Hydraulics IIT

Introduction
Unit 1
Free Surface Flows - Introduction
Historical Development of Hydraulics
History of Hydraulics in India
Classification of Flow
Unit 2
Channels and their Geometric Properties
Examples
Pipe Flow and Free Surface Flow
Basic Equations
Unit 3
Continuity Equation
Energy in Free Surface Flow
Basic Momentum Equation
Velocity Distribution
Unit 4
Velocity Measurement and Distribution
Discharge Measurement by Velocity-area Method
Radio-active tracer technique for Measurement of River
Discharges
Measurement of Flow of Water and the Limitations of Velocity-
area Method
Errors in Depth Measurement in High Velocity Flows
Unit 5
Secondary Current and Spiral Flow
Unit 6
Energy and Momentum Coefficients-Derivation
Energy and Momentum Coefficients for Different Velocity
Distributions
Comparison between Momentum and Energy Equation
Unit 7
Pressure Distribution
Specific Energy
Unit 8
Specific Energy Equations for Rectangular Channels
Application of Specific Energy
Problems
Unit 9
Specific Force
Transition-Problems
Application of Specific Force and Specific Energy
Transition in Field
Critical Flow
Unit 10
Characteristics of Critical Flow
Occurrence of Critical Flow
Unit 11
Critical Depth in Trapezoidal & Circular Channels
Hydraulic Exponent for Critical Flow
Problem
Unit 12
Critical Flow Depth Computations
Problems
Flow Measurement
Unit 13
Measuring Flumes
Critical Depth Flumes
Unit 14
Weris-Introduction
Types of Control Structures
Proportional weirs
Flow Over weirs
Polygonal weirs
Special types of weirs
Broad Crested weirs
Different types of Broad Crested weirs
Bear Trap weir
Unit 15
Flow below a Sluice Gate
Brink Depth
Modern Measurements of Flow Measurements
Outlets & Modules
Errors in Measurements
International Standards for Flow Measurement in Open Channel
Uniform Flow
Unit 16
Concept of Uniform Flow
Derivation of Uniform Flow Equations
Resistance in Open Channel Hydraulics
History of Uniform Flow Velocity and Resistance Factor
Unit 17
Friction
Ganguillet and Kutter Formula
Conveyance
Section Factor for Uniform Flow Computation
Unit 18
Hydraulic Exponent for Uniform Flow Computation
Maximum Discharge
Classification of bed Slope
Computations
Unit 19
Problems-Maximum Discharge
Problem-Irregular Channel
Solution of algebraic or Transcendental Equation by Bisection
Method
Solution of Manning Equation by Newton Raphson Method
Unit 20
Slope-area Method
Normal & Critical Slopes
Design of Canals
Unit 21
Design of Canals
Typical Canal Cross Sections
Unit 22
Lining the Canals
Seepage Prevention with Impermeable membranes
Failure of Canal Lining
Most Efficient Hydraulic Section
Design of Unlined Channels
Examples & Problems
Gradually Varied Flow
Unit 23
Introduction
Dynamic Equation for Steady Gradually Varied Flow
Classification of Gradually Varied Flow Profiles
Unit 24
Real Life Cases of Water Surface Profiles
Sketching of Composite Water Surface Profiles
Examples
Unit 25
Computation of Gradually Varied Flow
Example
Unit 26
Standard Step Method
Example
Unit 27
Integration of Differential Equation
Improved Euler Method
Fourth-order Runga-Kutta Method
HEC-2
Hydraulic Jump
Unit 28
Normal Hydraulic Jumps
Classification of Jumps
Momentum Equation
General Hydraulic Jump Equation
Unit 29
Energy loss in the Jump
Turbulent Characteristics of the Jump
Pressure Distribution in the Jump
Velocity Distribution in Hydraulic Jump
Length of the Jump
Unit 30
Air Entrainment Characteristics of the Jump
Pre Entrained Hydraulic Jump
Air Concentration Distribution along the Jump
Decay of Turbulence Downstream from a Stilling Basin
Unit 31
Hydraulic Jumps in Sloping Channels
Unit 32
Sequent Depth Tail Water Relationship Stilling Basin
Baffle Stilling Basin
Bhavani Type Stilling Basin
Stilling Basin in Sudden Expansion
Slotted Bucket Stilling Basin
Spillways
Unit 33
Spillways - Introduction
Unit 34
Siphon Spillway
Unit 35
Chute Spillway
Stepped Spillway
Flow in Bends
Unit 36
Introduction
Classification of River Bends
Transverse Water Surface Slope in Bends
Superelevation
Velocity Distribution in Bends
Unsteady Flow
Unit 37
Introduction
Basic Terminology
Classification of waves
Ocean Waves
Tides
Nature of waves
Unit 38
Surge Computation
Example-1
Example-2
Unit 39
Gradually Varied unsteady Flow
Celerity
Unit 40
Method of Characteristics
Method of Specified Intervals
Unit 41
Dam break Problem-Introduction
History of Dam Failures
Causes of Dam Failures
Routing
Case Study-Dam Break Analysis for Kali River
Self Aerated Flows
Unit 42
Self Aerated Flow-Definition of Terms and Instrumentation
Characteristics of Self Aerated Flows
Unit 43
Measurement in Self Aerated Flows
Experimental Investigation
Bhakra Dam SpillwayA Case Study

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

Indian Institute of Technology Madras
HYDRAULICS - FREE SURFACE FLOWS

1.1 Introduction

A fluid is any substance that deforms continuously when subjected to shear stress, no
matter how small the shear stress is.
Shear force is the force component tangent to the surface. Average shear stress is the
shear force per unit area.
Fluids can be classified as ideal fluids and real fluids.
Ideal fluids are those which are incompressible with zero viscosity and, shear stress is
always zero. Ideal fluid is hypothetical.
Fluids with viscosity are known as real fluids.
Example: Water, Milk, and Honey etc.,Then real fluids are classified as Newtonian and
non-Newtonian. Box 1.1.
Examples of non-Newtonian fluids are
Thixotrophic substance (thixotrophic jelly paints), ideal plastic, Bingham plastic (sewage
sludge), pseudo plastic (clay, milk, cement), dilatant substance(quick sand) etc. Fig 1.1.


Yield stress Shear stress
Figure 1.1 Rheological diagram

Box 1.1 Newtonian fluids follow the law of viscosity
du
=
dy
1.1
in which , is the Shear stress, is the viscosity co-efficient and
du
dy
is the
velocity gradient in y direction.

Viscosity is a fluid property and is known as dynamic viscosity. The equation
1.1 is known as Newton's law of viscosity.

The kinematic viscosity is given by the ratio of dynamic viscosity to mass
density of fluid .
= 1.2


Dimensions and units
Coefficient of Dynamic viscosity
-2 -1 -1
-1 -1
M L T Ns m kg m s Poise
-1 -1
10 poise = 1 kg m s , Pa s (Pascal seconds)
-3 -1 -1
Example: Water: 1.14 x 10 kg m s ;
-5 -1 -1
Air : 1.78 x 10 kg m s
2 -1 2 -1 4
= L T m s , 10 Stokes =1
or or

=

=

2 -1
m s
-6 2 -1 -5 2 -1
Example: water 1.14 x 10 m s at 15 C , air 1.46 x 10 m s

However viscosity depends on temperature.
Physical properties of water at atmospheric pressure and S.I units are given
Mass Density of water : Mass per unit Volume.
-3 -3 -3
=[ML ]; kg m , =1000kg m
-3
Mass density of air = 1.23 kg m
5 -2
at atmospheric pressure of 1.013 x 10 N m and temperature 288.15 K.
weight per unit volume

is known as specific weight
-3
N m
3 -3
9.81 x 10 N m
of water
-3
= 12.07 N m
of air
g
=
=

In free surface flows water is the dominating fluid. Water is a basic element and
supports the life system.
Proper control and management of water is required for sustaining the life on earth.
Hydraulics forms a part of water resources engineering. The free surface flows deals
with the movement of surface water in rivers, stream, canals etc. In order to understand
the mechanism of free surface flows, the different classification of them is to be
understood.


1.2 HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT OF HYDRAULICS

Hydraulic Engineering has served the mankind althrough the ages by providing drinking
water as well as protective measures against floods and storms. In the course of history
it has made the water resource available for human uses of many kinds. Management
of the world's water is a complex task and both its scope and its importance continue to
grow.
In course of time mankind has not only diverted and used the waters of the world for its
purposes, but by engaging nature into its service has turned deserts into fertile land
(e.g. Rajasthan Indira Gandhi Canal Project). Natural habitat is threatened in more and
more parts of the world by an ever-growing human population. Time has come for
formulation of the new value system. Thus long term needs are not only food, water and
shelter but also for an aesthetically pleasing, healthy, nurturing environment.
Sustainable development is "mantra" of the future.
Method of teaching Hydraulic Engineering has undergone several changes considering
the availability of computers, GPS, GIS, Remote sensing data, and web based tools.
1.2.1 The stages of Development
1950s Experimental hydraulics - empirical Hydraulics - Development of Engineering
hydraulics.
1960s Fundamental Research in unsteady flows, Open channel and ground water.
1970s Gathering of large data - hydrologic engineering - Flood control.
1980s
Initial awareness on the Environmental aspects. Large scale water Resources
planning, stochastic hydrology, System Analysis, distributed rainfall runoff
modeling.
Early
1990s
Modeling, urban hydrology, disaster management including floods,
computational engineering, CAD in hydraulics, Environmental hydraulics,
water quality - quantity integration, GIS based distributed modeling in
hydrology, Decision support systems.
Late
1990s
Integrating of hydraulics with water resources engineering for sustainable
development using GIS, GPS, Remote sensing - Hydro 2004 informatics,
Enviro informatics, Physical hydrology , space and Time scales, Climate
change and its impact on river basin, planning and management. Soft
computing (ANN, GA etc.,) IT impact on Water Data base and knowledge,
Integrated River basin Development. Reliability and Risk tools. WEB - Water
Earth Biota. Alternate sources of energy.


1.2.2 Future
Broad scope for specialisation in aggregation of many integrated aspects of the water
system.
To design integrated systems and integration of numerical modeling into information
systems.
Globalisation of water research and exchange through Internet and its impact on
sustainable development.
Integrating sociology, economics, biology, environment - Hydro bio modeling.
Global water markets, participatory approach.

1.3 HISTORY OF HYDRAULICS IN INDIA
"ONE WHO SOLVES THE PROBLEM OF WATER IS WORTH OF TWO NOBEL
PRIZES,ONE FOR PEACE AND ONE FOR SCIENCE" - J OHN.F. KENNEDY.
1.3.1 Growth of Hydraulics and Irrigation Research In India-
Introduction (CBI&P 1979)
During the nineteenth and early part of twentieth century, hydraulic and irrigation
problems were being tackled mostly by engineering judgement based on experience.
However, many engineers, with intuitive insight and initiative gave deep thought to
various problems and arrived at valuable conclusions. They were the pioneers of of
individual research exploring virgin ground in advance of the era of organised research
with the aid of models and other experimental facilities and techniques. Roorkee
professional papers on Indian Engineering (1863-1886) contain many original and
useful ideas on the theory of flow in artificial earthen channels, measures for efficient
distribution of irrigation waters and the design of hydraulic structures justifying high
tribute to these pioneer researchers. In 1864, fundamental ideas on the causes of silting
and scouring were initiated. At about the same time, tables of mean velocities and
depths were evolved for North Indian Canals. The Ogee type fall was originated on the
Ganga Canal (by 1870). Between 1874-79, Cunningham made a valuable contribution
in the techniques of the measurements of discharges and determination of velocities. By
about 1880, training of rivers with embankments combined with a system of groynes
was experimented in the field. During 1881 - 82, Kennedy made important estimations
of the losses by evaporation and absorption in the Bari Doab Canal. Cotton in the south
and Cauteley in the north produced some of the most imaginative river conservation
schemes over a hundred years ahead of the time they were realized to be essential and
taken up for implementation.


Cottonreddypalem, Andhra Pradesh, several other villages rooted in the Cotton name
and several generations of males with variations of Cotton name, all celebrated Sir
Arthur Cotton's bicentenary in the Godavari District, David Abbott of the British Deputy
High Commission, was present at the Rajahmundry celebrations. Cottons contribution
to making the Krishna- Godavari area the granary of South India.
"Father of Irrigation", "Sculptor of Deltas". It is to be noted that the 3.685 km long
Dowleswaram Barrage across the Godavari, built at a cost of 120,000 over five years,
turned a flood and drought prone area into million acres of flourishing paddy and
sugarcane, where the rent of an acre of paddy land today is Rs.1 lakh. "When the
farmer tills his land (here) or receives the money for his produce, he thinks one man
Sir Arthur Cotton".
A Sir Arthur Cotton Museum is to be set up at the dam site at a cost of Rs. 1 crore and,
more significantly, a Sir Arthur Cotton Memorial Agricultural Service Centre is being set
up over 15 acres, at Bobbarlanka, 20 km from Rajahmundry and near Dowleswaram, at
a cost of Rs. 1 1/4 crore.
He was the beloved of the Ryots (farmers).
General Sir Arthur Cotton: His life and work, is described as "a classic on India's
development". "India had taken hold of him. Not the India of Romance, but the India of
need". The 500 page book was reprinted by the Institution of Engineers (India, in 1964).
Cotton had spent two years in Vishakhapatnam before moving on to Rajahmundry and
his greatest work. While at Vizag, he had built the St. J ohn's Church in Waltair, and
groynes to protect the beach. He also predicted that Vizag would one day be a great
port. Truly was he a farsighted engineer.
The reports of the select committee admitted the success of all the irrigation works in
the Madras delta with which Sir Arthur Cotton's name is so honourably associated,
namely the Cauvery, Kistna and Godavari, and indicated that if there was any financial

failure in other case in the past, the main cause appears to be the want of ability or
energy on the part of the officers of the Public Works Department and their reliance on
hasty generalisation.
Cotton use to use to tell his daughter, "Do something, my girl, do something. Never be
idle for a single moment. Remember Time is short, Eternity is near."
He was 96 and had not suffered any major illness. On the night of J uly 14th, 1899 he
became feverish and restless and began slowly sinking. The end when it came was
'perfect peace'.
"His life, judged by any test was one of the true greatness, such as is only given to vary
few to attain in the world. He has left behind him a fame and a name which must
endure to all times". Sir Richard Sankey, R.E., K.C.B., wrote in a letter to Lady Arthur
on hearing of her husband's death.
Reference
Madras Musings, October 1 - 15, 1999.
During 18th and 19th centuries, the irrigation works in India were neglected by East
India Company so much so that Arthur Cotton, Royal Engineer working with Madras
Presidency complained bitterly in 1821 against the policy of apathy of the government.
In the history of India, 18th and 19th centuries saw some of the worst famines in the
north as well as south. As a result, efforts were made for saving agriculture. In the field
of irrigation, these included reopening of Western and Eastern Yamuna canals,
renovating Hissar branch canal and repairing Grand Anicut on Kaveri during 1810 -
1836 period.
Col. Proby T. Cautley of the Royal Artillery (1802 - 1871), was the superintendent of the
canals in the North-Western Province and director of the proposed Ganga Canal. In
1838, Cautley submitted to the government the first proposal to take a canal from

Ganga at Haridwar.
Governor General Lord Hardinge visited the site personally and authorized the
construction of canal in 1842.
J ames Thomason (1804 - 1853) who was then Lt. Governor of Northern Province fully
supported the proposal of Ganga canal.
The excavation of the canal was started in 1842 and water entered the canal in 1854. It
is interesting to note that when the canal was designed, the only hydraulic principles
known were continuity equation and resistance law. And yet the unlined canal designed
to carry discharge of approximately 300 cumecs as well as the cross drainage works
such as Solani aqueduct, siphons and level crossings which are still intact and
functioning well and have stood the test of time.
It is worth mentioning that Cautley became involved in public controversy over the
design of Ganga canal against Arthur Cotton in 1863 - 65 and was publicly censured in
the columns of the Times. However, he was officially exonerated by the Governor
General in 1865.
LOOKING BACK
If we have done our duty at least to this part of India, and have founded a system which
will be a source of strength and wealth and credit to us as a nation, it is due to ONE
MASTER MIND Which, with admirable industry and perseverance, inspite of every
discouragement, has worked out this great result. Other able and devoted officers have
caught Colonel Cot-tons spirit and have rendered invaluable aid under his advice and
direction, but for this first creation of genius we are indebted to him alone.
Colonel Cottons name will be venerated by millions yet unborn, when many, who now
occupy a much larger place in the public view, will be forgotten; but, although it
concerns not him, it would be, for our own sake, a matter of regret if Colonel Cotton
were not to receive due acknowledgement during his lifetime. - Minute by the

Government of Madras. Sir Charles Trevelyan, Governor, in his review of the Public
Works Department on May 15th, 1858.
General Sir Arthur Cotton, R.E., K.C.S.I., was born in Cheshire, England on May 15,
1803, the tenth son of Henry Calveley Cotton. Lt. Arthur Cotton arrived in Madras in
September 1821 and was attached to the office of the Chief Engineer for the
presidency. In May 1822, he was posted as an Assistant to the Superintending
Engineer of the Tank department, Southern Division.
Survey of the Pamban Pass to propose an enlargement of the pass for the passage of
oceangoing steamers from the West Coast to the East Coast ports. This was the
beginning of the Sethusamudram Project we have been talking of for a century ! .
In 1829, he was promoted as Captain and given separate charge of the Cauvery
irrigation. He soon saw the need for saving the district from the ruin that was staring it
with barely any flow in the cauvery due to heavy silting at the Grand Anicut. He soon
evolved the scheme for erecting a control structure on the Coleroon at the Upper Anicut
and the opening up of scour vents in the old Grand Anicut. On J anuary 1, 1830 the
great work of seven sluices was started. In 1832, got the project reports both for Upper
Anicut and the Lower Coleroon Anicut on the Coleroon ready. They were sanctioned by
the Government in time to get the preliminary work started before the freshes arrived in
J une.The first bold step taken by Cotton was the construction of the Upper Coleroom
Dam at Mukkombu.
Mr. W.N. Kindersley, the Collector of the district, wrote there was not one individual in
the province who did not consider the Upper Anicut the greatest blessings that had ever
been conferred upon it. The name of the projector would, in Tanjore, survive those of
all the Europeans who had ever been connected with it.
At this distant date we fail to realize the great truth in these statements made and the
valuable contributions of this pioneer, Sir, Arthur Cotton. He always insisted on saying

that the value of irrigation works was not to be measured simply by the additional
revenue yielded to the Government treasury, but that a much truer criterion would be
found in the enhancement of the income of the people and in the consequent saleable
value of the land itself. Irrigation brings with it prosperity to the region, some perceptible
and much more imperceptible and intangible.
The work that made a magical change in the hinterland of the delta of the River
Godavari, the masterpiece of the great thinker, the planner, the designer and the maker,
Major Arthur Cotton, was to come soon after.
Cotton, after a careful study of the sufferings of the people in the delta, while huge
volumes of floodwaters were being carried out to the sea day in and day out by the
mighty Godavari, reported to the Board of Revenue in May 1844 that the only way to
turn the Godavari district from being the poorest to nearly the richest in the presidency
was bringing in irrigation-cum-navigation facilities in the Delta by building an anicut
across the wide river.
Reference
Madras Musings-September 16-30, 1999.
Outstanding contributions to sub-surface and surface flow research came from Col.
Clibborn and Kennedy during 1890's. Col. Clibborn carried out the historic experiments
(1895-97) with Khanki sand to investigate the laws of flow of water through sand in
relation to weir design. Col.Clibborn's other contribution was on investigations on the
replenishment and velocity of flow of ground water in the Gangetic plains. In 1895, after
field experiments on the Upper Bari Doab Canal, Kennedy propounded his classical
relations between the critical velocity and channel depth as influencing channel design.
The early twentieth century has been notable for the rapid extension of irrigation in the
country and with it for the rigorous efforts on the investigations on the economic and

reliable design of hydraulic structures, design of stable channels, efficient distribution
devices, weed control, anti-water logging measures and land reclamation.
Kennedy's classical equations for the design of channels were followed by Lindley's
relations in 1919 indeed the very concept of the regime theory itself. Between 1929-39,
Lacey's sustained and pioneering work led to the development of comprehensive
formulae for designing stable channels in alluvium. The thread was picked up by various
workers- principally, Inglis, Bose, Malhotra, Blench, et al. and this subject has continued
to be a subject of sustained interest in India.
Investigations for the control of sand entering channels attracted the attention of many
engineers also, Inglis, the father of hydraulic model research in India, demonstrated that
curvature of flow- or nature's way- was the dominant factor affecting surface and bed
flow and, therefore, the most effective way of controlling sand. In 1922, Eldsen initiated
the idea of the tunnel type of excluders, and in 1934 Nicholson built the first excluder at
the head of the Lower Chenab Canal at Khanki. King's investigations for exclusion of
heavy silt from canal by vaned pitching (1918) and with silt vanes (1920) were earlier
notable investigations in the same field.
India's contribution of the development of subsoil flow hydraulics in relation to the
design of weirs has indeed been unsurpassed. After Col. Clibborn's historic experiments
(1895-97) with Khanki sand, Khosla propounded (1929-36) the very valuable theory of
subsoil flow in relation to the design of weirs on permeable foundations. The first full
size experiments in the world was conducted during 1929-36 on the Panjnad Weir. This
was followed by laboratory research on models of Rasul Weir (1930-34) and Panjnad
Weir (1934-35) by Taylor and Uppal, and on electrical analogy models by Vaidyanathan
(1936) and others.
Efficient distribution of water from canals was another subject which attracted the
attention of engineers from early times. Up to the end of the nineteenth century,
ordinary canal outlets in the form of open cuts, pipe or barrel outlets were in vogue. In

1882, Beresford introduced a general type of outlet with a 15.2 cm pipe with flap and
face walls. Since the beginning of this century, a number of investigators have studied
the various aspects of canal outlets and several types have been developed. The
earliest semi-modular type was in 1902 by Kennedy-the sill outlet. Kennedy's gauge
outlet was introduced in 1906which was further improved in 1915. By 1922 Kirkpatrick
on the J amras (Sind) and Crump in Punjab developed semi-modules of the open flume
and the orifice types. Among the modules with moving parts, Visvesvarya's self acting
module (1904), Kennedy's outlet module (1906), Wilkins type (1913), J oshi's module
(1919) and Kenti's 'O' type module (1923) were the important developments. A module
without any moving parts had been developed by Gibb as far back as 1906 and it was
greatly improved later by experiments in Poona. Many silt extracting outlets were also
developed, the outstanding one being the Haigh's type in 1937. Valuable experiments
conducted on broad-crested weirs were utilised by Burkitt in developing the 'Head-less
meter.
Bharat Rathna Dr. Sir. Dr. Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya (1861 - 1962)
September 15 is a memorable day in the annals of the engineering community in
particular in this country. On this day 135 years ago, one of the greatest sons of India,
Dr. Sir. Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya, the towering personality in the history of Indian
engineering - was born at Muddenhalli in the Kolar district of Karnataka. Graduated from
the college of science, Poona in 1883, Visvesvaraya joined the Bombay PWD and rose
to the position of Chief Engineer. He worked ceaselessly throughout his life to bring
fruits of advanced science and technology to the doorsteps of the common man. On
retirement, his services were requisitioned by the Maharaja of the erstwhile Mysore
State, who appointed him as Dewan. The following years witnessed an era of planned
development and all-round growth. A visionary who could think ahead of his time,
Visvesvaraya realised that there could be no salvation for the people of the country
except judicious use of the results of technological innovations. In recognition of his
services to national development and for the cause of engineering, he was honoured by

presentation of the country's highest award - Bharat Ratna - in 1955.
To perpetuate the memory of this great engineer-statesman, the Council of Institution of
Engineers India decided to observe September 15 each year as Engineer's Day and
evolved guidelines for celebrating the Day.
The State of Mysore has been well known for its engineers. Modern research as such in
engineering started about 1870's. The first claimant for leadership in engineering
research was Sri Adil Shah Dabe who constructed in the first decade of the 20 th
Century the Mari Kanave Dam with masonry in Surki mortar. It was easily the highest
dam at that time in the world constructed with a matrix other than cement.
The second decade of the 20th Century started with the advent of the world famous
Engineer Bharat Ratna Dr. Sir. M. Visvesvaraya at the helm of affairs in Engineering
and Administration. His pioneering works in the block system of Irrigation, Invention of
the automatic gates are well known. Under his leadership considerable progress in
research in the use of surki mortar for construction of hydraulic structures, gauging of
rivers, evaporation and seepage losses, etc,.
Ganesh Iyer during 1930's initiated research and experimentation on Volute siphons.
In the development of canal falls, the Ogee type was in use as early as 1870. The
trapezoidal notch fall was developed by 1894. With the mechanism of the energy of
flowing water and the formation of the standing wave becoming known better, the
standing wave flume type of fall was developed by Inglis by 1930.
Numerous investigators worked on the theory of the hydraulic jump which has helped
immensely in tackling various hydraulic problems. Important investigators on this
problem were Inglis and J oglekar (1924 - 1940), Coyler (1926), Lindley (1927), Montagu
(1929) and Crump (1930). Energy dissipation works below river and canal structures by
means of a cistern with baffles, deflectors and blocks were evolved with the help of

model experiments by Bhandari and Uppal (1938) in the Punjab and by Inglis in Poona
(1935).
The control of rivers flowing through bridges and other structures by a system of guide
banks, first introduced by Bell in 1888, has subsequently been investigated extensively,
both on the model and in the field, and the system is now widely in use.
Losses by evaporation and percolation in canals were investigated by Kennedy on the
Bari Doab Canal as early as 1882 and further work was carried out by various
engineers.
The special Irrigation Research Division, created in the Bombay P.W.D. in 1916,
through efforts of Inglis, contributed a great deal in the field of organised irrigation
research. During 1916-1928, valuable investigations were made on the problems of
land drainage and reclamation, canal losses, canal lining, weed growth and improved
irrigation methods. In the field of hydrodynamic research with the aid of hydraulic
models, experiments on standing wave flumes, energy dissipation devices below falls,
cutwater and ease-water experiments for the best design of Sukkur Barrage piers are
few examples of early organised research.
With the realisation of the importance of model investigations, research centres at
Poona and Lahore were developed and new Research station started in United
Provinces (1938) and some other states. The attainment of Independence and
formulation of plans for a number of River valley Projects posed a multiplicity of
problems and it became necessary to expand the facilities at the existing research
centres and to open new centres of research, today, laboratories equipped for dealing
with the problems connected with River Valley Projects, including reservoir surveys,
testing of soils, concrete and other construction materials have been set up in most of
the states.


1.3.2 CO-ORDINATION OF RESEARCH
The creation of the Central Board of Irrigation in 1927 was a sequel to the realisation of
the need for coordinating research activities at various centres. After Independence,
with growing realisation of the need for development of power the Board was
redesignated as the Central Board of Irrigation and Power. In addition, it co-ordinates
the national activities and functions as Indian National Committee for the International
Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD), International Commission on Irrigation and
Drainage (ICID), International Association for Hydraulic Research (IAHR), International
Water Resources Association (IWRA) and International Conference on Large High
Voltage Electric System (CIGRE). The board also actively collaborates with the Bureau
of Indian Standards, the Central Road Research Institute, the Council of Scientific and
Industrial Research, the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, the Department of
Science and Technology, the Seven Indian Institutes of Technology, the council of
Technology Education, Indian Institute of Science.
On the recommendations of an expert committee appointed by the board in 1958, a
scheme of research on fundamental and basic problems, relating to river valley projects
and flood control works was sanctioned. To start with 12 main topics were included for
study under the scheme. Till 1980's, the work under the scheme has increased to the
extent that there are 44 main topics presently under study at 16 State and Central
Research Stations and 12 technical institutions under the supervisory control of the
Board. The Board publishes every year the Annual Review Summaries of the work done
on these problems. A quarterly journal 'Irrigation and Power' brought out by the Board
contains papers on both basic and applied research in water and power engineering.
The papers contributed and discussed at Annual Research Sessions are brought out as
proceedings of these sessions.
Besides the journal and proceedings, publication of important researches relating to
specific subjects carried out by individuals or institutions are compiled as Board's
publications and these form useful authentic reference manuals with the irrigation and

power engineers of the country. As part of the Research Studies the research stations
have prepared Reviews with Bibliographies as well as status reports on a number of
topics. These are also issued as publications of the Board. In late 70's a new periodical
'Irrigation and Power Research Digest' has been started to furnish the latest research
work done at various research stations to the research community.
1.3.3 RESEARCH ACTIVITY IN INDIA TODAY
There were sixteen major research stations in India (in 1980's) which were undertaking
research studies on various aspects of river valley developments and which usually
participated in the Research Scheme applied to River Valley Projects. A number of
technical institutions are also associated with this programme and they are mostly
tackling the problems with a great academic bias. The background and the special
features of some of the State and Central Government research stations are given
below.
(1) Andhra Pradesh Engineering Research Laboratory, Hyderabad
The Engineering Research Department, established by then Hyderabad State
Government in the year 1945 became the Research Laboratories of Andhra Pradesh
when the new state was formed in November 1956.
(2) Central Soil and Materials Research Station, New Delhi
To meet the need for research wing, for soils and material testing on the pattern of the
central water and Power Research Station, Pune, (Described subsequently) the Central
Soil and Materials Research Station came into existence at New Delhi during the year
1953-54. The research station undertakes field and laboratory investigations for river
valley and other projects in the disciplines of soil mechanics, rock mechanics, concrete
technology, sediment investigation, pre-irrigation soil surveys and chemical analysis of
construction materials. The station has extended its service of consultancy to a number
of foreign countries including Bhutan, Nepal and Afghanistan. Highly sophisticated

testing facilities such as 1,000 tonne testing machine, have been installed and it is one
of the best equipped laboratory of the country in its field.
(3) Central Water and Power Research Station, Pune
As a sequel to the need for organised research, a special Irrigation Research Division
was created under the auspices of Bombay P.W.D. in 1916, by the efforts of Sir C.C.
Inglis, who did pioneering work on various aspects of the irrigation problems and laid
the foundation of organised research in the country. Problems concerning laid drainage
and reclamation, canal losses, canal lining and improved irrigation works were taken for
investigation. Soon the Research Division expanded its activities in new branches and
this centre was subsequently taken over by Government of India in 1937. Irrigation and
river training research were added to its scope and was renamed as 'Indian Waterways
Experiment Station'. In 1946-47, the expansion and reorganisation of the station was
sanctioned with seven new branches for dealing with navigation, soils, materials of
construction, statistics, physics, mathematics, hydraulic machinery research problems.
The station was redesignated the 'Central Water and Power Research Station' and
brought under the administrative control of Central Water Commission. The quality of
research work turned out by the Research Station won it acclaim not only within the
country but abroad as well. In recognition of the tremendous progress made, it has been
chosen as Regional Laboratory for the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia
and Far east. CWPRS has extreme built up expertise in many fields during its life span
of more than 85 years. Some of the notables are: hydraulic structures, earth sciences,
ship model testing, coastal engineering and the application of methods from the
different disciplines of physics, chemistry, mathematics, statistics, botany, geology,
instrumentation and computer science.
The station extends its activities to prototype testing, digital data acquisition, field
investigations, testing of turbine and pump models in cavitation tanks and developing
techniques for the use of radioactive and fluorescent tracers in tidal as well as fluvial
flow conditions for various purposes.

The station has been offering technical assistance and consultancy services to other
countries also, which include Burma, Afghanistan, Tanzania, Iraq, Philippines,
Singapore, Libya, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Egypt and Zambia. Notable engineers from these
stations are Sir C.C. Inglis and Dr. D.V. J oglekar.
(4) Gujarat Engineering Research Institute, Vadodara
On the bifurication of the Bombay State, the development and Research Division at
Vadodara, which was a branch of the Central Research Institute, Nasik was transferred
to the Gujarat State in 1960 and was renamed as Gujarat Engineering Research
Institute, with head-quarters at Vadodara. The institute's major contribution related to
the study of ground water flow and its recharge, river training, sediment studies in canal
and reservoirs, canal lining, soil mechanics and materials testing specially pozzolana.
(5) Hirakud Research Station, Hirakud, Orissa
During the planning of the Hirakud Dam Project in 1947, this research station was
started at the dam site for observations of data on the silt load of the Mahanadi and for
testing construction materials for the project. Subsequently, this station was expanded
to take up the quality control work during the construction and for the fixing and
observations of the instruments provided both in the earth dam and the masonry and
concrete dams. With the transfer of this station, along with the Hirakud Dam Project to
the Government of Orissa in April 1960, the activity of the Research Station has been
extended to cover the whole of the Orissa State.
A Masonry Testing Unit for testing large size masonry and concrete blocks, has been
set up about 11.3 Km away and it is one of the few such units in the country.
The Station also undertakes the sedimentation survey of the Hirakud Reservoir by
echo-sounding.


(6) Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology, Poondi (Tamil Nadu)
Abundant water and land becoming available with completion of the Poondi Reservoir
Irrigation Research Station came into being at Poondi, 60 Km from Chennai, in April
1944.
This Research Station deals with all hydraulic problems of the river valley and flood
control projects. T-shaped blocks have been evolved for effective and economic
dissipation of energy below spillways. Implemented in Bhavani Sagar project. Similarly,
lined canal chutes have been developed and considerable savings have been effected
in the cost of the Lower Bhavani Project Canal System by work at this Station. A special
mention may be made of the studies conducted for the improvement of the coefficient of
discharge of tank weirs, which has enabled the irrigation of additional areas from the
remodeling of a large number of tanks in the Tamil Nadu State.
The Irrigation Research Station was functioning as a part of the State Public Works
Department and as such it concentrated on applied research having relevance to the
immediate functional needs of the department. Observing the switchover from hydraulic
to hydrologic research all over the world urgent need was felt to bring about a change in
the outlook of this statement also.
The station was upgraded into a full fledged Institute of Hydraulics and Hydrology in the
year 1973 making it possible to deal with problems in ground water and coastal
hydrology and surface water management using computer simulation methods, system
analysis and the like.
The need for instrumentation, especially on the electronics side had also been realised
fully. As a result an electronic laboratory has been established.
The activities of the Institute are spread over area of Ground Water Hydrology,
Hydrology of River Basins including Flood Prediction, Hydrological Modeling,
Instrumentation and Water shed Management Schemes.

(7) Irrigation Research Directorate, Bhopal
The research station has been started in 1964. It is mainly dealing with hydraulics, soils,
and concrete and model prototype conformity problems.
(8) Irrigation Research, Jaipur
With the advent of irrigation projects in the State of Rajasthan and use of local materials
for the constructional purposes, the Irrigation Research has been conceived.
(9) Irrigation Research Institute, Khagaul, Patna
The research station was opened in 1956 at Khagaul, 10 km from Patna. The Institute
has done considerable work on soil, use of micaceous sand in mortar and concrete, and
other construction material problems. It has recently taken up studies regarding
sedimentation survey of reservoirs and ground water problems including optimum
spacing of tubewells in various regions of Bihar State.
(10) Kerala Engineering Research Institute, Peechi (Kerala)
On the formation of the Kerala State on 1 November 1956, the systematic and intensive
development of the water resources of the state assumed great importance.
The State Government sanctioned a Research Institute in Kerala which started
functioning on J une 1960.
The main Research Institute is located at the foot of the Peechi Dam, about 22.5 km
from Trichur.
Being a coastal State the Institute has mainly concentrated on the problem of coastal
erosion and has evolved cheaper designs of sea walls which have been constructed to
protect the land against sea erosion successfully. Other studies being carried out are
use of laterite as pozzolana, water requirement for rice, etc.


(11) Karnataka Engineering Research Station, Krishnarajasagar
Though it started as a small section attached to Gauging Sub-Division dealing with
hydraulic investigations only, with the increase in demand for the testing of soils and
various engineering materials, the Soil Mechanics Branch and the Material testing
Branch were added during 1940.
The Hydraulic Research Station was later strengthened in 1945 and made a seperate
wing of Public Works Department under the direct administrative control of the chief
Engineer and redesignated 'Mysore Engineering Research Station'. During 1974 due to
the redesignation of Mysore State to Karnataka State, the station was also redesignated
'Karnataka Engineering Research Station'.
The outdoor hydraulic laboratory and the indoor laboratories (material testing, soil
mechanics, chemical, road research, etc.) are all located at Krishnarajasagar, just below
the Krishanarajasagar Dam overlooking the famous Brindavan Gardens.
One of the important contributions from this Research Station has been the
development of the volute siphons, initially designed and promoted by Ganesh Iyer, an
eminent engineer of the Mysore State. One of the important studies carried out by this
Research Station in collaboration, with other research stations was to determine the
prototype behaviour of the siphons when running full under likely cavitation conditions
under excessive head.
Other notable studies carried out by this Research Station are the twin surge tanks, the
approach channel to the Vodenbyle twin tunnel, and the surplussing arrangements of
the Linganamakki Talakalale, Kali Complex and other projects of the state. Experiments
for restriction of evaporation, cheaper canal lining, model prototype conformity,
sedimentation survey of reservoirs, problems of soil mechanics, materials testing and
rock mechanics are some other important achievements of the station.

During 1971, an Engineering Staff Training College has been started under aegis of
Karnataka Engineering Research Station, to impart training to in service engineers of
P.W.D. by running short-term and long-term refresher courses.
(12) Land Reclamation, Irrigation and Power Research Institute,
Punjab, Amritsar
Around the year 1925, the Government of Punjab constituted a Water logging Enquiry
Committee to study and report on the extent and causes of water logging in irrigated
areas and the preventive measures which should be adopted. A small farm at
Chakanwali for field experiments regarding the reclamation of waterlogged areas and a
laboratory at Lahore for the analysis of soil and water samples-later designated as the
'Scientifc Research Laboratory' was set up in this connection.
In 1931, the Hydraulic Section was started and, by 1932, under the redesignated name
'Irrigation Research Institute, Lahore' there were six independent Sections: Hydraulics,
Physics, Chemical, Statistical, Mathematical and Land Reclamation. During the next 15
years, the Institute was able to carry out a great deal of work which gained recognition
in the scientific and engineering circles.
The Hydraulic Section initiated (1932) small-scale model experiments for tracing subsoil
flow under structures on permeable foundations, by treating the sand in the model with
a chemical and allowing another chemical to flow from one side of the work to the other
through the sand. Arrangements were made to measure the pressures under the work
at different points. The comparisons of the results with theoretical expectations pointed
to the need for a mathematical technique to give more exact results and standard cases
were successfully tackled from 1936 to 1940 to obtain the effects of various
components of a structure on the pressure distribution under it. The physics section
developed, at the same time, the electric analogy model for a rapid determination of the
pressure distribution comparable with those given by theory and the hydraulic model.

In 1936, Khosla put forward his 'method of independent variables' for determining the
pressure distribution based on the concept that each component had an individual effect
and the superposing of these individual effects have the overall effect. The theoretical
results and the laboratory experiments were used to verify and, where necessary,
modify Khosla's method, which ultimately became the standard method, which
ultimately became the standard method for the design of works on permeable
foundations. This was indeed a signal contribution by a co-operative group of Indian
workers to a difficult engineering problem.
Dr. A.N. Khosla made a name in the the field of Research through his work on seepage
theory and design of weirs on permeable foundations. He was appointed the first
chairmen of the newly constituted Central Waterways, Irrigation and Navigation
Commission in 1945 and developed it into a front rank organisation. When Bhakra
control of board was set up in 1950, Dr Khosla was appointed its Vice Chairman and
Chairman of the board of Consultants. He remained associated with the project till its
commissioning in 1963.He served as the Vice Chancellor of the Roorkee University
from 1954 to 1959 and virtually transformed it from a small though reputed college to a
leading technical university. In 1962 he was appointed as Governor of Orissa, the first
and so far the only professional engineer to have been given such a responsibility.
Another name worth noting is that of Dr Kanwar Sain. He was responsible for planning
of the gigantic planning of the gigantic Rajasthan Canal project still under completion.
For nine years he worked on the planning of the complex Mekong River project under
the auspices of the United Nations.
Another important contribution of those years was in regard to the design of stable
channels in alluvium. The Institute developed, for the first time, appropriate scientific
instruments capable of collecting and analysing samples of silt from irrigation channels.
The results of analysis were processed to obtain the mean size of the silt and to
correlate it with the other hydraulic elements of the channel.

Another field of study related to the engineering works connected with the control and
training of rivers. This required comparatively large-scale methods and a field research
station was opened at Malakpur in Gurdaspur District where the requisite facilities were
available. This station, which was started around 1934, subsequently grew into one of
the most advanced station in India and handled the model work for most of the
important projects in the Punjab.
Yet another development was the large-scale work on land reclamation undertaken by
Punjab Government in 1940. This ultimately led to a seperate department of Land
Reclamation being formed under a 'Director, Land Reclamation'.
Immediately after partition in 1947, East Punjab set up a new Institute at Amritsar and
work at the Malakpur Station was continued. Since then, the institute has grown
considerably and has now been made a zonal institute for the North Zone, consisting of
Himachal Pradesh, J ammu and Kashmir, Punjab and Rajasthan.
In the field of hydraulics, a substantial contribution was made in regard to the design of
spillway and outlets for Bhakra and Nangal Dams and of the flood control, drainage and
reclamation problems of Kashmir Valley.
The Hydraulic Research Station, Malakpur has been recognised to help and solve many
complicated problems in connection with Beas Dam at Pong, Beas Sutlej Link-Part II,
Sirhind, Ferozpur and Rajasthan Feeders and recently for Shah Nahar Project,
Anandpur Hydel Project, Mukerian Hydel Project and the prestigious Thein Dam and its
appurtenant works. The station specializes in developing sediment excluding devices
from rivers and channels.
A Field Lining Research Station has been set up at Doburji (Near Amritsar) for
Investigations relating to the economical specifications of lining material for reducing
seepage from the earthen channels and water courses. Research for development of
pressure release values behind canal lining is also being undertaken at this station.
Excellent work regarding vortex suppressors in the intake has been carried out.

(13) Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute, Nasik
Considering the importance of achieving efficiency, economy and progress of large
development works undertaken in the Bombay State, the State Government approved
the creation of a Central Engineering Research Institute, and it was set up with
headquarters at Nasik in 1959. On the creation of Maharashtra State and bifurcation of
research station it has been redesignated 'Maharashtra Engineering Research Institute'.
The Institute carries out investigations on soil mechanics, materials testing, hydro-
dynamic problems and public health and rural engineering. The Institute specializes in
Environmental Engineering with special reference to water quality and its measurement
throughout Maharashtra State. Recently field studies have been conducted on
breaching and dismantling of Old Waghad Dam.
The Soil Survey Division at Poona does systematic soil surveys of the areas under the
command of various irrigation projects in the state.
(14) River Research Institute, West Bengal, Kolkata
Due principally to the abandonment of the Bhagirathi-Hoogly course by the Ganga,
many of the rivers of West Bengal have decayed and the drainage of West Bengal
during the flood Season has been seriously affected. A Research Station to study the
various river problems and to evolve measures for controlling the destructive causes of
the dying rivers was set up in the State in the year 1943.
Investigations for foundations of hydraulic structures for borrow materials for
construction of dams and soil surveys for irrigation projects have also been taken up.
Facilities are also available for conducting aggregate and concrete tests. With the
passage of time the institute has acquired specialization in a number of fields such as
River training for the purpose of conservancy of the river, prevention of erosion and
flooding, Navigation and irrigation, Design of channels, Meandering of streams and
conservation of tidal rivers, Tidal computation, closure of estuaries, tidal channel and
reclamation and Engineering properties of soils.

(15) Soil Mechanics and Research Division, Chennai
The Research Station was initially formed as Physics and Soil Mechanics Office in
1946. The Concrete Laboratory was established in 1947. In 1953 the two were merged
to function as "Soil Mechanics and Research Division" of the Tamil Nadu Public Works
Department. The Research Station had the benefit of guidance of K.L. Rao, the noted
engineer statesman in the early stages.
The laboratory has successfully evolved Ennore sand as the Indian standard sand. This
sand is now supplied to engineering research institutions and cement factories all over
India and has resulted in considerable saving of foreign exchange.
The laboratory, in its thirty years of useful service has made significant contributions in
the various fields of engineering research. Intensive soil investigation work has been
carried out for all the irrigation projects executed in the state, regular quality control
work has been organised. For building works, regular foundation analysis by load tests
has been carried out for almost all major buildings. The station has done notable work
on Design of Weirs on permeable Foundations of Finite Depth.
(16) Uttaranchal Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee
A small Hydraulic station was established at Lucknow in 1938 to study the problems of
scour and erosion below falls and bridges on irrigation channels. To meet the needs of
an increasing number of problems, an Irrigation Research Station at Bahadrabad, about
20 km from Roorkee, started functioning in 1947. This Station was further expanded in
1955. Earlier it was known as Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee.
The activities of this Institute cover both basic and applied problems in hydraulics, soil
mechanics, ground water, mathematics, physics, instrumentation, hydrology and
measurement of discharges of rivers and canals. Specific problems concerning the
development projects, such as river training and protection works, soils and construction
material problems, etc., constitute its main activities, but the station has been also doing
remarkable basic research work in a number of fields.

Few of the important contributions of the Institute relates to the design of the 1.8 m high
dentated sill for dissipating energy below Sarda Barrage sluices, which had collapsed
during the floods of 1956. This was the first kind successfully tested and adopted in
India under boulder river conditions.
Hydraulic design of Surge tanks for all major projects constructed / under construction in
Himalayan region and its computer simulation, design of gravel pack and prepacked
filter for tube wells, design of stilling basin for low Froude Number, design of stilling
basin for low Froude Number, design of guide bunds at bridges and barrages, intake
structures, stilling basins, design of bifurcations and trifurcations for tunnels, assortment
of river training problems, prototype load test, design of channels and evolving formula
for design of channels, design of structures founded on stratified soils, design of
barrages and canal regulators on three-dimensional flow consideration, etc., are a few
of the fields of the specialization of the Institute. The Institute offers technical assistance
not only to State Irrigation Department but to other States and departments. The
Institute also takes up the foundation investigations for dams, power houses and other
hydraulic structures, Instrumentation in dams, in situ testing of rocks and model
prototype conformity studies. Recently due to reorganisation of states, this is now in
Uttraranchal.
Reference
Water Resources Research in India, Publication No. 78 (Revised) CBI&P, New Delhi,
1979.

1.4 CLASSIFICATION OF FLOW

Uniform flow Non-uniform flow
Subcritical
Critical
Supercritical
Steady Unsteady
Gradually varied flow
Rapidly varied flow
Spatially varied flow
Fluid flow
Froude number
Reynolds number
Spatial
Temporal
Compressible / incompressible
Pressure Flow
Free Surface Flow
Single phase
Two phase
Multi phase
Reciprocating upstream flow
Unidirectional upstream flow
Highly irregular
Highly variable upstream flow
Fluid flow
One dimensional
Two dimensional
Three dimensional

Classification of flow is done based on different criteria. A brief description of the
classification is given in the following paragraphs.
CLICK ON THE TITLE FOR FURTHER DETAILS
(a) Based on Ideal and Real fluid flows
(b) Pressure flow and Gravity flow
(c) Based on ratio of Inertial and Gravitational forces
(d) Based on Inertial and Viscous force ratio
(e) Compressible and Incompressible flow
(f) Based on Spatial variations
(g) Based on dimensions
(h) Based on Time
(i) Based on Rotational and Irrotational flows
(j) Based on Mono phase and Multi phase flows
(k) Based on Stratification
Examples of some combination of flows


2. CHANNELS AND THEIR GEOMETRIC PROPERTIES
2.1 INTRODUCTION
An open channel is a physical system in which water flows with a free surface at the
atmospheric pressure. In other words the pressure is impressed on free surface. A
channel can be classified as either natural or artificial channel according to its origin.
Natural channels include all watercourses of varying sizes from tiny hillside rivulets,
streams, small and large rivers to tidal estuaries that exist naturally on the earth.
Subsurface streams carrying water with a free surface are also treated as natural open
channels.
The cross sections of natural channel are irregular and hence hydraulic properties may
vary from section to section, and reach to reach. A comprehensive study of the behavior
of flow in natural channels (the mobile boundaries) requires knowledge of other fields,
such as hydrology, geomorphology and sediment transportation. Generally, these
aspects are dealt in detail in river mechanics (fluvial hydraulics).
Artificial channels are those constructed or developed by human effort such as gutters,
drainage, ditches, floodways, tunnels, log chutes, navigation channels, power canals
and trough, spillways including model channels that are built in the laboratory for
experimental investigation studies. Long distance canals have been constructed to
achieve the interbasin transfer of water at National and International levels.
The artificial channel is known by different names, such as " canal "," chute", "culvert",
"drop", "flumes" and "open - flow tunnel", Aqueduct.
However, these names, are used rather loosely and can be defined only in very general
manner.
The canal is usually a long and mild-sloped channel built in the ground, which may be
lined or unlined with stone masonry, concrete, cement, wood or bituminous materials
etc.
Eg: Ganga Canal, Indira Gandhi Canal, Narmada Canal.

The chutes are a channel having steep slopes. The culvert, flowing partly full, is a
covered channel of comparatively short length provided for draining water across
roadways and through railway embankments.
The drop is similar to chute, but the change in elevation is effected with in a short
distance.
The flume is a channel of wood, metal, fiber reinforced plastic, concrete, or masonry,
usually supported on or above the surface of the ground to carry water across a
depression.
The open -flow tunnel, fall, is a comparatively long covered channel used for carry water
through a hill or any obstruction on the ground. Normally these artificial canals are with
rigid boundaries.
The channels can be classified as prismatic and nonprismatic. A channel built with
constant cross section and constant bottom slope and fixed alignment is named as
prismatic channel. Otherwise, the channel is nonprismatic.
Example: spillway having variable width and canals curved alignment. (Meandering).
The term channel section refers to the cross section of channel taken normal to the
direction of the flow.
A vertical channel section, however, is the vertical section passing through the lowest or
bottom point of the channel section. For horizontal channels, therefore, the channel
section is always a vertical channel section.
Natural sections are in general very irregular, usually varying from an approximate
parabola to an approximate trapezoid shapes and for streams subject to frequent
floods, the channel may consist of a main channel section carrying normal discharges
and one or more side channel sections for accommodating overflows. These are called
compound channel.
Artificial channels are usually designed with sections of regular geometrical shapes.
Table gives the geometric properties for the cases of rectangular, trapezoidal,
triangular, circular, parabolic channels. In addition the details of Round bottomed
triangular and round bottom rectangular are also given.


2.1.2 Geometrical Properties
Unlined trapezoidal section is the most common channel section used in the field for it
provides side slopes for stability. The rectangular channel with an angle 90 and
triangular channel with a bed width equal to zero are special cases of the trapezoidal
channel. Since the rectangular channel has vertical sides, it is commonly used for
channels built of materials, such as lined masonry, rocks, metal, or timber. Precast
concrete sections are also used for small size canals. The triangular section is used
only for small ditches, roadside gutters, and for experimental investigations in the
laboratory. The circular shape is the popular section for sewers and culverts of small
and medium sizes. The parabola is used as an approximation for section of small and
medium- size natural channels. Practical sections are also used as shown in figure (as
recommended by Central Board of Irrigation and Power).
b
1
m
1
m
Lined channel section for Q >55 m
3
/s
y
1 1
y
y y
1 1
A = by + y
2
( 1+ Cot1)
P = b + 2y( 1+ Cot1)
R = by + y
2
( 1+ Cot1)
b + 2y ( 1+ Cot1)
__________________

1
m
m
1
0
Lined channel section
for Q <55 m
3
/ s
y
y
1

1
2
1 A = 2(1+y
2
Cot1) + y
2
21
1
2
__
= y
2
(1+Cot1)
P=2yCot
1
+2y
1
= 2y(
1
+Cot
1
)
R=
A
P
__
y
2
(1+Cot1)
2y(1+Cot1)
____________
=
y
2
__
=
y

Closed geometric sections other than circular section are frequently used in sewer
system, particularly for sewers large enough for a person to enter. These sections are
given various names according to their form, they may be egg-shaped, ovoid,
Semi-elliptical, U-shaped, catenary, horseshoe, basket-handle, etc. The complete
rectangular and square are also common for large sewers.

A special geometric section known as hydrostatic catenary or lintearia is the shape of
the cross section of trough, formed of flexible sheets of negligible weight, filled with
water upto the top of the section, and firmly supported at the upper edges of the sides
but with no effects of fixation. The hydrostatic catenary has been used for the design of
the section of some elevated irrigation flumes in UK (United Kingdom). These flumes
are constructed of metal plates so thin that their weight is negligible, and are firmly fixed
to beams at the upper edges.
Hydrostatic Catenary
Cartesian equation: y = a cosh(x/a)

Click here for Geometric elements of channel sections
Geometric elements are properties of a channel section that may be defined entirely by
the geometry of the section and the depth of flow. These elements are extensively used
in computations of flows.
The geometric elements for simple regular channel sections can be expressed
mathematically in terms of the depth of flow and other dimensions of the section. For
complicated sections and sections of natural streams, however, no simple formula can
be written to express these elements, but graphs representing the relation between
these elements and the depth of flow can be prepared for use in hydraulic
computations.


2.1.3 Definitions of several geometric elements of basic importance
are given below
Depth of flow
The depth of flow y is the vertical distance from the lowest point of channel cross
section to the free surface. This term is often used interchangeably with the depth of
flow section. Strictly speaking, the depth of flow section is the depth of flow normal to
the direction of flow, or the height of the channel section containing the water. For a
channel with a longitudinal slope angle , it can be seen that the depth of flow is equal
to the depth of flow section divided by. In the case of steep channels, therefore, the two
terms should be used discriminately.
x
y
90
0
horizontal
Normal and vertical depths

Box
10 , cos =0.9848,thus there would be an error of 1.51%.
y =d cos
=

If x is measured along the horizontal direction instead of the sloping bed, then the
2% error occurs at about 11 S 0.20 or

= = . On the other hand if x is measured

along the sloping bed instead of the horizontal 2% error occurs at
about 16 or S 0.29

= = , which is an extremely steep slope in open channels.
However, there is exception in cases such as spill ways, falls, chutes.


1
1
m =2
m =2
T
P
A Channel cross section
b
A =Area of flow
T =free surface width (m)
m =side slope defined in horizontal to 1 vertical; m:1
m =cot
l
m
0
P =Wetted perimeter is the boundary which is in
contact with the flow (m)
b =bed width in (m)
y =depth of flow
y
Stage
Datum
0

Water surface
Bed
Definition of stage
H (M.S.L)
(Above Mean Sea Level)
Datum
EL 210.00 m
EL 205.00 m
EL 200.00 m

The stage H is the elevation or vertical distance of the free surface above the datum. If
the lowest point of the section is chosen as the datum, the stage is identical with the

depth of flow. Free surface width T is the width of channel section at the free surface.
dA
T
dy

The water flow area A is the cross-sectional area of the normal to the direction of flow.
The wetted perimeter P is the length of the line of intersection of the channel wetted
surface with a cross sectional plane normal to the direction of flow.
The hydraulic mean radius R is the ratio of the water flow area to its wetted perimeter,
A
R =
P
When a shallow channel of b is used and
b
y thenR
2
.
b
b
__
2
y
R
Hydraulic mean radius
Wide Rectangular
y
y
R
dR
dy
__
Trapezoidal
y then R
b
__
2
b R
y R


The hydraulic mean depth D is the ratio of the water area to the free surface
width,
A
D=
T
. The section factor for critical- flow computation m is the product of the
water area and the square root of the hydraulic depth,
A
Z = A D = A
T
. The section
factor S.F for uniform-flow computation in case of Manning formula is the product of the
water area and the two-thirds power of the hydraulic radius
2
3
S.F = AR other wise for
chezy's formula it is i.e.,
2
3
AR . The details of circular channel are given in OPEN -
CHANNEL HYDRAULICS by VEN TE CHOW - pp 632 - 639(1959).
Earlier the nomographs for trapezoidal and parabolic sections were used for specific
side slopes see reference. The geometrical characteristic of the irregular cross section
can be obtained using a set of co - ordinates describing the cross section, with the help
of interpolation between any inter mediate depth. The typical programme is given in the
appendix. The computations can be done either by from top or from the bottom most
point.
Actual area up to depth y =Total area A - dA

Area up to (y +dy) =Area up to y +dA

y
distance
dy
River bed elevation as a fuction of distance from
the river bank


2.1.4 Circular channel
Normalised geometric characteristics are shown in figure. When the flow is full the
hydraulic mean radius is (i.e)

2
d
d 1 A
4
d = =
4 P d 4
which is less than the maximum

hydraulic mean radius which occurs at 0.81d
when relative velocity of the flow is

considered for constant Manning roughness coefficient. similarly it is (click) 0.938d
for
maximum value of
2
3
AR when the discharge is maximum.
do
y
T ___
do
Z
do
2.5
___
D ___
do
A
___
Ao
P ___
Po
R
Ro
___
P
o
=
d
o
A
0
=
d
o
2
___
4
R
0
=
d
o ___
4
Normalized geometric elements for a circular section
Subscript zero indicates full flow condtion
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 0.4
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0.4
y
__
d
0

Problem: Write a computer program to obtain the geometrical elements of a circular
shape channel and obtain the
2/3
2/3
0
0 0
y AR
Vs
d
A R

Compute the geometric elements, area, hydraulic mean radius, hydraulic mean depth
for the following cases:

Rectangular channel: Bed width is 10 m, Depth of embankment is 15.15 m, Depth of
flow is 8.870 m.
Trapezoidal channel: Bed width is 10 m, Depth of embankment is 15.15 m, Depth of
flow is 7.77 m, side slope m:1 =2:1.
Triangular channel: Depth of embankment is 15.15 m, Depth of flow is 9.75 m, side
slope m:1 =2:1.
Circular channel: Diameter is 15.15 m, Depth of flow is 6.47 m.
2.1.5 Natural channel

The depth of flow 7.567 m.

The program could be developed using spread sheet.

The INPUT for the natural channel is as follows
Distance of the embankments form reference Stage of flow (m)
Left embankment Right embankment (m)
2.000 10.000 10.000
3.000 9.000 11.000
4.000 8.500 12.500
5.000 8.000 13.600
6.000 7.000 15.000
7.000 6.300 16.900
8.000 5.400 18.000
9.000 5.000 19.500
10.000 4.300 21.000
11.000 3.900 22.000
12.000 3.000 23.300
13.000 2.700 25.000
14.000 2.200 26.300
15.000 1.900 27.000
16.000 1.300 28.200
17.000 1.000 29.000
18.150 0.700 30.000

The depth of flow =7.567 m


Solution:

*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Distance from reference (m)
Natural channel
0.0 12.0 18.0
24.0 30.0 6.0
4
8
12
16
20


*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Variation of area with depth of flow
Depth of flow (m)
0.0
3.0
6.0
9.0
12.0
15.0
100.0
200.0
300.0
400.0
500.0
600.0

Natural
Triangular
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* *
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Variation of hydraulic mean depth with depth of flow
Depth of flow (m)
0.0
3.0 6.0
9.0
12.0 15.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0


3.0 6.0 9.0
12.0
15.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Depth of flow (m)
Variation of Hydraulic radius with the depth of flow

Table showing the geometrical elements for the above channels (metric units)
Section
y A P T R D
Z A D =
Trapezoidal 7.77 198.800 44.748 41.080 4.434 4.830 437.665
Rectangular 8.870 88.700 27.740 10.000 3.196 8.870 264.316
Triangular 9.750 190.500 43.603 39.000 4.360 4.875 421.324
Circular 6.470 73.488 21.575 14.954 3.397 4.910 163.428
Natural 7.567 58.895 39.0007 15.747 1.504 3.724 114.067
Problem: Compute the geometric elements for the horse shoe tunnel shown in figure
below. Plot the normalised graphs representing the geometrical elements.

Horse shoe tunnel
d
0

If d
0
is 10 m and the depth of flow 7.5 m, what would be the area of flow, wetted
perimeter, hydraulic mean radius, section factor for uniform flow.


2.2 Verify the geometrical elements for Circular channel
2
2 2
4

=

=

2
2
2
2
2
0
2 2
2
Top width of water T
d T
y - = r
2 2
d T
r y -
4 2
d d
T = 2 y -
2 2
d d d
T = 2 y + - 2y
4 2
or

2
d
= 2
4

2
2
d
y
4
( ) ( )
180
2 2

=

=

2yd
2
T = 2 y -y +d T = 2 y d y
T
sin ( 180 - ) r
2 2
or T = d sin d sin
Area of flow = Area of circle - Area above the chord
or

180
2
180 180
2 2 2
42

=

= = =

= =

d T
Area of triangle = x y -
2 2
d d
sin y -
2 2
d
y -
d d d
2
cos( ) or y - cos( ) cos
r 2 2 2
Area of full circle
Area for = x
2
d d

.
( )
8
8 8
8
2 2

2
d d
sin
d
Area of flow = sin


( )
( )
2
2
2
2
1
8
4
2
1
2
2
2
1
8
= =

= = =

d d 1
P x
2 2A
sin
sin
d sin
R =
4
A
Z =A D A
T
1
sin d
A
8
D = =
T
d sin
d A sin
D =
T 8
sin
d sin
D =
8
sin
d
d A
R
d P
Z ( )
( )
15
05
2
2
32
2

.
5/2
0 .
d sin
sin d
8
sin
sin
d
sin
Z


2.3 Difference between Pipe Flow and Free Surface Flow
OPEN CHANNEL FLOW PIPE FLOW
Defines as a passage in which liquid
flows with its upper surface exposed to
atmosphere.
The flow is due to gravity
Flow conditions are greatly influenced
by slope of the channel.
Hydraulic grade line coincides with the
water surface
The maximum velocity occurs at a little
distance below the water surface.
The shape of the velocity profile is
dependent on the channel roughness.
A pipe is a closed conduit which is
used for carrying fluids under pressure.
The flow in a pipe is termed as pipe
flow only when the fluid completely fills
the cross section & there is no free
surface of fluid.
Hydraulic grade line does not coincides
with the water surface.
The maximum velocity occurring at the
pipe centre.
Velocity Distribution is symmetrical
about the pipe axis.

Horizontal
TEL
HGL
Datum
PIPE AXIS
Velocity
head
Piezometric
head
(2)
Piezometer
Z
1
Z
2
hf V
1
2
____
2g
V
2
2
____
2g
P
1
____
P2
____
V
(1)

2.3.1 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL)
Definition: A curve drawn above the datum which has ordinates equal to the piezometric
head at every point is called HGL or Hydraulic gradient.
The vertical intercept between the datum and pipe axis is the elevation head.

the datum and pressure gradient (HGL) is the peizometric head.

the pipe axis and the HGL is the pressure head.

HGL and TEL is the velocity head. Datum and TEL is the total head.

The TEL always falls on the direction of flow because of loss of head. The HGL may
rise or falls depending on the pressure variation in the pipe.

In a pipe of uniform section the velocity head remains the same, if the rate of flow is
constant. hence TEL and HGL are parallel if the pipe axis is horizontal.
HGL is always below the TEL. At point where pressure is equal to the atmospheric
pressure, HGL meets the pipe axis.
Shear stress distribution in pipe flow

Velocity distribution Shear stress distribution


3.1 Continuity equation
Continuity equation represents the law of conservation of mass.
In general for unsteady flow the continuity equation is
(Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow rate out of the system) =Rate of change
of storage.
For steady state condition
(Mass flow rate into the system) - (Mass flow rate out of the system) =0.
Example: Inflow: The flow that is coming into a system or an elemental volume such as
rainfall in y direction, flow entering into the river or a channel.
Outflow: The flow escaping from the system such as evaporation, seepage, water
released from a system.
Elemental volume
Inflow
Inflow
Outflow
Outflow
x
y

Generally, the mass balance is written in all the three directions namely x, y and z.


u v w
0
x x x
inwhich
u,v andwarethevelocity components in x, y, z directions respectively,
is themass density of thefluid. If themass density is constant theabove
equationcan berewritte

+ + =

n as
u v w
0
x x x
If for one dimensional flowit reduces to
u
0
x
Mass
Massdensity
Volume
u
*elemental area=constant
x
Integrating one gets
UA =constant
Volumeratecouldbe express

v=0, w=0 i.e.,

+ + =

( )
3
3
edas m /s. This is generally known as
flow rateor discharge and expressed as cubic meter/second andis
abbreviatedas cumec (m /s).
Q Area*Velocity AV

Q

= =


3.2 ENERGY IN FREE SURFACE FLOW
It is known in basic fluid mechanics that the total energy in ( Newton-meter per Newton )
of water along any streamline passing through a channel section may be expressed as
the total head in meter of water, which is equal to the sum of the elevation (above a
datum), the pressure head, and the velocity head. For example, with respect to the
datum plane, the total head H at a section containing point X on a streamline of flow in a
channel of large slope may be written as
2
V
H cos z
2g
x
x
d
x x
= + +
o
y = d cos
z
90
0
v
2g
Datum
Energy in gradually varied open channel flow
y
x
z
_
Total Energy Line
1
v
2g
__
1
1
y1 = d1 cos
v
__
1
z1
z2
y2 = d2 cos
v
2g
__
1
2
hf
__
Streamlines
Y
Y
Section YY
H
H = z + y +
v
2g
__2
2
2
2

in which z is the elevation of point Y above the datum plane, d is the depth of flow
normal to the bed, y is the vertical depth below the water surface measured at the
channel section, is the angle of the channel bottom with horizontal and
2
V
2g
is the
mean velocity head of the flow in the streamline passing through point X. In view of the
variation in velocity over the depth, the velocity head would be differing. The mean
velocity obtained by integrating the velocity distribution is considered for the entire
section
A
V = v dA
0
. In order to account for the variation of the velocity due to non uniform
pattern of velocity distribution, an energy correction factor is used.

Theoretical uniform flow
velocity distribution
(Ideal)
Linear
velocity
distribution
depth
of flow
y
y
Logarithmic
velocity
distribution
Power
Law
Typical velocity distribution
Inner wall Outer wall C
L
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D STATION C
ISOVELS in open channel bend [Normalised with V ]
Q = 83.5 lps, F = 0.41, R = 103460
e
max
1.30
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall Outer wall
C
L
1.25
1.15
1.10
0.77
1.25
1.30
1.15
1.10
1.00
0.93 0.78
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.08
1.00
0.83
1.15
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.80
Non-Dimensionalised isovels (v/vmax)
0.740
0.775
0.813
0.85
0.888
0.905
0.998
0.665
0.628
0.687
0.722
0.765
0.791
0.825
0.860
0.895
0.963
Section A
Q = 33.61 l/s, F = 0.2457
Section 4
Re = 179574, n = 0.009834


In general, every streamline passing through a channel section will have a different
velocity head, because of the non- uniform velocity distribution in actual flow. Only in an
ideal parallel flow of uniform velocity distribution, can the velocity head be truly identical
for all points on the cross section. In the case of gradually varied flow, however, it may
be assumed, for practical purposes, that the velocity head for all points in a channel
section are equal, and the energy coefficient ( ) may be used for correcting for the
over-all effect of the non-uniform velocity distribution. Thus, the total energy at the
channel section may be written as
2
V
H cos
2
d z
g
= + + .

y
90
0
d

Normal and Vertical depths

for channel of small slope, 0 thus, the total energy at the channel section is
2
V
H= y + z
2g
+ .
The slope of the energy line is denoted by S
f
, the slope of water surface is denoted by
S
w
and, the slope of the channel bottom by S = sin
with an assumption that

sin tan
1

= (See box).

If the value of is taken as
(i) 6 ; sin = 0.1045, tan = 0.1051
tan sin
the difference is 0.0006 then 1
(ii) If 10 , sin 0.1736, tan 0.1763;
= = = difference is 0.0027
cos = cos 0.9848 10

=

Thus there would be an error of 1.51 % when y d . If distance x is measured
along the horizontal instead of the sloping bed, then an error of order of 2%
occurs. If 11 S 0.20 or

= = which is an extremely steep slope in open

channels. However, there is exception in cases such as spillways, falls, and
chutes.

Spillways will have slopes of = 45 to 60

.

In the uniform flow, S S S
f w
= = . According to the law of conservation of energy, the total
energy head at the upstream section should be equal to the total energy head at the
downstream section plus the loss of energy h
f
between the two sections. In other words
2 2
V V
1 2
cos z cos z h
1 1 1 2 2 2 f
1-2 2g 2g
d d + + = + + +
This equation applies to parallel or gradually varied flow. For a channel of small slope, it
may be simplified as
2 2
V V
1 2
z z h
1 1 1 2 2 2 f
1-2 2g 2g
y y + + = + + +
The above equations are known as the energy equation. If 1
1 2
= = and, h
f
=0
then the above equation reduces to
2 2
V V
1 2
z constant
1 1 2 2
2g 2g
y y z + + = + + =
This is the well known Bernoulli (energy) equation.
Problem
(This may be attempted after learning about Hydraulic J umps).
The reservoir level upstream of 50 m wide spillway for a flow of 1350 m
3
/s is at elevation
250 m. The downstream river level for this flow is at El. 120. Determine the invert level
of the stilling basin having the same width as the spillway so that the hydraulic jump is
formed in the stilling basin. Assume that the losses in the spillway are negligible and
also find downstream depth, Froude number, y
1
, y
2
, F
1
, F
2
and E and power
dissipated in this system.

3.3 Basic Momentum Equation
The momentum of the flow passing a channel section per unit time is expressed
by
V
, in which
Q
g
is the momentum coefficient,

3 2
1000 *9.806 9.806 kN
kg m
g
m s

= = =

is the specific weight of water, Q is the
discharge in m
3
s
-1
, and V is the mean velocity in m
3
s
-1
.
As per Newton's second law of motion, the rate of change of momentum in the body of
water in a flowing channel is equal to the resultant of all the external forces that are
acting on the body. Applying this to a channel of large slope (Figure), the following
expression for the rate of change of momentum in the body of water confined between
sections 1 and 2 can be written as
w
y
y
V1
P1
P2
V2
Z1
Z2
W sin
Wcos
P
f
L
1
2
Datum
y
1
1
2
Figure - Momentum equation
_
_

( )
2 1
2 1 1 2 f
Q
V - V =P -P +Wsin-P
g

in which subscripts refer to sections 1 and 2; P
1
and P
2
are the resultants of pressure
forces acting on the two sections; W is the weight of water bounded between the
sections; and P
f
is the total external force due to friction and resistance acting along the
surface of contact between the water and the channel. The above equation is known as
the momentum equation and was first suggested by Belangar.

For gradually varied flow, the values of P
1
and P
2
in the momentum equation may be
computed by assuming a hydrostatic pressure distribution. For a curvilinear or rapidly
varied flow, however, the pressure distribution is no longer hydrostatic; hence the
values of P
1
and P
2
cannot be so computed but are to be corrected. For simplicity, P
1

and P
2
may be replaced, respectively, by
1 1 2 2 1 2
P and P in which and are correction
coefficients at the two sections. These coefficients are called pressure distribution
coefficients. Since P
1
and P
2
are forces, the coefficients may be specifically called force
coefficients. It can be shown that the force coefficient may be expressed as
0 0
1 1
1
A A
h dA c dA
Az Az
= = +

in which z is the depth of the centroid of the water area A below the free surface, h is
the pressure head on the elementary area dA, and c is the pressure - head correction
factor. It can be shown that it is >1.0 for concave flow, <1.0 for convex flow, and equal
to 1.0 for parallel flow.


4.1 Velocity Measurement and distribution
One of the basic components in Hydraulics is the understanding of velocity in the flow
field. Generally the average velocity or the mean velocity is computed using the
continuity equation namely
Q
v
A
= . The velocity varies locally and spatially depending on
the type of channel (straight, steep, bends, meandering, etc.,) and the flow (uniform,
non-uniform, laminar, turbulent etc.,). Therefore it is essential to measure the velocity
vectors in the flow field. There are different approaches for measurement of velocities.
a. Velocity measurements using Hydrogen bubble technique: This technique is used
basically for flow visualisation purposes in the laboratories.
b. Velocity measurement using Laser Doppler Velocimeter:
This is yet another technique to measure the flow field very precisely in the laboratory
using Laser Doppler Velocimeter. This can also give us the turbulence level. The
fundamental requirement for this is the transparent sides of the channel.
c. Velocity measurement in free surface flows in laboratories:
In general, in the laboratories and to an extent in the field, velocities can be measured
using different devices such as Pitot tube (One dimensional), Pitot cylinder (Two
dimensional) and Pitot Sphere (Three dimensional). However, these devices have their
limitations and are restricted to low velocity fields.
d. Stream Gauging:
In case of flow measurements in channels and in rivers different approaches are
adopted. Current meter is used in measuring the flow in canals and in rivers. While
using current meter it is necessary to calibrate. For this purpose the towing tank is used.
The details are given in different links. One of the very popular methods is the velocity
area method. Also float rods are used for estimating the surface velocity. In order to
understand the accuracy of measurements the error analysis is to be carried out.
Some typical Velocity distributions in a river are shown below:

1.524 m
3.05 m
Godavari Western Main Canal - Mile 5/2
Q = 78.96 m
3
/s
Q = 70.68 m
3
/s
Q = 49.21 m
3
/s
0.0
1.0
2.0
0
47427 mm

45897.1 mm
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0FT
1.524 m
3.05 m
Q = 145.96 m
3
/s
Q = 135.67 m
3
/s
Q = 129.73 m
3
/s


0.883
0.898
0.213
0.93
0.96
0.990
0.998
0.805
0.775
0.742
0.62
0.948
0.960
0.970
0.98
0.99
SECTION 7
Q = 1.187 CFS, F = 0.2457, Re = 179574
SET III SECTION 0
O
NON-DIMENSIONALISED ISOVELS (v/vmax)


Inner wall
Inner wall
Inner wall
Inner wall
Outer wall Outer wall
Outer wall
Outer wall
C
L
C
L
C
L
C
L
0.85
1.30
1.25
1.15
1.10
1.30
1.25
1.15
1.10
1.0
0.77
1.30
1.27
0.92
1.00
1.08
1.00
0.95
0.75
1.30
1.25
1.23
1.220
1.00
0.95
1.30
0.80
Station A Station B
Station C
Station D
Isovels [Normalised with Vmax] Q = 71.9 lps, F = 0.44, Re = 95420

Further the maximum velocity does not occur always at the free surface. It occurs below
the free surface due to presence of differential shear distribution on the boundary.
Hence secondary currents play an important role. The isovels reveal the presence of
secondary currents when there are more than one location of the maximum velocities.
Secondary
currents
Isovels
(a) Open channel


The moving boat method, ultra violet measuring technique are the modern
measurements of measuring the flow. In order to access the water resources and to
have proper management it is essential to measure the discharges at various gauging
stations in rivers. This aspect is dealt in detail under river flow measurements.
Moving boat technique
Acoustic Doppler Current Meter
River Flow Measurements
Calibration characteristics of Current Meter: Rating of current meter is to be completed
before it is used in the field.
Towing Tank: Towing tank is used for calibrating (rating) the current meter.

4.2 Discharge measurement by Velocity Area Method
(Chitale, 1974)

This method comprises measuring the mean velocity V and the flow area 'A' and
computing the discharge Q from the continuity equation. The site which satisfies the
requirements such as straightness, stability, uniformity of cross-section is chosen for
discharge measurement. The requirements of the site are dealt with in detail in
standards of the ISI 1192, (1959). The discharge measurement site is then marked by
aligning the observation cross-section normal to the flow direction.
The cross-section is demarcated by means of masonry or concrete pillars on both the
banks, two on each side 30 m apart.
ISI 1192, (1959), "Velocity area methods for measurement of flow of water in open
channels, Bureau of Indian Standards".
4.2.1 Segmentation
The interval at which the depth of water is measured along the cross-section for
channels with different widths is given in Table.
Description of Channel
(m)
Number of Observation
verticals
Maximum width of
segments (m)
Width less than 15 15 1.50
Width between 15 and 90 15 6.0
Width between 90 and
150
15 15.0
Width greater than 150 25 -

The intervals specified are also such that not more than 10 percent and preferably not
more than 4 percent variations in the discharge between two adjacent segments occur.
The discharge through any segment is also not allowed to be more than 10 percent of
the total discharge.
For measurement of velocity, the maximum spacing between adjacent verticals is so
maintained that the mean velocity does not differ by more than 20 percent with respect
to the lower value of the two velocity measurements. In no case less than five velocity
verticals are permitted.

In case of canals allowing the variation of 2 percent in discharge and adopting as 15
verticals as a standard of comparison a lesser number of verticals 15 is adopted. The
verticals for depth and velocity measurements are kept the same according to Table
shown below.
Widths of segments for measurements of depths and velocities in canals
Channel capacity m
3
/s
Approximate surface
width (m)
Number of verticals for
depth and velocity
(a) Above 85 Above 35 11
(b) Between 15-85 Between 15 - 35 9
(c) Between 0 - 15 Between 0 - 15 5

Method of marking segments varies according to the method of discharge observation.
Pivot point method is common, the details of which are available in the ISI : 1192-1959.
Angular, Stadia method and method of linear measurement are also used for locating
depth and velocity verticals under special circumstances.
4.2.2 Measurement of Depth

When velocities and depths are smaller and width up to 0.9 m, observations can be
made using wading or suspension rods. However, when wading observations are found
difficult, sounding rods of wood and bamboo are used. When depths are in excess of
about 4.6 m or current is too swift to permit the use of sounding rod, hand line is used
for depth measurement. But when the depths are large and velocities are high even the
hand-lines cannot be used. Under such circumstances a cable line is lowered by means
of a crane. Echo sounders of indicator as well as recorder type are being used for depth
measurements.
4.2.3 Measurement of Velocity

For the measurement of velocity the current meters are most commonly used. IS: 3910
- 1966 gives specifications for cup type current meter and IS: 3918 - 1966 gives the
code of practice for use of this type of current meter.
To obtain a mean velocity in a vertical, velocity distribution observations can be made at
a number of points along the vertical. This is done when results are required to be
accurate, or for purpose of calibration. In two-point method the velocity observations are

made at 0.2 and 0.8 depth below the surface while in one point method observations is
made at 0.6 depth below the surface. Both the two-point and one point methods are in
common use in India, though sub-surface method comprising making velocity
observations just below the surface is also used during floods when other methods are
not feasible.
In high floods at times, even surface measurement of velocity by current meter may not
be possible, float measurements are then used using surface floats, double floats or
special types of floats (IS 3911 - 1966). Velocity rods (IS 4858 - 1968) are also used
generally for velocity observations in canals. Details of the method are given in IS: 1192
(1959).
In adopting the float method or the surface velocity method in which current meter is
used, a reduction coefficient is used to change surface velocity into mean velocity in
each vertical. Measurements on Indus River in Sind at Mithankot, Sukur and Kotri
during 1911-1920 (Indus River commission records, "discharge, silt, velocity and
miscellaneous observations", parts I to IV, 1911 - 1920 printed at Commission press
1922, part II, pages 1 to108) showed that reduction coefficient varied between 0.74 and
0.92 when the depth variation was from 2.44 to 13.72 m and surface velocity from 0.19
to 5.09 m/s.

The studies in canal were similarly made by Mysore Engineering Research Station at 32
sites. The mean velocity V of the cross-section was obtained by the current meter
whereas the surface velocity was measured using floats.
The following relationship was obtained

V (m/s) =0.8529 V
s
+0.0085
A relationship between the surface velocity Vs and the mean velocity V in terms of
Chezy C has been developed and is given by:
s
V
=1 +2.5 g / C
V

The usual assumption made in practice is that
s
V
=0.85
V
which corresponds to 'C' value
of 52.4 m
0.5
s
-1
.

Theoretical considerations based on the logarithmic velocity distribution law indicate
that the reduction coefficient would be applicable only to a particular stream for which it
has been determined, since it would depend on the relative roughness of the channel,
depth, slope, etc., and hence it would be different for different streams, and for
fluctuating flood stages even in a given stream. It is therefore, recommended by the BIS
that the reduction coefficients should be found out from actual field observations made
by a current meter and only if such determination of the coefficient is not possible during
high flood stages then the reduction coefficient should be extrapolated to the stage from
data collected at lower stages.
4.2.4 Slope-Area Method

In the event of infeasibility of velocity area method due to either rapid rise and fall of
stage or lack of equipment, the slope area method is adopted for rough estimation of
the discharge.
The requirements of the site are mostly similar to those for area velocity method. The
cross-sectional area is measured adopting the procedure as in case of area velocity
method. The velocity formula used is that of Manning, the energy slope for non-uniform
flow . The roughness coefficient value to be used is related to bed material size and
condition of the channel. These recommendations are given in Indian Standards
Institutions IS : 2912 (1964).
4.2.5 Stage-Discharge Relationships

Regular recording of discharges over a period of time is essential for correct estimation
of water resources of river basins and subsequent planning and utilization. Daily
discharge observations over a long period are sometimes not feasible. The estimation
of the discharge is then achieved by using proper stage discharge relation. The method
adopted for the preparation of the stage discharge relationship for the different river
basins as well as the the exhaustive instruction for adopting the method of estimation of
discharge by establishing stage discharge relationship are contained in the Indian
Standard Recommendations IS: 2914(1964).


4.2.6 Details of Existing Indian Standards

A - Stream Gauging:

1. Printed Standards / Under Print:

(a) Measurement/ Estimation, Analysis and Recording:

IS: 1191 Glossary of terms and symbols
IS: 1192 Velocity area methods
IS: 1193 Notches, wiers and flumes
IS: 1194 Forms for recording measurement
IS: 2912 Slope area method
IS: 2913 Flow in tidal channels
IS: 2914 Stage discharge relation
IS: 2915
Instructions for collection of data for
analysis of errors
IS: 3918 Use of current meter
IS: 6059 Weirs of finite crest width
IS: 6062 Standing wave flume-falls
IS: 6063 Standing wave flume
IS: 6330 End depth method for rectangular channels

(b) Instruments

IS: 3910 Current meters
IS: 3911 Surface floats
IS: 3912 Sounding rods
IS: 4073 Sounding weights
IS: 4080 Vertical staff gauge
IS: 4858 Velocity rods
IS: 6064 Sounding and suspension equipment.

Reference:

Chitale S.V., Discharge Measurement - Technology and Data Analysis, Hydraulics of
Alluvial Streams, Central Board of Irrigation and Power, a Status Report Number 3, New
Delhi, J une 1974. Page 13 to 24.


4.3 Radio-active Tracer Technique for Measurement of River
Discharges

The conventional method of measurement of discharge in open channels by adopting
area velocity method necessitates measurement of river cross-section at a site and also
observing velocities on several verticals across the measuring section. But this
procedure may not be feasible in all the cases. The radio-active tracer method (total
count) dispenses with the measurement of cross section and velocities and, where, it is
applicable, is much simpler, cheaper and quicker. These methods have been tested for
measurement of discharge up to 227 m
3
s
-1
, and accuracy as high as 98 percent is
attained. Central Water Power Research Station, Pune in collaboration with Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre, Bombay conducted experiments using (i) radio-active tracer
technique on River Mutha, in the recirculation system of the CWPRS and in River Tapi
and
(ii) Chemical Salt dilution method downstream of tail-race tunnel of Koyna Power House
and in Vaitarni River. The measurement of discharge by these methods require pre-
knowledge of mixing length. The mixing length is defined as the minimum distance at
which the mass transfer and the concentration are equal, i.e.,
c m
d d
c m
=
The mixing length depends upon many factors such as: (i) degree of turbulence, (ii)
geometry of the cross-section, (iii) number and position of tracer injection, (iv) properties
of tracer used, and (v) velocity distribution.
CWPRS, Pune by using the radio isotope method found that in case of Tapi River the
mixing length is 40.23 km for a river discharge of 756 m
3
s
-1
. Further it was also
observed that mixing length is higher in case of side injection compared to the central
injection of the tracer.
Uttar Pradesh Irrigation Research Institute, Roorkee conducted experiments in
mountainous rivers of Himalayan origin. The data obtained from these experiments
showed that the mixing length (
mix
l ) in mountainous rivers varies linearly with the

average river width
o
B in the experimental reach and is governed by the relation
mix o
l KB C = +
in which, K and C are constants and found to be 77 and 120 respectively in a set of
experiments given in Table. The flow rate obtained by dilution method compared well
with that obtained by area velocity method.
Name of
the River
Discharge m
3
s
-1

River
slope
(m/km)
Average
top water
surface
depth (m)
Observed
mixing
length
(km)
Remarks
Ganga
as per
area
velocity
method
(m
3
s
-1
)
as per
dilution
method
(m
3
s
-1
)

Ganga 296.00 319.00 1.21 70.00 4.30
Ganga 136.00 - 1.21 57.00 -
Power
mixing
was not
achieved
Ganga 150.50 147.10 1.21 55.00 4.00
Song 148.50 154.20 4.48 50.00 3.40
Tons 14.00 13.70 5.59 20.00 1.11
Ganga 425.00 453.25 2.00 52.00 4.53
Ganga 771.70 763.00 3.16 136.00 10.10
Song 629.60 640.60 3.16 104.00 9.00
6.20 6.90 7.30 23.20 1.60


4.4 Measurement of flow of water and the limitations of velocity area
method (CBIP, 1978)
Systematic observations of river gauges and discharges have been practiced in some
parts of the country for several decades. In Punjab, Sind, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,
Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal and some other states, rivers have been
regularly gauged. Ganga Basin Water Resources Organization under the administrative
control of Central Water Commission is observing gauges, discharges, sediment
charges in entire of Ganga Basin which is one of the largest basins in Asia. The work
has also been carried out in other river basins such as Mahanadi, Krishna, Cauvery,
Brahmaputra.
4.4.1 Relation between Surface Velocity and Mean Velocity

When surface velocities are measured by surface floats or current meters, a coefficient
is applied to obtain the mean velocity on the vertical. Earlier experiments on different
streams have indicated that this coefficient is not constant and lies between 0.79 to 0.9.
In the Punjab and Sind a large number of observations gave a value of 0.89. This value
was in use in other parts of India. The studies conducted under Research Scheme
sponsored by Government of India, on 24 sites of different canal reaches in Karnataka,
the analysis of a set of 46 observations indicated that the ratio of mean velocity to
surface velocity works out to.
4.4.2 Point of Mean Velocity

Experiments carried out on Sind canals showed that in 79 percent of the cases the
mean velocity occurred between 0.51 and 0.75 of depth on each vertical. Data collected
on 43 sites on the Sukkur Barrage canals was similarly examined. Five verticals were
selected out of a cross-section for purposes of study. Analysis showed that the average
position of mean velocity on the two and verticals was obtained at 0.67 depth, for the
intermediate two verticals at 0.63 depth and for the central vertical at 0.61 depth.
Data of velocity distribution on 951 verticals on the River Indus during the years 1916 to
1932 yielded the following statistical relationship
( )
0.6
V (m/s) =0.3048 1.004 +0.041

in which
0.6
is the velocity at 0.6 depth in fps (foot per second).
Velocity observations made on an equally large number of verticals during the years
1936-38 on the various Sukkur Barrage canals gave the following relationship between
the velocity observed at 0.6 depth and the mean velocity over the vertical
( )
0.6
V (m/s) =0.3048 1.010 - 0.059
in which
0.6
is the velocity at 0.6 depth in fps (foot per second).
4.4.3 Velocity by Float Rods
Cunningham in his Roorkee experiments showed that velocity of the float rod ( )
r
V
would be equal to the mean velocity of a vertical
( )
V when the submerged length of the
rod was 0.95 to 0.927 depth of water, the exact value depending on the position of the
maximum velocity on the vertical. The Indian practice has been to use rods having
submergence of 0.94 depth to account for variations of stream depth along the float
track, the following relation between
( )
V and ( )
r
V has been used.
(m/s) 03048 1012 0116
in which is in FPS.

=

y l
V . V . .
r
y
V
r

where, y is the depth of water in feet and L is the submerged length of the rod in feet.
Lacey proposed the use of a special tabular rod which was named after him. He
suggested that the following formula could be used:
( ) 0.3048 2
080 04
in which and in FPS at 0.8 and 0.4 depth of flow respectievely.
080 04

=

V m/ s
. y . y
. y . y


0.930
0.940
0.950
0.960
0.970
0.980
0.990
V
__
____
V
r
0.6 1.2 1.8 2.4 3.0
Depth of Flow in meter
X is the ratio of Length of the measuring rod to Depth of water
Typical Correction factors for velocity rods for log velocity
distribution (This depends on Manning, n value)
Manning, n = 0.020
X = 0.90
X = 0.85
X = 0.80
X = 0.75
X = 0.70
X = 0.65


4.4.4 Errors in Discharge Measurements in Large Rivers by the
Velocity Area Method

Accuracy of discharge measurement in natural and artificial channels depends upon a
particular method being selected. Out of many practical methods, the one which has
found wide applicability and use in field and project studies is the "Area Velocity
Method". ISO/BIS have brought out standards for adopting this method. Detailed
investigations have been carried out in the past as well as recently for evaluating, the
errors in discharge measurement by the area velocity method.
Measurements of flow in open channels by the area velocity method are subjected to
systematic errors in the measuring instruments and random errors caused by their lack
of sensitivity in the range in which they are used. Random errors can also be due to
pulsations and personal errors during observation. The total error in discharge
measurement by area velocity method comprises components of errors due to width
and depth and velocity measurements which are subject to random and systematic
error of observations, besides the one due to using finite number of verticals along the
entire cross-section.
4.4.5 Error in Width

In the Pivot-point method, which is the standard practice in India for positioning of the
boat at various observation points in a wide river, the position of the station at which the
depth or velocity is to be observed is located by a geometrical layout of points on the
bank or banks of the river. The distance from the bank is not measured, but the boat is
brought to the desired position by aligning it against the cross-section line pegs and
prefixed pivot-point flags on the bank. The error in positioning has been determined by
comparing the distances with those determined by the angular method with the help of a
precise theodolite. The latter method is presumed to yield true distances. Observations
taken on 10 days for a total of 154 verticals have been statistically analyzed and the
mean standard deviation determined. The results are summarized below


Range of width
observed (m)
Absolute error (m) Mean standard
deviation (%)
Remarks
300 to 600 2.34 0.386 From one bank
600 to 1200 6.72 0.564
From each of two
banks

It would appear that with increase in width, the percentage error increases in magnitude
with the same equipment.
Errors due to measurement in width could be minimized by taking segments at equal
distances and the total surface width could be measured with more sophisticated
instruments available now.
4.4.6 Error in Depth
Depth is usually measured by a rigid sounding rod up to a depth of 6 m and by a log line
beyond this depth.
To work out the error in depth, two readings are taken with the same sounding rod at
the same place. The average of these two readings are used for comparison with the
individual readings to work out the standard deviation.
Observations for 10 days for a total of 80 verticals have been statistically analyzed and
the following results are obtained.
Range of width observed
(m)
Absolute error (m) Mean standard deviation
(%)
0.41 to 6 0.039 0.65
6 to 14 0.049 0.35

The percentage standard error would appear to decrease with depth, though the
absolute error increases.
4.4.7 Error in Mean Velocity at Verticals
The normal Indian practice is to measure the velocity at 0.6 depth and take it as the
mean velocity, unless the point of mean velocity is observed by preliminary
observations to be at different depth. This is compared with the mean velocity obtained
by the six-point method, i.e., observing velocities at 0.2, 0.4, 0.6 and 0.8 of the depth
below the surface and as near as possible to the free surface and at the bottom. The
mean velocity was worked out from the following equation

( )
1
2 2 2 2
02 04 06 08
10
V V V V V V V
s . . . . bottom
= + + + + +
Observations for 21 days at different sites for a total of 390 verticals yielded the
following results
Range of velocity Mean standard deviation (%)
0.087 to 1.3 m / sec 4.75%

Error due to Limited Number of verticals:

Investigations by the Rijkswaterstaat show that the standard error reduced
progressively with the increase in the number of verticals, as given in the Table
Table: Progressive reduction in the standard error with the increase in the number of
verticals

Number of verticals Standard error in percent of discharge
8 2.35
10 1.35
12 0.90
15 0.60
20 0.38
25 0.30

4.4.8 Components of Error in ISO/ISI Specifications

When equidistant verticals spaced at 'b' unit apart in a water surface width 'T' are used.
The systematic part of the error in discharge measurement dependent on the number of
verticals was found to be
( )
50 50

T 1
m
b
X b or
m
=
+

in which, ( )
m
X b is systematic error in discharge due to 'm' number of verticals. Random
errors
v
2 2

y
X and X due to velocity and depth after analyzing 43 sets of observations
having approximately 100-200 number of velocity observations on the Maharashtra
canals, Gole et al. (1973) have suggested the following two equations:
3
2
v 2
10
X =
m

and
2
y 4 3
28
X
/
m
=
The average coefficient of variation for horizontal distribution of velocity was obtained as
32 and for mean depth as 5.3 percent.

1 10 100 200
0.5
1.0
5.0
10.0
50.0
100.0
0.1
x
__
2
v
__ m = [
T
__
b
1
-1]
m
x
__
2
v
__ 2
x
2
v
__ ( )
+
_
10
3
m
2
x
2
v
__
__
=
__
x
2
v
__
__
Variation of
with


x
_
2
y
_
1
m
=
_
2
y
_
X
1 5 10 50 100
0.5
1.0
2.0
5.0
10.0
0.1
m is the Number of verticals)
m>70
x
_
2
y
_
Variation of with the number of verticals
m<70

The total error could thus be worked out as
( )
05
1
2 2 2
.
X X b X X
Q m
v y
m

= + +

4.4.9 Intrinsic Error in ISO/ISI Specification for 15/50 Verticals
ISI have recommended 15/50 equidistant verticals for computation of discharge in
channels. It is found that intrinsic errors in discharge due to number of verticals being 15
and 50 are +3.12 and +1.0 percent respectively. The total root mean errors due to
velocity and depth measurements works out to be 3.8 and 1.4 percent respectively.

0 10 20 30 40 50 60
7.0
8.0
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
Showing theoretical curve for X
m
and experimental
data as a function of number of verticals
Number of verticals m =
w
b
-
1
__
ISO data
Carter and Anderson
Delft data
CWPRS data

4.4.10 Effect of Deployment on Random Errors
2 2
X and X
v y

When the 'm' number of verticals are deployed according to a particular scheme for
precisely locating the depth (cross-section) profile, it is expected that it would have
some effect on the estimate of
2 2
X and X
v y
. Since deployment help in getting the
nearest estimate of the representative profile and hence coefficient of variation in
velocity and depth over a cross-section, it will affect the contribution to the random error
in so far as the estimate of the coefficient of variation in error are compared to the true
value. But errors are inversely proportional to m and hence the difference is not

significant unless 'm' is very small. To verify the above hypothesis
2 2
X and X
v y
were
estimated for different deployment of vertical and the total contribution against the mean
function for
( )
2 2
v y
1
X and X
m
(See Figure). It is found that the difference in the
2
Q
X for
different deployments from the mean curve for equidistant verticals are not significant
and for all practical purposes the theoretical curve may be utilized to get the contribution
of random errors due to sources velocity and depth.
X
2
q
__
__
0 5 10 50 100
2
5
10
20
50
100
0.1
0.2
0.5
1.0
3.0
X
2
q
__
__
=
10
3
__
m
2 +
28
m
4 3
(
__
/
)
m>30
1
__
m
=
1
__
m
x
2
y
+
x
2
v
( )
X
2
q
__ __
__
m<30
m number of verticals
m
Variation of with


Table Shows computation of
m
X from experimental data (CBI&P)

Sl.No % error with
reduced number
of verticals, E
m
=8
Number of
verticals for
standard
discharge
m
X Intrinsic error
in standard
discharge due to
verticals (%)
1 3.74 11 4.17
2 8.17 11 7.17
3 4.76 10 4.55
4 5.68 16 2.94
5 0.99 16 2.94
6 5.21 16 2.94
7 1.22 20 2.38
8 0.82 21 2.27
9 0.89 41 2.19
10 18 3.06

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2
Computation done by CBI & P (Central Board of Irrigation and Power)
E 330
293
1
115 293
2
113125
336 306
336 306 642
m m
m m
m
m
Average .
Set Error .
E . .
or X X .
X X . but X .
X . . . percent
=
=

+ = +

=
= =
= + =

in which,
( )
m m
X X is the estimate of the error due to reduced number of verticals,
relative to the standard discharge.
4.4.11 Total Error
Q
X
Total error could be worked out using Equations (9) and (10) for
2 2
X and X
v y
and the
theoretical value
m
X of for respective cases. Experimental data on total error obtained
independently by Delft, Carter and Anderson and worked out at CWPRS, Pune using
data of Maharashtra with equidistant verticals, are compared. The experimental data
conformed closely to the semi-theoretical equation on total error obtained at CWPRS.
Area velocity method results in biased estimation of the discharge which is in
agreement with the findings of Delft and Dickinson. Theoretical mean bias, i.e.,
systematic error could be estimated as a function of the number of verticals or mean

width of the equidistant segments. Theoretical mean bias has been found to be close to
independently observed data of Delft, Carter and Anderson and CWPRS.
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
X
Q
Deift data
Carter and Anderson data
ISO specification (CWPRS) data
MERS data
m (Number of verticals)
Variation of total error with number of verticals


Deift data average
CWPRS data
MERS data
APERL data
(assuming Xm as error
in standard discharge)
0
20 40 60 80 100 120 140
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0
12.0
Theoretical mean error (percent)
100 32 19 15 11 9 7 5 4 3
Number of vertical or
(
w __
b
-1
)
Figure showing the variation of mean observed error against theoretical error

The above method is applicable subject to following limitations:
(a) Above method is applicable subject to the data are free from systematic errors in
observations. If data are expected to contain errors which are systematic in nature,
while estimating the total error, the amount of systematic error entering into
observations as per standard formula of root mean error is to be accounted.
(b) For computation of random error due to sources, velocity and depth, attempt should
be made to compute them by using ISO/BIS formulae. When repetitive observations are
not available then only the error may be worked out for actual deployment.
(c) When no observational data are available the empirical formulae (9) and (10) may
be used for determining the approximate total error in discharge measured with finite
number of verticals spaced nearly equidistant. This assumes that channel is straight
and has got characteristics similar to canals whose data have been used in evolving the
above formulae.

(d) The value of
m
X could be obtained from figure for a given number of verticals with
equal spacing. The formula
50b
W
could be used only when end segment spacings are
nearly equal. For completely unsymmetrical deployment this formula cannot be used.
4.4.12 Error in Area Measurements

As often contemplated, the error in estimation of area contributes the major source of
error in this discharge estimation by area velocity method.

The total error in area can be obtained using

2
2
50 1
y
A
b
X X
W m

= +

Since the systematic error (50b/W) is dominant one in
A
X appreciable error reduction is
possible if number of sounding verticals are more than the velocity verticals. But the
gain in accuracy is not possible if area velocity method is used, since this method uses
the information on the same number of depth verticals which are having velocity
measurements to obtain
i
' q s. Moreover, in view of systematic error due to discrete
number of verticals being estimated precisely, there is no need for increasing the sound
verticals, since with the same number of 'm' verticals the correction in discharge could
be made to gain the accuracy equivalent to very large number of sounding verticals,
made use for minimizing
A
X .


4.4.13 Optimum Deployment

The Bureau of Indian Standard has laid down that the segmentation for measurement of
depth in channels having different widths would be as given in Table.
Sl.No Description No. of verticals in
a cross-section
Maximum space
of verticals in m
1
Width of channel not
exceeding 15 m where the
river bed changes abruptly
15 1.5
2
Width of channel from 15 to
90 m
15 6.0
3
Width of channel from 90 to
180 m
15 15
4
Width of channels greater
than 180 m
25 -

The spacing of verticals required a variation in discharge between adjacent segments
not to exceed by 4 to 10 percent, preferably the smaller. It further stipulated discharge
through any segment not to exceed 10 percent of the total discharge. For making
velocity observations the maximum spacing of verticals has been so specified that the
mean velocities on the adjacent vertical would not differ by 20 percent with respect to
higher values of the two. In no case there could be less than five verticals. These
specifications are for natural streams like rivers, drainage channels, etc.
Closer the interval of verticals, the more accurate will be the calculated discharge.
Moreover, allowing a variation of 2 percent in discharge and adopting 15 verticals as
standard of comparison a lesser number of verticals than 15 was recommended for
adopting so as to enable a discharge observation to be completed in a working day of 6
to 8 hours. The criterion recommended for the number of depth and velocity verticals of
Channels of various capacities has been indicated in Table.
Sl.No Channel capacity m
3
s
-1
Approximate
surface width (m)
No. of verticals for
depth and velocity
1 Above 85 Above 35 11
2 Between 15 - 85 Between 15 - 35 9
3 Between 0 - 15 Between 0 - 15 5

It was also recommended to increase the number of depth verticals to have a better
appraisal of the cross sections of the channel in regard to its trend of silting or scouring.

If it is desired to determine the errors in discharge with 15 verticals, and also to
determine the minimum number of verticals for measurement of canal discharge in
order to restrict this error to 2 percent, more number of depth and velocity verticals
should be observed.
Total errors in CBI&P deployment for different ranges of discharge varies from 3.9
percent for 11 verticals to 8.10 percent for 5 verticals.
If discharge with 50 verticals is taken as standard the error in discharge for CBI&P
deployment would be of the order of 2.75 percent, 3.5 percent and 6.7 percent for the
number of verticals 11, 9 and 5 respectively. Since intrinsic error in discharge due to
number of verticals, measured with 15 vertical works out to be of the order of +3
percent, the CBI&P deployments for different ranges of discharge with less than 2
percent error, investigated earlier in fact leads to total intrinsic error, systematic in
nature of the order of +5 percent. With the knowledge of the systematic error in CBI&P
deployment, the necessary correction could be made to get unbiased estimate of true
discharge.
The data obtained from the Godavari Canals and the K.C. Canal were analyzed and it
was found that for the range of discharges between 14m
3
/s to 85 m
3
/s , 5 or 7 verticals
gave discharge values within a range of 5% error, as compared to 15 verticals. For 85
m
3
/s to 225 m
3
/s range, with 9 verticals, the deployment being four verticals at either
ends upto quarter length and a central vertical, discharges which were within and error
of 4% were obtained.

45897.1 mm
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
0.0FT
1.524 m
3.05 m
Q = 145.96 m
3
/s
Q = 135.67 m
3
/s
Q = 129.73 m
3
/s

1.524 m
3.05 m
Q = 78.96 m
3
/s
Q = 70.68 m
3
/s
Q = 49.21 m
3
/s
0.0
1.0
2.0
0
47427 mm


0
0.5
1.0
1.5
1.524
3.05
Q = 28.49 m
3
/s
Q = 52.78 m
3
/s
Q = 73.60 m
3
/s
Nizamsagar canal M 2/0
Distance
4.0233.6 mm
Q = 82.5 m
3
/s

4.4.14 A note on the Optimum number of verticals to ensure required
accuracy in current meter gauging
Instructions regarding the choice of number of verticals for current meter gauging have
been drawn up by i) the I.S.I. ii) the C.B.I.P and iii) the C.W.P.R.S. The objective of
these instructions is to ensure that the order of accuracy attainable by following these
instructions is 2%.
The first point that attracts attention as for as the recommendations of the various
authorities is the relative importance of a vertical and its spacing according as it is used
for measurement of velocity or depth, the latter being intended to enable the
measurement of area.
While the C.B.I.P. appears to imply that the number of verticals and their deployment
recommended applies to the measurement of both depth and velocity, the C.W.P.R.S.
is categoric that depth measurement is essential on verticals spaced at 60 cm intervals
irrespective of the requirement of the verticals for velocity observations. The I.S.I. on the
other hand bases its recommendation for the number of verticals for depth
measurement on the criterion of variation of area from segment to segment and for
velocity measurement on the criterion of variation of mean velocity on a vertical to the

mean velocity on an adjacent vertical. In all these cases the requirement implied
appears to be a determination of such spacing wherein the variation is gradual and
unidirectional. In an artificial channel where essentially uniform and stable conditions of
flow may be expected, the elaborate requirement of the I.S.I. which included primarily
stream gauging in its scope may be neither be necessary nor desirable.
Figures indicate the velocity measurement details for Nizamsagar canal, Godavari
central main canal and Godavari western main canal for a wide range of discharge
(28.49 m
3
/s to 145.96 m
3
/s). The velocity in plan is normalized with respect to mean
value obtained at 0.6 times at the depth to the mean value at the vertical.
Reference:
Central Board of Irrigation and Power- Problem No. 4 APERI design of channels 1978.


4.5 Errors in Depth Measurement in high velocity flows in
laboratory using Point Gauges: (Jayaraman and Sethuraman,
1973)

Water depth measurements in high-velocity flow in open channels are subject to
inaccuracies due to the presence of surface pulsations that are a characteristic feature
of super critical flows. Since the depths of water in supercritical flow in laboratory
channels are usually small, the importance of accurate depth measurement cannot be
overemphasized.
The most common device for measuring the depth of a supercritical flow in a laboratory
flume still continues to be the good-old point-gauge. Although more sophisticated
electrical probes are available for depth measurement, these invariably give rise to flow-
disturbance when immersed in a high velocity channel-flow. In order to improve the
accuracy of point-gauge measurement, Brock suggested the provision of pressure taps
on the bed of the flume and a visual check of the tip of the point gauge at a depth
setting corresponding to the mean hydro static pressure indicated by the pressure cell.
This method evidently cannot be applied for plotting surface profiles, as in transitions,
where a large number of depth measurements scattered all over the flume may be
necessary. Moreover, the assumption that the mean pressure indicated by the pressure
cell corresponds to the hydrostatic pressure for the mean depth needs experimental
verification in view of the unknown dynamic effects of the water surface pulsations.
A simple and inexpensive instrument, the Gauge Contact-Time Indicator that can be
used with any point-gauge to improve the accuracy of depth measurement.

7.56 (Mean)
32%
0 20 40 60 80 100
50%
7.0
7.2
7.4
7.6
7.8
7.49
Percentage contact time
Water level fluctuations at Froude Number equal to 3.5
(after Jayaraman and Sethuraman)

Figure shows an experimental plot of the gauge reading (with the channel bed as
datum) versus percentage contact time at a Froude number of 3.5.
Repeated tests made by more than one observer showed that for a specified contact
time of 50%, the gauge readings could be repeated to an accuracy of 0.1 mm, even
though the water surface had pulsations of about 8 mm amplitude.
The following conclusions are drawn regarding the use of the Contact Time Indicator for
point-gauge measurement in high-velocity flows:
1. Point-gauge measurement in high-velocity flows by visual observation of the tip of the
gauge inevitably involves a positive error in the measured depth of flow. This error can
be serious when the flow-depth is very small as is often the case in the study of
supercritical flow through channel expansions.
2. By specifying a particular contact time - say 50% - the technique of depth
measurement using the point -gauge can be refined and standardized. Errors due to

persistence of vision, that are present in a visual observation of the tip of the gauge, are
eliminated.
3. The use of the Contact Time Indicator eliminates the "personal error" inherent in
point-gauge measurement in high velocity-flows. With this instrument, all observers can
get readings within 0.01 cm.
4. Where a large number of depth observations are to be made in a single test-run,
such as in the plotting of surface profiles in supercritical transitions, the instrument
reduces considerably visual fatigue of the observer. The observer need not even look at
the water surface while making depth observations.
Reference:
R. J AYARAMAN and V. SETHURAMAN "IMPROVING THE ACCURACY OF POINT-
GAUGE MEASUREMENT IN HIGH-VELOCITY FLOWS", J ournal of Hydraulic
Research, Volume 11, Number 4, 1973, Page Number 317 to 323.


5. Secondary Current and Spiral Flow
The curve of constant velocity for rectangular and triangular cross-section obtained by
Nikuradse are shown in Figures 1 and 2. In all cases the velocities at the corners are
comparatively very large with stems from the fact that in all straight pipes of non-circular
cross-section there exist secondary flows. These are such that the fluid flows towards
the corner along the bisectrix of the angle and then outwards in both directions. The
secondary flows continuously transport momentum from the centre to the corners and
generate high velocities there. Schematic diagrams of secondary flows in triangular and
rectangular pipes are shown in Fig. 3. It is seen that the secondary flow in the
rectangular cross-section which proceeds from the wall inwards in the neighborhood of
the ends of the larger sides and of the middle of the shorter sides creates zones of low
velocity. They appear very clearly in the picture of curves of constant velocity in Fig1.
Such secondary flows come into play also in open channels, as evidenced by the
pattern of curves of constant velocity in Fig. 4. The maximum velocity does not occur
near the free surface but at about one fifth of the depth down of the free surface.

Fig. 1. Curves of constant velocity for pipe of rectangular cross-section,
after Nikuradse
Fig. 2. Curves of constant velocity for a pipe of equilateral triangular
cross-section after Nikuradse

a b
Fig. 3. Schematic representation of Secondary flows in pipes
of triangular and rectangular (open channel) cross-section


water level
Fig. 4. Curves of constant velocity for a rectangular
open channel after Nikuradse

Secondary circulation is that flow wherein the velocity can be resolved into two
components, one in the longitudinal direction of the channel and the other in transverse
to the direction of the channel. The transverse component of the velocity gives rise to
the secondary circulation. It can occur in both straight and curved channels and for
different reasons. Secondary circulation is affected by temperature gradients, sediment,
turbulence, non-uniformity of boundary shear, and the curvature of streamlines.
Secondary circulation has been associated with turbulent flow in prismatic channels
wherein the shear at the boundary is not constant. In straight circular pipes as shear at
the boundary is constant for both laminar and turbulent flow the secondary circulation

has not been observed. When secondary circulation does occur, it seems to take place
in an even number of cells as depicted in Figure 5. The non-uniformity of sediment
across a channel has been associated with secondary circulation.
Fig. 5. Secondary circulation in straight channel

Secondary current is the flow taking place in transverse direction of the main flow. The
secondary currents are of four types viz.
1. The 'weak' secondary currents in straight-non-circular channel sections and in pipes
due to boundary resistance (figure 5).
2. Secondary flow developed due to non-uniform bed configuration as in case of alluvial
channels.
3. The ' strong ' currents caused in bends due to centrifugal force.


SPIRAL FLOW
O
y
OUTSIDE WALL
INSIDE
SECTION ON A-A
ILLUSTRATION OF SECONDARY FLOW AND SPIRAL CURRENTS
IN A 90 BEND

4. Secondary currents due to the unsteadiness of the oscillating boundary layer.
The occurrence of the maximum velocity filament in a straight channel just below the
free surface (see figure below) to the findings of secondary current.

Secondary
currents
Isovels
(a) Open channel
(b) Equivalent closed conduit
Comparison of Open Channel Flow with Closed-Conduit Flow
The lens shaped figure is drawn such that it is orthogonal to each isovel. It may be noted
that the maximum velocity occurs slightly below the free surface. On the lens shaped line
no velocity gradient exist. The shear on the free surface is negligible and their is no shear
resistance to balance the component of the weight of the prism along the main flow
direction. The equivalent closed conduit is symmetrical about the central line and the
shear stress is distributed along the boundary line.
0.750ySo
0.750ySo
0.970ySo
y
4y
Side Slope, m: 1 = 1.5 : 1
Tractive force distribution obtained using membrane analogy
This distribution varies depending on the cross section and material

Gibson, explained the origination of the secondary current. Darcy, Cunningham, Sterns,
Moseley, Francis and Wood (Thandaveswara, 1969) recognized the presence of this
secondary current and superposition of the main flow leads to spiral flow. If there is any
slight disturbance in approach flow conditions instead of double spiral, then single spiral
exists. Kennedy and Fulton established that the secondary current has a definite effect
on the frictional resistance of the channel.
The second type of secondary currents were observed by Schlichting, J acob, Schultz
Grunov. The projection of spheres from the surface is just similar to the spherical sand
particles fixed uniformly over the surface, then this type of secondary current can be
expected when the sand roughness is used.
The flow pattern which exists behind an obstacle placed in the boundary layer near a
wall differs markedly from that behind an obstacle placed in the free stream. This

circumstance emerges clearly from an experiment performed by Schlichting and shown
in figure. The experiment consisted in the measurement of the velocity field behind a
row of spheres placed on a smooth flat surface. The pattern of curves of constant
velocity clearly shows a kind of negative wake effect. The smallest velocities have been
measured in the free gaps in which no spheres are present over the whole length of the
plate; on the other hand, the largest velocities have been measured behind the rows of
spheres where precisely the smaller velocities.
d
5d
1
2
3
3
2
1
10d
10d
10d
5d
6.00
5.75
5.50
5.25
5.00
4.75
4.50
4.25
4.00
V
[m/s)
measuring
station
Isovels behind a row of spheres as measured by Schlichting. Secondary flow
in the boundary layer is marked behind (1), as calculated by K. Schultz-Grunow.
In the neighbourhood of the wall, the velocity behind the spheres is larger than
that in the gaps. The spheres produce a "negative wake effect" which is explained
by the existence of secondary flow. Diameter of spheres d= 4mm

When the spacing of roughness is close, the wavy water surface will not exist as the
formation of vortices will be confined to roughness elements and forms a pseudo-wall
and does not affect the main flow.

s
y
k
Isolated - roughness flow (k/s) - Form drag dominates
s
The wake and the vortex are dissipated before the next element
is reached. The ratio of (k/s) is a significant parameter for
this type of flow


s s
Wake interference flow (y/s)
j
j
j
Quasi smooth flow - k/s or j/s becomes significant acts as Pseudo wall
s
y
k
y
k
s s
s
j
k is surface roughness height
s is the spacing of the elements
j is the groove width
y is the depth of flow
Concept of three basic types of rough surface flow
When the roughness elements are placed closer, the wake and the vortex
at each element will interfere with those developed by the following
element and results in complex vorticity and turbulent mixing. The height
of the roughness is not important, but the spacing becomes an important
parameter. The depth 'y' controls the vertical extent of the surface region of
high level turbulence. (y/s) is an important correlating parameter.
Quasi smooth flow is also known as skimming flow. The roughness elements
are so closed placed. The fluid that fills in the groove acts as a pseudo wall
and hence flow essentially skims the surface of roughness elements. In such
a flow (k/s) or (j/s) play a significant role.

In the following paragraphs 3rd type of secondary current has been discussed briefly.
The third type of secondary currents will come into picture while the fluid flows in a
curved channel. The fluid in a curved channel will be subjected to centrifugal force. Due
to this centrifugal force, a pressure gradient normal to the direction of the main flow is
created. Then the particles near the inside wall are thrown outside and they reach the
outside boundary moving in transverse direction. Thus a sort of centripetal lift will be
created causing the heaving up of the fluid. If the flow is irrotational and the fluid enters
with uniform velocity into bend, then it is analogous to the potential vortex.

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN POTENTIAL FLOW
IN A CURVED CHANNEL
r
Vr =CONSTANT
O
r
i
r
c
B
v
r
0

But in actual case due to the presence of shear stress at the boundary, the velocity of
main flow decreases abruptly at the boundary setting a velocity gradient in the boundary
layer. It may be observed that the energy in the boundary regions is less than in the
potential zone. It follows that at the outside of the bend the pressure intensity falls away
abruptly towards the wall, unless a secondary flow takes place in the direction of outer
wall. Continuity equation requires an inward flow along the side walls to compensate
since the pressure gradient normal to the wall is exactly opposite to that of potential
motion.
The spiral flow motion induced by the centrifugal force is very pronounced and irregular
in the bend. The complicated pattern of flow is caused by the superposition of
secondary current in the bend over the spiral flow of the approach channel. The spiral
flow of bend begins as a lateral boundary current near the point where the stream line
curvature begins and at the bottom inside corner of the bend.
This type of spiral motion also called helicoidal flow and was recognized by Thomson in
1876 and was demonstrated by him in the laboratory in an 180 circular bend with
rectangular channel section in 1879. This was supported further by Engles, Beyerhams
and others. During 1883 to 1990 several researchers while investigating the flow

characteristics in meanderings observed the action of scouring and deposition in the
river bends.
Several investigators (refer to Thandaveswara's Thesis, 1969) mostly conducted the
experiments in channel whose aspect ratios were of the same order of magnitude. Thus
the mean flow occurring was essentially three dimensional in character.
But Betz, Wilcken, Maccol and Wattendrof conducted experiments in two dimensional
channel (rectangular conduit). Watterdrof showed the potential character of the spiral
flow and drew the following conclusions.
(i). There is only slight increase in channel resistance due to the presence of bends as
indicated in pipe bends.
(ii). The velocity distribution follows free vortex law.
(iii). Rayleigh's stability criterion based on the calculation of mixing length and exchange
factor showed the instability and increased mixing at the outer walls of the curved
channels and decreasing mixing and stability at the inner wall.
(iv). If the depth to breadth ratio is large enough so that the lateral currents occupy only
a relatively small part of the area of the cross-section near the bottom and if form losses
are ignored near the bend, then the bend loss scarcely exists.
5.1 Strength of spiral
The term "Strength of Spiral" is defined as the percentage ratio of the mean kinetic
energy of the lateral motion to the kinetic energy of flow and is denoted by
xy
S .
( )
2
xy
2
xy
m m
xy
2 2
V
2g V
S = * 100 = * 100
V V
2g

The strength of secondary current can be qualitatively estimated to be proportional to
the extent of distortion of isovels. The concentration of velocity near boundary means
the secondary flow concentration near boundary. This bears the hypothesis that the
mechanism of secondary motion arises out of the boundary shear turbulence.
It may be noted that the approach flow plays an important role and has a direct effect on
the number of spirals, strength of spiral and other characteristics of spiral flow.

Following equations relate the deflection angle
1
along the centre line of bed, geometry
of the channel and the hydraulic properties of flow, in channel bends.

(i) For a smooth rectangular bend
(ii)
1
1
c
1 e
0.25
e
P
r
tan =17.4 for 2000 R 45000
R

(iii) For a smooth triangular channel
1
1
c
1 e
0.25
e
P
r
tan =13.4 for 2000 R 15000
R

In general,
1
c
1 3
0.25
e
P
r
tan =K
R

If the channel is wide then
1
0 5
c
1 4
0.25
e
y
r
tan =K
R
.

But Russian authors found that for a rectangular wide channel
1
c
y
tan =11
r

In general for a wide rectangular channel,
( )
1
1 0 e
c
b
tan =K R
r
for smooth flow
1 0
c s
b y
tan =K
r K

for rough flow
a
1 0
c
b
tan =K f
r


where f =friction coefficient and "a" is an exponent >1. The last equation can be
expressed in Chezy terms of coefficient
8g
C=
f

in the form
a
1 0
2
c
8g b
tan K
r
C

=

The value of
1
tan can be assumed to indicate the strength spiral to some scale.
Reference:
Thandaveswara B.S., "Characteristics of flow around a 90 open channel bend",
M.Sc (Engineering), Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, 1969.

6.1 Energy and Momentum Coefficients
Generally, in the energy and momentum equations the velocity is assumed to be steady
uniform and non-varying vertically.
This assumption does not introduce any appreciable error in case of steady (or nearly
uniform) flows. However, the boundary resistance modifies the velocity distribution. The
velocity at the boundaries is less than the velocity at a distance from the boundaries.
Further, in cases where the velocity distribution is distorted such as in flow through
sudden expansions/contractions or through natural channels or varying cross sections,
error is introduced.
When the velocity varies across the section, the true mean velocity head across the
section,
( )
2
2g
m
, (the subscript m indicating the mean value) need not necessarily be
equal to 2g
2
V . Hence, a correction factor is required to be used for both in energy
and momentum equations (See Box). The mean velocity is usually calculated using
continuity equation.
Keulegan presented a complete theoretical derivation of energy coefficient and
proved that the selection of and (Momentum coefficient) depends solely on the
concept of the coefficient of friction which is adopted. If the equation of motion is derived
by the energy method, the concept underlying the friction coefficient in that equation is
that of energy dissipation in the fluid per unit length of channel and is the proper
factor to use. To understand proper use of factors and and the energy principle or
momentum principle is used appropriately.
Box:
The weight of flow through an element of area dA is equal to dA g ; the kinetic energy
per unit weight of this flow is 2g
2
V ; The rate of transfer of kinetic energy through this
element is equal to
dA . dA (1)
g
g

=
2 3
2g 2g

Hence, the kinetic energy transfer rate of the entire flow is equal to
A
dA (2)
2g
0
g
3


and the total weight rate of flow is equal to g dA
Q = VA g g
3
mass
mass density =
volume
kg
mass = * volume =
m
3
x m
3

=
= =
=
= =
2 2
2
kg
Force N mass * acceleration
kg m m
= kg *
s s
kg m N
specific weight g *
m s m
3
=
Velocity distribution in a Trapezoidal Section
Real ideal
Velocity v Velocity v
A
A
Velocity distribution along section AA

The mean velocity is by definition equal to Q / A. Hence, the mean velocity head, or
kinetic energy per unit weight of fluid, is equal to
A
dA
2
2
V 2g
0
(3)
2 2 VA g g
m

= =

3

in which is a correction coefficient to be applied to the velocity head as calculated
from the mean velocity. It is also known as the Coriolis coefficient. Hence
N
3
i
i =1
3 3
A
dA
dA
0
i = 1.....N (4)
V A V A

=

3

Similar approach can be applied for computing the momentum term VQ . The rate of
transfer of momentum through an element of area dA is equal to
2
dA V ; Following
similar logic as above the momentum correction coefficient can be obtained as
A
N
2 2
i
i =1
0
2
dA dA
i=1,2....N (5)
2
V A
V A

=

is also known as Boussinesq coefficient.


In general, the coefficients are assumed to be unity for channels of regular geometrical
cross sections and fairly straight uniform alignment, as the effect of non uniform velocity
distribution on the computation of velocity head and momentum is small when
compared to other uncertainties involved in the computations. Table shows the values
of and and for selected situations.
Table: Values of and for selected situations (after Chow, 1958)
Channel

Minimum Maximum Average Minimum Maximum Average
Regular
channels,
flumes,
spillways
1.10 1.20 1.15 1.03 1.07 1.05
Natural
streams
and
torrents
1.15 1.50 1.30 1.05 1.17 1.10
River
under ice
cover
1.20 2.00 1.50 1.07 1.33 1.17
River
valley,
over
flooded
1.50 2.00 1.75 1.17 1.33 1.25
The kinetic energy correction factor and momentum correction factor can be
expressed as (see box).
N
3
i
i =1
3 3
A
dA
dA
0
i = 1.....N (4)
V A V A

=

3
A
N
2 2
i
i =1
0
2
dA dA
i=1,2....N (5)
2
V A
V A

=


6.1.1 Determination of and
Many investigators have done extensive investigations on the computation of and .
Chow (1958) has summarised different equations for determination of and for
various velocity distributions.
2
2
Rehbock assumed a linear velocity distribution and obtained
1
1
3

= +
= +

and for logarithmic velocity distribution.
2 3
2
max
max
1 3 2
1
V
in which 1 , V is the maximum velocity and V is the mean velocity
V

= +
= +

=

If the velocity distribution is along a vertical is logarithmic, then the relation between
and , as shown by Bakhmateff, is that exceeds unity by about one-third of the
amount by which exceeds unity. If 1+ n and 1 3 + n then
2
3
+
=

approximately. Generally, the coefficients and are greater than one. They are
both equal to unity when the flow is uniform across the section, and the farther, the flow
departs from uniform, the greater the coefficients become. The form of Equations (4)
and (5) makes it clear that is more sensitive to velocity variation than , so that for a
given channel section, > . Values of and can easily be calculated for
idealized two-dimensional velocity distributions.


n
0 0
y
y

=

0
v
n 1
=
+

( )
3
n 1
3n 1
+
=
+

( )
2
n 1
2n 1
+
=
+

( )( )
( )
n 3 2n 1 1
1 3n 1
+ +
=
+

1
If n
7
=1.043 =1.015
=
,

The high value of appropriate to laminar flow is of limited interest, since laminar flow
is rare in free surface flow problems. For turbulent flow in regular channels seldom
exceeds 1.15. In view of the limited experimental data on values of , the question
always arises whether the accuracy attainable with channel computations warrants its
inclusion!.
A practical method of arriving at the values of and for other than and idealised
velocity distribution is a semi graphical and arithmetical solution based on planimetered
areas of isovels plotted from data measurable at the cross section. Measured velocities
are plotted to draw the Isovels. The Isovels are constructed for each cross section and
cross sectional areas, A , of each stream tube are calculated with planimeter and
computations performed.
6.1.2 The Methods of computation of and may be classified as
1. Theoretical Methods
Based on experimental studies Strauss in 1967, has given empirical formulae for
computing and for general channel section based on the velocity distribution
given by the following equation.

1 n
V=ay
in which v is the velocity at a point located at a height y from the bed a is a constant
and n is an exponent such that 1 n .
and can easily be computed using following equations , if the velocity distribution
is known.
3
A
dA
0
V A

=
3

A
2
0
dA
2
V A
=

Strauss states that the general velocity distribution of the type given by above equation
covers all possible distributions by suitably choosing the value of n. In the limiting case
when n the velocity distribution tends to become rectangular. At the other
extreme when n=1, the velocity distribution is linear for which case =2 and =1.33.
Strauss showed that
( )
( )
1 1 1
1 1 1
=
=
f n, ,B ,
f n, ,B ,

in which n is the exponent of the velocity distribution, and,
1
is normalized depths, B
1
is
the normalized width of free surface to bed width,
1
is normalized bed width of berm
(including) to channel bed. The velocity distribution plays a dominant role in influencing
and and in trapezoidal channel in addition to
1
T
B =
b
. For rectangular channel the
exponent n of velocity distribution has a dominating effect. But Strausss method has
limited practical utility. It is not always true that the same velocity distribution prevails
along all the verticals of the cross-section, especially in non-rectangular channels. Also

this method is not applicable when there is a negative velocity zone over the cross-
section as in the case of a diverging channel, a bend or a natural channel.
Theoretical uniform flow
velocity distribution
(Ideal)
Linear
velocity
distribution
depth
of flow
y
y
Logarithmic
velocity
distribution
Power
Law
Typical velocity distribution

2. Graphical Method
In Velocity area method, the flow area is divided into number of grid cells and local
velocities are measured using one of the measuring devices and finally integrating one
will get the average velocity. The velocities are measured at the intersecting grid lines
(nodes). Example: a1, b1, c1 etc......a5, b5.......e5.
The average velocity over the elemental area is v
cell
.

Grid for measuring Velocity
a b c d e
1
2
3
4
5
dx
dy
i
i+1
j
j+1
Co ordinates of the nodes are (i, j), (i+1, j), (i+1, j+1), (i, j+1)
v(i, j) + v(i+1, j) + v(i+1, j+1) + v(i, j+1)
_______________________________________
Corresponding velocities are v (i, j), v(i+1, j), v(i+1, j+1), v(i, j+1)
Average velocity of the cell vcell =
_
4

Average velocity of the flow
( )
y b
cell
0 0
1 v dA
v v dy*db
A A by
in which dAis the elemental area of the cell

=
=

The other alternative is to draw the isovels (isovel is a line having the same value of
velocity sometimes it is also known as isopleths) assuming the linear variation between
two values and interpolating the value in between two nodes. It may be noted that the
velocity would be zero on the solid boundary. Hence the gradients are sharper very
close to the boundary. Typical isovels are shown in Figure. In this method, velocities are
measured at several points of cross-section and the lines of equal velocities called
isovels (also called isotachs) are drawn as shown in Figure.

0.3505
0.2987
0.2499
0.3639
Q = 17.95 l/s
y = 0.332 m
= 1.041
= 1.01
Graphical Method

While drawing isovels it is assumed that the velocity varies linearly between two points.
Next the area within each isovel is plain metered. Assuming that the velocity through the
area bounded by, two isovels is equal to the average of their values and and are
calculated using the following expressions.

a
1 a
2
a
3
a
4
A
v
v
2
v
3
v Vs elemental area
Graphical Method of determining and ( , , ) av av
2
av
3

3
3
A A
3 3
dA
dA
(4)
AV AV
=

and
2
2
A A
2 2
dA
dA
= (5)
AV AV


Rehbock used a graphical method and reduced the computational work in the above
procedure. After planimetering the areas within each isovel, he plotted the curves of
v,v
2
, and v
3
against the corresponding planimetered areas as shown in Figure. It is
evident that the areas under v
2
, and v
3
curves are equal to
3
dA
and
2
dA

respectively. V, and are computed as shown in the box.
0 4 8
12 16 20 24 28
Graphical method of computing V, and
0
4 8 2 6 10
0
2 1
3
0
4
8
12
0
4
8
12
0
4
8
12
v
3
, m
3
/s
3
v
2
, m
2
/s
2
v, m/s
__
Shaded area = A
0
Shaded area = A
1
Shaded area = A
2


0 1 2
y
0
1
1
2
2
3
Shaded areas A , A , A are planimetered.
The average velocity
shaded area A
V v dy=
y
shaded area A
Similarly,
V y
shaded area A
and =
V y
=
=

6.1.3 Grid Method
In this method, the flow area is divided into suitably chosen grids an velocities at the
centers of gravity of these grids are measured as shown in Figure 3. Assuming that the
effective velocity through each grid is equal to that at the center of gravity of the grid,
the quantities da
,
2
da
,
3
da
are computed. In particular if the grids are so

chosen that their areas are equal, the computational work become relatively easier.
However, for greater accuracy the size of the grid should be chosen as small as
possible. Also near the boundaries, relatively smaller grids are to be chosen. The
advantage of this method is that it is less time-consuming than the graphical method as
the actual velocities need not be calculated and isovels need not be drawn. . For
purposes of comparison, and for rectangular channel shown in the above figure
are computed by this method and are given in the following Figure.

= 1.041
= 1.024
0.2188
0.333
0.35
0.361
0.357
0.338
0.325 0.364
0.364
0.364
0.364
0.364 0.364
0.357
0.262 0.252
0.359
0.361
0.365
0.366
0.378
Grid Method
Q = 17.95 l/s
y = 0.332 m


6.1.4 Methods based on the use of empirical formula
Assuming a linear velocity distribution law Rehbock has proposed the following
formulae for approximate values of and .
2
2
1 ; 1
3

= + = +
In which
max
1
V
=
Assuming a logarithmic velocity distribution law proposed the following expressions.
2 3 2
1 3 2 ; 1 = + = +
In which
max
is the maximum velocity and V is the mean velocity.
It should be noted that the above approximate formulae are applicable only when the
flow is free from any reverse flow occurring over any part of the cross-section of flow.
6.1.5 Computation of and for Reverse Flow
In case of the reverse flow one of the four methods presented above is directly
applicable. If the reverse flow is occurring over any part of the cross-section of the flow,
and can be calculated using either the graphical or the grid method. While using
these methods it should be noted that the velocity in the reverse flow region should be
assigned a negative sign and all the computations should be done taking the sign also
into consideration.
6.1.6 Values of and in Several Practical Cases
Actual values and in many practical cases (which are frequently met with in
Hydraulic Engineering) are presented in Table I. Some of these values are listed by
OBrien and Hickox OBrien and J ohnson and King. They are reproduced here along
with several other cases for the sake of a comprehensive table of and values.

Sl.
No.
Channel Dimensions Hydraulic
elements
Coefficients Remarks
width
(m)
Max.de
pth (m)
Hydraulic
Radius
(m)
Area
(m
2
)
Critical
depth
(m)
Mean
velocity
(m/s)
Graphi
cal
Rehb
ock
Grap
hical

1 0.60 0.862 0.222 0.519 0.198 0.320 1.20 1.10 1.07
2 1.00 0.862 0.3250 0.895 0.216 0.53 1.22 1.20 1.08
Rectangular
channel 0.9144
m above weir
and
obstructions
upstream
3 1.00 0.874 0.3249 0.893 0.219 0.365 1.41 1.37 1.12
4 1.01 0.429 0.2316 0.431 0.496 2.56 1.07 1.04 1.03
Simson Tunnel
- centre of
straight reach
49.98 m long
5 10.54 3.23 1.86 23.27 1.42 1.01 1.10 1.07 1.05
6 1.987 1.50 0.6309 2.898 0.76 1.48 1.07 1.03 1.034
Horse shoe
conduit straight
reach
7 159.4 3.81 2.438 4.055 1.91 1.024 1.35 1.43 1.121
Rhine 365.76
m below bridge
on a long curve
8 2.59 1.38 0.6949 3.429 0.685 0.886 1.06 1.02 1.01
9 2.67 1.22 0.6492 3.009 0.658 0.874 1.04 1.04 1.014
10 2.74 0.914 0.548 2.19 0.600 0.792 1.04 1.03 1.014
11 2.71 0.618 0.411 1.415 0.53 0.658 1.04 1.02 1.010
12 2.65 0.460 0.326 1.014 0.499 0.569 1.04 1.03 1.012
Sudbury
Aqueduct with
a bottom slope
0.000189
13 0.264

0.053 0.35 2.31 1.161
Computed with
Bazin series 10
14 0.244

0.0366 0.14 0.205 1.138
Computed from
Nikurade's data
15 1.286 0.762

1.07
Series (E)
schoder and
Turner
16 1.286 1.524

1.08
Series (I)
Schoder and
Turner - Run
54 to 58.
17 1.286 1.524 1.60 Series I ibid
18 1.286 1.524 2.08 Series I ibid
19 1.286 3.07

1.80
Series D
Schoder and
Turner Runs
101 to 105
20 1.286 2.743

2.00
Series D, L, M.
Schoder and
Turner
21

1.528 1.105
Triangular
channel
22

1.665 1.225
Trapezoidal
channel
23 1.365 1.085 Pipe
24 1.460 1.164 Shallow ditch
25 1.422 1.136 Natural channel
26 0.45 0.0911

1.222
Experiment
number 2C -
Rajaratnam
Muralidhar

27 0.45 0.350

3.72 2.14
Diverging
channel
28

1.76 1.41
Rectangular
open channel
bend
29 0.61

15.40 5.00
Maximum
and in a
hydraulic jump
with an inflow
Froude number
of 7.4.
30

3.87
At the outlet
section of a
draft tube
31

7.40
Spiral flow
under a model
turbine wheel
(Serial No. 1 to 20 are from O'Brien and J ohnson, Enr, Vol. 1113, page 214 - 216, 1934
August 16 th after J agannadhar Rao and others).
From the table it may be seen that values are larger in non-rectangular channels
compared to rectangular channels and also that the values for natural channels are as
high as 1.422. When there is a reverse flow in the cross-section, the values of are
still larger. The value in the case of a diverging channel is 3.72. For spiral flows a value
of as high as 7.4 has been quoted . All these examples show that there are several
practical cases in which the neglect of and in hydraulic flow computations for a
proper assessment of energy and momentum at any flow section may lead to large
errors.
6.1.7 Variation of and along the Hydraulic jump
The variation of and along the length of hydraulic jump is given in figure below.
J agannadha Rao (1970) conducted the experiments in a flume of 0.6 m width at Indian
Institute of Technology, Kharagpur. The data given is for the case of a hydraulic jump
with an approach flow Froude number of 7.4.

x
______
y2-y1
0
15
0
- 0.25
0.5
1.0
5
10
0.75 0.25
0
- 0.25
0.5
1.0
0.75 0.25
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Jump Profile Roller Zone
x
______
y2-y1
Variation of and along the hydraulic jump


6.1.8 , for Flow in Natural Channels
The natural channels can be subdivided into distinct regions, each with a different mean
velocity.
Isovels in a single channel is nearly 1.15
1
2
3
2 Main channel (MC)
3 1 and
channel in the flood plains
Berm
Berm
Typical Cross Sections of natural channel
natural channel: River
2.0

( )
( )
( )
3 3 3
1 2 3
2 2 3
1 2 3
1 2 3

1 2 3

3
V
1 2 3

1 2 3

2
V
1 2 3

1 2 3
V

1 2 3
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A

+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +

1
3
n = 0.035
1
2
4 m
n = 0.015
1
2
2.5 m
n = 0.035
1
3
S0 = 0.001
5 m 10 m
COMPOUND CANAL CROSS-SECTION
10 m

This is particularly true in time of flood, when the river overflows on to its flood plains, or
"berms,". These are known as Compound channel. In this case there are in effect three

separate channels. The mean velocity over the berms will be less than that in the main
channel (MC), because of higher resistance to flow (basically due to, smaller depths
over the berms , and due to the higher roughness in the berms. This variation in mean
velocity among the different flow zones (Main channel and berms) is mainly responsible
for values of much higher than those produced by gradual variation within a given
section, so much higher as virtually to nullify any contribution to the value of
produced by gradual velocity variation. However, it is usually accurate enough to
compute by assuming the velocity to be constant within each subsection (zone) of the
waterway; then the following may be written.
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
3 3 3
1 2 3
3 3 3
1 2 3
1 2 3
2
3 3 3
1 2 3
3
1 2 3
N
3
i = 1

1 2 3

3
V
1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3

1 2 3 1 2 3

1 2 3

=
i i i
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A
A A A A A A
A A A
A A

+ +
=
+ +
+ +
=
+ +
+ +

+ +

+ + + +
=
+ +

( )
N
2
i = 1
N
3
i = 1
Similarly expression for can be obtained.
i
A
i

( )
2
2 2 2
1 1 2 2 3 3
1 2 3
+ +

V + +
A A A
A A A

=
in which

1 1 2 2 3 3
V

1 2 3
A A A
A A A
+ +
=
+ +
.
When flow resistance formula (Manning, Chezy, other formulae) is combined with the
above equations numerical values of , may exceed much higher than 2 under certain
situations. Generally, the value is taken as 1.0 when the information is lacking.


References:
1. Chow Van Te Open Channel Hydraulics, McGraw Hill Publications, 1958.
2. Henderson F.M. Open Channel Flow, MacMillan Publishing Company, 1966.
3. J aganadha Rao, M.V., Lakshmana Rao, N.S., and Seetharamiah, K. "On the use of
Energy and Momentum coefficients in Hydraulic flow computations" - J ournal - Irrigation
Power CBIP , Volume 27, part- 3, pp 315 - 326, 1970.
4. Strauss.V. The Kinetic Energy Correction Factor and the Momentum Correction
Factor in Open Channels. Proceedings of Twelfth Congress of I.A.H.R., Vol.1, Sept
1967,pp.314-323.
5. O' Brien, M.P. : "Discussion on stream flow in general terms" by Casler", Trans.
A.S.C.E. Vol. 94, 1930, pp. 42 - 47.
6. O' Brien, M.P. and J ohnson, J . W. : "Velocity Head Connections for Hydraulic Flows".
Engineering News Record. Vol. 113, No. 7, pp. 214 - 216, Aug. 16, 1934.


6.2 Energy, Momentum coefficients for different velocity
distributions

Rehbock obtained
1) For Linear Velocity Distribution
{ }
( )

= +
= + =
= +
=
+ +
= =
max
2
2
V
in which
V
Given:
=>
Substitution for " the expression for " ",
- 1
=1 +
3
+2
= (Linear relation)
3
2
2
2
1
1 , 1
3
1
1
"in
3 1 2
3 3
Linear velocity distribution
V
max
y
o
y
v
v __
Vmax
=
y
yo
__
1 1.6 2.2 2.8

1 1.2 1.4 1.6

The plot is shown below
Kinetic energy correction factor
1.1
1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
2.0
2.1
Scale
X-axis 1 cm = 0.1
Y-axis 1 cm = 0.1

(2) He obtained for Logarithmic Velocity Distribution the following equations.

( )
( )

= +
=> =
=> =
2
2
V
Kinetic Energy correction factor,
Momentum correction factor, = 1 +
2.5
in which =
Given : = 1 +
Substituting for " " in the expression for " ",
=1 + 3 -1
2 3
2
*
1 3 2
( 1)
1
v
( )

=> =
3
3 / 2
-2 -1 = 1 + 3 ( - 1 ) - 2 ( - 1 )
2
3/2
3 2( 1) 2

1.0 1
1.1 1.237
1.2 1.421
1.3 1.571
1.4 1.694
1.5 1.793
1.6 1.8705
1.7 1.929
1.8 1.969
1.9 1.992
2.0 2
2.1 1.993
2.2 1.971
2.3 1.9355
2.4 1.887
2.5 1.826
2.6 1.752
2.7 1.667
2.8 1.57


The plot is shown below
Relationship between and
=1+3
2
2
3
=1+
2
1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
1.2



6.2.1 Derivation of relationships

=

=

n
Assuming a wide channel with the two - dimensional velocity distribution given by
y
sin and
2y
y
determine " " and " " ( as a function of exponent n in second case). Hence show
y
0
0
v
V
v
V
( )
=
=
=
- 1
that (a) For laminar case and
-1
n+3 (2n+1) - 1
(b) for turbulent case .
-1 (3n+1)
Solution:
y
Case ( a ) : sin
2y
where is the velocity at a depth of " y " from boundary
2.76
0
v
V
v

y y
0
0
, y is the total depth of flow in wide channel.
Let B the width of wide channel.
y
= sin
2y
1
Mean velocity = V = dA
A
y y 1
V = sin B dy = sin dy
By 2y y 2y
-2y
=
y
0 0
cos
0
0
0
V V
v
V
V
V
{ }
{ }
y
0
y
y

2y
y -2 -2
=
2y 2
- 2
=
2
V =
0
cos cos cos(0)
0 1
V V
V
V



6.2.2 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
:
{ }

=
=
=
y
3 3 3
3
0
y
3
0
3 2
2 2
2
3
y 1
= dA = sin B dy
2 y
V A
By
y
= sin dy
8 y 2 y
y y y
sin sin sin
2 y 2 y 2y
y y
sin cos 2A = 1- 2 sin A
y 2y
y y
sin
2y y
y
sin
2 y
3
3
1
2
cos 1 2
1 1
cos
2 2
0
v V
V

= =

+ +

=
2
y y y y
sin sin sin
2 y 2 y 2 y y
y y y 1 1
= sin sin
2 2 y 2 2 y 2 y
sin ( A+B ) +sin (A -B )
sinA cosB =
2
y y
sin s
2 y y y y
sin
2 y 2 y
1 1
cos
2 2
cos
cos

=
3
y y
in
2 y y
2
y y 1 1
= sin sin
2 2 y 2 2 y
y y 1 1
= sin sin sin (- A) = -sinA
2 2 y 2 2 y
y
sin s
2 y
3
3
1
2

0
y
3
y y y
in sin
2y 2y 2 y
y y y
= sin sin sin
2y 2y 2 y
y
= sin dy
8y 2y

3
0
1
cos
2
3 1 1 1
2 4 4


( ) ( ) ( )
{ }

+

+

0 0 0
y y y
3 3 3
y y y
y y y 1 1
= sin dy - sin dy+ sin dy
8y 2y 4 2y 4 2y
y y y y y y
=
8y 2y 2y 2y
y y y
=
8y 6 2
y
=
8y
3
0 0 0
3
3
0 0 0
3
3
3 1
2
2 2 2 1 1 1
cos cos cos
2 4 3 4
0 1 0 1 0 1

{ } { }
+ =
=
o
2
y y y -y -3y
6 8y 6
y
=
8y 6
=
6
3
3 2
6
2
8
6


6.2.3 Momentum correction factor
{ }

=
=

o
o
o
y
2 2
2
0
2
y
2
0
2
2
0
y
2
0
2
y 1 1
= dA= sin B dy
2 y
2
V A
B y
y
= sin dy
4y 2 y
A = 1-2 sin A
y y
sin
2 y y
y
sin dy
4 y 2 y
=
2
2
2
cos 2
1 1
cos
2 2
0
0
V V
V
[ ]
{ }
= =

o o
0
0
y y
0 0
0
y
2
y
0
0
2
2
2
y
dy dy
4y y
y y
= y sin
4y y
y
= y - 0 )
4y 2
y
=
4y y
=
0
2
2
1 1
cos
2 2
1 1
2 2
1
( (0 0)
2
8
1
1
6
1
1
8

2
8

2
6
2.76
6 8



=

n
n
y
case (b ):
y
where velocity at a depth " y " from boundary, y is the total depth of wide channel.
Let B the width of wide channel
y
=
y
Mean velocity =
v
V
v is the
v V
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )

y y
n
n
n n+1
0
0
y
n+1 n+1
n+1 n+1
1
V = dA
A
y 1
V = B dy = y dy
B y y y
y y
=
n+1 n+1
y y
=> V =
n+1
Kinetic energy correction factor :

0 0
0
.
0
v
V
V
V V
V
{ }
( )
( ) ( )
( )
0
n
o
y
3n
3
3 3n
o
0
y
3n
3n
0
y
3n+1 3n+1
3n+1 3n+1
0 0
y 1 1
= dA = B dy
y
V A
B y
n+1
n+1
= y dy
y y
n+1 n+1 y y
=>
3n+1 3n+1 y y
n+1
=> =
3n+1
3
0
3
0
3 3
0
3
0
3
0
v V
V

{ }
( )
( )
0
y
2n
2 2
2 2n
0
y
n
2n
0
y
2n+1
2n+1
Momentum correction factor
y 1
= dA B dy
y
V A
B y
n+1
n+1
= y dy
y y
n+1 y
=
2n+1 y

2
0
2
2
0
1
0
V V
V
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )

+ +
= =
+
2n+1
0
2n+1
3 2
2
n+1 y
=
2n+1 y
n+1
=> =
2n+1
n n n+1-3n-1
n+1
(3n+1)
3n+1
n n+1-2n-1 n+1
(2n+1)
2n+1
n+ 3 2n+1

n+1)
If n =
2
2
3
2
0
3 3
1
1
1 2
1
1
1 (3
( )
{ }
( )
{ }
+
= =
+
=> = =
+
= =
+
=> = =
1
7
n+1
1
n+1
*
7
n+1
1
n+1
7
3
3
2
2
1
1
7
3
3 1
1.4927
1.0449
1.4285
1
1
7
2
2 * 1
1.3061
1.0158
1.2857


Example:
Obtain and for the velocity distribution given below
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
0
1
2
0
h 1
3
3
3 3
0 0
1
3 2
0
y
u = 0.4 + 0.6 , h=1.0,
h
Solution:
1 1
u = udy 0 4 0 6
h 1
y
0.4 y + 0.6
2
= 0.7 m/s
1 1
= u dy = 0.4+0.6y dy
u h 0.7 *1
1
= 0.064+0.216y 0 432 0 288 dy
0.343

y
. .
h
. y . y

= +

=

+ +

1
4 3 2
0
1
0.064 +0.216y 0 432 0 288
0.343
= 1.18
y . y . y

= + +

Problems:
1. The velocity distribution ( in m/s ) in an open channel 2m deep can be
represented by the equation,
0
y
v(y) = 0.6 +1.4 (
y
1/2
)
Calculate the energy correction factor. Here in y is the height above bed and
y
o
=2m.
2. In a channel of trapezoidal cross section the velocities were measured at mid
depth at various sub areas. Compute the average values of and for a given
cross sections.
105 m
2 : 1
2 : 1
15 m
2.8 m/s 2.9 m/s 3.0 m/s 3.1 m/s 3.1 m/s 3.0 m/s 2.9 m/s
2.8 m/s
y = 10 m


3. For an assumed velocity distribution
*
30y
V 5.75V log
K

=

Prove that
2 3 2
1 3 2 1 and = + = + in which
max
max
V
1, V is the maximum velocity, Vis the mean velocity
V
. =

6.3 Comparison Between Momentum and Energy Equation
Theoretically when the flow is gradually varied, energy and momentum equation should
yield same results. Consider a gradually varied flow. The pressure distribution in the
sections is taken as hydrostatic, the channel bed slope as small. For a rectangular
channel of small slope and width b, in a short reach the expression for pressure forces
can be written as
2
1 1
2
2 2
1

2
1
and
2
Force due to friction can be written as
f f
P by
P by
If P
=
=
h by =

in which is the friction head and
'
f
h y is the average depth, or ( y
1
+y
2
) / 2. The
discharge through the reach is equal to
( ) 1 2
1 2
1
V V
2
Also, the weight of the body of water is

sin
Then the momentum equation, after substituting these expressions simp
Q by
W byL
z z
and
L
= +
=
=
2 2
'
1 2
1 1 1 2 2 2
lifies (see box) as
V V

2 2
f
z y z y h
g g
+ + = + + +
2 2
V V
1 2
z z h
1 1 1 2 2 2 f
1-2 2g 2g
y y + + = + + +
This equation appears to be practically the same as the energy equation (Bernoulli
equation). However, the energy loss given by momentum equation is due to external
forces whereas the loss given by energy equation is due to internal forces. One is a
vector quantity and other is scalar quantity. However, if the flow is uniform, then h
f
=h'
f
if
the difference between and is ignored. Similarity ends here. There are cases where
either momentum equation or energy equation can be used with the continuity equation.


Momentum Application
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 2 2 '
2 2 1 1 1 2 f
2 2
2 1
2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2
y +y V +V V +V
Q = b =by
2 2 2
W = byL= Specific weight * (Volume)
z -z
sin =
L
V +V 1 1
by V - V = by - by + by Lsin - h by
g 2 2 2
by 1
V V V V V V
2g

+ =

2 2 ' 1 2
1 2 f
2 2
2 2 ' 1 2 1 2 1 2
2 1 1 2
2 1 2 2 1 1 1 2 1 2 f
2 2
2 2 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 1
2 1 2 1 1 2
z -z 1
by - by + by L - h by
2 2 L
divided by b
y +y y +y y +y y 1 1
V V V V V V y - y + z - z h
2g 2 2 2 2 2
y +y V V V V V V 1 1
y - y +
2 2g 2g 2g 2g 2 2

+ =

+ =

( )
2 2
'
1 2 1 2 1 2
f
1 1 2 2
2
2
'
2 2 2
1 2 1 1 1
f
2 1 1 2 1 2
2 2
2 1 1 1
1 2
'
1 2
f
1 1 1 2 2 2
y y y y y +y
z + z z z h
2 2 2 2 2
Simplifying
V V V V V V
y -y z z h
2g 2g 2g
V V V V
If we can neglect 0
2g
V V
z z h
2g 2g
y y

+

+ =

+ + = + + +


7.1 Pressure Distribution
The atmospheric pressure is impressed on the free surface boundary. Hence, the
reference pressure on the free surface is taken as zero pressure. The pressure
distribution in free surface flows is governed by the acceleration including gravity. Thus
Euler's equation in s and n directions can be written as
( )
( )
s
n
p Z a
s
p Z a
s

+ =
+ =

m direction
binormal
rectifying
plane
tangent s direction
normal
plane
stream line
osculating
plane.
n direction
(Principal normal)

The direction of the normal to s direction is towards the plane Centre of curvature is
considered as positive.
Thus the acceleration a
n
is given by
2
n
v
a
r
=
in which v is the velocity of flow along the streamline, r is the radius of curvature of the
streamline.
(i) If a
n
is zero then (a) v =0, no flow and (b)r , the streamlines are straight
lines.
(a) v =0, then
( ) p z 0
s
p
z constant.
+ =
+ =


h =h
s
h
Hydrostatic pressure distribution in parallel flows

At free surface
p
0
= , hence constant =z
1

Therefore, at any point x below the free surface, the pressure p
x

x
x
p
the distance from the free surface say 'h'
p h
=
=

h
Ho
X
h
P=
Straight Gravity Dam

Thus, the pressure varies linearly with depth from free surface and is known as
hydro static pressure distribution.

h
y
Hydrostatic
a
n
y
g
___
h


(ii) In general, when the flow is in the channel with small slope bed , then the
streamlines are nearly parallel to the bed. The vertical depth and the depth
normal to boundary are nearly same. Hence, one can assume the hydrostatic
pressure distribution to be valid.
(iii) In case of large channel slope, expression for pressure can be written as
Pressure at a point
x
can support the weight of the fluid.
x
x
P x y xcos
or P ycos

=
=

y
A
A
A'
A
A'
c B B'
h = y cos
2
y
Pressure distribution
on A'C
Pressure distribution in parallel flow in channels of large slope

If h is the total depth normal to the boundary, then the vertical depth d can be related
to h =dcos
2
p
hcos dcos
= =
Thus the hydraulic grade line does not match with the water surface.
(iv) Pressure distribution over curved boundaries.
In field situation when the flow has to pass over a spillway, smooth curves are
provided near the crest. Similarly for energy dissipation the buckets are provided.
The streamline have a large curvature. Hence, pressure distribution requires to be
converted. The curves could be either convex or concave. Theoretically this flow is
known as curvilinear flow. The curvature introduce appreciable acceleration
components or centrifugal force normal to the direction of flow. Thus the connection

for the hydrostatic pressure distribution is to be introduced and thus it can be written
as
s s
h h c h h c = + = for convex.
r

concave and convex profile on spillway


hs
c
h
A
c
h
B
B'
h = hs - c
Convex surface: Centrifugal force
opposing Gravity force
Example: Spillway Crest
Non Hydrostatic Pressure distribution
hs
c
h
c
h
A
B B'
Concave surface: Centrifugal force
in the same direction of
Gravity force
Example: Flip Bucket
Non Hydrostatic Pressure distribution
h = hs + c

n n
n
n
s
2
n
a a p p
z r c, for Concave 1 y for Convex section
g g
For a Concave vertical section
a p
y 1
a
thus h=h c in which c =
g
v
In a curvilinear flow a
r

+ = + =

= +

=
2
v
c =
gr
If the variation of v w.r.t to r is known, then acceleration could be evaluated.
The following three situations arise in the field
(i) v =constant and equal to mean velocity.
c
(ii) v = (free v
r
2 2
0.5
0.5
ortex)
(iii) v =rc (forced vortex)
v v
(iv) , R is the radius of curvature at the mid depth.
(r d 2) R
=
+


Problems:
Show that for a circular spillway bucket having a radius of
curvature R the effective pressure distribution is
(a) If the velocity is constant over thedepth y it can be shown that the
pressure at any
( )
2
2
c
c
c
c
cp 2
c
c
point r and is
p v r
r R y cos ln
g R y
(b) Effective piezometric head.
y 1
v ln
y
R
1
R
h Z ycos
h
gR cos
R

= + +

= + +

1
V
__
y
R
c
Flow in a bucket


Example:
Compute the overturning moment due to pressure on a retaining wall
soln: (i) Assume to be small
P
y
3
__
y
y

Force acting on the retaining wall, P =Area of pressure triangle.
=
2
1 y
y y
2 2
=
Overturning moment =P * distance from the base at which P is acting
2 3
1 1 1
y * y y
2 2 6
= =

(iii) If is not negligible, y =ycos
2

( )
2
2
2
4
2 3
4 4
ycos
y
P cos
2 2
y y y
over turning moment cos * cos
6 3 6

= =
= =


7.2 Pressure correction coefficients
( )
( )
A
0
A
0
s
A
s
0
A A
s
0 0
A
0
Az hdA
1
hdA
Az
but h h C
1
h C dA
Az
1 1
= h dA C dA
Az Az
1
1 C dA
Az

=
=
=
=
+
= +

A A
0 0
2
s
Show that
1 1
hvdA 1 cvdA
Qy Qy
in which is the pressure distribution coefficient.
dv
c= , d is the depth of flow in the section.
g r
Solution: h=h +C
Head recorded in a curve =static pressure cor
= = +

( )
A
0
A
0
A A
s
0 0
A A
s
0 0
rection factor.
pressure =Mass of water * depth
= g v dA h
Also pressure is yQ g
Thus yQ g = g v dA
1 1
v dA h v dA h C
Qy Qy
1 1
h v dA + v dA C
Qy Qy
= = +
=

A
0
s
1
1 v dA C
Qy
for uniform flow h vdA Qy.
= +
=


8.1 Specific energy equations for rectangular channels
Specific energy in Open channel is defined as the energy per
N m
N
of water at any
section of a channel measured with respect to the channel bottom. Thus it is
the total energy with z being zero.
A
E
Total Energy E
r
Z
A
d
d
b
section A-A
Specific energy equation-
explanation of symbols.
See also Notation Table
Datum
V
__

Notations
r
E =Total energy above datum =
2
V
z + d cos +
2g

E =Specific energy =
2
2
2
V q
d cos +
2
2
d cos
g
gd

+ =

Q =Discharge, b =channel width, d =flow depth,

q =Discharge per unit width =Q/b,

tan =Bed slope, =Velocity coefficient, g =Acceleration due to gravity

Thus specific energy can be written as
2
V
E = d cos +
2g


The concept of specific energy as it applies to open channels with small slopes is given
below.
2
2
2
Total energy equation is
p v
z cons tan t
2g
In other words it can be rewritten as
v
y z cons tan t
2g
If z 0 then
v
E y
2g

+ + =
+ + =
=
= +

which indicates that the specific energy is the sum of the depth of water and the velocity
head.
8.1.1 Specific energy diagram

Solution of the specific energy equation for rectangular channels

Consider a specific energy equation for the case of a rectangular channel.
2
v
E y
2g
= +
2
2
2
2 2
Disch arge Q V A
Q
Therefore V
A
Q Q
V
A
b y
in which b is the width of the channel and y is the depth of flow.

=
=

=

=

Substituting this in the specific energy equation it can be written as
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2 2
2
2
2
Q
E y
2gy b
Q
Defining q
b
Q q
Then E y y a constant
2g
2gb
E y y constant

=
=
= =
=


The above algebraic equation is a cubic equation and there are three routes for y for
given specific energy E. Out of which two are positive roots and one is negative root. i.e.
y<0 which is physically impossible. Therefore it is only an imaginary solution. The two
positive depths are called alternative depths. Normally indicated as y
1
and y
2
for
supercritical and sub critical condtions and are known as low stage and high stage
values of depths.
This is graphically shown in Figure, where the specific energy is plotted against the
depth, for a given discharge per unit width, rendering the familiar representation.
d
depth
E<E
c
E=E
c
E>E
c
two imaginary roots
one negative real root
two positive real roots
one negative real root
Specific energy where E=dcos + (q /2gd )
2
2

When
c
E E > (minimum energy for a given q) three real unequal roots are obtained:
two positive ones (sub critical and supercritical depths) and a third one negative (no
physical meaning). When
c
E E = the two positive roots become equal and this depth is
the critical depth. When
c
E E < the two positive roots become imaginary and the third
one remains negative.

Figure below shows the variation of the specific energy as a function of depth when the
discharge per unit width changes. when q increases the corresponding critical depths
increase and the positive and negative limbs of the function move away from the origin.
The opposite applies when q decreases. When q=0 the critical depth is equal to zero,
the sub critical depth equals E / cos and the supercritical depth (and the negative root)
are equal to zero.
B
A
C
45
o
q1
q2
q3
q3 > q2 > q1
SubCritical flow
SuperCritical flow
y
1
y
2
y
c
Specific energy E
Imaginary
Specific energy diagram

The Specific energy curve is confined between two asymptotes namely y =E and y =0.
The first asymptote is at 45 with respect to abscissa. However, if the effect of the bed
slope of the channel is considered the angel will be different from 45.
For a given Q, specific energy curve has two limbs BA and AC.
Line BA represents Sub critical flow
Line AC represents Super critical flow
C represents Critical flow.

For a given Specific energy E there are three possible depths: Two positive values and
one negative value. Two positive values are y
1
and y
2
respectively representing Super
critical and Sub critical depths. The minimum value of specific energy for the given
discharge represents the critical flow condition.
The locus of this represented by
c
2
y E
3
=
For different values of discharges namely Q
1
, Q
2
, Q
3
different specific energy curves
would be there.
The minimum specific energy represents the critical condition.
2
2
3
2
3
2
2
2
2
V
2g
dE dV
2V
dd 2g dd
2 Q dA
0
dd
2gA
2 Q
T
2gA
Q V
2g
gA
V
1
gDcos
Making
E= d cos +
cos +
=cos -
cos =
D cos =
=
Froude Number, F = 1 for critical conditions,

=
=
=
V
F
cos
This is for non rectangular channel.
If 1, is verysmall then it can be written as
V
F
gD
In which D is the hydraulic mean depth
Thus the specific energy is minimu
F can be defined as
=
gD

and

.

=
=
2
2 2
m when the flow is critical.
V
1
gD
V V D
D
g 2g 2

or

=

= =


8.2 Application of Specific energy
Transition Problem:
y
1
V1
__
C
1
y
2
Sluice gate


Example 1:
1 2
2
1
1
Flowbelow asluicegate
Problem: If y 2.5m, y 0.60m, b 3.5m, determine the discharge Q.
Solution:
Apply Bernoulli equation beteween sections 1and 2, assuming l osses are negligible.
V
y z
2g

= = =
+ +
( ) ( )
( )
2
2
1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
2 1
2 1
2 2 2
2 2 1 1
V
y z
2g
z z andwidth bis constant
Q A V A V
by V by V
3.5 2.5 V 3.5 0.6 V
8.75V 2.10 V
8.75
V V
2.1
V 4.16V
V V V
4.16 17.36
2g 2g 2g
Substitutingthevalue

= + +
=
= =
= =
= =
=

=

=
= =
( )
( )
2 2
2 1 1
2 2
1 1
2
1
-1
1 1
3
2
s intospecific energy equation
V V
2.5 0.6 4.16
2g 2g
V V
2.5 0.6 17.36 ,
2g 2g
V
16.36 2.5- 0.6
2g
2.5- 0.6 *2*9.81
V = V =1.5095 ms
16.36
Q =13.2081m/s
V =6.2795 m/s
Froudenumber in thedownst

+ = +
+ = +
=
2
2
2
V
reamF
gy
6.28
2.59
9.81*0.6

=
=
=


Example 2:
Consider a transition with a vertical step of height z in bed, in a rectangular channel of
constant width b. upward step z is considered as positive. What is the depth over the
step?
y1
V
1
y2
V
2
y
Z
y1
y
2
V2
y
Z
__ __
V
1
__
__
Positive step of z height
Negative step of z height

2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2
2 1
2 2
2 1
2 1
1 2 2
V V
y y z
2g 2g
Q q q
q, y y z
b
2gy 2gy
q q
y y z
2gy 2gy
E E z
E and z areknown E is tobesolvedfor y by trial anderror or
using solution of cubic equation.
Note:
Subcritical f

.

+ = + +
= + = + +
+ = +
=
low can changeover to supercritical or subcritical flow dependingon

thedownstreamconditions.
Similarly, supercritical flow can changeover to supercritical or subcritical flow dependingon
thedown

streamconditions.


h t p e d
E = E
s t o o r l a e r e v i t i s o p o w t
1 E
5 4
x a m
= t h g i e h p e t s e h t , 1 E y g r e n e c i f i c e p s n e v i g a r o F
2 E - 1 E
= t h g i e h p e t s m u m i x a m e h T
x a m
c E - 1 E
. s e s a e r c n i
y g r e n e c i f i c e p s e h t l i t n u p e t s e h t r e v o w o l f t o n n a c e g r a h c s i d n e v i g e h t s d r o w r e h t o n I
. s r u c c o g n i k o h c e h t q n e v i g e h t r o f e h t n a h t e r o m s i t h g i e h p e t s e h t f i , e t o N
x a m
c V
_ _ _ _
g 2 c y

yc
y1
y1
'
y2
y2
'
Flow over a transition
Given specific energy E1 has two depths namely y1 and y1
'
(initial and alternate depth).
The flow correspondingly it would be super critical and sub critical flows
and could be vice versa.
In the downstream for the given specific energy E2 two possible depths are
y2 and y2 corresponding to super critical flow and sub critical flow respectively (alternate depths of E2).
If the critical depth occurs on the step then there are four possible situations
of water surface profiles.
1. Super critical flow (y1) changing over to y2 subcritical through yc causing
classical hydraulical jump.
2. Super critical flow (y1) changing over to y2 through yc.Thus it would be super critical to
super critical.
3. Sub critical approach flow y1 changing over to y2 via critical depth yc. Thus a
hydraulic drop occurs.
4. The sub critical approach flow y1 changing over to y2 via critical depth yc.
The occurrance of one of the above type of profiles depends entirely on the downstream
condition.
'
'
' '
'
Super critical to Sub critical
Super critical to Super critical
Sub critical to Super Critical
Sub critical to Sub critical


1 2
1 2
c 1
1 2
2 c 1
1 1 1
'
1
For agiven discharge
E - E E
E E E
2
If the flow is critical on thestepthen E E
3
Z E - E
2
If E is tobeequal tocritical flow,then E E
3
2 1
Z E - E E .
3 3
Thestepheight is maximum.
Depths y and

=
= +
=
=
=
= =
'
2 2 c
y areknown as alternatedepths, andy becomes y .
Thewater surfaceprofiledownstreamof this depends on downstream
controls.

If applied to a case of constriction of width, then critical width of contraction.
( )
2
3
3 c
c min
2
q *b
gy
y or b
g
q
=

=

Minimum specific energy line on vertical is C which is the critical depth. Therefore
Maximum constriction is obtained.
Flow positive pier - width reduces
Longitudinal water surface profile Looking from downstream

Water surface drops due to constriction in width. Example near the bridge piers.


Exercise problems:

1. Show that when, in a rectangular channel with a horizontal bed F =1 and
db
0
dx
= ,
the width must be a minimum and not a maximum. (Hint: Consider the variation
of v and with b for F >1 and F <1).

8.2.1 Normalisation of the specific energy curves
Consider the specific energy equation
2
2
c
2
2
c c c
2
3
c
2 2
c
2 2
c
c c
2
c
2
2
q
E y
2gy
Dividingby thecritical depth y , it can bewritten as
E y q
but
y y 2gy y
q
1
gy
y q
2gy y 2y
y E
If y' and E'
y y
y
E' y'
2y
1
E' y'
2y'
which is similar to general form

= +
= +

=

=
= =
= +
= +
3 2
c
3 3
2
of E' Vs y'.
when critical is knownfromequation this specific energy curve
can beusedfor obtaininglength scalefor modelling.
It can beshown for rectangular channel that
gy v q
F
gy gy gy
c
2

depth y

= = = =
3
c
y
y



Problem:
In case of Simple upward step ( z being +ve),
For a geometrically similar model
1 2
c c c
y y z
, ,
y y y
are same in model and prototype each

case. Dynamic similarity condition should exist while the Froude similitude, and if
c
y
y

are equal for two situations, then the ration of discharge is equal to
3/2
r r
q y = .

Determine an expression for slope of the straight line to which the upper limb of the
specific energy curve is an asymptote for a channel having a bottom slope of .
Solution:
Let us consider Bernoulli's equation.
2
2
2
2
2
V
z y H
2g
Q
But V
A
Let d slope
.
Q
2gA
Since
Q
2gA
2

depth of flow normal to the channel bottom and of the channel.
then y = dcos Therefore the specific energy
E = d cos
d = y cos
E = y cos
+ + =
=

+
+

2
2
Consider uniform
Q
E y constant (approximately)
2gA
Assume
E y 0
2
2

cos
anglebetween slope of straight line and horizontal axis as
cos is one asymptote
=
=


( )
y
E
E y
y
1
E
1
1
The
2
2
2
2
-1
2
tan
cos
cos from figure
1=tan cos
tan
cos
The expression for the slope of straight line to which upper limb of specific energy curve is
tan
cos
angle depends u
=
=
=
=

=

pon the bed slope of the channel.

y
d
y
d

y
E

Problem:
Plot the specific energy vs depth curves for Q =400, 600 and 800 m
3
/s in a trapezoidal
channel having bottom width of 20 m and the side slopes of 2(H) : 1(V). Assume the
bottom slope as small. From these curves, determine the critical depth for each
discharge. Write a computer program to obtain the above.


8.3 Problems
1. A rectangular channel, 9.15m wide carries 7.65 m
3
/s when flowing 9l5 mm deep. (a)
What is the specific energy? (b) Is the flow sub critical or supercritical?
2. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m and side slopes of 2 horizontal to
1 vertical. When the depth of water is 1.07m, the flow is 10.50 m
3
/s. (a) what is the
specific energy?
(b) Is the flow sub critical or supercritical?
3. The discharge through a rectangular channel (n =0.012) 4.60m wide is 11.30m
3
/s.
When the slope is 1m in 1 00m, is the flow sub critical or supercritical?
4. A rectangular channel 3m wide, carries 11.3 m
3
/s.
(a) Tabulate (as a preliminary for preparing a diagram) depth of flow against specific
energy for depths from 0.30 m to 2.4m.
(b) Determine the minimum specific energy.
(c)What type of flow exists when the depth is 0.6m and when it is 2.4m?
(d) For C =55, what slopes are necessary to maintain the depth in (c)?
5. Water flows at a Velocity of 1m/s and a depth of 0.25m in a rectangular channel. Find
the critical depth. Find the alternate depths assuming no change in specific energy. 6.
As shown in Figure, the depths at a short distance u/s and d/s of sluice gate in the
horizontal channel are 3.0m and 0.60m respectively. The channel is rectangular in
section and 3m wide. Find the discharge under the gate.

3.0 m
V / 2g
Sluice Gate
0.6 m
V
2
1
2
__
__

6. The depth of flow and flow velocity upstream of a 0.2 m sudden step rise in the
bottom of 5 m wide rectangular channel are 5 m/s and 4 m/s respectively. Assuming
there are no losses at the transition, determine,
(i) The flow depth at downstream of the step and change in water level.
(ii) The flow depth of water level downstream of the step if the channel bottom has drop
of 0.2 m instead of rise.

9.1 Specific Force
A short horizontal reach of a prismatic channel is considered. Further, the external
frictional force and the effect of weight component of water can be considered as
negligible. Then
( )
2 1
2 1 1 2 f
Q
V - V =P -P +Wsin-P
g

( )
f 1 2
2 1
1 2
1 2
If = 0, and P 0 and also if 1, then the momentum equation simplifies can be written as
Q
V V
g
The hydrostatic pressure forces P and P are respectively

P P

= = =
=
1 1 1 2 2 2
1 2
1 2

in which z and z are the distances to the centroids below the surface of flow
of the respective water flow areas (A and A ).
P z A and P z A = =

z
_
centroid from free surface

1 2
1 2
2 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
Q Q
Also,V = and V = .
A A
Then, the momentum equation reduces to
Q Q
+ z A = + z A
gA gA
The two sides of the above equation are analogous and, hence, may be generally
2
expressed
for any channel geometry as
Q
M = + zA
gA

The first term is the rate of change of momentum of the flow passing through the
channel section per unit weight of water, and the second term is the force per unit
weight of water. Since both terms are essentially force per unit weight of water, their
sum is known as the specific force indicated as M. Accordingly, it may be expressed as
M
1
=M
2
. This means that the specific forces of sections 1 and 2 are equal, provided that

the external forces and the weight effect of water in the reach between the two sections
can be ignored.
9.1.1 The momentum Function - Rectangular channels
The general situation is shown in Figure in which there may or may not be an energy
loss between sections 1 and 2, and there may or may not be some obstacle on which
there is a drag force P
f
. In Figure the direction of P
f
is that of the force exerted by the
obstacle on the flow. It is this force (not the drag on the obstacle) which is to be
considered in the momentum equation.
Flow
Pf
P1
Definition Sketch - Momentum Equation
P2

If there are any bluff body offering resistance force (P
f
) to flow then
f
1 2
P
M - M =

The force P
f
should include the frictional resistance due to boundary surface, and weight
of the bluff body.
The following are some of the particular cases that occur in the field
1.Energy loss E = 0, P 0
f
(the sluice gate)
2. E 0, P = 0
f
(the simple hydraulic jump)
3. E 0, P 0
f
(the hydraulic jump with its formation assisted by some obstructions
in the flow such as dentated sill (Forced hydraulic jump)
Sequent depths of Normal Hydraulic jump


If P
f
=0 then the specific force equations can be simplified as
`
( )
( )
( )
2
1 1 1
2 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1
. .,
2 1
2
1 2
The substitution q = v y leads to
1 1
2
1
1 2
2 1
2
1
2
1
2 1 2 2
F 1
1
2
1 1 1

=
= +
= +
= = +
q
y y
g y y
q
i e y y
gy y
v y
y y
g y
v y y
or
gy y y

which is the well- known equation of the normal hyraulic jump (NHJ ). The Froude
number F plays a key role. The above equation is quadratic in y
2
/y
1
, whose solution is
given by

= +

y
1
2 2
1 8F 1
1
y 2
1
and

= +

y
1
2 1
1 8F 1
2
y 2
2

In general, there are three independent quantities, and knowing two of them initially
third one can be calculated. The downstream control can create appropriate conditions
to form the jump. The corresponding depths y
1
and y
2
are known as conjugate or
sequent depths.
9.1.2 Specific Force Diagram
The diagram shows the variation of the depth against the specific force for a given
channel section and discharge, is called specific - force diagram. This curve has two
limbs AC and BC. The limb BC approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically toward
the right. The limb CA rises upward and extends indefinitely to the right. For a given
value of the specific force, the curve has two possible depths y
1
and y
2
. These two
depths constitute the initial and sequent depths of a hydraulic jump (see box). At point C
the specific force is minimum at the critical depth (see box).

1
3
C
2
M
M
Specific-force
diagram
Specific-force
A
B

C is the point of minimum specific force for a given discharge This corresponds to
critical depth, AC is the sub critical limb, BC is the super critical limb. For a given
specific energy there are two depths (Points 2, and 3 respectively) known as sequent
depths. The difference between points 1 and 3 represent M =specific force at point 1
minus the specific force at point 3.
The phenomenon of the hydraulic jump occurs when flow changes from supercritical to
sub critical flow.


Minimum value of specific force:

The specific force to be of a minimum value then the first derivation of M with
respect to y should be zero, i.e.
( )
2
2
d zA
dM Q dA
= - + = 0
dy gA dy dy

For a change die in the depth, the corresponding change ( ) d zA click in the static
moment of the water area becomes ( ) d zA Ady. Then the above equation
simplifies as
2
2
2
dM Q dA
= - +A = 0
dy gA dy
Since, dA / dy = T, Q /A = V, and A / T = D. the above equation reduces to
V D
=
2g 2

This is the criterion for the critical flow condition (Froude number =1). Therefore,
the depth at the minimum value of the specific force is the critical depth. In other
words the specific force is minimum for the given discharge at the critical state of
flow.

9.1.3 Comparison between specific force and specific energy
For a given specific energy E
1
, the specific - energy curve indicates two possible
depths, namely, a low stage y
1
in the supercritical flow region and a high stage y
2
in the
sub critical flow region. For a given value of M
1
, the specific-force curve also indicates
two possible depths, namely, an initial depth y
1
in the supercritical region and a sequent
depth y
2
in the sub critical flow region. If the low stage and the initial depth are both
equal to y
1
. Then the sequent depth y
2
is always less than the high stage y'
2
.
Furthermore, the energy content E
2
for the depth y
2
is less than the energy content E
1

for the depth y
2
. Hence, in order to maintain a constant value of M
1
, the depth of flow
may be changed from y
1
to y
2
which results in loss of specific energy is
1 2
E E E = .

E
0
2
c
1
M y
1
1
2
y
2
0
2
y y
2
0
c
M
y
c
Sluice
gate
Hydraulic
jump
Specific-force
diagram
Specific-energy
diagram
Hydraulic jump at sluice gate outlet
1
E
E
1
y
0
y2
'

Specific-force curve supplemented with specific-energy curve.
(a) Specific-energy curve; (b) channel section; (c) specific-force curve
y
E P
P'
2
P"
2
C'
P'
1
E
E1 E2
45 for a channel
of zero or small
slope
0
(a) (b) (c)
B
P
A
M1
P2
C
P1
y
y
y2
yc y1
Centroid
y'
2
yc
y1
T
dy
dA
z
_
0
M
M
E

Note:
Specfic energy diagram Specific force diagram
1. Given E
1
as initial depth y
1
(point
'
1
P ).
Initial depth y
1
is super critical depth.
2. Corresponding to E
1
the alternate depth
'
2
y on sub critical limb
'
2
P
3. The

sequent depth due to hydraulic
jump is y
2
and the corresponding specific
1. Corresponding to initial depth y
1
specific
force is M
1
(Point P1). Initial depth y
1
is
super critical depth.
2. Corresponding to alternate depth
'
2
y the
specific force is point P.
3. The corresponding specific force for the
sequent depth is M
1
. In other words for
Normal Hydraulic J ump, the upstream and
downstream specific forces are the same.
4. The specific force corresponding to
sequent depth is indicated by the point P
2
.


In Hydraulic jump energy loss takes place. The depth corresponding to given E
1
at high
stage is known as alternate depth to y
1
and vice versa. Whereas the depths due to jump
are known as sequent depths.
y
1
, y
2
are sequent depths.
y
1
,
'
2
y are alternate depths.


9.2 Transition: A Field Example
1. A horizontal channel converges from width b1 to b2 over a distance L. Approach flow
is sub critical. No hydraulic drop is permitted. Given Q, y
1
. Determine the water surface
profile.
Solution
b1
b
2
Critical depth line
b
x
x
L
0
yx
Specific energy line


1
1 1
1
1 1
2
1
1 1
2
2
2
1
2 2 2
2 2
2 2
Steps
Given Qanddepth y
Q
1. Q A V V
b y
V
E y ,
2g
2. It is assumethat no energy loss takes placealongthetransition
Q V
3. E y y
2g
2gy b
4.

,

= =
= +
= + = +
( )
1 2 2
x
2
1 x
2 2
x x
1 2
x 1
E E , obtain subcritical depth y by trial anderror or by direct solution
5. Let Subcritical depth at any section x beis y
Q
E y
2gy b
b b x
b b
L
6.

=
= +
=
x
1
Solvefor y for various x.
a. Plot theprofile:
In this caseas thetransition is astraight wall transition,
water surfacecan bejoinedbetween y

2
andy .

2. In the above problem if a hydraulic drop is permitted at a distance x, determine the
water surface profile what would be the constriction width?
Solution
Hydraulic drop means flow changes from sub critical to super critical via y
c
2
3
c
2
x
2
1 1
2 2
1 1
c x
1
Step1:
Q
y
gb
Step2:
Q
E y
2gb y
2
y E b canbe determined.
3

=
= +
=

Thus maximum constriction at x is known. After determining the b
x
obtain super critical depths
(low stage depths) in the downstream of this constriction. If b
x1
is the width at a distance x
1

from the constriction then,
( )
2 x
x1 x 1
2
x1 x1
2 2
x1 x1
b b
b b x
L
Q
E y
2gb y
2
E
= +
= = +

Solve for y
x1
for super critical flow conditions. Figure shows the typical water surface profile.

b1
b2
Critical depth line
bx
x
L
0
yc
High stage
Low stage
Plan
Water surface profile with hydraulic drop
Sub critical flow
Super critical flow


3. Super critical flow occurs in the approach channel of a transition in which b
1
changes
to b
2
as shown in figure. Locate the hydraulic jump if it occurs.
Solution
bx b1
b2
x1
Specific force line for high stage
Specific force line for low stage
for upstream
for downstream
Low stage
High stage
E

a) When jump occurs energy loss takes place
2
2
2
1
1 1
2 2
1 1
E E
V Q
y y
2g
2gy b
1
1
E
E
=
= + = +

b)
1
1 1
1
V
y is given Q is given F
gy
=
c) Given at the downstream section, should be sub critical depth if the jump
has to occur.
2 2
Q, b ,y
2
y
d) J ump occurs but (i) can occur in the transition reach, (ii) not in the transition reach.

1
2
Step1: ComputeE andplot theline.
ComputeE andplot theline.

2
1 1
1
2
2
2
Q
Step2: Computespecific forceM zA
gA
Q
Similarly compute M z
gA

= +
= +

Step 3:
When the specific force M
1
=M
2
, the hydraulic jump forms. It may be noted that jump will have
certain length. In this calculation it is assumed that it occurs in a section.
x bx
low stage
depth for
specific
energy E1
Specific
force for
low stage
Specific
force for
high stage

Remarks
0 b
1
y
1
M
1
M
2

2
5
-
-
x b
x

From the above computation plot a force lines and the intersection gives the location of
the jump.
The location of the jump is at the section where the specific forces are equal. Therefore
solving these two algebraic equations for specific forces simultaneously the location of
the jump x can be determined.
4. Elimination of the jump by a hump
In the above problem modify the transition to eliminate the jump by providing a hump.
Obtain the hump profile.
Solution
1. Assume a smooth water surface profile between approach flow depth and the
downstream depth. Thus an elevation H
x
of the water surface profile is known.
2. Assume that E
1
to E
2
loss is distributed linearly over transition.

( )
2
x x x
x x x
x 1 2
1 x
3. It can be written that
H y z ,
z H y
At any point x the specific energy is given by
E E
V
E - x H
L 2g
I nthe above equation only unknown is velocity. Hence calculate the

= +
=

= +

( )
2 2
2 1
x
x 1
2 2 2
x x x
x x x
velocity
b b
Q Q
But V . Calculate y knowing b x
L
A b y 2g
Obtain z fromtheknown H y
and plot the z as a function of x to obtain the hum
x
.
b

by subtracting the depth

= = = +
p profile.
Alternative solution for eliminating the jump is to increase the roughness
Inother words increasing the friction. Also by changing the width.

bx b1
b2
x1
Specific force line for high stage
Specific force line for low stage
for upstream
for downstream
zx
yx
V
__2
x ____
2g



5. The flow is taking part a section shown in Figure. The step height is 4.57 cm. The
upstream depth 45.7 cm. The water surface drops by 7.63 cm from its original level
on the step. Determine the discharge.
45.7
7.63 cm
Flow over a step
Z = 4.57 cm

Solution
2 2
2 2
2
1 2
1 1 2 2
1
2
1 2
1 2
2
1
1 2 2 1
1 2
1 2
y 45.7 4.57 7.63 45.7 12.2 33.5
V V
E y E y
2g 2g
y V 33.5
by V by V 0.733
y 45.7 V
So V 0.733V or V 1.364 V
V V
z y y
2g 2g
4.57 45.
cm

= = =
= + = +
= = =
= =

= + +

=
=
2 2
2
2
1 2
1
2
1
1
V V
7 33.5 1
2g
V
V 1
1 4.57 45.7 33.5
2g 0.733
V 131.866cm/s
Q 6.026l /s/cm

+

= +

=
=


6. Water flows in a rectangular channel 3 m wide at a velocity of 3 m/s at a depth of
3 m. There is an upward step of 0.61 m. What expansion in width must take place
simultaneously for this critical flow to be possible?
Solution
3 m
3 m
3 m
3 m/s
0.61 m
3 m
3 m/s
b = ?

3
3
1/3 1/3
2 2
c
c
2 2
1
1 1
2
' 1
1
c
Q 3*3*3 27m /s
Q 27
q 9.0 m /s/ m
b 3
q 9.0
y 2.021 m
g 9.81
V 3 N
E y 3 3.46875
2g 19.2 N
3
3
E
19.2
E 1.72
y 2.021

= =
= = =

= = =

= + = + =
+
= = =
m

' '
2 1
c c
' 2
2 2
c2
Z 3.46875 0.61
Downstreamspecific energy E E 1.4145
y y 2.021
If theflowhas to becritical
E
E 3.46875 0.61 2.85875 E 1.5
y

= = =
= = = =


2
c2
2 c2 c2 2 c2 c2
2
E 2.85875
y 1.9058
1.5 1.5
Q b y V b y gy
27
b 3.2765m
1.9058 9.81*1.9058
For critical flow to occur downstreamwidth must be3.2765m.
Minimumexpansion permittedis 0.2765min width
=

= =
= =
= =

7. A rectangular channel of width 23 cm expands to 481 cms over a horizontal
distance of 400 cm. The approach channel has a bed slope of 0.0016. At the
junction bed drops by 25 cm over a length of 400 cm. The discharge is 11 l/s.
The approach flow is uniform flow. In the downstream a minimum depth of 15 cm
is sustained. A maximum water level of 40 cm is expected. Study the flow profiles
for different downstream depths (between 15 cm to 40 cm). Locate the jump if it
occurs.
23 cm
481 cm
25 cm
400 cm
15 cm
S0 = 0.0016
y
n
Plan
70 cm
Q = 11 l/s
Longitudinal sectional Elevation

8. A transition is as shown in figure. Obtain the water surface profile if the width of
the approaching channel is 50 cm. A discharge of 150 l/s is allowed into the
channel at a depth of 35 cm. Downstream depth is controlled and a depth of 15
cm is maintained. Examine the possibility of a hydraulic jump after the

downstream after the transition and if the jump has to occur downstream of the
transition, what necessary modifications are required.
B
B
1.5 B
B
__
2
B
50
75 50
Longitudinal Section along a Transition
(All dimensions are in cm)
Plan
Section along "YY"
B/2
5
Y
Y

9. A rectangular channel of 3.0 m width is narrowed down to 2.5 m by a contraction
in a length of 20 m, built of straight walls and a horizontal bed. If the discharge is 3.5
m
3
/s and the depth of flow is 1.50 m on the upstream side of the transition,
determine the flow surface profile in the contraction (i) allowing no gradual hydraulic
drop (ii) allowing a gradual hydraulic drop having its point of inflexion at the mid
section of the contraction. Neglect frictional losses.

9.3 Application of Specific Force and Specific Energy
1. Determine the energy Loss in a NHJ
Solution:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1 1 2
2
1 2 2 2
1 2
2
1 2
2
1 2 1 2
2
2
2
2
2
1 2 1 2
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 2
2 2 2 2
1 2
1 2
Applying Momentum equation
Q
V V P P
g
y y
Q
y y
y y
gb
y y y y
Q
4
2gb
Q
q
b
y y y y
q
(1)
2g 4
Specific energy equation
V V
y + y E
2g 2g
Q Q
E = y + y
2gy b 2gy b
q
E = y y
=
+
=
=
+
=
= + +

+
( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
1 2
2
1 2 2 1
2 2
1 2
2 1 1 2 2 1
1 2
2 2
1 2
2
1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 2
1 1
2g
y y
q 1
= y y 1 y y 1
2g
y y
Substituting from momentum equation
y y y y y y 1
= y y 1
4
y y
y y
= 4y y y y
4y y
y y
= 4y y
4y y

+ +

+ +
+

( )
2 2
1 2 1 2
3
2 1
1 2
y y 2y y
y - y
E =
4y y



2. Problem of specific force
Determine the sequent depth in a trapezoidal channel of 3 m width. The initial depth is 0.5 m.
The side slope is 1:1. Initial flow velocity is 4 m/s.
Solution:
1
1
0.5
3
A= (b+my)y
(b+my)y
b+2 m
2
+1
y
______________
=R

3
2
1
Q = A. =
= (3+0.5) 0.5*4
3.5
= *4 = 7 m /s
2
Q
M = + z
gA
( )
2 2 3
3
1 2
2 2
3 2
1 2
2 2
2
A
7 3*0.5 1*0.5
= + +
3.5
2 3
9.81*
2
= 2.86 + 1.5*0.25 + 0.041666 = 3.2767m
M =M
3*y 7 2
M = + + y
9.81* 3+y y 2 3
Solve by trial and error y 1.05m.
Alternative approach is:
z

=
1
3 3
2 2 2
-2
5 5
2
M 1*3.2767
= = 0.12135
b 3
m Q 1*7
= = 2.0510
gb 9.81*3
From graph y = 1.05m.



9.3.1 Hydraulic J ump

1. For the case of hydraulic jump in a rectangular channel, complete the following table.
y
1
(
m )
1
V (m /s) q (m3 /s) y
2
(m)
2
V (m / s)
Head
1oss ( m )
0.20 1.204
2.50 1.00
1.91 26.18 50

2. A hydraulic jump occurs in a rectangular channel and the depths of flow before and after
the jump are 0.50 m and 2.0 m respectively. Calculate the critical depth and the energy loss
in the jump.
3. Two rows of baffle piers are to be installed in a stilling basin as shown in the figure in
order to assist the formation of the hydraulic jump with in the basin. It is found that such an
arrangement of blocks has an effective drag coefficient 0.3, based on the upstream velocity
and on the combined frontal area of the blocks. If the discharge is 50 m
3
/s and the upstream
depth is 0.6 m, find the downstream depth required to form a jump,
(a) If the baffle blocks are installed and (b) if they are not (c) In each case find the head loss
in the jump.
0.5 m
0.6 m
8 m
Plan
Section
Stilling basin


4. A rectangular channel 6m wide carries 11.5 m
3
/s and discharges onto a 6m wide apron
with no slope with the mean velocity of 6.0 m/s. what is the height of the hydraulic jump?
What energy is absorbed (lost) in the jump?
5. A rectangular channel 5m wide carries a flow of 6 m
3
/s. The depth of water on the
downstream side of the hydraulic jump is 1.30 m. (a) What is the depth at upstream? (b)What
is the loss of head?
6. After flowing over concrete spillway of a dam, 254.7 m
3
/s then passes over a level
concrete apron (n = 0.013). The velocity of the water at the bottom of the spillway is 12.8 m /
s and width of the apron is 54.86 m. Conditions will produce a hydraulic jump, the depth in
the channel below the apron being 3.05 m. In order that the jump be contained on the apron,
(a)How long the apron should be built? (b)How much energy lost from the toe of the
spillway to the downstream side of the jump?
7. Starting from first principles, show that the following equation holds true for a hydraulic
jump in a trapezoidal channel.

2 2 2
b y my Q
g + + =Constant
2 3 ( b+my )y

Draw the force-momentum diagram for the following conditions and determine the initial depth
if the sequent depth is 0.2 m.
Q = 50 l / s; b = 0.46 m; m = 1.
8. A flow of 2.8 m
3
/s occurs in a circular channel of 1.8 m in diameter. If the upstream depth of
flow is 0.60 m, determine the downstream depth which will cause a hydraulic jump.
9. A flow of 100 m
3
/s occurs in a trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2:1 and a base width of
5m. If the upstream depth of flow is 1.0 m, determine the downstream depth of flow which will
cause hydraulic jump.
10. A hydraulic jump occurs downstream from a 15 m wide sluice gate. The depth is 1.5 m, and
the velocity is 20 m /s. Determine
(a) The Froude number and the Froude number corresponding to the conjugate depth, (b) the
depth and velocity after the jump, and (c) the power dissipated by the jump.
11. A 10 m wide rectangular channel is carrying a discharge of 200 m
3
/s at a flow depth of 5 m.

(i) If the channel bottom has sudden rise of 0.3 m determine the depth of flow at a downstream
cross section. Does the water surface rise or drop?
(ii) Compute the depth of flow at a downstream section if the drop is 0.2 m
12. An 8 m wide rectangular channel has a flow velocity and flow depth of 4 m/s and 4 m
respectively. The channel bottom is at El. 700 m. Assuming no losses, design a transition so that
the water level downstream of the transition is at El. 703.54 m, if
(i) The channel width remains constant, and
(ii) The channel bottom level downstream of transition is at El. 700.2 m.
13. A hydraulic jump is formed in a 4 m wide outlet just downstream of the control gate. The
flow depths just upstream and downstream of the gate are 20 m and 2 m respectively. If the
outlet discharge is 40 m
3
/s determine
(i) Flow depth at downstream side
(ii) Thrust on gate
(iii) Energy losses in the jump
Assume there is no loss in the flow through gate.


9.4 Transition in Field Example
Problem:
Malaprabha Project transition at entry to tunnel and exit from tunnel
Tunnel: Approach cut 1280.16 m long
Slope (bed) 1:2700, y=5.4864 m
Side slope 1:1
b =6.096 m, velocity =1.794 ms
-1

Horse shoe shape Tunnel length 4620.77 m
Bed Slope 1: 1230
Tunnel
Diameter 6.0198 m
Velocity 2.384 m/s
Exit b =6.096 m
Depth =4.2672 m
Velocity =1.453 m/s
13.4112
6.096 m
1
1
1
1


3.6576
6.096 m 15.24 m
0.957
4.980 m
6.096
3.6576
0.957
x
2
y
2
6.096
2
2.49
2
______
= 1
______
+
Plan of transition - Trapezoidal to Horse shoe Tunnel

2 2
o
o
x y
1
37.1612 62001
d =6.0198 m
d
3099 m
2
.
.
+ =
=

3.6576 m
15.24 m
4.93776 m
6.0198 m
Design Discharge = 62.297 m
3
/s
n = 0.018


0.2153
1
d0
__
2
d0
d
0
d
0
0.2153
1
4.9804

Exit Tunnel
u/s
6.0198 m
33.528 m
4.2672 m
6.096 m
4.2672 m 6.096 m
1
1
1
1
4.2672 m


10.1 Characteristics of critical flow
The characteristics of critical flow are
(i) The specific energy and specific force are minimum for the given discharge.
(ii) The Froude number is equal to unity.
(iii) For a given specific energy the discharge is maximum at the critical flow.
(iv) The velocity head is equal to half the hydraulic depth in a channel of small slope.
(v) The velocity of flow in a channel of small slope with uniform velocity distribution, is
equal to the celerity of small gravity waves
( )
C gh = is shallow water caused by local
disturbance.
(vi) Flow at the critical state is unstable.
Critical flow may occur at a particular section or in the entire channel, then the flow in
the channel is called "Critical flow".
( )
c
y f A, D = for a given discharge.
For a prismatic channel for a given discharge the critical depth is constant at all sections
of a channel. The bed slope which sustains a given discharge at a uniform and critical
depth is called "Critical slope S
c
". A channel slope causing slower flow in sub critical
state for a given discharge is called "sub critical slope or mild slope". A slope greater
than the critical slope is called steep slope or super critical slope.
10.1.1 Critical Flow
For a given specific energy and discharge per unit width q, there are two possible (real)
depths of flow, and that transition from one depth to the other can be accomplished
under certain situations. These two depths represented on the two different limbs of the
E-y curve separated by the crest c, are characteristic of two different kinds of flow; a
rational way to understand the nature of the difference between them is to consider first
the flow represented by the point c. Here the flow is in a critical condition, poised
between two alternative flow regimes, and indeed the word critical " is used to describe
this state of flow; it may be defined as the state at which the specific energy E is a
minimum for a given q.

10.1.2 Analytical Properties of Critical Flow
Consider the Specific energy equation
2 2
2
v q
E = y + = y +
2g
2gy

in which y is the depth of flow and q is the discharge per unit width.

Differentiating the above equation with respect to y and equating to zero it can be
written as
2
3
2
2 3
3
c c
2
c c
dE q
= 1 - 0
dy
gy
q
q = gy or y =
g
and V = gy
=

The subscript c indicates critical flow conditions.

Thus the critical depth y
c
is a function of discharge per unit width alone.
Further, the above equation it can be written as
2
c
c
2
c
c c c
c c
2
2
V 1
= y .
2g 2
Thus the specific energy for critical flow can be expressed as
V 3
E = y + = y
2g 2
2
or y = E
3
d E
The second derivative should be negative i.e., = - ve
dy

The above equations are established by considering the variation of specific energy with
y for a given q. Clearly the curve will be of the general form as shown in Figure.

Variation of the Discharge with depth for a given specific energy value
Maximum point
E
0
0
y
c
=
__
3
2
E
0
q
y
q
max

How q varies with y for a given E=E
o
?
When and then 0. , 0, 0, y E q Similarly when y q
and there will clearly be a

maximum value of q for some value of y between 0 and E
0
(y cannot be greater than
E
0
). The relationship can be written as ( )
2 2
2 q gy E y
= and differentiating the above

equation with respect to y,

2
2
c 0
c 0
dq
2q = 4gyE - 6gy 0
dy
6gy = 4gyE
2
i.e., y = E
3
=

Differentiating again it can be established that
2
2
d E
ve
dy
= +
Alternative approach:
Show that the flow is maximum when it is critical flow for a given specific energy plot the
graph " E
0
verses q
Solution:


( ) ( )
=
=

= =

+ =
2 2
2
2
1
2
V Q
Specific energy = E = y + = y +
2g 2gA
when " = 1.0 "
Q = 2gA E-y A . 2g E - y
dQ
For the flow to be maximum, "
dy
dQ d
A g E - y )
dy dy
dA d
= g E - y ) A 2g E-y )
dy dy
=
0"
2 ( 0
2 ( . ( 0
2
( )
=
=
=
=>
=
=
2
2
2
2
A 2g
dA
g E - y )
dy 2 E- y
A 2g
dA
g E-y )
dy 2 E- y
dA
2 E- y A (1)
dy
But Q = A g E - y)
Q
E - y ) =
gA
dA
Substituting in eqn: (1 ) and taking T,
dy
Q T
A
gA
=>
( 0
2 (
2 (
2(
=
= =
=
=
2
3
2 2 2
3
2
2
2
Q T

gA
Q T V T V
But
gA gD gA
V
gD
V
But F
gD
1
1

=>F
2
=1
=>F =1 i.e., Flow is critical. Flow is maximum for a given specific energy, when it is in
critical state.
Which is essentially equation representing the critical flow. Thus critical flow connotes
not only minimum specific energy for a given discharge per unit width, but also
maximum discharge per unit width for given specific energy.

Any one of the above three equations may be used to define critical flow. For example:
(1) The crests of E-y curves drawn for all values of q can be joined by a straight line
having the equation y = 2E / 3, as shown in Figure.
45
y
E
q1 SubCritical flow limb
SuperCritical flow limb
q2
q3
q3 > q2 > q1
o

(2) y
c
increases with q. The curves of higher value of q are to the right of a curve with a
low value of q.
For a given q and if the slope is small than y 0, E , an asymptote.
Similarly y =E is another asymptote. The specific energy equation can be written as
( )
2
2
q
E y y a constant
2g
= =
For a given specific energy and q there are three routes for depth - two of them are real
and one imaginary. These supercritical and sub critical depths are called alternate
depths.


10.2 The Occurrence of Critical Flow; Controls
In addition to the type of problem in which both q and E are initially prescribed; there is
a problem which is of practical interest: Given a value of q, what factors determine the
specific energy E, and hence the depth y? Conversely, if E is given, what factors
determine q?
The answer to these questions is that there are many different kinds of control
mechanism which can dictate "what depth must be for a given q, and vice versa".
Example is the sluice gate; For a given opening of the gate there is a certain
relationship between q and the upstream depth, similarly for the downstream depth.
Weirs and spillways are further examples of this kind of mechanism. The flow resistance
due to the roughness of the channel bed will have some effect.
The flow situation in any channel is substantially influenced by the control mechanisms
operating within it. The notion of a "control" - any feature which determines a depth -
discharge relationship - is of primary importance in the study of free surface flow. There
are certain features in channel which tend to produce critical flow, and are therefore
controls (see box) of a rather special kind.
Three types of controls namely

(i) downstream control

(ii) upstream control and

(iii) Artificial control.

are identified.

Normally, the sub critical flow deals with downstream control and supercritical
flow deals with the upstream control.

The nature of these features, are determined by considering the general problem of flow
without losses in a rectangular channel section of constant width, whose bed level may
vary. This is a particular situation of the transition problem. (See box).


Transition (flow basis):

1. Sub critical to Sub critical

2. Sub critical to Super critical (Hydraulic drop)

3. Super critical to Sub critical (Hydraulic J ump)

4. Super critical to Super critical

Transition Structure:

Converging Diverging

1. Rectangular cross section to Rectangular cross section

2. Rectangular cross section to Trapezoidal cross section

3. Trapezoidal cross section to Trapezoidal cross section

4. Trapezoidal cross section to Rectangular cross section

5. Trapezoidal cross section to circular cross section or Horse shoe tunnel

6. Horse shoe tunnel to Trapezoidal cross section

7. Horse shoe tunnel to Rectangular cross section etc.

Method of connection in transition (gradual):

a. By straight wall

b. By Quadrant (cylindrical)

c. By warped

The transition could be abrupt such as sudden expansion or sudden contraction.

The transition could be gradual over certain distance.

The transition can be in vertical plane such as steps, humps, drops.

The transition could be both in plan and in elevation.

Generally, transition are provided as inlet and outlet structure.

The flow in such transitions is three dimensional and complex.


Following assumptions are made

1. Constant rectangular channel

2. Short reach.

3. No frictional loss.

4. Hydrostatic pressure distribution is assumed.
b
q
V __
2g
y
T.E
z
x
z = f(x)
Plan
Longitudinal section
y
2
__
V __
2g
2
__


The total energy H and q
Q
= discharge per unit width
b

=

are constant,
( )
2
2
2
q
H = y+z+ = E+z = constant
2gy
differentiating with respect to x, the distace along the channel
dE dz
+ =0
dx dx
which may be rewritten as
dE dy dz
+ = 0
dy dx dx
Substitutingand simplifying
dy dz
1-F + = 0
dx dx
2
2
2 2
2
2
2
3
-3
dE V
( =1-F ; F = )
dy gy
V
E = y +
2g
dE d Q Q dA
= 1+ 1+ 2A
dy dy 2g dy
2gA

dE Q
=1- T = 1- F
dy
gA

=

2
2
3
Q T
(i.e) F
gA
=

It is to be noted that the Froude number F plays a key role in this equation. This
equation demonstrates in nutshell from a result from the E-y curve.
If there is an upward step in the channel bed, i.e., if dz/dx is positive, then the product
( )
2
dy
1-F
dx
must be negative and vice versa (see box).


If
dz
dx
is positive

Bed
z

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
dy
1 F negative
dx
dy
F 1 Subcritical -ve depth decreases along x
dx
dy
F 1 Supercritical +ve depth increases along x
dx
=
<
>

If
dz
dx
is negative

Bed
z

( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
2
dy
1 F positive
dx
dy
F 1 Subcritical +ve depth increases along x
dx
dy
F 1 Supercritical -ve depth decreases along x
dx
=
<
>

However, if the channel bed is horizontal i.e.,
dz
0
dx
= ,. Then the product
( )
2
dy
1-F
dx
is then
equal to zero. Hence, either
dy
= 0 or F = 1 (critical flow)
dx
.
The first situation occurs in the step-transition problem when
dz
0
dx
= ,
dy
0
dx
= both
upstream of the step and over the step, and in both cases F 1 .
For the second situation, the question is " Can a situation be visualized in which
dz
0
dx
=
and
dy
0
dx
?

The answer is yes.

Consider the Free outflow from a Lake as an example of critical flow.
y = E
c
2
3
0
dz dy
dx dx
0, F = 1 = 0,
E
o
Flow
P
An example of Critical - Free Outflow from a Lake

When water is released from a lake over a short (but smooth) crest such that it flows
downstream freely. In other words either a free overfall within a short distance
downstream or a steep slope whose bed resistance imposes no effective constraint on
the flow.
At the crest P,
dz
0
dx
= the flow is accelerating at this point, resulting in
dy
0
dx
. Then the
Froude number must be equal to unity, and hence the flow would be critical. In cases of
a sharp- edged (e.g., V notch weir) crest, and a completely free overfall, are considered
as pressure distribution would be non hydrostatic; for the reason the curvature will not
be large. However, even if the vertical accelerations is large, as near brink of a free
overfall, the flow is still can be approximated as the critical condition. Experimental
evidence indicates that the flow depth right at the brink of an overfall is approximately
c c c
5
y , (i.e 0.715 y ) and that y = y
7
at a distance upstream from the overall edge of weir of
infinite height, the discharge is remarkably close to that obtained by assuming critical
flow at the crest, despite the pronounced vertical curvature of the flow. Assuming that

the pressure distribution is hydrostatic, it can be concluded that when water is released
from a lake without any downstream constraint critical flow occurs at the section of
maximum vertical constriction: such a section is therefore a control. Similarly that critical
flow occurs at a corresponding horizontal constriction.
Free overfall (drop) Free overfall over a sharp crested weir

Free Over fall over an arch dam

10.2.1 End Depth or Brink Depth
When the channel terminates abruptly the end weir is known as The Weir of Zero
height". The flow in the end reach of the channel becomes an overfall. Measuring the
depth at the end section of the channel, the discharge can be estimated. Rouse first
identified this aspect in a horizontal rectangular channel (with sub critical approach
flow). The end depth (also called the brink depth) was 0.715 times the critical depth.


When the canal drops suddenly, a free overfall is formed, since flow changes to
supercritical flow can be used as a measuring device.
Free overfall profile
Minimum drop distance
H
1
y
c
y
-3
-2 Level -1 0 +1
- 0.5
- 0.6
b
v __
2g
2
__
X
__
y
c
y
__
y
c

The drop distance should be more than 0.6yc. Brink depth y
b
will be different at the
centre and sides of the canal (which is higher). The roughness of the canal affects the
brink depth and hence the bed and sides should be finished smooth.
2
o
2
q
H
2gy
y = +
Differentiating w.r.t 'y' assuming Q to be constant.
2
o
3
dH q
1
dy
gy
=
o
dH
0
dy
= if the flow is critical, hence
2
3
c
q
y
g
=
3/2
c
b c
3 2
b
If =1, then Q = b g y
Rouse showed y 0 715y
y
Thus Q = b g
0.715
/
. =

This derivation is assumed for a free fall with an unconfined nappe. This value is
modified as 0.705 when the flow is two dimensional. This results in a error of 2 to 3 %
respectively for the above two cases.
The width of the canal should not be less than 3 y
c
. This is applicable to canals with
slopes upto 0.0025.

P
Thin weir plate - Free over fall

L
Brink depth
or
End depth
y
c
Brink depth
x
(y )
b
y
c
_
_
y
b
1.4 , x = 3 to 4 y
c


10.2.2 Constriction in bed width
In case of a horizontal channel bed and a variable width b, the energy equation can be
written, taking z as a constant but q as a variable function of x as
=
2
2 2 2
2
V
Total energy = TE = H = z + y + ( = 1.0 )
2g
q .b Q
= > H = z + y + z + y +
2gA
2
2
g .b
( )
( )
( )
0
0 0

= =

= =
2
2
2
2
2
2
3 2
y
q x
H = y + z +
2gy
Differentiating both sides with respect to " x ",
q x
dy dH dz d
+ +
dx dx dx dx 2gy
dH dz
If and No energy loss, Horizontal channel
dx dx
dy dy q q
- +
dx dx gy gy
( )
0 =
=
2
2
dq
= 0
dx
and by continuity equation q b = a constant, Q.
Then
dq dQ db
= 0 = b + q
dx dx dx
dq db
b q
dx dx
dq
Eliminating , between above two equations then it may be written as
dx
dy q
1-F -
dx gy
( )
2 2
q db
= 0
b dx
dy y db
i.e., 1-F - F = 0
dx b dx

It can be concluded that critical flow occurs when
db
dx
, i.e., at a section of maximum
horizontal constriction. The critical flow will not occur at a section of maximum width, but
only at a section of minimum width.

( )
( )
Converging
db dy
i 0 F<1 subcritical then 0 depth decreases as x increases
dx dx
dy
F>1 supercritical then 0 depth increases as x increases
dx
Diverging
db dy
i 0 F<1 subcritical then 0
dx dx
< <
>
> > depth increases as x increases
dy
F>1 supercritical then 0 depth increases as x increases
dx
<

F<1
db
__
dx
F>1
< 0
db
__
dx
> 0
F<1 F>1
dy
__
dx
< 0
Sub critical
Super critical
dy
__
dx
> 0
Sub critical
Super critical
Horizontal constriction
Converging channel
Diverging channel


Derive the following equation for a non prismatic channel, assuming no energy loss.
+
=

3
c
2
c
y db
S
dx dy by
dx
y
y
3
.
1

Solution:
Total energy at any section is given by

= + + >

2
2
V
H = z + y + ( = 1.0 )
2g
Differentiating wrt "x",
dy dH dz d V
dx dx dx dx 2g
(1)

=
= = => =

+ >

f
f
2
dH
But S
dx
dz dH
Similarly S But S
dx dx
Substituting in eq: ( 1 ),
dy d V
0 = - S +
dx dx 2g
0 0
(2)

= +

2
2
dy d Q
- S +
dx dx 2gA
0
Consider a rectangular channel with varying width

= =

2 2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
3 2 2 3
2 2
3 2 2 3
d Q d Q Q d 1
dx dx g dx 2gA 2g b y b y
dy Q db
=
g dx dx b y b y
dy Q db Q
=
dx dx gb y gb y
2
2 2
2


:
+ =

=> + =

=
+
=

2 2
3 2 2 3
2 2
3 2
2
3
c
3
c
2
c
Substituting this expresstion in eq: ( 2 ),
dy dy Q db Q
- S
dx dx dx gb y gb y
dy q q db
- S
dx dx gy gb y
q
But y
g
y db
S
dx dy by

dx
y
y
3
0
1 0
.
1


11.1 Critical depth in Trapezoidal and Circular channels
Problem:
( )
3 3
' '
2 3
c c
5 '
c
y y 1
Q m
For trapezoidal channel showthat ,
gb 2y 1
' c
c
my
where y =
b
+
=
+

Solution:
( )
2
5
f Q,b,g,m
Q
Combining f ,m
gb
V
Forcritical flow F 1.
gD
V
D
g
Fromcont
2
c
c
The most important basic problem is to determine the critical depth.
From the dimensional analysis
y
y
it can be rewritten as
b

=

=

= =
=
( )
2 2
2
2
2
2
2
Q
inuity equation V
A
Q
A D .
g
Q
Sectionfactor Z
g
Consider
b
2m
T 1 b
b
A
2m T
1
b
A D b
2m
1
c c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
c
2 c
c

A= b+my y
my
= 1+ y
b
y
my
1+ y
b
y
my
1+ y
my b
Z 1+ y
y b
=
=
=

= +

=

+

= =

+
( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
3
3
2
2
2
2 2
2
2
3
2
b
Defining
b
Q
g
Multiplying
b
Q
g
Q
g
c
' c
c
' ' 3
c c c
2
'
c
3
5
' ' 3 ' '
3 3
c c c c c
'
c
5 5 ' '
c c
' '
3
c c
5 '
c
my
y =
b
1+y 1+y y
Z =
1+2y
m
on both sides by we get
b
1+y 1+y y 1+y 1+y
m m
y
b b 1+2y 1+2y
1+y y
m
b 1+2y

=

= =

=


Problem:
Show that for circular channel

=

2
o
Q sin cos
64 sin d gd
2

In which y is the depth of flow " d
0
" is the diameter of the circular channel.
Solution:
When flow is critical,
( ) ( )
( )

=
=
=> = >
=
=
2
2
2 2
0
2
0
V
Froude number F =
gD
Q
=> V = gD
A
Q
gD
A
d r
Area of flow A = sin
2 8
substituting it can be written as
d
A= sin2
8
d
Top width = T = 2
2
1
(1)
sin
2
2
sin( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )

= =

= =

2
d sin - d
sin2 sin d d A
Hydraulic depth D =
T 8 sin 8 sin
sin d
D=
4 sin
Q
From eq: ( 1 ) gD =
A
sin
2 2 2 cos
cos
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
=> =

=
2
2 4
2
4
2
4
2
5
2
2
Q
d
sin
64
gd Q
gD =
4 d
sin
16
g d Q

4 d
sin
16
Q
sin gd
Q
sin d gd
2
2
2
3
3
2 2 cos
sin cos
sin
cos
sin cos
sin
cos
sin . cos 1
64
1
sin cos
64


11.2 Hydraulic exponent for critical flow: M

The section factor Z for critical flow in general can be expressed as
2 M
o c
Z =C y
in which M is an exponent to be determined and
0
C is a constant proportionality.
Taking logarithm on both sides
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
o c
o c
c
2 ln Z=ln C +M ln y
Differentiatingwith respect to y
d d d
2 ln Z = ln C +M ln y
dy dy dy
d M
ln Z = 1
dy 2y

But from definition
A A
Z =
T

Taking logarithm it may be expressed as
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3/2 1/2
lnZ=ln A +ln T
d 3 d 1 d
ln Z = ln A ln T
dy 2dy 2dy
d 3 1 dA 1 dT
ln Z = 2
dy 2A dy 2T dy

Comparing equations (1) and (2) it may be written as
c
c
c
3 1 dA 1 dT
M =2y
2A dy 2T dy
dA
But =T,then
dy
T 1 dT
M =y 3 -
A T dy
y A dT
M = 3T-
A T dy

M is known as Hydraulically exponent for critical flow.
It may be noted that no particular channel shape has been assumed.


(a) If channels of rectangular cross section,
( )
c
c
dT
=0
dy
3y T
M =
by
M =3.0 T =b

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
'
'
c
c
' '
c c
' c
c
c
b For trapezoidal channel obtain the following expression
1 2y
2y
M 3
1 y 1 2y
y
i nwhich y m .
b
Solution:
For trapezoidal channel
A = b+my y , T =b

for critical flow

+
=
+ +
=
( )
( )
( )
( )
c
c
c c c
c
c c c
c
c
dT
+2my , =2m.
dy
y A dT
Substituting the above in the standard expression for M = 3T-
A T dy
y y y
M 3 b+2my 2m
y y y
b 1+
2my 1
M = 3b 1+ -
my b
b 1+
b

b+m

b+m b+2m

=

c
c
c
c c
c
c c
c c c c
c c
my
2my
b
2my
b 1+
b
my 2my
b 1+
2my 1 b b
M = 3b 1+ -
my 2my b
b 1+ 1+
b b
2my 2my my 2my
3 1+ 1+ - 1+
1 b b b b
M =
my 2my
1+ 1+
b b

( )
( )( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )
( ) ( )
c
2
' ' '
c c c
' '
c c
'
'
c
c
' '
c c
my
If
b
3 1+2 1+2 - 1+ 2
1
M =
1+ 1+2
3 1 2y 2 1 y y
M
1 y 1 2y
1 2y
2y
M 3
1 y 1 2y
'
c
' ' ' '
c c c c
' '
c c
y
y y y y
y y

=

+ +

=

+ +

+
=
+ +


2
2
2
2 2 2 4 5
2 M
Showfor Triangular channel M =5.0
Solution:
y
Sectionfactor Z=A D =my
2
y y m
Z = my my y
2 2 2
Z =Cy
Comparingthese two equations

= =

( )
2 1
2 1
2
1
2
1
2 M
c
c
c
M =5
Critical flow exponent for non prismatic channel Nature channel :
log Z -log Z
tan =
log y -log y
Z
log
Z
tan =
y
log
y
Z =Cy
2lnZ=ln C+M lny
ln Z
M =2 =2tan
ln y
M =2tan
1
2
1 2
1
2
1
2
1 c
2 c
1 2 c c
c
1
2 c
1
2
c
c
2lnZ =lnC+M lny
2lnZ =lnC+M lny
Subtracting
2lnZ - 2lnZ =M lny -lny
y
Z
2ln =M ln
Z y
Z
2ln
Z
M = 2tan
y
ln
y

=

c
2
0
my
(C) It may be noted that by using Vs M, a single curve can be constructed. Then this curve could be
b
identical to the curve with m=1.0
y Q
Similarly the graph for Vs can be construc
d D gD

ted.


11.3 Problem
Derive the value of M, N for rectangular (narrow, wide), Trapezoidal, Triangular channel
by using the following expression.
2
3 5 2
3

=

y y A dT dP
M = T and N T R
A T dy A dy

Solution:
( )
( )
( )
( )
(a) Rectangular Channel
y A dT
M 3T
A T dy
y by
= 3b 0
by b
y
= 3b
by
M 3.0
For wide rectangular channel
dp
A=by, R y, p b 0
dy
2y dp
N 5T 2R
3A dy
2y by
5b 2 0
3by b 2y
2y
= 5b
3by
=10/3=3

=

=
=

=

=

+

[ ]
( )
.33
For narrow channel
b dp
R= as b 0, p=b+2y 2
2 dy
2 y b
N 5b 2 2
3by 2
2 y
= 5b 2b 2.0
3by
For Chezy relationship
y dp
N= 3T R
A dy
y by
N= 3b 0
by b 2y
N 3.0
=

=

=

+

=


( )
2
2
2
2
2
(b)Triangular Channel:
1) Area of triangle
A =my
2) P =2y 1+m
my
3) R =
2 1+m
4) T =2my
y A dT
M= 3T
A T dy
y my*y 2my
= 32my
2y*y 2my*y y
y
= 5my 5
my*y
2y my
N 5*2my 2 2 1 m
3A
2 1 m

=
= +
+
[ ]
2
2
2
2
2
2y my
= 10my 2 1 m
3my
1 m
2 y
= 10m 2m
3
my
2 16
=8m*
3m 3

+

+
=


( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
2
2
2
3
3
3
3
3

(c ) Trapezoidal Channel
y A dT
M = T
A T dy
b+my y d b+2my y
= b+2my
b+my y b+2my dy
b+my y y
= b+2my 2m
b+my y b+2my
b+2my b+my 2my y
=
b+my y b+2my
b+2my b+my 2my
=
b+my b+2my

( )
( )
2
2
2
2
3 1 2
1 2
3 1 2
1 2
3 1 2
1 2

+

+

+

+

=

+

+

' c
c
' ' '
c c c
' '
c c
my my my
b 1+ 2 b
b b b
=
my my
1+ by b
b b
my my my
1+ 2
b b b
M =
my my
1+
b b
my
if y
b
y 1+y 2y
M =
1+y y
_________________________
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
5 2
5 2 2
8
3 1 2
8
3 1 2

+

2
2
2
2
2
'
'
2
______________________________
2y dp
N = T R
3A dy
b+my y 2y
= * b+2my 1+m
3 b+my y
b+my 1+m
y
y
10 1+2m
1+m
b
b
N =
y y
3 1+m 1+m
b b
y
1+m
10 1+2y
b
N =
y
3 1+y
1+m
b
=
' n
my
in which y
b


12.1 Critical flow depth computations
One of the important aspects in Hydraulic Engineering is to compute the critical depth if
discharge is given.
Following methods are used for determining the critical depth.
(i) Algebraic method.
(ii) Graphical method.
(iii) Design chart.
(iv) Numerical method. Bi section method/ Newton Raphson method.
(v) Semi empirical approach - a method has introduced by Strarb.
12.1.1 Algebraic method
In this method the algebraic equation is formulated and then solved by trial and error.
The following example illustrates the method.
1. Consider a trapezoidal channel:
2.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
c c
c c
c
c 1
1/2
c c
1 c c
c
3
2 3
1 c c c
6 5 4 3
c c c c c
A b my y
b my y
D
b 2my
Q
Z constant C known
g
b my y
C b my y (1)
b 2my
C b 2my b my y
leadsto
y py qy ry sy t 0
inwhich theconstants p,q,r,s andt areknown.

= +
+
=
+
= = = =
+

= +

+

+ = +
+ + + + + =
Solvethis by polynomial or by trial anderror method.
It wouldbeeasier to solvetheequation (1) by trial anderror procedure.
After obtainingtheanswer check for theFroudenumber which shouldbeeq

ual to1.


Example:
Consider a Rectangular channel and obtain the critical depth for a given discharge.
Solution:
1/2
3/2
c
2/3 2
2
c
A by
Area by D y
T b
Q
Z by y
g
Q
y
b g
Q q q
y
g b g g
3

= = = =
= =
=

= = =

12.1.2 Trial and error method
For a given trapezoidal channel obtain the critical depth by trial and error method.
Solution:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
3/2
c c
1/2
c
3
2
3
c
3
c
3
3
c c
c
Fortrapezoidal channel
b my y
A D
b 2my
b my y Q
Squaring y constant
b 2my g
For agiven b, m,Q, select avalueof y
Assume b 6m, m 2m, Q 12m /s Solvefor y
6 2y y
1
6 4y

+

=
+
+
= =

+

= = =
+
=
+
( )
3
3
c c
c
44
14.679
9.81
3 y y
36
3.6697
3 2y 9.81
=
+
= =
+

Assume a value of y
c
and compute A D and compare with the value obtained by
Q
g
.
y
c

A D
A D
Remarks
1.2 23.708 too high
0.5 1.339 low
0.8 6.170 high
0.65 3.10
0.70 3.94


Remarks column indicate that the values are high or low when compared to the given
value. The improvement is done till it converges.
In the above table y
c
lies between 0.65 and 0.70.
This could be improved further by selecting the values in between these two.
12.1.3 Graphical method
For natural channels and complicated channels, the graphical method is adopted. A
curve is generated assuming different values of y
c
and Z. The value of
Q
g
is computed
and y
c
is obtained from the chart. A one meter diameter culvert carries a discharge of
0.7 m
3
/s. Determine the critical depth.
y d
0
T

( )
o
1.5
0.5
0
0.5
1 sin
D d
g
sin
2
2 sin
Z d
32 sin
2

=

Knowing the value of d
0
for different values of depth A and D could be obtained from the
table.
Example:
A one meter diameter pipe carries a discharge of 0.7 m
3
/s. Determine the critical depth.
c
c c
c
Q 0.7
Z 0.2235
3.132 g
Construct agraph of y Vs andobtain thevalueof y
Fromthegraph y 0.4756
Z
=
= = =

From the design chart determine the critical depth for a circular channel of 0.9 m
diameter. Discharge 0.71 m
3
/s.

Solution:
( )
2.5
0
c
c
0
0.71
Z 0.22669
9.81
Z
0.29499
d
y
0.56, y 0.49527
d
from table
m
= =
=
= =

( )
( )
2
2
0.27
c
0.75 1.25
1.0 17
Q
29.5
g 9.81
29.5 6
y 0.81 0.86
30 2
2 6
m
= = =

= =


12.1.4 Graphical Procedure
Straub proposed several semi empirical equations to obtain the critical depth. The
advantage of this is a quick estimation of the critical depth. However, the equations are
non homogenous.
y
c
Graph showing variation of section factor
with critical depth for a given pipe of
diameter d
o
Z=A D
y
c
d
0
__
y
c
b
__
or
D A
_____
d
0
2.5
D A
_____
b
2.5
or


Reference:
Straub W.O, Civil Engineering, ASCE, 1978 Dec, pp 70 - 71 and Straub 1982.
Table: Semi empirical equations for the estimation of y
c
(Straub, 1982) MKS units

Channel type

Equation for y
c
in terms of
2
Q / g =

b
Rectanglar

1/3
2
b

b
m
1
Trapezoidal

0.27
0.75 1.25
b
0.81
30m
m b

2.5
2.5
Rangeof applicability
Q
0.1 4.0
b
Q
For 0.1
b
use equation for rectangular channel

< <
<

l
m
TRIANGULAR

0.20
2
2
m

y
y =cx
2
x
Parabolic

( )
0.25
0.84c

2
y cx =

d
0
Circular

[ ]
[ ]
0.25
0.26
0
0.52
c
0.3
0
c
3 1
0
1.01
d
Q
y 0.053
d
y m
Q ms d m ,

=
=
= =

c
o
y
0.02 0.85
d

y
x
a
b
Elliptical

0.25
0.22
2
0.84b
a

c
y
0.05 0.85
2b
a =major axis
b =minor axis

y
y = cx
1
m-1
____
x
Exponential

( ) 1/ 2m 1
3 2m 2
m c
4

( ) 1/ m 1
y cx

=

Example:
3
c
b 6.0m, m 2, Q 17m /s determiney = = =
Solution:
From table
0.27
0.75 1.25 2.5
2
b Q
0.81 for 0.1 4.0
30m
m b b
Q
where
g
17
The value of 0.19,
c
2.5 2.5
y

Q

b 6

= < <

=
= =

It is in the range of the equation. Substituting the appropriate values,
( )
( )
2
0.27
c
0.75 1.25
117
29.5
9.8
29.5 6
y 0.81 0.86
30 2
2 6
m
= =

= =


Problem:
Non rectangular channel involves trial and error solution.
Obtain the critical depth for the trapezoidal channel of bottom width 6 m with a side
slope of 2.5: 1, which carries a discharge of 20 m
3
/s.
6 m
m
1
m
1
y
c

Solution:
Trial and error procedure
( ) ( )
( )
[ ]
( )
( )
c c
c
c c
c
c
0.5
2 2 2
c c
c c
2
c
c
c
c
y 6 2.5y y
T 6 5y
6 2.5y y
A
D
T 6 5y
Q
Z A D
g
6 2.5y y
V Q / A 20*20
6 2.5y y
2g 2g 6 5y
6 2.5y 19.62
y
gy
c
A= b+my
b+2my=

v
?
?

= +
= +
+
= =
+
= =
+
= = = +

+
+
=
= =

Solution of Algebraic or Transcendental Equations by the Bisection Method
In the algebraic expression F(x) =0, when a range of values of x is known that contains
only one root, the bisection method is a practical way to obtain it. It is best shown by an
example.
The critical depth in a trapezoidal channel is to be determined for given flow Q and
channel dimensions.
2
3
Q T
1 0
gA
=
The formula must be satisfied by some positive depth y
c
greater than 0 (a lower bound)
and less than, an arbitrarily selected upper bound say, 10 m.

T is the free surface width
c
b 2my + . The interval is bisected and this value of y
c
tried. If
the value is positive, then the root is less than the midpoint and the upper limit is moved
to the midpoint and the remaining half bisected, etc.
This method gives the solution very quickly.
F(x)
0
100
Bisection
T
b
m
1
m
1
Trapezoidal
y

Newton Raphson Method is discussed elsewhere.

12.2 Problems
There are three types of problems in critical flows as shown in table.
Type m Q y
c
b or d
I

?

II

?

III

?

Types I and II are easy to solve.
Type III problem requires a different approach.
Type I problem
c
3/2
c
2
my
is known.
b
Qm
Fromthegraph y Vs Z
b gb
Qcan be determined.

=
Type II problem
Here the solution is for obtaining critical depth. There are different methods. Graphically
3/2
2
c
Qm
Z can becomputedandvalueof can beobtainedfromwhich
b gb
y can becomputed.
c
my

b

=

Type III problem
This problem can be solved using simultaneous solution of two algebraic equations
which is illustrated below.
Defining
( ) ( )
c c
1
0
3/2
1
2 2
0 o
my y
Y for trapezoidal channel or for circular channel .
b d
Qm Q
andX or
b gb d gd
=
=

Then
c
1
my
b
Y
=

( )
3/2 5/2 3/2
1
1
2 2 1/2 1/2
2 2
c c c
c
2 1/2
1 1
5/2
5/2 1
1 1
2
c c
5/ 2
1 1 1
Qm Y Qm
X
m y m y g g my
m y
Y Y
QY
M Y
my gy
X M Y
= =
= =
=

In which
( )
( )
3
1
2
c c
c
3/ 2
c
1 1
2
3
' '
2 3
c c
5 '
c
1
2
c c
5/ 2
1 1 1
5/ 2
3/ 2
c
1
2
3/ 2 2
c c
2.5 5/ 2
1
Q
M
my gy
GivenQ, y , m,
Qm my
X , Y
b b gb
y 1 y
Q m
gb 1 2y
Q
M andis known.
my gy
X M Y
Substitutingin theaboveequation
Qm my
M
b b gb
Qm my gy
b y
Q g
Solvethe
=
= =
+
=
+
=
=

=

=

equation andobtain solution for bedwidth bfor trapezoidal channel.
Similarly solvefor diameter for thepipeline.
the


Problem
Compute the critical depth in a trapezoidal channel for flow of 30 m
3
s
-1
. The channel
bottom width is 10.0 m, side slope m =2. The bottom slope is negligible and 1 =
.
T
b
m
1
m
1
Trapezoidal
y

Solution
Given
10
=
=
3 -1
c
Bottom width b m
Sideslope m =2
Flow Q = 30 m s
= 1
Critical Depth y ?
For finding the critical depth,
Cross sectional area of the channel A= ( b + 2
C C
C C
y ) * y
= ( 10 + 2 y ) * y
Section factor Z = A D

10 2 2 +
C
C C C
in which D= A / T
for trapezoidal channel the top width T = ( b+ 2m y )
D = ( 10 + 2y ) * y /( * * y )
then the section factor ( ) ( ) 10 2 2
981
+
= =
C C C
Z = A 10 + 2 y * y / * * y
30
by using the equation A D Q / g , = 9.578
.
Substituting all the parameters A, P, T, D, and Q in the above equation and sol
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
3
2
1
2
3 1
2 2
3
10 2
9578
10 4
10 2 9578 10 4 0
10 2 91743 10 4 0
+

=
+
+ + =

+ + =

c
c c
c
c c c
c c c
ving for y one gets
y y
.
y
y y . y
y y . y

c
by trial and error, y = 0.91 m


Problems
1. A trapezoidal channel with side slopes of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical is to carry a flow of
16.7 m
3
/s. For a bottom width of 3.65 m, calculate (a) the critical depth and, (b ) the
critical velocity.
2. A rectangular channel carries 5.60 m
3
/s. Find the critical depth y
c
and critical velocity
V
c
for
(a) a width of 3.65m and, (b) a width of 2.75m ,
(c) What slope will produce the critical velocity in (a) if n =0.020 ?
3. Find the diacharge over a broad crested weir of 5.0m length and head 1.0m above
the crest. Assume coefficient of discharge to be 0.9.
yc
H
y1
V1
___
Broad Crested Weir
P
B


P is the height of weir, B is the breadth of the weir. Assume the approach velocity
1
V to
be very small.

=

3/2 c
c
3 y Q
Answer: H = , y Q = 0.544L gH
2 L
2
1
,
g


13.1 Measuring Flumes
Measuring flumes, on the contrary, introduce a width-wise contraction in the channel to
achieve the same objective as weirs. Sometimes a small ramp hump on the bed may
also be provided in the flume. A contracted weir of finite crest width and a measuring
flume with a hump are not essentially different. These flumes are called 'Venturi
Flumes', Sometimes these are referred to as Venturi Weirs too. For measurement of
dscharge with venturi flumes two measurements-one upstream and one at the throat
(narrowest cross-section), are required, if the flow passes in a sub critical state through
the flume. If the flumes are designed so as to pass the flow from sub critical to
supercritical state while passing through the flume, a single measurement at the throat
(which in this case becomes a critical section) is sufficient for computation of discharge.
To ensure the occurrence of critical depth at the throat, the flumes are usually designed
in such a way as to form a hydraulic jump on the downstream side of the structure.
These flumes are called 'Standing Wave Flumes'.
It should be noted that the critical depth will not occur at a particular section of the
measuring structure for all discharges. It moves upstream with increasing discharge and
downstream with increasing boundary roughness for the given discharge. In order to get
the critical depth at a predetermined section, several modifications of the venturi flume
were incorporated. The developments of Parshall Flume and cut-throat flume (Fig 1.9 d)
are the results of such studies.

FLUME LENGTH
X X
PLAN
y
c
SECTION along XX
Note: Sub-Critical to Super-Critical - Single Measurement
Sub-Critical to Sub-Critical - Double Gauging
Throat
Venturi Flume with an hump in the bed

GAUGE WELL
GAUGE WELL
W
THROAT
PLAN
Z
P
D
R
C
Z
PARSHALL FLUME
E
M B F G
WATER SURFACE
K
LEVEL FLOOR
SECTION ON ZZ
R
Standard dimensions are indicated
in the figure by letters


SECTION ON YY
STANDING WAVE FLUME
PLAN
Y Y
y
c
Throat

Long throated flumes
Cut throat flumes
Parshall Flumes
H- Flumes
Throatless flumes with rounded transition


13.2 Critical depth flumes
A free flowing critical depth or standing wave flume is essentially a streamlined
constriction built in an open channel where a sufficient fall is available so that critical
flow occurs in the throat of the flume. The channel constriction may be formed by side
contractions only by a bottom contraction (or hump) only, or by both side and bottom
contractions.
The use of a weir is a simple method, but it causes relatively high head loss. The
hydraulic behavior of a flume is similar to the flow over broad crested weir.
In this regard the stage-discharge relations of several critical depth flumes in general
can be expressed as
n
0
Q =C h
where 'C
0'
is a coefficient depending on the breadth (b) of the throat, on the velocity
head
2
V 2g / at the head measurement section, and on those factors which influence
the discharge coefficient; 'h' is the piezometric level over the flume crest at a specified
point in the converging approach channel and n is a factor usually varies between 1.5
and 2.5 depending on the geometry of the control section.
The empirical relationships are derived from experimental observations for a particular
structure. Hence, the dimensions of the new structure should match exactly with that of
the structure for which the equation is derived.
Example of critical depth flumes that have such head-discharge relationship are the
Venturi flume, Long throated flume, Parshall flume, cut-throat flume, and H-flume.
1. The centre line of the flume matches with that of the canal. The flumes cannot be
used in structures like turnouts, controls and regulating device etc.
2. The critical depth flumes are
(i) Long throated flumes.
(ii) Throatless flumes with rounded.
(iii) Throatless flumes with broken phase transition.
(iv) Parshall flume.
(v) H flumes
(vi) Venturi flume with sub critical constriction.

14.1 Weirs-Introduction
A control structure can be defined as a change in the cross-section of the flow whereby
the regime of the flow is modified. At such a section, a definite stage-discharge
relationship exists, enabling it to be used for the purpose of flow measurement. At a
control structure like a Weir or a measuring flume, etc, the flow changes from sub
critical to supercritical state. Thus, the flow passes through a critical section and flow is
independent of the tail-water conditions. In such a case, the flow can be measured by a
single depth measurement upstream of the critical section.




14.2 Types of Control Structures
Thin Plate weirs

Weirs with finite crest width

Weirs with different longitudinal profiles

Short crested weirs

Terminal weirs

Brink depth


Weirs-Types of Control Structures
Weirs are structures which span across channels (may or may not to the full width)
introducing a contraction in the channel section are called "Suppressed Weirs" - occupy
Full width. Whereas "The Contracted Weirs" occupy a portion of the full width. "Weirs of
Finite Crest Width extend a certain length in the direction of flow.
(a) SUPPRESSED WEIR
PLAN
PLAN
(b) CONTRACTED WEIR

h
( b) SHARP-CRESTED WEIR WITH SUBMERGED FLOW
ENERGY LINE
1
h
2
h
(a) SHARP-CRESTED WEIR WITH FREE FLOW
ENERGY LINE

Thin Plate Weirs

While the flow passes over the weir, if the lower nappe springs clear off from the
upstream edge and does not reattach itself to the weir crest, it is called a 'Sharp-
Crested Weir'. Hence, the sharp-crested weirs are fabricated using thin metal plate and
these have a very small 'absolute length' in the flow direction (equivalent to the
thickness of the plate) followed by a suitable chamfering at the top to make the weir
crest sharp. In literature and practice these are known as 'Sharp-Crested Weir', 'thin
plate weir' and 'notch'. In thin plate weirs the sharpness of the edge required to be
maintained properly otherwise with the change in the sharpness of the crest will affect
the characteristics of the weir considerably. These weirs are very sensitive to approach
flow conditions and the conditions of nappe of the flow.

Flow over rectangular thin plate weirs under free flow conditions has been very
extensively studied. Investigations on this basic weir in non-modular range have been
carried out since Dubuat (1816).
It is indicated that the effect of tail water is felt even for depths of flow below the crest
level. In fact, French Standards recommend that the downstream level should be
300mm, below the weir crest. The free flow over thin plate weirs of non rectangular
shapes shown in figure.
RECTANGULAR
(SUPPRESSED TYPE)
RECTANGULAR
(CONTRACTED TYPE)
TRIANGULAR
PARABOLIC
TRAPEZOIDAL
CIRCULAR
DIFFERENT SHAPES OF SHARP-CRESTED WEIR


Weirs of Finite Crest Width
These Weirs possess a finite 'absolute length' (crest width) in the direction of flow.
When flow over a weir of finite crest width occurs unlike in sharp crested weirs the lower
nappe will be adhering to the weir crest. These are subdivided as Narrow-Crested
Weirs, Broad-Crested Weirs and Long-Crested weirs depending on the flow profiles
over these weirs.
h
L
NARROW-CRESTED WEIR
(0.4 <h/L <1.5)
h
L
BROAD-CRESTED WEIR
(0.1 <h/L <0.4)


h
L
LONG-CRESTED WEIR
h/L <0.1
Weirs with Finite Crest width

Among the Weirs of finite crest width, the rectangular broad-crested weir with horizontal
crest is the most common. Modified weirs such as, weir with slightly sloping crest and
weir with rounded entrance are also in vogue.

h
Finite Crest Width Weir
with Sloping Crest
HORIZONTAL
h
with Rounded Entry
R


h
Drowned Flow Condition
RECTANGULAR TYPE FINITE CREST WIDTH WEIR
1
h
2

The other shapes of broad-crested weirs used are triangular, parabolic, trapezoidal and
circular types.
h
P
L
Triangular
Parabolic
Trapezoidal Circular
Weirs with Finite Crest Width with
different cross-sectional shapes
Longitudinal Section


Weirs with Different Longitudinal Profiles
Further, broad-crested weirs with the longitudinal profile varying in the direction of flow
are triangular profile (crump) weirs, embankment shape (trapezoidal profile) weirs,
Semi-circular profile weirs and streamlined profile weirs.
h
h
Crump Weir (Triangular Profile Embankment Weir
(Trapezoidal Profile)

L
1:3
0.64 m
0.53 m
1:3
1:1
1 __
2
1:1
1 __
2
0.38 m
Embankment weir
0.38 m

h
h
R
Semi Circular Profile
Streamlined Profile
1:5 Slope
Weirs with Different Longitudinal Profiles

Hydrofoil No. 2
L =443 mm, W =101.6 mm
Hydrofoil No. 4
a =152 mm, m =19.05 mm,
L =537.7 mm, W =43.81 mm
= 3.175 mm
Typical Hydrofoil weir shapes
a =152 mm, m =12.15 mm, = 9.525 mm


References:
J agannadha Rao M.V., - Flow Measurement in Open Channels with Hydrofoil weirs and
with end depth measurement, PhD Thesis, Department of Civil and Hydraulic
Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, 1971.


Short crested weirs-Weir sill with rectangular control section
Are the structures in which the curvature of the streamlines influence the head
discharge relationship.
1.25 b
b
Fully aerated nappe
Concrete appron (2.0 m)
h1
Short crested weirs
Approach channel with lining

05
1.5
d v 1
1.5
d v 1
2 2
Q = C C g bh
3 3
Q = 1.7049 C C bh
.


Terminal Weirs
Weirs located at the end of the channel are known as 'Terminal Weirs' or 'End Weirs'.
The flow characteristics are affected by the nappe conditions i.e., whether the weir is
confined or not by extending the (side walls) and whether the area below the bottom
nappe is properly ventilated or otherwise. When the nappe spreads freely, a marginal
increase in discharge may be observed. Further, when a weir is located at or very close
to the end of a channel, the usual discharge relationship of weir flow within a certain
range of head-weir height ratios found to be applicable only. This ratio ranges between
5 (Boss) to 10 (kandaswami and Rouse).


15.2 End Depth or Brink Depth Method
When the channel terminates abruptly the end weir is known as "The Wier of Zero
height". The flow in the end reach of the channel becomes an overfall. Measuring the
depth at the end section of the channel, the discharge can be estimated. Rouse first
identified this aspect in a horizontal rectangular channel (with subcritical approach flow).
The end depth (also called the brink depth) was 0.715 times the critical depth.
When the canal drops suddenly, a free overfall is formed, since flow changes to
Free Overfall Profile
Minimum Drop Distance
H
1
y
c
y
-3
-2 Level -1 0 +1
- 0.5
- 0.6
b
v __
2g
2
__
X
__
y
c
y
__
y
c

The drop distance should be more than 0.6y
c
. Brink depth will be different at the centre
and sides of the canal (which is higher). The roughness of the canal affects the brink
depth and hence the bed and sides should be finished smooth.
2
o
2
q
H
2gy
y = +
2
o
3
dH q
1
dy
gy
=
o
dH
0
dy
= If the flow is critical, hence
2
3
c
q
y
g
=

3/2
c
b c
3 2
b
If =1, then Q = b g y
Rouse showed y 0 715y
y
Thus Q = b g
0.715
/
. =

modified as 0.705 when the flow is two dimensional. This results in an error of 2 to 3 %
c
slopes upto 0.0025.

14.3 Proportional Weirs
'Proportional Weirs' are weir shapes designed to achieve a particular head-discharge or
head-velocity relationship. These weirs find application in the fields of Hydraulic
Engineering, Sanitary Engineering and Chemical Engineering. The study of Proportional
weirs started with the development of 'Sutroweir', which is a linear proportional notch.
For complete literature on this subject, the works of Kolupaila and Keshavamurthy may
be consulted. A general method of designing a weir notch having a base in any given
shape to a depth a, such that the discharge through it is proportional to any singular
monotonically-increasing function of the depth of flow measured above a datum was
proposed by Keshavamurthy and Seshagiri. Some typical examples of proportional
weirs are shown here discussed elsewhere.
X AXIS
O
2
3
__
s
s
Y AXIS
DATUM
W
X AXIS
Y=f(x)
h
s
W
O
Y AXIS
LINEAR PROPORTIONAL WEIR (SUTRO WEIR)
LOGARITHMIC WEIR
X AXIS
O
3
__
s
s
Y AXIS
DATUM
W
1
X AXIS
Y AXIS
d
s
W
QUADRATIC WEIR
(ORIFICE NOTCH)
LINEAR PROPORTIONAL
(ORIFICE NOTCH)
Some examples of Proportional Weirs


30 cm
15 cm
0
T = 25.4 mm
W =50.8 mm
X
Y
T = 50.88 mm
W' =76.2 mm
0 150 mm 150 mm
Profile of a typical baseless weir (NBW-1) Profile of a typical baseless weir (NBW-2)
15 cm
0
X
Y
Proportional
Portion
X
Y
Rectangular
orifice
Trapezoidal chamber
Bed of chamber
Rectangular
orifice
Profile of a typical Sutro-parabolic weir Profile of a typical linear proportional orifice notch
p =215.9 mm
2b =1219.2 mm
a =101.6 mm
a =76.2 mm
p =228.6 mm
d =127 mm
Proportional
portion
1
1
30 cm
2b =1219.2 mm
d =228.6 mm
0

References:
1. Keshava Murthy K, "A Generalized Mathematical Theory of Proportional Weirs, PhD
Thesis, Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Indian Institute of Science,
Bangalore, 1968.
2. Keshava Murthy K, and Seshagiri N, "A Generalized Mathematical Theory and
experimental verification of Proportional notches", J ournal of the Franklin Institute,
Volume 285, Number 5, May 1968, Page 347 - 363.


14.4 Flow Over Weirs
Flow over weirs is complicated because of sharp curvilinear streamlines besides
consisting of eddy regions, accelerating and retarding flow zones. The existing solution
are semi-empirical in nature.
Discharge Coefficient:
For assessing the discharge passing over a weir, many semi-empirical formulae are in
use. Among them, the formulae developed by Rehbock, Bazin, Von Mises, and
Weisback and Francis are popular.
Factors Affecting Flow over Weirs
The several factors affecting the flow are
The head
Fluid properties and Temperature Effects
Approach and tail water conditions
Weir Geometry
Measurement inaccuracies
Fluid Properties and Temperature Effects
The fluid properties which influence the discharge over the weir are viscosity and
surface tension. In case of water flowing over the weir these effects are negligible at
heads higher than 3 cm.
Temperature variations influence the fluid properties like viscosity and surface tension.
The variations in these fluid properties in turn will influence the discharge over the weir.
This type of problem is of importance to chemical Engineers and Sanitary Engineers.
Another closely associated problem is the influence of temperature variations on the
aeration at weirs. In many weirs in industrial processes substantial aeration takes place
when water falls over the weirs. The rate of absorption of atmospheric oxygen by the
water flowing over the weir increases with increasing temperature.
However, the effect of small temperature variations on the water flow over weirs is
negligible.


Approach Flow Conditions
The distribution of velocities in the approach flow has a definite influence on the
discharge over the weir. Kinetic energy correction factor can account for the variation in
the approach velocity. The value of this coefficient depends on the degree of non
uniformity of the approach velocity distribution.
A weir not normal to the approach flow is called a 'skew Weir'. In skew weirs there is a
discharge concentration towards one side. The discharge was found to be greater than
that over a normal weir.
Skew Weir
Approach flow
Plan

Tail Water Conditions
At high tail water levels, the flow over the weir passes in a sub critical state. In this case,
the discharge is dependent on both the upstream and the downstream water levels. The
Weir, in this case, is said to be submerged and the flow is non-modular. "The ratio of the
downstream and the upstream water depths above the weir crest is defined as the
submergence ratio, . The limiting value of where the tail water also begins to
influence the rate of flow is called the submergence limit. Beyond submergence limit,
the discharge reduces.
The shape of the nappe may affect the discharge. The modification of the nappe
conditions result in small variations of the order of 1 to 2% in the discharge.

CLINGING NAPPE
DEPRESSED NAPPE NAPPE WETTED
VENTILATED
UNDERNEATH
(FREE) NAPPE
DIFFERENT NAPPE SHAPES
Ventilated
Adhering to the crest and
downstream face of the weir
The ventilated nappe springs
clear of the crest
The coefficient of discharge is generally
above the free discharge coefficient upto
H/L < 0.8

The weir geometry influences the coefficient of discharge. It depends upon the pressure
distribution along the geometric profile, boundary layer growth and separation zones.

14.5 Polygonal weirs-Introduction
Weirs and spillways with a polygonal discontinuous center line can be designed in
various manner. Figure 1 shows some of the examples such as square intake towers,
labyrinth weirs, duck-bill overfalls.
97.5 m
30.0 m
Stilling basin
Duck-bill overfall
corner angle: 90
148.0 m
14.4 m
Labyrinth weir
corner angle: 45.6
314.4


11.7 m
20.4 m
Labyrinth weir
corner angle: 117
242
Polygonal weir
corner angle: 133 152 255
, ,


5.0 m
5.0 m
to
stilling
basin
Square intake
corner angle: 90
Rectangular intake tower
corner angle: 90
8.0
3.0
15.0 m
3.0 m
Rectangular spillway
corner angle: 90
14.9 m
3.5 m
Polygonal intake tower
corner angle: 84.3
Layouts of Overfall structures with
Polygonal Center Line of Weir Crest

These weirs consist mainly of straight parts with corners in-between. The points of
discontinuity are created by the intersection of two straight center lines. Closed
polygons are possible.
The length of an overfall structure can be considerably increased in case the width is
limited. In case of small overfall heads, the discharge capacity may increase compared
to straight overfalls situated orthogonally to the main flow direction. Intake towers in
reservoirs with small water depth
[ ]
300 m . and small floods
3
100 m/s

can be
designed as square shaft spillways instead of the continuous straight or circular crests
in plan, which are used very often.
The polygon is easier to construct than the circle. However, the hydraulic computation
of the discharge capacity for the polygon is more complicated than for the continuous
straight or circular crests in plan.

It is possible, for any combination or shape of a polygonal weir or overfall, to do the
hydraulic computation with very accurate results with the help of the analysis given by
Indlekofer and Rouve (1975).
14.5.1 DISCHARGE OF " CORNER WEIR

They investigated the "corner" weir, which is symmetrical and has orthogonal boundary
conditions. The corner angle, , is formed by both the straight sides of the weir and is
measured in the downstream.
side wall
W
c
h
c
l /2
d
l /2
c
"corner"-weir
Isometric view of corner-weir looking downstream


weir crest
side wall
Plan of Corner-weir
Disturbed area
(overlapping flow region)
l
c
/2
l
c
/2
l
d
/2
l
d
/2

T
y
b
Rectanglar

2W
h
Y
POEBING WEIR
X
R

Angle ' ' varies within the limits, Convex angle 0 180 <

Concave angle 180 360 <


In the physical system ("corner weir ") in the range of 180 to 360

does not perform
satisfactorily. Therefore
1 2
360 + =

in physical system.
/ 2
/ 2
1
1
2
Layout of Corner Weir
Concave angle
0 < 180
o
o
1
<
Convex angle
360 <
o
2 < 180
o

The flow over the corner weir can be apportioned as (1) disturbed area near the corner
are shown in green color and
(2) With two-dimensional flow.
The length of the area of disturbed flow = 2 + 2 l / l /
d d

The length of the corner weir is l
c
. Hence, 0
d c
l l
The local disturbance factor 'DF' with a distance, l, from the corner is defined as

( )
( ) C l
DF l
C
n
=
in which ( ) C l and
n
C are the coefficient of discharges for the corner weir of length 'l'
and for the normal flow condition.
The discharge over the weir is written as
3 2
3
2 2
c
m
* /
n c c,n
Q
C
C l g h
=
in which Q is the discharge, in m
3
s
-1
; b is the width of the weir, in meter; 'g' is the
acceleration due to gravity 9.81 ms
-2
; and 'h' is the head over the weir. The disturbance
factor cannot be greater than 1.
Because of the continuity of flow between the corner and the side walls, it may be noted
that the continuity of DF (L). At the point of transition, the following condition is required
to be satisfied.

DF 1
2
d
l
=

For values 2 DF l l / , l
d
= . Accordingly, the mean distribution coefficient,
m
C , of the
overlapping flow zone can be written as
( )
2
2
DF
0
l /
d
c l dl
m
l
d
=

The discharge,
c
Q , of the corner " weir is
( )
3 2
2
2 1
3
/
c n c,n c m d
Q C g h l C l =

The overall head,
c,n
h , belonging to the discharge coefficient,
n
C , under normal flow
conditions (two-dimensional flow) can be estimated from
2 2
2
c c,n
c,n c
h h
g

= +
in which
c
h =overfall head, assuming three dimensional flow, in meter, at the " corner "
weir ;
c
=flow velocity, assuming three-dimensional flow, in meter per second, at the "
corner " weir ; and
c,n
=flow velocity under normal flow conditions (two-dimensional
flow) at the " corner " weir. For the hydraulic calculation the length,
d
l , of the disturbed
area and the value of
m
C must be known.
14.5.2 LENGTH
d
l OF OVERLAPPING ZONE
With increasing overfall heads
c,n
h the length of the overlapping zone,
d
l , grows
symmetrically to the corner, as far as
d c
l l = .
In this case the mean disturbance coefficient is
3 2
3
2 2
c
m
* /
n c c,n
Q
C
C l g h
=
If the corresponding limiting value for
*
c,n c,n
h h = .
Using the length,
d
l , of the overlapping zone of flow, depending on the strength of
disturbance, from Eq. 7 one may obtain
3 2
3 1
1
2 2
c
d c
/
m
n c,n
Q
l l
C
C g h

=


3 2
3
2 2
c
d
c
/
n c,n
Q
l l
C g h
=
Thus
1
1
d
d
m
l l
C
=

in which l
d
represents the length of disturbance. The independent variables
and l ,Q ,C h ,
c c n, c,n
are determined from experiments.
Indlekofer and Rouve have conducted investigations for sharp-crested corner weirs
with corner angles 4681 6208 8964 and 123.45 . , . , . , =

. The crest thickness was 2mm.
The discharge was determined by the Rehbock formula
( )
2 00011
3 2
06035 00813 2 00011
3 P
h .
/
Q . . b g h .
+
= + +

in which h is the overfall head, in meters; P is the weir height, in meters; and b is the
width, in meters and
n
C is the coefficient of discharge.
Length of Overlapping Zone Area
d
l
The length of overlapping zone area,
d
l , can be calculated using Eq. 12.

The length of disturbance,
d
l , is related to the overall head,
c,n
h , by a simple linear
function,
d
c,n
l A Bh = +
in which A is a constant, in meter; and B slope for
d
l . It must be mentioned that the
constant, A is very small, and either positive or negative.
14.5.3 Length
d
l of Overlapping Zone
Based on the laws of similitude, one can assume a linear relation between the length,
d
l , of the zone of disturbance and the overfall head. The length,
d
l , will be
1
d c,n
m
B
l h
C
=

or using the slope B, for the length,
d
l , of the overlapping zone

d c,n
l Bh =

Because of the linearity B
c
*
c,n
l
h
=

Mean Disturbance Coefficient
m
C in overlapping zone - The mean disturbance
coefficient,
m
C , which considers the influence of the disturbance with a length,
d
l ,
compared with the flow normal to a straight weir, can be calculated by,
1
m
B
C
B
=
using the slope and B B .
Figures show the typical Polygonal Plan with angles 0 180 < <

.

3
(2,3)
2
(1,2)
1
(n,1)
n
n-1
(n-1,n)
n-1
n
Plan of the typical polygonal corner weir , Corner Angles 0 < < 180 ;
lc
lc
lc
lc


Length of Overlapping zone for Constant Overfall Head
Overlapping zones
Undisturbed zones

( )
3/2
c, n
1
2
2 h
3
n
d ,i
c n c n
i
Q C g l l
=

=

Example:
Discharge of Sharp-Crested Shaft Spillways with Equilateral Polygonal Plan

In case of shaft spillways, with equilateral polygonal in plan above Equation can be
simplified as
3 2
2
2 1
3
d /
c n c c,n
c
l
Q C g n l h
l

=

in which l
c
is the length of the crest between two corner points and n is the number of
corners.
Reference:
Indlekofer, Horst, and Rouve, Gerhard, "Discharge over Polygonal Weirs," J ournal of
the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Volume 101, Number HY#, Proceeding paper 11178,
March 1975, pp. 385 - 401.


14.6 Special Types of Weirs
Special types of weirs are designed to cater to the needs of a particular situation, where
the usual types of weirs fail. Flat-vee weirs, Large Vee Weirs and Labyrinth weirs are
some examples of such special types.
Flat Vee weirs
Triangular profile flat Vee weir
Large Vee weirs
V-notch weir sill
Triangular profile two dimensional weir
Triangular broad-crested weir


Flow Measuring Structures
Flow measurement structures are required in irrigation canals in order to facilitate the
distribution of water through out the system and to keep account for seepage losses,
etc. However, in the smaller channels the flow measurement structures or devices are
closely associated with local water management practices of an irrigation command.
Several individuals have carried out investigation on flow measurement structures and
have developed discharge rating relationship for them, but it must be noted that both
national and international organisations are responsibility of Technical Committed TC
113 "Measurement of liquid flow in open channels. A list of standards relating to flow
measurement structures is given in Table 1.
ISO Standards
ISO 1438/1 Thin plate weirs and flumes
ISO 4360
ISO 4361
Triangular profile weirs.
Round nosed weirs
ISO 4359
Standing wave flumes for different throat section viz,
Rectangular, U-shape, Trapezoidal.
ISO 6417 Compound gauging structures.
ISO 3846
ISO 3847
Rectangular broad -crested weirs.
By the brink depth method.
ISO4374 Round nose horizontal crest wiers.
ISO 4377 Flat V weirs.
ISO 748
Liquid flow measurement in open channel by velocity area
method.
ISO 1070
Liquid flow measurement in open channels by the slope
area method.
ISO 1100
Established and operation of a gauging station and
determination of the stage discharge relations.
ISO 2425 Measurement of flow in tidal channels

* International Organisation for Standardization
* On the suggestion of India, in 1954 the technical committee ISO/TC 30 of the ISO took
upon the task of standardization of flow measurements in open channels set up a
separate subcommittee.


Labyrinth Weir as High-Capacity Field Outlet
Irrigation engineers have been forced to adopt new solutions to the engineering
problems in order to ensure that irrigation projects are viable, or to deal with specially
adverse conditions. Updating of existing spate irrigation systems which have been
operating along traditional lines with reasonable success for substantial periods of time
required a novel approach to build the structures involved. The important feature of
these spate irrigation systems is that they are fed from non perennial rivers (normally
dry but occurring flash flood flows when storms occur in the upper catchments).
Diversion from these steep rivers was traditionally made by temporary earth banks
which are often washed away during the flood period.
Figure shows a plan view of a section of canal which includes a high- capacity field
outlet having a cross - regulator immediately down stream. Closure of the cross -
regulator cause backwater in the canal, and the water levels and the extent of the
backwater is determined by the head required over the weir crest to discharge the
necessary flow of water. A short length of weir crest would result in high backwater
levels and a long length of crest would result in a relatively small increase of water
levels due to backwater. The importance of the increase of water levels and of the
extent of backwater requires raising of the canal banks, involving substantial
investment. The labyrinth weir is one such solution. This should be cheaper than a
straight weir having the same length as the developed length of a labyrinth weir. In
Figure a simple two - cycle labyrinth weir has been shown near outlet. The configuration
of labyrinth weir is determined by experiment. With some configurations, there is a
possibility of, the nappes meeting from two of the sloping sides of the labyrinths forming
a jet which may cause scour in the downstream.
A Labyrinth weir is characterized by a broken axis in plan, the total length thus being
compressed in concertina (Small musical instrument resembling an accordion but
having button like keys) form into the space available on site. The purpose of the
Labyrinth weir is to increase the discharge per unit width for a given operation head.
Another advantage of this weir can be raised for the same maximum elevation of water
level, thereby gaining substantial storage capacity.

5.5 m
Note:
This can develop submeged turbulent rollers at very low discharges
Simple weir


5.5 m
Simple weir with splash plate
Note:
Distributes the flow over a greater surface area
1.2 m

Weir with cascade
1
2
3
Steps 1 and 2 =1.83 m
Steps 3 =1.52 m


Note: When a simple weir is used energy dissipation would not be very effective.
Depending on the Tail water level, a hydraulic jump forms. In order to dissipate the
energy possible alternatives are shown above. A simple weir with splash plate will help
in distributing the flow over a great surface and the baffle blocks will assist in break up
of submerged jump. The turbulence level is not reduced by this combination. Further
cascade of splash plate will estimate the submerged jump.
Reference:
Don Richarad and others, Low Head Dam Safety with Hydraulic Models, Proceedings
National Hydraulic Engineering Conference, ASCE, 1987, pp-528-533.
5.5 m
Typical Labyrinth weir
Note:
Longer length, lower head, reduced over action


PLAN
UPSTREAM
CHANNEL
DOWNSTREAM
CHANNEL
X
UPSTREAM SURFACE
PROFILE
DOWNSTREAM SURFACE
PROFILE
SECTION - 'XX'
LABYRINTH WEIR


1:2
Warped masonry
wall
Curved masonry
wall
0.25
High-capacity field outlet upstream of a cross regulator.
Plan view of V high capacity field outlet.
Design outflow 5 m /s
Scale 1:100
1:3
1:1
1.10 0.90
Curved masonry
wall
1:1
4.81
0.2
3.04
0.25
1.3
Dry rubble
pitching
Cross-regulator
Stop logs or
gates
8.0
3

With the low ratios of head to crest length, the effectiveness of the labyrinth weir
configuration can be measured by a weir equation, such as
=
3 / 2
d
Q C g Lh
in which, C
d
is the coefficient of discharge, L the developed length of the weir crest and
h the head over the crest. High values of C
d
indicate an efficient structure, where as the
head h inevitable reduces as the length L increases.


Flat-Vee Weirs
Flat-Vee weirs are suitable for measuring a wide range of flows accurately. It is
relatively easy to install them and their cost is low. This weir was designed by slightly
modifying the Crump Weir. Figure shows the typical flat-vee weir. An accuracy of plus or
minus 0.5 percent was claimed for this weir, both in modular and non modular ranges of
flow. For small installations this weir may be prefabricated. Further these weirs can be
used on steep slopes. But in such cases, to avoid the generation of supercritical flow
state over the weir, a stilling pool in the upstream of the gauging station may be
provided. This pool helps in trapping the sediment. Flat-Vee Weirs are common in
Europe.
Flat Vee Weir
Flow
P
h
P
hP
GAUGE WELLS


Triangular profile flat V-weir
Triangular Profile Flat V - Weir
View from upstream

( )
( )
25
2.5
d v e e b
b
25
2.5
d v e e b
b
4 b
Q = C C 2g h h h
15 h
b
Q = 1.18118 C C h h h
h
.
.

e
h is the effective less than
b
h . Effective head less than
1
h measured at the U/S. The
correction factor depends on the cross slope at weir profile (Table gives).
Table: Correction factor
f
C for Triangular profile flat V weirs
Weir profile Cross slope
U/S d/S 1:20 1:10
1:2 1:2 0.4 mm 0.6 mm
1:2 1:5 0.5 mm 0.8 mm

e 1 f
h h - C =
d
C 066 . = can be taken for both the profiles indicated in table. However is sensitive to
Tail water bed level, P
2
.
Then average value of
d
C 071 . = can be taken when
e
2
h
125
P
. < .


Large Vee Weirs
To estimate the regime characteristics of a river in relation to watershed protection and
flood prevention measures. A vee Weir with a very large apex angle and with very little
crest width is installed with weir crest slightly above the channel bed. Figure shows the
details of a Large vee weir.
Sheet Piles
Weir Crest
A
A

Weir Crest
Stilling Basin
Rip Rap Packing
Section along A-A


760 mm
2
1 1
1
1 = 150 mm
2 = 120 mm
Loose Sand
Weir Crest Details


V-notch Weir Sill
2
m
1
x
x
0.15 0.1
0.15
0.05 0.05
m = 2, 3, 5
Dimensions are
in metre
V- notch Weir sill

0 5
2.5
d v 1
2.5
d v 1
16 2
Q = C C g tan h
25 5
= 0.8965 C C tan h
.


Triangular profile Two Dimensional Weir
This is also referred as CRUMP weir (1952)
Flat Vee Weir
Flow
P
h
P
hP
GAUGE WELLS

[ ]
1 2
1.5
d v e
1.5
d v e
2
Q = C C 2g bh
3
=2.9529 C C bh
/


Triangular Broad Crested Weir
b

[ ]
1 b
0.5
2.50
d v 1
2.50
d v 1
-2
b
0 50
b
d v 1
For H 1 25 h
16
Q = C C 0.2g tan h
25
= 0.8965 C C tan h
g = 9.81 ms
For H 1.25 h
h 2 2
Q = C C g h -
3 3 2
.
.

[ ]
1 50
1 50
d v 1 b
b
= 1.7049 b C C h -0.5h
.
.


14.7 The broad- crested weir
A broad- crested weir is an overflow structure with a horizontal crest above which non
hydrostatic pressure distribution occurs and may be neglected. In other words, the
streamlines are merely straight and parallel. To obtain this condition the length of weir
crest (L) should be related to the total energy head over the weir crest as
1
0.05 H L 0.08 . The upper limit as
1
H L 0.08 is fixed otherwise the energy
losses over the weir crest cannot be neglected and undulations may occur on the crest;
On the other hand the lower limit
1
H L 0.05 , is fixed such that hydrostatic pressure
distribution may be assumed.
Such a measuring structure will have insignificant energy losses in the zone of
acceleration upstream of the control section, accordingly (specific energy E) equation
may be written as E
1
=E
2

2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2 2
V V
h + =E = y +
2g 2g

In other words
( ) { }
0.5
0.50
1 2
V= 2g E -y

In which E
1
equals the upstream specific energy over the weir crest.
y2
h2 yc
P
h1
y1
E1
L
weir
Flow over a broad crested weir under submerged condition
E2
1
V
1
2
______
2g

2
V
2
2
______
2g

( ) { }
2
1 2
substituting Q = VA and putting 1.0 gives
0.5
Q = A 2g E -y
=


If the critical flow occurs at the control section (y =y
c
), a head -discharge relationship for
various throat geometries can may be derived from
( ) { }
0.50
Q =A 2 E
c
1
g y
c


14.8 Different Types of Broad Crested Weirs
Triangular broad crested weir
Broad crested weir with rectangular cross section
Broad crested and short crested weir


Triangular Broad Crested Weir
b

[ ]
1 b
0.5
2.50
d v 1
2.50
d v 1
-2
b
0 50
b
d v 1
For H 1 25 h
16
Q = C C 0.2g tan h
25
= 0.8965 C C tan h
g = 9.81 ms
For H 1.25 h
h 2 2
Q = C C g h -
3 3 2
.
.

[ ]
1 50
1 50
d v 1 b
b
= 1.7049 b C C h -0.5h
.
.


Broad crested rectangular weir
P
h1
y1
L
1
P2
Seperation of flow
Broad crested rectangular weir - The height of the weir
P1 and P2 are different in the upstream and downstream
face respectively

1
1
1
H
08 Subcritical flow occurs above the crest
L
H
0.08 033 This is the range the flow can be described a broad crested weir
L
H
0.33< about 1.
L
<

.
.
1
5 to 1.8 Seperation occurs
H
15 Behaves as a sharp crested weir
L
> .

05
1.50
d v 1
1.50
d v 1
1 1
d
1
Disharge is obtained by
2 2
Q =C C g bh
3 3
=1.7049 b C C h
H h
C remains nearly constant if 0.08 <0.33 and 035
L h P
.
.

+

The average values of C
d
within this limit is 0.848. Beyond this range a correction factor
greater than 1.0 requires to be applied.

Weirs
Weirs are the flow measuring devices. Two types of weirs (i) Sharp crested, (ii) Broad
crested are used for measuring the flow.
Sharp crested weirs: Rectangular notch
1.5
Q h , V- notch
2.5
Q h , Cipoletti
weir
1.5
Q h , Proportional weir
1.0
Q h , Rehbock weir
1.5
Q h .
Broad crested weirs: Round nose horizontal broad crested weir
1.5
Q h , triangular
broad crested weir
1.7 to 2.5
Q h , Broad crested rectangular profile weir
1.5
Q h ,
Faiyum weir
1.6
Q h , Romijn movable / regulating weir. The broad crested weirs are
those structures over which the streamlines are parallel to each other over the crest
such that the hydrostatic pressure distribution can be assumed along the length of the
weir (L).
(i) Round nose broad crested weir (fig)
0.50
1.50
d v 1
1.50
d v 1
2 2
Q c c g bh
3 3
Q 1.7049 c c bh
g is 9.81 m/s/s.

=

=
( )
1.50
d
1
L-r
L-r
c 1-2 1
b h

=

in which is the factor which allows for the influence of the boundary layer on the crest.
=0.005 for concrete structure and =0.003 for laboratory broad crested weir.
h
1
h
2
P
2
L >1.75H1max
r =0.2 H
1max
P
1
2 to 3 H
1 max
Stilling well
Round nose broad crested weir


Romijn weir was developed by the department of irrigation in Indonesia by Romijn.
Telescopic Romijn weir consists of two sliding blades and movable weir which are
mounted on a steel guide frame.
The Broad- Crested Weir
A broad- crested weir is an overflow structure with a horizontal crest above which non
hydrostatic pressure distribution occurs and may be neglected. In other words, the
streamlines are merely straight and parallel. To obtain this condition the length of
because weir crest (L) should be related to the total energy head over the weir crest as
1
0.05 H L 0.08 . The upper limit
1
H L 0.08 as is fixed otherwise the energy
losses over the weir crest cannot be neglected and undulations may occur on the crest;
On the otherhand the lower limit
1
H L 0.05 , is fixed such that hydrostatic pressure
distribution may be assumed.
Such a measuring structure will have insignificant energy losses in the zone of
acceleration upstream of the control section, accordingly (specific energy E) equation
may be written as
E
1
=E
2
In other words
( ) { }
2 2
1 1
1 1
1 2 2
0.5
-0.50
1 2
V V
h + = E = y +
2g 2g
V= 2g E -y

In which E
1
equals the upstream specific energy over the weir crest (fig)

y2
h2 yc
P
h1
y1
E1
L
Flow over a broad crested weir under submerged condition.
E2
2
V
__
2
2
_____
2g
1
V
__
1
2
_____
2g


P
h1
y1
L
1
P2
Seperation of flow
Broad crested rectangular weir - The height of the weir
P1 and P2 are different in the upstream and downstream
face respectively

( ) { }
2
1 2
substituting Q = VA and putting 1.0 gives
0.5
Q = A 2g E -y
=

If the critical flow occurs at the control section (y=y
c
), a head -discharge relationship for
various throat geometries can may be derived from
( ) { }
0.50
Q =A 2 E
c
1
g y
c

Broad - Crested Weir with Rectangular Control Section
For a rectangular control section in which the flow is critical, the area of flow A
c
=by
c
and
A
c
/ T then equation may be written as
2
c
c 1
V 1
= y
2g 2
Hence
2
y = E
3

Substitution of this relationship and A
c
=b y
c
after simplification it may be written as
1.7049
1 1
0.50
1.50 1.50
2 2
Q = g b E b E
3 3
=


14.9 Bear-trap weir
Hydro-electric developments of rivers require weirs that hold the water back behind a
damming structure. Such weirs, while serving utilitarian purposes, must be so designed
as to preserve the natural amenities of the locality. The bear-trap weir, developed by
Voith according to a swiss patent, meets the requirements, and even under drifting ice
conditions the Voith bear trap weir provides dependable services. As the river discharge
varies, the bear trap crest is automatically raised or lowered so as to maintain a
constant head water level.
Lowered position of bear-trap weir for flood disposal
Raised position of bear-trap weir for flood disposal


15.1 Flow below a Sluice Gate
Sluice
Gate
1
Hydraulic
jump
2
3
Rapidly varied flow with Hydraulic jump (1 and 3 subcritical flows,
2 Super critical flow)
y
1
H
1
=
y
l
Flow below a Sluice gate
y
2
V
1
2 ___
___
2g
W
W

( )
( )
2
1
1 1
1
d v 1
1.5
d v
1.5
v
H = y +
2g
opening w
y y
depth at vena contracta y = w or = , n =
w w
Q = C C bw 2g y -y
= C C bw 2g n-
= K bw 2g

The value of
1
y
n =
w
, range is 1.50 to 5.00.
ranges between 0.648 to 0.624.
C
d
ranges between 0.607 to 0.596.
As 'n' increases from 1.5, C
d
decreases upto 2.40 with a value of 0.600 to 0.596. Then
further increase in n (>2.40) the C
d
value increases from 0.596 to 0.624. For the same
range, 'K' increases from 0.614 to 1.279.
For
n =2 =0.630
n =3 =0.625

n =10 =0.620
Vena contra is located at a distance of
1
y
1
n
= .

The sequent depth of jump should not exceed the value given by
2 1
y H
1 16 1 1
w 2 w

= +

Figure shows the limiting tail water level for modular flow below a sluice gate.
0 1
1.5 2
3
4
5 6 7 8 9 10
1
2
3
4
5
Submerged
Flow
Limiting tail-water level for modular flow below a sluice gate
Ratio n = y
1
/w
assuming
Modular Flow
= 0.611
y
1
H
1
__

Henderson proposed an equation for the contraction coefficient for the radial (Tainter)
gate which depends on inclination angle .
2

=1- 0.75 0 36
90 90
.

+

The expected error is less than 5% provided that
o
< 90 . Thus the discharge coefficient
for radial gate is given by
d
0 5
1
C
w
1+
y
.
=

.


BRINK DEPTH

When the canal drops suddenly, a free over fall is formed, since flow changes to
L
Brink depth
or
End depth
y
c
Brink depth
x
(y )
b
y
c
_
_
y
b
1.4 , x = 3 to 4 y
c

The drop distance should be more than 0.6y
c
. Brink depth will be different at the centre
and sides of the canal (which is higher). The roughness of the canal affects the brink
depth and hence the bed and sides should be finished smooth.
2
q
H
o
2
2gy
y = +
2
dH q
o
1
3
dy
gy
=
1
y
n =
w
if the flow is critical, hence
2
q
3
y
c
g
=
If =1, then
b
Q = b g y
Rouse showed
b
y 0 715y . =
Thus
b
y
Q = b g
0.715


modified as 0.705 when the flow is two dimensional. This results in a error of 2 to 3 %
c
slopes upto 0.0025.

15.3 Modern Methods of Flow Measurements
Any Engineering or natural phenomenon which deserves and attracts the attention of
Engineer needs to be studied before it can be analysed. The word study is meant to
mean 'observations and analysis'. These observations require the measurement of
phenomenon and this is where measurement techniques come into picture.
It is specially so in hydraulics considering what LEONARDO DA VINCI said about
hydraulics.
"If you have anything to do with the water, first do the experiment and then ponder
about the results".
An experiment means detail recording and measurement of phenomenon. The degree
of sophistication depending upon complexity of phenomenon and its importance. For
example measurement of discharge in a channel a gauge may be sufficient, whereas
measurement of turbulence requires hot wire anemometry and other accessory
instrumentation.
The definition of data processing is the conversion of raw data into information.
Information is such a value from which decision can be made and results inferred. Data
processing can be performed manually with the aid of simple tools as paper, pencil and
fitting cabinets or electronically with the aid of computer.
15.3.1 INSTRUMENTATION OF DATA PROCESSING
For determination of discharge one should know the relationship between stage and
discharge. A rating curve is drawn for a particular section, it is nothing but the functional
relation between stage and discharge.

STAGE (m)
DISCHARGE m
3
/s
H
Typical Stage Discharge Relationship

Measuring stage:
Water surface
Bed
Definition of stage
H (M.S.L)
(Above Mean Sea Level)
Datum
EL 210.00 m
EL 205.00 m
EL 200.00 m

The height of a stream water surface above an arbitrary datum is called "the stage".
Stage records are also used for designing of hydraulic structures, in flood warning
systems and in planning of the use of flood plains.


Stage can be measured by any one of the methods given below:
(1) A marble column carrying a scale and grounding in a well connected with the river.
(2) Stage can be sensed by a float in a stilling well that is connected to the stream by
intake pipes.



(3) Stage can be sensed with a gas purge system known as bubble gauge. The gas is
fed through a tube and bubbled freely from an orifice mounted in the stream. The
pressure in the tube, measured with a zero-displacement mercury monometer, is equal
to the piezometric head on the bubble orifice. It has an accuracy of about 2 mm.
Stage is recorded directly on a strip chart or may be punched on a paper tape to be fed
directly to a computer.
15.3.2 Stream flow measurement
Generally three methods are used for making stream flow measurements.
1. Current meter.
2. Dilution techniques.
3. Indirect methods.
(1) Current meter: Different types of current meter are available for measuring velocity
at points in a stream. The price current meter, consists of vertical axis rotor with six
curve shaped cups (vanes) pointing in a horizontal plane. The OH- meter, widely used

in Germany, is a horizontal axis meter that measures the components of velocity
parallel to the meter axis. The current meter is calibrated by noting down revolutions per
minute (rpm) for different known velocity and calibration curve is plotted velocity is
measured at 0.2 to 0.8 of the flow depth.
(2) Dilution technique: Two dilution techniques are (1) the steady feed method and (2)
the instantaneous, point - source time indigenous method.
For steady feed method, a solution of tracer material with concentration C
1
is injected at
the constant injection rate Q
T

C
C
2
TIME
CONCENTRATION-TIME CURVE MEASURED AT X2
SKETCH OF THE REACH
X2
X2
C2
X1
X1
INJECTION
QT
C1 Concentration

The tracer disperses laterally into the flow and tracer concentration distribution is similar
to as shown in figure. At some point X
2
downstream, where the tracer material is
approximately uniformly mixed, the flow is sampled continuously.
By continuity ( )
T 1 T 2
Q C = Q+Q C
in which
Q is the stream discharge, C
2
is the concentration at X
2
If
T
Q << Q and if there is no tracer loss

T 1 2
T 1
2
Q C QC
then
Q C
Q=
C
=

If the tracer mixer has properties similar to the water (fluorescein, fluorescent, salt
solution), so that there are no density gradients, vertical mixing is very rapid due to
turbulence of the flow. Theoretically, complete lateral mixing occurs at X but practically it
occurs between 20 to 100 times the channel widths.
By instantaneous injection method, a quantity of tracer w, is injected, instantaneously at
section X and time t
0
. The cloud of tracer disperses laterally and longitudinally as it
moves downstream.
W
X0, t0
Concentration at x1
Concentration at x2
TIME
CONCENTRATION Distribution at X1 and X2
X1, t1
X2, t2
DYE CLOUD DISPERSING DOWN STREAM
Q

At the section X
2
, where the tracer is completely mixed literally, the flow is sampled
continuously. From the conservation of mass
0
W= Q C dt

in which Q is nearly constant through sampling period
0
W
Q =
C dt

The common tracers used are
(a) Salt solutions
(b) Radio active tracer are detected by its scintillation detectors

(c) Fluorescent dyes with flourometers.
Advantage of dilution method, they condensed in closed conduits, such as penstocks,
sewers pipe lines, where current-meter measurements are difficult, and they are fast
and accurate.
Disadvantages: Expensive for measuring large stream and the special equipments
required for the measurements of concentration.
(3) Indirect Method: Involved using various empirical formulae when it is impossible to
measure discharge such as during floods. Empirical formulae like Flaming, Manning,
Strickler formulae etc are used.
Determination of sediment concentration:
The distribution of sediment concentration is not uniform over the cross section. It varies
with particle size and with depth. It is found that 0.062 mm is distributed almost
uniformly.
0
10
20
30
40
WATER SURFACE
SEDIMENT CONCENTRATION

15.3.3 MODERN MEASURING TECHNIQUES
The two principle techniques that are used in the modern measuring instruments are
'Electro-acoustics' (ultrasonic frequencies) and
'Electro-optics'.
Characteristics of sound transmission:
Sound transmission in an elastic medium has the characteristic of wave motion and its
speed is dependent upon the elasticity and density of the medium. For water, these
properties are in turn affected by the temperature, pressure, and salinity. An empirical
formula for the velocity of sound in water is given by

2
C =141000 + 421 T - 3.7 T + 110 S + 0.018 y
in which C is the velocity of transmission on cm/s, T is the temperature of the water in
C, S is the Salinity in pairs per thousand, y is the depth below the surface in cm.
Refraction: occurs around the solid obstacles placed in the path of transmission, or by
temperature or density stratified layers.
Reflection: Any body immersed in water everywhere to reflect sound in. In particular the
bottom and the surface of the water can reflect sound in. In particular the bottom and
the surface of the water can reflect acoustic waves. If a body is perfect reflector, all the
energy intercepted is reflected. If however, the body is an imperfect reflector part of
interrupted energy is absorbed by the body as heat and only part of the energy is
reflected.
The Ultrasonic method:
Principle: Of the ultrasonic method is to measure the velocity of flow at certain depth in
the channel by simultaneously transmitting sound pulses through the water from
transducers located in the banks on either side of the river. The transducers, which are
designed to both transmit and receive sound pulses, are not located directly but are
staggered so that angle between the pulse path and the direction of flow is between 30
to 60 . The difference between the time of travel of the pulses in two different directions
is directly related to the average velocity of the water at the depth of the transducer.
This velocity can then be related to the average velocity of flow of the whole cross
section and, if desirable, by incorporating an area factor in the electronic processor, the
system can give an output of discharge.
FLOW
B
A
rp
v


Notation:
L Path length path angle
(usually 30 to
60)
V
Average velocity of flow of river
at depth y.
p
r path velocity at
depth y
V Average velocity of flow of river C Velocity of sound
in water
d actual depth of flow a area of flow
1
t time taken for a pulse to travel
from A to B.
2
t time taken for a
pulse to travel
from B to A.
1
F output frequency corresponding
to
1
1 / t
2
F output frequency
corresponding to
2
1 / t
c
F output frequency corresponding
to
1
1 / t minus
2
1 / t
M Multiplication fig.
of variable
frequency
oscillator
T measuring period N no. of
coincidences in
dif.fre.store =FcT
The time taken for a pulse to travel from A to B
1
P
L
t =
C + V

Similarly time taken for a wave front to travel in the opposite direction is
2
P
p
1 2
p
1 2
L
t =
C V
2V
1 1
t t L
L 1 1
V =
2 t t

Average velocity of river flow at depth y is given by
1 2
Vp
V =
cos
L 1 1
V =
2cos t t

Transducers may be so positioned in the vertical plane so as to make average velocity
V at depth of equal to the average velocity of flow V then
1 2
L 1 1
V =
2cos t t


If 'Q' is discharge
Q = aV
= V- dsin

2
1 2
L 1 1
Q = d tan
2 t t

There are two methods of obtaining discharge in use at present, the first where the
transducers are fixed in position and station calibrated by current meter and second
case where transducers are designed to slide on either a vertical plane or an inclined
assembly. In this case no current meter measurements are necessary, self calibrating
one. By nothing transducers through number of paths in the vertical, velocity readings
are obtained along these paths. From each set of readings vertical velocity curves are
established over as large a range in stage possible. It is then possible to estimate first, a
suitable position for the fixing of the transducers into vertical and second to establish a
curve stage the co-efficient of discharge as in first method.

Projector
Receiver
Projector
Detector
Recorder Computer
Receiver
A
Clock
Receiver
B
Pulser
L
Schematic illustration for the Arrangement of
Sound Projector and Receiver
V
VP
Flow

2. ELECTRO-ACOUSTIC MEASUREMENT OF FLOW DEPTH
A single transducer is used as the projector and receiver of sound energy for
measurement of flow depth, using either the channel bed or water surface to reflect the
projected sound wave back toward the receiver along the same acoustic axis. This
instrument generally referred to as a depth sounder, the velocity of the water does not
affect the signal as the direction of interrogation is generally perpendicular to the flow
direction downward to the bed or upward to the water surface. Hence, the distance from
transducer to the reflecting surface can be determined directly from the time lapse
between projection and acceptor and the velocity of sound in to the water. The
schematic arrangement shown in fig.

Schematic arrangement for a Depth Sounder
CLOCK
PULSER RECORDER
COMPUTER
RECEIVER
TRANSDUCER
ACCOUSTIC AXIS
TARGET AREA
d

The clock provides the time base with which the other components are synchronise.
The pulses provide regulated bursts of voltage to generate short bursts of sound energy
with the transducer at a selected frequency. The choice of frequency depends on the
power available and depth to be interrogated. The sound energy is directed to a
relatively small target area on the channel bed (or water surface). The sound energy is
reflected back toward the transducer, and receiver monitors. The return echo. Since the
same transducer is used to generate the sound wave and receive the return signal, the
frequency of interrogation (repetition) depends entirely upon the depth and velocity of

the sound waves. The computer simply determines the time lapse between the clock
pulse and return echo, or signal and converts the information to voltage which can
subsequently be interpreted in time of depth.
Factors affecting the reliability of an ultrasonic depth so under.
The most notable among them is the suspended sediment concentration of the stream.
15.3.4 ELECTRO-OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS
The Principle on which these instruments work is scattering of light by particles in the
medium is the basic principle. Instruments are available which can measure 'in situ'
suspended particle concentration in a dynamic flow fluid and multi dimensional
component measurements of fluid velocity and turbulence. The first of these
instruments uses a wide-frequency band, visible light source which are the second
utilizes a narrow band coherent laser beam.
ELECTRO-OPTICAL MEASUREMENTS OF PARTICLE CONCENTRATION:
A wide frequency band electro optical instrument for measuring point concentration of a
particulate matter in a flow field has been developed. The principle of operation is based
on the forward scattering of light by particle.

To
Photomultiplier
Tube
Focal
Volume
1 cm. Gap
Mirror
Dark
Zone
Opaque
Coating
From
Light
Source
Lens 2
Lens 1
Mirror
Optic Probe details

The Photo Multiplier tube in this arrangement operates in essentially a dark field which
minimizes the ambient noise and enables detection of small concentration of particular
matter in the flow field, hence of concentration in the flow field.
15.3.5 ELECTRO-OPTICAL MEASUREMENT OF FLUID VELOCITY
The principle of an electro optical instrument for measuring fluid velocity is based on the
Doppler effect of making particular matter in a coherent light beam and determination of
frequency shifts by an optical heterodyning technique. Since only a beam of light enters
the flow field, there is no measurable disturbance as there is with other instruments
point measurements of velocity are possible as the light beam may be focused to as
small as a few microns. There is no need for prior calibration of the instrument as there
is with standard velocity measuring instruments and the response is linear over the
entire velocity range of interest. Velocities as small as a friction of a centimeter/sec. can
be measured. Electro-optical velocity instrument is also called, Laser Velocimeter, Laser
Doppler Velocimeter and laser anemometer.

15.3.6 NEW METHODS OF RIVER GAUGING
The measurement of river flow is required for river management purposes including
water resources planning, pollution prevention and flood control.
The following new methods of river gauging are designed.
(a) The moving boat method
(b) The ultrasonic method
(c) The electromagnetic method
15.3.7 THE ELECTROMAGNETIC METHOD
Faraday (1832) was the first person to notice that when the motion of water flowing in a
river cuts the vertical components of earth's magnetic field an EMF is induced. In the
water, which can be picked up by two electrodes. The EMF, which is directly
proportional to the average velocity in the river, is induced along each transverse
filament of water as the water cuts the lines of earth's vertical magnetic field. This
method was used in 1953-54 to measure the tidal flow through Dover strait. The result
of these experiments and others are both illuminating and encouraging, and the
application of this technique for gauging the flow in river was considered. However, the
relatively small unidirectional potentials induced in small rivers cannot be detected
during the presence of interfacing potentials.

Basic principle of fluid flow
measured in pipes by electromagnetic
induction
OUTPUT E
FIELD N
v
Supply
Velcoity of
flow = V

Measuring System
Velocity
of Water
Electrical
Potential
Generated
Induced Magnetic Field
Principle of electromagenetic
river gauging
Probes


Diagrammatic view of an electromagnetic river gauging station
Noise cancellation
probes
Cell for producing
magnetic field
Shelter for
Instrumentation
Bed
Conductivity
probe
Signal cable duct
Noise cancellation probes
Bed Conductivity probe
Signal
probes

Typical block diagram of an electromagnetic river gauging station
Buried
Coil
Coil
Drive
Timing
Signals
Flow of water
Timing
Signals
Stage
Water
Conductivity
Bed
Conductivity
Telemetry
system
Signal
Recovery
Signal Probes
Data Processor
Data Recording
Devices


THEORY: The basic principle of the electromagnetic method of river gauging is the
Faraday generator effect where an electrical conductor in motion in a magnetic field
induces an electrical potentials. In the case of river, the conductor is the flowing water
and electrical potential induced is proportional to the average velocity of flow. Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction relates the length of the conductor, moving in a
magnetic field, to the EMF generated by the equation
E =H v b
in which E is the EMF generated in volts; H is the Magnetic field in tests; v is the
average velocity of the river in m/s; b is the river width in meter.
An electromagnetic gauging station consists of the following
(1) The coils,
(2) The probes,
(3) The coil derive unit,
(4) The signal measuring unit,
(5) The stage sensor,
(6) The water conductivity sensors,
(7) The bed conductivity sensor,
(8) The data processor and
(9) The display unit.


The probes: Eight probes made in high grade stainless steel rod or slips is used. These
consist of two signal probes placed in the magnetic field generated by the coil and
located in the banks on opposite sides of the river. These probes are used to detect the
induced potentials and to define precisely the C/s of measuring the section. Weeds and
bed sediment do not cause interference since their velocity is zero they generate zero
potentials. Thus they are considered being stationary water. The stage sensor: It is
capable of providing a digital signal to the data processor is employed to define the
measurement of C/s. The water conductivity sensor: A conventional conductivity sensor
is located into the river.
The bed conductivity: In the form of bed resistance is measured.
Information relating to the stage and discharge is recorded on punched paper tape at 16
m interval and may also be displayed visually along with time.


15.4 Outlets and Modules
The success of any irrigation enterprise depends on the efficiency of distributing
sufficient supply of water to the irrigator. Each irrigator has to receive certain quantity of
water proportionate to his extent in a canal system at the proper time to ensure him a
good crop. This distribution of water is carried out by means of outlets otherwise called
modules. Hence, proper design of an outlet, is of most importance not only to the canal
engineer but to the irrigator also.
In Punjab and Maharashtra, a number of outlet structures were evolved, designed to
allow into the cultivator's watercourses a constant discharge irrespective of the supply
(level) in the distributing channel (module) or discharges proportional to the supply
(level) in the channel (semi-module). A few of the structures in common use in India are
(i) Standing wave flume.
(ii) Crump's adjustable proportional Semi module.
(iii) Lindley type standing wave flume.
(iv) Orifice type standing wave pipe outlet.
(v) Gibb's module.
There are various types of modules:
a. Rigid Modules
These modules allow constant discharge within reasonable working limits of head
irrespective of water levels in the distributory and the water course of the main canal.
b. Flexible Modules or Semi Modules
This type of module gives discharge in some characteristic manner with surface level in
the supply channel but independent of the variation of the water level in the delivery
channel.
c. Non-Modular Outlets
Non-modular outlets are those whose discharge is a function of the difference in levels
between the water surface in the distributing channel and the water course.


15.4.1 Standing Wave Flume
The standing wave flume is a semi-module measuring discharge with a high degree of
accuracy (viz., 1.5 percent) besides having the advantage that a single gauge reading
upstream is all that required. In the standard standing wave flume evolved at Poona -
the head required can vary from 8 to 15 percent of the upstream depth of water over the
sill without affecting the discharge; the modular ratio (i.e., the ratio of the downstream
water depth to the total upstream depth, measured above the sill level) can be as high
as 85 percent in small flumes and 92 percent in large flumes. It can be best used when
variable discharge needs to be measured accurately and also when facilities for
supervision or for automatic recording for gauges are available. This flume was evolved
by Crump (Punjab) and Inglis (Bombay) after carrying out intensive model
investigations.
Standard standing wave flume design
Plan
B
1
B
3
L
1
L
2
Glacis
B2
R
1
=H
1.5
2.5H
1.5
60
0
60
0
y
h
v
H H
1
R
hump
L
1 L
2
2:1
R = 2H
y +25%
H
L
3
y 1
3
3
y
3
Gauge chamber
h = hump height

The flume comprises of
(1) An approach channel of suitable design,
(2) A bell mouth entrance,

(3) A throat with a horizontal bottom and vertical sides,
(4) A downstream glacis, and
(5) An expansion in which the flow is redistributed before it passes into the downstream
channel and head is recovered.
It is essentially a broad-crested weir and its discharge is given by formula
15

.
o
Q C CBH =
in which, B is the width of the throat, H is the total head (depth of water upstream +
head due to velocity of approach ) on the upstream side sill level, and C is a
coefficient to allow for losses due to friction, eddies, impact shock, etc.
1
y
v
h
Values of C and adjusted values of the constant for properly designed flumes without
piers are given in Table.
Discharge in m
3
/s C C
0
0.06 - 0.28 0.97 3.00
0.30 - 1.40 0.98 3.03
1.40 - 14.0 0.99 3.06
over 14.0 1.00 3.09

More abrupt curves than in the standard design will slightly lower the coefficient. The
coefficient C (=0.99) for discharges from (1.4 to 14 m
3
s
-1
) was confirmed by actual
observations carried out on the prototype in Sind.
With piers, loss of energy due to shock which lowers the value of C. In Sind, falls and
fall regulators were designed using the values shown in Table above, but observations
showed that C was much lower, the average value of C for discharges 110 to 280 m
3
s
-1

on the Rohri Canal being about 6 percent lower. Based on the experimental
investigations carried out at the Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, in
1933, the following formula is suggested with the piers:
( )
15

.
Q C B k n H H =
in which, 'k' is the coefficient of contraction due to piers, (0.82 with standard piers), n is
the number of piers, B is the waterway, C =3.088, and H =total head (including velocity
head).


15.4.2 Crump's Adjustable Proportional Semi-Module
This semi-module can be either of the orifice type or of the open type and fixed at the
head of the outlet. These have been used extensively in Punjab.
F.S.L
Bed R.L
y
b
Brick pitching
Top of bank
Roof of block
h
H
0.76
FSL in water course
0.14
19.80
22.86
Crump's Adjustable Proportional Semimodule
H
Bed of WC

15.4.3 Lindley Type Standing Wave Flume
This is a short throated flume with one side straight and the other curved. This is
normally used as an outlet for water courses taking off at right angles from the
distributary.
GIBB Module:
The main disadvantage of a non-modular outlet is that cultivators can draw more water
by tampering in large numbers on a canal system.
Gibb module was found to be the only module which has no moving parts. As against
modules whose working depends on floats or other moving mechanisms there are a few
devices in which the discharge is automatically regulated by the velocity of the water
itself without the necessity of any moving parts. Gibb an Executive Engineer of the
irrigation Department, Punjab devised a module form of outlet, which was built for the
first time on the Melay distributory of the Lower Thelam Canal. This module is named as
Gibb module after its inventor and it gives an almost constant discharge over a
considerable range, irrespective of the upstream and downstream water levels. It is one
of the rigid modules without any moving parts. It does not need any supervision and
cannot be easily tampered with.
Water is led through an inlet pipe (See Figure) into a spiral rectangular trough (eddy
chamber) in which free vortex flow is developed. The water on the outside of the curve
rises in level and the water surface slopes towards the inner wall. A number of baffles

are inserted in the eddy chamber with their lower edges sloping at the required height
above the bottom. As the head increases, the water banks up at the outer
circumference of the eddy chamber and impinges against the baffles imparting an
upward rotational direction of flow to the water, which spins round in the compartment
between two successive baffles and finally drops on the on-coming stream of water,
thus, dissipating excess energy and keeping the discharge constant. The degree of turn
of the spiral depends on the volume of discharge and the working range required and
generally varies from one semi-circle to one and a half complete circles.
Though this module gives constant discharge, it has the following disadvantages.
1. This module could be easily tampered with by breaking the baffles and eddy
chamber.
2. It is costlier than other types of outlets.
3. Construction of this module is a very difficult process and needs higher technical
skills.
4. It is said to have a lot of trouble regarding silt drawal. The vent is likely to be choked
by the silt and floating materials coming in the channel and periodical cleaning may be
difficult.
Under the circumstances stated above this module can be used in places where small
drawals are required for small plots from main channels. For e.g. in channel having 0.5
m
3
/s flow a plot of 40 hectares will be requiring 0.03 m
3
/s and the depth of flow in the
main channel will less than 0.4 m. Under such circumstances this will ensure minimum
losses due to the small branches taking off from main canal.

Baffles
Bell-mouth entrance
Inlet pipe
Dia 30.48
Spout
1 in 10
1 in 10
d = 30.48 cm
0.85 m
0.34 m 0.41 m
Curved rising pipe
Outlet channel bed
0.85 m
12.7 cm slab
Gibb module
Plan


Side view of Gibb's Module Eddychamber Gibbs Module (Eddy chamber in action)
Gibb's Module (Side View)
Gibb's Module (Downstream View)


15.5 Errors in Measurements

Errors in measurements are now referred as Uncertainties in measurements.

There are three types of errors which must be considered

Spurious errors (human mistakes and instrument malfunctions)

Random errors (experimental and reading errors)

Systematic errors (which may be either constant or variable).
Spurious
error
Random
Systematic errors
True value
Mean
measured
value
Random uncertainity
assessed with specific
confidence
t
1
t
2
Duration of
measurement of
single value
time

Spurious errors are errors which invalidate a measurement. They are like outliers. They
cannot be incorporated into a statistical analysis.
Random errors are error that affects the reproducibility of measurement. The mean
random error of a summarized discharge over a period is expected to decrease when
the number of discharge measurements during the period increases. Mean random
error approaches zero over a long period of measurement.

Systematic errors are errors which cannot be reduced by increasing the number of
measurements. Whenever there is an evidence of a systematic error of a known sign,
the mean error should be added or subtracted from the measured results.
15.5.1 Sources of errors

Consider discharge equation
n
d v 1
Q = W C C f g b h in which W and n are constants.
The different errors are
The error in product of
d v
C C .

The error in submerged flow reduction factor.

Error in width or angle (dimensional measurement).

Error in measurement of
1
h or h .
It may be noted that the product is
d v
C C also a function of
1
h . However the influence of
1
h on
d
C and
v
C is small and hence can be neglected.
The error in measurement of
1
h (or h ) can be divided into random part and systematic
part of the error.
Possible sources of these contributory errors are

Internal friction of the recording system.

Inertia of the indication mechanism.

Instrument error.

Setting of the structure causing changes in dimensions and asymmetry, change
in levels.
The crest not being level (zero setting) in view of the poor construction. There
may be other errors caused due to construction.
Reading and recording errors.
The overall error in the flow Q is the resultant of various contributory errors which
themselves may be composite errors. The propagation of errors depends on the
standard deviation . Error analysis has to be carried out. Often there is attendency to
over look a underestimate this.

Reference:

1. Bureau of Indian Standards 14,371, 1966.
2. Boss M.G. (Ed) Discharge Measurement Structure, Oxford and IBH Publishing
Company, New-Delhi, India, 1975.


INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS FOR FLOW MEASUREMENT
IN OPEN CHANNELS
ISO: 555/ I 1973 Liquid flow measurement in open channels -
dilution methods, Part I Constant rate injection
method.
ISO: 555/ II 1974
Liquid flow measurement in open channels -
dilution methods, Part II Sudden injection method.
ISO: 748 1973
Liquid flow measurement in open channels by
velocity-area methods.
ISO: 772 1973 Vocabulary and symbols.
ISO: 1100 1973
establishment and operation of a gauging station
and determination of the stage-discharge relation.
ISO: 1070 1973
Liquid flow measurement in open channels - slope
- area method.
ISO: 1088 1973
Collection of data for determination of errors in
measurement by velocity area methods.
ISO: 2425 1974 Measurement of flow in tidal channels
ISO: 2537 1974
Liquid flow measurement in open channels - cup -
type and propeller - type current meters.
ISO: 1438 1975 Thin plate weirs and flumes.
ISO: 1438 1979 Thin plate weirs. (Revision of ISO: 1438, 1975).
ISO: 3454 1975
Liquid flow measurements in open channels -
sounding and suspension equipment.
ISO: 3455 1976
calibration of current meters in straight open tanks.
ISO: 4363 1977
Methods of measurement of suspended sediment
in open channels.
ISO: 4364 1977 Bed material sampling.
ISO: 3716 1977
Functional requirements and characteristics of
suspended sediment load samplers.
ISO: 3846 1977
weirs and flumes - rectangular broad crested weirs.
ISO: 3847 1977
Liquid flow measurements in open channels by
weirs and flumes - end depth method.
ISO: 4359 1978
flumes.
ISO: 4360 1978
weirs and flumes - triangular profile weirs.
ISO: 4361 1978
weirs and flumes - round nosed broad crested
weirs.
ISO: 4373 1978 Water level measuring devices.
ISO: 4369 1978 The moving boat method
ISO: 5168 1978
Calculation of the uncertainty of a measurement of
flow rate.
ISO: 4377 1978 Flat V- weirs.
ISO: 4375 1978 Cableway system.
ISO: 6418 1978 Ultrasonic (acoustic) velocity meters.

ISO: 4366 1978 Echo Sounders.
Reports
ISO: Data 1978
Investigation of the total error in measurement of
velocity-area methods.

Note: In 1973 all existing recommendations become standards.

16.1 Concept of Uniform Flow
1. The depth average flow velocity (integrated over depth), area of flow cross-sections
are every where constant along the channel.
2. The energy grade line S
f
, water surface slope S
w
and channel bed slope S
0
are all
parallel, i.e.
f w o
S S S = =
Figure shows Boundary layer growth in open channel with an ideal entry condition.
Development of uniform flow in a long channel
yc

When the flow enters into a channel, the boundary layer grows up to free surface. The
region for a mild channel can be divided into three zones viz., initial transitory zone in
the entrance. Flow changes from the uniform flow to critical flow in the transitory zone at
exit in mild channel. The boundary layer as it grows along the channel at the entrance
emerges to the free surface at a certain distance from the entry point. This zone is
called entry transition zone.

If the bed slope is critical slope, then the transitory zone in the entrance only exists. The
uniform flow extends till the flow terminates and exits as a jet at critical depth. This flow
is known as critical uniform flow. The free surface will be undulating with waves moving
at C= gy.
In the case of steep channel, the flow enters either through a hydraulic drop or at
uniform flow depth. This has an initial transitory zone with an S2 type of varied flow
curve. The flow emerges from the steep slope at uniform flow depth (y
n
>y
c
).
Uniform flow
Steady
Unsteady
Turbulent
Laminar
Prismatic Channel Non prismatic Channel
Likely uniform flow situations

Ultra rapid or hyper rapid flow occurs when flow surface becomes instable and air is
insufflated into it.


16.2 Derivation of Uniform Flow Equations
The mean velocity of a turbulent uniform open channel flow is obtained using the
following concept.
Gravitational force =Shear force
The uniform flow equations are in the following format
x y
V = CR S in which
x and y are components, and vary depending on uniform formula.
0 0
1
V = v dx dy
A
y b

Momentum Equation:
(1)
(2)
y
1
v
1
W sin
y
2
v
2
0
_
_
l
P
A
Datum


( )
2 2 1 1 1 2 f
2 1 1 2 1 2
f
f
Q
V V P -P W sin - P
g
If V V P =P then
W sin = P (1)
P shear force acting on boundary = Shear stress * Area

, ,
= +
= =
=
o
o
o
= * Area
= PL
P is the wetted perimeter, Sin = S
Weight W = g AL
W Sin = g AL Sin
Substituti
( )
o o
o
o o
o
o
2
o f
2
o f
ng in equation 1
g AL S PL
g AL S
RS (2)
PL
Note gRS Critical shear velocity

V
But = c (3)
2
V
RS c
2
or
*
=
= =
= =
=
1 2
o
f
o
f
f
o
1 2 1 2
2
V RS
c
2g
V RS
c
2g
If C then
c
V C RS
This is known as Chezy equation. The coefficient C is either estimated or
determined experimentally. C has dimension of L T
/
/ /
.

=

=
=
=


2
f
o
2
f f
o o f
2
f
2. Consider Darcy Weisbach equation for loss in pipe due to friction
L V
h f
d 2g
h h 1
V 2g d S S
f L L
1
V 4R*2g *S
f
,
,
=

= = =

=
2
0
0
f
d

d R
4

P D 4
8gRS
V
f
Comparing with Chezy equation:
8g
C =
f
C 1
=
8g f
Manning formula is an emprical relation based on field obse

= =

=
[ ]
2/3 1/2
o
1
-
3
o
rvations and is given by
1
V= R S
n
in which V in m/s, R in m. Thus 'n' has dimensions of L T
If R=15 cm, n = 0.015, S 0 0004 then V = 0.376 m/s
The hydraulic enginee
. ,

=
rs use the n or C without bothering about dimension even though
it is very important. The treatment here is only for channels with plane bed.


16.3.1 Resistance in Open Channel Hydraulics
If Manning and Chezy equations are compared
2
3
1
1
1 1 1
2 2 2
0 0
2 1 1
-
3 2 6
1
6
e
e
2 2
e1
2 2 2
2
e1
e1
1
R S CR S
n
R R
C=
n n
R
C=
n
For laminar flow:
K
f =
R
VR
R
VR
K= f
8gSR 8gVR S 8gR S 8g

But f = K= = R
V V C
V
8g
C R
K
VR
If R
=
=
=
=

=

=
2
8g
f =
C

14
f = For triangular Smooth Channel (Refer: Chow)
R
e1
24
f = For Rectangular Smooth Channel (Refer: Chow)
R
e1

Sand Roughness Fixed to Flume Bed (Photograph - Thandaveswara)



16.3.2 Laminar Flow with Roughness
e1
e1
60
f = for a 90 V shape channel. Roughness 0.3023 mm
R
33
f =
R

10
Laminar
Transitional Turbulent
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
R
e1
f
f =
14
___
R
e1
f =
24
___
R
e1
Reference:
"Chow Ven Te- Open Channel
Hydraulics", Mc Graw Hill Company,
International student edition, 1959, page - 10
Variation of friction coefficient f with Reynolds number Re1
in smooth channels
=
vR
__
( )


f =
14
___
Re1
f =
33
___
Re1
f =
60
Re1
___
10 10
2
10
3 10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
Re1
Variation of friction coefficient f with Reynolds number Re1
in rough channels
=
vR
__
( )
10
7
2 4 6 8
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
f
37.5 cm
25 cm
Varwick
Varwick
1
1
20 cm
Laminar Transitional Turbulent
10
3 10
4
10
5
10
6
2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
10
7
2 4 6 8
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
Reference:
"Chow Ven Te- Open Channel Hydraulics",
Mc Graw Hill Company, International
student edition, 1959, page - 11

Rectangular Channel - Rough flow (Roughness =0.7188)
Bazin conducted experiment using (500 measurements were made at greatest care)
(1) Gravel embedded in cement.
(2) Unpolished wood roughened by transverse wooden strip
(i) 27 mm long * 10 mm high * 10 mm spacing.
(ii) 27 mm * 10 mm at 50 mm spacing.
3) Cement lining
4) Unpolished wood
If the behavior of n and C is to be investigated then a number of basic definitions
regarding the types of hydrodynamic flow must be recalled.
Flow can be divided into

(i) Hydro dynamically smooth turbulent flow
(ii) Hydro dynamically Rough turbulent flow
(iii) Hydro dynamically transition turbulent flow.
1 2
o
1 5
7 o
e
The boundary layer for flow past a flat plate is given by
V x
5 Laminar
x
V x
0 38 turbulent R 2 10 logarthmic velocity law holds
x
/
/
. *

=

= >

Velocity
V
99% V
y
Velocity distribution
0 Viscous sub layer

Transitional
region
Turbulent
Pseudo boundary
y


0
0 0
k
kc kc
k
kc
Different surface roughness
(c) rough
k
k
c
=

v*
__
100
kc
=
5
v
*
__
Smooth
for average condition
kc is critical roughness height
k is roughness height
(b) wavy
(a) Smooth


Viscous sublayer
k
s
(i) Hydrodynamically smooth
turbulent flow f = f(R
e
)
Viscous sublayer
k
s
Viscous sublayer
k
s
(ii) Hydrodynamically transition
flow f = f (R
e
, k
s
/y)
(iii) Hydrodynamically rough
turbulent flow f = f (k
s
/y)

For hydro dynamically smooth condition, viscous sub layer submerges the roughness
elements.
For hydro dynamically transitional case the roughness element are partly exposed with
reference to viscous sub layer.
For hydro dynamically rough turbulent flow the roughness elements are completely
exposed above the viscous sub layer.
For hydro dynamically rough turbulent flow resistance is a function of Reynolds number
and the roughness height.
If we define
e*
R =shear Reynolds number
* s
v K
. ; and
o
* f

v gRS
= = .


The flow is classified as follows:
* s
* s
* s
v K
4 Hydrodynamically smooth
v K
4 100 Hydrodynamically transition
v K
100 Hydrodynamically fully developed turbulent flow
<
< <
>

Summary of Velocity-Profile Equations for Boundary layers with
dp
0
dx
=
Zone Smooth Walls Rough Walls
Law of the
wall
Universal equations
Laminar
sub layer
( y )
*
v y
4
<
*
*
v y v
v
=

-
Buffer
zone
*
v y
4 30 to 70
< <

-

-
Logarithmi
c zone
(also
called turb
ulent layer)
*
v y
30 to 70
y
0.15
>
<

*
*
*
*
v y v
A log B
v
v y v
5.6 log 4.9
v
= +
= +
*
*
v k
A log B
v y
v k
5.6 log B
v y
B f
= +
= +
=

(roughness size, shape and
distribution)
Velocity-defect law
Inner
region
(overlaps
with
logarithmi
c wall law)
y
0.15
<
Outer
region
(approxim
ate
formula)
y
0.15
<
*
*
V v y
A log B
v
V v y
5.6 log 2.5
v
= +
= +

*
*
V v y
A log
v
V v y
8.6 log
v
=

(3000
<
e
R <
70,000)
outer
region

-
Power Law
1
7
*
*
v v y
8.74
v

=

-

A and B are constants.

Table shows velocity distributions for different conditions

Pipe flow equation
e
VR
R
= Open channel flow

e
VR
R 4
=
Blasius
equation
for
smooth
flow
5
e
0.25
e
e
5
e
0.3164
f = upto R <10
R
R f 1
=2log
2 51 f
R 10
.
>

e
e
1/8 2
0.25
e
e
e
C=18.755 R mks units for g = 9.806 m/sec
0 223
f
R
R 8
C = 4 2g log
2 51 C
R 8g
C = 17.72 log
2 51 C
3.5294R
C = 17.72 log
C
.
g
.
.

=

Smooth
pipe flow
Nikurads
e Rough
pipe
Nikurads
e
( )
o
1
= 0.86 ln Re f - 0.8
f
1
= 1.14 - 0.86 ln
d f

e
s
R 8g C
= 2 log
C 2 51 8g
C 12R
= 2 log
k 8g
*
.

White
and
Colebroo
k formula
o
/d 1 2.51
= 0.86 ln
3 7 f Re f .

+

s
e
2.52 8g k C
= -2 log
14.83R 8g R f

+

Suggested modification to equation is
s
e
k C 2.5
= -2 log
12R 8g R f

+

[ASCE Task Force Committee 1963]. R is hydraulic mean radius, 4R =Diameter of
pipe.
In open channel flow following aspects come into picture
( )
e
f = f R K, C,N, F,U
(1) (2) (3)
,

In which R
e
is the Reynolds number, K is the Relative Roughness, C Shape factor of the
cross-section, N is the Non- uniformity of the channel both in profile and in plan, F is the
Froude number, U is the degree of unsteadiness.
In the above equation, the first term corresponds to, Surface Resistance (Friction), the
second term corresponds to wave resistance and the third term corresponds to Non
uniformity due to acceleration/ deceleration in flow.

Surface Resistance: To be accounted based on Karman - Prandtl - velocity distribution.
The constant in resistance equation is due to the numerical integration, and is a function
of shape of the cross-section.
C 1 R
=A log +B
y' 2g f
For circular section A = 2.0, B = -0.62
For rectangular section: A = 2, B = -0.79 (for large ratio of width/depth)
=

It has remained customary to delineate roughness in terms of the equivalent sand grain
dimensions k
s
. For its proper description, however, a statistical characteristic such as
surface texture requires a series of lengths or length derivatives, though the significance
of successive terms in the series rapidly approach a minimum. Morris classified the flow
into three categories namely (1) isolated roughness flow, (2) Wake interference flow,
and (3) Quasi smooth flow. The figure provides the necessary details.
s
y
k
Isolated - roughness flow (k/s) - Form drag dominates
s
The wake and the vortex are dissipated before the next element
is reached. The ratio of (k/s) is a significant parameter for
this type of flow


s s
Wake interference flow (y/s)
j
j
j
Quasi smooth flow - k/s or j/s becomes significant acts as Pseudo wall
s
y
k
y
k
s s
s
j
k is surface roughness height
s is the spacing of the elements
j is the groove width
y is the depth of flow
Concept of three basic types of rough surface flow
When the roughness elements are placed closer, the wake and the vortex
at each element will interfere with those developed by the following
element and results in complex vorticity and turbulent mixing. The height
of the roughness is not important, but the spacing becomes an important
parameter. The depth 'y' controls the vertical extent of the surface region of
high level turbulence. (y/s) is an important correlating parameter.
Quasi smooth flow is also known as skimming flow. The roughness elements
are so closed placed. The fluid that fills in the groove acts as a pseudo wall
and hence flow essentially skims the surface of roughness elements. In such
a flow (k/s) or (j/s) play a significant role.

k, j, s should describe the characteristics of roughness in one dimensional situations is
Areal concentration of or density distribution of roughness elements. (after Moris).


16.3.3 Areal concentration or Density Distribution Roughness
Elements
Spheres
Spatial distribution of roughness
Schlichting, 1936
Koloseus (1958) and Koloseus and Davidian (1965)
conducted experiments using Cubical Roughness
Symmetrical diamond shaped pattern.
O'Loughlin and Mcdonald (1964) Cubes arranged
as in (1) abd (2) also sand grains (2.5 mm dia)cemented
to the bed .
1 2


Logarithmic plot of data from figure at low
concentration
Effective roughness as a function of form pattern, and
concentration of roughness elements. (Assuming high
Reynolds number)
Open channel resistance (after H. Rouse, 1965)
1.0 0.1 0.01
0.001
0.1
1
10
0
1
2
3
4
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Spheres
Sand
Cubes
Nikuradse
Sand
Schlichting (1936) - Sphere spacing
Koloseus (1958)
Koloseus and Davidian (1965)
Cubical Roughness
Symmetrical diamond shaped pattern
O'Loughlin and Mcdonald (1964)
k
s
___
y
Areal concentration
Cubes arranged as in 1 and in 2.
Also sand grains centered to the sand grains
(2.5 m diameter)
Areal concentration
k
s
___
y


Resistance of a bridge pier in a wide channel, after Kobus and Newsham
F = 1.5
1.0
0.5
b
3b
d = 3b
V
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
Froude number, F

Variation of pier resistance with lateral spacing "S"
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Froude number, F
0
0.5
1.0
1.5
C
D
S
D
__
= 5
7.5
30
D
S
D
d = 30
V d


Loss at one of a series of channel bends after Hayet
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 4.0
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
y/b = 1/16
y/b = 1/8
y/b = 1/4
2b
4b
90
0
y
b
Froude number, F

Some of the important References:
(i) Task force on friction factors in open channels Proc. ASCE J I. of Hyd. Dn. Vol. 89.,
No. Hy2, March 1963, pp 97 - 143.
(ii) Rouse Hunter, "Critical analysis of open channel resistance" , Proceedings of ASCE
J ournal of Hydraulic division, Vol.91, Hyd 4, pp 1 - 25, J uly 1965 and discussion pp 247
- 248, Nov. 1965, March 1966, pp 387 to 409.
Schlichting, "Boundary layer theory", Mc Graw Hill Publication.
16.3.4 Open Channel Resistance
There is an optimal area concentration 15% to 25% which produces greater relative
resistance.
1 R
A log B
DhS f
= +
h is the roughness height , S is the areal concentration (<15%), D is the constant which
depends on shape and arrangement of the roughness elements.
For sanded surface: D =21 and B =2.17
The existence of free surface makes it difficult to assume logarthmic velocity distribution
and to integrate over the entire area of flow for different cross-sectional shapes. The

lograthmic velocity distribution can be integrated only for the wide rectangular and
circular sections.
Effect of boundary non-uniformity is normally ignored and particularly so for gradually
varied flow profile computation.
The dependence on Froude number is clearly seen in case of pier.
In case of unsteady flows such as floods, it is assumed that the inertial effects are small
in comparison with resistance. Hence, the resistance of steady uniform flow at the same
depths and velocity is taken to be valid.
Where the Froude number exceeds unity, the surface has instability in the form of roll
waves.
Earlier formulae for determining C (for details refer to Historical development of
Empirical relationships)
1. G.K. Formula (MKS)
2. Bazins Formula 1897 (MKS)
3. Powell Formula (1950) FPS while using Powell formula C must be multiplied by
0.5521 to get C in m
1/2
s
-1

4. Pavlovskii Formula (1925)
Manning equation is applicable to fully developed turbulent rough flow.
Slope of the straight line is 1:3

1/ 6
1/ 3
s
2
s
1/ 6
s
1/ 3
s
s
1/ 3
k g g
f C
R k
C
n k
k
f = 0.113
R
If we replace k by diameter of the grain size (d)
d
f = 0.113
R
8g 8g R
C =
f 0.113 d

1/ 6
2
1/ 6 1/ 6
1/ 6
1/ 6
1/ 6 1/ 6
for MKS units g = 9.806 m/s
8 * 9.806 R R
C = 26.3482
0.113 d d
R
or C = 26.34
d
R
n
C
1
n = *d 0.0379d
26.34

=

=

=

A number of empirical methods to relate n diameter of the particle are advanced.
1 Strickler
(1923)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.02789 d d in m
This is not applicable to mobile
bed
2 Henderson's
interpretation
of Strickler's
formula
[ ]
1/6
50
n = 0.034 d d in feet

3a Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.047 d d in m

3b Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
65
n = 0.013 d d in mm
d
65
=65 % of the material by
weight smaller.
3c Raudkivi
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
65

4 Garde and
Ranga Raju
[ ]
1/6
50
( )
( )
( )
1/6
1 6
50
0 039 0 3048
0 039 0 82036 0 03199
n = 0.03199 d , d is in 'm'
/
. * .
. . . = =
5 Subramanya
[ ]
1/6
50
n = 0.0475 d d in m

6 Meyer and
Peter and
Muller
[ ]
1/6
90
n = 0.038 d d in m
(Significant proportion of coarse
grained material)

7 Simons and
Sentrvrk
(1976)
[ ]
1/6
n = 0.047 d d in mm

8 Lane and
Carbon
(1953)
1/6
75
n= 0.026 d
(d in inches and d
75
=75% of the
material by weight is smaller)

( )
* f
* s
1/6 1/6
1/6 1/6
1/6 1/6
1/6
8) Consider
v g R S
k
4 < 100 Transition flow
v
R R
n = but C = 26.35
C d
R d 1
n = d 0 03795 d (d in m)
26 35
R 26 35
Conditon for fully develop
.
.
.
=
<
= =
( )
( )
6
8 6 * s
6
6
f
-6 2 2
6
f
6 6
6
ed rough flow
v k n
100 d = 3 3458 10 n
0.03795
n 1
g R S
0.03795
Assuming
= 1.01 * 10 m /s g = 9.806 m/s
9 806 1
n R S 100
1 01 10
0.03795
n
. *
.
. *
= =

=
14
f
RS 9 635 10

. *


Laminar flow
Smooth surfaces
Fully rough zone
Transition zone
Commercial surfaces
Sand coated surface (Nikuradse)
Reynolds number Re = 4 V R/v
Modified Moody Diagram showing the Behavior of the Chezy C after Henderson
10
3
10
4
f =
0.316 _____
Re
0.25
(C = , mks) 15.746 Re
1 __
8
1 __
f
= 2.0 log ( )
Re f _____
2.51
C = 4 2g log ( )
Re 8g
2.51C
_____
Blasius equation ( ) Re <10
5
______
= 100
v* ks
1 __
f
=
C __
8g
= 2.0 log ( )
12R
___
ks
10
5
10
6
10
7
10
8
2 4 6
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
180
or Manning
507
252
126
60
30.6
15
10
do _____
2ks
2R _____
ks
=


16.4 History of Uniform Flow Velocity and Resistance Factor
The design of the cross-section of the Roman aqueducts was based on structural rather
than hydraulic requirements. Though the importance of the downward slope of the
channel was realized, the aqueducts were laid at slopes governed by the topographic
considerations alone.
HERO of Greece (after 150 B.C.) has clearly indicated that the rate of flow depended
upon the overall change in the elevation on one hand, and upon the velocity as well as
the cross-sectional area on the other.
LEONARDO DA VINCI (1452-1519):
The water of straight rivers is the swifter the farther away it is from the walls, because
of resistances.
Water has higher speed on the surface than at the bottom. This happens because water
on the surface borders on air which is of little resistance, because lighter than water,
and water at the bottom is touching the earth which is of higher resistance, because
heavier than water and not moving. From this follows that the part which is more distant
from the bottom has less resistance than that below.
As regards the basic law of continuity of flow, he has clearly stated that:
A river in each part of its length in an equal time gives passage to an equal quantity of
water, whatever the width, the depth, the slope, the roughness, the tortuosity.
Each movement of water of equal surface width will run the swifter the smaller the
depth.
The law of continuity was explained in more certain terms and popularized by
BENEDETTO CASTELLI (c 1577 c 1644), became widely known in Italy as Castelli s
law.
The 18th century witnessed the advent of hydrodynamics LEONHARD EULER (1707
1783) giving the equations of motion of an ideal fluid and DANIEL BERNOULLI (1700
1782) enunciating the famous energy equation which goes by his name.
HENRI DE PITOT (1695 1771) devised the velocity measuring device which carries
his name the Pitot tube.

CORNELIUS VELSON (1749), at Amsterdam, came to the conclusion that the velocity
of flow should be proportional to the square root of the slope.
ALBERT BRAHMS, in 1757, considered the resistance thus set up to be proportional to
the area of cross-section divided by the length of the wetted perimeter. Thus, resulted
the expression R =A / P where R is the hydraulic radius; A the area of cross section of
the flow, and P the wetted perimeter.
16.4.1 Development of the Empirical Formulae
Credit for the first as well as the most lasting equation of resistance in uniform open
channel flow goes to ANTOINE CHEZY, (1718 1798), a French Hydraulician, who
was assigned the project of determining the cross-section of a canal to supply water to
the city of Paris from the river Yvette.
Chezy put forth that
0
2
V / RS would be the same for all streams having similar
characteristics; where V is the mean velocity of flow and S the bed slope of the
channel. Chezy, however, did not assume that the value
0
2
V / RS was a constant for all
streams, as he found this value to vary from one stream to another.
The presentday- Chezy-formula is written as
0
V = C RS where C is known as Chezy
Coefficient. On the basis of a few observations of the flow made on an earthen channel,
the Courpalet Canal and the Seine River, Chezy arrived at the value of C equal to 31.
However, it should be noted that this formula, empirical in nature, is not dimensionally
homogeneous. The Chezy coefficient C is not a pure number, but has a dimension of
[ ] [ ]
1
1
2 L T

, where
[ ]
L and
[ ]
T are units of length and time of any measuring system.
PIERRE LOUIS GEORGES DU BUAT (1734-1809): He proposed a formula for average
velocity.
0 0
48.85 R-0.8
V = - 0.05 R
1/S - ln (1/S ) + 1.6
[in metric units].
The surface roughness of the boundaries was ignored in the formulation of the above
equation.

J OHANN ALBERT EYTELWEIN (1764-1848), published, at Berlin in 1801, a formula for
open channel flow, namely
0
V = 50.9 RS (in metric units)
A firm proponent of non dimenisonal quantities in the analysis of any problem, J ULIUS
WEISBACH (1806-1871), was the first to write a formula for resistance to flow through
closed pipes as
2
L
0
L V
h = f
d 2g

in which f is a non dimensional friction coefficient, which is commonly known at present
as the Darcy-Weisbach friction factor,
L
h the head lost due to the frictional resistance, L
the length of pipe in which the head loss
L
h has occurred and d
0
the diameter of the
pipe. Weisbach reported that f is a function of the Reynolds number
e
R and the relative
roughness, for a given shape of cross-section.
By this period, the general form of the resistance equation for the uniform flow in rigid
bed open channels was accepted to be given by the triple-factor formula
y x
0
V = CR S
which represented the interdependence between the mean velocity of flow, hydraulic
radius and the slope of the channel. Values of the coefficient C and the exponents x and
y were chosen to make the formula conform to the experimental data obtained by each
investigator. The various investigators, in choosing different values of C, x and y which
they believed to be the most probable values, have deduced a large number of
empirical flow formulae.
The first systematic and extensive series of experiments on open channel flow, to
discover how the coefficient C varied with different kinds of roughness of the
boundaries, were first begun by HENRY PHILIBERT GASPARD DARCY (1803-1858)
in 1855 in France, and were continued after his death by his worthy assistant HENRI
EMILE BAZIN (1829-1917).
DARCY conducted his studies in a wooden flume, 600 m long, drawing its supply from
the Bourgogne Canal through a specially constructed head reservoir and discharging
into the river Ouche. The flume was 2 m wide and 1 meter deep and has the feasibility
of its inclination and cross-section could be changed. Rectangular, trapezoidal,
triangular and semi-circular cross-sections were tested. The different surfaces tested

included cement, wood, brick, fine and coarse gravel, rock, and surface with artificial
roughness in the form of wooden strips fixed transverse to the flow. Measurements on
some earthen channels, which formed branches of the Bourgogne Canal, were also
made.
Bazin observed that the value of C increased with an increase in slope, but concluded
that this increase is of too small moment to be provided for in the equation.

Two Swiss engineers, EMILE OSCAR GANGGUILLET (1818-1894) and WILHELM
RUDOLPH KUTTER (1818-1888) concluded that the two formulae proposed by Bazin
stood for two extreme conditions, and none of the two could be applied for general
application. They published results in 1869.
0
0
m
a + +
n S
C =
m n
1 + a+
S R
l

A detailed account of the development of the above formula was given by LINDQUIST.
The values of the constants a, l and m arrived at by GANGUILLET AND KUTTER from
the analysis of their data were
Constants in metric units
a 23.00
l 1.00
m
0.00155

PHILIPPE-GASPARD GAUCKLER (1826-1905) made a proposal of two formulae for
use in different slope ranges, as follows:
4/3
1 0
V = R S or
5/6 1/2
1 0
C = R S for S
0
less than 0.0007
and
2/3 1/2
2 0
V = R S or
1
6
2
C = R for S
0
greater than 0.0007
in which
1
and
2
are coefficients to be determined experimentally.
In 1889, ROBERT MANNING (1816-1897), an Irish engineer, presented a paper
containing several formulae for the velocity of flow in open channels, at a meeting of the
Institution of Civil Engineers of Ireland. This paper was later published in the
Transactions of the above Institution in 1891. In this paper, Manning proposed an

equation similar to the above equation to be in better agreement with the available
experimental data of flow in open channels than any other formula used till that time.
Manning found that the average value of the exponent of R varied from 0.6499 to
0.8395 on the basis of the experiments on artificial channels by DARCY and Bazin. He
adapted an approximate value of 2 / 3 for this exponent. MANNING finally proposed, for
earth channels in good condition, the formula.
In metric units,
1
1/2
2
0
R
V = 34 S R + - 0.03
4

Or
0 03
34 1
4
R .
C
R

= +

The chronology of the present day Manning formula is given in detail in the discussions
made by KING, CHOW, ROUSE, ROBERTSON, DOOGE, POWELL, POSEY.
By 1889, it was discovered that the reciprocal of , expressed in metric units,
corresponded very closely to the roughness coefficient n associated with Ganguillet-
Kutter formula. Thus, in 1891, FLAMANT gave the formula
2/3 1/2
0
1
V = R S
n
(in metric
units) as Manning equation.
Later in 1923, STRICKLER supported the same formula, independently and chiefly
based on his own observations in Switzerland. His analysis resulted in the equation.
2/3 1/2
0
V = MR S
Manning formula reads as
2/3 1/2
0
1
V = R S
n

and the coefficient C turns out to be
1 6
1
/
C R
n
=
It is to be noted that the same numerical value of n can be used both in English and
metric systems.
The coefficient C has one and the same value for all channels of very large dimensions.
Thus, Bazin proposed a new formula
2
2
0 0115 1
V
B
RS
.
R

= +

(in metric units)

which can be reduced to the form

86 96
1
B
.
C
R
=
+
(in metric units)
The term
B
in the above equation is a roughness factor. However, Bazins
B
exhibits
a thirty fold variation for a threefold variation in Kutters n.
As the slope of the channel is, once again, not considered in the above equation,
Bazins C is considered to be a function of R alone and not S
0
.
Another empirical formula for the Chezy coefficient C was given by PAVLOVSKII , in
1925.
The formula is
i
R
C
n
= (in metric units)
in which
( )
2 5 0 13 0 75 0 10 i . n . . R n . =
The values of n in the above formula are the same as those in the case of Manning
formula. The use of this formula is limited to the ranges of hydraulic radius between
0.10 and 3.0 m and n between 0.011 and 0.040. For practical purposes, PAVLOVSKII
also offered two approximate formulae for the exponent i, VIZ.,
1 5 i . n = for R less than 1 meter and
1 3 i . n = for R greater than 1 meter.
But it is the original formula of PAVLOVSKII which, in spite of its cumbersome form, is
generally used in preference to the above simplified formulae.
1. CHEZY FORMULA (1775):
V = C RS
2. DU BUAT FORMULA (1779):
0 0
48 85 0 8
V 0 05
1 1
1 6
. R .
. R
ln .
s s
=
+

3. GIRARD FORMULA (1803):

4. DE PRONY FORMULA (1804):
2
0
RS = 0.00004445 V + 0.00030931 V (in metric units)
5. EYTELWEIN FORMULA (1814-1815):

2
0
RS = 0.0000243 V + 0.000336 V (in metric units)

6. LAHMEYER FORMULA (1845)

This is based on 616 gaugings on the river Weser in Germany, and takes into
consideration the effect due to bends in a river.
0
c
RS W
= 0.0004021 + 0.0002881
r V V
(in metric units)

in which W is the width of the river and
c
R the radius of curvature of the river. For a
straight reach of the river, the term containing
c
R should be dropped out. It is to be
noted that the term
c
W / r is reported under the root sign by LELIAVSKY.
7. ST. VENANT FORMULA (1851):
( )
11/21
0
V = 60 RS (in metric units)
8. TADINI FORMULA (1850): (in metric units)
0
V = 50 RS
The same formula is also attributed to COURTOIS.

9. HUMPHREYS and ABBOT FORMULA (1861)
2
'
0
0.0025 * 0.933 0.933
V= + 68.72 R S - 0.05
R + 0.457 R + 0.457

(in metric units)

10. GANGUILLET AND KUTTER FORMULA (1869):

In metric units, C is given by
0
0
1 0.00155
23.0+ +
n S
C =
0.00155 n
1+ 23.0+
S R

11. REDUCED FORM OF GANGUILLET KUTTER FORMULA:
100 R
C
n R
=
+
(in metric units)

12. GIBSON FORMULA:

1
24 55
1 24 55
.
n
C
n
.
R
+
=
+
(in metric units)

13. MANNING FORMULA (1889):
2/3 1/2
0
1
V = R S
n
(in metric units)
14. BAZIN FORMULA (1897):
86 96
1
B
.
C
R
=
+
(in metric units)

15. SIEDEK FORMULA (1901):

This formula was given, in metric units, for the case of natural streams and rivers.
( )
mean 0
1/20
y 1000 S
V =
W

where
mean
y is the mean depth of flow. This formula was stated to be applicable to
normal channels was classified, with the corresponding correction to the basic formula
given above and is expressed in terms of tables and involved formula.
16. VELLUT FORMULA (1902):
1
23 0
25 0
1
V
V
.
C
.
R
+
=
+
(in metric units)

Where
V
is the roughness coefficient.
17. HERMANEK FORMULA (1905): (in metric units)

This formula is proposed for rivers and streams. Forcheimer, modified the formula and
presented the same as follows.
( )
( )
( )
0.5
mean
0.75 0.5
mean
0.60 0.5
mean
i V =30.7 y S for y < 1.5 m
ii V = 34.0 y S for 1.5 < y < 6 m
iii V = 44.5 y S for y > 6 m

18. MATAKIEWICZ FORMULA (1911): (in metric units) reported by STRICKLER

0.7 0.493 10S
0.7
(i) V = 35.4 y S
(ii) V = 35.4 R S
in which is a variable exponent dependant on boundary roughness
+

19. KOCHLIN FORMULA (1913): (in metric units)
( ) K
V = C 1 + 0.6 R RS
where
K
C is the roughness parameter.

20. BARNES FORMULA (1916):

V = C R S
in which C, and vary depending on the type of the channel boundaries

21. STRICKLER FORMULA (1923):
2/3 1/2
V = M R S
22. FORCHHEIMER FORMULA (1923):
0.7 0.5
V = C R S
where the value of the coefficient C varied from 143 to 43 (in English units)

23. PAVLOVSKII FORMULA (1925): (in metric units)
i
1
C = R
n

in which
( )
i = 2.5 n - 0.13 - 0.75 R n - 0.10
Manning formula has the main advantage of being simple, easily remembered and least
laborious in computations. Also, it was found from the analysis of several tests under
wide ranges of flow conditions as regards roughnesses of the boundaries, and shape,
size and types of channels, that this formula yields results accurate enough for all
practical purposes, when the values of roughness coefficient "n" already standardized
for Ganguillet- Kutter formula themselves were adapted. This formula was more
accurate for small slopes. The change over to the use of Manning formula was thus
made convenient for there was no need to get familiarized with a new set of roughness
coefficients.

Another advantage of the simple form of Manning formula is that a very simple relation
exists between any given value of n and the corresponding value of velocity or slope. If
a certain error be made in selecting n, then the computed value of velocity, and also the
discharge in its turn, will involve the same percentage error but in the opposite direction.
Likewise the value of slope computed to give a certain velocity will contain twice the
same percentage error. The importance of this knowledge is of immense help to the
designers.
REYNOLDS who, by his classical experiments with dyes, demonstrated clearly the
difference between the two types of flows viz; laminar and turbulent and indicated the
presence of a critical velocity. REYNOLDS also showed the physical significance of his
dimensionless number.
e
V L V L
R = =

he showed that a corresponding change in the law of resistance
occurred with the change in the type of motion.
By this time, the Darcy-Weisbach equation for head loss through circular pipes
2
f
L V
h = f
d 2g
was well established.
A set of very comprehensive and carefully conducted tests on the flow of water in
circular pipes of different materials and of different diameters, by DARCY, revealed the
following important phenomena.
(a) The coefficient of friction f is dependent on the Reynolds number
e
R and the relative
roughness of the pipe
0
k
d
, where k is the average depth of pipe wall roughness and
0
d
is the diameter of the pipe.
(b) The coefficient f decreases with an increasing Reynolds number, the rate of
decrease being smaller for greater relative roughness.
(c) The coefficient f is independent of the Reynolds number for certain relative
roughness, and
(d) The coefficient f increases with an increasing relative roughness for any particular
value of Reynolds number.

From dimensional analysis also, the same result is obtained, ( )
e o
f = f R , k / d
In 1932 - 33, NIKURADSE conducted a series of well-planned tests on flow through
circular pipes, artificially roughening the inside walls of the pipes by cementing layers of
sand grains of uniform diameter.
Together with the theoretical work of PRANDTL and von KARMAN, Nikuradses
experimental findings have led to the establishment of semi rational formulae for
velocity distribution and hydraulic resistance for turbulent flows in circular pipes.

The Hagen-Poiseuille equation can be written as
f
2
0
32 V L
h
d
=
Where
V
is the specific weight of the liquid.
In 1913, BLASIUS, drawing on the boundary layer theory, developed an empirical
expression for the coefficient of friction f
( )
0 25 0 25
0
0 3164 0 3164
f =
V d
. .
e
. .
R
/
= .
This result was based on the experimental data of flow in smooth circular pipes with the
Reynolds numbers up to 100,000.
For the range, 4 000 100 000
e
, R , , an almost perfect agreement between this equation
and the experimental curve of NIKURADSE was observed. However, BLASIUS
equation deviated considerably from the experimental curve when the Reynolds number
exceeded 1,00,000.
COLEBROOK and WHITE carried out their investigations using commercial pipes and
found significant difference in the value of f from those of NIKURADSE in the transition
region from smooth turbulent to completely rough flow.
0
1 18 7
1 74 2 0
s
e
k .
. . log
r f R f

= +


MOODY has plotted the above equation to appear in the form of a family of

e
log f vs log R curves for various
0
1 18 7
1 74 2 0
s
e
k .
. . log
r f R f

= +

values.

Application of the semi-rational formulae to open channel flows:
Analysing Bazins experimental data in this connection, KEULEGAN arrived at the
equation ( ) 1 2 034 2 211
s
/ f . log R / k . = + in the case of turbulent flow in rough-walled
channels.
Thus, the logarithmic formulae for rough walled channels were expressed as follows:
*
*
Rv V
A 5 75 log
v
S
.

= +

for smooth channels and
r
* S
V R
= A + 5.75 log
v k

for rough
channels.
in which the characteristics
S
A and
r
A are functions of the Froude number.
16.4.2 Exponential Formulae
STRICKLER expressed the Manning 'n' in terms of roughness
s
k as
1/6
s
n = 0.00106 k
(
s
k in cm)
But he started with the numerical value of 1.476 instead of 1.486 in the Manning
formula. Stricklers formula for n is given by
1/6
m
n = 0.0342 d
in which
m
d is the median sieve size of the sand grains and in feet.
1/6
m
n = 0.02789 d
in which
m
d is in "m".
WILLIAMSON from his experimental data and also with some suggested corrections to
Nikuradses data, gave the formula
1/6
s
n = 0.031 k (in English units)
Bretting stated that the logarithmic equation for the rough turbulent flow could be
replaced by three exponential formulae each valid for a particular range of values of
relative roughness. He found that exponential law equivalent to Manning formula was
valid when
s
4.32 < R / k < 276 requires Manning formula to be as given below.

1/6
s
n = 0.0387 k (
s
k in meters)
Manning formula is an exponential equation applicable to a particular range. In the first
place, Mannings formula, in which V is associated with square root of S0, is there by
limited in its application to the fully developed rough turbulent flow.
1/6
C = 8g / f = R / n or
1/6
n = R f / 8g
For fully developed flow at high Reynolds number, f is found to be independent of
Reynolds number, and nearly proportional to
1/3
1 / R . Thus, in the fully developed
regions of flow, a nearly constant value of n is realized.

HENDERSON gives the criterion, for the satisfactory application of Manning equation,
to be
( )
6 -14 1/6
f
6 2
n RS 3.0755 * 10 with the assumption n = 0.03795 d
1 01 10 m /s and g = 9.81 m / s / s . *

=

Significant differences were observed between the discharge computed using a
constant value of n and the actual discharge in the case of channels which gradually
closed at the top, during the experimental investigations.
Moreover, it has also been observed that the value of the coefficient 'n' varies
considerably, even in prismatic channels (without gradually closing tops, (i) with age; (ii)
in the presence of of algae and vegetation and (iii) when the water carries sediment. A
deposit of slimy silt on the bottom and sides of the channel was found to greatly reduce
the frictional resistance to flow.
In the case of silt carrying waters, the lower layers of the moving water which are
heavily silt-laden will form a kind of slurry which produces a lubricating effect in damping
the vortices created at the surface of contact between the boundaries of the channels
and the flowing water. The presence of large boulders on the bed also contributes to the
varying nature of the coefficient 'n' with the stage of flow.
The variation of the Manning coefficient 'n' with the curvature of the channel was
investigated by EDDY and SCOBEY. The results, in general, indicated that while
relatively low values of n were obtained for channels having smooth curvature with large

radius, sharp curvatures of the channels resulted in increased values of n. The effect of
channel irregularity, non-linear alignment of the channel and obstructions to the flow on
the flow characteristics and the roughness coefficient. Further, the value of Manning n
was observed to vary with the stage and discharge in the natural streams and rivers,
depending upon the existing conditions of the particular channel. In 1956, COWAN
developed a procedure to select the value of n applicable to natural streams, floodways
and similar channels. This method involved the selection of the basic
0
'
n value for a
straight, uniform, smooth channel in the natural material and of the modifying values for
each of the five primary affecting factors; viz.
(i)
1
'
n due to the surface irregularities;
(ii)
2
'
n due to the variation in the shape and size of the channel cross-sections;
(iii)
3
'
n due to the presence of obstructions in the flow;
(iv)
4
'
n because of growth of vegetation, algae or weeds; and,
(v)
5
'
n due to the meandering of the channel.
COWAN presented the values of the correction factors for various conditions. The value
of n may be computed by the equation,
( ) 0 1 2 3 4 5
' ' ' ' ' '
n n n n n n n = + + + +
The factors affecting the Manning coefficient are summarized in an excellent manner by
CHOW and he has stated that there is no evidence about the size and shape of a
channel as an important factor affecting the value of n.

17.1 Friction
The Chezy and Manning equations have a long history in hydraulics. These empirical
relationships are being used for more than two centuries since their development.
Chezy equation was proposed by Antoine Chezy about 1769. Similarly, Gauckler in
1868 proposed the Manning formula. These equations do not account for turbulent
processes. Both these equations require estimation of a resistance coefficient. The
assumptions made while deriving the equations are steady uniform flow. However,
these equations are being used in non-uniform as well for unsteady flows. Only a few
attempts have made to investigate the validity of these assumptions s for non-uniform
flow. However, it is believed that these equations work for these cases also. The
primary difficulty in predicting the frictional resistance still lies in estimating the
resistance coefficient for a natural Situation. Figure shows a variation of Manning n
obtained by Baltzer and Lai for a natural channel. The large scatter at low Reynolds
numbers is to be expected since the accuracy requirements on data become extremely
high under this condition.
Reynolds number, n =
UH
v
__
Manning n vs. Reynolds number for three-mile Slough near
Rio Vista, California. (After Baltzer and Lai)
0
1 X 10
6
2 X 10
6
3 X 10
6
4 X 10
6
5 X 10
6
6 X 10
6
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.09
0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04


Reference Mahmood. K and Yevjevich. V (Ed) Unsteady flow in Open Channels,
Volume - I Water Resources publications, Fort Collins, Colorado 1975,
Page No. 47
Variation of flow rate with n for the Detroit River
Qo=Calculated flow for no = 0.025
CORRECTION FUNCTION
FOR MANNING'S COEFFICIENT
0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.2
1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7
1.8
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
1.1
1.2
n/n0
0.6

One may note that, the relative error in the resistance coefficient leads to a relative error
in velocity or flow of the same magnitude. The above figure shows the effect of over-
estimating the value of n leading to under-estimating the flow rate and vice versa. This
figure is based on computations made for the Detroit River. The width of the line
indicates the variation of n with the normalizing flow Q
0
. Situations such as a portion of
the flow occupying a flood plain also complicate the assessment of frictional resistance.
In general, the estimation of frictional resistance in natural channels is yet to be
resolved.

17.2 Ganguillet and Kutter (G & K) formula (River Mississippi)
Note: Kutter's C (for MKS units; for converting it into FPS multiply suitably; see Chow
pp.98).
+

+

2 / 3 1 / 2
1 / 6
0.00155
23 +
S n
C =
n
1+
S R
Manning's n ( Irish Engineer,1889)
1
V= R S
n
Chezy's C ( French Engineer,1768 )
R
C =
n
1
0.00155
23

Type of channel boundary surface Value of n
Very smooth surface such as glass, plastic or brass 0.010
Very smooth concrete and planned timber 0.011
Smooth concrete 0.012
Ordinary concrete lining 0.013
Glazed brick work 0.014
Vitrified clay 0.014
Brick surface lined with cement mortar 0.015
Cement concrete finish 0.015
Unfinished cement surface 0.017
Earth channel in best condition 0.017
Neatly excavation earth canals in good condition 0.017
Straight unlined earth canals in good condition 0.020
Rubble masonry 0.020
Corrugated metal surface 0.020
River and earth channels in fair condition 0.025
Earth channel with gravel bottom 0.025
Earth channel with dense weed 0.035
Mountain stream with rock beds and rivers with variables section &
some vegetation along banks
0.045


17.3 Conveyance
The conveyance of a Channel Section is a measure of the carrying capacity of the
channel section. The discharge of uniform flow in a channel may be expressed as W
Q=V A =C
0
A R
x
S
y
=K S
y

in which K =C
0
A R
x
.The term K is known as the conveyance of the channel section as
it is directly proportional to discharge (Q). When either the Chezy formula or the
Manning formula is used as the uniform - flow formula, then the exponent y is equal to
1 / 2, hence the discharge is equal to Q = K S
and hence the conveyance is equal to
Q
K =
S

This equation can be used for computing the conveyance when the discharge and slope
of the channel are given. When the Chezy and Manning formulae are used the
conveyance can be written as K=CAR
1/2
and
2
1
3
K = A R
n
respectively and in which C
is Chezy resistance factor and, n is the Manning roughness coefficient.
Generally, these two uniform flow equations are made use off to compute the
conveyance when the geometry of the water area and the resistance factor or
roughness coefficient are given. Since the Manning formula is used extensively, most of
the following discussions and computations will be based on
2
1
3
K = A R
n


17.4 The Section Factor for Uniform-Flow Computation
The term AR
2/3
is known as the section factor for uniform - flow computation; in case of
Manning formula. This would be AR
1/2
for Chezy formula. It is an important parameter
in the computation of uniform flow. From the equations given above, this factor may be
written as
0

For Manning formula
2
n Q
3
AR =
S
2
3
AR = n K

0
1
Q
2
AR =
C
1
K
2

C
For Chezy formula

S
AR =

Primarily, above equation applies to a channel section when the flow is uniform. The
right side of the equation contains the values of n or C, Q and S; but the left side
depends only on the geometry of the water area. Therefore, for a given condition of n or
C, Q, and S
0
, there is only one possible depth for maintaining a uniform flow, provided
that the value of A R
2 / 3
(or AR
1 / 2
) always increases with the increase in depth, which
is true in most cases. This depth is the normal depth y
n
. When (n or C) and S0are
known at a channel section, it may be seen from above equation that there can be only
one discharge for maintaining a uniform flow through the section, provided that A R
2 / 3
(
or A R
1 / 2
) always increases with increase of depth. This discharge is the normal
discharge.
An exponential Channel is defined to be that channel for which the relationship

between depth y and area of cross section A may be expressed in the form

A =k y i

in which k is a coefficient, different values for the exponent viz.; i =1, 1.5, 2.0,

represent rectangular, parabolic and triangular channels.

The above equation is a very useful tool for the computation and analysis of uniform
flow. When the discharge, slope, and roughness are known, this equation gives the
section factor and hence the normal depth y
n
can be computed. On the other hand,

when n or C, S
0
, and the depth (hence the section factor), are given, the normal
discharge Q
n
can be computed from this equation in the following form:
This is essentially the product of the water area and the velocity defined by the Manning
or Chezy formula. Sometimes the subscript n is used to indicate the condition of uniform
flow.
In order to simplify the computation, dimensionless curves showing the relation between
depth and section factor have been prepared for rectangular, trapezoidal, and circular
channel sections for Manning formula. These curves aid in determining the depth for a
given section factor, and vice versa. The A R
2 / 3
values for a circular section are given
in the table in Appendix. With the advent of numerical methods the usage of the
dimensionless graph is limited.
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10
0.01
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
2
4
6
8
10
d0
y
1
m
y
b
m = 1.5
m = 2.0
m = 2.5
m = 3.0
m = 4.0
Values of
2/3
_____
b
8/3
and
AR
2/3
_____
do
8/3
AR
Curves for determining the normal depth


Problem: Calculate conveyance factor K using Manning equation for a trapezoidal
channel.
Solution:
( ) ( )
( )
[ ]
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
2
2/3
2/3 2/3
2/3
2 2/3
5/3
5/3 5/3
2/3
2 2/3
5/3
5/3
AR
K
n
b my y b my y
n b 2 1 m y
my my
b 1 y 1 b y
b b
y
n 1 2 1 m b
b
my
1 y b
b
y
n 1 2 1 m b
b
my
1 by
1 b
K
n
1

=
=
=
=
+ +
+ +

+ +

+ +

+

+ +

+

=
2/3
2 2/3
5/3
1/3
5 5 3
2/3 2 3
2
5/3
8/3
5/3
2/3
2
y
2 1 m b
b
my
1
1 y b b b
K
n
b b
y
1 2 1 m
b
my
b 1
y b
K
b
y
n 1 2 1 m
b

+ +

+

=

+ +

+

=

+ +


18.1 The Hydraulic Exponent for Uniform Flow
Computation.*
Assuming the conveyance K as a function of the depth of flow y*, it may be expressed
as
2 N
0
K =C y (1)
in Which C
0
is a coefficient and N is known as the hydraulic exponent for uniform
flow".
*This is strictly applicable to sections which are wide and are described by the

exponential equation

Taking logarithms on both sides of above equation and then differentiating with respect
to y, it may be written as
( ) (2)
d N
ln K =
dy 2y

Now, taking logarithms on both sides of Eq. (2) and then differentiating this equation
with respect to y under the assumption that Resistance factor is independent of y, the
expression for N may be obtained. [See Box]


K
2
=C
0
y
N
K
2
=C
0
y
N

Taking logarithm on both sides
( )

0
2 ln K = ln C +N ln y
Differentiating with respect to y
d N
(ln K) =
dy 2y
Consider Manning formula
2
2
1
2
3
K = AR
n
1 2
2 ln K= 2 ln +ln A+ ln R
n 3
d d 1
2 ln K = 2 ln +2
dy dy n
( )

4
ln A+ ln R
3
d 1 dA 2 1 dR
ln K = +
dy A dy 3 R dy
equating the right hand side
N T 2 T 2 A dP
= + -
2y A 3 A 3 p dy
T 2 T 2 dP
= + - R
A 3 A 3 dy
2y dP
N= 5T- 2R
3A dy
( )

2 ln K = ln C +N ln y

2 dA 1 dR
+
A dy R dy
d N
(ln K) =
dy 2y
Consider Chezy formula
2
1
2
2
K = C AR
1
2 ln K= 2 ln C+ln A+ ln R
2
d
2 ln K =
dy
d
ln
dy
( )

2
dA A
dy
equating the R.H.S
3 T 1 dP
-
2y 2 A 2P dy
y A dP
N= 3T -
A P dy
y dP
N= 3T - R
A dy
1 dA 1 1 dR
K = +
A dy 2 R dy
p T 1 dP
= + -
A 2 R dy
2RP
T T 1 dP
= + -
A 2A 2P dy
N
=
*
dA
T
dy

* These are the general equation for the hydraulic exponent N.
* This is strictly applicable only to section which are wide and are described by
the exponential equation

For a trapezoidal channel section having a bottom width b and side slopes 1 on m, the
expression for A, T, P and R may be obtained from Table. Substituting them in equation
in the Box and simplifying, it results in


n
my
in which y =
b
y
2
1+m
b 1+2y 10 8
N = -
y 3 1+y 3 2
1+2 1+m
b

This equation indicates that the value of N for the trapezoidal section is a function of m
and y / b. For values of m =0, 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 4.0, a family of curves for
N versus y /b may be constructed (Fig). These curves indicate that the value of N varies
within a range of 2.0 to 5.0.


Logarithmic plot of "K" as ordinate against the depth as abscissa will appear as straight-
line then
( )
( )
1 2
1 2
log K /K
N=2
log y /y

The hydraulic exponent is equal to twice the slope of the tangent to the curve at the
given depth. When the cross section of a channel changes abruptly with respect to
depth, the hydraulic exponent will change accordingly.

18.2 Establish the conditions for maximum discharge and
maximum velocity - a relation between depth and diameter
using chezy equation and Manning equation as shown in
table for a Circular Channel.

Show that
Manning's equation Chezy's equation
Maximum conveyance
0
0938
y
.
d
= or 302 22
'
0
095
y
.
d
= or 308
Maximum velocity
0
081
y
.
d

256 2756
' ''

0
081
y
.
d
=
257 27
'
=

Solution
Chezy equations

(a) Circular section (Maximum discharge)
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2
2
0
2
0
2
3 2
5 2
0
1 2

2

2

2 2
2
2
2 2
/
/
/
r
A sin
p r , Q AC RS
r
Q sin C RS
sin
r r
Q sin C S
r
sin
A r
R s
P r
sin
r
Q S C

in

=
= =
=

= = =

52
y d
0
T

1 2
3
3 0
/
d A dA dP
P A
d P d d

=

=
Let ; ( )
3 2
05
/
.
x sin
=

5 2
0
2 2
/
xr
Q S = C

Differentiating x w.r.t to and equating to zero.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 05 3 2
3 2
3 1
1 0
2 2
/ .
/
dx
sin cos sin
d

= =

/

( )
( )
1 2 3 2
3 1
1
2 2
/ /
sin
sin
cos

= =

( ) 3 1
sin
cos

=

( ) 3 2 sin cos = ;

308 =

Radians.

Then the depth for maximum discharge.

( )
180 1 26 1899
2
y r r cos r cos . r

= + = + =

128
308 180 64 ,
2
90 -64 26
= =
=

095
o
y . d =
1899
095
2
.
.

=

(a) Manning Equation - Maximum Discharge

2 3
0
/
d
AR
d

=

1 3
5
2
0
/
d A
d
P

=

5 2
dA dP
P A
d d
= 0

( ) ( )
2 2
1
2 2
dA r r
cos A sin
d

= =

[ ]
dP
r P r
d

= =


( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
5 1 2
2 2
r r
r cos sin

0 r =

( ) (
3
3
5 1
2
r
cos r sin ) =

( ) ( )
1
1
25
cos sin
.
=

( ) ( 5 1 2 cos sin ) =

5 5 2 2 cos sin =

3 5 2 cos sin =

0
302 22
1876 1876
2 2
'
d
y r r cos . r .
=
= = =

0
0938 y . d =

(b) Circular section (Maximum velocity)

Using Manning equation

( )
2
1
2 2
r r
A sin ; R
sin

= =

V R

2 3
0
/
d
R
d

=

2 3
2 3
0
/
/
d A
d
P

=

0
dA dP
P A
d d
=

( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
1 0
2 2
r r
r cos sin

r =

( ) ( )
3 3
1
2 2
r r
cos sin =


0 cos sin + =

tan =

257 2756 25730
' '
'' =

The depth of water for maximum velocity is
2575
180 5125
2
.
y r r cos r r cos .

= + = +

=

0.81 diameter =0.81d
0

Problem

What would be the difference in discharge when it is running full and when it is

under
0
0938
n
y
.
d
=

Solution
0
0938
n
y
.
d
=
2 3
8 3
0
03353
/
/
AR
.
d
=
0
10
n
y
.
d
=
2 3
8 3
0
03117
/
/
AR
.
d
=

03353
10757
03117
max
full
Q .
.
Q .
= =

i.e. Maximum discharge is 76 higher than discharge in pipe when flowing full. . %

If Manning's equation is used.

If Chezy's equation is used,
0
095
n
y
.
d
=

2
0
077072
A
.
d
=

0
269057
P
.
d
=


2
0
0
0
028645
A
d R
.
P
d
d
= =

1 2
5 2
0
041249
/
/
AR
.
d
=

When full
2 1 2
0 0
5 2
0
1
039269
4 4 4 4
/
/
d d AR
.
d

= = =

041249
10504
039269
max
full
Q .
.
Q .
= =

504 . % excess.


18.3 The channel- bed slopes may be classified into the
following five categories
Sustainable Slopes
Mild Slope (M)
Critical Slope (C)
Steep Slope (S)
Non Sustainable Slopes
Horizontal H
Adverse Slope A

The slope that can uniform flow is called sustainable slopes. The mild slope sustains
sub critical ( ) 1
r
F < uniform flow, denoted as M. The critical slope sustains uniform flow
at critical depth ( ) 1
r
F = denoted as C. steep slope sustain the supercritical uniform flow
( ) 1
r
F > denoted as S.
When the slope is zero (Horizontal) then
2
3
1
o
V R S zero
n
= =
*
n n n
Q V y y indicated as y =
2
3
1
o
V R S
n
=
Thus y
n
is imaginary or negative (from chezy's equation).
Slopes are also classified as

Sustaining slope
(i) Mild always subcritical uniform flow is sustained F<1
(ii) Critical always sustains critical uniform flow F=1
(iii) Steep always sustains super critical uniform flow F>1
Non-Sustaining slope
(i) Horizontal Normal depth y
n
*
(ii) Adverse
Slope
Positive slope
Negative slope
So = -
dz
dx
__
So =
dz
dx
__
Energy slope
Friction slope
Bed slope
Water surface slope
S
e
S
f
S
0
S
w
=
=
=
=
dz
dx
__
dH
dx
__
dy
dx
__
dh
f
dx
__


18.4 Types of Problem in Uniform Flow
The computation of uniform flow in carried out by using the continuity equation and
uniform - flow formula. When the Manning formula is used, the six variables involved in
computations are:
The normal discharge Q
n
, The mean velocity of flow V , The normal depth y
n
, The
coefficient of roughness n, The bed slope of channel
O
S and, the geometric elements
that depend on the shape of the channel section, such as area.
When any four of the above six variables are known, the remaining two unknowns can
be determined by the two equations. The following are some types of problems
associated with uniform - flow computations.
1. To compute the normal discharge Q
n
: this is required to be computed for the
termination of the capacity of a given channel or for developing a synthetic rating curve
of the channel.
2. To determine the velocity of flow V : It plays an important role in many applications
such as. It is often essential to study the scouring and silting effects in a given channel.
3. To compute the normal depth y
n
: Determination of the stage discharge relationship in
a given channel requires the computation of the depth of flow.
4. To determine the channel roughness n: This is used to ascertain the roughness
coefficient in a given channel; the coefficient thus determined is useful for other similar
channels.
5. To compute the channel slope S
o
: This is required to be computed for adjusting the
slope of a given channel eg: irrigation channel, power channel.
6 .To determine the dimensions of the channel section: This computation is required for
designing the channel.
Table 1 lists the known and unknown variables involved in each of the above six types
of problem. The known variables are indicated by a tick mark whereas the unknowns
required in the problem are indicated by a question mark (?). The unknown variables
that can be determined from the known variables are indicated by an *.


TABLE 1: TYPE OF PROBLEMS OF UNIFORM - FLOW COMPUTATIONS
Type of
problem
Discharge

Q
Velocity

V
Depth

y
Roughness

n
Slope

So

Geometric
elements
1 ? *

2 * ?

3

* ?

4

*

?

5

*

?

6

*

?

By varying combinations of various known and unknown variables, more types of
problems can be generated. In design problems include the use of the hydraulically
efficient section and economical section.
Computation of the Uniform Flow
The normal depth and velocity may be computed by using a uniform - flow formula. In
the following computations, the Manning formula is used
Example: A trapezoidal channel (Fig), with b (m), m, S
o
, and n carries a discharge of Q
m
3
/ sec. Compute the normal depth and velocity.
Following are the different methods used for determining the uniform flow depth.
1. Algebraic method
2 Graphical method
3Trial error method
4Numerical method
Newton Raphson method
Bi section method
Secant method
Algebraic Method: For geometrically simple channel sections, the uniformflow
condition may be determined by an algebraic solution, as illustrated below.
Solution 1: The Analytical Approach. The hydraulic radius and water area of the given
section are expressed in terms of the depth y
n
as

Substituting the given quantities in the above expressions in the Manning formula and
simplifying, one gets an algebraic expression as follows
a
o
+a
1
y
n
=[y (b+y)] 2.5
in which a
o
and a
1
are constants, b is the bed width of the channel in meter. This
equation is to be solved by trial and error for y
n
in meter. Then area of the flow an
square meter and velocity V
n
in m s
-1
can be determined. Froude number is computed
to check whether the flow is sub critical or supercritical?
Solution 2: The Trail - and - error Approach .Some engineers prefer to solve this type of
problem by trial and error. Using the given data, the right side of equation for section
factor for uniform flow. Compute nQ/S
0
. Then, assume a value of y and compute the
section factor A R
2/3
. Make several such trails until the computed value of AR
2/3
is very
closely equal to x; then the assumed y for the closest trail is the normal depth. This trail-
and -error computation is shown as follows.
y A R R
2/3
A R
2/3
Remarks

B. Graphical Method. For channel of complicated cross section and variable flow
conditions, a graphical solution of the problem is found to be convenient. By this
procedure, a curve of y against the section factor A R 2/3 is first constructed and the
value of is computed. According to Eq. ( ), it is evident that the normal depth may be
found from the y - A R
2/3
curve where the coordinate of A R
2/3
equals the computed
value of. When the discharge changes, new values of are then computed and the
corresponding new normal depths can be found from the same curve.
C. Method of Design Chart. The design chart for determining the normal depth (Fig) can
be used with great expediency.

19.1 Problem: Maximum Discharge
In partially full channel having an equilateral triangular cross section, the rate of
discharge is Q =KAR2/3 in which K is a constant, A flow area, R is the hydraulic mean
radius. Determine the depth at which the discharge is maximum, for a triangular
channel.
( ) ( )
A = b - y/ 3 * y and P = b + 4 y / 3
60
0
60
0
y
b
Triangular

Solution:
( )
( )
2
Area A = b - y / 3 * y
= by -0.58y
Perimeter P = b + 4 y / 3
= b + 2.31 y
For a given depth, the discharge is to be maximum.
According to Manning formula,

( )
( )
2 3 1 2

/ /

2
1
Q = * AR S
n
Where n and S are constants
by - 0.58 y
Now, R = A / P =
b + 2.31 y
Substituting the values in the above expression, then,
Q = by
( )
( )
{ }
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1 3
5
2
4 5
2
2 2
4
5 0 58 2 31 2 0 58
0
2 31
+
=
+
/
2
- 0.58 y / b + 2.31 y
differentiating the right hand side of the equation, then,
dA dP
b + 2.31y * * by . y * b . y * * by . y
dy dy
b . y


( ) 2 31 =
2 2
2
2
But dA / dy = b - 1.16 y and dP / dy . .
Then the above equation reduces to
5b -10.72 y - 10.37 =0
5b -10.37
y =
10.72
y = 0.46
( )
0 97
1 / 2
2
6b .
is the depth at which the discharge is maximum.

Computation of uniform flow depth in CBI&P channel
( )
( )
0
3 -1
0
2 2
2
2
2/3 1/2
2/3
2
1
Q = 30m s , S = , m = 1.25, n = 0.015
1600
1 1
A= 2 y Cot + y 2
2 2
= y +Cot
P = 2y +Cot
A y
R= =
P 2
Cot =1.25
= 38.6 0.644 radians
A = 1.894y
1
Q = AR S
n
1.894 y
30 = y 1/1600
0.015 2

=
( )
2
3
8/3
3/8
0.01530 1
y =
2 1.894 1/1600
y = 14.1 = 2.70m

y
1
m

Problems:
1. A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6.00 m, side slopes of 1 to 1, and water
flows upto a depth of 915 mm. For n =0.015, and a discharge of 10.20 m
3
/s, calculate
(a) the normal slope,
(b) the critical slope and critical depth for 10.20 m
3
/s, and
(c) the critical slope at the normal depth of 915mm.

2. A cement lined laboratory channel of rectangular shape is laid at a bed slope of
0.0004. If it is 150 cm wide, what discharge can be expected at uniform depth of 60 cm
in the channel? Take n to be 0.011. [Answer: 0.78 m
3
s
-1
]
3. Water flows at a uniform depth of 1.25m in a rectangular channel 4 m wide laid at a
slope of 1 in 1000. Compute the average shear stress on bottom of the channel.
( )
=
f
R S
4. A discharge of 40.0 m
3
/s flows in a trapezoidal channel with bottom width 4.0 m and
side slopes 2 H: 1 V. If the normal depth at a bottom slope of 0.0016 is 2.0 m, determine
the va1ues of n and C. Is the flow sub critical or supercritical? (Answer: n =0.0184,
C=56.22, F<1).
5. A circular pipe of reinforced concrete is to be used as a storm drainage conduit. It has
to carry a discharge of 2.5 m
3
/s at a slope of 1 in 2500, when running 0.9 full, determine
the required size. Assume n =0.013. ((Answer: do =1.81 m)
6. A trapezoidal channel excavated in earth has to carry a discharge of 5.0 m
3
/s at a
velocity of 0.75 m/s. The channel is 5.0 m wide at the base and has side slope of 1:2. At
what slope should it be laid? Take n to be 0.02.
7. The normal depth of flow in a trapezoidal concrete lined channel is 2 m. The channel
bed width is 5 m and has side slopes of 1:2. Manning n is 0.015 and the bed slope is
0.001. Determine the discharge Q, mean velocity, V and Reynolds Number, R
e
.
Classify the flow according to Froude Number.
8. In the previous problem if the discharge is changed to 30 m
3
/s, what would be the
normal depth of flow?
9. During large floods, the water level in the channel shown in figure exceeds the bank
level of 2.5 m. The flood banks are 10m wide and are grassed with side slope of 3: 1 (H:
V). The estimates of Manning n for these flood banks is 0.035. Estimate the discharge
for a maximum flood level of 4m and the velocity coefficient. Draw a stage discharge
relationship curve, given So =0.001, and n for main section as 0.015

10 m
5 m
2.5 m
10 m
3
1
2 2
1 1
3
1

10. A concrete pipe 750mm diameter is laid on a gradient of 1:200. The estimated value
of Manning n is 0.012 and pipe full discharge is estimated to be 0.85 m
3
/s.
(a) Calculate the discharge for a proportional depth of 0.938 d
o
using Manning equation.
Explain why the discharge in (a) is larger than the pipe full discharge?
11. A trapezoidal channel having bottom width 6 m and side slope of 2.5 horizontal to 1
vertical is laid on a bottom slope of 0.0025. If it carries a uniform flow of water at the rate
of 10 m
3
/s, compute the normal depth and the mean velocity of flow. Take Manning n as
0.025. What is the value of Froude Number?
12. The figure shows a highway gutter having one side vertica1, one side sloped at 1 on
m.
T
y
y
1
m
1

Manning n, depth of flow y, and longitudinal slope S
o
are given. Express discharge as a
function of side slope, depth, n and bed slope.
+ +
8 / 3
5 /3
2
Answer
Q = ( l / n ) f ( m ) y
0.3142 m
f ( m ) =
m
2/3
(1 1 )

(a) Compute the discharge when n =0.017, y =6.5 cm and S
o
=0.03, m =24.
(b) Compute the discharge when m =24, n =0.015, y =8.00 cm, S
o
=0.04.

13. Water flows at a velocity of 1 m /s in a rectangular channel 1.0 m wide. The bed
slope is 2 x 10
-3
and n =0.015.
Find the depth of flow under uniform flow condition.
14. Find the discharge in a trapezoidal channel with a bed width of 10 m. Side slopes
1:1 and depth of flow of 2.0 m under uniform flow conditions. So =10
-4
and n =0.02.
Also find Chezy coefficient at this depth.
15. A sewer pipe is proposed to be laid on a slope of 1 in 2500 and is required to carry
1.5 m
3
/s. What size of a circular pipe should be used if the pipe has to flow half full and
n =0.015?
16. Design an earthen trapezoidal channel for water having a velocity of 0.6 m / s. Side
slope of the channel is 1.5 : 1 and quantity of water flowing is 3 m
3
/s. Assume Chezy
coefficient as 65
1/2 1
m s
.
17. Design a trapezoidal channel for Carrying 30 m3/s of water. Bed slope of the
channel is 1:18,000 and side slope of 2 horizontal to 1 vertical Assume C in Chezy
formula as 50
1/2 1
m s
.
18. A trapezoidal channel has slope 1.5 horizontal to 1 vertical. It is to discharge 20
m
3
/s of water with a grade of 0.5 m per km. Find the depth of channel for its best form.
Use Manning formula taking n =0.01.
19. A circular pipe of 2.5 m diameter is laid at a slope of 1 in 1200. Find the maximum
discharge that can be secured at atmospheric pressure, if the value of C is 50
1/2 1
m s
.
What would be the depth of the flow for this discharge?
20. Determine the hydraulically efficient section of a trapezoidal channel, given n =
0.025, to carry 12.75 m
3
/s.
To prevent scouring, the maximum velocity is to be 920 mm/s and the side slopes of the
trapezoidal channel are 1 vertical to 2 horizontal.
What slope S
0
, of the channel is required?
21. Show a correlation between roughness factor f and roughness factor n.
(a) What is the average shear stress at the sides and bottom of a rectangular flume 3.65
m wide, flowing 1.20 m deep and laid on a slope of 1.60 m / 1000 m?

22. What flow can be expected in a 1.20 m wide rectangular cement-lined channel laid
on a slope of 4 m in 10,000 m, if the water flows 600 mm deep? Use both Kutter's C and
Manning n.
23. In a hydraulic laboratory, a flow of 0.412 m
3
/s was measured from a rectangular
channel flowing 1.20 m wide and 600 mm deep. If the slope of the channel was
0.00040, what is the roughness factor for the lining of the channel?
24. On what slope should a 600 m long vitrified sewer pipe be laid in order that 0.17
m
3
/s will flow when the sewer is half full? What slope is required if the sewer flows full?
25. A trapezoidal channel, bottom width 6.1 m and side slopes 1 to 1 flows 1220 mm
deep on a slope of 0.0009. For a value of n =0.025, what is the uniform discharge?
26. Two concrete pipes (C =55) must carry the flow from an open channel of half-
square section 1.83 m wide and 0.915 m deep ( C =66). The slope of both structures is
0.00090. (a) Determine the diameter of the pipes.
(b) Find the depth of water in the rectangular channel after it has become stabilised, if
the slope is changed to 0.00160, using C =66.
27. An average vitrified sewer pipe is laid on a slope of 0.00020 and is to carry 2.36
m
3
/s when the pipe flows 0.90 ful1. What size pipe should be used?
28. How deep will water flow at the rate of 6.80 m
3
/s in a rectangular channel 6.0 m
wide, laid on a slope of 0.00010? Use n =0.0149.
29. How wide must be rectangular channel be constructed in order to carry 14.15 m
3
/s
at a depth of 1.83 m on a slope of 0.00040? Use n =0.010.
30. A channel with a trapezoidal cross section is to carry 25 m
3
/s. If slope S
0
=
0.000144, n =0.015, base width b =6.0 m and the side slopes are 1 vertical to 1.5
horizontal, determine the normal depth of flow y
n

31. Compute the normal depth in a trapezoidal channel having a bottom width of 10 m
and side slope of 2H to 1V and carrying a flow of 30 m
3
/s. The slope of the channel
bottom is 0.001 and n =0.013.

19.2 Problem: Irregular Channel
Compute the uniform flow depth for the C.S. when flow is 283 m
3
/s. n =0.024,
S
0
=0.0001
River stage (in m) above
an arbitrary Datum
Distance to first perimeter
intersection from south
Bank
Distance to second perimeter
intersection from south Bank
4.6 100 100
6.1 73 140
7.6 61 160
9.1 52 180
11.0 46 220
12.0 40 260
14.0 34 365
15.0 24 370
17.0 6.1 375

0
60 120 365
Distance from South Bank
River bed
elevation
15
20 (xi, yi)
(x, y)
River bed elevation has a function of the distance (after French)


19.3 Solution of Algebraic or Transcendental Equation by the
Bisection Method

In the algebraic expression F (x) =0, when a range of values of x is known that contains
only one root, the bisection method is a practical way to obtain it. It is best shown by an
example.
The critical depth in a trapezoidal channel is to be computed for given discharge Q and
the dimensions of the channel. The corresponding equation is
2
3
Q T
1- =0
gA
must be
satisfied by some positive depth y
c
greater than 0 and less than an upper bound say
100 m. T is the top width given by (b +2 my
c
). The interval is bisected and this value of
y
c
tried. If the value of F is positive, as with the solid line shown in figure, then the root is
less than the midpoint and the upper limit is moved to the midpoint and the remaining
half bisected and the procedure is repeated.
F(x)
0
100
Bisection
T
b
m
1
m
1
Trapezoidal
y

Similarly it could be used for obtaining uniform flow depth using the following equation.
2
3
0
2
3
0
2
3
0
1
Q = AR S
n
1
Q - AR S 0
n
nQ
- AR 0
S
=
=


19.4 Solution of Manning Equation by Newton Raphson
Method
There is no general analytical solution to manning equation for determining the flow
depth given the flow rate because the area A and hydraulic radius R may be
complicated functions of the depth. Newton Raphson method can be applied iteratively
to obtain a numerical solution. Suppose that at iteration k the depth y
k
is selected and
the flow rate Q
n
, is computed using manning formula using the area and hydraulic
radius corresponding to y
k
. This Q
k
is compared with actual flow Q
n
; then the objective is
to chose y such that the error.
f (y
k
) =Q
k
- Q
n
is within the tolerance limit. The gradient of f with respect to y is
k
n
2 1
3 2
o k

dQ
df(y )
k
=
dy dy
k k
because Q is constant. Hence, assuming manning roughness is constant,
df 1
= S A R
k
dy n
k

1
2
o
2 1
3 2
o k
k
k k
df
dy
1
-
2
3
1 2A R dR dA
3
= S +R
n 3 dy dy
k
1 2 dR 1 dA
= S A R +
k
n 3R dy A dy
k
2 dR 1 dA
=Q +
3R dy A dy
in which the subscript k out side the

bracket indicates that the
quantities in the bracket computed for y =y
k.
In Newton's method,
given a choice of y , y is chosen to satisfy
k k+1
0- f (y)
df
k
=
dy y +y
k
k k+1
This

( )
k
y is the value of y ,
k+1
f (y )
k
y =y -
k+1 k
df / dy
k


Which is the fundamental equation of the Newton's method. Iterations are continued
until there is no significant change in y
n
; this will happen when the error is nearly zero or
an acceptable prescribed tolerance.
Thus for manning equation it may be written as
( )
k

1- Q / Q
k
y = y -
k+1 k
2 dR 1 dA
+
3R dy A dy
For rectangular channel A = b y and R = b y / b +2y where b is the
o o o o
channel width; The quantity in denominator can be for rectangula
( )
( )
2

1
=
=
2 1

3
2

3
2 1

3
d d
dy dy
dA A dP
P dy dy
P
T R dP
P P dy
consider
dR dA
R dy A dy
P T R dP T
A P P dy A
dP
T R
A d
=

+

+

A
R
P
r channel
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 2

3 3
5 2 1

3 3
For rectangular channel
5 2 1
2
3 3 2
51 4 1

3 3 2
5 2 12 5 10 4

3 2 3 2
5 6
=
3
o
o o
o
o o
o o
o
T
y A
T R dP T
A A dy A
T dP
A P dy
b
b y b y
y b y
b y y b y y
y b y y b y
b y
y b

+

+

+
+ +
=
+ +
+
( )
( )
( )( ) ( )
2
o
y +

o
o
1 - Q /Q
k
y = y -
k+1 k
5 b + 6 y
k
3y b + 2 y
k k
Similarly the channel shape function 2/3R dR/dy + 1/A (dA/dy)
for other cross sections can be derived.


( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
2 2 2
o
2
o o
b 2 6 1 4 1
Trapezoided Channel
3y b b 2 1
8
Triangular Channel
3y
4 2sin 3 5 cos
Circular Conduit
3 sin sin
2
in which

o
my y m my m
my y m
d

+ + + + +

+ + +

+

1
2
2cos 1
o
y
d

=

Example:
Compute the flow depth in a 0.6 m wide rectangular channel having n=0.015, S
0
=
0.025, and Q =0.25 m
3
s
-1
.
B
y

Solution:
o
3 1
2 1
3 2
2
1
3
2
Let wide b 0.6
Manning coefficient 0.015
bed slope 0.025
discharge 0.25
normal depth ?
A
Hyraulic mean radius R =
p 2
1
1
2
o
o
k
o
k
m
n
S
Q m s
y
b
b y
Q AR S
n
by
Q b y S
n b y
=
=
=
=
=
=
+
=

=

+


( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
5
1
3
2
2
3
5
1
3
2
2
3
1
2
0.6
1
0.025
0.015
0.6 2
5
53 53
3
0.6 4.4993
10.5409* (1)
2 3 2 3
0.6 2 0.6 2
5 6
Shape function =
3 2
5 0.
=
k
k
k
k
k
o k
k k
by
Q S
n
b y
y
Q
y
y y
k k
Q
k
y y
k k
b y
y b y

=

+

=

+

= =
+ +
+
+
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )
( )
k+1
6 6 3 6 1 2
3 0.6 2 3 0.6 2 0.6 2
0.25
1 0.6 2
y (2)
1 2
k k k
k k k k k k
k k
k
k
k
y y y
y y y y y y
y y
Q
y
y
+ + +
= =
+ + +

+

=
+

Iteration (k) 1 2 3
( )
k
y m
0.100 0.1815 0.1727
3 -1
Q(ms ) 0.1125 0.2684 0.2488

( )
( )
V
Froude number F =
gy gy
02488 06 01727
1844
9.81*0.1727
super critical flow
Q / A
. / . * .
F .
=
= =

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara Rao

20.1 Slope Area Method
Slope area method is used for estimating the flood discharge.
Assumptions made are
(i) High Flood Level (HFL) mark is known.
(ii) Total area is effective in transporting the flow.
(iii) No water falls.
(iv) Long reach.
Also the slope-area approach is justified if the change in conveyance in the reach is less
than 30 percent.
Although a straight, uniform reach is preferred, a contracting reach should be chosen
over an expanding reach if there is a choice.
One or more of the following criteria should be met in determining the reach length:
(a) The length should be greater than or equal to 75 times the mean depth of flow,
(b) The fall of the water surface should be equal to or greater than the velocity head, (If
velocity =1 m/s,
2
V
005 m
2g
. = and if the velocity =2 m/s,
2
V
020 m
2g
. = ) and,
(c) The fall should be equal to or greater than 0.15 m.
When the reach is contracting
( )
V <V , k=1.0
u d
. When the reach is expanding
( )
V >V , k=0.5
u d
. The 50% decrease in the value of k for an expanding reach is
customarily assumed for the recovery of the velocity head due to the expansion of the
flow.


20.2 Normal and Critical Slopes
When discharge and roughness are given, the Manning formula can be used for
determining the slope of the prismatic channel in which the flow is uniform at a given
depth y
n
. The slope thus determined is called Normal Slope S
n
.
Now by changing this slope, the normal depth could be made equal to critical uniform
flow for a given Q and n. This slope is called Critical slope S
c
.
The smallest critical slope that sustains a given normal depth is called limiting slope S
L

for a given shape and roughness.
By adjusting the slope and discharge if critical uniform flow is obtained that it is called
Critical slope of normal depth S
cn
.
These definitions will be illustrated in the following examples.
1. Normal and Critical Slopes:
Example: Rectangular open channel has a bottom width of 6.0 m, n =0.02.
a) For y
n
=1.0 m, Q =11 m
3
/s, find normal slope.
b) Find the limiting critical slope and normal depth of flow for Q =11 m
3
/s.
c) Find the critical normal slope given y
n
=1.0 m and determine the discharge for this
depth and slope.
Solution:
( )
( )
( )
2 2
2
2
n
2 4/3 2/3
A 6
a A by 6*1 6m , P b 2y 6 2*1 8m , R 0.75m
P 8
Qn
11*0.02
S 0.001972
A R
6* 0.75
V Q 11
Froude 0.5853
A 6 9.81*1
subcritica
n n

number =
gy gy

= = = = + = + = = = =

= = =

= = =
( ) l Hencemildslope
n c
y y . . >


( )
2
2
n c
c n
1/3
c c
V D A by
For critical flow, D y
2g 2 T b
Q
by y
but y y for theuniformcritical flow.
2*9.81 2
11*11
y y 0.7
6*6*9.81
b

= = = =

= =

= =

( )
( )
2
2
2
c
2/3 2/3
c 0
2
n
0
A 6*0.7 4.2m P 6 1.4 7.4
4.2
R 0.57m
7.4
Critical slope:
nQ 0.02*11
S 0.0058
AR
4.2* 0.57
S S
c If y 1.0 A 6m P 8.0m, R 0.75 F 1
m

= = = + =
= =

= = =

>
= = = = =
( )
( )
2/3
1/2
cn
2
cn
2/3
3
V
gy
V 9.81*1 3.1m/s
1
3.1 0.75 S
0.02
3.1*0.02
S 0.00564
0.75
Q 3.1*6 18.6m /s

=
= =
=

= =

= =

Problem: A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m, side slopes of 2: 1 (H: V)
and n =0.025.
(a) Determine the normal slope at a normal depth of 1.00 m and the discharge is 11
m
3
/s.
(b) Determine the normal slope and corresponding normal depth when the discharge is
11 m
3
/s.
(c) Determine the critical slope at the normal depth of 1.00 m and calculate the
corresponding Q.

( ) ( ) ( )
( )
2
2
2/3
2
2/3 1/2 3
n
2/3
n
c
a A b 2y y 6 2 1 8m
P b 2y 1 m 6 2 5 10.472m
R 0.7639m AR 6.685
1 nQ
Q AR S 1.692*10
n
AR
S 0.001692
V
b S ? F 1
gD
n

S

= + = + =
= + + = + =
= =

= = =

=
= = =
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
3/2
3
3
V gD 9.81D
y 6 2y
D A 6 2y y
6 2my
y 6 2y
D
6 4y
y 6 2y
Q 11
V 9.81*
A 6 2y y 6 4y
11 6 4y 6 2y y g
Squaring
121 6 4y g 6 2y y
121 6 4y 9.81

,

=

= =
+
= = +
+
+
=
+
+
= =
+ +
+ = +

+ = +
+ = ( )
3
3
6 2y y
Bytrial anderror
+

( ) ( )
c
2
-1 2/3
2
c
2/3
Say y 0.648m
A 6 2 0.648 0.648 4.7278m
P b 2y 5 8.8979m
R 5.313*10 AR 3.1016
nQ
S 0.007861
AR

=
= + =
= + =
= =

= =

R.H.S L.H.S
y =0.65 121 (6+2.6) =1040.6 1048.039
y =0.648 1039.63 1036.689

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
c
2
-1 2/3
2
c
2/3
2
Say y 0.648m
A 6 2 0.648 0.648 4.7278m
P b 2y 5 8.8979m
R 5.313*10 AR 3.1016
nQ
S 0.007861
AR
c
A 6 2 1 8m
P 6 2 5 10.472m
R

Given normal depth = 1 m

=

=
= + =
= + =
= =

= =

= + =
= +
( )
( )
( )
c
2/3
1/2
cn
1/2 2
cn
2/3
1
cn
0.7639m
T b 2my 6 2*2*1 10m
A
D 0.8
T
V gD 9.81*0.8 2.801m/s
1
2.801 * 0.7639 S
0.025
2.801*0.025
S 8.3809*10
0.7639
S

=
= + = + =
= =
= = =
=

= =

/2
3
0.007024
Q 2.801*8 22.408m /s

=
= =

Example:
A trapezoidal channel has a bottom width of 6 m, side slopes of 2:1 and, n =0.025.
(a) Determine the normal slope at a normal depth of 1.2 m when the discharge is
10 m
3
/s.
(b) Determine the critical slope and the corresponding normal depth when the
Q =10 m
3
/s.
(c) Determine the critical slope at y
n
=1.2 m and compute the corresponding Q.


Solution:
6
2
1
Trapezoidal
y

( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
2
2
2 1
3 2
n
2 2
2
n
4/3 4/3
3
n
c
12
A 10.08m V 1.1905m/s,
10.08
P 6 2 1.2 5 11.36m R 0.8868
1
V R S
n
0.025 1.1905
n V
S
R
0.8868
S 1.039*10 0.00104
b Critical depth y ?
Q
Z

= = =
= + = =
=
= =
= =
=
=
( )
n
2
2 2
2/3 1/2 c
c
n n
4/3 2/3
n c
n
12
A D Z 3.8313
g g
Q 12
V 2.3565m/s
A 5.0922
n V 1 0.025*2.3565
V R S S
n
R R
S 0.014718 y 0.69
c y 1.2m R 0.8

= = =
= = =

= = =

= =
= =
2
c
3
A
868 A 10.08m D 0.9333m
T
V gD 3.0259m/s
Thereforethedischarge Area * Velocity 10.08 * 3.0259 30.50m /s
Solve by trial and error.

= = =
= =
= = =


( )
c
c
2/3
c
c
Graphical approach
Limit slopeis thesmallest critical slopefor agiven shapeandroughness
a Determine S
Q K S
1
Q AR S
n
Q
Q Z g A D g
g
Forrectangular channel
c

Z or

=
=
= = =
2/3
c
1.5
2/3
1.5
: It can bewritten as
1 by
Q by S
n b y
also
by
Q by g by g
b
Rewriting the equation
Q Q
y or y
b g b g
Substituting the above value in Manning formula for discharge it may b

=

+

= =

= =

2/3
2/3
2/3
c
2/3
2/3
e written as
Q
b
b g
1 Q
Q b S
n b g
Q
b 2
b g
This is an Implicit function and solution is by trial and error approach.

=

+

Q
S
c

Alternatively
( )
( )
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
2/3
c
2/3
2/3
b
Q
b g
b 1
Q Q S
n b g
b b g 2Q

=

+


( )
2/3
1
2/3
2
*3
3
c
2/3
1 1
1
2/3
2/3
1
2/3
1 c 1
c c c
If b g C
b 1 b 1
Q Q S
nC C
bC 2Q
nC b 1
Q
C b S bC 2Q
Anequation in terms of S is obtained. So chooseQandobtain S , plot QVs S .

=

=

+

=

+

Example 3: Determine the limit slope of rectangular channel of 3 m width and
roughness of 0.02. Consider the following cases
For depths (i) y =0.5 m, (ii) y =2 m.
Do we have limit slopes for these conditions?
Solution:
Section factor for critical flow
( )
3/2 1/ 2 3/2
c
3/2 3/2 3/2
2/3 1/2
c
2
2 3/2
2 2
c
2 4/3 4/3
2
c
Q
Z A D A T by for rectangular channel
g
Q by g 3* 9.81*y 9.3962 y
1
But Q AR S
n
n by g
Q n
S
A R
by
by
b 2y
Simplifying
S g
c

=
=
S

= = = =
= =

= =

+

=
( )
4/3
2 1/3
-3
n c
2y
n y 1
b
Case i y 2m S 9.6399 * 10

+

= =

Note: There could be a situation where limit slope is not possible in expected range of
flow depths.
Graphical approach:
Table: To plot Q Vs S
c

y (m) Q (m
3
/s) S
c

0 0 0
0.1 0.2971 0.008807
0.2 0.8405 0.007975
0.3 1.5440 0.007475
0.4 2.3770 0.007298

0.5 3.3322 0.007255
0.6 4.3670 0.0072866
0.7 5.5030 0.007364
0.8 6.7234 0.007474
0.9 8.0227 0.0076057
1.0 9.3963 0.007754
1.25 13.1317 0.008173
1.50 17.2621 0.008638
1.75 21.7527 0.009129
2.0 26.5767 0.009639
3.0 48.8245 0.011177
4.0 75.1702 0.01397
Limit slope computations:
Q (m
3
/s) y =0.5 m, S
c
y =2 m, S
c

1 6.5741 * 10
-4
1.3646 * 10
-5

2 2.6296 * 10
-4
5.4585 * 10
-5

3 5.9166 * 10
-3
1.22817 * 10
-4

4 0.0105185 2.1834 * 10
-4

5 0.01643 3.4116 * 10
-4

6 0.02367 4.9124 * 10
-4

8 0.04207 6.6867 * 10
-4

10 0.06574 1.10535 * 10
-3

15 0.147917 3.0704 * 10
--3

20 0.262963 5.4585 * 10
-3

30 0.59166 0.0122817
40 1.5018 0.2183
60 2.3667 0.04913
80 4.2074 0.08733
100 6.5741

0
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Supercritical flow
Subcritical flow
critical slope

From analytical solutions:
( )
( )
2
2
L
1/3 1/3
4/3
3 3 3/ 2
L
26.16* 0.02
y 0.5 1 n
, S 26.16 0.007255799
b 3.0 6
b 3
S 0.007255, 9.0694*10 y 3 2y ,Q 3 gy
c

S

= = = = =
= = + =


Analytical approach for obtaining limit slope:

Rectangular channel:

Consider a rectangular channel of width b and depth of flow y with Manning roughness
coefficient n.
Then
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2/3 1/2
c c c c
4/3 4/3 2 2
c c c c
4/3 4/3
4/3
c 2
c c
c
2
4/3
c c
c
4/3
c
4/3
2
c
4/3 1
c
1
V gy V R S
n
n b 2y n b 2y
S gy S gy
by by
b 2y
S n gy
by
By definition of limit slope,
dS n gy d
b 2y
dy dy
by
b 2y d n g
dy b y

= =
+ +
= =
+
=

= +

+
=
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
/3
1 4
2 4 4
1
3 3
3 3
c c c c
4/3
4
1 4
1
3
c
3 3
3
c c c
4
1
3
3
c c
4 1
3 3
c
c
1
1
3
c 3
1
c
4
4
3
c 3
4 1
3 3
c
n g 8 1
b 2y y b 2y y 0
3 3 b
b 2y 4
2* b 2y y y
3 3
b 2y y
2*4
b 2y
y
y
1 2 b
b
2*4 y
y
1 2 b
b
y
2*4 1 2
b

+

+ + + =

+
+ =
+
=
+

+

=

+

+ =

( )
1
c
1
c
c
c
c
c c
c
c
2
c c
c
4/3
c
by
y b
2*4 1 2
b y
y b
8 1 2
y b
b b
8 2 6
y y
y 1
S is maximum, when
b 6
Substituting into equation wecan get theexpression of limiting slope
n gy y
S 1 2
b
by

+

.

+ =

= +

= =
=

= +
4/3
4/3
4/3 2
4/3 c
c
4/3 4/3
c
4/3 2
1/3 1/3
c
4/3
2 1/3 4/3 2
L
1/3 4/3 1/3
2 2
L
1/3 1/3
b
n gy 1
S 1 2* b
6 b y
n g 1 1
1
3 b y
b
n 6 *4 n
S 9.81* 26.157
b 3 b
n n g
S 26.157 or 2.67 in which bis in meter
b b
=
.

= +

+

= =

=


20.2.1 Froude Criteria for Sub Critical and Super Critical Flow
( )
( )
( )
2/3 1/2
0
0
0 L 0 L
L
2/3
0
2/3
4
2
0
R S V
F
gD n gD
S
S S subcritical, S S super critical, 1critical
S
For rectangular channel.
by
A by, R , D y
b 2y
by S
F
n gy b 2y
If flow is critical uniformflow then
n gy b 2y
S

= =

< > =

= = =
+
=
+
+
=
( )
( )
( )
/3
4/3
4/3
2 1/3
0
4/3
2
L
4/3
4/3 1/3
0
4
1
L
4/3
3
4/3
1/3
0
1/3
L
4/3
0
1/3
L
4/3 1/3
0
L
4
by
n gy b 2y b S
S
2.67n g by
2y
g 1 b b
S b
S
26.16 y b
2y
1 b
S 9.81 b
S 26.16
y
2y
1
S b
2.667
S
y
b
S 2y y
1 2.667
b b S
2y
1
b

+
=

+

=

+

=

+

=

+ =

+

3
0
L
3
4
0
L
3
4
0
L
S y
2.667
b S
S 2y y
1 2.667 0
b b S
S b 2y
1 2.667 0
y b S

=

+ =

+ =

c 0
L
y S
Therearetwo solutions of for 1 and
b S
y 1 y 1
onesolution has a . Theother solution .
b 6 b 6
y
Theflowis super critical between thesetwo values andit is subcritical for all theother values of
b

>
> <
0
L
y
b
S y 1 y 1
If 1; , Henceflowis critical andalsotheFroudenumber will be maximum .
S b 6 b 6

at = = =


10.0
.01 .02 .03 .05 .07 .10 .20
.30 .50
.70
1.0
2.0
3.0 5.0 7.0
10.0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.006
0.008
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
2
3
4
With variation of
1
___
6
__
y
b
__
y
b
with for uniform flow in rectangular channel
__
S0
SL
__
S0
SL
Q
___
b
5/2
g

0
L
0
L
2/3
0
S y
For 1.0for all only subcritical exists.
S b
S y
For 2.0theflowis super critical for most of thepractical rangeof
S b
Maximumvalueof Froudenumber:
S
1 by
Froudenumber F
n b 2y gy

<
>

=

+

2
L
1/3
n
S 26.16
b
=


( )
( )
2
2 4/3 2/3
0 2
2 4/3
4/3
4/3
2 0
2 4/3
L
1/3
0
2 4/3
2/3
2
0
1/3 4/3
L
1/6
1/2
0
2/3
L
b y
S 1
F
gy n 2y
b 1
b
S 1 y
F
S n 2y
1
b
1 y
S
n g 2y
1
b
y
26.16
F S
b S g 2y
1
b
y
S 26.16 b
F
9.81 S
2y
1
b
F 1.63
=

=

+

=

+

+

=

+

=

+

=
1/6
1/2
0
2/3
L
0
max
L
0
y
S b
2
S
2y
1
b
dF y 1
0 condition for maximumandoccurs at
dy b 6
S
F
S
Given n, S channel width could beestimated such that theFroudenumber will never exceed

+

= =
=
0
a predetermined valueirrespectiveof thevalueof discharge.
Problem:
Given S 0.0025, n 0.25estimatethewidth of thechannel such that
maximumFroudenumber is 0.5irrespectiveof thedisc

= =
( )
( )
2
L
1/3
2/3 1/2
0
5/3 1/ 2
0
4/3
1/2
0
5/ 2
L
harge.
Sridharan and Lakshmana Rao havepresented thedesign chart for rectangular channel and the
details areas follows
n
S 26.16
b
1
Q AR S
n
by S 1
Q
n
b 2y
y
S Q b
1.632
S b g

=
=
=
+

=

5/3
2/3
0
5/2
L
2y
1
b
S y Q
A design chart is created Vs for different values of for
b S gb
different constant values of Froudenumber.

+


Reference:
1. J ones L.E. and Tripathy B.N. "Critical slopes for Trapezoidal channels ", ASCE HY1,
4202, Vol. 91, pp 85 - 91.
2. Nagar S. Lakshmana Rao and Kalambar Sridharan, "Limit slope in uniform flow
computations", Proceedings ASCE J l. Vol. 96, No. Hy1, J an. 1970, p 7011, pp 95 to
102.
Problem:
1. Show that for Trapezoidal channel that there does not exist any limit slope for when
m
0.5

2. Show that the limit slope for trapezoidal channel is given by the following equation.
( ) ( )
3 2
2 2 2 2 2
y y y
4m m 1 10m 4m m 1 10m 6 m 1 1 0
b b b
inwhich m is the side slope.

+ + + + + + =

3. Show that for circular channel the limit slope is given by
2
L
1
3
0
0
n
S 33.06
d
inwhich d is the diameter of the circleinfeet andthesubtendedangleby thefree
surfaceat thecentrecorresponds to13206'

=

4. Establish that for triangular channel the limit slope will be zero.

5. For trapezoidal channel, show that
( )
4/3
2
1/3
0
2 2 1/3 1/3
y
1 2 m 1
S b b
(i)
F gn
y y y
1 2m 1 m
b b b
y
f m, in which .
b
x
*
S
S

+ +

= =

+ +

= =


( )
( )
( ) ( )
[ ]
( )
( )( )
4
2
3
*
L
2
1 2 1 m
(ii)
1 2m 1 2m
afifth degreeequation in m 0, then 4th degree
Fiveroots: atleast one vereal root, two roots areimaginary.
dS
S 0,
dy
8 1 m 1 m 1 2m 1 2 1
3
*
S
if

+ +
=
+ +
=
+
= =
+ + + +
( )
( )
2 2 2
m 1 10m 10m 0 + + + =

Example:
A Trapezoidal channel with a bottom of 6.2 m and side slope of 0:5; 1, n =0.02 develop
a graph Q Vs S
c
and obtain the limiting critical slope.
Hint:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )[ ]
( )
( )
2
2
2
2
3
3 2
c
c
3
3
c
Cn
4
2
c 2
c c c
c
V D
Critical flow
2g 2
A 6.2 0.5y y
P 6.2 2*0.5y y
6.2 0.5y y
R
6.2 2*0.5y y
Q
V
6.2 0.5y y
6.2 0.5y y Q 1
*
2g 2 6.2 y
6.2 0.5y y
6.2 0.5y y g Q
g 6.2 y
6.2 0.5y y g
S
6.2 0.5y
6.2 y 6.2 0.5y y
6.2 2*0.5y

=
= +
= +
+
=
+
=
+
+
=
+
+
+
=
+
+
=
+
+ +

+

/3
c Cn
Select different values of y andcalculateS andQ


21.1 Design of Canals

Many procedures have been developed over the years for the hydraulic design of open
channel sections. The complexity of these procedures vary according to flow conditions
as well as the level of assumption implied while developing the given equation. The
Chezy equation is one of the procedures that was developed by a French engineer in
1768 (Henderson, 1966). The development of this equation was based on the
dimensional analysis of the friction equation under the assumption that the condition of
flow is uniform. A more practical procedure was presented in 1889 by the Irish engineer
Robert Manning (Chow, 1959). The Manning equation has proved to be very reliable in
practice.
The Manning equation invokes the determination of flow velocity based on the slope of
channel bed, surface roughness of the channel, cross-sectional area of flow, and wetted
perimeter of flow. Using this equation, the solution procedures are direct for
determination of flow velocity, slope of channel bed, and surface roughness. However,
the solution for any unknown related to the cross-sectional area of flow and wetted
perimeter involves the implementation of an implicit recursive solution procedure which
cannot be achieved analytically. Many implicit solution procedures such as the Newton-
Raphson, Regula-Falsi (false position), secant, and the Van Wijngaarden-Dekker-Brent
Methods (Press et al., 1992).
One of the important topics in the area of Free surface flows is the design of channels
capable of transporting water between two locations in a safe, cost - effective manner.
Even though economics, safety, and aesthetics must always be considered, in this unit
thrust is given only to the hydraulic aspects of channel design. For that discussion is
confined to the design of channels for uniform flow. The two types of channels
considered are
(1) lined or nonerodible;

(2) unlined, earthen, or erodible.

There are some basic issues common to both the types and are presented in the
following paragraphs.

1. Shape of the cross section of the canal.
2. Side slope of the canal.
3. Longitudinal bed slope.
4. Permissible velocities - Maximum and Minimum.
5. Roughness coefficient.
6. Free board.
1. Shape of cross section
From the Manning and Chezy equation, it is obvious that the conveyance of a channel
increases as the hydraulic radius increases or as the wetted perimeter decreases. Thus,
there is among all channel cross sections of a specified geometric shape and ares an
optimum set of dimensions for that shape from the viewpoint of hydraulics. Among all
possible channel cross sections, the hydraulically efficient section is a semicircle since,
for a given area, it has the minimum wetted perimeter. The proportions of the
hydraulically efficient section of a specified geometric shape can be easily derived. The
geometric elements of these sections are summarized in Table. It should be noted that ,
the hydraulically efficient section is not necessarily the most economic section.
In practice the following factors are to be kept in mind:
a. The hydraulically efficient section minimizes the area required to convey a specified
discharge. however, the area which required to be excavated to achieve the flow area
required by the hydraulically efficient section may be much larger if one considers the
removal of the over burden.
b. It may not be possible to construct a hydraulically efficient stable section in the
available natural condition. If the channel is to be lined, the cost of the lining may be
comparable with the cost of excavation.
c. The cost of excavation depends on the amount of material that is to removed, in
addition to. Further Topography of the land access to the site also influence the cost of
disposal of the material removed.
d. The slope of the channel bed must be considered also as a variable since it is not
necessarily completely defined by topographic consideration. For example, a reduced

channel slope may require a larger flow area to convey the flow, on the other hand the
cost of excavation of the overburden may be reduced.
2. Side slopes
The side slopes of a channel depend primarily on the engineering properties of the
material through which the channel is excavated. From a practical viewpoint, the
side slopes should be suitable for prelimianary purposes. However, in deep cuts, side
slopes are often steeper above the water surface than they would be in an irrigation
canal excavated in the same material.In many cases, side slopes are determined by the
economics of construction. In this regard following observations are made:
a. In many unlined earthen canals, side slopes are usually 1.5 : 1; However,
side slopes as steep as 1:1 have been used when the channel runs through cohesive
materials.
b. In lined canals, the side slopes are generally steeper than in an unlined canal. If
concrete is the lining material, side slopes greater than 1 : 1 usually require the use of
forms, and with side slopes greater than 0 .75 : 1 the linings must be designed to
withstand earth pressures. Some types of lining require side slopes as flat as those
used for unlined channels.
c. Side slopes through cuts in rock can be vertical if this is desirable.
Table: Suitable side slopes for channels built in various types of materials (chow, 1959)
Material Side slope
Rock Nearly vertical
Muck and peat soils 1 / 4 : 1
Stiff clay or earth with concrete lining 1 / 2 : 1 to 1 : 1
Earth with stone lining or each for large channels 1 : 1
Firm clay or earth for small ditches 1 1/2 : 1
Loose,sandy earth 2 : 1
Sandy loam or porous clay 3 : 1



Indian standards for canal in cutting and embankment
Side slope (Horizontal to Vertical m:1)
Material (soil) Cutting Embankment
Hard clay or gravel 0.75 : 1 1.5 to 1.0
Soft Clay and alluvial
soils
1.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
Sandy loam 1.5 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0
Light sand 2.0 to 1.0 2.0 to 1.0 to 3.0 to 1.0
Soft rock 0.25 to 1.0 to 0.5 to 1.0 -
Hard rock 0.125 to 1 to 0.25 to 1.0 -

3. Longitudinal slope
The longitudinal slope of the channel is influenced by topography, the head required to
carry the design flow, and the purpose of the channel. For example, in a hydroelectric
power canal, a high head at the point of delivery is desirable, and a minimum
longitudinal channel slope should be used. The slopes adopted in the irrigation channel
should be as minimum as possible inorder to achieve the highest command. Generally,
the slopes vary from 1 : 4000 to 1 : 20000 in canal. However, the longitudinal slopes in
the natural river may be very steep (1/10).
Slope of the channels in Western Ghats

Gentle slope 10 m / km S
0
=0.01
Moderate
slope
10 to 20 m /
km
S
0
= 0.01 to
0.02
Steep slope 20 m / km S
0
0.02


0.1
0.05
0.02
0.01
0.005
0.002
0.001
0.0005
0.0002
0.0001
Median (d50)
Grain Size in mm
F = 0.85
F = 1.0
Bank Full Discharge, m
3
/s

4. Permissible Velocities: Minimum and Maximum

It may be noted that canals carrying water with higher velocities may scour the bed and

the sides of the channel leading to the collapse of the canal. On the other hand the

weeds and plants grow in the channel when the nutrients are available in the water.

Therefore, the minimum permissible velocity should not allow the growth of vegetation

such as weed, hycinth as well you should not be permitting the settlement of suspended

material (non silting velocity). The designer should look into these aspects before

finalizing the minimum permissible velocity.

"Minimum permissible velocity" refers to the smallest velocity which will prevent both

sedimentation and vegetative growth in general. an average velocity of

(0.60 to 0.90 m/s) will prevent sedimentation when the silt load of the flow is low.

A velocity of 0.75 m /s is usually sufficient to prevent the growth of vegetation which

significantly affects the conveyance of the channel. It should be noted that these values


are only general guidelines. Maximum permissible velocities entirely depend on the

material that is used and the bed slope of the channel. For example: in case of chutes,

spillways the velocity may reach as high as 25 m/s. As the dam heights are increasing

the expected velocities of the flows are also increasing and it can reach as high as 70

m/s in exceptional cases. Thus, when one refers to maximum permissible velocity, it is

for the normal canals built for irrigation purposes and Power canals in which the energy

loss must be minimised. Hence, following table gives the maximum permissible velocity

for some selected materials.

Maximum permissible velocities and n values for different materials
material V (m / s) n
Fine sand 0.5 0.020
vertical Sandy loam 0.58 0.020
Silt loam 0.67 0.020
Firm loam 0.83 0.020
Stiff clay 1.25 0.025
Fine gravel 0.83 0.020
Coarse gravel 1.33 0.025
Gravel 1.2
Disintegrated Rock 1.5
Hard Rock 4.0
Brick masonry with cement pointing 2.5
Brick masonry with cement plaster 4.0
Concrete 6.0
Steel lining 10.0

5. Resistance to the flow
In a given channel the rate of flow is inversely proportional to the surface roughness.
The recommended values for a different types of lining are given below:
Manning roughness for the design of several types of linings is as follows
Surface Characteristics Value of n
Concrete with surface as indicated below
(a) Trowel finish 0.012 - 0.014
(b) Flat finish 0.013 - 0.015
(c) Float finish some gravel on bottom 0.015 - 0.017
(d) Gunite, good section 0.016 - 0.017
Concrete bottom float finished sides as indicated below
(a) Dressed stone in mortar 0.015 - 0.017
(b) Random stone in mortar 0.017 - 0.020
(c) Cement rubble masonry plastered 0.016 - 0.020
Brick lining 0.014 - 0.017

Asphalt lining
(a) Smooth 0.013
(b) Rough 0.016
Concrete lined excavated rock with
(a) Good section 0.017 - 0.020
(b) Irregular section 0.022 - 0.027

These values should, however, be adopted only where the channel has flushing
velocity. In case the channel has non-flushing velocity the value of n may increase due
to deposition of silt in coarse of time and should in such cases be taken as that for
earthen channel. The actual value of n in Manning formula evaluated on the basis of
observations taken on Yamuna Power Channel in November 1971 ranged between
0.0175 and 0.0229 at km 0.60 and between 0.0164 and 0.0175 at km 2.05. The higher
value of n evaluated at km 0.60 could be attributed to the deposition of silt in head
reaches of the channel.
Table: Manning Roughness Coefficients

n-value different depth ranges
Depth ranges
Lining
Category
Lining Type
0 15 cm 15 60 cm >60 cm
Concrete 0.015 0.013 0.013
Grouted Riprap 0.040 0.030 0.028
Stone Masonry 0.042 0.032 0.030
Soil Cement 0.025 0.022 0.020

Rigid
Asphalt 0.018 0.016 0.016
Bare Soil 0.023 0.020 0.020
Unlined

Rock Cut 0.045 0.035 0.025
Woven Paper Net 0.016 0.015 0.015
J ute Net 0.028 0.022 0.019
Fiberglass Roving 0.028 0.021 0.019
Straw with Net 0.065 0.033 0.025
Cured Wood Mat 0.066 0.035 0.028

Temporary
Synthetic Mat 0.036 0.025 0.021
2.5-cm (d
50
) 0.044 0.033 0.030
Gravel
Riprap

5 -cm (d
50
) 0.066 0.041 0.034
15-cm (d
50
) 0.104 0.069 0.035
Rock
Riprap

30-cm (d
50
) - 0.078 0.040


6. Freeboard
The term freeboard refers to the vertical distance between either the top of the channel
or the top of the channel is carrying the design flow at normal depth. The purpose of
freeboard is to prevent the overtopping of either the lining or the top of the channel
fluctuations in the water surface caused by
(1) wind - driven waves,
(2) tidal action,
(3) hydraulic jumps,
(4) superelevation of the water surface as the flow goes round curves at high velocities,
(5) the interception of storm runoff by the channel,
(6) the occurrence of greater than design depths of flow caused by canal sedimentation
or an increased coefficient of friction, or
(7) temporary mis-operation of the canal system.
There is no universally accepted role for the determination of free board since, waves,
unsteady flow condition, curves etc., influence the free board. Free boards varying from
less than 5% to 30% of the depth are commonly used in design. In semi-circular
channels, when the velocities are less than 0.8 times the critical velocity then 6% of the
diameter as free board have been proved to be adequate.
The freeboard associated with channel linings and the absolute top of the canal above
the water surface can be estimated from the empirical curves. In general, those curves
apply to a channel lined with either a hard surface, a membrane, or compacted earth
with a low coefficient of permeability. For unlined channels, freeboard generally ranges
from 0.3m for small laterals with shallow depths of flow to 1.2m for channels carrying 85
m
3
/s at relatively large depths of flow. A prelimimary estimate of freeboard for an
unlined channel can be obtained from USBR formula.
B
B
1/ 2
3
F Cy
in which F
C is a coefficient. However, it may be noted that C has dimensions of L .
C var ies from 1.5 at Q 0.57 m / s to
is the freeboard in feet, y is the design depth of flow in feet,

=
=
3
2.5 for canal
capacity equal to and more than 85 m / s.


The free board recommended by USBR for channels are given below
Q m
3
/s Free board F
B
in m
<0.75 0.45
0.75 - 1.5 0.60
1.5 - 85.0 0.75
>85 0.90

The free board (measured from full supply level to the top of lining) depends upon the
size of canal, velocity of water, curvature of alignment, wind and wave action and
method of operation. The normal free board is 15 cm for small canals and may range up
to 1.0 m for large canals. The U.S.B.R. practice for the minimum permissible free board
for various sizes of canal is given in Figure. Indian Standard IS : 4745 recommends a
free board of 0.75 m for canal carrying a discharge of more than 10 m
3
/sec.
Free board as per Indian Standards (IS 4745 - 1968), (IS 7112 - 1973)
Free board (m) Discharge Q (m
3
/s)
Unlined Lined
<10.0 0.50 0.60
>10.0 0.75 0.75

HEIGHT OF BANK ABOVE W.S
HEIGHT OF HARD
SURFACE OR BURIED
MEMBRANE LINING
ABOVE W.S.
HEIGHT OF EARTH
LINING ABOVE W.S
DISCHARGE CAPACITY IN m
3
/s
Bank height for canals and free board for hard
surface or buried membrane and, earth lining
1
2
0.1
.2 .4 .6 .8
1
2 4 6 8
10
2 4 6 8
1000
0
1
100
2 4 6 8


Free boards provided in some of the major lined canals in India are given below

Sl.No. Name of Canal Free Board F
B
in m
1 Yamuna Power Channel 0.75
2 Nangal Hydel Channel 0.76
3 Gandak Canal 0.45
4 Lower Ganga Canal (Link Canal) 0.30
5 Rajasthan Feeder Channel 0.76
6 Tungabhadra Canal 0.30
7 Mannaru Canal 0.30
8 Sunder Nagar Hydel Channel 0.91
9 Sarda Sahayak Feeder Channel 1.25

Actually adopted Free board for different ranges of discharge in India are below
Q (m
3
/s) <0.15 0.15 - 0.75 0.75 - 1.50 1.50 - 9.00 >9.00
Free board
(m)
0.30 0.45 0.60 0.75 0.90

References
1. IS: 4745 - 1968, Code of practice for Design of Cross Section for Lined Canals,
Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, 1968.
2. IS: 7112 - 1973, Criteria for Design of Cross Section for Unlined Canals in Alluvial
Soil, Indian Standards Institution, New Delhi, 1974.
When flow moves around a curve, a rise in the water surface occurs at the outer bank
with a corresponding lowering of the water surface at the inner bank. In the design of a
channel, it is important that this difference in water levels be estimated. If all the flow is
assumed to move around the curve at the subcritical average velocity , then super
elevation is given by
2
mb
max
c
V 2T
y =
2g r

In India, the minimum radii of curvature are often longer than those used in the United
States. For example, Some Indian engineers recommend a minimum radius of 91m for
canals carrying more than 85 m
3
/s ( Houk, 1956 ). Suggested radii for different
discharges are given in table below.


Radius of curves for lined canals
Discharge (m
3
/s) Radius (minimum) in m
280 and above 900
Less than 280 to 200 760

Note: Where the above radii cannot be provided, proper super elevation in bed shall be
provided.
The width of the banks along a canal are usually governed by a number of
considerations which include the size of the need for maintenance roads. Where roads
are needed, the top widths for both lined and unlined canals are designed so that
precipitation will not fall in to the canal water and, to keep percolating water below the
ground level beyond the banks.

21.1.1 Hydraulically Efficient Channel
It is well known that the conveyance of a channel section increases with increases in
the hydraulic radius or with decrease in the wetted perimeter. Therefore, from the point
of hydraulic aspects, the channel section having the least wetted perimeter for a given
area has the maximum conveyance; such a section is known as the Hydraulically
efficient channel. But this is popularily referred as Best Hydraulic section. The semicircle
has the least perimeter among all sections with the same area; hence it is the most
hydraulically efficient of all sections.
The geometric elements of six best hydraulic section are given in Table. It may be noted
that it may not be possible to implement in the field due to difficulties in construction and
use of different materials. In general, a channel section should be designed for the best
hydraulic efficiency but should be modified for practicability. From a practical point of
view, it should be noted that a best hydraulic section is the section that gives the
minimum area of flow for a given discharge but it need not be the minimum excavation.
The section of minimum excavation is possible only if the water surface is at the level of
the top of the bank. When the water surface is below the bank top of the bank (which is

very common in practice), channels smaller than those of the best hydraulic section will
give minimum excavation. If the water surface overtops the banks and these are even
with the ground level, wider channels will provide minimum excavation. Generally,
hydraulically efficient channel is adopted for lined canals. It may also be noted that
hydraulically efficient channel need not be economical channel (least cost).
Geometric elements of best hydraulically efficient section (figures)

Cross
Section
A P R T D
Z = A D
Rectangular 2y
2
4y 0.5 y 2y y 2y
2.5

Trapezoidal
2
3y
( )
2
1 732 . y
2 3y
(3.464y)
0.5 y
4 3
3
y
(2.3094y)
3
4
y
(0.75y)
2 5
3
2
.
y ( )
2 5
1 5
.
. y

Triangular
2
y
2 2y
2.828y
2
4
y
0.3535y
2y
2
y

0.5y
2 5
2
2
.
y
2 5
0 707
.
. y
Semi
Circular
2
2
y

y
0 5 . y 2y
4
y

2 5
4
.
y

2 5
0 25
.
. y
Parabola
2
4
2 y
3

2
4
2 y
3

2
1 89 . y
8
2
3
y
3.77y
y/2
0.5y
2 2y
2.83y
2
y
3

0.667y
2.5
8
3y
9

2 5
1 5396
.
. y
Hydrostatic
Catenary
1.40 y
2
2.98 y 0.468 y 1.917 y 0.728y 1.91 y
2.5

** Hydrostatic Caternary (Linteria)
Flexible sheet: Filled with water upto rim, and held firmly at the top ends without any
effect of fixation on shape. Shape assumed under self height of water is called
Hydrostatic Catenary.

21.1.2 Selection of Lining
Introduction

The need for lining channels in alluvium has long been identified to conserve every bit
of water for more and more utilisation. Lining of an irrigation channel is restored to
achieve all or some of the following objectives keeping in view the overall economy of
the project.
The major advantages of rigid impermeable linings are as follows:

(a) Reduction of seepage losses resulting in a saving of water which can be utilised for
additional irrigation.
(b) Prevention of water logging by reducing seepage to water-table.

(c) Reduction in area of cross-section (and there by saving in land) due to increase in
permissible velocity by reduction in the value of rugosity and availing of steeper slope,
where available. Minimize excavation costs
(d) Improvement of discharging capacity of existing channels.

(e) Improvement of operational efficiency.

(f) Prevention of weed growth.

(g) Reduction of maintenance cost.

(h) Long economic life

(i) Insure Cross section stability from scour, low flow conditions etc.

Canal Lining

The lining commonly adopted for irrigation channels can be classified into three groups

1. Rigid-impermeable Lining,

2. Flexible and Permeable Permanent Linings and

3. Flexible Temporary Linings.

Example for the same are indicated in the box.

Rigid Impermeable Linings
Rubble Masonry
Cast-in-place Concrete
Grouted Rip-rap or Grouted
Pre-cast Concrete
Soil Cement
Flexible and Permeable Permanent Linings
Rip-rap or Stone Blocks
Gabions
Interlocking Pre-cast Concrete
Interlocking Synthetic Units
Vegetation and Grasses
Flexible Temporary
Bare Soil
Straw with Netting
Hemp or Jute Mats
Synthetic Matting
Canal Lining

There are different types of lining like Cement Concrete, Shotcrete, Soil cement,
Asphaltic Concrete, etc.
Advantages of Flexible and Permeable Linings:Lining easily fits to cross section shape.


Allows infiltration into channel bed, hence loss of water. Partial failure can occur and still
can resist erosion.







21.1.3 Design of Lined Channels
Lined channels are built for five primary reasons:
1. To permit the transmission of water at high velocities through areas of deep or
difficult excavation in a cost - effective fashion.
2. To permit the transmission of water at high velocity at a reduced construction cost.
3. To decrease canal seepage, thus conserving water and reducing the waterlogging of
lands adjacent to the canal.
4. To reduce the annual cost of operation and maintenance.
5. To ensure the stability of the channel section.

The design of lined channels from the view point of hydraulic engineering is a rather
elementary process which generally consists of proportioning an assumed channel
cross section. Details of some typical cross section of lined channels used on irrigation
projects in the India are given elsewhere. A recommended procedure for proportioning a
lined section is summarized in table given below. In this table, it is assumed that the
design flow Q
D
, the longitudinal slope of the channel S
0
, the type of channel cross
section e.g., trapezoidal, and the lining material have all been selected prior to the
initiation of the channel design process.
Step Process
1 Estimate n or C for specified lining material and S
0
2
Compute the value of section factor
( )
2/3 1/2
o o
AR nQ/ S or AR Q/ C S = =

3
Solve section factor equation for yn given appropriate expressions for A
and R ( Table ) Note: This step may be required with assumptions
regarding side slopes, bottom widths, etc. (As a thumb rule for quick
computation y can be taken as 0.5 A and for trapezoidal section it can be
shown as
b
4 m
y
= . In India, y for the trapezoidal channel can be taken as
0.577 A which corresponds to
b
3 m
y
= for earth canals).
4 If hydraulically efficient section is required, then the standard geometric
characteristics (click) are used and yn is to be computed.

5
Check for
1. Minimum permissible velocity if water carries silt and for vegetation
(Check whether the velocity is adequate to prevent sedimentation (V=0.6
to 0.9 m / s). Check whether velocity is adequate to prevent vegetation
growth (V =0.75 m/s)).
2. Froude number
(Check Froude number and other velocity constraints such as ( for non-
reinforced concrete linings V 2.1 m/s and Froude number . For
reinforced linings )).
0.8
V 5.5 m/s
Generally, Froude number should be as small as possible for Irrigation
canals and should be less than 0.35. Higher Froude numbers is permitted
as in the case of super critical flows such as in chutes, flumes. Decide the
dimensions based on practicability.


6 Estimate
1. Required height of lining above water surface,
2. Required freeboard, Figure.
Balance excavations costs, costs of channel lining and assess the needs to
modify "Hydraulically efficient section".
7 Summarize the results with dimensioned sketch.

Example of Rigid Lined Channel Design: Design a concrete lined channel (rough finish
n =0.015) to carry 20 m
3
/s on a slope of 0.0015. Consider the hydraulically efficient
trapezoidal shape.
Solution
For hydraulically efficient trapezoidal channel
( )
2
2/3 1 2
0
2
1
3
2
2
8
3
1 73 3 46
2
0 015
1
Q = AR S
n
1
20 1 73 0 0015
0 015 2
7 107
2 086
/
y
A . y , P . y, R
n . ,
y
. y .
.
y .
y . m
= = =
=

=

=
=

For Trapezoidal channel width is given by
( )
o
2
b = y,
3
b =1.15y = 2.409 m
3
m = 0.5773 i.e., = 60
3
=


2
2
Q 20
Velocity = = = 2.656 m/s
A
1.73y
A 1.73y
Hydraulic mean depth D = = = 0.749y = 1.563 m
4
T
y
3

3
V
Froude Number = 0 678
gD
Freeboard for discharge Q = 20m /s is 0.75 mto nearest convenient elevation.
Freeboard may be modified to 0.764 m.
Hence, the total depth of the channel 2.086 + 0.764 = 2.850 m
. =

Hence the total depth of the channel is 2.850 m. The designed cross section is shown in
the figure.
0.764 m
2.086
0.58
1.0
60
o
2.85 m
Free board =
b = 2.4 m

Design a trapezoidal channel to carry Q =20.25 m
3
/s, V =1.5 m
3
/s, n =0.025, S
0
=
0.0016, side slope m =2. Assume a bed width of 6 m.
Solution
Step 1: Q, n, S
0
and m have been given
( )
( )
2
2
2 1
2 1
A b my
P b y m
b my
R
b y m
= +
= + +
+
=
+ +


( )
2/ 3
0
2
nQ 20.25
AR 0.025* 12.656
S 0.0016
Discharge 20.25
Area = 13.5m
Velocity 1.5
13.5 6 2y y
Solving for y, weget y 1.5 m
b
4
y
Add a free board of

0.75 m.
= = =
= =
= +
=
=

Designed channel is shown in figure.
y = 1.5
b = 6 m
F
b
=0.75
2
1

21.1.4 Design of Stable Unlined Channels
Erodible Channels which Scour but do not silt. The behaviour of flow in erodible
channels is influenced by several parameters and precise knowledge is not available on
various aspects. Unlined channels with channel bed and banks composed of earth,
sand or gravel must be designed so that they maintain a stable configuration. There are
three procedures.
1. Velocity based Method of maximum permissible velocity.
2. Regime Theory - Emprical equations for channels with equilibrium sediment
throughput ("Live - Bed" equations).
3. Shear Based - Tractive force methods, Shield analysis.
Method of maximum permissible velocity also known as non erodible velocity:
It is the highest mean velocity that will cause no erosion in the channel body.

When compared with the design process typically used for lined channels, the design of
stable, unlined or erodible, earthen channels is a complex process involving numerous
parameters, most of which cannot be accurately quantified. The complexity of the
erodible channel design process results from the fact that in such channels stability is
dependent not only on hydraulic parameters but also on the properties of the material
which composes the bed and sides of the channel.
A stable channel section is one in which neither objectionable scour nor deposition
occurs. There are three types of unstable sections: (USBR).
The pioneering work of Fortier and Scobey ( 1926 ) was the basis of channel design.
1. The banks and bed of the channel are scoured but no deposition occurs.
Example: When the channel conveys sediment free water (or water with only a very
small amount of sediment) but with adequate energy to erode the channel.
2. Unstable channel with deposition but no scour.
Example: When the water being conveyed carries a large sediment load at a velocity
that permits sedimentation.
3. Unstable channel with both scour and deposition occur.
Example: When the material through which the channel is excavated is susceptible to
erosion and the water being conveyed carries a significant sediment load.
These types of channels can be designed using the method of maximum permissible
velocity.
The following important points are to be noted.
1. First, the maximum permissible velocity is recommended for canals with a sinuous
alignment.
2. Second, these data are for depths of flow less than 0.91 m . For greater depths of
flow, the maximum permissible velocity should be increased by 0.15 m/s.

3. Third, the velocity of the in canals carrying abrasives, such as basalt raveling, should
be reduced by 0.15 m /s.
4. Fourth, channels diverting water from silt - laden river such as Ganga River should be
designed for mean design velocities 0.3 to 0.61 m/s greater than would be allowed for
the same perimeter material if the water were transporting no sediment.
USSR Data
Sand Gravel Pebbles
Silt
F
M C F M C F M C L
Average particle size, mm
U.S. and U.S.S.R. data on permissible velocities for noncohesive soils.
Legend: V.F. - very fine; F- fine; M-medium; C-coarse; L-large
U.S. Dept. Agriculture, Bureau of Soils Classification
Clay Silt
Sand Gravel
V.F. F M C F M
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1
2
3
4
5
6
8
10
20
30
40
50
60
80
100
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 5 10 20 50 100 200 2 1
L
U.S. standard mesh sieve sizes

Following Steps are used for Designing
Given a particular soil type, the channel is designed so that the design velocity does not
exceed V
max
for that soil and the channel side walls are with appropriate side slopes.
General guidelines: Froude number should be less than 0.35
Step 1: For the given kind of material estimate the roughness coefficient n, side slope
m, and the maximum permissible velocity.
Step 2: Hydraulic mean radius is computed by using Manning formula.
Step 3: Area of flow is obtained using continuity equation.

Step 4: The wetted perimeter is computed using the information obtained in steps 2
and 3.
Step 5: Solve simultaneously for b and y.
Step 6: Add a proper free board. Modify the section for practicality.
Example
A trapezoidal channel with bottom width of 6m, side slopes of 3H:1V carries a flow of 50
m
3
s
-1
on a channel slope, So of 0.0015. The uniform flow of depth for the channel is 1.3
m with n =0.025. This channel is to be excavated in stiff clay. Check whether the
channel will be susceptible to erosion or not.
y =1.3 m
b = 6 m
1
3

( ) ( )
-1
A= b+my y = 6+ 3*1.3 *1.3 = 12.87 Sq.m
Q 20
V= = =1.554 m s
A 12.87

which is higher than the permissible velocity (of V =1.25 ms
-1
)
From graph
( )
( )
o
S 0 0015 0 0065 0 65
Side slope adopted 3:1 which is < 1 : 1
. . . % = <

Suggestion : Increase width, b, to reduce velocity:
( )
2
n
For b = 8.4 m, y = 1.3 m Corresponding area of flow A = 8.4+3 *1.3 = 15.99 m
Q 20
V = 1.251 m/s which is equal to the permissible velocity
A 15 99 .
= =


21.1.5 Method of Tractive Force
However, a design methodology based primarily on experience and observation rather
than physical principles. The first step in developing a rational design process for
unlined, stable, earthen channels is to examine the forces which cause scour. Scour on
the perimeter of a channel occurs when the particles on the perimeter are subjected to
forces of sufficient magnitude to cause particle movement. when a partical rests on the
level bottom of a channel, the force acting to cause movement is the result on the flow
of water past the particle. A particle rests on the slope side of a channel is acted on not
only by the flow - generated forces, but also by a gravitational component which tends
to make the particle roll or slide down the slope. If the resultant of those two forces is
larger than the forces resisting movement, gravity, and cohesion, then erosion of the
channel perimeter occurs. By definition, the tractive force is the force acting on the
partical composing the perimeter of the channel and is the result of the flow of water
past these particles. In parctice, the tractive force is not the force acting on a single
particle, but the force exerted over a certain area of the channel perimeter. This concept
was first stated by duBoys( 1879 ) and restated by Lane ( 1955 ).
In most channels, the tractive force is not uniformly distributed over the perimeter.
0.750ySo
0.750ySo
0.970ySo
y
4y
Side Slope, m: 1 = 1.5 : 1


Oslon - Florey
Cruff
Simon
Normal
Preston Tube
0
0.9 m
0.3 m
Boundary shear distribution,
Central Water Power Research Station
(August, 1968)
Discharge: 0.06 and 0.11 m
3
/s
Cross section of the flume: 0.9 m wide , 0.3 m deep

Normal's Method: Based on the concept of zero momentum
Simon's Method: Based on the following equation assuming Karmann constant to be 0.4
2
2 1
0
2
1
u u
y 2.3
log
k y

=

Cruff's Method: Uses the above equation but k value is obtained from velocity profiles.
Oslon and Florey Method: Membrane analogy.


Prototype Rough
Trapezoidal Boundary
Bed
0 5
10 15 20 25 30
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
b/y or b/R
max
RS
______
Prototype Rough Trapezoidal
Boundary (Left)
Boundary (Right)
0 5
10 15 20 25 30
Maximum shear on bed and sides for alluvial channel
based on Normal's Method.
(U.P. Irrigation Research Institute Roorkee,
Annual Review, 1971)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Sides
b/y or b/R
max
RS
______
max
RS
______
= 1.2 for bed and 0.6 for the sides when exceeds 10
b
__
y
when compared to Lanes values of 0.98, 0.78 respectively

The maximum net tractive force on the sides and bottoms of various channels as
determined by mathematical studies are shown as a function of the ratio of the bottom
width to the depth of flow. It may be noted that for the trapezoidal section, the maximum
tractive force on the bottom is approximately
0 0
ys ys and on the sides 0.76 .


The figures show the maximum unit tractive forces in terms of
0
ys for different
b
y

ratios.
Maximum unit tractive forces in terms of
yS
On sides of channels On bottoms of channels
b/y
b/y
Rectangle
Trapezoidal, m = 1
Trapezoidal, m = 2
Trapezoidal, m = 1.5
Trapezoidal,
m = 2 and 1.5
Rectangle
0 1 3 2 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
0 1 3 2 4 5 6 7
8 9 10
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1.0
0

When a particle on the perimeter of a channel is in a state of impending motion, the
forces acting to cause motion are in equilibrium with the forces resisting motion. A
particle on the level bottom of a channel is subject to the unit tractive force on a level
surface and effective area.

0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0
20
22
24
26
28
30
32
34
36
38
40
42
Particles size in inches (1 inch = 25.4 mm)
Angles repose for non cohesive material
inches
mm

In the above figure the particle size is the diameter of the particle of which 25 percent of
all the particals, measured by weight, are larger.
Lane ( 1955 ) also recognized that sinuous canals scour more easily than canals with
straight alignments. To account for this observation in the tractive force design method,
Lane developed the following definitions.
Straight canals have straight or slightly curved alinments and are typical of canals built
in flat plains.Slightly undulating topography.
Moderately sinuous canals have a degree of curvature which is typical of moderately
rolling topography.
Very sinuous canals have a degree of curvature which is typical of canals in foothills or
mountainous topography. Then, with these definitions, correction factors can be defined
as in Table.


Degree of sinuousness (stream length/ valley length)

Correction Factor
Straight Channels 1.00
Slightly Sinuous Channels 0.90
Moderately Sinuous Channels 0.75
Very Sinuous Channels 0.60

Reference
Craig Fischenich "Stability Thresholds for Stream Restoration Materials", May 2001.
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
9000
10000
20000
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0.008
0.009
0.01
4
3
2
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.09
0.
0.
08
07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
Fortier & Scobey - Recommended for canals in fine sand
with water containing colloids
Line representing relations of tractive forces b/ft
2
= 0.5
Diameter in inches
Tractive force kg/m
2
= diameter in centimeters (approx)
Recommended value for
canals with high content of
fine sediment in the water
Schoklltach - Recommended
for canals in sand
U.S.S.R. Canals with
2.5 % colloids in water
NUERNBURG KULTURAMPT (NK)
Fortier & Scobey - Recommended for canals, in fine sand and clear water
Recommended values for canals with clear water
Stroub values of critical force
U.S.S.R. Canals with clear water
Recommended values for canals
with low content of fine sediment
in the water
Recommended values for canals in
coarse, non-cohesive material size
25% or larger
U.S.S.R.
Canals with
0.1% colloids
in water
NK
MEAN DIAMETER, MILLIMETERS
DESIGN OF SMALL DAMS USBR' 87
NK

Conversion Factor
2 2
1 lb/ ft 47.87 N/ m =
Plasticity index (PI) is the difference in percentage of moisture between plastic limit and
liquid limit in Atterberg soil tests. For canal design PI can be taken as 7 as the critical
value. In this figure, for the fine non cohesive , i.e.,average diameters less than 5mm ,
the size specified is the median size of the diameter of a partical of which 50 percent
were larger by weight. Lacey developed the following equations based on the analysis
of large amount of data collected on several irrigation canals in the India.

1/ 2
s
1/ 3
s
4 5/ 3 1/ 6
0 s
P 4.75 Q
f 1.76 d
Q
R 0.47
f
S 3*10 f Q

=
=

=

=

In which P is the wetted perimeter (m), R is the hydraulic mean radius (m), Q is the flow
in m
3
/s, d is the diameter of the sediment in mm, f
s
is the silt factor, S
0
is the bed slope.
Table: particle size and silt factors for various materials
Material Size (mm) Silt factor
Small boulders, cobbles,
shingles
64 - 256 6.12 to 9.75
Coarse gravel 8-64 4.68
Fine gravel 4-8 2.0
Coarse sand 0.5-2.0 1.44 - 1.56
Medium sand 0.25-0.5 1.31
Fine sand 0.06-0.25 1.1 - 1.3
Silt (colloidal) 1.0
Fine silt (colloidal) 0.4 - 0.9
Taken from Gupta (1989)
Combining the above equations the following resistance equations similar to the
Manning equation based on the regime theory is obtained.
2/ 3 1/ 3
0
V 10.8 R S = in which V is the velocity in m/s.
21.1.6 The Tractive Force Method
When water flows in a channel, a force that acts in the direction of flow on the channel
bed is developed. This force, which is nothing but the drag of water on the wetted area
and is known as the tractive force. A particle on the sloping side of a channel is subject
to both a tractive force and a downslope gravitational component. It is noted that the
tractive force ratio is a function of both the side slope angle and the angle of repose of
the material composing the channel perimeter.In the case of cohesive materials and fine
noncohesive materials, the angle of repose is small and can be assumed to be zero;

i.e.. for these materials the forces of cohesion are significantly larger than the
gravitational component tending to make the particles roll downslope.
Consider the shear stress at incipient motion (which just begins to move particles) for
uniform flow.
The tractive force is equal to the gravity force component acting on the body of water,
parallel to the channel bed.
Gravity component of weight of water in the direction of flow is equal to
0
ALS in
which, is the unit weight of water, A is the wetted area, L is the length of the channel
reach, and S
0
is the slope. Thus, the average value of the tractive force per unit wetted
area, is equal to
0
0
ALS
RS
PL
0
= = , in which P is the wetted perimeter and R is the

hydraulic mean radius; For wide rectangular channel, it can be written as
0 0
yS =
The tractive force is also called Drag Force.
Consider a sediment particle submerged in water and resting on the side of a
trapezoidal channel. For this case the tractive force
p s
A must be equal to gravity force
component
s
w sin
b s
p
0
Let
be the critical shear stress on bed, be the critical shear stress on side-walls
A be the effective surface area of typical particle on bed or side wall
be the angle of the Side slope and
be the angle of repose (angle of internal friction) of bank material.


s
A
p
bAp
my b/2
Plan View
L
C
Flow
W
s
= submerged weight of the particle
0
Ws

On the surface of the side slope

0 0
y


From Force diagram, resultant Force, R:
( ) ( )
2
2
s 0 p s
R W sin + A =
Resisting Force, F
s
:
( )
s 0
s s 0
Wcos is the weight component normal to side slope
tan is the coefficient of friction due to angle of internal friction
F W cos tan =

Therefore
s
2 2 2
s 0 s 0 p
2
s 0
s 0
2
p
R F at incipient motion.
W cos tan W sin A
for the unit tractive force that causes impending motion on a sloping surface
W tan
tan cos 1-
A
tan
s
s
Solving

=
= +
=

On the channel bed, with being zero it reduces to
0
s
p b s b
p
W tan
A W tan
A
= =
Tractive Force Ratio
2 2
s
2 2
b
0 0
sin
K 1 1-
sin
tan
cos
tan

= = =
K is the reduction factor of critical stress on the channel side.
Thus the ratio is a function of only side slope angle and angle of repose of the
material
0
.


Example:
Canal cross section: World's largest canal
Full supply level at Head Regulator 91.44 m
Length upto Rajasthan border 458.00 km
Length in Rajasthan 74.00 km

3 -1
Total 532 km
Bed width at head reach 73.1 m
Fully supply depth at head reach 7.60 m
Design discharge(head reach) 1133 m s
Gujar
3 -1
ath - Rajasthan border 71m s
No. of branches 42
Length of distribution Network 66000 km
concrete lining of 100 mm to 125 mm concrete
Total Lining
Phase
5
3 -1
I 150.58 + 93.93 + 39.26 = 283.77
Phase II 126.14 + 1.08 +22.60 = 149.82
Total = 435.59 x 10 Sq.m
2) Sardar Sarovar Project
design disharge 86937.2 m s will be the 3rd largest in the world.
Gaz
5 3 -1
5 3 -1
enba, china 1.13 x 10 m s
Tucurri Brazil 1.0 x 10 m s
Radial gates of chute spillway 7 nos 18.3m x 18.3m
For sertvice spillway 23 radial gates of 18.3m x 16.75.
Dam is 12.0 m concrete gravity dam
Hei
3
ght of dam from foundary 163.00 m
Gross storage 9497.07 m

The design procedure for flexible lining channel consists of following steps:
1. Channels are usually trapezoidal or triangular (with rounded corners) or parabolic.
2. If lined with rip-rap, m >3, no need to check for blank stability.
3. Channel slopes can be steep depending on application.
4. Most flexible linings give adequate protection upto
0
S 0.01 .

The Limiting shear stress or limiting velocity procedure is also commonly used. In this
approach, the uniform depth is calculated for the maximum discharge Q and this value
is to be compared either , and if they satisfy their
add the freeboard and the design is complete. Table below lists the values for various
lining types.
max permissible max permissible
vs. or V vs. V
Table : Permissible shear stresses for lining materials
Lining Category Lining Type Permissible Unit Shear Stress (kg/m
2
)
Woven Paper Net 0.73
J ute Net 2.20
Fiberglass Roving
Single 2.93
Double 4.15
Stream with Net 7.08
Cured wood Mat 7.57
Temporary
Synthetic Mat 9.76
Class A 18.06
Class B 10.25
Class C 4.88
Class D 2.93

Vegetative
Class E 1.71
2.5 cm 1.61 Gravel Riprap
5 cm 3.22
15 cm 9.76 Rock Riprap
30 cm 19.52
Channel Design using Tractive Force
Procedure:
1. Estimate the roughness in the channel
2. Estimate angle of repose of candidate material.
3. Estimate channel sinuosity and tractive force correction factor.
4. Specify side slope angles.
5. Estimate "tractive force ratio", K, between the sides and the bottom of the channel.
6. Determine the maximum permissible tractive force for the canditate material.
7. Assume that side channel shear stress limits design and determine the uniform flow
depth in channel.

8. Calculate the required bottom width.
9. Check that the permissible tractive force is not exceeded on channel bed.
10. Check that the design velocity exceeds the minimum permitted velocity (usually 0.6
to 0.9 m/s) and check the Froude number of the flow (F=subcritical).
11. Estimate the required freeboard.
Example:
1. Design a trapezoidal channel to carry 20 m
3
/s through a slightly sinuous channel on a
slope of 0.0015. The channel is to be excavated in coarse alluvium with a 75 percentile
diameter of 2 cm of moderately rounded particles.
1. Manning n:
( )
1 6
75
n for gravel ranges: 0.020 - 0.030
Assume n = 0.025
n = 0.038 d 0 020
/
. =

2. Angle of repose:
o
75
d = 2cm = 0.8 in = 32
3. Slightly sinuous channel: Cs =0.90
4. Side Channel slope: Try 2H:1V
-1
1
= tan 26 6
2
.

=

5. Tractive force ratio:
2 2
s
2 2
b
sin sin 26 6
1- 1- 0 53
sin sin 32
.
K . = = = =

6. Permissible Tractive Force:
( )
( )
2 2
b s
2
s b
Bed: = C 16 N/m 14.4 N/m
Side: = K = 0.53 14.4 7 6 N/m .
=
=

7. Assume incipient motion on side wall:

( )( )
2
s o o
s
n
o
0 76 y S = 7.6 N/m
7 6
y 0.68 m
0 76 S 0 76 9790 0 0015
.
.
. . .
=
= = =

8. Solve for bottom width b:
( )
5/3
2/3 1 2 1 2
0 0
2/3
2 2
1 1 A
Q = AR S S
n n
P
where A=by+my , P= b+2y 1+m
b = 2.42m smallest positive real solution
/ /
=

9. Tractive force on bed:
( )( )( )
2
b 0 0
2 2
0 97 y S 0 97 0 68 0 0015 9 7 N/m
1 7 N/m 14 4 N/m
. . . . .
. .
= = =
<

10. Check velocities:
( )( ) ( )
2
2 2
Area = by + my = 24.2 0.68 2 0.68 17 4 m
Q 20
V = 1 1 m/s
A 17.4
V V
F=
gD A
g
B
T = Top width = T+2 my = 26.92 m
D = A/T = 0.65 m
Froude number = 0.44
.
.
+ =
= =
=

11. Free board:
3
For Q = 20 m /s the freeboard will be 0.75 m
Total depth = 0.68 + 0.75=1.43 m

2. Design a straight trapezoidal channel for a design discharge of 20 m3/s. The bed
slope 0.00025 and channel is excavated through the fine grave having particle size of 8
mm. Assume the material to be rounded moderately and water has low concentration of
sediment. Q = 10 m3/s, S0 = 0.00025, moderately rounded. Diameter = 8 mm =
8
0 3149
25 4
. "
.
= .
For fine gravel n =0.025 is assumed

Side slope (assume) =2.5 : 1 =21.80 =2148'
-1
1
= tan
2.5

From fig for 8 mm diameter moderately rounded angle of repose
2 2
0
2 2
sin sin (21.80) 0.1379
K= 1- 1- 1-
0 1654
sin sin 24
0 1663 0 4077
.
. .
= =
=

Critical Shear Stress =0.13 * 47.87 =6.2231 N/m
2
No correction for alignment.
Maximum unit Tractive force =0.785 y S0 =0.75 * 9806 * y * 0.00025 =1.8386 y.
1.8386 y =6.2231
6.2231
y = 3 385 m
1.8386
. =
width required to carry the flow of 20 m
3
/s
-1
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) { }
( ) { }
( ) { }
( ) { }
2
3
0
2
5
3
0
2
3
0
5
3
0
2
3
0
B+my y
1
b+my y S Q
n
B+2 1+m y
b +2.5 3.385 3.385
1
0 00025 20
0.025
b +2 5 3.385
b +8.4625 3.385
31 6227
b +15.138
.
.

=

=
=

Solve by trial and error for b.


21.1.7 Economic Aspects of Canal Design

( )
( )
( )
5/ 3
2
2/ 3 n
2/ 3
2
0
1/ 4
2
3/ 8
n 0
5/ 8
by my
Q
(i) AR
S
b 2y 1 m
solve
b / y 2 1 m
y = Q S
b / y m
+
=

+ +

+ +

+

the above equation for y
(ii) /

if b/y, z are specified the equation can be solved explicitly for y and b.
The cost of materials used in lining a channel can be specified interms of the value of
material used. This may be expressed as
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( )
B b
2
s s B
2
s B
iii t b 2b' Bb k
t 2E E' 2 y F 1 m
Therefore C bB k 2 y F 1 m
Notation :
C
b
s
b
Cost of bed material C = per unit length
(iv) Cost of side material C
C=C
= total material cost per un
+ = +

= + = + +

+ = + + + +

b
s
b
it length,
C = material cost per channel base per unit length,
C = material cost of sides per unit channel length,
b' = bottom corner width,
t = thickness of the base materi
B
s
al,
t = channel side lining thickness,
= cost of base lining material per unit volume,
= cost of side lining material per unit volume,
B = cost of base material for specified
B
'
thickness per unit area,
= cost of side lining material for specified thickness per unit area,
F = vertical free board requirement,
E = wetted length of the side,
E = side length of the free board.


Minimum Cost Trapezoidal Section by Optimisation Technique
Lagrange Multiplier technique can be used. Ratio of marginal changes in section factor
are equal to the marginal changes in the costs i.e.
( )
( )
2/ 3
2/ 3
AR
C
b b
C
AR
y
y

The above equation represents the minimum cost of the optimal cost subject to the
equation. Substituting, then the optimal solution of the above is given by,
( )
2
1 2 3
2 2
1
2
2
3
1
1/ 2
2
2 2 1
y y
K K K 0
b b
B
K 20 z 1 1 4 4z z 1
B B
K 1 6z z 1 10z
B
K 5 then,
2K b
y
B
K K 20 K
whichis a function of z and the ratio of the unit costs of the bas

+ + =

= + + +

= +

=
=

+ +

0
e to side slope material viz;
B Unit Cost of Base Material
Unit Cost of Side Material
SolutionSteps
1. S , B, , n, z and Q are given. Determine K1, K2, and K3.
2. Estimate b/y for minimum cost using equati
=
on.
3. Estimate the minimum cost depth of flow using equation.
4. Obtain the minimum cost bottom width by multiplying y times the ratio of b/y.
5. Generate the graphs for y Vs b for different values of B
0
n/Q
/ and for a given value of z.
S
6. Also study the sensitivity of lining cost to variations of side slope (or side slope ratios).


Sample Run
Data
s B
Q in cumecs, B, and k in R , F in m
0.08, 0.001, 0.014, 0.50, 105.0, 65.0, 15.0, 0.15
Result
Minimum Lining cost per unit Length = Rs. 109.51
Minimum cost bottom width = 0.186 m
Minimum cost depth of flo
( ) ( )
( ) ( )( )
( )
( )
( )
1
2
3
2
w = 0.366 m
105
K 20 0.25 1 1 4 4 0.50 1 0.25 8.3189
65
105
K 1 6 1 0.25 10 0.50 1.615 12.2005
65
K 5 1.615 8.075
2 8.315
b
y
12.20 12.25 20 1.615 8.315

= + + + =

= + =

= =
=

+ +

References
1. Hager, W.H. 1985, Modified venturi channel. J ournal of the Irrigation and Drainage
Engineering, ASCE, 3(1): 19-35.
2. Hager, W.H. and P.U. Volkart, 1986, Distribution channels, J ournal of Hydraulic
Engineering, ASCE, 112(10): 935-952.
3. Trout T.J ., "Channel Design to minimise lining material cost" J . of Irrigation and
Drainage Division Division, ASCE Vol. 105, Dec 1982, pp 242 - 245.
21.1.8 Seepage in Canal
Introduction
Seepage is one of the most serious forms of water loss in an irrigation canal network.
Water lost by seepage cannot be recovered without the use of costly pumping plant. In
addition excessive seepage losses can cause low lying areas of land to become
unworkable. As the water table rises, water logging and soil salinisation can occur,

necessitating the installation of elaborate and costly drainage systems. Furthermore the
cultivable area is reduced, resulting in a loss of potential crop production.
The accurate measurement of seepage in existing irrigation canals enables very
previous reaches to be identified and lined to conserve water; losses amounting to as
much as 40% of the total inflow to a scheme have been recorded. Moreover valuable
information about the long term performance of different types of canal linings in general
use can be obtained, enabling conveying efficiencies to be improved in the future.
Three methods of seepage measurement are in common use at the present, namely:
ponding; inflow/outflow; seepage meter. Other methods of seepage detection are also
used, such as for example, chemical tracers, radioactive tracers, piezometric surveys,
electrical borehole logging, surface resistivity measurements, and remote sensing.
These methods suffer from the disadvantage that they are either more difficult to use or
interpret.
Ponding Method
Ponding is considered to be the most accurate method of seepage measurement. It is
frequently used as standard with which to compare other methods. The procedure, in
principle is simple, a stretch of canal under investigation is isolated and filled with water.
The rate of seepage is determined by one of two methods. In the first, which is the one
usually employed, the rate of fall of the water level is recorded (falling level method).
Alternatively, the rate at which the water must be added to keep the water level constant
is recorded, (constant level method).
In practice the ponding method has certain advantages:
1. The accuracy of measurement is not dependent on the length of the test reach
provided it is sufficient to compensate for normal errors.
2. The requirement for trained manpower is small.
3. Sophisticated equipment is not required for the test.

The disadvantages of the method are
1. Costly bulkheads must be built at each end of the reach if existing structures are not
available.
2. The normal flow through the canal must be stopped for the duration of the test.
Hence the methods is usually restricted to smaller canals.
3. The rate of seepage loss from the test section can vary with time because of the
sealing effect of fine material settling out in the water, or in the case of a canal which is
initially dry, because of the time taken to re saturate, or a combination of both.
4. The rate of seepage loss can be very different from that measured in the canal in
flowing water because of 3.
5. Large quantities of water are required if the canal under test is initially dry.
Inflow / Outflow Method
Next to ponding, inflow/ outflow, is the most commonly used method for the
measurement of seepage. The discharges into, and out of a selection reach of a river or
canal are measured. the rate of seepage is derived from the difference. In comparison
with the ponding method, the inflow/ outflow method has certain advantages:
1. Any impedance to the normal operation of the canal os minimised.
2. No costly bulkheads are required.
3. Seepage is measured with the canal in its normal discharge state, thus eliminating
the effects of silting, algae and fungoidal growth, and distortion of the local seepage
flow.
4. Measurements can be made even when numerous off takes are spread without too
great an increase in overall cost.
The disadvantage of the method on the other hand are

1. The errors in the flow measurement tend to overshadow the seepage losses,
especially in large canals greatly reducing its accuracy.
2. Measurement becomes very labour intensive if a large number of off takes are
present.
3. Only the bulk measurement of seepage, over the test reach is obtained, which can
attain a considerable length because of 4. In large canals very large reaches are
required to improve the accuracy of an individual measurement because of 1. Various
methods are available for the measurement of a canal or river discharge. These can be
divided into two classes: Continuous methods; Occasional methods. Only gauging
structures, ultra-sonic, and electro-magnetic, among the Continuous methods, and
velocity area, and dilution gauging among the Occasional methods are considered to be
potentially accurate enough for the estimation of seepage. Each of these techniques is
outlined briefly below in the context of the inflow/ outflow method.
Velocity Area Method
This method is the mostly used of all discharge measurement techniques. The area of
flow is determined by sounding, and the mean velocity by current metering. The product
of the two giving the discharge. Some care must be taken when selecting a site on a
canal or river however. Ideally the test reach should be straight and free from
obstructions, weeds, or off takes, and have a stable bed. Before beginning a discharge
measurement, a preliminary survey should be carried out to determine the bed profile,
and to ensure that a well-developed velocity distribution exists along the channel. All
soundings should be related to an established datum.
The method of current metering depends on the depth of flow and velocity, ranging from
the use of wading rods to a cable car suspended across the channel. For most gauging
work on irrigation canals however the current metering is usually carried out either with
wading rods of from boat. The accuracy of the measurement depends firstly on a

number of verticals at which velocity readings are taken and to a lesser extent on the
number of levels velocities are measured at on each vertical.
The achievable accuracy can be optimised with the available equipment, time, and
manpower. The length of time given to each current meter reading depends very much
on flow conditions, but during the preliminary tests it is advisable to record for the
recommended 3 minutes while taking readings after each minute for comparison. If very
accurate results are required it is essential that the survey is carried out by an
experienced, well-trained team.
The inflow/ outflow method is very sensitive to canal size.

21.2 Typical canal cross sections
Water enters the conveyance system through the intake structure located at the dam.
Depending on the topography of the terrain, this conveyance system may take the
shape of the tunnels, canals, flumes or pipes. Geological factors do influence the type of
the system to be adopted.
Some of the shapes of canals adopted are shown in following figures.
Original ground level Canal in filling
Canal in cutting

Embankment
Original grand slope
Retaining wall

Part in cutting and in filling
Original ground level



braced type


Typical cross sections of Power canals

Covered duct R.C.C
on piles when there is
land slide problem


Side slopes and other salient features

Width
'b' in
m
Length
in km
Side
slope
m : 1
Depth y
(m)
Discharge
Q (m/s)
3
Average
Velocity
(m/s)
S
0
Nangal - - 1.25 : 1 - 354 - -
Sutlej -
Beas link
9.45 11.8 1.5 : 1 6.26 255.0 2.1 1 / 6666
Lower
Sileru
11.9 15.6 1.5 :1 3.97 127.4 0.665 -
Yamuna
Hydel
Stage I
11.0 - 1.5 : 1 - 200.0 - -
Hirakud 51.0 - 1 : 1 6.3 707 1.97 -

Maximum permissible velocity (safe against erosion)
(1) Stenbergs formula
b
b
V = 4.43 2d
in which V in m/s, d is the diameter of the particle in m

(2) Bogardi and Yens formula
4/9
m
V = 22.9 d -1
In which V is the velocity in cms
-1
, d
m
is the effective size of particle in cm, is the
specific gravity of the particle.
Minimum permissible velocity

1. Ludin suggested for preventing sedimentation (Minimum permissible velocity)
a. V =0.3 in m s-1 in case of water containing silt.
b. V >(0.3 to 0.5) in m s-1 in case of water carrying fine sand.
2. Kennedy's formula for Minimum permissible velocity
0.64
V = C y
In which V is in m/s, y is the depth of water in m, C is a coefficient between 0.54 and
0.70 depending on the size of the silt.
In general, a guideline is 0.6 m/s and a minimum water depth of 1.5 m.

1.524
Stones of medium size
Rock fill
1.524 m
300 mm sand layer
300 mm thick small
stone layer
Channel in the hill at Hirakud Project
Stones of small size
Impervious core
Impervious material
38.4 m
3.96 m
1.524 m
4.572 m Jeepable road
1:3:6 lining

Recommended Manning N for different conditions

The permissible rugosity coefficient N depending on the discharge capacity in soils
other than rock.
Q m
3
/s N
0.15 0.03
0.15 to 1.40 0.025
1.40 to 14.10 0.0225
>14.10 0.02

0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Gangguillet and Kutter
NR
V = (Chezy coefficient)
R D
1 0.00155
N = 23 s
n s
0.00155
if D = 23 n
s
1 0.00155
23
n s
C =
0.00155 n
1 23
s R
+

+ +

+

+ +

+ +

in which C is Chezy coefficient (MKS) in terms of Manning n.


Recommended Manning n for different conditions

Ashlar and well laid brick work 0.013
Rough brick work, good stone work in fair order 0.015
Rough brick work, good stone work in inferior condition 0.017
Rubble masonry, coarse brick work and masonry 0.020
Canals in earth above the average in order and regime 0.0225
Canals and rivers in earth in tolerably good order and regime 0.025
Canals and rivers in earth below the average in order and regime 0.0275
Canals and rivers in bad order and regime 0.030
Torrents encumbered with detruits 0.050
Safe velocities for different soils
Ordinary earth 0.5 to 1.0 m/s
Firm gravel or clay 1.0 to 1.5 m/s
Broken stone and light pitching 1.0 m/s
Firm conglomerate 1.75 to 2.25 m/s
Sound rock 3.5 m/s

Proportion of bed width to depth
2
b
2 1 m 2m
y
1 b
m is the side slope, equal to to 1, the 1.25
2 y
= +
=


22.1 Lining the Canals
It is always assumed that seepage losses would be reduced from the theoretical
calculations as between 3.7-1.8 cumec per million square metres (cumec/Mm
2
) for an
unlined canal in the sandy or clayey loams to 0.6 cumec/Mm
2
for a lined canal. In 1988
a field study of the performance of lined distributaries were losing 3.5 cumec/Mm
2
and
watecourses were losing 3.7 cumec / Mm
2
.
Why is there such a gap between assumptions at the feasibility stage and what
happens in practice?
Old earthen irrigation channels in permeable soils can lose a lot of water through
seepage. Large losses through the bed and sides of canal lead to low conveyance
efficiency; that is, (the ratio of water reaching farm turnouts to that released at the
source of supply from a river or reservoir). Earthen canals also get clogged up with
weeds which reduce the water-carrying capacity.
These two factors combine to disadvantage of the tail end farmers. Therefore Unlined
canals are inefficient, inadequate from the point of view of equitable performance.
In Punjab, the expected saving by brick lining is of the order of 20% . The brick linings
have 25 years of life.
Total losses from unlined watercourses are known to be more than those from the main
system, but they dont get the same attention during a lining programme. Lining
programmes are divided into main system lining and watercourse lining. The main
system canals (main, distributaries, and minors) are large channels supplying several
watercourses.
A typical value for the seepage rate in an unlined channel in clayey loam is 1.8 m
3
/s per
M m
2
and through a rendered brick line water course or canal reduces to 0.1 m
3
/s per M
m
2
. However, if the impervious canal lining has few crack what would happen? The
experiments indicate it as good as that of the original unlined case when the ground
water level is high.
Inspite of the above observation, lining can significantly reduce conveyance losses.
Lined channels have a smaller surface area for a given discharge than unlined

channels. Typically a lined channel will have 40% of the unlined surface area for a given
discharge. Therefore even at the same loss rate per unit area there will be a saving in
water. When estimating the reduction in losses from a lining programme, this should be
based on the combination of a reduced cross-section and a reduced seepage rate per
unit area.
In the Indian Punjab, measurements on lined distributaries and watercourses between
four months and seven years old showed that seepage rates from the distributaries
rapidly became comparable to seepage rates from unlined canals, whilst seepage rates
from watercourses were highly variable.
Lining of the distributary canal seemed to have had a beneficial effect on the equity of
supply between watercourses. However, the effects of lining watercourses is still to be
established.
A sample of 15 out of 130 watercourses were tested on the 30,000 ha Mudki subsystem
of the Sirhind Feeder in Ferozpur district using ponding tests and inflow-outflow
methods. The mean and variability of seepage losses increased dramatically for lining
more than four years old. Some lining older than four years performed as well as new
linings, with losses as low as 0.4 m
3
/s per Mm
2
but others has losses of up to 11.5 m
3
/s
per Mm
2
. Overall conveyance losses were significantly greater than seepage losses
alone.
The variability of conveyance losses was observed to be related to the condition of the
channels. Losses from raised watercourses with cracked or broken linings appeared as
surface leakage causing waterlogging of adjacent fields and localised crop damage.
This was due to poor quality control during construction, particularly earth compaction
behind sidewalls, and a lack of subsequent maintenance.
The design life of concrete and brick lined channels is generally assumed to be 25-50
years. Major repairs of lined channels are sometimes required within a few years of
construction. At the Kraseio Scheme in Thailand, completed in 1981, long lengths of the
concrete lined main canals have needed to be replaced each year.
In one 26-year lining test, a complete repair of the drained test channel was required
every 22 months.

There is no watertight case for or against lining.
If lining goes ahead, a high standard of construction is essential, especially of water
courses which must withstand a great deal of wear and tear. Without adequate
supervision, poor construction of channels will lead to reduce life and higher
maintenance costs.
Earthen watercourse in the Bikaner area of Rajasthan discharge an average 28.3 l/s,
but begin to seep and leak badly after little more than a year. These cracks and the slow
movement of shallow water favours developement of thick aquatic weeds, which
encourages the drying and the cracking process, and strcuturally weaken the banks.
This obviously adds significantly to the cost of maintenance.
The cracks opened in dry periods do not close fully when saturated by water flows, and
losses can be up to 25% of the water diverted into the system.
The cycle of swelling, heaving, shrinkage and settlement leads to progressive bank
deterioration. Shear strength of clays depends on cohesion between particles. In a
newly-formed compacted clay masses the interparticle cohesion is high. On first drying,
the cracks appear and close up again on wetting, but do not regain their original
interparticle cohesion. This means a reduction in shear strength after a few drying and
wetting cycles.
The reinforced concrete lining would reduce the seepage loss drastically and has lower
operation and maintenance costs.
Reference
World Water, April 1989, pp 16, 19, 21.
Appendix (i)
Table - 1 Salient Aspects of Seepage through Lined Canals [7]:
Sl.No State Adopted practice
( )
2 3
1 200
/
l
Q / B D = +
1 U.P.
Practice
l
Q =Seepage losses in cumecs/km length B and D are bed
width and depth.
1 6
19
/
l
K . Q =
l
K = Seepage loss in cumecs / 10
6
sq.mof wetted area.
2 Punjab &
Haryana
Q =Main discharge in the canal.

Lined canal (F.P.S)
0056
125
.
l
K . Q =
3
Bhakra
Nangal
Unlined canal (M.K.S)
05265
000928
.
l
q . Q =
lined canal: of wetted surface
6 2
060 10
l
Q . cumecs / m =
4 Andhra
Pradesh
Unlined canal: of wetted
surface and 20% extra for distributory system.
6 2
185 240 10
l
Q . to . cumecs / m =
5 CBIP Main canal - 7% of head discharge
Distributory and minors - 8% of head discharge
Water surface - 20% of head discharge

Table-2 Salient Aspects of Seepage through Lined Canals (After Yu. M. Kosichenko [8]):
Sl.
No.
Type of lining and
character of
disturbance
Permeability K
l
m/s seepage loss Q m
3
/sec/m
2
Concrete-film lining
i. Smooth 0.705 * 10
-9
/ 0.141 * 10
-7
0.334 * 10
-4
/ 0.685 * 10
-5
ii. Crack with rough
walls
0.652 * 10
-9
/ 0.136 * 10
-7
0.318 * 10
-6
/ 0.665 * 10
-5
iii. Silted cracks 0.137 * 10
-9
/ 0.156 * 10
-7
0.318 * 10
-8
/ 0.76 * 10
-7
I
iv. Without cracks 0.590 * 10
-11
/ 0.114 * 10
-9
0.228 * 10
-8
/ 0.556 * 10
-7
Concrete lining
i. Smooth 0.225 * 10
-8
/ 0.331 * 10
-6
1.243 * 10
-6
/ 1.516 * 10
-4
ii. Crack with rough
walls
0.867 * 10
-9
/ 0.202 * 10
-6
0.423 * 10
-6
/ 0.982 * 10
-4
iii. Silted cracks 0.706 * 10
-10
/ 0.752 * 10
-10
0.344 * 10
-7
/ 0.367 * 10
-7
II
iv. Without cracks 0.694 * 10
-10
0.388 * 10
-7
Soil film lining
i. Protective layer of
local soils
0.981 * 10
-9
/ 0.189 * 10
-7
0.564 * 10
-7
/ 1.087 * 10
-6
III
ii. Protective layer
of compacted clay
0.221 * 10
-11
/ 0.425 * 10
-10
0.127 * 10
-9
/ 0.245 * 10
-8
IV Soil Membrane 1 * 10
-8
0.575 * 10
-6
V Unlined channel - 0.295 * 10
-3

Plastics as a lining material
Introduction
Water suitable for human consumption, livestock and irrigation is limited in many parts
of the world. Since precipitation is the only source of all fresh water and since it varies
from place to place, from year to year and from season to season, water must be
collected, stored and transported, if it is to be available when and where it is required.
The loss of irrigation water in a canal system occurs during its conveyance through
canal, sub-canal, distributary, minor, water course and finally during application in the

field. In a study made by the Central Water and Power Commission (1967), the losses
during the various phases of water conveyance was found to be as shown in Table
Water use efficiency in percentage
Number of System
Characteristics Canals Distributaries
Water
courses
Field
Losses
Total
Loss
Net
Utilization
Entire system
unlined.
15 7 22 27 71 29
Only Canal
lined.
4 7 25 30 66 34
Canal and
Distributary
lined.
4 2 26 32 64 32
Whole system
lined.
4 2 6 42 54 46

It may be observed that, in a completely unlined canal irrigation system the loss of
irrigation water is as much as 71%. This loss is attributed to both evaporation and
seepage losses; evaporation losses are a function of temperature, humidity and wind
velocity. It is not practicable to prevent evaporation loss (in some reservoirs this loss
has been prevented by floating a thin PE film on the water surface) in running water.
However, seepage losses could be effectively minimised by the use of an impervious
medium between the porous soil and the water flowing in the system.
Conventional materials like clay, tiles, cement-concrete, have been used for prevention
of seepage losses. Most of the conventional methods are either too expensive or not
very effective.
Table 2 shows the state wise break-up of irrigation resources and the length of major
irrigation canals operating in each state.
Irrigation and Power Research Institute at Amristar has particularly conducted intensive
research in this field and a suitable lining technique has been evolved for existing
earthen canals and channels.
This technique is known as "Combination Lining" and in this, a low cost Polyethylene
film is laid at the bed of the canal or distributary whereas the sides are lined with pre
cast brick-tile blocks. This method can be conveniently adopted for lining distributaries
during short closures. This technique has many advantages over the other methods of
lining such as laying new lined parallel channels which involve construction of new

bridges, regulators, falls and outlets. Moreover, in case of combination lining, the
existing section, regime and stability of the channel are not changed. Irrigation supplies
are also not interrupted as lining is done during short closures.
Table 2 Statewise distribution of Irrigation area under major irrigation canals.
Percentage of net area irrigated in
1970-71 by various sources
Name of
State/ Union
Territory
Average
rainfall
in cm
Net
irrigated
area
'000
hectares
1970-71
Canals Tanks Wells Others
Length
of major
canals
in km
Andhra 900 3313 48 34 15 3 1,242.8
Assam 240 572 63 - - 37 137.2
Meghalaya 241 37 - - - 100 -
Nagaland 193 12 - - - 100 -
Manipur 193 65 - - - 100 -
Sikkim 355 NA NA NA NA NA NA
Tripura 193 22 - - - 100 NA
Bihar 132 2160 38 8 25 29 906.2
Gujarat 81 1209 17 2 80 1 2,437.2
Haryana 76 1532 62 - 38 - 1,098.3
H.P. 184 91 - - 1 99 -
J & K 102 279 98 - - 2 32.0
Karnataka 104 1137 37 32 23 8 2,924.6
Kerala 267 431 49 17 1 33 491.9
M. P. 123 1480 48 9 38 5 238.4
Maharashtra 106 1427 22 16 57 5 2,546.1
Orissa 153 1149 23 51 4 22 613.7
Punjab 64 2888 45 - 55 - 501.2
Rajasthan 46 2132 35 13 51 1 869.4
Tamil Nadu 97 2592 34 35 30 1 561.4
U. P. 117 7190 48 34 15 3 1,683.5
W. B. 174 1489 65 20 1 14 1,666.0
All India 161 31207 40 14 38 8 17,949.9

NA- Not Available (a) Includes Harayana. (b) Included in Punjab. * Source : Irrigation
Commission (1972).
Nearly 30 to 80 percent cost saving could be achieved by using combination type of
lining as compared to double tile lining. The behaviour of this lining laid in different
channels in Punjab has been studied and it has been found that this low cost lining is
durable, efficient and quite suitable for lining the existing distributaries.
Gujarat State Irrigation Department is also using Combination Lining. To render the
canals seepage proof, a 400 gauge (100 microns) thick black LDPE film is used to line

the bed of the canal which is then covered with single layer brick masonry. For further
reduction of cost, soil cover varying from 60 cm to 90 cm could be tried.
A similar trial was also carried out in Azamgarh District of Uttar Pradesh by the UP State
Irrigation Department. In this trial, 600 gauge (150 microns) PE film was used in the
canal bed overlaid with 45 cm soil cover.
The advantages of Polyethylene (PE) film lining are:
(a) Cost factor is very much in favor of PE lining in comparison with conventional lining
methods.
(b) The PE film lining has the advantage of being a superior moisture barrier than any
other construction material including cement-concrete, tiles, tar-felt, etc. Irrigation and
Power Research Institute (IPRI), at Amristar and Central Building Research Institute at
Roorkee have conducted extensive trials on this type of lining. Permeability tests on this
type of lining. Permeability tests by IPRI showed that a 400 gauge PE film subjected to
a hydraulic head of 3.65 meter has stayed water tight for about 15 years.
(c) Another advantage of this type of lining is the speed with which it can be laid at site.
By using this type of lining, the total time involved in lining work can be substantially
reduced, thus facilitating wider coverage during short closure of canals.
The Anand Irrigation Division, Gujarat, have found that with double tile lining, the work
progress is around 30 m of canal length a day (15 m canal width) whereas for the
combination type of lining using PE film with a cover of single tile masonry, the progress
is as much as 90 m. This could be still further increased by using LDPE film lining with
60 cm to 90 cm soil cover.
Distributaries:
A Canal Irrigation system comprises of a network of Canals, Sub-Canals, Distributaries,
Minors, with water courses forming the last link. In Government Canals, the jurisdiction
of the Irrigation Department is generally up to the minors. The water courses fall under
the jurisdiction of the individual cultivators.


Use of Plastics for Lining of Canals
Introduction
Canal lining with LDPE film was undertaken in the country in 1959, as a measure to
reduce seepage losses. Punjab and Gujarat States were first to use this type of lining
during 1959 to 1962 followed by other states subsequently.
The Low Density Polyethylene (LDPE), Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), High Molecular High
Density Polyethylene (HDPE), Linear Low Density Polyethylene etc., are the plastics
used for canal lining. In India, mostly LDPE film has been used for canal lining.
The characteristics of the plastic film are:
Light in weight, impermeable to liquids and gases, chemically inert, flexibility, resistance
to microbiological attacks, ease of transportation and installation etc.
Black LDPE film lining over laid with soil cover or protective hard cover had been widely
used during the last three decades. IPCL's Petro-Chemical Industry in Maharashtra, will
be able to provide the adequate supply of this plastic film for lining of canals.
The LDPE films presently available are too smooth and glossy to hold mortar below
blocks, tile or brick lining indicating the necessity of developing rough or serrated films.
The purpose of the canal lining which helps in reduction in seepage to save water for
additional irrigation, and to increase the velocity for reduction in canal sectional area
due to smooth lined surface. Lining with bricks tiles etc., is fraught with the problem of
seepage through the joints, cracks etc. This naturally leads us to the use of
impermeable plastic film to use as a cut-off. The LDPE film is used with soil cover/ C.C.
Cover/ P.C.C. Cover. C.C. in-situ is less costly and suitable for bed but not for sides.
P.C.C. ensures quality control in case of canal lining on large scale. It is costly but
suitable for both bed and sides. In using P.C.C. pointing needs special attention. LDPE
film is susceptible for puncturing by uneven soil surface, impact of feet, weed growth
etc. A layer of sand would help as a leveling course. Sand with a little silt content or
sand wetted would stand well on slopes. If the surface of the film is rough, it would keep
the mortar in position. The hard cover over the film is meant to be the load over the film
to keep it in position and also to be smooth surface for better flow conditions.

Vandalism with regard to LDPE film is due to lack of awareness of the farmers as to the
value of water. Burrowing by rodents is a menace. The easy and practicable solution is
a sand layer. A burrow does not stand in sand, and the hole gets closed.
Lined canal costs 20 - 25% more relative to cost of unlined canal. If LDPE film is used,
the cost of lining would be 25 - 30% (an increase of 5% due to film cost). This additional
cost due to canal lining using LDPE film is rather a wise investment as the benefits of
water saved, additional irrigation and food production, and reduced canal section would
more than offset that additional cost.
Therefore canal lining is obligatory and the use of LDPE film is bound to spread once its
efficacy commensurate with economy is realized.
Films of different thickness varying from 100 to 250 micron are used in bed or on sides.
Cement concrete cover over LDPE has been used on canals as steep as 1.3:1 on Ravi
Canal (J &K), and 1:1 on Malaprabha canal.

1
1 1
1
LDPE Film
F.S
LDPE Film
Free board
Single tile lining
in Cement Mortar
LDPE Film
LDPE Film
Lining of Canal with LDPE film

Reference

"Proceeding of the workshop on Use of Plastics for Lining of Canals", Central Board of
Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Vadodara, 7-8, May 1987
Venkatasubramanian K.N, Kamal Nanavaty, Prasanta Misra - Role of plastics in water
management published by Indian Petro chemicals Corporation Limited, Government of
India undertaking, august 1968.


Table 3 - Performance of different Canal Linings
The details regarding the design, specifications and performance of various types of
linings as provided in the case of the following projects.
S.No. Canal Type of lining
1 Nangal Hydel Channel (Punjab) Concrete and Tile Lining.
2
Sundernagar Hydel Channel, Beas Project
(Punjab)
Cement Concrete.
3 Yamuna Power Channel (U.P)
Concrete, Brick and
Concrete Tile.
4 Gandak Canal (U.P) Brick Tile Lining.
5 Lower Ganga Canal-Link Canal (U.P) Sandwiched Brick Lining.
6 Kosi Feeder Channel (U.P)
Cement Concrete Tile
Lining.
7 Rajasthan Feeder Channel (Rajasthan)
Tiles Lining with plasting,
Single tile lining in bed and
double tile lining in the side.
8
Banaskantha Left Bank Main Canal of
Dantiwada Project (Gujarat)
Cement Concrete Lining.
9
Banaskantha Left Bank Main Canal of
Dantiwada Project (Gujarat)
Brick Lining.
10 Mahi Right Bank Canal (Gujarat)
Sandwiched Brick Tile
Lining.
11 Shetrunji Canal Project (Gujarat) Masonry Lining.
12 Shetrunji Canal Project (Gujarat) Lime Concrete Lining.
13 Karad Project Canal (Gujarat) Precast Blocks.
14 Tungabhadra Project (A.P)
Cement Concrete and
Rubble Masonry.
15 Krishanarajasagar Canal (Karnataka) Cement Concrete Lining.
16
Krishnarajasagar, Right Bank Low Level Canal
(Karnataka)
Soil Cement Lining.
17
Krishnarajasagar Right Bank Low Level Canal
(Karnataka)
Lime Surkhi Concrete
Lining.
18 Manniaru Canal (Tamil Nadu)
In situ Cement Concrete
Lining.
19 Pattanamkal Main Canal ( Tamil Nadu)
Cement Concrete and
Metal.
20 Rethapuram Channel (Tamil Nadu)
Cement Concrete and
Metal.
21
Left Bank Main Canal, Pamba Irrigation Project
(Kerala)
Random Rubble Masonry
and Cement Concrete
Lining.
22 Left Bank Canal, Kuttiady Irrigation (Kerala)
Precast Cement Concrete
Slabs.
23
Right Bank Main Canal, Peechi Irrigation
Scheme (kerala)
Rubble Masonry in Cement
Mortar.
24 Left Bank Canal (Kerala) Precast Slabs and Blocks.
25 Kuthanur Branch (Kerala) Bitumen and Cement.


KERS, Krishnarajasagar had tried HMHDPE film (Tuflene) covered with 1:4:8 or 1:5: 10
Cement Concrete in a length of 140 m on 38.4 km distributory of Visveswaraya Canal
and reported about 90% reduction in seepage losses when compared with unlined
reaches. Likewise Fibre glass Reinforced Plastic Tissue Asphaltic Canal Liner had been
experimented.
Backing Material for Swelling Soil
I.I.T, Bombay after conducting field studies with various types of backing materials in
swelling soil (especially black cotton soil) area in Karnataka has suggested that a 1 m
thick cohesive non-swelling (CNS) layer covered with P.C.C. slabs would suffice the
need for lining in swelling soil. The minimum specification suggested for backing
material is
Gravel - Less than 10 percent,

Sand - 30 - 40 percent

Silt - 45 - 50 percent

Clay - 20 - 25 percent

Compaction - 96 percent of standard proctor density, in layers not exceeding 20
cm.

Moisture content - OMC 1.5 percent.

Shear Parameters - 0.2 kg/cm
2
25 to 0.5 kg/cm
2
for 2 to 15

KERS, Krishnarajasagar had conducted experiments with different lining materials, viz.,
(1) Size stone pitching over 22.5 thick layer of murrum backing, (2) Rough stone
pitching over 15 cm thick layer of murrum backing, and (3) 15 cm, 22.5 cm and 30 cm
murrum lining without any protective cover for small channels only.
The size stone pitching and rough stone pitching have functioned well and have
recommended size stone pitching for small channels in view of lower rugosity coefficient
and lesser maintenance cost though it is slightly costlier initially.

PCC lining with
drainage arrangement
1 m thick CNS layer
IP 2.43
2.74 FSD
3.04
15 cm thick
CNS layer
3.04
1.82
2
1
__
2
2.74
1
3.04
3.04
Typical section in deep cutting of Malaprabha Right Bank Canal kilometer number 35.354

2.103 m
FB 3.04
3.65
3.04
2.74 Full Supply Depth
15 cm thick
CNS layer
3.04
1 m thick CNS layer
2.74
PCC lining
Typical section in cutting at MRBC kilometer number 35.354 (a) Canal section in cutting
(a) Canal section in cutting

PCC slab lining 2:1
FSD 2.74
SR 4.26
1 m thick CNS
IP 2.43
30 cm thick CNS
Rock toe
30 cm thick sand blanket
Black Cotton soil
2 m and below
B __
2y
2
+
2.74
1 m
30 cm thick CNS
Bed filling 2 m and below
L

PCC slab lining 2:1
1 m thick CNS
SR 4.26 2.43
30 cm thick CNS
60 cm thick CNS
Rock toe
60 cm thick CNS
B __
2y
2
+
L
30 cm thick sand blanket
Bed filling 2 m and below
below 2 m bed filling
2 m and above
1 m
2.74 FSD
2.74
(b) Canal section in embankment
Construction of Malaprabha Right bank Canal in expansive soil area using Cohesive
Non-swelling Soil (CNS) layer of 1 m thickness as suggested by IIT-Bombay
Black Cotton soil


Geo synthetic Reinforced Canal Lining

Currently, in India the lining systems adopted generally consist of three components.
The top is usually a lining cover of either concrete slabs or brick tiles. Sometimes
flagstone or soil as cover has also been used, depending on suitability. Below the cover
a LDPE lining is provided underlain by a graded sand filter normally placed to account
for planned drainage. Film of 175 micron thickness has been used in the bed lining of
Indira Gandhi Main Canal in Rajasthan. The thickness of the LDPE film depends on
whether it is the primary water barrier constituent of the lining (in that case the thickness
varies from 150-250 micron) and the rigid cover is provided to protect it against damage
and heaving. The rigid cover may also be provided as the main lining and the film is
provided as a secondary back up specification (generally 100 micron film is provided for
this purpose). Figure shows typical details of LDPE lined canal system used in India.
A
B
C
D
E
Details of Sandwitched Brick Lining

Index:
A =Top layer of 50.8 mm Flat Brick (C.H.1:3)
B =A layer of (1:3) Red Cement Mortar 6.35 mm thick
C =15.875 mm layer of (1:3) Red Cement Mortar
D =50.8 mm thick Flat Brick layer with joints of Red Cement Mortar of proportion (1:3)
E =9.525 mm thick Red Cement Mortar layer (1:5)

FLAGSTONE LINING
FLAGSTONE LINING 40 to 50 mm thick
on a bed of cement mortar 1:6 and
pointing with 1:3 cement mortar
100 MICRON LDPE
FILM AND GAUGE
20 mm THICK BEDDING
IN CEMENT MORTAR 1:6
TRANSVERSE SLEEPERS
.30 m centre to centre in
cement concrete 1:3:6
with 10 mm metal rod

Brick lining 76.2 mm thick
in cement mortar 1:3
LDPE 600/800/1000 Gauge
Dressed sub grade
Brick Lining


Geotextile filter
HDPE Membrane
Graded soil slope
SECTIONAL VIEW SHOWING DETAILS OF CANAL LINING
Perforated drainage pipe
wrapped in Geotextile
(Pressure relief drainage
with laminar drainage path)
Tenax Mint 100
Composite liner
and Drainage
Tenax Mint 100
Composite membrane
as laid in profile
30 mm thick concrete
size in flush point or
brick lining for
counter weight

It has been ascertained through field seepage tests that lined canals save a
considerable amount of water loss as shown in Table
State
Average seepage loss
m
3
/s/million sq.m
Percentages savings in
water due to lining
compared with unlined
canal
Haryana
a) Unlined canal 2.25 -
b) Conventional lined canal
without LDPE film
0.43 81
c) Lined Canal with LDPE
film 2.5 mm
0.16 93
GUJ ARAT
a) Unlined Canal 2.50 -
b) Lined Canal without
LDPE film
1.00 60
c) Lined Canal with LDPE
film
0.80 68

WEST BENGAL
a) Unlined Canal
i) in rocky strata 2.94 -
ii) in lateritic strata 20.00 -
b) Conventional lined Canal
without LDPE film
0.30 rocky strata 90
c) Only LDPE film with soil
cover
0.12 rocky strata 96

Seepage studies - Ponding method Semi field Studies - KERS

Sl. No. Type of lining material
Minimum value of
seepage after two years
in m
3
/ s / M m
2
1 Tuflene with brick in cement mortar cover. 0.0008
2 Tuflene with earth cover. 0.0057
3
Tuflene with concrete cover (1 : 4 : 8
proportion)
0.0008

Before reconstruction 2.34 to 6.63 m
3
/ s / M m
2

After reconstruction 1.53 m
3
/ s / M m
2

LDPE 400 gauge (0.1 mm)
LDPE 1000 gauge (0.25 mm)
HMHDPE 700 gauge (0.1 mm)
Fibre glass Reinforced Plastic Tissue
Reinforced asphaltic canal liner (2.5 kg / m
2
)

Inspite of the advantages offered by conventional lining system with and without LDPE
film lining, they have several shortcomings. For example, in case of lined canals with
PCC concrete tiles as cover complete impermeability is not ensured as construction
joints are a must between two concrete panels, where the LDPE film below serves the
lining purpose. The ill achieved compaction of side slope of a canal in most cases give
rise to local shear failure due to lining overburden, with excessive slope settlement. In
such case of slope stability failure the unreinforced concrete slab cracks, consequently,
the unreinforced weak LDPE liner also gets damaged. LDPE membranes do not
possess suffficient strength and hence under sub grade reaction, or dead load and live
load on cover or hydrostatic pressure, the membrane gets ruptured on many occasions.
Under steep slope conditions and high flow discharge in the canal stringment reinforced
cover specifications are required which often makes the construction process of the
lined canal very tedious and time consuming.

Geo synthesis for Irrigation Structures
A wide range of Geo synthetic products find application in irrigation structures. They
include geo membrane, geo textiles, geo composites, geo grids, geo drains, gabions
and mattresses. Gabions are constructed using bi-oriented geo grids.
Geo synthetic Canal Lining and Drainage
As a fabric layer this system is extremely easy to install. The lining geo composites are
found in combinations of membrane-grid-textile, membrane-grid or grid-textile
sandwiches which can be used depending on the requirement of the project.
In case of the canal lining systems Geo composites having HDPE membrane-grid-
textile combination is the most suitable. HDPE membranes composites now available in
India, eliminates the shortcomings of the LDPE lined canal systems. The grid eliminates
the requirement of graded filter for drainage resulting in considerable reduction of time
and costs, increasing canal capacity of discharge. Drainage Geo nets, a few millimetres
thick have the same capacity of drainage water as a graded sand layer a few hundred
millimetres thick. The textile layer provided in these composites prevents the fines from
interfering with the drainage path. The Geo composites are used in canal lining system
with the water proof membrane in contact with the cover (required to weigh down the
geo composite on the slope) and the geo textile is laid against the well graded slope.
Geo composites are available in light weight roll form which can be easily laid on slopes
as well as on prepared canal beds. Geo composites have strength ranging from 6.5
kN/m to 23 kN/m which can adequately resist soil pressure on slopes and distribute
concentrated forces preventing local shear failure conditions from developing. The Geo
net with its high drainage capacity prevents high pore pressure development on the
slope and provides an efficient flow line.
Saving Geo synthetic lining vs Conventional lining 19%.
Reference
Som, S. Sarkar and Ranjana Majumder, Geo synthetic Reinforced Canal Systems and
Irrigation Structures, Proceedings Water Energy 2004, International R&D Conference
1995, New Delhi, India, pp 262 to 274.

22.2 Seepage Prevention with Impermeable Membranes
The use of flexible, impermeable membranes to prevent the seepage of water and
wastes is increasing, with application to a wide variety of seepage situations. The
materials used as membranes are synthetic, organic, high polymers in the form of
relatively thin, flexible, impermeable sheeting. Most used are plasticized polyvinyl
chloride (PVC), polyethylene, and Butyl rubber. They all possess low permeability
which, when combined with the strength of soil or other base material, will prevent
seepage of water or aqueous solutions. While the membranes differ somewhat from
each other, they differ completely from rigid materials such as concrete, asphalt and
planking in that they are not expected to contribute structural strength- only
impermeability.
The earth itself will generally support high hydrostatic loads, but the sheeting employed
as a membrane is often required to follow earth movements and settlements while
retain-ing its impermeability. This adds several other considerations to that of
impermeability. The membrane must resist puncturing during Installation, and must be
able to adapt to soil deflections without tearing or puncturing. Vinyl (PVC) has the
highest puncture resistance, with Butyl in second place. Polyethyelene ranks as poor in
this respect. Both vinyl and Butyl have high elastic strain and will yield with soil
deflections. Polyethylene does have a high elongation, but it becomes thin in localized
areas under stress and hence is less desirable than the other sheetings is formulated to
meet specifications for long life and resistance to soil attack.


Typical properties of these three membranes are:
Tensile strength, Elastic strain, percent, Puncture resistance, Available gauges,
Available widths, Method of joining, Weight, Density, Cost, Installation.
Installation of liners for preventing seepage is quite simple after the earth has been pre-
pared. In designing structures to utilize membranes, a side slope of at least 3:1 is
necessary if the liners are to be covered for protection. For uncovered membranes, a
normally stable slope can be used. In both cases, all sharp rocks, stones, roots, and
other.

22.3 Failure of Canal Lining

In connection with the mini-hydel power plants being constructed on the Gunrur Banch
Canal near Nekarikallu, AP, it was proposed to raise the water level in the canal by
about 2.5 m over the previous level. The canal banks were raised by about 2 m during
the summer of 1996. The canal banks were lined with 100 mm thick concrete panels.
The slope of the inner canal bank is 1:1 whereas the slope of the outer bank is 1.5 : 1
(H:V). When the water level was raised in the canal, the canal banks have exhibited
some instability and seepage through the banks and during a thunder storm, the canal
linings over some portion have slipped away from the banks. When the water level was
raised and lowered, the right bank has shown some distress. In order to minimise the
seepage, a secondary berm was constructed along the right bank at two locations. The
secondary berm has sunk into the foundation soil.

24.995 m
BED LEVEL
FSL
100 mm thick RCC 1:2:4 Lining
0.6 m
0.15 m
1.5 m
0.5 m
0.6 m
0.6 m
100*300 Leg Beam
300*300 Model Section
G Level Backing









109.345
Q = 62 m
3
/s
113.7 0.969
60 cm
1.3
1.25
1.00
0.969 m
60 cm
1.211.169
1.00 0.969
75 cm
1/800
1.65 m
2000 m
1/1500
2.75
0.76 m
800 m
1.2 m
112.5 1/1250
2.1 m
1
2
3
Case:1 Q = 62 m
3
/s
RL
RL
Water Surface profile


109.345
Q = 27 m
3
/s
0.562
1.25
1.00
0.75
0.562 m
1.17 1.00
0.75
0.562 m
75 cm
1/800
1.65 m
2000 m
1/1500
4.7
0.4045 m
800 m
1.2 m
112.5 1/1250
2.1 m
1
2
3
Case:2 Q = 27 m
3
/s
RL
Water Surface Profile

Weir at the downstream end removed
Q = 54 m
3
/s
106.58
Draft Tube
2.741 m
105.85
30.5 m
500
102.853
2.34 m
Water Surface Profile


Flow
600 mm Pipe
397 m
Slope 1: 1.5
Right Bund
Slope 1:1
BL
+ 103.767
Flow
Slope 1:1
Side Slope 1: 1.5
Bund 6m wide
Power
House
By-Pass
BL + 103.84
BL
+ 106.58
900
600
900
600
Flow
Q = 54 m
3
/s
70 m

Section
A Pit of
900*600 mm
Pit Details
150 mm
600 mm
900 mm
600
600 mm
106.58
750 mm
150 mm
Plan View of the Pipe Line for supplying water for Irrigation


22.4 Most efficient Hydraulic section
For a given cross section determine the hydraulic section.
Hydraulically Best section (Hydraulically Efficient Section)
1. Rectangular Channel:
2 2
2
P 2
P 2
2 0 2
2
b y
A
b
y
A by
A
y
y
dp
Ay , A y
dy
by y
= +
=
=
= +
= + = =
=

or 2 b y =

b = 2y
y
Hydraulically efficient rectangular
channel is half of a square.

2. Trapezoidal Section:

1
m

2
2 1 P b y m = + +

( ) A b my y = + or
A
b m
y
= = y


2
P 2 1
A
my y m
y
= + + (For a given area of flow)

Differentiate with reference to y assuming A and m to be constant.
2 2
p
2 1 0
d
Ay m m
dy
= + + =
Substituting for area, the above equation can be rewritten as
2 2
2 1 0 y ( b my )y m m
+ + + =
2
2 1 0
b my my
m
y
+ +
+ = + + =
2
2
1
2
b my
y m
+
= +

Half the top width =side slope distance (for given side slope)

2
2 1 2 2 1 b y m my y m m

= + = +

Substitute this value of b into the equation A and P and simplifying

2
2 2
05
2
P 2 2 1
2 1
2 1
.
y m
A y m m
A
y
m m
m

= +

= +

=

+

Substitute the value of y into P

( )
( )
1 2
2
05
2
P 2 2 1
2 1
/
.
A
m m
m m
= +
+

( )
2
P 2 2 1 A m m

= +

which is the m value that makes P least?

D.w.r to m and equate it to zero

P
0
d
dm
=

3
3
3
m = =

1 3
3
y
tan
my m
= = =

60 =

2
3
b y =

This means section is a half hexagon. If a semi circle is drawn with radius equal to
depth y then sides of this section are tangent to the circle.
2
__
y
3
1
m =
60
60
Half Hexagon - inscribed circle
of radius equal to depth is
tangential as shown in figure
b =
3


Triangular Section: If is half angle

2

2
2
2 2 4
a sin
Area ay sin y ay sin
ay sin acos sin a
R sin
a
y
cos
a

= =

= = =

=

y

a
a
a sin
Hydraulically efficient channel
Half a square on vertex

R should be max.

2
0 2 0
4
dR a
, cos
d

= =

45 =

45
o
45
o
Half Square on its apex
Free surface width is equal to the diagonal

It is a half square resting on its apex and maximum width is equal to diagonal.

Alternative derivation for Triangular Section:

2
2
2 1
A y tan
y A/ tan
P y m
=
=
= +


l
m
y

2y sec =

2
A
sec
tan

=

( )
( )
3
3 2
3
3
2
2 0
2
0
2
/
dp d A
sec
d d tan
dp sec tan sec
A
d tan
tan
sec
sec tan
tan

=

=

=
=

3
2 0 sec tan sec =

Solve for

45 =


Hydrostatic Caternary (Linteria)

2 4 2 4 4
1
1
1 1
3 15 3 5 5
1 2
2 4 864 8 32 256

= + +

=
=
Equation for h
4
ydrostatic catenary is given by
y
x k k k k sin k sin
k
y ycos
x , y are measured from mid point of the surface
k= sin ; slope angle at
2
1
2
1 1
the point x y . varies from 0 at the
bottom of the curve to at the ends.
sin
sin , is slope at any point ( x, y)
k
For the hydraulically efficient channel
= 35 37' 7" , y= 3.5 m. Fin
35 37 7
17 48 335
030585
= =
=
d A, R, D, Z at full depth.
Also plot the cross section of the channel
' "
' . "
2 2
k= sin .
2
si

sol
si
ut
n
ion:
=

1
1
2
2 2
2 2 2
1
2 2
90 0707
2
170992

= =
=
= = = =
=
2
n sin
2 2
or k =
k sin
sin
k
sin cos cos
or cos
k
y ycos cos cos 45 k .
A . m P= 10.443 m
5 2
16374
67114 22293
=
= =
/
A
R = . m
P
T . m D = 2.5478 m Z = A D . m

y
1
(m) 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
( in
deg )
90 81.78 73.39 64.62 55.15 44.4 31.0 0
k 0.7071 0.6614 0.6235 0.5916 0.564 0.5400 0.51887 0.5


Exercise: Plot the graph using the above data
x
1
x
y
1
y

5 2
170992 16374
67114 22293
= =
= =
2
/
A
A . m P= 10.443 m R = . m
P
T . m D = 2.5478 m Z = A D . m

Flexible Sheet: Filled with water upto rim, and held firmly at the top ends without any
effect of fixation on shape. Shape assumed under self weight of water is called
Hydrostatic Catenary.
Rounded bottom triangular section
0
m
1
cot
0
=
m
__
1
0
=

cot
-1
m
T
r
1
m y
0
r
( )
( )
( )
2 2 1
1
2
2
2 2
2 1
A y m cot m
P y m cot m
A r y
R
P
T r m
=
= +
= = =
= +

Hydraulically efficient sections could be derived using Lagrange Multiplier approach.


22.5 Design of Unlined Channels
In 1895 Kennedy evolved an equation for , nonsilting and non-scouring velocity and y
depth of flow after studying dimensions of stable alluvial canals ranging over 30 sites in
a strech of 144 km on upper Bari Doab Canal System in Punjab.
0
V
( )
064
0
0546
.
V . y in mks =
After a study of hydraulic dimensions of 4,345 km of channels in the Punjab, Lindley
suggested, in 1919, the following relations connecting the velocity V (m
3
s
-1
), the surface
width B (m) and the depth of flow y (m):
( )
( )
( )
057
0335
161
057
02646
786
.
.
.
V . y in mks
V . B in mks
B . y in mks
=
=
=

Lindley's theory was further advanced by Lacey in 1929, but he adopted P, the wetted
perimeter and R, the hydraulic mean radius, as the flow parameters instead of the
surface width B, and the depth of flow, y, and in addition introduced a 'silt factor', f.
Lacey's formulae in their final form is as follows:
( )
1 2
4825
/
P . Q in mks =
1 3 1 3
04725
/ /
R . Q / f = (Same for both units)
( )
5 3 1 6
00003015
/ /
S . f / Q in mks =
( )
3 4 1 2
1

/ /
o
a
V R S in m
N
= ks
1 4
00225
/
a
N . f = (Same for both units)
Lacey's general flow equation is similar to that of Manning; but Na in Lacey's relation is
an absolute rugosity coefficient which, in addition to boundary friction, allows for shock
losses in the channel due to irregularities or bends. The silt factor f was correlated
approximately to the silt grade m (in mm) by the relation 176 f . m = on the implicit
assumption of the 'regime charge' being carried by a channel in regime. Chitale
analysed the data subsequently in 1966.

Though the Lacey equations have been in common use in India and also in other
countries, it has been long realised that these equations were not perfect and suffer
from certain shortcomings. Perhaps the major difficulty experienced in application of
Lacey's equations is in the choice of appropriate value of the silt factor 'f' occurring in
the Lacey formulae for depth and slope. It is also found that canals designed according
to Lacey formulae give a somewhat wider and shallower section. Moreover divergence
from dimensions given by Lacey equation in existing stable channels with those given
by Lacey formulae errors resulting from adoption of Lacey equations for P, R, and S0
were worked out which ranged from 11.27 to 83.47 percent.


22.6 Examples

Design a triangular lined channel section with rounded bottom as prescribed by CBI&P
given Q =30 m
3
s
-1
, n=0.015, bed slope S
0

1:1800, side slope m =1.25.

Solution :

The side slope of the channel m =1.25,

2
2
i.e., cot = 1.25,
= 0.6747 radian = 38.6598
Area of the channel A = y ( + cot )
= 1.9247 y
Perimeter of the c
8
3 8
2 2 3
3
2
3
19247
19247 2
2

=
2 / 3 /
hannel P = 2y ( + cot ) = 2y(0.6747+1.25)
Hydraulic radius R= A / P
= y / 2
. y
therefore AR . y *(y / ) = =1.2125y --->1

0015 30
1
1800
=
o
nQ . *
and = 19.092 --->2
S

( )
( )
3
8
3
8
12125
157458
Equating equations 1 and 2

19.092
y=
.
= .
y=2.81 m
therefore, Are
2
2
a of the cross section of the channel A= 1.9247 * ( 2.81 )
= 15.197 m
and a free board = 34 cm
therefore the total height of the channel section H = 2.81 +0.34 = 3.15 m
Top width of the channel T= 2* m * H

2
= 2* 1.25 * 3.15 = 7.875 m
Perimeter of the channel P = 2H 1+ m
= 10.085 m



2. Design a lined channel to carry Q =125 m
3
s
-1
, n =0.015, bed slope S
0
1:2500, side
slope m =1.25. Maximum permissible velocity is 2.5ms
-1
Solution:

The side slope of the channel m =1.25,

( )
+ +
+
2
2
i.e., cot = 1.25,
therefore = 0.6747 radian
Area of the channel A = y cot by
= 1.9247 y by
2
2
-->1
and Area A = Q / V
= 125 /2.5= 50 m
= 50 m . --->
( )
+
2
2
50 = 1.9247 y by --->A
Perimeter of the channel P = 2y +cot + b --->3

2
19247
38494
+
=
+
2/3
= 3.8494y + b
. y by A
R =
P . y b
1
1
2.5 = R
2500
0.015


( )
3
2
15
05
00375
002236

.
.
0.015*2.5 .
R= =
.
1
2000
= 2.1719
230213 =
A 50
P= = . m
R 2.1719
23.0213 = 3.8494y + b
therefore B = 23.0213 - 3.8494y --->5
put equation 5
230213 38494 0 + =
2
in equation A, then
50 - 1.9247 y ( . . y) * y --->B
Solving the equation B one obtains
b = 12.04 m and
y = 2.8527 m
add free board = 0.6473 m
therefore the total height of the channel H =2.8527 + 0.6473 = 3.5 m and
the top width of the channel T= b + 2* m * H
= 12.04 + 2(1.25*3.5) = 20.79 m
T = 20.8 m (approximately)

3. Design the lined canal to carry Q =100 m
3
/s, with n =0.013, bed slope S
0
=1:2500,
V =2 m/s, side slope m =1.25, and hydraulic radius R =1.48.
4. Design a triangular lined channel section with rounded bottom given Q =300 m
3
/s, n
=0.014, bed slope S
0
=0.0016, side slope m =1.25.
Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Murty

GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW
23.1 Introduction

The flow in an open-channel is termed as gradually varied flow (GVF) when the depth of
flow varies gradually with longitudinal distance. Such flows are encountered both on
upstream and downstream sides of control sections. Analysis and computation of
gradually varied flow profiles in open-channels are important from the point of view of
safe and optimal design and operation of any hydraulic structure.
23.2 Basic Assumptions in GVF Analysis
1. The gradually varied flow to be discussed here considers only steady flows. This
implies that (i) flow characteristics do not change with time, and (ii) pressure distribution
is hydrostatic over the channel section.
2. The head loss in a reach may be computed using an equation applicable to uniform
flow having the same velocity and hydraulic mean radius of the section. This implies
that the slope of energy grade line may be evaluated using a uniform flow formula such
as Manning equation and Chezy equation, with the corresponding roughness coefficient
applicable primarily for uniform flow.
3. Channel bottom slope is small. This implies that the depth of flow measured vertically
is same as depth of flow measured perpendicular to channel bottom.
4. There is no air entrainment. Advanced text books may be referred to study the effects
of air entrainment.
5. The velocity distribution in the channel section is invariant. This implies that the
energy correction factor, , is a constant and does not vary with distance.
6. The resistance coefficient is not a function of flow characteristics or depth of flow. It
does not vary with distance.
7. Channel is prismatic.

23.3 Dynamic Equation for Steady Gradually Varied Flow
Consider the flow profile in an elementary length dx of an open channel as shown in
Figure 23.1.
Figure: 23.1 Derivation of the gradually varied flow equation
Channel bottom
dx
Slope = S
0
Datum
dH
Energy grade line
Water Surface
Flow
v
2
___
2g
Z

The total head above the datum at a section is
2
v
H = z + y +
2g
(23.1)
where H is the total head; z is the elevation of the channel bottom; y is the depth of flow;
is the energy coefficient; g is the acceleration due to gravity; and V is the average
velocity of flow through section. Here, bottom of the channel is considered on the X-
axis. Equation (23.1) is differentiated with respect to x to obtain.
2
dH dz dy d V
dx dx dx dx 2g

= + +

(23.2)
As the slope of the channel bottom is assumed small, Sin tan , in which is the
angle of the channel bottom with horizontal. Slope is considered positive if it depends in
the direction of flow. Therefore, referring to Figure 23.1, slope of the energy grade line,
f
dH
S
dx
= , and slope of the channel bottom,
0
dz
S
dx
= .
Equation (23.2) becomes
2
0 f
dy d V
S S
dx dx 2g

+ =

(23.3)

Velocity, V can be expressed in terms of the flow rate, Q and area of the cross
section, A.
Q
V=
A
(23.4)
Noting that flow rate, Q remains constant with respect to x (no lateral inflow or outflow),
but area, A changes, differentiating Equation (23.4) with respect to x and subsequent
substitution in Equation (23.3) leads to
2
3
dy Q -2 dA
+
dx 2g A dx

(23.5)
However, for a prismatic channel
dA dA dy dy
= T
dx dy dx dx
= (23.6)
where, T =free surface width. Substitution of Equations (23.4) and (23.6) in Equation
(23.5) and subsequent simplification results in the following gradually varied flow
equation,
o f
2
3
S S dy
=
Q T dx
1-
gA
(23.7)
Equation (23.7) is a non-linear first-order differential equation. In this equation, slope of
the energy grade line,
f
S may be estimated using the Manning's equation.
2 2
f 2 4/3
n Q
S
A R
= (23.8)
where n is the Manning roughness coefficient; and R is the hydraulic mean radius.


23.4 Classification of Gradually Varied Flow Profiles
It is important to systematically classify the water surface profiles in a channel before
computation of flow profiles is carried out. Such classification helps to get an overall
understanding of how the flow depth varies in a channel. It also helps to detect any
mistakes made in the flow computation.
It may be recalled here that
( )
2
2
3
Q T
F = 23.9
gA

where F =Froude number. Substitution of Equations (23.8) and (23.9) in Equation
(23.7) leads to
( )
2 2
0 2 4/3
2
n Q
S -
dy
A R
= 23.10
dx 1 F

For a specified value of Q, both F and
f
S are functions of the depth, y. In fact, both F
and
f
S will decrease as y increases. Recalling the definitions for the normal depth,
n
y ,
and the critical depth,
c
y , the following inequalities can be stated
( )
f 0 n
f 0 n
S > S when y < y
23.11
S < S when y > y

( )
c
c
F > 1 when y < y
23.12
F < 1 when y > y

A gradually varied flow profile is classified based on the channel slope, and the
magnitude of flow depth, y in relation to
n
y and
c
y . The channel slope is classified
based on the relative magnitudes of the normal depth,
n
y and the critical depth,
c
y .
n c
n c
n c
0
0
y > y : "Mild slope" (M)
y < y : "Steep slope" (S)
y = y : "Critical slope" (C)
S =0 : "Horizontal slope" (H)
S <0 : "Adverse slo
pe" (A)


It may be noted here that slope is termed as "sustainable" slope when
0
S 0 > because
flow under uniform conditions can occur for such a channel. Slope is termed as
"unsustainable" when
0
S 0 since uniform flow conditions can never occur in such a
channel. Flow profiles associated with mild, steep, critical, horizontal, and adverse
slopes are designated as M, S, C, H and A profiles, respectively.
The space above the channel bed can be divided into three zones depending upon the
inequality defined by equations (23.11) and (23.12). Figure 23.2 shows these zones for
a mild and a steep channel.
(a) Mild Channel
(b) Steep Channel
NDL: Normal depth line
CDL: Critical depth line
Figure 23.2: Profile Classification
Zone - 1
Y
c Y
n
2
3
NDL
CDL
Bed
Y
c
Y
n
2
3
NDL
CDL
Bed
1

The space above both the CDL and the NDL is designated as zone-1. The space
between the CDL and the NDL is designated as zone-2. The space between the
channel bed and CDL/NDL (whichever is lower) is designated as zone-3. Flow profiles
are finally classified based on (i) the channel slope and (ii) the zone in which they occur.
For example, if the water surface lies in zone-1 in a channel with mild slope (Figure
23.3), it is designated as M1 profile. Here, M stands for a mild channel and 1 stands for
zone-1.
It may be noted that an M1 profile indicates a subcritical flow since flow depth, y is
greater than the critical depth,
c
y .

Figure 23.3: M1 Profile
M1
NDL
CDL
Bed
Water Surface

Similarly, an S2 profile (Figure 23.4) indicates the water surface lies in zone-2 in a steep
channel. It may be noted that a S2 profile indicates a supercritical flow since flow depth,
y is lower than
c
y .
S2
Figure 23.4: S2 Profile
CDL
Water Surface
NDL
Bed

Table 23.1 presents types of flow profiles in prismatic channels. In this table, a channel
slope is described as critical slope when critical conditions occur for uniform flow i.e.
when
n c
y y = .

Table 23.1: Types of Flow Profiles (S
c
: Critical Slope)
Profile Designation Slope
zone - 1 zone - 2 zone - 3
Relative
position of y
Type of Flow
Adverse S
0
=0 None

A2

A3

y >y
c

y <yc

Subcritical
Supercritical
Horizontal S
0
=0
None

H
2

H
3

y >y
c

y <y
c

Subcritical
Supercritical
Mild 0<S
0
<S
c
=0
M1

M2

M3
y >y
n
>y
c

y
n
>y >yc
y
n
>y
c
>y
Subcritical
Subcritical
Supercritical
Critical S
0
=S
c
>0
C1
C
2

y >y
c
=y
n

Subcritical
uniform -


C
3

y =y
c
=y
n

y
c
=y
n
>y
critical
Supercritical
Steep S
0
>S
c
>0
S1

S2

S
3

y >y
c
>y
n

y
c
>y >y
n

y
c
>y
n
>y
Subcritical
Supercritical
Supercritical

23.5 Variation of Flow Depth
Qualitative observations about various types of water surface profiles can be made and
the profile can be sketched without performing any computations. This is achieved by
considering the signs of the numerator and the denominator in Equation (23.10). The
following analysis helps to know (i) whether the depth increases or decreases with
distance; and (ii) how the profile approaches the upstream and downstream limits. First,
consider the following general points:

c
y > y ; flow is subcritical; F<1 ; denominator is positive.

c
y < y ; flow is supercritical; F>1; denominator is negative.

n
y = y
;

flow is uniform;
f 0
S = S ; numerator is zero.

n f 0
y > y ; S < S ; numerator is positive.

n f 0
y < y ; S > S ; numerator is negative.
As
n
y y (y tends to
n
y );
f 0
S S ;
f 0
S S ; numerator approaches zero;
dy
0;
dx
the surface profile appraches normal depth asymptotically.
As
c
y y ; Flow tends to critical conditions; F 1; denominator tends to zero;
dy
;
dx
water surface profile approaches the critical depth vertically.

It is not possible to have a vertical water-surface profile. Therefore, it is assumed that
the water surface profile approaches the CDL at a very steep slope. It may be noted
that when the water surface slope is very steep, it cannot be assumed that
accelerations in the vertical direction are negligible. This means that the theory of
gradually varied flow should breakdown in such a situation because pressure is no

longer hydrostatic in those regions. Thus equation (23.10) is not valid whenever flow
depth is close to the critical depth.
As
f 0
dy
y ; S 0; F 0; S ;
dx
Water surface profile becomes horizontal as flow
depth becomes very large.
For a wide channel, hydraulic mean radius R h and
2
2
3
q
F
gy
= . Equation (23.10) can be
simplified to
( )
( )
3 10/3 2 2
0
10/3 3 2
gy S y -q n
dy
=
dx y gy -q

where q =flow rate per unit width. It can be seen from the above equation that
dy
dx

as y 0 . In other words, water surface profile tends to become vertical as the flow
depth tends to zero.

The qualitative characteristic of any type of water-surface profile may be studied using
the points discussed earlier. For example, consider an M1 profile. For an M1 profile,
n c
y>y >y .
c
y > y implies that F<1 and
n
y > y implies that
f 0
S < S .
Therefore,
0 f
2
S -S dy
dx 1-F
+
= = = +
+

This means that flow depth increases with distance x. On the downstream side, as y
keeps increasing
dy
dx
tends to
0
S and the water surface becomes horizontal. On the
upstream side, as y approaches the normal depth,
n
y , it approaches asymptotically. The
sketch of an M1 profile is shown in Figure 23.5.


ApproachesNDL
asymptotically
becomes horizontal
Water Surface
CDL
Bed
x
Figure 23.5: Sketch of an M1 profile
NDL

Similarly, consider an M2 profile. In an M2 profile,
n c
y >y>y .
c
y > y implies that F<1 and
the denominator is positive. On the other hand,
n
y<y implies that
f 0
S > S . Therefore,
0 f
2
S -S dy Ve
Ve
dx 1-F Ve
= = =
+

This means that flow depth decreases with distance x. On the downstream side, as the
flow depth decreases and approaches the CDL, it approaches vertically. On the
upstream side as the depth increases and approaches the normal depth, it approaches
asymptotically. The sketch of an M2 profile is shown in Figure 23.6.
Figure 23.6: Sketch of an M2 profile
Water Surface
NDL
CDL
Bed

Now, Consider an S2 profile. In an S2 profile,
c n
y > y > y .
c
y < y implies that F>1 and
the denominator is negative.
n
y > y implies that
f 0
S < S . Therefore,
0 f
2
S -S dy Ve
Ve
dx 1-F Ve
+
= = =

This means that flow depth decreases with distance x. On the downstream side, as y
decreases towards
n
y it approaches NDL asymptotically. On the upstream side, as y
increases toward
C
y , it approaches CDL almost vertically. The sketch of an S2 profile is
shown in Figure 23.7.

CDL
NDL
Bed
Figure 23.7: Sketch of an S2 profile
Water Surface

Proceeding in a similar manner, other water surface profiles can be sketched. These
sketches are shown in Figure 23.8. The profiles are shown in dashed lines as they
approach the CDL and the channel bed to indicate that gradually varied flow
assumption is not valid in those regions.
Zone -1
M1
NDL
CDL
M2
NDL
CDL
M3
NDL
CDL
Zone -2
Zone -3 MILD
CRITICAL
NDL /
CDL
C1
C2
C3
S1
S2
S3
CDL
NDL
NDL
STEEP


HORIZONTAL
CDL
NONE
CDL
H2
H3
A3
A2
NONE
CDL
Bed
Figure 23.8: Water Surface Profiles
ADVERSE


24.1 Real Life Cases of Water Surface Profiles
It is interesting to see how water surface profiles discussed in the unit 23 occur in real
life. For example, an M1 profile occurs behind a dam or a sluice gate located on a mild
channel. The dam or a sluice gate piles up water behind it such that the flow depth is
greater than the normal depth. Far away from the dam or sluice gate on the upstream
side, the flow would be occurring under uniform conditions and the flow depth would be
normal. In a similar manner, S1 and C1 profiles occur on the upstream side of a sluice
gate located on a channel with steep and critical slopes, respectively. An M2 profile
occurs on the upstream side of a free over fall at the downstream end of a mild channel
since a critical depth occurs in the vicinity of a free over fall. Similarly, a H2 profile
occurs on the upstream side of a free over fall at the downstream end of a horizontal
channel.
Critical flow conditions occur at the entrance to a steep channel from a lake or a
reservoir. However, flow should tend towards uniform flow conditions far away from the
entrance if the channel is long. Therefore, a S2 profile occurs in steep channels, on the
downstream side of the entrance. A few real life cases of water surface profiles are
shown in Fig 24.1.

Sluice gate
M1
M2
NDL
CDL
Bed (mild slope)
M3
Hydraulic J ump
Free over fall
(a) M1, M2 and M3 profiles
S2
S1
S3
CDL
NDL
CDL
Bed (steep slope)
Hydraulic J ump
Sluice gate
(b) S1, S2 and S3 profiles
Hydraulic J ump
Sluice gate
H2
H3
Free over fall
(c) H2 and H3 profiles
Figure 24.1: Real-life cases of water-surface profiles
Bed (horizontal)


24.2 Sketching of Composite Water - Surface Profiles
Characteristics of water-surface profiles in prismatic channels have been discussed in
the previous sections. However, in real life, a channel system may have variable cross
section or bottom slope. Also, it may have several control sections. A control section is
a section at which there is a unique relationship between the depth and discharge. For
example, weirs, sluice gates and spillways are control sections. They create sub critical
flows on the upstream side when they are performing under free flow conditions.
However, sub critical flow conditions occur on the downstream side also, if the control
structure is submerged or drowned. Similarly, critical depth occurs in the vicinity of a
free overfall in a mild channel. This acts as a downstream control for sub critical flows
since there is a unique relationship between the flow depth and the discharge when the
flow is critical. Critical flow conditions also occur at the entrance to a steep channel if
the water level in the lake or reservoir which is feeding the channel is higher than the
level of CDL at that point.
Steps outlined below are followed to sketch the composite water surface profiles in a
series Channel system.
Compute normal and critical depths for each reach of the channel system based
on specified flow rate, roughness coefficient, slope of the reach, and the channel
cross section.
Plot the channel bed, the normal depth line (NDL) and the critical depth line
(CDL) for each reach in the system.
Mark the control sections i.e., identify the sections where (i) the flow passes
through a critical depth (ii) the flow is expected to occur under uniform conditions,
and (iii) there is a control structures such as a weir, a sluice gate, and a spillway.
It may be noted that uniform flow conditions occur in long prismatic channels, far
away from control sections. Critical depth occurs at (i) the free overfall, and (ii)
the entrance to a steep channel from a lake, when the water level in the lake is
above the the elevation of the CDL at the entrance. Critical depth also occurs
when channel bed slope changes from mild to steep.

Starting from each control point, sketch the appropriate water surface profile
depending on the zone in which the depth at the control section falls and the
nature of the slope.
Qualitatively locate the hydraulic jumps wherever the flow changes from
supercritical to sub critical. For example, if there is a sluice gate at the
downstream end of a steep channel, the flow is sub critical on the upstream side
of the gate. However, if the channel is long, flow is supercritical far away from the
gate on the upstream side. Therefore, a hydraulic jump occurs in such a channel
(Figure 24.1 b). Also, on the downstream side of a sluice gate on a long mild
channel, the flow is supercritical immediately downstream of the gate. However,
far away from the gate on the downstream side, flow is subcritical. Therefore, a
hydraulic jump occurs in such a case also (Figure 24.1 a).

24.3 Examples
24.3.1 Example 24.1
Sketch and label type of water surface profiles in the Channel shown in Figure 25.1. All
the channels are long.

Figure 24.2: Channel for Example 24.1
Reservoir
NDL
CDL
CDL
NDL
CDL
Channel-1
Channel-2
Channel-3

Solution
Channel-1 is a MILD channel since NDL is above CDL.
Channel-2 is a STEEP channel since NDL is below CDL.
Channel-3 is a HORIZONTAL channel since NDL does not exist.
Critical flow conditions occur at the downstream end of Channel-3 since it is not a
steep channel and there is a free overfall.
Critical flow conditions occur at the junction of Channel-1 and Channel- 2 since
the uniform flow in Channel-1 is sub critical while uniform flow in Channel-2 is
supercritical.
Flow is uniform in both Channel-1 and Channel-2 far away from the junction
point, since the channels are long. Thus flow depths in Channel-1 and Channel-2
fall between NDL and CDL. Therefore, flow profile in Channel-1 is M2 type, while
flow profile in channel-2 is S2 type
In Channel-3, downstream portion would have sub critical flow conditions (critical
depth occurs at the downstream end), while in the entrance region, flow would be

supercritical as it enters from the steep Channel-2. Therefore, a hydraulic jump
should occur in Channel-3. The composite profile is shown in Figure 24.3.

Reservoir
NDL
CDL
Channel-1
Channel-2
M2
S2
Control Point
CDL
NDL
Hydraulic J ump
Control Point
CDL
Channel-2
Figure 24.3: Solution for Example 24.1
H2
H3

24.3.2 Example 24.2
Sketch and label the types of water surface profiles in the Channel shown in Figure
24.4. All Channels are long.

Reservoir
CDL
NDL
NDL
CDL
Sluice Gate
CDL
NDL
Overfall
Channel-1
Steep
Channel-2
Mild
Figure 24.4: Channel for Example 24.2

Solution
Critical flow conditions occur at the entrance to Channel-1 because Channel-1 is
steep and the reservoir water level is above the CDL.
Flow depth in the Channel-1 varies from critical depth at the entrance to the
uniform flow depth far downstream. This is an S2 profile.

At the entrance to Channel-2, flow depth is equal to the normal depth in Channel-
1. This depth is below the CDL for Channel-2. Therefore, flow in the upper
reaches of Channel-2 is supercritical. An M3 profile occurs in this region.
The sluice gate in Channel-2 creates subcritical flow conditions on the upstream
side and supercritical flow conditions on the downstream side. This acts as a
control.
On the upstream side of the sluice gate in Channel-2, flow has to change from
supercritical because flow is supercritical in the upper reaches. Therefore, a
hydraulic jump occurs at some distance on the upstream side of sluice gate in
Channel-2.
The sluice gate opening is such that the flow depth on the downstream side of
the gate is below CDL. Therefore, flow is supercritical here.
The Channel-2 is long on the downstream side of the gate also, and it is mild.
Therefore, it cannot sustain supercritical flow conditions at distances far from the
sluice gate. Flow changes from supercritical to subcritical at some distance
downstream of the gate. This is accompanied by the formation of a hydraulic
jump.
There is a free over fall at the downstream end of the Channel-2. Therefore,
critical depth occurs at this location. Note that the Channel-2 is mild and the flow
is subcritical on the upstream side of the free over fall.
All the channels are long. Therefore, uniform flow conditions are realized in all
the channels far away from the control sections.
Keeping in mind the above points, the composite water surface profile can be
drawn as shown in Figure.24.5.

Reservoir
Control Point
NDL
CDL
Steep
Mild
NDL
CDL
CDL
NDL
Mild
Control Point
Over fall
Control Point
Control Point
Sluice Gate
Figure 24.5: Solution for Example 24.2
S2
M3
HJ
M1
M3
HJ
M2


25.1 Computation of Gradually Varied Flow

Qualitative sketching of water surface profiles in channels having gradually varied flow
has been discussed elsewhere. However, quantitative information on the variation of the
flow depth and flow velocity along a channel is required in many engineering
applications. For example, construction of a dam across a river raises water levels on
the upstream side of the dam. Estimation of the extent of inundation in such a case is
possible only by performing computations to determine the flow depths. Impounding of
water behind a dam also changes the self cleansing ability of the river to assimilate the
municipal waste discharged into it. Thus quantitative knowledge of flow depths and
velocities is essential while conducting the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)
studies also. These computations, generally known as GVF (gradually varied flow)
computations determine the water-surface elevations along the channel length for
specified (i) discharge, (ii) flow depth at any one location, (iii) the Manning roughness
coefficient, (iv) longitudinal profile of the channel, and (v) channel cross-sectional
parameters. Generally, systematic numerical procedures are used for this purpose. All
these numerical procedures are either based on the numerical solution of the non-linear
first - order ordinary differential equation for GVF (Eq. 23.7)
( )
o f
2
3
S S dy
= 23.7
Q T dx
1-
gA

or on the direct application of the algebraic energy equation, using certain
approximations. These methods for the GVF computation are presented in the following
sections.

25.2 Direct Step method
In the Direct Step method, the location where the specified depth, y
d
occurs is
determined, given the location for the occurrence of depth, y
u
. Consider the channel
shown in figure 25.1. In this channel, say depth y
u
occurs at a distance x
u
from the
reference point. Discharge, Q, channel bottom slope, S
0
, the roughness coefficient, n

and cross - sectional shape parameters (which relate A, P and R to y) are also known.
The problem now is to determine the location x
d
(fig. 25.1).
25.1 Definition sketch for Direct Step Method
Datum
Channel Bed
Flow
Water Surface
(known) yu
Flow
(known) yd
d
d
(to be determined)
(known)
xu
Zu
Zd
xd
u
u

Energy equation between sections u and d can be written as follows
( )
2 2
u u d d
f
u u d d d u
V V
z y z y S x x
2g 2g
25.1

+ + = + + +
where subscripts "u" and "d" denote the values at the corresponding sections, and
f
S is
the average slope of the energy grade line between sections u and d. It may be noted
that the slope of the energy grade line, S
f
can be determined using Equation 23.8.
( )
2 2
f 2 4/3
n Q
S 23.8
A R
=
S
f
varies between sections u and d since the flow depth, and consequently A and R vary
between these two sections. S
f
may also due to variation in the roughness between the
two sections. Following equations may be used to determine
f
S .

( )
( )
u d
u d
u d
u d
f f f
f f f
f f
f
f f
1
S S S (25.2 )
2
S S * S (25.2 b)
2S S
S (25.2 c
S S
Arithmetic mean
a
Geometric mean

Harmonic mean

= +
=
=
+
)

Experience has indicated that the arithmetic mean (Eq. 25.2 a) gives the lowest
maximum error, although it is not always the smallest error. Also, it is the simplest of the
three approximations. Therefore, its use is generally recommended, and is used herein.
Noting that the bed elevations Z
u
and Z
d
are related through the bed slope, S
0
and the
distance between the sections, (x
d
- x
u
), Eq. 25.1 can be written as
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
d u
f
d d u u d u 0 d u
V V
y y S x x S x x 25.3
2g 2g

+ + + =

However,

2 2
u u
u u u u
2
u
2 2
d d
d d d d
2
d
V Q
y y E
2g
2gA
V Q
y y E
2g
2gA
+ = + =
+ = + =
u d
25.4
where E and E are specific energies at section u and d, respectively.
Eq
d
uation 25.3 can now be used to determine x .

( )
u d
d u
d u
0 f f
E E
x x
1
S S S
2
25.5
= +
+

In equation 25.5, specific energies
u d
E and E , and the friction slopes,
u d
f f
S and S , can
be computed using the known values of (i) flow depths
u d
y and y , (ii) the flow rate Q,
(iii) the roughness coefficient, n and (iv) the cross sectional shape parameters.
Therefore, x
d
can be computed easily. For example, for a wide rectangular channel
(assuming
u d
1.0 = = ).

( )
( )
2
u u
2
u
2
d d
2
d
2 2
10/ 3
u
2 2
10/ 3
d
q
E y
2gy
q
E y
2gy
and
n q
y
n q
y
Substitution
= +
= +
=
=
u
d
f
f
25.6
S
25.7
S
of Eqs (25.6) and 2 ( )
( )
( )
2
u d u
2 2
d u
2 2
0
10/ 3 10/ 3
d u
q 1 1
x y y
2g
y y
q n 1 1
S
2
y y

+ +

=

+

d
5.7 in Equation 25.5 yields
x 25.8
In Equation 25.8, , , q,
u d 0 u
y , y S n and x are known, and
d
x can be determined easily.
Now that the location of section d is known, it is used as the starting value for the next
step. The water surface profile in the entire channel may be computed by increasing or
decreasing the flow depth, and determining the locations where these depths occur. For
example, say one is interested in determining the changes in flow depths in a mildly
sloping river due to the construction of a dam. The flow depth just behind the dam, y
dam

is known for the specified discharge, Q, the spillway length and the spillway
configuration. Flow depth far upstream of the dam is equal to the normal depth, y
n
since
uniform flow conditions exist there, assuming that the channel is prismatic. By varying
the flow depth value between y
dam
and y
n
in a systematic stepwise manner, and
applying Eq. (25.5) recursively, the extent to which the dam affects the water levels can
be determined. This is illustrated in example 25.1.


Direct step method has the following disadvantages:
Interpolations become necessary if the flow depths are required at specified
locations.
It is inconvenient to apply this method to non prismatic channels because the
cross-sectional shape at the unknown location should be known a priori.


25.3 Example 25.1
A wide rectangular channel having a bottom slope of 0.001 is carrying a flow of
3 m
3
/s/m. A control structure is built at the downstream end which raises the water
depth at the downstream end to 4.5 m. Determine the distance from the control
structure at which the flow depth is equal to 3.8 m. Manning n for the channel is 0.012.
3 m
2
/s
3.8 m
4.5 m
x =?
Control
Structure
Fig. 25.2: Definition sketch for Example 25.1

Solution
Divide the distance into two reaches as shown in Fig. 25.3. The flow depths at
sections 1, 2 and 3 are 3.8 m, 4.0 m and 4.5 m, respectively. Distances
1 2
x x and are determined as follows.
1
2
3
3.8 m
4.0 m
4.5 m
1
2
3
Fig. 25.3: Solution for Example 25.1


Apply Equation 25.8 between sections 2 and 3. Here,
2 3 2
X X X ; 4.0 0.001;
2
3 2 0
Y = 4.5 m; Y m; S n =0.012 and q = 3.0 m /s = = = . Y
2
is
taken as upstream depth while Y
3
is taken as downstream depth.

2
X 499.3m =
Apply Equation 25.8 between sections 1 and 2. Here
1 2 1 2 1
X X X ;Y 4.0 Y 3.8 m; m = = = ; Y
1
and Y
2
are taken as upstream and
downstream depths, respectively.

1
X 199.7m =
Either Equation 25.8 for a wide channel or Equation 25.5 for any general
prismatic channel can be applied in the above step by step manner to determine
the entire water surface profile behind a control structure.
In this example, Y
n
=Normal depth =1.08 m. Therefore, flow depth varies from
4.5 m (Behind the structure) to 1.08 m (far upstream of the structure). Procedure
given in the earlier steps can be used to determine the extent to which the control
structure is affecting the water surface profile, by computing the location where a
flow depth of 1.08 m occurs.


26.1 Standard Step Method
In the standard step method, flow depth at a specified location, y
d
is determined, given
the flow depth, Y
u
at another specified location. Consider the channel shown in Figure
26.1. In this channel, say Y
u
occurs at a distance X
u
from the reference point.
Discharge, Q, Channel bottom slope, S
0
, the roughness coefficient, n and cross-
sectional shape parameters (which relate A, P and R to y) are also known. The problem
now is to determine the flow depth, Y
d
at the specified location X
d
(figure 26.1).
Fig. 26.1: Definition sketch for standard step method
y
u
(known)
y
d
(unknown)
Water surface
Flow
Datum
Channel Bed
X
d
(known)
Z
u
Z
d
u
d
u
d

Equation (25.3) ( ) ( ) ( )
2 2
d u
f
d d u u d u 0 d u
V V
y y S x x S x x 25.3
2g 2g

+ + + =

can be rewritten as
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
d u
2 2
f d u f
d u
d u d u 0 d u
2 2
d u
S x x S
Q Q
y y x x S x x
2.0 2
2gA 2gA
+ + = + + 26.1

In Equation 26.1, the flow rate (Q), the roughness coefficient (n), distances X
d
and X
u
,
the channel slope (S
0
), the flow conditions at section u (
u u u
y , and A ) are known.
Therefore the right hand side of Eq. (26.1) can be determined. On the left hand side, the
area, A
d
and the friction slope,
d
f
S are functions of the flow depth Y
d
. Thus we have
one equation (Eq. 26.1) in one unknown Y
d
. Therefore, Y
d
can be determined by solving

Equation (26.1). Equation (26.1) is a non-linear equation. Either trial and error or
numerical techniques such as bisection, Newton -Raphson techniques etc. can be used
for solving Eq. (26.1).
For example, for a wide rectangular channel (assuming
u d
1.0 = = ), Eq. (26.1)
becomes
( )
( ) ( )
2 2
2 2 2 2
d u
d u d u 0 d u 2 10/3 2 10/3
d d u u
n q x x
q q n q
y y x x S x x
2gy 2y 2gy 2y
+ + = + + 26.2

In Eq. (26.2),
u d u 0
q, n, y , x , x , S andg are known, and so Y
d
can be determined by
solving this equation. Note that Eq. (26.2) is non-linear.

26.2 Example 26.1
A wide rectangular channel having a bottom slope of 0.001 is carrying a flow of 3
m
3
/s/m. A control structure is built at the downstream end which raises the water depth
at the downstream end to 4.5 m. Determine the flow depth at a distance of 1000 m
upstream of the control structure. Manning n for the channel is 0.012.
Y = ?
4.5 m
Control
structure
3 m
2
/s
1000 m
Fig. 26.2: Definition sketch for Example 26.1

Solution
Divide the distance into two reaches as shown in Fig. 26.3. Section 2 is 500 m
upstream of section 3, while section 1 is 500 m upstream of section 2. Flow
depths Y
1
and Y
2
are determined as follows.
1
Fig. 26.3: Solution for Example 26.1
2
3
1
2
3
y
1
=3.50 m
y
2
=4.0 m
4.5 m
500 m
500 m


Apply Eq.(26.2) between sections 2 and 3. Here,
( )
d u
X X 500 0.001, = =
2
0 3
m, S n = 0.012, q = 3.0 m /s and y =4.5 m. Y
2
is taken as
upstream depth while Y
3
is taken as downstream depth. In this example, we
know Y
d
and we are determining Y
u
by solving Eq. (26.2). Equation (26.2)
simplifies to the following:
2
2 3.333
2 2
0.459 0.324
4.025 y
y y
= +

For different values of Y
2
, R.H.S. of the above equation is as shown below

y
2
(m) R.H.S (m)
3.99 4.0156
3.90 3.9267
3.999 4.0245
4.000 4.0255

Therefore y
2
=4.000 m.
Apply Eq. (26.2) between sections 2 and 3. Here,
( )
d u
X X 500m, 0.001,
2
0 2
S n=0.012, q = 3.0 m /s and y =4.0 m. = = Y
1
is taken as
upstream depth while Y
2
is taken as downstream depth. Here, we know Y
d
and
we are determining Y
u
. Equation (26.2) simplifies to the following:
1
2 3.333
1 1
0.459 0.324
3.532 y
y y
= +
For different values of Y
1
, R.H.S of the above equation is as shown below,

y
1
(m) R.H.S (m)
3.49 3.5227
3.50 3.5325
3.499 3.5315
Therefore, y
1
=3.50 m.
Either Eq. (26.1) for any general prismatic channel or Eq. (26.2) for a wide
channel can be applied in the above step by step manner to determine the flow
depth at any given location upstream of the control structure. Thus the entire
water surface profile behind the control structure can be determined.

In this example, a trial and error method is used for solving the non-linear
algebraic equation. One can use Newton-Raphson method for the same
purpose.
In this, as well as in the example 25.1, more accurate results for water surface
profile can be obtained by performing computations over more number of
reaches for the same distance.
Example 26.2
A rectangular channel of 6.0 m width carries a discharge of 12.0 m
3
/s. The channel
slope is 0.0001 and the Mannings n =0.018. There is a free over fall at the downstream
end of the channel. Determine the flow depth at a section 500 m upstream of the free
over fall. Use Standard Step method and one reach.
Solution
Unit discharge, q =12.0 / 6.0 =2 m
2
/s
Critical depth,
1/3
2
c
q
y 0.742 m
g

= =

Normal depth, y
n
:
2/3
n
n 0
n
By 1
q y S
n B 2y

=

+

B =6.0 m
S
0
=0.0001
n =0.018

Solving by trial and error; y
n
=2.8 m
y
n >
y
c;
therefore slope is MILD
Therefore, Critical depth occurs at the downstream end. Denoting section-2 as the
section at the downstream end, section-1 on the section at 500 m upstream of the free
over fall,
2/3
n
n
n
6y
y 3.6
6 2y

=

+


2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 4/3 2 4/3
1 2 1 1 2 2
2
2 1 0
q q Q n x 1 1
Z y Z y
2
2gy 2gy A R A R
y 0.742 m
Z Z S x 0.0001*500 0.05

+ + = + + + +

=
= = =

1
2 2 4/3
1 1 1
1
1
1
0.2038 0.324
y 2.238
y y (R )
6y
R
6 2y
+ =
=
+

Solving by trial and error,

y
1
=depth of flow =2.25 m

Example 26.3
Solve the problem in Example 26.2 using two reaches
Solution
Section 1: Located at 500 m upstream of free over fall
Section 2: Located at 250 m upstream of free over fall
Section 3: Located at downstream end.
Consider sections 2 and 3

2 2 2 2
2 2 3 3
2 2 2 4/3 2 4/3
2 3 3 3 2 2
3
3 2
q q x Q n 1 1
Z y Z y
2
2gy 2gy A R A R
y 0.742M, X=250 m
Z Z 0.0001*250 0.025

+ + = + + + +

=
= =

With the above values, equation for y
2
is given as
( )
2
2 2
2 4/3
2
2
2
2 2
6y 0.2038 0.162
y 1.675 m; R =
6 2y
y
y R
+ =
+


y
2
=1.655 m
Consider Sections 1 and 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 2
2 2 2 4/3 2 4/3
1 2 2 2 1 1
2
2 1
q q x Q n 1 1
Z y Z y
2
2gy 2gy A R A R
y 1.655 m
x 250 m
Z Z 0.0001*250 0.025

+ + = + + + +

=
=
= =

With the above values, Equation for y
1
is given as
( )
1
2 4/3
2
1
1 1
1
1
1
0.2038 0.162
y 1.759
y
y R
6y
R
6 2y
+ =
=
+

y
1
=1.740 m
Flow depth at 500 m upstream of the d/s end =1.740 m. The above value is very much
different from the value of 2.25 m obtained when only one reach is considered. This
illustrates the importance of choosing a small value of x to obtain accurate results.
However, Computational effort increases if a very small value of x is chosen. Above
points should be kept in mind while performing GVF computations.


27. Integration of Differential Equation
Computation of water surface profile can be done by numerically solving the non-linear
ordinary differential equation (Eq. 23.7). Three methods: (i) Euler method, (ii) Improved
Euler method, and (iii) Fourth - order Runge - Kutta method, are presented here.

27.1 Euler Method
Referring to Fig. 27.1, say flow depth Y
i
at a distance X
i
from the reference point is
known. We also know the flow rate, Q, the roughness coefficient, n, the channel slope,
S
0
and the channel cross sectional shape parameters. We want to determine the flow
depth, Y
i+1
at a distance X
i+1
.
tangent line
y = f(x)
true value of
flow depth
y
y
i+1
y
i
X
i
X
i+1 x
Fig. 27.1: Schematic representation of the Euler method

Rate of variation of flow depth, y with a distance, x can be evaluated as follows:
( ) ( )
dy
f x,y 27.1
dx
=
Considering the point, i
( ) ( )
i i
i
dy
f x ,y 27.2
dx

=

From the governing equation (Eq. 23.7),

( )
( )
( )
i
0 f
i i
2
i
3
i
S S
f x ,y 27.3
Q T
1
g A

In Eq. (27.3), subscript i indicates the value of variable evaluated at distance X
i
.
i
f i i
S ,T andA are dependent on the flow depth Y
i
, and therefore, they can be
determined explicitly. Thus at any location ( )
i i
i, f x , y can be evaluated. This is nothing
but the slope of the line drawn tangent to the curve y =f(x) at x =x
i
(Fig 27.1). If we
assume that this value does not change in the interval from x
i
to x
i+1
, flow depth at x =
x
i+1
can be determined as follows.

( ) ( )
i 1 i i i
y y f x ,y x 27.4
+
= +

The above method is known as Euler's Method.
Once Y
i+1
is known, we can determine Y
i+2
at location x
i+2
by repeating the above
procedure. Referring to Fig. 27.1, it can be seen that there is a difference between the
estimated value of flow depth Y
i+1
and its true value. Taylor series expansion would
show that Euler's method is only first - order accurate. This error in the computation of
flow depth at each step may get magnified as the value of x increases, and therefore,
this method is usually unstable. Very small values of x may be required to obtain
satisfactory results.


Example
m
3
/s/m. Flow depth at a particular location is 2.0 m. Determine the flow depth at a
distance 500 m downstream of this point. Manning n for the channel is 0.012. Use
Euler's method.
Solution
i
i
2
i i
2
i
y 2.0 m
T 1.0m(unit width)
A y * 1 2.0m
q 3m /s
1.0 ass

=
=
= =
=
= ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
i
2 2
4
f
10/3
i
-4
i i
2
3
-4
umed
q n
S 1.2858*10
y
0.001-1.2858 * 10
f x ,y
3
1
9.81* 2
9.843* 10
i+1

=
=
y
= =
( )
i
4
f x , x
2 9.843*10 *500
2.492m
Flowdepth at 500mdownstream 2.492m
i i
= y y
=
=

+
+
=


27.2 Improved Euler Method
We can improve the accuracy of Euler's method by using the slope at more than one
point. For example, say
*
i+1
y is the flow depth at
i+1
x obtained using Euler's method.
( ) ( )
i i i
y f x ,y x 27.5 = +
*
i+1
y
We can compute the slope of the curve at X =Xi+1 using the above value of
*
i+1
y .
( )
( )
( )
i 1
*
0 f
*
i 1 i 1
2 *
i 1
3
*
i 1
S S
f x , y 27.6
Q T
1
g A

+
+ +
+
+

where superscript * indicates the values obtained using the flow depth
*
i+1
y . Now, we
can determine the value of y
i+1
from the equation given below.
( )
( )
( )
*
i 1 i i i i 1 i 1
1
y y f x ,y f x ,y x 27.8
2

+ + +

= + +

This method is known as the "Improved Euler" method. It is second-order accurate.


Example
m
3
/s/m. Flow depth at a particular location is 2.0 m. Determine the flow depth at a
distance 500 m downstream of this point. Manning n for the channel is 0.012. Use
Improved Euler method.
Solution
( )
( )
i
i
2
i i
2
y 2.0 m
T 1.0 m (unit width)
A y 1 2.0 m
q 3 m /s
1.0 assumed
=
=
= =
=
=
( )
i
4
f
-4
i i
*
i 1
*
i 1
*
i 1
S 1.2858*10
f x ,y = 9.843* 10
y 2.492 m
T 1.0 m
A
+
+
+
=
=
=
( )
[ ]
i 1
2
* -5
f
* -4
i i 1
4
i 1
2.492 m
S 6.1772 * 10
f x ,y = 9.9735* 10
1
y =2.0 + 9.843 9.9735 *10 *500
2

+
+
+
=
=
+
=2.495 m

Flow depth at 500 m downstream =2.495 m.


27.3 Fourth - Order - Runge - Kutta Method
In the fourth order Runge - Kutta method, the slope of the water surface profile, f(x,y) is
determined as a weighted mean of four slopes as given below.
( )
( )
[ ]
[ ] ( )
1 i i
2 i i 1
3 i i 2
4 i i 3
i 1 i 1 2 3 4
s f x , y
x 1
s f x , y s x
2 2
x 1
s f x , y s x 27.9
2 2
s f x x, y s x
and
1
y y s 2s 2s s x 27.10
6
+
=

+ +

+ +

+ +
= + + + +

=
=
=

This method is fourth-order accurate.

Example 27.3.1
A rectangular channel of 5.0 m width carries a discharge of 10 m
3
/s. The channel slope
is 0.0001 and the Mannings n =0.018. Flow depth at a particular section in this channel
is 2.5 m. Determine the flow depth at a distance of 1000 m downstream of this section.
Solution
q =unit discharge =10 / 5 =2 m
2
/s
critical depth,
1/3
2
c
q
y 0.742 m
g

= =

Normal depth, y
n

2/3
n
n
n
2/3
n
n
n
5y 1
q y 0.0001
n 5 2y
5y
or y 3.6
5 2y

=

+

=

+

y
n
=2.945 m
In this case,
n c
y y > MILD SLOPE
c c 2
y y and y y M Profile > <

Thus the water surface profile is of M2 type. Therefore, the flow depth decreases in the
downstream direction.
0 f
2
3
2 2
f
2 4/3
s s dy
s Slope
dx
q
1
gy
q n
S =
y R
= = =

Calculations for slope s
1
(based on y =y
i
=2.5 m)
q =2 m
2
/s

s
0
=0.0001

n =0.018

y =2.5 m; A =2.5 * 5 =12.5 m
2

P=5+2*2.5=10 m; R =1.25 m

2 2
4
f
2 4/3
4
5
1
2
3
q n
S = 1.54*10
y R
0.0001 1.54*10
s 5.544*10
q
1
gy
= =

2

Depth for slope s
2
is given by
i 1
x
y s 2.472m
2
= =
y =2.472 m; A =12.36 m
2

P =9.944 m; R =1.243 m
Based on this; s
2
=-6.032*10
-5

3

Depth for slope s
3
is given by
i 2
x
y s
2
+ =2.470 m
y =2.470 m; A =12.35 m
2

P =9.94 m; R =1.242 m

Based on this ; s
3
=- 6.076 * 10
-5


4

Depth for slope s
4
is given by
i 3
y s x + =2.439 m

y =2.439 m; A =12.195 m
2

P =9.878 m; R =1.235 m

Based on this ; s
4
=- 6.6286 * 10
-5

( )
i 1 i 1 2 3 4
i
x
y y s 2 s s s
6
y 2.5 m
x 1000m
+

= + + + +

=
=

i 1
y
+
=Flow depth at 1000 m distance =2.439 m

Let us consider the solution for the above problem using Eulers method

-5
i 1 i 1
y y s x =2.5-1000*5.544*10 2.445 m
+
= + =
Thus there is an error of 6 mm if Eulers method is used instead of Runge Kutta
method. The resulting error is significant in case the flow depth is close to the critical
depth. Consider the solution to the problem in Example 27.3.1 using the Eulers method.
y 0.78 m
[A slightly higher value is taken so that the singularity in GVF equation is avoided.

0 f
2
S S dy
dx
1 F

dy
dx
becomes infinity when F tends to one or when flow approaches Critical Conditions]
A =0.78 * 6 =4.68 m
2

P =7.56 m

R =0.619 m

3
0 f
2
3
S S dy 3.937*10
0.028
dx 0.1408
q
1
gy

= = =


[ ]
2 3
y y 250.0 0.028 7.77 m = =

This is obviously a wrong answer since flow depth in this case cannot exceed the
normal depth value of 2.8 m. Therefore, one has to watch out for numerical errors while
applying these schemes for GVF computation. These numerical errors can be reduced
by taking small values of x and by using higher-order methods such as Fourth-order
Runge-Kutta method.


27.4 HEC - 2
HEC - 2 is a very popular computer program developed by the Hydrologic Engineering
Center of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineering Center of the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers, for the purpose of computation of water surface profiles in natural and man-
made channels. This software is based on the application of standard step method for
solving the one-dimensional, steady gradually varied flow equation. HEC- RAS model is
a newer version of HEC - 2 model. This model can simulate flow through single, tree-
type, and fully looped systems. It can simulate sub critical flow, supercritical flow, and a
mixture of both within a system. Effect of bridges, weirs, gates and culverts on water
surface profile can be computed. An excellent Graphic User Interface for input and
output handling makes this software very simple to use even for complex river systems,
with many different hydraulic structures, and with irregular cross-sections. More details
about this software package can be found in "www.hec.usace.army.mil".

Normal Hydraulic Jumps NHJ
Click for Video link
28.1 Introduction
When the depth of flow changes rapidly from a low stage to a high stage, it results in an
abrupt rise of water surface. This local phenomenon is known as 'hydraulic jump'. It
occurs in a canal below a regulating sluice, at the toe of a spillway or at the place where
a steep channel slope suddenly turns flat. It is well known that a large amount of
air entrains in the roller portion of the jump due to the breaking of the water surface.
Consequently a large amount of energy loss occurs in the jump through dissipation in
the turbulent body of water. A considerable amount of investigations, both theoretical
and experimental, have been carried out on the jump (See box - History).
Sluice
Gate
1
Hydraulic
jump
2
3
Fig. 28.1 - Rapidly varied flow with Hydraulic jump (1 and 3 subcritical flows,

Fig. 28.2 - Formation of Hydraulic jump at the toe of the spillway
Hydraulic jump
Toe



History

The earliest description of the hydraulic jump appears to be by Leonardo da Vinci
in 1452- 1519. Bidone was the pioneer to conduct investigations on the hydraulic
jump in 1818 -1819. Belanger in 1828 developed the momentum equation
connecting the sequent depths. Then onwards innumerable contributions have
been made towards the understanding of the basic mechanism of the hydraulic
jump. The following are some of the significant contributors amongst several
investigators responsible for present state of knowledge of the jump: Bresse (
1860 ), Darcy and Bazin ( 1865 ), Uniwin ( 1875 ), Ferriday and Merriman ( 1894
), Gibson ( 1913 ), Kennison ( 1916 ), Woodward and Riegel Beebe ( 1917 ),
Koch and Cartstanjen ( 1926 ), Lindquist ( 1927 ), Safranez ( 1917 ), Einwachter
( 1933 ), Smetana ( 1934 ), Bakhmeteff and Matzke ( 1936 ) , Escande ( 1938 ),
Citrini ( 1939 ), Nebbia ( 1940 ), Kindsvater (1944 ) , Blaisdell (1948 ), Forster
and Skrinde (1950 ), Moore and Morgan ( 1957 ), and Rouse et al. (1958 ). A
detailed mathematical treatment of hydraulic jump was made by Flores (1954 ) .
Rajaratnam's contributions to the knowledge of hydraulic jumps during 1960s are
outstanding. For a comprehensive bibliography on the jump, reference may be
made to the following references: 'The standing wave or hydraulic jump ( 1950 ),
(Central Board of Irrigation and Power)' ; ' A bibliography on hydraulic jump
(Central Board of Irrigation and Power) ( 1955 )'; ' Hydraulic energy dissipators (
1959 )' ( Elevatorski - The Hydraulic jump, May 1955); Hydraulic Energy
dissipators Elevatorski - Mcgraw Hill, 1959) 'Open Channel Hydraulics Chow
V.T., McGraw Hill ( 1959 )';'Advances in Hydroscience (Hydraulic jump by
Rajaratnam.N edited by Chow.V.T. Vol. - 4 , Academic Press New york and
London, Page 197 to 280 ( 1967 )' ; Self Aerated flow characteristics in
developing zones and in Hydraulic jumps, (Thandaveswara Phd Thesis, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, J une- 1974).


Hydraulic J ump has many practical applications, for example (a) to dissipate the high
kinetic energy of water near the toe of the spillway and to protect the bed and banks of
a river near a hydraulic structure (b) to increase the head in the power channel (c) to
remove air pockets from pipes (d) for mixing of chemical in water supply system.
Figure below shows a schematic view of the classical hydraulic jump on a horizontal
floor. The details in this unit are confined to the case of the hydraulic jumps on level
floors in rectangular channels and this type of jump is referred to as the Normal
Hydraulic J ump (NHJ ). The supercritical Froude number of the approach flow is the
major parameter that influences the characteristics of the hydraulic jump.
L
j
L
rj
Toe
1
2
y
2
V
2
F
1
y
1 V
1
y
28.3 SCHEMATIC VIEW OF THE HYDRAULIC J UMP
1
2
x
Hydrostatic pressure distribution
Roller zone
y
r
Super critical to sub critical


28.2 Classification of Jumps
As mentioned earlier, the supercritical flow Froude number influences the
characteristics of the hydraulic jump. Bradley and Peterka , after extensive experimental
investigations, have classified the hydraulic jump into five categories as shown in
Figure 28.4.
The hydraulic jump is the phenomenon that occurs where there is an abrupt transition
from supercritical (inertia dominated) flow to sub critical (gravity dominated) flow. The
most important factor that affects the hydraulic jump is the initial Froude number
1
F .
1
1
V
F
gD
=
in which
1
V is the longitudinal average velocity at the initial section, g is the acceleration
due to gravity and D is the hydraulic mean depth (ratio of area of flow at free surface
width).
As mentioned above, it occurs in a straight prismatic horizontal channel of rectangular
shape in which boundary friction is negligible (NHJ ).
The hydraulic jump can be classified based on initial Froude number as
Undular( )
1
1 17 F . = , weak( )
1
17 25 F . . = , oscillating jet( )
1
25 45 F . . = , steady
( )
1
45 90 F . . = and strong( )
1
90 F . > .

Undular jump 1.0 < F
1
< 1.7
Weak jump 1.7 < F
1
< 2.5
Oscillating jump 2.8 < F
1
< 4.8
Steady jump 4.5 < F
1
< 9.0
Strong jump F
1
> 9.0
Fig. 28.4 - Classification of the J ump


Type of J ump Froude Number Remarks
Critical flow
1
F 1 = Wavy surface , celerity
c gy =
Undular jump
1
1 < F 17 . < Undulations on the
surface
Weak jump
1
1.7 < F 25 . <
Small rollers, No baffles.
Oscillating J ump

1
2.5 < F 45 . <
No periodicity. Rip rap
may get damaged
Canal drops, difficult to
handle.
Baffle blocks or
appurtenances are of
little value. Wave
suppressors may be
designed.
Steady jump
1
45 < F 90 . . < Position, is sensitive to
variation of Tail Water,
Efficiency is 45 to 70 %.
Strong J ump
1
F 90 . >
Efficiency is 85 %

The jumps can also occur on horizontal bed or sloping bed. The jump can take place in
radially diverging, radially converging, rectangular, sudden convergence or expansions
in plan. The jump can occur in different shape of the cross section of the channel such
as rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, circular channels. The jump can occur in the
conduit either at the free surface or fully flowing downstream condition. The annular
jump is yet another type. The jump can be either free (unsubmerged) or submerged
condition such as in the downstream of sluice gates. The jump can be a forced one with
the appurtenances (such as baffles, sills, chute blocks) or free (i.e. either without any
appurtenances). J ump could be either stationary or moving (hydraulic bore).
The jump can be in stratified flows such as warm and cold water (flowing over each
other), air and water (classical jump) or in case of gas to gas (internal jump).
The Important macroscopic parameters are initial depth
1
y , sequent depth
2
y , Initial
mean velocity
1
V , mean velocity at the end of the jump (exit velocity)
2
V , length of jump
( )
j
L and the roller
( )
rj
L .

Classifications of Jumps
I. Based on
Froude
Number
Undular, weak, oscillating, steady and strong (See the figure - 2 above)
II. Based on
Bed Slope
Horizontal
,
Sloping

III. plan shape
of boundary
Rectangular

Radial Diverging Channel

Radial Converging Channel

Sudden Expansion


IV. Shape

y
1
y
2
Rectangular

T
b
m
1
m
1
Trapezoidal
y
1
y
2

T
m
1
m
1
y
1
y
2
Triangular

T
d
o
Circular free surface flow
y
1
d
o
y
1
Circular free surface to Pressure flow


V. Fluid Status
Water
liquid
Gas
Air
Classical Hydraulic jump

Gas to Gas Internal jump
liquid (warm)
2
liquid (Cold)
Liquid to Liquid (
2
>
1
)

VI.
Submergence
Sluice
Gate
1
Hydraulic
jump
2
3
Free J ump (Not Submerged)

Sluice
Gate
1
2
3
Submerged J ump
Tail water depth is greater
than the sequent depth

VII. Motion
Stationary J ump

Moving
J ump
Example:
Hydraulic
Bore
VIII.
Appurtenances
unforced or Free

Free J ump (Unforced)
(without Appurtenances)

Forced
Chute block
Baffles or Piers or floor blocks End Sill
Forced J ump (with Appurtenances)


J ump in gradual expanison - looking downstream




28.3 Momentum equation
The ratio of sequent depth
2
0
1
=
y
y
y
may be computed assuming
hydrostatic pressure distributions
uniform velocity distributions
air entrainment is negligible and
time-averaged quantities
in sections 1 and 2.
Belanger's momentum equation for sequent depths of a hydraulic jump on a level floor
in a rectangular channel can be derived by applying momentum equation between
sections 1 and 2 as given below.
2 2
1 2
1 2
1 1 1 2 1 2 1 1 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 2
1 2
2 2
2 2
2 2 2
2 1
1
1 2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2
2 2
1 1 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
1 1
1 2 3
1 1 1
Q Q
ZA ZA
gA gA
For a rectangular channel A by , A by , Q VA V A ,
VA V y y y
V ,V , Z , Z ,
A y 2 2
Q y Q y
by b
gby 2 gby 2
Q y Q y 1 y
gyb 2 gb y y 2
V Q b y Q
F
gy gy gb y
di
+ = +
= = = =
= = = =
+ = +
+ = +
= = =
2
1
2
2 2 2
1 1 2
3 2 2 2 3
1 1 1 2 1
2
2 2
1 2
1 1
2 1
vided by y
Q y Q y 1 y 1
0
gy b 2y gb y y y 2
1 y y 1
F F 0
2 y y 2

+ =

+ + =



( )
( )
( )
2
2 2 2
1 1 2
3 2 2 2 3
1 1 1 2 1
2
2 2
1 2
1 1
2 1
2
2 2
1 2
1 1
2 1
3
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 1
3
2 2
2 2
1 1
1 1
Q y Q y 1 y 1
0
gy b 2y gb y y y 2
1 y y 1
F F 0
2 y y 2
y y
2F 1 2F 0
y y
y y
2F 1 2F 0
y y
y y
2F 1 2F 0
y y
This can be r

+ =

+ + =

+ =

+ =

+ + =

2
2
2 2 2
1
1 1 1
2
2 1
1
2
2
2 2
1
1 1
2
2 1 2
1
1
ewritten as
y y y
2F 1 0
y y y
y
1 0 y y uniform flow.
y
y y
2F 0 a quadratic equation.
y y
1 1 8F y 1
Hence 1 8F 1
y 2 2

+ =

= =

+ =

+ +

= = +

(28.1)

= +

y
1
2 2
1 8F 1
1
y 2
1

in which y
2
, y
1
are sequent and initial depths respectively and
1
1
1
V
F =
gy

is the initial
Froude number. Equation 28.1 has been verified by many investigators experimentally
and often a ratio lower than the one calculated by the equation has been recorded.
Belanger , did not consider the bed shear force while deriving Eq. 28.1. Rajaratnam in

1965, proposed the following momentum equation taking into consideration the
integrated shear force.
(28.2)

+ +

3
y y
2 2 2 2
1 2F 2F = 0
1 1
y y
1 1

In which is the non dimensional integrated shear force, given by
f
2
1
P
y
2
and is a
function of Froude number. P
f
is the integrated shear force.
He used the data of Rouse et al. , Harleman, Bakhmeteff ,Safranez , Bradley - Peterka ,
along with his own. Figure 2 shows the effect of shear force on sequent depth ratio.

Belanger
Rajaratnam
Sarma and Newnham
Eq. 28.1
Eq. 28.3
Eq. 28.2
0
2
4 6 8
10
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
F
1
Fig. 28.5 - Variation of sequent depth ratio
y
2
y
1
___


Sarma and Newnham 1975 introducing the momentum coefficient (
j
1.045 = ) for the
non uniform velocity distribution obtained the following modified momentum equation
(28.3)

= +

y
1
2 2
1 10.4 F 1
1
y 2
1

In Eqn. 28.3, a value of
j
was used by them based on the assumption of a similarity
profile for the velocity distribution. Eq. 28.3 gives a higher value for the sequent depth
ratio, compared to the value computed from Eq.28.1. Their analysis was carried out
upto a Froude number value of 4.


28.4 General Hydraulic Jump Equation

The internal equation of motion for a hydraulic jump can be integrated in two ways
whether the control volume is defined on a microscopic scale. The hydraulic jump takes
place over a short distance (of the order of five times the sequent depth) the transition is
dominated by initial momentum flux and pressure forces due to sequent depth.
Boundary shear forces are secondary in nature. Consider the situation shown in
Figure 28.1 (unsubmerged, forced hydraulic jump in a radially diverging sloping
channel). The macroscopic approach is as follows:

Ps /2
V2
V1
Ps /2
Plan
__
__

z
_
y
2
y
1
+
+
1
z
__
2
Section 1
Section 2


y1
y
Wcos
Ff
V1
P1 V2
x
y2
FD
1
2
Figure 28.1 - Schematic diagram of a hydraulic jump in free surface flows
P2
__
__

Using the Greens theorem, the Reynolds equation for turbulent flow can be integrated
over the control volume V to obtain.
x
x x
j
i i
d + d = - p d + x d V
i

i j i j
u u u u
( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
u j
i
+ d (28.1)
j
1 2 3 4 5

x
x

in which is outwardly directed normal.

The first term represents the net flux of momentum through the boundary , due to
mean flow. The second term represents the net momentum transfer through the
boundary due to turbulence. The third term represents the pressure force (resultant
mean normal) exerted on the fluid boundary . The fourth term represents the net
weight of the fluid within the control volume V and the fifth term represents mean
tangential force exerted on the boundary .
A macroscopic momentum equation is obtained if the above equation is applied to the
control volume V , shown in Fig 1.
Consider the momentum in the x direction, then it can be written as

{ } ( ) 2 1
2 1 2 1 1 2
V V (28.2)
2

+ = +

s D f
Q Q I I P P P sin F W sin F

in which, pressure force, is force on the side wall.

( )
2
dA/ QV , I = v' dA, P = ' gAz cos v =

, pressure force
s
P , is force on the side
wall.
The continuity equation is
1 2
1 2
Q = V A = V A (28.3)
Equations 2 and 3 are to be solved simultaneously to determine the sequent depth,
velocity
( )
2 2
v , y for given initial condition ( )
1 1
v , y . If
0
0 S = , rectangular channel without
baffles, and no side thrust, then it simplifies to the standard format (equation 4)
2 2
2 2 2 2
1 2
1 1 2 2
V V
2 2
y y y y
g g
+ = + (28.4)
1 2
1 2
V V y y = (28.5)
When solved results in
( )
3 2 2
0 1 0 1
2 1 2 0 y F y F + + = or
( )
2
0 1
1
1 8 1
2
y F = + (28.6)
in which
0
y is the sequent depth ratio
2
1
y
y
.
Bed friction decreases the ratio by about 4% at
1
10 0 F . = . It is to be noted that the
macroscopic approach yields only sequent depth ratio and no information regarding
surface profile or the length of the jump. In radial stilling basins, sloping basins, forced
hydraulic jump even the sequent depth ratio depends on the internal flow and hence the
physical model is used for determining.

29.1 Energy loss in the Jump

The loss of energy E in the normal hydraulic jump is equal to the difference in specific
energies before ( E1 ) and after ( E2 ) the jump and can be shown to be equal to

( )
3
y y
2 1
E = (29.1)
4 y y
1 2

Show that
( )
3
2 1
1 2
y y
E
4y y
= for a Normal Hydraulic J umps.

Solution
Momentum equation can be written as
( )
( ) ( )
( )( )
( )( )
( )( )
2 1 1 2
2 2
2 1 1 2
1 1 2 2
1 2
1 2
1 2 1 2 2
2 1
2
1 2
1 2 1 2 2
1 2
2
1 2 1 2 1
2
Q
V V p-p
g
Q 1
V V b y y
g 2
Q byV by V
Q Q Q
q, V , V
b by by
Q Q Q 1
y y y _ y
gb y y 2
Q y y 1
y y y _ y
gb y y 2
y y y y y y Q 1

gb 2
=
=
= =
= = =

= +

= +

+
=

( )
( )
( )( )
2
1 2
2
1 2 1 2 2
y y
Q 1
y y y y (1)
2gb 4
= +


Specific Energy Equation
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 2 2 2 2 2
1 2
2
1 2 2 2 2
1 2
2 2 2
2 1
1 2 2 2 2
1 2
2
2 1
1 2 2 2 2
1 2
V V
y y E
2g 2g
Q Q
y y E
2gy b 2gy b
Q 1 1
y y E
2gb y y
Q y y
y y E
2gb y y
y y Q
E y y 1
2gb y y
Substituting equatio
+ = + +
+ = + +

+ =

+ =

+
=

( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 1
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
1 2
2
2 1
1 2
1 2
2 2
1 2 1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
3
2 2 1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
n (1)
y y 1
E y y 1 y y y y
4 y y
y y 1
y y 1
4 y y
4y y y y 2y y
y y

4 y y
y y y y
E y y 2y y
4y y 4y y
+
= +

+
=

=

= + + =

or the relative energy loss can be written as

+

=
+ +
3
2
1 8F 3
1
E 1
(29.2)
E 8 2 2
1 (2 F ) [ 1 8F 1]
1 1


( )
{ }
( )
{ }
( )
3
2 1
1 2 1 2
2
1 1 1
1
3 3
3 2
2 1 2 1
1 1 2 1 2
2
2
1
1 1
1
1
3
2
2 1
1
2
2 1 1
3
2
1
2
1 2
y y
E E E 4y y
V E E
y
2g
y y y y
1 1
y 4y y y 4y
=
y
y V
2 F
2
2
2 2gy
1
1 8F 1 1
y 2
2
= . *
4y y 2 F
1
1 8F 1 1
1
2
= *
2 F y
2
y

= =
+

=

+
+

+

+

+

+
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
1
3
2
1
2
2 2
1 1
3
2
1
2 2
1
1 1
1
1 8F 1
2
=
1
2 F 1 8F 1
2
1+ 8F 3
E
=
E
8 2 F 1 8F 1

+

+ +

+ +

It can be seen from Eq.29.2 that when F1 is 20, the relative loss would be 86% but to
dissipate 99.6 % of the initial energy a Froude number of 1000 is required !. The energy
in the jump is dissipated through the conversion of mean kinetic energy into turbulence
and through viscous action. Rajaratnam ( 1967 ) presented the following equation to
predict the energy profile along the jump.
+
=
2 "
y / y 0.632 F f ( )
1 1
y
E
1
(29.3)
2
E
F
1
1
1+
2
x


He evaluated the value of ( x / y
1
) using experimental results. Equation 29.3 shows
that the energy profile falls rapidly in the initial part of the jump and approaches the
downstream energy line asymtotically. This analysis includes the turbulent kinetic
energy and the work done by the Reynolds stresses.


29.2 Turbulent Characteristics of the Jump

To understand the turbulent characteristics of hydraulic jumps, one of the major
difficulties is the number of entrained air bubbles that form the fluid discontinuities.
Rouse et al. simulated the jump in an air duct shaped to match the profile of the jump.
This investigation was conducted based on the assumption that if the mean flow
patterns were similar and the energy changes and the Reynolds number are
comparable than the patterns of turbulence would also be similar. The mean velocity
distribution was similar to Rajaratnam's finding except that the scale of the maximum
velocity , V
max
, was very much lower.
Their analysis of the turbulent intensities and the product of the mean components,
indicates that the fluctuating velocity is small near the toe and large in the regions of the
maximal velocity gradient in the longitudinal distance x / y2 between 1.0 and 2.0 and
again becomes small towards the end of the jump. The maximum values of
2 2
' '
and
v u
V V
were about 27 % and 20 % respectively for a Froude number value of
6.0. The turbulent shear stress also exhibits maximum values in the zones of maximal
velocity gradient.
Along the jump turbulence production, dissipation and convection occurs. The
turbulence production is greatest in the regions of greatest velocity gradient, being at a
maximum at x / y
2
= 1.0 and the maximum dissipation occurs at a later section.
Production of turbulence become very small at x / y
2
>5.0.
Using the momentum equation, Rouse et al. further computed the mean momentum
flux, integrated shear stress, turbulent momentum flux, and pressure assuming
hydrostatic pressure distribution and negligible turbulence level at the toe.
Hubbard in 1959 conducted some investigations in a hydraulic jump in an open channel
regarding the velocity fluctuating component. He chose the section just downstream of
the roller where the longitudinal turbulent velocity component was measured along a
vertical line. He observed that the fluctuations were so erratic that only a rough
indication of the root mean square value or the instantaneous mean velocity could be

obtained. He concludes that due to the lower velocity of water the frequency spectrum
of turbulence shifted downwards. Figure shows a typical record obtained by him. It can
be seen that bursts of high intensity turbulence are interspersed with a period of
relatively tranquil flow.

) a ( (b)
0.1 sec t
u
'
(a) :
y
y2
=0.65 ,
=0.4 ,
__
y
y2
__
y
2
=0.9
x
__
y2
=1.4
x
__
Fig. 29.1 - A TYPICAL TURBULENCE FLUCTUATION RECORD
(b) :
(Hubbard, Tr. ASCE, V 124, pp 962 - 964, 1959)

Resch and Leutheuser measured turbulent intensities in jumps for Froude numbers 2.85
and 6.0 with two different approach flow conditions. They concluded that the turbulent
structure in the jump strongly depends on the supercritical flow characteristics. Fully
developed upstream flow leads to a state of jump turbulence underlaid by a wall
turbulence layer. They found that the wall turbulent layer is totally absent in case of
undeveloped upstream flow cases. They concluded further that the length of the jump
directly depends on these flow features. Later they investigated the Reynolds stress
characteristics in the jump. They used the earlier technique of eliminating the effect of
air bubbles which consisted of digitising the turbulent signal to permit using a computer
programme by means of which liquid phase points are separated from air phase points,
after choosing a characteristic length. This confirmed their earlier results that the
turbulent structure in the jump is influenced by the upstream flow conditions. In their
investigations they have assumed that the air bubble do not play any significant role and
do not affect the turbulence structure.

29.3 Pressure Distribution in the Jump

Usually the pressure distribution in the hydraulic jump is assumed to be hydrostatic.
Rajaratnam in 1965 showed, however, that the pressure distribution is non hydrostatic.
Also he pointed out from his result that there exists a narrow region near the wall
(around 5 % of the depth) exhibiting hydrostatic pressure distribution and the deviation
from the hydrostatic pressure distribution is more in the earlier reaches of the jump and
increases as the Froude number increases. The pressure profiles indicate adverse
pressure gradient and vary in a complex manner with the distance. The profile
configuration is controlled by the supercritical Froude number.
Vasiliev and Bukreyev found that the frequency of the pressure fluctuation distribution
greatly differs from the normal distribution in the initial portion of the jump including the
roller and just downstream of it. They found that the most intensive fluctuations and the
widest spectra take place in
2 2
' '
and
v u
V V
, and the coefficient of pressure variation
is 17% in this zone. The diminution of the spectra ordinate may be approximated by a
power law with an exponent of 1.5 to 2.0.
King in 1967 showed the largest pressure fluctuations occur at a frequency of about 15
Hz in a model. He cautions that the fluctuation of 5 Hz to 1 Hz should be avoided. Later
Bowers and Tsai in 1969 found that most of the energy is contained in frequencies less
than 1 Hz. From the pressure records, Lesleighter from that the peak to peak
fluctuations, during the interval of less than 0.5 sec . was of the order of 50% of the
maximum velocity head in the prototype. His results indicate larger uplift pressures with
Skewness.
In 1971, Sadasivan found that the maximum pressure fluctuation occurs between
1
x
8 12
y
from the toe and the magnitude increases with Froude number. Correlation
of non -dimensional spectral density with nondimensional frequency showed a power
law variation with an exponent of -1.7.


29.3.1 Pressure fluctuations in the hydraulic jump

Pressure fluctuations in the hydraulic jump have been studied by many investigators by
mounting the pressure transducers on the stilling basin floor. The fluctuating pressure
can be characterized by rms value. Figure shows the dimensionless rms value as a
function of distance relative to the length of roller
( )
07 =
rj r
L . L . The peak
dimensionless rms pressure of 0.05 to 0.082 occur at 30 % to 40 % from the roller
length or at about 25 % the length of the jump.
Typical rms pressure versus X/L, at bed of hydraulic jumps
X/L
r
2
1

v
1
2 __
2
Khader and Elango
Free jump
4.7 < F
1
< 6.6
Bourkov
Free jump
Schiebe
and
Bowers
Vasiuev
and
Bykreyev
Wisner
(pipe)
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
0
0.5
1.0

Note: The fluctuating pressures in the Hydraulic jump formed on the stilling basin are
measured using Pressure Transducer. The figure shows the results obtained by Khader
and Elango in 1974. The above figure shows the variation of dimensionless rms peak
fluctuations obtained by various investigators analysed by them.

29.4 Velocity Distribution in Hydraulic Jump
The approaching uniform flow velocity imparts some amount of energy to the ambient
fluid which changes the velocity distribution. After the jump, the variation of depth, flow
pattern, and air entrainment influence the velocity distribution. There has not been much
work on the velocity measurements particularly in the roller zone. Experiments by the
Miami conservancy District in 1917, clearly show that the approaching high velocity of
the water gradually diminishes through the jump.
Later Hubbard recorded the turbulent fluctuation in a hydraulic jump just downstream of
the roller, to compare the results of the air model investigated by Rouse et al.
However, it appears that it is Rajaratnam in 1965 who rationalised the analysis. He
conducted an extensive investigation of the mean velocity distribution in the jump
formed just below a sluice gate in a smooth channel in a Froude number range of 2.68
to 9.78. His measurements were confined to forward flow. He compared his results with
the wall jet and he was able to show the existence of similarity law of velocity
distribution. further, he concluded that the velocity in the boundary layer follows the
defect law and hydraulic jumps, the pressure gradient is adverse and its effect must be
felt as observed by Clauser.
Resch and Leutheusser in 1971-1972, have measured the turbulent velocity fluctuations
both in forward and backward flow of the jump.
An understanding of the velocity distribution is necessary when energy loss is to be
computed. However, it is usual to assume a uniform velocity distribution. Till recently
there had not been much work on velocity measurements in hydraulic jumps and
particularly in the roller zone. Miami Conservancy district conservancy report shows that
the velocity of the water gradually diminishes through the hydraulic jumps.
Hubbard and Rajaratnam investigated about the velocity distribution in jumps. The latter
conducted extensive investigations on the velocity distribution. His measuremets were
confined to forward flows in a Froude number range of 2.68 to 9.78. His analysis
followed the analogy of a wall jet.

In the following paragraphs the results of the Thandaveswara are reported in which an
attempt is is made to measure the velocity in the roller zone also.
In Figures a to f the normalised velocity ( V/ V
1
max ) distribution along the jump have
been plotted against the normalsied depth ( y / y
1
) in which V
1
max is the maximal
velocity of the appraching flow and y
1
is the depth of the approaching flow. The velocity
profile rises sharply up to the maximum velocity of the flow and then decreases
gradually as to the depth increases and finally becomes zero. These velocity profiles
exhibits similarity with the wall jet velocity profile as discussed by Rajaratnam. In
backflow the roller zone, is shown in dotted lines in Figures a to f. The negative sign
indicates only the direction. These components are only approximate, as the roller is full
of eddies and even the presence of a pitot tube will cause disturbances and affect their
characteristics. J ust downstream of the roller, the velocity profiles begin at a higher
level. In this region the flow becomes almost static and full of vortices. The presence of
vortices is discussed elsewhere. Farther downstream of this region the flow reverts to
nearly uniform flow.
In Figures g to h. the variation of the velocity profile along the jump is presented for the
PHJ . This also exhibits a sharp rise up to the wall turbulent zone. As observed in the
NHJ , there exists a zone near the bed where the flow is anticlockwise and the velocity
profile shown is only for the main flow direction. Later, flow returns to the normal
condition.

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y
___
y1
0
4
6
8
10
0 0.4 0.8 1.2
Run R1
v
v1
_____
max
(a)

0 0.4 0.8 1.2
v
v1
_____
max
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Run R2
y
___
y1
(b)


0 0.2 0.8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
Run R3
y
y
1
___
v
v
1
_____
max
Velocity Distribution in the Jump (NHJ)
(c)


y
y
1
v
v
1
_____
max
0
0.4 0.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Run R4
___
(d)


Velocity Distribution in the Jumo (NHJ)
0 0.4 0.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y
y
1
v
v
1
_____
max
___
Run R5
0
1.2
(e)


0 0.4 0.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y
y1
v
v
1
_____
max
___
1.2
0 0
Run R6
(f)


Velocity Distribution in the Jump (PHJ)
0 0.4 0.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y
y
1
v
v
1
_____
max
___
1.2
*
Run B0
(g)


Velocity Distribution in the Jump (PHJ)
0 0.4 0.8
0
2
4
6
8
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
y
y
1
v
v
1
_____
max
___
1.2
*
0
Run B2
(h)


29.5 Length of the Jump
The length of the jump is an important factor in the design of stilling basins. The
beginning of the jump or the toe of the jump can easily be fixed as the mean position of
the oscillation at the abrupt rise of the water surface. But there has not been any
general accord as to the location of the end of the jump and has become a controversial
issue . Riegel Beebe ( 1917 ), Ludin ( 1927 ), Woycicki ( 1931 ), Knapp (1932 ),
Safranez ( 1933 -39 ), Aravin ( 1935 ), Kinney ( 1935 ), Iranchenko, Chertoussou, Page
(1935), Bakhmeteff and Matzke (1936), Douma ( 1934 ), Posey ( 1941 ), Moore ( 1943 )
, Wu ( 1949 ), and Bradley - Peterka ( 1955- 57 ) are some of the investigators , who
have proposed definitions for the length of jump. In the following paragraphs the relative
merits and demerits of some of the definitions are discussed.
Bakhmetoff and Metzke who were the first to investigate systematically the longitudinal
elements of the jump, took the end of the jump as the section of maximum surface
elevation before the drop off caused by the channel conditions downstream. In fact,
because of the flat nature of the water surface , they could only mark out a region in
which the end of the jump could be arbitarily fixed. The jump lengths as given by
Bakhmeteff and Matzke are somewhat shorter than the jump lengths produced in wider
channels probably because they are affected by the friction of the narrow width of the
flume.
Stevens while discussing the paper by Bakhmeteff and Matzke propossed that the
length of the jump is a result of two motions : first the translatory motion of the water
prism downward and secondly the vertical motion due to the rate of conversion of
kinetic to potential energy .
Another definition which seems to have found favour with earlier investigators is that the
end of the jump may be taken as the end of the surface roller. But it has been
confirmed, firstly by the experimental results reported by Mavis and Luksch (1936) and
later by Rouse et al. that the lengh of the jump is always greater than the length of the
roller.

Behera and Qureshy, and Qureshy ( 1947 ) defined the length of the jump as the
distance between the well defined toe and the section at which a cylinder placed in the
flow on the floor of the channel will just topple. At first the cylinder should be placed far
downstream and moved back upstream until it is toppled by the flow. The shape and
size and weight of the cylinder influences the fixing of the length in addition to the forces
exerted on the cylinder being affected by the boundary layer near the channel. This
definition is from personal error but of little use for designing purposes.
Bradley and peterka ( 1957 ) in their investigations on the stilling basins, have defined
the end of the jump as the section at which the high velocity jet begins to leave the floor
or immediately downstream of the roller, whichever is farther away from the toe of the
jump. Instead of defining the end of the jump as the section at which the high velocity jet
begins to leave the floor ( which does not eliminate the personal error completely ) it
would have been better if the bed velocity at the end in the downstream channel had
been chosen as a certain percentage of the appeoach velocity as suggested by
Rajaratnam ( 1961 ).
Elevatorski's ( 1955 ) definition for the end of the jump is also not much different from
the previous roller end definition. Rama Muthy ( 1960 ) defined the length of the jump as
the distance from the toe of the jump to the section where the flow depth reached a
value of 98% of the tailwater level. This definition is free from personal error and agrees
with the findings of earlier investigators. However, it is not theoretically sound as the
jump is not an asymptotic phenomenon. Nevertheless, it is very useful because of its
simplicity. However, this again suffers from the problem of finding the sequent depths
accurately.
Rajaratnam in 1961 suggested two criteria for the length of the jump. The first criterion
is based on the fact that the mean energy is first transformed into turbulence which later
decays through viscous shear. Based on the results of Rouse et al. it can be concluded
that the turbulent velocity components become uniform through the depth and decay in
the longitudinal direction. The end of the jump may be taken as the section at which the
fluctuating velocities are fairly uniform and the level of turbulence is equal to a suitable
value determined by the investigation. This definition will help hydraulicians to

rationalise the formula but unfortunately there has not been much advancement in
measuring turbulence in water and that too in hydraulic jumps which is a two phase
phenomenon.
The second criterion is based on the location of the point at which the flow velocity is a
certain percentage of the bed velocity. This approach seems to be feasible from the
mean velocity data of Moore and Rouse et al. As remarked by J aeger ( 1955 ), the
length of the jump is a function not only of the sequent depth but of the energy
dissipated in the jump as well. Chandrasekhara Swamy in 1959 gave an analytical
equation for two dimensional flow assuming ( i ) that the flow in the initial section is
uniform and free from turbulence ( ii ) that the mean turbulent stressses are neglected
over the free surface and, ( iii ) that the pressure distribution is hydrostatic. His equation
is implicit in nature.
Alternately, the length could be defined as the section at which the bed shear causing
the movement of the bed material and is less than the critical tractive force for the
particular bed material with a predetermined factor of safety. Based on the mean air
concentration distribution along the jump, Rajaratnam suggested that the end section
can be chosen at that section where the mean air concentrarion is 2%. As his method of
computing the mean air concentration was different from that of the definition given by
Straub and Anderson (1958).
Sadasivan in 1977, based on the measurements of random pressure fluctuations,
suggested that the length of the jump can be defined as the distance at which the
pressure fluctuation subsidises and the free surface becomes constant. However , this
cannot be utilised for design purposes and is arbitrary. This length depends on the
turbulence levels in the approaching flow and in the roller zone.
Sarma and Newnham by assuming the end of the jump just downstream of the roller
and selecting a length short enough to neglect the shear force presented an empirical
equation
=
L
rj
8.75( F -1 ) (29.4)
y
1
1

Which is almost comparable to Eq. 29.5 of Tschertoussow except for the exponent.

=
L
rj
0.81
10.3 ( F -1 ) (29.5)
1
y
1

However, Equations 29.4 and 29.5 represent only the length of the surface roller.
There have been several other investigations such as those of Safranez, Einwachter ,
Rouse et al. and Rajaratnam . Figures 1.4 and 1.5 show the nondimensional plots of
length of roller and length of jump with initial Froude number respectively.Rajaratnam
found that the length of the roller is generally less than the length of the jump and
approaches the length of jump as the Froude number increases. It was found that the
ratio L
rj
/ L
j
increases from about 0.4 at F
1
=3.0 to about 0 .70 at F
1
=9.0.
0
2 4 6 8
10
2
4
6
1
3
5
F
1
Fig. 29.2 NORMALISED ROLLER LENGTH OF THE J UMP
AS A FUNCTION OF INITIAL FROUDE NUMBER
Safranez
Rajaratnam
Rouse et al.
L
rj
y
___
2


Developed flow
Undeveloped flow
U.S.B.R.
Rajaratnam ( c =2%)
_
Ramamurthy
Sarma and Newnham
Leutheusser and Kartha
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
}
L
j
y
__
Fig. 29.3 - VARIATION OF NORMALISED LENGTH OF THE J UMP
WITH INITIAL FROUDE NUMBER
1
F
1
=V
1
/ g y
__
1
1
1
2
2
3
3
4
4
5
5
6
6


TABLE 29.1 - Emprical relationships for Length of the Normal Hydraulic jump

Researcher Emprical relationship
Ludin
1
j 2
c
V
L 45
V

=

y .
Safranez
j 2
L 52 . y
Bakhmeteff,
Matzke
( )
j 2 1
L 5 y = y
Knapp
( )
( )
2
2
1 2
1
j 1 2
1
V V
y
L 625 113 E E
E 2
V
E =y +
2g

= +

. .
g

Smetana ( )
j 2 1
L 6 y -y
Kinney ( )
j 2 1
L 6.02 y -y =
Douma
j 2
L 3y =
Posey ( )
j 2 1
L 4.5 - 7 y y
Wu ( )
-0.16
j 2 1 1
L 10 y y F =
Woycicki ( )
2
j 2 1
1
y
L y y 8 005
y

=

.
Ivanchenko
( ) ( )
0185
2
j 1 2 1
L 10.6 F y y
=
.

Einwachter
( )
( )
2
1
2 1 2 2
rj 2
1 1
2 1
V y y 1
y y
L 15.2 - 0.241 1
y y
y y g

=

/
/

Chertoussov
( )
0.81
j 1 1
L =10.3y F-1
Page
j 2
L =5.6y
Riegel, Beeba ( )
j 2 1
L 5 y -y
Aravin ( )
j 2 1
L 5.4 y -y


30.1 Air entrainment Characteristics of the Jump
Since the beginning of jump studies it is known that air is present due to entrainment in
the roller portion and downstream of it. There have not been many investigations on this
aspect excepting some investigations on the air pumping capacity of the jump in closed
conduits by Stevens , Kalinske and Robertson , Haindl and Sotornik , Haindl , Che Pen
Chen and Wisner (1965). Thandaveswara (1975) have conducted very detailed
investigations.
Willes was the first to conduct investigations on the effect of air entrainment on
hydraulic jump characteristics in 1937. Willes observed that for values of F1 less than
12 (=3.464) the admission of air into the jump decreased the comparative length of
the jump and for values of F
1
greater than 12 (=3.464), the comparative length of the
jump increased.
Studies on air entraiment characteristics in open channel hydraulic jumps was
pioneered by Rajaratnam . With the probe he developed for measuring air concentration
, he conducted investigations in a Froude number range of 2.42 to 8.72. His probe
introduces dusturbances in the back flow region of the roller zone. He calibrated it
against the Saint Antony Falls (SAF) probe up to 20 % air concentration only. From his
experiments it is clear that the air concentration values are only 20 % and below. Also
air concentration was measured only up to a part of the depth. Rajaratnam defined two
parameters, namely, ' air intake zone' and ' air release zone' based on the mean
concentration distribution in the jump. For computing the mean air concentration, he
adopted the equation
=
=

1
C + C + C +............. C
n
1 2 3
C = (30.1)
n
n
i
i
C
n

in which C1, C2.......Cn are local air concentration values. Equation 30.1 gives only an
arithmetical mean value and the depth is not a fixed parameter. Straub and Anderson
defined the mean air concentration as

1
C = (30.2)
d
0
u
d
u
C dy

in which C is the local air concentraion in an interval of depth dy. The upper limit of the
flow du is to be taken at a local concentration value of 95 to 99 % which is arbitrary.
Eq.30.1 and Eq.30.2 will result in the same value provided Cn happens to be at du. But
as seen from the results presented by Rajaratnam it does not appear to be so. He
expressed the maximal of mean air concentration
1.35
max
1
C =F .

Rathnakara Rai in 1971 conducted some studies on air entrainment characteristics of
the normal hydraulic jump.
Thandaveswara in 1975 conducted detailed investigation on air entrainment
characteristics of normal hydraulic jump.
The air entrainment in a classical hydraulic jump is rather particular case. The air
concentration increases from the bottom to the surface, with the small bubbles close to
the bottom and larger ones at the surface. The cross-sectional average concentration
increases sharply from the toe to a maximum and then decreases slowly until beyond
the end of jump. Expressions for the maximum air concentration, the aeration length
and the location of the maximum concentration, among others involve again the
approach Froude number
1
F . Thandaveswara, Rajarathnam have conducted detailed
investigations on air entrainment.
There is no analytical or mathematical model for predicting the air entrainment
distribution characteristics. Uppal, Gulati and Sharma (1967) presented a comparison of
the prototype and model jump profiles for the Bhakra dam spillway and stilling basin.
The prototype depth at the middle of the jump was increased by 50 % above the model
prediction. This increase is caused by preentrained air. Sharma recommends that the
air interval or removal of air given by Kalinske and Robertson be replaced by Froude
number at the vena contracta of the gate in the tunnel.


( )
14
1
00066 1 =
.
a
w
Q
. F
Q

The U.S. Army corps of Enginners suggsted a formulae for air demand conduit as

( )
106
1
003 1 =
.
a
w
Q
. F
Q

The oxygen transfer efficiency in a hydraulic jump is of
2
091 016 . to . kg O / kWh
for a prototype hydraulic jump with an initial deficiency of 50 % .
Reference
Sharma, Hari R., "Air Entrainment in High Head Gated Conduits,", J ournal of the
Hydraulics Division, ASCE, 102, 11, pp 1629 - 1646, November 1976.

30.2 Pre entrained hydraulic jump (PHJ)

The details so far presented are for the normal hydraulic jump where the approaching
supercritical flow is free from air entrainment. In the hydraulic jumps formed at the foot
of high head structures the approaching supercritical flow is self aerated and such types
of jumps with pre entrainment are called ' pre entrained Hydraulic J umps ' ( PHJ ).
Earlies studies have been mostly empirical. Douma (1943 ), Gumensky and Yevdjevich
and Levin ( 1953 ) studied the flow characteristics with particular reference to field
observations.
Douma derived a modified formula on the assumption that the air entrained jet has a
lower density but moves with the same velocity as computed by Hall . Hall's test
revealed that the effect of air entrainment is to increase the chute velocity as well as to
the conjugate depth given by the equation
= +
2
y
2 2 1 1
y (1 ) y 2(1 ) y [1 (1 ) ]
2 1 1
y
2
V
C C C
g

In which C is computed by the equation
2
0.2 V
C = 10 1
gR

In which V is the mean velocity, R is the hydraulic mean radius.

Gumensky in 1949 derived a similar formula in terms of the equivalent ' solid ' depth and
the actual velocity at entry ( which is not necessarily equal to the values computed on
the assumption that no entrainment occurs ). Yevdjevich and Levin in 1953, presented
an empirical equation for sequent depth
*
2
y for hydraulic jump in sloping channels
given by

= =

2.5 (1 )
2 1 1
y y F
2 1 1
(1 ) (1 )
* * *
2 2
C V
r
q
C g C


In which C and C
1 2
are the mean air concentrations before and after the jump
*
1
F ,
is the initial Froude number . The factor r
2
depends on the assumed shape of the
concentration distribution and r2 =2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 for rectangular, parabolic and
triangular distribution respectively. They concluded that the principal effect of air
entrainment in stilling basins is bulking which leads to considerably greater and more
efficient energy dissipation. In stilling basins the change of slope (to a flatter one)
reduces air concentration and air gets released.
Frankovinc in 1953 concludes that the greater part of energy loss occurs in the channel
itself than through the hydraulic jump in the stilling basin. This loss accounts for 75 %
which means that the depth of the mixture is twice as great as the depth corresponding
to water velocity.
Rajaratnam in 1962, covered a small range of Froude number ( 2.6 to 3.59 ). He derived
a theretical equation for sequent depth ratio for PHJ on a horizontal floor given by
+ + =
3 ' 2 2 '2
- [ ( 1 -C ) 2.52(1 )F ] 2.60(1 ) 0
1 1 1 1
* *
C C F
T T T

In which =
y
2
*
1
d
T
and =
'
F ,
1
*
V
C
T
gd
T
is transitional mean air concentration of the
approach flow. He computed the sequent depth ratios for different values of CT . He concluded
that
1
depends with CT for a given value of Froude number.
Rajaratnam formulated an approximate equation for the energy loss for pre entrained jump and
given by
( )

*
'2
2 2
1
2
* 1 1
1 1 (1 )
1 1 1 2 2
2 1
2
1
1
2
E
2
E
1
' 2
1
(1 ) F
1 1
2 2

l
F
C
T
C
T
C
T
C
T


In which =
,
1
(1 )
d
C d
T T
is proportionality factor relating the mean velocity,
1
is the
percentage of discharge in the lower region and is taken as 0.98. It can be seen from the above
equation that the relative energy loss is a function of C
T
and
*
'
F
1
.
Rajaratnam has made two assumptions while deriving the above Equation. viz: ( i ) the
approach flow is uniformly aerated and ( ii ) the contribution of momentum to the
supercritical flow by the upper region of the approaching flow is negligible. While
computing he assumed that the mean velocity of the aerated flow is proportinal to the
mean velocity of non -aerated flow and using the data of Straub and Anderson it was
found equal to 1.12.
Rajarathnam defined air pumping capacity as
a
w
Q Airflow rate C
Q waterflow rate 1 C
= = =

The air pumping capacity varies with x. The maximal and is given by
( )
1.245
max 1
0.18 F 1 =

30.3 Air Concentration Distribution along the Jump
Figures below show the variation of air concentration distribution along the NHJ (Normal
Hydraulic J ump). These figures exhibit distinct kinks near the toe and the roller portion
of the jump. As the depth increases along the flow these kinks flatten out and ultimately
disappear. Rajaratnam presented similar curves in his studies. It may be noted that in
all his cases the local air concentration never exceeded 20 % even at the highest
Froude number value of 8.72. Further he measured the concentration only up to a
portion of the depth. In an aerated flow the apparent air concentration is seen to vary in
a continuous manner from a finite value near the bottom to 100% of air at the surface. It
is therefore difficult to postulate a suspension of air bubbles in water reaching 100%
concentration.Straub and Anderson's results exhibit this feature distinctly. This may also
be seen from the concentration distributions of self aerated flows in steep channels.
Distribution of air concentration along the jump (NHJ)
y
__
y1
y
__
y1
0
4
8
12
0
4
8
12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
140 160
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
140 160 180
x
__
y1
x
__
y1
C%
F4 = 7.6395
Re1 = 37313
F4 = 5.9119
Re1 = 32338
0 0
20 40 60 80 100
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0
20 40 60 80 100
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0


0 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
0
4
8
12
16
20
0
4
8
12
0 10 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
y
__
y1
F4 = 9.1377
Re1 = 44776
F4 = 9.2165
Re1 = 52368
y
__
y1
x
__
y1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
4
8
12
16
20
24
C%
0 20
40 60 80 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
F4 = 10.4695
Re1 = 59507
y
__
y1
x
__
y1


x __
y1
20
40
60 80 100
120 140 160 180
C%
20
40 60 80 100 00 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
8
4
0
3
2
1
F
4
= 9.8819
Re
1
= 65174

In Figures above the variation of concentrarion distribution along the PHJ is shown. The
approach flow was uniformly aerated and the distribution in the approach flow follows
the distribution pattern as described by Straub and Anderson. In the earlier reaches of
the jump kinks may be seen in the distribution of air concentration. The reason for the
presence of kinks may be attributed to the presence of high level turbulence intensities
in this region and the continuous vortex breaking that occurs. Resch and Leuthessuer
showed that near the wall a higher level of turbulence exists. The turbulence intensity
reaches its peak value of about 70 % to >100% at a nondimensional depth ( with
respect to local depth ) of 0.75 to 0.55 for Froude numbers of 2.85 and 6.0 respectively
for undeveloped flow. The intensity of the large scale turbulence fluctuations in the main
flow direction increases with increasing particle concentration and further the increase
of turbulence intensity increases the concentration and this does not depend upon the
size of the bubble. Further the formation of vortices in the core of the jump, yields
differential velocity gradients and air in the form of bubbles will be sucked in resulting in
higher air concentrations. It may also be observed that the depth occupied by air
reduces as the flow proceeds downstream and is confined only to a small depth near

the free surface. The above observations are confirmed from isocons (Isocon is a line
representing equal values of air concentration).
Effect of Initial Froude Number on Mean air concentration

Rajaratnam correlated the maximum mean air concentration with the initial Froude
number ( F4 ) on a log - log paper. An empirical equation given by
=
1.35
C F max
4

But the mean air concentration as computed by Rajaratnam is entirely different from
that defined earlier and does not represent the true value. Hence Thandaveswara
computed the mean concentration as defined by Straub and Anderson. An empirical
relation for Maximum Mean air concentration may be given as
=
0.443
C 0.146F max
4

In the PHJ the mean concentration of approach flow plays an important role along with
the position of the jump from the toe of the spillway. As the uniformly aerated flow
enters the channel the slope changes which influences the velocity and other
characteristics of the approaching flow. It was observed that the quantity of air in the
approaching aerated flow reduced as the flow advances in the channel. This affects the
air entrainment characteristics to a considerable extent. Thus the correlation of the
maximum mean air concentration was made by taking the relative value with respect to
the mean concentration was made by taking the relative value with respect to the mean
concentration of the approaching flow ( A C ). Correlation for the concentration ratio with
the initial Froude number can be described by the empirical relation
=
2.05
0.0325F
1
max
C
C

The relative concentration increases as the Froude number increases.

Correlation of Maximum Mean
Concentration with Initial Froude
Number (NHJ )
Correlation of Concentration
Ratio with Froude Number (PHJ )
Cmax
__
%
Cmax = 0.146 F
__
0.443
4
Cmax =F
__
1.35
4
Cmax
__
______
CA
__
2 3 4 5 6 78910 20 2 3 4 5 6 78910 1
1
2
3
4
5
7
10
20
30
50
F4
F1
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.5
2.0
Cmax = 0.0325F
2.05
1
Rajaratnam
Thandaveswara
Rajaratnam
Thandaveswara
Series B
Series E
__
C
__
A
____


30.4 Decay of Turbulence Downstream from a Stilling Basin

The turbulent pressure characteristics are important in designing for the cavitation
resistance. With
'
p as the fluctuating pressure component and
f
p as root-mean-
square value (rms), the dimensionless pressure value
( )
2
1
2 =
f
P p / v / varies only
with dimensionless location =
r
X x / L . The maximum
'
m
p of the function P(X) varies
also with
1
F and is 0.08 for
1
45 = F . , and smaller for other
1
F . The distribution of
pressure P(X) along the jump can be expressed as
( )
2
1 3
3

=

X
m
P / P X e .
For a given value
1
F of and thus
m
p , the turbulent pressure has a maximum at X=1/3,
i.e. just behind the toe of the jump.
Leutheusser and his co workers obtained the turbulence intensity and Reynolds stress
using hot film anemometer in hydraulic jump. They concluded that the internal
characteristics are influenced by whether the boundary layer is developed or otherwise.
The position of the maximum velocity for developed case shifted upward near the
commencement of the jump resulting in a surface wave. The tendency of flow
seperation on the beds and walls of the stilling basin is affected by inflow boundary
development (
2
5 7 < < x / y for
1
4 = F and
2
3 7 < < x / y for developed and
undeveloped flows respectively). The tendency of boundary layer seperation increased
with increasing
1
F in undeveloped flow. Rajarathnam (1965, 1967) and later
Thandaveswara (1975) have studied the velocity distribution in hydraulic jump.
Thandaveswara studied the air entrainment characteristics of normal (classical)
hydraulic jump and pre-entrained jump. Rajarathnam treated the jump as a wall jet.
Higher the degree of disintegration better it is. This information is very useful in the
design of erosion protection. Lipay and Pustovoit in 1967 provided an equation for the
*
A
u maximum instantaneous velocity near the bed.


( )
1
2
2
2
02
12
V
1 007
= +
+
*
A
u . F
.
. x / y

It may be noted that nearly 5 to 10 times of the sequent depth are required for sustained
decay of the excess of turbulent velocity component in the outflow from a stilling basin.

31. Hydraulic Jumps in Sloping Channels
Hydraulic jumps can occur in channels with larger bed slope that the gravitational forces
acting on the flow must be included. The major problem in obtanining a useful solution
to this problem are: ( 1 ) The term W sin is not well defined, because the length and
shape of the jump are not well defined, ( 2 ) the specific weight of the fluid in the control
volume changes significantly owing to air entrainment, and ( 3 ) the pressure terms
cannot be accurately quantified.

The earliest experiments carried out by Bidone on the hydraulic jump were actually
performed in a sloping channel. Bazin in 1865 and Beebe and Riegel in 1917 also
attempted to solve this problem. In 1927 Ellms attempted a theoretical and experimental
study on sloping channel jumps (9
o
to 17
o
jumps). Yarnell in 1934 initiated an extensive
study ( 600 tests) of the hydraulic jump in sloping channels (1:6, 1:3, 1:2, 1:1) which
was not completed because of his untimely death in 1937. Rindlaub in 1935 conducted
experimental investigation of 8.2
o
, 12.5
o
, 24.2
o
and 30
o
slopes with horizontal and most
experiments were on 12.5
o
slope . Bakhmeteff and Matzke conducted tests on 1:14
slope in 1936. Kindsvater( 1944 ), using the unpublished Yarnell data, was the first
investigator to develop a rational solution to the problem. Kindsvater also conducted
studies on 1:3, 1:6 slope channel. Hickox conducted experiments in 1944 in channel
with 1:3 slope. Dutta further studied in 1949 on slopes 1:3 , 1:4, 1:6. USBR in 1954
conducted extensive studies and slopes varied from 1 on 19 to 1 on 3.6 (3.01
o
to
15.52
o
) .Extensive studies have also been conducted by Bradley and Peterka ( 1957 )
and Argyropoulos ( 1962 ) and Rajarathnam (1966).
In discussing the equations and relationships available for hydraulic jumps in sloping
channels, it is convenient to consider a number of cases. J umps or sloping channel are
classified into six types viz A, B, C, D, E and F. It is to be noted that, the end of the jump
is taken at the end of the surface roller, unlike sequent depth in NHJ . Fig.1 shows these
six formations.

L
r
y
1
Roller
y
2
=y
1
Type A
The jump occurs at the beginning

of the horizontal bed

Type B
y
2
=y
1
L
r
y
1
The jump overlaps the junction

Type C
y
2
=y
1
L
r
y
1
The jump ends exactly at the junction


Type D
L
r
y
1
y
2
y
t
The jump occurs on the sloping channel

Type E
Lr
y1
y2
The jump is on the sloping channel

without any break in the slope


Type F
Lr
y1
y2
Adverse slope
The jump occurs in the adverse slope
Example: Near the downstream end
of the Draft Tube in Hydro Power Stations

Definition Sketch for types of Hydraulic Jumps on Sloping Channels

The notation are y
t
is the tailwater depth, L
rj
is length of the jump measured horizontally
upto the end of the roller, y
1
is the supercritical depth of flow on the slope which is taken
as constant, y
2
is the subcritical sequent depth corresponding to y
1
, and y*
2
is the
subcritical depth for NHJ on horizontal flow.
In general, the end of the jump, in horizontal channels, is the section where the stream
in the down stream attains the maximal steady elevation. This definition cannot be
applied to the slopping channels. Because, even after the jump action is over, the water
surface might be still rising owing to the flow expansion caused by the sloping bed.
Kindsvater suggested that the end of the roller may be taken as the end of the jump.
Thus L
j
=L
rj
. Hickox found that for slopes greater than 1:6 the end of the roller is
practically as the section of maximal surface elevation. Further, the approach flow on
the slope is assumed to be constant.

If the jump begins at the end of the sloping section, and occurs on level flood then
*
2
y =
y
t
and a type A jump, occurs which is similar to classical jump. If the end of the jump
coincides with the intersection (junction) of the sloping and horizontal bed, a type C
jump occurs.

If yt is less than that required for a type C jump but greater than
*
2
y , the toe of the jump
is on the slope and ends on the horizontal bed. This situation is termed a type B jump.
If y
t
is greater than that required for a type C jump, then a type D jump occurs
completely on the sloping section.
Type E jumps occurs on sloping beds which have no break in slope, and type F jump
occurs only when there is adverse slopes such as in the case of tail race of the draft
tube (could be submerged).
Types A to D are the most common jumps.
Kindsvater (1944) developed an equation for the type C jump for sequent depth.

= +

2
'
1 F
3
y 1 cos
2
1 8F 1
1
y 2cos 1 2N tan

in which
F
N is an empirical factor related to the length of the jump and is the angle of
the bed slope.
F
N depends on the slope angle. The above equation can be written as

= +

1
'
y
1
2 2
1 8 1
1
2 y
G
in which
=
=
1
F
'
2 2 2
G F and
1 1 1
3
cos
2
1
1 2 N tan
y / cos
1
y

Bradley and Peterka (1957 a) and Peterka (1963) found that
F
N depends mainly upon
, and Rajaratnam (1967) provided the following relationships.
= =

0.027
10 or log 0.027
1 1
where is in degrees.
Bradley and Peterka ( 1957a) and Peterka ( 1963) also found that above equation could
also be applied to the Type D jump, only with the jump that
2 t
y y . Regarding B type a
graph was presented. The Figure shows that in addition to the curve presented by them
two curves of tan 0.05 and 1.0 = are added. The curves
2
*
2
y
y
are plotted against
2
*
l
y


in which l is the distance of the toe of the jump from the junction. Even though Analytic
solution for the B jump has not yet been developed, Bradley and Peterka (1957) and
Peterka ( 1963 ) have developed a graphical solution for this type of jump based on
laboratory investigations.


0 2 4 6 8
10
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
Y
2
*
Y
2
*
Y
t
l
__
y2
*
Y
t
__
Solution for Type B jump
Peterka A.J. "Hydraulic design of Stilling basins
and Energy Dissipators", Engineering Monograph,
Number - 25, U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, Denver 1963.
Type B Jump
Rajarathnam N. "Hydraulic Jumps", Advances in
Hydro Science, Volume - 4, Academic Press,
New York, 1967, pp 197 - 280
l

The first step in classifying the jump (a) the slope of channel must be considered along
with the initial depth of super critical flow and the tail water conditions. Peterka assumed
the initial depth as constant on the sloping bed and developed a procedure to classify
the jump on sloping bed. The results presented by Bradley and Peterka regarding the

length of the D - jump are shown in figure. This figure may also be used for estimating
the lengths of the Type - B and Type - C jumps. The energy loss for the Type - A jump
mat be estimated from the standard equation for Normal Hydraulic J ump (NHJ ). For
J umps Types C and D, expressions can be derived. The reader is referred to the book
by Richard H. French "Open Channel Hydraulics", Mc GrawHill Company, 1986.

0 4 8
12 16 20
1
2
3
4
5
6
L
__
y
t
tan = 0.15
tan = 0.20
tan = 0.25
Hydraulic jump length in sloping channels for jump
types B, C, and D. (Peterka, 1963)
F
1
=
u
1
gy
1
____


French provided a flow chart for classifying the hydraulic jump type in sloping channels.

if
Find Y
2
Eq (3.2.38)
Y
2
Y
t
*
> jump
Type A
jump
Type C
jump
Type D
Type B
Y
2
Y
t
=
if
if
Y
2
Y
t
<
Determination of hydraulic
jump type in sloping channels
yes
no
yes
yes
no
no

Energy Loss in sloping channels for Types C and D

+ +
2
y v
1 1
E = L tan
1 rj
cos 2g

in which L
rj
is the length of the roller and v
1
is the approach velocity of the super

critical flow. The energy at the end of the jump is given by


= +
2
v
2
E y
2 2
2g

in which v
2
is the velocity at the downstream of jump. Then the relative energy loss

can be expressed as

+ +

=

+ +

2
L y
2
t
y F
rj 1
2 1
1 1 tan
y 2 y y
y
t 1 1
2
y
E 1

L y
E 2
t
F 1
rj
1
1 tan
2 y y
t 1

in which
y
1
y
1
cos
. In general, the above equation should not be used in situations

when F < 4.0
1
as E / E
1
is sensitive to the ratio
rj
2
L
y
.

Hydraulic jump

( )
( )
2
2
1
1
2
1
y
0.5 8F 1 1
y
0.5 8F 1 1
= +
=

Also
2 2
1
2F = +

Van Driest modified the equation incorporating the correction factor

( ) ( )
2 ' '
2 1
2 1
1
1 1,T 2 2,T
R
P
2F (1)

+ +

=
+ +

in which is the coefficient of velocity correction,
'
is the pressure correction factor,
1
R / P is the effect of friction, relative to the resulting static pressure
1
P in the approach
flow. Friction factor can reduce the depth by 2 to 8 %.

If is the ratio of mass densities of
a
air water
water
=
then three different cases are

possible.

(i)
2 1
= <1.0 same air concentration at the beginning and at the end of jumps.

(ii)
2 1
=1.0, <1.0 air entrained approach flow and air free at the downstream end.

(iii)
2 1
<1.0 unequal air concentration before and after the jump.

The respective equation for hydraulic jump can be written as follows.
Case (i)
2 2 3
1 1,2 1 1,2
3 2 2
1 1,2 1 1,2
2
1,2 1
2 F 2F (2)
1 2F 2F 0 (2a)
8F 1 1 (3)
+ = +
+ + =

= +

Case (ii)
3 2 2
1 1
3
2
1
1
2F 2F 0 (4)
2F (5)
1

+ + =

Case (iii)
3 2 2
2
1 2 1 2
1
1 2
2
2F 2F 0 (6)
if equation 6 reduces to eq.2
if 1.0 equation 6 reduces to 4 and 5

+ + =

=
=

If
1 2
= equation 6 reduces to equation 2.
If
2
1.0 = equation 6 reduces to 4 and 5.
Further incorporating the air entrainment, except, the equation 1 can be expressed as
( ) ( )
3 ' 3 '
2 2
2 1
1 1,T 1 2 2,T 1
2 1 1
R
2 F 2 F 0
P

+ + + + =

or

( ) ( )
2 ' '
2 1
2 2 1 1
1
1 1,T 2 2,T
R
P
2F

=
+ +

Specific force equation to hydraulic jump considering air entrainment in the approach
flow can be written as,
2 2
1 2
wl wl wL 1wL wL wL wl 2wL
1 1
Q V gbh Q V gbh
2 2
+ = +

writing
2w
wl wL w w
1w
h
Q Q , and =
h
then

2 2
1
1w w w 2w
w w 1 w 1,2 w 1,2
2 2
1,2 1,2
1 bh Q V 1 bh
Q V g g
2 2
+ = +

w 1 1w
As Q Vbh = then

2
2 2 2
1,w 2,w
1 1w 1
1,w
1,2 1,2
h h
V h V
bh b b b
g 2 g 2
+ = +

When simplified

2 2
1 1
3
1,2 1,2
1w 1w
2V V
2
gh gh
+ = +

With
1
1
1,w
V
F
gh
= it simplifies to equation 2.

3 2 2
1 1,2 1 1,2
2F 2 F + = +

Rajarathnams Equation for Pre entrained J ump

3 ' 2 2 ' 2 2 2
1 1 1 2
' ' +2F C 2F C 0 + =

in which
2
2
1
2,w ' 2
1 1
1wl 1,wl
h
V
' = F F
h gh
= = =


1
= since
2
1.0, =
1
C and
2
C are the correction factors for non uniform

distribution over the depth of cross section considered. Rajarathnam suggested

1
C 1.12 = and
2
C 1.14 =

Specific Force

wl wl w w w w
1
Q Q Q (1) = =

Hydrostatic Pressure

2
w
w w wl wl
1 h
P gbh , h
2
= =

With air entrainment

Specific Force of Water

2
w
w w w w w
2
wl
wl wl wl wl wl
2
w
w
w w w
2
wl w w w
wl w
1
S Q V + gbh
2
1
S Q V + gbh
2
1 h
= Q V + gb
2
1 1
S - S gbh 1
2
S >S
=
=

=

w,l
=Mass density of aerated water
w
=Mass density of water
w,l
w
=

2
2
w w
wl wl wl w
1 1 h P
P gbh gb
2 2
= = =


wl
h =depth of self aerated water
w
h =depth of water
b =width of the channel
P =Hydrostatic pressure


32.1 Sequent Depth Tail Water Relationship - Stilling Basin
In a stilling basin excess hydro mechanical energy is converted mainly into heat, spray
and sound (See box).
Water flowing with supercritical velocity in a wide rectangular channel when charges to
subcritical flow hydraulic jump occurs . Assuming approach flow to be uniform and
hydrostatic pressure distribution, evaluate the change in mechanical energy through the
jump. If heat transfer to the surroundings is negligible, find the change in water
temperature through the jump.
1
y =600 mm,
1
1
5 V ms
= ,
1
F =2.061.
Answer

4
1
Temp =4.49 10 k
188 k mc . Nm g
=

Reference: Robert.W.Fox - Introduction to Fluid Mechanics, MCdonald, Fourth Edition
pp.180

The stilling basin is a hydraulic structure located between the outlet works of a dam and
the tailwater, to where, should return excess flows safely. The stilling basin is a
structure in which a hydraulic jump is generated and has been designed economically in
terms of length, tailwater level and scour.
The selection of a stilling basin depends on
Approach flow conditions,
Tail water characteristics,
Scour potential and
Personal preferences.
The approach energy head should be between 10 and 30 m, in order that the
performance of the basin is successful. A number of standard basins are available that
have been tested extensively by Peterka, (1958). Problems with stilling basins can
occur for high approach velocity. Froude number less than 2.5 with asymmetric
approach conditions, non linear inflow or outflow or low tail water level. In general, the

minimum tailwater level should be equal to the sequent depth. Relationship between tail
water and sequent depth is shown in figure 32.1.

y
2
= sequent depth,
y = tailwater depth
y
1
y
2
y'
2
Relationship between Tailwater (y )
and Sequent depth (y )
t
2
t

Case 1
Jump rating =
tailwater rating
Discharge Q
Remark: For entire discharge range - Ideal
(i) y2=yt

Case 2
Jump
rating
Tailwater
rating
Discharge Q
(ii) y2 > yt
y2 > yt for the entire range of discharges,
protected apron, sills are used to create
jump within the basin


Case 3
Tailwater
Discharge Q
rating
Jump
rating
(iii) y2 < yt
y2 < yt for the entire range of discharges,
(i) Sloping apron above the bed level
(ii) Drop in the channel floor

Case 4
Discharge Q
Jump
rating
Tailwater
rating
(iv) y2 > yt initially
yt > y2 later
y2 > yt initially for lower discharges
yt > y2 later for higher discharges
Stilling basin and Sloping apron

Fig. 32.1 Classification of tailwater conditions for the design for the design of
scour-protection works
Case 5
Discharge Q
Tailwater
rating
Jump
rating
(v) y2 < yt initially
yt > y2 later
y2 < yt initially for lower discharges
yt > y2 later for higher discharges
Stilling pool


32.2 Basic Elements of Stilling Basin

Baffles are provided mainly to shorten hydraulic jump without gaining additional
tailwater level. Compared to a simple hydraulic jump basin in which the approach flow
momentum is balanced by an adequate tail water level, stilling basins have in addition
chute and baffles elements. Those elements are located on the basin bottom and
involve steps, sills or blocks. The effect of dissipation can be increased with a diverging
basin.
Chute block
Baffles or Piers or floor blocks
End Sill
Fig. 32.2 Appurtenances in stilling basin

Increasing the boundary roughness and injection of additional discharge have not
received much attention. Because of associated cavitation and stability issues. Figure
32.3 shows such possibilities in the flow of stilling basin.

Bottom geometry - Step, an element (Baffle pier), Drop

Sudden expansion
Gradual expansion
Plan Geometry


Flow over a
Cascade or Steps
Roughned boundary surface

Figure 32.3 - Typical elements of Stilling basin
Injection of additional discharge

Among the large variety of shapes that have been proposed (Proceedings of
Symposium on Energy Dissipators published by Central Board of Irrigation and Power,
Publication number 70, 1961) the baffle sill basin and the baffle block basin are the
most popular ones. Those elements are prone to cavitation damage. Eventhough
abrasion is of not concern for basins downstream of overflow structures, it becomes
very important in case of bottom outlets. In case of stilling basins with high velocity
leading to the possibilities of abrasion, baffles should be fitted with steel-armouring (see
figure 32.4), or a simple basin should be provided.

2.52 m
Figure-32.4 Typical dimensions of proto type baffles
Front elevation Side elevation
4.04 m
2.52 m
0.075 m
3.35 m
0.6 m
6.76 m
0.075 m
Steel Plate armouring

Stilling Basins with Sloping apron (After Elevatorski)
Dam Country /
State
Apron Slope Max.
Discharg
e
Q
max

m
3
s
-1

Velocit
y
V in
m/s
Initial
Froude
number
(F
1
)
Sequent
Depth
Ratio
(y
2
/y
1
)
Length
of J ump
in m
L
j

Stilling
Basin
length
L
b

Bhakra India 1 : 10 8211.89 48.16 10.3 14.2 196.9 118.72
Canyon
Ferry
Montana Varies 5663.37 29.26 6.1 8.2 125.88 59.13
Capilano
British
Columbia
1 : 45 1217.62 35.67 9.6 13.2 117 71.32
Dickinson S.Dakota 1 : 8 934.46 14.63 4.4 5.7 36.58 21.64
Folson California 1 : 8 7079.21 40.54 8.4 11.5 176.2 98.75
Fraint California 1 : 7 2548.52 32.92 12.0 16.5 81.08 67.67
Keswick California Varies 7079.21 21.03 3.1 4.0 100.58 39.01
Madden
Canal
Zone
1 : 4 7928.72 26.52 5.7 7.7 116.43 45.72
Norris Tennesse 1 : 4 5578.42 32.31 7.9 10.7 128.63 68.27
Olympus Colorado Varies 566.34 16.46 5.4 7.3 47.24 28.04
Rihand India 1 : 14
11751.5
0
32.92 7.6 10.3 125.88 102.11
Shasta California 1 : 12 7079.22 42.98 11.4 15.8 140.51 94.18


32.3 Baffle Stilling Basin
The baffle sill basin involves a transverse sill of height 'h' with a minimum width. For a
given approach flow depth
1
y and approach Froude number
1
F , various types of flows
may occur, depending on the relative sill height
1
S = h / y and the tail water level
t
y .
Following types of jumps are identified:
jump with end of roller above sill, (as practically no scour potential it is suitable
for easily erodible beds).
B - jump with a lower tail water level, a surface boil on the sill and the roller
extending in the tail water, with small erosion mainly along the side walls.
Minimum B-jump with a secondary roller, and plunging flow beyond the sill that
does not reach the basin bottom, suitable for the channel with rocky beds in the
downstream.
C-jump with plunging flow that causes inappropriate tailwater flow, and scour
potential,
Wave type flow with supercritical flow over the sill and unacceptable energy
dissipation.
In case of sufficient tail water submergence type A and B-jumps are very effective for
stilling basins. On the other hand, the type - c jump and the wave jump are
unacceptable in view of the very poor dissipation of the energy. Figure 32.5 shows the
significance of tail water submergence in the basin design. This is also an example
representing the cases of a slight decrease of tailwater level below the sequent depth.
The purpose of any baffle element should thus involve a length reduction. Figure shows
the baffle sill basin and the hydraulic jump basin. The sill is defined with the relative
height
1
S = h / y and the relative sill location
srj
s
rj
L
X
L
= . The sequent depth ratio required
0 s
y y y =
sb
includes the effect of normal hydraulic jump and the influence of the sill
(Hager, 1992).

L
j
Lrj
L
jb
L
srj
y
1
xs bs
y1
h
y2
Classical hydraulic jump
h
y
2
Baffle sill basin
x
s
=
L
rj
L
srj
____
S =
h
y1
__
,
y1
y2
h
y1
y2
a) b)
h
Adequate Tail water-
proper formation of the jump
and effective dissipation of
energy.
Inadequate Tail water-
hence Submergence is
wanting.
Figure 32.5 - Definition Sketch for Stilling basin with Sill
c)
d)

( )
2
0 7
0 7 3 1 = +
.
s s
Y . S S x
For any sill height
1
h , minimum approach Froude number
1min
F is necessary for the
formation of the hydraulic jump, and the corresponding maximum relative sill height
max
S
for any approach flow Froude number is given by
5 3
max 1
1
F
6
=
/
S .
The relative sill height is normally limited to
max
2 = S in practice. It may be noted that the
sill should neither be too small nor too large.
The optimum sill height
opt
S is
2 5
1
1
1
200
= +
.
opt
S F .


Depending mainly on the relative sill position
s
X three types of jump may form:

I. A-jump ( ) 0 8 1 >
s
X . to
II. B-jump 0 65 0 8 < >
s
. X .
III. Minimum B-jump 0 55 0 65 < >
s
. X .
The length of the jump
jb
L from the toe to the end of the bottom roller relative to the
length of the classical jump
j
L is ( )
1 3
1 0 6 1- =
jb /
j
L
. S
L
.
The length of the sill basin jump
jb
L is marginally less than the length of a classical jump
j
L for all three types of flows mentioned above. A sill basin improves the stabilization of
a hydraulic jump under variable tailwater and is somewhat shorter than a classical
hydraulic jump.

Baffle Block Basin
For optimum basin flow, the blocks must have an appropriate location and adequate
height to overcome the ineffectiveness or overforcing of flow. Basco in 1971 defined the
optimum height of the baffle as the ratio of
1
=
opt
opt
h
S
y
and the optimum basin length is
given by,
( )
2
1
1 6 7 5 F
= +
jb
opt
L / h . .
( )
2
1
1
1 F 2
40
= +
opt
S
Figure 32.6 shows the basin with the standard USBR blocks, where spacing of the
blocks s
p
is equal to the block width
p b
s w = and
p
s
0 75 = .
h
.

y
h
X
s
a) Longitudinal section
W
B
s
W
B
Figure- 32.6 Typical Baffle block basin
b) Standard baffles
1
y
2
p

A coefficient for representing the force on the blocks P
B
is given by
2
2
P y 2 =

B b
/ g w /
for optimum basin performance, the coefficient is
1
F 1
7 100
= +
opt

and the sequent depth ratio is
1 2
1
2
F 0 5
1

=

+

/
b
Y .
The tail water reduction is above 10% when compared to the classical jump. Type II,
Type III and Type IV basins are shown below.

Fractional space
Space = 2.5 w
2y
1
min
L
b
= 6.1 y
2
End
sill
Baffle
piers
0.8 y
2
Chute blocks
dentated sill
Slope 2:1
L
b
= 4.3 y
2
h
4
= y
1
(9+Fr
1
)/9
h
4
= y
1
(9+F
1
)/9
Sill optional
Fractional space
Chute
blocks
h
3
= y
1
(4+F
1
)/9
(a) Type II basin F
1
> 4.5
v
1
> 18.0 m/s Tail Water (TW) = 0.97 y
2
(b) Type III basin F1 > 4.5
v
1
< 18.0 m/s Tail Water (TW) = 0.83 y
2
(c) Type IV basin 2.5 F1 < 4.5
Tail Water (TW) = y
2


32.4 Bhavani Type Stilling Basin
A new type of stilling basin was designed for the Lower Bhavani Dam, Tamil Nadu, India
and is designated as Bhavani Stilling basin.
The design consists of a depressed apron provided with T-shaped floor blocks that
allow the length of the apron to be materially reduced. Energy dissipation is
accomplished by the formation of the hydraulic jump and by impact of the high-velocity
flow on the T-shaped blocks.
Dimensions of the Bhavani -type stilling basin is reduced compared to the conventional
stilling basin. Flow over the 32.92 m spillway discharges the flow to the stilling basin 9.1
m long and 3.05 m deep. A single row of T- shaped blocks at 4.87 m (center to center )
is shown in the figure given below. Each of the blocks is buttressed against the vertical
end wall of the basin by a long wall of 1.22 m wide and 1.52 m deep. The design is
developed by the Poondi Irrigation Research Station, Tamil Nadu. Cavitation of the
blocks in the Bhavani basin is unlikely to occur in this case in view of the large
submergence.

T blocks
Bhavani Type Stilling Basin
2.44 m
Similar type of Stilling Basin was adopted in Amaravathi Spillway,
Gangikota Spillway, Pykhara Dam Spillway


Further experimentation may indicate the desirability of standardizing this design for
general use. Until this is done, individual model tests should be conducted to determine
the merits of each design.

Bhimgoda Barrage
The design of Bhimgoda barrage in Hardwar on Ganga was tested for the velocity and
pressure on the friction blocks and end sill. The barrage width is 455 m with 7
undersluice bays each of 18 m width. The barrage is designed for a flood discharge of
3
19300 m s , / with an adequate length of the apron. It became necessary to incorporate
baffle blocks and T blocks, where a normally good modified jump is formed on the apron
to minimise the action at the end baffle wall.

Matatila Dam Spillway
The spillway of 31 m high Matatila dam constructed on Betwa river in district J hansi, has
been provided with 25 bays , 18.29 m width each and seperated by 3.05 m thick piers. It
has been designed for a maximum flood of
3
16990 m s , / . The bed rock in the spillway
portion is granite. The invert level of stilling basin below different bays was kept in
accordance with the rock level available at site. The dam was completed in the year
1957-58. Soon after putting the spillway into operation heavy damage to the
downstream works and river bed specially below bays 1 to 3 were observed. Based on
subsequent model studies properly anchored T-shaped blocks of size 4.88 m * 2.44 m *
2.44 m were added in basins below bays 7 to 18 in 1967 while no modification was
carried out in remaining bays. 84 numbers mild steel bars of 25 mm diameter anchored
to a depth of 1.5 m were provided in each block for holding them in position. The T-
blocks provided better stilling conditions resulting in the reduction of damages below
bays wherein these were added. However, during the flood of 1969, 14 out of 24 blocks
were got uprooted and thrown out of the basin due to excessive drag force exerted by
the high velocity flow. As an alternative, an arrangement of jet deflector blocks
consisting of a central block with two side blocks having a passage for guiding the flow
to secure direct impingement of emerging jets was evolved. These blocks besides being

more effective in energy dissipation will be subjected to 2.25 times lesser hydrodynamic
drag as compared to T-blocks. The construction of jet deflector blocks will involve large
scale drilling and grouting thereby endangering the safety of the spillway. Heavy C.C.
blocks of size 1.5 * 1.5 * 1 m were laid in the form of apron.

Reference
Kuttiammu T.P and J .V. Rao "Bhavani stilling basins for spillway of large dams, fourth
congress, Large dams, Report Number 44, New Delhi, India, 1955.

32.5 Stilling Basin in Sudden Expansions
The expansions are provided at the end of the basin to accommodate downstream
channel. At an abrupt expansion with
1 1 1
y , b, F as approach conditions and
1
b as
tailwater channel width, R, S and T types of jump form.

R-jump supercritical flow in the approach section jump in expansion. Most stable
configuration. However, it may change to S-jump when tailwater increases. Normally T-
jump is used.

S-jump with the toe of the jump just upstream of the junction. However, assymetric or
oscillating (alternatively) jet flow. Highly Spatial and unstable and very senistive to
change in tail water level.

T-jump with the toe of jump in the approach channel and the body of jump in the
expansion.


Typical (a) R-jump, (b) S-jump, (c) T-jump in sudden expansion
P
P
(a)
(b)
(c)

Sequent Depth Ratio

The sequent depth ratio
2
0
1
=
y
y
y
of the T-jump depends on the relative location of the
toe
1
1
=
rj
x
X
L
, the width ratio
2
1
=
b
ER
b
and the sequent depth ratio
0
y of the classical
jump. Hager in 1992 proposed the following,
( ) ( )
1 2 0
1
0
Y
1 1 19
1

/
y
ER tanh . X
y

For 1 = ER the asymptotic result is
0
= y y . Also for
1
13 > X . , the toe of jump is located so
much in the approach channel that the end of jump is upstream from the expansion
section and
0
= y y .

The efficiency of the T-jump increases as
1
X decreases, but simultaneously the
performance decreases and hence that T-jump is not an effective dissipator. The
performance of expanding stilling basins can be improved with a baffle sill.
The basin length
B
X is equal to the length of roller
( )
rj
L when a conventional end sill is
added. Conditions to be satisfied include (1)
1
3 10 < < F for the approach flow,
(2)1 5 < < ER for the width ratio, (3) 01 06 . Xs . and for the relative sill position, next to
those introduced for stilling basins in general.


32.6 Slotted Bucket Stilling Basin

Bradley and peterka in 1959 developed the slotted bucket stilling basin (Fig. 32.10) with
an 8
sloping apron on which teeth of 45
are installed. The teeth introduces stable flow

and little boiling action.

Three types of flow may be distinguished

Sweep out with a too low tailwater level

Minimum tailwater level below which excessive surface waves and scour occur
and

Maximum tailwater above which dividing flow results and the maximum tailwater
level above which dividing results.

A slotted bucket basin has a lower and an upper limit of operation. These depends on
the approach Froude number
( )
1
1 1 2
1
=
/
V
F
gy
and the relative bucket radius
2
br 1
1
R 1 05

= +

b
R
. F
y

in which 1 V is the approach velocity, is the flow depth measured perpendicular to the
bed slope, and
b
R is the radius of the bucket.
The minimum bucket radius should be
1
1
22 =
bm
R
. F
y
and the extreme tail water levels
t
y
are given as a function of
br
R and
1
F . Care should be taken against material entering
the bucket that may cause damage by abrasion.

yt min/F1 = 3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
F1 =
V1
gy1
______
0 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
2
4
6
8
10
0 0.1 0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.7
yt max/F1 = 3
4
5
6
7
8
10
12
15
18
20
30
40
50
70
90
R
bed approx 0.05R
below apron lip
Bed slopes up
R
y
V
1
2
2g
____
________
1
+
R
y
V
1
2
2g
____
________
1
+
Bed approximately 0.05R below lip
(a) Minimum limit (b) Maximum limit
Minimum and maximum tailwater limits (After Peterka, (1958)

H
h
Tail Water Elevation
y
Apron lip
R
y1
Figure-32.7 Definition sketch for Slotted Bucket Stilling Basin
t
y
ts
y
t max
y
t min
Sweep out condition level
Safe minimum tail water level
Upper limit of tail water


0 0.2 0.4 0.6
0.8
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Minimum allowable
Minimum bucket radius
(after Peterka, 1958)
Tailwater sweepout depth
(after Peterka, 1958)
14
13
12
13
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
Figure 32.8
F
rl
=
V
1
____
gy
1
F
rl
=
V
1
____
gy
1
R
y1
V
1
2
______
+
___
2g
R
y1
V
1
2
______
+
___
2g
Ts
y1
___
=15

Following are important characteristics

Tailwater level : Stage discharge relationship should be known.

Cavitation control : Turbulent (fluctuations in the front part of basin and rear
portion of appurtenances).
Scour control

Tailwater waves

Based on the Field Experience following are listed:

The tailwater depth should atleast be equal to the sequent depth of the classical
jump,
Adequate tailwater submergence can reduce the basin length,

Dividing walls help in improving the stilling action and reduce concentration of
flow,


Cavitation damage is likely to be increased by high velocity approach flow and
low tailwater levels, and
End sills reduce scour significantly.

Stilling basins are popular and the designers favorite choice for energy dissipation,
certainly because of the knowledge and experience acquired over the years. They have
proved to be a reliable hydraulic structure if the approach conditions and the tailwater
elevation are within certain limits. Abrasion may become a concern for stilling basins
connected to a bottom outlets.

0.05R
b
0.125R
b
0.5R
b
0.05R
b
16
8
45
R
b
a)


0.05Rb
45
8
Rb
0.125Rb
d)
c)
b)
Figure - 32.9 Geometry of the Slotted bucket stilling basin

}
0 4 8 12
16 20 24 28
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.37
0.24
0.16
0.12
R
y
t
/y
1
F
1
A slotted bucket basin has a lower and an upper limit of operation
Figure 32.10 - Extreme tailwater levels
as function of initial Froude number and
0
4
8
12
16
2
1
for slotted stilling basin
y
t
/y
1
[1+0.5 F
1
]
R
br
= (R
b
/y
1
2
br
Minimum tailwater depths
Maximum tailwater depths


33.1 Introduction
Spillway is a passage in a dam through which the design flood could be disposed off
safely to the downstream. The ogee-crested spillway, because of its superb hydraulic
characteristics, has been one of the most studied hydraulic structures. Its ability to pass
flows efficiently and safely, when properly designed, with relatively good flow measuring
capabilities, has enabled engineers to use it in a wide variety of situations. Although
much is understood about the general ogee shape and its flow characteristics, it is also
understood that a deviation from the standard design parameters such as a change in
upstream flow conditions, slightly modified crest shape, or construction variances can
change the flow properties. These small changes often require engineers to evaluate
the crest and determine whether or not the change or deviation will be detrimental to the
spillway's performance. Such is the case when an updated probable maximum flood
calculation requires a spillway to pass a larger flow than it was designed to handle.

In general, spillways comprise five distinct components namely: (i) an entrance channel,
(ii) a control structure, (iii) a discharge carrier, (iv) an energy dissipator, and (v) an outlet
channel. The entrance channel transfers water from the reservoir to the control
structure, which regulates the discharge from the reservoir. Water is then conveyed
from reservoir to the low-level energy dissipator on the riverbed by the discharge
conveyor. An energy dissipator is required to reduce the high velocity of the flow to a
nonscouring magnitude.

Most common types of spillway-control system used are roller, tainter, vertical-lift, and
drum gates. In view of the varying conditions, the choice of suitable gate is bound by the
cost , the head on the crest, the height of dam, and the hydraulic behaviour of the gate.
Piers are located on the spillway crest for the purpose of supporting the control gates,
the gate-operating mechanisms or a roadway. Their size and shape will vary
accordingly with their function. The piers should be streamlined both in the upstream

and the downstream sides to reduce contraction of the overflowing jet and to provide a
smooth water surface.

The element which introduces the energy-reducing action is generally known as " stilling
basin." One of the most common methods out of several methods are dissipating the
flow at the toe of a spillway, is the hydraulic jump. Other types used in conjunction with
spillways are roller and trajectory buckets. Spillway outlets means the combination of
structures and equipment required for the safe operation and control of the water
released for different purposes for which the dam is planned. These structures may be
river outlets, penstocks, canal outlets. The size and number of river outlets satisfy the
discharge requirements at various stages of the reservoir . If the outlets are located in
the overflow portion, the conduits should be aligned downwards to minimise disturbance
to the flow over spillway. The discharge from an outlet, (gates, valves, or free-flow
conduits) has a relatively high velocity. Flow must expend the energy in order to prevent
scour of the bed and banks of the river channel. This may be accomplished by
constructing a stilling basin immediately downstream from the outlet.
The crest of the spillway is usually provided at F.R.L (Full Reservoir Level). However, in
order to control floods the gates could be provided at the top and the water level could
be increased upto maximum water level. The height between F.R.L and M.W.L is called
the "Flood lift". Reservoir level should not cross MWL. Following are different types of
spillways usually adopted in practice.

1. Overflow spillway.

2. Side channel spillway.

3. Shaft spillway.

4. Siphon spillway.

5. Chute.

6. Breaching section (emerging spillway).


Major dam will be usually provided with an overflow spillway with crest gates. However,
the type and location of spillway depends on the site conditions of topography.

33.2 Ogee Type Spillway Profile

This type of spillway is the most common type adopted in the field. It divides naturally
into three zones. Crest, spillway face and the toe. The concept evolves from replacing
the lower nappe of the flow over thin plate weir by solid boundary (Fig. 33.1).

Figure 33.1(a) - Flow over a thin weir


Figure 33.1 (b) - The fluid boundary
bottom nappe) has been replaced by
solid boundary

The frictional resistance comes into play in case of solid boundary. Hence, the analysis
of flow profile is not aminable for analytical solutions. The high head spillways are
designed for proposed design head for the given discharge. However, the spillway will
also have to operate at lower heads and possibly higher heads as well. The former will
result in above atmospheric pressures on the crest and the lower discharge coefficient.
The latter behaves exactly in opposite manner namely sub atmospheric pressure,
higher discharge coeffiicient. From the experimental investigations by Rouse and Reid it
is found that the actual head may exceed the design head by atleast 50% with a 10%
increase in the coefficient of discharge subject to local pressures do not fall below the
cavitation level.

0
1 2 3
4
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
-4.0
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
Separation
q
__
Ha
1.5
q
__
Ha
1.5
p
__
( )
min
________
Hd p
__
( )
min
________
Hd
Normalised Head (actual head to Design head). i.e.,
Hd
Ha
____
Discharge intensity
___________________
Actual Head
1.5
=

However, in practice, this pressure reduction is not normally a serious problem unless H
>1.5 H
d
. Indeed, separation will not occur until H 3H
d
. The acceptable range is 1.5
to 3.0 H
d
.

If H <H
d
- positive gauge pressure on crest.

If H >H
d
- negative pressure develops on the surface.

Conditions in the flow down the spillway face may be quite complex, since

(i) the flow is accelerating rapidly, and may be 'expanding' as it leaves a bay-pier
arrangement;
(ii) frictional shear promotes boundary layer growth.

(iii) the phenomenon of self - aeration of the flow may arise;

(iv) cavitation may occur (Velocity may reach 30 m/s for occurance of cavitation).

For these reasons, the usual equations for non-uniform flow developed for Gradually
Varied Flow cannot really be applied. If it is necessary to make estimates of flow
conditions on the spillway, then empirical data must be used.
(i) In a region of rapidly accelerating flow, the specific energy equation is usually
applied. It is possible to obtain very rough estimates of the variation of V and y down the
spillway on this basis, accuracy will be slightly improved if a head loss term is

incorporated. Nevertheless, in the light of (ii) and (iii), below, conditions on the spillway
are far from those which underly the energy equations.

(ii) A boundary layer will form in the spillway flow, commencing at the leading edge of
the crest. The boundary layer thickness, , increases with the distance downstream of
the crest. The depth of the boundary layer, , will meet the free surface of the water
(Fig. 33.2).
point of tangency
face
toe
H
d
= design head
H
a
h
1
m
Figure 33.2 - Boundary Layer Growth
on Ogee Spillway
Boundary layer
(point of inception) P.I

The flow of the crest is analogous to the flow round any fairly streamlined body. This
may imply flow seperation, eddy shedding, or both. Such condtions may be instrumental
in inducing cavitation at the spillway face. There have been a number of cases of
occurance of cavitation in major dams. For example Tungabhadra Dam.

(iii) Aeration has been observed on many spillways. It entails the entrainment of
substantial quantities of air into the flow, which becomes white and foamy in

appearance. The additional air causes the bulkage of the flow. Observations of aeration
have led to the suggestion that the point at which aeration commences coincides with
the point at which the boundary layer depth meets the free surface called Inception
point (Thandaveswara). The entrainment mechanism appears to be associated with the
emergence of streamwise vortices at the free surface. Such vortices would originate in
the spillway crest region.

The geometric elements of an ogee spillway are shown in Fig. 33.3. A typical layout of
the spillway is shown in Fig. 33.4.
X
H
d
Y
a
origin
axis (both quadrants)
a = 0.175 H
d
r
1
= 0.5 H
d
r
2
= 0.20 H
d
b = 0.282 H
d
b
y
r
1
r
2
h
x
1.85
= 2H
d
0.85
y
x
n
= KH
d
n -1
y


Figure 33.3 - Ogee Type Spillway Profile
H
h
X
Y
Spillway face
Point of tangency
H
d
= design head
l
m
slope of face
= m:1
m = 1.67
1
0.6
1.0
Y = X*/K
toe

K and n depends on the slope of the upstream face.

Upstream face slope K n
Vertical 2.00 1.85
3 (v) on 1 (H) 1.936 1.836
3 on 2 1.939 1.810
3 on 3 1.873 1.776


Schematic representation of typical spillway
1. Spillway crest / bay
2. Pier
3. Spillway face
4. Energy dissipator - stilling basin
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
5. End sill
6. Armoured scour preventing bed
7. Power house
8. Sector gate
Reservoir
8
Figure 33.4 -Diagram of spillway layout

33.3 Spillway Discharge Equation

Equation for estimating the spillway discharge, Q is given below.
( )
3/ 2 3
w e
e
e d a
w
d
Q C L h m / s
in which h is the effective head m
effective head design head velocity head
h H H
h
C f
h
=
= +
= +

=


( )
( )
w
1.5
w
Effective length = measured length - end contraction
L L' - 0.1 NH
in which N is the number of contractions.
H H
C 1.804 0.40 5 to 10 MKS
h h
H
C 2.952 1
h
=

= + =

= +

( )
3/ 2
d
w d
w
H
10 to 15
h
2
Q = C L 0.1NH 2g H
3
2
C C 2g
3
C is a function of depth of flow, ranges between 1.6 to 2.3 (MKS)

=

=

b

Pier shapes vary and has to be choosen carefully. Figure 33.5 shows typical pier
shapes.

0.133 H
d
Pier Type II
Nose Shape semi circular
Nose Shape Parabolic
Nose Shape Rectangular with
Rounded Corners
Nose Shape circular
Figure 33.5 - Different Pier Shapes


The general equation for discharge is given by

3
2
d e
2
Q C 2gLH
3
=
in which Q is the total discharge; L is the crest width; H
e
is the total head upstream from
the crest; g is the gravitational constant; and C
d
is the discharge coefficient. It may be
noted that H
e
, the total head, includes the velocity head. Generally, this requires an
iterative solution technique as the velocity head is unknown, as it depends on flow rate
which is to be calculated. However, as the velocity head is generally small , the
equation converges quickly.

The discharge coefficient C
d
is not constant. It depends on several factors such as the
depth of approach flow, crest shape related to the ideal nappe shape, upstream face
slope, downstream apron, and downstream submergence.

33.4 Spillway Structures

Spillways provide controlled releases of flood / surplus water in excess of the reservoir
capacity and convey it to the river channel downstream below the dam in such a
manner that the dam and foundation are protected from erosion and scour. The object
of spillway design is to provide a safe and adequate structure for the least combined
cost of spillway and dam.

Basic considerations affecting the design of spillways include design flood, crest control
(gates), control system, structural stability, and adequate dissipation of energy. The
capacity of a spillway must be sufficient to accommodate the maximum discharge
without allowing the reservoir surface to rise above a predetermined (maximum
reservoir elevation).

Determination of the maximum flood to be used as a basis for spillway design results
from hydrological studies and available flood peak data.

A spillway crest may be uncontrolled, thereby permitting water to spill from the reservoir
whenever the water surface is higher than the crest level, or it may be controlled by
gates installed on the crest. The length of the spillway crest affects the elevation of the
crest and also the required control. The spillway length is decided based on other
parameters such as cost, type of gate.

Choice of Spillway in the field

Ogee Spillways Used in concrete and Masonry dams
Chute Spillways Used in earthen and rock fill dams
Shaft (Tunnel) Spillways Used in earthen and rock fill dams
Side Channel and Shaft Spillway When gorge is very narrow
Siphon Spillway Almost constant head for design range of
discharge

Reference

Chow V.T., "open Channel Hydraulics", McGraw Hill Publciation, student edition, 1958.

33.5 Computation of Water Surface Profile Over Spillway

With the rapidly changing advances in computational modelling for solving the
governing equations of fluid flow, engineers now face the decision of which method(s) to
use in evaluating existing and proposed spillway designs. The choice of a physical
model, computational model, or interpolating/extrapolating the needed information from
design/performance curves can be a tough task.

This type of study was completed at the Utah Water Research Laboratory (UWRL) to
compare the discharge and crest pressures from flow over an uncontrolled ogee-
crested spillway using a physical model, computational model, and design curves from
the USBR and USACF.

To determine the shape of the crest of an overflow spillway, different methods are
available that depend on the relative height and upstream face slope of the spillway . In
1888, a comprehensive laboratory investigation was first made to study the ogee shape.

Cassidy, in 1965 using potential flow theory and mapping into the complex potential
plane, he obtained the solution for free surface and crest pressures and his results were
in good agreement with experimental data. Better convergence of Cassidy's solution
was obtained by Ikegawa and Washizu in 1973 and Betts in 1979 using linear finite
elements and the variation principle. Li et al. in 1989 improved on the 2D irrotational
gravity flow by using higher-order elements to model the curved water surface and
spillway surface.

Quo et al. in 1998 extended the potential flow theory by using the analytical functional
boundary - value theory. This method was applied successfully to spillways with a free
drop. Biirgisser and Rutschmann in 1999 used finite elements and an eddy viscosity to
iteratively solve the incompressible 2D vertical steady Reynolds-averaged Navier-
Stokes (RANS) equations. Given a flow rate, they successfully computed the free
surface and velocity and pressure fields using a finite-element grid that adapts locally
for a changing water surface. Olsen and Kjellesvig in 1998 also included viscous effects
by numerically solving the RANS equations in two and three dimensions, using the
standard k equations to model turbulence. Olsen and Kjellesvig in 1998 showed
excellent agreement for water surfaces and discharge coefficients for a limited number
of flows. However, pressure data were only recorded at five locations downstream from
a nonstandard crest at one flow and showed some variability.

Savage and J ohnson approached the problem numerically using the RANS equations.
Crest pressures are compared at three different flow rates. Furthermore, the pressures
are compared over the entire length of the spillway, including the flip bucket. Although
there seems to be considerable data in the literature of crest pressures up to the
tangent section located at x / H
d
= 1.4 and at flip buckets, there is a dearth of
information on pressures extending from the tangent section to the flip bucket. These
pressures are required if one intends to complete an overall stability analysis of the
dam.

The commercially available CFD package Flow-3D uses the finite-volume method to
solve the RANS equations. Fractional Area / Volume Obstacle Representation (FAVOR)
method can be used for computing the free surface over uncontrolled spillway. To
numerically solve the rapidly varying flow over an ogee crest, it is important that the free
surface be accurately tracked. Tracking involves three parts: locating the surface,
defining the surface as a sharp interface between the fluid and air, and applying
boundary conditions at the interface. The VOF method is similar to the FAVOR method
in defining cells. However, the VOF method allows for a changing free surface over time
and space. VOF numerical techniques tend to be dissipative in nature.

The general governing continuity and momentum equations for non compressible flows
are solved. It has been established that the relative error of the numerical model agrees
within 1% with the physical model for H
e
/H
d
>0.7.

For uncontrolled flow over an ogee spillway, numerical tools are sufficiently advanced to
calculate discharge and pressures on the spillway. New numerical techniques provide
practicing engineers with an additional tool in the design or analysis of spillways. This
tool may be very useful when reevaluating a dam for higher flows or improved
hydrologic event flood calculations.

Physical model studies are still considered the basis from which all other methods are
compared. However, model studies cost more and take more time to complete than a
numerical study. If only approximate discharge and pressures are required, design
nomographs provide quick solutions. As an alternative, numerical methods may offer
accurate solutions, within given parameters, at a cost and time that may be less than
model studies. Also, numerical models have the advantage of providing more details of
pressure and velocity.


33.6 Salient Features of Selected Spillways
Ukai Dam Spillway
The Ukai Dam on the river Tapi is an important Dam in Gujarat state. Against a design
flood of
3
28 600 , m / s a flood of
3
37 100 , m / s was experienced in 1968, and there was
practically no damage took place to the diversion channel and the performance of the
diversion as predicted by the model.

The spillway has been designed for an outflow of
3
45 300 , m / s . It has 22 radial gates of
15.35 * 14.71 m. and the total length of the spillway is 425.2 m. The F.R.L. is at
R.L.105.15 m and the invert of the ski-jump bucket is at 51.82 m and the lip level at
R.L.58.22 m. Immediately downstream of the lip a concrete apron 15.0 m long and 1.5
m thick has been provided horizontally.

Kadana Dam Spillway

Main spillway in the Mahi river Kadana Dam across the Mahi river and located about 71
km upstream of Wanakbori weir. It has a maximum height of 76.5 m above the
foundation with a gross storage of
3
1554 M m .

The spillway was designed for an outflow capacity of
3
31 400 m , / s . It has 21 gates of
15.54 * 14.02 m high. The energy dissipation is by a roller bucket. As there was
foundation difficulty in spillway spans No. 9 to 11, the invert of the roller bucket has
been kept 3 m above seperating the spillway in three parts.

In 1973 there were heavy floods throughout Gujarat and damage worth crores of rupees
had taken place. Almost all the major rivers of Gujarat had unprecedented floods. The
Tapi, the Narmada, the Mahi, the Sabarmati and the Banas had very heavy floods. As a
result, the design floods of all the dams were revised. Accordingly the design flood of
Kadana was revised from
3
31 400 m , / s to
3
44 900 m , / s ; only two spans could be added

on the main river . As such an additional spillway with a capacity of
3
10 000 m , / s was
planned in the adjoining saddle by cutting the hill beyond the right flank.

Additional spillway has six radial gates of the same size as the main spillway i.e. 15.54 *
14.02 m. The width of the spillway is 113 m. Immediately downstream of the glacis the
width converges to 52 m (46 %) in a short distance. A narrow and deep channel has
been excavated in the hills about 50 m high width side slopes 4:1. It has a bed slope of
1 in 93. Coming out of the gorge it meets a small natural nala which drains in the Mahi
at a short distance from the main dam.

Dantiwada Dam Spillway

Dantiwada dam has been constructed on the river Banas at Dantiwada about 30 km
from Palanpur in north Gujarat. The design discharge for the spillway had been fixed at
3
6654 m / s . It has been provided with 11 radial gates of 12.5 * 8.3 m. The original
design provided a stilling basin as an energy dissipator, which required deep
excavations in hard rock. The F.R.L. was 183.0 m. Six spans on the right in the main
river gorge are provided with a roller bucket whereas the remaining five spans on the
left flank are be provided with a ski-jump bucket, with a divide wall 38 m long beyond
the roller bucket. The invert of the roller bucket was kept at R.L.137.6 m with a radius of
21.94 m and exit angle of 35
whereas the ski-jump bucket invert was kept at

R.L.144.20 m with a radius of 15.24 m and exit angle of 35
. Thus Dantiwada spillway is

a unique combination of a roller bucket and a Ski-jump bucket.

Spillway in Panchet Tail Pool Dam on Damodar

The lower pool on Damodar about 4 km downstream of Panchet dam is mainly an
earthen dam with a concrete gravity spillway in the river bed near the left bank. This
dam is having a design flood of
3
17 698 m , / s . Out of this
3
9 203 m , / s have been taken
care of in the 202 m long Ogee-shaped spillway and the remaining
3
8 495 m , / s is
allowed over a breaching dyke of length 365.76 m.


The Salient Features of the Spillway
(a) Discharge capacity
3
9 203 m , / s
(b) Total length 202
(c) Total number of bays 11 Nos. (one emergency)
(d) Width of pier 2.44 m
(e) Width of bay 16.15 m
(f) H.F.L 106.8 m
(g) Crest level 97.53 m
(h) River bed level 94.49 m
(i) Type of energy dissipator stilling basin
(j) Length of stilling basin 30.48 m
(k) Elevation of basin floor level 90.22 m

Spillway design discharge

Tarbella dam (Pakistan) 18500 to 24000 m3/s.

Dennison (Canada) 21000 m
3
/s.

Aldeadavila (Cuba) 10000 m
3
/s.

Melones (Cuba) 8740 m
3
/s.

Bhakra details

34.1 Siphon Spillway
Siphon Spillway is a closed duct. Following points are to be kept in mind.
1. Hood level is higher than Reservoir level. Hence, when flowing full the water level in
pipe is higher than the reservoir level.
2. Siphon must be self priming.

Problems with Spillway

(i) The aerated condition is unstable.
If Q
inflow
> Q
spillway
Qinflow < Qblackwater
}
Q
spill
< Q
inflow
< Q
blackflow
Qinflow
Initially gravity flow
(Qspill)
Upstream Reservoir
level rises
Qspill
drops
Deprimes
upstream level
Falls
Siphon primes,
Qspill increases
Qspill < Qinflow
Qspill < Qinflow
Qspill > Qinflow
Typical Cycle of functioning of Siphon Spillway

This cyclic behaviour of spillway results in Radial surges and Transients, Vibration.

Head discharge characteristics of an air regulated siphon are shown in figure 34.1.

Stilling zone
air slot
hood (cowl)
nappe
deflector
air regulated
siphon
air + water (two-phase flow)
aerated flow subatmospheric flow
Head
Discharge
Q = KH
1/2
Q = KH
3/2
Black water pipe (full) flow
Gravity
spillway
flow
Figure 34.1 - Head Discharge characteristics of air regulated siphon
Crest level

The flow takes place as channel flow, vortex flow, pipe flow depending on the head.

The following problems may occur in the field.

1) Blockage of debris - Trash Rack could be introduced.

2) Freezing of water in the lower leg.

3) Waves may uncover the entry alternatively.


Discharge Equation
Referring to Figure 34.2, Energy equation can be written as

First bend
Second bend
exit
Entry
Frictional losses

R
tan ; 2
c
c
vR cons t v gh
R
= =

In which h
c
is the head over spillway crest and R
c
is the radius of the spillway crest

0
R
2 R ln
c c
c
Q gh b
R

=

c
P
H h

=

should not be more than 7 m water below the atmospheric pressure.

y1
Arbitrary datum
H1
Tail water
Exit
Crest
Rc
Ro
Rc
Velocity
distribution along XX
vo
v
vc
vR = constant
X
X
Region of
subatmospheric
pressure
Hood
Lower leg
H2 (H2 = y2 + )
V
__
____
2g
2
2
Figure 34.2 - Discharge in a Siphon Spillway

Uncontrolled surging occurs: Two approaches to solve.

(1) Multiple siphons with different crest heights.

(2) Air regulation - Modification of intake is required.

(1) Gravity flow at low heads
(2) As the reservoir level rises Air trapped is drawn out
Pressure falls
Air is let in by Air regulating slot
Further increase in air
Aerated flow occurs
Reservoir level seals of the slot
Black waterflow occurs

There are three possible operating conditions depending on upstream depth.
1. Gravity spillway flow

2. Aerated flow.
3. Pipe (black water flow).

The aerated condition is unstable and is maintained only for a short time while the
siphons begins to prime, since air cannot enter once the entry is covered. Therefore in a
simple siphon a small change in head reduces a sharp increase or decrease in the
discharge through the spillway. This can lead problems if the discharge entering the
reservoir is greater than the spillway flow but less than the black water flow. Since the
following cycle of events is set in motion.
1. If the spillway is operating initially with gravity flow then the upstream water level
should rise.
2. When the upstream level has sufficiently increase the siphon primes and the
discharge through the spillway increases substantially.
3.Upstream level falls till the siphon deprimes and the discharge reduces.

As the head increases the annular nappe thickness must increase and eventually the
nappe occupies the section at the entry to the drop shaft. The behaviour is similar to
flow through orifice and hence is known as orifice control. The outlet tunnel will not be

running full as the design discharge is higher. Further increase in the head will induce
black water fall flow throughout the drop and outlet shafts. When the downstream is
submerged the weir flow changes to pipe flow. If the design is improper it is likely that
the water will overtop the dam. The design head is usually less than the head required
for black water flow. This is adopted from the point of flood lift during higher floods. It is
also to be noted that the flow enters the transition in the form of a spiral vortex and the
vortex must be minimised by providing anti vortex baffles or piers.
If large capacity is not required as available space is restricted then siphon spillway can
be adopted. A battery of siphon spillways is used at different elevation. Very close limits
of operation of water surface elevation.
A stable discharge could be achieved through if the air slot is well designed.

2 air
r
n
r
Q
K F
Q
K is afunction f of anglebetween deflectednappeandthehoodand
F is theFroudenumber at thetoeof thedeflector.
K is generally taken as 0.002.
=

Siphons are used for automatic disposal of floods from reservoirs. In India, saddle
siphons were first used to spill the surplus water at Maramcilli (Madhya Pradesh)
designed by Davis in 1921. The Ganesh Iyer Volute Siphon is named after the
investigator. Many siphons of this design have been constructed in earstwhile Mysore
State, presently known as Karnataka the largest 5.5 m diameter being at Hirebhasgar in
1948.


34.2 Saddle Siphons (Figure 34.3)

Figure 34.3 - Typical Saddle siphon with a baby siphon
17
Roadway
R.L. 541.34
Note:
Air inlet in baby siphon
Top of air inlet of main siphon = R.L. 530.25
R.L. 530.85
1.5''
HFL 531.00
Max HFL 532.50
R.L. 175.50
R.L. 571.25
R=21'-9"
R.L. 571.25
10'
10'
11'
R.L. 532.17
9'-2''
R.L. 530.00
R=3
2'-9"
2 to 1
R=10.5"
R.L. 469.00
The dimensions are in FPS units


Figure 34.4 - Sketch of a Typical Siphon - with flared extension
2
3
4
5

In the Maramcilli siphon, designed by Davis (Figure 34.3), a baby siphon has been
incorporated in the main siphon for causing early priming. The baby siphon first comes
into action and evacuates the air from the main siphon, causing it to prime early. But the
coefficient of discharge is adversely affected in this design also, as the flow shooting
through the baby siphon interferes with the flow of the main siphon.
34.3 Ganesh Iyer's Volute Siphons (Figure 34.5).

H
R
Volute siphon

Dome
Deprimer
FRL
Drum
Pillars
Bend
Outlet
Dome outer shell
Plan of funnel
Lip
Throat
Vertical
pipe or
barrel
Funnel
Lip
Volutes
Figure 34.5 - Parts of a volute siphon


The Ganesh Iyer Volute Siphon (Figure 34.5) consists essentially of a dome with a
funnel placed underneath leaving an annular space alround, with a vertical pipe taken
down the funnel, to pass the discharge through the dam.

The lip of the funnel is kept at the F.S.L for the reservoir and a number of volutes (as in
centrifugal pumps) are fixed on the funnel to induce a spiral motion to the flow. When
the water in the reservoir rises over the the F.S.L., it spills over the circumference of the
lip of the funnel and flows along the volutes in a spiral motion forming a forced vortex
near the top of the vertical pipe. The vortex so formed induces a strong suction creating
a powerful vaccum; this step the siphon in action. To stop the siphonic action, air is
automatically let in through small pipes connected to the crown of the dome with their
inlets kept at the F.S.L. of the reservoir.

The volute siphons are very efficient, giving a discharge coefficient of 0.75 to 0.80. Early
priming has been obtained in the prototype, as for example in the Hirebhasgar siphons,
the siphon primed at a depth of 0.5 m only. These siphons, eleven in number, built in
1947, have diameter of 5.5 m and operate under a head of 17.7 m. Some of the factors
which assumed special significance with the increased size and operating heads, as
evidenced in the working of the siphons at Hirebhasgar the largest Ganesh Iyer Volute

Siphons in size and surplussing capacity constructed- were:
(i) flow conditions and pressure distribution, and limit,

(ii) vibrations, and

(iii) effect of air drawn through powerful vortex.

In particular, the permissible head under which these siphons would work safely without
reaching cavitation conditions has been subjected to a close study. The working of
siphon No.7 at Hirebhasgar, which had a uniform 4.9 m diameter barrel had caused
cavitation damage.


Table 1. gives the critical head at which cavitation starts and the corresponding
maximum discharge for various diameters of volute siphons.

Diameter
(m)
0.15 0.30 1.80 4.50 6.00
Critical head
(m)
27 17.1 14.1 14.0 13.8
Maximum
discharge
m
3
/s
0.23 0.92 34.0 219 391

In the case of the Hirebhasgar Siphons, the range of the observed discharging capacity
of a siphon under the limit of partial and full running of the outlet has been between 270
m
3
/s and 300 m
3
/s.

Vibrations

One of the consequences of high head siphons is generating of vibrations, the
magnitude of which depends upon the entrainment of air and changes of pressure in the
flow, and the position of adjoining siphons and vortices.
Group working of siphon Numbers 1, 4 and 6 was tested during 1954. All the three
siphons worked partially full with Numbers 4 and 6 occasionally trying to close the gap
at the outlet. In siphon No. 6 there was damage comprising a hole 45.7 cm wide in the
barrel at R.L. 535.503 just above the R.C. joint, a crack right round the barrel ring joint
and damaged plaster (Figure 6).

The volute siphons during their working produce appreciable vibratory forces and it is
necessary to know about their magnitude for design purposes under different
conditions.

The period of transition from pre primed to primed stage has been found to be 40
seconds. This has direct influence on the stress distribution. The vibration was at 8 Hz
and localised higher vibration was at 30 Hz. The general level of the vibrational force

varied from 0.059 to 0.15 g, but some transients have been found to be as high as 0.2 g
accompanied by high frequency oscillations.

References

GANESH IYER, V "Volute Siphons". J ournal of Central Board of Irrigation and Power,
1950.
Govinda Rao N.S. "Ganesh Iyer's, Volute Siphons - A note on the design and working" ,
Central Board of Irrigation and Power, New Delhi, Publication No. 80, 1966.

34.4 Morning Glory Spillway

Introduction

Most of the shaft spillways in the world were constructed in United States, Portugal and
Italy in earlier days. As the inlet funnel resembles the morning glory flower, the spillway
is termed as morning glory spillway in English - speaking countries.

The first of this kind was built in 1896 and was designed by J ames Mansergh for the
Blackton reservoir in England. The second and third spillways were constructed in the
years 1908 and 1911 for Front Reservoir in England and Taf Fechan reservoir in South
Wales respectively. Shaft spillways are also constructed around this time in
Krauserbauden and Koenigreicherwalde reservoirs and Czechoslovakia. Italy also took
to the construction of these spillways in the year 1917 for the Bassono power canal and
for San Dal mazzo di Tenda reservoir.

The first morning glory spillway in the United States was constructed in the year 1926 at
the Davis Bridge dam. With the construction of this spillway, a new phase started. This
was the first spillway where the hydraulic performance was checked by model studies.
In general, a morning glory shaft spillway consists of an inlet funnel, conical transition
shaft, bend, outlet tunnel and a stilling basin.

Inlet Funnel
Conical Transition
Cylindrical Shaft
Bend
Outlet Tunnel
Stilling Basin
Figure 34.6 - Definition Sketch of Morning Glory Shaft Spillway

The crest of the inlet funnel is generally circular in plan. There are also spillways in
Portugal with a polygonal and square crest. The crest of the shaft spillway at Oued
Sarno dam in Algeria is made to resemble marguerite flower, so as to increase the
spilling length considerably.

The inlet funnel has different forms. The classical forms are (a) the standard - crested
type, the flat crested type. However, there are many other forms, which are also in
vogue. For example, Taf Fechan, Fountain Ketchil, Silent Valley and Burnhope shaft
spillways have their inlet funnels made up of circular segments. Steps are provided in
the inlet funnel of Lady Bower Shaft Spillway. Mae and J ubilee shaft spillways have
trumpet-shaped funnels.

R
Standard Crested Inlet Funnel
R
Flat Crested Inlet Funnel
Figure 34.7 - Types of Inlet Funnels

4.67 m
4.67 m
R = 107 m
R = 91.4 m
37.2 m
0.45 m deep
steps
1.98 m
Figure 34.8 - Schematic of Lady Bower Dam Spillway
24.4 m diameter


0.7 m
R = 82 m
4.87 m
R = 24.4 m
16.6 m
Figure 34.9 - Silent Valley Dam Shaft Spillway with 4 Fins of .23 m width

Reveris shaft spillway and also Front shaft spillway are provided with stilling chambers
directly beneath the shaft, and the water flows from there with a free surface in the
outlet tunnel. Following guidelines are provided in eliminating damage due to
caviatation.

1. The concrete structure must be made very smooth, and if required, cleanly ground.
The concrete surface in the inlet funnel and the bend of the shaft spillway at the Hungry
Horse dam is made extremely smooth by grinding many times.
2. Construction joints must be eliminated in the vicinity of the bend and the inlet funnel.
3. Misalignment must be avoided. Shaft spillways are lined with cast iron, in order to
avoid erosion.
4. For heads more than 60 cm which generally is the case, the entrained air is forced
through the outlet end of the spillway.
5. Because of the assymetric conditions the non-uniform flow occurs and hence the
formation of a major vortex.
6. The vortex formation reduces the discharging capacity, considerably which results in
a rise in reservoir level, and it causes also objectionable noise. The reduction to be
about 44%, about 74% for bell-mouthed inlets and about 90% for cylindrical inlets.
7. There are many artifices to prevent the formation of vortex.


Figure 34.10 - Head-discharge characteristic for a Shaft Spillway
Discharge
Head
Orifice
Control
(weir submerged)
Full pipe flow
Q = CLH
3/2
(weir formula)
C ranges between 0.6 to 2.2
Piers

Reference

Sastry P.G., "Morning Glory Shaft Spillways - A detailed survey" , Vishwakarma, page
340 to 348.


35.1 Chute Spillways
35.1.1 General
The Chute Spillway is an obvious choice wherever the foundation strata pose difficult
problems. Chutes are also employed in canals for conveying water from a higher to
lower elevation with a consequent energy dissipation. The U.S.B.R. specifies broadly,
that when canal drops are about 60 m the Chute discharge carriers should be
employed.The principle hydraulic Elements of a Chute Spillway are: (1). the inlet
(approach) channel and a high coefficient crested spillway (control structure). (2). Chute
(3). Energy dissipator (or Terminal Structure).

Control Structure
The control structure should have a proper approach channel. It is usually located on
the flanks where the height of body wall either of masonry or concrete of spillway is
considerably small. The Crest gates for flood control if necessary may be provided.
Water overflowing the spillway is let into the chute.

Chute Discharge Carrier
The Chute portion will be a steep channel to convey water from a higher to lower
elevation ( i.e. to the natural river course at very high velocity. The cross section of the
Chute may be rectangular or trapezoidal).

Energy Dissipators
These are located at the downstream end, after the fall is completely negotiated and in
the vicinity of the natural stream. It may include Chute blocks, baffle blocks, stilling
basin, end sill and side (training) walls. It is preferable to keep them verticle on water
side for the satisfactory formation of Hydraulic jump. When the velocity at entry of stilling
basin is high, Chute and baffle blocks are omitted.


35.1.2 Location, Alignment
Chute Spillways are used mostly in the case of earthen dams. The important features of
chute spillways are their adoptability for any type of foundation condition and overall
economy effected due to the use of the material excavated for the chute portion for the
embankment. Chute spillways can be built on foundations ranging from solid rock to soft
clay.The location of spillway (control structure) will be on the flank and its alignment
depends on the location and topography. The simplest alignment is a straight with
constant width. Varying widths or curves in alignments lead to complex flow situation
(Example: Hat creek). Under certain circumstances the axis of entrance channel as well
axis of chute will have to be curved. In such cases it is better to have the curved
entrance channel to have low velocities. The bottom slab of the curved channel may
require to be elevated to accomadate the super elevation effect of curved channel.
Usually the control structure (spillway) is built in line with the axis of the main dam.

35.1.3 Hydraulic Aspect of Design
For hydraulic design it is better to conduct model studies. When the various elements
are finalised then the structural analysis is taken up. Flow in the upstream of Control
structure (Crest) is subcritical. In the chute as the flow accelerates the velocity will be
increasing. Flows in chute are usually maintained at supercritical. For satisfactory
hydraulic performance abrupt vertical changes or sharp vertical curves (concave or
convex) in the profile of the Chute should be avoided. For a satisfactory hydraulic jump
to occur, the kinetic flow factor (K=F
2
) is between 20 to 100 (i.e) Froude number is
between 5 to 10 for stable jump to occur. The required tail water depth should be made
= 0.9 y
2
(the sequent depth). Length of apron floor can be taken as 5 to 6 times of (y
2
-
y
1
) with Chute blocks, baffle blocks. But at higher velocities it is not advisable to provide
chute and baffle blocks, when they are not provided the apron length (L
b
) should be
increased. In the case of Hebballa project ( drop of 81.18 m in 354.33 m distance )
where chute spillway is adopted, the length of apron is kept at about 7 (y
2
-y
1
) in view of
the absence of the baffle blocks and Chute blocks based on hydraulic model studies. In

this case, the velocities developed in the model were slightly lower than the theoretical
velocities. The depths must be suitably adjusted for bulking due to self aerated flow.
Gumnesky has provided (Fig. 35.1) graphs for determining the bulkage and could be
used. Jump height and tailwater-rating curves will have to be plotted to decide the apron
level. For the designed discharge, corresponding elevation in the natural stream has to
be determined. This data is very essential to decide the apron floor level. It is always
best to see that jump-height elevation coincides with the elevation of tail water for
designed discharge. If jump height is y
2
and tail water elevation is y
t
then the apron floor
should be fixed at y
t
- y
2.

6.096 12.192 18.288 24.384 30.48 38.576 42.67 48.768 54.864 60.96
139.35 m
3
/s/m
92.90
74.32
55.74
46.45
37.16
27.87
18.58
13.94 11.15
9.29
7.43
5.57
3.72
1.22
2.44
3.66
4.88
6.10
7.32
8.53
0
0
Figure 35.1 - Air entrainment data for high spillways (after Gumensky)
V
actual
in m/s

35.1.4 Structural Design
1.Chute

(a) The side walls of Chute may be with a vertical face towards water side. The Chute
may also be of trapezoidal section. In the case of side retaining walls, designs must be
done for worst conditions of backfill being saturated without taking into consideration

water pressure. The soil characteristics such as the dry density, internal angle of friction
(33 10) are to be obtained from field. Corrections for saturated conditions must be
introduced (correction factor at 0.6 times the value for the dry condition). For trapezoidal
section sides are usually 220 mm to 300 mm thickness. Plain Cement concrete is
provided with nominal reinforcements at the surface in harder strata and masonry
packing to the chute slabs will be required in soft soils. The sides slabs are to be well
anchored to the side ground to prevent being pushed away by water.

(b)BASE SLAB: The base slab of chute is not designed for any uplift. Uplift due to water
(upstream of spillway) will exist always. To calculate uplift, flow net will have to be
drawn and uplift at various points determined. Since the slab thickness is to be kept at a
minimum, it is enough to provide the pressure relief measures to take care of the uplift
pressure. Longitudinal and Cross-drains with inverted filters are provided. Porous tiles
or pipes are imbedded in the filter to collect the seepage water and convey them to a
suitable point along the base slab and drain the water to the valley or stilling basin.

35.1.5 Superelevation in Chute Bends
One of the problems in the design of chutes is the determination of the path of the water
around vertical and horizontal curves. Concave vertical curves present no difficulty in
design, except for stresses created by the centrifugal force. Convex vertical curves must
not be made steeper than the trajectory that would be followed by the high velocity
water under the action of gravity. If the flume bottom is steeper than this trajectory the
water will leave the bottom and may rise above the top of the side walls as observed by
Hall at that Creek chute. The trajectory will be a parabola - tangent to the slope of the
chute.

The equation of the curve neglecting air resistance is an adaptation of the usual
equation of the path of a projectile.


To have acquired a velocity equal to the vertical component, the water would have
dropped a vertical distance y
t.
2 2
t
v sin
y =
2g

Meanwhile, the flow would cover a horizontal distance x
t
.
The point of tangency to the parabolic curve is at coordinates (x
t
, y
t
) from the point of
origin. The equation of the curve is x
2
=my in which
2 2
1
2v cos
m =
g

In many constructed chutes, it is formed that the water does not follow the bottom of the
Channel on convex vertical curves. This may be due to that the method of calculation
did not yield the actual velocity of the stream. Even if the actual mean velocity has been
obtained, it is necessary to determine the maximum velocity in the channel that will
occur near the surface of the centre portion of the cross section. In short chutes this
maximum velocity will be nearly equal to the theoretical velocity resulting from the
existing vertical drop. In longer chutes, the maximum velocity will be 15% to 20% higher
from mean velocity Lane found that the maximum velocity in the UnCompahgre chute
was 15% greater than the mean velocity.

Aside from the possibility of damage to the concrete in the chute from the cavitation, or
from the tendency to lift the entire slab, there appears to be no serious objection in
allowing the stream to leave the floor of the chute on convex vertical curves, provided
the side walls are of sufficient height to prevent the side walls are of sufficient height to
prevent overtopping by the spray. The observations at the flat Creek chute by Hall
indicate that the spreading of the jet over a greater cross section increased the friction
and aided in the dissipation of the energy. This point may be kept in mind while
designing, where it is desirable to reduce the velocity of the stream before discharging
the jet from the end of the chute.

Since the flow in the chute is supercritical, changes in horizontal direction are more
difficult to implement and if possible should be avoided. If a horizontal curve becomes

necessary, it should be preferably be provided near the head of the chute before the
water has acquired high velocity.

The water surface across the channel of a chute constructed on a curve will be tangent
to a parabola. Of course, this is assuming that the channel is relatively narrow
permitting the use of the radius of the centre line r
c
as the average curvature of the
section. Then the inclination of the tangent with the horizontal curve is given by
2
1
c
V
tan
gr
=
This suitability of this equation was verified based on the observations made in south
canal chute by Hall, (See Table), where the difference in elevation of the water surface
between the inner and outer walls approximated the slope
1
. In model tests conducted
by the East Bay Municipal District, Kennedy demonstrated that the flow of water around
a horizontal curve is greatly improved if the bottom of the flume is superelevated on the
outer wall as given by this equation.

Superelevation of water surface, South Canal Chute
Another Project
Radius of curve r
c
= 43.28 m
Gauge Readings (m) Station
chainag
e (in
feet)
Observe
d
velocity
V
o
(m/s)
tan
Left side Right
side
Difference
in elevation
m
Slope in
a 2.4 m
width
23 + 00 5.06 0.060

0.573

0.838

0.265

0.124
23 + 25 5.85 0.08

0.655

0.732

0.077

0.036
23 + 50 6.62 0.103

0.488

0.883

0.395

0.186
23 + 75 7.68 0.139

0.518

0.792

0.274

0.129

24 + 00 8.78

0.181

0.427

0.792

0.365

0.172

24 + 25 9.02

0.192

0.427

0.777

0.35

0.164

24 + 50 9.30 0.204 0.366 0.838 0.472 0.222


24 + 75 9.75

0.224

0.366

0.762

0.396

0.186

25 + 00 10.21

0.245

0.213

1.052

0.839

0.394

25 + 25 10.45

0.257

0.213

1.021

0.217

0.379

25 + 50 10.70

0.269

0.274

0.884

0.61

0.286

The superelevation of the station 23 + 00 or the P.C. of the curve is due to cross waves
resulting from the curvature of the channel upstream.

Trajectory of water surface at convex vertical curve flat creek chute
( )
3 -1
11.185 m s
Depth in m
Mean Maximum Station Mean Velocity
(ms) Observed Corrected Observed Corrected
2 + 75 23.13 ** 0.564 0.527 0.655 0.643
3 + 00 23.16 1.0729 0.890 1.28 1.064
3 + 25 23.10* 1.40 1.16 1.83 1.518
3 + 50 22.82 1.067 0.884 1.493 1.237
3 + 75 22.03 0.60 0.518 0.670 0.582
* corrected for slope
** Total drop at 2 + 75 is 39.41 m. Theoretical velocity is 27.83 m/s.
velocity coefficient
2
2
Actual velocity
t = 0 83
Theoretical velocity
2v
m = cos
g
.

Maximum computed for theoretical velocity of 27.83 m/s was 32.00 at x
t
= 28.69 m and
y
t
= 6.236 m.

35.1.6 Curves in Chutes
Flat creek chute: The 1st 83.82 m of the chute consisted of tangents connected by short
- radius vertical curves.
1 st one 7.62 m radius upto bed near 0 + 25 convex.
2 nd one 7.62 m radius upto bed between 1 + 25 to 1 + 50 convex.

3 rd one 7.62 m radius upto bed between 2 + 00 to 2 + 25 concave.
1 st one 7.62 m radius upto bed near 0 + 25 convex
2 nd one 7.62 m radius upto bed between 1 + 25 to 1 + 50 convex
3 rd one 7.62 m radius upto bed between 2 + 00 to 2 + 25 concave
}
vertical axis

2 + 75 short convex vertical curve leading to an inclination of 34 45 r
0
= 36.58 between
2 + 75 (little less say around (2+70) to (2+90).
The lower part of the curve below stn 3 + 60 was a concave vertical curve forming outlet
- bucket R = 18.32 m.

Flow details at is 2 + 75 is in this section of the channel waves (shocks) formed along
the side-wall gave the appearance of higher water levels than in the centre portion.
However, the levels were some when checked. The entire surface of the flow was
composed of these small waves or rollers which ranged from 0.13 m to 0.18 m in height
above the main body of the stream.

At this stn (2+75) the curvature was too sharp to be followed by the trajectory of the
flow, with the result that the upper layers of water left the bottom of the channel. At the
maximum velocity and some of the spray over topped the side walls in this section. At 2
+ 70, water is apparently slightly higher along the sides of the chute than in the centre
due to wave action caused by retardation along the side walls. The velocity at this point
was 22.86 m/s.

35.1.7 Curves in Rapid Flume
It is a wooden chute having a horizontal curve to the right near the upper end and a
concave vertical curve near the terminal end of the channel. The total vertical drop is
44.20 m in a distance of 203.30 m measured along the chute.
(1) A horizontal curve to the right to station 2 + 00.
(2) A long vertical concave curve of variable radius extending from stn 2 + 75 to 5 + 25.

South Canal chute
Length 1077.54 m
height (drop) 42.67 m.
branch chute

13 number horizontal curves of radii varying from 30.5 m to 91.4 m.
The sharpest angle = 98, i = 43.28 m.
The bed of these curves are not superelevated.
The total angular deflection in the entire chute is 4 22 32

As the channel curves are not superelevated the water piled up on the outside of each
curve and produced standing cross waves in the tangent section below the curve, in
addition to the choppy roller and surface waves elsewhere noted in normal chute flow.
The formation of cross waves leads to an error in computing the wetted area at some
sections as only side gauge readings were available.

In the 3.05 m width of channel the super elevation of the water surface at the outer side
of the curve did not form a uniform slope across the entire cross section, due to a larger
percentage of the flow following the outer wall. However on the 2.213 m channel widths
the slope of the water surface was more or less uniform so that the difference in level
between the gauge readings on the outer and inner walls of the curves indicated the
slope of the water surface across the stream. On the curve of 43.28 m radius, is 2.133
section (width). Constructed on a 10 % grade, the flow was highly turbulent. (stn 25 +
50). The discharge in this section tended to proceed in a series of chords with a result
that water crowded at certain points on the outside that water crowded at certain points
on the outside of the curve, permitting spray to discharge over the top of the wall.
Between these points the water surface was well below the top of the wall.

Flat creek Flume no.2 Chute
Stn South side North side Remarks

High Low High Low
Mea
n
Q
=115
cfs
Percentage
1 vel y
0
y
0
R
0
A
0
Water Air cc
0 + 00 1.2 1.0 2.0 0.6 1.20 1.20 0.88 6.46 75.7 20.3 0.32
0 + 25 1.7 1.5 1.6 1.0 1.45 1.45 1.00 7.89 55.9 44.1 0.79
1 + 25 0.8 0.6 0.9 0.7 0.75 0.75 0.60 3.87 60.2 39.8 0.66
1 + 50 1.0 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.82 0.82 0.65 4.27 51.8 48.2 0.93
2 + 00 1.1 0.8 1.0 0.8 0.92 0.92 0.72 4.85 42.1 57.9 1.38
2 + 25 0.9 0.7 1.1 0.9 0.90 0.90 0.70 4.73 42.5 57.5 1.35
2 + 75 1.0 0.8 1.0 0.7 0.88 0.88 0.69 4.61 42.9 57.1 1.33
3 + 00 - - 1.8 0.8 1.55 1.55 1.05 8.47 23.4 76.6 3.27
3 + 50 1.2 1.2 1.2 0.8 1.00 1.00 0.76 5.30 38.3 61.7 1.61
3 + 75 - 1.1 1.1 0.9 0.85 0.85 0.67 4.44 50 50 1.00
If the profile of a spillway crest is either angular or too rapidly curved, zones of
locally reduced pressures and consequent separation will prevail. In order to avoid
such conditions of instability and possible cavitation the crest is customarily shaped
to conform at design flow to the lower surface of the ventilated nappe from a sharp
crested weir of the relative height.
Application of the specific energy diagram as given for supercritical flow, is no longer
possible to pass from one curve to another (Specific energy curves) except for
evaluating the effects of changes in bottom elevation, the specific head curves are of
little aid in the solution of problem of Supercritical flow. In addition, the following
modifications of the basic theory are also found necessary for certain Supercritical
conditions.
(1) In steep chutes, the depth measured normal to the bottom no longer represents
the pressure head on the bottom.
(2) Owing to the high velocity heads, vertical curvature of the flow will produce
dynamic pressure on the bottom greatly in excess of the hydrostatic pressure.

(3) In long transitions, air entrainment will cause bulking of the flow, and depths will
have to be determined for the water-air mixture rather than for the water-discharge
alone.
2
0
V
H = +y cos
2g

In certain cases may also be a variable. The rate of change of at each section
then corresponds to a definite curvature in the vertical plane, and the resulting
Centrifugal effects must be taken into account (i.e. the pressure distribution over the
section will no longer be even approximately hydrostatic). The resulting dynamic
pressure may be very high, and when negative which may easily lead to cavitation
and seperation of the flow from the boundary. The radius of r
c
for which cavitation
would result (why aeration is prevented) can be approximated for convex, vertical
curvature in steep chutes from
2
v
c
V y
10.03 - h y cos
gr

in which h
v
is the vapour pressure head in meter. The right side of the equation can
also be used to estimate the pressure on the bottom of the chute if r > r
c
. If the
pressure is to remain atmospheric or above the value of the radius, (becomes very
large for the high velocities) which may be encountered.
2
V
r
gcos

It must be remembered that actual curvatures at many sections of a high velocity
structure are often not predictable, as they depend upon the accuracy with which the
design can be reproduced in the field.. If the alignment of the flume shows
curvatures reversed form those discussed above (i.e. Concave, Vertical Curves), the
dynamic pressure is added to the static pressure as indicated by

2
p V y
= ycos +
gr

In addition to foregoing effects of slope and vertical curvature, the entrainment of air
is to be considered.
35.1.8 Cross waves
When the surface configuration of supercritical flows in rectangular channels may be
visualised by considering a curved section of walls placed by a sequence of short
chords each one of which is deflected relative to the preceding one by a small angle
, for a convex and concave portion. The disturbance lines caused by convex and
concave walls at a wave angle given by
-1
1
1
1
= Sin
F
.
The depths can be found all along the wave line. However, the method of
characteristics can be applied to study these in curves. The diagrams given by Ippen
cannot be used for determining the flow conditions for negative deflection angles,
since negative shock waves are not possible on the assumption of Hydro Static
pressure. n negative disturbance lines diverge. Steep fronts commonly be produced
by concentrating the lines at their origin - the equivalent of introducing the sharper
curvatures. For an abrupt change of wall alignment, the resulting curvature would be
infinite. Near the wall discontinuity the surface configurations will not agree with
actual measurements owing to the necessarily sharp curvatures of the theoretical
streamlines, good agreement is nevertheless obtained at some distance from the
wall, where streamline curvatures are decreased.
35.1.9 Designing of Super critical flow curves and patterns
The effects of wall deflections are transmitted along disturbance lines at angles to
the oncoming flow. This fact leads to the unsatisfactory surface conditions in plain
circular curves. Along the outside of the curve, positive hence converging, negative
disturbances are successively produced and the surface rises. On the inside, the

surface drops, and negative disturbances are started which diverges as they
traverse the flow at angles . In the case of a curve with concentric walls, positive
and negative disturbance lines deflect the flow in the same sense by the amount by
assigned in the analysis to each finite disturbance line. As negative lines start to
cross positive lines, the deflections are added. In a curved channel, the outer wall
which turns inward to the flow will produce an oblique hydraulic jump and a
corresponding positive wavefront. Similarly when the inner wall turns outside from
the flow it produces negative wave front. When the disturbance lines thus produced
by both outer and inner walls will be reflected back and forth between walls and will
interfere with each other resulting in a disturbance pattern of cross waves. The
central angle to the point of maximum depth along the outside wall is therefore
given by
-1
b
= tan
b
r + tan
2


Wave front
Cross waves
= wave angle


min
max
2
r
c
A series of maxima and minima of surface elevation approximately
at angles of , 3, 5.... from the starting of the curve occur. The angle
marks half the wavelength of the disturbance pattern. For practical purposes it
may be assumed that the maxima and minima occur at phase angle of on the same
radial line. Actually the location of the first maximum and minimum do not occur
exactly on the radial line, but slightly on the right side and the left side of the radial
line.
Figure 35.3 - Cross wave pattern in a curved channel with
constant width in super critical flow

Ippen and Knapp obtained that increases in depth obtained for supercritical flow were
more than twice the increase for sub critical flow. The depth past the maximum section
will decrease. Owing to the successive influence of the negative disturbance lines
arriving at the outside wall, until the positive lines reflected from the inside wall return to
the outside wall. The maxima occur at an interval . The distance between successive
maxima along either channel wall is
-1
2b
L =
tan


35.2 Stepped or Cascade Spillways (Fig. 35.4)

Recent advances in technology have led to the construction of large dams, reservoirs
and channels. This progress has necessitated the provision of adequate flood disposal
facilities and safe dissipation of the energy of the flow, which may be achieved by
providing steps on the spillway face. Stepped channels and Spillways are used since
more than 3000 years. Stepped spillway is generally a modification on the downstream
face of a standard profile for an uncontrolled ogee spillway. At some distance in the
downstream of the spillway crest, steps are fitted into the spillway profile such that the
envelope of their tips follows the standard profile down to the toe of the spillway. A
stepped chute design increases higher energy dissipation and thus reduces greatly the
need for a large energy dissipator at the toe of the spillway or chute.

Spillway
Stepped Spillway
Step height S
h
Length of the step l
s
Figure 35.4 - Definition Sketch of a Stepped Spillway

Stepped spillway was quite common in the 19th century and present practice is
confined to simple geometries ( e.g. flat horizontal steps in prismatic chutes). Generally,
a stepped channel geometry is used in channels with small - slope: for river training, in
sewers and storm waterways and channels downstream of bottom outlets, launder of
chemical processing plants, waste waterways of treatment plants and step -pool
streams.


Detailed investigation into its various elements started only about 1978 with the
comprehensive laboratory tests by Essery and Horner (1978).
During the 19th century and early 20 th century, Stepped waste - waterways ( also
called ' byewash' ) were commonly used to assist with energy dissipation of the flow
(CHANSON 1995, "Hydraulic design of stepped Cascade channels, Weirs and
Spillway", pergamon UK, 292 pages J an 1995). Now a days stepped spillways are often
associated with roller compacted concrete ( RCC ) dams.
The stepped geometry is appropriate to the RCC placement techniques and enhances
the rate of energy dissipation compared to a smooth chute design. A related application
is the overtopping protection of embankments with RCC overlays ( e.g. ASCE Task
Force Report, 1994.
Alternatives for over topping protection of Dam - Task force Commitee on over topping
protection, 139 pages).

35.2.1 Suitability

Energy dissipation below hydraulic structures is accomplished generally by single -fall
hydraulic jump type stilling basins, roller buckets or trajectory buckets. However, when
the kinetic energy at the toe of the spillway would be high. The tail water depths in the
river are often inadequate. Then first two devices, cannot be used as in the case of high
head dams.

In narrow curved gorges consisting of fractured rocks, buckets cannot be used. In such
situations, a system of cascading falls down the side of a valley, with a stilling basin in
the downstream, can be used as an alternative spillway. Cascade spillways can be
used for any type of dam irrespective of the material of construction.
The only disadvantage with stepped spillway is that at large discharges, as the jet is not
aerated for some distance downstream of the spillway, low pressure may occur and
lead to cavitation damage.


35.2.2 Physical Modelling of Stepped Spillway
Free surface flows are commonly modelled using Froude similitude. The various flow
elements,
(1) the role of the steps in enhancing turbulent dissipation as well as their interaction
with other adjacent steps and,
(ii ) the effect of aerated flow make it difficult to model.

35.2.3 Classification of Flow
The concept of stepped spillway was used as early as 1892 - 1906 in New Croton dam.
Lombardi and Marquenent were first to consider stepped spillway consisting of concrete
drop spillway and intermediate erodible river reaches. The slopes of these reaches were
such that a hydraulic jump occurred at the base of each drop. However, the
experimental studies revealed three types of flows over a stepped spillway, namely,
nappe flow, partial nappe flow (intermediate(transition)) and skimming flow.
A stepped chute consists of a open channel with a series of drops in the invert. For a
given chute profile, the flow patten may be either nappe flow at low flow rates, transition
flow for intermediate discharges or skimming flow at larger flow rates.

Nappe Flow
This type of flow occurs for small discharges. The flow cascades over the steps, falls in
a series of plunges from one step to another in a thin layer that clings to the face of
each step, with the energy dissipation occurring by breaking of the jet in the air, impact
of jet on the step, mixing on the step, with or without the formation of a partial hydraulic
jump on the step. The step height sh must be relatively large for nappe flow. This
situation may apply to relatively flat stepped channels or at low flow rates.
The depths can be determined from the expressions,
Following equations to be checked for notations:


1
1
1
1
3
h
h
3
h
h
0.425
2
y
1
0.54 (35.1)
S
S
0.27
2
y
1
1.66 (35.2)
S
S

q
g
q
g

=

=

1
1
3
h
h
0.22
2
y
c
(35.3)
S
S
q
g

=

However, the steps for a nappe flow or plunge pool type of flow need to be relatively
large. In otherwords, tread requires to be larger than the depth of flow. This requires
downstream slope of dam face to be relatively flatter. Chanson observes that if slope of
downstream face is greater than 1 : 5, the nappe flow system becomes uneconomical
except in case of embankment type structure or steep rivers.

Partial Nappe Flow (Fig.35.5)

In this type of flow, the nappe does not fully impinge on the step surface and it
disperses with considerable turbulence. Flow is super - critical down the length of the
spillway.

y
p
y
p
y
c
Figure 35.5 - Partial nappe flow


For a given step geometry, an increase in flow rate may lead to intermediate flow patten
between nappe and skimming flow - the transition flow regime also called a partial
nappe flow. The transition flow is characterised by a pool of circulating water and often
accompanied by a very small air bubble (cavity), and significant water spray and the
deflection of water jet immediately downstream of the stagnation point. Downstream of
the spray region, the supercritical flow decelerates upto the downstream step edge. The
transition flow pattern exhibits significant longitudinal variations of the flow properties on
each step. It does not present the coherent appearance of skimming flows.

Skimming Flow (Fig. 35.6)

In skimming flow regimes, the water flows down the stepped face as a coherent stream,
skimming over the steps and cushioned by the recirculating fluid trapped between them.
The external edges of the steps form a pseudobottom over which the flow skims.
Beneath this, recirculating vortices form and are sustained through the transmission of
shear stress from the water flowing past the edge of the steps. At the upstream end, the
flow is transparent and has glossy appearance and no air entrainment takes place. After
a few steps the flow is characterised by air entrainment similar to a self -aerated flow
down a smooth invert spillway. In case of the skimming flow, at each step, whether air
entrainment occurs or otherwise, a stable vortex develops and the overlying flow moves
down the spillway supported by these vortices, which behave as solid boundary for the
skimming flow, and the tips of the steps. There is a continous exchange of flow between
top layer and vortices formed on steps. The flow rotates in the vortex for a brief period
and then returns to the main flow to proceed on down the spillway face. Similarly, air
bubbles penetrate and rotate with the vortex flow, when aeration takes place.

Transition from one type of flow to another is gradual and continuous, as a result both
the nappe flow and the skimming flow, appear simultaneously in a certain range, one of
them on some steps and other on the remaining, both changing spatially and
temporarily.

y
c
s
h
l
V
0
Recirculating
flow
Figure 35.6 - Fully developed skimming flow

35.2.4 Transition from Crest to Initial Steps

Sorensen found the free surface jet to be smooth down to the point of inception of air
entrainment. This point of inception moves progressively upstream as the discharge
decreases. However, for very small discharge, the jet after striking the first step was
redirected outward and skips several steps before it strikes the spillway face again
several steps further down. This could be overcome by introducing few smaller steps on
upper reaches of the spillway.


35.2.5 Basic Equation for Skimming Flow

Consider a skimming flow in which dominant feature is the momentum exchange
between the free stream and the cavity flow within the steps. Basic dimensional analysis
yields ( Figure 35.6 ),

1
1
h
h
f ( V , y , S , , k , g, , , )= 0 (35.4)
s
1
-1
for horizontal steps, = tan (S / ).
Using Buckingum pi- theorem equation can be written as

s
s
l
l

1
1
h
h
S
V V y
f , , , , 0 (35.5)
2
S gy
s
k
s
l

=

Figure 35.7 - Hydrodynamic feature of a skimming flow
Shear layer edges
Cavity (bubble)
Mixing layer
V
0
y
0
s
h
l
s
__

While deriving the above equation the interaction of adjacent steps and the effect of air
entrainment has not been taken into account. Hence, Froude number similitude alone
cannot describe the complexity of stepped spillway flows completely.
Chanson showed that Froude number has no effect on flow resistance and that
Reynolds number might not have a substantial effect and that the form drag was related
primarily to step cavity geometry. It was also reported that in case of small scale models
the developing flow regimes and flow resistance were not correctly reproduced.

35.2.6 Onset of Skimming Flow

Onset of skimming flow occurs when the space between the water surface at the two
consecutive edges of the steps is filled up with water, there by, creating a smooth
surface of water parallel to the average slope of the spillway face - the condition very
difficult to establish analytically. Therefore, empirical equations have been proposed by
many investigators for the delineation of the skimming flow from nappe flow over
stepped spillway.

Essery and Horner reported that it is very difficult to distinguish between nappe and
skimming flow for flatter slopes having 0 4 <
1
h s
S / l . .

Based on available data Rajaratnam found the skimming flow to occur for
1
0 8 >
c h
y / S . .
On the other hand, Stephenson introduced a term called Drop number,
1
3

2
h
D= q / gS
to distinguish between nappeflow [ D<0.6 ] and skimming flow [ D >0.6]

Peyras, et al. studied gabion dams consisting of four step element each 0.2 m high.

It was found that the transition from nappe to skimming flow occurs for a discharge of
approximately 1.5 m3 / s /m or at 0 5 <
1
c h
y / S . while Degoutte found the onset of
skimming flow on gabion steps to occur at 0 74 =
1
c h
y / S . for 0 33 =
1
h s
S / l . and at 0.62 for
1 0 =
1
h s
S / l . . Based on the available data, Chanson developed a regression equation
for the onset of skimming flow, namely.
2/ 3
b 1 c
h
2 3/ 2 b
b 1
1
F k y
s
cos
1 2F (k ) 1
k
>

+

In which
1 b
2
b
1
k 1 , F
F
= + is the Froude number at the brink of the step and
b
is the
streamline angle with the horizontal. This equation is applicable to the accelerated flow
and may predict jet deflection at the first step of the cascade.

Figure 35.8 - Onset of skimming / Nappe flow
Essery and Horner
PEYRAS et al.
STEPHENSON
BEITZ and LAWLESS
MONTES
KELLS
RU et al. (1994)
HORNER (1969)
ELVIRO and MATEOS
-20% Band
+20% Band
Transition fully / partially developed jump
HORNER [NA1/NA2]
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
0.00
0.20
0.40
0.60
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
yc / sh
Skimming Flow
Nappe Flow
sh / ls

35.2.7 Prediction of the flow regime

The type of stepped flow regime is a function of the discharge and step geometry.
Chanson has reanalysed a large number of experimental data related to change in flow
regimes. Most of the data were obtained with flat horizontal steps .
Overall the result suggest that the upper limit of nappe flow may be approximated as:

h
h s
h
y
S
c
=0.89 - 0.4 (35.6)
S
in which y is the critical depth, S is the step height, and
c
is the step length. The above equation indicates the transition
s
l
l
h
h s
of flow from nappe to transition flow regime.
While the lower limits of skimming flow may be estimated as.
y
S
c
1.2 0.325 (35.7)
S
on set of skimming flow is giv
l
=
h
h s
en by
y
S
c
1.057 0.465
S
Further the equation 2 indicates the change of flow from
transition flow to skimming flow region.
Two issues must be clearly under stood.
l
>


Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 were fitted for flat horizontal steps with S
h
/l
s
ranging from 0.05 to
1.7 ( i.e 3.4 < <60
o
); there is no information on their validity outside of that range
and their accuracy is no better than 10 %; Eqations 35.6 and 35.7 characterise a
change in flow regime for uniform or quasiuniform flows only.

For rapidly varied flows, the results are not valid. For example, at the upstream end of a
stepped chute, the accelerating water may flow as thick free falling nappes before
changing to a skimming flow regime further down stream. However, Peyras et al. data,
which are for gabion (which is pervious in nature) stepped spillway, and may have
different characteristic of flow, which requires to be established. Later on, Chanson also
presented an analytical approach for the prediction of the onset of skimming flow
expressing
1
c h
y / S as a function of Froude number at brink of the step angle of striking
jet on the tread of the step assuming that the angle of striking jet is equal to the
downstream slope of spillway at the onset of skimming flow. However, no guidelines for
prediction of Froude number at the step edge has been provided which renders the
estimation of
1
c h
y / S difficult.

Tatewar and Ingle studied the energy dissipation capacity of an inclined spillway and
developed the following regression equation using available data
with range of
1
h s
S / l from 0.4 to 0.85 and
0
from 0
o
to 20
o
to , to distinguish between
nappe and skimming flow.

1
1
0
h
y
c
0.888 0.00385 0.01195 (35.8)
S
They found that for slopes steeper than 0.9, the possibility of nappe flow reduces considerably.
All the
h
s
S
l

=

1
1
0
h
y
c
data when plotted in terms of Z = [( ) + 0.00385 ] and represented the
S
region of skimming flow as shown in Figure 35.9.
h
s
S
l


Rajaratnam
0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
0.9
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 35.9 - Onset of skimming flow
sh
1
/l
Tatewar and Ingle
Chanson

35.2.8 Coefficient of Friction

Noori studied in detail stepped steep open channel flows and reported a drag coefficient
of 0.19 for (
1
h s
S / l =0.2 and
M =62 [ {y + (
1
h
S / 2 ) for
1
h
S >6 ] and, 0.17 for (
1
h s
S / l ) =0.1 and M=100 [ {y +(
1
h
S /
2 ) for
1
h
S >10 ].

In this, the value of y can be estimated at any point on the spillway as,

[ ]
q
y =
0.5
2g(z -H)

in which z is the vertical distance below the crest measured to the water surface at the
point where y is to be determined.
The value of for a stepped block was found to be considerably smaller than that for
smooth spillway for large value of (l
s
/ y
c
);

1
h
S is the length of the step) and slope of the spillway, and hence, a considerable
energy loss at the toe of the stepped spillway.

Based on the avilable data, Rajaratnam suggested the following equation for the
variation of coefficient of friction,
f
c , for aerated skimming flow.
3
0 0
f
2
2y gs
c =
q

The value of
f
c was found to be 0.18 as compared to 0.0065 for smooth spillway, while
Christodoulou (1993) found
f
c to vary from 0.076 to 0.89 and ,
f
c being higher down
the steps.
Tozzi evaluated the friction factor on stepped chutes of slope 1:2 ( V: H ) by analysing
the energy loss of air flowing in a closed conduit with roughness elements designed to
simulate the slope,
The value of is found to be f =0.09. It was noted that the value is overestimated if
uniformly aerated flow conditions are not attained. Matos and Quentela concluded that a
value of f =0.1 can be safely considered for the preliminary hydraulic design of stepped
spillway for slopes around 1 : 0.75 ( V: H ), typical of concrete gravity dams.

35.2.9 Energy Loss on Stepped Spillway

When an overflow is smoothly directed to an outlet structure by the chute where a
concentrated energy dissipation takes place, the cascade corresponds to a distributed
dissipator. Hence, the terminal structure has only smaller area of energy to dissipate,
and would be significantly smaller. A quantitative comparison between the conventional
system chute - stilling basin and the spillway cascade is shown in figures. The latter
type is suited for small and medium discharges and has recently gained some
popularity with Roller Compacted Concrete dams.

Point of
inception
boundary layer
Growth of boundary layer

PI
PI = Point of Inception
Energy Line
RVF
GVF
DZ
UAF
RVF = Rapidly Varied Flow
GVF = Gradually Varied Flow
DZ = Developing Zone
UAF = Uniformily Aerated Flow Region
PHJ
PHJ = Pre-entrained Hydraulic Jump
Skimming Flow
T
A


The typical geometry of the stepped spillway with the standard crest geometry and
increasing step height up to the point of tangency T are shown in the above figure.
The free surface profile is smooth upto crest inspite of the development of vortex in
each step. The transition to rough surface flow occurs beyond point A where the air
entrainment is initiated. The hydraulic features of the cascade spillway as compared to
chute flow are:
the flow depth is much larger than in a chute due to the highly turbulent cascade
flow, and higher sidewalls are required,
more air is entrained and the spray action may become an important issue.
abrasion can be a serious problem for flows with sediment or with floating debris.
In cascade spillways two flow types may occur as shown in Figure.
Nappe flow: is the flow from each step hits the next step as a falling jet;
Skimming flow: the flow remains coherent over the individual steps.
The onset of skimming flow occurs for yc /sh >0.8, where yc is the critical depth
and sh is the height of the step. When uniform cascade flow occurs in long
channels, skimming flow dissipates more energy than nappeflow. However,
nappe flow is more efficient for a short cascade than skimming flow (Chanson,
1994) the energy dissipated hf relative to the drop height Hodepends on the drop
Froude number and the slope of the spillway.

Stephenson ( 1991 ) expressed the relative energy loss as
H 0.84
-1/3
F (1)
0.25
H
0

=

in which H is the energy loss over a height H
0
, F
0
is the
0.5
3
0
q
Froude Number =
gH

, and is expressed in degrees in the above equation.

The energy dissipated H relative to the drop height H
0
depends on the drop Froude
number
( )
3
o o
F q gH = and slope of the spillway.

Accordingly, the effect of slope is small, where as the dam height has considerable
influence on the head loss. Christodoulou (1993) studied the effect of number of steps N
on the energy dissipation H / H
0
. He introduced the parameter h
c
=y
c
/ ( Ns
h
) with y
c
=
(q
2
/g)
1 / 3
as critical depth s
h
as the step height and found for h
c
<0.25
H
2
exp( 30 h ) (2)
H
c
=
By Increasing the number of steps the energy dissipation can be increased and hence
the performance of the stepped spillway.

For a long cascade, above 90% of mechanical energy is dissipated along the cascade
and only a small Portion of energy must be dissipated in the stilling basin.

According to Stephenson ( 1991 ) the efficiency of the cascade spillway depends mainly
on its height and the specific discharge and marginally on the slope.

The cascade flow may reach a state of nearly uniform flow (subscript n) which may be
approximated with ls , as step length ( Vischer and Hager. 1995).
n
1 / 2 4 6 3
h 0.23 [ / ( g )] (3)
h
l q s
s
=
Diez-Cascon et al. (1991) conducted experimental investigation on a cascade spillway
of step size l
s
/ s
h
=0.75 and slope =53, followed by a horizontal stilling basin . The
sequent depth ratio varied with the approach Froude number F
1
as
r
2 /3
Y = 2.9 F
1

The resulting tailwater depth is higher than for the classical hydraulic jump, however,
the value F 1 for cascade flow is much smaller. The above equation is valid for uniform
approach flow. One may derive the following equation.
r
2 / 3 1/ 3
F = 7. 3 ( h / l )
n s n
1 / 3
and Y = 21.1 ( h / l ) (4)
n s

The sequent depth ratio varies slightly with the uniform flow depth relative to the step
height.

According to Chanson ( 1994) the onset of nappe flow occurs for
*
c c
y y > where
h
h
*
y s
c
1.057 0.465
s l
s
=
In the transitional regime between nappe and skimming flow hydraulic instability occurs
which should be avoided to prevent the problems with vibration of structures.
For skimming flow, the resistance characteristics are governed by the distance between
two adjacent step edges, protruding into the flow. Even though Chanson (1994)
analysed the hydraulics of skimming flow, there is inadequate data to describe uniform
cascade flow. A basic investigation is needed to obtain further information.
Though, it was clearly stated as early as 1970 that the adavantage of steps is to
dissipate energy a little at a time but this is true only at low flow rates.
Where as, the energy dissipation occurs due to jet breakup in the air, jet mixing on the
step, with or with out the formation of a partial hydraulic jump on the steps in case of
nappe flow; the energy dissipation in skimming flow occurs due to the momentum
transfer to the recirculating fluid. Hence, the methods required for estimation of the
energy loss need to be different for the two types. In general, about 88% to 94 %
reduction in kinetic energy was noted from the velocity measurements at the spillway
toe without and with steps. For isolated nappe flow, Peyras et al., presented an
equation (see table) for determining the energy loss below the stepped gabion


Authors Remarks Energy loss equation
Peyras et al.
(1992)
Isolated
nappe
2
h c
2
1
q
E = Ns + 1.5 y -
2gy

Rajarathnam,
1990
skimming
flow
88.89 % of self aerated flow
Tatewar and
Ingle (1999)
Relative
loss (upper
limit of
energy
loss)
0 2 c
d
dam
E 1
E y
1 1.25 C
H Head over spillway
=

+

+

Chamani and
Rajarathnam
Relative
loss ( )
( )
i
N 1
c
f f
h
i 1
0 c
h
f
c h
h s
y
1 1 1.5 1
s
E
1
E y
N 1.5
s
in which is the proportion of energy loss per step a function
y s
of and
s l
=

+ +

=

+

Tatewar and
Ingle (1966)
Regression
analysis for
f

c h
f
h s
y s
= -0.1169 - 0.8221 log + 0.0675 log - 0.5481 log
s l

Chanson in terms of
friction
factor f
1/ 3 2/ 3
0
dam
0
c
f f
cos + 0.5
8 sin 8 sin E E
= 1 -
H
E
15 +
y

It was found that actual dissipation could be 10 % more in case of gabions as compared

to concrete steps due to factors like infiltration in to the gabions, difference in surface

roughness and spillway slope. It was also found that their equation is valid within 10% in

case of partial nappe flow.

Rajaratnam, found the ratio of energy dissipation by skimming flow to the energy

contained in the flow down a smooth spillway is about 89%. He has assumed that the

flow is uniform skimming flow which implies a high spillway,

with many steps. The residual energy varies from 9 % to 12 % depending on the

discharge. Christodoulou in 1993 studied the effect of number of steps on energy

dissipation in case of skimming flow.

Using his own data for
1
h s
S / l =0.7 and for N =15 (number of steps) as well as the
avilable data for h
c
<25, where h
c
=( y
c
/ NS
h
), he showed for the same discharge the
energy dissipation increases with the increase in the number of steps. The dissipation
may be significantly less on moderately stepped spillway when compared to the uniform
flow on high spillway. As he has not consider the effect of
1
s h
l / S and, the energy loss
by the steps in the curved portion is likely to be more, the results of Christodoulou is not
applicable to prototype. Using the weir formula to express discharge over the spillway in
terms of head over the spillway including velocity of approach head, Tatewar and Ingle
derived a simplified expression for energy loss (upper limit of energy dissipation) using
the equation for the discharge over the weir and is given by

0 2
1
9
1
8
=

+

+

c
d
dam
E
E y
C
H H

Chamani and Rajaratnam established a relation for the energy dissipation in jet flow.
Tatewar and Ingle based on regression analysis fitted an equation for the proportion of
energy per step for the range of from 5 to 20 S /
1
s
l
h
from 0.421 to 0.842 and
y
c
( )
S
1
h
from 0.05 to 0.833.
They concluded that energy dissipation is more in case of inclined steps and
f

increases marginally for steeper slope and that the increase of
f
is comparatively
larger for flatter slopes.

Variation of X with y
c
/s
h1
y
c
/s
h1
0.05
0.1 0.5
0.15
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
= 10
0
= 5
0
= 20
0
= 15
0
X
}
Inclined steps
= 0
0
Horizontal steps

35.2.10 Effect of Air Entrainment

For higher discharges the point of inception of air entrainment occurs past the end of
the spillway section and move progressively up as the discharge decreases.
Typically, the depth decreases from the crest inception point, beyond which, owing to
the bulking of the flow, the depth continuously
increases towards the spillway toe. At very low Reynolds number, the nappe does not
break and energy loss is affected.

Aeration of cascades

The Quality of waters of rivers, streams, creeks etc is often expressed in terms of the
dissolved oxygen content ( DOC). Low dissolved oxygen value often does not allow the
development as well may cause the death of aquatic life forms and indicates some form
of pollution associated with excessive waste water inflows. In natural streams, obtain
the DOC from the aeration of the free surface.

Stepped cascades are characterised by a large amount of self aeration and it may be
used to reoxygenate depleted waters. In rivers, artificial stepped cascades and weirs
have been built to enhance the DOC of polluted or eutrophic streams.
Stepped cascades are also built in the downstream reach of large dams to re-oxygenate
water.

Example: Labyrinth weir crest length of 640 m, single drop 2.3 m, design discharge 14
to 68 m
3
/s at South Houlston weir, USA and the two-step labyrinth drop structure (2
drops of 2 m height and design discharge of 110 m
3
/s) of 640 m buit by the French
Electricity Commission downstream of the Petit -Saut Dam ( the Petit-Saut Dam is a
RCC construction) installed with an overflow stepped spillway. The downstream
stepped cascade is designed to re- oxygenete the tailrace waters of power station (
depleted in oxygen ). Further, there is a series of five aeration cascades built along the
Calumet waterway in Chicago. The waterfalls are designed to re-oxygenate the polluted
canal and combine flow aeration and aesthetics to create recreation parks.
Stepped cascades could be used to reduce the dissolved nitrogen content also.

In the treatment of drinking water, cascade aeration is used to remove dissolved gases (
e.g. chlorine).

35.2.11 Air entrainment in Nappe Flow Regime

Typical air concentration profiles based on the experimental investigation by Chanson
and Toombes are shown in the figure.


Air Cavity
Impact Point
Spray Rebound Reattachment
Longitudinal Variation of Air Concentration (isocons) along the nappe
Centre line of Step 2 qw = 0.150 m
2
/s after Chanson and Toombes,
June - 1997
90 % 50 %

The un-ventilated air cavity, the impact point and the spray region are also indicated.
The main features of the air - water flow on step for q =0.15 m
2
s
-1
are:
the large air-cavity beneath the nappe,

the sidewall standing waves and the spray ( i.e. rebounding waters ),

the large amount of flow aeration in the spary region,

the de- trainment at the spray re-attachment, and

the substantial free-surface aeration at the end of the step ( i.e. C =19% )

The flow patterns of the air - water flow on a down stream step : for the same flow rate
at the cascade ( step No.9). (S
h
=0.143, l
s
=2.4 m, =3.4, 10 steps over 25 m long
flume of 0.5 m width. In the absence of steps =4.0 ).
in the absence of ventilation the air cavity had disappeared completely and
recirculating water occupies the space beneath the nappe,

the introduction of a splitter ( into the nappe ) ventilates the nappe and induces
the formation of a sizeable air cavity; as a result the nappe trajectory increases,
the spray region is important,

the amount of entrained air is basically identical at the upstream and downstream
ends of the step ( i.e. C =17% to 19%); the mean air content is maximum at the
downstream of the nappe impact ( in the spray region ) and minimum at the
downstream end of the step . An interesting difference is the presence of a small
bubble (cavity) between the nappe and the re - circulating water . The

introduction of a splitter helps in occurance of larger air cavity and enlarges the
nappe trajectory.
In comparison the mean air content at the downstream end of the smooth chute was
about 0.08 and the maximum mean air concentration was about 0.12 at a section
located 4 m downstream.
Overall the stepped chute flow is significantly has higher aeration than the smooth chute
flow for the same flow rate. The air - water flow with the stepped channel is three -
dimensional in nature unlike the smooth chute flow which is two - dimensional.

35.2.12 Air Entrainment in Skimming Flows

Modern concrete stepped spillways operate in a skimming flow regime. at the upstream
end, the free surface is clear and transparent.
However, a turbulent boundary layer develops along the chute invert.

When the outer edge of the boundary layer emerges to the free surface, air entrainment
commences.
The distance to the inception point of air entrainment and the flow depth at inception are
correlated by :
The location where free surface aeration occurs is called the inception point of air
entrainment. Its characteristics are the distance L
i
from the crest
(measured along the invert) and the flow depth y
i
measured normal to the channel
invert.
Model and prototype data were re - analysed by Chanson in 1994.

The dimensionless distance L
i
/ k
s
and depth y
i
/k
s
are plotted as functions of the
dimensionless discharge.

h
k is the step depth per unit width ( normal to the flow direction ), s is the step height.
empirical correlations for stepped chutes:
- The dimensionless distance from crest L / and flow depth
i
y
I
s
K
s
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
w
*
3
h
h
w
*
3
s
0.713 0.0796
I
*
s
0.592
I
*
0.04
s
q
/ k increase with increasing dimensionless discharge F =
s
g sin s cos
k can be written as s cos
s
q
Thus F =
g sin k
L
9.719 sin F
k
y 0.4034
F
k
sin
=
=


BaCaRa [1:10] (53 deg.)
BEITZ and LAWLESS (50 deg.)
BINDO (51 deg.)
FRIZELL (27 deg.)
HORNER (36.4 deg.)
SORENSEN (52 deg.)
TOZZI (53.1 deg.)
ZHOU (51.3 deg.)
Given equation for 52 deg.
Trigomil (51.3 deg.)
PROTOTYPE
Trigomil dam
1.00 10.00 100.00
1
10
100
1000
BaCaRa [1/10 \ 53 deg. ]
BINDO (51 deg.)
FRIZELL (27 deg.)
HORNER (36.4 deg.)
SORENSEN (52 deg.)
TOZZI (53.1 deg.)
ZHOU (51.3 deg.)
Given equation (52 deg.)
F
1.00 10.00
100.00
1.00
10.00
0.10
LI / ks
*
2
5
20
50
500
Normalised Inception length as a function of dimensionless discharge
after (Chanson and Toombes)
I
y
ks
___
Normalised Inception depth (y ) as a function of dimensionless discharge
after (Chanson and Toombes)
I
F
*
Inception on smaller steps
LI ___
ks
= 9.719(sin )
0.0796
(F*)
0.713
yI ___
ks
=
(sin )
(F*)
0.592
_______ 0.4034
0.04

boundary layer growth rate is grater on stepped channels than on smooth chutes.
Chanson in 1995 based on the reanalysed data, concluded that the experimental results
are basically independent of the type of crest profile.
The reanalysed data included the types of crest profile were included smooth ogee
crest profiles follows by stepped chute ( with or without smaller first steps) and broad -
crests followed by stepped chute.

Above Equations may be used for estimating L
i
and y
i
. It may be noted that one
prototype observation (Trigomil dam) fills the equation 1.

35.2.13 Aeration in Fully - Developed Skimming Flow
Downstream of the inception point of air entrainment, the flow becomes fully -developed
and a layer containing a mixture of both air and water extends gradually through the
fluid. Far downstream the flow becomes uniformly aerated. This region is defined as the
uniform equilibrium flow region. The air concentration profiles are compared with a
simple diffusion model by CHANSON 1995 and validated with prototype and model
smooth - chute data . The following equation describes the air concentration distribution.
y
2
C 1 tanh K
2 D y
90

=

in which C is the air concentration, D' is a dimensionless turbulent diffusivity and K ' is
constant of integration. D' and K' are functions of the mean air concentration C, y
90
is
the distance from bed at which 90% air concentration occurs.

after BAKER (1994)
Brushes Clough dam spillway
Air concentration 'C'
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
y
Measurements at Brushes Clough dam spillway (BAKER 1994) -
Inclined downward steps (Sh = 0.19 m, is = - 5.6 deg.), = 18.4 degrees
C = 0.235 - Step 50
C = 0.178 - Step 30
C = 0.15 - Step 10
C = 0.20 - Step 73
Theory: C = 0.15
Theory: C = 0.235
__
y
90
__
__
__
__
__
__


Theory: C = 0.25
Theory: C = 0.33
x = 14.8 m - C = 0.25
x = 13.8 m - C = 0.31
x = 26.8 m - C = 0.33
after RUFF AND FRIZELL (1994)
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
y
__
y
90
Air concentration 'C'
x is the distance
Air concentration distribution in prototype observation after Baker and Ruff and Frizell (Chanson 1994)
(qw = 2.6 m
2
/s, =26.6 , inclined downward steps, Sh = 0.154 m )
0
__
__
__
__
__

Table: Variation of the turbulent diffusivity and constant of integration with C.

C
( 1 )
D'
( 2 )
K'
( 3 )
0.01 0.007 68.70
0.05 0.037 14.00
0.10 0.073 7.16
0.15 0.110 4.88
0.20 0.146 3.74
0.30 0.223 2.57
0.40 0.311 1.93
0.50 0.423 1.51
0.60 0.587 1.18
0.70 0.878 0.90

90
y
1
C = C dy
y
0
90

The analysis of model and prototype data showed that the air concentration profiles in
skimming flows down a stepped chute have similar shape as those in smooth chute
flows. Further the observed values of mean air concentration over stepped chute flow
are very nearly same as the mean air concentration of the fully developed flow over
smooth chutes : i.e.,
( )
C
e
=27% and 36% respectively for =18.4
o
and 26.6
o
.

The data of Baker (1994) yielded C ranging between 15% and 23% with 18.4o slope
and the data of Ruff and Frizell indicate C of 33% at the end of the 26.6
o
slope channel.

Free-surface aeration causes the bulkage of the flow and thus reducing the risks of
cavitation damage and enhanaces the air -water gas transfer (e.g. re- oxygenation of
the water). Futher, the presence of air nearer to the bed induces a reduction of drag and
results in decrease in friction factor . The drag reduction effect and the associated
reduction in flow resistance may have a significant impact on the rate of energy
dissipation on stepped spillway. The above analysis [ of energy dissipation ] by chanson
neglects the effects of air entrainment. The friction factor and the energy dissipation are
affected significantly by the rate of free- surface aeration. The effects of air entrainment
on the residual energy cannot be neglected for [ channel ] slope larger than 30 degrees
" and " the residual energy is strongly underestimated if the effect of air entrainment is
neglected. It is most important that design engineers to take into account aeration of
flow to estimate the residual enegy and to dimension stilling basins downstream of
stepped chutes".

35.2.14 Rapidly Varied Flow at the Inception Point
The flow properties rapidly vary next to and immediately downstream of the inception
point obervations suggest that some air is entrapped in the step cavity (ies).
Immediately upstream the flow is extremely turbulent and the free surface is oscillating.
At irregular time intervals, a water jet impinges on the horizontal step face and air is
trapped in the step cavity. An instant later, a rapid unsteady flow bulking is observed
downstream. Velocity measurements indicate that, immediately upstream of the
inception point, the turbulent velocity fluctuations are large, with dimensionless
fluctuations u' / V of about 15 - 18 % and normal longitudinal and lateral components of
turbulent velocity, respectively. Observed values of u' = 0.14 m /s next to the free
surface are large enough to initate air bubble entraiment. Immediately downstream of
the inception point, time-averaged air concentration data showed an increased aeration.
For example, increase in mean air concentration C =25% along a distance x =6.5 y
c

down a 30
o
slope for y
c
/ s
h
=5.2 ; an increase in mean air concentration C =55 % in
18 step heights down a 53
o
slope for y
c
/ s
h
<2 ; an increase in mean air concentration

C =32% in 2 step heights down a 22
o
slope for y
c
/ s
h
=1.1, (where C is the mean
air concentration).

Table : Increase in Mean Air Concentration Over Stepped Spillway

Increase in
concentration
C%
I Bed slope S
0

(in degree)
c
h
y
s

Remarks
25 6.5 y
c
30 5.2
55 * 53 <2.0 * Over 18 steps
32 * 22 1.1 Over 2 steps
heights

Reference

1. BaCaRa, "Etude de la dissipation d' energie sur les evacuateurs a marches", (study
of the energy dissipation on stepped spillways) Rapport d' Essais, Project National
BaCaRa, CEMAGREF-SCP, Aix -en-provence, France, October 1991, 111 pages.
2. BaCaRa. "Roller compacted concrete: RCC for dams. "Presses de l' Ecole Nationale
des Ponts et Chausse'es, Paris, 1997.
3. Baker, R. "Brushes clough wedge block spillway - progress report no. 3" SCEL Proj.
Rewp. No. SJ 542-4, University of Saford, U.K, 1994.
4. Boes R.M, "Physical model study on two - phase cascade flow" , Proc 28th IAHR
Congress, Graz, Austria, Session S1, 6 pages, 1991.
5. Chamani, M.R., and Rajaratnam N. "characteristics of skimming flow over stepped
spillways". J . Hydraulic Engineering, ASCE, 125 (5), 1999, 500 - 510. Discussion by
Robert M. Boes; Chanson H; J orge Matos; Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi; Tatewar
S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D and closure, ibid, November 2000, page 860 - 873.
6. Chanson H and Toombes Luke "Flow aeration at stepped cascades", Research
report number CE155, Department of Civil Engineering, Research Report series,
University of Queensland, J une 1997.
7. Chanson, H. "stepped spillway flows and air entrainment" Can. J . Civil Engineering,
Ottawa, 20 (3), 1993, 422 - 435.

8. Chanson, H. "Discussion of model study of a roller compacted concrete spillway", J .
Hydraulic Enginnering, ASCE, 123 (10), 1997b, 931 - 933.
9. Chanson, H. "Hydraulics of Nappe flow regime above Stepped chutes and Spillways",
Aust. Civil Engineering Trans., I.E. Aust., Vol. CE36, No. 1, J an., 1994, pp.69-76.
10. Chanson, H. "Hydraulic Design of Stepped cascades, Channels, Weirs and
Spillways", Pergamon, Oxford, UK, J an., 292 pages, 1995 .
11. Chanson, H. "Air Bubble Diffusion in super critical open channel flow, Proc. 12th
Australasian Fluid Mechanics Conference AFMC, Sydney Australia, R.W. Bilger Ed.,
Vol. 2, 1995 , pp. 707 - 710.
12. Chanson, H. " Prediction of the transition nappe / skimming flow on a stepped
channel", J l of Hydraulic Res., IAHR, Vol. 34, No. 3, 1996, pp. 421 - 429.
13. Chanson, H. "Air bubble entrainment in free surface turbulent shear flows",
Academic Press, London, UK, 1997, 401 pages.
14. Chanson, H., and Whitmore, R.L. "Investigation of the gold creek dam spillway,
Australia. "Research Report No. CE153, Department of Civil Engineering, University of
Queensland, Australia, 1996, 60 pages.
15. Chanson H. "Stepped Spillways Parts 1 and 2", J ournal of Physcial Science and
Engineering Periodical, TA1 17526, Volume 5, No. 4, December 1997, Engineering
update, technical paper number 10, page no. 7 to 12 and J ournal of Physcial Science
and Engineering Periodical, TA1 17256, Volume 6, No. 1, J anuary - March 1998,
Engineering update, Technical paper No. 2, page no. 9 to 14.
16. Geoffrey G.S. Pegram, Andrew K. Officer and Samule R. Mottram, "Hydraulics of
skimming flow on Modeled Stepped Spillways", J ournal of Hydraulic Engineering, May
1999, Volume 125, No. 5, Paper 3557, Discussion by Robert M. Boes; J orge Matos;
Ohtsu I, Yasuda Y and Takahashi M; Tatewar S.P, Ingle R.N, Porey P.D; ibid, and
closure December 2000, page 947 - 953.
17. Goubet, A. "Evacuateurs de Crues en Marches d' Escalier" (stepped spillways) La
Houille Blanche, No. 2/3, pp. 247 - 248 , 1992.
18. Hans - Erwin Minor and Willi Hager editors "Hydraulic of Stepped Spillways",
Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 2000; 201 pages.

19. Houston, K.L. "Hydraulic Model Studies of Upper Stillwater Dam stepped Spillway
and Outlet works". Report No. REC - ERC - 87 - 6, US Bureau of Reclamation, Denver
Co, USA, 1987.
20. Ruff. J .F. and Frizell, K.H, "Air concentration measurements in highly turbulent flow
on a steeply sloping chute", Proceeding Hydraulic Engineering Conference, ASCE, New
York, Vol. 2, 999 - 1003.
21. Stephenson, D. "Energy dissipation down stepped spillways" Water Power and Dam
construction, September, 27 - 30, 1991.
22. Tatewar S.P. Ingle R.N., Nappe Flow on Inclined Stepped Spillways, J ournal of The
Institution of Engineers (India), Volume - 79, Page- 175 - 179, Feb. 1999.
23. Tatewar S.P., and Ingle R.N, Resistance to skimming flow over stepped spillway,
Proceeding International Seminar on Civil Engineering Practices in 21st Century,
Roorkee, India, 1039 - 1048.
24. Tozzi, M.J . "Residual energy in stepped spillways. "International water Power and
Dam construction, 1994, 46 (5), 32 - 34.
25. Virender Kumar, Stepped Spillway - a State of the art, J ournal of The Institution of
Engineers (India), Volume - 82, Page- 217 - 223, Feb. 2002.
26. Vischer D.L. and Hager W.H. "Dam Hydraulics", J ohn Wiley and Sons, 1997.
27. Yildiz, D., and Kas, I, "Hydraulic performance of stepped chute spillways",
Hydropower and Dams, 1998, 5 (4), 64 - 70.


36.1.1 INTRODUCTION
The geometry of alluvial channels is the result of the interaction amongst the water
discharge, the quantity and characteristics of the sediment discharge, and the
composition of the bed and bank material.
Longitudinal profile implying the configuration of the plan of the river - straight,
meandering
(fig) or braided (fig), are shown below

w - 40
0
w - 90
0
w - 110
0
Meander Shapes given by Sine Generated Curves
Note: Meander shape may be described by Sine curve, Parabolic curve,
Circular curve and Sine generated curve

Type of Meanders

Sometimes a meandering river may be a tributary to a braided river. Example - River
Kali, a meandering river confluence with Ganga which is a braided at that strech.
Regular and Flat Meanders (Mahi
River, Gujarat)
Irregular and Flat Meanders (Ken
River, India)
Regular and Acute Meanders
(Mississippi)
Irregular and Acute Meanders (Sai
River, India)
Simple Meander Compound Meander (Rind River)

Regular and sharp meanders
in Mississippi River
Regular and flat meanders
Man River (Gujarat) India
0 10
Scale in miles
0 10
Scale in miles

Barkumapara
Mangaldai
Gauhati
Intensely braided Pattern
Braided pattern in Brahmaputra River, Assam
Single channel
N

The resistance of the flow depends on the changing characteristics of flow velocity,
depth, cross section, bed forms, the position and shape of the sand bars and several
other parameters. A meandering river has more or less regular inflexions that are
sinuous in plan. It consists of a series of bends connected by crossings (figure). It is
very common to observe uneven distribution of sediment on the bed over the width
even in the absolutely straight channels; and asymmetric patterns of bars (fig), scours
and movements in alluvial channel. One wonders whether is it the sediment that causes
these deviations from the straight path or does the flow provide systematic components
across the width that move the sediment in a manner as to irregularly arranged.

Point, middle and alternate bars
Point Bar
Thalweg
Right Bank
Alternate Bars
Middle Bar

In most of the cases the main flow creates such secondary velocity component, when
the magnitude of the vector compared by any two components of the local velocity
vector in the three dimensional flow (fig) is small compared with the magnitude of the
3rd component, the latter forms the secondary current. A knowledge of secondary
currents in straight channel will help in knowing the mechanism of flow in bends
thoroughly. Secondary current is associated with the turbulent flow in prismatic
channels, where in the shear stress at the boundary is not constant. When the
secondary currents occur, it seems to take place in an even number of cells which are a
function of width (b) to depth (y) ratio. It is also known as secondary flow, secondary
motion, transverse flow and cross flow.
v
x
v
y
v
z
Main flow direction


36.1.2 Secondary current in straight channel
Secondary currents have been observed to be present in straight channels which are
weak in nature, where as strong secondary currents occur in bends. Further the
secondary currents have been observed in non - uniform bed configuration of alluvial
channels. Secondary current is associated with the turbulent flow in prismatic channels,
wherein the shear stress at the boundary is not constant. When the secondary currents
occur, it seems to take place in an even number of cells which are a function of width
(b) to depth (y) ratio (b/y).
Original Observation of secondary currents

Secondary circulation, after Nemenyi (1946)

Secondary circulation in a wide open channel
resulting from temperature differences


Secondary circulation, after Casey (1958)

36.1.3 Weak secondary currents in straight channel
So far secondary currents have not been measured in the natural channels. However, in
the latter part of the nineteenth century based on the extensive experimental results in
rivers and streams, a number of hydraulic engineers postulated that the secondary
currents cause the maximum velocity of flow in open channels to occur below the free
surface.
Secondary
currents
Isovels
(a) Open channel
(b) Equivalent closed conduit
Comparison of Open Channel Flow with Closed-Conduit Flow

The lens shaped figure is drawn such that it is orthogonal to each isovel. It may be
noted that the maximum velocity occurs slightly below the free surface. On the lens
shaped line no velocity gradient exist. The shear on the free surface is negligible and
there is no shear resistance to balance the component of the weight of the prism along
the main flow direction. The equivalent closed conduit is symmetrical about the central
line and the shear stress is distributed along the boundary line.

0.750ySo
0.750ySo
0.970ySo
y
4y
Side Slope, m: 1 = 1.5 : 1

Prototype Rough
Trapezoidal Boundary
Bed
0 5
10 15 20 25 30
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
b/y or b/R
max
RS
______
Boundary (Left)
Boundary (Right)
0 5
10 15 20 25 30
Maximum shear on bed and sides for alluvial channel
based on Normal's Method.
(U.P. Irrigation Research Institute Roorkee,
Annual Review, 1971)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
Sides
b/y or b/R
max
RS
______
max
RS
______
= 1.2 for bed and 0.6 for the sides when exceeds 10
b
__
y
when compared to Lanes values of 0.98, 0.78 respectively


Path of Maximum Forward Velocity (data from MOCKMORE)
drawn by Thandaveswara
6.25 m
Q
Baffle
Gravel
1.83
8
1.22
20
24
28
0.3048
12
16
1.22 1.22 1.22
12
0
o

Prandtl gave the intuitive reasoning that the secondary current tends to make the
boundary shear uniformly distributed along the boundary on non - circular channels. In
1961 Kennedy and Fulton established that the resistance of the rectangular open
channel was reduced by a fully developed secondary flow system which was in a stage
of change. This further affects the carrying capacity of the channel. These result seem
to indicate that the secondary currents affect the parameters such as Manning n, Chezy
C, or coefficient of friction f. In a steady flow these secondary currents must be
circulation for reasons of continuity and are possible only if the vorticity of the flow has
components in the main flow direction. Einstein and Li in 1958 showed that the
secondary currents cannot only be produced by the time average components of the
flow and also by turbulence components by modifying the Navier Stokes equation using
the vorticity components along with the Reynolds shear stress into account for steady
straight flow.
If , , are the vorticity components in
1 2 3
, , x x x directions.

x
1
x
2
x
3

They arrived at an expression as
( ) ( )

2 2 2
2 2
' ' ' ' ' w'
2 2
2 3
3 2
D
v w v w v
Dt x x
x x

= +

in which Where , v , w u

are the turbulent components.
The concentration of floating debris in longitudinal streaks has often been observed in
rivers and has been interpreted as the plunge line of the flow between two parallel
longitudinal secondary currents. Similarly, the sediment along the bed often
concentrates in longitudinal ridges, indicating the line of raising flow between the
secondary currents.
36.1.4 Role of secondary current in sediment transportation
The sediment load may be classified into two categories namely, bed load and
suspended load. It is observed that the bed load roles over the surface and pushed by
the flow where as the suspended particles, away from the bed move as though floating
along the fluid, making much more gentle and irregular vertical motion. So far only
experimental visual observations are available to say that the secondary currents
deform the bed. Vasudeva Rao and Seetharamiah attempted to predict the pattern of
secondary current in alluvial channel using the results of Schultz and Grunov, J acob,
Morris, Eastwood and Schlichting. The distortion of isovels due to the presence of

spheres indicate the presence of secondary current. The amount of distortion of isovels
proportionally relates to the strength of secondary currents.
Section and points of measurement
b) points of measurement
70
50
13
G.L
15
100
Section AA
Inner
Outer
-22.5 -12.5
0
12.5 22.5
0.4
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
2 m
rc
r
c 1 m
Station B
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
200
A
0
0
30
60 90
0
0
0
120
150
180
0
0
0
Station C
r
c
= 300
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 m
13
1 m
All dimensions are in cm


Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.20
1.15
1.12
1.05
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.95 0.95
1.18
1.15
1.15
1.05
1.00
0.90
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
0.81
0.90
0.85
0.98
1.05
1.15
1.25
C
L
C
L
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
Inner wall
Outer wall
Inner wall
Outer wall
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D STATION C
0.98
1.00
0.90
ISOVELS in open channel bend [Normalised with V ] Q = 26.1 lps, F = 0.18, R = 36050
e
max


Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D
STATION C
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
0.85
1.45
1.22
1.25
1.00
0.85
1.30
1.25
1.15
1.10
1.15
1.30
1.25
1.10
1.0
0.77
1.30
1.27
0.92
1.00
1.00
1.08
0.95
0.75
1.30
1.25
1.23
1.20
0.95
1.00
0.80
1.30
Q = 71.9 lps, F = 0.44, R = 95420
e
max

L
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D
STATION C
e
max
1.30
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
C
L
1.25
1.15
1.10
0.77
1.25
1.30
1.15
1.10
1.00
0.93
0.78
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.08
1.00
0.83
1.15
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.80


Strength of secondary current S
c
is defined as the percentage ratio of the mean kinetic
energy of lateral motion
2
v
1 2
2g
x x
to the toal kinetic energy of flow
2
v
2g

.
Chiu and Mc Sparran (1966) investigated the role of secondary currents in the transport
of suspended material in terms of sediment concentration C
s
, Karman constant and
diffusion coefficients
j
. They solved the obtained by relaxation method using the
boundary condition obtained from the experimentally measured values.
2 3
j
j
2
2
0
s
j
j j j j
C C
u
x x
x
=

+ =

In order to show that the effect of secondary current, the sediment concentration was
computed with and without the secondary currents. The secondary current tend to
depress and flatten the isovels of sediment which is nearly uniform across the width.
36.1.5 SECONDARY CURRENTS IN BENDS
In bends the water is subjected to centrifugal force creating a pressure gradient normal
to the direction of the flow. When the particles near the inside wall of the bend are
thrown outside, centripetal lift is created causing the heaving up of the fluid (see box).
If the flow is irrotational and with hydrostatic pressure distribution then, the
variation of y in radial direction is given by
2
dy V
=
dn gr

in which V is the mean velocity of the verticle section at a distance r.
The total energy equation is given by
2
o
V
H = y +
2g

Differentiating the above equation with respect to n, one may write

2
o
dH dy d V dy 2V dV
= + + 0
dn dn dn 2g dn 2g dn

= =

dV V
+ = 0
dn r

The
V
r
and
2
V
r
are positive hence, velocity decreases as y increases. Thus the
water surface has a superelevation. If the streamlines are concentric then n and r
match exactly and flow can be described by free vortex condition.

Thus the free vortex model superposed by secondary flows causes the flow pattern
discussed earlier. As the flow enters the bend the approaching symmetrical velocity
distribution gets distorted as the near surface high velocity shifts towards the inner
bank. When the flow reaches the bend at the middle about 90 , the maximum velocity
filament moves closer to the outer boundary and is at well below the water surface.
Then the flow becomes fully developed. Further, downstream the high velocity moves
towards the centre of the flow. Two forces namely angular momentum and the lateral
transfer of momentum in the flow.
3
4
5 0
90
180
11
12
13
250
Isodepths in mm for 180 bend after Shukry
o
290
285
280
275
270
241
305
300
295
350
200


70
80
85
70
60
50
90
90
130
30
50
60
70
100 90
80
80
70
60
90
0
10 20
60
70
80
o
0
180
Center line at flume
Path of maximum
forward velocity
rc/b = 1.00; yA/b = 1.00; and with VA = 77.8 cm/s, Reynolds number = 73,500,
at the approach section of the bend (after Shukry).
Forward Velocities in cm/s
ISOVELS


SPIRAL FLOW
O
y
OUTSIDE WALL
INSIDE
SECTION ON A-A
ILLUSTRATION OF SECONDARY FLOW AND SPIRAL CURRENTS
IN A 90 BEND

If the flow is irrotational and the fluid enters with uniform velocity into the bend, then it is
analogous to the potential vortex. But in actual case due to the presence of shear stress
at the boundary, the velocity of main flow decreases abruptly at the boundary, the
velocity of main flow decreases abruptly at the boundary setting a velocity gradient in
the boundary layer. It can be observed that in the boundary region the energy is less
than in the potential zone. It follows that at the outside of the bend the pressure gradient
falls away abruptly towards the wall, unless a secondary current takes place. Continuity
equation requires an inward flow along the side walls to compensate since the pressure
gradient normal to the wall is exactly opposite that of potential motion. Superimposition
of the main flow on the complicated complex pattern of flow in bends leads to spiral flow
. The approaching spiral adds to the further complexity.

y
isovels
r
0
r
i
n
H
0
z
2
g
V ___
2
r
i
r
0
X
X
Section xx
r
datum

O
90
V
max
v
y
dy
dr
W
1
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
WEIGHT OF FLUID
r
r
i
O
0
r
=
MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE HELICOIDAL FLOW AS PROPOSED
BY GRASHOF

The spiral flow was recognised in river bends as early as 1876 by Thomson.The
strength of spiral was shown to be a function of several parameters such as angle of
bend
0
, radius of curvature r
c
,
y
B
ratio, Reynolds number ( Re ), roughness by Shukry.
Muramoto classified the spiral flow in bend into three regions namely; ( I ) generating, (
II ) developing and ( III ) fully developed regions. He presented mathematical
expressions for the first and final regions. The brief description of the vorticity

component, in these regions is as follows. The component linearly increases up to
60

= then decreases gradually in the curved section and becomes zero in
downstream straight length. where as the magnitude of with a radially outward
direction nearly maintains that vorticity at the inlet section
s
untill 30

= and
decreases afterwards to reach straight line at the straight exit. The magnitude of with
a vertical downward direction is zero up to 60
and gradually increases in the latter half

of the curved section again it becomes zero in the downstream straight section.
36.1.6 Depth of flow variation in bend
Description of the flow is not completed untill the depth characteristics are known. The
greatest depth is located below the section of the greatest curvature, the smallest depth
is approximately at the same distance below the point of inflexion in the crossing. This is
valid in case of free and limited types of bends. In case of forced bend the greatest
depth of the pool occurs at the point of maximum constriction. In natural channel it has
been observed that the line of greatest depth in a bend may shift from its usual position
adjacent to the concave bank, towards the middle, some times even to the convex
bank. However there is little information available to explain this. It is found that the
relative depth
max
y
b
is a function of
c
r
b
and the index of stability Y
s
. Rzhanitsyn
concluded that the average and the maximum depths of pool are influenced by a
complex interaction of a number of variables and factors such as , , r y C
c s s
, size of the
river and type of sediment.

Seperation zone
Direction of
seperated flow
Inner - bank seperation
Outer bank
seperation
Typical locations of flow-seperation zones in an open
channel bend of tight curvature

36.1.7 Effect of secondary currents on bed formation in bends
Especially in case of mobile bed, as the transformation of bed follows the change in the
change in the secondary flow, and the relation between the secondary flow and the
movement of the bed material is also an intricated problem. The strongest components
of the developing flow region are not uniformly deflected toward the inside wall, but
however they are grouped in separate zone which develop separate scour regions. The
earlier part of the pool will not be deep because the supply of bed material is enough,
though the bed load is large. The scoured material in this region crosses the bend
diagonally toward the inside wall near the exit of the bend where it settles due to the
upward direction of the bed currents. A sand bar is thus formed close to the inside wall
at the downstream channel along the maximum velocity line. The other way of erosion
is along the outer wall of the bend of the lower reaches from about the point which is the
extension of center line of the straight channel intersecting the outer boundary of the

bend. This portion of erosion caused by secondary flow, develops rapidly and deeply
because of insufficient supply of bed material. It has been observed as the value of y/b
ratio decreases, the value of sand bar at the inside wall at the downstream straight
channel increases and the scour at the out side wall becomes deeper and a mild
deposition is formed in the inner bank. In the natural streams with low y/b, this
phenomenon may lead to the change of water course downstream of the bends. The
increase in r
c
/ b decreases the size of the bed configuration. In the uniform region
where the flow pattern is that of the forced vortex, the deep eroded part ends in the
downstream of the straight channel with in a distance of about twice the width of the
channel. But if the exit section of the bend is the region of inertia, the uniform region
does not exist and deep eroded part occurs in the limited area at about the crossing of
the centre line of upper straight channel and outer wall. The residual decaying of the
preceeding bend is carried downstream into the next bend, if the tangent is small. As
the development of the growing spiral motion is first limited to the inner bank region
where the fluid is under acceleration where the decaying spiral motion occupies the
outer bank region. As the flow enters the bend, the rate of decay of the residual spiral
motion and the rate of growth of the new spiral motion increases rapidly. Dominating
parameters which influence the erosion ( E
r
) in bend are
c *
0 *

v
r
y V y
, , , F, , , ,
b b
m
r
s
d
y
E f
K

=

in which d
m
is the diameter of the sediment v
, is the shear velocity , is the

kinematic viscosity

1
e
s
y S

, in which
s
and are mass density of bed
material and fluid respectively and, S
e
is the energy gradient. Kyozo Saga showed that

the dominating factors are
c
r
b
and
0
the influence of Froude number F =
V
gy

is
of low order. The secondary current is about 15 percent of the average velocity. At low
large sand bars form in the crossings if the channel is not well confined. The scour in
the bend causes the bend to migrate downstream and sometimes laterally. Meandering
rivers have relatively flat slopes.
36.1.8 GEOMETRY OF POOLS IN BENDS
In general the river is deep along the concave bank and shallow in tangents or
crossings between the bends. The rivers are deeper in the concave bank of bend
because of the effect of centrifugal force on turbulence, stronger secondary currents
and higher ability of transporting adjacent sediment to the concave bank. The size of the
pool is more dynamic than the river itself. The size ( length,width,depth) and shape and
position of the pool vary with the sediment concentration,water discharge, radius r
c
,
angle
0
the energy gradient. The influence of the properties of the bank and bed
material on this is of low order.
36.1.9 Length of pool ( L ) in bends
The length of the pool is taken as the distance from the outlet of the bend to that point in
the straight reach in the downstream where the transverse slope, secondary current due
to bend has disappeared completely. Using the equation of longitudinal equilibrium an
approximate equation may be written as
2
2 2
2 1
C y 2g z
L = 1
g V V

in which z is the difference in elevation between two sections due to S

If transverse slope in the first section is also considered then


2
2
2 1 1
2
c
b
C y
L
r
g
=

But the actual value may be got by multiplying above equation by a coefficient
. This
coefficient is a function of channel stability
m
s
2
0
d b
Y
y s

=

and Lokhtin number
0
b
S
and
mean annual sediment concentration C
s
. The sediment load increases with the
instability of the river where as the length of pool depression decreases with the
instability. Rzhanitsyn has calculated the length of depression with
c
r
b
and
max
y
b
the and
ratio using which length of the pool can be found.
Reference:
1. Chiu,C.L. and McSparran, J .E., " Effect of secondary flow on sediment Transport,"
J l.Hyd. Dn. ASCE. Vol.92, No.Hy5, Sept.1966.
2. Einstein, H.A., " On secondary currents and sediment motion," River Mechanics,
Vol.II, Ed. by H.W.Shen. Chapter 18.
3. Ippen, A.T. and Drinker, P.A.," Boundary shear stresses in curved trapezoidal
channels", J l.Hyd. Dn. ASCE, vol.88, Sept.1962.
4. Kyozo Saga," The stable profiles of the curved open channel beds," proceedings The
International Association of Hydraulics Research, 12th Congress, vol.1, Sept.1967, pp
487 to 495.
5. Muramoto, Y., " Secondary flow in curved open channels" " proceedings The
International Association of Hydraulics Research, 12th Congress, vol.1, Sept.1967, pp
429 to 437.
6. Vasudeva Rao B. and Seetharamiah K. "Development and role of secondary currents
in alluvial streams Proceedings: Twelfth Congress of the I.A.H.R., vol.I, 1967,pp 472 to
478.

7. Ripley, H.C., "Relation of depth to curvature of channels", Tr. ASCE, vol.90, 1927,
page 207 to 265.
8. Rozovskii, I.L., " Flow of water in bends of open channels", Published by the
academy of Sci. Ukrainian SSR, Kiev, 1957.
9. Rzhanitsyn, N.A., "Morphological and hydrological regularities of the structure of the
river net: Translated by D.B. Krimgold, USDA U.S.Dept. of the Interior,1960.
10. Shukry, A., " flow around bends in an open flume",Tr.ASCE, vol.115, 1959.
11. Simons, D.B., "River and canal morphology" , River Mechanics, vol.II, Ed.by H.W.
Shen, chapter 20.
12. Thandaveswara, B.S., " Characteristics of flow around a 90 bend", M.Sc.( Engg. )
Thesis, Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engg., Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore
560012, 1969.
Theoretical analysis of transverse profile in bends
Problem
Consider a circular vortex of radius a surrounded by an unbounded fluid. If the vorticity
is constant over the area of the circle and outside this circle it is zero, then the
circulation strength
2
1
k a
2
= . Even though the actual strength of vortex is 2k ; k itself
can be called the strength of vortex. The equation for pressure distribution can be
obtained by integrating the equation of motion as,

v'
r
v
r'
Circular Vortex
2
1
v' = r' r' < a
2
1 a
v = r > a
2 r
1
when r'=r=a then v=v'= a
2

Circular Vortex:
2
1
v' = r' r' < a (1)
2
1 a
v = r > a (2)
2 r

Equation of motion inside the vortex is
2 2
1
4
p 1 r k r

r 4
a
= =

A. For the liquid rotating with angular velocity
2
, the acceleration is
2
r
4
towards
the origin. Integrating the above equation yields
Integrating the above equation yields
2
1
4
dp k
r
dr
a
=

2 2
1 0
4
k r
p p
2
a
= +
in which
0
p is the pressure at origin.
B. For the region outside the vortex, the pressure is

2 2 2
1
2 4
k k r
p p
a 2a
= +
2
2
k
p = p
2r

Then it can be simplified as
( )
2
2
2
K x
Y 1 K
2
in which
p r k
Y = , x = , K =
p a
a p

=

The above equation represents a parabola
( )
2 2
2
2
Kx x
Y = 1 - K + = 1 - K (1 - )
2 2
K
Y - 1 x
2
=

Figure shows the normalised pressure distribution for different values of K. Thus the
pressure distribution is a combination of two parabolas. The pressure increases from
( ) p 1 K
and tends to p
at a great distance.

K = 0.5
0
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 2.4 2.8 3.2
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.40
0.50
0.60
0.70
0.80
0.90
1.00
Y
Theoretical Pressure distribution in Circular Vortex for different value of K
x=
r
__
a
Y-1 = - K{ 1 - x
2
}
___
2
(Y-1) x
2
= - k
2
__
2

Instead of circular vortex, there exists a combined vortex. i.e Circular vortex with its axis
vertical in liquid which moves under the action of gravity and upper surface at
atmospheric pressure. Then it can be shown (Milne Thomson, "Theoretical
Hydrodynamics, 4th edition, Mac Millan Company) at the free surface.

o
a
2
2
________
g
A
a
z
Rankine's Combined Vortex
Axis
Model of Transverse Profile

2 2 2
2
4 2
2
a r
z = 1 for r < a
g
2a
and
a
z = for r > a
2gr

The above equation represent the theoretical transverse profile. Further, it can be
shown that the superelevation is given by,
2 2
a
y =
4


This indicates that the superelevation is a function of mass density and the angular
velocity and radius a. In case of uniform flow in channels water surface at any cross
section is horizontal and parallel to bed. When the fluid enters the bend portion the fluid
particle will be subjected to external forces and surface will no longer be the straightline.
The figure shows the comparison between theoretical and experimental results.
(Y-1) x
2
=
_
K
2
Experimental Verification of equations for Pressure Distribution in Circular Vortex
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0
x =
r
___
a
0
o
30
o
Re
128323
203425
179574
0.80
0.90
1.0
Y =
y
___
y0
Y-(1-K) =
Kx
2
______
2

The scatter in the above figure is due to the variation of strength of vortex at section 0
where the action of centrifugal force has just commenced whereas at 30 section the
strength of the vortex is higher. These results are true for any Reynolds number
roughness and Froude number.
Outside wall
Inside wall
Levels in cm
Sections
A
0
o
30
o
60
o
28.00
27.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
28.00
27.00
26.00
90
o
Q = 33.61 l/s, F = 0.2457, R
e
= 179574
C
L
Typical transverse profile as measured in the laboratory are shown in the figure
y
___
yA
%
= 3.539
y
___
yA
%
= 6.527
y
___
yA
%
= 6.968
y
___
yA
%
= 5.751


0
o
30
o
60
o
90
o
25.00
24.00
23.00
25.00
24.00
23.00
26.00
25.00
24.00
23.00
25.00
24.00
23.00
22.00
Q = 33.61 l/s, F = 0.2899, R
e
= 191900
Transverse Profiles
y
___
yA
%
= 6.424
y
___
yA
%
= 9.39
y
___
yA
%
= 9.513
y
___
yA
%
= 7.782


36.2 CLASSIFICATION OF RIVER BENDS
( a ) Based on external forms of the relief and the process of formation, development of
bends takes place. They are classified as, deepened or entrenched bend and
meandering bends.
However, the above classification is not complete in the sense of the work of the river
and the physical nature of this phenomenon. Morphological bends may be grouped as
the freely meandering channel. Under natural conditions there is often a chance of
stream impinging on a non-eroding parent bank forming a forced curve which is
gradually transformed into river bends of a more constricted shape. The angle of
impinging varies from 60 100 to

.
The effect of the density of the material composing the banks is important and to a
certain degree, determines the radius of curvature of the channel bend. In a free bend
the radius of curvature increases with the density of the material. The forced bend will
have the smallest radius of curvature.
(b) Based on the interaction between the stream and the channel, as well from the point
of their laws of formation the river bends may be further classified as
( i ) Free bend - A surface bend in a river with the banks of alluvial flood plane (mobile
material).
( ii ) Limited bend - This corresponds to entrenched bend. This forms when the banks of
the stream are composed of parent material which limit the intensive development of
lateral erosion.
( iii ) Forced bend: Impinging on stream on parent bank.
The ratio between the radius of curvature ( r
c
), and bed width (b), that describe the
above types of bends are given below.
Type r
c
/ b
Free bends 4.5 to 5.0
Limited bends 7 to 8
Forced bends 2.5 to 3.0
In the first two types of bends depth increases gradually and the maximum depth is
found some distance downstream of the apex of the bend. In case of forced bend the

depth sharply increases at the beginning of the bend and then decreases gradually. The
maximum depth is located in the middle third of the bend, where a concentrated deep
scour appears.

36.3 Transverse water surface slope in bends
In a bend as pointed out earlier the flow is subjected to centrifugal force, causing a
transverse water surface profile due to induced pressure gradient. The difference in
elevation of water level between the inner bank and the outer bank is defined as the
super elevation. This slope has been evaluated quantitatively.
This was first observed in field by Ripley in 1872. Gockinga derived an expression for
depth along the cross section as
x
2
0.235 v log 1
r
y =

where v is the velocity in m/s. But the above is found to fit a particular stream for which
it was derived. He found that the transverse slope was twice greater than the
longitudinal slope. Fargue, Mitchell and Ripley presented different equations for the
variation of depth along the cross section based on field observation.
Grashoff applying Newton's second law of motion for streamline obtained an equation
which describes the profile as logarithmic. Woodward, Shukry , Ippen and Drinker
presented several equations for laboratory flumes. Muramoto obtained an equation for
transverse slope taking longitudinal slope of the bend also into account. However,
before applying to field problems, the validity of these transverse flow profile equations
have to be justified. The observations in field have shown the occurrence of troughs
near the concave profile of the bend. Further these troughs have been observed during
rising and as well as falling stages of the channel. The channels of smaller width have
exhibited accumulation of debris instead of troughs.

+
IPPEN'S DATA
Thandaveswara's
DATA
SET I
III
V
II
III
IV
1
2
3 4
(a)
4
3
1
2
+
+
.1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 1.0
F
0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
Correlation of with Froude Number
Rectangular Channel
Trapezoidal Channel
and
Rectangular Channel
Sets I and IV n = 0.0145
Sets II and V n = 0.01537
Sets III and IIIa n = 0.009834
y
________
V
__
A
2
______
2g
( )
max
y
________
V
__
A
2
______
2g
( )
max


36.4 Superelevation

Superelevation is defined as the difference in elevation of water surface between inside
and outside wall of the bend at the same section.
0 1
y=y y (1)
This is similar to the road banking in curves. The centrifugal force acting on the fluid
particles, will throw the particle away from the centre in radial direction, creating
centripetal lift.
Superelevation in other words means the greater depth near the concave bank than
near convex bank of a bend. This phenomenon was first observed by Ripley in 1872,
while he was surveying Red River in Loussiana for the removal of the great raft
obstructing the stream.
36.4.1 Transverse water surface slope in bends

Gockinga was first to derive the following formula for determining the difference in
elevation of the water surface on opposite sides of channel bends.
2
y=0 235V log 1-
r
x
.

in which V is the velocity in
-1
ms , x is the distance at which y is to be determined, r is
the radius of the river bend. But above equation is found to fit a particular stream to
which it was designed. Also he found that the transverse slope was twice greater than
the longitudinal slope. He showed that the increased depth in bend is caused by the
helicoidal flow induced by centrifugal force. Fargue while conducting studies on scour in
meandering devised the formula and called " Fargue's law of greatest depth " in 1908.
But unfortunately it was found to be applicable to the stream Garonne at Barsac only.
3 2
1
C =0.03H -0.23H +0.78H-0.76
in which
1
C is the reciprocal of radius of curvature in kilometer and H is the lowest water
depth at the deepest point of the channel in meter.

Mitchell also derived another equation applicable to Delawave river, Philadelphia.

2 2 2 2
2 2
1100 289 1100
33 2
r
1100 1100
x x
y x

= +

Ripley in 1926 arrived at the formulae based on the field observations, having their own
limitations.
2 2
1 1
2 2
4 17.52 4
D 1 D 1
r
T T
x x
y x

= +

2 2
1
1
2 2
26.28P 4 4
P 1 1
r
T T
x x
y x

= +

In the above equations, parabolic sections are assumed whose focal distances are
2
1
T
D

and
2
1
T
P
respectively and with the origin at a point on the axis at a distance of
1
D and
1
P
from apex respectively.
O
90
V
max
v
y
dy
dr
W
1
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
WEIGHT OF FLUID
r
r
i
O
0
r
=
MECHANICAL MODEL OF THE HELICOIDAL FLOW AS PROPOSED
BY GRASHOF

The above two equations when combined yield a simplified form in FPS units. Figure
represents the general profile for equation given below.
2
2
0
17 52
6 35D 0 437 0 433 1
r
T
x . x
y . . .

= +


r
0
T/2 T/2
origin
Y AXIS
0
0
1.445D
PROFILE FOR EQUATION

Grashof was the first to try an analytical solution for superelevation. He obtained
equation by applying Newton's second law of motion to every streamline and integrating
the equation of motion. Equation gives a logarithmic profile. Referring to figure given
below one may write

Centrifugal force =
2
max 1
c
V W
g r

2
max 1
2
c max
1 c
V W
g r V

W gr
dy
dr
= =
Assuming the boundary conditions near inside wall of the bend and integrating above
equation reduces to the form
2
max 0
i
V r
y=2.3 log
g r

in which
i
r and
0
r are the inner and outer radii of the bend respectively.
Woodward in 1920 assumed the velocity to be zero at banks and to have a maximum
value at the centre of the bend and the velocity distribution varying in between

according to parabolic curve. Using Newton's second law of motion he obtained the
following equation for superelevation.
2
3 2
2 c c c c
max
c
r r r 2r + b 20
y = V -16 + 4 -1 ln
3 b b b 2r - b

Shukry obtained the following equation for maximum superelevation based on free-
vortex flow and principle of specific energy.
( )
2
2 2
max 0 i
2 2
0 i
C
y = r - r
2g r r

The Euler equation of motion.
( )
s
a 0 p z
s

+ + =

( ) p + z = h
Since
( )
h
p + z =
s n

2
0
H y z
2
v
g
= + +
( )
2
h h = y + z
2
v
g
= +
y
isovels
r
0
r
i
n
H
0
z
2
g
V ___
2
r
i
r
0
X
X
Section xx
r
datum
2
dh
dn gr
v
=

differentiating above equation
2
dh v
0
dn g n
v
+ 0
gr g n
v
v v
+ =

v
0
r n
v
+ =

Thus v decreases and h increases from inner boundary to outer boundary.
The equation can be rewritten as
r
0
v
v r

+ = .
Therefore it can be shown as = constant v r which is in the free vortex condition.

Consider a rectangular channel bend,
Discharge per unit width q y v = .
c
q = y
r
or
y q
=
r c
a constant.
r
H
y
2
g
Outer
Total Energy Line
Inner Wall
0 Wall
0
r
i
z
y
0
V ___
2
Modification to the bed profile to obtain the horizontal water surface
in a bend
Subcritical
flow F < 1
Supercritical
flow F > 1
dy y
=
dr r

2
dy dz 1
= -
dr dr
1-F

z decreases from inner wall to outer wall for subcritical flow (as shown in the
above figure).
( ) ( )
2 2
dz dy y
= - 1-F - 1-F
dr dr r
=
and
( )
2
dh dz dy dy dy
= - 1-F
dr dr dr dr dr
+ = +
2
2 2
dy y
-1+F 1 = F
dr r gr
v

+ =


Transverse bed profile.
2 2
0
0 0
2
0
2
H =z+y y
2g 2g
rq C
H =z+ +
C
2gr
v v
+ = +

The above equation gives resonably good result as long as the angle of the circular
bend in plan is greater than 90
a correction factor was suggested by Shukry for

circulation constant C, assuming it to vary linearly from 0
to 90
.
mA
f
r V
vr = CU =C + 1
90 90 C

mA
1 X 1
1
V v
=w U =w + 1
r 90 90 rw

However, by applying Newton's 2nd law of motion based on one dimensional analysis
i.e., all the filamental velocities in the bend are equal to the mean velocity
mb
V and that
of all the streamlines having the same radii of curvature
c
r , an equation can be obtained
for a rectangular channel namely
2
mb
max
c
V 2b
y =
2g r

For the channels other than the rectangular channel, the bed width (b) can be replaced
by the water surface width (T) then
2
mb
max
c
V 2T
y =
2g r

The above equation is only a first approximation and gives transverse profile as the
straightline . This assumes that the rise and the drop of the water surface level from the
normal level is equal on either side of center line of bend.
As a better approximation, Ippen and Drinker obtained an equation for superelevation.
The derivation of equation is based on the assumptions of free vortex or irrotational flow
with the uniform specific head over the cross section, and the mean depth in bend being
equal to the mean approaching flow depth.

2
2
c
2
c
V 2T 1
y=
2g r
T
1
4r

The bends in nature will not have the symmetry due to entrance conditions, length of
curvature and boundary resistance. Hence above equation will not give accurate result.
If the forced vortex condition exists with constant stream cross section and constant
average specific energy, then equation for superelevation assumes the form
2
2
c
2
c
V 2T 1
y=
2g r
T
1+
12r

The above equation is applicable to a smooth rectangular boundary with circular bend
with the flowing fluid being ideal.
Better results can be obtained by combining the effects of the free and forced vortex
conditions simultaneously. The minimum angle of bend is to be 90
for applying the

above equation in combination. For the smaller angles the difference in computed
values from the above equation becomes larger than the actual ones.
However, for a rectangular channel, circular bend with , applying the free vortex
formula, velocity at inside wall of the bend becomes as thus a depth of should exist at
the boundary (i.e. at ), which is physically impossible.
Muramoto obtained an equation for superelevation based on equations of motion.
1
vr = C
2
0 2
1
g S r C
U = +
3C r

Then
( )
0
i
r
2 2
2 4
1 2
0 0 2
2 2
1
1
r
C + C
g S r 2S C r
y = +
3C
36 C 2gr

in which
1
C and
2
C are circulation constants obtained, after integration. The special
feature of above equation lies in including the effect of bed slope on superelevation.

Thus it can be observed from the above discussion that superelevation in a bend is a
function of shape of the cross section, Reynolds number, approach flow, slope of the
bed, Froude number,
c
r
180 b
, and boundary resistance. The superelevation is also
affected by the presence of secondary currents and separation.
However, before applying to field situations, the validity of the transverse flow profile
equation has to be justified. The observations in the field have shown the occurrence of
troughs near the concave profile in the bend. Further, these troughs have been
observed during rising and as well as falling stages of the channels. The channels of
smaller width have exhibited accumulation of debris instead of troughs.
36.4.2 Superelevation and transverse profile
Normalised super elevation
max
y/y was correlated with normalised bend angle
0
/
for all the three bends, for two different Reynolds numbers.
From Figure, it may be observed that two peaks of superelevation occur at
0
/ 0 17 . =
and
0
/ 0 67 . = for all the cases except for bend B1 for
e
R = 42, 280. The influence of
Reynolds number on the trend of the variation of superelevation at various section of
the bend is insignificant in all the three bends.

1.0
0.34 0.67 1.00
SECTION B1
SECTION B2
SECTION B3
1.0
1.0
0.34 0.67 1.00
0.34 0.67 1.00
Variation of normalised Super elevation
with normalised angle for
Reynolds number 42280
0
y
___
y
max
/
0
y
___
y
max
y
___
y
max


0.34 0.67
1.00
0.34 0.67 1.00
0.34 0.67
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.00 0
SECTION B1
SECTION B2
SECTION B3
Variation of normalised Super elevation
with normalised angle for
Reynolds number 101,700
y
___
y
max
y
___
y
max
y
___
y
max
/
0

The maximum value of superelevation was normalised with the approaching velocity
head
2
V /2g and correlated with the Froude number. The equations of these lines is in
the form
max
2
y
=m log F + C
V /2g

in which 'm' is the slope of the line and 'C' a constant.
max
2
y
Bend 1: = 1.19 log F + 0.20
V /2g

max
2
y
Bend 2 : = 5.33 log F 0.49
V /2g


max
2
y
Bend 3: = 1.96 log F 0.06
V /

2g

View of SET-UP


Flow Condtions D/S of B1

The greatest difference in elevation between the longitudinal profiles at outer and inner
walls is maximum at the 30
section of the 180
bend.

1
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Wheel volve
Inlet pipe
Adjustment valve
Entrance chamber
Transition
Leading Channel
Rectangular notch
Stilling chamber
Masonry honey comb
Main channel
Tail control
Transition
1
2
3
6
9
11
Point gauge
56
180
72
G.L
230
100
Experimental Set - Up
Scale = 1: 100 (all dimensions in cm)
1
2
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
100
200
100 100 100
P.G.
468
468
Bend I
314
782
50
1960
Bend II
440
2400
870
50
280
3270
rc = 300
90
0
737
P.G. 4
4315
50
180
0
rc = 140
A
A
200
100
LAYOUT PLAN
Bed slope 1000
N


Section and points of measurement
b) points of measurement
70
50
13
G.L
15
100
Section AA
Inner
Outer
-22.5 -12.5
0
12.5 22.5
0.4
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
2 m
rc
r
c 1 m
Station B
A
0
0
0
0
0
0
200
A
0
0
30
60 90
0
0
0
120
150
180
0
0
0
Station C
r
c
= 300
0
0
15
30
45
60
75
90
0
0
0
0
0
0
1 m
13
1 m
All dimensions are in cm


0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.5
- 0.25 - 0.31 - 0.60 - 1.05
log F
Bend 2
Bend 3
Bend 1
Variation of with log F
y
______
V
_
2
2g
/
y
______
V
_
2
2g
/


Comparison of Observed and Theoretical Superelevation
experimental
theoretical
24
23
bed in cm
0
12.5
25.0 37.5
50.0
Observed
Theoretical : eqn
Experimental : eqn
Inner wall
Outer wall

Longitudinal Water Surface Profile
Bed slope 1:1000
Bed slope
1.2
1.0
0.8
1.2
1.0
0.8
STN A
STN B
STN C
STN D
STN A
STN B STN C
STN D
B1
Q = 26.1 lps
B2 B3
B1
B2
B3
Re 42280 F = 0.49
Q = 71.9 lps Re 101760 F = 0.55
Scale
x axis 1:100
y axis 5:1
Outer wall
Inner wall
y/yA
y/yA


Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.20
1.15
1.12
1.05
1.00
0.90
0.80
0.95 0.95
1.18
1.15
1.15
1.05
1.00
0.90
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
0.81
0.90
0.85
0.98
1.05
1.15
1.25
C
L
C
L
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
Inner wall
Outer wall
Inner wall
Outer wall
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D STATION C
0.98
1.00
0.90
e
max


Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D
STATION C
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
0.85
1.45
1.22
1.25
1.00
0.85
1.30
1.25
1.15
1.10
1.15
1.30
1.25
1.10
1.0
0.77
1.30
1.27
0.92
1.00
1.00
1.08
0.95
0.75
1.30
1.25
1.23
1.20
0.95
1.00
0.80
1.30
Q = 71.9 lps, F = 0.44, R = 95420
e
max

L
STATION A
STATION B
STATION D
STATION C
e
max
1.30
C
L
Inner wall
Outer wall
C
L
C
L
1.25
1.15
1.10
0.77
1.25
1.30
1.15
1.10
1.00
0.93
0.78
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.08
1.00
0.83
1.15
1.05
1.00
0.95
0.80


Reference

1. Ippen A.T and Drinker P.A., "Boundary shear stresses in curved trapezoidal
channels" , Proc. ASCE. journal Hydraulic Diivision HY5, Part - I, Volume 88, p 3273, pp
- 143 - 179, September 1962, and discussion by Shukry A, Proc. ASCE. journal
Hydraulic Division, pp 333, May 1963.
2. Henderson F.M. , "Open Channel Hydraulics", Mac Millan Company Limited 1966.
3. Thandaveswara B.S, "Characteristics of flow around a 90 open channel bend", M.Sc
Engineering Thesis, Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore - 12, May 1969.

36.5 VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN BENDS
In natural stream bend the velocity distribution is extremely complex. This consists of
superimposition of main velocity on secondary currents. The distribution consists of
longitudinal velocities, which vary proximately to the bed, bank, and water surface and
related with many variables. The best method to describe the velocity is to measure in
rivers. However, theoretical expressions have been obtained assuming logarithmic law.
For a gentle bend of a parabolic cross section variation of velocity distribution is
presented in Figure along the bend section
Lateral Distribution of Velocity
in an Alluvial Channel Bend
0
0.5
1.0
1
2
3
4
5
6
V
__
___
V
A max
- 1.0
-0.5
0
0.5
1.0
x' =
2x
__
W
No.
1 0
2 4.2
3 8.4
4 12.6
5 16.8
6 21.0
*10
2 '

(
max
0.42 y
*
g
b C
= ) with an assumption of approach velocity to follow the relation.
max
0.4
max
A
V
=
V
y
y

and depth profile as
2
max
2
1

y x
y b

=


in which x is reckoned from the center of the bend cross section. It can also be seen
that velocity in bend is greater as the Chezy C decreases and as
max
y
b
increases.
Figure shows the typical velocity distribution as measured by Rozoskii. He has detailed
a procedure to compute the non erosive velocity in a bend.
Comparison of theoretical formulas with data field observation
on the Snov River, after Rozovskii (1957)
1. As measured
2. According to formula
3. According to formula
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
0 0.08 0.16 m/s

Reference
Rozovskii, I.L., " Flow of water in bends of open channels", Published by the academy
of Sci. Ukrainian SSR, Kiev, 1957.


37.1 Introduction
The flow of water in rivers, canals, reservoirs, lakes, pools, and free- surface flow in
storm water drains, conduits, pipes , galleries, tunnels and culverts, in which the
velocities change with time, is defined as unsteady flow ( non - permanent, non -
stationary , or time -variable free- surface water flow). This unsteadiness may arise
naturally or may be caused by human action. Floods in rivers, water level variation in
estuaries due to tidal action etc. are examples of unsteady flows occuring naturally.
Surges created in power channels, water level variation in irrigation canals due to gate
operation etc. are unsteady flows caused by human action. Analysis and computation of
unsteady flow in open channels are important from the point of view of operation of
flood control reservoirs, designing a flood forecasting system, risk assessment of
dambreaks, designing storm water drainage systems, and assessment of surface
irrigation systems.

Flow in natural channel is always unsteady. When the discharge changes slowly with
time the unsteady flow is usually approximated by steady flow. The discharge
hydrographs in natural streams are largely comprised of using rising limb followed by
recession limb. Those flows occurring during a prolonged drought or those occurring for
short time intervals at the highest and lowest points of the hydrographs may be
aproximately considered to be steady flows. In hydraulic engineering problems, it is
important to know when to treat an unsteady flow as steady flow. For practical
purposes, the answer is obtained by judgment rather than by definite mathematical or
experimental criteria. (Reference: unsteady flow in open channels edited by Mahmood
K and Yevjevich V. Vol 1, 1975).

37.2 Basic Terminology

Wave: Temporal or spatial variation of flow depth and rate of discharge.
Wave length: Distance between two adjacent crests or troughs (Fig. 37.1).

Fig. 37.1- Wave length and amplitude
wave length
Amplitude

Amplitude: Height between the maximum water level and the still - water level
(Fig. 37.1).
Shallow-water wave: A wave in which the entire flow depth is disturbed as the
wave passes a section. Ratio of wave length to water depth is greater than 20.
Deep water wave: A wave in which only the top layers are affected as the wave
passes a section. In such a wave, ratio of wave length to wave depth is lesser
than 20.
Wave celerity: Relative velocity of a wave with respect to the fluid in which it is
travelling.


37.3 Classification of waves
Translatory, longitudinal shallow water waves can be classified based on different
criteria as shown in table below. (Ref. unsteady flow in open channels edited by
Mahmood K and Yevjevich V. Vol 1, 1975).

Table: Criteria for classification of wave
Criteria Classification

(1) Rate of
variation

Surges (Moving hydraulic jugs - hydraulic bore)

Intermediate waves

Long waves

capillary wave

(2) Controlling
force

Gravity
2
2
gl
C
=

Capillary wave
(for shallow water waves)
(for deep wave)
C
2
=
gL
___
2
+
2
____
L
( )
tanh
____
L
2y
C
2
=
gL
___
2
+
2
____
L
( )

Gravity and friction

(3) Frequency of
occurrence

Simple solitary
( )
( )
2
3
3
2
2
Single form of gravity wave
=
a
a S ec h x ct
y
The Solitary Wave
a
y
Undisturbed water flow


Mutiple

Wave train
Wave Groups
c
g
c

(4) Direction of
movement
Relative to channel bed slope
Downstream
Upstream

y
2
V
1
w
2
V y
1
V
Type A - Advancing
downstream
(positive surge)
y
2
V
1
w
2
V y
1
V
Type B - Advancing
upstream
(positive surge)
w
V
1
V =
c +
w
V
1
V =
c -
y
2
V
1
w
2
V y
1
V
Type B - Advancing
upstream
(positive surge)
w
V
1
V =
c +
y
2
V
1
w
2
V y
1
V
Type B - Advancing
upstream
(positive surge)
w
V
1
V =
c -
y
2 y
1
y
2
y
1
y
2
y
1
y
2 y
1
V
2
-
w
V V
-
1
w
V V
2
-
w
V V
1
+
w V
V +
2
w
V V
-
1
w
V V
2
+
w
V V +
1
Type A
Type B
Type C
Type D
Four Types of rapidly varied uniformly progressive flow. (Top)
Unsteady flows; (bottom) the corresponding flows that appear steady to
an observer following the wavefront.

Relative to underlying flow
Downstream
Upstream

(5) Wave
surface
elevation


Relative to level of underlying flow
Positive(higher) uniformly
progressive wave (sluice gate)
Negative(lower) Type C (Sluice gate)
and D is operated Demand Surge
Positive-negative (when Sluice is operated these these appear in pairs)
Type A, B occur in Tidal rivers
Occur Tidal in rivers
Rejected Surge
Surge

(6) Form

Single-faced (Monoclinical progressive rising wave)
Two-faced
Symmetrical
Asymmetrical

FLOOD
WAVE
Q
Time

(7) Periodic or
oscillatory wave
A Periodic

L
a
y
Mean Water Level
Definition Sketch for Oscillatory Wave Motion

(8) Translatory
Orbital

Particles constantly progressing the wave movement (Example: Sea waves)

Circular particle Orbits in Deep Water



(9) Transverse
wave
Longitudinal
wave

(10) Deep water
wave
Stokesian wave
Cnoidal wave
Shallow water
wave
Elliptical Particle Orbits in Shallow Water
y
'
L
Mean water level
y

Typical Cnoidal Wave Profile
Mean water level
H

(11) Mechanical
Oscillation
(pulsating flows)
Kinematic wave
Diffusive wave
Dynamic wave

Mechanical oscillation
Finite amplitude due to initial disturbance
Surface instability
Roll wave (progressive wave train)
Steep slopes F > 2.0
Eg:

(12)Rapidly
varying
unsteady flow
Gradually
varying
unsteady flow

Progressing Surges, bores, depression

Floods in reservoirs and in channels / rivers


37.4 Ocean Waves
Wave: An oscillatory movement in a body of water manifested by an alternate rise and
fall of the surface. Waves are a most conspicuous feature of the planet ocean. Their
sheer size and vigor have always impressed wavewatchers. The scientific study of the
waves began in the early nineteenth century when Franz Gerstner, proposed to explain
the phenomenon on waves. According to him, water particles in a wave move in circular
orbits. In 1825, Ernst and Wilhelm Weber, in making experimental observations of a
wave tank, concluded that waves are reflected without loss of energy. In the twentieth
century, oceanographers such as Harold U. Sverdrup and Walter Munk undertook
detailed study of waves in order to predict wave and surf movements for naval
operations during world war II.

Wave parameters
Wave period: The time for a wave crest to traverse a distance equal to one wavelength.
(1) period (the time it takes two successive crests to pass a fixed point), (2) wavelength
(the distance between two consecutive crests), (3) height (the vertical distance between
a trough and a crest).

The speed of a moving wave can be determined as follows:
wavelength (L)
speed of wave (C) =
period (T)

Major components of a typical wave are depicted in (figure)

Wave parameters
Wavelength
Crest
Wave height
Trough


Mechanism of Wave Formation

The effectiveness of wind in generating wave depends on three factors: (1) its average
speed, which determines its force, (2) its duration; and (3) the extent of open water
across which it blows (the fetch). When gusty winds blow for a long time and cover large
extents of the open water, waves of great height (sometimes up to 20 meter) can result.
A pressure transducer is a pressure sensing device equipped with a sensitive strain
gauge (or potentiometer) that records on a metal diaphragm the slightest change in
pressure caused by wave energy and which subsequently transmits it as an electronic
pulse. The intensity of waves is reflected by the strength of these electrical pulses.

The distinction between the motion of wave form and the motion of the water mass is
important. Waves are carriers of energy imparted to them by wind. water masses are
not. In deep water, wave forms continue to move forward; but water masses (or the
water particles) are except for a slight amount of forward movement, essentially
stationary. When a wave is in deep water, the motion of individual particles at the
surface follows a circular orbital pattern and the orbital radius falls off quickly with depth.
For example, at a depth equal to one-half the wavelength, the orbital radius is reduced
to 4 percent of its surface value. As a result, the water motion gyrates to and fro instead
of circularly, and the speed of the water particles decreases rapidly with depth.

This mechanism can be illustrated by placing a tennis ball on a water surface. When a
wind - produced wave passes by, the ball will follow a circular orbital movement,
bouncing up and down without moving forward. Another ball just below the surface of
the water will behave in the same manner but will have a smaller radius to its circular
orbit.


Sea: Generally chatoic waves produced by wind.

Swell: Long periods waves (as opposed to short period waves that are characteristic of
a storm).

Surf: The breaking waves in a coastal region.

37.5 Tides

The periodic rise and fall of the planetary ocean level in response to the gravitational
interaction of the earth, moon, and sun. The periodic rise and fall of sea level that
results from the gravitational attraction exerted on the earth by the moon, and to a
lesser extent by the gravitational pull on the sun, is the tide. Tides are complex because
of:
(1) the movements of the moon in relation to the earth's equator, (2) changes in
positions of the moon and sun with respect to the earth, (3) uneven distribution of the
water on the earth's surface, and (4) irregularities in the configuration of ocean basins.
Because of these variables, tides vary. For example, in the Bay of Fundy, between New
Brunswich and Nova scotia, they are over 12 meter high, at Gulf of Camby (Gujarat,
India, it is of the order of 8 m and in chennai it is above 1 m) but along the coast of the
Mediterranean Sea, they are virtually unnoticeable.

Measurements of tides can be made by using an ordinary graduated pole anchored to
the ocean bottom. Periodically at, say, one-hour intervals, reading of the water level on
the pole are recorded. The height of the water at given interval will determine the
construction of the tidal curve.

Tidal curves for selected coastal cities (Source: Nathaniel Bowditch,
American Practical Navigation, rev. ed., H.O. Publ. 9, Washington, D.C.)
0
4
6
N
A
S
E
P
3
N
September
E
2
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27
29
0
4
6
2
8
10
12
0
4
6
2
8
10
0
4
6
2
New York
Port Adelaide
Seattle
Los Angeles
MHWS
MHW
MLW
MLWS
MHWS
MHW
MHHW
MHW
MLW
MLLW*
MHHW
MHW
MLW
MLLW*
Total
datum

Tides are at their maximum when the moon and the sun are in the same plane as the
earth. These spring tides occur every 14 days, at new and full moons. When the moon
and the sun are at right angles to each other, low tides occur. These neap tides occur
every 14 days, always at half moon. See figure

New Moon
(Spring tide)
Full Moon
(Spring tide)
First quarter
(neap tide)
Last quarter
(neap tide)
Moon
Moon
Moon
Moon Earth
Earth
Earth
Earth
Spring tides occur with greatest amplitude when the Sun and Moon are
lined up at the same time of new and full moon. Neap tides occur with
lowest amplitude when the moon is at first and last quarter
Sun

Diurnal and semidiurnal tides occur because of the gravitational attractions of the earth,
the moon, and the sun. The moon, because of its closeness to earth, is the strongest
influence on tides. The tide producing force of the moon is twice as strong as that of the
sun. The moon takes 29.53 earth days to complete one revolution around the earth.
During the course of this revolution, the earth and the moon are gravitationally attracted.
But this gravitational attraction is balanced by centrifugal force, which orginates from
their orbital motion about each another (figure). Interaction between gravitational and
centrifugal forces is the primary source of tides.

The primary cause of tides is the gravitational pull of the moon.
Although its pull is only 1/300,000 of the earth's gravitational force,
it is sufficient to raise the sea level on the moon-facing portion of the earth;
Centrifugal force balances the opposite side
S
N
Moon
Water surface
(tidal bulge)
Fg
(gravitational
force)
Fc
(Centrifugal
force)
Earth

Tidal Bores: A steep-nosed tide crest rushing (along with a high tide) upstream. Often
under favourable conditons in some tidal rivers, incoming high tides reverse their flows
as they move upstream in breaking waves called tidal bores.

Tidal bores have been reported to rush between 25 and 30 kilometers per hour and
have heights up to 10 metres. Notable examples of tidal bores include the Tsientang
Kiang River at Hangschou Bay in China (which has a 3.5 meter height and moves at
about 1 meter per second) and the Amazon river (which has a 5-meter height and
moves at more than 0.5 meter per second).

Summary

1. Waves are formed in response to prevailing winds. Waves are described in terms of
height, wavelength and period.
2. The Mechanism of wave formation in complex and is not yet fully understood.

3. Major wind generated waves include seas, swells, and surfs.

4. Wave refraction is a phenomenon that waves display as they approach shore.


5. Longshore currents and rip currents are important types of wave currents.

6. Catastrophic waves include Tsunamis, which are produced either by volcanic or by
earthquake activity.
7. Storm waves or suges produced by abnormal meteorlogical and oceanic conditons.

8. Internal waves are found below surface waters. When they emerge at the surface,
they are identifiable as slicks and carry fine sediments and plankton.
9. Tides are a daily phenomenon produced by the gravitational force of the moon, and
to lesser extent, by the sun.
10. Tides are harnessedto manufacture electricity, for example, in France. There are
160 locations throughout the world under consideration to obtain energy from tides.

World's Potential Tidal Power Plant Sites (Selected Sites only)

1. Cook inlet (Alaska);

2. Baja Calfornia;

3. Passamaquoddy (Maine);

4. Bay of Fundy;

5. Frobisher Bay (Canada);

6. Maranho (Venezuela);

7. San J ose Gulf (Argentina);

8. Severn River (Great Britian);

9. Rance River (France);

10. Kislaya (USSR);

11. Cambay River (India);

12. Seoul River (South Korea);

13. Abidjan (Africa);

14. Darwin (Australia);

15. Kimberleys (Australia);

Most tidal curves record two high tides and two low tides per tidal day, occuring every
24 hours and 50 minutes (Figure 8-14). The time 12 hours and 50 minutes, between
high or low tides is called tidal period. The combination of two high and low tides is
called semidaily or semidiurnal tides. When there is only one high tide and one low tide
daily, they are called daily or diurnal tides. Often the tidal curves record two high tides
and two low tides per tidal day, but if there are differences between two high tides and
between two low tides, mixed tides result. Mixed tides are abbreviated HHW (higher
high water) and LHW (lower high water). Similarly, low and lower marks are expressed
as LLW (lower low water) and (higher low water). Tide predicting machines are used at
many locations.


37.6 Nature of Waves
All unsteady flows involve movements of masses of fluid relative to the distortion and so
a problem of kinematics always arises in analysing them. Indeed, motion or translation
of one part of the fluid relative to another is striking feature of all such motions.
Waves on the surface of deep water progress at a speed which varies with the
wavelength, and are thus called dispersive (Capillary waves are similar to light or sound
wave which are non-dispersive).

An oscillatory wave with a sinusoidal water surface profile. If the height 'h' of the wave is
very small compared with wavelength L. The waves progress at a speed c given by
( ) ( )
2
C gL/2 tanh 2 y/L = which tends to ( )
2
C gL/2 = in deep water, when y /L
becomes large: the internal motions of particles are circles whose radius r decreases
rapidly with distance z below still water level, according to the exponential law where
r = a exp (k/g) where k = 2 / L and a is the surface radius =h / 2: the energy of the
system is
2
g h per unit area of water surface, and in deep water this energy moves at
a 'group' speed of c / 2.

A standing wave system is thus set up in which the vertical motions at places one
wavelength apart are double those of either incident or reflected waves, yet the motions
at places midaway between are completely cancelled out. The motions at the places of
high amplitude give peculiar vigorous motions and sharp crested waves, sometimes
called clapotis. The motion that occurs in lakes, excited by wind fluctuations, and is
called a seiche.

Water orbit motion
Direction of wave motion
Deep water osicllatory waves
Arrows indicate instantaneous water
motions when wave is in above position

When these waves of infinitesimal height are in relatively shallow water, i.e. when y / L
becomes small, the motion under one crest becomes more and more independent of
that under the adjacent ones, which for all practical purposes need not be present. The
waves are then solitary or long waves which progress at a velocity ( )
1 2
c = gy
/
. A single
solitary wave can exist by a single suitable impulse given to the water at one place.
The single forward motion is sometimes termed a translation and the wave a translatory
wave: this name, as already mentioned, is a poor one since some degree of translation
is necessary in any wave. The waves change shape and gradually spread, losing height
in the process.

A standing wave in a water body
A seiche in which there is only a half
a wavelength at any one instant in
the water body
No vertical motion at
this point any time
Two mode
wavelength L = 2b
b
wavelength L = b
b

In the intermediate range of depths when neither the deep water wave speed
( )
2
C gL/2 = , nor shallow water solitary wave speed
2
C gy = are applicable.
It is found that at low values of the parameter hL
2
/ y
3
the two tendencies balance and
the waves neither spread nor steepen; they are propogated without change of shape,
which is that of a complicated elliptic function, and are called cnoidal waves. At high
values of hL
2
/ y
3
the steepening of wave occurs and the crest gradually steepen untill
the break.

Three types of waves
Solitary wave
Cnoidal wave
Sinusoidal wave
Still water
Level

WAVES IN THE SEA
Sinusoidal (small amplitude waves)
Cnoidal waves
Solitary waves affected by
backward flow and breaks


38.1 Surge Computation

Hydraulic jump - Steady state
Type - I
Type - II Type - III
Type - I is caused by a
sudden reduction of the
flow in a channel when
gate is closed or discharge
is reduced. The front becomes
less marked as it progresses
away from the Gate and finally
dies out in a series of Cnoidal
waves
Type - II waves is caused by
sudden increase in depth at
the downstream end of flow
similar to the rising tide into
an estuary. This is known as
Moving hydraulic jump or Bore
Type - III waves is caused by
sudden increase of the discharge
such as opening of Gates or
Dam break
SURGES - MOVING (TRAVELLING FRONTS)

As defined earlier, a surge is a moving wave front which results in an abrupt change of
the depth of flow. It is a rapidly varied unsteady flow condition. For example, consider
the movement of a positive surge wave in x-direction in an open channel having an
irregular cross section as shown in figure 38.1. Here, as the surge moves with an
absolute velocity, V
w
, flow depth becomes equal to y
2
behind the surge. Undistributed
flow depth ahead of the surge is y
1
. The corresponding flow velocities behind and ahead
of the slope front are V
2
and V
1
respectively. The surge has been created due to a
sudden change of flow rate from Q
1
to Q
2
. In this context, the problem definition for
surge computation is: given Q
1
,y
1
,Q
2
and channel slope parameters, determine the
surge wave velocity, V
w
and the surge height, y
2
-y
1
. Equations for computing the above
are based on the basic principles of conservation of mass and momentum. Following
assumptions are made in the derivation.

Figure 38.1 - Definition sketch for surge movement
V
2
y
2
V
w
y
1 V
1
Bed

38.1.1 Assumptions

Channel is horizontal and frictionless;

Pressure distribution is hydrostatic at locations away from the front;

Velocity is uniform within the cross section, at location away from the front;

Change in the flow depth at the front occurs over a very short distance;

wave shape, height, and wave velocity do not change as the wave propogates in
the channel;
water surfaces behind and ahead of the wave front are parallel to the bed.

38.1.2 Derivation of Equations

We first choose a control volume encompassing the wave front. This control volume can
be made stationary by superimposing a constant velocity, Vw (equal to the absolute
velocity of surge wave) in the negative x-direction. Thus the unsteady flow of Fig. 38.1
may be transformed to steady flow fig. 38.2, and the principles of conservation of mass
and momentum can be applied to a steady flow situation.


Control Volume
V
2
- V
w y
2
y
1
V
1
- V
w
Fig. 38.2: Surge movement viewed as steady flow

Applying continuity equation to the control volume of fig. 38.2,
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 w 1 1 w
A V V A V V 0 38.1 =
in which, =density of water; A
2
=flow area behind the wave and A
1
=flow area
ahead of the wave. Since is a constant, Eq. (38.1) may be written as
( ) ( ) ( )
2 2 w 1 1 w
A V V A V V 38.2 =
Equation (38.2) can also be written as
( )
( )
1 1 w
2 w
2
A V V
V V 38.3
A
= +
Another way of writing the continuity equation is
( )
2 2 1 1
w
2 1
A V A V
V 38.4
A A

Applying momentum equation to the control volume of Fig. 38.2,
( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
1 1 w 1 w 2 2 w 2 w
Net force A V V V V A V V V V 38.5 =

The channel is prismatic, horizontal and frictionless. Therefore, the only force acting on
the control volume is pressure force. Pressure force acts in the positive x - direction at
the inlet section and in the negative x - direction at the outlet section. Equation (38.5)
can be written as


( )( ) ( )( ) ( )
2 1 1 1 w 1 w 2 2 w 2 w 2 1
gy A gyA A V V V V A V V V V 38.6 = -
in which
2
y =depth to the centroid of inlet section of the C.V., and
1
y =depth of the
centroid of outlet section.

Substitution of Eq. (38.2) in Eq (38.6) leads to

( )( ) ( )
2 1 1 1 w 1 2 2 1
g y A yA A V V V V 38.7

=

-

Substitution of Eq. (38.3) in Eq. (38.7) and subsequent simplification leads to

( )
( )
( )
( )( )
1 1 w
2 1 1 1 w 1 w 2 1
2
2
1
2 1 1 w
2
A V V
g y A yA A V V V V 38.8
A
A
A A V V
A

=

-
=

wave is propogating in the downstream direction.

Therefore, V
w
should be greater than V
1
.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 1 2 1
w 1
1 2 1
2
w 1 2 1 2 1
1 2 1
gA y A yA
V V 38.9
A A A
or
gA
V V y A yA 38.10
A A A
= +

Now, substitution of Eq. (38.4) in Eq. (38.7) and subsequent simplification leads to

( )
( )
( )
( )
2
1 2 1 2
2 1 2 1
2 1
A A V V
y A yA 38.11
g A A

Equations (38.10) and (38.11) can be used to determine the surge wave velocity and
the surge height, if we know the values of undisturbed flow depth, y
1
, flow rate before
the surge, Q
1
, and the flow rate after the surge, Q
2
. Equations (38.10) and (38.11) are

non-linear equations. They can be solved by an appropriate numerical technique. For
rectangular channels, Eqs. (38.10) and (38.11) simplify to the following.

( )
( )
( )
( )( )
( )
2 2 1
w 1
1
2 2
2 1 2 1 2
1 2
1 2
gy y y
V V 38.12
2y
or
g y y y y
V V 38.13
2y y
+
= +

=


38.2 Example - 1

A wide rectangular channel is carrying a flow of 3 m
3
/s per meter width of the channel at
a flow depth of 1.5 m. What should be the increase in discharge at the upstream end to
cause a surge of 0.5 m?. What is the corresponding surge velocity?

Solution

2
1
1
2
2
w
1
1
Given: q 3m /s
y 1.5m
y 1.5 0.5 2.0m
Determine: q ?
V ?
3
V 2m/s
1.5
FromEq. (38.13);
V
=
=
= + =
=
=
= =

( )
( )( )
( )
( )
2
2 2
2
2
2
2
w
w
9.81 0.5 2 1.5
V
2*2*1.5
or
V 3.196m/s
q 3.196*2 6.392m /s
FromEq.(38.12)
9.81*2* 2 1.5
V 2
2*1.5
V 6.784 m/s
=
=
= =
+
= +
=

;


38.3 Example 2

A wide rectangular channel is carrying a flow of 3 m
3
/s/m at a flow depth of 1.5 m.
Determine the height of the surge wave and its velocity if the discharge suddenly
increases to 4.5 m
3
/s/m at the upstream end.

Solution

2
1
2
2
1
2
w
1
2
2 2
2
2
Given: q 3m /s
q 4.5m /s
y 1.5m
Determine: y ?
V ?
3
V 2m/s
1.5
V y 4.5 m /s
4.5
V
y
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=

=

( )( )
2
2 2
2 2
2 2
m/s
FromEq.(38.13)
9.811.5 y 1.5 y
4.5
2-
y 2*1.5* y

=

;

There is only one unknown, y
2
in the above non-linear algebraic equation. Solution of
the above equation by trial and error yields y
2
=1.738 m

Application of Eq. (38.12) gives

w
w
9.81*1.738(1.738 1.5)
V 2
2*1.5
V 6.29 m/s
+
= +
=


39.1 Gradually Varied Unsteady Flow

Gradually varied unsteady flow occurs when the flow variables such as the flow depth
and velocity do not change rapidly in time and space. Such flows are very common in
rivers during floods and in canals during the period of slow variation in gate opening or
closure. Typically two flow variables, such as the flow depth and velocity or the
discharge and depth, define the flow conditions at a channel section. Two governing
equations, known as Saint Venant equations, are used to descrine the spatial and
temporal variation of the above two flow variables. These equations are based on the
application of conservation of mass and momentum principles to a stationary control
volume such as shown in Figure. 39.1.

39.2 Assumptions

Following assumptions are made in the derivation of the Saint Venant equations:

The pressure distribution in the vertical direction at any cross section is
hydrostatic.
The channel bottom slope is small.
The velocity is uniform within a cross section.
The channel is prismatic.
Steady state resistance laws are applicable under unsteady conditions.
There is no lateral inflow or outflow.

39.3 Derivation

Consider unsteady flow in a channel as shown in fig 39.1. Consider a control volume of
length x as shown in this figure.

A
C.G
y
__
V
1
A
1
y
1
y
1
___
V
1
A
1
y
1
y
1
___ Flow
Bed
S
0
x
1
x
2
x
1
2
x
Water Surface
Fig. 39.1: Definition sketch for derivation of St.Venant equations

The control volume in Fig. 39.1 has fixed boundaries. The Reynolds transport theorem
is applied to derive the continuity and momentum equations.

Continuity Equation

Based on the Reynolds transport theorem and treating water as an incompressible fluid,
Continuity equation for the control volume in Fig. 39.1 can be written as
( )
2
2 2 1 1
1
0 39.1 + =
x
x
d
Adx AV AV
dt

in which A =flow area, V =flow velocity and subscripts 1 and 2 indicate flow variables
at sections 1 and 2, respectively.

Application of Leibritz's theorem to the first term on the left hand side of the above
equation, followed by the application of mean value theorem yields
( ) ( )
2 1 2 2 1 1
0 39.2
+ =
A
x x AV AV
t

It may be noted that both A and
A
t
are assumed continous with respect to both x and t.
Similarly, treating AV and
VA
t
as continous with respect to x and t, and letting

2 1
= x x x tend to zero, one can get


( ) 0 39.3

+ =

A AV
t x

Noting that flow rate, Q =AV.

( ) 0 39.4

+ =

A Q
t x

Equation (39.4) is the continuity equation in the "Conservation form". For prismatic
channels in which the top width, T is a continous function of the flow depth, y, Eq. (39.4)
may be written as

( )
( )
=0 39.5
or
T 0 39.6

+

+ =

dA y Q
dy t x
y Q
t x

Substitution of Q =VA in Eq. 39.6 and subsequent simplification leads to

( ) +V =0 39.7

+

y A V y
t T x x

Momentum Equation

Based on the Reynolds transport theorem, momentum equation for the control volume
in fig. 39.1 can be written as
( )
2
1
2 2
Re 2 2 1 1
39.8 = +
x
s
x
d
F V Adx V A V A
dt

in which
Res
F =resultant force acting on the control volume in the direction of flow. As in
the case of continuity equation, application of Leibritz theorem and mean value theorem
to Eq. 39.8 leads to

( )
( )
( ) ( )
2 Re
39.9

= +

s
AV F
AV
x t x

Noting that flow rate Q =AV,


( )
( ) ( )
Re
39.10

= +

s
F Q
QV
x t x

Resultant force
Res
F on the control volume is evaluated as follows.

Channel is assumed to be prismatic. Therefore, forces do not arise due to
changes in cross section.
Waves set up by the wind action are not considered here. Therefore, shear
stress on the flow surface due to wind is neglected.
Open channel flows in canals, streams and rivers are considered. Flows in large
water bodies such as estuaries and oceans are not considered here. Therefore,
Coriolis forces are neglected.
Net force on Control volume comprises of

(i) pressure force at section - 1 (See Fig. 39.1), (ii) pressure force at section - 2, (iii)
Component of weight of water in the flow direction and (iv) the frictional force due to
shear between water and the channel sides and the channel bottom. These forces are
evaluated as follows.

Pressure forces at sections 1 & 2 are given by

( )
1 1 1
39.11 = F gA y ,

1
y =depth to the centroid of area A
1
.

( )
2 2 2
39.12 = F gA y

2
y =depth to the centroid of area A
2
.

1
F acts in the positive x direction while
2
F acts in the negative x direction.

Component of weight of water in the direction of flow =

( )
2
3 0
1
39.13 =

x
x
F g AS dx

Frictional force
= ( )
2
4
1
39.14 =

x
f
x
F g AS dx

in which S
0
=channel bottom slope and S
f
=friction slope. Friction slope or the slope of
the energy gradient line to overcome friction may be estimated using any friction loss
equation such as the Manning equation. F
3
acts in the positive x-direction while F
4
acts
in the negative x-direction.

Substitution of equations for forces in Eq. (39.10) leads to

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
1 2 1 2
2
0
39.15

+ = +

f
g A y A y
Q
gA S S AV
x t t

Or

( )
( ) ( ) ( )
0
39.16

+ = +

f
Q
QV gAy gA S S
t t x

Or

( ) ( ) ( )
0
39.17

+ + =

f
Q
QV gAy gA S S
t x

Equation (39.17) is the momentum equation in the conservation form. For any cross
section in which the top width, T is a continous function of flow depth, y

( )
( )
( )
2
y 0
1
+ T -Ay
2
lim 39.18

+

=

A y y y
Ay
y y

Neglecting higher order terms,

( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
39.19
39.20

= =

Ay A
y
and
y y
gAy g Ay gA
x y x x

Substitution of Eq. (39.20) in Eq. (39.17) leads to


( ) ( )
0
39.21

+ + =

f
Q QV y
gA gA S S
t x x

Substitution of Q =AV into Eq. (39.21), subsequent expansion of terms, and further
simplification using continuity equation leads to

( ) ( )
0
V 39.22

+ + =

f
V V y
g g S S
t x x

Equation (39.22) is usually referred to as the "Dynamic Equation". In this equation, the
first term on the left hand side represents the local acceleration, the second term
represents the convective acceleration and the third term represents the pressure
gradient. The first term on the right hand side represents weight component (effect of
channel slope) while the second term represents the resistance effect due to shear
between the water and the channel surface. For steady, non-uniform flows, local
acceleration is zero and Eq. (39.22) reduces to

( )
2
0
V
39.23
2g

+ =

f
d
y S S
dx
.

Substitution of Q =AV leads to

( )
2
0 2
2
0 3
2
0 3
0
2
3
Q

A 2
Q
-
gA
1
39.24
1

+ =

+ =

= =

f
f
f
f
d
y S S
dx g
dA dy
or S S
dx dx
dy Q T
or S S
dx gA
S S
dy
or
Q T dx
gA

Equation (39.24) is nothing but equation for steady gradually varied flow when the
energy correction factor 1 = .


For steady, uniform flows, local and convective acceleration are zero and the flow
depth, y does not vary with x. Therefore, Eq. (39.22) reduces to

( )
0
0 39.25 =
f
S S

Flood routing problem is defined as: given (i) the channel characteristics (slope, shape
parameters, roughness coefficient) and (ii) the flood discharge or the stage hydrograph
at an upstream section, determine the flood discharge and the stage hydrographs at
any downstream section. This is same as solving for the temporal and spatial variations
of Q and y given the (i) channel characteristics, (ii) initial conditions (Q and y at all
points in the channel at t =0) and (iii) Boundary condtions (Q or y variation at x =0 for
all t).

Flood routing based on the solution of complete equations for mass and momentum
conservation (Eqs. 39.7 and 39.22) is termed as "Dynamic Routing".

Flood rating in which the first two terms (acceleration terms) on the left hand side of
Eqs. 39.22 are negelected is termed as "Zero-Inertia Routing".

Flood routing in which equations 39.7 and 39.25 are solved together is termed as
"Kinematic Wave Routing". Many times Zero - Inertia Routing and Kinematic Wave
Routing methods are adopted to avoid computational difficulties.

39.4 Celerity

The wave Celerity, C is defined as the relative velocity of a wave with respect to the
fluid in which it is travelling. The absolute wave velocity,
V is the velocity of the wave

with respect to a fixed reference frame. The wave moves either in the direction of flow
(downstream direction) or in the opposite direction (upstream direction), for a one
dimensional flow. For such a case,
( ) 39.26
= V V C

The positive sign is used for wave travelling in the downstream direction and the
negative sign is used for wave travelling in the upstream direction.

For gradually varied unsteady flow, the equation for the wave celerity can be obtained
from the governing partial differential equations (39.7) and (39.22). These equations can
be written in the vector form as

{ } [ ] { } { } ( ) 39.27

+ =

F J F S
t x

in which { }

=

Y
V
F

[ ]
{ } ( )
0
/
0
( )
S 39.28

=

=

f
V A T
g V
g S S
J
and

Matrix
[ ] J is termed as the J acobian of the system of equations. Eigen values of this
matrix determine the type of partial differential equations. Equations are classified as
hyperbolic equations if the eigen values are real and distinct. They are classified as
parabolic if the eigen values are real and equal. They are classified as elliptic if the
eigen values are imaginary. For hyperbolic systems, eigen values also represent the
absolute wave velocity. The Eigen values for the present system are solved from the
following equation.

( )
/
0 39.29
=
V A T
g V

In which gives the eigen values. The two eigen values
1 2
and are given by

( )
1
2
39.30
= +
=
gA
V
T
gA
V
T

Here,
1
=absolute wave velocity in the downstream direction.

2
=absolute wave velocity in the downstream direction.

Therefore, the celerity of the wave is given by

( ) 39.31 =
gA
C
T

It can be seen from Eq. (39.30) that the wave velocity for the downstream direction is
positive while the wave velocity for the upstream direction is negative, when the flow is
subcritical /

<

V gA T . On the other hand, when the flow is supercritical
/

>

V gA T , both
1 2
and are positive. This indicates that the waves travel only in the
downstream direction when the flow is supercritical. That is why it is often said that
supercritical flow knows only what happens on the upstream side or it has an upstream
control.

The fact that the eigen values are real and distinct shows that the unsteady flow
equations for open-channels constitute a system of non-linear hyperbolic equations.
Typically, hyperbolic equations represents the propagation of waves in different media.
Governing equations for water hammer in pipes, governing equations for transient gas
flows etc., are also represented by this type of equations. As discussed in later sections,
Method of characteristics can be used for the solution of these equations.


Celerity given by Eq. (39.31) is valid only when the amplitude of the wave is small. It is
not valid for finite amplitude waves such as those created by a dambreak or a fast
operation of a sluice gate. In such cases, celerity can be obtained from Eqs. (38.10) {for
a general cross-section}or Eq. (38.12) {for a rectangular cross section}. These are

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
2 2 1 2 1
1 2 1
2 2 1
1
gA A y - A y
C = 39.32
A A - A
or
gy y +y
C = 39.33
2y

in which, A =Cross sectional area, y =flow depth, y =depth to the centroid of the cross
sectional area, and g = acceleration due to gravity. Subscript 1 indicates the flow
conditions ahead of the wave and subscript 2 indicates the flow conditions behind the
wave. For small amplitude waves in a wide rectangular channel,
2 1
y y and Eq. (39.33)
reduces to
( ) 39.34 = C gy

which is same as the Eq. (39.31).


40.1 Method of Characteristics

Governing equations for gradually varied unsteady flow in open channel are given by

( )
( ) ( )
0
0 40.1
40.2

+ + =

+ + =

f
y A V y
V
t T t x
V V y
V g g S S
t x x

Equations (40.1) and (40.2) represent the continuity and dynamic equation, in non-
conservation form, respectively. Here, A =Cross-sectional area, T =top width, y =flow
depth, V =Velocity, g =acceleration due to gravity, S
0
=bed slope, S
f
=friction slope, x
= distance and t = time. These are a set of coupled non-linear partial differential
equations of hyperbolic type. There are no analytical solutions for these equations , and
they are usually solved by numerical methods. Here in we explain the "method of
characteristics" for solving these governing equations. Although Method of
characteristics is seldom used these days for solving the unsteady open-channel flow
equations, this concept helps one to understand (i) the propagation of waves and (ii) the
formulation of boundary conditions. Formulation of boundary conditions is very crucial to
correctly solving the governing equations.

40.1.1 Characteristic Equations
Multiply Eq. (40.1) by an arbitrary parameter , add it to Eq. (40.2), and rearrange the
terms to obtain

( ) ( )
0
40.3

+ + + + + =

f
V A V y g y
V V g S S
t T x t x

The total derivatives for V and y can be written as

( ) 40.4

= +

dV V V dx
dt t x dt


and

( ) 40.5

= +

dy y y dx
dt t x dt

Now, Choose such that

( ) 40.6
+ = + =
A g dx
V V
T dt

Then, Eq. (40.3) becomes

( ) ( )
0
40.7 + =
f
dV dy
g S S
dt dt

and
( ) 40.8 =
gT
A

Therefore,

( ) 40.9
=
g gA
T

It can be seen that
g
represents the celerity and
dx
dt
represents the absolute wave

velocity. Thus

( ) ( )
0
40.10 + =
f
dV g dy
g S S
dt C dt

is valid along the curve.

( ) 40.11 = +
dx
V C
dt

While

( ) ( )
0
40.12 =
f
dV g dy
g S S
dt C dt


( ) 40.13 =
dx
V C
dt

is valid along the curve. Equation (40.10) is called the Positive Characteristic Equation
and Eq. (40.12) is called the Negative Characteristic Equation. Plots of Eqs. (40.11) and
(40.13) in the x-t plane are shown in the Figure below. In this figure, line LP.
t
t
x
L x
R
C+ C-
P
x
L
R
Positive and Negative Characteristic Curves

represents the Eq. (40.11) and is known as the Positive Characteristic Line,
+
C .
Equation (40.10) is valid along this line. It may be noted that discretized form of original
partial differential equations can be written between any pair of points, arbitrarily taken
in the x-t plane. On the other hand, Eq. (40.10), which is simpler than original P.D.E s
can be written between any two points in the x-t plane, L and P, only when they satisfy
the condition given by Eq. (40.10). Points L and P indicate that a wave travelling in the
downstream direction takes t time to travel a distance
L
x . In a similar manner, Eq.
(40.13) plots as line ,
RP C in the x-t plane. This line is known as the negative

characteristic line Eq. (40.12) is valid along the line RP. Points R and P indicate that a
wave travelling in the upstream direction takes t time to travel a distance of
R
x .
Equation (40.10) is integrated along the characteristic line LP as shown below


( ) ( )
0
40.14

+ =

P P P
f
L L L
g
dV dy g S S dt
C

Note that the celerity, C depends upon the flow cross-sectional area, A and top width, T,
both of which are functions of time and distance. Therefore, C is not a constant along
the line LP in the x-t plane. In a similar manner, S
f
is also not a constant along LP.
However, for the sake of simplification, assuming that C and Sf are constant along the
line LP, and are equal to values of C and S
f
at point L, Eq. (40.14) can be shown to give

( ) ( )
0
40.15

+ =

P L p L f p L
L
L
g
V V y y g S S t t
C

Similarly, Eq. (40.12) can be integrated along the line RP. The result is

( ) ( )
0
40.16

=

P R p R f p R
R
R
g
V V y y g S S t t
C

In Eqs. (40.15) and (40.16), subscripts P, R and L refer to the values at the points L, P
and R, respectively. If the values V, y etc. are known at points L and R, values of V and
y at point P can be obtained by simultaneously solving Eqs. (40.15) and (40.16). By
taking points L and R at the same time level, i.e., =
L R
t t and

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
0
0
,
g g
and
C C
40.17
40.18
= =

= =

+ = + +
= +
L
R
p L p R
L R
L R
P L p L L L f
P R p R R R f
t t t t t
C C
V C y V C y g S S t
V C y V C y g S S t

Right hand sides of Eqs. (40.17) and (40.18) can be evaluated using the values at
points R and L. Therefore, V
p
and y
p
can be obtained by solving Eqs. (40.17) and
(40.18).


40.1.2 Characteristic lines

The physical significance of characteristic lines is explained here. Consider the point P
located at x =x
p
in the x-t plane as shown in the figure below
t
x
t
Q
P
x = x
q
Q
PCL
R
NCL
x = x
p

A disturbance created at P travels in both upstream and downstream directions.
Disturbance moving in the upstream direction is indicated by the line NCL. Wave
moving in the downstream direction moves along the line PCL in the figure. Any point R,
located in the shaded region of the figure is affected by the disturbance at P. A point Q
located outside the shaded region is not affected by the disturbance at P. What this
means is, arrival time for the wave from P(x =x
p
) to Q (x =x
q
) is more than t
Q
, or
conditions at x =x
q
would not have changed at the time t
Q
due to a wave from P.

The shaded region is referred to as the "zone of influence". Now, consider the point p in
figure shown below.
t
x
P
PCL NCL
R
L R



The positive characteristic line (PCL) and the negative characteristic line (NCL) passing
through the point P are shown in this figure. These lines are drawn backwards in time.
Here, the shaded region is referred to as the "zone of dependence". What this means is,
any disturbance orginating at point R, located within the shaded region, would affect the
conditions at P.

Subcritical Flow

For a subcritical flow, the PCL lies to the right of point P (in the x-t plane), while the NCL
lies to the left of point P as shown in the figure below. This means the disturbance
travels on both upstream and downstream directions.
t
x
P
PCL NCL

Critical Flow

For a critical flow, the PCL lies to the right of point P while the NCL is a line
perpendicular to the x-axis as shown in the figure below

t
x
P
PCL
NCL
Critical Flow

Supercritical Flow

For a supercritical flow, both the PCL and NCL lie to the right of point P in the x-t plane
as shown in the figure below.
t
x
P
PCL
NCL
Supercritical Flow

This means that the disturbances can travel only in the downstream direction, if the flow
is supercritical. That is why it is often said that the supercritical flow knows only what
happens on the upstream side. Disturbance created at a downstream location from
point P gets swept further downstream. They cannot travel upstream and reach point P.
The above discussion on physical significance of characteristic lines can be also used
to specify the initial and boundary conditions.


40.1.3 Initial and Boundary Conditions

Numerical solution of governing partial differential equations (Eqs. (40.1) and (40.2)
start with calculations at a specified time. At this time, the flow conditions i.e. the flow
depth, y and the flow velocity, V should be known. These flow conditions at the initial
time are termed as the "initial condtions" (refer to figure below).

t
x = 0
P
PCL
NCL
PCL
Q
R
NCL
x
R
x = L
x
upstream
boundary
Downstream
boundary
Initial Condtions
t = t
Initial and boundary Condtions - Subcritical Flow

Any physical system has finite boundaries. For a one-dimensional flow, there will be a
boundary at x=0 and another boundary at some distance x=L.
The boundary at x=0 is termed as upstream boundary and the boundary at x=L is
termed as the downstream boundary. In the solution of governing equations, one has to
specify one or more conditions at the boundaries of the system. These are known as
the "boundary conditions".

Consider a point R in the interior of domain as shown in the figure above. This point
indicates that we are interested in finding the flow conditions at a point x =x
R
at time
t t = . Two characteristic lines, PCL and NCL, passing through this point (for subcritical
flow) carry the information from t=0 to t t = . There are two flows variables, y and V,

whose values at
R
x x = and t t = need to be determined. Existence of two
characteristic lines at this point R in the x-t plane indicates that two characteristic
equations will be available for this purpose. Now, consider a point P as shown in the
figure. Point P indicates that values of y and V, at the upstream end, at time t t = ,
need to be determined. No positive characteristic line, which originates from time t =0
and from within the domain, is passing through this point P because P falls on the
upstream boundary. Thus only NCL is existent for this point. This indicates that only one
equation (negative characteristic equation) is available for solving for two unknowns at
point P. Therefore, a boundary condition needs to be specified for closing the problem.
This boundary condtion can be a specified flow depth or a specified flow velocity or a
relationship between the depth and the velocity. Now, consider a point Q on the
downstream boundary as shown in the figure. Point Q indicates that we are interested in
determining the values of y and v at x=L, at time t t = . As in the case of point P, only
one characteristic line (positive characteristic line, PCL) is existent here. Therefore, one
needs to specify one boundary condition at the downstream boundary.

Above discussion is valid for the case of subcritical flow. The characteristic lines in the
case of supercritical flow are shown in the figure below. As can be seen from this figure,
no characteristic equations will be available for solving for the two flow variables at point
P on the uspstream boundary.

t
x = 0
P
PCL
NCL
PCL
Q
R
NCL
x = L
x
upstream
boundary
Downstream
boundary
t = 0
Boundary Condtions - Supercritical Flow

Therefore, two boundary conditions need to be specified at the upstream boundary, in
case of supercritical flow. On the otherhand, two characteristic equations will be
available for solving for the two unknown flow variables at point Q on the downstream
boundary. Therefore, boundary conditions should not be specified at the downstream
boundary if the flow is supercritical there.

40.1.4 Riemann Invariants

Consider the Eqs. (40.10) and (40.12). Consider a rectangular channel. The wave
celerity in such a case is given by

(40.19)
or
dc
dt 2
2
dc
(40.20)
dt
C gy
g dy
dt y
or
y
dc
dt g
=
=
=


Substitution of Eqs (40.19) and (40.20) in Eqs. (40.10) and (40.12) results in the
following.

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
0
0
0
0
2 (40.21)
and
2 (40.22)
or
2 (40.23)
and 2 (40.24
f
f
f
f
dv dc
g S S
dt dt
dv dc
g S S
dt dt
d
V c g S S
dt
d
V c g S S
dt
+ =
=
+ =
= )

In the case of horizontal and frictionless channels,

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+
-
2 0 40.25
2 0 40.26
2 =J =Constant along PCL
and 2 =J =Constant along NCL
d
V c
dt
d
and V c
dt
or V c
V c
+ =
=
+

The constants J +and J -are called "Riemann invariants" since they remain constant
along the characteristic lines. An important point to be noted with regard to the
boundary conditions is that they should be independent of the governing equations and
of the Riemann invariants. For example, one should not specify the value of V-2C as an
upstream boundary condtion. Similarly, value of V+2C cannot be specified as a
downstream boundary condtion.

40.2 Method of Specified Intervals

Here we describe a numerical method for solving the unsteady gradually varied flow
equations. This method, known as Method of specified intervals is based on the
"method of characteristics" described earlier. In this method, we divide the x-t plane into
a grid as shown below
t
x = 0
x
x
t = 0
A L B C
t
t
t +
t
R
P
Upstream
boundary
Downstream
boundary

Computational step in space is given by x , while computational step in time is given
by t . The values of flow depth and flow velocities at time level "t" are known i.e, flow
velocity and flow depth at grid points A, B, C etc are known. These are known either
from a previous computation or specified as "initial condtions" to start the computation
at time t=0. We are now interested in finding the values of flow depth and flow velocity
time t t + ( t time later from present) i.e. we need to determine the values of flow
depth and flow velocity at grid points at time t t + , say grid point p. For this purpose,
we draw the positive characteristic and negative characteristic lines such that they pass
through the point P. Say they intersect the time "t" line at L (between A and B) and at R
(Between B and C). As discussed earlier, knowing the condtions at points L and R, one
can determine the flow depth and flow velocity at P using the positive and negative
characteristic equations. Condtions at L and R may be determined by simple linear
interpolation and using the known condtions at A, B and C.


Referring to figure

( )
(40.27)
and
(40.28)
B A B A
B L B L
B A
B L L L
x x V V
x x V V
C C x
C C V C t

=

=
+

From Eq. (40.27) and (40.28) we get

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )( )
(40.29)
1
(40.30)
1
and
(40.31)
B A B B A
L
B A B A
B L B A
L
B A
L B L L B A
t
V C V C V
x
V
t
V V C C
x
t
C V C C
x
C
t
C C
x
t
y y V C y y
x
=

+ +
=

+
= +

In a similar manner, we can obtain the values of
R
, and y
R R
V C using the values of
B c c c
, , y , V , C , y , x and t
B B
V C . As mentioned earlier values of variables at L and R
are then used to determine flow depth and flow velocity at P. In this manner, values at
any interior grid point at time level " " t t + can be obtained. Values at upstream grid
point are obtained using the NCE and the upstream boundary condition. Values at the
downstream grid point are obtained using the PCE and the downstream boundary
condition. Then, the values at " " t t + line are treated as "known values" and the
procedure is repeated to determine "unknown values" at line " 2 " t t + . The
computations can be marched to any time in "future" in this way.

As mentioned earlier, "Method of characteristics" is seldom used these days for
unsteady open channel flow computations. Finite-difference, Finite-element, Finite-
volume and boundary element methods are being used for solving one-dimensional and
two-dimensional Saint-Venant equations. Significant advances have been made in the
area of numerical solution of governing partial differential hyperbolic equations. Readers

interested in these methods should consult advance text books such as "Open Channel
Flow" by M. Hanif Chaudhry (Prentice Hall 1993) or the many technical papers
published in the journals such as J ournal of Hydraulic Engineering, J ournal of Hydraulic
Research and International J ournal for Numerical Methods in Fluids.

41.1 Introduction

Many important phenomena in free surface flows are unsteady in nature. Some of these
may be classified under the unsteady rapidly varied flows. In these flows curvature of
the wave profile is large and the change of the depth of flow with time is rapid. The
vertical accelertion is significant when compared to the total acceleration. The effect of
friction on the flow becomes less important. Some of the examples of unsteady rapidly
varied flows include the catastrophic failures of dams, surges, bores, tidal waves. The
sudden water releases are encountered when impoundments behind dam
embankments, locks or other man made structures fail.

In the world, a large number of dams are built and are being built. The height and length
are also increasing as the technology of construction is improving. However, a dam
failure normally results in a catastrophe which is often accompanied with considerable
loss of life and property. The "dam safety" has become an important issue. One of the
important aspects of this safety is to assess the nature of likely damage if the proposed
dam fails. The released flood must be routed along the river course to implement the
flood control management alternatives.

There are about 34,798 large dams in the world, out of which 83 % are embankment
dams. In India, the total number of large dams are 1,554. A large dam, is defined as that
dam, above 15 m in height, measured from lowest of the general foundation area.
However, dams between 10 to 15 m in height have been included based on certain
criteria. In India, several dams have been created to cater to the above said
requirements, for example Khadakwasla dam (built in 1864), Tungabhadra, Bhakra,
Linganamakki etc. One of the recent developments is Supa Dam, a 101 m high
concrete gravity dam, built across river Kali, in Karnataka State, for power generation.
No doubt, the dams provide the mankind with sufficient benefits. But if any dam breaks
or breaches, the large volume of water stored in the reservoir gets suddenly released
and flows in the downstream valley. The outflow through the breaches causes disatrous

effects in the downstream, along the valley. The losses and damage to life and property
becomes predominant. To take precautionary actions and to take safety measures, the
magnitude and the time of arrival of the flood at a specified station are required. Thus
the analysis of "Dam Failure" has attained significance in project planning and in issues
of Dam Safety. The disastrous consequences of dam failures throughout the world, has
resulted in casualties, sometimes exceeding thousands, eg. Morvi Dam disaster in
1978.

The series of occurrences of flash floods, in the past few decades such as Teton dam
failure, Morvi dam failure has reinforced the need for development of model for routing
the Dam Break flood waves, to evaluate the potential damages, in the inundated areas,
and to take appropriate steps to reduce the damages. Thus, estimation of magnitude,
duration of this super flood as it travels and the prediction of expected time of arrival of
the flood wave is an important stage in flood management and flood plain management.
In many countries determination of wave parameters that would follow a collapse of
every large dam, is made mandatory by law, in order to organise the defense of the
inhabitants and structure along the valley downstream, in case of such a disaster.

41.2 History of Dam Failures

A few case histories of dam failures in India and in USA are described briefly below.
The details regarding other failures are reported by Mahesh Kumar (1992) and Singh.

Kaddam Project Dam, Andhra Pradesh, India
Built in Adilabad, Andhra in 1957 - 58, the dam was a composite structure, earth fill
and/or rock fill and gravity dam. It was 30.78 m high and 3.28 m wide at its crest. The
storage at full was 1.366 * 108 m
3
. The observed floods were 1.47 * 104 m
3
/s. The dam
was overtopped by 46 cm of water above the crest, inspite of a free board allowance of
2.4 m that was provided, causing a major breach of 137.2 m wide that occurred on the
left bank. Two more breaches developed on the right section of the dam. The dam failed
in August 1958.

Kaila Dam, Gujarat, India
The Kaila Dam in Kachch, Gujarat, India was constructed during 1952 - 55 as an earth
fill dam with a height of 23.08 m above the river bed and a crest length of 213.36 m. The
storage of full reservoir level was 13.98 million m
3
. The foundation was made of shale.
The spillway was of ogee shaped and ungated. The depth of cutoff was 3.21 m below
the river bed. Inspite of a freeboard allowance of 1.83 m at the normal reservoir level
and 3.96 m at the maximum reservoir level the energy dissipation devices first failed
and later the embankment collapsed due to the weak foundation bed in 1959.

Kodaganar Dam, Tamil Nadu, India
This dam in the India, was constructed in 1977 on a tributary of Cauvery River as an
earthen dam with regulators, with five vertical lift shutters each 3.05 m wide. The dam
was 15.75 m high above the deepest foundation, having a 11.45 m of height above the
river bed. The storage at full reservoir level was 12.3 million m
3
, while the flood capacity
was 1275 m
3
/s. A 2.5 m free board above the maximum water level was provided. The
dam failed due to overtopping by flood waters which flowed over the downstream slopes

of the embankment and breached the dam along various reaches. There was an
earthquake registered during the period of failure although the foundation was strong.
The shutters were promptly operated during flood, but the staff could only partially lift
the shutters, because of failure of power. Although a stand-by generator set was
commissioned soon, this could not help and they resorted to manual operation of
shutters. Inspite of all efforts, water eventually overtopped the embankment. Water
gushed over the rear slopes, as a cascade of water was eroding the slopes. Breaches
of length 20 m to 200 m were observed. It appeared as if the entire dam was
overtopped and breached.

Machhu II (Irrigation Scheme) Dam, Gujarat, India

This dam was built near Rajkot in Gujarat, India, on River Machhu in August, 1972, as a
composite structure. It consisted of a masonry spillway in river section and earthen
embankments on both sides. The embankment had a 6.1 m top width, with slopes 1 V :
3 H and 1 V : 2 H respectively for the upstream and downstream slopes and a clay core
extending through alluvium to the rocks below. The upstream face had a 61 cm small
gravel and a 61 cm hand packed riprap. The dam was meant to serve an irrigation
scheme. Its, storage capacity of 1.1 * 108 m
3
. The dam had a height of 22.56 m above
the river bed, a 164.5 m of crest length of overflow section, and a total of 3742 m of
crest length for the earth dam.

The dam failed on August 1, 1979, because of abnormal floods and inadequate spillway
capacity. Consequent overtopping of the embankment caused a loss of 1800 lives. A
maximum depth of 6.1 m of water was over the crest and within two hours, the dam
failed. While the dam failed at a peak discharge of 7693 m
3
/s, the figure was revised to
26,650 m
3
/s after failure, with a free board of 2.45 m given, providing also an auxiliary
spillway with a full capacity of 21,471 m
3
/s. The observed actual flood depth over
spillway crest was 4.6 m with an observed 14,168 to 19,835 m
3
/s, while the design
depth over spillway crest was 2.4 m.


Nanaksagar Dam, Punjab, India

Situated in Punjab in northwestern India, the dam was constructed in 1962 at Bhakra,
with a reservoir capacity of 2.1 * 106 m3. An estimated maximum discharge of 9,711
m
3
/s had occurred on August 27, 1967, due to heavy monsoon rains that were heaviest
in twenty years. This caused dam to fail. The water that gushed through the leakage
created a 7.6 m breach, which later widened to 45.7 m. The condition of the reservoir
had worsened, causing a 16.8 m boil downstream of toe, which was responsible for the
settlement of the embankment. As the dam was overtopped, causing a breach 150 m
wide. A downstream filter blanket and relief wells were provided near the toe but were
insufficient to control the seepage. The relief wells each 50 mm in diameter were
spaced at a distance of 15.2 to 30.4 m.

Panshet Dam: (Ambi, Maharashtra, India, 1961 - 1961)

The Panshet Dam, near Pune in Maharashtra India, was under construction when the
dam had failed. It was zoned at a height of 51 m and having an impervious central core
outlet gates located in a trench of the left abutment and hoists were not fully installed
when floods occurred at the site of construction. The reservoir had a capacity of 2.70
million m
3
.

Between J une 18 and J uly 12, 1961, the recorded rainfall was 1778 mm. The rain
caused such a rapid rise of the reservoir water level that the new embankment could not
adjust to the new loading condition. The peak flow was estimated at 4870 m
3
/s . Water
rose at the rate of 9 m per day initially, which rose up to 24 m in 12 days. Due to
incomplete rough outlet surface the flow through was unsteady which caused pressure
surges. Cracks were formed along the edges of the right angles to the axis of the dam
causing a subsidence of 9 m wide. An estimated 1.4 m of subsidence had occurred in
2.5 hours, leaving the crest of the dam 0.6 m above the reservoir level. Failure was
neither due to insufficient spillway capacity nor due to foundation effect. It was attributed

to inadequate provision of the outlet facility during emergency. This caused collapse of
the structure above the outlets.

Khadakwasla Dam (Mutha, Maharashtra, India, 1864 - 1961)

The Khadkawasla Dam, near Pune in Maharashtra, India was constructed in 1879 as a
masonry gravity dam, founded on hard rock. It had a height of 31.25 m above the river
bed, with a 8.37 m depth of foundation. Its crest length was 1.471 m and had a free
board of 2.74 m. The dam had a flood capacity of 2,775 m
3
/s and a reservoir of 2.78 *
10
3
m
3
. The failure of the dam occurred because of the breach that developed in
Panshet Dam, upstream of the Khadkawasla reservoir. The upstream dam released a
tremendous volume of water into the downstream reservoir at a time when the
Khadkawasla reservoir was already full, with the gates discharging at near full capacity.
This caused overtopping of the dam because inflow was much above the design flood.
The entire length of the dam spilling 2.7 m of water. Vibration of the structure was
reported, as the incoming flood was battering the dam. Failure occurred within four
hours of the visiting flood waters.

Tigra Dam: (Sank, Madhya Pradesh, India, 1917 - 1917)

This was a hand placed masonry (in time mortar) gravity dam of 24 m height,
constructed for the purpose of water supply. A depth of 0.85 m of water overtopped the
dam over a length of 400 m. This was equivalent to an overflow of 850 m
3
s
-1

(estimated). Two major blocks were bodily pushed away. The failure was due to sliding.
The dam was reconstructed in 1929.

Teton Dam, Teton river canyon, Idaho, USA, NA - 1976

The construction began in April, 1972, and the dam was completed on November 26,
1975. The dam was designed as a zoned earth and gravel fill embankment, having
slopes of 3.5 H : 1 V on the upstream and 2 H : 1 V and 3 H : 1 V on the downstream, a
height above the bed rock of 126 m, and a 945 m long crest. The dam had a height of

93 m, a crest width of 10.5 m, and had side slopes of 1 V : 3 H on the upstream side
and 1 V : 2.5 H on its downstream side. It had a reservoir capacity of 3.08 * 108 m
3
. The
embankment material consisted of clayey silt, sand, and rock fragments taken from
excavations and burrow areas of the river's canyon area. It had a compacted central
core. Narrow trenches 21 m deep, excavated in rock and compacted with sandy silt and
a deep grout curtain beneath a grout cap the central zone were the measures taken to
control the foundation seepage.

The dam failed on J une 5, 1976, releasing 308 million m3 of reservoir water. A flood at
an estimated peak discharge in excess of 28,300 m3/s had occurred. The peak outflow
discharge at the time of failure was 4.67 * 104 m
3
/s. A breach 46 m wide at its bottom
and 79 m deep had formed. The time of failure was recorded as four hours. The cause
of failure was attributed to piping progressing at a rapid rate through the body of the
embankment. The two panels that investigated into the causes of failures were
unanimous in agreement that the violence and extent of failure completely removed all
direct evidence of the details and sequence of failure. However, the main findings
suggested that erosion on the underside of the core zone by excessive leakage through
and over the grout curtain was the cause of destruction. "Wet seams" of very low
density in the left abutment extended into the actual failure area. These caused local
deficiencies in the compaction of the fill, and might have been the locus of the initial
piping failure.

Earlier on the day of failure, leaks were observed about 30 m below the top of the dam.
After four hours, efforts to fill the holes failed and the dam breached by the noon time.
The fundamental cause of failure was regarded as a combination of geological factors
and design decisions, which taken together allowed the failure to occur. Numerous open
joints in abutment rock and scarcity of more suitable materials for the impervious zone
were pointed out by the panel as the main causes for the failure of the dam.
Futhermore, complete dependence on deep dry key trenches that developed arch
action, cracking and hydraulic fracturing as a measure adopted against seepage and

reliance on compacted material for impervious zone were also attributed as possible
causes of failure.

Malpasset Dam

An arch dam of height 66 m, with 22 m long crest at its crown. When the collapse
occurred, the dam was subjected to a record head of water, which was just about 0.3 m
below the highest water level, resulting from 5 days of unprecedented rainfall. The
failure occurred as the arch ruptured, as the left abutment gave away. The left abutment
moved 2 m horizontally without any notable vertical movement. The water marks left by
the wave revealed that the release of water was almost at once. The volume of water
relieved was 4.94 Mm
3
of water. 421 lives were lost and the damage was estimated at
68 million US dollars.

Vaiont Dam

This is an arch dam, 267 m high. During the test filling of the dam, a land slide of
volume 0.765 Mm
3
occurred into the reservoir and was not taken note of. During 1963,
the entire mountain slide into the reservoir (the volume of the slide being about 238
Mm
3
, which was slightly more than the reservoir volume itself). This material occupied 2
km of reservoir up to a height of about 175 m above reservoir level. This resulted in a
overtopping of 101 m high flood wave, which caused a loss of 3,000 lives.

Baldwin Dam

This earthen dam of height 80 m, was constructed for water supply, with its main
earthen embankment at northern end of the reservoir, and the five minor ones to cover
low lying areas along the perimeter. The failure occurred at the northern embankment
portion, adjacent to the spillway (indicated a gradual deterioration of the foundation
during the life of the structure) over one of the fault zones. The V-shaped breach was
27.5 m deep and 23 m wide. The damages were estimated at 50 million US dollar.


Hell Hole Dam

The Hell Hole (lower) dam was a rock fill dam of height 125 m, failed during
construction, when the rains filled the reservoir to an elevation of 30 m above the clay
core. The capacity of this multipurpose reservoir after completion was 2.6 M m
3
.

Summary of a few other Dam failures

Dam /
Reservoir
Year of
accident
Year of
construct
Accident / Failure Lives
lost
Puentes dam,
Spain
1802 1785 -
1791
Dam break caused by a foundation
failure. Gravity dam with overflow
spillway.
608
Minneapolis
Mill dam, USA
1899 1893 -
1894
Dam break during a small spill (q
w

=0.04 m
2
/s) caused by cracks
resulting from ice pressure on the
dam. Gravity dam with overflow
spillway (H
dam
=5.5 m, W =51.8, 9
steps, h =0.61 m)
-
Arizona Canal
dam
1891 and
1905
1887 Partial destruction of the dam
during a flood (q
w
=11.3 m
2
/s)
caused by foundation problems
and timber deterioration. Timber
crib dam (H
dam
=10 m, W 245
m, 3 steps, qdes =33 m
2
/s)
-
Warren dam,
Australia
1917 1916 Dam overtopped (Q
w
=128 m
3
/s)
without damage. Concrete gravity
dam (H
dam
=17.4 m, 4 steps, h =
0.37 m, Q
des
100 m
2
/s)
None
St. Francis
dam, USA
1928 1926 Dam break caused by foundation
failure. Arched gravity dam (H
dam
=
62.5 m, h =0.4 m)
450
Kobila dam,
Slovenia
1948 1586 Dam break caused by a flood
caused by lack of maintenance.
Timber crib dam (H
dam
=10 m)
-
New Croton
dam, USA
1955 1892 -
1905
Spillway damage during flood
releases ( Q
w
651 m
3
/s).
Masonry gravity dam (H
dam
=90.5
m, W 305 m, h =2.1 m, Q
des

1,550 m
3
/s)
None
Lahontan dam,
USA
1970 s 1915 Damaged spillway concrete
caused by freezing and thawing.
Earth dam with concrete spillway
(H
dam
=90.5 m, Q
des
742 m
3
/s)
None
Goulburn weir,
Australia
1978 1891 1 - Gate failure caused by
corrosion and 2 - foundation
stability problem. Concrete gravity
dam (H
dam
=15 m, W =126 m, h =
0.5 m, Q
des
=1,980 m
3
/s)
None

Moscovite earth
dams, Russia
(former USSR)
1978 - 80 1978 Failure of two overflow earth dams
caused by incorrect drainage layer
construction. Earth fill
embankments with overflow
stepped spillway made of pre-cast
concrete blocks (H
dam
=7 to 15 m,
Q
des
30 to 60 m
3
/s)
-
Binda weir,
Australia
1986 1953 Weir destroyed (blown) because
unsafe (lack of maintenance).
Timber crib piled weir (H
dam
=5.2
m, 5 steps)
None
Silverleaf weir,
Australia
1995 1951 Weir overtopping during
refurbishment works (no damage).
Timber crib piled weir (H
dam
=5 m,
4 steps)
None
Dartmouth
dam, Australia
1996 1977 Unlined rock steps damaged by
flow concentration during low spill
(Q
w
225 m
3
/s). Earth rock fill
embankment with unlined rock
cascade spillway (H
dam
=180 m, W
=91.4 (concrete crest) and 300 to
350 m (cascade), h =15 m, Q
des

2,755 m
3
/s).
None

Notes: (-) unknown information.


41.3 Causes of Dam Failures
The incident of failures demonstrate that depending on the type of dam, the cause of
failure may be classified as:
a. hydraulic failures; (for all types of dams)
b. failures due to seepage.
(i) through foundation, (all except arch dams)
(ii) through body of dam (embankment dam)
c. failures due to stresses developed within structure.

Arch dams fail instantaneously, whereas the gravity dams take some multiples of 10
minutes.A study of dam failures in the world has revealed the percentage distribution of
dam breaks and its attributes causes of failure (Table)

Table: Causes of failures

Cause of failure Cause of failure
Foundation problems 40 %
Inadequate spillway 23 %
Poor construction 12 %
Uneven settlement 10 %
High pore pressure 5 %
Acts of war 3 %
Embankment slips 2 %
Defective materials 2 %
Incorrect operations 2 %
Earthquakes 1 %

However, the maximum number of failures are in earthen dams. Earthen dams fail due
to (a) overtopping, erosion due to wave at upstream face, toe erosion (b) Seepage and
(c) structural failure. Some of the details of the embankment dam defect mechanisms
are given in table.


Defect mechanism of embankment dams

Hydraulic failure
(i) Overtopping
(ii) Wave erosion
(iii) Toe erosion
A. External
(iv) Gullying
Internal seepage loss of water B.
Seepage erosion (concealed internal
erosion)
Instability foundation slip
downstream face
upstream face
C.
flowslide
deformation
settlement
D.
internal

The causes of failures may be classified as (i) foundation deterioration (ii) foundation
instability (iii) defective spillway (iv) defective outlets (v) defects in embankments (vi)
concrete deterioration and defects (vii) overtopping (ix) inadequacy of spillway and (x)
sudden filling of reservoirs.
The problem of dam break could be summarised as in Figure 41.1.

Dam break
Structure Failure
Dry Bed
Wet bottom Surface
Small Breach
Medium Breach
Large Breach
Complete Removal
Submerging
Flank Failure
Non Submerging
Breach
Levee
Failure
Figure - 41.1


41.4 Routing
The computation of a flood wave resulting from a dam break basically involves two
problems, which may be considered jointly or seperately:
1. Determination of the outflow hydrograph from the reservoir for flow through the
breach.
2. Routing of the outflow from the dam in the downstream reach of the channel.

41.4.1 Input Required
(a) Water discharges entering into and flowing along the body of water from which the
impound water is released.
(b) Water discharges (s) flowing out from the body of water before the sudden release.
(c) Water discharges (s) flowing along the bodies of water into which impound water is
suddenly received.
(d) The flow regime (such as GVF, Uniform) associated with both the bodies which
releases and receives.
(e) Water surface elevation
(f) Submergence effect.
(g) Time function of breaching (or closing and opening of gates in canals).
The above information may be in the form of parameters or functions.

41.4.2 Breach Outflow Hydrograph
This is the outflow resulting from a dam collapse from the initiation of the breach till the
reservoir water level reaches the final breach bottom level, or the contents of reservoir
gets exhaused whichever is earlier (as in multiple breaches, the extent of breach could
be different). The breach outflow hydrograph may be obtained by using reservoir routing
method.
In case of a dam break problem, the following functions are required:
(a) Inflow hydrograph (f
1
(t));
(b) Outflow hydrograph (Outflow through openings) (f
2
(t));

(c) Stage hydrograph (f
3
(h) h is the depth);
(d) Outflow rating curve (f
4
(H), H is the head); and
(e) Storage function (a function of elevation)
Reservoir routing can be accomplished with any one of the hydrologic routing methods
(puls, storage indication method) based on the equation
dS
I - Q
dt
in which
I is the inflow into the reservoir, Q is the outflow from the reservoir and,
dS
is the rate of change of storage in the reservoir
dt
=

Commonly used method is modified Puls method.

The other method for solving equation is Standard Runge - Kutta method, in which the

water surface elevation and water spread area are used. This approach does not

require the computation of special storage outflow (as in the case of modified Puls

method), but is more closely related to hydraulics of flow through the reservoir. The 3 rd

Order Runge - Kutta method involves dividing each time step interval into three

increments and calculating successive values of water surface elevation and reservoir

discharge. This method has proved to be easier for programming and computations as

the trial and error procedure is eliminated.

Determination of breach outflow hydrograph requires knowledge of rate of breaching.

Models for this purpose are available in standard commercial software.

41.4.3 Channel Routing
This is a mathematical procedure used for tracking the flow along the channel. This
involves the determination of discharge, water surface elevation, and time of arrival of
peak, along the channel reaches, by using St. Venant's equation. i.e. unsteady free
surface flow equation. One may note that, kinematic wave approximation also known as

lumped method routing will lead to "channel routing". Otherwise the routing using the
Saint Venant equations is called the distributed flow routing.

41.4.3.1 Boundary Condtions
Upstream Boundary: Computed breach outflow hydrograph
Downstream Boundary: The stage discharge relationship

41.4.3.2 Internal Boundary Condtions
There are many types of internal boundaries and some of them are shown in Figure
41.2.
Rising Flood
Falling Flood
Transverse Slope
Main Channel
Parallel to Bank

Left Flood
Plain
Right Flood
Plain
Meandering


Weir
Expansion or Contraction

Levee
Drops or Steps

Lock
Dam and Lock
Dam


Bridge Breach
Emabankment
Bridge

Flood Detention Basin
Existing Levee
Intake
River
Loop

River
Flood
Plain
Formation
of Cells
1. Agricultural Land
2. Urban Land (Islands)

Intake for detention basin
acts as a weir-bi-directional flow
Constant Level
H
Intake Flow
Possible Super Critical Flow
2 __
3
H
Figure 41.2 - Some of the Interior Boundaries


41.4.3.3 Information Required for Routing the Dam Break Flow
(1) The model and scheme that is to be adopted.
(2) Lateral Flow - whether distributed or lumped inflow and outflow and its
characteristics with respect to time. The lateral flows include
(i) Contribution of rainfall on the free surface
(ii) Overland flow
(iii) Infiltration
(iv) Evaporation
(v) Seepage
(3) Cross sectional details
(a) Prismatics or (b) Non-uniform properties of natural rivers.
Following methods are used for representing the cross sections
Replacing of actual river by unform channel for total length such as Trapezoidal section.
Repacing of actual river by series of prismatic channel.
Representing cross sections by Polygonal sections.
Replacing of surveyed sections by Polynomials.
Interpolation of cross sections.
Stochastic generation of cross sections.
(4) RESISTANCE PROPERTIES:
Any resistance law such as Chezy's, Manning's, Darcy- Weisbach's may be used. The
relevant coefficients need to be defined as a function of length (or section) and its
variational function with respect to depth should be known.
(5) Details of channel network in Flood plains

41.4.3.4 : Numerical Methods for Solving the Governing Equations
Any of the following numerical methods may be used for solving the governing Saint-
venant equations in conservation form. Many schemes such as Total Variation
Diminishing (TVD), Essentially Non-Oscillating (ENO) have been proposed in recent
years for correct numerical solution of the governing equations.

(i) Explicit - Lax Wendroff
(ii) Diffusive scheme
(iii) Method of characteristics - irregular grid using predictor - corrector scheme.
(iv) Explicit with - Two dimensional characteristic Network model with moving grid -
Reservoirs as nodes channels as links.
(v) Four point implicit (nonlinear Finite Difference Scheme)
(vii) Galerkin Finite element method

41.4.3.5. Steps in Mathematical Formulation
1. To identify the model and technique to be used.
2. INPUT THE DATA regarding
(a) Physical system (Figure 41.3) including internal boundaries.

Spillway

Q
t
Tributary
Cells
Inflow Hydrograph
Reservoir
Bridge

Over topping
Piping



11
31
21
Branched
Looped
Cell groups
(Two dimensional)
Figure 41.3

(b) Types of precipitation distribution, Spillway rating curve.
(c) Shape, size and progress of breach with time or piping, time of starting of breach.
3. To write the finite difference approximations for all situations that are to be
incorporated.
4. To choose the method of averaging the Sf Arithmetic, Geometric, Harmonic).
5. Softwares regarding Newton Raphson technique, Matrix method, Space matrix
converter to normal matrix, (if possible) such as Band solver and program for reservoir
routing, dynamic channel routing, are required.

41.4.4 Available Software
Two models namely HEC Dam break model and, DAMBRK / DWOPER models

developed by Fread for National weather service are available for dambreak flow

analysis. A new model FLDWAV has been developed in 1985 by Fread.

The FLDWAV model is a system of DWOPER and DAMBRK. This is a generalised
dynamic wave model for one dimensional unsteady flows in a single or branched water
way. It is based on Four point nonlinear implicit F.D. model. The following special
features are included in that model.
(i) Variable t and x grid.
(ii) Irregular cross sectional geometry.
(iii) off channel storage.

(iv) Roughness coefficient as a function of discharge on water surface elevation and
along the distance.
(v) Linearly interpolated cross sections and roughness coefficients.
(vi) Automatic computation of initial steady state.
(vii) Time dependent leteral flows.
(viii) Can account for Supercritical/ Subcritical flows.


41.5 Case Study: Dam Break Analysis for Kali River Basin

Kali River is a small River originates in Western Ghats at an elevation of about 900 m
and flows down for about 160 Km before joining Arabian sea. Kali River has very steep
head slopes. It has a catchment of 4428 sq.km. Series of dams have been constructed
to develop hydropower project. Typical cross sections are shown in the figure. From the
safety point of view the dam break analysis was carried out by Mahesh Kumar and
Thandaveswara in 1992 using Mac Cormack Finite Difference scheme. The typical
results are shown in figure. One of the very interesting situations is the flow reaches
super critical flow conditions in rapids and moving hydraulic jump occurs (in time).

0
500
330
350
370
390
52
50
49
48
47
46
51 53
Chainage in 'm'
C/S at 46th Km
(n = 0.127)
Kali River Plan
Numbers indicate the Chainage

0 500
270
290
310
330
250
270
290
310
0 500
0 500
190
210
230
250
Chainage in 'm'
C/S at 47th Km
Chainage in 'm'
Chainage in 'm'
C/S at 48th Km C/S at 49th Km
(n = 0.12)
(n = 0.125)
(n = 0.125)


Chainage in 'm'
Chainage in 'm'
Chainage in 'm'
C/S at 50th Km
C/S at 51st Km
C/S at 52 nd Km
(n = 0.155)
(n = 0.182)
(n = 0.182)
170
190
210
230
170
190
210
230
130
150
170
190
0 500 0 500
0 500

Chainage in 'm'
C/S at 53rd Km
(n = 0.167)
0 500
130
150
170
190
Typical cross sections of Kali river
Q = 2,000 cumec
Q = 17,000 cumec

Nagjhari Power House
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105
-100
-50
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Distance in Km
Kali River: Bed profile of the river along its course upto Kadra dam location


0 2
4 6 8
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
Distance in Km
Saddle dam 2 to Nala Junction
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
0
50
100
150
200
600
550
500
450
400
350
300
250
Note: The channel is Nala from
0 to 10 km and thenon Kaneri river
Distance in Km
Saddle dam 1 to Kali river: Bed profile of the channel


16.15 Mm
3
Upper
Kaneri Dam
615.5 m
100 m
3
/s
564 m
Supa Dam
3758 Mm
3
PH
0 Km (Starting)
2 * 77.5 m
3
/s
83.9 Mm
3
99.1 m
3
/s
249.26 Mm
3
468.3 m
Tattihalla Dam
Tattihalla River
438.38 M
BP Dam
31.6 Km
43 Km
55.6 Km
62 Km
Kali River
75.5 m
Kodasalli Dam
82 Km
PH
178.82 Mm
3
209.06 Mm3
34.5 m
Kadra Dam
105.8 Km
PH
209.06 Mm
3
Arabian Sea
Net storage is shown in Mm
3
Constructed
Under Construction
Diversion of flow
PH
Kaneri River
6 * 43.5 m
3
/s
Schematic diagram of Karnataka Hydro Electric Project - Stages I and II

0 30 60 90 120
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0
0 30 60 90 120
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0
Time in hours
Time in hours
Supa Dam Bommanahalli Pickup Dam


0 30 60 90 120
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0
0 30 60 90 120
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
0
Time in hours
Time in hours
Tattihalla Dam
Upper Kaneri Dam
Reservoir Inflow Hydrographs


0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3000
3500
4000
4500
5000
5500
6000
6500
7000
Inflow
Outflow peak
1468 m
3
/s
(Supa Dam)
Inflow : Supa
Outflow : Supa
Outflow : Saddle 1
Outflow : Saddle 2
Inflow peak = 6629 cumecs
(with 1.25 times PMF)
Outflow peak = 6173 cumecs
for Saddle 1
Outflow peak = 6237 cumecs
for Saddle 2
Time in hours
Supa Dam: Inflow and Outflow Hydrographs (MWL = initial reservoir level)
(outflow from Supa, Saddle 1 and Saddle 2: Breach = 1 hour)


0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
0 15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150
Inflow
Breach outflow
Time in hours
Bommanahalli pickup dam breach:
Inflow and outflow hydrographs
4348 m
3
/s
(Inflow peak)
6884 m
3
/s
(Outflow peak)


6569 m
3
/s
(Outflow
peak) 6237 m
3
/s
(inflow
Peak)
Outflow
Inflow
Saddle dam number 2 breach:
Outflow Hydrograph at 8th km
55 70 85 100 115 130 145
0
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
6000
7000
8000
Time in hours

Reference
1. Mahesh Kumar D.V., "Dam-break analysis for Kali River Basin", M.Tech Thesis,
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT - Madras, J an 1992 under the guidance of Prof.
B.S.Thandaveswara.
2. Thandaveswara B.S. and Mahesh Kumar D.V. "Dam Break Analysis using Mac
Cormack Scheme for Kali River, International Conference On Dam Egg J ahore, Behru
Malaysia, 12-13 J anuary 1993.

42.1.1 Self Aerated Flow Definitions of Terms and
Instrumentation
Introduction
In any open channel studies the necessary basic parameters to describe the flow
phenomenon are velocity and depth. In aerated flow, in addition to these two quantities,
information regarding air concentration is also essential. The presence of air in aerated
flow has necessitated the development of new measuring techniques to be adopted and
the formulation of new definitions of aerated flow quantities.
Definition of terms
Straub and Anderson have defined some of the essential terms like concentration and
depth in aerated flows a brief description of which is given. Also terms such as air water
velocity, density of air water mixture as defined by Gangadharaiah, Lakshmana Rao et
al. for self aerated flows are also presented.
Air concentration, C; is defined as the ratio of the volume of air per unit volume of air
water mixture.
Upper limit of flow can be defined based on (i) air concentration (ii) velocity distribution.
They are
a) Upper limit of flow, d
u
this is an upper boundary of air entrained flow and may be
defined as the value of y where air concentration is 99 %.
b) Upper limit of flow, d : This is an upper boundary of the velocity distribution and is
defined as the value of y where the velocity is zero in the upper region.
u
v
Mean depth of flow,d : The depth d represents a mean depth of flow that would exist
when all the entrained air is removed up to the highest point where water is found. It
corresponds to depths of non - aerated flow of a given discharge with velocity equal to
that of the aerated flow. It is defined as
d = ( 1- C )dy
0


in which y is the normal distance measured from the bed, and C is the local air
concentration.
Transitional depth, dT; is defined on the basis of air concentration distribution as that
depth which represents the value of y where the transition from the distribution in the
lower region to that in the upper region occurs. In other words, it is the value of y where
the concentration gradient, dc / dy, is maximum.
Mean air concentration, C ; the mean air concentration over the whole range of air
concentrations measured at a section is defined as
d
u
C dy
d
u
1
0
C = C dy
d d
0 u u

Transitional mean air concentration,
T
C : It is defined as the mean air concentration in
the region below the transitional depth which applies to that air which is being
transported by the flow i. e.,
d
T
Cdy d
T
1
0
C = C dy
T
d d
0
T T

Velocity of air water mixture, v
aw
: Lakshmana Rao et al. developed a simple
mathematical model for the air water velocity ( v
aw
) based on the continuity equation.
Assuming v
a
and v
w
to be the velocities of air and water respectively a relation may be
written in terms of concentration given by
( ) = + v 1 C v C
aw w a
v
Mean velocity of flow, V: mean velocity of the flow may be defined as
v
d
u
1
V= vdy
d
0 u
v

in which v is the measured local velocity at any depth y.

Density of air water mixture, : Gangadharaiah developed a definition based on the
assumption that the resulting mass density of air water mixture depends on the
individual masses and he correlated it with the mean air concentration of the flow as
aw


aw
=1 - C
w

in which is the mass density of water,
w
is a constant found to be equal to 1.1 from
an empirical fit. This relationship is valid upto 85 % mean air concentration. This
relationship may be used wherever correction for density has to be made.
Inception number, I; is defined as the ratio of kinetic energy to surface tension energy
for inception to occur. The critical inception number at which air entrainment begins may
be taken as approximately equal to 56.
Entrainment constant, E
c
; the velocity of inflow of the ambient fluid (i.e., air) in to the
turbulent region must be proportional to the velocity scale of the layer and the constant
of proportionality is called the ' Entrainment constant'. This may be written as
( )
( )
= + +
u
1 d
E = d V
c u
dx V
V and d are chosen as the velocity and length scales.
u
Above equation may be rewritten in the form
d d d d 3 dF 1 d
u u
E
2 dx F dx 2
c

dx
d
u
1
in which is the characteristic nondimensional density and equal to vdy
aw
d V
0 u
w
V
and Froude number F =
1
2
g d cos
u


42.2.1 Characteristics of Self Aerated Flows
Introduction
A high velocity liquid with a liquid air interface eventually draws a part of the air into the
liquid, forming a liquid -air mixture. This phenomenon often occurs with water flowing in
chutes and gives an appearance of milky white water. This type of air entrainment is of
engineering interest in designing of chutes and stilling basins where the influence of
entrained air on the velocity, flow depth, energy dissipation, turbulence and other
characteristics of the flow are still to be understood completely.
The flow of air water mixtures in pipe lines differs from open channel flow. Where as
open channel flows are self aerated and air entrainment depends on flow
characteristics, in pipe flows it is arbitrary and depends on the amount of air forced into
the flow.
Low velocity flow entering a spillway with least disturbances except for small ridges,
accelerates smoothly and exhibits a glass like transparent surface. As the flow
progresses the surface becomes more rough and the transparency of the flow gradually
diminishes and this diminution continues till atmospheric air is insufflated, diffused and
dispersed into the flow. Earlier investigators thought that the inception of air occurs at a
critical velocity of the flow and at a critical distance from the entrance of chute or
spillway. Up to the inception point the velocity distribution is influenced by the pressure
gradient, the curvature of (spillway) flow, and the velocity of approach. Factors such as
depth of flow, slope of channel and surface roughness further complicate the air
entrainment processes.
At this point the surface includes disturbances caused by projecting masses of water.
When observed with a strobo flash these boils appear to break through the free surface,
raising a part of the water somewhat above the average surface level. This point is
known as the ' Inception Point '.


Point of
inception
boundary layer
Growth of boundary layer

The degree of whiteness of the flow gradually increases from the inception point
towards the downstream direction and seems to attain constancy after a certain
distance. The gradual increase in the whiteness of the flow is due to continuous
insufflation of atmospheric air into the flow. The flow bulks downstream as more
atmospheric air entrains into it. This region where the aerated flow is developing into a
uniformly aerated flow (UAF) region from the inception point is known as the '
Developing zone'. The uniformly aerated flow is the zone of equilibrium where the
amount of air releasing from the air water mixture balances with the amount of air
intake. This insufflation of air into the flow is defined as the ' Entrainment characteristic'
of self aerated flows.
As air entrains into the flow the turbulent transport properties help in distributing the air
into the flow in a particular fashion known as the ' Distribution Characteristic '. The
developing zone plays an important role in designing flood disposal structures such as
spillways, chutes and stilling basins. After the distribution of air into the flow some
turbulent energy is spent in keeping the air bubbles in suspension.
A brief review of literature is presented in part A listing the outstanding contributions
made in the advancement of this subject. In Part B the details of hydraulic jump
characteristics are presented with special reference to their air entrainment aspects.


42.2.2 Self Aerated Flows
Ehrenberger (1926) was the first to study the phenomenon of air entrainment in open
channels. He conducted investigations in a rectangular channel with slopes varying
from 15.5 to 76.2 per cent and discharges ranging from 3.00 to 44.46 / sec. He
classified the flow into four layers, a top layer composing of drops of water flying
through the air parallel to the water surface, below which a layer consisting of a closely
packed layer of air bubbles in water, followed by a layer of water containing individual
air bubbles and finally a bottom layer of clear water near the bed. In UAF (Uniformly
Aerated Flow), the bottom layer will be absent. He devised a somewhat crude but an
ingenious air concentration measuring device.
l
Inception characteristics
Lane in 1939 advanced a theory for the inception of air entrainment which states that
the inception of air entrainment occurs when the turbulent boundary layer thickness
equals the depth of flow. Hickox (1945) and Halbronn (1951 -53) conducted
experiments and confirmed Lane's theory. Bauer's (1954) investigations were directed
towards finding the inception length. Campbell et al. (1965) presented an equation for
the growth of boundary layer on spillways Gangadharaiah and Gangadharaiah et al.
during 1969 - 70 presented an empirical equation for the inception length considering
the effect of discharge.
1.73
6 d i i
i s
i
i
d
s
q L
2.24*10
L q k
in which
is theboundary layer thickness at inceptionpoint,
L is thelengthof inceptionfromentrance,
q is thedesign discharge,
k is theroughness height and q

=

is the actual discharge

Hickox observed that the mere emergence of the boundary layer to the free surface
does not cause air entrainment in a model. Govinda Rao and Rajaratnam (1961)
analysed this phenomenon using the energy concept of a surface eddy and presented a
nondimensional number as the necessary condition for the inception of air entrainment

but the wall shear stress was not accounted for by them. Hino in 1961 developed
another criterion based on the momentum concept for scarified flow and emulsified flow.
Levi in 1967 proposed yet another approach using the theory of vortex breakdown.
In 1970 Gangadharaiah et al. presented a nondimensional 'Inception number' based
on balancing of the kinetic energy with the surface tension energy at the free surface. It
was found that inception occurs when the value of the inception number is
approximately 56 or more. However, the effect of gravity which plays a predominant role
in open channel flow was not considered in their analysis. Later Thandaveswara
considered gravitational energy also into account and arrived at the conditions required
for inception.
42.2.3 Entrainment Characteristics
On the entrainment aspects of flow, a considerable amount of investigations has been
carried out. Ellison and Turner (1959), Morton (1961), and Turner (1963) have
investigated the entrainment aspects of a plume. Ellison and Turner (1959) defined the
term entrainment constant and correlated it with Richardson number. It is well known
that as more and more air entrains, the mean air concentration of the flow increases.
Gangadharaiah in 1969 formulated momentum and energy equations for aerated flow in
prismatic channels and using these equations, he derived an approximate relationship
between the mean air concentration and head loss for uniformly aerated flow.
Laksmana Rao et al in 1970 presented a method to compute the aerated flow
characteristics by knowing the non aerated flow characteristics. The developing flow
characteristics from the inception point and onwards and the distance at which
constancy of whiteness is reached in the flow are researched by Thandaveswara
(1975).
42.2.4 Distribution Characteristics
Another important aspect of aerated flows is the distribution characteristic. A thorough
investigation of this aspect was conducted by Straub and Anderson (1955 - 1958). They
studied aerated flow by dividing it to two broad zones in the cross section, namely, one
in which air bubbles are present in water and another where drops are present in the

air. Their analysis of air concentration in the lower region (where the bubbles are
present in water medium) follows the study of sediment flows. The sediment particles
that try to settle down due to gravity were replaced by air bubbles which try to rise up
due to buoyancy.
Classifications of aerated flow regions
Upper Layer
upper
Region
Middle Layer
(Wall Region)
Wall Turbulent
Zone
Bottom Layer
Outer
Region
Inner Region
Free Turbulent Zone
Slope = 31
o
59'
Discharge = 2 CFS
Lower
Region
Classification according
to Lakshmana Rao & ET
Ehrenberger
Straub &
Anderson
0
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0.20
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
dT
Reference: Lakshmana Rao N.S and Thandaveswara B.S,
"The characteristics of aerated free surface flows-present status",
Proceedings of the symposium on Modern Trends in Civil Engineering,
Roorkee, Novmber 11-13, 1972, pp 82-88

The analysis for the upper region was based on the probability theory. They presented
the following two equations for the air concentration distribution:
( )
( )

=

2
Z
1
T
y'/p
y
C = C lower region (1)
d - y
dC 2 1
upper region (2)
dy
T
C
e
p

in which C is the air concentration, y is the normal distance from the bed, C
1
is the air
concentration at y =d
T
/ 2, d
T
is transitional depth, Z is the air concentration distribution
factor and is a function of rise velocity of the bubble ( V
b
) , Karman's constant ( K) and
a proportionality factor ( ) relating the mixing parameter of bubble transfer (
d
) to
that of momentum transfer (
x
) i.e. =
x
d
and shear velocity ( v
*
), C
T
is the
concentration at transition depth, y' is the distance of the projected water particle

measured above transition depth and p is the mean height to which particles of water
are projected.
Above equations not consider the effect of air water interaction. Another drawback of
the equations is the assumption of parabolic eddy viscosity distribution up to transitional
depth. Not withstanding these omissions their contribution to the analysis of air
concentration distribution is a milestone in aerated flow research. The experiments of
Straub et al. show that the maximal velocity occurs below the transitional depth. The
distribution of air concentration in the lower region shows an increase of air
concentration towards the wall at certain conditions. Lakshmana Rao et al. in 1970
divided the flow in to two zones, namely, the wall turbulent zone and the free turbulent
zone. Theoretical equations were developed for air concentration and velocity in the
free turbulent zone, starting from the equations of continuity and motion, in terms of the
error function. The distribution of velocity in the wall turbulent zone was also studied.
Lakshman Rao and Gangadharaiah in 1971 studied the mean velocity distribution in the
wall turbulent zone. Their study is based on the distribution of eddy viscosity obtained
from Laufer's data. The distribution of mean velocity in the wall turbulent zone is
obtained by assuming pipe flow shear stress distribution.
The variation of air concentration was obtained by considering the transport of a scalar
quantity such as air concentration in a steady, incompressible, turbulent flow.
Neglecting the molecular diffusivity for uniformly aerated flow and assuming the rise
velocity of the bubble to be equal to the terminal velocity, the law of conservation of
scalar quantity was applied to C. Further, assuming suitable eddy viscosity distribution
for the inner and outer regions of the wall turbulent zone, the following two expressions
for air concentration were obtained separately.
( )
(3)
(4)

= +

= +

1 1
( ) ( )
1 1
2
1
C- C 1 1
1
1
C- C 1 1
z
z Z
H
Z Z
H dC
Z e e
Z d
Z

in which C
1
and C
0
are the air concentrations at d
m
/2 and d
0
/2 respectively, d
0
and d
m

are depths from bed to the outer edge of the inner region and the outer edge of the wall

turbulent zone respectively,

= = =
1
/ , / and / 2
m
y d y d . H is the non -
dimensionalised driving force F
d
d
m
/ K V *, in which F
d
is the driving force.
42.2.5 Effect of Froude Number
The variation of mean air concentration with Froude number is another important aspect
in open channel flow. Hall (1943) presented a detailed investigation on field
observations.Argyropoulos (1965) developed a method to compute the air water surface
in irregular natural channels. Douma (1943) reanalysed the data of Hall and developed
a relation between percentage air concentration and kinetic factor and he correlated
Manning 'n' with air concentration. Okada et al. (1959) related Froude number with the
ratio of air to water. The Task Committee of ASCE (1961) on aerated flow proposed an
expression for the mean air concentration in terms of the discharge intensity (q) and the
slope of the channel.
42.2.6 Instrumentation
To carry out research in aerated flow successfully, precise instrumentation is necessary.
As mentioned earlier Ehrenberger was the first to devise a sampler for the
measurement of air concentration. Lamb and Killen (1950) devised an electrical probe
which measures air concentration in terms of electrical resistance. Halbronn et al.
(1953) developed another air concentration probe. Rajaratnam (1961) devised a probe
to measure air concentration in hydraulic jumps. Lakshmana Rao et al. (1968)
developed the I. I.Sc. probe 4, with a streamlined body. But the I.I.Sc. Probe 4 is too big
in size and cannot be used for flows with low velocity as the hole of the probe gets
blocked. The presence of any probe in the roller zone of the hydraulic jump causes
disturbance. It was observed that the SAF probe was too small in length and the
disturbance created in supercritical flow affects the measurements. These indicate the
necessity for developing a new probe for measuring air concentrations in hydraulic
jumps.
For velocity measurements in aerated flow. Straub et al. devised the salt cloud method.
Halbronn introduced another simpler method. His method consists of a three way drain
cock and a high pressure system and tapping the dynamic pressure after draining the

air trapped inside the tube. A tapping constant was introduced in the dynamic equation
proposed by him.
Killen (1981) has devised an instrument for measuring the water surface height
distribution. Keller devised an electronically monitored System to measure air
concentration and velocity is prototype spillway in 1972.
Reference
1. Gangadharaiah T, "Characteristics of self aerated flows", Ph. D Thesis, I.I.Sc.,
August 1969.
2. Thandaveswara B.S, "Self Aerated Flow Characteristics in Developing zones and in
Hydraulic J umps", Ph. D Thesis, I.I.Sc., J uly 1974.
3. Thandaveswara B.S and Lakshmana Rao N.S, "Developing Zone Characteristics in
Aerated Flows".
4. "Aerated Flow in Open Channel", by the Task Committee on Air Entrainment in Open
Channels, J ournal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 87, No. HY3, Proc. Paper
2814, May, 1961, pp. 73 - 86.
5. "Air Entrainment in High Velocity Flow", Central Water and Power Commission,
Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, India, Dec., 1963.
6. Gangadharaiah, T., Lakshamana Rao, N.S., and Seetharanmiah, K., "Inception and
Entrainment in Self-Aerated Flows," J ournal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 96,
No. HY7, Proc. Paper 7427, J uly, 1970, pp. 1549 - 1565.
7. Halbronn, G., Durand, R., and Lara, Cohen de, "Air Entrainment in Steeply Sloping
Flumes", Proceedings, International Association for Hydraulic Research, Minnesota
Convention, Sept., 1953, pp. 455 - 466.
8. Keller, R.J ., "Field Measurement of Self-Aerated High Speed Open Channel Flow",
Thesis presented to the University of Canterbury, at Christ Church, New Zealand, in
1972, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor or Philosophy.
9. Keller, R.J ., Lai, K.K., and Wood, I.R., "Developing Region in Self-Aerated Flows",
J ournal of the Hydraulics Division, ASCE, Vol. 100, No. HY4, Apr., 1974, pp. 553 - 568.

10. Lakshmana Rao, N.S., Seetharamiah, K., and Gangadharaiah, T., "Characteristics
of self aerated flows", journal of the Hydraulics Division, Vol. 96, No. HY2, Proc. Paper
7055, Feb., 1970, pp. 331 - 355.

43.1.1 Measurement in Self-Aerated Flows
Introduction
The high velocity liquid with a liquid air interference eventually draws a part of the air
into liquid, forming a liquid air mixture. This phenomenon often occurs with water flows
in chutes and gives an appearance of 'Milky White Water'. This is known as self-aerated
flow. This type of air entrainment is of engineering interest in designing spillways and
stilling basins where the influence of entrained air on the velocity, flow depth, energy
dissipation, turbulence and other characteristics to be understood.
In any open channel studies the necessary basic parameters to describe the flow
phenomenon are velocity and depth. In self-aerated flows, in addition to these two
quantities, information regarding air concentration is essential. The presence of air in
aerated flows has necessitated the development of new measuring techniques to be
adopted.

43.1.2 Air Concentration Measuring Instruments
Mechanical Sampler
Ehrenberger in 1926 made an attempt to measure the water component of the air-water
mixture. He divided the successive layers of fluid with a chute which fitted into the
channel cross section at various depths. The discharge of this chute was then collected
in a container where air could be separated. The excessive force of the flow by the
incoming flow made accurate measurements difficult.
Ehrenberger was the first to introduce a simple device to measure the air concentration
in air entrained flows. A tube similar to Pitot tube was first calibrated in a non-aerated
flow with known velocity by measuring the time to fill a known value of the vertical glass
jar. The operation was repeated in an aerated flow where the air bubble rose to the
surface in the vertical tube. By noting the increased time to fill the tube, he computed
the air concentration in the air and water mixture. The apparatus was crude compared
to recent developments. The defect is that the velocity of non aerated water for a given

slope may not be the same for the aerated flow for a given conditions. Thus the
increased time may include this effect and give a wrong result.
Alternatively, air concentration was estimated from the assumed velocity distribution.
This sampling technique required refinement. This was followed by another mechanical
sampling method devised by Ripken and reported by Delapp in 1947. Ripkens's
sampler is capable of making accurate measurement, but however, great care is
required in setting the proper sampling rate and in maintaining this setting the proper
sampling rate and in maintaining this setting during the entire period of measurement.
Viparelli devised two simpler mechanical sampling units and demonstrated that the
concentration measured was not strongly influenced by the differential head.
Gangadharaiah developed a simple mechanical sampler at the Indian Institute of
Science, Bangalore, India. The principle of this device was to make use of the hydraulic
gradient present at each point, to suck a sampler of air water mixture through the
mechanical probe. The amount of air collected in a known volume of air water mixture
could be taken as a more representative value.
The sampling probe consisted of a copper tube with streamline core more and was
introduced into the flow facing upstream. The other end was connected to a basin
containing water through a polythene tube and communicating with an inverted
measuring jar filled with water, kept on a platform. The air was collected in the glass jar
by displacing water and the water was collected separately in a measuring jar (Figure).
The volume of air and air water in known time was measured and thus the air
concentration was calculated.

A. Mechanical probe in position
B. Arrangement for vertical and
longitudinal traverse
C. Tilting flume
D. Polythene tube connected to
mechanical probe and water
basin
E. Water basin (air seperator)
F. Inverted measuring jar to
collect air.
G. Measuring tank to collect
water
MECHANICAL PROBE AND SAMPLER
DETAILS AT A
3.081
cm 0.32 cm
1.5405
cm
5.08
cm
0.635 cm
D
F
B
C
D
5.08
cm
A
E
G

The average of 3 to 4 measurements by this sampler indicated that there was a
variation of 2 to 3 percent of the mean concentration at the point having higher air
concentration and whereas at very low concentration this deviation from the mean was
negligible. Thandaveswara conducted several experiments by shifting the position of the
unit at different levels and the measurements were repeated. The air concentration
recorded were very consistent and the variation was within the above values. However,
the time of collection varied as the sampling rate was affected.
Only disadvantage of the sampler is that the time required for each measurement of air
concentration for each point was about 4 to 7 minutes and when the air concentration
was very low it was as high as 20 to 30 minutes. Hence, this does not facilitate studies
of short time variation of air concentrations. However, this method is simple, foolproof,

and gives direct measurements of mean air concentration. This had been accepted as
the basic device for calibrating the electrical probes (4, 5).
+
x
Vertical Probe
Horizontal Probe
Symbol x/yc
Discharge Symbol
(L/sec)
79.00
60.56
55.30
50.03
101.94
79.85
71.36
56.07
Q = 56.41 L/sec
Slope = 0.5358 radian
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Calibration Curve
0 10 20
30
40 50
60
70
80
90 100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
CM %
CE %
Vertical Probe
Horizontal Probe

Electrical Probe
An electrical system of measurement was developed by Lamb and Killen (1950) to
overcome some of the difficulties of the mechanical sampling methods. The principle of
measurement was based on the change of the conductivity of the water due to the
presence of the air bubbles between a pair of electrodes immersed in the flow.
The basic principle of the electrical probe method of measurement is that the electrical
conductivity varies between mixtures depending on the volume concentration,
compared to the ambient fluids.
Electrodes were mounted on the lower edge of a flat plate which supports them in high
velocity flow. The electrodes are 6.35 mm * 25.4 mm and separated by 6.35 mm and
insulated on the outside surfaces. The probe is supplied with high frequency alternating
current (3000 Hz). A resistor in series with the electrodes is adjusted to one half the

equivalent resistance of the water between the electrodes in the non aerated water.
Under this situation the voltage across the series resistor is proportional to the volume
concentration of the air in the water. They devised a system to read air concentration on
directly on a voltmeter with a concentration scale.
Later, Halbronn et al. (1951 - 53) modified the probe dimension to obtain the pin point
measurement.
However, it had number of serious drawbacks for air concentration measurements,
amongst which was their relatively considerable size. (Clearance 0.8" * 0.8" * 0.8" or
0.8" * 0.4" * 0.4").
The gauge should be used with electrical equipment which takes the instantaneous
average values C of the concentration in a time interval C. However, according to Lord
Raleigh's theoretical study the relationship between C and
0
R
R
is linear only in so far as
C is small (less than approximately 0.2). This complicates the taking of the average.
However, Raleigh's calculation cannot be strictly applied. Since the electric field is not
limited to the cubic clearance. It has large "bulges" outside which are a further source of
measurement perturbation in the vicinity of the canal walls.
Given the considerable size of the gauge, the measurements made are far from being
pin point ones. In a high concentration gradient zone, the measurement value obtained
is a complex mean of the values taken by C within the clearance. In addition the
obstruction thus formed in the flow is considerable; the flow lines, which are rectilinear
in the absence of any perturbation, develop local curves in the vicinity of the gauge.
Since the ratio of the specific gravities of water and air is approximately 800, the two
fluids do not follow the same trajectories.
Lastly the readings given by the gauge are highly sensitive to the accidental yaw of the
latter in reaction to the direction of flow.
Then onwards many attempts have been made to improve the probe by varying the
shape and size etc. The principle contributions amongst them are CWRPS, Poona,
Rajaratnam, Gangadharaiah, Lakshmana Rao et al. and Thandaveswara. Rajaratnam's
probe (I.I.Sc. Probe 2) was similar to Halbronn's electrical probe. It was designed to

measure the air concentration in hydraulic jumps. Later Lakshmana Rao et al.
developed a streamlined electrical probe (I.I.Sc. probe 4). This probe is quite big
compared to the depth of supercritical flow in laboratory flumes. The flows has to enter
through the small hole in the probe and come out, during which process the air bubbles
may expand and occupy the entire area, resulting in a full scale deflection in the air
concentration meter. This type of probe is not at all suitable for sub critical flows where
the velocities will be very small, especially in hydraulic jumps where the bubble sizes
are large. Further, water droplets may block the hole due to surface tension.
The length of the SAF probe was only 2.3 cm and the strut was provided at 5 cm from
the tip. When the high velocity flow strikes, the strut will obstruct and the water will fall
back the tilting flume. The SAF probe was modified by providing a sufficient length and
is designated as the horizontal probe by Thandaveswara.

A. Non-conducting support
B. Insulated wire to meter
C. Stainless steel plate
D. Insulation
E. Conducting area
1.8 mm thick
PLAN
Horizontal probe
Side View
12.1 cm
1.1 cm
2 cm
7.3 cm
10 cm
D
D
6 mm
9 mm
E
C
D B
B
D
C
Perspex 37 * 8.7 cms
A
B
C
Flow


Details of air concentration probe
Holes for
Point gauge
5.8 mm 4 mm
E
C
D
5.75 cm
10.8 cm
Perspex plate
7.6 cm * 27.8 cm
A. Non Conducting support
B. Insulated wire to meter
C. Stainless steel plate
D. Insulation
E. Conducting area
2.5 cm
B
A
B B
A
A
C
D
1.8 mm
0.46 cm
1.8 mm
Plan
Vertical probe

In Rajaratnam's probe the obstruction was seen in the roller zone of the hydraulic jump.
This introduced disturbances affecting the turbulent fluctuations and the air
concentration. Therefore, the modified SAF probe (Horizontal probe) was turned by 90,
such that the electrode is positioned in the vertical plane. This not only overcame the

defects the mentioned earlier but also is quite satisfactory. Even with this, the
disturbances to the flow characteristics could not be avoided completely but they could
be reduced considerably. Stainless steel was used as electrodes and were coated with
araldite as an insulator.


43.1.3 Electrical Circuit
On lines similar to those of the SAF circuit, a simpler circuit as shown in Figure was
adopted for the measurement of air concentration which helped in eliminating the costly
equipments like the oscillator the vacuum tube voltmeter (VTVM). This consist of a pilot
lamp, a step-down transformer and a bridge rectifier. Two potentiometers of 2 K and 5 K
Ohms were used with a micro ammeter. These components were assembled and the
air concentration was built. Power frequency A.C. was used to reduce the polarisation.
Use of stainless steel electrodes, zeroing often of the meter and the high velocity nature
of the flow reduced the possibilities of polarisation.

A
B
2K
5K
C
330
400
4.4 K
D
+
1 K
P
A
A - Pilot lamp
B - Stepdown transformer
C - Bridge rectifier
D - Micro ammeter
P - Terminals to probe
Air Concentration Meter Circuit

43.1.4 Short Term Air Concentration Measurement
The air concentration fluctuates depending on the turbulence level and to record its
short time variation a recording system was built (5, 10). The carrier oscillator generates
sinusoidal frequency of 5 K Hz giving an output of 6 volts from peak to peak. The
emitter follower stage supplies the carrier source at low output impedance followed by
the attenuator (P1) to give a controlled carrier source. The probe in series with variable
resistor (P2) is excited from the carrier wave.
The conductivity of the probe varies with the concentration fluctuation and these
fluctuations modulate the carrier wave of 5 KHz. The signal is separated from the carrier
wave by detecting and passing it through a low pass filter. The integrator circuit

smoothes out the ripple and the analog signal proportional to the percentage content of
water is fed to the high frequency recorder. The signal is amplified by a voltage
preamplifier followed by a stage of differential amplifier and finally fed to the moving coil
of the recorder. Figure 3 shows the block diagram of this circuit. Figure gives a typical
air concentration record.

Carrier
oscillator
5 K Hz
Emitter
follower
with
attennuator
Detector
Low pass
filter and
Integrator
Recorder
Probe
Electronic
volt meter
Water
Regulated
power supply
Transistorised Air Concentration Recorder

Typical Record
Speed: 100 mm/sec

Killen in 1968 developed a device for measuring the water surface height distribution.
Keller in 1972 devised an electronically modified system to measure air concentration
and velocity in prototype spillway.


43.1.5 Velocity Measurement

Plan
16 gauge
2.5 cm
D
3D
10D


Total head tube
Static head
tube
Elevation
PITOT TUBE ASSEMBLY
Flow

Ehrenberger attempted to measure surface velocity of a float. Error arises in this system
in the location of depth as the float submerges differently at different densities, and
gives a low reading of velocity due to air drag. Mean velocity measurements were
attempted in the Kittatas spillway (Thomas, 1938) by means of salt velocity method.
A small scale velocity meter was developed for the measurement of velocity distribution
in high velocity flows of open channel by Straub et al. This technique involves the
injection of salt solution at a point and measuring the time taken to traverse the distance
between two electrodes. It is useful in making velocity measurements in the lower
regions of flow (where the air concentration is less than 50%). In this region of higher air
concentration there is great amount of interference. This interference becomes so
serious at concentration of 80% as to render the instrument useless for readings in this
range.

The technique of measuring the local air water velocities was developed by Halbronn et
al. The procedure of measurement of air water velocity involves tapping the dynamic
pressure by a hypodermic needle using a mercury manometer. The presence of air
bubbles interference with the measurement. These air bubbles were drained by water
supplied at higher pressure than the dynamic pressure and with the help of three way
drain cock. Water flows out continuously up to the moment when the measurements are
made. Thandaveswara introduced the static tube parallel to the total head tube with a
special type of bracket enabling the investigators to account for the non hydrostatic
pressure distribution in the velocity measurement.

43.1.6 Bubble Size Measurements
It is easier to see the bubbles than to describe them. During their ascent, the bubbles
either coalesce to form bigger bubbles or rupture breaking up into smaller bubbles. To
understand the history of the bubbles there are some direct and indirect methods. In the
following section these are described very briefly.
Direct Method
This method adopts the photographic technique. When the photograph is projected, the
general contour of the bubble is known. The photographic method for evaluating the
bubble volume suffers from the disadvantage that it does not yield the volume directly
but only gives the contour of the bubble in a single plane. The intensity of lighting used
for photography is purely trial and error. Assumptions have to be made regarding the
symmetry of the bubble and can lead to serious errors, when the bubbles are distorted.
This method is very tedious and laborious as every frame has to be analysed. However,
it has the advantage of picturing the rupturing and coalescing bubbles at any position.
This is the only method suitable when the phenomenon contains a range of bubbles.
Further this method gives the history of the bubble.
Gamma ray absorption technique is another direct method, which gives the variation in
voidage. It consists essentially in the passage of a Gamma ray beam through the flow
and measuring the emerging beam by its count rate. This method is time consuming,

laborious and approximate. It gives only the average size of the bubble and not the
individual size. It is not suitable for foam and froth studies.
Indirect Method
The indirect method is to compute the bubble size based on the frequency of the
bubbles, flow rate and the size of the nozzle. No information can be obtained regarding
the shape of the bubble from this method which obviously is of no use to the present
studies.
In aerated flows the bubbles move in the vertical direction in addition to movement in
the main flow direction. It is not possible to identify them with the naked eye. The bubble
interference gives the appearance of a group. The purpose of the study is mainly to get
an idea about the size and shape of the bubble for which the photographic method was
more suitable.
To photograph the bubbles in self aerated flows which were subjected to high velocity
and turbulent fluctuations ordinary photographic method was not useful. Hence using a
stroboflash along with a 35 mm Zeissicon Contaflex camera
(f / 2.8 lens) fitted with a close up lens, the bubbles were photographed. In hydraulic
jump investigations the Rolleiflex and the Contaflex cameras were used for bubble
studies. There was no necessity for using the stroboflash in the case of hydraulic jumps
as the orders of velocities were comparatively smaller.
High speed photographic techniques were adopted for photographing the course of the
bubble and the breaking of the bubble. A Fastex 16 mm high speed photographic
camera with a speed of 150 to 8000 pps (pictures per second) was used. The speed of
the film could be computed with the help of the lighting marks on the edge of the film
outside the picture area. The slow motion action was studied by projecting the
processed film. The rate of projection was 16, 2 and 0 frames per second.


43.1.7 Short Time Variation of Air Concentration
Introduction
In hydroelectric projects, on several occasions, energy dissipators are so designed that
they form the roofs of power houses. In a steady turbulent flow the pressure fluctuation
is a stationary random function of two space coordinates (x,y) and time (t). Information
about random functions which is necessary for solutions of practical problems is
contained in their probability properties. A knowledge of the amplitude-frequency
spectrum of pressure fluctuations caused by turbulence in hydraulic structures allows
the determination of dynamic loading in structural design. Recent experiences with
prototype structures have shown that failure is due to fatigue caused by vibrations.
Oscillograph records of a random phenomenon exhibit a mixture of amplitudes and
frequencies. If such records are taken for relatively short periods they are insufficient for
a useful analysis.
Stochastic analysis of the random pressure fluctuations will be necessary to develop a
more meaningful and useful presentation of the forces occurring in energy dissipation
processes.
The random variations of the flow characteristics of the hydraulic jump and self aerated
flows, such as pressure and air concentration, are entirely due to the turbulence
characteristics of the flow. There have been several attempts (K-3, V-3, B-10, L-11, S-
13) to study the pressure fluctuations which have already been discussed. The earlier
observations indicate that the air concentration fluctuation is yet another random
process. The atmospheric air is held in suspension in the form of bubbles and the air
concentration increases as the turbulence intensity increases (F-2). Resch and
Leutheusser (R-15) appear to be first to succeed in measuring the turbulence
characteristics of hydraulic jumps. They devised a computer programme to eliminate the
air bubbles by choosing a characteristic length. Figure shows a typical record of
variation of turbulence in a jump and it may be observed that a high frequency
component with smaller amplitude is superimposed by a low frequency component with

a higher amplitude. They concluded that these bursts of higher amplitude are due to air
bubbles.
Keller (K-5) appears to be the first to study short time air concentrating fluctuations on a
prototype spillway in developing flow. He obtained concentration records by joining the
values of points sampled at consecutive time intervals of half a second and plotting
them relative to the mean values of the data set containing the points. Figure shows a
typical record of concentration fluctuations as obtained by Keller. This appears to be the
only study of such a type available in literature.
Continuous Turbulence signal in two phase flow-high
turbulence intensity use of a characteristic length L for
the Detection of air bubbles
Typical Record of Turbulence Variation in Hydraulic Jumps
t
(a) 1 cm = 1.6 milli secs
1 cm = 0.88 volts
undeveloped flow
C
__
=12.8 %
(b) Fully developed flow
C
__
=13.4 %
Typical Records of Turbulence signals in Jump
u (t)
t
C
L
L
Water air
Water
air
Water
air


C'
C'
C'
y
__
d
T
0.9225
0.6150
0.3075
Time - Seconds
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
0
10
20
30
0
10
20
30
40
30
40
50
60
70
Time Variation of Air concentration

A knowledge of the mean characteristics of a phenomenon throws light only on its
general aspects. However, in order to understand a phenomenon like air entrainment
and its mechanism, it is necessary to study its short time fluctuations. Hence an
exploratory study is made to investigate the short time fluctuations of air concentrations.
Measuring Technique
There are two methods available for analysing a random process. In the first method the
data may be digitised and processed on an electronic computer and in the second
method voltages from the sensing element may be examined with an analog device.
The first method is very laborious and time consuming, but the latter needs
sophisticated instrumentation such as multichannel instrumentation tape recorder, r.m.s.
meter, and correlators. For want of sophisticated facilities mentioned in the 2nd method

the first method was chosen to get some preliminary ideas. An air concentration
recording circuit was developed for this purpose the details of which are already
presented. An oscilloscript strip chart recorder was used with the circuit, the details of
which follow.
A PT 1000 - 00 Model, Philips make oscilloscipt was used. The impact of impedance (1
M ) and sensitivity (3 m V
ss
/mm) made it possible to have a direct connection of the
pick up. Sensitivity and gain control were in five stages and the grades of sensitivity in
several stages could be continuously adjusted. The limiting frequency of the equipment
is 165 Hz. This equipment works at 220 volts, with 50 cycles power supply. A special
paper manufactured by Philips Company PT 2031 R / 04 was used for recording the
fluctuations. The oscilloscript is provided with four channels. The width of the channel is
20 mm. The accuracy of recording width was 20 10 mm, but the variation is linear
within 2%, beyond which it is nonlinear. The linearity is valid up to a maximum width of
24 mm. Paper is fed by a self-starting synchronous motor (220 volts, 50 cycles and 50
watt). The speed of the paper feed may be varied by choosing a suitable gear. In this
investigation a speed of 100 mm/s was chosen. The impression is obtained from carbon
paper.
Operational Procedure
After short circuiting the vaccum tube voltmeter (VTVM) the voltage switch was adjusted
to the 1.5 positive D.C. voltage range, and the zero was adjusted. The potentiometers
were adjusted so as to zero the air concentration meter circuit. The probe was
connected across the meter and dipped in the sample flow. Then the oscilloscript was
connected and the corresponding channel was switched on. The sensitivity of the
recorder was maintained at V
ss
/ mm =3.0 * 10-3. Then the input connection was
discontinued after making the ground connection. The nullage regulator of the
corresponding channel was operated till the pointer of the recorder was adjusted to
100% air concentration position. Now the input was reconnected and the amplitude was
adjusted so that the line representing zero percentage of air was obtained. This
procedure was repeated till the width of the channel (24 mm) representing the air
concentration range 0 to 100% is indicated by the pointer of the recorder without any

further adjustments. Then the system was used for recording air concentration
fluctuations.
The recordings of short time fluctuation were made in the developing flow and the
uniformly aerated flow at selected sections. In the case of the pre entrained hydraulic
jump and the normal hydraulic jump, the records were obtained at different portions of
the jump. The records were taken for a maximum period of 6 seconds and one sample
per point.

43.1.8 Turbulent Characteristics of the Jump
To understand the turbulent characteristics of hydraulic jumps, one of the big difficulties
was the number of entrained air bubbles that form the fluid discontinuities. Rouse et al.
(R - 2) simulated the jump in an air duct shaped to match the profile of the jump. This
investigation was conducted based on the assumption that if the mean flow patterns
were similar and the energy changes and the Reynolds number are comparable than
the patterns of turbulence would also be similar. The mean velocity distribution was
similar to Rajaratnam's (R- 8) findings except that the scale of the maximum velocity,
V
max
, was very much lower.
Figure shows the turbulent intensities and the product of the mean components. It may
be seen that the fluctuating velocity is small near the toe and large in the regions of the
maximal velocity gradient in the longitudinal distance
2
x
y
between 1.0 and 2.0 and
again becomes small towards the end of the jump. The maximum value of
2
v' / v and u' / v
2
was about 27 % and 20 %. Respectively for a Froude number value
of 6.0. The turbulent shear stress also exhibits maximum values in the zones of
maximal velocity gradient.
Figures show turbulence production, dissipation and convection along the jump. The
turbulence production is greatest in the regions of greatest velocity gradient, being at a

maximum at
2
x
1.0
y
and the maximum dissipation occurs at a later section. Production
of turbulence becomes very small at
2
x
5.0
y
> .
Using the momentum equation, Rouse et al. (R-2) further computed the mean
momentum flux, integrated shear stress, turbulent momentum flux, and pressure
assuming hydrostatic pressure distribution and negligible turbulence level at the toe.
Distribution of Turbulence intensities and Mean Products of Components
0
0.8
0
0.8
0
0.8
0.4
0.4
0.4
y
__
y2
y
__
y2
y
__
y2
F1 = 2
F1 = 4
F1 = 6
x
__
y2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
u'v'/v
_ ____
v'
2
v
_
/
___
u'
2
v
_
/
___


Time Variation of airconcentration (k-5)
0.6150
0.9225
0.3075
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 80 90100 120 130 70
Time - Seconds
30
40
50
60
70
y
___
dT
0 10
20
30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
C'
C'
C'
110

Hubbard (H-10) conducted some investigations in a hydraulic jump in an open channel
regarding the velocity fluctuating component. He chose the section just downstream of
the roller where the longitudinal turbulent velocity component was measured along a
vertical line. He observed that the fluctuations were so erratic that only a rough
indication of the root mean square value or the instantaneous mean velocity could be
obtained. He concluded that due to the lower velocity of water the frequency spectrum
of turbulence shifted downwards. Figure shows a typical record obtained by him. It can
be seen that bursts of high intensity turbulence are interspersed with a period of
relatively tranquil flow.
Leutheusser and Kartha (L-13) recently studied the effect of approaching flow conditons
on the mean characteristics of the hydraulic jump. Resch and Leutheusser (R-15)

measured turbulent intensities in jumps for Froude numbers 2.85 and 6.0 with two
different approach flow conditions. They (R-13, R - 15) concluded that the turbulent
structure in the jump strongly depends on the supercritical flow characteristics. Fully
developed upstream flow leads to a state of jump turbulence under laid by a wall
turbulence layer. They found that the wall turbulent layer is totally absent in case of
undeveloped upstream flow cases. They concluded further that the length of the jump
directly depends on these flow features.
Later in 1972 they (R-16) investigated the Reynolds stress characteristics in the jump.
The used the earlier technique of eliminating the effect of air bubbles (R-15) which
consisted of digitising the turbulent signal to permit using a computer programme by
means of which liquid phase points are separated from air phase points, after choosing
a characteristic length. This confirmed their earlier results that the turbulent structure in
the jump is influenced by the upstream flow conditions. In their investigations they have
assumed that the air bubbles do not play any significant role and do not affect the
turbulence structure. Their work will help in future to evaluate completely the turbulent
flow characteristics in self aerated flows and to correlate the influence of turbulence on
air concentration distribution.

43.1.9 Pressure Distribution in the Jump
Usually the pressure distribution in the hydraulic jump is assumed to be hydrostatic.
Rajaratnam (R-8) in 1965 showed, however, that the pressure distribution is non
hydrostatic. Also he pointed out from his results that there exists a narrow region near
the wall (around 5% of the depth) exhibiting hydrostatic pressure distribution and the
deviation from the hydrostatic is more in the earlier reaches of the jump and increases
as the Froude number increases. The pressure profiles indicate adverse pressure
gradient and vary in a complex manner with the distance. The profile configuration is
controlled by the supercritical Froude number.
Vasilev and Bukreyev (V-3) found that the frequency of the pressure fluctuation
distribution greatly differs from the normal distribution in the initial portion of the jump

including the roller and just downstream of it. They found that the most intensive
fluctuations and the widest spectra take place in
rj
x
0.2 0.6
L
, and the coefficient
of pressure variation is 17 % in this zone. The diminution of the spectra ordinate may be
approximated by a power law with an exponent of 1.5 to 2.0.
King (K-3) in 1967 showed the largest pressure fluctuations occur at a frequency of
about 15 Hz in a model. He cautions that the fluctuation of 5 Hz should be avoided.
Later Bowers and Tsai in 1969 (B-10) found that most of the energy is contained in
frequencies less than 1 Hz. From the pressure records, Lesleighter (L-11) found that the
peak to peak fluctuations, during the interval of less than 0.5 sec was of the order of 50
% of the maximum velocity head in the prototype. His results indicate larger uplift
pressures with skewness.
In 1971, Sadasivan (S-13) found that the maximum pressure fluctuation occurs between
1
x
8 12
y
from the toe and the magnitude increases with Froude number.
Correlations of non-dimensional spectral density with nondimensional frequency
showed a power law variation with an exponent of -1.7.

A Typical Turbulence Fluctuation Record
Longitudinal Variation in rates of Production,
Convection and Dissipation of Turbulence.
Production
Dissipation
Convention
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0.05
0
0.10
0.05
0 0
0.02
0.04
0
0.02
0.04
0.10
0.05
0
0 2 4 6
x
__
y2
y
y2
___
= 0.65
y
y2
___
= 0.4
x
y2
___
= 0.9
y2
___
= 1.4
x
F1=2
F1=4
F1=6
Production
Dissipation
Convention
Production
Dissipation
Convention
t
u'
0.1 sec


References
1. Ehrenberger, R., "Wasserbewegubg in steilen rinnon (schysstennon) mit besonder
beruksichtigung der selbstbeluftung", zeitsetorift des Oesterreichischer Ingenieur and
Architekten Verins, numbers 15, 16, 17, 18, 1926.
2. Lamb, O.P., and Killen, J .H., "An electrical method for measuring air concentration in
flowing air water mixtures", Tech. Paper numbers 2, Series - B, St. Anthony Falls hyd.
Lab., Minnesota, March, 1950.
3. Viparelli, M., "The flow of water in a flume with a 1:1 slope", Proc. IAHR and ASCE,
Minneapolis, pt.4, pp 415 - 425, Sept.1953.
4. Gangadharaiah, T., "Characteristics of self-aerated flows", a thesis submitted for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Department of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering,
Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, August 1969.
5.Thandaveswara, B.S., "Self Aerated Flow characteristics in developing zones and in
Hydraulic jumps", A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy,
Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, J uly
1974.
6. Halbronn, G., Durand, R. and Lara, Cohen de., "air entrainment in steeply sloping
Flumes", proc. IAHR, Minneseta Convention, pp 455 - 66, September, 1953.
7. Central Water and Power Commission, "Air entrainment in high velocity flow"
published by Central Water and Power Research Station, Poona, December, 1963.
8. Rajaratnam, N., "Some studies on the Hydraulic J ump", A thesis submitted for the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy of the Department of Power Engineering, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore, India, J uly 1961.
9. Lakshmana Rao, N.S., Seetharamaiah, K., and Gangadharaiah, T., "A new electrical
probe for the measurement of air concentrations in air water flows", J l. Institution of
Engineers (India), Vol. No. 11, Pt. CI 6, pp 1677 - 1693, J uly, 1968.
10. Ravindra, D.K., "Transistorised air concentration Recorder", final report submitted to
CBIP, under problem XII: Instrumentation, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian
Institute of Science, Bangalore, India, J uly 1974.

11. Straub, L.G. Killen, J .M. and Lamb, P.O., "Velocity measurement of air water
mixtures", University of Minnesota, St. Anthony Falls Hydraulics lab., Tech. Rep. No. 10,
Series - B, 1951 adn Transactions ASCE. VOL. 119, PP 207, 1954.

43.2.1 Experimental Investigation
Thandaveswara made use of the following experimental set - ups to conduct the
following investigations.
(i) To study the flow characteristics of the developing zone and the pre entrained jump.
(ii) To conduct the investigations in the normal hydraulic jump.
Tilting flume
Photograph shows the general view of the set -up.
Enveloping curve
1
2 4 6 8 10 12
0
10
30
50
70
L
rj
_____
y
1
F1
or
FT
_
Length characteristics of Jumps NHJ and PHJ

Figure gives the schematic layout of the experimental set-up. It consists of a tilting flume
of 13m long, 45.72 cm wide and 37 cm deep.

1. Tilting flume
2. Masonry channel
3. Pump
4. Sump
5. Venturimeter
6. Valve
7. Hose pipe
8. Inlet box with wire mesh
9. Fulcrum
10. Pulley and chain arrangement
11. Control gate
12. Observation windows
(10)
7
12
12
5
12
1
9
6
12
2
11
4
Schematic Diagram of the Experimental Setup
13

The slope of the flume could be varied from zero degree (horizontal) to nearly 30
degrees by a chain and pulley arrangement fixed to an overhead tank. The discharge
could be measured using a calibrated venturimeter fitted in the supply main. The
entrance to the flume was designed to give a disturbance free uniform velocity. This 15
cm line expands to 45 cm diameter through a conical shape funnel in a height of 62 cm.
This cone in turn was fitted to an open rectangular box (60 * 46 cm and 56 cm deep)
made in the flume. The free surface was smooth and glassy and transparent in
appearance. The velocity distribution of the approach flow just downstream of the
entrance was nearly uniform.
The flume bed was coated with sand to produce a roughness size of 0.09144 cm. Four
observation windows of 20 x 13.5 cm in size were provided. Grids of size 2 x 1 cm were
marked on these windows. These windows were located at distances of 3.15 m, 4.68 m,
7.1 m and 9.55 m from the entrance and were designated as W
1
,W
2
,W
3
and W
4

respectively.

In the downstream of the tilting flume a masonry channel of 45.72 cm with zero slope
was provided. The length of the channel was 3.30 m and 3.60 m from the toe of the
tilting flume to the end, for the E and B series of experiments respectively. To damp the
vibrations of the probes some extra fixtures were fitted. Plates 2a, b show two views of
the tilting flume viewed from downstream and upstream photographs respectively.


Set - up for normal hydraulic jump:
Figure shows the general layout of the set-up. This consists of a horizontal rectangular
flume of 10.35 m long fitted with glass panels. A head tank supply flow upto 56.63 l /
sec. A bell mouth transition was provided at the entrance in order to get disturbance

free uniform supercritical flow, with a fixed opening of 0.945 cm. The photographs show
the view of the Normal Hydraulic jump.
Longitudinal Sectional View
A. Head tank
B. Bell mouth entry
C. Flume
D. Down stream control
E. Gauge well to measure head over V-notch
F. V-notch
G. Sump
H. Pump
Schematic diagram of the Experimental Set up (NHJ)
Details at Entrance
F
E
23 5 7 9
33 stations
D
10.35 m
0.23 m x
x
H
A
B
2.37 m
2.13 m
0.84 m
Stations 1 to 30 at 7.6 cm interval
Plan
60.96 cm
0.54 m
0.84 m
0.56 m
0.456 m
22.9 cm
0.945 cm
A
C
F
E
D
G


43.3.1 Bhakra Dam Spillway a Case Study
Maximum discharge through drum gate 7500 m
3
/ s
Maximum normal water level u /s of gate 512.064 m.
Design head for the peak discharge taken by Bhakra
experts
10.05 m
Design head

8.54 m
Design Flood, Design discharge 11327 m
3
/ s / 8212 m
3
/ s
respectively
Maximum allowable discharge over a spillway is 1.647 * normal discharge i.e.,
1000 Year flood discharge
1.648
Peak normal discharge per unit length of spillway 113.75 m
3
/ s
Length of spillway L
1
67.056 m
Distance of Toe of spillway from crest 287.831 m
Discharge per unit length of spillway q at head h
s
is
given by and C is the coefficient of discharge and is
assumed constant.

s
d
d
h
q = q
h
3

It is straight gravity dam 225.55 m, crest length
79.24 m (4 radial gates 15.24 m
* 14.47 m)
Slope of the spillway 0.8 : 1
Curvature of toe to apron 114.3 m.
Sloping apron 10 : 1 with a length of 118.73 m.
Tail water details
100 year flood level 35.05 m above the sloping apron
exit. Normal water level 14.93 m above the sloping
apron exit.
Normal maximum tail water level 20.72 m. above the
sloping apron exit.
River bed is 12.192 m above the lowest point of the
sloping apron.


43.3.2 Comparison of Results
Flow Characteristics Non- aerated
flow
Aerated flow Basin Type III Remarks
y
1
, y
T
(m) 2.205 2.36 2.205
Velocity m/s 51.58 52.06 51. 58
F
1
, F
T
11.09 10.04 11.09
y
2
(m)

33.08 31.996 33.08
L
rj
(m) 142.00 145.00
143.00 (Basin
length)
144.00
(Actual
Basin length)
L
cj
(m) 367.77 336. 403
m
C 0.629 0.5935

r
C
0.141 0.1513

av
C 0.315 0.296

avr
C 0.405 0.379

Free Board or (bulkage
depth ) (m)
5.45 5.70

Basin height (m) 38.53 37.7
Energy loss in the basin
(m)
75.26 74.08

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Introduction

= = . On the other hand if x is measured

which is less than the maximum

when relative velocity of the flow is

with an assumption that

= = which is an extremely steep slope in open

is the momentum coefficient,

are computed. In particular if the grids are so

Variation of and along the hydraulic jump

Straight Gravity Dam

Froude Number, F = 1 for critical conditions,

low can changeover to supercritical or subcritical flow dependingon

are same in model and prototype each

and there will clearly be a

= and differentiating the above

Isometric view of corner-weir looking downstream

Note gRS Critical shear velocity

8gSR 8gVR S 8gR S 8g

0 Viscous sub layer

= Open channel flow

= = , in which P is the wetted perimeter and R is the

Minimum permissible velocity

Equating equations 1 and 2

= for a Normal Hydraulic J umps.

The jump occurs at the beginning

The jump is on the sloping channel

then three different cases are

sloping apron on which teeth of 45

are installed. The teeth introduces stable flow

whereas the ski-jump bucket invert was kept at

. Thus Dantiwada spillway is

and gradually increases in the latter half

, is the shear velocity , is the

a correction factor was suggested by Shukry for

for applying the

section of the 180

Undisturbed water flow

V is the velocity of the wave

RP C in the x-t plane. This line is known as the negative

Hydraulics Prof. B.S. Thandaveswara

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