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Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces


Chapter 8
Surfaces
In This Chapter
Introduction
Surface Features
Using Surfaces
Creating Surfaces
Intersecting Surfaces
Contouring Surfaces
Displaying Surfaces
Surface Volume Reporting
Creating a SEG for Block Model Interfacing
Introduction
In Gemcom, surfaces can represent several types of topographic
information including:
Original topographies
As-mined topographies
Pit designs
Dump layouts
Sub-surface structures such as geological structures, faults or
lithological contacts.
In Gemcom, you can create surface models using a triangulated
irregular network (TIN), and then display and manipulate the models.
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Surface Features
Triangulated surfaces have many characteristics that differentiate
them from other computerized surface models:
Each data input point will be used as a vertex of at least one
triangle, so the surface always exactly honours the input data.
All polylines representing distinct surface features, such as toe
and crest lines (known as breaklines), will be honoured in the TIN.
Triangles will be as close to equilateral as possible while still
maintaining edge integrity.
The boundary of the surface will be a convex polygon that
encompasses all input points.
The surface will not have any holes in it, unless a clipping
operation is performed after initial surface creation.
As triangulated surfaces generally provide the best possible surface
representation of topographical data, they have many uses in mining
operations.
Surface Creation Data Elements
There are three data elements used to create and modify surfaces:
3D data points, called nodes
3D line segments connecting two nodes, called edges
2D polygons that can be used to remove parts of a surface that fall
inside or outside their boundaries, called clipping polygons.
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Using Surfaces
In Gemcom, you can:
Create surfaces from combinations of active drillhole intersects,
points and polylines.
Intersect surfaces with other surfaces or solids.
Contour surfaces to create new polylines.
Create surface elevation grids from surfaces.
Each of the above applications is described more fully in this chapter.
For instructions on the performing the above procedures, see Chapter
12: The Surface Menu.
Creating Surfaces
Gemcom lets you create surfaces using active data consisting of
discrete points (such as drillhole intersects, spot heights, or sample
locations) and polylines representing breaks in slope (such as surface
contours, bench crest lines, or bench toe lines). These surfaces are
created as a series of connected triangular panels, also known as a
triangulated irregular network (TIN). The surface is able to preserve
all the breaks in the feature lines used to make the TIN. A TIN surface
gives the best approximation of surfaces for subsequent operations
such as volume calculations.
You can also create surfaces using the Laplace gridding method.
Creating TIN Surfaces
The triangulation process can operate in either the XY plane (in plan),
which is the most common method for modelling topographic data; or
in a local plane fitted through the data, which is the best way to
accurately model sub-surface, near vertical, or overturned structures
(see Figure 8-1).
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Forcing TIN Edges
Gemcom can preserve edges (polyline segments) during the creation of
a TIN in order to give the best possible representation of the surface.
This can, however, cause problems if the polylines cross and there is
an elevation conflict at the intersection point. If you are making a
surface that includes polylines, it is recommended that you check for
crossing edges and correct them using the polyline editing functions
before proceeding with the surface creation.
Figure 8-1: A surface created in the XY plane (top) and an
overturned surface created in a best fit plane
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TIN Boundary Trimming
Gemcom will, by default, make a surface whose perimeter is the
convex limits of all data points used in its creation. There are times
when this results in unsightly (and incorrect) surfaces, especially
around the edges (see Figure 8-2). In addition to the surface/polygon
clipping commands, you can specify a maximum edge length for the
boundary of the TIN. In many cases, this will automatically remove
these long boundary triangles and give a more realistic surface. Be
careful not to make this number too small, as too many TIN edges may
be removed and the TIN will be unusable.
Validation of Surfaces
Gemcom provides the capability for validating surfaces upon creation
(or upon importation into Gemcom). Although construction errors with
surfaces are far less common than with solids, it is generally a good
idea to validate surfaces as well.
Each edge in a valid surface is either part of two triangles, in the case
of interior edges, or part of only one triangle, in the case of edges along
the perimeter. Also, a triangle in a valid surface may not intersect any
other triangles. When a surface is validated, Gemcom checks for self-
intersecting triangles and for triangle edges connected to more edges
than allowed.
Without TIN boundary trimming With TIN boundary trimming
Figure 8-2: Effect of TIN boundary trimming on concave perimeter
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If problems are discovered, the relevant areas are highlighted so that
you can correct the surface. Gemcom lets you save the bad areas of the
surface to assist visually in the correction of the surface errors.
Laplace Gridding
Laplace gridding provides a very fast and effective way to create
gridded surfaces in any orientation to represent any of the following:
Topographic surfaces (for example, created from drillhole collars or
survey data)
Faults (created from specific contact points on drillholes)
Tops and bottoms of seams (again using drillhole interval data)
Grade values on a specific plane (typically created using the real
value component of extraction point data)
Features
The main features of using Laplace gridding are as follows:
Gridding can be done on any plan. Grids on plan views, vertical
sections, and inclined sections can be handled with equal ease.
Different types of data can be used when making a single grid (for
example, drillhole collars, contours, and control stations can all be
used together to make a grid of surface topography).
All the data used for the gridding process can be visually checked
for correctness, both in 2D and 3D.
The process is graphical so the results of the gridding can be seen
immediately, both in 2D and 3D.
The results can be saved in a number of different formats, allowing
the results to be used by other Gemcom systems.
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There is no size limit to the grid; the amount of data used for
gridding and the size of the grid itself is limited only by available
memory.
Data Points
Laplace gridding allows you to create a grid on the current view plane
using the same active data points as other surface creation commands,
including:
Points (extraction points or control stations)
Polylines (usually status lines such as toes, crests, contours)
Drillhole points (collars or interval points)
Storage Formats
Once the Laplace grid interpolation is complete, the grid can be saved
in a number of different formats:
Gemcom standard *.MEX extraction file
ASCII status map file containing polylines along rows of the grid
PC-MINE ASCII surface grid file
Surface TIN
The grid can be saved to a surface that can be contoured, clipped with
other surfaces or solids, plotted, etc.
Advantages
Laplace gridding has a number of advantages over other interpolation
methods (such as inverse distance and kriging):
Robust, in that a grid will be produced regardless of the input data,
unless data values exist in all grid cells or there are no data points
in any grid cells.
There is no logical limit on the number of input data points. In
excess of 80,000 data points have been successfully interpolated.
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The method is not particularly sensitive to the distribution of
input points. Lines or clusters of points do not give rise to any
special problems.
The time taken to create a grid does not depend significantly upon
the number of input data points. It can even turn out that the run
time for creating the grid will decrease as the number of points is
increased. Run times from a few minutes to a maximum of around
two hours can be expected.
The grid has a smooth appearance and produces smooth looking
contours. (This may not always be an advantage, depending upon
the nature of the input data.)
The degree of smoothing (bi-cubic spline) is userspecified.
One disadvantage, however, is that the accuracy of the resulting grid
cannot (as far as we know) be quantified in statistical terms. You must
study the resulting grid visually and subjectively to decide whether
you are happy with its appearance.
Laplace Gridded Surfaces Versus TINs
Gemcom provides two distinct methods of creating surfaces from point
data, namely Laplace gridding and surface creation from TINs. Each
method has its advantages.
Laplace gridded surfaces Surface creation from TINs
Pros Easily set up to coincide
with block model or seam
model.
Effectively fills in areas of
sparse or missing data.
Preserves the original points.
Cons Original data points usually
not preserved in final grid.
Yields poor results when data points
are dispersed and/or irregularly
distributed. Large triangles will be
created.
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Laplace Gridded Surfaces
Laplace gridding will form a grid (with user-defined size and location)
and each cell of the grid will be assigned a value (typically an
elevation or grade value) based on the distribution and proximity of
known data points. The iterative method processes all cells, updating
the values each time until eventually a smooth gridded surface has
been created.
Laplace gridding generally does not honour the original data points.
For example, if you made a grid using drillhole collars, it is likely that
many of the grid cells will be either slightly higher or lower than the
drillhole collar points used in their creation (due to the averaging and
smoothing of the Laplace technique). This may pose problems when
the drillholes and resulting Laplace grid surface are shown together
(for example, if you cut a section through the data) as the drillholes
collars will not exactly coincide with the surface. This may pose even a
bigger problem when modelling faults using drillhole intervals, where
the preservation of the exact 3D points defining the fault are very
important.
Surface Creation from TINS
TINs are formed by creating triangular panels that connect known
points and/or polylines. Only known points are used in the TIN
creation; there is no interpolation of new points with this method.
Thus, sparse or missing data can lead to problems.
For example, if you have only a few hundred drillholes and you want
to make a surface representing the topography of the property,
creating a surface using TINs may not give a satisfactory result. TINs
work best when there is a high concentration of points to give
adequate control and to keep the triangular panels to a relatively
small size (for example, making a surface of a pit design). TINs will
generally be attractive for working with surveyed stockpiles or open
pits and design quality open pit models.
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Combined Method
Gemcom provides a third alternative. By combining the TIN and
Laplace gridding methods to create a single surface, the strengths of
both can be used while eliminating the drawbacks of using either
independently. The process is as follows:
1. Activate the data points that will be used for creating the grid.
2. Create a Laplace grid that covers the area of interest and grid it.
3. Save the results to an extraction file.
4. Load the extraction file along with the original data points.
5. Create a surface using the TIN method.
This process will first "fill in" the sparse areas with points from the
Laplace gridding method, then create a TIN using both the interpolated
points and the original data points. Both objectives are achieved; the
surface honours the known data points exactly while still providing a
smooth, natural representation of the whole surface by incorporating
the interpolated points.
General Procedure
Follow these steps to create a Laplace gridded surface:
1. Activate the data points to be used for the gridding process.
Depending on the type of surface you are creating, this may
include any combination of drillhole, point, or polyline data.
To use extraction file data:
Choose Point } } Data } } Load Data from Extraction File. Select
the name of the file containing the desired data to use for the grid
from the File Name dialog box that appears and choose OK.
In the editor that appears, enter the display parameters. If you are
displaying location values, select the Elevation field as your
display field. If you are displaying grade values, select either the
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Modelling Chapter 8: Surfaces
Real or Integer field as your display field. See Volume I: Core for
more information.
To use drillhole data:
Choose Drillhole } } Data } } Load Drillholes. From the picklists
that appear, select the desired loading and display profiles and
records.
Use the Drillhole } }Select submenu to activate all (or part) of the
data that you want to use. See Volume II: Exploration for more
information.
To use polyline data:
Choose Polyline } } Data } } Load Polylines from Status Map.
See Volume I: Core for more information.
2. Laplace gridding occurs relative to the current view plane.
Determine the orientation you want your grid to follow by
selecting View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section or Plan
View. You must select a plane to activate the desired orientation,
although which plane you choose is not important, as the plane
itself is not needed by the application. For more information on
selecting planes, see Volume I: Core.
3. Change the current viewing mode to 2D.
For manual gridding, this step is optional, but may help you to
define the grid parameters, which must be specified in 2D planar
coordinates. Decide on the extents and parameters for the grid,
considering such factors as the distance between original data
points, the total number of original data points, and the final level
of density of data required. If you are also working with a surface
elevation grid, you will likely want to coordinate the size of the
Laplace grid with that of the SEG.
4. Choose Surface } }Create } }Create Surface by Laplace
Gridding } }Define Grid Location Manually or Define Grid
Location Graphically and follow the command procedures
described in Chapter 12: The Surface Menu.
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Laplace Gridding Process
The Laplace gridding method is very simple in concept. Gemcom
solves a set of finite difference equations in an iterative manner. The
equation being solved is
( )
[ ]

2 2 4 4
0 + + = y C y z
where C = Smoothing factor.
If C = 0, then no smoothing will occur. The grid will try to join data
points with straight lines. As C is increased, more smoothing is
introduced, with the grid tending towards a bi-cubic spline function.
Gemcom uses the following sequence to generate the grid:
1. Read in data and allocate to nearest grid cell.
2. Where data was derived from digitized polygon data, insert extra
points automatically along the polygon line if the digitized points
are too far apart. Use the integer value of records in the extract
file to decide whether points belong to the same polygon. Exclude
points more than one cell width from the boundary of the surface
grid.
3. Set grid cell to average of all data values in the grid cells which
contain more than one data point.
At this point, processing of input data ceases. Only processing of the
grid itself occurs in the following steps.
4. Set all unknown grid cells either equal to the closest known grid
cell or to the average of all known grid cells.
5. Solve the finite difference equations iteratively, with the unknown
grid cells being progressively adjusted to satisfy the above
equation (to a limit of 999 iterations).
The rate of convergence depends upon the amount of smoothing
used and the distribution of initial data points. The maximum
number of iterations, the iteration acceleration factor and the
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threshold for convergence have been preset to avoid any possible
user confusion.
Copying Surfaces
You can create a new surface by copying and renaming an existing
surface. The new surface will contain the same attribute information
as the original. This command can be used to make a temporary
backup copy of any surface prior to performing editing operations.
As this command lets you enter X, Y, and/or Z offset values, you can
copy and move a surface in one step. This is useful in cases where you
want to make a solid from the surface for evaluation purposes. For
example, if you have a surface that represents the top of a five-metre-
thick seam , you can copy the top surface with an offset of -5 meters,
thus creating the bottom of the seam. You can then mesh the two
surfaces together to create a solid.
Creating a Surface From Two Surfaces Using Math
Functions
You can create a new surface by applying a mathematical function to
two existing surfaces. The available functions are plus, minus, divide,
multiply, minimum, maximum, and average. The function operates on
the Z values of the two surfaces, and, in concert with an optional scale
factor and constant, yields the Z values of the resulting surface
according to this equation:
Z result = Scale Factor Function(Z top, Z bottom) + Constant
Each node on the top surface is projected onto the "bottom" surface to
calculate the new Z values according to the equation. The new surface
will contain the same number of nodes as the first surface selected in
this operation, and not the cumulative points of both surfaces as may
be expected. Therefore, the top surface should have corresponding
nodes on the bottom surface. For this reason, we suggest that this
command be used with surfaces created by the Laplace Gridding
Application and having exactly the same dimensions and XY locations.
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This command works relative to the current view plane, so it can
operate on horizontal, vertical, and inclined surfaces.
Intersecting Surfaces
Gemcom lets you perform several advanced merging/clipping
operations using surfaces. For example, you can clip all polylines or
solids above or below a surface, select or deselect points above or below
a surface, or merge surfaces together to make a new surface. This last
capability is useful in cases where you have one surface representing
topography and another representing a pit design, and you wish to
combine them.
As shown in Figure 8-3, you can:
Create the polyline of intersection between two surfaces.
Clip the portion of one surface that lies above a second,
intersecting surface.
Clip the portion of one surface that lies below a second,
intersecting surface.
Create the minimum, or the maximum, of two intersecting
surfaces.
Create the solid formed by two completely intersecting surfaces.
By using the View menu commands with a limited corridor width, you
can quickly view the top surface/plane intersection using surface
models. These intersections can be used for plotting or as references
for on-screen digitizing in conjunction with block model/drillhole/point
information.
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Figure 8-3: Two intersecting surfaces, cut away to show detail (top)
and the minimum of the two surfaces on left
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Contouring Surfaces
You can contour any surface to create new polylines. Contouring
involves slicing surfaces with sets of parallel planes. Contour lines are
the polylines of intersection between the surface being contoured and
the parallel planes (see Figure 8-4). Contour lines are stored as
polylines; once created, they can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or
used in the same way as any other polylines. Contouring can be done
in global or local view coordinates at specified intervals.
You can define the planes in six ways:
Contour in 3D global coordinates. This method contours
the selected solids/surfaces using horizontal planes. You must
specify the upper and lower elevation ranges (defined in global
coordinates) and a contouring interval. For example, if you
enter 100 as the upper elevation and 0 as the lower elevation
with a 25 metre interval, you will get contours at 5 elevations,
namely 100, 75, 50, 25, and 0 metres.
Contour in 2D view coordinates. This method contours the
selected solids/surfaces using planes parallel to the current
view plane, allowing you to contour in any orientation. You
must enter a towards distance for contouring (the positive
distance in front of the view plane), an away distance (the
positive distance behind the view plane), and a contour
interval. For example, if you enter 15 as the towards distance
and 10 as the away distance with a 5 metre interval, you will
get contours on 6 different planes, these being 15, 10, and 5
metres in front of the active view plane, the active view plane
itself (0 distance), and 5 and 10 metres behind the view plane.
Contour current view plane only. This method uses the
current view plane for contouring. No towards or away
distances are required.
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Figure 8-4: Contours created on a set of plan views (top)
and a set of vertical sections
Contour all active vertical sections. This method contours
the solids/surfaces using all active vertical sections. The actual
planes used for contouring are obtained from the vertical
section profiles active in the current Gemcom session. You can
select vertical sections using Polyline } }Select } }Select
Vertical Sections.
Contour all active inclined sections. This method contours
the solids/surfaces using all active inclined sections. The actual
planes used for contouring are obtained from the inclined
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section profiles active in the current Gemcom session. You can
select inclined sections using Polyline } }Select } }Select
Inclined Sections.
Contour all active plan views. This method contours the
solids/surfaces using all active plan views. The actual planes
used for contouring are obtained from the plan view profiles
active in the current Gemcom session. You can select plan
views using Polyline } }Select } }Select Plan Views.
Gemcom is very flexible in that you can contour several solids and/or
surfaces at once. In addition, solids need not be of the same classyou
can contour Geology, Excavation, and Surface class solids in the same
operation.
Assigning Plane Attributes
If you contour a Geology class solid, the resulting polylines will be 3D
Rings that require a plane and rock code attribute. If you contour an
Excavation or Surface class solid, the resulting polylines will be Status
Lines that require a plane and line type attribute. There are two ways
to assign the plane attribute:
Automatically from plane. This command tells Gemcom to use
the plane elevation (if contouring using the 3D Global coordinates
option) or the distance from the view plane (if contouring using the
2D View coordinates option) as the plane attribute of all new
polylines. For example, if a polyline was created by intersecting a
solid with a plane at elevation 3860, activating this option would
assign 3860 as the polylines plane attribute. This option should
only be used in cases where you have planes defined with these
names. If you are contouring using predefined planes (Vertical
sections, Inclined sections, or Plan views) activating this option
will assign the plane attribute of all new polylines to the name of
the plane currently being processed.
Based on default plane. The plane attribute for all polylines will
be set to a user-specified default value.
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Surfaces with Identical Areas
Intersection operations with surfaces require a line of intersection. If
the two surfaces have large areas which are identical, the line of
intersection will include all edges in those areas. With such a long line
of intersection, processing time and the need for available memory
greatly increases. However, temporarily shifting one of the surfaces a
small amount (such as 2mm in elevation) will usually resolve the
problem.
Fixing Invalid Surfaces After Intersection
The intersection of surfaces requires complex computations for many
of the triangles which make up the surfaces. In isolated instances, the
newly created surface may have triangles with extreme properties
which render it invalid. However, temporarily shifting one of the
surfaces a small amount (such as 2mm in elevation) will usually
resolve the problem.
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Displaying Surfaces
Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs
to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. Each active
TIN is displayed based on its class assignment. You can define different
display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters
include:
Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for
displaying the TIN:
Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when
viewed in rendered mode).
Wireframe shows only the TIN edges and no panels.
Obtain colour from. Gemcom can use one of three methods to
assign a colour to each individual triangle within the TIN:
Primary colour method colours all triangles the same,
according to the colour assigned to the TIN when it is created.
Triangle dip method colours each triangle based on its dip
angle (in degrees). This option is very useful in cases where the
triangle dip values are critical, for example, in pit design or
slope stability work. Gemcom can provide a very fast graphical
overview of the slopes of your entire TIN.
Triangle Z method colours each triangle based on the Z value
of the triangle centroid.
Colour profile for display. The Triangle Dip and Triangle Z
display options require a colour profile to be defined that provides
colours for all possible value ranges. It is generally wise to define
colour profiles specifically for TIN viewing with these options.
Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for
shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode:
Flat shades each TIN panel a single colour. Flat-shaded objects
retain a polyhedral appearance.
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Smooth assigns a colour to the centroid of each panel and
blends the colours of adjacent panels at edges and vertices.
Smooth-shaded objects appear curved.
Surface Attributes
In addition to path, names, and class, you can assign three attributes
which affect the display characteristics of an individual surface:
Panel colour. This parameter defines the colour in which the TIN
will be drawn using the primary colour method.
Transparency. You can make surfaces transparent in order to see
data objects which are obscured from your line of sight.
Smoothing. You can always display smoothshaded panels in
rendered mode, regardless of program display settings.
If you choose the Triangle Dip option and you want to view a design
pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-DIP with these ranges:
0 to 1
1 to 15
15 to 60
60 to 90
RED
BLUE
GREEN
YELLOW
This range shows the tops of benches.
This range shows ramps.
This range shows bench slopes.
This range may show possible areas of slope
failure.
If you choose the Triangle Z option and you want to view the same
design pit, you might define a colour profile called PIT-ELEV with these
ranges:
1200 to 1240
1240 to 1280
1280 to 1320
1230 to 1360
1360 to 1400
RED
BLUE
GREEN
YELLOW
CYAN
First Level
Second Level
Third Level
Fourth Level
Fifth Level
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Surface Volume Reporting
You can instruct Gemcom to determine the volume below a surface to
a specified datum and issue a report. The resulting report includes:
Surface name.
Base elevation.
Total XY area (the sum of all triangle areas where each triangle is
projected onto the XY plane).
Total surface area (the sum of all triangle areas where each
triangle is projected onto its best fit plane).
Total volume between the surface and the base elevation.
Total triangles in TIN.
Average TIN height from base elevation. If the Z value of the
surface represents a grade value, this result gives the average
grade over the entire area of the surface.
Creating a SEG for Block Model Interfacing
Gemcom can create a SEG from a triangulated surface. When you
create a SEG from a surface, you can control the accuracy of the
process by specifying an integration level. A SEG created from polyline
data that preserves the feature breaks will give the truest possible
representation of the surface.
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Chapter 9
Solids
In This Chapter
Introduction
Using Solids
Types of Solids
Solid Creation Guidelines
Components of a Solid
Component Requirements
Amalgamation of Sub-Rings
Dimples, Volcanoes, and Other Surfaces with Concavities
Recommendations
Logical Solids
Solid Validation
Fixing Invalid Solids
Examples of Fixing Invalid Solids
Fixing Duplication Errors
Copying Solids
Intersecting Solids with Planes and Other Solids
Contouring Solids
Displaying Solids
Introduction
Gemcom allows you to transform your 2D (two-dimensional) polygons
into 3D (three-dimensional) solids. A solid in Gemcom is a 3D object
that is created by first connecting polygons that define similar zones
from one plane to another using tie lines, and then by automatically
constructing a 3D triangulated surface around all the polygons and tie
lines. Gemcom can create solids that represent orebodies or
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wastebodies, underground excavations and development such as
ramps or stopes, etc.
Using Solids
Gemcom provides you with a set of powerful interactive tools for
constructing 3D solids models (often called wire-frames). You can do
the following:
Create solids from combinations of polylines, points and 3D rings.
Create tie lines to link polylines, points and 3D rings to control
solid formation.
Intersect solids with surfaces and other solids.
Use solids to clip polylines.
Contour solids.
Create block models from solids.
Calculate ore reserves inside solids and block models.
Create new drillhole intersect data from solids.
For detailed procedures, refer to Chapter 13: The Solid Menu.
Types of Solids
The solids which Gemcom uses can be separated into three categories:
Geology solids. These are solids that represent homogenous
volumes of ground and have rock code and grade attributes.
Excavation solids. These are representations of voids left in the
ground by mining. These solids may represent planned mining
excavations or as-mined excavations.
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Surfaces. .These are triangulated surfaces and are described in
more detail in Chapter 8: Surfaces.
Once created, a solid is a collection of triangular faces that encloses a
volume. Every triangle edge is connected fully to another triangle
edge. Consequently, there are no open areas or holes on the surface of
a solid. Each solid is given a series of names to uniquely identify the
solid, and a set of attributes that describes its properties.
Solids can be created as a single entity that is known as a physical
solid, having a single name and a single set of attributes to describe its
properties. Solids can also be created as a group of like entities that
are known as logical solids. Logical solids are also identified by a
single name and a single set of attributes that are applied to all of the
physical solids that form the logical solids. Once created, logical solids
are treated as a single entity (i.e., the same way as a physical solid).
An example of a physical solid could be a homogenous ore zone that is
one complete piece; an example of a logical solid could be a
homogenous ore zone that is broken into multiple zones, but is needed
to be treated as a single entity.
Geology Solids
Geological solids represent homogenous volumes of ground. Each
geological solid is identified by a three-part name, and is given a single
rock-type attribute, and single grade values for each specified mineral.
Geological solids are used to represent ore bodies, ore zones, dykes,
sills, or any other geological zone(see Figure 9-1). Geological solids are
generally constructed from combinations of 3D rings, polylines and
points digitized on sections or plan views.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Figure 9-2: Examples of excavation solids
Figure 9-1: Examples of geology solids
Page 3169
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Excavation Solids
Excavation solids represent voids in the ground created by mining.
Each excavation solid is identified by a three-part name, and no other
attributes. Excavation solids can represent development such as
shafts, haulages, crosscuts, ramps or raises, or stope designs.
Excavation solids can also represent excavation designs, or as-mined
excavations (see Figure 9-2).
Excavation solids can be constructed from digitized centrelines and
cross-section profiles, outlines digitized on plan views, 3D rings, or
surveyed data.
Note that solids are commonly viewed in combination with other solid
types and other data such as drillholes and block models for a more
comprehensive visualization of data. For example, Figure 9-3
illustrates geology and excavation solids, drillholes, and block models
together:
Figure 9-3: Combinations of data types viewed together
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Solid Creation Guidelines
Solid models are created using three-dimensional triangulation that
links together sets of planar and non-planar collections of polylines.
These collections of polylines can be combinations of open-ended status
lines, closed 3D rings and discrete points from drillhole intersects or
other sources. The triangulation and solid formation takes place after
you have linked the data elements together using three-dimensional
tie lines that may be complex polylines with multiple points. Careful
use and positioning of these tie lines allow you to apply extensive
control on how splits, bifurcations and end closures of solids are
handled.
Tie lines force specific points of one polyline to connect with specific
points on another adjacent polyline. At least one tie line connecting
two adjacent polylines is required in order for Gemcom to create a
mesh between them. All tie lines will be included as edges in the
triangular mesh that forms the solid. Tie lines therefore provide as
much or as little control as you like over the shape of the final solid.
Figure 9-4: Two irregular polylines connected by four tie lines
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
It is recommended that you start by using a minimum of tie lines,
connecting pairs of polylines with one or two tie lines at logically
corresponding points. Gradually add more tie lines as required to
improve the shape of the solid or to resolve solid errors such as self-
intersection. If polylines are highly irregular in shape, you may
achieve the best results by using extra tie lines in areas where it is
obvious that points match (see Figure 9-4).
Bifurcation (division into two forks) frequently occurs wherever one
polyline on a section must connect to two polylines on an adjacent
section. Adding a tie line split is necessary to divide the single polyline
into two sub-rings (see Figure 9-5).
Tie line split
Figure 9-5: Area of bifurcation
Gemcom will automatically create end closures (close-offs) at the ends
of a solid by determining which polylines are outermost (see Figure 9-
6). You may also need to create a close-off in an area of bifurcation,
using one or more tie line splits.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Because the creation of tie lines is typically the most time-consuming
part of solids modelling, it is highly recommended that you frequently
save the ties to disk.
Components of a Solid
The components you use to create a solid are as follows:
Rings
Ties
External points
Part-rings
Tie line splits
Polylines that "close-off" the
ends of the solid
Figure 9-6: Close-offs
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-7 illustrates these components together. The following
sections will discuss each component separately.
Figure 9-7: Components of a solid
tie line splits
tie lines
3D rings
part-rings
external points
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Rings
A ring is defined as a 3D closed polyline (see Figure 9-8). The points
that form the polyline may or may not lie on a plane. In order to be
classified as a solid, an object must have at least one ring; otherwise,
the object is a surface.
Neighbouring rings can be at large angles to each other. Specifically,
for any sequence of three rings, the angle between the plane of the
first ring and the plane of the third ring must be less than 180.
Each ring must form a simple circuit when it is projected onto its best-
fit plane. As Figure 9-9 shows, a simple circuit means that the ring
does not intersect itself. If it does, the solid creation process will report
an error, and it will be necessary to modify the ring before attempting
the solid creation process again.
Figure 9-8: Rings
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Sub-Rings
Rings can either be single entities, or they can be split into sub-rings
(see Figure 9-10) using tie line splits that connect points on the same
ring (as opposed to tie lines that connect rings on different planes).
Figure 9-10: Sub-Rings
OK ERROR ERROR
Figure 9-9: Rings must be simple circuits
A single
ring with
no splits
A ring split
into sub-rings
by two tie lines
across its face
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Ties
A tie is a polyline that connects other elements of the solid to each
other. A tie may have multiple segments. Each end of a tie lies on a
ring, a part-ring, an external point, or a split. Any number of tie lines
may start or end at the same point (see Figure 9-11).
Figure 9-11: Examples of ties
External Points
External points are used to terminate sections of the solid. These are
useful if you think there is part of the solid beyond the last ring, but
have no further hard data. You can place a point logically beyond the
last ring at an estimated location. You can think of an external point
as a one-point ring. An external point must be connected by at least
one tie (see Figure 9-12).
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Part-Rings
A part-ring is a partial ring, i.e., it is not closed. A part-ring is used
when a full ring is not available. It modifies the solid surface in a local
area.
There are two types of part-rings:
Internal. An internal part-ring is internal in that it is logically
between other components of the solid (see Figure 9-13).
External. An external part-ring is external in that it is not
logically between other components. Instead, it is used to
terminate a portion of the solid, as per an external point (see
Figure 9-14).
Figure 9-12: An external point
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Figure 9-14: An external part-ring
Figure 9-13: Internal part-rings
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Tie Line Splits
Tie line splits are polylines that divide a ring into two or more sub-
rings. Splits may have multiple segments. Each split starts and ends
on the same ring. Splits do not cross each other, nor do they join or
touch each other, except for possibly their end points. Splits are used
for bifurcation and/or close-offs. The area between the two highlighted
splits in Figure 9-15 forms a close-off that separates the legs of the
bifurcation.
Figure 9-15: Splits
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Component Requirements
The specific requirements for the components of a solid are very few.
However, it is important that the user understand them.
Requirements for Ties & Part-Rings
All part-rings need ties. External part-rings may be connected by ties
only to a logically adjacent full ring. A tie may not connect an external
part-ring to an internal part-ring, as shown in Figure 9-16. This is
restated here as a warning.
An external part-ring must not have part-rings for neighbours. In
other words, no part-rings are allowed between an external part-ring
and the adjacent full ring.
e1
e2
e3
i1
i2
i3
Figure 9-16: An incorrect data set
Figure 9-17 shows the correct use of an external part-ring.
!
Error: the
internal part-
ring (i1, i2, i3)
is not allowed
between the
full ring and
the external
part-ring (e1,
e2, e3).
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
a
b
c
d
Figure 9-18: Ties to the ends of internal part-rings
Figure 9-17: A correct data set
The external part-ring is
connected directly to the full
ring
Points a, b, c, and d are the
ends of internal part-rings.
From each one there are two
ties, in logically opposite
directions
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Each end of an internal part-ring needs exactly two ties, one in each of
two logically opposite directions (see Figure 9-18).
Requirements for Sequences of Ties
Ties which join onto part-rings must be able to be joined into a
sequence of ties, at the points where the sequence crosses the part-
ring. The sequences must be completely separate, except possibly
where they join a full ring or external point. See the following
examples of correct and incorrect tie sequences.
The legend in Figure 9-19 applies to all example diagrams in Figure 9-
20 and Figure 9-21.
tie lines
rings/part-rings
Figure 9-19: Diagram legend
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids

A correct configuration
a
p
Error: tie a is not a member of a sequence of ties crossing part-ring p.
a b c
d
e
Error: sequences abc and ade go through, but they are not separate.
Figure 9-20: Example using two complete rings and two part-rings
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
A correct configuration
A correct configuration
Error: a sequence of ties does not cross the part-ring.
Figure 9-21: Example using two complete rings and one part-ring.
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Requirements for Ties & External Part-Rings
The requirements for ties which join external part-rings are very
specific. The requirements are also very natural.
If an external part-ring has only one tie to it, the tie must be to one
end of the part-ring (see Figure 9-22).
OK ERROR
Figure 9-22: External part-ring with one tie
If an external part-ring has two or more ties to it, there must be one
tie to each end (see Figure 9-23).
OK ERROR
ERROR
Figure 9-23: External part-ring with two or more ties
Requirements for Ties Between Two Full Rings
If two rings of the solid to be formed are connected by ties, there are
certain requirements for the ties.
For purposes of this section, we shall consider a sequence of ties to be
a tie, and will ignore ties which connect to splits. We will also ignore
part-rings.
In all cases, if your ties violate these rules, the program will highlight
the two rings and ask for more ties. You will need to add ties which do
not connect to a split. The best ties to add have end-points which are
not shared by other ties.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
If the two rings are connected by a single tie, there are no further
requirements (see Figure 9-24).
OK
Figure 9-24: Two rings with one tie
If the two rings are connected by two ties, the four end-points of the
ties must all be different (see Figure 9-25).
OK ERROR
Figure 9-25: Two rings with two ties
If the two rings are connected by three ties, the three ties must have
at least five different end-points (see Figure 9-26).
OK: 6 end-pts
ERROR: 4 end-pts
OK: 5 end-pts
ERROR: 4 end-pts
Figure 9-26: Two rings with three ties
If the two rings are connected by four or more ties, there is no simple
concise rule. However, it is far better to have many different end-
points for the ties, than just a few shared end-points.
Page 3187
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Requirements for Rings, Ties, and Part-Rings
Certain conditions exist which would result in ambiguities of data,
when dealing with rings, ties and part-rings:
Sprays of ties
Not enough ties
Ties which connect to splits
Sprays of Ties
Two rings or sub-rings connected only by a spray of ties is
ambiguous. A spray of ties is two or more ties with a single common
end-point (see Figure 9-27).
Figure 9-27: A spray of ties: you will be asked to supply more ties.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Not Enough Ties
When there is a pair of rings with exactly two ties, with one or more
part-rings, the case is ambiguous (see Figure 9-28).
Ties Which Connect to Splits
A tie may connect to any point of a split (see Figure 9-29).
Figure 9-29: A tie connecting to an interior point of a split
However, Figure 9-30 illustrates a requirement for additional ties. The
two ties need some assistance; by themselves it is not clear whether
Figure 9-28: Ambiguous case: you will be asked to specify more ties.
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
the ring on the far right forms a solid with either one of the sub-rings,
or both. The addition of ties which do not join the split is required to
resolve the situation.
Figure 9-30: Ambiguous case: you will asked to specify more ties.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Amalgamation of Sub-Rings
For purposes of explanation in this section, sequences of ties between
two rings will be considered to be a single tie. Also, part-rings will be
ignored.
Amalgamation of Sub-Rings on a Ring Face
Each ring has two faces, or sides, to it. When a ring is divided into sub-
rings, Gemcom makes a set of sub-rings for each face. The sub-rings
for each face are then amalgamated according to these rules:
Firstly, ties which connect to a split are deactivated temporarily. The
reason for temporary deactivation is to ensure unambiguous
relationships between the sub-rings.
After temporarily deactivating ties which connect to splits, three rules
come into force for the amalgamation of sub-rings.
Rule 1: If sub-rings a and b are each tied to the same single sub-ring c,
then a and b will be amalgamated into a single ring (on the side
connected to c) prior to forming the solid with c (see Figure 9-31 and
Figure 9-32).
Page 3191
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-32: Resultant solid
Figure 9-31: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 1
These are the rings
and tie lines as
they exist before
solid creation. The
two sub-rings on
the middle ring will
be amalgamated
when meshing to
the ring on the
right.
The split in the
middle ring was
ignored when
meshing to the
right ring, but
honoured when
meshing to the
left one.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Figure 9-34: Resultant solid
In Figure 9-33 and Figure 9-34, both the middle sub-rings are tied to
the rings on the right and left, so the middle sub-rings will be
amalgamated before forming the solid with the other rings. Note that
this action is different from methods formerly used in GEM-SOLID.
Figure 9-33: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 1
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Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-36: Resultant solid
Rule 2: If sub-rings a and b are the adjoining sub-rings of ring R, and c
and d are the adjoining sub-rings of ring S, and a is tied to c and b is
tied to d, Gemcom will amalgamate a with b and c with d before
forming the solid (see Figure 9-35 and Figure 9-36).
Figure 9-35: Illustration of Amalgamation Rule 2
Both sets of
sub-rings on
the face of each
ring will be
amalgamated
before forming
the solid.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Rule 3: If a and b are both tied to the same sub-ring c, but a and b
share no segments, this creates an error (see Figure 9-37).
Dimples, Volcanoes,
and Other Surfaces
with Concavities
Gemcom offers the capability to model surfaces with concavities. If a
solid has concavities on the sides, the concavities will be represented
in the rings, and solid formation will model the concavities without
further processing (see Figure 9-38).
Figure 9-38: A solid with a concavity on the side
Figure 9-37: An amalgamation error
Page 3195
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
If a solid has a concavity on the end, (e.g., if a close-off ring has a
dimple in it), you can model this readily, but in a different manner.
For example, a volcano would be modelled by constructing two solids:
1) a filled-in version of the volcano and 2) the plug at the top; and
then clipping the former against the latter using the solid operations
described elsewhere in this manual (see Figure 9-39).
Recommendations
The insertion of ties can have a very strong influence on the final
solid.
The filled-in volcano
The plug at the end of the volcano
The modelled volcano
Figure 9-39: Modelling a volcano
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Controlling the Formation of Triangles
Let us look first at a simple example.
n
f
A near ring n and a far ring f
n
f
With three ties added
One triangulation of the upper surface
Another triangulation of the upper surface
Page 3197
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-40: Alternate triangulations
Figure 9-40 illustrates that there are multiple ways of creating
triangles to form a solid. Note that different sets of triangles will give
different volumes, different cross-sections, etc.
If you have a preference for the triangulation of your solid, then it is
recommended that you place ties to express your preference.
Between ties, the program will choose triangles for you. You should
examine your solid carefully, and either add more ties or modify your
current ties to produce the solid that you want.
Ties with More Than Two Points
Your ties may have many points. This enables you to control the shape
of a solid in a local area.
However, if you use ties with more than two points, you may need to
control the triangles on either side of the multi-point tie. You would
exercise control of the triangles by placement of more ties (see Figure
9-41.)
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Bidirectional Bifurcations
It is possible to create a solid which contains a bidirectional
bifurcation (see Figure 9-42).
A solid with a concavity
A possible triangulation.
A more conventional triangulation
Figure 9-41: Alternate triangulations
Triangles on the
back side have
been omitted for
clarity.
Addition of this
tie line restricts
the influence of
the concave tie.
Page 3199
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-42: A bidirectional bifurcation
The resulting solid will have two parts which meet only along a line.
This is not recommended practice. Triangles which adjoin the meeting
line will have more than the normal one neighbour per edge.
Zero-Thickness Portions of a Ring
It is possible for the data to produce solids in which some rings
contribute zerothickness portions to the solid. This is allowed as a
preliminary step to permit test-formation of solids, but is not
recommended for the final solid. Triangles on the two faces of the
zerothickness portions will have more than the normal one neighbour
per edge (see Figure 9-43).
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Ties
Be generous when inserting ties, especially with ties that do not
connect to splits.
Logical Solids
A logical solid is simply a collection of physical solids which have
been designated as belonging logically together. A logical solid may be
useful in a zone in which the ore is extensively fractured, where each
physical solid represents a parcel of ore (see Figure 9-44).
Figure 9-44: Cross section through a logical solid
Logical solids are also used for nesting. Two solids are nested when
one fully encloses the other. For example, an orebody of one type could
contain an orebody of another type (see Figure 9-45).
a
Figure 9-43: A zerothickness portion of a solid
Page 3201
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-45: Cross section through a nested solid
The concept of nesting includes cases in which one solid fully encloses
multiple solids which may in turn enclose other solids, etc.
Volume Calculations for Logical Solids
Gemcom makes certain assumptions about each physical solid member
of a logical solid when performing volume calculations for the logical
solid.
Gemcom assumes that the physical solids which are outermost (i.e.,
not contained in any other physical solid) contribute positively to the
volume. The physical solids which are next to outermost contribute
negatively to the volume. The contributions of any other physical
solids continue to alternate according to their level of nesting.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
In Figure 9-46, the volume of the logical solid is the volume of A minus
the volume of B plus the volume of C.
Solid Validation
Gemcom provides the capability for validating solids. It is strongly
recommended that you validate all solids upon creation (or upon
importation into Gemcom). Invalid solids can lead to incorrect
volumetrics as well as errors when intersecting solids with other solids
or surfaces. Early validation will help to ensure reliable results.
When validating solids, the program checks for invalid triangle edges
and self-intersection. To be valid, a solid may not intersect itself. A
solid is self-intersecting when one part of the solid intersects another
part of the same solid (i.e., when any of its triangles intersect each
other). As well, each edge in a valid solid must be part of only two
A
B
C
Figure 9-46: Cut-away drawing of a nested logical solid
Page 3203
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
triangles (or one triangle in the case of edges along the perimeter of a
valid surface).
Whenever a solid is validated, the program looks for self-intersecting
triangles and counts triangle edges to determine if any are connected
to more edges than allowed. If any errors are discovered, Gemcom
displays an error message and highlights the problem areas.
Fixing Invalid Solids
There are a number of situations that give rise to problems associated
with solid construction. Most of the problems are related to the
varying shapes or odd placement of the polygons (3D rings) being
meshed.
The first step in fixing an invalid solid is to inspect the area(s)
identified by the program as containing self-intersecting triangles or
invalid edges. Gemcom allows you to form a solid (or save polylines) of
the incorrect triangles to facilitate the inspection. If the original solid
was formed from ties and rings, you can display the bad triangles
with the original ties and rings.
There are several strategies for correcting invalid solids:
Strategic placement of tie lines. One way to eliminate self-
intersection is to change or add tie lines. The original placement of
a tie line may be forcing the creation of triangle edges in an
inappropriate direction.
Adding full or part-rings. Full or part-rings can be added
between rings to maintain separation.
Changing or adding tie line splits. Since all tie lines (including
splits) can have multiple points, you can add points to change the
shape of the split. Alternatively, you can put in two splits close
together, which creates a small close-off between them. This will
separate the two legs of a bifurcation a small amount. Or, you can
create tie lines from a split to a ring to improve the triangulation.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Adding nodes or thickening the 3D rings. You can resolve
solid self-intersection by thickening the rings or the ties (or both).
Thickening is the process of increasing the density of points along
a line. However, the thickening of lines may produce more
triangles in the solid than actually required, thus unnecessarily
increasing the processing time and the memory needed. For these
reasons, this strategy should be used sparingly: it is usually best
to add nodes manually in only the problem areas.
Another possibility for correcting invalid solids may be the
modification of the original 3D rings. While this can solve meshing
problems, it is usually undesirable given that the purpose of solid
building is to create a solid that conforms to defined 3D shapes.
Examples of Fixing Invalid Solids
Three examples are presented here of common situations that can
produce invalid solids or surfaces. For each example, we will outline
the steps that can be taken to correct (or prevent) the problems. For
simplicity of illustration, we will use solids being created with two or
three 3D rings at a time.
The example dataset is a series of 3D rings that represent the
lithological extent of a vein structure (see Figure 9-47). Each ring has
been digitized on section. However, they are non-planar, meaning that
some points have been digitized at distances in and out of each section.
The first example illustrates the steps used to correct an invalid solid
that was created from two 3D rings that are varying in both shape and
size. The other examples illustrate cases where the narrowness of
rings and their positions relative to each other are the critical factors
causing problems.
Page 3205
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Changing Tie Lines
In the first example, we will create a solid by meshing the 3D rings on
section 10500E and 10550E. In the first attempt, we place one tie line
connecting the top of each ring (see Figure 9-48).
10500E
10550E
10400E
10350E
10200E
10150E
West
Figure 9-47: 3D rings on sections from the example dataset
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Figure 9-49 shows the resulting solid. However, upon validating the
solid using Solid } }Options } }Check Solid/Surface Validity, we find
Section
10500E Tie line
Section
10550E
Figure 9-48; Original placement of tie line
Figure 9-49: Resulting solid
Page 3207
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
that the solid has twenty-four self-intersecting triangles (see Figure 9-
50).
We save the bad triangles as a solid so that we can display the exact
location of the problem areas onscreen (see Figure 9-51). All other
solids are turned off or de-selected.
We can now see that there are two self-intersecting areas. We shall
examine each one.
Figure 9-50: Solid verification status box
Area B
Area A
Figure 9-51: Bad triangles displayed as a solid
Page 3208
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Two conditions are causing the self-intersection of triangles in Area A.
The first is related both to the placement of the original tie line
connecting the 3D rings and to the varying shape of each ring.
The solid creation process normally connects nodes on one ring that
are proximal to nodes on a connected ring. The placement of a tie line
overrides this normal construction process and alters which nodes will
be connected to others. In Figure 9-52, the triangular edges that make
up Area A are oriented in the same direction as the tie line. This is
causing unnecessarily long triangular edges, resulting in self-
intersection.
The second condition in Area A is the shape of the 3D ring on section
10550E (the shorter ring). The narrowness of this ring increases the
probability of self-intersecting triangles, especially when the
triangular edges are long.
The problem in Area B is quite evident in Figure 9-52: the triangular
edges are intersecting the back face of the solid on ring 10500E. As in
Area A, the self-intersecting triangles are a result of two conditions.
Again, triangle edges are unnecessarily elongated because of a solid
Area A
Area B
Narrow
3D ring
Ring 10500E
Tie line
Ring 10550E
Figure 9-52: Close-up of problem areas
Page 3209
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
creation pattern that is based on the poor placement of the tie line.
The second condition is due to the meshing of non-planar rings
(creating the bend at Area B).
Both areas can be easily corrected. The key is to determine a common
condition contributing to both problems. Since unnecessarily long
edges occurs in both areas, it follows that we should direct our
attention to changing the placement of the original tie line. A better
placement is illustrated in Figure 9-53:
New tie lines
Figure 9-53: New placement of tie line
Placing two tie lines
in this manner should
reduce the chance of
unnecessarily long
triangle edges.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Notice the new orientation of the resulting triangle edges in Figure 9-
54, when compared to the original solid. Another validity test finds
that none of the triangles self-intersect. The new solid is valid.
Adding Nodes and Part-Rings
Our second example examines the same problem of self-intersecting
triangles between 3D rings. In this case, the bottom of the solid is
visibly intersecting the top of the solid. We are using sections 10350E
and 10400E:
Figure 9-54: Resulting solid
Page 3211
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Section
10350E
Section
10400E
Area C
Area D
Figure 9-55: Bad triangles displayed as solid
As seen in Figure 9-55, we have placed the tie lines so as to eliminate
the possibility of self-intersecting triangles in Area C. However, after
validating the solid, we see that triangles self-intersect in Area D.
When the area of self-intersection is rendered, the bottom of the solid
can be seen peeking through the top. In the 3D view (Figure 9-56), we
can see that the narrowness of the 3D rings is a factor, combined with
the unnecessarily long triangular edges. In the 2D view (Figure 9-57),
we can also observe that the sharp and narrow bend on ring 10350E is
contributing to the self-intersection.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Two strategies for correcting the solid are possible.
Bottom of solid
protruding
through the top
Figure 9-56: Rendered 3D view of problem area
Ring on section
10400E
(foreground)
Area of self-intersecting
triangles
Tie lines
Ring on section
10350E
(background)
Sharp and
narrow bend
Figure 9-57: 2D view of section, looking west
Page 3213
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
The first is to insert part-rings between both rings. These part-rings
force the solid creation process to maintain some solid thickness
between the original rings, thus reducing the chance of self-
intersection.
The second strategy would be to insert more points along both rings in
the area of self-intersection. Adding nodes reduces the length of
triangular edges, thereby minimizing the chance of self-intersection.
Nodes are added using Polyline } }Multiline } }Thicken.
In Figure 9-58, we add two internal part-rings in the area of the
problem. An extra node is also inserted on ring 10400E to provide an
anchor for the back face of the part-ring. The resulting solid is correct
with no self-intersecting triangles.
Figure 9-59 shows another way we could have corrected the solid. The
addition of nodes and a few extra tie lines for control appears to be the
easiest strategy.
Additional
node
Two part-rings
Additional
tie lines
Additional
tie lines
Figure 9-58: Adding two part-rings
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Adding 3D Rings
Gemcom performs validity checks on a hierarchical basis. The process
first looks for invalid edges, and then for self-intersecting triangles. If
the system encounters invalid edges, it will discontinue any further
checks for self-intersection.
Invalid edges occur when three or more triangles share an edge. The
most likely occurrence of this is in areas of bifurcation, when the
inside surface of the solid becomes coincident with itself: part of the
surface may internally touch another part of the surface. You can
visualize this by thinking of squeezing a balloon: where your thumb
and index finger touch each other would be an invalid edge.
In the following example, our attempt to validate a solid created from
rings on sections 10150E and 10200E produces the error message seen
in Figure 9-60:
Ring has been
thickened
Ring has been
thickened
Figure 9-59: Adding extra nodes and ties
Page 3215
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
The error message indicates that the meshing process has detected
one bad edge. The problem area is located along the edge of
bifurcation (see Figure 9-61).
Section
10150E
Section
10200E
Tie line (line of
bifurcation)
Tie line
Tie line
Figure 9-61: Placement of tie lines for bifurcated solid creation
Figure 9-62 shows that the four bad triangles have a coincident
edgethe line of bifurcation.
Fortunately, the solution is simple. By adding another ring adjacent to
section 10150E, we can force the back side of the solid away from the
Figure 9-60: Solid verification status box
Page 3216
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
plane containing the line of bifurcation. Since the ultimate goal is to
create a solid for all rings, we can add the needed ring by simply
activating the ring on the next section (10100E). We then add some tie
lines and create a solid using all three sections (see Figure 9-63).
If no other sections had existed in our dataset, we could have copied
the ring on section 10150E and placed the duplicate a small distance
west of the bifurcation. We would then construct the solid by
Bad
triangles
Bad triangles
Bad edge
(coincident with tie line
defining line of bifurcation)
Figure 9-62: Rendered 3D view of the four bad triangles
Ring on section
10100E
Area of
bifurcation
Figure 9-63: Adding a new 3D ring
Page 3217
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
connecting the duplicate ring with the ring on section 10150E with as
many tie lines as necessary.
Remember that after you fix invalid edges, you must validate the new
solid to check for any self-intersecting triangles that were previously
ignored by the validation process.
Fixing Duplication Errors
Figure 9-64 shows a common error message encountered during solid
creation:
Figure 9-64: Solid creation error message
However, your dataset of 3D rings may clearly show that all tie line
endpoints are connected to only one ring. The problem is often that
some of the rings are duplicated and thus not readily visible. You may
have unintentionally produced this situation by loading a dataset of 3D
rings or tie lines more than once.
You can check for duplicate rings, lines, or tie lines by activating all
lines and running the consolidation process using Polyline
} }Multiline } }Consolidate. This process checks for duplicate lines and
segments and eliminates them in one step.
Copying Solids
You can create a new solid by copying and renaming an existing solid.
The new solid will contain the same attribute information as the
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
original. This option can be used to make a temporary backup copy of
any solid prior to performing editing operations.
As this option allows you to enter X, Y, and/or Z offset values, you can
copy and move a solid in one step. For example, if for some reason a
solid is in the wrong location but you know the XYZ offsets that would
correct the error, by giving the new solid the same name as the
original you can overwrite the original solid in the proper position.
Intersecting Solids with Planes and Other Solids
You can create solids by intersecting solids with other solids, surfaces
or planes. You can calculate and view these intersections at any
orientation in both 2D and 3D. The ability to intersect and combine
solids is an extremely powerful feature of the solids modelling
capabilities of Gemcom.
Figure 9-65: Two intersecting solids
Examples operations refer to the sample solids in Figure 9-65. You can
interactively select solids with the mouse and then do the following:
Create the polyline of intersection between two solids.
Clip a solid inside or outside a polygon.
Clip the portion of a solid that lies above or below a surface.
Clip the solid portion of a solid that lies inside another solid (see
Figure 9-66).
Page 3219
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Figure 9-66: Solid A clipped by solid B
Intersect solid with another solid (see Figure 9-67).
Figure 9-67: Solid A intersected with solid B
Create the union of one solid with another solid (see Figure 9-68).
Figure 9-68: Union of solid A and solid B
You can use the solid-to-surface intersection options to assist in
building accurate geological models, for example, by trimming
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
geological solids with surfaces that represent fault planes, or by
trimming solids that protrude above surface topographies.
The solid-to-solid options can be effectively used to add further control
to the shapes of solids representing ore zones, or can be used in
various underground mine planning functions when solids are being
used to represent mine development, stopes or other excavations that
require trimming or combining.
Intersecting Logical Solids
As with any solid, a logical solid should not intersect itself; surfaces of
the member physical solids may not intersect each other. Therefore, it
is strongly recommended that you avoid cases in which the physical
solids touch or intersect at a point or a line, or nearly at a point or line
(see Figure 9-69 and Figure 9-70).
Figure 9-69: Two solids intersecting in a single point
Figure 9-70: Two solids intersecting in a line segment
Page 3221
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
If any of these conditions exist, you should change the solids slightly,
by placing a significant amount of space between them (e.g., 0.1
metre).
Intersection operations between logical solids produce the same
intuitive results as for physical solids. However, intersections between
a surface and a logical solid make sense only when the surface
intersects all of the physical solids members of the logical solid. If the
surface misses any of the physical solids, the result will be undefined.
Fixing Invalid Solids After Intersection
The intersection of solids requires complex computations for many of
the triangles which make up the solids. In isolated instances, the
newly created solid may have triangles with extreme properties which
render it invalid. However, temporarily shifting one of the solids a
small amount (e.g., two millimetres in elevation) will usually resolve
the problem.
Contouring
Contouring involves slicing solids with sets of parallel planes (see
Figure 9-71 and Figure 9-72). Contour lines are the polylines of
intersection between the solid being contoured and the parallel planes.
The contour lines are stored as polylines, so once they are created they
can be edited, smoothed, manipulated or used in the same manner as
any other polyline. This means that you can create solids from sets of
polylines on vertical sections, create contours on plan views, edit the
polylines that were created in the contouring process, and then rebuild
the solids from the plan view data to get a new interpretation of your
data. You can define the planes in a number of ways:
As horizontal planes, by specifying the upper and lower elevations
and the separation distances between the planes.
In the current view plane, with an upper and lower local Z value,
and separation distances between the planes.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
As the current view plane.
Using all active vertical sections.
Using all active plan views.
Using all active inclined sections.
The resulting solid/surface/plane intersections will be saved as
polylines. The attributes assigned to these polylines will depend on
both the user inputs and the attributes and class of the contoured TIN.
Figure 9-71: Contours from a solid using vertical sections
Figure 9-72: Contours from a solid using plan views
Page 3223
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
If you are contouring Geology class solids, the resulting polylines
will be stored as 3D Ring polylines and will inherit the rock code
from the solid.
If you are contouring Excavation or Surface class TINs, the
polylines will be stored as Status Line type and will be assigned
the default status line type.
If you are contouring pre-defined planes (for example, all vertical
sections), the plane attribute of the polylines will be assigned
based on the section name.
You can preset default values for all the polyline attributes if you dont
want the program to automatically assign the attributes for you. The
polylines created from contouring can be used for all normal polyline
operations (clipping, solid creation, editing, etc.).
Displaying Solids
Each TIN created within Gemcom (or imported into Gemcom) belongs
to one of three classes: Geology, Excavation or Surface. All active TINs
are displayed based on their class assignment. You can define different
display parameters for each class at any time. These parameters
include:
Solid display mode. You can choose one of two modes for
displaying the TIN.
Solid fill shows the TIN with solid coloured panels (when
viewed in rendered mode).
Wireframe shows only the TIN edges and no panels.
Obtain colour from. Gemcom can use one of three methods to
assign a colour to each individual triangle within the TIN:
Primary colour method colours all triangles the same,
according to the colour assigned to the TIN when it is created.
Triangle dip method colours each triangle based on its dip
angle (in degrees). This option is very useful in cases where the
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
triangle dip values are critical, for example, in pit design or
slope stability work. Gemcom can provide a very fast graphical
overview of the slopes of your entire TIN.
Triangle Z method colours each triangle based on the Z value
of the triangle centroid.
Colour profile for display. The Triangle Dip and Triangle Z
display options require a colour profile to be defined that provides
colours for all possible value ranges. It is generally a good idea to
define colour profiles specifically for viewing TINs with these
options.
Z buffer shading mode. You can choose one of two modes for
shading TIN panels in 3D rendered viewing mode:
Flat shades each TIN panel a single colour. Flat-shaded objects
retain a polyhedral appearance (see Figure 9-73).
Smooth assigns a colour to the centroid of each panel and
blends the colours of adjacent panels at edges and vertices.
Smooth-shaded objects appear curved (see Figure 9-74).
Figure 9-73: The flat-shaded sphere displays a polyhedral, "golf ball"
appearance
Page 3225
Modelling Chapter 9: Solids
Solid Attributes
In addition to path, names, and class (and grades for Geology solids)
you can assign three attributes which directly affect the display
characteristics of an individual solid or surface:
Panel colour (for excavations or surfaces) or Geological code
(for geology solids). This parameter defines the colour in which the
TIN will be drawn using the primary colour method, either
explicitly or via the rock code profile.
Transparency. You can make solids and surfaces transparent in
order to see data objects which are obscured from your line of
sight. When you define multiple overlapping transparent solids,
Gemcom may make some of them opaque for clarity.
Smoothing. You can always display smoothshaded panels in
rendered mode, regardless of program display settings.
Figure 9-74: The smooth-shaded sphere displays a smooth, "ping-
pong ball" appearance
Page 3227
Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Chapter 10
Reserves Reporting
In This Chapter
Introduction
Components of Reserves Reporting
Report Types
Report Structure
Reserves Reporting Profiles
Mined and Filled Volumes
Default Rock Code and Grades
Overlapping Solids
Needling
Checking Needle Accuracy
Using Clipping Polygons
Issuing a Report
Polygonal Reserves
Introduction
The Volumetrics menu allows you to produce reserves reports
containing volume, grade, density, tonnage and product information.
The volumetrics toolbox is extremely flexible: you can report
quantities of ore and waste within solids and between surfaces by
groupings of rock codes and grade ranges, and with varying levels of
detail. Volumetrics can incorporate block models for the reserve
calculations, by evaluating the proportion of each block that is
contained within a solid or between surfaces. You can also report
polygonal reserves.
Page 3228
Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
During reserves reporting, the program will assemble a number of
individual categories created from a combination of reporting profiles,
active solids and surfaces, block models, and specified planes. For
example, the comprehensive nature of Gemcom Volumetrics would
allow you to produce reports showing:
Mined and filled volumes between two surfaces, sorted by bench,
rock code, and by high, low, and waste copper grade ranges. The
grades and densities could come from block models.
The tons of ore and waste (dilution) in a planned stope, sorted
section-by-section, with the ore sorted by gold grade ranges that
are sorted by rock code. The grades could come from block models
and the densities from geology solids.
The Volumetrics menu provides meaningful reports whether you are
working in an open pit or underground environment, and in either the
planned or as-mined stages.
For step-by-step procedures for creating reserves reports, see Chapter
14: The Volumetrics Menu.
Components of Reserves Reporting
Gemcom estimates volumes by penetrating various data components
with a number of needles. Geometric definitions and density and grade
values are derived from the following data:
Geology solids. A geology solid is a volume of a homogenous
geological zone typically representing orebody limits and/or rock code
units. The rock code, density and/or grade attributes of these solids
(assigned when a solid is created) can be used to classify the material
contained within each geology solid during reserves reporting. You can
create one report using many geology solids, with each being reported
individually.
Excavation solids. Excavation solids are usually associated with an
underground mine, typically representing the total volumes of stopes,
headings, or pit designs. As these solids are commonly used to
Page 3229
Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
represent development-type solids, they do not contain rock code,
density or grade information.
For reserves reporting, Gemcom handles planned and as-mined
excavation solids in the same way. You can create one report using
many excavation solids, with each being reported individually.
Surfaces. Surfaces are associated with open pit mines, and may
represent original topography, pit designs, pit status maps, or
stockpiles. They may also be sub-surface structures such as faults, the
tops or bottoms of coal seams, or lithological contacts. A surface does
not have rock code, density or grade information.
Two surfaces are used in reserves reporting to represent the total
volume between the top surface and the bottom surface, either
planned or as-mined. An environment using Gemcom for mine
planning may want to report the volumes and grades between the
original topography and a 20 year pit design; an operating mine may
want to report the amount of material mined during the previous
month or the amount of material in a stockpile.
Planes. Defined plan views, vertical sections, or inclined sections can
be used to subdivide any reserves report into logical mining or
planning units. Using planes allows for much reporting flexibility. For
example, a reserves report of a 20 year pit design, or a large stope
design, would likely need to be structured on a plan view-by-plan view
(bench-by-bench) basis. Other mining methods (e.g., strip mining),
may require a report to be sorted by vertical sections, each
representing a particular phase of mining.
Block models. Density and grade values for reserves reporting may
come from block models in the currently assigned orebody project.
Standard, waste or ore density block models provide relative density
values for a rock code. Grade block models provide grade information
for one grade element.
If you have complex solids that you need to map to a variety of block
models, you can assign each Gemcom rock code to a different set of
block models (a folder). Each folder can contain different density and
grade models. For example, you may assign a high grade rock code to
one folder which contains a high grade block model. Then, you can
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
assign a low grade rock code to a folder which contains a low grade
block model. This way, one block of an entire block model can have
different rock codes and different grades (controlled by the Gemcom
solids). You define the block model names and folders. See Chapter 3:
Block Model Projects for more information on defining block models
and folders.
Rock type. When creating rock code definitions in Gemcom, it is
possible to tag a rock code as barren (waste). This allows for flexible
and efficient reserves reporting since you can include areas that will
not be accessed for grade calculations; any rock code designated as
waste contributes only volume and density information to the reserves
reporting calculations. Generally you would use a waste designation
for host rock or for the reserves reporting default rock code (for
unmodelled areas).
Report Types
By combining the various report components, many types of reserves
reports describing volume, tonnage, grade and product can be issued.
The different combinations are outlined in the tables below.
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications Activate
Multiple
geology solids
Solid attributes Conventional in-situ geological reserves
when you have created many geological
solids but no detailed block models of
grades.
Geology
solids
Multiple
excavation
solids
User-specified
defaults
Developments remote from the main ore
zone (i.e., the tunnels do not intersect any
geology solids).
Simple report for project with many
excavation solids.
Excavatio
n solids
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications Activate
Intersection of
multiple
geology and
excavation
solids*
Solid attributes
(geology solids)
Quick and approximate reserve calculations.
Dilution assessment where solids have been
defined for ore zones but not for
surrounding host rock. If excavations extend
beyond the ore zones into the host rock,
outer material will be classified by user-
specified default parameters and considered
dilution.
Geology
solids
and
Excavatio
n solids
Block model
material within
multiple
excavation
solids
Block models When geology is either extremely complex
or extremely simple, and it is considered
unnecessary to construct geology solids.
When geology is complex, a small block size
is desirable. The rock code model could be
built from bench plans or cross-sectional
polygons; the report would logically be
subdivided by plan view.
Short-term planning operations where
several excavations lie entirely within a
given geology solid. Or, if large blocks have
been kriged using indicator or log normal
short-cut methods, the exact location of ore
within a block will be unknown. In this case,
precise geological control at a block-by-block
level may not be available and interaction
with geology solids may not be required.
Excavatio
n solids
and
Block
models
Block model
and geology
solid material
within multiple
excavation
solids**
Solid attributes
(geology solids)
or block models
An underground mine, reported by plan
view or by section. This type of report is
suitable for detailed reserve calculations and
could be done following a report computing
the intersections of the geology solids and
block models.
Geology
solids,
Excavatio
n solids
and
Block
models
* For these reports, the needle pattern only needs to cover the excavations. This permits a
denser needling pattern in the area of interest, which is particularly useful when you have
large geology solids and small excavation solids.
** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this
type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a
few test runs using only one or two solids.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications Activate
Block model
material within
multiple
geology solids
Solid attributes
or block models
Conventional detailed in-situ reserves
reports (e.g., when you have created a high
grade solid, a low grade solid, and a block
model of grades using kriging or inverse
distance techniques). Conventional reports
may be modified for cases where adjacent
solids have very different grades, and the
blocks containing both rock codes would be
poorly represented by one average grade.
You can point solids to different grade
block models by assigning block model
folders to the rock codes assigned to the
solids. With different block models for
different grades, you can have more than
one rock code per block and thus a more
accurate representation of grade values. You
can choose a block size based upon
geostatistical considerations rather than
having to use a small block size and use
different interpolation techniques for the
different grade block models if desired.
Geology
solids
and
Block
models
Mined and
filled volume
between two
surfaces
User-specified
defaults
Total volume for a pit design. Surfaces
Intersection of
multiple
geology solids
with Mined
and filled
volume between
two surfaces
Solid attributes
(geology solids)
Calculating tonnage when strip mining coal.
The report would likely be subdivided by
vertical section, representing the different
phases of mining.
Dilution assessment where solids have been
defined for ore zones but not for the
surrounding host rock. Where the area
between the surfaces extends outside of the
ore zones into the host rock, the outer
material will be classified by user-specified
default parameters and considered dilution.
Geology
solids
and
Surfaces
Page 3233
Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Volume
calculated
Density and
grade source
Sample applications Activate
Block model
material within
mined and
filled volume
between two
surfaces
Block models To simply determine the total ounces of gold
in a pit, before the location of the ore within
different rock codes or within specific
benches is relevant.
Block
models
and
Surfaces
Block model
and geology
solid material
within mined
and filled
volume between
two surfaces**
Solid attributes
(geology solids)
or block models
Open pit mine requiring a report subdivided
by plan views representing benches. This
report is suitable for detailed reserve
calculations and could be done following a
report computing the intersections of the
geology solids and block models.
Geology
solids,
Block
models
and
Surfaces
** If a high level of accuracy is required, needle generation and reserves calculations for this
type of report may take several hours. Therefore, it is recommended that you initially do a
few test runs using only one or two solids.
For estimating ore reserves, you must have at least one geology solid,
or one excavation solid, or two surfaces. When combining geology
solids with excavation solids or surfaces, only the data within the
excavations or surfaces is reported. Reports that include interaction
with one or more block models will generally take longer to produce
than other reports.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
The report illustrated in Figure 10-1 would provide ore/waste totals
within the pit sorted on a plan view-by-plan view basis.
Report Structure
The Reserves Reporting process ultimately creates numerous
individual reporting categories, each classifying "homogenous"
material. For example, an individual reporting category may contain
this type of information:
All material in stope S100 on plan view B256 that is rock code
ORE and contains copper grades greater that 0.25 % and gold
grades between 2 and 8 grams/ton
These categories are assembled according to the user-specified
hierarchy of (up to) four sorting options. The inclusion of the various
sorting options is determined by the data components of the report.
The individual reporting categories are further defined by the way you
X
Z
B260
B220
B180
B140
B100
Original
topography
Geology solids
Planviews
B100-B260,
representing
mining
benches
Pit
design
Figure 10-1: Report combining surfaces, geology solids and plan
views
Page 3235
Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
have defined and linked rock codes and grade ranges (see the following
section Reserves Reporting Profiles).
The four sorting options for each reserves report are:
Excavation. Sorts information by excavation or into mined and
filled totals (see the following section Mined and Filled Volumes).
Plane. Sorts information by vertical sections, inclined sections or
plan views.
Rock group. Sorts information by a defined grouping of rock
codes. Rock groups define groupings of geological materials (rock
codes) that you want reported together.
Grade group. Sorts information by a defined grouping of grade
ranges. Grade groups define upper and lower bounds of grade
ranges for the defined Gemcom reserves minerals.
By arranging the sorting options in a desired order, you control the
structure of the report: the top level option is sorted by the second
level option, which in turn is sorted by the third, etc. For example, for
a reserves report for a geological solid, you might use (and sort in this
order) two excavations, twenty plan views, one rock group and one
grade group. Each excavation would be reported by plane, each plane
would be reported by rock group, and each rock group would be
reported by grade group.
The quantity of categories is determined by the selected data
components and the number of rock group and grade groups included
in the report:
N = excavations planes rock groups grade groups
The number of individual reporting categories is further determined
by the number of rock codes in each rock group and the number of
grade ranges within each grade group. Note that it is possible to quite
quickly create several thousand individual categories!
For each individual category, the following values are reported:
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Volume. The amount of volume totalled from the needle intervals
containing the material for the category (needle area needle
length).
Density. The density of the material in the category, which varies
according to the rock code and/or grade of material.
Tonnage. The weight of the material in the category, determined
by the volume and the density.
Grade. The grade value (e.g., CU%) of each grade element (as
defined in Gemcom) in the category. There may be up to ten grade
fields in a report, as Gemcom allows up to ten grade elements per
project.
Product. The product (grade tonnage) for each grade element
(as defined in Gemcom) in the category. There may be up to ten
product fields in a report, as Gemcom allows up to ten grade
elements per project.
The report produces segments with subtotals for each of the above
fields, and grand totals for each field.
Figure 10-2 shows one segment of a simple reserves report for a
geology solid using one excavation solid, thirty vertical sections, one
rock group and one grade group (with four grade ranges). The report is
sorted in the order of excavation, plane, rock group, grade group. The
only grade element defined for the Gemcom project is percentage of
copper. This report would have a total of thirty such subtotalled
segments, each having four individual reporting categories.
You may specify whether you want values within each segment to be
reported by an incremental or cumulative method. Incremental values
(as seen above) show the individual reporting categories, whereas
cumulative values include the values for the individual category
summed (in the cases of volume, tonnage and product) or averaged (in
the cases of density and grade) with the values for the preceding
categories in that field.
Page 3237
Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Totals for EXCAVATION STOPE1
Subtotals for PLANE 210
Subtotals for ROCKGROUP SILL
GRADEGROU
P
VOLUME
M**3
DENSITY
T per
M**3
TONNAGE
T
CU%
Grade
CU%
Product
Waste 2755.685 2.450 6751.429 0.00 0.0
Low 80.031 2.450 196.077 0.05 10531.3
Med 339.439 1.000 339.439 0.08 26191.1
High 64.845 2.450 158.870 0.18 28679.1
Subtotal 3240.000 2.298 7445.814 0.01 65401.4
Subtotal 3240.000 2.298 7445.814 0.01 65401.4
Figure 10-2: A subtotalled segment from a reserves report
Gemcom allows you to control the format of the report as well. You can
specify the field width and the number of decimal places for the values
in the report, and customize the unit descriptions in the column
headers. Fields that will not be meaningful may be suppressed.
Categories reporting volume errors may appear at the end of the
report. These are duplication errors that occurred when the selected
components were evaluated. Geology solids may overlap each other, as
may excavation solids or planes. Geology volume errors are resolved
by the order of solid precedence. Overlapping excavation solids or
overlapping planes are reported twice. Since excavations and planes
are reported completely, there will often be duplication errors with
these elements. See Overlapping Solids in this chapter.
Each reserves report provides you with grand totals. These include a
total report volume and a total needle volume for comparison. If the
needle volume exceeds the report volume, Gemcom has been unable to
categorize all material. In most cases, this serves to alert you to check
your report profiles or plane definitions for error.
For efficiency, Gemcom allows you to create up to three different
reports using the same data at the same time. For example, you may
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
want one report to give a bench-by-bench report of grade ranges and
another to show the same data sorted first by grade group and then by
bench.
Reserves Reporting Profiles
The way you define and link rock groups and grade groups in reserves
reporting profiles largely controls the structure of the individual
reporting categories. Rock groups define groupings of one or more rock
codes that you want reported together. Each rock group must be
linked to a grade group. Each grade group defines grade ranges for
one or more of the defined Gemcom reserves minerals.
The rock codes you have defined in Gemcom can be put separately or
in combination into uniquely named rock groups. For example, you
might logically organize the rock codes into groups that have similar
processing costs for the element(s) sought after. These rock groups will
either be sorted as a unit or serve to sort other parts of the report as a
unit. You can have any number of rock groups in a report.
Organizing grade ranges for the elements is equally flexible. Grade
ranges for each element can be put separately or in combination into
uniquely named grade groups. As with rock groups, you may want to
group elements that have, for example, similar processing costs. Each
FROM-TO value for one element would thus be linked to the FROM-
TO value(s) for one or two other elements. For example, you can have
the program report a grade range of 1-2 % copper wherever a certain
amount of gold is also present. You can link a specific grade group to
more than one rock group within a report.
Grade ranges include the highest grade that you are seeking and other
meaningful ranges. The reserves reporting process works sequentially;
if you erroneously create a duplication within a range of grades, it will
not be reported twice by the program. Therefore, grade ranges must be
carefully prepared.
Similarly, the grade ranges for each element should encompass all
possible material to ensure that your report totals are complete. To be
certain that you have not unintentionally allowed any gaps in your
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
grade ranges, you might add a catch-all range to capture any
remaining material. You can create such a range by defining a grade
group that has one range of 0 to 100 and linking it to a rock group
that contains all rock codes. Since the reserves reporting process
works sequentially; these two groups would be entered last in the
reserves reporting profile. Alternatively, you could add a grade range
of 0 to 100 at the end of each list of grade ranges for each element.
For example,
CU%
Low 0.5 - 1
Average 1 - 2
High 2 - 10
Rest 0 - 100
The way you order the rock groups and grade groups in the reserves
reporting profile will affect their order on the report. The rock group
that is entered first in the profile will be appear as the first rock group
on the report, and so on. Similarly, the corresponding grade group for
the first rock group will be used first by the reporting process, etc.
Mined and Filled Volumes
Reserves reporting allows you to report volumes between surfaces
(e.g., between an original surface topography and a pit design). When
using surfaces for volume calculations, Gemcom requires you to
specify which surface is the top and which is the bottom so the
reporting process can correctly categorize all material as either mined
or filled. Usually the top surface will be the original topography or the
earlier of the two surfaces (when calculating as-mined volumes). The
report will contain any material bounded by the two surfaces. Mined
material will be below the top surface and above the bottom surface;
filled material will be above the top surface and below the bottom
surface. Some examples follow:
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Top surface
Mined
volume
Bottom
surface
Figure 10-3: Volume between a pit design surface and original surface
topography
In Figure 10-3, the surface topography is defined as the top surface.
The volume of material in the pit would be reported as mined (because
it is below the top surface).
Filled volume
Top surface
Bottom
surface
Figure 10-4: Volume between a stockpile surface and original surface
topography
In Figure 10-4, the surface topography is again the top surface. The
volume of material in the stockpile would be reported as filled
(because it is above the top surface).
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Filled
volume
Mined
volume
Top
surface
Bottom
surface
Figure 10-5: Volume between two pit status maps
In Figure 10-5, the earlier of the two surfaces is the top surface. The
volume of material that has been removed would be reported as mined
(because it is below the top surface); the volume of material that has
been added would be reported as filled (because it is above the top
surface).
Using surfaces in reserves reporting is a major sorting option similar
to including two excavation solids in a report. Both mined and filled
values will be calculated for each segment of the report.
Default Rock Code and Grades
Gemcom can create reports using excavations or surfaces which can
include rock code information without the need for a complete
geological solids model to exist. It is not uncommon to create a
geological solids model that has gaps, meaning that some regions of
the property do not lie inside geology solids. In many cases only ore
rock types are modelled while the surrounding waste material
(commonly known as host rock) is not. This may be done when the
total modelling task is too complex, the waste solids would be of little
interest, or time constraints limit the modelling effort.
While this is a common and legitimate method of solids modelling,
there are cases where these regions would cause ambiguities in
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calculations of reserves. Therefore, Gemcom treats these areas as
default regions. Default regions include the following:
A region inside an excavation solid but outside any active geology
solids (Figure 10-6).
Geology
solid
Excavation
solid
(planned
stope)
Default
region
Default
region
Figure 10-6: Default regions inside an excavation solid
A region between surfaces but outside any active geology solids
(Figure 10-7).
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
A report where there are no geology solids (Figure 10-8).
Top surface
(original
topography)
Bottom surface
(pit design)
Default
region
Figure 10-8: Default region without geology solids
Top surface
(original
topography)
Geology
solid
Bottom surface
(pit design)
Default
region
Figure 10-7: Default region between surfaces
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
In all of these cases, volume will be determined by the excavation or
surfaces, but the reserves reporting process must know the
characteristics of the unknown material, including rock code, density
and grade values. You specify the default rock code and default grades
to supply this information.
During the reserves reporting process, Gemcom will look inside each
excavation (or between surfaces) and process all geology solids that
are contained within. If it encounters regions that have not been
modelled, Gemcom uses the default rock code (with its associated
ore/waste rock type and/or density). Generally, Gemcom then either
accesses the default grade values (usually set to 0) or uses no grade
values at all.
The handling of the default regions will vary depending on the report
contents and Gemcom rock code parameters. Firstly, default regions
only exist when using excavation solids or surfaces in the reserves
report, and then only if there are regions inside the excavations or
between surfaces that are outside geology solids (see Figure 10-9). In
cases where no geology solids are included in the reserves report, the
entire property (i.e., all regions inside excavations and between
surfaces) is assumed to be the default rock code.
Default region density and grade data sources are defined in the
following table.
Rock
type
Block model(s)
included?
Density source Grade source
Ore Yes
No
Block model
Default rock code
Block model
Default grade value
Waste Default rock code None

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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
In most cases, the default rock code will be the host rock. Often, this
will be designated as a waste rock type, or have assigned default
grades of 0 (assuming the host rock contains no significant grade
quantities). In other cases, assigning grades other than 0 may give a
more realistic answer if you know that the default rock code contains
some metal.
To have default regions included in the report, make sure that one of
the rock groups defined in your reserves reporting profile contains the
default rock code. In addition, to have default grade values included in
the report, make sure the default grades that you have entered are
included in at least one of the grade ranges within a grade group.
For convenience, you may want to put the default rock code in its own
rock group (and grade group) to have it reported separately. Or, you
may include the default grade range in a catch-all grade group
linked to a catch-all rock group (see Reserves Reporting Profiles).
Default
region
Excavation
solid
Default
region
Block model
Figure 10-9: Default region with block model and ore default rock
type
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Overlapping Solids
Reserves reporting allows for the inclusion of solids that overlap. In
some cases, overlap can be the result of errors made when creating or
selecting the solids. However, in other cases you may produce this
overlap intentionally, such as when wanting to simplify solid creation.
Reserves reporting will not accumulate volume, density or grade totals
twice when handling geology solids. Instead, if geology solids overlap
each other, solid precedence will determine which solid "owns" the
overlapping material.
This facility can be used to greatly simplify the solid creation process.
For example, you may have a property where the host rock contains
more recently formed dykes. Instead of creating separate solids for all
the parts, it may be more efficient to simply create one solid for the
host rock code and let Gemcom handle the overlaps for you (see Figure
10-10).
X
Y
D1
D2
D3
R1
Rock type R is represented
by only one solid. The rock
type Dyke (D1, D2, D3) has a
higher precedence than R.
Areas compeletely within
both rock types will be
assigned to Dyke.
Figure 10-10: Assignment of overlapping solids
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
You may want to include two or more planned excavations in a report
for comparison purposes. If excavation solids overlap each other, the
volumes are reported twice. Note that while the excavations will
appear individually in the report, the grand totals for the report will
be misleading. For this reason, using overlapping excavation solids in
reserves reporting should be done with caution.
Solid Precedence
You can use Volumetrics } }Define Solid Precedence to explicitly
define the order of precedence by assigning a number to each solid of
interest, where the lowest number receives highest precedence. When
geology solids overlap, the higher precedence solid will determine
volume, density and grade information This method overrides the
default method and usually should be employed, as it removes any
ambiguity as to precedence.
Default solid precedence is determined by the order in which rock
codes are listed alphanumerically. For example, if one solid with rock
code 10 and another with rock code 20 overlap, 10 will occur closer
to the top of the Gemcom rock code listing. Thus, rock codes that
represent the most recent geological formations might be cleverly
given a prefix to force them to the top of the listing, so as to override
the older formations. This list may be edited at any time.
For example, suppose you have a deposit that encloses two as-mined
excavations. You can simply create one geology solid for the deposit
(rock code zdyke) and two excavation solids (rock code sill). With
"sill" higher on the rock code list, the excavation volumes will be
reported in place of the geology where appropriate.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Needling
Gemcom calculates volume, tonnage and grade for solids using a
numerical integration technique called needling. This method is
named needling as it can be likened to inserting hundreds or
thousands of "needles", or drillholes, through the solids to see what the
solids contain (see Figure 10-11).
A needle is essentially a vector in 3D space that intersects selected
data objects (i.e., solids, surfaces, block models, and planes). By
checking the entrance and exit points of each needle through the
solids, the reserves reporting program determines which regions fall
within them. The length and area of each needle determines the
volume, grade and density information that pertains to those regions.
The total volume of each solid is the sum total of the volumes from all
the individual needles that pass through it. The summation of all
needle information provides the complete reserves report for the
selected solids (see Figure 10-12).
The needling process requires you to do the following:
1. Define the orientation, size and location of a 2D grid on a plane
from which the needles will be generated.
2. Specify what type of needle pattern you want to use.
3. Specify how many needles you want to use.
For each needle, Gemcom will then:
Generate the needle vector in 3D based on the needle grid
dimensions.
Intersect the needle with all active data objects.
Categorize each intersected section of the needle based on which
data objects have been intersected.
A typical reserves report may involve tens of thousands of needles
being processed in the above manner.
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
X
Area inside
dotted line
shown in
greater detail
below.
Stope
Needles
Geology solid
Y
Figure 10-12: Sectional view showing geology solid and stope being
intersected with horizontal needles
X
Each needle that
intersects the solid
contributes a portion of
the total volume based
on needle weighting and
needle/solid intersection
length.
Geology solid
Y
Figure 10-11: Sectional view of geology solid and coarse needle
spacing showing how intersections approximate solid volumes
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
In Figure 10-13, the total volume of the needle includes all sections
within the geology solid and the excavation solid.
Gemcom uses the following formula to perform needling:
( ) Volume V W W A X i j k l
i
NrowG
j
NcolG
k
NG
l
NG
k l ij
( ) , , , =
= = = =

1 1 1 1
where:
NrowG = number of rows defined for current needle pattern
NcolG = number of columns defined for current needle
pattern
NG = selected integration level (needle density) of 1 - 20
i = current row being needled
j = current column being needled
k,l = current needle within row/column i,j
W = weights for whichever quadrature method (needle
pattern) has been selected
Needle exits
geology
Needle
exits stope
Needle
enters stope
Needle
enters
geology
Figure 10-13: Close-up view of a single needle entering and exiting
the geology solid and stope
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Aij = area (usually cross-sectional) for current row/column i,j
X(i,j,k,l) = length of intersection of current needle with solid
currently being evaluated
The number of needles required depends on the necessary level of
accuracy. As is the case with most numerical integration methods, the
more needles you use, the better the end result but the longer the
processing time. Since generating these often complex reports may
involve a considerable amount of time, your goal should be how to best
achieve satisfactory results in a reasonable time frame. Therefore, it is
important to understand all three variables that control needle
generation:
Grid Pattern. This determines the orientation and location of the
needles. The size of the grid cells contributes to the number of
needles generated.
Needle Pattern. This defines the pattern of needles within each
grid cell. Depending on the pattern, needles within the same cell
can have a different weighting.
Integration Level. This controls the number of needles that are
generated within each grid cell. The more needles, the smaller the
area of each needle.
The relationship between these three variables (and actual needle
length) determines the total area and weighting of each needle. The
following sections describe each variable in detail.
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Grid Pattern
Needles are generated on a 2D "grid" located on a 3D plane. The
specific plane is either the selected current view plane or a plane
relative to a block model. The location of the grid itself is either
determined automatically by the extents of the data, aligned with a
block model or defined manually by the user. Gemcom then generates
needles normal to the plane (in 3D), extending in both directions.
In general, needles oriented perpendicular to the "strike" of solids will
give more accurate volume results than needles oriented parallel to
the strike (see Figure 10-14). There are two main reasons for this:
more needles will have contact with the solid, therefore providing
a more accurate numerical approximation of the solid volume
Figure 10-14: Needle orientation
Parallel
to the
strike
Perpendicula
r to the
strike
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
the volume representation of each individual needle section will
contain less potential cumulative error, being shorter in length
The needle grid is made up of a matrix of rows and columns, the total
number of which is determined by the size of the grid cells and the
total area covered by the grid. The following parameters define each
grid:
cell height
cell width
number of rows
number of columns
starting XY location of the grid's lower left corner
grid rotation angle (optional)
There are five different methods for determining the above
parameters: by using block model rows, columns or levels, or by using
an automatically defined or user-defined grid. Most of the methods
will automatically calculate some or all parameters for you.
Descriptions of each method follow.
Gemcom requires that vertical needles be used for volumes between
surfaces. A vertical direction is needed to ensure entrance and exit
points for the needles because sides in a surface solid are only
implied in Gemcom. This means the needle grid must be defined either
from block model levels or by using the Auto-Fit or Defined Grid
method with a plan view as the current view plane.
If you wish to limit the extents of the grid relative to the data, you
would use a clipping polygon, specify certain planes only, or use the
user-defined method.
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Using Block Models for Reserves Reporting
In order to use block models for grade and/or density information, the
needles must run along the rows, columns, or levels of the block model.
It is most convenient (and least error-prone) to obtain all grid
dimensions directly from the orebody project. The three methods that
allow this are Rows, Columns, or Levels. With these methods, you
need not enter any additional information about the grid as the block
model dimensions provide all required grid details: cell height and
width, number of rows and columns, starting XY location of the grid's
lower left corner, and the optional grid rotation angle.
While not generally recommended, for certain advanced applications it
is also possible to access block model data using the Auto-fit or Defined
Grid method (see below) with the current view plane oriented parallel
to the rows, columns, or levels of the block model.
Block model rows Block model columns Block model
levels
Grid cell
height
Block model level
height (may vary
from level to level)
Block model level
height (may vary from
level to level)
Block model row
height
Grid cell
width
Block model row
height
Block model column
width
Block model column
width
Number of
grid rows
Block model levels Block model levels Block model rows
Number of
grid columns
Block model rows Block model columns Block model
columns
Grid lower
left corner
Block model
minimum X,
maximum Y,
minimum Z
Block model
minimum X,
minimum Y,
minimum Z
Block model
minimum X,
minimum Y,
maximum Z
Grid rotation
angle
0.0 0.0 Block model rotation
angle
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
X
Z
Y
Figure 10-15: Needles oriented along block model rows
With the Rows method, the grid plane is created on the west side of
the block model and needles are generated west to east (see Figure 10-
15). This orientation is recommended for most solids/block model
reports for two reasons. Firstly, with any block model, rows are
generally oriented perpendicular to the strike. Secondly, because the
file structure of block models is based on rows, this method will be the
most efficient. Block model access may represent as much as 50
percent of the total processing time in reserves reporting. In most
cases, with this method block model access will be between 5 and 20
times more efficient using rows than with columns or levels.
With the Columns method, the grid plane is created on the south side
of the block model and needles are generated south to north (see
Figure 10-16). With certain irregular solids (e.g., a narrow vein
deposit), this method may be most appropriate. Computation times
will be slower however.
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X
Z
Y
Figure 10-17: Needles oriented along block model levels
With the Levels method, the grid plane is created on the top of the
block model and needles are generated top to bottom (see Figure 10-
17). Using needles parallel to levels is necessary for the evaluation of
X
Z
Y
Figure 10-16: Needles oriented along block model columns
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
surfaces such as open pit designs, stockpiles, or coal seams. You
cannot use needle grids from block model rows or columns when using
surfaces.
Defining the Needle Grid Using the Auto-Fit Method
This method only requires that you first choose a cell height and width
for the needle grid; all other information is calculated automatically.
Gemcom projects the active solids/surfaces onto the current view plane
to determine the extents of this data. The grid lower left corner
location, and the number of rows and columns are then calculated
automatically using the projected data extents and the input cell
height and width (see Figure 10-18). The main advantages of this
method are that you need not calculate the grid dimensions, and you
can be certain that the needle pattern will completely cover the active
solid/surface data.
The smaller the size of cell height and width, the more cells created.
The number of cells created multiplied by the density of needles
generated within each cell (the integration level) will ultimately
determine the total number of needles.
Defining the Needle Grid Using the Defined Grid Method
This method allows you to define all information about the grid
manually. Usually, one of the other methods will provide all the
flexibility you need; however, this method is included to allow
maximum flexibility. For example, you could choose this method when
you only want to generate needles for a certain part of the data. As
well, a grid rotation option is provided for both convenience and
efficiency. It may be easier to create a grid first and then rotate it over
an unusually shaped solid. And, by fitting a grid more concisely (over
a narrow, diagonally oriented deposit for example), you will often be
able to avoid generating unnecessary needles (see Figure 10-19).
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To create a user-defined grid, you must inspect your data onscreen on
the appropriate current view plane. Generally, the first step is to
decide on a suitable cell height and width. The smaller the size of cell
height and width, the more cells created. The number of cells created
multiplied by the density of needles generated within each cell (the
integration level) will ultimately determine the total number of
needles.
Both the cell size and the integration level control the total number of
needles generated. In general, any way the total density is derived will
produce the same result. That is, 400 cells with 1 needle per cell are
equivalent to 1 cell with 400 needles with the same total area.
You must then determine the XY location of the grids lower left-hand
corner. Calculate the number of rows and columns from the number of
cells needed to cover the total extents of the data.
Past experience has shown this method to be the most prone to error
as a simple data entry mistake can result in the needles being
X
Y
The extents of the
needle grid are
calculated by
projecting active
solids and surfaces
onto the current
view plane.
Only the cell height
and width are input
by the user.
Figure 10-18: Auto-fit grid method
Current view plane is a plan view
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
generated in the incorrect location (therefore giving invalid volumes).
For this reason, it is strongly suggested that one of the other needle
grid methods be used if possible.
Needle Pattern
The reserves reporting process provides different needle patterns that
control the location of individual needles within each cell of the needle
grid. Each pattern will give equally accurate results if enough needles
are used (as is the case with all numerical integration techniques).
However, each pattern will give superior results under certain
situations where a small number of needles are used.
There are three needle patterns available:
Regular grid
Irregular grid
Regular Gauss
X
The extents of the
needle grid are
determined by the
number of rows
and columns,
and the cell height
and width.
All are input
by the user.
Y
The lower left
corner of the
grid is input
by the user.
- 30
User has the
option of
defining a
counterclockwise
rotation angle
for the grid.
Figure 10-19: Defined grid method
Current view plane is a plan view
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The patterns control the placement of needles within each cell, and
thus the different weighting of each individual needle. The weighting
is the 2D area that is represented by the pierce point of each needle.
The pierce point determines the density and grade information for the
total volume of the needle.
Choosing the appropriate needle pattern depends on the shape of your
solids. In general, regular solids should be needled with a varying
pattern (either irregular grid or regular Gauss). Irregular solids are
often best combined with the Gauss pattern; a narrow deposit benefits
from the irregular grid pattern. The regular grid works reasonably
well with all sizes and shapes of solids.
In cases where the reserves report contains combinations of the
various "shapes" of solids, you will have to make a decision about the
most appropriate pattern. For example, if you were evaluating several
hundred stopes and headings against one large irregular ore solid, the
best pattern type would probably be the irregular grid as the
excavation volume accuracy would be the more critical number.
Regular Grid
This pattern gives all needles within the cell equal weighting. All
needles are spaced equally apart over each cell and over the entire
needle grid. In most cases, this method always works reasonably with
any solid and has the advantage of being the most intuitive to
visualize (see Figure 10-20).
Level 3 (9 needles/cell) Level 5 (25 needles /cell)
Figure 10-20: Regular Grid
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Note that combining regular solids with a regular grid has the
potential for cumulative error (see Figure 10-21).
Figure 10-21: Illustration of the potential for cumulative error with a
regular grid and a regular solid
Irregular Grid
This pattern equally subdivides each cell based on the needle density
(or integration level, described below), then randomly locates a needle
within each subcell. For example, a 15 x 15 foot cell with integration
level 3 would be subdivided into nine 5 x 5 foot subcells. Each subcell
would contain a single needle randomly located within it (see Figure
10-22). This method is most appropriately used when evaluating long
horizontal or vertical structures (e.g., underground development),
narrow deposits, or small, regular solids (e.g., small stopes), as it
minimizes the potentially cumulative errors that may result from
using the more regular patterns.
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Level 3 (9 needles/cell) Level 5 (25 needles/cell)
Figure 10-22: Irregular Grid
Regular Gauss
This pattern places less weighting on needles closer to the edges of the
cell and more weighting on needles near the centre (see Figure 10-23).
As there is a higher concentration of needles close to the cell edges, the
needle spacing and area will vary within each cell. This method is
recommended when evaluating irregularly shaped solids (geology or
excavation).
Level 3 (9 needles /cell) Level 5 (25 needles/cell)
Figure 10-23: Regular Gauss
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Integration Level
You can control the overall needle density by specifying how many
needles will be created for each individual cell of the needle grid.
The number of needles per cell is equal to the integration level
squared. The levels and the corresponding number of needles are
shown below:
Integration level Needles per cell
1 1
2 4
3 9
4 16
5 25
6 36
10 100
20 400
One factor to consider when choosing an integration level is the
desired level of accuracy. The higher the integration level, the more
accurate your volume estimation will be. However, needle integration
level is the main factor in reserves reporting processing time. The
greater the integration level, the greater the processing time as well.
Under most circumstances, a report that uses 25 needles per cell will
take 25 times as long to complete as a report using 1 needle per cell.
Therefore you would ideally use a large number of needles per cell
only for important runs and when time is not an issue.
As well, as is the case with virtually all statistical methods, a larger
number of samples (in this case, needles) will not necessarily give
proportionally more accurate results. For example, using 400 needles
per cell may provide the same results as 25 needles per cell (say within
.01%) but the report generation could take 16 times longer to
complete. In this example, the additional degree of report accuracy
would likely not justify the extra processing time.
The other factor to consider when choosing an integration level is the
shape of your solids. A deposit with an irregular shape will require
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
more needles for accuracy than a deposit with smooth edges. As well, a
wide deposit needs more needles than a narrow one.
In Figure 10-24, the same irregular solid is shown with first an
integration level of three needles per cell and then nine needles per
cell. The higher needle density provides a superior representation of
the volume of the uneven-edged solid.
Cell Size Versus Integration Level
The cell size and integration level control the total number of needles
generated. In general, any way the total density is derived will yield
the same result. That is, 400 cells with 1 needle per cell are equivalent
to 1 cell with 400 needles with the same total area. In a Regular or
Irregular Grid pattern, the number and placement of needles will
ultimately be the same. However, when using the Regular Gauss
pattern, the needle placement will vary. In Figure 10-25, the number
of needles and the total area covered is identical, but the different cell
size and integration level has produced different needle spacing.
Figure 10-24: Different integration levels with an irregular solid
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
100 needles per cell 4 cells with 25 needles per cell
Figure 10-25: 100 needles of Regular Gauss
Checking Needle Accuracy
After considering the various components of your report, the size and
shape of your solids and the necessary level of accuracy, you can test
your needling parameters. Gemcom will compute the true volume of
any valid solid and the needle volume of the same solid and report the
total volume difference and the percentage error (needle volume
minus analytical volume). By comparing the needled volume with the
analytical volume, you can decide whether you have selected a
needling pattern that is sufficiently accurate.
1. Choose Solids } }Select Solids/Surfaces from List to activate
solids providing a representative sampling of the size, shape and
complexity of the solids you will use for reserves reporting.
2. If you are using a defined grid or an auto-fit grid, select the view
plane on which you defined the needle grid (using View } }Vertical
Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View).
3. Define the needle parameters using Volumetrics } }Define
Needle Pattern. Start with simple needle creation parameters
(e.g., needles along block model rows, regular grid needle pattern,
and integration level 1).
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4. Choose Volumetrics } }Check Needle Accuracy to compute the
needle volume and the true volume of the solids, and report the
difference and the percentage error. By comparing the needled
volume with the analytical volume, you can decide whether you
have selected a needling pattern that is sufficiently accurate.
You must decide on an acceptable level of needle accuracy (e.g.,
plus or minus 0.5 percent). Remember that it may take twenty
times as many needles to go from 0.5 percent down to 0.1 percent
accuracy and the process will take twenty times as long. Be
realistic in the level of accuracy you need, taking into account the
accuracy of your solids models themselves.
5. Change the needle parameters until you are pleased with the
results. In most cases, increasing the integration level alone will
improve the test results most dramatically; however, changing the
needle grid orientation and needle pattern may improve the
results without increasing processing time.
Once you have found parameters that give good results, you can use
them for all subsequent reports for that project with high confidence.
Using Clipping Polygons
Clipping polygons provide a very flexible way of defining the region
that will be included in a reserves report. When used in reserves
reporting, a clipping polygon serves to limit the needles that are used
for the actual reserves reporting calculation. Because a clipping
polygon can be any shape, using one will often provide you with better
representation than by limiting a report on a plane-by-plane basis.
One clipping polygon may be used in any reserves report. As always,
Gemcom creates a 2D grid on a particular view plane and generates
needles that run normal to this plane; however, only needles that are
inside the clipping polygon are processed. This allows you to easily
limit the region that will be reported, for example, by defining a
clipping polygon that surrounds an area in an excavation where a
specific shovel has been digging. Or, you might define a clipping
polygon that surrounds a stope for which you want a volume.
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
You define a clipping polygon on the current view plane using
Polyline } }Create } }Clipping Polygon. The most important aspect of
using clipping polygons in reserves reporting is making sure the
coordinates of the clipping polygon match the coordinates of the plane
used for needle generation. In some cases, this is straightforward. For
example, if you will be selecting the Auto-Fit on the Current View
Plane method or Defined Grid on the Current View Plane method for
the needle orientation, you simply select the appropriate view plane
(using View } }Vertical Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View)
when creating the clipping polygon in 2D mode.
The process is less intuitive when you will be using a plane from a
block model definition since Gemcom automatically sets the current
view plane when generating the report. For example, selecting needles
along block model rows will set the current view plane to Column 1 of
the block model; selecting needles along columns will set the current
view plane to Row 1 of the block model; selecting needles along levels
will set the current view plane to Level 1 of the block model. To create
the clipping polygon, you must first set the current view plane
accordingly.
Issuing a Report
It is always advisable to check that everything is set up correctly
before issuing a reserves report, as the process can be quite lengthy. If
the necessary data is inaccessible or if you have not defined all the
required parameters, Gemcom will display an appropriate error
message.
After defining all needle grid parameters, reporting profiles, report
contents, options and formats, and verifying needle accuracy, follow
these steps to issue a report.
1. Choose Solid } }Data } }Select Solids/Surfaces from List to
activate the solids and/or surfaces that you want to evaluate.
2. If you are using a defined grid or an auto-fit grid, select the view
plane on which you defined the needle grid (using View } }Vertical
Section, Inclined Section, or Plan View).
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
3. Choose Volumetrics } }Create Reserves Report.
During the report generation, an onscreen status window shows the
current state of processing, and eventually the summary information.
The pattern of data accumulation can often be used to diagnose
problems in the report setup. The table below describes the items in
the status report and possible error indications.
Data Item Meaning Comments
Total Number
of Needles
Generated.
Number of grid
rows number of
grid columns
number of needles
per cell.
Can easily exceed several hundred thousand
or more.
Number of
Intersecting
Needles.
Number of needles
that intersect at
least one solid (or
two surfaces if
applicable).
Only these needles will be used for
accumulating totals for the reserves report.
Number of
Invalid
Needles.
Needles that
contain an odd
number of
intersections and
are not used in the
report.
May occur if a needle intersects an invalid
solid (any needle though a valid solid should
have an even number of intersections) or if a
needle only intersects one surface
(intersections with both surfaces are required
when reporting volumes between surfaces)
Number of
Non-
intersecting
Needles.
Number of needles
that have no
intersections with
solids or surfaces.
Total
Accumulated
Volume
(*1000).
Total needle volume
(in thousands) of all
intersecting needles
generated. Also
appears in the
report.
A discrepancy between this amount and the
total reported volume that appears in the
report indicates some material has been
unreported. Unless this was intentional, all
rock groups should be checked for missing
rock codes; all grade groups should be checked
for missing grade ranges; and Gemcom plane
definitions should be checked for error.
If this value remains at zero during the report
generation, it is likely that the needle grid
pattern is located in the wrong place.
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Modelling Chapter 10: Reserves Reporting
Data Item Meaning Comments
Vertical
Section
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
If the vertical
section corridors
overlap, the amount
of overlap volume
(in thousands).
Almost always indicates an error. Geometric
definitions of the vertical sections should be
carefully checked. This number will also
appear in the report. Note that the report
totals will include these overlapping volumes.
Inclined
Section
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
If the inclined
sections corridors
overlap, the amount
of overlap volume
(in thousands).
Almost always indicates an error. Geometric
definitions of the inclined sections should be
carefully checked. This number will also
appear in the report. Note that the report
totals will include these overlapping volumes.
Plan View
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
If the plan view
corridors overlap,
the amount of
overlap volume (in
thousands).
Almost always indicates an error. Geometric
definitions of the plan views should be
carefully checked. This number will also
appear in the report. Note that the report
totals will include these overlapping volumes.
Excavation
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
The overlap volume
(in thousands) of the
active excavations.
Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a non-
zero value appears (and the overlap is not
intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit
your excavation solids to make sure they have
no common volume. This number will also
appear in the report. Note that the report
totals will include these overlapping volumes.
Geology
Overlap
Volume Error
(*1000).
The overlap volume
(in thousands) of the
active geology solids.
Should remain at 0.0 in most cases. If a non-
zero value appears (and the overlap is not
intentional), you may have to rebuild or edit
your geology solids to make sure they have no
common volume. This number will also
appear in the report.
Note that with geology solids, the overlap of
volume, density and grade will not be
reported twice within the report totals.
Instead, solid precedence determines which
solid is assigned the material.
Mined/Filled
Volume
(*1000).
Accumulated mined
and filled volumes
(in thousands) of the
needles processed
(for reports using
surfaces.) Appears
also in the report.
If a discrepancy exists between these figures
and the total needle volume, some material
has been unreported. Unless this is intended,
all rock groups should be checked for missing
rock codes; all grade groups should be
checked for missing grade ranges; and
Gemcom plane definitions should be checked
for error.
Report
Generation is
% done.
The percentage of
the needles
processed thus far.
As the processing time required for each
needle may vary considerably, this may not be
a good indicator of the time required to
complete the report; it may be longer or
shorter than the percentage may suggest.
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Section III: Solids Modelling and Evaluation Gemcom for Windows
Polygonal Reserves
If you have modelled your lithology using polygons, you may issue a
polygonal reserves report. Polygonal reserves are calculated by first
determining the areas of polygons which have been assigned material
types (rock code, grades, etc.). Area is then multiplied by plane
thickness to obtain volume. Volume is then multiplied by density to
yield tonnage.
The structure, formatting, and output options for a polygonal reserves
report are similar to those available for standard reserves reports. See
Report Structure earlier in this chapter.

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