge carriers, each of charge g (which is negative for electrons), across an element of surface As with a velocity u, as shown in Fig. 5-1. UL is the lumber of charge carriers per unit volume, then in time At each charge carrieFinoves a distance u 4¢, and the amount of charge passing through the surface As is : AQ=Nqura,asar —(C). 6-0) Since current is the thme rate of change of.charige, we have Nqu+As (A).174 STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 Fig. 5-1. Conduction current due to drift motion of charge carriers across a surface In Eq, (5-2), we have written As = a,As as a vector quantity. It is convenient to define a vector point function, polume current density, or simply current density: J, in amperes per square meter, . J=Nqu (Aim); (5-3) so that Eq, (5-2) can be written as Al=J+As 64) The total current J flowing through an arbitrary surface S is then the flux of the J vector through S T= faews (A), (3-5) Noting that the product Na is in fact charge per unit volume, we may rewrite Eg, (5-3) as Jam (Aim), (5-6) which is the relation between the convection current density and the velocity of the charge carrier. : In the case of conduction curtents there may be more than one kind of charge carriers (electrons, holes, and ions) drifting with different velocities. Equation (5-3) should be generalized to read j= > Nam, (Ajm?), (5-7) As indicated in Section 5-1, conduction currents ate the result ofthe drift motion of charge carriers under the influence of an applied electric field. The atoms remain neutral (9 = 0), It can be justified analytically that for most conducting materialsvenient to, ct density, is-3) 4) ux onined (5-3) nay rewrite (5-6) city of the dof charge sation (5-3) ~~ ‘motion of oms remain 1g materials. 5-2 CURRENT DENSITY AND ons LW 4175 yt the average drift veldety fs directly proportional to sequently, we can wrlte Eq. (5-3) or Eq, (5-7) as the electric field intensity. Con- i Jack (afm, (5-8) 4 mleroscopic constitutive parameter of uation (5-8) i a constitutive relation of the con- ducting medium. Isdtropit materials for which the linear relation Eq, (5-8) belde are called obrile media. The unt for gis ampete per voltmeter (A/V-m) or sienens er meter (S/n). Coflper, che most commonly used conductor, has conductivity 380 x 10° (S/n) Onthe other hand, hard rubber, a goad insulator, hasa conductivity of only 10° (S/m). Appeaulix H 4 its the conductivities of some other fegsenty used materials’ Hover, note that, unlike the dielectric constant, the condvesvity of materials vatiesofer an extremely wide range. The ceciprocal of conductivity & called resiscoity,inoflm mete (-my, We prefer to use conductivity, there is eally 0 compelling need to uie both conductivity and resistivity. We recall Ohm's law from circuit theory R, in which where the proprizbay constant, a, the medio ed eqductny B thatthe voltage Vs across a resitance A current 1 flows om point Ito point 3 sequal OA aie Mis= RL 15-9) Here Ris usually a plee ofconducting materi ofa between two terminals | and 2; and / is the totll cur terminal 2 through a finite cross section, _ Equation (5-9) Is not a point elation, Although there i litle resemblance between Eq. (58) andl Eq. (5-9), the former is generally referred to as the point form of Ohm's law. It holds at all Points in space, and ¢ can be a function of ‘space co- ordinates, ; Le us use the polht form of Ohm's aw to derive the voltage-current relationship of a piece of homogeheous material of conductivity o, length ¢ and uniform cross- section S, as shown iff Fig. $—2. Within the conducting material, J = cE where both ‘and Earein the diretion ofeurten Row. The potential difereng ovvoloes tere — a7 iyen length: ¥. is the voltage Nlowing from terminal 1 to Fig. 5-2 Homogeneous conductor with a constant cross sectionvem 476 STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 ‘terminals land ae 2 re Yank s-10 The total currents 7 ae gab -1) ‘Using Eqs. (5-10) and ($-11) in Eq. (5-8), we obtain oo 5 & t ur, ~ (5-12) S\reR, ‘ which is the same as Eq, (5-9). From Eq. (S12) we have the formula for the resistance of a straight piece of homogeneous material of a uniform cross section for steady ‘current (DC). ug s R= (6-13) We could have started with Eq. (5-9) as the experimental Ohm's law and applied it to a homogeneous conductor of length ¢ and uniform cross-section S. Using the formula in Eq, (5~13), we could derive the point relationship in Eq. (5-8). Example 5-1 Determine the DC resistance of | (km) of wire having a mm) radius (a) ifthe wire is made of,copper, and (b) ifthe wire is made of aluminum, Solution: Since we are dealing with conductors ofa uniform cross section, Eq.(5~13) applies. a) For copper wire, 0, = 5.80 x 10° (Sim): 2=109(m), $= A107}? = 107% (m), We have ‘ 10° = ZS 58x 10 10H "We will discuss the significance of ¥;, und E more in detail in Section 2, 5-3 kirc5-10) (6-11) ar) for steady ‘ (5-13) applied it Using the mm) radius wEg. (5-13) a $s. ECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW 177 D) For aluminum wire, 04) = 3.54 x 107 (S/n; 1 f Gp 580, Ram oy CE Ra = Fe XS = ‘The contiuctancey'G, ot the reciprocal of resistance, is useful in combining resis- tances in parallel: 6-14) From circuit theory We kniow the following: | a) When resistancel R, and R, are connected in series (sar resistance R is current $ +R b) When resistances R, and &; are connected in parallel (same voltage, we have (5-16) or (5-166) 5-8 ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND KIRCHHOFF'S VOLTAGE LAW In Section 3-2 we pbinted out that static electric field is conservative aind that the scalar line integral of static electric fotersty around any closed path is 2er0; that is, GB ae=o. (1) For an ohmic material J = oB, Eq. (5-17) becomes 0 (5-18) Equation (518) tellus that a steady current cannot be maintained in she same direction in.a closed circuit by an electrostatic field. steady current in a circuit i the result ofthe motion of charge carriers, which, in their paths collide with atoms and dissipate ‘energy in the circuit, This energy must cdme from a nonconservative field, since a charge carrier completing a closed circuit in a conservative field ncither gains norFig. 5-3. Electric fields inside an Biccicbaery clectrc battery. loses energy. The source of the nonconservative field may be electric batteries (con- version of chemical energy to .lectric energy), electric generators (conversion of mechanical energy to electric energy), thermocouples (conversion of thermal enerzy to electric energy), photovoltaic cells (conversion of light energy to electric energy), or other devices. These clectrical energy sources, when connected in an electric circuit, provide a driving force for the charge carriers. This force manifests itself as an equivalent impressed electric field intensity E, = Consider an electric battery with electrodes I and 2, shown schematically in Fig. 5~3. Chemical action creates a cumulation of positive and negative charges at electrodes 1 and 2 respectively. These charges give rise to an electrostatic field in- tensity E both outside and inside the battery. Inside the battery, E must be equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the nonconservative E, produced by chemical action, since no current flows in the open-circuited battery and the net force acting 6n the charge carriers must vanish. The line integral of the impressed field intensity E, from the negittve to the positive electrode (from electrode 2 to electrode | in Fig. 5-3) inside the battery is customarily called the electromotive force’ (emf) of the battery. The SI unit for emfis volt, and an emfis not a force in newtons. Denoted by ¥7, the electromotive force is a measure of the strength of the nonconservative source. We have Fe ffndee- fheoae 5-19 she cuce electrostatic field intensity KE satisfies Eq, ($17). GE de = [PE -de + [Ede =0, (5-20) . ‘ouside aside he source the source "Ais called eectromotance,sries (con version of val energy ic energy), in electric, aticd in char. at ic field ine equal in chemical roe acting 2 intensity trode 1 in * (emf) of 1s Denoted sservative (s-i9) ro) ; ad ‘5-3 / ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE AND KIRCHHO} ‘gre 0 Combining Eqs. (5-19) and (5~20), we have : : v= [ieiae ay Outside the source: or : vaKaaWnr In Eqs. (5-21) and {S~22) we have expressed the emf ofthe source as a line integral of the conservative E and interpreted itas a valtage rise. In spite ofthe nonconserva+ tive nature of, thaemf can be expressed as a potential difference between the postive and negative termifals. This was what we did in arriving at Eq, (5-10), When a resistot in the form of Fig, 5-2 is connected between terminals 1 of the battery, completing the circuit, the cota electri fetd intensity (el E caused by charge cumulation, as well as impressed E, caused by chemical action Must be used in the point form of Ohm's asv, We have. instead of Eq, (5-8), id O18 +E), (5-23) where E, exists inside the battery only, while H has a nonzero value both insidé and outside the source, From Eq. (5~23), we obtain J 5-2 E+ Ea (5-24) The scalar line integtal of Eq. (5-24) around the closed circuit yields, in view of Eqs (5-17) and (5-19), ra bee rt Fa fe tyson g banat | Equation (5-25) should be compared to Eq. (5-18, which holds when there a0 source of nonéonseFyatve fl, If the resistor has @ conductivity a enath 7 an uniform cross-section S, J = 1/5 and the right side of Eq, (S25) becomes RI. We havet v=R. (5-26) Mithere are more thin 3c source of elewig:ssotive force and more than one resistor (including the interdal resistances ot the sources) in the closed path, we generalize Eq. (5-26) to — We stsume the battery to have a elise inter esistance; otherwise its eet must included Ea. (5-26, An del eotage source sone whose terminal Voltage i ual tos ca amd independ ofthe eurent owing through it. This implis that an ideal voltage source hos «ze fatereal eee180 . STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 * Equation (5~27) is an expression of Kirchhof's voltage law Te states that around a closed path in an electric circu the algebraic sum of the emf's(soltage rises) seal Jaw is the basis for loop analysis in circuit theory, 5-4 EQUATION OF CONTINUITY AND KIRCHHOFF'S CURRENT LAW ERE Ptinciple of conservation of charge sone ofthe fundamental postulates of physics, Flectric charges may not be created or destroyed; all charges either at reer oe dy elon must be accounted for at ail times. Consider an arbitrary volume V bounded by surface S. A net charge Q exists within this region. Ifa net current I Howe nonce the surface ou of this region, the charge in the volume must decrease at Fate thee Gregg the current, Conversely, ia net current flows across the surfice into the region, the charge in the volume must increase at a rate equal to the-cutrent The oenen, leaving the region i the total outward flux ofthe current density veetor throws” the surface S. We have den et oe " IaGpseden We 4 fo (5-28 Divergence theorem, Eq, (2-107), may be invoked to convert the surface integral of 3% the volume integral of V-J, We obtain, for a stationary volume, de (5-29) of p inside the volume integral, it is necessary to use may be a function of time as well as of space co ordinates, Since Eq, (5-29) must hold regardless of the choice of V, the intesrande ‘ust be equal. Thus, we have, (5-30) tes Point relationship derived from the principle of conservation of charge is called the equation of continuity. For steady currents, charge density does not vary with time, ép/éi = 0. Equation (5-30) becomes ved=0, (5-31) Thus, steady electric currents are divergericeless or solenoidal. Equation (5-31) is. point relationship and holds also at points where p = 0 (no flow source), It means mene5-4 / EGUATION.OF CONTIUITY ANG KIRCKNOFFS CURRENT Law 181 arouid a that the field tines of streamlines of steady eusrents close upon themselves, unlike is equal : those of electrostatié field intensity that orighhate and end on charges, Over any ny closed enclosed surface, Eq.(5~31) leads to the following integral form. snedand oI i vi - svoltage |} G5 d=0, (6-32) which can be writte as va (5-33) i r I physics, Equation (5-33) is aflexpission of Kircof'surrent law I stats that he ued bounded, ‘current law is the rate that reregion, make p = Ound E ously Combining Ohm's law, constant 7, we have 15-28) aVek 0 Ina simple medium, V+ E = pje and Eq, (5-34) becomes or in sum of all the currents flowing out of a junction in an electric circuit is zero,’ Kirchholt’s * too ad assy Scat has 1m Section 3-6 ve stated that charges introduced in the interior of conductor will move to the conductor surface and redistribute the smselves in such a way as 10 inside Under equilibrium conditions. We are now in a position urrent {0 prove this statemént and to calculate the time it takes to reach an equilibrium Eq, (5-8), with the equation of continuity and assuming 6-34) (5-36) 0. Both p and py can be functions of the Space coordinates, ard Eq. (S~36) says that the charge density at a given location will decrease with time exponentially. An (5-30) Ve or 36.8% of its value in a time equal to tel gy, iscpled The time constint + {s called the relave: Zaud (5-31) (5-31) Itmeans "This includes the cur whose curreat is independ ‘afin internal resistance, copper—a = 5.80 x 107 (Sim), € & €y = 885 x 10" 10°19), a very short time indeed, The transient time is Fenis of current generators atthe junction, if any An ideal fot of is terminal voltage, This implies that andes (5-29) The solution of Eq. ($-34) is ue od t : P= poe — (Cim*), tegrands where po is the initial charge density at ¢ = initial charge density pq will decay to 6-37) ‘ie. For a good conductor such as "2 (E/mj—t equals 152 x isso brief that for all practical4 182 _ STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 Purposes p can be considered zero in the interior of a conductor—see Eq. (3-64) in Bestion 3-6. The relaxation time for a good insulator is not infinite, tut can be hours or days. 5-5 POWER DISSIPATION AND JOULE’S LAW ihe electri field to the atoms in thermal vibration. The work Aw done by an elevvie feld Ein moving a charge qa distance A¢ is yE + (AC), which correspond tos power I. (5-38) where u js the drift velocity. The tot volume de 2S p which, by virtue of Eq, (5-7), is or Pees (wim, (6-39) Thus the point function EJ is a power density under steady-current conditions. For @ given volume V, the total eleciric power converted into heat is Peetu 0M. (5-4 ae Tiss known as Joules la. (Note hat the Sit for Psat, nt joule whieh i she unio enery oc work) Easton S-3) ste corarponige ne ah Ina conductor of consant com ston de iba MOE rea direction J. Equation (5-40) can be written as pe few [sean Where Fis the current in the conductor. Since V =.RI, we have P=PR — (W) (5-41) : [avation (5-41) is, of course, the familiar expression for ohmic power representing the heat dissipated in resistance R per unit time: | i | | | | I(3-64) in tan be duction. copically ted from* electric ba power (5-38) = 5-39) ions. For (5-40) which is sionship. ed in the ry (sa) resenting $-8 L/BOUNDAAY CONDITIONS FOR CURRENT DENSITY 183 5-6 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR CURRENT DENSITY When current obliq conductivities, the cufrent densit ano rey she (5-43) The divergence equation isthe same as Eq, (5-31), by combining Ohm's law (J = oB) with V x E~ 0. By apsiy (5-43) at the interface between two ‘ohmic media with conductivities 6, and a. obtain the boundary conditions for the normat and tangential comporcng of Without actually Gonstructing a pillbox atthe interface as was done in ie 3-22 we know from Section 3-9 thatthe normal component of dvenen ‘8 continuous. Henee; ftom ¥ +5 = 0, we have and the curl equation is obtained less vector field Jue dan (/.| (5-44) eee ded the tangential component of a curtfree interface, We conclude from V x (Jj) = 0 that Simitarly, ector field is continuous across wt (5-45) Equation (S“45p states that she ratio of ‘the tangential components of J at two sides of an interface is equal to the ratio of th 1e conductivities Example 5-2 Two cbinducting media wit by an interface, as shown in Fi Point Py has a magnitude J, the magnitude and direction o! h conductivities o, and o, are separated ig. 5~4. The steady current density in medium 1 at dnd makes an angle a, with the normal. Determine # the current density at point P, in medium 2,Fig. 5-4 Boundary conditions at interface between two conducting media (Example 5-2). Solution: Using Eqs. (544) and (5-45), we have Jy 008 oy = J C08 84 (5-46) and anf; sin 2, = oJ, sin a (5-47) Division of Eq, (5-47) by Eq, (5-46) yields tana, “9, a If medium 1 is a much better conductor than medium 2 (@; > 03 of 03/4, +0), a2 approaches zero and J, emerges almost perpendicular to the interface (normal 10 the surface of the good conductor). The magnitude of J, is VEETE, = nay +a -[Barainn) eucnsae] an [ Clone) coral io By examining Fig. 5-4, can you tell whether medium 1 or medium 2 is the better conductor? or For a homogeneous conducting medium, the differential form of Eq. (5~43) simplifies to VxJ=0. (5-50) From Section 2-10 we know that a curl-free vector field can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar potential field. Let us write d= SV. (5-51) | ' i ' 1 !(5-46) (47) (8) 1 7Un a, rormal 10 (S-49) the better 4-6 / BOUNDARY CTNDITIONS FOR CURRENT DENSITY 185 Substitution of Eq. ($-Si)'into V-J = 0 yields a Laplace's equation in y; that is, vy A problem in steady/eurrent flow can therefore be solved by determining ¥ (A/m) fom Eq. (5~52), subjtet to appropriate boundary conditions and then by finding J from its negative gradient in exactly the same way as a problem in electrostaties 1 Solved. As a matter of fact, and electrostatic potential are simply related: ) =o” As indicated in Sectidh 5-1, ths similarity between electrostatie and steady-curvent field isthe basis forfing an electrolytic tank to map the potential distribution of dificlt-to-solve electrostatic: boundary-value problems.” When @ steady eurrent flows across the boundary between two dilfee Uicletris (dielectrics With permittivities e, the Gangs at lossy and ¢; and finite conduetivities ¢, and gemtial Component of the electtie lield is continuous aeross the interface as Usual; that is, Ey, = ,, which is equivalent to Eg, (5~45). The normal comport: of the electric field, however, must simultaneously satisfy both Eq. (5-44) and Eq. (3-113). We requlre Jin Sen + OE xg 30 Diy Day = 2, > © Ein ~ €E an * Ps (5-54) where the reference whit normal is outward from medium 2. Hence, unless ¢4/6, Ealey, 4 surface charge must exist we find the interface, From Eqs. (5—: (« 2 S s) Ex = (« 7a 3B Again, if medium 2 is a much better conductor than medium 1 (3° ¢, of ¢,/c3 -*0), Eq, (S~55) becomes approximately and (5 », which is the same as Eq. (3-114), © Bi, = Dyas 5-56) Example 5-3 An emf ¥”is.applied across a parallel-plate capacitor of area S. The Space between the conductive plates is filled with two different lossy dielectrics of thicknesses d, and d,, permittivities ¢, and ¢,, and conductivities 6, and c, respec tively. Determine (a) the current density between the plates, (b) the electric feld intensities in both dielectrics, and (c) the surface charge densities on the plates and at the interface, [SiS St instance, E. Weber, Elecromagnetic Fields, Vol. I: Mapping of Fels pp 187193, fohn Wiley and Sons, 1980.Fig. 5-5 ° Parallel-plate capacitor with wo lossy icletries (Example 5-3) 5) To determine the electric il intensities and # in both edi, two equations ‘re nended. Neglecting Iringing effect atthe edges ofthe plates. we have V = Ed, +E, (5-58) and o.E, = 038. (5-59) Equation (5-59) comes from J, = J. Solving Eqs. (5-58) and (5-39), we obtain or a hLULrM (5-60) and Ey (Vim) (5-61) oad + ad, ©) The surface charge densities on the upper and lower plates can be determined by using Eq. (5-56):" ne m2) 2 Pas ety = tO (jm?) (5-62) Pa = ~6£, S00 om: (5~63) aud, + od, The Desatve sign in Eq. (5-63) comes about because E, and the outward normal : at the lower plate are in opposite directions,densities voltage (5-51) 2UAtrwas (5-58) (5-59) obtain (5-60) (5-61) aifed by (5-62) ‘normal 7.1 RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 187 Equatiot! (&-36) can be used to find the surface charge density atthe interface ‘of the dielectrics. We have ’ 4] ae anya ‘sam (055-6) ag Fouds (620) ~ 602) aad, + ody From these results, we see that pz # —p,i,but that py, + pya + pu =O. (Cjm?). (5-64) In Example 5-3 we encounter a situation wHere both static charges and a. steady current exist. As we shall see in Chapter 6,a steady current gives cise to a steady magnetic field, We hate, then, both a static electric field and a steady magnetic Bed They constitute an elettromagnetostatic field. The electric and magnetic fields of an clectromagnetostatie eld are coupled through the constitutive relation J = oF of the conducting medi, 8-7 RESISTANCE CALCULATIONS In Section 3-10 we discussed the procedure for finding the capacitance between two conductors separated by a dielectric medium, These conductors may be of arbitrary shapes, as was shown In Fig. 3~25, which is reproduced here as Fig. 5-6, In terms of clectric field quantities, the basic formula for capacitance can be written as, fom Gand ye = Joe de” Fede! where the surface - in the numerator is carried out over a surface enclosing the Positive conductor andthe ine integral in the denominator istom the negative (lower Potential) conduictor tb the positive (higher potential) conductor (sce Eq, 5-21). i (5-65) J] R—4$ 1 ig 5.6. two condor ina osy Ma ilectie medium,(5-66) [rts the line and surface integrals are taken over the seme Land $ as those in Eq, (S65). Comparison of Eqs. (5~65) and (5-66) shows the following interesting relationship: (5-67) Equation (5- medium have the same space dependence or it ‘the medium is space coordinates). In these cases, if the capacitance be Conductor of inner radius b, and a medium with conductivity ¢ and (b) ofa parallel- medivan gmistion lin consisting of wires of radius a separated by a Guten Bios medium with conductivity o, Solution *) [ie saPécitance per unit length ofa coaxial cable has been obtained from Eq. (3-126) in Example 3-16, One = Fim, nom Fm Hence the leakage resistance per unt length, fom Ea, ($67), m=3(2)-am(') (1m). ~ (5-68) ‘The conductance per unit length is G, = 1/R, eis ie cond hold. «uctivity),a ‘he-density he stream- tween the (5-66) rose in Eq, interesting (5-67) _ adené® or if case he nee) can be inner and 4,an outer (2 parallel- ance D ina (5-68) qed 5-7) HESISTANCE CALCULATIONS 189 . i 1) For the paralle-wire transmission line, Eqj'(4~47) in Example 4-4 gives the capacitance per uti length. Luf2+ A=] am Co ‘The conductance per unit length is Gy = 1/Ry. Tt must be empliasized here that the resistance between the conductors for length ¢ of the couxial cable is R,/¢, not /R,; similarly, the leakage resistance of a length ¢ of the parallel-wire transmission line is Ri//, not /R,.. Do you know why” In certain situations, slectrostatic and steady-current problems are not exactly analogous. even wheh the geometrical configurations are the same. This is because ‘current flow can be Confined stritly within a conductor (whieh fas a very large & compared to that of the surrounding medium), whereas electric lux usually cannot be contained within a dielectric slab of finite dimensions. The range of the dielectric constant of available materials is very limited (see Appendix B-3}, and the Mus. {ringing around conductor edges makes the computation of capacitance less accurat ‘The procedure for computing the resistance of a pieve of conducting material between specified eqltipotential surfaces (or terminals) is as follows: 1. Choose an apprdpriate coordinate system for the given geometry 2 Assume a potential difference ¥, between conductor terminals. 3. Find electric field intensity E within the conductor, (If the m geneous, having a constant conductivity, the general method is to solve Laplace's equation V?V=0 for V in the chosen coordinate system, and then obtain E=-vv) 4, Find total current terial is homo- Tm [J+ ds= [Bas where S is the ctoss-sectional area over whic I flows, 5. Find resistance R by taking the ratio Vo/l. itis important to note that if the conducting material is inhomogeneous and ifthe conductivity is a function of space coordinates, Laplace's equation for V does not hold. Can you explain why and indicate how E can be determined under these circumstances?190 STEADY ELECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 +. When the given geometry is such that J can be deterinined easily from a total current I, we may start the solution by assuming an J. From 1, J and E~ d/o are found. Then the potential difference Vy is determined from the relation Y= —fE-ae, where the integration is from the low-potental terminal to the high-potential terminal, The resistance R = Vo/t is independent of the assumed J, which will be canceled in the process, Example 5-5 A conducting material of uniform thickness h and conductivity @ hhas the shape of a quarter of a flat circular washer, with inner radius a and omer radius b, as shown in Fig. $~7. Determine the resistance between the end faces, Solution: | Obviously the appropriate coordinate system to use for this’ problem is the cylindrical coordinate system, Following the foregoing procedure, we frst assume 4 potential difference Vp between the end faces, say V = 0.on the end face at y 0 and ¥ = Yo on the end face at x = 0, We are to solve Laplace’Sequs'ion in V subject ‘0 the following boundary conditions: V=0 a 0 (5~70a) Va am pany (5-706) Since potential Visa function of 6 only, Laplace's equation in cylindrical coordinates simplifies to ey a Bn (5-71) ‘The general solution of Eq. (5-71) is Vecid+er, which, upon using the boundary conditions in Eqs. (5~70a) and (5-70b), becomes (5-72) Fig. 5-7_ A quarter of fiat circular * washer (Example 5-5), REVia total = Wo ate, terminal, aeeled in tivity @ ad outer vblem fs assume ty=0, subject get 6 (5-706) ‘dinates scomes (5-72) 4 REVIEW QUESTIONS 191 ! 1 ‘The clrrent dendity is : bk deeb -a¥Ve ‘The total current.J Gan be found by integrating J over the 1/2 suriace at which as = ~agh dr. We Mave Lin [ae pee § ath AY 5-14) Therefore, R ah In ah Note that, for this problem, it is not convenient to begin by assuming a total current J because it is not obvious how J varies with r for a given J. Without J. E and Vo cannot be determined. REVIEW QUESTIONS 5-1 Explain the diference between conduction and convection currents, RS-2. Explain the operation of an electrolytic tank, Ia what ways do elect dlfer from conduction and convection currents? RS-3 What isthe point form for Ohm's law? RS—4 Define conductivity, What is its SI unit? RS-S Why does the tess and straight and that it hav: ce formula in Eq (513) require thatthe material be homogeneous uniform cross section? RS-6 Prove Eqs (5-15) and (5-166). RST Define electrohotive force in words. RS-8 Whats the cillerence between impressed and electrostatic fed intensities? R59 Ste Kirchhof’s voltage law in words, RS-10 What are the chara-teristics ofan ideal voltage source? R11 Can the currelits in ditferent branches (resistors) of a closed loop in an electric network flow in opposite directions? Expisin, : 5-12 What isthe piysical sigiticance of thé equation of continuity?ve 192 STEADY FLECTRIC CURRENTS / 5 RS-13 State Kirchhof’s current law in words, RS-14 What are the characteristics of an ideal current source? RS-15 Define relosition time. RS-16 In what ways should Eq, (5-34) be modified when @is a function of space coordinates? RS-AT State Joule's law. Express the power dissipated in a volume a) interms of Eand o, ) in terms of J and RS~18 Does the relation Vx J Explain. RS-19 What are the boundary conditions ofthe normal and tange current at the interface of to media with different conductivities? hold in a medium whose conductivity is not constant? ‘components of steady RS~20 What isthe basis of using an electrolytic tank to map the potential distribution of elec- lrostatie boundary-value problems? RS-21 What isthe relation between the resistance and the cupacitange formed by two cone luctors immersed ina lossy dielectric medium that has permitivity e and conductivity 0? RS-22 Under what situations wil the relation betwoen Rand Cin R.S-21 be only approximately correct? Give a specific example. PROBLEMS PS-1_ Starting with Ohm's law as expressed in Eq, (5-12) applied to a resistor of length /, conductivity 2 and uniform cross-section S, verily the point form of Ohms law represented by Eq. (5-8). PS-2 A long, round wire of radius a and conductivity ¢ is coated with a material of conduc tivity Oe. 8) What must be the thickness of the coating so that the resistance per unit length of the Uncoated wire is reduced by $0%? ') Assuming 2 total currens 1 in the coated wire, find J and E in both the core and the coating material, = Fig. 5-8 A.network problem (Problem P.S-3), | } i | { a |ordinates? 1 constant? 4 ts ef steady Lion of elece ay twa coh ity 7 proximately of Tength é, presented bY al of conduc length Of the core and the et PROBLEMS 193, 5-3. Find the current and the'heat dissipated in each ofthe five resistors inthe network shown inFig Sait i 010), Ry = 30(M,, Re R= 410)! 8, Ry = 1010, aid if the source i a idehd DC voltage generator of 0.2(V) with its positive polarity at terminal 1. What is the total rexistnce seen by the source testinal pair 1-2? P54 Solve problem P.S~3, assuming the source is un ideal current gene direct current of 7 (A) out of terminal 1 ; PS-5 Lightning strikes lossy dleletric sphere—e 1.2 ea ¢ = 10 (S/m)—of radius 0.1 (i) At time ¢ = 0, depositing kniformly inthe sphere a toll charge I (mC), Determine, forall 2) the eletre eld intensity both inside and outside the sphere, ») the current density inthe sphere at supplies PS-6 Refer to Problem P.S-5, 23) Calculate the time i€ takes for the charge density in the sphere to diminish to 1°, of ts initial valu, ) Calculate the chdnge in the electrostatic energy stored in the sphere as the charge density diminishes from the nivial value to 17% ofits value. What happens to this energy? ©) Determine the eleczostatic energy stored in the space outside the sphere. Does this energy change with time? PS-7 A DC voltage of 6 (¥) applied to the ends of 1 (km) of a conducting wie of 0 (mm) radius results in a curred of 1/6 (A), Find 8) the conductivity ofthe wire, 2) the electric field Intensity in the wire, ©) the power dissipated in the wire. PS-8 Refer to Example 5-3 4) Draw the equivalent circuit of the two-layer, purallel-plate capacitor with lossy dilece ‘wie, and identify the magnitude ofeach component, ) Determine the power dissipated in the capacitor. P5-9 An emf #”is appliec across a cylindrical capacitor of fength L. The radi ofthe ianee fang outer conductors ate asad b respectively. The space between the conductors is fled wil ‘wo different lossy dielectrics having, cespectively, permittivity ¢, and conductivity ¢, in the Fegion a (b + a), since the net total current ‘enclosed by a contour constructed in these two regions is zero. Example 6-3 Determine the magnetic flux density inside an infinitely long solenoid with an air core having n closely wound turns per unit length and carrying a current 1 Solution: This problem can be solved in two ways 8) Asa dixect application of Ampére's circutal law. tis clear that there is no magnetic field outside of the solenoid, To determine the B-field inside we construct a rectangular contour C of length L that is pattially inside and partially outside the solenoid. By reason of symmetry, the B-feld inside must be parallel to the axis. Applying Ampére’s circuital law, we have BL = pol or B= pont (6-13)SSaE a 202 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 ryecd feds i tl Fie 6-4. Carentan fon soleil Emp 6-2) ‘The direction of B goes from right to left, conforming to the right-hand rule with respect to the direction of the current I in the solenoid, as indicated in Fig. 64. by As a special cuse of toroid. The straight solenoid may be regarded as a special case of the toroidal coil in Example 6~2 with an infinite radius (b> vc). In such 4 case, the dimensions of the cross section of the core are very small compared with 6, and the magnetic Bux density inside the core is approximately constant. We have, from Eq, (6-12) which isthe same as Eq. (6-13). The é-directed B in Fig, 6-2 now goes from right to left, as was shown in Fig. 6-3. 6-3 VECTOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL ‘The divergence-free postulate of B in Eq. (6-6), ¥ - B = 0, assures that B is solenoidal. As a consequence, B can be expressed as the curl of another vector field, say A, such that (see Identity TI, Eq. (2-137), in Section 2-10) B=vxa (1).| (6-14) The vector field A’ so defined is called the vector magnetic potential. Its SI unit is ‘weber per meter (W/m). Thus, if we can find A of a current distribution, B can be obtained from A by a differential (or curl) operation. This is quite similar to the introduction of the scalar electric potential ¥ for the curl-free E in electrostatics (Section 3-5), and the obtaining of E from the relition E= —VV. However, the definition of a vector requires the specification of both its curl and its divergence. Hence Eq, (6-14) alone is not sufficient to define A: we must still specify its divergence, How do we choose V- A? Before we answer this question, let us take the curl of Bin Eq. (6-14) and substitute it in Eq. (6-7). We have VKVKA tod (6-15)rule with, Fig, 6-4, «spect In such ompared, onset ws from cnoidal Avsuch (6-14) unit is can be to the S gence, curl of (6-15) -3'/ vEETOR MAGNETIC POTENTIAL 203 Here we digress to introduce a formula for the curl curl of a vector: Vx VxA=ViV+A)— VA (6-163) or i VAR WO-A)— Vx, (6-160) Eruation (6-163) oF (6-166) can be regarded asthe definition of V2A, the Laplacian ol A. For Cartesian boordinates, it can be readily verified by direct subsitanion (Problem P.6-10) os EV Am a, 24, 40,24, + 0, 2A, (6-17 Thus for Cartesian caordinates, the Laplacian of a vector field A is another vector field whose componehts are the Laplacian (the divergence of the gradien) of che corresponding components of A. This, however, is not true for oiter sovechns systems, Wenow expand 7 x V x A in Eq. (6-15) according to Eq. (6-16) and obtain Vi =A) ~ VER a gh (6-18) implifying Eq, (618) co the With the purpose of atest extent possible, we choose? 6-19) and Eq. (6-18) becomes VAS pod) (6-20) {Eis i vector Poisson's equation, In Cartesian coordinates, Eq. (6-20) is equivatent to three scalar Poisson's equations VAG ~ sol, (6-213) VA, = — ody, (6-218) Vid. = ~ Hod, (6-210) Fach of these three equations is mathematically the same as the Poisson's equation, Eq, (4-6), in electrostatics. In free space, the equation vy 2 "Equation (6-16) can als be obtained !neurisially rom the vector triple product formla in Eg, (2-20) by gonsdering the del operator, Va ver V(x A)= VIVA) ~ (0 VA = >A) 9A, ona rls (etn fo sate magnetic Beds. Modifenon is necesay for time-varying eee ‘magnetic elds see Ea, 7-46),204 _ STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 7 : ‘has a particular solution (see Eq. 3-56), 1 -azh Hence the solution for Eq. (6-21) is ae bop Je a= Bl, Bae. We can write similar solutions for 4, and A,. Combining the three components, we have the solution for Eq, (6-20): len (wo/m) (6-22) Equation (6-22) enables us to find the vector magnetic potential A from the volume current density J, The magnetic flux density B can then be obtained from V x A by (6-26) where a circle has been put on the integral sign because the current { must flow in Se rr———=™Feseeees oe. Vector potential A relates to the magnetic fax @ through a aiven aes $ that i bounced by contour Cina simple way on [Ba 29 ‘The SI unit for magnetic fx is weber (Wb), which i equivalent to teslasquare | meter (T-m*), Using Eq. (6-14) and Stokes's theorem, we have j eA usa Asde — Cv) _ $e | , 6-4 BIOT-SAVART'S LAW | ‘AND APPLICATIONS : In many applications we are interested in determining the magnetic field due toa | caitenearing seit Foran wie wih crosectona are Sat eas Sa”, | tnd the current fw is enirely along the wite We have | Ja = JS de’ = 140, _ A and Eq. (6-22) becomes i Bs i - i { i inents, we (6-23) ‘olume Sear a4 srs (6-23) s-xpuare (6-24) due toa als $ de’, ws (6-20) flow in i 6-4 / BIOT-S:VART'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS 205 iter se, 8 closed path," whiclfis designated C’, The magnetic flux density is then : bol g der P beveav alg ] vol & yy (ae) a i bv ( 9) (6-27) itis very important to note in Eq. (6-27) that the unprimed curl operation implies dlfferentiations with respect to the space coordinates ofthe field poi, and thatthe integral operation is with despect to the primed source coordinates The integrand a Ea. (6-27) can be apanded into two terms by using the following identity (see Problem P.2-26) YG) We have, with f= UR and G = dé JV GHW) x. (6-28) 6-29) Now singe the unprimed und primed coordinates are independent. Vx dé" equals 0 and the frst term on the right side of Eq, (6-29) vanishes. The distance R is measured from dé’ at (x, y, fo the field point at (x (6-30) where ay isthe unit vector directed from te source point othe fel point, Substituting Eq. (6-20) in Eg. (6-29), we get lp at x ay [Bap m. (6-31) ee Eajuation (6=34).i8 known as Blot-Savart’s law. It isa formula for determining B Gised by a current / in a closed path C’, and is obtained by taking the curl of 4 in Eq, (6-26). Sometimes itis convenient to write Eq. (6-31) in two steps "We are now dealing with direst (nonstime-varyingrcurens that ‘ive rise to steady magnetic fields SEGGIS satining netting sures nay send tive varjingcurcts along a epee wae ned donc charges at is ends. Antenoas ave examples,, (6-32) with, a(S) op 6389 which is the magnetic flux density due to a current element J dé’, An alternative and Sometimes more convenient form for Eq. (6~33a) is Hal (dC x R oe at (OS ') m (6-336) — Comparison of Eq, (6-31) with Eq, (6-9) will reveal that Biot-Savart law is, in Seneral, more difficult to apply than Ampére’s circuital law. However, Ampove's Circutal law is not useful for determining from 1 in a circuit ifa closed path cannot be found over which B has a constant magnitude, ~ Example 6-4 A direct current / flows in a straight wire of length 2L. Find ¢ ‘magnetic flux density B ata point located ata distance from the wire inthe bisecting plane: (a) by determining the vector magnetic potential A frst, and (b) by applying Biot-Savarts law, Solution: Currents exist only in closed circuits. Hence the wire inthe present problem ‘must be a part of a current-carrying loop with several straight sides. Since we do not know the rest of the circuit, Ampéte’s circuital law cannot be used to advantage Refer to Fig. 6~5. The current-carrying line segment is aligned with the =axis A typical element on the wire is Fig. 6-5 Current-carrying straight wire (Example 6-4)(6-32) (6-33) ative and isccting ‘plying sroblem edo not vantage, axis. A 6-4 / BIOT-SAVART'S LAW AND APPLICATIONS - 207 2) By finding B jronl ¥ x A. Substituting RI JZ™ FP? into Eo. 6-26), we have Mol pe ai f Awa fal eae pate iol Peel One eyPrEP | ii e =a, fol yg VEAL (6-34) (6-35) [hich is the expression for Bata point located at a distance r from an infinitely tong, straight wire car:ying current / ») By applying Biot-Savar's law. Frote Fig. 6-5, we see that the distance vector rom the source element dz’ to the field point P is Rearmay é a6 x Reade x lay 0,2) = ay de. Substitution in Eq, (6-336) gives f ends Bo Jab=a,5 liz + Ape IL Which is the same as Ea, (6-35) Pxample 6-5 Find the magnetic ux density atthe center of @ square loop, with side w carrying a direct current [208 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 pe Fig. 6-6 Square loop carrying nea ‘current / (Example 6-5). Solution: Assume the loop lies inthe xy-plane, as shown in Fig. 6-6. The magnetic fux density atthe centr ofthe squae lop sequal to egy tines that causes by & single side of length w. We have, by setting r= w/2 tba (6-35, 2Bhol Boag (6-37) where the direction of B and that of the current in the loop follow the right-hand rule. Example 6-6 Find the magnetic Hux density at a point GR-the axis ofa circular Toop of radius b that caries a direct cutrent 1 Solution: We apply Biot-Savart’s law to the circular loop shown in Fig. 6-7. a ab dg” ab R Rae 4 pe ‘Again itis impoitant to remember that R isthe vector from the source element de" to the field point P, We have de’ x R= ash dé! x (a,2 — a) abs dg’ + a,b dg Fig. 6-7 circular loop carrying current J (Example 6-6),6-5 / THE MAGNETIC DIPCLZ 209 Because of cylindrical syminetry, it is easy to sée that the a,-component is canceled by the contribution ofthe ¢lement located diamtetrically opposite to dé, so we need only consider the az-cbmponent of this cross product, i ‘We write, front Ey. (6-31), patil pay bhp 4 : or nagnetic ; Sole (6-38) ved bya ‘ Ga) 6-5 THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE dul We begin this section with an exumple. rule circular Example 6-7 Find the magnetic lux density at a distant point of a small circu Joop of radius b that erries cuerent 1. Solution: It is appagent from the statement of the problem that we ested in determining B at a point whose distaitee, R, from the satisfies the relation R > b: that being approximations, We select the centet of the loop to be the origin of spherical coordinat are inter of the loop € case, We may make certain simplifying fs. as shown, 5-8. The soutte coordinates are primed, We first find the vector magnetic cent de” potential A and then determine B by V x A. ol g dee aaa 6-39) | Aw arte R, : Fig. 6-8 A small citeular loop carrying current / (Example 6-7,210 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 Equation (6-39) is the same as Eq. (6-26), except for one important point: Rin! Eq. (6-26) denotes the distance between the source element dé” at P’ and the field oint P; but it must be replaced by R, in accordance with the notation in Fig. 6-8 Because of symmetry, the magnetic field is obviously independent of the angle 6 of the field point, We pick P(R, 0, 2/2) in the yz-plane, Another point of importance is that ay. at dé” is not the same as a, at point P. In fact, a at P, shown in Fig, 6-8 is —a,, and ‘ de = (—a, sin ’ + a, cos 6) dd. 6-4)? For every { dé” there is another symmetrically located differential current element on the other side of the y-axis that will contribute an equal amount to A in the —a, direction, but will cancel the contribution of f dé’ in the a, direction, Equation (6-39) can be written as, 2 Aw a,tel pebsind ay, ae dee, Ce fae gw (6-41 ‘The law of cosines applied to the traingle OPP” gives Ri = RP +5? — 2R cos vy where R cos fis the projection of R on the radius OP", which is the same as the projection of OP” (OP" = R sin 8) on OP’. Hence, RY = R? +b — DR sin Osing’ dui ob Se ak (1+8—Bonosne) When R? > b#, b?/R? can be neglected in comparison with 1 and sin sin’) a a(t + ganosine’) (6-2) Substitution of Eg. (6-42) in Fy. 6.4) yiokds i anastae [s,(t+ gana ) ain ofa (6-43)oint: R in the field 1 Fig, 6-8. angle ¢ of point P. (6-40) lement on. the a, jon (6-39) me as the (6-42) (6-43) 6-$/ THE MAGNETIC DIPOLE 211 The magnetic flux density is B= V x A. Equation (2-127) can be used to find lb? FFE (An 2 605 0 + a5 sin 0, (6-44) Which is our answer, At this point we recognize the similarity between Eq, (6-44) and the expression for the electric field intensity in the far feld of an electrostatic dipole as given in Eq. (3-49). To exantine the similarity further, we rearrange Eq. (6-43) as where adSeam (Am?) 's defined as the magnetic dipole moment, which is a vector whose magnitude is the Product ofthe current in und the area of the loop and whose direction is the direction of the thumb as the fingers of the right hand follow the direction of the current Comparison of Eq, (6-45) with the expression for the scalar electric potential o an electric dipole in Eq, (3-48), Dray SnegR? “. (6-37) reveals that, for the two cases, A is analogous to V. We call a small current loop a magnetic dipole. The analogous quantities are as follows: tying Magnetic Dipole ? mx - Ina similar manner we can also rewrite Bq, (6-44) as re B= Ls (tn 2008+ aysin) (1). (6-48)212. STATIC MAGNETIC FIELOS / 6 Except for the change ofp to m, Eq, (6-48) has the same form as Eq, (3-49) does for the expression for E at a distant point of an electric dipole. Hence, the magnetic ux lines of a magnetic dipole lying in the xy-plane will have the same form as that of the eletre field lines of an electric dipole positioned along the z-axis. These lines have been sketched as dashed lines in Fig, 3-14. One essential difference is that the clectric field lines ofan electric dipole start from the positive charge +q and terminate oon the negative charge ~g, whereas the magnetic fx lines close upon themselves. Scalar Magnet Pote Ina currerit-rce region J ), Eq. (6-7) becomes vxB=0. (6-49) ‘The magnctic Mux density Bis fen culsice und ean be expressed asthe gradient of a scalar held. Let B =H (6-501 where Vq is called the scalar magnetic potential (expressed in-amperes). The negative sign in Eq. (6-50) is conventional (see the definition of the scalar electric potential V in Eq, 3-38), and the permeability of free space fg is simply a proportionality constant, Analogous to Eq. (3-40), we can write the scalar magnetic potential difier- cence between two points, P, and P,, in free space as Von tor = =f Awa 6-51) Ifthere were magnetic charges with a volume density p,,(A/m?) in a volume ¥" we would be able to find V, from (a) (6-52) The magnetic flux density B could then be determined from Eq, (6-50). However, isolated magnetic charges have never been observed experimentally; they must be considered fictitious. Nevertheless, the consideration of fictitious magnetic charges in a mathematical (not physical) model is expedient both to the discussion of some ‘magnetostatic relations in terms of our knowledge of electrostatics and to the estab- lishment of a bridge between the traditional magnetic-pole viewpoint of magnetism ‘and the concept of microscopic circulating currents as sources of magnetism. The magnetic field of a small bar magnet is the same as that of a magnetic dipole ‘This can be verified experimentally by observing'the contours of iron filings around ‘a magnet, The traditional understanding is that the ends (the north and south poles) Aithough the magneti dipole in Example 6-7 was taken tobe a ctcuar loop, it can be shown (Problem S-)that the sine expresions Egy, (6-45) and (6-48) are obtained when theloop has rectangular Shape, with m= 1S. pven fm Eg (5-46) | | | | | | | | tdoes for t vetie lux that of ase lines that the stminate aselves. Hditter- (6-51) ume V', (6-52) must be arges in of some eestab- snetism dip. 2 1 po. Problem vangular TERRA SET ET ETE ere rcttmcmpenneanenyeenezas 7 MAGNET’ ATION AND EQUIVALENT CURRENT DENSITIES 213. oft permanentiidgnet are the location o, respectively, positive and negative magnetic charges. For a bar mhgnet, the fictitious ‘Magnetic charges +9,, and —q, are assumed. ‘0 be separated by a Histance d and to form an equivalent magnetic dipole of moment i m= a, = as (6-53) Fecal magnetic potential ¥4 caused by this magnetic dipole can then be found by following the procedure used in subsection 3-51 for finding the scalar elecae, potential that is cauged by an electric dipole, We obtain, as in Fa. (3-6) : Vga BE tay (6-549 Substitution of Eq, (6 -S4) in Eq. 6. 50) yields the same B as yiven in Eq. (6 We note that the expressions of the scalar magnetic pote for & magnetic dipole are exactly analogous to those for the seala in Eq. (6-47) for an electric dipole: the lik alin Eq. 6-45) and V in Bq, (6-47) is not as exact. However, since magnetic eh do not exist in practical problems, V, must be determined from a distribution. This determination is usually not a simple free nature of B indicated in Ey. (6-49), Sq i8 delined, holds ony the magnetic field I Hg in EQ. (6-34) trie potential V cness between the vector magnetic potential races, Moreover. the curl from which the scalar magnetic potential 4 points with no currents, In a region where vuttrents xis. isnot eonsereatce, and the salar magnetic potentials nota singe Yeas finetion; hence the masuetic potential ciference evaluated Oy ba test) Gepends on the path of integration, For these reasons, we will use the cietuledng. gurtent-and-vector-potensal approach, instead ofthe ittious magneticicharen, wes (fu isa large positive number} As mentioned before, thorough understanding of microscopic magnetic phenomena fequires a knowledge of quantum mechanics. In the following we give a qualitative escription of the behavior of the various types of magnetic materials based pn the classical atomic model, {nadiamagnerie material the net asignete moment du to the orbital and spinning ‘motions ofthe electrons io any particular atom is zero in the absence ofan external applied magnetic field. As predicted by Eq. (6-4), the application of an exten! ‘magnetic felé to this material produees a force on the orbiting electrons, causine perturbation in the angular velocities. As a consequence, a net magnetic moment 5s created. This is a process of induced magnetization, According 0 Lene's law of slectromagietic induction (Section 72}, the induced magnetic’ moment always cpposes the applied field, thus reducing the magnetic ux density. The macroscone effect of this process is equivalent to that of a negative magnetization that can be described by a negative magnetic susceptibility, This eect is usually very small, and Yn for most known diamagnetic materials (bismuth, copper, lead, mercury germanium, silver, gold, diamond) is in the order of —10"2226 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 Diamagnetism arises mainly from the orbital motion of the electrons within an atom and is present in all materials. In most materials it is too weak to be of any Practical importance. The diamagnetic effect is masked in paramagnetic and ferro- ‘magnetic materials. Diamagnetic materials exhibit no permanent magnetism, and the induced magnetic moment disappears when the applied field is withdrawn, In some materials the magnetic moments due to the orbiting and spinning electrons do not cancel completely, and the atoms and molecules have a net average magnetic moment. An externally applied magnetic field, in addition to causing a very weak diamagnetic effect, tends to align the molecular magnetic moments in the direction of the applied field, thus increasing the magnetic flux density. The macro- scopic effect is, then, equivalent to that of a positive magnetization that is described by a positive magnetic susceptibility. The alignment process is, however, impeded by the forces of random thermal vibrations. There is little coherent interaction and the increase in magnetic flux density is quite small. Materials with this behavior are said to be paramagnetic. Paramagnetic materials generally have very sill positive values of magnetic susceptibility, in the order of 10. for aluminum, ma titanium, and tungsten, Paramagnetism arises mainly from the magnetic dipole moments of the spinning electrons. The alignment forces, acting upon molecular dipoles by the applied field, are counteracted by the deranging effects of thermal agitation, Unlike diamagnetism. which is essentially independent of temperature, the paramagnetic effect is tem= perature dependent, being stronger at lower temperatures where there is less thermal collision, ‘The magnetization of ferromaynetic materials can be many orders of magnitude Jarger than that of paramagnetic substances. (See Appendix B-5 for typical values of relative permittivity.) Ferromagnetism can be explained in terms of magnetized domains. Nevordin to this model, which has bee experimentally contrive, ferromagnetic material (such as cobalt, nickel, and iron) is composed of many small domains, their linear dimensions ranging from a few microns to about | mm. These domains, each containing about 10'* or 10! atoms, are fully magnetized in the sense that they contain aligned magnetic dipoles resulting from spinning electrons even im the absence of an applied magnetic field. Quantum theory asserts that strong coupling forces exist between the magnetic dipole moments of the atoms in a domain, holding the dipole moments in parallel, Between adjacent domains there isu transition region about 100 atoms thick called 2 domain wall. In an unmagnetized state, the ‘magnetic moments of the adjacent domains in a ferromagnetic material have different directions, as exemplified in Fig. 6-14 by the polycrystalline specimen shown, Viewed as a.whole, the random nature of the orientations in the various domains results in no net magnetization, ‘When an external magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the walls of those domains having magnetic moments aligned with the applied field move in such a way as to make the volumes of those domains grow at the expense of otherpinning ge sin the scribed peded. on and snetized med, a vy small 2. These as ever strong, aie, the Jifferent she, move in of other 5-8 / BEHAVIOR OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS 227 Magneises oreain Domain tral Fig. 6-14 Domain sirueturs of a polyerystalline ferromagnet specimen, domiains. As a result, magnetic flux density is increased. For say up to point P, in Fig, 6~13, domain-wall movements are rev applied field becomes stronger (past P,), domain-wall mov reversible, and domaln rotation toward the direc weak applied fields, ersible. But when an ements are no longer tion of the applied ied il also ecu, For example if'an applied field is reduced to zeto at point Py, the Beli sels tionship will not follow the solid curve P,,0, but wll yo down from Ps to P,. slong the lines of the broken curvein the figure. This phenomenon of magnetization behind the field producing itis called hiystcresis, which is devived from a Greek word meaning “to lag.” As the applied field becomes even much stronger (past P. to domain-wall motion and domain rotation will cause essen of the microscopic magnatie moments with magnetic material is said to have reached saturation. The curve OP,P.P. on the B- plane is called the normal magnetization curd: {i rhe applied magnetic field is reduced to 2éto from the value at P,, flux density does not go to zero but assumes the v residual oF remanent flux density (in Woy?) and is dependent on the maximum applied feld intensity, The existence of a remanent flux density in a material makes permanent magnets possible. ially a total alignment the applied field, at which point the the magnetic at B,. This value is called the ferromagnetic Fig-6-15 Hysteresis loops in B-H plane for fertomagsetic material,228 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 In order to make the magnetic flux density of a specimen zero, it is necessary to apply a magnetic field intensity Hin the opposite direction. This required H, is called coersive force, but a more appropriate name is eoersive field intensity (in Am). Like B,./H, also depends on the maximum value of the applied magnetic field intensity Itis evident from Fig, 6-15 that the B-H relationship for a ferromagnetic material is nonlinear. Hence, if we write B= lH as in Eq, (6~72a), the permeability jc itself is a function of the magnitude of H. Permeability j« also depends on the history of the material's magnetization, since—even for the same H—we must know the location of the operating point on a particular branch of a particular hysteresis loop in order to determine the value of j exactly. In some applications a small alternating current may be superimposed on a large steady magnetizing current. The steady ‘magnetizing field intensity locates the operating point. and the local slope of the hysteresis curve at the operating point determines the incremental permeability: Ferromagnetic materials for use in electric generators, motors, and transformers should have a large magnetization for a very small applied field: they should have tall and narrow hysteresis loops, As the applied magnetic field intens periodically between +1. tlhe hysteresis loop is traced ones per eyele. The area of the hysteresis loop corresponds to energy loss (iysteresis loss) per wnit volume per cycle (Problem P, 6-21). Hysteresis loss is the energy lost in the form of heat in over coming the friction encountered during domain-wall motion and domain rotation, Ferromagnetic materials, which have tall, narrow hysteresis loops with small loop areas, are referred to as “soft” materials: they are usually well-annealed materials with very few dislocations and impurities so that the domain walls can move easily. Good permanent magnets, on the other hand, should show a high resistance fo demagnetization, This requires that they be made with materials that have large coercive field intensities H, and, hence, fat hysteresis loops, These materials are referred to as “hard” ferromagnetic materials. The coercive field intensity of hard ferromagnetic materials (such as Alnico alloys) can be 10° (A/m) or more, whereas that for soft materials is usually 50 (A/m) or less. Asindicated before, ferromagnetism isthe result ofstrong coupling elfects between the magnetic dipole moments of the atoms in a domain. Figure 6-16(a) depicts the atomic spin structure of a ferromagnetic material. When the temperature of a ferro- ‘magnetic material is raised to such an extent that the thermal energy exceeds the coupling energy, the magnetized domains become disorganized. Above this critical temperature, known as the curie temperature, a ferromagnetic material behaves like 4 paramagnetic substance. Hence, when a permanent magnet is heated above its curie temperature it loses its magnetization. The.curie temperature of most ferro- ‘magnetic materials lies between a few hundred to a thousand degrees Celsius, that of iron being 770°C, Some elements, such as chromium and manganese, which are close to ferro- ‘magnetic elements in atomic number and are neighbors of iron in the periodic table, also have strong coupling forces between the atomic magnetic dipole moments: i ! | | isessary, His Aji). nensity. naterial itself story of cow the sis pop srnaling steady 2 of the have ne per all leap serials veds thi critical ves Hike rows St Peusv eee @ ferro Sie table, coments; 6-9 / BEHAVIOR OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS _°9 bEREEE @ Ht spin structures for but their coupling forces produce antiparallel alignments of electron spins. as illus: trated in Fig. 6~16(b). The soins alternate in direction from atom to atom sind result in no net magnetic moment. A material possessing this property is said to be antic ferromagnetic. Antiferromagnetism is also temperature dependent. When an anti ferromagnetic material is heated above its curie temperature, the spin directions suddenly become random and the material becomes paramagnetic ‘There is another class of magnetic materials that exhibit a behuvior between ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism. Here quantum mechanical effects make the directions of the magnetic moments in the ordered spin structure alternate a the magnitudes unequal, resulting in a net nonzero magnetic mo depi in Fig, 6-16(c). These materials are said to be ferrimagnetic, Because of the partial cancellation, the maximum magnetic flux density attained in a ferrimagnetic substance is substantially lower than that in a ferromagnetic specimen, Typically, it is about 0.3 Wh/m*, approximately one-tenth that for ferromagnetic substances Ferrites are a subgroup of ferrimagnetic material. One type of ferrites, called ‘magnetic spinels, crystallize in « complicated spinel strucure and have the formula XO Fe,Os, where X denotes a divalent metallic ion such as Fe, Co, Ni, Ma. Ma, Za, Cd, etc. These are ceramic-like compounds with very low conductivities, (for instance, 10-*to.1 (S/m) compared with 10” (S/m) for iron). Low conductivity limits eddy-current losses at high frequencies. Hence ferrites find extensive uses in such high-frequency and microwave applications as cores for FM antennas, high-frequency ‘ansformers, and phase shifters. Other ferrites include magnetic-oxide garnets, of which Yitrium-Iron-Garmet ("YIG." Y,FeO,,) is typical. Garnets are used in microwave multiport junttions.230 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 6-10 BOUNDARY CONDITIONS FOR : MAGNETOSTATIC FIELDS In order to solve problems concerning magnetic fields in regions having media with diferent physical properties, it is necessary to study the condition (boundary con. itions) that B and H vectors must satisfy atthe interfaces of different media, Using {cchniques similar to those employed in Section 3-9 to obtain the boundary con: ditions for electrostatic fields, we derive magnetostatic boundary conditions by applying the two fundamental governing equations, Eqs. (6-6) and (6-68), respec. tively, to a small pillbox and a small closed path which include the interface, From the divergenceless nature of the B field in Eq. (6-6), ¥- B= 0, we may conclude irectly, in light of past experience, that the normal component of B is continuous ‘cross an interface; that is, (6-95) For linear media, By = JH, and B: = jsH., Ea, (6-95) becomes HH n= 1H (6-96) ‘The boundary condition for the tangential components of magnetostatic field 's obtained from the integral form of the curl equation for H, Eq, (6-70), whi Fepeated here for convenience: Gua oan BE now choose the closed path abeda in Fig, 6-17 as the contour C. Applying Eq. (6-97) and letting be = da = Ah approach zero, we have Gu He de = Hane Hy: — Aw) = J,,AW or Hy~H= Ju (AM), (6-98) where Jay is the surface current density on the interface normal to the contour C. ‘The ditection of Jy is that of the thumb when the fingers of the right hand follow Fig. 6-17. Closed path about the interface fof two media for determining the boundary condition of H,dia with ary con- a. Using ary con- ions by onclude tinuous (6-95) (6-97) spolying (6-98) dur C. fallow face dary ¥ . ; i 6-10 BOUNDARY Conorrions FOR MAGNETOSTATIC FiELOS 201 the direction ofthe pth jn Fig. 6-17, the positive discon of Jy for the chosen Path is out ofthe pape. The following is a more concise expression ofthe boundary condition for the tangential components of H, which includes both magnitude and direction relations (Problem P. 6-22) Ai «(Hi —Hy)=J, — (A/m), (6-99) where ays isthe out wat unit wormal from medium 2: the interface. Thus, the tangential component of the H field is discontinuous across an interface where a surface current exists, the amount of discontinuity being determined by Eq, (6-99). ‘When the Conduits ofboth media are finite, currents ae defined by volume Current densities and: free surface currents do not exist on the interface. Hence 4, equals zero, and the ta gential component of H is continuous across the boundary of almost all physical hiedia: itis discontinuous only when an interface with om Weel perfect conductor or a superconductor is assumed. Example 611 Two magnetic media with permeabilities u, and je, have a common boundary, as shown in Fiz. 6-18, The magnetic field intensity in medium I at che point P, has a magnitude 7, anc makes an angle 2, with the normal, Determine the Magnitude and the ditection of the magnetic field intensity at point Pin medium 2 Solution: | The desited unknown quantities are H and a. Continuity of the normal ‘component of B field requires, from Eq. (6-96), aH 608 25 = 4H; c08 0, (6-100) Since neither of the medic is a perfect conductor, the tangential component of H field is continuous. We have Hy sina, =H, sina, (6-101) Division of Eq, (6-101) by Eq, (6-100) gives (6-102) 6-48 Boundary conditions for ‘magnetostati field at an interface (Example 6-11).232 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 (6-103) Ms a=" (ane) Ay = JHE + HY, = Ji sina +, oy fy i[ante, + (Hern) ] We make three remarks here, First, Eqs. (6-102) and (6-104) are entirely similar to, respectively, Eqs. (3-119) and (3-120) for the electric fields in dielectric media — except for the use of permeabilities (instead of permittivities) in the case of magnetic fields. Second, if medium 1 is nonmagnetic (like ait) and medium 2 is fertomagnetic (like iron), then 13 > 1 and, from Eq, (6-102), 2, will be nearly ninety degrees. This ‘means that for any arbitrary angle a, that is not close to zero. the magnetic field in u ferromagnetic medium runs almost parallel (o the interface: Third, if medium { is ferromagnetic and medium 2 is air (1, > u), then 2, will be nearly zero; that is, ia magnetic feld originates ina ferromagnetic medium, the Hux lines wll emerge into air in a direction almost normal to the interface. (6-108) In current-free regions the magnetic flux density B is irrotational and can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar magnetic potential V,, as indicated in See. tion 6-5. B= HWY (6-105) Assuming a constant , substitution of Eq. (6-105) in V- B= 0 (Eq. 6-6) yields a Laplace's equation in V4, VY, = 0. (6-106) Equation (6—106) is entirely similar to the Laplace's equation, Eq, (4-10), for the scalar electric potential V in a charge-free region. That the solution for Eq, (6-106) Satisfying given boundary conditions is unique can be proved in the same way as for Eq. (4—10)—see Section 4~3, Thus the techniques (method of images and method of Separation of variables) discussed in Chapter 4 for solving electrostatic boundaty- value problems can be adapted to solving analogous magnetostatic boundary-valve Problems. However, although electrostatic problems with conducting boundaries ‘maintained at fixed potentials occur quite often in practice, analogous magnetostatic Problems with constant magnetic-potential boundaries are of little practical impor. tance, (We recall that isolated magnetic charges do not exist and that magnetic ux lines always form closed paths.) The nonlinearity in the relationship between B and H in ferromagnetic materials also complicates the analytical solution of boundary- value problems in magnetostatics.(6-103) sof Hy is (6-108) can be in Sec (6-105) igs @ (6-106) 1 for the (6-108) ay as for ethod of sundary- unc 6 etostatic limp xetic flux sn Band dundary- 6-11" INDUCTANCES AND INDUCTORS 6-11 / INDUCTANCES AND INDUCTORS 233 i Hi Consider two neighboring closed loops, C, and C, bounding surfaces $, and S, Fespectively, as shown in Fig. 6~19. If a current J, flows in C,, a magnetic field B, will be created, Some of the magnetic flux due to B, will link with C,— that is, wil pass through the surfilce $ bounded by C,. Let us designate this mutual flux We have 12= [Bi edsy ° (Wo). (6-107) From physics we knot that a time-varying J, (and therefore a time-varying ©) wil Produce an induced electromotive force oF voltage in C, as a result of Faraday’ law Of electromagnetic induction, (We éefer the discussion of Faraday’s law until the next chapter.) However, th, oxists even if 1, is steady DC current From Biot-Savart law, Eq. (6-31), we sce that By is directly proportional to [,: hhenos i also proportional to f,..We write 22 bah, (6-108) where the proportionlity constant L, is called the mutual inductance between loops C, and C,, with SI unit henry (H), In ease C; has N turns, the fe linkage A, due to Osis A= N20, and Eq. (6-108) generalizes to (Wo), (6-109) Lil, — (We) (6-110) (6-11) Fig. 6-19 Two magnetically couple loops.234 STATIC MAGNETIC FiELOS / 6 The mutual inductance between two circuits Is then the magnetic flux linkage with one cireut per unit current inthe other. In Eq. (6~-108), itis implied that the permeability of the medium does not change with /,. In other words, Eq. (6-108) and hence Eq, (6-111) apply only to linear media. A more general definition for Lysis aA Lune | (6-112) Some of the magnetic flux produced hy 1, links only with C, itself, and not with Cz. The total flux linkage with C, caused by I, is Ay =O, > NO; (6-113) The self-inductance of loop C, is defined as the magnetic flux linkage per unit current in the loop itself; that is, wan] Las (6-118) for a linear medium, In general, (H). (6-11 The self-inductance of a loop or circuit depends on the geometrical shape and the Physical arrangement of the conductor constituting the loop or circuit, as well as on the permeability of the medium. With a linear medium, self-inductance does not depend on the current in the loop or circuit. As a matter of fact, it exists regardless of whether the loop or circuit is open or closed, or whether it is near another loop or circuit. . A conductor arranged in an appropriate shape (such as a conducting wire wound as a coil) to supply a certain amount of self-inductance is called an inductor, Just as # capacitor can store electric energy, an inductor can storage magnetic energy, as we shall see in Section 6-12. When we deal with only one loop or coil, there is no need to carry the subscripts in Eq.(6~114) or Eq. (6-115), and inductance without an adjective will be taken to mean self-inductance, The procedure for determining the self-in- ductance of an inductor is as follows: 1. Choose an appropriate coordinate system for the given geometry. 2. Assume a current [in the conducting wire. 3. Find B from J by Ampére’scitcuitil law, Eq, (6-9), if symmetry exists; if not Biot-Savart law, Eq. (6-31), must be used,with one meability nd hence (6-112) | not with, (6-113) wy (6-115) e and the ell as on does not ardless of st loop or rewound vr Just as, a5 we oneed to ad7Ne 1s; if not, 6-11 / INDUCTANCES AND INDUCTORS 235 4. Find the flux linking with each turn, ®, from B by integration, O= [Bids, where S is the area over which B exists and links with the assumed current. 5 Find the flux linkhge A by multiplying ® by the number of turns 6 Find L by taking the ratio L = AVI Only a slight modification of this procedufe is needed to determine the mutual inductance L,3 between two circuits. After choosing an appropriate coordinate system, proceed as follows: Assume J, — find B, ~ find ,, by integrating B, over surface S2—+find Auk linkage A, = Ny®,2-+find Ly, = Ay3/1, Example 612 Assdme iV turns of wire are tightly wound on a toroidal frame of a ‘ectangular cross section with dimensions as shown in Fig. 6~20. Then assuming the Permeability of the medium to be ji, find the selt-inductance of the toroidal coil Solution: "It is clear that the cylindrical coordinate system is appropriate for this Problem because the toroid is symmetrical about its axis. Assuming a current [in the conducting wire, we find. by applying Eq. (6-9) to a citeuar path with node racr, Ty we obtain [Meaty Y tat o.) (6-141) which isthe energy stored in the magnetic field. Fora current! lowing in single induetor with inductahes L, the stored magnetie energy is Ww, 1 (6-143) (acetal Tis instructive to derive Eq, (6-141) in an alternative way. Consider a typical th loop of N magnetically coupled loops. Let 2, and i, be respectively, the voltage ‘across and the current in the loop. The work dane to the kth loop in time de is AW, = oy de ay doy, (6-153) where we have used the relation vj = ddy/dt. Note thatthe change, dy, inthe fun linking with the kth loop is the result of the changes of the currents in all the coupled loops. The differential work done to, or the differential magnetic energy Stored in the system if then age a= Shady ous) ‘Theft stored energy te intgaion of dify-ndis independent of the man in which the hl vals ofthe carrents and Rueda reeked ka ee all the currents and fllixes are brought to their final values in concert by an equal fraction « that increases from 0 to 1; that is, k= aly, and d, = a, at any instant of time. We obtain the.tdtal magnetic. energy: Jane oi 10) ada or ot Yio (6-145) Ls244 _ STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 . e which simplifies to Eq, (6-137) for N = 1, as expected: Noting that, for linear media, SLaty we obtain Eq. (6-141) immediately, Magnetic Energy in Terms of Field Quantities Equation (6-145) can be generalized to determine the magnetic energy of a continuous distribution of current within a volume, A single current-carrying loop can be con- sidered as consisting ofa large njimber, N, of contiguous filamentary current elements ‘of closed paths C,, each with a current AJ, flowing in an infinitesimal cross-sectional area Adj and linking with magnetic fux ®. =f aeaagag, Anat 149 — where 5; is the surface bounded by Cy. Substituting Eq. (6-148) in Eq, (6-145), we have : Wy = 4 ah. Ades, (6-147) Now, “ Al, dé, = J(Aa) dey = J Ax. ‘As N ~ oo, Avi becomes dv’ and the summation in Eq, (6-147) can be written as an integral. We have afasd 0, (6-148) where Vis the volume of the loop or the linear medium in which J exists. This volume can be extended to include all space, since the inclusion of a region where J = 0 does not change W,. Equation (6~148) should be compared with the expression for the electric energy W, in Eq. (3-140), It is often desirable to express the magnetic energy in terms of field quantities Band H instead of current density J and vector potential A. Making use ofthe vector identity, Ve(Ax H)= (see Problem P.2~23), we have As(V x H)=H-(V x A)—V-(A x) (Vx A)—A-(V x H), AsS=H+B—V-(A x). (6-149)media, ‘ements ‘tional 6-146) Cc % 147) (6-148) volume eJ=0 sion for santities evegor (6-149) bh i" 6-12 / MAGNETIC ENERGY 245, Substitution of Ed. (§-14) in Eq, (6-148), we Obtain Wain mae i 1G. eta as (6-15 In Eq, (6-150) wehave applied the divergence theorem and Sis the surface bounding YI" is taken to be sufficiently larg, the points on its surface'S wil be very ne from the currents. Ak those faraway points, te contribution ofthe surace integral in Bg. (6-150) tendsto ze70 because [A] falls off as 1/R and [falls of os 1 an be seen from Eg (6-22) and (6-31) respectively. Thus, the magnitude ofA x Hy decreases as 1/R%, whereas at the same time, the surface § increases only as Rt ‘When R approaches tfinity,thesurftce integral in Eq (6-150) vanishes, We have tien [math wea vaste Noting that H = B/a, we can write Eq, (61514) in two alternative forms. jew ol] 0) (6-151) (6-151) and | Wm fp, ait? do’ o.| (6-151¢) The expressions in Bhs. (6-151a}, (6-151b), ard (6-I5ie) for the magnetic energy tain tinear mediuth are analogous to those of electrostatic energy Wz ins resp lively, Eqs. (3146a), (3-146b), and (3-146c), Ii we define a magnetic energy density, wa, such that its volume integ the total magnetic energy equals Wa = fi, im do’ We can write w, in thitee different forms: FH-Be (jm) (6-153) Me (jm) (6-153b) or . Wq = uel? (d/tm3) (6-153e) By using Eq, (6-142), we can often determine selfinductance more easly from Stored magnetic energy calculated in terms of B and/or H, than fom flux linkage6-13 246 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 We have (6-154) Example 6-17 By using stored magnetic energy, determine the inductance per unit length of an air coaxial transmission line that has a solid inner conductor of radius ‘and a very thin outer conductor of inner radius b, Solution: This is the same problem as that in Example 6~14, where the self-induc- tance was determined through a consideration of fux linkages. Refer again to Fig. 6-21. Assume a uniform current J flows in the inner conductor and returns in the outerconductor. The magnetic engrgy per unit length stored in the inner conductor is, from Eqs. (6~120) and (6-151), Lp Wr =5— | Bi, Qa dr sesh La a i wl Paes crm (6-155 ‘The magnetic energy per unit length stored in the region between the inner and outer conductors is, from Eq. (6-121) and (6~1516), We he [ Bh2nr ar ne bdrm tee nS im, 6-issb) Therefor, from Eq. (6-159), we have LAO + Wa) Hein? atm my (H/m), which is the same us Eq. (6-124), The procedure used in this solution is comparatively simpler. MAGNETIC FORCES AND TORQUES In Section 6-1 we noted that a charge q moving with a velocity uw in a magnetic field with flux density B experiences a magnetic force F, given by Eq, (6-4), which is repeated below: F, qxB (N), (6-156) | '~is4) unit tus a rduc- Fig nthe 1536) agnet hich is 6-156) 6-13 / MAGNETIC FORCES AND TORQUES 247 tf Let us consider an eléméat of conductor dé with xoseetona area, there are IN charge eaters petit volume moving wil velocly win he cetera, then the magnetic fore the diferent elent i Td, = Nasielu xB ; 4,Sj| dé 4 B, (6-157) Where q, is the charge bn eich charge cartier. THe two expressions in Eq, (6-157) are equivalent since u dhd dé have the same direction. Now, since Ng,S|u| equals the current in the condiletor, we can write Eq. (6-157) as 1 S [ar =1dexB (). (6-158) ‘The magnetic force on a complete (closed) circuit of contour C that carties a current Tin a magnetic field B id then [Fem ifdexB ON). (6-159) When we have two tireuts cairying currents [y and 1, respectively, the situation is that of one current-carrying circuit in the magnetic field of the other. In the presence of the magnetic field By,, which was caused by the current /, in Cy, the force ‘on cireuit C, can be written as : Fae tifa By, (6-160 where Bayi, fom the BiotSavart aw in Eq, (6-31), Hols £ des * apy, iG, a (6-160) ‘Combining Eqs. (6-1608) and (6-160), we obtain Or G Me tlle x ae.) 16a) aig G SAUX te) ay.) tsa) which is Ampére'slaw of force between two currentcartying circuits, It isan inverse- square relationship and should be compared with Coulomb's aw of force in Ea, 3-17) beoween two stationary charges, the latter being much the simpler ‘The force Fyn arcuit Cy, in the presence of the magnetic field set up by the curzent 1, in circuit C,, can be writen from Eq. (6-161a) by interchanging the subgeripts 1 and 2 Faw Mahg, f, He jee A (6-161)248 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 However, since déz x (dé, x ap,,) #.—d6, x (de; x ap,,), we inquire whether this means F, # —F,,—that is, whether Newton's thied law governing the forces of action and reaction fails here. Let us expand the vector triple product in the integrand of Eq. (6~161a) by the back-cab rule, Eq. (2-20). naslde + dé) Ry ‘Now the double closed line integral of the first term on the right side of Eq, (6-162) is 6.6, ses 41) =4,cerg, seat (6-162) peg, eer-(-0 gt) feehdh)ao. In Eq. (6-163) we have made use of Eq.(2-81) and the relation ¥4(1/Ry1)= —ap,,/Ry The closed line integral (with identical upper and lower limits) of d(1/R,,) aroun circuit C, vanishes. Substituting Eq. (6~162) in Eq, (6~161a) and using Eq, (6163) ‘we get Farm Bp lilg, § 2a which obviously equals ~F,,, inasmuch as ag, third law holds here, as expected (6-164) Ap,,. It follows that Newton's Example 6-18 Determine the force per unit length between two infinitely long parallel conducting wires carrying currents I, and J; in the same direction, The wires are separated by a distance d. Solution: Let the wires lie'in the yz-plane and be parallel to the z-axis, as shown in Fig, 6-24, This problem is a straightforward application of Eq, (6~160a). Using Fz to denote the force per unit length on wire 2, we have Fir = hla, x By2), (6-165) where B,2, the magnetic flux density at wire 2, set up by the current [, in wire 1, is constant over wire 2, Because the wires are assumed to be infinitely long and cylin« drical symmetry exists, itis not necessary to use Eq, (6-160b) for the determination of By2. We apply Ampére'scircuital law, and write, from Eq, (6-11), Hols Ba= aor (6-166)ad 6-13 / MAGNETIC FORCES AND TORQUES 249 oh " rel rees 0 4 egrand : i 6-162) F 162) i8 Fig. 6-24 Force béween wo pale surentearying wires (Example 6-18) Substitution of Eq. (62166) in Ey, (6-165) yields 6-163) ‘ : Holita : Wa em) 6-167 F, Ind (Nim). (6-167) ea We see thatthe foree on wire 2 pulls it coward wire 1. Hence, the force between two ea wires carrying currents in the same direction is one of attraction unike the tone between two charges Bf the same polarity, which is one of repulsion), Iti via vs Prove that Fi; = Biz = ay(jigl:/,/2ed) and that the force between two wires (6-168) carrying currents in opposite directions is one of repulsion. etoa’s Let us now considera small circular lodp of radius b and carrying a current ina uniform magnetic Feld of fux density B. I is cotvenient to resolve Binvo tence Ponents B= B, + By, where B, and By are respectively, perpendicular and parallel yom to the plane of the loop. Asillustrated in Fig 6-25a, the porpendicular comporens y long tend to expand the op or contrast ithe decom fe oreo eB 7 ‘no net force to move tHe loop. The parallel component By produces an upward forse nown in «x x oo By x x i p (6-165) ft -\ Gos in ¥ : " ape - x. x x x « 0 (6-166) Fig, 6-25 A cirula loop in a uniform magnets fed B= B, + B,250 STATIC MAGNETIC FleLos / 6 4F, (out from the paper) on element dé, and a downward force (into the paper) 4dF; = —dF; on the symmetrically located element dé,, as shown in Fig Deb, Although the net force on the entire loop caused by By is also zero, a torque exist that tends to rotate the loop about the x-axis in such a'way as to align the magnetic feld (due to 1) withthe external By field, The differential torque produced by dF, and dF, is aT = a(dF) 2b sing (I df By sin 9)2b sin 8,216*By sin? 6 de, (6-168) where dF = |dF,| = |dF,| and dé = |de, the loop i hen T= fem saa, [sit 9 ap = a,1(ab?)B,, * (6-169) lde,| = 6 d6. The total torque acting on Ifthe definition of the magnetic dipole moment in Eq, (646s used, ial(ab?) = aS, where a, isa unit vector in the direction of the right thumb (normal tothe plane ofthe oop) as the fingers ofthe right hand follow the direction of the current, we can write Eq. (6-169) as mxB (N:m) (6-170) The vector B (instead of B)) is used in Eq. (6~170) because m x (B, + B) This is the torque that aligns the microscopic magnetic dipoles in magnetie materials and causes the materials to be magnetized by an applied magnetic field, It should be remembered that Eq. (6-170) does not hold if B is not uniform over the current- carrying loop. Example 6-19 _A rectangular loop in the xy-plane with sides b, and b, carrying a current / lis in a uniform magnetic field B = 2,8, + a,B, + 9,B,. Determine the force and torque on the loop. Solution: Resolving B into perpendicular and parallel components B, and By, we have B= a3, (6-171) By =a,8, 43,8, (6-171b) ‘Assuming the current flows in a clockwise direction, as shown in Fig, 6-26, we find ‘that the perpendicular component a,B, rests in forces 1b,B, on sides (1) and (3) and6-256. re exists ragnetic by dF, (6-168) sting of 109) (6-170) mx By. naterials ould be current- srying a the force SBywe ips (6-171a) 6-1 we find 4G) and Fig. 6-26 A reotangulae loop ina 1 uniform magnetic fel (Example 6-13), {orees 1b:B, on sides (2) and (4, all directed toward the center ofthe loop. The vector ‘sum of these four contracting forces is zero, and no torque is produced Zhe parallel combonent ofthe magnetic fix density, B,, produces the following forces on the four sides: Fy = bya, x (a8, +4,2,) 1By= —F3: Py = lby(—a,) « (a,B, + a,8,) (6-1 2B, = Fy, (6-172) ‘Again, the net force On the loop, F, + F; ‘result in a net torque'that can be comput F, and F, on sides (1) and (3), is 2+ Fy + Fg, is zero, However, these forces ted as follows, The torque T, , due to forces Ths = abo sB,; (6-173) the torque T4, due to forces F, and F, on sidé (2) and (4) is Tay = —2,15b,B, (6~173b) ‘The total torque on the rectangular loop is, thesi, TST + Tae Doybia8,—a8,) —(N-m), (6-174) ince the magnetic nioment ofthe loop is m ='~-a,fb,b,, the result in Eq, (6-174) Egcacty T= m % [aiB, + a,8,) = m x Bi Hendin spite ofthe fact that Eo, (6170) Was derived for a éireular loop, the torque forritula holds for a planar loop of any shape as long as it is located in a uniform magnetic field,8-13.1_ Forces and Torques in Terms of Stored Magnetic Energy Allcurtent-carrying conductors and circuits experience magnetic forces when situated to the netic field They are held in place only ifmechanical forces, equal and opposite to the magnetic forces, exist. Except for special symmetrical eases (such os the ence Boies se infinitely long, current-carrying, parallel conducting wires in Exarvele fine Shdetermining the magnetic forces between current-earying circuits by Ampére’s law of force is a tedious task. We now examine an alternative methog ct finding Magnetic forces and torques based on the principle of virtual displacement, The rinsble was used in Section 3-11.2to determine electrostatic forces between charged Fe stot Here consider two cass: firs, a system of circuits with eonstant magneve flux linkages; and, second, a system of circuits with constant eurtente sistem of Circuits with Constant Flux Linkages If we assume that no changes in ux linkages result from a virtual diferental displacement dé of one of the exrene Te eae creults, there willbe no induced emis and the sources will supply no energy ia the aystem. The mechanical work, Fe dé, done by the systems st the eaperce i of a decrease in the stored magnetic energy, where Fe denotes the force und-r the constant flux condition, Thus, : Fo: de = ~dW, = (VW) de, (6-175) i from which we obtain 252 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 | t Wy (N) (6-176) In Cartesian coordinates, the component forces are (a), = Be (6-174 (Fel, = te aw, Jf ithe circuit is constrained to rotate about an axis, say the z-axis, the mechanical work done by the system will be (Td and (N-m), (6-178) + Which is the component of the torque aeting on the circuit under the condition i (6-177) ay = Be. (6-179 1 of constant fax linkages. |tuated >spositd 1e cas camblé apire's inding This sarge sgnetit srrent- anergy sense ce 76) mir dition Fig. 6-27 An elfetromagnet (Example 6:20), ? Example 6-20 Cotitider the electromagnet in Fig. 6-27 where a current in an tum coil produces a flux «b in the magnette circuit. The cross-se the core is S. Determine the lifting force on the armature Solution: Let the atmature take a virtual displacement dy (a differential increase in y) and the source,be adjusted to keep the flux constant. A displacement of the armature changes oly the length of the air gups; consequently, the displacement changes only the magnetic energy stored in the two air gaps. We have. irom Eq (6-151b), j B 1 dy = dag = 2(2- shay, 20) oa (6-179) ‘An increase in the aif-gap length (a positive dy) increases the stored magnetic energy if © is constant. Using Eq, (6-177), we obtain o HS Here the negative sign indicates thatthe force tends to reduce the airgap length: that iit sa force of attraction. = = alo), ow, (6-180) System of Cette wlth Constant Currents In this ease the ctcuits are connected to current sources that ‘counteract the induced emf's resulting from changes in flux linkages that are calised by a virtual displacement dé. The work done of energy ‘supplied by the sourtes is (see Eq. 6-144), aw, =F 1de,, (6-181)254 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 This energy must be equal to the sum of the mechanical work done by the:system - dW (div = Fi de, where F, denotes the force on the displaced cent nade sen That Vent condition) and the increase in the stored magnetic energy. dV, That is aW, = dW + dW, (6-182) From Eq. (6-145), we have ait, =45 1,40, = 4407, (6-183) Equations (6-182) and (6-183) combine to give Wem F,- de = dW, _ (VW) + dé reVie ON] | (6-184) hich differs from the expression for Fin Eq, (6-176). only by a sign change. Ifthe soa oo Geetained to rotate about the z-axis, the z-component of the torque acting on the circuit is (T)= SE Nm) (6-185) {Uns dilfeence between the expression above and (Ta). in Eq, (6178) i, again, only inthe ita It must be understood that, despite the dilference inthe sign, Ba (62170) 3nd (6-178) should yield the same answers to a given problem as do Eas (6-184 of solving the same problem, gt us solve the electromagnet problem in Example 6-20 assuming a virtual displacement under the constat-current condition, For his purpose, we signe in terms of the current f= wy, ir, (6-186) [nete Lis the selfinductance ofthe coil. The flux, , inthe electromagnet is obtained by dividing the applied magnetomotive force (N1) by the sum of the relustonce of the core (@) and that of the two air gaps (2)/49$) Thus, Mt Oa aS (6-187) 63-182) 5-183) cement means virtual ress Wy (6-186) a Twain anee,"* (6-189) 6-18 {,MAQNETIC FORCES AND TORQUES 255 joa bho et ait Inductance L is equ tux inkage per ynicurrent. ‘ : Ne 6-18) ; T RFD : cnet eas ns ed em meme Fea Dae ry PET ay SBF TS, 2 =-ag (6-189) which is exactly the hame ts the Fin Eq, (6-180). . 612.2 Forces and Torques in Terms of Mutual inductance 7 The method of virtual displacement for cohstant currents provides a powerful technique for detettnining the forces and torques between rigid current-car circuits. For two cltcuits with currents , and /,, selfinductances L, and L,, ‘mutual inductance L, ,, the magnetic energy is, from Eq, (6-140), ind We = ALE + Lialile + Hal (6-190) fone ofthe circuit is given a virtual displacement under the condition of constant currents, there would be a change in Wy and Eq. (6-184) applies. Substation of Eq. (6-190) in Ea, (6-18) yields FLL) (N). (6-191) Similarly, we obtain from Eq, (6-185), (Nm) (6-192) Example 6-21 Determine the force between two coaxial circular coils of radii by and b; separated by a distance d whieh is much karger than the radi (d > by, by) The eoils consist of Ny and NW, closely wound turns and carry currents /, and 1, respectively, Soluion: “This problem is rather a difficult one if we try to solve it with Ampéce’s law of force, as expressed in Eq. (6~1614). Therefore we will base our solution on Eq, (6-191), First, we determine the mutual inductance between the two coils. InFig. 6-28 Coaxial currenteazrying t sircla loops (Example 6-21). — Example 6-7 we found, in Eq, (6~4: Was caused by a single-turn circular for this problem, at the point P on with NV, turns as follows: Aas 3) the.vector potential at a distant point, which loop cerrying a current J. Referring to Fig, 6-28 coll 2 we have A, due to current I, in coil 1 3, a ng HoN 1,03 (6, 0 aR AR, HoN iI sbiby oat bye (6-193) tn Fa. (6-193), , instead of d, is used because we anticipate a virtual displacement, Gade isto be kept as a variable forthe time being. Using Eq, (6-193) in Eq. (6-24), ‘we find the mutual flix, Bim, Aizdtsm IP Avsbadd ‘The mutual inductance is then, from Liz = Nabe (6-194) Eq. (6-111), _ oN wN yeb3b3 “IES yr ). (6-195) REVIE193) ment, 5-24), i REVIEW QUESTIONS 257 nyoM Qn coll 2, the fote¢ dué to the magnetic field of toil | can now be obtained directly fy substituting EY; (6-195) in Eg (6-191) db, : Paar Mo ayy Mat Nenbtons lene 20 + oF” which can be writell ag : xg Homms age (6-196) where (d? + 63) Has. been replaced approximately by d?, and m, and m, are the ‘magnitudes ofthe magtetic moments of cols | ad 2 respectively Nilinb}, mz = Nylanb} Teg neeative sign in Eq, (6-196) indicates that Fi force of attraction for currents Rowing in the same direction. This foree diminishes very rapidly as the vere tear Power of the distance of separation, REVIEW QUESTIONS aan at thexPretsion for the free on atest charge 4 that moves with veloc w in ‘magnetic field of ux density B . R6-2 Verify that tesla (P, the unit for magnetic tax density, square meter (V-s/ni?) is the same as vole-sesond per R6-3. Write Lorentz’s force eyuation, R64 Which posulae oF magnetostatis denies the existence of slated magnetic charges? R6-S State the law of cdnservation of magnetic flux R6-6 State Ampére’s citeuital law. BT In applying Ampéte' circuit law must the path of integration be cise? Explain RE Why cannot the Bred of a infnitely fon, straight, curren-catying conductor have 4 component in the direction ofthe eursent? and (6-11) for 4 round conéuctor, Saquare cross section of the sume area and carsying the same R69 Do the fori for B, ds dried in Eas (6-10) apply to a conduetor having current? Explains ~~ Ro-i0 tn what maths does he Bled of an intnitely long straight filament carrying a direct current I vary with distance? R6-11 Can Bufeld exist ln a good conductor? Explain, R612 Define in words véctor magnetic potential ‘A. What is its St unit?s . . 258 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / € R.6-13 What is the relation between magnetic ux density B and vector magnetic potential ‘A? Give an example of situation where B is zero and A is not. R.6-14 What isthe relation between vector magnetic potential A and the magnetic ux through 2 given area? R615 State Biot-Savatt’s law, R616 Compare the usefulness of Ampére's circuital law and Biot B of a current-carrying circuit. wvart’s law in determining RO-AT What is a magnetic dipole? Define magnetic dipole moment. R6-I8 Define scalar magnetic potential Vp, What is its SI unit? 6-9 Discuss the relative merits of using the vector and scalar magnetic potentials in mage 6-20 Define magnetization vector. What is its SI unit? R621 What is meant by “equivalent magnetization current densities"? What are the SI units for Vx Mand M x a,? 6-22 Define magnetic feld intensity vector, What i its SL u R6-23 Define magnetic suscepibility and relaise permeability, What are their SI units? R6-24 Does the magnetic field intensity due to a curreat distribution depend on the properties ‘ofthe medium? Does the magnetic fux density? 6-25 Define magnetomotive force. What is its SI unit? R6-26 What isthe reluctance ofa piece of magnetic material of permeability y, length ¢, and constant cross section $ What i its SI unit? 6-27 An air gap is cut in a ferromagnetic toroidal core. The core is excited with an mmf of [NI ampere-turn. Is the magnetic field intensity in the air gap higher or lower than that in the 6-28 Define diamagnetic. paramagnetic, and ferromagnetic materials 6-29 What is a magnetic domain’? 6-30 Define remanent Fux density and coercive field intensity. 6-31 Discuss the difference between soft and hard ferromagnetic materials, 6-32 What is curie temperature? 6-33 What are the characteristics of ferrites? R.6-34 What are the boundary conditions for magnetostatic fields at an interface between two diferent magnetic media? R.6-35 Explain why magnetic fux lines leave perpendicularly the surface of a ferromagnetic medium. at PROBLEW Pepotential ‘lbrough ermining in mage 2 SI units wh fond a mmf of atin the magnetic ‘PROBLEMS 259, R36 What boundary.condion must the tangintal components of magnetistion satisy “he tanger i rtion2 it nonmagnctic what isthe relation between the swrnee arent {he tangential eompone of Mi? cian to) aul jndutancebetwécn two circuits, and (the elFinductance ofa Siglo ie RE 3 Explain how the selnductane ofa wirbndund indactor depends on saunter ot os ' 6-39 Ja Example 6-ff, wold the answer be ine same i the outer conductor ig not “very thin"? Explain R.6-40 Give an expression of magnetic energy in terms of B and/or H. RAI Give the integral expresion for the force on a closed cieut that c in 4 magnetic field B. a current R642 Discus frst the net force and then the he net toque acting on a current-carrying eievit situated in a uniform magnet field czars the rlatlon between the free and the sored magnetic eneey in a 9 Seagateartying circuits under the condition of constant flux linkages? Underthe conan m of PROBLEMS teen went point charge of mas mis injected witha veloc ay = ay in the y>0 Chae ant itor tanetc Held B= 2,8, exists: Obtain the equstonnad neon ore ‘charge, and deseribe the path thatthe charge follows, Feld Bann SSot20 inj wih velocity uy = agi ato a reion where both an eletrie ‘eld E and a magnetic ld B exist. Desribe the motion ofthe elcncn i a) E~ a,£, and B= 0,8, b) E= ~a,£, and B= ~ 9,2, Discus the eet ofthe rluive magnitudes of and By on the elsccon paths ofa) and (o or A cureen Nows i he over conto fan unity ong evi in and returns via sagt clue, The ius of the ine condason ad th incr nd ae ag POL Bl eo AF baal ecexpectivey. Wine magnetic Max deusty I forall ere and plot /B versus\ 260° STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 : 6-5 Starting from the expression for vector magnetic potential A in Eq, (6-22) prove that divas fo fey (6-199 Furthermore prove that P66 Two identical coaxial coils, each of N turns and radius b, are separated by a distance d, as depicted in Fig. 6-29. A current I flows in each col in the same direction, 4) Find the magnetic ux density B= a,8, at @ point midway between the coils. ) Show that dB,/de vanishes at the midpoint. ©) Find the relation between b and d such that d#B,/ds* also vanishes at the midpoint. Such a pair of evils are wed to obtain an approximately uniform magnetic feld in the midpoint region. They are known as Helos coils, { Fig.6-29 Heimhot cis (Problems P.6) VP.6~1 A thin conducting wite is bent into the shape ofa regular polygon of N sides. A current 4 flows in the wire. Show that the magnetic ux density atthe center is WNT Be where b i the radius of the circie circumscribing the polygon and a, isa unit vector normal to the plane of the polygon. Show also that as NV becomes very large this result reduces to that siven in Eq. (6-38) with 2 = 0. P.6-8 Find the total magnetic flux through a cicular toroid with a rectangular cross section cof height. The inner and outer radii of the toroid are w and b respectively. A current [ flows in N turns of closely wound wire around the toroid, Determine the percentage of erot ifthe fox is found by multiplying the cross-sectional area by the Mux density at the mean radius. P.6-9 In certain experiments itis desirable to have. region of constant magnetic fx density, ‘Thisean be created inan off-center cylindrical cavity thatiscut ina very long eylindrical conductortance idpoint. idpoint \curcent cormal 10 510 that 4 I> wd tor sete a density, -onductor PROBLEMS 261 Fig. 6-30 Cross section of fong sylindrieal condubtor with cavity (Problem P.6-9), carrying a uniform curredt density. Refer to the cross section in Fig. 6-30. The uniform axiat armani” ae Find ine magnitude nd ireetion of Win he eylindicl cons wn positon sed iat that ofthe conducting part by adiane din: Use prince ote Pein mal Consider B in the cavity as that due to tw long cylindrical conducien we nnn, ‘and a and current densities J/and ~J cespectvely) P.6-10 Prove the following: 2 M Cartesian coordinates ure used, Fa, (6-17) ae the Laplacian of» 1) Weylindiel coordinates are sed, VFA pa, Vib a, esto lol holds Agha VPA, POLL The magnetic fuk density B for an infinitely ogi 6-1. Detemige the vector magnetic potential A both inskdeao made fom the relation I= Vin A. Pebai2 Stating from the snpresion o Ain Ey (6-34) forthe vector magaetic potential at a ‘point in the bisecting pial ofa straight wire of lngih 2L that carries s eres © Find 8 from A in part (and check your answer agains te eon bee Ampére'scireuital lav, Fig. 6-31 Parallel wires eareying ‘equal and opposite currents (Problem P.6-13,262 STATIC MAGNETIC FIELDS / 6 6-13 For the small rectangular loop with sides @ and b that caries a current /, showin in Fig, 6-32: 4) Find the vector magnetic potential A at a distance point, P(x 2). Show that it can be putin the form of Eq. (6-45), 1 Determine the magnetic fx deity B from A, and show that itis the same as that given in Eq, (6-48), Fig. 6-32 small ectangular loop carrying current / (Problem P.6-13) 6-14 Fora wetor Bld F wth ominous drvaies pon that Lxnin Gres, where S is the surface enclosing the volume V: (Hint: Apply the divergence theorem to(A x C), where Cis a constant vector) P.6-15 A circular rod of magnetic material with permeability jis inserted coaxially in the long solenoid of Fig. 6~4. The radius ofthe rod, , is less than the inner radius, b of the solenoid. The solenoia's winding has » turns per unit length and carries a current J 1) Find the values of B, H, and M inside the solenoid for r 1, determine the magnetic fux ensity Bat theoint Pin Fig 6-36. * tnd these cuftents are i) the magnetic oA) A 4 FenGagenidmanie TT 6-36 A curnmtcarrying conductor Fethnent in tara ferromagnetic medium (Probiem P.6-25}. 6-26 Determine the #lliuctance of a toroidal col of turns of wite wound on en ais frame with mean radius, anda citcular cross section of radius b. Obtain an approaimate on Pression assuming b « P.6-27 Refer to Example 6-I4. Determine the inductance per unit length of the air ‘wansmission line assumig that is outer conductor is ot very thin but a ¥ P.6-28 Calculate the intdtnal and exter line consisting of two fofig parallel ivections. The wires are eparated thickets ol inductances pr urit length of wo-wittsamision conducting wires of rads a that cary sues ncrponen yan aniston dance d which smash arp hen YP.6-29 Determine the ata) inde tance between a very long straight wire and a conducting ‘equilateral triangular lodp, as shown, Fig. 6-37. long straight wire and a conducting equilateral ‘tiangular loop (Problem 6-29)ae Y ve J b Fig. 6-38 A long straight wire and a conducting circular loop (Problem P.6-10), P.6-30 Determine the mutual inductance between a very long straight wire and a conducting circular loop, as shown in Fig. 6-38. P.6-31 Find the mutual inductance between two coplanar rectangulartoops with parallel sies, 8 shown in Fig. 6-39. Assume that ty > hy > ws > dl} 266 STATIC MAGNETIC FleLoS / 6 | | Fig. 6-39 Two coplanar rectangular loops, be] |i, > li (Problem P6-31), re ~ P.6-32 Consider two coupled cteuits, having selfinductances Ly and Ly, that carry curents 1, and f, respectively, The mutual inductance between the cruise Mf, 1) Using Eq. (6-140), find the ratio Jy/ly that makes the stored magnetic enersy Wy a “s) Show that Ms JED at ‘P.6-33 Calculate the force per unit length on each of three equidistant, infinitely long, parallel t Wires 0.15 (m) apart, each carrying a current of 25 (A) in the seme direction. Specify the direction L ofthe force. V P.6-34 The cross section ofa lon Equal and opposite evrrents 1 fi conductors 8 thin metal strip and a paralet wire is shown in Fig, 640, low in the conductors. Find the force per unit length on theducting sy tha PROBLEMS 267 Fibs crossecionst | = patel scip ana wie bot Codauctr (Problem P.6-34). P.6-36 Assuming the cela | an angle a find the torque exer P.6-37 A small circular lurn of wire of radius iy the same apg mush lard turn of wire of radius a (5 r) that enti a steady coreee hoe {be same direction. The aigle between the normais ofthe two vitals e Yanda ny wits is fee to turn about its diameter. Determine the me ‘othe smal ire wire ne (g magnetized compass nese will ine up wil the eats magnetic itd, A snl magnet ( noment 2 (A-m*) is placed at a distance O15 | the earth's magnetic Bux density atthe needle h the bar magnet-can cause the needle to deviate the bar magnet be oriented? loop in Problem P.6~38 is rotated about its hor zontal axis by red om the cecal foop, that cacies a steady current 1, is placed as uitade and the direction of the torque ree stata me length of the xpath neon forthe electromagnet in Fig 6-27 and the yoe-bar contact ‘areas measure 0.01 (m"), Assuming the permeability of iron to be Toot 28 Ofte al gps tobe 2 (mm, exouate the mmf need e ita 100 kg). Fig. 6-1 long sotenoid with iron core Dattially drawn (Problem P.6~). P.6-40 A current | foi ‘The crasssectional area acting on the COreitit is withdrawn to the in a tong solenoid with n closely wound coilturns per unit length Of its iron core, which has permeability us '8 S, Determine the force Position shown in Fig, 6-41.7 / Time-Varying Fields and Maxwell’s Equations INTRODUCTION In constructing the electrostatic model, we defined an electric ater E. and an electric flux density (electric displacement) vector, £ governing differential equations are veD=p. (3-93) For linear and isotropic (not necessarily homogeneous) media, E and D are related by the constitutive relation D=eck, 3-97) For the magnetostatic model, we defined a magnetic flux density vector, B, and & magnetic field intensity vector, H. The fundamental governing differential equations are V-B=0 (6-6) VxUas. (6-68) ‘The constitutive relation for Band H in linear and isotropic media is (6-72) K ‘These fundamental relations are summarized in Table 7=1 We observe that, in the static (non-time-varying) cas, electric fed vectors E and D and magnetic field vectors B and H form separate and independent pairs. In other words, Eand D in the electrostatic model are not related to B and M in the magneto- static model. In a conducting medium. static electric and magnetic fields may both exist and form an electromagnetostatic eld (se the statement following Example 3-3 on p. 187). A static electric field in a conducting medium causes a steady current t0 flow that, in turn, gives rise to a static magnetic field, However, the electric field can bbe completely determined from the static electric charges or potential distributions 2684 ral ‘Table 7-1 Fundamental Relations for Electrostatic and * Maanetositic Models Fein Electrostatic Magnetostatic lations Model Model VxE=0 VeDep | Constituilve Relations Vv-B=0 Governing equations ‘The magnetic field is:a conses quence; it does not enter into the calculation of the electric field, y vector, fumental {n this chapter we will see that a changing magnetic fi | und vice versa’,To explain electromagnetic phenot eonditions, its necessary id gives rise 10 an electric mena under time-varying 'Y €0 construct an electromagnetic model in which the electric field vectors E and Di are properly related to the magnetic field vectors B and H The two pairs of the governing equations in Table 7-1 must therefore be mouified te show a mutual depenience between the Co Ge) letrie and magnetic field vectors in the o related time-varying ease ‘We will beyin with a fanlamental postulate that modifies the V E equation in 6-97) Table 7-1 and teads to Faraday’ law of electromegnatic induction. The concepts st Ae transformer emf and sotional emf will be discussed. With the new postulate ne wll *. B, anc also need to modify the V x H equation in order to make the governing equations -auations consistent withthe equation of continuity law of conservation of charge) The two modified curl equatiohs together with the two divergence equations ie Table) 1 6-6) are known as Maxwell's equations and form the foundation of electromagnetic (6-68) ostaties and magnetostaties are sp tities are independent of time, Maxwell's forms of Maxwell's equations when all quan equations can be combined to yield wave equations that predict the wines of clectromagnetic waves propagating with tne velocity of light The solutions ofthe ‘wave equations, especially for time-harmonic fields, will be discussed in this chapter. ss Band "7-2 FARADAY'S LAW OF was ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION smagae'n- ‘A major advance in electromagnetic theory was made by Michael Faraday who, in myia i 1831, discovered expetimenally that a current Was induced in a conducting toon ple 5-3 when the magnetic fox linking the loop changed.’ The quantitative telstenshee curren to ; >feldean = sibutions. " These is evidence that Josepha Henry independently made similar discoveries ebout the sam time270 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND-MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7. between the induced emfand the rate of change of flux linkage, based on experimental observation, is known as Faraday’s law. It is an experimental law and can be con- sidered as a postulate, However, we do not take the experimental relation concerning a finite loop as the starting point for developing the theory of electromagnetic induc tion. Instead, we follow our approach in Chapter 3 for electrostatics and in Chapter 6 for magnetostaties by putting forth the following fundamental postulate and devel oping from it the integral forms of Faraday’s law. Fundamental Postulate for Flectromagnetic | oy Equation (7~1) expresses a point-finetion relationships that is it applies to every Point in space, whether it he in free space or ina material medium. The electre field intensity in a region of time-varying magnetic flax density is therefore nonemsereative and cannot he expressed as the gradient ofa sear porentia Taking the surface integral of both sides of Eq. (7-1) over an open surface and applying Stokes's theorem, we obtain gees (7-2) Equation (7-2) is valid for any surface $ with a bounding contour C, whether or not ‘a physical circuit exists around C, Ofcourse, in a field with no time variation, 0B/c 0, Eqs. (7-1) and (7-2) reduce, respectively, to Eqs. (3-5) and (3-8) for electrostatics, In the following subsections we discuss separately the cases ofa stationary circuit in a time-varying magnetic field, a moving conductor in a statie magnetic field, and ‘4 moving circuit in a time-varying magnetic fel. 7-21 A Stationary Circuit in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field For a stationary circuit with a contour C and surface S, Eq. (7-2) can be written as Ge dee 2 fous, (3) If we define vaguecue smf induced in circuit with contour C (V). (7-4) Saomental cerning induct capter 6 tH devele a) o every states. y ereuit veld, and rittep-as” t 4) and 1 =f B- ds= magnetic ux crosting surface $ (Wb); 7-3) thén Ea. (7-3) beeomeg 7-6) Equation (7-6) stats that she electromotive force induced in a stationary closed circuit is equal to the negative rate of increase of the magnetic flu linking the circuit. Ths is statement of Furaday’s luv of electromayp change in the linking magnetic flux. 's law. The emt induced ina stationary loop caused by a time-varying magnetic eld isa transformer eng Example 7-1 A circular lop of WN turns of conducting wire lies in the xjeplane wafinits center at the origin ofa magnetic field specfed by B = 2,8, cos (ar 2b) om on ‘here b is the radius of the loop and w is the angular frequency, Find the emt indeced in the loop. Solution: The problem specifies a Stationary loop in a time-varying magnetic field; ence Ea, (7-6) can be used directly to find the Induced emi, 7° The magnetic Ay linking each turn of the circular loop is = [Beas = Lilt. Sonor]: FER 1) Boia ott Since there are NV turns the total fux linkage is N®, and we obtain EN Bag 1) ag cos ™.272 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 eo © © © 2 Hew ° e}}o © ie 1 Fig.7-1_ A conducting bar moving ® 7 os n'a magnetic field, 7-2.2 A Moving Conductor in a Static Magnetic field When a conductor moves with“a velocity u in a static (non-time-varying) magnetic field B as shown in Fig. 7-1, a force F., = qu x B will cause the freely movable electrons in the conductor to drift toward one end of the conductor and leave the other end positively charged. This separation of the positive and negative chiarzes creates a Coulombian force of attraction. The charge-sepatiition process continties Uuntl the electric and magnet Forces balance each other anal t state oCequilieitin is cached. At equilibrium, which is reached very rapidly, the net foree on the free cha in the moving conductor is zero. To an observer moving with the conductor, there is no apparent motion and the magnetic force per unit charge F,/q =u x B can be interpreted as an induced clectrie field acting along the conductor and producing a voltage Yar = JP wx B)-ae. o-7 Ifthe moving conductor is a part of a closed circuit C, then the emf generated around tecran fiexs-c oy 0-8 | Re This is referred fo as a flux-cutting emf, or a motional emf. Obviously only the part of the circuit that moves in a direction not parallel to (and hence, figuratively, “cutting”) the magnetic flux will contribute to ¥” in Eq. (7-8), Example 7-2 A metal bar slides over a pair of conducting rails ina uniform magnetic field B= a, with a constant velocity u, as shown in Fig. 7-2. (a) Determine the open-circuit voltage Vp that appears across terminals 1 and 2. (b) Assuming that a resistance R is connected between the terminals, find the electric power dissipated in R.(c) Show that this electric power is equal to the mechanical power required to ‘move the sliding bar with a velocity u. Neglect the electric resistance of the metal bar and of the conducting rails. Neglect also the mechanical friction at the contact points | | t ~) magnetic y movable J leave the ve charges + copues rece! “ges. on and the » induced a) ted around 0-8) ly-the part iguratively, mm tic ermine, the ning "Sa dissipated required to emetal bar tact points. 7-8 | FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 273. Fig. 7-2 A metal bar slicing over ‘conducting rails (Example 7-2). Solution ) The moving bar generates a flux-cutting emf. We use Eq, (7 ~8) to find the opens circuit voltage Vp Y=G wx Bde (au x 2,84) (a, de) =uByh —(V), 7-9) b) When a resistance 2 is connected between terminals t aad 2acurre Blt R wil low from tetminal 2 to terminal {, so that the electric power, P., dissipated in Ris Pox a= bet FR ow) (7-10) ©) The mechanical power, P,, required to move the sliding bar is Pa=Feu (Wy -ty Where F is the mechanical force requited to counteract the magnetic force, Fy, which the magnetic field exerts on the current-carrying metal ber. From Eq (6-159) we have 1 ff dex B= —atBh (nN) 7-13) The negative sign in Eq. (7-12) arises because current / flows in a direction ‘opposite to that of dé, Hence, a,uBin'/R — (N), (7-13) Substitution-of Eg, (7-213) in Eqs (7-11) Proves P,, = P.. which upholds the principle of conservation of energy. Example 7-3 The Faraday disk generator consists of with a constant angular velocity w in a uniform and eonstant mage! density B = a,B, a circular metal disk rotating ‘ae field of lux that is parallel to the axis of rotation. Brush contacts are provided274 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS / 7 Fig. 7-3. Faraday disk generator (Example 7-3) a the axis and on the rim of the'dsk, as depicted in Fig. 7-3. Determine the open- Circuit voltage of the generator if the radius of the disk is b Solution: Let us consider the circuit 122341'1. Ofthe part 234 that moves with the ‘isk, only the straight portion 34 “cuts” the magnetic flux. Wa have, from Eq, (7-8), Yea fux wae = [P agro) x 2,86) (a, dr) 0 Bb? ‘ = 0B, f rare OM, (7-14) which is the emf of the Faraday disk generator. To mea: meter of a very high resistance so that no apprecia to modify the externally applied magnetic fel ire Vp we Must use a volt- le current flows in the circuit 7-2.8 A Moving Circuit in a Time-Varying Magnetic Field ‘i When a charge q méves with a velocity w in a region where both an electric field E ia, 2 Magnetic Held I exist, the electromagnetic force F on q, as measured by a {Rbotatory observer, is given by Lorentz’s force equation, Eq, (65), which is repeated below: FeqE+ux By, 7-15) Eo an observer moving with 4, there is no apparent motion, and the force on q can be interpreted as caused by an electric field E’, where EsE+uxs 7-16) or E=E—uxB, 7-17)1-3) open with the 2-8), 7-14) cavolt e circuit field E sed by a repeated os on g can 7-19, ‘ 17) mea ff 7-4 / FARADAY'S LAW OF ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 275 { te {Henee, when a conducting circuit with contouf Cand surface S moves with velocity tin a eld (EB), we-use Eq (7-17) in Eq, (7-2) to obtain 3B Gerdes [Bsa § wx y-ae | 0-19 Equation (7-18) is tHe general form of Faradaj’s law for a moving circuit in a time- varying magnetic field. The line integral on the left side is the emf induced in tae het us consider i circuit with contour C that moves from C, at time to C, at cti¢ ficld B. The motion may include translation, rary mannet. Figure 7-4 illustrates the situation tic flux through the contour is t 7 small Bes 9 d,~ f 30 -a| 7-19) B(c + 41) in Eq. (7-19) can be expanded as a Taylor's series Be +A) Bo + Bars nor, (7-20) Sars ie high-order terms (H.O.T) contain the second and higher powers of (A Substitution of Eq. (7~20) in Eq, (719) yields a [eB GiB d= [Boas in + tie a[ Lean fas + Hor] (7-21 Fig. 7-4 A moving circuit in & ‘ime-varying magnetic field,276 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS / 7 where B has been written for B(d) for simplicity. In going from C, to C,, the circuit ‘covers a region that is bounded by S,, S,, and Sy Side surface Sy isthe area swept out by the contour in time-Av. An element of the side surface is dsy = de x wat (7-22) We now apply the divergence theorem for B at time ¢ to the region sketched in Fig. 1-4 JV Bion [Bods — [Bide f Boas, (7-23) where a negative sign is included in the term involving ds, because outward normals ‘must be used in the divergence theorem, Using Eq. (7-22) in Eq. (7-23) and noting that V+ B= 0, we have {Beds [. Bods, = —ar (wx By -ae (7-24) Combining Eqs, (7-21) and (7-24) we obtain a 7B ff Be [Ps ef cw x Bye (7-25) GiB [pods ef we By ee 7 which can be identified as the negative ofthe right side of Eq, (7-18). If we designate 5 rage Eq, (7-18) can be written simply as 46 = emf induced in circuit C measured in the moving frame (7-26) which is of the same form as Eq. (7-6). Of course, if a circuit is not in motion, ¥”° reduces to ¥' and Eqs, (7-27) and (7-6) are exactly the same. Hence, Faraday’s law that the emf induced in a closed circuit equals the negative time-rate of increase of the magnetic flux linking a circuit applies to a stationary circuit as well as 2 moving ‘one. Either Eq. (7—18) or Eq. (7-27) can be used to evaluate the induced emf in the general case. Ifa high-impedance voltmeter is inserted in a conducting circuit, it will read the open-circuit voltage due to electromagnetic induction whether the circuit is stationary or moving, We have mentioned that the division of the induced emf in Eg, (7-18) into transformer and motional ems is not unique, but their sum is always qual to that computed by using Eq. (7-27) In Example 7-2 (Fig. 7-2), we determined the open-circuit voltage Vp by using Eq, (7-8). If we use Eq. (7-27), we have © = [B+ ds = Bolhut)circuit swept (7-22) in Fig. (7-23) ormals noting (7-24) 2) ion, 1ystaw reise of moving afin the wit ‘etn sal, sy using and gh (V), Which i the tn in. 9), Similar or the Fariay disk generator in Ex linking the circuit. 122'341/1 is that which passes th yur. imple 7-3, the magnetic lux ough the wedge-shaped area Om fied a [rap ar and | Which is the same as Eg. (714), Example 7-4 An i by w rectangular conducting loop is situated in a ch ‘magnetic field B= a,By sin oot. The normal of the with a,, as shown in Fig, 7-5, Find the induced emf: at rest, and (b) when the loop rotates with an angulat Joop initially makes an angle x in the loop: (x) when the loop is i Velocity « about the x-axis.‘TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 Solution 3) When the loop is at rest, we use Eq. (7-6), = fads (2, By sin et) + (a,h) = Bohw sin at cos a. Therefore (7-28) where $ = hw is the area oft as indicated, Ifthe circuit is current that will oppose the change in th. ») When the loop rotates about the x-axis, both terms the first term contributes the transf term contributes a motional emf y the loop. The relative ompleted throu; polarities of the terminals are igh an external load, ¥, will produce in Eq, (7~18) contribute: former emf ¥', in Eq, (7-28), and the second ‘where ving ox Bae = L[(~ $e) xp, si on} a. +f [( ~8 Fe) x za sin on] (ads) = 2($0 sin asin jh Note thatthe sides 23 and 41 do not contibute to ¥; and that the contributions Ot sidss 12 and 34 are of equal magnitude and inthe same direction Ie ee = 0, then # = ct, and we can write + = BySw sin wt sin wt (7-29) fetal emf induced or generated in the rotating loop is the sum of Yin Eq. (7-28) and ¥’, in Eq, (7-29) Yim ~BoSec0s? ont ~ sin? w) = —BySw c0s 20t, (7-30) which has an angular frequency 2ep, We can determine the total induced emf 7 by apy plying Eq. (7-27) directly, ‘At any time ¢, the magnetic fux linking the loop is (0) = BO) - [a(S] = ByS sin wt cos « ~ BoS sin wt cOs oot = $B9S sin 2eot.(7-28) nals are produce stribute: second ‘butions Oat (7-29) of % in aw dire. 7-3 / MAXWELL's EQUATIONS 279 Hence : ap : “EG BS sin 2a) : BySw cos Bor , 2s blo 7-3. MAXWELL’S Equations : The fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction assures us that a times Yarying magnetic fdld gives rise to an electric field. This assuranee has been emply verified by numerous experiments. The Vx E=0 equation in Table 1-1 may therefore be replacel by Eq. (7-1) inthe time-varying case. Following are the revised set of two curl and two divergence equations from Table 7-1. VxE=—S a or Vxil=s (7-31) V-D=p V-B=0, 1d) In addition, we know that the principle of conservation of charge must be satisied At all times. The mathematical expression of charge conservation is the equation of ‘ontinuity, Eq, (5: 30), whieh is repeatedt below. op Vesa -2 (7-33) The crucial question here is whether the set of four equations in (7~31a, b,c, and d) are now consistent with the requirement specified by Eq. (7-32) in a time-varying situation, That the answer is in the negative is immediately obvious by simply taking the divergence of Eq, (7-316), Ve(v x H) ves, 7-33 which follows fom the nil dentity, Eq (2-137). Weare reminded that the divergence of the cui-of- anf well-behaved vector field fk 2010, Since Eq. (7-32) asserts V+ J does not vanish if a’time-varying situation, bi (7-33) is, in general, not true. How should Eqs. (7—31a, b, ¢, and d) be modified so that they are consistent with Eq, (7-32)? First ofall, a term p/6t must be added to the right side of Eq, (7-33) vidoe (7-34) vv x A)280 TIME-VARYING FIELOS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 Using Eq, (7-31c) in Eq. (7-34), we have Voxiyav-(142) (7-35) ‘which implies (7-36) Equation (7-36) indicates that a time-varying electric field will give rise to.a magnetic field, even in the absence of a current flow. The additional term aD/ét is necessary in order to make Eq, (7-36) consistent with the principle of conservation of charge Wis casy to verify that 2D/ét ha the dimension ofa current density (SI unit: A The term cD/ér is called displacement current density, and its introduction in the ¥ x H equation was one of the major contributions of James Clerk Mavwell (1831-1879), In order to be consistent with the equation of continuity in ‘a time ‘varying situation, both of the curl equations in Table 7-1 must-be generalized. The ct of four consistent equations to replace the inconsistent equations, Eqs. {7 31a, b.eand d), are 8 (7-37) (7-376) (7-319 (7-374) They are known as Maxwell's equations. These four equations, together with the fauation of continuity in Eq, (7~31) and Lorentz’s force equation in Eq. (6-3), form the foundation of electromagnetic theory. These equations can be used 1 explain and predict ali macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena, Although the four Maxwell's equations in Eqs. (7-37a,b, ¢, and d) are consistent, {hey are not all independent. As a matter of fact, the two divergence equations, Eqs. (7-37e and a), can be derived from the two curl equations, Eqs. (7-374 and b), by making use of the equation of continuity. Eq. (7-32) (sec Problem P.7-7) The four fundamental field vectors E, D, B, H (each having three components) represent twelve unknowns. Twelve scalar equations are required for the determination of these twelve unknowns, The required equations are supplied by the two vector curl equations and the two vector constitutive relations D = cE and H= Biju, cach vector equation being equivalent to three scalar equations.7-36) netic essary sarge aim?) in the axwell i 4. The 3 7-316) 7-379) wh the 6-9, ssed 10 sistent, ati and v) nT 7-81 Integral Form of. Maxwell's Equations 9-27 MaxweLt's Equations 281 i ‘The four Maxwélsequions in (7—318,b,dand d) are dferenial equations that are valid at every Bointiin space. In explaining electromagnetic pheromone ten physical environmeht, le must deal with dite objeas of specied shaves ona boundaries. It is cofvenient to convert the differential forms into their integral-form Sauivalents, We lake the' surface integral of both sides of the earl onesies Fas (7-37a) and (7-376) over an open surface'§ with a contour C and apply Stokes’, theorem to obtai f (7-38) and GH-dem (s+ 2) a ‘ Taine the volume integral of both sides ofthe divergence equations in Eqs. (7-37) ang (7-376) over a volume V witha clased surface S and using divergence theorem, 386) and 0. (7-384) } Sauations, We sg tat Eg (7~38a) isthe same as Eq. (7-2), which i an expression electromagnetic induction, Equation (7-38b) is a generalization (6-70), the latter applying only to staticmagnetic je curzent density J may consist of a convection current density of a tree-charge distribution, as well as conduction current the presence of an electric field in a conducting medium. The is the:current 1 flowing through the open surface S jeuation'G 384) canbe recognized as Gauss'’s law, which we used extensively in electrostatics and Which remains the same ln the time-varying case, The velere iitesral ofp equals the total charge @ that is enclosed in surface $ Ne particular law is associated with Eq. (738d); but, in comparing it with Eq. (7-38), we conclude that there are no isdlated magnetic charges and thatthe total outward mesnee pu due to.the fl density oE ca surface integral oj262 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS / 7 Table 7-2 Maxwell's Equations Differential Form Integral Form: Significance Faraday’s law, Ampére’scircuital law. GDd-w=0 Gauss's aw. No isolated magnetic charge, flux through any closed surface is zero. Both the differential and the integral forms of Maxwell's equations are collected in Table 7-2 for easy reference Example 7-5 An AC voltage source of amplitude ¥; (ay Ved toate ghmected across a parallel-plate capacitor C,, as shown in Fig 7-6 {2) Verity that the displacement current inthe capacitor isthe same as the congeevicy Theanine wires. (b) Determine the magnetic field intensity at a distance From the wire, Solution 4) The conduction current in the connecting wire is a fee Fa Chwcosur (A) For a paralel-pate capacitor with an area 4, plate separation d, and a dielectric ‘medium of permittivity e, the capacitance is : 4 Cnet Fig. 7-6 A parallelplate ‘capacitor connected to an AC voltage source (Example 7-5),L7-4 1 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS 283 With a véltage 8, appdaring between the plates, the uniform eli fed intensity E in the dielecttic is équal to (neglecting fringing effects) E = v,/d, whence 1 Ye eal DecEweSsinat. : a | : The displacement current is then © | A ¢ ( A) Vio 00s ot : =Chweosar=ic QED. 5) The magnetic feld tensity ata stander from the conducting wire can be found by applying the generalized Ampére’scircuital law, Eq, (7-386), to contour C in Fig, 7-6; Two typical open surfaces with rim C may be chosen: (1) a planar isk suefuee §,5 (2) 4 curved surface S. passing through the dielectric medium, a ‘Symmetry around the wire ensures a constant H, along the contour C. The line integral on the left s de of Eq. (7-386) is Gide ett For the surface S,,c rly the first term on the right side of Eq. (7-38) is nonzero because no chattges ire deposited along the wire and, consequently, D 0 J, 5-45 = fem ©, You c08 Since the surface S; sasses through the dielectric medium, no conduction current flows throngh $2. If the second surface integral were not there, the right side of _ Eq. (7-38bfboli le zero. This would est in contadinon The palace of the displgcethentcrzen tern by Maxwell eliminates hi contedenon oe we have shown in at (0), ip = is Henge we obtain the same vole sheer surface S, or sutfaci-$, is chosen. Equating the two previous integrals, we find y= Swcorer We) 0 7-4 POTENTIAL FUNCTIONS | In Section 6-3 the concept of the vector sriagnetie potential A was introduced because Of the solenoidal nature of B(V + B B=VxA (D. (0-39)If Eq, (7-39) is substituted in the differential form of Faradiy's law, Eq, (7-1), we get ‘ vas dee vx (e424) <0 4 ‘Since the sum of the two vector quantities in the parentheses of Eq, (7-40) is curl-free, it can be expressed as the gradient of a scalar. To be consistent with tke definition of the scalar electric potential Vin Eq. (3-38) for electrostatics, we write ea b+ A= —wy, from which we obtain (7-4) In the static case, GA/@r = 0, and Eq. (7~41) reduces to E = — VV, Hence E can bbe determined from V alone; and B, from A by Eq, (7-39). For time-varying fields, E depends on both V and A. Inasmuch as B also depends on A, E and B are coupled ‘The electric field in Eq. (7~41) can be viewed as composed of two parts: the frst part, —VV, is duc to charge distribution p; and the second part, —dA/ét, is due to time-varying current J. We are tempted to find V from p by Eq. (3-56) (7-42) and to find A by Eq. (6-22) Hop Jay : SR (7-43) However, the preceding two equations were obtained under stati conditions, and V and A as given wer, infact, solutions of Poisson's equations, Eqs. (4~6) and (6-20) respectively. These solutions may themselves be time-dependent because p and J may be functions of time, but they neglect the time-retardation effects associated with the finite velocity of propagation of time-varying electromagnetic fields. When p and 4 vary slowly with time (at a very low frequency) and the range of interest is small compared with the wavelength, itis allowable to use Eqs. (7-42) and (7~43) in Eqs. (7-39) and (7-41) to find quasistatic fields, We will diseuss this again in subsee- tion 7-12, ‘Quasistatic fields are approximations, Their consideration leads from field theory to cireuit theory. However, when the souree frequency is high and the range4) ube, ition of At) coupled cod witht np t is smal ink subsec- vm field ve range 7-41 “TENTIAL FUNCTIONS — 288 Of interest is no longer stall in comparison to the wavelength, quasi-static solutions will not suffice. Tipestetardation effects mutt then be included, asin the case of ‘slectromagnetic radlatioi from antennas. These points will be discussed more fully ‘when we study solutions to wave equations, Let us substitute Eqs. (7-39) and (7-41) Into Eq, (7-37) and make use of the constitutive relations H = B/y and D = eB. We have Vive Ana emd (w=), oon Where a homogeneous riediuin has beenassumed, Recalling the vector identity for Vx V x A in Eq, (6-161), we can write Eq. (1-44) as Vv A)~ VA it~ ¥(1 Se) — ne V8 ne ~id + ¥(9- a+ ne) (7-45) Now, the definition of « vector requires the specification of both its cul and its divergence. Although the curl of A is designated Bin L ig. (7-39), we are still at liberty to choose the divergence of A. We let vias 7-46) which makes the setonc term on the right side of Eq, (7~45) vanish, so we obtain @A He SP = aad. (47) Equation (7-47) is the uonhomagencous.swave equation for vector potential A. 1 is Galled a wave equation bscause its solutions represent waves traveling with a velocity equal to 1//ue. This will become clear in Section 7-6 when the solution of ware equations is discusset. The relation between A and V in Eg, (7-$6)is called the Lorents condition (or Lorentz gauye) for potentials. t reduces to the condition V+A— 0 in Eq. (6-19}for-static felds. The Lorentz condition can be shown to be consistent with ‘the equation of continuity (Problem P.7-8). A corresponding wave equation for the scalar potential V can be obtained by ‘substituting Eq, (7~41) in Eq, (7-37c). We have286 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 which, for a constant ¢, leads to vee (7-48) Using Eq, (746), we get ey VP =e eh 8, (7-49) which is the nonhomogeneous wave equation for scalar potential V. The nonhomo- eneous wave equations in (7-47) and (7-49) reduce to Poisson's equations in static cases. Since the potential functions given in Eqs. (7-42) and (7~43) are solutions of Poisson's equations, they cannot be expected to be the solutions of nonhomogeneous wave equations in time-varying situations without modification, 7-5 ELECTROMAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS = In order to solve electromagnetic problems involving contiguous regions of different constitutive parameters, itis necessary to know the boundary conditions that the field vectors E, D, B, and H must satisfy at the interfaces. Boundary conditions are derived by applying the integral form of Maxwells equations (7~38a, b, c, and d) to ‘small region at an interface of two media in manners similar to those used in obtain ing the boundary conditions for static electtic and magnetic fields. The integral equations are assumed to hold for regions containing discontinuous media. The reader should review the procedures followed in Sections 3-9 and 6-10. In general, the application of the integral form of a cur! equation to a flat closed path at a bound: ary with top and bottom sides in the two touching media yields the boundary con- dition for the tangential components; and the application of the integral form of a divergence equation to a shallow pillbox at an interface with top and bottom faces in the two contiguous media gives the boundary condition for the normal components. ‘The boundary conditions for the tangential components of E and H are obtained from Eqs. (7-38a) ahd (7-38b) respectively: x (Vim) (70a) a2 x(H,—H,)=J, (Alm). (7-500) We note that Eqs. (7~S0a) and (7~50b) for the time-varying case are exactly the same as, respectively, Eq, (3110) for static electric fields and Eq, (6-99) for static magnetic fields in spite of the existence of the time-varying terms in Eqs. (7—38a) and (7-386).; 75 1 exgcrnchipaterc sounoaey covornions 287 Mg Hy The reason is that! infettng the height ofthe Mat closed path (abeda in Figs, 3-22 and I 6-17) approach zerd, the, area bounded by the path approaches ero, causing the ay cd surface integrals of dB/de and €D/é¢ to vanish Similarly, thé bdundaty conditions for th€ normal components of D and B are obtained from Eds. (7-386) and (7384)? >” te : (7-50 ts : (7-504) tat ions of These are the same al, recpectively, Eq.(3-113a) for static electric fields and Eq. (6-91 sneous for statie magnetic fds because we start from the same dveruence eauaticns ‘We can make the following general stdtements about electromagnetic boundary conditions: (1) The tangential component af an E field is continuous across an inter. face: (2 The tangential component of an H field is discontinuous seron an negace - where surface curren exist, the anount af discomity Bey deternued br {7-306}; (3) The nofmal componem of a D field is tiscontinuos serows om inna where u sue charge cists the amount of Hscmtiaty being decconoed he Sg ab (2-S0e); and (4) The normal component of @B fld is continuous acrow an niece : AAs we have noted pfeviusly, the two diverges equations can be derived fro ie ays two eu equations nd the uation of continuity henes the boundary condone we in Eqs. (7 0) and (7 SO), which are obtained from the divergence equiitions, an eanmot be independ from those in Lay, (7-50) and (7-506), whieh are booued ae from the curl equations. As a matter of fact, in the time-varying case the boundary - ae condition for the tangential component 6fE in Eq. (7~30a) is equivalent to that leg rel the normal eomportent of B in Eq. (7-S0d), and the boundary condition for the oun fangential componeit of H in Ea, (7~S0b) is ehuivalent to that of D in Ea, (750s), B con The simultancous specification of the tangential component of E and the normal eee a component of B at-a boundary surface in a ‘time-varying situation, for example, oe would be redundant.and, if we are not careful, could result in contradictions. peacoier We now examine the important special cases of (1) a boundary between two btauied lossless linear media, and (2) a boundary between a good dielectric and a good conductor, 1-P 7-5.1 Interface between Two Lossless ast Linear Media A lossless linear medium can be specified by a permittivity € and a permeability y, hesame With ¢ = 0. There are usually no free charges and no surface currents atthe interftee in Eqs. (7-30a, b,¢, and d) and fagnetic bbotween two lossless media. We set p, = Gand J, (7-380), ‘obtain the boundary conditions listed in Table 7-3288 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 Table 7-3 Boundary Conditions between Two Lossless Media, Perfect Conductor < (7~Sla) a ms 7-518) cy ‘ Dag = Day €sEig = Ey (7-516) Bie = Ban HiHyg = Jala, (7-s1a) 7-82. Interface between a Dielectric and a 4 perfect conuetor is one with an infinite conductivity, Inthe physical world we only have “good” conductors such as silver, copper, gold, and'aluminium, In order to simplify the analytical solution of field problems, good conductors are often con. sidered perfect conductors in regard to boundary conditions. In the interior of a Perfect conductor, the electric field is zero (otherwise it would produce an infinite Current density), and any charges the conductor will have will reside on the surface only. The interrelationship between (E, D) and (B, H) through Maxwell's equations ensures that B and Hare also zero in the interior of a conductor in a time-varying situation" Consider an interface between a lossless dielectric (medium 1) and a per. fect conductor (medium 2). In medium 2, Ey =), H; =0,D, = 0, and By ~ 0. The ‘Table 7-4 Boundary Conditions between a Dielectric (Medium 1) ‘and a Perfeet Conductor (Medium 2) (Time-Varying Case) On the Side of Medium 1 (On the Side of Mediuin 2 4s the sae case, steady current ina conductor produces a static magnetic fd that does not afet ‘he electric fold, Henes, Eand D within a good conductor may be zefo bat Band H mney ot be‘7-S1b) (1-51) » r-sid)” one ‘n oruer infinite surface uations carying =0. The (7-522) (7-52) Ps a» ay oy og tal | “7-5 | ELECTROMAGNETIC BOUNDARY CONDITIONS 289 general boundary cUnditions in Eqs. (7-50a,.b, ¢ and d) reduce to those listed in Table 7-4, When wé apply Eqs. (7-52b) and (¥-52c), itis important to note that the feference unit nokmal issn outward normal fram medium ? in ordet to word an ero in sign. As mentioned in Section 6—10, currents in media with finite conductivities are expressed in lerths of volume current denfities and suriace current densities dex fined for currents loWving through an infinitesimal thickness is zero In this case, Eg (7~52b) leads to the condition that the ‘tangential component of H is continuous across an interface’ vith ‘4 conductor having a finite conductivity. Exaniple7-6 The B anit H field of a certain propagating mode (TE) in across section ofan a by b rectangular waveguideare E = a,£,andH = a,/!, +\a,!1, where jon sin Henit tty sn! t,= cos, wher Ho, @, 4,and are\constants. Assuming the inner walls of the waveguide ure Perfectly conducting, devermine for the four inner walls of the waveguide (a) the Surface charge densities .nd(b) the surface current densities Solution: | Figure 7=7 sliows a cross section of the waveguide. The four inner walls are specified by x =, x = a, y= 0, and y = 6, The outward normals to these walls (medium 2) are, respectively, a,, —2,, a,, and —a,. Fig.7-7 Cross section ofa rectangular waveguide (Example 7-6)8) Surface charge densities — Use Eq, (7-526): Pile = 0) = a, 69 pk = 0) = ~a,-E 0 PAY =O) 9, CoE = cof, = —jeney © Hy sin pal = 8) = He, en asin ~ Ply = 0) © Sore caret dnses— Ue Ea (1-50 Ix = 0) =a, x aH, + at.) = at, Jce= a) WH eva = ~a,Hy = Sx = 0) Ky =O) =a, x (all, + aH) = a, — att = ston — a8 iy sin tn this section we have discussed the relations that feld vectors must satity at an interface between different media. Boundary conditions are of basic importance in the solution of electromagnetic problems because general solutions of Maxwells equations carry little meaning until they are adapted to physical problems each with GSNe" region and associated boundary conditions. Maxwell's equations are partial differential equations. Their solutions will contain jotegration constants that ie determined from the additional information supplied by boundary conditions so that cach solution will be unique for each given problem, 7-6 WAVE EQUATIONS AND ‘THEIR SOLUTIONS ntials of the fundamental structure of lectromagnetic theory. Maxwell's equations give a complete description of the “relation between electromagnetic fields and charge and current distributions, ‘There solutions provide the answers to all electromagnetic problems, albeit in some cases eH the solutions are difficult to obtain. Special analytical and numerical techniques At this point we are in possession of the esse mm the ge by 7-81 Sot tor Potent Ww wh by Eq Thsatisfy at portance faxwell’s cach with ‘e partial that are itions so uetui f on of the ins, Their ome cases schniques {7-""1 WAVE EQUATIONS AND THEIR SOLUTIONS 291 may be devised to aid in the solution procedure; but they do not add to of refine ! the fundamental structure. Such sth importagbe of MaxsclPs equasone For given charge dnd current distributions, p and J, we fest solve the gonhomo- geneous wave equatis, Eqs. (7-87) and (7-4), for potentials A and V. Wak a and ¥ determined, E and B can be found frbmjtespectivly, Eas. (1-81) sod 139) by diferentation. It 7-61 Solution of Wave Equations i for Potentials : We now cohsidet the'Soliion of the nonhomogeneous wave equation, Eq. (7-49) for scalar electric potential V. We ean do this by fist finding the solutice for an elemental point charge a time 1, pl) Av, localed at the origin of the coordinatce and then by summing the eifcts ofall the charge elements in a given region. For a Point charge atte origin, ivis most convenient to use spherical coordinates, Because of spherical symmetry, V depends only on R and i (not on Vor d). Excep atthe origin, ¥ satisfies the following homogeneous equation SH We introduce a new variable . very + VR = 5 UR), ¢ which converts Eq, (7-54) to u_ eu aR Mgr so 56) Equation (7-56) is a one-dimensional homogenebus wave equation, It can be verified by direct substitution (see Problem P.7-15) that any twice-differentiable function of (c= Re/ue) or of (t + Rylue) is a solution of Eq, (7-56) Later in ths section vee Will See that a function of le + q/je) does not correspond to a physically useful solution, Hence we have UR, 1) = fle ~ Ree), Equation (757) represent: a wave traveling in the positive R direction with a velocity U/s/ue. As we sec, the function at R+ AR ava later time 1 + At is UR+ AR 1+ Ad SUE + A= (REAR) pe] = fe — RYE). Thus, the fonction reins its form if At = ARW/id = ARha where w= I/\/fe isthe belocty of propagation, a characteristic ofthe medium. From Eq (7-55) ne se VAR.) = 3 Fle Ri (7-58)5 292 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 [Te determine what the specific function f(t ~ R/u) must be, we note that for a static point charge p(e) Av’ at the origin, avin) = 2088 (7-39) ‘Comparison of Eqs. (7-58) and (7-59) enables us to identify lt ~ Riu) bv’ fae ‘The potential due to a charge distribution over a volume ¥" is then Asie ~ Riu) Equation (7-60) indicates that the scalar potential at a distance R from the source at lime 1 depends on the value of the charge density at an eurfier time (¢— Ru). I {akes time Riu for the effect of to be felt at distance R’-Foe.this reason F(R. 1 in Fa (7-60) is called the retarded scalar potemial. 1 is now clear that a fanetion of (c+ Rit) cannot be a physically useful solution, since it would lead to the impossible situation that the effect of p would be felt at a distant point before it occurs at the The solution of the nonhomogeneous wave equation, Eq. (7-47), for vector magnetic potential A can proceed in exactly the same way as that for ¥. The vector equation, Eq. (7-47), can be decomposed into three scalar equations, cach similar (0 Eg. (7-49) for V. The retarded vector potential i, thus, given by He Rid anak | : UR) =a (Wb/m). (7-61) The electric and magnetic ficids derived from A and Vby differentiation will bviously also be functions of R/u) and, therefore, retarded in time. It takes tne for electromagnetic waves to travel and for the effects of time-varying charges sea Treats 10 be felt at distant points. In the quasi-static approximation, we ignore this time-retardation effect and assume instant response. This assumption is implicit in dealing with circuit problems, “6.2 Source-Froe Wave Equations In problems of wave propagation we are concerned with the behavior of an electro- magnetic wave in a source-ftee region where o and J are both zero. In other words, Re, ate often interested not so much in how an electromagnetic wave is originated, butin how it propagates. IFuhe wave sin a simple linear, isotropic, and homogeneous)a ector b similar (7-61) ation will akes time anges and Wwe ignore is implicit an eletro~ her words, ortginated, rogeneous) : 7-4) SMEHARMOMIC FIELDS 283 nonconducting medium ‘characterized by € alld u (o (7-314, b, 6 and a) reduce to }, Maxwell's equations oH 5 F Thar 62a) ' VxH= eS (7-620) a SVE =o, (7-626) VH=0. (7-624) Equations (7~62a, b,c and é) are first-order differential equations in the two variables E and H. They can bé combined to give a second-order equution in E alone. To do this, we take the curl of Eq, (7-62a) and use Eq, (7-62b), VxVxE= HE x H) = ~pe Now Vx Vx E= (V+ E) WE FE because of Eq, (7-620). Hence, we hive 69 In annie nar ay we bo obsn neon nt [en A PH, (7-65) Equations (7-64) and (735) are homogeneous vector wave equations We can sce that ih Cartesian coordinates Eqs, (7~64) and (7-65) can each be decomposed into three one-dimensional, homogeneous, scalar wave equations, Each component of E anid of H will satisfy an equation exactly like Eq. (7-56), whose solutions represent waves. We will extensively discuss wave behavior in various environments in the next «wo chapters, 7-7 TIME-HARMONIC FIELDS Maxwell's equations and all the equationserived from them so far in this chapter hold for electromagnetic quantities with an arbitrary time-lependenee, The actual type of time functions that the field quantities assume depends on the source func- Hons p and J. In engineering, sinusoidal time functions occupy a unique position.284 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 They are easy to generate; arbitrary periodic time functions can be expanded into Fourier series of harmonic sinusoidal components; and transient nonperiodie func- tions can be expressed as. Fourier integrals.’ Since Maxwell's equations are linear differential equations, sinusoidal time variations of source functions of a given fre- ‘quency will produce sinusoidal variations of E and H with the same frequency in the steady state. For source functions with an arbitrary time dependence, electrodynamie fields ean be determined in terms of those caused by the various frequency components of the source functions. The application of the principle of superposition will give Us the total fields. In this section we examine rime-harmonic (steady-state sinusoidal) field relationships. : ‘The Use of Phasors — A Review For time-harmonic fields it is confenient to use a phasor notation. At this time we digress briefly to review the use of phasors. Conceptually it is simpler to discuss a scalar phasor. The instantaneous (time-dependent) expression of a sinusoidal scalar ‘quantity, such as a current j, can be written as either a cosine or a sine function. If Wwe choose a cosine function as the reference (which is usually dictated by the func- tional form of the excitation), then all derived results will refer to the cosine function. ‘The specification of a sinusoidal quantity requires the knowledge of three parameters: amplitude, frequency, and phase. For example, te) = Fe0s (or +), (7-66) where 1 is the amplitude; is the angular frequency (rad/s) —a is always equal to 2xf, f being the frequency in hertz; and 9 is the phase referred to the cosine function, We could write i(t) in Eq, (7-66) as a sine function if we wish: it) = I sin (ot + 9), with o' = @ + x/2. Thus itis important to decide at the outset whether our reference is a cosine or a sine function, then to stick to that decision throtighout a problem. To work directly with an instantaneous expression such as the cosine function is inconvenient when differentiations or integrations‘of i) are involved because they lead to both sine first-order differentiation or integgation) and cosine (second-ord differentiation or integration) functions and because it is tedious to combine sine and cosine functions, For instance, the loop equation for a series RLC circuit with aan applied voltage e(t} = E cos wt is: i ai If we write i(t) as in Eq. (7-66), Ea, (7-67) yields L i sma! Hrs & fo on, 1[-ovsin orto Restorer iC sin ove E-cosat. (1-68) "D.K. Cheng, Analysis of Linear Systems; Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Chapter 5, 1959 Sul the the pro Exanied into odie func- are linear given fre- rncy in the dynamic ‘ponents, will give inusoidal) distss a nt reference problem function suse they ad-order suit with A) (7-68) 1999 ie 7-7 1 TIME-HARMONic FlELDS <3 Complicated mathenidtical'manipulations ste feqitired in order éo determine the unknown /andg.. 1 z ‘tis much simpletto ue exponential functions by writing the applied voltage as fe we = E 60s wt = ctefle ei] , = Re(E,e) i (7-69) and i(¢) in Eq. (7-66) a» ’ ie) = Re[(le*)e7] Rell), (7-70) where fe means “the teal part of." In Eqs.(7-69) and (7-70, (7-Naj 7) ae Cealat) phasors that contain amplitude and phase information butareindepencent off The phasor £, in Bq. (7~T1a) with zero phase angle isthe relerence phaser Now fo ta jute (7-724) a fear) 78) Substitution of Eqs. (7-69; through (7-72b) in Ey, (7-67) yields [evn A yeas, oy fom which the current phusor 1, can be solve edly, Note thatthe time-dependent factor o* disappears from E3. (7-73) because itis present in every ern Ea 7) after the substitution und is chereioce canceled, This is the essence of the usclulneee Puphasors ia the analysis or Liner systems wth timesharmonic excitations, after /, has been determined, the instantaneous current response i(e) can be found front Fa. (7-70) by (1) multiplying 1, by e', and (2) taking the real part of the product Xf the applied voltage had been given as a sine function such 23 et) = E sin on, {he series RLC-circuit problem would be solved in terms of phasors in exactly the imagine atts the idstamtancous expressions would be obtained by taking the nasinary part of the product of the phasors with o*. The complex phasors represent the magnitudes and the phase shifts ofthe quantities in the solution of timesharmene problems, Example 7-7 | Express,3cos ot ~ 4sinat as first (a) 4, cos(ot +0,), and then (b) Aa sin (ot + 03). Deterthing ,,0;, 4s, and 6r-72 296 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS! 7 Solution: We can conveniently use phasors to solve this problem. a) To express 3 cos wt ~ 4 sin et as A, cos wt + 04), we use cos wr as the reference and consider the sum of the two phasors 3 and ~4e™#""(=j4), since sin oot = 08 (cat — m/2) lags behind cos ct by 1/2 rad, 3446 ‘Taking the real part of the product of this phasor and e*, we have 3.cos ot ~4 sin wt = Rel (Se/*?")eMt] cos tot + 53.1), (7-748) Sef 18 a Sg H83" So, Ay = 5, and 8, = 53.1° = 0927 (rad), b) To express 3 cos ext ~ 4 sin was A, sin (ot + 2), we use sin cat as the reference and consider the sum of the two phasors 3e/"? (= 3) and —4, FB a4 Sew 2 sete (The reader should note that the angle above is 143.1°;not_—36.9°) Now we take the imaginary part ofthe product of the phasor above and eM to obtain the desired answer: 3.008 wt — 4 sin wt = JnflSe?* Ve] =Ssin (ox + 143.17) 7-74) Hence, Az = Sand 0; = 143.1° = 2.50(rad) The reader should recognize that the results in Eqs. (7-74a) and (7-74) are identical. ‘Time-Harmonic Electromagnetics Field vectors that vary with space coordinates and are sinusoidal functions of time can similarly be represented by vector phasors that depend on space coordinates but not on time, As an example, we can write a time-harmonic £ field refering to cos wit as Btw 95) = AeLElx, 200), 7-75) wihere E(x, y,2)is a vector phasor that contains information on direction, magnitude, and phase. Phasors are, in general, complex quantities, From Eqs. (7-75), (7-70), (7-72), and (7-726), we soe that, i Els, 2) isto be represented by the vector phasor E(x, 9,2, then dE,» 2/0 and f E(x, 9, 22) de would be represented by, respectively, vector phasors joE(x,y,2) and E(x, ),2/jo. Higher-order diffrentia- tions and integrations with respect to t would be represented, respectively, by mult plications and divisions of the phasor E(x, y, 2) by higher powers of jo. Tifa ie ms epi pei csiomay nko Sst i | i i i‘ference inat= (1-74a) ‘ference Nore > obiain (7-746) s of time ordinates erring 1 0-75) agnitude, LY, ye vector eta” Herero by multi : 7-7 /-TIME-HARMONIC FIELDS 297 We now whitd tishe-higmonic Maxwell's equations (7~37a, b, ¢, and a) in terms Of scetor field phasors (E, 11) and source phasors (p, J) ina simple (liner, isotropie, and homogeritous) medium as follows. : (7-76) (7-760) (7-166) (0-764) The space-costdinatd arg iments have been omitted for simpli same notations are used ‘or the phasors as are used for their corresponding time dependent quantities she uld create little confusion, because we will deal almost exclusively with time-harimonie folds (and therefore with phasors) in the rest ofthis book. When there is d ned to distinguish an ifstantaneous quantity from a phasor, {he time dependence of the instantaneous quantity will be indicated explicitly by the inclusion of a.t i its argument. Phasor quantities are not functions oft. It it weet to note that any quantity containing j mast necessarily be a phasor. The time-harmonie wave equations for scalar potenti A—Egs. (7-49) and (7-47) —become, respectively, The fact that the ial V and vector potential and where is called the waveniumber. Equations (7~ 77) and (7~78) are referred to as nonkomo- geneous Helmholt2's eq #s. The Lorentz condition for potentials, Eq. (7-46), is now VA + joneV = 0, (7-80) The phasor scltions of Eqs. (7-77) and (7-78) are obtained from Eqs. (7-40) and (7-61) respectively . ~ ime pee] ~ R= dv} 7-81) (7-82)7-73 298 TIME."!*RYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 ‘These are the expressions for the retarded scalar and vector potentials due to time- harmonie sources. Now the Taylor-series expansion for the exponential factor e~*® — eM 1 jkR 4 4, KR + — where k, defined in Eq, (7-79), can be expressed in terms of the wavelength 4 = u/f inte nau, Whe wef ; 2 8 Sina, os or ifthe distance & is small compared to the wavelength 2, e~/** can be approximated by 1, Equations (7-81) and (7-82) then simplify to the static expressions in Eqs (7-42) and (7-43), which are used in Eqs. (7~39) and (741) 0 find quasi-st The formal procedure for determining the electric and Magnetic fi time-harmonic charge and current distributions is as follows: 1, Find phasors V(R) and A(R) from Eqs. (7-81) and (7-82). 2. Find phasors E(R) = —VV — jwA and B(R)= V x A. A{BIR) e"] and BUR.) = #{B(R)e%] for a cosine reference The degree of difficulty of a problem depends on how difficult it is to perform the integrations in Step 1. Source-Free Fields in Simple Media Ina simple, nonconducting soiurce-free medium characterized by p the time-harmonie Maxwell's equations (7~76a, b, c, and d) become VxE jouHt (7-85a) JoeB. (7-856) V-E=0 (7-850) VeH=0. (7-854) Equations (7-85a, b, ¢, and d) can be combined to yield second-order partial differ- ‘ential equations in E and H. From Eqs. (7-64) and (7-68), we obtain VE+RE (7-86) and V+ UL (7-87) mtto time tor e“AR view (7-83) (7-84) >vimated sin Eqs. tices edu. .o “J fora form the 0 oa) (7-85b) was oy (7-86) (7-87) 1‘ TIME-HARMONIC FIELOs 299 Which are homoyeneous jector Helmholls's equations. Solutions of homogenous Helmholtz’s equations with various boundary conditions is the main comers ot ‘Chapters 8 and 10, Example 7-8 Show that if(E, H) are solutions of source-free Maxwel’s equations ina simple medium characterized by € andy, then so also are (E', B), where E cos a H Sin a (7-884) -(C)anstieoe oa In Eqs. (7~88a) and (7~88b), « is an arbitrary angle, and = intrinsic impedance of the medium. Solution: We prove the statement by taking the curl and the divergence of E Wand using Eqs. (7-85a, b, ¢, and d) VxE fule is called the Vx E) cos a+ 9(V ¥ H) sin a —Jeoutl) cos x + m(JooeE) sin ow ~iou( H cos ~ 7Esina) soul’; (7-893) £(V x B)sina + {V x Hycos 2 7 —jeoul) sin a + (eae) cos o jvc sin «+E cota) = jek (7-896) (V+ B) cos + (V -H) sin 2 = 0; (7-896) Veit = Ly Bj sina + (0-H) cosa =0. 7-898) Equations (7-892, b,¢, and d) are source-free ‘staa.ell's equations in E’ and H'. This example shows that source-free Maxwell's equations for free space are invariant under the linear tragsfgrmation specified by Eqs. (7~88a) and 17-886), ‘An interesting special case is for «= 7/2. Equations (7-88a) and (7-386) become ~ {oR ae 7-90) We sey, (7-900) Equations (7-90a) and (7-$0b) show that if (E, H) ar solutions of sourcesfree Maxe well’s equations then so also are (E’ = nHH' = —Ejm). This is a statement of the ce of the symmetry of source-free principle of duality. This principle i a consequen Maxwell's equations300 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 Uf the simple medium is conducting (¢ + 0), a current J = oE will flow, and Eq, (7-85b) should be changed to Vx H=(¢ + joe) = jock, (7-91) with & Frm), (7-92) eo. The other three equations, Eqs. (7-85a, ¢ and d), are Unchanged. Hence, all the previous equations for nonconducting media will apply to conducting media if is replaced by the complex permittivity e, The real wave, umber & in the Helmholtz’s equations, Eqs. (7-86) und (7-87), will have to be changed to a complex wavenumber k, = ay/ne,. ‘i ‘The ratio e'/e’ measures the magnitude of the conduction current relative to that where € = € and "= atte plcemant erat, isa ac emp bechasit Se mee a Oto inte eam = tinge Sa 9 The quantity 6, in Eq, (7-93) may be called the loss angle. A medium is said to be a good conductor if @ > exe, and a good insulator if we > @. Thus, a material may be a Sood conductor at low frequencies, but may have the properties of a lossy dielectric at very high frequencies. For example, a moist ground has a dielectric constant ¢, anda conductivity ¢ that are, respectively, in the neighborhood of {0 and 10" (Sj) ‘The loss tangent a/v of the moist ground then equals 1.8 x 10* at 1 (kHz), making ita relatively good conductor. At 10 (GHz), g/ase becothes 1.8 x 10-3, and the moist ‘round behaves more like an insulator.t Example 7-9 A sinusoidal electric intensity of amplitude 50 (V/m) and frequency 1 (GH2) exists in lossy dielectric medium that has a relative permittivity of 25 and a loss tangent of 0.001, Find the average power dissipated in the medium per cubic meter, Solution: First we must find the eflective conductivity of the lossy medium: tan 5, = 0.001 = —2— (10-2 = 0.0012n10' (Se)e 5) = 1,389 x 10°* (S/m), + Actually the loss mechanism of dielectric materia is avery complicated process and the assumption ‘ofa constant conductivity is only & rough approximation REVIEW ¢(7-91) (7-92) are apply waves sto be rw that fone stunt, (Simm). snaking 0ist guency Sand eubic ‘mption : 4 ef REVIEW QUESTIONS 301 : : « ma The verge powcr ibipta per uni volte be P=HE= tok? rs 4x (589 « 10-4) x 50? = 0.174 (W/m), ' REVIEW QUESTIONS RI-1 What constituies an lectromagnetostatic eld? In what ways are E and B related in 2 conducting medium undét state conditions? RI-2 Write the fundamental postulate for electromagnetic induction, and explain how it leads to Faraday’s law RI-3. State Lenz's aw. RI Write the expression for transformer emt Woite the exprestion for Muxcusting emt, RI-6 Write the ex magnetic Fld, ion forthe induced emf in a closed circuit that moves in a changin RI-7 What isa Faraday disk generator? R78 Write the differential form of Maxwell's squations, 7-9 Areall four Maxwell's equations independent? Explain. R.7-10 Write the integral form of Maxwell's equations, and identify proper experimental law. ch equation with the RAMI Explain the significance of displacement current. R.7-12 Why are potential functions use in electromagnetics? RA7-I3 Express E and B in terms of povemtial functions V and A, R7-14 What do we mean by ttashstarie jr? Are they exact solutions of Maxwell's equ sions? Explain, RAI7-1S What is the Lorentz condition for po:entials? What i its physical significance? 7-16 Write the nonhoinogencous ication foF cae ote Vand for vector pote tia i RIALT State Tie boundary suns fo the tigen component of Ean! for the nomal componeat of Re7-18 Write the boundary conditions for the tangent component of H and for the normal coniponent of D ReI7~19 Can a static maghetic field exist inthe interior of a perfect conductor? Explain. Can time-varying magnetic field? Explain, 7-20 What do we mea by a vetanded potential?302 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS / 7 theconsteonnat Na do the retardation time and the vost of wave propagation epend on the constitutive parameters of the medium? RA-22 Write the soure-ree wave equation for E and H in free space 7-23 What is phasor? Isa phasor a function off? A function of w? 7-24 What isthe difference between a phasor and a vector? R-7-25 Discus the advantages of using phasors in electromagnetic R-7-26 Write in terms of phasors the time-harmonic Maxwells equations fora simple medium, R.I-27 Define wavenumber. Basti the expresions fr timeharmonc retarded scala ad veior potential in terms of charge and current distributions, RUeacinit the homogeneous vectorHsimolts equation for Eina simple oncqnducting, source-free medium, 7-30 What is meant by the loss tangent of a medium? R7-31 In a timewarying situation how do we define & good conducF®A lossy dielectric? RIO Are conduction and displacement currents in phase for time-harmonie fees? Explain, PROBLEMS PAI-L Express the transformer emt in sduced ina stationary loop in terms of time-varying vector potential A. PA-2 The circuit in Fig. 7-8 is situated in a magnetic ted Baa, 3cos(5ni0" — 3 Assuming R = 15(0), find the current i 3) (WM), Fig. 7-8 A circuit ina time-varying ‘magnetic feld (Problem P.7-2), se op ed nave esp wi ty Tato hws nee 3 Demi he roagereindy shimmer nee ietedin the ep 8 Demin te vlc ig whan he sng aoe ee ei oop, pooner ace rege | |Aadepend én sple medium, alsin terms neondueting, bs. ain, aaying vector ‘ying din the lop. 60 about a | | i | PROBLEMS 303 P.I~4 A conducting dreuis loop of radius 0.1 (th) i situated in the neighborhood of a very tong powerline carrying a 604H2) current, as shown in Fig. 6-38, with d= 0.5m} An AC ‘milllammete inserted Inthe loop reads 0.3 (mA). Assume the toal impedance ofthe loop including the millammeter to béDOt (0), 4) Find the magnitude of the eurent inthe poier line, ») To what angle about the horizontal axis should the eiteular loop be rotated in order to reduce the millamméterteading 10 0.2(mA)? 2-5 A conducting aingbar oscillates er tnd paralel conducting rls in a sinusoidally varying magnetic field 4 Bea, Seas” nm), 8s shown in Fig. 7-8. The position of the sling bar is given by x = 0.351 £08 0) (mand the rails are terminated in a resistance & = 0.2(0). Find 1 Fig. 7-9 conducting br siding over parallel fails in a timewvarying magnetic field (Problem P.7 7-6 Assuming that a resistance is connected across the sip rng of the restanglarcon- ducting loop that rotats ina constant magnetic eld B= a,By, show in Fig, Stee hoe the power dissipated th R is equal tothe power required to rotate the loop at am angular re: quency @, P2-7 Derive the two divergence equations, Eqs, (7~37e) and (7-374), from. the two curl ‘equations, Eqs (7-37a) anc 7-376, and the equation of continuity, Eq, (7-32), "7-8 Prove thatthe Lorentz condition for potentials as expressed in Eq, (7-46) i consistent withthe equation of continsty. 7-9 ‘Substitute Eqs, (7-39) and (7—4) in Maxwell’ equations to obtain wave equations for scalar potential V and Vector potential A for linea, isotropic but inhomogeneous medium, P2A-10 Write the set of four Maxwells equations, Eqs. (7-37, b,c, and das cight scalar ‘equations ~~ 2° in Cartesian edordinates, ) in qtindrical ebordinates, 6) in spherical coordinates. IAM Supply the detailed ses forthe drvion of he letromagnsti boundary conditions as (7-30 6 630d).304 TIME-VARYING FIELDS AND MAXWELL’S EQUATIONS / 7 27-12 Discuss the relations 2) between the boundary conditions fo the tangential components of E and thos or the ‘normal components of B, 1 betwoin the boundary conditions forthe normal components of D and those for ihe tangential components of H. 7-13 Waite the boundary conditions that exist atthe Interface of free spe and a magnetic thaterial of infinite (an approximation) permeability. 7-14 The electric field of an electromagnetic wave en esveo[ie(-2) +0] — : and . Es = «,00os[ t+ Find Ey and @ pa-18 Prove by direct substitution that any twice differentiable function of ¢~ Rv {co Rupe) isa Solution ofthe homogeneous wave equation, Ea, (7-56) t-t6 Prove thatthe retarded potential in Eq. (7-40) satisfies the nonhomopensous wav equation, Eq (7-49). B7-17 Write the general wave equations for E and Hi in & nonconducting simple econ root a charg distibution p and a curent distribution J exist, Convert the wave equations qo Helmholl?’s equations for sinusoidal time dependence 7-18 Given that =a, 01 sin (LOxs) cos 6x0" — Bs) (W/m) in aig, find H ond fh. Py 19 Given that ae a, 2008 (15ex sin (6x10°t — (Alm) in air, find and f. 7-20 Its known that the electric fick intensity of spherical wave in free space s E E a sin 0 cos (0% KR) A? in 0 cos (ot — KR Determine the magnetic field intensity H. pa In Sesion 7-4 we indicated that E and B canbe determined fom the potentials ¥ 270 rare ena bythe Lorentz condition Eq, (7-80),in the tme-harmonie ose PA" oO ential A was introduced through the relation B = V x A beeause 9 he solenoidal nature Poe epee region, WE 0, we can die another typeof vector potest Aw seh i | I |PROBLEMS 305 Sha t 3 ‘ thet E = V x A,. Assuming harmonic time dependence: those forthe ) Express H in ters ofA, ) Show that A, id solution of a homogeneous Helmbolt's equation, those for the "1-22 For a source-tée meliium where p ='0;5 #0, = yy, but where there is @ volume ake arbitra determined by bound equation, its general sblutin in E Now let us examine what the first epresents in real time, Using cos wr as Ea phasor, depends only on z ry (and, in general, complex) constants that must be laty conditions. Note that since Eq. (8-6) is a second-order 4. (8-7) contains two integration constants, phesor term on the right side of Eq. (8~7) the reference and assuming Ej to be a realFig. 8-1 Wave traveling in positive = ditection E(t) E5 £08 (at ~ kez, for several values oft. constant (zero reference phase af z 0}, we have Exle,0) = el EZ(e"] = Af Beet to} § cos (ot ~ ky (inj (8-8) Equation (8-8) has been plotted in Fig. 8-J for several values oft. Att = 0, £7(:,0) E5 cos koz is a cosine curve with an amplitude Ej. At successive times, the curve ellectively travels in the positive z direction. We have, then, a traveling wave, IT we fix our attention on a particular point (a point of a particular phase) on the wave, We set 60s (cot — kes) = a constant or ‘ot ~ ky? = A constant phase, from which we obtain dc ae (8-9) Equation (8-9) assures us that the velocity of propagation of an equiphase front (the phase velocity) in free space is equal to the velocity of light, which is approximately 3 x 10* (ms) in free space. ‘The quantity ko bears a definite relation to the wavelength. From Eq. (84), kg=2xficor (radjem), is-10) which measures the number of wavelengths in a complete eycle, hence its name. An inverse relation of Eq. (8-10) is hy (my) (1tee e. Ifwe e wave, e-9) vn (the mately (8-4, (8-10) 4 i WAVES IN LOSSLESS MEDIA 309 i Equatiois 8-10) aul (8-11) are valid withoit the subscript 0 lossless material scl as 4 perectdileci Itis obvious without replotting that the sebond Eq. (8-7), Ege, rébresents a cosinusoidal wive ihe same velocity ¢ Ian enbounded region we are concerned only wilh the outgoing Bee anes: tthe source's on the lel, themeyatvely going wars does not eee ane Eo = 0. However, ithere are discontinuities in,the medium, reflected waves traveling in the opposite direction mist also be considered, as we wl ce ater in this chart ‘The associated rhagnetic field H can be fouind from Eq. (7-85a) if the medium is a hasor term on the right side of ‘raveling in the —= direction with ety VRE ° Psa} ea, ° Which leads to uz =0 (8-123) Hy (8-126) 8. (6-122) ‘Thus, His the only honero component of Hj and since ~tkoEZ(2), Eq, (8-i2b) yields : ; t Hye Mo pret ery (alm 8-13) (2 aus ie ( ). ( ‘We have introduced a‘nevy quantity, 9, in Eq. (8-13). = 1200 = 377 (Q), (8-14) Which is called the intrinsic impedance of the;free space. Because 1 isa real number, #1712) is in phase with Ef(2) and we can write the fasta intaneous expression for H as He) SaHre. A, Rel Hi (cle) ER : ay cos or as) (Am 8 ae W — Kos) (A/m), G19 Hence, fora uniform plane wave, the ratio ofthe magnitudes of E. impedance ofthe medium, We also,note that H is perpendicula are normal to the direction of propagation. The fact that wn and H is the intrinsic to Eand that both fe specified E = a,£,310 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 is not as restrictive as it appears, inasmuch as we are free to designate the direction of Eas the +x direction, which is normal to the direction of propagation a,, Example 8-1 A uniform plane wave with E = a,£, propagates in a lossless simple medium (¢, = 4, u, = 1,0 = 0) in the +2 direction. Assume that £, is sinusoidal with a frequency 100 (MHz) and has a maximum value of +10"* (Vm) at ¢=0 and itm. a) Write the instantaneous expression for E for any # and z. b) Write the instantaneous expression for H. ©) Determine the locations where E,, is a positive maximum when t = 10°* (3), Solution: First we find k. ofie= 2 ie, 2n10° gy = (rad/m) sei G a) Using cos wot as the reference, we find the instantaneous expression for E to be Bf, t) = a,E, = 9,10" * cos 20 10% — kz +), Since E, equals +10~* when the argument of the cosine function equals zero— that is. when 2m O*t — kz + =O, wwe have, at r= Oand = be.) aaron.) + con an 10% 28 (22 0a (<2) vi This expression shows a shift of a mere } in the +2 direction and could have been written down directly from the statement of the problem, ) The instantaneous expression for H is whereeS Hare E ad 8-2 / PLANE WAVES IN LOSSLESS MEDIA. 311 rection i ro ey x : : His, =a, 0 cos [> tot, $= ( . d (ave) ssimpte #3 . : i a ©) Ate-= 107%, we equate the argument of the cosine function to -+2nm in order to oe make E, a positive maximum: ar 1040-4) 28 (5, 2x 10*%(107*) 7 ( i from which we Ys. zi Examining this result more closely, we note that the wavelength in the given medium i 23 (a) in Be Heene, the postive naximum value of E, occurs at eo sn= Benin). The E and H flelés are shown in Fig, §~2 as functions of : forthe reference time r= 0, wld have yy8-21 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves We have seen that a uniform plane wave.characterized by E = a,£, propagating in the +2 direction has associated with it a magnetic field H = aH, Thus E and H fare perpendicular to each other, and both are transverse to the direction of propaga- tion, It is a particular case of a transverse electromagnetic (TEM) wave. The phzor field quantities are functions of only the distance = along a single coordinate os, We now consider the propagation of a uniform plane wave along an arbitriry irection that does not necessarily coincide with a coordinate axis. ‘The phasor electric field intensity for a uniform plane wave propagating in the +2 direction is Elz) = Ege"**, (8-16) where Eo is a constant vector. A more general farm of E E(x, 9 yew Aetna (8-17) It can be easily proved by direct substitution that this expression satisfies the homo- geneous Helmholtz’s equation, pro (8-18) Ik we define a wavenumber vector as kak, tak, tak, = ka, 6-19) and a radius vector from the origin Reaxtay+az, (8-20) then Eq, (8-17) can be written compactly as [ EIR) = Boe" = Bye ® (W/m), (8-21) where a, is a unit vector in the direction of propagation. From Eq. (S19) itis clear that . ($-22a) (8-228) (8222) and that a,-a,,a,~ a, and a, a, are direction cosines of a, ‘The geometrical relations of a, and Rare illustrated in Fig. 8-3, from which we see that a, R = Length OP (a constant) is the equation of a plane normal to a, the direction of propagation, Just as Constant denotes a plane’of constant phase and,uniform amplitude for the wave ingating in iEandH + fpropaga- the phacor inate aris, arbitrary ting ia the (6-16) (-17) the homo- rns (8-19) (8-20) (8-21) 9) itis clear (8-22) (@-220) (8-226) fr 4 ich ust as 2 = she wave in Ee 4 Ps 8-2 / SLANE WAVES IN Losstess MEDIA 313 Fig. 8-3 Radius vector and wave normal to. phate front of uniform plane wave, Plane of constant phase phase from) Eq, (8-16), a, R = Constant is a plane of constant phase and uniform amy plitude for the wave in Eq, (S~21). In a charge-free region, V- E = 0. Asa result, Eq * Ve“) = 0, (8-23ay" But = A Hlagh, + ayky + ayk,) eMart = kage Hence Eq. (8-23a) ean be written as —ik( Ey + nee which requires a, +E) =0. (8-230) Thus the plane-wave solution in Eq. (8-17) implies that Eq is transverse to the direc- tion of propagation, ‘The magnetic field associated with E(R) in Eq. (8-21) may be obtained from Eq, (7-85a) as HR) Jv x ER) Jou or HIR} = 7a, x BIR) (Avi, (6-24) where fu a | (8-25) This isa consequence Of the ‘act that Y- Ey = 0, where Ey is a constant vector (see problem P.2-18)8-22 914 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 is the intrinsic impedance of the medium. Substitution of Eq. (8-21) in Eq. (8-24) yields HR) = Lea, x Bye (Alm (6-26) {tis now clear that a uniform plane wave propagating in an arbitrary direction, a,, isa TEM wave with E LH and that both E and H are normal to ay Polarization of Plane Waves ‘The polarization of a uniform plane-wave describes the time-varying behavior of the clectric field intensity vector at a given point in space. Since the E vector of the plane wave in Example 8-1 is fixed in the x direction (E = a,£,, where E, may be positive or negative), the wave is said to be linearly polarized in the x direction. A separate description of magnetic-field behavior is not necessary, inasmuch as the direction of H is definitely related to that of E. In some cases the direction of E of a plane wave at a given point may change with time. Consider the superposition of two linearly polarized waves: one polarized in the x direction; the other polarized in the y direction and lagging 90° (or 1/2 rad) in time phase. In phasor notation we have Ee a,Ey(2) + a,£xs) Bice ™ — a, jE ge, (8-27) where Eyo and Eo ate real numbers denoting the amplitudes of the two linearly polarized waves, The instantaneous expression for Eis E(z, t) = Re{[a,E (2) + a,E,(2)Je™} In examining the direction change of E at a given point as ¢ changes, it is convenient to set z= 0. We have E(0, 1) = a,£,(0, 1) + a,£,00,2) = AEpg 608 of +1,E39 sin wt (8-28) ,E 9 c08 (wt — AAs at increases from 0 through n/2, x, and 3x/2— tompleting the cycle at 2n — the tip of the vector E(0, ¢) will traverse an elliptical locus in the counterclockwise direc- tion. Analytically, we have _£1(0.0) Hee cos wotSVR Sa 2g Eby i 8-2 / PLANH.WAVES IN Losstess MEDIA 315 46-29 ey 26) sation, ay, (0 nN ee 8) a0 Hence E, which is te sum of two linearly polarized waves in both space and time quadrature, is elitcally polarised if E39 Ey, and in circularly polarised lt Ex ior of the F,o.A typical polarization circle is shown in Fig, &-4(a) | eee When Evy = £,di the instantaneous angle « which E makes with the x-axis at |e poste fais : separate n of which indicates that E rot ies at a uniform rate with an angular velocity « in a counterclockwise directicn, When the fingers of the right hand follow the direction (27) 6 linearly convenient G8) Fig. 8-4 Polarization diagrams for sum of two linearly polarized waves in space quadrature at z= 0: (a circular polarization, £10, 1) = Eyafa, cos wr + a, sin wi); (©) linear polarastion, (0,1) = (a,E,9 +a, E,,) cos wx ©PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 of the rotation of E; the thumb points to the direction of propagation of the wave. This is a right-hand or positive circularly polarized wave. If we start with an E,(2), which leads E,(2) by 90° (n/2 rad) in time phase, Eqs (8-27) and (8-28) will be, respectively, Ble) = a8 ¢°™ + a, jEage" (6-31) and BO, t) = aE 9 60s wt ~ a, sin wt 6-32) Comparing Eq, (8~32) with Eq, (8-28), we see that E will ti be elliptically polarized. If Byo = Exo, E will be circularly polarized and its angle measured from the x-axis at z= 0 will now be —wr, indicating that E will rotate with an angular velocity «3 in a clockwise direction; this isa left-hand or negative circularly polarized wave. If Ea(s) and E,(2) are in space quadrature but in time phase, their sum E will be linearly polarized along a line that makes an angle tan” (Ezo/Eyq) with the x-axis, as depicted in Fig. 8-4(b). The instantaneous expression for E at > = 0 is E00, 1) = (aE 9 + a,Esq) 60s wt (8-33) The tip of the E(O, ¢) will be at the point P, when cor = 0. Its maBnitude will decrease toward zero as et increases toward x/2. After that, E(0, 1) starts to increase again, in the opposite direction, toward the point P where wt'= x, In the general case, E,(2) and E,(2), which are in space quadrature, can have unequal amplitudes (Eo % Eo) and can differ in phase by an arbitrary amount (not zero or an integral multiple of 7/2). Their sum E will be elfiptically polarized and the principal axes of the polarization ellipse will not coincide with the axes of the co ordinates (see Problem P.8—4) Example 8-2 Prove that a linearly polarized plane wave can be resolved into a right-hand circularly polarized wave and a left-hand circularly polarized wave of equal amplitude, Solution: Consider a linearly polarized plane wave propagating in the +: direction. We can assume, with no loss of generality, that E is polarized in the x phasor notation we have Elz) mage, But this can be written as Bt) Ele) + Bi(2) where £0) = 2a, — jaye (8-34) and B,(0) = Ba, + em. (3-346) a3 conif the wave, phase, Eqs. (8-31) (8-32) y polarized. A the x-axis F velocity o mE will be 1 the xaxis, (8-33) iil dymease “can have mount (not cand the Ht the cae ved into a od wave of ection, rection. In 4 (8-34) 8-3 / PLANE WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA 317, i % From previous disfussions we recognize tat E,,() in Eq, (8~34a) and E,(:) in Eq. (8-340) represent, fespectively, rightchdhd and left-hand circularly polsvied ‘waves, each having.an amplitude Eo/2. Theiptatement of this probiem is thericet + Proved. The converse statement that the sum of two oppositely rotating circularly Polarized waves of equal amplitude is a linearly polarized wave is, of course, also true. PLANE WAVES IN CONDUCTING MEDIA In a source-free corlducting medium, the homogeneous vector Helmholtz's equation to be solve is VE+GE=0, 8-35) where the wavenumber k, = w/e, is a complex. number because , = isin ditection normal to both E and H. {the region of concer is lossless (a = 0), then the last term in Eg, (861) vanishes, and the total power owing into a closed surface is equal to the rate of increase of thestored electric and magnetic energies in the enclosed volume. Ina static situation, ihe first two terms on the right side of Eq (8-61) vanish, and the total power lowing into a closed surface is equal to the ohmic power dissipated in the enclosed volume328 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 Example 8-5. Find the Poynting vector on the surface of long, straight conducting wire of radius b and Gonductivty ¢) that carries a direct current I. Verify Poynting’s theorem. Solution: Since we have a DC situation, the current in the wire is uniformly dis- tributed over its cross-sectional area. Let us assume that the axis ofthe wire coincides with the 2 axis. Figure 8-6 shows a segment of length ¢ of the long wire. We have 1 Seas and (On the surface of the wire, Hans ‘Thus the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire is which is directed everywhere into the wire surface. ig, 8-6 Illustrating Poynting's theorem (Example 8-5). 8-441 Ir Power De ~ ob falonducting Doynting’s ormly dis- coincides We have a-44 Power Densit . 7 i ¥-+1 stow of eernousouenc powesvo ri ovina vecron 320 ——— Segment in Fig. 8-6." = : “Grim G9 dom (Oar mb, -°(S)=re, aonb] Where the formule fof the fesistance of a straight wire in Eq, (5-13), R = //oS, has been used. The above kesult aims thatthe negitive surface integral of the Poynting Yector is exactly equal to the J? ohmic power loss in the conducting wire, Hence Poynting’s theorem is verified. Instantaneous and Average {n dealing with time-harmonic electromagnetic waves, we have found it convenient {0 use phasor notations. The instantaneous value of a quantity is then the real part of the product of the phdsor quantity and e' wheh cos ct is used as the reference, For example, for the phasor Eis) the instantaneous expression is age 78 (8-634) Ege Re [eet ~ fe). (8-636) For a uniform plane wave propagating in a lossy medium in the +2 direction, the associated magnetic field intensity phasor is Hi ali, mag Wel, (8-644) Where 0, is the phase angle ofthe intrinsic impedance 7 = |nle® of the medium, The ‘corresponding instantaneous expression for H(:) is He,t) = @efHepet] = a, Bo * 0s (wt — fi 0). (8-640) This procedures permissible as longas the operations andjor the equations involving the quantities with sinusoidal time dependence ae linear. Erroneous results wil be obtained if this procedure is applied to such nonlinear operations as @ product of two sinusoidal quantities. (A Poynting vector, being the cross product of E and M. falls in this category,) The reason is that = Pe[E lee] x AeLHUche™] x ALES x Hho"),330 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES /'8 The instantaneous expréision for the Poynting’veciof or power density vector ison the one hand, from Eqs. (8-638) and (8-64), Elz, HG) = Re E(c)e™] x eLH (she) * ¢0$ (ct ~ 2) c08 (wt — Be ~ 8,) [00s 0, + cos (20 ~ 2f2 ~ 04)) (8-65 On the other and, : RALE(2) x HUche*"] = a, £2 0° cos (cot — 2p O,)> which is obviously not the same as the expression in Eq. (8-65). As far as the power transmitted by an electromagnetic wave is coricerned, its average value isa more significant quantity thin its instantaneous value. From Eq, (8-68), we obtain the limeaiverage Poynting veelor, Pl £5 et cos6, (Wim?),| (8-6 ap | Consider (A#AT) and 248) = YB + Be where the asterisk denotes “the complex conjugate of" Thus, BAN) x AB) = YA + AP) UB + BY) HUA BT AT 8) HB AT BY] (8-65) This relation holds also for dot produets of vector functions and for products of two complex sealae functions. Iisa sictightforward exercise to obtain the rest in Eq, (8-65) by Kentiying the vectors ‘Nand Bin Bg, (8-€6) with R(slo™ and Hick eespectivly £ Ruston (8-67) is quite similar to the formals for computing the over dissipated in an impedence ize when a nisl wlige nt) ~ Vc for appear ueres Hs termina The imestaacos ‘xpresion for the current i) though the impos a= cos ot ~ 9, mor From the theory of AC circuits we know that the average power disipated in is Pa Ff senna = where cos i the power factor ofthe load impedance, The cos 0, factor in Eg, (2-67) can be considered the power fictar af the intrinsic impedance ofthe medium 7 cose,(8-65)" cerned, its allue. From) Fight side of (8-60) rmplex scalar i mpadance 1s considered \e-$/ FLow OF eukctromacNenic i Fa, (8-65) is a cosind function of a double frequency whose average is zero over a fundamental period, Using Eq. (8~66);we cin express the instanieneous Poynting vector in Eq, (8-63) a the real part of te sur of two terms, instead of the product ofthe real pars of {wo complex vestors., * : PAE = ALE eT] x Ref Hc)e] Sae[E(2) x H%(2) + Bla) x Hijo] (8-68) jis, average power density, Paz), can be obtained by integrating Pz, t) over a fundamental period,7: Since the average of the last (Secondsharmoni) term in Eg, (8~68) vanishes, ve have . a, POWEH'AND THE povNTING vEctoR 91 JR TE) x H42)] {In the general case, we may not be dealing with a wave propagating inthe = direction, We write (eeeiaiceneeal s P= VANE RM) (Wim), (s-69) hich ia general formula for computing the average power density in a propagating wave, Example 8-6 The far fild of short vertical currem element 1 dé located at the ‘origin of a spherical coor Sinate system in ree space ERO) = a F(R, 0) = a,( OEM sin Oe oy and 2 a sin 0) eae Je) ana) m aim, fia ( No * where i = 2n/f is the wavelength, HR, 0) = a, 8) Write the expression for instantaneous Poynting vector. b) Find the total average power rasiniee by the current clement Solution 4) We note that Ey/H, = no = 120x (2), The instantaneous Poynting vector is R[ELR, Oe] x weLH(R, Deh] = tose i 0 om (WA8-5 NORMAL INCIDENCE AT A PLANE 2 CONDUCTING BOUNDARY 332 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 1) The average power density vector is, from Eq, (8-69), PRD : e(i) ae which is seen to equal the time-average value of PR, 9;1) given in the first equation of this solution. The total average power radiated is obtained by in- tegrating %,,(R. 0) over the surface of the sphere of radius R. GRO as= [f° [5«(G) sint 0] asin das -ae (eo, Total Py, where 1 is tbe amplitude (times the effective value) ofthe sinusoidal current inde, Up to this point we have discussed the propagation of uniform plane waves in an unbounded homogeneous medium. In practice, waves often propagate in bounded regions where several media with different constitutive parameters are present. When an electromagnetic wave traveling in one medium impinges on another medium with a diferent intrinsic impedance, it experiences a reflection. In Sections 8-5 and 8-6 we examine the behavior of a plane wave when it is incident upon a plane conducting boundary. Wave behavior at an intesface between (wo dielectric ‘media will be discussed in Sections 8~7 and 8-8 For simplicity we shall assume thatthe incident wave (E,, H) travels in a lossless medium (medium 1:2, =0) and that the boundary is an interface with a perfect conductor (medium 2:a, = 22). Two cases will be considered: normal incidence and oblique incidence. In this section we study the field behavior of a uniform plane ‘wave incident normally on a plane conducting boundary. Consider the'situation in Fig, 8-7 where the incident wave travels in the +2 direction, and the boundary surface is the plane z = 0, The incident electric and magnetic field intensity phasors are: Eye) (70a Hye) =a, 22 & 8-706) =a, c where £jp isthe magnitude of E, at := 0, nd p, and n, are, respectively, the phase constant and the intrinsic impedance of medium 1. Itis noted that the Poynting vector of incident waves, (2) = Ec) x H(), isin the a, direction, which is the direction of eneray propagation. The variable is negative in medium 1 i 1 | t |in the first sined by ine 8 d0 dp vidal current in bounded are present, 1 In Sections ident upon a wo dielectric sing lossless ing ith 2 perfect ncidence and niform plane als in the +2 telectri¢ and /Xq0a) ¢°~70b) ely, the phase the Poynting | whi is the 1 he ie 8-5 / NORMAL INCIDENCE AT A'PLANE CONDUCTING BOUNDARY 333 b ie dnl “be i a : ' : | at Medium | Mau 2 =o |r) ” URE TPLC SS rie.s7 rane wave inientaonmaly ona plane conducting boundary. Inside medium 2 (a perfect conductor) both electric and magnetic fields vanish, Es = 0, H, = 0; henet no wave is transmitted across the boundary into the : > 0 region, The incident wave is reflected, giving rise to a reflected wave (EH), The i reflected clectric field intensity can be written as E,(2) = aE get, (s-71) where the positive sign in the exponent signifies that the reflected wave travels in the ~= direction, as discussed in Section 8-2. The total electric field intensity in ‘medium 1 is the sum of E and E,. Ey(2) = Els) + Eyl) = a, Ege + Ege") 6-72) Continuity of the tangentil component of the E-ield atthe boundary : = 0 demands that 110) = a,(Bio + E,) = EO) = 0, which yields £, = —Ejo. Thus, Eq. (8-72) becomes Ey(2) = a,Eg(e7 i = e*/P7) =A, j2B9 sin fz (8-732) ‘The miaiietic field intensity H, of the reflected wave is related to E, by Eg, (8-24) 1 L . Hy) =a, x By qt) BG) 2 gegen gE gre, mn ny‘334 * Combining H(z) with Hc) in Eq, (8-70b), we obtain the total magnetic field inten- sity in medium 1: H,() = Hy) +H E, 1,258 cos 8,2 8-136 aan 6, (! ) Itis clear from Eqs. (8-73a), (8~73b), and (8-69) that no average power is associated with the total electromagnetic wave in medium 1, since E,(=) and H(z) are in phase quadrature, In order to examine the space-time behavior of the total field in medium 1, we first write the instantaneous expressions corresponding to the electric and magi tie field intensity phasors obtained in Eqs. (8-734) and (836) Ey(6.1) = Ref Ey(sle™] = a,2F 9 sin By sn or, (8-742) HG.0)= Bl] = 3,258 os fs en os (8-746 Both Ey(z«) and Hy(c, 0) possess zeros and maxima at fixed distances from the conducting boundary for ail r,s follows: / Zer0s of (5.1) } occurat fe ne, ors —n 2, Marina of 9 neon, Maxima of E,(:, 0) } occur at ans 05, me 1d, } occur at (2 D5 or (2h ng Zeros of Hy, 0) me 012. The total wave in medium 1 is not a traveling wave. It is a standing wave, resulting {rom the superposition of two waves traveling in opposite directions. For a given 1 both FE, and H, vary sinusoidally with the distance measured from the boundai Plane. The standing waves of E, = a,F, and H, = aff, are shown in Fig. 8. several values of wt, Note the following three points: (1) E, vanishes on the con. ducting boundary (Ey = ~ Eq); (2) H, is a maximum on the conducting boundary (Hig = Hig = Eio/n;); (3) the standing waves of E, and H, are in time quadrature (90° phase difference) and ure shifted in space hy a quarter wavelength, Example 8-7 A y-polarized uniform plane wave-(E,.H) with a frequency 100 (MHz) propagates in air and impinges normally on a perfectly conducting plane at x =0. Assuming the amplitude of E, to be 6 (mV/m), write the phasor and instan- taneous expressions for: (a) F, and H, of the incident wave; (b) E, and H, of the reflected wave; and (c) E, and H, of the total wave in air. (d) Determine the location nearest to the conducting plane where E, is'zer0,ield inten- (8-736) associated ein phase ium 1, we magnetic (8-74a) (s-74b) from the resulting a given t, boundary 8 for the cone boundary uadrature enc/ rok vd instan- H, of the 2 Towuthon 8-5 / NORMAL INCIDENCE AT A PLANE CONDUCTING BOUNDARY 335 (©) My veeeas3 8 Standing waves of, = a, and My = aH for several values of or Solution: At the giveh frequency 100 (MHz), * (radjs), (radjm), ) For the incident wav 1) Phasor expressions Ea) = 6 x 10-92 (V/m, traveling wave) Bae nye ete A BiG) = Fa EG) = a, an : (A/m). ii) Instamtaeous expressions Bios.) = Fe[E aie] = 86 «10°? cos (25 x Jot Mix, =a, 4 0 eos (= x 108-2336 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 b) For the reflected wave (a traveling wave): ') Phasor expressions EJs) = 79,6 x 10-2e™9 (vj), 10-* een aio) fi) Instantaneous expressions E,(x, 0) = Re[Ey(x)et] = —a,6 x 102 cos (« x totes 2 } (vim), 10-* 2n Hox0 cos (ze «10h + ) (aim). ©) For the total wave (a standing wave): i) Phasor expressions E x(x) = E(x) + Eyl) Hy(x) = Hy) + Hts) ii) Instantaneous expressions Exes, ALE xe] oe viento) cotae 09 4) The electric field vanishes at the surface of the conducting plane at x =0. In medium 1, the first null occurs at (m), 8-6 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE AT A PLANE CONDUCTING BOUNDARY When 2 uniform plane wave is incident on a plane conducting surface obliquely. the behavior ofthe reflected wave depends on the polarization of the incident wave. In order to be specific about the direction of E,, we define a plane of incidence as the plane containing the vector indicating the direction of propagation of the incident wave and the normal to the boundary surface. Since an E, polarized in an arbitrary direction can always be decomposed into two components—one perpendicular an 64 rWim), (vim, tx=0In why, slow wave, hice .€ as the incident narbitrary dicular and 337 pede? * sonciog Incident wave Medium (=o) wave incident obliquely on a plane conducting rao boundary (perpendicular polarization) the other parallel to the plane of incidence The general case is obtained by superposing We consider these 1wo cases separately the resuits of the two component cases Perpendicular Polarization’ {in the case of perpendicular polarization, E's pérpendicular to the plane of incidence, as illustrated in Fig, 8-9, Noting that a, sin 0, + a, c0s 0,, (8-75) where 0 is the angle of incidence measured from the normal to the boundary surface, ‘we obtain, using Eqs. (8~17) and (8-24), E(s2) Ege esa tebe) coal Hx, 2) 7, fue E,(x, 2} = Fi agc08 0,495 sin e“esnnsenns,—(§ 769) nN : For the reflected wave, ~. aye = AG SIN; ~ Ay 608 Oye 7) Where 0, is the angle of relection, we have E.G =) = age ieonee=somny (8-78) " Also refered to a5 horizontal polarization or polarisation338 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 7 8 At the boundary surface, z= 0, the total electric field intensity must vanish. Thus, E(x, 0) Bix, 0) + E(x, 0) (Ege i Ege M85) =) {hn order for this relation to hold for all values of x, we must have E,y = — Ey and 8, = 0). The latter relation, asserting that che angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence, is referred to as Snell's law of reflection. Thus, Eq. (8-78) becomes E(x, 2) = a Ejge"Uerinte-zem oy (6-792) ‘The corresponding H,(x, 2) is 1 ; (x, 2) = fay, x E(x, 2) Hubs 2) = FL x Els 2] = F(a, cos 8, ~ a, sin demise m a "0, (8-796) The total field is obtained by adding the incident and reflected fields. From Eqs. (8~76a) and (8~79a) we have : Ex, 2) Egle ne IBvssin = —2,j2Eio sin (fz cos O,jeit=¥% (8-808) ‘Adding the results in Eqs. (8~76b) and (8796), we get Hus, ~2 a, cos cos (hz cos 0jemsrnn m + asin sin(Byz cos jer"). (8-80) Equations (8-80a) and (8-80b) are rather complicated expressions, but we can make the following observations about the oblique incidence of a uniform plane ‘wave with perpendicular polarization on a plane conducting boundary 1. In the direction (¢ direction) normal to the boundary, E,, and H,, maintain standing-wave patterns according to sin fi.2 and cos ff,.=, respectively, where 1. = Bx cos 0}, No average power is propagated in this direction since F,, and Hi, are 9° out of time phase. - 2. In the direction (x direction) parallel to the boundary, fy, and Hy, are in both time and space phase and propagate with a phase velocity oa By si8 0,” sin ~ ast vanish, angle of (8-794) (8-790) (8-0a) (8-806) Uwe ean 1 plane naintain y, where Ey and gor tae 8-6 / oBtIaUE'INCIDENCE AT A PLANE CONDUCTING BOUNDARY 939 ‘The wavelength In this direction is das Bu” sin, 3. The propagating wave in the x direction is a nonuniform plane wave because its amplitude varies with's, 4. Since E, = 0 for all x when sin (fz gos 0,) or when -m m= 1,2,3, without changing the field pattern that exists between the conducting plate and the conducting bourcd: =0.A transverse electric (TE) wave (Ey, bounce back arid forth between the conducting planes and propagate in the v direction. We have, it effect, a parallel-plate waveguide. Example 8-8 A uniforna plane wave (I, H,) of an angular frequency cis incident from air on a very large. perfectly conducting wall at an angle of incidence t, Perpendicular polarization. Find (a) thé current induced on the wall surface, and (b) the time-average Poynting veetor in medium 1 Solution 4) The conditions of this problem are exactly those we have just discussed: hence we could use the formulas directly, Let : = O be the plane representing the surface ofthe perfectly conducting wall, and let E, be polarized in the y direction, as was shown in Fig. 8-9. At z= 0, E,(x,0)=0, and (x, 0) can be obtained from Lg. (8-800): E Hix= (30) P Inside the perfeelly conducting wall, both Ey and H must vanish. There is then 48 discontinuity liv the magnétic field. The amount of discontinuity is equal to Ue surface current, From Ly. (7 -52b), we have TMs) = aya Habs. 0)340” PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 ‘The instantaneous expression for the surface current is isdeaEBergcno(:—Eens) thi 0-8 Tt is this induced current on the wall surface that gives rise to the reflected wave (8-83) where 8, = B, cos 0y. The time-average Poynting vector in medium 2 (a-perfect conductor) is, of course, zero. 8-6.2 Parallel Polarization’ = ‘We now consider the case of F,; lying in the plane of incidence while a uniform plane wave impinges obliquely on a perfectly conducting plane boundary, as depicted in Fig. 8-10. The unit vectors a,, and ay, representing, respectively, the directions of propagation of the incident and reflected waves. remain the same as those given in Reflected Incident Fig. 8-10 Plane wave incident ‘obliquely on a plane conducting boundary (parallel polarization), * Also referred to as eertal polarization or H-polarzatn |(8-82) sted wave 5.(8-80a) Pay will i 8-6 (OBLIQUE INCIDENCE AT’A PLANE CONDUCTING BOUNDARY 941 Eqs. (8-75) and ($~7)). Both E, and E, now hdve components in x and z directions, ‘whereas H, and H, hdve only # y component. We have, for the incident wave, ; E(x 5) = Biola, 608 0, ~ag in Oe Heri 0/ 460009, (6-84) Hie 2) 4, Ph einer, (8-846) ‘The reflected wave (E,, H}) have the following phasor expressions Ex18) = Ela, 0080, +aysin QjenBemmnrmes, (a5) Hila Ea gins : on AL the surface of the perfect conductor, = = 0, the tangential component (the © component) of the total electric field intensity must vanish for all x, or B,,(x. 0) = Eyal 0) = 0, From Buys, (8 88x) and (8. 85a), we have (Eig 60s HJe" P88 4 LE. COs O,je~ie*¥inte = 0, which requires H,» = ~ 1g and 0, = 0,, The total is the sum of Eqs. (8-34: and (8—85a) electric field intensity in medium Excy 82) + Bly 8,E ig 608 Oe sagbig sin Oe git om bg Bexsint co git bye J8 sins Eos, ~2Bia[a,j €08 O, sin (B,2 cos 0) +a, sin, cos (B,z.0s Ojo", (8-864) Adding Eqs. (8-840) and (8-85b), we obtain the total magnetic field intensity in ‘medium 1 Hy His, + HyLs, 2) Fit cos (2 eos je Bir (8-866) rn The interpretation of Eqs. (8~86a) and (8~86b) is similar to that of Eqs. (8-80) and (8-80b}-for the perpendicular-polarization case, except that HC, 2), now has both any and az component. We instead of 1. In the direction (= difection) normal to the boundary, E,, and H,, maintain standing-wave pattems according to,sin 7 and cos pi, respectively, where Biz = By 608 0, No average power is propagated inthis direction, since E,, and Hi, are 90° out of time phase342 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 2. In the x direction parallel to the boundary, E,, and H,, are in both time and space phase and propagate with a phase velocity w= u/sin 6, which is the same as that in the perpendicular polarization, 3, The propagating wave in the x direction is a nonuniform plane wave. 4. The insertion of a conducting plate at 2 = —mvi,/2 008 0, (m = 1.2,3,...) where E,, = 0 forall x will nt affect the field pattern that exists between the conducting plate and the conducting boundary at z = 0, which form a parallel-plate wave- ude. A transverse magnetic(TM) wave (H,,. = 0) will propagatein the x direction. 8-7 NORMAL INCIDENCE AT A PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY When an electromagnetic wave'is incident on the surface of a dielectric medium that hhas an intrinsic impedance different from that of the medium in which"the wave is, originated, part of the incident power is reflected and part is transmitted, We may think of the situation as being like an impedance mismatch in circuits, The case of wave incidence on a perfectly conducting boundary discusted in the two previous sections is like terminating a generator that has a certain internal impedance \s short circuit: no power is transmitted into the conducting 1 As before, we will consider separately, the two cases o ee and the oblique incidence of a uniform plane wave on a plane dielectric medium. Both media are assumed to be dissipationless (2, = a; = 0). We will discuss the wave behavior for normal incidence in this section. The case of oblique incidence will be taken up in Section 8 Consider the situation in Fig. 811 where the incident wave travels in direction and the boundary surface is the plane = = 0. The incident electric and the normal incide: e Reflected et Transmited wae He a wesen yee we Median Fig. 8-11 Plane wave incident normally on a plane diclectric boundary,1 time and sich is the ) where conducting, Inte waver direction, dent (8-87a) (8-87) ‘These are the same expressions a 2 is negative in medium 1 cause ofthe dium discontinuity at: ~ 0, the incident wave is putly reflected back into mediurd Mand partly transmitted into medium 2. We hove 8) For the reflecied wave (E,, H,) Ex) = a.£ ge, those given in Eqs. (8—70a) and (8-70b). Note that ay xt By in HG) b) For the transmitied wave (E,, H,) Bye) Eye, (8-894) Hy L ax + Els) cn here Eig isthe inagnitude of E, at = = 0, and Band ny are the phase constant And the intrinsié impedance of medium 2 respectively Note thal the directions ofthe arrows for E, and E in Fig.8-1 are arbitrarily drawn, because Bo and Ey may, themselves, be positive or nevative depending on the relative magnitudes of the constitutive parameters of the two media: ‘The suations tre needed for determining the two unknown magnitudes Eg 3net fia These equations are supplied by the boundary conditions thor amaat ce Gatsfied by the electric and magnetic fields. At the diclectric interface tangential componeais (the x components) of the electricand magnetic field intensities ‘must be continuous, We have EO) +E(0)= 50) or (8-90a) and HO) + HO) =H0) or (8-90b) 10a) and (8-90), we abiain (6-91) (8-92)344 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 : The ratios Ejo/Eio and Eyo/E are called, respectively, reflection’ coefficient and transmission coefficient, In terms of the intrinsic impedances, they are (Dimensionless) (8-93) 0 tae and re G2=— 2 (Dimensionless) (8-94) Note that the reflection coefficient I" in Eq, (8-93) can be positive or negative, de- Pending on whether m; is greater or less than 7, The transmission coelficient =, however, is always positive. The definitions for F and + in Eqs. (8-93) and (8-94) apply even when the media are dissipative: that is, even when m1, and/or rs are com- plex. Thus F and r may themselves be comples in the general case, A comples F (or #) simply means that a phase shift is introdueed at the interface upon reflection {or transmission), Reflection and transmission coefficients are related by the following equation: 14r (Dimensionless) (8-95) I medium 2 is a perfect conductor, 6, Eqs. (8-93) and (8-94) yield T= —1 and « = 0. Consequently, Ey = — Eo, and Ey, = 0, The incident wave will be totally reflected, and a standing wave will be produced in medium 1, The standing wave ‘will have zero and maximum points, as discussed in Section $5. If medium 2 is not a perfect conductor, partial reflection will result. The total electric field in medium 1 can be written as Exe) = E(C) + Ey) = aEiole* + Tet = 4, Epo[(1 + Te + Pet = a Eio[ll + De + T2 sin B2)] or, in view of Eq, (8-95), Eq(z) = a,Eyq[ set + T2sin By2)] (6-96) We see in Eq, (8-96) that F(z) is composed of two parts: a traveling wave with an amplitude tEjp, and a standing wave with an amplitude 27 Ep, Because of the exis- tence of the traveling wave, E,(2) does not go to zero at fixed distances from the interface; it merely has locations of maximum and minimum values, The locations of maximum and minimum |E,(2)| are conveniently found by rewriting E,(2) as E\(2) = a,Ege7" 1+ Petty (8-97)cient and |. (6-93) (8-94) ative, de nd 18-94} ate com omplex F rete Fant be totally ing wave The total (6-96) = with thee ‘ound by 6-97) $-7 NORMAL INCIDENCE AT,A PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY 345 For dissipationless media, and n, are real, making both T and r also real. However, T can be positive or negative. Consider the following two cases, LT >00>m). . The maximum value of |E,(2)| is Ei(1 +1), which occurs when 2,2 ~2nz(n=0, 1,2,..,,orat Bane ns 042, (6-98) The minimum Value.of [E,(2)| is Bg(1—T), which occurs when 2p, (n+ 1x, or at 0,12, (8-99) 21 <0 O and when I < 0 are interchanged, The ratio of the maximum value 10 the minimum value of the elvetric A intensity of a standing wave is called the standing-wave ratio, S (8-100) ‘An inverse relation of Eq, (8-100) is Sm = Set Dimensiontess 8-101 M=s less): | ee | ‘While the value of F ranges from ~1 fo 4-1, the value of S ranges from 110 Its customary to express $ on a logarith oc sca's. The standing-wave ratio in decibels is 20 logo S. Thus, S = 2 corresponds 10 4 stancitg-wave ratio of 20 logy 2 = 6.02 dB and |T| =~ 1)/2 + 1) = 4. A sianding-wave ratio of 2 4B is equivatent to S= 1.26 and |F] = 0.115, The magnetic field intensity in medium 1 is obtained by combining Hz) and H,(2) in Eqs. (-87b) and (8-880), respectively: Feige ren Hye) (8-102)y 346 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 ‘This should be compared with Fy(2) in Eq. ($97) Ina dissipationless medium, Fis reals and |Hy()| will be a minimum at locations where [E,()| is a maximum and vice versa. kn medium 2, (E,, H,) constitute the transmitted wave propagating in +2 direc: tion. From Eqs. (8-892) and (8-94), we have E, xB ge? (8-103a) And, from Eqs, (8-89b) and (8-94), oe" (8-103) : pad on MULT: AG) Example 8-9 A uniform plane wve in a lossless medium with intrinsic impedance 118 eident normaly onto another losses medium with inne maneteee oe through a plane boundary. Obtain the expressions for the timeavcece newes densities in both mei Solution: “Equation (8-69) provides the formula for computidg the timenave ower density, or time-average Poynting vector: P, = ARE x In medium 1, we use Eqs. (8-97) and (8-102), (hr (8-108) where [is a real number because both media are lossless y In medium 2, we use Eqs. (8-103a) and (8-103b) to obtain 7 (Pa (8-105) t Since we are dealing with lossless media, the power flow in medium 1 must equal that in medium 2; that is, Phi = Peds, ijium, Cis hum, and (8-103a) (81036) rpedance cadance m3 power age (8-104) (87295) m1 must ! | | | 8-8 1 NOAMAL INCIDENCE AT. MULTIPLE DIELECTRIC INTERFACES (8-106) ‘That Eq. (8-106) is true can be readily verified by using Eqs, (8-93) and (8-94). 8-8 NORMAL INCIDENCE AT MULTIPLE DIELECTRIC INTERFACES i In certain prictical situations a wave may be incident on several layers of dielee ‘media with different constitutive parameters. One such situation is the use of dielectric coating On glass in order to reduce glare from sunlight. Another is a radome, which is a dome-shaped enclosure designed not only to protect installations from inclement weather but to permit the propagation of electrom netic waves through the enclosure with as title reflection as possible. In both si tions, determining the proper dielectric material and i design probler We now consider ths threc-region situation depicted in Fig. 8-12. A uniform plane wave traveling in the += direction in medium,1 (€,,s1 impinges normally at a plane boundary with medium 2 (e;. ,¢:) at = = 0. Medium finite th and interfaces with medium 3 (€, 44) at 2 = d. Reflection occurs at both = = 0 and = d, Assuming ah x-polarized incident field, the total electric field intensity in thickness is an important wae 6 + Hh Transmited sid wive Medium | Medism2 | Mesiom 3 tea 2) | Gna) dense electric interfaces. Fig 8-12 Normal i ary at multiple‘348 “PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 a reflected component ,E,o¢!! Ey = a(Epe* + Ege) (8-107) However, owing to the existence of a second discontinuity at z'= d, Eyg is no longer related to Ej by Eq, (8-91) or Eq. (8-93). Within medium 2 parts of waves bounce back and forth between the two. bounding surfaces, some penetrating into media 1 and 3. The reflected field in medium 1 is the sum of (a) the field reffected from the interface at z = 0 as the incident wave impinges on it; (b) the field transmitted back into medium 1 from medium 2 after a first reflection from the interface at z = d; (6) the field transmitted back into medium I from medium 2 after @ second reflection, at z = 4d; and so on. The total reflected wave is, in fact, the resultant of the initial Feflected component and an infinite sequence of multiply reflected contributions ‘within medium 2 that are transmitjed back into medium I. Since all of the contribu tions propagate in the —z direction in medium | and contain the propagation factor *. they can be combined into a single term with a coefficient E,9. But how do we determine the relation between Fy antl Fy Ow? One way to find Eg is to write down the eleetrig and magnetic field intensity ‘vectors in all three regions and apply the boundary conditions. The H, in region 1 that corresponds to the E, in Eq. (8-107a) is, from Eqs. (8-876) and (8-88), Exel). (8-107) L Hy =a, + (Eye a The electric and magnetic fields in region 2 can also be represented by combinations of forward and backward waves: E, Efe 4 Ezeh, (8-108a) Lesete— zey a In region 3 only a forward wave traveling in +2 direction exists. Thus. Ey =aepe (8-109) 2 Hywa, Leune (8-109) 7 On the right side of Eqs. (8-1072) through (8~109b), there are a total of four unknown amplitudes: E,o, Ef, Ez, and E}. They can be determined by solving the four boundary-condition equations required by the continuity of the tangential components of the electric and magnetic fields. Atz=0: EO) = Ex), (8-110a) 1,0) = HO). (8-106), Bat(8-107a) no longer es bounce 2 media 1 | from the itted back raza dy [reflection the inital ributions 2 contribu: (8-107) mbinations 8-108a) (8-108) (8-108) (8-109) otal of four solving the tan” Wal (8-110a) (8-106) 8-84 oe E,@)= kya), (8-110) Hyd) = Hy), (8-110) The procedure is stuightlorward and i& purely algebraic (see Problem P.8~23), ln the following subsections we introduce the concept of wave impedance and ace h in an alternative approach for studying the problem of multiple eflections at normal incidence, Wave Impedance of Total iela We define the wave impedance of the total field at any plane parillel to the pl boundary as the ratio of the total electric field intensity to the total minetic field intensity. With a z-dependent uniform plane wave as was shown in Fig. $1. we write, in general, _ Total £2) 2) = (a) (s-11) For a single wave propuating in the +: direction in an unbounded medium, the wave impedance equals the intrinsic impedance, n, of the medium: for a» traveling in the ~z direction, itis ~7 for all =, In the case of a uniform plane wave incldent itom medium 1 normally on a plane boundary with an infinite medium 2, such as that illustrated in Fig. 8-11 and discussed in Section 8-7, the magnitudes of the total electric and magnetic field intensities in medium 1 are, from Eqs, (8-97) and (8-102), Eqle™ + Leite, (Ila) (8-111) ‘Their ratio defines the wave impedance of the total field in medium | at a distance = from the boundary plane ~ 6-11) which is obviously & function of ‘Ava distance == —/ tothe left ofthe boundaty plane, « Og pc Eula, ohare _. 20 BD =n Spe ge ) Using the definition of F = (ng ~ n,)ns +.) in Eq, (8113), we obtain ZO) = ny BSS Bal ts Sin Bae 6-119) "ny 005 Bye + jn sin Be"350 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 which correctly reduces ton, when 1; = 11. In that case, there is no discontinuity at z= 0; hence there is no reflected wave and the (otal-field wave impedance is the same as the intrinsic impedance of the medium, When we study transmission lines in the next chapter, we will find that Eqs. (8-113) and (8-114) are similar to the formulas for the input impedance of a trans- mission line of length ¢ that has a characteristic impedance q, and terminates in an impedance 1. There is a close similarity between the behavior of the propagation of uniform plane waves at normal incidence and the behavior of transmission lines, If the plane boundary is perfectly conducting, n; = 0 and T= —1, and Eq. (8-114) becomes Zl- =n tan Bye, -113) Which is the same as the input impedance of a transmission line of length / that has a characteristic impedance 7, and ferminates in a short ciruit 8-8.2 Impedance Transtormation with Multiple Dielectrics The concept of total-field wave impedance is very useful in solving problems with multiple dielectric interfaces such as the sttuation shown in Fig. §-12. The total field in medium 2 is the result of multiple reflections of the two boundary planes Oand = = d; but it can be grouped into a wave traveling in the += direction and another traveling in the —2 direction, The wave impedance of the total field in medium 2 at the left-hand interface = = 0 can be found irom the right side of Eq (8-114) by replacing 7; by ms, ms by na, Bx by Ba, and / by d. Thus, 113608 Bad + jns sin ad 13608 ad + jn sit fad AAs fara the wave in medium | is coneomed it encounters a discontinuity at =0 and the discontinuity can be characterized by an infinite medium with an intrinsic impedance Z,(0) as given in Eq, (8-116). The effective reflection coeficient = 0 for the incident wave in medium | is Ex Hey _ 210) wo Hy 2300 My We note that I dilfers from only in that m3 has been replaced by Z,(0). Hence > the insertion of dielectric layer of thickness d and intrinsic impedance 7s in front of medium 3, which has intrinsic impedance n, has the eect of tansforming ms 10 Z,{0)- Given m; and ns, M can be adjusted by suitable choices of 73 and d 240) =n: 8-116) To (117) Once I'g has been found from Eq. (8-117), Ey of the reflected wave in medium : 1 can be calculated: Ey) =ToEjo. In many applications Ig and Ej. are the only quantities of interest; hence this impedance-transformation approach is conceptually simple and yields the desired answers in a direct manner. Ifthe fields E, E7 andntinuity tee is the: * that Eqs fa wans- wes ian on lines. and Eq, (8-115) that has (8-116) innity at wish an oeflisient [$417 2, Hence pingsont mea the only ‘eptually +E; and E, in media 2 ahd 3 are also desired, they éan be determined ftom the boundary conditions at zs: Oana z~ d (see Problem P8-23) Example 8-10 A dielectric layer of thickness d and intrinsic impedance ns is placed ‘between media 1 and 3 having intrinsic impediinces n, and n, respectively, Determine d and m, suéh that no reflection occurs wheh a uniform plane wave in medium 1 impinges normally on the interface with medium 2, Solution: With the dielectric layer interposed between media 1 and 3 as shown in ig. 8-12, th¢ condition of no feflectioncat interface z = O requires Ty = 0, or Z(0) = nny From Eq, (6-116) we have me naltt3 cos Bad + jna sin Bad) = n,(n, cos Bad + jny sin Bd). (8-118) Equating the ral ad imaginary parts separately, we require hy 08 fl = 1,005 Bad wy and isn Bad = nana sn Bad (8-120) Equation (8119) is satisfied if either man (s-121) £08 Pad =0, Which implies that by +05 dane na04,2 1224 Qn DY O12 W1Bay 0 the ane bil, if condition (8121) holds, Eg, (8-120) can be satistied when either (a) ys = is < ahieh is the Livial ease of no discontinuities at all, oF (0) sin Bod i ‘On the other hdd, irrelation (8-1 and Eq, (8-120) cant be satisfied when 1. for the condition of no reflection, ) oF (8=122a) holds, sin ad does not vanish, Jinins. We have then two possibilities 1, When ns = nj, we require a z that is, the thickness of the dielectric layer be a multiple of a half wavelength in the dielectric at the operating frequency. Such a dielectric layer is referred to asa half-wave dielectric window. Since A = uya/f = f,fusea, where f isthe operating frequency, a half-wave dielectric window is a narrow-band device352 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 2. When ns vn, we require n= Vim and a= Qn4 2 When media 1 and 3 are different, n should be the geometric mean of , and ‘ns, and d should be an odd multiple of a quarter wavelength in the dielectric layer at the operating frequency in order to eliminate reflection. "Under these conditions the dielectric layer (medium 2) acts like a quarter-wave impedance transformer. We will refer to this term again when we study analogous trai mission-line problems in Chapter 9 8-9 OBLIQUE INCIDENCE AT A PLANE ELECTRIC BOUNDARY \Ss now consider the case of a plane wave tha i incident obliquely at an arbitrary ile of incidence 0, on a plane interface between two dieléctrie-media. The media ~ are assumed to be lossess and to have diferent constitutive parameters (¢, ,)and (zsh a8 indicated in Fig. 8-13. Because of the medium's discontinuity at the interface, a part of the incident wave is reflected and a partis transmitted. Lines AO. O'A'. and O'B are, respectively, the intersections of the wavefronts (surfaces of constant phase) of the incident, reflected, and transmitted waves with the plane of incidence, Since both the incident and the reflected waves propagate in medium 1 withthe same phase velocity 1, the distances Oa’ and AO’ must be equal, Thus, OO’ sin, = OO sin 8, Retaced u u — i a4 Metiom! | Medign 2 Flg-8-13 Uniform plane wave ij au) | tam ineiden obiguely on plane zo dieletrie boundary,of ny and dieisctric der these ‘mpedance ous trans- arbitrary ne pia be yra wl. Hanes faces of » plane of nedium 1 Thus, e941 2 / OBLIOUE INCIDENCE AT A PLANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY 59 {8 id local 0,5 0,. (8-123) i @ cess Equation (8-123) assires us that the angle of reflection is equal (0 the angle of incidence, which is Snell's law of reflection. Jn medium 2, the time.it takes for the trargmitted wave to travel from 0 to B auals the time forthe incident wave to travel ftom A to... We have bon ao oR from which we obtain a! (8-124a) Where 1, and ny are indices of refraction for media 1 of refraction of 4 mediur is the ratio of the speed of in tree space to that ift th: medium: that is, m sskrown as Snel’ law of refraction Ustates tha at aimee benneen ha alec ie ined the ratio ofthe sine the angle of refraction in media ? to d sine of the angle Of ncidence in medium Ji equa to the inoerse rato of indices of rfc ni For nonmagnetic theuia. 1, = py = yy Vay th 12a) becopee oe ee tind 2 respectively, The index flight (electromagnetic wave) {iy. The relation in Eq. (8-124) reduces to (8-124) Since ny = Tit is clear th: ey &t a plane wave incident obliquely at an interface with a wer medium will be bent toward the normal Total Reflection aie stow oxtmine Snell's law in Eq, (124) for ¢, > es—that is, when the 3, incest itm Lis iident on a less dense medium 2.In that cate, 6> 8) Siang 9, increases with 0, af interesting’stuation arses when 0, w)2 at whi angie‘954. PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 the refracted wave will glaze along the interface; further increase in 0, would result in no refracted wave, and the incident wave is then said to be totally reflected. The angle of incidence 0, which corresponds to the threshold of total reflection 8, = x/2) is called the critical angle, We have, by setting 0, = 7/2 in Eq. (8~124b), sind,= 15 (§-125a) va 0, (Ses (2) (8-1256) This situation is illustrated in Fig. 8-14 where a,, ay, and tye are unit vectors d noting the directions of propagation of the incident, reflected, and transmitted waves respectively. ‘What happens mathematically if 6 is larger than the critical angle 0, (sin > sin 9, = ye5/e,)? From Eq, (81240) we have — (8-126) which does not yield a real solution for 0,- Although sin 0, in Eq. (8-126) is still real cos 0, becomes imaginary when sin 0, > 1 T=wHT, = aj [sir cos 0 eI Reflected Incident Medium 1 (ais) Fig. 8-14 Plane wave incident cxitcal angle, €. > €:puld result ected. The 00, = n/2) (8-125b) weciors a ied waves Da tsin > i (0-126) 1s sil real, (8-127) 8 / OBLIQUE:INCIDENCE AT A PUANE DIELECTRIC BOUNDARY 955 {In medium 2, thé unit vector ay in the dlrection of propagation of typical transmitted (refracted) wave, as shown in Fig. 8-13, is hea F || Be Ae 8in 0, + a, c0s 0. (8-128) Both E, and H, vary spatially in accordance with the following factor: GB Ra pita, which, when Eqs. (8-126) and (8-127) for Y, > 4, are used, becomes Peg Tins, (8-129) where and would lead 10 th nereases, We can conclude from ($129) that for 0, > 0, a wave exists along the interface (in x direction), which is attenuates SPonentially (rapidly) in medium 2 in the normal direction (= dizection), This wave ip ghuy bound to the interface and is called a suface wave, Its illustrated in Fig. 8-14. Obviously it is & nenuniform plane wave. impossible result of ut increasing Example 8-11 A didlectsie rod or fiber ofa transparent material can be used to guide light or an electromagnetic wave under the conditions of total internal refleion Determine the minimlim dielectric constant of the guiding medium so thot # wave incident on one end at any angle will be coffined within the rod unlit emerges rem the other end, i Solution: "Refer to Fig. 8 -1S, For total internal reflection, 0, must be greater than oF equal to 8, for the buiding dielectric medium; that's, sin 0, > sin @ or, since 0 0s 0, & sin 8. (8-130) a 8-18 Dielectric rod or fiber guiding electromagnetic wave by total internal reflection, ee TT3-92 356 _ PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 From Snel!’ law of refraction, Eq. (8-124, we have sk sina (8-131) Itisimportant to note here thatthe dielectric medium has been designated as medivm I (the denser medium) inorder to be consistent with the notation ofthis susetion Combining Eqs. (8-130), (8-131), and (8~125a}, we obtain sin 8, feo_ jin? 6, > {$2 7 : Vea Jen which requires en BL + sin? 6, (8-132) Since the largest value of the right side of (8-132) is reached when 0, = require the dielectric constant of the guiding medium to be at least 2, which corre- ponds ton index of refraction my =. This requirement i satisfied by euss and quartz We observe that Snell's law of refraction in Eg, (8-124b) and the critical angle {or total reflection in Eq, (8125b) are independent of the polarization of the incident clectric field. The formulas for the reflection and transmission coefficients, however, are polarization-dependent. In the following two subsections we discuss perpendicular polarization and parallel polarization separately. Perpendicular Polarization For perpendicular polarization the incident electric and magnetic field intensity phasors in medium I are, from Eqs. (8-76a) and (8-766). Ey(x, 2) = a,Ege Mies + sem 6 ) Hix, Ena cond asin dermirsnbnsemdl, (8133) ‘The reflected electric and magnetic fields can be obtained from Eqs. (8-79a) and (8-79b), but remember that Fy is no longer equal to ~ Eo Ege M08 Ex 2)= men (8-134a) Hix, 2) = £22 (a, 605 6, + a, sin 0 jee m sme), (81346) In medium 2, the transmitted electric and magnetic field intensity phasors can be similarly written as Hibs, I i | {131) \smedium, ubsection. (8-132) hiss and 4 incensity ($-133a) “(8-133b) ~19a) and (8-134a) (81340) oO asors can 35a) 8 (8-136) 4-2 7 obtique mcineNce at A PLANE oieLecrmic BOUNDARY 357 There aré folr inknéwn quantities in Eqs. (8 ~133a) through (8-135b), namely, Cie, Foo Baal 0. Their determination follows from the requirements thar ie {gosential componénts of E and H be continuous at the boundary oO: Bree Bul 0) + El 0) = E(x, 0), we have Be si geniPindnt Bg aesing (8-136a) Similarly, from Hy(x, 0) + H,<(x, 0) = HAx, 0) we require Bien, : = Ecos gettin, eis) Ts Because Eqs, (8-i36a) and (8-136b) are to be satisfied for all x, all three exponentiat factors that are functions of x must by equal. Thus, Axx sin 0, = Bx sin 0, Which leads to Snell's law of reflection (9, = 0) ) and Snell's law of refraction (sin 0, sin 8, = B,/B, u/s) Equations (8-136a) and (81365) can now be written simple as (61372) and 8-137) from which Ey and Eg can be found in te-ms of E. We have Fxg _ 12608 0,— m cos r= £8 = Hy 608 E160: 0, Fm, 008 0, tafeos 8) ~ (nfeos 0) i . hal 8-138 13/003 8) + tn, 603 0) oo and 2ay/e0s 0) soy | _ (8-139) tnsieos) + (feos dy Comparing These expressidns with the formulas forthe relletion and transmission coefficients at normal incidenes, Eqs, (8-93) and (8-94, wesee thet ihevanne formulas apply ifm and n, are changed (0 (100s 0) and (5/008 0) respectively. When ; = 0, ‘making 0, = 0, = 0, these expressions reduce to those for normal incidence, as they hese are sometimes referred 1 as Frise eho358 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC. WAVES / 8 should. Furthermore, F, and r, are related in the following way: l+fen, (8-140) which is similar to Eq. (8-95) for normal incidence. If medium 2 is a perfect conductor, 1 =0. We have I = —I(Ejo = —Eig) and ¢, = {Eye = 0). The tangential E field on the surface of the conductor vanishes, and no energy is transmitted across 2 perfectly conducting boundary, as we have noted in Sections 8-5 and 8-6. + ‘Noting that the numerator for the reflection coefficient in Eq, (8-138) is in the form of a difference of two terms, we inquire whether there is a combination of ns, ns, and 8, which makes I, = 0 for no reflection. Denoting this particular 0, by Op, we require Mh: 608 0p, =n £08 8 (e141) Using Snell's law of refraction, we have cos 0, = T= sin? G (8-142) and obtain from Eq. (8-141) sin? Op, | (8-143) ‘The angle Op, is called the Brewster angle of no reflection for the case of perpendicular polarization. For nonmagnetic media, 1, = 11; = jig, the right side of Eq, (8-143) ‘becomes infinite, and Op, does not exist. In thecasc fe, = €; and js, + 2, E4, (8-143) reduces to sin Op, (8-144) Vi ali Which does have a solutio whether s/s is greater oF less than unity. However, it is a very rare situation in electromagnetics that two contiguous media have the same permittivity but diflerent permeabilities. Parallel Polarization ‘When a uniform plane wave with parallel polarization is incident obliquely on a plane boundary, as illustrated in Fig. 8-16, the incident and reflected electrie and ‘magnetic field intensity phasors in medium 1 are, from Eqs. (8-84a) through (8-850): E((x, 2) = Eva, cos 0 — a, sin Oe 40 #1 (@-145a) Be gina robs ns Hyx, 2)8-140) o= ~Ex) r vanishes, 1s we have 8) is ia the tion of ty 0 by Bas. (8-141) (s-142) (8-143) pendicular 4, (8-143) 4.18143) is 144) However shave the yuely on a extra hie) (8-145a) (8-1456) Retected 3 | ‘Transmited Incident wave Fig. 8-16 Plane wave incident e dbiquey ona plane di dium} Medium 2 boundary (paral (ee wa) (2) af 0 (8-146a) (81466) ‘The transmitted electric and magnetic field intensity phasors in medium 2 are Ex 2)= Hyx, 2) (8-147) Centinvity requirements for the tangential components of E and H at = 0 lead Sea ga nels laws of reflection and refraction, as well as to the following tes equations: (Eig + Eo) c0s 0, (8-145 * (lig — Eo) (8-148b) n Solving for Ey» and Ey in erms of Ep, we obtain Ex _ 608 0,~ 1, 605 6, . Fo = acoso me 149) —— 10 ts 6080, 7, cos 6, a and ty = Em 2a 08 (8-150) Ex 30050, +n, cos, "These ate also referred to as Frese uationsa) ‘ks 4 360 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 tis easy to verify that vera) e5 Loew Equation (8~151) is seen to be different from Eq. (8-140) for perpendicular polariza- tion except when. , = 8, = 0, which is the case-for normal incidence, At normal incidence Ty and ty reduce to T' aiid given in Eqs. (8-93) and (8-94) respectively, asdid I and zy, If medium 2 is a perfect conductor (7; = 0), Eqs. (8-149) and (8-150) simplify to Ty = —1 and zy = 0 respectively, making the tangential component of the total E field on the surface of the conductor vanish, as expected From Eq, (8-149) we find that T), goes to zero when the angle of incidence 0, equals @yy, such that ny 6086, which, together with Eq. (8-142), requires n €08 Op (8-159) bls sin® Onn = ee (8-153) The angle Opy is known as the Brewster angle of no reflection for the case of parallel polarization, A solution for Eq, (8-153) always exists for two contiguous nonmag- netic media. Thus, if 1s = uz = Ho, a reflection-ee condition is obtained when the angle of incidence in medium 1 equals the Brewster angle 8g), such that 1 sin Oy (8-154) Vi¥ ele) Because of the difference in the formulas for Brewster angles for perpendicular and parallel polarizations, it is possible to separate these two types of polarization in an unpolarized wave. When an unpolarized wave such as random light is incident upon a boundary at the Brewster angle 0, given by Eq. (8-153), only the component with perpendicular polarization will be reflected, Thus, « Brewster angle is also referred to as a polarizing angle. Based on this principle, quartz windows set at the Brewster angle at the ends of a laser tube are used to control the polarization of an ‘emitted light beam. Example 8-12 The dielectric constant of pure water is 80, (a) Determine the Brewster angle for parallel polarization, J, and the corresponding angle of trans- mission. (b) A plane wave with perpendicular polarization is incident from air on water surface at 6, = Gy. Find the reflection and transmission coefficients. i | | } ! | 1 REVIEV(@-151) poliriza- & normal pectively, ) simplify the total ‘idence 8 of parallel when the (8-154) vendicular Tarization s incident omponent le is also set at the tion ofan « miinethe 2 of trans- om air on REVIEW QUESTIONS 361 Solution ) The Brewster angle of no reflectio n for parallel polarization can be obtained directly rom Eg, (8154): VIF 00) The corresponding angle of transmission is, ftom Eq, (81240), 5) For an incident wave with perpendicuiar polarization, we use Eqs. (8138) and (8-138) tofind Fy ane +, at = 81.0" and 0, = 638" 1 = 37710), reo 0, = 2410(9) 7 t= 740110, gyjeos6,= 404). Jes Thus 404 ~ 2610 "= aoas aio ~ ~0967 2x 404 +> aT Dag = 9033. ‘We note that the relation between ', and t, given in Eq, (8140) is satisfied REVIEW QUESTIONS RB-1_ Define uniform plane ve RB-2 What is a wavefion? RS-3. Writethehomogenco.is vector Helmholi’s equation for Ein fee space RA—4_Deline warcnmber, bw is waycaumber relate to wavelength? RS-5. Define phase velocity 8-6 Define intrinsic impedance of a medium: What isthe value of the of free space?| intrinsic impedance962 PLANE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES / 8 R87 What isa TEM wave? RS-8_ Write the phasor expressions for the electric and magnetic field itensity vectors of ax = polarized uniform plane wave propagating in the z direction, RS-9 What is meant by the polarization of a wave? When is a wave linearly polarized? Cir cularly polarized? R8-10 Two orthogonal linearly polarized waves are combined. State the conditions under which the resultant wil be (a) another tinearly polarized wave, (b) a circularly polarized wave, sand (¢) an elipically polarized wave. R11. Define (a) propagation constant, (b) attenuation constant, 1d () phase constant How is it related to the attenuation R812 What is meant by the skin depth of a conduc constant? How does it depend on 2? On f? RS-A3 What is meant by the dispersion of x signal? Give an example of a dispersive medium, RB-14 Define group celoit. In what ways is group velocity different from phase velocity? RB-15 Define Poynting vector. What isthe SU unit for this vector?=—__ RB-16 State Poynting's theorem, RS-17 For a timeharmonic electromagnetic Held, write the expressions in terms of electric and magnetic fld intensity vectors for (a instantaneous Poynting vector and (b) time-average Poynting vector RS ‘What is a standing wave? 8-19 What do we know about the magnitude of the tangential components of E and H at the interface when a wave impinges normally on a peefeetly conducting plane boundary? RB-20 Define plane of incidence R8-21 What do we mean when we say an incident wave has (a) perpendicular polarization and (b) parallel polarization? RB-22 Define reflection coefcien and transmission coefiiene, What isthe relationship between, them? RS-25 Under what conditions will reflection and transmission coefficients be veal? R8-24 What are the values of the reflection and transmission coefcients at an intesface with 8 perfectly conducting boundary? RA-25 A plane wave originating in median 1 fe, te ~ Hon ty +0) i ncident normally on plane interface with medium 2(; # €,,as = Hoy = W, Under what condition will the eectie field atthe interface be a maximum? A minimum? 8-26 Define standing-wace ravi. What is its relationship with reflection coefficient? R8-27 What is meant by the wave impedance ofthe total field, When is this impedance equal to the intrinsic impedance of the medium? PROEPROBLEMS 363 : 4-28 Thin dcectiecaing i sprayed on opal Instruments o reduc are, Wht tos oe determine ine thicknes athe sat? eco =i R.8-29 How should the thickness of the radome in a radar installation be chosen? simi ce 4-30 State Set lw fret, WB-31 State Slew of reaction thon under 225-32 Dine cri! age, When des it ois at an neice of wo nonmagnetic nia? wed waves RS-32 Detne Bremer angle When dest exist at ah intertae of two nonmagaetic mea? / RE-M Why isa Bronte angle alo called a poariing ang? on 8-36 Under what conion wil he elton and ransmision coins for pepenieter atenuation i polarization be the same as those for parallel polarization? sive meium, { “ {PROBLEMS 8-1 Provethat thet inn in E817) aise he homogeneous Henbot’s cation provided tha the conton Eq 8-18) euro - | PAA Fora harmonic unlorm pine wate propagating in a simple medium. both and oo ol a ~=—<—M—) Will there be relletion a interface = =O iful = 2,4? Expl P8-24 A transparent dielectric coating is applied to glass (¢, = 4 reflection of red light [2 = 0.75 (um)] 4) Determine the required dielectric constant and thickness ofthe coating ) If violet light [2 = 0.42 (um)} is shone lormally on the coated glass, what percentage ‘of the incident power will be reflected? = 1) to eliminate the P8-25 Refer to Fig. 8-12, which depicts three different dielectric media with two parallel interfaces. A uniform plane wave in medium 1 propagates inthe += direction, Let I’, and Psy denote, respectively, the reflection coefficients berween media { and 2 and between media 2 and 3, Express the effective rellection coelficent, I, at = Ty, and Ba 0 for the incident wave in terms of Ty , H ‘Medium 1 (ae) Fig. 8-17 Plane wave incident formally onto a dielectric slab backed by a perfectly conducting plane (Problem P.8-26)ient equals in incertace condition? sa interfce 53. Find the 2g 8 cosine dium. thickness mvedia 2and rms of Ty, PROBLEMS 367 8-26 A uniform plane wave with B66. aig coro(— 3 jin medium 1 (e, 44 is incident normally onto a lossless dielectec slab (¢p, pi) of a thickness d backed by a perfectly conducting plane, as shown in Fig. &17, Find + a) Els.) b Buea ©) Eales) @ dy 9 Pads £) Determine the thickness d that makes Es, the same as ifthe dielectric slab were absent 8-27 A uniform plant wave with E(2) = ayEige™'* in air propagates normally through a thin eopper sheet of thickness d, as shown in Fig. 8-18. Neglecting multiple relections within {he copper sheets find a) EDS bby 9) Eso Hae OAPs, Calculate (2), /(Pq) fora thickness d that equals one skin depth at 10 (MH (Note that this Pertains tothe shielding effectiveness of the thin copper sheet.) (od) Fig. 8-18 Plane wave propagating trough a thin copper sheet (Prableim P.$-27) 8-28 A 104k}H2) parllely polarized electromagnstic wave i ait is incide ‘ocean surface at 2 neargrazing angle 0 obliquely on an 8, Using € = $1. j= 1, and a =4 (Si) for seae water, find (a) the angle of refraction 0, (5) the transtission coeticient fy (6) 2,3, Asha and (d) the distance below the oecun surface where the field intensity has been diminished by 30 1B). 8-29 A light ray is incient from sir obliquely on a transparent sheet of thickness d with an index of refraction as shown in Fig. 8-19. The angle of incidence is, Find (0, (o)the distance atthe point of exit and (e the amount ofthe lateral displacement ofthe emerging ray.Sioa kn coats obliquely on a transparent sheet of refraction index m (Problem P.8-29). 8-20 A uniform plane wave with perpendicular polarization represented by Eqs. (8-1 FAR (1336) i incident on a plane%interface at = =O, ds shown in Fig, 8-13, Assuming ¢s < 0 and 0, > Bf) obtain the phasor expressions for the transmitted eld (E, fH) and (b) verily thatthe average power transmitted into medium 2 vanishes, u 8-31 Blecromagnetie wave from an underwater source with perpendiegbie polarization is incident on aw Using ¢,= $1 anhy= | Abr fresh water, ind (averiical angle, fb) reflection coefficient (transmission coefficient x, and (d) attenuation in dB for each wavelength into the ar. P.8-32 Glass isosecles triangular prisms shown in Fig. 8-20 are used in optical instruments, for glass, calulate the percentage of the incident light power refected back by Assuming €, the prism. Incident th Renectes |" 4 cs T77” Fig. 8-20 Light reflection by @ right isosceles triangular prism (Problem P.8-32). 8-39 Prove that, under the condition of no reflection at an interface, the sum ofthe Brewster angle and the angle of refraction is /2 for: ) perpendicular polarization (js # Hah parallel polarization (¢, # €) 8-34 Foran incident wave with parallel polarization: 1s) Find the relation between the critical engl and the Brewster angle Q for nonmagnetic media 1) Plot d, and Oyy versus the ratio /€. Fig, 8-19 Light-ray impinging - :PROBLEMS 969 P.8~38 By using Snot law of refraction, (a) express T and + in terms of €7, ja and Oy: and (b) plot Pand ¢ versus 0, fore /éja = 2.28, 8-36 In some books the rellection and transmission coetiiens for parallel polarization are defined asthe tatios of the amplitude ofthe tangential components of espectvely, the rllected tnd transmitted E fields to the amplitude of the tangential component of the incident E field [Let the coefficients defined in this manner be de nated, respectively, and 8) Find 1) and en terms of y,,, 0, and 8; and compare thern with Fy and ) Find the relaiod between Tj, and 1, and compare it with Eq. (8-151), vs (81338) sb) very Nm i al batk by | ' t she Brewner a A soninapetic EPS9 / Theory and Applications er Of Transmission Lines ot INTRODUCTION Wehave now developed an clectrdmagnetic model with which we can analyze electro- magnetic actions that occur at a distance and are caused by time-varying charges and currents, These actions are explained in terms of electromagnetic fields and waves. An isotropic or omnidirectional electromagnetic source radiates waves equally in all directions. Even when the source radiates through a highiy directive antenna, its energy spreads over a wide-area at ge distances. This radiated energy is not guided, and the transmission of power andinformation from the source to a receiver is jnefficient. This is especially true at lower frequencies for which dircetive antennas would have huge dimensions and, therefore, would be excessively expensive. For instance, at AM broadcast frequencies, a single half-wavelength antenna (which is only mildly directive!) would be over a hundred meters long. At the 60-Hz power frequency a wavelength is 5 million meters or § (Mm)! For ellicient point-to-point transmission of power and information, the source ‘energy must be directed or guided. In this chapter we study transverse electromagnetic (TEM) waves guided by transmission lines, The TEM mode of guided waves is one in which E and H are perpendicular to each other and both are transverse to the direction of propagation along the guiding line. We have discussed the propagation of unguided TEM plane waves in the last chapter. We will now show in this chapter that many of the characteristics of TEM waves guided by transmission lines are the same as those for a,uniform plane wave propagating in an unbounded dielectric medium, ‘The three most common types of guiding structures that support TEM waves are: ) Parallel-plate transmission line. This type of transmission line consists of two parallel conducting plates separated by a dielectric slab of a uniform thickness. See Fig. 9-I(a)), At microwave frequencies parillel-plate transmission lines can bee fabricated inexpensively on a dielectric substrate using printed-circuit tech: nology. They are often called striplines "Principles of antennas and radiating systems will bé discussed ia Chapter U1. 370 1 telectro charges lds and tally abi is 2 power etic exis one se to the pagation s chapter sate the fieletric sof wx 8-1/ INTRODUCTION 371 (2) Paralle-plate (6) Two-wie transmision ie, Ps 7 (©) Coaxial ransmission tne, Fig. 9-1 Common types of transmission tins. b) Twosvire transmission line. This transmission line consists of conducting wires seperated by a uniform distance. ‘See Fig re the ubiquitous overhead pawer a pair of paral 9-10), Exampl vue! feleplione lines seen ia rural ares an tise Meat teadl-in lings rom a roof-top antenna a televiion 2 ©) Coaxial transmission ne, This consists of ‘an inner conductor and a eoaxial outer conducting sl th senarated by a dielectric medium. (See Fig, 9 structure has the important advantage of confini fields entirely within the dielectric region, No ‘couxial transmisslon Ine, and little externa) interferon Examples are telephone and TV cables and the input precision measuring irstrumen Het). This he electric and maznetie fields are generated by ee is coupled into the line t cables to high-frequency ‘We should note that other wave modes more complicated than the TEM mode can Propagate on all three ofthese types of transmission lines when theseparation Petwcon the conductors is greater shan certain fractions of the operating weve other transmisglon modes willbe considered in the next chapter We will shOw that the TEM wave solu ‘on of Maxwell's equations for the paral plate guiding structure in Fig. 9-1(a) leads directly to a pair of transmicon tne uations, The general transmission-line equations can also be derived from ncaa rod in terms ofthe resistance, inductance, conductance, and expactance por ua ienath of line, The transition from the viecuit model to the electromagnerie modal 'S effected from a network with tumped-parameter elements (discrte resistors ane ductors, and capacitors} io one with disteibuted parameters eontinaous ditebege re of RL. G, and € along the line). From the tansmission-line equations all the chan Scteristies of wave propagation along 2 given line can be derived and studice {The study oftime-harmoni steudy-state propertiss of transmission lines s greatly facilitated by the die of graphical charts which avert the necessity of repested ox ulations with complex nyssbers. The best known and most widely dsed graphical chart is the Smith chart. The use of Smith chart for determining wave character (of @ transmission line and for impedance-matching will be discussed372 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 9-2 TRANSVERSE ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE ALONG A PARALLEL-PLATE TRANSMISSION LINE Let us consider a y-polarized TEM wave propagating in the +z direction along a uniform parallel-piate transmission line, Figure 9-2 shows the cross-sectional dimen- sions of such a line and the chosen coordinate system, For time-harmonic fields the ‘wave equation to be satisfied in the sourceless dielectric region becomes the homo- geneous Helmholtz’s equation, Eq, (8~38).In the present case, the appropriate phasor solution is E=a,£, = a,6oe~ (9-La) ‘The associated H field is, from Eq, (8-26). Hoadiee nae - ety ‘where 7 and 7 are, respectively, the propagation constant and the intrinsic impedance of the dielectric medium. Fringe fields at the edges of the-plates are neglected. As- suming perfectly conducting plates and a lossless dielectric, we have, from Ch (9-2) and (9-3) The boundary conditions to be satisfied at the interfaces of the dielectric und the perfectly conducting planes are, from Eys. (7~52a, b, ¢, and d), us follows: At both y =O and y = d: E=0 4) 4, which are obviously satisfied because E, = 0, (9-3) 0. Fig. 9-2. Parallel-plate transmission line.fields the the homo- ate phasor (o-a) vn along a | malgimen- 4 i | | | 9-2 / TEM WAVE ALONG PARALLEL-PLATE LINE 373 Aty = 0 (lower plate), a, "De=py or py «BE, = eye (9-64) axHeJ, or (9-Ta) Aty=d (uppet plate), a, = ~8D=Py oF (9-6b) -axH=J, or (9-7) Equations (9~6) and (9~7) indicate that surface charges and surface currents on the conducting planes vary sinusoidally with =, as do £, and H,, This is illustrated schematically in Fig. 9-3, Ficld phasors E and H in Eqs. (914) and (9b) satisfy the wo Maxwell's cur! equations: Vx B= ~joult os) and Vx H = jock, vy) Since E= and Hs 3,H,, Eqs. (9-8) and (9-9) become #22 pout, 19) and ME ey Fig. 9-3. TEM-modefields, surface charges, ad surface currentsin parallel-plate transmission lie,374 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 Integrating Eq. (9-10) over y from 0 to d, we have A ff B, dy mon feats ay . ave) a judd o(xf) [ate] “= jolt), (9-12) where Vi= [0 8, dy= ~Byod isthe potential diference or voltage between the upper and lower plates; He) = Syl2) isthe total current flowing in the += direction in the upper pla tan! im 0-13) is the inductance per unit length of the parailel-plute transmission line. The depen- dence of phasors (=) and /{2) on = is noted explicitly in Eq. (9-12) for emphasis, Similarly, we integrate Eq, (9-11) over x from 0 to wv to obtain (9-14) where (9-15) is the capacitance per unit length ofthe paralle-plate transmission line. Equations (9-12) and (9-14) constitute a pair of time-harmonie transmission-line equations for phasors V(a) and (2), They may be combined to yield second-order differential equations for ¥(=) and for 2) 2M) _waevie (9-16) —oFLCHe) (9-166)12) 19-13) depen- (0-14) 13) online oy 196 16a) 9-16) s-24 2 / TEM WAVE ALONG PARALLEL-PLATE LINE 375 dis Solutions of Eql. (9-16a) and (9-16t) ate, for waves propagating in the +2 direction, Viz) = Wye (0-173) and K Toe, (9-176) where the phase constant o JIE = wnt (adm) 0-18) is the same as that given in Eq, (9-2). The relation between Vp and fy can be found by using either Eq. (9-12) or Bg. (9-14) (Q, o-19) which becomés, it view of the results of Eqs. (9-13) and (9-15), 0-20) The quantity 2 fs the ampedanee at any location tat looks toward an inginitely fons (no reflectiodis) transmission fine, Iie cle the eluractoristc impedance ofthe ins, The ratio of V(z) and 1X2) at any point on a finite line of any length terminated i298 Zo" Fora paralei-plate transmission line with perfectly conducting plates PLahlth w and septate by lossless ieletrie aah of thickness dhe een sie Jmpeatanee is (a Gnes the intrinsic impedance 7 ofthe dicecurie medias The velocity of propagation along the line is ee oy hich, again, i the sume as that ofa TEM plane wave in the dielectric medium, Lossy Parallel-Piate Transmission Lines We have so far afsuthed the paralll-pkie transmission line to be lossless. ln actual Situations loss may arise irom two causes, First, the dielectric medium may have « Tereishing loss tangent; and, second, the plates may not be perectly condacrine ‘To characterize these two ellects we define two new patametes: G, the eovduenne "This atement wil be proved in Section 9 (ee Eq 9-87)376 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 per unit length across the two plates; and R, the resistance per unit length of the vo plate conductors. ‘The conductance between two conductors separated by a dielectric medium having a permittivity € and a conductivity a can be determined readily by using Ea. (5.67) when the capacitance between the two conductors is known. We have (9-22) Use of Eq. (9-15) directly (Sim). (9-23) robe parllelplate conductors havea very large but ite conduetivity 2, (which ron ne onfoeed withthe conductivity ofthe dielectric medium), ohmic power sae elneipaad in the plates Ths necessitates the presenge of nonvanishing axial write fel af atthe plate surfaces, such thatthe average Poynting vector Aelack, x aH?) 9-24) has u y component and equals the average power per unit arca dissipated in each of the conducting plates. (Obviously the cross product of a,£, and agli, does not result in a y component) Consider the upper plate where the surface current density is Ju = Ha It is convenient to define a surface impedance of an imperfect conductor, Z., as the ratio Gtihe tangential component of the electric field to the surface current density at the conductor surface. z-E @.| 0-25) For the upper plate, we hiave (9-268) were n; is the intrinsic impedance of the plate conductor. Here we assume that both the conductivity a, of the plate conductor and the operating frequency are sufficiently high that the current flows in a very'thin surface layer and can, be fers: said by the surface current Jy, The intrinsic impedance of a good conductor has ‘been given in Eq. (8~46). We have frie Z,=R4iX = 0+) 2, (9-266) Vo where the subscript c is used to indicate the properties of the conductor,length ot the ao lectrie:medium dily by using Eq, We have (9-23) (9-23) tivity ¢. (which ohimic power inishing axial (9-24) spat “each of “does not result Su = Hy His Zp. as the ratio nt density at the (9-25) (9-26a) wwe assume that 1g frequency are 1d can be repre d eopActor has © (0-260) ctor, 9-2 / TEM WAVE ALONG PARALLEL-PLATE LINE 377 Substitution of Eg. (9~26a) in Eq. (I-24) gives $Rel\J,Z,) Po SPR, (W/m2y (9-27) AE ghmic poWwer dissipated in a unit length of the plate having a width w is-wp, ‘hich can be expressed in terms of the total surface current, 7 Wd a8 Pea aM (®) (W/m) 0-28) Equation (b-26) isthe power di 1 flows through a resistance R,/ for both plates of a parailel-pla issipated when a sinusoidal current of amplitude 'w. Thus, the effective series resistance per unit leis te transmission line of width wis Table 9-1 lists the expressions forthe four distributed parameters (LG and C per ‘nit eneth) ofa parallel-plate transmission line of width w and separation INg Rote from Eq, (9-266) that surface impedance Z. has a renin actanes teary, int Js numerically equal to R,If the otal complex poses ting ene eau bart the ohmic power P,, only) associated with a unit engin of thc plate is con- At aah el ead to an inerna series inductance perunitlength E, = tee Rao At high fFequercios Lis negligible in comparison with the enteral gla tance L. Table 9-1 Distributed Parameters of Parallel: Plate Transmission Line (Widta = w;, Separation = d) 7 Parameter [Formula | Unit |y ‘378. THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES /'9 TEM However; this axial component is ordinarily very small compered ta te folangr Component E,. An estimate of their relative magnitudes cam be mace ne follows: : -/2- [= 30) us. Va, For copper plates [o, = 5.80 x 107 (S/m)] in air [¢ = ey = 10. °/36n (F/m)] at a Srequency of 3 (GHz), |6.| 2°53 x 10-58, « jg. ‘Hence we retain the designation TEM as wellasall its consequences. The introduction of small F, in the calculation ofp, and 2 is considered a slight perturnaten Fraumele 9-1 Strplines consisting of thin metal strip separated from a conducting Freee brane by a diclectric substrate are used extensively in microwave cicultre Meslecting losses and assuming the substrate to have @ thickness 0.4 (mms and’ elgg constant 2.25, (a) determine the required width w ofthe metal strip In ore for the stripline to have a characteristic resistance of 50 (2), (b) determing [aoe ths fine, and (e determine u, along the line. (d) Repeat parts a). (b) and (e) for a characteristic resistance of 75 (0) Solution 4 We use Bg. (9-20 diretyt ind w 4d fi_04% 10" n, 014 x 10-3 x 377 107237 a 6 10° (m08 2m) 50/255 : ‘ 9-2 EaIa finite xisience aly not Tio the made as (9-30) mi] at a i my and a pin order PLand C le) for a Bs 9-9 / GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 379 4) Since w is invetsely proportional to Z, We have, for Z = 75 (2), 2), 50 v= (Z)w 3x 2= 133mm. (2)u= (,) «02st -037 oti 139 (8) x99 x 10° (mys) 66.2 (pF /m), 9-9 GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS. We will now derive the equations that govern general two-conductor uniform ta mission Tings, Trdnsmission lines differ from ordinary cleetric networks in one «essential feature, Whereas the physica! dimensions of electric mtworks are Very mutch smaller than the operating wavelength, transmission lines are usually a consideruble fraction ofa wavelength and may even be many wavelengths long. The citcuit elements in an ordinary electric network can be considered discrete and as such may be de seribed by lumped parameters. Currents flowing in lumped-circuit elements do not vary spatially over the elements, and no standing Waves exist. A transmission line, cn the other hand, is a distibuted-parameter network and must be described by circuit parameters that are distributed throughout is length. Except under matched conditions, standing waves exist in a transmission line. Consider a differential length Az of transmission line which is described by the following four parameters: A, resistance per unit length (both conductors), in 9m. L, inductance per unit length (both conductors), in H/m, G, conductance per unit length, in S/m. , capacitance per unit length, in F/m. Note that Rand L are series elements, and G and C are shunt elements. Figure 9—+ shows the equivalent electric circuit of such a line segment, The quantities Az, t) denote the instantaneous voltages at z and z + Az respectively, ilz, t) and i(z + Aa, ) denote the instantaneous currents at z and z+ Az. Applying Kirchhofl’svoltage law, we obtain vf, t) — R Azi(z, t) = L Az ae) 7 J (9-30) ” which leads to H+ As) ~ 18) _ pie 4 12 (9-304)380 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION. LINES / te y teas 1.0 vet asi) — Fig. 9-4 Equivalent cireuit of dliferentia length A of a two-conductor b+ ———_4 transmission line, (0-31) Similarly, applying Kirchhoff’s current law to the node N in Fig, 9-4, we have (9-33) Equations (9-31) and (9-33) are a pair of first-order partial differential equations in o(z,0) and i(z,0). They are the general transmnissioncline equations,’ For harmonic time dependence, the use of phasors simplifies the transmission- line equations to ordinary differential equations, For a cosine reference we write 0658) = el V( se] i,t) = RE Hee™*), (9-345) where (2) and J(z) are functions of the space coordinate z only, and both may be complex. Substitution of Eqs. (9—34a) and (9~34b) in Eqs, (9-31) and (0-33) yields the following ordinary diferential equations for phasors V(2) and Ils) (R + jot) (9-35a) 10) 6 + joQvte (9-358) * Sometimes reered to asthe tlegrophia’s equations 9-34 Transrductor 9-3) we have 9-32 a 9-33) sguations smission- e write (9-34a) (9-346) may be 9-3 / GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 381 Equations (9-34a) tnd (9~35b) are rime-harmionic transmission-line equations, which reduce to Eqs. (9~12) and (9-14) under losslest conditions (R = 0,G = 0). 9-3.1" Wave Charactettles on an infinite Transmission Line The coupled time-Harmonic transmission-line equations, Eqs. (9-35a) and (9-35b), can be combined 1d solve for V(2) and I(z), We obtain PVG) _ 4 ; avy (3) 364 Ge 2 Fv (9-36) —— and (9-36) where wos) is the propagation constant whose real and imaginary parts, zund fate the attenuation constant (Np/m) and phase constant (radjm) of the line respectively. The nomenclature here is similar to that for plane-wave propagation in conducting media 2s defined in Section 8-3, Tiese quantities are not really constants because, in general, they depend on w in a complicated way. ‘The solutions of Eqs. (9~36a) and (9-36b) are vr) + FG) = 30" + Vee" (9-384) 2) +1) se + Ie, (9-386) Where the plus and minus superscripts denote waves traveling in the +z and — directions respectively. Wave amplitides V3, V5. 13, and Zp are related by Eqs. .(9-35a) and (935b), and it is easy to verity (Problem P.9~S) that ¥5__Vo Rejob _ “39 Gig ars a382 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 For an infinite line (actually a semi-infinite line with the source at the left end), the terms containing the e” factor must vanish. There are no reflected waves; only the waves traveling in the +z direction exist. We have vse" (9-408) em (9-406) The ratio of the voltage and the ‘current at any 2 for an infinitely long line is inde- pendent of z and is called the characteristic impedance of the line. oa) Note that 7 and Zp are characteristic properties of a transmission line whether or not the line is infinitely tong. They depend on R. L, G, C. and «@—not on the length of the line. An infinite line simply implies that there are no reflected waves. ‘The general expressions for the characteristic impedance in Eq-(9—#1) and the propagation constant in Eq, (9-37) are relatiyely complicated. The following three limiting cases have special significance. 1. Lossless Line (R = 0, G = 0), 4) Propagation constant: 4+ B=joJIC, (9-42) a=0 (9-422) @YTE (a linear function of w). (9-42) ') Phase velocity: (0-43) ©) Characteristic impedance: Z (9-44) (9-44) (9-446) 2. Low-Loss Line (R«< @L, G« wC). The low-loss condition is more easily sat- isfied at very high frequencies.sh end), asionly (9-404), (9-400) is inde- o-4i) ror jena and (9-42) (0-43) (44) ~ Oa Weaab) asily sat- 4 a) Propagation constant; 4 peda joTe(1 +5)" + iz) abuB(ies8)(ire%) swstel+sb(E- Qh oxi (a [Exc [2)] ve} B=aVEC (approximately a linear function of w) ) Phase velocity ot : eteic ©) Characteristic impedance: (approximately constant, 3. Distortioniess Line (R/L = G/C), Ifthe cortdition RG Lc is satisfidd, the expressions for both 7 and Z, simplify 8) Propagation constant: B=oVEC (alinear function ofa). 9-3 / GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 383 oo (9-45) (0-45) (9-46) (9-47) (4-478) (9-476) (9-38) (9-49) (0-498) (9-496)984 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES /'9 b) Phase velocity: E(eonstany. (9-50) ©) Characteristic impedance: 2 ee ' Rot ikem NRC) jae ve (9-51) (constant) (9-Sta) (9-s1b) Thus, except for a nonvanishing attenuation constant, the characteristics of a dise tortionless line are the same as thése of a lossless line: namely, a constant phase velocity (u,= 1/y/EC) and a constant real characteristic impedance (Zy= Roy LC) A constant phase velocity isa direct consequence of the Tinea dlependtenee ofthe phase constant fone», Since a signal usually consists oa haunt of freguenss, jt essential that the dilferent frequency components travel along a>transmission line at the same velocity in order to avoid distortion. This condition is satisfied by a lossless line and is approximated by a ine with very low losses, Fora lossy line, wave amplitudes will be attentuated, and distortion will result when different frequency components attenuate differently, even when they travel with the same velocity, The condition specified in Eq. (9-48) leads to both a constant « and a constant uy~thus the name distortionless line. ‘The phase constant ofa lossy transmission line is determined by expanding the expression for in Eq. (1-37). In general, the phase constant isnot a linear function of 0: thus, it will lead to a u, which depends on frequency. As the different fre- quency components of a signal propagate along the line with different velocities, the signal suffers dispersion. A general, lossy, transmission line is therefore dispersive as isa lossy dielectric (see Subsection 8-3.1} Example 9-2 Itis found that the attenuation on a 50-(Q) distortionless transmission line is 0.01 (dB/m). The line has a capacitance of 0.1 (p/m). 4) Find the resistance, inductance, and conductance per meter of the line. b) Find the velocity of wave propagation. ©) Determine the percentage to which the amplitude of a voltage traveling wave decreases in I (km) and in $ (km). Solution a) Fora distortionless line, 2 L u ala | |(9-51) 9-Sia) 9-Stb) nase whe) eorthe eitis on lige, it byt ity, onstant Ling the locities, ag wave Pad 9-3 / GENERAL THANSMISSIONALINE EOUATIONS 985 The given qualities are Bare ee Eaee ha e « a [E = 001 (4B/mm) OO ao aq Nelm) = 1.15 x 10°? (p/m) ‘The thre relalons above ae sufcient to solve for the thre unknowns Rs Le ‘and G in terms bf the given C = 107!9(F/m): R= aRy = (113 x 107) x 50 = 0.057 (Om) L = CR3 = 107! x 50? = 0.25 (yEH/m) 0087 b) The velocity of wave Propagation on a distortionles line is the phase velocity aiven by Eq. (9-50). ©) The ratio of two voltages a distance z apart along the line is After 1 (km), (V3/¥,) = seh !8 0317, of 31.7%. After 5 (km), (V4/V,) = @° $09 = @°5.78 = 0.0032, of 0.32%. 9-3.2 Transmission-Line Parameters Ge Sectrical properties of a transmission line ata given frequency are completely Gharacterized by its four distributed parameters R, L, G, and C. These paranetete for a parallel-plate transmission line are listed in Table 9-1. We will row ‘obtain them for two-wire and coaxial transmission lines Our basic premite is that the conductivity of the conductors in a transmission “ine is usually so high that the eet of the series resistance on the computation ofthe Propagation constant is negligible, the implication being that the waves on the line are approximate'y “EM. We may write, ip dropping R from Eq. (0-37), de)5 386 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 From Eq. (8-37) we know that the propagation constant for a TEM wave in a medium ‘with constitutive parameters (y, 2, 0) is vaso) @-s9 But (9-54) in accordance with Eq, (5-67); hence comparison of Eqs. (9-52) and (933) yields LC = pe. (9-55) Equation (9-55) isa very useful relation, because if Lis known ‘or a.tine with a given medium, C can be determined, and viee versa. Knowing C, we can find G from Eq. (9-58), Series resistance 2 is determined by introducing a small axial E. as a slight perturbation of the TEM wave and by finding the ohmic power dissipated in a unit Fength ofthe line, as was done in Subsection 9-2.1. Equation (9-55), of course, also holds for a lossless line. The velocity of wave Propajation on a lossless transmission line, up = ILC, therefore, is equal to the velocity of propagation, Le of unguided plane wave in the dielectric ofthe line. This fact has been pointed out in connection with Eg. (9~21) for parallel-plate lines 1, Two-wire transmission line. The capacitance per unit length of a two-wire trans- mission line, whose wires have a radius a and are separated by a distance D, has ‘been found in Eq. (4-47), We have og Fim (9-56) From Eqs. (9-55) and (9-54), we obtain La" eosn- (2 so Eou(2) wm on and ae 9-58) arm sm. (9-58 To determine R, we go back to Eq, (9-27) and express the ohmic power dissipated per unit length of both wires in terms of p,. Assuming the current "cosh (D2) bn Dia if (0/24) 1medium, (9-53) 9-4) ) yields (9-55) line with sv find G il axial E cissipated a » of wave sire trans: race Dy has 9-56" 9-37" a ( 28}! mic power he current | 9-3./ GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 387 Jos : J.(A/m) to flow in a very thin surface layer, the current in each wire is I = 2naJ, td Vf ® it ) etn 2(ES) om, oo Hence the seriet resistance per unit length for both wires is 0-60) In deriving Eqs, (9-59) and (9-60), we have assumed the surface current J, to be uniform over the circumference of both wires. This is an approximation. inasmuch as the proximity of the two wires tends to make the surface curcent nonuniform, Coaxial transmission line. The external inductance per unit length of a coaxial transmission line with a center conductor of radius « and an outer conductor of inner radius 6 Has been found in Eq, (6-124): (9-61) From Eq. (9-55), we obtain and = (S/m). | inBjay To determine &, we again return to Eq, (9-27), where Jy on the surface of the enter conduct: is diferent from Jy onthe ier srl of the cure cane ductor. We mutt have ~ I= 2naly = IrbJy (9-68) The power dlissipateil in a unit leith of the center aneL outer conductors gre, respectively, Pai = 22aDes (9-653) °p, Lal Re e nrintr(&) 9-8388 THEORY AND! APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION. LINES / © ‘Table 9-2 Distributed Parameters of Two-Wire and Coaxial Transmission Lines Parameter Two-Wire Line | Coaxial Line eel 1 R RL!) | lea | aeleta) | Heom-t(2) | Hm& | tym 1 ft @ | ge)» c | Sin axe | Bon | ne me Cc | aro | ina ie Note: Ry Fa; cosh”! {D/2a) 3 In (Dja) if(D/2al? » 1. (rein indance 0t nloed mm rom Eqs (0-654) and (9-686), we ol R(t) _ 1 fae (t 6 £( +3 EG (jm.| (9-86) “The RL, G, C parameters for two-wire and coaxial transmission lines are listed in Table 9-7 the resistance per unit length: 93.3 Attenuation Constant from Power Relations ‘The attenuation constant of a traveling wave on a transmission line isthe real part srahe propagation constant; i ean be determined from the basic definition in Ea (9-37) —— ey) = AMRF JOLNG > FOCI] 0-61) “The attenuation constant can also be found from a power relationship, The phasor voltage and phasor current distributions on an infinitely long (raven Poevtpo velections) may be written as (Eqs. (9—40a) and (9-A0b) withthe plus suner~ script dropped for simplicity): C VE) = oe (0-682) ose (9-686)(9-66) es are listed the real part rition in Eq (9-67) ionship. The transmission e rligsuper- 68) (9-68) | : 9-3 / GENERAL TRANSMISSION-LINE EQUATIONS 389 The time-average power propagated along the {ine at any = is Plz) = $ae[VOeN*(2)] V5 Roya, 9 : ap Po 0-69) The law of conservation of energy requires that the rate of decrease of P(z) with distance along the line equals the time-average.power loss P, per unit length. Thus, (9-70) Example 9-3 8) Use Eq. (9-70) to find the attenuation constant of a lossy transmission line with distributed parameters R, L, G and C. ) Specialize the result in part (a) to obtain the attentiation constants of a low-loss line and of w distortiontess line. . Solution 2) Fora lossy trahsthission line the time-average power loss per unit length is Pale) = [Mey PR + [Vie)/?G] vg 4 Welt Substitution of Eqs. (1-69) and (9-71) in Eq, (9-70) gives 1 6lzalt) am FRR + GIzol)— CNp/m b) For a ioWoss line, Z, = Ry = LIC, Ea, (9-72) becomes [R iat Gh) Ua fE+0 [2 ony (R+ G|z0)e~390°. THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION . which checks with Eq. (9-45), For a distortionless line, Zo = Ro = Af al Eq, (9—72a) applies, and 49-12) Equation (9-72b) is the same as Eq. (9-494), 9-4 WAVE CHARACTERISTICS ON’ FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES In Subsection 9-3.1 we indicated that the general solutions for the time-harmonic one-dimensional Helmholtz equations, Eqs. (9~36a) and,(9~36b), for transmission lines are vigy=Vge™ + Voe™ (9-73a) and Ma) = [ge + Boe, (9-73) where va For infinitely long lines there can be only forward waves traveling in the and the second terms on the right side of Eqs, (9—73a) and (9-736), representing Feflected waves, vanish. This is also true for finite lines terminated in a characteristic Fimpedance: that i, when the lines are matched. From circuit theory we know that ¢ sears transfer of power from a given voltage source toa [oad oecurs wnder “matched vrondivions” when the Toad impedance is the complex conjugate of the source impedance {Problem P9-11) In transmission line terminology. line is matched when the [oud impedance is equal tothe characteristic impedance tnot the complex conjugate of the characteristic impedance) of the line, Fig. 9-§ Finite transmission line terminated with loud impedance 21.(0-720) rection. i representing wwe know that a ‘uuder "matched >urce impedance i vhen the Load conjugate of the ‘3-4 / WAVE CHARACTERISTICS ON FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES 391 Let us now consider the general case of a fiite transmission line having a charac- teristic impedance: Zy terminated in an arbitraty load impedance Zy, as depicted in Fig 9-5. The length ofthe line is ¢. A sinusoidal voltage source V,/0" with an internal impedance Z, is conilected to the line at / Gi). which obviously cahot be satisfied without the second terms on the right side of Eqs. (9-73a) and (9-736) unless Z, ‘Thus, reflected waves exist on unmatched tines : Given the charastristic 7 and Zy of the line and its length ¢, there are four unknowns V3, V5, Ig, and I in Eqs. (73a) and (9-736). These four unknowns are not all indepeadgnt because they are constrained by the relations at = = 0 and at z= ¢, Both Viz) ahd (2) can be expressed ether in terms of Hand I, atthe input end (Problem P.9=12), or in terms ofthe conditions atthe load end. Consider the latter case. Let == ¢ in Eqs. (93a) and (9-735), We have (o-75) Kage" + Vee" (0-76) tah ew te (9-766) Solving Eqs. (9~76a) and (9-76b) for Vj and V5, we Have Vg =H, + iZa)e™ (9-Ta} VE RUB Zo. (0-77) Substituting Eq, (9-75) in Eqs. (9-77a) and (9-77), and using the results in Eqs. (9~73a) and (9-736), we obtain Vea) Ee, + Zoe 4 (2, — Zale] (9-78a) Nay 3 [ei + Zale — (2, ~ Zaher} (9-786) Since ¢ and = appear together in the combination (¢ ~ 2), itis expedient to introduce 4 new variable 2' = 4 ~ s, which is the distance measured backward from the load Equations (9-784) attd (9-78) then become i, ' WED HAL Zale? dy Zale Pa an oe Hee Ula + Zee = 2 ye] (8-79) We note here that although the same symtbols V and J are used in Eqs. (9-79a) and (9-796) as in Eqs. (9-78a) and (9~78b),'the dependence of V(z’) and I(e) on 2 is different from the dependence of /(z) and J(z) on 2.The-use of hyperbolic functions simplifies the equations above, Recalling the relations, Fem Deoshy? and eer = 2 sinh yw, we may write Eqs. (9-79a) and (9-79b) as V(z!) = LZ, cosh yz’ + Zp sinh yz’) (9-80a) 12) = 2, sinh 72 + Ze cosh 2), (0-808) which can be used to find the voltage and current at any point along a transmission line in terms of f,, Z,% and Zo. + The ratio V(z')/Mz’ is the impedance when we look toward the load end of the line at a distance 2’ from the load, Ze) = HED 7, Zacosh te + Zo sh 32. 9-80) 72) or . Z. 42, tanh ye 5 2) 20 ae ve At the source end of the line, impedance Z,. 4, the generator looking into the line sees an input Zs= Zeno = Zoo eng 20 FF @ (9-83) As far as the conditions at the generator are concerned, the terminated finite trans- mission line can be replaced by Z,, as shown in Fig. 9-6. The input voltage ¥; and input current J, in Fig. 95 are found easily from the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9-6. ZI}! 7 Fig. 9-6 Equivalent circuit for finite transmission = line in Figure 9-5 at generator end, or by Th the The Eq tior ther tot ai Ex: line 10"(9-80) (9-800) ransmission Jend of the (9-81) 7 (9-82) sees an input (9-83) | finite trans- oltage V, and t idl Fig. 9-6. ~ ( 2 tratismission| (9-84a) (9-840) Ofcourse, the voltage and current at any othet location on line cannot be determined by using the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9-6 ‘The average poWer delivered by the generator to the input terminals ofthe line i He VT en0,=0: (9-85) The average power delivered to the load is FVM ae. (0-86) Fora lossless line, conservation of power requires that (P,.) = (Ps), AA particularly important special case is when a line is terminated with its charac- {eristic impedance; that is, when 2, = Zo. The input impedance, Z, in Eq, (9-53), iS seen to be equal t0 Z, As a matter of fact, the impedance of the line looking toward the load at any distance z’ from the load is, from Eq, (9-82), AV=Z_ ". (lorZ,=Z,). (9-87) ‘The oltage and cufrent equations in Eqs, (9-78a) and (9-786) reduce to Via) = Zoere-™ = Ye (9-88) M2) = (pee-™ = Leo" (9-885) Eavations (9-884) and (9-886) correspond to the pair of voltage and current equa- tions — Eqs. (9—40a) and (9-40b)—representing waves traveling in +-zditection, and there are no reflected weves, Hence, wen a finite transpssion lie is terminated wh its wn characteristic impedance (when a fintte transmission line is matched), the joltage and current distributions on the line are exactly the same as though the line hhad been extended to infinity. Example 9-4. A signal generator having an internal resistance | (Q) and an open- circuit voltage v4) = 0. cos 2210" (V)is connected to a 50 (Q) lossless transmission tine. The line is 4 (nt) long, and the velocity of wave propagation on the line 2 10° (m/s). For a matehed load, find and current at an atbitrary locatio (a) the instantaneous expressions for the vollage 8 on he line, (b) the instantaneous expressions Se\ 394 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 for the voltage and current at the load, and (c) the average power transmitted to the load, Solution a) In order to find the voltage and current at an arbitrary location on the line, it is first necessary to obtain those at the input end (z = 0,2’ = ¢). The given quan tities are as follows. 0.3)0°(V), a phasor with a cosine reference (Q) 0 (0) 2n x 10° (rad/s) uy = 25.5 10° ns) f= 4(m), Since the line is terminated with a matched load, Z, = Zy = $0 (Q). The voltage and current at the input terminals can be evaluated from the equivalent circuit in Fig. 9-6, From Eqs. (9-84a) and (9-84b) we have x 030° = V) 3p * 03/02 = 0.294,0° (V) 0.0059/0° (A). As only forward-traveling waves exist on a matched line, we use Eqs, (96a) and (9~686) for, respectively, the voltage and current at an arbitrary location, and) For the given line, Thus, (2) = 0.294e- 1% (y) 10089¢~H9-4 (4), ‘These are phasors, The corresponding instantaneous expressions are, from Eqs. (9-34a) and (9-34b), P(e, 1) = Re[0.29402n10%-0, 8421] = 0.294 cos (210% ~ 0.8z2) (V) Ac [0,0059¢H2"10%-°. ie, 9-« ast | )mE OP ay 4,7 wale chaRACTERISTGS ON FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES 295 tted to the b) Atthe load, z =/ = 4m), t : : (4, 1) = 0.294 cos (210% — 3.2n) (V) | 414, 1) = 0.0089 cos (2810% — 3.2n) (A). cling itis | 7 | ¢) The average power transmitted to the load on a lossless line is equal to that at ven quan- the input termindls, (Pah = Pah = kal M = {0.294 0.0059) = 8.7 10°* (W) = 087 (mW), 9-41 Transmission Lines as Circuit Elements Not only can transmission lines be used us wave-guiding structures for transferring Power and information from one point to another, but at ultrahi frequencies — ie UHF: from 300 (MHz) to 3 (GHz): wavelength, from I {m) to O.! (m)-— they m he voltage Serve us circuit cloments. At these frequencies, ordinary lumpedcsiruit comers ne ent cirguit dificult to make, and stray fields become important. Sections of transmission linea ‘can be designed to give an inductive or capacitive impedance and are used =o match aan arbitrary load t0 the internal impedance of a generator for maximum pow transfer, The required length of such lines as circuit elements becomes practi the UHF range, In most cases transinission-line segments can be considered lossless” = jf. Za = Ro and tanh 7f = tanh (jf/) = j tan [v7 The formula in Eq. (9-83) for the input impedance Z; ofa lossless line of length ¢ terminated in Z,, becomes 9-682) ‘location a + JRy tan fe . y= Ry Ht 9-99 ny aay 9-89) {Lossiess line) We now consider several important special cases 1. Opencireuit termination (2, - co). We have, from Ea, (9-89), =p, = — Re 9-9 from Eas. 2p Dig GEN = —iRe cot (9-90 Equaiion-49-90) shows that the input impedance of an open-iruited losiess Hine bs purely riety the input sistance’.it arter-wave ed quarter of the line rewave line ‘ant circuit. an integral (9-95) Limpedance nission line. hhort-circuit >sropagation (9-83), (9-96) p2597) (9-98) 8-4'/ WAVE CHARACTERISTICS GN FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES 39d Ves and ‘ bf edtann! [2m VZ. (9-99) Equations (9-98) ahd (9-99) apply whether dr not the lin is lossy. Example 9-$ The open-circuit and short-circuit impedances measured at the input terminals of a very low-loss transmission line of length 1.5 (m), which is less than a quarter wavelengtil are respectively — /$4.6 (Q) and 103 (Q). (a) Find Z, and > of thé ine. (b) Without changing the operating frequency, find the input impedance of a short-circuited lin€ that is twice the given length. (c) How long should the short- ircuited line be int order for it to appear as an open circuit at the input terminals? Solution: The given quantities are Zu = -J546, Zi, 103, a) Using Eqs. (9-98) and (9-99), we find BOS) = 750) ch tann-1 [HOE i A tal ») For a short-circuited line twice as Jong, 7 = 3.0m), tan“! 1.373 = 628 (rad) 40.628 3.0 = 1.884 (rad), ‘The input impedance is, from Eq, (9-97), Z,,= 75 tanh (j1.884) = j75 tan 108° J7S(—3.08) = —]231 (0), Note that Z,, for the 3(m) line is now capactive reactance, whereas that for the 1.5 (m) line jn part (a) is an inductive reactance. We may conclude from Table 9-4 that 15 (an) < 4/4 < 3.0 (m), 6) In order for a short-circuited line to aj ippear as an open circuit at the input ter- ‘minals, it should be an odd multiple of a quarter-wavelength long ee — B 0638 Hence the required fine 0(m). +095 ¢ =2545(0~ tim), n= 1,23,9-42 400. THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 Lines with Resistive Termination When a transmission line is terminated in a load impedance Z,, different from the characteristic impedance Zo, both an incident wave (from the gerierator) and a re- flected wave (fcom the load) exist, Equation (9-79a) gives the phasor expression for the voltage at any distance 2’ = / — 2 from the load end. Note that, in Ea. (9~79a), the term with e”* represents the incident voltage wave and the term with e”" re- presents the reflected voltage wave. We may write vey= (a, + ze" =F. + Zoe*[l + Te], (9-100a} where 10H) is the ratio of the complex amplitudes of the reflected and incident voltage waves at the load (z' = 0) and is called the voltage reflection coefficient of the load impedance Za. eis ofthe same form as the definition ofthe reflection coefficient in Ea. (8-93) {ora plane wave incident normally on a plane interface between two dielectric media, Iti, in general, a complex quantity with a magnitude [| < 1. The current equation corresponding to V(z) in Eq. (91004) is, from Eq. (9-790). Ie hy ep) — re 2" i ppg Zee Zale = Fe). (9-100) “The current reflection coefficient defined as the ratio of the complex amplitudes of the reflected and incident current waves, 15/75. is different from the voltag flection coeficient, Asa niatter of fact, the former isthe negative of the latter, inasmuch as [g/l = —V5/V, as i evident from Eq, (9-74). In what follows, we shall refer only to the voltage reflection cocicient For lossless transmission line, = jb, Eqs. (2-100) and (9-100b) become vey ea, + Rye + Te PMY S 4 (2. + Rove EL + [reter-2#7] (9-102a) and 1 = [Pfettrn3#) (9-102) (2y, + Roel |rent from the tor) and a re- oxpression for , 1 Eq. (~79a), with e-™" rex (9-100a) (9-101) 7 es at 4 sdance i hy 8 93) iecinc mei rent equation (9-108) 2 amplitudes 1e voltage re- ter, inasmuch we shall refer "become es (> 02a) (9-102) 5 9-41 wave cuanacrenisics Ov Fini tRavsuission Unes 401 The voltage ari current phasors on a fosslete line are more easily visualized Eom Eas (9-80) ahd (9-80) by setting = JBand ¥, = 1,2, Noting that cosh jo 0s 6, and sinh jO = j sin 8, we obtain 2 |Med= Wi, cos 82+ j1,R, sin Br | (9-103) %, 60s fie’ + j 2 sin pe 1 1 608 Be + ip sin fi | (9-103b) (Lossless line) Uh terminating impedance is purely resistive, Z, = Ry, V, = [,R,, the voltage and current magtiitudes are given by (9-104a) 1 eos" BFF (RIRo sin Be, (9-104) are standing waves it occurring at fixed locations along the line. Analogously t6'the plane-wave ease in Eq. (8-100), we define the ratio of the maximum to the misinvam voltages along. finite terminated line asthe standing-waee ratio, a Vaal 1+ 07] 1 IF (Dimensionless) (Dimensiontess) (9-106) It's clear from Eqs. (9-105) and (9-106) that on a lossless transmission tine 0, when Z;, = Z, (Matched load) T=~l, So when Z, = 0 (hort circuit); Te+l, S20 when Z, -+ <0 (Open circuit Because of the wide range ofS, it is customary to express it on a logarithmic sale: 20 lobo Sin (4B) Stinding-wave ratio S defined in terms of|f,..|/|/uc|reslts ine ne SXPressionas that defined in terms of Vaul/ Vail in Ea. (9 105), high standings ‘wave ratio on a line is undesirable because it results ina large power loss iogeinmintion of Eqs, (9-102) and (9~1028) reveals that |P and ag) occur fogether when (/e*| = 1, independent of): 9, ~2Biy= —2nm, (n= 0, 1,2,...) (9-107)402 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 On the other hand, [Vu 2nd |Zquy| occur together when! Op — 2Bzy = —(Qn+ In, (n=0,1,2, For resistive términations on a lossless line, 2s, = Rus Zi simplifies to ). (9-108) Ro, and Eq, (9-101) Ri Ro RR. ‘The voltage reflection coefficient is therefore purely real. Two cases are possible. (Resistive load). (9-109) 1. Ry > Ros In this case, T is positive real and p= 0. At the termination. 7 = 0, and condition (9-107) is satisfied (for w = 0). This means that a voltage maximum (current minimum) will occur atthe terminating resistance, Other maxima of the voltage standing wave (minima of the current standing wave) will be located at 2Br' = 2nn, or 2 = 4/2 (n= 1,2,...) from the load. 2 Ry < Ro. Equation (9-109) shows that T will be negative real and My = =x. At the termination, =’ = 0, and condition (9108) is satisfied (for m = 0). A voltage minimum (current maximum) will occur at the terminating resistance. Other ‘minima of the voltage standing wave (maxima of the current standing wave) will be located at /2(n = 1,2,...) {rom the load. The roles of the voltage and current standing waves are interchanged from those for the case of Ry > Re Figure 9-9 illustrates some typical standing waves fora lossless line with resistive termination. “The standing waves on an open-circuited line are similar to those on a resistance- terminated line with Ry > Ro, except that the |H(') and |1(2)] curves are now mag- nitudes of sinusoidal functions of the distance z' from the load. This is seen from Eqs. (9-104a) and (9104), by letting , -+ 20. Of course, f, = 0, but Wis finite. We have [V(e3] = M,,|e0s | (9-110a \ 2] = 5 hsin Be. 1100) (ucea| = Be Msn Be (9-1100) All the minima go to zero, For an open-circuited line, T'= 1 and Soo, Me) for Rt > Ro He for Rt < Ro erie for Re > Ro Me for Ri < Ro Ce Fig. 9-9 Voltage and current standing waves on resistance-terminated lossless lines. | i(9-108) 4. 9-101) 0-105) ossible, 0, >maximum, xima of the + located at A voltage se, Other weave) will lta ynd Rye Ko with .ssistive 1 re now mage is seen from 1 ¥ is finite. (9-110) (9-106) CIM Hor open cuted Ml’ for shotruited tine. = (MeN or pence ine V6 for shor-ieited ne. ae a Fig. 9-10 Voltage dhd current standing waves on open- and short-citeuited lossless lines, 1 On the other hand, the standing waves on a short-circuited line are similar to those on a resistance-terminated line with R, < Ry. Here R,, = 0, ¥, =0, but I, is finite, Equations (9-104) and (9~10$b) reduce to |V(29] = 1.Ro sin 62 (Ata) [1129] = 1, jeos 2 (o-1118) Typical standing waves for open- and short-circuited, lossless lines are shown in Fig. 9-10. Example 9-6 The staading-wave ratio S on a transmission line is an easily measur able quantity. (a) Show how the value of a terminating resistance on a lossless line of known charactetistic impedance Ry can be determined by measuring S. (b) What is the impedance ofthe line looking toward the load at a distance equal of the operating wavelength? to one quarter Solution: 4) Since the terminating impedance is purely resistive, Z, = R,,, we can determine whether A is greater than Rp (if there are voltage maxima at mii ete) for whether R, {s less than Ry (if there are voltage minima at =’ = 0, 4)2, i, ete), This can be caly ascertained by measurements, First, if Ry > Ro, Op = 0. Both [Vag and [Iqjql Occur at fi and [Yul and Vl ocala Br = m7. We have om Fay (1025) (910005 Yn Waal = HRP ~—._ 7 my R he Vaal = Vad = A Thus, ci _ or R= SRo, (9-113)9-43 404 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION Second, if Ry. < Ro, Op = =x. Both [Vail and [Ima] occur at Be’ = 0; and Wa and [iq OGcur at Bz) = 2/2. We have (il Therefore, Ry, R= o-113) . Ras (9-113) b) The operating wavelength, 2, can be determined from twice the distance between two neighboring voltage (or current) maxima or minima, A Br = ni 0s A" = 0, and sin fz’ = 1, Equations (9 -{03a) and (2-103) become V(a/s) = jILRo Hass) (Question: What is the significance of the j in these equations?) The ratio of ¥(2/4) to 1(2/4) is the input impedance of a quarter-wavelength, resistively ter- minated, lossless line, ves) co) im This result is anticipated because of the impedance-transformation property of & quarter-wave line given in Eq, (9-94), Lines with Arbitrary Termination {In the preceding subsection we notzd¢hat the standing wave on a resistively terminated lossless transmission line is such that a voltage maximum (a current minimum) occurs at the termination where z' = 0 if Ry, > Ro, and a voltage minimum (a current maxi- ‘mum) occurs there if R, < Ry. What will happen ifthe terminating impedance is not 4 pure resistance? It is intuitively correct to expect that a voltage maximum or ‘minimum will not occur at the termination, and that both will be shifted away from the termination. In this subsection we will show that information on the direction and amount of this shift can be used to determine the terminating impedance.(9-113) se baween 1 ratio of stively ter operty of a terminated um) ogcurs rent { nee is not xin or away irom 2 direction 2 9-4 ) WAVE CHARACTERISTICS ON FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES 405 Let the termindting (or load) impedance be Z, = Ry, +jX_, and assume the voltage standing wave of the line to look like that depicted in Fig. 9-11. We note that neither a voltage maximum noca voltage ininimum appears atthe load at 2’ = 0. If we let the standing wave continue, say, by an extra distance it will reach a minimum, The voltuge minimum is where it should be if the original terminating impedance Z, is replaced by a line section of length ¢, terminated by a pure resistance Ro < Ro, as shown in the figure. The voltage distribution on the line to the left of the actual termination (where z' > 0) is not changed by this replacement The fact that afty complex impedance can be obtained as the input impedance of a section of lossis line terminated in.a reslative load can be seen from Eq, (9-89). Using Ry for Z, att fr ¢, we have Ry +jRo tan Bl, Ry + jRy ta fi The ral und imaglnary ‘parts of Ey. (2-114) form two equations, om which the ‘wo unknowns, R, and “yc be solved (se Problem P=) The loud impedance’ Z,, can be determined experimentally by measuring the R+IX, W9-114y ‘anding-wave ratio $ and the distance =, in Fig. 9-11, (Remember that = +/, = 42.) The procedure is as follows: 1. Find [| from S. Use [f| = == trom Bq, (9-106. 2. Find Or from 2. Use Oy = 28s), — x forh = 0 from Eq, (9-108), Fig. 9-11 Voltage standing wave on tine terminated by arbitrary impedance and ‘equivalent line section with pure resistive load.406... THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 > Find Z,, which is the ratio of Eqs. (9-102a) and (91026) at 2’ = 0: + [let 7 ee (@-115) Z=R tik = The value Of R, that, if terminated on a line of length Z, will yield an input impedance Z, can be found easily from Eq, (9-114) Since Ry, < Ro. Ry, = RylS. “The procedure leading to Eq. (9-115) is used to determine Z, from a measurement Of'S and of 2 the distance from the termination to the first voltage minimum, Of course, the distance from the termination to a voltage maximum could be used instead of =. However, the voltage minima of a standing wave are sharper than the voltage maxima, The former, therefore, can be located more accurately than the latter, and it is preferable to find unknown quantities in terms of $ and x, Example 9-7 The standing-wave ratio on a lossless $04(9) transmission line ter minated in an unknown load impedance is found to be 3.0. The distance between Successive voltage minima is 20 (cm), and the first minimum is located itt § lem) from the load, Determine ta) the relletion evellcient 1 and (b) the load impedance 21. In addition, find (c) the equivalent.length and terminatifig resistance of 2 line such that the input impedance is equal to Z,. Sotution 2) The distance between successive voltage minima i hala wavelength, i = sx(caaym) Step 1: We find the magnitude of the reflection cocfcient, [I from the standing- wave ratio S = x02 =0.4(m), $1 3-1 “S41 Step 2: Find the angle of the reflection coefficient, 0, from 2x Sm x 005 ~ = —0.5n (rad) Sei" = 70.5 b) The load impedance Z, is determined from Eq, (9-115) t=s0s 2,=50(j 8 ) = $1060 — 980) = 30 ~ 40, «) Now we find A, and Zin Fig. 9-11. We may use Eg. (9114) ‘Ra + j80 tan fl Ho 9S aeoats) i an input RylS. rsurement imum. OF 4 be used r than the the latter, a fine ter- « between at § (em) mpedance 2 of atige :standing- 9-44 9-4 / WAVE CHARACTERISTICS ON FINITE TRANSMISSION LINES 407 and solve the Simultaneous equations obtained from the real and imaginary parts for Ry arid f¢,, Actually, we know 2, + 2, = i/2 and R, = Ry/S. Hence? = Fy = 0.2 = 0.05 = 0.15 (m) and = 16.7 (0). ‘Transmission-Line Circuits Our discussions on the properties of transmission lines so far have been restricted primarily to the effects of the load on the input impedance and on the characteristics of voltage and current waves. No attention has been paid to the generator at the “other ond,” which is the source of the waves, Just as the constraint (the boundary condition), Vi = f,%,, which the voltage V, and the current 1, must satisfy at the load end ( = 0), & constraint exists at the generator end where = 0 and == ¢. Leta voltage generator ¥, with an internal impedance Z, represent the source connected to a finite transmission line of length ¢ that is terminated in a load ime pedance Z,, as shown in Fig. 95. The additional constraint at = = 0 will enable the voltage and current anywhere on the line to be expressed in terms of the source characteristics (V,,Z,) the line characteristics (y, Zp, ¢), and the load impedance Z,). The constraint at n= Y= 12, 9-116) But, rom Eqs. (9-L00a) and (9-100), I FE + ZerU + Fe] (9-117) and I : [1 = rete 1176) 5g, Ze + Zaer[) ~ Fe“ 0-117) Substitution of Eqs, (9~117a) and (9-117b) in Eq, (9-116) enables us to find 4a, + Zoe" (o-118) where ~~. -19) * Another set of solutions to pact (is ¢ fy ~ 26 = 005 (0) and Re = Sy = 1500), Do you see why?4 408 ~ THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION {°° is the voltage reflection coefficient of the generator end. Using Eq. (9-18) in Eqs. (@-100a) and (91006), we obtain Te Ve) = geen (7 (@-120a) a ee) Similarly, ¥, 1=Te eyaa teen (1 . Mea Fee ee). (@-1206) Equations (9-120a) and (9-130) are analytical phasor expressions for the volt- age and current at any point on a finite line fed by a sinusoidal voltage source V,, These are rather complicated expressions, but their significance can be interpreted in the following way. Let us concentrate our attention on_the voltage equation (9-120); obviously the interpretation of the current equation-(9-120b) is quite : similar, We expand Eq. (9=120a) as follows Veo gm a Pe YL — Pre)" i Vem Zee em a Te meyd = Fyre) i Veo omy 4 Fe \(1 4 Fe“ + DATE) i Zoe | leo ten ee panne 4. | “257 (Peer 4 Fe 077 +] aViAVE +E arte, @-12) where 2 Veo, en 9-121) ~ ie z0ez; eee) I Vi = Tyee" om | Vp =P rVye)e7". (9-121¢) I ‘The quantity 7 ! ~ Ye 0-122) Z+Z, | isthe complex amplitude ofthe voltage wave intaly ent down the transmission | line from the generator, Is oblained desl rom the simple circuit shown in Fig. 9712() The phasor V7 In Eq, O-121a) represents the iil wave traveling in the | !118) in Egs. (9-126a) (9-1206) for the volt- e source interpreted equation db) is quite (@-121) (@-121a) (9-1218) (@-1216) (AR) sanstussion vown in Fig. veling in the EA o Fig. 9-12. A transthssion-line circuit and traveling waves, + direction, Before this wave reaches the load impedance Z,. it sees Zy of the line as if the line were infinitely long, When the first wave Vi = Vye"™ reaches Z, at z =, itis reflected because of mismatch, resulting in a wave V; with a complex amplitude F(Vye™") traveling in the —= direction. As the wave Vj returns to the generator at = = 0, itis again te fected for Z, Ze, giving rise to a second wave V} with a compley amplitude TVge"*4) traveling in += direction. This process continues indefinitely sith reflections at both ends, and the resulting standing wave Vz) is the sum of all the ‘waves traveling in both directions, This is illustrated schematically in Fig. 9-126) In practice, 7 = 2 + jf has areal put, and the attenuation elfet of ¢-™ diminishes the amplitude of @ reflected wave each time the wave transverses the length of the line When the lise is terminated with a matched load, Z, = Zs, =0, only V7 exists, and it stops at the matched load with no refletions, If Z, Z, but Z, = Z>y (ifthe internal infpedance of the generator is matched to the line), then I #0 ad T, = 0. As a consequence, both Vand VF exist,and V3, V; and all higher-order reflections vanish, Example 9-8 A 100(MI12) generator with K, = 10/0° (V) and internal resistan 50 (0) s connected toa lossless $0 (0) airline that is 3.6 (a) long and teemoinated in a 25 + j25 (Q) load, Find (a) V(z) ata location z from the generator, (b) Vat the input terminals and ¥, at the load, (¢) the voltage standing-wave ratio on the line, and (d) the average power delivered tothe load, Solution: Referig big. 9-5, the given quantities are Y= 100 (V), Z,= S62), f 0° (Ha) Ro = 50(Q), 2, = 25 + 25 = 35.36/45 (A), / = 3.6 (m),410 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 2nl0" _ 2x Fei = F(Adim), e= 24 (rad) ww Zu Zo _ 25+ )25)- 50 _ =25+j25 _ 356/135" Z+2Zo Q5+ 725) +50 josie Te , ot Zi Me) = eMC 4 Pe v2m=21] 50 nes oaaselene-sangnny = Ser 4 oases CY We see that, because [', = 0, Vc) is the superposition of only two traveling waves, Vi and Vjas defined in Eq. (9-121). ) Atthe input terminals, Y= VO) = 5(0 + 0.343272) 5(1,316 = j0.134 = 6 61/-—582 (V) At the load, y (3.6) [e744 0.343e002724] = 510534 ~ j0.692) = 3.46/—52.3° (V). ©) The voltage standing-wave ratio is ja LEI) 14036 : “THI 7 10343 4) The average power delivered to the load is, 1/¥, 1/346)? og ld a - 33) = 25 ~ oxs90 Py It is interesting to compare this result with the case of a matched load when Zy= Zo = 50+ j0(Q).In that case, F MM9-5 / THE SMITH CHART 411 ‘and a.maximum avérage: power is delivered td the load. j Woe j Maximum Py = 54 2 =F = 025,01, . which is consideratly larger than the P,, calculated for the unmatched load in part (d). 9-5 THE SMITH CHART Transmissionsline éaleulations—such as the determination of input impedance by Eq, (9-89), reflection coefficient by Eq, (9-101), and load impedance by Eq (9-115)-—often invdlve tedious manipulations of complex numbers, This diver be alleviated by using a graphical mechod of solution. The best known and moc \widely used graphical chart isthe Smirh chart devised by P. H. Smith,” Stated sox cinctly, a Smith chart is a graphical plot of normalized resistance and reactance functions in the relletion-coeficient plane. 4n order to understand how the Smith chart for a lossless transmission line is constructed, let us examine the voltage reflection coefiient ofthe load impedance : defined in Eq, (9-101) “wk ke ym 0 1 nal oy Let the load impedance 2, be normalized with respect to the characteristic imped i ance Ry = J T/C of the line (Dimensionless), (9-123) where and x are the normalized resistance and normalized reactance respectively Equation (9-101) can be rewritten as C=P4ir, a (9-124) Where F and I, are the zeal and imaginary parts of the voltage reflection coefficient T respectively. The inverse relation of Eq. (0-124) is L14T_ 14 ier ee ee Denice lees 9-125 Po Tolte™ (9-125) cn or = wea (4 ty sit, rh iy 9-124 ti Se (9-126) ‘ei, Smithy “Transmission tine calculator,” Electronics, vk 2, p29, Jenuary 1939; and “An improved teansmissiondineealeulatog” Electronics, vol. 17 130, Jantar (eeTHEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / § Multiplying both the numerator and the denominator of Eq, (2-126) bythe complex ‘conjugate of the denominator, and separating the real and imaginary parts, we obvain eat? 7 ashe aaa and wv’ Tae (9-127) Iq. (9-1278) is potted in the, ~ , plane fora given value of, the resulting raph isthe locus for this r. The locus can be recognized when the equation is re rtaged as (- it Tt is the equation for a circle having a radius 1/(1 +r) and centered at F< r/(l +") and I) = 0. Different values ofr yield circles of different radii with centers at dilterent positions on the Fyaxis, A family of rircles are shown in solid lines in Fig. 913. Since {F| < I, only that part of the graph lying within the unit circle on the T, Plane is meaningful; everything outside can be disregarded (9-128) ne Lol } \+ complex we obtain (9-127) (9-127) » redulting tion is re- (9-128a) eri tn) siflerent Fig. 913. : 9-5 / THe SMITH CHART 418 Several slint properties ofthe circles are noted as follows: 1, The centers ofall r-circles lie on the Taxis. 2. The r= 0}cirele, hiving a unity radius dnd centered atthe origin, isthe largest. "3, The ricireles become progressively ‘smiller as r increases from 0 toward «0, ending at the (F, = 1, F; = 0) point 4. All recitcles pdss through the (F, = 1, T= 0) point Similarly, Eq. (9-127) may be rearranged as - w+(n-4) -(3) (9-128) This is the equation for a circle having radius 1/[x| and centered at T, = | and T,+ 1x, Different values of x yield circies Of different radii with centers at different posi- tions on the F, = 1 ine, A family of the portions of x-circles lying inside the {f| = | boundary are shown in dashed lines in Fig. 9-13. The following is a list of several salient properties of the x-cireles. 1. The centers of ali x-circles lie on the P= I line; those for x > 0 (inductive reactance) lie above the F-axis, and those for x <0 (capacitive reactance) lie below the I-laxs, : 2. The x =O cirele becomes the axis, 43. The x-circles become progressively smaller as [x| increases from 0 toward 20, ending at the (P, = 1, T= 0) point. 4, All circles pass through the (I, = 1, P= 0) point. A Smith chart isa chart of rand x-cicles inthe F, ~ F plane for |T] < 1. ttean be proved that the r- and x-circles are everywhere orthogonal to one another. The intersection of an rcircle and an x-circle defines a point that represents a normalized load impedance =, = r + jx, The actual loud impedance is Z, = yor + js). Since 4 Smith chart plots the normalized impedance it can be used for calculations concern ing a losses trantinssion ine with un arbileaty characteristic inp AAs an illustration, point P in Fig. 9-13 isthe intersection of the y= L7 circle and the x = 06 circle. Hence it represents == 1.7 + j0.6. The point Py at (T= —l T= 0) corresponds tor=0 and x =0'atd, therefore, represents & short The point P,, at (F, = 1, T+ sents an open-circuit ) corresponds to an infinite impedance and repre ‘The Smith chart ic Fig. 9-13 is niarked with F, and [rectangular coordinates. ‘The same chart can be marked with polar coordinates, such that every point in the T-plane is specified by a magnitude [P| and a phase angle @,. This is ilustrated in "Fig. 9-14, where several [Fcircles are shown in dotted lines and some (,-angles are marked around the |T|=1 circler The |F'-circles are normally not shown on commercially available Smith charts; but once the point representing a certainBo" Fig. 9-14 Smith chart with polar ordinates : aL 1+ jx is located, itis a simple matter to draw a circle centered at the origin through the point. The fractional distance from the center to the point (compared with the unity radius to the edge of the chart) is equal to the magnitude [| of the load reflection coefficient; and the angle that the line to the point makes with the real axis is Op. This graphical determination circumvents the need for computing f by Eq. 9-124) Each [Tcircle intersects the real axis at two points. In Fig. 9-14 we designate the point on the positive-real axis (07,.) as Py and the point on the negative-real axis (OP.,) a8 Pq. Since x = Oalong the real axis, Py and P, both represent situations with a purely resistive load, Z,, = R,. Obviously R, > Rp at Py. where r > 1: and Ry < Roat Pq, wheter < 1 ln Ey, (9-112) we found that S = Ry/Ry = ror Ry > Ry This relation enables us to say immediately, without using Eq. (9-105), that she talue of the rcircle passing through the point Py is numerically equal to the stand- ing-wave ratio. Similarly, we conclude from Eq, (9-113) that the value of the r-circle passing through the point Py on the negative-real axisis numerically equal to 1/S. For the =, = 1.7 +06 point, marked P in Fig. 9-44, we find [P| = § and Oy = 28° At Py r= S = 20, These results can be verified analytically, In summary, we note the following: 1. All [Pfcircles are centered atthe origin, and their radi vary uniformly from 0 tohe origin ompared of the with the sputing designate real situations >trand Ry > Ro. «that the he stand- te mcirele om0tol. 9-8 / THE SMITH CHART 415 2. The angle, medsured from the positive real axis, of the line drawn from the origin through the pdint representing 2, equals 8, 3. The value of the circle passing through the intersection of the [P-circle and the Positve-real ais equals the standing-wave ratio 5. So far we havé based the construction of the Smith chart on the definition of the Voltage reflection Goeffitient of the load impetiance, as given in Eq. (9-101). The input impedance looking toward the load at a distance 7 from the load is the ratio of Viz’) and 1(2}, From Eqs. (9~100a) and (9~100b) we have, by writing jf for > for a lossless line, } vey | (0-129 L+|rle* na (9-130) where =O, — 2Be. (9-131) We note that Eq. (9-130) relating z, and Pe“ = [Fei is of exactly the same form as Bq. (9-125) reldting = and T= Fle", tn fact, the latter is a special case ofthe formes for 2’ = O(6 = dy). The magnitude, |, ofthe reflection coetfient and, there fore, the standing-wave ratio §, are not changed by the additional line length just as we ean use the Smith chart to find JF] and Oe for a given Keep I] constant and subtract (rotate in the clockwise direction) from 8, an angle equal to 2f:' = 41z/i. This will locate the point for [Te*, which determines =, she normalized input impedance looking into a lossless line of characteristic impedan. Ro, length 2, and @ normalized load impedance =, Two additional scales in are usually provided along the perimeter of the [I] = 1 circle for easy reading of the Phase change 2f(A2') due to a change in line length A>’ the outer scale is marked jjNavelengths towdtd generator” in the clockwise direction (increasing =); and the inner scale is marked “wavelengths toward load” in the counterclockwise direction (decreasing 2), Figare 9-15 is atypical Smith chart, which is commercially available? It has a complicated appearance, but actually it consists merely of constant-r and constant-x circles. We note that a change ofhalf--wavelength in line length A = 2) corresponds te a (Az) = 2e change in . A complete revolution around a [pcre returns to the sarie point and results in no change in impedance, as was asserted in Eq, 9-99), (Nill of the Sm chars used inthis book ate printed with permision of Emeloid Industries, Tne, New Jersey.416 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 Fig. 9-18 The Smith chart. In the following we shall illustrate the use of the Smith chart for solving some typical transmission-line problems by several examples. { Rianiple:9-9 Use the Smith chart to find the input impedance of a section of a '5049) lossess transmission line which is 0.1, wavelength long and is terminated in a short-circuit. Jvalviny~yme section of a erminated in S/ THE SMITH CHART, 417 Solution: Giveh: . a,=0 R= 50(Q) PeOL, 1, Enter the Smith chart at the intersection of r = 0 and x =0 (Point P,, on the extreme left of chart. See Fig. 9-16) 2 Move along the perimeter of the chart (|T| = 1) by 0.1 “wavelengths toward generator” in a clockwise direction to Py, 3. At P, read r= 0 and x & 0.725, or 1363 (0). (The Input impedance is pure! 0.725, Thus, inductive) This result can be checked readily by using Ea, (9-92) 2 = jy tan fe = j50 30 = /50 tan 36° = /36.4 (0). * Example 94M A lossless transmission line of length 0.4347 and characteristic im- Pedance 100 (Q) is terminated in an impedartce 260 + j180 (2). Find (a) the voltage reflection coeficient, (bj the standing-wave ratio, (c) the input impedance, and (d) the location of a voltage maximum on the line. » Solution: Givén o.a34i Ro = 100(0) 2, = 260 + 180 (0) ) We find the voltage reflection coefficient in several steps: 1. Enter the Smith chart at =, = Z,/Rp = 26 + j1.8 (Point Py in Fig, 9-16) 2 With the vetter at the origin, draw a circle of radius OP, = |F| = 0.60. The radius of the chart OF, equals unity.) 3. Draw the,sttaighi line OP; and extend it to Py on the periphery, Read 0.220 ‘on “wavelengths toward generator” scale. The phase angle U; ofthe reflec coefidient Is (0.250 — 0,220) x 4x =0.12r (rad) or 21°. (We multiply the change in wavelengths by 4 because angles on the Smith chart ate measured in 2flz"er Jnz'/2. A halfswavelength change in line length corresponds 10 compleis :evoiuijon on the Smith chart) The answer to pact (a) is then T= |Dle**, = 0.60/21" b) The |F| = 0.60 circle intersects with the positive-real axis OP, Thus the voltage stunding.wave ratio is 4. etFig.9-16 Smith-chert caleulations for Examples 9-9 and 9-10, t { ©) To find the input impedance, we proceed as follows: I 1. Move P at 0220 by a total of 0.434 “wavelengths toward generator,” fist to (0.500 same as 0.000) and then further to0.154f(0.500 — 0.220) + 0.154 = 0.434] a toPy - 2, Join O and Ps by a straight line whiich intersects the [P| = 0.60 circle at PBe irae ti 4=0434) rele at Py. 3 Gi | SS.0THE SMITH HART 419 i = : 3. Read r= 0.6) and. = 12 a Py, Hencd iz 0010.69 + 1.2) = 69 +120 (0), “ Yr going rom Ps to Ps, the |F) = 060 circle intersects the postive-eal axis OP, dosh iets thé voltage is & maximum. Thus, a voltage mori appears at (0.250 ~ 0.220)a 00.0302 from the load. Fxample9-11 Solte Ecample 9-7 by using the Smith chart, Given * ae 500 «S530 ' Find (a) T,(b) Z,, (¢)%q, and Ry (Fig. 9-11), Solution 9 a Pavel os OP. loge the point Myst which = $= 30 5 Fi 9-17). Then OP, If} =05 (OP, = 1.0), We cannot find @, until we have located the point that represents the normalized loed taper b) We use the following Procedure to find the load impedance on the Smith chart: Daw a circle centered a the origin with radius OP,, which inserts ah sreiteativertal ais OP, at P, where there will bes vologe wae > Since en = 05104 = 025, movelrom P0125 "waveraten cag in the countercosonise direction to 3: Join © and by astraghe in, ntetecting the [F] = is the point representing the normalized load medics Ge eer ean vananee soem se tractor, because £ P,P, hx(0.250 — 0.125) = n/2. Hence or =05/=90" = “05, 5 Read at Pz, = 0.60 ~ 080, which gives 15 circle at P,,. This Z,, = 50(0.60 ~ j0,80) = 30 ~ j40 (a) ©) The equivalent tine length anid the terminating resistance can be found easly.Fig. 9-17 Smith-chart caleulations for Example 9-11 9-51 Smith-Chart Calculations. for Lossy Lines In discussing the use of the Smith chart for transmission-line calculations, we have assumed the line to be lossless. This is normally a satisfactory approximation for we generally deal with relatively short sections of low-loss lines. The lossless assumption enables us to say, following Eq. (9-130), that the magnitude of the Te" term«we nave on for we sumption term } } 9-5) THE SMITH cHaRT 421 apes Rot change with line length 2” and that we ean find, fom sy, and vie vert, by moving along the [['ircle by an angle eqhal to 262" Foy Sty line ofa sufficient length , such that 2 isnot negligible compared ’, Eq. (9-130) must be amended to read “1+Te ‘e” tates eae 1+ [Fle“2rele =O, ~ 2pr. 7 Ta[emeer | OO 2h (9-132) Henes, to find 2; ftom z., we cannot simply move along the |[-circle; auxitiary calculations are neSessary in order to account for the e” faster Te Tollowing, example illustrates What has to be done tout namPle 9-12 The input impedance ofa short-circuited lossy transmission line of (Gpaih3 mand chatacteristicimpedance 75 (2) approximately cea)iv 4s «22s a, (a) Find « and f of the line. (b) Determine the input impedance if the short-circuit is replaced by a load impedance Z, = 67.5 — j48 (0), Solution 4) The shortcireuil load is represented by the point Pon the extreme left ofthe Smith impedance chart L Enter z,, = (45 + j225)/75 = 0.60 + J3.0 in the chart as P, (Fig, 9-18), 2: Draw a straight line from the origin O'through P, to P; 3. Measure OP /OP, = 089 =e?" It follows they bin (glp) =f nti 0029 Np ‘4 Record that the aré P,P; is 0.20 “wavelengths toward generator We have f= 0.20 and 26¢ = 4né/i= 08m, Thus, O8r _08r_ Ba oF =F = 02 (radi) ) To find the input impedance for Z,, = 675 — j45 (0) 2 Bnet 3. = Z1/%o = (67.5 ~ 48)/15 = 09 ~ j06 on the Smith chart as P, 2 Draw a straight line from-0 through P, to P where the “wavelengths tovard generator” reading is 0.364 3. Draw a [Phcirce centered at O with radius OP, “& Move Ps alotg the perimeter by 0.20 “wavelengths toward generator” to 3 at 0.364 + 0.20 = 0.564 or 0.064, & join Ps and by a straight line, imersecting the [P-circle at Py, " & Mark on line OP a point P, such that OP JOP, = en = a, 7. At Pi read z; = 0.64 + j0.27. Hence, 2, = 75(0.64 + 0.27} = 480 + j203 (0).Fig. 9-18 Smith-chart calculations for lossy transmission line (Example 9-12) 9-6 TRANSMISSION-LINE IMPEDANCE MATCHING ‘Transmission lines are used for the transmission of power and information. For radio-frequency power transmission it is highly desirable that as much power as possible is transmitted from the generator to the load and as little power as possible is lost on the line itself, This will require that the load be matched to the characteristic1 For" ver as sssible cristie 9-6.1 Impedance Matchlhg by Quarter-Wave Transtormor A gimple method for matching a resistive load R,, 10 a lossless transmission line of SeLaeeteristc impedance fy is to insert a quarter-wave mst with a charace teristic impedance Ri, such that oR o- ) Fs ag wave ine depends on wavelength, this matching ve, a8 are all the other methods to be discussed, Since the length of th ‘method is frequency-sensi Example 13. A signal generator is to feed equal power through a lossless air rena, eg ion Hine with « characteristic impedance 50 (0) to ras separate resistive 1628S, 64(0) and 25 0). Quarter-wave transformers ae oot ‘mateh the loads to {he 30(@) line, as shown in Fig. 9-19. fa) Detesoune the required characteristic impedances of the quarter-wave lines. (b) Find the standing-wave ratios on the ‘matching line sections. “ . Fig. 9-19 Impédance matching by qua (Example 9-13,424 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 Solution 18) To feed equal power to the two loads, the input resistance at the junction with the main fine looking toward each load must be equal to 2Ro. Ri = Ra = 2Ry = 100 (0). Roy = Rahs = VIO x Gi = 800) Roz = VRaRia = V100 x 25 = 50 (0). ) Under matched conditions there are no standing waves on the main transmission line ($ = 1), The standing-wave ratios on the two matching line sections are Matching section No. I Ruy= Roy _ 64-80 MRR 64480 oe Le [ny] _ 1404 a T=|Fy “1-011 Matching section No.2 Ordinarily the main transmission line and the matching line sections are essen tially lossless. In that case both Ro and Ro are purely real and Eq, (9133) will have no solution if Ry is replaced by a complex Z,. Hence quarter-wave transformers are not useful for matching a complex load impedance to a low-loss fine. Tn the following subsection we will discuss a method for matching an arbitrary load impedance to a line by using a single open- or short-circuited line section (a single stub) in parallel with the main line and at an appropriate distance from the Toad. Since it is more convenient to use admittances instead of impedances for parallel connections, we first examine how the Smith chart can be used to make admittance calculations. Let ¥; = 1/Z, denote the load admittance. The normalized load impedance is (9-134) where (Dimensionless), (9-135) \ |jon with = Rae smission sare se essen will have mers are urbitrary ection (a from the parallel mittance dance is | i | { i { ' $6 / TRANSMISSIDNALINE IMPEDANCE MATCHING 428 Fig. 9-20. Finding admittance from impedance (Example 9-14, ‘aving normalized conductance g and normalized Parts respectively. Equation (9-134) suggests prunslorm =. to Ju. and vie versa. On the Smith chart we men point representing 2, along the [I toi representing 5. Since a /4-change inline length ciao 4) corresponds andy nanee of x radians (2PAz'= x) on the Smith chart the wemue representing 2, and yi are then diametrically opposite o each’other on the [-cirle. This observation rabies Us to find », from 2, and 2, from y,,on the Suite chest very simple ‘manner. Example 9-14 Given Z, = 95 + 20(Q) find ¥, Solution: This problem has nothing to do with an ¥ transmission line, In order to se the Smith chart, we can choose an arbitrary no, yrmalizing constant; for instance, Ro = 50(Q). Thus, 1 5L = 3 OS + 120) = 1.9 +04, Enter as point P, on the Smith chart in Fig. 9-20. The Point P, on the other side ofthe line joining P, and O represents y,: OF; = OF, = 1 I= 3 (0.5 ~ j0.1) = 10 j2 (ms), Example 9-15 Find the input admittancé of an impedance 300 (Q) and leagth 0.044. ‘open-circuited Line of characteristic9-6.2 Fig. 9-21. Finding input admittance of open-circuited line (Example 9-15), Solution 1. For an open-circuited line, we start from the point Pa, oiTthe-extreme right of the impedance Smith chart, at 0.25 in Fig. 9-21, 2. Move along the perimeter of the chart by 0.04 “wavelengths toward generator” to P5 (at 0.29). 3. Draw a straight line from P, through O, intersecting at P on the opposite side, 4, Read at Py y= 0-40.26. Thus, L Y= 35 0 +J0.26) = j0.87 (ms) In the preceding two examples we have made admittance calculations by using the Smith chart as an impedance chart. The Smith chart can also be used as an admittance chart, in which case the r and x circles would be g and b circles. The points representing an open- and short-circuit termination would be the points on the extreme left and the extreme right, respectively, on an admittance chart. For Example 9-15, we could then start from extreme left point on the chart, at 0.00 in Fig. 9-21, and move 0.04 “wavelengths toward generator” to Ps directly. Single-Stub Matching ‘We now tackle the problem of matching a load impedance Z, to a lossless line that has a characteristic impedance Re by placing a single short-circuited stub in parallel with the line, as shown in Fig, 9-22. This is the single-stub method for impedance ‘matching. We need to determine the length of the stub, ¢, and the distance from the load, 2’, such that the impedance of the parallel combination to the right of points B-B equals Ro. Short-circuited stubs are usually used in preference to open-circuited |r i hy yey ae + 9 9°6 | TRANSMISSION-LINE IMPEDANCE MATCHING 427 stubs becaiuse cin infinite termi zero terminating impedance for Tenatt With neighboring objects, Moreover u short-cireited stub of an adjucabie length and a constant characteristic resistahce ts muct be Parallel cdinbination of a line terminated in Z, and a stub at points B-B* ip fo 9-22 sugges that itis advantageous to analyze the matching requirements in terms of admittahces. The basic requirement is Y= %y+, ance 1 z (9-136) =% In terms of normalized «dmittances, Eq, (9-136) becomes lase+n, (9-13) piers Ya = RoYs is for tne load section and y, = Ry, is for the short-circuited stub, However singe thé input admittance ofa short-circuited stub i purely suseapinn 18 purely imaginary. As a consequence,.Eq, (9-137) can be satisfied only if P= 1+Jog + (9-138a) ee and : Ja ibe, (9-138) [there be can be either positive or negative. Our objectives, then, are to find the length d such that the admittance, yp, of the load section looking to the right of ter- minal has a unity real part and to find the length ¢ ofthe stub resained vo cancel the imaginary part. y using das an os. The ints on Ht bor 0.00 in % es ne thy ‘eda om the points reuited Fig, 9-22 Impedance matching by single-stub method.1 428 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / @ Using the Smith chart as an admittance chart, we proceed as follows for single- stub matching: 1. Enter the point representing the normalized load admittance J, 2 Draw the [Pcirele for y,, which wil intersect the g = At these points yoy = circle at two points + bp, and Yp2 = 1+ Jby2. Both are possible solutions 3, Determine load-section lengths d, and dy from the angles between the point representing y, and the points representing yay and yx. 4. Determine stub lengths én, and éyp from the angles between the short-circuit Point on the extreme right of the chart to the points representing —by, and ~ jms respectively The following example will ilustrate the necessary steps. Example 9-16 _A 50-(0) transmission line is connected to a load impedarice Z, = 35 = j47.5 (O). Find the position and length of a short-circuited stub required to ‘match the Tine Solution: Given R= 50), 5 = j475 (0) 21 = Z/Ro = 0.70 — 0.95. 1. Enter =, on the Smith chart as P, (Fig. 9-23) 2, Draw a [T-circle centered at O with radius OP). 3. Drawaa straight line from P, through 0 to point P on the perimeter, intersecting the [Ffcircle at P2, which represents yy. Note 0.109 at P on the “wavelengths toward generator” scale. 4. Note the two points of intersection of the [F-circle with the g = AtPy: yg = 1+J12 = 1+ iby AtPa: Yar =1—j12= 1+ ibn. 5. Solutions for the position of the stub: For Ps from Po Ps): dy = (0.168 — 0.109)2 = 0.0592; For Py (from P3 to Pa): dy = (0.332 ~ 0.109)2 = 0.2234. 6. Solutions for the length of short-circuited stub to provide y, = —jby For P; (from P,, on the extreme right of chart to. PS, which represents —jhpy = =i.) circle, (0.361 — 0.250)2 = 0.1114; For Ps (from P,_to Pi, which represents — bpp = j12): on = (0.139 + 0250). 3892.«single points, lutions. € point circuit am and ela ired to secting lengths iby 8-8 / TRANSMISSION-LINE IMPEDANCE MATCHING 429 Fig. 9-23 Construction for singlestub matching. In general.the solution with the shorter lengths is preferred unless there are ‘other practical constraints. The exact length, ¢y, of the short-circuited sec mey Feauire fine adjustments in the actual matching procedure; hence the shorted mavet ing sections are sometimes called stub tuners ‘The use of Smith chart in solving impedance-matching problems avoids the ‘manipulation of complex numbers and the computation of tangent and are-tangent4 4 430 THEORY AND APPLICATIONS OF TRANSMISSION LINES / 9 functions; but graphical opnsiructions are needed, and graphical methods have limited accuracy. Actually the analytical solutions of jmpedance-matching problems are relatively simple, and egsy access to a computer’ may diminish the reliance on the Smith chart and, at the samie time, yield more accurate results, For the single-stub matching problem illustrated in Fig. 9-22, we have, from Eq. (9-89), fr + ie) +t COT +i +i ed where = tan pid, -140) ‘The normalized inpat admitfane tothe right of points B-B' is (-i81) where gp =a tre +9 (0-142) and : byw litt s samy +0) (9-1420) Paeny A perfect match requires the simultaneous satisfaction af Eqs. (9-138a) and (91388). Equating gp in Eq. (9~142a) to unity, we have 2 IP Quy tn 1 = 9D =0, (9-143) Solving Eq. (9-143), we obtqin eval Ry, ne @-14Ka) 1 (9-146) in be fouind from Eqs. (9-140), (9-144a), and (9-144b): xtan-hy, (9-145a) x! 20 9-145a) Bieta eo. 19-1436) Similarly, from Eqs. (9-138b) and (9~142b), we obtain (! -fewe(? ott i4s have roblems ance on 'e, from (0-139) (0-140) 9-141) 41424) 142) 13Kb). 9-143) 14a) 1440) -145a) 1550) 1463p 1466) i= 0.058944694, |Z, = O.111177924, 44 = 0223477302, yy == 0388822084. Ofcourse, such accuracies are seldom needed in dn actual problem; but these answers hhave been obtained edaily without a Smith chart. Double-Stub Matching The method of impedance matching by mean of a single stub described in the receding subsection can te used to match any atbitrary,nonzet, finite lod imped, nce to the characteristic resistance of a line However, the single-stub merrod ‘requires that the stub bs autached to the main lie at a specific point which varies ag the load impedance is hanged. This requirement often presents practical diffeuitice because the specified junction point may occur at an undesirable location from mechanical viewpoints Furthermore, it is very dificult to build a variabletengeh cosiial line with a constant.charueteristc impedance. In such eases, an altermrve method for impedunee-maiching is to use iwo short-igeuited stubs altached te the ‘main line at fixed position: as shown in Fig, 9-26. Here, the distance d,s fixed and arbitrarily chosen (such as 7/16, 1/8, 34/16, 3/8, ete), and the lengths ofthe two cent tuners are adjusted to match a given load impedance Z, to the main line. This scheme is the double-stub method fur impedance matching. Im the arrangement in Fig. 9-24, a stub of length ¢, is connected directly in Parallel withthe load impedance Z, at terminals Ad’, and a second stub of length oN Fig. 9-24 Impedance matching by double-stub method.