A spectrometer (from G 10) is used to measure the

masses of small particles like atoms.

It has been established that the mass of an
H atom is = 1,66 x 10
-27
kg. i.e.
0, 00000000000000000000000000166 kg
This really a very small number!
Spectrometer
1
Basic Concepts
Atomic number (Z):
number of protons (also equal to number ).
Mass number:
number of nucleons (particles in nucleus).
Element:
a substance of which all atoms have the
same atomic number.
Isotope:
different atoms of the same element with
different mass numbers.

35
17
Cl
37
17
Cl
Are isotopes of chlorine.
Atomic and mass numbers
Isotopes of hydrogen
2
Basic Concepts
Relative atomic mass A
r
:
A number that compares the average
mass of an atom with the mass of the
C-12 atom taken to be 12 units.

Take note that it is a rough, average
idea of the number of nucleons an
atom has. Because we are looking at
a mixture of isotopes, we get fractions
though. No real atom of Carbon has
12,011 nucleons for instance.
Relative atomic mass
3
The mole
The mole
The number of elementary particles that is
equal to the number of carbon atoms in 12g
of carbon-12.

i.e. there are 6,02 x 10
23
atoms of carbon in
12 g (RAM) of carbon.

1 mole of any element thus contains
6,02 x 10
23
atoms of that element

Also: the RAM of a substance expressed in
grams will contain 1 mole of particles of that
substance.
Mole in chemistry
4
Calculating RAM for Cl
35
17
Cl
Mass of
37
17
Cl
Mass of
= 75,4 x 35 = 2639
= 24,6 x 37 = 9102
Mass of 100 Cl atoms: = 3549,2
RAM of Cl = 3549,2/100 = 35,492
This is the average mass of a Cl atom
as they occur in nature (Cl only has 2
isotopes)
5
Relative molecular/formula mass
Relative formula mass:
Mass of a molecule or formula unit of a
compound, calculated by adding relative
atomic masses (RAM) together in their ratios.
M
r
[Ca(NO
3
)
2
] = 40 +(2x14) +(6x16)
= 164
i.e. Mass of one formula unit is 164 relative to C-12.
C-12 is the international standard used today & masses
of all other atoms are determined from this particular
isotope of C.
6
Relative molecular/formula mass
Now find the relative molecular mass of each of the
following elements:
HCl, H
2
O, CO
2
, H
2
SO
4
, & K
2
Cr
2
O
7


Answers: 36,5, 18, 44, 98, & 294 respectively.
Ensure that you understand how each of these
values is obtained.
Relative atomic mass
7
Counting in Chemistry
You have come across the words: pairs, dozens &
century.
In chemistry we use huge numbers and we count
numbers of atoms, molecules, ions, protons &
electrons etc in moles.
1 mole = 6,02 x 10
23
particles. i.e.
602 000 000 000 000 000 000 000.0 particles
This really huge!
The mole is also called the
Avogadro number or Avogadro
constant.
There are only about
1 x 10
14
people on
earth!
8
The mole
Consider each of the following masses:
1 g H 16 g of O 35,5 g of Cl 36,5 g HCl 44 g CO
2

Each contain 1 mole of
atoms
Both contain 1 mole
of molecules
These are the relative
atomic masses expressed
in gram.
These are the relative
molecular masses
expressed in gram.
Each contain 6,02 x 10
23
particles either
atoms or molecules.
9
The mole
1 g of H contains 6,02 x 10
23
atoms or
1 g of H contains (6,02 x 10
23
) molecules
(Since H is diatomic: H
2
)
2 g of H contains 6,02 x 10
23
molecules or
2 g of H contains 2(6,02 x 10
23
) atoms
Find the following:
The number of molecules in 16 g of oxygen.
The number of molecules in 142 g of chlorine.
The number of atoms in 64 g of oxygen

10
Molar mass M
r
Whereas the mass of 1 molecule is called the
relative molecular mass and the mass of 1
formula unit is called the relative formula mass,
the mass of 1 mole of molecules is called the
molar mass and is expressed in gmol
-1
.

Consider CO
2
.
12 + 2(16) = 44 = mass of 1 molecule of CO
2
.

But 44 gmol
-1
is the molar mass (M
r
) = mass of 1
mole of CO
2
molecules i.e. 6,02 x 10
23
molecules.
Molar mass
11
Finding the number of moles
One mole of any substance is the relative atomic
mass or the relative formula mass expressed in
g.mol
-1
.
One mol of Na is M
r
= 23 g.mol
-1
, while one mol of
water is M
r
= 18 g.mol
-1

The number of moles is determined as follows:
n= m/M
r
Where

n = no. of moles, m = mass, M
r
= molar mass
How many moles are there in 40 g of carbon?
n = m/M
r
n = 40 g/ 12 g.mol
-1
= 3.33 mol of C.

12
Molar concentration
Concentrations of solutions can easily be
established by means of the following
equations:

r
M
m
n
V
n
c
V M
m
c
r

Where n = no. of moles, m = mass, Mr = molar

mass, c = concentration & V = volume solution.
Solutions with specific concentrations
are made up in volumetric flasks. The
unit is moldm
-3
.
13
Molar gas volume
This is the volume of 1 mole of any gas at STP.
Using densities, we can find the volume of any gas
at STP.
For oxygen:
V =
m
D
32 g
1,43 g.dm
-3
=
= 22,4 dm
3
Using the masses and densities of other gases, we
find that 1 mole of any/every gas occupies 22,4 dm
3

at STP.
This value is known as molar gas volume the
volume of 1 mole of every gas at STP.
Molar volumes
14
Molar gas volume
1mole
H
2
1mole
NH
3
1mole
O
2
1mole
N
2
1mole
CH
4
22,4 dm
3
at STP.
1 mole of every gas
occupies 22,4 dm
3
at
STP.
This phenomenon
only applies to gases
not solids & liquids.
Avogadros hypothesis:
Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of
temperature & pressure have equal numbers of
molecules i.e.
10 cm
3
of H
2
& O
2
have the same number of molecules at STP.
Experiment to find molar gas volume
15
Avogadros hypothesis
He said: equal volumes of different gases (at the
same temp & pressure) contain the same number
of molecules.
The ratio of masses of equal volumes of gases
must be the same ratio as their relative molecular
masses.
You can thus also determine the relative molecular
mass of a gas by using volumes & the known
relative molecular mass of another gas.
Avogadro's law
16
Calculation
Fertilizers need to be applied to lawns &
ground where crops are to be grown.
Most fertilizers have a proportion of some
of nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium, magnesium, hydrogen, chlorine
& oxygen.
Common fertilizers are: NH
4
NO
3
, Ca(H
2
PO
4
)
2
& KCl
We need to be able to correctly calculate the
fertilizer required for certain crops in certain soils
lacking particular elements.
17
Percentage composition
Find the percentage composition of potassium
chloride.
Write down formula & find
formula mass
KCl = 39 + 35,5
= 74,5 g.mol
-1
% K in KCl is:
X 100
39
74,5
= 52,3%
% Cl in KCl is:
35,5
74,5
X 100 = 47,7%
We can use this method to determine which
fertilizers to use and what % of each element they
should contain.
Percentage composition
18
Formula of compound from %
If you know the percentages of the elements
present in a compound, you can determine its
formula or empirical formula.
If a certain compound contains 11,1% H and
88,9% O, find the formula of the compound.
If you convert to gram: 11,1 g of H & 88,9 g of O
No. of mole of H =
= 11,1 mole
11,1
1
No. of mole of O =
88,9
16
= 5,55 mole
Ratio of H : O is 11,1 : 5,55 i.e. 2: 1
Formula of compound is H
2
O
Empirical formula
19
20
A compound consists of 26,67 % carbon,
71,11 % oxygen and 2,22 % hydrogen by
mass. If the relative formula mass of the
compound is 90, calculate its true formula.
21
Calculate the empirical formula first:
n (C) =
26,67
/
12
= 2,22 mol
n (O) =
71,11
/
16
= 4,44 mol
n (H) =
2,22
/
1
= 2,22 mol
mole ratio: 2,2 : 4,44 : 2,22
1 : 2 : 1
empirical formula: CO
2
H
Calculate the relative empirical formula mass:

M
r
(CO
2
H) = 12 + 32 + 1 = 45
Determine the ratio of the true formula mass
to the empirical formula mass:
M
r
(given) : M
r
(CO
2
H)
90 : 45
2 : 1
True formula: C
2
O
4
H
2

Mass of true
formula is
twice that of
empirical
formula.
True formula is C
2
O
4
H
2
Empirical & true formula
22
Chemical equations
Chemical equations are an integral part of Chemistry
and give us the following information about the
reacting substances:
Reactants reacting
Products formed
Numbers of moles of reactants & products involved
Proportional of masses of reactants & products
Proportional volume of gases that react or are formed
The physical sate (g, , aq, or s) of reactants &
products
23
Chemical equations
Mg
(s)
+ 2HCl
(aq)
MgCl
2(aq)
+ H
2(g)
+ energy
The above balanced equation tells us:
1 atom of Mg reacts with 2 molecules of HCl to form
1 molecule of MgCl
2
& 1 molecule of H
2
. OR
1 mole of solid Mg reacts with 2 mole of HCl in
solution (water), to produce 1 mole of MgCl
2
in
solution & 1 mole of H gas in proportion.
24 g of Mg reacts with 2(1 + 35,5) = 73 g of HCl to
form (24 + 71) = 95 g of MgCl
2
& 2 g of H
2
.
Stoichiometry is the study of the amounts of
substances that react in chemical reactions.
24
Mass-mass chemical reactions
Crucible
Gauze
Tripod
Bunsen
Mg ribbon
Find mass of crucible without Mg,
with Mg & after reaction
completed after heating.
2Mg + O
2
2MgO
2(24) of Mg reacts with (16)2 O
2
to form 2(24+16) MgO
48 g Mg + 32 g O
2
forms 80 g of MgO
2g Mg reacts with
2 x 32
48
g O
2
to form
2 X 80
48
g of MgO
2g Mg reacts with 1,33 g of O
2
to form 3,33 g of MgO
Relate these to the numbers you got.
Mass - mass calculation
25
Mass-volume chemical reactions
If you are required to find the volume of a gas
formed, first find the number of moles of gas formed
& then use the equation pV = nRT to find the
volume of the gas.
2,4 g of Mg reacts completely to form MgCl
2
& H
2
. Find
the volume of the gas formed at 20
0
C & 100 kPa.
Mg + 2HCl MgCl
2
+ H
2

24 g of Mg forms 2 g of H
2
2,4 g of Mg forms 0.2 g of H
2
(0,1 mole)
Now use pV = nRT to find the volume of the gas.
Mass - volume calculations
26
Mass-volume chemical reactions
pV = nRT
100 x 10
3
x V = 0,1 x 8,31 293
V = 0,00243 m
3
= 2,43 dm
3
If the gas is at STP then you can use molar gas volume
of 22,4 dm
3
to find the volume of the gas.
If this problem had been at STP then:
1 mole of H
2
at STP occupies 22,4 dm
3
0,1 mole at STP occupies 0,1 x 22,4 = 2,24 dm
3
The ChemCollective:
Stoichiometry Applet
27
28
25 cm
3
of hydrogen and 20 cm
3
of oxygen are
mixed and an electric spark passed through the
mixture. Steam is formed.

Calculate the volume of the remaining gases if
all volumes are measured at the same
temperature and pressure and the temperature
is above 100
0
C.
Volume - volume calculations
29
2H
2
(g) + O
2
(g) 2H
2
O (g)
2 vol 1 vol 2 vol
25 cm
3
reacts with 12,5 cm
3
and yields 25 cm
3

Volume of O
2
left = 20 - 12,5 = 7,5 cm
3

Total volume of gas left = 7,5 + 25 = 32,5 cm
3

Here the 25 cm
3
of H
2
is called the limiting
reagent, since it is consumed completely, leaving
excess O
2
+ H
2
O product.


Certain chemical reactions are explosive and
produce a very large number of gaseous product
molecules.

Mining: 2NH
4
NO
3
2N
2
(g) + 4H
2
O(g) + O
2
(g)

Car engine:2C
8
H
18
+25O
2
16CO
2
(g) +18H
2
O(g)

Sodium azide in car airbags:
2NaN
3
(s) 2Na(s) + 3N
2
(g)

Airbag operation
2 STROKE PETROL ENGINE
30