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COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS REVISION BOOKLET

SYLLABUS CONTENT & REVISION CHECKLIST

REMEMBER!
In your exam you are required to write a 25 mark essay question in part B
You can choose between writing an essay on coasts OR an essay on rivers
o So, if you answer the short questions on coasts you must write the essay on rivers
o OR, if you answer the short questions about rivers, you must write the essay on coasts
You must also answer the short questions on cold environments (compulsory questions)

ESSAY TIPS
Plan ahead so you have a clear structure (remember this is worth 7 out of the 25 marks)
You must include an INTRODUCTION, in which you
o Define the key terms
o Rephrase the question in this essay I am going to.
o Give an indication of the structure of your essay.. I will consider the following factors..
o Tell the examiner what case study you will be using
MAIN BODY OF THE ESSAY in each paragraph you must include
- start by stating the factor/ issue/ argument you are going to make in that paragraph
- outline the geography theory
- exemplify or support your argument/ statement with a CASE STUDY
- finish by including a LINK sentence which rephrases the question and shows the examiner you are
still focused on the question (and havent wandered off the point)
CONCLUSION summarize briefly and (usually) talk about how the factors are interrelated/ connected, or
potentially give an idea about what you think may happen to that environment in the future (show how you can
take it further)

Coastal environments notes
Questions for
Investigation
Key Ideas Content
What processes
and factors are
responsible for
distinctive
coastal
landforms?
Weathering, erosion,
transportation and deposition
give rise to distinctive types of
coastal landform.

These processes are influenced
by a range of factors, which vary
from place to place.
The study of an extended stretch of coastline to illustrate:
a range of features associated with coastal erosion;
a range of features associated with coastal deposition;
the processes responsible for these features, including
wave action and sub-aerial processes;
the factors affecting the development of these features
including rock type and structure, aspect and sea-level
change.

How can coasts
be protected
from the effects
of natural
processes?
There are a number of ways that
coastal areas can be protected,
ranging from hard engineering to
managed retreat.
The study of an extended stretch of coastline or
coastlines, to illustrate:
the reasons why some coastal areas need to be
protected;
the different methods of coastal protection, including
hard and soft engineering and managed retreat;
the planning, management and environmental issues
associated with different coastal protection methods.


In what ways can
coastal areas be
a valuable
economic and
environmental
resource?
Coastal areas provide
opportunities for a number of
human activities, including:
industrial development;
transportation;
residential development;
energy development;
recreation and leisure;
conservation.
The study of at least two contrasting coastal
environments to illustrate:
the variety of activities found in coastal areas;
the reasons for the growth and development of these
different activities;
that conflicts may result from the growth and
development of these activities.


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COASTS: UNIT 1: What processes and factors are responsible for distinctive
coastal landforms?
Weathering, erosion, transportation and deposition give rise to distinctive types of coastal landforms
These processes are influenced by a range of factors, which vary from place to place.

For a case study example (a stretch of coastline), illustrate
a range of features associated with coastal erosion;
a range of features associated with coastal deposition;
the processes responsible for these features, including wave action and sub-aerial processes;
the factors affecting the development of these features including rock type and structure, aspect and sea-level
change.

THE COAST the frontier between the land and the sea and is one of the most dynamic and fragile environments on
earth. It is constantly being re-shaped by waves, tides and ocean currents and the effects of the weather.

WAVES
- Waves are the main source of energy along the coasts
- created either when winds blow for great distances over the
surface of the sea as the drag effect (friction = transfer of
energy) creates a swell (swell waves) or when local weather
conditions produce storm waves

The size and strength of individual waves depends on:
the velocity or speed of the wind (stronger wind = greater
friction = higher and more powerful waves)
wind direction
the period of time that the wind has been blowing
the fetch (the length of uninterrupted water over which waves
can be generated)

In deep water, wave particles follow a circular
motion. In shallow water (once the depth becomes
less than a quarter of the wave length), the wave
encounters friction with the sea bed and the circular
motion changes to an elliptical motion as the frictional
drag of the sea bed slows down the base.

The top of the wave continues to move forward faster
than the base of the wave causing the wave to break.
The position of the plunge line will vary according to
changing conditions.

As a wave breaks, water rushes up the beach (swash)
and is then carried back down the beach by gravity
(backwash). Water returning down the beach is often
concentrated into rip currents.


Wave refraction - It is very rare for waves to approach a regular uniform
coastline, as most have a variety of bays, beaches and headlands. Because
of these features, the depth of water around a coast varies and as a wave
approaches a coast its progress is modified due to friction from the seabed,
halting the motion of waves. As waves approach a coast they are refracted
so that their energy is concentrated around headlands but reduced around
bays. Waves then tend to approach coastline parallel to it, and their energy
decreases as water depth decreases. Lines drawn at right-angles to the
wave crests (known as orthogonals) show the bending of the wave crests
by refraction. The effect of refraction is to concentrate wave energy on the
protruding headlands. This helps to explain why bay beaches attract
deposition while deeper water around headlands favours erosion.
Longshore currents carry the eroded headland material and deposit
it in the bays. In time, the coastland becomes less irregular as headlands are
eroded and bays filled in.
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Constructive and Destructive Waves

CONSTRUCTIVE WAVE



Low energy, spilling waves
Long wave length and a long wave period (6-8 waves per
minute)
Usually low waves < 1 m
They are often swell waves.
Create a shelving profile that allows water time to
percolate rather than run off
Constructive waves steepen slowly as they approach a
beach.
The wave breaks gently, the swash moves up the beach
slowly and water percolates quickly into the sand.
The backwash is usually weak it has little power to
move the sediment back towards the sea, so a beach
gradually develops (a deposition feature)
These waves slowly push material up the beach creating
sandy ridges or berms (high sandy ridges), and ridges
and runnels (small ridges and depressions on the lower
beach).

DESTRUCTIVE WAVES



Often called plunging waves and are often the result of
storm activity
High with a short wave length and a short wave period (
10 14 waves per minute).
They are often local waves.
Destructive waves steepen quickly as they approach a
beach.
Waves break from a considerable height creating large
amount of energy
The waves plunge with greater force on to the beach.
The swash is short and there is a more effective
backwash which drags material down the beach and out
to sea remove material (erosive)
The overall effect is that whilst some large storm waves
may throw shingle to the top of the beach and form a
storm ridge, most material is dragged downwards to
form a breakpoint bar.

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PART 2: PROCESSES OPERATING ALONG THE COAST


























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Terrestrial/ sub aerial processes (this
means on the land)
WEATHERING

CORROSION/ SOLUTION = In coastal areas the
proximity of sea water can speed up the effect of
chemical weathering. Saltwater evaporation from sea
spray leads to the growth of salt crystals in rocks. As
they develop, the salt crystals expand, forcing rocks to
disintegrate. Particular types of rock are susceptible to
corrosion, especially if they contain limestone, which is
dissolved by the carbonic acid in salt water or rainwater


WETTING & DRYING -Softer rocks such as clays and
shales are very susceptible to wetting and drying. Where
these rocks are in the coastal splash zone, they are
constantly prone to expansion and contraction as they
become wet and then dry out. This causes weaknesses
in the rock which allows marine processes to attack and
erode the rock away easily

FREEZE THAW -Where temperatures at the coast
fluctuate above and below freezing, any water in the
joints/ faults in the exposed rock will freeze and expand
in volume by 9% exerting pressure on the rock, during
the day the water will thaw when temperatures rise. This
repeated process will eventually weaken the rock
sufficiently for it to break apart



EROSION
Marine processes

WAVE POUNDING - results from the weight of
water in individual waves striking the coast. Typical
winter storms may generate waves with a pressure
of 10 30 tonnes per square metre.

HYDRAULIC ACTION - Waves force air into joints
and cracks in the cliff surface. This compressed air
has the power to loosen and break away pieces of
rock. Additionally, where air is trapped in joints and
fissures, the resulting pneumatic pressure weakens
cliffs, causing collapse and removal of large blocks.

ABRASION - storm waves are able to pick up large
quantities of beach material and hurl it at the cliffs.
In this way, the process of abrasion (corrasion)
becomes a powerful force which erodes mainly the
lower part of the cliffs.

CORROSION (SOLUTION) Where the geology is
suitable this can be an effective erosive force. In
areas of limestone or chalk rocks, the sea is often a
milky colour where the rock material has become
dissolved in the seawater. The salt in seawater is
also capable of corroding some rock types.

ATTRITION - Rocks and pebbles collide with each
other as they are moved by the waves. This action,
of attrition reduces the size of beach material and
increases its roundness by smoothing away rough
edges


MASS MOVEMENTS (the downslope
movement of material under the
influence of gravity).

ROCKFALLS - In more resistant rocks such as
chalk, rockfalls can occur as a result of wave
action weakening the base of the cliff and sub-
aerial processes attacking the upper part of the
cliff face. These processes can lead to individual
fragments of rock falling or in extreme
circumstances whole sections of cliff collapsing as
rockfall on steep cliff faces.

LANDSLIDES/ MUDSLIDES -often associated
with weaker rocks such as clays and sand and
can be triggered by periods of heavy rainfall.
When the ground becomes saturated, the
combination of extra weight, slope and increased
lubrication can lead to slope failure and small
scale mudslides or landslides.

SLUMPING/ ROTATIONAL SLIDE - is a result of
a combination of marine processes undercutting
the base of a cliff, heavy rainfall, and curved
slipping planes where different rock types meet. In
rotational slide, sections of the cliff give way along
a well defined concave slip surface. The fallen
material stays as an identifiable mass until further
weathering and erosion act upon it. Slumps occur
where a section of cliff collapses as a jumbled
mass of rock. Slumps are common where a
permeable rock lies over an impermeable rock or
where the cliff consists of unconsolidated rock e.g.
glacial deposits in north Norfolk and Holderness.

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BREAKING POINT OF THE WAVE - when
a wave breaks it releases a great deal of
energy. A wave which breaks at the foot
of a cliff releases the most energy and
causes fastest erosion, particularly
corrasion. A wave which breaks offshore
will have lost most of its energy as it
travels up a beach.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF ROCK
(LITHOLOGY) - some rocks are soluble in water
(e.g. chalk is soluble in acidified water) and can
be eroded by corrosion.

ROCK STRUCTURE refers to the arrangement of rocks in the
landscape and includes features such as strata (layers), dip
(angle of rocks) and faults
FAULTING - densely jointed or faulted rocks are
susceptible to hydraulic action. Faults, joints, cracks and
bedding planes can all act as points of weakness.
STRATA - the direction in which rocks occurs in relation
to the coast plays and important part in the resulting
landforms. Coasts where the rock type runs parallel to the
sea are concordant coats and often produce straighter
coastlines. Coasts where the rocks outcrop at right angles
to the sea are called discordant coasts and often produce
headlands and bays. An example of both of these can be
found at Purbeck coast, Dorset. Horizontally bedded
strata usually form steep cliffs, where strata is dipping
TYPE OF WAVE - steep destructive waves
have more energy, and power to erode,
than shallow constructive waves.

MECHANICAL STRENGTH OF ROCKS - some
rocks (e.g. granite) are stronger and more
resistant to erosion than others (e.g.
unconsolidated sediments such as volcanic ash).
Rocks which can become saturated with water
can collapse (e.g. fuller's earth). More resistant
rocks such as chalk and limestone, erode more
slowly and often produce spectacular cliff and
headland features. Weaker rocks such as clay
and sands, have less structural, strength and are
eroded easily, producing a lower cliff profile
with mudslides and slumping
FETCH OF THE WAVE - waves tend to
become higher and more erosive as their
fetch increases.
SHAPE OF COASTLINE - refraction makes
waves stronger and more erosive on
headlands rather than bays.

GRADIENT OF THE SEA-BED - the steeper
the gradient of sea-bed, the more likely it is
that the wave will break closer to the shore.
Less of the wave's energy is used in
overcoming friction with the sea-bed, so
there is more energy to erode.

FACTORS AFFECTING THE RATE
OF COASTAL EROSION
The rate of erosion is affected by
1) force of the waves (erosivity)
and 2) the resistance of the coast
to erosion (erodibility).
HUMAN PROTECTION - in
many locations, physical
structures (e.g. sea walls)
have been installed to absorb
the energy of waves and so
reduce the rate of erosion.
VEGETATION - the foliage and roots of
vegetation bind soil and rocks together and
reduce the rate of erosion.

COHERENCE OF THE ROCK PATICLES - some
rock types are more coherent (have well
connected individual particles and few lines of
weakness e.g. chalk and sandstones) the result
of this is a more solid coastline with a steep
profile and slow rates of erosional retreat. Other
rock types are more coherent, meaning they
have poorly connected particles or a lot of
cracks and joints, leading to a high level of
weakness. Clay is an example of a poorly
cemented rock which is affected by both sub
aerial and marine processes often resulting in
slumped or stepped cliff profile.
]
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COASTAL LANDFORMS






COASTS OF EROSION

Coasts of erosion form as a result of high energy waves,
large fetch, high exposure and limited deposition.

They are also associated with drift aligned coasts that are
influenced by longshore drift (more of this later)
This transfer of sediment along the coast limits the
development of beaches and leads to greater cliff
exposure, hence cliff retreat.

Coastlines that are discordant in geology help create
typical headland and bay features that also erode over
time to form wave-cut platforms and arches and stacks.

ROCKY COASTAL ENVIRONMENTS

CLIFFS
Rocky coastal environments are dominated by erosional features such as cliffs, headlands and shore
platforms. The shape of the coastline, both in plan and profile is affected by the geology of the coastline,
particularly the structure of the rock and the lithology
Lithology (describes the physical and chemical composition of the rock) some rock types will have
weak lithology e.g. clay and will, therefore, have little resistance to erosion, weathering and mass
movement. Other rocks, e.g. basalt, which is made of interlocking crystals, are higly resistant and are
more likely to form prominent coastal features such as cliffs and headlands.
Structure (describes the properties of individual rock types, such as jointing, bedding and faulting and
also considers the permeability of rocks).

TASK 1: Using Pg 64 of your text book explain how rock structure influences the shape of the coastline in plan
form.















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KEY TERMS






Wave cut platforms are remnants of the previous cliff line.



They form as a ledge of bedrock left behind as the cliff retreats.
The platform slopes at at 4-5 degree angle down to the sea.
It forms as waves erode the base of the cliff in the inter-tidal zone.
o Waves scour away at the base through processes of abrasion, hydraulic action and solution,
until over time a wave-cut notch forms.
o As the notch enlarges, the cliff face becomes undermined until at some point it collapses under
its own weight.
o Attrition and transportation then remove the cliff debris leaving behind a small bedrock ledge,
which marks the old cliff line.
o This process is repeated over time as the cliff retreats forming a larger wave-cut platform.
o Eventually a beach may develop on the platform which will provide some protection to the cliff
and in turn slows down the rate of retreat. Wave-cut platforms are characterized by their gentle
sloping angle, hard bedrock and rock pools, which develop unique coastal ecosystems.

Headlands and bays are most commonly found at discordant coastlines where the cliff is subject to
differentiated rates of erosion, due to bands of varying resistant geology. However, they also form at
concordant coasts and in sections of cliff that have more distinct lines of weakness.

The distinctive structure of the Purbeck coast of Dorset has a sequence of limestone and clay rocks. These
produce discordant features on the eastern foreland (where the rock structure is at right angles to the coast)
and concordant (parallel) features of the south facing coast around Lulworth Cove. Once established, headlands
become the focus of intense local erosion as relatively deeper water and the refraction of waves exploit
weaknesses in the lithology.

TASK: make a quick sketch of concordant and discordant sections of the coast line at Purbeck Bay from Pg 65 of
your text book






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Bays are sheltered, low energy zones that form in bands of weak geology, e.g. clays. Here the cliff erodes at a
faster rate. Bays are flanked by headlands which are exposed rocky outcrops positioned at 90 perpendicular to
the bay. They consist of more resistant rock, e.g. limestone.

Due to the way waves refract around headlands, destructive waves concentrate their energy on their sides and
over time develop unique coastal features, such as caves, arches and stacks.

Wave refraction is the process by which waves become distorted by differentiated rates of friction caused by
shallower water ahead of coastal features. In deep water waves are unaffected but in shallow water waves slow
down. On approaching the shoreline waves will curve in to beaches and reduce the likelihood of drift. Waves
approaching headlands slow down and build height creating destructive waves, The waves become refracted
around the headland and so wave energy becomes concentrated on the sides of the headland.
Caves, Arches, Stacks and Stumps
Headlands, once formed, are exposed to the full force of the sea. As a result of wave refraction, destructive
waves concentrate their energy on all three sides of the headland and so it slowly erodes overtime. In doing so,
quite distinct features develop.

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LANDFORMS ASSOCIATED WITH WEAKER ROCKS
All slopes are under stress because of the force of gravity. If the forces acting on a slope are greater than the
resistant strength of the rocks, the slope will failm resulting in a landslide.

KEY TERM:
Landslide the general term for gravity controlled processes (mass movement). The three main types of
landslide processes are, falling, sliding and flowing, known as rockfall, debris flow, slumping and soil creep.
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Clay coastlines are particularly prone to landslides
because the clay is poorly consolidated and becomes very
unstable when wet. Consequently, coastal areas that have
a high clay content, or are made up of layers of rock
which include clays, are especially vulnerable to landslide
events.

Parts of the Dorset coast are affected by landslides
because the geology contains a complex mixture of
porous rocks, clays and mudstones, making the coast
susceptible to wave attack, weathering and heavy rainfall.
The area is more likely to have future landslide events
because movement can occur along stress lines that
already exist.



FEATURES OF COASTAL DEPOSITION
BEACHES
BEACH SEDIMENT: sources, stores and sinks
3 principle sources of beach sediment
1. rivers (generally the most important)
2. cliffs e.g cliff erosion at Holderness, East Yorkshire inputs 2.4 million m2 of mud, sand and shingle into
the coastal system each year.
3. dunes
Other sources of beach sediment
4. sediments transported onshore by waves and currents from sandbanks in the offshore zone
(sandbanks act as sediment sinks)

A significant part of the beach sediment around Britains coastline was transported onshore as sea levels rose
after the last glacial period (20,000-60,000 BP). Single from this source has helped to build impressive beaches
in southern England e.g. Chesil in Dorset

A coastal area can be seen as a system, which produces, transfers and deposits sediment. It is an open system
with inputs, stores, transfers and outputs.

When there is a balance between inputs and outputs, the system is said to be in equilibrium. A positive
sediment budget means that beaches are developing and are relatively stable, while a negative budget suggests
a loss of beach material and the possibility of increasing wave action on cliffs.

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KEY TERMS
Beach Accumulations of sand and shingle deposited by waves in the intertidal zone
Sediment sinks medium to long term stores of sediment, they include sandbanks, beaches, dunes,
mudflats, sandflats and saltmarshes.
Sediment budget Net transfer of sediment between stores within the coastal zone
(calculated by subtracting the volume of outputs from the volume of inputs)

Sediments are often confined to specific stretches of coastline known as sediment cells, they are thought to be
largely self-contained, with little movement of sand, shingle and mud into adjacent cells. Prominent physical
features such as headlands, which are barriers to sediment transport, define them. Each cell contains several
sub cells. Sediment cells have become the basic unit for coastal management in the UK







TASK: Complete the map below to show the locations for the named sediment cells in England and Wales.

Sediment
inputs
deposition by
rivers
weathering
and erosion of
cliffs
Sediment
transfer
movement up
and down the
beach
movement
along the
coast by
longshore drift
Sediment
stores
beach /sand
dunes
sand/ shingle
onshore or
offshore bars
Sediment
outputs
sediiment lost
to the open
sea
sediment
removed by
human
intervention
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THE BEACH PROFILE

KEY TERM
Beach profile Refers to the cross sectional shape of a beach from the high water mark to the low water
mark.
Main features berms, beach faces, ridges, runnels, breakpoint bars

The beach profile extends from the offshore zone to the backshore zone. The beach itself forms from the
nearshore to the backshore within the tidal range.


FEATURES OF DEPOSITION FOUND ON BEACHES
These tend to be smaller scale features of deposition
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RIDGES & RUNNELS
The smallest in scale, are beach drainage
features, such as ridges and runnels.
form in the foreshore zone.
Ridges are areas of the foreshore that are
raised above the adjacent shore which dips
into a Runnel. The cross-section is similar
to that of hills and valleys but at a much
smaller scale.
Ridge and runnel systems are formed due
to the interaction of tides, currents,
sediments and the beach topography.
They will only form on shallow gradient
beaches.
They form as a simple drainage routes for
incoming and outgoing tides. Water flows in
and out via the runnel, creating a hollow
channel. The ridges are the raised section
next to the runnel.

BERMS
raised ridges or plateaus that mark highest tidal point.
It's normal for a beach profile to support several berms that mark
different tide levels.
The highest berm is called the spring tide berm and is made up of the
largest and most course sediment, which merges into the STORM BEACH
at the very back of the shore

BEACH CUSPS
shoreline features made up of various grades of sediment that
form an arc pattern.
The horns are made up of coarser materials and the embayment
contains finer grain sediment.
most noticeable on shorelines with coarser sediment such as
pebble beaches, however, they can occur on beaches with
sediment of any size.
They nearly always occur in a regular pattern with cusps of equal
size and spacing.
Cusps are most often a few meters long, however they may reach
60m across.
It's unclear how cusps form but once they do they are a self-
sustaining formation. This is because once an oncoming wave hits
the horn of a beach cusp it is split and forced into two directions.
The breaking of a wave into the cusps slows its velocity, causing
coarser sediment to fall out of suspension and be deposited on the
horns. The waves then flow along the embayments (picking up
finer sediment) and run into one another in the middle. After this
collision these waves attempt to flow back out to sea where they
are met by incoming waves. Therefore, once the cusp is
established, coarser sediment is constantly being deposited on the
horn and finer sediment is being eroded away from the
embayments. In this way a positive feedback occurs which should
at least maintain the cusp size if not increase their size.

OFFSHORE BARS & BARRIER ISLANDS
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Offshore bars are elongated ridges and mounds of sand or gravel deposited beyond a shoreline by
currents and waves.
The term offshore bar has been used to describe both submerged bars, and emergent islands separated
from a shoreline by a lagoon, features more correctly identified as barrier islands. Submerged bars are
only exposed at low tide, if ever, while barrier islands remain at least partially exposed, even at high
tide.
Longshore, tidal, and fluvial currents construct
submerged bars in shallow water coastal
environments.
The amount of unconsolidated sediment available
in a shore-zone system, called its sand budget,
determines the number of bars and other
depositional features that form along the
coastline.
A shore-zone system's dominant mode of
sediment transport controls the shapes and
orientations of its depositional forms, including
the types of submerged bars. Some form as a
result of long currents that develop a trough and
bar feature in the nearshore zone. In other cases,
storms, with destructive waves with high breakers
and strong backwash drag berm sediment
offshore to help form longshore bars. These bars
then migrate shoreward under calmer more
constructive wave patterns. This process also
helps create the steep shore facing slopes of
berms.



STORM BEACHES - A ridge of boulders and shingle found at the
back of the beach which have been thrown up to the back of the
beach by the largest waves at high tides.














TASK: Annotate the diagram below to explain the formation of the features of deposition found on a beach
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BEACH PROFILES AND SEDIMENT TYPES
When the strong swash of a constructive waves moves up a beach it carries sand or shingle
with it.
The largest material is deposited at the upper limit reached by the swash.
The backwash then carries smaller material back down the beach but it progressively loses
water, and therefore energy, as it does so. This is because the beach is very porous water
passes through the spaces between individual sand particles. The flow of the backwash is
weakened as a result, until it can carry only the lightest material.
Consequently, as the backwash weakens as it flows back towards the sea and gets weaker, it
deposits shingle and sand particles of a progressively smaller size.
The material on a beach is, therefore, sorted by wave deposition the largest shingle is
deposited at the top of the beach and the finest sand is deposited near the sea. The smallest
mud particles settle in the low energy environment offshore.
When a storm occurs at the time of the highest tides, large shingle is tossed above the usual
high tide level to form a ridge at the top of the beach (called a storm berm).


WHAT AFFECTS THE SHAPE OF THE BEACH
1. The type of sediment shingle or sand
2. The amount of wave energy affecting the beach


1) THE TYPE OF SEDIMENT
Shingle beaches
shingle is coarser than sand therefore has a higher
percolation rate - waves easily flow through the coarse,
porous surface of the beach (decreasing the effect of
backwash erosion and increasing the formation of
sediment into a steep sloping back.
Swash running up a shingle beach quickly loses energy so
pebbles are carried only a short distance
However, percolation is rapid so there is little backwash to
drag the sediment back down the beach
As a result, sediment moves in one direction only up the
beach and piles up to form slopes of up to 12 degrees (steeper gradient)

Sandy beaches
typically flatter (>5) and wider
the smaller particles are evenly distributed and water takes
longer to percolate down into the sand so more sand is
removed with the backwash.
o Lower percolation rates = a longer swash and a more
powerful backwash

Sometimes beaches made of similar sediments have different profiles,
this is due to differences in wave energy, the second factor that
influences beach profiles

2) THE TYPE OF WAVE
High waves = wide flat beaches
High waves, separated by long troughs, input huge amounts of energy to
the nearshore zone
With long swash times and powerful backwashes they flatten sand beaches
and transport sediment offshore, where it is stored in breakpoint bars
Wide, flat beaches are a response to the huge energy inputs from storm
and swell waves
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At coasts dominated by destructive waves the beach profile is narrow and steep. The tidal range will
also be smaller.

Low energy waves = steep beaches
Low energy waves are just a few centimeters high and have a short wave period
The induce a net transfer of sediment onshore, creating steep beaches, with prominent beach face and
berm
At coasts dominated by constructive waves, large wide and flat beaches develop and the tidal range is
more extensive. It is on these large relatively flat beaches that a greater number of depositional features
occur.


In mid to high latitudes, beaches often have a seasonal profile.
Winter = storms are more frequent, and beaches may develop wide, flat profiles
Summer = beaches experience more low energy waves and consequently have steeper profiles.
BEACH PLANS & LONGSHORE DRIFT
A beach plan is formed as a product of the angle at which waves approach a beach. Beaches in planform are
either swash aligned or drift aligned
TYPES OF BEACHES 2 main types
1) SWASH ALIGNED
Form when waves approach the coastline and break parallel to the beach
Swash and backwash move sediments up and down the beach, often creating a stable, straight
beach with an even, longitudinal profile
Swash aligned beaches are smoothly curved, concave beaches.
The beach face is orientated parallel to the fronts of the dominant waves. Beaches which face
the waves are termed swash aligned.
Swash aligned beaches are more influenced by constructive wave patterns, which are also
important for building up large beaches
During storm conditions severe backwash can move sediment out to sea, creating sand or
shingle bars on the seabed

2) DRIFT ALIGNED
Form when waves approach the coastline at an angle
The swash therefore occurs at an angle but the backwash runs perpendicular to the beach. As a
result, material is transported along the beach via longshore drift.
Sediment is moved along the coast by the action of longshore drift . As a consequence, large
wide beaches struggle to establish.
Some beaches show oblique alignments to the dominant wave fronts. This usually occurs where
the beach gradient is steep and the wavelength is short. This is because the waves break at
different points on the beach.
drift aligned coasts bring in waves at an angle to the shoreline and so therefore, the waves tend
to transport sediment down the coast, keeping beaches relatively narrow. It is drift aligned
beaches that are mainly associated with spits, bars and tombolos. Swash beaches are more
associated with large beach profiles, with dunes, a variety of berms and beach drainage features.

LONGSHORE DRIFT
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MODEL ANSWER
Explain the process by which beach sediment is transported along drift aligned beaches

Prevailing wind brings waves in on an angle, which is slightly reduced in the nearshore by wave refraction.
As waves break, their swash transports sediment up the beach at angle but the backwash under the
influence of gravity bring it back perpendicular. As a result sediment is transported down the beach in a
zig-zag pattern. Most sediment is suspended in the water but when moved by the breaking wave it is
transported through saltation and traction. A strong current is also present in the nearshore, called the
longshore current. Sediment is also transported in the longshore current. The current varies in strength
from beach to beach but works like stream down within trough between the beach and an offshore bar.


TASK: Draw an annotated diagram (use the information in the model answer above) to explain the process of
longshore drift.

Note longshore drift is a process by which beach sediment is transported along the coast
LONGSHORE DRIFT ANNOTATED DIAGRAM

































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PAST PAPER QUESTION Jan 2012

Study Fig. 2, which shows the
relationship between wave energy
and angle of beach profile for a
sample of 12 beaches

1. Describe the relationship
shown in Fig. 2
2. Outline two ways by which
waves transport sediment.
LANDFORMS CREATED BY
COASTAL DEPOSITION:
Spits, bars and tombolos

As a result of longshore drift and longshore currents sediment is transferred along the coast following the
direction of the current. This leads to the development of features shown in the diagram below.


Features of a drift aligned depositional beaches

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Deposition occurs when accumulation of sediment exceeds removal. It usually takes place in a low energy
environment. Landforms resulting from deposition include beaches, bars, tombolos, sand dunes & salt
marshes.



SPITS are long narrow ridges of sand and shingle which project from the coastline into the sea.
FORMATION:
The formation of a spit begins due to a change in the direction of the coastline, where a low energy
zone is found. This can be the mouth of a river, or estuary.
The main source of material building up a spit is from long shore drift and current, which brings
material from further down the coast.
Where there is a break in the coastline and a slight drop in energy, long shore drift will deposit
material at a faster rate than it can be removed and gradually a ridge is built up, projecting
outwards into the sea - this continues to grow by the process of long shore drift and the further
deposition of material.
A change in prevailing wind direction often causes the end of spits to become hooked (also known
as a recurved lateral).
On the spit itself, sand dunes often form and salt-loving vegetation colonises.

Often, spits will form around headlands that are close to river mouths since the headland provides shelter
from the prevailing wind and helps create the lower energy environment necessary to build up a spit. As a
result, wave refraction around the headland will push the spit in land, creating the distinctive curved shape
of a spit.

Spits are not permanent features. They are eroded, albeit slowly, by the sea and if a particularly large storm
comes along, entire spits can be wiped out. As spits are created and destroyed, it can appear as if they are
migrating and so the location and shape of spits is constantly changing.

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SALT MARSHES
Water becomes trapped behind the spit, creating a low energy zone, as the water begins to stagnate, mud
and marshland often begins to colonise behind the spit; spits may continue to grow until deposition can no
longer occur, for example due to increased depth, or the spit begins to cross the mouth of a river and the
water removes the material faster than it can deposited - preventing further build up. These marshland are
called salt marshes.

BARS
form in a similar way to spits, as longshore drift transports sediment and shingle down the beach it
deposits it low energy zones, such as bays. At a bay the bar, if continued to be fed by sediment will
extend across the bay cutting off a lagoon behind.

TOMBOLO
In some area, bars extend to join the mainland to an island. This forms a sediment ridge called a
tombolo; a good example is Llandudno in North Wales. Tombolos.

CUPSATE FORELANDS
can be described as triangular beaches.
They form due to logshore drift moveing sediment in opposing directions. The two sets of storm waves
build up a series of ridges, each protecting the material behind it, creating the triangular feature.
Cuspate forelands form due to the positioning of the coast and their orientation to incoming tides and
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prevailing winds. A common exam question at Post 16 requires students to describe and explain coastal
features. Students often explain well but description is often poorly done. The diagram below shows an
annotated photograph of Dawlish Bay, in South Devon. It models sound description that examiners are
looking for.



PAST PAPER QUESTION

May 2010
Study Fig. 2, a graph showing variations in mean pebble size with distance from a cliff along a beach at La
Malbaie, Quebec, Canada
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1. Describe the variations in mean pebble size with distance from the cliff in Fig. 2.
2. Explain two possible reasons for these variations


May 2010
With reference to one or more coastlines, examine the factors affecting the development of landforms
of coastal deposition.
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SEA LEVEL CHANGE Case study small islands under threat (from booklet)
Sea level is the relative position of the sea as it meets the land. There is clear evidence that sea levels have
fluctuated considerably over the last 20,000 years - sea levels have risen by 100-120m. The present day sea
level has been more or less stable for 6,000 (relatively short period of time!) Sea level change profoundly alters
the coastal system the position of the coast; the vertical distance over which coastal processes operate;
energy budges and coastal landforms (some landforms such as raised beaches disappear, others, such as fjords,
appear)
Evidence of rising sea levels = drowned river estuaries (rias) or glaciated valleys (fjords), submergent
coastlines
Evidence of falling sea levels = raised beaches or cliff platforms now seen inland from current beach
positions (emergent coastlines)
The sea level has and continues to fluctuate greatly throughout time. On a day to day basis, the sea level
changes according to the tide but the sea level also changes on a much grander time scale too. These changes in
sea level are normally caused by ice ages or other major global events.
The sea level changes for a variety of reasons. These reasons can be put into two categories, eustatic and
isostatic change, depending on if they have a global effect on sea level or a local effect on the sea level.
Eustatic Change
Eustatic change is when the sea level changes due to an alteration in the volume of water in the oceans
or, alternatively, a change in the shape of an ocean basin and hence a change in the amount of water the
sea can hold. Eustatic change is always a global effect.
During and after an ice age, eustatic change takes place. At the beginning of an ice age, the temperature
falls and water is frozen and stored in glaciers inland, suspending the hydrological cycle. This results in
water being taken out of the sea but not being put back in leading to an overall fall in sea level.
Conversely, as an ice age ends, the temperature begins to rise and so the water stored in the glaciers
will reenter the hydrological cycle and the sea will be replenished, increasing the sea levels.
Increases in temperature outside of an ice age will also effect the sea level since an increasing
temperature will cause the ice sheets to melt, putting more water in the sea.
The shape of the ocean basins can change due to tectonic movement. If the ocean basins become larger,
the volume of the oceans becomes larger but the overall sea level will fall since theres the same amount
of water in the ocean. Conversely, if the ocean basins get smaller, the volume of the oceans decreases
and the sea level rises accordingly.

Isostatic Change
Isostatic sea level change is the result of an increase or decrease in the height of the land. When the
height of the land increases, the sea level falls and when the height of the land decreases the sea level
rises. Isostatic change is a local sea level change whereas eustatic change is a global sea level change.
During an ice age, isostatic change is caused by the build up of ice on the land. As water is stored on the
land in glaciers, the weight of the land increases and the land sinks slightly, causing the sea level to rise
slightly. This is referred to as compression. When the ice melts at the end of an ice age, the land begins to
rise up again and the sea level falls. This is referred to decompression or isostatic rebound. Isostatic
rebound takes place incredibly slowly and to this day, isostatic rebounding is still taking place from the
last ice age.
Isostatic sea level change can also be caused by tectonic uplift or depression. As this only takes place
along plate boundaries, this sort of isostatic change only takes place in certain areas of the world.
Features of Sea Level Change - Sea level change can produce many features along coastlines. Again, we can
categorise these features based on how theyre formed.
Emergent Landforms
Emergent landforms begin to appear towards the end of an ice age and they occur when isostatic
rebound takes place faster than a eustatic rise in sea level. Put more simply, the lands height rises
faster than the seas. Emergent features are features of coastal erosion that appear to have developed
well above the current sea level. Really, they developed when the sea was at that level and then the sea
level changed during and ice age and now theyre above sea level.
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One such emergent landform is a raised beach. Raised beaches are wave-cut platforms & beaches that
are above the current sea level. You can normally find some old cliffs (relic cliffs) too behind these
raised beaches with wave-cut notches, arches, stacks etc. along them.
These emergent features no longer experience coastal erosion but they are still weathered, often being
weathered biologically, chemically and via freeze-thaw weathering.

Submergent Landforms
Submergent landforms are the opposite of emergent landforms. They form when the eustatic rise in sea
level takes place faster than the isostatic rebound after an ice age. Basically, the water starts to flood the
land and fills up landforms on the land.
One submergent feature is a Ria. This is a river valley thats been flooded by the eustatic rise in sea
level. Theyre almost exactly like a typical river valley but they have even more water in them. The cross
section of a ria is really similar to the one youd find for a river in the lower course. One thing to note,
the floodplain of the river also gets flooded, altering the cross profile of a ria ever so slightly so that it
includes the floodplain.
Another submergent feature is a Fjord. These are steeper and deeper variants of riases that are
relatively narrow for their size. They have a u-shaped cross profile and are often found in particularly
icy sections of the world. Any guess what they could be? Thats right, theyre flooded glacial valleys (Id
only expect you to know that if you did Ice on the land for GCSE geography). In general, fjords are
really deep however they have a shallow mouth (known as a threshold) as this is where the glacier
deposited its load. Fjords are pretty stunning pieces of scenery, an example of one is Sogne Fjord in
Norway which is really big.
The final submergent feature is a dalmatian coastline. These form in areas of the world where valleys
(especially glacial valleys) lie parallel to each other. When the valleys are flooded by the rise in sea level,
the tops of the valleys remain above the surface of the sea and appear to be a series of islands that run
parallel to the coastline. The best example of a dalmatian coastline is the one from which they get their
name, the Dalmatian coast in Croatia.
The Future As we are constantly hearing, sea levels are still rising. The reasons are pretty widely debated. We
know that one of the reasons is because were still coming out of our last ice age (amazingly, isostatic rebound
is still taking place) and ice from the last ice age is still melting. Most of us also think that its because the
planets getting hotter (probably because of us, but not for certain) which is melting even more ice on top of the
ice that was already defrosting from the last ice age. Whatever the reason, the sea is rising and its a bit of a
problem.
In the UK, the east coast is at a particularly high risk of a) being flooded and b) being destroyed. In fact, we
know that sections of the east coast have already been destroyed and were fairly sure its because the sea is
rising and the land is sinking. While the northern parts of the UK are experiencing an isostatic rebound and are
rising above sea level, the east coast is sinking and the water along the east coast is rising. This is resulting in
more coastal flooding and erosion along the east coast which is destroying it at a concerning rate. Obviously
theres a lot people living along the east coast but whats more concerning is the fact that theres a lot of power
plants situated along the east coast and four of them are nuclear power plants (theres also two deactivated
nuclear plants). Even if we know that those plants are going to be destroyed by coastal erosion, theres not a lot
we can do to prevent an accident since these things stay dangerous for many thousands of years after theyre
deactivated.
KEY TERMS
Eustatic change
Glacio-eustacy
Sea level regression
Sea level transgression

TASK: Using your notes, answer the following questions
1) What casus eustatic change?
2) What happens to the sea level during a glacial period, and what affect does this have on the landscape?
3) What happens to the sea level during an interglacial period, and what affect does this have on the
landscape?
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COASTS UNIT 2: How can coasts be protected from the effects of natural processes?

There are a number of ways that coastal areas can be protected, ranging from hard engineering to
managed retreat.

The study of an extended stretch of coastline or coastlines, to illustrate:
the reasons why some coastal areas need to be protected;
the different methods of coastal protection, including hard and soft engineering and managed
retreat;
the planning, management and environmental issues associated with different coastal
protection methods

PART 1: Why do coastal areas need to be protected?
PART 2: methods of coastal protection hard engineering
PART 3: methods of coastal protection soft engineering
PART 4: methods of coastal protection managed retreat
PART 5: planning, management and environmental issues associated with different coastal protection
methods

HOW COASTS BE PROTECTED FROM THE EFFECTS OF NATURAL PROCESSES
Its becoming increasingly important for councils and governments to start managing coastlines in order to
protect them from increasing coastal erosion and flooding due to altering sea levels. The reason for coastal
management is obvious, to protect homes and businesses from being damaged and even destroyed by coastal
erosion or flooding. Failure to do so can have severe economic and social effects, especially along coastlines
which are used for tourism and industry (pretty much all of them).
Management of coastlines is also important to help protect natural habitats, however governments generally
dont engage in coastal management where there isnt an economic risk as effective coastal management is
very expensive.
When engaging in coastal management, theres four key approaches that can be taken:
1. Hold the line - Where existing coastal defences are maintained but no new defences are set up.
2. Advance the line - New defences are built further out in the sea in an attempt to reduce the stress on current
defences and possibly extend the coastline slightly.
3. Retreat the line (surrender) - Move people out of danger zones and let mother nature unleash take control.
4. Do nothing - The easy option, deal with the effects of flooding and erosion as they come or just ignore them.
This is generally what happens in areas where theres no people, and so nothing of value (to the government)
to protect.

TASK: why do some coastlines need to be managed?













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How is the coastline managed in the UK?
Department of the Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) has overall responsibility for
the coastline protection from erosion and flooding
The coastline is divided into 11 sediment cells (lengths of coast line which are relatively self
contained in terms of the movement of sediment the boundaries are often headlands or
estuaries which act as natural barriers to the movement of sediment)
Each cells is divided into smaller sub cells for more effective management each with a
Sustainable Management Plan (SMP)

Shoreline Management Plan
Document which assesses the risks (to people and to the environment) associated with coastal
processes and proposes a policy to manage those risks. This policy is produced in consultation
with stakeholders, local people and national groups such as the Environment Agency and
English Nature in England
The SMP will
o Identify issues and conflicts associated with management
o Propose a coastal defence plan for the next hundred years: present day (next 20 years);
medium term (20-50 years) and long term (50-100)
o The criteria for management is
Hold the line maintain existing defenses
Advance the line build new defenses
Managed realignment allow the land to flood with careful monitoring and
management further in land
No active intervention no investment/ management

Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM)
Method of maintaining the whole coastal zone (not just the shoreline)
Set up in 1996 by the European Union
Management as environmentally sustainable, economically fair, socially responsible and
culturally sensitive and that uncoordinated policies can lead to conflict and further
deterioration of the coast

MANAGING COASTAL EROSION

Variety of methods
Hard engineering focus on reducing wave energy by putting large structures in place
between the sea and the land, higher technology, high cost, human made solutions
Soft engineering work with the existing natural processes, low tech and lower cost, more
sustainable but less effective than hard engineering techniques
Managed retreat (managed realignment/ coastal realignment) allowing existing defences to
be breached and areas to flood, developing flood marshes which act as a natural defence
against storms this is inexpensive, but cannot be used in highly developed areas

Often a combination of techniques are used, put in place after a cost- benefit analysis is conducted and
an Environmental Impact Assessment carried out in order to calculate the economic and
environmental costs of each available option





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COASTAL PROTECTION TECHNIQUES

Hard Engineering Techniques

Sea Walls
These are the most obvious defensive methods. Sea walls are exactly that. Giant walls that span entire
coastlines and attempt to reduce erosion and prevent flooding in the process. Theyre big, ugly and
very expensive requiring constant maintenance so that they dont fail. They also produce a strong
backwash in waves which undercuts the sea wall making their long term sustainability questionable.
Traditionally, sea walls are large flat walls however more modern sea walls have a curved structure
that reflects waves back into incoming waves, breaking them up and further reducing erosion.

Groynes
Groynes are relatively soft hard engineering techniques. Theyre low lying wooden walls that extend out to sea.
The idea of groynes is to capture sand that moves down the beach via longshore drift and help build up a larger
section of beach in front of an area thats experiencing coastal erosion. The new beach will increase the distance
that waves have to travel to reach the coast and, in the process, theyll lose most of their energy, reducing their
impact. Groynes are pretty effective but they have one major drawback. Groynes will remove a lot of the sand
thats present down-drift of the beach which will result in a thinner beach at this area. This, in turn, means that
sections of the coast will be more exposed to erosion down drift of the groynes which can create new problems
relating to coastal management.
Gabions
Gabions are quite simply bundles of rocks in a metal mesh. Theyre placed at the base of a cliff in an attempt to
reduce the impact of waves on the cliff and prevent the cliff from being undercut. Theyre not particularly
effective and theyre quite unsightly but theyre sure as hell cheap.
Revetments
Revetments are concrete (or in some cases wooden) structures that are built along the base of a cliff. Theyre
slanted and act as a barrier against waves not too dissimilar to a sea wall. The revetments absorb the energy of
the waves, preventing the cliffs from being eroded. Revetments can be modified so that they have rippled
surfaces, which further help to dissipate the wave energy. Revetments are normally successful at reducing
coastal erosion but they are expensive to build. Once built however, they dont require as much maintenance as
a sea wall.
Riprap
Riprap are just rocks and stones that have been put against the base of a cliff. Theyre similar to gabions in their
purpose but they arent bound together in a mesh. This makes them look slightly more appealing as they blend
into the environment better however the rocks are susceptible to being moved by the sea.
Breakwaters
Breakwaters are offshore concrete walls that break incoming waves out at sea so that their erosive power is
reduced to next to none when they reach the coast. Breakwaters are effective but they can be easily destroyed
during a storm and they dont look particularly nice.
Tidal barriers
Big, retractible walls built across estuaries that can be used as a floodgate to prevent storm surges. Theyre
hugely effective but theyre also hugely expensive.








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Soft Engineering Techniques

Beach Nourishment
This is where sand and shingle are added to a beach in order to make it wider. This increases the distance a
wave has to travel to reach the cliffs and so the wave will lose more energy and have less erosive power when it
reaches the cliffs. The sand and shingle has to be obtained from elsewhere and is normally obtained from
dredging.

Land Management
Land management is often used to help protect and rebuild dunes. Sand dunes act as a good barrier against
coastal flooding and erosion and they can be exploited as a natural defence against the sea. In order to do so
though, the dunes must be left relatively undisturbed so boardwalks are constructed and sections of sand dune
systems are marked as out of bounds to the general public in order to reduce the erosion of the dunes by
humans.
Marshland Creation
Marshland can be used to break up the waves and reduce their speed, reducing the waves erosive power. The
marshlands also limit the area which waves can reach preventing flooding. The marshlands can be created by
encouraging the growth of marshland vegetation such as glassworts.
Beach Stabilisation
The goal of beach stabilisation is the same as beach nourishments goal, to widen the beach and dissipate as
much wave energy as possible before it reaches the cliffs. Beach stabilisation involves planting dead trees in the
sand to stabilise it and lower the profile of the beach while widening the beach too.


COASTS UNIT 3: In what ways can coastal areas be a valuable economic
and environmental resource

Coastal areas provide opportunities for a number of human activities, including:
industrial development;
transportation;
residential development;
energy development;
recreation and leisure;
conservation.

The study of at least two contrasting coastal environments to illustrate:

_the variety of activities found in coastal areas;
_the reasons for the growth and development of these different activities;
_that conflicts may result from the growth and development of these activities.

Coastal areas can provide valuable economic and social opportunities, resulting in increasing numbers of
people wanting to live near the coast. This trend has become more apparent with increased global trade, the
development of the tourist economic and the increasing demand for coastal lifestyles. As a result, coastal areas
are often placed under competing pressures and this can be a source of conflict. The challenge, therefore, is to
find sustainable ways of managing competing demands.

CASE STUDY: Coastal development and conflict in Bangladesh Pg 88-92

CASE STUDY: Spains concrete coast Pg 93-96

CASE STUDY: Californias crowded coast from the Managing Coasts booklet this illustrates the impact of sea
level change as well

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Make notes for these case studies, using the criteria from the syllabus

1) Outline the variety of activities found in this coastal area; (in what ways is this stretch of
coastline a valuable economic and environmental resource?)
2) Explain the reasons for the growth and development of these different activities;
3) Discuss the conflicts may result from the growth and development of these activities.
4) Examine how these conflicts can be managed what management strategies have been used?
How successful have they been?


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