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CE-464 Ground Improvement
PRELOADING OR
PRECOMPRESSION
PRELOADING IS SURCHARGING THE GROUND WITH A UNIFORMLY
DISTRIBUTED SURFACE LOAD PRIOR TO THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE
INTENDED STRUCTURE (BUILDINGS, EMBANKMENTS, MOTORWAYS,
RUNWAYS TANKS ETC.).

THE PURPOSE IS TO TAKE UP THE SETTLEMENTS UNDER THE CIVIL
ENGINEERING STRUCTURES BEFORE THEY ARE BUILT.

IF GREATER LOAD LEVEL (SURCHARGE) IS USED, THE
CONSOLIDATION IS FORCED TO BE COMPLETED IN A SHORTER
TIME THAN WOULD OCCUR UNDER DESIGN LOAD, THEN THE
LOAD IS REMOVED.

SOILS SUITABLE FOR PRELOADING: COMPRESSIBLE SOFT TO
MEDIUM SOFT SATURATED CLAYS AND SILTS, ORGANIC CLAYS,
PEATS.

TYPES OF PRELOADS: EARTH FILLS (MOST COMMON), WATER IN
TANKS OR PONDS, VACUUM APPLICATION UNDER A MEMBRANE,
SPECIAL ANCHOR AND JACK SYSTEMS, GROUNDWATER
LOWERING, ELECTROOSMOSIS.

THE SURCHARGE RESULTS IN;

PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT
INCREASE IN THE UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH OF THE SOIL.

SURCHARGE LOADS AND VERTICAL DRAINS ARE FREQUENTLY
USED TOGETHER WITH THE PRELOADING TECHNIQUE.

SURCHARGE LOADS (LOADS IN EXCESS OF THOSE TO BE
APPLIED BY A PERMANENT FILL OR STRUCTURE) CAN BE USED
TO ACCELERATE THE PROCESS FOR A PERIOD OF TIME T
S
R.
TERZAGHI'S ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION THEORY CAN
BE USED.

WHEN THE ANTICIPATED TIME OF COMPRESSION IS EXCESSIVE,
VERTICAL DRAINS MAY BE USED TO SHORTEN THE TIME
REQUIRED (IF COMPRESSION IS PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION).
SURCHARGING AND PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION HAS BEEN
DISCUSSED BY ALDNCH (1965) AND JOHNSON (1970A).

USE OF SURCHARGE LOADING (EXTRA P
S
) AND DURATION OF ITS
APPLICATION WHICH MEANS EXTRA COST IS TO REDUCE THE
MAGNITUDE OF SETTLEMENT AFTER CONSTRUCTION. IT IS
USUALLY AIMED AT EITHER;

1. TO DETERMINE THE MAGNITUDE OF SURCHARGE (PS)
REQUIRED TO ENSURE THAI THE TOTAL SETTLEMENT
ANTICIPATED UNDER THE FINAL PRESSURE (PR) WILL BE
COMPLETED (OR MOSTLY COMPLETED) IN A GIVEN LENGTH
OF TIME.

2. TO DETERMINE THE LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED TO ACHIEVE
A GIVEN AMOUNT OF SETTLEMENT UNDER A GIVEN
SURCHARGE LOAD.

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT OF A LAYER
2H IN THICKNESS (NC CLAY);

IF U
f+s
DENOTES THE AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION OF
THE CLAY LAYER UNDER (P
f
+P
s
) AT THE TIME t
SR
, THEN FOR NO
FURTHER SETTELEMENT TO OCCUR UNDER P
f
ALONE;

IF THE SURCHARGE WERE LEFT IN PLACE UNTIL THE TIME t
SR
,
THEN THE LAYER WILL HAVE SETTLED AN AMOUNT EQUAL TO
THAT TO BE EXPECTED UNDER THE PERMANENT FILL ALONE; i.e.
S
tR
= S
f
. AT THIS TIME THE LAYER WILL HAVE REACHED AN
AVERAGE DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION U
(SR)
.

FROM EQUATIONS (1) AND (2)

THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN U
f+s
, P
f
/ o'
vo
AND P
s
/ P
f
CAN ALSO
BE PREPARED IN A GRAPHICAL FORM. ONCE THE AVERAGE
PERCENT OF CONSOLIDATION IS SPECIFIED, THEN THE
ASSOCIATED TIME FACTOR AND THE REAL TIME CAN BE FOUND.

IMPORTANT: THE ABOVE PROCEDURE IS VALID ONLY IF THE
MAXIMUM PAST PRESSURE IS EXCEEDED , i.e (P
f
+ P
s
+ o'
vo
) >
o
vmax.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF EXCESS PORE PRESSURES AND
EFFECTIVE STRESSES IN A LAYER OF 2H THICKNESS WITH
DOUBLE DRAINAGE BOUNDARIES BEFORE AND AFTER
SURCHARGE REMOVAL ARE SHOWN IN THE FOLLOWING FIGURE.


DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION (OR CONSOLIDATION RATIO) AT ANY
POINT IS;

where : u
z
= EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE AT DEPTH Z AT
ANY TIME
u
o
= INITIAL EXCESS PORE WATER PRESSURE UNDER
THE APPLIED SURFACE LOAD.
FOR NO SETTLEMENT TO OCCUR AFTER THE SURCHARGE (P
s
)
REMOVAL AT THE TIME t
SR
, EFFECTIVE STRESS AT THE CENTRE
OF THE LAYER MUST BE EQUAL OR GREATER THAN THE
PERMANENT LOAD (DESIGN LOAD) P
f
. IN OTHER WORDS;

SOME SOILS LIKE ORGANIC SOILS,PEATS SETTLE AFTER PRIMARY
CONSOLIDATION IS COMPLETED (SEE FIGURE 3)

where ; C
a
= VERTICAL STRAIN PER LOG CYCLE (COEFFICIENT OF
SECONDARY COMPRESSION)
t
p
= TIME FOR PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION
H
p
= THICKNESS AT t=t
p

SECONDARY COMPRESSION
EFFECTS
IF NO PRIMARY AND SECONDARY SETTLEMENTS ARE DESIRED
UNDER THE DESIGN LOAD P
f
; THE LOAD P
f
+ P
s
MUST BE
SUSTAINED FOR A PERIOD t
SR
SUCH THAT THE TOTAL
SETTLEMENT S
SR
IS THE SUM OF PRIMARY AND SETTLEMENTS
UNDER P
f
ALONE (FIGURE 4).

THE DESIRED SETTLEMENT S
SR
IS RELATED TO THE PRIMARY
SETTLEMENT UNDER THE LOAD P
f
+P
s
.

SUBSTITUTING 1b, 10, 7, 8, INTO 9

PRELOADING VERSUS GAIN IN UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH
(FIGURE 3);

IF P
f
< s'
vc
(ab), e = CONSTANT, NO c
u
CHANGE.
PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION : (bc) c
u
INCREASES FROM B TO C.
SECONDARY COMPRESSION (CD) RESULTS IN INCREASE OF c
u

FROM C TO D.
DISTRIBUTION OF DC
U
INCREASE IN THE LAYER IS VARIABLE
AFTER P
s
IS REMOVED.

PREDICTION OF Ac
u
INCREASE; I
p
and c
u
/ o'
vp
or c
u
TRIAXIAL
TESTS
Ac
u
0.2Ao
v

THAT IS THE REASON FOR STAGE CONSTRUCTION OF
EMBANKMENTS ON VERY SOFT CLAYS.

VERTICAL DRAINS
PRELOADING TECHNIQUE MAY NOT WORK SOMETIMES
ALONE DUE TO A THICK UNIFORM SOFT CLAY LAYER OR
PERMEABILITY OF THE CLAY IS VERY LOW SO THAT TIME
FOR PRECOMPRESSION (TSR) IS VERY LONG AND NOT
PRACTICAL OR SURCHARGE WILL BE VERY HIGH FOR
REASONABLE WAITING PERIODS. SOMETIMES RATE OF
UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH GAIN IS VERY SMALL WITH
TIME SO THAT RAPID PLACEMENT OF A HIGH FILL WILL
CAUSE FAILURE.

TO ACCELERATE THE RATES OF SETTLEMENT HENCE TO
DECREASE THEPRELOADING TIMES, VERTICAL DRAINS ARE
INSTALLED TO SHORTEN THE DRAINAGE PATHS. IT IS
ESPECIALLY EFFECTIVE IN PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION.
PORE WATER PRESSURES DISSIPATE QUICKLY, T a Hdr2 , IN
MOST DEPOSITS kh>kv . IT IS NOT EFFECTIVE IN ORGANIC
SOILS AND PEATS IN WHICH COMPRESSIONS ARE
DOMINATED BY SECONDARY COMPRESSION.

THEORY OF CONSOLIDATION FOR RADIAL FLOW AND BOTH
RADIAL-VERTICAL CONSOLIDATION (COMBINED) HAVE BEEN
DEVELOPED FOR A LONG TIME (BARREN I948;CARILLO.
1942). CONSOLIDATION TIME IS MAINLY AFFECTED BY THE
DRAIN SPACING RATHER THAN THE DRAIN DIAMETER.
EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS: IS THERE A SIGNIFICANT
DIFFERENCE IN THE PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION RATE WHEN
DRAINS ARE USED?
FOR SUCCESSFUL PROJECTS :
1. (o
vo
+P
f
)>o
vo
(PRECONSOLIDATION PRESSURE) (FIgure 7)
2. MUST BE LARGE.
3. THERE SHOULD NOT BE NATURAL DRAINAGE LAYERS.
EFFICIENCY FACTOR OF
VERTICAL DRAINS ;
FIELD MEASUREMENTS FROM 5 SITES INDICATE THAT
SATISFACTORY e VALUES RANGE BETWEEN 0.6 AND 0.8.
THE NEED AND EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS ARE LARGELY DEPENDENT
ON SOIL CHARACTERISTICS, SOIL PERMEABILITY AND
COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION.
RECENT ALLUVIAL DEPOSITS CONTAIN FREQUENT HORIZONTAL
BANDS OF SAND OR GRAVEL ETC.
THESE ARE USUALLY THIN AND VERY PERMEABLE COMPARED TO
CLAYS.
1. HIGHLY PERMEABLE BANDS OR SEAMS GREATLY INCREASE
EFFICIENCY OF DRAINS SINCE THEY ACT AS HORIZONTAL DRAINS
CONNECTED TO MAIN ARTERIES.
2. CONTINUOUS AND FREQUENT SEAMS OR BANDS OF HIGH
PERMEABILITY SOILS OFTEN MAKE VERTICAL DRAINS
UNNECESSARY OR GREATLY REDUCE THEIR REAL
EFFECTIVENESS (FIGURE 8).
3. SOIL INVESTIGATIONS ARE VERY IMPORTANT
CONTINUOUS SAMPLING
K FIELD AT LOW HEADS
LARGE DIAMETER (25-30 CM) LABORATORY
CONSOLIDATION TESTS.

FIgure 8. ContInuous
And Frequent
Permeable SoIl Bands
Often Make DraIns
Unnecessary
A NUMBER OF DRAINS AVAILABLE :
SAND DRAINS
CARD BOARD DRAINS
SAND WICKS
PLASTIC DRAINS
SOME FACTORS AFFECTING THE DRAIN PERFORMANCE :
1. SMEAR AND DISTORTION OF DRAIN WALLS WHICH REDUCE
DRAIN PERMEABILITY.
2. DISTURBANCE AND LATERAL DEFORMATIONS OF SOFT
GROUND RESULTING FROM DRAIN INSTALLATION.
PERMEABILITY DECREASES, UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH
DECREASES AND PORE WATER PRESSURES INCREASE
(ROWE, 1968)
SAND DRAINS
THEY WERE WIDELY USED BETWEEN 1930 -1980 WITH DIAMETERS
CHANGING BETWEEN 20 -60 CM AND WITH 1.5 TO 6 M SPACING.
CLOSED MANDREL METHOD : APPLIED BY PERCUSSION OR VIBRATION
OR JETTING. THE TUBE IS PUSHED DISPLACING THE SOIL. THERE IS A
LOOSE CAP AT THE END WHICH IS DETACHED AFTER PUSHING IS
COMPLETE. THEN THE TUBE IS FILLED AND EXTRACTED. IN THIS
METHOD THERE IS DISPLACEMENT AND DISTURBANCE WHICH RESULTS
IN A DECREASE OF UNDRAINED SHEAR STRENGTH, PERMEABILITY
DETECTED BY MEASURING PORE WATER PRESSURES, EU AND SURFACE
HEAVE.
OPEN MANDREL METHOD : IN THIS METHOD THE SOIL IN THE TUBE IS
REMOVED BY JETTING OR ANGERING. THE PROBLEM OF SMEAR STILL
EXISTS. AUGER METHOD USING SOLID STEM OR HOLLOW STEM AUGERS
WHICH IS A NON-DISPLACEMENT METHOD MAY BE CONSIDERED AS THE
BEST AS COMPARED TO THE OTHERS. ROTARY JETTING METHOD MAY
ALSO BE APPLIED.
SAND DRAIN APPLICATIONS ARE COMING TO AN END IN THE WESTERN
COUNTRIES.
CARDBOARD DRAINS
THEY ARE FIRST TRIED IN 1937 AND 1948 BY KJELLMAN.
THERE ARE DYNAMIC AND STATIC METHODS OF
INSTALLATION. CARDBOARD DRAINS ARE DRIVEN INTO THE
GROUND BY PURPOSE-MADE MANDREL WHICH IS THEN
REMOVED. THE ADVANTAGES CAN BE LISTED AS FOLLOWS:
THEY ARE EASY TO INSTALL
THEY CAN BE SPACED CLOSELY
THEY HAVE LONG LIFE
THEY HAVE THE ABILITY TO RESIST LARGE DEFORMATIONS.

CARDBOARD WICK DRAINS VISUALLY CONSIST OF A CORE
PLASTIC AND FILTER SLEEVE OF PAPER, FIBROUS
MATERIAL OR POROUS PLASTIC.
PLASTIC DRAINS
THESE ARE THE NEW GENERATION DRAINS WHICH ARE
VERY SIMILAR TO CARDBOARD DRAINS. THERE ARE
SEVERAL COMMERCIAL BRANDS IN THE MARKET AT
PRESENT LIKE ALIDRAIN, GEPDRAIN, CASTLEBOARD,
COLBONT, MEBRADRAIN AND PVC DRAIN. SEE FIGURE 10
FOR GEODRAIN.
SAND-WICKS
THESE ARE READY-MADE SMALL DIAMETER SAND DRAINS
WHICH ARE CONTAINED IN LONG CANVAS BAGS
(APPROXIMATELY 10 CM IN DIAMETER). THEY ARE USUALLY
INSTALLED BY CLOSE MANDREL TECHNIQUE. THEY ARE
RELATIVELY CHEAP AND FIRST USED IN INDIA BY DASTIDAR
ET AL. (1969) AND THEN BY SUBBARAJU ETAL. (1973).
DESIGN OF VERTICAL DRAINS
THE MAIN ASSUMPTIONS MADE FOR THE DESIGN OF VERTICAL
DRAINS ARE ;

EACH DRAIN IS INDEPENDENT AT THE CENTRE OF A
CYLINDRICAL SOIL MASS AND IS ONLY AFFECTED BY THE
DRAINAGE OF THE SOIL IN IT.

INSTANTANEOUS LOADING OF THE HOMOGENEOUS SOIL
RESULTS IN SOLELY RADIAL CONSOLIDATION (AND
THEREFORE RADIAL FLOW) UNDER CONDITIONS OF
CONSTANT PERMEABILITY (kh ) AND RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
COEFFICIENT (ch) .

THE EQUATION WHICH GOVERNS THE
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN PORE PRESSURE, U,
RADIAL DISTANCE FROM THE DRAIN , r, AND TIME,
t,(IN FACT k
h
=f(t) AND c
h
=f(t) ) IS GIVEN BELOW.
DRAIN EFFECTS, SMEAR DISTURBANCE, WELL
RESISTANCE, LOADING RATE, CREEP EFFECTS,
APPROPRIATE HYDRAULIC FLOW FORMULATION
CAN BE ALL INCLUDED IN THE ANALYSES.
t
u
r
u
r r
u
c
h
c
c
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c 1
2
2
u=u
0
at t=0 at all place
u=u
0
In the draIn at any tIme
SOLUTIONS MAY BE OBTAINED FOR TWO TYPES OF
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS.
1. UNIFORM SURCHARGE ON THE GROUND SURFACE (FREE
STRAIN)
2. UNIFORM VERTICAL DEFORMATION OF THE SURFACE
(EQUAL STRAIN)
BOTH SOLUTIONS ARE SIMILAR BUT UNIFORM VERTICAL
STRAIN CONDITION IS SIMPLER.
ASSUMING THAT THE VERTICAL FLOW IS NEGLIGIBLE,
THE EXPRESSION FOR RADIAL (HORIZONTAL) DEGREE OF
CONSOLIDATION IS ;
) (
8
1
n F
T
h
h
e U

=
2
.
e
h
h
d
t c
T =

where,

(horIzontal tIme factor)

HANSBO(1979);F = F(n) + Fs + Fr
WHERE;
F(n) : DUE TO SPACING OF DRAINS
Fs : SMEAR EFFECT
Fr : WELL-RESISTANCE

TIME FOR CONSOLIDATION IS;

WHERE
Uh, IS THE AVERAGE DEGREE OF RADIAL CONSOLIDATION
USUALLY n>12 AND
F(n)= = ln(n) - 0.75 MAY BE USED. n= de/dw,spacIng ratIo

|
|
.
|
\
|
=
h
h
e
U
c
d
t
1
1
ln
. 8
.
2

VARIATION OF Uh WITH HORIZONTAL TIME FACTOR FOR
VARIOUS n VALUES (EQUAL VERTICAL STRAIN) IS SHOWN IS
FIGURE 12. THE EQUATIONS OF Cv AND t FOR VERTICAL AND
RADIAL CONSOLIDATION ARE AS FOLLOWS;
t
T H
a
e k
c
v
w v
v
v
.
.
) 1 (
2
0
=
+
=
v
v
c
H T
t
2
.
=
(VERTICAL CONSOLIDATION)

t
T d
a
e k
c
h e
w v
h
h
.
.
) 1 (
2
0
=
+
=
or

h
e h
c
d T
t
2
.
=
(RADIAL CONSOLIDATION)
NOTE THAT mv = av / (1+e0)
FIgure 12. VarIatIon Of Uh WIth TIme Factor For VarIous N Values (Equal StraIn)
CONSOLIDATION OF THE CYLINDRICAL BODY OF SOIL AROUND
A VERTICAL DRAIN IS, IN FACT, THREE DIMENSIONAL AND IS
GOVERNED BY THE EQUATION ;

OVERALL (THREE DIMENSIONAL) DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION,
U=1-U=(1-UH).(1-UV) WHERE UV IS THE AVERAGE VERTICAL
DEGREE OF CONSOLIDATION.
THE ABOVE CONSIDERATIONS ARE FOR ALL TYPES OF
VERTICAL DRAINS. THE EQUIVALENT DIAMETER DW OF A
BAND SHAPED DRAIN OF WIDTH B, AND THICKNESS T, IS
CALCULATED BY USING THE RELATIONSHIP GIVEN BELOW.
t
u
z
u
c
x
u
x x
u
c
v h
c
c
=
c
c
+
|
|
.
|
\
|
c
c
+
c
c
2
2
2
2
.
1
t
) ( 2 t b
d
w
+
=
BOTH WELL RESISTANCE AND WELL DISTURBANCE DURING
INSTALLATION MAY CAUSE THE ACTUAL TIMES FOR CONSOLIDATION
TO BE GREATER THAN PREDICTED BY THE ABOVE EQUATIONS.
DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THE TOPIC ARE STUDIED BY VARIOUS
RESEARCHERS. SOME OF THEM ARE;

SOLUTION FOR GRADUALLY APPLIED LOADING BY CHAPUT AND
THOMANN (1975)

SMEAR AND WELL RESISTANCE STUDIED BY, YOSHIKUNI AND
NAKANODO (1974) , BARREN(1948),-ABOSHI (1969), RICHART
(1959), BERRY AND WILKINSON (1969)

EFFECT OF STRATIFICATION IS STUDIED BY LEE AND VALIAPPAN
(1974)

REVIEW - DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
THE COEFFICIENT OF CONSOLIDATION FOR VERTICAL
COMPRESSION AND HORIZONTAL FLOW DOMINATES THE
DESIGN OF SAND DRAINS.
w v
h
h
a
e k
c
.
) 1 (
0
+
=

h
e h
c
d T
t
2
.
=
or
w v
h
h
m
k
c
.
=

w v
v
v
m
k
c
.
=
(NOTE THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN THE ABOVE EQUATIONS)
C
h
IS PRINCIPALLY DEPENDENT ON kh BECAUSE m
v
IS LESS
VARIABLE. ONE WAY OF ESTIMATING k
h
, IS TO CONDUCT
SPECIAL LABORATORY TESTS FOR RADIAL DRAINAGE IN
UNIFORM SOILS USUALLY k
h
>k
v
(HANSBO(1960),
ROWE(1964), BERRY AND WILKINSON(1969), PAUTE(1973).

MITCHEL AND GARDNER NOTED THAT THE BEST WAY IS TO
MEASURE AV OR MV IN THE LAB AND KH, IN THE
FIELD(USUALLY CH/CV RANGES BETWEEN 2- 10).
FIELD CONTROL OF THE CONSTRUCTION
IT IS VERY IMPORTANT TO CHECK WHAT IS GOING ON
AFTER THE DESIGN HAS BEEN DONE AND THE LOADING
STARTED. MEASUREMENTS ARE INTEGRAL PART OF THE
DESIGN PROCESS AND IT MAY NOT BE POSSIBLE TO
COMPLETE A PRELOADING-DRAINS PROJECT WITHOUT
FIELD INSTRUMENTATION.
THE SIMPLEST WAY IS TO MEASURE THE SURFACE
SETTLEMENTS. PIEZOMETERS AT THE CENTRE AND OTHER
ELEVATIONS OF THE SOFT CLAY AT THE MID-DISTANCE OF
THE DRAINS AND THE SETTLEMENT GAUGES AT VARIOUS
DEPTHS (BOREHOLE GAUGES) ARE USUALLY USED TO
ASSESS AND TO CHECK THE DESIGN ASSUMPTIONS.
NECESSARY CHANGES ARE MADE IF REQUIRED.
VARIOUS CASE HISTORIES INVOKING VERTICAL DRAINS TO
SPEED UP THE CONSOLIDATION PROCESS WERE DESCRIBED
BY JOHNSON (1970B), BJERRUM (1972) AND PILOT (1981).

VERTICAL DRAINS ARE GENERALLY EFFECTIVE EXCEPT IN
ORGANIC CLAYS, HIGHLY STRATIFIED SOILS OR IN SOILS WHERE
SEVERE STABILITY PROBLEMS EXIST. THESE SOILS ALREADY
SETTLE IN A SHORT TIME.

THE METHOD OFTEN SAVES LARGE SUMS OF MONEY AND CAN
BE USED IN VERY POOR SUBSOIL CONDITIONS. LARGE POST
CONSTRUCTION SETTLEMENTS MAY BE ELIMINATED, COSTS OF
SURCHARGE AND/OR VERTICAL DRAINS AND PRELOADING
PERIODS SHOULD BE COMPARED.

PLASTIC DRAINS ARE INCREASINGLY BEING USED.

BEST METHOD IN THE INSTALLATION OF SAND DRAINS IS
AUGERING. OPEN MANDREL METHOD RESULTS IN MORE
EFFICIENT DRAINS THAN CLOSE MANDREL METHOD.

TIMES FOR CONSOLIDATION CHANGES FROM MONTHS TO A
YEAR OR MORE.

IF Pf < oc' DO NOT USE SAND DRAINS.
FIELD TESTS (ESPECIALLY FIELD PERMEABILITY) IN STRATIFIED
SOILS MAY BE REQUIRED TO DECIDE EFFICIENCY OF THIN
PERVIOUS SOILS AS DRAINAGE LAYERS. IN MANY CASES
CONSOLIDATION RATES ARE MUCH FASTER THAN USUALLY
PREDICTED DUE TO CONVENTIONAL LABORATORY
APPROACHES AND THERE MAY NOT BE ANY NEED FOR DRAINS
IN SOILS HAVING CONTINUOUS PERMEABLE BANDS.

ON THE OTHER HAND PREDICTIONS OF RATES OF
CONSOLIDATION WHERE DRAINS ARE INSTALLED CAN NOT BE
MADE RELIABLY BECAUSE OF THE DIFFICULTIES IN
DETERMINING A REPRESENTATIVE VALUE OF ch , AND
ACCOUNTING FOR THE EFFECTS OF THE DRAIN INSTALLATION
(DISTURBANCE AND SMEAR).

SITE INVESTIGATION EFFORTS MUST BE OF GOOD QUALITY.
WELL RESISTANCE
DISCHARGE CAPACITY OF THE DRAINS = q
w
PERMEABILITY OF THE SOIL = k
c

WHERE
l = LENGTH OF THE DRAIN WHEN OPEN AT ONE END ONLY
(HALF LENGTH OF THE DRAIN WHEN OPEN AT BOTH ENDS)
z = DISTANCE FROM OPEN END OF DRAIN (0 < z < 21)

WHEN q
w
/ k
c
< 3000 m
2
WELL RESISTANCE CAN NOT BE
IGNORED.
w
c
r
q
k
z l z n ) 2 ( 75 . 0 ) ln( + ~ t
SMEAR DISTURBANCE
WHERE s=d
s
/ d
w

ds = DIAMETER OF THE DISTURBED ZONE
kc' = PERMEABILITY OF THE DISTURBED ZONE
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ + =
2
'
1
'
1 ) 2 ( 75 . 0 ) ln(
'
) ln(
s
n
k
k
k
k
q
k
z l z s
k
k
s
n
c
c
c
c
w
c
c
c
s

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CE-464 Ground Improvement

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