Breesefinalcompendium

Running Head: SPECIAL EDUCATION COMPENDIUM 1
Compendium: Chapter 1: An Overview of the Legal and Conceptual

Framework within Special Education

Danielle J. Breese

EDU 753, Inclusion: Teaching Exceptional Students in the CTE Environment

SPECIAL EDUCATION COMPENDIUM 2
An Overview of SPED
As children are learning and growing they experience many different forms of
frustration and struggles. When a child is struggling in the academic setting it is important to
determine the cause, as it may be the result of a learning disability. Learning disabilities can
affect children of all ages and are characterized by a significant difference in a childs
achievement in one or more areas as compared to his or her overall intelligence (NICHYC,
1997). Students with learning disabilities experience a wide range of symptoms and struggles
including, but not limited to reading comprehension, spoken language, writing, oral reasoning,
hyperactivity, inattention, coordination problems, and unpredictable test performances
(NICHYC, 1997).
Due to the enactment and amendment of several key laws and regulations since 1970,
the educational system has experienced advancement in available special education services for
students and their families. As defined by federal law, it is a requirement for all children with
disabilities to have access to free and appropriate public education without discrimination
(Wonacott, 2001). The special education laws were enacted to address the unique needs of
students with disabilities so that they have the opportunity to benefit from all available
educational programs without exclusion. (Smith-Davis and Littlejohn, 2009).
It is essential for parents, teachers, and other educational professionals to work together
to plan appropriate activities to accommodate the individual needs of students with disabilities
(Wonacott, 2001). Once the needs of the student have been identified in order to ensure the
success of students with disabilities as teachers it is important to capitalize on students
strengths, create a high degree of structure which provides clear expectations, provide many
opportunities for success, and allow students the opportunity to grow and mature in order to
continue to develop his or her individual skills (NICHYC, 1997).

Landmark Legislation
1973: Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act This law prohibits the discrimination on
the basis of disability. Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act provides a broader
definition of disabilities, which provides special education services to students who
would not quality under IDEA (Disability and Education Laws, 2012).
1974: The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) This law protects
the privacy of student educational records and ensures that parents and students have
access to educational records with the ability to release them to third parties (Disability
and Education Laws, 2012).
1975: Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicap Children Act): This act
ensures that children with disabilities have the opportunity to receive free appropriate,
public education. (Disability and Education Laws, 2012).
1986: Public Law 94-142 (Education for All Handicap Children Act): Development
of Preschool and Infant/Toddler programs. This service provided opportunities for early
intervention programs for children with disabilities ages 0-5. Early identification of
learning disabilities will allow students to receive necessary services sooner (Disability
and Education Laws, 2012).
1988: Assistive Technology Act: This law was enacted to improve access and function
of people with disabilities in school, work, home and community. The assistive
Technology Act seeks to provide assistive technology to individuals with disabilities so
that they are able to fully participate in educational opportunities (Disability and
Education Laws, 2012).
1990: Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): 1
st
comprehensive declaration of
equality for people with disabilities. Children with disabilities cannot be excluded from
public accommodations simply because of a disability. (Disability and Education
Laws, 2012).
1990: Public Law 94-142 Amendment (IDEA): Renamed the legislation Individuals
with Disabilities Act, added transitional planning at age 16 to help students transition
from the educational setting to post-educational living (Disability and Education Laws,
2012).
1997: Public Law 94-142 Amendment (IDEA): Individualized Education Programs
will describe how students will be involved with and progress in the general education
setting. Additionally, transition planning will now begin at age 14 (Disability and
2001: No Child Left Behind: As of 2001 Schools are required to show Adequate
Yearly Progress (AYP) for all students, including students with disabilities. Students in
special education were no longer excluded from standardized exams (Disability and
2004: Public Law 94-142 Amendment (IDEA): Increased accountability at the state
and local level in regards to No Child Left Behind. (Disability and Education Laws,
2012).

Comparison of IEP and 504 Plans
The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and Section 504 of the
Rehabilitation Act are two laws passed during the early 1970s to provide free and appropriate
education to students with disabilities without discrimination. These two laws are upheld by
school districts through the implementation of educational plans providing appropriate
modifications and accommodations to ensure the success of each student. The Individualized
Education Program (IEP) is a plan implemented by IDEA, while the 504 Plan is implemented
through the Rehabilitation Act. The criteria for identification and eligibility, appropriate
education and procedural law under these two plans vary greatly (Council for Exceptional
Students, 2002). Understanding the key differences between these two plans is essential to
ensuring the success of students in the classroom.
To begin the process of providing special education services for an individual student
the school district must first identify the learning disability to determine eligibility and
appropriate services. IDEA covers all students within the school district ages 3-21 with specific
learning conditions that affect a students educational performance as recognized by the law.
While, Section 504 covers individuals throughout their lifespan who are recognized as
handicapped (Council for Exceptional Students, 2002). Often times students who do not qualify
for accommodations under IDEA, may qualify for accommodations under Section 504.
Once the eligibility has been determined students are required to be evaluated to
determine appropriate services for each student. In order for students to receive an IEP or 504
plan with appropriate accommodations. Under IDEA for an individual student to receive and
IEP a team of educational professionals thoroughly evaluate each student through holding a
formal meeting with parental knowledge and consent. Through this law the student must be
constantly reevaluated at least once every three years or as deemed necessary by all involved
individuals (Council for Exceptional Students, 2002). A student, who is eligible to receive a 504
Plan, is evaluated through a variety of sources with the assistance of knowledgeable personnel.
Once a student receives a 504 plan he/she is periodically re-evaluated to determined appropriate
accommodations (Council for Exceptional Students, 2002).
Once a student has received either an IEP or a 504 plan, the school district is required to
ensure that these students are receiving free and appropriate education under the corresponding
laws. A student who has received an IEP may be placed in a combination of special education
classes as well as general education classes, while providing related services in order to ensure
the success of that student (Council for Exceptional Students, 2002). Students who receive a
504 plan are provided with accommodations in general education classrooms, and they may be
eligible to receive specialized instruction and special education services as deemed appropriate
by qualified personnel (Council for Exceptional Students, 2002).
In an educational setting parents and educational professionals may have disagreements
regarding the education of a specific student. When parents or guardians disagree with the
education of a student with an IEP, a hearing will be held with identified procedures and the
student is required to stay in his/her current placement until all disputes are resolved (Council
for Exceptional Students, 2002). In comparisons while parents or guardians disagree with the
education of a student with a 504 plan, a hearing will be held without formal procedures,
however, parents have the opportunity to be represented by legal counsel (Council for
Exceptional Students, 2002).

Inclusion
For many years students with disabilities were educated in classrooms separated from
the remainder of their peers. Due to the implementation of legislature regarding special
education, the appropriate services for students with disabilities continues to change in order to
meet expectations of the laws. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) and No
Child Left Behind are two laws that implemented legislature that mandates a students
placement into the least restrictive educational environment that is appropriate for their
educational needs. As a result more students with disabilities are placed into general education
classrooms, and general education teachers are responsible for the success of these students
(Casle-Giannola, 2011).
The idea of inclusion was implemented into the educational system to teach students
with disabilities how to function in the real world (Sharp, 2001) General education teachers face
many challenges in an inclusive classroom. However, with careful and thoughtful planning it is
possible to reach the needs of all students within the classroom. Inclusion is a movement to
place students with disabilities into chronological, age appropriate classrooms, while still
receiving a specially designed educational plan with the modifications and accommodations that
will allow them to be successful (Halvorsen & Neary, 2001). An inclusive classroom will place
students with disabilities into various classrooms, where they will receive instructional support
in order to maximize their availability to the curriculum and teachers will use a variety of
resources in order to achieve this success (Sharp, 2001).

Universal Design for Learning
In order to achieve an overview of the Universal Design of Learning please proceed to
the following website (http://lessonbuilder.cast.org/window.php?src=videos) this short video is
an overview of the Universal Design of Learning. This movement is a teaching approach that is
implemented to accommodate the needs of all learners by presenting material in multiple ways,
engaging learners in a variety of ways, and providing students with options in order to
demonstrate their learning (Rose, Johnston, Daley & Abarbanell, 2006). Universal design is an
important aspect of education as it continues to enhance the learning process.
Career and Technical Education classrooms offer many opportunities that are not offered
in the traditional classroom that will allow students with disabilities to succeed in in a CTE
classroom. CTE classes offer many opportunities for differentiated instruction due to nature of
the material. Students are offered hands-on opportunities, visual assistance, verbal assistance,
and tactile skills in order to process the information in an active learning environment (Casle-
Giannola, 2011). Additionally, many of the courses offer real life connections that align with
student interests and strengths (Casle-Giannola, 2011).
Even though there are many opportunities that will allow students with disabilities to be
successful in CTE classrooms, CTE teachers may also face several challenges when teaching
students with disabilities. Many students with disabilities lack the basic academic skills in
reading comprehension and mathematics, however with accommodations and modifications to
the curriculum these students can their still be successful (Casle-Giannola, 2011). Finally, CTE
teachers may struggle supervising a classroom of diverse students, however, performance can
be closely monitored using a rubrics and check lists that allow students to understand what they
need to accomplish during the class period as well as the expectations for the assignment
(Casle-Giannola, 2011).

References:
Casale-Giannola, D. (2011). Inclusion in CTE--What Works and What Needs Fixin'. Tech
Directions, 70(10), 21.
Council for Exceptional Children (2002) Understanding the Differences Between IDEA and
Section 504. LD OnLine: The world's leading website on learning disabilities and
ADHD. Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/6086/
Disability & Education Laws. (2012). National Dissemination Center for Children with
Disabilities. Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/laws
Halvorsen, A.T. & Neary, T. (2001). Building inclusive schools: Tools and strategies for
success. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
NICHCY: General Info About Learning Disabilities. NICHCY: General Info About Learning
Disabilities. Retrieved from http://www.kidsource.com/NICHCY/learning_disabilities.html
Rose, D.H., Harbour, W.A., Johnston, C.S., Daley, S. G., & Abarbanell, L. (2006). Universal
design for learning in postsecondary education: Reflections on principles and their
applications. Journal of Postsecondary Education and Disability, 19 (2), 135-151.
Sharp, W. (n.d.). Special Education Inclusion - Making It Work. Special Education Inclusion
Making It Work. Retrieved from
http://www.pmct.org/articles/0304/inclusionsept03.html
Smith-Davis, J., & Littletonjohn, W. NICHCY: Services For School-Aged Children W/
Disabilities. NICHCY: Services For School-Aged Children W/ Disabilities. Retrieved
November 9, 2013, from http://www.kidsource.com/NICHCY/services.d
Wonacott, M. E., & ERIC Clearinghouse on Adult, C. H. (2001). Students with Disabilities in
Career and Technical Education. ERIC Digest.


Chapter 2: Learning Disabilities; Emotional/Behavior Disorders; Communication Disorders

Danielle J. Breese


Learning Disabilities: Type, Definition and Prevalence
Learning disabilities is a term used to describe learning problems in a general education
classroom (Mastropieri, 2010). A learning disability affects the brains ability to receive,
process, store, and respond to information (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2013).
Students with learning disabilities have average or above-average intelligence, but struggle with
academic and specific learning tasks (Mastropieri, 2010). According to IDEA learning
disabilities include disorders in basic psychological processes including understanding or using
spoken or written language (Mastropieri, 2010). Learning disabilities affect individuals
throughout their entire life so it is important to recognize and diagnose learning disabilities as
early as possible (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2013). Learning disabilities are the
most common disability in the general education classroom (Mastropieri, 2010). Approximately
4.3% of school aged-children are diagnosed as having a learning disability.
Learning disabilities are vastly different than intellectual disabilities, sensory
impairments, and autism spectrum disorder (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2013).
Some types of learning disabilities include Dyslexia (language processing difficulties),
Dyscalculia (difficulty with math skills), Dysgraphia (difficulty with written expression), and
Dyspraxia (difficulty with fine motor skills), auditory processing disorder, and visual processing
disorder (National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2013). The following video contains
additional information regarding learning disabilities
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GoM5HcfQBwE.

Learning Disabilities: Disability Manifestations in the classroom
Learning Disabilities

Disability

Area of
Difficulty

Symptoms include trouble
with

Example
Dyslexia Processing
Language
Reading
Writing
Spelling
Confusing letter names and
sounds, difficulties blending
sounds into words, slow rate of
reading, trouble remembering after
reading
Dyscalculia Math Skills Computation
Remembering math
facts
Concepts of time
and money
Difficulty learning to count by 2s,
3s, 4s, poor mental math skills,
problems with spatial directsion
Dysgraphia Written
Expression
Handwriting
Spelling
Composition
Illegible handwriting, difficulty
organizing ideas for writing
Dyspraxia Fine Motor Skills Coordination
Manual Dexterity
Trouble with scissors, buttons,
drawing
Auditory
Processing
Disorder
Interpreting
Auditory
Information
Language
Development
Reading
Difficulty anticipating how a
speaker will end a sentence
Visual Processing
Disorder
Interpreting
Visual
Information
Reading
Writing
Math
Difficulty distinguishing letters
like h and n

(National Center for Learning Disabilities, 2013).

Learning Disabilities: Inclusion Tips
Often times it can be quite difficult for students with learning disabilities to experience
inclusion within the career and technical education setting. However, implementing specific
techniques will allow them to experience full inclusion. To begin assisting a student as they
enter into an inclusive classroom it is important to maintain contact with the case manager and
the parents throughout the school year in order to fully understand the needs of that child and
any changes that that particular child may experience throughout the school year (National
Council for Curriculum and Assessment, 2013). By maintaining contact with essential
individuals, it will be easier to identify and meet the needs of individual students.
Additionally, students with learning disabilities need to know that they are accepted
members of the class and it is important to provide students opportunities to work with each
other in small group settings (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, 2013). This
will allow the students the opportunity to get to know one another while effectively work with
each other and understand each others similarities and differences. Finally, it is equally
important to ensure that as teachers we are using language that the students are able to
adequately understand and as a result the students are able to understand the assignments and
the activities that are presented to them in the classroom (National Council for Curriculum and
Assessment, 2013).
When introducing new and various activities it is extremely important to model the task
by walking through each step of the task and explaining the process as the task is being
completed (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, 2013). This method will allow all
of the students to gain a thorough understanding of the activity steps and expectations. As a
result each student will gain a thorough understanding, and have the opportunity to ask
questions if they are unsure of a specific step within the task. The combination of these
techniques will allow for an inclusive classroom where all students feel comfortable working
with each other, asking questions, and are able to receive the necessary services that will allow
them to be successful in the classroom.

Learning Disabilities: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders it is important to use
differentiated instruction in order to meet the needs of these learners. The best way to reach all
learners including those with emotional and behavioral disorders is through presenting
information using multiple forms of media, multiple examples, and using multiple modalities
(Bakken, 2012). Additionally, teachers should focus on the main topics within a unit. Teachers
should not expect all individuals to master all of the small details within a unit. It is more
important to focus on the main ideas within a unit so that students can gain the necessary
required knowledge.
Additionally, students should be able to demonstrate their knowledge using different
modalities. Students should not all be required to turn in the same assignment, however they
should have the opportunity to model their acquired skills using different techniques (Bakken,
2012). For example in welding class students may have a variety of welding projects to choose
for their final assessment, that are all of similar difficulties. However, the welding project may
be something that they are interested in and consequently the student will put more effort into
completing the project. Some additional differentiation techniques include:
Ensuring that the objectives are realistic
Ensure the learning task is compatible with prior learning
Spend more time on tasks
Organize the learning into small stages
(National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, 2013)

Learning Disabilities: Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with learning disabilities there are
specific accommodations and modifications that need to be made in the classroom in order to
allow these students to experience success. Some accommodations and modifications that career
and technical education teachers may use in order to ensure the success of these students
include:
Rearranging seating to face seats away from obvious distractions
Arrange for a specific quiet space within the classroom
Model organization
Design specific locations for all classroom items
Structure daily routines and schedules
Adapt instructional materials to reduce literacy requirements when possible
Provide opportunities for students to use assistive technology
Questions students frequently throughout the learning process
Ask students to rephrase information to use their own words
Periodically review previous class material
Provide students opportunities to work with peer tutors
Provide clear directions
Provide frequent reminders for assignments
(Mastropieri, 2010).
Allow frequent breaks
Extend allotted time for assignments
Provide a designated reader
Provide materials in large print

Learning Disabilities: Assessing and Evaluating Students
As students are progressing throughout the school year it is important to continually
assess and evaluate students to ensure that students are receiving the adequate accommodations
and modifications in order to effectively learn the material. As a teacher it is imperative to
maintain contact with the case manager to be aware of changes within the students IEP to
ensure that the student is receiving all of the necessary assistance. Some tips that may be helpful
in assessing and evaluating students with learning disabilities include:
Provide special test preparation to the students
Allow for verbal responses
Allow for answers to be dictated to a scribe
Allow for the use of a tape recorder to capture responses
Permit responses to be given via computer
Allow for frequent breaks
Provide a space with minimal distractions
Extend allotted time for assessment
Provide focusing prompts as students are completing the assessment
Administer the test in several timed sessions over several days
Administer the test at a specific time of day
Administer test in small group setting

Learning Disabilities: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
All students with learning disabilities require assistance transitioning from high school
to their post secondary endeavors. As career and technical educators we have a thorough
understanding of students strengths and needs in a vocational setting. As a result within the
transition process it is important to provide guidance to students regarding their career choices.
To begin the transition process each student with learning disabilities will need to learn
strategies in order to transfer their strategies and skills from one level to the next (Nichols,
2003). Additionally, through the process of teaching, re-teaching, and practice of various
learning strategies, students will gain independence and self-advocacy skills (Nichols, 2003).
As students are developing learning strategies it is important for them to complete a
careers study, this will allow students to learn about various careers that are available to them
(Nichols, 2003). Throughout this process students can tour the Career and Technical Education
and learn about the various careers and gain experience working in various trades through
experiences in the classroom. This will give the students a thorough understanding of the
various careers and allow them to see which careers are most suitable for them.
Also students must learn about their individual needs and strengths (Nichols, 2003).
Students must gain a thorough understanding of their learning disability and how it affects them
(Nichols, 2003). This will allow students to become familiar with the different accommodations
and modifications that will allow them to be successful in various careers as well as post-
secondary education. Assistive technology will be an asset to students with learning disabilities
as they leave high school (Nichols, 2003). Once students receive training in various forms of
assistive technology they will be able to successfully use this technology to ensure their ability
to participate in various events.
Finally, as students are closing out their high school years it is important for them to
create a portfolio that displays their strengths and aspirations (Nichols, 2003). This portfolio
will allow students to display their preferred learning styles, goals, and accommodations
(Nichols, 2003). Throughout this process students will become familiar with their strengths and
aspirations. Additionally, after the portfolio is completed students will be able to present this
portfolio to college administrators as well as employers to allow them to become familiar with
the necessary accommodations to allow them to be successful in all future endeavors.

Learning Disabilities: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
There are several strategies that can be used to ensure that students with learning
disabilities are able to experience success in the classroom. These strategies include:
Minimizing potentially distracting stimuli for example pulling down window shades,
asking students to clear their desk
Use multiple modalities to present information in order to ensure that students are
receiving information in the modality that is best suited to their individual needs
Analyze student errors in order to determine the area of processing where students are
struggling
Teach students study skills and learning strategies such as not taking and homework
organization skills
Provide study aids in order to guide students study efforts
(Ormrod, 2010).

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Type, Definition and Prevalence

Emotional and behavioral disorders present themselves in many different forms and
include many different types of disorders. These disorders can manifest themselves internally,
externally, and in low incidence behaviors within the students (Smith, 2010). Internalized
emotional and behavioral disorders include General Anxiety Disorders, Obsessive Compulsive
Disorder, Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder, social anxiety, major depression, Bipolar Disorders,
and eating disorders (Emotional Disturbance, 2010). Externalized emotional and behavioral
disorders include Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, Opposition Defiant Disorder, and
Conduct Disorder (Emotional Disturbance, 2010). Low incidence disorders include
Schizophrenia (Smith, 2010).
Emotional and behavioral disorders are complex disorders present in students of all
ages. According to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) emotional and
behavioral disturbances are chronic conditions that adversely affect a childs education as a
result of an unexplained inability to learn, the inability to maintain fulfilling interpersonal
relationships, inappropriate displays of behavior, general depression, and the development of
physical symptoms as a result of specific identified fears (Emotional Disturbance, 2010).
According to IDEA approximately 2% of the student population qualifies for special education
services due to emotional and behavioral disorders (Matsuda, 2005). Due to the strict definition
used in the educational setting and the necessary requirements in order to identify students,
many students with emotional and behavior disorders are often unidentified (Matsuda, 2005).

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Disability Manifestations in the classroom
Emotional and behavioral disorders can manifest themselves in the classroom in many
different forms. Students who have externalized disorders may display hyperactivity which
includes frequent impulsive, irritating and out of control behaviors, aggression towards objects,
themselves, and others, and frequent immature behaviors (Smith, 2010). Students with
internalized behaviors may appear withdrawn, lonely, depressed, and anxious (Smith, 2010).
Often times it is easier to identify and assist students who display externalized behaviors as
opposed to internalized behaviors as externalized behaviors are much easier to recognize and
idnetify. The following is a video is one example of a young student in a classroom that is
externally displaying emotional/behavioral disorders within the classroom setting. As you watch
the video not the behaviors of the student (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cnOjRjOgAq0).

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Inclusion Tips
Often times it can be quite difficult for students with emotional and behavioral disorders
to experience inclusion within the career and technical education setting. However,
implementing specific techniques will allow them to experience full inclusion. To begin
assisting a student as they enter into an inclusive classroom it is important to maintain contact
with the case manager and the parents throughout the school year in order to fully understand
the needs of that child and any changes that the particular child may experience throughout the
school year (Kupper, 2008). By maintaining contact with essential individuals, it will be easier
to identify the and meet the needs of each particular student.
When a student with emotional and behavioral disorders is first introduced to the
classroom it is important to establish clear rules and expectations for that classroom (Kupper,
2008). This can be done by engaging students in interactive presentations and activities
surrounding the rules and expectations of the classroom at the beginning of the year. One way
to implement this particular strategy is through the good behavior game. During this activity
students are required to work together in teams to follow classroom rules to win incentives. As
teachers the goal is to focus on rewarding appropriate behaviors in order to increase their
occurrence in the classroom (Toolbox, 2013).
It is important to make the student feel as though they are accepted into the classroom
setting, and they are not outlying individuals within the classroom. A way to support the
inclusion of students with emotional and behavioral disturbances in the classroom is to assist the
students with building relationships with the other students. Assisting students with emotional
and behavioral disorders build relationships can done through incorporating various group
activities and labs, peer tutoring opportunities, cooperative learning, and team projects in the
classroom setting (Kupper, 2008). Career and technical education directly lends itself to
students working on team projects and cooperatively in order to accomplish demanding tasks.

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with emotional and behavioral disorders it is important to use
differentiated instruction in order to meet the needs of these learners. The best way to reach all
learners including those with emotional and behavioral disorders is through presenting
information using multiple forms of media, multiple examples, and using multiple modalities
(Bakken, 2012). Additionally, teachers should focus on the main topics within a unit. Teachers
should not expect all individuals to master all of the small details within a unit. It is more
important to focus on the main ideas within a unit so that students can gain the necessary
required knowledge.
Additionally, students should be able to demonstrate their knowledge using different
should have the opportunity to model their acquired skills using different techniques
(Bakken,2012). For example, in regards to agricultural sciences, students may have the
opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge about animal care through writing a paper, making
a presentation, or keeping a journal regarding the care of a specific animal. Through this
assignment all students are demonstrating their acquired knowledge regarding animal care;
however, each student is presenting their knowledge using a different format. Through this
method of differentiated instruction all students are able to build upon their strengths and
complete projects and assignments that will allow them to be successful (Emotional
Disturbance, 2010).

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with emotional and behavioral
disorders there are specific accommodations and modifications that need to be made in the
classroom in order to allow these students to experience success. Some accommodations that
career and technical teachers may use in order to ensure the success of students with emotional
and behavioral disorders is through providing these students with various worksheets and logs
that require the students to be responsible for their own behavior, the reasons why the behavior
occurred, and logs to keep track of their assignments and responsibilities within the classroom
(Toolbox, 2013). Additionally, there are examples of many different incentives to provide to the
students when you see them engaging in good behaviors. Some examples of these logs and
behavioral monitoring student worksheets may be obtained from the following website and will
work very well in a career and technical education classroom
http://ctsp.tamu.edu/instructional-videos/overview-of-ebd/toolbox/.
Providing modifications to students with emotional and behavioral disorders is just as
important as providing accommodations. The most important modification for students with
emotional and behavioral disorders is embedding additional educational and social goals into
curriculum according to a specific students individualized education plan (Brakken, 2012).
Embedding behavioral and social skills into the curriculum is key as this is an area of deficit for
students with emotional and behavioral disorders. Teaching these students how to appropriately
respond in specific social situations regarding their areas of interest is essential to ensuring the
success of students with emotional and behavioral disorders both during and after high school.

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Assessing and Evaluating Students
When assessing and evaluating student performance of students with emotional and
behavioral disorders it is equally important to monitor their academic achievements as well as
their progress towards goals within their individualized education plan (Hayles & Mackey,
2012). The worksheets discussed in the accommodations and modifications section of this
document can provide monitoring of the students progress towards obtaining goals set within
the individualized education program. Keeping track of the data within these documents and
sharing these documents with both the parents and the case manager is essential as it helps to
determine the progress of the students as well as changes that need to made within the
classroom in order to ensure the continued success of the student (Hayles & Mackey, 2012).
Within career and technical education students are given appropriate assessments that
monitor their understanding and application of skills that are essential to succeeding within the
industry. It is important to provide these assessments to students with emotional and behavioral
disturbances and record their scores on these informal assessments, exams, and activities.
Collecting and sharing the necessary data ensures that students are receiving the appropriate
accommodations, modifications, and are placed within the correct vocational classroom (Hayles
& Mackey, 2012). As data is collected changes can be made within the students individualized
educational plan and transition plan to ensure the continued success of that particular student.

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Education
Often times students with emotional and behavioral disorders have relatively poor
outcomes post high school (Boreson, 2006) As a result there are specific areas of the transition
plan that should be focused on. Within the transition the key aspects to focus on are:
Self-Advocacy, self-awareness, setting goals
Identifying and accessing the services of community agencies
Independent living skills (budgeting, self-care housing)
Involvement in the community
Development of functional skills
Development of social skills
Providing vocational training to incorporate real job experiences
(Boreson, 2006)
One of the most important aspects of the transition plans of students with emotional and
behavioral disturbances is providing opportunities for vocational training so that students with
emotional and behavioral disorders can gain work and job experiences, during high school. This
aspect of this transition plan will assist them in understanding the requirements of various jobs
and assist them in finding careers that fit their individual strengths. Through this process
students will experience greater success in their post-secondary endeavors.

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies:
There are several strategies that can be used to ensure that students with emotional and
behavioral disorders are able to experience success within the classroom. To begin it is essential
to closely monitor and record data involving the progress of the student and communicating this
knowledge to both the case manager and the families of the students. This teaching strategy
ensures that students are receiving the necessary accommodations and modifications to ensure
the continued success of the student (Boreson, 2006).
A second teaching and learning strategy that can be implemented into the classroom is
taking the time to build and maintain strong relationships with students with emotional and
behavioral disorders to ensure their continued success (Boreson, 2006). Often times these
students struggle forming and maintaining meaningful relationships, however, when the teacher
makes an effort to create this relationships the student is able to thrive within the classroom
setting. As the teacher forms these relationships and understands the strengths and needs of
teach student, the teacher is able to more readily incorporate the necessary adaptations and
modifications.

Communication Disorders: Type, Definition and Prevalence
A communication disorder is an impairment of the ability to receive, send, process, and
comprehend concepts or verbal, nonverbal and graphic symbol systems (American Speech-
Language-Hearing Association, 1993). Students affected with communication disorders can be
affected in their language comprehension, speaking abilities and within the hearing process.
Communication disorders present themselves in many different forms they can appear in the
form of a speech disorder in which the articulation of sounds or fluency is affected, a language
disorder in which comprehension and/or use of the spoken language is impaired, a hearing
disorder which can be the result of deafness or hard of hearing, and central auditory disorders in
which the processing of information is impaired (American Speech-Language-Hearing
Association 1993). More than 20% of students are affected by communication disorders and
identified under IDEA in the United Sates (Brice, 2011)

Communication Disorders: Disability Manifestations in the classroom
When students have communications disorders, there are a variety of ways that this
disability can manifest itself in the classroom. Often times students who have communication
disorders have very limited speech according to their age and have trouble understanding and
formulating words, the student may have difficulty following simple directions, and the student
may not be able to express abstract ideas (Childrens Hospital of Philadelphia, 2013).
Additionally, the student may have difficulty understanding spoken language in the classroom,
struggle learning new vocabulary, may struggle to understand questions, read below grade level,
or the student may stutter when communicating (Brice, 2011). As a result the student will often
struggle academically and need assistance from teachers and case managers in order to succeed
in the academic setting.

Communication Disorders: Inclusion Tips
To begin the inclusion process of students with communication disorders it is important
to provide other students in the classroom the necessary skills to accept students with
communication disorders (Science is for Everyone, 2012). Other students in the class should
understand how to treat all students as a member of the class and as equals. Students should not
openly view each other as vastly different. This will allow the student to feel as though they are
member of the classroom and that they are not different then the remaining members of the
classroom.
The second step that the teacher can take is providing the student with any necessary
assistance and by asking the student what assistance is needed (Science is for Everyone, 2012).
Determining the needs of the student will allow them to be successful in the classroom setting.
It is important to discuss individual needs with the student, so that the student with the
communication disorders feels as though he or she is able to openly approach the teacher with
any needs that may arise throughout the school year. Also this step will allow for open
communication paths and the student will feel as though he/she is a fully accepted student in the
educational setting.
Finally, as teachers it is important to allow students with communication disorders the
opportunity to speak openly and correctly. Modeling correct communication techniques with the
student can allow the student to gain a more thorough understanding of correct communication
methods. Additionally, consulting the case manager and language pschycologists can allow the
teacher to be aware of the expectations for each student with communication disorders and
provide a thorough understanding of the capabilities of that individual (Science is for Everyone,
2012).

Communication Disorders: Differentiating Instruction
Providing differentiated instruction is essential to ensuring the success of students with
communication disorders in career and technical education classrooms. The first important step
to differentiate instruction is by providing short, simple, sequential directions one at a time
(Watson & Gable, 2008). On top of providing simple oral directions, the teacher can model
directions or use visual cues to assist students in following the directions (Watson & Gable,
2008). These two methods for differentiated instruction will allow all students ample
opportunity to follow and understand the necessary directions in order to be successful in the
classroom. In the Career and Technical Classrooms the teacher can demonstrate various
techniques, have students break down the steps, and then repeat the process to ensure that all
students have a thorough understanding prior to completing the various activities.
Sometimes communication disorders can cause some students to become overwhelmed
when given large tasks as large tasks can lead to the break down of effective communication.
Breaking large tasks into sub tasks can assist students in completing the task (Watson & Gable,
2008). This particular method is not affecting the curriculum it is solely affecting the method
that is used to deliver this information so that all students are able to efficiently and effectively
complete the required task. Using a combination of these techniques will allow all students to
feel as though they can be successful regardless of the presence of communication disorders.

Communication Disorders: Accommodations and Modifications
When assisting students with communication disorders it is necessary to provide some
necessary accommodations and modifications to allow for the continued success of the students
in the career and technical educational setting. Some accommodations that may be appropriate
for the classroom setting is allowing students to tape lectures so that students have the
opportunity to listen to the material again in order to continue to develop a deeper
understanding of the material, provide interpreters so that students have the ability to gain equal
access to the material, and encouraging the participation in all activities with the assistance of
partners when necessary (Science is for Everyone, 2012).
In the laboratory setting some accommodations and modifications that may allow all
students to be successful is providing additional time for students to complete labs, place the
student in closer proximity to the instructor so that the student can gain easy access to extra
assistance when necessary, use a peer-buddy system to assist the student as necessary to allow
the student to be successful and have access to assistance when the instructor is not available
(Science is for Everyone, 2012). With these accommodations and modifications in place in both
the classroom and laboratory the student has the ability to experience success in all vocational
courses.

Communication Disorders: Assessing and Evaluating Students
As students are progressing throughout the school year it is important to continually
assess and evaluate students to ensure that students are receiving adequate modification and
accommodations in order to learn the material. As a teacher it is imperative to maintain contact
with the case manager to be aware of changes within the students communication disorder to
ensure that you are providing appropriate accommodations and modifications.
When assessing and evaluating the student within the classroom, it may be important to
provide the student additional time to complete assessments in the most appropriate mode of
communication according to the students needs, design tests that are appropriate for the
students disorders, and ensure that the student fully understands the directions when
completing the test (Science is for Everyone, 2012). Using these assessment and evaluation
techniques will ensure that the students are able to adequately display their knowledge of the
material without being affected by their communication disorder. As a result the teacher will
gain a better understanding of areas of weakness within the student.

Communication Disorders: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Education
All students with disabilities require assistance transition from high school to post-
secondary endeavors. As career and technical educators we have a thorough understanding of
students strengths and needs in a vocational setting. As a result within the transition plan it is
important to provide guidance to these students regarding career choices (Ontario Association
for Families of Children with Communication Disorders, 2008). Students need to have a
thorough understanding of the possible appropriate career choices that he or she may pursue
following their years in high school. Without this guidance students will often struggle with
career choices and as a result will face higher unemployment rates. Based on the knowledge of
careers it is important to provide an outline of the skills and strategies that the student will
require to be successful in their post-secondary endeavors (Ontario Association for Families of
Children with Communication Disorders, 2008). This transition technique will allow the student
to work towards gaining the necessary employment and post-secondary skills that will allow
them to be successful.
Additionally, it is important for the student to be cognizant of speech and language
support beyond their secondary education (Ontario Association for Families of Children with
Communication Disorders, 2008). Students who have communication disorders need to
continually work to improve their communication skills and as a result it is essential for them to
understand what services are available to them to ensure their continued success.

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies:
There are several strategies that can be used to ensure that students with communication
disorders are able to experience success within the classroom. To begin it is essential to closely
monitor and record data involving the progress of the student towards their communication
goals. Communicating this knowledge to both the case manager and the families of the students
is essential in determining if the needs of the student are being met within the classroom. This
teaching strategy ensures that students are receiving the necessary accommodations and
modifications to ensure the continued success of the student (Boreson, 2006).

Some additional strategies that can be implemented into the classroom include:
Using extensive visuals so that students can gain a deeper understanding
Gain the students attention before speaking to ensure he/she is providing their
undivided attention
Face the student when talking so that the student is able to use multiple strategies to
understand the material
Speak clearly and at a normal pace
Be sure the student is seated close to the speaker
Allow time for the student to respond
Model good speech and language
Allow students to communicate as independently as possible utilizing their mode(s) of
communication (verbal, sign language, picture symbols, augmentative communication
device/voice output device, computer)
Ask student to repeat if you did not understand or express in a different way (show me,
point to)
Allow enough time for student to respond
Use visual supports (objects, photos, picture, symbols, gestures, or sign language) to
increase understanding
(Hayles & Mackey, 2012)

References:
American Speech-Language-Hearing Association. (1993). Definitions of Communication
Disorders and Variations Retrieved from http://www.asha.org/policy/RP1993-00208/
Bakken, J. P. (2012). Behavioral disorders: identification, assessment, and instruction of
students with EBD. Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Boreson, L. (2006). Transition to Adulthood: Resources for Teachers Working with Students
with Emotional Behavioral Disabilities. Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction.
Retrieved from http://dpi.wi.gov/sped/doc/ebdtransit.doc
Brice, A. (2011). Children with Communication Disorders. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/
Children's Hospital of Philadelphia. (2013). Communication Disorders. Retrieved from
http://www.chop.edu/healthinfo/communication-disorders.html
Emotional Disturbance. (2010). National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities.
Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/emotional
Hayles, C., & Mackey, J. (2012). Guidelines for Educating Students with Emotional
Disturbances. Connecticut State Department of Education. Retrieved November 18,
2013, from
http://www.sde.ct.gov/sde/lib/sde/pdf/publications/edguide/ed_guidelines.pdf
Kupper, L. (2008). Teaching Students with Emotional Disturbances: 8 Tips for Teachers.
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. Retrieved from
http://nichcy.org/teaching-students-with-e-d
Mastropieri, M. (2010, June 1). Learning Disabilities. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/learning-disabilities/
Matsuda, L. (2005). Best Practices. Teaching Students with Severe Emotional and Behavioral
Disorders: Best Practice Guide to Intervention. Retrieved from
https://www.k12.wa.us/SpecialEd/Families/pubdocs/bestpractices.pdf
National Center for Learning Disabilities. (2013). What Are Learning Disabilities?. NCLD.
Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/types-learning-disabilities/what-is-ld/what-are-
learning-disabilities
National Center for Learning Disabilties. (2013). Accommodations for Students With Learning
Disabilities. NCLD. Retrieved from http://www.ncld.org/students-
disabilities/accommodations-education/accommodations-students-learning-disabilities
National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. (2013). Post Primary- Technology Education.
Guidelines for teachers of students with mild learning disabilities: post-primary .
Retrieved http://www.ncca.ie/uploadedfiles/PP_Tech.pdf
Nichols, E. (2003). Transition Planning Resource Guide for Students With Learning
Disabilities. Learning Disabilities Association of Ontario. Retrieved from
http://www.access.resources.ldao.ca/main/documents/TransitionPlanningResourceGuide
4.pdf
Ontario Association for Families of Children with Communication Disorders. (2008).
Transition Planning Resource Guide. Retrieved from
http://www.oafccd.com/factshee/transitionplanning.pdf
Ormrod, J. (2010). Students with Learning Disabilities. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/students-learning-disabilities/
Psychology Today. (2012). Communication Disorders. Retrieved from
http://www.psychologytoday.com/conditions/communication-disorders
Science is for Everyone. (2012). Communication Disorder Strategies. Retrieved from
http://www.sesd.info/inclusion%20site/disabilities%20teaching%20strategies/Communicati
on%20Disorders/communication%20disorders%20strategies.htm
Smith, D. (2010). Emotional or Behavioral Disorders Defined. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/emotional-behavioral-disorders-defined/
Toolbox. (2013). Career and Technical Special Populations. Retrieved from
http://ctsp.tamu.edu/instructional-videos/overview-of-ebd/toolbox/
Watson, S., & Gable, R. (2008). 8 Using knowledge of student cognition to differentiate
instruction. Using knowledge of student cognition to differentiate instruction. Retrieved
from http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/every-learner/6693


Chapter 3: Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD);

Physical Disabilities; Health Impairments

Danielle J. Breese


Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Type, Definition and Prevalence

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a chronic condition affects children
from adolescence through adulthood and includes a combination of problems including
inattention, hyperactive, and impulsive behaviors (National Institute of Mental Health, 2010).
According to the National Institute of Mental Health children affected by ADHD have
developmental abnormalities in the brain where the brain continues to mature in a normal
pattern, but the brain matures approximately three years slower (2010). As a result of ADHD
the regions of the brain that are most heavily affected involve thinking paying attention, and
planning (National Institute of Mental Health, 2010).
ADHD presents itself through three different subtypes. Children affected with ADHD
may be recognized as hyperactive-impulsive meaning the majority of symptoms that the child
exhibits are categorized as hyperactivity-impulsivity, inattentive meaning majority of the
symptoms that the student displays are categorized as inattention or hyperactive-impulsive and
inattentive meaning the student exhibits a combination of the two symptoms (National Institute
of Mental Health, 2010). ADHD diagnoses are on the rise. In 2013 Approximately 11% of
children ages 4-17 were diagnosed with ADHD (Park, 2013).

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Disability Manifestations in the
Classroom
A student is who displays symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsivity will display specific
common behaviors in the classroom that include:
Becoming very impatient when forced to wait
Blurting out inappropriate comments, showing their emotions without restraint, and
acting without regard for consequences
Often interrupting conversations or others' activities
Fidgeting and squirming in their seats
Talking nonstop
Dashing around, touching or playing with everything
Inability to sit still and constantly moving
Inability to quietly complete tasks or activities.
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2010)
A student is who displays symptoms of inattention will display specific common
behaviors in the classroom that include:
Becoming easily distracted, missing details, forgetting things, and frequently switching
from one activity to another
Difficulty focusing attention on organizing and completing a task
Difficulty completing or turning in homework assignments, often losing things (e.g.,
pencils, toys, assignments) needed to complete tasks or activities
Not listening when spoken to
Struggling with quickly and accurately processing information
Struggling to follow simple instructions.
(National Institute of Mental Health, 2010)
A student is who display symptoms of hyperactivity-impulsivity and inattention will
display a combination of the two lists of behaviors. The following video summarizes
manifestations in the classrooms and feelings of various students affected by ADHD
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KKqyvAQHb7w
Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Inclusion Tips
Students with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder often struggle in the academic
setting and often times struggle significantly in academic classrooms. Students with ADHD
enrolled in career and technical education classes sometimes have an advantage in CTE
classrooms as these classes often require hands-on activities that are able to maintain the interest
of the students for more sustained periods of time. To begin establishing an inclusive
environment it is important to first gain a thorough understanding of ADHD and the effects it
has on teaching and learning (North Dakota Education Department, 2011). Once you have a
thorough understanding of ADHD it is important to get to know the individual and their unique
needs, this is done through ensuring that there is adequate communication between the teacher,
parent and case managers. Efficient communication ensures that educational professionals are
meeting all of the needs of the student.
Often times students with ADHD have difficulty socially connecting with their peers, as
other students in the classroom do not necessarily understand their unique behaviors. As a result
it is important to provide a structured environment so that all students experience as few
distractions as possible and are able to connect and work with each other. Students with ADHD
benefit from education in structured environment (North Dakota Education Department, 2011).
As a result it is important to clearly establish and post the classroom rules. This technique
ensures that all students are aware of and follow the necessary classroom procedures (North
Dakota Education Department, 2011). Additionally, placing the students close the source of
instruction is equally important as it allows all students equal opportunity to access the
information with few distractions (North Dakota Education Department, 2011). Additionally
students with ADHD heavily benefit from providing them with incentives in order to engage in
good behavior in the classroom (North Dakota Education Department, 2011). Again, the good
behavior game is prime example of providing incentives for the entire class to engage in
positive behaviors (Toolbox, 2013). In the good behavior game, as a class students are
responsible for each others behavior and are given various incentives for engaging in positive
behaviors over an extended period of time. Good student behavior in a Career and Technical
Education classroom is extremely important to ensuring the safety of all students and personnel
in the classroom.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with ADHD it is important to use differentiated instruction to
ensure the success of all students in career and technical education courses. There are a variety
of techniques that can be used to differentiate instruction that benefits students with ADHD as
well as all other students in the classroom. One of the main struggles for students with ADHD is
the ability to follow directions. Breaking down the directions and presenting the directions to
students in multiple forms will allow them to gain a deeper understanding of the teacher
expectations (Lerner & Johns, 2009). One example of clear directions that a teacher may use
when explaining the directions is providing the students with both written copies of the
directions on either a power point or handout as well as oral directions. As teachers, we can
further assist the students by drawing attention to important aspects of the directions by
underlining and/or bolding the information that students need to pay particular attention to.
Additionally, teachers can model the directions to provide even more detail in order to ensure
adequate understanding. In Career and Technical education, frequently demonstrating the
various tasks assists students in gaining a deeper understanding of hands-on activities as
students are able to view a concrete example of teachers expectations.
Students with ADHD should have a variety of tasks to choose from in order to
demonstrate their understanding of topics within the classroom. Many of these tasks should
include tactile/kinesthetic learning (Lerner & Johns, 2009). Tactile and kinesthetic learning
helps to keep these students occupied as well as interested in the material. When students are
given choices in the classroom setting they are able to choose activities that allow them to cater
to their individual strengths which then increases their chances of success in the educational
setting. Once students have chosen their desired tasks it is important to assist the students in
breaking larger tasks down into smaller tasks that are easier to complete. As students complete
the required tasks they can mark them off on a checklist (Lerner & Johns, 2009). This will
provide the student with incentives as they then see that they are able to complete the tasks in
small increments. Students with ADHD need frequent breaks and the ability to move around in
order to continue their productivity in the classroom.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with ADHD there are specific
accommodations and modifications that need to be incorporated into the classroom to allow
these students to be successful. Some accommodations that Career and Technical Education
teachers may use in order to ensure the success of students with ADHD is through providing
students with plans, checklists, and logs to allow students to monitor their own behavior as well
as monitor their completing of various tasks (Toolbox, 2013). Some examples of CTE specific
logs, checklists, and behavioral incentives can be downloaded and used from the following
website: http://ctsp.tamu.edu/instructional-videos/overview-of-ebd/toolbox/.
Some additional accommodations and modifications that can be used for students with
ADHD in the classroom setting include:
Providing brief academic tasks with immediate feedback through breaking larger tasks
into smaller tasks
Providing peer tutoring opportunities to provide students with extra assistance to
improve academic outcomes
Clearly identifying important aspects of the lessons
Modifying the pace of various assignments to meet the needs of individual learner
Providing opportunity for controlled movement throughout the lesson (trip to the office,
watering the animals, feeding the animals, watering the plants and alternating activities)
(LD Online, 2010)

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Assessing and Evaluating Students
Assessment and evaluation are an important aspect in the academic advancement of
students with ADHD. Many of the modifications and accommodations within assessments and
evaluations are very similar to the accommodations and modifications that the students receive
in the classroom. Any large assignment should be broken down into smaller pieces, students
may be given extra time in order to complete assessments and evaluations, and students may be
permitted to use calculators and information sheets as these accommodations can assist students
who struggle maintaining attention on various activities (BC Ministry of Education, 2011).
Additionally, the type of assessments and evaluations that students receive has a direct
impact on student performance. Students with ADHD are typically tactile/kinesthetic learners
and perform best on assessments and evaluations that focus on hands-on application of material
(BC Ministry of Education, 2011). Most assessments in Career and Technical education are
delivered in using a hands-on approach, as these are the skills that the industry desires. In
agricultural education courses students are evaluated on their ability to effectively vaccinate
animals, halter/handle/restrain various animal species, complete various types of floral
arrangements, cut metal to pre-determined sizes, and run beads using various types of welders
and electrodes. As a result the type of assessments in Career and Technical education are the
types of assessments that are most beneficial to students with ADHD. With a few of the
mentioned accommodations students with ADHD can successfully complete all assessments
and evaluations in agricultural education.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Transitioning Students to Post-
Secondary Endeavors:
As students with ADHD begin moving throughout the high school level it is important
to consider the transition that these students will face as they enter adulthood. To begin the
process students with ADHD need to first determine assess their individual strengths and needs
to determine the suitable careers. This assessment can be done through enrolling in various
career and technical education courses throughout high school. Taking these type of courses
will allow students to gain an understanding of the required skills within various industries.
After students have determined suitable careers and made a choice between post-secondary
education and entering the work force, students have specific needs that need to be fulfilled in
order to ease the transition period.
To begin the transition period, it is important to educate students with ADHD about their
disability, so that the students have a thorough understanding of the disability and how it affects
them both professionally and educationally (Goodwin, 2012). As students gain a deeper
understanding of themselves they will be able to more adequately advocate for themselves and
discuss their needs with their future educators and employers. Additionally, students need to be
aware of methods to research and contact disability support services within the community and
educational settings so that they are able to receive any necessary services (Goodwin, 2012).
Contacting these services will allow them to discreetly receive the necessary services to
accommodate for their various needs.
Once students learn about their disability and advocating skills, students with ADHD
need to develop study and work strategies in order to be successful in all future endeavors
(Goodwin, 2012). This can be done through teaching students how to break larger assignments
and tasks into smaller segments. This technique allows them to see a series of smaller
assignments and tasks that they are capable of completing. Finally, teaching students with
ADHD scheduling techniques shows them how to most effectively use their allotted time
(Goodwin, 2012). Students with ADHD need to be explicitly taught how to schedule their days
so that they do not spend their time as productively as possible.

Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): Successful Teaching and Learning
Strategies:
In order to best meet the needs of students with ADHD there are several effective
teaching strategies that teachers can implement in order to allow students with ADHD to
experience success in the classroom these strategies include:
Preparing students for the daily lesson by providing an outline of the daily activities
Reviewing previous lessons and activities to ensure adequate understanding
Providing clear objectives so that students have a clear understanding of the lessons
concepts
Providing clear behavioral expectations so that they understand how they are supposed
to behave throughout the lesson
Simplifying all instructions in order to increase overall understanding.
Maintaining consistency in the classroom so that students understand expectations
Supporting student participation by assisting them with staying on task
Providing visual examples when teaching various lessons
Creating interactive lessons that encourage student participation
Highlighting key points of the lessons so that students know the areas of focus
Using assistive technology in order to affectively engage students
Check all student assignments to ensure adequate understanding
Preview the next lesson so that students understand what is coming next
(U.S. Department of Education, 2008)
Implementing these teaching strategies into the classroom will allow for allow the
students to experience positive learning experiences that will make them want to come to class
and succeed.

Physical Disabilities: Type, Definition and Prevalence
Students with physical disabilities struggle with common mobility issues and/or other
physical impairments (Department of Disability Services, 2013). Physical disabilities affect
students to many different degrees some students with physical disabilities will be extremely
noticeable, where as other students with physical disabilities will hardly be noticeable. Physical
disabilities affect the strength, speed, endurance, coordination, and dexterity that are necessary
for full participation in classroom activities (Disability Services, 2013).
There are two main subtypes of physical disabilities these include Neuromotor
impairments and Muscular/Skeletal conditions (Smith, 2010). Neuromotor impairments are
caused by damage to the central nervous system, which limits muscular control and movement
(Smith, 2010). Muscular/Skeletal conditions affect students limbs and muscles but the cause is
not neurological (Smith, 2010). Students with physical disabilities include students who use
wheel chairs, partially or fully paralyzed students, amputees, students with major injuries,
students affected by arthritis, students diagnosed muscular dystrophy, students with active
sickle cell disease and students diagnosed multiple sclerosis, (Department of Disability
Services, 2013). Approximately .14% of students are affected by physical disabilities
(Rosenberg, 2010).

Physical Disabilities: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
Students with Physical Disabilities have problems that are exclusively medical, and as a
result these disabilities do not affect their intellectual capabilities. As a result physical
disabilities will manifest themselves in the classroom in a variety of ways depending upon the
physical limitations of the individual students. Students with physical disabilities face a variety
of physical limitations. These limitations include:
Amputations
Speech and Hearing impairments
Decreased hand-eye coordination
Neck or head movement limitations
Spasticity, pain, or a lack of coordination
Decreased endurance and physical stamina
Limited use of various regions of their body
An inability to walk without assistance from canes, wheelchairs, and other devices
(Taormina-Weiss, 2012).
Some other the manifestations in the classroom as a result of these limitations include
difficulty writing, taking notes, and exams, the ability for students to sit in a standard desk,
participating in labs where lab tables are difficult to reach, and ability to attend classes that are
not wheelchair accessible (Department of Disability Services, 2013).

Physical Disabilities: Inclusion Tips
Often times it can be quite difficult for students with physical disabilities to experience
inclusion within the career and technical education setting. However, implementing specific
techniques will allow them to experience full inclusion. To begin the inclusion process all CTE
teachers who are working with students with physical disabilities should have a thorough
understanding of the disability so that he/she is able to properly respond if the student needs
medical assistance due to their disability (Wadsworth & Knight, 2008). Once teachers have a
thorough understanding of the disability students area able to safely move into an inclusive CTE
classroom. Additionally, students with physical disabilities want to feel as though they are the
same as all of the other students in the classroom and want to receive social acceptance. This
involves specific arrangement of the classroom, where students are working cooperatively in
pre-determined groups according to seating arrangements (Wadsworth & Knight, 2008). This
will increase the social acceptance of all students.
Finally it is important to treat all students equally as they enter into the classroom. This
means treating the student with physical disabilities the same as all other students. When equal
treatment is viewed students will feel as though they accepted members of the class. However it
is equally important to create a classroom environment that allows easy access despite their
disability (Wadsworth & Knight, 2008). The CTE classroom should be arranged to allow the
student to gain easy access to all areas of the classroom as well as all necessary and required
materials. Students with physical disabilities are cognitively capable of completing the various
tasks, however, they may experience physical limitations when it comes to completing various
assignments. Providing students with physical disabilities the support of other students in the
classroom by providing assistance in completing tasks that they are physically incapable of will
allow the student to fell as though they are an accepted member of the class that the other
students enjoy and respect (Wadsworth & Knight)

Physical Disabilities: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with physical disabilities it is important to ensure that they have
equal access to the course information and materials that all other students have. In order to
ensure this practice it is important to differentiate instruction in order to allow them to be
successful. To begin to differentiate instruction in a CTE classroom, assess students to
determine the modality of learning that best suits them as individuals and as a class. Once you
have determined students preferred learning styles, lessons should be designed in order to meet
the varied learning styles of the students.
When dealing with students with physical disabilities it is important to provide lessons
using multiple forms of media including books, audio, data displays, images, simulations and
concept maps. The use of assistive technology can be extremely beneficial to students with
physical disabilities, as it will still allow them equal opportunity to access the information (Ohio
Department of Education, 2011). Additionally as the lesson is progressing students should be
allowed to use multiple means of action and expression in order to express their knowledge
regarding the content. This can be done through the use of assistive technology and removing
all possible physical barriers in order to allow the success of the students (Ohio Department of
Education, 2011). Students with physical disabilities should be able to receive equal access to
all content materials and through differentiated instruction practices, and successful planning
this is a strong possibility.
Additionally, strategic grouping is another important aspect of differentiated instruction
when working with students with physical disabilities. Offering students the ability to work in
cooperative groups, on authentic project based assignments and providing clear expectations
can allow students to all help each other in order to be successful during the learning activity
(Ohio Department of Education, 2011).

Physical Disabilities; Accommodations and Modifications
In order to ensure the success of students with physical disabilities in the CTE classroom
it is important to create specific accommodations and modifications to the content. Students
with specific physical disabilities may struggle to take notes in the classroom. There are
multiple ways in which these students can gain access to the notes and materials despite their
disabilities. Some examples of accommodations that these students may receive is having
access to a note taker, assistive technology, electronic copies, or tape record of any notes that
the students are required to take (Council of Ontario Universities, 2013). The following video
discusses examples of assistive technology that students can use in the classroom to assist
students with physical disabilities (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zRN-NtwYJPM)
Additionally, students with physical disabilities should have access to specific seating in
the classroom based upon their individual needs (Council of Ontario Universities, 2013). This
preferential seating may include seating that is relatively easy to access, and seating accessible
to specific technology or views of classroom materials. The seating arrangements should be
based upon the individual needs of the students.
Outside of the physical classroom, students with physical disabilities need additional
flexibility in the classroom environment. Other accommodations that student with physical
disabilities may require is flexibility in scheduling and due dates of assignments and
assessments (Council of Ontario Universities, 2013). Students with physical disabilities may
require extra time to complete assignments and it is important to allow the students the extra
time in order to successfully complete the various assignments. If extensions are not adequate
accommodations students may also require specific modifications. In this case you may need to
discuss specific assignments with the students to determine appropriate methods for student
participation (Council of Ontario Universities, 2013) Students with physical disabilities may
have unique needs so it may be appropriate to talk students prior to assignments in order to
create appropriate accommodations and modifications.

Physical Disabilities: Assessing and Evaluating Students
When assessing and evaluating students with physical disabilities it is extremely
important to provide them with reasonable opportunities to demonstrate their knowledge
regarding the material that has been presented in the classroom. In order to accomplish this
endeavor, specific techniques for assessing and evaluating these students need to be
implemented. There are many different areas within the assessment and evaluation process that
may create struggles for students with physical disabilities. When students are taking an exam
these students may have access to a reader, translator or oral examinations. The chosen method
should be based upon the specific needs of the individual students (ADCET, 2013).
Additionally, students may have access to assistive technology as well as a quiet area in
which to take their exams (ADECT, 2013). This will allow students to take their exams without
the fear of distracting other students from their exams, while still having access to the necessary
technology to allow them to be successful. Finally, students may require extra time to complete
their assessments (ADECT, 2013). Students with physical disabilities may require extra time in
order to complete their assignments based upon physical needs of accessing dispersed materials,
preforming extensive research, completing exams, and writing papers. The students may be
capable of completing this work, but require extra time in order to be successful and turn in
assessments that they can be proud of.

Physical Disabilities: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
As students with physical disabilities begin to transition out of high school it is
extremely important to provide specific transition services to ensure the success of these
students as they leave high school. To begin the process it is extremely important to teach the
student self-advocacy skills this includes educating the students about their strengths,
preferences and needs (West, 2006). This process will help students with physical disabilities to
understand the services that they need as well as their strengths so that they continue to head in
the correct direction following high school.
After students learn self-advocacy skills it is important to teach students with physical
disabilities how to obtain the necessary documentation in order to inform both employers and
universities about the their particular disability (West, 2006). As students progress through the
transition process they will learn skills about independence as well as gain knowledge about
obtaining the necessary accommodations and modifications that they require in order to be
successful in all endeavors. Students with physical disabilities need to learn to function
independently, while still recognizing the assistance that they require (West, 2006).
Above all within the transition process it is important to teach the students that they have
self-worth and are capable of completing the various tasks (West, 2006). This is an extremely
important endeavor as occasionally students with physical disabilities, may suffer from low
self-esteem and it is important to work through increasing their self-esteem and allowing them
to see everything that they are capable of doing on their own.

Physical Disabilities: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
There are several useful strategies that are extremely helpful when teaching a classroom
that contains students with physical disabilities. When implementing these strategies into the
classroom students with physical disabilities will feel as though they are able to achieve success
and will feel as though they are accepted members of the classroom.
Arrange the classroom so that everyone is able to adequately move around the classroom
and gain access to all of the required materials.
Implement the buddy system so that another student is able to assist the students with
physical disabilities when the need arises.
Adjust and modify specific assignments in order to meet the needs of the students and to
ensure the continued success of students in the classroom.
Talk to the student to determine their individual needs.
Provide the necessary assistive technology so that the students are able to complete all
necessary assignments
Be flexible with teaching strategies and accept suggestions in order to improve teaching
strategies to meet the needs of specific students.
(Torreno, 2012)

Health Impairments: Type, Definition and Prevalence
According to IDEA Health Impairments includes students who have limited strength,
vitality, or alertness, including a heightened alertness to environmental stimuli that is the result
of chronic or acute health problems (Allyn, 2010). There are two types of health disabilities that
include both chronic and infectious diseases (Allyn, 2010). All children experiences illnesses
from time to time, however chronic illnesses are consistent and on going and adversely affect
the educational experience of children. Some examples of chronic illnesses include Diabetes,
Asthma, Epilepsy, heart conditions, Hemophilia, lead poisoning, Leukemia, Nephritis,
Rheumatic Fever, Sickle Cell Anemia, and Tourette syndrome (NICHCY, 2012). An example
of an infectious disease includes HIV/AIDS. According to the U.S. Department of Education
approximately 1.4% of students are affected by Health Impairments, and receive special
education services (2012).

Health Impairments: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
Unless the condition has a neurological component there is very little impact on overall
learning. However, there are specific manifestations that occur in the classroom over time.
These students as mentioned in IDEA may have limited strength, vitality, and alertness in the
classroom due to their health impairments. Depending upon the specific health impairment there
can be many different symptoms that the child may display so it is important to thoroughly
research and understand the specific health impairments of your students.
Typically students with health impairments require the assistance of school health
services throughout the school day (NICHCY, 2012) As a result the student may need to make
frequent visits to the nurse or other qualified individuals in order to receive the necessary
services in order to maintain their health. Additionally, due to many health complications these
students may experience frequent, sometimes long-term absences from the classroom
(NICHCY, 2012). Consequently, these students may receive homebound instruction while they
are recovering, prior to them returning to the Career and Technical Education Classroom.
Health Impairments: Inclusion Tips
Students with health impairments want to be treated equal to all other students in CTE
classrooms. When as mentioned earlier when a student with a specific health impairment is
enrolled in the CTE classroom, a responsible educator will research the health impairment in
order to provide the appropriate education for that particular student (National Association of
Special Education Teachers, 2007). Additionally, communication between the CTE teacher as
well as the special education team is important a important aspect of the inclusion process.
Going through this process will allow all involved individuals to have a thorough understanding
of changes that have occurred throughout the school year regarding the individual with health
impairments (National Association of Special Education Teachers, 2007). With a thorough
understanding of the health impairment teachers will be able to adequately meet the needs of the
student.
Additionally, it is equally important to modify and adapt the school environment to
allow the student to participate in the classroom as safely as possible (National Association of
Special Education Teachers, 2007). Often times, the students are able to fully participate in
CTE classrooms with some adaptations to the environment. However, it is also important to
provide a school experience that is as normal as possible (National Association of Special
Education Teachers, 2007). Frequently, teachers will feel the need to be over protective of
students with health impairments. These students just want to be accepted members of the
classroom and participate to the fullest extent possible.
Above all else students with health impairments want to feel accepted by their peers. As
a result it important to teach all students in the classroom to accept all other individuals and not
judge each other based upon the presence of disabilities. This can be done through strategic
grouping and creating cooperative activities where all students need to work together to
complete a task in order to succeed.

Health Impairments: Differentiating Instruction
Students with health impairments typically do not need to be taught anything outside of
the standard curriculum. The biggest differentiation techniques that may be used for students
with health impairments are altering the classroom routines and procedures. These include
giving students extra time to get to class, allowing breaks, and assigning a buddy to the student
to assist them in case of emergencies (National Association of Special Education Teachers,
2007). These small changes in the classroom routine are the best method that can be used to
differentiate instruction for students with health impairments, as it will allow them to be
successful. Despite the small change for students with health impairments it is still important to
differentiate instruction for students with health impairments as you would all other students in
order to meet individual needs and to allow for the highest level of learning to take place.

Health Impairments: Accommodations and Modifications
The biggest issues that students with health impairments face are attendance based. As a
result one of the most beneficial accommodations that can be provided to students with
disabilities is flexibility (University of Washington, 2004). Additionally, providing a clear
outline of classroom activities, assignments and assessments posted on the web can allow them
to acquire important information without being physically present in the class (University of
Washington, 2004). Keeping students informed of ongoing and upcoming assignments and
activities is essential to allowing their continued success in the classroom. Some other
accommodations that may benefit students with health impairments includes:
Providing students with copies of notes
Videotaped class sessions
Flexible attendance requirements
Providing assignments in electronic formats
An environment that minimizes fatigue and injury
Required assistive technology
(University of Washington, 2004).

Health Impairments: Assessing and Evaluating Students
Students with health impairments face many difficulties during the assessment and
evaluation process. There are many different reasons that is can pose a challenge to the students.
One main reason is that the students frequently face sporadic attendance. However, the students
are still responsible for the assessments and evaluation. One way that assessments and
evaluations can be implemented to ensure the success of students with health impairments is
through providing them with take home assessments that they can complete outside of the
school. This will allow the students to work on the assessments and evaluations that will work
for them. If the assessment or evaluation involves a hands-on component such as a project with
the animals or a welding project providing the students with additional time, may also allow
them to be successful. Some other methods of administering assessments and evaluations to
students with health impairments is:
Allowing the students extra time to take the assessments and complete the evaluations
Delivering exams on the internet
Providing alternative times and locations for taking exams
(University of Washington, 2004)

Health Impairments: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
When creating transition plans for students with health impairments it is important to
consider many different aspects of the transition plan. These aspects include:
Job Training and Employment: Students need to gain skills within their area of interest
in order to begin to develop the necessary skills in order to succeed in the work
environment
Independent Living Skills: Students need to develop independent living skills that will
allow them to live and be successful with their disability
Leisure and Recreating: Students need to develop skills learning how to manage leisure
and recreational time in order to keep themselves safe
Health Care Management: Students need to develop skills managing their health and
understand how their healthcare changes as they enter adulthood.
(Berry, 2010).

Health Impairments: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
Some strategies that can be used in classroom to teach students with health impairments
include:
Building a caring and nurturing classroom environment
Teach students about the health impairment
Use of visuals
Hands-on learning
Cooperative learning and partner work
Allowing for frequent and positive feedback
Provide flexibility in scheduling and due dates of assignments
Help the student to build on their strengths in order to be successful
Provide frequent breaks to students
(NICHY, 2012)

References:
Allyn, P. (2010). Physical or Health Disabilities Defined. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/physical-health-disabilities-defined/
Australian Disability Clearinghouse on Education and Training. (2013). Teaching & Assessment
Strategies for Students with Physical Impairments. Retrieved from
http://www.adcet.edu.au/View.aspx?id=5774
Berry, D. (2010). Oklahoma State Department of Special Education Services. Other Health
Impairments: A guide for supporting children and youth served in public schools.
Retrieved from http://ok.gov/sde/sites/ok.gov.sde/files/SpecEd-OHIGuide.pdf
British Columbia Ministry of Education. (2011). Teaching students with attention
deficit/hyperactivity disorder: A resource guide for teachers. Retrieved from
http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/adhd/
Council of Ontario Universities. (2013). Teaching Students with Physical Disabilities. Retrieved
from http://www.accessiblecampus.ca/educators/teaching-tips/physical-disabilities/
Department of Disability Services. (2013). Faculty Guide: Teaching & Interacting with
Students
with Disabilities. Retrieved from http://disability.tamu.edu/facultyguide/teaching#Ortho
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2013). Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity
Disorder (AD/HD). Retrieved, from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/adhd#school
Goodwin, J. (2012, August 17). Teens With ADHD May Need Help Making Transition to
College. Health Day News. Retrieved from http://consumer.healthday.com/kids-health-
information-23/attention-deficit-disorder-adhd-news-50/teens-with-adhd-may-need-
help-making-transition-to-college-667646.html
Kupper, L. (2008). Teaching Students with Emotional Disturbances: 8 Tips for Teachers.
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. Retrieved from
http://nichcy.org/teaching-students-with-e-d
LD Online. (2010). Helping the Student with ADHD in the Classroom: Strategies for
Teachers. Retrieved from http://www.ldonline.org/article/5911
Lerner, J., & Johns, B. (2009). Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and related disorders. In
Learning disabilities and related mild disabilities: Characteristics,teaching strategies,
and new directions (11
th
edition, pp. 217-244). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt
Publishing Company.
National Association of Special Education Teachers. (2007). Comprehensive Overview of Other
Health Impairments. National Association of Special Education Teachers. Retrieved
from
http://www.naset.org/2278.0.html
National Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. (2012).Other Health Impairment.
Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/ohi
National Institute of Mental Health. (2010). Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD).
Retrieved from http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/topics/attention-deficit-hyperactivity-
disorder-adhd/index.shtml
North Dakota Education Department. (2011). Strategies for Students with ADHD.
Education.com. Retrieved November from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/add-adhd-strategies-tips/
Ohio Department of Education. (2011). Strategies for Diverse Learners Using the UDL Model
Focus on Students with Disabilities. Retrieved from
http://education.ohio.gov/getattachment/Topics/Academic-Content-Standards/New-
Learning-Standards/Strategies-and-Resources-for-Diverse-Learners-Focus-on-Students-
with-Disabilities.pdf.aspx
Park, A. (2013, April 2). Understanding the Rise in ADHD Diagnoses: 11% of U.S. Children
are Affected. TIME Magazine, 243. Retrieved from
http://healthland.time.com/2013/04/02/understanding-the-rise-in-adhd-diagnoses-11-of-u-s-
children-are-affected/
Rosenberg, M. (2010, July 20). FAQ Sheet About Students with TBI, Physical Disabilities, and
Other Health Impairments. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/faq-TBI-physical-health-impairments/
Smith, D. (2010, July 20). Physical or Health Disabilities Defined. Education.com. Retrieved
from http://www.education.com/reference/article/physical-health-disabilities-defined/
Taormina-Weiss, W. (2012, January 15). Disability, Mobility Impairments and Students with
Disabilities. Disabled World. Retrieved fromhttp://www.disabled-
world.com/disability/education/students.php
Toolbox. (2013). Career and Technical Special Populations. Retrieved from
http://ctsp.tamu.edu/instructional-videos/overview-of-ebd/toolbox/
Torreno, S. (2012). Teaching Strategies for Students With Physical Disabilities: Classroom
Setup and More. Retrieved November from
http://www.brighthubeducation.com/special-ed-physical-disabilities/51778-teaching-
strategies-for-students-with-physical-disabilities/
University of Washington. (2004). The Faculty Room. Health Impairments. Retrieved
from http://www.washington.edu/doit/Faculty/Strategies/Disability/Health/
U.S. Department of Education. (2012). Students with Disabilities. National Center for
Education
Statistics. Retrieved November 22, 2013, from
http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64
U.S. Department of Education. (2008). Teaching Students with Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder: Instructional Strategies and Practices. Retrieved from
http://www2.ed.gov/rschstat/research/pubs/adhd/adhd-teaching-2006.pdf
Wadsworth, D., & Knight, D. (2008). Intervention in School and Clinic. Preparing the
Inclusion
Classroom for students with Special Physical and Health Needs. Retrieved from
http://www.sagepub.com/kwilliamsstudy/articles/Wadsworth.pdf
West, L. (2006, January 2). Advising High School Students with Disabilities on Postsecondary
Options. Guidance and Career Counselor's Toolkit. Retrieved from http://c3n-
dc.com/uploads/201308221605477422_Guidance_Counselor_Toolkit_for_Students_wit
h_Disabilities.pdf


Chapter 4: Visual Impairments; Hearing Impairments; Intellectual Disability;
and Other Severe Disabilities
Danielle Breese, Barbara Gorbaty, Patrick Hall

Visual Impairments: Type, Definition and Prevalence:
Visual impairments include students that are both legally blind as well as those with
limited vision (Mastropieri, 2010). Students who are legally blind and have low vision include
the population of students that are still able to learn to read using books that contain large print,
while students with limited vision also referred to as totally blind learn to read using the Braille
system and through hearing audiotapes (Mastropieri, 2010). Approximately .04% of students
are diagnosed as having visual impairments (Mastropeiri, 2010).
Visual impairments include students with glaucoma (excessive pressure of the eyeball),
cataracts (clouding of the lens), diabetic retinopathy (lack of blood to the retina), coloboma
(parts of the retina improperly formed), retinitis pigmentosa (degeneration of the retina), and
retinopathy of prematurity (excessive oxygen to premature infants), strabismus (cross-eyed),
and nystagmus (rapid involuntary eye movements) (Mastropieri, 2010).

Visual Impairments: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom:
A student with visual disabilities will often display common symptoms win the
classroom that include:
Delayed language development
Relying upon tactile and auditory senses
Engaging in repetitive behaviors (head weaving and body rocking)
Variance in mobility skills
Additionally, please refer to the following website for some additional signs that a
student may be experiencing vision loss. http://www.mass.gov/eohhs/docs/dmr/signs-of-vision-
loss.pdf.

Visual Impairments: Inclusion Tips:
Students with visual impairments often struggle in the academic setting and it is
important to ensure that they feel as though they are accepted members of the classroom.
Students with visual impairments enrolled in CTE courses may have some learning advantages
as they are able to use their other senses to complete the various hands-on activities. Despite the
advantage in CTE classrooms it is important to ensure that the students have equal access to the
course materials and content. Here are some specific tips to include in the classroom:
Get to know the students and their unique needs
Adapt the physical environment by clearing aisle ways
Familiarize all students with the physical arrangement of the classroom
Notify students of any changes to the physical environment
Enlarge and enhance printed materials to allow all students to easily read any postings
Ensure that all materials have easy visibility
Translate all materials to braille
Use models to enhance student understanding
Provide explicit oral directions for all activities

Visual Impairments: Differentiating Instruction:
When teaching students with visual impairments it is important to use differentiated
instruction to ensure the success of all students in career and technical education courses. There
are a variety of techniques that can be used to differentiate instruction that benefits students
with visual impairments as well as all other students in the classroom. The best way to reach all
learners including those with visual impairments is through presenting information using
multiple forms of media, multiple examples, and using multiple modalities (Bakken, 2012).
This technique will allow students with visual impairments multiple opportunities to gain access
to the material in a format that is most suitable to their individual needs.
Additionally, teachers should focus on the main topics within a unit. Teachers should
not expect all individuals to master all of the small details within a unit. It is more important to
focus on the main ideas within a unit so that students can gain the necessary required
knowledge.
Finally, students should be able to demonstrate their knowledge using different
should have the opportunity to model their acquired skills using different techniques
(Bakken,2012). For example, in regards to agricultural sciences, students may have the
opportunity to demonstrate their knowledge about vaccinations through oral explanations,
creating a presentation, or another appropriate alternative that may not require as much vision as
writing a paper. Through this assignment all students are demonstrating their acquired
knowledge regarding vaccinations; however, each student is presenting their knowledge using a
different format. Through this method of differentiated instruction all students are able to build
upon their strengths.
Visual Impairments: Accommodations and Modifications:
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with visual impairments these are
specific accommodations and modifications that need to be incorporated into the classroom to
allow the students to be successful. Some accommodations and modifications that Career and
Technical Education teachers may use in order to ensure the success of students with visual
impairments is through the following methods:
Familiarize the student with the classroom and laboratories
Keep classroom and laboratories free of clutter
Be specific with descriptive language when locating persons and objects
Provide the student with a peer/buddy system to assist when needed
Provide preferential seating in order to provide them with the best visibility
Provide appropriate assistive technology to allow the students equal access to the course
content and materials
Verbalize all notes and instructions
Provide extra time to students in order to complete assignments
Use bold, sharp print for all assignments and notes
Provide students with Braille copies when necessary
Provide audio tapes of readings
(Carney, 2003).
The following video discusses additional adaptations and evaluations that can be used
for students with visual impairments http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZILPb-qT-Y.

Visual Impairments: Assessing and Evaluating Students:
Assessments and evaluations can be especially difficult for students with visual
impairments. As is similar with many other disabilities it is important to consider each students
unique needs. The following strategies may be useful for students with visual impairments in
order to increase the quality of their work:
Allow additional time for completing assessments and evaluations
Break the assessment and evaluation up to complete various portions on different days
Reduce the number of required examples that will demonstrate student understanding
Reduce the number of questions to be answered
Provide alternative assessment methods
Provide a scribe
Provide oral assessments and evaluations
(Carney, 2003)

Visual Impairments: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors:
As students with visual impairments begin to move throughout the high school level it is
important to consider the transition that these students will face as they enter adulthood.
Students with visual impairments have additional educational needs that need to be addressed in
order to ensure their success. The first educational need is developing visual efficiency, and
providing techniques and skills for students to develop their limited vision as efficiently as
possible (Carney, 2003). This process will allow the students to use visual techniques that they
had not previously been aware of to assist them in learning process. Next students with visual
impairments need practice in concept development in order for them to create connections
between vocabulary and concrete objects and abstract ideas (Carney, 2003). This will help them
to continue to develop their vocabulary and knowledge in order to be successful past high
school. Students also need to develop their listening skills to develop their ability to learn
through listening (Carney, 2003). This knowledge will allow students to gain access to visual
materials and to develop their other senses in order to assist them in learning process.
Additionally, these students need to develop knowledge regarding their specific eye conditions
so that they are able to comfortably talk to and educate others about their condition (Carney,
2003). These students also need to continue to develop their motor skills in order to provide
them with the highest level of mobility that they can achieve (Carney, 2003).
Above all else, it is important to teach students with visual impairments socialization,
living, and career skills in order to ensure their continued success beyond the classroom
(Carney, 2003). Socialization skills are extremely important, as they need to learn specific
interaction skills that they may not gain from observing the behavior of others. Additionally, it
is important for students with visual impairments to learn how to take care of themselves and
not rely on others (Carney, 2003). Finally, students need to learn career skills and this is done
through analyzing their strengths and needs and developing skills within that particular field in
order to ensure their on-going success.

Visual Impairments: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies:
In order to best meet the needs of students with visual impairments there are several effective
teaching strategies that teachers can use in order to allow students with visual impairments with
to experience success in the classroom. These strategies include:
Develop a program plan to determine the appropriate needs of individual students
Provide appropriate accommodations and modifications to ensure student success
Prepare appropriate handouts and reading materials for students according to individual
student needs (e.g. enlarged print and braille)
Talk while you teach to ensure that students do not miss visual cues
Provide real life examples to provide appropriate concrete examples in order to ensure
understanding and organization of ideas
Provide individual explanation to ensure student comprehension
Pre-teach vocabulary and key concepts to orient students
Encourage quality over quantity when students are completing assignments
(Carney, 2003).

Hearing Impairments: Type, Definition and Prevalence:
Students with hearing impairments include students that have hearing impairments that
include mild, moderate, severe, and profound depending upon how well a person is able to hear
sound intensities and frequencies (NICHCY, 2010). Hearing impairments include students that
are hard of hearing as well as deaf (Scruggs, 2010). Students that are hard of hearing have the
ability to hear speech tones with appropriate hearing aids, while deaf individuals are unable to
hear even with appropriate assistance (Scruggs, 2010). Approximately .11% of school-aged
students are diagnosed as having hearing impairments (Scruggs, 2010).
There are multiple causes of hearing impairments that include heredity, prenatal
infections, ear infections, meningitis, head trauma, prematurity, and oxygen deprivation
(Scruggs, 2010). There are four types of hearing impairments that include conductive,
sensorineural, mixed and central (Scruggs, 2010). Conductive hearing impairments include
those that affect the outer or middle ear and usually affect all frequencies, but do not result in
severe losses (NICHCY, 2010). Sensorineural include those that affect the inner and range from
mild to profound and affect their ability to hear certain frequencies (NICHCY, 2010). Mixed
hearing losses is a combination of conductive and sensorineural and affects both the outer or
middle and inner ear (NICHCY, 2010). Central hearing losses results in impairments to the
nerves and central nervous system (NICHCY, 2010).

Hearing Impairments: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom:
A student is who displays symptoms hearing impairment will display specific common
behaviors in the classroom that include:
Lack of attention
Use of gestures
Obtaining the best results during group assignments
Acting out
Preoccupied with various objects in the room
Responds to noises instead of words
Turning or cocking the head
Lack of speech development
Monotone voice
Inability to follow directions
Imitates others
Reluctance to orally participate
Impaired motor skills
(French, 2004)

Hearing Impairments: Inclusion Tips:
Students with hearing impairments often struggle in the academic setting and it is
important to ensure that they feel as though they are accepted members of the classroom.
Students with hearing impairments enrolled in CTE courses may have some learning advantages
as they are able to use their other senses to complete the various hands-on activities. Despite the
advantage in CTE classrooms it is important to ensure that the students have equal access to the
course materials and content. The following website contains various tips for creating an
inclusive classroom for students with hearing impairments. This website includes tips for
creating an inclusive classroom during lectures , during assignments and exams, general ideas,
specific strategies depending upon student needs, group work, and using visual aids.
http://www.ferris.edu/htmls/colleges/university/disability/faculty-staff/classroom-
issues/hearing/hearing-strategy.htm

Hearing Impairments: Differentiated Instruction:
The following video contains information about using differentiated instruction in order
to meet the varied needs of students with hearing impairments.
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/every-learner/6393

Hearing Impairments: Adaptations and Accommodations:
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with hearing impairments these are
allow the students to be successful. Some accommodations and modifications that Career and
Technical Education teachers may use in order to ensure the success of students with visual
impairments is through the following methods:
Adapt the physical environment so that students are able to maximize their hearing
Avoid loud or irritating noises within the classroom setting
Use appropriate technology in order to meet the needs of students
Use visuals to introduce vocabulary and enhance understanding
Create real world learning experiences
Use hand signals to alert learners of what is to come next
Repeat information to ensure adequate understanding
Plan for interpreters to translate necessary information
(Scruggs, 2010).
The following website provides a checklist for additional accommodations and modifications
for students with hearing impairments (http://successforkidswithhearingloss.com/impact-on-
listening-and-learning/accommodations)

Hearing Impairments: Assessing and Evaluating Students:
Assessments and evaluations require specific techniques in order to ensure success of
students with hearing impairments. As is similar with many other disabilities it is important to
consider each students unique needs. The following strategies may be useful for students with
hearing impairments in order to increase the quality of their work:
Provide individual testing times in separate rooms
Extend the time limits as necessary
Allow sufficient time for interpreters during oral exams
Allow students to draw illustrations
Use performance-based testing measures
(Scruggs, 2010).

Hearing Impairments: Transitioning Students to Post Secondary Endeavors:
As students with hearing impairments begin to move throughout the high school level it
is important to consider the transition that these students will face as they enter adulthood.
Students with hearing impairments have additional educational needs that need to be addressed
in order to ensure their success. These include:
Learn the students strengths and needs in order to identify transition goals
Understand their individual hearing loss and how it affects them in the academic world,
social, and work world
Determine the accommodations and modifications needed for successful futures
Attain self-advocacy skills
Attain daily life skills for independent living
(Colorado Families for Hands and Voices, 2004)

Hearing Impairments: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies:
In order to best meet the needs of students with hearing impairments there are several
effective teaching strategies that teachers can use in order to allow students with hearing
impairments with to experience success in the classroom. These strategies include:
Strategically position yourself to allow students to see you as you are speaking
Use visual attention-getters
Encourage the use of the hearing that the students have
Learn some basic signs to use during classtime
Use demonstrations during lessons to teach various concepts
Maintain active involvement of the students throughout the lesson
Pre-teach the lesson to students with hearing impairments before introducing the activity
to the remainder of the class
Talk to the individual and not the interpreter
Use handouts throughout the lesson so that all students have equal access to the
materials
(French, 2004)

Intellectual Disability: Type, Definition and Prevalence
Intellectual disability is characterized by deficits in intellectual functioning and adaptive
behavior. Symptoms must occur prior to age eighteen. Initially intellectual disability was
characterized by an IQ score below 75, which suggests limitations on learning, problem solving
and general mental capacity. Difficulties in adaptive behavior would be expected in the areas of
conceptual skills (literacy, working with numbers), social skills (ability to interact
interpersonally and take on social responsibility), and practical skills (activities of daily living,
occupational skills). These disabilities can be caused by genetic conditions such as downs
syndrome, by environmental exposure such as in fetal alcohol syndrome, or as a result of other
disease or injury. An excellent video describing the disability can be found at
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_mTP9WLdcI
Just under 1% of students nationally are identified as having intellectual disabilities. In
Vermont, this represents approximately 7% of the special needs population. (VT AOE, n.d.)

Intellectual Disability: Disability Manifestations in the classroom
Students with intellectual disabilities will likely express weak academic skills, difficulty
with problem solving and social skills inconsistent with their peers. There can be a wide range
of capability or disability among these students, which should be addressed by the students
IEP. Persons with severe disability may be provided with a one-on-one aide if needed.

Specific learning
disabilities
35%
Emotional
disturbance
17%
Speech or
language
impairment
12%
Hearing
impairment
1%
ADHD is
incuded under
"Other health
impairment"
18%
Autism
8%
Intellectual
disability
7%
Multiple disabilities
2%
Orthopedic impairment
0%
Traumatic brain injury
0%
Visual impairment
0%
Deaf-blindness
0%
Vermont Special Needs Distribution
2011-12 Intellectual Disability
Emphasized
Intellectual Disability: Inclusion Tips
For many intellectually disabled students, all education will be centered on life skills.
Building connections between the curriculum and the needs of these students to achieve
maximum independence and functionality in the community is important.
All instruction provided should be concrete and broken into small manageable
components or steps. Transferability of knowledge from one context to another should not be
assumed or anticipated. Positive social interaction is important for these students, and inclusion
in group activities including CTSOs can be a great benefit to them.
Persons with intellectual disabilities have significantly greater risk of being victimized
than the general population. They are twice as likely to be victims of assault (physical and
sexual) or robbery, and they are one-and-a-half times more likely to be victims of property
crimes including theft and breaking and entering. Also, they are more likely to be victims of
less violent offenses including being cheated or swindled. They may also become victims of
teasing or bullying. (Fisher, Moskowitz, & Hodapp, 2012). Awareness of the potential for these
students to be targets allows the teacher to be more vigilant on their behalf.

Intellectual Disability: Differentiating Instruction
Modifying assignments to meet the abilities of intellectually disabled students can
provide them with opportunities for success. The targeted learning should be consistent with
the goals of the students IEP. For example if a class is learning about invoicing, a student may
not be able to calculate price mark-up based on a percentage formula, but the exercise could be
used to increase financial awareness and how to read an invoice. The student might not be able
to predict the schedule on which a printer would need to be reloaded based on the overall scope
of a job, but they might be trained to acknowledge warning messages for low supply on the
equipment.

Intellectual Disability: Accommodations and Modifications
Common accommodations for students include:
Provide instruction in the most concrete form possible.
Use visuals and manipulates and demonstrations.
Break longer, new tasks into small steps; Have the student do the steps, one at a
time with assistance, as needed.
Provide student immediate feedback.
Students may be provided with reduced or modified curriculum goals which are
consistent with their individual learning needs and plans.

Intellectual Disability: Assessing and Evaluating Students
Assessment of adaptive behaviors, those required for functioning independently within
the community is of particular importance for students with intellectual deficits. The levels of
support to which they will have access over time is dependent on clear understanding of their
functional needs. Therefore it is important not only to look at a students functioning on a task
or skill with regard to classroom performance, it is important to consider the independence with
which she can perform the skill and her ability to apply that skill in a different context. What
supports would need be provided to assist functioning in a job setting?

Transitioning this student to post-secondary education (PSE) and related careers.
Students with intellectual disabilities often require strong, cohesive support structures to
increase their success. These may include family, community organizations, and vocational
rehabilitation services. Coordinated efforts between multiple parties can ensure that needs are
being met with regard to activities of daily living, transportation, ongoing occupational training
and or participation.
Research on PSE for students with intellectual disabilities is relatively new, and it is
hindered by a lack of clear data, by inconsistent definitions, and by small numbers of
participating universities and colleges. A clear relationship between employment and PSE for
intellectually disabled students has not yet emerged. Further, there is concern regarding
unintended consequences(emotional, behavioral, medical, or psychiatric) for students, as these
have occurred in other forms of programming. Research and Training Center on Community
Living, 2011)

Intellectual Disability: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
Safety issues are of critical importance for students with intellectual abilities, as they
may be less likely to identify areas of concern without explicit instruction. Shop supervision is
critical.
Identifying areas of both ability and satisfaction with task can lead to increased direction
in career planning. Making instruction consistent with the students personal learning goals
allows for increased success. Building connections between classroom learning and life skills
will benefit the student.

Other Severe Disabilities: Type, Definition and Prevalence:
The definition of a Severe Disability is as follows: "individuals of all ages who require
extensive ongoing support in more than one major life activity in order to participate in
integrated community settings and to enjoy a quality of life that is available to citizens with
fewer or no disabilities" (TASH, p.19), (Retrieved from:
http://www.answers.com/topic/education-of-individuals-with-severe-and-multiple-disabilities).
An example of someone with a severe disability could be someone with Mental Retardation as
they are missing the ability to fully communicate on their own. A person with severe
disabilities requires the involvement threw additional support for successful interaction. Often
times additional medical conditions impair movement, hearing and vision.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2G__OH0-74U

Multiple Disabilities:
In most of the research you find out there Severe Disability is paired with Multiple
Disability. Multiple Disabilities is the combination of more than one disability such as mental
retardation and cerebral palsy. In many cases such impairments have the inability to be
accommodated with the sole expectation that SPED programs will satisfy the individuals
needs. Legislation differs in these certain cases and programing differs in certain situations
requiring alternative accommodations, (Code of Federal Regulations, 1999, Vol. 34 Sec. 300.7,
[c] [7]). (Dual sensory impairment, or deaf-blindness, is defined as a separate disability group.)
(Retrieved from: http://www.answers.com/topic/education-of-individuals-with-severe-and-
multiple-disabilities). Read more: http://www.answers.com/topic/education-of-individuals-with-
severe-and-multiple-disabilities#ixzz2lua2B3Cm.

Severe Disabilities: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
Behaviors in the classroom deal with functionality of the student. In a CTE
environment there is very little to low information on students with severe disability or multiple
disabilities. CTE environments are high functioning educational laboratories or developed to
simulate the actual setting a student will be challenged to replicate in a real world setting.
The ability of a person with a severe disability to be successful is extremely low and presents
multiple safety hazards as well as functionality realizations. As most reputable organizations
and educational programs strive to create opportunities for all LD persons, certain environments
cannot require accommodations for persons with severe disabilities. Technical standards are
created in the CTE environment and are presented to create a clear and concise depiction of the
environment a student will be fronting. ADA requirements are established to protect
individuals with LD, but the severity of the disability prohibits the individual from participating
in the program. Research on individuals with severe disabilities and multiple disabilities in the
CTE environment is little to none.

Severe Disabilities: Inclusion Tips
In a CTE environment once again there is little to no information on successful practices
on severe disability students. The following is an informational piece retrieved from NICHCY.
(NICHCY, 2012).
http://nichcy.org/multiple-disabilities-in-your-classroom

Practical Tips for Teachers
How do you address the learning needs of your students with multiple disabilities? Here are
some tips that you can use right away in your classroom.
1. Tap into the students strengths. Each student with multiple disabilities has his or her
own set of skills, strengths, and learning needs, which are documented in the IEP
(always start with the IEP!). So, its a good idea to find out more about the students
strengths and interests. Parents are a great source of this information, so is the student!
2. Be ready to make modifications. The right modifications and accommodations in the
classroom can help a student with multiple disabilities access the general education
curriculum at a grade-appropriate level. Find out about Supports, Modifications, and
Accommodations for Students at: http://nichcy.org/schoolage/accommodations
3. Ask for the program supports or modifications you need to be included in the IEP.
The students IEP can include Program Modifications for School Personnel. Read about
this at: http://nichcy.org/schoolage/iep/iepcontents/modifications-personnel
4. Partial participation can make the difference. Partial participation means making
modifications to the task so that a student with multiple disabilities isnt excluded from
activities. Even if the student isnt able to complete a task fully or independently, he or
she can still participate and benefit from the learning taking place.
5. Learn about assistive technology (AT). AT is often the key to inclusion for many
students with multiple disabilities. Computers, augmentative/alternative communication
systems, and communication boards are just some examples of helpful AT. Visit the
Center on Technology and Disability to learn more about which AT devices may be
useful for your student:
6. Learn about accessible textbooks. The law requires that schools provide students with
print disabilities with accessible instructional materials. If your student has difficulties
using print materials, visit the National AIM Center to learn where and how to get
textbooks and workbooks that your student will be able to use:
http://aim.cast.org/
7. Dont give up on a goal; practice and reinforce. If your students disabilities affect his
or her intellectual functioning, he or she will be slower to learn new things and will have
difficulty applying that learning in new situations. Do not, however, assume that a
student who is having difficulty cannot achieve a goal. Plan more hands-on
opportunities for learning and practice, give feedback immediately, and repeat the
learning task in different settings.
8. Deal with behavior issues. Disabilities often affect a students behavior, and a
combination of disabilities can be especially disruptive. If the students behavior is
affecting his or her learning or the learning of others, find effective strategies in our
Behavior Suite:
http://nichcy.org/schoolage/behavior
9. Make the most of paraprofessionals. Some students with multiple disabilities will
require the support of an aide or paraprofessional. Learn effective strategies for working
with paraprofessionals on our Paraprofessionals page:
http://nichcy.org/schools-administrators/paras
10. Be involved in the students transition planning. IDEA requires that IEP teams and
students plan ahead for the students transition from school to the adult world. This is
especially crucial for a student who has multiple disabilities. When the time comes for
the student to begin planning, have a look at our Transition Suite:
http://nichcy.org/schoolage/transitionadult

Severe Disabilities: Differentiating Instruction
Differentiation for students with severe disabilities is extremely difficult to nonexistent.
Students in a CTE environment need to show and display proficiency in the skills and or
competencies needed to complete evaluation in certain subject matter. Understanding of
concepts, replication of practices, and presentation of practical learning is required.
Differentiation complies with changing testing, evaluation, and deliverance of subject matter.
In CTE environments differentiation is a constant variable. Students can access web sites, be
assessed in different practical forums, and have the opportunity to express the key learning
points that would suit their learning style. The stage for success of a severe disability student is
very low.

Severe Disabilities: Accommodations and modifications
Accommodations and Modifications are terms that are frequently used when we have
students with disabilities join classes and programs. The definition between the two becomes
confusing as uniformed educators relate the two as having the same meaning. According to
NICHCY the definition of the two should be clearly defined. Accommodations is; is a change
that helps a student overcome or work around the disability (NICHCY, 2010). Modification
is; change in what is being taught to or expected from the student, (NICHCY, 2010). The
limitations on what the student can or cannot do, impacts their preparation to enter the carrier
and or post-secondary forum. Accommodations can be made to target the specific learning
style of the student so that the teacher can accurately evaluate the student on proficiency of
skills to enter either the next level of training, or to highlight the knowledge they have learned
from the class or lesson in the manner of their disability. Accommodations are implemented to
give the student a chance to display their knowledge.
Modifications change the material to suit the student. In either situation it should be
both an aid for the student and a way of assessment for the instructor. In CTE environments
modification will not necessarily help the student absorb the correct information and skills they
need to relate to the end result, which is actual industry experience. Preparing students to enter
a specific field or concentration requires a specific concentration of subject matter.
Modification of that subject matter will not provide an actual representation of what the student
is to expect. Students with severe disabilities simply may not be able to achieve specific skills
and or technique required for industry, with accommodations or modifications because of their
disability. Most accommodations and modifications are built around general education classes
for the student to successfully participate in. Here are is an example of accommodations
retrieved from the NICHCY web site:
Scheduling. For example,
giving the student extra time to complete assignments or tests
breaking up testing over several days
Setting. For example,
working in a small group
working one-on-one with the teacher
Materials. For example,
providing audiotaped lectures or books
giving copies of teachers lecture notes
using large print books, Braille, or books on CD (digital text)
I nstruction. For example,
reducing the difficulty of assignments
reducing the reading level
using a student/peer tutor
Student Response. For example,
allowing answers to be given orally or dictated
using a word processor for written work
Using sign language, a communication device, Braille, or native language if it is
not English.
In relation to CTE courses this framework can differ extremely as the subject matter is
more concentrated and specific to the carrier path. An example is that all students need to have
a certain level of Math, English, and Science, to graduate from high school. CTE courses
involve many aspects of general education courses in their programs as the subject matter is
essential for life skills. CTE education does not accentuate a general life skill, but rather a
specific carrier concentration. Accommodations and modifications for severe disability
students are geared to general education and not CTE subject matter. The end result is that
accommodations and modifications need to be geared to the specific disability.

Severe Disabilities: Evaluation and Assessment
Assessment for a student with severe disabilities is not your common question and
answers testing forum that you normally would see in a traditional classroom setting. Most
schools use a form of alternative assessment, which involves a great deal of collaboration
between the parent and the teacher together. Much of the learning for a student with severe
disabilities or multiple disabilities are to gear them for building life skills with the end result to
be that the student will have a bit of self-sufficiency. Assessment is administered by
participation with a variety of cerebral proficiencies, which allows the student to demonstrate
the knowledge learned. In CTE environments the difficulty for a student with severe disabilities
would be that a student would have to show proficiency by achieving certain tasks related to the
specific carrier path. Demonstration of subject knowledge could be administered by means of
alternative assessment, but unfortunately the student might have difficulty with the practical
piece that would be required in a CTE environment.

Severe Disabilities: Transition to Post-Secondary Endeavors
One of the biggest things a student with severe disabilities needs to know are the laws
regarding students with disabilities. Areas such as entrance exams and funding become key
points to a student with severe disabilities as it dictates weather the institutions is liable to make
accommodations to the entrance exam and credited course. Schools that are private and do not
receive federal funding might be more difficult with the level of acceptance. Research of post-
secondary institutions prior to leading the student to that particular institution is imperative and
a full understanding of the rights and law behind the students disability are extremely helpful to
the student as they choose a post-secondary pathway or a carrier pathway. Also a realistic
approach about the students disability in a particular carrier path might help the student
evaluate their particular success rate when choosing a particular carrier. The following website
offers a great check list / question and answer forum.
http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/transitionguide.html

Severe Disabilities: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
Successful teaching and learning strategies for students with sever disabilities once
again are successful pertaining to the specific disability. Things such as motor skills,
communication, and listening comprehension are often diminished according to the students
disability. Allowing for alternative assessment and expression would be helpful to the success
of a student with a severe learning disability if applicable. Often times allowing assistance such
a providing the student with a note taker, or allowing the student the use of audio devices for
lecture and classroom segments of CTE courses. Allowing the student the option to audit
sections of classes multiple times can also help because of the repetitive nature. Also allowing
extra one on one time between the teacher and student. In general if a teacher allows for
adaption to classroom lesson planning and providing an environment for the student to interact
in the CTE classroom setting takes place it will benefit the student with sever learning
disabilities.

References:
About Buzzle, 2000-2012, 2013, Retrieved from: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/types-of-
disabilities.html
Bakken, J. P. (2012). Behavioral disorders: identification, assessment, and instruction of
students with EBD. Bingley, UK: Emerald.
Bethesda Institute. Jul 5, 2011. What is Intellectual Disability? Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=V_mTP9WLdcI
Carney, S. (2003). Saskatchewan Learning. Teaching Students with Visual Impairments.
Retrieved from http://www.education.gov.sk.ca/vision
Center for International Rehabilitation Research Information and Exchange (CIRRIE), 2008-
2013, Retrieved from: http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclopedia/en/article/114/
Colorado Families for Hands & Voices. (2004). The Transition Process from High School to
Post-Secondary Education for Deaf and Hard of Hearing Students. Hands and Voices.
Retrieved from http://www.handsandvoices.org/needs/pdf_imgs/transition.pdf
Davis, L. (August 2009). People with Intellectual Disabilities in the Criminal Justice System:
Victims & Suspects. Retrieved from http://www.thearc.org/page.aspx?pid=2458
Fisher, M. H., Moskowitz, A. L., & Hodapp, R. M. (2012). Vulnerability and Experiences
Related to Social Victimization Among Individuals With Intellectual and Developmental
Disabilities. Journal of Mental Health Research In Intellectual Disabilities, 5(1), 32-48.
doi:10.1080/19315864.2011.592239
French, R. (2004). APE Fact Sheets. Hearing Impairments. Retrieved from
http://www.tahperd.org/LINKS/links_pdfs/APE%20factsheets/Hearing_Impairment.pdf
Martin, D. (2012). Deaf learners and successful cognitive achievement. Retrieved from
http://www.learnnc.org/lp/editions/every-learner/6393
Mastropieri, M. (2010). Visual Impairments. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/visual-impairments/
National Joint Committee on Learning Disabilities, 2013, Retrieved from:
http://www.ldanatl.org/pdf/NJCLD%20Comp%20Assess%20Paper%206-10.pdf
NICHCY. (2010). Deafness and Hearing Loss. Disability Fact Sheets. Retrieved from
http://nichcy.org/wp-content/uploads/docs/fs3.pdf
NICHCY. Intellectual disability. Retrieved from http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/intellectual
NICHY, 2012, Retrieved from: http://nichcy.org/multiple-disabilities-in-your-classroom
Research and Training Center on Community Living, Institute on Community Integration
College of Education and Human Development, University of Minnesota (2011). Policy
Research Brief: Postsecondary Education for Students with Intellectual and
Developmental Disabilities: A Critical Review of the State of Knowledge and a
Taxonomy to Guide Future Research. Retrieved from
http://ici.umn.edu/products/prb/211/default.html
Scruggs, T. (2010). Hearing Impairments. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/hearing-impairments/
The Gale Group Inc., 2002, Retrieved from: http://www.answers.com/topic/education-of-
individuals-with-severe-and-multiple-disabilities
U.S. Department of Education, 2007, 2013, Retrieved From: http://www.ed.gov/
Vermont Agency of Education. (n.d.). Retrieved from
http://education.vermont.gov/new/html/maindata.html

Chapter 5: Autism Spectrum; Gifted and Talented; and Multiple Disabilities

Danielle J. Breese


Autism Spectrum: Type, Definition, and Prevalence

Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASDs) are group of complex brain disorders that
significantly impact the students ability to develop socially, behaviorally, and their ability to
communicate effectively (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). The affects of
autism may be mild or severe depending upon the type and severity of autism (Center for
Disease Control and Prevention, 2012).
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) has three different types that include Autistic Disorder,
Asperger Syndrome, and Pervasive Developmental Disorder (Center for Disease Control and
Prevention, 2012). Autistic Disorder is characterized by significant delays in language,
challenges with communication, and unusual behaviors and interests (Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2012). Asperger Syndrome is characterized by milder symptoms with
children displaying social challenges and unusual behaviors and interests (Center for Disease
Control and Prevention, 2012). Pervasive Developmental Disorder is also known as atypical
autism where the individual may only meet some, but not all of the criteria for autistic disorder
or Asperger syndrome. As a result individuals have milder symptoms, which will affect them
socially (Center for Disease Control and Prevention, 2012). According to the U.S. Department
of Education approximately .8% of students are affected by Autism Spectrum Disorder and
receive special education services (2012).

Autism Spectrum: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
A Student who displays symptoms of Autism Spectrum Disorder will display specific
common behaviors in the classrooms that affect the students communication, result in social
impairment, and behavioral differences. The following discusses the various disability
manifestations and provides specific examples of the three different areas of impairment and
how they affect students. (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0Pp8jcQ97pY).

Autism Spectrum: Inclusion Tips
Students with Autism Spectrum Disorder often struggle in the academic setting, as other
students may not understand Autism and how it affects each individual. However, students with
Autism Spectrum Disorder may excel in Career and Technical Education classrooms, and these
classrooms follow a more strict routine in order to maintain the safety of all students in the
class. To begin establishing an inclusive classroom that will allow students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder to succeed in the classroom the following tips may be helpful:
Maintain consistent classroom routines to lower anxiety and increase their ability
to function independently in the classroom
Provide visuals when presenting information in the classroom in order to assist
visual learners
List the procedures, tasks, and step-by-step instructions that need to be
completed
Watch for signs of high anxiety, sensory overload, and other signs of stress and
allow the student to go to a pre-determined area in order to de-stress
Provide frequent breaks to allow students to self-regulate
Assist students with the transition process between assignments in order to allow
them to understand what is expected of them
Layout the room so that students understand the intended uses for each area
Clearly explain the purpose of all activities and assignments and connect them to
real life applications in order to increase understanding
Provide rubrics with clear due dates so that students clearly understand all
expectations
Clearly identify all key concepts and information within each unit
Include special interests to introduce new and difficult tasks
(National Education Association, 2013)

Autism Spectrum: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) it is important to use
differentiated instruction to ensure the success of all students in career and technical education
courses. Within each class various elements of the class can be differentiated in order to ensure
the success of these students. When differentiating instruction for with students with ASD it is
important to consider grouping as grouping can be based upon similar student abilities, multiple
student ability or interests depending upon the various assignment requirements (National
Research Council, 2001). Allowing students to work together with clear instructions will allow
them to experience a level of success that they may not experience on their own.
Additionally, when differentiating instruction for students it is important to support any
verbal information with pictures. This will allow the visual learners with ASD to experience
additional success in the classroom (National Research Council, 2001). Additionally, it is
important to thoroughly and directly teach various concepts to allow for students to fully
understand the material and obtain the necessary knowledge in order to complete the various
required assessments and activities (National Research Council, 2001).
Students with ASD need opportunities to complete projects independently, while still
having peer support when necessary through small group activities (National Research Council,
2001). When students with ASD have the opportunity to work both independently and within a
group they will have the opportunity to work on social skills as well as work in an environment
that will allow them to feel safe. Additionally, it is important to provide more intensive levels of
support as warranted by the students individual needs (National Research Council, 2001). The
following video discusses a way to implement choice boards into classrooms in order to provide
differentiated instruction to meet the needs of all of the students.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dGbulODMVgM&feature=player_embedded#at=30
As students complete various assignments in the classroom there are multiple ways to
differentiate. One way this can be done is through dividing larger, more time consuming tasks
into multiple smaller tasks (National Research Council, 2001). Encouraging the use of assistive
technology may allow students to more easily complete various tasks (National Research
Council, 2001).
Finally, instruction can be differentiated through materials and resources. Each student
will have different knowledge regarding the various topics and units that are covered throughout
CTE classes based upon their previous experiences of working in the field. Differentiating
instruction based upon student interests, readiness, and learning profiles will allow students to
experience success in the classroom (National Research Council, 2001). It is important to
consider student interests when designing lesson plans as it plays a key role in maintaining
student interest in the various activities.

Autism Spectrum: Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder there
are specific accommodations and modifications that need to be incorporated into the classroom
to allow these students to be successful. Some accommodations and modifications that Career
and Technical Education teachers may implement in order to ensure the success of these
students includes:
Assign paraprofessionals to work with the student to support desired behaviors and
assist with activities
Repeat/Rephrase instructions and questions to allow students extra time to process the
information
Post classroom rules so that students and staff can refer to them when necessary
Include role play activities to increase social skills
Incorporate visual aspects to increase understanding of instructions, assignments, and
provide detailed daily schedules (for example provide written instructions or
demonstrate the activity)
Breaker larger assignments into smaller components to allow students frequent breaks to
move throughout the lesson and to allow for extended time when completing
assignments
Provide preferential seating in order to minimize distractions
Allow students to work in small groups
Offer alternative activities when the student is unable to complete an assigned activity
Allow students to use stress relief activities as designed by the IEP team
(Bailey, 2011)

Autism Spectrum: Assessing and Evaluating Students
students with Autism Spectrum Disorder. Many of the modifications and accommodations
within assessments are very similar to the modifications and accommodations that students
receive in the classroom. Any large assignment should be broken down into smaller
assignments, and students may be given extra time to complete assessments and evaluations
(National Research Council, 2001). This approach will help students to understand what is
expected of them throughout the assessment process.
Additionally, it is important to provide a variety of opportunities and ways for students
to demonstrate their understanding of various units (National Research Council, 2001). This
process will allow students to use their strengths in order to successfully complete various
assessments. One of the areas of weaknesses for many students with Autism Spectrum Disorder
includes completing written assignments, in order to allow students to demonstrate their
understanding as a teacher it is important to offer alternative assignments that demonstrate their
understanding of the topic (National Research Council, 2001).
Finally, students with Autism Spectrum Disorder are mostly visual learners and learn
best through graphics and highlighting of key points (National Research Council, 2001). This
approach can be used on assessments as well. On exams it is important to provide graphic
organizers, appropriate visuals, and highlight key concepts to draw attention to these aspects of
the assessment. This will help students with ASD to fully understand what is expected of them
on examinations and assessments.

Autism Spectrum: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
As students with Autism Spectrum Disorder begin to transition out of high school it is
students as they leave high school. The transition process for students with Autism Spectrum
Disorder should begin as early as possible to ensure the success of the students following high
school as they enter into their adult life (New Brunswick Department of Education, 2005). The
aspects that should be considered when creating a transition plan for students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder include:
Provide opportunities for work experiences to learn student preferences and
interests
Encourage participation in extracurricular activities and volunteer opportunities
in order to enhance social skills and to gain hands-on experience working in the
industry
Teach appropriate dress and hygiene
Provide on the job preparation skills based upon student interests
Train in the use of public transportation
Teach self-care skills and self-management techniques including banking, time,
cooking appropriate to the abilities of the student
(New Brunswick Department of Education, 2005)
Including all of these aspects into the transition plan will ensure that students are
prepared for caring for themselves and supporting themselves financially following their high
school education.

Autism Spectrum: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
In order to best meet the needs of students with Autism Spectrum Disorder there are
several effective teaching strategies that teachers can implement in order to allow these students
to experience success in the classroom. These strategies include:
Provide very clear choices for suitable activities and provide a sequential order of
specific tasks.
Provide directions using simple and concrete language, repeating in order to ensure
understanding
Teach important social skills
Do not use sarcasm or idioms
Provide clear structure and daily routines with clear warnings if there is to be any
change in routine
Address the student individually when necessary
Use multiple modalities to present lesson information
Recognize anxiety in the student, but be cautious not to take the behavior of the student
personally
Minimize/Remove distractions from the classroom
Provide education to the other students in the classroom regarding Autism Spectrum
Disorder
(Hensley, 2013)

Gifted and Talented: Type, Definition and Prevalence
Very few individuals agree upon a standard definition for defining gifted and talented
students. Initially in 1978 gifted and talented students were identified based upon IQ scores
(Mastropieri, 2010). However, in 1993 the United States Department of Education proposed a
new definition for gifted and talented students which defined gifted and talented students as
those individuals that show high levels of accomplishment in intellectual, creative, and/or
artistic areas, high levels of leadership, or excel in a specific academic area when compared to
other students (Mastropieri, 2010). Due to the variety of definitions regarding gifted and
talented students it is estimated that approximately 3-5% of the student population is considered
to be gifted and talented (Mastropieri, 2010).
There are three different subtypes of gifted and talented students that include
intellectually gifted, creative and talented, and hidden gifted, creative, and talented (Mastropieri,
2010). Intellectually gifted students include those students who score high on standardized test
and excel academically, with high verbal skills, outstanding memories, and above average
literacy skills (Mastropieri, 2010). Creative and Talented students include those student who
are exceptionally talented in specific areas at young ages (Mastropieri, 2010). The final type of
gifted and talented includes those individuals who remain unidentified and hidden due to the
fact that they may be underachievers especially in math and science, biased standardized tests,
or existing disabilities in other areas (Mastropieri, 2010).

Gifted and Talented: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
A Student who determined to be gifted and talented may display a variety of
behaviors in the classroom, depending upon the response of the teacher. Many gifted and
talented students will feel as though they are not being adequately challenged and may in fact
have lower grades, display problem behaviors, and generally test the teacher to determine if the
teacher is adequately preforming his or her job. The following video interviews various students
to discuss their behaviors in school as well as the reasons for engaging the in various behaviors.
Please click on the following link to gain a better understanding of gifted and talents students
behavioral manifestations in the classroom http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KTiwv6I9vcU.

Gifted and Talented: Inclusion Tips
Gifted and talented students often struggle in Career and Technical Education classes, as
they often feel isolated from their peers. Implementing specific grouping strategies, and meeting
the social and emotional needs of the students will allow them to feel as though they have the
ability to be successful in the classroom (B.C Ministry of Education, 2013). To begin
establishing an inclusive classroom these are some specific tips that may be useful:
Create interest centers to introduce students to new topics
Provide a social environment that is accepting of all students
Provide a safe and supportive environment
Promote group planning and problem solving
Study the lives of other gifted people in the field (for example Temple Grandin)
Create group activities to meet the unique needs of the individual learners
(B.C. Ministry of Education, 2013).

Gifted and Talented: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching gifted and talented students it is important to use differentiated
instruction to ensure the success of all students in career and technical education courses.
Within each class various elements of the class can be differentiated in order to ensure the
success of these students. These elements that can be differentiated include differentiating the
curriculum, and the processes (B.C. Ministry of Education, 2013).
To begin to differentiate the content of the curriculum it is important to increase the
instructional levels and the pace at which the material is delivered to the students (B.C. Ministry
of Education, 2013). This can be done by requiring all students to complete independent study
projects, creating tiered assignments, and including learning centers (B.C. Ministry of
Education, 2013).
To continue to meet the needs of gifted and talented students a second method to
differentiate instruction is to implement higher levels of thinking, creative thinking, problem
solving skills, and research skills (B.C. Ministry of Education, 2013). As students are required
to use higher levels of thinking into the classroom, students become increasingly engaged and
spend more time thinking through and analyzing the information as opposed to memorizing and
recalling facts. Students are able to work in small groups in order to successfully work through
higher levels of thinking and problem solving so that all students have the ability to be
successful in the classroom.

Gifted and Talented: Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students who are gifted and talented there are
allow these students to be successful. Some accommodations and modifications that Career and
Technical Education teachers may implement in order to ensure the success of these students
include acceleration and enrichment, resource classes, self-contained classes, university classes,
and mentor programs (Mastropieri 2010). These accommodations and modifications will allow
gifted and talented students to feel as though they are still being academically challenged.
Academic acceleration involves students moving through curriculum at a more rapid
pace than other students in the classroom. This allows students to be in classrooms that ensure
level-appropriate curriculum (Matropieri, 2010). In CTE classes this means that students may
potentially test out of year one, and begin their studies in year two of the program. As a result
students may spend their second year of the program at an internship instead of the classroom.
This approach may allow students to feel as though they are still being appropriately challenged
while gaining the necessary hands-on experience to excel in the field of their choice.
When enrichment is used as a method of modification and accommodation, teachers
expand upon the current curriculum and adapt instructional materials in order to meet the needs
of the students (Mastropieri, 2010). During enrichment activities students are encouraged to
critically think, problem-solve, and analyze specific content (Mastropieri, 2010). Assigning
students independent projects may be more beneficial than assigning the students the large class
activities. Students in veterinary science could complete a study on factors that affect the milk
production in the schools dairy herd as opposed to completing the introductory class
assignments. If you are struggling it is best to seek the help from teachers who are experienced
in working with gifted and talented students in order to work to meet the individuals needs of
each student (Mastropieri, 2010).

Gifted and Talented: Assessing and Evaluating Students
gifted and talented students. Since these students are presented with modified curriculums it is
important to assess students understanding of the enrichment activities (Mastropieri, 2010). As a
result it is extremely important to ensure that the assessments that gifted and talented students
are completing are performance-based (Matropieri, 2010). For example the student who
complete the project determining key components of dairy cow nutrition and the milk
production, could work towards formulating a diet that is appropriate for the dairy cows in order
to ensure the highest level of production. As the level of required work increases it is important
to provide structuring and organizational skills so that the students fully understand what is
expected of them
The second method of assessment and evaluation that may be appropriate to use with
gifted and talented students is to assign them as peer mentors to tutor other students who are
struggling with the course content (Mastropieri, 2010). As the gifted and talented students tutor
struggling students, it is important to observe their breakdown of the material to evaluate
student understanding of the material. This will allow the gifted student to develop additional
leadership skills that will allow them to be successful throughout secondary education and
beyond.

Gifted and Talented: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
Gifted and Talented students who choose to go to college or enter the work force need
the same support as all other students to ensure that they are making the correct decision for
their future. This can be done through the students gaining hands-on experiences in the career
and technical programs of their choice. This process will helps students in choosing the correct
career and majors in college. Additionally, if and that they choose to attend college this process
can ensure that they choose college that meets their needs and desires. When gifted and talented
students have other disabilities school administrators may specific transition plans according to
that specific disability (B.C. Ministry of Education, 2013).

Gifted and Talented: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
In order to best meet the needs of gifted and talented there are several effective teaching
strategies that teachers can implement in order to these students to experience success in the
classroom. These strategies include:
Modify the curriculum to meet the needs of individual student by adding enrichment
activities and allowing access to a wide range of materials
Encourage students to be as creative as possible, while allowing the students to work to
meet their mental capacity
Vary the atmosphere of the room, provide flexible seating arrangements, and provide a
variety of opportunities for different groupings
Offer attractive, lesson-related activities for students who finish work early
Offer choices on assignments when appropriate
Evaluate students individually
(Smutny, 2000)

Multiple Disabilities: Type, Definition, and Prevalence
Multiple disabilities includes students that have simultaneous impairments (such as
intellectual disability-blindness, intellectual disability-orthopedic impairment, etc.) and the
student needs to receive services for more than one impairment in order to be successful in the
classroom (NICHCY, 2013). According to the U.S. Department of Education approximately
.3% of students are affected by Multiple Disabilities and receive special education services
(2012).
Students with multiple disabilities are those with extremely severe learning disabilities
that require on going support. Additionally, these students may struggle with orthopedic
impairments, sensory losses, or behavioral problems that require additional support for these
disabilities (The Ohio Coalition for the Education of Children with Disabilities, 2013). The
following video is a more in-depth look at multiple disabilities in order to help enhance
understanding of multiple disabilities http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xKqN21OdsLQ

Multiple Disabilities: Disability Manifestations in the Classroom
A Student who is diagnosed as having multiple disabilities will display a variety of
behaviors and characteristics based upon their unique combination of disabilities and the
severity of the disabilities. Here is a list of some of the common traits of individuals with
multiple disabilities:
Limited speech or communication
Difficulty with basic mobility
Tendency to forget unused skills
Trouble generalizing skills between multiple situations
A need for support in major life activities
(The Ohio Coalition for the Education of Children with Disabilities, 2013)

Multiple Disabilities: Inclusion Tips
Students with multiple disabilities frequently struggle in Career and Technical Education
classes, as they are often unable to participate fully in classes without assistance. The following
article provides a variety of tips for creating and inclusive classroom that provides opportunities
for students with multiple disabilities to participate in class to the fullest extent.
http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/kennedy_pdfs/TipSheets/tipsheet_ClassroomInclusion.pdf (Bolay,
2012).

Multiple Disabilities: Differentiating Instruction
When teaching students with multiple disabilities it is important to use differentiated
instruction to ensure the success of all students in career and technical education courses.
Within each class various elements of the class can be differentiated in order to ensure the
success of these students. These elements that can be differentiated include instructional
methods and instructional materials
Instructional Methods
Strategic grouping methods: whole group, small group, 1-1 instruction
Specific training in multiple settings to assist with generalization
Picture schedules/picture cues to assist students
Provide visual, gestural, and verbal prompts
Use modeling and hand-over hand assistance to provide students with a visual of
tasks that need to be completed
Use short concise language to enhance understand
Adapt the allotted and allowed time for learning task and completion of
assignments
Provide the students with consistent feedback to provide a thorough
understanding of class performance
Instructional Materials
Provide life skills lessons
Provide appropriate assistive technology
(Stark County Educational Service Center, 2013)

Multiple Disabilities: Accommodations and Modifications
In order to continue to meet the needs of students who have multiple disabilities there
are specific accommodations and modifications that need to be incorporated into the classroom
to allow these students to be successful. Some accommodations and modifications that Career
and Technical Education teachers may implement in order to ensure the success of these
students include:
A multidisciplinary team consisting of appropriate professionals and parents should
work together to develop a plan to coordinate the necessary services to meet the needs of
the individual student and assist them throughout the school day
Create a classroom and laboratory that is easily accessible
Develop a buddy system that can assist the student as necessary
Provide simple and easy to follow directions along with visual aids to increase
understanding
Engage the student regularly in oral language
Permit the use of appropriate assistive technology as deemed appropriate by the IEP
team
(NICHCY, 2012)

Multiple Disabilities: Assessing and Evaluating Students
Assessment and evaluation are important aspects in the academic advancement of
students with multiple disabilities. When assessing students in career and technical education
classes it is important to assess four major areas of the student to determine their needs
following high school (NICHCY, 2012). As a result students with multiple disabilities may not
receive the same assessments as the rest of the students in the classroom. When assessing
students with multiple disabilities it is important to assess domestic, leisure/recreational,
community, and vocational skills (NICHCY, 2012). When assessing these four areas they assist
in determining the ability to function independently after high school.
Within career and technical education, it is possible to easily assess vocational skills in
all individuals enrolled in the program. Within career and technical education many of the
assessments are authentic assessments that determine competency to work in specified fields. If
students are able to complete these assessments satisfactorily with appropriate accommodations
and modifications then the individual may have found an appropriate career path. The specific
accommodations and modifications that students will receive for completing their assessments
and evaluations are based upon their specific disabilities and the severity of those disabilities.

Multiple Disabilities: Transitioning Students to Post-Secondary Endeavors
As students with multiple disabilities begin to transition out of high school it is
students as they leave high school. Most students with multiple disabilities will require some
level of help and support after they leave high school for the remainder of their lives. The
amount of support required will vary depending upon the disabilities of the students (NICHCY,
2013). As students begin the transition process it is extremely important to educate students
with multiple disabilities about major life activities so that they are able to develop as
independently as possible. These life activities include:
Knowledge about their disability and caring for themselves
Development of manual tasks and motor skills such as walking, standing, lifting and
bending
Development of speech, communication and senses
Development knowledge, academic, and work based skills,
Development of reading, concentration and thinking skills
(NICHCY, 2013).

Multiple Disabilities: Successful Teaching and Learning Strategies
In order to best meet the needs of students with multiple disabilities there are several
effective teaching strategies that teachers can implement in order to ensure these students
experience success in the classroom. These strategies include:
Tap into student strengths and interests in order to allow the student to be as successful
as possible
Be ready to make modifications and accommodations according to the students IEP to
allow for partial participation if the student is unable to participate fully
Acquire appropriate textbooks, workbooks, and assistive technology for each student to
allow students with multiple disabilities to participate in classes
Continue to work towards student goals through practice and reinforcement of
appropriate behaviors
Plan more hands-on opportunities for learning and practice
Learn effective strategies for working with paraprofessionals to make the most of their
presence in the classroom
Be involved in the students transition process to ensure success of the students past their
high school education
(Escowitz, 2013)

References:

Academy of Pediatrics. (2013). Autism Spectrum Disorders. HealthyChildren.org.
Retrieved from http://www.healthychildren.org/English/health-
issues/conditions/developmental-disabilities/pages/Autism-Spectrum-Disorders.aspx
Bailey, E. (2011). Suggestions for Classroom Accommodations and Modifications for Children
with Autism. Health Central. Retrieved from
http://www.healthcentral.com/autism/c/1443/140596/accommodations/
B.C. Ministry of Education. (2013). Special Education. BC Ministry of Education. Retrieved
from http://www.bced.gov.bc.ca/specialed/gifted/
Bolay, J. (2012). Including Students with Multiple/Severe Disabilities in the General Education
Classroom. Vanderbilt Kennedy Center. Retrieved from
http://kc.vanderbilt.edu/kennedy_pdfs/TipSheets/tipsheet_ClassroomInclusion.pdf
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2012). Facts About ASDs. Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention. Retrieved from
http://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/facts.html
Escowitz, S. (2013). Multiple Disabilities in Your Classroom: 10 Tips for Teachers. National
Dissemination Center for Children with Disabilities. Retrieved from
http://nichcy.org/multiple-disabilities-in-your-classroom
Hensley, P. (2013.). 22 Tips for Teaching Students with Autism Spectrum Disorders. Teaching.
Retrieved from http://teaching.monster.com/benefits/articles/8761-22-tips-for-teaching-
students-with-autism-spectrum-disorders
Mastropieri, M. (2010). Gifted, Creative, and Talented. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/gifted-creative-talented-children/
National Education Association. (2013). Teaching Autism Students in Inclusive
Classrooms. Autism Spectrum Disorder Concepts. Retrieved from http://www.child-
autism-parent-cafe.com/autism-students-in-inclusive-classrooms.html
National Research Council. (2001). Teaching and Learning. Teaching Students with
ASD. from http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/general/elemsec/speced/asdsecond.pdf
New Brunswick Department of Education. (2005). Teaching Students with Autism
Spectrum Disorder. Retrieved from
http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/ss/teachingstudentswithautismspectrumdisorders.p
df
NICHCY. (2013). Multiple Disabilities. National Dissemination Center for Children with
Disabilities. Retrieved http://nichcy.org/disability/specific/multiple#idea
Smutny, J. (2000, January 7). Teaching Young Gifted Children in the Regular Classroom.
Educational Resources Information Center. Retrieved from
http://www.hoagiesgifted.org/eric/e595.html
Stark County Educational Service Center. (2013). Instructional Methods and Materials. Stark
County ESC. Retrieved from
http://www.starkcountyesc.org/InstructionalMethodsandMaterials.aspx
U.S. Department of Education. (2012). Students with Disabilities. National Center for
Education Statistics. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/fastfacts/display.asp?id=64


Chapter 6: Transitioning the SPED Student into a career or Post Secondary Education

Danielle J. Breese


Legal Ramifications of Transitioning Special Education Students:
Transition services are intended to assist students as they move forward from secondary
education into their adult life (Dragoo, 2011). By law under the Individuals with Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA), transition services should occur once a student reaches 16 years of age
(Dragoo, 2011). Transition services may occur sooner if deemed appropriate by the IEP team
(Dragoo, 2011). The transition process is designed to improve the academic and functional
achievement of children with disabilities to ease their transition from high school to post-
secondary activities. These activities may include post-secondary education, vocational
education, employment, adult education, adult services, independent living and community
participation (Dragoo, 2011).
According to IDEA transition services should be based upon a childs interests,
strengths, and preferences (Johnson, 2007). Basing these services upon a childs strengths,
interests and preferences will allow them to work towards goals that interest them and will
allow them to be successful. Within the transition plan students should receive a variety of
services that include instruction, disability related services, community experiences,
employment skills, daily living skills, post-high school objectives, and vocational evaluation
(Johnson, 2007). This combination of services will allow students to be successful following
high school. Many children with disabilities struggle following secondary education and have a
low success rate of finding and obtaining full time employment. Implementing transition
services will improve post secondary outcome for children with disabilities. The following
video provides additional information regarding the transition plan
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZGKpLsrmrfA.

Vocational Evaluation and Rehabilitation:
Employment and work are essential for an individuals survival and psychological
wellbeing of all individuals (Lee, 2013). The primary goal of vocational evaluation and
rehabilitation is to assist individuals with disabilities to gain some independence through
employment and other meaningful activities (Lee, 2013). The overall goal of vocational
evaluation and rehabilitation is to prevent potential disability, returning workers to gainful
employment, and keeping workers with disabilities and illnesses employed (Lee, 2013).
This goal is achieve through working with individuals to understand existing employment
barriers, educate individuals on available services and resources, assist individuals in adapting
to the environment, and accommodate the needs of the individual (Lee, 2013).
Vocational Rehabilitation is defined as a process that follows a progression of services
related to the needs of an individual with a disability in order provide them with opportunities to
gain successful employment (Lee, 2013). Vocational rehabilitation encompasses a range of
services that includes vocational assessment and evaluation, vocational training, general skills
enhancement opportunities, career counseling, on the job training, job search, and consultations
with employers for appropriate accommodations and modifications (Lee, 2013). These range of
services are extremely individualized according to the needs of the students.
Vocational Assessment is defined as the evaluation of an individuals work and training
background, general functional capacities, and social/behavioral characteristics (Lee, 2013).
Vocational assessment may also include an evaluation of medical factors, psychological make-
up, educational background, social behaviors, attitude, values, work skills and abilities (Lee,
2013). Vocational assessment is a very thorough process used to obtain a complete
understanding of the individual. Vocational Evaluation is an extremely specific process that
involves the appraisal of an individuals work related characteristics that are essential in
education and training for obtaining and maintaining employment (Lee, 2013). This process
may include assessing specific work characteristics such as: occupational interests, specific job
skills, worker traits, general intelligence, temperaments, physical capacities, strength, range of
motion, and other work related functions (Lee, 2013). Please watch following video in order to
learn additional information regarding vocational evaluation and assessment and some of
various methods used for academic evaluation
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v5SrdkFrryM.

Workplace Accommodations and the ADA:
Title I of the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 (ADA of 1990) requires an
employer to provide reasonable accommodations to qualified individuals with disabilities who
are employees or applicants for employment unless doing so would provide undue hardship
(The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2002). As a result of this act
employers are obligated to provide reasonable accommodations that would allow an employee
to preform the job duties. This allows individuals with disabilities equal opportunities to gain
employment they may not otherwise have access to. This law is essential because as of 1990
individuals with disabilities now have access to employment opportunities they may not have
other wise had access to and this processes reduces discrimination against hiring of individuals
with disabilities.
Within Title I of the Americans with disabilities Act of 1990 there are three forms of
reasonable accommodations that include: modifications to a job application process that allows
qualified applicants with disabilities to be considered for a position, modifications to the work
environment or the position to preform essential job functions, and modifications that allow
employees with disabilities to enjoy equal benefits and privileges (The U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission, 2002). An accommodation is considered to be reasonable if it is the
accommodation is possible and is effective in meeting the needs of the individual and that the
individual is able to preform the essential job functions (The U.S. Equal Employment
Opportunity Commission, 2002).
Undue hardship is the final aspect of ADA. Undue hardship means that it is extremely
difficult or expensive to provide the necessary accommodations for an individual. Examples of
undue hardships may include financial difficulty, extensive modifications, or the modifications
would disrupt the nature of the business (The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity
Commission, 2002).
Overall the purpose of ADA is to reduce the amount of discrimination that individuals with
disabilities face when applying for jobs. There are a number of acceptable accommodations that
an employer may have to provide and these include, but are not limited to:
Making existing facilities accessible
Reallocating or redistributing marginal job functions that an employee is unable to
perform
Altering when and/or how a job function is preformed
Permitting the use of accrued paid leave, or unpaid leave when deemed necessary
Modified work schedules
Acquiring equipment
Modifying equipment
Changing tests, training materials, or policies
Providing qualified readers or interpreters
Reassignment to vacant position
(The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2002)

Assistive Technology:
As defined by the IDEA of 2004 assistive technology is defined as any item, piece of
equipment or product system that is used to increase, maintain, or improve the functional
capabilities of individuals with disabilities (Friend, 2010). This assistive technology can assist
individuals in many different ways through helping individuals communicate, complete
assignments, and fully participate in their school, community and place of employment (Friend,
2010). Assistive technology is often categorized according the complexity of the technology.
The levels of assistive technology include no or low technology, mid technology, and high
technology (Friend, 2010). Examples of each type of technology are listed below:
No/Low Technology
Rubber pencil grip
Non slip placement on desk
Mid-Technology
A tape recorder to record directions
A calculator to complete computations
A timer
High Technology
Voice recognition software to dictate information on a computer
Electronic communication boards with pre-recorded voice communications
(Friend, 2010).
Please look at the following video to see examples of assistive technology in use. This video
gives a more thorough look at assistive technology and how it can assist individuals though out
their life span in order to gain independence http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x2G1U6U3zh8.

CTE Curricula Strategies for Developing Positive Transition Traits including Attitude,
Team Work, Self Advocacy, Self Discipline, Responsibility and Quality Control:
Agricultural education curriculum plays a key aspect in developing necessary transition
traits in students. Through agricultural education students work towards developing work
appropriate attitude, teamwork skills, self-advocacy skills, self-discipline, responsibility and
quality control skills. The following website provides a variety of tools that can be used towards
developing teamwork skills, self-discipline, responsibility and attitude in individuals enrolled in
agricultural education http://ctsp.tamu.edu/instructional-videos/overview-of-ebd/toolbox/. The
variety of tools can be according to the teachers desires. The following worksheets can be
adapted and modified in order to meet the needs of the class and the individual students. Some
examples of the worksheet include the good behavior game, student behavior logs, peer-tutoring
worksheets, and academic logs.
Outside of the following website agricultural education incorporates many leadership
activities into the classroom and through the FFA organization. FFA strives to build leaders and
develop leadership skills in all agricultural students through various events and activities as
students learn about themselves and their community. FFA is an intra-curricular activity that
allows students to participate in various activities within the classroom, as well as outside the
classroom through various lessons and community service activities.
In order to develop transition skills in students on Fridays in my classroom we focus on
leadership activities and team building skills that the students do not gain in their other
academic classes. These activities include any of the following life knowledge lesson plans that
focus on introduction to leadership, focusing on individual skills, focus on team building skills,
assisting individuals, working within the community, developing career skills, and developing
Supervised Agricultural Experiences where students are responsible for developing their own
project and creating their own small scale business that they are responsible for maintaining and
keeping records on. Additionally, students will gain self-advocacy skills as they continue to
learn about them selves and their unique needs.
https://www.ffa.org/FFAResources/ffalearn/LifeKnowledge_Online/lessons/highschool/Pages/d
efault.aspx

CTE Curricula Activities for Developing Transition Skills including: Technical,
Academic, Organization and Safety:
Agricultural education curriculum activities play a key role in developing transition
skills in students. Through agricultural education many of the activities advance technical,
academic, organization and safety skills. When teaching agricultural education I begin each
school year focusing on safety units within each of agricultural classes. For example in
veterinary science we focus on farm safety, animal handling safety, zoonotic diseases, and
veterinary hazards. Where as in welding we focus on fire safety, required personal protect, and
specific safety aspects of working with each of the individual types of welders in the shop. This
is essential because as students are learning about the safety skills, many aspects of the safety
unit are transferrable between many of the agricultural courses as students learn the importance
of following all safety precautions or order to protect themselves as well as others in the
classroom. In order to pass the safety unit all students must pass the safety exams with 100%
accuracy in order to be allowed to participate in the class. If students do not pass the safety
exam on the first time, student are required to do corrections, as well as re-take the safety exam
in order to achieve a 100%.
Outside of developing safety skills we focus on developing other core academic skills in
the agricultural education classroom. This is done in veterinary science through dilution of
chemicals and determining correct medicine dosages for various animals. Within veterinary
science students need to understand dilution factors in order to properly dilute and measure
various chemicals when working in the kennel. Additionally students are responsible for
determining correct medicine dosages based upon animal weights. Traditionally, when
determining medicine dosages animals are weighed in kilograms and students must understand
how to convert animal weights from pounds to kilograms. This becomes increasingly complex
when students need to determine various other conversions in order to administer to the correct
dosage.
Additionally, veterinary science helps to develop English skills as student complete
various research projects; compose papers; and complete presentations regarding various animal
species and famous animal scientists. When learning about livestock species my students watch
Temple Grandin (the HBO special) and complete a research project about her contributions to
the livestock industry. This is an extremely important project for the students has Temple
Grandin has significantly changed animal handling and slaughter techniques in order to ensure
more humane treatment of animals throughout the process.
Within each of the agricultural education classes that I am responsible for teaching
students work towards developing technical skills within each of the areas. For example within
welding students once students have a basic understanding of safety, students begin to develop
basic arc welding skills using various electrodes to completing a small arc welding project
where students work towards designing and welding a small C Clamp. Following the arc
welding unit students learn oxy-acetylene cutting, Mig Welding, and Tig Welding. As students
learn to use the various welders within the welding shop this will help them to develop the
necessary technical skills as they learn to use a variety of welders that they may encounter in the
industry.
Within each agricultural education class students learn organization skills. Students are
responsible for completing various portions of their projects or activities certain days in order to
ensure that students remain on task and complete their projects on time. In order to assist
students with organization techniques each month they are presented with a calendar that
contains the project checkpoints and due dates. This process allows students to become
accustomed to referring to a calendar for due dates and will allow them to learn to use a
calendar to organize their daily activities throughout the remainder of their lives to ensure that
they stay on task and accomplish all of their obligations.

Teacher Responsibilities in the Transition Process:
CTE teachers play and extremely important role in the transition process of students as
they finish their high school education and move into adulthood. Within the transition process
teachers are responsible for:
Contact the special education teacher to obtain copies of current IEPs
Communicate with parents and educational professionals to ensure that the needs of the
student are continually being met
Support the use of assistive technology
Provide program tours to share knowledge in job competencies
Develop job skills and technical skills in the student
Provide job placement for students to gain hands-on experience working in the industry
Work with students with disabilities to help define realistic career goals
Share your knowledge of the job market
Provide vocational counseling to assist students with the job search process
Develop a plan to coordinate work-study programs
Develop self-advocacy skills
(deFur, 2011).
As CTE teachers it is important for us take an active role in the transition of students from
high school to their adult lives, as we can provide the students with knowledge and skills that
they are unable to obtain from other school professionals. These skills range from specific
technical skills to career guidance. These transition skills are essential to allowing students to
achieve a level of independence they may not obtain otherwise.

References:
DeFur, S. (2011). Transition Planning: A Team Effort. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Transition_Planning/
Dragoo, K. (2011). Transition Services for Children With Disabilities. Education.com.
Retrieved
from http://www.education.com/reference/article/Ref_Transition_101/
Friend, M. (2010). The Opportunities of Assistive Technology. Education.com. Retrieved from
http://www.education.com/reference/article/assistive-technology-learning-disabilities/
Johnson, D. (2007). Key Provisions on Transition. Key Provisions on Transition: IDEA 1997
compared to H.R. 1350 (IDEA 2004). Retrieved from
http://ncset.org/publications/related/ideatransition.asp
Lee, G. (2013). Vocational Rehabilitation for People with Disabilities. Home Page. Retrieved
from http://cirrie.buffalo.edu/encyclopedia/en/article/128/
U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (2002). Enforcement Guidance: Reasonable
Accommodation and Undue Hardship Under the Americans with Disabilities Act.
ENFORCEMENT GUIDANCE: REASONABLE ACCOMMODATION AND UNDUE
HARDSHIP UNDER THE AMERICANS WITH DISABILITIES ACT. Retrieved from
http://www.eeoc.gov/policy/docs/accommodation.html

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Running Head: SPECIAL EDUCATION COMPENDIUM 1

Compendium: Chapter 1: An Overview of the Legal and Conceptual

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