Drilling Engineering

Drilling Fluids
Dr. Imre FEDERER
Associate Professor
Drilling Fluids
Functions Of Mud
Drilling Mud Additives
Drilling Fluid Types
Drilling Mud Properties
Drilling Fluid Selection
Drilling Mud Problems
Solids Control
Drilling Fluids
To remove the drilled cuttings from the hole.
Viscosity, Mud Weight.
To suspend the cuttings when circulation is stopped
Gel strength, Yield Point, Mud Weight.
To control BHP pressure greater than formation pressure.
Mud weight.
To cool and lubricate the bit and drillpipe.
To prevent the walls of the hole from caving.
Formation of a stable mud cake on the walls of wellbore.
To prevent or minimize the damaging effects to the formation.
Clay stabilizer additives
To assist in the gathering of the information from the formations.
Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials
Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials
Barite (BaSO4)
Barite (or barytes) is the most commonly used weighting material.
Barium sulphate has a specific gravity in the range of 4.20 - 4.60
It is preferred because of its low cost and high purity.
It is used when mud weights in excess of 10 ppg are required.
Barite can be used to achieve densities up to 2.28 s.g (22.0 ppg) in
both water- based and oil -based muds.
At very high mud weights the rheological properties of the fluid become
difficult to control.
Disadvantage: Not soluble in acid cause formation damage.



Drilling Fluid Additives
Weighting Materials
Calcium carbonate (CaCO3)
Advantage: its ability to react and dissolve in hydrochloric acid.
Filter cake formed on productive zones can be easily removed.
CaCO3 is dispersed in oil muds more readily than is barite.
Its low specific gravity (2.60 - 2.80) limits the mud weight.
The maximum density of mud to about 1.44 g/cm3 (12.0 ppg)
Calcium carbonate is available as limestone or oyster shells.
Dolomite is a calcium - magnesium carbonate
Dolomitre specific gravity of 2.80 - 2.90.
The maximum mud density achieved is 1.60 s.g. (13.3 ppg).
Its ability to react and dissolve in hydrochloric acid

Salt Brines
Fluid
Practical Maximum
Density kg/l (ppg)
Caesium Formate 2.36 (19.7)
Potassium Formate (KHCO2)
1.60 (13.3)
Sodium Formate (NaHCO2)
1.33 (11.1)
Sea water 1.02 (8.5)
Brine-sodium chloride (NaCl) 1.18 (9.8)
Brine-potassium chloride (KCl) 1.17 (9.7)
Brine-calcium chloride (CaCl
2
) 1.38 (11.5)
Brine-calcium bromide (CaBr
2
) 1.80 (15.0)
Brine-zinc bromide (ZnBr
2
) 2.18 (18.1)
Crystallization Point of Brines
Weight Crystallization Point
kg/l ppg
o
C
o
F
Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
1,02 8.5 -2 29
1,08 9.0 -7 19
1,14 9.5 -16 6
1,2 10.0 -4 25
Calcium Chloride (CaCl
2
)
1,02 8.5 -1 30
1,14 9.5 -13 9
1,2 10.0 -22 -8
1,26 10.5 -37 -36
1,32 11.0 -30 -22
1,38 11.5 +2 35
Calcium Chloride/Bromide (CaCl
2
/Br
2
)
1,44 12.0 12 54
1,56 13.0 15 59
1,68 14.0 17,7 64
1,8 15.0 19,4 67
Drilling Fluid Additives
Materials used as viscosifiers
Viscosifiers
High viscosity provide the ability of cutting transport.
Low viscosity provide low pressure loss in the circulation system.
Solids removal efficiency increase when the viscosity is decrease.

Relationship Between Function Of A Polymer In A
Drilling Fluid
Filtration Control Materials
Filtration Control Materials
Filtration control agents are compounds which reduce the amount of
fluid that will be lost.
from the drilling fluid into a subsurface formation due, essentially, to
the differential between the hydrostatic pressure of the fluid and the
formation pressure.
Bentonite, polymers,
starches and thinners or deflocculants all function as filtration control
agents.

Filtration Control Materials
Bentonite is the "backbone" of clay based mud systems. It imparts viscosity and suspension
as well as filtration control. The flat, "plate like" structure of bentonite packs tightly together
under pressure and forms a firm compressible filter cake, preventing fluid from entering the
formation
Polymers such as Polyanionic cellulose (PAC) and Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose (CMC)
reduce filtrate mainly when the hydrated polymer chains absorb onto the clay solids and plug
the pore spaces of the filter cake p preventing fluid seeping through the filter cake and
formation. Filtration is also reduced as the polymer viscosifies the mud thereby creating a
viscosified structure to the filtrate making it difficult for the filtrate to seep through.
Starches function in a similar way to polymers. The free water is absorbed by the sponge like
material which aids in the reduction of fluid loss. They form very compressible particles that
plug the small openings in the filter cake.
Thinners and deflocculants function as filtrate reducers by separating the clay flocks or
groups enabling them to pack tightly to form a thin, flat filter cake.

Rheology Control Materials

Basic rheological control is achieved by controlling the concentration of the primary
viscosifiers used in the drilling fluid system. However, when efficient control of viscosity
and gel development cannot be achieved by control of viscosifier concentration, materials
called "thinners", "dispersants", and/or "deflocculants" are added. By definition, these are
materials that cause a change in the physical and chemical interactions between solids and/or
dissolved salts such that the viscous and structure forming properties of the drilling fluid are
reduced.
Thinners are also used to reduce filtration and cake thickness, to counteract the effects of
salts, to minimize the effect of water on the formations drilled, to emulsify oil in water, and
to stabilize mud properties at elevated temperatures.
Materials commonly used as thinners in water based clay containing drilling fluids can be
broadly classified as: (1) plant tannins, (2) lignitic materials, (3) lignosulfonates, and (4) low
molecular weight, synthetic, water soluble polymers.

Alkalinity and pH Control
Materials

The pH affects several mud properties including:
detection and treatment of contaminants such as cement
and soluble carbonates
solubility of many thinners and divalent metal ions such
as calcium and magnesium
Alkalinity and pH control additives include the alkali and
alkaline earth hydroxides; NaOH,
KOH, Ca(OH)2, NaHCO3 and Mg(OH)2. These are
compounds used to attain a specific pH
and to maintain optimum pH and alkalinity in water base
fluids Among the materials most
commonly used to control pH are

Lubricating Material
Lubricating materials are used mainly to reduce
friction between the wellbore and the
drillstring. This will in turn reduce torque and
drag which is essential in highly deviate and
horizontal wells.
Lubricating materials include: oil (diesel, mineral,
animal, or vegetable oils), surfactants,
fatty alcohol, graphite, asphalt, gilsonite, and
polymer or glass beads

Shale Stabilizing Materials
There are many shale problems (see Chapter 14) which may be encountered while
drilling sensitive highly hydratable shale sections.
Shale stablisers include: high molecular weight natural or synthetic polymers
(polyacrylics/polyamines), asphaltic hydrocarbons, potassium and calcium salts,
glycols, and certain surfactants and lubricants.
Essentially, shale stabilization is achieved by the prevention of water contacting the
open shale section. This can occur when the additive encapsulates the shale or when
a specific ion such as potassium actually enters the exposed shale section and
neutralise the charge on it.
Field evidence indicates that polymers do not provide on their on complete shale
stabilisation and that soluble salts must also be present in the aqueous phase to
stabilize hydratable shales.

.D r. i.l .l i.n . g. . F. .l u. .i d. . T. .y . p. e. .s
A drilling fluid can be classified by the nature of
its continuous phase, i.e. what the fluid is
based on, or built from. The three types of
drilling fluid are:
1. Water Based Muds
2. Oil Based Muds
3. Gas Based Muds

Water Based Mud
Water Based Mud
These are fluids where water is the continuous
phase. The water may be fresh, brackish or
seawater, whichever is most convenient and
suitable to the system.
The following designations are normally used to
define the classifications of water base
drilling fluids:
1. Non-dispersed-Non - inhibited

Water Based Mud
2. Non-dispersed - Inhibited
3. Dispersed - Non-inhibited
4. Dispersed - Inhibited
Dispersed means that thinners have been
added to scatter chemically the bentonite (clay)
and reactive drilled solids to prevent them from
building viscosity.
Non-Dispersed means that the clay particles
are free to find their own dispersed
equilibrium in the water phase.

Water Based Mud
Inhibited means that the fluid contains inhibiting ions such as chlorine, potassium or
calcium or a polymer which suppresses the breakdown of the clays by charge association and
or encapsulation.
Non-Inhibited means that the fluid contains no additives to inhibit hole problems.
Non-inhibited - non-dispersed fluids do not contain inhibiting ions such as chloride (Cl-),
calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+) in the continuous phase and do not utilize chemical
thinners or dispersants to effect control of rheological properties.
Inhibited - non-dispersed fluids contain inhibiting ions in the continuous phase, however
they do not utilize chemical thinners or dispersants.
Non-inhibited dispersed fluids do not contain inhibiting ions in the continuous phase, but
they do rely on thinners or dispersants such as phosphates, lignosulfonate or lignite to
achieve control of the fluids' rheological properties.
Inhibited dispersed contain inhibiting ions such as calcium (Ca2+) or potassium (K+) in the
continuous phase and rely on chemical thinners or dispersants, such as those listed above to
control the fluids rheological properties.

PRACTICAL RIG HYDRAULICS
Dr Federer Imre
Associate Professor
Rheological models are mathematical equations used to predict fluid
behaviour.
Most drilling fluids are non-Newtonian and pseudoplastic .
BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL
The Bingham Plastic model describes laminar flow using the following
equation:
= YP + PV * ()

= measured shear stress in lb/100 ft2
YP = yield point in lb/100 ft2
PV = plastic viscosity in cP
= shear rate in sec ^(1)

PV = 600 300
YP = 300 PV
YP = (2 300) 600

The Bingham Plastic model usually overpredicts yield stresses (shear
stresses at zero shear rate) by 40 to 90 percent.
The following equation produces more realistic values of yield stress at
low shear rates:

YP (Low Shear Rate)= (2 3) - 6

This equation assumes the fluid exhibits true plastic behaviour in the low
shear rate range only.
POWER LAW MODEL
The Power Law model assumes that all fluids are
pseudoplastic
in nature and are defined by the following equation:

= K *()^n

= Shear stress (dynes / cm2)
K = Consistency Index
= Shear rate (sec-1)
n = Power Law Index

The constant n is called the POWER LAW INDEX and its value
indicates the degree of non-Newtonian behaviour over a given
shear rate range. The constant n has no units.
The Power Law model actually describes three types of fluids,
based on the value of 'n':
n = 1: The fluid is Newtonian
n < 1: The fluid is non-Newtonian
n > 1: The fluid is Dilatent

The K value is the CONSISTENCY INDEX and is a measure of
the the thickness of the mud. An increase in the value of 'K'
indicates an increase in the overall hole cleaning effectiveness
of the fluid. The units of 'K' are either lbs/100ft^2, dynes-sec
or N/cm^2.

Hence the Power Law model is mathematically more complex
than the Bingham Plastic model and produces greater accuracy
in the determination of shear stresses at low shear rates.



The effect of n value

HERSCHEL-BUCKLEY (YPL) MODEL
The Herschel-Bulkley model describes the rheological behaviour of drilling muds more accurately
than any other model using the following equation:

= o + K * ()^n

= measured shear stress in lb/100 ft^2
o= fluid's yield stress (shear stress at zero shear rate)
in lb/100 ft2
K = fluid's consistency index in cP or lb/100 ft sec^2
n = fluid's flow index
= shear rate in sec^(-1)

The YPL model is very complex and requires a minimum of three shear-stress/shear-rate
measurements for a solution.

PRACTICAL HIDRAULICS EQUATIONS
The procedure for calculating the various pressure losses in a
circulating system is summarised below:
1. Calculate surface pressure losses using:
P1 = E * ^0.8 * Q^1.8 * PV^0.2
2. Decide on which model to use: Bingham Plastic or
Power Law.
3. Calculate pressure loses inside the drillpipe first then
inside drillcollars.
4. Divide the annulus into an open and cased sections.
5. Calculate annular flow around drillcollars (or BHA).
6. Repeat step four for flow around drillpipe in the open
and cased hole sections.
7. Add the values from step 1 to 5, call this system losses.
8. Determine the pressure drop available for the bit = pump
pressure - system losses
9. Determine nozzle velocity, total flow area and nozzle sizes


For step 3. :
Calculate critical velocity of flow
Calculate actual average velocity of flow
Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by
comparing average velocity with critical velocity.
If average velocity is less than critical velocity the
flow is laminar.If average velocity is greater than
critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
Use appropriate equation to calculate pressure drop
For step 5. :
Calculate critical velocity of annular flow
Calculate actual average velocity of flow in the annulus
Determine whether flow is laminar or turbulent by comparing
average velocity with critical velocity. If average velocity is less
than critical velocity the flow is laminar.If average velocity is
greater than critical velocity the flow is turbulent.
Use appropriate equation to calculate annular pressure drop
BINGHAM PLASTIC MODEL
PIPE FLOW ANNULAR FLOW
PIPE FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:




If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:


If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

ANNULAR FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:





If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:



If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:


POWER LAW MODEL
PIPE FLOW - ANNULAR FLOW
Determine n and K from:



PIPE FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:





If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:





If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:

POWER LAW MODEL
PIPE FLOW - ANNULAR FLOW
ANNULAR FLOW:
Determine average velocity and critical velocity:





If average velocity > critical velocity flow is turbulent, use:




If average velocity < critical velocity flow is laminar, use:
PRESSURE LOSS ACROSS BIT
The object of any hydraulics programme is to optimise pressure drop across the bit such that maximum cleaning
of bottom hole is achieved.
For a given length of drill string (drillpipe and drill collars) and given mud properties, pressure losses P1, P2, P3, P4
and P5 will remain constant. However, the pressure loss across the bit is greatly influenced by the sizes of nozzles
used, and the latter determine the amount of hydraulic horsepower available at the bit.
To determine the pressure drop across the bit, add the total pressure drops across the system, i.e. P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 +
P5, to give a total value of Pc (described as the system pressure loss). Then determine the pressure rating of the pump
used. If this pump is to be operated at, say, 80-90% of its rated value, then the pressure drop across the bit is simply
pump pressure minus Pc.
Procedure
1. From previous calculations, determine pressure drop across bit, using:


2. Determine nozzle velocity (ft/s):


3. Determine total area of nozzles (in^2):


4. Determine nozzle sizes in multiples of 32 seconds
OPTIMISATION OF BIT HYDRAULICS
All hydraulics programmes start by calculating pressure
drops in the various parts of the circulating system.
Pressure losses in surface connections, inside and around
the drillpipe, inside and around drill collars, are calculated,
and the total is taken as the pressure loss in the circulating
system, excluding the bit.
This pressure loss is normally given the symbol Pc.

SURFACE PRESSURE
Once the system pressure losses, Pc, is determined, the questions is how much pressure
drop can be tolerated at the bit (Pbit). The value of Pbit is controlled entirely by the
maximum allowable surface pump pressure. Most rigs have limits on maximum surface
pressure, especially when high volume rates in excess of 1000 gpm are used. In this
case, two or three pumps are used to provide this high quantity of flow. On land rigs
typical limits on surface pressure are in the range 2,500 3000 psi for well depths of
around 12,000 ft. For deep wells, heavy duty pumps are used which can have pressure
ratings up to 5,000 psi.
Hence, for most drilling operations, there is a limit on surface pump pressure, and the
criteria for optimising bit hydraulics must incorporate this limitation.
HYDRAULIC CRITERIA
There exist two criteria for optimising bit hydraulics: (1) maximum bit
hydraulic horsepower (BHHP); and (2) maximum impact force (IF).
Each criterion yields difference values of bitpressure drop and, in turn,
different nozzle sizes. The engineer is faced with the task of deciding
which criterion he is to choose. Moreover, in most drilling operations the
flow rate for each hole section has already been fixed to provide optimum
annular velocity and hole cleaning. This leaves only one variable to
optimise: the pressure drop across the bit, Pbit. We shall examine the two
criteria in detail and offer a quick method for optimising bit hydraulics.
MAXIMUM BIT HYDRAULIC HORSEPOWER
The pressure loss across the bit is simply the difference between the standpipe pressure and Pc. However, for
optimum hydraulics the bit pressure drop must be a certain fraction of the maximum available surface
pressure. For a given volume flow rate, optimum hydraulics is obtained when the bit hydraulic horsepower
assumes a certain percentage of the available surface horsepower. In the case of limited surface pressure, the
maximum pressure drop across the bit, as a function of available surface pressure, produces maximum
hydraulic horsepower at the bit for an optimum value of flow rate as shown below:




In the literature several values of n have been proposed, all of which fall in the range 1.8 - 1.86. Hence, when
n = 1.86, the previous equation gives Pbit = 0.65 Ps. In other words, for optimum hydraulics, the pressure
drop across the bit should be 65% of the total available surface pressure. The actual value of n can be
determined in the field by running the mud pump at several speeds and reading the resulting pressures. A
graph of Pc(=Ps - Pbit) against Q is then drawn. The slope of this graph is taken as the index n.
MAXIMUM IMPACT FORCE
In the case of limited surface pressure, it can be shown c that for
maximum impact force, the pressure drop across the bit (Pbit) is given by:




The bit impact force (IF) can be shown to be a function of Q and Pbit
according to the following equation.

NOZZLE SELECTION
Smaller nozzle sizes are always obtained when the maximum
BHHP method is used, as it gives larger values of Pbit than
those given by the maximum IF method. The following
equations may be used to determine total flow area and nozzle
sizes:
OPTIMUM FLOW RATE
The Optimum flow rate is obtained using the optimum value of Pc, n and
maximum surface pressure, Ps. For example, using the maximum BHHP
criterion, Pc is determined from:






The value of n is equal to the slope of the Pc - Q graph. The optimum
value of flow rate, Qopt is obtained from the intersection of the Pc value
and the Pc - Q graph.
MUD CARRYING CAPACITY
For effective drilling, cuttings generated by the drill bit must be removed immediately.
The drilling mud carries the drill cuttings up the hole and to the surface, to be separated
from the mud. The carrying (or lifting) capacity of mud is dependent on several
parameters including fluid density, viscosity, type of flow, annulus size, annular speed,
particle density, particle shape and particle diameter. Other factors such as pipe
Rotation, pipe eccentricity also have some influence on the carrying capacity of mud.

1. Turbulent flow is most desirable for efficient removal of cuttings.

2.Low viscosity, low gel strength of mud are desirable properties for removal of cuttings.

3.High mud density helps to efficiently remove cuttings.

4.Pipe rotation aids the removal of cuttings.
HOLE CLEANING
Efficient hole cleaning is directly dependent on the ability of mud to suspend and carry
The drill cuttings to the surface. The problems associated with inefficient hole cleaning
include:

1. Decreased bit life and slow penetration rate resulting from regrinding of drill cuttings.

2. Formation of hole fills near the bottom of the borehole during trips when the mud
pump is off.

3. Formation of bridge in the annulus which can lead to pipe sticking.

4. Increase in annular density and, in turn, annular hydrostatic pressure of mud.

The increased hydrostatic pressure of mud may cause the fracture of an exposed weak
Formation resulting in lost circulation. In practice, efficient hole cleaning is obtained by
providing sufficient annular velocity to the drilling mud and by imparting desirable fluid
properties.
SLIP VELOCITY
A rock particle falling through mud tends to settle out at constant velocity (zero acceleration)
described as slip or terminal velocity and is given by:

For transitional flow:



For turbulent flow, the equation becomes:




TRANSPORT VELOCITY
Transport or lift velocity is defined as the difference between the annular velocity of mud and the
slip velocity of particle:









It is obvious that for efficient hole cleaning, Va must be greater the Vs. Sample et al 10,11
observed that at annular velocities of less than 100 ft/min, particle slip velocity in both
Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids is independent of the fluid annular velocity. Above an
annular velocity of 100 ft/min, there appears to be a dependence of slip velocity on annular
velocity.
DRILL CUTTINGS CONCENTRATION
To prevent hole problems, it is generally accepted that the volume fraction of cuttings (or
concentration) in the annulus should not exceed 5%. Therefore, the design programme for mud
carrying capacity should also include a figure for the drill cuttings concentration in the annulus.
The cuttings concentration is given by:
Drilling Engineering
CEMENTING OPERATIONS
Dr. Imre FEDERER
Associate Professor
Cementing Operations
Functions of Cement
Provide zonal isolation
Primary barrier between formations
Support axial load of casing strings and strings to be run later
Provide casing support and protection
Support the borehole primary well control
Hydrostatic pressure > Formation pressure
Cement Slurry
Cement additives modify the behaviour of the cement slurry.
Accelerators
reduce the thickening time of a slurry and
increase the rate of early strength development.
Retarders:
chemicals which extend the thickening time of a slurry
to aid cement placement.
Extenders:
materials which lower the slurry density and increase the yield.
Weighting Agents:
materials which increase slurry density.
Cement Slurry
Cement additives
Dispersants:
chemicals which lower the slurry viscosity and may also
increase free water.
Fluid-Loss Additives:
materials which prevent slurry dehydration and reduce fluid
loss to the formation.
Lost Circulation Control Agents:
materials which control the loss of cement slurry to weak or
fractured formations.
Miscellaneous Agents:
e.g. Anti-foam agents.
Type of additives Used Chemical composition Benefit
accelerators Reducing WOC time Calcium chloride
Sodium chloride
gypsum
Accelerated setting,
high early strength
retarders Increasing thickening
time for placement,
reducing slurry
viscosity
Organic acids
Lignosulfonates
Increased pumping
time
Weight reducing
additives
Reducing weight Bentonite
gilsonite
Lighter weight
economy
Heavy weight
additives
Increasing slurry
weight
Hematite
dispersants
Higher density
Additives for
controlling lost
circulation
Bridging agent Walnut hulls
Gypsum cement
Lighter fluid columns
Squeezed fractured
zone
Filtration-control
additives
Squeeze cementing,
setting long liners
polymers Reduced dehydration
Ktadatok p, T, h,
formci
tulajdonsgai,



Cement Excess
Slurry Testing
Reporting of Cement Tests
Well Number
Well Depth
Bottom Hole Static Temperature (BHST)
Bottom Hole Circulating Temperature (BHCT)
Source of cement samples, water samples and additive samples
Spacer recommendation and recipe
Slurry Testing
Lead and Tail Slurry results including:
Cement type
Water type, Water requirements
Additive requirements
Slurry density, Slurry yield
Thickening time
Heating schedule, Pressure schedule
Rheology readings at BHCT (600-300-200-100-6-3 RPM))
Compressive strength (8hrs-12hrs-16hrs-24hrs in psi)
Estimated job time - to include mixing, pumping and displacement


Slurry Mixer Rheometer
Consistometer
Thickening time

Ultrasonic Cement Analyser

Filterpress

Compressive Strength
Measurement of the uniaxial compressive strength of two-inch
cubes of cement provides
Indication of strength development of cement at downhole
conditions.
Slurry samples are cured for 8, 12, 16 and 24 hours at bottom-hole
temperatures and pressures and the results reported in psi.
60
Compact Plug Container
Lifting Eye
Cap
Body
Plug Release
Plunger
Plug Launch
Indicator
Detent Pin
(Locks Quick-Latch
in Open or Closed
Position)
Quick Latch Coupler
1502 Unions
(Fluid Ports)
Plug Container
Cement head
Cementing Equipment
61
Top & Bottom Cementing Plug
Cementing Equipment
Float Shoe
Guide Shoe Float Collar
Will rupture
with pressure

9 5/8
13 3/8
18 5/8
7
2 7/8
63
Mechanical Aids Best
Practices
Pipe Movement
Rotation
Reciprocation
Casing Attachments
Scratchers scrape wallcake
from borehole
Centralizers provide stand-off
from bore hole
Specialized Float Equipment
CENTRALISERS
64
Cement Transporter/ Container

Slurry Mixing System
Control Consol

Displacement Efficiency
Stand Off (with centralisers)
Flow Regime (Laminar or Turbulence)
Spacers (usually fresh water)
Rotation (only if possible/practical)
Reciprocation (only if critical)
72
Mud Displacement Best Practices
Bad
Good
Annular Flow Profile with Eccentric Casing

Common types of Cementations
PRIMARY
Single Stage Casing
Inner String (Stinger)
Multiple Stage (rarely used)
Liner
Balanced Plug
SECONDARY
Remedial Circulation
Squeeze
Bailer (usually with coiled tubing)
Stinger (inner string) Cementation
WHEN :
Relatively short & large diameter casing (surface)
Hole size not accurately known or losses to the formation
WHY :
Allows flexibility in cement quantity
Keep pumping until good cement seen at surface,
thereafter only small volume of cement still to be displaced
Multiple Stage Cementation When/Why
To enable cementing of very long intervals w/ weak zones, thus
reducing pressure on formation and equipment
To enable to conduct selective cementing, e.g. placing cement
above a loss zone
To minimise channelling (mud/spacer/cement)
Reduce risk of flash setting (long interval jobs with different
pressures/temperature).
Cementing Accessories for Special Jobs
Cementing with losses requires extra
accessories

PURPOSE
Enable to place cement above loss zones
Isolate hydrocarbon zones at various
depths in the well
Ten Steps to Optimise Cement Job
Condition the drilling fluid
Optimise casing accessories
Maximise displacement rate
Ensure pipe movement [if practical]
Spacers and flushes
Temperature effects
Selection/test of cement composition
Additional pre-job considerations
Job execution
Evaluation [logging to assess bond]
Condition the Drilling Fluid
Viscosity of the mud should be reduced to the lowest practical
level before the drillpipe is removed from the hole.
Not to reduce the mud rheology below the minimum level required
to suspend the weighting agent.
Once the casing has been run, the mud should be further
conditioned to remove gelled mud in areas of poor centralisation.
Min. two to three hole volumes are considered sufficient conditioning
After conditioning the hole, cementing should start without any break
in circulation.
Optimise Casing Accessories
Best casing centralisation should be obtained by software.
A good rule-of-thumb is minimum 70% stand-off.
Good centralisation can reduce casing running difficulties by helping
to prevent differential sticking.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
W W
% Stand-off =
w
R
H
- R
C

X 100
API % STAND-OFF
F
L
O
W

R
A
T
E

R
A
T
I
O

R
C
R
H
Casing Movement
Whenever possible the casing should be reciprocated or rotated.
Pipe movement increases displacement efficiency by helping to
break-up gelled.
Movement should be attempted - from hole conditioning to
displacement.
Rotation requires special equipment.
For liners, rotation is recommended - due to concerns over setting
the liner.
Rules-of-thumb are suggested:
reciprocate 20-40 ft over a period of 2-5 minutes
rotation rates of 10-40 rpm.
82
Spacers & Flushes Best Practices
Used to:
Separate Incompatible Fluids
Aid in Mud Displacement
Leave All Downhole Surfaces Water-Wet

Volume Calculated By:
1000 ft Annular Fill
or
10 min Contact Time
WHICH ONE IS GREATER
Displacement Rate
Displacement rates should be maximised to obtain the most
effective cement placement.
Cement slurry washer and spacer fluid will achieve turbulence
around the casing if it is possible
Useful guideline is to ensure that the annular velocity (assuming
concentric casing) is above 260 ft/min.
84
Fluid Velocity Best Practices
Pump As Fast As Possible
Direction of flow
Plug Flow
Laminar flow
Turbulent flow
Laminar Sub-Layer Central Un-Sheared Core Laminar Sub-Layer
LOCAL FLUID
VELOCITY
Pressures while Cementing
Balance the formation pressure

Prevent the formation fracturing
Fracturing Gradient
Increased formation strength
Cement Bond Evaluation
Within 24 hours of the cement job
Temperature log indicate the presence of cement and TOC.
More than 5 days after the cement job.
Cement Bond Log (CBL)
Variable Density Log (VDL)
Cement Evaluation Tool (CET)
Ultrasonic Borehole Imaging (USI)
Segmented Bond Tool (SBT)
Cement Bond Evaluation
Two major types of tools:
Sonic tools (CBL/VDL)
The attenuation rate depends on
the cement compressive
strength, the casing diameter,
and the percentage of bonded
circumference.
Variable density log
Allows easy differentiation
between casing and
formation arrivals
No
Cement
Good
Bond
Cement Bond Evaluation
Casing Bond Log [CBL]
Bad Cementation
High Attenuation/Ampl.


Casing Bond Log [CBL]
Good Cementation
Low Attenuation/Ampl
Cement Proplems
Micro annular
Mud Channel
Mud Cake
Poor Mudcake
Removal
Cement Integrity
Insufficient Hydrostatic
Pressure Fluid Loss
Liner Cementing
Liner Cementing Guidelines
Prior to the cementation the following calculations will be
conducted:
Circulation volume
Cement volume including excess
Volume of pre-flush
Reduction in hydrostatic head due to pre-flush.
For the pre-flush in open hole, assume gauge hole to calculate
the height of the pre-flush.
There should be sufficient overbalance at all times during
the cement job.
Liner Hanger Selection
Hanger Loading Forces
Following cumulative forces
should be taken into account.
(a) Liner hanging weight
(b)The internal pressure
required to initially set the
hanger and shear the ball seat
(c) Designated pressure to
bump the plug
(d) Running string set down
weight prior to cementing.
Liner Hanger Selection
Integral Packers
To avoid sole reliance on the liner lap
cement job.
Tie-back Packers
If the integral packer is found to be
leaking.
In highly deviated wells rotating hangers
are preferred.
In deep or highly deviated wells,
hydraulic set hangers are preferred.
If mechanically set liner hangers are
used they should be resetable.
Liner Cementing
Liner Lap Length
The optimum length of the liner lap will depend on the likelihood of
obtaining a good cement bond over the liner lap.
In vertical wells where the liner can be well centralised.
In this case a 250 - 500 ft liner lap should be used.
If use integral liner packers,
the liner lap need only be of the order of 100 ft in length.
Cementing in Horizontal Section
Slurry used on horizontal sections:
A settlement of more than 5 mm is unacceptable
A gradient of more than 1.0 lb/gal is unacceptable.
Displacement
Circulate at least three times the hole volume
Circulate until the properties of the mud returning are the same
as those being pumped in.
Centralization
Use rigid centralisers (or turbulators).
Use bowspring centralisers where.

97
QUESTIONS?
Downhole Problems
Lost Circulation
Dr. Imre Federer
Associate Professor
98
99
Lost Circulation
LOST CIRCULATION MECHANISMS
Measurable loss of whole mud (liquid phase and solid
phase) to the formation.
Lost circulation can occur at any depth during any
operation.
PRESSURE INDUCED FRACTURE
Wellbore pressure exceeds fracture pressure of the
formation causing the rock to crack open (fracture)
NATURALLY FRACTURES/ HIGH PERMEABILITY
Overbalanced wellbore pressure is exposed a
formation with unsealed fractures or high permeability
100
ADVERSE EFFECTS ON DRILLING
OPERATIONS
IN ANY HOLE SECTIONS:
Hole cleaning problems
Hole bridge/ collapse
Stuck pipe
Well control event
SURFACE HOLE
Loss of drive/ conductor shoe
Loss of well
101
ADVERSE EFFECTS ON DRILLING
OPERATIONS
INTERMEDIATE and PRODUCTION
HOLE SECTIONS
Loss of fluid level monitoring
Loss of formation evaluation
Extended wellbore exposure time
Underground blowout
Additional casing string
Production zone damage
102
CAUSES OF LOST CIRCULATION
PRESSURE INDUCED FRACTURES
Excessive mud weight
Annulus friction pressure
Wellbore pressure surges
Imposed/ trapped pressure
Shut-in pressure
Low formation pressure
103
Cause:
- Wellbore pressure greater than fracturing pressure
- Formation fractures allowes mud loss
Warning Sign: - Pronosed losses
- Excessive mud weight
- Low fracture strength
- Poor hole cleaning
- Wellbore pressure surge
Indications: - May begin with seepage loss
- Possible total loss
- Pit volume loss
- Excessive hole fill-up
- In shut-in sudden loss of pressure
Firs Action: - Reduce pump speed to 1/2
(Total Loss) - Pull off bottom, stop pump
- Reset to zero stroke counter
- Fill annulus with water or light mud
- Record strokes when annulus fill-up
- Monitor well for flow
Preventiv Action: - Minimize mud weight
- Maximize solid removal
- Control penetration rate
- Avoid imposed/ trapped pressure
104
Pressure Induced Fractures
CAUSES OF LOST CIRCULATION
NATURAL FRACTURES/ PERMEABILITY
Unconsolidated formation
Fissures/ fractures
Unsealed fault boundary
Vugular/ cavernous formation
105
106
Natural Fractures/High Permeability
Cause:
- Wellbore pressure is overbalanced to formation pressure
- Mud is lost to natural fractures and/or high permeability
Warning: - Prodnosed loss zone
- Lost circulation can occure at any time during
any openhole operation
Indications: - May begin with seepage loss
- Total loss possible
- Static losses during connections/survey
- Pit volume loss
Firs Action: - Reduce pump speed to 1/2
(Total Loss) - Pull off bottom, stop pump
- Reset to zero stroke counter
- Fill annulus with water or light mud
- Record strokes when annulus fill-up
- Monitor well for flow
Preventiv Action: - Minimize mud weight
- Control penetration rate
- Minimize wellbore pressure surges
- Pre-treat with LCM
LOSS SEVERITY CLASSIFICATIONS
SEEPAGE LOSS
( 20 BBLS/HR)
PARTIAL LOSS
( 20 BBLS/HR)
TOTAL LOSS
(NO RETURNS)
GRADUAL
LOSSES
OPERATION NOT
INTERRUPTED
POSSIBLE
WARNING OF
INCREASED
LOSS SEVERITY
IMMEDIATE DROP IN
FLUID LEVEL WHEN
PUMPING IS STOPPED
SLOW TO REGAIN
RETURNS AFTER
STARTING CIRCUL.
OPERATIONS USUALLY
INTERRUPTED
REMEDIAL ACTION
REQUIRED
RETURN FLOW
STOPS IMMEDIATELY
PUMP PRESSURE
DECREASE
STRING WEIGHT
INCREASE
OPERATION
SUSPENDED
REMEDIAL ACTION
REQUIRED
107
METHODS FOR LOCATING LOSS DEPTH
Successful treatment of lost circulation depends greatly on locating
the depth of the loss zone
SURVEY METHODS PRACTICAL METHODS
TEMPERATURE SURVEY
ACOUSTIC LOG
RADIOACTIVE TRACER
SPINNER SURVEY
PRESSURE TRANSDUCER
HOT WIRE SURVEY
OFFSET WELL DATA
GEOLOGIST LOGGER
IDENTIFIES
POTENTIAL LOSS ZONE
MONITORING FLUID LEVEL
TRENDS
WHILE DRILLING
108
GUIDELINES FOR LOST CIRCULATION SOLUTIONS
ACTION RESULTS CONSIDERATIONS
MINIMIZE
MUD WT
Reduced wellbore
pressure(driving force
pushing mud into loss
zone
More successful with pressure
induced fractures
Possible well control event or
hole instability problems
FORMATION
HEALING
TIME
Reactive clays of loss
zone swell with water
producing plugging effect
Soft shale deform with
formation stress helping
to heal the fracture
More successful with fresh
water mud lost to shale
formations
Better results with LCM
Normal 6-8 hours wait time with
string in casing
LOSS CIRC.
MATERIAL
(LCM)
Effectively bridges, mats
and seals small to
medium fractures/
permeability
Less effective with large
fractures, faults
Ineffective cavernous zones
Increase LCM lbs/bbl with loss
severity
109
GUIDELINES FOR LOST CIRCULATION SOLUTIONS (Contd)
ACTION RESULTS CONSIDERATIONS
SPECIALTY
TECHNIQUES
A plug base is pumped
into the loss zone
followed by a chemical
activator
The two materials form a
soft plug
Can be used in production
zones
Increased risk of plugging
equipment
Plug breaks down with time
CEMENT
Cement slurry is
squeezed into the loss
zone under injection
pressure
Provides a fit-to-form solid
plug at or near the stress of
the surrounding formation
DRILLING
BLIND
In some cases, the only
practical solution is to drill
without returns
Not a consideration where well
control potential exist
Set casing in the first
competent formation
110
GUIDELINES FOR SUCCESSFUL LCM RESULTS
Locating the loss zone and accurate pill placement is vital.
Position the string +/- 100 feet above loss zone, do not stop
pumping until the pill clears the bit.
Insure the base mud viscosity will suspend the LCM volume
added.
Add fresh gel to a premixed LCM pill immediately before
pumping, fresh gel continues to yield after spotting
An effective LCM pill bridges, matts and then seals the loss
zone, particle size distribution and pill formulation must
satisfy these requirements.
Consult the LCM product guide prior to applying the pill
Use large nozzle sizes if the loss potential is high.
Keep the string moving during pill spotting operation to avoid
stuck pipe
111
LOSS CIRCULATION MATERIAL (LCM)
MATERIAL DEFINITION
GRADES
FINE (F) A portion of material pass through the shaker.
MEDIUM (M) Majority of material will screen-out at shakers.
COARSE (C) All material will screen-out at shaker. Will plug
nozzles. Recommended open-ended pipe.
FIBROUS
FLAKED
Non-rigid materials that form a mat on the hole wall to provide a
foundation for normal filter cake development.
GRANULAR Rigid materials that plug the permeability of the loss zone
LCM BLEND Combination of fibrous, flaked and granular materials in sack
CELLULOSTIC Sized wood derived materials used to prevent seepage/partial loss
CALCIUM
CARBONATE
Sized limestone or marble (acid soluble) used for seepage/partial
loss in production zone
SIZED SALT
Granulated salt (water soluble) developed for seepage/ partial loss
in production zone in salt-saturated systems
112
SEEPAGE LOSS SOLUTIONS (20 BBLS/HR)
FIRST ACTION RECOVERY
Reduce ROP to
limit cuttings load
Minimize mud
rheology
Add LCM pill in 5-10 PPB increments. Evaluate results
over 2 circulations before increasing to next level of LCM
concentration. Mix in 30 to 50 bbl batches dictated by
hole size. Consider spotting LCM pill before POOH
Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS
Minimize wellbore
pressure surges
Minimize mud wt
WBM:
LCM Blend (F) 5-15 PPB
LCM Blend (M) 5-15 PPB
Flaked (F/M) 10-20 PPB
OBM/SBM:
Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED
Consider pulling
into casing and
waiting 6 to 8 hours
WBM:
Limestone (F/M) 5-30 PPB
OBM/SBM:
Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
Limestone (F/M) 5-15 PPB

113
PARTIAL LOSS SOLUTIONS (20 BBLS/HR)
FIRST ACTION RECOVERY
Reduce ROP to
limit cuttings load
Minimize mud
rheology
Add LCM pill in 5-10 PPB increments. Evaluate results
over 2 circulations before increasing to next level of LCM
concentration. Mix in 30 to 50 bbl batches dictated by
hole size. Consider spotting LCM pill before POOH
Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS
Minimize wellbore
pressure surges
Minimize mud wt
WBM:
LCM Blend (M) 15-25 PPB
LCM Blend (C) 15-25 PPB
Walnut (M/C) 10-20 PPB
OBM/SBM:
Cellulosic (F/M) 10-25 PPB
Cellulosic (C) 10-25 PPB
Walnut (M) 5-15 PPB
PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED
Consider pulling
into casing and
waiting 6 to 8 hours
WBM:
LCM Blend (F) 5-15 PPB
LCM Blend (M) 5-15 PPB
Cellulosic (M) 5-15 PPB

OBM/SBM:
Cellulosic (F/M) 2-25 PPB
Limestone (F) 5-15 PPB

114
TOTAL LOSS SOLUTIONS
FIRST ACTION RECOVERY
Pull off bottom,
keep string moving
Fill annulus with
water or light mud
Formulations for the specially pill and cement are
dictated by conditions of each event
Minimize GPM NON-PRODUCTIVE INTERVALS
Record strokes if
annulus fills up
Minimize wellbore
pressure surges
WBM:
40 PPB LCM Pill
Specialty Pill
Cement Squeeze
OBM/SBM:
30-40 PPB LCM Pill
Specialty Pill
Cement Squeeze
PRODUCTION ZONE EXPOSED
Consider pulling
into the casing
WBM:
40 PPB LCM Pill
Specialty Pill
Cement Squeeze
RESERVOIR NEEDS
OBM/SBM:
30-40 PPB LCM Pill
Specialty Pill
Cement Squeeze
RESERVOIR NEEDS
115
SEALING MATERIALS USED FOR LOST CIRCULATION
MATERIAL TYPE DESCRIPTION
CONCENTR.
LBS/BBL
LARGEST
FRACTURE
SEALED (INCHES)
0 4 8 12 16 20
Nutshell Granular
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
50%-10+ 100 mesh
20 ______________
Plastic Granular
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
50%-10+ 100 mesh
20 ______________
Limestone Granular
50%-3/16+10 mesh
50%-10+ 100 mesh
40 ________
Sulphur Granular
50%-3/16+ 10 mesh
50%-10+ 100 mesh
120 ________
Nutshell Granular
50%-10+ 16 mesh
50%-30+ 100 mesh
20 __________
Expanded
Percite
Granular
50%-3/16+10 mesh
50%-10+ 100 mesh
60 ________
116
SEALING MATERIALS USED FOR LOST CIRCULATION
MATERIAL TYPE DESCRIPTION
CONCENTR.
LBS/BBL
LARGEST
FRACTURE
SEALED (INCHES)
0 4 8 12 16 20
Cellophane Laminated flakes 8 ________
Sawdust Fibrous particles 10 ________
Prairie Hay Fibrous particles 10 ________
Bark Fibrous 3/8 particles 10 _____
Cottonseed
Hulls
Granular Fine 10 _____
Prairie Hay Fibrous 3/8 particles 12 ____
117
SPOTTING PROCEDURES FOR LOST CIRCULATION MATERIAL
(LCM)
Locate the loss zone.
Mix 50 100 barrels of mud with 25 30 ppb bentonite and 30
40 ppb LCM
Position the drill string+/-100 feet above the loss zone
If open-ended, pump of the pill into the loss zone. Stop the
pump, wait 15 minutes and pump the remainder of the pill
If pumping through the bit, pump the entire pill and follow with 25
barrels of mud
If returns are not regained, repeat procedure. If returns are not
regained, wait 2 hours and repeat procedure.
If returns are not regained after pumping 3 pills, consider other
options to regain circulation
118
SPOTTING PROCEDURE FOR CEMENT
The cement slurry formulation should be tested by the cement
company to determine the thickening time.
If possible, drill through the entire loss circulation interval
Pull out of the hole and return with open-ended drill pipe
Position the open-ended drill pipe approximately 100 feet above the
loss zone
Mix and pump 50 to 100 bbls of cement slurry
Follow the slurry with a sufficient volume of mud or water to balance
the U-Tube
Wait 6 to 8 hours and attempt to fill the annulus
Repeat the procedure if returns are not regained
It may be necessary to drill out the cement before repeating the
procedure
119
LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION GUIDELINES (1)
Prevention of lost circulation must be considered in the well
planning, drilling and post analysis phases.
Design the casing program to case-off low pressure or suspected
lot circulation zones.
Maintain mud weight to the minimum required to control known
formation pressures.
Pre-treat the mud system with LCM when drilling through known
lost circulation intervals.
Maintain low mud rheology values that are still sufficient to clean
the hole.
Rotating the drill string when starting circulation helps to break the
gels and minimize pump pressure surges.
Start circulation slowly after connections and periods of non-
circulation.
120
LOST CIRCULATION PREVENTION GUIDELINES (2)
Prevention of lost circulation must be considered in the well
planning, drilling and post analysis phases.
Use minimum GPM flow rate to clean the hole when drilling known
lost circulation zone.
Control drill known lost circulation zone to avoid loading the annulus
with cuttings.
Reduce pipe tripping speeds to minimize swab/surge pressure.
Plan to break circulation at 2 to 3 depths while tripping in the hole.
Minimize annular restrictions.
Consider using jet sizes that will allow the use of LCM pills (12/32
jets+).
Be prepared for plugging pump suctions, pump discharge screen,
drill string screens, etc.
Be prepared for mud losses due to shaker screen plugging.
121
PRECAUTIONS WHILE DRILLING WITHOUT RETURNS (1)
Circumstances may dictate drilling blind until 50 feet of the next
competent formation is drilled.
Casing is set to solve the lost circulation problem. A blind drilling
operation must have Drilling Manager approval.
Insure an adequate water supply is available.
Use one pump to drill and the other pump to continuously add water to the
annulus. Assign a person to monitor the flow line at all times.
Monitor torque and drag to determine when to pump viscous sweeps.
Closely monitor pump pressure while drilling for indications of pack-off.
Control drill (if possible) at one joint per hour.
Pick up off bottom every 15 feet (3m) to ensure the hole is not packing off.
Keep the pipe moving at all times.
Maintain a 400-500 bbl reserve of viscous mud ready to pump.
Consider spotting viscous mud on bottom prior to tripping or logging.
122
PRECAUTIONS WHILE DRILLING WITHOUT RETURNS (1)
Stop drilling and consider pulling to the shoe if pump repairs are required.
Start and stop pipe slowly and minimize pipe speed.
Consider spotting a viscous pill above the BHA prior to each connection.
Prior to each connection, circulate and wipe the hole thoroughly.
Do not run surveys when drilling blind.
If circulation returns, stop drilling.
Raise the drill string to the shut-in position.
Stop the pumps and check the well for flow.
If flow is observed, close the BOP and observe shut-in pressures.
No pressure Slowly circulate bottoms up through 2 open chokes.
Pressure Observed Slowly circulate the kick with present mud weight.
At all times to pump cement to the well
123
Downhole Problems
Stuck Pipe
Dr. Imre Federer
Associate Professor
Planning of Common
Activities
125
WELL PLANNING
PLANNING is probably the single most important
aspect of Stuck Pipe Prevention

ACTIVITIES which require daily attention are:-
Selection and Change of BHA
Drilling and Reaming close to Bottom
Tripping in/out of the Hole
Prepare for and running of Casing

126
WELL PLANNING Selection of BHA
Design Simplicity
- Keep BHA as short as practically possible
- Eliminate and/or lay down tools which are not used or
have a low probability of being used
Jar Optimisation
- Type of Jar, Placement of Jar, use of 1 or 2 Jar
Dimensions
- Accurately gauge Bit/Stabilisers (OD), Tools (OD, ID)
- Free access of wireline tools (e.g. Free Point Indicator)
127
Make-up Size Drill Collars/HWDP Assy
Compromise between:
WOB (rigidity and annular clearance)
Annular velocity across the BHA
Wall contact area
Contact Area Sticking Tendency
- Casing, Liners, DC, OH, Completions sizes
Certification/Inspection/Operating Hours
Lay down or change out tools which are uncertified or
have reached max. operating hours

WELL PLANNING Selection of BHA
128
Hole Cleaning
Mud rheology optimisation
Effective Hole Cleaning/Cutting Transport
Trends
Use of information on past and current wells
Plotting and comparing drag and torque trends
Rathole for Casing String
Keep as short as practically possible with the aim to
improve cement bond
WELL PLANNING
DRILLING
129
WELL PLANNING
DRILLING
Borehole Geometry
Control the Dogleg Severity
Build-up sections, horizontal departures and doglegs.
Use software to assess expected (up/down) drag and
buckling
Awareness about changes in BHA (PDC Bit Gauge
Length, Stabilisers, Rigidity, Clearance)

130
DRAG OVERPULL - SETDOWN -
INCREMENTAL TORQUE
Mechanisms
131
Surface Forces when MOVING STRING
MAX
UP
ROTATING WEIGHT
UP WEIGHT
UP DRAG
OVERPULL
TRAVELING
EQPT WT
ROTATE
MEASURED WEIGHT
132
Surface Forces when MOVING STRING
MIN
DOWN
ROTATING WEIGHT
UP WEIGHT
DOWN WEIGHT
DOWN
DRAG
SETDOWN
TRAVELING
EQPT WT
ROTATE
MEASURED WEIGHT
133
Surface Forces when MOVING STRING
MIN
MAX
DOWN
UP
ROTATING WEIGHT
UP WEIGHT
DOWN WEIGHT
UP DRAG
OVERPULL
DOWN
DRAG
SETDOWN
TRAVELING
EQPT WT
ROTATE
MEASURED WEIGHT
134
Definitions
Down Weight and Up Weight is the Measured
Weight under Normal Conditions, when moving String
down or up, without Rotation and with Pumps shut
off
Rotating Weight is measured off bottom and
keeping string stationary (with or without pumping)
Restrictions, Up or Down, will result in Overpull and
Setdown respectively
Surface Forces when MOVING STRING
135
Surface Torque
MAX
OFF
BOTTOM
DRILLING
INCREMENTAL

TORQUE
MEASURED TORQUE
OFF BOTTOM TORQUE
DRILLING TORQUE
136
Drag Charts
MAX
MIN
MARGIN OF
OVERPULL
DOWN
WEIGHT LINE
ROTATING
WEIGHT LINE
UP WEIGHT
LINE
MEASURED WEIGHT
SURFACE
DEPTH
OF WELL
137
Drag Charts
MAX
MIN
MARGIN OF
OVERPULL
DOWN
WEIGHT LINE
ROTATING
WEIGHT LINE
UP WEIGHT
LINE
MEASURED WEIGHT
SURFACE
DEPTH
OF WELL
CUTTINGS BED
DEVELOPS
CIRCULATION,
ROTATION &
SWEEPS EFFECT
138
Drag Charts for RUNNING CASING
MARGIN OF
OVERPULL
MEASURED WEIGHT SURFACE
DEPTH
OF WELL
MIN
PREVIOUS
CSG SHOE
MAX
WEIGHT in MUD
CASING CANNOT BE
PULLED BACK FROM
THIS POINT ONWARDS
139
Friction Forces DRAG
WEIGHT
NORMAL
FORCE
TENSION
DOWN
TENSION
UP
Friction Force = Normal Force x Friction Factor
Normal Force >> results from dogleg & tension
Friction Factor >> results from mud type&formation
140
Friction Factor / Coefficient
SHALE
LIMESTONE
SOFT
SANDSTONE
HARD
SANDSTONE
FRICTION FACTORS
(PSEUDO) OIL
BASED MUD
WATER BASED
MUD
LOW
MEDIUM HIGH
MEDIUM
Its dependence on lithology and casing/open hole
CASING
141
WELLBORE STABILITY
Stuck Pipe MECHANISMS # 1
142
Wellbore Stability
Hydro-Pressured Shale accounts for majority of
Stuck Pipe Incidents
Influencing factors are:-
MUD Mud type, Mud Density
DRILL STRING BHA Make-up, Dynamics
FORMATION Rock Stress, Sensitivity
TIME Deterioration Bore Hole Wall
COMPLEX if all above factors combined


143



Mechanical WellBore Instability
in different formations
144
Shale Borehole Instability
PRIMARY CAUSES:
Mud WT is either too HIGH or too LOW
Relatively HIGH Shale Pore Pressure close
to the well bore
Hydration Stress (swelling shales)
OTHER (supplementary) CAUSES:
Natural fractures
Drill string vibration resulting in hole enlargement

145
Rock Mechanical
Factors
146
Mud Weight OUTSIDE acceptable RANGE
Rock Mechanical Influencing factors:
When MUDWEIGHT TOO LOW
We will exceed COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH, resulting
in COLLAPSE
When MUDWEIGHT TOO HIGH
We will exceed TEN-SILE STRENGTH, resulting in
FRACTURES and possibly LOSSES
Tools to calculate min/max mud weight:
BOREOLE STABILITY CHARTS using area specific data

147
Mudweight INSIDE acceptable RANGE
WHEN DRILLING SHALE
3,000
4,500
6,000
7,500
9,000
10,500
0.425 11.5 12.5 13.5
D
e
p
t
h

T
V

[
f
t
]

14.5
Mud Gradient [psi/ft]
0.465 0.685 0.730 0.775 0.815
Estimated
Fracture Gradient
Estimated Pore
Pressure Gradient
65
45
85
25
5
Estimated Borehole
Collapse Gradient
148
Rock Mechanical Borehole
Failure
Sh
The resultant Radial Stress
Sr should be sufficient to
prevent collapse of the hole
by compression and shearing
Po
WELLBORE
Drilling Fluid
Sr = Radial Stress = Pw - Po
Pw
Sh = Rock (Hoop) Stress
(created by drilling the hole)
This shearing force is trying
to collapse the hole
Pw = WellBore Pressure
(created by drilling fluid)
This force is supporting the
hole
Po = Pore Pressure
(this force opposes the
force exerted by the mud
column)
149
Rock Mechanical Borehole Failure
When Radial Stress is small, the shear strength of the
formation (such as SHALE) will be exceeded



RESULT CAVINGS



Increase mud weight
150
High Pore Pressure
Effect
151





Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius
15
21 19
17
Sandstone
OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 5300 kPa
Pressure Differential creates Filter Cake
Filter Cake prevents further penetration of fluid
Pore Pressure is constant even after many days,
except for a few inches close to Well Bore
Pore
Pressure
Mud
Pressure
O
v
e
r
b
a
l
a
n
c
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]

3000
1500
4500
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SANDSTONE
152





Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius
15
21 19
17
1 Day
45 Days
7 Days
Sandstone
Shale
Pore
Pressure
Mud
Pressure
O
v
e
r
b
a
l
a
n
c
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]

OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 5300 kPa
(Continuous) flow due to pressure differential over Shale
Pore Pressure will quickly increase with time when
overbalance is high. Compare the inflated Pore Pressures
between 1 day and 45 days exposure
Fluid penetration depends on medium (water/oil) and
permeability of shale
4500
3000
1500
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SHALE
153





Distance from borehole wall [r/R]
r = Distance from Hole Centre and R = Borehole radius
15
21 19
17
1 Day
If we would use 1/2 the
overbalance
7 Days
Shale
Pore
Pressure
Mud
Pressure
O
v
e
r
b
a
l
a
n
c
e

P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

[
k
P
a
]

OVERBALANCE (Wellbore - Pore Press) = 2650 kPa
Pore Pressure will increase less rapidly with time
when overbalance is reduced to 1/2 the original value
Fluid penetration still depends on medium water/oil)
and permeability of shale
Sandstone
45 Days
4500
3000
1500
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore - SHALE
154
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore
When Drilling Shale, Filter Cake almost non-existent:
Results in FLUID INVASION and DEEP PENETRATION
Results in PORE PRESSURE INCREASE with TIME
Preventive and Reducing Measures:
Minimise Overbalance, increase density in small steps if
rock stress increase as a result of inclination
Select appropriate Drilling Fluid to reduce invasion
Avoid high swab and surge pressures
Avoid well bore disturbances, i.e. (back-) reaming.

155
Borehole
Collapse in time
156
Shale Instability vs. Time
Hardening Zone
Softening Zone
Borehole
collapse vs.
mud weight
Washed out and
in gauge HOLE
Sand in gauge hole
Shale washed out hole
159
Mud Selection
160
High Pore Pressure in vicinity of Well Bore
Mud Selection:
Any mud which is effective in creating a threshold
pressure within the shale capillaries:
FIRST CHOICE non-water based (oil based)
even silicate or formate brines
SECOND CHOICE water-based
with KCl, Polymers, etc.
Alternative and/or viscous mud filter cake (bad choice)
A minimum overbalance is still essential

161
Dynamic Bottomhole Pressure
162
Drilling Fluids for Shale
Non-Water Based Fluids:
Oil Based (aromatics)
Pseudo Oil Based (ester/ether)
Water Based Fluids:
Polyglycols
KCl Polymers
FerroChrome Lignosulphonate
Saturated CaCl2 & High Density Formates
Silicates (w/ gel forming - plugging pores)

163
Difference Water Based & Oil Based MUD
WELLBORE
WELLBORE
CAPILLARY ACTION
REPULSION
SURFACE
TENSION
FREE FLOW
IN (SLOW)
WBM OBM
SHALE
SHALE
164
Permeability of Shale:
A filtercake cannot exist
Oil Base reduces penetration of fluids (water phase)
by capillary action
Instability:
Can still occur with OBM if lack of mud weight
Onset of fractures makes it easier for the situation to
get worse or more difficult to restore.
Difference Water Based & Oil Based MUD
165
Effects of MUD on Bore Hole Stability
Oil Base Mud
Bore Hole Wall
smooth
no interaction
KCl WB Mud
balanced activity
WB Mud
unbalanced activity
Bore Hole Wall
relatively smooth
reduced interaction
Bore Hole Wall
rough
hydration
166
Operational - When Drilling Shales
Minimise Open Hole Time (golden rule)
Adhere to planned/optimal Mud Properties
Keep the Hole Clean (measure/check/confirm)
Increase Mud Weight in small steps
Avoid decrease of Mud Weight if at all possible
Minimise backreaming if at all possible
167
Mechanism # 2
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
168
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
Influencing factors are:-
PERMEABILITY Formation Type and Zones
WALL CONTACT BHA, DC Type, Size, Stabs,
Deviation
OVERBALANCE Pore Pressure Depleted Zones
MUD PROPERTIES Density, Filter Loss/Cake,
Low Gravity Solids
TIME Pipe Movement
What can stick ?: BHA DCs, Casing, HWDP, DP

169
String
Excess
mud
pressure
Filtercake
Gelled,
stagnant
mud
Permeable
Formation
build-up of
Low Gravity Solids
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
170
String
Excess
mud
pressure
Filtercake
Gelled,
stagnant
mud
Permeable
Formation
build-up of
Low Gravity Solids
String
Contact Area will
increase with time
String
String will sag and
fully penetrate FC
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
171
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
If NO Pipe Movement :
With time, pipe/wire will penetrate into filtercake
Contact area will increase, overbalance (mud
density vs pore pressure) directly across pipe/wire
Sticking force will increase exponentially

172
Why does it happen so OFTEN :
Long duration Surveys, Connections, Minor Repairs
Pore Pressure information not known/measured
Inadequate optimisation of BHA or W/L Tool String
Inadequate optimisation of Mud Properties
Response of Rig Team to first signs; Immediate
response to permanently stuck situation.
DIFFERENTIAL STICKING
173
Drilling
Fluid
Torque
Pressure
Filter
Cake
Filtrate

- Filter Cake builds up
- Torque required to rotate ball and to
break bond with cake increases if left
stationary for longer period



Torque will increase exponentially
with time

STICKANCE TESTER
174
1. Overpull on connections will be:
a. erratic c. increasing
b. unaffected d. smooth
2. Torque trend is likely to be:
a. smooth c. erratic
b. unaffected d. increasing (connections)
3. Circulating Pressure will be:
a. fluctuating c. restricted
b. unaffected d. impossible
4. The problem is ___unlikely______ to stabilise with time !
a. most likely c. likely
b. unlikely d. expected
5. The warning signs begin to appear during:
a. drilling c. reaming
b. tripping d. connections

Differencial Sticking - Warning Signs
FREEING DIFFERENTIALLY STUCK PIPE
Immediate action upon 1st indication:
Apply maximum allowable slack down/pull and
torque into string
Jar down with substantial weight slacked off
If this is unsuccessful the following actions are
necessary:
Reduce the pressure differential to reduce
density of the drilling fluid.
Remove the wall cake by "dissolving" it through
spotting pipe-lax pills dissolved in diesel oil. This
can often take more than a day.
176
Mechanism # 3
HOLE CLEANING
177
HOLE CLEANING
Influencing factors are:
MUD Rheology, Suspension when circulation
low/stopped, Shear Thinning when
circulation resumed
CIRCULATION Rate to be as fast as Hole and
Surface Equipment allows
ROTATION As fast as BHA and Trajectory
allows. Caution during backreaming
DEVIATION Problematic between 50 65 deg
MEASURING Shale Shakers, Lag Time, Pressure
while Drilling Tool (ECD)

178
Hole Cleaning
In combination with hole instability, the main
cause of Stuck Pipe.
179
Problematic between 50 and 65
degrees
Potential cuttings beds between
40 and 75 deg
Relatively less problematic in
horizontal section of holes

Hole Cleaning
180
SIGNS are:
How do we know the Hole is CLEAN?
n Cuttings or Cavings
- Volume
- Size
- Shape
n Overpull & Resistance
n High fluctuating Torque
n Swabbing
n Pump Pressure increase
n Past well experience
181
LAMINAR versus TURBULENT
182
LAMINAR
FLOW VELOCITY
PROFILE
FLOW REGIME in Annulus
183
LAMINAR Flow Velocities
Minimum Flow Velocity
considered to be:
50 m/min
(150 ft/min)
184
FLOW VELOCITY
HIGHEST VALUES
VELOCITY WITH
POOR MUD
RHEOLOGY
DRILL STRING
FLOW REGIME in Annulus
185
FLOW VELOCITY
HIGHEST VALUES
VELOCITY WITH POOR
MUD RHEOLOGY
WHEN OPTIMISING
MUD RHEOLOGY
DRILL STRING TRYING TO REACH
IMMOBILE MUD AND
CUTTINGS BED
(FAST) ROTATION OF DRILL
STRING TO MOVE
CUTTINGS
FLOW REGIME in Annulus
186
Definition
To optimise Hole Cleaning Efficiency in highly-
deviated wellbores (40-80 from vertical), a balance
must be struck between
minimising particle settling velocity and
promotion of fluid velocity under eccentric drill pipe
Adjustments in fluid properties made with only
settling velocity or velocity under the drill pipe in mind
will not promote efficient hole cleaning

Hole Cleaning Efficiency

187
Shale Shakers where we SHOULD observe !!
where we SHOULD observe !
where we SHOULD measure !
188
LOOK FOR
Shale Shaker
Volume
Size
Type
CUTTINGS
CAVINGS
Samples
How do we know what
we are LOOKING for ?
189
Shakers
What could be your contribution to HOLE
CLEANING ?
n Observe Volume Cuttings
n Observe Volume Cavings
n Observe Type of Cavings
n Measure all of the above
n Report Observations
n Discuss Observations
and operationally...
n Pump Faster if possible
n Rotate Faster if possible
n Optimise Mud Rheology
at the Shale Shaker
190
Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Drilling
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Drilling Practice:
Drill with controlled ROP, if indications of loading
the annulus with cuttings
Circulate at max. allowable pump rate, provided we
have no losses or create washouts
Do not assume that the hole is clean:-
Use drag/torque trends of previous wells; monitor
and communicate trends current well
Measure/record trends at the shale shaker

191
Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Drilling
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Mud:
Aim for mud properties with a shear thinning effect,
which will ensure that we get:
high annular velocities at low side of hole and over
washouts when circulating at high rate
Max suspension, when NOT circulating or tripping
Use lo/hi vis tandem sweeps as required. The use of
sweeps usually indicates mud rheology is not optimal
Reaming / Wiping Practice:
Ream/wipe after drilling a long section in sliding mode.
If high RPM can be used, hole cleaning is more efficient

192
Hole Cleaning Guidelines - Connection
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Preparation and Practice:
Ream/backream each single or stand; if cuttings bed
has developed
Ensure to use full rate circulation when reaming/wiping
before connection and/or survey
After connection, rotate string first, before bringing
pumps up to full rate
Monitor, record, plot and communicate:
Up/down/rot string weight
Off and on bottom torque
Circulation pressure trends

193
Hole Cleaning Guidelines - TRIPPING
(critical for hole angles 40 - 65 deg)
Immediate action: Overpull when Tripping:
Determine overpull and setdown limits before the trip;
discuss and agree with all staff
If overpull/setdown limit is reached, run back at least 1
stand; if the problem is thought to be solids, then clean
hole with lo-hi vis sweeps
If cuttings/cavings bed is difficult to dislodge, backream
with extreme caution, this might take time..!
Most stuck pipe incidents when tripping occur as a
result of impatience and shortcuts !
194
MEASURING Hole Cleaning
EFFECTIVENESS
CUTTINGS FLOW METER (CFM)
Collection Tray & Discharge System
Tray will dump after pre-set period
Correlation in real time includes lag
time, flow rate, hole volume etc.
INFORMATION COLLECTED:-
Cumulative Cuttings Weight & Volume
Cuttings Flow Rate in volume against
time and against lagged depth interval
Ratio between measured cuttings flow
rate and increase in hole volume
Comparison of theoretical weight of
rock drilled and cuttings weight
showing cuttings left in hole

195
1. Up and down Drag Trends will be:
a. smooth and high c. low
b. erratic and high d. unaffected
2. Torque trend will be:
a. smooth & high c. high & erratic
b. unaffected d. impossible
3. Drag Trend will improve when:
a. drilling c. calling the office
b. circulating d. tripping
4. _a, b and/or c _ will increase if corrective action is NOT taken !
a. hole fill c. pump pressure
b. mud weight d. ROP
5. The warning signs are most likely to appear:
a. after connections c. tripping out
b. reaming down d. tripping in

Settling of Solids - Warning Signs
197
Mechanism # 4
WELLBORE STABILITY
Other common causes for INSTABILITY
(not Hydro-Pressured Shale related)
Unconsolidated Formations
Mobile Formations
Fractured or Faulted Formations
Geo-pressured Formations
Reactive Formations
Tectonically Stressed Formations

198
WELLBORE STABILITY
199
Unconsolidated Formations
UNCONSOLIDATED Formations
200
Indications:
Drilling shallow unconsolidated formation, sand,
gravel in Top Hole
Abundance of loose sand/ gravel over shale shaker,
desander/-silter
Shakers blinding
Erratic Drag
Seepage or partial losses
Pack-off possible. Regaining circulation difficult.
UNCONSOLIDATED Formations
201
Preventive Action:
Ensure to have some fluid loss control
Ensure adequate hole cleaning. Accept controlled ROP
to reduce annular density. Regularly sweep hole with hi-
vis pill
Be alert when making connections. Formation can
slough in unexpectedly. Break circulation gently, avoids
surges
Include Jar in BHA
Spot hi-vis pill or gel mud before roundtrips and prior
running casing
202
Mobile Formations
MOBILE Formations
203
Indications:
When drilling Salts or Plastic Shales
Salts known to deform plastically and/or creep
into the wellbore over time
High overpull/setdown during wipertrips or
roundtrips
Repeated reaming required to continue making
hole
Restriction in circulation possible

MOBILE Formations
204
Preventive Action:
Use of eccentric PDC Bits and/or use of roller
reamer
Use low WOB and high RPM. Accept controlled
ROP and (re)-reaming intervals
Extensive precautionary reaming during wipertrips
or roundtrips
Increase mud density, before entering mobile
zone, if proven successful
MOBILE Formations
205
Freeing
Spot a fresh water pill if in a salt formation. (Consider
the effect on well control and on other open hole
formations ).
If moving up, apply torque and jar down with maximum
trip load.
If moving down, jar up with maximum trip load.
Torque should not be applied while jarring up.
206
Fractured or Faulted
Formations
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations
207
Indications:
Drilling limestone, chalk or shale sequence
with known history of fractures/faults,
Formations to be brittle (e.g. coal)
Large cuttings over shale shaker
Torque during drilling/reaming fluctuating.
Vibration possible.
Partial or total losses
Reaming required to pass interval during or after
wipertrip/roundtrip
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations
208
Preventive Action:
Constantly check hole condition. Ream intervals
precautionary
Avoid losses. Keep hole clean. Limit annular density
(ECD). Restrict tripping speeds
If losses, pull out immediately above
fractured/faulted zone
Ensure to have inhibited HCl acid at rig
Stability will return, provided rig team caution and
known techniques
FRACTURED/FAULTED Formations
209
Freeing:
If packed off while off bottom then follow First
Actions.
Otherwise JAR UP in an effort to break up
formation debris.
Use every effort to maintain circulation.
Circulate high density viscous sweeps to clean
debris.
Spot acid if stuck in limestone.
210
Geo-pressured
Formations
GEO-PRESSURED Formations
211
Indications:
Exploration/appraisal wells. Usually shale high
pressure transition zone
Fast ROP. Possibly some drag when moving string
and making connections
Distinctive splintery cavings.
Usually accompanied by high levels of background
gas and/or tripgas
Pack-off tendency during roundtrips when cavings
have not been observed or when quantity has
increased
SPALLING
OF
SPLINTERY
CAVINGS
PORE
PRESSURE
HIGHER
THAN HYDR.
HEAD
GEO-PRESSURED Formations
212
Preventive Action:
Monitor and plot pore pressure
Cross check origin of cavings.
Increase density in small increments
Take time to circulate hole clean when fast ROPs
are experienced. Be cautious when formation gas
to surface
Avoid excessive swabs and surges during
roundtrips and connections
Exercise all practices related to hole cleaning and
instability problems
GEO-PRESSURED Formations
213
Immediate action:
Apply maximum allowable pull and torque into
string
Jar up/ jar down with substantial weight slacked
off
Use every effort to maintain circulation.




214
Reactive Formations
REACTIVE Formations
215
Indications:
Drilling shallow young shales
Absorption of drilled shales into mud
Increase of plastic viscosity and yield
Clayballs at surface, bit and stabiliser balling in the
hole
Mushy, soft cuttings
Overpull on wipertrips/roundtrips
Increase of pump pressure and torque depending
on annular clearance
REACTIV Formations
216
Preventive Action:
Ensure adequate mud inhibition, e.g KCL, to
minimise hydration process
Dilute mud if increase of bentonite content in mud
cannot be controlled
Wipe the hole as required. Wash/ream if
overpull/setdown becomes excessive
Avoid BHA with tight clearances
Circulate clean at possible high rate, but caution
when breaking circulation
Drill quickly, minimise open hole time
Effects of MUD on Bore Hole Stability
Oil Base Mud
Bore Hole Wall
smooth
no interaction
KCl WB Mud
balanced activity
WB Mud
unbalanced activity
Bore Hole Wall
relatively smooth
reduced interaction
Bore Hole Wall
rough
hydration
217
REACTIV Formations
218
Immediate action:
Apply maximum allowable pull and torque into
string
Jar down with substantial weight slacked off
Use every effort to maintain circulation.




219
Tectonically Stressed
Formations
Indications:
Wide variation in rock stress
orientation
Multiple faulting, e.g. in mountainous
or active areas
Extensive (back-) reaming during
roundtrips. High fluctuating torque
during hard reaming to bottom.
Excessive quantities of cavings to
surface
Difficult to stop/limit instability with
any mud or mud weight

220
Tectonically Stressed Formations
Mountainous Area
Multiple Faulting
Stress Orientation
221
Tectonically Stressed Formations
Preventive Action:
Make use of local experience, stability studies
Careful selection of optimum (low) inclination and
direction through tectonically stressed formation(s)
Drill tangent section through interval, if at all possible,
to minimise open hole exposure time
If instability is known to be difficult to stop, consider
use of:
oil based mud
maximum allowable density
extra casing contingency in programme

222
Tectonically Stressed Formations
Freeing:
If packed off while off bottom then
follow
First Actions.
JAR UP/DOWN in an effort to break
up formation debris.
Use every effort to maintain
circulation.
Circulate high density viscous
sweeps to clean debris.

223
Tectonically Stressed Formations
224
Borehole Geometry
Indications:
At abrupt changes in angle or direction in
medium-soft.
Where high side wall forces and string
rotation exist.
Occurs only while POOH.
Sudden overpull as BHA reaches dogleg
depth.
Unrestricted circulation.
Free string movement below key seat
depth possible.
Cyclic overpull at tool joint intervals on
trips.
225
Key Seating Borehole Geometry
Preventive Action:
Minimise dogleg severity.
Perform reaming and/or wiper trips if a
dogleg is present.
Consider running string reamers or a key
seat wiper if a key seat is likely to be a
problem.

226
Key Seating Borehole Geometry
227
Key Seating Borehole Geometry
Freeing
If possible, apply torque and jar down with
maximum trip load.
Back ream out of the hole.
If present use key seat wiper.

1. Up and down Drag Trends will begin to:
a. stabilise c. increase
b. decrease d. become erratic
2. Torque trend will be:
a. smooth & high c. high & erratic
b. constant d. low
3. If borehole is smaller than Bit/BHA Circ. Pressure may:
a. fluctuate c. washout the formation
b. increase d. stay about the same
4. If water base mud is not salt saturated, you can expect:
a. hole collapse c. anything, depends on form
b. hole washout d. excess filtercake
5. The warning signs are most likely to develop during:
a. drilling (occasionally) c. reaming down
b. circulating d. tripping

Borehole Geometry - Warning Signs
229
Cement Related
Cement Related - Stuck Pipe Causes
Indications:
Poor Cementations
Long ratholes
Preventive Action:
Minimise the length of rathole.
Perform reaming and/or wiper trips.
Freeing
If possible, apply torque and jar down with
maximum trip load.

230
231
Undergauge Hole
Undergauged
Hole
232
Undergauge Hole
Indications:
Dull bit evaulation
Coring
Preventive Action:
Bit gauge protection.
Perform reaming after coring.
Freeing
JAR UP with maximum trip load.

Junk in Hole
233
Indications:
Something is missing at rigfloor
Hand tools, parts of tongs, slips..
Preventive Action:
Keep order at rigfloor.
Good maintenance of tools
Careful work
Freeing
JAR DOWN with maximum trip load.
Drill String Vibration
234
Not a direct cause, but STABLE formations
become to UNSTABLE
Indications:
High drill string vibration
Preventive Action:
Appropriate BHA and weight on bit
Appropriate transition zone between DC and DP
DRILLING FLUID
When we select mud, you have to consider
Type of Mud
Formation Stability
Hole Cleaning
Differential Sticking
Drag and Torque

MUD plays the biggest role in avoiding of
STUCK PIPE!

235