Karnaticmusic Thereligious Roots Final Draft

Running head: RELIGIOUS ROOTS 1
Karnatic Music: The Religious Roots

Elizabeth Keating

A Senior Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for graduation
in the Honors Program
Liberty University
Spring 2014

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 2

Acceptance of Senior Honors Thesis

This Senior Honors Thesis is accepted in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for graduation from the
Honors Program of Liberty University.

______________________________
Katherine Morehouse, Ph.D.
Thesis Chair

______________________________
Paul Rumrill, D.M.A.
Committee Member

______________________________
Jeffrey Ritchey, Ph.D.
Committee Member

______________________________
James H. Nutter, D.A.
Honors Director

______________________________
Date
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 3
Abstract
This thesis seeks to discover the connection between the many elements of Karnatic
music and the Hindu religion. The Hindu religion including its myths and legends, the
ancient Dravidian people, the melodic and rhythmic systems, and Kriti song form all
construct the basis of the music tradition of Southern India. All these elements and more
make up Karnatic music of today, and this study seeks to show how each element has a
root in the religious. Although various cultures have influenced the Karnatic music we
hear today this thesis will be an overview of elements that point to the connection
between the Hindu religion and Karnatic music.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 4
Karnatic Music: The Religious Roots

There is an abundance of knowledge to be learned about the history, culture, and
religion of India through the study of Karnatic music. This study seeks to discover the
connection between the many elements of Karnatic music and the Hindu religion. From
the myths and legends of Indian music, to the ancient Dravidian people, from the Kriti
song form, to the melodic and rhythmic systems, all of these components create the
Karnatic music of India. The Hindu religion and its pantheon of gods make the study of
Karnatic music all the more fascinating. Although various cultures have influenced the
Karnatic music we hear today this thesis will be an overview of elements that point to the
connection between the Hindu religion and Karnatic music.
Music Context/Origins
Basic Indian History
It is important to first review the context of a music before studying in depth the
specifics. A basic knowledge of Indian history is vital in the understanding of the related
music. India, as a civilization, can be traced back over five thousand years.
1
Among
Indias many qualities is its natural beauty ranging from the jungle, to desert, to the
highest mountains in the world.
2
Although today it is the largest democratic country in
the world, it certainly has gone through a tumultuous evolution to get there.
3

1
Jeff Titon. Worlds of Music 5
th
ed. (Belmont: CA, Schirmer Cengage Learning, 2009), 267.

2
Ibid.

3
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 5
Some of the first inhabitants of India were the ancient Dravidian people. They are
called that because these people groups spoke derivatives of the Dravidian language.
4

The descendants of the Dravidian people mostly inhabit the southern states of
India. Historical records seem to indicate the possibility of the Dravidian people
migrating to the southern tip of the subcontinent because of an invasion by a group of
people called the Aryans. Whether the move was made by force or through natural
migration it is unknown.
5

The Aryans brought the Vedic books to India, which is significant as these holy
books are foundational to modern Hinduism.
6
They brought to India its first extant
literaturefour sacred books called the Vedas.
7
The Aryan people were considered to
have brought with them a pure religion and it is considered pure because of the
absent immoral stories of the godsthey are also free from the element of magic and
fetishism.
8
The Dravidian tribespeople are considered to be responsible for the
contamination of this pure religion as the lower religion of the tribes came into
contact with the Vedas.
9
This view is probably a reflection of the racism represented in

4
Alec Robertson and Denis Stevens. The Pelican History of Music. (Baltimore, MD: Penguin
Books, 1960), 24.

5
Ibid.

6
B. C. Sinha. Hinduism and Symbol Worship. (Delhi, India: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1983), 3.

7
th
ed., 2.

8
Allan Menzies. History of Religion. (New York, NY: Charles Scribners Sons, 1927), 332.

9
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 6
the later caste system of India.
10
The effect that the Dravidian people had on the Vedic
religion centers mostly on the addition of gods and specialized stories about these gods.
11

The rishis or sages between 1500 B.C. and 500 B.C. wrote the Vedas, which
translated means knowledge.
12
These books were composed with an elaborate
metrical system for a definite purpose, namely, to form part of great acts of worship.
13

These books contained prayers, hymns, and ritual formulas connected with their gods.
14

It is believed that these hymns and chants were the basis of the present classical music of
India, both the northern Hindustani and the southern Karnatic music.
15

The gods presented in these ancient texts would be the prototypes of Hindu
gods.
16
The hymns that were contained in these books are to this day chanted in the
temples of India, which changed little, it seems, over a period of three thousand years.
17

Although elements remain the samemusic can never be frozen in time and it would be
inaccurate to say that no change has occurred.
18
The purpose of these hymns or chants is
to uphold the world therefore meticulous attention was and is given to singing the

10
The Caste system will be discussed in greater detail on page fourteen.

11
Allan Menzies. History of Religion, 332.

12
Ibid., 333.

13
Ibid.

14
Alec Robertson and Denis Stevens. The Pelican History of Music, 24.

15
th
ed., 268.

16
Ibid.

17

18
th
ed., 277.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 7
correct intonation.
19
These chants were passed down through the generations by oral
tradition.
Between the years of 500 B.C. and A.D. 1400 kingdoms rose and fell, some of the
most significant changes during this time was the development of Buddhism as a major
religion in India.
20
The puranas were written during this time frame as well. Puranas
are sacred books that define and cultivate the Hindu pantheon, forming the basis of
popular Hinduism.
21

The lavish kingdoms of this time were ardently attached to the arts and provided
royal patronage.
22
Poetry, music, plays and many other art forms flourished during this
time. Indias greatest epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata, even popular today were
written during this time as well.
The Moghuls, a tribe that brought the Islam religion with them, came into
Northern India and ruled from A.D. 1527 to 1867. With the Moghuls rule in North India
distinct differences were made in the music style between the north and the south.
23
The
northern classical music was influenced by the Muslim rulers of the day and therefore the
melodies of northern India have traces of Persian, Turkish and Arabic musical
traditions.
24
The Moghul rulers were lovers of art; their courts were known to be places

19
th
ed., 277.

20
Ibid., 268.

21
Ibid., 269.

22
Ibid.

23
Ibid., 270.

24
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 8
of art, culture and learning.
25
Due to such strong influences in the north, their southern
brothers became notably different and were considered conservative and staunchly
Hindu.
26
Still other religions, for example Christianity and Islam, were also present and
influential.
27
The Karnatic Music of India was birthed in this religious environment.
28

From the early 1600s to Indias independence in 1947 is a period of Indian history
called British colonization.
29
The exploitation of India by the British did not come
without certain benefits, such as infrastructure, railways, universities and education for
the people. The Pax Britannica, bringing about a peaceful atmosphere, actually allowed
for a golden age of South Indian classical music.
30
Ultimately the educational benefits
started by the British led to Indias independence. Mahtama Gandhi led the way to this
freedom through his nonviolent resistance.
31
Some of the musical elements that
changed during this period were the addition of two typically western instruments, the
harmonium and the violin.
From Indias long past, to independence, to present day, this country continues to
change while maintaining a strong sense of tradition.
32
The gods that were written
about and worshipped in the early history of India are still being venerated in homes

25
th
ed., 268.

26
Ibid.

27
Ibid., 277.

28
Ibid.

29
Ibid.

30
Ibid., 271.

31
Ibid.

32
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 9
temples, cycles of religious festivals and music today.
33
The brief history of India and its
people reveal why music in India has such a strong underpinning of the sacred, the
ancient, and the timeless.
34

Dance
Physical movement traditionally goes along with the hymns of the Vedas this
produced the basis of a religious dance form, Bharata Natyam.
35
This dance form is
specific to South India and the music that accompanies it is similar to Karnatic music.
The idea of music and dance is so interwoven within this culture it is difficult at times to
distinguish when something ceases to be dance music and is only classical.
The notable differences are not in the quality of music but in the song form.
Dance music has more repetition of sections and specific rhythmic elements that
correspond with the dancers footwork.
36
Dance is an integral part of the Indian music
ideal, it symbolizes the rhythmic motion of the universe.
37
The very word used for
music, Sangita, includes art forms such as, dancing, drama, and vocal/instrumentation.
38

It is believed that the Hindu god Siva gave men this threefold art form. Music is
considered to be the soul [and] strength to any dance form.
39
The Natyasastra, an

33
th
ed., 271.

34
Ibid., 268.

35

36
th
ed., 278.

37
Ibid.

38
H. A. Popley. The Music of India. (New Delhi: India, Y. M. C. A. Publishing House, 1966), 7.

39
The Development of Carnatic Classical Music and Dance in Different Periods. (2010, Sep 05.
The Sunday Observer. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/749574361?accountid=12085
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 10
Indian treatise written in the first century, says that dance without music is like a
painting without colours.
40
The sage, Baharata, was purposeful in writing the
Natyasastra as to better define the significance of Indian drama [dance included] as a
vehicle of religious enlightenment.
41
Historical records seems to imply that there is a
connection between the first dance learned in this art form, the first exercise learned in a
vocal lessons, and often the first rhythms learned by musicians. They are all connected to
the worship of, the elephant-headed god of beginningsGanesh, or Ganapati.
42
This
reveals further the connection between all the arts of India: dance, drama and music as
being at the heart religious, expressly Hindu.
The Basics of Hinduism
After spending thirteen months on the field, ethnomusicologist Robert Simon
concluded that the philosophical concepts exhibited in words and actions by any
individual or group holds many of the keys to understanding their music.
43
It seems
reasonable to briefly discuss the foundational attributes of Hinduism as to better
understand why Karnatic music is so deeply entrenched in this religion, One cannot
understand India without understanding Hinduism.
44

accessed March 15, 2013), 1.
40
The Development of Carnatic Classical Music and Dance in Different Periods. (accessed March
15, 2013), 1.
41
Ibid.

42
Amy Catlin. Karnatak Vocal and Instrumental Muisc. (The Garland Encyclopedia of World
Music, Vol. 5, South Asia The Indian Subcontinent. New York, NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000), 211.

43
Robert Leopold Simon. Spiritual Aspects of Indian Music. (Delhi, India: Sundeep
Prakashan, 1984), 1.

44
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 11
Diversity. Diversity is embraced within Hinduism. Non-Aryan tribes
embellished the contents of the Vedic books. This initiated the evolution of a simpler
Vedic religion to more complex forms of Hinduism.
45
Also diversity in the actual gods is
a key factor within Hinduism. It is a pantheistic religion branching out into an endless
variety.
46
Some Hindus claim monotheism, as they direct their devotions towards a
single personal God.
47
This difference is completely acceptable within the diversity of
Hinduism.
48
Oxford professor Sir Monier Williams states, no description of Hinduism
can be exhaustive which does not touch on almost every religious and philosophical idea
that the world has ever known.
49
This religion has been compared to a sacred fig tree
spreading its roots throughout the nation of India, each tree that develops from the
growing roots is still part of the original tree though slightly different in appearance.
50

Regardless of the religions diversity, or physical circumstances Hindus claim there is a
deeper spiritual unity.
51

45

46
Ibid., 4.

47
Ibid.

48
Ibid.

49
Ibid.

50
Ibid.

51
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 12
Bhaktism. A devotion or love of God in the Hindu religion is called bhaktism
This feature talks about the worshippers heart towards their god.
52
Bhaktism says that in
the actions of every day there should be a motivation to do all things as worship and not
for private purposes.
53
The bhaktism of Hinduism purportedly gives not only its
followers a closer relationship with their chosen deity but also benefits the god.
54
The
god or goddess is able to reveal themselves in various forms as the bhakti or devotion of
devotees is offered.
55
This is a doctrine that the individual soul is dependent on the
Supreme and that the latter alone works out his salvation, regardless of this being part of
the religion it coexists with another form of salvation theology that of a necessary
sacrifice.
56
Dr. Allan Menzies states concerning this Vedic religion, sacrifice is an
essential principle of the universe, was so in the beginning and must always be so.
57

Catholicity. The Hindu religion is all-embracing, it accepts every religion as
true with two caveats: so long as they help men to realize the best in their environment
and do not transgress upon the rights of others.
58
Conversely, Hinduism considers any
doctrine in religion that would reduce everything to a particular code or law conceived

52
B. C. Sinha. Hinduism and Symbol Worship, 5.

53
Ibid.

54
P. Dold. The Mahavidyas at Kamarupa: Dynamics of Transformation in Hinduism1.
(Religious Studies and Theology, 23(1), 89-122. Retrieved from
http://search.proquest.com/docview/194789595?accountid=12085, 2004), Accessed March 24, 2014.

55
Ibid.

56

57
Allan Menzies. History of Religion, 335.

58

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 13
in our human limitation as improper.
59
As a result Hinduism is accepting of everything
except those doctrines or religions that are not also accepting of multiple paths to an
ultimate god.
Longevity. The essential spirit of Hinduism has not changed but has remained
the same through the Vedic age to the modern times.
60
According to the Hindu people,
this religion prides itself on changing and adapting with the different cultures and various
needs of its followers. They claim a testimony of longevity within this religion. Hindus
say that development not death has been the result of passing time.
61
Its longevity can
be attributed to Hinduism absorbing all that is best in reference to various religions and
even the scientific civilization of the West.
62
Hinduism is an extremely convenient
religion. The expectation laid upon practitioners is to be tolerant, tolerance in Hinduism
is another basic factor for its longevity.
63

Spirituality. A key component of Hinduism is its deep spirituality. Hindus
believe that everything whether, animate or inanimate is part of the macrocosmic of
all life.
64
Every person has part of the divine within him or her.
65
Hinduism in nature

59

60
Ibid., 8.

61
Ibid., 6.

62
Ibid., 9.

63
Ibid., 10.

64

65
Ibid.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 14
is the attempt to live a spiritual life with the end result being a greater understanding of
ones self and therefore creating a remedy forevil.
66

Karma and rebirth. The basis of this doctrine is that every deed done has a
consequence, even the gods have to undergo the good and evil consequences of their
acts.
67
It is strange to think that the Hindu gods would be subject to this law as well but
it appears that no one can escape the law of karma.
68
According to Hinduism there is
no place on this earth or outside of it that can protect a person from the repercussions or
the payment of debts incurred during ones lifetime.
69
After the natural death of a life it
opens a finer subtle world, a spiritual world, however as long as there is debt to repay
each person will return to this world.
70

Caste system. Hinduism separates all peoples into four distinct categories this
division is known as the Caste System.
71
This system organizes the people of India into
specific classes and gives or limits the allowance of certain employments.
72
Though
Indian government abolished this system in 1947 it is still a very real part of Indian and
Hindu culture.
73
The four castes are Brahmana, Rajanya, Vaisya and Shudra. The

66

67
Ibid., 10.

68
Ibid.

69
Ibid.

70
Ibid.

71

72
Alison Arnold. Profile of South Asia and Its Music. (The Garland Encyclopedia of World
Music, Vol. 5, South Asia The Indian Subcontinent. NY: Garland Publishing, Inc. 2000), 9.

73
Ibid.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 15
origins of this system are said to have stemmed from a story of creation in the Rig Veda.
In the tenth book of the Rig Veda there is a hymn about the Sacrifice of the Cosmic Man
or Purusha:
74

The Hymn of the Cosmic Man [purushasukta] explains that the universe
was created out of the parts of the body of a single cosmic man, Purusha, when
his body was offered at the primordial sacrifice. The four classes of Indian society
also came from his body: the priest [Brahman] emerging from the mouth, the
warrior [Kshatriya] from the arms, the peasant [Vaishya] from the thighs, and the
servant [Shudra] from the feet.
75

Nonetheless, the Aryan colour and that of the aborigines is described as
essential in that it forms that basis of caste.
76
It is interesting to note that the original
meaning of the word caste, meant covering as in skin covering and its varying
colors.
77
From high caste to low is as follows: white, red, brown and black.
78
The caste
system developed early during Indias Aryan age and [color] has remained a significant
factor in reinforcing the hierarchical social attitudes.
79
This is still a very real part of
Indian culture and the Hindu religion.

74
Stanley Wolpert. A New History of India. (New York, NY: Oxford University Press. 1993), 29.

75
Michael Ray. Hinduism: Atharvavida. (Brittanica.com
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266312/Hinduism/59816/The-Atharvaveda. Accessed January
31, 2014.)

76

77
Stanley Wolpert. A New History of India, 32.

78
Ibid.

79
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 16
The four asramas. Hindus are expected to live their life in one of these four
stages called the asramas. The Hindu can either pursue one asrama for all his life or can
pursue all four in different phases of life. The first is brahmcharya, this is a life devoted
to study; there is a strict discipline prescribed for a student.
80
The second is grhastha,
which is after marriage with his chief duty being to study the Vedas, maintain a fire,
and perform the different rites and ceremonies.
81
The third stage is vanaprastha, where
the person completely devotes himself to service of the society.
82
The last stage is
sanyasa, where all worldly pursuit is abandoned and devotion is given entirely to
mediation and Yoga.
83
This final stage of life is devoted to the preparation of the next
one.
84

Cow protection. Mahatma Gandhi said that which distinguishes Hinduism from
every other religion is its cow protection and that it is the one concrete belief common
to all Hindus.
85
He also said No one who does not believe in cow-protection can
possibly be a Hindu.
86
The protection of cows is expressly important to Hinduism. The
cows are considered holy; every part of them is inhabited by some deity the ground
where their excrement lay is holy.
87
The burned ash of a cows excrement is even

80

81
Ibid.

82
Ibid.

83
Ibid.

84
Ibid.

85

86
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 17
considered to have the power to convert a sinner into a saint.
88
This doctrine is
originally from the proto Dravidian culture.
89
These people were considered
pastoralists and cattle had a major impact on their economic status.
90
Though these
cattle were not protected in the same way as they are today. The Rig Veda, seventh book
eighty-eighth hymn, describes a bull as being holy, and the practice of cow protection
is now a very intricate part of Hinduism.
91
As Gandhi said Cow-protection is the gift of
Hinduism to the world.
92

Learning about these basics of Hinduism, Diversity, Bhaktism , Catholicity,
Longevity, Spirituality, Karma and Rebirth, the Caste System, the four Asramas, and
Cow Protection give a better understanding of how and why Indian culture is completely
permeated by it. The Karnatic music of South India is no exception.
Genealogy of Karnatic Music
According to Hindu mythology Music has divine origin.
93
Several gods and
goddesses are related to music but none known so well as the goddess Saraswati
94
, the

87

88
Ibid.

89
Ibid.

90
Shweta Gupta. Sancitity of the Cow. (Brittanica.com.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/141206/sanctity-of-the-cow accessed January 31, 2014).

91
Ibid.

92

93
Guy L. Beck. The Magic of Hindu Music: Exploring the religious, historical and
social forces that shaped Hindu music and now propel it into the future. (Hinduism
Today. Himalayan Academy, 2012), 20.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 18
goddess of learning and creative arts.
95
Saraswati is most known for her contribution to
the field of music.
96
She is most commonly pictured with a vina, which is a lute-like
instrument typical of Karnatic music.
Given the history of Indian culture as it relates to the Hindu religion it is easy to
understand how Karnatic music was built on a religious foundation, specifically being
built around an immense repertoire of pre-composed Hindu devotional songs.
97

Ethnomusicologist Dr. Guy Beck makes the general assessment that even today
many of the Indian arts continue to be heavily influenced by religion.the content of
Indias classical arts is taken largely from Hindu religious texts and many current
performance genres evolved from religious rituals.
98
Some of the very first music
expressions in Hinduism was the singing of Sama Veda hymns.
99
This practice of
singing the Sama Veda hymns is called Sama-Gana, which according to Dr. Beck set the
stage for the creation and development of Indian classical music.
100
This transition can

94
Saraswati is the wife of one of the three major deities of Hinduism, Brahma the creator (B. C.
Sinha. Hinduism and Symbol Worship. (Delhi, India: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1983), 6. As the
counterpart of Brahma she is considered his saktis or active energy( B. C. Sinha. Hinduism
and Symbol Worship. (Delhi, India: Agam Kala Prakashan, 1983), 136). Musicologist Dr. Guy
Beck says that sacred sound is thus conceived as the obedient female counterpart of the male
sovereign deity and acts strictly as his energy (Guy L. Beck. Sonic Theology: Hinduism
and the Sacred Sound. (Columbia, SC: University of South Carolina Press, 1993), 148.

95

96
Ibid.

97
th
ed., 278.

98
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition. (Columbia,
SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2012), 204.

99
Ibid., 35.

100
Ibid., 63.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 19
be seen via the tradition held that Vedic chants were later combined with the folk music
and vernacular poetry of the day.
101
More organized genres of music grew out of these
Vedic chants eventually into Gandharva Sangita, ancient classical music of India and
bahkti sangit, or bhajan, devotional music.
102

The beginning of Karnatic music was in these same devotional songs.
103
The
name of this devotional music, bhajan, means to sing praises, or to worship the
lordthere are several forms, some of which are only performed in a worshipful context,
and others that are sung in the religious context as well as in concerts of the classical
music.
104

There are two main classical styles in India, Hindustani and Karnatic. During an
undocumented time between the 12
th
and the 16
th
century these two music genres
became distinguishable from each other.
105
Hindustani music has influences from the
Moghul era, given that the Moghul people were Muslim; Persian, Turkish and Arabic
elements took root in the classical music of Northern Indian. In Southern India there was
little influence from the Moghul people and Karnatic music was allowed to develop
under a more Hindu culture.
106
Karnatic music and Hindustani are deeply religious and
both are utilitarian in nature because the purpose of this music is to ultimately please the

101
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition. (Columbia,
SC: University of South Carolina Press, 2012), 35.

102
Ibid., 35 & 63.

103
th
ed., 276.

104
Robert Leopold Simon. Spiritual Aspects of Indian Music, 4.

105
Bonnie C. Wade. Music in India. (New Delhi: India, Manohar, 1999), 20.

106
th
ed., 270.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 20
gods. Hindu music has been intimately associated with religious rites, court
ceremonies...In all these performances the religious element in never far away.
107

Western music potentially could have made more of an impact than it did,
because of the British presence in India, but in reality South Indian classical music
continued to flourish with its unadulterated Hindu roots.
108

To say that India is untouched by modern western music is untrue and it is easy to
find examples of western instruments being adopted into the Indian music, like the
harmonium or violin. The violin was introduced to India in the 19
th
century and made
popular by Balusvami Diksitar; a Karnatic artist from Madras.
109
This instrument has
become an important part of the southern music tradition. The harmonium, brought by
western missionaries, was also introduced in the 19
th
century.
110
It is used to a lesser
degree than the violin, probably due to its inability to reflect the semitones and sliding
notes of Indian music. Even with the addition of these western instruments the old,
[and] the traditional remains.
111
The catholicity and, coexistence of the old and the
new is part of the world of amazement that is India.
112
Even though the practice of
Hinduism varies within states, and within individuals it is known that despite differences

107
Alec Robertson and Denis Stevens. The Pelican History of Music. (Baltimore: MD, Penguin
Books, 1960), 26.

108

109
Allyn Miner. Musical Instruments: Northern Area, (The Garland Encyclopedia of World
Music, Vol. 5, South Asia The Indian Subcontinent. NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000), 338.

110
Amy Catlin. Karnatak Vocal and Instrumental Muisc, 235.

111
Ibid., 272.

112
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 21
in theology or philosophy, a common factor amongHindu traditions is the sonic liturgy
that serves to generate religious consciousness.
113

Song Form: The Kriti
Karnatic music is almost always based off of a song with religious text set to it;
this is seemingly an essential element.
114
Even if one is listening to a completely
instrumental piece rest assured that the origin of the piece is probably vocal and has text.
The kriti is a composed song form that is now generally performed at a Karnatic
concert.
115
A kriti leads its listeners through a series of experiences that appeal to their
artistic sensibilities as well as their innermost spiritual longings.
116
It is no surprise that
this form had its beginning in Hindu devotional music. The word kriti means to create
and though the theme of a text may be heroic, romantic, or narrative it is always
devotional.
117

118
Kritis originate from an older song type, the kirtana and were sung by
bhaktas, individuals who expressed their religious devotion through song.
119

113
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition, 205.

114
th
ed., 293.

115
T. Viswanathan and Matthew Harp Allen. Music in South India: Experiencing Music,
Expressing Culture, 16.

116
L. Pesch. Kriti. In S. Wolpert (Ed.). (Encyclopedia of India (Vol. 3, pp. 43-44). Detroit:
Charles Scribner's Sons, 2006),
http://go.galegroup.com.ezproxy.liberty.edu:2048/ps/i.do?id=GALE%7CCX3446500352&v=2.1&
u=vic_liberty&it=r&p=GVRL&sw=w&asid=d1b00fde2c30794a70b93cd2f9cbae85 (accessed March 5,
2014).

117

118
Ibid.

119
Bonnie C. Wade. Music in India, 199.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 22
They are often heard at a Karnatic concert, The lion's share of the Karnatak
concert repertoire consists of the three-part kriti, a highly evolved musical genre distilled
from its krtana predecessor.
120
This genre has three parts, but it is typical for a kriti to
be preceded by a specific improvisation time called an alapana. This is to ready the ear
of listeners so that when the next piece is played listeners are already familiar with the
mood of the raga to be used.
121
The three sections of a kriti are pallavi, anupallavi and
charanum. The kriti song form is just as elaborately intricate as a western sonata allegro
form; the difference is that the basis for Karnatic kritis are devotional and intended to be
as worship unto the gods.
Pallavi
The pallavi, or sprouting, is the beginning section of the kriti song form; it
introduces the first musical theme of the piece.
122
It is typically in the middle-octave
register of the melodic range which sets the foundation for where the melody will go in
the next section.
123
This portion is said to introduce the burden.
124
The theme
introduced here will be returned to throughout the kriti as the pallavi is returned to after
each consecutive section, much like the refrain of a western hymn.
125

120

121
Bonnie C. Wade. Music in India, 195.

122
L. Pesch. Kriti. In S. Wolpert (Ed.), (accessed March 5, 2014).

123

124
G. W. F. Indian Music. (Musical News, 1(29), 581-582, 1891).
http://search.proquest.com/docview/7155147?accountid=12085, (accessed March 5, 2014).

125
L. Pesch. Kriti. In S. Wolpert (Ed.). (Encyclopedia of India (Vol. 3, pp. 43-44). (accessed
March 5, 2014).

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 23
The beginning melody of the pallavi may be repeated several times, though more
decoratively each time, in hopes that the listener will be able to recognize it at its return
later in the piece.
126
Improvisation is regarded as imperative to this form, starting in the
pallavi and continuing throughout the piece. The early form of the kriti was known for
being more repetitious of specific melodic ideas however In the early twentieth century,
the kriti became the main Karnatak concert item, as it provides all participants with
ample scope for solo improvisations and spontaneous interaction.
127
This is can be
heard throughout the piece as the kriti facilitates the exploration of melodic and
rhythmical intricacies.
128

Anupallavi
This second section or theme is the anupallavi. It is considered the melodic
answer to the pallavi and is the melodic climax of the piece as well.
129

130
It begins in
a melodically similar register and then rises to a new register introducing that melodic
climax.
131132
After the presentation of the new theme this section closes with the return
to a form of the original pallavi melody. Lyrically this section of the song is the most

126

127
L. Pesch. Kriti. In S. Wolpert (Ed.). (Encyclopedia of India (Vol. 3, pp. 43-44). (accessed
March 5, 2014).

128
Ibid.

129
G. W. F. Indian Music. (Musical News, 1(29), 581-582, 1891). (accessed March 5, 2014).

130

131
Amy Catlin. Karnatak Vocal and Instrumental Muisc., 221.

132

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 24
intense as it is usually a pleading of some kind, or some other highly emotional
moment.
133
At the close of the anupallavi the reprised pallavi text takes on new
meaning because the anupallavi has revealed more about [the]emotional state of the
singer or the composer.
134

Charanum
The final section of the kriti is the charanum, or foot.
135
This portion is
repetitious in nature and will most often borrow melodic elements from the anupallavi.
At the end of this section the composer, in keeping with convention, typically adds his
name or his personal deitys name to the end of the text. This is considered the
composers mudra or seal.
136
There is a return to the pallavi making the overall form
P-A-P-C (a)-P.
137
There are many other improvisational elements that could be included
in this song form such as a niraval, this improvisational line is most commonly worked
from the charanum by the primary performer. Also svara kalpana is an improvised line,
recognizable by the short staccato syllables [that] sound distinctly different from the
melismatic telugu setting on the kriti text.
138
To finish the performance, often there is a

133

134
Ibid.

135
L. Pesch. Kriti. In S. Wolpert (Ed.). (Encyclopedia of India (Vol. 3, pp. 43-44). (accessed March 5,
2014).

136
Ibid.

137
Ibid.

138
T. Viswanathan and Matthew Harp Allen. Music in South India: Experiencing Music, Expressing
Culture, 66.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 25
grand tani avarttanam, a drum solo that gives opportunity for the percussionists to
display their virtuosity.
139

Melody and Rhythm
Raga
In Indian music, including the classical Karnatic style, melodies are based off of
different ragas. A raga is not quite like a scale or mode in that it is just a collection of
pitches; it is more intricate than that.
140
The word raga is defined in ancient texts as that
which colors the mind.
141
It comes from the root word, ranj, to be colored a reddish
tint.
142
It is comparable to a painters box of paints, a body of melodic potential to be
drawn upon.
143
Within one raga is a distinct music personality.
144
There are rules for
individual ragas about how a performer can ornament the melody or even the way a
musician moves from one note to another. It is described as getting to know a close
friend...one eventually perceives the inner personality.
145
Ragas are associated with a
myriad of things. There are nine traditional ragas, or flavors that correspond to some
human emotion: love, anger, sadness, fear, disgust, wonder, heroism, laughter, and

139

140
Ibid., 42.

141
th
ed., 284.

142

143
Ibid.

144
Ibid.

145
Ibid.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 26
religious devotion.
146
Specific ragas are also associated with colors, animals, deities, a
season of the year, a time of day or certain magical properties.
147
Even the svaras or
individual notes, Sa- Re- Ga- Ma- Pa- Dha- Ni, have an association with the divine.

Figure 1. Notes and their associated colors, animals, and gods, according to the first-century treatise
radyaik.
148

Ragas, when performed correctly, are believed to generate [the] same feelings
within both the listener and the performer.
149
When this raga or feeling is directed
towards God as Brahman or Ishvara the result is higher attachment.
150

All Karnatic music uses ragas that come from one mother scale or Melakarta.
151

Melakarta or the Lord of the melody is a scale-type system.
152
This system is used to

146

147
Ibid.

148
George Ruckert and Richard Widdess, Hindustani Raga, (The Garland Encyclopedia of
World Music, Vol. 5, South Asia The Indian Subcontinent. NY: Garland Publishing, Inc., 2000), 71.

149
Guy L. Beck. The Magic of Hindu Music: Exploring the religious, historical and
social forces that shaped Hindu music and now propel it into the future. (Hinduism
Today. Himalayan Academy, 2012), 23.

150
Ibid.

151

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 27
classify all South Indian ragas.
153
The theorist, Venkatamakhi, first established the
Melkarta system circa 1620. The Melakarta scale is made up of seven notes. However a
note, called a svara, typically does not refer to one stable note as it does in Western, it
could be a tiny constellation of ornamented pitches.
154
The seven notes, in each
Melakarta scale, are sung on melodic syllables, which [are] called singing in sargam
Sa- Re- Ga- Ma- Pa- Dha and Ni.
155
It is important to realize that the tonal center Sa and
Pawhich is a perfect fifthnever changes, but the remaining notes can change in a
complex system to create different scales.
156
A raga/scale may or may not move in step
motion, and the svaras used ascending may not be the same on the descent.
157

Improvisation is at the heart of Karnatic music and this complex system allows for a
beautiful diversity between different musicians. Due to the changing nature of these
notes there are seventy-two basic seven-note parent scales in the system.
158
When the
notes are added to different elements of each raga there are numerous combinations,
Dozens of ragas may derive from each of the seventy-two Melakarta mothers.
159

152
H. A. Popley. The Music of India, 43.

153
T. Viswanathan and Matthew Harp Allen. Music in South India: Experiencing Expressing
Culture, 43.

154
th
ed., 280.

155
George Ruckert. Music in North India: Experiencing Music, Expressing Culture. (New York,
NY: Oxford University Press. 2004), 11.

156
th
ed., 285.

157

158
th
ed., 285.

159
Ibid.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 28
Tala

The rhythmic system in Karnatic music is referred to as tala or thaalam, the

organization of time in music.
160
The name for this rhythmic system could have come

from various origins. It could have come from the Greeks when they came to India in

the ancient days.
161
The Latin word for counting, Talaus, could have been the root

word or it could have been derived from two dance terms, thaandavam and laasyam. The

initial syllables, of these words, taa and laa, could be the origin as these dance terms

are the feminine and masculine terms for rhythmic-filled dances in South India.
162

Regardless of how the name for this rhythmic system came about the function of the tala

is important in keeping this ancient music organized.
163

There is a religious importance to the tala starting with the vedic ritual chants

[that] were punctuated by metrical divisions, distinct units of merit that accrued to the

priest or sacrificer, leading to afterlife in heaven or immortality.
164

165
The apurva, is a

doctrine that is unique to India as it relates to the idea of salvational merit being

allotted to the soul of the sacrificer via the counting of rhythm, the tala.
166
Apurva

is vital to Hinduism because the sacrifices performed must yield certain results in order

160
th
ed., 286.

161
E. M. Ramakrishnan. South Indian or Karnatic in a Nutshell. (Madras, India: Sakaraa, 1967),
1.

162
Ibid.

163
Robert Leopold Simon. Spiritual Aspects of Indian Music, 1.

164
Ibid.

165
Guy L. Beck. The Magic of Hindu Music: Exploring the religious, historical and social forces
that shaped Hindu music and now propel it into the future, 24.

166
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition, 63 & Glossary.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 29

for the Vedic promise of heaven to be true.
167
However, there is no visible attainment

of heaven and for that reason the apurva philosophy is needed to bring meaning to the

practice of sacrificing.
168

Regarding the audible components of tala it is fascinating to hear the contrast
between the tal and western time signatures. Talas are in an additive style, never in even
groupings for example, 4+2+2 or 3+2+2. Typically the accent of each beat is marked
by hand claps.
169
This metrical cycle contains individual beats called aksaras and the
larger unit, much like the western unit of a measure, is called angas.
170
Within Karnatic
music there are five families of rhythm called jati, 4, 3, 5, 7, 9 these five numbers
permeate the Karnatic rhythmic thinking.
171
Each beat of a tala can be subdivided into
one of these families, into fourth, thirds, fifths, sevenths, and ninths.
172

Indian, and specifically Karnatic, melodic and rhythmic ideas are still very
connected to the Hindu religion, like all aspects of the music culture. Worship of the
Hindu pantheon continues to be a major driving force for Karnatic music.

167
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition, 63 & Glossary.

168
Ibid.

169
th
ed., 287.

170

171
Ibid.

172
Ibid.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 30
Conclusion
This study provides a deeper understanding of the many facets that collectively
influence the Karnatic music of southern India. As Karnatic musicians embrace the
religious root of this music the purpose and feasibly the result of attending a Karnatic
concert is a spiritual experience. Various aspects of Indian culture have played a role in
developing Karnatic music, specifically the religious aspects. The Vedic books, brought
in by the Aryan race, were formative in Indian culture as these books created the basis of
Hindu religion. This Vedic religion, with its many prayers and hymns, became the
underpinning of Karnatic music.
173
Due to the wealth brought in by various rulers and a
patronage system being developed the music of southern India was allowed to flourish
and grow. The presence of the British served as yet another source for Karnatic music to
develop; this can be seen with the addition of western instruments such as the violin and
harmonium. The Bharata Natyam dance form reveals how the essence of music is
inclusive to many art forms. Religion can be seen as foundational as the Hindu god Siva
is worshipped for this gift of Sangita, a threefold art form(dance, drama and music).
174

Having an understanding of the numerous doctrines of Hinduism and the philosophical
portrait that it paints allows for a deeper understanding of why Karnatic music has
developed in the way it has. As ethnomusicologist Robert Simon has related it is

173
th
ed., 268.

174
The Development of Carnatic Classical Music and Dance in Different Periods. (accessed
March 15, 2013), 1.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 31
paramount to grasp a cultures philosophical ideas before one can accurately understand
that cultures music.
175

Devotional songs were developed overtime through the various holy books of
Hinduism and these hymns became the basis of todays Karnatic music. A few musical
elements of Karnatic music include the kriti and perceptibly the melodic and rhythmic
structure, which again have a connection to the religious fervor of India. The kriti
continues to express the religious ideas of India, as each song is characteristically
devotional. Finally the melodic and rhythmic systems of Karnatic music continues to
reflect the elaborate religion from which it originates as each svara relates to a specific
patron and the apurva philosophy connects the tala to salvational merit. From the Aryan
race to the tala each component of Karnatic music is related to the devotion and worship
associated with various gods and generally to the religion of Hinduism.

175
Robert Leopold Simon. Spiritual Aspects of Indian Music, (Delhi, India: Sundeep
Prakashan, 1984), 1.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 32
GLOSSARY

Used with permission by Dr. Guy L. Beck. This glossary is only a portion of the
resources available from his scholarly work Sonic Liturgy: Rituals and Music in Hindu
Tradition.
176

Alap. Introductory presentation of a raga in Indian without percussion accompaniment.

Apurva. A principle outlined in Mimamsa philosophy whereby the result or merit of a
sacrifice, quantified through the ritual time units and the syllables of mantra chanting, is
delayed or stored within the soul of the sacrificer to be reclaimed at a future time usually
in heaven or in the form of immortality. This principle also operates within the domain of
music and the counting of rhythm.

Aryan. The term meaning noble or cultured, normally associated with a language
group. The ancient Indians and Iranians are the only groups to have employed the term to
themselves.

Bhagavad-Gita. Sanskrit text; famous discourse by Krishna in eighteen chapters that
forms part of the epic Mahabharata. Many pious Hindus consider this work to be the best
summation of Hindu teachings, especially with regard to Bhakti.

Bhakti Sangit. Devotional musics, especially those that have incorporated the classical
traditions. Music as part of temple worship from medieval times to the present, including
the subcategories of Kirtan and Bhajan. Bhajan is a sub-category of Bhakti Sangit,
referring to worship music or music as an offering to god.

Bhava. Emotional state or experience derived from witnessing drama or music.

Brahma. The Creator god of Hindu tradition, part of the Trimurti, the group of three
great gods that also includes Vishnu and Siva.

Brihaddesi. Sanskrit text; musical treatise of the eighth or ninth century C.E., the first
musical work to identify the concept of a Raga and to incorporate Tantric discussions of
Nada-Brahman.

Dattilam. Sanskrit text; ancient music work by the sage Dattila describing Ganharva
Sangita.

Gandharva Sangita. The ancient classical music of India as described in the Natya-
Sastra and the Dattilam.

176
Guy L. Beck. Sonic Liturgy: Ritual and Music in Hindu Tradition (Glossary), 222-229.
RELIGIOUS ROOTS 33
Kirtan. Praise song; devotional music, a genre of Bhakti Sangit.

Kriti. Classical song of Carnatic music in southern India.

Mahabharata. Sanskrit text; the famous epic of India describing the feud between the
Pandavas and the Kauravas culminating in an eighteen-day battle. The Bhagavad-Gita is
the sermon of Krishna to his friend and disciple Arjuna that was delivered just before the
battle commenced.

Mantra. Sanskrit word or phrase used in Vedic ritual or Hindu piety.

Matra. A single beat in Indian music. The term is cognate with the English words meter
and measure.

Nada-Braman. The concept of sacred sound in Hindu tradition, encompassing both
linguistic and nonlinguistic sound (music).

Prakrit. The vernacular counterpart of Sanskrit believed to encompass the many
indigenous languages and vocabularies that influenced the birth and development of
Sanskrit through its many stages.

Puja. Ritual worship of images that replaced the Vedic fire sacrifice (Yajna) as the
central rite of Hinduism.

Purana. Sanskrit text; a class of lengthy historical and mythological narratives complied
in medieval India.

Purusha-sukta. The Hymn of the Cosmic Man in the Rig-Veda (RV 10.90).

Raga. A special set of notes from a musical scale; a mood in Indian music; term first
described in the Brihaddesi.

Ramanyana. The second great epic of Hindu tradition, describing the descent of Vishnu
as Rama, his heroic recovery of his wife, and the destruction of evil in the world.

Rig Veda. The original Veda, comprising ten books of metrical hymns and other
materials.

Rishi. Seers, Vedic poet-sages who received the revelation of the Rig-Veda.

Saman. A hymn of the Sama-Veda rendered in musical notes.

Sama-Veda. One of the four Vedas that include the hymns set to music and sung by
Udgatri preists.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 34
Sanskrit. That classical and liturgical language of India used by priest sand scholars; the
language of the Vedas and successive literature; the priestly counterpart to the vernacular
prakrit.

Sarasvati. The goddess of learning and music in Hindu tradition.

Siva. One of the great gods of the Trimurti; the destroyer of the cosmos.

Sruti. Vedic revelation; also the finest microtone in Indian Music.

Tala. Rhythm or rhythmic cycle used in Indian classical music, comprised of tali (claps)
and khali (waves).

Trimurti. The three great gods of Hindu tradition: Brahma the Creator, Vishnu the
Preserver, and Siva the Destroyer.

Udgatri. Vedic singer-priest associated with the Sama-Veda.

Upanayana. The ceremony of initiation of young boys into the Hindu tradition; on of the
principles Samskaras or life-cycle rituals.

Varna. The four social divisions of society sometimes referred to as caste.

Veda. Knowledge received as revelation in the form of four collections of Sanskrit
verses; the four Vedas handed down orally by Brahmins for more than three thousand
years.

RELIGIOUS ROOTS 35
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