Professional Documents
Culture Documents
·{)P
öµ ï
µ 1.0, 2003 c1
ii
Chen Yan
iii
8 ¹
có iii
1 ý£ 1
1.1 { . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 êÆO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 êÆ8B{ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 ê!Úéê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 ÚÈ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 ê¼êÐêØ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 ü¦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 ªXê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7 NÚê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8 Fibonacciê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9 1¼ê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10 {©Û . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
ë©z 40
iv
1Ù ý£
Ù1Ü©0
{ÄA5/ªz£ã"1Ü©8
¥`²3OÅÆ¥þ$^êÆ£E|"1nÜ©0
Ä
uRISCJ[ÅMIX9Ù®?ó"3ÖÙ §\òÐÚݺ
{©ÛOÄ:§ùòkÏu\3?ÚÖ¥(¹$^"
1.1 {
Algorithm E (Euclid’s algorithm) ½êm, n, éÑúê
E1. (Find remainder) m ← m mod n
E2. (Is it zero?) if m=0 then return n
E3. (Find remainder) n ← n mod m1
E4. (Is it zero?) if n=0 then return m else go to Step E1
{|©¦^
ügS§¦5m, n'X§l
1
2 1Ù ý£
SK
m n
z }| { z }| {
0.1 I=aa · · · a bb · · · b (½Ñúê{gcd(m, n)θj , φj , aj , bj .
1.2 êÆO
IN THIS SECTION we shall investigate the mathemtical notations
that occur throughout the Computer Science, and we’ll derive several basic
formulas that will be used repeatedly.
1 êÆ8B{
={y²5{2 : >éuzÚ^êÆ8B{§bzÚÑ\
þ(§y²ÑÑ(
{k¡5üy²§kNyÑ"~X~¥
3E1¥\\T = 1, 3E2∼E4¥\\T ← T + 1§ÏL8B{T≤ 3n
K¡ù'XSûS'X"~X§éuÏ~“<”'X§ê8
w,´ûS"ûS'Xk±e5µ
2
T{ØUy{k¡5"
4 1Ù ý£
a) ê8éu<Ø´ûS[3(iii)¥-A = S; zûS8Ñk
“”]
b) ½Â3ê8þûS'X: ½Âx ≺ y, XJ|x| < |y|; ½öX
J|x| = |y|
x < 0 < y.
c) ¤kK¢ê8Üéu<ûS[¤k¢êf8Ø÷v(iii). 5
¿µ¦^“ÀJún”(axiom of choice)±y²z8ÜÃØXÛo
U¤ûS; 8cvk<U½Â¦¢ê¤ûS²w
'X]
c;^ S)Séu≺ûS"éun > 0§Tn ´n|(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
d) (c
8ܧ٥xj ∈ S. ½Â(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ≺ (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ), XJ∃k(1 ≤
k ≤ n), ¦xj = yj (1 ≤ j < k)
xk ≺ yk . ≺´Tn ûS"[éuTn y
²(iii)§én^8B{µA´Tn f8¿ÄA1©
þ8ÜA1 "duA1 ´Sf8§
S´ûS§A1 ¹k
x"yÄ1©þxAf8Ax ,XJAx 1
©þÛ§KAx wTn−1 f8§¤±d8B{Ax ¹
(x, x2 , · · · , xn ), ¯¢þ§Ò´A]
e) UY(d)?Ø"T = n≥1 Tn . ½Â(x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) ≺ (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ),
S
XJ∃k ≤ min(m, n), ¦xj = yj (1 ≤ j < k)
xk ≺ yk ¤á; ½öXJ
kxj = yj (1 ≤ j ≤ m < n). ≺ØU¦T ¤ûS"[XJS¹kü
ØÓ§a < b,K8Ü(b), (a, b), (a, a, b), (a, a, a, b), · · · vk
]
f) ≺´SûS§
=§÷vþã(i)Ú(ii)
éuj ≥ 1, Ø3ä
kxj+1 ≺ xj ÃSx1 , x2 , x3 , . . . [y{]
g) Séu≺ûS8§P (x)´'uSx·K§XJP (x)U
3P (y)éu¤ky ≺ xýb½ey§KP (x)éS¥¤kx
ý"[-A´¦P (x)b¤kx8Ü"XJA§K§¹k
x0 "ÏdP (y)éu¤ky ≺ xý"ù¿XP (x0 )
ý(gñ)"ÏdA7§=P (x)o´ý]
þã(g)Ò´5{ü8B{í2"Sê8§={ü8
B{"5¿§¦·y²∀y < 1, P (y)ý§KP (1)ý¶ùÒu`§
·Ay²P (1)"Ïéu¤kùy§P (y)½/£J/¤ý"
(J§<uy§3Nõ¹e§¦^AÏØy§P (1)ÒØ7y²
"
(d)Ó(g)éX§·Jø
^uy²nêm1 , m2 , · · · , mn
·KP (m1 , m2 , · · · , mn )n8B{—rkå{"
(f)éuOÅ{kX?ÚA^µXJ·U
rOG
NûS8S§¦OzÚ½o´lGx?\
Gy§
kf (y) ≺ f (x)§K{7Uª"ùní2
3y²îA
{ª¥¤¦^§'unî4~Øy"
§1.2 êÆO 5
SK
=y²> i)n = 10210 > 103 ii)2n > n3 K2n+1 = 2×2n > (1+ n1 )3 ×
2n > (1 + n1 )3 × n3 = (n + 1)3
2 ê!Úéê
=¦éê>x = logb y
k k
1) È{: (é1k ?êi) bm ≤ y 10 < bm+1 , ém¦y 10 ∈
m
(m, m + 1)K 10 k ¤¦"
b1 b2
2) U?{: (¦log10 x) òlog10 xL«?log10 x = n + 2 + 4 +
b3
8 + ···
x
(a) (½n. £Äx?ê:¦1 ≤ 10n ≤ 10, n.
x
(b) -x0 = 10n K
b3 b4
=n>aqu?z?4[2(log10 x−n)−b1 ]−b2 = 8 + 16 +· · ·
k
x2
=y²> Ñxn Ï1 ≤ xk = < 10
102k (n+b1 /2+b2 /4+···+bn /2k )
n §
{æ^?L«¦O{B§e^?¬¦x2n Cx10
{3OÅ¥du°Ý¯K§?1Ø©Û"
=Ø©Û>-x(1 − δ) ≤ 10n x00 ≤ x(1 + )K2 log10 (1 − δ) − 21k < <
2 log10 (1 + )
SK
3 ÚÈ
=½Â 3.1> R(i), S(j)©OL«'ui, j'X"
=¦Ú{K>
a) ©Æ: X X XX
ai bj = ai bj (1.1)
R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j)
b) : X X X
ai = aj = ap(j) (1.2)
R(i) R(j) R p(j)
d) ^?n:
X X X X
aj + aj = aj + aj (1.5)
R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j) R(j) and S(j)
X
e) φ=0
=¦{{K>
Y Y Y YY YY
a) ©Æ: bi ci = bi ci c) Æ: aij = aij
R(i) R(i) R(i) R(i) S(j) S(j) R(i)
Y Y Y Y
b) : ai = aj = ap(j) d) φ=1
R(i) R(j) R p(j)
§1.2 êÆO 7
Y Y Y Y
e) ^?n: aj aj = aj aj
R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j) R(j) and S(j)
=þ(.{K>
a) sup ai + sup bj = sup sup(ai + bj ) c) sup sup aij = sup sup aij
R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j) S(j) R(i)
=íØ> ai , bj KKsup ai sup bj = d) sup sup aj , sup aj = sup aj
R(i) S(j) R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j)
sup sup ai bj e) sup φ = −∞
R(i) S(j)
~ 3.1
X 1 X 1
¦ , .
2n + 1 2n2 +1
0≤n≤5 0≤n2 ≤5
=)> 3
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + + , 2
= + +1+ +
2n + 1 3 5 7 9 11 2
2n + 1 9 3 3 9
0≤n≤5 0≤n ≤5
3
d5K(b)ØU^"Ïn2 = 4k2néA§
n2 = 3vknéA§=p(j)ؤ
N"
8 1Ù ý£
~ 3.3 ¦y XX XX
f (c, d) = f (c, cd) (1.6)
d|n c|d c|n d| n
c
~ 3.5 ¦y
n X
i n n
X 1 X 2 X
ai aj = ai + a2i (1.7)
2
i=0 j=0 i=0 i=0
=y²>
n X
X i n X
X n n X
X n
-S1 = ai aj = ai aj = ai aj = S2
i=0 j=0 j=0 i=j i=0 j=i
n X
X i n
X
K2S1 = S1 + S2 = ai aj + ai aj
i=0 j=0 j=i
n X
X n
= ai aj + ai ai 5K(d)
i=0 j=0
n
XX n n
X
= ai aj + ai ai
i=0 j=0 i=0
Xn n n
X X
= ai aj + a2i
i=0 j=0 i=0
n
X n
2 X
= ai + a2i
i=0 i=0
4
ddbracket notationã%å: the ability to manipulate “on the line” instead
of “below the line”
§1.2 êÆO 9
=)>
X X X
(a + bj) = a + b(n − j) = (a + bn − bj)
0≤j≤n 0≤n−j≤n 0≤j≤n
X X X
= (2a + bn) − (a + bj) = (n + 1)(2a + bn) − (a + bj)
0≤j≤n 0≤j≤n 0≤j≤n
X bn(n + 1)
∴ (a + bj) = a(n + 1) +
2
0≤j≤n
Pn j
~ 3.7 ¦ j=0 jx
=)>
n
X n
X X
jxj = jxj = x (j + 1)xj
j=0 j=1 0≤j≤n−1
X
= x (j + 1)xj − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
1≤j≤n
Xn X
= x jxj + xj − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
j=1 2≤j≤n+1
n
X
j x2 (1 − xn )
∴ (1 − x) jx = + (n + 1)xn+1 + x
1−x
j=1
n
X nxn+2 + (n + 1)xn+1 + x
∴ jxj =
(x − 1)2
j=0
Qn Qi Qn
~ 3.8 ò i=0 j=0 ai aj ^ i=0 ai /ªL«"
=)>
n Y
Y n n
Y n
Y
ai aj = an+1
i aj
i=0 j=0 i=0 j=0
n
Y n Y
Y n n
Y 2n+2
= an+1
i aj = ai
i=0 i=0 j=0 i=0
n Y
Y i n
Y n+2
0 ≤ j < iâé¡5, ai aj = ai
i=0 j=0 i=0
10 1Ù ý£
1ªÝ
Y Y
Vandermonde’s matrix: aij = xij , det A = xj (xj − xi )
1≤j≤n 1≤i<j≤n
n−1
Combinatorial matrix: aij = y + δij x, det A = x (x + ny)
Y
(xj − xi )(yj − yi )
1 1≤i<j≤n
Cauchy’s matrix: aij = , det A = Y
xi + yi (xi + yj )
1≤i,j≤n
=Ý
ÈÚ(permanent)>Ù1ªÐm5K§¿
zþ
§X ac db = ad + bc.
=)>
Y
xj (xk − xj )
n
X 1≤k≤n
k6=i
AA−1 = bit xtj = Y = δij
t=1 xi (xk − xi )
1≤k≤n
k6=i
X
(−1)j−1 xk1 · · · xkn−j
1≤k1 <···<kn−j ≤n
k1 ,...,kn−j 6=i
∴ bij = Y
xi (xk − xi )
1≤k≤n
k6=i
=)> Iü
§J1
(J 2 = nJ)
∴ A = (xI + yJ)
∵ (xI + yJ)[(x + ny)I − yJ)] = x(x + ny)I
§1.2 êÆO 11
=)> dÝ
{fªAij ´n − 1Cauchy1ª§:
Y
(xj + yk )(xk + yi )
1≤k≤n
bij =
Y Y
(xj + yi ) (xj − xk ) (yi − yk )
1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n
k6=j k6=i
~ 3.12
1×1 1 × 2 ··· 1×n
2×1 2 × 2 ··· 2×n
¦ .. .. .. ÈÚ.
..
. . . .
n × 1 n × 2 ··· n×n
=)>
1 −1 0 · · · 0
0 1 −1 · · · 0
An = An−1 + . .. .. .. . = An−1 + An−2
.. . . . ..
0 0 0 ··· 1
1 −1
A2 = = 2, A1 = 1
1 1
∴ An = Fn+1 (Fn Fibonacciê)
12 1Ù ý£
4 ê¼êÐêØ
=¼ê>x − 1 < bxc ≤ x ≤ dxe < x + 1, b−xc = −dxe
=íØ (1)> y > 00 ≤ x mod y < y; y < 00 ≥ x mod y > y
b) ȼê¦ÈEȼê"
X
c) f (n)ȧKg(n) = f (d)ȶf (n)È
f (n) ≥ 0§Kmax f (d)
d|n
d|n
È"
=S¼ê(replicative)>f (x)+f x + n1 +· · ·+f x + n−1
n = f (nx) (n
ê)
a) f (x) = bxc´S¼ê§=bxc + x + n1 + · · · + x + n−1
n = bnxc.
b) f (x) = x − 12 ´S¼ê"
c) S¼êÚES¼ê"
d) f (x)S¼ê§Kf (x − bxc)´S¼ê"
p √
~ 4.1 ¦yb bxcc = b xc.
√
=y²> -b xc = n ⇐⇒ n2 ≤ x < (n + 1)2 ⇐⇒ n2 ≤ bxc <
p p
(n + 1)2 ⇐⇒ n ≤ bxc < (n + 1) ⇐⇒ b bxcc = n
n
n + 2 + b 25 c
8n + 24
~ 4.2 ¦y =
3 25
& '
n n n 24n
n + 2 + b 25 c n − b 25 c n + d− 25 e
25
=y²> = = = =
3 3 3 3
8n 8n + 24
=
25 25
~ 4.3 ¦ê1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, · · · Ï"
k(k − 1) k(k + 1)
=)> ¯¢þ§ <n≤ §an = k.
2 2
k(k − 1) 1 k(k + 1) 1 1
Ïnꧤ± + <n< + ⇒ (k − )2 < 2n <
2 8 2 8 2
1
(k + )2
2
√ √
1 1 6
∴ k < 2n + < k + 1 ⇒ an = 2n +
2 2
√ √ √
6
Ù§Yd 2n − 12 e, d 8n+1−1
2
e, b 8n+7+1
2
c.
14 1Ù ý£
=í2>
5 ü¦
=ü)¤{>(bn − 1éü®¤)
{1. éza1 a2 · · · an−1 ü§òan \zU "
=an a1 a2 · · · an−1 , a1 an · · · an−1 , · · · , a1 a2 · · · an an−1 , a1 a2 · · · an−1 an .
{2. éz{1, 2, . . . , n − 1}üa1 a2 . . . an−1 3"à\\AÏ
(i− 12 ), :a1 a2 . . . an−1 12 , a1 a2 . . . an−1 23 , · · · , a1 a2 . . . an−1 (n−
1
2 ), ézüì5'X^{1, 2, . . . , n −
1} · ¶ " ~ X § é ü 231231 12 , 231 23 , 231 52 , 231 72 , · ¶
3421, 3412, 2413, 2314.
=d£ã>?¿(½êk(1 ≤ k ≤ n)ézüa1 a2 · · · an−1
¥aj ≥ k\1, {1, · · · , k−1, k+1, · · · , n}üb1 b2 · · · bn−1
Kb1 b2 · · · bn−1 k=¤ü"
√ n n 1
=¦>n! ≈ 2πn (éØ )
e 12n
þ"
=n!í2>[Leonhard Euler](d?=?Øí2Ün5§¿îy²)
(n + 12 )! (n + 12 ) + 12 ! (n + 12 )!
(n + 1)!
du × = = n + 1, knd& ≈
n! (n + 12 )! n! n!
√ (n + 13 )! √
n, aq§ ≈ 3 n.
n!
(n + x)! (n + x)!
ddb ≈ nx = lim = 1.
n! n→∞ n!nx
nKê Eê
mn m!
n! = Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n) = lim (1.8)
m→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (n + m)
1
et dt
I Z
π 1 1 x
(−z)!Γ(z) = , = , Γm (x) = m (1−t)m tx−1 dt
sin πz Γ(z) 2πi tz 0
k−1
Y
=factorial powers>½Âxk = x(x − 1) · · · (x − k + 1) = (x − j)§Ö
j=0
k−1
Y
“x to the k falling”. xk = x(x + 1) · · · (x + k − 1) = (x + j)§Ö“x
j=0
to the k rising”.
=5>
a) Pnk = nk d) xk = Γ(x+k)
Γ(x)
b) xk = (x + k − 1)k = (−1)k (−x)k e) xm+n = xm (x − m)n
x!
c) xk = (x−k)! f) xm+n = xm (x + m)n
~ 5.1 ¦y
nn nn+1
≤ n! < (1.9)
en−1 en−1
§1.2 êÆO 17
=y²> ∵ ex − x − 10, ∴ 1 + x ≤ ex (x ∈ R)
1 k+1 1 k
-x = K ≤ ek ≤
k k k−1
n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1
nn Y (k + 1)k Y n! Y k k+1 Y
⇒ = ≤ e; = ≤ e−1
n! kk nn+1 (k + 1)k+1
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
nn nn+1
⇒ n−1 ≤ n! < n−1
e e
=)>
π 2 2 4 4 6 6
= × × × × × ··· (1.10)
2 1 3 3 5 5 7
1 1
, Γ − 12 .
¦ 2 !, Γ 2
Y (n + α1 ) · · · (n + αk ) Γ(1 + β1 ) · · · Γ(1 + βk )
= (1.11)
(n + β1 ) · · · (n + βk ) Γ(1 + α1 ) · · · Γ(1 + αk )
n≥1
2
Γ 21 Γ 32
π Y n n 3
∴ = 1 × 1 = = 2Γ
2 n− 2 n+ 2 Γ(1)Γ(1) 2
n≥1
√
3 1 π
⇒Γ = !=
2 2 2
√
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Γ(1 + ) = Γ ⇒Γ = π =Γ 1− = (− )Γ − ⇒
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 √
Γ − = −2 π.
2
18 1Ù ý£
6 ªXê
k
rk
r r(r − 1) · · · (r − k + 1) Y r+1+j
= | Ü ê> = = = (r ∈
k k(k − 1) · · · 1 k! j
j=1
R, k ∈ N, k ≥ 0)7
r
= 0 (k < 0)
k
=5>
n n! 8
A. ¦L« = (n ≥ k ≥ 0, n, k ∈ Z)
k k!(n − k)!
n n
B. é¡'X = (n ≥ 0, n, k ∈ Z)
k n−k
C. £Ñ)Ò
r r r−1
= (k ∈ Z, k 6= 0) (1.12)
k k k−1
r−1 r
=íØ1>r = (r − k) (êk 6= r)
k k
=y²>
r r r r−1 r r−1
= = =
k r−k r−k r−1−k r−k k
d§·y²
rê
r 6= kª¤á§Ïy²¥
¦^
5B^"ªmüàÑw´'ur
õª">~m>'urnõªp(r)"0nõ
ªõkn":§â·y(اkõunê
¦p(r) = 0¤á§K∀r7kp(r) ≡ 0. [ùn^uòNõê
/í2¢êþ]
r r−1
=íØ2>k =r (kê)
k k−1
D. \{úª (5~38B{©Ü¦Ú{¥¦^)
r r−1 r−1
= + (k ∈ Z) (1.13)
k k k−1
7
!AO5¿úª·^^
8
úª\µ`²Ù5
§1.2 êÆO 19
E. ¦Úúª
n
X r+k r+n+1
= (ên ≥ 0) (1.14)
k n
k=0
n
X k n+1
=íØ> = (êm, n ≥ 0)
m m+1
k=0
X k X m + k X m + k
=y²> = = +
m m m
0≤k≤n
X m + k 0≤m+k≤n −m≤k<0
m + (n − m) + 1 n+1
=0+ =
m n−m m+1
0≤k≤n−m
0
1
n
n+1
n(n+1)
=A~>m = 1=ê 1 + 1 +· · ·+ 1 = 2 = 2
n n
k k
X
2
X k k n+1
duk 2
=2 2 + 1 Ïd k = 2 + =2 +
2 1 3
k=0 k=0
n+1
.
2
k k
=z>õªa0 + a1 k + a2 k 2 + · · · + am k m L«b0
0 + b1 1 +
k 9
· · · + bm m
X r
r
F. ª½n (x + y) = xk y r−k (êr ≥ 0) 10
k
k
=íØ1>00 = 1
=íØ2>(1 + x)r = k krP
P k
x (êr ≥ 0½|x| < 1)
n n
x(x − kz)k−1 (y + kz)n−k
=íØ3>[Abel](x + y) = k k (ên ≥
0, x 6= 0).
G. þIK
r k k−r−1
= (−1) (k ∈ Z) (1.15)
k k
=íØ>
X r X k − r − 1 −r + n
k n r−1
a) (−1) = = = (−1) (n ∈
k k n n
k≤n k≤n
Z)
n n−m −(m + 1)
b) = (−1) (ên ≥ 0, m ∈ Z)
m n−m
9
XêÀò3 ©`²
10
r < 0§CáêÚ§(Ø xy < 1E¤á
20 1Ù ý£
H. z{¦È
r m r r−k 11
= (m, k ∈ Z) (1.16)
m k k m−k
I. ¦È¦Ú
X r s r + s
a) = (n ∈ Z)
k n−k n
k
X r
s
r+s
b) = (m, n, r ∈ Z, r ≥ 0)
m+k n+k r−m+n
k
X r s + k
s
r−k
c) (−1) = (n, r ∈ Z, r ≥ 0)
k n n−r
k
r
X r−k s k−t r−t−s
d) (−1) = (t, r, m ∈ Z)
m k−t r−t−m
k=0
r
X r−k s+k r+s+1 n ≥ s ≥ 0, m ≥ 0, r ≥ 0
e) =
m n m+n+1 n, s, m, r ∈ Z
k=0
X r − tk
s − t(n − k) r r + s − tn
f) = (n ∈ Z)
k n−k r − tk n
k≥0
5 Ù¥(a)¡Vandermondeò òÈ "
²~_^(c)(e)±E,Lª§l
UC¦Ú^S§
s
L« s+k
z{8"·±òúª>w¤ n+a n
Ðmª§Ù¥(c)^ua < 0; (e)^ua > 0.
(f )´'ur, s, tõª§(a)´§t = 0A~"
n
bn/pc n mod p
=|ÜêêØ5> k ≡ bk/pc k mod p
(pê).
r
=íØ> n, kLp?ê abrrppr+···+a 1 p+a0 n ar a0
+···+b1 p+b0 K k ≡ br ··· b0 (mod p).
n+k−1
=|Ü>lné¥Àk#NEÀ{Hnk = .
k
=ªXêí2>[Beta Function]
1
Γm (y)mx
Z
Γ(x)Γ(y)
B(x, y) = = tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt = B(x, y + m + 1)
Γ(x + y) 0 Γm (x + y)
r 1 z !
= (r, k ∈ R) = lim lim (z, wEê)
k (r + 1)B(k + 1, r − k + 1) w →z ω→w ω!( − ω)!
á"^%{S¦Ñd, c, b, a.
=2ªXê>
(1 − q r )(1 − q r−1 ) · · · (1 − q r−k+1 )
r
[q-nomial coefficients] = (q ∈
k q (1 − q k )(1 − q k−1 ) · · · (1 − q 1 )
R)AO/§ kr 1 = kr .
X n k(k−1)
n−1
[q-nomial theorem] (1 + x)(1 + qx) · · · (1 + q x) = q 2 xk
k q
k
[Capelli’s Sum] (x + y)n = k nk xk y n−k
P
k1 + k2 + · · · + km (k1 + k2 + · · · + km )!
[multinomial coefficients] = (ki ≥
k1 , k2 , · · · , km k1 !k2 ! · · · km !
0, ki ∈ Z)
=5>
X n
n
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xm ) = xk1 xk2 · · · xkmm
k1 , k2 , · · · , km 1 2
k1 +k2 +···+km =n
k1 + k2 + · · · + km k1 + k2 k1 + k2 + k3 k1 + k2 + · · · + km 12
= ···
k1 , k2 , · · · , km k1 k1 + k2 k1 + k2 + · · · + km−1
Stirlingê(õªL«)
a) 1aStirlingê nk L«òn©küê"
n = n−k n xk ; xn =
ÎÒ^uòfactorial
P
P n k powers=zÊÏ: x k (−1) k
k k x
5
~X: x5 = x5! = 120
1
(x5 − 10x4 + 35x3 − 50x2 + 24x)
b) 1aStirlingê nk L«òn©kpØf8{
ê"
ÎÒ^uòÊÏzfactorial powers: xn = k nk xk
P
~X: x5 =x5 + 10x4 + 25x3 + 15x2 + x1 = 120 x5 + 240 x4 + 150 x3 +
30 x2 + x1 .
12 r
ddwÑ5H(5§ÙÒü>þ r,m−k,r−m
22 1Ù ý£
n+1 n h i n o
n
n+1 n n
=5> m =n m + m−1 ; m =m m + m−1 (m, n
Kê)
=Inversion formulas>
X hni k X nno k
n−k
(−1) = δmn ; (−1)n−k = δmn ;
k m k m
k k
X r k
0
r−k
(−1) = = δnr 13
k n n−r
k
h i n o h i
n n n
=í2Stirlingê> n−m n−m ´'un2mõª§Xµ n−2 =
n i h i
n n+1 n n+1 n n n n+1 n+2 n+1
4 +2 4 ; n−2 = 4 +2 4 ; n−3 = 6 +8 6 +6 6 ; m =
h i n o
n+2
+ 8 n+1 + 6 n6 §Ïdò r−m r r
6 6 , r−m ¥r½ÂE꧵
X r
nno −m r
= ; z = z r−k (z¢Ü).
m −n r−k
k
k
n
(n − k)e 1 n ne k
~ 6.1 ¦y k .: ≤ ≤ (n ≥ k ≥ 0)
k ek k k
nn nn+1 nk nk
n 1 ne k
=y²> d n−1 ≤ n! ≤ n−1 = ≤ ≤ ≤
e e k k! k! e k
k
ne
.
k+1
r
s
~ 6.2 z{
P
k k k k
X r s X r s − 1
r+s−1
=)> k=s = s.
k k k k−1 r−1
k k
n+k 2k (−1)k
~ 6.3 z{
P
k 2k k k+1 (n ≥ 0)
13
òs = 0\5I(c)=
§1.2 êÆO 23
=)>
X n + k n (−1)k X n + k n + 1 (−1)k
ª = =
k k
k+1 k k+1 n+1
k k
n + 1 (−1)k
X n+k 1 X n−1+k n+1
=){> = =− (−1)k
n k+1 n+1 n+1 n k
k≥0 k≥1
1 X n−1+k n+1 k 1 n−1
= − (−1) +
n+1 n k n−1 n
k≥0
1 n−1 1 n−1 1 n−1
= − (−1)n+1 + = = [n = 0]
n+1 1 n+1 n n+1 n
X −(n + 1)n + 1 1
n + 1 − (n + 1)
1
=){> = =
k k+1 n+1 n+1−1+0 n+1
k
0 1
= = δn0 .
n n+1
1 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
~ 6.4 ¦PascalenÝ
, StirlingenÝ
_"
1 2 1 0
1 3 3 1
1 −0 0 −0
−1 1 −0 0
=)> â k kr nk (−1)r−k = δnr _Ý
P
.
1 −2 1 −0
−1 3 −3 1
i+j
aq§éStirlingÝ
aij × (−1) ,aStirlingÝ
_"
n
~ 6.5 ¦y m ´ò¹kn8Ü©m8Ü{
ê"
=)>
X n + 1 k
amn = (−1)k−m Kamn = nam(n−1) + δmn
k+1 m
k
24 1Ù ý£
n h n i
n+1
m = n m + m−1 [n ≥ m]n!
d n o .
n+1 = m n +
n m!
m m m−1
7 NÚê
n
1 1 X1 1 1
=NÚê>Hn = 1+ +· · ·+ = ; Hn(r) = 1+ r +· · ·+ r (n ≥ 0)
2 n k 2 n
k=1
m
=Hn .>1 + ≤ H 2m ≤ 1 + m
2
1 1 1 1 1
=y²> H2m+1 = H2m + m + m +· · ·+ m+1 ≥ H2m + m+1 + · · · + m+1 =
2 +1 2 +2 2 |2 {z 2 }
2m
1
H 2m +
2
1 2 m m
∴ H2m ≥ H2m−1 + ≥ H2m−2 + ≥ · · · ≥ H1 + =1+
2 2 2 2
=î.ê>γ = 0.5772156649 · · · =î.ê"
1 1 1 1
Hn = ln n + γ + − 2
+ − , 0<< (1.17)
2n 12n 120n4 252n6
=Riemann’s zeta function>
X 1
(r)
ζ(r) = H∞ = (k ≥ 2)
kr
k>1
1 (2π)r (2)
róêζ(r) = |Br | (Br Bernoulli number, AO/H∞ =
2 r!
π2 (4) π4 (6) π6
6 , H∞ = 90 , H∞ = 945 )
=©Ü¦Ú{>
X X
(ak+1 − ak )bk = an bn − a1 b1 − ak+1 (bk+1 − bk ) (1.18)
1≤k<n 1≤k<n
{aqu©ÜÈ©{"^u
P P
ak , (bk+1 − bk )´uz{¦ ak bk .
=k'NÚêúª>
n
X
• Hk = (n + 1)Hn − n
k=1
n n X
k n X
n n n
X X 1 X 1 X n+1−j X n+1
=y²> Hk = = = = −
j j j k
k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1 k=j j=1 k=1
n
X
k = (n + 1)Hn − n
k=1
§1.2 êÆO 25
n n
n X
X X 1
=íØ> Hk2 = Hk = (n + 1)Hn2 − (2n + 1)Hn + 2n
j
k=1 j=1 k=j
n
X k n+1 1
• Hk = (Hn+1 − )14
m m+1 m+1
k=1
k k+1 k k k+1
=y²> d u m = m+1 − m+1 ,Ï d m Hk = m+1 (Hk+1 −
1 k
k+1 ) − m+1 Hk
2 1 n+1 n
ª = H2 − H1 + · · · + Hn+1 − Hn
m+1 m+1 m+1 m+1
n
X k+1 1
−
m+1 k+1
k=1
n
n+1 1 1 X k 1 0
= Hn+1 − H1 − +
m+1 m+1 m+1 m m+1 m
k=0
n+1 1
= (Hn+1 − )
m+1 m+1
n n
X xk X n (x − 1)k
• = Hn +
k k k
k=1 k=1
n
X n (−1)k
=íØ> x = 0 = −Hn
k k
k=1
n
X Hk 1 2
• = Hn + Hn(2)
k 2
k=1
n n
X Hk 1 2 (2)
X Hk 2
=íØ> = Hn+1 − Hn+1 ; = Hn+1 −
k+1 2 n+1−k
k=1 k=1
n
(2)
X
Hn+1 ; Hk Hn−k = (n + 1) Hn2 − Hn(2) − 2n(Hn − 1)
k=0
n
X n 1
=½n 7.A> xk Hk = (x + 1)n Hn − ln(1 + ) + (x > 0, 0 <
k x
k=1
1
< )
(n + 1)x
nm+1
14
Rm
K(J 1
xm ln x dx = m+1
(ln n − 1
m+1
) + 1
(m+1)2
aq
26 1Ù ý£
Y x x
=Hn í2(psi function)>ÏL©Ü¦È{§xeγx (1+ )e− k =
k
k≥1
1
, ¤±Γ0 (1) = γ.
Γ(x)
Γ0 (n + 1) 1 Γ0 (n)
Γ(x + 1) = xΓ(x) ⇒ Γ0 (n + 1) = Γ(n) + nΓ0 (n) ⇒ = +
Γ(n + 1) n Γ(n)
Γ0 (n + 1) Γ0 (x)
∴ Hn = γ + . ½Âψ(x) = = Hx−1 − γ, ψ(x)¡psi
Γ(n + 1) Γ(x)
function½the digamma function.
1 1
~ 7.1 ò1 + 3 + ··· + 2n−1 ¤Hn /ª"
1 X 1 1
=)> ª=− − )Hk+1 ⇒ ak = , bk = Hk+1
(
k+1 k k
1≤k<n
Hn+1 X 1 1 Hn 1 3
∴ ª=− − H2 − ( − ) =− − + +
n k+1 k+2 n n(n + 1) 2
1≤k<n
1 1 Hn 1
− =2− −
2 n+1 n n
[ n+1
2 ]
~ 7.4 ¦yHn = n! .
h i
=y²> n = 1H1 = 22 = 1, n = k k+1
= k!Hk .
h i h i h i2
n = k + 1 k+2
2 = (k + 1) k+1
2 + k+1
1 = (k + 1)!Hk + k! = (k +
1
1)!(Hk+1 − k+1 ) + k! = (k + 1)!Hk+1
8 Fibonacciê
=½Â>F0 = 0; F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn , F−n = (−1)n+1 Fn , (n ≥ 0)
=5>
=Fn 1¼ê>G(z) = F0 + F1 z + F2 z 2 + · · · = z + z 2 + 2z 3 + 3z 4 + · · · 15
G(z) = F0 + F1 z + F2 z 2 + F3 z 3 + · · ·
zG(z) = F0 z + F 1 z 2 + F2 z 3 + · · ·
− 2
z G(z) = F 0 z 2 + F1 z 3 + · · ·
(1 − z − z 2 )G(z) = F0 + (F1 − F0 )z + 0 · z 2 + · · ·
√
z 1 1 1 1− 5
∴ G(z) = =√ − (Φ = 1 − φ = )
1 − z − z2 5 1 − φz 1 − Φz 2
1
∴ G(z) = √ (1+φz+φ2 z 2 +· · ·−1−Φz−Φ2 z 2 · · · ) (ÏLá'êÚúª)
5
1
∴ G(z)¥z n Xê=Fn = √ (φn − Φn )
5
=íØ>
1. φn = Fn φ + Fn−1 ; Φn = Fn Φn + Fn−1
Φ n φn
2. du|Φ| < 1, = √ 5
v
§±uFn = √
5
\Cê
15
1¼ê`³3u±^êG(z)5LFibonacci꧷éG(z)L
ª §z n Xê=Fn
28 1Ù ý£
n
2 1 1 1 2 n
X
3. G(z) = + − , z Xê Fk Fn−k .
5 (1 − φz)2 (1 − Φz)2 1 − z − z 2
k=0
n
X 1 1
∴ Fk Fn−k = (n + 1)(φn + Φn ) − 2Fn+1 = (n + 1)(Fn +
5 5
k=0
1 2
2Fn−1 ) − 2Fn+1 = (n − 1)Fn + nFn−1 .
5 5
4. a0 = r, a1 = s, an+2 = an+1 + an Kan = rFn−1 + sFn .
=5> nKêØ
íØ2 Ù{(Øþ¤á"Ù(5ÏLb
k ≥ n¤á§y²k − 1¤á5"
=¦Úúª>
n
X
a) Fk = Fn+2 − 1
k=0
n
X n−k n+1−k n−k (n − 1) − (k − 1)
b) = Fn+1 =y²>d = + 8
k k k k−1
k=0
B"
P n
c) k k Fm+k
= Fm+2n
X n
=í2> F k F n−k Fm+k = Fm+tn
k t t−1
k
1 X n n−k m n−k m 1
=y²> ª= √ (φk Ftk Ft−1 φ −Φk Ftk Ft−1 Φ ) = √ φm (φFt +
5 k k 5
Ft−1 )n − Φm (ΦFt + Ft−1 )n = Fm+tn
Fr (m mod 4 = 0)
(−1)r+1 fn−r
(m mod 4 = 1)
=êØ5>Fmn+r ≡ n (mod Fn )
(−1) Fr (m mod 4 = 2)
(−1)r+1+n Fn−r (m mod 4 = 3)
k
n Fn Fn−1 · · · Fn−k+1 Y Fn−k+j
=Fibonacci coefficients> = =
k F Fk Fk−1 · · · F1 Fj
j=1
=5> nk F (−1)d(m−k)/2e fn+k
m−1
= 0 (m > 0)
1 1
=)> Fn2 +Fn+1 2
= √ (φn+1 −Φn+1 −φn+1 +Φn φ) = √ Φn (φ−Φ) = Φn
5 5
~ 8.3 f (1) = 0, f (n) = min max 1 + f (n), 2 + f (n − k) (n > 1)¦f (n)
0<k<n
n
√ √ n
√ n
X n k
=y²> 2 5Fn = (1 + 5) − (1 − 5) = 2 5 2 ⇒ 2n Fn =
k
k odd
X n k−1
2 5 2
k
k odd
p
=í2>d¤ê½n(??)2p−1 ≡ 1
k ≡ 0 (mod p) (1 ≤ k ≤ p − 1),
p−1
Fp ≡ 5 , (pÛê). AO/§p´ØÓ5ê§Fp−1 , Fp+1 k
2
k´pê"
=5>
30 1Ù ý£
• S∞ ¥vkëY2a§vkëY3b.
• Sn ¥¹Fn−2 a,Fn−1 b.
• XJòm − 1L«Finbonacci?ê§KS∞ ¥1miÎa§
=kr = 2.
• S∞ ¥1kiÎb,
=b(k + 1)φ−1 c − bkφ−1 c = 1.
• S∞ ¥1kiÎb,
=k = bmφc (mê).
• S∞ ckiÎ¥bêb(k + 1)φ−1 c.
=y²> d(B)í.
=7üÑ>Óknf§õqf§
=µ(n) ≤
qk7üѵµ(n)f"
9 1¼ê
X
=1¼ê>G(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · = an z n
n≥0
=á?êÂñ^>
dd§3¦1¼ê·ÃIú%?êÂñ5§é¤(J(
5{üÏL8B{"
=5>G(z)an 1¼ê¶H(z)bn 1¼ê"
X
A. 5|Ü αG(z) + βH(z)´< αan + βbn >1¼ê§=α an z n +
n≥0
X X
n n
β bn z = (αan + βbn )z
n≥0 n≥0
1
= 1 + z + z2 + · · · (1.20)
1−z
n
X
C. ¦È G(z)H(z) ak bn−k 1¼ê"
k=0
=A~>
a) bn = [n = m]=5B
n
X
b) bn = 1G(z)H(z) ak 1¼ê.
k=0
X YX
=í2>?¿1¼ê¦È´ a0k0 a1k1 · · · 1¼ê16 §= ajk z k =
k0 ,k1 ,···≥0 j≥0 k≥0
k0 +k1 +···=n
X X X
zn a0k0 a1k1 · · · "AO/§31¼ê¦ ai bj ck
n≥0 k0 ,k1 ,···≥0 i,j,k≥0
k0 +k1 +···=n i+j+k=n
1¼ê"
1
D. G(cz)< ck ak >1¼ê"AO/1, c, c2 , · · · 1¼ê´ 1−cz
ÄÑ?êO§kÙE|µ
12 G(z) + G(−z) = a0 + a2 z 2 + a4 z 4 + · · ·
1 G(z) − G(−z) = a z + a z 3 + a z 5 + · · ·
2 1 3 5
¦^ü E§·ÄÑ?ê1km{"-ω = e2πi/m =
cos 2π 2π
m + i sin m K
X 1 X −kr
an z n = ω G(ω k z) (0 ≤ r < m)
m
n mod m=r 0≤k<m
√
~Xm
= 3, r = 1ω = − 12 + 23 i, Ka1 z + a4 z 4 + a7 z 7 + · · · =
1 −1 −2 2
3 G(z) + ω G(ωz) + ω G(ω z)
X
E. ©È© dG0 (z) = a1 + 2a2 z + 3a3 z 2 + · · · = (k + 1)ak+1 z k
k≥0
zG0 (z)´< nan >1¼ê"
Z z
1 1 X1
§ G(t) dt = a0 z + a1 z 2 + a2 z 3 + · · · = ak−1 z k
0 2 3 k
k≥1
1
=A~>G(z) = 1−z K
1 X
G0 (z) = = 1 + 2z + 3z 2
+ · · · = (k + 1)z k
(1 − z)2
k≥0
Z z
1 1 1 X1
G(t) dt = ln = z + z2 + z3 + · · · = zk
0 1−z 2 3 k
k≥1
Z z
1 1 3 11 X
F (z) = G(z) G(t) dt = ln = z + z2 + z3 + · · · = Hk z k
0 1−z 1−z 2 6
k≥0
1
1 ln 1−z
éþª¦F 0 (z) = +
(1 − z)2 (1 − z)2
n 1
0 1 X ln 1−z
∵ F (z) =< (n + 1)Hn+1 >, =< 1 >, =<
(1 − z)2 (1 − z)2
k=0
16
~_^5òE,¦Ú=zeZ1¼ê¦È
§1.2 êÆO 33
n
X n−1
X
Hk > ∴ Hk = nHn − n
k=1 k=1
F. ®1¼ê
r(r − 1) 2 X r
r
i) ª½n (1 + z) = 1 + rz + z + ··· = zk
2 k
k≥0
1 X −n − 1
= A ~ > r K ê = (−z)k =
(1 − z)n+1 k
k≥0
X n + k
zk
n
k≥0
1 X 1
ii) ê?ê ez = 1 + z + z 2 + · · · = zk
2! k!
k≥0
1
n+1
X k zk
z n n n+1
=í2>(e −1) = z + z +· · · = n!
n+1 n n k!
k
iii) éê?ê
1 1 X (−1)k+1
ln(1 + z) = z − z 2 + z 3 − · · · = zk
2 3 k
k≥1
1 1 X m+k k
ln = (Hm+k − Hm ) z
(1 − z)m+1 1−z k
k≥1
n X k zk
1 n 1 n + 1 n+1
ln =z + z + · · · = n!
1−z n+1 n n k!
k
iv) Ù§
X hni
z(z + 1) · · · (z + n − 1) = zk
k
k
zn Xk
= zk
(1 − z)(1 − 2z) · · · (1 − nz) n
k
z X Bk z k
=
ez −1 k!
k≥0
G. ©lXê [z n ]G(z) = an
n
[z n ]G(z) X
I
n 1 G(z) dz 17
=íØ> = ak ; [z ]G(z) =
1−z 2πi |z|=r z n+1
k=0
1 2 5
=í2>[f
1 2
(z)]G(z) = f z G(z)~ê"~X[z − 2z ]G(z) =
z2
− z 5 G(z)~ê= a2 − 2a5
17
Túª^u
34 1Ù ý£
n
xjk .
X X
~ 9.1 ®nêx1 , x2 , · · · , xn ,hm = xj1 · · · xjm , Sj =
1≤j1 ≤···≤jm ≤n k=1
òhm ^Sj LÑ"~X,h2 = 12 S12 + 12 S2 , h3 = 61 S13 + 21 S1 S2 + 31 S3 .
X
=)> G(z) = hk z k = (1+x1 z+x21 z 2 +· · · ) · · · (1+xn z+x2n z 2 +· · · ) =
k≥0
1
(1 − x1 z)(1 − x2 z) · · · (1 − xn z)
G(z)´õªê§déê {zO"
1 1 X k k
x1 z X k k
xn z
ln G(z) = ln +· · ·+ln = +· · ·+ =
1 − x1 z 1 − xn z k k
k≥1 k≥1
X Sk z k
k
k≥1
X Sk z k Y k S 2z2
∴ G(z) = eln G(z) = exp = eSk z /k = (1 + S1 z + 1 +
k 2!
k≥1 k≥1
2 2 4 k1 k2 k
S2 z S2 z X X S1 S2 S m
· · · )(1+ + 2 +· · · ) · · · = · · · kmm z m
2
k k
1 k1 ! 2 k2 ! m km !
2 2̇! m≥0 k1 ,k2 ,··· ,km ≥0
1 2
k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m
18
am ¡Ð顼ê
§1.2 êÆO 35
X Sm z m X (h1 z + h2 z 2 + · · · )k
=)> d = ln G(z) = (−1)k−1
m k
m≥1 k≥1
(−1)k1 +k2 +···+km −1 m(k1 + k2 + · · · + km − 1)!
Xê
k1 !k2 ! · · · km !
Ñ"
Z n+1
=)> e−st f (t) dt = (a0 + · · · + an ) e−sn − e−s(n+1) /s
n
é¤knòLª\Lf (s) = G e−s /s.
=)> (a)n½G · · · (1 +
n (z) =(1+ z)(1+ 2z) nz)X
1 1 1 1 n + 1 n+1−k
⇒ Gn (z) = z n+1 +1 + 2 ··· +n = z ⇒
z z z z k
k
n+1
n+1−r
1 1 1 Xk
(b)a q §Gn (z) = · ··· = z k−n ⇒
1 − z 1 − 2z 1 − nz n
k
n+r
n
~ 9.7 ¦n!1¼ê
X r + n − 1
r 2 r 4 r −r
=)> G(z) = (1+z) (1+z ) (1+z ) · · · = (1−z) = zn ⇒
n
n
r+n−1
n
10 {©Û
pnk z k
∴pnk 1¼êGn (z) = pn0 + pn1 z + · · · =
P
k
z n−1
dÐ^G1 (z) = 1; d48'XGn (z) = Gn−1 (z)+ Gn−1 (z) =
n n
z+n−1
Gn−1 (z).
n
z+n−1z+n−2 1
∴ Gn (z) = Gn−2 (z) = · · · = (z + n − 1) · · · (z + 1) =
n n−1 n!
1 z+n
z+n n
20
ØÓb½ò¬íÑØÓ²þêúª"
§1.2 êÆO 37
P n h i
1 n
d®1¼êúªGn (z) = n! k k z k−1 ⇒ pnk = k+1 /n!.
òpnk \An =²þ"
¯¢þ§3Nõ¯K¥·,U¦pnk 1¼ê%Ã{pnk
äNLª§e¡·Ò5ϦÏL1¼êO²þ{"
P /§p k L«,¯?ukGVÇ"§1¼êG(z) =
k . K²þmean(G)= duG(1)
P
k p k z k kp k . = p 0 + p 1 + p 2 + · · · =¤
kU5Ú§w,G(1) = 1. aq§dG0 (z) = k kpk z k−1
P
X
mean(G) = kpk = G0 (1) (1.21)
k
¦ê
var(G) = G00 (1) + G0 (1) − G0 (1)2 (1.22)
n n
X X 1 1
var(Gn ) = var(Qk ) = ( − 2 ) = Hn − Hn(2)
k k
k=2 k=1
q
(2)
∴ A = min 0, aveHn − 1, max n − 1, dev Hn − Hn 22
~ 10.1 ®zM1¡þVÇp§¦nM1¥¡þ
ê"
²;VÇØ
X)KêÅCþ§X = kVÇpk , KG(z) =
p0 +p1 z +p2 z 2 +· · · ¡XVÇ1¼ê"G eit = p0 +p1 eit +p2 e2it +· · · ¡
©ÙA¼ê"üVÇ1¼ê¦È¡ü©Ùòȧ§L«
áuù
©ÙüÕáÅCþÚ"
ÅêX²þ¡XÏ"§^EXL«"3ù«PÒe§
KL«EX 2 − (EX)2 , XVÇ1¼êL«G(z) = Ez x . aq/§
X·K§XýVÇPr(X) = E[X].
²þþØCþ«"ØCþκ1 , κ2 , · · · ½ÂXeµ
κ 1 t κ 2 t2 κ 3 t 3 dn
t t
+ + + · · · = ln G e Kκn = n ln G e
1! 2! 3! dt t=0
t 0 t 00 0
e G (e ) e G (et )2
2t t t
e G (e ) 0
AO/κ1 = = G (1), κ2 = + =
G(et ) t=0 G(et ) G(et )2 t=0
G00 (1) + G0 (1) + G0 (1)2
duØCþ´éê/ª1¼ê§¤±½nA(5´w,§
í2¤kØCþ"
=©Ù>©Ù´Ø
²þ± §¤kØCþþ" Z +1
1 2
©Ù"3©Ù¥§Åê3U (mean, σ)VÇ √ e−t /2 dt ≈
2π −1
68.268949213709%
=tail inequalities>G(z)XVÇ1¼ê§K
P r(X ≤ r) ≤ x−r G(x) (0 < x ≤ 1)
22
·^ù«ª5LþÚOÆA
§1.2 êÆO 39
ÀJ·X¦Pr(X).~Cý¢"
=í2>[A.N.Kolmogorov] ∀t ≥ r, f (t) ≥ s > 0
Ef (x)3§Pr(X ≥
r) ≤ s−1 Ef (X). f (t) = xt , s = xr =tail inequalities.
ë©z
40