Radical Behavioral Critique

Chase Payton
Strayer University
EDU 501 Learning Theories
Radical ehavioris! "as #ro#osed y B$ S%inner in his #hiloso#hy& 'e introduced
o#erant conditioning& (n this his theory) he suggests that the only est "ay to understand
ehavior is y loo%ing at the causes o* any action and the outco!e o* that cause& Later
he introduced the la" o* e**ect that he called rein*orce!ent) in "hich ehavior
rein*orced see! to e re#eated !a%ing it stronger and one not rein*orced see!ing
e+tinguished & S%inner did an e+#eri!ent to con*ir! this y using ani!als #laced in a
s!all o+ si!ilar to the #u,,le o+&
'e tal%s aout !any things concerning ehavior that caught the ears o* !any readers)
so!e o* the! critiques& The science o* radical ehavioris! has #roved to di**er in rese!lance
to other !ediating structures& (t s#ea%s di**erently concerning the role o* e!otions and #rivate
events& The science #ro#oses that the actions o* organis!s are not *ree& They are deter!ined y
certain e+isting *actors "hich S%inner #uts into #ers#ective& - #ost!orte! on this science !ay
e done through an analysis o* such occurrences as cell division and evolution& (t is i!#ro#er to
e+#lain these naturally occurring events through intangile o.ects such as ghosts& Radical
ehavioris! is there*ore a natural science& /aturally occurring events !ay thus e e+a!ined
oth in the #resent and in the #ast through their e**ects on organis!s living on the #lanet&
/oa! Cho!s%y "as one o* the critiques to S%inner0s #ro#ositions& 'e "as a *a!ous
linguist and "riter at the ti!e& /oa! Cho!s%y says that it is al!ost i!#ossile to ase an
argu!ent that science has only #rogressed y re.ecting the hy#otheses aout the 1internal states&1
Since s%inner re.ects the study o* #ostulated inner states) he sho"s his hostility to co!!on
engineering #ractice in addition to the nature o* inquiry in science& S%inner *or instance #ro#oses
that the theory o* in*or!ation "hen there had to e inventions o* an internal #rocessor to convert
in#ut into out#ut& This is e+tre!ely a!iguous& Considering an engineer having a device that he
does not %no" ho" it o#erates) very strange to hi! or her& Considering that the engineer can
otain in*or!ation regarding this instru!ent *ro! an e+#eri!ent on "hich he analy,es the
relationshi# et"een in#ut and out#ut o* the device& (* he is rational enough) he "ill not *ail to
co!e u# "ith a theory concerning the internal states o* the device and ensure that he tests it
against any *urther evidence& 'e "ill research also into various !echanis!s that "or% in the
!anner #ro#osed in his theory so as to e convincing enough& 'e "ill do as !uch as he can .ust
to su##ort his theory o* internal states& 'e "ill also e+a!ine the #hysical and che!ical
#rinci#les) i* any aout the device& 2viously) in his #ostulation he "ill leave a #ossiility ne"
and undiscovered #rinci#les o* o#erations o* the device !ay e involved in its "or%ing& (n this
case) the engineer "ill only e guided y his internal states as he tries to research& Since S%inner
o.ects a #riori to his research strategy) he ends u# conde!ning his #ostulations o* ehavioral
science to inco!#etence&
The outco!e o* this learning is that ( get to understand the #ro#ositions y S%inner in the
radical ehavioral a##roach as "ell as the critics on the sa!e& (* "e #er*or! a #ost!orte! on
so!e o* the state!ents that S%inner !a%es) "e get to understand "hat he !eant y saying that
ehavior is controlled e+ternally and that it is deter!ined y genetic and environ!ental
conditions& So !any questions !ay arise out o* that single #ro#osition& (t !a%es it unclear i*
"hat he says aout deter!inis! is anything to go y& Such questions as *ollo"s !ay arise *ro!
this argu!ent3 (* ( *eel li%e going s"i!!ing) no one "ould dout that on !y li%elihood to go to
the each is de#endent on the te!#erature that the environ!ent o**ers at that #oint in ti!e& /o
one can also argue that the li%elihood o* s#ea%ing English or Chinese is de#endent on !y #ast
e+#erience& 4y li%elihood to #roduce a language that a##ears hu!an is de#endent on !y genetic
co!#osition3 that o* a !an) rather than any other organis!&
( *eel that S%inner does not understand the asic criticis! i* so!eone inter#rets his
#ostulations literally& (t is clear that they are *alse& 'is characteristic vague and !eta#horical
e+#ressions are a sustitute *or usage in ordinary s#eech& 'is veral !agic is not convincing& 'e
thin%s that his a##roach is scienti*ic and that those "ho *ail to understand his 5i!agination6 are
not scientists or they are !ad
Behavioris! *ocuses on the out"ard ehavior o* a #erson& 2n the other hand) the
cognitive a##roach !ay include the internal considerations such as thought or the !ani*est
content o* a #erson0s drea!s& 7hile S%inner *ocuses on the ehavior o* #eo#le cognitive analysts
!ay also loo% at the "ay they thin%&
Behaviorists argue that the !ental state is .ust #art o* hu!ans ut it does not a**ect their
ehavior& The cognitive analyst "ould say that the rain controls all the ehavior that is seen in
hu!an eings&
The si!ilarity et"een the t"o a##roaches is that they use the sa!e conce#t o** ehavior
in study& This is to !ean that one cannot do cognitive analysis "ithout *irst %no"ing the
ehavior sho"n y the living organis!s& This "ay) they "ill !a%e deductions concerning the
cognitive as#ect&
Both o* the! are also old theories that have een re#laced over ti!e y !ore recent
theories) each trying to e+#lain ehavior in organis!s& (* ( used the cognitive as#ect) the "hole
theory "ould change& This is ecause ( "ould *ocus !ore on thoughts and the unseen
characteristics in organis!s than the out"ard a##earance& This "ould give !e a co!#letely ne"
#icture altogether&
The ehavioris! deals "ith the out"ard a##earance o* an organis! "hich is used to
.udge his or her ehavior "hile the !eaning*ul learning sche!a theory deals "ith learning& The
!eaning*ul learning theory #ro#oses that the learner !ust e!#loy a !eaning*ul earning set to
any learning tas%& (n addition) the conce#ts eing learnt !ust e #otentially !eaning*ul to the
learner&
- sche!a is a structure o* data that is used to #resent the generic conce#ts that are *ound
in the !e!ory& Sche!atas are s!aller structures o* data that constitute a sche!a& The si!ilarity
et"een these t"o a##roaches is that oth #oint to"ards ehavior& The ehavior o* a learner
deter!ines his aility to learn& (* ( "as to *ocus on the !eaning*ul learning a##roach) ( "ould
have *ocused !ore on the i!#ortance o* !eaning*ul learning to a learner in a learning
environ!ent&
The situated cognition a##roach de*ines that %no"ing and doing are t"o things that are
inse#arale& The theory #ro#oses that all *or!s o* %no"ledge are ound "ithin #hysical) culture
and social conte+ts& This !eans that students learn through interactions "ith the environ!ent
around the!& They ado#t the culture they are living in as "ell as the social nor!s& The di**erence
et"een the ehavioral a##roach and the situated cognitive theory is that the *or!er deals "ith
the a##earance o* an organis! that can e oserved) "hile the latter deals "ith ho" the social)
cultural and #hysical environ!ent a**ects %no"ledge&
The si!ilarity et"een the t"o theories is that ehavior *eatures in oth to a great e+tent&
$or instance) the social) cultural and #hysical environ!ent) as #ro#osed to the situated cognitive
theory a**ects their ehavior and in so doing i!#arts %no"ledge& This is the connection& (* the
analysis "e did "as ased on the situated cognitive theory) ( "ould have given e+a!#les ased
on cultural) social and #hysical as#ects& ( "ould then have sho"ed ho" each o* these i!#arts
%no"ledge u#on individuals&
Behavior 4odi*ication8 the !odi*ied a##roach in #sychology are the use o* techniques
*or ehavior so as to alter the *requency o* ehavior in hu!an eings& The *requency !ay either
increase or decrease& $or instance) the use o* #unish!ent in school is !eant to instill disci#line in
the students& This a##roach is related to each o* the #revious a##roaches in one "ay or another&
$irst o* all) it is !eant to change the ehavior o* the students& Secondly) the catalyst used to alter
ehavior !ay e social) cultural or #hysical& This is si!ilar in conte+t to the situated cognitive
a##roach& (n addition) the a##roach is intended to !a%e students have !eaning*ul learning y
deducing i!#ortant lessons& This sho"s si!ilarity "ith the !eaning*ul learning and sche!a
theory& The !odi*ied a##roach "ould a**ect the generic conce#ts *ound in the !e!ory causing a
change in ehavior&
There are di**erent a##roaches in #sychology& The ehavioral a##roach deals "ith the
out"ard ehavior o* hu!ans& The cognitive a##roach includes the internal considerations such as
thoughts and e!otions that cannot e #hysically visile& (n addition to these theories) there is the
situated cognition a##roach that su##oses that %no"ing and doing are inse#arale things& The
!odi*ied a##roach theory tries to cause ehavior !odi*ication in hu!an eings&
Re*erences
$erguson) 9& E& :;001<& The Psychology of B F Skinne& Thousand 2a%s) Cali*ornia3
S-=E&
7eigel) >& -& :1?@@<& B. F. Skinner& Boston) 4assachusets3 T"ayne Pulishers
7iener) D& /& :1??A<& B.F. Skinner: benign anarchist& 4ass) US-3 -llyn and Bacon&
School Sa*ety and Prevention o* Biolence
Chase Payton
Dr& 9at,
Conte!#orary (ssues in Education EDU 505
-#ril ;C) ;01D
School Sa*ety and Prevention o* Biolence
-tlanta Pulic School District :-PSD< is one o* the largest uran school districts in
=eorgia) serving a##ro+i!ately 50)000 students in *i*ty ele!entary schools) *i*teen !iddle
schools) *our singleEgender acade!ies) t"enty one high schools) t"o nontraditional #rogra!s)
thirteen charter schools) and t"o evening school #rogra!s& The total o* learning sites is
esti!ated at one hundred and three *acilities in the city o* -tlanta& (n general -tlanta Pulic
Schools are organi,ed into nine 9E1; clusters *or highEquality education o* the students in "hich
greater access to a !ore equitale distriution o* resources and su##ort is #rovided& (n its turn
the school clusters are set into *our regional units "ith their o"n e+ecutive directors *or
ad!inistration #ur#oses& The *ollo"ing clusters are identi*ied3 /orth region) South region) East
region) and 7est region :Strategic Plan) ;01;<&
(n ter!s o* ty#es o* students "ho attend -tlanta Pulic Schools it is a##ro#riate to d"ell
u#on the ethnic distriution o* students& -s o* the school year o* ;01;8;01D the highest #er cent
rate elongs to -*ricanE-!erican students :@CF< *ollo"ed y Caucasians :1DF< and 'is#anic
students :AF<& The schools also #rovide services to !ultiracial students :;F< as "ell as a s!all
#ercentage o* -sian) and /ative -!ericans :1F<& $urther!ore there are @G&@AF o* students "ho
are eligile *or *ree and reduced #riced !eals) "hich is an indicator that so!e students !ay live
in a single #arent *a!ily& 7hat concerns graduation rates) according to the nu!ers #rovided y
the very District in its Strategic 4anual *or ;01;E;01@) the year ;01; has "itnessed graduation
o* ;0?D students :Strategic Plan) ;01;<&
-tlanta Pulic School District is situated in the hu o* 4etro -tlanta) "hich is a #re!ier
destination *or usiness #ro*essionals and *a!ilies& The "hole area is d"elled y 5&D !illion
#eo#le and !ore than 1GC&000 usinesses& -tlanta #rovides e+ce#tional quality o* li*e "hile
!aintaining a**ordaility *or its residents& 4etro -tlanta0s cost o* living inde+ is elo" /ational
-verage and equals to ?@&D :The 4etro -tlanta Cha!er) ;01;<&
-ccording to the Strategic 4anual *or ;01; and ;01@ :;01;<) the characteristics o* a
highE#er*or!ing school district are the *ollo"ing3 a clear and shared *ocus) high standards and
e+#ectations *or all students) e**ective collaoration and co!!unication #rocess) #ro*essional
school teachers and leaders) high quality o* elaoration o* curriculu! and assess!ent sche!es)
constant !onitoring o* learning and teaching) and !ost i!#ortantly) su##ortive learning
environ!ent :Division o* Biolence Prevention) ;01;<& The conce#t o* learning environ!ent
deserves greater consideration as one o* the !ost i!#ortant as#ects o* students0 li*e no"adays&
The !ost #ara!ount characteristic o* a #ro#er learning environ!ent today is sa*ety and the
aility o* school ad!inistration and sta** to #revent school violence in their classroo!s&
School violence re*ers to youth violence that occurs on school #ro#erty) on the "ay to or
*ro! school or schoolEs#onsored events) or during schoolEs#onsored events) in "hich a student
can e a victi!) a "itness) or a #er#etrator o* violence& Houth violence *alls into t"o road
categories) such as violent acts re#resented y ullying) hitting) or sla##ing :cause !ore
e!otional har! rather than #hysical one<I !ore serious *or!s o* violence :gang violence and
assault either "ith or "ithout "ea#ons< can lead to serious in.ury a!ong young #eo#le :Division
o* Biolence Prevention) ;01;<& The issue o* school violence is an acute one *or several reasons&
(n general one should understand that school violence is conce#tuali,ed as quite a !ulti*aceted
event that incor#orates oth cri!inal acts and aggression in schools) "hich hinders develo#!ent
and learning #rocess) as "ell as har!s the essence o* school environ!ent and at!os#here
:4iller) ;00C<& 2ne !a.or reason *or the acuteness o* the #role! is the *act that statistics *or
violent events is quite high) a#art *ro! the *act that there are a nu!er o* cases that re!ain
unre#orted& (n ;011) 1;F o* the youth *ro! grades ?E1; re#orted eing a #hysical *ight on
school #ro#erty) 5&0F clai!ed they did not go to school on one or !ore days a !onth ecause
they *elt unsa*e at schoolI 5&GF re#orted carrying a "ea#on :gun) clu or %ni*e< on school
#ro#erty one or !ore ti!es in t"elve !onthsI and ;0F re#orted eing ullied on school #ro#erty
:Division o* Biolence Prevention) ;01;<& 4oreover) in the light o* recent events that too% #lace
in the United States) one should e a"are o* the *act that violence and danger can also co!e
*ro! the outside "orld) the "orld outside o* classroo!s or school corridors& School violence
enco!#asses that as#ect as "ell) "hich is a urning issue o* !odern society and #revention o*
violence& The school li*e o* young #eo#le is a !odel *or adult li*e and sociali,ation& 'aving to
live in *ear o* eing ullied or #hysically assaulted is not a #ro#er environ!ent to conduct one0s
studies&
-nother reason *or the crucial nature o* such issue is the *act that school violence !ight
result in death) gunshot "ounds or head trau!a& - nu!er o* students e+#erience relatively
!inor non*atal in.uries& E+#osure to youth violence !ay lead to a !yriad o* negative health
outco!es and ehaviors) such as drug and alcohol use) as "ell as suicides) #sychological
#role!s) an+iety attac%s) etc& :Division o* Biolence Prevention) ;01;<&
-nother reason consists in the *act that in the #rocess o* addressing the issue o* violence
at schools a nu!er o* other *actors in the educational syste! "ill e i!#roved& $or instance)
such as#ects !ay include co!!unication and in*or!ation #rocess as %ey #revention ele!ents&
Co!!unication strategies and in*or!ation #rocessing are critical *actors in the #rocess o*
addressing the interrelationshi#s o* teachers) students and school #ersonnel&
=iven the *act that the issue o* school violence and sa*ety is crucial in !odern society
and education syste!) there e+ist nu!erous literatures concerning the essence o* the very issue
and "ays o* solving it& The !ost e+tensive in*or!ation is #rovided y the #ulications and *act
sheets o* =overn!ental De#art!ents) as "ell as such authors as Tho!as 4iller "ith his School
Violence and Primary PreventionI >e**rey Daniels and 4ary Bradley "ith their Advancing
Responsible Adolescent evelopment: Preventing !ethal School Violence&
Re*erences
Division o* Biolence Prevention) /ational Center *or (n.ury Prevention and Control&
:;01;<& "nderstanding school violence fact sheet& 7ashington D&C&3 Division o*
-dolescent and School 'ealth&
4iller ) T& :;00C<& School violence and primary prevention& /e" Hor%) /H3 S#ringer&
2**ice o* 2rgani,ational -dvance!ent) -tlanta Pulic Schools& :;01;<& Strategis
leadership..the road to e#cellence& -tlanta) =-3 -tlanta Pulic Schools&
The 4etro -tlanta Cha!er Econo!ic Develo#!ent Division) :;01;<& $etro Atlanta: An
e#ec%tive profile& -tlanta) =-3 4etro -tlanta Cha!er&
Teaching Students "ith Learning Disailities
Chase Payton3
Dr& Cu!!ings
Educational Research 4ethods EDU 50C
>anuary ;@) ;01D
Introduction
-ll students have a right o* access to educationI they have a right to access %no"ledge in
a !anner and *or! that is relevant to their needs and circu!stances& 2n the other hand) teachers
have a role to #lay in delivering %no"ledge to all students as #er their needs& Educating a nation)
co!#osed o* ale students and students "ith s#ecial needs is a di**icult tas% requiring
#ro*essional invest!ent into understanding and ado#ting strategies that est !eet the student0s
needs& (n this line) students "ith learning disailities :SLDs< require s#ecial attention through
innovative intervention in order to *acilitate their learning #rocess&
Define an educational topic you plan to research
-ccording to the -ssociation o* 'igher Education and Disaility :-'E-D<) a learning
disaility is the condition that a**ects the !anner in "hich the student o* average or aove
average intellectual a#titude acquires) retains) and e+#resses %no"ledge8in*or!ation& -'E-D
considers SLDs as de*icient in either all) one) or a co!ination o* oral e+#ression)
co!#rehension reading) listening) "riting) !athe!atical calculation) general #role! solving)
asic #role! solving) or logic areas& SLDs !ay also have troule sustaining attentiveness)
cultivating social s%ills) or !anaging ti!e :Davis) n&d<&
Since e**ective learning is a *unction o* the student0s aility to deal "ith the aove issues)
it eco!es i!#erative to develo# a dee#er understanding that "ould aid the teacher in
develo#ing strategies that "ould *acilitate e**ective delivery o* %no"ledge& This is #articularly
i!#ortant since SLDs require !ore acco!!odation than other students& There*ore) in order to
#rovide *or e**ective learning) the teacher should res#ond creatively and %no"ledgealy to
s#eci*ic student0s needs& (t is also i!#ortant to note that SLDs de!and !ore teachers0 attention&
So!e o* such students !ay su**er *ro! the inaility to co!ine t"o learning tas%s) such as
listening and "ritingI they !ay e unale to recall e**ectively) lose *ocus in classroo!s) or
struggle in relating di**erent #ieces o* %no"ledge that uild u#on each other :'allahan et al&)
;001<&
This #a#er o#ines that teacher interventions in teaching that are s#eci*ically tailored *or
the SLDs "ould enhance learning outco!es& This #ro#osition *ollo"s #revious research in the
area o* learning disaility and rain *unctioning) "hich indicates that SLDs are nor!ally aove
average in intelligence& -ccording to research) "hat they require is acco!!odation in learning) a
change o* teaching a##roaches) and use o* alternative %no"ledge delivery strategies& 'allahan et
al& :;001< re#ort a study involving SLDs o* (o"a "ho had (J scores o* as high as 110 "ith ?0F
scoring aove C0& This study indicates that teacher intervention occurs in t"o areasI one involves
e+#licit instructions in "hich the teacher intervenes in a !anner that enhances the content learnt
through etter directions& This a##roach !ay e+tend *ocus into interventions on learning
strategy& These strategies are !ostly on regulation) cognitive and !etaEcognitive a##roach
!odi*ication& The second *or! o* intervention #ertains to the aove ele!ents& This co!ination)
%no"n as eclectic a##roach) !eets SLDs0 needs on a "ide s#ectru! ase :'allahan et al&) ;001<&
7ith regards to the nature o* intervention) teacher !ust innovatively intervene into SLD
learning #rocess through introducing novel learning !ethods& -ccording to the Education
Resources (n*or!ation Center :ER(C<) learning is an active #rocess involving the interactions
et"een the learner and the !aterial :ER(C) 1??@<& The learner is ale to otain and retain
in*or!ation through co!#le+ interactions o* individual ailities) elie*s) and e+#ert guidance)
a!ong others& Teachers !ust intervene to create o##ortunities through "hich SLDs can #ractice
"ith the in*or!ation) a##ly it) and receive *eedac%& (n this #rocess) innovativeness in
a##roaching a #articular student is i!#erative) since each student0s learning #rocess is a *unction
o* #ersonal ailities) ideas) elie*s) attitudes) and #reviously acquired %no"ledge :Davis) n&d<& (n
attending to these divergent needs) intervention !ust involve creativity :-!erican S#eechE
LanguageE'earing -ssociation and R4C Research Cor#oration) ;00A<&
Teacher intervention into teaching SLDs ho" to learn is very co!#le+ ut e**ective& The
reason eing) it underscores the need *or student s#eci*ic intervention and also cuts across
eclectic and e+#licit instructions& SLDs o*ten have a "ide s#ectru! o* issues that a**ect their
#er*or!ance& (t !ay involve ho" they vie" the!selves) "hich calls *or a #sychologically driven
intervention "ithin the class conte+t :'allahan et al&) ;001<& Teacher guidance in cognitive and
!etaEcognitive strategies "ill e e**ective& 'o"ever) the "ide s#ectru! o* !etaEcognitive
strategies is li%ely to call *or !ore dedication& They are use*ul to a student "hen he "ants to
#lan) !onitor and evaluate leaningI ho"ever) they require !ore acco!!odation and teacherE
student relationshi# :Purdie et al&) ;005<&
Thus) this #a#er #ro#oses to conduct an intensive study #roving that teacher intervention
in teaching SLDs is critical& (t goes on to #ro#ose that such teacher interventions should e ased
on e!#irical and theoretical evidenceI ho"ever) it !ust e achieved #articularly through
innovative a##roaches) since every SDL has a unique need that "ould require !odi*ication o*
universal a##roaches&
Develop a hypothesis for conducting the proposed research.
E**ective teacher intervention in teaching SLDs through innovation and s#eciali,ed
classroo! a##roaches is e**ective in enhancing #ositive educational outco!es and student
#er*or!ance& This is ecause !ost o* the students are o* good !ental a#titude and the teacher0s
role is *unda!ental :'allahan et al&) ;001<& Teacher intervention is e**ective ecause it
acco!!odates the s#ecial needs o* a SLD and thus enhances his8her chances o* success& Teacher
innovation) on the other hand) "ithin the con*ines o* educational ethics and class #ractice) is
*unda!ental in !eeting the s#eciali,ed needs o* individual students& The reason eing) SLDs do
not have di**iculties that !ani*est in a universal !anner) neither do they *ace a usual
co!ination o* de*iciencies&
Develop at least four (4) research questions.
1& 7hat constitutes e**ective classroo! #racticeK
;& 7hat critical as#ects should a teacher teaching SLDs %no"K
D& 'o" does a##ro#riate teacher #lanning and assess!ent o* SLDs a**ect their #er*or!ance
and learning outco!esK
G& 'o" do SLDs res#ond to s#eciali,ed attention and interventions in #er*or!anceK
Discuss the value of the proposed research to the field of education.
=iven the diverse areas in "hich SLDs could e de*icient and the reality that a learning
disaility !ani*ests itsel* di**erently in di**erent students) the *indings o* this research #a#er
"ould e invaluale to the entire teaching *raternity& (t !ust e understood that e**ective
classroo! #ractices can only e achieved on the occasion that a teacher is ale to understand
oth the content and the learner& This #a#er underscores the need *or teacher intervention in
teaching students "ith learning disaility& Therey) the %no"ledge is acquired through
instructions) "hile the e**ectiveness o* the instructions is assessed through results& Thus) the
teacher0s #re#aration o* instruction and assess!ent o* SLDs should incor#orate the insights o*
SLDs0 s#eci*ic needs& This study uilds u#on a reservoir o* %no"ledge *ro! "hich teachers can
dra" such insights&
(n addition to the e**ective delivery o* instructions) the *indings o* this study "ill e+tend
into o**ering %no"ledge on ho" a co!#rehensive curriculu! that !eets the needs o* all students
can e develo#ed& The education syste! still lac%s an allEinclusive curriculu! that !eets the
needs o* all students and is at #ar *or all& Thus) the !ultiE!ethod a##roaches that this #a#er
#ro#oses) as "ell as the guidance on teacher0s innovation in a classroo!) "ill still e a##licale
to other students& This !eans that they can e incor#orated into develo#ing an entire curriculu!
"ithout distinction a!ong grou#s& Lastly) the *indings o* this research "ill raise ne" questionsI
so!e o* these questions "ill #ertain to the e**ectiveness o* the interventions #ro#osed or their
a##licaility) the li!its o* teacher innovation) and the rationale *or having a curriculu! that
caters *or the needs o* all) a!ong others& Thus) the #a#er "ill #ro#ose *urther research involving
longE#eriod oservation o* the i!#act and e**ectiveness o* the intervention e!#loyed&
1&G (ntervie" o* Education Pro*essionals
This #a#er #ro#oses to intervie" the school ad!inistrators) educators) and #arents o*
children "ith learning disaility& The rationale ehind intervie"ing this #o#ulation is to assess
the nu!er o* SLDs in the school) the e+istence o* teacher intervention) and the docu!ented
e**ects o* #er*or!ance& 2n the other hand) the ad!inistrators and educators "ho! "or% "ith
these students !ay o**er a "ide s#ectru! o* ad!inistrative res#onses aout intervention& They
"ill also o**er a chance *or co!#aring di**erent schools #er*or!ance a*ter the intervention "ithin
a #articular area o* coverage& The analysis o* di**erent schools0 interventions and the overall
co!#arison et"een schools) as "ell as the district level a##roach) "ill guide the research into
so!e critical *indings) es#ecially in the area o* a co!!on curriculu!&
Re*erences
-!erican S#eechELanguageE'earing -ssociation L R4C Research Cor#oration :;00A<& &e'
roles in response to intervention: (reating s%ccess for schools and children& Ports!outh)
/'3 R4C Research Cor#oration) Center on (nstruction&
This study *ocuses on general teacher res#onses to di**erent intervention a##roaches& (t uilds a
good case *or the need to have a teacher "ho actively acce#ts the res#onsiility o* !eeting the
needs o* each child& (ts guidance on the need to uild a healthy #ulic #olicy that incor#orates
such intervention is o* value to this #a#er& (t *ocuses on di**erent challenge areas that SLDs *ace
and the o##ortunities8challenges that they #resent to the teacher& They ta%e their argu!ent to the
need *or a co!!on ground through a curriculu!&
Davis) Pauline) $lorian) Lani) L -insco") 4el& :n&d&<& Teaching strategies and approaches for
p%pils 'ith special ed%cational needs: a scoping st%dy& D*ES&
The source is highly ingenious in the areas o* understanding s#eci*ic di**iculties occasioned y
learning disaility& (t also covers areas o* learning and cognition) "hich is a critical #art in
understanding educational needs& The sources also contriute to the understanding o* the social
issues o* SLDs& (t !ainly *ocuses on the need *or teaching strategies) i!#ortance o* e+#ert
%no"ledge) and the theoretical *oundations& (t is es#ecially signi*icant in co!#arison to others
ecause it o**ers a ne" understanding o* students "ith s#ecial needs&
Educational Resources (n*or!ation Center :U&S&<& :1??@<& )nterventions for st%dents 'ith
learning disabilities& 7ashington) DC3 /ational (n*or!ation Center *or Children and
Houth "ith Disailities&
This is a reader0s digest source that contains analysis o* #ro!inent "or%s o* t"o authors in the
*ield o* interventions aout SLDs& (t o**ers highly use*ul in*or!ing es#ecially in the intervention
regarding teaching the SLDs ho" to learn& (ts argu!ent on the i!#ortant role o* the cognitive
and !etaEcognitive *actors is also highly valuale& The central argu!ent is that teacher
innovativeness through change o* learning strategies is a highly e**ective a##roach& (t is a very
unique source in co!#arison to others due to it ideas on teacher intervention&
'allahan) D& P&) 4ercer) C& D&) L Educational Resources (n*or!ation Center :U&S&<& :;001<&
!earning disabilities: *istorical perspectives: e#ec%tive s%mmary& 7ashington) DC3 U&S&
De#t& o* Education) 2**ice o* Educational Research and (!#rove!ent) Educational
Resources (n*or!ation Center&
This article o**ers an inEde#th understanding o* ho" the learning disaility conce#t has evolved
to #resent day in light o* di**erent *ields involved& The source is highly rich "ith in*or!ation
since it ca#tures the #ers#ectives o* iologists) #sychologists) and educators& (t lays a *oundation
*or the need o* intervention y #roviding syste!atic scienti*ic evidence regarding learning
disaility& (t is so invaluale in anchoring this study0s argu!ent since it #rovides a good revie"
o* the .ourney to"ards a etter understanding o* SLDs&
Purdie) /&) Ellis) L& -&) -ustralian Council *or Educational Research L -ustralia& :;005<&
!iterat%re revie': A revie' of the empirical evidence identifying effective
interventions and teaching practices for st%dents 'ith learning diffic%lties in +ears ,- .
and /& Ca!er"ell) Bic&3 -CER&
This oo% deals "ith issues surrounding the e**ectiveness o* teacher intervention *or class G) 5)
and A& (t starts "ith a revie" o* historical inconsistencies in de*inition o* learning di**iculties and
concludes "ith a loo% at the conte!#orary understanding o* an e**ective classroo! #ractice& The
central argu!ent is that teacher intervention is highly e**ective in i!#roving learning outco!esI
ho"ever) such intervention !ust e ased on valid *indings& The oo% is highly resource*ul due
to its inEde#th loo% at the -!erican and -ustralian conte+ts o* SLDs&
Educational Equality *or -ll Students
Chase Payton
Dr& 4cLeod
Diversity in 9E1; Education
Dece!er 1A) ;01D
Cultural diversity is a *actor that is evident in any institution& -s is the case) there are
*actors that are #resent a!ong students that a**ect their success :Boden) ;01;<& Cultural diversity
is one *actor that is attriuted to the attitudes that these students condition the!selves to in ter!s
o* their success& School at!os#here should e !ade in a "ay that des#ite there eing these
cultural diversities) these students *eel a##reciated and co!*ortale "hile in the institution
:'oare) ;011<& (n addition) the school0s !anner o* handling this issue o* diversity is another
issue that raises concern :9i!) ;00@<& 2n the student0s #ers#ective) *actors such as involve!ent
in co!!unity a**airs and their res#onsiveness to cultural !atters are dictated y their attitude
to"ards cultural diversity :=reen) ;011<& 4ore so) scholars0 #ersonal and acade!ic interE
relationshi# is "ith their instructors is i!#ortant in ensuring that they are "ell attended to
:'oare) ;011<& So!e given ehaviors and instructional strategies that are laid are ai!ed at
enaling the teachers uild a stronger acade!ic relationshi# "ith their culturally diversi*ied
students& These strategies have di**erent i!#lications :9i!) ;00@<& -s "ith so!e strategies) they
e+e!#li*y good teaching #ractice standards "hile others have an i!#lication on s#eci*ically
"or%ing and creating etter conditions *or the culturally diversi*ied students :9han) ;005<&
2n the other hand) there are the laid standards that are e+#ected to e !et& These
Co!!on Core Standards are to e !et in any learning institution to ensure that the students in
these institutions are ready *or their *uture careers in ter!s o* either eing literate enough to
handle !atters in their *ields and as "ell "hile "illing to .oin colleges :'oare) ;011<& These
standards are highly ai!ed at high school institutions as ensuring that those *ro! these
institutions "ill have !et a given require!ent e*ore they are incor#orated in higher learning
institutions and as "ell #re#aring the! *or their *uture careers :9han) ;005<& -s a result) there is
an i!#ortance o* relating the instructional strategies on cultural diversity and the co!!on core
standards& The essay "ill *ocus on these interrelationshi# et"een these t"o *ields giving their
inter relationshi# :Boden) ;01;<&
(nstructional strategies are ai!ed at har!oni,ing the ga# that is created "hile dealing
"ith students *ro! di**erent cultural ac%grounds& Considering these strategies) the teachers and
instructors at grade three need not only to consider the studentsM cultures ut also their language
s%ills "hen develo#ing their learning o.ectives and other instructional activities that are to e
used in learning :=aerson) 1???<& 7hile using this strategy) di**erent characteristics o* the
students) "hich range *ro!I a##earances) se+) ailities) race) religion and their socioecono!ic
status are har!oni,ed :9han) ;005<& This standard ensures that the students0 #otentials are "ell
utili,ed& (n addition) "ith the standards) the reading co!#onent o* the learning standard is "ell
re#resented& Considering the laid standard "hich require that the student0s aility and
#er*or!ance need to e a##reciated) "hile under this strategy) the instructors is ale to estalish
learning o.ectives that are at level "ith the students0 ailities :Boden) ;01;<& 4ore so) di**erent
students *ro! the di**erent cultures have diversities on ho" they #erceive issues :=reen) ;011<&
Consequently) "hen the instructor lays these strategies ased on the %no"ledge he gets a*ter
analy,ing the students0 cultures) ensures that all the students0 e+#ectations on "hat is to e
taught !et :9i!) ;00@<&
-s highlighted earlier) there are those standards that are !eant to e !et at all grades&
These standards are #redeter!ined and are co!!on to all institution :=reen) ;011<& $or
e**ectiveness in learning) students at the di**erent grades need to gain a distinct %no"ledge that
"ill enale the! to advance to the ne+t grade& -dvancing *ro! grade three requires the student
have so!e asic %no"ledge on *ractions and nu!ers :=aerson) 1???<& This is *or those
students "ho are in the 4athe!atics de#art!ent :9han) ;005<& Relating this standard to the
strategies that are used y the instructor on cultural diversity) they are su##osed to !onitor
studentsM acade!ic #rogress :'oare) ;011<& This should e oth during lessons and "hile the
students are le*t to handle their inde#endent "or%& 7ith this strategy) instructors are required to
chec% and as "ell revise "ith students during class"or% to deter!ine "hether the students need
hel#& This is in consideration "ith the *act that students *ro! di**erent cultures have di**erent
attitude to"ards learning :9i!) ;00@<& (n the sa!e "ay) they have di**erent levels o* con*idence&
$or the instructor to !eet the set standards) he has to incor#orate this standard y tas%ing a
#ersonal e**ort o* !onitoring the individual "or% done y the student :Boden) ;01;<& This
strategy also requires the instructor to *requently as% the students i* they have questions on "hat
they are doing and i* they have gras#ed "hat they have done in class :=aerson) 1???<& (n
addition) o"ing to the *act that standards require that the student a*ter #assing grade three has to
have had a given level o* %no"ledge) it is the role o* the instructor to !a%e these students a"are
o* the various situations in "hich the learnt s%ills are used :'oare) ;011<&
Standards require that a*ter #assing grade three) the student should e ale to handle
so!e #ersonal tas%s y his o"n& These tas%s range *ro! di**erent classes de#ending on the *ield
o* learning that the student is underta%ing :9han) ;005<& -*ter #assing through grade three) the
student should have gained so!e %no"ledge and should e ale to ta%e short and *ocused
research #ro.ects& These research #ro.ects are introduced to the students at this grade to
*a!iliari,e the students "ith the career #ro.ects that they are to ta%e later in their careers
:=aerson) 1???<& This standard is ased on the "riting co!#onent :=reen) ;011<& (t requires the
student to acquire so!e %no"ledge on "riting and #resenting their ideas in a co!#rehensive
!anner :'oare) ;011<& Relating this standard to an instructional strategy) instructors are required
to #ro!ote student to e tas% oriented& Ensuring that the students are tas% oriented !a%es the!
!aintain high levels o* intensity o* instruction :9i!) ;00@<& This can e done through starting o*
learning lessons in due ti!e and allo"ing the students in grade three re!ain in their tas%s y not
allo"ing the! to e idle :=aerson) 1???<& (n addition) the transition allo"ed *or thee students
*ro! one lesson to another ensures that their e**orts are not "asted& -s a result) they are ale to
!aintain their #ace and al"ays re!ain occu#ied "ith tas%s :9han) ;005<& Understanding
students *ro! di**erent cultures requires the instructor to actively involve the students during
lessons :=aerson) 1???<& This can e achieved through as%ing questions that require the
students to recall an already taught conce#t& -s in grade three) the student should have had an
aility to understand co!#le+ ideas that are related to their *ield o* study :'oare) ;011<&
(nstructors should !a%e their students a"are o* their e+#ectations& Students should e
!ade a"are o* 5classroo! rules1& These are to e a##lied "hile the teacher is in the classroo!
and as "ell "hen the students in grade three are ta%ing their #ersonal tas%s :Boden) ;01;<&
Beral #artici#ation during the lesson and !oving aout the classroo! are rules that require to
e !ade a"are to the students :'oare) ;011<& -s "ith the standards) a*ter the student has #assed
grade three) he should e !ade res#onsile o* their actions& (n addition) they should have had the
aility to *ollo" the set rules and once they rea% the! they should e !ade to *ace the
consequence :=reen) ;011<& Des#ite there eing these rules) "hile dealing "ith students *ro!
di**erent cultures) instructors require to understand the students0 ac%grounds in order to !a%e
rules that are o* a co!!on rule and that "ill not hu!iliate any culture& 4a%ing the students
a"are o* the instructor0s e+#ectations does not only entail aout their conduct ut also has #art o*
ti!e to e ta%en "hile doing a given tas% :9i!) ;00@<& 4otivating students at grade three is
i!#ortant as there is a it o* co!#le+ity in studies as co!#ared to grade t"o :Boden) ;01;<& -s a
result) the instructor needs to #ay attention to those students "ho are struggling to co!#rehend
yet they have a #assion o* !astery& The inter relation et"een the strategy and the core standards
is to enale the students achieve their goals& That is through !a%ing the! a"are o* the study
e+#ectations and as "ell encouraging those students in grade three "ho are struggling and are
"illing to ta%e !astery and other higher levels :'oare) ;011<&
The instructor0s strategies also include *acilitating inde#endence "hich is in thin%ing and
action& This is "ith the standard that a*ter #assing through grade three) the student should have
develo#ed in ter!s o* the thin%ing ca#aility& (n grade three) the student is rought to a etter
understanding o* "hat is e+#ected o* hi!& This is attained through this strategy& -s students *ro!
di**erent cultures have di**erent "ays o* #erceiving issues) it requires *or the instructor to involve
the students in a si!ilar !anner :9i!) ;00@<& This can e attained either through giving students
tas%s that do not require su#ervision& (t allo"s the students to e inde#endent :=reen) ;011<& 2n
the other hand) res#onding to the students0 questions should e !ade in a "ay that !a%es the
students have an idea on ho" to get the ans"ers y the!selves later& Role #laying) "hich is
another standard that is ased on grade three enales the students to e inde#endent and can
easily *ind solutions to"ards their questions on their o"n :'oare) ;011<& Coo#eration a!ong
students is another standard that is estalished and is ai!ed at !a%ing the students a##reciate
each other& This is attained through s!all grou# #ro.ects :9i!) ;00@<& 2nce these students are
#laced in grou#s des#ite o* their cultural ac%ground) ga# created y their di**erences is ridged
and thus e**ective learning environ!ent attained&
E**ective s#ea%ing) "hich entails *luency in language and vocaulary used y the
students should e ac%no"ledged& The instructor should #rovide *requent *eedac% in regard to
the students0 res#onses& -t grade three) co!#le+ity o* language used and studies is "itnessed&
-c%no"ledge!ent o* correct ans"ers done y the instructors is one "ay o* a##reciating
students& (t gives a rie* *eedac% :9i!) ;00@<& Des#ite there eing students *ro! di**erent
cultures) res#onding to their ans"ers in the sa!e "ay and a##reciating the! si!ilarly ridges
the ga# rought aout y their cultural ac%ground :Lasley) 1??@<& (n addition) "hile correcting
"rong ans"ers that are given y students) giving #ositive *eedac%s on the! creates con*idence
in students as they are not hu!iliated des#ite having had a "rong ans"er& Positive corrections
can e done through as%ing the student to #ara#hrase the "rong ans"er or calling *or the student
to re#eat the correct ans"er :'oare) ;011<& 7ith such a !ethod) a conducive learning
environ!ent is attained des#ite there eing di**erences in cultures& $inally) an instructor !ay
give #ositive correct *eedac% through enlightening the students on their #er*or!ance that
require so!e attention& This can e through as%ing questions *requently on an i!#ortant conce#t&
(t !a%es the student #erceive everything in a #ositive !anner& Providing suggestions on ho" the
students can i!#rove on their #er*or!ance is another strategy that is related to the standard o*
ensuring the students0 s%ills are "ell achieved :Lasley) 1??@<&
4astery is required e*ore the students can e allo"ed to the ne+t level& -s is a
require!ent *or the students e*ore they can e enrolled *or the ne+t grade) they are required to
have attained a given level o* %no"ledge :Boden) ;01;<& Students #ast grade three should e ale
to have a *luent use o* English and as "ell should e ale to ale to read and co!#rehend
articles& (n addition) in 4athe!atics) the students should e ale to solve so!e #role!s on
*ractions& Be*ore these students can e allo"ed to the ne+t level) they require to have !astered
these s%ills and tas%s :9i!) ;00@<& =rade three level is crucial as it is "here students are
introduced to grou# tas%s in ter!s o* research #ro.ects :Lasley) 1??@<& The instructor should
ensure that this strategy is *ollo"ed to avoid hu!iliation o* the students in the #receding grades
:4iller) ;011<& 7here tas%s are assigned) the instructor should e+#lain the criteria that he uses to
deter!ine i* !astery is attained :Lasley) 1??@<& 7hen the !astery level has een attained y the
students) they should e given a *eedac%& This is to give the! the areas they have !astered
highlighting those areas they need to "or% on& (n relation to the set standards) the student should
e ale to handle the tas%s y hi!sel* "ithout relying on the teacher0s hel# :9i!) ;00@<& 7ith
students *ro! di**erent cultures) using this strategy allo"s equality in s%ills acquired "hile under
the sa!e grade :Boden) ;01;<&
(n !y disci#line o* study) there are so!e !ulticultural instructional strategies that (
"ould incor#orate& These strategies "ould e ai!ed at avoiding any *or! o* discri!ination
a!ong the di**erent students that are in grade three& Ensuring that there is consecutive and
rando! !onitoring o* the #er*or!ance o* the students "ill e one o* !y instructional strategies
that ( "ould use :Boden) ;01;<& 7ith this strategy) ( "ould ensure that all "hat is taught in class
is "ell i!#le!ented y all students des#ite their cultural di**erence& (n addition) !onitoring their
tas%s equally is another a##roach that ( "ould consider :4iller) ;011<& 7ith this strategy) des#ite
the students having di**erent cultural ac%grounds) ( "ould ensure that they are equally
re#resented inn their activities :Boden) ;01;<& 4ore so) none o* the student "ill *eel
discri!inated and thus a #eace*ul healthy learning environ!ent "ill have een attained& -s "ith
the laid standards) success o* the individual students is loo%ed at and e!#hasi,ed :Boden) ;01;<&
-s a result) !onitoring the s#eci*ic student #er*or!ance "ill have !et the standard laid on the
grade three students :=reen) ;011<& -lgera and nu!ers eing #art o* "hat is taught in this
level) ensuring that these students are given several e+ercises on this area "ill create a syste! o*
deter!ining i* they have really understood "hat "as taught& =rou# tas%s and #ro.ects "ill e
another area that ( "ould e!#hasi,e ion !y strategy :4iller) ;011<& -s "ith the later) grou#
tas%s creates coo#eration a!ong the students& (n addition) there is the inuilt sel* con*idence
a!ong the students as they e+#lain to each other :9i!) ;00@<&
The other strategy that ( "ould incor#orate in !y study "hile dealing "ith !ulticultural
is teaching students on ho" to !atch their ehaviors to the institution :Boden) ;01;<& This "ill
e done y estalishing rules that "ill e *ollo"ed y all students& 4onitoring students0
ehaviors "hile in grade three is i!#ortant as it sha#es and #re#ares the! *or the other grades&
Putting into consideration that these students are *ro! di**erent cultures) their ehaviors are
ound to e di**erent :Boden) ;01;<& ( "ould !a%e sure that the students reali,e the di**erence
et"een eing at ho!e and eing at school& This "ill !a%e the! ehave in a si!ilar o**icial
!anner and neither culture "ill *eel discri!inated against :=reen) ;011<&
Being conscious on ho" these students in grade three inter relate is i!#ortant& They
should e le*t *ree to interact :Boden) ;01;<& (n addition) considering that !athe!atics is a
su.ect that requires a healthy student teacher relationshi#) ( "ould avail !ysel* to these grade
three students and ensure that i!!ediate acade!ic hel# required y the! is o**ered& Controlling
students0 ehavior "ill e ai!ed at creating #eace a!ong these students& (ntroducing these
students to the di**erent levels o* conversations is also i!#ortant :4iller) ;011<& This "ill e
ased on ho" these students are to relate and converse "ith their instructors) *riends *or! the
co!!unity and as "ell "ith their colleagues :Boden) ;01;<& Building u# such an introduction
"ill e ai!ed at !a%ing sure the e+#ected conduct *ro! these students is attained& Regardless o*
the study they are ta%ing) they are e+#ected to e res#onsile a*ter #assing through grade three&
There*ore) ensuring that the students ad.ust their conducts according to the syste! they are in
"ill ensure that the set standards in grade three are !et :=reen) ;011<&
-ccording to the set standards instructors are e+#ected to have their tool o* assess!ent on
the #er*or!ance o* their students :'oare) ;011<& -n instructor should have s#eci*ic targets that
are ased on the #revious #er*or!ances o* the students& Each student should e ale to !eet the
set target :9i!) ;00@<& 'o"ever) "hile setting the targets) the instructor should have it ased on
the individual ailities o* the student& Cultural *actors that "ould hinder the student *ro!
reaching the target should also e loo%ed at :=reen) ;011<&
The assess!ent tool highlighted aove is in line "ith the laid core standards& $or a
student to e through a grade three) he should have gained a certain level o* %no"ledge& The set
targets *or the individual students "ill e to !onitor the student0s #er*or!ance :4iller) ;011<&
(nstructors are given the role o* !onitoring the acade!ic #er*or!ance o* the students :Boden)
;01;<& This assess!ent tool is valid as the students "ill e given tas%s that they "ill ta%e in
grou#s& Coo#eration a!ong students *ro! the di**erent cultures "ill e achieved and thus the set
standards :9i!) ;00@<&
$ro! the essay) it is evident that !ulticultural strategies are needed to ensure that in
grade three students *eel co!*ortale :4iller) ;011<& 7hile setting u# these strategies) instructors
should have a #rior %no"ledge aout the di**erent cultures o* the students :9i!) ;00@<& This is
i!#ortant in estalishing the ailities and the student0s #erce#tion to"ards grade three studies&
The tables represent ho' c%lt%re has its infl%ence on some s%b0ects that are ta%ght in grade three.
Re*erences
'oare) C& '&) L 'oare) C& '& :;011<& The 1#ford handbook of reciprocal ad%lt development and
learning& 2+*ord3 2+*ord University Press&
The *ields o* adult develo#!ent and the study o* learning have traditionally een
considered se#arate) "ith develo#!ent *alling under #sychology and learning under education&
'o"ever) recent ideas) research) and #ractices that have e!erged in these *ields o* study
e**ectively e!#hasi,e the inherent reci#rocal relationshi# that e+ists et"een the!3 advances in
develo#!ent *requently lead to learning) and conversely) learning al!ost necessarily *uels
4irochni%) E& :;00;<& Passion and pedagogy: Relation- creation- and transformation in
teaching& /e" Hor% I7ashington) DC8Balti!ore IBern I$ran%*urt a! 4ain IBerlin IBrussels
IBienna I2+*ord3 Lang&
$or !any years innovative educators have used the arts to enrich their studentsM
classroo! lives& Teachers "ho have integrated dra!a) !usic) dance) #oetry) *iction) and the
visual arts "ithin their classroo!s have "itnessed the nu!erous "ays in "hich the arts !otivate
children to learn& But "hile the #o"er*ul in*luence that the arts have had on children has een
"ell researched and docu!ented) the e**ect that the arts have had on teachers has een
overloo%ed&
Shor) (&) L $reire) P& :1?C@<& A pedagogy for liberation: ialog%es on transforming ed%cation&
South 'adley) 4ass3 Bergin L =arvey Pulishers&
T"o "orld reno"ned educators) Paulo $reire and (ra Shor) s#ea% #assionately aout the
role o* education in various cultural and #olitical arenas& They de!onstrate the e**ectiveness o*
dialogue in action as a #ractical !eans y "hich teachers and students can eco!e active
#artici#ants in the learning #rocess
Bradsha") 4& >&) L Lo"enstein) -& >& :;011<& )nnovative teaching strategies in n%rsing and
related health professions& Boston3 >ones and Bartlett Pulishers&
Discusses enroll!ent and ad!ission at the BS/ and 4S/ levels E+#lores curriculu!
innovation) ne" teaching !ethods) and startEu# #rogra!s -naly,es student retention and
#rogression) "ith re!ediation strategies Presents *aculty recruit!ent) retention) and develo#!ent
successes -ddresses issues concerning second degree and second career students
Davis) B& 4& :;00C<& A facilitator2s g%ide to ho' to teach st%dents 'ho don2t like yo%: (%lt%rally
relevant teaching strategies& London3 S-=E&
The children in -!ericaMs classroo!s are changing in co!#le+ion and co!#le+ity)
!a%ing teaching students "ith diverse ac%grounds one o* the greatest challenges youMll *ace&
-d!inistrators are also under #ressure to 1close the achieve!ent ga#1 et"een 7hite and -sian
students and their racial and ethnically diverse counter#arts&
=aerson) 9& B&) L 2er!ann) 4& '& :1???<& (linical teaching strategies in n%rsing& /e" Hor%3
S#ringer Pu& Co&
The volu!es in this #o#ular series #rovide nurse educators "ith !aterial to hel# the!
#lan) conduct) and evaluate their instructional goals and acco!#lish!ents& The series addresses a
road s#ectru! o* teaching situations) classroo! settings) and clinical instructionEsu#ervision&
4iller) 4& -&) Stoec%el) P& R&) L Bacoc%) D& E& :;011<& (lient ed%cation: Theory and practice&
Sudury) 4ass3 >ones and Bartlett Pulishers&
Client Education3 Theory and Practice *ocuses on health education and the role o* health
care #roviders) es#ecially nurses) in "or%ing "ith clients such as individuals) *a!ilies and
grou#s) in health care institutions and co!!unity health settings& (t addresses the need *or health
education
=urung) R& -& R&) L Prieto) L& R& :;00?<& 3etting c%lt%re: )ncorporating diversity across the
c%rric%l%m& Sterling) Ba3 Stylus&
7hile there is consensus that institutions need to re#resent their educational e**ectiveness
through docu!entation o* student learning) the higher education co!!unity is divided et"een
those "ho su##ort national standardi,ed tests to co!#are institutions educational e**ectiveness)
and those "ho elieve that valid assess!ent o* student achieve!ent is ased on assessing the
"or% that students #roduce along and at the end o* their educational .ourneys
Par%er) 7& C& :;00;<& Teaching democracy: "nity and diversity in p%blic life& /e" Hor%) /&H3
Teachers College Press&
(n Teaching emocracy- 7alter Par%er !a%es a unique and thought*ul contriution to the
hot deate et"een #ro#onents o* !ulticultural education and those "ho *avor a cultural literacy
a##roach& Par%er conclusively de!onstrates that educating *or de!ocratic citi,enshi# in a
!ulticultural society includes a *unda!ental res#ect *or diversity& This scholarly yet accessile
"or%
9elley) 4& L&) L $it,si!ons) B& 4& :;000<& (%lt%re- c%rric%l%m- and comm%nity& Sudury)
4ass3 >ones and Bartlett&
Baughn) S&) LinanETho!#son) S&) L Erary) (nc& :;00G<& Research4based methods of reading
instr%ction- grades 546& -le+andria) B-3 -ssociation *or Su#ervision and Curriculu!
Develo#!ent&
9lein) 4& D&) L Chen) D& :;001<& 7orking 'ith children from c%lt%rally diverse backgro%nds&
-lany) /H3 Del!ar Tho!son Learning&
This e+citing oo% o**ers an overvie" o* the "ays in "hich cultural di**erences in*luence
young childrenMs ehavior) co!!unication) and learning styles& (t is a #ractical guide *or early
childhood #ro*essionals "or%ing in such settings as grou# child care) #reschools) and 'ead Start
#rogra!s& The oo% considers the !a.or develo#!ental do!ains o* language and
co!!unication) social s%ills) and school readiness and e!ergent literacy&
9i!) '& :;00@<& An analysis of developmentally appropriate and c%lt%rally reponsive practices
and the learning tra0ectories of kindergarten- first4grade- and third4grade children from 8(!S4
5: Teachers2 beliefs and practices as mediators&
9han) B& '& :;005<& $anaging e4learning: esign- delivery- implementation and eval%ation&
'ershey) P-3 (n*or!ation Science Pu&
=reen) C& R&) L 2ldendor*) S& B& :;011<& Religio%s diversity and children2s literat%re: Strategies
and reso%rces& Charlotte) /&C3 (n*or!ation -ge Pu&) (nc
Boden) C& >&) L 9i##ers) S& 4& :;01;<& Path'ays to transformation: !earning in relationship&
Charlotte) /C3 (n*or!ation -ge Pu&
Lasley) T& >&) L 4atc,yns%i) T& >& :1??@<& Strategies for teaching in a diverse society:
)nstr%ctional models& Bel!ont) Cali*& Nu&a&3 7ads"orth Pul& Co&
/ational Science Teachers -ssociation& :;001<& (elebrating c%lt%ral diversity& -rlington3
/ational Science Teachers -ssociation&
Discri!ination
Chase Payton
EDU 5;0 Education and the La"
Dr& Engel!an
4arch ?) ;01G
Discri!ination
Des#ite the gro"ing ody o* legislative acts and !odels) discri!ination re!ains an
essential #art o* "or%#lace realities and organi,ational routines& 7hile it !ay see! sur#rising)
the #ulic school syste! creates a *avorale cli!ate *or discri!inating against education
#ro*essionals on the asis o* their individual characteristics) including age) gender) and
ethnic8racial origins& 'o"ever) "hile cases o* discri!ination in hiring8*iring re!ain quite
co!!on) the issues o* discri!ination in #ro!otion are not easy to investigate& -ccording to
2lson and Bec%er :1??D<) discri!ination issues in intraEoccu#ational do!ains are highly
deatale) !ostly due to the lac% o* o.ective criteria to .udge these cases& (t is no secret that
!ost discri!ination cases involving denied #ro!otion are ased on #lainti**sM su.ective
#erce#tions o* discri!ination :=.erde) ;00;I 'arris) Lievens L 'oye) ;00G<& 'o"ever) these
#erce#tions do not de#rive the #lainti** o* the legal right and o##ortunity to #rove the validity o*
the discri!ination clai!& Si!ultaneously) the #ro!otion #rocess in the #ulic school syste!
di**ers consideraly *ro! that in #rivate usiness :>oy) 1??C<& -ll these criteria and *acts could
*acilitate the legal and court analysis o* teachersM clai!s o* denied #ro!otion on the asis o* their
individual characteristics&
7hen it co!es to teachers "ho clai! to have een denied #ro!otion on the asis o* their
#ersonal) not #ro*essional) characteristics) t"o recent cases deserve attention& $irst) a *or!er
-nne -rundel County teacher has *iled a la"suit against the state #ulic school syste!) clai!ing
that she "as denied #ro!otions re#eatedly) in *avor o* less quali*ied candidates :Ra"ly%) ;01D<&
Christine Daven#ort elieves that she "as denied #ro!otions ecause o* her age :Ra"ly%) ;01D<&
(n a si+Ecount la"suit) the *or!er teacher #rovides an argu!ent that the candidates younger than
G0 "ere #ro!oted in violation o* the acce#ted equality standards) since they received a list o*
questions they "ould e as%ed during the #ro!otion intervie" :Ra"ly%) ;01D<& The case is
*urther co!#licated y the retaliation clai!s !ade y the #lainti** :Ra"ly%) ;01D<& Title B((
contains an antiEretaliation #rovision that !a%es actions against e!#loyees "ho have !ade
charges or testi*ied in discri!ination cases unla"*ul :=olderg L S#rot,er) ;010<& (n addition)
Daven#ort re#orts serious health co!#lications as a result o* discri!ination) including high
lood #ressure) an+iety) and stress :Ra"ly%) ;01D<&
Several years ago) a di**erent la"suit "as *iled against the Te+as (nde#endent School
District y a Te+as #ulic school teacher "ho had een denied #ro!otion on the asis o*
religion& 4ore s#eci*ically) the teacher "as denied an o##ortunity to eco!e assistant #rinci#al)
since her o"n children "ere studying at a #rivate Christian school :Pyeatt) ;00C<& The school
never !ade any ulti!atu!s that the "o!an had to re!ove her children *ro! the Christian
school) in order to e #ro!oted to assistant #rinci#al :Pyeatt) ;00C<& (n oth cases) the chie*
question is in "hat criteria should e !et to con*ir! the *acts o* discri!ination in #ro!otion&
-ccording to the U&S& Equal E!#loy!ent 2##ortunity Co!!ission :;01;<) e!#loyers
are not allo"ed to discri!inate against "or%ers ased on their race) se+) religion) national origin)
or other #ersonal characteristics& 7or%ers cannot e denied #ro!otion ased on the e!#loyerMs
stereoty#es aout their age) race) religion) etc& :EE2C) ;01;<& 'o"ever) the !ain di**iculty
inherent in #ro!otion discri!ination cases is that) according to 9lein) Pa##as) and Sur :;00D<)
e!#loyers !ost *requently use su.ective criteria to a##rove their #ro!otion decisions& 4any
e!#loyers ground their #ro!otion decision on su.ective #erce#tions and .udg!ents& 4any
others rely on intuition& Since they see% to guarantee the greatest good *or the !a.ority "ithin
their organi,ation) at ti!es) their #ro!otion decisions !ay e di**icult to e+#lain in o.ective
ter!s&
The *irst reason to su##ort the accusation relates to the soEcalled 1clearly etter quali*ied1
test that is currently used in #ro!otion discri!ination cases y courts :9lein et al&) ;00D<& Both
#lainti**s #rovide relevant evidence that their quali*ications are stronger than those o* other
e!#loyees to the e+tent that render the! as the !ost suitale candidate *or the desired #osition
:9lein et al&) ;00D<& (n the case o* Lyoch v& -nheuserEBusch Co!#anies) (nc& :1??C<) the court o*
the eighth circuit held that the urden o* quali*ications #roo* can e !et y !eans o* the
#lainti**Ms testi!ony) as "ell as the testi!ony #rovided y t"o other coE"or%ers& (n Lyoch v&
-nheuserEBusch Co!#anies) (nc& :1??C<) Dee Lyoch *iled a la"suit against the co!#any to
#rove the *act o* e!#loy!ent discri!ination ased on age) *ollo"ed y retaliation) thus !a%ing
it very si!ilar to the case o* Christine Daven#ort& Both #lainti**s clai! that their quali*ications
are strong enough to e #ro!oted to the desired #osition) ut they !ay also use the testi!ony
#rovided y their coE"or%ers to strengthen their #osition&
Second) the su.ectivity o* the #ro!otion criteria used y the res#onding organi,ations
can e easily #roved& 'ere) the #lainti** is not required to go into the details o* su.ectivity&
Sullivan :;011< re*ers to the $ederal Rules o* Civil Procedure that do not 1require a clai!ant to
set out in detail the *acts u#on "hich he ases his clai!& To the contrary) all the Rules require is
a short and #lain state!ent o* the clai!1 :#& 1A;A<& Third and) #roaly) !ost i!#ortant) !any
courts rely on additional discri!ination evidence to su##ort the accusation& Courts "elco!e the
#rovision o* evidence o* #ro!otion discri!ination that goes eyond the !ere discre#ancy in
quali*ications and su.ectivity o* e!#loyersM .udg!ents :9lein et al&) ;00D<& (n oth cases) such
evidence see!s to e a!#le& (n the case o* the *or!er teacher denied #ro!otion on the asis o*
her age) the *act that younger candidates received the list o* intervie" questions can serve as
su**icient evidence to #rove the #rete+t *or discri!ination on the asis o* age& $or the Te+as
teacher "ho clai!s to have een discri!inated against #ro!otion due to her religious status) any
clai!s !ade in relation to her children and the *act that they "ere studying in a #rivate Christian
school can e used as evidence to #rove her clai!s& Christine Daven#ort) a *or!er teacher
discri!inated ased on her age) "ill also have to estalish a #ri!a *acie case o* retaliation& She
has evidence that she has engaged in a %ind o* #rotected activity :*iled a la"suit against her
e!#loyer<) and her e!#loyer "as a"are o* that :=olderg L S#rot,er) ;010<& 'o"ever)
estalishing the causal lin% et"een the! "ill e e+tre!ely di**icult& -s o* no") the #lainti** has
not #rovided su**icient evidence to con*ir! the *act o* retaliation&
Certainly) in oth cases) la"suits could e avoided) had the #arties o* the con*lict co!e
together to discuss the controversies& 'o"ever) even con*licts the!selves could have een easily
#revented) i* the e!#loyers i!#le!ented trans#arent #ro!otion #rocesses o#en to all candidates)
regardless o* their #ersonal characteristics& Christine Daven#ort should e granted #ro!otion)
given her e+tensive "or%#lace e+#erience and the *act that) unli%e younger candidates) she has
invested considerale *inancial and ti!e resources in co!#leting internshi#s and ad!inistrative
training #rogra!s :Ra"ly%) ;01D<& -s *or 9aren >o Barro") a dis!issed teacher "ho quali*ied
*or the #osition o* assistant #rinci#al) she "as #ro!oted to the desired #osition a*ter she le*t the
.o :Pyeatt) ;00C<& -s a result) her #osition "as o**ered to a di**erent candidate& The case does
not #rovide enough evidence to con*ir! that the #ro!otion "as .usti*iedI nor does it con*ir! that
the #ro!otion granted a*ter Barro" *iled a la"suit "as the result o* an o.ective e!#loy!ent
decision and not .ust a !eans to %ee# the #lainti** *ro! going to court&
(n conclusion) discri!ination in #ro!otion is one o* the !ost controversial as#ects o*
!odern e!#loy!ent legislation& The t"o cases evaluated also suggest that #ro!otion
discri!ination in the #ulic school syste! is "idely s#read& The current state o* la" #rovides
e**ective criteria *or !a%ing relevant decisions in ter!s o* e!#loy!ent discri!ination in
#ro!otion& -t the sa!e ti!e) in !ost cases) litigation could have een success*ully avoided&
Re*erences
EE2C& :;01D<& Prohiited e!#loy!ent #olicies8#ractices& ".S. 89%al 8mployment
1pport%nity (ommission. Retrieved *ro!
htt#388"""&eeoc&gov8la"s8#ractices8inde+&c*!&
=.erde) 9&-& :;00;<& The e+istence o* genderEs#eci*ic #ro!otion standards in the U&S&
$anagerial and ecision 8conomics- :6- GG@EG5?& D2(3 10&100;8!de&10?@&
=olderg) (&B& L S#rot,er) (& :;010<& Protection *ro! retaliation *or "or%#lace discri!ination
clai!s& )nternational ;o%rnal of !a' and $anagement- .::D<) ;D;E;GD&
'arris) 4&4&) Livens) $& L 'oye) =& :;00G<& 1( thin% they discri!inated against !e13 Using
#rototy#e theory and organi,ational .ustice theory *or understanding #erceived
discri!ination in selection and #ro!otion situations& )nternational ;o%rnal of
Selection and Assessment- <::1<) 5GEA5&
>oy) L& :1??C<& 7hy are "o!en underre#resented in #ulic school ad!inistrationK -n
e!#irical test o* #ro!otion discri!ination& 8conomics of 8d%cation Revie'- <=:;<)
1?DE;0G&
9lein) >&S& L Pa##as) /&>& :;00D<& -ssess!ent o* quali*ications in discri!inatory *ailure to
#ro!ote cases& 7eil. Retrieved *ro! htt#388"""&"eil&co!8ne"s8#udetail&as#+K
#uOCGGA&
Lyoch v& -nheuserEBusch Co!#anies) (nc& :1??C<& 1D? $& Dd A1;&
2lson) C&-& L Bec%er) B&E& :1??D<& Se+ discri!ination in the #ro!otion #rocess& )nd%strial
and !abor Relations Revie'- 6/:G<) A;GEAG1&
Pyeatt) 4& :;00C<& Te+as teacher !ay sue school district *or discri!ination& (BS &e's.
Retrieved *ro! htt#388cnsne"s&co!8ne"s8article8te+asEteacherE!ayEsueEschoolE
districtEdiscri!ination&
Ra"ly%) '& :;01D<& $or!er country teacherMs la"suit clai!s age discri!ination& (apital
3a>ette. Retrieved *ro! htt#388"""&ca#italga,ette&co!8ne"s8schools8*or!erEcountyE
teacherEsEla"suitEclai!sEageEdiscri!ination8articleP*GcC51c?EDA@E5aedE?ca0E
*cc@AeGA1A&ht!lK!odeOstory&
Sullivan) C&-& :;011<& Plausily #leading e!#loy!ent discri!ination& 7illiam and $ary !a'
Revie'- .:- 1A1DE1A@@&
(nteractive Learning Environ!ent
Chase Payton
Technology Tools to 4anage LearningEEDU 5G1
Dr& Light"eis
4ay 5) ;01G
Technology has revolutioni,ed the entire learning #rocess& The integration o* co!#uters
or technology in the learning #rocess is "hat educators re*er to as interactive learning&
(nteractive learning relies u#on the use o* co!#uters) ut it is not the sa!e as co!#uter training&
So!e o* the interactive learning environ!ents include 7i%is) 4ultiEuser virtual environ!ent
:4UBEs<) course !anage!ent syste!) and 4icroE"orlds& 'o"ever) the #a#er singles out Blog
and revie"s various as#ects o* this #articular interactive learning environ!ent& $urther) it loo%s
into the advantages and the shortco!ings that are li%ely to accrue "hile using logs in learning
:Par% et al&) ;011<&
(nteractive learning is an e!erging conce#t& 4oore et al& :;011< descrie it as any *or!
o* acade!ic arrange!ent or school"or% that incor#orates technology in e!#hasi,ing or teaching
a #articular conce#t& Blogs are one o* the *or!s o* interactive learning& Blog is a short *or! o*
Q7e Log&0 (t descries the lists o* #ersonal .ournal entries that individuals #ost on a "e #age&
- logger re*ers to the author or any #erson) !a%ing such #ostings "hile Qlogging0 is the
#rocess o* #osting these #ersonal .ournal entries& ( "ill highlights various as#ects o* logs)
including the !erits and de!erits o* its usage :4oore et al&) ;011<&
-ny #erson "ith the %no"ledge o* #ulishing or creating a "e #age can easily #ost their
logs& So!e o* the "e hosts that e+ist today have !ade it easier to log& They have created an
inter*ace that allo"s its users to .ust ty#e a si!#le te+t and #ress Q#ulish0 to #ost their logs&
The ease o* creating logs has !ade it convenient *or !any #eo#le) including %ids to have a
reason *or eing on the "e& (t is unli%e in the #ast) "here #eo#le used to "rite con*idential
in*or!ation and co!#ile the! into a oo%) "hich li!ited !any #eo#le *ro! accessing the!&
Today logging has enaled !any #eo#le to share *reely their #ersonal e+#eriences and *eeling
"ith the rest o* #eo#le in other #arts o* the "orld& Blogs serve as the #ulicly #ersonal .ournal o*
an individual& 4ost o* the loggers usually u#date their .ournals on a daily or !onthly asis or at
di**erent ti!es) "ithout inconveniencing the! :9eeng"e et al&) ;01D<&
Blogging has created a good o##ortunity and an environ!ent that is ideal *or learners to
#ersonali,e& The log allo"s learners to *it in a learning environ!ent that they can control
the!selves& $or this reason) logs address the variety o* "ays #eo#le learn and the s#eed at
"hich they do it& (t #rovides learners "ith a chance to ta%e total control over their #ace o*
learning& There*ore) they can allocate !ore ti!e) !oderate ti!e) or even a lot o* ti!e) de#ending
on "hat they !ay need to learn at that #articular ti!e& This !ay allo" students to s#end !ore
ti!e studying the conce#ts that they #erceive to e !ore #role!atic and allocate !ini!al ti!e
into those su.ects that they "ell understand& Blog #rovides a unique learning environ!ent that
is !ore e**ective) e**icient) and at the sa!e ti!e allo"s *aster learners *ro! getting ored) and
lose interest "hile concurrently u#li*ting the slo" learners :Hang L Chang) ;01;<&
-#art *ro! creating a learning environ!ent that the student can #ersonali,e learning) it is
also conducted in a very *le+ile environ!ent& The learner chooses "here and at "hat ti!e they
"ould "ant to study) unli%e classroo! that !ust have #reset ti!e *ra!e and venue& Blogging can
conveniently *it the usy schedules o* learners) es#ecially "hen the students can handle their
learning in loc%s& There*ore) the environ!ent #recludes the need *or #hysical attendance to a
teaching session at a #redeter!ined venue :>i!oyiannis L -ngelaina) ;01;<&
Blog) as one o* the "ays o* interactive learning) has a lot o* ene*its to the trainers&
$irstly) it has the ca#ailities o* training unli!ited nu!er o* #eo#le at a ti!e& Blog reading has
no li!it *or the nu!er o* #eo#le that can access the #ersonal .ournal entry at any given ti!e) as
o##osed to other !odes o* training students& Blogging) es#ecially in the ig learning institutions)
allo"s *or the #assage o* in*or!ation to nu!erous students at once) regardless o* their nu!er&
There*ore) educators can actually i!#rove on the s#eed and the general success o* the learners in
ter!s o* gras#ing the content o* the log in a *aster "ay :Par% et al&) ;011<&
The use o* the log as one o* the !eans o* interactive learning is also cost e**ective& (t
does not need the #hysical #resence o* the learner& 'ence) it eli!inates the cost o* trans#ortation
and acco!!odation that "ould other"ise eco!e a necessity& The learner does not require an
instructor *or any o* the lessons& Thus) the student does not have to s#end !oney *or hiring a
tutor& (n addition) e+#ends on venues) re*resh!ents) and even renting so!e o* the costly learning
tools such as #ro.ectors eco!e insigni*icant& Blogs also #rovide an o#tion *or the reader to share
its contents "ith other #eo#le& $or this reason) it erases individual costing o* training that is
co!!on "ith other !odes o* learning& Blogs also #rovide *le+ile learning environ!ent *or the
students& The inherent *le+iility saves students0 !oney indirectly or directly through avoidance
o* overti!e costs :4oore et al&) ;011<&
So!e o* the s#eciali,ed tools !a%e it easier to u#date the logs& $urther!ore) !ost o*
these logs) as earlier noted) are u#dated y its authors on a regular asis& There*ore) the learner
is al"ays at areast "ith the trends in their #articular *ields o* study& Blogs also require no
s#ecial s%ills to #ost a #ersonal .ournal& Thus) there are several o* the! covering the sa!e area&
They are availale *or students and give the! a "ider vie" o* the conce#t under study :Hang L
Chang) ;01;<&
Des#ite all these ene*its acco!#anying logs) there are also inEuilt short*alls *or the
sa!e& $irstly) the reading o* logs requires students to develo# !otivation on their o"n&
Studying through logs de!ands that the student eco!es res#onsile *or their o"n learning& (n
*act) the entire #rocess o* learning through logs de!ands the student to develo# interest on their
o"n in the to#ic and !anage their ti!e "ell& Thus) those "ho have di**iculties in the t"o
#rerequisites that are crucial *or log interactive learning environ!ent can never rea# any ene*it
*ro! the use o* logs :9eeng"e et al&) ;01D<&
Blogs also lac% the as#ect o* a *aceE*ace interaction during the #rocess o* learning& This is
very i!#ortant co!#onent o* an inE#erson teaching& The learners get the o##ortunity to interact
#hysically y the!selves through insight*ul deates and discussions& (n the asence o* #hysical
interaction) as re*lected in the log) there is li%elihood that the in*or!ation trans*er !ay e lost&
The learner !ay end u# *eeling isolated *ro! the instructor and other #artici#ants& (ndeed) this
can *urther negatively a**ect their !otivation to learn&
(n addition) learning through logs "ould require the student to e equi##ed "ith so!e
asic co!#uter and technological s%ills& The student !ust also have a reliale internet
connection& There*ore) students "ith quasi s%ills on co!#uters and very #oor technology !ay
not en.oy learning through logs& The contents that the learners are struggling to *ind and use
could act as arriers to their learning :>i!oyiannis L -ngelaina) ;01;<&
(t is e!inent that log creates a #er*ect environ!ent o* learning due to its *le+iility and
#ersonali,ed learning environ!ent& Blogs can su##ort nu!erous learners at a session) are cost
e**ective) and easier to use& 'o"ever) learners !ay *ind it cu!erso!e in develo#ing !otivation
*or logs& (t also lac%s the *aceE*ace interaction and requires the student to e co!#uter literate&
Thus) the use o* the log as a tool *or learning should also incor#orate other learning tools& The
use o* the log should only rein*orce other learning tools *or etter results& $inally) students
should also not s#end !uch ti!e logging) as they !ay eco!e addicted to logs and lose taste
*or other !odes o* learning&

Re*erences
>i!oyiannis) -&) L -ngelaina) S& :;01;<& To"ards an analysis *ra!e"or% *or investigating
studentsM engage!ent and learning in educational logs& ;o%rnal of (omp%ter Assisted
!earning) :?:G<) ;;0E;D0&
9eeng"e) >&) Diteeyont) 7&) L -d.eiEBoateng) E& :;01D<& $acilitating active social #resence and
!eaning*ul interactions in online learning& 8d%cation and )nformation
Technologies) <?:5<) 5?0EA0D&
4oore) L& >&) =alyen) 9&) L Dic%son) C& :;011<& EELearning) online learning) and distance
learning environ!ents3 -re they the sa!eK The )nternet and *igher 8d%cation) <,:1<)
1;CE1DG&
Par%) H&) Lee) R&) L 'eo) 4& =& :;011<& Blogging *or in*or!al learning3 -naly,ing Bloggers0
Perce#tions Using Learning Pers#ective& ;o%rnal of 8d%cational Technology @
Society) <.:D<) ;AED;&
Hang) C&) L Chang) S&H& :;01;<& -ssessing the e**ects o* interactive logging on student
attitudes to"ards #eer interaction) learning !otivation) and acade!ic
achieve!ents& ;o%rnal of (omp%ter Assisted !earning) :?:D<) 1;DE1D?&