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Ž{†êâ(

·Ž{)P

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‡µ‡ 1.0, 2003 c1 
ii

Chen Yan Pk‡


c 2002±9¤ku1‡"3¤k|"
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\Œ±2‡½ö?U§"NŒyŒ±´1‡§½ö?Û U‡£‘\¿¤"u
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°© ˜°GNUÏ^чNŒy€¶XJvk§&gd^‡|„§
/ε675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA"

THE PROCESS of preparing programs for a digital computer is espe-


cially attractive, not only because it can be economically and scientifically
rewarding, but also because it can be an aesthetic experience much like com-
posing poetry or music. This notes is my comprehension about the classical
work: “The Art Of Computer Programming” by Donald E. Knuth, “Intro-
duction to Algorithm” by Thomas H. Cormen, “Concrete Mathematics: A
Foundation For Computer Science” by Ronald L. Graham.
Ö¤kSNþ3 LATEX e¤"TEX ±äk`É­½5§Œ±
3ˆ«ØÓa.OŽÅþ$1§±9Avk†Ø Í¡"TEX ‡
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žmr¦‚Ñ\?5§DŽÍp:) k?Û¯K§Œ‘¿Ú·éX:
chenyan99@163.com

Chen Yan

Department of Computer Science


Fuzhou University
2003c56F

iii
8 ¹

có iii

1 ý£ 1
1.1 Ž{ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 êÆO . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1 êÆ8B{ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2 ê!˜Úéê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3 Ú†È . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
4 ê¼ê†ÐêØ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
5 ü†¦ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
6 ‘ªXê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
7 NÚê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
8 Fibonacciê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
9 1¼ê . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
10 Ž{©Û . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

ë©z 40

iv
1˜Ù ý£

Ù1˜Ü©0
Ž{ÄA5†/ªz£ã"1Ü©8
¥`²3OŽÅ‰Æ¥Œþ$^êÆ£†E|"1nÜ©0
Ä
uRISCJ[ÅMIX9Ù®?Šó"3Öك §\òÐÚݺŽ
{©Û†OÄ:§ùòkÏu\3?˜ÚÖ¥(¹$^"

1.1 Ž{
Algorithm E (Euclid’s algorithm) ‰½êm, n, éсŒúê
E1. (Find remainder) m ← m mod n
E2. (Is it zero?) if m=0 then return n
E3. (Find remainder) n ← n mod m1
E4. (Is it zero?) if n=0 then return m else go to Step E1
Ž{|©¦^
ügS“§¦5ƒ‡m, n'X‡•§l Ž

swap öŠ"ù«E|3“S“+swap”(¥äkÊ·5§d „äk


2ÂA^§Š5¿"
=Ž{E(5y²>tgcd(m, n), dm = qn + rtUØr(r 6= 0),
¤±t = gcd(m, n) = gcd(n, m mod n).
=Ž{êÆz£ã>½Âo|(Q,I,Ω,f ). Ù¥Q´I,Ω8ÜÜ
ƒ§IÑ\8, ُÑÑ8, f ´Q → QN. I¥ƒx)¤
˜‡S
x0 , x1 , · · · , xk , · · · , Ù¥x0 = x, xk+1 =f(xk ) (k ≥0) (5µXJxk 3Ω¥,
@oxk+1 3Ω¥, Ϗxk+1 = xk )
ddgcdŽ{Œk±e8ÜØ£ãµ
   
f (m, n) = (m, n, 0, 1); f (n) = (n);
 
f (m, n, r, 1) = (m, n, m mod n, 2);
 
f (m, n, r, 2) = (n) if r = 0 (m, n, r, 3) otherwise
 
f (m, n, p, 3) = (n, p, p, 1)
1
This improved algorithm avoided all trivial replacement such as m ← n, for sake of
efficiency.

1
2 1˜Ù ý£

þ 㓎 {” / ª z £ ã ¿ Ø ÷ v“k  5”  › " ~ X §QŒ ±


L«ØU^)ڒ{5OŽáS§½öf Œ±¹<aÏ~
ØU‰1$Ž§XJ·‚F"›ù
G§¦Ù==)Ð
$Ž§@oҌ±éQ,I,Ω,f \±««›"~Xµ-A´i1k8
ܧ¿A∗ ´Aþ¤kG8ܧ=¤kkSSx1 x2 · · · xn 8ܧ
Ù¥n ≥0, …xj ∈ A (1 ≤ j ≤ n)"ù«L«{gŽ´rOŽG
?è±BÏLA∗ ¥G5L«§‚"y3bN´˜‡šKê§Q´¤
k(σ,j)8ܧ٥σ ∈ A∗ …0 ≤ j ≤ N (j ∈ Z); I´‘kj = 0Qf
8§Ω´‘kj = N f8"XJθ, σ ∈ A∗ …∃Gα, ω¦σkαθω/ª§K
¡θ3σ¥Ñy"
¤·‚½Â§2f ´dGθj ,φj Úêaj ,bj ¤½
Âea.˜‡¼ê(0 ≤ j < N ):
 
f (σ, j) = (σ, aj ) XJθj Ø3σ¥Ñy;
 
f (σ, j) = (αφj ω, bj ) XJα´¦σ = αθj ω¤ááG;
 
f (σ, N ) = (σ, N )
ù˜‡OŽ{w,´“k”" …²y²§§´v
r
±–uU?n?Û=‚)ڒ¤U?1OŽ"

SK
m‡ n‡
z }| { z }| {
0.1 I=aa · · · a bb · · · b (½ÑŒúêŽ{gcd(m, n)θj , φj , aj , bj .

=)> òŽ{1˜ÚUE1. r ← |m − n|, n = min(m, n)


-A = {a, b, c}, N = 5. ù‡Ž{ò±G aa · · · a} (å"
| {z
gcd(m,n)‡
j θj φj bj aj
0 ab (˜) 1 2 ’˜‡aژ‡b§½=2
1 (˜) c 0 0 rc\†à§ˆ£0
2 a b 2 3 r¤kaC¤b
3 c a 3 4 r¤kcC¤a
4 b b 0 5 XJ„kb§K­E
§1.2 êÆO 3

1.2 êÆO
IN THIS SECTION we shall investigate the mathemtical notations
that occur throughout the Computer Science, and we’ll derive several basic
formulas that will be used repeatedly.

1 êÆ8B{

Algorithm E (extended Euclid’s algorithm) ¦êd, m, n, ¦d = gcd(a, b) =


am + bn.
E1. (Initialize) a0 ← b ← 0, c ← m, d ← n
E2. (Divide) q ← c div d; r ← c mod d; (we have c = qd + r)
E3. (Remainder zero?) if r=0 then terminate, we have in this case am +
bn = d as desired.
E4. (Recycle) c ← d, d ← r, t ← a0 , a0 ← a, a ← t − qa, t ← b0 , b0 ← b, b ←
t − qb and go to Step E2.

=y²> (a0 − qa)m + (b0 − qb)n = (a0 m + b0 n) − q(am + bn) = c − qd = r.

=Ž{y²˜„5{2 : >éuz˜Ú^êÆ8B{§bzÚÑ\
þ(§y²ÑÑ(
Ž{k¡5˜„üy²§kžŒN“yÑ"~X~¥Œ
3E1¥\\T = 1, 3E2∼E4¥\\T ← T + 1§ÏL8B{ŒT≤ 3n

=2Â8B{>(Generalized induction) þ©`²


N5y²6
uü‡ên·KP (n)§vkQãN5y²6uü‡ê·
KP(m, n)"3ù«œ¹e§Ï~´ÏL,«a.“V­8B{”5‰Ñy
²§§Ï~´¹·Ø˜"¯¢þ§k˜‡'{ü8B{˜„
­‡n§§Ø=ŒA^uù«œ¹§ …ŒA^u،ê8Ü"
~X§éu¤k¢êxP(x)"ù‡˜„n¡ûSK(well-ordering).
“≺”´8ÜSþ˜‡'X§§÷v±e5Ÿµ

i) ‰½x, y, z ∈ S, XJx ≺ y…y ≺ z, Kx ≺ z.


ii) ‰½x, y ∈ S, ±en«'X¥k…k˜«ý: x ≺ y, x = y, y ≺ x.
iii) X JA´S ? ¿ š ˜ f 8 § K∃x ∈ A, ¦ ∀y ∈ A, kx  y¤
á(=x ≺ y½x = y).

K¡ù‡'XS˜‡ûS'X"~X§éuÏ~“<”'X§ê8
w,´ûS"ûS'Xk±e5Ÿµ
2
T{ØUyŽ{k¡5"
4 1˜Ù ý£

a) ê8éu<Ø´ûS[3(iii)¥-A = S; z˜‡š˜ûS8Ñk˜
‡“”ƒ]
b) ˜‡½Â3ê8þûS'X: ½Âx ≺ y, XJ|x| < |y|; ½öX
J|x| = |y|…x < 0 < y.
c) ¤kšK¢ê8Üéu<šûS[¤k¢êf8Ø÷v(iii). 5
¿µ¦^“ÀJún”(axiom of choice)Œ±y²z‡8ÜÃØXÛo
U¤ûS; 8c„vk<U½Â˜‡¦¢ê¤ûS²w
'X]
c;^ S)Séu≺ûS"éun > 0§Tn ´n|(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn )
d) (c
8ܧ٥xj ∈ S. ½Â(x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) ≺ (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ), XJ∃k(1 ≤
k ≤ n), ¦xj = yj (1 ≤ j < k)…xk ≺ yk . ≺´Tn ûS"[éuTn y
²(iii)§én^8B{µA´Tn ˜‡š˜f8¿ÄA1˜‡©
þ8ÜA1 "duA1 ´S˜‡š˜f8§…S´ûS§A1 ¹k˜‡
ƒx"yÄ1˜‡©þxAf8Ax ,XJAx 1˜‡
©þÛ§KAx ŒwŠTn−1 ˜‡f8§¤±d8B{Ax ¹˜
‡ƒ(x, x2 , · · · , xn ), ¯¢þ§Ò´Aƒ]
e) UY(d)?Ø"T = n≥1 Tn . ½Â(x1 , x2 , . . . , xm ) ≺ (y1 , y2 , . . . , yn ),
S
XJ∃k ≤ min(m, n), ¦xj = yj (1 ≤ j < k)…xk ≺ yk ¤á; ½öXJ
kxj = yj (1 ≤ j ≤ m < n). ≺ØU¦T ¤ûS"[XJS–¹kü
‡ØÓƒ§a < b,K8Ü(b), (a, b), (a, a, b), (a, a, a, b), · · · vk
ƒ]
f) ≺´SûS§…=§÷vþã(i)Ú(ii)…éuj ≥ 1, Ø3ä
kxj+1 ≺ xj ÁSx1 , x2 , x3 , . . . [‡y{]
g) Séu≺ûS8§P (x)´'uSƒx˜‡·Kž§XJP (x)U
3P (y)éu¤ky ≺ xýb½ey§KP (x)éS¥¤kx
ý"[-A´¦P (x)b¤kx8Ü"XJAš˜§K§¹k˜‡
ƒx0 "ÏdP (y)éu¤ky ≺ xý"ù¿›XP (x0 )
ý(gñ)"ÏdA7˜§=P (x)o´ý]

þã(g)Ò´5{ü8B{í2"Sê8ž§={ü8
B{"5¿§‡¦·‚y²∀y < 1, P (y)ý§KP (1)ý¶ùÒu`§
·‚Ay²P (1)"Ϗéu¤kùy§P (y)’½/£˜J/¤ý"
(J§<‚uy§3Nõœ¹e§¦^˜‡AÏØy§P (1)ÒØ7y²

"
(d)Ó(g)ƒéX§·‚Jø
^uy²n‡êm1 , m2 , · · · , mn 
·KP (m1 , m2 , · · · , mn )n8B{—rkå{"
(f)éuOŽÅŽ{kX?˜ÚA^µXJ·‚U
r˜‡OŽG
N˜‡ûS8S§¦OŽz˜Ú½o´l˜‡Gx?\˜‡
Gy§…kf (y) ≺ f (x)§KŽ{7UªŽ"ù˜ní2
3y²îAŽ
{ªŽ¥¤¦^§'unŠî‚4~Øy"
§1.2 êÆO 5

SK

1.1 ^8B{y²: 2n > n3 (n ≥ 10)

=y²> i)n = 10ž210 > 103 ii)2n > n3 K2n+1 = 2×2n > (1+ n1 )3 ×
2n > (1 + n1 )3 × n3 = (n + 1)3

2 ê!˜Úéê
=¦éê>x = logb y
k k
1) ȃ{: (é1k ›?›êi) bm ≤ y 10 < bm+1 , ém¦y 10 ∈
m
(m, m + 1)K 10 k ¤¦"

b1 b2
2) U?{: (¦log10 x) òlog10 xL«?›log10 x = n + 2 + 4 +
b3
8 + ···
x
(a) (½n. £Äx›?›ê:¦1 ≤ 10n ≤ 10, n.
x
(b) -x0 = 10n K

0, xk = x2k−1 XJx2k−1 < 10



bk =
1, xk = x2k−1 XJx2k−1 ≥ 10

b3 b4
=n>aqu›?›z?›4[2(log10 x−n)−b1 ]−b2 = 8 + 16 +· · ·

k
x2
=y²> Ñxn ϑ1 ≤ xk = < 10
102k (n+b1 /2+b2 /4+···+bn /2k )

n §
{æ^?›L«Œ¦OŽ{B§e^›?›¬¦x2n Cx10
{3OŽÅ¥du°Ý¯K§‡?1Ø ©Û"
=Ø ©Û>-x(1 − δ) ≤ 10n x00 ≤ x(1 + )K2 log10 (1 − δ) − 21k <  <
2 log10 (1 + )

SK

2.1 ¦ylog10 2Ø´knê.


p
=y²> log10 2 = q ⇒ 10p = 2q , ª†>5اm>ØU5
Ø⇒ gñ.

2.2 x, y ∈ R, ·‚‡x, ycA êâU(½x + ycn º

=)> áõ .~X0.444 · · · + 0.555 · · · eØáõ §ÒÃ{(


J´1.999 · · · „´2.000 · · ·
6 1˜Ù ý£

3 چÈ
=½Â 3.1> R(i), S(j)©OL«'ui, j'X"

=¦Ú{K>

a) ©Æ: X  X  XX
ai bj = ai bj (1.1)
R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j)

b) †: X X X
ai = aj = ap(j) (1.2)

R(i) R(j) R p(j)

=5>p(j)´'uiü¼ê§=∀i ∈ R(i), ∃˜j¦p(j) = i. A


O/§p(j) = c ± j, Ù¥c†jÃ'ꞧ©ª÷vþã^
‡"éuÁ¦Ú§ØU^p(j)“Oi§éup(j) = c ± jªE¤
á"
c) †Æ: XX XX
aij = aij (1.3)
R(i) S(j) S(j) R(i)

=íØ> S(j)†iƒ'žŒPS(i, j), Kk


X X X X
aij = aij (1.4)
R(i) S(i,j) S 0 (j) R0 (i,j)

Ù¥S 0 (j)¦R(i), S(i, j)þ¤áêj'X¶R0 (i, j)R(i), S(i, j)þ


¤á'X"

d) Š^?n:
X X X X
aj + aj = aj + aj (1.5)
R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j) R(j) and S(j)

X
e) φ=0

=¦{{K>
 Y  Y  Y YY YY
a) ©Æ: bi ci = bi ci c) †Æ: aij = aij
R(i) R(i) R(i) R(i) S(j) S(j) R(i)
Y Y Y Y
b) †: ai = aj = ap(j) d) φ=1

R(i) R(j) R p(j)
§1.2 êÆO 7

Y  Y   Y  Y 
e) Š^?n: aj aj = aj aj
R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j) R(j) and S(j)

=þ(.{K>

a) sup ai + sup bj = sup sup(ai + bj ) c) sup sup aij = sup sup aij
R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j) R(i) S(j) S(j) R(i)
 
=íØ> ai , bj šKKsup ai sup bj = d) sup sup aj , sup aj = sup aj
R(i) S(j) R(j) S(j) R(j) or S(j)
sup sup ai bj e) sup φ = −∞
R(i) S(j)

b) sup ai = sup aj = sup  ap(j)


R(i) R(j) R p(j)

=5>sup aj †max aj ´d½Â

=bracket notation>(Iverson’s convention)



1 XJ·Ký
[·K] = AO/§-δij = [i = j]¡Kronecker delta
0 XJ·Kb

âd§5K(c)Œ±L«[R(i)][S(i, j)] = [R(i) and S(i, j)] = [S 0 (j)][R0 (i, j)]§


~Xµ
n X
X i X
aij = aij [1 ≤ i ≤ n][1 ≤ j ≤ i]
i=1 j=1 i,j
X
= aij [1 ≤ j ≤ i ≤ n]
i,j
X
= aij [1 ≤ j ≤ n][j ≤ i ≤ n]
i,j
n X
X n
= aij
j=1 i=j

~ 3.1
X 1 X 1
¦ , .
2n + 1 2n2 +1
0≤n≤5 0≤n2 ≤5

=)> 3
X 1 1 1 1 1 1 X 1 1 1 1 1
= 1+ + + + + , 2
= + +1+ +
2n + 1 3 5 7 9 11 2
2n + 1 9 3 3 9
0≤n≤5 0≤n ≤5
3
dž5K(b)ØU^"Ïn2 = 4žk2‡néA§ n2 = 3žvknéA§=p(j)ؤ
˜‡N"
8 1˜Ù ý£

~ 3.2 ®R(i) : inê§S(i, j) : 1 ≤ j < i§¦S 0 (j), R0 (i, j).

=)> [inê][1 ≤ j < i]=[1 ≤ j < n][inê…i > j]

~ 3.3 ¦y XX XX
f (c, d) = f (c, cd) (1.6)
d|n c|d c|n d| n
c

=y²> [d|n][c|d] = [c|d|n] = [c|n][d nc ] (d?¹†L§)


~ 3.4 $^bracket notationy²5K(d)4 .


X X X X X
=y²> aj + aj = aj [R(j)] + aj [S(j)] = aj ([R(j)] +
R(j) S(j) j j j
X
[S(i)]) = aj ([R(j) or S(j)] + [R(j) and S(j)])
j

~ 3.5 ¦y
n X
i n n
X 1  X 2 X 
ai aj = ai + a2i (1.7)
2
i=0 j=0 i=0 i=0

=y²>
n X
X i n X
X n n X
X n
-S1 = ai aj = ai aj = ai aj = S2
i=0 j=0 j=0 i=j i=0 j=i

n X
X i n
X 
K2S1 = S1 + S2 = ai aj + ai aj
i=0 j=0 j=i
n  X
X n 

= ai aj + ai ai 5K(d)
i=0 j=0
n
XX n n
X
= ai aj + ai ai
i=0 j=0 i=0
Xn n n
 X  X
= ai aj + a2i
i=0 j=0 i=0
n
 X n
2 X 
= ai + a2i
i=0 i=0
4
ddŒ„bracket notationãŒ%å: the ability to manipulate “on the line” instead
of “below the line”
§1.2 êÆO 9

~ 3.6 ¦?êa + (a + b) + · · · + (a + nb)

=©Û>¦Ú˜„ÏLC/§“†ªƒÓ‘+P (x)”/ª§l ¦Ñ(J"

=)>
X X  X
(a + bj) = a + b(n − j) = (a + bn − bj)
0≤j≤n 0≤n−j≤n 0≤j≤n
X X X
= (2a + bn) − (a + bj) = (n + 1)(2a + bn) − (a + bj)
0≤j≤n 0≤j≤n 0≤j≤n

X bn(n + 1)
∴ (a + bj) = a(n + 1) +
2
0≤j≤n

Pn j
~ 3.7 ¦ j=0 jx

=)>
n
X n
X X
jxj = jxj = x (j + 1)xj
j=0 j=1 0≤j≤n−1
X
= x (j + 1)xj − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
1≤j≤n
Xn X
= x jxj + xj − (n + 1)xn+1 + x
j=1 2≤j≤n+1
n
X
j x2 (1 − xn )
∴ (1 − x) jx = + (n + 1)xn+1 + x
1−x
j=1
n
X nxn+2 + (n + 1)xn+1 + x
∴ jxj =
(x − 1)2
j=0

Qn Qi Qn
~ 3.8 ò i=0 j=0 ai aj ^ i=0 ai /ªL«"

=)>
n Y
Y n n 
Y n
Y 
ai aj = an+1
i aj
i=0 j=0 i=0 j=0
n
Y n Y
 Y n  n
Y 2n+2
= an+1
i aj = ai
i=0 i=0 j=0 i=0

n Y
Y i n
Y n+2
0 ≤ j < ižŠâé¡5, Œ ai aj = ai
i=0 j=0 i=0
10 1˜Ù ý£

1ª†Ý

Y Y
Vandermonde’s matrix: aij = xij , det A = xj (xj − xi )
1≤j≤n 1≤i<j≤n
n−1
Combinatorial matrix: aij = y + δij x, det A = x (x + ny)
Y
(xj − xi )(yj − yi )
1 1≤i<j≤n
Cauchy’s matrix: aij = , det A = Y
xi + yi (xi + yj )
1≤i,j≤n

AO/§xi = i, xj = j − 1žaij |¤Ý


¡Hilbert matrix.
1
aij = i+j−1 . Hilbert matrix~^uÿÁˆ«Ý
Ž{§ÏTÝ
3
;ž¬Ï°Ý äkêŠØ­½5§§_%´˜‡éŒê"
i + j − 2 2 −(i + j) −(i + j)
    
[aij ]−1 = (i + j − 1)
i−1 n−i n−j


ÈÚ(permanent)>ي†1ªÐm5K˜—§¿…z‘þ
§X ac db = ad + bc.


~ 3.9 ¦Vandermonde’s matrix_.

=)>
Y
xj (xk − xj )
n
X 1≤k≤n
k6=i
AA−1 = bit xtj = Y = δij
t=1 xi (xk − xi )
1≤k≤n
k6=i
X
(−1)j−1 xk1 · · · xkn−j
1≤k1 <···<kn−j ≤n
k1 ,...,kn−j 6=i
∴ bij = Y
xi (xk − xi )
1≤k≤n
k6=i

(©f´xj−1 3õ‘ª (x1 −x)···(x


xi −x
n −x)
Xê)

~ 3.10 ¦Combinatorial matrix_.

=)> Iü 
§J1
(J 2 = nJ)

∴ A = (xI + yJ)
∵ (xI + yJ)[(x + ny)I − yJ)] = x(x + ny)I
§1.2 êÆO 11

(x + ny)I − yJ δij (x + ny) − y


∴ A−1 = ⇒ bij =
x(x + ny) x(x + ny)

~ 3.11 ¦Cauchy’s matrix_.

=)> dÝ
{fªAij ´n − 1Cauchy1ª§:
Y
(xj + yk )(xk + yi )
1≤k≤n
bij =   
 Y  Y
(xj + yi )  (xj − xk )  (yi − yk )

1≤k≤n 1≤k≤n
k6=j k6=i

~ 3.12
 
1×1 1 × 2 ··· 1×n
2×1 2 × 2 ··· 2×n
 
 
¦ .. .. ..  ÈÚ.
..

 . . . .


n × 1 n × 2 ··· n×n

=)> ÏÙz‘þØÓ1§ØÓü§z˜‘þ(n!)2 , Ðmª


kn!‘§Ý
Èڏ(n!)3 .
~ 3.13


1 −1 0 0 ··· 0 0 0

1 1 −1 0 ··· 0 0 0
0 1 1 −1 ··· 0 0 0


¦n1ª .. .. .. .. .. .. .. ..
. . . . . . . .


0 0 0 0 ··· 1 1 −1
0 0 0 0 ··· 0 1 1

=)>
1 −1 0 · · · 0
0 1 −1 · · · 0
An = An−1 + . .. .. .. . = An−1 + An−2
.. . . . ..
0 0 0 ··· 1

1 −1
A2 = = 2, A1 = 1

1 1
∴ An = Fn+1 (Fn Fibonacciê)
12 1˜Ù ý£

4 ê¼ê†ÐêØ
=¼ê>x − 1 < bxc ≤ x ≤ dxe < x + 1, b−xc = −dxe

=½n 4.A (R.J.McEliece)> -f (x)«mAþëY!î‚4O¼ê§


…∀x ∈ A, f (x)êž, xê"K∀x ∈ A…bxc, dxe ∈ A, kbf (x)c =
bf (bxc)c, df (x)e = df (dxe)e.

=Ø>yê…x mod y = 0,Py|x.


j k
x
=mod¼ê>y 6= 0ž§x mod y = x − y y ; x mod 0 = x

=íØ (1)> y > 0ž0 ≤ x mod y < y; y < 0ž0 ≥ x mod y > y

=íØ (2)> y|x − (x mod y)

=~f>tgx = tg(x mod π) x = bxc + (x mod 1)


=pŸ>êx, ypŸ, Px⊥y. AO/§±1⊥0.
=Ó{>x ≡ y (mod z) ⇐⇒ x mod z = y mod z ⇐⇒ z|x − y ⇐⇒
(x, z) = (y, z). (x, y ∈ Z)
5ŸA. a ≡ b, x ≡ y ⇒ a ± x ≡ b ± y, ax ≡ by (mod m)
5ŸB. ax ≡ by, a ≡ b, a⊥m ⇒ x ≡ y (mod m)
5ŸC. a ≡ b (mod m) ⇐⇒ an ≡ bn (mod mn).(n 6= 0)
5ŸD. a ≡ b (mod [r, s]) ⇐⇒ a ≡ b (mod r), a ≡ b (mod s)
5ŸE. (Law of inverses) n⊥m ⇒ ∃ên0 ¦nn0 ≡ 1 (mod m)
=5> x, y ∈ Rž§5ŸA,CE¤á

=½n 4.B (¤ê½n)> pŸêžap ≡ a (mod p)

=y²> i)a´pêžap ≡ a (mod p).


ii)a mod p 6= 0ž, ê0 mod p, a mod p, 2a mod p, · · · , (p−1)a mod p´p‡
ØÓê(ϏXJax mod p = ay mod p=ax ≡ by (mod p), a⊥p, d5
ŸBx ≡ y (mod p)—gñ) ùp‡ê¥§11‡ê´0, Ù{´1, 2, . . . , (p−
1),«ü, d5Ÿ1:

a · (2a) . . . (p − 1)a ≡ 1 × 2 × · · · × (p − 1)=ap ≡ a (mod p)




=½Â 4.1 (î.¼ê)> nê, ½Âϕ(n){0, 1, · · · , n − 1}¥†np


Ÿê‡ê"AO/§ϕ(1) = 1, ϕ(3) = 2, pŸêžϕ(p) = p −
1, ϕ (pe ) = pe − pe−1

=½n 4.C (î.½n)> ∀êm, a⊥m ⇒ aϕ(m) ≡ 1 (mod m).5


5
y{†½n??ƒÓ
§1.2 êÆO 13

=¼êŒÈ5(multiplicative)>nê, ∀r⊥s, f (rs) = f (r)f (s)K


¡f (n)ŒÈ"
a) ϕ(n)ŒÈ¼ê. ˜„/§n = pe11 · · · perr K
 
  1
ϕ(n) = pe11 − pe11 −1 · · · perr − perr −1 = n
 Y
1−
p
pnŸÏê

b) ŒÈ¼ê¦ÈEŒÈ¼ê"
X
c) f (n)ŒÈ§Kg(n) = f (d)ŒÈ¶f (n)ŒÈ…f (n) ≥ 0§Kmax f (d)Œ
d|n
d|n
È"
=­S¼ê(replicative)>f (x)+f x + n1 +· · ·+f x + n−1
 
n = f (nx) (n
ê)
a) f (x) = bxc´­S¼ê§=bxc + x + n1 + · · · + x + n−1
   
n = bnxc.
b) f (x) = x − 12 ´­S¼ê"
c) ­S¼êƒÚE­S¼ê"
d) f (x)­S¼ê§Kf (x − bxc)´­S¼ê"
p √
~ 4.1 ¦yb bxcc = b xc.

=y²> -b xc = n ⇐⇒ n2 ≤ x < (n + 1)2 ⇐⇒ n2 ≤ bxc <
p p
(n + 1)2 ⇐⇒ n ≤ bxc < (n + 1) ⇐⇒ b bxcc = n
n 
n + 2 + b 25 c
  
8n + 24
~ 4.2 ¦y =
3 25
& '
n  n  n  24n
n + 2 + b 25 c n − b 25 c n + d− 25 e
  
25
=y²> = = = =
3 3 3 3
   
8n 8n + 24
=
25 25
~ 4.3 ¦ê1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 3, 4, 4, 4, 4, · · · ϑ"
k(k − 1) k(k + 1)
=)> ¯¢þ§ <n≤ ž§an = k.
2 2
k(k − 1) 1 k(k + 1) 1 1
Ϗnꧤ± + <n< + ⇒ (k − )2 < 2n <
2 8 2 8 2
1
(k + )2
2
√ √
 
1 1 6
∴ k < 2n + < k + 1 ⇒ an = 2n +
2 2
√ √ √
6
Ù§‰Yd 2n − 12 e, d 8n+1−1
2
e, b 8n+7+1
2
c.
14 1˜Ù ý£

~ 4.4 ¦y5ŸE: n⊥m ⇒ ∃ên0 ¦nn0 ≡ 1 (mod m)

=y²> †y²½n??aq, 0 mod m, n mod m, 2n mod m, · · · , (m−1)n mod


m´m‡ØÓꅏ0 ∼ m − 1,«ü"AO/73n0 ∈ [0, m −
1]¦nn0 ≡ 1 (mod m).

~ 4.5 ®x mod 3 = 2, x mod 5 = 3, ¦x mod 15.

=)> ∵ x ≡ 2 (mod 3), x ≡ 3 (mod 5)



m=2

|^5ŸD, 2 + 3m = 3 + 5n ⇒
n=1
⇒ x ≡ 2 ≡ 8 (mod 3), x ≡ 3 ≡ 8 (mod 5) ⇒ x mod 15 = 8

~ 4.6 ¦19971997 "—ü ê.

=)> Kƒu¦19971997 mod 100.du100ŒØBuOŽ§Äò


Ù©)4 × 25.

∴ 1997 ≡ −3 ⇒ 19971997 ≡ −31997 (mod 100)


∴ −31997 ≡ −(−1)1997 ≡ 1 (mod 4)
q ∵ 33 = 27 ≡ 2 ⇒ 39 ≡ 23 = 8, 310 ≡ 3 × 8 ≡ −1 (mod 25)
∴ −31997 = −37 × (310 )199 ≡ −37 × (−1)199 = 37 ≡ 3 × (33 )2 ≡ 3 × 22 ≡ 12 (mod 25)
19971997 ≡ 1 ≡ 37 (mod 4)

∴ ⇒ 19971997 "—ü ê37.
19971997 ≡ 12 ≡ 37 (mod 25)

~ 4.7 ¦yn = a1 a2 · · · an UÄ3،ÏLˆ êiÚa1 +a2 +· · ·+an U


Ä3Ø5y"

=y²> 10 ≡ 1 (mod 3) ⇒ 10n ≡ 1 (mod 3)


∴ n = a0 + a1 × 10 + a2 × 102 + · · · + an × 10n ≡ a1 + a2 + · · · + an
(mod 3)

=í2>

a) 10 ≡ −1 ⇒ 10n ≡ (−1)n (mod 11)


∴ n ≡ a0 − a1 + a2 + · · · + (−1)n an (mod 11)

b) 100 ≡ 2 (mod 7) ⇒ 10n ≡ 2 × 10n−2 (mod 7)


=7Øêä{µrp êi×2, , • òü †
ê(؁p )ƒ\§­ETL§§¤z‡êцêÓ{"
+2 +4 +10 +18
~X§éu123456 → 25456 → 5856 → 956 → 74 ⇒ 74 mod 7 =
4, ∴ 123456 mod 7 = 4
§1.2 êÆO 15

5 ü†¦
=ü)¤Ž{>(bn − 1‡é–ü®¤)
{1. éz‡a1 a2 · · · an−1 ü§òan \z‡ŒU ˜"
=an a1 a2 · · · an−1 , a1 an · · · an−1 , · · · , a1 a2 · · · an an−1 , a1 a2 · · · an−1 an .
{2. éz‡{1, 2, . . . , n − 1}üa1 a2 . . . an−1 3"à\\˜‡AÏ
ƒ(i− 12 ), :a1 a2 . . . an−1 12 , a1 a2 . . . an−1 23 , · · · , a1 a2 . . . an−1 (n−
1
2 ), éz‡üì5Œ'X^{1, 2, . . . , n −
1}­ · ¶ " ~ X § é ü 231231 12 , 231 23 , 231 52 , 231 72 , ­ · ¶
3421, 3412, 2413, 2314.
=d£ã>?¿(½˜‡êk(1 ≤ k ≤ n)éz‡üa1 a2 · · · an−1
¥aj ≥ kƒ\1, {1, · · · , k−1, k+1, · · · , n}üb1 b2 · · · bn−1
Kb1 b2 · · · bn−1 k=¤‡ü"
√  n n 1
=¦>n! ≈ 2πn (ƒéØ )
e 12n

It is helpful to keep the value 10! = 3, 628, 800 in mind; one


should remember that 10! is about 3 12
million. In a sense, this
number represent an approximate dividing line between things
that are practical to compute and things that are not. On the
other hand, if we decide to test 10! cases and each case requires
one million seconds of computer time, then the entire run will
take about an hour. —Donald E.Knuth
    X n 
n n
=¦êØ5Ÿ>Pµ = + 2 + ··· = , Kpµ |n!…pµ+1 -
p p pk
k>0
n!.
j k
=y²> pnk L«{1, 2, . . . , n}¥´pk ꃇê§Ïd∀a ∈ N, pj |a, pj+1 -
j k j k j k
a, TÐOê
jg§g3 np , pn2 , · · · , pnj ¥"
$j k%
j k n
n pk
=5>Šâ½n?? pk+1
= p Œdc˜‘(JŽÑe˜‘§~O

Žþ"

=½n 5.A (Wilson½n)> pŸê§K(p − 1)! mod p = p − 1.

=y²> i)p = 2ž1 mod 2 = 1¤á"


ii)pÛŸêž§3(p−1)!¥§∀a ∈ [1, p−1], ∃a0 ¦aa0 ≡ 1 (mod p)…
 êa0 ∈ [1, p − 1]´ da ˜ ( ½ (Ä Kaa0 ≡ aa00 Ka0 ≡ a00 …a0 , a00 ∈
[1, p − 1]7ka0 = a00 ). ¤±(p − 1)!¥z‡ÏfŒ¤é©|§z|ü‡ê
ƒ¦þ†1 mod pd"A5¿kŒUÑya = a0 œ¹§ùža2 ≡ 1
16 1˜Ù ý£

(mod p)=p|a2 − 1 = (a + 1)(a − 1) ⇒ p|a − 1½p|a + 1, ÷vp|a − 1k1§


÷vp|a + 1kp − 1. u´§Ø1, p − 1ƒ z|üêȆ1Ó{"

∴ (p − 1)! ≡ 1 · (p − 1) ≡ p − 1 (mod p) ⇒ (p − 1)! mod p = p − 1

=n!í2>[Leonhard Euler](d?=?Øí2Ün5§¿šî‚y²)
(n + 12 )! (n + 12 ) + 12 ! (n + 12 )!

(n + 1)!
du × = = n + 1, kndƒ& ≈
n! (n + 12 )! n! n!
√ (n + 13 )! √
n, aq§ ≈ 3 n.
n!
(n + x)! (n + x)!
ddb ≈ nx = lim = 1.
n! n→∞ n!nx
nKêƒ Eêž

mn m!
n! = Γ(n + 1) = nΓ(n) = lim (1.8)
m→∞ (n + 1)(n + 2) · · · (n + m)

=½Â 5.1 (Gamma¼ê)> [A.M Legendre]



mx m!
Z
x!
Γ(x) = = lim = e−t tx−1 dt
x m→∞ (x + 1)(x + 2) · · · (x + m) 0

1
et dt
I Z
π 1 1 x
(−z)!Γ(z) = , = , Γm (x) = m (1−t)m tx−1 dt
sin πz Γ(z) 2πi tz 0

k−1
Y
=factorial powers>½Âxk = x(x − 1) · · · (x − k + 1) = (x − j)§Ö
j=0
k−1
Y
Š“x to the k falling”. xk = x(x + 1) · · · (x + k − 1) = (x + j)§ÖŠ“x
j=0
to the k rising”.
=5Ÿ>

a) Pnk = nk d) xk = Γ(x+k)
Γ(x)
b) xk = (x + k − 1)k = (−1)k (−x)k e) xm+n = xm (x − m)n
x!
c) xk = (x−k)! f) xm+n = xm (x + m)n

~ 5.1 ¦y
nn nn+1
≤ n! < (1.9)
en−1 en−1
§1.2 êÆO 17

=y²> ∵ ex − x − 1Š0, ∴ 1 + x ≤ ex (x ∈ R)

1 k+1 1 k
-x = K ≤ ek ≤
k k k−1
n−1 n−1 n−1 n−1
nn Y (k + 1)k Y n! Y k k+1 Y
⇒ = ≤ e; = ≤ e−1
n! kk nn+1 (k + 1)k+1
k=1 k=1 k=1 k=1
nn nn+1
⇒ n−1 ≤ n! < n−1
e e

~ 5.2 pŸê§ònLp?›: n = ak pk + ak−1 pk−1 + · · · + a1 p + a0 ,


^n, p, ai L«µ.

=)>

µ = (ak pk−1 + · · · + a1 ) + (ak pk−2 + · · · + a2 ) + · · · + ak


= ak (pk−1 + · · · + p + 1) + · · · + a1
ak (pk − 1) + · · · + a0 (p0 − 1) n − ak − · · · − a1 − a0
= =
p−1 p−1

~ 5.3 ®Wallis’ Product:

π 2 2 4 4 6 6
= × × × × × ··· (1.10)
2 1 3 3 5 5 7
1 1
, Γ − 12 .
  
¦ 2 !, Γ 2

=)> =Ún 5.1> α1 + · · · + αk = β1 + · · · + βk …βi Ø´Kê§K

Y (n + α1 ) · · · (n + αk ) Γ(1 + β1 ) · · · Γ(1 + βk )
= (1.11)
(n + β1 ) · · · (n + βk ) Γ(1 + α1 ) · · · Γ(1 + αk )
n≥1

 2
Γ 21 Γ 32
 
π Y n n 3
∴ = 1 × 1 = = 2Γ
2 n− 2 n+ 2 Γ(1)Γ(1) 2
n≥1
    √
3 1 π
⇒Γ = !=
2 2 2

       
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Γ(1 + ) = Γ ⇒Γ = π =Γ 1− = (− )Γ − ⇒
  2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1 √
Γ − = −2 π.
2
18 1˜Ù ý£

6 ‘ªXê
k
rk
 
r r(r − 1) · · · (r − k + 1) Y r+1+j
= | Ü ê> = = = (r ∈
k k(k − 1) · · · 1 k! j
j=1
R, k ∈ N, k ≥ 0)7
 
r
= 0 (k < 0)
k
=5Ÿ>
 
n n! 8
A. ¦L« = (n ≥ k ≥ 0, n, k ∈ Z)
k k!(n − k)!
   
n n
B. é¡'X = (n ≥ 0, n, k ∈ Z)
k n−k

C. £Ñ)Ò
   
r r r−1
= (k ∈ Z, k 6= 0) (1.12)
k k k−1
   
r−1 r
=íØ1>r = (r − k) (êk 6= r)
k k
=y²>
       
r r r r−1 r r−1
= = =
k r−k r−k r−1−k r−k k

–d§·‚y²
rê…r 6= kžª¤á§Ïy²¥
¦^
5ŸB›^‡"ª†müàьwŠ´'ur
õ‘ª"†>~m>'urnõ‘ªp(r)"˜‡š0nõ
‘ªõkn‡":§Šâ·‚y(،§kõun‡ê
¦p(r) = 0¤á§K∀r7kp(r) ≡ 0. [ù‡nŒ^uòNõêœ
/í2¢êþ]
   
r r−1
=íØ2>k =r (kê)
k k−1

D. \{úª (5Ÿ~38B{†©Ü¦Ú{¥¦^)
     
r r−1 r−1
= + (k ∈ Z) (1.13)
k k k−1
7
!‡AO5¿úª·^^‡
8
úª\µ`²Ù­‡5
§1.2 êÆO 19

E. ¦Úúª
n    
X r+k r+n+1
= (ên ≥ 0) (1.14)
k n
k=0

n    
X k n+1
=íØ> = (êm, n ≥ 0)
m m+1
k=0
X k X m + k  X m + k 
=y²> = = +
m m m
0≤k≤n
X m + k  0≤m+k≤n  −m≤k<0
m + (n − m) + 1 n+1
=0+ =
m n−m m+1
0≤k≤n−m

0
 1
 n
 n+1
 n(n+1)
=A~>m = 1ž= ê 1 + 1 +· · ·+ 1 = 2 = 2
n n      
k k
X
2
X k k n+1
duk 2
 
=2 2 + 1 Ïd k = 2 + =2 +
2 1 3
  k=0 k=0
n+1
.
2
k k
=˜„z>õ‘ªa0 + a1 k + a2 k 2 + · · · + am k m ŒL«b0
 
0 + b1 1 +
k 9

· · · + bm m

X r 
r
F. ‘ª½n (x + y) = xk y r−k (êr ≥ 0) 10
k
k

=íØ1>00 = 1
=íØ2>(1 + x)r = k krP
P  k
x (êr ≥ 0½|x| < 1)
n n
x(x − kz)k−1 (y + kz)n−k

=íØ3>[Abel](x + y) = k k (ên ≥
0, x 6= 0).

G. þIK
   
r k k−r−1
= (−1) (k ∈ Z) (1.15)
k k

=íØ>
X r  X k − r − 1 −r + n  
k n r−1
a) (−1) = = = (−1) (n ∈
k k n n
k≤n k≤n
Z)
   
n n−m −(m + 1)
b) = (−1) (ên ≥ 0, m ∈ Z)
m n−m
9
XêÀò3 ©`²
10
r < 0ž§CÃ¡êÚ§(Ø xy < 1žE¤á

20 1˜Ù ý£

H. z{¦È
     
r m r r−k 11
= (m, k ∈ Z) (1.16)
m k k m−k

I. ¦È¦Ú
X  r  s  r + s
a) = (n ∈ Z)
k n−k n
k
X r

s
 
r+s

b) = (m, n, r ∈ Z, r ≥ 0)
m+k n+k r−m+n
k
X  r s + k  
s

r−k
c) (−1) = (n, r ∈ Z, r ≥ 0)
k n n−r
k
r     
X r−k s k−t r−t−s
d) (−1) = (t, r, m ∈ Z)
m k−t r−t−m
k=0
r       
X r−k s+k r+s+1 n ≥ s ≥ 0, m ≥ 0, r ≥ 0
e) =
m n m+n+1 n, s, m, r ∈ Z
k=0

X r − tk    
s − t(n − k) r r + s − tn
f) = (n ∈ Z)
k n−k r − tk n
k≥0

5 Ù¥(a)­‡¡Vandermondeò òÈ "
²~_^(c)(e)±E,Lˆª§l UC¦Ú^S§ˆ
s
L« s+k
 
z{8"·‚Œ±òúª†>w¤ n+a n 
Ðmª§Ù¥(c)^ua < 0; (e)^ua > 0.
(f )´'ur, s, tõ‘ª§(a)´§t = 0žA~"

n
 bn/pc n mod p
=|ÜêêØ5Ÿ> k ≡ bk/pc k mod p
(pŸê).

r
=íØ> n, kLp?›ê abrrppr+···+a 1 p+a0 n ar a0
  
+···+b1 p+b0 K k ≡ br ··· b0 (mod p).
 
n+k−1
=­|Ü>ln‡é–¥Àk‡#N­EÀ{Hnk = .
k

=y²> Kdu÷vت1 ≤ a1 ≤ a2 · · · ≤ ak ≤ nê)‡


ê"§du0 < a1 < a2 + 1 < · · · < ak + k − 1 < n + k ⇐⇒ 0 < b1 <
b2 · · · < bk < n + k ⇐⇒ ln + k − 1‡ØÓê{1, 2, · · · , n + k − 1}¥À
Ñk‡ê|ܧ= n+k−1

k .
11
k = 1ž§=5ŸC
§1.2 êÆO 21

=‘ªXêí2>[Beta Function]
1
Γm (y)mx
Z
Γ(x)Γ(y)
B(x, y) = = tx−1 (1 − t)y−1 dt = B(x, y + m + 1)
Γ(x + y) 0 Γm (x + y)
   
r 1 z !
= (r, k ∈ R) = lim lim (z, wEê)
k (r + 1)B(k + 1, r − k + 1) w →z ω→w ω!( − ω)!

=|ÜêXÚ>∀ên, ∃0 ≤ a < b < c < d, ¦n = a1 + 2b + 3c + d4 ¤


   

á"Œ^%Ž{S¦Ñd, c, b, a.
=2‘ªXê>
(1 − q r )(1 − q r−1 ) · · · (1 − q r−k+1 )
 
r
[q-nomial coefficients] = (q ∈
k q (1 − q k )(1 − q k−1 ) · · · (1 − q 1 )
R)AO/§ kr 1 = kr .
 
X n k(k−1)
n−1
[q-nomial theorem] (1 + x)(1 + qx) · · · (1 + q x) = q 2 xk
k q
k
[Capelli’s Sum] (x + y)n = k nk xk y n−k
P 

[Torelli’s Sum] (x + y)n = k nk x(x − kz + 1)k−1 (y + kz)n−k


P 

 
k1 + k2 + · · · + km (k1 + k2 + · · · + km )!
[multinomial coefficients] = (ki ≥
k1 , k2 , · · · , km k1 !k2 ! · · · km !
0, ki ∈ Z)
=5Ÿ>
 
X n
n
(x1 + x2 + · · · + xm ) = xk1 xk2 · · · xkmm
k1 , k2 , · · · , km 1 2
k1 +k2 +···+km =n

      
k1 + k2 + · · · + km k1 + k2 k1 + k2 + k3 k1 + k2 + · · · + km 12
= ···
k1 , k2 , · · · , km k1 k1 + k2 k1 + k2 + · · · + km−1

Stirlingê(õ‘ªL«)

a) 1˜aStirlingê nk L«òn‡ƒ©k‡üê"
 
n = n−k n xk ; xn =
 
ÎÒ^uòfactorial
P
P n k  powers=zÊϘ: x k (−1) k
k k x
5
~X: x5 = x5! = 120
1
(x5 − 10x4 + 35x3 − 50x2 + 24x)


b) 1aStirlingê nk L«òn‡ƒ©k‡p؃f8{


ê"
ÎÒ^uòÊϘzfactorial powers: xn =  k nk xk
P 
~X: x5 =x5 + 10x4 + 25x3 + 15x2 + x1 = 120 x5 + 240 x4 + 150 x3 +


30 x2 + x1 .
12 r

ddŒwÑ5ŸH(5§ÙÒü>þ r,m−k,r−m
22 1˜Ù ý£

 n+1  n h i n o
n
 n+1 n n
=5Ÿ> m =n m + m−1 ; m =m m + m−1 (m, n
šKê)
=Inversion formulas>

X hni  k  X nno  k 
n−k
(−1) = δmn ; (−1)n−k = δmn ;
k m k m
k k

X  r k  
0

r−k
(−1) = = δnr 13
k n n−r
k

h i n o h i
n n n
=í2Stirlingê> n−m † n−m ´'un2mõ‘ª§Xµ n−2 =
n i h i
n n+1 n n+1 n n n n+1 n+2 n+1
       
4 +2 4 ; n−2 = 4 +2 4 ; n−3 = 6 +8 6 +6 6 ; m =
h i n o
n+2
+ 8 n+1 + 6 n6 §ÏdŒò r−m r r
  
6 6 , r−m ¥r½ÂE꧵

 X r 
nno −m r
= ; z = z r−k (z¢Ü).
m −n r−k
k

 k    
n
 (n − k)e 1 n ne k
~ 6.1 ¦y k .: ≤ ≤ (n ≥ k ≥ 0)
k ek k k

nn nn+1 nk nk
 
n 1  ne k
=y²> d n−1 ≤ n! ≤ n−1 Œ = ≤ ≤ ≤
e e k k! k! e k
 k
ne
.
k+1

r
 s
~ 6.2 z{
P
k k k k

X  r  s  X  r  s − 1  
r+s−1

=)> k=s = s.
k k k k−1 r−1
k k

n+k 2k (−1)k
 
~ 6.3 z{
P
k 2k k k+1 (n ≥ 0)

13
òs = 0“\5ŸI(c)=
§1.2 êÆO 23

=)>
X n + k n (−1)k X n + k n + 1 (−1)k
ª = =
k k
k+1 k k+1 n+1
k k
n + 1 (−1)k
     
X n+k 1 X n−1+k n+1
=){˜> = =− (−1)k
n k+1 n+1 n+1 n k
k≥0 k≥1
    
1 X n−1+k n+1 k 1 n−1
= − (−1) +
n+1 n k n−1 n
k≥0
     
1 n−1 1 n−1 1 n−1
= − (−1)n+1 + = = [n = 0]
n+1 1 n+1 n n+1 n
X −(n + 1)n + 1 1 
n + 1 − (n + 1)

1
=){> = =
k k+1 n+1 n+1−1+0 n+1
k
 
0 1
= = δn0 .
n n+1
 
1 0 0 0
 1 1 0 0 
~ 6.4 ¦PascalenÝ
 , StirlingenÝ
_"
 
 1 2 1 0 
1 3 3 1
 
1 −0 0 −0
 −1 1 −0 0
 
=)> Šâ k kr nk (−1)r−k = δnr Œ_Ý

P  
.

 1 −2 1 −0 
−1 3 −3 1
i+j
aq§éStirlingÝ
Šaij × (−1) Œ,˜aStirlingÝ
_"

n
~ 6.5 ¦y m ´ò˜‡¹kn‡ƒ8Ü©m‡š˜8ܐ{
ê"

=y²> -f (n, m)ò{1, 2, · · · , n}©m‡š˜8ܐ{ê"w,f (1, m) =


δ1m . n > 1ž § é  ƒnk ü « Œ U 5 µa)ònü Õ Š  ˜ ‡ f 8 §
kf (n − 1, m − 1)«{"b)òn˜\˜‡®3f8¥§∀m-y©Ñ
km«{§kmf (n − 1, m)«{"
n
∴ f (n, m) = f (n − 1, m − 1) + mf (n − 1, m)d8B{Œf (n, m) = m .
P h in o
~ 6.6 ¦ k n+1 k+1
k
m (−1)
k−m .

=)>
X n + 1  k 
amn = (−1)k−m Kamn = nam(n−1) + δmn
k+1 m
k
24 1˜Ù ý£

  n h n i
 n+1

m = n m + m−1 [n ≥ m]n!
d  n o .
 n+1 = m n +
 n m!
m m m−1

7 NÚê
n
1 1 X1 1 1
=NÚê>Hn = 1+ +· · ·+ = ; Hn(r) = 1+ r +· · ·+ r (n ≥ 0)
2 n k 2 n
k=1
m
=Hn .>1 + ≤ H 2m ≤ 1 + m
2
1 1 1 1 1
=y²> H2m+1 = H2m + m + m +· · ·+ m+1 ≥ H2m + m+1 + · · · + m+1 =
2 +1 2 +2 2 |2 {z 2 }
2m ‡
1
H 2m +
2
1 2 m m
∴ H2m ≥ H2m−1 + ≥ H2m−2 + ≥ · · · ≥ H1 + =1+
2 2 2 2
=î.ê>γ = 0.5772156649 · · · =î.ê"
1 1 1 1
Hn = ln n + γ + − 2
+ − , 0<< (1.17)
2n 12n 120n4 252n6
=Riemann’s zeta function>
X 1
(r)
ζ(r) = H∞ = (k ≥ 2)
kr
k>1

1 (2π)r (2)
róêžζ(r) = |Br | (Br Bernoulli number, AO/H∞ =
2 r!
π2 (4) π4 (6) π6
6 , H∞ = 90 , H∞ = 945 )
=©Ü¦Ú{>
X X
(ak+1 − ak )bk = an bn − a1 b1 − ak+1 (bk+1 − bk ) (1.18)
1≤k<n 1≤k<n

{aqu©ÜÈ©{"Œ^u
P P
ak , (bk+1 − bk )´uz{ž¦ ak bk .
=k'NÚêúª>
n
X
• Hk = (n + 1)Hn − n
k=1
n n X
k n X
n n n
X X 1 X 1 X n+1−j X n+1
=y²> Hk = = = = −
j j j k
k=1 k=1 j=1 j=1 k=j j=1 k=1
n
X
k = (n + 1)Hn − n
k=1
§1.2 êÆO 25

n n
n  X
X X 1
=íØ> Hk2 = Hk = (n + 1)Hn2 − (2n + 1)Hn + 2n
j
k=1 j=1 k=j

n    
X k n+1 1
• Hk = (Hn+1 − )14
m m+1 m+1
k=1

k k+1 k k k+1
    
=y²> d u m = m+1 − m+1 ,Ï d m Hk = m+1 (Hk+1 −
1 k

k+1 ) − m+1 Hk
         
2 1 n+1 n
ª = H2 − H1 + · · · + Hn+1 − Hn
m+1 m+1 m+1 m+1
n  
X k+1 1

m+1 k+1
k=1
    n    
n+1 1 1 X k 1 0
= Hn+1 − H1 − +
m+1 m+1 m+1 m m+1 m
k=0
 
n+1 1
= (Hn+1 − )
m+1 m+1

n n  
X xk X n (x − 1)k
• = Hn +
k k k
k=1 k=1

n  
X n (−1)k
=íØ> x = 0ž = −Hn
k k
k=1

n
X Hk 1 2 
• = Hn + Hn(2)
k 2
k=1

n n
X Hk 1 2 (2)
 X Hk 2
=íØ> = Hn+1 − Hn+1 ; = Hn+1 −
k+1 2 n+1−k
k=1 k=1
n  
(2)
X
Hn+1 ; Hk Hn−k = (n + 1) Hn2 − Hn(2) − 2n(Hn − 1)
k=0

n  
X n  1 
=½n 7.A> xk Hk = (x + 1)n Hn − ln(1 + ) +  (x > 0, 0 <
k x
k=1
1
< )
(n + 1)x
nm+1
14
Rm
K(J† 1
xm ln x dx = m+1
(ln n − 1
m+1
) + 1
(m+1)2
aq
26 1˜Ù ý£

Y x x

=Hn í2(psi function)>ÏL©Ü¦È{§Œxeγx (1+ )e− k =
k
k≥1
1
, ¤±Γ0 (1) = γ.
Γ(x)
Γ0 (n + 1) 1 Γ0 (n)
Γ(x + 1) = xΓ(x) ⇒ Γ0 (n + 1) = Γ(n) + nΓ0 (n) ⇒ = +
Γ(n + 1) n Γ(n)
Γ0 (n + 1) Γ0 (x)
∴ Hn = γ + . ½Âψ(x) = = Hx−1 − γ, ψ(x)¡psi
Γ(n + 1) Γ(x)
function½the digamma function.
1 1
~ 7.1 ò1 + 3 + ··· + 2n−1 ¤Hn /ª"

=)> H2n−1 − 21 Hn−1

~ 7.2 ¦ lim (H2n − Hn ).


n→∞
n n X 1 Z 1
X 1 n 1
=)> lim (H2n −Hn ) = lim = lim i
= dx =
n→∞ n→∞ n + i n→∞ 1+ n 0 1+x
i=1 i=1
ln 2.
X 1
~ 7.3 ¦ Hk .
k(k − 1)
1<k≤n

1 X 1 1
=)> ª=− − )Hk+1 ⇒ ak = , bk = Hk+1
(
k+1 k k
 1≤k<n 
Hn+1 X 1 1  Hn 1 3
∴ ª=−  − H2 − ( − ) =− − + +
n k+1 k+2 n n(n + 1) 2
1≤k<n
1 1 Hn 1
− =2− −
2 n+1 n n
[ n+1
2 ]
~ 7.4 ¦yHn = n! .
h i
=y²> n = 1žH1 = 22 = 1, n = kž k+1
 
= k!Hk .
h i h i h i2
n = k + 1ž k+2
2 = (k + 1) k+1
2 + k+1
1 = (k + 1)!Hk + k! = (k +
1
1)!(Hk+1 − k+1 ) + k! = (k + 1)!Hk+1

~ 7.5 pÛŸê§¦yHp−1 ©fUpØ


p−1
X (p − 1)!
=y²> ©1(p − 1)!ž§©f(p − 1)!Hp−1 =
k
k=1
(p − 1)!
∵ ≡ (p−1)!k 0 (mod p)…8Ü{10 , 20 , · · · , (p−1)0 }={1, 2, · · · , (p−
k
1)}
∴ (p − 1)!(1 + 2 + · · · + p − 1) ≡ 0 (mod p)
§1.2 êÆO 27

8 Fibonacciê
=½Â>F0 = 0; F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + Fn , F−n = (−1)n+1 Fn , (n ≥ 0)
=5Ÿ>

A. Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n =íØ>Fn ⊥Fn+1 .


=y²>
! !n
Fn+1 Fn 1 1
det = det ⇒ Fn+1 Fn−1 − Fn2 = (−1)n
Fn Fn−1 1 0

B. Fn+m = Fm Fn+1 + Fm−1 Fn =íØ>Fn |Fnk .

=½n 8.A (É.Lucas)>

gcd(Fm , Fn ) = Fgcd(m,n) (1.19)

=y²> d5ŸBFm , Fn úÏê7Fn+m Ï꧃‡/§Fm+n , Fn 


úÏê7Fm Fn + 1Ïê"dFn , Fn+1 pŸFn+m †Fn úÏêFm 
Ïê"=d|Fm+n , d|Fn ⇐⇒ d|Fm , 8BŒgcd(Fm , Fn ) = d ⇐⇒ gcd(Fm mod n , Fn ) =
d, dgcdŽ{Œgcd(Fm , Fn ) = · · · = gcd(F0 , Fgcd(m,n) ).

=Fn 1¼ê>G(z) = F0 + F1 z + F2 z 2 + · · · = z + z 2 + 2z 3 + 3z 4 + · · · 15

G(z) = F0 + F1 z + F2 z 2 + F3 z 3 + · · ·
zG(z) = F0 z + F 1 z 2 + F2 z 3 + · · ·
− 2
z G(z) = F 0 z 2 + F1 z 3 + · · ·
(1 − z − z 2 )G(z) = F0 + (F1 − F0 )z + 0 · z 2 + · · ·
  √
z 1 1 1 1− 5
∴ G(z) = =√ − (Φ = 1 − φ = )
1 − z − z2 5 1 − φz 1 − Φz 2
1
∴ G(z) = √ (1+φz+φ2 z 2 +· · ·−1−Φz−Φ2 z 2 · · · ) (ÏLá'êÚúª)
5
1
∴ G(z)¥z n Xê=Fn = √ (φn − Φn )
5
=íØ>

1. φn = Fn φ + Fn−1 ; Φn = Fn Φn + Fn−1
 
Φ n φn
2. du|Φ| < 1, = √ 5
v
§±–uFn = √
5
\Cê
15
1¼ê`³3uŒ±^˜‡êG(z)5“L‡Fibonacci꧷‚éG(z)L
ˆª §z n Xê=Fn
28 1˜Ù ý£

  n
2 1 1 1 2 n
X
3. G(z) = + − , z Xê Fk Fn−k .
5 (1 − φz)2 (1 − Φz)2 1 − z − z 2
k=0
n
X 1  1
∴ Fk Fn−k = (n + 1)(φn + Φn ) − 2Fn+1 = (n + 1)(Fn +
5 5
k=0
 1 2
2Fn−1 ) − 2Fn+1 = (n − 1)Fn + nFn−1 .
5 5
4. a0 = r, a1 = s, an+2 = an+1 + an Kan = rFn−1 + sFn .

=5> nKêžØ
íØ2 Ù{(Øþ¤á"Ù(5ŒÏLb
k ≥ n¤á§y²k − 1¤á5"

=¦Úúª>
n
X
a) Fk = Fn+2 − 1
k=0

n        
X n−k n+1−k n−k (n − 1) − (k − 1)
b) = Fn+1 =y²>d = + 8
k k k k−1
k=0
BŒ"
P n
c) k k Fm+k 
= Fm+2n
X n
=í2> F k F n−k Fm+k = Fm+tn
k t t−1
k
 
1 X n n−k m n−k m 1 
=y²> ª= √ (φk Ftk Ft−1 φ −Φk Ftk Ft−1 Φ ) = √ φm (φFt +
5 k k 5

Ft−1 )n − Φm (ΦFt + Ft−1 )n = Fm+tn


 Fr (m mod 4 = 0)
(−1)r+1 fn−r

(m mod 4 = 1)

=êØ5Ÿ>Fmn+r ≡ n (mod Fn )

 (−1) Fr (m mod 4 = 2)
(−1)r+1+n Fn−r (m mod 4 = 3)

  k  
n Fn Fn−1 · · · Fn−k+1 Y Fn−k+j
=Fibonacci coefficients> = =
k F Fk Fk−1 · · · F1 Fj
j=1
=5Ÿ> nk F (−1)d(m−k)/2e fn+k
m−1

= 0 (m > 0)

=A~>n = 3ž§Fn2 − 2Fn+1 2 2


− 2Fn+2 2
+ Fn+3 = 0.
=FinbonacciêXÚ>-k  mL«k ≥ m + 2,K∀n ∈ Z + , nU˜L«
n = Fk1 + Fk2 + · · · + Fkr (k1  k2  · · ·  Kr  0). Fki ŒÏL%Ž{
§ÏFk1 †nCFn žn − Fk1 < Fk1 −1 8BŒ(J§˜
5y²†˜©)½nƒq"
§1.2 êÆO 29

=φ-? › X Ú > 5 ½φ-? › ¥ Ø U Ñ y ë Y ƒ  1§ Ø U Ñ y à ¡ S


 § K∀n ∈ Z + U  ±φ Ä φ-? › X Ú  ˜ L « " X1 = (.11)φ =
(.011 · · · )φ §‚þØÎÜ5½"néAφ-?›êŒÏL%Ž{¦Ñ"
Cq
=n=p←→ f (n)Z’>(nšFibonacciê)

-f (x) = bx + φ−1 c, n = Fk1 + Fk2 + · · · + Fkr K



Fk1 +1 + · · · + Fkr +1 = f (φn) (n=p → f (φn)Z’)
Fk1 −1 + · · · + Fkr −1 = f (φ−1 n) (nZ’ → f (φ−1 n)=p)

~ 8.1 F0 = 0, F1 = 1, Fn+2 = Fn+1 + 2Fn .òFn ¤Fn /ª"


X
=)> G(z) = Fn z n K(1 − z − z 2 )G(z) = z + z 2 G(z) ⇒ G(z) = G(z) +
zG(z)2 ⇒ Fn = 3n+3
5 Fn − n5 Fn+1

~ 8.2 z{Fn2 + Fn+1


2 .

1 1
=)> Fn2 +Fn+1 2
= √ (φn+1 −Φn+1 −φn+1 +Φn φ) = √ Φn (φ−Φ) = Φn
5 5

~ 8.3 f (1) = 0, f (n) = min max 1 + f (n), 2 + f (n − k) (n > 1)¦f (n)
0<k<n

=)> f (n) = m (Fm < n ≤ Fm+1 )ém8B



i)f (n) ≤ max 1 + f (Fm ), 2 + f (n − Fm ) = m.
ii)XJf (n) < m, ∃k > n¦1 + f (k) < m,=k ≤ Fm−1 …2 + f (n − k) <
m=n − k ≤ Fm−2 Kn ≤ Fm−1 + Fm−2 (gñ) ⇒ f (n) = m
X n k−1
n
~ 8.4 ¦y2 Fn = 2 5 2 .
k
k odd

n
√ √ n
√ n
X n  k
=y²> 2 5Fn = (1 + 5) − (1 − 5) = 2 5 2 ⇒ 2n Fn =
k
k odd
X n k−1
2 5 2
k
k odd

p
=í2>d¤ê½n(??)2p−1 ≡ 1†

k ≡ 0 (mod p) (1 ≤ k ≤ p − 1), Œ
p−1
Fp ≡ 5 , (pÛŸê). AO/§p´Øӆ5Ÿêž§Fp−1 , Fp+1 k
2

…k˜‡´pê"

~ 8.5 (Fibonacci Strings) -S1 =“a”,S2 =“b”,Sn+2 = Sn+1 Sn =Sn+2 dSn+1 3


†§Sn 3mܤ§~XS3 =“ba”,S4 =“bab”. Á&¦Sn 5Ÿ"

=5Ÿ>
30 1˜Ù ý£

• S∞ ¥vkëY2‡a§vkëY3‡b.
• Sn ¥¹Fn−2 ‡a,Fn−1 ‡b.
• XJòm − 1L«Finbonacci?›ê§KS∞ ¥1m‡iΏa§…
=kr = 2.
• S∞ ¥1k‡iΏb, …=b(k + 1)φ−1 c − bkφ−1 c = 1.
• S∞ ¥1k‡iΏb, …=k = bmφc (mê).
• S∞ ck‡iÎ¥b‡êb(k + 1)φ−1 c.

~ 8.6 (œf) kn‡œf§A,Bü‡<Ó6œf"1˜gAŒ±E˜


‡œf§ØU1"d § ˜‡<œfꌏ1–éÃœfê
2"r ˜‡œf<¼‘"¦A7‘üÑ"

=)> ònL«Fibonacci?›ên = Fk1 + Fk2 + · · · + Fkr , -µ(n) =


Fkr , µ(0) = ∞,Œµ

(A) n > 0ž,µ n − µ(n) > 2µ(n).

=y²> µ n − µ(n) = Fkr−1 ≥ Fkr +2 > 2Fkr

(B) 0 < m < Fk ž§µ(m) ≤ 2(Fk − m).

=y²> -µ(m) = Fj ; m ≤ Fk−1 + Fk−3 + · · · + Fj+(k−1−j) mod 2 =


−Fj−1+(k−1−j) mod 2 + Fk ≤ − 12 Fj + Fk
 
(C) 0 < m < µ(n)ž§µ n − µ(n) + m ≤ 2µ µ(m) − m .

=y²> d(B)†í.

(D) 0 < m < µ(n)ž§µ(n − m) ≤ 2m.

=y²> -m = µ(n) − m“\(C)Œ.

=7‘üÑ>Ókn‡œf§õŒq‡œfž§…=µ(n) ≤
qžk7‘üѵµ(n)‡œf"

=y²> a) µ(n) > qž§¤k£ÄYòn0 , q 0 ¦µ(n0 ) ≤ q 0 [d(D)Œ


].

b) µ(n) ≤ qž§·‚Œ±µ(n)‡(q ≥ n), Ù§{òn0 , q 0 ¦µ(n0 ) >


q0.
ddŒ7‘SFkj + · · · + Fkr 1 ≤ j ≤ r…j = 1½Fkj−1 > 2(Fkj +

· · · + Fk r )
§1.2 êÆO 31

9 1¼ê
X
=1¼ê>G(z) = a0 + a1 z + a2 z 2 + · · · = an z n
n≥0
=á?êÂñ^‡>

a) ?ê3z = z0 :Âñž§?ê3|z| < |z0 |þÂñ"


np o
b) ?ê3š0:Âñ…=ê n |an | k.£d^‡Ø÷vž§
·‚U¦ an!n ½aq?êÂñ¤


ddŒ§3¦1¼êž·‚ÃIú%?êÂñ5§é¤(J(
5Œ{üÏL8B{"
=5Ÿ>G(z)an 1¼ê¶H(z)bn 1¼ê"
X
A. ‚5|Ü αG(z) + βH(z)´< αan + βbn >1¼ê§=α an z n +
n≥0
X X
n n
β bn z = (αan + βbn )z
n≥0 n≥0

B. C z m G(z)´< an−m >= 0, . . . , 0, a0 , a1 , . . .1¼ê¶z −m G(z)´<


an+m >= am , am+1 , · · · 1¼ê"
d5ŸA,BŒ‚548§an = c1 an−1 + · · · + cm an−m )an =
p(n)
1−c1 z−···−cm z m

=A~>G(z)~ê1, 1, · · · 1¼ê§KzG(z)“L< an−1 >=0, 1, 1, · · · §


Ïd(1 − z)G(z) = 1§ddŒ­‡úª

1
= 1 + z + z2 + · · · (1.20)
1−z

n
X
C. ¦È G(z)H(z) ak bn−k 1¼ê"
k=0

=A~>

a) bn = [n = m]ž=5ŸB
n
X
b) bn = 1žG(z)H(z) ak 1¼ê.
k=0

c)  4 8 ' X ¥ ¹ k | Ü ê ž § Ï ~ ^< an!n >Š 1 ¼ ê " ~


an bn−k
Xcn = k nk an bn−k KG(z) an!n §H(z) bn!n KG(z)H(z) nk=0
P  P
k!(n−k)! =
cn
n! 1¼ê"
32 1˜Ù ý£

X YX
=í2>?¿‡1¼ê¦È´ a0k0 a1k1 · · · 1¼ê16 §= ajk z k =
k0 ,k1 ,···≥0 j≥0 k≥0
k0 +k1 +···=n
X X X
zn a0k0 a1k1 · · · "AO/§3‡1¼êƒ¦ ai bj ck 
n≥0 k0 ,k1 ,···≥0 i,j,k≥0
k0 +k1 +···=n i+j+k=n

1¼ê"
1
D. † G(cz)< ck ak >1¼ê"AO/1, c, c2 , · · · 1¼ê´ 1−cz
‡ÄÑ?êO‘§k˜‡ÙE|µ
  
 12 G(z) + G(−z) = a0 + a2 z 2 + a4 z 4 + · · ·
 
 1 G(z) − G(−z) = a z + a z 3 + a z 5 + · · ·
2 1 3 5

¦^ü EŠ§·‚ÄÑ?ê1km‘{"-ω = e2πi/m =
cos 2π 2π
 
m + i sin m K
X 1 X −kr
an z n = ω G(ω k z) (0 ≤ r < m)
m
n mod m=r 0≤k<m

~Xm
 = 3, r = 1žω = − 12 + 23 i, Ka1 z + a4 z 4 + a7 z 7 + · · · =
1 −1 −2 2
3 G(z) + ω G(ωz) + ω G(ω z)
X
E. ‡©†È© dG0 (z) = a1 + 2a2 z + 3a3 z 2 + · · · = (k + 1)ak+1 z k Œ
k≥0
zG0 (z)´< nan >1¼ê"
Z z
1 1 X1
ƒ‡§ G(t) dt = a0 z + a1 z 2 + a2 z 3 + · · · = ak−1 z k
0 2 3 k
k≥1
1
=A~>G(z) = 1−z K

1 X
G0 (z) = = 1 + 2z + 3z 2
+ · · · = (k + 1)z k
(1 − z)2
k≥0
Z z
1 1 1 X1
G(t) dt = ln = z + z2 + z3 + · · · = zk
0 1−z 2 3 k
k≥1
Z z
1 1 3 11 X
F (z) = G(z) G(t) dt = ln = z + z2 + z3 + · · · = Hk z k
0 1−z 1−z 2 6
k≥0

1
1 ln 1−z
éþª¦F 0 (z) = +
(1 − z)2 (1 − z)2
n 1
0 1 X ln 1−z
∵ F (z) =< (n + 1)Hn+1 >, =< 1 >, =<
(1 − z)2 (1 − z)2
k=0
16
~_^5ŸòE,¦Ú=zeZ1¼ê¦È
§1.2 êÆO 33

n
X n−1
X
Hk > ∴ Hk = nHn − n
k=1 k=1

F. ®1¼ê
r(r − 1) 2 X r 
r
i) ‘ª½n (1 + z) = 1 + rz + z + ··· = zk
2 k
k≥0
1 X −n − 1
= A ~ > r K  ê ž = (−z)k =
(1 − z)n+1 k
k≥0
X n + k 
zk
n
k≥0
1 X 1
ii) ê?ê ez = 1 + z + z 2 + · · · = zk
2! k!
k≥0
1

n+1
 X  k  zk
z n n n+1
=í2>(e −1) = z + z +· · · = n!
n+1 n n k!
k
iii) éê?ê
1 1 X (−1)k+1
ln(1 + z) = z − z 2 + z 3 − · · · = zk
2 3 k
k≥1
   
1 1 X m+k k
ln = (Hm+k − Hm ) z
(1 − z)m+1 1−z k
k≥1
 n   X  k  zk
1 n 1 n + 1 n+1
ln =z + z + · · · = n!
1−z n+1 n n k!
k

iv) Ù§
X hni
z(z + 1) · · · (z + n − 1) = zk
k
k
zn Xk
= zk
(1 − z)(1 − 2z) · · · (1 − nz) n
k
z X Bk z k
=
ez −1 k!
k≥0

G. ©lXê [z n ]G(z) = an
n
[z n ]G(z) X
I
n 1 G(z) dz 17
=íØ> = ak ; [z ]G(z) =
1−z 2πi |z|=r z n+1
k=0
1 2 5

=í2>[f
1 2
 (z)]G(z) = f z G(z)~ê‘"~X[z − 2z ]G(z) =
z2
− z 5 G(z)~ê‘= a2 − 2a5
17
Túª^uŽ
34 1˜Ù ý£

n
xjk .
X X
~ 9.1 ®n‡êx1 , x2 , · · · , xn ,hm = xj1 · · · xjm , Sj =
1≤j1 ≤···≤jm ≤n k=1
òhm ^Sj LÑ"~X,h2 = 12 S12 + 12 S2 , h3 = 61 S13 + 21 S1 S2 + 31 S3 .
X
=)> G(z) = hk z k = (1+x1 z+x21 z 2 +· · · ) · · · (1+xn z+x2n z 2 +· · · ) =
k≥0
1
(1 − x1 z)(1 − x2 z) · · · (1 − xn z)
G(z)´õ‘ªê§džéê  Œ{zOŽ"   
1 1 X k k
x1 z  X k k
xn z 
ln G(z) = ln +· · ·+ln = +· · ·+  =
1 − x1 z 1 − xn z k k
k≥1 k≥1
X Sk z k
k
k≥1
 
X Sk z k Y k S 2z2
∴ G(z) = eln G(z) = exp  = eSk z /k = (1 + S1 z + 1 +
k 2!
k≥1 k≥1
 
2 2 4 k1 k2 k
S2 z S2 z X X S1 S2 S m
· · · )(1+ + 2 +· · · ) · · · = · · · kmm  z m
 
2
 k k
1 k1 ! 2 k2 ! m km !
2 2̇! m≥0 k1 ,k2 ,··· ,km ≥0
1 2

k1 +2k2 +···+mkm =m

=5>¯¢þhm Lˆª¿ØE,,hm ‘ê=mê ©ê"~


Xm = 12ž,12˜« ©{12 = 5 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 1,§éAk1 + 2k2 +
· · · + 12k12 = 12˜‡),Ù¥kj j3 ©Y¥‡ê§~¥k1 =
S3
1, k2 = 3, k5 = 1,Ù{kj = 0, ¤± 1S111! 2323! 5S151! = 240
1
S1 S23 S5 h12 ¥˜
‘"
òln G(z)¦´hn 48'Xµhn = n1 (S1 hn−1 +S2 hn−2 +· · ·+Sn h0 ) (n ≥
1)
n
xjk . òam ^Sj LÑ"
X X
~ 9.2 am = xj1 · · · xjm 18 , Sj =
1≤j1 <···<jm ≤n k=1

=)> G(z) = (1 + x1 z)(1 + x2 z) · · · (1 + xn z)Ù †~1){˜—§ò


~1(J¥S2 , S4 , S6 · · · ^−S2 , −S4 , −S6 , · · · “O"ò1¼ê¦ 48
'X(Newton’s identities): nan = S1 an−1 − S2 an−2 + · · ·

~ 9.3 ®Sm Œ^hj Lѧ~XS1 = h1 , S2 = 2h2 − h21 , · · · ,¦Sm d«L


«¥hk11 hk22 · · · hkmm (k1 + 2k2 + · · · + mkm = m)‘Xê"

18
am ¡Ð顼ê
§1.2 êÆO 35

X Sm z m X (h1 z + h2 z 2 + · · · )k
=)> d = ln G(z) = (−1)k−1 
m k
m≥1 k≥1
(−1)k1 +k2 +···+km −1 m(k1 + k2 + · · · + km − 1)!
Xê
k1 !k2 ! · · · km !

=5>3†>¦þ(−1)m−1 =ak11 ak22 · · · akmm L«Sm Xê§ù´theory


of symmetric functions)I“"
n

~ 9.4 ¦VeIêamn = m 1¼ê"
X X n X 1
m n
=)> amn w z = wm z n = (1+w)n z n =
m 1 − z − wz
m,n≥0 m,n≥0 n≥0
R∞
~ 9.5 ¼êf (x)LaplaceC†½ÂLf (s) = 0 e−st f (t) dt. ‰½ÃÂ
ñêa0 , a1 , · · · 1¼êG(z),f (x) = k ak [0 < k ≤ x].òLf (s)^G(z)L
P

Ñ"
Z n+1  
=)> e−st f (t) dt = (a0 + · · · + an ) e−sn − e−s(n+1) /s
n
é¤knòLˆªƒ\Lf (s) = G e−s /s.


~ 9.6 ‰½ên, r.¦


X X
(a) k1 k2 · · · kr (b) k1 k2 · · · kr
1≤k1 <k2 <···<kr ≤n 1≤k1 ≤k2 ≤···≤kr ≤n

=)> (a)n½žG · · · (1 +
  n (z) =(1+ z)(1+ 2z)  nz)X  
1 1 1 1 n + 1 n+1−k
⇒ Gn (z) = z n+1 +1 + 2 ··· +n = z ⇒
z z z z k
  k
n+1
n+1−r
1 1 1 Xk
(b)a q  §Gn (z) = · ··· = z k−n ⇒
1 − z 1 − 2z 1 − nz n
  k
n+r
n

~ 9.7 ¦n!1¼ê

=)> G(z) = 1 + z + 2!z 2 + · · · Kz 2 G0 (z) + zG(z) = G(z)


R ∞−−t1.)T‡©
z e dt
1
 −1/z 19
§G(z) = − z e E1 (−1/z) + C , Ù¥E1 (x) = t
    
X r r r r
~ 9.8 ¦ ···
k0 k1 k2 k3
k0 +2k1 +4k2 +8k3 +···=n
19
ù‡¼ê3z = 0Skš~¾A5§ …G(z)vk˜?êÐmª"
36 1˜Ù ý£

X r + n − 1
r 2 r 4 r −r
=)> G(z) = (1+z) (1+z ) (1+z ) · · · = (1−z) = zn ⇒
n
n
 
r+n−1
n

10 Ž{©Û

Algorithm M (Find the maximum) ‰½X[1], X[2], · · · , X[n]¦m, j¦m =


X[j] = maxi X[i]
M1. (Initialize) j ← n, k ← n − 1, m ← X[n] (‰11g)
M2. (All tested?) if k=0 then terminates (‰1ng)
M3. (Compare) if X[k] ≤ m then go to Step M5 (‰1n − 1g)
M4. (Change m) j ← k, m ← X[k] (‰1Ag)
M5. (Decrease k) Decrease k by one and go to Step M2 (‰1n − 1g)
=M4 ©Û>dŽ{¥kM4 ‰1ÚêA´Ø(½"·‚ŒÏL
¦AŠ!²þŠÚIO 5L§"
=AŠ>X[n] = max X[k]žA = 0.
1≤k≤n
=AŒŠ>X[1] > X[2] > · · · > X[n]žA = n − 1.
=A²þŠ>
½Â²þê5Ÿ§·‚b½X1 , X2 , · · · , Xn p؃
…z‡êÑyVǃ20 "
nü¥¦A = k‡ê
ìVÇb§A = kVÇpnk = §
X n!
dd§½Â²þŠAn = kpnk .
k
 ¦ pnk Pnk = n!pnk . é u ˜ ‡{1, 2, · · · , n} ü x1 x2 · · · xn ,
x1 = nžAŠò'x2 · · · xn ¥AŠõ1¶x1 6= nž§AŠò†x2 · · · xn ¥
AŠƒÓ"ddŒ

Pnk = P(n−1)(k−1) + (n − 1)P(n−1)k ⇒ pnk = n1 p(n−1)(k−1) + n−1



n p(n−1)k
p1k = δ0k ; pnk = 0 (k < 0)

pnk z k
∴pnk 1¼êGn (z) = pn0 + pn1 z + · · · =
P
k
z n−1
dЊ^‡ŒG1 (z) = 1; d48'XŒGn (z) = Gn−1 (z)+ Gn−1 (z) =
n n
z+n−1
Gn−1 (z).
n
z+n−1z+n−2 1
∴ Gn (z) = Gn−2 (z) = · · · = (z + n − 1) · · · (z + 1) =
  n n−1 n!
1 z+n
z+n n
20
ØÓb½ò¬íÑØÓ²þêúª"
§1.2 êÆO 37

P n h i
1 n
d®1¼êúªŒGn (z) = n! k k z k−1 ⇒ pnk = k+1 /n!.
òpnk “\An =²þŠ"
¯¢þ§3Nõ¯K¥·‚,U¦pnk 1¼ê%Ã{pnk 
äNLˆª§e¡·‚Ò5Ϧ†ÏL1¼êOŽ²þŠ{"
P ˜„/§p k L«,¯‡?ukGVÇ"§1¼êG(z) =
k . K²þŠmean(G)= duG(1)
P
k p k z k kp k . = p 0 + p 1 + p 2 + · · · =¤
kŒU5ƒÚ§w,G(1) = 1. aq§dG0 (z) = k kpk z k−1 
P

X
mean(G) = kpk = G0 (1) (1.21)
k

3~¥§An = G0n (1).


 0
0 1 z+n−1 0 Gn (1) = n1 + G0n−1 (1)
dGn (z) = Gn−1 (z)+ Gn−1 (z) ⇒ ⇒
n n G01 (1) = 0
An = G0n (1) = Hn − 1
=5>kž3¦G0 (1)½G00 (1)ž¬Ñy 00 œ¹"˜«)û{´¦z →
1ž4§{ü‰{´lTaylor’s theorem: G(1 + z) = G(1) +
00
G0 (1)z + G 2!(1) z 2 + · · · ¥†ÖуAXê"
=AIO >½Â Vn (A − An )2 ²þŠ"
X X p
ÏdVn = (k − An )2 pnk = k 2 pnk − A2n ⇒ IO σn = Vn
k k
=êÈÅ(Chebyshev)ت>IO ¿Â´∀r ≥ 1, A ∈/ U (An , rσn )
1 1
VÇu r2 , ~X|A − An | > 2σn VÇu 4 "

=y²> pA ∈ / U (An , rσn )VǧK(A−An )2 ²þŠŒup·(rσn )2 +


(1 − p) · 0 ⇒ Vn > pr2 Vn (ؚp = 0)
 2
Ó/§Œ¦ÑVn 'u1¼êLˆªvar(G) = k k 2 pk − mean(G) .
P

¦ê
var(G) = G00 (1) + G0 (1) − G0 (1)2 (1.22)

3¦Vn ƒc§k0 ˜‡­‡z{{µ

=½n 10.A> -G, H¦G(1) = H(1) = 1ü‡1¼ê§K

mean(GH) = mean(G) + mean(H) 21 (1.23)


var(GH) = var(G) + var(H)

-Qn (z) = z+n−1


n KQ0n (1) = n1 , Q00n (1) = 0 ⇒ mean(Qn ) = n1 , var(Qn ) =
1 1
n − n2
n n n
Y X X 1
Gn (z) = Qk (z) ⇒ mean(Gn ) = mean(Qk ) = = Hn − 1
k
k=2 k=2 k=2
21
T½nò1¼ê¦Èü¦Ú$Ž
38 1˜Ù ý£

n n
X X 1 1
var(Gn ) = var(Qk ) = ( − 2 ) = Hn − Hn(2)
k k
k=2 k=1
 q 
(2)
∴ A = min 0, aveHn − 1, max n − 1, dev Hn − Hn 22

~ 10.1 ®z‡M1¡ŠþVǏp§¦n‡M1¥¡Šþ‡
ê"

=)> -pnk L«k‡M1¡ŠþVÇ, §1¼êGn (z)"K


pnk = p · p(n−1)(k−1) + q · p(n−1)k (q = 1 − p)

∴ Gn (z) = (q + pz)Gn−1 (z), G1 (z) = q + pz ⇒ Gn (z) = (q + pz)n


d½nAmean(Gn ) = n mean(G1 ) = pn, var(Gn ) = n var(G1 ) =
(p − p2 )n = pqn

∴ (min 0, ave pn, max n, dev pqn)

²;VÇØ
X˜‡)šKê‘ÅCþ§X = kVǏpk , KG(z) =
p0 +p1 z +p2 z 2 +· · · ¡XVÇ1¼ê"G eit = p0 +p1 eit +p2 e2it +· · · ¡
©ÙA¼ê"ü‡VÇ1¼ê¦È¡ü‡©Ùòȧ§L«
áuù
©Ùü‡Õá‘ÅCþÚ"
‘ÅêX²þŠ¡XÏ"Š§^EXL«"3ù«PÒe§
KŒL«EX 2 − (EX)2 , XVÇ1¼êŒL«G(z) = Ez x . aq/§
X˜‡Š·Kž§XýVÇPr(X) = E[X].
²þŠ† þŒØCþ˜«"ŒØCþκ1 , κ2 , · · · ½ÂXeµ
κ 1 t κ 2 t2 κ 3 t 3 dn

t t
 
+ + + · · · = ln G e Kκn = n ln G e
1! 2! 3! dt t=0
t 0 t 00 0
e G (e ) e G (et )2
2t t t

e G (e ) 0
AO/κ1 = = G (1), κ2 = + =
G(et ) t=0 G(et ) G(et )2 t=0
G00 (1) + G0 (1) + G0 (1)2
duŒØCþ´éê/ª1¼ê§¤±½nA(5´w,§…
Œí2¤kŒØCþ"
=©Ù>©Ù´Ø
²þŠ† ± §¤kŒØCþþ" Z +1
1 2
©Ù"3©Ù¥§‘Åê3U (mean, σ)VǏ √ e−t /2 dt ≈
2π −1
68.268949213709%
=tail inequalities>G(z)XVÇ1¼ê§K
P r(X ≤ r) ≤ x−r G(x) (0 < x ≤ 1)


P r(X ≥ r) ≤ x−r G(x) (x ≥ 1)

22
·‚^ù«‚ª5L˜‡þÚOÆA
§1.2 êÆO 39

=y²> P r(X ≤ r) = p0 + p1 + · · · + pbrc ≤ x−r p0 + x1−r p1 + · · · +


xbrc−r pbrc ≤ x−r G(x) (0 < x ≤ 1)
P r(X ≥ r) = pdre + pdre+1 + · · · ≤ xdre−r pdre + xdre+1−r pdre+1 + · · · ≤
−r
x G(x) (x ≥ 1)

ÀJ·XŠŒ¦Pr(X).š~Cý¢Š"
=í2>[A.N.Kolmogorov] ∀t ≥ r, f (t) ≥ s > 0…Ef (x)3ž§Pr(X ≥
r) ≤ s−1 Ef (X). f (t) = xt , s = xr ž=tail inequalities.
ë©z

[1] Donald E. Knuth, The Art Of Computer Programming, Volume 1: Fun-


damental Algorithms, Addison-Wasley, Reading, Massachusetts, third
edition, 1997, ISBN 0-201-89683-4.

[2] Donald E. Knuth, The Art Of Computer Programming, Volume 2:


Seminumerical Algorithms, Addison-Wasley, Reading, Massachusetts,
third edition, 1997, ISBN 0-201-89684-2.

[3] Donald E. Knuth, The Art Of Computer Programming, Volume 3:


Sorting and Searching, Addison-Wasley, Reading, Massachusetts, sec-
ond edition, 1997, ISBN 0-201-89685-0.

[4] Ronald L. Graham, Donald E. Knuth, and Oren Patashnik, Concrete


Mathematics: A Foundation For Computer Science, Addison-Wasley,
Reading, Massachusetts, second edition, 1994, ISBN 7-111-10576-0.

[5] Thomas H.Cormen, Charles E.Leiserson, Ronald L.Rivest, and Clifford


Stein, Introduction To Algorithms, Addison-Wasley, Reading, Mas-
sachusetts, second edition, 2001, ISBN 7-04-011050-4.

[6] Béla Bollobás, Modern Graph Theory, Springer-Verlag, New York,


1998, ISBN 7-03-008908-1.

[7] F˜Œ, ¡À. Ž{†êâ(. 1‡. ®: >fó’ч, 1999

[8] äÙ. lÑêÆnƒ—ãØ9َ{. S : ¥I‰ÆEâŒÆ


ч, 1990

40

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