1.

(Introduction to Abstract Algebra)

-
2.(Tensor Analysis)
-
3.(Orthogonal Function Expansion)
-
4.(Greens Function)
-
5.(Calculus of Variation)
-
6.(Integral equations)
N968201
()-()







Office hour: by appointment
Phone : 06-2757575 ext. 63348 () 06-2757575 ext. 50201
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Office hour: Tuesday 14-15, Wednesday 15-16 or by appointment.
Phone: 06-2757575 ext63140
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Teaching assistant office phone: ext. 63109-9250

Reference:
1. Birkhoff, G., MacLane, S., A Survey of Modern Algebra, 2nd ed, The Macmillan Co, New York, 1975.

2. , -, , 1989.

3. Arangno, D. C., Schaums Outline of Theory and Problems of Abstract Algebra, McGraw-Hill Inc, 1999.

4. Deskins, W. E., Abstract Algebra, The Macmillan Co, New York, 1964.

5. ONan, M., Enderton, H., Linear Algebra, 3rd ed, Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Inc, 1990.

6. Hoffman, K., Kunze, R., Linear Algebra, 2nd ed, The Southeast Book Co, New Jersey, 1971.

7. McCoy, N. H., Fundamentals of Abstract Algebra, expanded version, Allyn & Bacon Inc, Boston, 1972.

8. Hildebrand, F. B., Methods of Applied Mathematics, 2nd ed, Prentice-Hall Inc, New Jersey, 1972..

9. Burton, D. M., An Introduction to Abstract Mathematical Systems, Addison-Wesley, Massachusetts, 1965.

10. Grossman, S. I., Derrick, W. R., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Happer & Row, 1988.

11. Hilbert, D., Courant, R., Methods of Mathematical Physics, vol(1), , , .

12. Jeffrey, A., Advanced Engineering Mathematics, Harcourt, 2002.

13. Arfken, G. B., Weber, H. J., Mathematical Methods for Physicists, 5th ed, Harcourt, 2001.

14. Morse, F. B., Morse, F. H., Feshbach, H., Methods of Theoretical Physics, McGraw-Hill College, 1953
David Hilbert
Born January 23, 1862 Wehlau, East Prussia
Died February 14, 1943 Gttingen, Germany
Residence Germany
Nationality German
Field Mathematician
Erds Number 4
Institution University of Knigsberg and Gttingen University
Alma Mater University of Knigsberg
Doctoral Advisor Ferdinand von Lindemann
Doctoral Students Otto Blumenthal
Richard Courant
Max Dehn
Erich Hecke
Hellmuth Kneser
Robert Knig
Erhard Schmidt
Hugo Steinhaus
Emanuel Lasker
Hermann Weyl
Ernst Zermelo
Known for Hilbert's basis theorem
Hilbert's axioms
Hilbert's problems
Hilbert's program
Einstein-Hilbert action
Hilbert space
Societies Foreign member of the Royal Society
Spouse Kthe Jerosch (1864-1945, m. 1892)
Children Franz Hilbert (1893-1969)
Handedness Right handed
The finiteness theorem

Axiomatization of geometry

The 23 Problems

Formalism

~ from Wikipedia
Philip M. Morse
Operations research is an
applied science utilizing all known
scientific techniques as tools in
solving a specific problem.
Founding ORSA President (1952)

B.S. Physics, 1926, Case Institute;
Ph.D. Physics, 1929, Princeton
University.

Faculty member at MIT, 1931-1969.
Methods of Operations Research
Queues, Inventories, and Maintenance
Library Effectiveness
Quantum Mechanics
Methods of Theoretical Physics
Vibration and Sound
Theoretical Acoustics
Thermal Physics
Handbook of Mathematical Functions, with Formulas,
Graphs, and Mathematical Tables
Francis B. Hildebrand
George Arfken
Introduction to Abstract Algebra

Preliminary notions
Systems with a single operation
Mathematical systems with two operations
Matrix theory: an algebraic view




( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) R V R R R , , , , , , , - + - +

e a a a a = + = +
1 1
( ) - , R
+ -
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) a c a b a c b
c a b a c b a
- + - = - +
- + - = + -







( )
( ) c b a
c b a
+ +
= + +

a b b a + = +

( ) + , V
( ) R V
=


( ) + , R
( ) - +, , R

a a e e a = + = +
( ) ), , , ( ), , ( - + + R V

e a a a a R a R a
-1 -1 1
= + = + e - e

a a e e a R e R a = + = + e - e
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a, + + = + + e
R b a R b a, e + e
groupoid
semigroup
monoid
group
a b b a
R b a,
+ = +
e
e a a a a R a R a
-1 -1 1
= + = + e - e

a a e e a R e R a = + = + e - e
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a, + + = + + e
R b a R b a, e + e
Commutative groupoid
Commutative semigroup
Commutative monoid
Commutative group
commutability
Ex1 . Consider the operation defined on the set S= {1,2,3}
by the operation table below.


From the table, we see



2 (1 3)=2 3=2 but (2 1) 3=3 3=1
The associative law fails to hold in this groupoid(S, )

2



1



3

*
1 2 3
1



2



3

1



3



2

3



2



1

-
- - - - - -
-
Ex2. Both the semigroups and are instances of
monoids

for each
The empty set is the identity element for the union
operation.
for each
The universal set is the identity element for the
intersection operation.
) , (S
U
) , (S
U

A A A = =
U A_
A A U U A = = U A_
Ex.
LetS,*be a commutative semigroup.
If a, b, c S, show that a*(b*c)=c*(b*a)


a*(b*c)=(a*b)*c ()
=c*(b*a)()
e
Ex3. If the operation * is defined on S by a* b =
max{ a, b },that is a * b is the larger of the elements
a and b, or either one if a=b.

a *(b * c) = max{ a, b, c } = (a * b) *c

that shows (S, *) to be a semigroup
S bc) (ad bd) (ac ) d (c ) b (a Z a,b,c,d e + + + = + - + e 2 2 2 2
| | | | ) f (e ) d (c ) b (a ) f (e ) d (c ) b (a 2 2 2 2 2 2 + - + - + = + - + - +
Z} b a, | 2 b {a S e + =
-
Z f e, d, c, b, a, e
2 0 1 1 + =
) 2 b (a ) 2 d (c ) 2 d (c ) 2 b (a + - + = + - +
Z d c, b, a, e
) (S,-
Ex4. consider the set of number and the
operation of ordinary multiplication, and Z represents
integer.
1. Closure:

2. Associate property


3. Identity element

4. Commutative property

is a commutative monoid.
) (R,-
semigroup
groupoid
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
R b a,
- - = - -
e -
e
semigroup
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
0 a a a a R a R a
a a 0 0 a R 0 R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
R c b, a,
- + - = - +
- + - = + -
e
) (R,+
commutative group
) , (R, - + ring
Distributive laws
systemoperation+
+
ring (R,+,)commutative group (R,+)
additive groupsemigroup (R,)multiplicative semigroup(R.+)
(identity element)0zero element
(inverse)-aaR
Ex5 .(Thm3-2) Let (R,+,) be a ring and
Then (ab) = a(-b) = (-a)b
Proof.

b+(-b)=0 addition inverse
ab + a(-b) = a( b + (-b) ) = a0 = 0 left distributive law
-(ab) = a(-b)
similarly (ab) = (-a)b.
R b a, e

) (R,-
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
a a 1 1 a R, 1
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
R b a,
= - = - e -
- - = - -
e -
e
monoid
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
0 a a a a R a R a
a a 0 0 a R 0 R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
R c b, a,
- + - = - +
- + - = + -
e
) (R,+
commutative group
) , (R, - +
monoid ring
Distributive laws
) (R,-
semigroup
groupoid
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
R b a,
- - = - -
e -
e
semigroup
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
0 a a a a R a R a
a a 0 0 a R 0 R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
R c b, a,
- + - = - +
- + - = + -
e
) (R,+
commutative group
) , (R, - +
ring
Distributive laws
commutative ring
a b b a R b R a - = - e e ,
group
1 - 1 - 1
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
0 a a a a R a R a
a a 0 0 a R 0 R a
c b) (a c) (b a R c b, a,
R b a R b a,
a b b a R b a,
= + = + e - e
= + = + e - e
+ + = + + e
e + e
+ = + e

a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
R c b, a,
- + - = - +
- + - = + -
e
) (R,+
commutative group
) , (R, - +
ring
Distributive laws
commutative monoid ring
a b b a R R,b a - = - e e
) (R,-
monoid
semigroup
groupoid
a a 1 1 a R, 1
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
R b a,
= - = - e -
- - = - -
e -
e
monoid
0
0 0
1 1 1
= + = + e - e
= + = +
+ + = + +
e +
+ = + e

a a a a R a R a
a a a
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
a b b a R a,b,c
- -
c a b a c) (b a F a,b, c - + - = + - e
) , (F, - +
) (F,+
{ } ) , (F- - 0
Field
1
1 1
1 1 1
= - = - e - e
= - = -
- - = - -
e -
- = - e

a a a a R a R a
a a a
c b) (a c) (b a
R b a
a b b a R a,b,c
- -
Commutative group
Commutative group
1
1 1
1 1 1
= + = + e - e
= + = +
+ + = + +
e +
+ = + e

a a a a V a V a
a a a
c b) (a c) (b a
V b a
a b b a V a,b,c
- -
Vector Space
Commutative group
V(F) ) ), , ),(F, ((V,
or
+
) (V,+
Element are called vector
(vector :a mathematic quantity having both
magnitude and direction)

= = e -
= = e -
=
=
=
e
= = e -
= = e -
=
e
= e
e a a a a F a
a a e e a F e
a) (c a) (b a c) (b
c) (a b) (a c) (b a
c b) (a c) (b a
F b a
e a a a a F a
a a e e a F e
c b) (a c) (b a
F b a
a b b a F b,c a
- -
- -
1 1 1
1 1 1
,
) , (F,
Field
Element are called scalar
(scalar:a mathematic quantity having
only magnitude)
scalar multiplication properties
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
element. identity field the is 1 where , x x 1 (e)
y c x c y x c (d)
x c c x c c (c)
x c x c x c c (b)
V x c V x F, c (a)
2 1 2 1
2 1 2 1
=
+ = +
=
+ + = +
e e e

n m ij ij
n m ij
n m n m
M ca a c
M a R c
n m
M M

e =
e e
+
+

by tion multiplica scalar define , and For
addition. matrix of operation the is and matrices all of
set the is where , be group e commutativ the Let
) ( ) (
) (
) , (
#
Vector Space
When m = n, we denote the particular vector space by M
n
(R
#
)
Ex6:
Linear Transformations
Let V and W be vector spaces. A linear transformation from V into
W is a function T from the set V into W with the following two
properties:
. ), ( ) (
. , ), ( ) ( ) (
o o o scalars and (ii)
(i)
V x x T x T
V y x y T x T y x T
e =
e + = +
x T(x)
T
V W
T is function from V to W, } | ) ( { V x x T e
Ex7.
If V is any vector space, the identity transformation I,
defined by I, is a linear transformation from V to V.
The zero transformation 0, defined by 00, is a linear
transformation from V to V.
Ex8.Let R be the field of real numbers and let V be the space of
all functions from R into R which is continuous. Define T by


Then T is a linear transformation from V to V.
The function Tf is not only continuous but has a continuous first
derivative.
The linearity of integration is one of its fundamental properties.
( )( ) ( )
}
=
x
0
dt t f x Tf
Let V and W be vector spaces over the field F and let T be a
linear transformation from V into W.
The null space (kernel) of T is the set of all vectors x in V such that T(x) = 0
ker { | ( ) 0} T x V T x = e =
If V is finite-dimensional, the rank of T is the dimension of the range of T
and the nullity of T is the dimension of the null space of T.




0
T
ker T
V
W
ran T
U x x T S x T S in for )), ( ( ) )( ( =
The Algebra of Linear Transformations
Let T : U V and S : V W be linear transformations, with U, V, and
W vector spaces.
The composition of S and T
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
and are vectors in , then
( )( ) ( ( )) (by definition of )
( ( ) ( )) (by linearity of )

if x x U
S T x x S T x x S T
S T x T x T
+ = +
= +
1 2
1 2
( ( )) ( ( )) (by linearity of )
( )( ) ( )( ) (by definition of )
Similarly, we have, with in and a scalar,
( )
S T x S T x S
S T x S T x S T
x U
S T
o
= +
= +
( ) ( ( )) (by definition of )
( ( )) (by linearity of )
( ( )) (by linearity of
x S T x S T
S T x T
S T x
o o
o
o
=
=
= )
( )( ) (by definition of )
S
S T x S T o =
Representation of Linear Transformations by Matrices

Let V be an n-dimensional vector space over the field F. T is a linear
transformation, and
1
,
2
,,
n
are ordered bases for V. If
| |
A
a a a a a a a a a
T T T T
n
n nn n n n n n n
n n
) , , , (
..., , ,
)] ( , ), ( ), ( [ ] , , , [
2 1
2 2 1 1 2 2 22 1 12 1 2 21 1 11
2 1 2 1
o o o
o o o o o o o o o
o o o o o o

=
+ + + + + + + + + =
=
(
(
(
(

=
nn n n
n
n
a a a
a a a
a a a
A

2 1
2 22 21
1 12 11

ALinear Transformation T

1
,
2
,,
n

n nn n n n
n n
n n
a a a T
a a a T
a a a T
o o o o
o o o o
o o o o
+ + + =
+ + + =
+ + + =

2 2 1 1
2 2 22 1 12 2
1 2 21 1 11 1
) (

) (
) (












(Group)
1.(finite group)G
1.1.
G
a
2.(infinite group)G
2.1.
2.2.
element identity is e e, a if G, a
n
= e
( ) G G o =
The smallest integer ( ) a a o n =
3.(cyclic group)GGa

{ } a G e ,a ,...,a ,a a,a G
n n-
= = =
1 3 2
GaaG(generator)a
G

( ) a o G =
Ex9.
gG

1.






2.
k r =
k r
g g =
{ }
1 - m
g , g, e, G =
k r =
k r
g g =
m j i 1 s < s
j i
g g =
{ } , g g, e, , g , G
2 -1
=

Ex10 The group G is abelian if
(1)
(2)
(3)

Proof.
(1)



(2)




(3)
G b a, e
( )
e ba a b
b a ab
e a
=
=
=
1 1
2 2
2
2
( ) ( )
ba a b ab
a a e a
a b ab ab ab e ab
e a G a
= =
= =
= = =
= e

1 1
1 2
1 1
1 2
2
,

( )
( ) ( )( )
( )( ) ( )( )
( ) ( )
ba ab ab ba
bb a ab b
bb aa ab ab
b a ab ab ab
b a ab G b a
= =
=
=
= =
= e
2 2
2
2 2
2
, ,
ab ba
b be ba a
e ba a b G, b a,
1
1 1
=
= =
= e

4.(Abelian) ba G, ab a,b = e

1.(isomorphisms)


( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )

-
- =
e
H, G, f
b f a f b a f
f H, G : f , G, b a,
2.(homomorphism)

GG*ff

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) -
- =
e -
H, G, f
b f a f b a f
H G : f , G, b a,
1.(part1)
show that if is a group homomorphism, the the following holds

(1)
(2)

Proof
(1)




(2)
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 -
' 1 - ' ' '
' ' '
x x G x G, x where , x x
G e G, e where , e e
= e e =
e e =
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
'
'
e e
oup G in the gr he group G ntity of t age of ide is the im e where
x e x e x x e G, x x
= |
|
| | = - | = | - = e
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( )
1 -
1 -
1 -
' ' 1 - 1 - ' 1 - 1 -
' ' 1 -
' ' 1 - 1 -
' '
1 -
x x , x verse of is the in x
e x x x x x x x x
e e x x similarly,
e e x x x x
G to be x he map x under t image of where the
x x G, e x
| = | | |
= | = | = | | = | |
= | = | |
= | = | | = - |
e |
- = e
'
G G :



GHGH
G

1.(subgroup)
2

GHG
(i)
(ii)

H a H a
H ab H b a,
1 -
e - e
e e
Proof
(1) (i), (ii)H
(i)HG

GH

HHa(ii),a
-1

H(i), H

(ii)Haa
-1
HH


(2)
HGHG(i)

He*Ha
e*a=ae*aGe*ya=aG
GGee*=e H

Hya=eHa*a*ya=eG
ya=eGa
-1
a*= a
-1
H

e a a aa
-1 -1
= =
e
e
3.
GHG( )
abH
Proof
(1)( )
(2)( )
HHn
-(*)
Ha
k
(*)
-(**)
(**)nHa
k
H
Hn (**)
a
k


a
1
a
k
a
k


(**)e
a
j
a
k
e

GH

H abe
,..., a ,..., a ,...,a , a , a a
n k j 3 2 1

3 2 1
a ,..., a a ,..., a a ,...,a a , a a , a a a
k n k k k j k k k
H e a a a a
k k
e = =
1 1
H a a e a a
-
k j k j
e = =
1

:
2.cosets
e
{ } S b G, b S, a ba bS e e e =
{ } S b G, b S, a ab Sb e e e =
nGSe, a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
m
(mn)bG
bSbSmbe=b,
ba
2
, ba
3
, ba
m
S bS

S


ba
j
ba
j
=eb= a
j
-1
b SS


Ex11. The distinct (left) cosets of the Z
3
in the group of integers Z are:
where



{ }
3 3 3
2 1 0 Z , Z , Z + + +
{ }
{ }
{ }

, , , , Z
, , , , Z
, , , Z
11 8 5 2 2
10 7 4 1 1
9 3 0 0
3
3
3
= +
= +
= +
{ }

n i 3 i 2 i i
v u i v i u
n i 3 i 2 i i
i n i 3 i 2 i
i n 3 2
a a , , a a , a a , e a
G n
a a a a a a
a a , , a a , a a , e a
G a a , , a a , a a , ea
G a , a , , a , a , e G n

= =
=
Proof
{ }

e e
= = = =
e
s =
yS xS,
S, x y
S x y S a a
a a x y a xa y ya xa Z
Z yS xS,
S yS xS, , G y , x
n m , a , , a , a , e S
1 -
1 -
1 -
i j
1 -
i j
1 -
j i
1 -
j i
m 3 2

{ }
1 1 1 1
2 3
, , , ,
m
S y xe y xa y xa y xa

=
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) { }
{ }
1 1 1 1
2 3
2, 3
, , , ,
= , , ,
m
m
yS y y xe y y xa y y xa y y xa
xe xa xa xa xS

=
=
GS

Proof
Sk Sc Sb Sa S G
S G
S G
kS cS bS aS S G
kS , cS, bS, aS, G S G

=
=

S
aS
bS
cS
kS

Lagrange's theorem (group theory)
s S g G sg
: proof
SSss
GSS
.
1 2 1
, , , b S b S b S

1
( 1) s s s g + = =
GS,: G
vGg.Gv ( )Gv

a a
g s =
v
a e =
{ }
2 1
, , , ,
v
e a a a

. G4- ,GS , S



4- ,
{ }
, , , e r x y
{ }
, e r
{ } { }
{ } { } { }
, = ,
, , ,
xS x xr x y
yS y yr y x x y xS
=
= = = =
{ }
, S e r xS G S xS =
Born January 25, 1736(1736-01-25), Turin,
Italy
Died April 10, 1813 (aged 77),Paris, France
Residence Italy, France, Prussia
Nationality Italian, French
Field Mathematics, Mathematical physics
Institutions cole Polytechnique
Academic advisor Leonhard Euler
Notable students Joseph Fourier,Giovanni
Plana, Simeon Poisson
Known for Analytical mechanics,
Celestial mechanics
Mathematical analysis
Number theory
Religion Roman Catholic

Note he did not have a doctoral advisor but
academic genealogy authorities link his
intellectual heritage to Leonhard Euler, who
played the equivalent role.

~ from Wikipedia
Joseph Louis, comte de Lagrange
Lagrangian mechanics
Algebra
Number Theory
Miscellaneous
Astronomy
Mcanique analytique
Ex12A set H is a subgroup of a group G iff

Proof

(1)
H G


(2)
HG





HG
H xy H y x
-
e e
1
, ,
H xy
H y H x,y
-
e
e e
1
1
H xy H y x e e
1
, ,
H e H xx H xy H y x e e e e
1
, ,
H y H ey H e H y e e e e
1 1
,
( ) H xy H y x H y H y x e e e e


1
1 1
, ,
()
()
()
()
) (
) (
) (:
Ex13.
G G
G

e, C











CG
{ } G x xa, ax G a C e = e =
x xe ex = = C ee
( ) ( )
( )
( ) C ab ab x
xb a
bx a x ab
G x C, b a,
e =
=
=
e e
( )( ) ( )( )
C a
xa x a
xa a a aa x a
xa ax G x C, a
1 -
1 - 1 -
1 - 1 - 1 - 1 -
e
=
=
= e e

abGGx

baba
b xax
-
=
1
1.a conjugate of a G



xy Gac
1 -
eae a =
bx x a
-1
=
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 - - - - - - -
xy c xy x ycy x x ycy x a ycy bx, b x a = = = = = e
2.a conjugate of H G
GG
a


a=b
bx xa b xax
-
= =
1
a

e
_
3.(conjugacy class)
HGgGghg
-1

GGH

{ } H h ghg gHg H
- - '
e = =
1 1



( )( ) ( ) ( )
' - - - - ' - ' -
H g xy g H xy g xy g gyg gxg H ,gyg H gxg H H, y x e e = e e e e
1 1 1 1 1 1

'
H ( )
' - - - - -
-
- ' -
H g gh H h g gh ghg H ghg e e = e
1 1 1 1 1
1
1 1

'
H
4.(normal subgroup, invariant )
HGgG
HG
H
1
=
-
gHg
HGgGg

gHgHHg
Hg gH H gHg
-
= e
1

G HV
4
GH H
hHh

Proof

(1)
(2)

( )
( )

H H
H H H H
H Hg g g H g G
H H
H h h G, g
1 -
1 -
1 -
1 - 1 -
=
c c
c = e
c
e e e
1 -
1 - 1 - 1 -
1 -
1 -
1 -
g g
g g g g g g g g
g
g g
g g H
) (
) (
) (:
5: (1:part 2)
show that if :GG' is a group homomorphism, then the following holds

(3)
(4)

(3)









(4) Suppose H is normal in G
( ) { } ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) | |
G in normal is ker
ker k all for , ker xkx
e' x x x e' x x k x xkx
ker k G, x
G of subgroup a is ker
e e' x x then , e' x if
ker xy
e' e' e' y x xy e' y x , ker y x,
ker e e' e , e' x G x ker Let
1 -
1 - 1 -
1 - 1 -
1 -
1 - 1 -
1 -
|
| e | e
= | | = | | = | | | = |
| e e
|
= = | = | = |
| e
= = | | = | = | = | | e
| e = | = | e = |
( ) ( )
( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) G in normal is H
H hx x H hx x but
hx x x h x x h x H h Given
G x G, x
1 - 1 -
1 -
1 - 1 -
| |
| e | e
| = | | | = | | | e
| e | e
( ) ( ) G' G H then G, H if
G of group normal a is ker map, the of kernel the
_ V V
H HHG

G

Proof
aHH






=>H
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) aH H Ha H aH
aH aHH H aH H Ha H Ha
aH, aHH H aH
H HH
= =
= = = =
= =
=

(the quotient group)

( )
# , , aH bH a b H aH bH G H = e
( )
, G
( )
, G H
( )( ) ( )
( )( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) | | ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

H G
H abc H bc a HH bc a H bc aH H bc aH bHcH aH
H abc HH abc HcH ab cH H ab cH aHbH
aH H a
H HH aa H Ha a H a aH
H
abH abHH H Hb a bH aH
bH aH, H
1
1 1 1

= = = = =
= = = =

= = =
= = =

6

Ker( f )=H
Proof
(1)




GG/H(natural map)

(2)

( )
( ) ( )( )
,
:
, ,
f
H G a G
Let f G G H f a aH
a b G f ab abH aH bH
V e
=
e = =

H G G : f ( ) G,
( ) # , H G
( )
( )
( )
f a aH
if a H f a aH H
Ker f H
=
e = =
=

7: () If there exists a homomorphism

whose kernel is H, then is isomorphic to
Proof

( ) ( )
: , ', f G G -
' G ( )
,# G H
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
1 2 2 2 ' 2
1 2 1 2
-1 -1 -1
1 2 1 2 ' 1 2
1 2 2
: ' ,
,
, , ' , '
Any two element of G have the same image i
G
G
G H G aH f a
if a H a H h H a a h
f a f a h f a f h f a e f a
f a aH
if a a G g G g f a f a
f a a f a f a e a a Ker f H
a Ha a H
=
= - e =
= = - = - =

e e = =
= - = e =
e =

n f:G G',
they are in the same coset of the kernel H
: ' G H G

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
' ,
,
#



: '
f p G a G f a p
aH f a p
a H a H G H
a H a H a a H
f a a
f a f a
a H a H
G H G

e - e =
= =
e
=
=
= -
= -

Ex15.
NG


(1)






(2)
abbaN


( ) # , N G
G b a e , N b aba e
1 1
N G
( ) ( )
( )( )
N b aba
N ba ab
N ba N ab
aN bN# bN aN#
N G bN aN, G, b a,
1 - 1 -
1 -
e
e
=
=
e e
N b aba N b a,
-1 -1
e e ( ) N ba ab
-1
e
( ) baN N b a abN
-1
1 - 1 -
= =
(direct products)
(direct sums)
p q
HKeHK
HKg=pqGG(h
i
,k
j
)


h
i
h
l
k
j
k
m
HKGH
K

G(h
i
,k
j
)(h
i
,k
j
)
-1
= (h
i
-1
,k
j
-1

)
GHK HKG

{ }
p 3 2 1
h , h , h , h e H = = { }
p 3 2 1
k , k , k , k e K = =
( )( ) ( )
m j l i m l j i
k k , h h k , h k , h =
( ) ( ) e e e, k , h
1 1
= =
K H G =
:
Ex16.

{ } { }
( ) ( ) 2 i 3 - 1 - 2, i 3 1 -
, , 1, e K , 1 - 1, e H
2
2
= + =
= = = =
c c
c c
( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( ) ( ) { }
( ) ( )( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

K H G
e a , a , a , a , a a, 1, -
1 1 1
1 1
1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6 5 4 3 2
6
2
5
4
3
2
2
2 2
=
= =
=
=
=
=
= =
= =
c
, , -
, - , -
, , -
, - , -
, , - , - , -
, - , , - , , - , , , , , , K H G

GABG
1. A, BG
2. g Ga Ab Bg=ab
GABG=AB

e
e e
Ex.17
G={e,a,b,c}32K={e,a},H={e,b}
L={e,c}G



KH

G=KH
GKH e a b c c
a e c b b
b c e a a
c b a e e
c b a e
ee e ab, c eb, b ae, a = = = =
:



B A G =
Ex18.
m n m+nC


| |
ij
a A | |
ij
b B
( )( ) n m n m nn n2 n1
2n 22 21
1n 12 11
2
1
mm m2 m1
2m 22 21
1m 12 11
b b b
b b b
b b b
O
O
a a a
a a a
a a a
B A C
+ +
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(

= =

( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
Ex19.
proof
, for every , ,
:

,




G HK G H K H K G G H K
g hk g G h H k K
f G K
f g f hk k
g h k g h k G
f g g k k f g f g
f
=
= e e e

= =
= = e
= =

( )
,
( )

,
f g k e g he h H
Ker f H
G H K
= = = e
=