Skywalk Report

SKYWALK ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
A PROJECT REPORT
Submitted by
BARASKAR M. A.
BHADBHADE S. M.
CHINTA C. A.
INAMDAR N. J.
RAGHATATE A.M.
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree
of
BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
in
CIVIL ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, PUNE 411005
MAY 2009

i
ABSTRACT
In this final year project, a steel skywalk structure is analyzed and designed using
conventional and finite element approach. Analysis based on stiffness method has been
carried out using analysis and design software STAAD.Pro-05 and the results obtained
are verified by manual calculations. The skywalk design is as per the clauses and norms
specified by IS 800-1982. Finite element model of the same is formulated and analyzed
using ANSYS-10 and the results are compared with stiffness analysis and experimental
testing. A scaled model of skywalk structure is prepared to a scale of 1:10 using mild
steel. The experimental model is tested under static loads and simulated wind loads for
various load combinations. Free vibration analysis of the model is carried out to
determine its natural frequency and other important parameters influencing its behavior
under dynamic loads.
Purpose of the project is validation of software models by comparing the results with
experimental observations. The obtained numerical results are comparable in terms of
strains and stresses developed in individual members. The variations in some of the
experimental results may be attributed to practical limitations involved in testing
procedures.
The validated software models are further used in parametric study which includes
formulation of interaction charts. Interaction charts depicting variation of modulus of
section of individual members against span are plotted. The charts can be used to design
an individual member with optimum modulus of section. The appropriateness of these
charts can be verified by software analysis and manual calculations. However, these
charts are restricted to the shape and form of the skywalk structure considered in this
project.
Final Year Project Report Abstract
Final Year Project Report Acknowledgement

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank their project guide, Prof. Balkrishna M. Dawari, for his
guidance and advice rendered to them throughout the course of the final year project.
The authors are also grateful for the patience and understanding that Prof. Dawari has
shown throughout the course of the project.
The authors would also like to express their gratitude to officials associated with R & D,
Dighi for their extended support in the experimental testing of the scaled model. The
authors would like to thank especially Mr. Giridhar Singh, Mr. Ramdas and Mr. Irfan for
their valuable guidance. The authors are also thankful to Mr. Prashant Raskar, Design
Engineer, R&D, ISMT for helping them in formulation of finite element model using
ANSYS software.
The authors would like to extend their appreciation to Mumbai Metropolitan Region
Development Authority (MMRDA) for providing them all the necessary data related to
the project. The authors are grateful to the officials of Strudcom Consultants (Monarch)
for their guidance throughout the project.
The authors also acknowledge all those who have helped them during the course of their
project in one way or another.

iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF SYMBOLS
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
1.2 Objectives
1.3 Problem Definition
1.4 Scope
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Background
2.2 Stiffness Method
2.3 Finite Element Method
CHAPTER THREE MODELING METHODOLOGY
3.1 Analytical Model
3.2 STAAD Pro Model
3.3 ANSYS Model
3.4 Experimental Model
CHAPTER FOUR TESTING METHODOLOGY
4.1 Preliminary Testing
4.2 Model Testing
4.3 Free Vibration Analysis
PAGE NO.
i
ii
v
viii
ix
1
1
9
9
10
12
12
20
20
23
23
25
33
41
45
45
55
71
Final Year Project Report Table of Contents

iv
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 Validation
5.2 Interpretation
5.3 Discrepancies
CHAPTER SIX PARAMETRIC STUDY
6.1 Objective
6.2 Skywalk Structure Parametric Study
6.3 Interaction Charts
6.4 Sample Verification
6.5 Significance of Interaction Charts
6.6 Limitations of Interaction Charts
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND
RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 Conclusions and Recommendations
REFERENCES
INDEX
77
77
79
79
80
80
80
81
90
90
90
91
91
92
Final Year Project Report Table of Contents

v
LIST OF FIGURES PAGE NO.
Figure 1.1: Skyway
Figure 1.2: Typical scene in any metropolitan city
Figure 1.3: Plan and Section
Figure 1.4: Perspective
Figure 2.1: Truss
Figure 2.2: Deconstruction
Figure 2.3: Displacement Vector
Figure 2.4: Stiffness Matrix
Figure 2.5: Stiffness Matrix with known Data
Figure 2.6: FEM-Concept
Figure 3.1: Beam 3D Element
Figure 3.2: Material Model Interface Initial Screen
Figure 3.3: Sample output window showing mass and other properties
Figure 3.4: Mode 1 (Deformed + Undeformed shape)
Figure 3.5: Direct Stress Contour of dead load + wind load
Figure 3.6: Combined Stress Contour of dead load + wind load
Figure 3.7: Skywalk Model in Working Stage
Figure 3.8: Completed Skywalk Model
Figure 4.1: Tension Test Stress vs. Strain
Figure 4.2: Torsion Test Torque vs. Angle
Figure 4.3: DPT Purlin and Roof Joint
Figure 4.4: DPT Primary and Secondary Beam Joint
Figure 4.5: Buckling Load Test Assembly
Figure 4.6: Typical Strain Gauge
Figure 4.7: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
Figure 4.8: Working of a Strain Gauge
Figure 4.9: Strain Gauge
Figure 4.10: Strain Gauge Package and Strain Gauge Color Coding
Figure 4.11: PFL 30-11 Strain Gauge Test Data
01
03
10
11
14
15
17
18
18
22
34
35
38
39
40
40
42
42
46
48
52
52
54
56
56
58
59
60
61
Final Year Project Report List of Figures

vi
Figure 4.12: Explanation of Strain Gauge Test Data
Figure 4.13: Surface Preparation Dry Abrading
Figure 4.14: Surface Preparation Wet Abrading
Figure 4.15: Application of Adhesive
Figure 4.16: Curing and Pressing
Figure 4.17: Raising the Gauge Leads
Figure 4.18: Bonding Connecting Terminals
Figure 4.19: Soldering the Gauge Leads
Figure 4.20: Soldering Extension Lead Wires
Figure 4.21: Location of Strain Gauges
Figure 4.22: Strain Reading Equipment
Figure 4.23: Test Setup for Static Load Test
Figure 4.24: Wind Load Simulation
Figure 4.25: Load Combination - LL (100kg) + WL (10kg)
Figure 4.26: Test Setup for Free Vibration Test
Figure 4.27: FFT Graph Iteration 1 Accelerometer 1
Figure 6.1: Parametric Study
Figure 6.2: Curved Beam Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.5: Primary Beam Z
x
61
62
63
63
63
64
64
64
65
66
66
67
69
69
72
73
73
73
74
74
74
75
75
75
80
82
82
82
83

vii
y
z
Figure 6.8: Primary Column Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.11: Straight Plate Girder Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.14: Secondary Column Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.17: Inclined Roof Member Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.20: Parabolic Member Z
x
y
z
Figure 6.23: Inclined Strut Z
x
y
z
83
83
84
84
84
85
85
85
86
86
86
87
87
87
88
88
88
89
89
89

viii
LIST OF TABLES PAGE NO.
Table 1.1: Proposed Skywalks in and around Mumbai 06
Table 3.1: Design Data 23
Table 3.2: Maximum Stresses in STAAD Pro Analysis 32
Table 3.3: Maximum Stresses in ANSYS Analysis 41
Table 3.4: Comparison of Member in Actual Structure and Prototype 43
Table 3.5: Comparison of Section Modulus in Actual Structure and Prototype 43
Table 4.1: Strain Gauge Specification 59
Table 4.2: Specifications of PFL 30-11 59
Table 4.3: Micro-Strains for ten Loading Combinations 70
Table 4.4: Test Data for Free Vibration Analysis 72
Table 5.1: Stresses in different Structural Members for Live Load = 400kg 77
Table 5.2: Stresses in different Structural Members for Wind Load = 10kg 78
Table 6.1: Comparison of Section Modulus and Moment of Inertia 90
Final Year Project Report List of Table

ix
LIST OF SYMBOLS
F
y
= yield strength of steel
bt
=
bc
= maximum permissible bending stresses in tension and compression
Z = section modulus
I = moment of inertia
t
w
= thickness of web
h = depth of beam
v
= shear stress
= slenderness ratio for the column which is the ratio of effective length of column to
minimum radius of gyration.
ac
= maximum permissible axial stresses in compression.
L
e
= effective length of the column depending on the end conditions of the column.
r
min
= minimum radius of gyration.
E = modulus of elasticity
G = modulus of rigidity
Y = deflection
V
b
= basic wind speed
P
z
= design wind pressure
V
z
= design wind speed
m = member number
Q
m
= vector of member's characteristic forces, which are unknown internal forces.
K
m
= member stiffness matrix which characterises the member's resistance against
deformations.
q
m
= vector of member's characteristic displacements or deformations.
Q
m
= vector of member's characteristic forces caused by external effects
R = vector of nodal forces, representing external forces applied to the system's nodes.
K = system stiffness matrix, which is established by assembling the members' stiffness
matrices k
m
.
r = vector of system's nodal displacements that can define all possible deformed
configurations of the system subject to arbitrary nodal forces R.
Final Year Project Report List of Symbols
Final Year Project Report Chapter 1 - Introduction

1
CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION
1.1 BACKGROUND
1.1.1 SKYWAY
In an urban setting, a skyway, catwalk, or skywalk is a type of pedestrian walk-
way consisting of an enclosed or covered bridge between two buildings. This protects
pedestrians from the weather. These skyways are usually owned by businesses, and are
therefore not public spaces (compare with sidewalk). Skyways usually connect on the
second or third floor, though they are sometimes much higher, as in PETRONAS
TOWERS (though this skyway is often referred to as a sky bridge). The space in the
buildings connected by skyways is often devoted to retail business, so areas around the
skyway may operate as a shopping mall. Non-commercial areas with closely associated
buildings, such as university campuses, can often have skyways
and/or tunnels connecting buildings.
Figure 1.1: Skyway
Many of the early forms of these structures were provided to cross limited-access
highways in areas that were built up and lacked intersections. By allowing pedestrians
and bicycles to cross over the highway, these bridges were viewed as low-cost
alternatives to intersections.
In the 1999, Las Vegas, Nevada began a major effort to install pedestrian bridges at
major intersections along the Las Vegas Strip, to reduce traffic congestion and improve
pedestrian safety.

2
As the traffic increased, there was greater need for structures that would assist people to
cross road without any risk and interfering the traffic. Thus gradually skywalks were
evolved from skyways primarily for pedestrian traffic.
Besides pedestrian safety and convenience, the chief reasons assigned by urban planners
for skywalk development are decrease of traffic congestion, reduction in vehicular air
pollution and separation of people from vehicular noise. A number of cities (for example,
Spokane, Washington) have given intricate analysis to skywalk systems employing
computer models to optimize skywalk layout (Carbon monoxide dispersion analysis in
downtown Spokane, ESL Inc., Sunnyvale, (1973)).
1.1.2 NEED FOR SKYWALK
1. Limited Land Availability
In an over populated country like India, there is always limited land available for roads,
and as such we cant afford to provide sufficient space for pedestrians in crowded areas.
Hence the Maharashtra Government has decided to implement the Skywalk project in
Mumbai.
2. Increased risk to Pedestrians
In India, the most neglected social aspect is the pedestrian safety. Adequate weightage
has not been given during the planning and implementation of urban infrastructure. To
understand the gravity of this situation, consider a survey conducted in 2001accounting
for accidental deaths in the United States. More than 6,000 pedestrians are killed by cars
and trucks every year, one-seventh of all the people who die in traffic accidents; but 99
percent of the Federal transportation safety money is spent on improvements for drivers
and passengers, not people walking, says a study released by advocates of pedestrians.
The risk of a pedestrian's being killed by a car or truck is roughly double the risk of
homicide by a stranger with a gun, the study found, and even in New York, the traffic
death risk is three times larger than the risk from guns. In addition, 110,000 pedestrians
are injured every year in traffic accidents. From this survey, we can imagine the number

3
of deaths in India, as in India the traffic scene is even worse and does not have proper
transportation facilities.
3. Traffic
Metropolitan cities always face the problem of ever increasing traffic and India, being a
developing country, this problem is more severe. Due to huge traffic, pedestrians face
lot of problems and hence there is a need for skywalk.
.
Figure 1.2: Typical scene in any metropolitan city
1.1.3 SUITABILITY OF SKYWALK
1. Economical construction
Since the duration of construction is much less as compared to underground subways,
skywalks often prove to be an economical choice. The problems faced during
construction of subways such as those related with groundwater and the geotechnical
properties of the soil increase the overall cost of the project. In case of skywalks, the
dependability of total cost of the project on these factors is minimum.
2. Easy and fast construction
In construction of skywalk, mostly pre-fabricated steel members are used which can be
easily assembled on the site using welded and bolted connections. This results in saving
of precious time.

4
3. Minimum disturbance to ongoing traffic
The fast rate of construction of skywalk as compared to the underground subways causes
minimum obstruction to the ongoing traffic.
4. Element of beautification plan of a city
Elevated steel structures add a pleasing effect to the skyline of a crowded city.
5. Pedestrian safety
Skywalks alienate the pedestrian traffic from the vehicular traffic, thereby safeguarding
the pedestrians. It is found that the deaths caused due to accidents have been
substantially reduced with the introduction of elevated pedestrian crossings.
1.1.4 CURRENT SCENARIO
MMRDA i.e. Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority has planned 50
Skywalks in Mumbai to tackle the traffic problems.
Cost Estimates
Total estimated cost is about Rs.450 crores.
Implementing Agencies
Out of 50 nos. of skywalks proposed to be constructed, construction of 18 nos. will be nder
undertaken by MSRDC.
Implementing Agencies
Before finalizing detailed project report i.e. before preparing GAD; local people,
corporators, MLAs, MPs from that area are being contacted to understand their views,
suggestions, concurrence etc.PMC for these works have been finalized and they are
asked to coordinate with other concerned departments, like MCGM, Railways etc.

5
The alignment and designs
To be finalized considering various factors like,
1. Dispersal/entry points at strategic locations
2. Underground utilities and minimum number of structures affected
3. Available road widths
4. Proximity of adjacent buildings
5. No. of trees, large and small size, getting affected
6. Provision of shops on the sky walk, if any, on one side or both the sides or on upper
deck with a view to provide easy pedestrian movement
7. Speed of construction
8. Operation & maintenance, etc.
Present Status
1. Project Management Consultants (PMC) for project preparation, designing and
supervision work is finalized by MMRDA.
2. First skywalk from Bandra Station to Kalanagar Junction has been already
completed, inaugurated by the Honble Chief Minister on 24/6/2008 and immediately
opened for public use after inauguration.
3. Tenders for 2 nos. of skywalks have been finalized and work is expected to start
shortly.
4. The actual construction of balance skywalks is planned to start from October 2008
and is targeted to be completed within a time period of 6 months.
5. MSRDC has also finalized GADs for three skywalks and tenders for the same will be
invited shortly. For balance sky walks, PMCs will be finalized very soon.

6
Present Status:
Sr.
No.
Station Scope of Works
Implementing
Agency
1 Mumbai CST Construction of Subway (instead of
Skywalk due to surface space constraint)
at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus Station.
(20 meters wide x 500 meter long)
MSRDC
2 Sandhurst Road Skywalk connecting from (South side of)
Hankok Bridge (at the West side of track)
to the platform No.1 & 2 of the Station.
(3.66 meters width x 100 meters long)
MSRDC
3 Chinchpokali Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge to Ambedkar Road at
the East Side of Station.(4.88 meters wide
x 200 meter long)
MSRDC
4 Parel Skywalk connecting East & West side of
the Station (with landing at all platforms
4.88 meters wide x 120 meters long)
MSRDC
Skywalk (at Mumbai end) connecting
existing Railways Foot Over Bridge to
Ambedkar Road (at East Side).(4.88
meter wide x 200 meters long)
5 Kurla Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge of Kurla Station to
Lokmanya Tilak Terminus Station &
Railways Foot Over Bridge of Tilak
Nagar Station to Lokmanya Tilak
Terminus Station (4.88 meters wide x
1300 meters long)
MSRDC
Skywalk connecting existing Railways
middle Foot Over Bridge (of East Side) to
Nehru Nagar. (4.88 meters wide x 150
meters long)
6 Vidyavihar Skywalk connecting East & West side of
the Station and with existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge (Under
construction).(4.88 meters wide x 150
meters long)
MMRDA
7 Kanjurmarg Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge (at Mumbai end) to the
West side of L.B.S. Marg.(4.88 meters
wide x 200 meters long)
MMRDA

7
8 Bhandup Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge to L.B.S. Marg. (3.66
meters wide x 350 meters long)
MMRDA
9 Mulund Skywalk connecting East & West with
existing Railways Foot Over Bridge (at
Mumbai end). (4.88 meters wide x 100
meters long)
MMRDA
10 Thane Skywalk (towards Kalyan end)
connecting West side Flyover [of Station
Area Traffic Improvement Scheme
(SATIS)] to Sant Tukaram Road (at East
end) & also connecting with existing
Railways Foot Over Bridge.
MMRDA
11 Koper Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge to East end & also
landing towards Dombivili side through
underpass of Diva- Vasai Flyover.(3.66
MMRDA
12 Kalyan Skywalk connecting existing Railways
Foot Over Bridge (Under Construction) to
Valli Peer Road (Kalyan Station Road at
West end) and also to Kolsawadi side (at
East end).(4.88 meters wide x 250 meters
long)
MMRDA
13 Reay Road Skywalk across DMello Road (at Kurla
end) a landing at all Platforms.(3.66
MSRDC
14 Sewri Skywalk connecting Railways Foot Over
Bridge to Public Foot Over Bridge (of
DMello Road). (3.66 meters wide x 100
meters long)
MSRDC
15 Vadala Road Skywalk across P DMello Road &
connecting existing Railways Foot Over
Bridge of the Station (at Kurla end) (4.88
MSRDC
16 Borivali (W) Platform No.8 to R.O.B.- BMC MMRDA
17 Borivali Platform No. 7 to PF No. 6 and East side MMRDA
18 Virar (West) Platform No.1 from South West Booking
office to M.S.R.T.C. Bus Terminus.
MMRDA
19 Virar (East) From existing F.O.B. to L.C. No.40. MMRDA
20 Bandra (East) BA Local station to BDTS station MMRDA
21 Bandra (East) BA Local station to Kalanagar MMRDA
22 Bandra (West) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
23 Nallasopara Construction of Sky walk MSRDC

8
24 Vasai Road Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
25 Ambernath Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
26 Goregaon Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
27 Vileparle Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
28 Kandivali Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
29 Lowerparel-
Currey road
walkway
Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
30 Masjid station
area
31 CST to
Churgegate
32 Naigaon Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
33 Grantroad Construction of Sky walk MSRDC
34 Dadar Ranade
Rd.
Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
35 Dadar Towards
Kabutarkhana
36 Dadar - East Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
37 Dadar - East-
west connector
38 Chembur Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
39 Ghatkopar Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
40 Andheri (E) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
41 Andheri (W) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
42 Andheri
Telegali
43 Malad -
Laljipada,MLR
44 Dahisar (E) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
45 Dahisar (W) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
46 Mira Road Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
47 Bhayander Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
48 Santacruz (E) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
49 Santacruz (W) Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
50 Ulhasnagar Construction of Sky walk MMRDA
Table 1.1: Proposed skywalks in and around Mumbai

9
1.2 OBJECTIVE
The objectives of Final Year Project are:
1. Validating the finite element model of the skywalk structure with the help of stiffness
method and experimental model.
2. Preparing a model to a scale of 1:10 in mild steel and testing the same for various
load combinations.
3. Formulating interaction charts using parametric study.
1.3 SCOPE
In this final year project, analysis and design of a steel skywalk has been undertaken
using stiffness method and finite element method.
The stiffness analysis is carried out using STAAD Pro. 2005 and the results are
compared with conventional manual calculations. The finite element model is formulated
using ANSYS 10 with the help of linear beam 3D element.
A scaled model of the proposed structure is prepared to a scale of 1:10 using mild steel
and welded connections. The same is tested under static loads and simulated wind loads
in varying combinations and proportions. Free vibration analysis of the model is carried
out to determine its natural frequency and other important parameters influencing its
behavior under dynamic loads.
Validation of software models is done by comparing the stresses and strains of individual
members at various locations with those obtained from experimental testing. On due
validation, a parametric study is undertaken to formulate interaction charts for individual
members.

10
1.4 PROBLEM DEFINITION
Dimensions of the skywalk:
1. Length = 1 km
2. Width = 7 m
3. Height = 7+5 m
4. c/c distance between columns = 12 m
Amenities:
1.-Shops (size= 2.85 x 1.85 m)
2.-Seating arrangement
Figure 1.3: Plan and Section

11
Figure 1.4: Perspective
Final Year Project Report Chapter 2 - Literature Review

12
CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 BACKGROUND
The final year project involves analysis and design of a steel skywalk based on two
different approaches. The first one includes conventional method of analysis, i.e.
stiffness method depicted through manual calculations and also through software
analysis.
The second approach uses the finite element method to analyze the steel structure. Finite
element analysis is carried out using ANSYS 10 by considering linear beam 3D element
as the basic element.
2.2 STIFFNESS METHOD
2.2.1 History
Between 1934 and 1938 A. R. Collar and W. J. Duncan published the first papers with
the representation and terminology for matrix systems that are used today. Aeroelastic
research continued through World War II but publication restrictions from 1938 to 1947
make this work difficult to trace. The second major breakthrough in matrix structural
analysis occurred through 1954 and 1955 when professor John H. Argyris systemized the
concept of assembling elemental components of a structure into a system of equations.
Finally, on Nov. 6 1959, M. J. Turner, head of Boeings Structural Dynamics Unit,
published a paper outlining the direct stiffness method as an efficient model for
computer.
2.2.2 Member stiffness relations
A typical member stiffness relation has the following general form,
Q
m
= k
m
.q
m
+ Q
om
(1)
where
m= member number m.
Q
m
= vector of member's characteristic forces, which are unknown internal forces.

13
k
m
= member stiffness matrix which characterises the member's resistance against
deformations.
q
m
= vector of member's characteristic displacements or deformations.
Q
om
= vector of member's characteristic forces caused by external effects (such as
known forces and temperature changes applied to the member while q
m
= 0).
If q
m
are member deformations rather than absolute displacements, then Q
m
are
independent member forces, and in such case (1) can be inverted to yield the so-
called member flexibility matrix, which is used in the flexibility method.
System stiffness relation
For a system with many members interconnected at points called nodes, the members'
stiffness relations such as Eq.(1) can be integrated by making use of the following
observations:
The member deformations q
m
can be expressed in terms of system nodal
displacements r in order to ensure compatibility between members. This implies
that r will be the primary unknowns.
The member forces Q
m
help to the keep the nodes in equilibrium under the nodal
forces R. This implies that the right-hand-side of (1) will be integrated into the right-
hand-side of the following nodal equilibrium equations for the entire system:
R = K.r + R
o
(2)
Where,
R= vector of nodal forces, representing external forces applied to the system's nodes.
K= system stiffness matrix, which is established by assembling the members' stiffness
matrices k
m
.
= vector of system's nodal displacements that can define all possible deformed
configurations of the system subject to arbitrary nodal forces R.
R
o
= vector of equivalent nodal forces, representing all external effects other than the
nodal forces which are already included in the preceding nodal force vector R. This
vector is established by assembling the members' Q
om
.

14
2.2.3 Solution
The system stiffness matrix K is square since the vectors R and r have the same size. In
addition, it is symmetric because k
m
is symmetric. Once the supports' constraints are
accounted for in (2), the nodal displacements are found by solving the system of linear
equations (2), symbolically:
r = K
-1
.(R - R
o
) (3)
Subsequently, the members' characteristic forces may be found from Eq.(1)
where q
m
can be found from r by compatibility consideration.
2.2.4 The direct stiffness method
It is common to have Eq.(1) in a form where q
m
and Q
om
are, respectively, the member-
end displacements and forces matching in direction with r and R. In such
case, K and R can be obtained by direct summation of the members'
matrices k
m
and Q
om
. The method is then known as the direct stiffness method.
2.2.5 Example
Breakdown
The first step when using the direct stiffness method is to identify the individual
elements which make up the structure.
Figure 2.1: Truss
Final Year Project Report

Once the elements are identified, the structure is disconnected at the nodes, the points
which connect the different elements together.
Each element is then analyzed
forces and displacements are related through the element stiffness matrix which depends
on the geometry and properties of the element.
A truss element can only transmit forces in compression or tensi
two dimensions, each node has two
displacement. The resulting equation contains a four by four stiffness matrix.
A frame element is able to withstand bending moments in addition t
tension. This results in three degrees of
displacement and in-plane rotation. The stiffness matrix in this case is six by six.
15
which connect the different elements together.
Figure 2.2: Deconstruction
Each element is then analyzed individually to develop member stiffness equations. The
on the geometry and properties of the element.
A truss element can only transmit forces in compression or tension. This means that in
two dimensions, each node has two degrees of freedom (DOF): horizontal and vertical
A frame element is able to withstand bending moments in addition to compression and
results in three degrees of freedom: horizontal displacement, vertical
plane rotation. The stiffness matrix in this case is six by six.
Literature Review
individually to develop member stiffness equations. The
on. This means that in
(DOF): horizontal and vertical
o compression and
freedom: horizontal displacement, vertical
plane rotation. The stiffness matrix in this case is six by six.

16
Other elements such as plates and shells can also be incorporated into the direct stiffness
method and similar equations must be developed.
Assembly
Once the individual element stiffness relations have been developed they must be
assembled into the original structure. The first step in this process is to convert the
stiffness relations for the individual elements into a global system for the entire structure.
In the case of a truss element, the global form of the stiffness method depends on the
angle of the element with respect to the global coordinate system (This system is usually
the traditional Cartesian coordinate system).
(for a truss element at angle )
After developing the element stiffness matrix in the global coordinate system, they must
be merged into a single master or global stiffness matrix. When merging these
matrices together there are two rules that must be followed: compatibility of
displacements and force equilibrium at each node. These rules are upheld by relating the
element nodal displacements to the global nodal displacements.

17
Figure 2.3: Displacement Vectors
The global displacement and force vectors each contain one entry for each degree of
freedom in the structure. The element stiffness matrices are merged together by
augmenting or expanding each matrix in conformation to the global displacement and
load vectors.
(for element (1) of the above structure)
Finally, the global stiffness matrix is constructed by adding the individual expanded
element matrices together.

18
Solution
Once the global stiffness matrix, displacement vector and force vector have been
constructed, the system can be expressed as a single matrix equation.
Figure 2.4: Stiffness Matrix
For each degree of freedom in the structure, either the displacement or the force is
known.
Figure 2.5: Stiffness Matrix with Known Data
After inserting the known value for each degree of freedom, the master stiffness equation
is complete and ready to be evaluated. There are several different methods available for
evaluating a matrix equation including but not limited to Cholesky decomposition and

19
the brute force evaluation of systems of equations. If a structure isnt properly restrained,
the application of a force will cause it to move rigidly and additional support conditions
must be added.
The method described in this section is meant as an overview of the direct stiffness
method. Additional sources should be consulted for more details on the process as well
as the assumptions about material properties inherent in the process.
2.2.6 Applications
The direct stiffness method was developed specifically to effectively and easily
implement into computer software to evaluate complicated structures that contain a large
number of elements. Today, nearly every finite element solver available is based on the
direct stiffness method. While each program utilizes the same process, many have been
streamlined to reduce computation time and reduce the required memory. In order to
achieve this, shortcuts have been developed.
One of the largest areas to utilize the direct stiffness method is the field of structural
analysis where this method has been incorporated into modeling software. The software
allows users to model a structure and, after the user defines the material properties of the
elements, the program automatically generates element and global stiffness relationships.
When various loading conditions are applied the software evaluates the structure and
generates the deflections for the user.

20
2.3 FINITE ELEMENT METHOD
2.3.1 History
The finite-element method (FEM) originated from the need for solving
complex elasticity and structural analysis problems in civil and aeronautical engineering.
Its development can be traced back to the work by Alexander Hrennikoff (1941)
and Richard Courant (1942). While the approaches used by these pioneers are
dramatically different, they share one essential characteristic: mesh discretization of a
continuous domain into a set of discrete sub-domains, usually called elements.
Hrennikoff's work discretizes the domain by using a lattice analogy while Courant's
approach divides the domain into finite triangular subregions for solution of second order
elliptic partial differential equations (PDEs) that arise from the problem of torsion of a
cylinder.
Development of the finite element method began in earnest in the middle to late 1950s
for airframe and structural analysis and gathered momentum at the University of
Stuttgart through the work of John Argyris and at Berkeley through the work of Ray W.
Clough in the 1960s for use in civil engineering. By late 1950s, the key concepts of
stiffness matrix and element assembly existed essentially in the form used today and
NASA issued request for proposals for the development of the finite
element software NASTRAN in 1965. The method was provided with a rigorous
mathematical foundation in 1973 with the publication of Strang and Fix's An Analysis of
The Finite Element Method, and has since been generalized into a branch of applied
mathematics for numerical modeling of physical systems in a wide variety
of engineering disciplines, e.g., electromagnetism and fluid dynamics.
2.3.2 Introduction to FEM
The finite element method (FEM), sometimes referred to as finite element analysis
(FEA), is a computational technique used to obtain approximate solutions of boundary
value problems in engineering. Simply stated, a boundary value problem is a
mathematical problem in which one or more dependent variables must satisfy a

21
differential equation everywhere within a known domain of independent variables and
satisfy specific conditions on the boundary of the domain. Boundary value problems are
also sometimes called field problems. The field is the domain of interest and most often
represents a physical structure.
The field variables are the dependent variables of interest governed by the differential
equation. The boundary conditions are the specified values of the field variables (or
related variables such as derivatives) on the boundaries of the field. Depending on the
type of physical problem being analyzed, the field variables may include physical
displacement, temperature, heat flux, and fluid velocity to name only a few.
The general techniques and terminology of finite element analysis will be introduced
with reference to Figure 2.6. The figure depicts a volume of some material or materials
having known physical properties. The volume represents the domain of a boundary
value problem to be solved. For simplicity, at this point, we assume a two-dimensional
case with a single field variable (x, y) to be determined at every point P(x, y) such that
a known governing equation (or equations) is satisfied exactly at every such point. Note
that this implies an exact mathematical solution is obtained; that is, the solution is a
closed-form algebraic expression of the independent variables. In practical problems, the
domain may be geometrically complex as is, often, the governing equation and the
likelihood of obtaining an exact closed-form solution is very low. Therefore,
approximate solutions based on numerical techniques and digital computations are most
often obtained in engineering analyses of complex problems. Finite element analysis is a
powerful technique for obtaining such approximate solutions with good accuracy.
A small triangular element that encloses a finite-sized sub-domain of the area of interest
is shown in Figure 2.6. That this element is not a differential element of size (dx dy)
makes this a finite element. As we treat this example as a two dimensional problem, it is
assumed that the thickness in the z direction is constant and z dependency is not indicated
in the differential equation. The vertices of the triangular element are numbered to
indicate that these points are nodes. A node is a specific point in the finite element at
which the value of the field variable is to be explicitly calculated. Exterior nodes are

22
located on the boundaries of the finite element and may be used to connect an element to
adjacent finite elements. Nodes that do not lie on element boundaries are interior nodes
and cannot be connected to any other element. The triangular element of Figure 2.6 has
only exterior nodes.
Figure 2.6: FEM- Concept
If the values of the field variable are computed only at nodes, how are values obtained at
other points within a finite element? The answer contains the crux of the finite element
method: The values of the field variable computed at the nodes are used to approximate
the values at non-nodal points (that is, in the element interior) by interpolation of the
nodal values. For the three-node triangle example, the nodes are all exterior and, at any
other point within the element, the field variable is described by the approximate relation
(x, y) = N
1
(x , y)
1
+ N
2
(x , y)
2
+ N
3
(x , y)
3
where
1
,
2
,
3
are the values of the field variable at the nodes, and N
1
, N
2
, and N
3
are
the interpolation functions, also known as shape functions or blending functions. The
interpolation functions are most often polynomial forms of the independent variables,
derived to satisfy certain required conditions at the nodes. The major point to be made
here is that the interpolation functions are predetermined, known functions of the
independent variables; and these functions describe the variation of the field variable
within the finite element.
1 P(x, y)
Final Year Project Report Chapter 3 - Modeling Methodology

23
CHAPTER THREE MODELING METHODOLOGY
3.1 ANALYTICAL MODEL
3.1.1 Manual Analysis & Design
Design is done as per IS 800-1984, IS:875-(part 1,2&3), IS:1893(part 1)-2002
Data considered:
DESCRIPTION PARTICULARS
LOCATION MUMBAI
ZONE IV
SOIL STRATA 250 kN
STEEL Fy 250
CONCRETE 25 MPa
BASIC WIND SPEED 44 m/s
COLLISION LOAD HARD STRATA
Table 3.1: Design Data
3.1.2 Sample Design (Beam)
3.1.2.1 Data
Max. Shear Force = 87.33KN
Max. Bending Moment =341.285KN-m
3.1.2.2 Design
Laterally supported beam
bt
=
bc
= 0.66 fy
= 0.66*250
=165 MPa

24
Step 1:
Z required = Moment/
bc
=341.285*10
6
/165
=2769.69*10
3

Select section ISMB 600 @122.6 Kg/m

Z
xx
= 3060.4
Z
yy
= 252.5
h = 600 mm t
w
= 12 mm
Step 2:
Check for stress:
bc,cal
= M / Z
xx
= 341.285*10
6
/ 3060.4*10
3
= 111.52 MPa <
bc
= 165 MPa .. OK
Check for shear:
Shear stress = Shear force/ h x t
w
v =87.33x10^3/ 600 x 12
=12.32 MPa
Permissible value of shear stress.
v = 0.4 x fy
=0.4 x 250
=100 MPa > v cal . O.K
Check for deflection :
Y max = (5/384)(wl^4/EI)
=11.4mm
Y allowable= Span/325
=3000/325
=36.92 mm > Ymax ..O.K

25
1.1 STAAD Pro MODEL
3.2.1 Input File (Excerpt)
STAAD SPACE
START JOB INFORMATION
ENGINEER DATE 08-Jan-09
END JOB INFORMATION
INPUT WIDTH 79
UNIT METER KN
JOINT COORDINATES
1 0 0.7 0; 2 0.0875 0.6564 0; 3 0.175 0.627 0; 4 0.2625 0.61 0; 5 0.35 0.6 0;
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 155 0.239828 0.614405 0; 156 0.46007 0.614385 0;
MEMBER INCIDENCES
1 1 2; 2 2 3; 3 3 155; 4 4 5; 5 5 6; 6 6 156; 7 7 8; 8 8 9; 9 9 10; 10 10 11;
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 210 153 109; 211 154 112; 212 155 4; 213 156 7;
DEFINE MATERIAL START
ISOTROPIC STEEL
E 2.05e+008
POISSON 0.3
DENSITY 76.8195
ALPHA 1.2e-005
DAMP 0.03
ISOTROPIC CONCRETE
E 2.17185e+007
POISSON 0.17
DENSITY 23.5616
ALPHA 1e-005
DAMP 0.05
END DEFINE MATERIAL
MEMBER PROPERTY INDIAN
34 TO 37 59 TO 62 73 TO 76 87 TO 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 -

26
140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158 PRIS YD 0.006 ZD 0.006
9 TO 16 63 TO 71 77 TO 85 91 TO 99 101 TO 109 119 121 123 125 127 129 131 -
133 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 183 TO 187 -
192 PRIS YD 0.01 ZD 0.02
72 86 100 110 159 161 163 165 167 169 171 173 175 177 179 181 188 TO 190 -
191 PRIS YD 0.012 ZD 0.006
160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 182 204 TO 208 -
209 PRIS YD 0.032 ZD 0.02
1 TO 8 111 TO 118 210 TO 213 PRIS YD 0.02 ZD 0.032
20 TO 25 27 TO 32 46 TO 57 PRIS YD 0.015
193 TO 200 PRIS YD 0.01
201 203 PRIS YD 0.02 ZD 0.01
MEMBER PROPERTY INDIAN
33 PRIS YD 0.032
58 PRIS YD 0.032
CONSTANTS
BETA 18 MEMB 37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 -
146 148 150 152 154 156 158
MATERIAL STEEL ALL
SUPPORTS
32 66 FIXED
*____________________________________________________________________*
DEFINE WIND LOAD
*V
z
= k1xk2xk3xVb
*V
b
= 44 m/s, k
1
=1.0, k
2
=1.05,(Terrain Category 1, *Class A, height <20 m), k
3
=1.0
*V
z
= 1x1.05x1x44 = 46.2 m/s
*P
z
= 0.0006Vz^2 = 1.28 kN/m
2
TYPE 1
INT 1.28 HEIG 13
*____________________________________________________________________*
DEFINE 1893 LOAD
*ZONE FACTOR FOR ZONE NO:3 =0.16

27
*IMPORTANCE FACTOR = 1.0
*SOIL TYPE - HARD SOIL
*STRUCTURE TYPE - 2 STEEL STRUCTURE
*DEPTH OF FOUNDATION = 3.0 M
*RESPONSE REDUCTION FACTOR = 5(FOR STEEL MOMENT RESISTENT
FRAME)
ZONE 0.16 RF 5 I 1 SS 1 DT 3
*_____________________________________________________________________*
* *** BY SEISMIC COEFFICIENT METHOD ***
*____________________________________________________________________*
SELFWEIGHT
*MEMBER WEIGHT DUE TO DEAD LOAD
MEMBER WEIGHT
160 166 172 178 UNI 0.145
162 168 174 180 204 TO 209 UNI 0.1025
164 170 176 182 UNI 0.0875
34 59 73 87 UNI 0.015
37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 -
152 154 156 158 UNI 0.00203
*____________________________________________________________________*
*MEMBER WEIGHT DUE TO LIVE LOAD
160 166 172 178 UNI 0.0725
162 168 174 180 204 TO 209 UNI 0.05125
164 170 176 182 UNI 0.04375
34 59 73 87 UNI 0.0075
37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 -
152 154 156 158 UNI 0.00413
LOAD 1 LOADTYPE Seismic TITLE EQX
1893 LOAD X 1
LOAD 2 LOADTYPE Seismic TITLE EQZ
1893 LOAD Z 1
*___________________________________________________________________*

28
LOAD 3 LOADTYPE Dead TITLE DL
*DEAD WEIGHT OF SLAB= 0.1X25=2.5 KN/SQ.M. (Assuming 100mm THK. Slab)
*FLOOR FINISH LOAD = =1.5 KN/SQ.M.
*SERVICE LOAD = =1.0 KN/SQ.M.
************ TOTAL SLAB LOAD=5.0 KN/SQ.M.
SELFWEIGHT Y -1
MEMBER LOAD
160 166 172 178 UNI GY -0.145
162 168 174 180 204 TO 209 UNI GY -0.1025
164 170 176 182 UNI GY -0.0875
34 59 73 87 UNI GY -0.015
37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 -
152 154 156 158 UNI GY -0.00203
*___________________________________________________________________*
LOAD 4 LOADTYPE Live TITLE LL
MEMBER LOAD
160 166 172 178 UNI GY -0.145
162 168 174 180 204 TO 209 UNI GY -0.1025
164 170 176 182 UNI GY -0.0875
34 59 73 87 UNI GY -0.015
37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 -
152 154 156 158 UNI GY -0.00826
*___________________________________________________________________*
LOAD 5 LOADTYPE Live TITLE COLLISION LOAD IN X-DIRECTION
MEMBER LOAD
33 CON GX -25 0.1
*NORMAL VEHICLE COLLISION LOADS ON SUPPORTS OF BRIDGES
*** TABLE-7, CLAUSE 225.3.1, IRC:6-2000
LOAD 6 LOADTYPE Live TITLE COLLISION LOAD IN Z-DIRECTION
MEMBER LOAD
33 CON GZ -25 0.1
*NORMAL VEHICLE COLLISION LOADS ON SUPPORTS OF BRIDGES

29
*** TABLE-7, CLAUSE 225.3.1, IRC:6-2000
*___________________________________________________________________*
LOAD 7 LOADTYPE Wind TITLE WL ON SLOPING ROOF
MEMBER LOAD
124 126 134 136 144 146 154 156 UNI Y 0.043
37 62 76 90 120 122 128 130 132 138 140 142 148 150 152 158 UNI Y 0.0491
LOAD 8 LOADTYPE Wind TITLE WL ON PARRABOLLIC ROOF
MEMBER LOAD
9 TO 16 63 TO 70 77 TO 84 91 TO 98 101 TO 108 UNI GX 0.0036
LOAD COMB 12 (DL+LL)
3 1.0 4 1.0
LOAD COMB 13 (DL+LL+COLLISION LOAD IN X-DIRECTION)
3 1.0 4 1.0 5 1.0
LOAD COMB 14 (DL+LL+COLLISION LOAD IN Z-DIRECTION)
3 1.0 4 1.0 6 1.0
LOAD COMB 16 DL+WL+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN X-DIRECTION
3 1.0 7 1.0 5 1.0
LOAD COMB 17 DL+WL+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN Z-DIRECTION
3 1.0 7 1.0 6 1.0
LOAD COMB 18 DL+LL+EQX
3 1.0 4 1.0 1 1.0
LOAD COMB 19 DL+LL-EQX
3 1.0 4 1.0 1 -1.0
LOAD COMB 20 DL+LL+EQZ
3 1.0 4 1.0 2 1.0
LOAD COMB 21 DL+LL-EQZ
3 1.0 4 1.0 2 -1.0
LOAD COMB 22 DL+EQX
3 1.0 1 1.0
LOAD COMB 23 DL-EQX
3 1.0 1 -1.0
LOAD COMB 24 DL+5EQX

30
3 1.0 2 1.0
LOAD COMB 25 DL-EQX
3 1.0 2 -1.0
LOAD COMB 26 DL+WL ON SLOPING ROOF
3 1.0 7 1.0
LOAD COMB 27 DL+WL ON PARRABOLLIC ROOF
3 1.0 8 1.0
LOAD COMB 31 DL+WL ON SLOPING ROOF+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN X-
DIRECTION
3 1.0 7 1.0 5 1.0
LOAD COMB 32 DL+WL ON PARRABOLLIC ROOF+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN X-
DIRECTION
3 1.0 8 1.0 5 1.0
LOAD COMB 36 DL+WL ON SLOPING ROOF+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN Z-
DIRECTION
3 1.0 7 1.0 6 1.0
LOAD COMB 37 DL+WL ON PARRABOLLIC ROOF+1.2COLLISION LOAD IN Z-
DIRECTION
3 1.0 8 1.0 6 1.0
PERFORM ANALYSIS PRINT STATICS CHECK
PARAMETER 1
CODE INDIAN
DFF 500 MEMB 34 59 73 87 160 162 164 166 168 170 172 174 176 178 180 182 204 -
205 TO 209
DFF 325 MEMB 1 TO 16 20 TO 25 27 TO 33 46 TO 58 63 TO 72 77 TO 86 91 TO 119
-
121 123 125 127 129 131 133 135 137 139 141 143 145 147 149 151 153 155 157 -
159 161 163 165 167 169 171 173 175 177 179 181 183 TO 201 203 210 TO 213
DFF 250 MEMB 37 62 76 90 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 -
146 148 150 152 154 156 158
FYLD 250000 ALL
CHECK CODE ALL

31
PARAMETER 2
CODE INDIAN
STEEL TAKE OFF ALL
FINISH
STAAD.Pro CODE CHECKING - (ISA )
***********************
3.2.2 Output File (Excerpt)
ALL UNITS ARE - KN METE (UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
MEMBER TABLE RESULT/ CRITICAL COND/ RATIO/ LOADING/
FX MY MZ LOCATION
============================================================
1 PRI SMAT (INDIAN SECTIONS)
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.038 13
0.45 C 0.00 -0.01 0.10
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.038 13
0.45 C 0.00 -0.01 0.00
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.043 19
0.45 C -0.01 0.01 0.07
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.066 16
0.03 C 0.00 -0.02 0.00
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.083 16
0.14 C 0.00 0.03 0.09
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.111 16
0.10 C 0.00 0.04 0.02
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.046 14
0.41 C -0.02 0.00 0.09

32
PASS IS-7.1.1(A) 0.050 14
0.41 C -0.02 0.00 0.00
PASS IS-7.1.2 0.305 17
0.01 T -0.02 0.01 0.00
STAAD SPACE -- PAGE NO. 14
ALL UNITS ARE - KN METE (UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED)
MEMBER TABLE RESULT/ CRITICAL COND/ RATIO/ LOADING/
FX MY MZ LOCATION
=============================================================
Member
Maximum Combined
Stress (MPa)
Loading Combination
Compressive Tensile Compressive Tensile
Primary Column 19.68 20.23
DL + WL on
Sloping Roof
WL on Sloping
Roof
Secondary Column 76.14 75.94
WL on Sloping
Roof
DL + WL on
Sloping Roof
Curved Beam Member 8.38 8.17 DL + LL - EQX
WL on Sloping
Roof
Load Transfer Member 35.78 18.19 DL + LL + EQZ
WL on Sloping
Roof
Secondary Beam 10.22 19.7
WL on Sloping
Roof
DL + LL -
EQX
Primary Beam 17.06 3.12 DL + LL - EQX
WL on Sloping
Roof
Purlin 4.41 31.63 DL + LL + EQZ EQZ
Parabolic Roof Member 11.2 20.42 DL + LL - EQZ
DL + WL on
Sloping Roof
Inclined Strut 13.05 24.83 DL + LL + EQZ
WL on Sloping
Roof
Table 3.2: Maximum Stresses in STAAD Pro Analysis

33
3.3 ANSYS MODEL
3.3.1 Introduction
ANSYS is an engineering simulation software provider founded by software engineer
John Swanson. It develops general-purpose finite element analysis and dynamics
software. These are general-purpose finite element modeling packages for numerically
solving mechanical problems, including static/dynamic structural analysis (both linear
and non-linear), heat transfer and fluid problems, as well as acoustic and electro-
magnetic problems.
3.3.2 Purpose
The basic purpose of introducing ANSYS analysis in this project is to determine the
stress contours.
The stress contours thus obtained are used for locating the critical positions on the
experimental model to paste the strain gauges.
3.3.3 Building the Sky Walk Model
Building a finite element model requires more of your time than any other part of the
analysis. First, you specify a job name and analysis title. Then, you use the PREP7
preprocessor to define the element types, element real constants, material properties, and
the model geometry.
3.3.3.1 Specifying a Job name and Analysis Title
This task is not required for an analysis, but is recommended.
3.3.3.2 Defining Units
The ANSYS program does not assume a system of units for your analysis. Except in
magnetic field analysis, you can use any system of units so long as you make sure that
you use that system for all the data you enter. (Units must be consistent for all input
data.)

34
3.3.4 Defining Element Types
The ANSYS element library contains more than 150 different element types. Each
element type has a unique number and a prefix that identifies the element category:
BEAM4, PLANE77, SOLID96, etc.
The element type determines, among other things:
1 The degree-of-freedom set (which in turn implies the discipline - structural, thermal,
magnetic, electric, quadrilateral, brick, etc.)
2 Whether the element lies in 2-D or 3-D space.
BEAM4, for example, has six structural degrees of freedom (UX, UY, UZ, ROTX,
ROTY, ROTZ), is a line element, and can be modeled in 3-D space and hence we have
used this particular element for sky walk analysis.
3.3.4.1 BEAM4 Element Description
BEAM4 is a uniaxial element with tension, compression, torsion, and bending
capabilities. The element has six degrees of freedom at each node: translations in the
nodal x, y, and z directions and rotations about the nodal x, y, and z axes. Stress
stiffening and large deflection capabilities are included. A consistent tangent stiffness
matrix option is available for use in large deflection (finite rotation) analysis.
Figure 3.1: Beam 3D Element

35
3.3.5 Defining Element Real Constants
Element real constants are properties that depend on the element type, such as cross-
sectional properties of a beam element. From the preliminary testing we have identified
all such properties.
3.3.6 Defining Material Properties
Most element types require material properties. Depending on the application, material
properties can be linear or nonlinear.
As with element types and real constants, each set of material properties has a material
reference number. The table of material reference numbers versus material property sets
is called the material table. ANSYS identifies each set with a unique reference number.
3.3.7 Material Model Interface
ANSYS includes an intuitive hierarchical tree structure interface for defining material
models. A logical top-down arrangement of material categories guides you in defining
the appropriate model for your analysis. For this particular project material models
selected are structural, linear, isotropic and elastic. These properties will further govern
the stress developments in model.
Figure 3.2: Material Model Interface Initial Screen

36
3.3.8 Creating the Model Geometry
Once you have defined material properties, the next step in an analysis is generating a
finite element model - nodes and elements that adequately describes the model geometry.
This is the most interesting part of the analysis. For this skeletal structure we decided to
go with coordinate system.
With the help of available coordinates, lines and splines we generated a 2-D model. Later
with the copy command the same is copied and pasted at 4 different places at interval of
30cm and are joined by purlins and primary beams. Once we are ready with model then
the struts are added.
3.3.9 Meshing
From the available meshing elements a simple line meshing is chosen for the skeletal
structure. The meshing is done along length of member and the size of meshed element
is 3 cm. A simple process explained as follows is used for meshing. Using the mesh
attributes command the lines i.e. structural members are selected. These members are
then meshed using the mesh command. Modified meshing is used to refine the mesh if
required.
3.3.10 Applying Loads and Obtaining the Solution
In this step, you use the SOLUTION processor to define the analysis type and analysis
options, apply loads, specify load step options, and initiate the finite element solution.
You also can apply loads using the PREP7 preprocessor.
3.3.11 Defining the Analysis Type and Analysis Options
You choose the analysis type based on the loading conditions and the response you wish
to calculate. In this project we have performed two types of analysis. One is the regular
static analysis to determine the stresses and the other is modal analysis to determine the
natural frequency of the structure.

37
3.3.12 Applying Loads
The word loads as used in ANSYS documentation includes boundary conditions
(constraints, supports, or boundary field specifications) as well as other externally and
internally applied loads. Loads in the ANSYS program are divided into six categories:
1. DOF Constraints
2. Forces
3. Surface Loads
4. Body Loads
5. Inertia Loads
6. Coupled-field Loads
You can apply most of these loads either on the solid model (keypoints, lines, and areas)
or the finite element model (nodes and elements). In this case we needed to apply three
different loads and load combinations. Apart from the gravity load the other loads
considered are the live load and the wind load, acting in the upward direction. The model
is then analyzed for only (dead load), (dead load + live load) and (dead load + wind load)
loading combinations. These are the critical load combinations in our case and hence the
FEM analysis for these load cases is done.
Boundary Conditions: All the six degrees of freedom were constrained at the base of
both the columns, i.e. Column base is assumed to be rigid.
Dead Load: Once the material properties and dimensions are provided, the software by
default calculates the dead load and corresponding stresses. The dead load from the given
data is observed to be 47.195 kg.
Live Load: Live load to the structure is 5 kN/m
2
as per IS 875- PART II. This load is
then multiplied by width of the structure to get the uniformly distributed load along
length. Further this load is multiplied by the length of element and then divided by
number of nodes (42) to get the force at each node. This load is then applied to the model
and the analysis is carried out.

38
Wind Load: Uplift action of the wind is considered in this case to get the possible
critical case. Wind forces per node are directly obtained from STAAD Pro 2005 and are
applied in ANSYS. To get the worst effect strictly only dead load was considered along
with upward wind load.
Figure 3.3: Sample output window showing mass and other properties
3.3.13 Initiating the Solution
To initiate solution calculations, use either of the following:
Command(s): SOLVE
GUI:
Main Menu> Solution> Solve> Current LS
Main Menu> Solution> solution_method
When you issue this command, the ANSYS program takes model and loading
information from the database and calculates the results. Results are written to the results

39
file (Jobname.RST, Jobname.RTH, Jobname.RMG, or Jobname.RFL) and also to the
database. The only difference is that only one set of results can reside in the database at
one time, while you can write all sets of results (for all substeps) to the results file.
3.3.14 Reviewing the Results
Now we are done with the analysis process and the final step is to view the results. As
mentioned earlier 2 types of analysis are performed whose results can be obtained as
follows-
Modal Analysis:
Read Results First Set Plot Controls Animate Mode Shapes
Mode 1 (Deformed + Undeformed Shape) Natural Frequency: 5.219 Hz
Figure 3.4: Mode 1 (Deformed + Undeformed Shape)
Static Analysis:
General Postprocess Element Table Plot Element Table .
In element table we get axial, bending and combined stresses.

40
Figure 3.5: Direct Stress contour of dead load + wind load
Figure 3.6: Combined Stress contour of dead load + wind load

41
Table 3.3: Maximum Stresses in ANSYS Analysis
3.4 EXPERIMENTAL MODEL
3.4.1 Introduction
A scaled-down model of the structure is prepared within the practical limits for
experimental purposes. The scale chosen is 1:10. The model is prepared using mild steel
with welded connections.
Material testing is carried out to confirm the actual material properties, thereby
eliminating any assumptions. The material properties worked out are as follows:
Modulus of Elasticity = 2.01*10
5
MPa
Modulus of Rigidity = 7.90*10
5
MPa
Member
Maximum Combined Stress
(MPa)
Loading
Combination
Primary Column -15.2 DL + LL
Secondary Column -69 DL + LL
Curved Beam Member -14 DL + LL
Load Transfer Member -22.5 DL + LL
Secondary Beam 15 DL + LL
Primary Beam 43 DL + LL
Purlin -13 DL + LL
Parabolic Roof Member -12 DL + WL
Inclined Strut 16 DL + WL

42
Figure 3.7: Skywalk Model in Working Stage Figure 3.8: Completed Skywalk Model
3.4.2 Scaling Procedure
The scale of model is 1:10. This scale is selected by keeping into consideration all the
practical difficulties that might arise during modeling. It is ensured that the smallest
member of the structure would be modeled with appropriate scaled dimensions and
would not be very slender. Thus the member with least dimensions, i.e. purlin became
the governing criterion for selection of scale.
The members of original structure with original dimensions are scaled down
individually. Modulus of section is calculated of the individual member and then it is
scaled down to 1:10. Now, for the scaled modulus of section appropriate solid section is
selected. The solid sections readily available in the market are selected. If hollow
sections are used, though the model weight would have decreased considerably, the
member sizes for the same scale would be very large. Hence, keeping in mind practical
limitations, the solid sections are used.

43
Following table gives one to one correspondence of actual and scaled member sections:
Table 3.4: Comparison of Members in Actual Structure and Model
Table 3.4: Comparison of Section Modulus in Actual Structure and Model
MEMBER
DESIGNATION
ACTUAL STRUCTURE MODEL
Purlin ISMC 100 RECT 6X6 mm
Parabolic roof member ISMB 300 RECT 10X20 mm
Secondary floor beams ISMB 250 RECT 6X12 mm
Primary floor beams ISMB 600 RECT 20X32 mm
Curved beam ISMB 600 RECT 20X32 mm
Secondary column section PIPE 0.5 m, 12mm Thk. ROD 15 mm
Primary column section PIPE 0.9 m, 12mm Thk. ROD 34mm
Inclined struts PIPE 0.15 m, 6mm Thk. ROD 10mm
MEMBER
DESIGNATION
MODULUS OF
SECTION (ACTUAL
STRUCTURE)
cm
3
MODULUS OF
SECTION
(1:10 SCALED
MODEL)
cm
3
Purlin 37.3 0.108
Parabolic roof member 573.6 1.667
Secondary floor beams 410.5 0.864
Primary floor beams 4882.4 5.461
Curved beam 4882.4 5.461
Secondary column section 54.79 0.249
Primary column section 3741.4 6.560
Inclined struts 49.9 0.051

44
3.4.3 Limitations
Few practical difficulties were faced during preparation of scaled model. Following
practical limitations are taken into consideration:
1. Solid steel members readily available in market are used which are selected as close
to the required modulus of section as possible. This has led to some discrepancies in
ideal and scaled model.
2. To facilitate the bending of the curved members, like the parabolic roof member and
the curved beam, the members were bent about the weaker axis which let to the
interchange of the major and minor axes as compared to that of the idealized scaled
model.
3. For the actual structure the joints would be welded together using a weld size of 8
mm. However, to scale down the weld size is not feasible in the model. Hence the
joints, which are the most critical points in the actual structure, were found to have
greater weld strength in the model.
4. The base of the structure is made completely rigid by welding it to a channel section.
In the proposed structure pile foundations are provided which are assumed to be
rigid.
Final Year Project Report Chapter 4 - Testing Methodology

45
CHAPTER FOUR TESTING METHODOLOGY
4.1 PRELIMINARY TESTING
4.1.1 Tension Test
The tension test on the material to be used for the preparation of the model is carried out
on the UTM (600 kN capacity).
References:
1. IS 1608- 1972 Method for tensile testing of steel products.
2. IS 432-1966 Mild steel and medium tensile steel bars.
3. IS 2854- 1964 Method of test for determining modulus of elasticity.
Test Requirements:
The cross sectional area shall be determined from the arithmetic mean of two measures
of the diameter at right angles to each other. Gauge length shall be made on the test piece
at (5*dia.) mm length.
Procedure:
1. Determine the mean diameter of the specimen, mark gauge length on it.
2. Fix the specimen in the tension grip of the machine and adjust the position of the
crosshead, so that the specimen is held tight.
3. Attach extensometer to the specimen, at the central position, start the pumping unit
and apply load gradually.
4. Record the load and corresponding elongation at regular intervals. Remove the
extensometer.
5. Record further elongation on a scale, fix to the UTM observe neck formation and
failure of the specimen.
6. Plot the graph of stress vs. strain and calculate modulus of elasticity of the material.

46
Observation:
1. Diameter of the specimen: 12 mm
2. Gauge length: 60 mm
3. Elongated length: 70 mm
Graph:
Figure 4.1: Tension Test Stress vs. Strain
Result:
Modulus of elasticity of the material, E= 2.01 * 10
5
MPa

47
4.1.2 Torsion Test
The torsion test on the material to be used for preparation of the model is carried out on
torsion testing machine.
References:
1. IS 1717- 1971 Method of simple torsion testing of steel wire.
Test Requirements:
Length of the specimen= 10* dia.
Ends are squared for gripping in the machine.
Gauge length is measured as ungripped length of circular parts.
Procedure:
1. Measure the sectional diameter of the specimen, adjust the supports for the required
span and place it symmetrically.
2. Adjust for zero when the specimen is in the right position, carry out initial adjustment
of the lever so that the pointer coincides with zero.
3. Apply the torque gradually and adjust the scale for rotation so as to coincide the
pointer.
4. Note down the values of load and the corresponding angular rotation. Continue the
procedure until the specimen fails.
5. Record the torque at failure of specimen and also its appearance and developed
cracks.
6. Plot the graph of load vs. deflection and calculate the value for modulus of rigidity.
Observation:
1. Diameter of the specimen= 11.1 mm
2. Polar moment of inertia= 1402.69 mm
4

48
Graph:
Figure 4.2: Torsion Test Torque vs. Angle
Result:
Modulus of rigidity of the material, G= 7.9 * 10
4
MPa.
4.1.3 Shear Test
The shear test on the material to be used for preparation of the model was carried out on
universal testing machine (10- ton capacity).
References:
1. IS 5242- 1972 Method of test for determination of shear test of metals.

49
Procedure:
1. Measure diameter of specimen. Place it in testing accessory of UTM such that it is
subjected to shearing along one plane for single shear failure and two planes for
double shear.
2. Place the shear attachment between middle and lower cross heads of UTM.
3. Place the specimen in cutters and apply the load such that the rate of separation of
cross heads at any moment shall not be greater than 10mm/min.
Observation:
1. Diameter of specimen: 12 mm
2. Cross sectional area: 113.1 mm
2
3. Single shear load: 45.96 kN
4. Double shear load: 88.20 kN
Result:
1. Single shear stress: 406.37 MPa
2. Double shear stress: 779.84 MPa
4.1.4 Strength of Weld Test
The scaled model is prepared using welded connections. The connections are the most
critical positions defining the structural behavior of the model under application of loads.
Hence, strength of weld test is carried out to determine the failure load for a welded joint.
Connections mark an important point for effective load transfer. Good joint transfers the
load safely without any deformation while a poor joint might lead to local failure. When
two members with varying cross sections are welded together, smooth load transfer does
not take place leading to undesirable stress concentration at this juncture.
In the scaled model, such a critical location is the connection between parabolic roof
member and secondary beam. Hence, study of the same has been carried out.

50
Procedure:
1. A welded connection between parabolic roof member (10 mm X 20 mm) and
secondary beam (6 mm X 12 mm) is used as the test specimen.
2. The specimen is fixed in UTM(600 kN capacity) and gradual tensile force is applied.
3. Failure load for the specimen is noted down.
Observation:
1. Breaking load, specimen I = 29.32 kN
2. Breaking load, specimen II = 35.00 kN
Result:
Average breaking load = 32 kN
By knowing the strength of the weld, the structure can be loaded carefully so as to avoid
any local failure.
4.1.5 Dual Penetration Test
Welded connections being of critical importance, they are checked for defects and
irregularities by Dual Penetration Test (DPT) .DPT was carried out to check strength
and quality of all welded joints.
Test Assembly:
It consists of three different kinds of sprays, manufactured by DYEGLO, Pune.
1. Cleaner (CL01)
2. Red Penetrant (RP81)
3. Developer (RD01)

51
Procedure:
1. Initially, the metal surface is cleaned with a dry cloth. The Cleaner spray is used for
pre-cleaning the surface. Avoid direct spraying of Cleaner on test surface, spray on
cloth to clean the surface.
2. Apply the Red Penetrant on the dried surface. Hold the can at a distance of 7-9
while spraying so as to get a uniform and thin coating.
3. Recommended dwell time is 5-15 minutes.
4. Clean the surface using Cleaner to remove excess Penetrant.
5. Apply the Developer on the surface. Hold the can at a distance of 7-9 while
spraying so as to get a uniform and thin coating.
6. Recommended dwell time is 3-7 minutes.
7. Observe the welded joint for any appreciable defects like cracks, depressions or
porous voids.
Result:
No appreciable damage is observed as shown in the figures. This confirms the good
quality and high strength of the welded joints.

52
Figure 4.3: DPT Purlin and Roof Joint
Figure 4.4: DPT Primary and Secondary Beam Joint

53
4.1.6 Buckling Load Test
Buckling load test is carried out to determine buckling load and failure load of the Y-
shaped column. This test is useful in determining the maximum load the structure can
handle during actual testing without undergoing any permanent failure. Buckling load is
determined through testing and also using Eulers theory.
Eulers Theory:
CASE I: Length of the entire column is considered
Assume f
y
= 250 MPa
Length of Column, L = 0.61 m
Effective Length, L
e
= 1.2 * 0.61
= 0.732 cm
Cross sectional area:
A
1
= *(32)
2
/ 4 = 804.24 mm
2
A
2
+A
3
= 2**(15)
2
/ 4 = 352.42 mm
2
r
min
= (I/A)
0.5
= 3.75 mm
= L
e
/ r
min
= 73.2/ 3.75 = 19.52

ac
= 148 N/mm
2
from IS 800- 1984.
Hence the load on the column,
P = Area * Stress
= 353.42 * 148
= 52.3 kN.
CASE II: Length of the secondary column is considered
Length of Column, L = 0.26 m
Effective Length, L
e
= 1.2 * 0.26
= 31.2 cm
= L
e
/ r
min
= 31.2/ 3.75 = 8.32

ac
= 150 N/mm
2
from IS 800- 1984.

54
P = Area * Stress
= 353.42 * 150
= 53 kN.
Eulers critical load:
P
e
=
2
*E*I/ L
e
2
= (
2
* 2 * 105 * 4970.09) / (2*73.22)
= 70.34 kN.
Test Assembly:
1. The specimen consists of a Y-shaped column resembling the one that supports the
scaled model with a horizontal member at the top to facilitate application of
compressive load.
2. The specimen is placed in the UTM (600 kN capacity). Dial gauges, five in number,
are connected to the specimen in order to measure the deflection in the specified
direction.
3. Compressive load is applied at a constant rate and the deflection in the dial gauges is
noted.
4. The failure load for the setup is determined.
Figure 4.5: Buckling Load Test Assembly

55
Observation:
Buckling load for the specimen (Test) = 50.23 kN
Result:
The maximum safe load that the column can carry:
1. Buckling load for the specimen (Test) = 50.23 kN
2. Buckling load for the specimen (Eulers Theory) = 52.30 kN
4.2 MODEL TESTING
4.2.1 Static Load Testing
The scaled model is tested under various static loads and loading combinations for better
understanding of behavior of the steel structure. Basic loads consist of:
1. Dead Load
2. Live Load
3. Simulated Wind Load
Using these loads, the structure is loaded in varying combinations and the strains
developed at fifteen different locations are recorded. Strain gauges are used for the same.
4.2.1.1 Strain Gauge - Introduction
A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with applied force. It converts force,
pressure, tension, weight, etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then be
measured.
The strain gauge has been in use for many years and is the fundamental sensing element
for many types of sensors, including pressure sensors, load cells, torque sensors, position
sensors, etc.

56
The majority of strain gauges are foil types, available in a wide choice of shapes and
sizes to suit a variety of applications. They consist of a pattern of resistive foil which is
mounted on a backing material. They operate on the principle that as the foil is subjected
to stress, the resistance of the foil changes in a defined way.
Figure 4.6: Typical Strain Gauge
The strain gauge is connected into a Wheatstone Bridge circuit with a combination of
four active gauges (full bridge), two gauges (half bridge), or, less commonly, a single
gauge (quarter bridge). In the half and quarter circuits, the bridge is completed with
precision resistors.
Figure 4.7: Wheatstone Bridge Circuit
The complete Wheatstone Bridge is excited with a stabilized DC supply and with
additional conditioning electronics, can be zeroed at the null point of measurement. As
stress is applied to the bonded strain gauge, a resistive change takes place and balances
the Wheatstone Bridge.

57
This results in a signal output, related to the stress value. As the signal value is small,
(typically a few mill volts) the signal conditioning electronics provides amplification to
increase the signal level to 5 to 10 volts, a suitable level for application to external data
collection systems such as recorders or PC Data Acquisition and Analysis Systems.
Most manufacturers of strain gauges offer extensive ranges of differing patterns to suit a
wide variety of applications in research and industrial projects. They also supply all the
necessary accessories including preparation materials, bonding adhesives, connections
tags, cable, etc. The bonding of strain gauges is a skill and training courses are offered by
some suppliers. There are also companies which offer bonding and calibration services,
either as an in-house or on-site service.
If a strip of conductive metal is stretched, it will become skinnier and longer, both
changes resulting in an increase of electrical resistance end-to-end. Conversely, if a strip
of conductive metal is placed under compressive force (without buckling), it will
broaden and shorten. If these stresses are kept within the elastic limit of the metal strip
(so that the strip does not permanently deform), the strip can be used as a measuring
element for physical force, the amount of applied force inferred from measuring its
resistance.
Such a device is called a strain gauge. Strain gauges are frequently used in mechanical
engineering research and development to measure the stresses generated by machinery.
Aircraft component testing is one area of application, tiny strain-gauge strips glued to
structural members, linkages, and any other critical component of an airframe to measure
stress. Most strain gauges are smaller than a postage stamp, and they look something like
this:

58
Figure 4.8: Working of a Strain Gauge
A strain gauge's conductors are very thin: if made of round wire, about 1/1000 inch in
diameter. Alternatively, strain gauge conductors may be thin strips of metallic film
deposited on a no conducting substrate material called the carrier. The latter form of
strain gauge is represented in the previous illustration. The name "bonded gauge" is
given to strain gauges that are glued to a larger structure under stress (called the test
specimen) The task of bonding strain gauges to test specimens may appear to be very
simple, but it is not. "Gauging" is a craft in its own right, absolutely essential for
obtaining accurate, stable strain measurements. It is also possible to use an unmounted
gauge wire stretched between two mechanical points to measure tension, but this
technique has its limitations.
Typical strain gauge resistances range from 30 Ohms to 3 k Ohms (unstressed). This
resistance may change only a fraction of a percent for the full force range of the gauge,
given the limitations imposed by the elastic limits of the gauge material and of the test
specimen. Forces great enough to induce greater resistance changes would permanently
deform the test specimen and/or the gauge conductors themselves, thus ruining the
gauge as a measurement device. Thus, in order to use the strain gauge as a practical
instrument, we must measure extremely small changes in resistance with high accuracy.
The strain gauge used at the time of experimentation has following specifications:

Main Test
Materials
Metal,Mortar
Operating
Temperature
-
Compensation
range
+10 to +80C
Bonding adhesive
Single element (G.F. 2.1 approx.)
0.11mm
2
PVC Lead wire pre
Total resistance per meter: 0.32
TML PFL-30-11
Type
Gauge
length
(mm)
Gauge
width
(mm)
PFL-
30-11
30 2.3
59
Metal,Mortar
Materials
Backing
Polyester
-20 to +80C
Materials
Element
Cu-Ni alloy foil
+10 to +80C Strain limit
(2000010
CN,RP-2
Fatigue life at
room temp.
110
(150010
Table 4.1: Strain Gauge Specifications
Single element (G.F. 2.1 approx.)
PVC Lead wire pre-attached
Total resistance per meter: 0.32
Figure 4.9: Strain Gauge
Table 4.2: Specifications of PFL-30-11
Gauge
width
(mm)
Backing
length
(mm)
Backing
width
(mm)
Resistance
()
Lead wire
pre-
attached
40 7 120
Paralleled
1m
Paralleled
3m
Paralleled
5m
3-wire 3m
3-wire 5m
Testing Methodology
Polyester
Ni alloy foil
2%
(2000010
-6
)
110
6
(150010
-6
)
Lead wire
attached
Type
name
of
lead
wire
Paralleled
Paralleled
Paralleled
wire 3m
wire 5m
-1L
-3L
-5L
-3LT
-5LT

60
Figure 4.10: Strain Gauge Package and Strain Gauge Color Coding

61
Figure 4.11: PFL-30-11 Strain Gauge Test Data
Figure 4.12: Explanation of Strain Gauge Test Data

62
4.2.1.2 Bonding of Strain Gauges
Bonding of strain gauges is done in following steps:
1. Preparation:
The following items are required for bonding and wire connection: strain gauges,
bonding adhesive, connecting terminals, test specimen, solvent, cleaning tissue,
soldering iron, solder, abrasive paper, marking pencil, scale, tweezers, extension lead
wire, polyethylene sheets and nippers.
2. Positioning:
Roughly determine the location on the test specimen where the strain gauge is to be
located.
3. Surface Preparation:
Before bonding, remove all grease, rust, paint etc. from the bonding area. Sand an
area somewhat larger than the bonding area uniformly and finely with an abrasive
paper. This process is known as dry abrading.
Figure 4.13: Surface Preparation-Dry Abrading
4. Fine cleaning:
Clean the bonding area with industrial tissue paper or cloth soaked in a small amount
of industrial solvent such as acetone. Continue cleaning until a new tissue or cloth
comes away completely free of contamination. Following the surface preparation, be
sure to attach the gauge before the surface becomes contaminated or gets covered
with an oxidizing membrane. This process is also known as wet abrading
Initially the surface was cleaned using acid solution. To neutralize the surface, this
step was followed by cleaning using a base. The surface should appear smooth after
wet abrading.

63
Figure 4.14: Surface Preparation-Wet Abrading
5. Applying bonding adhesive:
Drop the proper amount of adhesive onto the back of the gauge base. Usually one
drop of adhesive will suffice, but you may increase the number of drops as per the
size of the gauge. Use the adhesive nozzle to spread the adhesive thinly and
uniformly over the back surface.
Sometimes a special adhesive known as accelerator is used to accelerate the process
of bonding of the strain gauges.
Figure 4.15: Application of Adhesive
6. Curing and pressing:
Place the gauge on the guide mar, place a polyethylene sheet onto it and press down
on the gauge constantly using your thumb or a gauge pressing device. This should be
done quickly as the curing process is completed very fast. The curing time varies
according to the gauge, test specimen, temperature, humidity and pressing force.
Curing time under normal circumstances is 20-60 sec.
Figure 4.16: Curing and Pressing

64
7. Raising the gauge leads:
After curing completely, remove the polythene sheet, and raise the gauge leads with a
pair of tweezers.
Figure 4.17: Raising the Gauge Leads
8. Bonding connecting terminals:
Position the proper size connecting terminals adjacent to the bonded gauge. A
distance of 3-5 mm generally allows for easier wiring later.
Figure 4.18: Bonding Connecting Terminals
9. Soldering the gauge leads:
Wrap the gauge leads around the connecting terminal wires. Solder the junction area
with a little slack in the gauge leads, taking care to prevent excessive tension during
measurement.
Figure 4.19: Soldering the Gauge Leads

65
10. Soldering extension lead wires:
Solder an extension lead wire to the terminal wires on the other side of the
connecting terminals. Clip off any excess extension lead wire with a pair of clippers.
Figure 4.20: Soldering Extension Lead Wires
4.2.1.3 Location of Strain Gauges
From the stress contours obtained in ANSYS analysis, fifteen critical locations are
identified as follows:
1. Primary column: 3cm from top
2. Secondary column: 3 cm from bottom
3. Secondary column: 3 cm from bottom
4. Load transferring member: 3.7cm from bottom
5. Curved beam: centre of the beam on the underside
6. Central primary beam: centre of entire span on the underside
7. Central primary beam: centre of second span at the top
8. Right primary beam: centre of entire span on the underside
9. Secondary beam: 8cm from face of right primary beam
10. Parabolic roof member: 7.5cm from second lower purlin
11. Parabolic roof member: at centre of uppermost span
12. Purlin: 7cm from face of secondary beam on the lowermost purlin
13. Inclined strut: center

Figure 4.21: Locations of Strain Gauges
66
Figure 4.21: Locations of Strain Gauges
Testing Methodology

67
4.2.2 Live Load
Skywalk being a public structure, higher values of live load are chosen as per IS-875
(PART II). Live load considered during analysis is 5 kN/m
2
.
This pressure intensity is
converted to equivalent load using the whole deck area of the model. The calculation
resulted into maximum 400 kg load to be applied during testing.
4.2.2.1 Loading Combinations
For application of live load, 20 kg iron weights are used. Live load is applied in
following increments:
1. LL = 100 kg
2. LL = 200 kg
3. LL = 300 kg
4. LL = 400 kg
Figure 4.23: Test Setup for Static Load Test

68
4.2.3 Wind Load Simulation
Taking into consideration practical difficulties, wind load is simulated and converted into
equivalent point load so as to achieve simplicity during testing. The most critical case,
i.e. uplift of straight portion of the roof is taken into consideration. The wind intensity is
converted into equivalent point load for each of the four panels. Procedure for the same
can be illustrated as follows:
For one sub panel of 0.3m X .14m,
WL = 0.049 kN/m according to IS-875 (PART III)
For one single panel (30 cm width),
L = 0.049 * (0.3)
= 0.0147 kN
Total load on each span (panel) = 6 * 0.0147 = 0.09 kN six sub panels
= 9 kg
For a reaction frame and string arrangement, load that is to be applied at the straight end
of the string is,
T = 9/sin
where,
= angle between string and the model roof
4.2.3.1 Test Assembly
For uniform application of simulated wind load, a steel mesh is fixed at various points to
the model roof using binding wires. Introduction of steel mesh ensures smooth and
uniform transfer of point load to the roof members without undergoing any deformation.
An inextensible string is fixed at the center of each panel to the steel mesh. The string is
carried over a reaction frame and weights are attached to the straight portion of the
string. Two kg iron weights are used for loading which are assembled together in gunny
bags.

69
Figure 4.24: Wind Load Simulation
Figure 4.25: Load Combination - LL (100 kg) + WL (10 kg)

70
4.2.3.2 Loading Combinations
Following load combinations are considered during testing:
1. WL = 10 kg
2. WL = 15 kg
3. LL = 100 kg + WL = 10 kg
4. LL = 300 kg + WL = 15 kg
5. LL = 400 kg + WL = 15 kg
4.2.4 Observations
[ Sign Convention: Positive Tensile, Negative Compressive]
GAUGE
NUMBER
LL=
100
kg
LL= 200
kg +
WL=15kg
LL= 100
kg +
WL=10kg
LL=
200
kg
LL=
300
kg
LL= 300
kg +
WL=15kg
LL=
400
kg
LL= 400
kg +
WL=15kg
WL=
10
kg
WL=
15 kg
[1] Strain -2 46 30 -4 -4 46 -5 48 35
50
[2] Strain -23 -483 -302 -79 -118 -522 -170 -587 -316
-448
[3] Strain 32 492 301 94 141 543 203 617 297
423
[4] Strain -24 -37 -18 -47 -67 -56 -84 -74 7
10
[5] Strain 42 85 43 87 150 152 191 188 1
2
[6] Strain 12 20 10 21 32 30 42 40 -1
-3
[7] Strain -11 -80 -53 -19 -30 -100 -41 -104 -44
-58
[8] Strain 55 112 52 115 192 192 253 248 -4
-5
[9] Strain 52 107 53 104 150 148 201 203 1
0
[10] Strain -4 3 2 -3 -11 -3 -12 -9 7
10
[11] Strain -52 -106 -50 -110 -177 -178 -232 -229 3
4
[12] Strain 1 -20 -13 0 0 -20 0 -19 -13
-19
[13] Strain 10 4 -2 21 29 11 39 24 -13
-17
[14] Strain 6 -28 0 -21 -19 -28 -14 -22 -4
-35
[15] Strain -23 -42 -19 -51 -77 -71 -107 -96 7
13
Table 4.3: Micro-Strains for Ten Loading Combinations

71
4.3 FREE VIBRATION ANALYSIS
The free vibration analysis of the model is carried out to determine the natural frequency
of vibration of the model in the particular direction. Although the dynamics of structure
is a very vast topic, we have decided to incorporate only a small part of dynamics of
structure.
The scaled model was given some initial displacement and the structure was released
from this position. The resulting motion of the model is recorded with the help of
accelerometers. This forms the basis of free vibration analysis.
4.3.1 Test Setup
The scaled model is given some initial displacement by pulling the model with the help
of a non-extensible string run over a pulley with loads attached at the other end. The
model is released from this position by cutting the string and the resulting motion is
recorded with the help of accelerometers.
In all three accelerometers have been used for this purpose. They are placed at three
different levels and measure the vibrations in only one direction. The positions of the
accelerometers are:
1. At the floor level- to measure vertical vibrations at the floor level.
2. At the tip of parabolic roof member -to measure horizontal vibrations at the floor
level.
3. At the floor level- to measure horizontal vibrations at the floor level.
Three different iterations are carried out. We have restricted ourselves to determine
the natural frequency of the model along the width of the model as this might prove
to be the critical case. The test data has been given in the following table:

72
Table 4.4: Test Data for Free Vibration Analysis
Figure 4.26: Test Setup for Free Vibration Test
4.3.2 Observations
The First Fourier Transform graphs which are the variation of the acceleration versus the
frequency of the model for the three iterations are reproduced here:
Iteration no.
Angle of inclination of
the string
Force in N
Initial displacement in
cm
Iteration 1 18.64
0
193.65 1.0
Iteration 2 24
.
.56
0
373.56 2.5
Iteration 3 29.68
0
567.80 3.5

73
Iteration 1

74
Iteration 2

75
Iteration 3

76
4.3.3 Conclusion
1. As the load was increased, the amplitude of the vibration of structure increased.
2. The natural frequency of the structure, which remained same for all the three
iterations, was found out to be 4.375 Hz in the X-direction. Modal analysis of the
structure was carried out on the structure using ANSYS-10 which yielded the natural
frequency as 5.023 Hz in X-direction i.e. along the width.
4.3.4 Scope
Free vibration analysis of the model forms the first step in the dynamic analysis of the
model. To determine the natural frequency of the model forms the most preliminary pre-
requisite of performing any dynamic test on the model.
After the free vibration analysis, response of the structure to forced vibrations has to be
studied. However this is beyond the scope of this project. Forced vibration response of
the structure consists of two parts:
1. Transient vibrations which take place at the damped natural frequency of the system.
2. Steady state vibrations which occur at the frequency of excitation which is sustained
for the period of excitation.
The critical case occurs when the exciting frequency and the natural frequency of the
structure interfere constructively leading to a potential harmful state of resonance. This
state has to be avoided since the resonating frequency causes the structure to vibrate
vigorously which may lead to failure in the model.
Hence, before we go for the forced vibration analysis it is imperative to carry out the free
vibration analysis of the structure.
Final Year Project Report Chapter 5 - Results And Discussions

77
CHAPTER FIVE RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
5.1 VALIDATION
The results from STAAD Pro-2005, ANSYS 10 and the experimental results were
compared to validate the software analysis. Stresses at 11 different locations were
compared for the validation purpose.
For the purpose of validation, live load (400 kg) and wind load (10 kg), are the two load
cases which are compared. Sign convention for the same is: Positive Tensile, Negative
Compressive.
5.1.1 Live Load (400 kg)
GAUGE NUMBER STRESSES FOR LIVE LOAD
EXPERIMENTAL ANSYS 10 STAAD Pro-2005
Primary Column -1 -1.52 -0.38
Secondary Column- Right -34 -9.9 -9.75
Secondary Column- Left 40.6 9.9 6.15
Curved Beam -16.8 -14 -2.81
Load Transfer Member 38.2 40 32.41
Secondary Beam 8.4 15 6.9
Parabolic Roof Member -8.2 -7.1 -6.91
Primary Beam 40.6 43 36.61
Purlin -2.4 -13 -7.14
Roof Member 0 -1.3 -1.38
Inclined Strut 7.8 15.2 5.33
Table 5.1: Stresses in different Structural Members for Live Load= 400 kg

78
5.1.2 Wind Load (10 kg)
GAUGE NUMBER STRESSES FOR WIND LOAD (MPa)
EXPERIMENTAL ANSYS 10 STAAD Pro-2005
Primary Column 7 8 20.22
Secondary Column- Right -63.2 -62 -76.15
Secondary Column- Left 59.4 60 66.71
Curved Beam 1.4 13 8.17
Load Transfer Member 0.2 2.0 1.82
Secondary Beam -0.2 -0.5 -1.02
Parabolic Roof Member -8.8 -12 -11.19
Primary Beam -0.8 -1.2 -3.23
Purlin 1.4 7.8 3.37
Roof Member 2.6 16.05 8.33
Inclined Strut 2.6 16.01 24.9
Table 5.2: Stresses in different Structural Members for Wind Load=10 kg

79
5.2 Interpretation
From the comparison it can be seen that the results obtained are within close agreement
of each other. Few of the results obtained tend to vary from each other. About 80 % of
the stresses at different positions match with each other.
Thus, it can be concluded that the software models are validated within practical limits
and hence can be used for parametric study.
5.3 Discrepancies
The discrepancies seen in the comparison can be explained considering following
factors:
1. The experimental test setup was different as compared to software model. The axes
in case of structural model are concurrent while that in case of experimental model
some of the members were placed one above the other. This lead to non-concurrency
of the axes in case of the experimental model.
2. An additional steel mesh was used to facilitate application of wind load. Wind load is
simulated instead of application of wind force directly using a wind tunnel. To apply
the wind force uniformly over the inclined portion of the model, a steel mesh is used.
This increased the overall stiffness of the model. In addition to this, the steel mesh
also reduced the effective length of the member, which may lead to variation in
results.
3. The loading applied might tend to be asymmetrical. This might be considered as
human error and might lead to torsion moments developing in the model. This might
further increase the stresses.
4. The members were loaded for a small period of time during testing, while in software
models, the loading is considered permanent.
Final Year Project Report Chapter 6 - Parametric Study

80
CHAPTER SIX PARAMETRIC STUDY
For the shape of the structure under consideration, the only parameter changed is clear
span and the reflected change in design of individual members is noted.
6.1 OBJECTIVE
The objective of this parametric study is to examine common structure configurations in
response to variation in span and to determine the required section modulus from the
interaction charts drawn using the optimized sections obtained from STAAD Pro 2005.
6.2 SKY WALK STRUCTURE
Figure 6.1: Parametric study
Varies

81
The parametric study of this sky walk structure is done by varying the span i.e. column
to column distance. For this purpose three different models of 9m, 15m and 21m are
prepared and designed for optimum sections in STAAD Pro 2005. Then Interaction
charts are plotted using the section modulus and span. The graph thus obtained from the
above mentioned spans helps in establishing a trend line. This trend line is then used to
predict the sections for spans ranging between 9m and 21m which are verified for 12m
and 18m span. Such exhaustive charts are prepared for each and every member.
6.3 INTERACTION CHARTS
The above study is worked out with the help of interaction charts depicting relation
between the modified parameter and design. These interaction charts are prepared using
the optimized sections obtained directly from STAAD Pro 2005. Interaction chart for Z
x
,
Z
y
and Z
z
of every member has been plotted.
The following members are considered:
1. Curved Beam
2. Primary Beam
3. Primary Column
4. Straight Plate Girder
5. Secondary Column
6. Inclined Roof Member
7. Parabolic Member
8. Inclined Strut

82
Curved Beam
Figure 6.2: Curved Beam Zx
Figure 6.3: Curved Beam Zy
Figure 6.4: Curved Beam Zz
0
5
10
15
20
25
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0

m
3
)
Span (m)
Curved beam Zx v/s Span
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Curved beam Zy v/s Span
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(

*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Curved beam Zz v/s Span

83
Primary Beam
Figure 6.5: Primary Beam Zx
Figure 6.6: Primary Beam Zy
Figure 6.7: Primary Beam Zz
0.0049
0.005
0.0051
0.0052
0.0053
0.0054
0.0055
0.0056
0.0057
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary beam Zx v/s Span
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y
(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary beam Zy v/s Span
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0.18
0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary beam Zz v/s Span

84
Primary Column
Figure 6.8: Primary Column Zx
Figure 6.9: Primary Column Zy
Figure 6.10: Primary Column Zz
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary column Zx v/s Span
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary column Zy v/s Span
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3

m
3
)
Span (m)
Primary column Zz v/s Span

85
Straight Plate Girder
Figure 6.11: Straight Plate Girder Zx
Figure 6.12: Straight Plate Girder Zy
Figure 6.13: Straight Plate Girder Zz
0
0.001
0.002
0.003
0.004
0.005
0.006
0.007
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x
(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Straight plate girder Zx v/s Span
0.46
0.47
0.48
0.49
0.5
0.51
0.52
0.53
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y
(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Straight plate girder Zy v/s Span
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z
(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Straight plate girder Zz v/s Span

86
Secondary Column
Figure 6.14: Secondary Column Zx
Figure 6.15: Secondary Column Zy
Figure 6.16: Secondary Column Zz
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Secondary column Zx v/s Span
0
0.005
0.01
0.015
0.02
0.025
0.03
0.035
0.04
0.045
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3

m
3
)
Span (m)
Secondary column Zy v/s Span
0
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3

m
3
)
Span (m)
Secondary column Zz v/s Span

87
Inclined Roof Member
Figure 6.17: Inclined Roof Member Zx
Figure 6.18: Inclined Roof Member Zy
Figure 6.19: Inclined Roof Member Zz
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Inclined roof Zx v/s Span
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Inclined roof Zy v/s Span
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Inclined roof Zz v/s Span

88
Parabolic Member
Figure 6.20: Parabolic Member Zx
Figure 6.21: Parabolic Member Zy
Figure 6.22: Parabolic Member Zz
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Parabolic member Zx v/s Span
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3

m
3
)
Span (m)
Parabolic member Zy v/s Span
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Parabolic member Zz v/s Span

89
Inclined Strut
Figure 6.23: Inclined Strut Zx
Figure 6.24: Inclined Strut Zy
Figure 6.25: Inclined Strut Zz
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
x

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Inclined strut Zx v/s Span
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
3
3.5
4
4.5
5
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
y

(
*
1
0
-
3
m
3
)
Span (m)
Inclined strut Zy v/s Span
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 5 10 15 20 25
Z
z

(
*
1
0
-
3

m
3
)
Span (m)

90
6.4 SAMPLE VERIFICATION
Primary Column
Description
Span(m) STAAD Pro Interaction Charts
Zx(10^-3 m3)
12 8.4 8.88
18 10.8 10.54
Primary Beam
Description
Span(m) STAAD Pro Interaction Charts
Zx(10^-3 m3)
12 4.95 5.16
18 5.24 5.38
Table 6.1:Comparison of Section Modulus and Moment of Inertia
6.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF INTERACTION CHARTS
Formulation of interaction charts has proved highly beneficial. Their significance can be
described as follows:
1. The required section modulus can be obtained for the given span directly from these
charts, thus simplifying the design process.
2. As each and every structural member was optimized using STAAD Pro 2005, the
interaction charts give the optimized sections for the given span.
3. It is a usable tool for practicing Structural Engineers.
6.6 LIMITATIONS
The interaction charts which are formulated in this project are of restricted scope and
possess following limitations:
1. Such Interaction charts are limited to particular geometry only.
2. Limited to variation in span whereas the width is kept constant.
3. No material variation is allowed.
Final Year Project Report Chapter 7 - Conclusions And Recommendations

91
CHAPTER SEVEN CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
7.1 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
The results obtained from experimental testing and software analysis are in close
agreement with each other within practical limits. This comparison has given way to
validation of analytical model processed through ANSYS 10 software and STAAD Pro
2005 software which has fulfilled the basic purpose of the project. The validated
software model is then used to devise interaction charts for the concerned skywalk
geometry thereby providing practicing engineers an effective design tool. Optimized
design of individual members is possible from the use of interaction charts and also is
time saving.
Through this project, the authors got the experience of designing a whole skeletal
structure ourselves. This project involves use of design and analysis softwares which are
highly beneficial in the practical field. Incorporation of finite element analysis helped to
study important concepts of the upcoming method of analysis. The actual behavior of the
structure under various kinds of loads was understood through experimental testing. It
has greatly helped in understanding the true response of the steel structure thereby giving
feel of a practical problem. However, there are a lot of practical limitations which arise
during modeling any prototype. These limitations give way to variations in some of the
results for the experimental testing. The understanding of such discrepancies and their
effect on structural behavior gives a thorough knowledge about several structural basics
and concepts.
The prototype can be used by future batches and project groups to understand its
behavior under various loads. Dynamic testing, i.e. shake table test can be arranged to
study its behavior under earthquake forces. Health monitoring of the steel prototype is
also possible. Ergonomic study of the structure may prove significant in determining the
true purpose of the project. The final year project is restricted to superstructure and rigid
foundation conditions have been assumed. Substructure behavior and specific details
pertaining to geo technical and foundation engineering can also be considered in future
studies.
Final Year Project Report References

92
REFERENCES
1. Design of steel structures- B.C.Punmia (Standard Publishers 2005)
2. Cook R.D, Malkus D.S, and Plesha M. E., Concepts and Applications of Finite
Element Analysis, 3rd Ed., JohnWiley and Sons, 1989.
3. Huebner K.H., Thornton E.A., The Finite Element Method for Engineers, Second
Edition, John Wiley and Sons,1982.
4. Joints in Steel Construction - Moment Connections, BCSA/SCI Pub. No. 207/95.
5. MYSTRO/LUSAS is produced by FEA Ltd, Kingston-upon-Thames, KT1 1HN.
6. Nethercott D.A., Steel beam to column connections - A review of test data,
Construction Industry Research & Information Association, 1985.
7. D. V. Hutton(2004) , Basic concepts of finite element method, Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis. 1,1-16.
8. K. Chopra(1997), Free Vibration, Dynamics of structures, 2,35-61.
Final Year Project Report Index

i
INDEX
Analytical Method
ANSYS - Applying Loads
ANSYS - Applying Loads and Obtaining the Solution
ANSYS - BEAM4 Element Description
ANSYS - Building the Sky Walk Model
ANSYS - Creating the Model Geometry
ANSYS - Defining Element Real Constants
ANSYS - Defining Element Types
ANSYS - Defining Material Properties
ANSYS - Defining the Analysis Type and Analysis Options
ANSYS - Defining Units
ANSYS - Initiating the Solution
ANSYS - Introduction
ANSYS - Material Model Interface
ANSYS - Meshing
ANSYS - Purpose
ANSYS - Reviewing the Results
ANSYS - Specifying a Jobname and Analysis Title
ANSYS Model
Buckling Load Test
Conclusions and Recommendations
Current Scenario
Discrepancies
Dual Penetration Test
Experimental Model
Experimental Model - Introduction
Experimental Model - Limitations
Experimental Model - Scaling Procedure
FEM - History
FEM - Introduction
23
37
36
34
33
36
35
34
35
36
33
38
33
35
36
33
39
33
33
53
91
04
79
50
41
41
44
42
20
20

ii
Finite Element Method
Free Vibration Analysis
Free Vibration Analysis - Conclusion
Free Vibration Analysis - Observations
Free Vibration Analysis - Scope
Free Vibration Analysis - Test Setup
Interaction Charts
Interaction Charts - Curved beam
Interaction Charts - Inclined roof member
Interaction Charts - Inclined strut
Interaction Charts - Limitations
Interaction Charts - Parabolic member
Interaction Charts - Primary beam
Interaction Charts - Primary column
Interaction Charts - Sample Verification
Interaction Charts - Secondary column
Interaction Charts - Straight plate girder
Interaction Charts- Significance
Interpretation
Live Load
Live Load - Loading Combinations
Live Load + Wind Load - Loading Combinations
Manual Analysis & Design
Member Stiffness Relations
Model Testing
Need for Skywalk
Preliminary Testing
Sample Manual Design (Beam)
Shear Test
Skyway
STAAD Pro - Input File (Excerpts)
20
71
76
72
76
71
81
82
87
89
90
88
83
84
90
86
85
90
79
67
67
70
23
12
55
02
45
23
48
01
25

iii
STAAD Pro - Output File (Excerpts)
STAAD Pro Model
Static Load Testing
Static Load Testing - Observations
Stiffness Method
Stiffness Method - Applications
Stiffness Method - Example
Stiffness Method - History
Strain Gauge - Bonding
Strain Gauge - Introduction
Strain Gauge - Location
Strain Gauge - Single element (G.F. 2.1 approx.)
Strength of Weld Test
Suitability of Skywalk
Tension Test
The Direct Stiffness Method
Torsion Test
Validation
Validation - Live Load (400 kg)
Validation - Wind Load (10 kg)
Wind Load Simulation
Wind Load Simulation - Test Assembly
31
25
55
70
12
19
14
12
62
55
65
59
49
03
45
14
47
77
77
78
68
68

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