China before 1949:

Imperial China was made up of the Qing Dynasty. This consisted of the ideas of:
- Confucianism accept the unchanging social order
- Hierarchy ruling Emperor
- Conservativeness rigid social conventions
- Isolating China from the foreign world this allowed China to develop a sense of superiority
Revolution, 1911:
- This revolution ended Chinas subjection to the West by adopting Western political and economic
ways
- A republic was set up - warlords competed for power
- CCP vs GMD the CCP won against the GMD as well as the Japanese, and established the PRC
(1949). The GMD fled to Taiwan.
Mao before 1949:
- Mao was a firm believed in dialects historical development through conflict between social
classes.
- He believed that progress resulted from the suppression of the weak power was gained through
violence
Jianjxi Soviet, 1927-34:
- The GMD-CCP unity broke down
- Mao and the CCP forced moved to Jiangxi and organized a guerilla resistance against the GMD
- The Jiangxi Soviet was established and was dedicated to achieving peasant revolution
The Long March, 1934-4:
- The GMD attacked the CCP base in Jiangxi
- Mao and 100K troops fled to Yanan in Shaanxi
- Though this was later turned into a glorious propaganda event, the journey actually took one year to
complete and only 20K survived
Yanan Years, 1935-45
- Mao imposed his personal authority on the CCP he had opponents to his power removed
- Rectification of Conduct campaign were purges Mao ordered in order to consolidate his hold
Maos countryside policies:
- The CCP committed ferocious atrocities against the peasants in order to force them to join the fight
against the GMD
- Maos son, Anying, was sent to the countryside for toughening up and he recorded the barbaric
events that he witnessed there.
- The failings of these policies were blamed upon Liu Shaoqui
Reshaping China under Mao:
Mao needed to bring stability back to China after years of turmoil. Thus, he began to remove opposition to
the CCP:
- External parties were outlawed
- The GMD officials were to provide the PRC with the necessary continuity for administration but were
later labeled as class enemies
- Anti-Movements were public campaigns against anyone who opposed official party policy it was
aimed at those who were socially or politically suspect
EFFECTS:
- Fear and uncertainty was created
- China became a nation of informers
- Property seizure from landlords it was distributed amongst the peasants and informers
Purges of CCP:
- Those who didnt follow the Party Line were condemned as Rightists
- The HFC allowed members to criticise policies but they were later arrested
The Great Leap Forward, 1958-62:
- Mao aimed to industrialize China to such an extent that they would match the West
- He copied Stalins 5-Year Plan model as a starting point
- However, unlike the USSR Mao favored the mass labour supply in Chinas population over
technological advancement
FAILURES:
- Targets werent met this often led to lying, corruption
- Famine
o Private ownership ended and people were forced to live in communes and work in collective
farms this reduced incentive for workers to work efficiently
o Lysenkoism was a false science and caused social disruption and well as food shortages,
which Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqui were left to solve (they did this by abandoning
collectivization).
The Cultural Revolution, 1966-76:
Mao feared that the revolution wouldnt survive past his death. He wanted to impose a political and social
structure upon China that would permanently define its character as a nation. Mao left the CR in the hands
of his wife, Jiang Qing who was now responsible with recreating Chinese culture.
- The CR obliged the party to acknowledge errors within the party and then it would purge these
rivals
- The Red Guards formed mass movement and destroyed everything of Chinas past e.g. buildings,
shrines, temples, museums
- All forms of artistic expression were subjected to crippling censorship art needed to be passed
through a Socialist Integrity test by Jiang Qing (Madame Mao) before it could be published (the art
must portray the triumphs of workers against class enemies).
FAILURES:
- Because all forms of creativity had to conform to Jiang Qings judgment, this meant that nothing of
lasting significance was created
CAUSES FOR THE CR:
Political strengthening
- Mao used the anarchy created by the CR, to enforce his will on the CCP and PRC
Ideological
- The CR was a means of fulfilling Maos concept of continuing revolution the belief that unless the
CCP was regularly purified, it would cease to be a revolutionary force and therefore China would
cease to be truly socialist.
Link between Imperial China and the PRC:
The PRC was a continuation of imperial China because:
- It returned to absolutism
- The people remained at the bottom and had to obey superiors the authority came from the top
- Instead of the Emperor, there was Mao their roles were very similar
- The PRC also hardly allowed normal people to be involved in government
- The CCPs rule was as uncompromising and self-perpetuating as that of the Emperors
Media:
- The state controlled the media this allowed government opinion to be reflected as well as
providing an opportunity to praise Mao for all hed succeeded in doing
- These opinions in government were greeted with universal approval from newspapers and journals
Maos changing reputation:
- Though the CCP didnt entirely reject Maoism after Maos death (as this would have undermined
their own standing), Maos reputation still began to decline.
- Instead, the CCP adopted a form of compromise
o Mao couldnt be overlooked because the CCP members had risen to prominence under him,
and had also carried out the CR.
o BUT China could overlook aspects of its past (such as the CR) history that reflected badly
on the PRC was no longer topics of interests.
The Early Years of the PRC, 1949-57
Consolidation of communist power, 1949-57:
Mao was Chairman of the Central Peoples Government Council
- This was made up of 56 party members
- Mao was the unchallengeable figure
Reunification Campaigns were set up to forcibly bring invaded provinces back into line. Troops were
dispatched to Tibet, Xinjiang and Guangdong.
- They justified the Tibetan invasion by claiming that Tibet historically belonged to China
- However, Tibetans were of a different culture, race and religion and thus they resisted PLA invasion
(60k Tibetan soldiers fought)
- Nonetheless, the PLA won and imposed a regime of Terror in Tibet.
The 3-Anti Movement was set up in 1951 and targeted: Waste, corruption and inefficiency
The 5-Anti Movement was set up in 1952 and intended to stimulate the economy by targeting: industrial
sabotage, bribery, theft of government property, tax evasion and fraud.
Mao had initially used the resources from the GMD to begin the reconstruction of China under the CCP.
But later he used the Anti-Movements to destroy the remnants of the capitalist class (e.g. former GMD
members) that he had been obliged to tolerate in order to maintain a continuity in administration.
China became a one-party state
- All other parties were outlawed in 1952 e.g. Left GMD
- Political purges were launched against counter-revolutionaries
o In Canton, 130K Criminals were rounded up and triads were removed
China became a nation of informers
- Neighbors denounced each other
- Children informed on their parents they were urged to be loyal to the party first and foremost
- Watchers kept the local CCP informed about suspicious behavior
- Those with middle-class backgrounds were condemned simply for that reason
- Cadres (dedicated CCP workers) spied on fellow CCP peers
The bourgeoisie was eliminated
- Only one class should exist the bourgeoisie class
- Proletarian revolution could only be achieved through violence
- This violence was used to destroy all capitalist elements
Registration was used as a weapon.
There were three types of registration:
- Dan Wei a permit provided when the individual cannot hold a job
- Hukou a certificate for the family to obtain accommodation
- Dangan the records and personal details of individuals was stored
o Dangan was the main way that authorities maintained social and political control
o A persons right to employment and housing depended upon the contents of the Dangan
o The CCP could manipulate the people into obedience
The Gao Gang and Rao Rashi Affair, 1954:
Moa claimed that many officials were only half-hearted in their efforts to promote the first FYP (1952-6).
- Two major culprits were identified: The Gao Gang and Rao Rashi (CCP leaders)
- Instead of working to advance industrialization, they had misused their authority to establish
independent kingdoms.
- Thus, both were dismissed from their positions
o As a result, Mao suspicions began to increase after this event.
Terror on the Land:
- Mao began going to the people his journeys to the countryside were met with peasants telling
him what he wanted to hear
- However, in actuality landlords and kulaks were persecuted
o They were put on show trials
o Their properties were redistributed amongst the peasants (initially peasants were happy
but later, under collectivization, the land became state-owned)
o They were denounced as enemies of the people
The Politburo had ultimate power Mao was a part of this
- The National Peoples Congress merely passed laws proposed by the Politburo
Democratic Centralism
- True democracy lay in the obedience of the people; the people should follow their leaders, the CCP
China and the Korean War, 1950-3:
1. Japan invaded Korea during WWII
2. After the defeat of Japan, Korea was partitioned along the 38
th
Parallel
3. The USA protected the South whilst the USSR protected the North
4. In 1950, the North Koreans crosses the Parallel with the aim of imposing their communist power
over the capitalist South
5. The USSR and China agree that China will fight for NK (in place of the USSR) in reward of soviet
benefits e.g. scientific technology, economic advisers etc.
Kim Il Sung (NK) wanted a war against the USA.
Though the USSR did not want to be sucked into a conflict in Asia which it could not hope to win, they too
wanted to bring the whole of Korea under communist control because then they would acquire a very
powerful position in the Far East (and at very little cost to themselves because the Chinese PLA would be
fighting instead of the USSRs RA).
The USSR deliberately missed the Security Council meeting that concluded that a UN army would be sent
to Korea Stalin wanted to entice the USA into conflict.
Mao had no idea that the USSR was exploiting China. However, he had his won reasons for fighting the
civil war:
- Geographically, Korea was very close to China - If the USA succeeded in conquering NK, this would
leave a passage into China.
- Mao wanted soviet aid for his restructuring of China he wanted soviet technology in exchange for
Chinese soldiers (it would later pay back the USSR by commercial successions); the terms and
conditions were agreed upon in the Sino-Soviet Agreement.
Lin Bao had opposed Maos decision to enter the war he argued that Chinas main aim was to crush
internal enemies. The PRC did not have the resources to fight in the Korean Civil War.
FAILURES
- A truce was formed and the two sides went back to either side of the Parallel no change was
made except for the loss of millions of lives.
- China contributed 3 million soldiers to the War effort this was a conscript army - By 1953, the PLA
had lost approx. 1 million soldiers for no reason.
- The USA pledged itself to the defense of Taiwan (where GMD members relocated) this ruled out
any possibility for the PRC to reclaim Taiwan.
- The war drained Chinas already fractured economy
SUCCESSES
- National unity was created in China to aid the war-effort this removed the last traces of the GMDs
hold over China
- The PRC had proved to the USSR that it was capable of matching the in combat
- China was now more determined to remain hostile from the outside world
The Economy The First FYP, 1952-6
Aims:
- Modernize Chinese economy by focusing on heavy industry e.g. coal, steel.
- Focus on transport infrastructure
EFFECTS:
- Urban population increased from 57-100 million between 1949-57 this provided a large workforce
and therefore sped up industrialization
- National Resources Committee (NRC) took control over industrial investment policy there was
more industrial expertise and therefore efficient planning
- New Currency (Yuan) was introduced
SUCCESSES
- Inflation dropped from 1000% to 15% between 1949-51 this was done through raising taxes and
slashing public expenditure
- There was an economic growth rate of 9% between 1953-7
- Even after lying about figures had been adjusted, there was still a considerable degree of success.
Between 1952-7:
o Coal increased from 113-115 million tonnes
o Steel increased from 4-5 million tonnes
FAILURES
- Sino-Soviet Agreement - the USSR exploited China by making them pay back loans plus added
interest
The Hundred Flowers Campaign
Party members were allowed freedom of expression to comment constructively on China. It called upon
critics to be open on their thoughts.
E.g. Mao made a speech on Contradictions he talked of the successes of the first FYP but also
complained about the heavy-handed methods used to apply the policies.
REASONS FOR HFC:
De-Stalinization:
- Khrushchev denounced Stalins Cult of Personality by criticizing Stalins methods
- Mao didnt want this charge to be made against him in China
- His apparent encouragement at party criticism during the HFC was actually a way of preventing the
comparison between Mao and Stalin
Consolidating power of CCP:
- The HFC was reversed with an anti-Rightist campaign this was a deliberate movement; he
exposed the critics and used what they had said to victimize them.
- Mao was able to root out opposition to his power by labeling his critics as anti-Party intellectuals
(e.g. doctors, lecturers) were mainly targeted.
o Individuals were forced to retract their statements
o They also had to confess and subject themselves to reeducation
o E.g. Zhou Enlai was forced to make a humiliating self-criticism in front of the party Mao was
showing that nobody, no matter how prominent they were in the party, was beyond
investigation
- Nobody was safe from investigation thus this forced everyone to conform to Maos wishes
Consolidating power of Mao:
- Mao didnt want the public to think he would be relaxing his hold over China after Khrushchev
introduced communism with a human face in the USSR the Hungarian Uprising had been a
result of this weakening of power
- Mao wanted to show China that he had no intention of weakening his hold over the PRC
Genuine seeking of constructive criticism:
- Perhaps Mao genuinely did initially want to improve the PRC through criticism
- However, he probably hadnt realized the scale of dissatisfaction in the party that the HFC had
revealed
- He only crushed his opponents because he discovered the extent of opposition and feared losing a
hold over China
Removing bureaucracy:
- By giving intellectuals freedom to express their ideas, Mao thought to prevent bureaucrats from
interfering with party decisions
- He wanted intellectuals to attack and expose corruption and bureaucracy
The Great Leap Forward The Second FYP
1958-62
- China lagged begin the rest of the advanced industrial world but Mao truly thought that China could
surpass them through the dedicated efforts of the Chinese people
- China would bypass the stages through which the advanced nations had gone, and go straight from
being a rural, agricultural economy to becoming an urban, industrial one.
- By revolutionizing agriculture and industry, the PRC could catch up and overtake the capitalist West
Dependence on USSRs model:
- Mao admired the USSR for what it had achieved economically but he regretted that the PRC had
become so dependent on them.
- He was determined to match the USSRs economic achievement but he wanted China to do it
without following the methods of the USSR.
- In the early years of the PRC it was necessary to follow the USSR because they had no experience
in economic construction.
- However, it was a weakness to continue following the USSR and showed a lack of creativity and
inability to stand on their own feet it was never meant to be a long-term thing, and so the USSR
began to change policies.
The Reform of Industry:
- Mao wanted to achieve industrial lift off by harnessing the massive population he was convinced
that the sheer manpower of China could solve all the problems of industrial development.
- It was the scale of construction rather than its economic value that appealed to Mao he placed a
large emphasis on heavy industry and large projects.
o E.g. the building of Tiananmen Square began in 1957-9 it was completed in two years.
It was competing with the USSRs Red Square, and was even larger in size.
o Thousands of workers, dressed in blue uniforms, and toiling with only the most basic of
tools, were referred to as the Blue Ants. Mao was the Emperor of these Blue Ants.
o General Steel and General Grain were two soldiers that would lead the nation to
economic victory.
o State-owned-enterprises (SOEs) this was an attempt to bring industry under total
government direction. Existing firms and companies could no longer operate as private,
profit-making concerns. Instead, they would work for the state as SOEs, there was no
negotiation between workers and employers over matters such as prices, output targets and
wages these were all fixed.
o The SOEs were ideologically a success as they fulfilled the communist notion of a centrally
controlled industry.
o Also workers had an iron rice bowl they had a guaranteed job and wages, as well as
accommodation and education and medical benefits for the family.
FAILURES OF GLF:
o Maos economic strategy was flawed he had believed that relying on Chinas unlimited manpower
could bring about the same advances that the western nations had made.
There was no plan for turning production into manufactured goods (sellable items) as the focus
was on production rather than consumption effectively, the materials produced were unused
and lay idle.
Mao himself lacked the knowledge of agricultural knowledge that was necessary in order to
understand the reports he had received from the countryside.
However, he blamed the failures on the bourgeoisie elements, which sabotaged the plan.
o Though coal production initially increased from 230-290, between 1958-9, it began to drop and by 1960
it fell down to 270 million tonnes.
o China lacked technical skills, managerial know-how, efficiency and an adequate transport system.
The USSR stopped providing technical assistance in 1960. This led to 150 plants, which had
been sponsored by the USSR, being closed down.
Mechanical diggers were shunned in favor of the earth being moved by the hands of the people.
o Also, political interference getting in the way of proper industrial management made the plan
impossible to manage purely as an economic enterprise.
o Quality control (monitoring standard of product) was impossible to sustain.
Thus, more often than not, the quality of finished products was very bad - it couldnt meet its
domestic industrial needs
o Targets were unrealistic and therefore continuously changed they were not based on sound
economic analysis; usually the figures were chosen as a way of impressing Mao and showing that the
party members were responding to his call for a mass collective effort.
o Backyard furnaces this was a communal activity in which everyone could participate to help build the
new society.
The people began to build their own furnaces and used it to produce steel.
This was a national movement and millions responded to it the people were faithful in
answering Maos call for mass industrialization.
However, homemade steel was worthless. The people had used various domestic oddments
such as pots and pans and therefore the steel produced was of such a bad quality that it was
effectively unusable.
The FYP wasted rather than utilized Chinas vast natural and human resources.
Also, many trees fell to the supply of backyard furnaces (to keep it burning) thus large parts of
China were deforested.
Local authorities were aware of the failures of backyard furnaces but due to the conspiracy of
silence, they refused to reveal the failures. Thus, steel continued to be gathered from peasants,
and then dumped in deep pits.
o SOEs never really operated on an integrated national plan
o Also, in practice SOEs performed less well than anticipated because they were inefficient there were
no incentive programs to encourage workers now.
SOEs were given state subsidies and workers received guaranteed wages.
This destroyed motive for the managers and workers alike, to show any initiative.
No matter how hard working or idle the worker was at the end of the day he would still receive
the same pay.
The Reform of Agriculture - Collectivization
REASONS FOR INTRODUCING COLLECTIVISATION:
o China had a severe labor shortage in the industries those employed in industry were only a
minority of the population. The industrial workforce had to be greatly increased if targets were to be
met.
o Peasant obstinacy though peasants were producing more food, this was not finding its way to the
urban workers.
The economic planners blamed the peasants greed for this they were indulging themselves by
overeating and having larger families, which meant more mouths to be fed.
The peasantry needed to be brought under strict central control and direction. Mao himself said
that the state should prevent peasants from eating too much.
o Consolidating the CCPs power:
RCs central government directed the whole system e.g. farming methods, sales and distribution
of produce.
- Private farming abolished
- Internal passports introduced for peasants passing between communes
o Mao was convinced that the peasants were inherently capitalist he said in a speech, There is no
communist spirit in them!
Peasants who ignored these new regulations and carried on with their old ways of farming were
rounded up and imprisoned as rightists.
Peasants not only had to join their farms in collectives, but the collectives also had to be
combined into a number of large communes.
- 1956-8: 750K collectives combined into communes
- Chinas agriculture was divided into 70K communes, which contained approx. 750K
brigades, which contained 100 households.
o Mao maintained that, rather being forced upon them, collectivization was a direct response to the
wishes of the peasants.
There were community dining rooms, nurseries, public baths, red and expert schools, available
to the peasants in order to ensure a happy life for them.
The Great Famine, 1958-62
CAUSES OF THE FAMINE:
o The ending of private ownership led to peasants being discouraged to produce food beyond their
own needs. This decline in productivity led to a famine in other areas.
o Lysenkoism
Lysenko seemed to have developed techniques that resulted in crops like rice and barley,
yielding up to x16 more food than under traditional methods.
Stalin regarded Lysenko as the voice of truth and the USSRs influence on China was so strong
that Mao made Lysenkoism official policy in 1958 he even personally drafted an 8-point
agricultural constitution based on Lysenko's theories.
However, Lysenkos methods were worthless and his theories on producing super crops were
fraudulent. China is a vast country with very different climates the special seeds that Lysenko
had advised to grow, didnt grow and therefore productivity fell.
o Sparrowcide
Birds kept on eating the crops thus the whole Chinese population was called upon to prevent the
birds from eating the crops.
At prescribed times, the people would bang pots and pans to scare away the birds and
prevented them from landing, until the birds eventually dropped from the sky from exhaustion.
The thousands of dead birds were publicly displayed as trophies. Villages competed with each
other over who killed the most birds.
However, without birds to eat them, insects began to eat the crops. Vermin also multiplied
because there were no birds to eat them.
Furthermore, it was a waste of time they could have used that time to continue farming and
increase production.
o Conspiracy of silence
Local officials were aware of the failures of lysenkoism, sparrowcide and the fact that millions
were dying. Yet they didnt speak out, and instead reported that production targets were being
met and that the GLF was on course.
Mao, on his visits to the countryside, never saw these failures because of the conspiracy of
silence instead he was met with happy peasants and long stalks of grain being produced.
Officials only cared about themselves with no thought for the people at large they ate large
meals and didnt feel the effects of starvation.
The Lushan Conference, 1959:
This conference was called in order to tackle the problem of famine.
Mao had even expected criticism from the party members and he even brought his wife, Jiang Qing, to help
fend off any attacks directed at him.
Peng Dehuai told the graphic, horrific truth of what he had witnessed as a result of collectivization I saw
my people lying dead.
This was the key opportunity for others to support him BUT no one did. Instead, the party members
dismissed Peng as a troublemaker and claimed he had fabricated his eyewitness account. They then
proceeded to make speeches noting the advances made under the GLF.
Mao thought the famine was fictional
Mao made an angry speech ridiculing Peng Dehuai and told the delegates that he was willing to use the
PLA against anyone who tried to lead the peasants to overthrow the government.
This was Maos way of claiming that the famine was really a fiction, created by reactionary peasants who
resisted collectivization.
Effectively, talk of famine was tantamount to treason against Mao and the CCP. Thus, the famine continued
with nothing being done to alleviate the peoples suffering.
EFFECTS:
o Starvation forced labor camps were expanded to take in more peasants. Millions starved to death
and therefore the workforce decreased thus contributing to the further decline in production.
Of the 50 million who starved to death, the worst toll was in the Arc of Misery that swept from
Shandong to Tibet.
Shandong = 7.5 million dead Tibet = 1 million dead
Parents sold their children for food; husbands sold their wives for food. Women prostituted
themselves and some even resorted to cannibalism.
o Productivity declined
Grain production fell from 164-160 million tonnes from between 1952-62.
Meat production fell from 3.4-1.9 million tonnes from 1952-62.
o Martial Law imposed
People were so desperate for food that provincial demonstrations began to take place and were
quickly spreading.
In order to maintain order, Liu Shaoqui imposed Martial Law to suppress the rebellion.
Tibetan Famine
EFFECTS:
o Human Losses
population (1 million people) died in the famine.
The Panchen Lamas Report, 1962 showed a true indication of the effects of collectivization:
- The Panchen Lama went on a secret tour of Tibet to discover the truth about the famine he
knew that the communist authorities were churning lies about the conditions in Tibet
- E.g. 1960 the National Peoples Congress referred to the situation in Tibet as a wonderful
situation.
- His report concluded that 20% of the population had been gaoled an average of between
80 and 100 for each village and half of those gaoled died while in prison.
- The eyewitness accounts also describes the brutality of the official onslaught of the Tibetan
people.
- This report was an accurate reflection of Tibet because the Panchen Lama had initially been
on the PLAs side but turned against them after hed witnessed the savagery.
- Also because Zhou Enlai confirmed that the report was a fair portrayal.
o Traditional Tibetan farming involved
The rearing of Yaks and sheep by nomadic herders was a way of growing barley and oat.
- BUT the Chinese occupiers demanded that socialist farming techniques must be established in
Tibet. They insisted that farmers must switch from growing barley to other crops such as wheat
and maize.
- The new crops grew poorly in the Tibetan climate and surviving wheat was inedible mainly.
Wheat or maize couldnt be eaten in the traditional digestible form of Tsampa.
- This led to the digestive systems of the Tibetan people becoming messed up the people
suffered from diarrhea and dehydration, sometimes the symptoms even led to death.
Persecution of the Khampas:
- Khampas (yak herdsman) were forbidden to roam the meadows with their yak herds. They were
no longer considered nomads; rather they were farmers. Thus they, alongside with their yaks
and herds, were forced to live in communes.
- These yaks weren't domesticated and so could not be trained to plough the field thus, the
herdsman had to plough the soil.
- Also, the Chinese experts refused to allow the yaks to be moved from the communes to summer
or winter pastures this meant that many yaks became malnourished and withered.
- Thus, the diet of the Tibetan people worsened as cheese and meat had dried up.
- Also, yak hair from which they made their clothes was useless.
- Thus, hundreds of thousands of people died from malnutrition and cold.
Maos political weakening
- Mao himself suffered from the famine and due to his damaged reputation, and thus he withdrew
from the political frontline.
- He left Liu and Deng in charge of resolving the famine both concluded that the only way to solve
the food crisis was by reintroducing private farming and the free market. This would provide the
peasants an incentive to produce surplus stocks.
- This seemed to imply that that the commune system had been a failure and therefore this not only
showed an ideological weakening, but it also proved that Maos policy had been a failure thus
further weakening his hold.
CAUSES
o The Tibetan Uprising
- The PRC deliberately chose to extend the famine to Tibet this was a way of destroying Tibetan
resistance.
o Disregarding the Panchen Lamas report
- The Panchen Lama sent a copy of the report to Mao, who dismissed it as a collection of lies.
- He described the Panchen Lama as a class enemy and had him arrested as well as the report
suppressed.
- The PRCs propaganda campaign tried to salvage the reputation of the party by using propaganda
that stated that the stories of famine and misery were without foundation and that Tibet truly had
experienced the same abundant harvests as all the other provinces of China that had embraced
collectivization.
- Maos refusal to accept or confront the famine only led to the famine being further drawn out.
o Hoarding of grain by the peasants this had prevented food from getting to the people
o Mistakes by local officials they misunderstood their instructions or had been incompetent in
carrying them out (BUT ultimately the responsibility lay with Mao, due to him his officials set in
motion a process that resulted in the loss of a million lives)
o Bad weather droughts and floods had destroyed harvests
WAS THE FAMINE MAN-MADE?
o The famine was a man-made disaster it was an act of genocide by the Chinese government.
During the reunification campaign, the PLA invaded Tibet and began to destroy its culture, as
well as social and religious identity. Chinas ultimate aim was to eradicate Tibet as a nation and
a culture.
Chinas actions included:
- Renaming Tibet to Xizang, in order to make it more part of China.
- Banning the public practice of Lama (religion) as well as political meetings and teaching of Tibetan
history and language in schools.
- Sponsoring a mass migration people from other parts of China moved to Tibet; the government
was trying to fill Tibet with people whose alien way of life (e.g. different religion, culture etc.) would
swamp the local Tibetan culture.
- Mandarin Chinese became the official language of Tibet those who wanted to maintain a high
public position needed to learn it.
Tibetan Uprising, 1959 was a result of this invasion:
The Tibetan resistance reemerged to rise against the Chinese occupation. The Chinese
responded by sending in PLA units to suppress the demonstrations.
Thousands were arrested, imprisoned and executed.
Chinese forces attacked Tibetan religion specifically nuns and priests were publically
humiliated and beaten.
Monasteries were converted into administrative buildings. Tibetans would be arrested even for
mentioning the Dalai Lama in public.
The Flight of the Dalai Lama - the Dalai Lama decided to leave the country rather than wait for
his removal by the Chinese. In exile, the Dalai Lama became a potent symbol of Tibetan
resistance. He kept the world media informed of the continuing severity of the PLAs occupation
he was able to voice the plight of the Tibetan people to the outside world after being granted
sanctuary in India.
The Cultural Revolution, 1966-76
The Power Struggle, 1962-6:
The GLF had been failure and therefore Maos reputation had been damaged this led to Maos adopting a
less prominent position in politics. Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaqoui were growing increasingly popular in
the party Mao feared that his colleagues would remove him from power if they had the opportunity to.
Mao had reason to believe that Liu and Deng were manipulating their position to challenge Maos rule.
e.g. some supporters of Deng and Xiaoping (in the 1960s) began to reverse the collectivization program.
Mao judged that he was losing his grip on the party his absence had led factions to develop.
The Cult of Mao
The Little Red Book
Lin Bao, a devoted Maoist, collaborated with Chen Boda in compiling the Little Red Book this book was a
collection of thoughts and sayings of Mao. This became the secular bible of China and the source of all
truth. A copy was distributed to every soldier and became the text used in study sessions that were made a
compulsory part of military training. This ensured that the army was politicized as a force wholly committed
to the support of Mao. Moas slogan, Learn from the PLA, was a way of saying that Chinas army
represented the true revolutionary spirit and this was a model for the people to follow. 750 million copies of
the Little Red Book were distributed across China. It became the prescribed source for every subject on
the curriculum in schools and universities. It became a necessity to have a copy of the book with one at all
times. The publication of Lei Fengs Diary in 1963, a dead PLA member whos every thought and action
were inspired by his devotion to Mao, was held up as a symbol of martyrdom for the revolutionary cause
it encouraged every Chinese person to reach Leis level of dedication. Lei was the embodiment of the
loyalty of the ordinary Chinese. His text joined the LRB as an essential text for study in schools.
BUT the story was a complete fabrication and was made up by the governments propaganda team.
The Wu Han Affair
Wu Han belonged to a group of writers that were critical of Mao. He created a play, The Dismissal of Hai
Ruin from Office, which referenced Peng Dehuais dismissal for opposing the GLF and stating the truth in
Lushan about the extent of the famine. This provided Lin Bao the opportunity to move against the anti-
Maoist elements in the CCP. In 1965, Lin Bao started a series of attacks on Wu Han and charged him with
blackening Maos good name and undermining Marxist-Leninism.
Divisions in the CCP
The Wu Han affair had deepened the divisions that had begun to develop within the CCP and between the
PLA. Jiang Qing (Maos wife) denounced the reactionaries and revisionists on the Right and also aimed to
undermine the Group of Five who were condemned for their moderation at a time when utter ruthlessness
was the only proper response.
The Shanghai Forum and the Gang of Four
The Shanghai Forum were a set of Maoists who were at the extreme end of an extreme movement. The
Gang of Four (consisting of Jiang Qing and 3 members of the Politburo) dominated the Forum. Jiang Qing
urged that Peng Dehuai and Liu Shaoqui should be removed from their positions in the CCP. Also, she
stated that Chinese culture should be cleansed of writers and artists whose attitude betrayed their lack of
commitment to the revolution. Jiang Qing became a ruthless cultural enforcer. The Forum ordered the PLA
to lead China in rooting out anti-socialist elements and eradicating all traces of artistic corruption that
delayed the achievement of a truly proletarian culture.
The Central Cultural Revolution Group (CCRG)
This was the body that ran the Cultural Revolution it consisted of the Gang of Four. In 1966, Mao
announced that there were enemies within the party that would seize power and turn China into a
dictatorship of the bourgeoisie.
The Cultural Revolution, 1966-76
On Maos orders, Lin Bao organized teachers and radical teachers to attack the education system for its
divergence from the revolutionary path. Students abandoned their classes and attacked their teachers.
Deng and Liu sent special work teams to campuses in order to contain the trouble, but the Red Guards
attacked them.
The Yangtze River Swim Maos Return
It was at this critical stage that Mao returned to politics. He swam across the Yangtze River (which was
regarded as a life force) at the age of 73. This was made into a huge propaganda campaign; it was
televised, printed in newspapers etc. This was a great symbolic gesture and proved that Mao was still in
control of events. Mao exploited the excitement roused by his spectacular return, to tighten his grip on
government and party. In a special meeting in August, he called on members to rededicate themselves to
unwavering class struggle and he also replaced Liu Shaoqui in favor of Lin Bao as his successor.
The August Rally, 18
th
August 1966
Lin Bao and Chen Boda organized for over a million Maoist supporters packed into Tiananmen Square in
Beijing they waved their LRBs and chanted praises to Mao. Effectively, the Cult of Mao had developed.
Enlisting the young
It was his ability to manipulate the public opinion and behavior of the young that Mao was able to start the
Cultural Revolution. He used the young to re-impose his will on the nation and reshape it according to his
vision. He used the Red Guards to attack those ideas and members in the party that Mao wanted removed.
The attack on the Four Olds
The Red Guards targeted:
1. Old ideas
2. Old culture
3. Old customs
4. Old habits
China had been told that nothing in its past was worth preserving.
The Great Rallies, 1966
There were 8 mass rallies taken place between August and November in Tiananmen Square. The rallies
were used to excite the crowds to ever-greater displays of affection and loyalty towards Mao. Lin Bao also
appealed to the crowds to honor Mao as the outstanding revolutionary genius. The people were being
remolded and indoctrinated into believing that Mao would lead the nation to greatness.
Maos reasons for launching the Cultural Revolution:
To consolidate his power by removing opposition
To obliterate the damaging effects of the failures of the GLF
To ensure that his revolution would continue even after his death he would remold culture and
society in such a way that it could never be changed back
To prevent China fro making the same mistakes as the USSR
To break the power of the bureaucrats and restore peasant character in the revolution
Permanent Revolution
Mao was convinced that many in the upper sections of the party were infected by neo-capitalism (a return
to the corrupt bourgeoisie system based on greed, individualism and profit-making) this desire for
personal power robbed them of their revolutionary purpose.
Mao feared that after his death, the CCP would become a self-justifying bureaucracy and would destroy all
that had been achieved by the PRC. To consolidate the revolution, Mao directly appealed to the people and
enlisted them in the Cultural Revolution campaign in order to save the revolution.
Developments in the USSR
By the 1950s, Khrushchev had begun to attack Stalins Cult of Personality. Mao interpreted this attack as a
criticism of his own leadership of China.
Also, by 1964 Khrushchev too had fallen from power and the Russian officials stated that he was
harebrained. Mao feared that the Chinese people would too denounce him.
Khrushchev had brought in too many liberalizing policies and Mao saw this as a betrayal of the revolution
by encouraging revisionism and dtente (coexistence of West and East). He was determined that such
development would not occur in China.
Mao judged that the CCP were already being seduced by the privileges of power the older revolutionists
that had defeated the GMD had lost their revolutionary fervor. Thus Mao decided that it was time for a new
generation of party members to replace the old guard.
Mao wanted to test the younger members, who had not undergone the legendary experiences that the
older members had e.g. the White Terror, the Long March etc. They needed to be tested to see if they were
strong enough to withstand military attack from the West.
Undermining bureaucrats and intellectuals
Mao was determined to preserve the revolution as an essentially peasant movement the peasants were
the main revolutionary force in China. He didnt want the intellectuals and bureaucrats to run affairs
because he had developed a tension with them - they were the one to criticize the GLF. His attack on the
intellectuals was an act of revenge.
E.g. At a party meeting, Deng Xiaoping and Liu Shaoqui were accused of being spearheads of the
erroneous line they were leaders who tried to persuade the party to follow policies that ran counter to
Maos wishes. They were dismissed from positions on the grounds that they have become revisionists.
Propaganda was used to denounce both Deng and Liu for their betrayal of Maoist thought. Liu was beaten,
imprisoned in solitary confinement and later killed. 3000 Red Guards humiliated Deng and he was then
sent to perform corrective labour a form of imprisonment that brought the prisoner to see the error of his
ways.
Once the Cultural Revolution was underway, Mao played little part and withdrew from Beijing.
Kang Sheng was appointed head of the PRCs secret police. Kang was a member of the Shanghai Forum
and had a reputation for ruthlessness. He became the principal organizer of the purges.
The Red Guards camped out in Tiananmen Square for months and kept up a constant barrage of insults
directed at rightist officials. They turned violent if given the slightest pretext.
Jiang Qing and Lin Bao also personally identified the ministers and officials who were to be abused.
The Role of the Red Guards
Pupils and students had been encouraged to regard themselves as pioneers under Mao in the
advancement of international proletarian revolution. The young were made to feel that they had a special
role in the creation of a new socialist world order. The young people saw Mao as the great hero who had
freed China from a century of humiliation at the hands of foreigners. The worship of Mao illustrated two key
features of Chinese society emperor worship and the power of peer-group conformity (the young
following each other simply because they didnt want to be left out).
Red Guard Terror
The young were told to insult and abuse their elders e.g. parents, teachers.
Anything that represented the corrupt past was labeled under Confucius and co. They were liable to being
smashed up. Temples, shrines and art pieces became targets and were vandalized or destroyed.
They seized public transport and took over radio and television networks. Anyone who showed signs of
decadent tendencies (clinging to bourgeoisie elements e.g. wearing western clothing) would be publicly
humiliated e.g. the intellectuals such as teachers, doctors, writers etc. They were forced to undergo
struggle sessions where, to induce guilt, the victims were made to study Maos teachings and self-criticise
by recalling all their errors and sins against the party. A common practice was for the Red Guards to force
the accused to adopt the airplane position, with their arms pulled behind their backs. Those who pledged
innocence were beaten until they had no more resistance left. It didnt matter if a victim had past
achievements in the revolutionary cause e.g. Wang Jinxi was personally honored by Mao for his resistance
against the GMD, but the Red Guards had accused him as a traitor-worker for working in oil fields at a
time when it was controlled by the GMD. He was tortured to death over a 3-day period.
The Red Guard action wasnt spontaneous; rather it was officially directed. Xie Fuzhi, the Minister for Public
Security, stated that the Red Guards were provided information about people from these five categories:
landlords, rich peasants, reactionaries, bad elements and rightists. The names and whereabouts of all the
people under these categories were passed to the Red Guards, who then descended onto their victims.
Over 2000 people were tortured to death in a period of two weeks.
Victims and Victimizers
The victimisers in turn became the victims. Revolutionaries struggled to prove their proletarian integrity by
becoming even more extreme those who faltered to or showed signs of being sickened by the horrors
were condemned as reactionaries and found themselves subject to the very savagery that they had meted
out. Idealism was replaced by brutishness and a fear of being purged if one showed non-conformity.
Licensed savagery:
There were systematic killings of bound victims along side regular beatings in the streets. In Daxing
County, 300 people were clubbed to death over a two-day period. The purges had resulted in the killing of
over 500K CCP officials.
Cultural Vandalism:
The Red Guards destroyed 4922/6843 of Beijings places of cultural and historical interest.
They also tried to destroy the Forbidden City but Zhou Enlai intervened and prevented this from occurring.
200 Beijing university students committed 6618 organized acts of vandalism within four weeks this
included the destruction of 929 paintings, 1000 statues and 2000 graves.
Attack on foreigners
The victims werent restricted to the Chinese people.11 foreign embassies were attacked and their staff
assaulted.
Red Guards surrounded the Soviet Embassy and kept up a 24-hour barrage of insults.
Beating two Indian Embassy secretaries
Burning the British Embassy in Beijing they were beaten and the women were sexually abused; the
morals of the Red Guards did not remain intact
Chinese attacks abroad
The Cultural Revolution was carried out internationally by 1967, Chinese militants had caused violent
incidents in over 30 countries.
Members of the Chinese embassy in London led demonstrations and caused disruption.
Trouble in Hong Kong
In May 1967, Mao tried to turn a workers strike in Hong Kong, into an anti-British demonstration (the British
owned Hong Kong). He hoped this would tempt the British to shoot at the Chinese, thereby revealing the
true evil nature of British colonialism in China. However, the British didnt retaliate this way and so Mao sent
terrorists to murder policeman and make it look as if the British had done it. Within 8 weeks, five policemen
were dead and over 160 bombs had caused civilian deaths. Even still, the British didnt retaliate and Mao
never got the massacre he wanted.
Reigning in the Red Guards
The revolution had brought widespread disruption and this had negative effects:
It had brought industrial production to a halt.
Schools and universities were closed.
Civil Wars raged in China regional groups had begun to clash with one another, factory workers formed
their own units and challenged the students as the true leaders of the movement
The work of the Red Guards was taken over by the PLA as a result of the situation getting out of hand.
They took over the Red Guards in hunting down and terrorizing counter-revolutionaries.
Mao had let the Red Guards run wild because h had known that he could use the PLA to reign them back
in thus the CR was directed form the top rather than by the people. Mao and the CCRG orchestrated
much of the events. The youngsters were merely pawns in the power struggle in the CCP.
Up to the mountains and down to the villages campaign 1967-72
The youngsters were urged to go to the countryside and live among the peasants. This way they would
learn what like was like for 80% of Chinas population and therefore deepen their understanding of the
revolution.
However, the governments aim was to remove the gangs and delinquent youths from the urban areas that
had threatened to become uncontrollable. This was also an extension of Maos notion hat people of
privilege should learn the dignity of labor.
Between 1967-72, over 12 million young people moved from towns into the countryside. Most were
unprepared for the primitive conditions and had no countryside skills whatsoever they did not know how
to grow crops or rear livestock.
The peasants too were unimpressed because the students didnt earn their keep and tended to regard
themselves as superior beings who had made a heroic act of self-sacrifice by coming to the countryside.
The low standard of living hit the students hard and this made them doubt and question the wisdom and
goodwill of Mao. They began to realize that they had been used.
However, they did increase literacy standards a little in the countryside.
The Cleansing of the Class Ranks campaign, 1968-71.
The PLA were even more vicious that the Red Guards. The Gang of Four established committees in major
regions, who were given the task of eradicating any signs of capitalism. This led to an orgy of killings and
destruction.
Yunnan 15K people cleansed and of these, 6979 died of their injuries.
Beijing 3731 killed but were officially classified as suicides
Sometimes, after theyd been beaten to death, the killers would eat their victims dead flesh and liver.
Mao stepped in at this point because he didnt want his reputation to be damaged.
Maos absence from the political center of things meant that while the policies were carried out under his
authority, he was rarely involved in the everyday details. The individual acts of brutality were seldom the
result of his specific orders. The CR was pushed further than Mao had intended. Still, he was to blame
because he couldve called off the Terror at any point but did not. He had given Jiang Qing and the Gang of
Four control and therefore he was the originator of this horrific movement.
The Fall of Lin Bao, 1971-2
There were signs that many Chinese people were becoming disenchanted with Mao but there was hardly
any opposition to Mao because mistakes were blamed on those responsible for implementing Maos
policies. The Cult of Mao at this point was very strong he was known as the Great Helmsman. Power
seekers in the CCP claimed loyalty to Mao because they wanted to be his successor.
However, Mao became disturbed that those closest to him would overthrow him. Lin Bao, his successor,
had a growing influence due to the CR and therefore Mao wanted to remove him effectively, Lin too
became a victim of the CR. The first stage was to submit him self to self-criticism.
Lin Bao realized that he had become a marked man and became involved in an assassination plot.
However, this information was leaked to Zhou Enlai who then informed Mao. The chances of the
assassination being successful now were slim to none. Lin Bao tried to escape to the USSR but his plane
crashed and he died with his family.
The assassination plot had depressed Mao he became physically unwell as well. This was because the
assassination attempt had been an indication of how widespread the opposition to him in the party had
become. He needed to be protected from the very people he wanted to change the lives of.
The scandal surrounding Lin Baos death was released a year after his death a criticise Lin Bao and
Confucius campaign was launched which named Lin the great traitor and Soviet spy. It was this public
denunciation of Lin that led many to question whether they could believe the official pronouncements
issued by the PRC. No one could believe that Lin Bao, a devoted Maoist who had helped build the CR,
could become traitor to China.
Tu Deyong, a CCP member, published Ten Indictments against the Great CR. This included a damaging
of the economy, living standards worsening and more crime and loose morals within the youth. Tu was
arrested and sentenced for life. He reflected what most people were thinking.
The CR runs down, 1972-6
The extremism of the CR began to lessen with which the pogroms (a state organized persecution against a
group of people) and persecutions were conducted. This was due to:
Uncertainty about Maos true intentions
The effect of the Lin Bao affair, which led to a rethink in the CCP about how severe its policies,
should be
An unacknowledged recognition by the party that the points Tu Deyong had made were an accurate
description of the harmful effects of the CR
The wish to impress President Nixon who made an official visit to the PRC in 1972
The Return of Zhou Enlai and Deng Xiaoping
Zhous position in the party elevated became he had uncovered the assassination plot.
Zhou also re-invited Deng back into government by 1975, Deng had regained his place as Party
Secretary.
The return of these two moderates meant that the CR was less savagely enforced after 1973. However,
arrests still continued and prison camps continued to expand.
However, Jiang Qing was disturbed by the grip that the moderates seemed to be regaining and attacked
them using the Pragmatist Clique campaign.
Mao could not be completely to blame because he did not carry out the CR by himself it was the
willingness of so many young people to engage in exploitation and terror that contributed to the CR.
The End of the Mao Era
Tiananmen Incident
Zhou Enlais death had removed all traced of moderation in the party. However, for his memorial service,
thousands flocked into Tiananmen Square to lay wreaths and pictures of Zhou around the Heros
Monument. This was an act of defiance because the people werent supposed to show public displays of
mourning. Speeches were made, praising Zhou and attacking the government of corruption.
The Mayor of Beijing feared that the demonstration might get out of hand so he ordered riot police to
remove the tribute to Zhou and disperse the crowds. Resistance led to violent confrontations but the police
did manage to clear the Square.

The politburo condemned this act of disobedience and blamed Rightists, such as Deng Xiaoping, who was
then removed from his position.
The Death of Mao
Maos severe illness had prevented him from responding to the Tiananmen Incident. Jiang Qing and the
Gang of Four took control.
Religion in the PRC
Mao believed that religion was a superstition and was deliberately cultivated by the upper class to suppress
the exploited people. Thus he began to attack religion immediately. The official reason was because since
now the workers were in power, this had ended the need for escapism through religion religion was
deemed a corrupt thought process and religious worship needed to be replaced by loyalty to the party.
Churches were forcibly closed
Ministers abused monks were humiliated at a temple in Harbin in August 1966
Church property destroyed
Propaganda condemned religion
China became a slogan-ridden society; it used mass public propaganda to train the people into
conformity and obedience
Peasants were the most religious segment and therefore they were targeted first
Chinese traditional faiths such as, Confucianism and Buddhism, as well as Islam and Christianity,
was forbidden to be practiced
Priests and monks were prevented from wearing distinctive dress or faced imprisonment
Foreign clergy expelled form China
Temples, monasteries, shrines, churches were closed down or converted into offices
Ancestor Worship (paying respect to deceased members in a celebration) was condemned as a
superstition
The customs and rituals that helped to shape the peasants lives were prohibited e.g. songs, dances,
chants, hymns, and sagas. Mao wanted to destroy the pattern of rural life so he replaced traditional ways
with political meetings and discussions organized by the party. Maoism became the new faith. Agit-prop
troupes (Agitation propaganda aimed at imposing political ideas through propaganda) toured the
countryside and put on shows and plays which villagers were required to sit through. The villains were
landlords or religious figures.
The aim of this propaganda was to reiterate the happiness of the communal way of life and collective
endeavor, which had been guided by the wisdom of Mao and the CCP.
Patriotic Churches:
Mao knew that if he allowed some forms of public worship to continue, it would give the appearance of
toleration. Some churches were allowed to remain open, provided that they did not endanger the security of
the state this meant that they became state-owned and were known as Patriotic Churches. The
authorities had the right to appoint the clergy and dictate doctrine.
However, there was conflict between the PRC and Vatican due to the opening of these churches. The
papacy (Catholic Churches government) rejected the notion of patriotic church as a genuine form of
Catholicism. The Chinese bishops and priests were not recognized by Rome and risked excommunication
(formal dismissal from the Church).
Religious persecution during CR
During the CR, religion was announced as belonging to the Four Olds, thus the attack on religion
intensified.
No public worship or ceremony was allowed
Clergy were imprisoned
Confucianism was denounced Confucius & Co. became a standard term of abuse directed at any
suspicious groups or organizations e.g. Lin Baos assassination was attacked by the slogan criticise Lin
Bao and Confucius. the
Internationally, many denominations of Christianity called on the PRC to call off the persecutions. However,
Mao disregarded the appeals and continued the suppression of religion.
The government feared that religion might encourage breakaway tendencies in the Western provinces such
as Tibet and Xinjiang. The strength and survival of the PRC demanded total unity and obedience to Central
control the PRC needed the western provinces under their control. In Tibet, the Lama faith had inspired
Tibetan nationalism and Xinjiang lay next to Muslim countries such as Pakistan, Kazakhstan etc. This
added to the PRCs fears that religious beliefs would combine with politics to create a dangerous separatist
movement in Xinjiang, which would be backed by the bordering Islamic nations. The PRC claimed that
these bordering regions aim was to split and weaken the PRC. Thus, to counteract this fear, the
government tried to dilute the Lama and Muslim population alike, by settling vast numbers of han Chinese
in the regions of Tibet and Xinjiang.
The Status of women and family:
Prior to Maos rule, Confucius had taught that society must follow the rules of san gang:
- Loyalty of ministers and officials to the emperor
- Respect of children for their parents
- Obedience of wives to husbands
Women were publicly discriminated against and played a subordinate role.
There were only a few cases where women played a leading role in public life e.g. the Empress Dowager
Cixi mainly ruled for the last 20 years of the Qing Dynasty.
WOMEN
In 1907 Mao was betrothed at age 14, to a women seven years his senior this was an arranged marriage
purely for financial reasons. However, Mao refused to go through with the betrothal or consummate the
marriage despite the bride price (money paid to brides family based on calculation of how many children
she would have) already having been paid.
This was later used in the propaganda campaign, as an example of Maos fight against the corrupt social
system in which women had become nothing more than commodities.
FORCED MARRIAGES
In 1919 Hunan, a woman committed suicide on her marriage day because she didnt want to be forced into
marriage. Mao seized the incidence as evidence of the rottenness of the marriage system. He
condemned arranged marriages as indirect rape. They were exploited by Chinas marriage customs,
which had made them slaves to their husbands and families.
WOMENS RIGHTS
Mao insisted that women were equal to women.
He formally outlawed the practice of foot binding the hobbling of women made them helpless and thus
attractive to men.
But the CPP was still a male-dominated system. Ding Ling accused Mao of hypocrisy and stated that the
party exploited women. Indeed, women mainly carried out the domestic chores and few of the important
party posts were given to them.
MARRIAGE REFORM, 1950s
- Concubinage abolished
- No more arranged marriages
- Paying dowries and bride prices was forbidden
- Those who had been forced to marry were entitled to divorce
- Marriages were registered
Due to freedom of divorce, women remarried several times and this caused too much disruption so
regulations were provided for soldiers to overrule their wives plea for divorce.
Impact of collectivization on women
Laws were granted to give women the right to own and sell land + property this broke the tradition of men
controlling property dealings.
Living in communes also meant that women didnt have to cook food and prepare it for the family, as
everyone ad to eat in the mess halls.
However, collectivization meant that the land became state-owned and therefore women (nor men) were
entitled to any land.
DISADVANTAGES
1949-76 the proportion of women in workforce quadrupled from 832%.
- Sometimes the work wasnt suitable e.g. heavy physical labour, and thus women were worse off
Ingrained prejudice against women China was traditionally a male-dominated society and despite the
communist regime declaring that the sexes were now equal, social values and attitudes could not be
changed overnight.
- Male babies continued to be prioritized over female ones, who were seen as a drain on resources
Unchanging peasant attitudes the idea that the female was subordinate was strongly held in rural areas
especially in the Muslim-dominated Xinjiang.
- Islamic teachings in Xinjiang suggested that the four million women were subject to the orders of all
men in their lives and would be punished if they disobeyed or showed too much independence
ultimately, women were considered possessions.
Restrictions on women remained the CCP was not as committed to gender equality as they claimed.
- Women made up only 13% of party membership the number of women who became members of
the National Peoples Congress (from 14-17% between 1954-64) but never on such an extreme
scale to suggest that the CCP had made a priority of promoting females within its ranks
- Song Qingling, one of the few women who held a high position in the PRC government, complained
that her colleagues didnt treat her equally or accept the fact that women could play key roles in the
party.
WOMEN AND FAMILY
Mao wanted the destruction of a traditional Chinese family women who joined the army and worked in
factories was a part of the process of destroying the traditional family.
The prohibiting of ancestor worship was intended as a blow against family as a social unit (as well as
religion) with its historical roots and deep emotional attachments.
In many communes, men and women were made to live in separate quarters and were only allowed to see
each other for conjugal visits (time set aside for couples to have sexual relations) the main aim was to
regard the Peoples Communes as family rather than paying attention to the formation of a separate family
of their own.
Personal wasnt regarded as very important compared to the love one must have for Mao and the CCP
Despite this liberation there were also downsides that came along with it:
Many women were unhappy having been stripped of their roles as mothers and family raisers it seemed
to against nature.
The change was too sudden China was profoundly a deeply conservative people and the women became
disoriented and detached from their traditional moorings.
The impact of the famine on women and family:
Women suffered the most in the famine the boy was prioritized and would be fed before the girl. Once the
girl was dead they would cook her and eat her people accepted this, as it was a kind of hunger culture.
Divorce and wife selling:
During the famine, divorce rate rose by 60% in the Gansu region. This was because the couple often ran
out of food and the husband would divorce the wife to allow her to find a husband elsewhere this meant
that there was more food remaining for the family.
Wives would also be sold to the highest bidder in order to obtain grain and keep the rest of the household
alive. The poorer the region meant the greater the wife selling.
After the famine had eased, there was a lot of disruption caused as wives often refused to go back to their
original families, preferring the new life that they had made.
In Gansu, husband appealed in court cases for their wives to return to them but many wives resisted being
forced to return and the courts supported them.
Impact on the children:
When the wives left, the children became motherless. This often led to the children themselves being sold
as workers/into slavery or being abandoned. The parents thought their children had a better chance of
survival if someone else adopted them.
Many female infants were dumped in hospitals; railway stations or the side of the road. Male infants soon
followed this abandonment.
Child abuse and prostitution:
Abandoned children were obvious targets for exploitation and sexual abuse.
CCP members often bought young girls from starving families and sexually abused them the CCP was
used to ignoring or covering up its members scandals and so this abuse continued.
The party was also involved in the spread of prostitution in the worst hit regions, women would
themselves or sex in return for food.
- CCP workers exploited this situation and in Anhui they set up brothels reserved for special use by
party members.
Impact of CR on women and family:
- Private property and ownership was now depicted as crimes so families had to live in communes,
with separate quarters, thus further diving the family
- Enforced pooling of resources and effort meant that the economic link that held families together
was broken
- The extended familys role was taken over by the state the state was now the main provider of
help in difficult times.
- The provision of social welfare (e.g. education, medical care) was now to be organized and
delivered by CCP part officials.
- The nuclear family was part of the Four Olds it needed to be removed.
- Children were told to look upon Mao and the CCP as their true parents and therefore deserving of
their first loyalty. Normal family affection was replaced with love for Mao.
At a young age, children were taught to love Mao. They were brainwashed to keep them pure, so
that they would live for Maos idealism and power instead of discovering their own humanity.
- The young were urged to inform on those amongst their relatives who betrayed any sign of clinging
to the values of the past
All of these reasons made it hard for any semblance of family life to survive.
The Red Guards were regarded as Chinas lost generation because after theyd become victims of the up
to the mountains and down to the villages it was very difficult for them to pick of the pieces and return to
anything approaching normal family life.
Population
During Maos reign, the population doubled and this worried the CCP. Thus, compulsory measures were
brought in to limit the number of births.
However, Mao never saw the expanding population as a problem; instead he beloved in more people,
more power. The collective power of the people was the most important social and economic factor in the
regeneration of China. More people meant more economic achievements, which in turn meant a greater
ability for China to defend itself from external enemies.
The Reshaping of Chinese Culture:
Mao taught that:
Cultures was central rather than peripheral it was a nations culture that defined its character
Culture was the means by which rulers imposed their control over the people.
The culture had to be proletarian
All traces of bourgeoisie and feudal culture had to be eradicated
Creative artists
Mao demanded that all creative artists (painters, musicians etc.) must accept that their first duty was to
serve the people. Their works must further the cause of the revolution rather than for self-expression.
Proletarian art and culture were a part of the revolutionary cause.
Jiang Qing was made creator-in-chief for the new Chinese culture that Mao desired he gave her the
responsibility of turning the denunciation of the Four Olds into a definite programme for the suppression of
traditional Chinese society.
She became the cultural purifier of the nation.
Her actions included:
- Imposing a rigid system of censorship which denied public showings of any work that did not meet
her criteria of revolutionary purity
- Only those forms of media that were directly relevant to contemporary Chinese themes were
permitted
- Western music was banned
- Traditional Chinese opera was banned in favor of specially commissioned contemporary works,
such as the triumph of the proletariat over its class enemies.
Mao demanded that Chinese culture must be relevant and meaningful to the people by using the only
theme of the struggle of the heroic masses.
- President Nixon regarded these opera performances as highly tedious
Jiang Qings rejection of all non-proletarian culture was political correctness in its most extreme form. This
was a destructive process that aimed at the systematic undermining of all sense of tradition.
Her proclamations against bourgeoisie culture terrorized the staff at the Beijing Conservatoire into silence
no more music sounded. Instead self-criticism was introduced and students were forced to analyze their
mistakes about performing classical or traditional Chinese music.
CONSEQUENCES OF CULTURAL TERRORISM
Musicians, writers, painters who showed reluctance to embrace the new rigidities were denounced and
sent to re-educational labour camps and were treated brutally.
E.g. pianists were made to scratch at the ground with their hands so that they would lose the vital sensitivity
in their hands and never be able to play well again.
Lack of resistance
Deng was the only person to challenge Jiang Qings policy of cultural terrorism. Others opted to approve
her great cultural experiment. Intellectuals and natural leaders failed to protest against any crimes of the
regime fear of what would happen to their families made them accept the policies without complaint.
Consequences
The result of this artistic persecution was successful in that it destroyed the old culture. However, it failed to
create the new culture that Mao had wanted. This resulted in China having no culture at all.
Education and Health
In 1949 the majority of peasants were illiterate. Mao wanted to see a major spread of education among the
people. His actions included:
Setting up a national system of primary education this was successful and literacy rates rose from
20-50% from 1949-60
Language reform (Pinyin) a new form of Mandarin was adopted. This was because previously the
pronunciation of Mandarin differed between areas AND also mandarin had no alphabets instead it
was made up of ideograms and this made writing Mandarin difficult since all the words had to be
learn separately. The introduction of Pinyin allowed Mandarin speakers to express themselves in
words rather than pictures.
However, despite Maos successes in education, after Maos death the achievements began to drop:
Fewer than 1% of the working population had a university degree
Only 11% received schooling after the age of 16
Only 26% received schooling between ages 12-16
Only 35% received schooling after age 12
Education standards of CCP
Only 6% had been formally educated beyond age 16
This poorly educated workforce was very embarrassing for the state and also highlighted how unrealistic
Maos plans were for turning China into a modern state.
The reason for the decline in qualified students was due to the CR.
Between 1966-70, 170 million of the youth stopped attending university or school.
Education as an ideal was undermined students beat their teachers, traditional forms of learning were
rejected, the curriculum was rejected.
Learning and study were dismissed as worthless unless they served the revolution.
Mao thought it was more important to educate the CCP party members than the youth instead he used
the youth to form the Red Guards.
Mao didnt send 12 million of the Red Guards back to school instead he sent them on the up to the
mountains and down to the villages campaign.
HEALTH PROVISION
The CCP introduced a series of health provisions called patriotic health movements these were
government-sponsored schemes for providing Chinese people with the basic information on health and
hygiene.
- Teams of party members would go out to the countryside to explain the link between dirt and
disease
- Local population was enlisted in great communal efforts to drain swamps and eradicated bugs, rats
etc. that carried the dysentery, malaria and other endemic diseases that afflicted the peasants.
SUCCESS
More doctors and nurses were trained to provide direct medical care to those in the remote regions of
China.
FAILURE
However, the number of qualified doctors never reached original targets because the GLF and CR
intervened.
Also, during the anti-movements, doctors were condemned as living off the backs of peasants. The doctors
long years of training had prevented them from learning the dignity of labor and had left them privileged and
lead a selfish life.
However, it was mad to attack the whole medical profession of corruption. Doctors began to cancel
operations in order to show their solidarity with the workers, by sweeping floors.
Showing pain was considered a bourgeoisie reaction and being able to bear things without flinching was a
sign of revolutionary purpose thus doctors stopped using anesthetic on patients to help them to withstand
the pain. Women were also denied painkillers fro childbirth.
Barefoot doctors teams of trained medics who were sent to the countryside to provide rudimentary health
service, often free of charge.
Mao was aware that providing effective health care was boosting the regime.
The new system was based on short practical courses instead of years of preparation, the trainees would
engage in 6-moth periods of intensive studies with the emphasis wholly on the practical. Once trained in the
basics, the new doctors would be sent to work amongst the peasants.
By 1973 over 1 million new doctors had been trained they contributed greatly to the improvement of the
lives of the peasant.
However, the doctors had limited equipment and travelled to primitive areas thus the barefoot doctors
couldnt provide the national medical service that a modern state requires.
Maos Prison Camps: The Laogai
In order to enforce conformity and obedience in China, Mao created labour camps in which he would
imprison those who he suspected of opposing him. The conditions of the prison camps were deliberately
made terrible to ensure that it broke the body and spirit of the inmates.
The camps were originally meant to be places of re-education rather than a place of punishment. The state
maintained the fiction that those who protested against the system were misguided and needed to be put
into camps where they can be rained to see the error of their ways.
However, the camps were actually places where the harshest means were used to dehumanize the
prisoners, who were forced to perform humiliating and backbreaking work.
Many of the worst camps were deliberately built in the most inhospitable parts of China where the bitter
cold o winter made life torture for the prisoners.
To obtain even the smallest amount of food, prisoners had to make a full confession of their crimes.
Those who still claimed their innocence were sleep deprived, beaten, starved and held in solitary
confinement until they broke down and conformed not many had the will power to resist.
o Average number of people held in the camps per year = 10 million
o Over 25 million prisoners died
o By 1976, there were over 10k labour camps across China
o The prisoners provided a steady supply of labour
The purpose of the prison camps was to instill fear. Even when prisoners were released, they faced the
constant threat of being rearrested. The families of prisoners were regarded guilty by association and were
shunned b neighbors. Their children were denied school placements, shops wouldnt sell them food,
homes and jobs became impossible to obtain. The organs of executed prisoners was often extracted and
sold for transplantation without the families consent. The bullet used to kill the person was sent to their
family members, who were expected to pay the price for the bullet.
Maos impact on the people
Maos policies were more destructive than creative.
He used coercion to enforce his vision of the new communist society o the people.
His great schemes (e.g. GLF) became increasingly extreme
He disregarded individuals and favored the proletariat as a revolutionary class
He embraced turmoil as a way of achieving what he wanted he had no real interest in the people being
his priority
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
The PRCs aim was to lead the rest of the world towards international proletarian revolution as well as
develop China into a modern nation.
The relationship between China and the USSR was deeply strained at times they represented a solid
front towards the West but the relationship was one of suspicion, which eventually degenerated into
hostility.
Border disputes the border between China and the USSR made each other wary and the disputes
caused as a result of this continued to sour Sino-Soviet relations.
In 1919, Lenin had seized Outer Mongolia, a province that the Chinese had traditionally regarded as their
own.
During the Pacific War in 1945, the USSR had stripped the region of Manchuria of its industrial resources,
thus depriving China of over $2 billion worth of plant and machinery. Manchuria was then returned to China
but it was now effectively useless to the Chinese.
Ideological differences the Marxist dialect provided a programme for achieving revolution in China but the
Chinese revolutionaries needed to interpret this programme on their own terms. China made it very clear
that revolutionaries outside of China (e.g. the USSR) could not dictate to the Chinese how they should
conduct themselves.
This Sino-centric view (having Chinese interests at the heart of things) of Marxism caused friction between
China and the USSR. The USSR regarded itself as the true interpreter of the Communist faith. Sino-Soviet
battles descended into a battle over who represented true communism: China or the USSR.
Though China valued Soviet experience, they had differences about the meaning of Marxism and how it
should be applied in China. Stalin was unwilling to accept that a peasant-based revolution (rather than a
worker based revolution) could be genuinely revolutionary Stalin was a firm believer that the proletariat
revolution needed to be urban based. His insistence on this point convinced Mao that Stalin wanted to
disunite and divide China thus leaving the USSR as a dominant force in Asia. Mao became increasingly
convinced that what motivated the USSR wasnt communism but national self-interest.
A clash of personalities:
Stalin calculated that China, as a newly formed Marxist state, would look to the USSR for guidance and
protection. The USA even claimed that the Sino-Soviet Agreement was Moscow making puppets of the
Chinese.
However, Maos visit to the USSR in 1950, confirmed his doubts about Stalins attitude. Mao was offended
by his superior attitude and offhand treatment of the Chinese delegation. The villa that Mao stayed in was
of poor quality and his hosts made no arrangements to entertain him. Also, on this this visit, Stalin was
often reluctant to meet Mao except formally.
Their personalities were so similar and this is why they clashed.
The Sino-Soviet Treat, 1950:
This treaty exploited Chinese resources during the Korean Civil War. Mao had initially believed that he had
been successful in this treaty because the USSR obliged to provide China with expertise and at at low cost.
However, Stalin struck a hard bargain:
o $300 million Soviet advance was a loan not a gift the PRC had to pay interest upon their
repayment
o The 10K soviet economic and military advisers had to be paid for fully by China
o China was to give the bulk of its bullion (gold) reserves to the USSR
The treaty had been an insult to the Chinese people, Khrushchev admitted.
Maos realization of Chinas exploitation led to a worsening in relations between the two nations.
Also, Stalin had deliberately played a role in preventing an early armistice being reached in Korea, because
he wanted to exhaust the Chinese this was especially true when straight after Stalins death, Zhou Enlai
was able to negotiate a truce with Korea.
The PRCs dependence on the USSR:
Chinas international isolation meant that it could not easily obtain resources and expertise from anywhere
other than the USSR.
The Soviet planners and engineers who were sent to the PRC:
- Led over 200 construction projects during the 1950s
- Built new public buildings and squares, but all of which bore the Soviet stamp.
- Chinas delicate and antique structures were replaced by Soviet style buildings many Chinese
people loathed this aesthetic insult
- Soviet scientific techniques were adopted in China e.g. Lysenkoism
Mao allowed this to happen because he saw it as the price that needed to be paid for the material aid that
China needed from the USSR.
De-Stalinization:
After Stalins death, the tension eased between the nations. The new Soviet leaders were willing to provide
China with further loans and technology.
However, Khrushchevs launch of the de-Stalinization campaign deeply disturbed Mao, who hadnt
expected the ferocity of this assault upon Stalins record. Mao saw this denunciation of Stalin as an
intended criticism on his own style of leadership in China.
Maos concerns over the Communist Bloc:
Greater freedom was being offered to the satellite states as a result of the de-Stalinization campaign they
were now allowed to criticise the Soviet government and question their subordination to the USSR.
The Hungarian Uprising of 1956 showed the increasing anti-Soviet attitude.
This weakening of hold on the satellite states angered Mao, because now there were reactionary forces
within the Communist bloc.
Mao was also offended by the weakening of Soviet attitude towards the West.
Mao was also offended by the softening of Soviet attitude towards the West. Dtente had led to a peaceful
coexistence between the USSR and USA. Khrushchev announced that the final stage of Marxist dialect
the conflict between the international proletariat and forces of capitalism was no longer acceptable. Mao
rejected this he believed that the final struggle was unavoidable. Khrushchevs policy of de-Stalinization
was proof that the USSR had taken the revisionist path.
Maos second visit to the USSR, 1957:
Khrushchev called a conference for all the worlds communist parties in 1957. His main aim was to repair
the differences between the USSR and other Marxist countries. Though Mao approved a Sino-Soviet
declaration that expressed Chinas readiness to cooperate with the USSR, he still let the USSR know that
he found Moscows approach to the West to be too accommodating. He called upon the USSR to abandon
revisionism and return to the true Marxist-Leninist path.
Mao suspected that the USSR was deliberately following a policy of dtente with the USA in order to leave
China internationally isolated.
Deng Xiaoping argued at the conference that proletarian world revolution was only achievable through
armed struggle; capitalism needed to be overcome by force. He won China the support of many other
delegates and the USSR was left embarrassed and angered.
Mao and Khrushchev:
Khrushchev tried to improve the rapidly deteriorating Sino-Soviet relationship, by visiting China in 1958.
Khrushchev apologized to Mao about Pavel Yudins (Soviet Ambassador in China) suggestion that Chinas
navy must be brought under Soviet control.
Mao, however, held a grudge about his poor treatment when he went to visit the USSR for the first time.
Thus, Mao deliberately set out to make Khrushchev uncomfortable. He arranged for the Soviet delegates to
be placed in a hotel without air conditioning. Mao also suggested the talk should take place whilst
swimming Khrushchev couldnt swim and he could barely squeeze into the rubber ring. The talks were
unsuccessful due to Khrushchevs floundering and splashing and his gurgled responses.
Deng Xiaoping also accused the USSR of great party chauvinism for acting as the only true interpreter of
Marxist theory. He further claimed that the technical advisers sent to China were in fact Soviet spies he
charged the USSR for betraying the international communist movement.
The Taiwan Issue:
Without consulting the USSR, Mao ordered Chinese forces to attack Taiwan (which held former GMD
members). The USA threatened to start war with China if they attacked. The USSR didnt even offer to help
China Khrushchev claimed that Mao and the Chinese were Trotskyists and had lost all sense of political
reality. This led to a further deterioration in relations.
USSRs reaction to the GLF:
The USSR dismissed Maos attempt to revolutionize the Chinese. He was also angry that Pen Dehuai had
passed on details of widespread starvation that the GLF caused, to the USSR.
Sino-Soviet rivalry over Albania:
Mao thought that the USSR was trying to undermine Chinas standing amongst the other communist
nations. Thus, in retaliation, the PRC began to defy those countries that defied the USSR. One such
example was Albania:
In 1961 the Albanian government refused to be dictated by Moscow. Thus, the financial aid
provided to Albania by the USSR was withdrawn. The PRC jumped at this opportunity to undermine the
USSR, and began to supply Albania with money and technical assistance.
Chinas walkout from the 1961 Moscow Conference:
China had been invited as an observer to the 1961 Moscow Congress. Khrushchev made a speech
abusing the Albanian government for their backward Stalinist ways. China saw this as a deliberately
offensive attack, in response to China having helped Albania. Zhou Enlai and the Chinese delegation
walked out of the conference. This dramatic gesture was the climax of Sino-Soviet relations worsening.
Though diplomatic relations ended, the leaders were still offensive to each other.
- Khrushchev called Mao an Asian Hitler
- Mao called Khrushchev a redundant old boot
There were also border disputes where violent confrontations between the two nations took place. The
USSR committed 50 Red Army divisions to defend its Asian Frontiers.
China accused the USSR of imperialism because the USSR had acquired Chinese territories by the
unequal treaties.
The Sino-Indian War, 1962:
India had granted refuge to the Dalai Lama. This led to an outbreak of fighting between Indian and Chinese
troops on the Tibetan border. Though the USSR was formally neutral, their moral support was on Indias
side and they provided fighter planes to Indians.
USSRs foreign minister, Kosygin, offered to act as mediator between the PRC and India but Mao regarded
it as hypocrisy, as well as another chance for the USSR to undermine Chinas international standing.
The Cuban Missile Crisis, 1962:
USSR exploited its influence over communist Cuba to install nuclear warheads on the island. President
Kennedy demanded the withdrawal of the weapons and a compromise settlement was reached, whereby
the USSR agreed to withdraw its weapons in return for the USAs promise to never invade the USSR and
to withdraw nuclear weapons from Turkey.
China scored Moscow for its bowing down to the USAs threat of retaliation. Mao made it look as though
the USSR had betrayed the communist fight against American imperialism.
Coexistence with the West Dtente
China saw coexistence as a betrayal of the revolution. The policy played into the hands of the imperialist
powers by settling issues on their terms. Only after victory in the revolution was it possible for the proletariat
to pursue the policy of peaceful coexistence. Genuine coexistence could form between equal nations not
between the oppressor and liberating nations.
The USSR responded by saying that it was wrong and arrogant for the Chinese to speak for the
international working class. Khrushchev tried to convince the world that Maoist brand of communism was
heretical.
In the fierce Sino-Soviet propaganda war, either nation accused the other of crimes against communism.
The Cultural Revolution in the USSR made an example of Chinas raging extremism that threatened to
destroy the world.
The USSR also promoted the Yellow Peril a term that suggested that Chinas vast population was
preparing to spread out of Asia and swamp Europe, with the USSR as its first victim.
Continuing Revolution:
Mao accused the USSR as corrupters of true communism. He condemned their reforms of the economy as
a return to capitalism. He also stated that the USSRs move towards coexistence was collusion with the
imperialist West.
Mao agreed with Trotskys view that the continuing process of the revolution would guarantee the ultimate
victory of the Proletariat.
Rivalry over leadership of international communism:
In strict Marxist theory, true proletarian revolution could occur only in an urban, industrial society. China
was predominantly a rural, peasant society and therefore couldnt fully be developed into a communist
state. The USSR claimed that Moa had distorted Marxism to make it fit the Chinese context.
The PRC declared that the USSR was betraying the cause of world revolution by pursuing dtente.
The nuclear issue:
The Test Ban Treaty of 1963, signed by the USSR, was also dismissed by the PRC as a betrayal of the
revolution. Instead of confronting imperialism, it was collaborating with it.
Khrushchev claimed that Mao did not want to seek peace rather he wanted to see the East and West in a
nuclear war because this would leave China free to dominate the rest of the world.
Mao wanted to make China a superpower by achieving superpower status without the aid of the USSR.
Despite the USSR withdrawing their scientific assistance, the PRC continued with their own research
programme. In 1964 China detonated its first atomic bomb. In1967 it produced the hydrogen bomb and
reached superpower status. Moa gloated that the PRC was able to reach this remarkable feat without the
USSRs assistance.
Chinese emergence as a superpower frightened the world because Mao did not have the same fear of
nuclear war that the USSR or the West did. Mao was willing to contemplate nuclear war with Chinas
enemies. He also claimed that Chinas population was so big that it would make up any losses it suffered if
there was a threat of nuclear war.
Mao and Brezhnev
The Brezhnev Doctrine stated that any attempt to convert a socialist country to capitalism affected not only
that country, but also all socialist countries. Also, all communist states must toe the Soviet line failure to
do so will result in disciplinary action against them. Using this doctrine as justification, soviet tanks and
troops entered Czechoslovakia to suppress the Prague Spring.
Mao was unwilling to accept the right of the USSR to impose soviet authority on members of the Marxists
camp.
Sino-Soviet Confrontation, 1969:
In 1969, Brezhnev called an international communist conference with the aim of outlawing China. The
conference failed Brezhnev didnt get the unanimous condemnation of China as he had wanted.
The PRC and USSR positioned their nuclear rockets so that they know faced inwards, towards each other
rather than towards their Western enemies. This marked the nadir (lowest point) in Sino-Soviet relations.
Lin Bao denounced Brezhnev by stating in a speech about how the USSR practiced social fascism
(socialists who were willing o compromise with their political enemies).
Impact of Maos death on Sino-Soviet relations:
Maos death marked the overthrow of the Gang of Four, who had been predominantly anti-Soviet. This
immediately removed the threat of nuclear war with the USSR. Deng Xiaoping adopted a more tolerant line
towards both the USSR and the West.
The PRC and the USA:
There had been a long running tension between the USA and the PRC due to:
- The fall of China to communism - Ideological differences
- USAs protection of Taiwan (which held GMD members)
- Korean War
- US involvement in Tibet
- China giving moral support to USAs enemies in the Vietnam War
The CR focused on attacking American imperialism.
The Third Line:
Mao was paranoid that the USA would retaliate and try to destroy communism. His anxieties led him to
devise a defensive strategy for China, known as the Third Line - a vast network of fortifications, so
strongly built it could withstand the heaviest bombardment.
Deng Xiaoping planned to use existing bases made under the GMD to establish a series of industrial and
military settlements that would be defensible against air strikes and atomic bombing.
The Third Line was located in the remoter regions of central China so that in the vent of an American
attack, the population could be easily withdrawn.
Deng set up a communication network to sustain this project. The scheme demanded a massive relocation
of Chinese industry and labor.
The parting of the Bamboo Curtain:
There was an easing in relations between the two nations.
In 1971, the USA formally recognized Chinas right to replace Taiwan in the UN.
This diplomatic gesture encouraged the PRC to soften its approach to the USA.
Maos softening was part of a strategy to undermine the USSR. China hated the idea of peaceful
coexistence and dtente with the West they thought the USSR deliberately wanted to internationally
isolate China. Thus, the PRC formed a Sino-American dtente as a way of outplaying the USSR.
Kissinger and Zhou Enlai helped in achieving the Sino-American dtente the talks they had prepared the
way for Nixons visit to Beijing in 1972. The PRC invited the US to a table-tennis match this was given the
name Ping-Pong diplomacy.
The visit was successful as Nixon and Mao got along very well China was prepared to life the bamboo
curtain. The two nations expressed:
- Continuing Sino-American contact
- Desirability for commercial, cultural and educational exchanges
- Further consideration to resolve the Taiwan issue
CHINA AFTER MAO: THE DENG REVOLUTION, 1978-97
The Abandonment of Maoism:
Deng Xiaoping became leader. He believed that Maos economic policies had been a mistake. Thus, Deng
restructured agriculture and industry with the aim of establishing a modern nation that was capable of
competing commercially with the advanced nations.
Dengs emergence as leader:
Gang of Four were imprisoned
1977 Deng resumed role as General Secretary
WHY?
- Deng was an outstanding spokesman and had exceptional political skills
- Long experience of Chinese politics
- Popular amongst CCP had support of leading party members
- Had contact with military leaders
- Very good economic planner
- International statesman e.g. was assistant to foreign secretary
The Third Plenum 1978: The PRCs turning point
The first major meeting after Maos death was known as the Third Plenum.
It proved to be a landmark in Chinas post-Mao reformation
Decisions made:
- Resolution to restore party democracy rehabilitate those whod been wrongly condemned during
purges
- Deng was confirmed as Chairman of Peoples Political Consultative Conference (PPCC) an
organization that was given principal responsibility for economic reform
- Accepted Dengs Four modernizations as the basis for Chinas development these were plans
for the reform of agriculture, industry, defense and education.
These resolutions meant the CR was abandoned.
Deng gained full support from the CCP for his proposals he was now the paramount leader. He feigned
humility despite knowing h had the connections to remain in power.
Deng believed that the GLF policies were wrong and had lead to economic stagnation rather than growth.
He wanted to remove the remnants of Maoism that stood in the path of economic progress.
BUT Deng knew that if he directly attacked the Great Helmsman it would bewilder and disrupt China.
Also, ay attack on Mao would by implication be an attack on whos who served him (e.g. the party). Thus it
would denounce the party itself. Hence, Deng subjected Maos reputation to the drip effect letting a
reputation gradually erode rather than formally tackling it. In a central committee resolution, Deng admitted
that though Mao had been a great leader, hed also made mistakes. The party declared the Mao had been
70% right and 30% wrong. This allowed Deng freedom to abandon Maos policies whilst still appearing to
remain loyal to his memory.
The Trial of the Gang of Four, 1980-1:
The Gang of Four were used as scape goats to explain why China had gone wrong they were accused of
betraying Mao and the revolution. They were charged with the deaths of 35K people and had persecuted
million others.
Jiang Qing remained defiant and refused to accept the charges. She claimed that she supported everything
that Mao had wished to be implemented I was Maos bitch.
Though she was charged with death, she was given time to repent through imprisonment yet she still
claimed her innocence.
The trials marked the end of the CR and the sentencing was a way of admitting that Maos social
experiment had been a failure.
Dengs Economic Reforms:
Deng was in favor of a free market rather than rigid adherence to social concepts.
He encouraged contact with the capitalist West if it meant that trade and commerce in China increased.
With Mao dead and the Gang of Four imprisoned, Dengs disregard for strict socialist planning was deemed
acceptable rather than too extreme:
In 1982, he defined Chinas economic aim as:
- Stimulating domestic economy
- Trading with foreign countries
- Allowing the development of individual enterprises private ownership allowed
- Encouraging join ventures with Chinese and foreign investment
Hands Off policy:
The SOEs would remain the basic form of industrial organization, but much greater freedom would be
granted to managers and experts.
Agriculture:
Communes were replaced by xiang (village) in the countryside. The xiang was still required to meet quotas
but instead of being achieved as a collective effort, individual families would contribute their share.
Provided the peasants paid taxes and met their quotas, they were free to sell surplus produce for private
profit.
This policy of privatization had notable success: the gross output in 1983 was 387, compared to 330 in
1952.
Problems:
Privatization didnt grant permanent ownership. The farmers held their farms on a 15-year lease after 15
years it would be reverted back to the state. Though the government promised to consider extending
leases, the people wee distrustful. Their doubts about the security of their land led to peasants being
deterred from improving their farms or investing in long-term growth why should they, when it would be
taken by the state in a few years?
Thus, the traditional, inefficient methods continued farmers werent embracing modernization, as Deng
had wanted.
Industry:
Educational changes
- Universities were expanded in number and size
- Dengs aim was to train a million technical students to become managers and administrators of the
new economy
- Thousands of students were also sent abroad in order to gain knowledge of western technology and
industrial expertise
Special Economic Zones
The intention was for the students to return to China and apply their experience to the development of SEZ
areas containing Chinas main export industries and companies. The SEZs became Chinas chief
commercial outlets. They were given regional autonomy and granted special tax concessions and financial
freedoms.
Between 1978-89 Chinas international trade flourished exports grew by over 500% and foreign
investment in China quadrupled.
Deng observed that the economy progressed because party officials had been allowed to put their ideas
into practice rather than being dominated by an individual. Deng was impressed by the greater output and
improved quality achieved through introducing wage incentives that encouraged workers to develop and
attain higher and better skills.
Problems:
However, Dengs changed meant that workers and companies no longer enjoyed guaranteed incomes
there was no longer a guaranteed iron rice bowl. Freedom from state control also meant the end of state
subsidies. The SOEs were now expected to become efficient and competitive. Cost-saving schemes were
introduced as a means of achieving higher output. New short-term contracts, aimed at improving
productivity, meant that employees would now be paid according to performance and would retain their
jobs only if they contributed to the enterprise there were no longer guaranteed jobs.
Resistance from SOEs:
The workers were unwilling to put their iron rice bowls at risk and were slow to cooperate. Their
reluctance meant that intended reforms took longer to implement than planned.
In 1986, Labour-contract schemes (agreement between employees and worker based on higher wages for
more effort) were only applied to new employees but not already established workers.
The government also offered unemployment insurance but this barely covered 1/5 of the 80 million
employees in the SOEs.
This resistance slowed down progress towards industrial modernization.
The Pro-Democracy Movement, 1979-89:
Deng Xiaopings opposition to political reform:
Deng had Four Cardinal Principles:
- Keeping to the socialist road
- Upholding the peoples democratic dictatorship
- Upholding leadership by the CCP
- Upholding Mao Zedong Thought and Marxism Leninism
These four cardinals aimed at maintaining the existing political structure it reiterated the concept of
democratic centralism (the idea that the CCP was entitled to the obedience of the people).
Dengs political aim for China:
- Internal stability the nation wouldnt be able to modernize without this
- Move away from politics China needed to devote itself to the task of making itself a powerful
economic nation.
- No democracy if people spoke out freely this would only cause distraction and disruption
Though Deng was an economic reformer he was still a communist hardliner in politics. He aimed at
improving the morale of the people and showing them that the CCP had the right to the loyalty of the
people and was capable of governing the PRC.
The Democracy Wall:
The 200km wall in Tiananmen Square was a place for students to attach literature and posters as a way of
expressing anti-party feelings. The government forbade the democracy wall to be used in this way.
E.g. Wei Jingsheng used the wall to express dissatisfaction at the government for failing to
introduce real democratic freedoms in China. As a result, he was arrested and sentenced to 15yrs in
prison.
The Democracy Movement:
The party was made up of intellectuals who urged the CCP to honour its communist principles and adopt a
fifth cardinal principle the adoption of democracy.
Though the CCP tolerated the criticism, it used Wei Jinsheng as an example to the people that the party
wouldnt allow extreme criticism.

Charges of Corruption against the government:
In Heilongjiang it was revealed that the managers of state-owned fuel and power companies were
embezzling money. They were put on trial and executed the government did this to gain credit for their
resolute response to corruption. However, critics began to question how far the corruption had spread in
the party as the managers that had been executed had been leading party members.
Student demonstrations sprung up due to this they protested for greater democracy and economic
opportunity.
In 1986, Fang Lizhi (professor and CCP member) led thousands of students in a protest for open
democracy. As a result, Fang was dismissed; ringleaders arrested and the trouble was blamed on anti-
social minority.
Hu Yaobang was dismissed as General Secretary because he had encouraged the students by criticizing
the slow pace of political change.
Dengs rejection of political change:
After the student protests had been crushed, Deng reinstated his rejection of the bourgeoisie liberalization
he defined this as some party members mistaking modernization for Western-style democracy. Deng
stated that genuine democracy was not an option because:
- China was too big
- There were too many different nationalities
- Education levels still too low
He rejected the idea of progressive thinkers and implied that the people should remain ignorant and trust
their government to lead them. However, the progressive thinkers rejected this presumptuous attitude
they thought that the government was incapable of providing advances to the people.
People became increasingly disappointed with Deng because:
- There was a downturn in agricultural and industrial outcome
- The ending of the subsidy system had led to increased prices
- Inflation reduced workers real wage
- Overcrowding in urban cities due to migration standard of living fell
- Not enough employment opportunities despite vast numbers entering higher education the jobs
were reserved for party members and their children (further evidence of corruption)
People felt that the CCP had failed to deliver their promise of progress and modernization.
The Tiananmen Square Massacre, June 1989:
The death of Hu Yaobang (former general Secretary) led to students making him a symbol of resistance
who had died because he upheld democratic values.
At his memorial service, large crowds gathered and demonstrated noisily. Students tried to press a petition
into the hands of Li Peng (hardline communist) and other government officials. The CCP members refused
and this expressed how far the government had become detached from the people.
Students from over 40 universities came together in Tiananmen Square transport workers sided with the
students by giving them free rides.
Zhao Ziyang (General Secretary) attempted to appease the protestors by making a public statement in
which he suggested that The Peoples Daily newspaper had gone too far by denouncing the students. But
the demonstrations increased in severity 300 students even went on hunger strike. The government
urged the students to call of their strikes. The students continued their protests because:
- The wide international coverage they were receiving was restricting the Chinese governments
freedom of action to attack the students.
- The government was busy with the arrival of Gorbachev to Beijing while he was here the
government wouldnt dare to crush their demonstrations.
- Gorbachevs reforms in the USSR were exactly what the Chinese people were asking for he
furthered their cause because he stood as a symbol for everything that the PRC should be
Government attitudes began to harden as the protests continued - the Sino-Soviet talks were being
overshadowed by the protests.
Martial Law was imposed on the same say that Zhao Ziyang was dismissed from his post (because he
sided with the students). Li Peng declared the students as rioters who were putting the future of the PRC
at risk. The authorities began to make an example of the students through imposing Martial Law. However,
demonstrators were determined to remain in the Square thousands returned and ordinary people joined
in as well. They blocked roads to prevent the government troops from reaching the Square. The troops
withdrew at this show of resistance. However, 350K PLA soldiers surrounded Tiananmen Square and
began to fire at the demonstrators. Students were taken away for interrogation, thousands were dead or
injured and the PLA soldiers were beaten to death. The CCP members who had shown sympathy were
dismissed and those who had resisted demonstrators were promoted for their loyalty to the party.
Organized police could have dispersed the demonstration as the students were unarmed and far from
united over how long the protest could sustain. It wouldnt have taken much to scatter them. This suggests
that Deng wanted a violent end to the affair perhaps to show that the CCP would not tolerate such
rebellion.
Thus the legacy Deng left was one of economic freedom but political rigidity.