Standards and wall thickness

There are a number of piping standards in existence around the world, but arguably the most global are those derived by the American Petroleum Institute (API),
where pipes are categorised in schedule numbers.
These schedule numbers bear a relation to the pressure rating of the piping. There are eleven chedules ranging from the lowest at ! through "#, $#, %#, &#, '#,
(#, "##, "$#, "&# to schedule )o. "'#. *or nominal si+e piping "!# mm and smaller, chedule &# (sometimes called ,standard weight,) is the lightest that would
be specified for steam applications.
-egardless of schedule number, pipes of a particular si+e all have the same outside diameter (not withstanding manufacturing tolerances). As the schedule number
increases, the wall thic.ness increases, and the actual bore is reduced. *or example/
A "## mm chedule &# pipe has an outside diameter of ""&.%# mm, a wall thic.ness of '.#$ mm, giving a bore of "#$.$' mm.
A "## mm chedule (# pipe has an outside diameter of ""&.%# mm, a wall thic.ness of (.!' mm, giving a bore of 01."( mm.
2nly chedules &# and (# cover the full range from "! mm up to '## mm nominal si+es and are the most commonly used schedule for steam pipe installations.
This Tutorial considers chedule &# pipewor. as covered in 3 "'##.
Tables of schedule numbers can be obtained from 3 "'## which are used as a reference for the nominal pipe si+e and wall thic.ness in millimetres. Table "#.$."
compares the actual bore si+es of different si+ed pipes, for different schedule numbers.
In mainland 4urope, pipe is manufactured to 5I) standards, and 5I) $&&( pipe is included in Table "#.$.".

Table "#.$." 6omparison of pipe standards and actual bore diameters.
In the 7nited 8ingdom, piping to 4) "#$!!, (steel tubes and tubulars suitable for screwing to 3 $" threads) is also used in applications where the pipe is
screwed rather than flanged. They are commonly referred to as ,3lue 3and, and ,-ed 3and,9 this being due to their banded identification mar.s. The different
colours refer to particular grades of pipe/
-ed 3and, being heavy grade, is commonly used for steam pipe applications.
3lue 3and, being medium grade, is commonly used for air distribution systems, although it is sometimes used for low:pressure steam systems.
The coloured bands are !# mm wide, and their positions on the pipe denote its length. Pipes less than & metres in length only have a coloured band at one end,
while pipes of & to 1 metres in length have a coloured band at either end.
*ig. "#.$." -ed band, branded pipe, : heavy grade
*ig. "#.$.$ 3lue band, branded pipe, : medium grade, between &:1 metres in length
Pipe material
Pipes for steam systems are commonly manufactured from carbon steel to A;4 3 "'.0 A"#'. The same material may be used for condensate lines, although
copper tubing is preferred in some industries.
*or high temperature superheated steam mains, additional alloying elements, such as chromium and molybdenum, are included to improve tensile strength and
creep resistance at high temperatures.
Typically, pipes are supplied in ' metre lengths.
Pipeline sizing
The ob<ective of the steam distribution system is to supply steam at the correct pressure to the point of use. It follows, therefore, that pressure drop through the
distribution system is an important feature.
Liquids
3ernoulli,s Theorem (5aniel 3ernoulli "1## : "1($) is discussed in 3loc. & : *lowmetering. 5,Arcy (5,Arcy Thompson "('# : "0&() added that for fluid flow to
occur, there must be more energy at Point " than Point $ (see *igure "#.$.%). The difference in energy is used to overcome frictional resistance between the pipe
and the flowing fluid.
*ig. "#.$.% *riction in pipes
3ernoulli relates changes in the total energy of a flowing fluid to energy dissipation expressed either in terms of a head loss hf (m) or specific energy loss g hf
(=>.g). This, in itself, is not very useful without being able to predict the pressure losses that will occur in particular circumstances.
?ere, one of the most important mechanisms of energy dissipation within a flowing fluid is introduced, that is, the loss in total mechanical energy due to friction
at the wall of a uniform pipe carrying a steady flow of fluid.
The loss in the total energy of fluid flowing through a circular pipe must depend on/
@ A The length of the pipe (m)
5 A The pipe diameter (m)
u A The mean velocity of the fluid flow (m>s)
B A The dynamic viscosity of the fluid (.g>m sAPa s)
C A The fluid density (.g>m
%
)
.
s
A The roughness of the pipe wallD (m)
Dince the energy dissipation is associated with shear stress at the pipe wall, the nature of the wall surface will be influential, as a smooth surface will interact
with the fluid in a different way than a rough surface.
All these variables are brought together in the 5,Arcy:Eeisbach eFuation (often referred to as the 5,Arcy eFuation), and shown as 4Fuation "#.$.". This eFuation
also introduces a dimensionless term referred to as the friction factor, which relates the absolute pipe roughness to the density, velocity and viscosity of the fluid
and the pipe diameter.
The term that relates fluid density, velocity and viscosity and the pipe diameter is called the -eynolds number, named after 2sborne -eynolds ("(&$:"0"$, of
2wens 6ollege, ;anchester, 7nited 8ingdom), who pioneered this technical approach to energy losses in flowing fluids circa "((%.
The 5,Arcy eFuation (4Fuation "#.$.")/
4Fuation "#.$."
Ehere for eFuation "#.$." using
I based units/
h
f
A ?ead loss to friction (m)
f A *riction factor (dimensionless)
@ A @ength (m)
u A *low velocity (m>s)
g A Gravitational constant (0.(" m>s
$
)
5 A Pipe diameter (m)
Ehere for eFuation "#.$." using
Imperial based units/
h
f
A ?ead loss to friction (ft)
f A *riction factor (dimensionless)
@ A @ength (ft)
u A *low velocity (ft>s)
g A Gravitational constant (%$."1 ft>s
$
)
5 A Pipe diameter (ft)
Interesting point
-eaders in some parts of the world may recognise the 5,Arcy eFuation in a slightly different form, as shown in 4Fuation "#.$.$. 4Fuation "#.$.$ is similar to
4Fuation "#.$." but does not contain the constant &.
4Fuation "#.$.$
The reason for the difference is the type of friction factor used. It is essential that the right version of the 5,Arcy eFuation be used with the selected friction factor.
;atching the wrong eFuation to the wrong friction factor will result in a &##H error and it is therefore important that the correct combination of eFuation and
friction factor is utilised. ;any textboo.s simply do not indicate which friction factors are defined, and a <udgement must sometimes be based on the magnitudes
Fuoted.
4Fuation "#.$.$ tends to be used by those who traditionally wor. in Imperial units, and still tends to be used by practitioners in the 7nited tates and Pacific rim
regions even when metric pipe si+es are Fuoted. 4Fuation "#.$." tends to be used by those who traditionally wor. in I units and tends more to be used by
4uropean practitioners. *or the same -eynolds number and relative roughness, the ,Imperial based friction factor, will be exactly four times larger than the ,I
based friction factor,.
*riction factors can be determined either from a ;oody chart or, for turbulent flows, can be calculated from 4Fuation "#.$.%, a development of the 6olebroo. :
Ehite formula.
4Fuation "#.$.%
Ehere/
f A *riction factor (-elates to the I ;oody chart)
.
s
A Absolute pipe roughness (m)
5 A Pipe bore (m)
-
e
A -eynolds number (dimensionless)
?owever, 4Fuation "#.$.% is difficult to use because the friction factor appears on both sides of the eFuation, and it is for this reason that manual calculations are
li.ely to be carried out by using the ;oody chart.
2n an I style ;oody chart, the friction factor scale might typically range from #.##$ to #.#$, whereas on an Imperial style ;oody chart, this scale might range
from #.##( to #.#(.
As a general rule, for turbulent flow with -eynolds numbers between &### and "#####, ,I based, friction factors will be of the order suggested by 4Fuation
"#.$.&, whilst ,Imperial based, friction factors will be of the order suggested by 4Fuation "#.$.!.
4Fuation "#.$.& : ,I based, friction factors
4Fuation "#.$.! : ,Imperial based, friction factors
The friction factor used will determine whether the 5,Arcy 4Fuation "#.$." or "#.$.$ is used. *or ,I based, friction factors, use 4Fuation "#.$."9 for ,Imperial
based, friction factors, use 4Fuation "#.$.$.
Example 10.2.1 !ater pipe
"etermine the #elocit$% &riction &actor and the di&&erence in pressure 'etween two points 1 km apart in a 1(0 mm constant 'ore horizontal pipework
s$stem i& the water &lowrate is )( m*+h at 1(,-.

In essence, the friction factor depends on the -eynolds number (-e) of the flowing liFuid and the relative roughness (.>d) of the inside of the pipe9 the former
calculated from 4Fuation "#.$.', and the latter from 4Fuation "#.$.1.
-eynolds number (-
e
)
4Fuation "#.$.'
Ehere/
-
e
A -eynolds number
C A 5ensity of water A "### .g>m
u A Ielocity of water A #.1" m>s
5 A Pipe diameter A #."! m
B A 5ynamic viscosity of water (at "!J6) A "."%( x "#:% .g>m s (from steam tables)
*rom 4Fuation "#.$.'/

The pipe roughness or ,.s, value (often Fuoted as ,e, in some texts) is ta.en from standard tables, and for ,commercial steel pipe, would generally be ta.en as
#.####&! metres.
*rom this the relative roughness is determined (as this is what the ;oody chart reFuires).
4Fuation "#.$.1
*rom 4Fuation "#.$.1/

The friction factor can now be determined from the ;oody chart and the friction head loss calculated from the relevant 5,Arcy 4Fuation.
*rom the 4uropean ;oody chart (*igure "#.$.&),
Ehere/ .
s
>5 A #.###% -
e
A 0%!(!/ .riction &actor /&0 1 0.00(
*ig. "#.$.& ,I based, ;oody chart (abridged
*rom the 4uropean 5,Arcy eFuation (4Fuation "#.$.") /

*rom the 7A > A7 ;oody chart (*igure "#.$.!),
Ehere/ .
s
>5 A #.###% -
e
A 0% !(! .riction &actor /&0 1 0.02
*ig. "#.$.! KImperial basedL ;oody chart (abridged)
*rom the 7A > A7 5,Arcy eFuation (4Fuation "#.$.$)/

The same friction head loss is obtained by using the different friction factors and relevant 5,Arcy eFuations.
In practice whether for water pipes or steam pipes, a balance is drawn between pipe si+e and pressure loss.
Steam
2#ersized pipework means3
Pipes, valves, fittings, etc. will be more expensive than necessary.
?igher installation costs will be incurred, including support wor., insulation, etc.
*or steam pipes a greater volume of condensate will be formed due to the greater heat loss. This, in turn, means that either/
: ;ore steam trapping is reFuired, or
: Eet steam is delivered to the point of use.
In a particular example/
The cost of installing (# mm steam pipewor. was found to be &&H higher than the cost of !# mm pipewor., which would have had adeFuate capacity.
The heat lost by the insulated pipewor. was some $"H higher from the (# mm pipeline than it would have been from the !# mm pipewor.. Any non:
insulated parts of the (# mm pipe would lose !#H more heat than the !# mm pipe, due to the extra heat transfer surface area.
4ndersized pipework means3
A lower pressure may only be available at the point of use. This may hinder eFuipment performance due to only lower pressure steam being available.
There is a ris. of steam starvation.
There is a greater ris. of erosion, waterhammer and noise due to the inherent increase in steam velocity.
As previously mentioned, the friction factor (f) can be difficult to determine, and the calculation itself is time consuming especially for turbulent steam flow. As a
result, there are numerous graphs, tables and slide rules available for relating steam pipe si+es to flowrates and pressure drops.
2ne pressure drop si+ing method, which has stood the test of time, is the ,pressure factor, method. A table of pressure factor values is used in 4Fuation "#.$.$ to
determine the pressure drop factor for a particular installation.
4Fuation "#.$.(
Ehere/
* A Pressure factor
P
1
A *actor at inlet pressure
P
2
A *actor at a distance of @ metres
@ A 4Fuivalent length of pipe (m)
Example 10.2.2
-onsider the s$stem shown in .igure 10.2.5% and determine the pipe size required &rom the 'oiler to the unit heater 'ranch line. 4nit heater steam load 1
260 kg+h.
*ig. "#.$.' ystem used to illustrate 4xample
"#.$.$
Although the unit heater only reFuires $1# .g>h, the boiler has to supply more than this due to heat losses from the pipe.
7he allowance &or pipe &ittings
The length of travel from the boiler to the unit heater is .nown, but an allowance must be included for the additional frictional resistance of the fittings. This is
generally expressed in terms of ,eFuivalent pipe length,. If the si+e of the pipe is .nown, the resistance of the fittings can be calculated. As the pipe si+e is not yet
.nown in this example, an addition to the eFuivalent length can be used based on experience.
If the pipe is less than !# metres long, add an allowance for fittings of "#H to $#H.
If the pipe is over "## metres long and is a fairly straight run with few fittings, an allowance for fittings of !H to "#H would be made.
A similar pipe length, but with more fittings, would increase the allowance towards $#H.
In this instance, re#ised length A "!# m M "#H A 15( m
7he allowance &or the heat losses &rom the pipe
The unit heater reFuires $1# .g>h of steam9 therefore the pipe must carry this Fuantity plus the Fuantity of steam condensed by heat losses from the main. As the
si+e of the main is yet to be determined, the true calculations cannot be made, but, assuming that the main is insulated, it may be reasonable to add %.!H of the
steam load per "## m of the revised length as heat losses.
In this instance, the additional allowance 1

8e#ised 'oiler load A $1# .g>h M !.(H 1 295 kg+h
*rom Table "#.$.$ (an extract from the complete pressure factor table, Table "#.$.!, which can be found in the Appendix at the end of this Tutorial) ,P, can be
determined by finding the pressure factors P
"
and P
$
, and substituting them into 4Fuation "#.$.(.
Table "#.$.$ 4xtract from
pressure factor table (Table "#.$.!)
.rom the pressure &actor ta'le /see 7a'le 10.2.203
P
1
(1.# bar g) A !'.%(
P
2
('.' bar g) A !".#!
ubstituting these pressure factors (P
1
and P
2
) into 4Fuation "#.$.( will determine the value for ,*,/
4Fuation "#.$.(.

*ollowing down the left:hand column of the pipeline capacity and pressure drop factors table (Table "#.$.' : 4xtract shown in Table "#.$.%)9 the nearest two
readings around the reFuirement of #.#%$ are #.#%# and #.#&#. The next lower factor is always selected9 in this case, #.#%#.
Table "#.$.% 4xtract
from pipeline capacity and pressure factor table (Table "#.$.')
Although values can be interpolated, the table does not conform exactly to a straight:line graph, so interpolation cannot be absolutely correct. Also, it is bad
practice to si+e any pipe up to the limit of its capacity, and it is important to have some leeway to allow for the inevitable future changes in design.
*rom factor #.#%#, by following the row of figures to the right it will be seen that/
A &# mm pipe will carry $$0.0 .g>h.
A !# mm pipe will carry !#"." .g>h.
Since the application requires 295 kg+h% the (0 mm pipe would 'e selected.
?aving si+ed the pipe using the pressure drop method, the velocity can be chec.ed if reFuired.

Ehere/

Iiewed in isolation, this velocity may seem low in comparison with maximum permitted velocities. ?owever, this steam main has been si+ed to limit pressure
drop, and the next smaller pipe si+e would have given a velocity of over &1 m>s, and a final pressure less than the reFuirement of '.' bar g, which is unacceptable.
As can be seen, this procedure is fairly complex and can be simplified by using the nomogram shown in *igure "#.$.0 (in the Appendix of this Tutorial). The
method of use is explained in 4xample "#.$.%.
Example 10.2.:
4sing the data &rom Example 10.2.2% determine the pipe size using the nomogram shown in .igure 10.2.6.
Inlet pressure A 1 bar g
team flowrate A $(' .g>h
;inimum allowable P
$
A '.' bar g

;ethod
elect the point on the saturated steam line at 1 bar g, and mar. Point <.
*rom point <, draw a hori+ontal line to the steam flowrate of $(' .g>h, and mar. Point =.
*rom point =, draw a vertical line towards the top of the nomogram (Point -).
5raw a hori+ontal line from #.$& bar>"## m on the pressure loss scale (@ine "E).
The point at which lines "E and =- cross will indicate the pipe si+e reFuired. In this case, a &# mm pipe is too small, and a !# mm pipe would be
used.
*ig. "#.$.1 team
pipeline si+ing chart : Pressure drop
Sizing pipes on #elocit$
*rom the .nowledge gained at the beginning of this Tutorial, and particularly the notes regarding the 5,Arcy eFuation (4Fuation "#.$."), it is ac.nowledged that
velocity is an important factor in si+ing pipes. It follows then, that if a reasonable velocity could be used for a particular fluid flowing through pipes, then velocity
could be used as a practical si+ing factor. As a general rule, a velocity of $! to &# m>s is used when saturated steam is the medium.
&# m>s should be considered an extreme limit, as above this, noise and erosion will ta.e place particularly if the steam is wet.
4ven these velocities can be high in terms of their effect on pressure drop. In longer supply lines, it is often necessary to restrict velocities to "! m>s to avoid high
pressure drops. It is recommended that pipelines over !# m long are always chec.ed for pressure drop, no matter what the velocity.
3y using Table "#.$.& as a guide, it is possible to select pipe si+es from .nown data9 steam pressure, velocity and flowrate.
Table "#.$.& aturated
steam pipeline capacities in .g>h for different velocities (chedule &# pipe)
Alternatively the pipe si+e can be calculated arithmetically. The following information is reFuired, and the procedure used for the calculation is outlined below.
Information reFuired to calculate the reFuired pipe si+e/
u A *low velocity (m>s)
v
g
A pecific volume (mN>.g)

s
A ;ass flowrate (.g>s)
A Iolumetric flowrate (mN>s) A ms x vg
*rom this information, the cross sectional area (A) of the pipe can be calculated/

-earranging the formula to give the diameter of the pipe (5) in metres/

Example 10.2.)
< process requires ( 000 kg+h o& dr$ saturated steam at 6 'ar g. .or the &low #elocit$ not to exceed 2( m+s% determine the pipe size.
Ehere

Therefore, using/

ince the steam velocity must not exceed $! m>s, the pipe si+e must be at least "%# mm9 the nearest commercially available si+e, "!# mm, would be selected.
Again, a nomogram has been created to simplify this process, see *igure "#.$.(.
Example 10.2.(
4sing the in&ormation &rom Example 10.2.)% use .igure 10.2.5 to determine the minimum accepta'le pipe size
Inlet pressure A 1 bar g
team flowrate A !### .g>h
;aximum velocity A $! m>s
;ethod3
5raw a hori+ontal line from the saturation temperature line at 1 bar g (Point <) on the pressure scale to the steam mass flowrate of ! ### .g>h (Point
=).
*rom point =, draw a vertical line to the steam velocity of $! m>s (Point -). *rom point -, draw a hori+ontal line across the pipe diameter scale (Point
").
A pipe with a bore of "%# mm is reFuired9 the nearest commercially available si+e, "!# mm, would be selected.
*ig. "#.$.( team
pipeline si+ing chart : Ielocity
Sizing pipes &or superheated steam dut$
uperheated steam can be considered as a dry gas and therefore carries no moisture. 6onseFuently there is no chance of pipe erosion due to suspended water
droplets, and steam velocities can be as high as !# to 1# m>s if the pressure drop permits this. The nomograms in *igures "#.$.! and "#.$.' can also be used for
superheated steam applications.
Example 10.2.5
4tilising the waste heat &rom a process% a 'oiler+superheater generates :0 t+h o& superheated steam at (0 'ar g and )(0,- &or export to a neigh'ouring
power station. I& the #elocit$ is not to exceed (0 m+s% determine3
". 7he pipe size 'ased on #elocit$ /use .igure 10.2.90.
$. 7he pressure drop i& the pipe length% including allowances% is 200 m /use .igure 10.2.>0.
Part 1
7sing *igure "#.$.(, draw a vertical line from &!#J6 on the temperature axis until it intersects the !# bar line (Point <).
*rom point <, pro<ect a hori+ontal line to the left until it intersects the steam ,mass flowrate, scale of %# ### .g>h (%# t>h) (Point =).
*rom point =, pro<ect a line vertically upwards until it intersects !# m>s on the ,steam velocity, scale (Point -).
*rom Point -, pro<ect a hori+ontal line to the right until it intersects the ,inside pipe diameter, scale.
The ,inside pipe diameter, scale recommends a pipe with an inside diameter of about "$# mm. *rom Table "#.$." and assuming that the pipe will be chedule (#
pipe, the nearest si+e would be "!# mm, which has a bore of "&'.& mm.
Part 2
7sing *igure "#.$.1, draw a vertical line from &!#J6 on the temperature axis until it intersects the !# bar line (Point <).
*rom point <, pro<ect a hori+ontal line to the right until it intersects the ,steam mass flowrate, scale of %# ### .g>h (%# t>h) (Point =).
*rom point =, pro<ect a line vertically upwards until it intersects the ,inside pipe diameter, scale of (approximately) "&' mm (Point -).
*rom Point -, pro<ect a hori+ontal line to the left until it intersects the ,pressure loss bar>"## m, scale (Point ").
The ,pressure loss bar>"## m, scale reads about #.0 bar>"## m. The pipe length in the example is $## m, so the pressure drop is/

This pressure drop must be acceptable at the process plant.
4sing &ormulae to esta'lish steam &lowrate on pressure drop
4mpirical formulae exist for those who prefer to use them. 4Fuations "#.$.0 and "#.$."# are shown below. These have been tried and tested over many years, and
which appear to give results close to the pressure factor method. The advantage of using these formulae is that they can be programmed into a scientific
calculator, or a spreadsheet, and conseFuently used without the need to loo. up tables and charts. 4Fuation "#.$."# reFuires the specific volume of steam to be
.nown, which means it is necessary to loo. up this value from a steam table. Also, 4Fuation "#.$."# should be restricted to a maximum pipe length of $## metres.
Pressure drop &ormula 1
4Fuation "#.$.0.
Ehere/
P
"
A 7psteam pressure (bar a)
P$ A 5ownstream pressure (bar a)
@ A @ength of pipe (m)
s A ;ass flowrate (.g>h)
5 A Pipe diameter (mm)
Pressure drop &ormula 2 /;aximum pipe length3 200 metres0
4Fuation "#.$."#.
OP A Pressure drop (bar)
@ A @ength of pipe
vg A pecific volume of steam (m%>.g)
A ;ass flowrate(.g>h)
5 A Pipe diameter (mm)
Ehere/
Top
Summar$
The selection of piping material and the wall thic.ness reFuired for a particular installation is stipulated in standards such as 4) &!!"# and A;4
%".".
electing the appropriate pipe si+e (nominal bore) for a particular application is based on accurately identifying pressure and flowrate. The pipe si+e
may be selected on the basis of/
: Ielocity (usually pipes less than !# m in length).
: Pressure drop (as a general rule, the pressure drop should not normally exceed #." bar>!# m.
<ppendix
Table "#.$.! Pressure
drop factor (*) table
Table "#.$.' Pipeline
capacity from pressure drop factor
*ig "#.$.0 team pipeline
si+ing chart : Pressure drop
*ig "#.$."# team
pipeline si+ing chart : Ielocity