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Wc thus thInk aIout ImrIsonmcnt as a fatc rcscivcd for
othcrs, a fatc rcscrvcd for thc cvIIdocrs, to usc a tcrm
rcccntIy ouIarIzcd Iy Ccorgc W. Bush. Bccausc of thc cr-
sIstcnt ovcr of racIsm, crImInaIs and cvIIdocrs arc, In
thc coIIcctIvc ImagInatIon, fantasIzcd as coIc of coIor. Thc
rIson thcrcforc functIons IdcoIogIcaIIy as an aIstract sItc
Into vhIch undcsIraIIcs arc dcosItcd, rcIIcvIng us of thc
rcsonsIIIIIty of thInkIng aIout thc rcaI Issucs afIIIctIng thosc
commmItIcs fiom vhich rIsoncrs arc dravn In such dIsro-
ortIonatc numIcrs. ThIs Is thc IdcoIogIcaI vork that thc
rIson crformsIt rcIIcvcs L of thc rcsonsIIIIIty of scrI-
ousIy cngagng vIth thc roIIcms of our socIc(, csccIaIIy
thosc roduccd Iy racIsm and, IncrcasIngIy, gIoIaI caItaIIsm.
What, for cxamIc, do vc mIss If vc try to thInk aIout
rIson cxansIon vIthout addrcssIng Iargcr cconomIc dcvcI-
omcnts Wc IIvc In an cra of mIgratIng coqoratIons. D
ordcr to cscac organIzcd IaIor In thIs countryand thus
hIghcr vagcs, IcncfIts, and so oncoqoratIons roam thc
vorId In scarch of natIons rovIdIng chca IaIor ooIs. ThIs
cororatc mIgratIon thus Icavcs cntIrc communItIcs In
shamIIcs. Hugc numIcrs of coIc Iosc }oIs and rosccts
for Iuturc JoIs. Bccausc thc cconomIc Iasc of thcsc commu-
nItIcs Is dcstroycd, cducatIon and othcr survIving socIaI
scrvIccs arc rofoundIy affcctcd. ThIs roccss turns thc mcn,
vomcn, and chIIdrcn vho IIvc In thcsc damagcd communI-
tIcs Into crfcct candIdatcs for rIson.
D thc mcantImc, coqoratIons assocIatcd vIth thc un-
Ishmcnt Industry rca rofIts from thc systcm that managcs
rIsoncrs and acquIrc a cIcar stakc In thc contInucd grovth
of rIson ouIatIons. Put sImIy, thIs Is thc cra of thc rIson
IndustrIaI comIcx. Thc rIson has Iccomc a IIack hoIc Into
vhIch thc dctrItus of contcmorary caItaIIsm Is dcositcd.
Nass ImrIsonmcnt gcncratcs rofIts as It dcvours socIaI
! j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
vcaIth, and thus It tcnds to rcroducc thc vcry condItIons
that Icad coIc to rIson. Thcrc arc thus rcaI and oftcn quItc
comIIcatcd conncctIons Ictvccn thc dcIndustrIaIIzatIon of
thc cconomy~a roccss that rcachcd Its cak durIng thc
I980sand thc rIsc of mass ImrIsonmcnt, vhIch aIso Icgan
to siraI durIng thc Rcaga-Bush cra. Hovcvcr, thc dcmand
for morc rIsons vas rcrcscntcd to thc uIIIc In sImIIstIc
tcrms. Norc rIsons vcrc nccdcd Iccausc thcrc vas morc
crImc. Yct many schoIars havc dcmonstratcd that Iy thc
tImc thc rIson constructIon Ioom Icgan, offIcIaI crImc sta-
tIstIcs vcrc aIrcady faIIIng. Norcovcr, draconIan drug Iavs
vcrc IcIng cnactcd, and thrcc-stiikcs rovIsIons vcrc on
thc agcndas of many statcs.
In ordcr to undcrstand thc roIIfcratIon of rIsons and thc
rIsc of thc rIson IndustrIaI comIcx, It mIght Ic hcIfuI to
thInk mrthcr aIout thc rcasons vc so casIIy takc rIsons for
grantcd. In CaIIfornIa, as vc havc sccn, aImost tvo-thIrds of
cxIstIng rsons vcrc ocncd durIng thc cIghtIcs and
nInctIcs. Why vas thcrc no grcat outcry Why vas thcrc
such an oIvIous IcvcI of comfort vIth thc roscct of many
ncv rIsons` ^ artIaI ansvcr to thIs qucstIon has to do
vIth thc vay vc consumc mcdIa Imagcs of thc rIson, cvcn
as thc rcaIItIcs of Imr.sonmcnt arc hIddcn from aImost aII
vho havc not had thc mIsfortunc of doIng tImc. CuIturaI
crItIc CIna Dcnt has oIntcd out that our scnsc of famIIIarI
ty vIth thc rIson comcs In art from rcrcscntatIons of
rIsons In fIIm and othcr vIsuaI mcdIa.
Thc hIstoiy of vIsuaIIty IInkcd to thc nson Is aIso
a maIn rcInforccmcnt of thc InstItutIon of thc
rIson as a naturaIIzcd art of our socIaI Iandscac.
Thc hIstory of fIIm has aIvays Iccn vcddcd to thc
rcrcscntatIon of IncarccratIon. Thomas EdIsons
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AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j27
thc Morth, vhitc and IIack aIikc, vcrc ouIarly rcrcscntcd
as having a strong kinshi to cnsIavcd IIack coIc.`
Thc idcoIogics govcrning sIavcry and thosc govcrning
unishmcnt vcrc roIoundIy Iinkcd during thc cIicst
criod oI D. S. history. WhiIc Ircc coIc couId Ic IcgaIIy
scntcnccd to unishmcnt Iy hard IaIor, such a scntcncc
vouId in no vay changc thc conditions oI cxistcncc aIrcady
cxcricnccd Iy sIavcs. Thus, as Hirsch Iurthcr rcvcaIs,
Thomas JcIIcrson, vho suortcd thc scntcncing of con
victcd coIc to hard IaIor on road and vatcr ro}ccts, aIso
ointcd out that hc vouId cxcIudc sIavcs Irom this sort oI
unishmcnt. Sincc sIavcs aIrcady hard IaIor, scn
tcncing thcm to cnaI IaIor vouId not mark a difIcrcncc in
thcir condition. JcfIcrson suggcstcd Ianishmcnt to othcr
countrics instcad.
ParticuIarIy in thc Dnitcd racc has aIvays Iaycd
a ccntraI roIc in constructing rcsumtions oI criminaIity.
Aftcr thc aIoIition oI sIavcry, Iormcr sIavc statcs asscd
ncv IcgisIation rcvising thc SIavc Codcs in ordcr to rcguIatc
thc Ichavior of Ircc IIacks in vays simiIar to thosc that had
cxistcd during sIavcry. Thc ncv BIack Codcs roscriIcd a
rangc of actionssuch as vagrancy, aIscncc from vork,
Ircach of }oI contracts, thc osscssion of fircarms, and
insuIting gcsturcs or actsthat vcrc criminaIizcd onIy
vhcn thc crson chargcd vas IIack. With thc assagc of thc
Thirtccnth Acndmcnt to thc Constitution, sIavcry and
invoIuntary scrvitudc vcrc utativcIy aIoIishcd. Hovcvcr,
thcrc vas a signiIicant cxcction. In thc vording of thc
amcndmcnt, sIavcry and invoIuntary scrvitudc vcrc aIoI-
ishcd cxcct as a unishmcnt Ior crimc, vhcrcoI thc arty
shaII havc Iccn duIy convictcd. According to thc BIack
Codcs, thcrc vcrc crimcs dcIincd Iy statc Iav Ior vhich
onIy IIack coIc couId Ic duIy convictcd.' Thus, formcr
28 j Anqe|a Y. 0av|s
sIavcs, vho had rcccntIy Iccn cxtricatcd Irom a condition
of hard IaIor Ior IiIc, couId Ic IcgaIIy scntcnccd to cnaI
scrvitudc.
In thc immcdiatc aItcrmath oI sIavcry, thc southcrn statcs
hastcncd to dcvcIo a criminaI }usticc systcm that couId
IcgaIIy rcstrict thc ossiIiIitics of Irccdom for ncvIy rcIcascd
sIavcs. BIack coIc Iccamc thc rimc targcts of a dcvcIoing
convict Icasc systcm, rcfcrrcd to Iy many as a rcincarnation
of sIavcry. Thc Nississii BIack Codcs, Ior cxamIc,
dccIarcd vagrant anyonc[vho vas guiIty oI thcIt, had run
avay Irom a }oI, aarcntIy|, vas drunk, vas vanton in con-
duct or sccch, had ncgIcctcd }oI or IamiIy, handIcd moncy
carcIcssIy, and . . . aII othcr idIc and disordcrIy crsons. !
Thus, vagrancy vas codcd as a IIack crimc, onc unishaIIc
Iy incarccration and Iorccd IaIor, somctimcs on thc vcry
Iantations that rcviousIy had tmivcd on sIavc IaIor.
Nary EIIcn Curtin's study of AIaIama risoncrs during
thc dccadcs foIIoving cmanciation discIoscs that IcIorc thc
four hundrcd thousad IIack sIavcs in that statc vcrc sct
Ircc, nincty-ninc crccnt oI risoncrs in AIaIamas cnitcn-
tiarics vcrc vhitc. As a conscqucncc of thc shifts rovokcd
Iy thc institution oI thc BIack Codcs, vithin a short criod
oI timc, thc ovcrvhcIming ma}ority oI AIaIama's convicts
vcrc IIack. Shc furthcr oIscrvcs:
AIthough thc vast ma}ority oI AIaIama's antcIcI-
Ium vcrc vhitc, thc ouIar crcction
vas that thc South's truc criminaIs vcrc its IIack
sIavcs. thc I8/0s thc groving numIcr of
bIack risoncrs in thc South Iurthcr Iuttrcsscd thc
IcIicI that AIrican Amcricans vcrc inhcrcntIy
criminaI and, in articuIar, ronc to Iarccny.
'!
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? 29
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A0 0| SOMS O0SOLL1L7 j 33
chargcs of thcft vcrc frcqucntIy faIricatcd outright. Thcy
aIso scrvcd as suItcrfugc for oIiticaI rcvcngc. Aftcr cmanci-
ation thc courtroom Iccamc an idcaI Iacc to cxact raciaI rct-
riIution. In this scnsc, thc vork of thc criminaI }usticc sys-
tcm vas intimatcIy rcIatcd to thc cxtraIcgaI vork of Iynching.
AIcx Lichtcnstcin, vhosc study focuscs on thc roIc of thc
convict Icasc systcm in forging a ncv IaIor forcc for thc
South, idcntifics thc Icasc systcm, aIong vith thc ncv Jim
Crov Iavs, as thc ccntraI institution in thc dcvcIomcnt of
a raciaI statc.
Mcv South caitaIists in Ccorgia and cIscvhcrc
vcrc aIIc to usc thc statc to rccruit and disciIinc a
convict IaIor forcc, and thus vcrc aIIc to dcvcIo
thcir statcs' rcsourccs vithout crcating a vagc IaIor
forcc, and vithout undcrmining Iantcrs' controI of
IIack IaIor. In fact, quitc thc oositc: thc cnaI
systcm couId Ic uscd as a ovcrfuI sanction against
ruraI IIacks vho chaIIcngcd thc raciaI ordcr uon
vhich agricuIturaI IaIor controI rcIicd.!
Lichtcnstcin discIoscs, for cxamIc, thc cxtcnt to vhich
thc IuiIding of Ccorgia raiIroads during thc ninctccnth ccn-
tury rcIicd on IIack convict IaIor. Hc furthcr rcminds us
that as vc drivc dovn thc most famous strcct in AtIanta
Pcachtrcc Strcctvc ridc on thc Iacks of convicts. Thc
rcnovncd Pcachtrcc Strcct and thc rcst of AtIanta's vcII
avcd roads and modcrn transortation infrastructurc,
vhich hcIcd ccmcnt its Iacc as thc commcrciaI huI of thc
modcrn South, vcrc originaIIy Iaid Iy convicts.
Lichtcnstcin's ma}or argumcnt is that thc convict Icasc
vas not an irrationaI rcgrcssion, it vas not rimariIy a
throvIack to rccaitaIist modcs of roduction. Rathcr, it
34 Anqela Y. 0avis
vas a most cfficicnt and most rationaI dcIoymcnt of racist
stratcgics to sviftIy achicvc industriaIization in thc South.
In this scnsc, hc argucs, convict IaIor vas in many vays in
thc vanguard of thc rcgion's first tcntativc, amIivaIcnt, stcs
tovard modcrnity.
Thosc of us vho havc had thc oortunity to visit ninc-
tccnth-ccntury mansions that vcrc originaIIy constructcd
on sIavc Iantations arc rarcIy contcnt vith an acsthctic
araisaI of thcsc structurcs, no mattcr hov IcautifuI thcy
may Ic. Sufficicnt visuaI imagcry of toiIing IIack sIavcs cir-
cuIatc cnough in our cnvironmcnt for us to imaginc thc Iru-
taIity that hidcs }ust Icncath thc surfacc of thcsc vondrous
mansions. Wc havc Icarncd hov to rccognizc thc roIc of
sIavc IaIor, as vcII as thc racism it cmIodicd. But IIack con
vict IaIor rcmains a hiddcn dimcnsion of our history. It is
cxtrcmcIy unscttIing to think of modcrn, industriaIizcd
urIan arcas as having Iccn originaIIy roduccd undcr thc
racist IaIor conditions of cnaI scrvitudc that arc oftcn
dcscriIcd Iy historians as cvcn vorsc than sIavcry.
I grcv u in thc city of Birmingham, AIaIama. Bccausc of
its mincscoaI and iron orcand its stccI miIIs that
rcmaincd activc untiI thc dcindustriaIization roccss of thc
I980s, it vas vidcIy knovn as thc PittsIurgh of thc
South. Thc fathcrs of many of my fricnds vorkcd in thcsc
mincs and miIIs. It is onIy rcccntIy that I havc Icarncd that
thc IIack mincrs and stccIvorkcrs kncv during my chiId-
hood inhcritcd thcir Iacc in Birmingham's industriaI dcvcI-
omcnt from IIack convicts forccd to do this vork undcr thc
Icasc systcm. As Curtin oIscrvcs,
Nany cx-risoncrs Iccamc mincrs Iccausc AIaIama
uscd rison IaIor cxtcnsivcIy in its coaImincs. By
I888 aII of AIaIama's aIIc maIc risoncrs vcrc Icascd
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 35
to tvo ma}or mining comanics. thc Tcnncsscc CoaI
and Iron Comany ,TCI and SIoss Iron and StccI
Comany. For a chargc oI u to $I8. 50 cr month cr
man, thcsc cororations Icascd, or rcntcd rison
IaIorcrs and vorkcd thcm in coaImincs.
Lcarning aIout this IittIc-acknovIcdgcd dimcnsion oI
IIack and IaIor history has causcd mc to rccvaIuatc my ovn
chiIdhood cxcricnccs.
Onc oI thc many ruscs racism achicvcs is thc virtuaI cra-
surc oI historicaI contriIutions Iy coIc oI coIor. Hcrc vc
havc a cnaI systcm that vas racist in many rcscctsdis-
criminatory arrcsts and scntcnccs, conditions oI vork,
modcs oI unishmcnttogcthcr vith thc racist crasurc oI
thc signiIicant contriIutions madc Iy IIack convicts as a
rcsuIt oI racist cocrcion. Just as it is diIIicuIt to imaginc hov
much is ovcd to convicts rcIcgatcd to cnaI scrvitudc during
thc ninctccnth and tvcnticth ccnturics, vc Iind it diIIicuIt
today to IccI a conncction vith thc risoncrs vho roducc a
rising numIcr oI commoditics that vc takc Ior grantcd in our
daiIy Iivcs. In thc statc oI CaIiIornia, uIIic coIIcgcs and uni-
vcrsitics arc rovidcd vith Iurniturc roduccd Iy risoncrs,
thc vast ma}ority oI vhom arc Latino and IIack.
Thcrc arc asccts oI our history that vc nccd to intcrro-
gatc and rcthink, thc rccognition oI vhich may hcI us to
adot morc comIicatcd, criticaI osturcs tovard thc rcs-
cnt and thc Iuturc. I havc Iocuscd on thc vork oI a Icv schoI-
ars vhosc vork urgcs us to raisc qucstions aIout thc ast,
rcscnt, and Iuturc. Curtin, Ior cxamIc, is not simIy con-
tcnt vith oIIcring us thc ossiIiIity oI rccxamining thc Iacc
oI mining and stccIvork in thc Iivcs oI IIack coIc in
AIaIama. Shc aIso uscs hcr rcscarch to urgc us to think
aIout thc uncanny araIIcIs Ictvccn thc convict Icasc sys-
36 j Anqela Y. 0avis
tcm in thc ninctccnth ccntury and rison rivatization in
thc tvcnty-Iirst.
In thc Iatc ninctccnth ccntury, coaI comanics
vishcd to kcc thcir skiIIcd rison IaIorcrs Ior as
Iong as thcy couId, Icading to dcniaIs oI short
timc. Today, a sIightIy diIfcrcnt cconomic inccn-
tivc can Icad to simiIar conscqucnccs. CCA
Corrcctions Cororation oI Amcrica| is aid cr
risoncr. II thc suIy drics u, or too many arc
rcIcascd too carIy, thcir roIits arc affcctcd . . .
Longcr rison tcrms mcan grcatcr roIits, Iut thc
Iargcr oint is that thc roIit motivc romotcs thc
cxansion oI imrisonmcnt.
Thc crsistcncc oI thc rison as thc main Iorm oI un-
ishmcnt, vith its racist and scxist dimcnsions, has crcatcd
this historicaI continuity Ictvccn thc ninctccnth- and carIy-
tvcnticth-ccntury convict Icasc systcm and thc rivatizcd
rison Iusincss today. WhiIc thc convict Icasc systcm vas
IcgaIIy aIoIishcd, its structurcs oI cxIoitation havc
rccmcrgcd in thc attcrns oI rivatization, and, morc gcncr-
aIIy, in thc vidc-ranging cororatization oI unishmcnt that
has roduccd a rison industriaI comIcx. II thc rison con-
tinucs to dominatc thc Iandscac oI unishmcnt throughout
this ccntury and into thc ncxt, vhat might avait coming
gcncrations oI imovcrishcd AIrican-Amcricans, Latinos,
Mativc Amcricans, and Asian-Amcricans` Civcn thc araI-
IcIs Ictvccn thc rison and sIavcry, a roductivc cxcrcisc
might consist in sccuIating aIout vhat thc rcscnt might
Iook Iikc iI sIavcry or its succcssor, thc convict Icasc systcm,
had not Iccn aIoIishcd.
To Ic surc, I am not suggcsting that thc aIoIition oI sIav-
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j37
cry and thc Icasc systcm has roduccd an cra of cquaIIty and
JustIcc. On thc contrary, racIsm surrctItIousIy dcfIncs
socIaI and cconomIc structu:cs In vays that arc dIffIcuIt to
IdcntIfy and thus arc much morc damagIng In somc statcs,
for cxamIc, morc than onc-thIrd of IIack mcn havc Iccn
IaIcIcd fcIons. In AIaIama and FIorIda, oncc a fcIon, aIvays
a fcIon, vhIch cntaIIs thc Ioss of status as a rIghts-IcarIng
cItIzcn. Onc of thc gravc conscqucnccs of thc ovcrfuI rcach
of thc rIson vas thc 2 j s}cIcctIon of Ccorgc Y Bush as
rcsIdcnt. onIy thc IIack mcn and vomcn dcnIcd thc rIght
to votc Iccausc of an actuaI or rcsumcd fcIony rccord had
Iccn aIIovcd to cast thcIr IaIIots, Bush vouId not Ic In thc
WhItc Housc today. And crhas vc vouId not Ic dcaIing
vIth thc avfuI costs of thc War on TcrrorIsm dccIarcd dur-
Ing thc fIrst ycar of hIs admmIstratIon. If not for hIs ccctIon,
thc coIc of Iraq mIght not havc suffcrcd dcath, dcstruc-
tIon, and cnvIronmcntaI oIsoning Iy \.>. mIIItary forccs.
As aaIIIng as thc currcnt oIItIcaI sItuatIon may Ic,
imagInc vhat our IIvcs mIght havc Iccomc If vc vcrc siIII
gaIIng vIth thc InstItutIon of sIavcry-or thc convIct
Icasc systcm or racIaI scgrcgatIon. But vc do not havc to
sccuIatc aIout IIvIng vIth thc conscqucnccs of thc rIson.
Thcrc Is morc than cnough cvIdcncc In thc IIvcs of mcn and
vomcn vho havc Iccn cIaImcd Iy cvcr morc rcrcssIvc
InstItutIons and vho arc dcnIcd acccss to thcIr famIIIcs,
thcIr communItIcs, to cducatIona oortunItIcs, to roduc-
tIvc and crcatIvc vork, to hysIcaI and mcntaI rccrcatIon.
And thcrc Is cvcn morc comcIIIng cvIdcncc aIout thc dam-
agc vrought Iy thc cansIon of thc :Ison systcm In thc
schooIs Iocatcd In oor communItIcs of coIor that rcIIcatc
thc structurcs and rcgImcs of thc rIson. Whcn chIIdrcn
attcnd schooIs that Iacc a grcatcr vaIuc on dIscIIInc and
sccurIty than on knovIcdgc and IntcIIcctuaI dcvcIomcnt,
38 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
thcy arc attcndIng rc schooIs for rIson. If thIs Is thc
rcdIcamcnt vc facc today, vhat mIght thc futurc hoId If thc
rIson systcm acquIrcs an cvcn grcatcr rcscncc In our socI-
cty In thc nInctccnth ccntury, antIsIavcry actIvIsts InsIstcd
that as Iong as sIavcry contInucd, thc nturc of dcmocracy
vas IIcak Indccd In thc tvcnty-fIrst ccntury, antIrIson
actIvIsts insIst that a fundamcntaI rcquIrcmcnt for thc rcvI-
taIIzatIon of dcmocracy Is thc Iong-ovcrduc aIoIItIon of thc
rIson systcm.
A0L 0| 8Om8 O08O|L1L? j 39

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40
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OO!!D OI, OuDID C81D, aDd O!DC 8uO8!aDCC8 WCC UC!Cd
!OC!DC aDd QOuCd OD!O !DC WOUDd8. 1IDa}, DC Wa8 daWD
aDd qua!CCd, DI8 OOd} OuDCd, aDd !DC a8DC8 !O88Cd ID!O
!DC WIDd.' \DdC D!8D COUUOD aW, a CODVIC!IOD !O
8OdOU} Cd !O !DC QuDI8DUCD! O! OCID OuICd aIVC, ad
CODVIC!Cd DCC!IC8 a8O WCC OuDCd aIVC. DC CIUC O!
!Ca8OD O} a !CUaC Wa8 QuDI8DCd IDI!Ia} uDdC !DC COU-
UOD aW O} OuDID aIVC !DC dC!CDdaD!. OWCVC, ID !DC
}Ca I/90 !DI8 UC!DOd Wa8 Da!Cd aDd !DC QuDI8DUCD!
OCCaUC 8!aDua!IOD aDd OuDID O! !DC COt8C.
uOQCaD aDd PUCICaD C!OUC8 8C! Ou! !O CDd UaCaOC
QCDa!IC8 8uCD a8 !DI8, a8 WC a8 O!DC !OU8 O! COQOa QuD-
I8DUCD! 8uCD a8 !DC 8!OCK8 aDd QIOIC8, WDIQQID8, OaDd-
ID8, aDd aUQu!a!IOD8. IO !O !DC aQQCaaDCC O! QuDI!IVC
IDCaCCa!IOD, 8uCD QuDI8DUCD! Wa8 dC8IDCd !O DaVC I!8
UO8! QO!OuDd C!!CC! DO! 8O UuCD OD !DC QC8OD QuD8DCd a8
OD !DC COWd O! 8QCC!a!O8. uDI8DUCD! Wa8, ID C88CDCC,
QuOIC 8QCC!aCC. C!OUC8 8uCD a8 |ODD OWad ID DaDd
aDd CD]aUID u8D ID CDD8}VaDIa auCd !Da! QUDI8D-
UCD!I! Ca!Cd Ou! ID I8Oa!IOD, OCDIDd !DC Wa8 O! !DC
QI8ODWOud CCa8C !O OC CVCDC aDd WOud aC!ua}
C!OU !DO8C WDO Dad OOKCD !DC aW.
! 8DOud a8O OC QOID!Cd Ou! !Da! QuDI8DUCD! Da8 DO! OCCD
WI!DOu! I!8 CDdCCd dIUCD8IOD8. YOUCD WCC O!!CD QuD-
I8DCd WI!DID !DC dOUC8!IC dOUaID, aDd ID8!uUCD!8 O! !O!uC
WCC 8OUC!IUC8 IUQO!Cd O} au!DOt!!IC8 ID!O !DC DOu8CDOd.
D 8CVCD!CCD!D-CCDtu} I!aID, WOUCD WDO8C Du8OaDd8 IdCD-
!I!ICd !DCU a8 quaC8OUC aDd uDaCCCQ!ID O! UaC dOUI-
DaDCC WCC QuDI8DCd O} UCaD8 O! a O88IQ8 OIdC, O
''OaK8, a DCadQICCC WI!D a CDaID a!!aCDCd aDd aD IOD OI!
!Da! Wa8 ID!OduCCd ID!O !DC WOUaD8 UOu!D.'` P!DOu tDC
OaDKID O! WOUCD Wa8 O!!CD IDKCd !O a QuOIC QaadC, !DI8
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 4!
contration vas somctimcs hookcd to a vaII oI thc housc,
vhcrc thc unishcd voman rcmaincd untiI hcr husIand
dccidcd to rcIcasc hcr. I mcntion thcsc Iorms oI unishmcnt
inIIictcd on vomcn Iccausc, Iikc thc unishmcnt inIIictcd on
sIavcs, thcy vcrc rarcIy takcn u Iy rison rcIormcrs.
Othcr modcs oI unishmcnt that rcdatcd thc risc oI thc
rison incIudc Ianishmcnt, Iorccd IaIor in gaIIcys, trans
ortation, and aroriation oI thc accuscd's rocrty. Jhc
unitivc transortation oI Iargc numIcrs oI coIc Irom
EngIand, Ior cxamIc, IaciIitatcd thc initiaI coIonization oI
AustraIia. Transortcd EngIish convicts aIso scttIcd thc
Morth Amcrican coIony oI Ccorgia. During thc carIy I/00s,
onc in cight transortcd convicts vcrc vomcn, and thc vork
thcy vcrc Iorccd to crIorm oItcn consistcd oI rostitution.
Imrisonmcnt vas not cmIoycd as a rinciaI modc oI
unishmcnt untiI thc cightccnth ccntury in Euroc and thc
ninctccnth ccntury in thc Dnitcd Statcs. And Eurocan
rison systcms vcrc institutcd in Asia and AIrica as an
imortant comoncnt oI coIoniaI ruIc. In India, Ior cxamIc,
thc EngIish rison systcm vas introduccd during thc sccond
haII oI thc cightccnth ccntury, vhcn }aiIs vcrc cstaIIishcd
in thc rcgions oI CaIcutta and Nadras. In Euroc, thc cni
tcntiary movcmcnt against caitaI and othcr cororaI un
ishmcnts rcIIcctcd ncv intcIIcctuaI tcndcncics associatcd
vith thc EnIightcnmcnt, act:v:st intcrvcntions Iy
Protcstant rcIormcrs, and structuraI transIormations associ-
atcd vith thc risc oI industriaI caitaIism. In NiIan in I/64,
Ccsarc Bcccaria uIIishcd his Isscy on Crmcs cnd
Iunshmcnts, vhich vas strongIy inIIucnccd Iy notions oI
cquaIity advanccd Iy thc hiIosohcscscciaIIy VoItairc,
Rousscau, and Nontcsquicu. Bcccaria argucd that unish-
mcnt shouId ncvcr Ic a rivatc mattcr, nor shouId it Ic arIi-
trariIy vioIcnt, rathcr, it shouId Ic uIIic, sviIt, and as
42 Anqel a Y. 0avis
Icnicnt as ossiIIc. Hc rcvcaIcd thc contradiction oI vhat
vas thcn a distinctivc Icaturc oI imrisonmcntthc Iact
that it vas gcncraIIy imoscd rior to thc dcIcndant's guiIt
or innoccncc Icing dccidcd.
Hovcvcr, incarccration itscII cvcntuaIIy Iccamc thc
cnaIty, Iringing aIout a distinction Ictvccn imrisonmcnt
as unishmcnt and rctriaI dctcntion or dctcntion untiI thc
inIIiction oI unishmcnt. Thc roccss through vhich
imrisonmcnt dcvcIocd into thc rimary modc oI statc
inIIictcd unishmcnt vas vcry much rcIatcd to thc risc oI
caitaIism and to thc acarancc oI a ncv sct oI idcoIogicaI
conditions. Thcsc ncv conditions rcIIcctcd thc risc oI thc
Iourgcoisic as thc sociaI cIass vhosc intcrcsts and asira
tions Iurthcrcd ncv scicntiIic, hiIosohicaI, cuIturaI, and
ouIar idcas. It is thus imortant to gras thc Iact that thc
rison as vc knov it today did not makc its acarancc on
thc historicaI stagc as thc sucrior Iorm oI unishmcnt Ior
aII timcs. It vas simIythough vc shouId not undcrcsti
matc thc comIcxity oI this roccssvhat madc most scnsc
at a articuIar momcnt in history. Wc shouId thcrcIorc qucs
tion vhcthcr a systcm that vas intimatcIy rcIatcd to a ar
ticuIar sct oI historicaI circumstanccs that rcvaiIcd during
thc cightccnth and ninctccnth ccnturics can Iay aIsoIutc
cIaim on thc tvcnty-Iirst ccntury.
It may Ic imortant at this oint in our cxamination to
acknovIcdgc thc radicaI shiIt in thc sociaI crcction oI thc
individuaI that acarcd in thc idcas oI that cra. With thc
risc oI thc Iourgcoisic, thc individuaI camc to Ic rcgardcd as
a Icarcr oI IormaI rights and IiIcrtics. Thc notion oI thc indi
viduaI's inaIicnaIIc rights and IiIcrtics vas cvcntuaIIy
mcmoriaIizcd in thc Frcnch and Amcrican RcvoIution.
Ibcrte, Ic!te, Irctcrte Irom thc Frcnch RcvoIution
and Wc hoId thcsc truths to Ic scII-cvidcnt. aII mcn arc crc-
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 43
8!CU Cqu8 . . . tOU !DC PUCtJC8D !CVOu!JOD WCtC DCW 8DU
t8UJC8 UC88, CVCD !DOuD !DCy WCtC DO! CX!CDUCU !O
WOUCD, WOtKCt8, PtC8D8, 8DU DUJ8D8. bCOtC !DC 8CCC!-
8DCC O !DC 88DC!J!y O JDUVJUu8 tJD!8, JUt8ODUCD!
COuU DO! D8VC bCCD uDUCt8!OOU 88 uDJ8hUCD!. !DC DUJ
VUu8 W88 DO! CtCCVCU 88 O88C88JD D8JCD8bC tJD!8 8DU
JbCt!C8, !DCD !DC 8CD8!JOD O !hO8C tJD!8 8DU bCt!C8 by
tCUOV8 tOU 8OCJC!y !O 8 88CC !yI8DDJC8y OVCtDCU by !DC
8!8!C WOuU DO! D8VC U8UC 8CD8C. b8DJ8DUCD! bCyODU !DC
COt8DJC8 JUJ!8 O !DC !OWD U8y D8VC U8UC 8CD8C, bu!
DO! !DC 8!Ct8!JOD O !DC JDUVJUu8'8 C8 8!8!u8 !DtOuD
JUO8J!JOD O 8 tJ8OD 8CD!CDCC.
NOtCOVCt, !DC I8OD 8CD!CDCC, WDCD 8 8W8y8 COUu!-
CU D !CtU8 O !UC, J8 tC8!CU !O 8b8!t8C! qu8D!JJC8!OD,
CVOKD !DC t8C O 8CCDCC 8DU WDa! J8 O!CD tCCttCU !O 88
!DC PC O !C88OD. YC 8DOuU KCC JD UDU !D8! !DJ8 W88
tCC8Cy !DC DJ8!OtC8 CtJOU WDCD !DC V8uC O 8bOt bC8D
!O bC C8Cu8!CU JD !CtU8 O !JUC 8DU !DCtCOtC COUCD88!CU
D 8DO!DCt qu8D!JJ8bC W8y, by UODCy. JDC COUu!8bJ!y
O 8!8!C uD8DUCD! D !CtU8 O UOD!D8,
yC8I8tC8OD8!C8 WJ!D !DC tOC O 8bOt!UC 88 !DC b88J8 Ot
COUu!JD !DC V8uC O C8J!88! COUUOUI!JC8. N8IX8! !DC
OtJ8!8 O uD8DUCD! D8VC DO!CU !D8! tCCJ8Cy !DC DJ8!OtC8
CtJOU UutD WDCD !DC COUUOU!y OtU 8tO8C J8 !DC Ct8
UutJD WDJCD CDJ!CD!8ty 8CD!CDCC8 CUCtCU 88 !DC tJU8ty
OtU O uDJ8DUCD!."
OU8y, !DC tOWD 8OC8 UOVCUCD! COD!C8!JD !DC
8utCU8Cy O Ob8 C8J!8 J8 8 UOVCUCD! !D8! UJtCC!y CD8-
CDC8 !DC tuC O !hC DuU8D, 8DJU8, 8DU 8D!
Ou8!OD8, 88 WC 88 J!8 D8!ut8 tC8OutCC8by COQOt8!OD8
!D8! 8IC tJU8tJy D!CtC8!CU JD !DC DCtC88CU tOUuC!JOD 8DU
CJtCu8!JOD O CVCt UOtC IO!8bC COUUOU!C8. DI8 J8 8
Ch8CDC !O !DC 8utCU8Cy O !DC COUUOU!y IOtU, 8 tJ8D
44 j Ange|a Y. 0av|s
tC8J8!8DCC !O !DC COD!CUOt8Iy !CDUCDCy !O COUUOUJy
CVCty 88CC! O 8DC!8Iy CX8!CDCC. DC quC8!OD WC UJD!
COD8JUCt J8 WDC!DCt !DJ8 DCW tC88!8DCC !O C8!88! Ob8-
28!OD 8DOuU 88O JDCOIOI8!C tC88!8DCC !O !DC t8OD.
Jhu8 8t D8VC 8tCy u8CU CDUCtDCu!t8 8Du8C !O
UC8CtbC !DC D8!OIJC8 UCVCOUCD! O !DC t8OD 8DU J!8
tCOtUCt8. bu! CODVC!8 uD8DCU by JUt8ODUCD! JD CUCt-
CD! CD!CD!8I) 8y8!CU8 WCtC tJU8tJy U8C. D8 tCCC!
CU !DC UCCy CDUCt-b88CU 8!tuC!utC O C8, OJ!C8, 8DU
CCODOUJC th!8. oJDCC WOUCD WCtC 8tCy UCDCU ubC
8!8!u8 88 ID!8-bC8tD DCJVJUu88, !DCy COuU DO! bC C88Jy
uDJ8DCU by !DC UCIV8!JOD O 8uCD tJh!8 !htOuD JUtI8-
ODUCD!.`' D8 W88 C8CCJ8y !tuC O U8ttCU WOUCD, WDO
D8U DO 8!8DUJD bCOtC !DC 8W. PCCOtUD !O LDgJ8D COU-
UOD 8W, U8tJ8C tC8u!CU JD 8 8!8!C O 'CV UC8!D, 88
8yUbO2CU by !DC WC8 888uU!OD O !DC Du8b8DU8 D8UC.
LOD8CquCD!y, 8DC !CDUCU !O bC uD8DCU Ot tCVO!D
88JD8! DCt UOUC8!JC Uu!JC8 t8!DCt !D8D Ot 8IutC JD DCt UC8-
Ct ubC tC8OD8bJJ!JC8. JhC tCC8!OD O WDJ!C WOUCD !O
UOUC8!C CCODOUJC8 tCVCD!CU !DCU IOU 8yD 8
C8D! tOC H !DC CUCtCD! COUUOU!y tC8U. JDJ8 W88 C8C-
CJ8y !tuC 8DCC W8C 8bOt W88 !_JC8y CDUCtCU 88 U8C
8DU t8C8J2CU 88 WDJ!C. ! 8 DO! Ot!uJ!Ou8 !D8! UOUC8!JC COt-
Ot8 uDJ8DUCD! Ot WOUCD 8utVJVCU OD 8!Ct !DC8C UOUC8
O uD8hUCD! D8U bCCOUC Ob8OC!C Ot [Wh!C} UCD. JDC
Ct8J8!CDCC O UOUC8!C VJOCDCC 8Duy 8!!C8!8 !O !DC8C
DJ8!OIJC8 UOUC8 O CDUCtCU uDJ8DUCD!.
oOUC 8CDO8t8 D8VC 8tuCU !D8! !DC WOtU CD!CD!J8ty
U8y D8VC bCCD u8CU Jt8! D CODDCC!JOD W!D 8D8 Ou!DCU
D LD8DU D J/bo !O DOu8C 'CDJ!CD! tO8!!u!C8. ' D J///,
]ODD 1OW8tU, !DC C8UJD tO!C8!8D! tOODCD! O CD8
tCOtU D LD8DU, ub8DCU Thc oIuI6 o} Ihc lrisons, D
WDCD DC CODCC!u8J2CU JUt8ODUCD! 88 8D OCC88OD Ot
A0 0| SOMS O0SOL17 j 45
rcIigious scII-rcIIcction and scII-rcIorm. Bctvccn I /8/ and
I /9I, thc utiIitarian hiIosohcr Jcrcmy Bcntham uIIishcd
his Icttcrs on a rison modcI hc caIIcd thc anoticon.
Bcntham cIaimcd that criminaIs couId onIy intcrnaIizc ro-
ductivc IaIor haIits iI thcy vcrc undcr constant survciI-
Iancc. According to his anoticon modcI, risoncrs vcrc to
Ic houscd in singIc ccIIs on circuIar ticrs, aII Iacing a muIti-
IcvcI guard tovcr. By mcans oI IIinds and a comIicatcd Iay
oI Iight and darkncss, thc risoncrsvho vouId not scc
cach othcr at aIIvouId Ic unaIIc to scc thc vardcn. From
his vantagc oint, on thc othcr hand, thc vardcn vouId Ic
aIIc to scc aII oI thc risoncrs. Hovcvcrand this vas thc
most signiIicant ascct oI Bcntham's mammoth anoti-
con~Iccausc cach individuaI risoncr vouId ncvcr Ic aIIc
to dctcrminc vhcrc thc vardcn's gazc vas Iocuscd, cach
risoncr vouId Ic comcIIcd to act, that is, vork, as iI hc
vcrc Icing vatchcd at aII timcs.
II vc comIinc Hovard's cmhasis on disciIincd scII-
rcIIcction vith Bcntham's idcas rcgarding thc tcchnoIogy oI
intcrnaIization dcsigncd to makc survciIIancc and disciIinc
thc urvicv oI thc individuaI risoncr, vc can Icgin to scc
hov such a concction oI thc rison had Iar-rcaching imIi-
cations. Thc conditions oI ossiIiIity Ior this ncv Iorm oI
unishmcnt vcrc strongIy anchorcd in a historicaI cra during
vhich thc vorking cIass nccdcd to Ic constitutcd as an army
oI scII-disciIincd individuaIs caaIIc oI crIorming thc rcq-
uisitc industriaI IaIor Ior a dcvcIoing caitaIist systcm.
John Hovard's idcas vcrc incororatcd in thc
Pcnitcntiary Act oI I/99, vhich ocncd thc vay Ior thc
modcrn rison. WhiIc Jcrcmy Bcntham's idcas inIIucnccd
thc dcvcIomcnt oI thc Iirst nationaI EngIish cnitcntiary,
Iocatcd in NiIIIank and ocncd in I8I 6, thc Iirst IuII-IIcdgcd
cIIort to crcatc a anoticon rison vas in thc Dnitcd Statcs.
46 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
Thc Wcstcrn Statc Pcnitcntiary in PittsIurgh, Iascd on a
rcviscd architccturaI modcI oI thc anoticon, ocncd in
I826. But thc cnitcntiary had aIrcady madc its acarancc
in thc Dnitcd Statcs. PcnnsyIvania's WaInut Strcct JaiI
houscd thc Iirst statc cnitcntiary in thc Dnitcd Statcs,
vhcn a ortion oI thc }aiI vas convcrtcd in I/90 Irom a
dctcntion IaciIity to an institution housing convicts vhosc
rison scntcnccs simuItancousIy Iccamc unishmcnt and
occasions Ior cnitcncc and rcIorm.
WaInut Strcct's austcrc rcgimctotaI isoIation in singIc
ccIIs vhcrc risoncrs Iivcd, atc, vorkcd, rcad thc BiIIc ,iI,
indccd, thcy vcrc Iitcratc, and suoscdIy rcIIcctcd and
rccntcdcamc to Ic knovn as thc PcnnsyIvania systcm.
This rcgimc vouId constitutc onc oI that cra's tvo ma}or
modcIs oI imrisonmcnt. AIthough thc othcr modcI, dcvcI-
ocd in AuIurn, Mcv York, vas vicvcd as a rivaI to thc
PcnnsyIvania systcm, thc hiIosohicaI Iasis oI thc tvo
modcIs did not diIIcr suIstantivcIy. Thc PcnnsyIvania
modcI, vhich cvcntuaIIy crystaIIizcd in thc Eastcrn Statc
Pcnitcntiary in Chcrry HiIIthc Ians Ior vhich vcrc
arovcd in I82Icmhasizcd totaI isoIation, siIcncc, and
soIitudc, vhcrcas thc AuIurn modcI caIIcd Ior soIitary ccIIs
Iut IaIor in common. This modc oI rison IaIor, vhich vas
caIIcd congrcgatc, vas suoscd to unIoId in totaI siIcncc.
Prisoncrs vcrc aIIovcd to Ic vith cach othcr as thcy
vorkcd, Iut onIy undcr condition oI siIcncc. Bccausc oI its
morc cIIicicnt IaIor racticcs, AuIurn cvcntuaIIy Iccamc
thc dominant modcI, Ioth Ior thc Dnitcd Statcs and Euroc.
Why vouId cightccnth- and ninctccnth-ccntury rcIorm-
crs Iccomc so invcstcd in crcating conditions oI unishmcnt
Iascd on soIitary conIincmcnt` Today, asidc Irom dcath,
soIitary conIincmcntncxt to torturc, or as a Iorm oI tor-
turcis considcrcd thc vorst Iorm oI unishmcnt imagina-
AL | 8Om8 O08O|L1L? , 47
O!C. HCD, HOWCVC, I! Wa8 a88uUCd !O HaVC aD CUaDCIQa!O-
} C!CC!. HC OOd} Wa8 Q!aCCd ID CODdI!IOD8 O 8CC_a!!OD
aDd 8OI!udC ID OdC !O a!!OW !HC 8Ou! !O !OuI8H. ! I8 DO!
aCCIdCD!a! !Ha! UO8! O !HC COUC8 O !Ha! Ca WCC dCCQ}
C!IIOu8 aDd !HCCOC 8aW !HC aCHI!CC!uC aDd O
!HC QCDI!CD!Ia!} a8 CUu!a!ID !HC aCHI!CC!uC aDd CIUC8
O UODa8!IC IC. o!I!!, OO8CVC8 O !HC DCW QCDI!CD!Ia} 8aW,
Ca} OD, !HC Ca QO!CD!Ia! O ID8aDI!} ID 8OI!a} CODIDC
UCD!. D aD O!CD-quO!Cd Qa88aC O HI8 Zmcrccn No|cs,
LHa!C8 ICKCD8 QCaCCd a dC8CIQ!IOD O HI8 I842 VI8I! !O
La8!CD CDI!CD!Ia} WI!H !HC OO8CVa!IOD !Ha! '!HC 8}8!CU
HCC I8 IId, 8!IC!, aDd HOQCC88 8O!I!a} CODDCUCD!.
OC!ICVC I!, ID I!8 CCC!8, !O OC CuC! aDd WOD.
D I!8 ID!CD!IOD WC!! CODVDCCd !Ha! I! I8 KIDd,
HuUaDC, aDd UCaD! O COUa!IOD, Ou! QC-
8uadCd !Ha! !HO8C WHO dCV8Cd !HI8 8}8!CU O I8OD
I8CIQ!IDC, aDd !HO8C OCDCVO!CD! CD!!CUCD WHO
Ca} I! ID!O CXCCu!IOD, dO DO! KDOW WHa! I! I8 !Da!
!HC} aC dOID. OCICVC !Ha! VC} CW UCD aC CaQa-
O!C O C8!IUa!ID !HC IUUCD8C aUOU! O !O!uC aDd
aOD} !Ha! !DI8 mCad!u QuDI8HUCD!, QO!ODCd O
}Ca8, ID!IC!8 uQOD !HC 8u!CC8 . . . aU OD} !HC
UOC CODVIDCCd !Ha! !HCC I8 a dCQ!H O !C!IOC
CDduaDCC ID I! WHICH DODC Ou! !HC 8uCC8 !HCU-
8C!VC8 CaD !a!HOU, aDd WHICH DO UaD Ha8 a IH! !O
IDIC! uQOD HI8 C!!OWCCa!uC. HO!d !HI8 8OW aDd
daI} !aUQCID WI!H !HC U}8!C!IC8 O !HC OaID !O OC
IUUCa8uaO} WO8C !HaD aD} !O!uC O !HC OOd} . . .
OCCau8C I!8 WO\Dd8 MC DO! uQOD !HC 8uaCC, aDd I!
CX!O!8 CW CIC8 !Ha! HuUaD Ca8 CaD HCa, !HCC!OC
!HC UOC dCDOuDCC I!, a8 a 8CCC! QuDI8HUCD! WHICH
8!uUOC!U HuUaDI!} I8 DO! Ou8Cd uQ !O 8!a}.*'
48 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
\DIKC O!HC LuOQCaD8 8uCH a8 /!CXI8 dC OCquCVI!!C
aDd lu8!aVC dC CauUOD!, WHO OC!ICVCd !Ha! 8uCH QuDI8H-
UCD! WOud C8u!! ID UOa CDCWa! aDd !Du8 UOd CODVIC!8
ID!O OC!!C CI!I7CD8," ICKCD8 Wa8 O !HC OQIDIOD !Ha!
'| !]HO8C WHO HaVC uDdCODC !HI8 QuDI8HUCD! ^\o Qa88
ID!O 8OCIC!} aaID UOa!!} uDDCa!!H} aDd dI8Ca8Cd. " HI8
Ca!} CI!IquC O !HC QCDI!CD!Ia} aDd I!8 CUC O 8O!I!a}
COD!IDCUCD! !OuO!C8 !HC DO!IOD !Ha! IUQI8ODUCD! I8 !HC
UO8! 8uI!aOC OU O QuDl8HUCD! O a dCUOCa!IC 8OCIC!}.
HC CuCD! COD8!JC!IOD aDd CXQaD8IOD O 8!a!C aDd Cd-
Ca! 8uQC-UaXIUuU 8CCuI!} QI8OD8, WHO8C Qu!a!IVC Qu
QO8C I8 !O addC88 dI8CIQ!IDa} QOOCU8 WI!HID !HC QCDa
8}8!CU, daW8 uQOD !HC HI8!OICa! CODCCQ!IOD O !HC QCDI-
!CD!Ia}, !HCD COD8IdCCd !HC UO8! QOC88IVC OU O QuD-
I8HUCD!. Oda} /!ICaD-/UCICaD8 aDd a!IDO8 aC Va8!!}
OVCCQC8CD!Cd ID !HC8C 8uQCUaX QI8OD8 aDd COD!O!
uDI!8, !HC I8! O WHICH CUCCd WHCD CdCa! COCC!IODa!
au!HOI!IC8 !O 8CDd QI8ODC8 HOu8Cd !HOuHOu! !HC
8}8!CU WHOU !HC} dCCUCd !O OC daDCOu8 !O !HC CdCa
QI8OD ID ^aIOD, !!IDOI8. D I983, !HC CD!IC QI8OD Wa8
'!OCKCd dOWD, WHICH UCaD! !Ha! QI8ODC8 WCC CODIDCd
!O !HCI CC!!8 !WCD!}-!HCC HOu8 a da}. DI8 OCKdOWD
OCCaUC QCUaDCD!, Hu8 uDI8HID !HC CDCa! UOdC O
!HC COD!O! uDI! aDd 8uQCUaX QI8OD."` Oda}, !HCC aC
aQQOXIUa!C!} 8uQC-UaXIUuU 8CCuI!} CdCa! aDd
8!a!C QI8OD8 OCa!Cd ID !HI!}-8IX 8!a!C8 aDd UaD} UOC
8uQCUaX uDI!8 ID VI!ua!!} CVC} 8!a!C ID !HC COuD!}.
/ dC8CIQ!IOD O 8uQCUaXC8 ID a I99/ 1uUaD IH!8
Ya!CH CQO! 8OuDd8 CDl!!ID} IKC ICKCD8'8 dC8CIQ!IOD O
La8!CD o!a!C CDI!CD!Ia}. YHa! I8 dI!!CCD!, HOWCVC, I8
!Ha! a!! CCCDCC8 !O IDdIVIdua! CHaOI!I!a!IOD HaVC dI8aQ-
QCaCd.
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 49
DDa!C8 !D 8uCUaX!UuU 8CCu!!} !aC!!!!!C8 aC
u8uai} DC!d !D 81D!C CC!! !OCKdOWD, COUUOD!}
CCCd !O a8 8O!!!a} COD!!DCUCD! . . . LjODCa!C
aC!!V!!!C8 W!!D O!DC !8ODC8 aC u8ua!!} OD!O!!-
Cd, O!DC !8OUC8 CaDDO! CVCD OC 8CCD !OU aD
!DUa!C8 CC!!, COUUuuCa!!OD W!!D O!DC !8ODC8
!8 OD!O!!Cd O d!!!Cu!! |COD8!8!!D, !O O!
8DOu!!D !OU CC!! !O CC!!}, V!8!!!D aDd !C!CDODC
1V!!CC8 aC U!!Cd.'
DC DCW CDCa!!OD O! 8uC-UaX!UuU 8CCu!!} !aC!!!!!C8
a!8O C!} OD 8!a!CO!!DCa! !CCDDO!O} !O UOD!!O!D aDd
COD!O!!!D !8ODC CODduC! aDd UOVCUCD!, u!!!LH, !O
CXaU!C, V!dCO UOD!!O8 aDd CUO!C- COD!O!!Cd C!CC!OD!C
dOO8. 'DC8C !8OD8 CC8CD! !DC a!!Ca!!OD O! 8OD!8-
!!Ca!Cd, UOdCD !CCDDO!O} dCd!Ca!Cd !O !DC !a8K O!
8OC!a! COD!tO!, aDd !DC} !8O!a!C, Cu!a!C aUd 8utVC!! UOC
C!!CC!!VC!} !DaD aD}!D!D !Da! Da8 CCCdCd !DCU.`
DaVC D!D!!D!Cd !DC 8!U!!a!!!C8 OC!WCCD !DC CaO} \.5.
CD!!CD!!a}W!!D !!8 a8!a!!OD8 !OWad !Dd!V!dua! CDaO!!-
!!a!!OD-aDd !DC CC88!VC 8uCUaXC8 O! Ou Ca a8 a
CU!DdC O! !DC Uu!aO!!!!} O! D!8!O}. a! Wa8 ODCC
CadCd a8 OC88!VC aDd CVCD CVO!u!!ODa} CC8CD!8
!Oda} !DC Ua!aC O! !CCDDO!O!Ca! 8uC!O!!} aDd O!!!!Ca!
OaCKWadDC88. O ODCDO! CVCD !DC UO8! adCD! dC!CDdC8
O! !DC 8uCUaX-WOu!d !} !O auC !Oda} !Da! aO8O!u!C
8CCa!!OD, !DC!ud!D 8CD8O} dC!Va!!OD, !8 C8!Oa!!VC aDd
DCa!!D. DC CVa!!!D Ju8!!!!Ca!!OD !O !DC 8uCUaX !8 !Da!
!DC DOO8 !! CCa!C8 aC !DC C!CC! COU!CUCD! !O !DC DO-
U}!D C8ODa!!!!C8 dCCUCd !DC WO8! O! !DC WO8! O} !DC
!8OD 8}8!CU. D O!DC WOd8, !hCC !8 DO C!CD8C !Da!
!D!8 aC C8CC!Cd, !DCC !8 DO CODCCO !O !DC !Dd!V!dua!,
!hCC !8 DO 8CD8C !Da! UCD aDd WOUCD !DCaCCa!Cd !D 8uC
50 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
UaXC8 dC8CtVC aD}!D!D aOaCD!D C8CC! aDd COU!O!.
1CCOd!D !O a I999 CO! !88uCd O} !DC a!!ODa! U8!!!u!C
O! LOCC!!OD8,
LCDCaH}, !DC OVCta!! COD8!!!u!!ODa!!!} O! !DC8C
8uCUaX| OaU8 CUa!D8 uDC!Ca. 18 !aC
DuUOC8 O! !DUa!C8 W!!h a Ca!C O! CDa-
aC!C!8!!C8, OaCKOuDd8, aDd OCDaV!O8 aC !DCa-
CCa!Cd !D !DC8C !aC!!!!!C8, !DC !!KC!!DOOd O! !Ca!
CDa!!CDC !8 !DCCa8Cd. ?
U!D !hC C!D!CCD!D aDd D!DC!CCD!D CCD!u!C8, aO8O!u!C
8O!!!udC aDd 8!!C! C!UCD!a!!OD O! !DC !8ODC8 CVC}
aC!!OD WCC V!CWCd a8 8!a!C!C8 !O !aD8!OU!D DaO!!8 aDd
C!D!C8. Da! !8 !O 8a}, !DC !dCa !Da! !U!8ODUCD! 8DOu!d OC
!DC Ua!D !OU O! uD!8DUCD! C!!CC!Cd a OC!!C! !D !DC O!CD
!!a! O! WD!!C UaDK!Dd !O OC88, DO! OD!} !D 8C!CDCC aDd
!Ddu8!t}, Ou! a! !DC !CVC! O! !DC !Dd!V!dua! UCUOC O! 8OC!C
!} a8 WC!!. 1!8OD C!OUC8 U!OCd D!!D!CDUCD!
a88uU!!OD8 O! OC88 !D CVC} a8CC! O! DuUaDO !O OC
UOC CC!8C, WD!C C8!CO8OC!C!}. D D!8 I98/ 8!ud}
Imcnn the IcLon cnd the Zrchtecture o]
Mnd n InIcnd, |ODD DCDdC OO8C8
!DC VC} !D!!u!D auUCD! !Da! !DC CUCCD! !!!Ca} CDC
O! !hC DOVC !u!DCCd a d!8COu8C O! OC88 aDd !Dd!V!dua!
!aD8!OUa!!OD !Da! CDCOuaCd a!!!!udC8 !OWad uD!8D-
UCD! !O DC8C a!!!!udC8, DC 8uC8!8, DCta!dCd !DC
CODCC!!OD aDd COD8!uC!!OD O! CU!!CD!!a} !8OD8 du!D
!DC !a!!C a! O! !DC C!DICCD!D CCD!Ut} a8 a C!OU 8U!!Cd !O
!DC CaaC!!!C8 O! !DO8C WDO WCC dCCUCd DuUaD.
C!OUC8 WDO Ca!!Cd !O !DC !UO8!!!OD O! CD!!CD!!a}
aCD!!CC!uC aDd C!UC8 OD !DC !DCD CX18!!D 8!uC!uC O! !DC
!8OD a!UCd !DC! C!!!quC8 a! !DC !8OD8 !Da! WCC !Uat!-
AL | 8Om8 O08O|L1L? j 5!
Iy uscd Ior uroscs oI rctriaI dctcntion or as an aItcrnativc
unishmcnt Ior thosc vho vcrc unaIIc to ay Iincs cxactcd
Iy thc courts. John Hovard, thc most vcII knovn oI thcsc
rcIormcrs, vas vhat you might today caII a rison activist.
Bcginning in I, at thc agc oI Iorty-scvcn, hc initiatcd a
scrics oI visits that took him to cvcry institution Ior thc
oor in Euroc . . . a camaign| vhich cost him his Iortunc
and IinaIIy his IiIc in a tyhus var oI thc Russian army at
Chcrson in I VI. At thc concIusion oI his Iirst tri aIroad,
hc succcssIuIIy ran Ior thc oIIicc oI shcriII in BcdIordshirc. As
shcriII hc invcstigatcd thc risons undcr his ovn }urisdiction
and Iatcr sct out to visit cvcry rison in EngIand and WaIcs
to documcnt thc cviIs hc had Iirst oIscrvcd at BcdIord.'
Bcndcr argucs that thc novcI hcIcd IaciIitatc thcsc cam-
aigns to transIorm thc oId risonsvhich vcrc IiIthy and
in disarray, and vhich thrivcd on thc IriIcry oI thc var-
dcnsinto vcII-ordcrcd rchaIiIitativc cnitcntiarics. Hc
shovs that novcIs such as NoII IIcndcrs and Iobnson
Crusoc cmhasizcd thc ovcr oI conIincmcnt to rcshac
crsonaIity` and ouIarizcd somc oI thc idcas that movcd
rcIormcrs to action. As Bcndcr oints out, thc cightccnth-
ccntury rcIormcrs criticizcd thc oId rsons Ior thcir chaos,
thcir Iack oI organization and cIassiIication, Ior thc casy cir-
cuIation oI aIcohoI and rostitution thcy crmittcd, and Ior
thc rcvaIcncc oI contagion and discasc.
Thc rcIormcrs, rimariIy Protcstant, among vhom
Quakcrs vcrc cscciaIIy dominant, couchcd thcir idcas in
Iargc art in rcIigious Iramcvorks. Though John Hovard
vas not himscII a Quakcrhc vas an indccndcnt
ProtcstantncvcrthcIcss
h|c vas dravn to Quakcr asccticism and adotcd
thc drcss oI a Iain Fricnd. His ovn Irand oI icty
52 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
vas strongIy rcminisccnt oI thc Quakcr traditions
oI siIcnt raycr, suIIcring introscction, and Iaith
in thc iIIumining ovcr oI Cod's Iight. Quakcrs, Ior
thcir art, vcrc Iound to Ic dravn to thc idca oI
imrisonmcnt as a urgatory, as a Iorccd vithdrav-
aI Irom thc distractions oI thc scnscs into siIcnt and
soIitary conIrontation vith thc scII. Hovard con-
ccivcd oI a convict's roccss oI rcIormation in tcrms
simiIar to thc sirituaI avakcning oI a IcIicvcr at a
Quakcr mccting.
Hovcvcr, according to NichacI IgnaticII, Hovard's con
triIutions did not so much rcsidc in thc rcIigiosity oI his
rcIorm cIIorts.
Thc originaIity oI Hovard's indictmcnt Iics in its
scicntiIic, not in its moraI charactcr. EIcctcd a
FcIIov oI thc RoyaI Socicty in Ib and author oI
scvcraI scicntiIic acrs on cIimatic variations in
BcdIordshirc, Hovard vas onc oI thc Iirst hiIan-
throists to attcmt a systcmatic statisticaI
dcscrition oI a sociaI roIIcm. "
Likcvisc, Bcndcr's anaIysis oI thc rcIationshi Ictvccn
thc novcI and thc cnitcntiary cmhasizcs thc cxtcnt to
vhich thc hiIosohicaI undcrinnings oI thc rison
rcIormcr's camaigns cchocd thc matcriaIism and utiIitari
anism oI thc EngIish EnIightcnmcnt. Thc camaign to
rcIorm thc risons vas a ro}cct to imosc ordcr, cIassiIica
tion, cIcanIincss, good vork haIits, and scII-consciousncss.
Hc argucs that coIc dctaincd vithin thc oId risons vcrc
not scvcrcIy rcstrictcdthcy somctimcs cvcn cn}oycd thc
Irccdom to movc in and out oI thc rison. Thcy vcrc not
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 53
CUuC!!Cu !U WUK aUu, uCCUuU UU !HC UWU C8UuCC8,
CUu!uCa!aUuuUKa8 !HCy W8HCu. VCU8CXWa88UuC!uC8
aVa!a!C,a8U8!!u!C8 WCC 8UuC!uC8 a!!UWCu !CuUay
CU!aUCC U!U !HC 8UU8. UWau aUu U!HC CUuC8
Ca!!Cu U !HC IuU8!UU U u u!C8 !Ha! WUu!u CUUCC
8U!!uuC aUu CU!CUCC, C!CaU!UC88aUuWUK.
'^0
'JHC UCW CU!CU!aC8,' aCCUuU !U CUuC, '8u-
!aU!U U!H !HC U!u 8UU8 aUu HUu8C8 U CUCC!UU,
CX!C!!y CaCHCu !UWau . . . !HCC Ua!8. uaU!CUaUCC U
UuC W!HU a !aC!y uaU !aU UCC, 8a!Va!UU U !HC
8Uu!, aUu a!UUa!Za!UU U C8UUa!!y.'
I
C auC8 !Ha!
!H8 8 CC8C!y WHa! Wa8 UaJa!VC!y aCCUu!8HCu y IHC
UUVC!.!UuCCuaUuC!a88Cu8UCa!!C,!CC8CU!CuUu-
Vuua!8a8CUU8CUu8U !HC 8uUuUuU8 aUu a8 8C!-aWaC
aUu8C!-a8hUUU. CUuC!Hu88CC8a KU8HC!WCCU!WU
ua)U uCVC!UuCU!8 U !HC CH!CCU!H CCU!uy-!HC 8C U
!HCUUVC!U!HCCu!!ua!8HCCaUu !HC 8C U !HC CU!CU-
!ayU !HC8UCU-Ca!8HCC. !HCUUVC!a8aCu!!ua!Uu
HC!Cu !U UuuCC !HC CU!CU!ay, !HCU 8UU CUuC8
uu8! HaVC CCU U!uCUCCu y !HC uCa8 CUCa!Cu y Ju
!HUuH !HCCH!CCU!H-CCU!uyUUVC!.
!Ca!uC Ha8 CUU!UuCu !U !ay a U!C U CauaU8
aUuu!HCI8UU. uU!HC!WCU!C!HCCU!uy, 8UUWI!-
U, U a!Cu!a, Ha8CUuCa!!yCXCCUCCuWaVC8 U U-
u!a!y. JHC u!C CCU_!UU U 8UU W!U U !HC
\UI!Cu5!a!C8Ha8H8!UCa!!yCUUCuCuV!H!HCU!uCUCCU
8UCa!uUVCuCU!8 Ca!!U U 8UU CUD aUu]U aU!!UU.
UC! uU8'8 I Zm c Iu1tve jom c Ceorc Chcn
aUu !HC IV2 U!!yWUUu I!u uUU WHCH ! Wa8
a8Cu, !ayCu a CCU!a! U!C U !HC Caua_ !U aU!8H !HC
CHaUaU. uU!HC IV8,WHCHWCCuaKCuyU!CU8C
UaU2U W!HU, Uu!8uC, aUu aCU88 I8UU Wa!!8, UuuC-
Uu8 WUK8 au!HUCu y8UUC8U!!UWCu !HC IV u!ICa-
54 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
!UUU LCUC JaCK8UU8 So!edcd rother'- aUu!HCaU!HU!U-
_ CUCu!Cu W!H C!!Ua P!HCKC, IJ They Come n ue
Norn.' YH!C uaUy 8UU W!C8 uuU !Ha! Ca Hau
uI8CUVCCu !HC CuaUCa!Uy U!CU!a! U W!U UU !HC
UWU, C!yU C!HC UU !HCCuuCa!UU!HCy Hau CCCVCu OU
!U !HC u8UUuCU! U UU !HC !CUaCUu8 CU!8 a! 8C!-
CuuCa!UU, U!HC8 u8uCu !HC WOIU a8 a 0ICC! C8u!! U
!HCCXaU8UUU8UUCuuCa!UUa!Uau8uuIU!Ha!Ca.
^uuaPu-Jaua!,WHUHa8CHa!!CUCu!HCCUU!CuUay
u8uaU!!IUU8UUCuuCa!UUUau8,a8K8UIve jom
Decth Iow
YHa! 8UCC!a! U!CC8! 8 8CJVCu y 8UUC8 WHU
CuaU !!!Ca!C: YHa! 8UCa! CUC! 8 !HCC U
UUaUCC: UW aC CU!C CUCC!Cu WH!C u8-
UUCu !HC CuuCa!UU 8 Uu!!aWCu: YHU U!8
U!HC !HaU !HC 8UU C8!a!8HuCU! !8C! Uu
8!uu 8UUC8:
PaC!CU]UDa!8!CUCH8aC8!U IV62UUCHaC8
U KI!!H H!auC!Ha U!CCuaU aUC! au!KUC, Pu-
Jaua!Ha8Cu!a!y UuuCCu a!C!C8 UUCa!a!uU8HuCU!,
UCu8U C8CCa!!yUU !8aCa! aUuC!a880I8UU!UU8. 8
uCa8 HaVC HC!Cu !U !UK C!quC8 U !HC uCa!H CUa!!y W!H
!HCuUC CUCa! CHa!!CUC8 !U!HCCXaUuU\.5. I8UU8y8-
!CuaUuaCa!Cu!a!yHC!u!!UaC!V8!8WHU8CCK!Ua88U-
Ca!C uCa!H CUa!!y aU!!UU8u W!H 8UU aU!!UU8u.
8 8UU W!U8 HaVC CCUu!8HCu U U!H Uu!a aUu
8CHU!a!y)UuUa!8 [8uCHa8The Nction aUu YcIe Icw ]ournc!j
a8 WC!! a8U!HCCCU!!CC!UU8, Ive Jrom Decth Iow Decth
Iossoms,'' aUuZ! Thns Censored. ''
Pu-Jaua! aUu uaUy U!HC 8UUW!C8 HaVC 8!UU!y
C!C2Cu!HCUH!UUUC!!LaU!8U8UUC8, WHCH
AL | 8ON8 O08O| L1L2 j 55
vas cnactcd in thc I994 crimc IiII, as indicativc oI thc
contcmorary attcrn oI dismantIing cducationaI rograms
Ichind Iars. As crcativc vriting courscs Ior risoncrs vcrc
dcIundcd, virtuaIIy cvcry Iitcrary }ournaI uIIishing rison-
crs' vritmg cvcntualIy coIIascd. OI thc scorcs oI magazincs
and ncvsacrs roduccd Ichmd vaIIs, onIy thc ZnoItc at
Louisiana's AngoIa Prison and Irson IcaI Ncws at
Washington Statc Prison rcmain. What this mcans is that
rcciscIy at a timc oI consoIidating a sigiIicant vnting cuI
turc IchInd Iars, rcrcssivc stratcgics arc Icing dcIoycd to
dissuadc risoncrs Irom cducating thcmscIvcs.
II thc uIIication oI NaIcoIm X's autoIiograhy marks
a ivotaI momcnt in thc dcvcIomcnt oI rison Iitcraturc
and a momcnt oI vast romisc Ior risoncrs vho try to
makc cducation a ma}or dimcnsion oI thcir timc Ichind
Iars," contcmorary rison racticcs arc systcmaticaIIy
dashing thosc hocs. In thc I950s, NaIcoIm's rIson cdu
cation vas a dramatic cxamIc oI risoncrs' aIiIity to turn
thcir incarccration into a transIormativc cxcricncc. With
no avaiIaIIc mcans oI organizing his qucst Ior knovIcdgc,
hc rocccdcd to rcad a dictionary, coying cach vord in his
ovn hand. By thc timc hc couId immcrsc himscII in rcad-
ing, hc notcd, months asscd vithout my cvcn thinking
aIout Icing imrisoncd. In Iact, u to thcn, I ncvcr had
Iccn so truIy Ircc in my IiIc.

Jhcn, according to
NaIcoIm, risoncrs vho dcmonstratcd an unusuaI intcrcst
in rcading vcrc assumcd to havc cmIarkcd uon a } ourncy
oI scII-rchaIiIitation and vcrc IrcqucntIy aIIovcd scciaI
riviIcgcssuch as chccking out morc than thc maximum
numIcr oI Iooks. Evcn so, in ordcr to ursuc this scII-cdu
cation, NaIcoIm had to vork against thc rison rcgimchc
oItcn rcad on his ccII IIoor, Iong aItcr Iights-out, Iy thc
gIov oI thc corridor Iight, taI:ing carc to rcturn to Icd cach
56 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
hour Ior thc tvo minutcs during vhich thc guard marchcd
ast his ccII.
Jhc contcmorary discstaIIishmcnt oI vriting and othcr
rison cducationaI rograms is indicativc oI thc oIIiciaI dis-
rcgard today Ior rchaIiIitativc stratcgics, articuIarIy thosc
that cncouragc individuaI risoncrs to acquirc autonomy oI
thc mind. Jhc documcntary IiIm Thc Iast Craduaton
dcscriIcs thc roIc risoncrs Iaycd in cstaIIishing a Iour-ycar
coIIcgc rogam at Mcv York's Crccnhavcn Prison and,
tvcnty-tvo ycars Iatcr, thc oIIiciaI dccision to dismantIc it.
According to Eddic EIIis, vho scnt tvcnty-Iivc ycars in
rison and is curcntIy a vcII-knovn Icadcr oI thc antirison
movcmcnt, As a rcsuIt oI Attica, coIIcgc rograms camc
into thc risons.
/r
l
In thc aItcrmath oI thc I9/) risoncr rcIcIIion at Attica
and thc govcrnmcnt-sonsorcd massacrc, uIIic oinion
Icgan to Iavor rison rcIorm. Forty-thrcc Attica risoncrs
and cIcvcn guards and civiIians vcrc kiIIcd Iy thc MationaI
Cuard, vho had Iccn ordcrcd to rctakc thc rison Iy
Covcrnor McIson RockcIcIIcr. Jhc Icadcrs oI thc rison
rcIcIIion had Iccn vcry scciIic aIout thcir dcmands. D
thcir racticaI dcmands thcy cxrcsscd conccrns aIout
dict, imrovcmcnt in thc quaIity oI guards, morc rcaIistic
rchaIiIitation rograms, and Icttcr cducation rograms.
Jhcy aIso vantcd rcIigious Irccdom, Irccdom to cngagc in
oIiticaI activity, and an cnd to ccnsorshiaII oI vhich
thcy sav as indiscnsaIIc to thcir cducationaI nccds. As
Eddic EIIis oIscrvcs in Thc Iast Craduaton,
Prisoncrs vcry carIy rccognizcd thc Iact that thcy
nccdcd to Ic Icttcr cducatcd, that thc morc cduca-
tion thcy had, thc Icttcr thcy vouId Ic aIIc to dcaI
vith thcmscIvcs and thcir roIIcms, thc roIIcms
AL | 8Om8 O08O|L1L2 j 57
O !DC II8OU8 aUd !DC IODCU8 O !DC CODDuUI!IC8
IOU WDICD DO8! O !DCD CaUC.
a!CC 8aU, aUO!DCI OIUCI II8OUCI Ca!uICd IU !DI8
dOCuDCU!aI}, 8aId, 'YC DCd Ca88C8 DCOIC !DC
CaUC. YC !auD! CaCD O!DCI, aUd 8OUC!IUC8 uUdCI CUa!}
O a DCa!-u.
P!CI !DC P!!ICa CDCIOU, UOIC !DaU IVC DuUdICd II8-
OUCI8 WCIC !IaU8CIICd !O \ICCDiaVCU, IUCudIU 8OUC O !DC
CadCI8 WDO COU!IUuCd !O IC88 OI CduCa!IOUa IOIaU8. P8
a dIICC! IC8u! O !DCII dCDaUd8, ^aII8! LOCC, a CW `OIK
8!a!C COCC UCaI \ICCUDaVCU, DCaU !O OCI COCC-CVC
COuI8C8 IU 1V aUd CVCU!ua} C8!aDI8DCd !DC IUIa8!IuC
!uIC OI aU OU-8I!C OuI-}CaI COCC IOIaU. DC IOIaD
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u} dCDOU8!Ia!C8, !DC IOIaD IOduCCd dCdICa!Cd UCU
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58 j Ange|a Y. 0av|s
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R
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1 S0 T \ST9N
'I DaVC DCCD !Od !Da! I V: DCVC CaVC p:8OD :I I COD!:D-
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a:VC :D OdC !O CaVC p:8OD, aDd Ou CuCD! 8!aDdad OI
DCd:Ca CaC :8 !aD!aDOuD! !O a dCa!D 8CD!CDCC.
DCtCIOtC, I DaVC DO CDO:CC Du! !O COD!:DuC . . . LODd:!:OD8
V:!D:D !DC :D8!:!u!:OD COD!:Dua C:DVOKC DCDO:C8 OI
V:OCDCC aDd OppC88:OD, OI!CD V:!D dCVa8!a!:D C8D!8.
lD:KC O!DC :DCaCCa!Cd VODCD VDO DaVC CODC IOVad
!O CVCa !DC: :DpC88:OD8 OI p:8OD, I dO DO! ICC '8aIC
DCC DCCau8C '!DC aDu8C Da8 8!OppCd.' Il Dus Dot stocd. I!
Da8 8D:I!Cd 8DapC aDd paCCd :!8CI d:IICCD!, Du! :! :8 a8
:D8:d:Ou8 aDd pCVa8:VC :D p:8OD a8 CVC :! Va8 :D !DC
VOd I KDOV Ou!8:dC !DC8C Va8. YDa! Da8 CCa8Cd :8 D
:DOaDCC OI !DC IaC!8 CODCCD:D aDu8C-aDd D V::D-
DC88 !O !OCa!C :! :D 8:CDCC.
-NaC:a huDD'
Ovcr thc Iast fivc ycars, thc rison systcm has rcccivcd far
morc attcntion Iy thc mcdia than at any timc sincc thc cri-
od foIIoving thc I9/I Attica RcIcIIion. Hovcvcr, vith a fcv
imortant cxcctions, vomcn havc Iccn Icft out of thc uI
Iic discussions aIout thc cxansion of thc \. O. rison sys
tcm. I am not suggcsting that simIy Iringing vomcn into
thc cxisting convcrsations on }aiIs and risons viII dcccn
0
our anaIysis of statc unishmcnt and furthcr thc ro}cct of
rison aIoIition. Addrcssing issucs that arc sccific to
vomcn's risons is of vitaI imortancc, Iut it is cquaIIy
imortant to shift thc vay vc think aIout thc rison systcm
as a vhoIc. CcrtainIy vomcn's rison racticcs arc gcndcrcd,
Iut so, too, arc mcn's rison racticcs. To assumc that mcn's
institutions constitutc thc norm and vomcn's institutions
arc marginaI is, in a scnsc, to articiatc in thc vcry nor
maIization of risons that an aIoIitionist aroach sccks to
contcst. Thus, thc titIc of this chatcr is not Womcn and
thc Prison Systcm, Iut rathcr Hov Ccndcr Structurcs thc
Prison Systcm. Norcovcr, schoIars and activists vho arc
invoIvcd in fcminist ro}ccts shouId not considcr thc struc-
turc of statc unishmcnt as marginaI to thcir vork. Forvard-
Iooking rcscarch and organizing stratcgics shouId rccognizc
that thc dccIy gcndcrcd charactcr of unishmcnt Ioth
rcfIccts and furthcr cntrcnchcs thc gcndcrcd structurc of thc
Iargcr socicty.
Womcn risoncrs havc roduccd a smaII Iut imrcssivc
Iody of Iitcraturc that has iIIuminatcd significant asccts of
thc organization of unishmcnt that vouId havc othcrvisc
rcmaincd unacknovIcdgcd. Assata Shakur's mcmoirs,' for
cxamIc, rcvcaI thc dangcrous intcrscctions of racism, maIc
domination, and statc stratcgics of oIiticaI rcrcssion. In
I9// shc vas convictcd on chargcs of murdcr and assauIt in
conncction vith a I9/3 incidcnt that Icft onc Mcv Jcrscy
statc troocr dcad and anothcr voundcd. Shc and hcr com-
anion, Zayd Shakur, vho vas kiIIcd during thc shootout,
vcrc thc targcts of vhat vc nov namc raciaI rofiIing and
vcrc stocd Iy statc troocrs undcr thc rctcxt of a Irokcn
taiIIight. At thc timc Assata Shakur, knovn thcn as Joannc
Chcsimard, vas undcrground and had Iccn anointcd Iy thc
oIicc and thc mcdia as thc SouI of thc BIack LiIcration
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? !
Army. By hcr I9// convIctIon, shc cIthcr had Iccn acquIttcd
or had chargcs dismIsscd In six othcr cascsuon thc IasIs oI
vhIch shc had Iccn dccIarcd a IugItIvc In thc IIrst Iacc. Hcr
attorncy, Lcnnox HInds, has oIntcd out that sIncc It vas
rovcn that Assata Shakur dId not handIc thc gun vIth vhIch
thc statc troocrs vcrc shot, hcr mcrc rcscncc In thc auto-
moIIIc, agaInst thc Iackdro oI thc mcdIa dcmonIzatIon to
vhIch shc vas suI}cctcd, constItutcd thc IasIs oI hcr convIc-
tIon. In thc Iorcvord to Shakur's autoIIogahy HInds vritcs.
In thc hIstory oI Mcv Jcrscy, no voman rctrIaI
dctaIncc or rIsoncr has cvcr Iccn trcatcd as shc
vas, contInuousIy conIIncd In a mcn's rIson,
undcr tvcnty-Iour-hour survcIIIancc oI hcr most
IntImatc IunctIons, vIthout IntcIIcctuaI sustc
nancc, adcquatc mcdIcaI attcntIon, and cxcrcIsc,
and vIthout thc comany oI othcr vomcn Ior aII
thc ycars shc vas In thcIr custody`
Thcrc Is no douIt that Assata Shakur's status as a IIack
oIItIcaI rIsoncr accuscd oI kIIIIng a statc troocr causcd
hcr to Ic sIngIcd out Iy thc authorItIcs Ior unusuaIIy crucI
trcatmcnt. Hovcvcr, hcr ovn account cmhasIzcs thc
cxtcnt to vhIch hcr IndIviduaI cxcrIcnccs rcIIcctcd thosc oI
othcr Imnsoncd vomcn, csccIaIIy IIack and Pucrto RIcan
vomcn. Hcr dcscrItIon oI thc strI scarch, vhIch Iocuscs
on thc IntcrnaI cxamInatIon oI Iody cavItIcs, Is csccIaIIy
rcvcaIIng
Joan BIrd and AIcnI Shakur mcmIcrs oI thc BIack
Panthcr Party| had toId mc aIout It aItcr thcy had
Iccn IaIIcd out In thc Panthcr 2I trIaI. Whcn thcy
had toId mc, I vas horrIIicd.
62 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
You mcan thcy rcaIIy ut thcIr hands InsIdc
you, to scarch you` I had askcd.
Dh-huh, thcy ansvcrcd. Evcry voman vho
has cvcr Iccn on thc rock, or In thc oId housc oI
dctcntIon, can tcII you aIout It. Thc vomcn caII It
gcttIng thc or, morc vuIgarIy, gcttIng Ln-
gcr-Iuckcd.
What hacns II you rcIusc` I had askcd AIcnI.
Thcy Iock you In thc hoIc and thcy don't Ict you
out untII you conscnt to Ic scarchcd IntcrnaIIy.
I thought aIout rcIusIng, Iut I surc as hcII dIdn't
vant to Ic In thc hoIc. I had had cnough oI soIIta:y.
Thc intcrnaI scarch vas as humIIIatIng and dIs-
gustIng as It soundcd. You sIt on thc cdgc oI thIs
taIIc and thc nursc hoIds your Icgs ocn and stIcks
a Iingcr In your vagIna and movcs It around. Shc has
a IastIc gIovc on. Somc oI thcm try to ut onc IIn
gcr In your and anothcr onc u your rcctum
at thc samc tImc.'
I havc quotcd thIs assagc so cxtcnsIvcIy Iccausc It
cxoscs an cvcryday routInc In vomcn's risons that vcrgcs
on scxuaI assauIt as much as It Is takcn Ior grantcd. HavIng
Iccn ImrIsoncd In thc Womcn's Housc oI DctcntIon to
vhIch Joan BIrd and AIcnI Shakur rcIcr, I can crsonaIIy
aIIIrm thc vcracIty oI thcIr cIaims. Ovcr thIrty ycars aItcr
BIrd and AIcnI Shakur vcrc rcIcascd and aItcr I myscII scnt
scvcraI months D thc Womcn's Housc oI DctcntIon, thIs
Issuc oI thc stri scarch Is stIII vcry much on thc Iront Iurn-
cr oI vomcn's rIson actIvIsm. In 200I SIstcrs InsIdc, an
AustraIIan suort organIzatIon Ior vomcn rIsoncrs,
Iaunchcd a natIonaI camaIg agamst thc strI scarch, thc
sIogan oI vhIch vas Sto Statc ScxuaI AssauIt. Assata
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 63
5DaKu8 au!ODIOaD] OVIuC8 aD aDuDuaDCC O! ID8ID!8
aDOu! !DC CDuCID O! 8!a!C uDI8DuCD! aDu CVCa8 !DC
CX!CD! !O WDICD WOuCD8 I8OD8 DaVC DCu OD !O OC88IVC
a!IaCDa aC!ICC8 !Da! aC COD8IuCCu OD8OC!C ID !DC !CC
WOu. 5DC 8CD! 8IX ]Ca8 ID 8CVCa ]aI8 aDu I8OD8 DC!OC
C8CaID ID IV/V aDu CCCIVID OI!ICa a8]uu D] !DC
VCuDIC O! LuDa ID IVo4, WDCC 8DC IVC8 !Oua].
I2aDC!D !uC] ]DD WO!C aD CaIC aCCOuD! O! I!C ID
a WOuCD8 I8OD, Tc AIdcrson Sto;. Ny as a IoItcaI
Ir!soncr. ' ^! !DC DCID! O! !DC NCLa!D] Ca, ]D1, a aDO
aC!IVI8! aDu LOuuuDI8! CauC, Wa8 CODVIC!Cu uDuC !DC
5uI!D ^C! aDu 8CVCu !WO ]Ca8 ID ^uC8OD CuCa
VC!Oua!O] !O YOuCD !Ou Vbb !O I Vb/. OOWID !DC
uOuIDaD! uOuC !O WOuCD8 I8OD8 uuID !Da! CIOu,
1uC8OD8 CIuC8 WCC Da8Cu OD !DC a88uu!IOD !Da!
'CIuIDa' WOuCD COuu DC CDaDII!a!Cu D] a88IuIa!ID
COCC! WOuaD] DCDaVIO8-!Da! I8, D] DCCOuID CXC!8 ID
uOuC8!ICI!]-C8CCJa] COOKID, CCaDID, aDu 8CWID. L!
COu8C, !aIDID uC8IDCu !O OuuCC DC!!C WIVC8 aDu uO!D
C8 auOD uIuuC-Ca88 WDI!C WOuCD C!!CC!IVC] OuuCCu
8KICu uOuC8!IC 8CVaD!8 auOD DaCK aDu OO WOuCD.
]OD8 DOOK OVIuC8 VIVIu uC8CJ!IOD8 O! !DC8C CVC]ua]
CIuC8. C au!ODIOaD] I8 OCa!Cu ID a !auI!IOD O! I8OD
WI!ID D] OI!ICa I8ODC8 !Da! a8O IDCuuC8 WOuCD O!
!DI8 Ca. LOD!CuOa] WI!ID8 D] WOuCD OI!ICa I8OD
C8 !Oua] IDCuuC OCu8 aDu 8DO! 8!OIC8 D] ICKa uID8
aDu 5u8aD VO8CDDC, aDa]8C8 O! !DC I8OD IDuu8!Ia COu-
CX D] IDua VaD8, aOu CuOICua !O `]^5 CuuCa!IOD
ID WOuCD8 I8OD8 D] Ia!D] OuuID aDu !DC uCuDC8 O! !DC
Cu!Ou I8 ^L COCC!IVC.'
C8I!C !DC aVaIaDII!] O! CCC!IVC O!a]a8 O! I!C ID
WOuCD'8 I8OD8, I! Da8 DCCD CX!CuC] uI!!ICu! !O C8uauC
!DC uDIC-aDu CVCD, OD OCCa8IOD, !O C8uauC I8OD
64 j Anqe| a Y. 0avis
aC!IVI8!8 WDO aC IuaI] CODCCDCu WI!D !DC ID! O!
uaC I8ODC8O! !DC CCD!aI!] O! CDuC !O aD uuC
8!aDOJD O! 8!a!C uDI8DuCD!. 1!DOu uCD COD8!I!u!C !DC
Va8! ua]OI!] O! I8ODC8 ID !DC WOu, IuO!aD! a8CC!8 O!
!DC OCa!IOD O! 8!a!C uDI8DuCD! aC uI88Cu J! I! I8 a88uuCu
!Da! WOuCD aC uaIDa aDu !Du8 uDuC8CVJ1 O! a!!CD!IOD.
DC uO8! !CquCD! )u8!I!ICa!IOD !O !DC IDa!!CD!IOD !O
WOuCD I8ODC8 aDu !O !DC a!ICua I88uC8 8uOuDuID
WOuCD8 IuI8ODuCD! I8 !DC Ca!NC] 8ua OO!IOD O!
WOuCD auOD IDCaCCa!Cu Oua!IOD8 !DOuDOu! !DC
WOu. D uO8! COuD!IC8, !DC CCCD!aC O! WOuCD auOD
I8OD Oua!IOD8 DOVC8 aOuDu !IVC OWCVC,
!DC CCODOuIC aDu OI!ICa 8DI!!8 O! !DC I Vo8-!DC ODa
I2a!IOD O! CCODOuIC uaKC!8, !DC uCIDuu8!IaI2a!IOD O! !DC
\. 5. CCODOu], !DC uI8uaD!ID O! 8uCD 8OCIa 8CVICC O
au8 a8 ^Iu !O auIIC8 O! LCCDuCD! LDIOCD, aDu, O!
COu8C, !DC I8OD COD8!uC!IOD DOOu-OuuCCu a 8II!I
CaD! aCCCCa!IOD ID !DC a!C O! WOuCD8 IuI8ODuCD! DO!D
ID8IuC aDu Ou!8IuC !DC \DJ!Cu 5!a!C8. D !aC!, WOuCD CuaJD
!Oua] !DC !a8!C8!-OWID 8CC!O O! !DC \. 5. I8OD Oua
!IOD. DI8 CCCD! I8C ID !DC a!C O! WOuCD8 IuI8ODuCD!
OID!8 uICC!] !O !DC CCODOuIC COD!CX! !Da! OuuCCu !DC
I8OD IDuu8!Ia COuCX aDu !Da! Da8 Dau a uCVa8!a!ID
IuaC! OD uCD aDu WOuCD aIKC.
! I8 !Ou !DI8 C8CC!IVC O! !DC COD!CuOa] CXaD8IOD
O! I8OD8, DO!D ID !DC \DI!Cu 5!a!C8 aDu !DOuDOu! !DC
WOu, !Da! WC 8DOuu CXauIDC 8OuC O! !DC DI8!OICa aDu
IuCOOICa a8CC!8 O! 8!a!C uDI8DuCD! IuO8Cu OD WOuCD.
5IDCC !DC CDu O! !DC CID!CCD!D CCD!u], WDCD, a8 WC DaVC
8CCD, IuJ8ODCD! DCaD !O CuCC a8 !DC uOuIDaD! !Ou
O! uD8DuCD!, CODVIC!Cu WOuCD DaVC DCCD CC8CD!Cu a8
C88CD!Ia] uI!!CCD! !Uu !DCI uaC COuD!Ca!8. ! I8 !uC
!Da! uCD WDO COuuI! !DC KIDu8 O! !aD8_C88IOD8 !Da! aC
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 65
CaOCO a8 UI8DaOC D} tDC 8tatC aC aDCCO a8 8OCIa
OCVIt8. ICVCtDCC88, Ua8CuIDC CIUIDaIt} Da8 aWa}8
OCCD OCCUCO UOC 'DOUa tDaD !CUIDIDC CIUIDaII}.
DCC Da8 aWa}8 OCCD a tCDOCDC} tO CaO tDO8C WOUCD
WDO DaVC OCCD uOIC} uDI8DCO O tDC 8tatC !O tDCI UI8-
DCDaVIO8 a8 8IDI!ICaDt} UOC aOCaDt aDO !a UOC tDCat
CDID tO 8OCICt} tDaD tDCI DuUCOu8 UaC COuDtCIat8.
D 8CCKID tO uDOC8taDO tDI8 CDOCCO O1!!CCDCC ID tDC
CCCtIOD O! I8ODC8, It 8DOuO OC KCt ID UIDO tDat a8 tDC
I8OD CUCCO aDO CVOVCO a8 tDC Ua)O !OU O! uDIC uD
I8DUCDt, WOUCD CODtIDuCO IO OC OutIDC} 8uD)CCtCO tO
!OU8 O! uDI8DUCDt tDat DaVC DOt DCCD aCKDOWCOCO a8
8uCD. O CXaUC, WOUCD DaVC OCCD IDCaCCatCO ID 8}-
CDIatIC ID8tItutIOD8 ID CatC OOtIOD8 tDaD ID I8OD8.'
otuOIC8 IDOICatID tDat WOUCD DaVC OCCD CVCD UOC IKC}
tO CDO u ID UCDta !aCIItIC8 tDaD UCD 8uC8t tDat WDIC
)aI8 aDO O8OD8 DaVC OCCD OOUHaDt ID8tItutIOD8 !O tDC
CODtO O! UCD, UCDta ID8tItutIOD8 DaVC 8CIVCO a 8IUIa
uO8C !O WOUCD. Dat OUVIaDt UCD DaVC DCCD COD
8tuCtCO a8 CIUIDa, WDIC OCVIaDt WOUCD DaVC DCCD COD
8tIuCtCO a8 ID8aDC. C1UC8 tDat C!CCt tDI8 a88\utIOD
CODtIDuC tO IDOU tDC WOUCD8 I8OD. 8}CDIatIC Ou8
CODtIDuC tO OC O18tIDutCO !aI UOC CXtCD8IVC} tO IUI8
ODCO WOUCD tDaD tO tDCI UaC COuDtCIat8. ^ IatIVC
^UCICaD WOUaD IDCaCCatCO ID tDC YOUCD'8 LOCCtIODa
LCDtC 1D IODtaDa CatCO DC WIU 8}CDOtO
IC Ou8 tO 8OCIOOI8t uaDa O88.
aOO I8 a Ou tDC} WDO CaD't COC
WItD OCKu. t UaKC8 }Ou !CC OCaO, aa}ZCO. ^DO
tDCD 8tatCO CttID 8IOC C!!CCt8 !OU aOO.
WaDtCO tO IDt aD}DOO}, aD} O! tDC O!ICC8. Wa8
8CCaUID at tDCU aDO tCID tDCU tO Ct Out O!
66 j Anqe| a Y. 0av|s
U} !aCC, 8O tDC OOCtO 8a1O, 'YC CaDt DaVC tDat.
^DO, tDC} ut UC OD aDXCDC. OODt taKC I8,
DCVC DaO tOuOC 8CCID uDtI Ot DCC. IOW U
8uO8CO tO 8CC jtDC CO\D18CO] aaID OCCau8C O! U}
OCaU8. }Ou Ot a ODCU, tDC}C DOt OID tO
taKC CaC O! It. DC}C OID tO ut }Ou OD Ou8 8O
tDC} CaD CODtO }Ou
hO
IO tO IDC CUCCDCC O! tDC CDItCDtIa} aDO tDu8 O! tDC
DOtIOD O! uDI8DUCDt a8 'OOID tIUC, tDC u8C O! COD!IDC
UCDt tO CODtO OCa8, tDICVC8, aDO tDC ID8aDC OIO DOt DCC
C88aI} O18tIDuI8D aUOD tDC8C CatCOIC8 O! OCVIaDC}. ^t
tDI8 Da8C ID tDC DI8tO} O! uDI8DUCDtIO tO tDC
^UCICaD aDO CDCD CVOutIOD8tDC Ca88I!ICatIOD
OCC88 tDOuD WDICD CIUIDaIt I8 OI!!CCDtIatCO !OU
OVCt} aDO UCDta IDC88 DaO DOt }Ct OCVCOCO. 8 tDC OI8
COuI8C OD CI1UIDaIt} aDO tDC COC8ODOID ID8tItutIOD8 tO
CODtO It OI8tIDuI8DCO tDC ''CIUIDa !OU tDC 'ID8aDC,'
tDC CDOCCO OI8tIDCtIOD tOOK DOO aDO CODtIDuCO tO 8tuC
tuC CDa OICIC8. LCDOCCO a8 !CUaC, tDI8 CatCO} O!
ID8aDIt} Wa8 DID} 8CXuaI2CO. YiCD WC COD8IOC tDC
IUaCt O! Ca88 aDO aCC WC CaD 8a tDat !O WDItC aDO
a!!uCDt WOUCD, tDI8 CquaIZatIOD tCDO8 IO 8CIYC a8 CVIOCDCC
!O CUOtIODa aDO UCDta Out !O OaCK aDO OO
WOUCD, It Da8 OIDtCO tO CIU1DaIt}.
t 8DOuO a8O OC KCt ID UIDO tDat uDtI tDC aDOItIOD O!
8aVC}, tDC Va8t Ua]OIt} O! DaCK WOUCD WCC 8uD)CCt tO
CIUC8 O! uDI8DUCDt tDat OI!!CCO 8IDIICaDt} !IOU tDO8C
CXCIICDCCO O WDItC WOUCD. ^8 8aVC8, tDC} WCC OICCt
aDO O!ICD Duta} OI8CIIDCO !O CODOuCt COD8IOCCO C-
!CCt} DOUa ID a CODtCXt O! !CCOOU. oaVC uDI8DUCDt
Wa8 VI8IO} CDOCCO8CCIa CDatIC8, WCC, !O CXaUC,
C8CVCO !O CaDt WOUCD uDaOC tO CaCD tDC quOta8 tDat
A | 8ON8 O08O|1? j 67
dCICUIDCd DOW OD JDd DOW J8I IDC 8DOud WOK. !D IDC
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20
DOuyD !IVaIC !I8OU8 !C!C8CUI a !aI!} 8Da !OO!-
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A0L 0| SONS O0SOLL1L7 j 97
construction ovcr tvcnty ycars. This mcans that it is virtu-
aIIy imossiIIc to rcmovc thc contractor Iccausc that con-
tractor ovns thc rison.
''
As a dircct conscqucncc oI thc camaIgn organizcd Iy
rison activist grous in NcIIoumc, Victoria vithdrcv thc
contract uom CCA in 200I. Hovcvcr, a signiIicant ortion oI
AustraIia's nson systcm rcmains rivatizcd. D thc IaII oI
2002, thc govcrnmcnt oI QuccnsIand rcncvcd Wackcnhut's
contract to run a /I0-Icd nson in BrisIanc. Thc vaIuc oI uc
Iivc-ycar contract is $66.5 miIIion. In addItion U thc IaciIity
in BrisIanc, Wackcnhut managcs cIcvcn othcr risons in
AustraIia and Mcv ZcaIand and Iurnishcs hcaIth carc scrvIc-
cs in cIcvcn uIIic risons in thc statc oI VictorIa. ' In thc
rcss rcIcasc announcing this contract rcncvaI, Wackcnhut
dcscriIcs its gIoIaI Iusincss activitics as IoIIovs.
WCC, a vorId Icadcr in thc rivatizcd corrcctions
industry, has contracts[avards to managc 60 cor-
rcctionaI[dctcntion IaciIitics in Morth Amcrica,
Euroc, AustraIia, South AIrica and Mcv ZcaIand
vith a totaI oI aroximatcIy 43,000 Icds. WCC
aIso rovidcs risoncr transortation scrviccs, cIcc-
Lonic monItorIng Ior homc dctanccs, corrcctionaI
hcaIth carc and mcntaI hcaIth scrvccs. WCC oIIcrs
govcrnmcnt agcncics a turnkcy aroach to thc
dcvcIomcnt oI ncv corrcctionaI and mcntaI hcaIth
institutions that incIudcs dcsign, construction,
Iinancing, and ocrations.
'

But to undcrstand thc rcach oI thc rison industriaI com-
Icx, it is not cnough to cvokc thc Iooming ovcr oI thc ri-
vatc rIson Iusincss. By dcIinition, thosc comanics court
thc statc vithin and outsidc thc Dnitcd Statcs Ior thc ur-
98 j Anqel a Y. 0av|s
osc oI oItaining rison contracts, Iringing unishmcnt and
roIit togcthcr in a mcnacing cmIracc. StiII, this is onIy thc
most visiIIc dimcnsion oI thc rIson industriaI comIcx,
and it shouId not Icad us to thc morc comrchcnsivc
cororatization that is a Icaturc oI contcmorary unish-
mcnt. As comarcd to carIicr historicaI cras, thc nson
cconomy is no Iongcr a smaII, idcntIIiaIIc, and containaIIc
sct oI markcts. Nany cororations, vhosc namcs arc highIy
rccognizaIIc Iy Ircc vorId consumcrs, havc discovcrcd
ncv ossiIiIitics Ior cxansion Iy scIIing thcir roducts to
corrcctionaI IaciIitics.
In thc I990s, thc varicty oI coqorations making
moncy Irom risons is truIy dizzying, ranging Irom
DiaI Soa to Famous Aos cookics, Irom AT&T to
hcaIth-carc rovidcrs . . . In I 995 DiaI Soa soId
$I 00,000 vorth oI its roduct to thc Mcv York City
} aiI systcm aIonc . . . Whcn VitaPro Foods oI
NontrcaI, Canada, contractcd to suIy inmatcs in
thc statc oI Tcxas vith its soy-Iascd mcat suIsti-
tutc, thc contract vas vorth S34 miIIion a ycar.
'

Among thc many Iusincsscs that advcrtisc in thc ycIIov
agcs on thc corrcctions. com WcI sitc arc Archcr DanicI
NidIands, McstIc Food Scrvicc, Acc Hardvarc, PoIaroid,
HcvIctt-Packard, RJ RcynoIds, and thc communications
comanics Srint, AT&T, Vcrizon, and Amcritcch. Onc con-
cIusion to Ic dravn hcrc is that cvcn H rivatc rison com-
anics vcrc rohiIitcdan unIikcIy roscct, indccd-thc
rison industriaI comIcx and Its many stratcgics Ior roIit
vouId rcmam rcIativcIy intact. Privatc risons arc dircct
sourccs oI roIIt Ior thc comanics that run thcm, Iut uI
Iic risons havc Iccomc so thoroughIy saturatcd vith thc
AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j 99
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!02 j Anqel a Y. 0avis
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! 04 Anqel a Y. 0av|s

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AL | 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j !07
sacc nov occuicd Iy thc rison can cvcntuaIIy start to
crovd out thc rison so that it vouId inhaIit incrcasingIy
smaIIcr arcas of our sociaI and sychic Iandscac. SchooIs
can thcrcforc Ic sccn as thc most ovcrfuI aItcrnativc to }aiIs
and risons. DnIcss thc currcnt structurcs of vIoIcncc arc
cIiminatcd from schooIs in imovcrishcd commuitics of
coIorincIuding thc rcscncc of armcd sccurity guards and
oIiccand unIcss schooIs Iccomc Iaccs that cncouragc thc
}oy of Icarning, thcsc schooIs viII rcmain thc ma}or conduits
to rIsons. Thc aItcrnativc vouId Ic to transform schooIs
into vchicIcs for dccccration. Within thc hcaIth carc sys
tcm, it is imortant to cmhasizc thc currcnt scarcity of
institutions avaIIaIIc to oor coIc vho suffcr scvcrc mcn-
taI and cmotionaI iIIncsscs. Thcrc arc currcntIy morc coIc
vith mcntaI and cmotionaI disordcrs in }aiIs and risons than
in mcntaI institutions. This caII for ncv faciIitics dcsigncd to
assist oor coIc shouId not Ic takcn as an acaI to rcin-
stitutc thc oId systcm of mcntaI institutions, vhich vcrc
and in many cascs stiII arcas rcrcssivc as thc risons. It is
simIy to suggcst that thc raciaI and cIass disaritics in carc
avaiIaIIc to thc affIucnt and thc dcrivcd nccd to Ic cradi-
catcd, thus crcating anothcr vchicIc Ior dccarccration.
To rcitcratc, rathcr than try to imaginc onc singIc aItcr-
nativc to thc cxisting systcm of incarccration, vc might
cnvision an array of aItcmativcs that viII rcquirc radicaI
transformations of many asccts of our socicty. AItcrnativcs
that faiI to addrcss racism, maIc dominancc, homohoIia,
cIass Iias, and othcr structurcs of domination viII not, in
thc IInaI anaIysis, Icad to dccarccration and viII not advancc
thc goaI of aIoIition.
It is vithin this contcxt that it makcs scnsc to considcr
thc dccriminaIization of drug usc as a signIIicant comoncnt
of a Iargcr stratcgy to simuItacousIy oosc structurcs of
!08 j Anqel a Y. 0avis
racism vithin thc criminaI }ustIcc systcm and furthcr thc
aIoIitionist agcnda of dccarccration. Thus, vith rcscct to
thc ro}cct of chaIcngIng thc roIc Iaycd Iy thc so-caIIcd War
on Drugs in Iringing hugc numIcrs of coIc of coIor into thc
rison systcm, roosaIs to dccriminaIizc drug usc shouId Ic
IInkcd to thc dcvcIomcnt of a constcIIation of frcc, commu-
nity-Iascd rograms acccssiIIc to aII coIc vho vish to
tackIc thcir drug roIIcms. This is not to suggcst that aII co-
Ic vho usc drugs~or that onIy coIc vho usc iIIicit
uys-cd such hcI. Hovcvcr, anyonc, rcgardIcss of cco-
nomic status, vho vishcs to conqucr drug addiction shouId
Ic aIIc to cntcr trcatmcnt rograms.
Such institutions arc, indccd, avaiIaIIc to afIIucnt com-
munitics. Thc most vcII knovn rogram is thc Bctty Ford
** 4A~^4_ vhich, according to its WcI sitc, acccts aticnts
dccndcnt on aIcohoI and othcr mood aItcring chcmicaIs.
Trcatmcnt scrviccs arc ocn to aII mcn and vomcn cightccn
ycars of agc and oIdcr rcgardIcss of racc, crccd, scx, nationaI
orign, rcIigion or sourccs of aymcnt for carc. Hovcvcr,
thc cost for thc fIrst six days is $I , I /5 cr day, and aftcr that
$525 cr day.
l
a crson rcquircs thir( days of trcatmcnt,
thc cost vouId amount to $I 9,000, aImost tvicc thc annuaI
saIary of a crson vorking a minimum-vagc }oI.
Poor coIc dcscrvc to havc acccss to cffcctivc, voIuntary
drug trcatmcnt rogams. Likc thc Bctty Ford rogram, thcir
ocration shouId not Ic undcr thc ausiccs of thc criminaI
}usticc systcm. As at thc Ford Ccntcr, famiIy mcmIcrs aIso
shouId Ic crmittcd to articiatc. But unIikc thc Bctty Ford
rogram, thcy shouId Ic frcc of chargc. For such rograms to
count as aIoIitionist aItcrnativcs, thcy vouId not Ic
Iinkcd~unIikc cxisting rograms, to vhich individuaIs arc
scntcnccd~to imrisonmcnt as a Iast rcsort.
Thc camaig to dccriminaIizc drug uscfrom mar}ua-
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A0L 0| SONS O0SOLL1L7 j J! !
CrcatIng agcndas of dccarccratIon and IroadIy castIng thc
nct of aItcrnatIvcs hcIs us to do thc IdcoIogIcaI vork of
uIIIng aart thc concctuaI IInk Ictvccn crImc and unIsh-
mcnt. ThIs morc nuanccd undcrstandIng of thc socIaI roIc of
thc unIshmcnt systcm rcquIrcs us to gIvc u our usuaI vay
of thInkIng aIout unIshmcnt as an IncvItaIIc conscqucncc
of crImc. Wc vouId rccognIzc that unIshmcnt docs not
foIIov from crImc In thc ncat and IogIcaI scqucncc offcrcd
Iy dIscourscs that InsIst on thc }ustIcc of ImrIsonmcnt, Iut
rathcr unIshmcntrImarIIy through ImrIsonmcnt ,and
somctImcs dcathl~Is IInkcd to thc agcndas of oIItIcIans, thc
rofIt drIvc of cororatIons, and mcdIa rcrcscntatIons of
crImc. ImrIsonmcnt Is assocIatcd vIth thc racIaIIzatIon of
thosc most IIkcIy to Ic unIshcd. It Is assocIatcd vIth thcIr
cIass and, as vc havc sccn, gcndcr structurcs thc unIshmcnt
systcm as vcII. If vc InsIst that aIoIItIonIst aItcrnatIvcs
trouIIc thcsc rcIatIonshIs, that thcy strIvc to dIsartIcuIatc
crImc and unIshmcnt, racc and unIshmcnt, cIass and un-
Ishmcnt, and gcndcr and unIshmcnt, thcn our focus must
not rcst onIy on thc rIson systcm as an IsoIatcd InstItutIon
Iut must aIso Ic dIrcctcd at aII thc socIaI rcIatIons that su-
ort thc crmancncc of thc rIson.
An attcmt to crcatc a ncv concctuaI tcrraIn for Imag-
InIng aItcrnatIvcs to ImrIsonmcnt InvoIvcs thc IdcoIogIcaI
vork of qucstIonIng vhy crImInaIs havc Iccn constItutcd
as a cIass and, Indccd, a cIass of human IcIngs undcscrvIng
of thc cIvII and human rIghts accordcd to othcrs. RadIcaI
crImInoIogIsts havc Iong oIntcd out that thc catcgory Iav-
Ircakcrs Is far grcatcr than thc catcgory of IndIvIduaIs vho
arc dccmcd crImInaIs sIncc, many oInt out, aImost aII of us
havc Irokcn thc Iav at onc tImc or anothcr. Evcn PrcsIdcnt
BIII CIInton admIttcd that hc had smokcd marI}uana at onc
tImc, InsIstIng, though, that hc dId not InhaIc. Hovcvcr,
!!2 j Ange| a Y. 0avis
acknovIcdgcd dIsarItIcs In thc IntcnsIty of oIIcc survcII
Ianccas IndIcatcd Iy thc rcscnt-day currcncy of thc tcrm
racIaI rofIIIng vhIch ought to covcr far morc tcrrItory
than drIvIng vhIIc IIack or Irovn account In art for
racIaI and cIass-Iascd dIsarItIcs In arrcst and ImrIsonmcnt
ratcs. Thus, If vc arc vIIIIng to takc scrIousIy thc consc-
qucnccs of a racIst and cIassIIascd }ustIcc systcm, vc vIII
rcach thc concIusIon that cnormous numIcrs of coIc arc
In rIson sImIy Iccausc thcy arc, for cxamIc, IIack,
ChIcano, VIctnamcsc, MatIvc AmcrIcan or oor, rcgardIcss
of thcIr cthnIc Iackground. Thcy arc scnt to rIson, not so
much Iccausc of thc crImcs thcy may havc Indccd commIt-
tcd, Iut IargcIy Iccausc thcIr communItIcs havc Iccn crIm-
InaIIzcd. Thus, rograms for dccrImInaIIzatIon vIII not onIy
havc to addrcss sccIfIc actIvItIcs that havc Iccn crImInaI-
Izcdsuch as drug usc and scx vorkIut aIso crImInaIIzcd
ouIatIons and communItIcs.
It Is agaInst thc Iackdro of thcsc morc IroadIy conccIvcd
aIoIItIonIst aItcrnatIvcs that It makcs scnsc to takc u thc
qucstIon of radIcaI transformatIons vIthIn thc cxIstIng }us
tIcc systcm. Thus, asIdc from mInImIzIng, through varIous
stratcgIcs, thc kInds of IchavIors that vIII IrIng coIc Into
contact vIth thc oIIcc and }ustIcc systcms, thcrc Is thc qucs
tIon of hov to trcat thosc vho assauIt thc rIghts and IodIcs
of othcrs. Nany organIzatIons and IndIvIduaIs Ioth In thc
DnItcd Statcs and othcr countrIcs offcr aItcrnatIvc modcs of
makIng }ustIcc. In IImItcd Instanccs, somc govcrnmcnts havc
attcmtcd to ImIcmcnt aItcrnatIvcs that rangc from confIIct
rcsoIutIon to rcstoratIvc or rcaratIvc }ustIcc. Such schoIars
as Hcrman BIanchI havc suggcstcd that crImc nccds to Ic
dcfIncd In tcrms of tort and, Instcad of crImInaI Iav, shouId
Ic rcaratIvc Iav. In hIs vords, Thc IavIrcakcr| Is thus no
Iongcr an cvII-mIndcd man or voman, Iut sImIy a dcItor, a
AL ' 8ON8 O08O|L1L? j !!3
IiabIc crson vhosc human duty is to takc rcsonsibiIity Ior
his or hcr acts, and to assumc thc duty oI rcair.

'
z
Thcrc is a grovIng body oI Iitcraturc on rcshaing sys-
tcms oI Justicc around stratcgics oI rcaration, rathcr than
rctribution, as vcII as a groving body oI cxcricntiaI cvi-
dcncc oI thc advantagcs oI thcsc aroachcs to }usticc and oI
thc dcmocratic ossibiIitics thcy romisc. Instcad oI
rchcarsing thc numcrous dcbatcs that havc cmcrgcd ovcr thc
Iast dccadcs-incIuding thc most crsistcnt qucstion, What
viII hacn to thc murdcrcrs and raists I viII concIudc
vith a story oI onc oI thc most dramatic succcsscs oI thcsc
cxcrimcnts in rcconciIiation. I rcIcr to thc casc oI Amy
BichI, thc vhitc !uIbright schoIar rom Mcvort Bcach,
CaIiIornia, vho vas kiIIcd by young South AIrican mcn in
CuguIctu, a bIack tovnshi in Cactovn, South AIrica.
In I993, vhcn South Arica vas on thc cus oI its transi-
tion, Amy BichI vas dcvoting a signiIicant amount oI hcr
timc as a Iorcign studcnt to thc vork oI rcbuiIding South
AIrica. McIson NandcIa had bccn Irccd in I 990, but had not
yct bccn cIcctcd rcsidcnt. On August 25, BichI vas drivIng
scvcraI bIack Iricnds to thcir homc in CuguIctu vhcn a
crovd shouting antivhitc sIogans comrontcd hc:, and somc
oI thcm stoncd and stabbcd hcr to dcath. !our oI thc mcn
articiating in thc attack vcrc convictcd oI hcr murdcr and
scntcnccd to cightccn ycars in rison. In I99/, Linda and
Pctcr BichIAmy's mothcr and Iathcrdccidcd to suort
thc amncsty ctition thc mcn rcscntcd to thc Truth and
RcconciIiation Commission. Thc Iour aoIogizcd to thc
BichIs and vcrc rcIcascd in JuIy I998. Tvo oI thcmEasy
MoIcmcIa and Mtobcko PcniIatcr mct vith thc BichIs,
vho, dcsitc much rcssurc to thc contrary, agrccd to scc
thcm. According to MoIcmcIa, hc vantcd to say morc
about his ovn sorrov Ior kiIIing thcir daughtcr than vhat
!!4 j Anqel a Y. 0avis
had bccn ossibIc during Truth and RcconciIiation hcarings.
I knov you Iost a crson you Iovc, hc says hc toId thcm
during that mccting. I vant you to Iorgivc mc and takc mc
as your chiId. "'
Thc BichIs, vho had cstabIishcd thc Amy BichI
!oundation in thc aItcrmath oI thcir daughtcr's dcath, askcd
MoIcmcIa and Pcni to vork at thc CuguIctu branch oI thc
Ioundation. MoIcmcIa bccamc an instructor in a aItcr-
schooI sorts rogam and Pcni an administrator. In Junc
2002, thcy accomanicd Linda BichI to Mcv York, vhcrc
thcy aII sokc bcIorc thc Amcrican !amiIy Thcray
Acadcmy on rcconciIiation and rcstorativc }usticc. In a
oston CIobc intcrvicv, Linda BichI, vhcn askcd hov shc
nov IccIs about thc mcn vho kiIIcd hcr daughtcr, said, I
havc a Iot oI Iovc Ior thcm." AItcr Pctcr BichI dicd in 2002,
shc bought tvo Iots oI Iand Ior thcm in mcmory oI hcr hus-
band so that MoIcmcIa and Pcni can buiId thcir ovn
homcs. ' A Icv days aItcr thc Sctcmbcr I I attacks, thc
BichIs had bccn askcd to scak at a synagoguc in thcir com-
munity. According to Pctcr BichI, Wc tricd to cIain that
somctimcs it ays to shut u and Iisicn to vhat othcr co-
Ic havc to say, to ask 'Why do thcsc tcrribIc things ha
cn` ' instcad oI simIy rcacting. "
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Phonc. , 5I0l 893-4648
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arcrIsonactIvIst. org
vvv.rIsonactI vIst.org
I5LI LP1 IY5
2400 MW 80th Strcct, PNB #I48
ScattIc, WA 98I I /
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388 AtIantIc Avcnuc, 3rd FIoor
BrookIyn, MY I I2I /
Phonc. , /I 8l 260-8805
Fax. , 2I2l /2/-86I6
mnomorcrIsons.org
vvv.nomorcrIsons.org
5IILIL ILJL
5I4- I0th Strcct MW #I000
WashIngton, DC 20004
Phonc. ,202l 628-08/I
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