SERIES  ARTICLE
Snippets of Physics
22. Wigner's Function and Semi-Classical Limit
T Padmanabhan works at
IUCAA, Pune and is
interested in all areas
of theoretical physics,
especially those which
have something to do with
gravity.
Keywords
Wigner function, semi-classical
limit, phase space.
934
T Padmanabhan
O b ta in in g th e c la ssic a l lim it o f q u a n tu m m e c h a n -
ic s tu rn s o u t to b e c o n c e p tu a lly a n d o p e r a tio n a lly
n o n -triv ia l a n d , e v e n to d a y , so m e o f th e e x p e r ts
c o n sid e r th is issu e to b e u n se ttle d . T h e re is a
fu n c tio n , o rig in a lly d e v ise d b y W ig n e r, w h ich
p la y s a k e y r o le in th is a sp e c t a n d th ro w s so m e
lig h t o n th e w a y th e c la ssic a l w o rld e m e rg e s fro m
th e q u a n tu m d e sc r ip tio n .
Q u a n tu m p h y sics is n o th in g lik e cla ssica l p h y sics a n d it
is p ro b a b ly n o t a n ex a g g era tion to say th a t w e ju st g et
u sed to q u a n tu m p h y sics, w ith o u t rea lly u n d ersta n d in g
it, a s w e lea rn m o re a b o u t it! T h ere a re sev era l co n cep -
tu a l a n d tech n ica l p ro b lem s in v o lv ed in ta k in g th e cla s-
sica l lim it o f a q u a n tu m m ech a n ica l d escrip tio n a n d w e
w ill co n cen tra te o n o n e p a rticu la r a sp ect in th is in sta ll-
m en t. W e w ill n o t w o rry to o m u ch a b o u t th e co n cep tu a l
issu es { h o w ev er in terestin g th ey a re { b u t w ill, in stea d ,
co n cen tra te o n certa in tech n ica l a sp ects.
L et u s b eg in w ith a sim p le o n e-d im en sio n a l p ro b lem
in q u a n tu m m ech a n ics in w h ich a p a rticle o f m a ss M
ev o lv es u n d er th e in ° u en ce o f a p o ten tia l V (Q ). C la ssi-
ca lly, su ch a sy stem is d escrib ed b y th e a ctio n fu n ctio n a l
Z
1
A = L d t; L = M Q_ 2 ¡ V (Q ) : (1 )
2
T h e eq u a tio n s o f m o tio n ca n b e o b ta in ed b y va ry in g
th is a ctio n w ith resp ect to th e co o rd in a te a n d w e g et
QÄ + V 0(Q ) = 0 . W e a lso k n o w th a t th e sy stem ca n b e
eq u iva len tly d escrib ed u sin g th e H a m ilto n ia n H (P ;Q ) =
(P 2 = 2 M ) + V a n d th e H a m ilton { J a co b i eq u a tio n fo r th e
RESONANCE  October 2009
 SERIES  ARTICLE

sy stem is g iv en b y
· ¸
@A @A
+ H ;Q = 0 (2 )
@t @Q

w h ich is so lv ed b y th e a ctio n , trea ted a s a fu n ctio n o f th e va ria b les a t u p p er lim it

o f in teg ra tio n in (1 ). W h en w e so lv e th e eq u a tio n s o f m o tio n w e ty p ica lly o b ta in
th e tra jecto ry o f th e p a rticle Q (t) fro m w h ich w e ca n o b ta in th e m o m en tu m
P (t) = M Q_ (t). G iv en Q (t) a n d P (t) w e ca n d eterm in e th e fu n ctio n a l fo rm
P = P (Q ) th ereb y o b ta in in g th e tra jecto ry o f th e p a rticle in th e p h a se sp a ce.
(T h is is, o f co u rse, u n iq u e o n ly lo ca lly, sin ce in g en era l, e.g ., fo r p erio d ic m o tio n s,
o n e w ill b e led to m u ltip le- va lu ed fu n ctio n s.) T h e tra jecto ry in th e p h a se sp a ce
tells y o u th a t y o u ca n a ssig n to th e p a rticle a p o sitio n Q a n d m o m en tu m P
sim u lta n eo u sly.
L et u s m ov e o n to q u a n tu m th eo ry. S in ce u n certa in ty p rin cip le p rev en ts o u r
a ssig n in g sim u lta n eo u sly th e p o sitio n a n d m o m en tu m to a p a rticle, w e ca n n o
lo n g er d escrib e th e sy stem in term s o f a tra jecto ry eith er in rea l sp a ce o r in p h a se
sp a ce. In stea d w e h av e to in v o k e a p ro b a b ilistic in terp reta tio n a n d d escrib e th e
q u a n tu m sta te o f th e sy stem in term s o f a w a v e fu n ctio n à . T h is w av e fu n ctio n
sa tis¯ es th e sta n d a rd S ch ro d in g er eq u a tio n

~2 @ 2 Ã
i~Ã _ = ¡ + V (Q )Ã = E Ã ; (3 )
2M @ Q 2
w h ere th e seco n d eq u a lity h o ld s if w e a re in terested in sta tio n a ry sta tes w ith th e
tim e ev o lu tio n d escrib ed b y th e fa cto r ex p (¡ iE t= ~). F o r th e sa k e o f sim p licity,
w e sh a ll a ssu m e th a t th is is th e ca se. W e a lso k n ow th a t th e cla ssica l b eh av io u r
{ tra jecto ries a n d a ll { h a s to em erg e fro m th is eq u a tio n in th e lim it o f ~ ! 0 .
T h e q u estio n is: H ow d o w e g o a b o u t ta k in g th is lim it?
It is w o rth th in k in g a b o u t th is issu e a little b it b efo re ju m p in g o n to th e sta n d a rd
tex t b o o k d escrip tio n . T h e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n in (3 ) is a d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n
w ith ~ a p p ea rin g a s a p a ra m eter. If y o u h av en 't rea d tex tb o o k s, y o u m ig h t h av e
th o u g h t th a t o n e w o u ld ex p a n d à in a T ay lo r series in ~ lik e à = à 0 + ~à 1 + ~2 à 2
..., p lu g it in to th e eq u a tio n a n d try to so lv e it o rd er b y o rd er in ~. T h e à 0 ;à 1 :::
w ill a ll h av e w eird d im en sio n s sin ce ~ is n o t d im en sio n less; th is, h ow ev er, is n o t a
serio u s issu e. T h e k ey p o in t is th a t, in su ch a n ex p a n sio n , w e a re a ssu m in g à to
b e a n a ly tic in ~ w ith à 0 d escrib in g th e cla ssica l lim it. T h is id ea , h ow ev er, d o es
n o t w o rk , a s y o u ca n ea sily v erify. In fa ct, w e w o u ld h av e b een in a b it o f tro u b le

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 SERIES  ARTICLE

if it h a d w o rk ed sin ce w e w ill th en h av e to in terp ret à 0 a s so m e k in d o f `cla ssica l'

w av e fu n ctio n . T h e w ay o n e o b ta in s cla ssica l lim it is fa irly n o n -triv ia l w h ich w e
w ill n ow d escrib e.
W e w ill b eg in b y w ritin g th e w av e fu n ctio n in th e fo rm

à (Q ) = R (Q ) ex p [iS (Q )= ~] (4 )

w h ich is ju st th e sta n d a rd rep resen ta tio n o f a co m p lex n u m b er in term s o f th e

a m p litu d e a n d p h a se. S u b stitu tin g in to (3 ) a n d eq u a tin g th e rea l a n d im a g in a ry
p a rts, w e g et th e tw o eq u a tio n s

(R 2 S 0)0= 0 ; (5 )

an d
S 02 ~2 R 00
+ V (Q ) ¡ E = : (6 )
2M 2M R
T h ese tw o eq u a tio n s ca n b e m a n ip u la ted to g iv e a sin g le eq u a tio n fo r S (w h en
S 06= 0 ). W e g et
· ¸
S 02 ~2 p 0 d 2 p
0
+ V (Q ) ¡ E = S [1 = S ] : (7 )
2M 2M dQ 2
T h e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n is co m p letely eq u iva len t to th e tw o rea l eq u a tio n s in
(5 ) a n d (6 ). A n y th in g y o u ca n d o w ith a co m p lex w av e fu n ctio n à y o u ca n a lso
d o w ith tw o rea l fu n ctio n s R a n d S . B u t, o f co u rse, S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n is lin ea r
in à w h ile eq u a tio n s (5 ) a n d (6 ) a re n o n lin ea r, th ereb y h id in g th e p rin cip le o f
su p erp o sitio n o f q u a n tu m sta te, w h ich is a co rn ersto n e o f q u a n tu m d escrip tio n .
E q u a tio n (7 ) su g g ests a n a ltern a te ro u te fo r d o in g th e T ay lo r series ex p a n sio n in
~. W e ca n n ow try to in terp ret th e left-h a n d sid e o f (7 ) a s p u rely cla ssica l a n d th e
rig h t-h a n d sid e a s g iv in g `q u a n tu m co rrectio n s'. In su ch a ca se, w e ca n a ttem p t
a T ay lo r series ex p a n sio n in th e fo rm

S (Q ) = S 0 (Q ) + ~2 S 1 (Q ) + ¢¢¢ : (8 )

T h is m ea n s th a t th e lea d in g b eh av io u r o f th e w av e fu n ctio n is g iv en b y ex p (iS 0 = ~)

w h ich is n on -an alytic in ~. It d o es n o t h av e a T ay lo r series ex p a n sio n in p ow ers
o f ~ w h ich is a d i® eren t k ettle o f ¯ sh w h en it co m es to series ex p a n sio n in term s
o f a p a ra m eter in a d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n . A lso n o te th a t th e tim e-in depen den t

936 RESONANCE  October 2009

 SERIES  ARTICLE

S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n d ep en d s o n ly o n ~2 a n d n o t o n ~; so th e seco n d term in th e

T ay lo r series sta rts w ith ~2 a n d n o t w ith ~.
W h y d o es th is a p p ro a ch w o rk w h ile à = à 0 + ~à 1 + ~2 à 2 ..., d o es n o t lea d to
sen sib le resu lts? T h e rea so n essen tia lly h a s to d o w ith th e fa ct th a t, in p ro ceed in g
fro m q u a n tu m p h y sics to cla ssica l p h y sics, w e a re d o in g so m eth in g a n a lo g o u s to
o b ta in in g th e ray o p tics fro m electro m a g n etic w av es. O n e k n ow s th a t th is ca n
co m e a b o u t o n ly w h en th e p h a se o f th e w av e is n o n -a n a ly tic in th e ex p a n sio n
p a ra m eter, w h ich is essen tia lly th e w av elen g th in th e ca se o f lig h t p ro p a g a tio n .
S o y o u n eed to b rin g in so m e ex tra p h y sical in sig h t to o b ta in th e co rrect lim it.
W h ile à is n o n -a n a ly tic in ~, w e h av e n ow tra n sla ted th e p ro b lem in term s o f R
a n d S w h ich a re (a ssu m ed to b e) a n a ly tic in ~ so th a t th e sta n d a rd p ro ced u re
w o rk s. T o th e lea d in g o rd er, w e w ill ig n o re th e rig h t-h a n d sid e o f (7 ) a n d o b ta in
th e eq u a tio n
S 002
+ V (Q ) ¡ E = 0 : (9 )
2M
(T h is m ig h t seem p retty o b v io u s b u t th ere is a su b tlety lu rk in g h ere w h ich w e
w ill co m m en t o n la ter.) T o th e sa m e o rd er o f a ccu ra cy, w e ¯ n d th a t R (Q ) /
jS 00(Q )j¡1 = 2 . P u ttin g it to g eth er a n d n o tin g th e fa ct th e tw o in d ep en d en t so lu tio n s
w ill in v o lv e § S 00, w e ca n w rite th e so lu tio n to th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n to th is
o rd er o f a ccu ra cy b y
· · ¸ · ¸¸
(0 ) 1 i i
à E = p 0 C 1 ex p S 0 (Q ) + C 2 ex p ¡ S 0 (Q ) ; (1 0 )
jS 0 j ~ ~

w h ere C 1 a n d C 2 a re a rb itra ry co n sta n ts. T o th is o rd er o f a ccu ra cy, th e (9 ) is

ju st th e H a m ilto n { J a co b i eq u a tio n fo r th e actio n A = S 0 so th a t w e ca n id en tify
th e p h a se o f th e w av efu n ctio n w ith S 0 = ~. T h e co n d itio n o f va lid ity fo r th is W K B
a p p rox im a tio n is n o t d i± cu lt to d eterm in e b y co m p a rin g th e term s w h ich w ere
ig n o red w ith th o se w h ich w ere reta in ed . W e ¯ n d th a t th is co n d itio n is eq u iva len t
to
¯ 00¯ ¯ µ ¶¯
¯S ¯ ¯d ~ ¯
~¯ ¯= ¯
¯S 02 ¯ ¯d x S 0 ¯¿ 1
¯ (1 1 )

w h ich tra n sla tes to

2 M ~jV 0j ¿ (2 M [E ¡ V (Q )])3 = 2 : (1 2 )

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S o , a s lo n g a s w e a re fa r aw ay fro m th e tu rn in g p o in ts in th e p o ten tia l (w h ere

E = V (Q )), o n e ca n sa tisfy th is co n d itio n .
T h o u g h w e a p p ro a ch ed th is resu lt fro m a d esire to o b ta in th e cla ssica l lim it,
m a th em a tica lly sp ea k in g , it is ju st a n a p p rox im a tio n to th e d i® eren tia l eq u a tio n
u su a lly k n ow n a s W K B a p p rox im a tio n . T h is fa ct is strik in g ly ev id en t in th e
co n tex t o f q u a n tu m m ech a n ica l tu n n elin g w h ich , o f co u rse, h a s n o cla ssica l a n a l-
o g y. N ev erth eless, w e ca n g et a rea so n a b le a p p rox im a tio n to th e w av e fu n ctio n
in a cla ssica lly fo rb id d en fo rm b y ta k in g E < V (Q ) in (9 ). In th is ra n g e, say,
a < Q < b in w h ich E < V (Q ), th e S 0 b eco m es p u rely im a g in a ry a n d is g iv en b y
p Zpb p Z bp
S 0 = 2M E ¡ V (Q ) d Q = i 2 M V (Q )¡ E d Q : (1 3 )
a a

T h e w av e fu n ctio n in (1 0 ) b eco m es ex p o n en tia lly d ecrea sin g (o r in crea sin g ) {

w ith o u t o scilla to ry b eh av io u r { in th is cla ssica lly fo rb id d en ra n g e. T h is is va lid ,
a g a in , a s lo n g a s w e a re aw ay fro m th e tu rn in g p o in t.
L et u s n ow g et b a ck to th e q u estio n w e sta rted w ith , v iz., h ow to g et th e cla ssica l
lim it. T o d o th is w e n eed to u n d ersta n d w h y th e w av e fu n ctio n in (1 0 ) h a s
a n y th in g to d o w ith th e cla ssica l lim it. T h e co n v en tio n a l a n sw er is a s fo llow s:
L et u s co n sid er fo r sim p licity a situ a tio n w ith C 2 = 0 . In th a t ca se th e p ro b a b ility
d istrib u tio n a sso cia ted w ith th e w av e fu n ctio n va ries a s
1
P ´ jà j2 / ; (1 4 )
P (Q )
w h ere S 00(Q ) = P (Q ) is th e classical m o m en tu m o f th e p a rticle a t Q . If w e
n ow in terp ret th e p ro b a b ility to ca tch a p a rticle in th e in terva l (Q ;Q + d Q ) a s
p ro p o rtio n a l to th e tim e in terva l d t = d Q = V (Q ) (w h ere V (Q ) is th e v elo city o f
th e p a rticle w h en it is a t Q ) th en th e ex p ressio n in (1 4 ) ca n b e g iv en so m e k in d o f
a cla ssica l in terp reta tio n . T h is is, h ow ev er, n o t co m p letely sa tisfa cto ry b eca u se,
a s w e sa id ea rlier, w e a sso cia te th e cla ssica l lim it w ith a d eterm in istic tra jecto ry
in p h a se sp a ce. T h ere is a w ay o f o b ta in in g th is resu lt w h ich b rin g s u s to th e
d iscu ssio n o f th e W ig n er fu n ctio n .
T h e W ig n er fu n ctio n F (Q ;p ;t) co rresp o n d in g to a w av e fu n ctio n à (Q ;t) (w h ich
co u ld , in g en era l, b e tim e d ep en d en t) is d e¯ n ed b y th e rela tio n
Z1 µ ¶ µ ¶
1 1
F (Q ;p ;t)= duà ¤
Q ¡ ~u ;t e ¡ip u
à Q + ~u ;t : (1 5 )
¡1 2 2

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T h e in teg ra n d m ea su res th e co rrela tio n b etw een à a n d à ¤ in a F o u rier tra n s-

fo rm ed sp a ce w ith va ria b le p . T h is fu n ctio n h a s sev era l rem a rka b le p ro p erties
w h ich w e w ill n ow d iscu ss. T h e b a sic id ea is to see w h eth er o n e ca n th in k o f F
a s a p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n fu n ctio n in th e p h a se sp a ce w ith p o sitio n (Q ) a n d
m o m en tu m (p ) a s co o rd in a tes.
T o b eg in w ith , if y o u in teg ra te F ov er th e m o m en tu m va ria b le p , a n d u se th e fa ct
th a t th e in teg ra l o f ex p (ip u ) ov er p is a D ira c d elta fu n ctio n in u , y o u g et
Z1
d p F (Q ;p ;t) = jà (Q ;t)j2 : (1 6 )
¡1

T h is sh ow s th a t w h en m a rg in a lized ov er p , w e d o g et th e p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n

Q w h ich is q u ite n ice. F u rth er, it is a lso ea sy to see th a t if y o u in teg ra te F ov er
Q y o u g et th e resu lt
Z1
d Q F (Q ;p ;t) = jÁ (p ;t)j2 ; (1 7 )
¡1

w h ere Á (p ;t) is th e F o u rier tra n sfo rm o f à (Q ;t). F ro m th e sta n d a rd ru les o f

q u a n tu m m ech a n ics, w e k n ow th a t Á (p ;t) g iv es th e p ro b a b ility a m p litu d e in th e
m o m en tu m sp a ce. T h erefo re (1 7 ) tells u s th a t { w h en m a rg in a lized ov er th e co -
o rd in a te Q { th e W ig n er fu n ctio n F g iv es th e p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n in th e m o -
m en tu m sp a ce. S o clea rly, F sa tis¯ es tw o n ice p ro p erties w e w o u ld h av e ex p ected
o u t o f a p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n . It sim u lta n eo u sly en co d es b o th co o rd in a te sp a ce
a n d m o m en tu m sp a ce p ro b a b ilities in a sta te rep resen ted b y à .
It is a lso p o ssib le to o b ta in a n eq u a tio n sa tis¯ ed b y F w h ich is sim ila r to th e
co n tin u ity eq u a tio n th a t w e ex p ect p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n s to sa tisfy. D irect
d i® eren tia tio n o f (1 5 ) a n d so m e clev er m a n ip u la tio n w ill a llow y o u to o b ta in a n
eq u a tio n o f th e fo rm

@F p @F dV @F ~2 d 3 V @ 3 F
+ ¡ = + ¢¢¢ ; (1 8 )
@t M @Q dQ @p 24 d Q 3 @ p3

w h ere ¢¢¢ d en o tes term s w h ich a re h ig h er o rd er in ~. T h is eq u a tio n a llow s y o u

to d raw tw o in terestin g co n clu sio n s. T o b eg in w ith , if th e p o ten tia l is a t m o st
q u a d ra tic in co o rd in a tes, th e rig h t-h a n d sid e va n ish es a n d w e g et ex a ctly th e
co n tin u ity eq u a tio n in th e p h a se sp a ce w ith th e sem i-cla ssica l id en ti¯ ca tio n s

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 SERIES  ARTICLE

Figure 1.

Q_ = p = m a n d p_ = ¡ V 0. N ex t, th is in terp reta tio n h o ld s ev en fo r arbitrary p o ten -

tia ls u p to lin ea r o rd er in ~. If w e ca n ig n o re th e ~2 in th e rig h t-h a n d sid e w e
a g a in g et th e co n tin u ity eq u a tio n in p h a se sp a ce.
B efo re w e rejo ice, o n e h a s to fa ce u p to a ra th er d a m a g in g p ro p erty o f F w h ich
p rev en ts u s fro m m a k in g th e p ro b a b ilistic in terp reta tio n rig o ro u s. T h e k ey tro u -
b le is th a t F is n o t p o sitiv e d e¯ n ite a n d sin ce w e d o n o t k n ow h ow to in terp ret
n eg a tiv e p ro b a b ilities, w e ca n n o t u se F a s a p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n in p h a se
sp a ce. O n e sim p le w ay to see th a t F ca n b eco m e n eg a tiv e is to co m p u te it fo r
so m e w ell-ch o sen sta te. F o r ex a m p le, F igu re 1 g iv es th e W ig n er fu n ctio n co rre-
sp o n d in g to th e ¯ rst ex cited sta te o f a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r. W e h av e, in su ita b ly
ch o sen u n its, th e resu lts:
µ ¶1 = 4
4 2
à 1 (Q ) = Q e ¡ (Q = 2 ) ; (1 9 )
¼
µ ¶
1 2 2)
F (Q ;p ) = 2
4 Q + p ¡ 2
e ¡(p + Q : (2 0 )
2

It is clea r th a t F ca n g o n eg a tiv e.
T h is d o es n o t, h ow ev er, p rev en t u s fro m u sin g th e W ig n er fu n ctio n in su ita b le
lim its a s a n a p p rox im a tio n to cla ssica l p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n . In p a rticu la r,
th e W ig n er fu n ctio n co rresp o n d in g to th e sem i-cla ssica l w av e fu n ctio n in (1 0 ) is
q u ite ea sy to in terp ret. L et u s ¯ rst co n sid er th e ca se w ith C 2 = 0 w h en th e w av e
fu n ctio n b eco m es
à !
C1
à (Q ) = p 0 ex p (iS 0 = ~) : (2 1 )
S0

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 SERIES  ARTICLE

S u b stitu tin g th is in to (1 5 ) a n d eva lu a tin g th e in teg ra ls { reta in in g u p to th e

co rrect o rd er, w h ich is n ecessa ry sin ce à itself is a p p rox im a te { w e ca n ea sily
sh ow th a t
µ ¶
jC 1 j2 @S0
F (Q ;p ) = ± p¡ + O (~2 ) : (2 2 )
jS 00(Q )j @Q
T h is resu lt, w h en w e th in k o f F a s a p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n , h a s a n ice in ter-
p reta tio n . T h e D ira c d elta fu n ctio n tells y ou th a t w h en th e p a rticle is a t Q , its
m o m en tu m is sh a rp ly p ea k ed a t @ S 0 = @ Q w h ich is ex a ctly w h a t w e w o u ld h av e
ex p ected if th e p a rticle w a s m ov in g a lo n g a cla ssica l tra jecto ry. F u rth er, th e p ro b -
a b ility to ¯ n d th e p a rticle a ro u n d Q is p ro p o rtio n a l to (1 = S 0(Q )) w h ich a g a in ca n
b e in terp reted in term s o f th e tim e d t = d Q = V (Q ) w h ich th e p a rticle sp en d s in
th e in terva l (Q ;Q + d Q ).
T h e k ey p o in t is th a t, fo r th e sem i-cla ssica l w av e fu n ctio n w e d eterm in ed in (1 0 ),
th e W ig n er fu n ctio n g iv es stro n g ly co rrelated p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n in p h a se
sp a ce. In fa ct, if y o u ta k e th e D ira c d elta fu n ctio n litera lly, it g iv es a u n iq u e p fo r
ev ery Q . T h is is th e ch a ra cteristic o f a cla ssica l tra jecto ry a n d , fro m th is p o in t o f
v iew , th e W ig n er fu n ctio n p rov id es a n a tu ra l in terp reta tio n fo r th e sem i-cla ssica l
w av e fu n ctio n w e h av e o b ta in ed . N o te th at th e p ro b a b ility d istrib u tio n is n o t
p ea k ed a ro u n d a n y sin g le tra jecto ry b u t o n ce y o u p ick a Q , it g iv es y o u a u n iq u e
p . T h is co rrela tio n b etw een m o m en tu m a n d p o sitio n is th e k ey fea tu re o f cla ssica l
lim it. T h is in terp reta tio n co n tin u es to h o ld ev en w h en w e k eep C 2 6= 0 . In th is
ca se w e g et
µ ¶ µ ¶
jC 1 j2 @S0 jC 2 j2 @S0
F (Q ;p ) = ± p¡ + ± p+ + O (~2 ) : (2 3 )
jS 00(Q )j @Q jS 00(Q )j @Q

T h e W ig n er fu n ctio n h a s a term w h ich rep resen ts in terferen ce b etw een th e tw o

in d ep en d en t so lu tio n s b u t th is term is O (~2 ) a n d d o es n o t co n trib u te a t th e
lea d in g o rd er. T h is W ig n er fu n ctio n is n ow p ea k ed a t tw o d i® eren t va lu es o f
m o m en ta p = § @ S 0 = @ Q a n d co rresp o n d s to m o tio n a lo n g fo rw a rd a n d b a ck w a rd
d irectio n in th e co o rd in a te sp a ce. In th e p h a se sp a ce, F w ill n ow b e p ea k ed o n
tw o fa m ilies o f tra jecto ries.
T h ese p ro p erties a re o b v io u sly sp ecia l to th e sem i-cla ssica l w a v e fu n ctio n w e h av e
ch o sen . If y o u ta k e a cla ssica lly fo rb id d en reg io n in w h ich th e w av e fu n ctio n is
ex p o n en tia lly d a m p ed , ra th er th a n o scilla to ry, y o u w ill ¯ n d a co m p letely d i® eren t
b eh av io u r fo r th e W ig n er fu n ctio n . In fa ct, in su ch a `p u rely q u a n tu m m ech a n ica l'

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 SERIES  ARTICLE

situ a tio n , y o u w ill ¯ n d th a t th e W ig n er fu n ctio n fa cto rizes in to a p ro d u ct o f tw o

fu n ctio n s, o n e d ep en d en t o n Q a n d th e o th er d ep en d en t o n p w ith F (Q ;p ) =
F 1 (Q )F 2 (p ). T h is sh ow s th a t th e m o m en tu m a n d p o sitio n a re to ta lly u n co rrela ted
in su ch a sta te w h ich clea rly is th e o th er ex trem e o f th e sem i-cla ssica l sta te in
w h ich th e m o m en tu m is co m p letely co rrelated w ith p o sitio n .
T h e sa m e d eco u p lin g o f m o m en tu m a n d p o sitio n d ep en d en ce o ccu rs fo r m a n y
o th er sta tes. O n e sim p le ex a m p le is th e g ro u n d sta te o f th e h a rm o n ic o scilla to r
fo r w h ich y o u w ill ¯ n d th a t th e W ig n er fu n ctio n fa cto rizes in to tw o p ro d u cts,
b o th G a u ssia n in p o sitio n a n d m o m en tu m . S o th e g ro u n d sta te o f th e h a rm o n ic
o scilla to r is a s n o n -cla ssica l a s a sta te co u ld g et in th is in terp reta tio n .
F in a lly, let u s g et b a ck to th e su b tlety w h ich I m en tio n ed ea rlier in ig n o rin g th e
rig h t-h a n d sid e o f (6 ) w h ich is a clo sely rela ted issu e. F o r th is a p p rox im a tio n to
b e va lid , w e m u st h av e
~2 R 00
lim = 0 : (2 4 )
~! 0 2 M R
It is ea sy to co n stru ct sta tes fo r w h ich th is co n d itio n is v io la ted ! A s a sim p le
ex a m p le, co n sid er th e g ro u n d sta te o f a sy stem in a b o u n d ed p o ten tia l w h ich w ill
b e d escrib ed b y a rea l w av e fu n ctio n . In th is ca se à = R a n d S = 0 . F ro m (6 )
w e n ow see th a t
~2 R 00
= V (Q ) ¡ E : (2 5 )
2M R
T h e lim it in (2 4 ) ca n n o t n ow h o ld , in g en era l. C lea rly o u r a n a ly sis fa ils fo r th e
g ro u n d sta te o f a q u a n tu m sy stem . T o see th is ex p licitly, co n sid er a g a in th e
g ro u n d sta te o f a h a rm o n ic o scilla to r:
· ¸
M ! 2
à (Q ) = N ex p ¡ Q : (2 6 )
2~
B ein g a n ex a ct so lu tio n to th e S ch rÄo d in g er eq u a tio n th e a m p litu d e a n d p h a se
(w h ich is zero ) o f th is w av e fu n ctio n sa tis¯ es (5 ) a n d (6 ). A stra ig h tfo rw a rd
co m p u ta tio n n ow sh ow s { n o t su rp risin g ly { th a t
~2 R 00 1 1
= M ! 2Q 2
¡ ~! : (2 7 )
2M R 2 2
W h en w e ta k e th e lim it ~ ! 0 , th e seco n d term o n th e rig h t-h a n d sid e va n ish es
b u t n o t th e ¯ rst term ! T h is m ea n s th ere a re q u a n tu m sta tes fo r w h ich w e ca n n o t

942 RESONANCE  October 2009

 SERIES  ARTICLE

n a iv ely ta k e th e rig h t-h a n d sid e o f (6 ) to b e zero a n d d eterm in e th e cla ssica l lim it.
In terestin g ly en o u g h , th is is a lso tru e fo r th e tim e-d ep en d en t, co h eren t sta tes o f
th e o scilla to r. Y o u m ay w a n t to a m u se y ou rself b y a n a ly zin g th is situ a tio n in
g rea ter d eta il.

Suggested Reading

[1] Some of the pedagogical details regarding Wigner functions can be found in the article, W B Case, Am. J. Phys.,
Vol.76, p.937, 2008.

Address for Correspondence: T Padmanabhan, IUCAA, Post Bag 4, Pune, University Campus , Ganeshkhind, Pune
411 007, India. Email: paddy@iucaa.ernet.in, nabhan@iucaa.ernet.in

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