Chapter 1 - Challenges of Nation Building

Three challenges
- Integration of the territory
- Establish democracy
- Ensure the development and protection of rights of all sections of the society
Partition: displacement and rehabilitation
- Two areas of concentration of Muslims in East and West
- Not all areas with Muslim concentration wanted to join Pak
o North West Frontier Province leader Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan opposed two nation
theory
- Many Muslim majority provinces had big pockets with non-Muslim majority
o These provinces were bifurcated
- Consequences
o Lahore, Amritsar and Kokata became communal zones
o Largest migration in history
Integration of Princely states
- Many small states ruled by Princes who enjoyed some form of control over internal affairs as
long as they accepted British supremacy
o This was called British paramountcy or suzreinty
o Princely states covered 1/3
rd
of land area of the British Indian Empire and popn
- Paramountcy of British Crown over Princely States would also lapse
o 565 states would become legally independent who were free to join India or Pak
- Ruler of Travancore decided that his state was independent
- Rulers like Nawab of Bhopal were averse to join the CA
- Muslim League opposed Congress and took the view states free to choose their future course
- Sardar Patel, Indias Deputy PM and Home Minister played a crucial role in integration
- Many number of small states
o 26 itself in Orissa
o Guj had 14 big states and 119 small states
- Govts approach had 3 considerations
o People of most of princely states wanted to be part of Indian union
o Govt prepared to give autonomy to some regions
o Integration and consolidation of territorial boundaries was of prime importance
- Before 15 Aug, 1947 many states signed instruments of accession
- Accession of Junagadh, Hyderabad Kashmir and Manipur proved problematic
- Junagarh issue resolved after a plebiscite
- Hyderabad
o Nizam went into a standstill agreement in Nov 1947 while negotiations were going on
o Large scale uprising in Hyd against Nizam which Nizam countered by para-military force
called Razakars who were brutal
o Army was sent in to tackle the situation in sept 1948
- Manipur
o Maharaja of Manipar, Bodhachandra Singh signed instrument of accession with India
with assurance that internal autonomy will be protected
o Under public pressure, Manipur held elections and it became a constitutional monarchy
o In LA, there was sharp opposition to merger with India
o However, GOI succeeded in signing a merger agreement in sept 1949 without consulting
popularly election LA of Manipur
o Repercussions are still being felt
Reorganization of States
- Boundaries had to be redrawn so that linguistic and cultural identity was reflected without
affecting the unity of the nation
- Nagpur Session of Congress, 1920 reorganization of INC on linguistic grounds
- Vishalandhra movement demanded separate state for AP
o Potti Sriramulu
o Announced formation of AP in 1952
o Inspired other linguistic groups to take up this cause
- State Reorganization Commission, 1953
o Boundaries of state should reflect boundaries of different languages
- State Reorganization Act, 1956
o 14 states + 6 UTs
- The accommodation of regional demands and formation of linguistic states considered
democratic
- Mah and Guj crafted in 1960
- Har and Punj, 1966
- Meghalaya carved out of Assam in 1972
- Current struggle
o Vidarbha in Mah
o Harit Pradesh in West UP
o Northern Region of West Bengal

Chapter 2 - Era of one party Dominance

ECI set up in Jan 1950 with Sukumar Sen as first EC
Indias 1
st
gen elections expected in1950 itself but when first rolls were published it was discovered that
the names of 40 lakh women were not recorded in the list
- Recorded as Wife of. Etc
- Hence elections for both LS and Legislative assemblies delayed
o Postponed twice finally held in dec 1951 to feb 1952
o Six months for campaigning, polling and counting to get completed
- Only 15% of voters literate
- EC trained over 3 lakh officers
Till 1950s, democracy had existed only in developed countries from Europe and North America
EVMs
- 1
st
method it was decided to put boxes with election symbols of each candidate in which the
voters had to insert the ballot paper in
- 2
nd
method After the 1
st
two elections, new method where voter had to stamp on the name of
the candidate they wanted to vote for
- By 2004, the entire country had shifted to EVMs
Congress dominance in the 1
st
3 elections
- 1
st
election
o Congress won 364 out of 489 seats
o CPI came next
o FPTP woes
Congress won just 45% of votes but got over 75% of seats
- Communist victory in Kerala
o Congress lost in assembly elections in 1957
o For the first time in the world, communist party govt had come in power through
democratic elections
o Promise of carrying out radical and progressive policy measures
o Dismissed in 1959 through article 356 of the const
- Socialist Party
o Congress Socialist Party formed in 1934 within Congress party but they separated in
1948 once INC amended its constitution to prevent its members from having dual
membership
o They believed in democratic socialism which opposed both INC and CPI during the early
50s
o But in 1955, Congress changed its goal to socialist pattern of society
o Rammanohar Lohia and Ashoka Mehta important leaders
o Samajwadi Party, JDU had its roots from Socialist Party
- Nature of congress domination
o In other countires, one party dominance was ensured by compromising on democratic
ideals
China, Syria, Cuba only 1 party permitted
Myanmar, Belarus, Egypt one party state due to legal and military measures
o INCs domination happened in democratic conditions similar to ANCs rise post-
apartheid South Africa
o Mexico
PRI ruled for almost 6 decades
Electoral laws manipulated, elections rigged
the perfect dictatorship
Ended in 2000
o Congress already had a very organized structure
o Congress was a social and idealogical coalition
Consensus was sought after amongst a lot of socially and idealogically diverse
groups
o Communist Party of India
Communists parted with INC in 1941 when communists decided to support
British instead of Nazi Germany
Encouraged violent uprisings in Telegana
In 1951, abandoned violent revolution and entered democratic politics
Party went through a split in 1964, following idealogical shift in China and USSR
CPI and CPI (M)
o Tolerance and management of factions
Groups with differing viewpoints and identity are called factions
Greater tolerance of internal differences and ambitions of various groups and
leaders are accommodated
o Bharatiya Jana Sangh
Formed in 1951 by Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
Can be traced to RSS and Hindu Mahasabha
The party called for a reunion of India and Pak under Akhand Bharat
Hindi as the official language
Consistent advocate of developing nuclear weapons especially after China
carried out atomic tests in 1964
Deen dayal Upadhyay, Balraj Madhok
BJP traces its roots
o The first decade, congress acted both as a ruling part and its opposition
o This is why this period has been described as the congress system
o Emergence of opposition parties
Many opposition parties right now trace its roots to the parties of the 50s
o Many opposition leaders part of cabinet
JP Narayan
o Swatantra Party
Formed in Aug 1959 after the Nagpur resolution of INC
Wanted govt to be less involved in controlling the economy
Individual freedom
Critical of state intervention, centralized planning, nationalization and public
sector
Opposed progressive tax regime and land celing
Advocated loser ties to US
Attracted landlords and princes who were feeling threatened
Narrow social base
C Rajagopalachari

Leaders
- Rajkumari Amrit Kaur
o Freedom fighter, royal family of kapurthala
o Member of CA
o Miniser of Health
- Acharya Narendra Dev
o Founding president of Congress Socialist Party
o Active in peasants movement
- BR Ambedkar
o Dalit advocate
o Independent Labour Party
o Resigned in 1951from the cabinet over differences in Hindu Code bill
- Rafi Ahmed Kidwai
o Congress leader
o Minister of communication; Food and Agriculture ministry
- AK Gopalan
o Communist leader from Kerala
o Joined CPI and then CPI M after the split
- Deen Dayal Upadhyay
o RSS worker
o President of BJS
o integral humanism
- C Rajagopalachari
o First Indian GG of India
o First receipient of Bharat Ratna
o Founder of Swantra Party
- Shyama Prasad Mukherjee
o BJS
o Was in Nehrus cabinet but resigned over differences with Pak
o Was opposed to Indias policy regarding J&K
- SA Dange
o CPI
- Minoo Masani
o Swatantra Party
-

Chapter 3 - Politics of Planned Development

Left Politics & Right Politics
- Those who are in favour of poor, downtrodden and support government policies for the benefit
of those sections
- Free competiton and non-intervention of government

Ideas of Development
- Western Liberal-Capitalist model vs USSRs socialist model
- USSRs socialist model found a lot of supporters in the Congress
- Task of poverty alleviation and economic redistribution task of the governemtn
- For some, industrialization should be the focus while for others, agriculture
Planning
- Consensus on fact that development couldnt be left to private actors, there was a need of the
government to develop a design or plan for development
- Concept of planning for rebuilding found favour
o Soviet Union growth in the 1940s
o Reconstruction of Japan and Germany
- A section of big industrialists got together in 1944 Bombay Plan
o Joint proposal for setting up planned economy for the country
o Wanted state to take major initiatives in industrial and other economic investments
o Planning for development most obvius choice for the country after independence
o Roots of Planning commission
Planning commission
- Not a constitutional body
- Set up in March, 1950 by a resolution
- It has an advisory role and recommendations became effective only when cabinet approves
them
- Formed under following terms
o Ownership and control of material resources distributed in sucha way for common
good
o Economic system doesnt result in concentration of wealth in the hands of few
- PM was the chairperson
FYPs
- GOI prepares a document that has a plan for its income and expenditure in the next 5 years
- Accordingly the budget of the central and state govts is divided into two parts
o Plan budget
Budget for priorities mentioned in the plan document
o Non-plan budget
Budget for routine items on a yearly basis
- The first draft of FYP in Dec 1951
o Second in 1956
o Third in 1961
o Fourth plan was due to start in 1966 but India faced an acute economic crisis hence
there was a plan holiday
- First Five year plan
o KN Raj argued that India should hasten slowly for the first two decades as the fast rate
of development might endanger democracy
o Addresses agrarian sector mainly investment in dams and irrigation
o Agricultural sector hardest hit during partition
o Large scale projects like Bhakra Nangal Dam
o Pattern of land distribution as the principle obstacle in the way of agricultural growth
o Focuses on land reforms
o Raise the level of national income
Can only be possible if people start saving more
Spending cant be affected as level of spending was as it is low
Indias savings did increase but not to the level as expected
- 2
nd
FYP
o Rapid industrialiazation based on heavy industries
o Team lead by PC Mahalanobis
o Quick structural transformation
o Congress resolution at session at Avadi (Madras) declared socialist pattern of society its
goal
o Govt imposed substantial tarrifs on imports to protect domestic industries
Helped public and private sector to grow
o As savings and investment growing, electricity, power, steel, railways industries could be
developed in the public sector
o However India was techonologically backward
Spent loads on expensive techonology to set up industry
o Food shortage as Industry attracted more investment than Agriculture
o Critics
Urban bias
Neglected Agriculture
Decentralized Planning
- Also successful in some states like Kerala
- The Kerala Model
o Education, health, land reform, effective food distribution, poverty alleviation
o Despite low industrial base and low pci, Kerala attained great literacy figures, mortality
rates
- Between 1987 and 1991, govt launched the New Democracy initiative where citizens can take
part in many developmental acivities through voluntary organizations
- State also planned to involve people in panchayats
Key controversies
- Agriculture vs Industry
o Gandhian economists like KC Kumarappa wanted greater emphasis on rural
industrialization
o Chaudhary Charan Singh, broke from congress to form bharatiya Lok Dal wanted agri to
be centre of planning of India
o Failure of policies targeting agriculture as landowning classes had a lot of social and
political power
- Public vs Private Sector
o Mixed economy
o Critics planners refused to provide pvt secot rwith enough space to grow
o Licensing system, import tarrifs, protectionism of industry lead to no competiton which
gave pvt sector no incentive to improve products or reduce prices
o State didnt spend adequately on public infrastructure or healthcare/education
o Creation of a comfortable middle class that enjoyed the privileges of high salaries
Major Outcomes
- Foundation
o During this period, foundations of future eco growth were laid
o Bhakra Nangal Dam, Hirakud dams for irrigation and power plants
o Transport and communication and infra significantly improved
- Land reforms
o Abolition of colonial system of Zamindari system
o Attempts of consolidation of land fairly successful
o Tenants who worked on someone elses land given greater rights against eviction
o However many well meaning policies as the landless poor were too weak for powerful
landowners
Food crisis
- Rate of food grain production barely caught up with rate of popn growth between 1940s and
50s
- Between 1965 and 1967, severe droughts
o Country faced severe two wars and foreign exchange crisis
- Bihar one of the worst hit
o Zoning policy Govt prohibited trade of food across states which reduced the
availability of food across Bihar dramatically
- Govt had to import wheat and accept foreign aid from US
o PL-480 scheme
- Now the first priority was to attain self-sufficiency
The Green Revolution
- US which was providing us aid pushed India to change its economic policy
- Relatively Short term measure now applied where it was decided to put more resources in areas
which already had resources like irrigation and farmers were well off
o They had to capacity to increase production in the short run
- Govt offered high yielding variety seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, min support price
- Rich peasants and landowners main beneficiaries of this
- Moderate agri growth but increased polarization amongst classes
- Areas like Punjab, har and Western UP became more affluent
- 2 other effects
o Stark contrast between peasantry and rich landlord class produced conditions for left
wing organizations
o Rise of middle peasant sections farmers with medium sized holdings who benefitted
from changes and soon emerged politically influential
White Revolution
- Verghese Kurien, Milkman of India
- Gujarat cooperative Milk and Marketing Ltd launched Amul at Anand, Guj
- Became a model for rural development and povery alleviation
- In 1970, Operation Flood was started
o Nationwide grid of milk cooperatives/producers
o Successful program
o Increased womens participation
Chapter 4 Indias External Relations
Article 51 of the constitution lays down DPSP on Promotion of International Peace and Security
- Promote intl peace and security
- Just and honourable relations between nations
- Foster respect for intel law and treaty obligations
- Settlement of intl disputes by arbitration

Backdrop
- Developing countries didnt have enough resources to make their voice heard in intl system
o Had to move towards one of the blocs for economic and security dependence
Policy of non-alignment
- Indian national movement part of worldwide struggle against colonialism and imperialism
- Noble ideas that inspired Indias struggle for freedom influenced forieng policy
- Lot of new developments
o Establishment of UN
o Creation of nuclear weapons
o Emergence of Communist China
o Beginning of decolnisation
- Nehrus role
o Profound influence on foreign policy from 1946 to 1964
o Didnt want to compromise on hard earned security, promote territorial integrity
o There were many opposers some of whom wanted India to favour USA as they were
democratic
Ambedkar opposed communism
Jan Sangh and Swantra party wanted pro-US foreign policy
- Distance from two camps
o Policy of non-alignemnt by reducing cold war tensions and contributing HR to UN
peacekeeping forces
o US led NATO and Soviet-led Warsaw pact
India advocated non-alignment as ideal foreign policy approach
When Britain attacked Egyot in 1956 over Suez Canal, India condemned it
however when USSR invaded Hungary, India did not join public condemnation
o India took an independent stand on various international issues and could get aid and
assistance from members from both blocs
o India tried to convince other countries to join NAM bloc
o US not happy with Indias policy of NAM
Considerable unease in Indo-US realtions of the 50s
o Indias development strategy of import substitution (not giving encouragement to
export oriented growth) meant India had limited economic interation
- Afro_Asian Unity
o Nehru ardent advocate of Asian unity
Asian Relations conference in Mar 1947
India made efforts of freedom of Indonesia from the Dutch colonial regime
o Afro-Asian conference at Bandung [Indonesia], 1955
Established contact with newly estd nations in Asia and Africa
o Bandung conference lead to establishment of NAM
1
st
summit at Belgrade, 1961
Nehru cofounder of NAM
Peace and conflict with China
- Free India began its relationship with China on a friendly note
o After the Chinese revolution in 1949, India one of the first countries to recognize the
communist govt
- Patel was worried about Chinese aggression but Nehru thought was it was highly unlikely that
India will face an attack from China.
o For a long time, Chinese border was guarded with paramilitary forces and not the army
- Panchsheel
o 5 principles of Peaceful coexistence
o 1954 between Nehru and Zhou Enlai
- Tibet issue
o From time to time in history, China claimed administrative control over Tibet but Tibet
also claimed independence
o In 1950, China took over Tibet
o Due to Panchsheel agreement and its clause that India and China had to respect each
others territorial integrity and sovereignity, India conceded Chinas claim over Tibet
o Tibetan leader Dalai Lama accompanied Chinese premier Zhou Enlai during official
Chinese visit in 1956 and informed Nehru about worsening situation in Tibet
o In 1958, there was uprising in Tibet against Chinese occupation
o In 1959, Dalai Lama fled and seeked asylum in India and was granted
Chinese govt strongly protested this
Dharmamshala
o Many parties in india supported Tibets independence
o Tibet autonomous region
Tibetans claim their culture is being undermined and its not autonomous
- Chinese invasion, 1962
o Before Dalai Lamas asylum, a boundary dispute surfaced between India and China
o Aksai Chin area in Ladakh region
Between 1957 and 1959, Chinese occupied this area and built a strategic road
o Arunachal Pradesh (NEFA North East Frontier Agency)
o Several small border skirmishes took place
o While worlds attention was fixed on Cuban Missile crisis, China launched a swift attack
on Oct 1962 on both the disputed regions
First attack lasted one week and Chinese forces captured some key areas in Aru
Pradesh
2
nd
wave of attack came one month later in Ladakh where Indian forces were
more successful
China managed to enter Assam plain when a ceasefire was called
o China war dented Indias image at both home and aborad
o India had to approach Americans and British for military assistance
o Defence Min, VK Menon had to resign and Nehrus own image took a beating
No-confidence motion passed against Nehrus govt
o The growing rift between China and Soviet Union caused irreconcilable in the CPI
CPI M Marxist and CPI (M) Maoist
o This war alerted leadership about volatile situation in north East
Nagaland granted statehood
Manipur and Tripura became UTs and were given right to elect their own
legislature
- Sino-Indian relations since 1962
o It took a decade to restore relations
o ABV visited china in 1979 as MoEF
o Rajiv Gandhi became 1
st
PM since Nehru to visit China
War and peace with China
- Proxy war between India and Pakistan army in 1947 for Kashmir
- Issue referred to UN
- The Kashmir issue didnt prevent cooperation between the govts of India and China
o Nehru and Ayub Khan mediated Indus Water Treaty in 1960 through World Bank
- 1965 War
o Pakistan launched armed attacks in Rann of Kutch Area of Gujarat
o Followed by offensive in J&K in Aug-Sept
Pak was looking to get support of local popn but didnt get
o Shastri ordered Indian troops to launch a counter-offensive on the Punjab border and
Indian army almost reached Lahore
o Hostilities ended with UN internvetion
- Tashkent agreement brokered by USSR between Ayub Khan and Shastri
- Bangladesh War, 1971
o Internal conflict between Esat Pak and West Pak
o India had to get involved because of the deepening refugee crisis from East Pakistan
8 million people
o Pak accused India of a conspiracy to break it up
o US-Pak-China nexus in 1971 realignment of forces in Asia
To counter this India signed a 20 year treaty of peace and friendship with Soviet
Union in Aug 1971
o India retaliated with attack on both Western and Eastern Front
o Shimla Agreement
Between Gandhi and ZA Bhutta, 1972
- Indias defence spending became a huge economic burden and led to postponement of 4
th
FYP
leading to 3 annual plans
o In spite of scarce resources, India embarked on military modernization drive
Department of Defense Production, 1962
Department of Defence Supplies, 1965
- Kargil confrontation
o Indian side of LOC Mashkoh, Dras, Kaksar occupied by forces claiming to be
Mujahideen
o Suspecting involvement of Pakistan army, Indian forces reacted
o Kargil conflict
o Drew attention as India and Pak became Nuclear powers one year prior
Indias nuclear Policy
- First nuclear explosion by India in May 1974
- Nehru was against Nuclear weapons and he wanted to generate atomic energy
- Nehru pleaded with superpowers for comprehensive nuclear disarmament
- However, China conducted tests in 1964
- The UNSC tried to impose NNPT in 1968 on rest of the world, India refused as it considerd NPT
as discriminatoy
- When India conducted its first Nuclear test, it termed as peaceful explosion
- Arab-Israel War of 1973, entire world affected by Oil Shock, it led to massive economic turmoil
in India
- Indias Nuclear Programme
o India opposed extension of NPT in 1995 and refused to sign CTBT as it was against
monopolization of 5 nuclear powers
o India conducted tests in May 1998 soon followed by Pakistan increasing the
vulnerability of the region to nuclear exchange
o Indias nuclear doctrine of credible minimum nuclear deterrence professes no first use
o India wants non-discriminatory nuclear disarmament