US Foreign Policy

Since first breaking free from British colonial control and becoming an independent nation, the United States
has exercised a wide variety of foreign policies. From war and treaty with our former mother country, to
isolation and neutrality the nation has always focused our relations with other through our needs and wants at
home. These relations can be clearly viewed via the following themes:
Neutrality
Our nation's earliest foreign policy was one of neutrality, as declared by George Washington and echoed by
many presidents to follow. Partial to protect our growing commercial interests and partially due to the weakness
of infancy, we first chose not to choose in the battles of European forefathers. This left the fledgling nation to
devote attention and resource to the business of nation building.
Imperialism
At the dawn of the 20th century technology was shrinking the globe and expanding the industry of the United
States. Immigrants had fueled the fires of industrial development and pushed the nation westward in a
fulfillment of manifest destiny's call. The markets and resources of lands overseas called to the hearts and minds
of a growing nation sold on social Darwinism and desiring to share her bounty with the world. War with Spain
proved the opening of a fifty-year window during which the US's reach would extend around the world.
Isolation
Still aching in body, heart and mind following the First World War, the US retreated into fortress America,
cutting ties and obligations with world. Tariffs and quota acts kept out foreign goods and foreign peoples, while
Palmer Raids and red scares prosecuted foreign ideas as well as foreign accents. This period of isolation
persisted until the world called again in WWII for help against the scourge of nazism.
Internationalism
The US learned the lessons of history, and following World War Two, refused to again make the mistakes of
the twenties. Following WWII, the US did not isolate and retrench, instead helping to create the United Nations
and NATO, as well as foster international trade and cooperation.
Cold War
Also on the heels of the Second World War was the start of a nearly five decade war of ideology known as the
Cold War. The politics of the world would be polarized as the USSR and the US pitted communism versus
capitalism for hegemony over the world. The arms race and the space race finally leaving one no longer able to
run and the other unsure about how to continue with no opponent.
New World Order
Having been defined by the cold war for so long, US foreign policy makers were uncertain how to reshape the
American international agenda following the decline of communism. The ensuing "New World Order" found
the US as the sole superpower. The new issues of the new world include terrorism, police actions, humanitarian
aid and rescue as well as checking not one large foe, but many smaller rogue threats. This chapter in American
foreign policy is still being written.
Neutrality
The first established foreign policy of the United States was one of neutrality or non-involvement. Having just
defeated the English and gaining our independence, the US faced the challenging task of creating a new
nation. In an effort to guard ourselves from involvement in the wider conflicts of the Europeans and focus on
domestic affairs, a course of neutrality was followed. The roots of this initial policy can be seen as early as the
presidency of George Washington.
Washington's Proclamation of Neutrality
Within weeks of Washington's inauguration in 1789, the French Revolution began.
As the revolution intensified and became more bloody, the English sought to exploit
the weakness of the French government. While conflict between the French and
English intensified, America was caught in the middle. American loyalties were
divided between the French who had aided in America's revolution and the English to
whom cultural and economic ties were greatest. Washington decided that neutrality
was the best course, thereby avoiding the war altogether.
Washington's Farewell Address
When he left office in 1796 after serving two terms as president, Washington delivered a farewell address
filled with advice and cautions to the fledgling nation. While he also warned against the divisive problems of
political parties, it was his call for neutrality and avoiding alliances that set the course of US foreign policy.
Washington cautioned the nation to "steer clear of permanent alliances", noting that even temporary treaties or
alliances were acceptable only under "extraordinary emergencies". It was this tone set by Washington's words
and his presidency that established neutrality as the first foreign policy of the United States.
The Monroe Doctrine
It would be President Monroe's 1823 address to Congress that would again mark a
major milestone in US foreign policy. The Monroe Doctrine as it became known was
meant as a warning to the nations of Europe to end the colonization of the Western
Hemisphere. The doctrine stated that the establishment of new colonies or the
disruption of newly independent colonies in the Western Hemisphere would be taken
as a direct threat to US interests and "dangerous to our peace and safety". The Monroe
Doctrine also promised that the European non-involvement in the Western
Hemisphere would be met by US non-involvement in European affairs. Essentially
it reciprocated European neutrality in the Americas with US neutrality in Europe.
While not well received by the European nations, many ignoring the statement by the
then weak American government, the Monroe Doctrine did establish a key policy in our foreign affairs and
reinforce the message of neutrality established by Washington. This would prove the main US foreign policy
up through the US Civil War.
Imperialism
By the middle of the 1890's the American western frontier was viewed by many as being "closed". This was
seen as the fulfillment of the westward expansions started under the banner of "manifest destiny". The public
perception of the "closing of the west", along with the philosophy of Social Darwinism, contributed to a desire
for continued expansion of American lands and the spreading of American culture. The result was a shift in
US foreign policy at the end of the 19th century from a reserved, homeland concerned republic to an active
imperial power.
The Spanish-American War

The "USS Maine" pictured here in Havana Harbor, Cuba
The Spanish-American war heralded the start of the era of American Imperialism. In the shadow of the
expanding empires of Europe, an America that now stretched from sea to shining sea was desiring to still
grow.
Causes of the Spanish-American War:
Cuban Revolution - The Spanish suppression of an on-going Cuban revolution gave the cause
of war an air of independence and freedom. Aiding the Cubans, who's suffering was
exaggerated by the Yellow Press of the day, became a reason for war
with the Spanish.
Yellow Press - The newspaper circulation war had already begun long
before a shot was fired in 1898. William Randolph Hearst (pictured at
right) and Joseph Pulitzer used hyperbole, lies and sensational violence
in order to increase sales of their NY papers. The often times untrue
stories of the Spanish brutality in Cuba served to outrage many
Americans and increased the call for war.
Sinking of the USS Maine - The US warship USS Maine was stationed
in the harbor of Havana, Cuba when it exploded, killing over 260
Americans. The Yellow Press ran immediate headlines blaming the
Spanish for the explosion, however a conclusive reason behind the Maine disaster is still
unknown. Regardless, the act was clearly sparked an immediate call for war with the Spanish.
US Desires to Expand - Many American leaders who wanted the US to expand her reach
across the globe, recognized that defeating a weak Spanish Empire offered an opportunity to
gain territories outside north America. These territories would then provide access to world
markets for growing manufacturing by US industries.
US Imperial Gains, Late 19th to Early 20th Century:
1898:
o US Annexes Hawaii after a US supported revolution against the Queen.
o US acquires control of: Puerto Rico, Guam and The Philippines from Spain in the
1898 Treaty of Paris.
1899:
o US acquires control of: Samoa and Wake Island in the Pacific for use as military and
trade ship refueling stops
1903:
o Panama Canal Zone is acquired following the US backed Panamanian Revolution
against Columbia.
1917:
o Virgin Islands purchased from Denmark
US Expands Control in Latin America
Following the transformation to a world power, brought about by the events surrounding and following the
Spanish-American War, the US sought to further extend its control over the nearby territories of Latin
America.
This policy expansion was mostly at the urging of President Theodore Roosevelt, who worked to increase US
presence in Latin America via his Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Corollary expanded on
the statements of President Monroe by stating that not only would Latin America be considered a vital US
interest and European interference there considered a threat to the United States, but the US would and could
actively intervene in Latin America to protect those interests.
Isolationism
Following our involvement in World War One, the United States entered a nearly two decade long period of
isolation from world affairs. The result was not only a rejection of leadership and membership in international
organizations, but a restricting of our borders and an anti-foreign feeling among society.
US Rejects the Treaty of Versailles and the League of Nations
The United States Senate rejected the Treaty of Versailles for a variety of reasons. Politically, Democratic
President Woodrow Wilson was unpopular with the Republicans who controlled the Senate. He had also
failed to gather any input from them in negotiating the treaty and stubbornly refused to allow changes.
Wilson's poor health also stopped his active campaigning for the treaty among the American people.
The provision that the Senate objected to the most was US membership in the League of Nations. The league
was the creation of Wilson and was intended as an international peace-keeping organization, intended to
prevent the reoccurrence of a wide scale conflict like the "War to end all wars" (WWI). Many were uneasy
at the provisions of the League that called for common defense and the possible command of US forces by
foreign leadership. These oppositions, along with the public's desire to distance the US from foreign affairs,
lead to the rejection of US membership.
Without strong support from the US, the League seemed doomed for failure from the start and never achieved
the lofty goals of world peace intended by its creator.
US Isolationism Takes Hold at Home
Restriction of Immigration - The United States had always been a nation formed by and for immigrants. The
heritage of the nation is one of providing an opportunity for peoples from all over the world to strive for a
better life in America. However, during the isolationist policies that followed the First World War, many
called for a curbing of immigration as a way to reduce foreign influence on the nation.
Laws such as the Immigration Act of 1924 and the Emergency Quota Act severely restricted the numbers of
immigrants allowed into the country.
Protectionist Policies - In an attempt to protect US businesses and curtail economic ties with much of the
world, the US instituted a series of high tariffs in the 20's and 30's that limited imports. The reaction of many
nations was to pass retaliatory tariffs on US products, resulting in a general breakdown of international trade.
This isolation from the world economically would eventually be one of the contributing factors in the causing
the Great Depression of the 1930's.
Internationalism
Following World War Two, the US refused to again make the mistakes of isolation and rejection of
international agreements that were made in the twenties. This time the US did not isolate and retrench, instead
helping to create the United Nations and NATO, as well as foster international trade and cooperation through
agencies such as the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund.
The United Nations
The United Nations is an international organization founded at 1945 at
the end of World War II.. It was the successor to the failed League of
Nations that had been formed after the First World War. However, the
United Nations had the full support and funding of the United States (the
headquarters of the UN is centered in New York City) and more
significantly was endowed with a military force to provide its directives
with some backing. The League of Nations had lacked an such military
powers and that was regarded as the chief reasoning behind its failure.
The United Nations is headed by the five permanent members of the Security Council, the United States,
Russia, Great Britain, France and China (reflective of the allies of WWII). Other members of the council are
elected and serve on a rotating basis. The most significant power of the security council is the ability to veto
UN initiatives that have been approved by the General Assembly, of which all member nations are voting
members.
UN initiatives such as the "police action" of the Korean War and securing of East Timor in Indonesia
highlight the ability of the UN to mobilize military personnel in defending nations from aggression. Other UN
initiatives include the World Health Organization, focused on the distribution of food and medicines. Also
of significance is the International Court of Justice located at The Hague, a world forum for the prosecution
and trial of war crimes charges against aggressive national leaders committing "crimes against humanity".
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)
NATO was formed in 1948 as a "collective security" force to resist the
further spread of communism in Europe. Following the Second World
War the USSR did not withdraw from the nations of Eastern Europe that
it had liberated from Nazi control, instead forcing in communist regimes
under Soviet domination. As the "iron curtain" fell, the democratic
nations of Western Europe, the United States and Canada designed
NATO as a resistance to further spread. The communist bloc nations,
under Soviet control, formed the Warsaw Pact as a communist collective
security arrangement to counter the NATO agreement.
NATO was founded under the concept of collective security or "collective self-defense" as it is termed in the
NATO charter. This concept calls for any attack on a NATO member nation to be perceived as an attack upon
all NATO member nations. This idea of collective security is fundamental to NATO's success, the threat of a
collective response kept the spread of communism in Europe in check and helped maintain peace and stability
in Europe for the past 50+ years.
In recent years NATO has expanded its membership, in the wake of communism's fall the nations of the
former Warsaw Pact such as Poland and Czechoslovakia have been welcomed into the organization. The
NATO alliance has not only served as collective defense, but furthered economic ties and cooperation between
the member states. Also in recent years NATO has taken a more active role in preventing European aggression
before it sparks wider conflict. The 1999 NATO bombing campaign in Serbia and Kosovo as well as the
stationing of NATO troops in the former Yugoslavia to maintain peace serve as the best example of NATO's
this evolving role in the post-Cold War world.
Southeast Asian Treaty Organization (SEATO)
Active from 1954-1977 SEATO was designed similarly to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO),
and intended to prevent the spread of communism. However, unlike NATO, SEATO did not contain the
collective security provisions that called for an attack upon one member as being an attack upon all member
nations. Following the US involvement in the Vietnam war, the organization was disbanded as the willingness
of member nations to defend against communism declined.
Organization of American States (OAS)
Founded in 1948 as another international organization intended to
repeal the further spread of communism, the OAS covers the 35 nations
of the Western Hemisphere. The treaty requires member nations to
assist other member nations in resisting armed attack as well as
negotiating conflicts between members in an effort to achieve a
peaceful resolve to disputes. The OAS also works to promotes the
development of democratic governments and protect human rights
in the regions in addition to encouraging economic development, social
and cultural exchange between members.
Cold War

VS

During the waning hours of World War Two, a different type of war began. A Cold War of ideas and politics, of
economies and technologies. The Cold War was not one event, but rather a series of events connected together
by the rivalry and polarization between the communist and capitalist systems. The Cold War was fought by
third parties in developing lands and by scientists and heroes in a race for the moon. It was the build up of
nuclear arsenals and the delicate balance that kept the world from teetering.
The timeline below presents a brief summary of the major events of the Cold War. Areas of colder relation
indicate times at which the ideologies and policies of the United States and the USSR were at their most
divisive, the warmer relations indicate times at which cultural exchange and cooperation helped ease the nuclear
tension.
Warmer
Relations
YEAR
Colder
Relations


- Germany
Surrenders,
USSR occupies
Eastern Germany
and Eastern
Europe
- 1945 -
- US Drops 2
Atomic Bombs
on Japan,
Japanese
Surrender
- Korea is
occupied by the
US in the South
of the 38th
parallel and the
USSR in the

North
-Ho Chi Mihn
declares an
independent Viet
Nam


- 1946 -
- Winston
Churchill,
declares an "iron
curtain" has
drawn across
Eastern Europe


- The Marshall
Plan enacted,
billions of $ in
aid for 16
European nations
- 1947 -
- The Truman
Doctrine,
Truman asks
Congress for aid
to Greece and
Turkey, $400
million in aid to
defend against
Communist
rebels.


1948
- Berlin
Blockade: USSR
blockades all
access to West
Berlin, US airlifts
supplies. The
Soviet blockade
ends after nearly
a year.
- Alger Hiss
accused of being
a Communist
- Korea divided
into Communist
north and
Democratic
South


1949
- NATO:
established on
basis of
"collective
security"
- The Communist
People's Republic
of China
established


1950
- McCarthyism:
Senator Joseph P.
McCarthy claims
Communists in
the Department
of State. HUAC
inquiries
launched.
- Korean War:
|
|
K
O
R
E
A
UN defends
South Korea after
invasion from
North
N
W
A
R
|
|

1951

1952
- US completes
development of
the Hydrogen
Bomb

1953
- Korean War
ends in an
armistice, border
returns to 38th
parallel
- USSR
completes
development of
an Hydrogen
bomb

1954
- SEATO:
Southeast Asian
Treaty
Organization
formed for
collective
security in SE
Asia
- Democratic
West Germany
joins NATO
- Dienbienphu:
French defeated
in Vietnam


- Geneva
Summit:
Eisenhower and
Khrushchev
discuss
disarmament
1955
- Warsaw Pact:
Communist
collective
security
agreement
formed to oppose
NATO


1956
- Hungarian
Revolution:
Soviet forces
crush Hungarian
attempt to end
Communist rule


1957
- Eisenhower
Doctrine: US
commits to stop
Communist
spread in Middle
East
- USSR launches
Sputnik, first
man-made
satellite to orbit

Earth
- Fear of USSR
missile
superiority leads
to large increases
in spending

1958
- Fearing a
"technology
gap", NASA is
formed


- Vice President
Richard Nixon
tours the Soviet
Union
- Antarctica
Treaty: nations
agree to reserve
Antarctica for
scientific
research, no
military uses
allowed
- Khrushchev
visits United
States, meets
with Eisenhower
at Camp David
1959
- Cuban
Revolution:
Fidel Castro
leads a
Communist coup
in Cuba. US
business interests
are nationalized


1960
- U-2: US spy
plane shot down
over U.S.S.R.
Pilot Gary
Powers
exchanged for
Soviet spy


1961
- Soviet
Cosmonaut Yuri
Gagarin: first
man to orbit the
Earth
- Bay of Pigs:
CIA-trained
Cuban exiles fail
in invasion of
Cuba
- American
military advisors
sent to aid South
Vietnam
- Kennedy
pledges to put
man on the moon
before decade
ends
- Construction

begins on the
Berlin Wall,
dividing the city
of Berlin

1962
- Cuban Missile
Crisis: US
blockades Cuba
over USSR's
stationing of
nuclear missiles
in Cuba. JFK
demonstrates
"Brinkmanship"
- USSR removes
missiles from
Cuba, US
removes missiles
from Turkey
- John Glenn:
first American to
orbit Earth


- Limited Test
Ban Treaty:
agreement to
outlaw nuclear
tests under water
and in space
1963
- JFK is
assassinated


1964
- Gulf of Tonkin
Resolution:
Congress gives
the President
power to take "all
necessary
measures" to
retaliate for N.
Viet Nam sinking
US destroyers in
the Gulf of
Tonkin


1965
- US ground
combat troops
begin to fight in
Viet Nam War
|
|
V
I
E
T
N
A
M
W
A
R
|

1966
- 250,000+ US
soldiers in Viet
Nam

- Outer Space
Treaty: US,
USSR and others
limit military use
of space
1967

- Nuclear Arms
Nonproliferation
Treaty:
agreement
limiting
distribution of
nuclear material
1968
- US forces in
Viet Nam
number 1/2
million

- Strategic Arms
1969
- Moon
Limitation Talks
(SALT): US /
USSR begin
process of arms
limitation
Landing: Neil
Armstrong and
"Buzz" Aldrin
are first men on
the moon
- Nixon
Doctrine: US
commits to allies
defense, but will
not defend third
world
-
"Vietnamization
" : US begins to
lower troop
levels and train S.
Viet Nam to
assume the war
- Protests against
Viet Nam War
continue to
increase
|

1970

1971
- Pentagon
Papers: New
York Times
publishes
classified
documents from
the Pentagon on
Viet Nam
|
|
D
E
T
E
N
T
E
|
|
- Detente
Begins: Nixon
initiates dialogue
and easing of
tensions with the
USSR
- Moscow
Summit: Nixon
becomes first US
President to visit
Soviet Union
1972
- Nixon visits
Communist
China:
Beginning of
"normalized"
relations between
the US and
China, trade
agreements
follow
- Paris Accords:
end US
involvement in
Viet Nam War
1973
1974
- US and Soviet
astronauts link up
in space
1975
- Fall of Saigon:
N. Viet Nam
captures S. Viet
Nam capitol as
America
withdraws

1976

1977

1978


- SALT II: US /
USSR agreement
on limits to long-
range missiles
1979
- Nicaraguan
Revolution:
Communist
Sandinistas
depose the
dictator Somoza
- USSR Invades
Afghanistan: US
protests with
boycott of 1980
Moscow Summer
Olympics and
embargo, Detente
ends, SALT II is
not ratified


1980


1981
- President
Ronald Regan
calls the USSR,
"The Evil
Empire"
- Regan vows to
"Spend the
Soviets into the
ground"


1982


1983
- US Develops
the MX
Multiwarhead
Missile
- US begins
development of
the Strategic
Defense
Initiative(SDI)
or "Star Wars"
missile defense
system


1984


- Geneva
Summit: Reagan
and Gorbachev
agree to a 50
percent
reductions of
nuclear arms
1985


1986
- Iran-Contra
Scandal: US
illegally provided
aid to Contra
rebels fighting
the Communist
Sandanistas in
Nicaragua with
money from arms
sales to Iran


Washington
Summit: Reagan
and Gorbachev
sign a treaty
further limiting
nuclear weapons
numbers and
development
1987


- USSR agrees to
withdraw its
forces from
Afghanistan
1988

|
|
E
N
D
O
F
C
O
L
D

W
A
R
|
|
- Glasnost:
Gorbachev's
opening of the
USSR causes
culural change
and calls for
further easing of
party control
- Berlin Wall
Falls: Soviet
control of Eastern
Europe is ended
as satellite
nations begin to
break from Soviet
Bloc
1989

- German
Reunification
1990