SAL 3A'A lNLlA 2011

1LAM : MAluLn MC8

CCLLLCL : kAkA1l?A lnS1l1u1L Cl 1LCPnCLCC? & SClLnCLS.
Rules Understood 3y 1eum:
Every design aspect and parameter mentioned in the rule book serves as bench mark for the
design and selection of various components and subsystems of the vehicle.
The material used for the entire required roll cage members must be:
(i) Circular steel tubing with an outside diameter of 2.5 cm (1 inch) and a wall thickness of 3.05
mm (.120inch) and a carbon content of at least 0.18%.
(ii) Steel members with at least equal bending stiffness and bending strength to 1018 steel having
a circular cross section with a 2.54 cm (1 inch) outer diameter and a wall thickness of 3.05 mm
(.120 inch)
The following elements of the roll cage are designed based upon rules mentioned in
corresponding points.
(i)Rear Roll Hoop (RRH) Rule 31.2.2
(ii)Roll Hoop Overhead Members (RHO) Rule 31.2.4
(iii)Front Bracing Members (FBM) Rule 31.2.7
(iv)Lateral Cross Member (LC) Rules 31.2.4 and 31.2.5
The drivers helmet to be 15.24 cm (6 inches) away from a straightedge applied to any two
points on the cockpit of the car, excluding the drivers seat and the rear driver safety supports
The drivers torso, knees, shoulders, elbows, hands, and arms must have a minimum of 7.62 cm
(3 in) of clearance from the envelope created by the structure of the car.
Driver must be able to exit from either side of the vehicle within 5 seconds.
A firewall between the cockpit and the engine and fuel tank compartment is mandatory. It must
cover the area between the lower and upper lateral cross member. This firewall must be metal, at
least .508 mm (.020inch) thick, and must completely separate the engine compartment and fuel
tank from the cockpit.
The vehicle must have at least two independent hydraulic braking systems that act on all
wheels and is operated by a single foot and in case of a leak or failure at any point in the system;
effective braking power shall be maintained on at least two wheels.
Teams are free to use any transmission such that maximum speed of the vehicle on a plain
terrain is recommended to be no more than 60 km/hr in top gear
Any muffler whose back pressure does not exceed 450 mm of Water Column may be used.
ROLL CACL:
Roll cage design is an important parameter for the fabrication of an efficient buggy. The roll
cage is the frame which envelopes the driver and its design is of utmost importance considering
the safety of the driver design and analysis of the roll cage is done. The roll cage design consists
of the three different bays.
1. Front bay which serves as impact member and suspension A-arm mounting.
2. Center bay for driver cabin
3. Rear bay for the engine mounting.
Improvisation:
During the design of roll cage our design teams main concentration was on the loop holes of the
previous year design, driver ergonomics, aesthetic looks and weight reduction. Rule book served
as the basis for the design of the roll cage. The roll cage which was made for Baja 2010 used the
material mild steel seamless pipe with a carbon percentage of 0.18 which about the 55 kgs. For
the weight reduction factor this year we are going for a material with high strength and less
weight.
The geometry is also limited by industry standards. It is important to utilize commonly available
tubing sizes and materials. Tubing is available in standard fractional sizes to the 1/8th of an inch:
1 to 1.5 inch. Also the wall thicknesses available are: 0.035, 0.049, 0.058, 0.065, 0.083 and 0.120
inches.
The available materials for the tubing are 1018 Mild Steel and 4130 Chromyl Steel. The benefit
of the chromoly steel is that 17.5% stronger than the 1018 mild steel the modulus of elasticity
and density are same for both the materials. Keeping the weight reduction and strength factors in
mind chromoly is considered as the efficient material for the roll cage fabrication.
Material aggregates:
Outer diameter : 2.54 cm (1 inch)
Wall thickness : 0.305cm (0.120inch)
Yield stress : 360.6 M.pa
Youngs modulus : 190-210 G.pa
Impact strength : 61.7 J (izod)
Carbon percentage : 0.3%
Structural analysis:
AutoCAD and ANSYS 10 workbench were used for the design and analysis. The structural
analysis consists of three impact scenarios which help in analysis of the stresses developed in the
roll cage. They are
Front impact.
Side impact.
Rollover impact.
llg.1
Iront |mpact:
To approximate the worst case scenario that the vehicle will see, research into the forces the
human body can endure was completed. The literature survey that the human body will pass out
at loads much higher than 9 times the force of gravity or 9 Gs. A value of 10 Gs was set as the
goal point for an extreme worst case collision.
In this case, a deceleration of 10 G was the assumed loading which is equivalent to 30KN by
assuming the weight of the complete buggy about 300kgs. After the analysis of impact the value
of deflection, with proper bracing & the FACTOR OF SAFETY comes to be > 1.5 which is
acceptable. Fig. 2 show the loads applied on the impact member of the roll cage and the
constraints given.
Fig.2
Fig 3(a) and Fig3 (b). Shows the stresses developed in the members during the impact.
llg 3 (a)
Fig. 3(b)
Side impact:
As a side impact is most likely to occur with the vehicle being hit by another vehicle, the force
was assumed to be half that of head on collision with a fixed object of deceleration of 5 Gs. This
value is an extreme overestimation, but will allow the ability to account for a blown shock
absorber. The next step in the analysis was to analyze a side impact with a 5 G load which is
equivalent to 15kN as shown in fig 4.
Fig.4
After the analysis of impact the value of deflection, with proper bracing & the FOS comes to be
> 2.5 which is acceptable which is shown is fig 5.
Fig.5
Roll over impact:
The final step in the analysis was to analyze the stress on the roll cage caused by roll over with a
2.5 G load on the cage. This is equivalent to a loading force of 7.5 KN. The fig.6 shows the point
of application for the loading on the roll cage the load was chosen to be on a single corner as this
would be the worst case scenario roll over.
Fig .6
After the analysis it is found out that the factor of safety is > 2.5 which is acceptable. Hence the
design is left unaltered as shown in fig .7
Fig.7
Necessary bracing is done to the roll cage depending upon the stress formation in the members.
The bracing member gives adequate strength to the roll cage and reduces the stress developed in
the members. The final 3d vies of the roll cage with bracing members is shown in Fig.8 andFig.9
Fig : 8 Fig :9
Lrgonomics:
Ergonomics considered to be important for BAJA vehicle were drivers visibility, easy access
and view of the instrument cluster and controls, a comfortable seat with side rests with foam
padding and seat inclination with good back support. For a good comfort in the vehicle the
seating area of the seat should be slightly inclined at an angle of 4-5degrees with the horizontal
with the backrest at an angle of 110 degrees with it, this slight elevation of the seating area
provides adequate thigh support. The complete seat is at a height of seat adjustable between 25 to
35 cm from the floor. The steering wheel should be at an angle of 40-45degrees with the
horizontal, facing the neck area of the driver at a safe distance of 40-45cm from the drivers head
and 5-8cm above the drivers knees. The pedals are at a distance of 75 to 80 cms from the seat
(varies with seat being adjustable) from the front end of the seat and are spaced at 7-7.5cm from
each other.
Lst|mated factors va|ue
Welght ol the roll cage 43 kgs
no. ol welds 123
1otal weld length 400"
Lstlmated cost ol manulacturlng
Cost ol roll cage materlal =
Labor cost(70/- per day) =
Cost ol weld (2/- per lnch) =
1otal cost =
22,000/-(estlmatlon)
490/-(lor a week)
800/-(lor 400 lnches)
23,290/-(approxlmately)
Suspension:
The suspension system suspends the automobile's body a short distance above the ground and
maintains the body at a relatively constant height to prevent it from pitching, swaying, or
leaning. In order to maintain effective acceleration, braking, and cornering, the components of
good handling, the suspension system must also keep all four tires firmly in contact with the
ground to maintain maximum possible contact patch. And lastly, since the power that is
produced by the engine is transmitted to the tires through the suspension system, to attain the
required performance level it should transmit maximum possible power to the tires without
absorbing much of it. The two main components of a suspension system are:
Comfort
Performance
Which are inversely proportional to each other. Therefore the primary aspect
of suspension design is to optimize these two parameters.
For a perfect off-roader it is required to have all the four wheels at four different heights and at
four different angles at an instance keeping the body of the vehicle parallel to the ground, for
which we need to have independent suspension at the both ends i.e. front and rear. There are
different types of systems available such as
Macphersons strut, semi trailing arms, multilink
suspension, double wishbones (equal and
parallel, non equal and parallel, non equal and
non parallel) etc. Depending on the technical
parameters and the previous year experience,
NON PARALLEL NON EQUAL DOUBLE
WISHBONE is the best suitable both at the front
and rear side of the vehicle which is compatible
with other sub systems design. It provides
perfect camber control and the camber angle
hardly changes under body roll. It also provides
lower roll center which gives minimal weight
transfer and it keeps the centre of gravity low
which is very desirable. Since the CG of the
vehicle is closer to ground it will minimize both the lateral and longitudinal weight transfer
during braking, accelerating and when the vehicle hits a bump. For a design of a suspension
system of an ATV all these parameters serve as a primary guidelines, which are very well
satisfied by the non equal non parallel double wishbones both at the front and rear sides.
Suspension hard points are determined using Susprog3d. (However these values will be cross
verified with the use of MSC ADAMS). The results after analysis are found to be:
Power 1ruln:
Engine: Lombardini LGA 340
Specifications:
Bore x Stroke : 84 mm x 64 mm, Single cylinder, Air Cooled
Swept Volume : 338 cc
Compression ratio : 8:1
Rated Power : 8 kW @ 4400 rpm
Max Torque : 19 Nm @ 3000 rpm
Transmission: To meet the peak performance, Mahindra & Mahindra Alfa transmission is chosen
depending on the observance and experience of the previous participation. The transmission
facilitates direct coupling, eliminating use of chain/rope drives, thereby eliminating the power
loss due to coupling.
Gear Gear ratio Speed (kmph)
First gear 31.48:1 16
Second gear 18.70:1 27
Third gear 11.40:1 44.3
Fourth gear 7.35:1 68.7
Reverse gear 55.08:1 9.1
Constant-velocity joint: CV joints allow a rotating shaft to transmit power through a
variable angle, at constant rotational speed, without an appreciable increase in friction.
Steering:
The steering system as we all know becomes the most important part of the vehicle as it is
responsible for moving the vehicle in right direction. While proper suspension can give the car a
smooth ride, complete proper handling cannot be achieved without a properly designed steering
system. So the steering aggregates selected must satisfy the suspension system, the engine power
available which is responsible for the ground wheel rotation, the type of tire and many such
features. An improper steering geometry can cause additional expenses to the user in the form of
reduced tire life, increased fuel consumption and also wear of the suspension system. The
steering system employed is RACK AND PINION steering system. This system is a very sturdy
for the kind of terrain on which the vehicle will run and simple to design and use. The stub axle
will be designed such that it can accommodate the steering arms and also the independent
suspension arms. The geometry of any steering system comprise of the camber, castor, king pin
inclination and wheel offset. These aggregates can be calculated by considering the suspension
aggregates and also the type of road wheels and tires on it.
The track rod of the steering was to be designed such that it can also change its inclinations with
the change in the suspension angles. This is very important in order to avoid the contact between
the suspension arms and the track rod. By applying the castor principle, the self centering action
of the steering was maximized in order to ease the steering efforts after turning.
Calculations:
Cot cot = (track width / wheel base) = (b/l)
= inner wheel angle, = outer wheel angle
Turning radius(R) = (b/2) + (l / sin (avvg. steering angle)
arameter Va|ue
Steer|ng
|ock ang|es
Cuter : 30 deg
lnner : 33 deg
C Cot O k (m)
S 12.31 4.64 22.4
10 6.36 8.66 12.03
1S 4.62 12.21 8.34
20 3.63 13.38 6.79
2S 3.03 18.23 3.74
30 2.62 20.89 3.04
3S 2.31 23.34 4.34
40 2.08 23.67 4.16
4S 1.88 27.89 3.87
8raking system:
As mentioned in preliminary design report our braking system has two independent hydraulic
systems, one for Front disc brakes and other for rear disc brakes. Disc brakes provide a number
of important advantages over drums, including better cooling, better fade resistance, little or no
wet fading due to road splash, and reduced weight and complexity. Steel braided hoses are used
for braking system. . A DOT3 braking fluid is used, which is quite good enough for efficient
braking. Disc brakes are 20 30% lighter than the drum brakes. By making certain changes,
braking system can contribute to overall weight reduction.
Functionality:
A tandem master cylinder with two separate cylinders and reservoirs, one operating
front brakes and the other cylinder operating the rear brakes. This master cylinder avoids
the possibility of all the brakes of a vehicle being put out of order by a leak or fracture in
the brake hoses.
Bleeding Procedure: Bleeding procedure will ensure a better braking performance,
leaving no chance of brake fading due to air in the hoses.
Braking calculations:
The Brake Pedal
The brake pedal exists to multiply the force exerted by the drivers foot. From elementary statics,
the force increase will be equal to the drivers applied force multiplied by the lever ratio of the
brake pedal assembly:
Fig: Tandem master cylinder
Where Fbp = the force output of the brake pedal assembly
Where Fd = the force applied to the pedal pad by the driver
Where L1 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the piston on TMC
Where L2 = the distance from the brake pedal arm pivot to the brake pedal pad.
The Master Cylinder
It is the functional responsibility of the master cylinder to translate the force from the brake pedal
assembly into hydraulic fluid pressure.
Where Pmc = the hydraulic pressure generated by the master cylinder
Where Amc = the effective area of the master cylinder hydraulic piston.
The Rotor
While the rotor serves as the primary heat sink in the braking system, it is the functional
responsibility of the rotor to generate a retarding torque as a function of the brake pad frictional
force. This torque is related to the brake pad frictional force as follows:
Where Tr = the torque generated by the rotor
Where Reff = the effective radius (effective moment arm) of the rotor (measured from the rotor
center of rotation to the center of pressure of the caliper pistons)
Stopping distance:
Where SDv = the stopping distance of the vehicle, Maximum safe deceleration (av )= 5.1met/sq.sec.
Dynamic Impacts during Deceleration:
Whenever a vehicle experiences a deceleration, the effective normal force reacted at the four
corners of the vehicle will change. While the total vehicle normal force remains constant, the
front axle normal force during a deceleration event will increase while the rear axle normal force
will decrease by the same amount.
- Where WT = the absolute weight transferred from the rear axle to the front axle
Where g = the acceleration due to gravity
Where hCG = the vertical distance from the CG to ground
Where Vt = the total vehicle vertical force (weight)
Effects of Weight Transfer on Tire Output
As a vehicle experiences dynamic weight transfer, the ability of each axle to provide braking
force is altered. Under static conditions, the maximum braking force that an axle is capable of
producing is defined by the following relationships:
- Where Ftires,f = the combined front tire braking forces
Where Ftires,r = the combined rear tire braking forces
Where peak,f = the maximum effective coefficient of friction between the front tires and the
road
Where peak,r = the maximum effective coefficient of friction between the rear tires and the
road
Where Vf = the front axle vertical force (weight)
Where Vr = the rear axle vertical force (weight)
As a result of weight transfer during a deceleration event the maximum braking force that an axle
is capable of producing is
8rake
arameters
Llnlng Coelllclent ol
lrlctlon (200 deg l)
0.6
edal lorce (lbs) 80lbs
Master Cyllnder (Cross
Sectlonal Area)
1.123 sq.lnch
lront ulsc C.u(mm) 180
8ear ulsc C.u(mm) 180
Coelllclent ol lrlctlon
(1lre and 8oad)
0.7
1op Speed (km/hr) 60 kmph
8rake analysls
uynamlc welght
transler
304.3 n
ueceleratlon rate 3.1 m/sq.sec
( 70mph - 0 )
Wheel base 182.8 cm
edal ratlo 4 : 1
lront wheel torque 327 n-m
8ear wheel torque 237 n-m
LMISSION CON1ROL:
We intend to control emissions by adopting two catalytic converters coupled in series to meet the
exhaust emission regulations for the vehicle. A catalytic converter is a device which is placed in
the vehicle exhaust system to reduce HC and CO by oxidizing catalyst and NO by reducing
catalyst.
The basic requirements of a catalytic converter are:
High surface area of the catalyst for better reactions.
Good chemical stability to prevent any deterioration in performance.
Low volume heat capacity to reach the operating temperatures.
Physical durability with attrition resistance.
Minimum pressure drop during the flow of exhaust gases through the catalyst bed; this will not
increase back pressure of the engine.
Fig. shows a catalytic converter, which consists of two separate elements, one for NOx, and the
other for HC/CO emissions. The flow in the converter is axial.
Reactions involved:
Oxidation catalytic reactions: CO, HC and O
2
from air are catalytically converted to CO
2
and
H2O and number of catalysts are known to be effective noble metals like platinum and
plutonium, copper, vanadium, iron, cobalt, nickel, chromium etc.
Reduction catalytic reactions: The primary concept is to offer the NO molecule an activation
site, say nickel or copper grids in the presence of CO but not O2 which will cause oxidation, to
form N2 and CO2. The NO may react with a metal molecule to form an oxide which then in turn,
may react with CO to restore the metal molecule.
The following line diagram shows the arrangement of two catalytic converters in series.
1o atmosphere
Lxhaust gases
l
u
:
3
2
m
m
3
2
m
m
3
2
3
2
3
2
m
m
no.1 no. 2
Secondary Alr
8educlng element lor nCx
Cxldlzlng element lor PC/CC
1wo catalytlc converters arranged ln-llne
ASSLM8LY LINL DLSICN:
The design and control of an assembly line involves,
Leveling the load on each process within the line.
Keeping a constant speed in consuming each part of the line.
Since ATVs are the customer driven products a perfect pull based production system is best
suitable to produce it on a large scale. The RPW (Ranked Positional Weight) strategy is
appropriate in this case to design the assembly line.
RPW:
The problem requires packing n objects of different sizes into as few ordered bins as possible in
which each bin has the same capacity and the packing order is partially constrained. The
finiteness of the task sizes makes this a difficult problem to solve. The motivation for the
problem is the assignment of tasks to operators along an assembly line. Task size corresponds to
its operation time( ti) and the bin size represents the cycle time for the line(c). The partially
constrained ordering results from technological constraints that require certain assembly tasks to
be performed before others.
Positional weight defines a useful attribute of a task. The positional weight of task i , PWi is
defined as the sum of task is processing time plus that of all its necessary successor tasks.
Notationally, we can write this as PWi = where si is the set of tasks that must come
after task i in the assembly sequence to satisfy precedence constraints. You can think of
positional weight as a lower bound on the amount of work remaining once task i is started. In
this sense, positional weight is one measure of the degree to which task i is a bottleneck, and we
should do tasks with high PWi values as soon as possible. The ranked positional weight
technique simply orders tasks from high to low PWi and then sequence assigns tasks to the first
workstation in which they will fit. Fit requires enough free time and the satisfaction of all
precedence constraints.
Once we get the finalized BOM after fabrication of the prototype, we can decide about optimum
number of workstations to produce 4000 units with a perfectly balanced line using this strategy.
Sequencing of Multi Model Assembly Line (Goal Chasing Method) :
Not allowing the customers to think about other brands is another way to market the product. We
can do this by increasing the number of product varieties by modifying the basic one. But this
creates a new problem of sequencing in the production house. This section of report is intended
to solve this problem. Under the pull system, the variation in production quantities or
conveyance times at preceding processes must be minimized. Also, their respective work-in-
process inventories must be minimized. To do so, the quantity used per hour (i.e., consumption
speed) for each part in the mixed-model line must be kept as constant as possible. To understand
this sequencing method, it is important to define several notions and values:
Q = Total production quantity of all products Ai (i=1,. )
= , (Qi = production quantity of each product Ai)
Nj = Total necessary quantity of the part aj consumed for producing all products Ai(i=1,. ;
j=1,.., )
Xjk = Total necessary quantity of the part aj to be utilized for producing the products of
determined sequence from first to Kth.
With these notations in mind the following two values can be developed:
Nj/Q = Average necessary quantity of the part aj per unit of a product.
K.Nj/Q = Average necessary quantity of the part aj for producing K units of products.
In order to keep the consumption speed of a part aj constant, the amount of Xjk must be as
close as possible to the value of K.Nj/Q. This is the basic concept underlying Toyotas
sequencing algorithm and is depicted in the following figure.
It can now further defined that:
ulstance should be
mlnlmlzed
Nj
Xjk
K
0
(Q, Nj)
Q
K.Nj/Q
A point Gk = (K.N1/Q, K.N2/Q,. K.N /Q),
A point Pk = (X1k, X2k,.. X k).
In order for a sequence schedule to assure the constant speed of consuming each part, the
point Pk must be as close as possible to the point Gk. Therefore, if the degree is measured for
the point Pk approaching the point Gk by using the distance Dk:
Dk = || Gk Pk || = K.Nj/Q- Xjk)
2
Then, the distance Dk must be minimized.
After the fabrication of prototype we will be having the required data in our hands to go for the
design of virtual factory based on the principles of Lean and Just-in-Time production and also to
design a systematic approach to identify and eliminate waste through continuous improvement,
flow the product at the pull of the customer in pursuit of perfection. In short its all about Doing
the right things and doing the things right
RLILRLNCLS:
1. SAE BAJA RULE BOOK 2011.
2. A text of Automobile engineering by R.K.RAJPUT.
3. www.susprog.com
4. THE TOYOTA WAY, by Jeffrey k liker
5. Fundamentals of motor vehicle technology by V.A.W.HILLIER.
6. www.stoptech.com
CON1AC1:
Team MAIDEN MOB
C/o Mr. P.S.S.Murthy,
Lecturer and faculty advisor,
Dept. of mechanical engineering.
Kakatiya institute of technology and science,
WARANGAL-506015, Andhra Pradesh, India.
Ph no: +91 9347551710