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Environmental
Science

Environmental Science
Lab Manual




Environmental Science: Table of Contents
3

Introduction
Lab 1 The Scientic Method
Lab 2 How to Write a Lab Report
Lab 3 Measurements

Ecological Interactions
Lab 4 Ecosystems
Lab 5 Ecology of Organisms
Lab 6 Biodiversity
Lab 7 Population Biology

Resources
Lab 8 Water Quality and Contamination
Lab 9 Air Quality and Contamination
Lab 10 Soil Quality and Contamination
Lab 11 Energy Sources and Alternative Energy

Geology
Lab 12 Weather and Climate Change
Lab 13 Rocks
Lab 14 Minerals
Lab 15 Astronomy

Environmental Science: Time & Materials


5

Please note that the times listed are approximations and may dier.
Please read through the procedure and plan accordingly.

Introduction
Lab 1 The Scientic Method
Time Required: 30 minutes
Additional Materials: None

Lab 2 How to Write a Lab Report
Time Required: 30 minutes; 7-10 days observation
Additional Materials: Paper towel, water, masking tape

Lab 3 Measurements
Time Required: 30 minutes
Additional Materials: None

Ecological Interactions
Lab 4 Ecosystems
Time Required: 60 minutes; 7 days observation
Additional Materials: Water

Lab 5 Ecology of Organisms
Time Required: 60 minutes; 2 hours observation
Additional Materials: Water

Lab 6 Biodiversity
Time Required: 60 minutes; 2 weeks observation
Additional Materials: Water

If you are allergic to nitrile, please contact us and we will send you an alternative

Environmental Science: Time & Materials


6
Lab 7 Population Biology
Time Required: 60 minutes; 2 weeks observation
Additional Materials: Water, germinated seeds from Biodiversity Lab
OR additional 2 weeks to germinate seeds

Resources
Lab 8 Water Quality and Contamination
Time Required: 90 minutes
Additional Materials: Water

Lab 9 Air Quality and Contamination
Time Required: 60 minutes; 4 days observation
Additional Materials: Aquatic plant from pet store, water, paper towels,
scissors

Lab 10 Soil Quality and Contamination
Time Required: 90 Minutes; 7 days observation
Additional Materials: Water, 1L container

Lab 11 Energy Sources and Alternative Energy
Time Required: 60 minutes; 48 hours observation
Additional Materials: Water, incandescent light source, sunlight

Geology
Lab 12 Weather and Climate Change
Time Required: 60 minutes; 12 hours observation
Additional Materials: Water, ice cubes, hot water

Lab 13 Rocks
Time Required: 60 minutes
Additional Materials: None

Environmental Science: Time & Materials


7
Lab 14 Minerals
Time Required: 60 minutes
Additional Materials: Penny, ngernail (for scratch test)

Lab 15 Astronomy
Time Required: 60 minutes
Additional Materials: Pencil, scissors, masking tape, cardboard

Environmental Science: Safety Information


9
Lab Safety
Always follow the instructions in your laboratory manual and these general rules:
Lab Preparation
Please thoroughly read the lab exercise before starting!
If you have any doubt as to what you are supposed to be doing and how to do
it safely, please STOP and then:
Double-check the manual instructions.
Check www.esciencelabs.com for updates and tips.
Contact us for technical support by phone at 1-888-ESL-Kits (1-888-375-5487) or by
mail at Help@esciencelabs.com.
Read and understand all labels on chemicals.
If you have any questions or concerns, refer to the Material Safely Data Sheets
(MSDS) available at www.esciencelabs.com. The MSDS lists the dangers, storage
requirements, exposure treatment and disposal instructions for each chemical.
Consult your physician if you are pregnant, allergic to chemicals, or have other
medical conditions that may require additional protective measures.

Proper Lab Attire
Remove all loose clothing (jackets, sweatshirts, etc.) and always wear closed-
toe shoes.
Long hair should be pulled back and secured and all jewelry (rings, watches,
necklaces, earrings, bracelets, etc.) should be removed.
Safety glasses or goggles should be worn at all times. In addition, wearing soft
contact lenses while conducting experiments is discouraged, as they can ab-
sorb potentially harmful chemicals.
When handling chemicals, always wear the protective goggles, gloves, and
apron provided.

eScience Labs, LLC designs every kit with safety as our top priority. Nonetheless, the-
se are science kits and contain items which must be handled with care.
Safety in the laboratory always comes rst!

Environmental Science: Safety Information


10
Performing the Experiment
Do not eat, drink, chew gum, apply cosmetics or smoke while conducting an
experiment.
Work in a well ventilated area and monitor experiments at all times, unless in-
structed otherwise.
When working with chemicals:
Never return unused chemicals to their original container or place chemicals in an
unmarked container.
Always put lids back onto chemicals immediately after use.
Never ingest chemicals. If this occurs, seek immediate help.
Call 911 or Poison Control 1-800-222-1222
Never pipette anything by mouth.
Never leave a heat source unattended.
If there is a re, evacuate the room immediately and dial 911.

Lab Clean-up and Disposal
If a spill occurs, consult the MSDS to determine how to clean it up.
Never pick up broken glassware with your hands. Use a broom and a dustpan
and discard in a safe area.
Do not use any part of the lab kit as a container for food.
Safely dispose of chemicals. If there are any special requirements for disposal,
it will be noted in the lab manual.
When nished, wash hands and lab equipment thoroughly with soap and wa-
ter.

Above all, USE COMMON SENSE!

Introduction
Lab 1 The Scientic Method

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Environmental
Science

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
13

Introduction
What is science? You have likely taken several classes throughout your career as a student,
and know that it is more than just chapters in a book. Science is a process that uses evidence
to understand the history of the natural world and how it works. It is constantly changing as we
understand more about the natural world, and continues to advance the understanding of the
universe. Science begins with observations that can be measured in some way so that data
can be collected in a useful manner by following the scientific method.
Have you ever wondered why the sky is blue or why a plant grows toward a window? If so, you
have already taken the first step down the road of discovery. No matter what the question, the
scientific method can help find an answer (or more than one answer!). Following the scientific
method helps to insure scientists can minimize bias when testing a theory. It will help you to
Concepts to Explore
Testable observations
Hypothesis
Null hypothesis
Experimental approach
Variables
Controls
Data Collection
Analysis
Figure 1: The process of the scientific method

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
14
collect and organize information in a useful way, looking
for connections and patterns in the data. As an experi-
menter, you should use the scientific method as you
conduct the experiments throughout this manual.
The scientific method process begins with the formula-
tion of a hypothesis a statement of what the experi-
menter thinks will happen in certain situations. A
hypothesis is an educated guess a proposed
explanation for an event based on observation(s). A
null hypothesis is a testable statement, that if proven
true means the hypothesis was incorrect. Both state-
ments must be testable, but only one can be true. Hy-
potheses are typically written in an if/then format, such
as:
Hypothesis:
If nutrients are added to soil, then plants
grown in it will grow faster than plants
without added nutrients in the soil.
Null hypothesis:
If nutrients are added to the soil, then the
plants will grow the same as plants in soil without added nutrients.
There are often many ways to test a hypothesis. When designing an experiment to test a hy-
pothesis there are three rules to follow:
The experiment must be replicable.
Only test one variable at a time.
Always include a control.
Variables are defined and measurable components of an experiment. Controlling the variables
in an experiment allows the scientist to quantitate the changes that occur so that results can
be measured and conclusions drawn. There are three types of variables:
1. Independent Variable: The variable that the scientist changes to a predetermined
value in order to test the hypothesis. There can only be one independent variable
in each experiment in order to pinpoint the change that affects the outcome of the
experiment.
2. Dependent Variable: This variable is measured in regards to conditions of the inde-
pendent variableit depends on the independent variable. There can be more
than one dependent variable in each experiment.
3. Controlled Variable: This variable, or variables (there could be many) reflect the
factors that could influence the results of the experiment, but are not the planned
changes the scientist is expecting (by changing the independent variable). These
variables must be controlled so that the results can be associated with some
change in the independent variable.
Figure 2: What affects plant growth?
If plants grow quicker when nutrients are
added, then the hypothesis is accepted
and the null hypothesis is rejected.

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
15
When designing the experiment, establish a clear and concise procedure. Controls must be
identified to eliminate compounding changes that can influence the results. Often times, the
hardest part of designing an experiment is not figuring out how to test the one factor you focus
on, but in trying to eliminate the often hidden influences that can skew results. Taking notes
when conducting an experiment is important, whether it is recording the temperature, humidity,
time of day, or another environmental condition that may have an impact on the results. Also
remember that replication is fundamental to scientific experiments.
Before drawing conclusions, make sure your data is repeatable. In other words, make sure the
experiment provides significant results over multiple trials. Often, the best way to organize data
for analysis is as a table or a graph. Remember, any table or graph should be able to stand on
its own. In other words, another scientist should be able to pick up the table or graph and have
all of the information necessary to interpret it, with no other information.

Table: A well-organized summary of data collected. Only include information relevant to the
hypothesis (e.g. dont include the color of the plant because its not relevant to what is
being tested). Always include a clearly stated title, label your columns and rows and
include the units of measurement. For an example:

Graph: A visual representation of the relationship between the independent and dependent
variable. Graphs are useful in identifying trends and illustrating findings. Rules to re-
member:
The independent variable is always graphed on the x-axis (horizontal), with the de-
pendent variable on the y axis (vertical).
Use appropriate numerical spacing when plotting the graph, with the lower num-
bers starting on both the lower and left hand corners.
Always use uniform or logarithmic intervals. For example, if you begin by number-
ing, 0, 10, 20, do not jump to 25 then to 32.
Title the graph and both the x and y axes such that they correspond to the table
from which they come. For example, if you titled your table Heart rate of those
who eat vegetables and those who do not eat vegetables, be sure to title the
graph the same.
Table 1: Plant Growth with and without Added Nutrients
Variable
Height Wk. 1
(mm)
Height Wk. 2
(mm)
Height Wk. 3
(mm)
Height Wk. 4
(mm)
Control
(without nutrients)
3.4 3.6 3.7 4.0
Independent
(with nutrients)
3.5 3.7 4.1 4.6

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
16
Determine the most appropriate type of graph. Line and bar graphs are the most
common.
Line graph: Shows the relationship between variables using plotted points that are connected
with a line. There must be a direct relationship and dependence between each point
connected. More than one set of data can be presented on a line graph. Figure 3 uses
the data from our previous table:

Figure 3: Plant growth, with and without nutrients, over time
H
e
i
g
h
t


(
m
m
)


S
p
e
e
d

(
k
p
h
)

Figure 4: Top speed for Cars A, B, C, and D

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
17
Bar graph: Compares results that are independent from each other, as opposed to a
continuous series. Since the results from our previous example are continuous, they
are not appropriate for a bar graph. Figure 4 shows the top speeds of four cars. Since
there is no relationship between each car, each result is independent and a bar graph
is appropriate.

Interpretation: Based on the data you collected, is your hypothesis supported or refuted?
Based on the data, is the null hypothesis supported or refuted? If the hypothesis is sup-
ported, are there other variables which should be examined? For instance, was the
amount of water and sunlight consistent between groups of plants - or, were all four
cars driven on the same road?



Exercise 1: Data Interpretation
Dissolved oxygen is oxygen that is trapped in a fluid, such as water. Since virtually every living
organism requires oxygen to survive, it is a necessary component of water systems such as
streams, lakes and rivers in order to support aquatic life. The dissolved oxygen is measured in
units of ppmor parts per million. Examine the data in Table 2 showing the amount of dis-
solved oxygen present and the number of fish observed in the body of water the sample was
taken from; finally, answer the questions below.

Questions
1. What patterns do you observe based on the information in Table 2?
2. Develop a hypothesis relating to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water
sample and the number of fish observed in the body of water.
Table 2: Water Quality vs. Fish Population
Dissolved Oxygen (ppm) 0
Number of Fish Observed 0
2
1
4
3
6
10
8
12
10
13
12
15
14
10
16
12
18
13

Lab1:TheSciencMethod
18
3. What would your experimental approach be to test this hypothesis?
4. What would be the independent and dependent variables?
5. What would be your control?
6. What type of graph would be appropriate for this data set? Why?
7. Graph the data from Table 2 (previous page).
8. Interpret the data from the graph made in Question 7.









Lab1:TheSciencMethod
19
Exercise 2: Testable Observations
Determine which of the following observations are testable. For those that are testable:
Write a hypothesis and null hypothesis
What would be your experimental approach?
What are the dependent and independent variables?
What is your control?
How will you collect your data?
How will you present your data (charts, graphs, types)?
How will you analyze your data?

Observations
1. When a plant is placed on a window sill, it grows faster than when it is placed on a coffee
table in the middle of the living room.




2. The teller at the bank with brown hair and brown eyes is taller than the other tellers.




3. I caught four fish at seven the morning but didnt catch any fish at noon.



4. The salaries at Smith and Company are based on the number of sales and Billy makes
3,000 dollars more than Joe.




5. When Sally eats healthy foods and exercises regularly, her blood pressure is lower than
when she does not exercise and eats fatty foods.



Lab1:TheSciencMethod
20
6. The Italian restaurant across the street closes at 9 pm but the one two blocks away closes
at 10 pm.




7. Bob bought a new blue shirt with a golf club on the back for twenty dollars.




8. For the past two days, the clouds have come out at 3 pm and it has started raining at 3:15
pm.



9. George did not sleep at all last night because he was up finishing his paper.




10. Ice cream melts faster on a warm summer day than on a cold winter day.




11. In conclusion, how can you apply scientific method to an everyday problem? Give one ex-
ample.

Introduction
Lab 2 How to Write a Lab Report
Es
Environmental
Science

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
23
Introduction
A lab report is a scientific paper describing an experiment,
how it was done and the results of the study.
Experiments are performed to test if what one thinks may hap-
pen, actually does. The lab report lays out the results of the
experiment and can be used to communicate the findings to
other scientists. It allows the findings of one scientist to be
examined, replicated, refuted or supported by another scien-
tist. Though most lab reports go unpublished, it is important
to write a report that accurately characterizes the experiment
performed.
Even if what is described never reaches the public or the sci-
entific community, the report lays the foundation for other ex-
periments. It also provides a written record of what was done,
so that others can understand what the investigator was think-
ing and doing.

Parts of a Lab Report
Title
A short statement summarizing the topic of the report.
Abstract
A brief summary of the methods, results and conclusions. It should not exceed
200 words and should be the last part written.
Introduction
This is an overview of why the experiment was conducted. There are three key
parts:
1. Background: Provides an overview of what is already known and what
questions remain unresolved regarding the topic of the experiment. Assume
the reader needs a basic introduction to the topic and provide the infor-
mation necessary for them to understand why and how the experiment was
performed.
2. Objective: Explain the purpose of the experiment. For example; I want to
Concepts to Explore
What is a lab report?
The parts of a lab report
How to write a lab report
Figure 1: Lab reports are an
essential part of science,
providing a means of reporting
experimental findings

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
24
determine if taking baby aspirin every day pre-
vents second heart attacks.
3. Hypothesis: This is your guess as to what will
happen when you do the experiment.
Materials and Methods
This is a detailed description of what was used to
conduct the experiment, what was actually done
(step by step) and how it was done. The description
should be exact enough that someone reading the
report can replicate the experiment. Make sure to
include all the equipment and supplies used, even if
they seem obvious and did not seem to play a large
role. When describing the methods, go in order from
the first step to the last. Do not list the procedures
used in a numerical fashion, but write them in com-
plete sentences and paragraphs, much like you would if speaking.
Results
This is the data obtained from the experiment. This section should be clear,
concise and to the point. In this section, tables and graphs are often appropri-
ate and frequently are the best way to present the data. Do not include any in-
terpretations, only the raw data.
Discussion
This is where the scientist (you) can interpret the data you obtained and draw
conclusions. Was your hypothesis (guess) supported or refuted? Discuss
what these findings mean, look at common themes, relationships and points
that perhaps generate more questions. If fewer heart attacks were reported
when baby aspirin was taken, but only in women, this would lead to additional
questions. When appropriate, discuss outside factors (i.e. temperature, time of
day, etc.) that may have played a role in the experiment and what could be
done to control those in future experiments.
Conclusion
A short, pointed summary that states what has been learned from this experi-
ment.

References
Any articles, books, magazines, interviews, newspapers, etc., that were used to
support your experimental protocols, discussions and conclusions, should be
cited in this section.




Figure 2: Follow the guide-
lines in this introduction
when writing a lab report.

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
25
Experiment 1: Design an Experiment
The following experiment is meant to be designed by you with the beans provided in the kit!
you will design and execute an experiment to test several factors that influence seed germina-
tion. Whatever your experimental design, be sure to include controls and make sure it is repro-
ducible!


Procedure
1. Think of 10-20 variables that may affect seed germination. Record them in Table 3.
2. From your list of variables in Table 3, select three to test. Form a hypothesis for why each
affects seed germination.
3. To germinate the beans, place one folded paper towel, moistened but not soaking wet, into
the 5 x 8 inch bag. Place 10 beans in a horizontal line on the paper towel.
4. Use a different prepared bag for each variable tested. Label each bag with the variable be-
Important Points to Keep in Mind
Do not confuse the sections of your paper. Pay attention to the difference between the
results and discussion section.
Be clear, concise and complete.
If your results are inconclusive, as are most experiments, say so.
Proof read your report. A lab report is expected to be able to withstand scrutiny.
Do not plagiarize; give credit to all references used.
Materials

(100) beans
(10) 5 x 8 in. Bags
Permanent marker
Ruler
*Paper towels
*Water
*Masking tape

*You must provide
Notes about bean germination
The time to germinate will decrease if you soak the beans overnight before beginning
the experiment.
It may take 7-10 days for the beans to sprout.
Make sure the paper towels remain moist for the duration of your experiment.

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
26
ing tested.
5. Hang each bag using masking tape in the environment you select.
6. Create a table for your data, including title, units, and any other useful information.
7. Select the appropriate type of graph, and report the data you collected.
8. Write a lab report for this experiment in the space provided.


































Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
27










































Variable Hypothesized Effect




















Table 3: Variables That May Influence Seed Germination

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
28
Lab Report:

Lab2:HowtoWriteaLabReport
29
Introduction
Lab 3 Measurements

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Environmental
Science

Lab3:Measurements
33
The foundation of science rests on the ability to perform specific mathematical functions as
well as an understanding of important factors of measurement. It is necessary to understand
the basics of units and how to convert between them (e.g. 1 minute = 60 seconds).

Unit Conversion
Often times, you may have to make several unit conversions before arriving at the appropriate
units for that measurement. For example, if you knew it took you 3450 seconds to drive from
your house to the post office, determining the number of minutes it would take involves con-
verting units.

Questi ons
For each of the following, convert each value into
the designated units.
1. 46,756,790 mg = _______ kg

2. 5.6 hours = ________ seconds

3. 13.5 cm = ________ inches

4. 47
0
C = _______
0
F





Concepts to Explore
Units and unit conversion
Accuracy vs. precision
Scientic notation
Signicant digits
Calculation accuracy
Converting seconds to minutes:
3450 seconds * 1 minute = 3450 seconds * 1 minute = 3450 minutes = 57.5 minutes

60 seconds
60 seconds
60
Conversion Chart
Temperature

o
C = 5/9 (
o
F 32)
Time
60 seconds equals one minute
60 minutes equals one hour
Mass
1000 milligrams equals one gram
1000 grams equals one kilogram
Length
2.54 cm equal one inch

Lab3:Measurements
34
Another important concept in science is understanding the difference between accuracy and
precision. Accuracy describes the proximity of a measurement to the norm or standard. Take,
for example, a target with a bulls-eye in the middle. The closer you shoot to the bulls-eye, the
greater the accuracy.














Precision, another important description of measurement in science, differs from accuracy in
that it determines how closely related the variables are. Using the target analogy, the arrows
would all need to be very close to one another. When talking about precision, hitting the
bulls-eye is less important than getting all your arrows to hit the same area of the target.















When both accuracy and precision are present, a result typically is considered valid. It is im-
portant to remember, though, that an object can be accurate without being precise and
vice-versa.

Lab3:Measurements
35
Questions
Determine whether the information is accurate, precise, both or neither.
1. During gym class, four students decided to see if they could beat the norm of 45 sit-ups in
a minute. The first student did 64 sit-ups, the second did 69, the third did 65, and the fourth
did 67.




2. The average score for the 5th grade math test is 89.5. The top 4th graders took the test
and scored 89, 93, 91 and 87.




3. Yesterday the temperature was 89F, tomorrow its supposed to be 88F and the next day
its supposed to be 90F, even though the average for September is only 75F degrees!




4. Four friends decided to go out and play horseshoes. They took a
picture of their results shown to the right:










5. A local grocery store was holding a contest to see who could most closely guess the num-
ber of pennies that they had inside a large jar. The first six people guessed the numbers
735, 209, 390, 300, 1005 and 689. The grocery clerk said the jar actually contains 568
pennies.




Lab3:Measurements
36
Signicant Digits
The number of digits in a number reflect its precision. Significant digits are the digits in a num-
ber or answer that provide meaning to how precise the value actually is. Consider the follow-
ing rules:
1. Any non-zero number (1-9) is always significant. For example, 45 has two significant digits.
3.99 has three significant digits, and 248678 has six significant digits.
2. Any time a zero appears between significant numbers, the zero is significant. For example,
4005 has four significant digits because the two zeros are between two significant num-
bers. The number 0.34000000009 has 11 significant digits.
3. Zeros that are the ending numbers after a decimal point or zeros that are after significant
numbers before a decimal point are significant. For example, the number 45.00 has 4 sig-
nificant numbers. The number 15000.00 has 7 significant digits.
4. Zeros that are used as placeholders are NOT significant digits. For example, 6200000 has
only two significant digits. The number 0.0000000897 has three significant digits.
5. A zero at the end of a number with no decimal can be a significant digit. One example is
50cm, when the cm mark is the most precise the instrument can calculate, but the meas-
urement is indeed exactly 50cm.
Here are a few guidelines:
If a number has no decimal point, begin from the right hand side of the number and count
how many digits there are starting from the first nonzero digit.
If a number has a decimal point, begin from the left hand side of the number and count how
many digits there are starting from the first nonzero digit.

Questions
Determine the number of significant digits in each number and circle the significant digits.
1. 405000
2. 0.0098
3. 39.999999
4. 13.00
5. 80,000,089
6. 55,430.00
7. 0.000033
8. 620.03080


In general, your answer should have the same precision as the number with the least signifi-
cant figures in the data used as this is the least significant digit and provides information about
the accuracy of the number.

When adding or subtracting, your answer should have the same number of significant decimal
places as the least precise number involved in the calculation. When multiplying or dividing,

Lab3:Measurements
37
your answer should keep the same total number of significant digits as the least precise num-
ber involved in the calculation. Here are some examples:

12.689 + 5.2 = 17.889 round to 17.9
28.8 x 54.76 = 1577.088 round to 1580 (3 sig. digits)

In calculations that involve more than one step, you should keep at least one extra significant
figure in your intermediate answers, then round off your final answer to the right number of fig-
ures last.

Scientic Notation
Another important component of science lies in the understanding of scientific notation. Put
simply, scientific notation is a shorthand way to write very large and very small numbers using
the power of 10. For example, the number 5,600,000 can be written as 5.6 x 10
6
. This means
that if you multiply 5.6 by 10 six times, you will arrive at 5,600,000.

There are three parts to scientific notation: the base, the coefficient and the exponent. Base 10
is always used for our purposes, and makes the notation easy to translate. The coefficient is
always a number between 1 and 10, and uses the significant digits of the original number. The
exponent tells us whether the number is greater or less than 1, and can be used to count the
number of digits the decimal must be moved to translate the number to regular notation. A
negative exponent tells you to move the decimal to the left, while a positive one tells you to
move it to the right.

For example, take the number 0.00045. To write this number in scientific notation, first deter-
mine the coefficient. Remember that the number must be between 1 and 10. The significant
digits are 4 and 5, so we can take 4.5 as the coefficient. To determine the exponent, count how
many places you would move the decimal over to create the original number. Moving to the
left, we have 0.45, 0.045, 0.0045, then 0.00045. Since we move the decimal 4 places to the
left, our coefficient is 4. Written in scientific notation, this number looks like:
4.5 x 10
-4
Another example: 446700. The base is 10, the coefficient would be 4.467 (it is between 1 and
10) and the exponent would be 5. So, writing this in scientific notation would look like:
4.467x 10
5

Questions
Write the numbers below in scientific notation, incorporating what you know about significant
digits.
1. 70,000,000,000
2. 0.000000048
3. 67,890,000

Lab3:Measurements
38
4. 70,500
5. 450,900,800
6. 0.009045
7. 0.023

Often times in science, an experiment will be designed to look for a value that is commonly
known. For example, an experiment might be designed to determine the acceleration of gravi-
ty, which is a commonly known number (9.8 m/s
2
). In this type of situation, a percentage er-
ror can be calculated. The formula for this is:

Percentage Error =

So, if the value 10.1 m/s
2
was obtained from the tested experiment, the error formula should be
set up to look like:

Percentage Error =

Percentage Error =

Percentage Error =

= 3.1% (remembering sig. digits)

It is important to remember that the brackets around the numerator of the equation stand for
absolute value. This means that the number will always be positive. Say, for example, the ac-
celeration of gravity was found to be 9.7 m/s
2
from our experiments. The formula would look
like:

Percentage Error =

Percentage Error =

(Remember, the absolute value brackets negate all negative signs)

Percentage Error = 0.0102 x 100%
= 1.0%




Experimental - Actual
100%
Actual

2 2
2
10.1 / 9.8 /
100%
9.8 /
m s m s
m s

0.3
100%
9.8
0.0306 100%

2 2
2
9.7 / 9.8 /
100%
9.8 /
m s m s
m s

2
2
0.1 /
100%
9.8 /
m s
m s

Lab3:Measurements
39
Questions
In the questions below, determine the percentage error. Show your work on all problems.
1. A dad holds five coins in his hand. He tells his son that if he can guess the amount of mon-
ey he is holding within 5% error he can have the money. The son guesses that he is hold-
ing 81 cents. The dad opens his hand and displays 90 cents. Did the son guess close
enough to receive the money from his father?





2. A science teacher tells her class that their final project requires the students to measure a
specific variable and determine the velocity of a car with no more than 2.5% error. Jennifer
and Johnny work hard and decide the velocity of the car is 34.87 m/s. The teacher informs
them that the actual velocity is 34.15 m/s. Will Jennifer and Johnny pass their final project?






3. A locomotive train is on its way from Chicago, IL to Madison, WI. The trip is said to last
3.15 hours. When the train arrives in Madison the conductor notices it actually took them
3.26 hours. The train company prides itself on always having its trains to the station within
a 3% error of the expected time. Will the train company live up to its reputation on this trip?






4. A coach tells his little league players that hitting a .275 batting average, within 7% percent-
age error, means that they had a really great season. Seven year old Tommy ended the
season hitting a .258 batting average. According to his coach, did he have a great sea-
son?




Ecological Interactions
Lab 4 Ecosystems
Es
Environmental
Science

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab4:Ecosystems
43

Ecology is the study of the interactions and relationships that exist between organisms and
their nonliving and living environment in the past, present, and future times. The word ecology
derives from the Greek word oikos meaning house, reflecting the disciplines study of living
things and their environments, or home. Ecology is an integrative discipline and spans many
subcategories, including physiological ecology, population biology, community ecology, and
ecosystems ecology.



Complex webs of relationships exist among all the species in an ecosystem. An ecosystem is
a system of communities of living animals and plants at a particular time. Each organism with-
in a community has a habitat and a niche. An organisms habitat is the location where it physi-
cally resides or is adapted to reside. An organisms niche refers its function or occupation, or
how the organism obtains and sustains all of the elements needed for survival. The number of
organisms an ecosystem can support depends on the resources available and the abiotic fac-
tors. Abiotic factors are the non-living chemical and physical components of an ecosystem,
Concepts to Explore
Ecology
Ecosystem
Abiotic vs. biotic factors
Autotrophs
Heterotrophs
Trophic Levels
Biomagnication
Figure 1: There is great variety in the habitats across the globe. From the
driest deserts to the wettest swamps, creatures have learned to thrive in
many environments.

Lab4:Ecosystems
44
and include light, water, temperature ranges, and soil composition. The word biotic, in
contrast, refers to living factors.
Populations of organisms can be categorized by the function they serve in an ecosystem. The
sun is a major source of energy for ecosystems. Autotrophs convert the energy from chemi-
cals or the sun into food, and are thus labeled producers. Plants and some microorganisms
are producers as they make their own food. Heterotrophs, in comparison, are organisms that
get their energy by consuming other organisms. All animals are consumers. Heterotrophs that
eat only plant matter are called herbivores, and are also identified as first-order heterotrophs.
Meat eaters are called carnivores; those that eat heterotrophs are distinguished as second-
order heterotrophs, while those that eat other carnivores are third-order heterotrophs (Figure
3). Decomposers are consumers that use waste materials and dead organisms for food, such
as fungi and bacteria.
Food webs are networks in a natural community of many species that have the ability to eat
various kinds of food. Food webs help identify the relationships among producers, consumers,
and decomposers in an ecosystem to see how they affect each other.
Organisms that share the same basic foods are said to be in the same trophic level. From the
autotrophs, energy is provided through the system along a food chain. Energy "flows" through
an ecosystem in only one direction, as carbon-carbon bonds made by the producers are bro-
ken for energy consumption. As energy travels from one trophic level to the next some energy
is lost during the process. In fact, scientists believe 10% or less of the energy available in one
trophic level will be available for the next. This is called the energy conversion efficiency, and is
Figure 2: A sample
ecosystem.

Lab4:Ecosystems
45
a term used to describe the energy loss
when the input of energy is greater than the
output of energy. Inefficient energy transfer
is what accounts for the classically depicted
food pyramid.
Biomagnification is the accumulation of a
substance as it works its way up the food
chain by transfer of the substance from low-
er trophic level organisms to higher trophic
organisms. Biomagnification results in high-
er substance concentrations for organisms
higher in the food chain. Organisms at lower
trophic levels eat small amounts but organ-
isms at higher trophic levels eat many lower
trophic level organisms thus chemicals ac-
cumulate in higher amounts.



Figure 4: Inefficient vs. Efficient transfer pyramid. There is a big difference in efficiency between direct
and indirect consumption. This loss of calories as you move up in the food chain is also the reason you
have more prey than predators.
Figure 3: The pyramid of energy flow through trophic
levels (arrows point to the consumer). Energy flow is
the process by which some energy from the sun is
passed from one living thing to another in the form of
food.

Lab4:Ecosystems
46
Experiment 1: Ecological Interactions
Procedure
1. Measure out 990 mL of water into your big jug using the 100 mL graduated cylinder. The
jug represents the primary producers.
2. Measure 10 mL of oil and add it to the jug with 990 mL (you may want to use your funnel
and pipette to do this).
3. Clean the 10 mL graduated cylinder so there is no oil residue.
4. Let the oil coalesce at the top of the container, the oil is the accumulation agent. It is insolu-
ble because we want it to represent the organisms inability to break it down.
5. Calculate the volume of water and the volume of oil in your 1 L container. Calculate % con-
centration of oil. Record your data in the table below.
Note: V (of two or more substances) = (V of single substance) / (total V of the mixture)*100
6. Pour 100 mL of the mixture into the 100 mL graduated cylinder and let the mixture settle.
7. Calculate the volume of water and the volume of oil in your 100 mL container. Calculate %
concentration of oil. Record your data in the table below.
8. Now, pour 10 mL of the mixture into the 10 mL graduated cylinder.
9. Calculate the volume of water and the volume of oil in the 10 mL graduated cylinder. Cal-
culate % concentration of oil.
Materials

10 mL Graduated cylinder
100 mL Graduated cylinder
10 mL Vegetable oil
Funnel
Pipette
*1 Liter container
*Water

*You must provide
TrophicLevel Cylinder VolumeofH
2
O VolumeofOil TotalVolume %Oil
1
st
1000mL 1000mL
2
nd
100mL 100mL
3
rd
10mL 10mL
Table 1: Volume and Concentration Totals

Lab4:Ecosystems
47
Questions
1. What is the percent concentration of oil in the first, second, and third trophic levels in our
food chain?


2. How did the concentration of oil change from one trophic level to the next?



3. How does the change in concentration represent biomagnification?



4. How does this also illustrate the amount of energy transferred from one trophic level to the
next?





If you would like to read more about issues surrounding bioaccumulation simply search for
case studies that address POP (persistent organic pollutants) and Biomagnification in ecosys-
tems.



Experiment 2: Eect of pH on Radish Seed Germination
In this lab we will look at the effect of pH on the germination and growth rate of radish seeds in
order to determine the range of pH tolerance for radish seeds. Acidic or basic water will be
used in order to stimulate acidity or alkalinity in the soil. Reminder - the vinegar is acidic (lower
pH value) and the sodium bicarbonate is basic (higher pH value).
Materials

(75) Radish seeds
5 mL Vinegar
5 mL Sodium bicarbonate solution
3 strips of pH paper
(2) Petri dishes
Permanent marker
(3) 100 mL Beakers
10 mL Graduated cylinder
*3 Resealable bags
*Paper towels
*Water

*You must provide

Lab4:Ecosystems
48
Procedure
1. Label three beakers A, B, and C.
2. Pour 10 mL of water into Beaker A.
3. Pour 5 mL of water and 5 mL of vinegar into Beaker B.
4. Pour 5 mL sodium bicarbonate solution and 5 mL of water into Beaker C.
5. Cut your pH paper into three separate strips. Determine the pH of each of the three solu-
tions by dipping a pH strip into the solution and comparing the resulting color with the pH
color scale. Record your values.
6. Label three resealable bags A, B, and C.
7. Trace the outline of a petri dish on a paper towel, and cut out three circles that will fit inside
the petri dishes.
8. Place the paper towel circles into the petri dish top and bottom pieces (you will only use 3
of the 4 petri dish pieces).
9. Pour the 10 mL water solution onto the paper towel in the first petri dish.
10. Arrange 25 radish seeds on the paper towel in the petri dish. Make sure the seeds have
space and are not touching.
11. Place this dish into Bag A (you do not need to put a lid back on the dish) and seal the bag.
12. Pour the 10 mL diluted vinegar solution onto the paper towel in the second petri dish.
13. Arrange 25 radish seeds on the paper towel in the petri dish. Make sure the seeds have
space and are not touching.
14. Place this dish into Bag B (you do not need to put a lid back on the dish) and seal the bag.
15. Pour the 10 mL sodium bicarbonate solution onto the paper towel in the third petri dish.
16. Arrange 25 radish seeds on the paper towel in the petri dish. Make sure the seeds have
space and are not touching.
17. Place this dish into Bag C (you do not need to put a lid back on the dish) and seal the bag.
18. Place the petri dishes in a sunny or well-lit, warm place.
19. Observe seeds daily for 7 days and record the number of seeds that germinate (Note: ger-
mination occurs when the seed cracks and roots or shoots emerge from the seed). On the
7
th
day record the lengths of radish seed sprouts. Graph your results using bar graphs to
show the difference in % germination for each sample group.




Lab4:Ecosystems
49

Water Vinegar Sodium Bicarbonate
Day 1
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 2
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 3
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 4
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 5
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 6
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination
Day 7
Observation
Seeds Germinated
% Germination

Initial pH Value

Table 2: Radish Seed Observation and Germination

Lab4:Ecosystems
50
Questions

1. Was there any noticeable effect on the germination rate of the radish seeds as a result of
the pH? Compare and contrast the growth rate for the control with the alkaline (sodium bi-
carbonate) and acidic (vinegar) solutions.


2. According to your results, would you say that the radish has a broad pH tolerance? Why or
why not? Use your data to support your answer.


3. Knowing that acid rain has a pH of 2-3 would you conclude that crop species with a narrow
soil pH range are in trouble? Is acid rain a problem for plant species and crops?


4. What have you learned about the ecosystem in which radishes grow?



5. What abiotic factor was tested in this experiment?



6. Was there a biotic factor that played a part in this experiment?



7. Do you think all types of seeds would respond to this experiment in the same way? How
could you test this?





Ecological Interactions
Lab 5 Ecology of Organisms

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
53

Organisms have adapted and evolved anatomical, physiological, and behavioral characteris-
tics that compensate for variation within the environment. Organisms have the ability to com-
pensate for minimal temporal and spatial variation within their environment by regulating their
body temperature or controlling the rate at which water is transpired. However, there are limits
to an organisms ability to compensate for environmental factors. No single species can toler-
ate all of earths environments. The geographic distribution of a species is thus limited by the
physical environment. Species distribution is said to be limited by abiotic factors or the non-
living components of our environment.


All species have a defined habitat tolerance which is the range of conditions in which a spe-
cies can live. For example, some plant species can tolerate a broad range of soil variation
while others are confined to a single soil type. If a species has a narrow habitat tolerance be-
Concepts to Explore
Geographic distribution
Tolerance
Ecological interactions
Pollution
Figure 1: The black walnut tree secretes a chemical from its roots that is toxic to other trees. This is
an example of amensalism.

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
54
cause of one or more abiotic factors, then they are limited in their distribution range. Organ-
isms with a broad range of tolerance are usually distributed widely whereas those with a nar-
row range have a more restricted distribution. Habitat tolerance, species geographic range
(limited vs. widespread), and the species local population size (large vs. small) determine a
species commonness or rarity. Understanding a species range of tolerance helps to determine
whether a species is common or rare which can be a huge determinate in areas such as agri-
cultural production and wildlife management.
While there are limiting factors that determine where different species live, most do overlap
with the tolerance of other species. In these cases, the ecological interactions are important
to consider. Intraspecific interactions involve interactions within the same species, while inter-
specific interactions involves more than one species. Interactions can be classified by effect or
mechanism. Scientists consider the effects of the relationship between the organisms and clas-
sify them as follows:
Neutralism: two organisms that do not affect each other at all
Amensalism: the effect of this type of interaction is negative on an organism
Competition: a mutually detrimental effect on both organisms
Antagonism: one species benefits at the expense of another
Facilitative: benefits one of the organisms and does no harm to the other
Figure 2: Clownfish live in a symbiotic relationship with some anenomes. The clownfish feed on
small invertebrates which could harm the anemone, and the fecal matter of the fish provide nu-
trients and protection for the anemone.

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
55
The mechanism by which organisms interact is often described either as symbiotic or competi-
tive. Symbiosis is a word that is derived from the Greek word meaning living together. It de-
scribes various degrees of close relationships between organisms of different species. In con-
trast, competition is when the interaction of organisms or species hinders the ability of one to
survive or reproduce. This can influence organisms within or between species and plays a key
role in natural selection.

When contaminants are introduced into a natural environment, it can cause instability, harm, or
discomfort to the organisms and overall ecosystem. This is called pollution, and will be ex-
plored in future labs in greater detail. Harmful materials that enter the environment are called
pollutants, and arise from natural and anthropogenic (man-made) sources. It is important to
understand that contaminants can affect the environment, all the way down to the organisms
and how they interact with others.

Experiment 1: Yeasts Response to Pollution
Pollutants can harm the living organisms within an ecosystem. For a community to maintain its
quality of life, it must control pollutants. In this experiment, students will investigate the effects
of pollution in yeast. Yeast produce carbon dioxide (CO
2
) through the process of respiration.
This is important because CO
2
creates visible fizz or bubbles on the surface of a solution. The
fizz or bubbles you observe are important because they help assess the amount of respiration
that has occurred.
Procedure
1. Label 3 test tubes A-C. Place the test tubes in the test tube rack for later use.
2. Mix the envelope of yeast with 175 mL warm water (~105 F or ~40-43 C) in a 250 mL
beaker. Use a wooden stir stick to mix the solution.
3. Mix 1 tsp. of salt with 50 mL of water in a 100 mL beaker. Stir this solution for approximate-
ly 60 seconds to get the salt suspended in the solution. You can use your pipette to stir the
solution.
4. Use a clean pipette to transfer 5 mL of the yeast solution plus 5 mL of water to Test Tube
Materials

(1) Yeast Packet
(1) Wooden stir stick
(3) Test tubes
(1) 250 mL Beaker
(1) 100 mL Beaker
Test tube rack
Permanent marker
1 tsp. Salt
1
/
2
tsp. Sugar
5 mL Joy dishwashing liquid soap
(9) Pipettes
Measuring spoon
*Warm water

*You must provide

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
56
A. Use your pipette to mix.
5. Use a clean pipette to transfer 5 mL of the yeast solution plus 5 mL of saltwater to Test
Tube B. Use your pipette to mix.
6. Use a clean pipette to transfer 5 mL of the yeast solution plus 5 mL of liquid dishwashing
soap to Test Tube C. Use your pipette to mix. This solution should be gently mixed to avoid
creating soap bubbles.
7. Record the initial appearance (color, consistency, texture, etc.) of each test tube solution in
Table 1 below.
8. Allow cultures to sit for 10 minutes. While you wait, mix
1
/
2
tsp. of sugar with 50 mL of
warm water in a clean 100 mL beaker. You can use your pipette to mix this solution.
9. After 10 minutes have passed, use a pipette to transfer 5 mL of the sugar solution to each
test tube. Use your pipette to mix; be sure to use a clean pipette for every tube.
10. Wait 30 minutes and record your observations. Take particular notice of how the solutions
have changed; or, how they have not.
Questions

1. Which test tubes showed decreased respiration by the yeast? How could you tell?


2. What do the saltwater and liquid soap represent?


3. Explain the role of small organisms, such as yeast, in our environment. How could pollu-
tants influence this?



Experiment 2: Owl Pellet Dissection
The owl is a bird of prey. They produce and regurgitate pellet masses of hair, bone, teeth,
bones, and exoskeletons of the organisms they have consumed but cannot digest. Because
they lack the ability to fully digest their meals, very fragile skeletons can survive this process
within the pellet. In this lab, you will probe an owl pellet to learn more about the ecosystem in
which the owl lives.
Table 1: Results from Yeast Contamination Experiment
Test Tube Initial Appearance Final Appearance
A

B

C

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
57
Note: The provided owl pellets have been heat-treated but may still harbor bacteria. Wear pro-
tective goggles, gloves, and apron and wash your hands and all work surfaces thoroughly after
handling.
Procedure
1. Predict what you might find in the pellet. Record in the bottom row of Table 2.
2. Set the pellet atop the black construction paper. This will make it easier to identify the
bones in the pellet as you dissect it.
3. Measure the dimensions of your pellet, and record it in Table 2.
4. Note any observations of the pellet, such as texture, visible components, etc., and record
in Table 2.
5. If your pellet is hard, you may soak it in water to soften it and facilitate the dissection.
6. Carefully use the toothpicks to probe the pellet, isolating any bones you come across.
7. Use Figure 3 to help identify the bones found in the pellet.

Materials

Black construction paper
Owl pellet
Hand lens

Forceps
Toothpicks
Ruler
Bone Source Number/Amount of Bone(s)
Skull
Jaw
Scapula
Rib
Vertebrae
Hindlimb
Forelimb
Pelvic bone

Length of pellet
cm.
Width of pellet
cm.
Observations

Predictions

Table 2: Bones Found During Owl Pellet Dissection

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
58
Post-Lab Questions
1. What did you find in the pellet? Was your prediction accurate?



2. What have you learned about the ecosystem in which the owl lives?



3. What can you infer about the nature of the community in which the owl lives?



4. How can scientists use owl pellets to study small mammals in a specific ecosystem?




5. Other birds of prey produce pellets as well, and the contents are dictated by where the
bird lives. What would you expect to find in the pellet from a shorebird, such as a gull?




6. Create a diagram of a food web with the owl as the uppermost trophic level, showing at
least five levels.

Lab5:EcologyofOrganisms
59
Figure 3: Owl Pellet Bone Identification Chart


Ecological Interactions
Lab 6 Biodiversity

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab6:Biodiversity
63
Biodiversity, short for biological diversity, includes the genetic variation between all organ-
isms, species, and populations, and all of their complex communities and ecosystems. It also
reflects to the interrelatedness of genes, species, and ecosystems and their interactions with
the environment. Biodiversity is not evenly distributed across the globe; rather, it varies greatly
and even varies within regions. It is partially ruled by climate, whereas tropical regions can
support more species than a polar climate. In whole, biodiversity represents variation within
three levels:
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity
It should be noted that diversity at one of these
levels may not correspond with diversity within
other levels. The degree of biodiversity, and
thus the health of an ecosystem, is impacted
when any part of that ecosystem becomes en-
dangered or extinct.
The term species refers to a group of similar
organisms that reproduce among themselves.
Species diversity refers to the variation within
and between populations of species, as well
as between different species. Sexual repro-
duction critically contributes to the variation
within species. For example, a pea plant that
is cross-fertilized with another pea plant can
produce offspring with four different looks! This genetic mixing creates the diversity seen today.
Ecosystem diversity examines the different habitats, biological communities, and ecological
processes in the biosphere, as well as variation within an individual ecosystem. The differ-
ences in rainforests and deserts represent the variation between ecosystems. The physical
characteristics that determine ecosystem diversity are complex, and include biotic and abiotic
factors.
The variation of genes within individual organisms is genetic diversity. This can be measured
Concepts to Explore
Biodiversity
Species diversity
Ecosystem diversity
Genetic diversity
Natural selection
Extinction
Figure 1: There are more than 32,000 species of fish
more than any other vertebrate!

Lab6:Biodiversity
64
within a species as well as between species. It plays an
important role in survival and adaptability of organisms to
changing environments.
Diversity is also influenced by natural selection, the key
mechanism of evolution. The process of natural selection
describes competition between individual species for re-
sources such as food and space (habitat). Genetic varia-
tions among species provide an advantage over other
species if those variations result in an ability to survive
and reproduce more effectively.
Evidence that supports the theory of natural selection
include the fossil record of change in earlier species, the
chemical and anatomical similarities of related life forms,
the geographical distribution of related species, and the
recorded genetic changes in living organisms over many
generations. Take for example, homologous structures
among different species, such as the wing of a bird and
the forearm of a human. These structures provide evi-
dence that embryologically similar structures can give
rise to different functions based on the needs of the or-
ganism. Note that natural selection does not try to ex-
plain the origin of life but rather the later evolution of or-
ganisms over time.
Biodiversity is important to the process of evolution be-
cause it provides the framework on top of which natural
selection can occur. As discussed above, natural selec-
tion determines the genetic fitness, an organism's genet-
ic contribution to the next generation, of an organism.
Natural selection occurs by selecting one trait as "more
advantageous" in a certain environment than another.
The root of this selection is biodiversity.
Species extinction is not new; species have been evolving and dying out since life began.
Now, however, species extinction is occurring at an alarming rate, almost entirely as a direct
result of human activities. Scientists recognize five major mass extinctions in the Earths histo-
ry. The extinctions are measured in terms of large groups of related species, called families.
The five mass extinction episodes occurred because of major changes in the prevailing eco-
logical conditions brought about by climate change, cataclysmic volcanic eruptions, or colli-
sions with giant meteors. The sixth mass extinction appears to be in progress now, and the
primary cause is environmental change brought about by human activities. Some examples of
species on the endangered list are the ivory billed woodpecker, amur leopard, javan rhinocer-
os, northern great whale, mountain gorilla, and the leatherback sea turtle.
A present day example of natural
selection can be seen in the cray-
fish population. The British cray-
fish are crustaceans that live in
rivers in England. The American
crayfish was introduced to the
same bodies of water that were
already populated by the British
crayfish. The American crayfish
are larger, more aggressive and
carry an infection that kills British
crayfish but to which they are im-
mune. As a result, the British
crayfish are decreasing in num-
ber and are expected to become
extinct in Britain within the next
50 years. Thus, the American
crayfish have a genetic variation
that gives them an advantage
over the British crayfish to sur-
vive and reproduce.

Lab6:Biodiversity
65

Loss of an individual species can have various effects on the remaining species in an ecosys-
tem. These effects depend upon the how important the species is in the ecosystem. Individual
species and ecosystems have evolved over millions of years into a complex interdependence.
If you remove enough of the key species on which the framework is based, then the whole
ecosystem may be in danger of collapsing. Regardless of a species place in the ecosystem, it
is important for humans to take care of the world around us. As people become more aware of
how their actions impact all living things they can make adjustments in an effort to preserve life
on all levels.
There are many activities that humans take part in that impact the environment and biodiversi-
ty. The exhaust from automobile and aircraft travel as well as smoke stacks from industrial
plants are the leading causes of air pollution, which can have harmful effects on natural re-
sources and organisms. Two other important factors which can have an effect on biodiversity
are overpopulation and affluence. Overpopulation means that there are more people than re-
sources to meet their needs. As people become more affluent there is an increase in per capi-
Figure 2: The amur leopard is at risk of extinction.

Lab6:Biodiversity
66
ta resource utilization. All of these factors contribute to overharvesting, habitat degradation,
and increased pollution which threaten biodiversity.



Experiment 1: Interdependence of Species
In this lab, you will use the information provided below to demonstrate how the presence or
absence of one species can affect the others in an ecosystem.
Materials

5 dierent colored beads:
White bead represents lichen
Orange bead represents trees
Red bead represents owers
Yellow bead represents bees
Blue bead represents humans
Lichens
Lichens play a part in the creation of soils from which plants can obtain nutrients. Like all
living things lichens need nutrients and energy to grow. Nutrients are obtained from the air
(including dust), water, and some from the substrate they are growing on. They obtain en-
ergy through photosynthesis, which is the role of the algal partner. They can also be inci-
dentally fertilized by bird and insect dung.
Trees
Most trees, flowers and plants depend on soil for food (nutrients). Fruiting trees depend on
bees as one means of pollination.
Flowers
Forest flowers and plants depend on trees for shade and wind protection as well as soils
for nutrients.
Bees
Bees depend on flowering plants and trees for food.
Humans
Humans depend upon bees for honey and more importantly for fruit from trees they polli-
nate.

Lab6:Biodiversity
67
Procedure
1. Draw a diagram (below) relating these organisms to each other based on the information
provided:





2. Place all of the beads in a bag.
3. Randomly choose 4 beads out of the bag.
4. Identify each bead by the color code in the materials box.
5. Determine which item is missing and draw a new chart with the beads represented.
6. Repeat this process 3 times (or until 3 different beads are taken out of the diagram).


Questions
1. Draw the 3 new diagrams that resulted from drawing only 4 beads out of the bag.



2. For each diagram, explain how the ecosystem is affected by the one missing piece.



3. What actions do we as humans engage in that can lead to extinction of any of these
components?



4. What can we do to minimize our impact on the ecosystem?




Lab6:Biodiversity
68
Experiment 2: Diversity of Plants
In this experiment a sample of seeds will be grown in two different pots to mimic the diversity
that could be found in a sample of wildflowers.
Procedure
1. Fill your pots loosely with soil until the soil is ~1 inch from the top.
2. Pour ~40 mL of tap water into your pots (less if the soil becomes very wet).
3. Lightly scatter your seeds on top of the soil in each container. This should be a random
assignment of seeds to pot.
4. Press each seed down about inch into the soil.
5. Place in a sunny spot indoors. Observe and water your seeds every day until you see
them grow. These seeds are fast to germinate (3-7 days).
6. Once your flowers and ryegrass have grown (this may take 2 weeks from the date you
planted the seeds), fill out the data chart. Pictures are provided of the germinated seeds at
2 weeks for comparison.










Materials

Seed mixture (zinnia, marigold,
morning glory, cosmos, and
ryegrass)
Potting soil
(2) Peat pots, 5.5 x 3.5 in.
10 mL Graduated cylinder
*Water

*You must provide

Save these plants for the Populations Biology Lab!

Lab6:Biodiversity
69





























Questions
1. How many



2.

Species Picture Description
Zinnia




Short stems with dark green,
rounded leaves
Marigold












Stems are shorter than cosmos
with long skinny leaves (but wider
than the cosmos leaves) with
rounded tips
Morning glory











Tall stems with elephant ear
shaped leaves
Cosmos











Tall stems with long, pointed leaf-
lets; a lighter green leaf compared
to the marigold
Ryegrass











Long, skinny strands of green
grass
Table 1: Seedlings grown from seed mixture

Lab6:Biodiversity
70

Questions
1. How many different kinds of species did you find in your sample?


2. Which species is the most numerous in your sample area? Which is the least numerous?


3. If each peat pot was a sample you found in a group of wildflowers, would you determine
based on the diversity of flowers that the ecosystem is healthy?



4. How does biodiversity contribute to overall health of an ecosystem?
Table 2: Number of Each Species Present in Pot 1 and Pot 2
Species observed Number in Pot 1 Number in Pot 2
Zinnia
Marigold
Morning glory
Cosmos
Ryegrass
Total number of species
observed

Ecological Interactions
Lab 7 Population Biology
Ecological Interactions
Lab 7 Population Biology

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
73
Populations are groups of individuals in the same species whose habitat is in the same area at
the same time. Population biology is the study of the dynamics of species populations and
how they interact with the environment. It focuses on the factors that affect the population size
of a given organism, population growth rate, and spatial dispersion of individuals within popula-
tions. One of the primary ways that animals interact with their environment is through their
feeding behavior.

Population size is an important component when studying ecology, especially in cases where
scientists are working to help endangered species. The success of a species can be deter-
mined by measuring the population size or biomass. The factors affecting population size in-
clude births, deaths, and migration. Populations can increase rapidly when resources are
Concepts to Explore
Population biology
Carrying capacity
Intraspecic competition
Interspecic competition
Competitive exclusion
Population counting
methods
Figure 1: Population growth is influenced by competition for natural resources.

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
74
abundant and the environmental conditions are appropriate. As the population increases, re-
sources such as food and space become limited and the population size will become stable.
The greatest number of individuals that a given environment can sustain is called the carrying
capacity. Competition for resources among members of a population places limits on popula-
tion size.
Factors affecting population growth can
be density-dependent or density-
independent. For example, disease will
spread faster in a species that is clustered
into one space (density-dependent) while
environmental factors such a draught or
extremely cold weather will cause a de-
crease in population size in a density-
independent fashion. Another limiting fac-
tor on populations is interspecific and in-
traspecific competition. Interspecific
competition occurs between members of
two different species. Intraspecific com-
petition occurs between members of the
same species.
Interspecific competition was illustrated in by G. F. Gause in a classic series of experiments in
the 1930s when he formulated his principal of competitive exclusion. This principle states
that if two species are competing for the same resource, the species with even the slightest
advantage will dominate the other species as long as the ecological factors are constant. One
of the two competitors will outcompete causing the other to become extinct. In other words, no
two species can occupy the same niche. Gause demonstrated this by placing two species of
Paramecium in the same test tube with rice. He noticed that one species grew exponentially
while the other species died. As the species were competing for the food source, rice, one
competitor dominated the other every time.
Counting a population during any phase of growth, whether it be in competition or at its carry-
ing capacity, can be extremely difficult, time consuming, and expensive. Several techniques
have been developed which allow researchers to survey a smaller area and then use the re-
sults to provide an estimate for the number of organisms in the entire study area.
The grid or quadrat sampling method employs the use of grid squares that are randomly cho-
sen once the grid is made. The chosen grids, or quadrats, are surveyed and the number of the
population of interest is recorded for each grid. These results can then be used to estimate a
total figure for the entire study area.
As an example, if the study was to determine the number of deer in an area, the area could be
divided into a 10x10 grid (100 squares in total). If 5 squares were chosen at random then these
grid squares would be surveyed to count the number of deer in each square. If the survey
Figure 2: Dispersions may arise from intraspecific and
interspecific competition.

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
75
found a total of 30 deer spread across the 5 squares surveyed then this gives an average of 6
deer per grid square. Multiplying this by the number of squares (100) gives an estimate of 600
deer in the study area.
While an actual count is the most accurate method of determining population size, the grid
technique allows an estimated population figure to be obtained without the time and expense
of surveying the entire study area.
Another method for counting populations is the capture-recapture or mark/recapture method.
This method that can effectively estimate population sizes of hidden and motile populations. In
this method, individuals are captured from the natural population. The individuals are marked
in some way and then released back into the population, recording the number marked. In this
method the population is left undisturbed. Once the marked individuals are returned, a short
period of time passes and there is another round of capture in the natural population. The
numbers of marked and unmarked individuals are recorded. The population size (N
est
) is then
estimated by the Lincoln-Peterson Index using the equation:
N
est
= (N
m
* N
2nd
) / N
r

where N
m
is the number of individuals marked in the first round of capture, N
2nd
is the
total number of individuals captured in the 2nd round, and N
r
is the number of marked individu-
als caught in the 2nd round. This method gives an accurate estimate of population size as long
as certain assumptions are met. These assumptions include that the marked individuals are
not affected, that they are completely mixed with the population, and that the probability of cap-
turing marked individuals is the same as that of capturing any member of the population.




Experiment 1: Actual Count Method and Grid Count Method
In this experiment, two methods of counting populations will be compared. First the actual
number of bugs (represented by beads) in a field will be counted. Next, a grid will be used to
divide the field into 20 different areas or squares. The number of bugs in select quadrats will
be counted and used to estimate total bug population.
Materials

Beads (white, blue, red, green)
Graph paper
Ruler

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
76
Procedure Part A
1. Distribute all of the beads randomly on a table (the beads are the different bugs and the
table is the field).
2. Count the number of each colored bead and record in Table 1.


Procedure Part B
3. Construct a grid on your graph paper by drawing lines down every fourth column and
across every fourth row making 20 squares.
4. Distribute your beads (bugs) randomly over the 20 squares.
5. Count the number of beads in 4 of the squares and record that number for each color. This
is the number of bugs in the population sample.
6. Divide this number by 4 to get the average number of each type of bug per square.
7. Record in Table 2.
8. Multiply this number by 20 (the total number of grids made) to obtain the total population of
each type of bug.
Bead Color Number in Field
White
Red
Green
Blue
Table 1: Data Sheet for Procedure A
Bead Color Number in all 4
Squares
Average number
per square
Total number in
Grid
White
Red
Green
Blue
Table 2: Data Sheet for Procedure B

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
77
Questions
1. How did the two methods from Part A and Part B compare?



2. Which do you think is more accurate? Why?



3. In what types of populations would the grid method be more feasible to use?



4. What is another method scientists could use for counting moving populations when the grid
method wont work?







Experiment 2: Capture-Recapture
Using toothpicks to represent bass fish in your pond (the 5 x 8 bag). You will use the capture-
recapture method to estimate population size.
Procedure
1. Place all of the toothpicks (bass) in the 5 x 8 bag (lake).
2. Randomly pull out a handful of the toothpicks.
3. Mark these toothpicks with the marker.
Materials

(100) Toothpicks
5 x 8 in. Resealable bag
Permanent marker

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
78
4. Count the marked toothpicks and record this on the data sheet as Marked bass in total
population.
5. Return the marked toothpicks to the bag (i.e.,. return the marked bass to the lake).
6. Invert the bag several times to mix the toothpicks up.
7. Randomly pull out a handful of toothpicks.
8. Some of the toothpicks youve captured will probably be marked, indicating they have been
previously captured. Separate these from the unmarked toothpicks.
9. Count the number of marked toothpicks in step 8. Record this number in Table 3 as
Marked Bass Recaptured.
10. Count all of the toothpicks, marked and unmarked, from step 8. Record this number in Ta-
ble 3 as Total Bass Captured.
11. Multiply the number of total bass captured by marked trout in total population. Divide this
product by the marked bass recaptured. The result is an estimate of the bass population in
your lake.

Use the Lincoln-Peterson Index equation to calculate the bass population in the lake:
N
est
= (N
m
* N
2nd
) / N
r

where N
m
is the number of individuals marked in the first round of capture, N
2nd
is the
total number of individuals captured in the 2nd round, and N
r
is the number of marked individu-
als caught in the 2nd round.
Another way to look at the calculation:
Bass population in the lake = (marked bass in total population) (total bass captured)
Marked bass recaptured




Marked Bass in Total Population (N
m
)
Marked Bass Recaptured (N
r
)
Total Bass Captured (N
2nd
)
Table 3: Results from the Capture-Recapture Experiment

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
79
Questions
1. To get an accurate estimate, why is it important that bass caught and marked are returned
to the lake unharmed?



2. Would this type of population be easier to count directly? Why or why not?



3. How does sample size relative to population density affect the accuracy of the estimate?



4. If a larger sample is always better, how many quadrats do you think is enough in to have
confidence in the estimate?





Experiment 3: Interspecic Competition
In this lab you will investigate the effects of interspecific competition for resources on the
growth of several plant species by varying its population density. The goal is to show that if you
reduce competition for food and space, the species will thrive.
Materials

Seed mixture (zinnia, marigold,
morning glory, cosmos, and
ryegrass)
Potting soil
(2) Peat Pots, 5.5 x 3.5 in.
*Water

*You must provide
These are the same plants you germinated for the Biodiversity Lab. If you did not do
the Biodiversity Lab, you will have the instructions and materials to grow the plants for
this experiment.

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
80
Procedure
Begin here if you did not perform the Biodiversity Lab:
1. Fill your pots loosely with soil. Fill to about inch from the top.
2. Pour 10 mL of tap water into your pots (less if the soil becomes very wet).
3. Lightly scatter your seeds on top of the soil in each container. This should be a random
assignment of seeds to pot.
4. Press each seed down about inch into the soil.
5. Place in a sunny spot indoors. Observe and water your seeds every day until you see
them grow. These seeds are fast to germinate (3-7 days).
6. Once your flowers and ryegrass have grown (this may take 2 weeks from the date you
planted the seeds), complete Table 1.

Begin here if you have the plants from the Biodiversity Lab
7. Mark one of the pots with an O for overpopulated. This will be the pot that is allowed to
have overgrowth.
8. Mark the other pot with a B for balanced. This will be the pot we prune to allow normal
growth of the plants.
9. After the plants germinate, pull out most of the plants in the B pot allowing plenty of room
for the remaining plants to grow. Do not do anything to the O pot.
10. Continue to water regularly with equal amounts of water and keep in sunlight.
11. Check pots each week. Measure the size of the tallest plant or plants in each container.
Record your observations about the conditions of the plants in each pot in the table.
12. After 2 weeks, answer the questions at the end of this lab.









Lab7:PopulaonBiology
81






























Questions
Species Picture Description
Zinnia




Short stems with dark green,
rounded leaves
Marigold












Stems are shorter than cosmos
with long skinny leaves (but wider
than the cosmos leaves) with
rounded tips
Morning glory











Tall stems with elephant ear
shaped leaves
Cosmos











Tall stems with long, pointed leaf-
lets; a lighter green leaf compared
to the marigold
Ryegrass











Long, skinny strands of green
grass
Table 1: Seedlings Grown from Seed Mixture

Lab7:PopulaonBiology
82
Questions
1. How was the growth of the plants in pots B and O similar?



2. How was their growth different?



3. Which plants appear the healthiest? Why?



4. Did any plants die? Based on the information we studied about interspecific competition,
why do you think they died?



5. Based on your results, what are the best conditions for plant growth?

Week Height (mm) General Appearance Comments
1
2
3
4
5
Table 2: Results from Experiment

Resources
Lab 8 Water Quality and Contamination

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
85

It is no secret that water is one of the most valuable resources on planet Earth. Every plant
and animal requires water to survive, not only for drinking, but also for food production, shelter
creation and many other necessities. Water has also played a major role in transforming the
earths surface into the varied topography we see today.
While more than 70% of our planet is covered in water, only a small percent of this water is
usable freshwater. The other 99% of the water is composed primarily of salt water, with a small
percentage being composed of glaciers. Due to the high costs involved in transforming salt wa-
ter into freshwater, the Earths population survives off the less than 1% of freshwater available.
Humans obtain freshwater from either surface water or groundwater.
Concepts to Explore
Usable water
Ground water
Surface water
Ground water contaminates
Water treatment
Drinking water quality

Figure 1: At any given moment, 97% of the planets water is in the oceans. Only a small fraction of the
remaining freshwater is usable by humans, underscoring the importance of treating our water supplies
with care.

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
86
Surface water is the water that collects on the ground as a result of precipitation. The water
that does not evaporate back into the atmosphere or infiltrate into the ground is typically col-
lected in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and other bodies of water and is easily accessible.
Groundwater, on the other hand, is precisely as the name suggests; water located underneath
the ground. This water is stored in pores, fractures and other spaces within the soil and rock
underneath the grounds surface. Precipitation, along with snowmelt, infiltrates through the
ground and accumulates in available underground spaces.
Aquifers are areas in which water collects in sand, gravel, or permeable rock from which it can
be extracted for usable freshwater. The depth of aquifers vary from less than 50 feet to well
over 1,500 feet below the surface of the ground. The water within an aquifer typically does not
flow through as it would through a river or stream, but instead soaks into the underground ma-
terial, similar to a sponge. As aquifers are depleted by human use, they are also recharged
from precipitation seeping into the ground and restoring the water level. However, many times
the recharge of the aquifers does not equal the amount of water that has been extracted. If
that cycle continues, the aquifer will eventually dry up and will no longer be a viable source of
groundwater.
While the water that precipitates down in the form of rain is relatively pure, it does not take long
for water to pick up contaminants. There are natural, animal, and human-made sources of wa-
ter pollutants. They can travel freely from one location to another via streams, rivers, and even
groundwater. Pollutants can also travel from land or air into the water. Groundwater contami-
nation most often occurs when human-made products such as motor oil, gasoline, acidic
chemicals and other substances leak into aquifers and other groundwater storage areas. The
Figure 2: Water is a renewable source, purified and delivered across the planet by the hydrological
cycle.
Evaporation
Cloud formation
Precipitation
Groundwater
Evaporation
Transpiration
Precipitation
Precipitation

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
87
most common source of contaminants come from leaking storage tanks, poorly maintained
landfills, and septic tanks, hazardous waste sites and the common use of chemicals such as
pesticides and road salts.
The dangers of consuming contaminated water are high. Many deadly diseases, poisons and
toxins can reside in the contaminated water supplies and severely affect the health of those
who drink the water. It is also believed that an increased risk of cancer may result from ingest-
ing contaminated groundwater.
With the many contaminants that can infiltrate our water supply, it is crucial that there be a
thorough water treatment plan in place to purify the water and make it drinkable. While each
municipality has its own water treatment
facility, the process is much the same at
each location.
The process begins with aeration in
which air is added to the water to let
trapped gases escape while increasing
the amount of oxygen within the water.
The next step is called coagulation or
flocculation, in which chemicals, such as
filter alum, are added to the incoming
water and then stirred vigorously in a
powerful mixer. The alum causes com-
pounds such as carbonates and hydrox-
ides to form tiny, sticky clumps called
floc that attract dirt and other small parti-
cles. When the sticky clumps combine
with the dirt they become heavy and sink
to the bottom. In the next step, known
as sedimentation, the heavy particles
Water is the only substance that
is found naturally in three
forms: solid, liquid, and gas
If the entire worlds supply of
water could fit into a one-gallon
jug, the fresh water available to
use would equal less than one
tablespoon
Approximately 66% of the hu-
man body consists of water - it
exists within every organ and is
essential for its function
Figure 3: Sedimentation tanks, such as those shown
above, are used to settle the sludge and remove oils and
fats in sewage. This step can remove a good portion of
the biological oxygen demand from the sewage, a key
step before progressing with the treatments and eventu-
ally releasing into the ground or body of water.

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
88
that sank to the bottom during coagulation are separated out
and the remaining water is sent on to filtration. During filtra-
tion, the water passes through filters made of layers of sand,
charcoal, gravel and pebbles that help filter out the smaller
particles that have passed through until this point. The last
step is called disinfection in which chlorine and/or other disin-
fectants are added to kill any bacteria that may still be in the
water. At this point the water is stored until it is distributed
through various pipes to city residents and businesses.
After the water goes through the treatment process, it must
also pass the guidelines stated in the Safe Drinking Water Act
in which various components are tested to ensure that the
quality of the water is sufficient for drinking. There are current-
ly over 65 contaminants that must be monitored and main-
tained on a regular basis to keep local drinking water safe for
the public. Some of these chemical regulations include lead,
chromium, selenium and arsenic. Other components such as
smell, color, pH and metals are also monitored to ensure resi-
dents are provided clean and safe drinking water.


















Figure 4: Fresh water is essen-
tial to humans and other land-
based life. Contaminated water
must be treated before it can be
released into the water supply.

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
89
Experiment 1: Eects of Groundwater Contamination
In this lab you will observe the effects that many common pollutants have on groundwater.
Procedure
1. Begin by labeling the beakers 1 to 8.
2. Set beakers 5-8 aside. Fill each of beakers 1-4 with 100 mL of water using your 100 mL
graduated cylinder.
3. Record your observations of the water in Beaker 1 in Table 1. Remember to use a safe
wafting technique to smell the solutions.
4. Add 10 mL of vegetable oil to Beaker 2. Mix thoroughly with a wooden stir stick. Record
your observations of the water in Beaker 2 in Table 1. (Dont forget to wash the graduated
cylinder between use!)
5. Add 10 mL vinegar to beaker 3. Mix thoroughly with a wooden stir stick. Record your ob-
servations of the water in Beaker 3 in Table 1 .
6. Add 10 mL of liquid laundry detergent to beaker 4. Mix thoroughly with a wooden stir stick.
Record your observations of the water in Beaker 4 in Table 1.
7. Cut your piece of cheesecloth into five different pieces (reserve one piece for the next ex-
periment). Fold one piece of the cheesecloth so that you have a piece four layers thick and
big enough to line the funnel. Place it inside the funnel.
8. Measure out 60 mL of soil using the 100 mL beaker and place it into the cheesecloth-lined
funnel.
9. Place the funnel inside Beaker 5.
10. Pour the contents of Beaker 1 (water) through the funnel so that it filters into Beaker 5 for
one minute. Record your observations of the filtered water in the beaker in Table 1.
11. Discard the cheesecloth and soil from the funnel.
Materials
(8) 250 mL Beakers
Permanent marker
*Water
(3) Wooden stir sticks
100 mL Graduated cylinder
10 mL Vegetable oil
10 mL Vinegar
10 mL Liquid laundry detergent
Funnel
100 mL Beaker
Cheesecloth
240 mL Soil
*Scissors

* You must provide

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
90
12. Repeat steps 8-12 for Beakers 2, 3, and 4. (Filter the contents of Beaker 2 into Beaker 6,
the contents of Beaker 3 into Beaker 7, and the contents of Beaker 4 into Beaker 8).
Post-Lab Questions
1. What affects did each of the contaminants have on the water in the experiment? Which
contaminant seemed to have the most potent affect on the water?


2. On a larger scale, what type of affects would these contaminants have on a towns water
source and the people who drank the water?


3. What type of human activity would cause contaminants like oil, acid and detergents to flow
into the water supply?


4. What other items within your house do you believe could contaminate the water supply if
you were to dump them into the ground?
Beaker Observations
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

Table 1: Water Observations (smell, color, etc.)

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
91
Experiment 2: Water Treatment
With the many pollutants that are added to our water supply from daily human activity, it is im-
portant that we have a way to filter our water to make it safe for drinking. In this experiment,
you will filter water using a similar process that water treatment facilities use in an effort to un-
derstand the measures that must be taken to purify your drinking water.
Procedure
1. Add 100 mL of soil to the 250 mL beaker. Fill to the 200 mL mark with water.
2. Pour the soil solution back and forth between the two 250 mL beakers for a total of 15
times.
3. After the solution is created, pour 10 mL of the now contaminated water into a clean 100
mL beaker. This sample will be used to compare to the treated water at the end of the
filtration process.
4. Add 10 grams of alum (all of the contents in the bag you have been given) to the 250 mL
beaker containing the contaminated water. Slowly stir the mixture with a wooden stir stick
for 1-2 minutes. Let the solution sit for 15 minutes.
5. In the meantime, rinse out the empty 250 mL beaker. Place the funnel into the clean 250
mL beaker. Fold a piece of cheesecloth so that you have a piece four layers thick that is
big enough to line the funnel. Place it inside the funnel.
6. Begin layering the funnel, starting by pouring 40 mL of sand into the cheesecloth-lined fun-
nel, then 20 mL activated charcoal, then 40 mL gravel. Use a 100 mL beaker to measure
these amounts.
7. To solidify the filter, slowly pour clean tap water through the filter until the funnel is full.
Discard the rinse water from the beaker and repeat four more times. Return the funnel to
the top of the beaker and let sit for 5 minutes before emptying the beaker and continuing
the experiment.
Materials
*Water
100 mL Potting soil
(2) 250 mL Beakers
(2) 100 mL Beakers
(1) Wooden stir stick
Alum
Funnel
Cheesecloth
40 mL Sand
20 mL Activated charcoal
60 mL Gravel
Bleach
100 mL Graduated cylinder
Stopwatch

*You must provide

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
92
8. Now, without mixing up the current sediment in the contaminated water jar, pour about
3/4 of the contaminated water into the funnel. Let it filter through the funnel into the beak-
er for 5 minutes.
9. Note the smell of the filtered water, comparing it to the 10 mL sample taken from the mix-
ture in step 3.
10. Remove the filter and add a few drops of bleach solution to the filtered water within the
beaker. Stir the water and bleach combination slowly for about 1 minute.
11. The contaminated water has now been filtered. Compare the newly created treated wa-
ter with the 10 mL sample of the initial contaminated water and answer the questions be-
low.


Questions
1. What are the differences between the contaminated water and the treated water (look
at color, smell, visibility, etc.)?





2. From the introduction to this lab, you know that there are typically five steps involved in the
water treatment process. Identify the processes (i.e. coagulation) that were used in this lab
and describe how they were performed.












Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
93
Experiment 3: Drinking Water Quality
Bottled water is a billion dollar industry within the United States alone. Still, few people know
the health benefits, if any, from drinking bottled water as opposed to tap water. This experi-
ment will look at the levels of a variety of different chemical compounds in both tap water and a
few types of bottled water to determine if there are health benefits in drinking bottled water.
Procedure
1. Label three 250 mL beakers Tap Water, Dasani and Fiji. Pour 100 mL of the each type of
water into the corresponding beakers.
Ammonia Test Strip
2. Locate the ammonia test strips. Begin by placing the test strip into the tap water sample
and vigorously moving the strip up and down in the water for 30 seconds, making sure that
the pads on the test strip are always submerged.
3. Remove the test strip from the water and shake off the excess water.
4. Hold the test strip level, with the pad side up, for 30 seconds.
5. Read the results by turning the test strip so the pads are facing away from you. Compare
the color of the small pad to the color chart at the end of the lab. Record your results in Ta-
ble 2 .
6. Repeat the procedure for both Dasani and Fiji Bottled Water. Record your results for both
in Table 2.





Materials
*Tap water
Dasani bottled water
Fiji bottled water
Ammonia Test Strips
Chloride Test Strips
4 in 1 Test Strips
Phosphate Test Strips
Iron Test Strips
(3) 250 mL Beakers
Permanent marker
Stopwatch
Paralm
Pipettes
(3) Foil packets of reducing powder

*You must provide

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
94
Chloride Test Strip
7. Locate the chloride test strips. Begin by immersing all the reaction zones (the pads) of
the test strip in to the tap water sample for 1 second.
8. Shake off the excess liquid from the test strip and after 1 minute, determine which color
row the test strip most noticeably coincides with on the color chart at the end of the lab.
Record your results in Table 3.
9. Repeat the procedure for both Dasani and Fiji Bottled Water. Record your results for both
in Table 3.


4 in 1 Test Strip
10. Locate the 4 in 1 test strips. Begin by dipping the test strip in the tap water for 5 seconds
with a gentle back and forth motion.
11. Remove the test strip from the water and shake once, briskly, to remove the excess water.
12. Wait 20 seconds and then using the color chart at the end of this lab, match the test strip to
the pH, Total Alkalinity, Total Chlorine, and Total Hardness on the color chart. Be sure to
do all of the readings within seconds of each other. Record your results in Table 4.
13. Repeat the procedure for both Dasani and Fiji Bottled Water. Record your results for both
in Table 4.
Water Sample Test Results
Tap Water
Dasani Bottled Water
Fiji Bottled Water
Table 3: Chloride Test Results
Water Sample Test Results
Tap Water
Dasani Bottled Water
Fiji Bottled Water
Table 2: Ammonia Test Results

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
95
Phosphate Test Strip
14. Locate the phosphate test strips. Being by dipping the test strip into the tap water for 5 se-
conds.
15. Remove the test strip from the water and hold horizontal, with the pad side up, for 45 se-
conds. Do not shake the excess water from the test strip.
16. Compare the results on the pad of the test strip with the color chart at the end of this lab.
Record your results in Table 5.
17. Repeat the procedure for both Dasani and Fiji bottled water. Record your results for both
in Table 5.
Iron Test Strip
18. Locate the iron test strips. Begin by removing 70 mL of water from each beaker and dis-
carding it, leaving a total of 30 mL within each of the three beakers.
19. Beginning with the tap water, open one foil packet and add the powder contents to the
beaker. Cover the beaker with a piece of Parafilm and shake the beaker vigorously for 15
seconds.
20. Remove the Parafilm and dip the test pad of the iron test strip into the tap water sample,
rapidly moving it back and forth under the water for 5 seconds.
21. Remove the strip and shake the excess water off. After 10 seconds, compare the test pad
Water Sample pH Total Alkalinity Total Chlorine Total Hardness
Tap Water
Dasani Bottled Water
Fiji Bottled Water
Table 4: 4 in 1 Test Results
Water Sample Test Results
Tap Water
Dasani Bottled Water
Fiji Bottled Water
Table 5: Phosphate Test Results

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
96
to the color chart at the end of this lab. If the color falls between two colors in the color
chart, estimate your result. Record your results in Table 6.
22. Repeat the procedure for both Dasani and Fiji Bottled Water. Record your results for both
in Table 6.


Post-Lab Questions
1. After comparing the results of tap water and bottled water, what major differences, if any,
do you notice between the two?




2. From your results, do you believe that bottled water is a healthier alternative when com-
pared to tap water? Why or why not?


Water Sample Test Results
Tap Water

Dasani Bottled Water

Fiji Bottled Water

Table 6: Iron Test Results

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
97
Test Strip Key:

Ammonia (mg/L):

Chloride (mg/L):






4-in-1 Test Strip:
*Note there are 4 pads on this test strip. From top to bottom (with the bottom of the strip being
the handle), the pads are: pH, Chlorine, Alkalinity, and Hardness.
Example:


pH:


Total Chlorine (mg/L):


Total Alkalinity (mg/L):


Total Hardness (mg/L):
0 10 30 60 100 200 400






0
500
1000
1500
2000
3000
pH Chlor Alk. Hard
0 0.2 1.0 4.0 10.0
0 40 80 120 180 240 500
0 50 120 250 425 1000
Soft Hard Very Hard

Lab8:WaterQualityandContaminaon
98
Test Strip Key (cont.):

Phosphate (ppm):

Total Iron (ppm):
0 0.15 0.3 0.6 1 2 5
0 10 25 50 100
Lab 8: Water Quality and Contamination
99

Resources
Lab 9 Air Quality and Contamination

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
101

The atmosphere is a complex and
dynamic mixture of gases that are
necessary for life on Earth. Com-
posed of primarily nitrogen (78%)
and oxygen (21%), air also contains
small amounts of carbon dioxide, oth-
er gases, and water vapor. The air
we breathe is a renewable resource
that is replenished by natural pro-
cesses. Through the process of pho-
tosynthesis, plants convert carbon
dioxide into oxygen. Rain helps to
cleanse the air, scouring many pollu-
tants from the air and washes them
into soil and bodies of water.
As air passes across Earths surface,
it absorbs pollutants formed by natural and human activities. Some of these materials are
harmful to both living and non-living things. The US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
identifies six common air pollutants that threaten the health of the environment and humans.
They are:
Particulate matter
Ozone
Carbon monoxide
Nitrogen Oxides
Sulfur dioxide
Lead
These contaminants have been the focus of investigation for the past several decades, but
other potentially toxic chemicals are released into the air with unknown effects.
Concepts to Explore
Air
Primary Pollutants
Secondary Pollutants
Natural and anthropogenic sources
Pollution reduction eorts and control
Figure 1: Plants help to purify the air by utilizing carbon diox-
ide for photosynthesis and giving off oxygen as a byproduct.

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
102
Air contaminants can take the form
of gas, solid particles, or liquid
droplets and are classified into pri-
mary or secondary pollutants
based on the source. Primary pollu-
tants are formed when a pollutant
is directly emitted from a process,
such as the ash from a volcanic
eruption or the carbon monoxide
from a cars emissions. Secondary
pollutants are formed when primary
pollutants react or interact with
something in the atmosphere. Acid
rain is a secondary pollutant that
forms when sulfur dioxide or nitric
oxides combine with water. The
Figure 2: The combustion reaction that powers vehicles emits
sulfur oxides, particulates (lead and mercury), and nitric oxides
into the air.
Source Pollutants
Volcanoes Sulfur oxides, chlorine, ash particulates
Wildfires Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides,
particulates
Wind storms Dust
Plants (living) Hydrocarbons, pollen
Plants (decaying) Methane, hydrogen sulphide
Soil Viruses, dust
Sea Salt particulates
Animals (digestion by-products) Methane (which can combust when mixed with oxy-
gen)
Table 1: Natural sources of air contaminants
Table 2: Major air pollutants from anthropogenic sources
Source Pollutant
Transportation vehicles Carbon monoxide
Stationary combustion sources (coal-
burning power plants, industry)
Sulfur oxides
Transportation vehicles, stationary
combustion sources
Nitrogen oxides
Stationary combustion sources Particulates
Transportation vehicles Hydrocarbons
Transportation vehicles, Stationary
combustion sources (indirectly)
Photochemical oxidants

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
103
primary sources of air pollutants are
transportation, energy production, and
industry. The leading contaminant from
these sectors is the combustion of fossil
fuels.
Air contamination is also present inside
buildings. The confined spaces within
structures can be a harbor for radon
emitted from the Earths crust, chemicals
released from paint, carpet, furnishings,
pesticides, and other chemicals com-
monly used in households. Pets, house-
plants, dustmites, and mold are also
sources of indoor air pollution. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are found within a wide range of consumer products and contrib-
ute to both interior and outdoor air pollution. These compounds, and others, are controlled
across the globe to protect the environment from their damaging effects.
How can air pollution be controlled and remediated? It is a question that many scientists and
industries are studying. Pollution reduction efforts include regulation strategies, increased fuel
efficiency, and conversion to cleaner fuels. Control measures are also utilized to destroy or
collect contaminants before they enter the atmosphere. Activated carbon and other dry chemi-
cal scrubbers can be utilized to adsorb contaminants from the air, while wet scrubbers can be
used to push a gas through a liquid, stripping it of any pollution. Biofiltration is another method
of air purification that utilizes microorganisms to rid the air of contaminants. A wide array of
solutions is available for industries to decrease - or hopefully someday eliminate- the pollution
released into the air.











Figure 3: The smog of Los Angeles is caused by air
contaminants.

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
104
Experiment 1: Depletion of Carbon Dioxide
In this experiment, you will witness a plant converting carbon dioxide into oxygen by using an
indicator.
Procedure
1. Place a glass test tube in the test tube rack.
2. Using a pipette, add 20 mL of phenol red solution to the test tube.
3. Position a straw in the test tube so that the end rests just above the liquid in
the test tube. DO NOT insert the straw into the solution (keep it above the
surface). Hold the straw in place by wrapping the opening of the test tube
with Parafilm.
4. With your straw, blow bubbles over the top of the solution until it turns yellow,
as shown in the picture to the right. Blowing on the surface adds CO
2
to the
solution. You should observe this as a color change (when the water in the
phenol red solution and CO
2
are combined, an acid is formed).
DO NOT INHALE!
This process is not quick. If you become light headed, take a break!
5. Cut 5 cm of fresh elodea and gently place it into the test tube. DO NOT
touch the phenol red solution.
6. Place the test tube in your test tube rack and in the sunshine or bright light and set your
timer for one hour. Record the color of the solution every 15 minutes in Table 3 for a total
of one hour.

Materials
*Elodea or other aquatic plant
(available at most pet stores)
Glass test tube
20 mL Phenol red
Straw
Test tube rack
Pipette
Paralm
*Water

*You must provide
Time 0 min 15 min 30 min 45 min 60 min
Color
Table 3: Color Change Over Time

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
105
Post-Lab Questions
1. What happened to the color of the solution over one hour?



2. What process that occurring which makes the phenol red solution change colors? How do
you know this?



3. How does this experiment demonstrate the usefulness of plants in cleansing the air?





















Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
106
Experiment 2: The Eect of Air Pollution of Seed Germination
The aim of this experiment is to find out how ammonia fumes affect seed germination. This will
be tested by adding a cotton ball soaked in each chemical to a resealable bag with the germi-
nating seeds for one week.

Procedure
1. Label two resealable bags as Control and Ammonia.
2. Trace the petri dish on the paper towels two times and cut each outline so they fit inside
the petri dish. You will use both the top and bottom pieces of the petri dishes for a total of
two germinating dishes.
3. Saturate the paper towels with water and place inside the petri dishes.
4. Disperse 25 seeds evenly across each wet paper towel inside the petri dishes.
5. Pour 6 mL of water into a weigh boat. Place a cotton ball into the boat and let it absorb all
of the liquid.
6. Place the weigh boat and one of the petri dishes with the seeds in it inside the Control
resealable bag. Snap the seal to insure the environment is contained within the bag.
7. Pour 6 mL of ammonia into weigh boat. Place a cotton ball into the boat and let it absorb all
of the liquid.
8. Place the weigh boat and one of the petri dishes with the seeds in it inside the Ammonia
resealable bag. Snap the seal to insure the environment is contained within the bag.
9. Carefully move both bags to a sunny windowsill, and leave for one week.
10. Record your observations in Table 4 after 4 days have passed.


Materials
*2 Paper towels
*Scissors
1 Petri dish
50 Lettuce seeds
10 mL Graduated cylinder
2 Weigh boats
2 Cotton balls
6 mL Ammonia
10 mL Graduated cylinder
Pipette
(2) 8 in. x 12 in. Resealable bags
Permanent marker
*Water

*You must provide

Lab9:AirQualityandContaminaon
107


Questions
1. Which contaminants influenced seed germination? Explain your results.




2. Why is it important to have a cotton ball soaked in water in a bag with the seeds as part of
this experiment?




3. What components of an ecosystem could be affected by air pollution? Why is this true?







Sample Number of seeds germinated Percentage germination
(%)
Control
Ammonia
Table 4: Experimental Results
Resources
Lab 10 Soil Quality and Contamination
Resources
Lab 10 Soil Quality and Contamination

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
111
Soil is home for many organisms that are vital to the energy and
nutrient cycles of Earth. It is a renewable resource composed of
unconsolidated mineral materials including clay, silt, pebbles,
and sand. The mineral basis of soil is rock; when rock is ex-
posed to changing conditions it will break down into small pieces
over long periods of time. The conditions can be either mechani-
cal or chemical in nature. Erosion due to wind, water, ice, and
gravity also contributes sediments that become part of the soil.
Bedrock is the foundation of the outermost layer of the earth.
As the solid mass of bedrock weathers, it breaks down into what
is called the parent rock, which is the source for soil formation.
Plants, animals, and other organisms play an important role in
the weathering and structure of soil. Animals that burrow and the
roots of plants mechanically alter the bedrock and introduce air
pockets into the structure that aid in water penetration. Air and
water also contribute to the chemical breakdown of bedrock.
When organisms within the soil die, they again contribute to the
organic materials within the soil.
Through the weathering processes distinct layers, or horizons,
become apparent in the soil. A cross-section of soil can be tak-
en, to reveal a soil profile. This is useful to gain valuable insight
into the fertility of the soil from where the sample was taken. In a
mature soil sample, up to six layers may be visible. The upper-
most layer of soil is referred to as the O horizon because it is
rich in organic matter. The A horizon is topsoil. Subsoil is found
in the B horizon. The third layer, C horizon, is composed of the
parent rock. The basement layer is bedrock, and is referred to as the R horizon.
The soil ecosystem is rich in decomposers that serve to release nutrients into the soil, and to
mix and aerate the soil. The carbon dioxide released during decomposers respiration also
contributes to the chemical weathering of the soil. Included in this family or organisms are: bac-
teria, fungi, protista, and some invertebrates such as sowbugs, millipedes, mites, beetles, ants,
spiders, insect larvae, snails, slugs, and the gardeners favorite earthworms. A single gram of
Concepts to Explore
Soil
Bedrock
Parent rock
Soil prole
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
Contamination
Figure 1: Climate greatly af-
fects the rate of weathering
and thus, soil formation. In the
desert, the soil profile may only
be a few centimeters thick be-
cause there is less water to
break down the bedrock.
Grasslands may exhibit a
thicker soil profile due to in-
creased precipitation and in-
creased rate of weathering due
to plant and animal activity.

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
112
soil can contain hundreds of millions of microbes!
The physical properties of soil, including texture, are
dependent on the size and distribution of mineral
materials in the soil. Texture refers to the way a soil
feels, and an be used to measure the proportion of
each mineral within the soil. It is dependent of the
size on the particles within the soil, mainly clay, silt,
and sand. Large particles allow empty space for air
and water. In contrast, small particles help to hold
water and nutrients in the soil. Loam is the most
desirable agricultural soil and is composed of 20%
clay, 40% sand, and 40% silt. Loamy soil has more
nutrients than sand, better drainage than silt, and is
easier to till than clay. Clay soil is easily distinguishable as it will ribbon, or smear, when you
rub it between your thumb and forefinger.

Soil texture determines how it will interact with water. Soil porosity measures the volume of
the pore space between particles. Very porous soils will drain water quickly, and can hold a
lot of water before puddles will form. The opposite is true for less porous soils. Living organ-
isms thrive in porous materials high in nutrients. As water filters through soil, it dissolves the
soluble minerals which plants need to survive. The oxygen in porous soils is also necessary
for cellular respiration of the organisms living in the soil. The finer the texture of soil and the
lower the porosity, the slower water permeation will be. These two elements determine the
water holding capacity, nutrient capacity, ability to hold air, and the ability of water to pene-
trate the surface of the soil.
Soil fertility is the ability to support plant growth. In order for vegetation to grow, sunlight, wa-
ter, and essential nutrients obtained from soil are required. The three primary nutrients for soil
are nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), and potassium (K). Other minerals important to plant
health include: calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), chlorine (Cl), iron (Fe), manganese
(Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mb), and borate (B). Soil fertility is characterized
by the amount of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous present, as well as the pH of the soil.
Figure 2: Earthworms aerate the soil by bur-
rowing tunnels and convert large pieces of
organic matter, such as leaves, and soil par-
ticulates into plant nutrients.
Particle Feel Particle size Drainage Nutrient
Capacity
Clay Sticky < 0.002mm Poor Best
Silt Soft and silky 0.002-0.2mm Fair Good
Sand Gritty 0.2-2mm Best Poor
Table 1: Physical Properties of Soil Types

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
113
The pH of the soil is a measure of the acidity or alkalinity of
the soil, and depends on the parent rock material from which
it was formed and the climate. Acidic soils have a pH of 5.0
or lower, while a pH value of 10.0 or higher are considered an
alkaline soil. pH can affect the solubility of nutrients in the soil
water, thus affecting the nutrients available to plants.
Soil is a critical player in the hydrologic cycle. It serves as a
natural filter that protects groundwater from contamination
against chemicals. The mixture of particles and other proper-
ties such as the pH, amount of organic material, and presence
of microbes all affect the ability of soil to act as a filter. Soil
pollution stems from a number of sources, including: under-
ground storage tanks, application of pesticides, dumping of oil
and fuel, percolation of contaminated water to the surface,
leaching of waste from landfills, and direct dumping from in-
dustry. Certain soils are very likely to trap pollutants for long
periods of time, while others enable the substance to pass
through. Secondary pollution can also occur when pollutants
in the soil infiltrate the water within the soil. Contaminated
soils pose a great health risk to plants and animals, from va-
pors to direct contact with the polluted soil. This can be very
significant because both vapor and direct contact with con-
taminated soil can pose a great health risk to plants and ani-
mals.
To mitigate these risks, methods have been developed to re-
move contamination from soil. Some of these methods include aerating, heating soils to re-
lease vapors, bioremediation, extraction of groundwater or vapors, containments, and phy-
toremediation (use of plants). The polluted soil can then be taken to a disposal site where it
will not harm the ecosystem.









Figure 3: Soil scientists have
important jobssoil properties
can greatly affect some very
important sectors of society. A
building constructed on sandy
soil may collapse during an
earthquake, and crops plants in
clayey soil might become water-
logged and rot after a rain.

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
114
Experiment 1: Soil Porosity
This experiment will help you to identify how much open space is present within the soil sam-
ples.
Procedure
1. Label three beakers as Soil A, Soil B, and Soil C.
2. Place 50 mL soil in the corresponding beakers. Tamp down the soil but do not compress.
3. Fill the 100 mL graduated cylinder with 50 mL water.
4. Slowly, begin to pour some of the water from the graduated cylinder into the beaker con-
taining Soil A. Pour until the soil is completely saturated and the water starts to pool on the
surface. Note: Add the water slow enough that it can percolate down into the pores.
5. Measure the amount of water remaining in the graduated cylinder, and record in the table
below.
6. Calculate the porosity as a percent :
% Porosity = (volume of water added / 50 mL soil) * 100
7. Repeat Steps 3-6 for Soil B and Soil C.



Materials
50 mL Soil A
50 mL Soil B
50 mL Soil C
(3) 100 mL Beakers
100 mL Graduated cylinder
Permanent marker
*Water

*You must provide
Soil Sample Initial Water Volume Final Water Volume Porosity (%)
A 50 mL

B 50 mL

C 50 mL

Table 2: Porosity experiment results

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
115
Post-Lab Questions
1. Which soil is most porous? Which is least porous? How do you know?



2. What do your results indicate about the composition of each soil sample?


3. Which soil would be best for growing plants?



4. Why is standing water dangerous?


Experiment 2: Chemical Properties of Soil
In this experiment, you will test four unknown soil samples to determine the chemical and
physical properties of the soil. You will then plant lettuce seeds in each soil type to investigate
which soil is best for germination.
Procedure Part 1
1. Fill the standing test tube with 30 mL water.
2. Measure 1 heaping teaspoon of Soil A into the standing test tube. Cap the tube and shake
for 1 minute.
Materials
Soil TesTabs (Floc-Ex (6), nitrogen
(3), phosphorus (3), potassium (3))
Soil A
Soil B
Soil C
50 mL Graduated test tube
(3) Test tubes with caps
(3) Coee lters
Funnel
250 mL Beaker
100 mL Graduated cylinder
Pipette
Lettuce seeds
3 ft. Plastic wrap
1 Jiy Strips planting pot
Permanent marker
Measuring spoon
pH strips
*Water

* You must provide

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
116
3. Let the tube sit undisturbed for 5 minutes, or until the soil has visibly settled at the bottom
of the tube.
4. Use pH paper to measure the pH of the liquid sitting atop the settled soil.
5. Add 2 Floc-Ex Tablets to the test tube, and secure the cap. Shake until the tablets have
dissolved.
6. Line the funnel with a coffee filter and place the funnel on the 250 mL beaker. The beaker
will be used collect the filtrate.
7. Pour the contents of the standing test tube through the coffee filter. Gently squeeze the
moisture from the soil through the coffee filter. Discard the coffee filter and soil remnants.
8. Label the 3 test tubes as Nitrogen, Phosphorous, and Potassium, and place them in the
test tube rack.
9. Measure 10 mL of the soil filtrate and pour into the Nitrogen test tube.
10. Add 1 Nitrogen TesTab into the Nitrogen test tube and secure the cap on the test tube.
Mix until the tablet dissolves.
11. Wait 5 minutes, or until a color develops in the solution. Compare with the color chart key.
12. Dispense 25 drops of the filtrate from the beaker into the Phosphorous test tube.
13. Measure and add 9 mL of water (not filtrate) to the Phosphorus test tube.
14. Add 1 Phosphorus TesTab into the Phosphorous test tube and secure the cap on the
test tube. Mix until the tablet dissolves.
15. Wait 5 minutes for the color to develop, then compare with the color chart key.
16. Measure 10 mL of the soil filtrate and pour into the Potassium test tube.
17. Add 1 Potassium TesTab into the Potassium test tube and secure the cap on the test
tube. Mix until the tablet dissolves.
18. Wait 5 minutes, or until a color develops in the solution. Compare with the color chart key.
19. Repeat steps 1-18 for Soils B, and C. Note: Be sure to rinse all equipment between sam-
ples!
20. Based on your knowledge of nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium in soil, write a hypothe-
sis in Table 3 predicting which soil would be the best for seed germination based.
21. Optional: Collect your own soil samples and use the materials to test their properties! Use
a clean spoon to loosen the soil and collect several small samples from a single location
and combine to get an average sample. Spread the soil on a piece of plastic wrap and al-
low to dry overnight, then repeat steps 1-17 and record your results in Table 3.

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
117
Procedure Part 2
1. Label the sides of the first peat strip A, B, and C.
2. Fill the 2 pods in the A row with 100 mL of Soil A in each. Repeat with subsequent rows
and corresponding soils.
3. Poke your finger in the center of the soil in each pod, creating a 2 cm impression.
4. Sow 5 lettuce seeds into each hole, then cover lightly with soil.
5. Pour 40 mL of water into each pod, and cover with plastic wrap. Place on a warm, sunny
windowsill.
6. Add 30 mL water to each pod daily for 7 days.
7. Examine each pod daily for signs of seed germination. Record your observations in Table
Soil Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium pH
A
B
C
Sample D location:
Sample E location:
Sample F location:
Soil Hypothesis:
Table 3: Soil Test Results
Figure 5: NPK Key. For best potassium color key
results, hold your test tube over the black boxes in
the left (all-black) column and compare it to the
shaded boxes in the right column.

Average/Medium nitrogen results are ~160
pounds per acre in 6 inch deep soil.
Average/Medium phosphorous results are ~20
pounds per acre in 6 inch deep soil.
Average/Medium potassium results are ~80
pounds per acre in 6 inch deep soil.
Figure 4: pH Key. Normal levels for pH are between 5.5 and 7.5.

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
118
4, including the texture of the soil, number of seeds that germinate, stem length (cm),
and any other notes.
Post-Lab Questions
1. Which soil proved to be the best for lettuce seed germination? Was your hypothesis cor-
rect?



2. Theoretically, how would plant and animal life found near the soil samples affect the soil
test results?



3. List three potential contaminants that could enter the soil and affect seed germination.



4. Why do farmers rotate their crops?



5. Does the type of crop affect which type of soil is best? Why or why not?
Day Soil A Soil B Soil C
1

2

3

4

5

6

7

Soil Texture

Soil Color

Observations


Table 4: Observations of Lettuce Seed Germination in Varying Soils

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
119
Experiment 3: Soil Contamination
This experiment demonstrates soils ability to act as a natural filter.
Procedure
1. Fill a 1 liter container with 1000 mL (1L) of water. Add 1/4 tsp. of the grape Kool-Aid pow-
dered mix to the water and mix well. This is your contaminated water.
2. Label 4 test tubes: Control, Soil A, Soil B, Soil C.
3. Use a pipette to place 5 mL of the contaminated water into the control test tube. Screw the
cap onto the test tube and save for later comparison.
4. Plug the neck of the funnel with a cotton ball to prevent the soil from falling through the
opening. Place the funnel into the 250 mL beaker.
5. Using the 100 mL beaker to measure 100 mL of Soil A and pour into the filter.
6. Very slowly, pour 100 mL of the contaminated water into the funnel.
7. Wait until the contaminated water is finished percolating through the soil sample, then us-
ing a gloved hand, remove the funnel from the 250 mL beaker and plug the funnel opening
with your finger.
8. Take the filtrate collected in the 250 mL beaker and pour back into the funnel, using your
pinky finger to plug the opening of the funnel. Place the funnel back in the 250 mL beaker
and allow the contaminated water to filter through the soil again. Repeat for a total of 4
times.
9. Take a 5 mL sample of the filtrate from the 250 mL beaker and place into the test tube la-
beled Soil A.
10. Repeat Steps 4-9 for Soil B and Soil C. Hint: You can use the pipette to push the used cot-
ton ball from the neck of the funnel if necessary.
11. Compare the contaminated water from the control test tube with the filtered water in the
Soil A, B, and C test tubes.
Materials
Soil A
Soil B
Soil C
(4) Test tubes with caps
100 mL Beaker
250 mL Beaker
100 mL Graduated cylinder
(3) Cotton balls
Funnel
Grape Kool-Aid Packet
(5) Pipettes
Measuring spoon
*1 Liter container
*Water

*You must provide

Lab10:SoilQualityandContaminaon
120
Post-Lab Questions
1. How did the color of the filtrate compare to the color of the unfiltered Kool-Aid solution?




2. Which soil acted as the best filter?




3. Describe how the contamination would impact soil quality.




4. Explain how soil contaminants can leak into other aspects of the ecosystem.




5. Some areas of the nation have limestone in the soil and lake bottoms. Explain how the
presence of this mineral acts as a natural buffer against acid rain.



Resources
Lab 11 Energy Sources and Alternative Energy

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
123
Energy and Alternative Energy Sources

Energy is essential for life to exist in any environment. As humans, we consume huge quanti-
ties of energy every day. This, however, comes with many consequences. Although energy is
abundant everywhere, useful energy is much more difficult to produce and less efficient for our
daily activities. Over 90% of produced energy comes from non-renewable resources. These
include oil, natural gas, coal, and uranium. Not only are our sources of fossil fuels and other
nonrenewable energy sources depleting, but many of these sources produce toxins that are
harmful to our bodies and the environment. Fossil fuel depletion, deforestation, pollution, and
global warming are just a few negative effects that come from the
combustion of many nonrenewable energy sources.

Oil is derived from the remains of plants and animals that lived in
aqueous environments millions of years ago. Over very long periods
of time, the heat from the Earths core and the pressure from the
sand, silt, and rock that deposited on top of it turns the remains into
crude oil. Scientists and engineers explore areas to find rocks that
indicate the presence of oil underneath, and drill through them to tap
into the reservoir holding the yellowish-black substance. After the oil
is drilled, it is sent to a refinery to be separated into usable petroleum
productsmost of which are used to produce energy. These include:
heating oil, jet fuel, heavy fuel oil, liquefied petroleum gases, and
gasoline.

Coal is another nonrenewable energy source that is derived from sedimentary rock comprised
mainly of carbon and hydrocarbons. It takes millions of years to create and forms from dead
plants that became trapped under dirt and water. There are four main types of coal: anthracite,
bituminous, subbituminous, and lignite. Coal is classified into these groups based on the
amount of carbon it contains. When coal is buried less than 200 feet underground, surface
mining technologies can be used to extract it. However, it if is deeper than 200 feet, under-
ground mining is performed to reach and extract the coal. More than 90% of the coal mined in
the US is used for generating electricity. Even though coal is an inexpensive fuel source, it is
important to remember that mining alters the topography and also can cause secondary pollu-
Concepts to Explore
Energy
Non-renewable sources
Passive solar energy
Active solar energy
Photovoltaics
Wind energy

Did you know the
following products
are made from
petroleum?
Ink
Deodorant
Crayons
Dishwashing liquid
Eyeglasses
CDs and DVDs
Tires
Ammonia
Artificial heart
valves

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
124
tion to waterways and the air.

Similar to oil and coal, natural gas is produced from decaying plant material and very long peri-
ods of time. It is used in industrial and residential arenas for heating and electricity. Although
natural gas is a relatively clean-burning fossil fuel, it is not without harmful environmental im-
pacts.

While products from oil, coal, and natural gas help to do many things, finding, moving, and us-
ing them can harm the environment through air, water, and other secondary pollution. There
are many ways that we can reduce the amount of energy consumed in our daily lives. Proper
use of insulation, using energy efficient light bulbs, use of programmable thermostats, carpool-
ing, and even driving the speed limit can all help conserve energy, the environment, and even
money! Two major forms of renewable energy are also being utilized - solar and wind energy.

Earth receives most of the suns energy through forms of light to minimize the dependence on
nonrenewable sources. This solar energy can be converted into heat and other forms of ener-
gy such as electricity. The suns light is Earths most abundant source of energy and is also
free of cost. For these reasons, scientists have studied ways to convert and harness the ener-
gy of the sun for centuries. There are four major forms of solar energy: passive, active, photo-
voltaics, and solar thermal electric energy. Each form of solar energy has its unique set of ad-
vantages and disadvantages, but used properly can help in the conservation of energy and our
planet.

When the sun is the only moving object and source of light and/or heat in energy transfer the
process is called passive. This means that no electricity is produced and only the sun is used
to transfer energy to another object or group of objects. Passive solar energy is utilized in
many households and buildings. Window placement, insulation, and ventilation are key compo-
nents to properly utilize the suns power in order to keep cool in the summer and warm in the
winter. Proper construction planning is key for these situations.

Active solar energy, also known as active solar heating, is similar to its passive counterpart in
the way that it captures energy from the sun. However, it goes one step further and uses a liq-
uid to store and transfer the energy. Active solar heating systems often use the sun to heat an
enclosed fluid such as water. Once heated the fluid can be stored for later and used the next
time someone needs to take a hot shower! These systems often use pumps to move the fluid
during the heat transfer process, and can become much more complicated. This makes active
solar heating less efficient because pumps require additional power to run.

When electrical energy is produced directly from the energy of the sun PV cells, or photovol-
taic cells, are used. These cells are very common and often found on top of street lights, used
in solar powered calculators, residential homes, and even watches. PV cells consist of tiny
strips of semiconductors, such as silicon, which are joined together. When the sun strikes the-
se strips the material becomes excited. If there is enough energy present, electrons are emit-
ted from the excited atoms. This flow of electrons produces an electrical current, which can
then be used as energy. Photovoltaics can be very expensive in large applications, but cost
has continuously fallen as the technology is enhanced.

Focusing solar energy using mirrors can help intensify heat transfer. This ancient technology

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
125
has recently been utilized in large scale projects to produce electrical energy. In this process
reflected sunlight is focused on pipes of oil, which are then heated. Oil is used because it is
much more conductive than water and can be heated with greater ease. The heat in the oil is
then transferred to water and creates steam. This steam spins a turbine to create an electrical
current. Converting the suns energy in this manner requires larger areas of land but is very
useful. Solar thermal electric energy can even be used to increase the efficiency of heat
pumps and power plants.

Solar energy is what drives our planet. Almost every living organism converts the suns rays
into a useful form of energy. At a quick glance there seem to be very few drawbacks from us-
ing solar energy. However there are some big issues with using solar power for energy. First,
solar energy can only be used in places where sunlight is abundant and when it is available.
Solar energy is not available at night and it would be pointless to put PV cells in an area where
the sun rarely shines. Clouds can also create a problem when trying to capture energy from
the sun. If you need power but have no light you are just out of luck. Second, storing solar
Figure 1: Several different designs of wind turbines exist, but the most common looks like an oscillating
fan or wind mill. All of the different styles of turbines try to maximize the efficiency of the turbine at
different wind speeds.

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
126
energy is difficult and inefficient. This means that if you do not need the energy at the time it is
converted it will be wasted. Finally, the equipment involved in many solar devices is expensive
and tough to maintain. With this being said, advancements are being made every day and so-
lar energy continues to expand.

Like solar, wind power has many advantages to it. Unlike fossil fuels, wind power is clean,
abundant and free. Wind is even more abundant than energy from the sun since it can poten-
tially be harnessed 24 hours out of the day. Wind energy uses a turbine to convert kinetic ener-
gy from the wind into mechanical energy, which in turn produces electricity.

Just like solar energy, wind has its disadvantages. The major disadvantage is that wind is un-
predictable. Although unreliability can be reduced by choosing proven locations, no one can
precisely predict wind speeds over large areas of land. This uncertainty requires the use of
backup energy sources and storage devices. Wind farms are also by nature, very large and
expensive. Their size makes them unappealing near populated areas, which means that they
must be a great distance from the area they are actually supplying power to. Large wind farms
can also disrupt radio, television, and phone reception. Although there are problems with wind
energy production, the global power output due to wind has increased exponentially over the
years. This statistic emphasizes the need for future development in alternative energy sources
in order to maintain the planet we live on today.






Experiment 1: The Eects of Coal Mining
Coal mining, particularly surface mining, leads to large areas of land being temporarily dis-
turbed. The mine workings collect and conduct water that is in contact with the widespread py-
rite, a mineral that produces iron and sulfuric acid when exposed to air and water. In this lab,
you will see first-hand the reasons why mine drainage can be harmful to the local drainage
system if left untreated.
Materials
(3) 100 mL Beakers
1 tsp. Crushed pyrite
1 tsp. Activated carbon
6 Strips of pH paper
Permanent marker
Measuring spoon
*Water

*You must provide

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
127
Procedure
1. Label three beakers: Water, Pyrite, and Carbon.
2. Pour 100 mL of water into each beaker.
3. Cut your pH paper into 6 even pieces.
4. Test the pH of each beaker and record the results in Table 1.
5. Place 1 heaping teaspoon of the crushed pyrite and activated carbon into their correspond-
ing beakers.
6. Set the beakers in a warm place for 48 hours, then test the pH of each. Record the results
in Table 1.




Post-Lab Questions

1. What, if any, change did you observe within your water samples?



2. What type of substance formed in the jars?



3. What effect do you predict coal mining has on the environment?




4. What can be done to prevent mine drainage from damaging the ecosystem?



Sample Initial pH Value
Pyrite
Activated Carbon
Water
Final pH Value



Table 1: pH of Water Samples after 48 Hours
Figure 2: pH Key

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
128
Experiment 2: Solar Energy
The suns energy is free, plentiful, non-polluting, and can be converted into electricity with the
use of photovoltaic cells. Also called a solar cell, these panels capture sunlight and emit a cur-
rent that can be used to power many things, including the small motor attached to the solar
panel in your kit. In this experiment, you will investigate how the amount and wavelength of
light affects the generation of electricity.
Procedure

1. Record the weather of the day in the bottom of Table 2.
2. Draw a dot on the disk using the permanent marker, near the outer circumference of the
circle. This will help you to visualize the movement of the motor once it starts spinning.
3. Draw a dot on the disk using the permanent marker, near the outer circumference of the
circle. This will help you to visualize the rotation of the motor once it starts spinning.
4. Find an incandescent light source, and record the wattage in Table 2. Observe the efficien-
cy of the solar cell as you hold it under the incandescent light source. Vary the distance
between the apparatus and the light source by moving the apparatus back and forth. Rec-
ord the differences in the rotation speed as the distance from the light source changes.
Note: Incandescent light sources refer to light bulbs which encase a filament wire. They
are typically shaped like an upside-down pear and screw into table lamps. Do not use a
fluorescent or halogen light source.
5. Observe the efficiency of the solar cell when it is struck by sunlight at different angles. Use
the protractor to measure the angle of the solar cell from the ground and record this in the
observations column of Table 2.
6. Using the black construction paper, shade different parts of the solar panel in at least three
different configurations. Draw a diagram showing how this was done for each trial in Table
2. Observe the efficiency of the solar panel and record your observations in Table 2.
7. Use the aluminum foil to create a reflector that reflects sunlight onto the solar panel. This
should not cover the panel, but enhance the amount of sunlight that hits the panel surface.
Observe the efficiency of the solar panel with the reflector and record your observations in
Table 2.
8. Use the aluminum foil to create a cover for the solar panel. This should be placed near the
Materials
Solar cell, motor, and rotating disk
Permanent marker
Red, green, blue and yellow lters
(cellophane)
Aluminum foil
Protractor
*Incandescent light source

*You must provide

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
129
top of the solar panel, but below but below the horizontal
silver bar (see Figure 3 for a picture of the foil/panel set-
up).
9. Fold a piece of the red cellophane over two times so that
you have a piece of cellophane that is four-layers thick (it
should be one quarter of the original size).
10. Hold the red cellophane over the exposed portion of the
solar panel, and observe the motor for any change. Repeat
this process with the yellow, green, and blue cellophane.
Observe the efficiency of the solar panel when each color
filter is used to cover the solar panel.

Figure 3: Step 9 reference. Note,
your local weather climate will affect
the amount of coverage your solar
panel needs. In general, more direct
sunlight requires greater coverage.
Figure 4: Each cellophane sheet should be folded into quarters to create the desired rotational effect.

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
130
Post-Lab Questions

1. How did the revolutions of the motor compare when the solar cell was held to an incandes-
cent light source vs. the sun as a light source?


2. Does increased exposure to the suns light produce more current? Explain.


3. How did shading different parts of the solar panel affect the motors output?


4. What effect did you observe when different colored filters were placed atop the solar panel?
What does this indicate about different wavelengths of light?

Observations
Incandescent bulb Wattage:
Sunlight Angle:
Sunlight with reflector


Shaded A: Diagram




Shaded B: Diagram




Shaded C: Diagram




Red


Blue


Green


Yellow


Light Source
Weather of the Day
Table 2: Solar Energy Experiment Results

Lab11:EnergySourcesandAlternaveEnergy
131
5. How could you increase the electricity generated by a solar cell during the day, when the
suns angle is constantly changing?
6. Would the solar panel work under a fluorescent or halogen light? Explain your response
(and feel free to test this procedure out for yourself!)



Geology
Lab 12 Weather and Climate Change

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
135

The earths atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen (O
2
), 78% Nitrogen (N
2
) and ~1% other
gases (including water vapor, argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and helium). Oxygen is essen-
tial for life and is used by most organisms for cellular respiration while carbon dioxide is used
by plants and certain bacteria for photosynthesis.


Concepts to Explore
Atmosphere
Weather
The water cycle
Climate
Figure 1: Clouds are visible accumulation of water droplets that accumulate in the Earths lowest layer
of the atmosphere, the troposphere.

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
136
Our atmosphere is composed of five layers:
1. Troposphere - nearest to the earths surface; layer in which weather occurs (rising and
falling air); comprises one half of total atmosphere; air pressure is decreased to 10% of
that at sea level.
2. Stratosphere - contains the ozone layer (important for UV ray absorption).
3. Mesosphere - layer which meteors burn up in upon entering the earths atmosphere.
4. Ionosphere/Thermosphere - locations of auroras (e.g., aurora borealis); layer in which
the space shuttle orbits.
5. Exosphereupper limit of the earths atmosphere; layer where earths atmosphere
merges with outer space.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere at a given time and place and includes temperature,
pressure, the type and amount of precipitation, wind, clouds, etc. Weather conditions can
change hour to hour, day to day, and season to season. Our weather is caused by uneven
heating of the earth from the sun. The resulting temperature differentials generate wind that
forces warm air to flow to regions of cooler air. This flow can occur both horizontally across the
surface of the earth (i.e., from tropical to polar regions) and vertically, causing clouds, rain, and
storms to develop as warm, moist air cools and condenses as it rises. In addition to driving our
weather, the suns energy also is responsible for regulating how water moves on, above, and
below the earths surface through the water cycle.
Figure 2: The water cyclecan you name the steps?

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
137
The water cycle describes how the amount of water on earth remains constant over time. Wa-
ter exists in three different states (in solid form as ice, as liquid water, and in a gas as water
vapor) and cycles continuously through these states. The temperature and pressure determine
which state water is in. The water cycle consists of the following processes:
Evaporation of liquid water to a gas (water vapor)
Condensation of water vapor to liquid water
Sublimation of solid water (ice) to water vapor (think dry ice)
Precipitation occurs when water vapor condenses to clouds/rain
Transpiration occurs when liquid water moves through plants from roots to leaves,
changes to water vapor and is released to the atmosphere through holes (stoma) in the
leaves
Surface Run-off occurs when water moves from high to low ground
Infiltration occurs when water fills porous spaces in the soil
Percolation occurs when ground water moves in a saturated zone below earths surface
Clouds form at many different altitudes in the troposphere when water vapor in warm air rises
and cools. The water vapor condenses on microscopic dust particles in the atmosphere and
transforms into either a liquid or solid and is visible as clouds. Warm air can hold more water
Figure 3: Clouds.

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
138
vapor than cool air so clouds often form over the tops of mountains and over large bodies of
water since the air over these formations is typically cooler than the surrounding air.
Climate is defined as the long-term average pattern of weather in a given region. Our climate is
influenced by five components: the atmosphere, the hydrosphere (mass of liquid water), the
cryosphere (mass of solid water; ice), the land surface, and the biosphere (life on earth). Cli-
mate change refers to the observed accelerated increase in the earths temperature over the
past 100 years and its predicted continued increase. The earths average temperature has in-
creased ~ 1 - 1.5 degrees F since 1900 (see figure below) and is projected to rise an additional
~3 - 10 degrees F over the next 100 years.
Changes in the earths atmosphere have contributed to global warming. Global warming is due
to the accumulation of greenhouse gases: carbon dioxide (CO
2
) from burning fossil fuels (oil,
gas, and coal); methane (CH
4
) from agriculture, landfills, mining operations and gas pipelines;
chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) from refrigerants and aerosols; and nitrous oxide from fertilizers
and other chemicals. Increased temperature results in increased evaporation, accelerated po-
lar ice melting, increased number of extreme temperature days, heavier rains/floods, and more
intense storms. These changes will have important implications across public health, infra-
structure, energy, economic, and political arenas.



Figure 4: Global Temperature Anomalies. Source: www.nasa.gov

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
139
Experiment 1: Modeling the Water Cycle
We will construct a model of the earths surface/atmosphere to explore how energy drives
weather.
Procedure
1. Using a graduated cylinder, carefully pour 20 mL of warm water (60 C) into canning jar
and secure the lid.
2. Fill the petri dish with ice and place on top of the canning jars lid.
3. Observe the jar every 5 minutes for 30 minutes; after 30 minutes, remove the petri dish and
carefully remove the lid and look at the underside.



Post-Lab Questions
1. Which water cycle processes are represented in this model and by what components?


2. Which processes are not represented? How could the model be altered to include these
processes?


3. How would the weather be affected if the water was at a decreased temperature? What
about at an increased temperature? How could you model these changes in this system?



Materials
100 mL Graduated cylinder
Canning jar
Petri dish
*Water
*Ice cubes
Thermometer
*Hot water

*You must provide

Lab12:WeatherandClimateChange
140
Experiment 2: Assessing Inltration
In this experiment you will observe how entrapped water moves from land to the atmosphere
and determine how weather conditions affect this movement.
Procedure:
1. Measure 200 mL sand in each plastic re-sealable bag.
2. Measure 200 mL room temperature water in each bag.
3. Seal each bag, leaving a bit of air in each.
4. Place 1 bag in a sunny location and 1 bag in a shady location.
5. Observe the bags after 1 hour, then again after 12 hours.

Post-Lab Questions:
1. What formed on the inside of the bags? What parts of the water cycle are represented in
this experiment?


2. What condition showed the greatest change? What force contributed to this change?


3. How would increasing the proportion of land (sand) to water affect the amount of water
vapor released?


4. How would drought conditions impact infiltration and condensation from the ground?
Materials
(2) 9 x 12 in. Bags
250 mL Beaker
200 mL Sand
*Water
*A sunny location (window sill, outside
porch, etc.)
*A shady location

*You must provide
Geology
Lab 13 Rocks

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab13:Rocks
143


Rocks are a part of our everyday lives. From the small rocks on a playground, to decorative
rock, in a yard, to the large mountain ranges throughout the world, we come in contact with
rocks on a daily basis. But, how many times have you stopped to really look at a rock and no-
tice the many unique features it has? When examined, a small rock on the playground will
have strikingly different features than a mountainous rock formation. The vast differences be-
tween the many varieties of rock provide not only an array of unique beauty but also contribute
to a large amount of functionality in our everyday lives. The ability to classify and identify min-
erals and rocks will serve as a useful tool in recognizing and understanding the many useful
features of rocks.


Figure 1: The earths surface is covered with rocks.
Concepts to Explore
Rock Overview
Three Rock Types
Rock Identication Features

Lab13:Rocks
144
As we just discussed, rocks are an aggregate of two or more minerals. They are classified into
one of three rock types based on their origin: igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. Each rock
type has unique features that are distinguishable and useful in classification.
Igneous comes from the Latin word meaning fire. With the exception of earths core and a
fine outer layer of sedimentary and metamorphic rock, the majority of the earths crust is com-
posed of igneous rock. Igneous rocks are crystalline structures formed from the cooling of mol-
ton magma. When magma cools below the earths surface, it produces intrusive igneous
rocks. When magma comes to the earths surface it becomes lava and forms extrusive igneous
rock. The rate at which the magma or lava cools and solidifies will determine the crystal size
and the type of rock that is formed.

Texture Crystal Visibility Cooling Time Examples
Pegmatitic Very large visible Crystals Very slow cooling Pegmatite
Phaneritic Visible crystals Very slow cooling Granite, Diorite
Aphanitic Microscopic crystals Slow cooling Rhyolite, Basalt
Glassy No crystals Very fast cooling Obsidian
Porphyritic Two sizes of crystals
Two-staged cooling, one
fast, one slow
Andesite Porphyry, Basalt
Porphyry
Vesicular Bubbles within rock Very fast cooling Pumice
Table 1: Igneous Rock Texture
Composition Color Common Mineral Examples
Felsic
Light colored (tan, peach, pink,
red)
Quartz, Potassium Feld-
spar, Orthoclase
Granite, Rhyolite
Intermediate Mix of light and dark colors Amphibole, feldspar Diorite, Andesite
Mafic Dark colored (brown, black)
Plagioclaise Feldspar, Py-
roxene
Gabbro, Basalt
Ultramafic Dark colored (brown, black) Pyroxene, Olivine Peridotite, Dunite
Table 2: Igneous Rock Composition

Lab13:Rocks
145
145
Igneous rocks are classified most commonly by their texture and their composition, as shown
by Table 1.Texture does not refer to the smooth or rough feeling of the rock, but instead to the
crystal size. Igneous rocks that have grains large enough to be seen with the naked eye are
phaneritic in texture. If a rock has unusually large crystals (large than a few centimeters
across) it is said to have pegmatitic texture. Rocks that have microscopic crystals that cannot
be seen with the naked eye have aphanitic texture. An igneous rock without any crystals at all
is said to have glassy texture. A few more unique textures include porphyritic texture in which
the rock is composed of crystals of two different sizes. Vesicular texture is when the lava cools
and solidifies before the gas is able to escape leaving small bubbles within the rock.
Igneous rock is also classified by its composition. While exact determination of composition
requires special laboratory equipment, color is often used as an indicator of the composition of
igneous rock. Light colored rocks typically indicate a felsic composition, meaning that the rock
is rich in silica. Typically if the mineral orthoclase is present in the rock, it is felsic. Intermediate
igneous rocks have a mixture of light and dark coloring which can appear as a gray hue or as a
light and dark spotted mixture. Mafic igneous rocks are rich in iron and magnesium and are
dark in color. Rocks in this classification almost always contain the mineral plagioclase feld-
spar. Ultramafic igneous rocks are also dark in color but typically do not contain feldspar. Table
2 details the four igneous rock compositions and provides examples for each type.

Over time, small pieces of the earths surface are broken off due to things such as wind and
water. These small pieces of rock, called sediment, settle onto the beds of oceans, lakes and
rivers and begin to pile up over time creating layer upon layer of sediment called strata. Over
Sediment Type Color Grain Size Unique Features Rock
Clastic Multi color Large (gravel)
Cemented round
gravel
Conglomerate
Clastic
Gray, Dark
Green, Red
Cannot be seen (mud) Compacted mud Shale
Chemical
White, Gray,
Cream
Typically very small though
can occasionally be gravel
size when contains fossils
Calcite rich, fizzes
with acid
Limestone
Chemical Black, Red, Gray Microscopic crystals Glassy appearance Chert
Organic Brown, Black
Cannot be seen (similar to
mud)
First stage in coal
process, rich in wa-
ter
Lignite
Organic Black
Cannot be seen (similar to
mud)
Hard coal, shiny
black, no water
Anthracite
Table 3: Sedimentary Rock Classification

Lab13:Rocks
146
millions of years, the pressure from the upper layers turns the bottom layers of sediment into
sedimentary rock. Along with pressure, some sediments may also harden into sedimentary
rock by a process called cementing in which sediments are cemented together by dissolved
minerals within the water.
As can be seen in Table 3, there are three subsets of rock. The first are clastic sedimentary
rocks which are the most common. These consist largely of minerals such as quartz and feld-
spar along with many small sediments that have been cemented or compressed together. A
few common types of clastic rocks are conglomerate, sandstone and shale.
Another type of sedimentary rock is chemical sedimentary rocks which form when standing
water dries up, causing minerals to precipitate, or come out of solution. In arid climates, where
repeat flooding and then subsequent evaporation of waterbeds is common, there are often
large deposits of chemical sedimentary rocks. Some common types of chemical sedimentary
rocks are limestone and chert.
The last type of sedimentary rock is organic sedimentary rocks which are formed from organic
debris within bodies of water. The low oxygen environments allow the organic material to keep
from being oxidized and therefore allow for the material to settle on the floor of the body of wa-
ter. The vast majority of the organic material within organic sedimentary rock comes from plant
debris. As this debris piles up, the process of compression and cementation slowly begin to
transform it into organic sedimentary rock. Some common types of organic sedimentary rock
are lignite, some types of coal, and anthracite.
The word metamorphic translates to change in form in Greek. Metamorphic rocks are created
when igneous and sedimentary rocks are changed due to conditions such as extreme heat
Texture Grain Size Color Unique Features Rock
Foliated Microscopic Gray, black Dull, breaks into thin sheets Slate
Foliated
Small, visible with hand
lens
Green, gray Silver, glassy luster and wavy layers Phyllited
Foliated Small to medium grained Green, gray Wavy layers, many mineral variations Schist
Foliated Course grained Gray, pink, red Layers of light and dark, very tough Gneiss
Non-
foliated
Medium grained
White, gray, pink/
red
Similar look as marble but much
tougher
Quartzite
Non-
foliated
Medium to course grained White, cream, gray Soft, fizzes with acid Marble
Table 4: Metamorphic Rock Classification

Lab13:Rocks
147
and pressure. The change in conditions causes the minerals within the rock to become unsta-
ble and slowly transform to suit their new conditions.
There are three types of metamorphism that rocks will experience. The first type is contact
metamorphism in which rocks are changed from the extreme heat of an intrusion with little
pressure involved. While the original rock undergoes extensive changes it is typically not de-
stroyed by the increased heat. It is common to see contact metamorphism take place near vol-
canoes and in plate hot spots. A few of the most common rocks that experience contact meta-
morphism are hornfels and hornblende.
Another type of metamorphism is regional metamorphism in which both heat and pressure are
used to transform the original rock. This is considered the most common type of metamor-
phism and is most readily seen in many mountain ranges. Unlike contact metamorphism,
rocks are usually completely destroyed and changed when they undergo regional metamor-
phism. The most common example of regional metamorphism is the change limestone under-
goes to become marble.
The last type of metamorphism is dynamic or cataclastic metamorphism in which large
amounts of pressure and strain cause minerals to be ground down. Typically there is low to
moderate heat associated with cataclastic metamorphism. It most commonly occurs along
faults and is typically visible within mountain ranges. One of the most common types of rocks
that has undergone cataclastic metamorphism is mylonite.
When classifying metamorphic rock, it is important to note the texture, grain size and color. As
Table 4 shows, metamorphic rocks are either foliated or non-foliated. Foliated rocks have par-
allel layers of minerals giving the rock a banded look. Foliated rock are further classified based
on their grain size as is seen in Table 4. Non-foliated rocks do not have a banded pattern but
instead contain equidimensional minerals that seem to have no planar preference.

Lab13:Rocks
148
Experiment 1: Rock Classication
In this lab, you will classify six unknown rocks into one of the three rock types (igneous, sedi-
mentary, metamorphic) and then use that knowledge, along with other features of the rocks, to
determine the rock name.
Procedure
1. Beginning with Rock A, use the information provided at the beginning of this lab to deter-
mine if the rock is an igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic rock. Write your guess in Ta-
ble 5.
2. Next, observe the color of Rock A. Remember that rocks can often be multiple colors.
Record the primary color in Table 5, as well as the other secondary colors within the rock.
3. Look at the grain size of Rock A. You may need to use your hand lens to determine the rel-
ative size of the grains. Record your observations in Table 5.
4. Then, notice the composition of the rock. Some rocks may appear glassy while others may
be comprised of various minerals. Some rocks may also be comprised of calcite. To test for
this, put a small drop of citric acid onto the rock. If it fizzes, the rock has a calcite composi-
tion.
5. Lastly, notice any other unique features of the rock. This may include the relative weight of
the rock, a unique visual component of the rock or even the feel of the rock. Record your
observations in Table 5.
6. Follow the same procedure for Rocks B, C, D, E and F. Remember to pay close attention
to the differences between each rock. Record your observations for each rock in Table 5.
7. After you have recorded all of your observations for all six rocks, use Table 8, the Rock
Identification Key, to determine the name of each rock. Record your answers in Table 5.
Materials

Rock A
Rock B
Rock C
Rock D
Rock E
Rock F
Hand lens
Saturated citric acid
Pipette

Lab13:Rocks
149

Rock Color Composition Grain Size
Unique
Features
Rock Name
Rock A
Rock B
Rock C
Rock D
Rock E
Rock F
Table 5: Rock Identification Results
Rock Type Color Composition Grain Size Unique Features Rock Name
Igneous White, Gray Sticky Lava None
Floats in water,
vesicular, light
Pumice
Igneous
Gray-White,
Pink/Red
Mineral composition in-
cluding quartz, mica , or-
thoclase and feldspar
Course
Durable, visible
crystals
Granite
Sedimentary
White,
Cream, Gray
Calcite
Typically
Fine
Can vary from
porcelain-like
rocks to large fos-
sil
Limestone
Sedimentary
Dark Green,
Red, Gray
Mud and Clay Fine Flakes into layers Shale
Metamorphic
White,
Cream, Gray
Some Calcite (may exhibit
small bubbles with addition
of citric acid)
Medium or
coarse
Soft, can be both
foliated and non-
foliated
Marble
Metamorphic
Gray, Pink,
Red
Mineral composition in-
cluding quartz, mica and
feldspar
Medium or
coarse
Banded (light and
dark stripes),
Durable
Gneiss
Table 6: Rock Identification Key

Lab13:Rocks
150
Questions
1. Describe the main defining properties of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks?




2. What classification (color, grain size, etc.) was the most useful in determining the rock
name? Why?
Geology
Lab 14 Minerals
Geology
Lab 14 Minerals

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab14:Minerals
153

Often times minerals and rocks are confused to be one in the same. However, minerals are
the inorganic building blocks of every rock. These naturally occurring solids are characterized
by their unique chemical composition and crystal structures. Over 3,000 minerals exist, and
each has unique features and properties. Often times, rocks are made of a blend of these min-
erals. A small handful of minerals, such as gold, silver and diamond are considered valuable,
but the vast majority of minerals go unnoticed.
With the large quantity of minerals that exist in our world today, there are several characteris-
tics that are observed in order to classify and name each mineral. The most common charac-
teristics we use to classify minerals are color, luster, streak, hardness, crystal structure, cleav-
age and specific gravity.
Starting first with color, this classification tool is the most obvious and often the initial way in
which an individual begins to classify the mineral. The color of a mineral is a direct relation to
the chemical composition it possesses. While color is the easiest tool, it is not necessarily the
most reliable tool as some minerals can contain a vast array of colors or may change colors
with long periods of weathering.
The second tool is luster. This is the way in which a mineral reflects light. Luster is typically
classified as metallic or non-metallic. Metallic luster means that it is shiny or opaque. Non-
metallic means it is earthy or dull. Other descriptions that may be used are glassy, waxy or
translucent.
The streak of mineral is the color of the mineral in powder form. Determining the streak of a
mineral is most common by dragging the mineral across a small ceramic plate. The color that
is left behind on the plate (called a streak plate) is the streak of the mineral. Most often the
streak is white, however, some minerals, such a graphite, will leave a colored streak.

Concepts to Explore
Minerals
Mineral Identication Features

Lab14:Minerals
154
The next tool used to classify minerals is hardness, defined by the ease (or lack of) required to
scratch the mineral. Mohs Scale of Hardness is the standard by which hardness of minerals is
compared. Soft minerals are at the bottom of the scale (1), while the hardest of minerals are
rated 10. The mineral Talc has a hardness of 1 because it can be scratched by all other miner-
als. A diamond has a hardness of 10 because it can scratch all other minerals but cannot be
scratched by others. Common objects, such as a fingernail and penny, have been measured
on the Mohs Scale of Hardness and are used to determine the relative harness of each miner-
al.
Crystal structure can be a very useful tool in identifying some minerals but can also be hard to
identify for the beginning mineralogist. The crystal structure of a mineral is defined by the
space in which the mineral is given to grow in its native environment. While each mineral has a
specific crystal structure due to its chemical make-up, it is rare to find a mineral that displays its
true crystal structure because of the lack of space when in formation.
Cleavage is the way in which minerals break. It relates directly to the bonds between atoms
within the mineral. Some minerals will break along smooth, one-directional planes, while others
will have no cleavage meaning that they will not break along planes. This can also be a difficult
concept for novice mineralogists to grasp.
The last tool used is specific gravity. Specific gravity of a mineral is its density in comparison to
that of an equal volume of water. This removes the size of the rock from the equation and al-
lows the true weight of the mineral to prevail. While this is often calculated with specialized la-
boratory machines, you can do a simple test by placing two separate rocks in each hand and
slowly move them up and down to feel the difference in their overall weight. While this is a very
elementary technique, it will work in determining the relative specific gravity of each mineral in
comparison with the other minerals you have been provided.

Lab14:Minerals
155
Experiment 1: Mineral Identication
In this lab, you will identify eight unknown minerals by observing their physical properties, such
as streak and luster, and use the Mineral Identification Key to determine the proper name for
each mineral.
Procedure
1. Begin by observing the color of Mineral A. Minerals may have more than one color, be
sure to notice all visible colors. Record your observations in Table 1.
2. Then, determine the luster of Mineral A. Is it metallic (glassy, shiny, bright) or non-metallic
(dull or earth-like)? Record your observations in Table 1.
3. Determine the streak of Mineral A. To do this, gently drag the mineral across the streak
plate. The color left behind is the streak of the mineral. Record the streak color in Table 1.
4. Determine the hardness of Mineral A. You have been provided a glass plate, streak plate
(used in the previous step) and a nail. You must also locate a penny and be prepared to
use your finger nail. As can be seen from the Mohs Scale of Hardness in Figure 2, a finger
nail has a hardness of 2.5 whereas the streak plate has a hardness of 7.5.
5. Begin by scratching your fingernail over the surface of Mineral A. Observe if the mineral
has been scratched by your fingernail. If it has been, you know that the mineral must have
a hardness under 2.5.
6. If the mineral was not scratched by the fingernail, try and scratch the mineral with a penny.
If you are able to scratch the mineral, take note of the hardness using the Mohs Scale.
7. If you were unable to scratch the mineral with the penny, continue using the glass plate
and then the streak plate until you are able to scratch the mineral. Use the Mohs Scale to
determine the hardness of Mineral A.
8. If none of the objects scratched the mineral, you know that the mineral has a hardness
over 7.5.
Materials
Mineral A
Mineral B
Mineral C
Mineral D
Mineral E
Mineral F
Mineral G
Mineral H
Streak plate
Glass plate
Nail
*Penny
*Fingernail
Hand lens

* You must provide

Lab14:Minerals
156
9. After you have determined the relative hardness of Mineral A, record your observations in
Table 1.
10. Determine the crystal structure, if present, of Mineral A. Your hand lens may help you in
this step. Record your observations in Table 1.
11. Determine the cleavage of Mineral A. This is often one of the most difficult characteristics
for novice mineralogists to determine. Study the surface of the mineral to determine if
there are any noticeable cleaved edges. Often times there will be signs of cleavage on the
surface, however, if there is not, chip off a small piece of the mineral using the nail (wear
your safety goggles!). Be sure to remove only a small piece of the mineral and to do it gen-
tly. Observe the cleavage , if present, when the small piece is removed. Remember, this
is a difficult component to initially observe. Additional research may help in determining
cleavages. Record your observations in Table 1.
12. Lastly, determine the relative specific gravity of Mineral A. The easiest way to determine
the specific gravity of Mineral A is to compare it in relation to Minerals B through H. Put
Mineral A in your right hand and put another mineral (start with Mineral B and work your
way through to Mineral H) in your left hand. Gently lift the two minerals up and down, not-
ing the relative specific gravity of Mineral A in comparison with the other minerals. The
mineral will feel generally lower, higher, or about the same as the other minerals. Record
your observations in Table 1.
13. Follow the same procedure for Minerals B, C, D, E , F, G and H. Remember to pay close
attention to the differences between each mineral. Record your observations for each min-
eral in Table 1.
14. After you have recorded all of your observations for all eight minerals, use Table 2, the
Mineral Identification Key, to determine the name of each mineral. Record your answers
in Table 1.

Figure 2: Mohs Scale of Hardness
Note: The goal is to determine the rela-
tive hardness of the mineral. Without a
larger array of tools you will not be able
to specifically identify the hardness.
Use the tools you have been provided
to determine the relative range for the
hardness. For example, if a mineral is
scratched by the penny but not by the
fingernail, you know the mineral has a
hardness between 2.5 and 3.0. Use this
information to fill in Table 1.

Lab14:Minerals
157

Mineral Color Luster Streak Hardness
Crystal
Structure
Cleavage
Specific
Gravity
Mineral
Name
Mineral A
Mineral B
Mineral C
Mineral D
Mineral E
Mineral F
Mineral G
Mineral H
Table 1: Mineral Identification Results
157
Color Luster Streak Hardness
Crystal
Structure
Cleavage
Specific
Gravity
Mineral Name
White,
Green,
Gray
Dull, Greasy White 1.0 Rare
1 direction cleav-
age
2.7 Talc
Yellow,
White,
Gray
Non-metallic,
glass-like
White 7.0 Hexagonal No cleavage 2.65 Quartz
Olive
Green, Red
Non-metallic,
glass-like
Colorless or
pale green
6.57.0
Granular
masses
No cleavage 3.3 Olivine
Red,
Brown,
Black
Non-metallic,
earthy
Red 5.06.0
Earthy or
sheet like
masses
No cleavage 5.3 Hematite
Black Metallic Black 6.0
Granular
Masses
No cleavage 5.1 Magnetite
White, Yel-
low
Non-metallic,
earthy
White 1.52.0 Rare
Perfect 1 direction
cleavage
2.6 Kaolinite
Green
Non-metallic,
Dull
Pale green 3.54.0 Tufts
1 Direction but
rarely seen
4.0 Malachite
Brown,
Gray
Non-metallic,
Dull
Brown,
Gray
5.06.0
Short,
stocky
prisms
Imperfect 2 direc-
tion cleavage
3.0 Hornblende
Table 2: Mineral Identification Key
157

Geology
Lab 15 Astronomy

Es
Environmental
Science

Lab15:Astronomy
161

Astronomy is among the oldest science and has played cultural/religious, navigational, and ar-
tistic roles in likely all civilizations on earth. The term is derived from the Greek where astron
means star and nomos means a system of laws. The science of astronomy uses fundamental
physical laws (physics) discovered on earth and applies these laws to the entire universe. The
study of physics helps us to better understand our and other universes and the study of astron-
omy also helps us to better understand physics.

One of the things that many people think makes astronomy difficult is the enormousness of the
numbers involved. The distance and size of objects in the universe is indeed huge and astron-
omers use the light year as the primary unit of length. One light year (abbreviated LY) is de-
fined as the distance light travels in one year; this is equal to 9.46x10
12
kilometers (km). For
comparison, the distance from the earth to the sun is 1.496x10
8
km; this distance is defined as
one astronomical unit (AU).

Concepts to Explore
Light Year
Star
Constellation
Planet
Galaxy
Universe
Figure 1: The solar system.

Lab15:Astronomy
162
Question: Given that the speed of light is
299,792.5 km/s, how far from the earths
surface is the moon if it takes sunlight re-
flected from the moon ~1.25 seconds to
reach the earth? How long does it take
light from the sun to reach the earth?
Our sun, which provides all the energy for
life on earth, is an example of a star. At
night, the unaided human eye can see ap-
proximately 6000 stars. A star is a ball of
plasma held together by gravity. Plasma is
a distinct state of matter in which gas be-
comes ionized, or charged, due to intense
heat and pressure. Stars emit light due to
thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen atoms
under the massive temperature and pres-
sure conditions that exist. The fusion of
hydrogen nuclei generates a new element,
helium, as well as energy in the form of heat and light. Stars begin as collapsing clouds made
primarily of hydrogen, some helium, trace amounts of other, heavier, elements. Stars have
mass, density, and luminosity. Our sun is 74% hydrogen, 25% helium, and 1% other gases,
and burns 600 tons of hydrogen every second to maintain its luminosity.
Astronomers can use the light emitted from stars and reflected from planets to determine their
chemical composition of a star. This is because stars are composed of elements, and each
element displays unique colors when this light is separated into different colors; this range of
colors is called a spectra. In one of the labs, you will create a hand-held spectroscope which
will be used to examine the spectra of various light sources (Note: we will not be using the sun
as a light source because looking directly at the sun will cause serious and permanent damage
to your eyes!).
Constellations are celestial images created by imaginary lines connecting bright stars. The
earliest recorded constellation dates from 3000 B.C. Since this time, constellations have
served important cultural, story telling, and religious roles; in sacred and ceremonial rites; and
as critical navigational aids for both land and sea-faring travelers.
Even the smallest stars are massive in size. The smallest star in our solar system is a bit larger
than Saturn (~200,000 km in diameter). This size gives stars an immense gravitational force.
Planets form when there is sufficient gravity to cause gas, dust, and other matter to condense
and begin orbiting a nearby star. If enough different planets or planet-like objects form, this can
a planetary system can develop much like our solar system. With the sun at its center, our so-
lar system consists of five regions: the terrestrial belt, the asteroid belt, the Jovian belt, the Kui-
per belt, and the Oort cloud. The terrestrial belt consists of earth-like planets (Mercury, Venus,
Figure 2: The stars in the sky are divided into 88
constellations.

Lab15:Astronomy
163
Earth, and Mars) that are the densest objects in our solar system. The asteroid belt consists of
minor planets that are 1/10
th
to 1/1000
th
the size of earth and exist 1.7-3.5 AU from the sun.
The Jovian belt consists of the gaseous planets (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and Neptune) that
are 10 times the size of earth but much less dense, reflecting their gaseous composition. The
Kuiper belt consists of asteroid-sized objects, which are much less dense due to their icy
makeup; these objects occur 30-100 AU from the sun. Lastly, the Oort cloud consists of orbit-
ing comets that are 1/1000-1/10,000
th
the size of earth and occurs 1000-100,000 AU from the
sun.
A galaxy is a large collection of stars (from 1x10
7
-1x10
14
) which form a distinct physical entity
held together by gravity. Our solar system, along with a number of other solar systems, exists
in the Milky Way galaxy. Our sun is just one of the 200-400 billion stars in the Milky Way gal-
axy. There are 4 visible galaxies from earth: the Milky Way, the Andromeda, and the Large and
Small Magellanic clouds. Astronomers have estimated there to be 100-500 billion galaxies in
the universethats one galaxy for every star in the Milky Way.
The universe is the sum total of everything in space; the study of its structure and evolution is
called cosmology. All known matter and energy is postulated to have originated in the cosmic
singularity: a single point with infinite density. This point then expanded due to the Big Bang
which exploded this point in all directions at once. This expansion still continues today and can
be measured by determining changes in the spectra emanating from distant galaxies.







Experiment 1: Determining the Spectra of Household Light Sources
In this lab, you will construct a handheld spectroscope and use it to analyze the spectrum of
various common light sources.
Materials
Black construction paper
*Masking tape
Diraction grating slide (500 lines)
3 x 5 in. Index card
Sheet of thick cardboard (used as a
cutting pad)
*Pencil
Ruler
*Scissors
Black permanent marker

*You must provide

Lab15:Astronomy
164
Procedure
1. Roll the construction paper into a tube 4 inches in diameter; secure with masking tape.
2. Mount the grating on one end of the tube using tape.
3. Set the 3 x 5 in. index card face down on a table, place the open end of the tube on it and
with a pencil draw a circle around the tube on the card.
4. Place the index card on a sheet of cardboard to protect the table. In the middle of the circle
you drew, cut a slit 2.5 cm long and 0.5 mm wide, using scissors and a ruler to make the
edges very clean. (You may need a few tries to get this correct.)
5. Cut out the circle with the slit.
6. Align the long axis of the slit so that it is perpendicular to the width of the grating slide.
Tape the slit to the open end of the tube (opposite the grating) with the masking tape. Be
sure to cover as much of the end of the tube as possible, leaving the slit open. Color the
tape with the permanent marker.
7. To use the spectroscope, point the slit at a light source and look through the diffraction
grating with your eye a few inches from the grating. Move the tube so that you can see the
light source clearly. Look slightly left or right of the slit to visualize the spectrum of the light
source. You may need to slightly rotate the spectroscope to clearly visualize the spectrum.

NEVER STARE AT THE SUN AS THIS CAN CAUSE SERIOUS AND PERMANENT EYE
DAMAGE!
8. Using the spectroscope, visualize the spectra of an incandescent light bulb (typical bulb
found in a household lamp), a fluorescent light (typically found in classrooms, hallways,
store interiors, etc.), and a street lamp.


Questions
1. Describe how the spectra from each light source differs from the others. What accounts for
these differences?


2. How would the spectra of other light sources (for example: TVs, metal halide bulbs, fire)
compare to those from #2 above? How would you use these spectra to determine what
comprises these light sources?


Lab15:Astronomy
165
Experiment 2: Pin Hole Viewer
You will use the viewer to estimate the diameter of the moon and sun, without looking directly
at the sun.

Procedure
1. Cut a 2.5 x 2.5 cm. hole in the center of the cardboard. Note: you can use your kit box lid
for this material.
2. Position a square of aluminum foil over this hole and tape to secure it in place.
3. Using the push pin, create a small hole in the center of the aluminum foil.
4. Tape the pin hole viewer to 1 ruler at the 2 inch mark. Tape the index card to the ruler at
the 8 inch mark.
5. To measure the diameter of the sun, hold the pinhole viewer so that the light from the sun
passes through the hole on to the sheet of white paper.
6. Measure the diameter of the image from the sun on the index card.
7. Measure the distance from the pinhole to the piece of paper.
8. Record your measurements in the table below.
9. Move the index card to the 11 inch mark on the ruler and repeat Steps 6-8.
10. Use the following equation to determine the diameter of the sun:

Diameter of sun = (diameter of image / distance from pinhole to paper) * distance earth to sun





Materials
*20 x 20 cm. Cardboard
Aluminum foil
*Tape
Push pin
3 x 5 in. Index card
*Scissors
(2) Rulers

*You must provide

Lab15:Astronomy
166
Post-Lab Questions

1. What is the diameter of the sun using your pinhole viewer? How does your determined di-
ameter compare to the accepted diameter of the sun?



2. Use the viewer to determine the moons diameter (use it on a night with a full or near-full
moon). How does your determined diameter compare to the accepted diameter of the
moon?



3. How much larger is the sun than the moon? Why do both appear the same size in the sky?


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