thFik

csh mikfSF thfhsf cWdfis njbjLf 3

thFfis (khtl Cuh cWd, Cuh xa cWd, Cuh kw
cWd) g brt. efu, khefu thfhsf (efu cWd / khefu cWd)
cWdiu njbjLf xU thid g brt.

l xJL
grhaJf vyh iyfY cs vyhgjfY 1/3 gF gjf
bgfSF

RH

Kiw

xJL

bragl

ntL.

jhjgl

gHFodUF mjj Cuh mik mtf UF jhrhuF Vg l

xJL mfgL.

gjfhy
grhaJ mikf njbjLfgl cWdf, jiytf, Jiz
jiytf gj fhy 5 MLf. khymuR ca fhuzfhf mikig
fiyF gr 6 khjfSF njj eljgl ntL. 5 ML fhy
KotjF 6 khjf Kdnu mLj 5 MLfSfhd njj eilbgW. Kj
TlUJ 5 MLf fzlgL. j Kj Tl njia khtl
njj Miza agh. khy muir fyJ bfhL njj Miza njjiy
elJth.

3.3.6

khy njj Miza

grhaJ mikf, efuhf kW khefuhf Ma csh

mik njjfis elj, njj Miza xiw VgLj, rl l jUwJ.

khy njj Miza khy muR gJiugo MSeuh afgLth. t
muR

bray

iy

cstuhf

Uf

ntL.

tuJ

gjfhy

ulhLf. UKiw tUila gjfhy ofglyh. MW MLfSF

nk xUtnu bjhlJ Mizauhf Uf KoahJ. 62 taJ iwtiljJ t
gjfhy KoJ L. ca kw gF ca gghJfh tUF cL.
tiu gj f bra ntLkhdh rlkw 2/3 cWdf
rkjJl khd awgl ntL. 5 MLfSF xUKiw khy csh
njjiy muRl fyJ bfhL t elJth. njj m Kj njj Ko
m tiu midF tnu bghWghth. njj Kojl csh
mikf Kj Tl njia zgtU tnu.

90

3.3.7

grhaJ f
MSe, muR Mnyhridgo, jiyt xUtiu 4 cWdfis bfhl

grhaJ f xiw 5 MLfSF xU Kiw agh. j mik

muR grhaJ mikfSF J tHfgl ntoa bfhif kW
grhaJ mikf Mjhufis bgU bfhs Mnyhridf FJ
khy MSeUF gJiu br. ij MSe rlkwF mD itgh.

thf mfhf

uhk Cuh kw - Cuh kw jiyt.

Cuh xaf - Miza - (B.D.O)

(tlhu ts mYty)

khtl grhaJ - bra mYty.

efu grhaJ - bra mYty.

efuhf - efuh Miza,

khefuhf - khefuh Miza

3.3.8

khtl l FG
khtl ms grhaJ mikfSF lL gfhf xU khtl

l FG VgLjgLsJ.

Mths
grhaJ

mikf

braghil

ffhf

mtiw

begLj khtl Mahsnu Mthsuhf gth. grhaJ mikf

iwntW khdf rl nuhjkhf UjhY, bghJ kf eyDF cfjjhf
yhlhY mtiw uJ br mfhu tUFL. grhaJ mikf
tu bry l njitgl khWjf br mfhuK tUFL.
grhaJ mikf mtru fhyf bra jtW gfis neuoahf br
cik tUFL. grhaJ mik cWdf 2/3 cWd Mju ng
grhaJ mikf jiytfis f nfhdh, F mfhuK tUFL.
jifa khd yhjnghJ jiytfis gj f br cik
tUFL.
grhaJ mik tlhu ts mYty, thf mYty, uhk
mYtyf, Maf, kUJt gahsf, grhaJ bra mYtyf khy
mu fLgho Ug.

91

3.3.9

efw csh mikf

efwf tF kf njitfS trfS bgU tUwd.

bgUtU

njitfis

iwntWtjfhf

efw

csh

mikf

cUthfgLsd. jeho cs efw csh mikfis _W

tifahf fyh. mit: ng%uh, efuh, khefuh.

ng%uh
jeho bkhj 561 ng%uhf csd. ng%uh cWdfis kf
neuoahf njbjLwd. kfsh njbjLfgl cWdf ng%uh
jiytiu kiwKfkhf njbjLg.

bra
jeho cs efuhf kW khefuhf bgafis goaLf.

efuh
jeho bkhj 150 efuhf csd. efuh thL cWdfis
kf thfJ njbjLwhf. efuh thL cWdf efuh
jiytiu kiwKfkhf f mogil njbjLwhf. j jiyt
`efuh jij vW miHfgLth.

khefuh
jeho bkhj 8 khefuhf csd. thL cWdf kf
thfJ njbjLwhf. tfis fy vW miHg. f
mogil khefuh jiytiu fyf kiwKfkhf njbjLwhf.
khefuh jiyt `nka vW miHfgLwh.

efw csh mikf gf

kfSF njitahd rhiytr, fhf, f, Rfhjhu, Fo,
ghjhsrhfil, Ju g, sFf Ma gfis efw csh
mikf brwd.

efw csh mikf tUth

ka khy muR mF cj.

Lt, nfif t, bjh t, brhJt, Fo t, sgu t nghw t

f _y ilF tUth.

92

3.4 Koiu
ah tsU ehLf tir Kjl

csJ. ah

tsia cyf ehLf cW neh tUwd. a tsF mj rlfS,

MahsfS fhuzkhwd. iyahd, kf J frid, mfiw
bfhl muR mik nghJ jh ehL Kndw mil. ekJ eho ika - khy
- csh murikf kfshia Fnfhshf bfhLsjh, it
kf r_f, bghUshjhu KndwF ttFwJ. jifa murikf,
kf xbthUtU jf thifia tsgL bfhs rkkhd thfis
VgL bfhLwd. jifa murik rkJt kW cik nfhghLf
mogil, midtuJ eyfis ghJfhwJ. jdh `k ikj
bfhif kwfgL, ehLgW tsfgLwJ. j nja cz, kfilna
cs ntWikfis fisJ xWikl thH ttif brwJ. vdnt tskhd,
tYthd, ah cUthf a midtU izJ bragLnth.

3.5 ghit f
1.

Agarwal. R.C., Constitutional history of India and National Movement, New Delhi, 1981.

2.

Keshyap Subhash. C, Our parliament, New Delhi, 3rd Edition, 1995.

3.

Majumbar, R.C, An advanced History of India, Macmillan India Ltd. 1985.

4.

Mahajan. V.D. Constitutional Law of India, 7th Edition, Lucknow, (1991).

5.

Shukla, V.N. Constitution of India 8th edn. M.P. Singh, Lucknow, 1990.

93

myF - IV
ngul - ml - Na kly
mKf
eh nkgu thnwh. TWfshd y, , fhW Ma
ah nkgunyna fhzgLwd. eh UFlUJ thid
ghFnghJ vzw eru Tlf Ugij ghnwh. e ghitF
mghY eru Tlf csd. a fzfhd eru Tlf
mla fbga guig eh ngul vnwh.
ngul cs eru TlF ml vW bga. vzw
mlf X ml `ght ml vd miHfgLwJ. ght ml
gyhu fzfhd Na klyf csd. m xU Na klynk eh fhQ
NaD, Naid Rs xgJ nfhfS MF. xgJ nfhfS xW `
vgJ eh mjnj. cdf thH jFj btgiy, , y, fhW
nghw mogil tsf mikJsjh kw nfhfis fhoY wghdbjhU
nfhshf fUjgLwJ. eh thtjhY e mwhl thifF
njitahd tsf mikJsjhY cs ts mikng e thif
Kiwfis zgjhY, a g, mj TWf g bjthf
mJ bfhtJ, g khzhfF vLJiugJ mta.

myFTWf
4.1

ngul

4.2

ml

4.3

Na kly

4.4

4.4.1

tot

4.4.2

RH

4.4.3

ms

4.4.4

Naid ty tUj

4.4.5

cdK

94

95

96

4.1 ngul (Universe)

ngul vgJ guJ j bt kly MF. kly a
bt

bghUfUJ

fbga

msyhd

ght

ml

tiu

cslaJ. msid bghWjtiu bgaJ vW ahuhY f ayhJ.

bt

Muhahsf

bjhlJ

ngulij

ga

Muhid

nkbfhL tUwhf. ngul msid mtjF bgnuhnfh

(Spectroscope) vw fUid gagL, Ys bghUf UJ

u afToaJ vW, ia neh tJ mU af ToaJ vW
Tw aY vW fUJwd. j mogil btgL brfis bfhL,
ngul midJ irY btw tsJ bfhL tUwJ vW
Phf TWwhf.

ngul njhw fhuz: Rkh 13.7 a MLfSF K, r thj

bto fUf TL vW mayhsf fUJwd. j fid
`gh nfhghL vW bgald. gh nfhghogo elj r thj
btong ngul cUthtjF, aFtjF fhuz. Mdh j af W
L vnwh, irid kh bfhS vnwh myJ bjhlJ a
bfhoUF

vnwh

cW

Tw

ayhJ

vW

mayhsf

fUJ

bjwd. Mdh gh fF ngul J iwa iy

csJ. ngul vzw eru bjhFfS, a fz
mlfS csd.

97

4.2

ml (Galaxy)
gy

eruf

bjhF

Tl

ml

vwiHfgLwJ.

mlf fhzgL eru bjhFf xWl xW < irah Tlhf

izfgLsd. ml vzw eruf, thf, Rf cslaJ
MF. X ml a myJ a fz eruf csd. gy
a mlf bjhFng ngul (Universe) vnwh. eruf
KakhdJ Na. Na FLgij, Na FLg cs mlid
`ght ml vW TWt. J `RU totid bfhlJ.
mlf mj totid bfhL bgalgLwJ. eh thG
mlF `ght ml (Milky way galaxy) vW bga. mJ RU totid
bfhlJ. y mlf tl totid bfhljhf csd. y mlf
xGfwitahf csd. Vbd mit vj xU totid xUfiy
vW

fUjgLwJ.

jbghGJ

tif

ngul

fLofgLsJ.

mngulF `eru jw ( Star Burst) vW bga. j ml mf

gSdh a eruf Obud njhWtjF tf Ugjh thW
miHfgLwJ. ngul ljl 100 aDF nkyhd mlf
csjhf fUjgLwJ. bgUghikahd mlf mikgo ( hierarchy)
bjhFf vd, fbga Tlid Ng bjhFf vd miHwhf.

4.3

Na kly
bra

NaFLg ga khia jhnd fw fUahf gagLJgo jahf.

eh thG ahdJ eik Rs ngul xU gFahF. Na
kly Na, xgJ nfhf, Jiz nfhf Mu fzfhd nfh
jwf ( Asteroids ), a fzfhd th eruf, bgUFGfshd
ff Kjad mlF. Na FLg ikabghU Na MF.
Na ika < irah Na FLg mik ah jj ghij
wHhJ, efwd. NalUJ btntW bjhiy mit Naid R
RHW bfhoUwd. Na FLg cs nfhf midJ tl
ghijf Naid R tUwd. nfhfSF j x ilahJ. mit Na
xia ugwd.
Na ( Sun ): Na vD dhdJ vthfsh Md mikghF.
UJ bjhlJ Hf btgij btL bfhnlUwd.
thG jhtuf, uhf, Vida cdf midF Mjhukhd r
NalUnj ilwJ. Na

92 % iAu#, 7.8 % a, 0.2 % ju

thf csd. xU dhoF 700 a l iAu# vJ akhf

khwgLwJ. Na nkgu btg iyahdJ VwjhH 6000 0C. Na

98

cw ikagF xU nfho o bra btg ywJ. Mdh bgU

bto nghJ 10 Mu nfho o bra btg btglJ vwh fgid
brJ ghUf! vdnt Na mU brY vbghUS clnd vW fU
L.
nfhf (Planets): Na FLg xgJ nfhf csd. mit j,
bt, , brth. ahH, r, nud, beo kW qnlh MF.
nfhfis mt mikig bfhL ghiwnfhf, th nfhf vd U
fshf fyh. j, bt, , brth Ma nfhf a cUtJl,
bgUks

ghiwfis,

js

thfis

bfhLsd.

vdnt

it

ghiwnfhf vd miHfgLwd. ahH, r, nud, be Ma

nfhf

bga

cUtJl

bgUks

thfis

js

ghiwfis

bfhLsd. vdnt it thnfhf vd miHfgLwd. Snlh

thfS f Fj iy lkhf kh csjh jid kL `ggJ
vW miHwd.
Jiz nfhf ( Satellite): rhoiy vD brhYF gWgt vW
bghU. Fl nfhfis R y Jiz nfhf RWwd. nfhfnshL
rhj mit Naid R tUwd. Jiznfh ru. mjid
nghW nkY KgJ Jiznfhf Na FLg csd. nfhfis nghnw
JiznfhfSF Ra x ilahJ. NaFLg y nfhfSF kLnk
Jiznfhf cL.
ru ( Moon ): J Jiznfh. J ms 1/80 gF
kLnkahF. J UJ 384,000 . bjhiy csJ. ru l 3480
.. ru j m RHW ia 27.3 ehf R tUwJ. ruDF
Ra x ilahJ. mj x, x NalUJ ugfgLtnj MF.
ia R tUnghJ mj xU gF kLnk Na x gL. UJ
ghFnghJ xL mgF kLnk ygL. mkhthirF wF xG
gF ms

mfJ bfhnl nghF. bgszaW KG ruD

UJ fhQnghJ xnahL bj, bgszF wF, ru xf

gF ms gogoahf FiwJ bfhnl brY. mLj mkhthir L
ru fQF ygLtiy. mkhthir Kj bgsz tiuyhd fhy
tsiw. bgsz Kj mkhthir tiuyhd fhy njiwahF.
theruf ( Comets ): nfhkhl Rfsh Md l thYl
Toa njhwnk th eru. tF l FWa thgF cL. tl
ghij efwd. it Obud X x whf xU y dhofSF kL
owd. NaDF mU brYnghJ mit ygL. th eruf U
tifglit.

99

vk nA

nA th eru
1.

Fl ilbt L L mikgit. Ah theru

jF wj vLJfhlhF.

2.

Fl ilbt vnghnjD mikgit.

nA th eru vgJ th erufSF fthjJ MF.

J 76 MLfSF xU Kiw njhW.

v eruf ( Meteors ): y rkaf u bghG th y
xfiw nghw mikf fhzglyh. it FWa neunf ygL. it
v eruf vdgLwd. Na FLg W W Jff nghW
bghUf xGfw Kiw j lwd. it jj bfhJfshf
mikJsd. j mad R tUnghJ ahdJ y rkaf t
mU tu neLwJ. mnghJ mbghUf y Fj ntfJl
tkly

EiHwd.

fhW

klykhdJ

mit

EiHtij

vFKfkhf cuhid clhF. vdnt btg cUthF. btgdh

mbghUf vJ Lwd. mit th xfiwfshf Obud ygL,
iu kiwJ Lwd. xbthU ehS tklyF a
fzfhd veruf EiHwd. mit guig miljh F bgUj
nrj

clhF.

Mdh

tkly

eruflUJ

ia

fhghWwJ. tklyD EiHjJnk mit vL kiwJ Lwd.

ff

myJ

vff

( Meteorites ):

bga

eruf

tklyF EiHJ a guig milwd. mit lkhd ffshf

J Gwd. it ff vdgL.

100

4.4
4.4.1 tot:

bra
Na FLg ga w mrfis g fyJiuahLf.
f beLfhykhf kf ahdJ jilahdJ vd e bfhoUjd.
g}W MLfshf cy gy gFf y iyfis ghjJ, mDgtjh
mtf j mit bgU bfhl nghJ, ahdJ jilahd gugy; nfhs
totkhdJ vgij czjd.
.K. Mwh who jhfu vD nuf mP Kj Kjyhf
ahdJ cUil totkhdJ vd ciujh. mlho, tuhAtu, Maglh,
nfhgf MnahU j fUijna bfhoUjd. d tot ga
vzijna kf l fhykhf kwJ ld. bfhyg fhyjh mj
fUJ L my MuhaglJ. 1520 bkfy btfukhf xnu ir
fg gaJ cyif R tjh. mj tot ga fil
rnjfK jJ. nfhs totij ydhF rhWf gy csd.

4.4.2

RH (Rotation of the Earth)

uL Ka rydf - RHYjY, Naid ty tUjY MF.

ahdJ mj mJ j jhnd nkUJ Hfhf fofhu v RH

RHwJ. mJ xU Kiw RHY neu xU eh (24 k neu) MF. xU eh gfY,
u mikwd. f Fiwj sKila l J xnu uhf RHW
tUtjF RH (rotation) vW bga. tl, bj JUtfis izF nfhL
RH mR (axis of the rotation) vdgL.

4.4.3 ms (Size)
.K. _wh who Vunghj vw mP

msid

zf Kj Kiwahf Kaf nkbfhlh. ahdJ nfhs totkhdJ.

Mdh J X cikahd nfhsky. mJ JUt gFf J jilahf,
ka nuif gF J illD fhzgLwJ. tikig ` tot
(Geoid) vnwh. vdnt ` tot bfhlJ.
ahdJ xU tlghij Naid R tUwJ. j tl
ghij RWif NaDF f mU miknghJ mJ bga
(perihelion) vdgL. NalUJ mf bjhiy miknghJ mJ ma
( Aphelion ) vdgL. bga iy #dt Mug mik. mnghJ

101

NalUJ 146.4 a . bjhiy mikwJ. ma iy #]iy

Mug mik. mnghJ bjhiy 151.2 a .. MF. nj nghW ru
ia xo tl ghij RtUnghJ F mUY ia L mf
bjhiyY miktJ Kiwna bg (perigee) mngh (Appogee) iyfshF.
NalUJjh F x ilwJ. j m RHW (24 k
neu) xUKiw j jhnd R KoFnghJ gfY, u mLjLJ
khtU. RHyhUFkh, NaDF vnus gFf bjhlJ nknkY
btgkilJ bfhnl UF. mF vnghJ gfyhfnt UF. kWgfYs
gFf vnghJ uthfnt UF. mit bknkY FJ bfhnlUF.
RH fhuzkhfnt gfY, u kh kh VgLwd.
mR neuhdjy. mJ iljs UJ 66 1/2 0 brFJ
jsUJ 23 1/2 0 rhUwJ. mR thW rhJ Ugjh y
isf VgLwd. mR neuhf UFkhdh vyh lfY
ML KGtJ xbthU ehS kh kh 12 kneu gfyhf, 12 k neu
uthf UF. xbthU ehS Na xnu neu cJ xnu neu kiw.
Mdh mR rhUgjdh, gf, u bghGJf khWghLf
mikwd.

gf,

khWghLf

fhuzkhf

gUtfhyf

VgLwd.

4.4.4

Naid ty tUj ( Revolution)

bra

kh kW lh sif itJ u gf VgLtij brJ fw.

ahdJ jDila tl ghij mad , XuhL fhy (365
1/4 ehf) xUKiw Naid R tUwJ. j isthf gUt fhyf
VgLwd. mj mrhdJ brFJ jsUJ 23 1/2 0 rhJ gntW
iyf gntW mrnuif Na ffis bgWwd. vdnt xbthU
gUtY gf u khWgLwd.

gUtfhyf: gf ubghG s lF l ntWgLwJ. xnu

l Tl gf u neu ML KGtJ xnu khah iy. gUtF
gUt khWgLwJ. X Moid ehF gUtfshf fyh.
trjfhy - (spring )
nfhilfhy - (summer )
iyfhy - (Autumn)
Ffhy - (Winter )

102

 Naid R tUnghJ y Fl khjf tlmiunfhskhdJ

NaDF vnu mikJ nfhilgUtid mDgF. Fl y khjf
bjmiu nfhskhdJ NaDF vnu mikJ nfhilia mDgF.
#] 21 - tlJUt Naid neh rhJsJ. bj JUt
NalUJ mf bjhiy mikwJ. tlJUt gF bjhlJ gf
bghGJ, bj JUtgF bjhlJ u bghGJ VgLwd. Na
brFJ ff 23 1/2 0 tlF flfnuif Gwd. tlmiunfhs
bgUgF Naid neh Ugjh gfbghGJ ljhf, bjmiu nfhs
ubghGJ ljhf y. #] khj tlmiunfhs nfhilgUtK,
bjmiu nfhs FgUtK y.
#& 21-F wF Na bjF neh UtJngh njhW. bjfhf
efU Na brlg 23 ka nuifia flJ bjmiu nfhs
EiH. nkY bjfhf brY Na org 22 kfu nuif ufhF.
tlfhfU. efUnghJ kh 21 L ka nuifia flF. thW
flf nuifF, kfu nuifF ilgl gF gUtkhWghLf clhwd.
jhD R bfhL Naid RWnghJ gy khWgl iyf mikwJ.
mjdh Na l bgatJ nghy njhW.
vdnt, gUtfhyf mika rhthd mR, tl ghij
khwhk Naid ty tUj Mait fhuzkhf mikwJ. it nrJ
bragL, uhd gUtkhWjfis VgLJwd.
RUfkhf, Mo kW mlho gFf mikJs ehLf e
ehoYs gUtfhy ntWghLfis ngh fhzgLtiy. mwhl fG, rkkhd
u,

gfYF

gyhf

u,

FWa

nfhil

fhyK

ywd.

nfhilYTl Na rhthd ffns mgF Gtjh mj lf

btgiy f Fiwthfnt fhzgLwd. mF nfhilfhy, Ffhy Ma
U gUtf kL cL.

bra
ufzf nghJ , ru kW Na affis, iyfis
mJ bfhs khztfns tFgiw, jfisna khfsh gagL
brJ fw _y J bfhs ntL.
ufzf: `ufz vgJ btrhj bghU, bdhU bghU
HYF tUbghGJ HY y HY bt Gwd.
NH y tUbghGJ myJ y H tUbghGJ xkiw f
VgLwJ.
ahdJ NaDF, ruDF il tUbghGJ H
ru Gtjh ruufz VgLwJ. KgJ lfSFnk Vgl
ToajhF.

103

mnlhg 3, 2005 Na ufz

KG Na xkiw

tisa Na xkiw
ru F NaDF il tUbghGJ ru H J
J neu gotjh Naufz VgLwJ. ru H 300 ..F nk
gu nk Gtiy.

4.4.5 cdK
, y, fhW Matwh MdJ eh thG cyf. KjKj cyf
njhanghJ U, yK, fhW iy. gJ xU beU nfhskhf
NalUJ J brW, Fl bjhiy iybfhL Naid Rw
MujJ. kLky, Naid RW vyh nfhfS njha tuyhW
Jjh.

cUthd j
mlbt Uj midJ bghUfS xU khbgU nfhskhf UjJ.
ObuW xU bga bto fjJ. mnghJ 10 Mu nfho o bra btg
btglJ. J fgidF vlhj mgafukhd btgkhF. mj rka
ml UjJ xnw xWjh. mJ khbgU xahF.
mlbt F miljnghJ nuhlhf, vyuhf, uhf
Mait njhd. it xizJ Kj mQf cUthd. tQf
bgUghY iAu# kW a mQfshf Ujd. y a mQfS
Ujd.
< ir j mQfis ukhlkhd th nkffshf MaJ.
th nkff d eru klyfshd. xbthU kly cns
< ir bragL mQfis nkY beUf brJ WW th nkffis
cUthaJ. it, RUf, RHy, btgkila bjhld.

104

xU thnkf ika gF Uj iAu#, ObuW akhf khw

bjhlaJ. go mgF btg kW x Mw VgL beU nfhskhf
khaJ. thW Na njhaJ.
Naid Rtj th nkfUj mQf xizJ W ffshd.
mj W ff xizJ W ghiwfshd. mit xizJ bgU
ghiwfshd. mgo cUthd bgUghiw jh ahF.
Mug jh erukhd Naid nghnw beU nfhskhf Uj ,
nfho fzfhd MLfshf bky bky FJ, m Uj thf F
milJ utkhf (flgFfshf), lkhf (ygFfshf), thfshf
(tkly gFfshf) kh UF, j iyia miljJ. kw nfhfis
ngh myhJ NaUJ Fl u tJ iy bgwjh, j
p ir ms, kw aif NiyfS, cdf njh thtjF
cfj lkhf jid khld.
nkgu _ uL gF uhY, xU gF yjhY
NHgLsJ. Y, yYkhf cdf njhw Mujd. urhad
nrif fhuzkhf (ajhf Muj) fl y EQf njhd. mj
EQf fhy ngh (nfho fzfhd MLf) gzhk tsailJ
jhtufshf, gwitfshf, yFfshf, kjfshf cUkhd. it aif
ma mP lh cdf tuyhiw Muhjj gadhf ilj
ma cikf MF. njh Rkh 4.5 a MLf Mwd.
vgJ gy bjhFfis cslaJ. j nkgu fnfhsK,
nfhsK,

mtiw

thfshyhd

tnfhsK

fhzgLwd.

flgFahdJ gu 71 rjjK, flgFahdJ 29 rjjK guJ

fhzgLwd.
kj gy tifgl jhtuf, uhf nghw cdfSF
ygFahdJ thlkhf sFwJ. gFna fnfhs vdgL. bj miu
nfhs bgUgF gFahF. tl miunfhs bgUgF ygFahF.

4.5 fl ef nfhghL / ya gyiff

nkgu bjhlJ flf tlF neh, il klkhf
efJ bfhnl UwJ vw nfhghoid 1912 M Mnl Mu btd
(b#ka Ph) cyF vLJiujh. mtuJ TWgo, 200 a
MLfSF K cy xnu xU khbgU fl UjJ vW mflF
`ghah vW bgalgoUjJ. ghahit Rs cy xnu bgUfl
gFF `ghjyhrh vW bgalglJ. d `ghah vw xnu fl gy a

105

flfshf cilgl Jt, mlijL efJ jnghija Ulij

milUfyh vW a mPf fUJwd.
nknyhL gF, l ghiwfsh MdJ. flyo ghiwfsh Mdnj.
nknyhL ia R nghjgLs xU nghitia nghwJ my;
cilj ghiw JLfis xW nrjJ nghw mikid bfhlJ. xbthU
lghiw JL xU jL (plate) vdgLwJ. JLf nrUl jLf
( plate boundaries) vdgLwJ. jLf iyahdit my. l bgaJ
bfhoUgit (drift) myJ efJ bfhnl Ugit. vdnt flfS, flyo
ghiwfS efJ bfhnl csd. vdnt flnghF nfhghL kW fljiu
thf

Ma

nfhghLf

mogil

xU

nfhghL

xW

btlglJ. mnfhghoF `ya gyif nfhghL vW bgalglJ.

bra
xCLU jh uo cyf wtytiu glij tiuJ, x
flfis, kbwh ya gyiffis tiuJ OHP - _y
x nk xiw bghU gh. vd cznwh?
bgUjLf nkgu flfS bgUflfS gusd. rhwhf
a - Mnua bgUjo a Jiz flK Mnua flK,
a bgUfl bgUgF csd. bgUjLf efJ l bgaUnghJ
m mla flfS, flfS l bgawd. ijna flf
lbga vnwh. jLf xnu ir eftiy. Rkh 4 nfho
MLfSF Kng ah jnghJs lUJ 2000 Kj 4000 .. bjF,
bj nkF ir UUfyh vW CfgLwJ.

ya gyiffS mt effS

106

jfhd a Mjhuf iwant

csd. nghJ kakiy cs gF bl

(Tethys) vD fl UjJ. miwa ajL

tlF,

tlH

efJ

bl

fl

tlwUj MajLl KlKl, bl

fl J ngh mflyo cUtha go
ghiwf, bjhlJ Vgl mGj fhuzkhf
kofSF csh kiyahf (kakiy) cajd.
miwF bgUflyhf UjJ W cy
f

bga

kiy

bjhluhf

cUthsJ.

kWfKoahj a rhWfsh (Geological evi-

dence)

tuyhW

cW

bragLsJ.
jF
lfSF

khwhf

mgh

mbkfh,

Mfh

gy

nyh

lF

bj

nfho

fl efdh
ah jnghija

MLfSF Kdh xoUjd. tiugl bjmbkfh HF

fiuia, Mfh nkF fiuia bghU ghjh rhW bjgL.
Uj flf iztJ, (ah - Mah) izUj flf
tJ (bj mbkfh - Mfh) fl gF kiyahtJ (bl - ka), e
tuyh fG ajF ff. Mdh it XU ehfnyh MLfnyh fgit my. y nfho MLf fwd.
cy bgUghyhd yeLff ya gyiff nkhJw viy
gFf cUthwd. jLf eftJ bjhlJ bfhLjh Uwd.
gyiff gu Vgl Toa btg nuhlf gyiffis gntW
irf eftjF fhuzkhwd. uL gyiff efnghJ gyiff
xWl xW nkhjhk y brYbghGJ bgUfl jiuf VgLwJ.
MfjLf tlF wkhf eftjh, ka jiufl gFF juToa
mGj fhuzkhf M kiy cau MLF ML mfJ tUwJ.
HfhfhUJ brfl, rhfl kW n#hlh e tiu cs gF v
fhy

xU

rKukhf

khW

thsJ.

gy

khwf,

fJbfhoUjhY Jiw dK Mf nkbfhsgL tUwd.

4.6

ynjhwf
gu J fhzgL nkLgsfisna bghJthf eh ynjhwf

vnwh. gu eh thG ygF nklhf, flgF gskhf

fhagJ fTL. y njhwjh fhzgL ntWikfis bghWJ
ynjhwfis _W tifahf tirgLjyh.

107

1. Kjiy ynjhwf - flf, flf.

2. ulh iy ynjhwf - kiyf, lf, rkbtf
3. _wh iy ynjhwf - FWf, gsjhFf
nkfl _D VnjD x ynjhwf mik. Mifah it
_nw kiyf, lf, rkbtf nghw cy jiyaha ynjhwf
csla xU bjhF MF.

4.6.1

kiyf
guJ fhzgL bgU ynjhwf kiyf, mf cau

Fj ynjhwf MF. kiyf r, cau, njhwf Mat

mogil kiyf tiuaWfgLwd. ygu kiyf gut 27 rjj
MF. fhyiyia bgUks ghF ynjhw J. cyYs vyh Ka
kiy mikfS nghw mikig bfhLsd. kiyf mikig
bghWJ ehF Ka fshf fyh. mit,
1. ko kiyf
2. l kiyf
3. vkiyf
4. va kiyf
ko kiyf: kakiy, Mut, M, uh Kjait ko
kiybjhluhF. nH fhzgL ghiwLFf VgL mGj kW
il mirf fhuzkhf ko kiyf VgLwd. ko kiyf ghiwf
bghJthf go ghiwfshF.

bra
kakiy KaJt kW mj fuf / nfhil thlf g xU
brbjhF jahf.
l kiyf: ah a kiy, Inuhgh t#, sh ~guu
Kja kiyf l kiyf MF. Ujh yfSF ilna cs caukhd X
caygFna lkiy vdgL. kiy c gF rkkhfnt csJ.
nkgu y gFf VgL Girah y w myJ bto
VgLwJ. btong sthF (Fault) izahf mikJs U sfSF
ilna cs ygF ymirf fhuzkhf cajgLtjh lkiy
njhWwJ. sfSF ilna cs gF jhjh s gsjhF VgL
(c..) sh ~guh kiyF t# kiyF ilna UF iu gsjhF
sgsjhfhF.

108

vkiyf:

#gh

fbgw

~akh,

jha

btRa

Mo guhnrh, nfhglh gh Kjad vkiyf MF. bghJth T

totij bgUF. ko kiyf mikJs gF vkiyf F.

nH

btFMH

cs

ghiwf

ghFnghW

bfhJ

bfhoUF. jF ghiw FH vW bga. FH naho xU W

Jthu myJ s tah nkny tJ ciwtjh kiyf njhWwd.
vkiy th bghJthf tl totij bgUF. vkiy th nul (crater)
vW miHfgLwJ.
va kiyf: fhyh ca yf, bg ka kiyf
mbkf Ia ehLf nkF l f fhzgL kiyf va kiyfshF.
MW, fhW, gahW nghw gy aif brafsh RWwgF mJ
jhjgl d bghJ klF nkyhf W bfhoUF ca yguigna
kiyf vg. fod ghiwahdjh, mF cglhk oJ wd.
kiyf mitf mik, ms, tiw bghWJ nkY gy tifahf
fyh.

1. fhoyuhf
xU kiy unjr gyj caufSl Toa kiyfS, bjhlfS
UFnkahdh munjr fhoyuhf vdgL. (vfh.) tl mbkfhYs uh
kiy.

2. l
itf gy kiy bjhlf fhzgL. gsjhFfS, bjhlfS
xGfhd mikig bgUF. kakiy bjhl - Mah.

3. r
kiy bjhlf r nghW tirahf fhzgL. (vfh.) bgid
r bjhl - Ia FoauR.

4. kiy bjhl
kiyf thF mikig bgUF. (vfh.) MO kiybjhl bj mbkfh.

5. Tl
tlkhfnth myJ Tlkhfnth fhzgL. (vfh.) gh KoR - Mah.

109

6. bjhlFW
ko, s ghiwf VgLnghJ nghw mikig bgUF. (vfh.)
Mut FWf - ah.

7. fu
caukhd Ctot myJ bkhilahd totij bgUF. (vfh.)
vtbu - kakiybjhl.

4.6.2

lf
jfhz l, Mah bg l, bj mbkfh <btlh,

bghah l Kjad lf ythF. bk rthd fSl mfw

gul Toa fl klUJ caJs ygFia l vg. lf
vyh gFfS fl klF nk caJsd. fl klUJ Rkh 600
lF nk caJsd.
cyYs lfis _W tif gLjyh.
1. kiyil l,
2. kiyao l
3. fl l
1.

lia R kiyf mikkh mJ kiyil l MF. l

cau fjhf UF. (c. ) bg l.

2.

kiyf mothu MuJ mfW brY cay gFna kiyao

lahF. xU gf kiy kWgf rkbt myJ flY
fhzgLwJ. (c.) glnfhah l, nfha l (y kiyF,
HF ffiu rkbtF ilna mikJsJ).

3.

fl bgU gu J lF lia fll vg.

Mfh bgUgF, mnuah, bg, yhJ Kjad fl
lfshF. jfhz l yhthth clhfgl fl lahF.

4.6.3

rkbtf
fif rkbtf, a flfiu rkbt, irarkbt, mnkrh

rkbtf, d rkbtf, Inuhgh bgU jh yf cy Ka

rkbtf MF. jhthdJ, VwFiwa xnu kl csJ guJ J
lgJkhd ynk rkbt vdgL. j rkbtf kf bjhif ml F.

tsK,

ytsK

xUizJ

fhzgLwJ.

110

fhzgLtjh

ntshik

brJ

rkbtf

tifghL:

rkbtf mikUF l, fhyiy,

myf njhaj nghw gy TWfis bfhL tifgLjyh.

1.

y lf flL cajgLtjh flfiu rkbtf mikwd.

fliy mLJ fhzbgW rkbt flfiu rkbt (Coastal plain) vW bga.
(c.) ah kW bj mbkfh fhzgL, flfiu rkbt MF.

2.

xU fhy caUj yf ijtjdhY mdhY cau

Fiwj rkyfshf khwgLwd. jifa rkbtf mdh Vgl
rk yf myJ bgbsf (peneplains) vdgL. (c.) tlHF ira
rkbt, yh jhy.

3.

r Fiwj rky gF tahf XotU MWf RkJ tU tlk

MWgLifY, bts bgUF fhyY Ufiufis xo, mLJ
goJ rkbtahf cUbtLF. rkbtia tlk rkbt vg. (c.)
J fif rktb, rkbt, tld rkbt; tl kzh
mikj rkbtfis gythwhf fyh.

m) bllh rkbt
J M bjhLth gF mikwJ. MW bfhLtU tlk
mgF mLfLfhf gJ rk ykhwJ. ie, iu, J, fif, fh
Kja MWf bllhf jifa rk btfns MF.

M) bts rkbt
M bts VgLnghJ M fiuflJ UwK guwJ. J
mofo fGnghJ M UwK goJ rkbtahf cUbtLwJ. Jnt
bts rkbtahF (c.) fif rkbt, Athnfh rkbt.

bllh

rkbt

bts

111

rkbt

) kiyaotl rkbt
kiyUJ XotU MWf
jh

bfhL

tj

tlk

bghUfis kiyao thu, r

ObuW

Fiwtjh

mF

goaitF. J bjhlJ fGnghJ

rky xW cUbtLwJ. (vfh.)
J - fif rkbt.

<) giHa tlk rkbt

kiyao tl rkbt

tl a rkbt giHa
tlk gF. tl dh rkbtf,
<uh

rkbtf

Kjad

tl

kzh

Mdit.

it

xU fhy

kiyaotlk rkbtahf UUfyh.

4.

gahWfdhY goj fG. gojdh rky njhwyh.

jF gahW rkbt vW bga. rkbtfSF gobkhiuf vW

bga (c.) tlmbkfh tl gF tif rkbtia nrjnj.
5.

fhwo tl fhdh goaitfgLnghJ nyha rkbtf

VgLwd. tlnkF dh nyha rkbt wj vLJfhlhF.

6.

Vf tah XotU MWf mit bfhL tU tl kzh

mntf gogoahf uggL V J rkbtahf khW (c.) fdlh

bg efUF bjnf cs brGikahd bu (Red) M toy mfh
V J mikj rkykhF.
ygF bkhjgu Rkh 55% rkbtfshF. j gF kL
cyf kf bjhif 90% thwhf.

bra
cdJ khtl mikJs kiyf, lf, rkbtf nghw
ynjhwfis mJ bfhtjF fsgaz nkbfhL mif
jahf.

4.6.4

ghiwf
ghiwf vgd bghUf gy xUizJ mikj Wfkhd lkhd

c TL bghUf MF. it _yff, mQfshyhdit. rhjhuzkhf

112

ghiwf

ik ( Pumice )

uhid ( Granite )

goghiwf

kzghiw ( Sandstone )

gTLghiw ( Conglomerate )

khWUghiwf

fligf ( Slate )

ryitf ( Marble )

f bga cUtijna ghiw vg. Mdh y mik a(Geology) gof, kz,

fk, k, bgU ghiw nghw jUJ, bgU bghU tiuyhd bghUf
vyhtiw, `ghiwf vnw Fg. y ghiwf bgJ myJ KGtJ xnu
fkjh (Mine) MfgLsd. (c.) r ghiw. y ghiwf uL myJ
mjF mfkhd fkfis bfhoUwd. (c.) fUf.
ghiwf mt mik, njhw Kjat mogil _W
tifahf fyh. mit ghiwf, goghiwf kW khWU ghiwf MF.

4.7 yeLf
bghWikF iajh cjhuz brhthf. mj y neu
bghWik HJ LwJ vgij aif nguf ekF czJwd.

113

yeLf vnghJ, vnf tU vW KTona ma Jtiu fUf iy.

cl eLfij kUJt jLJ lyh. Mdh y eLfij ahuhY jLf
KoahJ. Mdh vbfyh mofo yeLf VgLwnjh mjid mDgtjh
mJ mjnfg RW NHiy thG folfis mikJ bfhtJjh
rahd t.

4.7.1 yeLf - fhuzf

mit yeLf vnwh. jLf effdhY, ghiwf
vildhY F y lf mGj mf VgLwJ. mGj mf,
ghiwf jhF rial mfkhFnghJ ghiw r VgLwJ. mnghJ
nrffgl mGj bgU Mwyhf btgL m VgLwJ.
xU Fl fhy fl jo XugFf cilgLwd myJ nH
jsgLwd myJ nkny cawd. f VgL cJ rahY,
sf ghiwf rnghJ btgL MwdhY cuh gFf
cuhnghJ btL MwdhY yeLf VgLwJ.
a a MJiw (Geological survey of India) bjhla r jhk
X nA (Sir Thomas Old Ham) 1869 M ML yeLffis ga ma
tkhd gia bjhldh. yeLfnghJ VgL ` (P), v (S) kW
nkgu miyfis Kj mJ brhdt tjh. tiuna y eLf a
jij vW TWt.

4.7.2

yeLf - m fU
yeLfij KTona ma Jtiu fUf flagliy.

Mdh yeLf Vgl wF mj mit fl fUjh nkh uh~

(Seismo graph). fU cUthF tiugl nkh uh vdgL. yeLfF
nk neuoahf cs nkgu gFia y m ika (Epicentre) vW
miHnwh.
l msnfh: y eLf msit iya tiyd cs gntW
iyafUJ

bgwgL

tuf

mogil

yeLf

ms

fzlgLwJ. KiwF bgajh l ms nfh MF. y eLff,

yeLf ffh ikaf _ykhf g bragLwd. yeLf fG
nghJ Mw, miyf to btgL. J vyh irfY gaF. y eLf
mirth btgL btntW tifahd Mw miyf btntW tifahd
ntf gntW irf gawJ. y eLf Mw miyf _W tifgL.
y eLfij fljl yeLf tiugl _y mjid czJ
bfhsyh. miyf ntWghLf yeLf tiugl _W tifahf
FfgLwd.

114

` miyf (p waves) mfntfkhf gaJ yeLf fUia Kj

tjil. it s cJj _y gawd. Kj fhzgL, tiu nfhLf
miyfis fhLwd.
yeLf fUia ulhtjhf tjil miyf v miyf
vdgLwd. it nk, (m) gfthL cJj _y ghidngh
gawd.
btgu miyf (Surface waves) yeLf FikaUJ
nkguid tjilJ, wF nk gunyna gawJ. tiugl fil
fhzgL tiunfhLf j miyf g MF.

bra
cyf wt ytiugl cy Ka yeLf klyf kW
mt mikJs ehLfis Ff.

4.7.3

yeLf - ffhF Jiw

ah fhQ yeLf ffh ikaf yeLfij f

fhJ tUwd.
m) a thiy Jiw (IMD)
M) a a Jiw (GSI)
) nja a M iya (NGRI)
fgij

bghWjtiu

yeLf,

vd

mnfg

miHfgLwJ. l ms nfh 2 f tiu gthF y mf

rhjhuzkhf kjfsh czugLwd. 3-5 f mss mfis y

115

m vd bfhsyh. J Xus nrjij VgLJwd. Jnt 7 fSF

nk Ujh nrj gykhf UF. 8F nk brwh ngu VgL.

4.7.4

yeLf - ghJfh
yeLf vgJ xU gJ nghwJjh. xU beho myJ y behof

myJ xU l Ml KoJ L. j xU y dhof eh jhdkhf

nahJ jf lLj vgJ rhaiy. eyntis; aifnyna y
dhof kLnk yeLf KoJ LwJ. mjFjh ts ngu,
cH. j FWa fhy vbdd ghJfhfis eh nkbfhsyh vW
ghfyh.

yeLf VgLnghJ LF cWahd fo, nki# Ujh mjF nH

brW mkJ bfhs ntL.

rikayiw, beU gwToa ths lkhf Ugjh mUJ cldoahf

btna l ntL.

fllfUJ btna tjtf bt ikjhdfSF brW l

ntL. ouh~ghk, rhu f, ukhl j bjho,
fllf, ghyf tWF fTlhJ. kiH tjh xJfToa
lf fg tjh xJf TlhJ.

thfdf gaz brJ bfhoUjh thfdij rhiy nahukhf

Wl ntL.

Fghf brhJ Mtzf, eif, gz tiw vLJ bfhL jf

foghf Ka braTlhJ. y dhof elF j nguUJ
ciu fhgh bfhs Ka bra ntL.

y mit czjh bjhiyng _y egfSF, cwdfSF

jft bjj eyJ.

jahf fll bfhlh rj vG cj nff ntL.

rhu jilgL lh btrfhf beU Fia gw itf

TlhJ.

4.8

vkiyf
vkiyf ynjhwf xwhF. cwUJ

vkiy FH btoJ jWt _y cUthwd. vkiyf, kiyf nghw

njhwid bfhlit. vkiyF nuhkha bkh `fl vW
bgaLsd.

116

 mo ghiwf mGj VgLbghGJ vkiyf btoJ

jW. Xo cs wfSilna ghiw FH (khkh) tnjhL jikia
bfhlJ. cw fhzgL ghiw FH `khkh vd,
nku fhzgL ghiw FHF `yhth vW bgauhF. yhth
nkuij milJ Fu bjhl fodkhd ghiwfshf khWwd.

4.8.1 vkiy tiff

vkiy mjbragL jid bfhL _W tiffshf fyh.
mitahtd bragL vkiy, cwF vkiy, brayw vkiyahF.

bragL vkiyf: bragL vkiy - bto braf ML KGtJ

fJ

bfhnlUF.

cy

1500F

nkgl

bragL

vkiyf

fhzgLwd. nkY flYF mo 80F nkgl bragL vkiyf

Ugjhf fzlgLsd. cynyna f bga bragL vkiy Ath
cs `khdhnyhth vkiyahF. fh cgF bghUjkhd lkhf
UgjF fhuz tskhf fhzgL vkiy k MF. j cau
flklF nk 13677 moahF.

cwF vkiyf: Fl fhy btoj gy MLfSF brayw

iy fhzgL. l ilbtF dnuh myJ FWa ilbtF
dnuh L bragl bjhlF. tifahd vkiyf Mgjhdit MF.

brayw vkiyf: vkiy btoJ ja, mj braghLf KGtJkhf

WL. bjhlJ fGtiy.

cyf vkiy gut

117

bra
cyf wt ytiugl cy Ka vkiy gFfis, Ka
vkiyf bgaf kW mit mikJs ehLfis Ff.
vkiyf btow jikf kW mt tot gf Matiw
mogilahf bfhL vkiyfis _W jkhf tifgLjyh. mit,
1. nfla vkiyf: vkiy kYs KfL thUJ yhth
bgUks tJ, J guwbghGJ mj vkiy Fkl toit bgWwJ.
Jnt nfla vkiy vW miHfgLwJ.
2. f lT vkiyf: it cUt f ait. Rkh 100
Kj 400 l tiu cauKsit. tif vkiyf ghiwJLfdh Md
KfLth bfhlit. tif vkiyf mLjLJ Tlkhf fhzgL.
3. glT vkiyf: it nkgu Xa nghW
fid ftUw njhwij bfhL, ukhf bragLw tifia
rhjit. it yhth kW ghiwfdh kh kh mikfgl mLFfis
bfhlit. t cau 100 Kj 3500 tiu fhzgL.

nfla vkiy

fl T vkiy

gl T vkiy

118

4.8.2

vkiy bto - isf

vkiy

bto

ygu

gntW

khwfis,

kfSF

gy

isfis VgLJwd. vkiy bto fhuzkhf,

folf nrjkilwd.

kj d mwJ.

jhtufSF mfis clhFwJ.

vkiy btoF - nkf _l, fh RH fhuzkhf kiH

bgtjfhd thid clhFwJ.

vkiy NJs lf tskhd, brghd k cUthFtjh kf

mgF thif elJtij Uwd.

4.8.3

vkiy fhyiy
vkiy

btoghdJ

fhyiy

gy

khWjfis

VgLJwd.

vkiy UJ btnaW thfS, RfS guig btgkila

bra, myJ Fu itf Mw cilajhf csJ. j khw Rf
msit bghWJ, tklyij mil neuij bghWJ mikwJ.
vkiyf jWbghGJ mf ms jiu, fhg il Mi[il
btLwd. it tkly fyFbghGJ jfhfkhf btgiyia
caJwd. juhdJ gjfkhj _y kiHia VgLJwd. y
rkaf fhg - il - Mi[L jhtufsh ufgLwJ.

4.9 Koiu
Na FLg cs ahdJ xU jbgU nfh vgij mnjh.
j wng, m cs cdfS, mit thH jFj RWw NHYnkahF.
Mdh RWw NH jbghGJ tsJ tU kf bjhif bgUfdhY,
ma

bjhEgdhY

nfL

milJ

tUtij

eh

midtUnk

cznwh. nkY y ma cdf KYkhf mnj ld. gy ma

cdfS, aif NHfS mJ bfhnl tUwd. nkY iy
ojh e kj cthtjF rhayhj nfhshf khL. vdnt
RWw nfLf fHh tz eh, e brafis brikah, nfLfis
jLF tKiwfis g RWw Niyia ghJfhj mta. vdnt
w bgw j nfhsij eh ngfhj f mta. mbghGJjh eh
thG j e tUfhy rjdiu thH itf Ko.

119

4.10 ghit f
1.

Arthur. N. Strahler - Principles of Earth Science, Happer * Row pub. n - London

(1976).

2.

Balbir Singh Negi, Physical Geography, SJ Publication (1990).

3.

Cain. H.R., Geography, Longman pvt. Ltd. Madras.

4.

Das Gupta, A.R. Kapoor A.N - Principles of physical Geography S. Chand &
Co.Ltd., New Delhi.

5.

Nigam V.N. (1975), A complete course in certificate Geography, Pijamhar

Publishing company Edu. publisher, New Delhi (1975).

6.

Sindhu Basker, fg, Rdh V? vgo?

7.

Stamp, Dudley. L - The Earths Crust - A new approach to physical Geography

& Geology - George G. Harrap & co. Ltd.

8.

cyf cUthd fij - nufh f af, 34, ud bjU, nfhghyu,

brid - 86.

120

gF M - fj Kiwf
myF - I

r_f ma fj
bghU, tu kW nehff
mKf
eehL fahsfSF eh thG fhy xU rth iwj fhykhF.
21 who f khbgU kWky fhz Unwh. mjfhf ghl
bghU, kW fj Kiwf a mQFKiwfis, cfis gagL
tUnwh. r_f ma ghlY Jikid, tik, bgUik fhz
Kanth.
r_f ma vgJ eF xUizfgl, llgl, gntW
Jiwfis csla xU xUizj fahF. mjhtJ khDla, mf
Ma, bghUshjhu a, ya, tuyhW, rl, jjt, mua, csa, rka
kW r_fa, tnwhL fj kW ma Jiwf njbjLj
bghUjkhd fUJfis cslaJ MF.
-

FHijfis juf iwj mthj Kofis vLf itgJ,

fw, fjyha Ma khzt ciuahl braghL, FHijfis wj

FokfDFa g eyfnshL, cajsgLJw fwj gia
brtJ,

r_f jiy, r_f Mwiy, thif mJ gagLJtJ

MF.

khtU fhy NH eh xUtiu xUt rhJ thtJ

aikahjjhF. jifa wig fW jUw r_f ma ghl
wig gongh.

myFTWf
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8

r_f ma - bghU
r_f ma kW r_f ghl
r_f ma ghlij fgj nehff
r_f ma fj iyf
r_f maY bghUslfK
r_f ma tu
bjhlf f iyf r_f ma fj nehff.
kj tsF r_f ma gF

1.9

ghit f

121

t.

myF

v.
1.

tHf g L

tuf nrF l

nj i t g L

brKiw

jftf

g
r_f

fyJiuahl r_f ma

ma

mif

fj

fgj

nehff - m

nehf

ts, r_f

kw
lf
yf
jff

ts, mua
ts, nja
ts
2.

tsF mif

r_f ma ghl 3 Kj 8
fw kj
tF

r_f

tsF vthW

ma

gagLwJ vgij r_f

3 Kj 8 tF tiu ma

kj

thj -

gF

tiu cs

cs

ghl

ghlgFUJ

jff

cjhuzf T
thj
3.

fyJiuahl nja ts

nja

yf

ts - mif

jkj gF,

r_f

r_f gF

jff

ma
gF
4.

brhbgh /

nja

ts ngRngho

njr Kndw

vdJ gF

yf
jff

r_f
ma
gF

1.1

r_f ma bghU
r_f

ma

gtif

khWgl

fUJf,

FGf,

klhsf kW r_f mPf TWwd.

kj rKjha FGfilna X cWd Mth. kj rKjha
mik kW ts r_f ma ghl neuoahf bjhl bfhLsJ vd
Ia mbkf iliy f FG jDila kW mik ko TWwJ.

122

r_f ma ghl tuyhW, a, mua Phd, r_fa,

bghUshjhu, elij ma, rl, kndha, kd jJt a kW kj jJt
rhuJl bjhlbfhLsJ. nkY J el brf, cl, r_f kW
gghL NHiy sFwJ.
r_f mPf, ma tkhd xGf kW r_f kf ah,
eLiyahd Kiw foghf r_f ghl Fl ntL vwd. vdnt
elij ma 1950 xGfJl izJ r_fghl r_f ma ghlkhf
KaJt bgwJ.
FHijf xGf ts r_f ma gF

m u a

cs a

rka

khDla

jJt
r_f ma

mf Ma

rl

tuyhW

1.2

bghUshjhu a
ya

r_f ma kW r_f ghl

r_f ma kW r_f ghl uL kj cwf ga ghlkhF.

Mdh r_f ma vgJ Muh,

M kW Kiwahf kj cwiyfis

g fF ghlkhF. r_f ghl vikahdJ, r_f ma kW mikng

r_fghl MF. r_f ma kW r_f ghl uL bghJ ghl
bjhlilait. r_f ma khzt fljtiw r_f ghl bghUj
brwJ.

r_f ma kW r_f ghlf ntWghLf

r_fghl
1.

r_f ghl ghl RUf csJ.

2.

FHij ikafia mogilahf bfhlJ.

3.

kj braf braKiw ga ghlkhF.

4.

bjh rhj mit tswJ.

5.

r_f ghl vikahdJ. mf gufis cslaJ.

123

r_f ma
1.

J xU eilKiw ghl gaJ.

2.

J Fku gUtfia mogilahf bfhlJ.

3.

J kj braf ga ghl MF.

4.

kj cw ntWghLf M rgjkhdJ.

1.3

r_f ma ghlij fgj nehf

1.

ah caj ghuga, fyhrhu, gghLfis mJ bfhSj.

2.

R_fkhf izJ thG r_fwid tsj.

3.

kj khig tsj.

4.

ey kdghikfis tsj.

5.

Mf, bghUshjhu, mua befis mJ bfhSj.

6.

Ugjf MSik gfis tsJ bfhSj.

7.

vfhyij ll cjj.

8.

ehL, r_f bjhlghd vzfis tsj.

9.

jid R cs Niyfis J bfhSj.

10.

X neufis Kiwahf gagLj cjj.

11.

bghJ brhJfis ghJfhF vzfis tsj.

12.

bjhiynehF jidia tsj.

13.

nja czid tsj.

14.

gdhL czid tsj.

1.4 r_f ma fjiyf

1.

r_f ma KaJt: kj jDila m y neuoahf

brafis gagLJtjF ca gghL mid r_f ma jUwJ.

2.

kj kd K bgWtjF kj rKjha eilKiw ayhf csJ.

3.

kj cwf a cikfis fl nehf bfhLsJ.

jid Rs r_f cl rhj gghLf, kj cwf, k,

ehlf kW wf nghwt khzt MHkhf a brtnj r_f ma

fjyhF.

124

r_fa

FHijf xGf ts r_f ma gF

ANTHROPOLOGY

HISTORY

GEOGRAPHY

POLITICS

kj tf

tuyhW giHa

mua

rhu kjid

mDgtf

ffhy

kfsh

kj r_f

EQf

ebyhGf

jid
FHij
xGf ts

SOCIOLOGY

PSYCHOL-

CURRENJT

ENVIORNMENT

r_f a r_f

OGY

EVENTS

RWNH cyf

elij

csa

ffhy

ms

ff
kj rKjha
ts

+ brKiw m + ma m
thifw

MSik
ts

1.5 r_f maY bghUslfK

1.

cwf ga ghlf csJ. kjDF ntW kjDF, kjDF

WtdF, kjDF F, kjDF bghUfSF cs cwf
iy gaJ.

2.

aif ma kW fiyghl ga goghF.

3.

rKjha r_f mik el f ga f jidahF.

4.

r_f Wtdf KGikahf gj rhj fahF.

1.6

r_f ma tu
r_f ma tu thdJ. guJ fhzgLtJ guj cyfij

jdfnj bfhLsJ. viy mwJ. j Koit ma KoahJ. viyfis

za bra ayhJ. vdnt gtif xGf rhj Fiwj gr m braYF
KnehF tHFwJ.

125

bra
r_f ma fj nehff g fyJiuaho mif jahf.

r_fa ghl guj l

L, g

cS rKjha cw

khtl
khy
njr
cyf

1.7

bjhlf f iyf r_f ma fj nehff

1.

jdJ y, g, njr, cyf midij J bfhs.

2.

d, gh, bkh, kj Mat midtU rk vw vz tsj.

3.

gntW d kfsh mfgl caj nkgl fyhrhuij kJ

nghWj.

4.

ebd kW k nfhghoF k mj.

5.

ekJ ghuga gghoF nja czF Mju jUj.

6.

Ra mit j kW ciH jJt J bfhSj.

7.

w fUJF brrhj, rKjha brafis gLJj kW jh,

nebfhl nehF czit tsj.

126

1.8 kj tsF r_f ma gF

1.8.1 mKf
tuyhW vgJ gy rKjhaf thj, thJtU kf thif
gntL vW, mit mjj fhy flf mua kW aiy dahf
bfhlJ vW TWwd.
kf thj l, fhy Matiw ikakhf bfhL, mjF K
cs ts iyfis ma r_f ma thyhf kf rKjha th
VgL tU khwfis ma KowJ. r_f ma vgJ kj ts
Kndw MF. kj jh thj myJ thJ tUw Niy bgw
mDgtfS jdJ tsfhf nkbfhl mua, r_f, bghUshjhu, rka, fiy,
gghL kW ma eltoiffis ga jftfis mgJ r_f ma
MF. kj thj, thG lf, mt ya mikf, flj fhy
mDgtij mogilahf bfhl ffhy rKjha mikf, Ujf kW
kj tsfhd lfis nkbfhLs iyid ma kW bjh
Eg Vwfhf, kf ethfhf vLfgL eltoiffis
ghl thyhf ma KowJ. rKjha bragL kj ts g
TWtnj tuyh nehf vW `bg vw mP TWwh.
gHfhy

kj

ehnlhoahf

jh;

Fiff

thjh;

ntilahodh; gir fhff, khr Matiw jh; o, d, ,

a, kiH Kjatiw fL mdh; mt gafU mtiw tzdh;
g tsjh; ikahd , aif fhWl Rfkhf thjh; beUig
fLojh, mj ga mjh; rfu Rdh; ghidf brjh; Ritahd
cz rikjh; Fif thjh Mwfiu tjh; tskhdt kj;
mt

Tlkhf

Xl

tjh.

oF

jiyt;

mjW

ehoF

jiytdhdh; mua f, rhf, rkaf a fL of, fl flj

bjhl kj thif khWjfis bfhL tjd. bjh u, trha
uf kW ma fLof kyjd jft bjhl, auf,
thfdf, rhu Mait kf rKjha th khwfis clhd.
flfS flfS btW kRtfshf kh, cyfnk uhkkhf W kh l
fhia eh fhnwh. fhy kf tsF mj mDgtjh J
Kokh? vw dhF vJ Ko, kj Kadh vtiw btyKo
vw viyia eh mJ bfhs r_f mwa Jiz wJ. mua ,
bghUshjhu, bjh Eg cjfis mwJ. xbthU r_fK, khw,
Kndw, ts Matiw cyfsha ms g tUwJ vg
UntW fUJfSF liy.

127

bra
r_f ma ghl fw kj tsF vthW gagLwJ vgij
tuyhW, Foika, a ghl gFfUJ cjhuzf T thj
brf.
gy ehLf Vgl nja aff, Rju nghuhlf, gFj,
rhuiz cz, a fLof, cz, cil, UlUJ, kj
thif kQF QF bjhl bfhtJ tiu kj m ts,
ed bghUf gaghL, a Muhf, Muh gydhf Kndwghij
tskhd thif, fhy khdhY khwhj gghL fyhrhuK bfhl it
midJ kj ts tsia khikia vLJiuwd.

1.8.2

kj ts r_f ma gF
r_f ma jkj tsF tUkhW cjwJ.

jid jidrhj r_fij mj.

RWw NHiy mJ bfhSj.

fljfhy, ffhy r_f kW a NHiy mJ bfhSj.

r_fwid tsJ bfhSj.

#dehaf gid mj

r_fnjhL xizj

a ghuga gghL TWfis gWj.

Mf, bghUshjhu, mua befis mj.

kj cwfis tsJ bfhSj.

jh thG l, ehL J njrgW bfhSj.

KG MSik gid mJ bfhSj.

nja kW gdhL czfis tsj.

ntWik xWik ngQj.

muR lfSF cWJizahj.

njr tsfis guhkj.

cik mj kW flik mj.

1.8.3

m ts r_f ma gF
tuyhW ff tuyhW cikfis mJbfhs, jidfis

LtjF, nkY F gHfij clhf, fhuz fha bjhlfis

128

ma cjwd. kdg, idthw, vd, V, vjF, vgo, gFjj

bjhFjj

jj

xLf,

fhuz

fha

bjhlgj

Kofis

ghj, cikaj, my Muhj, ntWikfis mj, ad

fLoj, fLojij thf, gagLJj, jtWfis fisj, L
M brj, gHikia mJ, ad j, be rhj fis cUthFj
MatF cWJiz brwd.
lhl #hr vgh tuyhW gogJ mKakhdJ; mtuyhW, m
tsF vthW cjwJ vW TWfh, jid, Ez Muhj,
fhuzkj, btfukhd ma fLofSF mojskhf sFj,
mahik m bgWj Mad m cy tuyhW VgLa uahF
vwh. fj tuyhW, ma tuyhW, ya, a, ehL, kf, rka,
kuf, fiy, gghL, Mf, jidf, jJt, jf, Niya, kUJt,
thda nrhla, bghUshjhu, mua, r_f mik ma fLof,
bjhEg Ma midJnk kj m ts btghLfshF.

1.8.4

r_f ts r_f ma gF
khWj, ts vgtiw cslaJjh r_f mayhF. rKjha

thG kf cz, cil, gHf tHff, thGl, jg btgiy, jhtuf,

uhf, yFf, iyf, aif mikf, rka, r_f, ya, Efiy
tsf, rKjha jidahsf r_fmikf Matiw Kiwahf MuhJ,
ma Kiw fhy, l, bjhl, ts Mad mogil r_f
ffis vLJTWwJ.

1.8.5

mua m ts r_f ma gF
xbthU eho tuyhiw ma mj eho muaiy mta bjJ

bfhs ntL. cjhuzkhf ah kj rhgw muR vj kj bfhiffis

mogilahf bfhljy. Rju rkJt, rnfhjuJt vw bfhiffis
cilaJ. rl K midtU rk. ah wj Fokff/Fokff
jf mogil cikfis mDgf mij Hjh kw _y L
bgw th cL. J kfsh, kfSfhf, kfshnyna cUthfgl
rdehaf FoaurhF. uhk, Cuh kwf, efuh, khefuh, grhaJf,
ghuhSkw, khy kwf, braKiwf, mfhuf, nrhr bfhiff
Matiw mJ bragLtjF cjwJ. thFik, njj, njj FG
gf, nja Fnfhf, lf Matiw J bragl cjwJ.
rKjha gHff khWjf, rKjha uikF xJiH, xWikl
thj, L bfhLj, r jik, e Ma gf tstjF t
brwJ.

129

1.8.6

bghUshjhu ts r_f ma gF
thfhd Mjhuij <L tfis mWJwJ. fhu kh

rKjha Kndw, bghUshjhu Kndwij xosJ vW

TWwh.

yf, taf, trha Kiwf, bjhrhiyf, thf, gl gkhw, jft

bjhl, gahsf NH, ntiy ghF l it midJnk bghUshjhu
u fhuzf MF.

bra
r_f, mua, bghUshjhu, m kW jkj tsF r_f ma
eh bgW sff ahit? khztf IJ FGfshf J,
jiyfSF ca glf, tnfhL glf, yglf, khf
milgl sffSl thJ, xbthU FG jf fUJfis
gkh mtiw gbra ntL.
ah grij g TWif vt kW fhu tYdf
gr h#fh fhy eho bghUshjhu iyF rhk moJlJ
vwd.

1.8.7

nja ts r_f ma gF
ehil g ma r_f ma Jiz brwJ. eho mua f,

aif f, viyf, eho waf, murhf mik, cehL,

btehL bfhiff, r_f, mua, bghUshjhu lf, braghLf, muR
mff braf, eho

gghL, fyhrhu, nghFtuJ, isbghUf,

bjhf, ghuhSkw, khy rl rig gf, Fokf / Fokf mogil

cikf, flikf, eho ghJfh, aif tsf ghJfh, RW w Niy
ghJfh, cley Rfhjhu fhj, njr g, njr gW, ntWik xWik,
rnfhjuJt, rkJt, Rju, ehil v nehs nja dfis
ghJfhj, ma, bjh Eg ts, jft bjhl gaf, lf mj,
ntWikfis kwJ ehil ghJfhf KtUj rtnjr kdghik tsj
Matid mJ cikahd Fokfdhf / Fokfshf thH cj brwJ.

bra
nja ts jkj kW r_f gF ahJ? fyJiuahl brf.
cjhuzfis, fUJfis goaL g brf.
eho ghuga, fyhrhu, gghL, fiyf Mait, ah
bgUik thj nja dfS,id dfS, bghJthd aif
tsfS, nja ghlY kf midtlK eh a, ekJ a ehil fhgJ
eflik vw czit rnfhjuJtij tswd.

130

jft bjhl, ma bjh Eg a ehL Knd tUwJ.

a rhjidf xbthU a FokfD / FokfS gF bgw ntL.
ekJ

Kdh

FoauR

jiyt

U.

A.P.J.

mJ

fyh

mtf

xbthUtU fd fhQf. xbthU ehS rhjid J fdit edthfyh

vW Tsh.
jkjDF uridf UD cs jLkhwhk mtiw v
bfhL, cs cWghil tsJ bfhL, ekh uridfis
rhjidf a aY vw xiw Fnfhshf bfhL, beRWl
z bfhltfshf thJ btfis Ff ekJ Kndhf
thif tuyhnw rhwhF. thf ah! tsf rhjidf!

bra
njr Kndw vdJ gF vw jiy ngRf, g brf.

1.9 ghit f
1.

Arthur. C. Winning - Teaching the Social Studies in Secondary Schools.

2.

Chandhary K.P., Effective Teaching of History in Schools.

3.

Ghate, V.D., The Teaching of History, Oxford University press, Bombay (1961).

4.

Kohli A.S., Teaching of Social Studies, Anmol publications pvt. Ltd., New Delhi
(1996).

5.

Kochhar, S.K., The teaching of Social Studies, Sterling pub. pvt. Ltd. New Delhi
(1984).

6.

Nauri. C.C. Hunt - Teaching High School Social Studies.

James, A.. Banks Teaching strategies for the Social Studies.

7.

NCERT, New Delhi (1970), Teaching History in Secondary Schools.

8.

Ralph C. Crerton, Teaching Social Studies in Elementary Level.

9.

Thirugnana Sambhandhan, r_f ma fF Kiwf.

10. Venkatasamy, K., tuyhW fF Kiwf.

11. Yajnik. K.S., Teaching of Social Studies in India, Orient Longmens Ltd. Bombay
(1966).

131

myF - II

bral
(PROJECT)
mKf
bral Kiw g KGikahf sFtjF K xU y jiyf
khztfis bralij nkbfhs bra ntL. mtf brj Kiwf
cs FiwghLfis g, mit vthW Uf ntL vgjid sf gntW
tYef fUJfis, goiyfis sf ntL.

myF TWf
2.1

bralKiw nehff

2.2

bral Kiw - goiyf

2.3

bralKiw - Ma gF

2.4

bral Kiw KaJt

2.5

bral Kiw y lghLf

2.6

bral - jiyf

2.7

Koiu

2.8

ghit f

132

fw braf
t.

myF

v.

TWf

1.

tHf g L
brKiw
g

tuf
nj i t g L
jftf

nrF

l
g

kw
lf

bral

bral -

nghFtuJ

Kiw -

cf

Kndw kW

goiyf

khtl

isf

ffhghs

ed rhiy

(nkghyf, ehF

mYtyf,

nghFtuJ

t ghijf, jhf

khtl M

ts kW

nghlgl rhiyf,

jiyt

beriy

rhiy vrif

mYtyf (m)

Fiwf muR

sFf, rhiy

uhk thf

nkbfhLs uik gf, kf

eltoiff

khtl
fhtJiw

mYtyf

ber, RWNH
nfLf

2.

3.

bra

bral

VnjD 3

l -

thiy

khjfSFa

thiy

goiyf

mif - X

brjhf tU

miffis

mwhl thiy

brjh

miffis nrfJ

_y 3

bjhFj (btgiy,

khjfSF

kiH ms, <ugj)

nrfj.

bral

3 Kj 8 tF tiu

-nkbfhs xgil

cs r_f ma

gF

VJthf cs

w gF bra

brif

fw

lF VJthf

wf

cs wfis

ghl

flj

jff

goaLj,

mwhl

M
brj

fw fj, fj Kiw f Ka gF twJ. fj

Kiwjh

fw

isit

za

brwJ.

fj

gy

Kiwf

ifahsglhY, bra l Kiw xU w thj KiwahffUjgLwJ. #h

^ (John Dewey) vw mPjh jF KGtot bfhLjt. Mdh tUF

133

Kng ng ( Kil Patrick ) vw mP J FJ FLif J xU

FnfhnshL ma tkhf r_f Niy nkbfhsgLw brayhF
vW, bralKiw xU Ka thj fw k bfhl xWF
nkgl mswfis bfhljhF vW fUJwh.

2.1

bra lKiw nehff

jhnd fw Kiwia nkbfhs njitahd Mtij, Cfij

njhWj.

braghLf _y uridfis, fUJfis ( concepts) J bfhSj.

cWnehf wid, flj wid tsj.

kwtfnshL izJ, Tlhf bragL kdghikia njhWj.

braj

_ykhf

khztf

Mwf,

wf

Matiw

btbfhzj.

gntW mDgtfis ey nehfKs braghLf _y bgWj.

j bra lKiwahdJ fl bfhiffis mogilahf

bfhlJ.
brJ fw (Learning by Doing )
thJ fw (Learning by Living)
FHijf xWikahf, izJ bragLnghJ fw is mfkhf
UF.

2.2 bral Kiw - goiyf

bra lij nkbfhSnghJ fl goiyfis gw ntL.

Niyia njhWj

njbjLjY fUJU jUjY

lLj

nkbfhSj

kLj

g brj
Niyia

njhWj:

bral xU njit mogil

nkbfhsgl ntL. J xU Fnfhis, KaJtij bfhoUf

ntL. Ma, mwhl Kakhd gy fw braghLfSl bjhlila

134

brfis bjJ fyJiuahl bra ntL. mJ mtf jidia

Ltjhf Uf ntL.
njbjLjY KbkhjY (Choosing and Proposing): j goiy
nkbfhs ntoa braghLf fl Kiwf mika ntL.

g braghLf, cikahd ffSl bjhlilajhf, g

thifF kLkyhk, r_f thifF gagL tifY mika
ntL.

xbthU

braghil,

khztf

mtut

tFF

Vg,

FnfhfSF Vg njbjLf ntL.

braghLfis njbjLg Ma Mt Co mjfhd NHiy VgL

kLnk bfhLf ntL. khztfjh bra lij bj bra
ntL vd kda mP ng TWwh.

bralij bj brnghJ kd bfhsntoait:

jFj rhWfis bfhoUf ntL.

Fj fhy brJ Kofgl ntL.

brJ Kof Toajhf Uf ntL (Feasibility).

nkY bra lDila nehf J bfhw tif sfkhf Uj

mta.
lLj (Planning): vj xU braYF lLj f mtakhdJ.

Ma F khztDF tfhoahf UJ bragl ntL. lLj,

njitgL fhy, bghUf, gz kW brydf kW gaf nghwit l
bgUf ntL.
bragLJj

(Execution):

bra

bj

bragL

tiuagl wF Ma, khzt mj l tiugo bragl tfhl ntL.

bragLJjjh

bral f KakhdJ kL f l

gFahf UF. iy Ma f ftdkhf khzt braghLfis cW

neh fhyK, bghUS iuakhfhkY Fj ntf bragl ttFf
ntL.
kL (Evaluation): bra l eilbgW bfhoUFnghnj MaU
khztU jjahf mjDila jikia Kndwij MuhJ mjnfg
jkJ eltoiffis rgLbfhtJ mta. bra lDila nghif,
llgo elwjh vd xL ghf ntL. bra khztfsJ Mt,
wik, kdghik Matiw bjgL mj KaJtij sF.

135

g brj (Recording): bra lDila xbthU goiaga

jftfS g bragoUf ntL. fUJU, l, fyJiuahl tu,
xbthUtUF mfgl ntiyf nghwit mta Uf ntL.
jfhf brw lf, gagLa bghUf nghwit g bragl
ntL.

2.3 bral Kiw

Ma gF (Role of the Teacher)

Ma tfhoahf, egdhf, ey Mnyhrfuhf Uf ntL.

mtfsJ lghLfis mtnghJ clUJ fisa ntL.

khztf FG xwhf, mikahf bragl itf ntL.

khztf jtW brahk clUJ tfhl ntL.

xbthU khztD jDila gif m jtwhk VW elj ntL

vgjid cW bra ntL.

Ma bra lij khztf nkbfhwnghJ #dehaf Kiwia

filof ntL.

2.4 bra l Kiw KaJt ( Merits of the Project Method )

bra l, csa mogil bragLJw xU fw f.

khztfSF cikahd mDgtfis bfhLwJ.

xWik

KaJtij

xbthUtUF

czJwJ.

Mt

mogilahf mikwJ.

gy wf, ehlf, gf bfhltf izJ xU braiy nkbfhs

th csJ.

J fw Rjukhf <Lgl ttFwd.

J gntW bjhlila ghlfis, brfis fWbfhs cjwJ.

MafSF khztfSF ey zfij njhWwJ.

khztfSF j kig, jdifia tswJ.

Mfw tsF cjwJ.

2.5 bral Kiw y lghLf (Limitations of the Project Method)

1.

mf neuK, gzK brythF

2.

Ma ntiygS mfF.

3.

g braghLf jilgL.

4.

vnyhU rkgbfLJ fF iy UfhJ.

5.

vyh ghl myFfSF Kiwia gagLj ayhJ.

136

2.6 bral - jiyf

r_f ma, nH bfhLfgLs jiyfis nghy khztfSF
bra lfis bj brJ bfhLfyh.
1.

Na FLg

2.

Rdh mj isfS

3.

gUtfhWfS mit fhy iy nk njhWF jhffS.

4.

bjhrhiyf (trha rhj / fts rhj kW mjj gFF

jFjh ngh)

5.

tuyhW wlf.

6.

RWyh jyf.

7.

ah Mnya M jhf

8.

jft bjhl / jft bjh Eg Kndw ah

9.

J rkbt ehff.

10.

gytfS fol fiy

11.

kf r_f, bghUshjhu iy ga tuf nrfj.

12.

ka, khy muRf kW csh mikf bragL Kiw.

13.

khf nrfj (cyf ehLf mr jiyf, bfhof, ehzaf kW

k tiff, ghiwf, iyf nghwit)

2.7 Koiu
bral ntiyfSF Lgt Manu Mth. vdnt ghlfis
fF bghGJ, goj ghlgFfis kL br iyY bralfis
bj brtJ Ma Ka gahF. mnjngh khztf bra lij
Koj d mtf braiy ga ghuhLjfis, CFig,
Maf ju ntoaJ f mta. thW mik bghGJjh bra
lKiw btlD wghf mik.
bral Kiw xU ma tkhd fw fj KiwahF. tuyhW
ffis, e RWw VgL aif khwfis fQW, mit e
mwhl th vjifa bjhl bfhLsd vgij khzhf mJ bfhs
bral Kiw xU gadF Kiwahf csJ. vdnt fhyK, bry TodhY,
mDgt fiajuty Kiwia khzhfF mKfgL bragLJtJ
aikahjJ.

137

vdnt khztf fw ntfnfg bfhLfgL braghLf

xwhl bral xU wghd fj mQFKiw vgij fnlh. jifa
m tkhd braghLf kLnk khztf wikia btbfhztjF,
wj koF cjwJ. Kiw bfhLfgL FGbraghLf
khztfilna R_fkhf cwit tswJ. bralf cikahd
mDgtfis khztfSF bfhLgjh, xU iyahd fwiy mtf
bgWwd. thW jhf fwij mwhl th gagLJ wid
bgWwd.

2.8 ghit f
1.

Dash B.N. & Dr. I.V. Radhakrishna Murthy, Methods of Teaching Social Studies
Neelkamal publications pvt. Ltd., New Delhi (2005).

2.

Kohli. V.K., How to teach science, Vivek publishers, India (1998).

3.

Salim Basha S.A. & Digumarti Bhaskara Rao, Methods of Teaching Geography Discovery publishing House, New Delhi (2004).

4.

UPhdrgj, tuyhW fF Kiwf, 2005.

5.

UPhdrgj, r_f ma fF Kiwf Tamil Nadu Text Book

Society, Chennai.

6.

Venkataswamy. K, tuyhW fF Kiwf.

138

3.3.4

y tiuglf, kh, ygl jf ntWghLf

mogil

cUil kh

ygl jf (Atlas)

y tiugl (Map)
TWf

msit

(Globe)

bga msitY

cikahd

tiuglfis RU

a msitY

ynjhwij

(Drawn to Small Scale)

tiua Toait

uggit

jahfglit.

mik

U gkhz mik

Kgkhz mik

Ugkhz mik

tu

Fl unjr

xU gFia

tiugl sffSl

tiuglfS,

gnah, flij

bghUslf, mfuh,

mjFa sff

gnah, ehil

tuf ga

kLnk

gnah, rahd

sffS

FfgoUF.

ms sffis

bfhLfgL UF.

ma Ko.
tot

ga

rkjs mikid

nfhs tot (ahL)

rkjs mikid

bfhlit

xjit

bfhlit

f braghLf

nfhs tot (ahL)

jhnd fwYF

fjYF

xjitahf

cWJizahf csd.

cWJizahf csd.

Ujyh, tot
ga cik m
ilwJ.

167

myF - III

kh, ytiugl kW ytiugl

jf gojj
mKf
r_f ma fj Jiz fUf gF KaJt thj
xwhF. jnghija fw mQF Kiw, bra tfw wghdjhf bragL
tUwJ. bra tfw vD fw NH khztfSF njitgL fw
fUfshf eh gy fw milfis, khfis, f bjh Eg
fUfis gagLJnwh. f mogilahf njitgL fUfshf
kh, ytiuglfS, ytiugl jfK gagLjgL tUwJ. r_f
ma, fw - fj it _W Ka _W fshf sFwJ.
j my it _iw vthW gojj vgij g thf fhngh.

myFTWf
3.1

3.2

khia gojj
3.1.1

mrnfhLf

3.1.2

Ka mrnfhLf

3.1.3

mrnfhLfS, fhyiy

3.1.4

fnfhLf

3.1.5

fnfhLfS, neuK

3.1.6

Ka fnfhLf

3.1.7

mrnfhLf, fnfhLf KaJt

3.1.8

kh, braghLfS

ytiugl gojj
3.2.1

3.2.2

ytiuglf bghU kW gaghL

3.2.1.1

bghU

3.2.1.2

gaghL

ytiugl mogil TWf

3.2.2.1

ytiugl jiy

3.2.2.2

irf

139

140

141

3.1

khia gojj (Globe Reading)

a ghlfUJf midJ e mwhl thl KY bjhl

bfhlit. ydhfhj fUJf (Abstract Concepts) gytiw khzhff ma

brtjF kh xU gaDs JizfUahf mikwJ. tot.
rhtR, jidjhnd RHYtjh VgL gfu, Naid RWjyh
VgL gUtfhyf, fhyiy klyf nghw fUJfis sf kh
aikahj mogil fUahf gagLwJ .vdnt kh TWf g,
mt _y ff Toa a fUJfis g eh mJ bfhtJ
mta.
ia btUJ ghFnghJ mJ xU ytz KJ nghW
njhwkwJ. KGnjhwij ghf Kotiy. fhzgL
flf,

flf,

ynjhwf

midJ

KGikahf

ekh

ghf

ayhoD, mt njhwfis KGikahf Jakhf Fl msY

(Scale) fzL nghw kh cU jahfgL kh (Globe) _y
tot, 23 0 rh, mR, JUtf nghwtiw mJ bfhs KowJ.
iwa cyfkakhj vw bghUshjhu bfhif (Globalization) e midt
thY fyJs iy xbthUtU cyf ehLfis, mj Ulfis
mJ bfhs mtakhwJ.
Kj Kjyhf kh 150 BC ah (jnghJ JU) it nrj
nu (Creates) vgtuh mikfglJ. fgHikahd 150 BC jahfgl
khahdJ W jh eho cs ne (Naples) mUfhaf
itfgLsJ. Fnsh (Globe) vw brh nshg (Globez) vw y bkh
brhUJ tjJ.
nfhs totkhf Ugjh mjnk cs xU lij FL
brhtJ f fodkhd xW. mthW Fl ntLkhdh uL nknfh
fhL ltlkhd f (Reference point) njitgLwJ. jfhfjh
a tYef, kh nk bjF tlfhf, nkF Hfhf,
fgid nfhLfis tiuJsd. mitf fnfhLf kW mrnfhLf
vd miHfgLwd.

bra
cyif Rwyh thf!
cyf mua ytiugl vLJ bfhf. xU bgyh nH bfhLJs
Ffsh lij mJ nfhoL tiuf.

142

1.

ah jiyefUF brf.

2. j lUJ vd, fa fl vd miHfgL xU

ehoF brf.
3. j ehoUJ g bgUfl tahf _W gf dhthY xU gf
uZahthY NHgLs ehoF brf.
4. mUJ r mnuah jiyefuF brf.
5. mUJ myho bgUfl tna bj mbkf fl mnkrh
fhLf cs ehoF brf.
6. mUJ

gdhkh

fhth

tna

brW

mbkfh

nkF

flfiunahu cs kiybjhlUF brf.

7.

mkiyUJ, meho jiyefUF brf.

8. mUJ myho fl tna uY Na cF ehoF brf.

9. mUJ Kj Na cF ehoF brf.
10. mUJ ah jiyefUF brf. vd? gaz nj Ujjh?

3.1.1

mrnfhLf (Latitudes)
vj xU tl totkhd bghUS 360 0 fis bfhoUF. mJnghyjh

nfhstotkhd (Spherical) 360 0 fis bfhoUwJ. ika

UJ

mj

bjhLnfhoF

nfhLf

gl

fhlglthW

tiuagLsd. itf mrnfhLf MF. eLnfhoF tl 90

nfhLfshf, bj 90 nfhLfshf tiuagLsJ. eLnfhL jh f
skhd RWtlnfhlhF. Jjh ia uL rkghffshf wJ.
eLnfhoF tl cs gF tl miunfhs vd, bj cs gF bj
miunfhs vd miHfgLwJ.

143

mrnfhLf

nkF

Hfhf

eLnfhoF

izahf

tiuagoUwJ. vdnt it iznfhLf ( parallels) vd miHfgLwJ. it

eLnfhoUJ tlF neh, bjF neh brYnghJ Rws
FiwJ bfhnl brwJ. nkY 90 0 t kW 90 0 bj mrnfhLf

TL

fjh FfgLwJ. xU mrnfhoF mjF mLj mrnfhoF

cs u 112.. MF. mr nfhLf vif bkhj 181 MF.

3.1.2

Ka mrnfhLf
eLnfhL Kakhd mrnfhL myJ Kjik mrnfhlhF.

mR jDila jsF (Plane) 23 0 rhthf csJ.

tl mj nfhs 23 0 tl mrnfhL flf nuif (Topic of Cancer) vd,
bj mjnfhs 23 0 bj mrnfhL kfunuif (Tropic of capricorn) vd
miHfgLwJ. j uL nfhoF, ilgLs gF mad kly (Tropical Region) vd FfgLwJ.
tl mjnfhs 66 0 tl mrnfhL Mo tl (Arctic circle) vd,
bj mjnfhs 66 0 bj mrnfhL mlho tl (Antartic circle) vd
miHfgLwJ. j uL nfhLfSF ilgl gF btg kly gF
(Temperate Zone) vd miHfgLwJ.
tl mjnfhs Mo tlF 66 0 tl JUtF (North Pole 90 0N) ilgl gF bj mjnfhs mlho tlF (66 0 bj)
bj JUtF (South Pole - 90 0S) ilgl gF fL F unjrf (Frigid
Zones) vd miHfgLwd.

mrnfhLfS fhyiy (Latitudes and Climate)

3.1.3

bra
btg kly, jbtg kly kW JUt klyf cs
ehLfis goaL xgil jahf.
nfhstotkhf Ugjh Naff btggLJ wid
eLnfhoUJ JUtij neh bry bry FiwJ bfhnl nghwJ.
brFJ ff (Vertical Rays) f FWa u brW J eLnfhL
gF Gtjh btg mfkhf, mUJ tlY bjY bry bry
Na ff rhthf (Oblique Rays) GtjhY flF u mfkhf UgjhY,
mf

guJ

GtjdhY

btg

Fiwthf

UwJ.

ruhrahf

eLnfho btg mfkhf, JUtij neh bry bry FiwJ

bfhnl brY.

144

3.1.4

f nfhLf
nfhs nk tiuagLs tl JUtUJ bjJUtF

brY ne nfhLf f nfhLf vd miHfgLwJ. itf mrnfhLf

ngh iznfhLf (Parallels) my. itf U JUtfY rJ
bfhtnjhL itf xnu sKilait. vdnt f nfhil
Kjik fnfhlhf njbjLJsd. Fjh uha tha MTl
mikJsJ. (Royal Astronomical Observatory System). jid wf
nk brY fnfhil bj brjd.

xbthU fnfhL eLnfhil brnfhz bto brwJ.

tFs ilbt eLnfho mfkhf JUtij neh bry
bry FiwJ W JUt rJ bfhwd. xU tl 360 0 f
nfhLf tiuagLsd. fnfhoF H cs fnfhLf
HF f nfhLf vd nk cs fnfhLf nkF f nfhLf
vd miHfgLwJ. f nfhLf vif 360 MF.

3.1.5

fnfhLfS neuK (Longitude and time)

bra

ah neu khiy 5 k v gfshnjr (90 0 ) l neu vd?

ah neu khiy 3 k v ghjh (65 0) l neu vd?
00 f nfho (GMT) Na criy ufhF bghGJ gf 12 k
vd llgLwJ. vdnt F egf 12 k v ah vd
neu vgij fLo: jidjhnd jDila m Rbfhs 24 k neu MwJ.
jid xU eh vd miHnwh. vdnt nfhs nk tiuagLs 360
nfhLf vLJ bfhS neu 24 k vdyh. Mf 15 0 fnfhLf flf 1 k
neuK 10 flf 4 lfS MwJ. jid flthW fzlyh.

145

xUKiw Rw : 24 k neu
xU fnfhL vLJbfhS neu = 24k (m) 24 x 60 = 1440
360
360
360

= 4 lf.

nkUJ Hfhf RWtjh neu HF neh bry bry

mfwJ. (xbthU f nfhoF 4 lf) mnjnghy nkF neh
bry bry neu FiwwJ. (xbthU f nfhoF 4 lf)
f nfho (Greenwich Meridian ) myJ Kjik f nfho (Prime Meridian)
y neu ruhr neu (Greenwich Mean Time) vd miHfgLwJ. j
neuij itJ cy cs kw lf neuij v fzL
bfhsyh.

bra
VnjD 20 ehLf lfnfhL, nfhLfis fLoJ, mj mr,
f gutfis xgilghf vGJf.

3.1.6

Ka fnfhLf
fnfhL f Kakhd fnfhlhF. jid ikakhf

itJjh kw lf neu fzlgLwJ. nj ngh 180 MtJ fnfhL

rtnjr nj nfhL (International Date Line ) vd miHfgLwJ.

rtnjr nj nfhL
j 180 fnfhL 0 0 f nfhoF vwkhf gR bgUfl
k mikJsJ. j rtnjr njnfhL mF mikJs fSnfg,
Hfhf, nkfhf tisJ flgu brYwJ. nkUJ tJ rtnjr
nj nfhil flJ Hfhf tjh xU eh TL. mnjnghy HUJ
nkfhf brW nfhil fljh xU eh H VgLwJ.

146

3.1.7

mrnfhLf, fnfhLf KaJt

nk cs lfis FL Tw j uL nfhLfS

gagLwd.
, nfhs totkhf UgjhY, jidjhnd RWtjhY neu lF
l

khWgLwJ.

lfSF

ilna

cs

neu

ntWghil

fzl

fnfhLf gagLwd.
mrnfhLf Ulij itJ, btg klyf J
fhlgLwd.

3.1.8
1.

kh braghLfS (Globe and Activities)

u gf njhWtij sFj. ( kh kW lh sif itJ
RH kW u gf njhWtij sFj. nki#J
khia itJ, mj gfthoUJ lh sif xu brJ vd
fwJ vgij mj.)

2.

mrnfhLf - fnfhLf - jik - ntWghLf - rtnjr mr

nfhLfis f nfhLfis mogilahf itJ vthW Xl
Ulij mayh vgij sFj. rtnjr nj nfhL- mj
KaJtij mj - nk y, nghwt gut kW
ntWghLf g sFj.

3.

tot kW mR 23 0 nfhz rhthf csJ vgij

nkUJ Hfhf RWwJ vgij khia ifah RH fho
sFj.

4.

btg klyfS . mr nfhLfS - bjhl gL sFj.

5.

Ka mr, f nfhLf, mit flJ brY flf, ehLf, efuf

nghwtiw sFj.

6.

bgUflf, flf, MWf, tisFlhf nghwt mikl,

KaJtij sFj.

7.

Ka kiyf, l, ghiytdf, rkbtf nghwt miklij

sFj.

8.

neu ntWghLfis ma f nfhLfis gagL sFj.

9.

flf, bgUflf Maitf fhlgLs y w (Intensity of the

colour) ntWghLfS mtfhd fhuzfis mJ bfhSj.

147

10.

, gfg nghwt tot mikl nghwtiw sFj.

11.

izf (Straits) y izf ( Insthmus ) nghwt jik,

mikl, KaJt nghwtiw sFj.

3.2 ytiugl gojj

RWw Niy kj thif Kiwia zwJ. RWw
Niy aif kW fyhrhu TWf cslsJ. aif kW
fyhrhu TWf xU NiyF kbwhU NiyF ilna khWgL
fhzgLwJ. khWgl Niyah kfilna khWgl thif KiwfS
fhzgLwJ. khWgl thif Kiwfhd fhuzfis mJ bfhs, jh
thG Niy ilF tsfis KY mJ bfhL mt _y j
thifia nkgL bfhs a fUJf gagLwd. a
fUJfis csl y tiuglf tiuagLwd.
it

fw

fjYF

bgJ

Jizwd.

vdnt

ytiuglf bghU, jik, mtUJ bgwgL jftf kW jftfis

bgW Kiw g khzt MafS, khztfS mJ bfhtJ f
mtakhwJ.

bra
cyf ytiuglij gagL fl lf ahUJ vj
ir csd vgij mf.

3.2.1

1. dh

8. #gh

2. yif

9. Mf fl

3. tfhs Flh

10. Vu fl

4. g bgUfl

11. myhfh

5. ghjh efu

12. bgfh V

6. ka jiufl

13. u kiybjhl

7. njhndah

14. ie MW

ytiuglf - bghU kW gaghL

3.2.1.1 bghU
ytiugl (Map) vD brh nkgh (Mappa) vdgL y bkhUJ
bgwgl xU brhyhF. `nkgh vw brhYF `nkir J fgl J
vgJ bghUshF. vdnt ytiugl vgJ tot ( Geoid) nkguig jJ
nghw gu TWfis tgjfhf jhnyh myJ Jnyh

148

tiuagL tiugl vd bghU bgwgLwJ. ytiugl TWfshd

ygFf kW gFf midJ tiuagoUF.

3.2.1.2 gaghL
iuJ bgUF jft bjhEg fhykhd W jftf ms
bjhlJ

bgUbfhnl

brwd.

midJ

jftfSF

mogil

tufshf mik ts Mjhuf vgJ Ys aif tsfshd

y, , ghiwf, fk tsf, btg, kiH, fhW, k aif jhtuf,
yFf nghwitahF. nkfl ts Mjhuf ga jft kLkyhJ,
tsfis

mogilahf

bfhl

trha,

bjhf,

bjh

ikaf,

nghFtuJ, kf bjhif, kfsl nghw gntW jiyf rhj

ytiuglfS btntW gaDs jftfis jJ bfhnlsd. W cy
U lfSF ilnas u, neu kW ir nghwtiw mJ
bfhtjF f vikahd fUahf sFtJ ytiuglfnsahF. e
mwhl thifF aikahj jft ClffS ( Media ) xwhf sF
ytiugl mtaij myls tufis gojJ bfhS
wid g khztfSilna cz fgJ mta.
kj thifF vzw jftf njitgLwd. iwa jft
bjhEg

Kndsjh

cy

gntW

ehLf

jftf

gy

ehLfSilna gkh bfhsgLwd. jftfSF _yfhuzkhf cs

TWf gut, tsf gut ga Ffis mgona ytiugl
jf

ayhJ.

vdnt

fhyfhykhf

Kiw

FpLfis

gagL

ytiuglf jahfgLwd.

bra
fyJiuahl: ytiuglf

KaJt kW y

tiuglf

gagLjgL Jiwf g fyJiuahLf.

y tiuglf Rkh 2500 MLfSF Kdnu Ujd vgjF
tuyhW

rhWf

csd.

tiugl

fiy

nuff

rhjid

ghuhljfJ. y tiuglf ianah myJ xU gFianah Kiw

FpLfis gagL xU Fl msit tiuagL tiuglf vgij
mnth. jifa y tiuglf kW sfglf ( Diagrams) tiu `fiy,
maYnk `y tiugl Efiy (Cartography) vd miHfgLwJ.
ekJ eho y tiuglf ah a msth Jiwduh (Survey of

India) cUthfgLwd. vyh y tiuglfSnk midJ gFfis

rnt brj dnu cUthfgLwd. nkY gu a njhwf

149

VgLnghJ, gu khwfis fhQ bghGJ mgFfis eF rnt

brj dnu Ug tiuagLwd. vdnt y tiuglf mtnghJ a
jftfSl JfgLwd.
cjhuzkhf org 2005 M Mo Vgl Rdhah ghfgl
flnyhuf y tiuglf fhfgLwd.
Kbgyh

tiuglf

tiutJ

fodkhf,

neu

vLJ

bfhtjhf UjJ. W bjh Eg KndwdhY braif nfhf

_y bgwgL thbt HglfdhY bjhiy czj Kiw ( Remote Sensing)
kW a jft mik Kiw (Geographical Information System - GIS ) nghw
bjh EgfdhY ytiuglfis cUthFtJ vjhfgLwJ.
`bjhiy czj (Remote sensing) vgJ Ys tsfis fl
xU Jikahd ma KiwahF. kj Ys xU bghUis gnah myJ
guig gnah myJ xU fia gnah tufis nrff mj
lnf neuoahf bryhk bjhiyz fU _y bgwgL ma Kiw
bjhiy czj MF. Kiw _y kjfsh brW mila Toa lf
kL, mila Koahj gy lf fhzgL tsfis, tufis
fla KowJ. thbt HglfS (Aerial photographs) bjhiy czj
tU tufns MF. it ia ga aif, fyhrhu
tufis (m) jftfis U tf jUwJ.
mu gntW lfis l, bragLj gntW JiwfY
bjhiy czj tuf gagLwd.
ia ga aif, fyhrhu tufis (m) jftfis U
tf bgwyh. xW th}fis nkilahf bfhL bgwgL fU, btis
kW tz Hglfns tuf; kbwhW Jiz nfhfis
nkilahf bfhL mj _y bgwgL tuf. fU, btis tuf,
ngh tz izngha, fnfw ehlhf fjkhd tL ( Compact Disc)
nghw Egkhd fUf, fhj miyf _y bgwgL mfis
tufshf ekF jUwd.
nkY `a jft mik ( Geographic Information System - GIS )
vgJ a jftfis gu rhila tufis mjFa
jftfis nrfJ, bjhFJ, ghFgL gagLJ tif f
cUthfgl xU bkbghU bjhF (Software) MF. vLJfhlhf ynjhw,
ts, aif jhtuf, fts nghw jftfis Jakhf vjhf
fhL tif VgLjgl bkbghU bjhFng a jft mikghF.
ts nkyhik (Resource Management) tik bgJ KaJt bgWwJ.

150

l rhj tuf, jid ifahS bjh Eg nghwtiw

Mjhukhf bfhlnj tik. f cjldhd ntiyghnl jF Ka
tsahF. fid mogilahf bfhL tik bragLtdh,
vzw tufis nrf Ko. vfhy ntoatiw kL
v bgW bfhs Ko. a jftfis Kd cs jftf nkbghUj
brJ ntoa jftfis bgw Ko. xbthU fhyflY fhzgL jhtu,
gut jftfis ghJfhJ ntoathW UgbgW bfhs J Vwjhf
csJ.

3.2.2

ytiugl mogil TWf

y tiuglf cikahd ia, a TWfis ugF

f RUa gltotf vD fbga cy midJ TWfis fa

tiuglf sfgLwd. vdnt ytiuglfis jahF bghGJ
Fl msitf, Ff, KiwFpLf nghwit gagLjgLwd.
ytiuglfis gojj vgJ ( map reading ) mt mogil
TWfshd 1. jiyf, 2. ir, 3. msit. 4. u, 5. mrnfhLf / fnfhLf,
6. tzf, 7. Kiw FpLf nghwt _y ia ga tufis
m braKiwahF. vdnt tiuglf gagLjgL TWfis eF
mj xU khztdh, ytiu glfis goJ tufis J bfhs aY.
vdnt j mogil TWf xbthiw g thf bjJ bfhtJ
mta.

bra
cyf kW a aifaik ytiuglf, fhQ mogil
TWfis jjna goaLf.

3.2.2.1 ytiugl jiy ( Title of the Map)

xbthU ytiuglF xU jiy bfhLfgoUF. cjhuzkhf
cyf - aifaik, ah - aifaik. ytiuglij gojj
Kakhdjhf ma ntoaJ mytiu gl jiyig goJ, mj
Ulij mJ bfhtjhF. cjhuzkhf jehL aifaik
tiuglij goja, jeho miklij a tiugl Kj ghf
ntL. tiugl bfhLfgLs jiy cs jftfS,
tufS jiynfg Ugij ma ntL.
cjhuzkhf jehL aifaik tiugl HF bjhl
kiyf, HF flfiu rkbt nghwitf Ugij fhzyh.

151

3.2.2.2 irf (Directions)

ytiuglf irf, xU nfhL to tiuaWfgLsd. it
gntW f nfhz iyia bghJthd Mjhu iria mogilahf bfhL,
t
vw
fhfgLwd. tlif FF Mjhu irnfhL ( Base Direction)
Fplh ytiugl tyJ nkw FfgL. thW FoUjh
ytiugl nkgF tlirgF vd fU bfhs ntL. j
mogil tlF, bjF, HF, nkF vd ehF Ka mogil irfis
Twyh. mogil irfSF ilna nfhz mogil ilgl irfS
FfgLwd.

irf
tlF, bjF, HF, nkF Ma ehF irfS mogil irfshF.
ilgl irf tlF, HF ilna tlHF vd, bjF
HF ilna bjHF vd, tlF nkF ilna tlnkF
vd, bjF, nkF ilna bjnkF vd FfgLwd.

bra
I. cyf, aifaik kW mua ytiugl Jiz bfhL nH
bfhLJs FG brhf tiffis flf.
1.

tlF, bjF, HF ...........................................

2. gR, myho, Mo ...........................................

3. Mah, bj mbkfh, mlhofh...........................................
4. yif, klfhf, yhJ...........................................
5. igfh, <, nlhah...........................................
6. u, uh, my ...........................................
7. , , bfnuh ...........................................

152

8.

ie, mnkrh, ...........................................

9.

fha, tfhs Flh, fa ...........................................

10.

nua, Fnuhah, nfd ...........................................

11.

ejnj, krhnuh, vtbu ...........................................

12.

nfh, fsAh, rAhuh ...........................................

3.2.2.3 ytiugl msit (Map Scale)

f bgaJ. mjid mnj ms tiua ayhJ. jdh ianah
myJ xU gFianah fhf, xU Fl msF ytiuglf
tiuagLwd. glfns ytiuglf MF. ms fbgajhf
Ugjh mjid tufSF, UlF Vw jgo ygl msitia
zJ tiuwd.
ytiugl U fSF ilna cs uF, gu nk
mit FF lfSF ilna cs uF cs jnk `msit
vdgL.
vLJfhlhf ygu

uL lfSF ilna cs u 1..

v, ytiugl mnj lfSF ilna cs u 1 br.. vnwh 2. br..

vnwh tiuagoUF 1 br.. v ytiugl msit 1:100000 vd
FfgoUF.

3.2.2.4 ytiugl msitfis FL Kiwf ( Ways of showing

Map scale)
ytiuglf msitf _W Kiwf FlgLtij fhzyh.
mit;

(i) brhL msit (By a statement)

j

Kiw,

ytiuglf

msitahdJ

brhyh

tfgoUF. (v.fh) 1 br.F 1 . vd FoUjh, ytiugl

cs 1br.. vgJ gu 1 .. -I FgjhF. Kiw khztf
msitia v J bfhsyh.

(ii) ud Kiw (By a Representative Fraction)

ud Kiw msit jij xU dkhf Flyh.
bjhF gF xnu ms l FLj ntL. Kiw bjhF
vbghGJ xwhf, gF mjF jfthW Uj ntL. nf `xW vw

153

bjhF

ytiugl

uij

gF

FlgLsJ

gu

uij FF.
(v.fh) 1 / 100000 (m) 1: 1000000 vW vGJj ytiugl u myF
br.. v, guY mit bro lf MF.

(iii) ne nfhlsit (By a linear graphical scale)

nfhLf _y
nenfhlsit

vg.

msitfis ytiu glf bjF Kiwia

ilnfhL

xW

tiuJ

mjid

Kjik

fshf (primary divisions) Kj Kjik it ulh ju fshf

(Secondary division ) tiuJ msitfis Jfhlyh. vLJfhlhf, Kjik
f

.lfshf

Ujh,

ulh

ju

lf

bfhLfgoUF.

3.2.2.5 ytiuglf uij msj (Measurement of Distance on

Maps)
ytiuglf xU Fl msit tiuagLwd vgij
fnlh. j msitia mogilahf bfhL ytiuglf U Fl
fSF ilnas uij flayh. cjhuzkhf Ughij
sij fla tiuglYs U ghij sij msJ, tiugl
msitah bgUdh cikahd sij flayh. U lfSF
ilnas

ygu

rkkhf

yhk

nkL

gsfSl

UFnghJ,

yguF VwthW tisJ, beJ brwhnyh msnfhyh mt sij

msf ayhJ.
vdnt ytiuglf U lfSF ilnaahd uij msf
tU Kiwf ifahsgLwd. mit;
(i) iy bfhL msj (by thread)
(ii) F fUia bfhL msj (by Divider)
(iii ) ukhia bfhL msj (by Rotometere)

154

bra
jehL - MWf ytiugl fh M sij iy bfhL
msJ ytiugl msitnahL xL mf.

3.2.2.6 mr nfhLf kW f nfhLf

J HF nkfhf tiuagl fgid nfhLfns mr nfhLf
MF. mr nfhLfis itJ X l fhyiyia vjhf eh Twyh.
mnjngh tlF bjfhf tiuagl fgid nfhLfns fnfhLf vW
miHfgLwd. fnfhLfis mogilahf itJ X l neuij
Jakhf eh fzlyh. nkY j uL nfhLfis itJ X l
Ulij mayh. mr nfhLf, fnfhLf, jik kW Ka
nfhLf ga tufis kh ghl eh Vfdnt mJnsh. vdnt
mrnfhLf kW fnfhLf ga m xU ytiuglij gojjYF
bgJ JizwJ.

bra
ah 80t - 37 0t mr Kj 68 0 - 97 0 f tiu gusJ. njngh
ekJ mil ehLf mr f nfhLf gutfis flf.

3.2.2.7 tzf ( Colours )

ytiuglf gntW aif ynjhwfis midtU
v mJ bfhs gy tzf _y FLwd. tzfis
ytiuglf cUthd fhy Kj eh tiu rtnjr ms, gagLjgL
tUwd. vdnt tiw khztf czJ bfhlhjh, ynjhwfis
v

flJ

tifgLj

aY.

ytiu

glf

fl

kW

ynjhwfSfhf gagLjgL tzfshtd:

3.2.2.8

1. fl kW iyf -

y w

2. kiy

gG w

3. rkbt

gir w

4. l

kr w

Kiw FpLf (Signs & Symbols)

KiwFpLf, ytiuglfis jahFbghGJ m gagLj

gLwd. FpLfis mjhjh ytiuglfUJ tufis goJ

ma Ko. jbfd jahf xU bkh cL. FpLf, vGJf,

155

nfhLf,

viy

nfhLf,

msitf

nghwit

csd.

ij

ju,

ytiuglf cau, fhyiy, aif jhtu, kf bjhif gut, MWf,

U ghijf rhiyf nghw FpLfS, nfhLfS, wfyitfS
gagLjgLwd. y mogil Kiw FpLfis bfhLJ mltiz
fhzyh.
fnghlglhj rhiy
toghij
mfw ughij
l ughij
u iya
flF ghij
ughij Fif
fiu
ghyJl Toa ghij
fiughy
k miz
FoU
kfsw FoU
nfh
gthr
MWfiu (6 MH)
rkcau nfhLf
Knfhz iya
kl Ff
Ruf
thiHku
_
gid
Ciy fhLf

nghfs
Mthf gF

C.H

rhu iya (Circuit House)

156

rJ y
cilgl gF
jkj nfh
giHa folf
gdhL viynfhL
khy viynfhL

khtl viynfhL
jhYfh viynfhL
fhL viynfhL
twhj nuhil
gUtfhy nuhil
Xj bgUFs nuhil
fS ghiwfS cs e
nuhils egLif
twl egLif
fhth
V - twhj, twl
zW - fiul, fiuaw
ikf cs f gua rhiy
nja beLrhiy
khjh nfh
ifngh
LfhL
fyfiu sf
nfhil
j f
jgh iya (Post Office)
fyiw
CW
j iya (Telegraph Office)
uahf khif (Dark or Travellers Bungalow)
fht iya (Police Station)
Kfh l (Camping Ground)
khd iya
xJfgl fhL (Reserved Forest)

R.F.

ghJfhfgl fhL (Protected Forest)

P.F.

157

bra
FpLfis gagL cf Wtd mUnfs iyf, trha
is bghUf, bjhrhiyf, rhiyf, U ghijf, FoUf
nghwtiw csla xU tiugl jahf.

3.2.2.9 ytiuglf tiff

ytiuglf ekF njitahd mogil tufis bfhoUjhY
midJ ytiuglfS xnu khahf Ugiy. xbthU ytiuglK xU
wghd jiyfis rhj jftfis jh F. jftf mogil
ytiuglf gy tiffshf fgLwd.

( I ) muR rhj ytiuglf

muR Wtdf _y a rnt Jiwduh yf tuf
nrffgL

tiuagL

ytiuglf

muR

rhj

ytiuglf

vdgLwd. it muR mfhu bgwit. tif ytiuglf gntW

tifahd ytiuglfSF mogilahf mikwd.

( a) y msit ytiuglf (Topographic Maps)

Fl ygu xU Fl ms tiuagL ytiuglfns y
msit ytiuglf vdgL. it uhQtJiwY tUth JiwY
gagLjgLwd.

(b) ygaghL ytiuglf (Land use Maps)

nkguYs ynjhw mik, l cau, l gaghL
nghw mogil it tiuagLwd. j _y ygaghL tufis
v bgwyh. jgnlh brhJ tufis ma it bgJ gagLwJ.
nkY

mu

bfhiffis

mkgLJtjF

it

bgJ

njitgLwJ.

( II) ( a) aifaik ytiuglf (Physical Maps)

cy Ka aifaikfshd kiyf cau, kiy f caj
fuf,

ggu,

l,

rkbt

flguf

nghwt

gutiy

tiuaWfgl tzfSl bjwd. (vLJfhlhf) rk MHnfhLf

bfhL flyo y njhwfis ma fl MH ytiuglf ( Bathymetric Maps )
cjwd. mnjnghy `thiy kW fhyiy ytiuglf ( Weather & Climatic

maps) Xl dr thiyia fhyiyia fhf gagLwd.

thiy ytiuglf xU ehSFa ruhr thiyia sFwd.
gyhLfSF Fghf KgJ MLfSfhd thiy ytiuglfUJ
fhyiy ytiuglf jahfgLwd. it gy ehfSfhd thiy

158

ruhria sFwd. jifa ytiuglf thiy M Jiwduh

(Meteorological Department) jahfgLwd.
njnghW aifjhtuf, tdyFf, k tiff t
gutfis FF ytiuglfS t mlF.

II (b) fyhrhu ytiuglf

it
gutfis

kf

fyhrhu

kW

gghL

TWfis

mt

bjwd. kf fyhrhu FGkhf ( Cultural Realms ),

dgut (Racial distribution ), Ka bkhf nghwtiw twJ.

fyhrhu ytiuglf bghUshjhu ytiuglfS ( Economic maps )
mlF. t kf bjhif TWfshd kfsl, taJ, kf bjhif gut,
ghd, br bjhf, j eg tUkhd, thif ju nghw tuf
cslF. nkY ytiuglfis mogilahf bfhL bga msitl
cS glf, kW xU bghU gut glf, bghUshjhu sfglf
nghwit tiuagLwd. a msit ytiuglfns kf fyhrhu
FGkf (Cultural Realms), dgut (Racial distribution), Ka bkhf nghwtiw
twd.
ygaghL ytiuglf, mua f kW viyf bfhl
mua ytiuglf nghwit fyhrhu ytiuglfshF.

3.2.3 ytiugl tiu w ( Map Drawing Skill)

ytiuglij ghJ jftf m w nghynt, khztfilna
tsf ntoa kbwhU Ka w cS ytiugl tiuj, wt
ytiuglf tufis Fj kW tz Lj MF.
bjhlf iy cs khztfSF cS ytiugl tiu wid tsj
ntL. Kj flkhf g tshf kW cS tiuglfis ca
msit tiua br wtsf ntL. khzt jdJ tFgiwia,
m jh cs lij tiuglkhf tiuayh. mLjjhf g RWRt
gFia xoa lij kW g cs cS RWw glK jahg
khztfSF g mj ntL. jF Ma, g folUJ
RWw fhzgL a mikig khztf cW neh, a
TWfis milahs fhQ if xU wt ytiuglij bfhLf ntL.
khztfis Ma gF btna miHJ brW ytiugl cs
gFia R fhJ t ghF aifaik Lf, filf, ngUJ
iya, rhiy bga, isahL ikjhd, nfh, V, jgh iya
nghwtiw gl Ff bra ntL. thW FF bghGJ mtf
ir, KiwFpLf nghwt ftd brYj ntL.

159

jid bjhlJ khztfSF U tifahd ytiugl tiu wid

tsfyh. mit
(i)

wt ytiugl tz o tiuj.

(ii)

`go vLJ tiuj kW tufis Fj. ah - lf

kW rkbtf.
(iii)

Vfdnt cs ytiuglij msit bgajhfnth myJ

ajhfnth (Reduction Enlargement) khWj.

thW ytiuglfis khw brJ bghGJ toa Kiw ( Geometric

Method ) tiuglfis ajhfnth myJ bgajhfnth khwfis

brayh. jF xj rJu Kiw bgJ gagLwJ. guj ygufis
Kiw _y bgjhf, jhf brayh; KiwF, Kj,
bfhLfgLs ytiuglij xnu mss rJufsh Md xU rljh
J bfhs ntL.

ytiuglfis

bgjhFj

vLJfhlhf 1:100 vw msitYs ytiuglij 1br.. vw gf

msit bfhl rJufshf J bfhs ntL. thW j m
vjid rJuf FWY, beLY csd vgij fzL bfhs
ntL. tho 15 rJufS gftho 10 rJufS UF. j
ytiuglij bgjhf ntL vwh, tiuj 1 br.. mss rJufisl
bgjhd 2 br.. gf msit bfhl rJufshf sth 15-, gftho 10-
tiuJ bfhL ytiugl tufis tiua ntL. 1:100 vw msit
ytiugl cs Kj W rJu tufis jnghJ 1:50 vw msitF
kha gl J tiuJs 2 br.. gf msit bfhl Kj rJu J
Ff ntL.
nj nghW ytiuglij jhf ntL vwh 1/2 br.. gf
msit bfhl W rJufshf sth 7 1/2 br. sF, gftho 5 br..
mfyF tiuJ bfhs ntL. j msit nghJ 1:200 MF. vjid
Kiw jhf ntL vw fzFgo xj rJuf gf msit eh xU

160

gfhf Fiwf ntL. msitia kha , mogil ytiuglYs

Ka tufis, wtia jha ytiugl ftdkhf Ff
ntL.

3.2.4

fw - fj ytiuglf
ytiuglij ghJ jftf m wid, ytiuglfis tiu

wid khztf bgWw mnj neu Maf fw - fj f

vbjj iyf ytiuglfis gagLj ntL vw mit tsj
ntL. braKiw fw bghGJ kofshd ytiuglf fw fj U iyf gagLjgLwd. mitahtd:
(i) fw bghGJ
(ii) ko bghGJ
iy - fw bghGJ

ytiuglf ghlbjhlghd lfis RofhLj.

xU eho viyia flj

mua fis mj

tuyhW nguuRf viyia flj.

Xl aifaik, fhyiy, aif jhtuf nghwtiw mj.

kw fyhrhu gfis mj TWfis (ntshik, bjhrhiy, kf

bjhif, nghFtuJ nghwit) ga gutiy mj.

kf bjhif, bghUshjhu iy.

iy 2 - ko bghGJ

fw milfis kl.

jhnd fw fUahf gagl.

Ra kL fUahf gagl.
vdnt fw - fj ytiuglfis ghJ jftf mt

khztfSF fl brKiw gfis bfhLJ iw brayh.

khtlij Rs mil khtlfis flj.

khtl jiyef bga, khtlYs tlf bgafis flj.

khtl MWf, kiyf, bgafis flJ khtl wt ytiugl

milahs fhLj.

khy ytiugl jdJ khtlij milahs flj.

khy viynahu flf bgafis flj.

161

khy Ka aifaikfis (kiyf, lf, rkbtf, MWf)

flj.

a ytiugl mua - khyf milahs fhQj.

jkJ khtl bghUshjhu ts, tsf tf nghwtiw czu

brj.

ekJ khy mil khyf bgafis flj.

a aifaik ytiugl MW rkbtf, flfiu rkbtf,

kiyf, lf, MWf nghwtiw flj.

ah Ka efuf, U ghijf rhiy tf Matiw

flj.
tif gfSl khztfSF cS ytiugl tiujYfhd

gia mj ntL. jid bjhlJ wt ytiugl lfis

Fj, tz Lj nghw gfis mf ntL. it khztf
ytiugl wid tsf, gilghw wid tsf fwiy iy W
bfhs, Ra kL brJ bfhs cWJizahf sF.

bra
3 M tF Kj 5 M tF tiu cs Ka ytiuglfis gkid
mikJ tiuJ ffh mikf.
thW ytiuglfis tiu wD, ytiuglfis ghJ
jftfis m wD xU khztDF ilfbgwhjh, mtl
ytiugl tuf fhuz fha bjhl, izJ ghj, Kofis my
Muhj nghw wf btgL. w _y khzt ytiuglf
jjna m TWfis kf fyhrhu, bghUshjhu kW r_f
TWfnshL bjhlgL mwhl th gagLj Ko.
r_f ma fw - fj ytiuglf KakhdbjhU fw
fUahf fwJ. fJiwia ju ntWgl gyJiwfY j
KaJt bgJ jnghJ nghwgL tUwJ. xbthU Jiw neuoahfnth,
kiwKfkhfnth nahL bjhl bfhLsjh gy mikfis sf
gagL ytiuglfS mjj JiwfnshL beUa bjhl bfhl
rhjdkhf fwd. vdnt ytiuglfis ghJ goJ jftfis
mw khztf kL midtUnk tsJ bfhs ntoa xwhf
fwJ. eF jahfgl ytiuglf gy W gff bfhl
jffisl gy W fUJfis clnd juToajhf Ugjh eh midtU
wid tsJ bfhSj f mtakhF.

162

3.3 ygl jf - gojj ( Atlas reading)

3.3.1

mKf
j tFYs khzhffis IJ FGfshf j Mwh tF Ma

xbthU FGF xU dhid ddh. tU dhfis ygl

jf cs njr glf _y jFj giy miuk neuF vGj
gjh.

Ma dhfshtd:
1.

tlmiunfhs cs flf kW bgU flf bgafis

goaLf.

2.

yl gf 12 kahf UF bghGJ, kJiu vjid kahf

UF? vW fzLf.

3.

Mnuah fl xU th? gfgkh? V mthW miHfgLwJ vd

TWf.

4.

kfS, bgfS uL CfS vbjj mrY, vbjj

fY mikJsd vd FLf.

5.

Naid RWtjh VgL isid ygl jfYsthW gl

tiuJ sFf.
khzhffS cl jlUj ygl fid jthW FGf

mkJ kdkl dhfhd ilfis flJ Ma ghuhil

bgwd. xbthU FGdU midJ khztfSF jkJ ilfis
flj j g vLJ Td.
tFgiw NH ll tfhLjyhY, khztf jidia
L dhfshY vnghJ jl itJs ygl jf JizahY,
khztf FG <LghLl dhfSfhd ilfis jhnk fla KojJ.
vdnt r_f ma fwfj braghLfSF ygl jf bgJ Jiz
wJ vgij ygl jfij goj Kiwia khzhffSF
sdh, xbthU khztD, kjD, RWwilnas bjhlfis
jh r_f gw ntoa beKiwfis fW mJ bfhS w bgw
Ko vgij cWahf Twyh.

nehff
1.

ygl jf bghUid mJ bfhSj.

2.

ygl jf mikid J bfhSj.

3.

ygl jf tufis mJ bfhs brj.

163

ygl jf vwh vd?

bra
ah flfiuia viyfshf bfhl khyf bgafis, y
gFia viyfshf bfhl khyf bgafis goaLf.
cy cs flf kW ehLf aif, jgbtg, kiHas,
ktif, aif jhtuf, mua f, kW bghUshjhu ga
sffis bjJ bfhtjF gy tKiwf UD, Jakhf v
gagLj cj fU (Tool) ygl jf vgJ eh mjnj.
nfhs totid bfhl ia KGtJkhfnth myJ xU
gFianah xU rkjs gu a ms tiuaWfgl FpLfdh
cUthfgL yglf bjhFng ygl jf vnwh.

3.3.2 ygl jf mik

ygl jf yglfis nghnwh cUil kh nghnwh
myhk, jf to mikfgLsJ. xbthU gfY, xbthU jkhd
tiuglf csd. tiuglf xU eho totij, meho
mikig sFtjhf mik. tiuglf xU Fl ms
tiuagoUF. cjhuzkhf 1:100000 vW tiugl nH FfgoUjh
nk xU br.. vgJ y 100000 br.. F rkkhdJ. myJ 1 nyhlUF
rkkhdJ vW bghUshF. j msitF nH kbwhU msit tiugl
FfgoUF. ygl jf nkfl msit cs ygF
1000 .l cs tufis 1. br.. F bfhLfgLsJ.
ytiugl
tiuglf
tiuaWfgl
KiwFpLfsh,
Flgl tuf fhlgoUF. tiuaWfgl FpLf vgJ
ttahf KfhyUJ aif, bghUshjhu kW fyhrhu mikfSF
tHfgL milahs FpLf MF. FpLfns bghJthf ytiuglfY
( Map ), ygl jfY ( Atlas ), cUil khY xnu khahf
mikfgoUF.
cjhuzkhf flid fhLtjF y wij fhL Fpnl njr
glY, cUil khY, ygl jfY fhlgoUF. fyhrhu
mikghd skhd nfhLf (nfhL FpL) rhiyfis fhLtjF FpLfshf
Ugij fhzyh.
ygl jf xbthU gfK xU jiy cilaJ. cjhuzkhf Mah
- aif mik, Mah - mua, bjHF Mah - gfg, bj Mah mua f nghW cyfij ga tufS xbthU jiy G
bjthf tiuagLsd. ygl jf cs xbthU tiuglY,
njrglY, cUil khY tiuagLs mrfS, ffis
ngh tiuagLsd.

164

3.3.3

ygl jf mls tuf:

ygl jf mls tufis ehF gFfshf fyh.

mitahtd:
1.

ygl jf cs tuf,

2.

ga bghJ tuf.

3.

cyf, cy cs flf, flf cs ehLf, bgUfl W

flf mikf, flyo ynjhwf.

4.

mfuh (Index ) Mait thf bfhLfgLsd.

mjj eho cgnahfgLjgL ygl jf mj ehLfSFa

tuf KiygLjgL. cjhuzkhf

eh gagLJ ygl jf e ehlhd ah khyf,
khtlf, jiyefuf nghwt tuf KiygLjgLsd.
khyf gugs mt kf bjhif, kf ml xbthU khyY
cs khtlf vif, fa j bfhLfgoUwd. J ju
ygl jf cs njrglf gagLs tiuaWfgl Kiw
FpLf ga sf Fiuahf l bgWsd. y ygl jf gy
eho bgaf, jfhy khwgl a bgaf xl sfK
jugLsd.
nkfl tuf ah khztfS, MafS, kw JiwdU
jh

thG

lij,

khtlij,

khyij

kw

khtlfSl,

khyfSl Kiwna xL czu Ko. jid mogilahf bfhL kj

thif Kiw, ntWgl fyhrhu, ntWgl is bghUf, kW thifju
nghw tufis bjJ bfhtjF tufns gagLjgLwd.
a tufis ju, jeho rg fhy tufshd
khtl thahd gugs, kf bjhif, kf ml, f m j, RWyh
jyf nghwit FlgLsd.
a tufshd gugs, ygu, gu, ka nuif,
f nuif, tl Rws, vil, skhd ef, Ka cehL iyf,
caukhd f, Ka bgUflf kW flf, Ka mizfLf,
caukhd fuf, Ka ygugs g Jakhf bfhLfgLsd.
bt kly tuf gkhz ( True Dimension ) glfshf tu
mltizl

sfgLsd.

Na

kly

xbthU

nfhS

NalUJ mikJs u mj RH neu, btgiy, nfhf ml,

fLofgl Jiz nfhfd vif Mait sfgLsd.

165

ij ju ufzf VgL jf, gUt fhyfshd nfhil, F,

trj, iy fhy, rkgf u ehf, u gf VgLj, ru gntW
njhwf Madtiw g glsfJl bfhLfgLsd.
xbthU ygl jfY ekJ khykhd jeho aif mik,
mua f, kiHas, btgiy, mik, jhJ bghUf, k, , r
tsf nghwit sfkhd ca FpLfSl tif sfgLsd.
JnghW ah, Mah, bjHF Mah, Mfh, tl mbkfh,
bj mbkfh, Mnuah, xahah nghwtF sf jugLsd.
xbthU jiyYs yglJl jiyig rhj tufSF
Vwhngh Ugkhz sfglfS (gil sfgl, tl gF glf)
bfhLfgLsd.
sfglf _y eho gntW bghUf bghUshjhu cg
iyid bjJ bfhs Ko. xbthU MoY cs cg bgUfid
mJ mjfhd Kndw eltoif vLf Ko. l miklij mJ
bfhs
Jizahf
UF
mfuh,
ygl
jf
W
bfhLfgLsd. m cy cs lf bgaf `mfu tir
bfhLfgLsd. xbthU lF mj bga, FlgLs gf v
Mait bjthf (joj vzhf) bfhLfgLsd. y lfis ju,
vid lfSF mr nuif, f nuif bfhLfgLd. j _y
mlf miklij v fLof KowJ. cjhuz.
kJiu
Kig

15
14

9 054
19 021

21
78 06
72 048

bra
fhQ efuf mr, f nuif kig ygl jf cjl
fLof.
1.
2.

efuf
Jbl
nfhfjh

3.
4.

brid
bgfq

mrf / ff
-

kJiu efu 15 MtJ gf FfgLsJ vgij efu

9054 tlF mr nuif 78 06 HF f nuif rF l mikJsJ
vgij mwJ. j _y cy cs ehLf, efuf Ulij
khztf v mJ bfhs Ko.
nkY ygl jf cs tiugl mr nuif kf tyJ
if kW lJ if Xu gF FlgLsd. f nuif kf nk
gF kW gF FfgLsd.

166

167

3.3.5

mwhl kj braghLf y tiugl, cUil

kh, ygl jf gaf

ytiuglf ( Maps )
r_f ma

ytiuglf ( Map )

KakhdbjhU

rhjdkhf

fwJ. a ju ntWgl gy JiwfY tiuglf KaJt

bgJ jnghJ nghwgL tUwJ. mwhl f xbthU Jiw
neuoahfnth kiwKfkhfnth, nahL bjhl bfhLsjh gy
mikfis sf gagL y tiuglfSl mafSfhd bjhl
jf

KoahjjhwJ.

ehffkhd

thifF

xU

Kakhd

fUahf

sFwJ.
MahsfSF wghd cWJizahf, gaz brnthfSF xU
tfhoahf fwd.
btehoUJ ahF tUwtf RWyh ts fHfl
brW RWyh nkghL lfis fLff y tiuglfis bfhL
gabgWjiy Twyh.
Xlij ga miklij bjthf J bfhs gagLwd.
miklij g bjJ bfhs ntL vwh ml a mogil
rhj Ul bjthf Uf ntL. Kjyhtjhf mr nuif, f nuif
Ul, kbwhW mUYs kw gFfSl Md bjhl Ma uil
itJjh Xl miklij bjJ bfhsyh. uLnk y
tiuglf bjthf tiuaWfgoUF. Mifah kJiu myJ Kig
miklij mgF jyglfis bfhL Uj lUJ mJ
bfhs Ko.

kiH bgh, btgiy, aif jhtuf, aif tsf ga

fUJfis sFwd.

tlhu a ga fUJfis ma KowJ.

bghUshjhu, thf aiy g bjJ bfhs khztfSF

cWJizahf csJ.

MafSF,

khztfSF

fl

ntoa

fUJfis

fLtjF Ka rhjdkhf fwd.

y tiuglf jfnjhL izJ fUJfis btgLJwd.

fg khYfSF tfhoahf fwJ.

168

khd XofSF irfis mJ bfhtjF gagLwJ.

xU eho viy nfhLfis tiuaWgJ, ytiuglfns. ehLf

viyfis mJ bfhs uhQtdUF bgJ gagLwJ.

efu tsF lLjYF, bgha tYefSF, rhiyf,

unt, izf, mizf, nja fhf mikgjF,
ytiuglf gagLwd.

wf mogil, FpLf KiwY, cg unjrf, trha

unjrf, kf ml Matiw mJ bfhs KowJ.

iwa NH Xlij ga MuhF Mjhukhf fwd.

Hgl yglf (Photo maps) _ykhf brwila Koahj lfis

MuhF cgLj Ko.

t kly Vgl Toa ik nfLfis, btg kly Vgl

Toa isfis ytiuglf _y ma KowJ.

cUil kh ( Globe)
ia Kgkhz totJl fhLtnj khahF. J
totij, kW ygufis mj jfis fhL sfkhd kh
vnw TwKo.
Jiz nfhf _y jnghJ ey bgW Hglf njhwij
nfhskhf fhLwJ. ia ga Hglf nfhskhf fhLwdnt ju,

cstf j

njhwij fhz ayhJ. jkbfd jbahU

cUtid mjhtJ il gFf rW gUJ, JUt gFf jilahd

mikig bgUgjh cUt, ahL ( Geoid) vW miHfgLwJ.
kh _y ehff ts njha lf, bjh kW ntsh
uf Vgl lf, Mnya M gua lf Matiw milahs
fho ffyh.
nkY mwhl tF ff
- flf a mikl
- tot
- u gf VgLj.

flf / ehLf bgaf

Mfl mikl

169

rh (23.5 0)

tisFlh, Flh

fzth, f, gfgf

y njhwf

fhyiy, fuf

rtnjr nj nfhL

neu kly

RWj / ty tUj - jidjhnd RWj, Naid ty tUj.

ygl jf (Atlas)
Rt tiuglfSF mLjgoahf tFgiw braghLfSF tuyhW kW
a fjYF ygljf f mtakhwJ.
khztf

isahLKiw

lf

miklfis

fLogjF mfuh gF cWJiz wJ.

ygl jf ga fUJfis ma jhnd fwYF ttFF.
ygl jf ehL, efuf, kf bjhif, fa Ma
tufis,

MWf,

fuf,

flf,

cl

tufis mJ bfht Mtij VgLJwJ.

aif mik, fhyiy, fl nuhlf, ktif, ghrd, kiHas,
cl tuf bghUjkhd tzf bfhLfgoUgjh khztf
t ntWghLfis vjhf J bfhs KowJ.
FlgLs tufis v fla trahf FpLf l
bgUgjhY mj mikid bjJ bfhs KowJ. (c.) ntshik ga
tufis ma czg, tfg vW J ma is gf
FpLfshf l bgWsd.

3.4 Koiu
r_f ma fw fj Jiz fUf Ka _W fshf
cs kh, ytiuglf kW ygl jf _ wgrfSnk
mij gagLJ jjh csJ. vdnt khzt Mafsha f
wfSF VwthW vbjj l gagLjyh vgij MJ J
Kiwahf gagLJjY, gojjY cf wid tsj ntL.

170

r_f ma fj gntW JizfUf gaglhY j _W

JizfUf kLnk mogil fUfshf fwJ. it ghlbghU
sfkhd mit bgw, mtkhd mDgtij bgw ttif
brwJ. _W JizfUfis goj wid X Ma bgWtj
_y kLnk, fw - fj vthW tiw gagLjyh vw wid
bgwKo.

3.5 ghit f
1.

George philips, Teaching of Geography in Secondary Schools.

2.

Long. M., Handbook for Geography Teacher.

3.

Marchant. E.C., Teaching of Geography at School Level.

4.

Monkhouse F.J. & Wilkinson, H.R. Maps and Diagrams, B.I. Publication, New Delhi
(1980).

5.

Sethurakkayee. S, gla -X mKf, rKf ggf, kJiu.

6.

UNESCO, Handbook of suggestions on the teaching of Geography.

7.

Zamir Alvi, A Text book of Practical Geography, Vikas pub. pvt. Ltd. New Delhi (1998).

8.

Zoe. A. Thralls, Teaching of Geography, Eurasia Pub. House, Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1969.

9.

Internet.

171

myF - IV
fUjuf
(SEMINAR)
mKf
Fl Jiw bjhlghd lf, bfhiff, braKiwf g iwa
njitnfg jiyig njbjLj, njbjLj jiy tYef
tfhlnyhL fLiuf jahj myJ M brJ Ko fhz mtiw
bgUFG (fUju) gJ bfhSj, gJ bfhl brfis
thgj _y gnfghsf mwid bra wid tsj,
md thj fUJfis bjhFJ yh vfhy gaghoF cjj
vD goiyf bfhlJ, fUjuf MF. fUjuif gagL f
juij nkgLj Ko.

myF TWf
4.1

fUju nehff

4.2

fUju bghU

4.3

fUju jik

4.4

fUjuF - elJ Kiw

4.5

fUjuf - goiyf

4.6

fUjuf jiyf

4.7

Koiu

4.8

ghit f

172

fw braf
t.

myF

tHf g L

nj i t g L

v.

TWf

brKiw

jftf

g
1.

fUjuF fUjuf - njbjLj jiyt

-

U a ga Ra tuf,

goiyf Rju
nghuhl u

tuf nrF l
g
-

kw
lf
yff
cs

Ma mUgf,

jff

jiyt

kW

jjik, jiyt

iza

_y jh bgw

js

ek nghwit
ga tuf
kW ifglf
2.

fUjuF fUjuf bjhlf

-

bjhlf f

iwa iy

goiyf fia
nkgLJt

bjhlf f

bghGJ

jbghGJ

khztf,

khzt

fhzgL

Maf

Mauha

uridf,

kW jiyik

cf gF

muidfSF

MaUl

fhg

fyJiuaho

cf g

fUjufhd

kW gF

jftfis

uLj
3.

fUjuf goaLj

6 Kj 8 tF tiu f

jiyf

cs r_f ma gF
w gF

brif

fUjuf Kiw

g ghl

_y ff

jffis

VJthd wfis

M brj

flj.

4.1

fUju nehff

fUjuf jiyf r_fij bjhl gLJtjhf Uf ntL.

fUjuf vgJ r_f khwij VgLJ Kiw vgjh, midtU
UgJl gnfF tifY, bfhLfgL fUJf midtU VW
bfhS tifY, thifia eilKiwgLJ tifY mikj
mta.

173

fUjuf xbthU iyY btfukhf mik tz lLj

ntL.

fUjuif jiyik VW elJgt fUjuF FJ bjthf m

bgUf ntL.

xbthU fUjuF mkY jiy Fj fUJfis bjthd

Kiw btgLj ntL.

xbthU mkY gnfghsf MtJl fUJ gkhw <Lgl

ntL.

fahsf, Ma gWef, Maf jhf cfis,

gnrhjidfis bgUFG gJ bfhs thgf ntL.

gJ bfhl fUJfis eilKiwgLJ tif bghJikgLJj

ntL.

fUjuF Ko filahf vLfgl Kogo bjhlg VgLJ

tif fUjuf fLiu bjhF btlgl ntL.

4.2

fUju bghU
Mg myJ caf <LgL khztfSF mffgl

jiy tYef tfhlnyhL fUJfis btgLj, thJ

gLj jU thng fUjuf MF.

iu Kiw tFgiw eilbgWtjF gyhf, FGthj Kiw

eilbgW.

wghd ghlgFf w ftd brY fgjfhf totikfglJ.

Fl jiyyhd fUJ gkhwfhd Tl.

M khzt kW caf KiwFa f Kiw.

tYe xUt jiyik khztf xU jiy thf TLtJ.

xU ynuh, xU FGdnuh xU Fl jiy gntW fUJ

jftfis nrfJ, M brJ bgw Kofis, fLiuahf jahJ
gJ bfhtJ.

fUjuf fLiufis jahJ fUJfis gJ bfhs brtjh

xUt jh bgw mDgtfis gJ bfhs th jugLwJ. j_y
j Jiwia rhj cldhsf wfis tsf KowJ.

174

fUju fUJfis fLiufsh thgj _y Fl jiy

brfis MHkhf fW bfhs thgwJ.

gfiyfHff, fyjh myJ M mogil eilbgW xUtif

f

Kiwjh

fUjuf

MF.

tYef

tfhl

xGFgLjgl Kiw eilbgW vd fUjuf FJ `MnghL

mfuh FLwJ.

4.3

fUjujik

fUjuf mikghs ll go eilbgW.

xU Fl jiy bjhlghf eljgL.

Fiwj vif bfhltf gnff ntL. mfgr UgJ ng

fyJ bfhsyh.

thu xUKiwnah, njitnfgnth eljgLtJ.

gnfW fLiu mf Kg brJ fLiuia mDg ntL.

gnfghsf mDa fLiuf fUjuf FG nj brj fLiuf

bfhl M RUf to gnfghsfSF fUju nghJ
jugL.

nj bragl fLiufns gofgL thfgL.

thfgl fUJfis fLiuf nrJ uikJ f fUjuf

rh btlgL.

fUju _y mFl jiy gnfghsfSF Mj bj

VgL.

iu Kiwia l fUJgkhw wghf eilbgW.

khztfSF gaDs tif jiyig njbjLfgl ntL.

4.4 fUjuF elJ Kiw / fUjuf mikghsf bghWf

jiyig njbjLj

fF ll

fUjuf jiy bjhlghd tiu jahjj.

fLiuahsfis CFJ fUju gnff brj.

fLiuia khztfns gol ttif brl.

175

Fl jiy bjhlghf TwgL fUJfis MtKl nfl kW

Cfkj.

fLiu bjhlghd dhf bjhFf fLiuahsUF gnfghsfSF

ilna fUJ gkhw Vgl brj.

tYef, fLiuahsf, gnfghsf TL Kaah wghd m

bgWj

gnfghsUF Mj m ilf cjj.

vfhy gaghoF cj tif fLiufis bjhFJ yhf

btl.

4.5 fUjuif elJtYs goiyf

1. Kjah
2. fUjuif eilKiwgLJj.
3. ghit kW kl.

1. jah
fUjuif totikj: fUjuF elJtj nehf, kfnshL gJ
bfhsUF brf, fUju _y gnfghsf bgW gaf
Mat mogil fUjuif totikf ntL.
f FJ lLj: fUjuif elJtj Fnfh, fUjuif
elJtjh f nkghLF ilF gaf, gnfghsUF ilF
gaf, fUju Fnfh, nehff, cf MatF fJiwF
cs bjhl, fUju fyJ bfhL fLiufis

jUtjhY, fUju

fyJ bfhL thgjhY, gnfghsfS, fLiuahsfS f FJ

fWbfhS a jftf, fUjuF elj lLs ehf, xbthU
mkit eljUF Kiw Madtiw lLj mta.
fUjuf

mikghs

ghitahsfl

VgLj

fw

isfis, mtiw eilKiwgLj ifahsUF cf Matiw

ll ntL.
bgUghY fUju fyJbfhs Mt fhLgtf ah? vgij
mtf mthW Mt fhLtjfhd fhuz, fUju _y VgLj U
isf Mat mogil fUjuf jftyifia jahf ntL.
jftyif fUjuf eilbgw UF eh, neu, l MatnwhL
gnfghsf Mtij L tif fUjuf jiy, jiy Fj
jftfS l bgw ntL.

176

fUjuf jftyif jgh _ynkh, mr _ynkh, myJ nenyh

gnfghsUF ca neu jugl ntL.
gnfghsf fLiuf jahJ mDtjF nghJkhd fhy mfgl
ntL.
mDggl

fLiufis

fUjuF

elJgtf

JiwtYefis

bfhL M brJ njbjLf ntL.

njbjLfgl fLiuahsfSF fUjuf eilbgW eh kW w
jftf FJ Kiwahf br mDg ntL. fUjuF FJ midtU ngR
tif brf midtUF ilf bra ntL. it gnfghsfl
fUju gnff ntL vw Mtij L.

2. fUjuif elJ Kiw

mKf: mKf eF lljhf, eilKiwgLJtjnfw a
bfhljhf mika ntL. jiyig mKfgLJj, mkfSfhd l
Fj jftyj, tuntw, mkf nehff Mad l bgw ntL.
fwYfhd l: fUjuf ff gnfghsfis xbthU
fY jhnk kdKtJ <LghnlhL, gnff L tif mikfgl
ntL.
fw: kfnshL gJ bfhs U br, kf fW bfhs
ntLbkd U br, mtiw mtf mJ bfhs ifahsUF cf
Madnt f mikgj mogil MF. fUjuf vgj sf,
fyJiuahl kW Muhj, gogoahf ll fw ftjfhd Tl,
fUju TwgL brf, nfgtf jfis Fl jiy TwgL
brfSnfg kh bfhtjh mika ntL.
Tl aFeuhf UJ bgW mDgt, jiy kW mJ bjhlghd
fj kW M bjhlghf nffgL dhf Mad ey khwij
fw xUikghil VgLJ. fUjuf mikghs g xU rlij, xU
bt tiuit, lij mikJ bfhLgjhF.
fUjuf mikghs g fUjuid fa Kiw vLJ
brW mjid KGik bgw brjny MF.
fw

btghLf:

gnfghsfl

dhf

dtj

_ykhf xU braghL jJ jiyF beUfkhf thj, fyJiuahLj

_ykhf fwiy btgLj thgf ntL. it, mk Fj cf
yid brwila Kojjh? vd kl cj. L xUKiw thfgl
Ka brfis vLJ TWtj _y bgw mit iyf itf Ko.

177

3. Fiwiw nehF kW kL
fUjuf eilbgw Kiw, fUju gnfghsf mQFKiw,
zUj fw yFf iwntwglit, fUjuf jiyF Vg
elj ff, ir Ua ff, vjghuhj ff Madtiw fU
bfhL fUjuf FJ kl ntL. J vfhy eilbgwUF
fUuid nkgl Kiw elj cj . vfhy fUjuf
mikghs fUjuif ela jidjhnd nfL bfhs ntoa
dhf.
fUjuF njbjLfgl jiy bghUjkhdjh? iyah? mJ vj
msF r_fgaDilajhf f gaDsjhf UjJ?

fUjuF Kdjhf nghoUj l nghJkhdjh?

mkf Fj l f rahf mikUjjh?

fUJfis TWj thj uoFilna rkiy fhzgljh?

midtU fUjuFf gnfwduh?

a mid bgw ahnuD cjdhuh?

fUjuf jiyig nghJkhd ms mKf brnjdh?

Kj braghL gnfghsfis jiynghL bragl cjajh?

mkf Ka jftf VnjDKlh?

tiw mLjKiw D khw iwjjhf vgoju aY?

dhf fUjuFfis elJt fUjuf mikghsUF Uj

bghWig rtu bragLaij cWgLj cj. fUjuF Koj d

gnfghs btgLJ fUJfns fUju btia vLJiuF.
ffis

kLtjnfJthd

ll

dhuiy

gagL

jftfis nrfJ klyh.

fUjuif ll ehUJ el Koj fil l tiu elj
ffis bfhL mif vGJnghJ wghd klhf J mik.
fUju Kndw rhghf llYF, eilKiwgLJtjF ilJs
jftf, gJiuf bra cj.

4.6

fUjuf jiyf
bjhlfg rhj fUjuf jiyf
1.

Ma xU jiyt

2.

tFgiw Ma khzt ilidf

3.

tFgiw fw fG j

178

4.

g rKjhagnf

5.

g nkyhik

6.

gf ebdf

7.

kL cf

8.

JizfU jahjY gagLJjY

9.

eyf

10.

khztf ilw, kW f V?

11.

zfkhd fF NH.

12.

bjhlf f juij caJj.

13.

khztf tsia ghF r_f bghUshjhu fhuf.

14.

gghL f.

15.

gF khztfis xGfhf tUif ju br Kiwf.

16.

g ju caj Mnyhridf.

Ma f rhj fUjuf jiyf

1.

gK g - ju nkgl

2.

gilg - ey gaju

3.

fw fj bjhlghd Mf

4.

fw fj a cf, fLof.

4.7 Koiu
fUjufK xU tif thj MF. nkY Maf jf mid
nkgL bfhs, RWtlhu VghL bragL fUjuFf jtwhJ gF
bfhs ntL. bgU tU bjh EgF Vg, f ju cau J nghw
fUjuFf gF bfhSj f mtakhwJ.

4.8 ghit f
1.

Methods and Techniques of Teaching - Sonali Publication.

2.

UPhd rgj, tuyhW fF Kiwf.

3.

iza js

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

http://timelives.ws
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/seminar
unionplus.educationplanner.com.
https://gsrep.dhs.gov.
www.cbs.curtin.edu.an
www.aeispeakers.com.
www.newi.ac.uk.
179

myF - V
fsgaz
(FIELD TRIP)
mKf
gaz vwhny kjfSF bgU kit juToaJ. kj j
yif mila bragL braf xW gaz MF. thif-glF vwh
gaz m nuhil nghwJ. gaz nghJ kj a mDgtf bgw
thsJ. gaz Fnfhf FLgF gF khWglit. g
gaz fwiy wgila br. ghl fs gaz vgj bghU, g
gaz nehff, gazij ll, bragLJj, brais Tw,
gaf g thf Muha cnsh.

myF TWf
5.1

fsgaz - yFf

5.2

fsgaz - bghU

5.3.

fsgaz - KaJt

5.4

fsgaz ghit lf

5.5

fsgaznj wgrf

5.6

fsgaz - tiff

5.7

fsgaz VghL brj.

5.8

bjhlg

5.9

Koiu

5.10

ghit f

180

181

kj thifna xU gaz thifahF. tuyhW lfis ghitLj

vgJ kjDF xU Kjju mDgtkhF. fsgaz tuyhW ghl fg
Ka gF twJ. FHijf cWneh, gy nff nfL, ghjtiw
id Tj _ykhf r_f, aif NHiy g mahtakhd brf kW
brKiw mDgtfis bgWwd. J fw gaz (Study tour) vW
miHfgLwJ.

5.1

fsgaz yFf

1.

fsgaz kW fwYF mogilahf fwJ.

2.

rKjha tsfis KGikahf gagLJj.

3.

jf mitl neuo cW nehf gafis mj.

4.

tuyhW ghl ff Mt bgWj.

5.

aifahf mikJs tuyhW w f lfis, eilbgw

ffis neuoahf flj.

6.

khzt tz Lj, gf, folfiy kW Xafis nefL

k bfhSj.

7.

a ybtnjhwfis ghitLj.
Mait fsgaz Ka yFf MF.

5.2

fsgaz bghU
fsgaz vgJ Wbjhiygazij FF. gaz vwhny R

j vw vz tU. gaz KojJ cs k jU. R j

vgJ d RWyh (Excursions) vdglJ. fsgaz kjF k juToaJ.
nkY xU bghGJ nghfhf, neuo mDgt mit ju tyjhf mikwJ.

5.3

fsgaz - KaJt

1.

fsgaz csF, clYF kia mF.

2.

fsgaz _y khztf tuyhW cikfis fhyfis,

lfis bjthf vjhf czuyh.

2.

aif NHnyhL neuo bjhl kW mDgt VgLwJ.

3.

khzt eh gonj vgijl eh ghnj vw fw mDgt csJ.

4.

Ma - khzt kW khzt - khzt eYwit tsF.

5.

ntWghL mw iy, TLw kdghik, go jik, kwyh

gtiy g w F.

182

5.4
1.

fsgaz ghit lf
brid

bghUfh rhiy, khefuh brayf, mUfhaf,

cfh rhiy, nfhsuf, flfiu.

2.

ffhy fyiz, Kbfh, kiynfhil, $uf.

3.

kfhgu

xiwf grghlt ujf, flfiu nfhf.

4.

jrh

uftu Mya, rut kAh, yf.

5.

kJiu

Ukiy ehaf kAh, dh mk nfh.

6.

br

brnfhil.

7.

uhnktu

uhkehjrh nfh kW w.

8.

Fwhy

mUf, kiyfhf, nfhf.

9.

fahFk

Kfl rfF l, UtSt iy, ntfhdj

ghiw.

10.

Jnfhil

jdthr Xaf.

nkY cS tsfis Fahf fs gaz thyhf ghitl (c.jh)

uha bjhf, muR mYtyff, Foir bjhf, ifid bghUf,
bjhrhiyf, kUJtkidf, nfhf, fhf, mizfLf Kjad.

5.5 fsgaz nj wgrf

1.

tFgiw fyJiuahl brj ghljiyF Vg bjhlilajhf gaz

Uf ntL.

2.

tFgiw fw mDgtij l ghl rgjkhf neuo mDgt jUtjhf mikj.

3.

fsgaz lLnghJ f Fiwj u gazijna njbjLj.

4.

bgnwhf kW jiyik Ma KG xjnyhL gaz bragl.

5.

mf gz bry yhUj.

5.6

fsgaz - tiff

1.

cq g gaz

2.

rKjha gaz

3.

RWyh

4.

fgid gaz

5.

gF ghit

6.

j gaz Kjad

183

5.7

fsgaz VghL brj

KGikahd fsgaz goiyf tUkhW.
1. rahd lij nj brj, 2. fsgaz w yFfis tiuaWj,

3. gaz nghJ clDFl fG ffis ll, 4. K mDk bgWj,

5. gaz bryfis tiuaWj, 6. gazdh mfgr gafis bgw
khztfis jah brj, 7. neahdjhf fs gaz Uj, 8. bjhl g
braf bjhFj nghwitahF.
fsgaz rtu llgliy v neu, gz bry FtnjhL
FHg Ko UF. tF Ma nkghit khztf midtU
xWikahf bragl loUj mta.

llY bragLJjY

fsgaz wgLtjF Kghfnt khztf FGfshf fgoUj

ntL.

khztfSF Jizahf Ma afgoUj ntL.

brtjF thfd tr VghL brj.

ghit l jF trf VghL Kghfnt brUj.

xU W rnjfF lyhJ l lgoUj.

ghit lf g gufis khztfSF mj.

ghitnghnj khztf jf Ffis vLJ bfhSkhW TWj.

tF khztf FGfshf J ggy bghWfis bgW fsgl

bjhlilajhf Uj ntL. gaz lf glf kW nghnlh ef

nrfJ itj ntL. jiyik khzt flisF khzt xWikahf gJ
bragLj mta MF. fsgaz Kiwahf lL bragLdh tuyhW
fj e gf ezf uia r br vg Iaiy.

5.8 bjhl g
xbthU khztD fsgaz ga Mtz jah brj ntL.
midJ

khztf

mifid

xW

nrJ

xUikgL

Ma

fUjuf, FG fyJiuahl kW dho dh ff fJth. d j

thyhf bgw m braghLfis bjhFgh. fUJf d sf
glfshf, tiuglfshf, nghnlh ef to g ML kyf l
bgWj ntL.

184

5.9

Koiu
jifa braKiw mDgtfis, a idfis mF

fsgazkhdJ fw fj xU Ka gF twJ. r_f ma vgJ

xU r_fijnah, aif NHiynah cslajh mjid mDgt ahf ghJ
czj kW mj vgJ f bghUjjf Toad. J xU jukhd neuo
mDgtij

nehfkhf

bfhlJ.

neuo

mDgtdh

ahj

fod

ghlgFfS Tl va ghlgFfshf khztfSF mikwJ.

khztf xbthUtUnk MfK, CfK bgWwd. nkY mtfilna xU
zfkhd NHY, xWik tsf ttif brwJ. Ma - khzt cw
Kiw nkgL, ikahd fwYF ttFwJ. nkY khztfilna
`cWneh, fl w tsF xU Clfkhf `fsgazf mikwd.
fsgaz btna, mj bjhlgahd fsgaz mifjh csJ.
jgo

khztf

ghlbghUnshL

jhf

bjhlgL

fsgaz
jFj

cWneh

MjhufnshL,

fljij

ifglfnshL

mifia rkJ iyahd fw mDgtij bgWwd. vdnt Maf

fw w gFnfwthW fsgazij mikj mtakhwJ.

5. 10 ghit f
1.

Ghate. V.D., The Teaching of History, Oxford Univ. Press. Bombay (1961).

2.

Ghose. K.D., Creative Teaching of History.

3.

Kochhar. S.K. The Teaching of Social Studies, Sterling Publisher pvt. Ltd. New Delhi,
(1984).

4.

Kohli. A.S. Teaching of Social Studies, Anmol pub. pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, (1996).

5.

Salim Basha, S.A. & Digumarti Bhaskara Rao, Methods of teaching Geography.

6.

Teaching of History in primary schools, NCERT, New Delhi (1970).

7.

Yajnik. K.S. Teaching of Social Studies in India, Orient Longmans Ltd. Bombay (1966).

185

myF - VI
bra t fw Kiw
(ACTIVITY BASED LEARNING)
mKf
`eh

vts

fnjh

vgJ

Kaky.

fj

vts

khztfis brwiljJ vgJjh Ka.

fj Kiwf ehSF eh ts bgW tUwd. Ma ika
f, FHij ikaf, kW f, W, brat f. jeho
bgUghikahd bjhlf gf gtF fj NHny csJ. xWF
nkgl tFfis X Ma ifahS nghJ, midJ tFfis X Ma
ifahSnghJ, midJ FHijflK KG fwiy cUthl bra tfw
cjwJ. khztf `fnw vW brhYtijl mDgtij bgnw` vW
TWtJ jh cikahd fahF vd #h^ TWwh.
khztf jukhd f bgw, mtut ntf jil ff, jhnd
fw, FGthf mkJ ff, rf khzt cjnahL fw KGikahf eilbgw
xW Kj ehF tFf tiu brat fw jHf midJ bjhlf
gfY eilKiwgLjgLsJ. r_f ma fj jid ifahS
tKiwfis bjJ bfhnth.

myFTWf
6.1

brat fw mQFKiwf

6.2

tF thf

6.3

FG milfS, FGfS

6.4

r_a (3 kW 4 tFf)

6.5

fhyiy mj

6.6

Mnuha rfu

6.7

dr braghLf

6.8

kj cl

6.9

Koiu

6.10

ghit f

186

fw braf
t.

myF

v.

TWf

1.

tHf g L

nj i t g L

brKiw

jftf

tuf nrF l
kw
g
lf

bra

xgil -

ltr kl

tfw

brat

fUgyiff

- tF

fw tF

fgj

bghGJ

thf

thf

milfis

gUJ

ghJfhj

jfhd

jftfis
nrff
ntL
2.

brat

fw

1. FGf

fw

milf -

mikfgL

FGfS

xgil

mogil TWf

bghGJ

2. FpLfS

gUJ

mt

jfhd

sffS

jftfis

FpLfS

nrff
ntL
3.

FpLfS 10 fw

fw milf

mt

milf

(Ka FpLf

sfK

III = 5

cs tuyhW)

bghGJ

fw

IV = 5

gUJ

milf

- xgil

jfhd
jftfis
nrff
ntL

bratfw Kiwia mJ bfhs

1.

fw bra milf

2.

Vgof

3.

FG mikF Kiw

4.

tFgiw thf

FJ bjJ bfhs ntL.

187

6.1

bratfw mQFKiwf

1.

jnghJ eilKiw cs ghll vj khwK iy.

2.

w gFf / wf W W cgFfshf fgL mitf fw

gofshf mikfgLsJ.

3.

xbthU fw gofSF gytif fw braghLf mikfgLsJ.

4.

midJ fw gofS rngh izJ fhlgLsJ. jF fw

Vgo vW bga. xbthU ghlF jjahf fw Vgo
mikfgLsJ.

5.

xbthU fw goY tUkhW braghLf mikf ntL.

(i).

w tsfhd bjhlfiy braghLf

(ii).

mKfgLjgl wDfhd tYl braghLf

(iii). tiw rhj g braghLf

(iv). kL braghLf
(v).

FiwF braghLf

(vi). ts bgUF braghLf

(vii). wf rhj fw milf
(viii). gtF fj Kiwnfg ff cj FG milf
(ix). FHij milfis g bra wdil goa.

6.2

tF thf
bratfw tFf rhjhuz tFfisl rW TLj ftdJl

mikf ntL.
m. l: tFgiw khztf Rjukhf bragl ngha l ntL.
khztf Maf cfhu ghf nghJkhdjhf Uf ntL. vdnt
kugyiff, ehfhf, nkirf nghwtiw mwgLj ntL.
M. kl fUgyiff: tFgiw Rtf khztf gagLJ
cauF fUgyif mikf ntL. fUgyif vGgHf, xbthU
khztUF Fl ms l xJfgl ntL.

khztfSF xJfgl

lf mjj khztf mkJ ghlfis gfis vGgHFt.

Ma xU FG ftd brYJ nghJ kw FG cs khztf Fiwj
cau fUgyifia gagLjyh.

188

. fgj: tFgiwD Ma jiy jlhj cauF

bka ffis bfhL gj xW mikf ntL. fgj
khztf gilfis, tz o tiujtiw, nrfJ mitfis mtut
bgafSl bjhf l ntL. a gilf cUthFnghJ giHa gilfis
mf ghJfhghf itf ntL.
<. milfis ghJfhj: fw milfis mt FpLfSF Vg
jj bgof (Tray) itl ntL. xbthU bgo KwK m
itfgL mil FpLfis (Logo) bga ms xl ntL. khztf
FpLfis ghJ m cs milfis bj brt.
xbthU bgoY ehF tFfSfhd rk FpL ( Same Logo)
milf mL itfgoUF. khztf Vgo j iyfis FpL
ghJ milfis nj bra ntL.
mil tzfis gagL khztf mj mil vj
tFF caJ vd khf ntL.

6.3

tF

tz

KjtF

fUt

ulh tF

gir

_wh tF

ehfh tF

kr

FG milfS, FGfS
KjKj g nrfgL khztf midJ ghlfY Kj

FG jh mkuntL. F xbthU ghl mogil jikf

sfgL.

FG

khztfis

Vgo

Kiw

fl

jahgLJ.

FGjh cgfuzbgo csJ. midJ FpLfS mla

glmilf csJ. khztf FpLfis Jbfhs g mf ntL.

6.3.1

FG milf
bghJthf bratfw MW FGf csd. j MW FGfSF

MW milf cL. j milfis FGmilf vg. xbthU milY

mFG

lbgW

midJ

FpLf

glfS,

FG

vQ

mlgoUF.
Kj uL FGf KGtJ Ma rhjit. _whtJ FG J
Ma rhjJ. ehfhtJ FG rf khzt cjl bragLj ntoaJ.
IjhtJ FG rf khzt J cjl bragLj ntL. MwhtJ FG jhnd
fw FGthF. jhnd fw kW kL braghLfS csd.

189

y thuf khztf xwhf UJ Niya mogilfis bjj

dnu FGjiy bragLj ntL.

6.3.2 FGj mta

fw fj VgL Rikfis Fiwf, fhyuaij jf,
khztf

bfhs

JiztjF

FG

mta.

ghlFpLf y Maf cj J bfhs ayhJ. kW y, rf

khztf Jizl J bfhS gFahf csd. ygFf, ahUila
cj yhk jhnd fW bfhs Toa gFfshf csd. ghl gFfis
mt jiknfg bjLJ xnu jikiladtiw vyh xnu bjhF
nrJ FGf cUthfgl ntL.

6.3.3 khztf FG bragl ntoa

mik

Kj khztfSF Vgo mikfis sfntL. xbthU

goiyY cs FpLfSFa braghLfis mnj tir brJ Kof Kay
ntL. xU Fpoid bragLJ nghJ mFpL MW FG milf vj
FG csJ vgij flJ mFGF mkhzt bry ntL. Mug
iy khztf rahd FGF bry MaU rf khztU cjl ntL.
bjhlJ g nkbfhS nghJ khztf Vgof cs FpLfis
ghJ mLJ jhf bry ntoa FGid bjJ bfhs ntL.

6.3.4 milfis vLjY, itjY

Vgoia ghJ jh ffntoa milia khztf bjJ
bfht. khztf K goJ Koj milfis, gof

ntoa

milfis bjJ itUf ntL. FpLfS, vfS rahf bjj

dnu mil bgof UJ rahd milfis vLl aY. milia
vLjJ mjFa FGF brW Kiwahf fwJ, L vLj l tir
vgo milfis itl khztfSF g ml ntL.

6.3.5 FG isahLf
Vgof gy FG isahLfS, bghkyhl nghw braghLfS
bfhLfgoUF. braghLfis midJ khztfis xwhf To
bragLjyh. braghLf KojJ khztf mtut FGfSF brl
ntL.

6.3.6 fhyiy mltiz

braghil khztf FGfshfjh brantL. khztf
tFgiwia L btna brW fhyiyia fhz ntL. dK fhiy, khiy
U ntisfY Fj ntL.

190

6.3.7 khztf mil mltiz

xU KG fhj ilkl FpLfS, nkUJ Hhf tir vQ
khztf bgafS bfhLfgoUF. xU Fpo cs braghil vj
eh bjhl vj eh Koj vd Ff ntL.
khzt mil bjhF mltiz khztf bgafS, FpLfS
30 W flfshf fgoUF. xbthU a flY xU ikf
cs mFpil KoJ mkhzt vLJ bfhl ehfis Ff
ntL.
bjhF mltiz khztf xU wid Kof vLJ bfhl
ehfis ma, mtf mwid msl cj.

6.4 r_fa (3 & 4 tFf)

6.4.1 FG j
r_fa IJ FGfshf khztf fgLt. Kj uL
FGfS Maiu KGtJ rhj FGf vW, _whtJ FG J Maiu
rhj FG vW, ehfhtJ FG J rf khztfis rhj FGthf, IjhtJ
FG KGtJ Ra rh FGthf fgl ntL.

6.4.2 FGfS FpLfS

r_fa IJ FGf csd. Kj FG th, bkGFt, Myku
Ma _W FpLf csd. ulhtJ FG mf sF, fhkh sF,
FJsF Ma _W FpLf csd. _whtJ FG bghkyhl,
bgnuhkh sF, sF, vW jfzho Ma ehF FpLf
csd. ehfhtJ FG uhjsF, bjU sF, bg, ghljf Ma
ehF FpLf csd. IjhtJ FG lh sF, FL g Ma uL
FpLf csd.

6.4.3 FpLfS mt sfK

bghJthd FpLf
1. th (ghl)
FplhdJ

wid

mogilahf

bfhl

ghlfis

FF.

Vgo (0+7) vL ik f kLnk FpL tU. ghliy uhfJl fW

bfhLjh khztf fw <LghL mfF. kd iyJ F.

191

2. Myku (isahL)
isahil FF FpL wid rhnj csJ. isahil
khztf FGthf Ma Kiy isahl ntL. FpL Vgo
(0+9) 10 MtJ ikf tUwJ.

3. bghkyhl
iuF dh x cjah bghikfis MlitF Mlnk
bghkyhl. gila fhyUJ uhzfijfis, u u ru
fijfis ghkuU tif fiy gagLjgLsJ. gy tiff
csd. Uff njh UJ vLfgL rid cyuitJ, gjgL
fijF Vw glf tiuJ tzf o j cUtf H totfis
iu fhLtJ bghkyhl xU tifahF.
mil Jf, be (sho) Kja bghUfsh cUt bghikfis
brJ mtiw Ff bghU iuF dh fho fijfis sFtJ,
jnghJ eh ekJ ghlgF gagLjgL tifahF. Vgo 2MtJ ik
f FpL tUwJ.

4. bg
FpL cUtfis tiua, fis izJ tz l,
tiugl tz o lfis fla cjwJ. khztf
fgid ifwid tsf Toa tif J mikfgLsJ. khztf
g Vo Fl bg d gid bra ntL. FpL
Vgo (0+14) 15 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

5. ghljf
bfhLfgLs ghljf gf vfis bfhL ghl gid
bra ntL. FpL Vgo 14 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

6. vW, jfzho
fsgazij FF FpL wid rhnj mikfgLsJ.
ghlgF mJ bfhl fUJfis neuoahf mDgJ czJ bfhL
jftfis ul fs gaz cj tif mika ntL. FpL
Vgo 5MtJ ik f tUwJ.

192

r_fa FpLf
7. mf sF (fij)
fij nff Mt yhj FHijfns iy vdyh. vdnt va fij
thyhf w sfgLsJ. fijahdJ Vw wfJl khztf
Mtij L tif cnuhlkhf brhy ntL. fij milfis
khztf thf bfhLfyh. jdh thw g VgLwJ.
FpL Vgo (0+7) 8 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

8. bkGFt (ciuahl)
xUtUbfhUt j fUJfis ciuahl thyhf sf Ko.
ciuahl _ykhf ftj, ngRj nghw wf tswd. wid rhj
ciuahl csJ. U khztf, ciuahl milfis itJ, thJ, ciuahl
ntL. J Ma nkghit eilbgw ntL. FpL Vgo
(0+9) 10 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

9. FJsF (glK dh)

ghl ghlbghUis khztf eF czuToa Fplhf FJ sF
mikwJ. wid rhj glf, nff vw U gFf cL. vyh
khztfS thj gF bgw thgf ntL. Maf va
dhfis nffyh. FpL Vgo 14 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

10. fhkh sF (goJ gh)

khztfSF ghlbghUis L tWj gF mikJsJ. nkY
thj khztf g bgw FpL cjwJ. FpL Vgo
14 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

11. uhj sF (v a ah)

e jh U eho muayik, aif tsf, bghUshjhu ts,
kfbjhif, f ts, ntshik, isahL, nghFtuJ nghw midJ
Jiwfis ga Ka y jftf nj J nghy tHfgLs gF v a
ahthF.

ghlgF

kL

myhk

nkbfhL

jftf

khztfSF bghJ mit tsF tif brfshf tHfgLsd.

FpL Vgo (0+14) 15 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

12. bgnuhkh sF (ehlf)

fUJfis ehlf tH tHFt cs eikf eh mj xwhF.
mtifny khztfis bfhL ghlgFia ehlfkhf fjgL nghJ

193

midJ khztfS gF bgWwhf. eo, ngR, nfl, cW nehf nghw

midJ wfS xUnf tsu thgfgLwJ. jhnd gnfW, yFf,
gwitf nghW ntl VW eogjh kW fw F eilbgWwJ. FpL
Vgo 2 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

13. sF (YghL)
eKila ghuga uha fiyf xwhd YghL kdF
ikahd, vikahd fiyf xwhF. fodkhd fUJfis Tl f
yFthf mJ bfhs brtJ YghlhF. mtznk wid khztf
Fpo _y mJ bfhwd. FpL Vgo xnu xU ik f
tUwJ.

14. bjU sF (nrfj)

khztf jftfis, bghUfis uo tUjny nrfj MF. wid
rhj jftfis bghUfis nrfJ tJ mjbfd bfhLfgLs
bjhF VLf jftfis vG, glfis xo, itf ntL. j _y
khztfSF ghlgF myhk bghJ af neuo mDgt ilwJ.
FpL Vgo 14 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

15. lh sF (kL)
xbthU ik fY khztf wdilit fl gFahf
FpL mikJsJ. j _y khztf jf juij mtnjhL
kLyhk mLj ik fiy Jtf jfis jahgL bfhwd.
FpL Vgo 14 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

16. FL g (nj mil)

FpL njfis FF. fhyhL, miuahL, KGML vW
_W nj iyfis FF tif J csJ. Jnt fil FpL MF.
nj milf khztf bgW kbgfis bghWJ khztf nj
mik. FpL Vgo 3 MtJ ik f tUwJ.

6.5

fhyiy mj

6.5.1 Na, nkf gh kiwj Na

FpL fhyiy FplhF. FpL Vgo fhlglhlhY
dK braglntoa FplhF. khztf FGfshf myJ jahf
Fpo

braghLfis

bra

ntL.

gbdhW

fhyiy

FpLfS, fhynfw milfis FF xU Fpil, Mf bkhj 12

glfis bfhl FpLfis cslad. xbthU glK xU sfij
bfhljhF.

194

v fhyiy

ghl

sf

1.

Na

mf bt

2.

nkf gh kiwj Na

Rkhuhd bt

3.

nkf

kjhu

4.

kiH Fil

js kiH

5.

L kiH

mf ms kiH

6.

dY kiH

odYl kiH

7.

thd

th thd njhWj

8.

gwF gl

js fhW

9.

kufS rhj kufS

kufis rhF ms fhW (a)

10.

RUoa fgs

jkhd F

11.

beU

12.

Milf
ga

nfhilfhy Mil (gU)

fLF fhy Mil

(fg)

ju (gU, gL)
fhiy

Hikf

egf

khiy

f
brth
j
ahH
bt
r
PhW

6.5.2

mltizia

gagLJ

Kiw:

thu VG ehfY j

mltizia ug ntL. LKiw ehf khztfl bghWig bfhLJ

lh, mtf njitahd jftfSl gF tUthf. g
mltizia brayh.

195

tlizia g dK ug ntL. fhiy, egf kW khiy

gL neu khztfsh bragl ntL. vj eh, vj neu
vjifa fhyiy csnjh mij FF glid mfl tiuantL.
(v.fh.) f, egf Na bjahj msF nkf_lkhf Ujh
_whtJ gl cs nkf_lij fhL glid f egfYF ca
fl ugyh.
khztf FGthf bragL mltizia ug ntL. xU Fl
neu fhW bfhoUjh mJ vjifa fhW? jkhd fhwh? myJ
kufis ntUl rhF msF gykhd fhwh? vW khztf thJ
KobtLJ mltizia ug ntL.
khj xU Kiw fhyiy FJ MaU khztfS thf ntL.
mkhj vW, vbghGJ mf kiH bgjJ? vbghGJ mf ms fhW aJ?
vjid eh j btgkhf UjJ? nghw dhfSF khztf fhyiy
mltizia ghJ g bjf ntL.
Fl khj gidF tU gHf ahit? f ahit? fhf
ahit? nghw dhfis nffyh. Fl fhy ma ntoa Milf
g thfyh.

6.6 Mnuha rfu

xnu xU milkL fofhu mikUF. J Niya
V fhlglhlhY dK gagLj ntoa braghlhF.
fofhu mik xU tlF xgJ glf tiuagoUF. xbthU
glK xU cl ey braghil FF. xbthU glij bjhL
tif K xW mikfgoUF.
glf

sff

jiyKo

vbz njJ jiyth Rjkhf UfntL.

_F

_F Rjkhf toahkY Uf ntL.

dK JyfgL,

ikahf

fhfglntL.

Jyfhk cz czTlhJ.
Kf fGj

cliy ikahf itJ bfhs ntL. bkikahd

nrhdh cliy fGdh, cl goJs cf
clUJ njitaw thrid tuhk fhfyh.

196

fgiw

fhiy - khiy U ntisf ky fF gHf VglntL.

ky ff fgiwiajh gagLj ntL. fl fl
lf ky fgJ Rfhjhu nfil VgLJ.

JKj

JKnghJ, UKnghJ ifJlh Kfij _obfhs

ntL. mthW brahlh JKnghJ myJ UKnghJ
_F kW th tahf btnaW kW fhW kwtf
J myJ czbghUf J gl VJthF. jdh neh
Uf gutyh.

ifuf

eff Rjkhf Uf ntL. msF mfkhf tsU

efid btol ntL. efmGF nruhk ghJ
bfhs ntL.

khztf dK Rjkhf, Mnuhakhf tu ntL. VjhtJ

Fiwl tjh mij mt kL mJ t brJ bfhs FpL cj.
(v.fh.)tF xU khzt rahf jiythbfhL tuiy vwh,
Ma midJ khztfis fiz _l brhy ntL. Mnuha
rfu K RWwJ vW TL jiy thuhk cs khztid kL bjhL
Mnuha rfu K F lij fhl ntL. Mnuha rfu
KjiygFia

fho

bfhoUF.

Rofhlgl

khzt

clnd

jiythbfhs ntL. mkhzt L mtlF tj midJ

khztfS ffis wf ntL. J nghy Ma, ftj Fiwfis
khztfSF jjahf Rofho Uj ntL. d bghJthf, jh
ftj Fiwfis, khztfSF bjJ, mFiwfis vthW f ntL
vgJ g khztfSF nf g _y bjagLj ntL.

6.7

dr braghLf: ()

6.7.1

nfh Tj - vGJj: gbdhU glf bfhl j braghLf jha

mil Vgo tuhk UjhY midtU mUf ntoabjhwhF.

braghLf tiria khztf ma ntL. gbdhU braghLfS
jj

milf

tiuagoUF.

tiw

Fayhf

khztfl

bfhLfntL. mtf vj braghoF d vj braghL tuntL

vgij thJ tirahf mLf ntL. milfis J mLf
ntoUgjh jid dr vW miHfyh. braghLfis kh
kh brjh vdthF vgij khztfSl Ma thf ntL.
rahd tir mLa khztfis jf mwhl braghLfis j
tirf mLf CfgLj ntL.

197

1.

nfh Tj

2.

khztf vGJj

3.

ftiw brYj

4.

g njj

5.

Fj

6.

rhLj

7.

g bry

8.

isahLj

9.

Fj

10.

ghl goj

11.

rhLj

12.

kj cl
kj cl FpL Vgo tuiy vwhY midJ khztfS
mUf ntoa FplhF. xU sho myJ mil kj cUt
btlgoUF.

btlgl

ghff

jjahf

UF.

khztF

clYWf bgafis mJ bfhs, mtiw ca lf bghUj

njitahd wid FpL _y bgWwhf. nkY khztf jfSFnsna
cUtUJ vLfgl

clYWig fho bga nfgjF mtiw ca

lf bghU isahLtjF KgLt.

r_fa gagLjgLs FpLf

3- tF kW 4- tF
t.v.

cUt

cUt bga

brghL

III

IV

1.

th

ghl

2.

mf

fij

3.

FJ sF

glK, dh

14

15

4.

bkGFt

ciuahl

5.

fhkh sF

goJgh

14

15

6.

Myku

isahL

10

16

7.

uhj sF

v a ah

15

15

8.

bghkyhl

bghkyhl

198

9.

bgnuhkh sF

10.

sF

11.

bg

ehlf

YghL

tzLj

15

20

tiuj,

12.

ghljf

ghlg

14

15

13.

vW jfzho

fsgaz

14.

bjUsF

nrfj

15

15.

myh mjsF

braghLf

17

16.

nkir sF

brJgh

10

17.

lh iy

kL

14

15

18.

FL g

nj mil

6.9 Koiu
brat fwKiw fj a Ka. gtF fj Fj
jHf jukhd fia cUthF l. midJ khztf j ju czJ
iuthf, KGikahf fW bfhs cjwJ. FHijf jhnk KaW fgjh
jdif tswJ. khztf Uw midJ fj KiwfS
l mikJsd. khztf gilghw, TJ nehF w ts
bgWwJ. bratfwiy KGikahf J gagLJnth. fyhikia yhik
MFnth.

6.10 ghit f
midtUF f aff (SSA) - bra t fw - ifnaL.

199